Roman Pottery Research in Britain and North-West Europe, Parts i and ii: Papers presented to Graham Webster 9781407389691, 9781407389707, 9780860541530, 9781407326559

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Contributors
PREFACE
FOREWORD
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF GRAHAM WEBSTER
1. ROMAN POTTERY AND THE ECONOMY
2. A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF THE POTTERY FROM A ROMAN EXTRA-MURAL BUILDING AT CHESTER
3. THE POTTER JULIOS—A SUITABLE CASE FOR STUDY?
4. TERRA NIGRA - TYPE WARES FROM CHESTER
5. MARBLED WARES FROM THE NETHERLANDS
6. SOME UNUSUAL COARSE WARE VESSELS FROM LONDON AND THEIR CONTINENTAL BACKGROUND
7. SOME FRAGMENTS OF NORTH AFRICAN RED SLIP DISHES
8. CALSTOR-BY-NORWICH RECONSIDERED AND THE DATING OF ROMANO-BRITISH POTTERY IN EAST ANGLIA
9. DECORATED SOUTH GAULISH BOWLS FROM CORBRIDGE AND THE RED HOUSE SITES
10. THE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF TERRA SIGILLATA IN THE AREA OF PISA, ITALY
11. LONDON'S SAMIAN SUPPLY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE GALLIC SAMIAN INDUSTRY
12. THE EARLY ROMAN MILITARY OCCUPATION OF LINCOLN AND CHESTER
13. THE FEEDING CUP: AN UNUSUAL SAMIAN FORM
14. MARBLED SIGILLATA FROM FREJUS (VAR)
15. A GROUP OF EARLY CENTRAL GAULISH BEAKERS
Cover Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
16. APERCU SUR LES EXPORTATIONS DE CERAMIQUE SIGILLEE EN GRANDE BRETAGNE
17. MIGRANT POTTERS—THE OXFORD CONNECTION
18. SOME NENE VALLEY FOLDED BEAKERS WITH ANTHROPOMORPHIC DECORATION
19. SOME CONTINENTAL BEAKERS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND CENTURIES A.D.
20. PEACOCKS ON DECORATED BEAKERS
21. THE APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS TO THE STUDY OF 'RHENISH' WARES
22. A ROMANO-BRITISH POTTERY AT BIDDLESDEN, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE
23. EARLY RED-SLIPPED WARE FROM LINCOLN
24. THE FIRST DARFIELD HOARD AND THE DATING OF BLACK-BURNISHED WARE
25. POTTERY AND TILE KILNS IN ROMAN BRITAIN: THEIR PREDECESSORS AND THEIR SUCCESSORS
26. A GROUP OF POTTERY FROM ECCLES, KENT
27. THE LATE ROMAN POTTERY OF GREAT CASTERTON—THIRTY YEARS ON
28. SOME SECOND CENTURY MORTARIA FROM CHESTER
29. PAINTED FINE WARES MADE IN THE RAETIAN WORKSHOPS NEAR WILDERSPOOL, CHESHIRE
30. 'PANNONISCHE GLASIERTE KERA MIK': AN ASSESSMENT
31. TWO CERAMIC REPRESENTATIONS OF ROMAN BUILDINGS FROM THE CITY OF LONDON
32. POTTERY AND HISTORY

Citation preview

Roman Pottery Research in Britain and North-West Europe Papers presented to Graham Webster Part i edited by

A. C. Anderson and A. S. Anderson

BAR International Series 12 3(i) 1981

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. S123 (I), 1981: "Roman Pottery Research in Britain and NorthWest Europe" Part I © The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389691 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389707 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541530 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407326559 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541530 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS P ar t i L ist o f I l lustrat ions L ist o f Contr ibutors P reface F oreword

J .

S . Wacher

B ib l iography o f t he P ub l ica t ions o f Graham Webster 1 .

Roman p ottery a nd t he e conomy J ohn G i l lam a nd Kev in Greene

2 .

A quant i tat ive s tudy o f t he p o ttery f rom a Roman e xtramura l bu i ld ing a t Chester M . Ward a nd P . Carr ing ton

2 5

3 .

The p o tter J u l ios —a s u i tab le c ase f or s tudy? Va l R igby

3 9

4 .

Terra N igra-type wares f rom Chester Margare t Ward

5 1

5 .

Marb led wares f rom t he Nether lands J . K . Haa lebos a nd Anne l ies Koster

6 9

6 .

S ome unusua l c oarse ware v esse ls f rom L ondon a nd t he ir Cont inenta l b ackground A lasta ir S cott Anderson

9 3

1

7 .

S ome f ragments o f North Afr ican R ed S l ip d ishes J ochen G . Garbsch

1 07

8 .

Ca istor-by-Norw ich r econs idered a nd t he d a t ing o f Romano-Br i t ish p o ttery i n E ast Ang l ia V iv ien G . Swan

1 23

Decorated S outh Gau l ish b ow ls f rom Corbr idge a nd t he Red House s i tes Grace S impson

1 57

9 .

1 0 .

1 1 .

The p roduc t ion a nd d istr ibut ion o f T erra S ig i l la ta i n t he a rea o f P isa , I ta ly Thomas 0 . J efferson, G eoffrey B . Danne l l a nd Dav id F . W i l l iams L ondon ' ss am ian s upp ly a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o t he d eve lopment o f t he Ga l l ic s am ian i ndus try G eoff Marsh

1 61

1 73

1 2.

1 3 .

1 4.

1 5.

The e ar ly Roman m i l i tary o ccupat ion o f L inco ln a nd Chester B . R . Har t ley

2 39

The F eed ing Cup: a n unusua l s am ian f orm P eter Webster

2 49

Marb led S ig i l la ta f rom F rd jus ( Var) G eorge Rogers

2 57

A g roup o f e ar ly Centra l Gau l ish b eakers P a tr ick Ga l iou

2 65

P ar t i 1 6.

1 7 .

1 8 .

1 9 .

2 0 .

2 1.

2 2.

2 3 .

Aperçu s ur l es e xpor ta t ions d e c dram ique s ig i l lde e n Grande Bretagne B . Hofmann

2 77

M igrant p o tters —the Oxford c onnect ion J oanna B ird a nd Chr istopher Young

2 95

S ome Nene Va l ley f o lded b eakers w i th a nthropomorph ic d ecora t ion Chr is Go ing

3 13

S ome Cont inenta l b eakers o f t he f irst a nd s econd c entur ies A . D. Anne C . Anderson

3 21

P eacocks o n d ecora ted b eakers E l isabeth E tt l inger

3 49

The a pp l ica t ion o f c hem ica l a na lys is t o t he s tudy o f 'Rhen ish ' wares Rob in P . S ymonds

3 59

A Romano-Br i t ish p ottery a t B idd lesden, Buck inghamsh ire P eter Woods, Roy Tur land a nd S teve Hast ings

3 69

E ar ly r ed-s l ipped ware f rom L inco ln Margaret J . Dar l ing

3 97

2 4 .

The f irst Darf ie ld h oard a nd t he d a t ing o f b lack-burn ished ware R . A . H . F arrar 4 17

2 5.

P o ttery a nd t i le k i lns i n Roman Br i ta in : d ecessors a nd t he ir s uccessors Kenneth J ames Bar ton

2 6.

2 7 .

A g roup o f p o ttery f rom E cc les, Kent A lec De ts icas

t he ir p re4 31

4 41

The l a te Roman p ottery o f Grea t C asterton--th irty y ears o n J . R . P err in 4 47

2 8 .

2 9 .

3 0 .

3 1.

3 2.

S ome s econd c entury mortar ia f rom Chester P . Carr ing ton

4 65

P a inted f ine wares made i n t he Raet ian workshops n ear W i lderspoo l, Chesh ire Ka thar ine F . Hart ley

4 71

P annon ische G las ierte Keram ik ' : a n a ssessment P au l Ar thur a nd Dav id W i l l iams

4 81

Two c eram ic r epresenta t ions o f Roman bu i ld ings f rom t he C i ty o f L ondon Hugh Chapman

5 11

P ottery a nd h istory A . K . B . Evans

5 17

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS

P age F ront isp iece

Graham Webster ( Pho to :

D iana Webs ter)

J ohn G i l lam a nd Kev in Greene F ig. F ig . F ig . F ig .

1 .1 1 .2 1.3 1 .4

D istr ibut ion o f BB 1 a nd BB 2 c . A . D. 1 60 D istr ibut ion o f BB1 a nd BB2 - n orthern s i tes Graph Costs a nd s a les

6 r i

M . Ward a nd P . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4

1 1 1 3 1 7 1 9

Carr ing ton

Chester S am ian g raph Graphs Graphs

2 6 2 7 2 9 3 0

Types I -I II Types I V-IX

5 3 5 6

Margaret Ward F ig . F ig .

4 .1 4 .2

J . K . Haa lebos a nd Anne l ies Koster P l. 5 .1 F ig . 5 .1 F ig . 5 .2 F ig . 5 .3 F ig . 5 .4 F ig . 5 .5 F ig . 5 .6 F ig . 5 .7 F ig . 5 .8 F ig . 5.9 F ig . 5 .10 F ig. 5 .11 F ig . 5 .12

Marb led wares P la tes a nd d ishes o f f orms 1 a nd 2 D ishes o f f orm 3 D ishes o f f orm 4 D ishes o f f orm 5 Cups o f f orm 6 Cups o f f orm 7 Cups o f f orms 8 a nd 9 Cup a nd d ishes o f f orms 8 a nd 1 0 Bow ls a nd a s tra iner o f f orms 1 3 a nd 1 5 Beaker o f f orm 1 6 Woerden 1 97 8 . Marb led p o ttery D istr ibu t ion o f marb led wares

7 2 7 4 7 4 7 5 7 5 7 7 7 8 7 8 8 0 8 0 8 2 8 2 8 4

A lasta ir S cott Anderson F ig . F ig . F ig .

6.1 6. 2 6. 3

J ochen G . F ig. F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

7 .1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4 7 .5

D istr ibut ion map Rh ine land Granu lar Grey W are Rh ine land Granu lar Grey Ware

9 6 9 8 1 00

Garbsch P egasus p late Nere id p la te Vena t io p la te Quadr iga p la te Crosswa tch p la te

1 13 1 14 1 15 1 15 1 16

F ig . 7 .6 P l. 7 .1 P l. 7 .2 P l. 7 .3 P l. 7 .4 « V iv ien

F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

Ach i l les p la te F ragments o f N . A fr ican r ed s l ip d ishes F ragments o f N . A fr ican r ed s l ip d ishes F lask P la te f rom Ephesos

1 17 1 18 1 19 1 20 1 21

G . Swan 8 .1 8 .2 8 .3 8 .4 8 .5

Ca is tor : Ca istor : Ca istor : Ca istor : Ca istor :

p lan p lan k i ln k i ln k i ln

o f t he Roman t own o f p o ttery k i ln p roduc ts 1 -13 p roducts 1 4-27 p roducts 2 8-37

1 25 1 28 1 38 1 40 1 42

Thomas 0 . J efferson, Geoffrey B . Danne l l, Dav id F . W i l l iams F ig . 1 0.1 F ig . 1 0 .2 P l. 1 0 .1

P lan o f P isa An unusua l Drag . 1 1 K i ln s pacer? f rom Co ltano

1 62 1 65 1 66

L ondon : F lav ian-Hadr ian ic p er iod L ondon: l oca t ion o f ma jor s i tes Growth o f L ondon L oca t ion o f s am ian k i ln s i tes S ources o f d ecora ted s am ian f rom L ondon S am ian f inds f rom L ondon s i tes S ources o f d ecorated s am ian e xc lud ing R eg is House S am ian f rom c ompara t ive s i tes i n Br i ta in 1 Ma in s i tes ment ioned i n t ext S ources o f s am ian f rom c ompara t ive s i tes a broad S am ian f inds f rom s i tes a broad Ma in a rea s upp l ied by S . Gau l ish k i lns c . A. D .6 0 Ma in a rea s upp l ied by C . Gau l ish k i lns c . A. D .1 60 Ma in a rea s upp l ied by E . Gau l ish k i lns c . A. D.1 90 correct ion c urves f or a ) L ondon b ) Br i ta in S am ian f rom c omparat ive s i tes i n Br i ta in 2 Reg is House R iveted s am ian / a l l s am ian

1 75 1 77 1 79 1 83 1 85 1 87 1 89 1 89 1 91 1 95 1 97 1 99

F orm A F orm B

2 50 2 52

Geoff Marsh F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig.

1 1.1 1 1.2 1 1.3 1 1.4 1 1.5 1 1.6 1 1.7

F ig . F ig . F ig . . F ig. F ig .

1 1.8 1 1. 9 1 1.10 1 1.11 1 1.12

F ig.

1 1.13

F ig .

1 1.14

F ig . F ig. F ig . F ig .

1 1.15 1 1.16 1 1.17 1 1.18

2 09 2 11 2 13 2 15 2 17 2 23 2 28

P eter Webster F ig . F ig .

1 3.1 1 3.2

George Rogers F ig .

1 4 .1

Argent ik ie :

Dr .

3 7 i n t he s ty le o f MERCATOR

2 60

P a tr ick Ga l l iou F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig.

1 5.1 1 5.2 1 5.3 1 5.4

Beakers f rom Mehun a nd Tours-M irandes Beaker f rom S a int-Marce l Beakers f rom Rez6 D istr ibut ion map

2 67 2 68 2 69 2 72

D istr ibut ion D istr ibut ion D istr ibut ion D istr ibut ion D istr ibution

2 90 2 91 2 92 2 93 2 94

B . Hofmann F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

1 6 .1 1 6.2 1 6 . 3 1 6.4 1 6 . 5

map map map map map

J oanna B ird a nd Chr istopher Young F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

1 7 .1 1 7 .2 1 7 .3 1 7 .4 1 7 .5 1 7 .6

L oca t ion map Oxfordsh ire p ottery Oxfordsh ire p ottery P ottery f rom K i ln 3 , P ottery f rom K i ln 6 , P evensey ware

t ypes t ypes Harston Hartsh i l l

2 96 3 00 3 01 3 02 3 05 3 08

Chr is Go ing F ig . F ig. F ig .

1 8.1 1 8 .2 1 8 .3

F o lded b eakers f rom Grea t Chesterford F o lded b eakers f rom L o thbury, L ondon Draw ings a -e

3 14 3 16 3 17

Anne C . Anderson F ig. F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig.

1 9 .1 1 9 .2 1 9 .3 1 9 .4 1 9 .5

Co logne ware Co logne ware Nor th Gau l F abr ic 1 ; North Gau l F abr ic 2 D istr ibut ion o f ' Co logne ware D istr ibut ion o f Nor th Gau l ish wares

3 26 3 29 3 33 3 38 3 41

E l isabeth E tt l inger F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig. F ig .

2 0 .1 2 0 .2 2 0.3 2 0 .4 2 0 .5

P eter Woods, F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig. F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig.

2 2.1 2 2 .2 2 2 .3 2 2.4 2 2 .5 2 2 .6 2 2.7 2 2.8 2 2.9 2 2.10

Decora t ion o f t he b eaker Beaker Who le b eaker Sherd o f b eaker S herd o f b eaker

3 50 3 51 3 52 3 54 3 54

Roy Tur land, S teve Hast ings L oca t ion S i te l oca t ion S i te p lan B idd lesden, B idd lesden, B idd lesden, B idd lesden, B idd lesden, B idd lesden, B idd lesden,

K i ln I V K i ln I K i ln I I k i ln f urn i ture k i ln f urn i ture r econstruct ion o f K i ln I I p o ttery f rom K i ln I I

3 70 3 71 3 73 3 76 3 78 3 80 3 82 3 83 3 85 3 88

F ig . F ig .

2 2.11 2 2.12

B idd lesden, p ottery f rom K i lns I V a nd I B idd lesden, p ottery f rom K i ln I ; sma l l f inds

3 89 3 90

Margaret J . Dar l ing F ig . F ig . R .

A . F ig .

2 3.1 2 3.2 H .

L inco ln: s i tes ment ioned i n t he t ext P o ttery f rom L inco ln

3 98 4 10

F arrar

2 4 .1

BB1 J ar

4 18

P ottery f rom E cc les P o ttery f rom E cc les

4 42 4 44

F our th c entury Nene Va l ley c o lour-coa ted wares F our th c entury Nene Va l ley c o lour-coa ted wares

4 56 4 58

Mor tar ia

4 67

A lec Dets icas F ig . F ig . J . R . F ig . F ig . P .

2 6.1 2 6.2 P err in 2 7 .1 2 7 .2

Carr ing ton F ig .

2 8 .1

Ka ther ine F . Hart ley F ig .

2 9 .1

P a inted wares made n ear W i lderspoo l

4 75

P au l Arthur a nd Dav id W i l l iams F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig . F ig .

3 0 .1 3 0 .2 3 0 .3 3 0.4 3 0 .5 3 0 .6 3 0.7 3 0 . 8

Type 1 Types 1 -6 a nd 8 Types 7 a nd 9 -11 Types 1 1-12 a nd 1 4-15 Types 1 3 a nd 1 6-18 Types 1 9-25 a nd 2 9-32 Map o f s i tes Type s er ies p lo tted a ga inst s i tes

4 82 4 84 4 86 4 88 4 90 4 94 5 00 5 02

P o ttery P ottery P ottery

5 12 5 13 5 15

Hugh Chapman P l. P l . P l.

3 1.1 3 1.2 3 1.3

s tand ' s tand ' s tand '

f rom L ondon f rom L ondon f rom L ondon

L IST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Anne C . Anderson, B . A., Department o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f L e icester , L e icester LE1 7 RH A . S . Anderson, M . A., Depar tment o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f L e icester, L e ices ter L E1 ' 7 RH P . R . A rthur, B . A., I nst i tute o f Archaeo logy, L ondon WC1H O PY

3 1-34 Gordon S quare,

K . J . Barton, M . Ph i l., F .S. A., F . M.A., Hampsh ire County Museum S erv ice, Ch i lcomb L ane, W inches ter S023 8 RD J oanna B ird, B . A., 1 4 K ing 's Road, Gu i ldford, S urrey GU1 4 JW Dr. P . Carr ing ton, B . A., E xcava t ions S ect ion, Grosvenor Museum, Chester Dr. H . Chapman, Department o f P reh istor ic a nd Roman Ant iqu it ies, Museum o f L ondon, L ondon Wa l l, L ondon EC2Y 5 HN G . B . Danne l l, B .Sc. ( Econ.), A .C. A., F .S. A., 4 2 Mymm ' s Dr ive, Brookman ' sP ark, Her ts. AL9 7 AF Margare t J . Dar l ing , M .Ph i l ., Archaeo logy Department, Cast le Museum, N orw ich NR1 3 JU A . P . Dets icas, M . A., F .S. A., Dune lm House, 1 59 Downs Road, Hast ings , E . Sussex TN34 2 DY P rofessor Dr. E l isabeth E tt l inger, h on. F .S. A., 8 032 Z ür ich, W i t ikonerstrasse 5 8 , Sw i tzer land Dr. A . K . Babette Evans, B .A ., F .S. A., F . R. H ist.S. Department o f H istory, Un ivers i ty o f L e ices ter, L e icester LE1 7 RH R . A . H . F arrar , M . A., F .S. A ., Roya l Comm iss ion o n H istor ica l Monuments ( Eng land), F or tress House, 2 3 S av i le Row, L ondon W1X l AB Dr. P . Ga l l iou, F acu ltd d es L ettres e t S c iences S oc ia les, Un ivers i td d e Bretagne O cc identa le, B .P.

8 60-2927 9 Brest-Cedex F rance

Dr. J . G . Garbsch, P räh istor ische S taa tssamm lung , Museum f ür Vor- und F rühgesch ichte, L erchenfe ldstrasse 2 , 8 000 Mun ich 2 2 J . P . G i l lam, M . A., F .S. A., Depar tment o f Archaeo logy, The Un ivers i ty, Newcast le-upon-Tyne NE1 7 RU Chr is Go ing , B . A., Che lmsford Excava t ion Comm i ttee, Che lmsford, E ssex Dr . K . T . Green, B .A ., Department o f Archaeo logy, The Un ivers i ty, Newcast le-upon-Tyne NE1 7 RU Dr. J . K . Haa lebos, F acu lty o f L etters, C a tho l ic Un ivers i ty, N i jmegen, Nether lands B . R . Har t ley, M .A ., F .S. A ., Depar tment o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f L eeds, L eeds L S2 9 3T Ka thar ine F . Har t ley , B . A., F .S. A ., F la t A , 2 2 S h ire Oak Road, L eeds L S6

2 DE

S . Hast ings, The F o l ly, T iff ie ld, Nr . Towcester, Northants. Dr . B . Hofmann, 5 Rue Co l lette, 7 5017 P ar is, F rance Dr . T . 0 . J efforson, Arbroa th I nf irmary , A rbroa th, Angus DD11,

S co t land

Anne l ies Koster, F acu lty o f L etters, C a tho l ic Un ivers i ty, N i jmegen, Nether lands G . D . Marsh, B .A ., Museum o f L ondon, L ondon Wa l l, L ondon EC2Y 5 HN J . R . P err in, M .L i tt ., Nene Va l ley Research Comm i ttee, Ham L ane , Or ton Waterv i l le, P eterborough PE2 O UU Va lery R igby, B . A., Department o f P reh is tor ic a nd Romano-Br i t ish Ant iqu it ies, The Br i t ish Museum, L ondon WC 1 B 3 DG G . Rogers, F .S. A., " Les °rangers", 2 43 , Avenue G dndra l L ec lerc , 0 6 MO-France

S a int-Lauren t-du-Var „

Dr. Grace S impson, 5 2 Beechcrof t Road , Oxford OX2 7 AZ V iv ien G . Swan, B .A ., F .S. A., Roya l Comm iss ion o n H istor ica l Monuments ( Eng land), C l if ton, York YO3 6AE

The Wh i te House,

R . P . Symonds, I nst i tute o f Archaeo logy,

3 6 Beaumont S tree t, Oxford OX1 2 PG

R . E . Tur land, 4 7 Mart ins L ane, Hard ingstone, Northampton J . S . Wacher, B .Sc., F .S. A ., Depar tment o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f L e icester, L e icester L E1 7 RH Margaret Ward ( née Bu lmer), M .A ., E xcava t ions S ect ion, G rosvenor Museum, Ches ter P . V . Webster, B . A., I V .Ph i l ., F .S. A., Depar tment o f Extra-Mura l S tud ies, Un ivers i ty Co l lege, Card iff , 3 8 &4 0 P ark P lace, Card iff CF1 3 BB Dr . D . F . W i l l iams, B . A., D. 0.E E . Ceram ic P etro logy P ro ject, Department o f Archaeo logy, The Un ivers i ty, S outhampton SO9 5 NH P . J . Woods, 1 1 R ed H i l l C rescent, Wo l laston, We l l ingborough, Northants. Dr. C . J . Young , M . A., I nspectora te o f Anc ient Monuments, Depar tment o f t he Env ironment, L ondon

PREFACE

The work o f G raham Webster i s s o we l l known t ha t i t n eeds l i tt le i ntroduct ion h ere a nd a g lance a t t he b ib l iography o f h is pub l ica t ions w i l l a lone s uff ice t o d emonstra te h is r emarkab le a nd v ar ied c ontr ibut ion t o a rchaeo logy. Many o f h is ' works, e spec ia l ly t hose c oncerned w ith t he Roman a rmy a nd a rchaeo log ica l methodo logy, h ave b ecome s tandard r eference ma ter ia l f or c o l leagues a nd s tuden ts i n Br i ta in a nd a broad. However, s ome o f h is most i mportant work h as b een i n t he f i e ld o f Roman p o ttery s tud ies, b o th i n t he f orm o f pub l icat ions a nd i n p erso na l gu idance t o o thers. He h as wr i tten o n v ir tua l ly a l l a spects o f Roman p ottery f rom k i ln e xcava t ions t o s tud ies o f t he m inut iae o f v esse l f orm a nd d ecora t ion. Over t he y ears h e h as i ns t iga ted many p ro jects d ea l ing w i th c eram ic r esearch a nd h is p ersona l e ncouragement was l arge ly r espons ib le f or t he o rgan isa t ion o f t he w eekend c onference a t New Co l lege, Oxford, i n 1 972, wh ich r esu lted i n t he pub l ica t ion, i n t he f o l low ing y ear , o f t he Counci l f or Br i t ish Archaeo logy ' s Research Report No. 1 0 , e d i ted by A lec Dets icas a nd e nt it led Current Research i n Romano-Br i t ish Coarse P o ttery —the s ub ject o f t he c onfere nce. Th is g a ther ing o f s cho lars a t Oxford , a l l i nterested i n t he f urthera nce o f Roman p ottery s tud ies, marked t he b eg inn ing o f an ew d irect ion i n c eramic r esearch i n Br ita in a nd a n e nthus iam wh ich l ed t o t he f ormat ion o f t he S tudy Group f or Romano-Br it ish P o ttery . I n r ecogn i t ion o f Graham ' sw ork i n t he f i e ld o f p ottery s tud ies, a F estschr if t, e nt ire ly c oncerned w i th c eram ic s tud ies, was p lanned a nd a t t he a nnua l mee t ing o f t he S tudy Group, a t Chester, i n March 1 980 , t he p roposed pub l ica t ion o f t h is v o lume was a nnounced . Consequent ly, many o f t he c ontr ibutors a re members o f t he S tudy Group, wh i le o thers a re c o l leagues f rom t he Cont inent work ing i n s im i lar f i e lds. S ome c ontr ibutors a re l ong-stand ing f r iends a nd c o l leagues y et o thers a re r e lative ly n ew t o t he f i e ld, a l l work ing o n s ub jects o f i nterest t o h im. Graham h as n ow r e t ired f rom h is p ost a s a Reader i n t he Department o f Extramura l S tud ies a t t he Un ivers i ty o f B irm ingham, y et h e s eems bus ier t han e ver . I t i s t o b e h oped t ha t i n qu ieter moments h e w i l l f ind i nterest a nd p leasure i n t he p ages o f t his v o lume a nd p erhaps s timu lus f or h is own c on t inu ing r esearch.

I n 1 977 , Kev in Greene was a b le t o o bserve i n h is ' Foreword ' t o Roman P ottery S tud ies i n Br i ta in a nd Beyond ( Dore, J . a nd Green, K . e ds., Br i t. Archaeo l. Rep. S upp. S er ., 3 0 , Oxford), t ha t t he l ast s ubstant ia l c o l lect ion o f p apers o n Roman p ottery h ad b een publ i shed i n 1 973. S ince h is c omment was made, s evera l monographs a nd c o l lections o f p apers d evo ted t o Roman p ottery h ave b een publ i shed i n Br i ta in a nd t he number o f i nd iv idua ls a ct ive ly e ngaged i n

p o ttery r esearch s eems t o i ncrease a nnua l ly a s mater ia l f ron : p ast e xcava t ions i s p rocessed i n a dvance o f pub l ica t ion. The s tudy o f Roman c eram ics h as b ecome a n a cceptab le f i e ld o f s pec ia l isa t ion a nd p erhaps i t i s a r ef lect ion o f t h is g row ing i nterest t hat t he p resent v o lume h as more c ontr ibut ions t han a ny o f i t s p redecessors i n Br ita in. No t o n ly h as t he p opu lar i ty o f p ottery r esearch i ncreased, bu t s o h as i t s s cope. The p apers i nc luded h ere d emonstra te t his w iden ing o f h or izons, w i th c ontr ibut ions o n e conom ic t heory r es t ing n ot i ncong ruous ly n ext t o t ypo log ica l s tud ies, f abr ic d istr ibut ions a nd i nvest igat ions i nto t he v a lue o f c hem ica l a na lys is a nd quant ita t ive methods i n p ottery r esearch. Geograph ica l ly, t he s ub jects c overed e xtend f ar b eyond t he boundar ies o f Br i ta in a nd t he p apers h ave b een w r i tten by s cho lars o f s evera l d ifferent n a t iona l i ties. As a who le, t he v o lume i lus trates t he c ontinu ing mu lt iform i ty o f Roman p ottery r es earch a nd i t s i mportance f or t he s tudy o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he p er iod.

Th is p reface p rov ides a n o ppor tun i ty t o t hank Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l Reports f or t he ir g u idance i n t he p repara t ion o f t h is v o lume a nd t o a cknow ledge t he many c ontr ibutors whose e fforts a nd c oopera tion h ave d emons tra ted t he ir own e nthus iasm f or t he p ro ject, a nd a ss isted t he work o f t he e d i tors . I ndeed , s o g rea t was t h is e nthus iasm t ha t t he t ime s ca le o r ig ina l ly e nv isaged f or t he p roduct ion o f t his v o lume h ad t o b e a bandoned u nder t he we ight o f n ew c on tr ibu t ions. Due t o t he p ressure o f p rev ious c omm i tments s ome c o l leagues were unab le t o m ee t t he o r ig ina l d ead l ine s et f or t he s ubmiss ion o f p apers, y et were s o e ager t o c ontr ibute t o Graham ' sF estschr if t t ha t m anuscr ipts were s t i l l a rr iv ing u p t o a nd a f ter t he t ime when t he ma in b ody o f t he work had b een s ent t o Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l Reports f or t yp ing . The n a ture o f t h is v o lume made i t d es irab le t ha t t hese l a te c ontr ibu tions b e i nc luded a nd t he f ina l c ontent f u l ly j ust if ies t his d ec is ion.

Anne Anderson S co tt Anderson L e ices ter 1 981

Graham Webster, M . A.,

Ph. D.,

F .S. A., A . M. A.

FORE WORD

Men t ion o f G raham Webs ter 's n a me i n a ny a rchaeo log ica l c irc le i nvokes immed ia te r esponse . F or s o me d ecades n ow h e h as b een a ma jor f igure i n t he a rchaeo log ica l s cene i n B r i ta in a nd , i ncreas ing ly i n l a ter y ears , o n t he C on t inen t a lso , a s men tor , g u ide , e ncourager , r esearcher , d evi l 's a dvoca te a nd , s o met imes , d isc ip l inar ian , f or h e s e ldo m a l lowed s hoddy o r i l l-prepared work t o p ass w i thou t s tr ingen t c o mmen t . S evera l g enera t ions o f s tuden ts h ave r ecogn ised h is q ua l i t ies a s at eacher a nd t he n umber t ha t n ow h o ld r espons ib le p os ts i n a rchaeo logy a t test t he s uccess o fh is t each ing me thods . I ti s , i n many ways , i nv id ious t o d ist ingu ish a ny v ery s pec ia l i n terest i n G raha m 's w ork , wh ich h as c overed a r e markab ly d iverse r ange o f s ub jects ; i ndeed were o ne t o t ry t o d o s o , o ne wou ld r ap id ly r each a p o in t o f wonder men t t ha th e h ad a ch ieved s o much .

C h ief ly h e i s p robab ly b es tk nown f or h is

c on tr ibu t ions o n t he Ro man Army a nd R o mano-Br i t ish p o t tery . N ever the less h is s tud ies o n R o mano-Br i t ish v i l las a nd t owns h ave f requen t ly b roken n ew g round a nd l ed o n t o f resh e nqu ires. H is r esearches o n t he e ar l ies t R o man mi l i tary d isposi t ions i n B r i ta in h ave r ece ived i n terna t iona l r ecogn i t ion i n t hose g a ther ings o f s cho lars w here Ro man f ron t iers a re e nd less ly d iscussed . N or , a s as o me t i me museum c ura tor , mus t we f orge th is e xce l len t work a t L inco ln a nd C hes ter where , a t b o th , h e was r espons ib le f or i n i t ia t ing p rogram mes o f e xcava t ion a nd r esearch i nt he p os t-war p er iod . T here d eve loped t oo h is i n teres t i n p o t tery a nd sma l l b ronzes , t he i den t i f ica t ion o f wh ich h e h ad made as pec ia l s tudy a l l h is o wn . B u t i ti s a s G raha m t he e xcava tor t ha t h e i s p robab ly b est k nown t o most . T h is w r i ter h as s een t he n o tes a nd d raw ings wh ich h e made , wh i le s t i l l a s choo lboy a t S tam ford , w hen e xcava t ing t he v i l la a t T ixover ( Le ic .) a nd t hey i l lus tra te t he s tandards w h ich , f ro m t he f i rs t , h e s e t h i mse l f . H is work , f i rst a t L inco ln , t hen a t C hester , d id n o t , h owever , p reven t h im f ro m w iden ing h is s cope i n o ther d irec t ions. H e c o l labora ted w i th P h i l ip C order a nd o thers , d ur ing t he 5 0s a nd e ar ly 6 0s , i n t he f a mous s er ies o f s ummer s choo ls a t G rea t C as ter ton . He i nves t iga ted many m inor wa l led s i tes a long Wa t l ing S tree t , i n t he p rocess o f ten t ra in ing sma l l t ea ms o f l oca l e xcava tors t o c arry o u t f ur ther work , a nd i n c onsequence o f wh ich h e was a b le t o s ugges t t ha t t hey w ere l a te-Ro man r oad s tat ions—burg i . T hen c ame G raham 's t ransla t ion t o t he B ir m ingham A du l t E duca t ion D epar t men t . D esp i te t he h eavy l oad o f l ectures , mos t ly i n t he e ven ing , wh ich t h is a ppo intmen t c arr ied , h e was s t il l a b le t o e xp lore n ew i n terests : ah i ther to u nknown e ar ly f or t a t Waddon H i l l i n Dorse t , t he v i l la a t B arns ley n ear C irences ter , u n touched b y e ar l ier d isturbances , t he t own a nd l eg ionary f ort ress a t Wroxe ter , a lready d ug i n p ar t b y e ar l ier e xcava tors , b u t n ow made t o r evea l f resh i n for ma t ion b y means o f G raha m 's c arefu l a nd p rec ise t echn iques . Moreover , e ach o ft hese e xcava t ions was t urned i n to at ra in ing s choo l ,

n o t o n ly f or h is o wn s tuden ts , b u t a lso f or many c om ing f ro m a l l o ver B r i ta in . The ir p opu lar i ty a nd s uccess c an b e measured b yt he wel l-a t tended a nnua l r eun ions wh ich o ccur e ach D ece mber f or p ast a nd p resen t s tuden ts . B u t e ven t h is d oes n o t e xhaus t t he c a ta logue o fh is work . A lways a f i rs t-ra te c o mm i t tee man h e g ave a n a l mos t u n l im i ted n umber o fv a luab le h ours o fh is t ime , o f ten a s c ha ir man , t o many e xcava t ion a nd a dv isory c omm it tees .

T he CBA k nows

h im we l l i n t h is r espect a nd h is e lec t ion a s t he ir t reasurer , n ot t he e as iest o f p os i t ions t o h o ld , a t at ime o ff a l l ing f i nanc ia l s uppor t , s hows c onv inc ing ly t he t rust a nd c on f idence i n wh ich t he C ounci lh e ld h im . E lsewhere h is a dv ice was s ough t f ro m n a t iona l l eve l d ownwards , a nd i t was a mark o f t he man t ha t h e w ou ld g ive a s much o fh is t ime t o al oca l a rchaeo log ica l s ocie ty a s t o a ma jor n a t iona l c o mm i t tee . T here i s al esser-known s ide t o G raha m , a nd o ne wonders h ow h e c ou ld p oss ib ly h ave h ad t he t ime , am ids t s o much a rchaeo logy , t o b eco me ak now le dgeab le c ol lec tor o f j ade a nd ma io l ica , o f p a in t ings a nd f urn i ture . Y et h e d id a nd c an h o ld y our a t ten t ion e qua l ly s ecure ly w he ther d iscuss ing a p iece o f j ade o r ap iece o f Ro man p ot tery . N ow G raha m i s r et ir ing . O f o ne t h ing we c an p robab ly b e c er ta in ; t he l oss w i l l b e f e l t most k een ly b y B irm ingha m Un ivers i ty a nd n o t b y A rchaeo logy . I ti s b eyond b e l ief t ha t h e w i l l r e t ire t o ta l ly f rom h is s ub jec t , h av ing h e ld a n e xa l ted a nd e s tee med p lace i n i tf or s o l ong . t o d o s o , s uch h ave b een h is l abours .

Y e th e wou ld h ave e very e xcuse

S o may t h is f r iend a nd c o l league ( s o me t imes p ro tagon is t ; s o me t i mes a dversary ) o n b eha lf o f t hose r epresen ted i n t h is v o lu me , most s incere ly w ish G raham a l ong , h appy , p rosperous a nd e spec ia l ly , a n a rchaeo log ica l lyp roduc t ive r et ire men t , i n wh ich , f ro m t imetot i me we s ha l l b e a b le t o r enew a nd e n joy o ur am icab le d isagree men ts.

J . S . Wacher U n iversi ty o f L eicester

B IBL IOGRAPHY OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF GRAHAM WEBSTER

. 1 938

' Mounta in Adven ture ', The S tork ( Stamford S choo l pub l ica t ion), 1 2-14 . 1 940 A Roman P ottery K i ln a t Canterbury ' ,Archaeo l. Cant iana , 5 3 (1940), 1 09-136. ' No tes o n a Roman S tamped T i le f ound i n Canterbury ' , Archaeo l.Cant iana, 5 3(1940), 1 45-146. ' Notes o n t he D iscovery o f t he F ounda t ions o f a Ga tehouse a t t he Norman Cast le, Canterbury, 1 939 ' ,Archaeo l. Cant iana , 5 4(1940), 1 43-146. 1 942 ' Notes o n d iscover ies a t Canterbury i n war-t ime Excava t ions ' ,Archaeo l. Cant iana , 5 5(1942), 7 2 . 1 944 ' A Roman P ottery a t S outh Car lton, L incs., 1 43.

Ant iq. J ., 2 4(1944), 1 30-

1 945 ' Rema ins o f a n Urnf ie ld Bur ia l a t Monkton, Ayrsh ire ', P roc . S oc. o f Ants. o f S cot land, 7( 1943-44), 1 31-134 . ' Archaeo logy a nd t he Eng ineer ' ,J . I nst. o f Mun ic ipa l a nd County E ng ineers, 6 -12. 1 946 Roman L inco ln, 1 945-46 , r epor t o f t he L inco ln Archaeo log ica l Research C omm ittee, 1 946. 1 947 'The Excava t ion o f aR omano-Br i t ish P ottery K i ln a t Swanpoo l, L inco ln ' Ant iq. J ., 2 7(1947), 6 1-19 ( wi th Norman Booth). ' Adu lt Educa t ion a nd Archaeo logy ' , The H ighway, J anuary 1 947 , 6 5. 1 949 The L eg ionary F or tress a t L inco ln ' ,J . R.S., 3 9(1949), 5 7-78 . ' Fresh L ight o n Roman Chester ', P roc. L landudno, Co lwyn Bay a nd D ist. FC., 3 5-38 . 1 950 A s hor t Gu ide t o t he R oman I nscr ipt ions a nd S cu lptured S tones i n t he Grovenor Museum, Chester , 1 950 ; 2 nd r ev ised e d i t ion, 1 96 9 . ' Roman Chester : s ome o f t he p rob lems i n t he l ight o f r ecent I nvest igat ions ' , The Archaeo l . News L e tter 2 (1950), 1 58-16 0 .

' Excava t ions i n Goss S treet, Chester, 1 948-49 ' ,Chester Archaeo l. S oc . J ., 3 7 (1950), 1 -38 ( wi th I . A . R ichmond). 'A Romano-Br i t ish Bur ia l a t G laston, Rut land, 1 947 , Ant iq. J ., 3 0(1950), 7 2-73 . 1 951 ' Chester i n t he Dark Ages ' , Chester Archaeo l . S oc. J ., 3 8(1951), 3 94 8 . The Archaeo log ist i n t he F ie ld ' , Chesh ire H is tor ian 1 (1950), 1 9-29 ( w i th G . B . L each ) . Art ists i n Chester ' ,i n Gu ide t o. a n Exh ib i t ion o f Bygone Chester, f or t he F es t iva l o f Br i ta in, 9 -12. 1 952 ' Excava t ions o n t he L eg ionary Defences a t Ches ter, 1 949-52 ( Part I ) ' , Chester Archaeo l . S oc. J ., 3 9(1952), 1 -8 . An I ntroduct ion t o t he S tudy o f Romano-Br i t ish Coarse P ottery ', Chesh ire H is tor ian, 2 (1952), 2 0-28 . Ang lo-Saxon Urnf ie ld a t S outh E lk ing ton, L outh, L inco lnsh ire ', Archaeo l. J ., 1 08(1952), 2 5-59 . ' Co ins a nd t he Archaeo log ist ', S eaby ' s Co in a nd Meda l Bu l let in, No . 4 15 , 1 2 , 5 09 . ' The Chesh ire Cat ' , Chesh ire H istor ian, 2 (1952), 4 7 . 1 953 ' Excava t ions o n t he L eg ionary Defences a t Ches ter , 1 949-52 ( Part I) ' , Chester Archaeo l. S oc. J ., 4 0 ( 1953), 1 -23 . ' Roman Roads ' , Chesh ire H istor ian, 3 (1953), 1 3-19 . ' A S axon Treasure Hoard F ound a t Chester , 1 950 ', An t iq.J., ( 1953), 2 2-29 . 1 954 A Tr ia l Trench a cross t he Defences o f t he R oman f ort a t Tedstone Waf ter , Herefordsh ire ' ,Woo lhope Na tura l is ts ' F .C. Trans ., 3 4(1954), 1 -4. The L ead-m in ing I ndustry i n North Wa les i n R oman T imes ' ,F l intsh ire H ist. S oc., 1 3(1952-53), 3 -31 . ' M isce l laneous D iscover ies i n Chester a nd Chesh ire ' , Chester Archaeo l . S oc. J ., 4 1(1954), 8 7 -92. ' Roman Co ins ' , ‚ •Chesh ire H istor ian, 4 (1954 ), 1 9-26. The Grosvenor Museum, Chester ', Chesh ire H istor ian, 4 (1954). ' The Newstead Ga l lery a t Chester ' ,Museums J ., 5 3(1954), 2 59-253 . 1 955 'A S ect ion t hrough t he L eg ionary Defences o n t he West S ide o f t he F ortress ' ‚ .Chester Archaeo l. S oc. J ., 4 2(1955), 4 5-47 . 'A No te o n t he Use o f Coa l i n Roman Br i ta in ' Ant iq . J ., 3 5(1955), 1 992 16 • ' Romano-Br i t ish I nscr ipt ions ' , Chesh ire H is tor ian, 5 (1955), 2 1-29 . ' Chester E xcava tions 1 954 ' , Chesh ire H is tor ian, 5 (1955), 2 0 .

' Co lour Symbo l ism: a n Anthropo log ica l D ivers ion ' Br i t ish Co lour Counc i l 1 4th Des igners ' Conference Report, 2 5-31. Th is a lso a ppeared i n The Record J . o f t he I ncorpora ted I nst. o f B r i t ish Decorators a nd I nter ior Des igners, 1 3, No . 6 5, J an. 1 956, 1 5-17 . 1 956 The Roman Army, a pub l ica t ion o f t he Grosvenor Museum, Chester, 1 956, 2 nd e d. 1 973 . ' Excava t ions o f t he Roman Rema ins E ast o f T r in i ty S treet, 1 950-54 ' , Chester Archaeo l. S oc. J ., 4 3(1956), 2 7 -33 . ' Further E xcava t ions a t t he Roman F orts a t Metch ley, B irm ingham, 1 954 ' , Trans. B irm ingham Archaeo l. S oc., 7 2(1956), 1 -4. ' Excava t ions o n t he Defences o f t he Romano-Br i t ish Town a t K enchester , 1 956 ' ,Woo lhope Na tura l ists ' F .C. T rans ., 3 5(1956), 1 38-145 . ' A Tr ia l E xcava t ion a t Kempsey ' , Trans. Worcestersh ire Archaeo l. S oc., 3 2(1956), 1 3-15 . ' A New Roman Ga l lery a t Chester, Eng land ', Archaeo logy, 9 , No. 4 , 2 41-243 . The Archaeo log ist i n t he F ie ld ' , Chesh ire H istor ian, 6 (1956), 1 6-22 . 1 957 ' An I nves t iga t ion o f a n E arthwork a t L in ley H i l l, More ' , Trans . S hropsh ire Archaeo l . S oc., 5 5(1955-56), 1 19-121. ' An E ighteenth Century Rubbish P it, Tr in ity S tree t, 1 953 ' ,Chester Archaeo l. S oc. J ., 4 4(1957 ), 1 9-28 . ' The Archaeo log is t i n t he F ie ld ' , Cheshire H istor ian, 7 (1957 ), 2 4-27 . ' Fur ther Excava t ions a t t he Roman F ort a t K invaston, S taffs.', T rans. B irm ingham Archaeo l. S oc., 7 3(1957 ), 1 00-108 . 1 958 The Roman S ite a t Wa l l, S taffordsh ire, M in istry o f Works Gu ide-book, 1 958 . ' An Excava t ion a t Nunn ing ton P ark, n ear W ive l iscombe, S omerset ', P roc. S omerset Archaeo l. a nd N . H. S oc., 1 03(1058-49), 8 1-91. ' Road-w iden ing a t P ennocruc ium i n 1 956: A rchaeo l. S oc., 7 4(1958), 1 0-11.

an o te ' , Trans. B irm ingham

The Ba th-House a t Wa l l, S taffordsh ire : Excava t ions i n 1 956 ' , ‘ Trans. B irm ingham Archaeo l. S oc ., 7 4(1958), 1 2-25 . ' Roman Br i ta in: The Trend o f Recent I deas ' ,G reece a nd Rome, 2 nd S er ies, 5 (1958), 1 6-31. V irocon ium: A n ew Archaeo log ica l Tra in ing C entre ' Counc i l Annua l Repor t, 1 956-57 , 5 2-57 . ' Lodge C lump, Chester ton '

F ie ld S tud ies

Trans. B irm ingham a nd Warks Archaeo l .

S oc., 7 4(1958), 5 2. ' Magnet ic P rospect ing ' a nd A . Rees).

Ant iqu i ty 3 2(1958), 2 7 0-271 ( w ith M . J . A itken

Sma l l o b jects a nd c oarse p ottery i n ' A n ote o n t he d iscover ies a t t he Market Ha l l S i te, Worcester 1 955-56 ' by D . S hearer, Trans. Worcs. Archaeo l. S oc ., 3 4( 1 958) , 5 4-67 ;

1 959 'A S ect ion t hrough t he Romano-Br i t ish Defences a t Wa l l, S taffordsh ire ' , T rans. B irm ingham Archaeo l. S oc., 7 5(1959 ), 2 4-29 . C irencester , Dyer Court Excava t ion, 1 957 , T rans. Br isto l a nd G loucest ersh ire Archaeo l. S oc., 7 8(1959), 4 4-85. The Wroxeter Aqueduct ' , Trans. S hropsh ire A rchaeo l. S oc., 5 6(1959), • 1 33-137 ( w i th Dav id Ho l l ingsworth). ' The P roduct ion o f Castor Ware i n Br ita in ' ,R e i Cretar iae Romanae F autorum, 2 (1 959 ) ,7 5-78 . 'A Note o n Romano-Br i t ish P ottery w i th P a inted F igures ', Ant iq. J ., 3 9(1959), 9 1-95 . ' Roman W indows a nd Gr i l les ' , Ant iqu ity, 3 3(1959), 1 0-14 . ' A Note o n t he Roman Co in Hoard f ound a t Hord ley Grange ' ,T rans. S hropsh ire A rchaeo l. S oc., 5 6(1959), 1 38-139 . Archaeo logy i n Adu lt Educa t ion ' ,Adu lt Educa t ion, 3 2(195 9 ), 1 66 -178 . ' The Roman Town Ba th-House, P t. 1 ' , Chesh ire H istor ian,

9 (1959), 6 -11.

' The e xtra-mura l a rchaeo log ica l t ra in ing c en tre, B irm ingham ' , Ant iqu i ty, 3 2(1959), 1 97 -198 . 1 96 0 ' The Roman M i l i tary Advance under Ostor ius S capu la ' ,Archaeo l . J ., 1 15(196 0 ), 4 9-98 . ' A Note o n t he R oman Cu irass ( lor ica s egmenta ta) ' , Arms a nd Armour J ., 3 (196 0 ), 1 94-197 . ' The D iscovery o f a Roman F or t a t Waddon H i l l, S toke Abbott, 1 959 ' , P roc . Dorse t N . H. a nd Archaeo l. S oc., 8 2(196 0 ), 8 8-100 . The Roman Town Bath-House P t. 2 ' , Chesh ire H istor ian, 1 0(196 0 ), 1 -12 . ! A Romano-Br it ish P ottery K i ln a t Rookery L ane, L inco ln ', Ant iq . J ., 4 0(196 0 ), 2 14-220 . ' A Med ieva l P ottery K i ln a t Aud ley, Chesh ire ', Med ieva l Archaeo logy, 4 (196 0 ), 1 09-125 ( w i th G . C . Dunn ing). 'Archaeo logy f or Ama teurs i n t he West M id lands ' ,Warw ick a nd Worces ters h ire, May 1 96 0 , 3 8-41. 'A n ote o n t wo p o ttery v esse ls f ound i n a n i nhuma t ion bur ia l a t C leeve P r ior i n 1 935 ', Trans. Worcs. Archaeo l . S oc., 3 6 ( 196 0 ), 6 7 . 1 96 1 'An Excava t ion o n t he Roman S ite a t L itt le Chester, Derby ', Derbysh ire Archaeo l. J ., 8 1(196 1 ), 8 5-110 . 'A S ect ion a cross t he Roman r oad b etween T ewkesbury a nd Worces ter o n S huthonger Common ', Trans. Worcestersh ire Archaeo l. S oc., 3 7 ( 1961), 4 1-44 ( w i th Mrs M . G . S anders). The P ottery f rom t he k i ln, i n 'A Romano-Br it ish P o ttery k i ln a t Manduess edum ' ,R . Hems ley , Trans. B irmingham a nd Warks. Archaeo l . S oc. 7 ( 1961), 1 3-17 .

1 962 I n c o l laborat ion w i th P rofessor D . R . Dud ley: 1 962, ( Rout ledge a nd K egan P au l).

The Rebe l l ion o f Boud icca ,

' Excava t ions o n t he Roman S ite a t Rocester, S taffordsh ire, 1 96 1 ' , North S taffordsh ire J . o f F ie ld S tud ies, 2 (196 2 ), 3 7 -52. ' Excava t ions a t Waddon H i l l, S toke Abbo tt, Beam inster, Dorset ', Notes a nd Quer ies f or S omerset a nd Dorset, 2 8(196 2 ), 5 2-54 . The Defences o f V irocon ium ( Wroxeter) ' a nd ' Some Bronze o b jects f rom Wroxeter i , Trans . B irm ingham Archaeo l. S oc ., 7 8(196 2 ), 2 7 -34 ; 3 5-39 . A r ev iew o f S tra t if ica t ion f or t he Archaeo log ist by Edward Pyddoke, 1 961 i n Ant iqu i ty, 3 6, No . 1 41(196 2 ), 7 0-71. A r ev iew o f Ant iqu i t ies f rom Hod H i l l i n t he Durden Co l lect ion by J . W . Bra i lsford i n An t iq. J ., 4 2, 2 63 . 1 96 3 P ract ica l A rchaeo logy, An I ntroduct ion t o Archaeo log ica l F ie ld-work a nd Excava t ion, 1 96 3 ( A . a nd C . B lack) —(rev ised 2 nd e d. 1 974). 'The Twent ieth L eg ion 's Works-Depöt a t Ho lt ' , Chesh ire Round, 1 (1963), 61 -6 4 . A n ote o n a n ' Iron S p ike ' f rom W inters low, Ant iq . J ., 4 3 , 2 13 . 1 964 Ed i ted: Romano-Br i t ish Coarse P o ttery: A S tudent ' s Gu ide , R esearch Report No . 6 , C ounc i l f or Br it ish Archaeo logy, 1 964 ; 2 nd e d . 1 96 9 ; 3 rd e d . 1 977 . 'Roman F inds f rom R ed H i l l, n ear Oakesga tes ', Trans. S hropsh ire Archaeo l . S oc., 5 7 (1962-63), 1 32-133 . V irocon ium: a S tudy o f P rob lems ', Trans. S hropsh ire Archaeo l. S oc., 5 7 (196 2 -6 3 ), 1 12-131 ( w i th Br ian S tan ley). A r ev iew o f The Exper imenta l E arthwork o n Overton Down, W i l ts., 1 96 0 , i n Ant iq . J ., 4 4 , 1 76. A r ev iew o f S o ld ier a nd C iv i l ian i n t he L a ter Roman Emp ire, i n Ant iq. J ., 4 4 , 7 3 . A r ev iew o f Archaeo logy a nd t he M icroscope by L eo B iek, 1 96 3 , i n Archaeo l . J ., 1 20 , 3 08-9 . 1 965 The Roman Conquest o f Br i ta in, 1 965 ( Ba tsford) -2nd e d . P an Books, 1 973 . Wroxeter Roman C ity, M in istry o f P ub l ic Bu i ld ings a nd Works Gu ideb ook, 1 965 . ' Fur ther I nvest iga t ions o n t he s i te o f t he Roman F ort a t Waddon H i l l , S toke Abbo tt, 1 960-62 ' ,P roc. Dorset N . H. a nd Archaeo l. S oc., 8 6(1965), 1 35-149 . The Roman F orts a t G reensforge ' , Trans . B irm ingham Archaeo l . S oc., 8 0(1965), 8 2. 'The Caves I nn M i lestone ', Trans. B irm ingham Archaeo l . S oc., 8 0(1965), 8 0-82;

Aer ia l Reconna issance o ver t he Warw icksh ire Avon ', Archaeo l. J ., 1 21 ( 1965), 1 -22 ( w i th Br ian Hob ley). A l e tter i n Adu lt Educa tion, Nov. 1 965, 2 28 . A r ev iew o f The S evern Bas in, by K . S . P a inter , 1 96 4 i n Archaeo l . J ., 1 21, 2 15. 1 966 ' Fort a nd Town i n E ar ly Roman Br i ta in ', The C iv i tas Cap ita ls o f Roman Br i ta in, 1 966, 3 1-45. ' A Roman Bur ia l a t Geeston, Rut land ' , Ant iq . J ., 4 6(1966), 3 35-338 . ' Excava t ions a t H igh Cross, 1 955 ', Trans. L e icestersh ire Archaeo l. a nd H ist . S oc., 4 0(1966), 3 -41 ( w i th E rnest Greenf ie ld). '" The O ld Work" a t t he Roman P ub l ic Baths a t Wroxeter l, Ant iq . J ., 4 6(1966), 2 29-239 ( w i th P au l Woodf ie ld). ' A P a inted S herd o f Romano-Br i t ish P o ttery f rom S awtrey, Hunts.', Ant iq. J ., 4 6(1966), 3 38-339 . ' A Roman Bronze S aucepan f rom Caves I nn ' ,T rans . B irm ingham a nd Warks. Archaeo l . S oc., 8 1(1966), 1 43-144 . 1 967 ' Exp lor ing Roman Roads ' a nd ' Trac ing Roman R oads ', 1 967 . Act iv i ty Gu ide f or pup i ls —produced f or c h i ldren ( Encyc lopaed ia Br i tann ica ). The C laud ian F ront iers i n Br i ta in', S tud ien z u d en M i l i tärgrenzen Roms, 1 967 , 4 2-53 . ' Excava t ions a t t he Romano-Br i t ish V i l la i n Barns ley P ark, C irencester , 1 961-66 ', Trans. Br is to l a nd G los . Archaeo l. S oc., 8 6(1967 ), 7 4-87 . A r ev iew o f The M idd le Thames i n Ant iqu i ty : WEA News No . 1 6, March 1 967 , 6 -9 .

A S lough WEA S tudy i n

' Br i t ish D igs a nd Amer ican S tudents ' , Archaeo logy, 2 0 No. 4 , Oct. 1 967 , pp. 2 64-267 . Mortar ium e t P ist i l lum ' , Current Archaeo logy, No . 1 , March 1 967 , 6 . 1 968 A r ev iew o f Hara ld v on P etr ikov i ts ' ,D ie r öm ischen S tre itkräf te am N iederrhe in, Kunst und A lter tum am Rhe in i n German ia 4 6, 3 74- 7 5 . 'The Roman F orts a t N letch ley ', Un ivers i ty o f B irm ingham Bu l let in , No . 2 0 , 1 6-19 . Note o n ' A S herd o f P ottery f rom C irencester ' ,Ant iq . J ., 4 8, 1 02-103 . ' The Bronze Hand le o f a Romano-Br i t ish Butter is ', Ant iq . J ., 4 8(1968), 3 03-304 . A r ev iew o f P lan o f Caer leon I sca : L eg io I Augusta by G . C . Boon a nd Co l in W i l l iams i n Ant iq. J ., 4 8 , 3 25 . A r ev iew o f Une Campagne C dsar ienne, A les ia by J acques Harmand, 1 967in Archaeo l . J ., 1 24, 2 61. A r ev iew o f Roman F ront ier i n Br i ta in by D . R . W i lson, 1 967 , 1 24, 2 61 .

Archaeo l . J . ,

1969 The Roman Imperial �rmy, 196 9 (A. and C. Black) 2nd ed. 1978.. 'Wroxeter' , Current Archaeology� _No_. �- (1969), 82--�6 .__ 'The Future of Villa Studies.' in The Roman Villa in Britain ed.,A. L. F. Rivet, 1969, Routledge, 217-249. 'The Roman Forts at \/Ietchley' , The ¾Iedical Graduates News-Letter (Birmingham), 144-148. 'Excavation at Nletchley Roman Forts' , University of Birmingham Bulletin, No. 24, 23.· A review of Britain in the Roman Empire, 196 8 by J. Liversidge in Antiq. J., 49, 151-152. 'The Coarse Pottery' in 'A Neronian-Vespasianic Military Site' by B. Hobley, Trans. Birmingham and Warks. Archaeol. Soc., 83 (1969), 85-104. 'A Pendant in the form of a Phallic Amulet' , Trans. Birmingham and Warks. Archaeol. Soc., 83 (1969), 126 -129. A review of Romeins lederwerk uit Valkenburp- Z. H., in Antiq. J., 49, 160. 1970 'The Military Situations in Britain between A.D. 43 and 71' , Britannia, i (1970), 179-197 . A review of The Roman Frontier in Wales, 2nd ed. by M . G. Jarrett in The Welsh History Review, 5, No. 2, 177-17 8. A review �of Excavations at Clickhimin, Shetland, by J. R. C. Hamilton in Archaeology, �et., 1979, 352-353. A review of The Archaeology of Roman Britain, by R. G. Collingwood, revised by Ian Richmond in J.R.S., 60 (1970), 245-247. -W71 'A Hoard of Roman Military Equipment from Fremington Hagg' ,· Soldier and Civilian in Roman Yorkshire, ed. R. M. Butler, 107-125. 'A Roman System of Fortified Posts along Watling Street, Britain' ,' Roman Frontier Studies, 1967 , Tel Aviv, 36-45. ' A Street Section at -Wroxeter in 1966 ' ; Trans. Shrop. Archaeol. Soc., 59 (for 1969-70), 15-23 (with Charles Daniels). 'The British Elite who chose Rome' , Observer Supplement, 11 July 1971, 20; A review of The Romano-British Cemetery at Trentholme Drive,· York, by L.. P. Wenham, and The Excavations of Roman and Medieval .London, by W. F. Grimes, in Archaeology_:, Jan. 1971, 85.. A review of The Archaeology of Roman Britain, in Archaeology, Ap. 1971, 184. ' The Coarse pottery' ,· in The Roman Villa at Denton, Lines.' , . E. Green­ field, Lines. Hist. and Archaeol., 1, No. 6 (1971), 56-57. A review of Roman Lincolnshire, by J. B. Whitwell in Antiq. J. , 51, 350-351.

1 972 A r ev iew o f Roman L ondon, by Ra lph Merr if ie ld , Archaeo logy, 7 2-73 . ' Roman Warw icksh ire '

Archaeo l . J ., 1 28 ( 1972), 1 96-199 .

A r ev iew o f L a t imer, Be lg ic, Roman, Dark Age a nd e ar ly Modern F arm by Ke i th Bran igan i n R ecords o f Bucks., 1 9 ( 1972). A r ev iew o f The Romans i n Br i ta in : An Antho logy o f I nscr ipt ions, by A . R . Burn, 2 nd ed ., I-9 69 , I n Archaeo logy, J an. 1 972, 7 2. 'Archaeo logy i n Adu lt Educa t ion ', i n Un ivers i ty S tud ies f or Adu lts, e d. A l len P arker a nd S . G . Raybou ld, M ichae l J oseph, 1 76-196. A r ev iew o f Ch ichester E xcava t ions I , by A lec Down a nd Margaret Ru le i n Ant iq . J ., 5 2, 2 19-220 . 1 973 ' A Romano-Br i t ish f ragment o f m i l itary e qu ipment f rom A lches ter ' Oxon iens ia 3 8 , 3 85-386. ' Introduct ion a nd Notes o n t he P o ttery o f t he F irst Century A . D. i n u se by t he Roman Army ' ,C .B. A. R esearch R eport No . 1 0 , 1 -5 . A r ev iew o f F ie ld Archaeo logy i n Br ita in, by J ohn Co les i n The L oca l H istor ian, 1 0 , No . 6 , 3 08-309 . A r ev iew o f Das Röm ischen Donau Kaste l l R isst issen, by Günter U lber t, i n J . R.S., 6 3(1973), 3 14 . V irocon ium:

Wroxeter Roman C i ty, D .O.E. O ff ic ia l Gu idebook, 2 nd e d.

' A S o i l Y ie lds up a C i ty ' ,Da i ly Te legraph Magaz ine, No . 4 67 , Oct. 1 2th 8 5-92. The Roman Conques t o f Br i ta in, w i th Dona ld R . Dud ley, r ev ised e d. i n P an Books. A l e tter t o Ant iqu ity, 4 7, No.186 J une 1 973 , 9 5, o n 'The New Archaeo logy ' . ' Coarse ware ', a nd ' the b ronzes ' i n ' Excava t ions a t " The Lunt": s econd i nter im r epor t ', by B . R . Hob ley, T rans . B irm ingham Archa eo l. S oc. , 8 5(1973) , 5 5-6 3 ; 69 -75. 1 974 A Roman m i l itary h arness mount i n t he H er tford Museum ' ,Ant iq. J . , 5 4, 8 6-87 . Rev iews o f r ecent a rchaeo log ica l pub l ica t ions i n The L oca l H istor ian, 1 1, No . 1 , 4 4-45. A r ev iew a r t ic le ' Recent Romano-Br it ish P ottery S tud ies ' , Archaeo l. J ., 1 33 , 2 90-295. A r ev iew o f Town a nd County: Veru lam ium a nd t he Roman Ch i l terns, by Ke i th Bran igan, i n Archaeo logy, 1 39 . A r ev iew o f Mosa ics i n Roman Br ita in, by Anne Ra iney, i n Archaeo logy, 2 15. 'The West M id lands i n t he Roman P er iod; a b r ief S urvey ', Trans . B irm ingham a nd Warks. Archaeo l. S oc ., 8 6(1974), 4 9-58 . P ract ica l Archaeo logy, A . a nd C . B lack, 2 nd r ev ised e d., 1 974 .

A r ev iew o f The Upper Thames Va l ley: a n a rchaeo log ica l s urvey o f t he r iver g rave ls, by D . Benson a nd D . M i les , 1 974 i n Ant iqu ity, 4 1, No . 1 91, 2 46-247 . The Roman P o ttery f rom Ra t ley, Warks., Archaeo logy, No . 1 6, Ap. 1 974 , pub l ished by B ishops Br ight Arch . C lub. 1 975 ' Sma l l Towns w i thout Defences ', Sma l l Towns o f Roman Br i ta in, e d . Warw ick Rod w e l l a nd T revor Row ley, B . A. R. No . 1 5, 5 3-66. P reface t o A er ia l R econna issance f or Archaeo logy, e d . D . R . W i lson, C .B. A. R esearch R eport No . 1 2, v i i i . A r ev iew o f Excava t ions i n West Kent, 1 960-1970 , by B r ian P h i lp; The Future o f L ondon 's P ast by Mar t in B idd le a nd Daphne Hudson, a nd F ie ld Archaeo logy i n Grea t Br i ta in, 0 .S., a nd Roman Manchester, by G . B . D . J ones e t a l ., i n B r i tann ia , v i(1975), 2 96-299 ; 3 05-306. The Cornov i i , Duckworth, 1 975 , i n t he ' Roman C iv itas s er ies '. 1 976 A r ev iew o f The Armour o f I mper ia l Rome, by H . Russe l l Rob inson, Arms a nd Armour P ress, 1 975, i n Ant iq. J ., 5 6(1976), 2 83-285 . A r ev iew o f An I nventory o f Archaeo log ica l S i tes i n N .E. Northamptons h ire, R .C.H. M . 1 975 i n The T imes L it. S upp; I tems i n The P r ince ton E ncyc loped ia o f C lass ica l S i tes e d. R . S t i l lwe l l, v ar ious s i te d escript ions. 1 977 ' An a pprec ia t ion o f C . E . S tevens ' The Archaeo log ica l L ibrary o f C . E . S tevens ( 1905-1976), c a ta logue pub l ished by Horace G . Comm in L td. ' The Cava lry o f t he R oman I mper ia l Army ' ,Veter inary H ist., No . 8 , 1 7 -20 . R oman Br ita in, Observer Maps, Map P roduct ions L td . ' Today 's Archaeo logy ' i n B irm ingham Sketch, March. ' Ref lect ions o n Romano-Br it ish P o ttery S tud ies, P ast, P resent a nd F uture ' , Roman P ottery S tud ies i n Br i ta in a nd Beyond, e d. J ohn Dore a nd K ev in G reene, B .A . R. S upp lementary S er ies 3 0 , 3 17 -333 . D iscover Roman Br i ta in, Book le t by t he Eng l ish Tour ist Board . ' The A ir Pho tography Comm i ttee o f t he Counc i l f or Br i t ish Archaeo logy ' Aer ia l Archaeo logy, 1 (1977 ), 6 . A r ev iew a rt ic le ' Recent Romano-Br i t ish P ottery S tud ies ' i n Archaeo l . J ., 1 33(1977 ), 2 90-295. 1 978 ' Excava tions a t Roman V irocon ium ', Archaeo logy, 5 0-52 . B oud icca , Ba tsford, 1 978 . A r ev iew o f P o ttery a nd E ar ly Commerce, e d . by D . P . S . P eacock, 1 97, i n Archaeo l . J ., 1 34(1978), 4 55-456. A r ev iew o f E ar ly Ce lt ic Art i n Northern Br i ta in, by Morna Macgregor i n Br i tann ia i x(1978), 4 90-491.

A r ev iew o f T echn iques o f Archaeo log ica l Excava t ion, by P . Barker, i n Ant iq. J ., 5 8(1978), 3 90-391. Two Roman Swords f rom Canterbury ', Ant iq. J ., 5 8(19 '2), 3 61 -36 6 . V irocon ium Wroxeter Roman C ity, D .O.E. Gu ide, c omp lete ly n ew e d . w i th P . Barker. 1 979 The Roman I mper ia l Army, 2 nd e d. ' Queen Boud ica ' sR evo l t ' i n Roman Br i ta in f or A Br i t ish H istory I l lust ra ted, 1 7 -22 . ' Br i t ish Ant iqu i ty--Romano-Br i t ish a nd Re la ted ', Archaeo l. J ., 1 35(1979), 3 27 -332 . A r ev iew o f Corpus S ignorum I mper i i Roman i Vo l . 1F asc. i n Archaeo l . J ., 1 35( 1 979) , 3 74-376. ' Star t ing i n Archaeo logy ' ,P opu lar Archaeo logy, 1 , No. 1 (1979), 1 8-19 . A d ecorated s herd a t Cambr idge ' ,Durobr ivae , 7 (1979),

6 -7 .

The Amateur i n e xcava t ions ', P opu lar Archaeo logy, 1 , No . 4 (1979 ), 3 9-40 . ' La ConquA te e t Pachävement d e l a p ac if ica t ion ', I , ' d oss iers d e 1 1A rchdo log ie ,No . 3 7 (1979) , 2 5-29 . S hort Rev iew o f D . E . J ohnson, An I l lustra ted H istory o f Roman R oads i n Br ita in, S pur , i n Br i t ish Book News, Nov . 1 979, 9 34 . 'T i les a s as tructura l c omponent i n Bu i ld ings ', i n Roman Br ick a nd T i le, e d . A . M cWh irr , B . A. R. I nternat iona l S er ies, No . 6 8 , 2 85-293 . ' Sett ing up as urvey g roup ', P opu lar Archaeo logy, 1 , No . 5 , 2 2-23 . A b r ief r ev iew o f The P re-F lav ian F ine Wares, by K ev in Greene, i n B r i t ish Book News, March 1 980 , 1 71 . 1 980 B r ief Rev iew o f The Com ing o f Rome, by J . Wacher, i n Book N ews . ' A Note o n n ew d iscover ies a t V irocon ium ( Wroxeter) wh ich may h ave a b ear ing o n Hadr ian 's F ront ier P o l icy i n B r i ta in ' i n Roman F ront ier S tud ies 1 979 , e d ., W . S . Hanson a nd L . J . F . Kepp ie, B .A .R . I nterna tiona l S er ies, No. 7 1 , 2 91-296. ' Barns ley P ark ' , Current Archaeo logy, No . 7 2, 1 1-14 . ' The Br it ish under Roman Ru le —A S tudy i n Co lon ia l ism ', H istory T oday, 3 0 Oct., 1 8-24 . Br ief r ev iew o f A Compan ion t o Roman Br i ta in, e d. P . C layton, B ook News, Oct., 63 6-7 . ' A Roman i ron s word f rom Ch ichester ' i n E xh ib i ts a t Ba l lots, Ant iq. J ., 5 9 , 4 03 . 1 981 The Roman I nvas ion o f Br ita in, Ba tsford. P o ttery a nd Sma l l F inds Report i n ' Excava t ion a t V irocon ium i n I nsu la 9 o f 1 952-3 ' , by K . M . K enyon, S hrops. Archaeo l. Trans., 6 0 , 2 8-36, 4 2-47 . ' Wroxeter ' i n P opu lar Archaeo logy, 2 , No . 1 0 , 1 0-12 .

1 .

ROMAN POTTERY AND THE ECONO MY J ohn G i lla m a nd K ev in G reene

We ofer t h is t wo-horse p aper , wh ich c la i ms t o d iscover e v idence o f e n terpr ise i n R oman p o t tery d is tr ibu t ion , t o G raha m Webs ter i n a pprec ia t ion n ot o n ly o fh is s cho larsh ip a nd u n fa i l ing k indness , b u t a lso o ft he f ac t t ha t many o rgan isa t ions a nd modes o f o pera t ion , n ow t aken f or g ran ted , h ad t he ir o r ig ins i nh is e n terpr ise . P ar t i K ev in G reene

A F estschr if t a l lows i deas a nd v iews t o b e e xpressed i n a n u nusua l ly o pen manner , a s o ne 's p aper i s d irected v ery c onsc ious ly t owards o ne p art i cu lar r eader—the d ed ica tee. It herefore make n o a po logy f or t ak ing t h is o ppor tun i ty t o ' t h ink a loud o n p aper '. My i n ten t ion i s t o e xp lore t he p rob le m o f whe ther o ne c an i n f ac t u se p ot tery a s a n e cono m ic i nd ica tor i n t he way wh ich i s c urren t ly d one . I t may s ee m r a ther i n trover ted t o d eba te w i th o nes e lf whether i ti s i ndeed p oss ib le t o d o wha t o ne i s a lready d o ing , b u t i ti s p erhaps more s a t isfy ing t o b el ieve t ha t o ne i s r igh t f or g ood r easons t han b y a cc iden t . Happ i ly , t h is g eneral s urvey r eaches t he s a me c onclus ions a s t hose wh ich , i n t he s econd p ar t , J ohn G i l la m d raws f ro m t he d e ta i led s i te e v idence f or t he s upp ly o f o ne k ind o fp o t tery t o n or thern B r i ta in .

' I n t he b eg inn ing t here was Kar l P o lany i .

T oge ther w i th t wo c o l-

l eagues h e e d i ted a b ook , Trade a nd Marke t i n t he Ear ly Emp ires .... T he b ook s parked o f f at ru ly s em ina l c on troversy . N o t among s cho lars o f a n t iqu i ty .

T hey l arge ly i gnored i t . '

T h is i s h ow T . F . C arney b eg ins h is r ev iew o f p oss ib le e con m ic f or ms i n a n t iqu i ty ( 1 975 , 1 38) . H owever , M . I . F in ley 's The A nc ien t Econo my ( 1 973) f ound i n P o lany i au sefu l i ndependen t c on f irmat ion o f t he v iews o f s o me a nc ien t h is tor ians , t o wh ich t he a u thor h i mse l f s ubscr ibed , wh ich s tressed ' t he i napp l icab i l i ty t o t he a nc ien tw or ld o f a marke t-cen tred a na lysis ' ( 2E ,c i t . 2 6 ) ..There were t hree p laces f or wea l th , i n l and , o u t o n s hor tter m i n teres t b ear ing l oans , o r i n as trongbox '. T hus d id F in ley e ncapsu la te h is v iew o f t he Ro man u pper-c lass a t t i tude t o money ( i b id ., 1 16 ) ; C arney wen t f ur ther , a nd b rough t t he who le s ubs tan t iv ist

1

f ra mework o f i n terpreta t ion t o b ear o n t he Ro man e cono my , a nd c onc luded t ha t : ' t he e cono m ic man f am i l iar t o moderns wou ld h ave b een a s tranger i n as trange l and i n An t iqu i ty ' ( 1 975 , 2 24 ) . V ery r ecent ly Hodder h as g one s o f ar a s t o s ta te t ha t : ' a f ra mework , d er ived f ro m t he s ubs tan t iv ist s choo l o f e cono m ic a n thropolog ists , h as b een p rov ided f or t he d iscussion o f t he e cono m ic e f fec ts o f t he Ro man i nvas ion . The s uggest ion i s t ha t mos t o f t he e cono my r e ma ined p ar t o f s oc ia l r e la t ions i n Eng land u n ti l t he l a ter R o man p er iod .' ( 1 979 , 1 95) . T hese v iews r epresen t as w ing away f ro m a n a dm i t ted ly n a ive r epresen ta t ion o f Ro man e cono m ics f ramed i n t he t er m ino logy o f f ree t rade , b a lanced i mpor ts a nd e xpor ts , a nd t echn ica l a nd e n trepreneur ia l p rogress . B u t p endu lums d isp lay a r ecurren t t endency t o s w ing b ack f ro m e x tre mes , a nd t h is o ne s ee ms t o h ave b egun i t s r eturn j ourney— just a s many R o man a rchaeo log ists were b eg inn ing t o t ake s er ious a ccoun t o f t he v iews o n F in ley a nd t he s ubstant ivists ' ( a l though o f c ourse t he l a t ter h ave h ad a p rofound efec t o n t he t h ink ing o f p reh istor ians f or a d ecade o r more) .

Ar ela t ively d etached o bserver

h as v o iced s o me c ogen t a rgu men ts a ga ins t a n e xcessively ' F in leyesque ' v iew . I n ap aper wh ich s ee ms a t f i rst s igh t t o b e p ure ly c oncerned w i th I t a l ian med ieva l p ot tery , Hugo B lake h as s u mmarized s o me o ft he p ro m inent t he mes i nvo lved i n t he c oncep tua l iza t ion o f t he Ro man e cono my ( 1 978, 4 36-440 ) , a nd a s ar esu l t o f c o mparisons b etween t he f i ner c era m ics o f Ro man , med ieva l , a nd p ost- medieva l I t a ly , c onc luded t ha t : ' The c era m ic s truc ture ( i n t er ms o f q ua l i t ies a nd d is tr ibu t ion ) i s u nparal le led u nt i l t he e igh teen th c entury when t he s oc ia l s truc ture o f wea l th a nd a sp ira t ions was r e markab ly s im i lar t o t ha t p or trayed i n t he Ro man Emp ire ( a o .c i t . 4 40 ) . A nc ien t h istorians n eed t o l ook a ga in a t t he ir s can ty s ources t o s ee h ow t heir v iew o f s ociety a nd i t s a t t i tudes c an b e mod if ied t o a ccom moda te t he d yna m ic e cono m ic s truc ture imp lied b y t he s tudy o f p ot tery ' ( 4 39) . B efore p roceed ing w i th a ny d iscuss ion o f p o t tery , l e t u s c ons ider s o me a ss umpt ions u nder ly ing t he r ecen t t rends i n t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he Roman e cono my . T he most i mpressive ly d ocu men ted b ook d ed icated t o t h is s ub ject i s s ure ly D uncan-Jones ' T he E conomy o f t he R oman Emp ire ( 1974 ) ( r ather p rovocat ive ly s ub t i t led Q uan t i tat ive S tud ies ; F in ley h as d oub ts a bout 'c urren t n u mber f e t ish is m '

( 1 973 , 2 5 ) .

Moss e( 1969 ) , F in ley ( 1 973 ) a nd C arney ( 1 975 )

a l l r anger f ar w ider , i n to A nc ien t G reece a nd b eyond , b u t D uncan-Jones ' s pec if ic a nd d e tai led s tudy r eaches much t he s ame d epress ing c onclus ions a bou t t he n a ture a nd v i ta l i ty o f t he R o man e conomy , .. wh ich wou ld t oday q ua l i fy t he Ro man Emp ire f or r ecogn i t ion a s a' develop ing ' c oun try .

A l mos t e verywhere a l arge p ar t o f t he

p opu lat ion was e ngaged i n a gr icu l ture a t ar ela t ive ly l ow l eve l , 2

wh i le i ndus try d epended o n ab ackward t echno logy a nd was r are ly o rgan ised i n l arge u n i ts '

,1 ) .

T he u se o f t he t erm ' develop ing ' c oun try i s at e l l ing c o mmen t o n h is c onc lus ions , wh ich s t i l l s ee m t o embody a ' Pro tes tan t work e th ic ' v iew t ha t t he R o man e cono my s hou ld h ave p rogressed , a nd t ha t t he i nh ib i t ing f ea tures wh ich h e s ing led o u t w ere f au l ts . T h is a t t i tude i sp erhaps t o b e s een i n t he c on tex t o f t he p os t-war e cono m ic g row th p er iod o f t he 1 950s a nd 1 960s ; i n t he 1 980s , o p in ions a re more v ar ied . G row th i s u ncer ta in ; i nvest men t i n t echno logy i ncreases u ne mp loymen t ; a gr icu l tura l p roduc t iv i ty i s af ac tor o fp o l i t ica l manage men t r a ther t han d e mand ; l arge-sca le h eav i ly c en tra l ized i ndustr ies ( a nd s ta te b ureaucrac ies ) a re i n d i f f icu lt ies , a nd f avour ing d ecen tra l izat ion ; a nd , a t o ne e x tre me o f p ub l ic o p in ion , ' l im i ts t o g row th ', ' s ma l l i s b eau t i fu l ', a nd ' a l terna t ive ( u sua l ly mean ing s i mp ler ) t echno logy ' a re c oncep ts h e ld i n h igh e stee m . A t t i tudes t o d eve lop ing c oun tr ies ( n ow s o mewha t l ess c ondes cend ing ly d escr ibed a s T h ird Wor ld ) h ave a lso c hanged . L abour i n tensive i ndus tr ies a nd p r i mar i ly s e l f-su f f ic ien t p easan t a gr icu l ture a re more e f fect ive ways o f d ea l ing w i th u rban u ne mp loymen t a nd r ura l f am ine t han a h ightechno logy ' Grea t L eap F orward ' w i th u npred ic tab le s oc ia l e fec ts . I fi ti s a ccep ted t ha t t he n a ture o f R om an a gr icu l ture a nd i ndus try ( a nd Iw ou ld n o t d ispu te D uncan-Jones ' p ercep t ion o f i t ) was n o t n ecessar i ly a s ign o f f a i lure , ab asic c on trad ic t ion i s r e moved ; o ne may e nv isage ad ynam ic e cono m ic s truc ture w i thou t r e jec t ing t he s ources u pon wh ich a nc ien t h is tor ians h ave r e l ied . Ap ro found p rob le m s t i l l r e ma ins , h owever— the e x ten t t o wh ich t he R oman Emp ire p ossessed a marke t e cono my . I tu nder l ies a ny a t te mp t t o s tudy t he p roduct ion a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f Ro man p ot tery . E ven t he 'a n t imarke t ' e cono m is ts h ave n ever d en ied t ha t t he marke t o ccup ied s o me p lace i n t he a nc ien t w or ld , b u tt hey h ave l im i ted i t s s ign if icance—wh i lst r igh t ly emphas izing t he s ub t le v ar ia t ions b etween i mper fec t a nd f ree marke ts . C arney 's v iew i s t ha t : ' a s e l f-regu la t ing marke t i s ar are p heno menon i n a n t iqu i ty a s i t i nvo lves a n e x tens ive ly mone t ized e cono my , f ea tur ing a l abour marke t , a market f or p roper ty a nd a no ther f or c ap i ta l ...i tw i l l s u f f ice t o n o te t ha t a dvanced f or ms o f marke t ing a re f ound i n a nt iqu i ty a ssoc ia ted w i th c i ty-s ta tes w ith a ccess t o s ea l anes '( 1 975 , 1 41) . A l though o ne mus t p o in t o u t C arney 's v a lue-r idden u se o f t he a d jec t ive ' advanced ', h is a t t i tude i s more g enerous t han t he c lass ic s ubstan t ivist v iew s um mar ized b y N ea le i n P o lany i 's c o l lec t ion o f s tud ies wh ich e f fec t ive ly o pened u p t he d eba te i n 1 957 : s oc ia l s c ien t is ts a re a t l eas t t en ta t ive ly c o mm i t ted t o t he v iew t ha t S e l f R egu la t ing Marke ts a re t he e xcep t ion r a ther t han t he r u le — e ven t o t he v iew t ha t t hey a re u n ique t o t he n ine teen th a nd t wen t ie th c en tur ies . F ur ther , t hey r egard p r ice- mak ing a s t he e xcep t iona l o ccurrence i nh istory , a nd i nc l ine t o t he v iew t ha t f or mos t o f i t s s pan man h as l i ved w i th f i xed p r ice markets , n on-pr ice mak ing Marke t P laces , a nd p erhaps mos t ly w i th e cono m ic s ys te ms b es t 3

t rea ted i n t erms o f r ec iproca l o r r ed is tr ibu t ive i ns t i tu t ions whose e ssen t ia l c harac ter mus t b e e s tab l ished i ndependen t ly o f o r thodox e cono m ic t heory a nd w i th t he h e lp o f o ther d isc ip l ines more f ami l iar w i th n on- marke t i ns t i tu t ions '. C an we g o s t i l l f ur ther t owards a n o pen marke t s i tua t ion?

N o t o n ly

c i ty-s ta tes w i th a ccess t o s ea l anes h ave e labora te f orum b u i ld ings ; a re t hese r ea l ly o n ly c ivic d isp lay , i nd iv idua l d e mons tra t ions o f ' consp icuous c onsu mpt i on ', o r t he d es ire t o c onven ien t ly c en tra l ize s upp l ies f or t he e l ite , a nd t o e xp lo i t s ocia l ly i n fer ior a nd d esp ised t rades men b yt ax ing t hem? O r d o t hey r epresen t wha t t hey wou ld a ppear t o a t f ace-va lue— the c en tra l i mpor tance o f t he marke t p rocess i nt he R o man e cono my? D ioc le t ian 's E d ict o n Max i mu m P r ices i s s ure ly a n a t te mp t t o c onstra in a r e la t ive ly f ree market ; i tl ays d own r egu la t ions o n b u l l ion p r ices ( t he b as is o f e xchange r a tes i n t he mone t ized e cono my ) a nd wages f or workers o fw ide ly r ang ing s oc ia l l eve ls , t hereby i m med ia te ly f u l f il l ing C arney 's f i rs t a nd s econd d e f in i t ions o f as e l f-regu la t ing e cono my . T he s eque l r ecorded b y L ac tan t ias ( On t he D ea ths o f t he P ersecu tors , v i i ) s ure ly c on f ir ms t ha t af i xed-pr ice marke t n o t o n ly was n o t o pera t ing , b u t was i mposs ib le : ..when b yv ar ious i n iqu i t ies ( Dioc le t ian ) b rough t a bou t e nor mous ly h igh p r ices , h e a t te mp ted t o l eg is la te t he p r ices o fc o mmod i t ies . T hen much b lood was s p i l led ...no th ing a ppeared o n t he marke t b ecause o f f ear , a nd p r ices s oared much h igher .' Af ur ther i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t t he marke t s ys te m h ad w ea thered t he t roub les o ft he t h ird c en tury . I fa n o pen marke t c ou ld o pera te i n t he f our th c en tury , t hen s ure ly i n t he f i rs t t wo c en tur ies A .D . t he p o ten t ia l mus t h ave b een f ar g rea ter , f or ah uge v ar ie ty o f g oods t rave l led f or much g rea ter d is tances t han i n t he l a ter Emp ire .

T he a nnona -t he s ys te m o f t axa t ion a nd s upp ly i n k ind

wh ich was g rea t ly i ncreased a t t he s ame t ime - i sl i kew ise ap oss ib le r ef lect i on o f a marke t e cono my ; t he a nnona h ad a lways b een a me thod b y wh ich t he S ta te s tepped o u ts ide o f af ree marke t p r ice s ys te m t o e nsure i t s s upp l ies ( Van B erche m , 1 937 ) . T he c onstra ined f i nances o ft he L a ter Emp ire ( supp or t ing a n a rmy o fd efence r a ther t han c onquest ) p resu mab ly made i t more i mpor tan t t o r egu lar ise t he p r ice o f s uch s upp l ies—and i f aD ioclet ian h ad a r isen e ar l ier i n t he t h ird c en tury i t wou ld s ee m l ike ly t ha t as im i lar a t te mp t t o o u tw i t t he i n f la t ionary s p ira l wou ld h ave b een made , r a ther t han t he we l ltr ied ' pos t-da ted c heque ' o f c urrency d ebase men t . C o mmu ta t ion o f t he a nnona d emands i n to c ash l a ter i n t he f our th c en tury p resumab ly r ef lec ts t he d ecreas ing n ecess i ty t o o rgan ise s uch a n e labora te a nswer t o i nf la t ion , p resu mab ly b ecause t he marke t was l ess u nre l iab le . F o l low ing t he r a ther c ur ious a rgu men t t ha tw ha t c ou ld s t i l l e x ist i nt he f our th c en tury must h ave b een much more p rosperous i n t he f i rs t t wo c en tur ies , s o me c o mmen t mus t b e made o n t he c ol la t io l us tra l is o r c hrysargyron . T he a t t i tude o f A . H . M . J ones i s t ha t t h is t ax p roves t he u n i mpor tance o f t rade ; h e q uo tes t he c o mpara t ive r evenues o f Edessa a nd H erac leopo l is i n t he f i f ths ix th c en tur ies A .D . t o s how t ha t t he c ol la t io l us tra l is y ie lded l i t t le c o mpared w i th l and a nd g ra in t axes , a nd was r epea led u nder A nas tas ius ( 1 974 , 3 6 ) .

4

B u t h ow c an we j udge t he t ax r evenue f ro m , a nd t he f i nanc ia l ( a nd c onsequen t ly , p er m i t ted s oc ia l ) s ta tus o ft raders i n , a n e cono my whose a ccoun tancy d id n o t e x tend t o t rue measure men t o f p rof i ts a ga ins t c osts ( Carney , 1 975 , 1 47 )? A nd d oes n o t t he i n troduct ion o f s uch at ax i nd ica te t ha t t he S ta te p erce ived t ha t a n impor tan t s ource o f i nco me e x is ted , t ha t was n o t b e ing f u l ly e xp lo i ted b y t he a nnona a nd p or tor ia wh ich a lready e x is ted? Marke t t rade may h ave b een more l oca l , a nd a t al ower s oc ia l l eve l t han u nder t he e ar ly Emp ire ( t he d ec l ine o f t he t erm n ego t ia tor c har ted b y R ouge ( 1 966 , 2 72f f .) r ef lec ts t h is c hange ) , b u t i to bv ious ly d id e x ist o n al arge s ca le . S tud ies o f l a te Ro man p ot tery i n B r i ta in h ave f a i led t o f i nd a ny i nd ica t ion o f a' non- marke t ' s i tua t ion ; Y oung ( 1 977 ) f ound n o r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he a r my a nd Ox ford ware , a nd o ther s tud ies h ave e i ther a ssumed a t own-cen tred marke t s ys te m ( Hodder , 1 974 , 3 50-2) o r h ave p roduced r esu l ts c ons is ten t w i th a p r ice- r egu la t ing marke t s yste m ( Hodder a nd O r ton , 1 976 , 1 15-119 ) . C lose ly r e la ted t o t he p rob le m o ft he e x is tence a nd importance o f ' f ree ' marke ts i n t he R o man e cono my i s t he p lace o f a gr icu l ture i n t he e cono m ic f ramework . A n ' an t i- marke t ' s tance h as g rea t d i f f icu l t ies h ere . A t t he r isk o f c ar ica tur ing C arney 's v iews , h e p roposes t ha t t he l arge e sta te o f aRo man a r is tocra t p ossessed a n e cono my wh ich was a m ix ture o f r ec iproca l a nd r ed is tr ibu t ive e xchange s yste m ( 1 975 , 1 41 , 1 75) - ah ouseho ld e cono my o n a mass ive s ca le , a l mos t s ea led o f f f rom t he o u ts ide w or ld b y i t s s e lf-su f f ic iency i n c raf ts a nd p roduce . A t t he t op , t he a r is tocra t i ndu lged i n c onsp icuous c onsu mp t ion—a v er i tab le ' po t lach ' o f a rch i tec ture , a r t , a nd c u is ine— in o rder t o d e mons tra te a nd ma in ta in h is s ta tue . Wea l th d id n o t c o me f ro m h is a gr icu l tura l o r c o m mer ical s k i l l : 'Wea l th was j us t a s a var ic ious ly s ough t a s i n a ny c ap i ta l is t s oc ie ty , b u t o n a" seize o r s queeze" p r inc ip le , n o t b y g enera t ing i tt hrough i ncreased p roduc t ion . C ap i ta l was f ormed i n a n t iqu i ty b y t ak ing i t f ro m s o meone e lse , e i ther a s b oo ty i n war o r a s t axes s queezed o u t o f at o i l ing p easan t p opu la t ion .

Wea l th— in t he f or m o f o ne o r

more l arge e s ta tes —fo l lowed p o l i t ica l , m i l i tary , o r e ven r e l ig ious p ower .... ( 2 2. .c i t . ,9 7 ) F ro m t h is f o l lows aw ide ly-he ld v iew t ha t t he c oun trys ide was l arge ly n on- mone t ized ( e .g . C raw ford , 1 970 , 4 3-5) , e i ther b ecause o ft hese l a t i fund ia o r b ecause p easan ts were a im ing o n ly a t s el l-su f f ic iency . T herefore , a massmarke t was imposs ib le , a nd l arge-sca le i ndustr ia l o u tpu t o ft he q uest ion . F in ley q ua l if ies t he s ta te men t o f C a to 's v iew t ha t ' a p a ter fa m i l ias s hou ld b e a s e l ler , n o t ab uyer ', b u t o n ly t o al im ited e x ten t ( 1 973 , 1 09f f .) . H owever , n o e conomy—whether monet ized o r n o t—can r un o n t h is p r inc ip le ; b uyers a nd s el lers mus t u l t ima te ly e x is t i n s o me k ind o f b a lance . Hav ing d iscussed t he i mpor tance o f t ax i n ad iferen t c on tex t a bove , i ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t he v iews o f Dav isson a nd Harper ( A mer icans we l l v ersed i n t he v iews o f F in ley a nd P o lany i ) : '..to a g rea t d egree t he p easan try ( i n t he o lder c ivi l iza t ions o f t he N ear Eas t ) c ou ld n o t h ope t o b uy t he p roduc ts o f t he t own a nd c ons equen t ly t he e x is tence o f t he t own marke t d id n ot i nduce t he m t o 5

o rgan ize a gr icu l ture t o p roduce a marke tab le s urp lus . B u t t h is a ppears t o b e l ess t rue o f t he Ro man Emp ire t han o f a ny e ar l ier s ta te wthe f ood marke t was c er tain ly v ery i mpor tan t , a nd t he p easan try was f orced i n to t he market s ys te m b y r en ts a nd t axes ... T he impos i t ions o f t he g overn men t a nd t he l and lord f orced t he p easan ts t o p lan t he ir p lan t ing t o s e l l ar egu lar s urp lus e very y ear f or t he u rban marke t ... T here c an , t hen , b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t ag rea t p ar t o f t he a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion o f t he Emp ire was p lanned f or t he marke t ' ( 1 972 , 2 13) . Dav isson a nd Harper h o ld v iews wh ich a re c loser t o C arney 's where t he l a te R o man v i l la e cono my i s c oncerned , b u t w i th a n i n teres t ing emphas is o n ac hange i n t he marke t p at tern ; t hey s ee t he ' se l f-su f f ic ien t ' l a t i fund ia a s b e ing h eav i ly i nvo lved i nt he l uxury market , b u t n o t 'm idd le-c lass g oods ' s uch a s t erra s ig i l la ta . T hey make t he p o in t t ha t l uxury o b jec ts d o n o t s ee m t o h ave d ec l ined i n q ua l i ty i n t he manner o f c heap p roduc ts . O ne i st e mp ted t o p onder t he modes t ' qua l i ty g ap ' b e tween a rre t ine o r e ar ly s ou th G au l ish s am ian ( w i th i t s a ssoc ia ted c o lour-coa ted a nd g lazed wares ) a nd c on te mporary s i lver , b ronze , a nd g lassware , a nd t o c on tras t i tw i th t he g u l f wh ich s epara tes t he b es t Ox ford o r N ew F ores t ( o r , f or t ha t ma t ter , A fr ican r ed-s l ipped ) t ab leware f ro m L a te R o man s i lver p la te . T he imp l ica t ion i st ha t l ower-c lass u rban p urchasers a nd p easan ts w ere s t i l l a b le t o a f ford p o t tery , a nd t hat t he q ua l i ty o f l a ter Ro man p ot tery r ef lects t h is marke t l eve l ; a nd s ure ly t he d istr ibu t ion was l arge ly b ased o n a mone t ized marke t s ys te m . Ih ave a lready d rawn a t ten t ion t o H odder ' sc onc lus ions o n t h is mat ter a nd wou ld a dd t hat h e c ommen ts o n t he s oc ia l r ange r epresen ted b y f i nds : s i tes w i th h igh p ercen tages o f f i ne p o t tery a re n o t a l l o ne c lass o f i mpor tan t s i te , s uch a s v i l las , b u t i nc lude smal l r ura l s et t lemen ts .... ' ( 1 974 , 3 50 , mod if ied s l igh t ly i n Hodder a nd O r ton , 1 976 , 2 6-7 ) .

Ih ope t ha t Ih ave made a r easonab ly g ood c ase f or t he e x is tence o f a n e x tens ive mone t ized p r ice-f ix ing marke t i n l a te R o man t imes—w i thou t d eny ing t he n on- marke t a spec ts o f r ec iproc i ty a nd r ed is tr ibu t ion i mp l ied b y t he v i l la s ys te m a nd t he a nnona m i l i tar is . T he i mp l ica t ion i s t ha t t he e ar ly Emp ire mus t h ave p ossessed a more t horough ly marke t-or ien ted e cono my . T h is i s t he p er iod f or wh ich t he g rea t g ens d e c o mmerce a re b es t r ecorded , a nd w hen a rre t ine a nd s am ian r eached e normous g eograph ica l e xpanses c ons is ten t ly a nd e ven ly ( p ace F in ley , 1 973 , 3 3 -a nd A rrezzo c an o f c ourse n o l onger b e c lear ly d iv ided f ro m p roduc t ion i n G au l ) . F ar f ro m b e ing t he e xcep t ion t ha t p roves t he r u le , Iwou ld s ugges t t ha t s am ian p rov ides o ne o f t he f ew c o mmod it i es wh ich h as b een s u f f ic ien t ly we l l-stud ied t o i l lus tra te t he r u le t ha t t he a nc ien t s ources a nd t he ir r ecen t i n terpre ters s er ious ly u nders t i ma te t he e x ten t o f Ro man c om merce . Had a rmy c on trac ts a nd t he s e l fin terest o f t he S ta te b een more s ign i f ican t , t he f l uctua t ions i n s am ian s upp ly a nd t he a d h oc n a ture o f m i l i tary p o t tery manu fac ture wou ld s ure ly h ave b een l ess marked , a nd t he many s igns o f c o mpe t i t ion , i m i ta t ion , c ost-cu t t ing , a nd q ua l i ty c on tro l amongs t 6

s am ian p ot ters u nl ike ly i n a market s yste m wh ich was n ot d e term ined b y p r ices .

I ti s n ow we l l e stab lished t ha t t here were p ronounced f luctua t ions o f

s am ian s upp l ies ;

f ur ther more , when s am ian imports i n to B r i ta in were h igh ,

s o were impor ts o f o ther k inds o fp ot tery . Whe ther t h is i n for ma t ion c an b e u sed t o e x trapo la te t he v i ta l i ty o f s h ipp ing a nd p o t tery p roduct ion i n to o ther s ec tors o f t he e cono my i s a ma t ter f or s er ious c onsidera t ion . I n c onc lusion , i tr e ma ins t o s ay t ha t Id o n ot r e jec t t he i n troduc t ion o f s ubstan t iv is t t h ink ing i n to t he s tudy o f t he Ro man e cono my ; C arney ( 1 975) a nd F in ley ( 1 973) a re t he b est t h ing t o h ave h appened t o Ro man e cono m ic h is tory f or s evera l d ecades .

T heir p o in ts a re s trong ly made ;

my p urpose i s

t o a dd a l i t t le weigh t t o t he ' f ree- marke t ' s ide o f t he c oncep tua l f ramework i n o rder t o h elp u nderstand t he c o mp lex i ty o f Ro man p ot tery b y a vo id ing a t o ta l r e ject ion o f 'modern ' c oncep ts o f e cono m ic a ct iv i ty , b u t Iwou ld n o t d e mur f ro m t he c onc lud ing words o f Dav isson a nd Harper ( 1 972, 2 40) : ' The a ncien t m ind ,a mb i t ion , a nd s ocia l a sp ira t ions were d i f feren t ly d irec ted t han t he modern .

Ap urely e cono m ic e xp lana t ion o f a ncien t

e cono m ic l i fe c an o n ly b e ap ar t isan d is tor t ion .'

B IBL IOGRAPHY B erche m 1 937 .

B erche m , D . v an ,

L 'a nnone mi l i ta ire da ns Pemp ire r o ma in

a u 1 11e s iecle t, Me m . S oc . Na t . An t iq . F rance , 8 th s er ., 1 0 ( 1 937 ), 1 17-202. B lake 1 978. B lake , H . Mck ., 'Med ieva l p ot tery : t echn ica l i nnova t ion o r e cono m ic c hange? ', i n B lake , e t a l ., 1 978 , 4 35-473. B lake e t a l . 1 978 . B lake , H .M . ,P ot ter , T . W., & Wh i tehouse , D . B . ( eds .) , P apers i n I t a l ian A rchaeo logy I : t he L ancaster S em inar , 2v o ls ., B r it . . A rchaeo l . R ep ., S upp l . S er ., 4 1 , O x ford , 1 978 . B urnha m & J ohnson 1 979. R esponse :

Burnha m , B . C ., & J ohnson , H . B ., I nvasion a nd

T he c ase o f R o man B r i ta in , Br it . Archaeo l . R ep ., 7 3 ,

Oxford , 1 979 . Carney 1 975. C arney , T . F ., The S hape o f t he Past : L awrence ( Kansas) , 1 975.

Mode ls a nd An t iqu i ty ,

C raw ford 1 970. C raw ford , M. H ., 'Money a nd e xchange i n t he Ro man wor ld ', J . Ro m . S tud., 6 0 ( 1 970 ) , 4 0-8. Davisson & Harper 1 972.

Dav isson , W. I . , a n .d Harper , J . E ., European

Econo m ic H istory , I , The Anc ien t Wor ld , 1 972. Dore & G reene 1 977.

D ore , J ., & G reene , K ., e ds ., Ro man P o t tery S tud ies

i n Br ita in a nd B eyond , B r i t . Archaeo l , R ep ., S upp l . S er ., 3 0 , O xford , 1 977 . Duncan-Jones 1 974.

D uncan-Jones , R ., T he Econo my o f t he Ro man Emp ire :

Quant i ta t ive S tud ies , Ca mbr idge , 1 974. F in ley 1 973. Hodder 1 974.

F in ley , M . I . , The Anc ien t Econo my , 1 973. Hodder , I . , ' So me market ing mode ls f or Ro mano-Br i t ish c oarse

p o t tery ', B r i tann ia , 5( 1974 ) , 3 40-359 . 7

Hodder 1 979.

Hodder , I . , ' Pre-Ro man a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish t r iba l e cono m ies ',

i n Burnha m a nd J ohnson , 1 979 , 1 89-196. Hodder & Or ton 1 976 ,

Hodder , I . , & Or ton , C ., S pa t ia l A na lys is i n Archaeo logy,

Ca mbr idge , 1 876. J ones 1 974. J ones , A . H . N ., The Ro man Econo my : S tud ies i n Anc ien t E cono m ic a nd Ad m in is tra t ive H is tory , Ox ford , 1 974 . Moss e1 969 . P o lany i 1 957.

Moss ,

C ., The Anc ien t Wor ld a t Work , 1 969.

P o lany i , K ., Arensberg , C . M ., & P earson , H . W., e ds .,

Trade a nd Market i n t he Ear ly Emp ires , G lencoe ( I ll .) , 1 957. R ouge 1 966 .

Rouge , J ., Recherches s ur l ' Organ isat ion d u C o m merce Mar-

i t i me e n Med iterran e s ous 1 ' Emp ire Ro ma in , P ar is , 1 966. Young 1 977. Young , C . J ., ' Ox ford ware a nd t he Ro man a r my ', i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977 , 2 89-294 .

8

P ar t i J ohn G i l la m

T he c os t o f t ranspor t was a ma jor f ac tor d e term in ing t he me thod a nd t he s uccess o f t he d is tr ibu t ion a nd s a le o f Ro man p o t tery ) I t was n o t mere ly aq ues t ion o f l i near d is tance . I nt he m id-F lav ian p er iod s am ian f rom t he s ou th o f Gau l r eached c en tra l S co t land , n ear ly a t housand m i les a way , w h i le, among t he h u mb ler v esse ls , mor tar ia f rom K en t o r G a l l ia B e lg ica , f ro m n or th o f L ondon a nd a lso p robab ly f ro m L inco ln , r eached t he r eg ion f ro m s evera l h undred mi les a way . T he p urchasers were s o ld iers , a ccusto med t o u se b o th s am ian a nd mor tar ia , a nd we l l a b le t o p ay f or t he m . T he s am ian f aced n o c o mpet i t ion , f or t here was l i t t le o r n o s am ian a va i lab le n earer t han s ou th G au l . T he mor tar iu m f ac tor ies i n s ou thern a nd e as tern E ng land c o mpe ted w i th e ach o ther , b u t n one a ch ieved amonopoly , a nd t hey s ee m t o h ave s hared t he marke t i n ar eg ion where t here was n o l oca l c o mpe t i t ion . By t he t ime o f t he A n ton ine r e-occupa t ion o f c en tra l S co t land , t he p ic ture h ad c hanged . N ew p o t ter ies h ad o pened i nt he m id lands , i n n or thern a nd western Eng land , a nd e ven i n S co t land i t sel f , wh i le t he e ar l ier p o t ter ies h ad r e la t ive ly d ec lined , s o f ar a s s upp ly t o d is tan t marke ts was c oncerned ( Har t ley 1 973 , 1 976 a nd 1 977) . T here were t hen a t l eas t t wo f ac tors wh ich i n f luenced s a les , a par t f ro m t he c ost o f d is tr ibu t ion ; t hese were t he c harac ter o f t he marke t , a nd t he d egree a nd q ua l i ty o f t he c o mpe t i t ion . T o o b ta in a n e s t i ma te o f t he e f fect o f t he c os t o f t ranspor t o n d is tr ibu t ion , a nd o n t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies o f d i f feren t wares r each ing s i tes , t he most c onven ien t ma ter ia l t o s tudy i s b lack-burn ished ware i n t he f ron t ier r eg ion . Much h as b een wr i t ten a bou t BB ware i n r ecen t y ears ( Farrar 1 973 , P eacock 1 973? 1 973 , G i l la m 1 976 , F arrar 1 977 , Wi l l iams 1 977 ) .

F e l low s tuden ts may we l l

b e al i t t le t i red o ft he s ub jec t ; o n t he o ther h and , a s f or much o ft he R o man p er iod , o n many s i tes i n S co t land a nd t he n or th o f Eng land , BB wares were more p len t i fu l t han a l l o ther wares p u t t oge ther , t he ma ter ial i s a va i lab le f or s tudy i n s ign i f ican t q uan t i t ies . I ti s g enera l ly r ea l ised t ha t , u n t i l t he d evelop men t o f t he r a i lways , a nd e ven t o ac ons iderab le e x ten t t hereaf ter , i t was much c heaper t o c arry h eavy o r b u lky n on-per ishab le g oods b y s ea o r n av igab le r iver , t han b y r oad . C ana ls , wh ich h ave g rea t a dvan tages o ver r oads , d o n o t c o me i n to t he p ic ture a s t here were n o R o man c ana ls i n t he r eg ion . I n n or th-eas tern E ng land i n t he e igh teen th c en tury , when t here w ere r oads b u t f ew n av igab le r ivers a nd n e i ther c ana ls n or r a i lways , i tc os t a s m uch t o c arry a g iven q uan t i ty o f c oa l b y r oad f ro m Wes t Auck land i n C o . Durham t o T yne Dock i n Tyne a nd Wear , ad istance o f 2 6 m i les , a s t o c arry t he s a me 9

q uan t i ty b y s ea f ro m T yne D ock t o L ondon , ad is tance o f 3 65 m i les .

T h is

s ugges ts t ha t i n c erta in c ircumstances l and t ranspor t migh t b e a s much a s f our teen t imes a s e xpens ive a s s ea t ranspor t . T he f igure may b e e xcep t iona l ly h igh , a nd i td oes n o t n ecessar i ly a pp ly t o R oman p o t tery ; i tn ever the less b r ings o u t w i th s tar t l ing c lar i ty t he a dvan tages o f s ea t ranspor t . I n d efau l t o f a ny d irec t e v idence f or t he s ize o ft he f ac tor b y wh ich t he c os t o f t he c arr iage o f Ro man p o t tery i n B r i ta in b y r oad e xceeded t ha t o f c arr iage b y s ea o r b yn av igab le r iver , t he f i gure s ix i s t aken a s ab as is f or c a lcu la t ion . T h is i s n ot a n a rb i trary g uess , a s t he s tudy o fp a t terns o f p o t tery d is tr ibu t ion i n g enera l s uggests t ha t t he f igure w as measurab ly l ess t han t he f our teen a lready q uoted , a nd t ha t i t was p robab ly o ft he o rder o f s ix . U n less t here was a n a bsence o f c o mpe t i t ion , o r u n less t he c o mpet ing wares w ere e i ther o fp oor q ua l i ty o r v ery e xpens ive , ad istr ibu tor c ou ld n o t r ecoup h is h igh t ranspor t c os ts b y r a is ing h is p r ices , o r h e wou ld h ave n o s a les ; n or c ou ld h e k eep h is p r ices d own t o ac ompe t i t ive l eve l a nd s t i l l make ap rof i t . H e t herefore e i ther l e f t d is tan t l and-l inked marke ts t o o thers , o r p ersuaded t he manu facturer t o m igra te t owards t he marke t . T he maps o n F ig . 1 .1 , r epub l ished w i thou t c hange , s how , i n ag enera l f ash ion , t he p ar ts o f B r i ta in i n w h ich e ach o f t he t wo b lack-burn ished w ares w ere p ar t icu lar ly c om mon s hor t ly a f ter t he m idd le o ft he s econd c en tury ( G i l la m 1 976 , Wi l lia ms 1 977 ) . BB1 was made a nd d istr ibu ted i n t he wes t , wh i le BB 2 was made a nd d is tr ibu ted i n t he e as t , w i th v ery l i t t le o ver lap e xcep t i n t he f ron t ier r eg ion . T he p r inc ipa l , t hough n o t t he o n ly , c en tre o f manu facture o f BB1 was i n e as tern Dorse t . S h ips w i l l h ave l e f t , a s i tm igh t b e , P oo le Harbour , r ounded L ands ' End a nd e ven tual ly p u t i nt o t he S o lway o r t he C lyde . F ro m t hence d is tr ibu t ion w il l h ave b een ma in ly b y l and . T here were n ine k nown o r s uspec ted c en tres o f manu fac ture o f BB2 , o n e i ther s ide o f t he T ha mes e s tuary , a nd a l l c lose t o i t . B o th i n d eta i ls o ff orm , a nd i n f abr ic , u nder o rd inary t ac t i le a nd o cu lar e xa m inat ion , h eat-cracked b u t o therw ise i n tac t v esse ls f ro m t he Upchurch a rea r ese mb le v esse ls f ro m t he f ron t ier r eg ion more c losely t han d o t hose f rom t he o ther k i ln s i tes o f t he T ha mes e s tuary . S h ips f ro m Upchurch h ad a s hor ter p assage t o t he T yne o r F or th t han t hose u s ing t he w est-coast r ou te . T he maps o f F ig . 1 .2 s how t he s i tes , i n t he f ron t ier r eg ion , f ro m wh ich s pecimens o f e ach o f t he t wo b lack-burn ished wares h ave e i ther b een p ub l ished , o r h ave b een s een a nd h and led , i rrespect ive o f t he q uan t i ty f ro m e ach s i te . T he t ab le o n p .14 i s i n tended t o r ecord t he r ela t ive q uan t i t ies o f BB1 a nd BB2 a t an umber o fd a ted s i tes i n t he r eg ion , a nd t hus i l lus tra te t he e f fec t o f t ranspor t c os ts o n d is tr ibu t ion . Twe lve f or ts , t wo b ase/depo ts , o ne f or t le t a nd f our teen t urre ts , t aken t oge ther i n t hree g roups , a re u sed , mak ing e igh teen e n tr ies i n a l l . F or t he p resen t p urpose i t wou ld s carce ly b e p oss ib le t o u se a ny o ther t han t he e igh teen g roups o f p ot tery . A l l g roups f ro m w i th in t he d ef ined a rea , w h ich mee t c er ta in r equ ire men ts , a re i nc luded . T he g roups u sed a re a l f u l ly p ub l ished a nd s evera l p o ten t ia l ly u se fu l g roups h ave b een om i t ted b ecause t hey r e ma in u npub l ished . T he g roups a l l f a l l b e tween t he d a tes C . A .D. 1 40 a nd c . A .D. 2 10.

T he t wo wares d id n o t c o-ex is t i n t he n or th u n t i l t he

1 0

, -

G

1

S chedule o f s i tes f or t he maps o n f ig , 1 .2 ; A .

f our-f igure map r eference

S i tes y ie ld ing BB1 o n ly :

Apper ley Dene B arburgh M i l l

NZ 0 559 NX 9 089

M i lecas t le 5 0 TW M i lecast le 7 9

NY 6 065 NY 2 362

B eck foot

NY 0 948

M i lefor t let 5

NY 1 758

B owness

NY 2 262

M i lefor t iet 1 6

NY 0 847

Car l is le

NY 3 955

N ether D enton

NY 5 964

Coas ta l Tower 1 2a

NY 1 050

Throp

NY 6 366

Coas ta l Tower 1 2b

NY 1 050

Turre t 4 8a

NY 6 266

C raw ford

NS 9 622

Turre t 4 8b

NY 6 266

Ha l twh is t le Burn

NY 7 266

Turre t 4 9b

NY 6 166

Marypor t

NY 0 436

Turre t 5 0a

NY 6 065

Mi lecast le 4 0

NY 7 467

Turre t 5 0b

NY 5 965

Mi lecast le 5 0

NY 6 066

Turre t 5 1b

NY 5 865

N S 9 279 NZ 2 564

B .

S i tes y ield ing b o th BB1 a nd BB2:

B a l mu id ly B ear s den

NS 5 871 NS 5 472

Mu mr il ls N ewcas t le

B enwel l

NZ 2 165

N ews tead

NT 5 634

B ewcast le

NY 5 575

O ld B ishop ton

NS 4 172

B irdoswa ld

NY 6 166

R is ingha m

NY 9 086

B irrens

NY 2 275

Rough C ast le

N S 8 579

Ca me lon

NS 8 781

Rudches ter

NZ 1 067

Carpow

NO 2 117

S outh S h ie lds

NZ 3 667

C arrawburgh

NY 8 571

T rapra in L aw

NT 5 975

Carzield

NX 9 781

Turret 7 b

NZ 1 965

Cas t ledykes

NS 9 245

Turret 1 8b

NZ 0 368

C hester-le-S treet

NZ 2 852

Turre t 2 5b

NY 9 369

C orbr idge

NY 9 864

Turre t 2 6a

NY 9 269

Cra mond

NT 1 976

Turre t 2 9b

NY 8 771

Croy H i l l

NS 7 376

Turre t 3 37 1

NY 8 270

Dun tocher

NS 4 973

Turre t 3 4a _ Turre t 3 5a _

NY 8 170

Ebches ter

NZ 1 156

Ha l ton

NY 9 968

H igh Rochester Houses teads

NY 8 070

Turre t 3 9a

NY 7 567

NY 8 398

Turre t 3 9b

NY 7 567

NY 7 869

Turret 4 5a

NY 6 667

I nveresk

NT 2 872

Turre t 5 2a

NY 5 764

L anchester

NZ 1 546

V indo landa

NY 7 766

Mi lecast le 9

NZ 1 865

Wa l lsend

NZ 3 066

M i lecast le 4 8

NY 6 366

Wh i t ley Cas t le

NY 6 948

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B lakehope

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F endoch

NN 9 327

Bra mp ton

NY 5 261

I nch tuth i l

NO 1 340

B roomho lm

NY 3 782

L earch i ld

NU 1 011

Cardean

NO 3 046

N ewbrough

NY 8 667

Da lsw inton

NX 9 386

R ed House

NY 9 765

Eas ter Happrew

NT 1 939 1 2

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A n ton ine Wa l l was b u i l t , a nd , a l though BB2 c on t inued t o b e b rough t t o t he n or th i nt he f i rs th a l f o ft he t h ird c en tury , t here i s ad ear th o f c lose ly d a ted g roups l a ter t han t he S everan c ampa igns. T he r epor ts u sed h ave a l l e i ther b een p ubl i shed s ince 1 963 , i n w h ich c ase t hey make a n e xp l ic i t d is t inct ion b etween BB1 a nd BB2, o r , i fe ar l ier , make a n i mp l ic i t d is t inc t ion . The r epor ts u sed e i ther g ive a n a ccoun t o ft he n umber o fv esse ls i n e ach c a tegory , o r p rov ide s uf f icien t o ther i n for ma t ion t o a l low r easonab ly a ccura te f i gures t o b e d educed .

S ites

w i th v ery sma l l n umbers o f p ub l ished v esse ls a re om it ted . T urre ts a re g rouped t oge ther b ecause t he n umber o f s pec imens f ro m a ny o ne t urre t i s r are ly l arge . T urrets 7 b , 1 8b , 2 5b a nd 2 6. 1 ,,a l l l y ing b etween N ewcast le a nd t he N or th Tyne , a re g rouped t oge ther a s t he e as tern t urre ts . Turre ts 3 3h , 3 4a , 3 5a , 3 9a a nd 3 92 1 , a l l l y ing b etween t he N orth T yne a nd t he I r th ing , a re g rouped t oge ther a s t he c en tra l t urre ts . Turre ts 5 0a , 5 0b , 5 1b a nd 5 2a , a l l l y ing b e tween t he I r th ing a nd B owness , a re g rouped t oge ther a s t he wes tern t urrets .

F or v ar ious

r easons t urre ts 2 9b , 4 5A , 4 8a , 4 8b a nd 4 9b a re om i t ted . I nt he t ab le t he f i rs t c o lumn c ons ists s imp ly o f s er ia l n umbers f or r efere nce p urposes . T he s econd c o lumn l i s ts t he e igh teen s i tes , o r g roups o f s i tes , wh ich h ave b een u sed . I nt he t h ird c o lumn t he a pprox i ma te d a te o f e ach g roup i s g iven .

I n t he f ourt h a nd f i f th c o lumns a n a t te mp t i s made t o p roduce af ig-

u re p ropor t iona te t o t he t ranspor t c os ts f or e ach ware a t e ach s i te . T h is i s o b ta ined b y measur ing t he a c tua l d istance , b y s ea o r n av igab le r iver , f ro m t he p or t n earest t o t he k i lns , t o t he p or tn eares t t o t he s i te s upp l ied ; t he d istance f rom t he p or tt o t he s i te i st hen measured a nd mu l t ip l ied b y s ix ; t he s um o f t he t wo f igures t hus o b ta ined i s t hen d iv ided b y t en t o p roduce t he f igure wh ich i s u sed . F or e xa mp le , t he d istance , b y s ea o r n av igab le r iver f ro m Upchurch t o N ewcas t le u pon Tyne i s 3 08 m i les , a nd b y r oad f ro m N ewcast le t o C orbr idge i ti s 1 7 m i les. 3 08 + ( 1 7 x6 )

T hus , t he t ranspor t c os t f actor f or c arry ing BB 2 t o C orbr idge works o u t a t 4 1 . I n t he s ix th c olumn , h eaded c onf la t ion , as ing le f igure i s g iven , worked o ut f ro m t he t wo f i gures o n t he s a me l i ne i n t he t wo p rev ious c o lumns . O n e ach l i ne t he sma l ler f i gure i s d iv ided b y t he l arger , a nd t he r esu l t i s mu l t ip l ied b y 1 00 . Where t he t ranspor t c os ts o f BB1 a re g rea ter , t he f igure t hus o b ta ined i s e ntered . Where t he t ranspor t c osts o f BB2 a re g rea ter , t he f igure i s s ubt rac ted f ro m 2 00 a nd t he d i f ference i s e n tered . T hus , ar un o f f igures , r ang ing f ro m 3 0 t o 1 35 i s p roduced . Where t he f i gures a re o ver 1 00 , BB1 h as t he more a dvan tageous t ranspor t c os ts ; i n g enera l , t he h igher t he f igure t he more a dvan tageous t he t ranspor t c osts t o BB1 , a nd t he l ess a dvan tageous t o BB 2. I n t he s even th a nd e ighth c o lumns t he q uan t i ty o f e ach ware o n e ach s i te i s g iven , e xpressed a s ap ercen tage , n o t o f t he t o ta l y ie ld , b u t o f t he t o ta l o f BB wares . T he g raph o n f i g . 1 .3 i si n tended t o i l lustra te t he g enera l t rend o f t he e f fec t o ft ranspor t c osts o n d is tr ibu t ion . O n t he v er t ica l a x is , f ro m b o t to m t o t op , a re t he a c tua l p ercen tages o f BB1 i n t he g roups , wh i le o n t he h or izon ta l a x is , f ro m l e f t t o r igh t , a re t he s ing le c on f la ted f igures f ro m c o lumn s ix i n t he t ab le .

T he c irc les a t t he p o in ts o f i n tersect ion a re l abe l led w i th t he n u mber 1 5

o f e ach s i te .

I tw i l l b e s een t ha t t he c irc les f a l l i n ab and , a dm it ted ly r a ther

b road a nd s o mewha t i rregu lar , r unn ing f ro m b ot tom l e f t , where BB1 w as b o th e xpensive a nd r ela t ive ly s carce , t o t op r igh t , where i t was b o th c heap a nd p len t ifu l . T he g enera l d irec t ion i s c lear . As tra igh t l i ne h as b een r u led t hrough t he b and o f c irc les , i n i t s g enera l d irec t ion , i n s uch away t ha th a lf t he c irc les f a l l o n o ne s ide o f t he l i ne a nd h a l f o n t he o ther . E igh t o f t he c irc les l i e s uf f ic ien t ly c lose t o t he l i ne t o b e c oun ted f or p rac t ica l p urposes a s l y ing a long i t ; f i ve o n e ach s ide l i e l ess c lose t o i t . A tt hose s i tes l y ing t o t he u pper l e f t t here i s r e la t ive ly more BB1 t han m igh t b e e xpec ted when t hey a re c o mpared w i th o ther s i tes w i th s im i lar t ranspor t c osts , wh i le a t t hose s i tes l y ing t o t he l ower r igh t t here i s r e la t ive ly l ess. I ti sn o t t o b e e xpected t ha t , when t he f igures i nt he s ix th , s even th a nd e igh th c o lumns i n t he t ab le a re c o mpared , o r t he r e la t ion o ft he c irc les t o t he l i ne i s c ons idered , t here s hou ld b e p rec ise c orre la t ion b etween t he m , a ny more t han t ha t , i n ar ace , ah and icapper s hou ld d o h is work s o wel l t ha t a l l t he r unners p ass t he p ost t oge ther , d ressed b y t he r igh t l i ke t he Househo ld C ava lry . T here i sh owever s ubs tant ia l g enera l c orre la t ion b etween c on f la ted t ranspor t c os ts a nd t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies o f e ither ware a c tua l ly r ecorded . B ecause t he w es tern s ea r ou te i st he l onger , a t o n ly f our s i tes a re t ransp or t c ost p osi t ive ly f avourab le t o BB1 ; a t t hree o ft hese , B arburgh M i l l , B owness a nd Maryport , BB1 i s t he o n ly BB ware r ecorded , wh i le i ti sa l most a s p len t i fu l a t t he f ourth , B irrens .

BB1 i s a lso w e l l r epresented i nt he west-

e rn t urre ts , where t ransport c os ts a re o n ly marg ina l ly u nfavourab le t o i t . A t s even s i tes more BB2 h ad b een r ecorded t han BB1. T hese a re : B enwe l l , t wo m i les f ro m N ewcast le ; C arrawburgh , t wen ty f i ve m i les f ro m N ewcas t le ; C hes terle-S tree t , e igh t m i les f rom N ewcas t le a nd t we lve f ro m S ou th S h ie lds ;

C orbridge , s even teen m i les f rom N ewcast le ;

Cra mond , a ctu-

a l ly o n t he F orth ; Mu mr i l ls , t hree m i les f ro m t he F or th ; a nd S ou th S h ie lds , a t t he mou th o ft he T yne ; a n e igh th s i te , Ebchester , t en m i les f ro m N ewcas t le , h as y ie lded e qua l q uant i t ies o f BB1 a nd BB 2. T he c on f la ted t ranspor t c os ts a re marked ly f avourab le t o BB2 a t a l l e igh t s i tes , a nd o n ly t he f igure f or t he e as tern t urrets i s a s f avourab le ; h ere h owever t he y ield i sl ess t han 5 0% . A t t he r e ma in ing f our s i tes , B a l mu i ldy , C as t ledykes , Housesteads a nd t he c en tra l t urrets , t ranspor t c os ts a re f avourab le e ach t ime t o BB 2 , t hough l ess marked ly t han a t t he n ine s i tes l i sted i nt he p rev ious p aragraph . N ever the less , i n a l l i nstances t he p ropor t ion o f BB1 i s h igher t han t ha t o f BB2 , i tm igh t s ee m t ha t BB1 h ad a n a dvan tage o ver BB2 wh ich was u nconnected w i th t ransport c osts ; t h is p oss ib i l i ty w i l l b e f ur ther c ons idered . E ven s o , s peak ing r e la t ive ly , t here i s r ea l c orre la t ion b etween t ranspor t c os ts a nd p ropor t ions f ound . T he p ropor t ions a tt he f i ve s i tes o n o r n ear t he S o lway a re e i ther i den t ica l w i th , o r c lose t o , e ach o ther . T he p ropor t ions a t Housesteads a nd i nt he c en tra l t urrets a re c lose t o e ach o ther , t hough c ost c ons idera t ions m igh th ave l ed t o t he e xpec ta t ion o f more BB2 i n e i ther i n stance . t urre ts p rov ide a u se fu l measure .

T he t hree g roups o f

T he s i tes a re s im i lar i n c harac ter ; t hey

h ad s im i lar h is tor ies ; t hey were p ar t o f t he s ame s yste m , a nd t hey were l i nked w i th e ach o ther , a nd w i th t he s eapor ts o n e i ther f l ank , b y g ood r oads .

1 6

1 7

I ti s f ound t ha t i n t he e as tern t urre ts , a n a verage o f 1 0 m i les f ro m N ewcast le , where i t was d oub t less u n loaded , BB2 f orms 4 1% , a l most h a l f , o f t he y i e ld. I n t he c en tra l t urre ts , a n a verage o f 3 1 m i les f ro m N ewcast le , i tf orms 2 5% , wh i le i n t he wes tern t urrets , a n a verage o f 5 9 mi les f ro m N ewcast le , i tf or ms a mere 6% , much t he s a me a s B irrens , wh ich l i es d ue n or th o ft he w es tern e nd o ft he Wa l l , a cross t he S o lway . A s h as b een s een , e igh t s i tes l i e c lose t o t he med ian l i ne o n t he g raph , wh i le f i ve l i e c lear o f i tt o t he u pper l ef t , a nd f i ve t o t he l ower r igh t . A l l t hree g roups o f t urre ts l i e t o t he u pper l e f t , a l mos t o n as tra igh t l i ne , r ough ly p ara l led w i th t he med ian l i ne ; t he p ropor t ion o f BB2 i s c ons isten t ly r e la t ive ly l ow . A s was n o t iced s o me y ears a go t he s a me t h ing a pp l ies t o t he m i lecast les , t hough a bso lu te f igures a re t oo sma l l t o j ust i fy t he ir i nc lusion i n t he t ab le ; t he p heno menon was a s i nexp l icab le t hen a s n ow ( G i l lam 1 973) .

Houses teads

a lso l i es away f ro m t he l i ne , t hough , a s h as b een r e marked , i t s f igures a re c lose t o t hose o f t he c en tra l t urrets. Ebchester h as a lso y ie lded a s omewha t l ower p ropor t ion o f BB 2 t han i t s n earest n e ighbours , B enwel l , C hes ter-leS treet a nd C orbr idge . O n t he l ower r igh t-hand s ide o f t he l i ne t he p os i t ion o f Marypor t i sn ot o f c ourse d ue t o as hor tage o f BB1 , f or t here i s a1 00% y ie ld , b u t t o t he f ac t t ha t t ranspor t c os ts a re s o f avourab le t o BB1 t ha t t he f igure o n t he h or izon ta l a x is h as d eter m ined t he p os i t ion o f t he c irc le .

O ft he o ther f our s i tes t hree ,

B a l mu i ldy , C ramond a nd Mu mr i l ls a re e i ther o n t he A n ton ine Wa l l , o r o n t he F or th b eyond i t s e as t e nd . c ra mond , w i th s im i lar c onf la ted c osts t o C orbr idge h as d is t inct ly more BB2 ; Mumr i l ls , w i th s im i lar c on f la ted c osts t o C arrawb urgh h as more BB 2, a nd v ery much more t han H ouses teads . B a lmu i ldy h as ay e i ld o f BB2 a l most e qua l t o t ha t o f t he e as tern t urre ts , b u t w i th f ar l ess f avourab le c onf la ted c os ts. I th as a lready b een s een t ha t o ver t he r eg ion a s a who le BB1 s ee ms t o h ave h ad a n a dvantage o ver BB2 , u nre la ted t ot ranspor t c os ts.

I tn ow a ppears t ha t t h is a dvan tage was l ess marked o n t he F or th-Clyde

i s th mus t h im t o s ou th o f i t . T he r e ma in ing s i te o n t he l ower r igh t-hand o f t he l i ne , B enwel l , s ee ms t o h ave c onsumed r a ther more BB2 t han t he o ther s i tes n ear t he l ower T yne , t hough a l l y ie ld a r espectab le amoun t .

When t he f i gures

f or a c tua lv esse ls f ro m B enwe l l a nd Ebches ter a re a dded t oge ther , a nd a c o mb ined p ropor t ion i s c a lcu la ted , t h is p roves t o b e v ery c lose t o t ha t o f S ou th S h ie lds . B enwe l l a nd Ebches ter f igures a re t hen s i mp ly m inor v ar ia t ions , i n o ppos i te d irect ions , f ro m an or m f or t he l ower Tyne . The g enera l c onc lusion wh ich emerges f ro m t he t ab le a nd f rom t he g raph , i s t ha t t ranspor t c os ts h ad a p owerfu l i n f luence o n t he s a les o f c o mpet ing wares , a nd t hus o n t he p a t terns o f d is tr ibu t ion a nd t he r e la t ive d ens i ty o f t he wares i n d i f feren t a reas. T h is i s s carce ly a s urpr is ing c onclus ion , b u t i ti s ac onc lus ion b ased o n t he o bserva t ion o f e v idence , a nd n o t o ne p lucked o u t o f t he a ir . As h as a lready b een h in ted , a no ther c onc lusion wh ich may b e d rawn f rom t he t ab le , a nd t he g raph , i st ha t BB1 h ad a n a dvan tage o ver BB2 , t hough l ess o bv ious ly i n t he r eg ion o f t he F ir th o f F orth , wh ich was u nconnec ted w i th t ranspor t c osts.

I t was o n ly t o f our o u t o f t he e igh teen s i tes t ha t t he t ranspor t

o f BB1 was c heaper t han t ha t o f BB2 , a nd y e t i t was o n ly a t e igh t t ha t t here was more BB2 t han BB1. A t t he r e ma in ing s ix s i tes t ransport c os ts were 1 8

F ig.

1 9

1 .4

f avourab le t o BB2 , b u t more t han h a lf t he b urn ished ware f ound was BB1. Aga in , wh i le BB1 c ou ld r each B enwe l l , C hes terle-S tree t , C orbr idge , Ebches ter , S ou th S h ields a nd t he e as tern t urrets , BB2 c ou ld n o t r each B arburgh M i l l , B owness a nd Marypor t . Wh i le t hese c ons idera t ions d o n o t i nva l idate t he c onc lus ions a lready r eached , t hey c er ta in ly s how t ha t t here was a no ther p owerfu l i n f luence a t work . T he maps o n f i g . 1 .4 s how , f i rs t , i n d if f eren t ia ted s had ing , t he a reas where e ach o ft he t wo wares m igh t h ave b een e xpec ted t o b e c o mmoner , a nd s econd ly t he a reas where t hey w ere i n f ac t c o m moner , b ased o n t he a c tua l p ropor t ions o n s i tes . BB1 b egan t o b e u sed i n t he v ic in i ty o f wha t w as d eve lop ing i n to H adr ian 's Wa l l , a tt he t ime b u i ld ing b egan . BB2 d id n o t b eg in t o b e u sed o n a nd n ear Hadr ian 's Wal l u n t i l a f ter t he w i thdrawa l f ro m S co t land ( G il lam 1 973 , B reeze 1 977 ) . BB1 h ad b een o n t he marke t f or f or ty y ears when BB2 a lso b eca me a va i lab le . BB1 was t herefore we l l k nown , wel l e s tab l ished a nd i n as trong p os i t ion t o c ompe te o n t he T yne-So lway i s th mus. I t was n o t t he s ame o n t he An ton ine Wa l l a nd i n i t s h in ter land , f or t here t he t wo wares c a me o n t ot he marke t s i mu l taneous ly , when t he A n ton ine Wa l l was b u i l t , a nd BB1 h ad n o a dvan tage f ro m e ar l ier a rr iva l .

I ti s p oss ib ly s ign i f ican t t ha t t he p ercen tages

a lready r eferred t o f or t he f or ts o n t he F or th-Clyde i s th mus s ee m t o i nd ica te t ha t t he a dvan tage e n joyed b y BB1 was l ess t here t han o n t he Tyne-So lway i s th mus . BB1 h ad a lready a l ong t rad i t ion o f manu facture b eh ind i t . As i s g enera l ly k nown , i t was d er ived f ro m p re-Ro man a nd e ar ly R o man Duro tr ig ian p ot tery . I n t he F lav ian p er iod , wh i le t he c ook ing-pot c lass c ont inued l i t t le a l tered , t here c a me c hanges i n t he r ange o f o ther f orms made , a nd an ew d iversi ty ( B idwel l 1 977 ) . T he n ew r ange was d irec t ly a nces tra l t o t he f or ms f ound o n t he n or thern f ron t iers i n t he s econd c en tury . BB2 o n t he o ther h and d eveloped a s ad ist inc t ware a t al a ter d a te , p robab ly n o t b e fore t he l a te F lav ian p er iod , f or i t s r ange o f f or ms , a nd e ven s o me o f i t s d eta i ls , a re o bv iously c op ied f ro m F lav ian BB1. Hav ing h ad a r espec tab le a nces try , a nd h av ing b een a b le t o b reak e ar ly i n to p ar t o f t he n or thern market , w il l h ave b een a dvan tageous t o BB1. Even more a dvan tageous wou ld b e h igher q ua l i ty . BB1 c ook ing-po ts were h and made , wh i le BB2 c ook ing p o ts were t hrown , t hough t hey d o n o t o f ten e xh ib i t v ery d is t inc t i n terna l r i l ing . B oth wares h ave p la in c u t-away b ases , a nd t h in wa l ls , wh ich n e i ther i nsu la te wha t i s b e ing c ooked f rom t he s ource o fh ea t , n or c rack a s ar esu l t o f d i f feren t ia l e xpans ion . I n t hese r espec ts t here i s t hen l i t t le t o c hoose b e tween BB1 a nd BB 2. T here i s h owever a d i f ference i n f abr ic . A c harac ter is t ic o f BB1 i s t ha t b e low t he b urn ish t he f abr ic i s g ranu lar i n a pp earance , b ecause i ti s t e mpered w i th med ium-gra ined q uar tz s and . BB2 i s a l most f ree o f i nc lus ions , a nd t he f abr ic i s smoo th a nd l ayered.

T he efec t

o ft he g r i t i n BB1 may h ave b een t o g ive t he ware r efrac tory q ua l i t ies s uper ior t o t hose o f i t s c h ief c o mpet i tor . A l l e igh teen s i tes i n t he t ab le a re m i l i tary .

C orbr idge c hanged f ro m f or t

t o t own d ur ing t he p er iod u nder r ev iew , b u t i tw as a t own c en tred o n t he n uc leus o f am i l i tary d epo t . The q uan t i ty o f R oman p ot tery f ound o n p ure ly c iv i l ian s i tes , e xcep t f or T rapra in L aw , i s v ery sma l l i ndeed . T he marke t f or BB wares was t hen a l mos t e xc lus ive ly mi l i tary .

2 0

I t was n o t h owever

m i l i tary p ot tery , i n t he s ense t ha t t he t erm may b e u sed o ft he p roduc ts o f works d epo ts , a t tached t o o r s erv ing , f or ts o r f or tresses . N or d oes i ts ee m a t a l l l i ke ly t ha t t he a r my p laced c on trac ts w i th c iv i l ian f i r ms f or t he manuf ac ture o f p o t tery , n or w i th s h ippers f or i t s t ranspor t a nd s upp ly . I ti s a lso u n l ike ly t ha t t he a r my p urchased i n b u lk f ro m t he s upp l iers , a nd t hen i ssued t he v essels , f ree , o r o n r epaymen t , t o t he t roops . T he r esu l ts o f t he p resen t s tudy i mp ly t ha t t he s ys te m was q u i te d i f feren t . T h is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t t here was n o b u lk t ranspor t , f or i t wou ld o bv ious ly b e u necono m ica l t o s a i l n orth w i th ah a l f emp ty s h ip , b u t s a i l ings were p robab ly i n frequen t , a nd r eservo irs were d oub t less ma in ta ined a t s uch s i tes a s O ld K i lpa tr ick , C ta mond , P or t C ar l is le a nd N ewcas t le u pon T yne . T hese w ere p robab ly n o t t he q uar termas ters ' s tores wh ich a re men t ioned i n e ar l ier s tud ies , b u t t he who lesa le o u t le ts o ft he s upp l iers .

T here i s n o s truc tura l e v idence f or t he ir e x istence ,

wh ich i s i nferred f rom d istr ibu t ion p a t terns .

T he p resen t s tudy s hows t ha t

t he d is tr ibu t ion o fp o t tery t o t he n or thern a rmy was c ond i t ioned b y s uch e conom ic f actors a s p roduct ion c osts , q ua l i ty , c o mpe t i t ion b etween c o mparab le wares , w i l l ingnes a nd a b i l i ty o ft he c onsumer t o b uy , a nd t ranspor t c os ts b y l and a nd s ea . A s o ld ier i n S ou th S h ie lds b ough t o ne k ind o f p o t r a ther t han a no ther , b ecause , i n s p i te o f i t s b e ing p erhaps o f r a ther i n fer ior q ua l i ty , i t was c heaper ; as o ld ier i n Marypor t b ough t ad iferen t k ind , b ecause i t was b o th b et ter a nd c heaper . Hav ing b ough t t he v esse l , o u t o fh is o wn p urse , f rom a c iv i l ian s upp l ier , t he s o ld ier o wned i tp ersona l ly ( Breeze 1 977 ) . T hough i t may h ave b een d if feren t a t a n e ar l ier d a te , i n t he m id t o l a te s econd c en tury t he s ys te m o f s upp ly was f ounded o n p r iva te e n terpr ise a nd f ree marke t f orces .

2 1

B IBL IOGRAPHY B idwel l 1 977 .

B idwe ll , P .

Ear ly b lack-burn ished ware a t Exeter i n Dore

a nd G reen 1 977 , 1 89-198. B ir ley 1 930 .

B irley , E .

Excava t ions o n t he l i ne o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l west o f

N ewcast le u pon Tyne , A rchaeo log ia Ael iana , 4 th s er ies , 7 , ( 1 930) , 1 50-180. B reeze 1 972. B reeze , D . J ., Excava t ions a t t he Ro man f or t o f C arrawburgh , 1 967-1969 , Archaeo log ia Ae l iana , 4 th s er ies , 5 0 , ( 1 972) 8 1-144. B reeze 1 974 .

Breeze , D . J ., The Ro man F or t le t a t B arburgh M i l l , Du m fr iessh ire ,

B ri tann ia , 5( 1 974 ) , 1 30-162. B reeze 1 977 .

B reeze , D . J ., The f ort a t B earsden a nd t he s upp ly o f p o t tery

t o t he Ro man a r my i n Dore a nd G reene 1 977 , 1 33-145. C har lesworth 1 973.

C har leswor th , D ., A r e-exa m ina t ion o f t wo t urrets o n

Hadr ian 's Wa l l , Archaeo log ia Ael ia na , 5 th s er ies , 1 , ( 1973) , 9 7-110 . D etsicas 1 973.

Detsicas , A , ( ed .) , Current R esearch i n Ro mano-Br i t ish

Coarse P o ttery , CBA Research Repor t 1 0 , L ondon , 1 973. D ore a nd G reene 1 977.

Dore , J . a nd G reene , K . Ro man P o t tery S tudies i n

B r i ta in a nd B eyond , B .A.R. s upp le mentary S er ies , 3 0 , Ox ford , 1 977 . Dore a nd G i l la m 1 979.

Dore , J . N . a nd G i l la m , J . P ., The Ro man f or t a t

S ou th S h ields - Excava t ions 1 375-1975 , N ewcast le u pon Tyne , 1 979. Dryden a nd Wi the l l 1 978.

Dryden , J . S . a nd Wi the l l , A . R ., The P ot tery

f ro m Turret 5 2a , B anks Eas t , Transact ions o f t he Cu mber land a nd West mor land An t iquar ian a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , 7 8 ( 1 978) , 3 7-46 . F arrar 1 973.

F arrar , R . A . H ., The Techniques a nd S ources o f R o mano-

B r i t ish b lack-burn ished wares i n Detsicas , 1 973 , 6 7-103. F arrar 1 977.

F arrar , R . A . H ., A Ro mano-Br i t ish b lack-burn ished ware

i ndustry a t O v ver i n t he I sle o f P urbeck , Dorset , i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977 , 1 99-228. G il la m a nd T ait 1 968.

G il la m , J . P . a nd Ta l t , J ., The Ro man f or t a t

Chesterle-Street , Archaeo log ia Ael iana , 4 th s eries , 4 6 ( 1968) , 7 5-96 . G i l la m 1 973 .

G il la m , J . S ources o f P ot tery f ound o n n or thern m i l i tary s i tes

i n Detsicas 1 973 , 5 3-62. G il la m 1 976 .

G il la m , J . P ., C oarse Fu med Ware i n Nor th Br i ta in a nd b eyond ,

G lasgow Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , 4( 1976 ) , 5 7-80 . . Har t ley 1 973.

Hart ley , K . F ., The Market ing a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f Mor tar ia

i n D etsicas 1 973 , 3 9-51.

2 2

Har t ley 1 976 .

Har t ley , K . F ., Were mor tar ia made i n Ro man S co t land? ,

G lasgow Archaeo log ical J ourna l , 4( 1976) . Har t ley 1 977.

Har t ley , K . F ., Two ma jor p ot teries p roduc ing mor tar ia i n

t he f irs t c en tury A .D . i n Dore a nd G reene 1 977 , 5 -18. J arre t t 1 976 . J arret t , M . G ., G arr ison , K enda l , 1 976 . Max f ield a nd Reed 1 975.

Maryport , Cu mbr ia :

A Ro man F or t a nd i t s

Max f ield , V . A . a nd Reed , A .H ., Excava t ions a t

Ebchester Ro man F or t 1 972-3 , Archaeo log ia Ael iana , 5 th s er ies , 3 ( 1 975) , 4 3-104. M ike t a nd Max f ield 1 972.

Miket , R . a nd Max f ield , V ., The e xcava t ion o f

Turret 3 3b ( Coes ike ) , Archaeo log ia Ae l iana , 4 th s er ies , 5 0 ( 1972) , 1 45-178. M i l ler 1 922. Wal l

M i l ler , S . N ., The Ro man F or t a t B a l mu i ldy o n t he An ton ine G lasgow , 1 922

P eacock 1 973.

P eacock , D . P . S ., The b lack-burn ished p o t tery i ndus try i n

Dorse t i n Detsicas 1 973 , 6 3-65. P eacock , D . p . s . ,

P eacock 1 977 .

P ot tery a nd Ear ly C o m merce - C harac-

t er isa t ion a nd Trade i n Ro man a nd L a ter C era m ics , L ondon 1 977. P ot ter 1 979.

P o t ter , T . W., Ro mans i n N orth- West Eng land - Excava t ions

a t t he Ro man F or ts o f Raveng lass , Wa tercrook a nd B owness o n S o lway , Kenda l , 1 979. R ae 1 974 . Rae , A . &V ., The Ro man F or t a t C ra mond , Ed inburgh ; 1 954-1966 , B r i tannia , 5( 1974 ) , 1 63-224. R ich mond a nd G il la m 1 950 .

e xcava t ions

R ich mond , I . A . a nd G i l la m , J . P ., Excava t ions

o n t he Ro man s i te a t Corbr idge 1 946-1949, Archaeo log ia Ael iana , 4 th s er ies , 2 8 ( 1950 ) , 1 52-201. R ober tson 1 964 .

Rober tson , Anne S .,

T he Ro man F or t a t C ast ledykes ,

Ed inburgh , 1 964 . R ober tson 1 975. S impson 1 913 .

Rober tson , A .S ., B irrens ( B la tobu lg iu m ) , Ed inburgh , 1 975. S i mpson , F . G ., Excavat ions o n t he l ine o f t he Ro man Wa l l

i n C u mber land d ur ing t he y ears 1 909-12 , T ransact ions o f t he C u mber land a nd West mor land An t iquar ian a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety , n ew s er ies , 1 3 ( 1913 ) , 2 97-397 . S i mpson a nd S i mpson 1 976 .

S i mpson , F . G . a nd S i mpson , G . Wa ter m i l ls

a nd M i l i tary Works o n Hadr ian 's Wal l , K enda l , 1 976 . S teer 1 963.

S teer , K . A ., Excava t ions a t Mu mr i l ls Ro man F or t , 1 958-60 ,

P roceed i ngs o f t he S ociety o f An t iquar ies o f S co t land , 9 4 ( 1 963) , 8 6-132. S w inbank 1 955.

Sw inbank , B . P ot tery f ro m t he l evels o f t he s econd a nd t h ird

c en tury , c over ing t he Va l iu m a t B enwel l , Archaeo log ia Ael iana , 4 th s er ies , 3 3(1955) , 1 42-162.

2 3

Wi lkes 1 960 . Wi lkes , J . Excava t ions a t Houses teads i n 1 959 , Archaeo log ia Ael iana 4 th s er ies , 3 8 ( 1 960 ) 6 1-72. Wilkes 1 961. Wi lkes , J . Excavat ion i n Housesteads f or t 1 960 , Archaeo log ia Ael iana , 4 th s er ies , 3 9 ( 1 961) , 2 79-300 . Wi l l ia ms 1 977. Wi l l ia ms , D . F ., The Ro mano-Bri t ish B lack-Burn ished I ndustry : An E ssay o n C haracter isa t ion b y H eavy M ineral A na lys is i n P eacock , 1 977 , 1 63-220 . Woodf ie ld 1 965. Woodf ie ld , C . C ., S ix t urre ts o n Hadr ian ' s Wa l l , A rchaeo log ia Ae l iana , 4 th s er ies , 4 3 ( 1 965 ) , 8 7-200 .

2 4

2 .

A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF THE POTTERY FRO M A RO MAN EXTRA- MURAL BU ILDING AT CHESTER M . Ward ( n ee B u l mer ) a nd P . C arr ing ton*

I NTRODUCTION J us t o ver t hree y ears a go t he s econd wr i ter p ub lished a s um mary o f t he Ro man p ot tery s upp ly t o C hester ( Carr ing ton , 1 977 , 1 47-8) . T ha t s um mary was o fn ecessi ty imprec ise a nd i nco mp lete . Many o f t he q uest ions i tr a ised a re s t i l l o pen a nd w i l l o n ly b e r esolved b y c onsiderab le r esearch . 1. H owever , t he p rocess ing o f t he p o t tery f ro m a n u mber o f s i tes wh ich were , e ven t hen , b e ing e xcava ted h as i n troduced a n e le men t o f s ta t ist ica l p rec ision i n to o ur e x ist ing k now ledge . B etween 1 976 a nd 1 978 s taf f o f t he Excava t ions S ect ion o f t he G rosvenor Museu m e xam ined t hree s i tes t o t he s ou th o f t he Ro man f ortress , a t 7 6 L ower B r idge S tree t ( 1 976 ) , o n t he s i te o f t he S a lva t ion Ar my C itade l b eh ind 1 1-15 C ast le S treet ( 1 976 a nd 1 978) a nd a t t he j unct ion o f C ast le S treet w ith S t . Mary 's H i l l ( 1 977) .

The f inds a nd s tructura l r e ma ins d iscovered p robab ly a l l r elate

t o as ing le b u i lding , i n terpreted a s a mansio ( F ig . 2 .1) . N one o f t he p ot tery c o l lect ions c o me f ro m i ndependen t ly d ated c on tex ts : i ndeed , t hose f ro m 7 6 L ower B r idge S treet a nd S t . Mary 's H i l l a nd t ha t r ec overed b y work men f ro m C ast le S treet ( 1 978) d o n ot c o me f ro m s ea led Ro man d er ibsits. F or a bso lu te d a t ing o f t he f i ne a nd c oarse wares w e h ave t herefore t o r ely , a part f ro m t he a ssocia ted s am ian , o n p ub l ished p ara l le ls , p r inc ipal ly t o b e f ound i n G i l la m ( 1976 ) , G r i mes ( 1 930) modi f ied b y C arr ing ton ( 1 977 ) , The b u lk o f t he 7 6 L ower B r idge S treet

Webster ( 1 976) a nd Y oung ( 1 977 ) .

c o l lec t ion i n f act a ppears t o f or m a c losed g roup d a t ing t o C . 8 0-130 , wh i le t he C ast le S treet ( 1 976 ) g roups p r inc ipa l ly c over t he p er iod c . 1 30-360. l a ter g roups a re t he more v a luab le f or b e ing f a ir ly r are a t C hester ( c f . C arr ing ton , 1 977 , 1 47-8 a nd 1 59 , n ote 6 ) .

T hese

The l ack o f s am ian f rom C ast le

S treet a nd S t . Mary ' sH i l l t o b e d ated b efore c .130 was r e med ied b y t he a dd i t ion o f t ha t f ro m 7 6 L ower B r idge S treet . The r esu l ti ng c hronolog ica l d is tr ibu t ion ( Fig . 2 .2) i s g eneral ly c o mparab le t o t ha t f ound a t Y ork ( Dick inson a nd Har t ley

1 971, 1 29 , f ig . 1 8) ;

t h is was f e lt t o j ust i fy t he ama lga ma t ion o f a l l

t he p o t tery f ro m t he t hree s i tes.

T he b road c hrono log ica l r ange o f t he who le

c o l lect ion a nd t he s carci ty o f o bv ious r esidua l c oarse p ot tery i n a ny o f t he ma jor g roups p ro mp ted t he p resen t s tudy . I ti s n o t t he i n ten t ion t o ofer a n a ll-e mbracing d iscussion o ft h is p o t tery : f or e xa mp le , many m inor c o mponen ts i n t he s upp ly h ave b een i gnored f or t he s ake o f c lar i ty . . t he r eader i s r eferred t o t he s i te r eport ( Mason 1 980 ) .

2 5

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METHODS The p ot tery was d iv ided b yp robab le d a te o f manu fac ture i n to c hrono log ica l g roups g enera l ly c orrespond ing t o o ne o r more s tructural p hases , n a me ly G roups 1 -6 , d a ted C . 8 0-100 , 1 00-30 , 1 30-80 , 1 80-210 , 2 10-90 a nd 2 90-360 r espec t ively .

M in i mu m a nd max i mum n u mbers o fv esse ls were e st i mated

f ro m c oun ts o f r i ms , b ases a nd d ist inct ive b ody s herds. The f ac t t hat t he s i tes p roduced f a ir ly l arge f rag ments o fv esse ls f ro m a sma l l n u mber o f c on tex ts s uggested t ha t i t migh t b e p oss ib le t o c a lcu la te t he n u mbers r epresen ted w i th a g rea ter d egree o f a ccuracy t han i s o f ten t he c ase .

The r ela t ive ly smal l s ize

o f t he c o l lec t ion wou ld h ave d istorted c a lcu la t ions b ased o n r im p ercen tages , wh i le c o mpar ison o f f abr ic weigh ts s ee med a n u nnecessary s tep r e moved f ro m t he g oa l o f c o mpar ison o f a ctua l v essel n u mbers . Amphorae were , h owever , e xc luded , a s i t was n o t f el t t ha t t he ir n u mbers c ou ld b e e st i mated r el iab ly ; f ur ther more , a s an umber were b rough t o n t o t he s i tes f or r e-use i n S tone P hase I ( 9.. 1 20-180) , e ven a n a ccura te e st i ma te wou ld n ot h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly mean ing fu l .

Unstrat if ied a nd o bv ious r es idua l v esse ls were r estored t o what

were t hough t t o b e t he ir o r ig ina l c on tex ts .

When t he ir p oss ib le d a te-ranges

s panned more t han o ne g roup , t hey were d istr ibu ted i n p roport ion t o t he n u mber o f d ecades i n e ach g roup , o r p art o f ag roup , c overed b y t he d ate r ange . I n t he r e-a l locat ion o f t he i nsecure ly d ated c oarse w ares , t he f o l low ing c r i ter ia w ere u sed :

b lack-on-brown f abr ics were r estr icted t o c .80-100 ( based o n

C arr ing ton ' su npub l ished s tudy o f t he p ot tery f rom t he N or thgate B rewery 1 974-5 e xcavat ion ) ;

l oca l wh ite-sl ipped o range v esse ls , p r inc ipa l ly f l agons ,

were a ss igned t o 8 0-130 w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t hose p oss ib ly made a t W i lderspoo l , wh ich c ou ld b e a s l a te a s c .160 a nd a re h ere a ssu med n ot t o h ave r eached C hester u n t i l a f ter t he e nd o fp o t tery p roduct ion a t H o lt ( s.. 130 ) . mor tar ia w ith m ixed g r its w ere a ss igned t o t he p er iod 1 30-80 .

L oca l o range F ine s andy ,

micaceous wh ite-s l ipped o range f abr ics were a l l a ss igned t o G roup 3 . F ine s andy , micaceous o range f abr ics were d istr ibuted e ven ly among Groups 3 , 5a nd 6 .

L ikew ise , C astor ware v esse ls a nd H ar tsh i l l- Mancet ter h a mmerhead

mor tar ia f or wh ich n o p rec ise d at ing e v idence was a va i lab le were d istr ibuted e ven ly b etween G roups 5 a nd 6 .

G iven t he l ack o f p o t tery a ctua l ly f ound i n

G roup 4 d epos its , n one was r estored t o t he m u n less t h is was u navo idab le . On ly a f ew v esse ls were e xc luded a s b e ing t o ta l ly u nda tab le . T he t o ta l n u mbers o f s am ian , f i ne a nd c oarse v esse ls a nd t he n u mbers o f s elected v essel f or ms i n e ach g roup were d ivided b y t he n u mber o f d ecades s panned b yt he g roup .

The r esu l ts a re p resented g raph ica l ly i n F igs. 2 .3-4 .

These f or m a more s a t isfac tory b asis f or c o mparison t han p ercen tages , where t he i n terdependen t n a ture o f t he v a lues w i th in g roups c ou ld s uggest who l ly a r t i f ic ia l t rends.

S o me o f t he s ta t ist ica l t echn iques u sed a re d oub t less c apab le

o f improve men t , a nd t he s tudy o f f urther g roups w i l l b r ing f ur ther p rec is ion i n d a t ing , b u t we b el ieve t ha t t he o vera l l p icture p resen ted h ere i s s ound. D ISCUSSION I ti s a ssu med t ha t , b y a nd l arge , t he p o t tery r ecovered i s ar epresenta t ive s a mp le o f wha t was d isposed o f o n t he s i tes , a l though i ti s c lear t ha t t he s a mp le i s a t l eas t c hrono log ica l ly i nco mp lete , t here b e ing a s hor tage o f c oarse p o t tery o f t he l a te s econd-ear ly t h ird c en tur ies ( Group 4 ) . 2 8

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3 20

A .D .

a rea was e xcava ted a nd t ha t s am ian o f t h is p er iod was f ound p reven t t he c onc lus ion t ha t t here was ab reak i n o ccupa t ion a nd s ugges t t ha t t he c oarse p o t tery o ft he p er iod was d isposed o f i n a n u nexcava ted s ector . Exam ina t ion o f f ur ther g roups f ro m s i tes o f s im i lar t ype w il l s how h ow s ign i f icant t hese f i rs t f igures a re . T here a re l im i ta t ions t o t he u se t ha t c an b e made o ft he f igures : f or i ns tance , t he n umbers o fv esse ls o f ag iven f orm o n t he r ubb ish-du mp n eed n o t r ef lec t t he n umbers i n u se a t o ne t ime , b u t may b e i n i nverse p ropor t ion t o t he ir l i fes pan , t h is b e ing d e term ined b y d iferences i nf abr ic a nd c ond i t ions o f u se ( V ince 1 977 , 6 5 -6 ) . However , w ith c er ta in r eservat ions , v a l id s tate men ts c an b e made c oncern ing v ar ia t ions i n t he a bso lute f requency o f i nd iv idua l f orms a nd f abr ics o ver t ime a nd i n t he r e la t ive f requency o f an u mber o f f orms a nd f abr ics . F orms T he n u mbers o f med ium- mou thed j ars i n G roups 1 a nd 2 a re f a ir ly s tab le , b lack-on-brown a nd g rey f abr ics , p resu mab ly made l ocal ly , p redo m ina t ing i n t he f i rs t a nd l oca l o range , p robab ly f ro m Ho l t , i nt he s econd . Ac o mparab le n umber o f b lack-burn ished Ic ook ing p o ts i s f ound i n G roup 5 . G iven t he c ont i nuous o ccupa t ion t ha t a ppears t o h ave e x isted , s uch s tab i l i ty i nt he u sage o f ab as ica l ly u nchang ing a nd u t i l i tar ian v esse l f orm i s p rec ise ly w ha t o ne w ou ld e xpect . The l ow n umber o f j ars a nd c ook ing p o ts i n G roup 3 ( 1 30-80 ) i sn ot e as i ly e xp la ined . I tc ou ld b e t he r esu l t o f i nco mp le te e xcava t ion , e ven t hough t here i s n o l ack o f s am ian o f t he p er iod ; c o mpare t he o bserva t ions a bove o n G roup 4 . T he sma l l n umber o f j ars a nd b lack-burn ished c ook ing p o ts i n G roup 6i s p ara l le led i n a l lv esse l t ypes a nd s uggests a l ess i n tense o r a n i n ter m i t ten t o ccupa t ion i n t he f our th c entury . Mortar ia c onst i tu te a no ther u t i l i tar ian c lass o f v esse l whose n umbers c ou ld b e e xpected t o r e ma in s tab le . The n u mbers i n G roups 1 a nd 5 a re s im i lar , t he f or mer c o mposed o fv esse ls f ro m t he Rad let t-Brock ley H il l a rea a nd , t o al esser e x ten t , K en t , t he l at ter ( and a lso G roup 6 )2 p r inc ipa l ly o f v essels f ro m Har tsh i l l- Mance t ter . The h igher n umbers i n G roups 2 a nd 3 , p r inc ipa l ly f ro m Ho l t a nd s ubsequen t ly o ther , p robab ly l oca l , k i lns ' ( b u t n o t , f or s o me r eason , Wi lderspoo l ) , c ou ld r ef lec t t he e as ier a va i lab i l i ty o ft hese p roduc ts c o mpared w i th t hose f ro m t he more d istan t s ources n amed a bove , wh ich wou ld , f or t he most p ar t , h ave b een t ranspor ted o ver land . S o me o f t he l oca l p roduc ts may a lso h ave b een l ess d urab le . T he c o mp le men t i n G roup 4 i s made u p l arge ly o f s am ian v esse ls ( Dr .4 5s) : i tw i l l b e i n teres t ing t o s ee f ro m o ther s i tes whe ther t h is r ef lects a l ack o f c oarse e qu iva len ts i n t he l a te s econd c en tury . Ox fordsh ire mortar ia h appen t o b e a bsen t f ro m G roups 5 a nd 6 , a l though t hey o f ten a ppear , a lbe i t i n sma l l n u mbers , i n t h ird a nd f our th c en tury d eposi ts i n C hester . F lagons s ee m t o h ave b een p opu lar , o r e as i ly a va i lab le , f or o n ly a s hor t p er iod , c . 8 0-130 , t he v as t ma jor i ty b e ing made i n l oca l wh i te-s l ipped o range f abr ic ; v ery f ew were f ound i n , o r n eed b e a t tr ibu ted t o , g roups o ther t han 1 a nd 2 . Mos t o ft he l a te f i rst-ear ly s econd c en tury wh i te-s l ipped o range v esse ls c ame f ro m t he u ns tra t i f ied 7 6 L ower B r idge S tree t c o l lec t ion . How t he n u mbers a re t o b e d istr ibu ted w i th in t h is p er iod , i .e . b etween G roups 1 3 1

a nd 2 , i s u ncer ta in .

O ne 's s ub jec t ive i mpress ion , g a ined f ro m t he e xam ina t ion

o f af ew r elevan t g roups f ro m o ther s i tes ,

i st ha t mos t f a l l i n to t he l a ter g roup .

F or t he mo men t , t herefore , t hey h ave b een t en ta t ive ly d istr ibu ted i np ropor t ion t o t he t o ta l n umbers o f o ther n on-sam ian v esse ls i n t he t wo g roups . F luc tua t ions i n t he u sage o ft he r e ma in ing v esse l f orms—cups a nd b eakers , b ow ls a nd d ishes—appear t o b e c lose ly r e la ted t o t he a va i lab i l i ty o f s am ian . C ups a nd b eakers a re h ere c onsidered t oge ther a s p oss ib le a l terna t ives w i th in ag enera lc lass o fd r ink ing v esse ls . Mos t o f t he b eakers i n G roup 1 a re r ela t ive ly c oarse j ar-shaped v esse ls i n b lack-sur faced b rown a nd g rey f abr ics . T he c o mp le te a bsence o f a ny e xamp les o f t he t yp ica l ly F lav ian-Tra jan ic s amian b eaker D ech . 6 7 i s p erhaps s urpr is ing . I td oes , h owever , a ppear i n G roup 2 . H ere , most o ft he b eakers a re f i ner v esse ls i n l oca l o range f abr ic p robab ly f ro m H o l t . Desp i te t he c hange i nf abr ic , t he n umbers a re v ir tua l ly t he s a me i n b o th g roups. T he s harp d ec l ine i n G roup 3i sf ol lowed b y ad ra ma t ic r ise i n G roup 5 p r inc ipa l ly a ccoun ted f or b y s ubst an t ia l n umbers o f Rhen ish a nd c astor w are v esse ls . C ups a re a p redo m inan t ly s am ian f or m . T here a re l arge n umbers i n G roups 1( Dr . 2 7s ) a nd 3 ( Dr . 3 3s ) , e spec ia l ly t he f ormer . I n G roup 2 c ups v ir tua l ly d isappear , s uf fer ing a f ar s teeper d ec l ine t han o ther s am ian f or ms a nd b e ing r ep laced b yl oca l ( p robab ly H o l t ) i m i ta t ions o n ly t o a sma l l e x ten t .

I n G roup 5 ,

t he f or m i s r epresen ted b y as ing le c o lour-coa ted v essel , p robab ly f ro m L ezoux . I n G roup 1 b eakers a nd c ups a ppear t o c onst i tu te s epara te c lasses o fv esse l. However , f o l low ing t he v ir tua l d isappearance o f c ups i n G roup 2 , t he t wo s ee m t o h ave ama lgama ted t o f orm a s ing le c lass w i th t he n umer ica l s treng th f ormer ly w ie lded b y b eakers a lone . P red ic tab ly b eakers s how a d ec l ine a t t he p eak o f s am ian p roduct ion i n t he An ton . ine p er iod a nd e n joy a r ev iva l f ro m t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury w hen s am ian c eased t o b e r ead i ly a va i lab le i n q uan t i ty . I n G roups 1 a nd 3 t he ma jor i ty o f b ow ls a re o f s am ian , t he o ther , c oarse , v esse ls b e ing i n b lack-surfaced b rown a nd g rey a nd i n b lack-burn ished If abr ics r espect ive ly . I n Group 2 , when t he s upp ly o f s am ian f a l tered ( s ee B u l mer 1 979 , 1 7 ) t he n u mbers o f c oarse b ow ls , i n l oca l o range f abr ic p robab ly f rom Ho l t , i ncreased , p resumab ly t o s upp ly t he d ef ic iency .

O n t he o ther h and , t here d oes

n ot s ee m t o h ave b een a ny c o mpensa t ion f or t he d isappearance o f s am ian i nt he t h ird c en tury ( Group 5 ) . D ishes s how a n i ncrease f ro m G roups 1t o 3 . I n G roup 1 t he f orm i s a l most e xc lus ive ly a s am ian o ne . C oarse d ishes f i rst a ppear i n G roup 2 , i n l oca l o range f abr ic p robab ly f ro m H o l t , a nd c on t inue a t as im i lar l eve l i n G roup 3 i n b lackb urn ished w are . I n terest ing ly , t here i s n o d ec l ine i n t he n u mber o f s am ian d ishes i n G roup 2 , i n c on trast t o t he c ups a nd b ow ls . i ncrease i n G roup 3 .

S am ian d ishes a ga in

C oarse d ishes , s t i l l i n b lack-burn ished f abr ic , s how

an ot iceab le i ncrease i n G roup 5 . T h is w as p oss ib ly a r esponse t o t he d isapp earance o f s am ian . O n t he o ther h and , G i l lam h as r ecen t ly p roposed ( 1 976 , 7 2 , 7 6 a nd f i g . 6 , 8 9-91 ) t hat b lack-burn ished b ow ls a nd d ishes w ere u sed t ogether a s c assero les . T h is i s a n a t tract ive i dea f or t he t h ird c en tury t ypes— p la in r i mmed d ishes o n g rooved o r f l anged r im b ow ls—bu t n o t f or t he s econd c en tury f l at r i mmed b ow ls a nd d ishes , w h ich w ou ld h ave f or med a n u ns tab le c omb inat ion ( c f . Webster 1 979 , 1 7 ) . T he i ncrease i n d ishes i n G roup 5 3 2

( l arge ly b lack-burn ished w i th p la in r i ms ) c ou ld , t herefore , b e e xp la ined b y s ome o f t hese v esse ls h av ing b een p roduced t o s erve e xc lus ive ly a s l i ds . T h is h ypo thes is i gnores t he p oss ib i l ity o f t he s a me v esse ls h a v ing s erved b o th a s d ishes a nd l i ds , wh ich w ou ld n o t h ave r equ ired a n i ncrease i n n u mbers . Wh i le c ups a nd b eakers a ppear t o h ave ama lgama ted t o f or m a s ing le v esse l c lass , i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he i n crease i n s am ian d ishes c oncea ls t he emergence o f t wo d is t inc t c lasses . I n G roup 1t hey c o mpr ised b o th p la in a nd r ou le t ted v ers ions o f 1 5/17s , 1 8s a nd 1 8/ 31s , t he r ou le t ted v ersion h av ing s l igh t ly d i ff eren t p ropor t ions ( d ist ingu ished a nd d ated b y H ar t ley 1 969 , 2 43f f . a nd 1 972 , 2 9 : c f . Wi ld 1 975 , 1 50 ) . T he sma l l. n u mbers o f t he t wo v ers ions ( s ee T ab le 2 .1) , c onsidered s epara te ly , s ugges t t ha t t hey f or med a l terna t ives , s t i l l o f s im i lar d ep th , w i th in a s ing le c lass . However , t he g rea t ly i ncreased n umbers o f t he r ou le t ted v esse ls i n G roups 2 a nd 3 , t ogether w i th t he g row ing d iferent i a t ion o f s hape , s ugges t t ha t t hey h ad b eco me a n i ndependen t c lass , p erhaps w i th a s l igh t ly d i f feren t f unc t ion . A l though t he p la in f or ms o u tnumber t he r ou let ted o nes o vera l l i n G roup 3 a nd i n t he c ase o f 1 8/31s a nd 1 8/31Rs i n p ar t icu lar , t h is i s n o t t rue o ft he f orms wh ich s ucceeded t he m c . 1 60 , 3 1s a nd 3 1Rs , t he r oulet ted v ers ion s l igh t ly o u tnumber ing t he p la in o ne . T h is n ew r ela t ionsh ip b eco mes more marked i n G roup 4 , where t he Dr .3 1Rs s l igh t ly o u tnumber a l l t he p la in d ishes . Th is c ou ld b e c onnec ted w i th t he c on te mporary d ec l ine i nt rue s am ian b ow l f orms i n t h is c o l lec t ion . F abr ics T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion o f t he f abr ics ( Tab les 2 .2-3 ) t o s o me e x ten t mere ly r ef lec ts t he a ssu mp t ions a bou t d a t ing made a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he d isc uss ion . Af ew p o in ts r e ma in t o b e b rough t o u t . T here i s ag enera l l ack o f f i ne wares i n G roups 1 a nd 3 , p resu mab ly b ecause s am ian was i n p len t ifu l s upp ly . I ndeed , i t s a pparen t f requency , e spec ia l ly i n G roup 3 , must d e trac t s o mewha t f ro m t he s ta tus o f a' prest ige ware ' wh ich a rchaeo log ists g enera l ly g ive i t . L oca l o range f i ne wares , p robab ly f ro m H o l t , f i l led much , b u t n ot a l l , o ft he g ap l ef t b yt he a pparen t Tra jan ic d ec l ine i n s am ian p roduc t ion , b u t b yn o means p r inc ipa l ly i n ' im i ta t ion s am ian ' f or ms . T he c hange f ro m mi l itary t o c iv i l ian s upp l iers c . 1 30 ( Group 3 ) was a cco mpan ied , p erhaps n a tura l ly e nough , b y a n i n i nt he n u mber o f s ources. T h is v ar ie ty c ont inues i n G roup 5 , s upp le men ted b yt he f i ne d r ink ing v esse ls wh ich f i l led t he g ap l e f t b y s am ian , b u t i s r educed s l igh t ly i n G roup 6 . However , i ti s p aradox ica l t ha t i n G roup 3 ac onsiderab le n u mber , i fn o t mos t , o f t he r e la t ively sma l l c lass o f mor tar ia ( a lways a s pecia l ised v esse l l i ab le t o b e t raded o ver l ong d istances ) c a me f ro m s ources wh ich , a l though n o t y e t p rec isely l oca ted , were p robab ly n o t t oo d is tan t ( s ee n o te 3 ) , wh i le t he n umer ica l ly d om inan t c oarse ware f or ms —cook ing p o ts , b ow ls a nd d ishes—s tar ted t o b e i mpor ted i n b lack-burn ished ware. A l though t he s w ing a way f ro m l oca l ly p roduced p o t tery v is ib le i n G roup 3 may p erhaps b e s tronger o n t hese s i tes t han o thers , t he move men t i t se l f was c er ta in ly a g enera l o ne . T hus i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t o f ind t ha t i n t he t h ird c en tury ( Group 5 ) l oca l ly-produced wares h ave v ir tua l ly d isappeared . Among t he p o t tery f ro m d istan t s ources , b lack-burn ished ware i s f o l lowed—a l ong way b eh ind—by S evern V a l ley ware , wh ich f i rs t a ppears i n G roup 3 a nd b eco mes s l igh t ly more i mpor tan t i n G roups 5 a nd 6 , a nd t he wh i te Har tsh i l l- Mance t ter f abr ic , wh ich a ppears a l most e xclus ive ly i n t he f orm o f mor tar ia . However , 3 3

n ei ther o ft hese a re a ny more p ro m inen t t han f i ne c olour-coa ted ' cas tor ware ', a nd b o th a re o u tnumbered b y ' Rhen ish ware '. A s r egards t he q uest ion o f t he r ep lace men t o f s am ian b y o ther wares i nt he T ra jan ic p er iod a nd t he t h ird c en tury , we h ave s o f ar i gnored t he efec t o fu ses urv iva l .

I n f ac t , t he f i rs t c en tury s am ian c onsidered s hows f ew s igns o f

w ear , s uggest ing l ong l i fe ;

t h is t a l l ies w i th t he a pparen t r eady a va i lab i l i ty

o f a ccep tab le s ubst itu tes . B y c on trast , as ign if ican t p ercen tage o f t he l a ter s econd c en tury mater ia l h ad b ecome worn i n u se . T h is a ga in t a l l ies w i th t he l ack o f r ep lace men ts i n t he e ar l ier t h ird c en tury e xcep t i n t he f i e ld o f d r ink ing v esse ls . E ven i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird c en tury , w hen t he n at ive f i ne w are i ndustr ies , f or e xa mp le i n O x fordsh ire , d id b eg in t o manufac ture s am iant ype f or ms , o n t h is s i te a t l east t hey c a me n owhere n ear r ep lac ing s am ian i n n u mer ica l t erms . CONCLUSION T he mechan is ms o f p ot tery s upp ly h ave b een t he s ub jec t o f much d iscuss ion r ecen t ly ( e .g . G reene

1 979 ) , w h ich i ti s n o t i n tended t o e n ter h ere .

S uf f ice

i tt o s ay t ha t a t C hes ter t hree p oss ib le t ypes o f c usto mer c an b e r ead i ly d ist ingu ished : t he m i l i tary g arr ison , t he s taf fs o f o f f ic ia l b u i ld ings s uch a s t he mans io , a nd t he c iv i l ians o f t he c anabae a nd o ther n e ighbour ing s et t le men ts . A l l c ou ld , b u t c erta in ly n eed n o t , h ave h ad d iferen t s upp ly a rrange men ts. The p ot tery f ound a t 7 6 L ower B r idge S treet , i f we a re c orrec t i n r egard ing i ta s r ubb ish f ro m t he mans io , s ee ms t o i nd ica te t ha t , i n t he F lavian-ear ly Hadr ian ic p er iod a t l eas t , t ha t b u i ld ing e n joyed t he s ame s upp ly a s t he m i l i tary . T h is , o f c ourse , i nc luded p ot tery a pparen t ly ma le a t Ho l t . O n t he o ther h and , t he d iscovery i n t he c anabae o f k i ln-was ters c o mpr ising ma in ly f l agons a nd mortar ia i nt ypes a nd f abr ics s im i lar t o , a nd p resumab ly c on te mporary w i th , t hose f ound a t H o l t emphasises t he n eed f or c au t ion i n a ssign ing v essels t ha t h appen t o b e p ara l leled t here t o t ha t o ne wel l-known s ource .4 N ever the less , t he s upposed d iscovery o f s tamped l eg ionary t i les u nder 5 2-4 L ower B r idge S tree t a bou t 1 630 , p resumab ly d ebr is f ro m t he s a me b u i ld ing , c ou ld s uppor t t he a ssump t ion t ha t i nt h is c ase we a re d ea l ing w i th m i l i tary p o t tery . 5 Whether t he s upp ly c on t inued t o b e i den t ica l mus t a wa i t t he p rocess ing o f l arge g roups o f t he s econd t o f our th c entur ies f rom w i th in t he f or tress . C o mpar ison w i th t he p o t tery u sed i n t he c anabae t o t he e as t o f t he f or tress mus t a wa i t t he s c ient i f ic e xcava t ion o f more s i tes i n t ha t a rea . ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS We a re g ra tefu l t o t he C ura tor o f t he G rosvenor Museum , Mr . C . N . Moore , t he F ie ld Of icer o ft he Excava t ion S ec t ion , Mr . T . J . S tr ick land , a nd t he e xc ava tors , Messrs . D . J . P . Mason a nd T . E , Ward , f or p er m iss ion t o u se t he . p o t tery f ro m t hese s i tes f or t he p resen t s tudy .

3 4

T ab le 2 .1

S am ian d ish f or m s ta t ist ics Unrou let ted v ersion

G roup 1

F or m

Rou let ted v ersion

N o . o fv essels

1 8 ( or 1 8/31)

F or m

5 .00-6 .00

No. o fv esse ls

1 8R &

2 .0-3.00

1 8/31R

0 .50

2

1 8/31

6 .41-6 .74

1 8/31R

4 .67-5.34

3

1 8/31

1 4 .60-15.27

1 8/31R

7 .85-8.18

3 1

7 .87

3 1R

8 .33

4

3 1

2 .13

3 1R

4 .42

5

-

_

3 1R

0 .25

T ab le 2 .2

Est i ma ted q uant i t ies o f f abr ics Groups

F abr ics

1

2

3

4

5

6

4 0 .50-

4 .00

0

0

0

0

3 0.26-

1 14 .82-

1 5 .53-

0

0

3 2.26

1 19 .32 ,

1 6 .03

0

4 .80

3 .16

2 .04

S am ian SG

4 4.50 CG

EG

0

0

0

F ine g rey

1 .00

1 .00

0

0

1

0

L yons

1 .00

0

0

0

0

0

i m i ta t ion TN

1 .00

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 .00

0

0

0

7 .50-9 .50

3 .50

o range l oca l

0

o range micaceous

0

1 8.00

C astor

0

0

0

0

R hen ish

0

0

0

0

1 3 .00

0

0

L e zo ux

0

0

0

0

2 .00

0

Ox ford r ed c .c .

0

0

0

0

3 .00

2 .00

w h i te

0

0

0

0

1 .00

0

b uf f

0

0

2 .00

0

0

0

3 5

CD

C .0

0 in

0

0

CD

CD

CD c Y) LC • • cr uD

• cr c e D 1 CD CD 0 CD

0

CD 0

CD

CD CD 0

CD 0

•

VD . o0 1 CD .

c n

CD

C9

N-

u " ) u-

03

r . 1

L r

CD

CD

CD

CD CD CD L i ' ) CD CD • • • ( C D ‚ - r4

CD CD 0

CD CD

CD

C9

0

C9

0 0 C9

CD CD

CD ul •

C>

CD CD •

CD

c n •u z

CD I I CD CD CD CD CD CD in ce CD CD C

CD

CD CD

0

0

CD

cr C9 c r l I I CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD co CD CD CD CD • • • c9

1

C C T >

CD CD CD in

CD CD CD CD CZ CD

00 1 cD I C )

c :D c,) C9 C9

CD CD CD CD C Z > CD CD

• • 1

0

CD CD

CD CD C) CD

ci C -

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CD CD 0 0

0

CD CD CD CD • •

cr

0

CD 0

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CD 0

CD CD CD CD

CD

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c9 ( rD

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C) 0

C9 00 C9 C9

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C. ,

C 7 )

cZ 1 I CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD CD

CD CD

U- cr

Cn I CD CD CD Cn

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1 1

C I D

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TABLE

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r i ) • o e i ) c . ) a )

•c ) .4 0 , 0 ›,5 2 ,cn E g 4 • c p c i) c .) ( 1 ) ( 1 )

• a /

a ) I C a . ) c o a ) b o bn , c r ) 0 ; 3 c t

bp

• c . ) o ( D e l-

II

0 • . 0 0 o 1 II ( 1 ) , C

3 6

a ) a . )

a ) , g

0 0

c ) 12 . c t s a ) a ) a ) c s e a / c ' l ' ; I ; I +, , — , l o b i ) b p b p ° 0 0 0 . r : 2 3 3 3 C )

r I

C e c 4 4

C L )

0 o

4-, C )

4-4 7: 5

bl ) ; . . /

( 1 )

+ ,

" Z i e

; 4

C e

0 0 ; 4 . 2 4 ce g 4 z I rz I I , 7 2 .

O 0

a )

c r ) c 4 1

c e X c l a r = 0

NOTE S 1 .

These a re p r i mar i ly :

t he s ources o f t he F lav ian c oarse wares ;

c ise d a tes o f p ot tery p roduc t ion a t Ho l t ;

t he p re-

t he l oca t ion o ft he l oca l k i lns

( apar t f ro m t hose a lready k nown a t Ho l t , Wi lderspoo l a nd s uspec ted i n t he C hester c anabae ) t ha t w e c an i n fer were s upp ly ing C hester i n t he s econd c en tury a nd t he d ef in it ion o f t he ir r espect ive c o mp lete p roduct-ranges ( t he p roducts o f t he k i lns a t N or thw ich h ave n o t y et b een r ecogn ised a t C hester ) ; t he n ature o f t he p ot tery s upp ly t o t he c anabae ( on wh ich a lso s ee t he C onc lus ion ) a nd t o p oss ib le n e ighbour ing r ura l s et t le men ts w ith n o o f f ic ia l c onnect ions . 2 .

The h igher n u mber o f mor tar ia i n G roup 5 t han i n Group 6 i s p robab ly merely t he r esul t o f i nsecurely s tra t i f ied v essels b e ing d is tr ibu ted e ven ly b etween t he t wo g roups : t he m ,

i nv iew o ft he o vera l l d if ference i n s ize b etween

most o f t he m s hou ld p robab ly h ave b een a ssigned t o Group 5 .

3 .

S o me o f t hose c lassed i n Tab le 2 .3 ( prepared s o me t ime a go ) a s ' O ther o range ' may a lso b e l oca l : s ee Paper 2 8 b e low .

4 .

Th is c au t ion was om i t ted f ro m t he s i te r epor t o n t he p ot tery ( Mason 1 980 , s v. 7 6 L ower B r idge S tree t 1 976 : F inds D iscuss ion ) , wr it ten b efore t he wasters h ad b een s tud ied i n d e ta i l .

T he r eference t o

al arge q uan t ity o f

u ndoub ted ly Hol t p ot tery ' b e ing f ound i n t he c anabae ( Carr ing ton 1 59 , n o te 4 ) a lso n eeds q ua l if ica t ion . 5 .

1 977 ,

A t Caer leon , b y c on trast , n o s ta mped l eg ionary t i les were f ound d ur ing t he e xcava t ion o f t he mans io , f ro m wh ich B oon ( 1 972, 6 0 ) c oncluded t ha t t hese m i li tary p roducts were n o t a va i lab le f or c iv i l ian u se . The a u thors w ish i tt o b e k nown t ha t t he c opyr igh t o f t h is a r t icle l i es w ith t he Chester C i ty C ounci l .

B IBLIOGRAPHY Boon 1 972. B oon , G . C ., I sca : t he Ro man l eg ionary f ortress a t C aerleon , Mon mou thsh ire. N at iona l Museu m o f Wa les , C ard if f , 1 972 . B u l mer 1 979 .

Bu l mer , M ., ' An i n troduc t ion t o Ro man s am ian ware w ith s pecia l

r eference t o c o l lect ions i n C hester a nd t h e n orth wes t ', J . C hes ter Archaeo l . S oc . n .ser . 6 2 ( 1979 f or 1 980 ) , 5 -72 . Carr ing ton 1 977.

C arr ing ton , P ., ' "S evern V a l ley" ware a nd i t s p lace i n t he

Ro man p ot tery s upp ly a t Ches ter : ap rel im inary a ssess men t ' i n Dore , J . &G reene , K . T . ( eds .) , R o man p o t tery s tud ies i n B r i ta in a nd b eyond : p apers p resen ted t o J ohn G i l la m , J u ly 1 977 , B .A .R .S upp l . s er ies 3 0 , Ox ford , 1 977 . D ick inson & Har t ley 1 971.

D ick inson , B . M. & Har t ley , K . F ., ' The e vidence

o fp ot ters ' s ta mps o n s am ian ware a nd o n mortar ia f or t he t rad ing c onn ect ions o fR o man Y ork ' i n Bu t ler , R . M . ( ed .) , S o ldier a nd c iv i l ian i n Ro man Y orksh ire :

Essays t o c o m me mora te t he n ineteen th c en tenary o f

t he f ounda t ion o f Y ork , L eicester , 1 971, 1 27-42. G i l la m 1 976 .

G i l la m , J . P ., ' Coarse f u med ware i n n orth B r i ta in a nd b eyond '

i n S tud ies i n Ro man a rchaeo lggy f or Anne S . Rober tson ( G lasgow Archaeo l . J . 4 ) ( 1 976) , 5 7-80. 3 7

G reene 1 979.

G reene , K . T ., ' I nvas ion a nd r esponse : p o t tery a nd t he

Ro man a r my ' i n Burnha m , B . C . &J ohnson , H . B . ( eds .) , I nvas ion a nd Response : G r i mes 1 930.

t he c ase o f Ro man B r i ta in , B .A . R. 7 3 , Ox ford , 1 979 , 9 9-106 .

G r i mes , W. F ., Ho lt , Denb ighsh ire :

Twen t ie th L eg ion a t Cast le L yons , Har t ley 1 969.

Har t ley , B . R .,

‚S am ian

t he works-depo t o f t he

( Y Cym mrodor 4 1) , 1 930. ware o r T erra S ig i l la ta r i n C o l l ingwood

R . G . &R ich mond , I . A ., The a rchaeo logy o f Ro man B r i ta in ,

L ondon

1 969 , 2 35-51. Har t ley 1 972.

Har t ley , B . R ., ' The Ro man o ccupa t ion o f S cot land :

t he e vi-

d ence o f s am ian ware ', B r itann ia 3 ( 1972) , 1 -55. Mason 1 980.

Mason , D . J . P ., Excava t ions a t C hes ter , 1 1-15 Cas t le S treet

a nd n eighbour ing s i tes 1 974-8:

ap oss ib le R o man p os t ing-house ( mans io ) ,

G rosvenor Museu m Archaeo log ica l Excava t ion a nd S urvey Repor ts n o . 2 , C hester , 1 980. V ince 1 977.

V ince , A . G ., ' So me a spects o f p ot tery q uan t i f ica t ion ', Med ieva l

C era m ics 1 ( 1977) , 6 3-74. Webster 1 976 .

Webster , P . V .,

S evern V a l ley w are :

ap re l im inary s tudy ',

T rans . B r isto l G loucestersh ire Archaeo l . S oc . 9 4 ( 1976 ) , 1 8-46 . Webs ter 1 979.

Webs ter , P . V ., ' Ro mano-Br it ish c oarse p o t tery i n t he n or th

wes t ' i n H igha m , N . J . ( ed.) , The c hang ing p as t :

s o me r ecen t work i n t he

a rchaeology o f n orthern Eng land , Manchester , 1 979 , 1 5-20. Wi ld 1 975.

Wi ld , F ., i Sa m ian ware ' i n Rober tson , A . S ., B irrens ( B la tobu lg iu m ) .

Ed inburgh , 1 975, 1 41-77. Y oung

1 977.

Y oung , C . J ., Ox Eoid s h ire Ro man p ot tery , B . A. R. 4 3 , Ox ford ,

1 977.

3 8

3 .

THE POTTER JUL IOS —

AS UITABLE CASE FOR S TUDY? Va l R igby

Wi th 1 07 r ecorded s tamps f ro m 3 3 s i tes , t he n a me ' Ju l ios ' f igures p ro minen t ly i n a ny d iscussion o n G a l lo-Be lg ic wares .

S tudy i n d ep th o f s uch

ag roup s hou ld b e r eward ing , e ven tua l ly p rov id ing t he k ey t o t he d eve lop men t o f t he i ndus try a s a who le .

There s hou ld b e s u f f ic ien t i nforma t ion t o p rov ide

af irm c hrono logy f or t he i nd iv idua l d ies , i den t i fy p roduc t ion c en tres a nd work o u t t he ma in t rad ing c onnec t ions . An i n i t ia l p roble m i s t o i so la te a n o f f ic ia l n a me f or t he p ot ter , a nd t o r e la te t he a l terna t ive s pe l l ings t o t he a ccep ted o ne , f or t here a re s ix d i f feren t v ers ions , f a l l ing i nto t hree p a irs —Ju l io/Ju l ios , J u l iu/Ju l ius , —as we l l a s a t l eas t t wo misspe l l ings —Ju l los a nd J u l ios i .

J u l l io/Ju l l ios

An u mber o f d i f-

f eren t r e la t ionsh ips c an b e worked o u t o n l i ngu ist ic g rounds , d epend ing u pon wh ich a re i n terpreted a s C e l t ic a nd wh ich a s La t in . A t p resen t , t h is c an b e s ide-s tepped s ince e ven a c ursory g lance a t a ny c orpus o f s am ian s tamps s hows t he w ides t p oss ible s pel ling v ar ia t ions i n t he n a mes o f t he ma jor p rod ucers .

I n c ompar ison w i th s am ian p ot ters , s ix o r e igh t v ers ions o f an a me

i s b y n o means u nusua l , s o a s a work ing h ypo thesis i ti s a ssu med t ha t a l l e igh t v ers ions b e long t o o ne p o t ter , a nd t he mos t c o m mon v ersion , J u l ios , w i l l b e t he a ccep ted n ame .

The im med ia te a im i s t o p rove whether o r n o t

a l l t he v ers ions o f J u l ios b e long t o o ne p o t ter , t o f ind o u t when a nd where h e worked , a nd , when t he r esu l ts warran t i t , t hen t o r e la te t h is t o t he G -B i ndustry a s a who le. A t t h is p o in t t he ma jor s tu mb l ing-block i s e ncoun tered , f or n one o f t he e igh t v ers ions t o b e i nves t iga ted h as b een i den t if ied i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th k i lns where t he p roduc t ion o f s ta mped t erra n igra ( TN ) a nd t erra r ubra ( TR ) i s a t tes ted , n a me ly t he Marne-Ves le p ot ter ies ( Rhei ms a nd i t s e nv irons ) a nd Tr ier , n or i n t hose a reas where p roduc t ion p robably o ccurred — Me tz , K obern a nd Karden , w i th Tr ier , f orm ing t he Mose l le p ot ter ies ; Ma inz , N euss a nd Xan ten i n t he Rh ine land ;

Ver tau l t , Bavay a nd C a mu lodunum .

However ,

where s ta mps h ave b een f ound i n s et t le men ts a nd c e me ter ies a ssoc ia ted w i th TN a nd TR p roduct ion c en tres , t he i n ference h as b een made t ha t l oca l J u l ios p roduc ts wou ld b e p referred t o impor ts . Tab le 1 g ives t he a ssoc ia t ion o f e ach v ersion o f J u l ios w i th v esse l-form a nd f abr ic .

E xc lud ing t he misspe l l ings I VLLOS a nd I VL IOS I

e ach i s f ound

o n c ups , sma l l a nd med ium o r l arge p la t ters , g iv ing a r ange o f f or ms wh ich c ou ld b e c ons idered a s a' set ' a nd h ence t he o u tpu t o f . a n i ndependen t p ot ter o r as epara te b ranch o f as ing le l arge o rgan isa t ion .

The r ange o f f or ms i s

h o mogeneous a nd l imi ted , b eing c onf ined t o C am . f orms 5 , 8 , 1 2 , 5 3 a nd a l l s izes o f 5 6.

A l though b y f ar t he l argest n umber o f s ta mps o ccur o n TN ,

3 9

TABLE 3 .1

The r ange o f f or ms a nd f abr ics

NA ME I VLIO

I VLIOS

FABR ICS

KNO WN FOR MS

1 8 - Tota l 6 - Cups

A l l TN

C am . 5 6 , a l l s izes

7 - Sma l l p l .

A l l TN

C am . 1 2

5 - Forms u nknown

A l l TN

5 1 - Tota l

TR

TN

1 5 - Cups

1

1 4

C am. 5 6, a l l s izes

1 3 - Large p l .

1

1 2

C am . 5

1 6 - Sma l l p l .

1

1 5

C am . 7o r 8 ; 8 ; 1 2

7 - Fabr ics a nd f or ms u nknown I VLLIO

I VLL IOS

I VLIV

1 3 - To ta l

TR

TN

5 - Cups

0

5

5 - Large p l .

2

3

3 - Sma l l p l .

0

3

TR

TN

1 - Cup

0

1

Ca m . 5 6 ( L )

1 - Large p l.

0

1

Cam. 5

2 - Sma l l p l .

0

2

Ca m. 8 ; 1 6

4 - Tota l

1 3 - Tota l

C am . 5 6 ( L ) Cam. 7 o r 8

TR

TN

9 - Cups 1 - Large p l .

3 1

6 0

C am . 5 3 ; 5 6A ; 5 6B; a l l s izes

2 - Sma l l p l .

2

1

Ca m . 1 2

1 - Fabr ic a nd f or m u nknown I VLIVS

I VLLOS

I VLIOSI

3 - Tota l

TR

TN

1 - Cup

1

0

2 - Sma l l p l .

1

1

TR

TN

1 - Large p l .

0

1

1 - Sma l l p l .

0

1

2 - Sma l l p l .

0

2

2 - Tota l

Abbrev iat ions p l . -p latter L -l arge

4 0

Cam. 8

C am . 8

f our o f t he s ix v ers ions a re f ound o n b o th TN a nd TR—IVL IOS , I VLLIOS , I VL IV a nd I VL IVS .

The o u tpu t o f TR o u ts tr ipped t ha t o f TN i n t he l a te

Augustan p er iod , d i min ished d ur ing t he T iber ian p er iod a nd h ad c eased b y t he e nd o f t he Neron ian p er iod .

F or J u l ios t he c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions

a re i n terest ing , w i th I VL IV a ppear ing a s t he e ar l ies t v ers ion u sed i n t he l a te Augustan p er iod b ecause a l mos t h a lf o f t he s tamps o ccur o n TR , wh i le I VL IO , I VLLIOS a nd I VLLOS s hou ld b e C laud io-Neron ian d ue t o t he a bsence o f TR . Tab le 3 .2 s hows t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he v ar ious v ers ions o f J u l ios . More t han h a lf o f t he I VL IO s ta mps o ccur o n t he c on t inen t , c oncen tra ted i n a nd a round Tr ier , a nd e xam ina t ion o f e xamp les a t Tr ier s uppor ts t he c ase f or a l oca l p roduc t ion c en tre .

H owever , j ust u nder h a lf o ccur o n s i tes i n

Br i ta in , e spec ia l ly Ca mu lodunu m , wh ich r a ises t he p oss ibi l i ty o f t igh t t rad ing l i nks w i th Tr ier , o r a Br i t ish p roduct ion c en tre .

I n c on trast , I VL IOS , w i th

b y f ar t he g rea test n u mber o f s ta mps , h as a much w ider a nd s parser d is tr ib u t ion , wh ich o n t he c on t inen t i s a l most mu tua l ly e xc lus ive o f I VL IO . W i th n o o bv ious c oncen tra t ion o f f i nds , t he weigh t o f n umbers f avours n or thern F rance , p ossib ly Bavay , o r t he L ower Rh ine land .

The p resence o f I VL IOS ,

a tb oth Ha ltern a nd H ofhe im s hows t ha t t h is v ers ion was i n u se b efore A .D . 9a nd s o was c on te mporary w i th I VL IV , b u t was s t i l l c urren t i n t he C laud ian p er iod .

Despi te t h is w ide a nd e ar ly c ont inen ta l d istr ibu t ion , more I VL IOS

s tamps h ave b een f ound a t C amu lodunu m t han a broad , a ga in s uggest ing p rod uc t ion i n Br i ta in . Turn ing t o t he I VLL IO/ IVLL IOS a ssoc ia t ion , Ca mu lodunum a ga in t ops t he l i st w i th 1 3 e xamp les a nd i s t hus t he o bv ious s ource .

The o n ly p oss ib le

e xa mp le f ro m a c on t inen ta l s i te i s ad ouble-l ine s tamp o f d oubtfu l r ead ing , o n TR , f ro m A lesia , wh ich o n t ypo log ica l c r i ter ia i s a l ien t o t h is g roup , a nd may e ven b e ad i f feren t n ame . Over h a lf o f t he r ecorded e xamp les o f I VL IV , l ike I VL IO ,

a re f rom w ide ly

d istr ibu ted c on t inen ta l s i tes , b u t w i th a marked c oncen tra t ion a t Tr ier .

I n

Br i ta in t he d is tr ibu t ion i s f or o nce n o t d om ina ted b y Camu lodunu m , w i th t hree e xamp les f ro m t he K ing H arry Lane C e metery , S t A lbans , a nd t wo f ro m P ucker idge/Braugh ing .

T ypo log ica l ly , I VL IV s hou ld b e t he e ar l ies t v ers ion ,

a nd e v idence p rov ided b y Br i t ish f i nds s uppor ts a d a te f or i t s u se b e tween 1 0 B .C. a nd A .D . 2 0.

S tr ic t ly p aroch ia l i n t he ir d istr ibu t ion p a t tern a re I VL IVS

a nd t he t wo misspe l l ings , t he f ormer c onf ined t o t he Midd le Rh ine land , a nd t he l a t ter t o B r i t ish s i tes ;

t he ir n umbers a re t oo sma l l f or i n terpre ta t ion .

The d istr ibu t ion p a t terns o f t he d i f feren t n ame v ers ions s ugges t a s many a s f i ve d if feren t J u l ios e s tabl ish men ts a t work f ro m t he l a te Augustan t o t he Neron ian p er iod .

I VL IV a nd I VL IO were a pparen t ly i n u se a t Tr ier , t he

f or mer i n t he l a te Augus tan p er iod a nd t he l a t ter s o mewha t l a ter .

I VL IOS

was u sed i n a t l eas t t wo e stabl ishmen ts , o ne i n n or thern France ( poss ibly Bavay ) o r t he L ower Rh ine land , i n t he l a te Augustan p er iod , a nd t he s econd a t Ca mu lodunum , a t al a ter d a te , p ossibly a ssoc ia ted w i th I VLL IO/ IVLL IOS/ I VLLOS.

A c en tre i n t he Midd le Rh ine land a ppears t o h ave b een t he o n ly o ne

t o u se I VL IVS .

4 1

TABLE 3 .2

The d istr ibu t ion o f e ach v ersion o f J u l ios

S ITE

I VL IO I VL IOS I VLL IO I VLL IOS I VL IV I VL IVS I VLLO I VL IOSI

TR IER WEDERATH

3( + )

MECKEL

1 (+ )

STAHL

1 (+ )

1 ( 4 )

LEBACH

3 1 1 1

METZ

1

N IJ ME GE N

3

HUNNERBERG

2

1

XANTEN

1

KOLN ANDERNACH

1

WEISENAU

2

SPEYER

2

1

1

1

HALTERN

1

HOFHEI M

1

AVENCHES

1

BAVAY

1

AM IENS

1

P ITRES

1

CHALONS

1

ALES IA CA MULODUNU M

? 1 4

ESSEX WH ITE NOTLEY

2 5 2

1 1

2

2

1

BRAUGH ING

2

BALDOCK

2

SNAIL WELL

2 1

DUSTON

1

VERULA MIU M

3

THATCHA M

1

CH ICHESTER

1

1 2

JORDAN H ILL

1 7

TOTAL

1

1

1 8

3 3

1 3

4

5 1

1 3

5

4 2

6 1 3

0

2

2

3

2

2

Hav ing d ea l t w i th t he v ers ions o f J u l ios ,

t he d ies must b e s tud ied i n

d e ta i l , a nd a l l t he i n forma t ion i s p resen ted i n Tab le 3 .3. a3 -f igure c ode r eferr ing d irec t ly t o i t s d ie .

Each s ta mp h as

The i n i t ia l n u mber g ives t he

v ers ion o f t he n a me u sed , t he c en tra l l e t ter c lass if ies t he s ty le o f t he d ie a nd t he f ina l n u mber r e fers t o t he n u mber o f d ies i n t ha t p ar t icu lar s ty le . The me thod a ssumes t ha t i n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther e v idence , d ies w i th marked ly d if ferent s ty les were c u t b y d i f feren t d ie-cu t ters , wh i le t hose o f c lose ly s im ilar s ty le were c u t b y t he s ame h and . The c r i ter ia f or c harac ter ising t he s tyles o f ' Ju l ios ' d ies a re c h ief ly t he p resence o f a bsence o f ab order , s ing le- o r d ouble-l ine a rrange men ts a nd t he p resence o f o ther n a mes a nd/or AVOTIS .

O nce t he i n i t ia l d iv is ion

h as t aken p lace , a ccoun t i s t aken o f t he s hape a nd s ize o f t he l e t ters , a nd t he u se o f s tops o n t he d ie-face . There a re 1 9 s ta mps f ro m s even b ordered , s ing le-l ine d ies , b ear ing t he n ame v ersions I VLIO a nd I VL IOS.

O n ly t wo t ota l ly d i f feren t d ie-s tyles a re

r epresen ted , Ba nd H , t he s tyle d iv is ion c oinc id ing e xac t ly w i th t he s pe l l ing d if ference .

H -d ies o ccur o n as u f f ic ien t ly w ide r ange o f f orms t o i nd ica te

as epara te e s tab l ish men t , wh i le B-d ies a re c onf ined t o c ups , a nd f orm o n ly p ar t o f ap roduc t ion r ange .

Desp i te t he p redo m inance o f C amu lodunu m , t he

s ource f or s tyle H p resumab ly must b e s ough t o n t he c on t inen t , a l though n o o bv ious s i te i s s ugges ted b y t he d is tr ibu t ion . Assoc ia t ions i n t he c e me ter ies o f Wedera th a nd L ebach , c o mbined w i th t he r ange o f f orms r epresen ted a nd t he c oncen tra t ion o n TN f abr ics , p oin ts t o p roduc t ion w i th in t he p er iod A .D . 2 5-55 . The u nbordered d ies c o mpr ise n ine d oub le-l ine s tamps w i th n a me v ersions I VL IO a nd I VL IOS , o n sma l l o r med ium TN p la t ters .

The f i ve d i f feren t d ies

—C ( 3 ) , D a nd K—represen t t hree d i f feren t d ie-cu t ters , a l though D a nd K c ou ld b e b y t he s a me h and .

The a ssoc ia t ion o f t he s lave A tesa t i w i th I VL IOS

a ppears t o b e c on f ined t o Br i ta in , b u t c on t inen ta l s ources a re i nd ica ted f or a l l o ther d oub lel ine d ies , w i th a n ea t a nd p red ic table d iv ision i n t he d is tr ibu t ion —IVL IO a round Tr ier a nd I VL IOS i n t he L ower Rh ine land ( see p .

) .

I t

a ppears t ha t wh i le t he C h iches ter p la t ter c a me f ro m t he Mose l le p ot ter ies , t he C a mu lodunu m p iece c ame f ro m n or thern France o r t he Rh ine land .

A l l

t hree s ty les c over o n ly p ar t o f t he l i ke ly o u tpu t o f ap o t ter , i .e . sma l l mou lded p la t ters i n TN . G iven t he s pec ia l ised u se o f I VL IO A-d ies f or c ups , i ti s t e mp t ing t o s ee t he C -d ies a s b e ing u sed o n t he ma tch ing sma l l p la t ters a t t he Tr ier J u l ios p o t ter ies , f or t he l e t ter ing s ty les a re c o mpa table . Ag roup o f e igh t s ing le-l ine s ta mps i nc lude a bbrev ia t ions o f AVOT IS ( J-d ies ) , a l l o ccur o n l arge TN p la t ters . The t hree d ies a re a l mos t i den t ica l a nd were c lear ly c u t b y t he s ame d ie- maker who a pparen t ly worked a t C a mu lodunu m . They may b e r e la ted t o E , F - a nd G -d ies . B y f ar t he g rea tes t n u mber a re c lassi f ied a s s ing lel ine u nbordered d ies , w i th n o a dd i t iona l l e t ters . The most e as i ly i den t if iab le g roups a re t he 1 3 s ta mps marked I VL IV .

Two we l l d i f feren t ia ted s tyles a re r epresen ted , s tyle

M , w i th c are fu l ly f ormed e longa ted l e t ters , a nd s tyle N , w i th s o mewha t c arel ess a nd e ccen tr ic l e t ters wh ich h ave s tops a s s er iphs , a nd a re t o ta l ly u n l ike a ny o ther g roup o f d ies .

Desp i te t he d i f ferences , o n c hrono log ica l a nd

4 3

TA BLE 3 .3

STA MP

The i den t if icat ion o f t he d ies

D IE

POSITION

FOR M

FABRIC

S ITE

I VL IO

1 B1

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M I

I VL [ I0 1

1 B1

C

s .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL [ IO ]

1 B1

C

s .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL :IoS

2H1

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M I I-IV

I VL :IoS

2H1

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M

[ IVI] : I oS

2H1

R

1 .p l .

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

I VL :IoS

2H1

C

8

TN

CROOKHA M HOUSE

I VL .IoS

2H2

C

7o r 8

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL .IoS

2H2

C

8

TN

WEDERATH GR. 1 049

I VL.IoS

2H2

C

5 6

TN

HUNNERBERG

I VL.IoS

2H2

C

5 6

TN

LEBACH GR .45

I VL :IoS

2H3

C

5 6v .s.

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL :IoS

2H3

C

7o r 8

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL :IoS

2H4

C

1 2

TN

N IJ ME GEN 0

I VL :IoS

2H5

C

s .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

[NI] : I oS

2H5

C

5 6v .s.

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL :IoS

2H5

C

5 6

TR

I VL .IoS

2H6

f orm & f abr ic u nknown

WEISENAU

I VL .IoS

2H6

f or m & f abr ic u nknown

WEISENAU

I OAV

1 C1

C

s .p l .

TN

CH ICHESTER

C 2

C

s .pl .

TN

TR IER

1 C2

C

s .p l .

TN

MECKEL

1 C3

C

s .p l .

TN

SPEYER

2D1

C

s .p l .

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

2D1

C

s .p l .

TN

VERULA M IU M

HUNNERBERG

I VLIO I OVA I VLIO I OVA I VL IO IAV I I I VLIO ATESTATI I VLIOS AV ATESTATI I VL IOS AV

4 4

STA MP I VL IOS

D IE

POSIT ION

FOR M

FABR IC

S ITE

2K1

C

8

TN

N IJ MEGEN S

I VL IOS AVOTIS

2K1

C

8

TN

N IJ MEGEN S

I VL IOS

2K1

C

8

TN

CA MULODUNU M

AVOTIS

AV OTIS I VL IOSAV

2 J1

R

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M V

I VL IOSAV

2 J1

R

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOSAV

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOSAV

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOSAV

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOSAV

l ip ' . 1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

TN

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOS AVO [ IVL IOS 1 AVO I VLIV

6M1

C

5 6s

TN

BRAUGH ING

I VL IV

6M1

C

1 2

TR

N IJ MEGEN 0

I VL IV

6N1

C

5 6As

I VL IV

6N1

C

1 2

TR1 (C )K ING HARRY LANE TN K ING HARRY LANE

I VL IV

6N1

C

5 6As

TN

I VL IV

C C

5 6s 5 6BL

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IV

6N1 6N2

TN

TR IER - ' A ' Ware

I VL IV

6N3

C

5 6As

TN

TR IER

I VL IV

6N4

C

5 6L

TN

TR IER

I VL IV

6N5

C

5 6A

TN

CHALONS-s-MARNE

K ING HARRY LANE

[ IVI] I V

6N6

C

1 .p l .

TR1(B ) BRAUGH ING

I VL IV

6N7

C

5 3L

TR1 (A ) METZ

I VL IV

6N?

? 'f abr ic u nknown f orm I

I VL IVS

8

TR

KOLN

I VL IVS

701 701

8

TN

KOLN

I VL IVS

702

c up

TR

WEISENAU

4 5

XANTEN

STA MP

D IE

POSITION C

FOR M 5 6CL

FABR IC TN

S ITE

I VL IO

1 A1

CROOKHA M HOUSE

I VL IO

1 A1

C

5 6AL

TN

WEDERATH GR . 1 84

I VL IO

1 A1

C

5 6As

TN

TR IER

I VL IO

1A1

C

5 6

TN

TR IER

I VLIO

1 ? ? 5o thers f or m 8 1f abr ic u nknown TR IER : MECKEL : _STAHL

I VLL IO

3A2

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VLLIO

3A2

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IO

1 E2

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M I

I VL IO

1 E2

C

5 6

TN

WH ITE NOTLEY , E ssex

I VL IOS

2 E1

C

5 6

TN

BRAUGHING

I VLIOS

2 E1

C

5 6L

TN

GRIGGS BRIDGE , BRAUGHING

[ I ] VL IOS

2E1

C

5 6s

TN

CA MULODUNU M I I-IV

I VL IOS

2 E1

R

5

TR

HALTERN

I VL IOS

2F1

R

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M I

I VL [ IOS ]

2F1

C

1 .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VLIO[S ]

2F1

R

1 .p l .

TN

ESSEX

I VL IOS

2F2

C

5 6As

TN

HOFHEI M

I VLIOS

2G1

C

8

TN

BALDOCK BURIAL CA MULODUNU M V

I VLIOS

2G1

C

5 6

TN

M VL IOS

2G1

C

5 6

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL [ IOS ]

2G1

C

s .pl .

TN

BALDOCK

I VL IOS

2G2

C

s .p l .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

[ IV ]L IOS

2G2

C

s .pl .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL IOS

2G8

C

5 6L

TN

BAVAY

I VL IOS

2G4

C

s .p l.

TR

KOLN

I VLL IO

3G3

C

s .p l.

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

I VLL IO

3G3

C

s .p l.

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VLL IO

3G3

C

7o r 8

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL[LIO ]

3G3

R

1 .pl .

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VL[L IO ]

3G3

R

1 .pl .

TR1 (C ) CA MULODUNU M

I VL[L IO ]

3G3

R

1 .p l .

TR1(C ) CA MULODUNU M

[ 'VI] L IO

3G3

R

1 .p l .

TN

4 6

CA MULODUNU M

S TA MP

D IE

POSIT ION

FOR M

FABRIC

S ITE

I VL[L IO ]

3G3

R

1 .p 1 .

TN

E SSEX

I VLL IO

3G5

C

5 6L

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

I VLL IO

3 G6

C

5 6L

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

I VLL IO

3 G6

C

5 6L

TN

SNAIL WELL

I VLL IOS

4G7

C

8

TN

DUSTON

I VLL IOS

4G7

C

5 6L

TN

CA MULODUNU M

I VLL IOS

4G7

C

5

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

I VLLOS

5G9

R

1 .p l .

TN

SHEEPEN 1 970

[ IV ] LLOS

5G 9

C

7o r 8

TN

CAMULODUNU M

I VL IO [

???

I VL IOS

2 ??

I VL IOS

2 ??

f orm & f abr ic u nknown

S TAHL

I VLIOS

2 ??

f or m & f abr ic u nknown

AM IENS

I VLIOS

2 ??

f orm & f abr ic u nknown

P ITRES

I VL IOS

2 ? ?

f orm & f abr ic u nknown

AVENCHES

I VL 'OS

2P1

TR

ALESIA

S oI I IV I

4Q1

TN

JORDAN H ILL

I VL IOS I

8 R1

TN

CH ICHESTER

I VL IOSI ?

8 R1

TN

CH ICHESTER

f orm & f abr ic u nknown 5

TN

PAR IS ANDERNACH

I VL ' OS

Abbrev iat ions C -c en tra l

R -r ad ia l

s .p l . - sma l l p lat ter

1 .p l . -l arge p la t ter

L -l arge

S . - sma l l

V -v ar ian t

5 6 A , B , C , -s tandard ized f or m v ar ian ts

rea m ware : TR1 ( A) - c

r ed s l ip o n u pper s urface

ed s l ip o vera l l TR1 ( B ) -r range ware : TR1 ( C ) -o NB .

r ed s l ip o n u pper s ur face

C rookha m House = T hakha m

4 7

t ypo log ica l g rounds b o th c ou ld b e long t o t he s ame p o t ter who worked i n t he l a te Augustan p er iod i n t he V es le a nd/or t he Mose l le p o t ter ies . I VL IVS a ppears u nconnec ted w i th I VL IV b ecause o f d i f ferences i n d ies tyle , f orms a nd f abr ics , a nd h ence t ypo log ica l d a t ing e v idence .

H e l ooks

l i ke a sma l l i ndependen t p roducer work ing i n t he M idd le R h ine land i n t he p er iod A .D . 3 0-60 . The r e ma in ing 4 4 s tamps a re c ompara t ive ly h o mogeneous w i th a l most i nd ist ingu ishab le d ie-s tyles , a l though t hey r epresen t f ive n ame v ersions — I VL IO/ IVL IOS a nd I VLL IO/ IVLL IOS/ IVLLOS. I VL IO d ie 1 A1 a nd I VLL IO d ie 3 A2 a re s o v ery s im i lar i n s ty le , b u t t he ir d is tr ibu t ions a re s o d i f feren t , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t t hey were u sed a t t he s ame p roduc t ion c entre .

Tr ier

a ppears t o h ave b een t he c en tre u sing d ie 1 A1 , wh i le C amu lodunu m l ooks t o h ave b een t he s ource o f d ie 3 A2. Th is s i mi lar i ty i n s tyle may i nd ica te a move f ro m Tr ier t o C a mu lodunum. The o n ly e xamp le o f d ie 1 A1 f ound i n Br i ta in t o d a te , i s f ro m n ear Tha tcham.

Fro m t he v iew p oin t o f t rac ing

t rad ing c onnec t ions a nd c hrono logy , i ti s s ign i f ican t t ha t i t was f ound w i th t he b ordered I VL IOS d ie 2H1 , f or t hese t wo n ame v ers ions h ave mu tua l ly e xc lusive d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns o n t he c on t inen t . The mos t s ign i f ican t s tamp mus t b e t ha t f ro m Ha l tern wh ich i s f ro m t he I VL IOS d ie 2 E1 ,

N o o ther e xamp les f ro m t h is d ie h ave b een i dent if ied o n t he

c on t inen t , b u t t here a re t hree f ro m Br i ta in , a l l o n TN c ups o f C am . 5 6 —two f rom Braugh ing a nd o ne f ro m C a mu lodunu m .

I ti s s urpr is ing f or a l a te

Augus tan d ie t ha t t he Br i t ish f inds o u tnu mber t he c on t inen ta l , a l though a s im il ar s i tua t ion e x is ts w i th t he t ypo log ica l ly e ar ly g roups o f I VL IV d ies , s tyles M a nd N ( see p . 4 2 ) .

I ts ee ms t ha t f ro m a n e ar ly d a te t he G -B p ot ters e x-

p or ted a h igh p ropor t ion o f t he ir o u tpu t t o Br i ta in , t hrough C amu lodunu m . T he d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern i s n o h e lp i n l oca t ing t he p roduc t ion c en tre u s ing d ie 2 E1 .

C ircums tan t ia l e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he V es le p ot ter ies were

t he s ource o f a t l eas t s ix o ther s ta mps f ro m Ha l tern mak ing i to ne o f , i fn o t t he mos t i mpor tan t p roduc t ion c en tre i n t he l a te A ugus tan p er iod a nd a s trong c and ida te f or t he s i te o f J u l ios ' e ar l iest a c t iv i t ies . A l ong way s econd i n i n terest i s t he F g roup o f d ies , f or I VLIOS d ie 2 F2 i s r epresen ted a t H o fhe im .

U n for tuna te ly , t he s tyles o f b o th E - a nd F-d ies

a re s im i lar , b e ing s ingu lar ly l ack ing i n e as i ly r ecogn isable e ccen tr ic i t ies a nd h av ing t he s ame n a me v ers ions .

H owever , t here i s as u f f ic ien t d i f ference

f or t he m t o b e t he work o f d i f feren t d ie- makers wh ich g iven t he c hrono log ica l s epara t ion o f Ha l tern a nd H ofhe im , a nd t he o therw ise a bsence o f g ood d a t ing e v idence , i s e x tre me ly f or tuna te.

A l though t he s tyle a nd v ersion were l ong-

l i ved , t he maker o f d ie 2 E1 was n o t . D ie-s ty les F , Ga nd p oss ibly A , a re l i ke ly t o h ave b e longed t o o ne d iec u t ter , a nd t h is h as g rea t s ign if icance f or C amu lodunu m , f or G -d ies e nco mp ass I VLL IO/ IVLL IOS/ IVLLOS v ers ions , a l l r es tr ic ted i n t he ir d istr ibu t ion t o Br i ta in .

E ven I VLIOS G -d ies a re l im ited t o t wo c on t inenta l s i tes —Bavay

a nd Kö ln , where s tamped TN p roduc ts may h ave b een made ( d ies 2G4 & 8 ) . I ti s w i th t hese d ies t ha t t he n ame v ers ion a nd d ie s tyle d is tr ibu t ions o ver lap t o i so la te t he ma in b ody o f J u l ios ' s ta mps f ound a t C amu lodunu m .

Wi th 1 7

o u t o f t he 2 4 Br i t ish s tamps , C a mu lodunum d o mina tes t he l i st , b u t i t i s

4 8

i n teres t ing t ha t t he o ther Br i t ish s i tes r epresen ted h ave n o t b een p rev ious ly men t ioned :

Ba ldock ( 2 ), i nc lud ing o ne i n a n e ar ly C laud ian b ur ia l ( excava t ions

b y I . M. S tead , f or thco ming ;

L e tchwor th Museu m );

S na i lwe l l , i n ar ich

T iber io-C laud ian c re ma t ion b ur ia l ( Le thbr idge 1 953 , f ig . 3 , 5 3 .15A ) , Duston , Nor than ts , u ngrouped , b u t f ro m t he c re ma t ion c e me tery d es troyed b y q uarrying ( Nor tha mp ton Museum ) . The r ange o f f orms r epresen ted b y t he G g roup o f d ies i s y et a no ther wh ich wou ld b e c ons is ten t w i th a s epara te e s tabl ish men t work ing i n t he p er iod A .D . 2 5-55 . The r e trograde v ers ion i n terpre ted a s I VLL IOS , f ound i n ab ur ia l g roup f ro m J ordan H i l l , Wey mou th , d oes n ot b e long t o a ny o f t he p rev ious ly d iscussed s ty le g roups.

The c o mbina t ion o f s uch a d if feren t d ie , w i th a n o therw ise

u nrepresen ted p la t ter f orm ( Ca m . 1 6 ) , ad if feren t q ua l i ty o f TN f abr ic a nd a d oubt fu l r ead ing a ch ieved o n ly b y , t he e ye o f f a i th , s ure ly i nd ica tes a c o mp le te ly i ndependen t p o t ter —and d ie- maker .

I fi td oes b e long t o t he J u l ios g roup t hen

i ti s t he o n ly p iece i n t he p resen t l i s t o f N eronian t o e ar ly F lav ian d a te . J u l ios a ppears t o h ave u sed b etween e igh t a nd 1 6 d i fferen t d ie- makers o ver ap er iod o f b etween 5 0 a nd 7 0 y ears .

C er ta in s tyles a re c onf ined t o ap ar t i-

c u lar n a me v ers ion ( e .g . d ie g roups H a nd N ) , p oss ib ly i nd ica t ing s epara te , e ven i ndependen t e s tab l ish men ts . Bu t o ther s ty les o ver lap , s uggest ing t ha t d i f feren t v ers ions were c u t b y o ne d ie- maker , a t d i f feren t t imes , f or o ne p o t ter : t he F a nd G d ies r epresen t ing I VL IOS , I VLL IO , I VLL IOS a nd I VLLOS a re a n otable e xamp le .

I n t he a bsence o f e v idence f ro m k i ln s i tes , t he d is-

t r ibu t ions o f n ame v ers ions a nd d ie s ty les c an b e u sed t o s ugges t p roduc t ion c en tres . Tak ing t he s i tes i n c hrono log ica l o rder , t he s equence i s : Rhe i ms-Ves le

-I VL IOS E , F , G

b efore A .D . 9 ; a f ter A .D . 9 ; T iber io-C laud ian

I VL IV M I VL IO B

l a te Augus tan l a te Augustan

Me tz

-I VL IV N

l a te Augus tan

Tr ier- Mose l le

-I VL IV N

l a te Augus tan

p ot ter ies I VL IO A , C , K

C laud io-Neron ian

Bavay

-I VL IOS G

T iber io-C laud ian

Kd l n

-I VL IOS G I VL IVS 0

T iber io-C laud ian C laud io-Neron ian

Nor thern France/

-I VL IOS G

T iber io-C laud ian

I VLIOS H

T iber io-C laud ian

-I VL IO B , E

T iber io-C laud ian

Lower Rh ine land Nor thern France/ Ma inz -We isen a u Camu lodunu m

I VL IOS D , G . J

T iber io-C laud ian

I VLL IO A , G

C laud io-Neron ian

I VLL IOS G

C laud io-Neron ian

I VLLOS G

C laud io-Neron ian

Produc t ion may h ave b egun i n o r n ear Rhe i ms , i n .t he Ves le p o t ter ies , t hen e xpanded t o o ther c en tres , w i th p ar t icu lar ly f l our ish ing o u tpu t a nd t rade i n t he T iber io-C laud ian p er iod .

4 9

The p osi t ion o f Camu lodunum i n t he d iscuss ion h as emerged a s u n ique , f or n ot o n ly h as t he g rea test n umber o f J u l ios s tamps b een f ound t here , b u t o n ly t wo s tyles , A a nd B , a nd t wo n ame v ers ions , I VL IVS a nd I VL IOSI , a re n o t r epresen ted .

I n s p i te o f t h is c oncen tra t ion o f f inds , e specia l ly f rom

F- a nd G -d ies , t here i s n o e v idence i n t he f orm e ven o f ' seconds ' , n ever mind wasters , t o a ssoc ia te a ny p ot ter J u l ios , whe ther a n i ndependen t worker o r ab ranch e s tab lish men t , w i th C amu lodunu m . Mere weigh t o f n u mbers i s n o tor ious ly r isky e v idence b ecause i ti s a f fec ted b y s o many i ndef inab le e x traneous f ac tors.

The Br i t ish ma ter ia l h as b een t horough ly s tud ied , b u t

al arge b ody o f c on t inen ta l f inds r e ma ins t o b e e xamined ; much i s u npubl ished , a nd e ven t he p ub l ished s tamps may i nc lude i ncorrec t r ead ings .

A d e ta i led

s tudy o f t he r e ma in ing c on t inen ta l ma ter ia l c ou ld r esu l t i n av ery d i f feren t d istr ibu t ion p a t tern .

Whe ther o r n ot C amu lodunu m was a p roduc t ion c en tre ,

i t was t he ma in e n try p oin t f or G -B wares u n t i l A .D . 6 0 , b y wh ich t ime a dd i t iona l r ou tes h ad b een s e t u p t o s upp ly t he a rmy s ta t ioned i n t he mi l i tary z one west a nd n or th o f t he F osse . S uch a n i n tens ive s tudy o f J u l ios s ta mps h as h igh ligh ted t he l ack o f c onc re te e v idence f or l oca t ing p roduc t ion c en tres a nd d a t ing t he p roduc ts.

T he

e f fec t iveness o f t he d is tr ibu t ion p a t terns i s r educed b y t he o verwhe l ming p ropor t ion o f f inds f ro m C amu lodunu m a nd c oup led w i th s o many u nknown f ac tors c oncern ing t he c on t inen ta l ma ter ia l , means t ha t t he p rec ise n u mber a nd l ocat ion o f e s tab l ish men ts u s ing t he n a me J u l ios r e ma ins u ncerta in . T he work ing-l ife o f J u l ios s uggested b y d ies 2 E1 a nd 2F2 i s t oo l ong f or a s ing le i nd iv idua l when c o mpared t o t hose e st i mated f or s am ian p ot ters , b u t i s n o t t oo l ong f or a f am i ly f ir m . r esen ts a s ing le o rgan isat ion ,

I ft he n a me J u l ios i n a l l i t s v ers ions r ep-

i t was l arge a nd c o mp lex , u sing t he s erv ices

o f a t l east e ight d if feren t d ie-cu t ters a nd o ne n a med s lave , A tes tat i .

T here

were a t l east t hree d if feren t p roduct ion c en tres o n t he c on t inen t , q u ite a par t f ro m C a mu lodunu m , a nd t he b us iness s urv ived f or b etween 5 0 a nd 7 0 y ears . F ro m i t s i ncep t ion , a ma jor p art o f t he o utput w as e xpor ted t o C a mu lodunu m f or d istr ibu t ion i n B r ita in .

B IBL IOGRAPHY L e thbr idge , T . C ., 1 953 .

' Bur ia l o f a n I ron Age Warr ior a t S na i lwe l l ' ,

Proc . C a mb. A n t . S oc . XLV I I ( 1953 ) , 2 5-37.

5 0

4 . TERRA N IGRA - TYPE WARES FRO M CHESTER Margaret Ward ( nee B u l mer )* I NTRODUCTION The o verwhelming b u lk o f t he f ine p o t tery r each ing C hes ter' i nt he f irst c en tury A .D. was s am ian ;

amongs t t he r e ma inder i s a sma l l n u mber o f f i ne ,

d ark-sur faced v esse ls wh ich s hare t o ag rea ter o r l esser d egree i n t he s o-ca l led T erra N igra t radi t ion .

The a im o f t h is p aper i s t o c ons ider t he i n terre la t ion-

s h ip o f t hese v essels , r eferred t o c o l lect ive ly h ere a s ' Terra N igratype wares ', a nd t heir p os i t ion i n t he p o t tery s upp ly t o C hes ter . There i s a n i ni t ia l p rob le m o f d ef in i t ion . On t he Con t inen t t he t er m T erra N igra i s u sed t o c over a w ide v ar iety o f g rey o r b lack f abr ics w i th d ark s ur faces , whe ther b urn ished o r s l ipped. C onverse ly , i n B r i ta in , t he t er m T erra N igra ( TN ) i s g eneral ly a pp l ied t o c er ta in p roducts o f a 'G a l lo-Be lg ic ' i ndustry ( see R igby 1 973 , 7 f .) , l arge ly c ups a nd p la t ters i n c harac ter is t ic f ine wh i te/grey p astes w i th d ark , p ol ished s urfaces . However , t here i s i ncreas ing e v idence t ha t t he TN v essels f ound i n B r i ta in d id n ot a l l c o me f ro m Ga l l ia B e lg ica . F or e xamp le , c onsiderab le v ar ia t ions i n s urface t rea tmen t , c olour a nd p as te c an b e d iscerned w i th t he o vera l l f abr ic r ange ( Rigby 1 973 , 1 3) , a nd s o me o f t he s o-ca l led ' genu ine ', i .e . s upposed ly imported , TN may i nd eed h ave b een made i n B r i ta in ( s ee Hawkes & Hu l l 1 947 , 2 04 ; R igby 1 973 , 2 0 ) .

Dr . K . T . G reene , i n ar ecen t d iscuss ion o f t he d i f f icu l t ies o f t er m in-

o logy ( 1 979 , 1 06f .) , n o ted a g enera l r eluctance t o c a l l b ow l f or ms t erra n igra a nd , i n Br i ta in , t o u se t he t er m f or a ny th ing j ar-shaped .

He i nc luded i n h is

c a tegory o f t erra n igra , v esse ls i n f abr ics wh ich e lsewhere h ave b een c a l led Im i ta t ion Terra N igra ( I TN ) , a nd s o me o f wh ich may b e o f B r i t ish manu fact ure.

C lear ly , t herefore , t here i s an eed t o d ef ine f abr ics a nd t o i den t i fy

s ources b efore t he t er m ino logy c an b e s a t isfactor i ly r evised. I n t h is p aper , t he t er ms TN a nd TNtype wares w i l l b e u sed , t he l a t ter r eferr ing t o ' im i ta t ions ' i n o ther f abr ics o f f or ms made i n ' s tandard ' wh i te/grey TN p as te. The s cope o f t he t er m b eco mes u naccep tab ly w ide i fi ti s e x tended t o i nc lude a l l v esse ls w i th d ark , b urn ished a nd/or s l ipped s ur faces. However , where o ther f or ms o ccur i n f abr ics s im i lar t o t hose u sed f or TN f or ms , t hese w i l l b e n o ted . F ro m t he ma ter ia l r ecovered b y t he G rosvenor Museum Excava t ions S ect ion f ro m s i tes i n Chester s ince 1 972,27-28 v esse ls were s ing led o u t a s b e ing TN o r TNtype wares .

These a re l i sted b e low , g rouped b y f abr ic .

* The a u thor w ishes i tt o b e k nown t ha t t he c opyr ight o f t h is a r t ic le l i es w i th t he Ches ter C i ty C ounci l .

5 1

G roup Ic ons is ts o f TN w i th a c harac ter is t ic w h i te matr ix , g enera l ly c ons idered t o b e o f c on t inen ta l o r ig in ; I -IX a re i n terna l ly more d i f fuse , a l though s o me o f t hese g roups h ave g enera l s im i lar i t ies t o e ach o ther ( e .g . I , I l a nd W; I V a nd V ) . T he p e tro log ica l r epor t i ncorpora ted b e low i s t he work o f M iss J . R . T i mby ( Un ivers i ty o f S ou thamp ton ) . CATALOGUE 2 I .1

B asa l s herd o fp lat ter , C amu lodunum f or m 1 6. F ine , h ard s andy f abr ic ; g rey ish wh i te ( Munse l l N 8/-N7/ ) w i th a b lue t i nge ; f racture s ub-concho ida l . I nc lus ions : ad ense s ca t ter o fv ery f i ne q uar tz v is ib le m icroscop ica l ly ( s ee T ab le 4 .1 ) . S urfaces : v ery f i ne ly smoo thed ; d ark g rey i n ter ior ( N4/-N5/ ) , g rey-b lack e x ter ior ( N3/ ) . Ag ood q ua l i ty impor t ; n o s ta mp e x tan t , t herefore n o t c lose ly d a tab le , b u t o f at ype wh ich M iss V . R igby h as r epor ted mos t c o mmon i n t he N eron ian p er iod a l though o ccurr ing a lso i n F lav ian d epos i ts . N or thga te B rewery 1 974-5 , I V ( 237 ) : p i t f i l l o f t he l ater s econd c en tury b u t a lso c on ta in ing s o me F lav ian p o t tery .

I .2

S l igh t ly c oncave s herd f ro m b ase o f C am . 1 6.

F ine , v ery h ard

s andy f abr ic ; v ery l i gh t b lue-grey ( N7/ ) ; f racture f i nely i rregu lar . I nc lus ions : s imi lar t o n o .1 , w i th o ccas iona l f i ne i ronstone v isib le macroscop ica l ly . S ur faces : smoo th ly p o l ished , b u t s l igh t ly f l ak ing ; b lack . Ag ood q ua l i ty impor t , d a te a s a bove . 1 -11 C rook S treet 1 973-4 , IF 191 : ? 3rd c en tury p i t i n c en tur ion 's q uar ters , i nc lud ing s o me F lav ian p ot tery . 1 .3*

B ase a nd f oo t ing o f a sma l l p la t ter , a ga in a C am . 1 6 v ar ian t , w i th p ronounced b asa l k ick . F abr ic s im i lar t o n o . 1 , b u t v ery l i gh t b lueg rey ( N7/ ) , w i th o ccasiona l f i ne i rons tone a nd o ne p ar t ia l ly e roded , l arge c a lcareous i nc lus ion v is ib le macroscop ica l ly . S ur faces : i n ter ior h igh ly p ol ished b u t f l ak ing , v ery d ark g rey s had ing t o' g reyb lack ( N4/ t o N 3/ ) ; a braded e x ter ior smoo t hed a bove f oo tr ing, ma t t ( ? ) i ns ide i t , m id-grey ( N4/-N5/ ) . The f ootr ing i s worn , c onf i rm ing i t s f unc t iona ln a ture . N o s tamp e x tan t , b u t ag ood q ua l i ty i mpor t . 1Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , V ( 2 1) : p os t- med ieva l c on tex t .

I .4*

Sma l l s herd o f ap l a t ter w i th f l a t t ish b ase a nd l ow f oo tr ing . F abr ic s im i lar t o n o . 1 , b u t f rac ture f i ne ly i rregu lar ; o ccasiona l q uar tz g ra ins v is ib le macroscop ica l ly . S ur faces : i n ter ior smoo thed b u t a pparen t ly a braded , l igh t g rey ( N6/ ) f l ecked w i th d ark g rey ( N4/ ) ; e x ter ior f a ir ly ma t t , d ark g rey ( N4/ ) . N o s tamp e x tan t . F oo tr ing b at tered , b u t a pparen t ly w orn i n u se . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , I ( 3 52) : p os t- med ieva l c on tex t .

1 .5*

R im o f C am . 1 6 . F abr ic s im i lar t on o .1 , b u t w i th a s l ight ly h igher p ropor t ion o f s l ight ly l arger q uar tz g ra ins ( s ee T ab le 4 .1 ) . S ur faces : i n ter ior p o l ished , d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/ ) ; e x ter ior smoo thed , g rey ( N5/ ) .

1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , I /1 . 11 ( 1 399) : f i rs t-cen tury p i t i n

F lav ian t imber r a mpar t-bu i ld ing , i nc lud ing N eron ian-ear ly F lavian s am ian .

5 2

1 . 3

win

10.1 1 / 8 ` 1

I

,

1 . 4

1 . 6

1 . 7

V7

1 1 .3

1 .2

F ig . 4 .1

S ca le 1 :2

5 3

1 .6*

O verhang ing , o u tcurved r im o f as ha l low , c ar ina ted d ish . p ara l le ls f ound ( s ee D iscuss ion ) . f i ne ly i rregu lar .

No c lose

F abr ic s im ilar t o n o. 1 ; f racture

( S ee Tab le 4 .1) .

S ur faces :

i n ter ior b urn ished ,

a lso e x ter ior o f r im ( i n f acets) a nd l ower wal l b e low t he c ar ina t ion ; t he u pper e x terna l wa l l i s ma t t a nd u ns moo thed . I n ter ior d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/) ; e x ter ior l i gh ter g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) . 7 6 L ower Br idge S tree t 1 976 : u ns tra t if ied c o l lect ion f ro m t he c ivi l s et t le men t , i nc lud ing much f i rst-cen tury p o t tery , s o me N eron ian-ear ly F lavian . ( Pub l ished i n Mason 1 980 , n o . 3 14 ) . 1 .7*

Upper wa l l o f ag lobu lar j ar w i th a h igh s hou lder a nd b road ly-scored l a t t ice d ecora t ion .

F or m r ela ted t o C am . 1 08, p robab ly w i th a

p la in e ver ted r im .

C f . Ho lwerda 1 941 , p l . I V .138, 1 40 : t he o c-

c urrence o f t hese j ars i n c e me tery ' S ' a t N i j megen , d a ted A . D. 3 0-70 ( po in ted o u t b y M iss T i mby ) c o mb ines w i th t he g enera l a ppeara nce o ft h is p iece t o s ugges t aN eron ian o r p oss ib ly e ar ly F lavian d a te . F abr ic s im i lar t o n o . 1 , b u t w i th a s l igh t ly h igher p ropor t ion o f s l igh t ly c oarser q uar tz , a nd a lso a s ing le g ra in o f t our ma l ine ( s ee Tab le 4 .1 a nd D iscuss ion ) . S urfaces : i n ter ior u ns moothed , ma t t g rey ( N5/ ) ; e x ter ior smoo th ly b urn ished b u t w i th o ccas iona l mat t s treaks , v ary ing f ro m g rey t o l i gh t g rey ( N6/ t o N 7/) . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8, u ns tra t if ied . C ar ina ted wa l l o f b icon ica l b eaker , r e la ted t o C am . 1 20 : U sk t ype 5 , o ccurr ing t here i n b oth ' eggshel l . TN a nd i n G roup 1 ( Greene 1 979 , f igs. 5 2. 1 -8,45. 8 -11) . The m id-f irst c en tury ' eggshel l ' f or m , f requen t ly s ta mped ( e .g . A tk inson 1 942 , 2 78 ) , w as w ide ly c op ied i n F lav ian c oarsewares , s urv iv ing wel l i n to t he s econd c en tury a t N i j megen ( s ee G reene 1 979 , 1 20 ). a nd s andy ; g reen ish g rey-brown ( 2 .5Y 5 /2 ) ;

F abr ic : f ine , h ard f racture f a ir ly smoo th .

I nclusions :fa irly s parse , we l l-sor ted ; most ly f i ne q uar tz b u t s o me med iu m , a lso i ron a nd mica . S urfaces : i nter ior n ea t b u t r ough t o t he t ouch , ma t t d ark g rey ( N4/ ) ; v ery d ark g rey ( N3/ ) . med ieva l c on tex t . 1 .2*

e x ter ior f a ir ly smooth ly b urn ished ,

1 Abbey Green 1 975-8, V ( 169 ) ;

p os t-

B ase o f a sma l l b arre l-shaped b eaker w ith c orruga ted p rof i le :

c f .

Ho lwerda 1 941 , p l . X II . 6 12, 6 14. N o s ta mped e xa mp les k nown a nd n o t d a tab le t ypo log ica l ly ; f ound i n v arious f abr ics i nclud ing s am ian a nd c olour-coa ted ware a s we l l a s TN ( c f . O e l mann 1 914 , 4 3 t ype 3 5 ;

Hu l l

1 963 , f ig 4 7. 1 1-16 ;

1 9 , F or m 5 , b e low ) .

G r i mes , 1 930 , f ig . 7 1. 1 88 , P aper

F abr ic : g enera l ly s im i lar t o I .1, b u t g rey ish

b rown ( 1 0YR 5 /3) ; s parse s cat ter o f f ine a nd med iu m q uar tz w i th t he o ccas iona l g ra in v is ib le macroscop ica l ly , o ccas iona l mica a nd i ron . S urfaces : i n ter ior smoo th t o t he t ouch , ma t t o l ive-grey ( 5Y 5 /1 ) ; e x ter ior smoo thed , g rey-b lack ( N3/-N4/ ) . P robab ly a n impor t , p oss ib ly o f p re- o r e ar ly-F lav ian d ate . I V ( 1 143) ; l a te Ro man r obber t rench .

1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 ,

F lar ing r im f ro m c ar ina ted b ow l r e la ted t o C am . 5 0 ( s ee b e low, I V .1) .

Hard f abr ic w i th ' sandw ich ' efect—centra l c ore s trong

b rown ( 7 .5YR 5 /6 ) , c hang ing t o g rey ( N5/-N6/) lm m

5 4

b e low t he

s ur faces ; f rac ture f a ir ly smoo th .

I nc lus ions :

i l-sor ted a bundance

o f wel l-rounded t o s ubangu lar f i ne a nd med iu m q uar tz ; q uan t i t ies o f o ther minera ls ( see Tab le 4 .1) . r ough t o t he t ouch , g rey ( N5/-N6/ ) ;

S urfaces :

sma ll ma t t i n ter ior

e x ter ior smoo thed , d arker

g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) . G oss S treet 1 973 , 1s herd f ro m A ( 4 76 ) : Ro man p i t w i th n o o ther d a t ing e vidence ; t wo s herds f ro m A (437 ) : r ubb le b enea th l a te Ro man wa l l , c on ta in ing l a te 1 s t- e ar ly 2 nd c en tury p o t tery . 1 1 .2*

B ase a nd n ea t f oo tr ing , p oss ib ly a lso o f Ca m . 5 0 t ype.

Hard f abr ic

g enera l ly s im i lar t o 1 1 .1 ; f a in t s andw ich efec t—redd ish b rown ( 5YR 5 /4) w i th s l igh t ly p a ler c ore , r eturn ing t o p a le lmm . b e low t he s urfaces ; f rac ture f i nely i rreg ular .

I nc lus ions :

w e l l-rounded t o s ubangu lar f i ne a nd med iu m q uar tz ;

f a ir ly a bundan t s o me i ron ,

m ica , s ands tone a nd q uar tzi te v is ib le microscop ica l ly .

S urfaces :

i n ter ior r ough t o t he t ouch , ma t t d ark g rey ( N4/ ) ; e x ter ior l i gh t ly b urn ished i nc lud ing t he o u tside o f t he f oo tr ing , d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/) . 1 -11 Crook S treet 1 973-4 , IF .2 .60 : s econd c en tury o r l a ter c lay f l oor i n s tone c en tur ion 's q uar ters , b u t c on ta in ing e ar ly F lavian s amian . 1 . 1 .3*

Car ina ted wa l l o f b icon ica l j ar ( ?) , r ela ted t o Ca m . 1 20 ( s ee 1 .1) . F a ir ly s of t , f i ne f abr ic ; f a in t s andw ich e f fect—redd ish b rown ( 5YR 4 /4) g row ing d arker 1 .5 m m . b e low e x terna l s ur face ; f racture f i nely i rregu lar . I nc lusions : a s 1 1 .2 b u t f a ir ly s parse . S urfaces : i n ter ior u nf in ished a nd mat t r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 4 /4 ) , r ough t o t he t ouch ; e x terior r ough ly b urn ished i n f acets , d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/) . Northgate B rewery 1 974-5, V I ( 3 13 ) : T i mber P hase I I c on tex t o f c .110-120 , i nc lud ing e arly F lav ian s am ian ( see Ward & S tr ick land 1 978 , 1 6 ) .

1 1 .4

I nde ter m ina te b ody-sherd : j ar o r b ow l? Hard f abr ic ; s andw ich efect-core r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 5 /4 ) c hang ing t o g rey lmm . b e low s urfaces ; f rac ture f ine ly i rregu lar . I nc lusions a s a bove . S urf aces : i n terior r ough , ma t t , l igh t b rown ish g rey ( 2 .5Y 6 /2) ; Ex ter ior r ough ly b urn ished , d ark g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) . S treet 1 973-4 IF . 2 51 : c entur ion 's q uar ters.

I V .1 *

1 -11 C rook

s econd c en tury o r l a ter c lay f l oor i n s tone

P la in , f lar ing r im a nd wa l l o f c ar ina ted b ow l r e la ted t o C am .5 0C ; Greene 1 979 , 1 10f , t ype 6 . O ther e xamp les i nc lude ' genu ine ' TN , b u t more f requen t ly f ound i n 'I TN ' f abr ics . C am . 5 0 o ccurs a t S heepen i n p er iods I I-VI ; t he ' ITN ' b ow ls s ee m l arge ly N eron ianF lav ian , b u t t he f or m was o f ten im i tated i n c oarseware i n t he F lavian p eriod a nd l ater ; c f . Har t ley 1 952, f ig 9 .45 f ro m Heronbridge . ( See D iscussion ) . V ery h ard , f i ne f abr ic ; r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 5 /4 ) b eco m ing s l ight ly d arker 1 m m b e low s ur faces ; i rregu lar .

I nc lus ions :

( see T ab le 4 .1 ) .

f racture f i ne ly

s parse e xcep t f or f i ne a nd med iu m q uar tz

S urfaces :

smoo th ly a nd f i ne ly p o l ished , d ark g rey

( N4/ ) . 1 -11 C rook S treet 1 973-4 , t en s herds i n a l l f ro m v ar ious c on tex ts , t he e ar l iest b e ing I( 1 06 ) , t imber b arrack o f l a te F lav ianT ra jan ic p er iod . 5 5

I V .I

I V .2

V .2

\ . ,

V .5

V I I I . '

F ig . 4 .2

S ca le 1 :2

5 6

I V .2*

F la t s hou lder ( ?) o f l arge j ar o r f l ask w i th i nc ised d ecora t ion b e low ac ordon : c f . C am . 2 31?

S ee G reene 1 979 , 1 22 a nd f i g . 5 2.11 i n

' eggshe l l ' TN ; a lso Marsh £ 978 , t ype 5 1 , p edesta l v ase i n L ondon ware , r e la ted t o t he G -B f or m H o lwerda 1 941 , t ype 2 5/44 . F abr ic : s im i lar t o I V .1 , b u t s of t ; r edd ish-brown ( 5YR 5 /3 ) , s l igh t ly d arker 1mm b e low s ur faces. I nc lus ions : f a ir ly s parse , a s a bove . S urfaces : i n ter ior r ough a nd ma t t , g rey ( N5/ ) ; e x ter ior smoo th ly p o l ished , g rey/b lack ( N2.5/-N3/ ) .

1 -11 C rook S tree t 1 973-4 , Is p . I : p os t-

R o man c on tex t b u t p roduc ing F lav ian s am ian . V .1

B asa l s herd w i th g roove ( ofse t?) i n t he f l oor o f ap la t ter w i th c urv ing wa l l : p robab ly o ff orm C am . 1 6 . C f . t hose a tU sk i n g roups 2 a nd 3 ; G reene 1 979 , f i g . 4 9. 7 -8 , 1 1-16 , f i g . 5 0.4-7 . F a ir ly f i ne , h ard f abr ic , g enera l ly s im i lar t o V .2 ; s andw ich efec tb lu ish g rey ( 5Y 5 /1) w ith s l igh t ly p a ler g rey c ore ( N6/ ) 1 mm t h ick ; f rac ture f i ne ly i rregular . I nclus ions : s parse ; f i ne q uar tz , m ica , q uar tzi te . S ur faces : i n ter ior h igh ly p o l ished , d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/ ) ; e x ter ior ? s moothed ( abraded ) , g rey ( N4/-N5) . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8, V ( 1 112) : l a ter R o man f il o f d ra in t o i n terva l lum r oad , b u t i nc lud ing F lav ian p o t tery .

V .2*

C o mp le te p rof i le o f ac ar ina ted d ish w i th f a ir ly s tra igh t , e ver ted wa l l : C a mu lodunum f orm 2 1 , s a id t o b e i m i ta t ing t he p re-Conquest p la t ter C am . 1 . C am . 2 1 o ccurs i n s evera l v ar iet ies t here f rom p er iods It o V I .

Ac lose p ara l le l a t S ou thamp ton may b e i n as im i lar

f abr ic ( Cot ton 1 958 , f ig . 2 0 .3 ) . P robab ly N eron ian-F lav ian ; f oo tr ing worn i nu se . F ine h ard f abr ic , b lu ish g rey ( N6/ ) ; f rac ture f i ne ly i rregu lar . I nc lus ions : i l l-sor ted a bundance o f q uar tz , f i ne t o med ium , a nd l i t t le e lse — iron , m ica , e tc . ( s ee Tab le 1 ) . S urfaces : i n ter ior more smoo th ly b urn ished t han e x ter ior ; ma t t u ndernea th b ase ; d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/ ) . N or thga te B rewery 1 974-5 , t wo s herds f ro m E l l ( 5 8) : e ar ly s tone p hase o ccupa t ion ma ter ia l d a ted c . 1 20-160 , b u t i nc lud ing p re-F lav ian a nd F lav ian s am ian ( s ee Ward & S tr ick land 1 978 , 1 9 ) . Two s herds f ro m I I ( 3 2 ) : p os t- med ieva l c on tex t . V .3

F la t b asa l s herd o f ap la t ter ( o r d ish ) . F abr ic s im i lar t o V .2 , b u t l igh t o l ive-grey ( 5Y 6 /1) . S ur faces : i n ter ior smoo th ly p o l ished , e x ter ior b urn ished i n f acets , d ark g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) . 1A bbey G reen 1 975-8 , I V ( 6 93 ) : l a te Ro man/Dark Age c on tex t w i th s o me F lav ian p ot tery .

V .4

B eve l led j unc t ion o fb ase a nd wa l l , p oss ib ly o f t he s a me v esse l a s V .3 . S a me f abr ic , b u t s of ter . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , I V ( 6 25) : p os t-Ro man r obber t rench w i th s o me F lav ian p o t tery .

V .5*

R im a nd wa l l o f a sma l l s hou ldered j ar , f ound i n TN f abr ics i n Sw i tzer land a nd G er many ( s ee G reene 1 973 , 3 1 ; 1 979 , 1 17 ) a nd a t U sk i n g roups 1 a nd 4 ( Greene 1 979 , t ype 3 ) . F ine , h ard f abr ic ; s andw ich efec t—b lu ish g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) w i th s l igh t ly d arker c ore a nd f l anked b yv ery t h in , l i gh t g rey l ayers ( N7/ ) 0 .25 m m b e low s urfaces ; f rac ture f i nely i rregu lar . I nc lusions : s parse ; f i ne t o med iu m q uar tz a nd l i t t le e lse ( s ee T ab le 4 .1) . S ur faces : i n ter ior smoo th ly ma t t , d ark g rey ( N4/ ) ; e x terna l ly , a nd r im i n terna l ly , 5 7

we l l-s moo thed ( N3/-N4/ ) . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8, 5 s herds f ro m I( 2 61) : p os t-Roman c on tex t b u t p roduc ing much F lav ian-Tra jan ic s am ian . V .6

Wa l l s herd o f a sma l l g lobu lar j ar? F abr ic : g enera l ly s im i lar t o t hose a bove , b u tv ery h ard , l ig h t o l ive-grey ( 5Y 6 /1) . S ur faces : i n ter ior r ough a nd ma t t , g rey ( N5/ ) ; e x ter ior r a ther p i mp ly b u t h igh ly p o l ished , d ark g rey ( N4/ ) . G oss S tree t 1 973 , A ( 3 69 ) : e ar ly 2 nd ( ? ) c en tury d es truc t ion d epos i to f t imber b arrack , i nc lud ing l a te 1 s t-ear ly 2 nd p entury p o t tery .

V .7

I nde term ina te b ody-sherd : j ar o r b ow l? F abr ic : a s a bove , b u t h ard , l i gh t b lue-grey ( N7/ ) , c on ta in ing much f i ne q uar tz a nd l i t t le e lse ( s ee Tab le 4 .1) . g rey ( N4/-N5/ ) .

S ur faces : i n ter ior mat t , e x ter ior smoo thed ; d ark Hun ter S tree t S choo l 1 979 , I V ( 2 39 ) : l a te R o man

d isturbance s ea l ing t he d e mo l i t ion o f a4 th-cen tury b u i ld ing , i nclud ing s o me F lav ian p ot tery . V I .1*

R im o f p lat ter w i th i n ternal o f fse t a nd r a ther c onvex wa l l , p robab ly r e la ted t o t he c o mmon C a mu lodunu m f orm 2 8, ' im i ta t ing ' t he e ven more c o mmon p re-Conques t t o N eron ian p la t ter C am . 1 4 .; C am . 2 8s s urv ived i n to t he F lav ian p er iod i n u se a nd d oub t less manu fac ture ( Cun l i f fe 1 971 , 1 78 ; Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 , 2 20 ) . F a ir ly h ard , g ranu lar f abr ic ; g rey ( 5Y 6 /1) w i th a s l igh t ly l i gh ter c ore ( N6/ ) ; f racture h ack ly . I nc lus ions : i l l-sor ted a bundance o f s ubangu lar , f i ne t o med iu m q uar tz ; sma l l q uan t i t ies o fo ther m inera ls ( s ee Tab le 4 .1 ) . S ur faces : i n ter ior we l l-b tu -n ished , e x ter ior smoo thed ; d ark g rey ( N4/ ) . 1A bbey G reen 1 975-8 , V I ( 8 7 ) : p os t- med ieva l c on tex t p roduc ing N eron ian-ear ly F lav ian s am ian .

V I .2

C ar ina ted s herd o f i nde ter m ina te f orm : t h ick-wa l led b ow l?

F abr ic

g enera l ly s im i lar t o V I .1 , b u t c oarser ; g rey ish b rown ( 2 .5Y 5 /2) w i th a g rey c ore ( N6/ ) . I nc lus ions : a s a bove , b u t w i th c oarse s uba ngu lar t o r ounded q uar tz i n a dd i t ion . S urfaces : i n terior smoo thed , e x ter ior a braded b ut a pparen t ly f i ne ly b urn ished ; d ark g rey ( N3/ N 4/ ) . V I .3

1Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , I V ( 6 93) :

s ee n o . V .3 a bove .

B odysherds o f ag lobu lar c losed v esse l ( j ar?) . F abr ic g enera l ly s im i lar t o V I .1 ; g reen ish g rey ( 2 .5Y 5 /2) . I nc lus ions : much f i ne q uar tz w i th sma l l q uan t i t ies o f o ther m inera ls ( s ee T ab le 4 .1 ) . S urf aces : i n ter ior ma t t , e x ter ior smoo thed ; v ery d ark g rey ( N3/ ) . 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 , I V ( 1 266 ) : i s t ( o r p oss ib ly 2 nd ) c en tury c on tex t i nc lud ing L yon c o lour-coa ted ware a nd F lav ian s am ian .

V I I .1*

R im o f sma l l b ow l ( ? ) : p oss ib ly C amu lodu mum f or m 2 11 r a ther t han 5 0? C f . K enyon 1 948 , f ig . 3 5.24 i np ol ished g rey ware — ' mor tarl ike v esse l '. F ine , s o f t s andy f abr ic ; s andw ich e f fec t— c en tra l c ore l i gh t g rey ( N7/ ) 2 mm t h ick , c hang ing t hrough 1 m m o f b rown ( 1 0YR 5 /3 ) t o g rey ish b rown ( 1 0YR 5 /2) ; f racture f ine ly i rregu lar . I nc lus ions : f a ir ly w e l l-sor ted a bundance o f f i ne q uar tz a nd sma l l q uan t i t ies o f o ther m inera ls ( s ee Tab le 4 .1) . S ur faces : i n ter ior ma t t t o C . 1 0 mm b e low r im , a bove wh ich b urn ished i n f ace ts ; e x ter ior l i kew ise smoo th ly b urn ished ; d ark g rey ( N4/ ) . 5 8

N orthga te B rewery 1 974-5 , I( 5 ) : e ar ly s tone p hase p i t o f c .1201 60 c on ta in ing much F lav ian-Tra jan ic p ot tery ( s ee Ward & S tr ickl and 1 978 , 1 9 ) . V I I I .1*

L ower wa l l a nd f oo tr ing o f ab eaker . I den t i f ied b y M iss V . R igby a s p robab ly r e la ted t o C am . 1 20 , t he f oo tr ing a nd b ase b e ing t yp ica l o f s uch v esse ls . F ine , h ard f abr ic ; s andw ich efec t—core b lue-grey ( N6/-N5/ ) 2 .5 m m t h ick , f l anked b y r edd ish b rown ( 5YR 5 /3 ) 0 .5 mm b e low s ur faces ; f racture f i ne ly i rreg u lar . I nc lusions : h eav i ly m icaceous , o therw ise s parse . S ur faces : i n ter ior mat t , b rown ish g rey ( 5YR 5 /5) ;

e x ter ior f i ne ly smoo thed , d ark g rey ( N3/-N4/) .

N or thgate B rewery 1 974-5 ; f our teen s herds i n a l l f ro m v ar ious c on tex ts , t he e ar l iest b e ing V I ( 3 20 ) : s i l t a ccu mu la ted i n t he c our ty ard o f t he c en tur ions ' q uar ters , i nc lud ing s am ian o f C .8 0-110 ( T i mber I d a ted c . 1 00-110 ; I X .1*

Ward & S tr ick land 1 978 , 1 3 ) .

S hou lder ( ? ) o f e nc losed v esse l ( g lobu lar j ar?) w i th a r ou le t ted b and b elow a c ordon . F abr ic : s of t , g rey ish b rown ( 2 .5Y 5 / -2) w i th a g reen t i nge a nd p atchy a ppearance ; f racture f i ne ly i rregu lar . I nc lus ions : f a ir ly we l l-sor ted s ca t ter o ff i ne q uar tz ; n o m ica , b u t g reen a ug i te ( s ee Tab le 4 .1 a nd D iscuss ion ) . S ur faces : i n ter ior n ear ly ma t t , e x ter ior smoo th ly p ol ished ; b lack . N or thga te B rewery 1 974-5 , I ( 3 ) : med ieva l c on tex t a lso p roduc ing N eron ian-ear ly F lav ian s am ian .

D ISCUSS ION O ft he t wen ty o ne s amp les s ubm i t ted f or t h in-sec t ion ing , t h ir teen w ere s e lec ted a s t hey a ppeared t o r epresen t t he r ange o f f abr ics p resen t . G roup 1 P rel im inary macroscop ic e xam ina t ion h ad a lready s ugges ted t ha t a t l eas t f i ve v essels @ os . I .1-5) s hou ld b e r egarded a s i mpor ted TN . M icroscop ic e xa m ina t ion b y M iss T imby i nd ica ted t ha t i n a dd i t ion , af ur ther t wo s a mp les ( n os . 1 .6 ,7 ) f el l i n to t he s ame f abr ic c a tegory , a l though t he f or ms a re a typ ica l o ft he g enera l TN r eper toire i n B r i ta in . T h in-sec t ion ing o f f our TN s herds ( n os. I .1 , 5 , 6 , 7 ) s howed a f i ne a n isot rop ic c lay matr ix w i th a d ense s ca t ter o f f i ne , mos t ly s ub-angu lar t o r ounded q uar tz ( 0 -0 .03-0.05 m m ) . O ccas iona l g ra ins o f i ron o re , wh i te mica , m icroc rys ta l l ine s i l ica a nd c o l lophane a lso o ccur ( s ee Tab le 4 .1) . S l igh t t ex tura l d i f ferences were a pparen t , s a mp les o fn os . 5a nd 7 c on ta in ing a s l igh t ly h igher p ercen tage o f l arger q uar tz g ra ins ( 0 -0.09-0 .18 m m ) . T he s ec t ions o f t he t wo p la t ters a na lysed ( n os . 1a nd 5 ) a re c o mparab le t o e xa mp les o ft he s ame f orm f ro m mi l i tary c on tex ts a t C irencester ( Wacher 1 962, 5 ) .

T he p etro logy

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as ing le g ra in o f t ourma l ine i n n o . 7 may s ugges t a no ther s ource f or t h is p art i cu lar v esse 1 .4 The f abr ic o f a l l f i ve TN p la t ters i n G roup I , c o mpr is ing awh i te matr ix o f c ons iderab le h ardness w ith a g ood d urab le g loss , i s t yp ica l o f e xamp les f ro m m il itary s i tes n or th a nd wes t o ft he F osse Way ( Rigby 1 973 , 2 0 ) a nd d a ted b efore c . A .D . 8 5. A t l eas t f our o ft hese p la t ters a re e xa mp les o f Camu lodunum— f or m 1 6 .

T h is f or m h ad b een i n e x is tence i nt he C laud ian

p er iod , o ccurr ing i n as e t w i th t he f l anged c up f or m 5 8. H owever , i ts ee ms t o h ave o u t l ived t he l a t ter ( wh ich h as n o t b een r ecorded i n C hes ter ; s ee a lso R igby 1 977 , 3 8) a nd t o h ave b eco me t he l ast o f t he s tandard TN f orms t o b e s upp l ied t o t he a r my , b e ing a t yp ica l f i nd i n l a ter f i rst c entury m i l i tary e st abl ish men ts. A l though t he s a mp led s herds o f C am . 1 6 a ppear t o h ave a c ont inen ta l o r ig in , p la t ters o ft h is f or m a re s o f requen t i n B r i ta in t ha t t he ir n u mber , t oge ther w i th t he a ppearance o f many o ft hem , h as s ugges ted t ha t s o me a t l eas t ( i nc lud ing s ta mped e xa mp les , e .g . R igby 1 979a , 1 27 n os . 2 ,3 ; 1 979b , 2 04 n o . 1 28) may h ave b een p roduced s o mewhere i n B r i ta in , p robab ly i n t he S ou th . M iss R igby h as o bserved t ha t t he f ac t t ha t s o many o ccur i n Neron ian-F lav ian c on tex ts s uggests t ha t , i fB r i t ish , s upp l ies were n o t s er io usly d isrup ted b yt he B oud iccan u pr is ing : t he s ource may t herefore h ave b een o u ts ide t he ma in a rea o fd isturbance a nd n o t a t C olchester , t he mos t o bv ious p roduc t ion c en tre . M iss R igby h as a lso p o in ted o u t ( p ers . c omm .) t ha t t he TN p roduced i n t he C en tra l G au l ish a rea i nc ludes v esse ls c loser t o s am ian f or ms t han a re f ound i n t he n orma l TN r ange . T he u nusua l C hes ter v essels , n os . 1 .6 a nd 7 , may r ef lec t ac o mparab le d ivergence a t a no ther c en tre , p erhaps i nn or thern F rance o r i n t he R h ine land . T he p resence o f al arge n umber o f j ars c ompara b le w i th n o . 1 .7 i s r ecorded a t N i j megen ( Ho lwerda 1 941 , p la te I V , e tc .) , whi le t he f or m o ft he C hester d ish , 1 .6 , i nd ica tes a c on t inen ta l o r ig in , a l though i t s p rec ise s ource r e ma ins u nknown . N o s a t isfac tory p ara l le ls f or t h is f or m h ave a s y e t b een f ound : t he c losest s o f ar n o ted i s t ha t i n ag rey w are f rom a p ost-for tress c on tex t a t U sk , r e la ted t o e xamp les f ro m G e l lygaer , C o lches ter a nd B elg ium , wh ich may a l l b e F lav ian i n d a te ( s ee G reene 1 979 , 1 18 a nd f i g . 5 1.14 ) . T he wh i te f abr ic o ft he C hester d ish s ee ms t o p o in t t o ad a te b efore c . A .D. 8 5 , when ,M iss R igby i n forms me , g rey f abr ics b eca me p reva len t , a l though i tr e ma ins p oss ib le t ha t i t s u nusual f or m a nd s ur facetrea tmen t r ef lec t i ncreas ing v ar ie ty i nt he l a te ' Ga l lo-Be lg ic ' i ndustry . 6 1

T he r ecogn i t ion o f ' genu ine ' impor ted TN i n C hes ter h as made t he a bsence o f s im i lar f i nds i nt he Wes t M id lands a l l t he more n o t iceab le , ag ap wh ich may b e t he r esul t o fd if f eren t c on trac ts a s w e l l a s o f c hrono logy ( R igby 1 977 , 4 1) . T he d is tr ibu t ion c ou ld r ef lec t t he t ranspor t o f TN b y s ea u p t he w es t c oas tt o C hester , a s h appened w i th Argonne ware b etween t he s econd a nd f our th c en tur ies ( s ee B u l mer 1 979 , 2 8) . O ther f ac tors may h ave b een an ew m i l i tary p o l icy o ft he 5 0s A .D. l imi t ing c on trac ts t o t he e xc lusion o f TR a nd mos t o f t he o ld f orms. T he C hes ter f i nds c ou ld s uppor t M iss R igby 's v iew t ha t TN was s t i l l i n u se , a l though i n r estr icted f or ms , o n F lav ian s i tes i n t he p er iod C . A .D. 7 0-85 ( c f . C orbr idge , C ame lon , e tc ,: R igby 1 977 , 3 8 a nd 1 979b , 1 90 ) . O n t he o ther h and , t here n ow s ee ms t o b e s truc tura l e v idence f or p re-F lavian a c t iv ity i n C hester ( s ee McPeake 1 978 , 9 f f . a nd 1 980 , 1 5f .) , a nd t he TN c ou ld c once ivab ly b e r es idue f rom t h is p hase .5 C hester wou ld t hen f i t i n to t he s a me p a t tern a s t he m i l i tary s i tes i n t he S ou th West a nd S ou th Wa les , w i th i mporta t ion p erhaps b eg inn ing i n t he 6 0s ( c f . E xe ter a nd U sk ; R igby 1 979b , 1 90 a nd 1 979a , 1 27 ) , a nd p robab ly c on t inu ing i n to t he V espas ian ic p er iod , a s a t C irencester ( R igby 1 977 , 4 0 ) . G roups I -IX T he r e ma inder o f t he TN-type w ares h ave b een a sse mb led l oose ly a ccordi ng t o g enera l s im i lar i t ies i n t he ir f abr ics .

T h in-sec t ions o f n os . I V . 1 ,

V . 2 , V . 5a nd V . 7c ou ld b e b road ly g rouped t oge ther b yv ir tue o ft he f act t ha tt he d om inan t m inera l p resen t was q uar tz w i th l i t t le e lse . I n d e ta i l , h owever , a l l w ere s l igh t ly d i f feren t i n t erms o ft he s ize a nd d ensi ty o f t he q uar tz g ra ins . Each o ft he o ther s herds was c harac ter ised b yt he p resence o fv ar ious m inera ls , a lbe i t i nv ery sma l l q uan t i t ies , s uch a s g reywacke , b io t i te ( b lack m ica ) a nd t our ma l ine . T he s ect ion o f I X . 1s t ands o u t p art icu lar ly , o w ing t o t he p resence o f as ing le g ra in o f g reen a ug i te , af a ir ly l oca l ised m inera l u sua l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a reas o f r ecen tv o lcan is m , s ugges t ing t ha t t h is s herd i n p ar t icu lar r epresen ts a n i mpor t f ro m t he c on t inen t . I n s o me c ases M iss T i mby f e l tt ha t t he t ex tura l v ar ia t ion e 3d lib i ted c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y af unc t iona l d iference r ef lec ted i nv esse l t ype ( s ee Tab le 4 .2) , wh i le i n o thers d i f feren t c lay s ources mus t b e c ons idered . O n t he r esu l ts o f t he p e tro log ica l a na lys is i td oes s ee m l i ke ly t ha t s o me , i fn o t a l l , o f t he v esse ls e xam ined were impor ts t o C hes ter . U nfor tuna te ly , ow ing t o t he d om inance o f c o mmon a nd w idespread m inera ls i nt he ma jor i ty o ft he s herds , a nd t o t he l ack o f c o mpara t ive k i ln- ma ter ia l f ro m e i ther t he Chesh ire r eg ion o r t he c on t inen t , i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o b e more p rec ise a bou t t he o r ig ins o f t hese wares . N ever the less , d esp i te t he a pparen t l ack o fu n i for m i ty o f s ource i n t he TNtype wares , t here a re f our 6 e xamp les o f ap ar t icu lar t ype o f c ar ina ted b ow l , r e la ted t o C amu lodunu m f or m 5 0 , wh ich a re o f b road ly s im i lar a ppeara nce a nd f abr ic . T hey c ou ld t herefore s hare t he s ame s ource. M iss R igby h as n o ted a c lose s im i lar i ty b e tween t he f abr ic o fn o . I V . 1a nd t ha t o f e xamp les a t Usk a nd C aerwen t . F ur ther c ompar isons may b e made w ith i ns tances a t C aer leon ( Nash- W i l l ia ms 1 929 , f i g . 3 6 , n o .120 ; 1 932, f ig . 6 3 , n os . 4 45-6 ) , T opsham ( Dar l ing 1 977 , f ig . 6 .12 , n o .24 ) , S ou tha mp ton ( La ing 1 966 , f ig . v i i i , n o . 1 2) , a nd R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox 1 949 , p l . x c i , n os . 6 2

4 45-6 ) . S uch b ow ls i mpor ted a t U sk f or med a l arge c lass o n t he ir own , i n a d ist inct ive l ayered f abr ic ( s ee Usk t ype 6 i n g roup 1 ; G reene 1 979 , 1 10f f ., a nd 1 06) . T he f or m i s af requen t o ne a t Ho lhe im b u t i s r are i n Belg iu m a nd t he N ether lands , a nd G reene h as n o ted 2 E c i t ., 1 07 ) t ha t t he t ype d oes n o t

(.

i n f act s ee m c losely r e la ted , e i ther i n t he o r ig in o ft he f or m o r i n i t s d istr ib u t ion , t o a ny thing f ound i n G a l l ia B e lg ica , b u t was much more p opu lar i n Upper Ger many a nd Rae t ia , where i tp ersisted wel l i n to t he F lav ian p er iod . S o me a t l eas t o f t he e xamp les f ound i n B r i ta in c ou ld b e c on t inen ta l impor ts ; Dr . G reene h as a lready s ugges ted t he p oss ib i l i ty o f a n o r ig in f or t hese a nd o ther TNtype v essels i n c en tra l-western F rance ( 22. ,c i t ., 1 08 n o te 2 ) . The r e ma in ing f or ms r epresen ted i n G roups I IX a re n o t r estr ic ted t o t he l im ited r ange o f ' t rue ' TN f or ms f ound i n mi l i tary c on tex ts b eyond t he l i ne o f t he F osse . ( V.1)

O f t he f our-f ive p la t ters o r d ishes i n t hese g roups , o n ly o ne

s ee ms l i ke ly t o b e o ff or m C a mu lodunu m 1 6 .

L ikew ise , o n ly t hree

' sub-Belg ic ' i nstances w ere n o ted a t C o lches ter ( Cam .3 0) , o ne a t F ishbourne ( Cun l if fe 1 971 , 1 78 t ype 1 2) a nd n one a t S ou tha mp ton ( Co t ton 1 958, 6 3 ) , where t he r ange o f f or ms ' im i ta ted ' was sma ll .

A t Usk , a lthough t he n u mber o f

p lat ters w i th c urved wa l ls ( Greene 1 979 , 1 15 t ype 1 0 ) i n f abr ics o thers t han whi te- ma trixed TN i s much l arger ( s ix teen ) , f ew o f t he m a re c lose ly r ela ted t o Ca mu lodunu m f or m 1 6 .

L ike t he C hes ter v esse l n o . V I .1 , o ne o f t he Usk

p lat ters ( Greene 1 979 , f i g . 4 9 , n o 1 3) i s d er ived r a ther f ro m af or m w i th a n i nterna l ofse t . A t C o lchester s im i lar f or ms ( e .g . C am . 2 6-28 ) were t raced b ack t o e ar ly p rototypes ( Ca m . 1 2-14 r espect ively ) , a s was t he p la in-wa l led Ca m . 2 1 ( t o C am .1 ; s ee V .2above ) .

S o me o f t hese f or ms i n TN-type wares

n o d oub t c on t inued i n u se i n to t he F lav ian p er iod ( c f . C un l if fe 1 971 , 1 78) , l ikew ise i ti s p robab le t ha t t he ir manufacture a lso c on t inued . T he TN c up f or m i s a pparen t ly a bsen t f ro m G roups I t o I X a s i ti s f ro m G roup I . O n t he o ther h and , b eakers a nd j ars a re p resen t i n n u mber ( Tab le 4 .2 ) . T he r e lat ions h ip b e tween t he p roduc t ion o f t hese f or ms a nd o f c ups a nd p la t ters i n TN i s u ncer ta in , p ar t ly ow ing t o t he r ar i ty o f s tamped b eakers a nd j ars ( Rigby 1 979b , 2 05) . S ince n o p o t ter i s k nown f ro m t he s tamp e v idence t o h ave made b o th c lasses o fv esse l ( bu t s ee R igby 1 977 , 3 7 ) , i ti s p ossib le t ha t t here i s n o c onnec t ion o ther t han t he f act t ha t b oth g roups o f p o t ters s upp l ied t he a rmy f ro m t he C laud ian t o t he F lav ian p er iods. Moreover , t he c losed f or ms o cäur i n aw ide r ange o f f abr ics , t he c on t inen ta l impor ts b e ing r ecogn isab le o n ly when s ta mped . A l though n o s ta mp i s e x tan t o n a ny o f t he Chester b eakers o r j ars , i ti s l ike ly t hat a t l east s o me a re o f c on t inen ta l o r ig in : o n t he b as is o f f abr ic a nd g enera l a ppearance , n os I .1 a nd 2 a re h igh ly p robab le c and id ates , o f p re- o r e ar ly F lav ian d ate . O f s even d ark-surfaced b eakers w i th b arbo t ine o r i mpressed d o ts ( no t l i sted i n t he c a ta logue ) w h ich were f ound i n l a te f irst- o r e ar ly s econd-cen tury c on tex ts , f i ve a ppeared t o f a l l i n to t he s a me f abr ic g roups ( I I I , WI , X I I I ) a s f or ms a lso made i n p roduc t ion may t herefore b e r ela ted .

t rue ' TN , a nd t heir

C er ta in ly b eakers o f t he p oppy-headed

t ype w i th b arbo t ine d ecora t ion were manu fac tured a longside TN f or ms i n s uch a reas a s t he We t terau ( s ee T yers 1 978 , 8 7 , 9 1f f .; Anderson 1 980 , 2 5 ) , a nd e xa mp les o f b arbo tine b eakers were i nc luded i n Groups 2 a nd 4 a t Usk ( Greene 1 979, 1 16f f ., f ig . 4 9.4 a nd f ig . 5 1.2) . However , b eakers w ith b arbot ine o r impressed d ecora t ion h ad a l ong a nd v ar ied h is tory , a nd t heir r e la t ionsh ip w ith t he TN t rad i t ion r e ma ins u ncer ta in .

6 3

D esp i te t he f ac t t ha t an umber o f t he TNtype wares c ou ld we l l b e c ont i nen ta l i mpor ts , i ti sp robab le t ha t o thers were made i n B r i ta in .

L oca l

manu facture o f TNtype ware i s s o f ar k nown a t s uch s i tes a s C o lches ter ( Hawkes & Hu l l 1 947 , 2 04) , U sk ( Greene 1 979 , 1 07 G roup 3 ) a nd G louces ter ( F lav ian-Tra jan ic p roduc ts o f e x tra- mura l k i lns ; R awes 1 972 , 2 7 ) , a nd h as b een s ugges ted i nt he r eg ion o f F ishbourne ( Cun l i f fe 1 971 , 1 78f f .) a nd o f Exe ter ( B idwel l 1 979 , 1 74 ) . N o e v idence o f a ny s ource i n t he Nor th Wes t h as y e t b een f ound , b u t t he p oss ib i l i ty o f al oca l o r ig in f or s ome o f t he TN-type wares p resen t i n C hes ter c anno t b e d iscoun ted . CONCLUSION I ti s c lear t ha t t he f i rs t c en tury A .D . s aw af ash ion f or b lack p o t tery i n B r i ta in a s o n t he c on t inen t , a nd an umber o f f i rst- t o e ar ly s econd-cen tury wares o fd iverse o r ig ins a re a lso d ark-surfaced a nd i n s o me way r e lated t o t he s ame t radi t ion .7 N ever theless , TN a nd r e la ted wares f or med o n ly a sma l l e le men t o f t he f i ne wares i n f i rs t-cen tury C hes ter , a s t hey d id e lsewhere ( R igby 1 973 , 1 7 ) . T he i nde ter m ina te n a ture o f an umber o f t he s herds c a tal ogued a bove i s i n i t se lf a n i nd ica t ion o f t he meagreness o ft he s upp ly . Amongst t he c on t inen ta l i mpor ts r each ing C hes ter i n t h is p er iod , a lbei t a lso i n smal l q uan t i t ies , were c o lour-coa ted d r ink ing v esse ls f ro m L yon a nd C en tra l G au l , ' Po mpe ian R ed ' p la t ters , a nd s am ian ware f ro m t he k i lns a t L ezoux . T he l a ter f i rs t c en tury s aw ad ecl ine i nt he n umbers o f a l l t hese o ther i mpor ts t o B r i t ian i nt he f ace o f o verwhe lm ing c o mpe t i t ion f ro m t he S ou th G au l ish s am ian i ndus try , a nd , f or wha tever r eason ( s ee R igby 1 977 , 4 2) , t he r egu lar TN s upp ly a lso f a i led t o s urv ive t he F lav ian p er iod . F or e xa mp le , w hereas a t C o lches ter more TR a nd TN was b e ing impor ted t han a rret ine a nd s am ian i n t he y ears u p t o A .D. 6 5 ( R igby 1 973 , 1 9 ) , t he p osi t ion was r eversed a t C hester i n t he p er iod t hereaf ter .8 H ere t he n o t iceab ly g ood q ua l i ty o f much o f t he TN a nd i t s r e la t ions may i nd ica te a n a t te mp t t o c o mpe te , u nsuccessful ly , w i th s am ian b yp roduc ing a n i mproved ware o f g rea ter d urab i l i ty ( s ee R igby 1 973 , 2 0 ) . T he i n terdependence o f s amian a nd o ther c o lourcoa ted f ine wares h as a lready b een r e marked u pon b y Mrs Anderson ( 1 980 , 2 ) , a nd t he a na lys is o ft he p ot tery a sse mb lage f ro m t he C ast le S tree t a rea o f C hes ter a lso s ugges ts t ha t f luc tua t ions i nf i ne t ab leware f or ms ( dr ink ing v esse ls , d ishes , b ow ls ) w ere c losely r e la ted t o t he a va i lab i l i ty o ft he ir e qu iva len ts i n s am ian ( s ee C hap ter 2 a bove ) . I t may b e s ugges ted i n p ar t icu lar t ha t t he a pparent a bsence o f c ups i n TN a nd TNtype wares , i fn o t s i mp ly a c hrono log ica l p heno menon o r r esu l t ing f ro m t he a cc iden ts o f r ecovery , c ou ld b e t he c onsequence o f a c on te mporary monopo ly b y S ou th G au l ish D r . 2 7s o n t he C hes ter market . ACKNO WLEDGMENTS am g ra tefu l t o t he C ura tor o f t he G rosvenor Museum , Mr C .N . Moore , t o t he F ie ld Of icer o f t he Excava t ions S ec t ion , Mr . T . J . S tr ick land , a nd t o t he d irec tors o f e xcava t ions , Messrs . J . C . McPeake , D . J . P . Mason , my h usband a nd Mr . S . Ward a nd Mr . T . E . Ward f or p erm i t t ing t he i nc lus ion o f mater ia l i n t h is s tudy . Mr . G . B evan o f Wrexha m i s t hanked f or h is h e lp w i th t he d raw ings , a nd Mrs . M . F ord f or t he t ypescr ip t . M iss J . R . T i mby ( Dep t . o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f S ou tha mp ton ) c on tr ibu ted a d e ta i led 6 4

p etro log ica l r epor t a nd many u sefu l c o mmen ts , i ncorporated i n t h is p aper ; M iss V . R igby p rov ided much h e lpfu l a dv ice a nd n otes o n an u mber o f t he v esse ls ; D r . K . T . G reene k ind ly e xa m ined a nd d iscussed t he mater ia l . D r . P . C arr ing ton f i rst s uggested t he s ub ject o f t h is p aper t o me ; h e h as c o m men ted e x tens ive ly o n ap rev ious d raf t a nd h as b een a c onstan t s ource o f h e lp a nd i n for mat ion .

T o a l l , my t hanks .

NOTES 1 .

Bo th f or tress a nd c ivi l s e t t le men t .

2 .

An a ster isk d enotes a n i l lustrated v esse l . H ardness i s r eferred t o o n t he s ca le : s of t —scra tched b yf i ngerna il , h ard—scra tched b y p enny , v ery h ard —scra tched b yn ei ther . A l l e xcep t 1 .6 a nd t ha t r eferred t o i n n o te 6 were f ound a t s i tes w i th in t he f or tress ; & Davey 1 978, 4 a nd 3 4.

3 .

f or l oca t ions , s ee S tr ick land

Th in-sec t ion n os . r efer t o t he t h in-sect ion l i brary c a ta logue a t t he Dep t . o f Archaeology , U n iversi ty o f S ou thamp ton .

4 .

M iss T i mby n o tes t ha t o dd g ra ins o f t our ma l ine h ave b een r ecorded p reviously i n s amp les o f b oth TN amd TR.

5 .

I n t he s a me way , s o me o ft he p re-F lav ian s am ian f ound i n C hes ter c ou ld r epresent r ubb ish-surviva l f ro m a n e ar lier o ccupa t ion r a ther t han v esse ls s t i ll i n u se a t t he t ime o ft he F lav ian f ounda t ion . I ndeed , a l though t he p ronounced b asa l k ick o fn o . 1 .3 a bove may p oss ib ly b e c harac ter ist ic o f l a te e xa mp les o ft h is TN f or m , t he p resence o f f ootr ings o n a l t he b ases i n t h is g roup s uggests t hat , a s a t U sk , t he C hester p la t ters c ou ld b e p reF lavian , i ff ootr ings d o i ndeed d isappear i n t he F lav ian p er iod ( s ee G reene 1 979 , 1 15) .

6 .

Af i f th , i n f ine , b lack-surfaced b rown f abr ic , was f ound a t 2 6-42 L ower B r idge S treet 1 974-5 i n a med ieval c on tex t ( s ee Mason 1 980 , n o . 3 35) . N o t s een b yt he p resen t a u thor , b u t p robab ly s im i lar ware t o I V .1 o r I I . 1 ,2.

7 .

S ee , f or i ns tance , Marsh 1 978, 1 24 , o n ' London Ware '.

8 .

Ap rel iminary s urvey o ft he p o t tery f ro m t he e xcava t ions a t 1 Abbey G reen 1 975-8 h as r evea led t ha t c . 1 90 s am ian v esse ls were o f c o mparab le d a te o f manu fac ture ( pre- t o e ar ly F lav ian ) w i th t he f our wh i te- ma tr ixed TN v essels f ro m t ha t s i te , wh i le t he t o ta l o f c . 4 60 S .G . s am ian v esse ls c an p erhaps b e c on trasted w i th t he t o ta l o ft we lveth ir teen TN a nd TNtype v essels t here.

6 5

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N ash- W i l l ia ms , V .

E .

f or tress a t C aer leon i n Monmouthsh ire .

'T he Ro man l eg ionary

Repor t o n t he e xcavat ions c arr ied

o ut i n t he P rysg F ie ld , 1 927-1929 ', Archaeo l . C a mbrensis 8 7 ( 1932 ) , 2 65-349 . O el mann . 1 914.

Oel mann , F ., D ie Kera m ik d es Kas tel ls N iederb ieber ,

F rank fur t-a m- Ma in , 1 914. Rawes 1 972.

Rawes , B ., ' Ro man p ot tery k i lns a t G louces ter

Trans .

B r is tol G loucestersh ire Archaeo l . S oc 9 1 ( 1972) , 1 8-59. R igby 1 973.

R igby , V ., ' Po t ters ' s ta mps o n t erra n igra a nd t erra r ubra

f ound i n B r i ta in ' i n De tsicas 1 973 , 7 -24. 1 . 1

b

6 7

R igby 1 977. Dore

R igby , V ., ' The Ga l lo-Belg ic p o t tery f ro m C irencester ' i n

&G reene

1 977 , 3 7-45.

R igby 1 979a .

R igby , V ., ' Terra n igra s ta mps ' i n G reene

1 979 ,127.

R igby 1 979b .

R igby , V ., ' The G a l lo-Belg ic impor ts f ro m Exeter —a s u mmary ',

w i th c on tr ibu t ions t o ' Ca ta logue o f t he c oarse p ot tery ', i n B idwe l l 1 979 , 1 89-191 , 1 95-221. S tr ick land & Davey 1 978.

S tr ick land , T . J . & Davey , P . J . ( eds) , N ew

e vidence f or Ro man Chester , L iverpoo l , 1 978. Tyers 1 978. Tyers , P ., ' The p oppy-head b eakers o f B r i ta in a nd t heir r ela ti onsh ip t o t he b arbo t ine d ecorated v esse ls o f t he R h ine land a nd S w itzer land ' i n Ar thur & Marsh Wacher 1 962.

1 978, 6 1-107.

Wacher , J . S ., ' Cirencester , 1 961.

S econd i nter im r epor t ',

An t iq . J . 4 2, ( 1 962) 1 -14 . Ward & S tr ick land 1 978 . Ward , S . &S tr ick land , T . J ., E xcavat ions o n t he N or thga te B rewery , C hester 1 974-5 : aR o man c en tur ion ' sq uar ters a nd b arrack , G rosvenor Museu m Archaeo log ica l E xcavat ion a nd S urvey R epor ts n o . 1 , C hester 1 978 .

6 8

5 .

MARBLED WARES FROM THE NETHERLANDS J . K . H aa lebos a nd Anne l ies K os ter

I NTRODUCTION Work ing o n t he R o man p ot tery f ro m t he S chu t thi lge l o f V indon issa E l isabe th E t t l inger h as p o in ted o u t t he r ed-co loured a nd marb led ware ;' a par t f ro m a t V indon issa , t h is g roup o fp ot tery r arely o ccurs i n S w i tzer land .

Apparen t ly

i th as t o b e c ons idered a s t he work o f L eg io X I C laud ia P ia F ide l is , wh ich was s ta t ioned t here d ur ing t he F lav ian p er iod . F abr ic a nd f or ms— mos t ly i nf luenced b y me ta l a nd g lass v essels—d isp lay a c lose r ese mb lance t o t he p a in ted ware f ro m t he We t terau i n G er many , t he p roduc ts o f L eg io X G em ina a tD e H o ldeurn n ear N i j megen i nt he N ether lands a nd t hose o f L eg io V II I A ugus ta a t S trasbourg ( France) . E t t l inger p roposes t ha t t he o r ig ins o ft hese wares c an b e f ound i n t he D anube a rea , where L eg io X a nd X E s tayed f or s o me t ime b efore A .D . 7 0 . The c oncep t o f ' Leg ionary Ware ' h as b een u sed i n E ngl ish a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture w i th s o me e nthus ias m ; b u t t h is e xpress ion s ugges ts more t han c an b e p roved .2 I ti s n o t c er ta in t ha t t here i s a ny c lose c onnec t ion b e tween t he p roduc t ion o ft he d i f feren t l eg ions . T he d e mand o ft he a rmy i nt he f ron t ier a rea f or p o t tery a nd e specia l ly t he f i ner p roduc ts w i l lh ave b een g rea t . T he t roops w i ll , i n c er ta in c ircumstances , h ave t aken u p t he p roduc t ion o fp ot tery t he mse lves a nd many t echn iques a nd f or ms w i l l h ave b een i n troduced f ro m t he r eg ions o f t he ir o r ig ins ;

i ti s a lso q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t he l arger o f t hese m i l i-

t ary p ot teries w ou ld h ave r eac ted s ooner t o n ew t rends t han sma l ler c iv i l f ac tor ies . T he r esu lts o ft he a c t iv i ty o ft he v ar ious l eg ions w i l l n o t h ave b een u n i for m a nd may s how c onnec t ions w i th l oca l p ot ter ies . S o i ti sp referab le t o c ons ider t he p o t tery p roduc t ion o f t he d i f feren t l eg ions s eparate ly a nd t o c o mmen t o n s o me s hared c harac ter is t ics , wh ich c an b e f ound a f ter A .D . 7 0. I n E ng land a nd Wa les p ot tery l i ke t he l eg ionary ware f ro m V indon issa h as b een f ound a t C aer leon Ho l t a nd Y ork .3 T he l eg ions u s ing t h is k ind o f p ot tery were n ever i n t he D anube r eg ion o r o nly l ong b efore t he ir a rr iva l i n B r i tann ia . C onsequen t ly , o ne c anno t a ssume t ha t t h is p ot tery t rad i t ion was i n troduced b y t roops c om ing f ro m t he Eas t . G reene h as s ough t f or a no ther e xp lana t ion . A round A .D . 1 00 t he f a l l ing e xpor ts o f t erra s ig i l la ta f ro m S ou thern Gau l— toge ther w i th o ther f ac tors —w i l lh ave c aused a s carc i ty o f f i ne wares o n t he marke t . T he l eg ions w ou ld h ave made p rov is ions f or t h is a nd o ne m igh t i mag ine t ha t p o t ters , p oss ib ly s laves , may h ave b een b roug it f ro m t he Eas t . I ti s c onfus ing t ha t t he s a me k ind o f p o t tery i s a lso k nown f ro m s i tes , where n o l eg ionary f or tress e x is ted , amongs t o thers f ro m L ondon .4 There a re s o me o b jec t ions a ga ins t G reene ' se xp lana t ion .

I ti sn o t a t

a l l c er ta in t ha t t here was a s tagna t ion i nt he e xpor t o f t erra s ig il la ta a tt he 6 9

b eg inn ing o ft he s econd c entury ;5 b es ides , i ti s q ues t ionab le whe ther a l l l eg ionary f ac tor ies w i l lh ave s tar ted t heir p roduc t ion a tt he s a me t ime c . A .D . 1 00 . 6 Moreover , w e may a ssume t ha t s o me o ft he p o t ters w ere s o ld iers o r ig ina t ing f ro m t he n orma l r ecru i t ing a reas o f t he l eg ions , I t a ly , S ou thern G au l a nd S pa in . S uch a n o r ig in i s a tl eas t s uggested b y i nscr ip t ions o n l a mps f rom V indon issa a nd N i j megen , s uch a s L . PVP IVS / MAS IVS F ( ) /M IL . LEG X I a nd M . F AB I /F AC I IT ( i ) .7 B o th p o t ters s igned w i th t he t r ia n om ina a nd w il l t herefore h ave b een R o man c i t izens . T he man f ro m V indon issa h as i n a dd i t ion s ta ted t ha th e b e longs t o t he L eg io X i . A s f or F ab ius F acetus , i n v iew o f h is c ogno men i ts ee ms p robab le t ha th e was e nro l led i n I t a ly ; t he o r igin o f P up ius Mas ius i s more d if f icu l t t o a scer ta in , b u t t he C e l t ic a reas o f N or th I t a ly c anno t b e e xc luded .8 L as t ly , i n f lu rmces o ther t han t hose f ro m t he H e l len is t ic E ast s ee m t o h ave b een a c t ive i nt he d eve lop men t o f t he d iferen t k inds o f l eg ionary p ot tery , a s c an b e s een f ro m a s ing le l ook a tt he s am ian b ow ls a nd d ishes Drag . 3 5 , 3 6 , 4 6 a nd C ur ie 1 5 a nd t he who le a ssor tmen t o fn ew f orms p roduced a t L a G raufe senque d ur ing t he F lav ian p er iod , wh ich were s carce ly e xpor ted t o o ther r eg ions .9 N IJ MEGEN T he p ara l le ls wh ich E t t l inger f ound f or t he l eg ionary ware f ro m V indon issa , i nc lude t he p roducts f rom t he k i lns a t D e H o ldeurn ( Ge meen te G roesbeek ) n ear N i j megen .1 ° T he p ot tery made i n t hese k i lns i s n ever marb led . Amongst t he n umerous f i nds f ro m t he e xcava t ions b y Ho lwerda a nd B raa tt here i s o nly o ne s herd i n a wh i te ware wh ich c ou ld e ver h ave p ossessed a c oa t ing o ft h is s or t . " N ever the less marb led ware d oes o ccur a t N i j megen , i nt he l eg ionary f or tresses o n t he H tmerberg a nd a lso i n t he c iv i l s e t t le men t i n t he wes tern p ar t o ft he modern t own ( U lp ia ) N ov io magus .1 2 B runst ing a nd s ubsequen t ly S tuar t h ave d is t ingu ished e igh t f or ms . T he ir ma in f or ms a re d ishes a nd c ups w i th o u tcurv ing wal ls , u sua l ly p a in ted i n a manner r em in iscen t o f f l a mes ( Bruns ti ng 1 8-19 = S tuar t 1 1 ; c f . o ur f orms 1 -5 a nd 8 -9 ) , a nd a lso d ishes a nd c ups mos t ly w i th a ' co mbed ' d ecora t ion , c ons ist ing o f g roups o f sma l l p ara l le l r ed l i nes ( Bruns t ing 2 0-21 = S tuar t 1 2 ; c f . o ur f orms 1 0-11 a nd a lso 6 -7 ) . The l a t ter d ef in i t ion i s s o mewha t u n for tuna te , f or a l most t he s a me f or m ( our f or m 6 ) i s e ncoun tered i n c areless ly mo t t led ware . I n f ac t t hey a re more s i mp ly d es cr ibed a s im i ta t ions o ft he s am ian f or ms Drag . 3 5/36 . B ecause o fp ara l le ls f rom t he Rh ineland a nd t he We t terau , B runst ing h as d a ted h is f or m 1 8 a nd 1 9 t o t he e nd o ft he f i rst c en tury a nd t he f i rst h a l f o ft he s econd c en tury ; h is f or ms 2 0 a nd 2 1 s hou ld h ave b een c urren t u n t i l t he b eg inn ing o ft ha t c en tury . T he v esse ls men t ioned b y B runst ing a nd S tuar t s how t ha t marb led wares a re r ela t ive ly more c o mmon i n t he c ivi l s e t t le men tw es t o f N i j megen t han o n t he H unerberg , where s econd c en tury f i nds g enera l ly a rs s carce . F or c o mpar ison , t he b eakers S tuar t 1( =R i t ter l ing 2 5 a nd 2 6 ) a re i nc luded i nt he f o l low ing l i st . O n b o th s i tes t hese v esse ls a re f ro m t he F lav ian p er iod . The d a ta s u mmar ized i nt he l i s t b e low make i tp robab le t ha t t he f orms B runst ing 2 0 a nd 2 1 ( = S tuar t 1 2) s carcely s urv ived i n to t he b eg inn ing o ft he s econd c en tury ; c onverse ly , t he f orms B runst ing 1 8 a nd 1 9 ( =S tuar t 1 1) s ee m t o c on t inue w el l a f ter c . A .D. 1 00.

7 0

I ti s c lear t ha t t he d iferent p ercen tages f or t hese l as t f or ms a tt he Hunerb erg ( 1 7 .4% ) a nd i n t he c eme tery o f U lp ia N ov io magus ( 4 4 .8% ) may b e e xp la ined o therw ise , e .g . b yt he d iference b etween a m i l i tary s i te a nd a c iv i l s e t t le men t , b u t o n o ther e v idence t h is s ee ms u n like ly . C e me tery U lp ia N ov io magus S tuar t S tuar t S tuar t S tuar t

1 1 1 1 2 2 1

S tuar t 2 2

7 6 7 8 1 9 1

L eg ionary F or tresses 1 3

4 3 .7% 4 4.8% 1 0 .9% 0 . 6%

S tuar t 2 7-28 T o ta l

1 74

1 68 4 3 2 3

6 8.0% 1 7 .4% 9 .3%

5

2 .0%

6 2

2 .4% 0 .8%

2 47

FABR ICS ( p l . 5.1 ) Recen t e xcava t ions i n N i j megen a nd Woerden h ave y ie lded s o me g roups o f marb led wares t ha t e nab le a s tudy o ft ypo logy a nd c hrono logy t o b e made . S ix k inds o ff abr ics c an b e d is t ingu ished : a .

Hard y e l low p ot tery most ly w i th al ow g loss a nd a f l ecked r ed p a in t . T he p as te r ese mb les t ha t o ff i ne N i j megen o r H oldeurn p o t tery , where p a in t ing h owever i s m iss ing . T here i s ag rea ter s im i lar i ty t o t he f i ne We t terau ware , wh ich was ma in ly i n u se i n F or t IA a tH eddernhe im d ur ing t he r eign o fH adr ian ;

i n t he e ar l ier F or t It he f abr ic o ft he

marb led p o t tery was o f ten c oarser a nd t he p a in t ing mo t t led .1 4 O u ts ide t he Wet terau f i ne p o t tery o f f abr ic a i s r are .1 5 I n t he N e ther lands i t i s s o f ar o n ly k nown t o u s f ro m Woerden a nd p oss ib ly t h is ma ter ia l c ou ld h ave b een impor ted f ro m t he Main r eg ion . b .

F a irly h ard , ma in ly w h i te p ot tery w i th a c oarse f l amel ike o range b rown p a in t , wh ich n or ma l ly c overs o n ly t he i ns ide o f t he v esse l . T he f l ames of ten r ad ia te f ro m t he midd le o ft he b o t tom .

c .

S of t whi te p o t tery w i th a c oarse mo t t led g rey o r g rey-brown p a in t , wh ich f requen t ly g ives t he i mpress ion o fl arge b lo ts a nd s o me t imes e ven o f a p la in g rey c oa t ing .

d .

Y e l low o r l i gh t-brown p o t tery w i th a ' co mbed ' p a in t c ons ist ing o f g roups o f s hor t p ara l lel r ed l i nes , most ly o n t he i ns ide . T h is d ecora t ion i s u sua l ly o n ly e ncoun tered w i th in f or ms 1 0-11 , b u t c f .a lso f or ms 1 2 a nd 1 6 .

e -f .

S o me f orms o f marb led wares o ccur a lso i n more n orma l c o lour-coa ted ware . The c oa t ing c an b e o range ( e ) o r g rey ( f ) . T he l at ter f abr ic i s r a ther e xcep t iona l .

O f ten t he p a in t o n t hese k inds o f p ot tery c an e as i ly b e r ubbed of , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o ft he f abr ics c a nd d . T h is t endency h as b een a ccen tua ted o w ing t o t he many s herds f ro m c eme ter ies t ha t h ave b een b urn t o n t he p yre .

7 1

a

d l

P l. 5 .1

Marb led wares, f abr ics a , b , ca nd d .

d2

S ca le 1 :1.

P hoto P . B ersch.

FORMS T he v ar ia t ion i n f or m i sg rea ter t han o ne wou ld e xpec t f ro m t he h andbooks o n p ot tery f ro m N i j megen . We h ave made t he f o l low ing t en ta t ive g roup ings . P la tes a nd d ishes B runs t ing h as s epara ted t he many d ishes a nd c ups o ft he f abr ics b a nd c i n to t wo g roups ( h is t ypes 1 8 a nd 1 9 , c f . o ur f or m 1 -9) , ma in ly b yt he d iame ter o ft he r im .

F or t he f i rs t t ype i tv ar ies f ro m 1 5 .5-19 .5 cm ; f or t he s econd

f ro m 8 -13 cm ( S tuar t : 9 -14 cm ) . T he h e igh t o f many v esse ls o ft he s econd g roup e xceeds t ha t o ft he f i rs t g roup , s o t ha t t hey a re more l i ke c ups ( o ur f or m 7 )t han d ishes . T he f o l low ing d iv is ion h as b een b ased o n r im t ypes a nd t he s ize o f t he v essels. I n a ddi t ion t o t he f or m o ft he r i ms , d i f ferences c an a lso b e p o in ted o u t i n t he l i ne o ft he wa l l , wh ich most ly h as a n o u tcurv ing p rof i le ( v ar ian t A ; f ig . 5 .3 , 1 -4 ) b u t s o me t imes a more s inuous f or m ( v ar ian t B ; f i g . 5 .3 , 5 -6 ) . T he t ransi t ion b etween t he b ase a nd t he w a l l i s f a ir ly r ounded i n t he c ase o f d ishes o fv ar ian t B , i nv ar ian t Ai ti s a ngu lar . T he f or ms 1 -5 a re c lear ly c onnected . F or ms l i ke t hese c ou ld h ave t heir o r ig ins i n t he E as t a nd a re a lso made a tD e H o ldeurn . I n f luence , h owever , f ro m s am ian d ishes l ike C ur le 1 5 i sn o t t o b e e xc luded . F or m 1 ( f ig . 5 .1 , 1 -4 ) . F abr ics b a nd e . 16 P la tes w i th o u tcurv ing wa l l a nd b ead ing o n t he r im , f orm ing a n i n terna l s ea t ing . F or m 1 s ee ms t o b e c on f ined t o p la tes w ith a d ia meter o f1 8-27 cm . T he b iggest i l lustrated p late f rom N i j megen-Ha ter th as t wo h or izon ta l ly a pp l ied h and les , a s c an a lso b e f ound o n a sma l ler d ish f ro m t he H unerberg : C f . S tuar t , 1 962 , p l . 2 , 3 2 a nd a lso Ho lwerda , 1 944 , 1 5-16 a nd p l . 1 E , 1 60 ; D e L ae t a nd N enqu in , 1 953 , 3 2, f ig . 9 , 2( Velzeke-Ruddershove ) ; Ha t t , 1 954 , 3 31 , f ig . 9 , 5( S trasbourg ) ; R oosens , 1 954 , 1 88 , t . 1 4 , a( Fouches ) ; Marsh , 1 978 , 1 62 , t ype 2 8 ; G rünewa ld , 1 979 , 3 1-32 a nd T af . 1 6 , 1 0-12. F or m 2 ( f ig . 5 .1 , 5 ) .

F abr ic e .

P la tes w i th an umber o f g rooves i n t he u pper

s ide o ft he r im . T he p la te i l lus tra ted i nf i g . 5 .1 , 5 f ro m N i j megen-Ha ter t h as ad ia me ter o f2 7 cm . Af ragmen t o ft h is f or m w i th af la mel ike p a in t ing ( b ) i s k nown f ro m t he s i te o ft he l eg ionary f or tresses a t N i j megen ; c f . S tuar t , 1 962 , 2 7 a nd p l . I ,2 5. S ee E t t l inger a nd S imonet t , 1 952, 7 1 a nd Ta f . 1 6 , 3 78 ; S choppa , 1 961 , 2 6 , t ype 1 0 a nd Ta l . 4 , 7( Hofhe im ) . F or m 3 ( f ig . 5 .2) . F abrics b a nd c . T he ' cup ' i l lustra ted b y B runs t ing a s h is t ype 1 9 h as a r e markab le , c urved f l anged r im w i th a n i n terna l g roove . There a re more s pec i mens o f t h is f orm i n t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he c e metery • o f U lp ia Nov io magus w i th s ubstan t ia l d iferences i n s ize. T he b igges t e xamp les w i th ad iameter o f c . 1 2 cm c an b e c ons idered a s sma l l a nd r e la t ive ly d eep d ishes , t he sma l ler o nes w i th a d ia meter o f c . 1 0 cm c an h ard ly b e c al led d ishes . F orm 4 ( f ig . 5 .3 a nd 5 .11 , 8 ) . F abr ics b , ca nd e . D ishes w i th o u tcurv ing wa l ls a nd s l igh t ly b eaded r ims w i th a s ing le g roove i nt he u pper s ide . T hey a re c lear ly a d egenera te f orm o f t he p la tes , t ype 1 . T he d iame ter v ar ies b etween 1 6 .5 a nd 1 9.5 cm . T h is f or m i s a lso k nown i n at erra n igral ike f abr ic .

C f . S tuar t , 1 962 , 2 7 a nd p l . I , 2 3 a nd a lso H o lwerda a nd B raa t , 1 946

2a nd p 1 . XX II I ,1 24 ( De H o ldeurn ) ;

B ogaers a nd Morren , 1 954 , 5 8 , 9( Mook ) ; 7 3

F ig . 5 .1 P lates a nd d ishes o f f orms 1 ( 1-4) a nd 2 ( 5) f rom W i jchen ( 1) a nd N i jmegen-Hatert ( 2-5). Museum F . B loemen, W i jchen i nv. n o . GEM/MO 1 3 ; s i te r ef . n os. HA.1979 .119 .b, 3 08.b, 1 77 .b a nd 1 76.b. S ca le 1 :3. Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

f F ig . 5 .2 D ishes o f f orm 3 f rom t he c emetery o f U lp ia Nov iomagus i n t he R i jksmusem G . M. Kam, N i jmegen, i nv. n os. I Xe 4 2 KL a nd I Xe 3 6 KL. S ca le 1 :3. Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

7 4

F ig . 5 .3 D ishes o f f orm 4 f rom N i jmegen-Ha tert ( 1-7) a nd W i jchen ( 8-11); n os . 1 -5 a nd 8 -11 a re s ets f rom s ing le g raves. S ite r ef . n os. HA . 1979 .15.b-b j, 1 7.bg a nd 2 94.b; 8 -11 f rom a p r ivate c o l lect ion. S ca le 1 :3. D raw ing Anne l ies Koster .

3

F ig . 5 .4 D ishes o f f orm 5 f rom N i jmegen-Hater t ( 1-3) a nd t he c emetery o f U lp ia Nov iomagus; n o. 4 i s o f t erra n igra . S i te r ef . n os. HA.1979 .17 .bh-b j, 3 07 .b a nd ULP.1976.45 .c. S ca le 1 :3. Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

7 5

Modder man a nd I sings , 1 960-61 , 3 29 , 1 1 , b , a nd 3 26 , a fb . 6 , 1 1 ( Scha i jk ) ; S choppa , 1 961, 2 7 , t ype 1 2 ( Hofhe im ) ; ( Gelder ma lsen ) ;

S tuar t , 1 968 , 7 4 a nd 6 6 , a lb . 3 , 1 6

Mar t in-K i lcher , 1 976 , 4 2 a nd Taf . 1 0 , 9 ; 2 9 , B , 3 ;

4a nd 3 7 , C , 8( Courroux ) ;

Mü l ler , 1 977 , 9 9 a nd Taf . 5 5 , 2 84 , 5( Neuss) ;

Haa lebos , 1 977 , B ei lage I I ( Zwarn merda m I I , a f ter A . D. 1 75. v iva l?) ;

3 0 , A ,

Rubb ish s ur-

G arbsch , 1 978 , 2 63-264 a nd Ta f . 6 9 , D1 47-160 ( t erra n igralike

p ot tery f ro m Obers t i m m 1d a nd 2 ) ; 2( R i jsw i jk ) ;

B loe mers , 1 978 ,

2 75-276 w i th Abb . 1 09 ,

B ogaers a nd Haa lebos , 1 978 , 2 48-249 w i th a lb . 7 , g rave 3 , b

( t erra n igral ike d ish f ro m U lp ia N ov io magus ) . F or m 5 ( f ig . 5 .4 ) . F abr ics b a nd c . D ishes w i th o u tcurv ing r i ms w i thou t g roove . B ;

There i s s o me p reference f or a s inuous p rof i le o f t he wa l l ( var ian t

f ig . 5 .4 , 1 -2) , wh ich f or m 5 B h as i n c o m mon w ith s o me o f t he d ishes o f

f or m 4 ( var ian t B ; t o t he min i mu m . v ery v ague.

f ig . 5 .3 , 5 -6 ) .

The g roove o f t hose d ishes h as b een r educed

The d ivision b etween f or m 4 B a nd 5 B i s , i n c onsequence ,

S tuar t , 1 962, 2 8 a nd p l . 2 , 2 6 , g ives a c o mp lete ly c o lour-coa ted

d ish o f t h is f or m ;

c f . a lso Ho lwerda , 1 944 , 1 5-16 a nd p l . I I , 1 62.

C ups Brunst ing a nd S tuar t d iscuss t he marb led c ups p ar t ly a s s ub types o f t he d ishes j ust men t ioned , p ar t ly a s e xa mp les o f t he c ups w ith ' co mbed ' p a in t ( d ) , wh ich a re e xecuted i n as o mewha t u nusua l f abr ic .

There a re , h owever ,

s o me c ups ( f or m 7 ) , wh ich d o n o t f i t t he ir t ypology , a nd o ther marb led c ups s how s o many c haracter ist ic d eta i ls o f t heir own t ha t we c an b et ter t reat t he m a s s epara te f or ms . F or m 6 ( f ig . 5 .5) .

F abr ic c .

Im i ta t ions o f t he s am ian c up Drag . 3 5 c lose ly

r e la ted t o t he c ups o f f or m 1 0 w ith ' co mbed ' p a in t ing ( d ) .

T he mos t r e mark-

a b le d i f ferences a re t he a bsence o f a n i nterna l g roove o n t he r im a nd t he s hape o f t he f oo t , wh ich i s n o t ar ea l f oo t-r ing b u t af la t b ase w i th a d eep g roove i n t he b ot to m .

The d ia me ters o f t he r i ms r ange f ro m 1 0-14 cm .

One

f rag men t h as a g roove i n t he u pper s ide o f t he r im , j ust a s i s u sua l f or f or m 7 .

The v essels f ig . 5 .5 , 1 -7 , were f ound t ogether i n as ing le g rave a t N i j megen-

Ha ter t a nd f or m a s et o f c ups o f d if feren t s izes , wh ich c an b e s tacked i n e ach o ther .

A s im i lar g roup i s k nown f ro m Wi jchen ( f ig . 5 ,5 , 8 -13) .

Z etsche , 1 978, Ta f . I , 8 ; F or m 7 ( f ig . 5 .6 ) .

C f . H u ld-

Marsh , 1 978 , 1 66-169 , ty pe 3 4.5-8 a nd 3 5.2.

F abr ics c a nd e .

B el l-shaped c ups w i th f l anged r i ms ,

wh ich a re p rov ided w i th a g roove i n t heir u pper s ide.

The b ase i s a l most

e n t ire ly f la t a nd h as n o r ea l f oot-r ing b u t a whee l- mark i nd ica t ing i t .

There

e x is ts a s et o f c ups o f t h is f or m f ro m t he c e metery o f N i j megen-Ha ter t ( f ig . 5 .6 , 1 -5) .

C f . f or t h is f or m D e L aet , 1 972, 5 2, F ig . 1 7 , t ype I ( lef t ) a nd

B ogaers a nd Haa lebos , 1 977 , 8 5, f ig . 9 , 1 . F or ms 8 -9 ( f ig . 5 .7 a nd 5 .11 , 9 ) .

F abr ics c , ea nd f .

s hape r ela ted t o t he d ishes o f f or m 4 .

C ups w i thou t f oot , i n

The r i ms w ith d ia meters b etween 1 0-14

cm s how s ubs tan t ia l d iferences i n b readth ;

s o me r are e xa mp les w i th s i mp le

s tra igh t r i ms w i thou t g rooves a re d ist ingu ished a s f orm 9 . n ear ly f la t b ase ( var ian t A ;

Th is f or m h as a

f ig . 5 .7 , 6 -7 ) o r ar em inder o f as tand-ring i n

t he f or m o f as ha l low wheel- mark ( var ian t B ;

f ig . 5 .7 , 8 ) .

wal l a nd b ase o n t he l at ter c ups i s r ounded w i th a k ni fe . h ave b een p roduced a t De Holdeurn .

The a ng le b e tween

The s a me f or ms

C f . S tuar t , 1 962 , p l . 1 , 2 4 , a nd 2 , 2 7.

7 6

F ig . 5 .5 Cups o f f orm 6 f rom t wo g raves a t N i jmegen-Ha tert ( 1-7) a nd W i jchen ( 8-13). S ite r ef . n os. HA.1979 .17 .b-f ; 8 -13 a re f rom a p r ivate c o l lect ion. S ca le 1 :3 . Draw ing Anne l ies Koster .

7 7

F ig . 5 .6 Cups o f f orm 7 f rom a g rave a t N i jmegen-Ha tert. S i te Ref . n os. HA.1979 .15.b-bd . S ca le 1 :3 . Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

5

F ig . 5 .7 Cups o f f orm 8 ( 1-5) a nd 9 ( 6-8) f rom W i jchen ( 1) a nd t he c emetery o f U lp ia Nov iomagus ( 2-8). Museum F . B loemen, i nv. n o. F .11 ( 26); s i te r ef . n os. ULP.1979 .189 .bb, b a a nd b ; R i jksmuseum G . M. Kam, i nv. n os . I Xe 5 1 KL a nd I Xe 5 2 KL; s i te r ef . n os. ULP.1976.133.b a nd b a. S ca le 1 :3 . Draw ing Anne l ies Koster

7 8

S ee a lso Ho lwerda , 1 944 , 1 5-16 a nd p l . I , 1 33 ; ( S trasbourg ) ;

Ha t t , 1 954 , 3 31 ,f ig . 9 , 8

S choppa , 1 961 , 3 1 , t ype 3 3 a nd Ta l . 4 , 5( Ho fhe im ) ;

1 964 , 9 2 a nd Ta f . 2 5, 4 ;

G reene , 1 977 , 1 18-121 w i th f ig . 8 .2 ;

H euke mes ,

Hu ld-Ze tsche ,

1 978, Taf . I , 2 -3 ; Garbsch , 1 978 , 2 63 a nd Ta l . 6 8, D 1 29 ( t erra n igralike p ot tery f ro m Obers tim m , e ar ly F lav ian?) . F or ms 1 0-11 ( f ig . 5 .8) . F abr ic d . Im i ta t ions o f s am ian c ups a nd d ishes Drag . 3 5 a nd 3 6 , b u t w i thou t l eaves e n b arbot ine . These v esse ls d i f fer f ro m f or m 5 b o th i n t he way o f p a int ing a nd i n t he p resence o f ag roove o n t he i nside o f t he r im , a s o n t erra s ig il la ta p ro to types.

T he d ia meter r anges , f or t ype

1 0 , f ro m 1 0.5 t o 1 5 cm , a nd f or t ype 1 1 , f ro m 1 8 t o 2 0 cm . o ccurs a t De H o ldeurn . f ur ther i n land .

N ei ther f or m

B oth a re k nown f ro m many s i tes a long t he R h ine a nd

The s a me f or ms may b e f ound i n o ther f abr ics.

C f . B runst ing

f or m 2 0 a nd 2 1 , S tuar t t ype 1 2 a nd a lso B ogaers a nd Morren , 1 954 , 6 0 , B , 1 w ith 5 8, f ig . 7( Gennep ) ;

De L ae t , 1 958, 8 2 , f ig . 7 4 , 1 3 ( Waas munster-

P on trave) ; V anv inckenroye , 1 965, 4 0 , a lb . 4 , 1 3 ( Tongres ) ; B ind ing , 1 968 , 1 38-139 w ith B i ld 1 3 , 1( Rheinberg ) ; K ol l ing , 1 969 , 2 7-29 , g rave 1 7 , c -d ; 3 0 , ba nd 3 1 , bw i th Abb . 7 , 1 2-13 ; 8 , 1a nd 1 1 , 4( B l iesbergerhof ) ; B ru let , 1 969-70 , 8 3-84 w i th f ig . 2 7 , t . 4 9 , 1 ; 9 9-100 w i th f ig . 4 5 , 4 ; 1 00-101 w i th f ig . 4 6 , 5 ; a nd 1 09 ( B ies me) ; Mar t in-Ki lcher , 1 976 , Ta l . 1 7 , 3 1 ; R ogge a nd Van Doorselaer , 1 976 , 3 74 a nd 3 76 w i th f ig . 1 2 , 5( Beveren-Leie ) ; G oe ther tP o laschek , 1 977 , 2 97 w i th Ta f . 1 3 , 1 45 , ca nd 1 4 , 1 46 , d( Treves ) ; 1 977 , 8 7 a nd 8 9 w ith Ta l . 4 3 , 2 61 , 4a nd 4 4 , 2 59 , 1 6 ( Neuss ) ; 1 978 , Taf . I , 1 5 ;

Mü l ler ,

Hu ld-Ze tsche ,

Marsh , 1 978, 1 66-69 , t ype 3 3-34.

F or m 1 2 ( not i l lustra ted ) .

F abr ics b a nd d .

B ow ls w ith a p la in r im , c ons idered

b y S tuar t a s as ub type o f t he f or m j ust men t ioned ;

c f . S tuart , 1 962, 2 9 a nd

P l . 2 , 3 3. B ow ls a nd s tra iners Bow ls a nd s tra iners a re r are . 2 7-28. We c an a dd :

S tuar t d iscusses t he m u nder t ypes 2 1-22 a nd

F or m 1 3 ( f ig . 5 .9 , 1 -2) . F abr ics b a nd e . B ow ls w i th c urved f l anged r im . The v essel d rawn a s f ig . 5 .9 , 2 was f ound i n t he c e me tery o f U lp ia N ov io magus a nd s hows a r e markab le s teep wa l l . C f . Bruns t ing 2 1 , S tuar t 2 2 a nd a lso Marsh , 1 978, 1 66-68, t ype 3 4 a nd 1 70-73 , t ype 3 7 ; Hu ld-Zetsche , 1 978, Ta l . I , 1 6 . F or m 1 4 ( not i l lustra ted ) .

Fabr ic d .

He m ispher ica l b ow l w i th f oo t-r ing .

T here i s o n ly o ne s pec imen k nown f ro m t he f or tresses a t t he H unerberg ; S tuar t t ype 2 7 .

c f.

A s im i lar b ow l f ro m Neuss w ith s o me r e ma ins o f ar ed b rown

c oa t ing h as b een d ated t o t he p re-F lav ian p er iod . 2 9 a nd Ta l . 4 6 , 5 ;

C f . F i l tzinger , 1 972 , 2 8-

Marsh , 1 978, 1 45-48, t ype 1 3.

F or m 1 5 ( f ig . 5 .9 , 3a nd f ig . 5 .11 , 1 0 ) .

F abr ic b .

S tra iners.

T hese c ar in-

a ted b ow ls h ave a n ear ly f la t s tra iner a l i t t le b elow t he r im w i th ah ole f or a s topper i n t he c en tre . F rag men ts o ft h is f orm f ro m t he f or tresses a t N i j megen a re sma l l a nd d i f f icu l tt o i dent ify , s o t ha t t hey c anno t b e d is t ingu ished f ro m s i mp le c ar ina ted b ow ls . On o ne o ft he f ragmen ts i l lustra ted b y S tuar t t here a re , h owever , c lear t races o f t he s tra iner i t sel f b elow t he r im ( f ig . 5 .9 , 3 ) . Ano ther s herd o f t h is f or m h as b een f ound a t Woerden ( f ig . 5 .11 , 1 0 ) . 7 9

The

'

2

7

)

3

F ig . 5 .8 Cup a nd d ishes o f f orm 9 ( 1) a nd 1 0 ( 2-3) f rom Woerden ( 1), W i jchen ( 2) a nd N i jmegen-Hatert ( 3). S ite r ef . n o. WRD.1978 . 2 81.b; R i jksmuseum F . B loemen, i nv . n o. W 6 ( W.283); s i te r ef . n o. HA.1979 .236.b. S ca le 1 :3 . Draw ing I l ja t en Br ink a nd Anne l ies Koster.

F ig . 5 .9

Bow ls a nd a s tra iner o f f orms 1 3 ( 1-2) a nd 1 5 ( 3) f rom t he c emetery o f U lp ia Nov iomagus ( 1-2) a nd f rom t he Hunerberg ( 3) i n t he Ru jksmuseum G .M. Kam, i nv. n os. GM V II-18, GM I Xe 7 8 WW a nd GM 8 , T 1 98 . S ca le 1 :3. Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

8 0

f l a mel ike p a in t ing ( b ) o ccup ies t he e x ter ior o f t he wal l a nd t he i ns ide o f t he r im . C f . S tuar t 2 1 ; Marsh , 1 978 , 1 78-81 , t ypes 4 4-45, a nd f or t he f or m i n o ther f abr ics : B ehrens , 1 952 ; Nuber , 1 969 ; Vanv inckenroye , 1 967 , 6 5 a nd P l . 2 4 , 1 50 ; B ogaers a nd Haalebos , 1 976 , 5 4 , f ig . 1 2 , 1a nd Haa lebos , 1 977 , 2 38 , Abb . 2 5 , 2 . B eakers There i s o n ly o ne b eaker w ith marb led p a int ing k nown t o u s. The s carci ty o ft hese v essels i s amazing i nv iew o ft he p roduct ion o f s uch f or ms a t De Ho ldeurn a nd i n n or ma l c o lour-coa ted ware . F or m 1 6 ( f ig . 5 .10) . F abr ic d . B eaker w i th e ver ted r im . T he f or m i s c o mmon i n s ig i lla ta , c olour-coa ted ware a nd N i j megen o r Ho ldeurn p o t tery . A b eaker o f af abr ic r ese mb l ing N i j megen-Holdeurn ware f ro m Woerden s hows r e ma ins o f ar ed s l ip . N ether lands ;

S peci mens o f r ea l marb led ware a re l ack ing i n t he

c f . Ho lwerda , 1 944 , 1 0 , t ype 7 ; Haa lebos a nd Th i jssen , 1 977 ,

1 09-110 , f ig . 1 1 , 3 . F ine marb led ware The f ol low ing f or ms a re a l l e xecu ted i n f abric a a nd a re w i th e xcep t ion o f t he b urnt s herds f ig . 5 .11 , 1 1 , s o f ar o n ly k nown f ro m Woerden . The wa l l i s q u i te t h in ( 0 .2-0.6 cm ) ;

t he f or ms d i f fer , r oughly s peak ing , o n ly s l igh t ly

f ro m t hose d iscussed a bove , b ut a re s harper . F or m 1 7. ( f ig . 5 .11 , 1 ) . D ish w i th o u tcurv ing wa l l , r elated t o f orms 4 a nd 5 . The p la in r im c urves o ut s trong ly . Probab ly s uch d ishes h ad a n arrow s harp ly c u t f oo t-r ing .

B urnt s herds o f ad ish o f as im i lar f or m were f ound

i n aF lav ian g rave a t Ha ter t ( f ig . 5 .11 , 1 1) . T he p as te h as c hanged t o ag rey c olour a nd n o t races a re l ef t o f ac oa t ing . Hence i ti s imposs ib le t o e stabl ish t he f abr ic p recise ly .

C f . B et ter mann , 1 934 , Ta f . V I , 1 ; H inz , 1 960 , 4 96-497

w i th Abb . 3 5 , 2 ; 1 961 ,- 3 67 , Abb . 5 , 4( Xan ten ) ; P iepers a nd Haupt , 1 968, 2 95 , B i ld 2 7 , 1 -2 ( Krefe ld-Gel lep ) ; Hu ld-Zetsche , 1 978 , Ta f . I , 1 3. F or m 1 8 ( f ig . 5 .11 , 2 -3 ) . Cups w i th a n o u tcurv ing wa l l a nd a p la in r im , r el a ted t o f or m 8 a nd 9 . S im i lar c ups f ro m t he Wet terau l ack t he f oot-r ing ; c f . B e t ter mann , 1 934 , 1 23-124 , Abb . 1 5 , 1 7 a nd Ta f . V I , 2 5 a nd 2 8. F or m 1 9 ( f ig . 5 .11 , 4 ) .

He m ispher ica l b ow l w ith a s harp , n arrow f oot-r ing ,

p ossib ly w i th a mou ld ing f or a l i d a nd a pp l ied h or izon ta l h and les a s B etter mann , 1 934 , 1 23 , Abb . 1 5 , 1 7 . A s im i lar b ow l f ro m Woerden h as a s l ight ly d if fere n t p rof i le a nd i s c overed w i th a g rey c oa t ing ( f ) o n t he i ns ide ( f ig . 5 .11 , 7 ) . Exa mp les o ft h is l ast f or m f ro m N i j megen a nd X anten s how a r ed-brown p a in ti ng o n t he i n terna l s ur faces.

The i nter ior o f t he b ase i s d ecora ted b y s harp ,

c oncentr ic g rooves a s o n meta l work . C f . H inz , 1 961 , 3 67 , Abb . 5 , 3 ; S tuar t 1 962, 3 5 , t ype 2 5 a nd p l . 2 , 5 6. F or m 2 0 ( f ig . 5 .11 , 5 -6 ) .

F ragments o f l i ds w i th f ine g rooves n ear t he r im .

C f . B et ter mann , 1 934 , 1 23 , Abb . 1 5 , 1 8 ;

8 1

Hu ld-Zetsche , 1 978 , Ta f . I , 1 9 .

F ig. 5 .10 B eaker o f f orm 1 6 f rom t he Hunerberg f ound i n 1 970. 1 :3. Draw ing Anne l ies Koster.

S ca le

›Sk " '

2

6

F ig. 5 .11 Woerden 1 978 . Marb led p o ttery, a l l e xcept n os. 7 -11 o f f abr ic a . The r econstructed d ish o f f orm 1 7 f rom N i jmegen-Hatert ( 11) i s a dded f or c ompar ison w i th n o 1 . S i te r ef . n o. WRD. 1 978. 1 91 .bb, 2 91 .bbb, 2 86.ba, 2 91 .bac, 1 95 .bd, 2 91 .bba, 2 86.b+291.bbd, 2 68.ba, 1 71.b, 1 96.b a nd HA.1979 .113 .b. S ca le 1 :3. Draw ing I l ja t en Br ink, E . J . P onten a nd 21. P e ters.

8 2

DATING T he d a t ing o f t he marb led wares f ro m N i j megen h as b een b ased s o f ar o n p ara l lels f ro m e lsewhere . There a re n ow s o me a sse mb lages f ro m t he N etherl ands wh ich c an h elp u s i n d a t ing t h is k ind o fp ot tery . F ro m t he f or tresses o n t he Hunerberg i n N i j megen l i t t le n ew e vidence h as b een p ub l ished ;1 7 o n ly o ne s herd —probab ly f ro m a c up o ff or m 7 i n f abr ic e— c an b e d a ted s tra t igraph ical ly . r ess , b u i l t af ter A .D. 8 9.

I t was f ound i n as ewer o f t he l ast s tone f or t-

1 8

The f inds f ro m t he c e me tery o f U lp ia N ovio magus a re d if f icult t o u se ; t h is c e metery was a l most e n t irely l ooted i n t he e ar ly y ears o f t h is c entury a nd i n modern e xcava t ions u sua l ly o nly d isturbed g rave p i ts a re f ound w i th r e jected s herds , wh ich t he g rave r obbers h ave l ef t . I ti s , h owever , o f s o me r e levance t o n ot ice t ha t t he many f rag men ts o f marb led wares ( c , ea nd f )f ound i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 o ccur i n ap ar t o ft he c e metery , where a l l t he s urv iv ing g rave-goods mus t b e d a ted t o t he s econd c entury .

I n t hese d isturbed g raves , s herds o f c ups

o f f or ms 6 -9 a nd o f d ishes o f f or ms 4 a nd 5 most ly w i th a s inuous p ro f i le ( B ) were f ound. A r im f ragmen t o f s uch a d ish was n o t iced i n a n u ntouched g rave f ro m t he midd le o ft he s econd c en tury .1 9 Ag rave ( ? ) o f t he s a me p er iod h as b een f ound i n Wi jchen ( f ig . 5 .5 , 8 -13) , s ou th-west o f N i j megen .

I tc on ta ined p ar t ly b urn t s herds o f as am ian c up

Drag . 3 3 w i th t he s ta mp S ABELLVS ( La Made le ine , c . A .D. 1 30-160 ) , a n a lmost c o mp lete j ar ( S tuar t 1 10 B ) f ro m t he midd le o f t he s econd c entury , a nd a lso f rag men ts o f f our mo t t led d ishes o f f or m 4 B a nd s ix c ups o f f or m 6 , wh ich c ou ld b e r estored f or t he g rea ter p art , a nd s o me f ragmen ts o f t wo o ther c ups o f t he s a me f orm . T he b est o ppor tun i ty f or d a t ing t he marb led wares i s o f fered b y t he f i nds f ro m a c e metery n ear N i j megen-Ha ter t d iscovered i n 1 979 , a bou t 4 km s ou thwest o f U lpia N ov io magus. F if teen g raves c onta ined marb led o r r ela ted wares. 2 ° The ma jor i ty c an p robab ly b e d a ted t o t he f irst h a lf o f t he s econd c entury . On ly af ew g raves ( HA. 1 979 . 7 and 1 19 ) c on ta in f i nds d a tab le t o t he f irst c en tury , i nc lud ing b eakers o f R i t ter l ing 's f or m 2 6 ( =S tuart 1 B ) , b u t t hey may a lso h ave b een d ug a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c en tury . B urnt s herds o f a n u nusua l d ish o f f or m 1 7 ( f ig .5 .11 , 1 1 ) were f ound i n ag rave , which b elongs w i thou t d oub t t o t he f irs t c en tury ( HA . 1 979.113.b ) . T he p resence o f ab icon ica l t erra n igra p ot s ugges ts t he p oss ib i l i ty o f a n e ar ly ( ?) F lavian d ate .

One o f

t he f ew d ishes w ith r ea l ly f l a me-l ike p a in t ing ( b ) ( f ig . 5 .4 , 3 ) ; h as b een r ec overed f ro m g rave HA .1979.119 ; o nly o ne s ha l low b ow l ( f ig . 5 .8, 3 ) p ossesses a' co mbed ' p a in t ing ( d ) ; t he r e ma in ing v esse ls a re e i ther c oarse ly mot t led ( c ) o r c oa ted a l l o ver ( e ) . O ne m igh t s uppose t ha t t he f la me-l ike ( b ) a nd t he ' co mbed ' p a in t ing ( d ) were i n u se ma in ly i n t he F lavian p er iod a nd t ha t t he more c arelessly p a in ted v esse ls b elong t o t he s econd c entury . T he e xcava t ions a round t he a ux i l iary f or t a t Woerden ( on t he b ank o f t he r iver Rh ine , b etween L eiden a nd U trech t ) may i nd ica te t ha t marb led wares d id n ot b eco me p opu lar i n t he N ether lands u nt i l A .D . 8. 0 /90 .

Recen t work a t

Woerden h as p roduced t wo l arge g roups o f ma ter ia l o f d i f feren t d a tes .

T he

e ar l ier c onta ins b u t f ew p ieces l a ter t han A .D. 8 0 o r 9 0 , wh i lst t he s econd

8 3

F ig . 5 .12 D istr ibut ion o f marb led wares i n t he Nether lands a nd t he a d jo in ing p ar ts o f G ermany a nd Be lg ium. Draw ing E . J . P onten. 1 . N i jmegen-Hunerberg, 2 . N i jmegen-U lp ia Nov iomagus, 3 . N i jmegen-Ha tert, 4 . W i jchen, 5 . Groesbeek-De Ho ldeurn, 6 . Cu i jk, 7 . Mook, 8 . G ennep, 9 . Boxmeer, 1 0, S cha i jk, 1 1. HouthemRondenbos, 1 2. Ge lderma lsen, 1 3. Bunn ik-Vechten, 1 4. Maur ik, 1 5. Kesteren, 1 6. Woerden, 1 7 . A lphen-Zwammerdam, 1 8 . R i jsw i jk, 1 9 . S p i jken isse, 2 0. Xanten, 2 1 . Neuss, 2 2. C o logne, 2 3. Bonn, 2 4. Krefe ld-Ge l lep, 2 5. Rhe inberg , 2 6. B l icquy, 2 7. Waasmunster-Pontrave, 2 8 . Beveren-Le ie, 2 9. Ve lzekeRuddershoven, 3 0. Tongres. -C irc le : 1 -5 f inds, d ot: more t han 5 f inds.

8 4

g roup b eg ins a round t ha t p er iod a nd l ast u n t i l t he t h ird c en tury .

S herds o f

marb led wares ( a , b , d , e , f )o ccur o n ly i nt h is s econd g roup . D ISTR IBUT ION ( f ig . 5 .12)2 1 T he u se o f marb led wares i n t he N ether lands s ee ms t oh ave b een c onf ined ma in ly t o N i j megen a nd i t s s urround ings. Much h as b een f ound i n t he l eg iona ry f or tresses ( 1 ; ma in ly f abr ics b a nd d ) , more i n U lp ia N ov io magus ( 2 ; ma in ly b , c , a nd d ) , s omewha t l ess i n Ha ter t , W i jchen ( 3a nd 4 ; ma in ly c ) a nd C u i jk ( 6 ; d ) . An umber o f o ther , mos t ly more d is tan t s i tes , h owever , h ave y ie lded o n ly o ne o r t wo s herds o ft h is p o t tery ; Mook ( 7 ; f orm 4 ) , G ennep ( 8 ; f or m 1 1) , B oxmeer ( 9 ) , S cha i jk ( 1 0 ; f orm 4 ) ,R ondenbos ( 1 1 : f orm 1 0 ) , G e lder ma lsen ( 1 2 ; f or m 4 ) , V ech ten ( 1 3 ) , Maur ik ( 1 4 ) , K esteren ( 1 5) a nd

2 2

p erhaps a lso D e H o ldeurn ( 5 ) . 23 I ti s n o t u n l ike ly t ha t N i j megen was t he p rod uc t ion c en tre f or t hese w ares . F ar ther t o t he wes t ma rb led wares a re k nown f ro m Woerden ( 1 6 ; a , b , d , ea nd f ) , Zwa mmerdam ( 1 7 , f orm 4 ) , R i jsw i jk ( 1 8 ; o n ly f abr ic e , f orm 4 ) a nd S p i jken isse ( 1 9 ) n ear R o t terdam . I ti s u ncert a in whe ther t hey were b rough t t here b y t rade f ro m a b igger c en tre l i ke N i j megen o r l ocal ly made . Above w e h ave a lready d escr ibed t he r e markab le p roduc ts i n f abr ic a a t Woerden ; s o f ar t hey s ee m t o b e u npara l le led i n t he N ether lands a nd o ccur o n ly s porad ica l ly o n t he r i mer R h ine ( Xan ten? G e l lep? F or m 1 7 ) . I n t he r eg ions a d jo in ing t he N e ther lands a n u mber o f f i nd-spo ts c an b e men t ioned . F ro m t he b ig c en tres a long t he R h ine ( X an ten , 2 0 , N euss , 2 1 , C o logne , 2 2 , a nd B onn , 2 3 ) s evera l f ragmen ts h ave b een p ub l ished , a s wel l a s f ro m sma l ler p laces , s uch a s K refe ld-Ge l lep ( 2 4 ) a nd Rhe inberg ( 2 5) . 24 The h in ter land o fp resen t-day B e lg ium h as a lso y ie lded s o me , e .g . f rom F ouches , C erfon ta ine , F ay tlez- Manage , B ies me , B l icquy ( 2 6 ) , Waas munsterP on trave ( 2 7 ) , B everen-Le ie ( 2 8 ) , V e lzeke-Ruddershoven ( 2 9 ) , a nd T ongres ( 3 0 ) . 25 Th is w ide d istr ibu t ion s uggests t ha t more t han o ne p lace was i nvolved i n t he p roduc t ion o ft hese wares . S U MMARY Marb led wares s ee m t o h ave b een i n u se i n t he N e ther lands s ince t he v ery e nd o f t he f i rst c entury ; i ti s c onsequen t ly r a ther u n l ike ly t ha t L eg io X G em ina i n troduced t h is way o fp a in t ing p o t tery , when i ta rr ived a t N i j megen C . A .D . 7 1. Th is k ind o fp o t tery was n ot made i n t he workshops o fD e Ho ldeurn , where s o ld iers o f L eg io X G em ina were a c t ive . The ma in t ypes may h ave b een c op ied f ro m t erra s ig i l la ta p ro to types ( d ishes o ff orms 1 -5 ; c ups o ff or ms 6 -7 a nd 1 0-11) a nd p ar t ly r ese mb le t ypes o f N i j megen-Ho ldeurn p o t tery ( d ishes o f f or ms 1 -5 ; c ups o ff orms 8 -9 ) . V esse ls l i ke f orm 1 0 a nd 1 1 a re , h owever , u nknown f ro m De H o ldeurn .

T hese c ups w i th ' combed ' p a in t ( d ) may h ave

b een r ep laced b y c ups ( f or ms 6 -7 ) w i th a c are less ly mot t led c oa t ing , wh ich p robab ly r e ma ined i nu se u n t i l t he midd le o ft he s econd c en tury , l i ke t he d ishes o ff or ms 4 -5 , p a in ted i n t he s a me way . We may a ssume t ha t t hese l a te p roduc ts were made i n t he p ot ter ies o f t he t own ü lp ia N ov io magus ( a nd e lsewhere?) . There i s l i t t le o r n o i nd ica t ion t ha t L eg io X G em ina was c onc erned i n t he p roduc t ion o f e ar l ier f la mel ike ware . B es ides i ti s wor th r e me mber ing t ha t t he f or ms o fn or ma l c o lour-coa ted ware c hanged d ras t ica l ly

8 5

i n t he L ower Rh ine a rea a t t he e nd o ft he f i rst c en tury w i th t he i ntroduct ion o ft he b eaker w i th c orn ice r im ( S tuar t 2= G ose 1 88-192) a nd t he f lat d ish S tuar t f or m 1 0 ( Gose 2 30-232) ;

s o i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he marb led wares were

o nly o ne o f t he m inor e le men ts i n ac o mp lex o f c hanges i n t he p roduct ion o f c olour-coa ted p ot tery . S o me s herds o f af ine marb led ware ( a ) f ro m Woerden a re s o s im i lar t o t he f ine Wet terau ware t ha t t hey may h ave b een impor ted f ro m t he Ma in r eg ion . The s tra t igraphy a t Woerden s uggests f or t hese f i ne p roduc ts a d a te n o t b efore A . D .8 0/90 .2 6 NOTES 1 .

E t t l inger , 1 951 , 1 05-111 ( =1 977 , 6 2-67 ) ; E t t l inger a nd S i monet t , 1 952, 5 7-74.

2 .

C f . t he s ound warn ing b y Webster , 1 976 , 7 : ' Each l eg ion a ppears t o h ave h ad i t s o wn works d epot f or mak ing t i les a nd p ot tery ....Dist inct ive t ypes o fp ot tery ...can b e r ecogn ised , b u t s ince t here i s n o t rad i t ion c o m mon t o a l l t he l eg ions , a nd a s , e xcep t a t Ho l t , t he c onnec t ion h as n o t b een p roved , t he t er m s hou ld b e u sed w i th c au t ion '.

3 .

G reene , 1 977 , 1 13 ; 3 1-32 ;

Marsh , 1 978 , 2 06-209 ;

S i mon , 1 979 , 8 9-90 ;

G rünewa ld , 1 979 , 2 6 a nd

E t t l inger , 1 980 , 2 3-25 .

4 .

Marsh , 1 978 , 1 19-223.

5 .

We wonder whe ther s uch a s tagna t ion i s a s s imp ly e stab l ished , a s i s n or ma lly s upposed . H is togra ms o ft he d a t ing o f s ta mps o n t erra s ig i l la ta t end n ot t o r ef lect t he h istory o f t he ' densi ty o f o ccupa t ion ' o r t he impor t o f S am ian ware , b u t t hey a re ma in ly i n f luenced b y f our f actors : 1 . 2 .

e rrors i n t he d a t ing ; t he h is tory o f t he e xcava t ion ;

3 .

c a la ma t ies , s uch a s t he f ires d ur ing t he r evo l ts o f B oudicca a nd o ft he

4 .

Ba tav ia ns ; b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ies wh ich afected a n e nt ire s i te , s uch a s t he e n largements o f q uays a nd t he r a ising o f b u i ld ing l evels .

C f . D ick inson ,

1 968 , 1 46 ; D ick inson a nd H ar t ley , 1 971 , 1 40-143 ; 9 0-93 ; B loe mers a nd S ar fa t i j , 1 976 , 1 40-146. 6 .

H aa lebos , 1 977 ,

The e ar l iest s pec i mens o f marb led ware i n t he Wet terau r eg ion c an b e d a ted n ow t o t he r eign o f V espas ia n ;

c f . S i mon , 1 979 , 8 9 .

Th is means

t ha t t h is k ind o fp o t tery was i n u se t here b efore t he a rr iva l o f s o ld iers o f L eg io X I f ro m V indon issa . 7 .

E t t l inger a nd S i mone t t , 1 952, 1 57 a nd Ta f . 2 7 , 6 00.

Haa lebos a nd

Th i jssen , 1 977 , 1 03 w i th f ig . 2 1 , 1 ; B ogaers a nd Haa lebos , 1 976 , 1 681 69 a nd p l . 5 , 1 1 ; Novio magus , 4 4 a nd a fb . 4 1. 8 .

P up ius :

S chu lze , 1 904 , 2 13 ( amongs t o thers f rom P isae , C lus iu m ,

S po let iu m a nd S ena ) ;

Masius : Holder , 1 904 , 4 54 ( Verona , C o logne ,

G ressen ich ) . 9 .

V ernhet , 1 976 , 1 8 , f ig . 1 .

8 6

10.

Holwerda, 1944; Holwerda and Braat, 1946; Haalebos and Thijssen, 1977.

11.

Holwerda and Braat, 1946, 46, 2 and pl._ XXIII, 124.

12.

For the topography of Nijmegen see now: Noviomagus.

13.

The data for this table come from Brunsting, 1937 and Stuart, 1962 and 1976; new material is not taken into account, neither are changes in typology.

14.

Fischer, 1973, 160 and 162.

15.

Ettlinger and Simonett, 1952, 60.

16.

Fabrics are only given as far as we know them from personal examination.

17.

Haalebos, 1972, 37: Stuart 11 (14 ex.), Stuart 22 (2 ex.); Bogaers and Haalebos, 1976, 175: Stuart 11 (3 ex.), Stuart 12 (5 ex.), Stuart 22 (3 ex), Bogaers and Haalebos, 1977, 118 with 8 5, fig. 9, 1: Stuart 11 (2 ex.), Stuart 12 (1 ex.) and Stuart 22 (2 ex.).

18.

Bogaers and Haalebos, 1977, 8 2-8 8 (with fig. 9, 1) and 148-149.

19.

Unpublished, from excavations by the Instituut voor Oude Geschiedenis en Archeologie of the Nijmegen University, site reference no. ULP. 1979 .170. b.

20.

Unpublished, from excavations by the Instituut voor Oude Geschiedenis en Archeologie, site reference nos. HA.1976.6, 7, 8 , 15, 17, 19, 113, 119, 128 , 176, 177, 236, 294, 307 and 308 . See for an interim report Bogaers and Haalebos, 1980.

21.

References to the literature on the different sites are given above in the section on forms.

22.

Brunsting, 1937, 86.

23.

See note 11.

24.

Xanten: form 17; Neuss: form 4, 11 and 14; Bonn: Gose, 1975, 22, 255; Krefeld-Gellep: form 17; Rheinberg: form 11. See also Brunsting, 1937, 85-86.

25.

De Laet, 1966; Thoen, 1978 , 179. See also form 1, 7, 10 and 11.

26.

The authors would like to express their gratitude for assistence in pre­ paring this article to J. E. Bogaers (Nijmegen), H. Denissen (Wijchen), J. H. Gielen (Heerlen), M. de Groot (Wijchen), H. J. Janssen (Wijchen), C. A. Kalee (Utrecht), C. P. J. van Kouwen (Nijmegen), W. J. M. T. van Rossum (Nijmegen), G. H. Stam (Spijkenisse), J. R. A. M. Thijssen (Nijmegen) and for producing the final English text, working into the small hours during the congress of R. C.R. F. at Millau to Catherine Johns, K. Greene and other friends; they owe also many improvements to A. S. Anderson, who read a first draft.

87

ABBREVIATIONS B er . R .O .B .

B er ich ten v an d e R ilksd ienst v oor h et Oudhe idkund ig B ode monderzoek .

B .K .N .0 .B .

Bu l let in v an d e Kon ink l i jke N eder landse Oudhe idkund ige B ond .

B runst ing

I nd ica t ion o fp ot tery t ypes a f ter B runst ing , 1 937 .

C ur ie

I nd ica t ion o f s am ian t ypes a f ter C urie , 1 911.

Drag .

I ndica t ion o f s am ian t ypes a f ter Dragendorf f , 1 895.

G ose

I nd ica t ion o fp ot tery t ypes a f ter G ose , 1 950 .

N .K .N .O .B . N ieuwsbu l let in v an d e K on ink l i jke N eder landse Oudhe idk und ige B ond k und ige B ond N ov io magus

Nov io magus .

Op h et s poor d er Ro me inen i n N i j megen

( = N ov io magus .

Auf d er S puren d er R ö mer i n N i j megen ) .

E xhib it ion g u ide , N i j megen , 1 979 . 0 .M .L .

Oudheidkund ige Medede l ingen u it h et R i jks museu m v an Ou c lheden t e L e iden ( n ieuwe r eeks ) .

R it t .

I nd ica t ion o fp ot tery t ypes a f ter R it ter l ing , 1 912 .

S tuar t

I nd ica t ion o f p ot tery t ypes a f ter S tuar t , 1 962 a nd 1 976.

B IBL IOGRAEHY B ehrens 1 952. B ehrens , G ., ' Rö m ische M i lchkocher ( ?) ', G er man ia , 3 0 ( 1952) , 1 10-111. B et ter mann 1 934.

B et ter mann , K ., ' Die b e ma l te K eram ik d er f r t lhen

r öm ischen Ka iserzei t im r he in ischen G er man ien ', S aa lburg-Jahrbuch , 8( 1934 ) , 9 7-129 . B ind ing 1 968.

B inding , G ., ' Eine r öm ische B efest igung a n d er a l ten L and-

s trasse b e i Rhe inberg , Kre is Moers ', i n ;

B arf ield , L . H ., e t a l ,

B ei träge z ur Archäo log ie d es r öm ischen R he in lands 2 Düsseldor f , 1 968, 1 21-165. B loe mers 1 978.

B loe mers , J . H . F ., R i jsw i jk ( Z.H.) , ' De Buh l.

E ine

S iedlung d er C ananefa ten , Amersfoort , 1 978, B loe mers a nd S ar fa t i j 1 976 .

B loe mers , J . H . F . a nd S ar fa t i j , H ., ' A Ro man

S et t le men t a t De Woerd , Va lkenburg ( Sou th H ol land ) .

R epor t I . The

P ot ters ' S ta mps , B er . R .O .B ., 2 6 ( 1 976 ) , 1 33-161. B ogaers a nd Haa lebos 1 976 .

B ogaers , J . E ., a nd Haa lebos , J . K ., e t a l .,

' Opgrav ingen i n d e R o me inse l eg ioensvest i ngen t e N i j megen , I( Berg e n Da lseweg-Huygensweg , 1 973-1974) ', O .M .L ., 5 7 ( 1 976 ) , 1 49-196. B ogaers a nd H aa lebos 1 977 . B ogaers , J . E . a nd Haa lebos , J . K ., e t a l ' Opgrav ingen i n d e Ro me inse l eg ioensvest ingen t e N i j megen , I ( t en o osten e n n oorden v an d e P raetor iu mstraa t , 1 974-1975) ', 0 . M. L ., 5 8, ( 1977) , 7 3-157. 8 8

B ogaers a nd H aa lebos 1 978 .

B ogaers , J . E . a nd H aa lebos , J . K ., e t a l .,

' N i j megen , U lp ia N ov io magus ', B .K .N .O .B ., 7 7 ( 1978) , 2 47-249 7 Bogaers a nd Haa lebos 1 980 . B ogaers , J . E . a nd Haa lebos , J . K ., ' Graven i n Ha tert ', Nu maga , 2 7 ( 1980 ) , 1 -9 . B ogaers a nd Morren 1 954 .

B ogaers , J . E . a nd Morren , C ., ' Twee R o me inse

g rafve lden i n Noord-L i mburg ', B er . R .O .B ., 5 ( 1954) , 5 7-61. Bru let 1 969-70 . B ru let , R ., ' La n ecropo le d e B ies me i, A nna les d e l as oc iet ie a rch6olog ique d e N amur , 5 5 ( 1 969-70 ) , 4 7-125. B runst ing 1 937 .

B runst ing , H ., Het g rafve ld o nder Hees b i j N i j megen ,

Amsterdam , 1 937 . Cur ie , 1 911.

C ur ie , J ., A Ro man F ron t ier P os t a nd i t s P eop le .

The F or t

o f N ewstead i n t he P ar ish o f Melrose , G lasgow , 1 911. D ick inson 1 968.

D ick inson , B ., Har t ley , B . R . a nd P earce , F ., 'Makers '

S ta mps o n P la in S am ian ', i n :

C un l if fe , B . W. ( ed .) , F i f th R epor t o n t he

Excava t ions o f t he R o man F or t a t R ichborough , K en t , L ondon , 1 968 , 1 25-162. D ick inson a nd Har t ley 1 971.

D ick inson , B . M . a nd Har t ley , K . F ., ' The

e v idence o fp ot ters ' s ta mps o n s am ian ware a nd o n mortar ia f or t he t rad ing c onnec t ions o f Ro man Y ork ', i n : B u t ler , R . M . ( e d .) , S o ld ier a nd c ivi l ian i n Ro man Yorksh ire , L eicester , 1 971. Dragendorf f 1 895.

Dragendor f f , H ., ' Terra s ig i l la ta r, B onner J ahrb ., 9 6-97

( 1 895) , 1 8-155. E tt l inger 1 951. E t t l inger , E ., ' Leg ionary P ot tery f ro m V indon issa t, J . o f R o man S tudies , 4 1 ( 1 951) , 1 05-11. E t t l inger 1 977.

E t t l inger , E ., K le ine S chr if ten . K era m ik , Augst/Ka iseraugst ,

1 977. E tt l inger 1 980 . E t t l inger , E ., B e merkungen z u a usgewYh lten K le inf unden u nd d en Grundr issen d er Hauser i n U n terw ind isch r J ahresber ich t d er G esel ls chaf t P ro V indon issa , 1 978 ( 1980 ) , 1 2-45. E t t l inger a nd S i monet t 1 952.

E t t l inger , E . a nd S imonet t , C hr ., R öm ische

K era m ik a us d em S chut th i lge l v on V in .don issa , Basel , 1 952. F i l tzinger 1 972.

F i l tzinger , P h ., D ie r öm ische K era m ik a us d em M i li tUrbe-

r eich v on Novaes ium ( e twa 2 5 b is 5 0 n . C hr .) , B er l in , 1 972. F ischer 1 973.

F ischer , U ., G rabungen im r öm ischen S te inkas tel l v on

Heddernhe im 1 957-1959 , F rank furt am Ma in , 1 973. Garbsch 1 978. G arbsch , J ., ' Sons t ige G efUsse a us Ton u nd S te in , L a mpen ', i n : S chönberger , H ., Kastel l Obers t imm , B er l in , 1 978 , 2 59-278. G oe thert-Po laschek 1 977 .

G oe thert-Po laschek , Kar in , Ka ta log d er i m ischen

G lNser d es Rhe in ischen L andes museu ms Tr ier , Ma inz am Rhe in , 1 977. G ose 1 950 . G ose , E ., G efasstypen d er r öm ischen K era m ik im Rhe in land , K eve laer , 1 950 . 8 9

G reene 1 977.

Greene , K ., ' Leg ionary p o t tery , a nd t he s ign i f icance o f Ho l t ',

i n : Dore , L . a nd Greene , K . ( eds.) , R o man Po t tery S tud ies i n B r i ta in a nd B eyond , B .A .R., S upp le men tary S er ies , 3 0 , Ox ford , 1 977 , 1 13-132. Grünewa ld 1 979 .

Grünewa ld , Ma th i lde , D ie G efasskera m ik d es L eg ions lagers

v on C arnuntu m ( Grabungen 1 968-1974 ) , W ien , 1 979 . H aa lebos 1 972 .

H aa lebos , J . K ., 'N i j megen , c astra L eg . X G em ina ',

N .K .N .0 .B ., H aa lebos 1 977 .

( 1972 ) 3 5-37.

H aa lebos , J . K ., Zwa m merda m-N igru m P u l lu m .

E in

a ux i l iarkaste l l am N iederger man ischen L i mes , Amsterda m , 1 977. H aa lebos a nd T h i jssen 1 977 .

H aa lebos , J . K . a nd Th i jssen , J . R . A . . M .,

'S o me r e marks o n t he l eg ionary p ot tery ( 'H o ldeurn ware ' )f ro m N i j megen ' i n : V an B eek , B . L ., e t a l . ( e ds .) , Ex H orreo , I PP 1 951-1976 , Amsterda m , 1 977 , 1 01-113 . H at t 1 954 . H at t , J . J ., 'L es f ou i l les d e S trasbourg e n 1 953 e t 1 954 ', Ga l l ia , 1 2 ( 1 954 ) , 3 23-343 . H euke mes 1 964 . 1 964 . H inz 1 960 .

H euke mes , B ., Rö m ische K era m ik a us H e ide lberg , Bonn ,

H inz , H ., 'Xan ten ' , Bonner J ahrb ., 1 60 ( 1960 ) ,

H inz 1 961 .

4 94-506 .

H inz , H ., '1 B er ich t ü ber d ie A usgrabungen i n d er C o lon ia

T ra iana n örd l ich v on X an ten ( S tand d er A usgrabungen am 1 .9 .1959 ) '. B onner J ahrb ., 1 61 ( 1961 ) , 3 43-395 . H o lder 1 904 .

H o lder , A ., A l t-ce lt ischer S prachscha tz I , L e ipz ig , 1 904.

H o lwerda 1 944 . Ho lwerda , J . H ., H et i n d e p ot tenbakker i j v an d e H o ldeurn g efabr iceerde a ardewerk u i t d e N i j meegsche g rafve lden , 0 . M .L ., 2 4 , s upp le men t ,

s -Gravenhage , 1 944 .

H u ld-Zetsche 1 978 .

H u ld-Zetsche , I . , Rö m ische r o tbe ma l te Ware d er We t terau

im F rank fur ter Museu m f ür Vor- u nd Frühgesch ich te , F rank fur t am Ma in , 1 978 . K o l l ing 1 969 .

K o l l ing , A . ., F orschungen im r öm ischen S chwarzenacker I I .

D er Rö merhuge l v on Wörschwe i ler .

D as f rührö m ische Graber fe ld v on

B l iesbergerhof ( L i mbach ) , E inöd ( Saar ) , 1 969 . D e L aet 1 958 .

D e L aet , S . J ., N enqu in , J . A . . E ., S p i tae ls , P . a nd V an

D oorse laer , A ., 'N ieuwe o udhe i fikund ige o pgrav ingen e n v ondsten i n O ostv laanderen ', Ku lturee l J aarboek v oor d e P rov inc ie O ostv laanderen ( 1 958-2 ) , 5 -99 . D e L ae t 1 966 .

D e L aet , S . J ., 'E tudes s ur l a c gra m ique d e l a n ecropo le

g a l lo-ro ma ine d e B l icquy ( Ha inau t ) , I .

L a p o ter ie d i te " rs avonneuse"

H e l in iu m 6 ( 1966 ) , 3 -23 . D e L ae t 1 972 .

D e L aet , S . J ., V an D oorse laer , A ., S p i tae ls , P . a nd T hoen , H .,

L a n ecropo le g a l lo-ro ma ine d e B l icquy ( Ha inau t-Be lg ique ) , Brugge , 1 972 . D e L ae t a nd N enqu in 1 953.

D e L aet , S . J . a nd N enqu in , J . A . E ., ' Een

G a l lo-Ro me inse v icus t e V e lzeke-Ruddershove ', Cu lturee l J aarboek v oor d e P rov inc ie Oostv laanderen ( 1953 ) , 1 -56 .

9 0

Marsh 1 978 .

Marsh , G ., 'E ar ly s econd c en tury f ine wares i n t he L ondon

a rea ', i n :

Ar thur , P . a nd Marsh , G . ( eds .) , E ar ly F ine Wares i n

Ro man Br ita in , B .A .R ., 5 7 , Ox ford , 1 978 , 1 19-223 . Mar t in-K i lcher 1 976 .

Mar t in-K i lcher , S tefan ie , D as r öm ische Graberfe ld

v on C ourroux im B erner J ura , S o lo thurn , 1 976. Modder man a nd I s ings 1 960-61 .

Modder man , P . J . R . a nd I s ings , C ., 'E en

g rafve ld u it d e R o me inse t i jd o p d e G aa lse H e ide , g em . S chayk ( N . B r .) ', B er . R .O .B . 1 0-11 ( 1960-61 ) , 3 18-346 . Mü l ler 1 977 .

Mü l ler , G ., D ie r öm ischen G räberfe lder v on N ovaes iu m , B er l in ,

1 977 . N uber 1 969-70 .

N uber , H . U .,

E in S iebgef äss a us H eddernhe im ', R . C .R . F .

Acta , 1 1-12 ( 1969-70 ) , 7 0-75 . P iepers a nd H aup t 1 968 .

P iepers , W. a nd H aup t , Dorothea ,

G e lduba .

D ie

A usgrabungen d er J ahre 1 954-55 ', i n : B ar f ie ld , L . H . e t a l ., B e iträge z ur Archäo log ie d es r öm ischen Rhe in lands , D üsse ldorf , 1 968 , 2 13-315 . R i t ter l ing 1 912 .

R it ter l ing , E .,

D as f rührö m ische L ager b e i H ofhe i m im

Taunus ', Anna len d es V ere ins f ür N assau ische A ltertu mskunde u nd G esch ich tsforschung , 4 0 ( 1912 ) , Wiesbaden . Roosens 1 954 .

Roosens , H ., 'C i me t iere r o ma in d u Haut-E mp ire ä F ouches

( Hachy-Luxe mbourg ) ', Archeo log ia B e lg ica 2 0 , Bruxe l les , 1 954 . Rogge a nd V an D oorse laer 1 976.

Rogge , M . a nd V an Doorse laer , A .,

'De Ga l lo-Ro me inse n ederzet t ing o p d e T o mberg i n B everen-Le ie ' D e L e iegouw , 1 8 ( 1 976 ) , 3 53-399 . S choppa 1 961 .

S choppa , H ., D ie F unde a us d em V icus d es

H ofhe im .

Ma in taunuskre is , I .

S te inkaste l ls

D ie K era m ik a usser T erra s ig i l la ta ,

Wiesbaden , 1 961 . S chu lze 1 904 .

S chu lze , W., Z ur G esch ich te l ate in ischer E igenna men ,

B er l in ,

1 904 . S i mon 1 979 .

S i mon , H .-G .,

F undka ta log ', i n : S ch l önberger , H . a nd S i mon ,

H .-G . ,D as Kaste l l Okarben u nd d ie B esetzung d er We t terau s e it V esp asian , B er l in , 1 979 , 4 7-90 . S tuar t 1 962 .

S tuar t , P . J . J ., G ewoon a ardewerk u i t d e Ro me inse l egerp laats

e n d e b i jbehorende g rafve lden t e N i j megen , 0 .M .L ., 4 3 ( 1962 ) , s upp le men t , L e iden , ( r epr in t 1 977 ). S tuar t 1 968 . S tuar t , P ., Ro me inse g rafvondsten u it G e lder ma lsen i n h et R i jks museu m v an O udheden t e L e iden ', 0 . M . L ., 4 9 ( 1968 ) , 6 1-82 . S tuar t 1 976.

S tuar t , P ., 'Een Ro me ins g rafve ld u i t d e e erste e euw t e

N i j megen .

Onvers ierde t erra s ig i l la ta e n g ewoon a ardewerk ', 0 .M .L .,

5 7 ( 1976 ) , 1 -148

( =Beschr i jv ing v an d e v erza me l ingen i n h et R i jks-

museu m G .M . Ka m t e N i j megen V I I I , 1 977 ). Thoen 1 978 .

T hoen , H ., D e B e lg ische k ustv lak te i n d e Ro me inse t i jd .

B i jdrage t o t d e s tud ie v an d e l ande l i jke b ewon ingsgesch ieden is , B russe l , 1 978 . 9 1

V anv inckenroye 1 965 .

V anv inckenroye , W

Opgrav ingen t e Tongeren

1 963-1964 , d oor h e t P rov inc iaa l-Ro me ins Museu m T ongeren , 1 965 ( =L i mburg 4 4 ( 1965 ) , 1 -51 ) . V anv inckenroye 1 967 .

Vanv inckenroye , W., G a l lo-Ro me ins a ardewerk v an

T ongeren , Tongeren , 1 967 . V ernhet 1 976. Vernhet , A ., 'C reat ion f l av ienne d e s ix s erv ices d e v a isse l le al a G raufesenque ', F ig l ina , 1 , ( 1 976 ) , 1 3-27 . Wa lke 1 965 .

Wa lke , N ., D as r öm ische D onaukaste l l S traub ing-Sorv ioduru m ,

B er l in , 1 965 . Webster 1 976 . '

Webster , G ., Ro mano-Br it ish c oarse p o t tery :

g u ide , C .B .A ., R esearch R epor t , 6 , 1 976 ( 37d . e d .) .

9 2

as tuden ts '

6 .

SO ME UNUSUAL COARSE WARE VESSELS FROM LONDON AND THEIR CONTINENTAL BACKGROUND A lasta ir S co t t Anderson

T he p as t d ecade h as w i tnessed a n i ncreas ing i n teres t i n R o man c era m ics t raded o ver l ong d is tances , w i th c onnec t ions b e ing e s tab l ished i n ways p rev iously o n ly p oss ib le b y t he s tudy o f t erra s ig i l la ta d is tr ibu t ions.

B r i t ish

a rchaeo log ists , i n p ar t icu lar , h ave b enef it ted f ro m t h is t rend , e specia l ly w ith r egard t o i nfor ma t ion c oncern ing e xpor ts f ro m t he C on t inen t t o Br i ta in a nd a n u mber o f p ub l ica t ions h ave a ppeared ( e .g . Anderson , 1 980 ; G reene , 1 979 ; Fu l ford a nd B ird , 1 975 ; F u lford , 1 977 ) c over ing t he more c o mmon ly o ccur ing o r c onsp icuous s i te f i nds . Mos t , t hough n o t a l l , o f t hese s tud ies h ave b een c oncerned w i th f i ne wares r a ther t han ' coarse ' p o t tery a nd of ten w i th B r i t ish r ather t han C on t inen ta l d istr ibu t ions .

One o f t he ma in r easons f or t h is l i es i n

t he r e la t ive e ase w ith wh ich many o ft hese impor ted v essels c an b e r ecogn ised , o f ten p urely b y r eference t o C on t inen ta l p ub l ica t ions , t hereby mak ing r ecourse t o f ore ign t ravel u nnecessary . P ara l le l s tud ies h ave c ons idered l oca l ly manu fac tured c op ies o f C on t inen ta l p ro to types ( e .g . G reene , 1 978, Append ix ; Anderson , 1 980 , 3 5-41) a nd mos t c a tegor ies o f f ine wares f ound i n B r i ta in h ave n ow r eceived s cho lar ly a t ten t ion o f s o me k ind .

However , p rob le ms s t i l l

r e ma in a nd a re o n ly g radua l ly b e ing r eso lved ; f or e xa mp le , t he c ase o f wh i te f abr ic , c o lour-coated h un t c ups , f ound i n B r i ta in .

U n t i l r ecen t ly , most o f

t hese v essels were a t tr ibu ted , q u i te l og ica l ly w ith r eference t o p rev ious p ubl ica t ions , t o t he N ene V a l ley , b u t al arge p roport ion o f s econd c en tury e xa mp les c an n ow b e s hown t o h ave o r ig ina ted a t C o logne ( Anderson , 1 980 ; s ee a lso Paper 1 9 b elow ) .

P erhaps i ti s b ecause o f s im i lar p rob le ms i n i den t i f ica t ion

t ha t t he amoun t o f r esearch i n to c oarser v essels imported i n to B r i ta in h as n o t b een c o mmensura te w ith t ha t r ela t ing t o f ine wares .

I ndeed , i ti s p robab le

t ha t many v esse ls i den t i f ied a s l oca l p roducts ( a l though s o met i mes d escr ibed a s c opy ing C on t inen ta l p ro to types ) a re i n f ac t impor ts. I n e cono m ic t er ms t he move men t o f c oarse p ot tery , a s a ga inst f i ne wares , c anno t b e j udged b y t he s a me p ara meters a s f i ne wares were a v iab le c om mod i ty i n t he mse lves whi le c oarse v essels , w ith r egard t o l ong d istance t rade , were n ot .

However ,

t hey w i l lh ave t ravel led a s c on ta iners f or o ther p roduc ts i n l arge n u mbers L oca l p o t ters c er ta in ly c op ied C on t inen ta l p ro to types , b u t t hese o r ig ina ls h ad f irs t t o a rr ive , p resu mab ly i n t he f or m o f r ecep tacles f or o ther c onsumab le g oods . A n u nusua l g roup o fv essels f ro m L ondon , r ecen t ly p ub l ished ( Marsh a nd T yers , 1 976 ) , r epresen ts s uch a s er ies o f c oarse ware f or ms , imported i nto B r i ta in f ro m t he Rh ine land . Th is p aper c o m men ts o n t hese p ar t icular v essels a nd c onnec ts t he m w i th a w ider g roup o f C on t inen ta l f or ms , many o f which h ave n ot y et b een r ecorded i n B r i ta in .

9 3

I n t heir p ub l ica t ion Marsh a nd Tyers i l lus tra te f i ve v essels , s ing le h and led j ugs a nd sma l l j ars

' d ist ingu ished b y t he ir u nusua l f or m a nd f abr ic ',

o ne f ro m t he B r i t ish Museu m ( op c i t ., F ig . 1 2 , n o . 4 ) , a nd f our f ro m t he Museu m o f L ondon

(d . ,

F ig 1 2, n os. 1 -3 , 5 ) , t wo o f wh ich a re i ncluded

b elow ( F ig .6 .2 , n os 4 a nd 1 1) .

A l though a l l were f ound i n L ondon , t he e xac t

p rovenance o f e ach o f t hese v essels i s u nknown , b u t d ue t o t heir u nda maged c ond i t ion , i th as b een s uggested t ha t t hey o r ig ina l ly c a me f ro m g raves. F our o ther v essels o f s im i lar t ype , f ro m L ondon , a re ment ioned ( i b id ., n ote 1 8) , o ne o f wh ich i s i l lustra ted h ere ( F ig . 6 .2, n o .7 ) .

The v essels s hare a n umber

o f c harac ter is t icg , i nc lud ing a n ' exceed ing ly h ard a nd v ery g ranu lar g rey f abr ic ' wh ich a ppears ' no t d iss im i lar t o l a te Ro man Mayen ware '.

H owever ,

o n t h is p o int , a macroscop ic e xa m ina t ion b y Dr . D . P . S . P eacock i ndica ted t ha t t he p o ttery l acked v o lcan ic i nc lusions ( s ee F u l ford a nd B ird , 1 975, 1 73 ) , t he ma in f iler b eing q uar tz ( Marsh a nd Tyers , 1 976 , n o te 1 9 ) .

A l though

made o f s uch a c oarse f abr ic , i t was n o ted t ha t t he v essels were w e l l made , e specia l ly t he j ugs , wh ich a re d el ica te ly mou lded. The v esse ls a re c lear ly a n i n trusive g roup , o therw ise u nknown i n t he L ondon a rea a nd r are e lsewhere i n B r i ta in .

T he j ugs were p ara l le led t o

e xa mp les f ro m Hofhe im ( R i t ter l ing , 1 913 , F orm 8 9 , C laud io-Neron ian ) , N euss ( F i l tz inger , 1 972 , F or m 2 , T iber io-Claud ian ) a nd N i j megen ( S tuar t , 1 963 , F or m 2 13A , A .D. 7 0-105) a nd t he sma l l j ars/beakers t o f ur ther e xamp les f ro m Hofhei m , N euss a nd N i j megen ( Marsh a nd T yers , 1 976 , 2 42 ) . I n v iew o f t he a bsence o f s im i lar v esse ls o n t he G er man ic L i mes ( i n it ia lly c onstruc ted c . 8 5) a nd t ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he r ange o f C on t inenta l d a t ing , t he L ondon e xa mp les s hou ld d a te t o t he p er iod A .D. 4 3-80. I n t he ir c o m men ts , Marsh a nd Tyers s ugges t t he p oss ib i lty t ha t t he v essels a re impor ts , b u t , b y a na logy w i th o ther l oca l ly made e n igma t ic g roups f ro m o ther a reas , t hey c onc lude t ha t t he v essels a re more l ikely t o h ave b een manu factured i n B r i ta in r a ther t han a broad . T heir s uggest ion t ha t im m igran t Rh ineland p o t ters , work ing n ear L ondon a nd a ssocia ted w i th t he R o man a r my , were r espons ib le f or t he v essels i s , a t f irst s igh t , e n t ire ly p laus ib le .

I ndeed ,

f inds f ro m t he p re-F lav ian f or tress a t L ong thorpe ( Frere a nd S t . J oseph , 1 974 ) a dd p ersuas ive e v idence t o s uppor t t heir f i nd ings .

A t t h is s i te , t wo sma l l

b eakers ( i b id ., 1 02, F ig . 5 2, n os . 4 9-50 ) d escr ibed a s b e ing made a t t he c on te mporary k i ln s i te , s i tua ted a bou t aq uar ter-o f-a- m i le e ast o ft he f or tress , a ppear r e markab ly s im i lar i n s hape a nd r im f or m t o t he e xa mp les f ro m L ondon . The f abr ic o ft hese v essels i s d escr ibed a s ' ra ther ' o r ' f ine ly ' g ranu la ted , words wh ich wou ld b e s u i tab le i n a ny a ccoun t o f t he L ondon p ot tery . I fs uch v essels were b e ing p roduced f or t he a r my a t L ong thorpe , im i ta t ing n o t o n ly Rh ineland s hapes b u t a lso f abr ics , t hen why n ot a t L ondon? I n a nswer t o t h is , t he mos t o bv ious p rob le m l ies i n t he a bsence o f a k i ln s i te , i n t he L ondon a rea , k nown t o b e p roduc ing t hese c op ies . Addi t iona lly , c o m men t mus t b e made c oncern ing t he n a ture o f t he t wo s i tes. T he p resence o f im m igrant , h igh ly s k i l led p o t ters a t L ong thorpe i s t o b e e xpec ted i n t he c on tex t o f t he e ar ly i nvas ion p er iod a nd t he ir p roducts a re o bvious ly more l ike ly t o c opy C on t inen ta l r a ther t han i nd igenous p roto types .

The s i te i s

e ssen t ia l ly m il i tary a nd , a s s uch , t he o rgan isa t ion o f p o t tery p roduc t ion w i l l h ave p resen ted f ew p rob le ms .

A mi l i tary o r ig in f or L ondon , a lthough l ike ly ,

9 4

i s s t i l l u nproven , b u t i ti s c er ta in t ha t b yA .D. 6 0 , t he s e t t le men t was a n impor tan t c en tre f or c iv i l c o mmerce ( Tac i tus , A nna ls X IV ) . T he u nusua l g roup o f j ugs a nd b eakers c ou ld e asi ly r epresen t t ha t c o mmerce , b e ing i mp or ts f ro m t he Rh ine land , r a ther t han l oca l p roduc ts . F ina l ly , t he f abr ic o f t hese v essels , i n a dd i t ion t o b e ing u n l ike a ny o ther f ound i nt he L ondon a rea , i s macroscop ica l ly i den t ica l t o t ha t o f c on te mporary v esse ls f ound i n t he R h ine land .

N o t o n ly a re f abr ic , b ody a nd r im t ypes c o mparab le b u t e ven i n

t he t echn iques o f manu fac ture , i nvo lv ing d is t inc t ive t oo l ing a round t he b ase o f c er ta in v esse ls , t he L ondon p ots a re i den t ica l t o e xamp les f ound i n G er many a nd t he N ether lands . A f ter h and l ing t he Museum o f L ondon v esse ls a nd n umerous s im i lar e xamp les f ro m av ar ie ty o f C on t inen ta l s i tes , t he w r i ter i s i nn o d oub t t ha t t he L ondon f i nds a re i mpor ts . T he p o t tery d iscussed a bove b e longs t o ag roup o f a ssoc ia ted v esse l t ypes f ound i n s o me q uan t i ty i n t he Rh ine land . I nd iv idua l e xa mp les w ere d esc r ibed a t s o me l eng th b y R i t ter l ing i nh is Hofhe im r epor t ( 1 913 ) b u t t h is p ar t icu lar t ype o fp o t tery , a s a n e nt i ty , s ee ms t o h ave r ece ived l i t t le d e ta i led a t ten t ion i n r ecen t y ears . P ub l ished e xamp les a re i nvar iab ly d escr ibed a s b e ing o f ' coarse ' p ot tery o r ' Eife lkeram ik ' b u t , a s men t ioned a bove , t he ware l acks t he v o lcan ic i nc lus ions p resen t i n l a ter Mayen ware , i t se l f a n E i fe l p roduc t . Wh i le c hrono log ica l c onnec t ions b e tween s pec if ic g roups o f t h is p o t tery h ave b een made —ser ies o f j ugs o r b arbo t ine d ecora ted j ars ( s ee F ig . 6 .3 , n os . 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 )—rare ly h as a n o vera l l i den t if ica t ion b een a rr ived a t , a t tr ibu t ing t he p o t tery t o as ing le i ndus try o r d is t inc t c era m ic t rad i t ion . T hepresen t s tudy a t te mp ts t o i l lus tra te t he ma in t ypes r epresen t ing t h is u nusua l p o t tery , t o d e l inea te i t s d is tr ibu t ion a nd t o s uggest a p oss ib le o r ig in f or t he ware . F ur ther c o mmen ts o n t he s peci f ic c hrono logy o ft h is p o t tery a re g iven b e low , b u t i n g enera l , t he ware i s f i rs t c entury i n d a te .

I ti s n o t iceab ly

d if feren t f ro m o ther g rey wares o f s im i lar d a te i n b o th f abr ic a nd t echn ique o f manu fac ture a nd f or c onven ience i s h ere d es igna ted R h ine land G ranu lar G rey Ware ( RGG ware ) . D ISTR IBUT ION T he d istr ibu t ion o f f i nds o f RGG ware i s s how i n F ig . 6 .1 , wh ich i l lus tra tes a marke t ing p a t tern c lose ly r e la ted t o t he Rh ine a nd Mose l . Many o ft he s i tes s hown a re m il i tary , b u t t here i sn o o ther r eason t o s uspec t a d irec t c onnec t ion b etween RGG ware a nd t he R o man a r my .

S o me o ft he s i te

f i nds r ecorded i n F ig . 6 .1 a re t aken f ro m p ub l ica t ions b u tt he ma jor i ty were i nspec ted p ersona l ly b yt he wr i ter . Mos t o ft he work u nder taken f or t h is p aper c en tred o n G er many a nd t he N e ther lands , b u t a par t f ro m t he e xa mp les i n B r i ta in , t here i s l i t t le p ub l ished e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t RGG ware t rave led v ery f ar o u tside t he R h ine land . T he F rench N a t iona l Museum o f A nt i qu i t ies a t S t . G er ma ine-en-Laye , n ear P ar is , h as a l arge c o l lec t ion o f RGG w are v esse ls , b u t a par t f rom o ne , a l l a re l abe l led A l le magme ' o r a nd r epresen t modern a cqu is i t ions . T he s ing le e xcep t ion i s l abe l led V i l leneuve-S t .-Georges ( Marne ) ' a nd may b e ag enu ine s i te f i nd ; p rox im i ty t o Tr ier makes t h is e n t ire ly p oss ib le .

i t s r e lat ive

L ondon i s t he mos t n or ther ly

f i nd s po t k nown a tp resen t , w i th f ur ther e xamp les p robab ly o ccur ing a t 9 5

C o logne '

CO

9 6

D istr ibut ion o f Rh ine land Granu lar G rey Ware

R ichborough ( Types 4 1 , 2 59 , 2 60 , 2 64 ; b u t n one o ft hese v esse ls h as b een h and led b y t he wr i ter ) .

T he l oca t ion o f b o th s i tes a d jacen t t o t he mou th o f

t he R h ine e xp la ins t he p resence o f RGG w are a nd i ti s t o b e h oped t hat f ur ther e xamp les w i l l b e r ecogn ised i n S . E . Eng land . I n t he L ower Rh ine land , RGG ware o ccurs o n s evera l s i tes i n t he N e ther lands , e spec ia l ly a tN i j megen , where i ti s p resen t i n s ubs ta t ia l q uant i t ies . F ur ther s ou th t he p o t tery c an b e f ound o n an umber o f s i tes b u t w i th a marked c oncen tra t ion a t C o logne .

On t he Mosel t he ware o ccurs a t T r ier

a nd , a ga in i n t he Rh ine land , af ur ther d is tr ibu t ion a rea c en tres o n Ma inz. T he s ou thern l im i t o ft he d is tr ibu t ion a ppears t o b e a t R he ingönhe im ( U lber t , 1 969 , Ta t . 1 4 ) , b u t s l igh t ly f ur ther n or th a t Wor ms , t he o n ly RGG ware v esse l i nt he e x tens ive c eram ic c o l lect ion o f t he Museu m d er S tad t Wor ms i s f ro m B ad K reuznach . T h is may s ugges t t ha t Rhe ingönhe im l i es b eyond t he u sua l marke t ing a rea f or RGG wares a nd mi l i tary c onnec t ions may b e r e levan t h ere . S ou th o f R heingönhe im , c o mparab le v esse ls a t S peyer a re o f l oca l manu facture r a ther t han b e ing RGG ware a nd t he wr i ter d id n o t r ecord a ny e xamp les a t S trasbourg . N or ma l ly , t he ware d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave t ravel led much f ar ther s outh t han B ad K reuznach . VESSEL S HAPE RGG ware o ccurs i nv ar ie ty o f s hapes , t he more c o mmon o f wh ich a re i l lus tra ted . T he b as ic c a tegor ies a re : a ) S ing le-hand led j ugs ( F ig . 6 .2, n os 1 -4 ) V esse ls o ft h is t ype h ave al ong n eck , s weep ing g radua l ly o u twards f ro m b e low a p ronounced , mou lded r im , d own t o awe l l-def ined , u sua l ly r ounded s hou lder . B e low t he p o in t o f max i mum g ir th t he v esse l wa l l t ends t o move i nwards i n ag en t le c urve , t er m ina t ing a t ac omparat ive ly sma l l b ase . C ordons o r h or izon ta l g rooves a re o f ten p resen t o n t he s hou lder o f av esse l a nd i nc ised g rooves c an b e f ound l ower d own o n t he b ody , a s w i th n o . 3 . T he b ase i s f requen t ly f l at b u t may b e s l ight ly c oncave . H eav ier l ook ing v essels l ike n o . 4a re n o t u nco mmon , b u t t he ma jor i ty a re more d el ica te i n a ppearance . I n c on tras t , n os . 5a nd ( 3 , wh ich a re c on te mporary c op ies o f RGG wares j ugs , made i n al oca l f abr ic a t N euss ( a ssocia ted w i th K i ln 1 ) , h ave a more f l u id l ook a nd l ack t he we l l-def ined l i nes o f g enu ine RGG ware v essels . - A f ter t he f i rst c en tury t he j ug c on t inued t o b e ap opu lar f orm i n t he R h ine land , made a t s uch c en tres a s Mayen a nd S pe icher , b u t i n a much d evo lved f orm . b ) J ars a nd b eakers ( F ig . 6 .2 , n os . 7 -12 a nd F ig . 6 .3 , n os 1 3-22) T h is c a tegory c overs a r ange o fv esse ls o f s im i lar s hape , p roduced i n av ar ie ty o f s izes. U ndoub ted ly , t he smal ler t ypes c ou ld b e u sed a s b eakers , w h i le t he l arger e xamp les w ere a dequa te f or s torage o r f or u se a s c inerary v essels , s evera l t ypes b e ing made a s f ace-urns . V esse ls a re u sua l ly t a l l i n r e la t ion t o d iame ter a nd may b e a l mos t c y l indrca l i n s hape . T he s hou lder i s h igh a nd f requen t ly a ngu lar . J ars c an b e p la in o r h igh ly d ecora ted a nd many d ispl ay c haracter ist ic c ordons o r -h or izon t ät g rooves .

9 7

1

3

2

4

5 6

8

7

9

1 2

1 1 0

F ig .

6 .2

Rh ine land Granu lar Grey Ware ( except n os. S ca le 1 :3

9 8

5 -6 ) .

THE POTTERY Descr ip t ions r e la te t o f i nd s pot , a ccess ion i nformat ion a nd p resent l ocat ion . F ig . 6 .2 1 .

N euss;

Grave 2 63;

2 .

Ma inz;

I nv . N r . We isenau S t . 2 0 . V I . 1 902 .

FN 1 304 N .

Bonn Museu m . Mi t te lrheinisches

L andes museu m , Ma inz . 3 .

Ma inz;

4 .

L ondon; Acc . N o . 2 842 .

U nprovenanced .

Mi t te lrhe inisches L andes museu m , Ma inz . Museu m o f L ondon .

5 .

N euss ;

N ovaes iu m K i ln 1 ;

FN 3 63; n ot RGG ware .

6 .

N euss;

N ovaes iu m K i ln 1 ;

FN 3 63 N ; n ot RGG ware .

7 .

L ondon;

T ower o f L ondon ;

8 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 7 8 .5 .

9 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 6 0 ,172 .

GM C o l l .

9H .

B onn Museu m . B onn Museu m .

Museu m L ondon .

R öm isch-German isches Museu m , C o logne . R öm isch-Germanisches Museu m , C o logne .

1 0 .

N i j megen; Group 1 21 . V I I . c .2 3 . S .

1 1 .

L ondon; Acc . N o . 4 19 .

Museu m G . M . K am , N i j megen .

1 2 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 2 7 ,991.

R ö misch-German iches Museu m , C o logne .

1 3 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 5 3,460 .

R öm isch-German isches Museu m , C o logne .

1 4 .

Ma inz;

Museu m o f L ondon .

F ig . 6 .3

I nv . N r . W . S t . 4 .1915 .

Mit te lrhe in isches Landes museu m ,

Ma inz . 1 5 .

C o logne;

1 6 .

Ma inz;

I nv .

I nv . N r . 3 034 .

1 7 .

Tr ier ;

I nv . N r . 4 032 .

1 8 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 5 3 ,21.

R ö misch-German isches Museu m , C o logne .

1 9 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r .

R öm isch-German isches Museu m , C o logne .

2 0 .

Tr ier ;

2 1.

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 2 3 .

2 2 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 5 3 ,735 .

2 3 .

C o logne;

I nv . N r . 6 7,1466 .

2 4 .

N i j megen ; C ologne;

2 6 .

Ma inz ;

Mi t te lrhe inisches L andes museu m , Ma inz .

Tr ier Museu m .

N 2394 .

I nv . N r . 3 572 .

2 5 .

R ö misch-German isches Museu m , C o logne .

N r . 5 6/64 ,11.

Tr ier Museu m . R öm isch-German isches Museu m , C o logne . R öm isch-Germanisches Museu m , C o logne . R öm isch-Ger man isches Museu m , C o logne .

Group 1 21 . V . 7 7 . I nv . N r . 6 7 ,156 .

I nv .

N r . H ess .

Museu m G .M . Ka m , N i j megen . R öm isch-Ger man isches Museu m , C o logne .

L udw igsbahn .

Ma inz .

9 9

Mit te lrhe inisches L andes museu m ,

1 5

1 3 1 4

1 6

1 7

1 8

2 1

2 0

2 2

2 5

2 6

F ig .

6 .3

Rh ine land Granu lar Grey Ware.

1 00

S ca le 1 :3

c ) He m isph ica l c ups ( F ig . 6 .3 , n os . 2 3-25) T he r ange o f c ups p roduced i n RGG ware c op ies c lose ly o ther p re-F lav ian c up f or ms ( Greene , 1 979 ) , a l though n o . 2 5 i s. s o mewha t u nusua l . T he c ups a re t hin wa l led a nd o n ly r are ly a re h and led . D ecora t ion i s u sua l ly c on f ined t o l i gh t r ust ica t ion , b u t most e xa mp les a re p la in . d ) C ar ina ted b ow ls ( F ig . 6 .3 , n o . 2 6 ) T hese v esse ls a re n o t a s w e l l r epresen ted i n museum c o l lec t ions a s a re t he j ars a nd may b e l a te i n t he RGG ware s equence . R I M FOR MS T hese v esse ls d isp lay av ar iety o f r im f or ms , s o me o f w h ich a re h igh ly c haracter ist ic o f RGG w are . P erhaps t he most d iagnost ic r im f or m i s t ha t f ound o n h and led j ugs ( F ig . 6 .2 , n os . 1 -4 ) . On RGG ware v esse ls t he r im i s u sua lly d e l ica tely mou lded , w i th c lear ly d ef ined g rooves o r p ro jec t ing a ng les b e ing p reserved w i th l i t t le a bras ion d ue t o t he h ardness o ft he f abr ic , a nd i n ternal ly l i d s ea ted . T hese f ac tors d i f feren t ia te RGG ware j ugs b o th f ro m c on te mporary c op ies , w h ich a re l ess i n tr ica te ( F ig . 6 .2, n os . 5 -6 ) a nd f ro m l a ter v essels o f s im i lar a ppearance . T hese l a ter a nd v ery p opu lar j ug f or ms were p roduced i nv as t q uan t i t ies a t s i tes s uch a s Mayen a nd S pe icher , b u t l ack t he d el ica te ly mou lded r i ms . T he RGG ware j ug r im f or m i s a lso f ound o n j ars o f s im i lar s hape , w i thou t h and les . Ano ther v ery c o mmon r im f or m f ound o n RGG ware i s t he s hor t u pr igh t r im w i th e x terna l g roove ( F ig . 6 .2, n os . 7 -12 a nd F ig . 6 .3 , n os . 1 3-16 ) . An u mber o f r im t ypes a na logous t o t h is f or m c an b e o bserved o n av ar ie ty o f p re-F lav ian f i ne w are v esse ls f ro m n or thern I t a ly ( Greene , 1 979 , F ig .33 , n o .5) , L yon (isa l . , F ig . 8 , n os 2 0 .5 a nd 2 1) a nd C o logne ( i b id ., F ig .24 , n o 1 0 ; Anderson , 1 980 , F ig . 6 , n o .1) . However , t he s ty le o ft he r im o n RGG ware v essels i s a s e c lec t ic a s mos t o ther f ace ts o ft heir d es ign a nd d irec t a n teceden ts a re e lus ive. Ra ther , t he v esse ls s hou ld b e s een a s p ar t o f ag enera l p reF lav ian t rad i t ion , e spec ia l ly w i th r egard t o f i ne wares , o fh igh s hou ldered j ars a nd b eakers w i th mou lded r i ms . F ina l ly , c ons ider ing t he ma in r im f or ms , s i mp le e ver ted r i ms a re q u i te c o mmon ( F ig . 6 .3 , n os . 1 7-21) , a l though i n many c ases t he r im r ises a l most v er t ica l ly f rom t he s hou lder o ft he v essel , o n ly mov ing o u twards a t t he v ery l i p o ft he r im . I n a dd i t ion t o t he f or ms a bove , men t ion s hou ld a lso b e made o f t he b ead r im o n j ar n o . 2 2 a nd t he s l igh t b ead ing o f ten f ound o n t he r i ms o fh em ispher ica l c ups ( F ig . 6 .3 , n os 2 3-24 ) . FABR IC AND COLOUR COATING The f abr ic o f RGG ware v essels i s u sua l ly g rey , b u tt hey f requen t ly d isp lay a l i gh ter c ore . However , s ur face c o lours c an v ary c onsiderab ly a nd c an b e b lack , b uf f o r b rown ; c o mp le te ly o range c o loured v esse ls a re n o t u nknown . T he f abr ic i s c oarse , e xcep t iona l ly h ard a nd g ranu lar i n a ppearance a nd may b e l i kened t o Mayen ware o r , f ro m B r i ta in , D erbysh ire ware . A l though a l l RGG w are i s s im i lar , t ha t f ound i n t he Ma inz a rea i s p erhap s l igh t ly f i ner a nd l ess h ard t han t ha t a ssoc ia ted w i th C o logne . 1 01

The granular feel and appearance ·of the pottery is caused by the occur­ rence of abundant rounded and sub-angular quartz grains, varying from O.5 to 1mm. in diameter. These are :usually translucent, colourless or white, but may occasionally be pink. Several examples from Mainz also contain black iron particles. Although many vessels display some form of surface treatment (self­ coloured slips, perhaps caused by wiping the finished vessel with a wet cloth sometime before drying), deliberate colour coating is rare. Only two examples have been handled by the writer. At Cologne one vessel with an orange colour coating was found (Fig. 6.3, no. 19), while at Mainz another small jar dis­ played a white slip (Fig. 6. 3, no. 16). In both cases the coating was matt and rather thin. TECHNIQUES Most RGG ware vessels are wheel made and wheel marks can frequently be observed on the inner surfaces of jars, while detachment whorls are common on the underside of bases. Vessel walls often appear relatively thin when compared to the overall size of the pots and rims and exteriors are frequently and rreticulously grooved and moulded, despite the coarseness of the fabric. Several examples illustrated in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 display irregular striations towards the base. These marks are caused by the dragging of quartz grains, detached from the matrix, across the surface of the vessel when it was par­ tially dry to leather hard. Sometimes this may have been caused by wiping the vessel with a wet cloth after removal from-the wheel, but frequently it was caused by paring away thin layer of clay around the base of the pot, presumably to remove irregularities around the base, caused by removal from the wheel. Even on small vessels this tooled zone can extend for 1. 5-2 cm above the base. Although not all vessels were finished in this manner, the evidence of this somewhat peculiar technique on some of the London vessels, mentioned above, connects them even more conclusively with Continental examples •

a·

. DECORATION The commonest technique of decoration used on RGG ware vessels is barbotine work. Most designs are plant-derived and usually consist of one or more zones of repeated long-stemmed leaves bordered by lines of barbotine dots (Fig. 6.3, nos. 13, 15, 16, 18, 19). Leaf stems can be almost straight, gently curving, or 's' shaped and occur either in series of individual leaves or in groups joined by flowing tendrils. Sometimes they occur in detached pairs as on vessel no. 16. Two basic shapes are common, heart shaped leaves (Fig. 6. 3, nos. 15, 16, 19) and long, pointed tip, round based leaves (nos. 13, 18). Occasionally, groups of leaves are divided from each other by curving lines of barbotine dots and groups of dots in the shape of a triangle (perhaps representing bunches of grapes) are not uncommon (Fig. ·6. 3, no 19). Although the distinctive 'fem-leaf' does not occur, there can be little doubt that the decorative motifs used on RGG ware derive essentially from Spanish colour­ coated ware prototypes (Greene., 1979, Figs. 30 and 31). 102

I n a dd i t ion t o b arbo t ine l eaves , ' horseshoe ' mo t i fs a ppear ( R it terl ing , 1 913 , F or m 8 2) , a s d o s er ies o f b arbo t ine d o ts e xecu ted i n ' rus t ic ' manner , w i thou t o ther f or ms o f d ecora t ion ( F ig . 6 .3 , n os . 2 0-21) . P las t ic , a s o pposed t o l i qu id , c lay was a pp l ied i n t he d es ign a nd manu fac ture o ff ace u rns . B arbo t ine d ecora t ion o n ly a ppears o n j ar f or ms ( n o t j ugs ) w i th t he e xcep t ion o f s l igh t r ust ica t ion o n s ome h em ispher ica l c ups ( p ar t icu lar ly n o t iceab le i n Ma inz ) . The c lay u sed f or b arbot ine d ecora t ion i s much f i ner t han t ha t o ft he b ody o f t he v esse l a nd , a f ter f i r ing , i s o f ten much l i gh ter o r d arker i n c o lour t han t he s urround ing wal l o ft he v esse l , t hereby i ncreas ing t he d ecora t ive e f fec t . F ina l ly , c er ta in l arge j ars w ere d ecora ted w ith g eo me tr ic d es igns f ormed b y ' p inch ing ' c lay u pwards f ro m t he b ody o ft he v esse l t o f or m a s er ies o f r idges a nd h o l lows ( F ig . 6 .3 , n o . 1 4) , at echn ique wh ich may d a te b ack t o p re-Ro man I ron Age t rad i t ions i nt he a rea . U n for tuna tely , n o d ecora ted e xamp les h ave y e t b een r ecogn ised i n B r i ta in . D ISCUSSION T he c harac ter is t ics l i sted a bove i den t i fy RGG ware a s at ype o fp ot tery p roduced e i ther a t as ing le c en tre o r b y p o t ters work ing a t d iferen t s i tes b u t i nt he s a me t rad i t ion . A s r egards s ource , t he d is tr ibu t ion o f f i nds ( F ig . 6 .1) i nd ica tes manu fac ture i nt he Ma inz a rea , w i th p oss ib ly a no ther k iln s i te s o mewha t f ur ther n or th . T ha t t wo p roduc t ion a reas e x isted may b e b orne o u t b y m inor d if ferences i n t he a ppearance o f RGG ware f ound i n t he Ma inz a rea , w i th t ha t d istr ibu ted l ower d own t he Rh ine .

T he j ugs p roduced i n t he T iber io-

C laud ian k i lns a t N euss ( F i l tzinger , 1 972) d o n o t f u l f i l t he c r i ter ia , i n e i ther r im f or m o r f abr ic , f or RGG ware v esse ls , a nd i ts ee ms u n l ike ly t ha t t h is ware was manufac tured t here , a l though i t was u sed o n t he s i te a nd a ppears i n s o me f i rs t c entury g rave g roups . However , t he p roduc t ion o f RGG ware a t C o logne s ee ms c er ta in . I n 1 958 , ak i ln s i te i n t he c i ty , a t Mars i lste in I /Ecke Maur i t iuss te inweg , was e xcava ted ( Kö lner J ahrbuch , 1 969 , 9 1 ) . I tp rov ided amp le e v idence o f RGG ware manu fac ture i n t he f or m o f wasters a ssoc ia ted w ith s evera l o f t he k i lns o n t he s i te . V essels i n RGG ware a ssocia ted w i th K i ln 1 i nc luded a j ar w i th a n u pr igh t g rooved r im , a no ther j ar w i th a r im s im i lar t o t hose f ound o n h and led j ugs a nd a s herd w i th b arbo t ine l eaves . Excava t ions c onnec ted w i th K i lns 6 a nd 9 p roduced f ur ther RGG ware v esse ls i nc lud ing s ing le-hand led j ugs , a nd f i na l ly , a t l eas t s ix b arbo t ine d ecora ted j ars , af ace u rn , n umerous j ugs a nd o ther p la in v esse ls were a ssoc ia ted w i th K i ln 8 . I n s uppor t o ft h is i n for ma t ion , i nves t iga t ion o f a no ther k i ln i n G eorgs trasse h as p roduced f ur ther RGG ware p o ts , o ne o f wh ich i s i l lustra ted ( F ig . 6 .2 , n o . 9 ) . C o logne was a ma jor p roducer o fp o t tery i n t he f i rs t c en tury , e xpor t ing f i ne wares t hrougho u t t he L ower Rh ine land a nd a s f ar a s B r i ta in a nd i ti s q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t he c i ty was a lso t he ma in c en tre f or t he manu fac ture o f RGG ware . C er ta in ly , t he s heer n umber o f f i nds a t t h is s i te a nd a t Ma inz wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he t wo l oca t ions were t he ma in f oc i o f p roduc t ion . A s men t ioned a bove , t he a ppearance o f RGG ware i n Br i ta in s hou ld d a te t o t he y ears A .D . 4 3-80 . T h is p er iod marks t he z en i th o fp roduc t ion b u t a n i nd ica t ion o f t he t o ta l l eng th o ft he i hdus try a long w i th f ur ther f or ms , n ot i l lustra ted h ere , c an b e f ound i n t he p ub l ished works o f P . S tuar t ( 1 963 1 03

a nd 1 977 ) . T hese t wo s tud ies o f c eram ics a re b ased o n ma ter ia l f ro m N i j megen b u t make f u l l u se o fd a ted f i nds f ro m N euss a nd H ofhe im . Much o f t he RGG ware f ro m N i j megen , a s f ro m N euss , i s i n t he s hape o f who le v esse ls f rom g raves , where a ssoc ia ted v esse ls , i nc lud ing t erra s ig i l la ta , a nd c o ins , h ave p rov ided v ery a ccura te d a t ing . T he d iscovery o ft hese v esse ls i n f unerary d epos i ts i s r ecorded a t s evera l s i tes i nc lud ing G e ldern , Ma inz a nd C o logne . I n f ac t , mos t o f t he v essels i nspec ted f or t h is s tudy a re c o mp lete a nd t h is s ugges ts t ha t many w ere f ound i n g rave g roups . Mos t p robab ly , a s s ugges ted a bove , t he L ondon e xa mp les o we t he ir c ond i t ion t o as im i lar u sage . I tc anno t , h owever , b e a rgued c onc lus ive ly t ha t t he manu fac ture o f f ace u rns a nd t he f requen t a ppearance i n g raves o f o ther v esse ls o f t he s er ies d iscussed a bove means t ha t RGG ware was manu fac tured e xc lus ive ly f or f unerary u se , a l though i t was u ndoub ted ly ap opu lar a dd i t ion t o g rave g roups . I n t erms o fu sage a s i n t he d ef in i t ion o f c era m ic s tatus ', t he p os i t ion o f RGG ware i s d i f f icu l t t o a scer ta in . T he s ty le o ft he p o t tery i s e c lect ic i n b oth s hape a nd d ecora t ive d esign . T ha tt h is l a t ter a spec t b orrowed h eav i ly f ro m S pan ish , o r p oss ib ly e as tern Med i terranean , p ro to types , i s i t se l f u nusua l , b u t e ven more s o i n c o mb ina t ion w i th t he p ecu l iar ly Rhen ish v essel s hapes . P roduc ts i n t h is t rad i t ion s ee m r es tr ic ted t o t he R h ine land a nd may h ave b een c onnec ted w i th a p ar t icu lar t ype o f l oca l p roduc t , e i ther s ymbo l ica l ly , w i th r eference t o t he d ecora t ion , o r more p robab ly a s c on ta iners. T he p ecu l iar l i d-sea ted o r u pr igh t , g rooved r im f or ms f ound o n many RGG ware j ugs a nd j ars may h ave b een e n t irely f unc t iona l , t o f ac i l i ta te t he f ix ing o f as ea led l i d f or t rans i t . T he c are t aken i n f ash ion ing s uch f i n e ly mou lded r im f orms , o n v esse ls o f s uch c oarse f abr ic , may t hus b e e xp la ined , b u t n o t s o t he d ecora t ion . N ot a l l RGG ware p o t tery d isp lays b arbo t ine d ecora t ion , b u t al arge p ropor t ion o fv essels o bserved was t rea ted i nt h is way .

T he manu fac turers were p re-

s umab ly c opy ing l oca l ly p roduced c o lour-coa ted f i ne ware b eaker t echn iques , f ro m p laces s uch a s C o logne , b u t why s hou ld s uch t roub le b e t aken t o d ecora te t he c oarse RGG ware j ars? I tr a ises t he q ues t ion a s t o whe ther RGG ware v esse ls s hou ld b e d ef ined a s ' coarse ' o r ' f ine ', o r s een a s at h ird c a tegory embody ing a spec ts o f b o th e x tre mes . I n c onc lus ion , i t may b e s uggested t ha t f ur ther s tudy o ft h is t ype o f p ot tery i s l ikely t o p rove r eward ing i n t er ms o f i n forma t ion c oncern ing t he move men t a nd a dop t ion o f c eram ic d es ign t rad i t ions a nd i n ter-prov inc ia l c o m merce. T he r ela t ive ly n arrow c hronolog ica l r ange o f t h is ware c an b e o f v a luab le a ss is tance i n d a t ing e ar ly s i tes , e spec ial ly i n B r i ta in , a nd i ti st o b e h oped t ha t a rchaeo log ists work ing i n s outh-east E ng land w i l l b e a b le , i n t he f u ture , t o i den t i fy f ur ther e xa mp les o f RGG ware f ro m t he ir e xcava t ions a nd museu m c o l lec t ions .

1 04

ACKNO WLEDGE ME NT S Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank t he f olow ing p eop le f or t he ir h elp d ur ing my r esearch f or t h is p aper : Dr . A . V . Hubrech t , R i jks museu m G . M . Ka m , N i j megen; Dr . C . Ruger a nd t he s taf f o f B onn Museu m ; P rofessor H . S chönberger , Rö m isch-Ger man ische Ko mm ission , F rank fur t ; Dr . B . B eck mann , S aa lburg Museu m ; Dr . 0 . Ro l ler a nd Dr . C , U nz . S peyer Museu m ; Dr . W. B insfe ld , Tr ier Museu m ; M me . F . B eck , S t . G erma ine-en-Laye ; Dr . Ma th i lde G rünewa ld , Wor ms Museu m ; Dr . Decker , M i t te lrhe in isches Landes museu m , Ma inz ; Dr. J . K . Haa lebos , C a tho l ic U n iversi ty , N i j megen ; Dr . H . He l lenk e mper , Rö m isch-Ger man isches Museu m , C o logne ; Museu m o f L ondon ;

Mr . H . C hap man ,

Dr . I . Hu ld-Zetsche , F rank fur t Museu m .

S pecia l t hanks g o t o G eof f Marsh who o r ig ina lly awakened my i n terest i nt he p ot tery d iscussed i n t h is s hor t r e-appra isa l o fh is e arl ier work w i th P au l Tyers . Wi th h is c o-opera t ion Iwas a b le t o i nspect most o f t he RGG ware v esse ls i n t he Museu m o f L ondon a nd t he p resen t p aper h as b enef it ted g rea t ly f ro m h is c o m men ts o n t he s ub jec t . B IBL IOGRAPHY A nderson 1 980.

Anderson , A . C ., A Gu ide t o Ro man F ine Wares , VORDA 1 ,

H ighworth , 1 980. B ushe-Fox 1 926 .

Bushe-Fox , J . P ., F irst Repor t o n t he Excava t ion o f t he

Ro man F ort a t R ichborough , Ken t , Rep . Res. C o mm . S oc . o f An ts. L ondon , 6 , Ox ford , 1 926. B ushe-Fox 1 932. Bushe-Fox , J . P ., T h ird Repor t o n t he Excava t ions o f t he Ro man F or t a t R ichborough , Ken t , R ep . Res . C o mm . S oc . o f An ts. L ondon , 1 0 , Ox ford , 1 932. F i l tzin .ger 1 972. F i l tzinger , P ., Novaes iu m V : D ie R öm ische k eram ik a us d e m Mi l i tärbere ich v on Novaes iu m , L i mesforsch u ngen B and 1 1 , B er l in 1 972.

F rere a nd S t . J oseph 1 974. F rere , S . S . a nd S t . J oseph , J . K ., ' The Ro man f or tress a t L ong thorpe l, B r i tann ia , 5( 1 974) , 1 -129. F u l ford 1 977. F u lford , M . G ., ' Pot tery a nd B r i ta in 's F oreign Trade i n t he L a ter Ro man P er iod ', i n P eacock , D . P . S . ( e d .) , P o t tery a nd Ear ly C o mm .erce 3 5-84 , L ondon , 1 977. F u lford a nd B ird 1 975.

F u lford , M . a nd B ird , J ., ' Imported P o t tery f ro m

G er many i n La te Ro man B r i ta in ', B r i tann ia G reene 1 978.

6( 1 975) , 1 71-181.

G reene , K . T ., ' Imported F ine Wares i n B r i ta in t o A .D. 2 50 :

A Gu ide t o I den t if ica t ion ', i n Ar thur , P . a nd Marsh , G ., Ear ly F ine Wares i n Ro man B r i ta in , B .A.R. 5 7 , Ox ford , 1 978. G reene 1 979.

G reene , K ., U sk : The P re-F lav ian F ine Wares , Cardi f f , 1 979.

K ö lner J ahrbuch 1 969.

Tä t igke i tsber ich t f ür d as J ahr 1 958 ', K ö lner J ahrbuch ,

1 0 ( 1 969) , 9 1-104 . 1 05

Marsh a nd Tyers 1 976.

Marsh , G . a nd Tyers , P ., ' Ro man Pot tery f ro m t he

C i ty o f L ondon ', T rans. L ondon a nd M idd lx . Arch . S oc.,

2 7 ( 1 976 ) ,

2 28-244. R i t ter l ing 1 913.

R i t ter l ing , E ., Das f rührö m ische L ager b ei Hofhe im i m

Taunus , Wiesbaden , 1 913. S tuar t 1 963 . S tuar t , P ., G ewoon A ardewerk u i t d e Ro me inse L egerp laa ts e n d e B i jbehorende G rafve lden t e N i j megen ', O udhkde . Mede . R i jkmus . Oudh. S tuar t 1 977.

L eiden 4 3 S uppl e ( 1 963) . S tuar t , P ., E en Ro me ins g ra fve ld u i t d e e ers te e euw t e N i j megen ,

N i j megen , 1 977. U lber t 1 969.

U lber t , G ., Das F rührö m ische Kas tel l Rhe ingönhe im , L i mes-

f orschungen B and 9 , B er l in 1 , 969 .

ADDENDU M S ince t h is p aper w as wr i t ten , t he a u thor h as i nspected p ot tery c o l lec t ions a t V erona , R avenna a nd Aqu i le ia i n n or thern I t a ly . A t t hese s i tes p re-F lav ian , t h in-wa l led h em ispher ica l c ups , made f rom a f i ne g rey f abr ic a nd d ecorated w ith b arbo t ine l eaf mo t ifs , were p resen t .

T he s im i lar ity o f t hese v esse ls t o

RGG w are f or ms a nd d ecorat ion t ypes s uggests a f ur ther o r ig in f or t he i deas a dop ted b y t he Rh ine land p o t ters .

1 06

7 .

SO ME FRAG MENTS OF NORTH AFRICAN RED SL IP D ISHES J ochen G . G arbsch

I NTRODUCTION T he f if teen s herds p resented t o Dr . Webs ter i n t his p aper f or m a n i n terest ing c o l lect ion—co lour fu l a nd v ar ied , s o mewha t e xo t ic , y et a l l a ppare n t ly f ro m o ne t rad it ion a nd o ne s ource .

They b elong t o as er ies o f r ec tangular

d ishes w i th r el ief d ecora t ion , o n f l oor a nd r im , made i n mou lds , a l though t he r im f igures a re s o me t i mes a pp l ied s epara tely ; t he f abr ic i s A fr ican r ed s l ip ware ( t erra s ig i lla ta c h iara D ) . The d e ta i ls a re t o b e f ound i n Hayes ( 1 972, 8 3f f .) ;

i n h is c lassi f ica t ion i ti s f or m 5 6.

A l l t he s herds a re i n a

p rivate c ol lect ion ; a ccord ing t o t he p resen t owner , t he a l leged p rovenance i s c en tra l Tun is ia ( area o f T hysdrus-El D je m ) . A more c o mp lete v essel o ft he t ype p resented h ere h as b een d iscussed i n ar ecen t p ub l ica t ion ( Garbsch , 1 980a ) . I n p resen t ing t he ma ter ia l , t he f l oor d ecora t ions a re d escr ibed f irst , f o l low ing , more o r l ess , t he r ough t he ma t ica l s che me p ubl ished e lsewhere ( Garbsch , 1 980b ) , i .e . my tho log ica l s cences , v ena t io s cenes a nd b ib l ica l s cenes ( t he n u mber ing o ft he s herds c orresponds t o t he n u mber ing o n P la tes 7 .1 a nd 7 .2) . CATALOGUE 1 .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p ane l o f my tho log ica l p la te .

Upper p ar t o f f l oor

d ecora t ion :r igh tt h ird o f aK IRKE p anel o ver h ead o f f e ma le f igure w ith e labora te h a ir-dressing a nd n eck lace p reserved ( f or a n impress ion o f as im i lar d ecora t ion s che me w i th K IRKE p anel s ee F ig . 7 .1) . Max i mu m h eigh t p reserved 9 .7 cm ; o n t he u pper e dge wa l l b roken o f f ; o n t he b o t to m , 2 cm f ro m u pper e dge , s tra igh t t aper ing f oo t . 2 .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p anel o f P egasus p la te ( i b id ., 167 , Type B ) . L ower p ar t o ff l oor d ecora t ion :l e f t l eg o f l ef t n y mph , t a i l a nd h ind l eg o f P egasus a nd b ack o f c en tra l n y mph p reserved . T he r obe o u t l ines a re r endered b y r ows o fd o ts ( f or a c o mp le te v ersion o f t he c entra l p anel s ee F ig . 7 .1) .

Max i mu m h e igh t p reserved 1 1.9 cm ;

o n t he b o t to m ,

1 .5 cm f ro m l ower e dge , s tra igh t t apering f oo t . 3 .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p anel o f P egasus p la te ( i b id ., Type B ) .

C en tra l

p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :u pper p ar t o f b ody o f c en tra l n ymph p reserved . Ga thers a nd o u t l ines i ncised f reehand ( 9 1 . F ig . . 7 .1) . Max i mu m h e ight p reserved 7 .2 cm .

1 07

4 .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p anel o f my tho log ica l p la te . Upper p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :h ead o f y oung man a nd h ead o f h orse p reserved ; s cene s urrounded b y g roove.

5 .

Max i mu m h eigh t p reserved 1 0.6 cm .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p anel o f N ereid p la te ( i b id ., 1 71, Type D ) .

U pper

p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :r igh t a rm o f N ereid ( w i th c ornucop ia a nd d o lph in ) o ver u pper p ar t o f Tr i ton w i th r a ised l e f t a rm , s upport ing a s he l l w i th h is r igh t h and . S cene s urrounded b y g roove ( f or t he c omp lete d ecora t ion s ee F ig . 7 .2) . Max i mu m h e igh t p reserved 1 2.2 cm ; o n t he b ot to m p robab ly a t u pper e dge , s tra igh t f oo t b roken o f f . 6 .

F ragmen t o f c en tra l p anel o f N ereid p la te € i b id ., Type D ) .

L ower p ar t

o f f l oor d ecora t ion :Tr i ton w i th r a ised l e f t a rm s upport ing a s he l l w i th h is r ight h and ; b o t to m l ef t , ad o lph in . S cene s urrounded b y g roove ( see F ig . 7 .2) .

Max i mu m h e ight p reserved 1 2.2 cm ; o n t he b ot to m a t

l ower e dge , r es t o f s tra igh t f oo t . 7 .

L ower l e f t c orner o f my tho log ica l p la te .

F loor d ecora tion :f oo t a nd l eg

o f ma le f igure mov ing r igh t , r ows o f d o ts i nd ica t ing a r mour (o r b o t to m o f l ong f e ma le g own w i th f oo t p o in t ing l ef t ? ) . S cene s urrounded b y g roove. R im d ecora t ion :s cutar ius . Max i mu m w idth p reserved 1 1 . 8 cm ; o n t he b o t to m , c orner o ft aper ing f oo t r unn ing r ough ly a long t he s urrounding g roove o n f l oor . 8 .

F rag men t o f c en tra l p ane l o fv ena t io p la te ( i b id ., 1 75 , Type G ) . U pper ( ?) r ight p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :f our r ows o fw i ld b easts . O n t op h ind l egs o fb ear ( ? ) r unn ing l ef t ; be low b ear t o t he r ight w i th h ead t urned b ack ;

t h ird r ow , b ear r unn ing l ef t ;

b o t to m r ow , p ar t o f b ear ' s

b ack . S cene s urrounded b y g roove , a ccompan ied b y l i ne o f d o ts ( f or h ypo thet ica l r econstruct ion s ee F ig . 7 .3 ) . Max i mu m h e ight p reserved 7 .4 cm ; 9 .

o n t he b o t to m a t r igh t e dge , r es t o f s tra igh t f oot .

F rag ment o f c en tra l p ane l o fv ena t io p la te d . , Type G ) . L ower c en tra l p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :b ear a t tack ing b ul l ( f or a more c o mp lete s herd s ee F ig . 7 .3) . away ) .

1 0.

Max i mu m p reserved w idth 7 .5 cm ( par t o f b ul b roken

F rag men t o f c en tra l p ane l o f q uadriga p la te @A i l ., 1 77 , Type H ) . U pper p ar t o f f l oor d ecorat ion :S o l h o ld ing wh ip i nh is r igh t a nd p a lm b ranch i n h is l ef t ha nd ; t wo h eads o ft he h orses t o h is r igh t p reserved . S cene s urrounded b y t wo i ncised l i nes ( f or t he c omp le te s cene s ee F ig . 7 .4 ) . Max i mu m h eight p reserved 8 cm ; a long l ef t e dge .

1 1.

o n t he b o t to m , s tra ight t aper ing f oo t

F rag men t o f c en tra l p ane l o f c rosswa tch p la te ( i b id ., 1 82, Type 0 ) . L ower p ar t o f f l oor d ecora t ion :b ot to m o f c ross a nd b o t to m o f s i t t ing a post le ( Pau lus ) p reserved . S cene s urrounded b y g roove ( f or c o mp le te d ecora t ion s ee F ig . 7 .5) . Max i mu m w id th p reserved 1 0.1 cm ; o n l ower e dge , wa l l b roken o f f ;

o n t he b o t to m , c orner o ft aper ing f oo t

r unn ing r ough ly a long t he s urrounding g roove o n f loor . 1 2.

F rag ment o f c en tra l p ane l o f a post le p la te . L ef t h a lf o f f l oor d ecora t ion: ma le f igure w i th n i mbus mov ing t o t he r igh t ; o n t op i ncised i nscr ip t ion PETR [ VS ] , o n t he r igh t f oo t o f s econd f igure ( Pau lus ) .

1 08

S cene s urrounded

b y g roove . Max i mum w id th p reserved 1 7 .4 cm , max i mu m h e ight p res erved 2 2.2 cm ; o n l ef t a nd b o t to m e dge , w a l l b roken of ; o n t he b o t to m , a ngu lar t aper ing f oo t 2 .5 t o 3 .0 cm o u tward f ro m t he s urroundi ng g rooves ( h e igh t 1 9 .6 cm , w id th a pprox ima te ly 2 6 .0 t o 2 6 .5 cm ) . 1 3 .

R im F ragmen t ( f or p oss ib le r econs truct ion s ee F ig 7 .5) . C orner f ragmen t :J onah i n t he b ower . Max i mu m h e igh t p reserved 8 .7 cm .

1 4 .

R im f ragmen t .

1 s.

R im f ragmen t ( f or p ossib le r econstruc t ion s ee F ig . 7 .6 ) . Hare w i th l ong e ars a nd d o t ted f ur r unn ing l e f t ; t a i l a nd h ind l eg o f l i on , s tr id ing l ef t . Max i mum h e igh t p reserved 8 .5 cm .

F ish .

Max imum w id th p reserved 9 .2 cm .

D ISCUSSION A lthough o n ly o ne s herd ( n o .7 ) h as p reser ved p ar t o f b o th f l oor a nd r im , q u i te af ew h i ther to u npub l ished f ea tures o f f l oor a nd r im d ecora t ion c an b e s tud ied o n o ur f ragmen ts ( t he n u mber ing r efers t o t ha t u sed i n t he c a ta logue a bove ) . 1 .

T he c o mpos i t ion o ft he s cene i s s im i lar t o t he P egasus p la te B 3 ( i b id .,

1 70 F ig .8 ) w ith a K IRKE p ane l o ver t he h ead o f af e ma le f i gure . A s t o t he i den t if icat ion o f t he s cene , f ur ther f ragmen ts a re r equ ired f or a p laus ib le r econstruct ion . 2 . T h is i s a n a verage r ender ing o f aw el l-known s cene , c orrespond ing v ery much t o af rag men t f ro m Egyp t i n H e ide lberg ( S a lo monson , 1 962, P l . XX C I I 2 ; G arbsch , 1 980b , 1 67f f . F ig .6-11 ) . 3 . T here i s s o me v ar ia t ion t o t he n or ma l s hape o f t he c en tra l n ymph , a s mos t d eta i ls a re i nc ised f reehand . Af eature , n o t t o b e f ound o n t he o ther p ub l ished s herds , i s ad ot ted l i ne a round P egasus ' f ron t l eg ( ? ) , c on t inu ing t owards t he n ymph 's k nee ( ? ) . 4 .

T here i st oo l i t t le p reserved o ft he who le s cene t o e ndeavour a c er ta in

i den ti f ica t ion .

The f i gure s ize c orresponds t o t he Ach i l les a nd P egasus a nd

o ur s herd n o .1 , s ugges t ing a s im i lar c o mpos i t ion . O ft he p oss ib le s ub jects , t he D ioscur i wou ld more l ikely b e p laced i n f ron t o f i nstead o fn ex t t o t he ir h orses ( t he l im i ted s pace wou ld n o t a l low f or t wo h orses a nd t wo men i n a r ow ) . Re me mber ing t he Ach i l les p la te o ne m igh t t h ink o f Au to medon . The h or izon ta l b ar b e low t he h orse 's h ead migh t b e long t o ac har io t ( 2 1 . F ig 7 .4 ) t hus s ugges t ing a c a b oh o ld ing t he h orse ( s ) . 5 .-6 . The N ere id p la te f rag men ts a l low f or a n e s t i ma te o ft he s ize o ft h is e xamp le , b ased o n t he d i mens ions o ft he o n ly c o mp le te v esse l p ub l ished s o f ar ( Wace , 1 948 , P l . I I ; h ere F ig .7 .2 ) . B y a na logy w i th t h is v esse l , f ro m A lex andr ia , w i th a c en tra l p ane l o f a bou t 1 4.5 cm i n h e igh t , o ur e xamp le migh t measure a bou t 3 6 b y 3 3 cm , o vera l l . 7 . T h is i s an ew r im d ecora t ion a s we l l a s a n u n iden t if ied f l oor p ane l . T he l one ly s cu tar ius o n t he r im c orner , s o f ar , h ad o n ly s hown o n aP egasus p la te ( Type B 5 , G arbsch , 1 980b ) f ro m E dfu i n C a iro ( S a lomonson , 1 962 , P l . XX I I I 1 ; 1 969 , 6 6 , F ig . 8 7 ) . Appear ing t here n ex t t o a n a t tack ing l i on , h e i s s hown h ere i n a n i so la ted p os i t ion . 1 09

The sma l l f rag men t o f t he f l oor d ecora t ion may s uggest a n i n terpre tat ion : most p robab ly i ts hows a ma le l eg t o t he r igh t , o r t he b o t to m p ar t o f af e ma le g own w i th t he f oot p o int ing t o t he l ef t .

Among t he k nown d ecora t ions , i tm igh t

b elong t o t he f ragmen tary p rov ince p la te K 1 ( l ower l ef t c orner o f Maure tan ia 's b us t ; S a lo monson , 1 962, P 1 2 00 C I I 1 ; 1 969 ,5, F ig . 2 ; 1 973 , F ig . 5 8) . I n t he l as t ( however u n l ike ly ) c ase , t he r im d ecora t ion wou ld f i t i n , t oo , b oth t hema t ical ly a nd i n i t s l oose s pacing ( i t wou ld t hen r ep lace t he v enator i n t he h ypo thet ica l s ym metr ica l r econstruct ion d raw ing , G arbsch 1 980b , 1 85 , F ig . 2 3 8 .-9.

T he f rag men t , n o .8 , g ives s o me h in t o f w ha t t he u pper p ar t o f t he

v ena t io p la te f l oor d ecora t ion was l i ke.

I th as t he s a me r ow o f d ots a cco mpan ing

t he f ra m ing g roove a s t he p ieces f ro m Egyp t i n B er l in a nd H eidelberg r especti ve ly ( Sa lo monson , 1 962 , P i XV I 7 ; 1 973 , 1 3 , F ig . 5 ) o f wh ich t he s herd n o . 9 i s as o mewha t sma ller f ragment . Ah ypothet ica l r econstruc t ion s ketch i s g iven i n F ig . 7 .3. T he s che me o f t he d ecora t ion i s t aken f ro m d ip tycha a s S a lo monson h as s hown ( 1973 , 1 2 , I V , N os . 2 8-30) . 1 0.

T he q uadr iga s herd g ives a s trong h in t t ha t t he p la tes p ub l ished s o f ar

( Sa lo monson , 1 962, P l . XV I I 1a nd XVL II 1 ) may h ave b een r eproduced t he wrong way r ound , t hus p u t t ing t he wh ip i n to t he l e f t h and o f t he c har io teer wh ich s ee ms r a ther u nl ike ly u n less t hey o r ig ina te f ro m a mou ld wh ich was made b y t ak ing t he d es ign o f a' nor ma l ' f l oor a s mode l . 1 1.

T he s herd a pparen t ly d oes n o t o r ig ina te f ro m t he s a me mou ld a s t he p la te

01( Garbsch , 1 980b , 1 90 F ig .2 7 ; h ere F ig . 7 .5 ) . n eed n o t n ecessar i ly b e i den t ica l . 1 2.

T hus t he r im d ecorat ion

T he mot if o f t h is p ane l i s a l toge ther n ew a l though i th as b een s upposed

t o e x is t o n s ig il la ta c h iara D v essels f or s o me t ime ( Sa lo monson , 1 976 , 1 57 ) . There i s t he s im i lar s che me o ft he a post les f l ank ing t he c ross , a nd t here i s av ery s tr ik ing p ara l le l o f t he f igure o f P e trus o n af l a t f lask o f t he L öf f ler c o l lect ion —the i nscr ip t ion PAVLVS o n t ha t f l ask s how ing t he i n terchangeab i l i ty o f f igures a nd mo t ifs i n t he p ot ters ' workshops ( P la te 7 .3 ; i b id ., 1 57 , No 1 61 , P l , 6 2,4) . 1 5.5 cm .

The l eg o f t he r igh t f igure s ugges ts a p ane l s ize o f a bou t 1 0.5 b y

1 3. J onah i n t he b ower , s o f ar , h ad o n ly b een k nown f ro m a f rag men t p res erved b y ad raw ing i n Garruccr s S tor ia d 'Ar te C hr ist iana ( Sa lo monson , 1 969 , 6 3, F ig . 8 3) .

The c orner p os i t ion o f t he n ew s herd a nd a no ther f rag men t f ro m

S yr ia ( Hayes , 1 972 , 8 9) l ead t o t he a ssu mp t ion i tm igh t b e long t o t he h i ther to i nco mp lete J onah c yc le ( s ee F ig . 7 .5) . I n t he d raw ing i th as b een p u t t en tat ive ly t o t he u pper r ight a ng le o ft he r im . 1 4. T here a re n o e xact p aral lels t o t he f i sh a l though t here i s as trong r ese mb lance t o t he o ne i n t he l ower l ef t c orner o f a n a rena p la te f ro m A thr ib is , n ow i n B er l in ( Sa lo monson , 1 962, 1 31X IV 1 ; 1 969 ,4 , F ig . 1 ) . The b e l ly f in i s l ack ing i n o ur s herd —perhaps c u t o f f when a pp l ied t o t he r im . 1 5.

T he r im f rag men t n o t o n ly a dds t he f ron t p ar t t o t he h are 's b ack p reserved

o n t he l ower l ef t c orner o f a n Ach i lles p late i n t he Bard° Museum a t Tun is ( Sa lo monson ,

1 962 , P l . XX IV 1 ) , b u t a lso s hows i ti n an ew c ontex t w i th a 1 10

l i on a dded .

The s triding l i on i s an ew f igure t ype o n o ur v essels ;

t here i s ,

h owever , o ne e xa mp le o n t he r im o f ac ircu lar p la te , f ro m Ephesos , i n V ienna ( P la te 7 .4) wh ich i s l i nked t o o ur g roup b y a( abr idged ) t r ibuna l s cene i n t he c en tre ( V ienna , Kuns th is tor isches Museu m , An t ikensa m m lung I nv . N o . I V 2 038) . I nciden ta l ly , a mou ld o f t he c o mp le te s cene was f ound r ecen t ly , a long w i th l a mp mou lds , n ear K a irouan ( i n for ma t ion k indly s upp l ied b y M me . S l im , E l D je m ) .

The i nscr ibed t ops o f t he p ane ls o f t he V iennese a nd t he Mun ich

p la tes s hou ld n o t t o b e r ead a s PL ( Sa lo monson , 1 962, 5 4 ,n .4) , PE ( Sa lo monson , 1 973 , 1 6f . ,n .48) o r [ P ] ERE ( Garbsch 1 980b , 1 95) , b u t r ead MVNERE ( 1 n for ma t ion k indly s upp l ied b y P rof . S a lo monson ) . The h are-l ion-group m ight w el l f i t i n to t he r e ma in ing g ap ( upper l e f t a nd l ower r igh t r espec t ively ) o f t he A ch i l les p la te ( s ee F ig . 7 .6 where i th as b een p u t i n t en ta t ive ly a l though o n o ur f rag men t t he f igures r un t owards t he r im , o n t he p la te t owards t he p anel ) . S U M MARY T he f i f teen s herds d iscussed i n t h is p aper h ave a dded n ew e le men ts o f f l oor a nd r im d ecora t ion t o o ur k now ledge o f t h is i n teres t ing g roup o f N or th A fr ican d ishes . T here a re f rag men ts o f f i ve n ew c en tra l p ane ls , o n ly o ne h owever s u f f ic ien t f or r econs truct ion ( no .1 2). Wi th f i ve a dd i t iona l n ew r im f ea tures t he p ercen tage o f n ew i n for ma t ion g a ined f ro m t h is p r iva te c o l lect ion i s s a t isfac tor i ly h igh . W i th a d e ta i led s tudy o n t h is g roup o f d ishes a nd i t s d ependencies o n o ther N or th A fr ican s ig i l la ta wares s t i ll l ack ing , i ti s o nly b yp ub l ish ing a ny o ther s herds i n p ub l ic o r p r iva te c o l lect ions t ha t o ur k now ledge may b e e n larged . AC KNO WLEDGE I V LE NT S My t hanks a re d ue t o t he o wner o f t he s herds p resen ted h ere , who k ind ly a l lowed t heir p ub l ica t ion , t o Anne a nd S co t t Anderson f or p o l ish ing t he o rig ina l t ex t o ft h is p aper a nd t o Manfred Eber lein f or t he p ho tographs —P la tes 7 .1 a nd 7 .2 ( P late 7 .3 , c our tesy o f R öm isch-Ger man isches Museu m , Ma inz ; P late 7 .4 , K unsth istor isches Museu m , W ien ) .

T he f igures w ere d rawn b y t he

a u thor ( F ig . 7 .5 , u s ing a r econstruct ion o f P rof . S a lo monson ) . B IBL IOGRAPHY G arbsch 1 980a .

G arbsch , J ., ' Ein s pä tant iker Ach i l les-Zyk lus ', B ayer ische

Vorgesch ich tsb lä t ter , 4 5 ( 1 980 ) , 1 55-160 . G arbsch 1 980b . G arbsch , J ., ' Spä tan t ike S ig i l la ta-Tab le tts ', B ayer ische Vorgesch ich tsb lä t ter , 4 5 ( 1 980) , 1 61-197. Hayes 1 972.

Hayes , J . W., L a te R o man P o t tery , L ondon , 1 972.

S a lo monson 1 962.

S a lo monson , J . W., ' La te Ro man Ear thenware w i th R el ief

Decora t ion f ound i n Nor thern A fr ica a nd Egyp t ', Oudhe idkund ige Mededel ingen , 4 3 ( 1 962) , 5 3f f . S a lo monson 1 969.

S a lo monson , J . W ., ' Spä trö m ische T onware m i t R el ief-

v erzierung a us n orda fr ikan ischen Werkstä t ten ', Bu l let in V ereen ig . B evorder . d . K enn is v an d e An t . B eschav .44 ( 1 969) , 4 f f .

1 11

S a lo monson 1 973.

S a lo monson , J . W., ' Kuns tgesch ich t l iches u nd i konograph ische

U n tersuchungen z u e ine m T onfrag ment d er S a mm lung B enak i i n A then ', i b id ., 4 8 ( 1973 ) , 3 f f . S a lo monson 1 976. S a lo monson , J . W., i n L a B au me , P . a nd S a lo monson , J . W., R öm ische K le inkunst . S amm lung K ar l L ö f f ler ' Wissenschaf t l , K ata loge R ö m-Ger m . Mus . K ö ln , 3( 1976 ) , 1 57. Wace 1 948.

Wace , A . J . B ., ' La te Ro man P o t tery a nd P la te ', B u l le t in S oc .

Roy . d 'Archeo l .

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8 .

CAL STOR-BY-NOR W ICH RECONSIDERED AND THE DATING OF RO MANO-BRrTISH POTTERY I N EAST ANGLIA V iv ien G . S wan

Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery k i lns a nd t heir p roducts , e arly Ro man m i l i tary s i tes i n B ri ta in a nd t he r ein terpre ta t ion o f e ar l ier e xcava t ion r epor ts h ave a lways h e ld p ar t icu lar i n teres t f or G raha m Webs ter . T he c o mb ina t ion o f a l l t hese i n t h is p aper i s o f fered i n a pprec ia t ion o fh is k indness , e ncouragmen t , a nd f r iendsh ip o ver t he p ast t wo d ecades. O ver t he p ast f ew y ears t he d a t ing o f Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery i n Eas t Ang l ia , a s t rad i t iona l ly a ccep ted , h as b egun t o b e v iewed w i th i ncreas ing u nease a nd u ncer tain ty b y e xcava tors a nd s tuden ts o f p o t tery ( e .g . Rogerson , 1 977 , 1 72) . Desp i te t he r ecen t t re mendous u psurge o f r esearch i n Ro manoB r i t ish p o ttery g enera l ly , c o mpara t ively l i t t le n ew work h as b een u nder taken i n t ha t r eg ion , p art icu lar ly i n t he t r iba l a rea o f t he I cen i .

There i s u ndoub ted ly

ap ressing n eed , b o th f or a t horough s tudy o f t he k i ln s i tes a nd t he ir p roduc ts ( mos t ly u npubl ished) a nd i n p ar t icu lar , f or a c r i t ica l r e-appra isa l o f t he f ounda t ions u pon wh ich r es ts t he t ime-honoured c hrono logy o f p ot tery t ypes f or t he a rea .

I ti s a round t he l a t ter t ha t t h is d iscussion c en tres .

The i n i t ia l t ype-ser ies a nd d a t ing s che me f or Ro mano-Br it ish p o t tery i n East Ang l ia was t ha t s et o u t i n t he 1 930 's b y Dona ld A tk inson i nh is p ub lic a t ions o f t hree p o t tery k i lns a nd t he ir p roduc ts , a nd o f t he ma in t ypes o f p ot tery f ro m d epos i ts ( mos t ly p i ts ) e xcava ted b etween 1 929 a nd 1 931, w i th in t he n or th-eas t q uadrant ( I nsu lae I X a nd V I I ) o f t he wa l led a rea o f t he Ro man c iv i tas c ap i ta l , Ca is tor-by-Norw ich , VENTA I CENORV M . 1 No f u l l r epor t o fh is e xcava t ions was e ver p roduced , b u t o n t he b asis o f wha t was p ub lished , a nd f ro m t he ma ter ia l s tored i n Norw ich Cas t le Museu m , i ti s p ossib le t o r econstruct s ubstan t ia l ly s o me o f A tk inson 's s tra t if ied p o t tery g roups , p art i cu lar ly t hose i n p i ts , a nd t o b eg in t o a ssess h is i n terpre ta t ions o f p has ing a nd c hrono logy .2 A tk inson 's mos t c ruc ia lh ypotheses were t ha t Ro man Ca is tor was a n a r t if ica l f ounda t ion p lan ted i n , o r s hor t ly a f ter , A .D. 7 0 , when " the p rocess o f p aci f ica t ion wh ich f ol lowed t he r evo l t o f B oud ica i n A .D. 6 1 was c o mp lete" , i n o rder t o p rovide a t r iba l c en tre f or t he I ceni ; t ha t , t hough t he s tree t-gr id was l a id o u t a t t h is p er iod , i n u rban d evelop men t g enera l ly , C a istor l agged we ll b ehind most o ther t owns i n t he p rov ince , a nd t he o ccupa t ion r e ma ined o f ap r im it ive c harac ter o n ly , u nt i l t he e ar ly s econd c en tury ;

t ha t t he p ot tery

c onf ir med " the c onserva t is m o r b ackwardness o f t he I cen ian p opu la t ion" a nd s howed " the r e la t ive ly i mperfec t d egree o f Ro man isa t ion t o wh ich t hey a tt a ined" , s ince , a t Ca is tor , v esse l-" types c on t inued i n u se f or a t l eas t t wen ty o r t hir ty y ears l a ter t han a ppeared t o b e t he c ase o n s i tes more f avourab ly

1 23

s i tua ted o n ways o f c o m mun ica t ion , a nd s o more a ccessib le t o c hanges o f f ash ion" . A t t he s a me t i me a t ten t ion was d rawn ( A tk inson , 1 929 , 2 02-3 ; Hawkes , 1 933 , 2 37 ) t o s upposed s uppor t ive e v idence i n t he f or m o f ag roup o f l oca lly d istr ibu ted c ook ing-pots o f as o-ca l led I cen ian t ype ; t hese a ppeared t o b e d ecora ted w i th r ust ica t ion a t l eas t ac en tury o r more a f ter t he f ash ion h ad c eased e lsewhere i n t he p rov ince. The image o f at r ibe , n o t o n ly impover ished a nd r epressed , b u t a lso c u l tura l ly l agg ing b eh ind t he r est o f Ro man B r i ta in ( par t icu lar ly i n i t s c eramic r eper to ire) , f or u p t o ac en tury f o l low ing t he B oud ican r ebel l ion , s oon b eca me a rchaeo log ica l d og ma ; i t was e ven e labora ted b y o ther wr i ters , s o me o f who m c la i med t o b e a b le t o s ubstan t ia te t he p heno menon , f ro m t he p ot tery e v idence o ft heir own e xcava ted s i tes i n East Ang l ia ( Hawkes , 1 933 , 2 37 ,243 ; a nd 1 951 , 6 3 ; F rere a nd C larke , 1 945 , 1 90 , 1 95 ; Moore , 1 949 , 1 69 ; Wacher , 1 978, 3 8) . F o l low ing A tk inson , many e xcava tor o f Ro mano-Br i t ish s et t le ments i n Norfo lk a nd S uf fo lk e i ther l inked t heir f i rs t a nd s econd c en tury p o t tery t o h is Ca istor p ot tery t ype-ser ies , o r a pp lied ' t he r u le o f r etarda t ion ' a nd a u to ma t ica l ly d a ted t he ir v essels a tl east t h ir ty y ears l a ter t han wou ld h ave b een t he c ase f or c orrespond ing t ypes e lsewhere i n B r i ta in . A tk inson 's c onc lusions o n t he h istory o f C a istor , t he I cen i a nd t he d a t ing o ft he ir p o t tery h ave c o loured a rchaeo log ica l t h ink ing f or h a lf a c en tury . C learly a r eappra isa l i s l ong o verdue. H is t echn iques o f e xcava t ion a nd r ecord ing h ave r ecen t ly b een s hown b y F rere ( 1 971 , XV, I f f ) n o t o n ly t o l eave much t o b e d es ired o n p resen t s tandards , b u t e ven t o h ave l agged b eh ind t hose o fh is own d ay ' .

I td oes n ot t ake much i mag ina t ion t oday t o r ead b e tween t he

l i nes o f s uch e xcava t ion s ta te men ts a s , " P i t 8 ....lay a longside o f i t ( i .e . t he s tree t o n t he west s ide o f Ca is tor I nsu la I X ) a nd p ar t ly u nder i t— , b u t t he p i t was c leared b efore t he s treet was r ecogn ised"

( A tk inson , 1 932, 9 7 ) , o r ,

" The r ec tangu lar s tructure ( i .e . ac lay f urnace i n Cas i tor I nsu la 1 X ) was b et ter p reserved ... . bu t u n for tuna tely a t r ia l t rench h ad c u t a way i t s s ou thern e nd b efore i t s c haracter h ad b een r ecogn ised" ( i b id , 1 09) : As a s tar t ing p o in t , t he e vidence f or A tk inson 's c onc lusions o n t he n ature a nd d a t ing o ft he f ounda t ion o f C a is tor o ugh t t o b e s cru t in ised c r i t ica l ly . Can Ca is tor 's o r ig ins b e p ushed b ack e ar l ier t han A .D. 7 0?

Why was t h is

s i te s elec ted f or a c ivi tas c ap i ta l , when t he ma jor c oncen tra t ions o f l a te I ron Age I cen ian s et t le men t l ay i n t he N orw ich a rea , o r , e ven more n otab ly i n t he Brec ldand , i n t he s ou th-wes tern p ar t o f t he t r iba l t err i tory ( A l len , 1 970 , 3a nd 1 5)? I n f act , t here a ppear t o b e f ew i nd ica t ions o f l arge-sca le l a te I ron Age s et t le men t i n t he C a istor r eg ion . I st here a ny e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t a mi l i tary p resence i n t he i m med ia te v ic in i ty may h ave d eter m ined t he i n i t ia l e x istence o ft he t own a s av icus? As a R o man-Br i t ish c ivi tas c ap i ta l , Ca istor wou ld b e q u i te e xcep t iona l i fi th ad n ei ther p re-conques t n a t ive , n or R o man m i l i tary o r ig ins. Webster ( 1 970 , 1 93 ) h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o s evera l u npub l ished i t e ms o f Ro man mi l i tary e qu ip men t , i nclud ing c u irass f i t t ings , which h ave c o me f ro m w i th in t he t own . Wacher ( 1 975 , 2 30 , 2 34 ) h as a lso n oted a p heno menon wh ich migh t we l l p o in t t owards s o me a c t iv i ty , p ossib ly m i l itary , p receed ing t he t own — the f act t ha t t he a l ign men t o f o ne o ft he s treets c ross ing I nsu lae I , Ia nd I I i n t he n or th-east q uadran t o f t he t own ( F ig . 8 .1 ) i s d if feren t f ro m , 1 24




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a nd a pparen t ly e ar l ier t han t he ma in g r idded s tree t s yste m , a l ledged b y A tk inson t o h ave b een l a id o u t c . A .D. 7 0 ( 1 932 , 1 33 ) . T he c ourse o ft h is p u ta t ive ly e ar l ier s treet was c lear ly a n i mpor tan t a nd f i rm ly e s tab l ished o ne ; a l though i t was c rossed b yt he l a ter t own d efences , i t mus t h ave b een r el inked immed ia tely t o a no ther r oad l ead ing f ro m t he t own 's n or th g a te , b ecause j us t o u ts ide t he d efens ive c ircu i t , i t s a l ign men t n orth-eastwards i s s t i l l f olowed b y a modern r oad . T he s i tua t ion i s p ar t ly a k in t o t ha t f ound a t C or in ium ( C irences ter ) a nd V eru la m ium ( S t . A lbans ) , where t he a l ign men t o f a t l eas t o ne o f t he ma in a pproach r oads , ( t he S i lchester r oad a nd Wa t l ing S tree t r es pec t ively ) was q u i te d i f feren t f ro m t ha t o f t he l a ter s tree t s yste m ; i th ad ; o r ig ina l ly b een s i ted t o c o inc ide w i th t he p lann ing o f ac onques t p er iod f or t , wh ich p receeded t he f orma l l ay ing o u t o f t he t own g r id .3 Wha t o f t he e ar l ies t ma ter ia l f ro m C a istor b y N orw ich? I ron ica l ly e nough , i t was R . Ra inb ird C larke , ar egu lar e xponan t o fA tk inson 's t heor ies , who f i rst p o in ted o u t ( 1 950 , 1 47 ) t ha t t he p resence o f " Claud ian ." s am ian t ypes f ro m t he t own " shou ld n o t b e o ver looked" . As tudy o f t he p o t ters ' s tamps o n s am ian ware ( Append ix 2 ) , b ased o n i n for ma t ion s upp l ied b y B . R . Har t ley a nd B . D ick inson ( Un ivers i ty o f L eeds ) s hows t ha t o u t o f at o ta l o f 6 0 s urv iv ing s ta mps o f a l l p er iods f ro m C a is tor , 2 0 a re a ss ignab le t o p o t ters whose p rod uc t ion p er iods t erm ina te b e fore A .D. 9 0 ; o f t hese 2 0 , 1 2 b e long t o p o t ters who h ad c eased manu fac ture b y A .D . 7 5. O thers may b e a ss igned t o t h is p er iod f ro m s ta mps l i sted b y A tk inson b u t n o l onger e x tan t . T h is g enera l p a t tern i s e choed b yt he u npub l ished e v idence o ft he e ar l ies t d ecora ted s am ian f ro m t he t own .4 T hese f igures s carce ly s uppor t t he t rad i t iona l F lav ian d a te f or t he f ounda t ion o f t he t own , b u t r a ther s ugges t o ne i n t he N eron ian p er iod . The c o in l i s t p ub l ished b y A tk inson ( 1 932, 1 35-6 ) i s a lso n o t i nco mpa t iab le w ith t he p roposa l . I n f ac t , t he r e la t ive ly h igh p roport ion o f e ar ly s am ian f ro m t he t own wou ld b e more c ons is ten t w i th s upp ly t o am il i tary r a ther t han ac ivi l ian s i te a t s uch a d a te . I tc er ta in ly d oes n o t a ccord w i th t he g rea t s carc i ty o f f i rs t-cen tury s am ian n o ted e lsewhere i nt he I cen ian t r iba l t err i tory ; t ha t p heno menon i s n or ma l ly , a nd p robab ly c orrec t ly , a t tr ibu ted t o t he r el a t ive impover ish men t o f t he i nhab i tan ts f o l low ing t he B oud ican r evo l t ( e .g . t he s i tua t ion a t N eedha m :

F rere a nd C larke , 1 954 , 1 89 ) .

T he e x is tence o fp re-F lav ian a c t iv i ty i n o r n ear C a is tor d oes n o t s ee m t o b e i n d oub t ; h owever i ti st he n a ture a nd a f f in i t ies o f s o me o ft he e ar l ies t n on-sa m ian p ot tery v esse ls f ro m t he n or th-east q uadran t o f t he t own( Insu lae V I I a nd I X ) w h ich e vokes p ar t icu lar a t ten t ion . I n t h is a rea N eron ian—ear ly F lav ian p o t tery t ypes o ccur w i th s ome f requency i n an u mber o f p i ts , whose u l t i mate f i l l ing i s a pparen t ly T ra jan ic-Hadr ian ic i n d a te . A tk inson ( 1 937 ) a t te mp ted t o p ush f orward t he d at ing o f c er ta in o ft hese v esse ls wh ich , a t t he t ime , m igh t o therw ise h ave n o t b een c o mpa t ib le w i th h is p roposed F lav ian f ounda t ion f or t he t own ; h e d id t h is b y i mp ly ing t ha t s o me o f t heir d a ted p ara l le ls , p ub l ished f ro m o ther s i tes , were r ea l ly t ypo log ica l ly e ar l ier t han t he ir C a istor c oun terpar ts ( e .g . A tk inson 's ( 1 937 ) c o mmen ts o n t ypes T 5 a nd Y 2) ; h e a lso s ugges ted t ha t s evera l c o mparab le v essel-for ms f ro m e lsewhere h ad o r ig ina l ly b een i ncorrec t ly d a ted ( i b id , Type Y 7 ) . I nev i tab ly , h a lf a c en tury l a ter t here i s more t o b e s a id a bou t t hese p i t-groups ; h owever , a s i ti s n o l onger p oss ib le t o r e-exa m ine e very p robab le e ar ly v essel wh ich was d escr ibed o r i l lus tra ted b y A tk inson , o n ly s o me o f 1 26

t he more d ist inc t ive f orms h ave b een i nc luded i n t he d iscuss ion i n Append ix 2 . S evera l p o in ts emerge. A n u mber o f t he m f i nd t heir c loses t p ara l lels o n l a te N eron ian —ear ly F lav ian m il i tary s i tes i n B r i ta in a nd o ther n or th-western p rov inces o ft he Ro man Emp ire ;

i n f ac t s evera l c an b e s een t o b e o f t ypes

whose d is tr ibu t ion i n B r i ta in was v ir tua l ly c on f ined t o s i tes w i th mi l i tary l i nks —for e xa mp le " the b ow lw i th b arbo t ine d ecora t ion" f ro m P i t 1 6 ( A tk inson , 1 937 , 2 04) , wh ich i s ai mpor ted L yon ware c up , a nd t he g reen-g lazed ware ( A tk inson , 1 932 , 1 30 ) , p robab ly a C en tra l G aul ish impor t . T h is a nd a n u mber o f o ther e xo t ic , s oph ist ica ted o r l uxury i t e ms , s uch a s t he u npub l ished N eron ian-ear l y F lav ian mou ld-b lown c har io t r ace g lass b eaker ( Pr ice , 1 977 , 1 51-2) , s ee m a s o u t o fp lace among C a istor r s im med ia te ly p ost-Boud ican p opu la t ion , a s t he a bunden t e ar ly s am ian . Accord ing t o A tki nson 's i n terpreta t ions , t hese i nhab i tan ts were l i v ing i n a n " unpreten t ious a gg lo mera t ion o f f l i msy h u ts" u nab le t o a f ford p ub l ic b u i ld ings u n t i l t he middle o f t he s econd c en tury ( Clarke , 1 960 ,117 ) ; P erhaps t he mos t amaz ing p ub l ished v essels , s tra t if ied i n ap it o f t h is e ar ly p hase , a re t he l ug-hand led b arrel-shaped j ars w i th t etrapod ( no t t r ipod a s p ub l ished ) b ases ( A tk inson , 1 937 , S 2 a nd S 3) . These a re u npara l le led i n B r i ta in , y e t t hey were c onsidered b y A tk inson t o h ave b een made r e la t ive ly l oca l ly a nd a r eassess men t o f t he e videnc3 s ee ms t o c on f ir m t h is ( Append ix 1 , F ig 8 .3 , n o . 1 0) .

The o n ly o ther t etrapod v essels k nown f ro m Ro man Br i ta in

c o mpr ise s evera l s tra igh t-sided b ow l-for ms f ro m k i lns a t Rushden , Nor than ts , where t hey b e longed t o ar ange o f e xo t ic mid-f irst c en tury wares made t here b y immigrant c on t inen ta l p o t ters s upp ly ing a l oca l m i l i tary e stab l ish men t a t n earby I rchester ( C .A ., 3 1 ( March 1 972 ) , 2 34-5 ). H owever , t r ipod b ases , p resu mab ly b e long ing t o t he s a me g enera l i n t inen ta l f am i ly , a re s l igh t ly b et ter r epresen ted i n t he B r i t ish a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , t hough a re f ar f ro m c o m mon.

Their c on tex ts a re u sua l ly N eron ian-early F lavian ;

o f t he f ew k i lns

i n t he p rovince k nown t o h ave manu factured t he m , a l l were a pparent ly c a ter ing ma in ly f or m i l i tary r equ ire men ts .5 I ti s t hus , n o t w i thou t s ign i f icance t ha t t r ipod b ases o ccurred o n t he r eeded-r im b ow ls p ub l ished f ro m t he t hree C a is tor k i lns wh ich were e xcava ted b y A tk inson i n I nsula V I I a nd d a ted b y h im t o 1 10-140 ( A tk inson , 1 932a ) .

Af our th k i ln s i ted a bou t 5 5m t o t he n or th o f

t he o thers , whose f lue a nd s tokeho le were t runca ted b y t he l a ter t own d efensive d i tch was e xcava ted b y Mr M . Brely i n 1 958 ( F ig . 8 .2) .6 I ti s c lear ly p ar t o f t he s a me c o mp lex , a nd p resu mab ly a pprox i ma te ly c on te mporary w i th k i lns 1 -3 , a s t here i s as ubstan t ia l o ver lap i n t he r ange o fv esse ls manu fac tured . F or r easons d iscussed b elow ( Appendix 1 ) , t he c o mb ined p resence o f B r i t ish a nd c on t inen ta l l a te L a T ene a nd Ro man c on t inen ta l v esse l types , s uch a s f lagons , p la t ters , f acejars , c heese-presses , s am ia n im ita t ions , a nd p a intd ecora ted h and led-cups ( F igs 8 .3 , 8 .4 a nd 8 .5) , a nd t he s oph ist ica ted c harac ter o f t he k i ln-s truc tures t he mse lves , a re a l lv ery s ugges t ive o f a p roduct ion c en tre e stab l ished b y i n trusive p o t ters , a nd g eared t o t he r equ iremen ts o f am il i tary e s tab lish men t . A t t h is j uncture , i ti s i ndeed l eg i t i ma te t o a sk w i th wha t c onv ict ion c an ak i ln-co mp lex b e r ecogn ised a s mi l i tary ( or l i nked t o Ro man a r my c onsu mp t ion ) , when t he l oca l f or t wh ich i ti s p resu med t o h ave s upp l ied h as n o t y e t b een r ecogn ised o r l oca ted:

I ti s n ow we l l e stab l ished , f ro m s tud ies o f p ot tery

f ound o n f irst c entury m i l i tary s i tes ( Greene , 1 973 , a nd Dar l ing , 1 977 ) , t ha t , 1 27

CA ISTER BY NOR W ICH P o t tery k i ln n or th o f t own wa l l ( Bre ly 1 958 )

C,-

T own d efens ive d i tch

D

Natura l s and

A,

Na tura l s and

T own defens ive d i tch

F ired c lay k i ln wa l l

FEET 0

1

Burn t n atura l s and

2

3

4

0 METRES

A M BERRY A fter M BRELY 1 980

F ig. 8 .2

Ca istor : p lan o f t he p o ttery k i ln i mmed ia te ly North o f t he t own, e xcavated i n 1 958 ( the r a ised o ven f l oor h ad b een r emoved i n a nt iqu i ty).

1 28

w herever p oss ib le , t he R o man a rmy o b ta ined s upp l ies f ro m l oca l p ot ters a nd o n ly made i t s o wn wares a s al as t r esor t .7 H owever , i n most o f t he p ot tery p roduc ing a reas o f B r i ta in ( w ith a f ew p oss ib le e xcep t ions s uch a s t he C o lchester/S t A lbans a rea a nd t he T hames E s tuary ) , t he p re-conques t n a t ive c eram ic r eper to ire w ou ld h ave p erhaps b een a dequa te f or t he c ook ing a nd s torage n eeds o fag arr ison , b u t n o t f or a g rea t d ea l more . T hus t he a rmy w ou ld n eed t o a scer ta in w hether a l oca l p o t tery c ou ld p roduce o ther c lasses o f v esse l e ssen t ia l f or t he r egu lar n eeds o f t he mi l i tary mess , b u t wh ich w ere , a s y e t , n o t i n u se among t he l oca l n a t ive p opu la t ion . S uch a dd i t iona l t ypes w ou ld h ave c o mpr ised f l agons , q ua l i ty t ab le-ware i nc lud ing d r ink ing-vesse ls , s ome t imes mor tar ia , a nd s upp le men tary c u l inary i t e ms s uch a s c heese-presses . H ow t hen was t he p rocess o f e ncourag ing a n a t ive p ot tery t o make u nf am i l iar v esse ls e f fec ted? A ny a nswers c an b e n o more t han mere c on jec ture . P erhaps s a mp les o r p a t tern b ooks w ere made a va i lab le s how ing t he d es ired r ange o fv esse ltypes w h ich a n e xper ienced p o t ter c ou ld c opy e asi ly .8 P ossib ly , u n t i l l oca l p o t ters c ou ld c ope a lone , s o ld iers w i th p ot t ing s k i l ls c ou ld h ave s o me t i mes b een t e mporar i ly i nvo lved i nt he work : t he e x is tence o f s o ld ier p o t ters i s n ow a t tes ted e p igraph ica l ly ( s ee P aper 5 a bove ) . P erhaps c iv i lian c ra f ts men f rom t he c on t inen t , o r f ro m o ther n ew ly-conquered p ar ts o f t he p rov ince w ere e ncouraged t o f o l low i nt he wake o f t he u n i ts a nd t o s et u p t he ir own i ndependan t w orkshops o r t o f or m p ar tnersh ips w i th l oca l p o t ters . Wha tever t he c ase , i t was t he a r my , a s p r ime c onsumer , wh ich mus t h ave l argely p rede term ined ( p robab ly t hrough n ego t ia tores ) wha t v esse ltypes were p roduced b y s uch a workshop , a nd i n wha t p ropor t ions t hey were t o b e made ; c iv i l ian marke ts w ou ld h ave b een o f m in ima l o r v ery s econdary i mpor tance , w hi le t here was an earby g arr ison i n o ccupa t ion . I n s uch c ircums tances , t he a r my 's mos t p opu lar v esse ls c an b e c lear ly d etected i n q uan t i ty i n e ar ly k i ln g roups—for e xamp le c ar ina ted o r h em ispher ica l b ow ls o r d ishes w i th r eeded r i ms , r ing-neck a nd/or ' Ho fhe im ' t ype f l agons o fv ar ious s izes , l arge d oub leh and led f l agons , v ar ious q ua l i ty t ab le-ware b ow ls , p la t ters a nd c ups , o f ten v essels c opy ing G a l lo-Be lg ic , I t a l iana te , o r s am ian f or ms , h and led ' honeyj ars ', t azze , c heese-presses , a nd s o met imes mor tar ia , j ugs , l a mp-ho lders a nd f i l lers , f acejars , a nd c op ies o f f i ne i mpor ted s l ip-coa ted wares . Many o ft hese f or ms r ef lec t w ha t was i n u se among t he c on te mporary g arr isons o f t he o ther n or th-western p rov inces o f t he Emp ire , p ar t icu lar ly t he Rh ine land , w hence were d rawn t hree o u t o ft he f our l eg ions f or t he i nvas ion o f B r i ta in , a nd f ur ther t roops i n A .D . 6 1. O ccas iona l ly , l ess u sua l f orms o ccur among s uch k i ln a sse mb lages ; i ti s when t hese c ompr ise e xo t ic f or ms o f c ook ingp o ts , j ars , o r , t o al esser e x ten t , s torage-vesse ls , t ha t t hey a re most l i ke ly t o i nd ica te t he p resence o f i mm igran t p o t ters . T hese w ere t he c lasses o f v esse l f or wh ich t he a rmy s ee ms t o h ave b een p repared t o a ccep t wha tever f or ms were a va i lab le ; f or t h is r eason , p o t ters s upp ly ing t he a rmy wou ld o f ten make c ook ing-po ts , j ars , a nd s torage v esse ls i n t he n a t ive s ty le w i th wh ich t hey w ere f am i l iar . T h is i sn o t t o s ay t ha t t hey n ever , a t t he s ame t ime c op ied s o me o ft he t yp ica l R h ine land c ook ing-vesse ls a s wel l . T here i s amp le e v idence o f t h is s or t o f s i tua t ion a tt he C or fe Mu l len ( Dorset ) k i ln ( Ca lk in , 1 935) , where , v ir tua l ly a lone , t he c ook ing-po ts r epresen t t he n a t ive Duro tr ig ian e lement i n a n a sse mb lage wh ich i s o therw ise a l mos t e n t ire ly f ore ign t o t he a rea .

A t U sk ( Gwen t ) , d ue t o a n a l most c o mp lete

1 29

a bsence o f l oca l p o t t ing , c ra f ts men were a pparen t ly d rawn f ro m o u tside t he a rea t o s erv ice t he g arr ison ( Green , 1 973 , 3 1f f .) ; t he s uggested Danub ian o r ig in f or s o me o f t hese p ot ters was d educed f ro m t he c ook ing-po ts a nd j ars . A l l t he o ther v esse ls i n t he s a me f abr ic a nd t echn ique , a nd p resu mab ly f ro m t he s a me k i lns , r ef lect v essel-types wh ich were p opu lar t hroughou t much o f t he Rh ine land ; t hese p erhaps r epresen t t he f orms wh ich t he g arr ison s peci fi ca l ly r equested f ro m t he p ot tery , o r wh ich t he c ra f ts men , a lready f am i l iar w ith t he q u irks o f a r my s upp ly i n t he ir h o me land , k new wou ld b e ' on t he o rderb ooks ' .9 F or t he ma jor i ty o f u l t i ma te I ron Age k i ln s i tes i n B r i ta in , t here i sn o e v idence o f ar ap id s w i tch-over , i m med ia te ly a f ter t he c onques t , t o t he p rod uct ion o f Ro man t ypes r egu lar ly u sed b y t he a r my . I n t he Upper N ene Va l ley a nd t he N or th K en t Marshes , t wo a reas i n wh ich t here i s f i rm e v idence o f p ot t ing i n t he p er iods im mediately p receed ing a nd p os t-da t ing t he i nvas ion , t he k i lns wh ich b egan p roducing e xo t ic Ro man ised t ypes s oo m a f ter t he c onq uest , s uch a s Rushden , n ear I rches ter ( Northan ts ) ( Woods , 1 974 ) a nd E cc les a nd Hoo , Ken t ( Dets icas , 1 977 ; B lu ms te in , 1 956 ) s tand o u t a s b e ing t he r are e xcep t ions t o t he n or m .

The ma jor i ty c on t inued t o make n a t ive f or ms w i th

l i t t le c hange f or s evera l d ecades a nd o n ly s low ly a bsorbed i n to t he ir r eper to ire a mere s e lect ion o f t he n ew ly i n troduced t ypes ; t he l a t ter r arely i nc luded i t e ms s uch a s f lagons , c heese p resses , o r h and led h oneyjars a t t h is s tage . Th is mus t s ure ly m irror t he g enera l ly s low r ecep t ivi ty o f t he n a t ive p opu la t ion t o t he n ew c lasses o f v essel ( and i n t he c ase o f mor tar ia p resu mab ly t o n ew c u l inary h ab i ts) .

1 0

O n ly i n t he t owns a nd o ther s et t le men ts wh ich g rew u p

o n t he s i tes o f e ar ly mi l i tary e s tab l ish men ts was t he s i tua t ion a ny d i f feren t i n t he f irs t c en tury .

Th is p resu mab ly r ef lects n o t o n ly t he i n f luence o f t he l i fe-

s ty le o f t he d epar ted t roops , b u t t he c on t inu ing p resence o fv e terans a nd Ro man ised t raders , s o me o f who m wou ld h ave r e ma ined o n t he s i te when t he a r my moved o n . E ven i n s uch n ascen t t owns , t here i s of ten a s l ight b u t o bservab le d ec l ine i n t he p recen tages o f f lagons , mor tar ia , a nd f i ne o r e xo t ic t ab lewares i n u se a f ter t he m i l i tary e vacua t ion , a nd ap roport iona te i ncrease i n t he l oca l n a t ive f or ms . T h is t rend i s j ust p ercep t ib le a t Exeter ( B idwe ll , 1 979 , t ab le o pp . p1 86 ) , a l though t he d ispar i ty i n t he s izes o f t he r elevan t d epos its makes c on tro l led a nd v a lid c o mparison d i f f icu lt . A t Ca istor ; i n t he l i gh t o f t he s i tua t ion e lsewhere , t he f our k i lns s ee m most l ike ly t o h ave b een g eared t o t he n eeds o f am i l i tary e s tab l ish men t . The p ot ters c oncerned a re u n l ike ly t o h ave b een o f I cen ian o r ig in . Desp i te t heir s oph ist ica ted p re-conquest meta l-work ing s k i l ls , t he I cen i , u n l ike t heir C a tuvel laun ian , Tr inovan t ian , a nd C or i tan ian n e ighbour , w ere e vident ly n o t manu factur ing t he ir own q ua l i ty wheel-thrown p o t tery i n t he l a te L a T ene ( Ay lesford/Swar l ing ) s ty le b efore t he Ro man c onques t , a nd , w i th e xp l icab le e xcep t ions , were n o t impor t ing s uch r anges e i ther .1 1

C lear ly , o u tside

o r ig ins n eeds t o b e s ough t f or t he C a istor p ot ters . T he p ot tery f ro m t he k i lns f a l ls i n to t hree g roups : R oman ised v ers ions o f c ook ing-pots a nd b ow ls o f G a l lo-Be lg ic o r L ate L a T6 . ' ne a f f in it ies , many o f t he m f or ms p ar t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f C laud io-Neron ian d eposi ts a t C a mu lodun .u m ( Co lchester ) ( f igs . 8 .3-5 n os 7 ,8 ,13 ,16-21,26 a nd 3 3-35) ; n onl oca l v essels , most o f wh ich a re r e la t ively c o mmon o n m i l i tary s i tes i n t he

1 30

Rh ine land ( f igs 8 .3-5 n os 1 -6 ,9 ,11 ,12 ,14 ,15 ,22-25 ,28-32 a nd 3 6-7) ; a n e xo t ic t ype o f c ook ing-po t p oss ib ly a na logous t o t he n a t ive p o t tery o f t he Mose l le r eg ion ( f ig .8.3 , n o .10 ) . p oss ib le.

S evera l o r ig ins f or t he p ot ters a re t herefore

T he c onc lus ion t ha t a t l eas t s o me o f t he m must h ave worked i n t he

v icin i ty o f C a mu lodunu m , i s a l most i nescapab le , f ro m t he f or ms o f s evera l c ook ing-po ts a nd b ow ls . Were t hey n a t ive Tr inovan tes who h ad b eco me e xper ienced i n c a ter ing f or t he c era m ic n eeds o f t he l eg ionary f or tress t here , o r were t hey im m igrant p oo ters , who , h av ing e n joyed a r my p a tronage f or t he ir wares a t C o lches ter a nd h aving a bsorbed s o me o f t he l oca l f or ms , o r t aken o n l oca l p ot ters i n t he p rocess , h ad s ubsequen t ly moved o n , p erhaps a f ter t heir d isp lace men t o r l oss o f markets i n t he B oud ican d ebacle? There may , o f c ourse , b e more t han o ne f actor i nvo lved , a nd t he p oss ib i l i ty o f b o th Tr inovan t ian c raf ts men a nd im m igrant p o t ters f ro m t he R h ine land c anno t b e t o ta l ly r uled o u t . One f ac tor , n o t a lways c ons idered i n a ssess men ts o f k i ln-groups , i s t he c haracter o f t he k i lns t he mselves ; k i ln t echno logy wou ld a l most c er ta inly h ave b een l ess p rone t o r ap id c hange t han t he f or ms o fv essels , a nd more l ike ly t o r ef lect t he t ra in ing a nd b ackground o f i t s u sers .

N one o f t he C a istor

k i lns was o f t he L a T ene t ype I I c o mmon i n t he ' Be lg ic ' a reas o f Eas tern Eng land t hroughou t much o f t he f i rst c en tury A .D . a nd d i f fused f ro m t hese t o a d jacen t a reas U2 _ . sma l l ish , r e la t ive ly s ha l low , r ough ly c ircu lar o r o va l s tructures w i th p refabr ica ted t e mporary s uppor ts a nd t e mporary f l oors o f b ars a nd/or p la tes .) 1 2 A l l t he k i ln s tructures a t C a istor a re o f t ypes i n trod uced t o B r i ta in a t o r i m med ia tely a f ter t he c onquest , p resumb ly b y Ro man ised c ra f ts men f ro m t he c on t inen t , a nd a re u lt i ma tely o f Med i terranean a nces try . Rectangu lar o r s quare k i lns s uch a sA tk inson ' st hree , w ith v en tho led r a ised o ven f loors , l a tera lp i lasters a nd/or a b u i ltin t ongue-suppor t , a re r ecorded i n t he f irs t c en tury i n B r i ta in a t o n ly av ery f ew l oca t ions , C o lchester , Mor ley S t . P eter , Norfo lk , O t ford , K en t a nd B r icket t Wood , n ear S t . A lbans . A l l were work ing w ith in t he C laud ian-ear ly F lav ian p er iod a nd manufac tur ing r anges o f ma in ly c on t inenta l lv essel-types , many o f wh ich o ver lap w ith t he C a istor k i ln p roducts , a nd most were p robab ly s upp ly ing d irect ly t o m i l i tary c onsu mers .1 3

O n ly a f u l l s tudy o f Ro man k i ln s tructures o n t he c ont inen t

c an e lucida te t he p rec ise s ource o f k i lns o f t h is f or m , b u t t he Rh ine land s ee ms al ike ly c and ida te. 14 P oss ib ly t he k i ln t echno logy was t rans m it ted t o Ca istor v ia Co lches ter . The s uggest ion i s n o t i nco mpa t ib le w i th t he c era m ic e vidence a lready d iscussed . I n a ss ign ing a d a te t o t he Ca is tor k i lns , t he c losest d ated p ara l le ls i n B r ita in t o C a is tor 's i n trus ive t ypes ( Appendix 1 ) c o me f ro m N eron ian-early F lav ian s i tes s uch a s Usk , Wroxe ter , B ag in ton , Exeter , a nd Hay ton .

1 5

There

i s a lso s o me o verlap w i th t he r ange f ro m t he R ed House f or t , C orbr idge , o ne o f t he e ar l ies t Agr ico lan s i tes i n t he N or th ( Dore a nd G i l la m , 1 979) . The g enera l s im i lar i ty o f t he s evera l Br i t ish l a te L a T ene t ypes a t C a is tor , t o a n u mber a t Ca mu lodunu m , p rovides n o o bs tac le t o al a te N eron ian-ear ly F lavian d a te f or t he C a istor k i lns . Even a l low ing f or m inor s h if t o f o p in ion o ver t he p as t h a lf c en tury , why s hou ld A tk inson 's d a t ing o f 1 10-140 f or t he l i fespan o f t he k i lns d if fer s o r ad ica l ly? There d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave b een a ny i n tr insica l ly d a teab le

1 31

ma ter ia l , s uch a s c o ins o r s am ian ware , s tra t if ied i n t he a c tua l f urnace c ha mbers o f t he k i lns , o r i n t heir s tokeho les .

A tk inson a pparen t ly b ased h is

c hronology o n t he a ssoc ia t ions o f t he k i ln v esse ltypes w i th o ther d a teab le p o t tery , s uch a s s am ian , f ound i n t he p i ts wh ich h e h ad e xcavated i n 1 929 a nd 1 930 i n t he n or th e as t q uadran t o f t he t own ( 1 932a , 3 9 ) . He d id i ndeed r e mark t ha t ' so me o f t he ( k i ln ) t ypes migh t a t f i rst s ee m more p roper ly d a ted i n t he l as t q uar ter o ft he f i rst c en tury A .D. ', b u t d is m issed t he s uggest ion o n t he a pparen t e v idence o f t he p i t-groups ;

f ro m t hese h e c oncluded t ha t a t

C a istor ' such t ypes c on t inued i n u se f or a t l east t wen ty o r t h ir ty y ears l onger ' t han e lsewhere . I td oes n o t s ee m t o h ave o ccurred t o h im t ha t t he k i ln p roduc ts m ight h ave b een r esidua l i nt hese p i t g roups , a nd t ha t t he ir a ssocia t ions t heref ore , d a ted o n ly t he ir d epos it ion ( or r edepos i t ion ) , a nd n o t t heir a ctua l p eriod o f manu facture . B u t way o f r e in terpreta t ion , i t may b e s ugges ted t ha t , t he C a is tor k i lns o pera ted i n t he l a te N eron ion-ear ly F lavian p er iod i n o rder t o s upp ly a mi l itary e stab l ish men t i n t he v ic in i ty .

S evera l l oca t ions a re p oss ib le :-

( 1 ) as i te

im med ia tely NE o f t he n or th e ast c orner o f t he t own i n t he g rounds o f Ca is tor H a l l , a n a rea i n w h ich Wacher ( 1 975 , 2 30 ) h as s uggested l i es t he e ar liest n uc leus o f C a istor o n t he b as is o f s treet a l ignmen t .

I t s u nsu itab i l i ty f or

a er ia l-pho tography may b e t he r eason w hy a f or t h as s o f ar e luded d iscovery . The ' channel o f a wooden wa terp ipe ' f ound i n 1 938 i n t h is a rea may i ndeed b e r ela ted ( J . R . S . XX IX ( 1 939) , 2 14) . ( 2 ) There i s r oo m f or a sma l l f or t u nder t he t own s ou th-west o f t he k i lns , f ro m where a l i t t le e ar ly s am ian a nd s o me k i ln p roducts a re k nown .

The s ubstan t ia l b u i ld-up o f s o i l w i th in t he t own

c ou ld h ave p reven ted a n e ar l ier d efens ive c ircu i t f ro m s how ing u p o n a ir p ho tographs . ( 3 ) 8 00 metres e ast o f t he t own i s a sma l l p la teau , f ro m where ap i t-group o fp re-F lav ian p ot tery , f ound i n g rave l-d igg ing a nd n ow i n N orw ich Cast le Museu m , a nd t he s urface f i nd o f aN eron ian c o in ( Clarke , 1 957 a nd i n f . A . G regory ) may r ela te t o af or t s i te ; h owever , t he d a te o f t h is ma ter ia l migh t b e j us t t oo e ar ly t o b e c o mpa t ib le w i th t he d a te o f t he e ar l ies t ma ter ia l f ro m C a is tor t own . C lear ly , w ithou t e xcava t ion t he p rob le m c annot b e u nequ ivoca l ly r eso lved , b u t t he p oss ib i l ity o f more t han o ne mi l i tary d ispos i t ion s hou ld n o t b e d iscounted .

The d eparture , r eturn , a nd s ubsequen t d epar ture

o f L eg io X IV ( and p robab ly o ther u n i ts) d ur ing t he p er iod 6 6-70 mus t , u ndoub ted ly , h ave o ccas ioned r eappra isa ls o f c urren t m i li tary d ispos i t ions , a nd n ecessi ta ted t he r educ t ion o f s o me g arr isons , r esu l t ing i n m inor a l tera t ions i n t he s i t ing o f f or ts. A f ter a r evo l t a s s er ious a s t he B oud ican r ebel l ion , i t wou ld h ardly b e s urpr is ing i fC a is tor were n o t f ina l ly e vacua ted u n t i l t he l a te 7 0 's , w hen t he t roops were n eeded f or Agr ico la ' sc a mpa igns i n S co t land . T he p o t tery i ndustry p ossib ly c on t inued i n b us iness f or a s hort wh i le , o n ad im inished s ca le , t o s erve c iv il ians i n t he v icus ,by n ow a p er manen t sma l l c o m mun i ty . S ubs equen t ly , when t he t own a nd i t s s treets were f or ma lly l a id o u t o ver t he s i te , t he waster-heaps f ro m t hese n ow-abandonned k i lns , wou ld h ave b een f l at tened , a nd t he ir c on ten ts s pread , t o l eve l t he s i te ;

i n t h is w ay , t he k i ln p roducts

b eca me i ncorpora ted w i th l a ter ma ter ia l i n t he i n f i l l ing o f p i ts a nd i n o ther d epos i ts c onnected w i th t he f i rst o rgan ised u rban d evelop men t o n t he s i te . Th is wou ld e xp la in why , i n I nsu la I X , a pprox ima te ly 1 15 m t o t he s ou th o f A tk inson 's k i lns , ' t he y ield f ro m ( t he) r ubb ish p i ts

1 32

was u nusua l b o th

f ro m i t s amoun t a nd t he p ropor t ion o fv essels f ro m wh ich t he who le p rof i le c ou ld b e r ecovered '; v esse ls r ecogn ised b y A tk inson a s k i ln t ypes , o f ten i nc lud ing was ters , were f requen t ly r ecorded i n t he m . 16 The f or mer p resence o f k i lns o n t he s i te c lear ly r esu l ted i n a n a bnor ma l ly h igh i ncidence o f r esidua l ma ter ia l i n t he e ar l ier l evels o f t he t own . N o e xcavat ion w as c arr ied o u t i n I nsu la V I I ( between t he k i lns a nd A tk inson ' sp i ts i n I nsu la I X ) , s o whether i tc on ta ined more k i lns o r f eatures r e la ted t o p o t t ing i s n o t k nown .

I n t he w estern h a lf o f I nsu la I X , h owever ,

among t he p its e xcavated ( or p ar t ia l ly e xcavated ) b y A tk inson , w ere s evera l wh ich h e c onsidered t o h ave b een we l ls ( 1937 , p its 7 ,13 , a nd 1 6 ) , o r w h ich may b e i n terpre ted a s s uch f ro m t he ir d i mens ions ( p it 1 0 ) . b een c onnected w i th p o t t ing ;

T hese c ou ld h ave

t hey h ave n o c lear l i nks w ith t he l ater b u i ld ings

o n t he s i te , w h ich i n s o me c ases o ver l ie t he m .

F ro m t he i n for mat ion a va i l-

a b le , t he ir c on ten ts s ee m p redo m inan t ly l a te N eron ian-ear ly F lav ian i n d ate a nd a lways i nc lude k i ln p roducts ; l ong t ime ( p i t 1 3 ;

s ee n o te 1 6 ) .

o ne w e l l h ad a pparen t ly l a in o pen f or a I n t he s a me I nsu la , a d jacen t t o t he w e l ls ,

w ere n o ted t races o f modest e ar ly b u i ld ings .

U nder t he l ater b u i ld ing ( no . 1 ) ,

ac lay f loor h ad b een l a id o n t he e ar l iest l and s urface , a nd b e long ing t o i tw as a n o va l a sh-f i l led c layl ined d epress ion , a t l east 0 .6 m ( 2 f t ) l ong f ro m A tk inson ' sp lan ( 1932 , p l .X I I I ) , w hich s howed s igns o f c ons iderab le h eat— n o t , t herefore , an or ma l d omest ic h ear th .

On t he b as is o f s o me s can ty f inds

a ssoc iated w i th i t , A tk inson s uggested t hat i t s u se d ated f ro m A . D . 7 0 . Ano ther c lay f l oor u nder t he N or th E ast c orner o f t he l ater b u i ld ing ( no .2 ) h ad a l arge t i led sm ithy ing h ear th p robab ly a ssoc iated .

T he o ccupat ion l ayer

im med iate ly a bove t he n atura l s o i l a t t hat p o in t y ie lded 'e ar ly F lav ian ' s am ian a nd c oarse p o t tery ( i nc lud ing s evera l f rag men t o f D rag . 2 4/25 , 2 9 , a nd 1 5/17 ) , af ragmen t o f g reen g lazed ware , a nd t wo c o ins o f N ero , f i ve o f V espasian a nd a n I cen ian s i lver c o in ( Atk inson , 1 932 , 1 30 ) .

S evera l s ubs tan t ia l p its

( nos . 8 , 1 4 a nd 2 0 ) n earby , w ith a h igh i nc idence o f e ar ly mater ia l i n t he ir f u l l , may a lso h ave b een o pen a t a bout t he s a me t ime .

I ti s p ossib le t hat

t hese f eatures r epresen t t he sma l l i ndustr ia l c o mp lex o f av icus , r ather t han t he s qua l id h ab i tat ions o f t he impover ished I cen i wh ich were i n A tk inson ' s m ind .

T he c on junct ion o f s evera l we l ls , l arge p i ts , a nd s i mp le b u i ld ings

w ith h earths , b ear c o mpar ison w i th p o t t ing e s tab l ish men t e lsewhere i n B r i ta in . To a ssu me t ha t p roper u rban d eve lop men t a t C a istor h ad n o t y et b egun when t he k i lns w ere o perat ing , wou ld i ron o u t t he a no ma ly o f t he a pparen t s i t ing o f t he p ot tery k i lns w ith in t he f or ma l ly l a id-ou t i nsu la o f at own .1 7 I fa ccep ted , t he p roposed d at ing a nd s ign if icance o f t he C a istor k i lns r a ises t he q ues t ion o f when t he i nhab i tan ts a dop ted a f or ma l l ay-ou t f or t heir n ew c ivi tas c ap i ta l a nd h ow l ong t he k i lns c on t inued t o f unc t ion a f ter t he d ep ar ture o f t he g arr ison .

A tk inson ( 1 932, 1 30 ) r ecords t ha t p r i mary d epos i ts

i n I nsu la L X ( s ea led b y t he l a ter f loor o f ' wa t t le a nd d aub h ouse 2 , a nd a d jacen t t o i t ') p roduced F lav ian p o t tery , a nd c o ins o f Vespas ian a nd Do m i t ian , b u t n one l a ter .

A l though t he s treet s yste m was c la i med t o h ave b een l a id o u t i n

c . A .D. 7 0 0 21 4 , 1 33 ) , o n ly o ne s tra t i f ied i t e m was c i ted i n s upport o f t h is h ypo thesis , af rag men tary b rooch o f at ype ' da teab le t o A .D. 1 00-140 ', f ound i n t he ' East S treet ' o f I nsu la I X , o n t he s urface o f t he t h ird r oad-layer f ro m t he b ot to m ;

s uch e vidence i s o f d ub ious v a lue , i n v iew o f t he h igh s urviva l

r a te o f b rooches , a nd t he a bsence o f a ny a ssocia ted d a teab le ma ter ia l t o

1 33

c orrobora te i t .1 8 A tk inson 's p r i me a rgu men t was t ha t ' t he c o mpara t ively l arge n u mber o f c o ins o f Vespas ian ' ( 1 8 f ro m t he e xcava t ions o vera l l ) c on f ir med a n e ar ly F lav ian d a te f or u rban d evelop ment . S uch c oins i n q uan t i ty c ou ld e qua lly we ll b e e xp la ined a s h av ing a rr ived o n t he s i te a s a r my p ay . Af ter t he c o ins o f V espas ian , A tk inson 's c o in l i s t ( 1 932, 1 35) s hows av ery s ubs tan t ia l d ecrease ( T i tus I , Do m i t ian 7 ) ; t his p heno menon i s c o mmon t o an umber o f u rban s i tes i n s ou thern B r i tain a t t h is d a te ( Casey , 1 974 ) , b u t i s n o t y et f u l ly e xp la ined . A t C a istor , i tc ou ld r epresen t t he d epar ture o f t he t roops i n t he l a te 7 0 's , b u t o n ly a f u l l n um is ma t ic s tudy f or t h is a nd c omparab le s i tes c ou ld c on f ir m t h is s uggest ion .

The s a me r eserva t ions a pp ly t o a ny i n terpreta t ion

o f t he s ubstan t ia l i ncrease o f c o ins u nder Tra jan ( 1 3 ) —a p heno menon wh ich migh t b e l i nked w i th i ncreased p rosper i ty a nd t he c o mmence men t o f f or ma l u rban d evelop ment . T he s tra t igraph ic e v idence a t C a istor i s n o t i nco mpa t ib le w i th a Tra jan ic-Hadr ian ic d a te f or i t s f or ma l d eve lop men t . Af ounda t ion r unn ing b e low t he An ton ine f oru m c on ta ined Tra jan ic-Hadr ian ic s am ian . ( Frere , 1 971, 9 ) ; t he d eposi t o n t he f l oor o f ' wa t t le a nd d aub ' h ouse I ( over ly ing t he c lay f l oor a lready men t ioned , a nd a pparen t ly a l igned o n t he s treet g r id ) h ad a c oin s er ies t er m ina t ing w ith S ab ina ( 1 32-4) , p erhaps imp ly ing a T ra jan ic-ear ly Hadr ian ic c ontruc t ion d a te. P oten t ia l i n for mat ion f ro m t he p i ts e xcava ted i s l im ited b y t he f act t ha t , w i th o ne e xcep t ion ( P i t 5 ) , A tk inson f a iled t o r ecord t he c on ten ts o f a ny l ayers w i th in t he m wh ich were s tra t igraph ica l ly d if feren t . However , o n t he e vidence o f A tk inson 's p ub l ished s u m mar ies ( 1 937 ) , d iscoun t ing k i ln p roducts a nd o ther r ubb ish s urviva l , as ubs tant ia l n umber o f p i ts s ee m t o h ave b een f i na l ly b ackf il led i n t he Tra jan ic-Hadr ian ic p er iod ( p i ts 1 0 , 1 4 , 1 6 a nd 2 0 i n i nsu la I X a nd 2 2, 2 7 , 3 0 a nd 3 2 i n i nsu la V I I I ) ;

t his may s uggest

a n o veral l t i dy ing u p o f t he s i te a t t ha t p er iod , p erhaps l i nked w ith a p rogramme o f p ub l ic amen i t ies . I n f i ne , t he r ev ised d at ing o f A tk inson ' sk i ln p roducts a nd o ther c ont e mporary ma ter ia l f ro m Ca istor n o l onger p rov ides a ny e vidence f or c u l tura l r etarda t ion among t he p os t-Boud ican I cen i .

Very f ew o ft he e xcava tors who

c la i med t o b e a b le t o s ubs tan t ia te A tk inson ' sv iews were d ea l ing w ith c lose ly s trat if ied p o t tery , o r d epos i ts u ncon ta m inated b y r esidua l mater ia l . A t N eedha m , s evera l o f t he p it g roups ( Frere a nd C larke , 1 945 , P its G , L , M , Na nd P ) , d ated t o t he s econd c en tury ( on t he b as is o f t he s am ian ) c on ta in ing t ypes s im i lar t o s o me o f t he C a istor k i ln p roduc ts , a lso c on ta ined o ther d ateab le C laudio-Neron ian r ubb ish s urv iva ls ; t h is s ugges ts ah igh r es idua l c on ten t o vera l l , o f wh ich t he k i ln t ypes c ou ld b e ap ar t ; t here i s c onsequen t ly n o e v id ence t here wh ich d ef in ite ly s uppor ts t he t rad i t iona l p ub l ished d a tes o f t he C a is tor k i lns. The r ela t ive s carc i ty o f F lav ian s am ian , o nth is s i te a nd o n o thers i n t he a rea , may i ndeed r ef lec t t he i nab i l i ty o f t he i mpover ished I cen i t o a f ford s uch l uxury g oods af ter t he B oud ican r evo l t , b u t i tn eed n o t imp ly as hor tage o f , o r b ackwardness i n , l oca l c on te mporary p o t tery r anges . The o n ly o ther r elevan t ' ev idence ' n o t y e t c ons idered i s ken ian ' rust ica ted ' ware : t h is was i n terpre ted b yA tk inson ( 1 929 ,202-3 ) , Hawkes ( 1 933 , 2 37) , a nd o ther s ubsequen t wr i ters ( Tho mpson , 1 958, 3 0 , 3 4-5) a s al oca l s urviva l o f as uperceded c era m ic f ash ion , wh ich a ppeared t o f urther emphas ize t he ' cu l tura l r etarda t ion ' o f t he a rea .

Th is ma ter ia l c an n o t b e d e monstra ted

( Append ix 3 ) t o b e t he l og ica l d eve lop men t o f a n i nd igenous I cen ian r eg ional s ty le ; i ti s q u i te u nrela ted t o t he more w idespread t ypes o f r ust ica ted c ook ing1 34

p ots wh ich d a te t o t he l a te f i rst o r e ar ly s econd c en tury .

S ince i ti sn o t a

r etrospec t ive d ecora t ive f ash ion , i tc anno t g ive a ny w e igh t t o t he t heory o f c era m ic b ackwardness among t he I cen i . I ti s n o t imposs ib le t ha t a f ter t he B oud ican r ebe l l ion , t he I cen i d id i ndeed s u f fer d epopu la t ion , d isrup t ion t o a gr icu l ture ( Tac i tus , A nna ls X IV , 3 8) , a nd g enera l ma ter ia l i mpover ish men t ; h owever t here i sn o e v idence t o s ugges t e i ther c u l tura l b ackwardness , o r t ha t f or o ver a c en tury t he c eramic f ash ions o f t he r eg ion l agged b eh ind t he r es t o f B r i ta in b y t h ir ty t o f if ty y ears. I n f u ture s o me mod i f ica t ion i s r equ ired i nt he u se o f p o t tery p ub l ished f ro m C a is tor a nd l i nked s i tes f or d a t ing p ara l le l a sse mb lages i n E ast A ng l ia .1 9

1 35

APPENDIX 1 :THE PRODUCTS OF THE K ILNS ( F igs. 8 .3 , 8 .4 a nd 8 .5 ) T he p o t tery i l lus tra ted c o mpr ises a s e lec t ion o ft he ma in t ypes a ssoc ia ted w i th , a nd , a pparen t ly , p roduced b yt he C a is tor-by N orw ich k i lns ,

I t

i nc ludes ma ter ia l d er ived f rom M . B re ly 's k i ln e xcava t ion ( d eno ted ' Bre ly ') ; u npub l ished f or ms f ro m A tk inson 's k i lns ( d eno ted ' A tk inson ', w i th t he p rovena nce a s l abe l led o n t he s herds ) ; v esse ls p ub l ished b y A tk inson ( 1 932a ) wh ich r epresen t t ypes e i ther a bsen t o r u nsu i tab le f or i l lus tra t ion f ro m among B re ly ' s ma ter ia l ( d eno ted ' A tk inson ' w i th p ub l ished T ype L e t ters a nd n u mbers ). T here i sn o e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t , d esp i te i t s s truc tura l d i f ferences , t he k i ln e xcava ted b y B re ly was n o t more o r l ess c on te mporary w i th t hose e xcava ted b y A tk inson . O f c ourse , i tc anno t n ecessar i ly b e a ssu med t ha t a ny o f t he v esse ls f ound i n t he c ha mber o r s tokeho le o f ak i ln were n o t d umped f ro m t he l oad o f a n a d jacen t k i ln . T he g enera l h o mogenei ty o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m a l l k i ln d epos i ts , h owever , s ee ms t o i mp ly a r e la t ive ly l im i ted o perat ing p er iod o f a bou t 1 0-15 y ears , o r a t t he mos t 2 0 y ears , f or t he who le c o mp lex ; t here may p oss ib ly b e f ur ther k i lns s t i l l u nexcava ted . T he v esse ls d escr ibed c o mpr ise b as ica l ly k i ln-re jec ts , whose c o lour a nd f i n ish o f ten d id n o t c o inc ide w i th t ha t wh ich t he ir manufac turers i ntended ; t herefore , f u ll c onven t iona l d escr ip t ions o f s hade a nd f abr ic h ave n o t b een q uo ted . I th as n o t i n e very c ase b een p oss ib le t o r e loca te a l l t hose v esse ls i l lus tra ted b y A tk inson , n or d oes t he a im o f t h is p aper c en tre a round d e ta i led r epub l ica t ion o ft hese k i ln g roups. Most ly t he s ame b as ic f abr ic a ppears t o h ave b een u sed i nv ary ing d egrees o f c oarseness f or d i f feren t v esse ls. T hus , c ook ing-po ts , s toragejars a nd l i ds a re , i n g enera l , more h eav i ly t e mpered w i th s and , a nd h ave v is ib le wh i te a nd b lue-grey f l in t i nc lus ions ; a tt he o ther e nd o ft he s pec trum , f lagons , sma l l t ab le-ware c ups , a nd g lobu lar j ars o ccur i n af i ne s and-free f abr ic ; t he f abr ic o ft he l arge b ow ls a nd s ha l low d ishes most ly f a l ls s o mewhere b etween t hese t wo e x tre mes. T he v ast ma jor i ty o f c ook ing-vessels a re r educed m id-grey , s o me t imes w i th a n o range c ore ; h owever f i ne-ware f l agons , a nd sma l ler t ab le-ware c ups a nd b ow ls a re most ly o x id ised t o ap a le b u f f o r c rea m ; t h is p robab ly i nd ica tes t he u se o f s pec ia l ly s e lected c lay w i th a s l igh t ly l ower i ron c on ten t . U n less i nd ica ted o therw ise i n t he t ex t , t he n or ma l s andy-grey f abr ic may b e a ssu med t o h ave b een u sed . I ft he f i n ish o f t he c ook ing-vesse ls was i n tended t o b e r educed , a s a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase , t hey c ou ld n o t h ave b een f i red s i mu l taneous ly w i th t he o x id ised b uf f wares ; t h is a ssu mp t ion , h owever , i s n o t a bso lu te ly c er ta in . T he i n ter ior o f B rely 's k i ln s ee ms t o h ave b een r educed ; u n fortuna te ly A tk inson d id n o t d escr ibe t he i n terna l c o lour o fh is k i lns . S truc turaly , h owever , r ec tangu lar k i lns , s uch a s A tk inson ' s , d er ive u l t i ma te ly f ro m t i le k i lns ; a s s uch , t hey b e long t o a n o x id ising t rad i t ion , a nd w ere p robab ly more d if f icu l t t o d o me a nd s ea l a dequa tely f or r educ t ion . The ir much l arger s ize a nd more s ubstan t ia l u nderf loor-supports wou ld h ave a lways b een more a ppropr ia te f or t he f i r ing o fh eavy s pace-consu m ing e nclosed 1 36

v essels , s uch a s f lagons , wh ich c ou ld n o t b e s tacked o ne i nside t he o ther ; moreover ,f irs t c en tury r ectangu lar k i lns i n B r i ta in a re a l l a ssoc ia ted w i th t he f ir ing o ff lagons ( among o ther i t e ms ). By imp l ica t ion , t he n u merous f lagons f ound i n B re ly 's k i ln most p robab ly r epresen t w aste d u mped f ro m o ne o r more o fA tkinson 's k i lns .

( 1) .

Large f ine b uf fd oub le-hand led f lagon ( Bre ly ) :e xac t B r i t ish p aral le ls a re l ack ing , b u t i ti s p robab ly a n imprecise c opy o f t he C laudio-Neron ian Hofhe i m Type 5 7C ( R i t ter l ing , 1 913 , Ta f .200aV ): A tk inson 's ( 1 937 ) i den t ica l t ype , Y 5 , f ro m t he we l l ( p i t 1 3) i n I nsu la I X i s p resu mab ly a lso a k i ln p roduc t .

( 2) .

Base f ro m a l arge b u f ff lagon s uch a ( 1 ) , ( Brely ) :t he v ery marked ly h igh f oot-r ing t ends t o b e t yp ica l o f C laud io-F lav ian f l agons.

f ' Hofhei m 'der ived f lagon ( Brely ) :c lose p ara l lels e x ist f ro m Usk ( 3) . Buf f or tress ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , f ig 6 .2, n o . 1a nd G reene f or thco m ing ) , a nd f ro m a l a te N eron ian-ear ly F lavian c on tex t a t R iss t issen , b er many ( U lber t , 1 959 , Ta f .58, n o . 5 ) .

A tk inson 's ( 1 937 ) i den t ica l t ype , Y 7 ,

a lso p robab ly r epresen ts a k i ln p roduc t ; i to ccurred i n I nsu la I X , p i t 1 6 , a we l l , whose c on ten ts i ncluded c o ins o f N ero ( 6 4-6 ) a nd Do m i t i tan ( as Caesar , 7 2) , much N eron ian-ear ly F lav ian p ot tery i nclud ing Lyon ware , a nd k i ln p roducts. ( 4 ) .

Large b u f f r ing-necked f lagon ( Brely ) :c f . e xa mp les f ro m Exeter mi l i tary b a ths , p hase I A , 6 0-65 ( B idwel l , 1 979 , f ig . 6 0 , n o . 4 ) , a nd f ro m B ag in ton f or t , P hase I , 6 4-70 ( Hob ley , 1 973 , f ig . 1 7 , n os 1 99 a nd 2 00 ) .

6 ). B uf f r ing-necked f lagons ( Brely ) :s ee a lso A tk inson Types L i a nd ( 5) . ( 2 ; a bundant p ara l lels e x ist o n N eron ian- m id F lav ian d epos i ts , p ar t icul ar ly o n mi l i tary s i tes.

The r ela t ive e venness o f t he n eck-r ings i n

t hese f lagons i s t ypo log ica l ly c haracter ist ic o f t he p er iod , a nd p rov ides ac lear c on tras t w i th t he p rof iles o f s l igh t ly l a ter f lagons ( e .g . f ro m Agr ico lan a nd l a ter s i tes ) i n wh ich t he u pper r ing p ro trudes c lear ly . N u merous e xa mp les o ccur i n p its i n i nsu la I X ( Atk inson , 1 937 , T yres X I , X 3 a nd X 8 ) . arrow- mou thed c ordoned j ar w i th b urn ished d ecorat ion ( Atk inson K 3 ) ; ( 7) . N al ate T ene I I-der ived t ype , p opu lar i n t he n or th-west p rov inces o f t he Emp ire ( Ho lwerda , 1 941 , t ypes 2 01-3 ) , a nd a lso i n B r i ta in ( Ca m . 2 32 ) where i t was d i f fused a s f ar a s F lav ian S co t land b y t he a gency o f t he a r my . C f . A tk inson ( 1 937 ) , T ype S 4 , f ro m P it 1 3 ( we l l ) , I nsu la I X . a me g enera l t ype a s ( 7 ) , ( Brely ) . ( 8 ) - S ar w i th c ordoned , c o l lared r im ( s tokeho le o f k i lns 2 a nd 3 ) , af or m ( 9) -J i ntroduced f ro m t he Rh ine land a nd f requen t ly p resen t o n e ar ly m i l i tary s i tes i n B r i ta in ;

t h is e xa mp le i s most c lose ly p ara l le led a t U sk ( Greene ,

1 973 , f ig .1, n o . 8 ) a nd Dor magen ( Mü l ler a nd Horn , 1 979 , T af . 1 6 , n o.4 ) , b u t t he t ype a ppears w i th a more f la t tened " col lar" o n f u l ly F lavian s i tes ( e .g . G il la m 1 00 a nd G ose 3 5 7/8 ) .

1 37

2

8

9

1

1 3

C MS

F ig . 8 .3

C a istor : t he p roducts o f t he f our p ottery k i lns ( nos. 1 -13; Append ix 1 ).

1 38

( 1 0 ) . C ordoned , s qua t , b arre l-shaped j ar w i th l ug-hand les a nd a n i n tegra l t etrapod b ase ( a t l eas t 2b urn t e xa mp les f ro m t he s tokeho le o f K i lns 2 a nd 3 ; d raw ing a f ter A tk inson ( 1 937 ) , T ype 3 2) : t he b ody o ft he v esse l was whee l-thrown , b u t t he b ase a nd f ee t w ere h and- made . B o th t he f ee t a nd t he s hape o ft he b ody a re q u i te w i thou t p aral le l i n B r i ta in ( e ven o n t he Rushden t e trapod b ow ls t he f ee t a re o fa n e n t ire ly d i f feren t c haracter ) . P recise p aral le ls o n t he c on t inen t a re l ack ing . H owever , b arre l-shaped j ars w i th a s im i lar t ype o f r im , as qua t f or m ( bu t w i thou t t he s hou lderc ordon a nd l ug-hand les ) , a nd w i th t r ipod f ee t o f l i ke p ropor t ions , o ccur i n t he Mosel le ( e .g . i n aL a te L a T ene t o e ar ly R o man c e me tary a t Wedera th , K r B ernkas tel l ( Gräb , 2 2/234 ) , o n d isp lay i n t he R he in ishes L andes museum , T r ier ) . T he r a ther s qua t f or m was c lear ly c ommon i n t ha t r eg ion . I ti s , t hus , p oss ib le t ha t t he C a is tor t e trapod v esse ls were made b y s o meone f am i l iar w ith t he n a t ive t rad i t ions o ft ha t a rea b u t who h ad s upp le men ted t he m w i th i deas a bsorbed f ro m t he R h ine land ( e .g . l ug-hand les ) , a nd f ro m e lsewhere ( t e trapod f ee t ) . r esearch i s r equ ired o n t he o r ig ins o f t hese v essels .

C lear ly more

( 1 1) . ( 1 2) . G lobu lar b eakers o r j ars w i th a t i ny e ver ted r im ( Bre ly ) :t h is was a p opu lar C laud io-F lavian f or m o n B r i t ish a nd G er man m i l i tary s i tes ( G i l la m 1 01) ;

c f . e xa mp les f ro m Wroxe ter m i l i tary l evels

( Dar l ing , 1 977 , f i g . 6 .7 , n o . 2 4 ) , a nd B ag in ton f or t ( Hob ley , 1 969 , f i g . 1 4 , n o . 4 9). ide- mou thed s torage j ar: n o t c lose ly d a teab le ( s tokeho le o fk i lns 2 ( 1 3 ) -W a nd 3 ) . ( 1 4 ) . W ide- mou thed , h and led , f acejar w i th f r i l led-r im ( h and les r econs truc ted a f ter A tk inson ( 1 937 ) , T ype Y 9 ) ; t he f ace-frag men t i s n o t c er ta in ly f ro m t he s a me v esse l ( Brely ) ; o ther u npub l ished e xamp les c o me f ro m t he s tokeho le o fk i lns 2 a nd 3 ; t he f or m o ccurs i n b o th t he f i ne b u f f a nd t he o rd inary g rey f abr ics. F acejars a re o f ten p resen t i n sma l l q uan t i t ies o n f i rs t c en tury m i l i tary s i tes , b u t t he ir f or ms v ary s ubs tan t ia l ly ; c f . ag eneraly s im i lar e xamp le f ro m Hay ton ( Johnston , 1 978 , f ig . 2 3 , n o . 3 4) . S '-shape c ook ing-po t o r j ar w i th s ha l low mu l t ip le s hou lder-grooves ( 1 5 ) - ' ( Brely ) ; aL a T ene-der iVed f or m . C lose B r i t ish p ara l le ls i n n a t ive c on tex ts a re , h owever , l ack ing . S o me o ft he b es t e xa mp le o ccur o n m i l i tary s i tes a long t he Rh ine ( e .g . f rom t he C laud io-Vespas ian ic c e me tary s erving X an ten f or t a t B ir ten , K r Moers ( H inz , 1 973 , T af . 1 0 , n o .3 ) , whence t he f orm w as t rans m i t ted t o B r i ta in a tt he c onques t ; c f . v ersions a t Hay ton ( Johnson , 1 978 , f ig . 2 4 , n o . 4 1) a nd Wroxeter , p robab ly f ro m t he m i l i tary l eve ls ( Bushe-Fox , 1 913 , f i g .1 8 , n os .3 3-5 ) . 1 7 ) . a nd ( 1 8) . P ear-shaped c avet to-neck c ook ing-po ts w i th t h ickened ( 1 6 ) - ( o r b lun t-ended r ims [ ( 16 ) , o x id ised , B re ly ; ( 1 7 ) a nd ( 1 8 ) , A tk inson A 3 a nd C 2] : t h is f orm ( Ca m . 2 66 ) , c onsidered t o h ave b een made a t C a mulodunu m b efore , a s we l l a s a f ter t he c onquest , was a lso p roduced W idely i n t he Rh ine land ( e .g . i n t he C laud ian k i lns o u ts ide N ovaes ium f or t ( F i l tz inger , 1 972, Ta f . 5 6 . n os . 1a nd 2 , T af . 7 7 , n os . 3 -5 a nd T af . 7 9 , n o .5 , a nd i n f . f ro m Dr . M . G ech ter ) . 2° On i t s r e in troduct ion

1 39

2 7 r

e ,, 0

0e

p 0•, 0

F ig . 8 .4

0

0 not +

Ca istor: t he p roducts o f t he f our p ottery k i lns ( nos. 1 4-27; Append ix 1 ).

1 40

t o B r i ta in i n t he C laud io-Flav ian p er iod i ts pread w idely , u l t i ma te ly t hrough t he a gency o f t he a r my ;

c f .

e xa mp les a t R ed House , C orbr idge

( Dore a nd G il la m 1 979 , f ig . 1 6 , n o . 3 8,54 ) a nd a t Wroxe ter ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , f i g . 6 .6 , n os . 1 0-12 ) . ( 1 9) .

S -shape b ow l w ith n eck c ordons ( A tk inson E 1)— the b ow l-vers ion o f t he p rev ious c ook ing-po ts ( Ca m . 2 21) .

in .a ted e ver ted-r im b ow l w ith a g roove o n t he c ar na t ion a nd b urn ished( 2 0 ) - Car l i ne d ecora t ion ( Brely ) ; t h is s o-ca lled r I cen ian y b ow l d oes n o t a ppear i n t he I cen ian t err i tory b efore t he R o man c onquest ( s ee n o te 1 1 ) , b u t s ee ms l i ke ly t o h ave b een i n troducted i n t he C laud io-Neron ian p er iod f ro m t he C o lchester a rea ( Ca m . 2 12/225 ) .

T hereaf ter i te vo lved i t s

own i nd iv idua l 'I cen ian ' c haracter . ( 2 1) . A s ( 20 ) , b u t ap la iner d eeper v ersion ( Brely ) . ( 2 2) . Vert ica l-sided c ar ina ted c up , p robab ly w i th o n ly a s ing le h and le , i n f ine f abr ic , a cc iden ta l ly r educed ( Brely ) . Th is f or m , o f p urely c ont inenta l o r ig in , a nd r e la t ive ly r are i n B r i ta in , was p resu mab ly c op ied f ro m d oub le-hand led c ups s uch a s t hat i n t he V indon issa S chüt thüge l ( Et t l inger a nd S imonet t , 1 952 , Ta f .13 n o. 2 77 ) . I n t he C laud io- Neron ian p er iod , t he p opu lar ity o f l i t t le t ab le-ware c ups , o fv ary ing f or m , b u t o f t he s a me g enera l p ropor t ions a nd s ize [ s ee a lso ( 2 3) a nd ( 2 4 ) ] w as s ubstan t ia l . I n t he e ar ly F lav ian p er iod , h owever , t h is g enera l t ype o f d r ink ing-cup r ap idly wen t o u t o f f avour i n p reference f or b eakers ( Greene , 1 979 ,142 ;

w i tness a lso t he c on te mporary d isappearance o f

s am ian c up , Drag . 2 4/25) .

One wou ld n o t , t herefore , e xpec t a ny p ro-

d uc t ion c en tre , f ounded a f ter t he v ery e ar ly 7 0 's , t o h ave embarked o n t he manu fac ture o f s uch f or ms. ordoned , c ave t to-wa l led c ar ina ted c up ( f ine ware . f ired g rey , b u t ( 2 3 ) . C i n tended t o b e b uf f ) , w i th s l ip-pa inted d ecora t ion ( f ired b lack , b u t i n tended t o b e r ed o r o range ) , p robab ly s ing le-hand led ( A tk inson , P 3) . The f or m was p erhaps , i n tended t o c opy s uch e xo t ic p ro to-types a s a no ther d oub le-hand led c up for m f ro m t he V indon issa S chü t thüge l ( Et t l inger a nd S i monet t , 1 952 , T af . 7 , n o . 1 13 ) ;

t he p rec ise p ro f i le

o f t he C a istor v esse l must s urely a lso r ef lec t t he impac t o f ' I cen ian t b ow ls ( e .g . ( 2 0 ) ) . F or g enera l c o m men ts s ee ( 2 2) . ( 24) .

B uf f ware , c o mpanu la te c up , w i th a g rooved r im , a nd , p robab ly a s ing le h and le ( A tk inson 1 937 , t ypes X 12 , f ro m I nsu la I X , p i t 1 0 c on ta in ing ( 1 0) a nd much o ther e ar ly ma ter ia l ) ; s evera l u npub l ished f ragmen ts o f t h is t ype s urv ive f ro m t he s tokeho le o f k i lns 2 a nd 3 . T he f or m c losely r ese mb les , a nd p resu mab ly c op ies Hofhei m t ype 6 9 , a n e xot ic d oub leh and led c up ; i t s d is tr ibu t ion i s c onf ined t o af ew e ar ly mi l i tary s i tes i n B ri ta in a nd h as b een d iscussed b y G reene ( 1 937 , 3 5 a nd f ig . 1 , n o.9 ). F or c o m men ts o n t he g enera l c up t ype , s ee ( 2 2) .

la te b ow l , i n f ine c rea my-buf f f abr ic ( Bre ly ) . Th is was ( 2 5 ) . Ca mpanu p robab ly i n tended a s ac opy o f as am ian b ow l F or m 2 9 ; i t s p rec ise f or m , h owever , w ith i t s marked i n terna l ' cupp ing ' j ust i nside t he r im i s n ot a c lose im i ta t ion .

I nstead , i ts ee ms t o owe much t o t he i n f luence

1 41

3 0

\

N ie t e.

3 05 .{ -

C MS

F ig . 8 .5

Ca istor: t he p roducts o f t he f our p ottery . k i lns ( nos. 2 8-37; Append ix 1 ); I cen ian r ust icated a nd a l l ied wares ( A-C: Append ix 3 ) .

1 42

o f G a l lo-Belg ic f or ms , p ar t icu lar ly t he p edesta l-beaker , C am . 7 6.

I t

i s b yn o means au n ique v ar ian t , b u t c an b e s een b oth a t Hay ton ( J ohnston , 1 978, f ig . 2 3 , n o 1 7 , i ncorrec t ly c lassi f ied i n t he t ex t a s an arrowmou th j ar ) a nd a t Red House , C orbr idge ( Dore a nd G il la m , 1 979 , f ig . 1 7 , n os. 6 0F4 a nd 6 3F6 ). ( 2 6 ) .

C a mpanu la te c up o r b ow l , i n f ine g rey ish-buf f f abr ic ( s tokeho le o f k i lns 2a nd 3 ) ; p robab ly a c opy o f aG al lo-Belg ic p edesta l-cup , s uch a s Ca m . 7 6 ; t he t ype i s r are o u tside t he Ca mu lodunu m a rea .

lange f rag men t , p robab ly f ro m a b ow l i n f ine p a le b uf f f abr ic , w ith ( 2 7 ) - F v ery t h ick , c rumb ly , o range s l ip-pa in t d ecora t ion ( s tokeho le o fk i lns 2 a nd 3 ) . ( 2 8 ) . G ent ly c ar ina ted b ow l , w ith r eeded r im , a nd s p layed t r ipod-base ( Atk inson M1). T he t r ipod-feet were a dded s epara te ly t o t he b ase o f t he b ow l , a nd s ee m t o h ave b een o p t iona l ; many o f t hese b ow ls were , a pparent ly , manu factured w i thou t f ee t .

Th is b ow l-type , i n troduced a t

t he c onquest , a nd p ar t icu lar ly c o m mon o n mi l i tary s i tes , o r o n s i tes w ith m i l i tary o r ig ins , i s v ery c lose ly p ara l le led b y C am . f or m 2 46A. Rounded , o r s of t ly-car inated v ers ions o f t h is b ow l , a s h ere , a re more o f ten p re- o r e ar ly F lav ian ; t he more p ronounced ly-car inated e xa mp les t end t o b e f u l ly F lav ian o r l a ter . F or a d iscuss ion o f t r ipod b ases s ee a bove a nd n o te 5 . tra igh t-s ided d ish w i th r eeded r im ( s tokeho le o f k i lns 2 a nd 3 ) —a c onquest ( 2 9 ) S p er iod i n troduc t ion , a lso r ecorded more f requen t ly f ro m mi l i tary s i tes , o r f ro m s i tes w i th m i li tary o r ig ions ;

c f . G ose T ype 4 82 ( Claud ian-

V espas ian ic ) , a nd t he s a me g enera l t ype a t R ichborough , i n ad eposi t d a ted 7 0-90 ( Bushe-Fox , 1 949 , 2 66 , a nd P l . XCI , n o . 4 38 ) . ish , w i th s l igh t ly c urved s ide a nd a ngu lar , r eeded r im , o x id ised ( 3 0 ) -D ( Brely ) ; av ar ian t o ft he p rev ious t ype ( 2 9) . C f . Ho fhe im T ype 9 4A ( R i t ter l ing , 1 913 , 3 24-5 , T al . ) 00 W ) . ( 3 1) . C heese-press w i th d ished r im , p robab ly t o ' sea t ' al i d ( Brely ) ; c f . a s im i lar v esse l , w i thou t al i d-sea t ing , f ro m U sk ( Darl ing , 1 977 , f ig . 6 .5, n o. 2 8) . ( 3 2) . C heese-press , s im i lar t o ( 3 1) , b u t w ith a l i d-sea t ing g roove ( Brely ) . ( 3 3) .

( 3 4 ) a nd ( 3 5 ). P lat ters o r s ha l low d ishes w i th a c urved w a l l [( 3 3 ) a nd ( 3 4 ) , B re ly ; ( 3 5 ) , s tokeho le o f k i lns 2 a nd 3 ] . C op ies o f t he G a l lo-Be lg ic p la t ter , Ca m .1 6 , s uch a s t hese , were c o m mon t hroughou t most o f t he s econd h a l f o f I ; t hey a re n o t c losely d a teab le , b u t t he n o tched r im o f ( 3 3 ) a nd ( 3 4 ) o ccurs a t U sk ( u n .pub l . d raw ings f ro m K Greene ) .

nd ( 3 7 ) . L ids ( Bre ly ) ; b o th v esse ls h ave a p iece o f k i ln wa l l o r f l oor ( 3 6 ) . a a dher ing t o t he m . An u mber o f o ther v essels p ub lished b y A tk inson ( 1 937 ) f ro m h is e xcava t ions i n t he t own , b u t n o t i l lus tra ted h ere , a re o f t ypes l ikely t o b e l inked t o am i l i tary p resence ;

t hey a l l o ccur i n e ar ly d epos i ts , o r i n d epos i ts

c on ta in ing o ther e arly ma teria l , a nd s evera l ( i f n o t a l l ) c ou ld wel l b e k i ln p roducts .

They c o mpr ise t ypes :-

X 13 a b uf f ' honeyjar ' f ro m b e low Bu i ld ing 1 43

I ;

X 14 , al arge g rey d is tor ted ' honeyjar ' f or m , f ro m p i t 7( wel l , w i th much

e ar ly s am ian a nd many k i ln t ypes ) ; Y l , ag rey d eep c heese-press f ro m u nder t he a pse o f t he b u i lding wh ich o ver lay K i ln 1 ; Y 2 , ac ream ? jug f ro m p i t 1 0 ( we l l ,

w ith e ar ly s am ian a nd many k i ln t ypes ) ;

Y 3 a nd 4 , c ook ing-po ts o r

j ars w i th n a t ive M idd le Rh ine land a f f in i t ies ( 2 1 . e xamp les f ro m Ma inz , [ Ba tz , 1 962, T al . 6 , n os . 1 0 a nd 1 11 ) , f ro m p i t 1 3 ( we l l , w i th e ar ly s am ian a nd many k i ln p roducts) ; Y 6 , ac rea m , s pou ted-s tra iner , w i th t hree h and les , a lso f ro m p i t 1 3.

1 44

APPEND IX 2 :

THE POTTERS ' STA MPS ON S A1 V I IAN WARE

The f o l low ing c o m men ts a re b ased o n i nfor mat ion s upp l ied b y B renda D ick inson , t o who m t he a uthor i s a lso i ndebted f or t he l i st o f p ot ters ' s ta mps a ppended . At o ta l o f s ix ty s am ian s ta mps s urv iv ing f ro m C a istor-by-Norw ich a re r ecorded i n t he Un ivers ity o f L eeds ( Dept . o f L at in ) c a ta logue o f p o tters ' s ta mps o n s am ian w are .

The d ies o f t wen ty o f t hese s ta mps h ave a l i fe-

s pan c o m mencing b efore A .D . 7 0 ( i .e . b efore t he F lav ian p er iod ) a nd a re l i sted b e low .

O f t he t wen ty , s ix d ies a re e n t ire ly p re-F lav ian i n d ate .

I n

a dd it ion , t he d ie o f o ne s ta mp l i sted b y A tk inson ( 1932 ) , b ut n ow miss ing ( A mandus , F or m 1 8 , A gANDV ) i s a lso l ike ly t o d ate t o w ithin t he p re-F lav ian p er iod ( probab ly A .D . 5 0-65) .

F or a s i te w ith a t rad i t ional ly F lav ian f oun-

d at ion , t here i s a n e xcep t iona l ly h igh p ercen tage o f e ar l ier d ies .

I t wou ld

b e more c ons istan t w ith a n o ccupat ion c o m menc ing a l i t t le e ar l ier t han h ither to a ccepted , a nd , p erhaps o f a mi li tary c haracter . I n t he l i st wh ich f o l lows , t he n u mbers a nd l ower c ase l e t ters f o l low ing t he p ot ters ' n a mes c orrespond w ith t he d ie n u mbers i n t he L eeds c ata logue o f p o t ters ' s ta mps . A lbanus , l b , F or m 2 7g , OFALBA \ T I , A .D . 6 5-80 A lbus i , 3 b , F or m 1 5/17 o r 1 8 , OFASZ I , A .D . 6 5-85 ( two e xa mp les ) Aqu itanus , l c ', For m 2 7g , OFAQV IT g e , A .D . 5 0-65 C arbo , l a , F or m 1 8 , CARBON IS M , A .D . 6 5-90 C astus i , 2 b , F or m 2 7g , OFCAST I , A .D . 6 0-75 L ab io , 7 a , F or m 2 7g , OF . LASE , A .D . 6 0-75 L iber tus i , 4 a , For m 2 7g , I BERTVS , A .D . 6 5-80 Masc(u )lus i , 1 9a , F or m 1 5/17 o r 1 8 , MASC [ VLVS ], A .D . 5 5-70 Masc(u )lus i , 1 9a , F or m 1 5/17 o r 1 8 , ILVS , A .D . 5 5-70 Mo m mo , 1 4a ', F or m 2 7g , )MO M , A .D . 6 5-80 N iger i , 2 a , F or m 1 8 , [ 0 ] FN IGRI , A .D . 5 5-70 P ass( i )enus , 5 a , F or m 2 9 , OFPAT ZEN I , A .D . 5 5-75 P ass( i )enus , 2 4a , F or m 3 3a , PASSEN I AM, A . D . 6 0-75 P r i mus i i , 1 2g . F or m 1 5/17R o r 1 8R , OFPRI M I (2 ) , A .D . 6 0-75 P r i mus i i , 1 2g , F or m 1 5/17R o r 1 8R , OFPRI M [I ], A . D . 6 0-75 P r i mus i , 1 2v , F or m 1 8 , [ OF . PR ] IM I , A .D . 5 5-70 Ruf inus i , 4 c , F or m 2 7g , OFRVF IN , A .D . 6 5-85 S everus i , 7 1 , F or m 2 7g , OFSEXER [1 ], A .D . 6 5-90 V ir thus , 9 a , F or m 1 8 , V IR UHV , A .D . 5 5-70

1 45

APPENDIX 3 " ICEN IAN" RUSTIC WARE ( F ig . 8 .5 , A-C) I cen ian r ust ica ted ware was f i rst d ef ined i n p r in t a s ad ist inct ive r eg iona l c lass o fp ot tery b y Dona ld A tk inson ( 1 929 , 2 02-3 a nd 1 937 , 2 19-220 , n os , S 424 4 ) .

I tt akes t he f or m o f r educed c avet to-r im c ook ing-pots o r w ide- mou thed

j ars wh ich a re c harac ter ised b y ab and o f o b l ique l i nes o f r ust ica t ion o r s p idery b arbot ine r unn ing r ound t he s hou lder o r u pper p ar t o f t he p o t , t he l ower p ar t b eing l ef t c lear ( F ig . 8 .5 , C ) ;

s o me t i mes t wo r ows o f o b l ique

l i nes s et h err ing-bone-w ise o r p ara l led o ccur .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese

v essels i s c oncen tra ted i n N orfo lk a nd N or th S u f fo lk , a nd manufacture i s r ec orded i n S uf fo lk a t Wa t t isf ield d ur ing t he l a te s econd t o e ar ly t h ird c en tury ( Moore , 1 936 , 1 91) ,a t Ho mersf ie ld i n t he m idla te t h ird c en tury ( Smed ley a nd Ow les , 1 961 , 1 77 , f ig 3 1 , i k ) a nd a t I ck l ingha m a round t he m id t h ird c en tury ( unpub l . ma ter ia l i n I psw ich C oun ty a nd M i lderha l l Museums ) a nd i n Norfo lk , a t Wi t ton i n t he e ar ly- m id t h ird c en tury ( u npub l ished ma ter ia l i n N orfo lk C as t le Museu m ) a nd i n t he t h ird a nd p oss ib ly t he e ar ly f our th c en tury a t S hou ldha m , n ear K ings L ynn ( u npub l ished ma ter ia l i n Norfo lk Archaeo l . U n i t ) , whence much o ft he G ay ton Thorpe a nd B ra ncas ter p o t tery s ee ms t o h ave emana ted . S evera l v essels o ccur a t Ca istor i n A tk inson 's P i t I , wh ich i s a pparen t ly e ar ly t h ird c en tury i n d eposi t ion , a nd p redo m inan t ly t he s a me i n c on ten t , a nd i n P i t 5 , af ea ture a ssignab le t o t he l a te s econd t o e ar ly t h ird c en tury ( A tk inson , 1 937 ) .

Thus , t he i ncidence o f t he t ype s ee ms p r i mar i ly

t h ird c en tury , w ith a n emergence a t t he e nd o ft he s econd c en tury a nd a p ossib i l i ty o f s o me s urv iva l i n to t he e ar ly f our th c entury . A tk inson ( 1 929 , 2 02-3) a nd o thers a f ter h im ( Hawkes , 1 933 , 2 37 ; Tho mpson , 1 958, 3 4-5) l i nked t h is t ype o f r ust ica t ion w i th t he more w idespread l a te f irst e ar ly s econd c en tury v ar iety ( Tho mpson 1 958) , a ssuming t he I cen ian t o b e d er ived f ro m i t ; o n t h is b as is i ta ppeared t o b e av ery l a te s urv iva l o f t he t radi t ion i n Norfo lk a nd was c i ted a s a nother i nstance o ft he I cen i l agg ing b eh ind o ther r eg ions i n t he ir c era m ic f ash ions . d if f icu l t ies i n a ccep t ing t h is d er iva t ion .

However t here a re s evera l

I n t he f i rst p lace , t he c hrono log ica l

g ap i n Eas t Ang l ia b e tween t he d isappearance o f t he n or ma l w idespread e ar l ier v ar iety o f r ust ica ted ware i n t he e ar ly Hadran ic p er iod , a nd t he emerge nce o f t he s o-ca l led ' I cen ian ' r us t ica ted c ook ing-pots i n t he l a te s econd c en tury , i s v ery s ubstan t ia l a nd c lear c u t .

F ro m t he who le o f t he p rov ince ,

i t was o n ly i n t he Doncaster a rea t ha t p roduc t ion o f t he e ar ly r ust ica ted c ook ing-po ts c on t inued u n t i l a s l a te a s s hor t ly a f ter t he m idd le o f t he s econd c en tury ; i n f or m , h owever , t hey r e ma ined v irtua l ly u nchanged a nd were l im i ted ( f or p urely l oca l c onsu mp t ion ) t o af ew k i lns w i th in av ery sma l l a rea . There i s n o e v idence o f as im i lar p heno menon i n Eas t Angl ia .

I n a ny c ase ,

t he e ar l ier r us t ica ted c ook ing-pots were n ever p opu lar t here , e ven d ur ing t heir f l oru i t e lsewhere . As Tho mpson h as p o inted o u t ( 1 958, 3 0 ) , " the r im s ec t ion ( o f I cen ian r ust ic ware) i s q u i te d is t inct ive , a nd u n like ly t o b e c onf used w ith o ther r ust ic ware r i ms wh ich a re more s harp ly e ver ted" , —nor , f or t ha t mat ter , t o b e e asi ly d er ived f ro m t he m ;

t he s a me c ou ld b e s a id o f

t he u nm is takab ly d if feren t c haracter o f t he r ust icat ion a nd i t s a rrangmen t . 1 46

I n t he E ast Ang l ian Ro mano-Br i t ish c era m ic r epertoire , a n e f fec t s i mi l ar t o t h is I cen ian r us t ica t ion was p roduced b y r ows o f l ong o b l ique s lashes o r s tabb ing , wh ich f requen t ly o ccur a s d ecora t ion o n t he s hou lder o r u pper p ar t o f t he b ody o f c ook ing-pots o r w ide-mou thed j ars o f g enera l ly a na logous f or m . The p ossib i l i ty o f ar ela t ionsh ip b etween t he t wo h as a lready b een s uggested b y Moore ( 1 936 , 1 91) a nd F rere a nd C larke ( 1 945 , 1 99) , b u t w ith t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t i t was t he s lashed d ecora t ion wh ich c op ied t he r ust ica tion . S tabbed o r s lashed d ecora t ion h as a l ong a nces try i n Eas t Ang l ia . I t a ppears i n t he Ro mano-Br i t ish c era m ic r eper to ire f ro m a round t he midd le o f t he f irs t c en tury o nwards , ( presu mab ly t he c on t inuance o f al a te L a T ene t rad i t ion a dop ted i n t he I ron Age ) , b u t u p t o t he e ar ly s econd c en tury t he s tabbed i nc isions a re r a ther s hor t , s o me t i mes d iagona l ly s et , a nd a lways p laced v ery h igh o n t he v esse l , e i ther im med ia te ly b elow t he n eck o r a c tua l ly o n i t ( F ig 8 .5, A ) ,exa mp les o ccur i n am id f i rst c entury c on tex t a t N eedha m ( Frere , 1 941 , F ig . 6 ,n o . 3 9 ) , i n F lav ian t o Hadr ian ic d epos i ts a t S co le ( Rogerson , 1 977 , F ig . 7 4 , n os. 3 3 , 3 5, 3 6 , a nd F ig . 7 6 , n o . 7 0) , among a g roup o f b ur ia l a ccessory v essels o ft he e ar ly s econd c en tury a t P akenha m ( Brown e t a l ., 1 955 , F ig . 2 6 , n o .5) ,(F ig . 8 .5, A ) , a nd i n ac oncen tra t ion o f l a te f i rst c en tury, p robab le F lav ian k i ln wasters c o l lected f ro m t he s ur face o f Red House F ar m , B ramp ton ( unpub l . i n N orw ich Cas t le Museum ) . No t u n t i l a f ter t he middle o f t he s econd c en tury d oes t here s ee m t o e vo lve f ro m i tl onger d iagonal s lash ing ( a s o pposed t o s tabb ing ) , e xecu ted i n as ing le h or izon ta l b and s et wel l d own o n t he a ctua l s hou lder o ft he v essel , o r o ccas iona l ly , i n t wo b ands s e t h err ingb one-w ise o n t he s hou lder a nd u pper b e l ly o f t he j ar ( F ig . 8 .5 , B ) . Deve loped e xamp les s uch a s t hese a re r ecorded f ro m among k i ln ma ter ia l o f t he l a te s econd-ear ly t h ird c en tury a t Wat t isf ie ld ( Moore 1 936 , 1 91) , ( F ig , 8 .5, B ) , f ro m C a istor P i t 5a ssocia ted w i th ma ter ia l o f t he l a te s econd-ear ly t h ird c en tury i nclud ing I cen ian r ust ic ware ( A tk inson S 45) , a nd f ro m a c ontex t p ostd a t ing t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury b u t n o t l ike ly t o c on t inue much i n to t he f ourth ( on t he b asic o ft he c o in l i st ) a t S tonham Aspa l l ( Smed ley a nd Ow les , 1 967 , t ype M ) ;

b u t t hey s ee m t o b e a bsen t f ro m d epos t is o f d ef in i te f our th c en tury

d a te , s uch a s t hose r ecen t ly p ub l ished f ro m I ck l ingha m a nd S co le ( West a nd P louv iez , 1 976 , a nd R ogerson , 1 977 ) . I n s hor t , I cenian c ook ing-pots w i th s lashed d ecora t ion s ee m t o h ave a l onger a nd more s ecure p ed igree t han r ust ica ted o nes , b u t i n t he ir f ina l p hase o fd evelop men t a nd i n t he ir d em ise t hey a re b asica l ly c on te mporary . I ti s t herefore n o t d i f f icu l t t o i mag ine h ow , d ur ing t he s econd h a l f o f t he s econd c en tury , a r us t ica ted ( barbo t ine ) v ersion m igh t h ave emerged t hrough t he c opy ing o ft he c lay r idges s queezed u p a t t he e dge o f e ach d ecora t ive s lash . T h is me thod p roduces t he s a me g enera l e f fec t . There a re , i n f act , s evera l i nstances a t B rancas ter where b oth t echn iques o ccur s ide b y s ide o n as ing le v essel a s i fi n terchangeab le . The b arbo t ine t ech ique , o nce d eveloped , d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave o usted t he s lash ing , b u t t o h ave c on t inued i n s i mu l taneous u se ; o n t he Brancaster e v idence , s o me p roduc t ion c en tres o stensib ly p referred o ne method , a nd o thers , t he o ther ( Andrews , 1 981 , f orthco m ing ) . 21 T o i n terpre t I cenian r ust ica ted d ecora t ion a s h av ing e vo lved f ro m i nd igenous s tabbed a nd s lashed d ecora t ion wou ld efec t ive ly i ron o u t t he d i f f icu l t ies p osed b y t he t rad i t iona l ly a ccep ted d er iva t ion ;

t he r esu l t a lso wou ld b e t o

r e move o ne o f t he l ast p ieces o f e v idence h e ld t o s upport t he t heory o f r etard a t ion o fp o t tery f ash ions i n t he t err i tory o f t he I cen i . 1 47

NOTES 1 .

A tk inson , 1 932a ( t he t hree p o t tery k i lns i n I nsu la V I I ) ;

A tk inson , 1 932

( su m mary o f b u i ld ings a nd o ther e xcava ted f ea tures , a nd s am ian s ta mps f ro m I nsu la I X ) ;

A tk inson , 1 937 ( t he p ot tery t ype-ser ies a nd c o ins f ro m

I nsu lae V I I a nd I X ) . A l though C a istor-by-Norw ich i st he n a me mos t c o mmon ly u sed , i ts hou ld more c orrec t ly b e Ca istor S t . Ed mund ( Feacha m , 1 968) . 2 .

Iam mos t g ra tefu l t o M iss B arbara G reen , K eeper o f Archaeo logy , N orw ich C oun ty Museu ms S erv ice a nd h er f or mer a ssistan t T ony G regory f or g iving u p t ime o n s evera l o ccas ions t o g u ide me t hrough t heir v ery s ubstant ia l c o l lec t ions a nd r ecords. Thanks a re a lso d ue t o A . R ogerson o f Nor fo lk Archaeo log ica l Un i t a nd t he Cura tors o f I psw ich a nd M i ldenha l l Museu ms f or a ccess t o ma ter ia l f ro m v ar ious k i ln s i tes i n East A ng l ia .

3 .

I ti s b y n o means c er ta in t ha t t he p a ir o f d i tches v is ib le o n a ir p ho tographs t o t he S ou th o f t he t own b elong t o a n e ar ly d efence , whether m i l i tary o r c iv i l , a s c la i med ( S t . J oseph , 1 966 , P l . I I ;

Wacher , 1 975, 2 34) .

The

western e nd o f a t l east o ne o f t he m a ppears t o t er m inate i n ar een l eadi ng t o t he r iver . T h is , a nd t he ir r ather w ide s pac ing ( approx . 7 .6 m ( 2 5f t ) ) a par t may imp ly a more r ecen t o r ig in , a s d ra inage d i tches ( I am g ratefu l t o D r . S i mon E s monde C leary f or t h is s uggest ion .) 4 .

Dr Grace S i mpson k ind ly i n for ms me t ha t t here a re a t l east s ix S ou th Gau l ish Drag . 2 9 b ow ls o f p re-F lavian , ' probab ly C laud ian ' d a te , f ro m Ca istor i n N orw ich C ast le Museu m ( S i mpson 1 980/1 f orthco m ing ) .

5 .

These i nclude t he k i lns a t T ren t Va le ( Moun tford , G ee a nd S i mpson , 1 968, a nd B r i tannia 2 ( 1 971) , 2 59) , L ong thorpe ( W i ld , 1 977 ) , a nd G loucester ( Rawes , 1 972) , a l l o f wh ich w ere s i ted n ear Ro man f or ts o r f or tresses ;

a t D ragonby , n one o f t he p roducts o f t he r elevan t N eron ian-

e ar ly F lav ian k i ln ( E .M .A .B .7 ( 1964 )7 , f i g . 2a nd i n f . J . May ) o ccurred o n t he e x tensively e xcava ted a d jacen t n a t ive s et t le ment , a nd mus t h ave b een i n tended f or t he n earby f ort a t O ld W in ter ingha m ( i f s t il l o ccup ied ) o r , l i ke o ther s l igh t ly l a ter D ragonby p roducts , f or p robab le s h ipmen t a cross t he Hu mber , t o t he n ew ly f ounded f or t a t B rough , where s im i lar t ypes a re r ecorded . An u mber o f t he s tamped mortar ia f ro m t he B r icket Wood , S t A lbans k i ln ( Saunders a nd Havercrof t , 1 977 ) c er ta in ly r eached m il i tary c onsu mers a nd , n o d oub t , s o d id many o f i t s o ther l ess r ead i ly i den t if iab le p roduc ts , i nclud ing t he o dd t r ipod v esse l . 6 .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o Mr M . B re ly f or p erm iss ion t o p ub l ish h is e xcav a t ion ma ter ia l a nd f or t he l oan o f s e lec ted p o t tery f ro m h is p r iva te c ol lec t ion . The i l lustra t ions o fv essels 2 -6 ,8,11-12 ,15 ,20 ,21 ,30-34 a nd 3 6-7 a re b ased o n h is d raw ings ( w i th c erta in emenda t ions ) .

1 48

7 .

Th is s i tua t ion p er ta ined o n ly i n t he f i rst a nd p robab ly t he e ar ly s econd c en tury .

I ti s c lear t ha t i n t he r e ign o f Hadr ian a n e nt ire ly d i f feren t

p ol icy was a dop ted , wh ich r esu l ted i n t he p ot tery u sed b y t he g arr isons b e ing d rawn f ro m many w idely s epara ted s ources—a s i tua t ion b y t hen made e asier b yt he c onso l ida t ion o f t he c onquest o f t he p rov ince , a nd t he d evelop men t o f an u mber o fv ery s ubs tan t ia l p ot tery i ndustr ies i n t he M id lands a nd S ou th . 8 .

A t t he k i ln s i te a t C orfe Mu l len , Dorse t wh ich s erved t he f or t a t L ake Ga tes , Wi mborne , t he mor tar ia were p resu mab ly i n tended t o b e c op ies o f t he t hen c urren t C laudian wa l l-sided f or m ( Ca lk in , 1 935, c lass B ) ; t heir r ese mb lance h owever i s n o t v ery c lose a nd g ives t he immedia te impress ion t ha t t heir Duro tr ig ian makers were b are ly f am i l iar w ith t he f or m a t wh ich t hey were s upposed t o b e a im ing . Mrs K . F . Har t ley ( 1 977a , 2 8) h as r e marked o n t he v ery w ide v ar ia t ion f ound w i th in a f ew b as ic t ypes o f C laud io-Neron ian mor tar ia i n B r i ta in , p resu mab ly t he r esu l t o fp recisely s uch c ircu ms tances .

9 .

G reen ( 1 973 , 3 2) h as s uggested t ha t t he p o t ters c a me f ro m a n a rea where t he d is tr ibu t ions o ft he Danub ian a nd Rh ineland p ot tery t ypes o verl ap ( ?S trasbourg ) ; i n t h is c ase t he p resen t h ypo thes is migh t e xp la in why t here a re n o t more " Danub ian" t ypes t han j ust c ook ing-po ts a nd j ars.

1 0.

L eech ( 1 978) h as r e marked o n t he s carc i ty o f Ro man f or ms , p ar t icu lar ly mortar ia , i n t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies i n Ro man r ura l East S o merset a nd N or th Dorse t , a nd t he s a me c an b e s a id f ro m t he a u thor 's e xperience i n G loucestersh ire , Ha mpsh ire a nd Wi l tsh ire .

1 1.

There i sn o e vidence a t p resen t t ha t t he s o-ca l led ' I cen ian i c ar ina ted b ow ls a nd c ook ing-po ts a ppear i n t he t err i tory b efore t he c onquest ( Frere , 1 941 , f i g . 3 ,no.4 , f ig .4 , n os. 2 8 a nd 3 0 , f ig . 5 , n os. 3 1 , 3 5 , 3 8 a nd 4 0 , a nd f ig . 7 , n os. 4 1 a nd 4 3) : t he ir c on tex t a t Needham i s f i rm ly N eron ian o n t he c urren t d a t ing o f t he a ssocia ted s am ian .

1 2.

S ee Woods , 1 974 ( Nene Va l ley e xa mp les) a nd J ackson , 1 962, 1 972 a nd 1 975 ( t he N . K en t e xa mp les ) a nd Swan , 1 981 , f or thco m ing ( overa ll B ri t ish d istr ibu t ion ) t here i s s o me s l igh t e vidence f or s uch k i lns among t he n a t ive o ccupa t ion a t C a mu lodunu m ( Hawkes a nd H ul l , 1 947 ,00 ) .

1 3 .

C o lches ter K i ln 2 3—w i th t ongue s uppor t o n ly , p oss ib ly t er m ina ted b y t he B oud ican d ebacle ( Hawkes a nd Hul l , 1 947 , 1 50-6 , f ig . 2 6 , a nd 2 81-4 , f ig . 5 8) ; Co lches ter K i ln 2 6 —struc ture , d a te a nd p roducts s im i lar t o p revious k i ln ( Hu l l , 1 963 , 1 57-161 , f igs. 9 0-92) ; C o lchester K i ln 3 4— r ec tangu lar w i th 8 p a irs o fp i lasters a nd a n o va l f ree-stand ing p edesta l , e xcava ted i n 1 960 , o f s im i lar d a te , a nd mak ing f lagons o f c on t inen ta l t ype a nd p lat ters a nd j ars o f G a l lo-Belg ic o r l oca l a f f in i t ies ( u npub l ished , i nf . B . P . B lake , e xcava tor ) ;

Mor ley S t P eter—two r ectangu lar k i lns

o f l a te N eron ian-ear ly F lavian d a te w i th l a tera l p i lasters , e xcava ted b y D . R . How le t t a nd R . Bawden i n 1 958 a nd 1 962, . produc ing a r ange v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o ft he C a istor k i lns ( u npub l ished r ecords a nd p o t tery i n Norw ich Cast le Museu m ) .

The t wo o ther c on te mporary r ectangu lar k i lns

w ith s im i lar p roducts a nd s ub-struc tures h ad r a ised f l oors o r p ara l le l s to ne o r c lay b ars p robab ly o ver-p lastered w i th c lay a nd v entho led 1 49

( Br icke t t Wood , n ear S t . A lbans [ Saunders a nd Havercrof t , 1 977] a nd O t ford , K en t [ Pearce , 1 930 ] ) . O f t he much q uo ted r ec tangu lar k i ln o f V ita l is a t L inco ln , t he s tructura l e v idence , a s r ecorded ( Baker , 1 937 ) , i s i nsu f f ic ien t t o s uppor t ar ec tangu lar o ven ;

i te ven d ef ies s ecure

i n terpreta t ion a s ak i ln s truc ture , t hough t here was u ndoub ted ly p o t tery p roduc t ion i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty . 1 4.

S ince t h is p aper was wr i t ten , a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he u npub l ished r ecords o f t he k i lns o u tside t he Ro man f or t a t Novaes iu m ( Neuss , G ermany ) , h as s hown t ha t o f t he t en C laud ian k i lns , h a lf were s im i lar i np lan t o A tk inson 's C a istor k i lns ( i .e. r ec tangu lar i n p lan , w i th l a tera l p i las ters , o r at ongue s upport : s ee a lso n ote 1 3) . Iam g ra tefu l t o Dr . C . Ruger a nd Dr G . Mu l ler o f t he Rhein isches L andes museu m , B onn f or mak ing t h is ma ter ia l a va i lab le , a nd t o Dr . M ichae l G ech ter f or h elp i n g oing t hrough t he r ecords a nd f or h is u ns t in t ing h osp i ta l i ty t o me d ur ing my v is i t t o G er many .

1 5.

Usk—occup ied w i th in c . A .D. 5 0-75 ( Green , 1 979 ,1) ; Wroxeter—A .D. 53 /5 6 -60 a nd 6 5-71 p robab ly i n f ul l g arr ison , b u t w i th o n ly c aretaker o ccupa t ion i n t he i n terva ls u nt i l t he e ar ly 9 0 's ( Dar l ing 1 977 ) ; B ag in tonA .D. 6 0-60 ( Hob ley , 1 969) ; Exeter-55/60-75 ; Hay ton—the e ar ly 7 0 's ( Johnson , 1 978) .

1 6.

Wasters i n p i ts 1 0 a nd 3 2, a nd ' k i ln t ypes ' i n p i ts 5 ( "below t he s he l ls" ) , 7 ,8 ,10 ,14 ,2 0 ,22,27 ,30 a nd 3 2 ( A tk inson , 1 937 , 2 02-206 ) ; a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he c on ten ts o fp i t 1 3 , n ow s tored a s ag roup ( i n N orw ich C ast le Museu m ) s howed i tt o c o mpr ise o ver 9 5% k i ln p roduc ts i nclud ing wasters a nd t he r e ma inder a l i t t le e ar ly s am ian a nd s o me l a ter ma ter ia l:

n o

d oub t al eng thy e xamina t ion o f o ther r econst i tu ted p i t g roups wou ld p rod uce s im i lar r esu l ts. 1 7.

O f t he o n ly o ther k i lns i n B r i ta in wh ich s uperf ic ia l ly a ppear t o h ave a s im i larly a no ma lous s i t ing , t he Dane J ohn K i ln a t C an terbury p robab ly l ay o u tside t he l im i ts o f t he t own d ur ing i t s p roduc t ion p er iod ( Wacher , 1 975 , 1 89-91) ;

t he k i ln o n t he G loucester T e lephone Exchange s i te was

l oca ted o n ap lo t a lready u sed f or i ndustr ia l p urposes d ur ing t he l i fe o f t he f or tress , a t at i me o ft ransi t ion f ro m f or tress t o c o lon ia ; i t s s i t ing t hus o ccurred i n q u i te e xcep t iona l c ircums tances ( Hurs t , 1 972, 4 1 a nd i nf . H . Hurst ). 1 8.

The c on ten ts o f p i t 8 wh ich u nder lay t he s treet o n t he wes t s ide o f i nsu la I X c anno t u nfor tuna te ly b e u sed t o d a te t he g r id a s awho le , s ince t he s i t ing a nd a l ign men t o f t he o ver ly ing s treet s uggests t ha t i t may we l l b e al a ter a dd i t ion t o t he s yste m a nd n o t n eccessar i ly p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l l ayou t .

1 9.

Iam g ra tefu l t o Mrs S . G lazier a nd Mr A . M . B erry r espect ive ly f or t yp ing t he t ex t a nd f or t he i l lus tra t ion , F ig . 8 .2. T hanks a re a lso d ue t o P ro fessor S . S . F rere a nd t he S ociety f or t he P ro mo t ion o f R o man S tud ies f or p er m ission t o p ub l ish a n emended

r eproduct ion o f P rofessor

F rere ' sp lan o f C a istor ( Br itann ia , 2( 1 971) , 2 , F ig .1)

1 50

2 0.

Iam g ra tefu l t o Dr . M ichael G ech ter o f t he Rhein isches L andes museu m , B onn , f or d iscuss ing t he Novaes iu m k i ln p roduc ts i n t he ir s tra t i f ied g roups , i n a dvance o fh is f or t hco ming p ub l ica t ion w i th Dr . G . Mü l ler .

2 1.

Iw ish t o t hank Mrs G . Andrews o f t he D .o .E. C en tra l Excava t ion Un i t , f or i nfor ma t ion o n t he B rancaster p o t tery i n a dvance o fp ub l ica t ion .

B IBL IGRAPHY A l len 1 970.

Alen , D . F ., ' The C o ins o f t he I cen i f, B ri tann ia , 1( 1970 ) , 1 -33 .

Andrews 1 981 ( f or thco m ing ) .

Andrews , G . M ., ' The P ot tery ', i n Green , C .

a nd H inchcl i f fe , J ., ' Excava t ions a t B rancas ter 1 974 a nd 1 977; E . Ang l ian Archaeo l ., Norfolk S er . Monograph , 1 981 ( f orthco m ing ) . A tk inson 1 929.

A tk inson , D ., ' The Ro man V i l la a t Gay ton T horpe ', N or fo lk

Archaeo l ., 2 3(1929) , 1 66-209. A tk inson 1 932.

A tk inson , D ., 'C a istor Excava t ions , 1 929 ' , Norfo lk Archaeol .,

2 4( 1932) , 9 3-139. A tk inson 1 932a .

A tk inson , D ., ' Three Ca istor P o t tery K i lns ' J . Ro man S tud .,

2 2( 1932) , 3 3-46. A tk inson 1 937. A tk inson , D ., ' Ro man P ot tery f ro m C a istor-nex t-Norw ich , Nor folk Archaeol ., 2 6 ( 1 937 ) , 1 97-230. Baa tz 1 962.

Baa tz , D ., Mogon t iacu m ;

L eg ionslager i n Ma inz. B aker 1 937.

Neue Un tersuchungen am Rö m ischen

L i mesforschungen , 4 , B er l in , 1 962,

B aker , F . T ., ' Ro man P ot tery K i ln a t L inco ln ', T he L inco lnshire

Mag ., 3 .7(1937 ) . 1 -4. B idwel l 1 979.

B idwe l l , P . T ., The L eg ionary B a th-house , a nd B asi l ica a nd

F oru m a t Exeter ., Exeter Archaeo l . Rep .1 , Exeter C i ty C ounci l a nd Un iversi ty o f Exeter , 1 979. B lu mste in 1 956. Can t iana

B lums te in , M ., ' Ro man P o t tery f ro m Hoo ', Archaeo l. 7 0( 1956 ) , 2 73-277.

B rown e t a l . 1 955. B rown , B . J . W., e t a l ., ' Excava t ions a t G r i mstone End , Pakenha m ', P roc. S u f fo lk I nst . Archaeo l ., 2 6 ( 1 955) , 1 89-207. Bushe-Fox 1 913. Bushe-Fox , J . P ., Excava t ions o n t he S i te o ft h e Ro man Town a t Wroxe ter i S hropsh ire i n 1 912., R ep t . R es .C o mm . S oc . An t iq. L ondon , 1 , 1 913. Bushe-Fox 1 949 .

B ushe-Fox , J . P ., F ourth Repor t o n t he Excava t ions o f t he

Ro man F or t a t R ichborough , Ken t ., Rep t . Res . C o mm . S oc . An t iq . L ondon , 1 6 , 1 949 . C . A . Current Archaeo l . Ca lk in 1 935.

Ca lk in , J . B . ' An e ar ly Ro mano-Br i t ish k iln a t C or fe Mu l len ,

Dorse t 1,An t iq J ., 1 5( 1935) , 4 2-55. C am . 0 0 :

T ype n u mbers f ro m C a mu lodunu m ( see H awkes a nd H u l l , 1 947 ).

1 51

C asey 1 974 . C asey , J . P ., C o ins a nd t he Archaeo log ist ., B .A .R . 4 , Oxford , 1 974 , 3 7-51 . C larke 1 950 .

C larke , R . R . ,' Ro man Nor fo lk s ince Haverf ie ld ', Norfo lk a nd

N orw ich Archaeo l . S oc ., 3 0 .2 ( 1 950 ) , 1 40-55. C larke 1 957. 1 954 :

C larke , R . R ., ' Archaeo log ica l D iscoveries i n Norfo lk , 1 949Ro man Age ', Nor fo lk Archaeo l ., 3 1 ( 1 957 ) , 4 00-416 .

C larke 1 960 .

C larke , R . R ., East Ang l ia ., P eop le a nd P laces

S er ., L ondon ,

1 960 Dar l ing 1 977.

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1 52

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E . Ang l ian

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1 54

( 1 958) ,

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1 55

9 .

DECORATED SOUTH GAUL ISH BO WLS FRO M CORBRIDGE AND THE RED HOUSE S ITES G race S i mpson

I t was a w ide ly h e ld b e l ief i n t he 1 950 's t ha t t he e ar l ies t f or t o n t he C orbr idge s i te was a n Agr ico lan f ounda t ion . Th is b e lief h as b een t ransferred t o t he n earby Red House s i te , n ow b o ld ly c al led a n Agr ico lan s upp ly b ase a nd i ti s s ta ted t ha t : ..the c era m ic e vidence l eaves l i t t le d oub t t ha t i t was a ssocia ted w ith Agr ico la 's a ct iv i ty i n n or thern B r i ta in .... ( Hanson e t a l ., 1 979 , 8 4-85) '. The p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o e xa m ine t h is c onclus ion . B . R . Har t ley g ave a w ide d a t ing ( 7 5-105) , f or t he s ix t i ny p ieces o f d ecora ted s am ian , t wo o f Dr . 2 9 , t hree o f D r . 3 7 a nd o ne o f u ncer ta in f or m , f ound a t t he R ed House B a ths ( Dan ie ls , 1 959 , 1 58, f ig . 2 0 ) . The d ecora ted s am ian f ro m Hay ton f or t b etween Y ork a nd B rough-on-Humber , p rov ides s o me p ara l lels w i th t he Red H ouse s upp ly b ase :

a Dr . 2 9 s ta mped [ OF WIRTVTIS

h as e rrat ica l ly p laced t i ny l ea f-t ips wh ich a re a s u n t idy a s t hose o n a Dr . 3 7 a t tr ibu ted t o F ron t inus ( Hanson e t a l ., 1 979 , 3 6 , f i g . 1 4 , n o . 6 ) . The l arge S -shaped g adroons i n ab asa l wrea th f ro m Hay ton f or t ( J ohnson , 1 978, f i g . 2 1, 6 ) , c an b e ma tched a t C appuck o n af i nd made p r ior t o A .D. 1 900 ;

a lso a t

Newstead ( Cur ie , 1 911, wh ich r efers t o a Dr .37 w i th g rass-tu f ts i n t he d ecora t ion , n o t a n e ar ly f ea ture . Many 3 7s w i th s uch g rasstuf ts a re i n t he C orbr idge C o l lect ion , a nd a g ood e xa mp le i s i l lustra ted i n t he 1 914 R eport ( Forster a nd K now les , 1 915 , 2 30 , f ig . 1 ) . C ol leagues h ave k ind ly p o in ted o u t t o me t ha t t here a re a lso s im i lar it ies b etween t he c oarse p o t tery f ro m t he Red House b ase a nd t he f ort a t Hay ton . Mr . Dore h as c o m mented o n o ne s uch i ns tance : af l agon ( Dore , 1 980 , 1 14) . Notab le a t b o th p laces i st he mor tar iu m t ype r ela ted t o G i l la m 2 37 ( J ohnson , 1 978 , 9 6 , n os . 6 4 ,6 6 , f i g . 2 5 , a nd a t t he s upp ly b ase , Hanson e t a l ., 1 979, 5 3, n o . 8 4 ; 5 5 a nd f ig . 1 8) . S uch mor tar ia h ave b een f ound a t many o ther n or thern s i tes i nclud ing F endoch , I nch tu th i l , O akwood a nd N ewstead .

Y et i t

i s s ta ted t ha t : ' . ..th is k ind o f mor tar iu m h as o n ly o nce b een r ecorded f ro m C orbr idge , a nd t ha t f ro m t he l evel o ft he s econd , n ot t he e ar l ies t f or t ( Hanson e t a l ., 1 979 , 4 ) '. Another e xa mp le o ft he mor tar iu m G i l la m 2 37 was f ound i n t he R ed House B a ths ( Dan iels , 1 959 , 1 63 , f ig . 2 1 , n o . 8 ) , a nd t h is was d a ted ' ear ly F lav ia n '. Ag rea t amount o f c oarse p o t tery f ro m C orbr idge was d u mped i n 1 946 a nd a t l a ter t imes . I ti s , t herefore , i nstruc t ive t o c o mpare t he R ed House s upp ly b ase ma ter ia l w i th t he v esse ls r ecorded b y F ors ter a nd Know les . 1 57

I n t he f i f th s eason o f t he ir work , ad eep s o-ca l led p i t , f u l l o f f i rst-cen tury o b jects , was f ound i n August , 1 909 , u nder t he s ou th-east c orner o f s i te

X iV.

Th is d eep d epos it was a bou t 8 0 f eet n or th-west f rom t he n or th-west c orner o f t he g rea t s torehouse , s i te x i . One o f t he f rag men ts o f Dr . 2 9 f ro m t h is d eep p it h as ..a f r ieze o f d eer a l terna t ing w i th a rrowhead p anels ( Forster a nd Know les , 1 911 ,

1 98, a nd 1 910 , 2 20-7 a nd f ig . 5w i th s ect ion ; p l .x iv , f ac ing

p age 2 70 , s hows t h is Dr . 2 9 u psidedown ) '.

The s am ian p ot tery a lso i ncluded

a Dr . 1 9 b ear ing t he n a me-sta mp LOG IRN I , made b y t he s a me p ot ter whose p roducts a re f ound a t P o mpei i , d estroyed i n A .D . 7 9 , a nd who i s r epresen ted b y a Dr . 1 5/17 a t t he R ed House s i te ( Hanson e t a l ., 1 979 , 4 0 ( b ) , a nd s ee b e low r e a Dr . 1 5/17) .

There were t wo o ther D r . 2 9 f ragmen ts , t hree f ro m

D r . 3 0 , a nd o ne f ro m a Dr . 3 7 s howing t he l i t t le a rcher D . 1 68=0 .267 . F ors ter a nd Know les c o m men ted i n t he 1 910 Repor t : ' Th is p i t i s p robab ly o f t he F lav ian a ge .

I n d ea l ing w i th a p it we n eed ,

o f c ourse , a lways t o r e me mber t ha t o b jec ts e ar l ier t han t he d a te when t he p i t was i n u se may e as i ly h ave g o t s hove l led i n to i ta long w i th t he p roper ly c on te mporary r ubb ish '. F ro m t he l owes t l eve ls o f t he Eas tern D i tch , i n 1 910 , c a me t h irty p ieces o f Dr . 3 7 , o ne p iece o f Dr . 2 9 a nd o ne o f f or m 6 7 , c a ta logued b y Mr . G . L . C hees man , who wrote , ' wa l l t he d e ta i ls were s ugges t ive o f t he L a Grau fese nque a nd a l l ied p o t ters t owards t he e nd o f t he f i rst c entury A .D.' Exa mp le o f t hese l a te S ou th G au l ish b ow ls were i l lustra ted ( Forster a nd Know les , 1 911 , p ls . va nd v i , a nd f ig . 4 2) . T hey b e long t o t he D om it ian ic p er iod , r a ther t han t o t he e ar ly F lav ian p er iod . Ad eposi t j us t s ou th o ft he f oun tain , s i te v i i i , p roduced s herds o f t he s a me p er iod ;

a nd more f rag men ts f ro m t he t wo D r . 2 9 f ound i n 1 909 were

r ecovered c lose b y i n 1 948, '..on t he s ubso i l b e low a l l t he a ccret ions o f r oad me tal l ing '. With t he m was a mor tar ium o f Wroxe ter t ype 1 8 ( G il la m i n R ich mond a nd G il la m , 1 953 , 2 26 , n o . 6 , f ig . 9 , 6 : S i mpson i n i b id ., 1 953, 2 42-4 , f ig . 1 3 , 1a nd 2 ) . One o ft hese Dr . 2 9s b ore t he n a me-sta mp O M LV , a nd t he o ther was a lso p robab ly b y C a lvus , c . A .D. 6 0-85. They h ave much i n c o m mon w ith t he f r ieze o n t he e ar l ies t Dr . 2 9 f ro m t he R ed House s i te , b ow l n o .1 , wh ich i s l ikened i n t he Repor t t o a no ther a t Newstead ( Cur ie , 1 911 , 2 15 , n o .3) . The l owest z one o f t he Dr . 2 9 s ta mped OF[ } LV c onsists o f sma l l f estoons c on ta in ing l i t t le b irds a nd t i ny N i le g eese , a nd t h is ma tches a Dr . 2 9 f ound i n 1 910 i n a n e ar ly p i t o n s i te x x i ( Fors ter a nd Know les , 1 911 , 2 00-1 , f ig . 4 2) . E ven c loser t o t he N ews tead e x a mp le i s al arge s herd f ro m a Dr . 2 0 i n t he C orbr idge 1 912 R epor t ( Fors ter a nd Know les , 1 913 , f ac ing p age 2 79 , f ig . 2 3 , t op r igh t s herd ) . O ther S ou th G au l ish b ow ls were f ound j ust b e low a nd j ust a bove a l ayer o f c lay wh ich s ea led a s ewage d i tch p ara l le l t o t he E astern D itch . More s herds were i n ar ubb ish p i t b etween t he t wo e as tern d i tches , The c o mmen t o n t he m a l l w as : ..frag men ts o f ‚S am ian ' a nd o ther p o t tery o f al a te F lav ian c harac ter s ugges t ing a d a te f or t h is d epos i t p r ior t o t he c lose o f t he f i rst c entury ( Forster a nd Know les , 1 911 , 1 65-8 , 2 ( 1 0) '.

1 58

The R epor t f or 1 912 was e ven more c er ta in a bou t t he e ar l ies t p o ttery wh ich was .. s ix t o s even f ee t b e low t he s urface a nd i m med ia te ly a bove t he u nd isturbed g ravel '. Two l ayers were n o ted b e low s i te x l i , a nd c oncern ing t he p o t tery i n t he l owes t l ayer , Mr . N ewbo ld wrote : ' I n s p i te o f t he o ccurrence o f s evera l p ieces o f S am ian o f s hape Dr . 2 9 , t h is e arly d epos i t a ppears o n t he who le n o t t o g o b ack i n d a te a s f ar a s t he c a mpa igns o f Agr ico la , b u t r a ther t o b elong t o t he l a tes t y ears o f Do m it ian a nd t he e ar ly y ears o f T ra jan ( Forster a nd Know les , 1 913 , 2 39 , 2 79-80 ) '• One o ft he e ar l iest s herds o f d ecora ted S ou th G au l ish ware f ro m t he Corbr idge s i te i s at i ny p iece f ro m aDr . 2 9 manu factured b etween c . A.D . 5 5-70 ( S i mpson , 1 972, 2 18, f i g .1 , n o .1) . The Red House s i te h as n o th ing , s o f ar , a s e ar ly a s t h is s herd . I t was f ound s o mewhere o n s i te x i , i n t he l owest l evel wh ich , a t t he t ime , 1 952, was d a ted c . A.D. 7 9. The e arl iest s herd f ro m a Dr . 3 7 i n t he C orbr idge C o l lect ion ma tches n o.7 f ro m t he Red House s i te . T hey b o th h ave t he o vo lo w i th t he l arge r oset te wh ich i s c o mmon i n t he P o mpe i i g roup o f b ow ls ( Atk inson , 1 914 , 5 1) . T he Corbr idge s herd i s i n g ood c ond i t ion a nd s hows v ery f i ne wavy l ine b orders o n e ither s ide o f ap la in c hevron s im i lar t o t he o ne o n n o .7 , a nd b oth s herds h ave t he s a me sma l l b ird l ook ing b ackwards wh ich , o n t he C orbr idge s herd , i s w ith in a s er ies o f p la in d oub le f estoons . B e low t hese i s awrea th o f sma l l t r ip le l eaf le ts l ike t hose o n t he Dr . 2 9 , s herd n o . 4 , f ro m t he R ed House s i te . Ic ou ld q uote more i nstances o f ma tch ing s herds f ro m t he t wo s i tes , b u t i tw i l l a lready b e c lear t ha t t he p o t tery f ound b efore t he 1 960 's , e specia l ly t he ma ter ia l i n t he d eta i led p ub l ica t ions p r ior t o 1 915, s hou ld n o t b e d isregarded when a ssess ing t he p ot tery f ro m t he s o-ca l led Agr ico lan s upp ly b ase . F ina lly , r eferences t o t he o pen-ended wooden s heds o n t he l and s ou th o f B irdoswa ld f or t , wh ich a re s im i lar t o t he ma jor i ty o f t he b u i ld ings e xcava ted a t t he s upp ly b ase c an b e f ound i n my f a ther 's r epor ts ( S i mpson a nd R ich mond , 1 933 , 2 54-7 , a nd f ig . 1 6 ;

1 934 , 1 25 a nd p lan ) .

I ti s ap leasure t o wr i te t h is p aper i n a pprec ia t ion o f Dr . Webs ter 's work f or c era m ic s tud ies . B IBL IOGRAPHY A tk inson 1 914.

A tk inson , D ., ' A Hoard o f S am ian Ware f ro m P o mpe i i ',

J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies 4 ( 1 914 ) , 2 6-64 . C ur ie 1 911. 1 911.

C ur ie , J ., A Ro man F ron t ier P ost a nd I t s P eop le , G lasgow ,

Dan ie ls 1 959.

Dan ie ls , C . M ., ' The Ro man B a th House a t Red House ,

B eau for t , n ear C orbr idge ', A rch . A e l iana 4 th s er ies 3 7 ( 1 959 ) , 8 5-176 . Dore 1 980 .

Dore , J . N ., ' The F or t a t Red House a nd F lav ian C oarse P o t tery

i n Nor thern B r i ta in ', i n ( Eds .) Hanson , W. S . a nd K epp ie , L . J . F ., R o man F ron t ier S tud ies 1 979 , BAR I n terna t iona l S eries 7 1, 1 13-117 , Ox ford , 1 980 .

1 59

F orster a nd Know les 1 910 .

F ors ter , R . H . a nd K now les , W. H .,

C ors top itu m :

R epor t o n t he Excava t ions i n 1 909 ', Arch . A el iana 3 rd s eries , 6( 1 910) , 2 05-272.

I b id ., 1 911, Arch . Ae l iana 3 rd s er ies 7 ( 1 911) 1 43-267.

I b id .,

1 913 , Arch . Ael iana 3 rd s er ies 9 ( 1 913 ) , 2 30-280 . I b id ., 1 914 , Arch . A el iana 3 rd s er ies 1 2 ( 1 915) , 2 27-286 . Hanson e t a l ., 1 979.

Hanson , W. S ., Dan ie ls , C . M ., Dore , J . N . a nd G il la m ,

J . P ., ' The Agr ico lan S upp ly Base a t Red House , C orbr idge ', Arch . A el iana 5 th s er ies , J ohnson 1 978.

( 1979 ) , 1 -88 .

J ohnson , J . S ., ' Excava t ions a t Hay ton Ro man F or t 1 975 ',

B r i tann ia 9 ( 1 978) , 5 7-114. R ich mond a nd G i l la m 1 953 , R ich mond , I . A . a nd G i l la m , J . P ., ' Bu i ld ings o f t he F irst a nd S econd C en tur ies N or th o ft he Granar ies a t C orbr idge ', A rch . A e l iana 4 th s er ies 3 1 ( 1953 ) , 2 05-253 . S i mpson a nd R ich mond 1 933.

S i mpson , F . G . a nd R ich mond , I . A ., ' Repor t

o f t he Cu mber land Excava t ion C o mm it tee f or 1 932 ', Cu mb . & Wes tm . T

Trans . 3 3 ( 1 933) , 2 54-8.

I b id ., 1 934 , Cu mb . & Wes tm . Trans . 3 4

( 1 934) , 1 25-6. S i mpson 1 972.

S i mpson , G ., ' Sa m ian P o t tery a nd a Ro man Road a t Corbr idge ',

Arch . Ael iana 4 th s er ies

5 0 ( 1 972) , 2 17-233.

1 60

1 0.

THE PRODUCTION AND D ISTRIBUTION OF TERRA S IG ILLATA I N THE AREA OF P ISA , I TALY Tho mas 0 . J ef ferson G eof frey B . D anne l l David F . Wi l l ia ms

AS U M MARY OF THE EV IDENCE T . 0 . J ef ferson I NTRODUCTION An e xa m ina t ion o ft he p rob le ms a ssocia ted w i th t he p roduc t ion a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f T erra S ig i l la ta f ro m t he P isa r eg ion i s f aci l ita ted b y d iv id ing t he e v idence f ro m t he t own i t se lf , f ro m t ha t o f t he s urround ing c oun tryside. Wh i le f or ma l e xcava t ions h ave b een c onducted i n P isa , t he r ura l c o l lect ion c o mes f ro m s urface f i nds i n f i e ld -wa lk ing . On t he o ther h and s o me c are n eeds t o b e t aken i n c onsider ing t h is a r t if ica l d ist inct ion , b ecause t he l oca l t opography h as c hanged c o mp le te ly s ince t he Ro man p er iod .

P isa was t hen a b usy p or t

o n , o rv ery n ear t he mou th o f t he Arno , b u t n ow t here i s n o v isib le t race o f t he h arbour , wh ich i s s o me 1 0k m f ro m t he p resen t t own .

Ano ther p rob le m

o f t he S ig il la ta i n t he a rea , i s t ha t o f i den t i fy ing wha t a re , a nd a re n o t , g roups o f f abr ic t ypes. The c onfusion i s h e igh tened b y t he f ac t t ha t o n ly a f ew s i tes a re k nown f or I t a ly a t p resen t ( W i l l ia ms & Danne l l , 1 978) , a nd t he d e ta i led d iscussions o f a rchaeo log ica lly r etr ieved ma ter ia l a re e ven more s carce . THE TO WN I n 1 965 a r escue e xcava t ion was d irected b y t he I t a l ian a u thor i t ies i n t he n orth-eas tern a rea o f t he t own .

I tp roduced a l arge q uan t i ty o f S ig i l la ta ,

t oge ther w i th k i ln f urn i ture , wasters a nd a s tack o ff used p la tes , a l l p o in t ing t o t he p resence o f an earby k i ln ( Taponecco March in i , 1 974) . T he f orms wh ich were mos t c o mmon were G oud . 1 7 a nd Drag . 1 ,5 & 1 1. The s ta mps a re o f t he ATEIVS workshops , i nc lud ing h is f reed men , H ILARVS , MAHES & ZOILVS . The l i fe o ft he f i rm a t P isa was p erhaps f or ty y ears , b e tween c . 1 5 B .C . a nd c . A .D . 2 5. U n for tuna te ly a d e ta i led s tudy o f t he s i te h as y e t t o b e p ub l ished . I n r ecen t y ears o ther s tra t if ied ma ter ia l h as c o me f ro m t he t own ( Arc ivescovado B arbarocona ) a nd more h as b een s alvaged f ro m b u i ld ing s i tes . The l oca l P isa Archaeo log ica l G roup h as b een i ns tru men ta l i n r ecover ing many s herds o f l ateI ta l ic ware , among t he m s ta mps o f C . P ( ) P ()a nd L . NON IVS FLORVS .

The s tudy o f t h is c lass o f S ig i l la ta h as p rogressed s o me-

wha t i n r ecen t y ears.

I ti sg enera l ly c ons idered t o b e t he l ast p hase o f I t a l ian

p roduct ion , p ost-da t ing t he Arret ine a nd C a mpan ian workshops , a nd i n a ct ive c o mpe t i t ion w i th t hose o f G au l , t he s hapes o f wh ich were c op ied . T he n u mber o f p ot ters work ing a t t h is t ime a ppears t o b e r ela t ively sma l l , w ith a no ther s ix

1 61

B arbar ic ma'

•

P SM

• P SR

C o ltano

F ig. 1 0.1 P lan o f P isa a nd s urround ing d istr ict. S i tes c overed i n f i e ld wa lk ing a re marked; S Z s hows t he k i ln.

1 62

n a mes k nown :

S EX . M. CLADVS ( CVA 1 053) , S EX . M . ( VRRIVS ) FES (TVS )

( CVA 1 054) , S EX . 1 V IVRRIVS PRISCVS ( CVA 1 055-9 , p robab ly 1 059 i s o ur man ) , L . NON IVS FLORVS ( CVA 1 137 ) , C . P ( )P ()( CVA 1 191) a nd L . RAS IN IVS P ISANVS ( CVA 1 558) .

Their s ta mps a re f requen t ly i n p lanta p ed is

o r i n l unu la , a nd t he q ua li ty o ft he d ecora ted ware l acks p recis ion o f mot i f a nd c o mposit ion ( Pedrazz in i , 1 972) . P roduc t ion a pparan t ly c eased i n t he f i rst q uar ter o ft he s econd-cen tury . The u se o f t he i n l unu la d ie-type s uggests t ha t t he p roduc t ion was c oncen tra ted i n o ne a rea , a nd a mou ld f ro m t he c en tre o f t he t own was p robab ly u sed b y L . NONIVS FLORVS ( Pucci , 1 975) . Al i nk b etween t he e ar l ier a nd l a ter a tel iers i s s ugges ted b y f i nds o f c ountersigna tures o f l a teI ta l ic p ot ters o n t he b ow ls f ro m mou lds o f t he ATEIVS workshop ( L . RASIN IVS P ISANVS o n XANTHVS a nd C . P ( )P ( )o n ZOILVS , Pucc i , 1 979) . THE SURROUNDINGS The s ca t ter o f f i nds o f I t a l ian S ig i l la ta i s q u i te t h ick , e specia l ly o n t he o ld c oast l ine . Two s i tes , b o th a t C o l tano , af ar m ing r eg ion 7 km s ou th o fP isa h ave p roduced g ood c o l lec t ions d ur ing f i eld wa lk ing . The most i n teres t ing o b ject i s s o meth ing a k in t o a sma l l k i ln-r ing o r s pacer , u sed t o s epara te v essels i n f ir ing . I ft h is a t tr ibu t ion i s c orrec t , C o ltano i s wel l p laced , b e ing c lose t o t he o pen s ea , o r l i nked t o t he Arno b y c ana l . The s i te a t M ig l iar ino 1 0k m t o t he n or th o f P isa h as y ie lded q uan t it ies o f l a te-I ta l ic ware a ssoc ia ted w ith P isa , t oge ther w i th t he a nchor o f as ea-go ing v essel , a nd o ther e v idence f or t he e x istence o f a Roman i n le t o r h arbour d ur ing t he Ro man p er iod .

Here

t he s tra t igraphy h as b een l ost i n q uarry ing , b u t C o l tano i s i n tac t , a nd d eserves f ur ther i nvest iga t ion .

T he P isa Archaeo log ica l g roup i s a ct ive i n r ecord ing

a l l s ur face f i nds w i th t he o b ject o f p lot t ing t he n uc le i i o f t he i ndustry i n t he a rea . Add i t ional ly , a tt he h am le t o f Massaciucco l i ( p robab ly t he s i te o ft he a nc ien t FOSSAE PAPLR IANAE) , s i tua ted b y al ake wh ich b ears t he s a me n a me , t here i s as ubstan t ia l c o l lect ion o f l a teI tal ic s ig i l la ta , t ogether w i th e ar l ier P isan a nd Arret ine ware .

The r e ma ins o f t h is s ta t ion o n t he V ia Ae m i l ia

S caur i , b etween P isa , 1 5k m s ou th , a nd L un i t o t he n or th was d ug i n t he 1 920s , b u t n o t p ub l ished. S U M MARY The importance o f P isa a s ap roduc t ion c en tre f or T erra S ig i l lata i s o n ly j ust b e ing r ecogn ised .

The o u t let f ro m t he Arno a f forded a n e asy means

o f t ransh ip men t f or Med i terranean t rade a nd t he p roduc ts may h ave aw ider d istr ibu t ion t han h as b een r ecorded h i ther to .

Th is a r t ic le i s p ar t icu lar ly

a i med a t s t i mu la t ing Eng l ish-read ing a rchaeo log ists , who may b e u nware o f t he most r ecen t e v idence . ACKNO WLEDGE ME NTS My t hanks t o t he P isa Archaeolog ica l G roup , a nd e spec ia l ly t o A ldo C appe l li , Corrado F erre t t i , F ernando G el ich i a nd Na ida Pan icucci f or l e t t ing me s hare t he r esu l ts o f t he ir f i eld-wa lk ing e xped i t ions. Iam i ndeb ted t o P ao lo Em i l io Bagno l i a nd t o G ian franco I ann .uzz i f or p rov id ing i l lustra t ive ma ter ia l , a nd e spec ia l ly t o G ug l iel mo a nd L i l iana I era , who a l lowed me t o h ave a c lose 1 63

l ook a tt he c o l lect ion wh ich t hey h ave p a instak ing ly a sse mb led i nt he Massac iucco l i An t iquar ium . F ina l ly t hanks a re d ue t o I do A t to l in i , G eof frey Danne l l , Cl ive P ar tr idge , Mar ine l la P asqu inucc i f or c on t inuous e ncourage men t , a nd t o G raha m w i thou t who m n o th ing wou ld h ave s tar ted .

1 64

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a

engobe plom­

b1rere contemporalns des prPcedents et febriques en Gaule Centrale: a St. Remy en Rollat, St. Bonnet, St. Pour�eln, Vichy•••Un recent travail de recensement (Greene, 19 78) ne ra1t que renrorcer nos conv1ct1ons en matlere de datat1on elors que, jusqu'1c1, seuls des sites tels que Colchester (Hawkes et Hull,1947) ou Augst (Ettllnger, 194�) donna1ent des dates prec1ses. -Les produ1ts s1g1lles de Lezoux, prem1ere perlode, mal­ grP leur mo1ndre quallte par rapport a ceux de la G�aufe280

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productions

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l 'Atude d es

productions

producteurs d e

datation que

d isposa1ent s ont l es

c omprirent l 'importance

s igillees d e

2 81

q ui

L ezoux e t

Gaule

C entrale

d e

( apres: Dgchelette,1904,

v oir

: Oswald e t Pryce,1920;0swald,

1 931,0swald,1936/7,mieux date p ar : Stanfield 1958 ).Tout ceramique de

s e

archeologue du

t ype

m oderne

" sigillee"

referer aux

d4couvrant

n e

n eut

S impson,

u n d ocument

f aire

t ravaux v e mnt d 'être

e t

autrement

q ue

indiques.Certes,

c es

ouvrages,

malgre l eur importance,

necessitent d es m i-

s es

au n oint,

d es

c omplements...

t out ä la lumiere e st l e

s ort d e

r ectifications,

d es

d es

n ouvelles.

t out

decouvertes

t ravail:

" vleilLir en b eaute". v aux d e v e

du

devant

prealable,

arriverent,

faiblesses du

f ort

q ue

p ouvoir c es

t ra-

b ien l 'epreu-

en 1 68,

troubles y eut

r ut l e

en 1 69,

" limes"

s e

s pectacle

I talic

d e

" doigte"

que

danubien.

d es m ilitaires

C omment

Imaginer,

c onvois

d e

f ragile

Bretagne

m ilitaires f ut

et l eurs

r urent

extermines

munis

dans de

c gramique dans

ä H ome

en

en 1 80.

i nsulaire

en 185

s ous

f eroce:

2 9

p artisans,tant avec

d 'instructions

t elles

a lors

l 'Est d es 170.

revoltes

britanniques

Les

sevit

en meurt d e

s ans

dgmontrant

s ignalee

: la repression

l es

s iècle.

La p este

e st

en 189.La

revoltes d e

ex ec utes,

f ace,

j usqu'ä A quilee,

l 'epidemie

la d irection d 'Albinus

gaulois

f in du I I°

c entra-

g conomiques

f aire

produisirent en Gaule en

Gaule

c onditions

l 'emnereur Marc-Aurele

famine

senateurs

s igilles d e

r omain dut

v ers la

t out l 'occident:

1 67 e t

I i

produits

l esquelles l 'empire

Barbares

dans

a dmettre

s unportent

es v ictime d

c ependant,

experience

D es

nredecesseurs

prosperite d es

rut,

l ea

Chacun d olt

e st d e

c eci

t emps...

C ette l e

n os

l 'essentiel

Mals,

s ur-

c onditions, un O ccident

t out l e

r igides... de

p aciriques

aussi

h nsar-

deux ? I i

faut

PATERNUS

c ertalnement ou s es

a dmirer d es

c ontemporains 2 82

d e

i ndustriels l ' ateller d e

t els

que

T erre-

c e

Franche

( M.

e t P . Vauthey,

1 976,

n ombreuses p ublications d e furent encore

exportes

Mals,

é poque,

quee

ä c ette p er i s

s on p oids e n metal

en

c Aramique n e

put

( ces

( Hull, G aule I l

c e

1 963 )

f l it

c e

produits

2 10 en Grande

Bretagne.

d e

e t la r eduction

c retariae")

g enre d e t rop

c ommerce: l eves.

c et a telier d e S i .

mar-

t eile q u'aucun n egociant artis

A talent

d es

proches d e

o u presl es

r is-

On p eut p en-

C olchester c elles d e i s

C entrale.

s e.Pe

c ependant, une

au c ours d e

I ndustrie

t echniques decoratives: i ncisee,

s iècle,

c entral

d e

s on r öle

R ome,

1 978 ):

m oltie du

r elativement luxueu-

o n y r etrouve l es m e-

c 'est la s igill4e

e venements

q ui,

g uillochAe, d ont la pro-

v ers l e

m ilieu

ä la s uite d e la decomposition du p ouvoir e mpecherent l 'occident europeen d e

e conomique

a t raite d es

premiere

ä r eliefs d 'applique...

duction p ersista j usqu'aux m o r

i s

c eramique

part e t d 'autre d e la Manche

barbotinee,

du

v ers

d ont l es

" antoninianus"

aux t echniques

s iècle,

m es

auteurs )

" negociatores

t ransport

c iter qu'une

devaluation d e i s monnale,

n oble,

f ut l 'origine

s ubsists

I II

i s

t irer profit d e

ques durant l e s er q ue

j usque

c reption d e l '

d e

que,

c es

p our n e

types

naturel.

Une

c eramiques a e

r Acente c ette

A tude

é poque

j ouer

b ritannique ( Greene,

e lle m eriterait d 'etre developpee afin d e m ieux

A clairer

n os

c onnaissances

s ur l 'histoire

d e

c e

" sombre

s iècle". Mais,

v oyons c omment

c ette

l ndustrie

t ouchee p ar l es

i nvasions d e

Geule du m om s,

ä " relever la t ete",

d ' un

s iècle

Empire

2 76,

reussit,

c eci

e n

p endant p lus

e t d emi.

5 .La f in du I IIe e t l es La c eramique

2 56 e t

c eramique,durement

s igillee

IV.V°

s iecles.

f abriquee

a f ait l 'objet d e

en Argonne

durant l e

t ravaux b ien precis

2 83

( Chenet,

Bas-

1 941,

Unverzegt,1919). Recemment,

1 1 a e te

f aire la c hronologie(Hübener,1968 ). c ette S i

c ernmique

l 'on t ient

e tre

c it e e t

s igillee

c ompte s i

s uivante

c haque

s ite

Groupe

p as g tA t enu c ompte,

( les N °

v enant d '

c as de d kou-

t rouve la r epari ndiques a pres

1 : Pevensey(146),Wroxeter(140),Silchester(137, Londres(139,

1 41,

2 00).

2 : Pevensey(158 ),Chichester(157 ), M ildenham(159 ),

Groupe

o n

Bretagne.

c eux d onnes p ar Hübener,1968 ):

1 40 ), Groupe

r cente

par q uelques

e n Grande Bretagne

s ont

e n Grande

la p lus

o n la c omplete

v ertes d ont 1 1 n 'a t ition

T L ) cor4e a la m olette,

r ut export 4

d e l 'Atude

t ent e d 'en p ar-

C olchester(158 ),

3 :Colchester(10 ),Londres(4), 10 ),

r evensey(3,7 ),

Groure

4 : aucun exemple.

Groupe

5 :Colchester(126),

L ondres(159 )$ Y ork(158 ).

S ilchester(4,9,

R ichborough(5).

Londres(97,130 ),Margidunum

( 58 ). Groupe

6 :Londres(116).

Groupe

7 : Pevensey(132 ),Stichester(132 ),Mildenhall(132 ) C irencester(132 ).

Groupe

8 : aucun

La datation d e

c es d iverses m olettes n e

d 'une u nanimit4 : p lus

a nciennes,

s aient

q ue

ne

I °

du

I IIe

exemple.

1 1

a e tF ', a ffirm

c elles a c asters

r enrendre

u ne

f ait pas l 'objet

q ue l es m olettes l es s trl s e n M ats,

n e

f at-

t echnique de d cor8tlon indige-

s iècle e t n ynnt n ersiste e n Argonne

s lecle(Chenet,1941 ) .Par

c ontre,

j usqu'au

o n a e stimg q ue

c es

m emes m olettes n e c ommencerent ä e tre em p1oy es q u'ä p art u

-

d e

3 20 a pr.J.-C.(l inbener,1968,groupe

L 'appnrition d es premieres decorations

2 84

3 ).

a rgonnalses ä l a

m olette

s emble

decouvertes c onstatA

t outefois

f aites

q u'elles

d emeurees

a volr

A tA

en Sulsse(Hübener,1969) y f urent

b ien d ifrusAes

r omaines ä l 'Apoque

d e

3 05

( Stier e t K irsten,1963,I,42 ),

que

l ee vases

c iens

o nt

r evue a la luml4re d e

a rgonnals

e t4 r etrouves

c ar o n c l ans d es

D ioclAtien, I i

y a

d onc

f aut aussi

o rnes ä la m olette

r Agions e vent

r emarquer

l es p lus

u niquement en Suisse,

a n-

c ur la r ive

gauche du Rhin,

e n d es endroits d4jä f ortifies ä la r in

du

I l e st d onc probable

I na )

dejä

s iècle,

A t4 produits,

n on ornAes du

I II

s i

p ourquol

t out

mais dat es,

c omme a u

d ens u ne

z one

v ases

b ien d es

c ours des

s iècle e t n on apres c es

q ue

320.0n

c es

f ormes

v ases

a rgonnaises

2 0 d ernieres

c omprendra

a ient

a nnAes

m ieux a in-

argonnais prAcoces n 'arriverent

r estreinte du S ud Est d e

a pres la d isparition d 'Allectus,

en

l 'Angleterre,

q ue p eu

2 96(Steehelin,1948,

2 74-275,fig.63,Piganiol,196 2 ,444 ). Plus

t ard,

c entes, l oin

d es m olettes d iArgonne,

s ont a rrivAes dans l ee

s ur la r ive

c onstantinienne p our laquelle e t

Manche, naient

d onc t out

C hamps Decumates,

droite du Rhin, ( Hübener,1969).

s ur d es

s ites

p lus

re-

b ien

male durant l 'epoque N 'est-ce

c es m olettes recentes

Wroxeter,mtme Margidunum,

d ifrerentes e t

pas i s

s ont a rriv es ä Y ork

b ien l oin d es

que l ee

s pAcialement ä defendre

raison

t roupes

p orts

d e i s

r omaines

t e-

e t ä o ccuper(Nash-

W illiams,1954)? On s era p eut-ttre c es

e tonn ,

m olettes ä d ecors

I i n 'est pas

d e

l iabsence,

c hretiens

i mpossible

que

l ee

I V°

e t du debut du V °

que

c ommerce d e la c eramique:

puls,

en Gaule,

s iecles

i nvasion d e

outre

Manche,

( HUbener,196d,groupe

d e 8 ).

A vi enements d e la r in du

s 'y o nposerent au pacirir 4 .volte

d e l 'arm4e

e n 3 83

4 06-407 ayant 1 3014 la g ran-

2 85

de t ie

du c ontinent p our d e

t endre

l es m issionnaires

p our a ssister h d e Mais

a lors,

l a

p lus

produite

l ongues a nnees,

f audra a t-

c hretiens e t la f in du V "

n ouvelles

c eramique ( Sheldon,

I i

r elaticns

avec l e

argonnaise n i4talt

s iècle

c ontinent.

sans d oute

1 932 ). B .H ofmann

B ibliographie: B oon

1 967.

G .C.Boon,

M icaceous

S ilchester,Caerleon a nd J ournal, C henet 1941, g onne

XLVII/I,

la m olette, Curie

1 911.

Macon,

D4chelette ornes d e

T hermen,

Greene 1 978. t he

Basel,

3 ,

c eramiques

1904. T .S.-Imitation

1 945. F undstmcke

f t ltertums

v on Hal-

K ommission

fr

D ie K eramik d er Augster

1 949. Early f ine

B .A. R.,

K .Greene,

Rhine

A . D.250,

i ts p eo-

1 903.

K .Greene,

part

vases

h elvetische

E .Ettlinger,

Basel,

L es

Paris,

H .Dragendorfr,

I II,

1 949.

t ain,

D ie

M itteilungen d es

Greene 1978.

d ecorAe ä

i n t he p arish of M elrose,

r omaine,

J ahrhunderts,

W estfalen, Ittlinger

s igillge

f rontier p ost a nd

J .Dechelette,

la Gaule

Dragendorff 1 903. t ern,

A_roman

W .Drack,

I .

g allo-romaine d 'Ar-

1 911. 1904.

Brack 1 945.

Antiquaries

1 941.

f ort o f N ewstead

G lascow,

d es

La c ( 4ramique

s iècle e t la t erre

J .Curle,

p le. The

o ther s ites,The

1 967.

G .Chenet,

du I Ve

s igillata f rom Lezoux n t

i n r oman Bri-

British s eries

R oman

provinces:

w ares

t he

1 978

t rade b etween Britain a nd evidence

C .B.A.Research R eport,

2 86

5 7,

of p ottery t o

2 4,

1 978.

Hawkes

e t H ull

l odunum,

1 947.

f irst

r eport o n

t er 1 930-1939, H ermet

1 934.

d e

Oxford,

F .Hermet,

H ofmann 1 965. m ique

C .F.C.Hawkes and M .R.Hull,

Banassac,

A cta V II, H ofmann 1 966. Banassac,

o f C olches-

1 947.

Le

B .Hofmann,

t he excavations

C amu-

Graufesenque,

Essal

R el

d e

Paris,

datation d e

C retariae

R omanae

1 934.

la c ere-

F autorum,

1 965. B .Hofmann, R el

Oves

Cretariae

e t mar

R omanae

es d es p otters F autorum,

d e

A cta VIII,

1966. H ofmann 1 968.

B .Hofmann,

O GAM,Rennes, H ofmann 1 971.

115-116,

R el

H ofmann 1 975. moules,

Les

m oules e t

Cretariae

r elations entre

a ntique

V ,

r otters,

artisans producteurs

R omanae

B .Hofmann,

c eramologle

1 968.

B .Hofmann,

fabricants d e _ c ons,

N otes d e

Fautorum,

Methode

d e

p oin-

A cta X III,1971.

d 'etude d es decors

Bulletin du C omite Archeologique

s ur

d e Lezoux,

1975. H ofmann 1 976. marques

B .Hofmann,

s ur s igill4e

C esar j usAu'au r Ene

D iffusion an Gaule

i talique d epuis l 'epoque d e

T ibere,

d e

Piganiol, Universite d e

1 976.

m oule

Hübener 1 968.

G onin ä T ours,

V ichy,

1 68,

Hübener 1 969.

6 1-62,

W .Hnbener,

HndchensiGillata b ncher,

1 1,

B .Hormann,La c eramique

du mus e

du C entre,

T ours,

d es

d e

Bulletin d e l 'Insti-

tut d 'etudes latines e t du c entre

H ofmann 1 977.

r omaine

r echerches

s igillAe

R evue

o rn4e

A .

au

Archeologique

1 977.

l ane

S tudie

z ur s ptarümischen

( ArKonnensigillatal,

L i onner Jahr-

1 968.

W .Hübener,

Rndchenverzierte

Eillata a us V indonissn,

2 87

m it

Supplemen t ___

Argonnen-siv .g.Ettlin-

8 ,

m r :

Nachweise

z ur V erbreitungskarte,

nro V indonissa, Hull 1 963. t er,

M .R.Hull,

Oxford,

Lasfargues t et,

Jahresbericht 1 968, T he

r oman potters'

1 976.

L es e stam2Illes

J .Martin,

Auvergne,

i n

r a s igillata,

t roduction

l 'atelier

Lyon,

vases

1 976.

s igllles

S cientifique

d e 1 '

t o

a m Tarn,

s tamps

o n

t erra

o n

t er-

1 936-1937

s tudy o f t erra s igillata s tandpoint,

London,

A .L.Oxe a nd H .Comfort, a nd

A n I n-

t reated

1 920. A c atalogue

c hronology of

I talian

1 968. D ie

ä ltesten T .S.-Fabriken i n M on-

Archäologischer A nzeiger,

zum Jahrbuch d es

f ron-

F .Oswald and T .Davies Pryce,

t he

A .L.Ox .

r oman

I ndex o r f igure types

L iverpool,

B onn,

The

1 931.

s ignatures,shapes

s igillate,

t ans

e t

H .Ver-

1 954.

F .Oswald,

C omfort 1 968.

1 914,

F iglina,

I ndex o f p otters'

f rom a c hronological

Ox4

l isse d e

L 'evolution d es

Cardiff,

O swald e t Pryce 1 920.

t he

o r C olches-

Lasfargues,

V .E.Nash-Williams,

F .Oswald,

Oswald 1 936-1937.

o f

J .

ä Lyon, .

MargidUnum,

Ox ee t

k ilns

1 942.

Wales,

O swald 1 931.

e t

Bulletin H istorique

Nash-Williams 1 954. t ier

A .

s ur s iyall4e

augusteen d e la Muette

d e L ezoux,

Brugg 1 969.

1 963.

e t V ertet

Martin 1 942.

G esellschat

B eiblatt

Archäologischen I nstituts,

B erlin,

1 914. P iganiol 1 962. t ion,

Paris,

R ivet 1 964. t ain,

A .Diganiol,

avolr a ppris R ogers 1 969-1970.

R ome,

5 4me

e di-

1 962.

A .L. F. Rivet,

London,

H istoire d e

1 964.

T own a nd

( avec m es

quelques v ers d e G .B.Rogers,

2 88

C ountry i n r oman Brir emerciements p our m ' J oachim du B elley. B.H.)

Banassac

and

C innamus,

R el

C retariae R omanae Sheldon 1 932 .

F autorum,

G .Sheldon,

T he

t ransition

t ain t o c hristian England, S impson 1 976. f rom t he

G .Simpson, manuscrip.

A cta X I/III,

London,

1 . 96J-1 70.

f rom r oman Bri1 932.

D ecorated T .S.

a t M ontans(Tarn )

R ossignol a t A lbi,

Britannia VII,

1976. Staehelin 1 948. Z elt,

F .Staehelin,

B asel,

S chweiz i n r ümischer

1 948

S tanfield e t S impson 1 958.

J .A.Stanfield a nd G .Simpson,

C entral Gaulish p otters, Stier e t K irsten 1 963. manns ß tlas

D ie

London,

1 958.

H .E.Stier u nd E .Kirsten,

zur W eltgeschichte,

I ,

W ester-

Braunschweig,

1 963. Tacite

.

H .Bornecque,

nales, Unverzagt

Paris, 1 919.

e t P .

1 965.

W .Unverzagt,

v erzierung, M .

Frankfurt,

Vauthey 1 976.

r e-Franche, V ichy,

t raduction d 'apres Burnout-, An-

R evue

1 919.

M .et P .Vauthey, A rch4ologique

I nventaire

du C entre,

d e

T er-

5 9-60,

1 976.

B ibliographie c omplementaire B irley

T erra s igillata m it Redchen-

1 963.

A .R.Birley ,

( carte N° 1 .) Hadrian's Wall,

t ry o f Public Building & W orks,

2 89

1 963.

Guide,

M inis-

C arte N e 1 . D iffusion d es marques d e L ezoux du P5 S lecle ( premiere r4riode): ATEPOMARUS, DAGOMARUS, C OBNERTUS, G IAMILLUS, I LIOMARUS ( Oswald 1 931).La d iffusion n e v s pas au d elä du mur d 'Hadrien, s nuf ä N ewstead, o ü s ' e st a rret4e l 'ambition d 'Agricola d 'occurer d Afinitiv ement l 'Ecosse ( Birley,1963 ).

2 90

Carte

N° ) 2 .

d 'Argonne 1941)

mals

J irruslon des suppos4es

Atre

ensulte

dat es

m olettes

sur v ases

s lgilles

l es

anclennes

( Chenet,

p lus

d 'anres

r ig. 4 2 ).

2 91

330

( HUbener,1968,

• . > •

p e "

••

1 .

Carte que

N° 3 .

D irfusion d es m e i nes

z ur la c arte N °2.

Danube

s uperieur.

r estalent

L es

types

d e vases argonnais

c lans l es regions du Rhin et du z ones r ecouvertes d e

p etits p oints

s ous d omination r omaine è la r in du I II °

c le.

2 92

s iè-

C arte des

N °4.

m olettes

groupes 1 , lä de que

D iffusion des

2 ,

la z one

vases

e ffectivement du

5 ,

6 ,

7 ).

dAfinie

de n ouvelles

On

argonna1s le

s iècle

c onstate

dans la

decouvertes

carte

une N° 1 .

decorAs

( HUbener,1968, diffusion On peut

r estent possibles...

4 e ,

: Groupe

1 .

J I: Groupe

•

: Groupe

2 .

0 : Groupe 7 .

•

: Groupe

5 .

2 93

avec

6 .

au depenser

U.

,a

,

*l Iø One )

' < 0 ' 1 %

. •• " a • . • L . . . ' ,7

• , .

• .

•

.

A ent 4S • "

• d • •

•

Carte N G ° que nube

5 .

D iffusion d es m emes

s ur la c arte N °4. s urerieur,

au delä d es

f in du I II °s iècle. que

dans l es

I es

p our la c arte e 4,

•

•

types d e

vases argonnais

r4gions du Rhin e t du Da-

z ones d omin4es r er R ome ä la

s ignes

u tilises

s ont l es m emes

s auf :

: vases a rgonnais d ont l es m olettes n e publiees

ou i dentifiees

: v ases argonnais n on r erortees C eci

marque

l e

1 969),

ä m olettes i dentifi es mais

( nbener,

grand effort d e

c onstantinienne,

( Hübener,

s ont ras

r econstitution,

d e la puissance

2 94

1 968 ). ä l 'epoque

d e R ome dans l 'occident.

1 7.

M IGRANT POTTERS —THE OXFORD CONNECTION J oanna B ird a nd C hr is topher Y oung

S o me t ime a go G raha m Webs ter s ugges ted i n c onversa t ion t ha t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he O x fordsh ire p o t tery i ndus try a nd o ther f ine-ware p roduc t ion c en tres s hou ld b e i nves t iga ted .

Th is p aper c ons iders , f irs t ly ,

t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t he o r ig ins o f t he O x fordsh ire c o lour-coa t wares migh t l i e i n t he l a te s amian i ndustr ies o n t he C on t inen t ,

ds econd ly , t he ir l inks

w i th s o me minor Ro mano-Br i t ish f ine-ware p ot ter ies o f t he f our th c en tury. I ti s w i th g rea t p leasure t ha t we o f fer i tt o G raha m o n t he o ccasion o f h is r e t ire men t . I NTRODUCT ION ( For t he l oca t ion o f p o t ter ies men t ioned b e low , s ee f ig . 1 7.1 ) I ti s e ssen t ia l f i rs t t o e s tab l ish c r i ter ia b y wh ich l i nks b e tween i nd iv idua l p o t ter ies c an b e a ssessed , a nd t hese c an o n ly b e o bta ined b y ac o mpar ison o f f orm , d ecora t ion , manufac tur ing t echn ique a nd , where r e levan t , o f p ot ters ' s tamps .

T here a re b as ica l ly t hree ways i n wh ich l i nks b e tween

i ndus tr ies may h ave o pera ted : i ) c on te mporary p ot ter ies r espond ing t o t he s ame marke t s t imu lus , p rod uc ing s im i lar b u t n ot i den t ica l t ypes — for e xamp le , New F orest a nd Ox fords h ire f i ne wares , p ar t icu lar ly p arch men t wares ( E f . Fu lford , 1 975 , 3 6-8 ); i ) p ot tery B c opying a n a lready s uccessfu l p ot tery A .

S uch c op ies c ou ld

i n t heory b e i den t ica l , b u t a re more l i ke ly t o b e c lose ly s im i lar w i th v ar iat i ons i n d eta i l , s uch a s t he d ecora t ion , mou ld ings o r c o lour o f t he b ody b en ea th a s l ip .

A n i d iosyncra t ic e xamp le o f t h is i s t he N ene Va l ley p ot ter

I nd ix iv ixus , c opying i n f i ne g rey ware a n u nusua l r ange o f l a te Rhe inzabern f or ms ( Donne l l , 1 973 ) ; i i )

t he d irec t migra t ion o f p ot ters , e i ther b e tween e x ist ing p o t ter ies o r t o

e s tab lish n ew o nes.

I n t he e ar ly Ro man p er iod t h is c an s o me t i mes b e d e-

mons tra ted b y t he a ppearance o f t he s a me p o t ter 's s tamp a t t wo o r more p roduc t ion s i tes ( Har t ley , 1 977;

Frere , 1 967, 2 88 ) , b u t t he u se o f s tamps

h ad l arge ly d ied o u t b y t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury , a nd t he s tuden t o f l a ter Ro man p ot tery mus t d epend o n o ther i nd ica t ions .

These i nc lude a v ir tua l ly

i den t ica l r ange o f f orm a nd d ecora t ion , p ar t icu lar ly where f orms a pparen t ly o therw ise u n ique t o t he s ugges ted p aren t p ot tery a re p roduced , a nd e v idence f or t he t ransfer o f t echno logy , s uch a s ad ist inc t ive k i ln t ype . L INKS BET WEEN OXFORDSH IRE AND THE CONT INENTAL SA M IAN I NDUSTRY The c lose s im i lar i t ies b etween s o me o f t he r ed c o lour-coa t f orms manu fac tured i n O x fordsh ire a nd c er ta in l a te s am ian f orms h ave s o me t imes l ed , i n d iscussion , t o t he s uggest ion t ha t t here were c lose l i nks b etween t he

2 95

2 96

L oca t ion o f p o tter ies m ent ioned i n t he t ext.

r e levan t p roduc t ion c en tres , p erhaps e ven i nvo lv ing t he migra t ion o f p ot ters t o Br i ta in f rom t he R h ine land a s ar esu l t o f t he b arbar ian i nvas ions o f t he mid-th ird c en tury .

H owever , t here a re s evera l f ac tors wh ich a rgue s trong ly

a ga ins t t h is a s a n e xp lana t ion o f O x fordsh ire 's d eve lopmen t a s ap roducer o f r ed c olour-coa t wares d ur ing t he t h ird c en tury , a nd wh ich f avour t he v iew t ha t t h is d eve lopmen t , wh i le ow ing much t o t he i n f luence o f e as tern G au l , was o n ly o ne f ea ture i n t he g row th o f t he i ndus try . The p ot tery i ndustry i n Ox fordsh ire was a lready we l l e s tab l ished d ur ing t he s econd c en tury , mak ing s oph is t ica ted f orms s uch a s mor tar ia wh ich were w ide ly t raded i n t he ir own r igh t . Even d ur ing t he l a ter p er iod , t he r ed c o lourc oa t wares f ormed o n ly a p or t ion o f t he e xpor ted o u tpu t , a nd o n many k i ln s i tes mor tar ia a nd p archmen t wares , a pparen t ly ow ing n oth ing t o t he Rh ine land o r a nywhere e lse , were t he mos t i mpor tan t p roduc t .

N or a re t here a ny s pec i f ic

f ea tures o f t he a c tua l O x fordsh ire k i lns t o i nd ica te l i nks w i th t he s am ian i ndus try o n t he C on t inen t —the k i lns a t Rhe inzabern , f or e xamp le , a re v ery d i f feren t a nd s how c ons iderably more v ar ie ty ( Young , 1 977 , 2 9-44 ; L udow ic i , 1 905 ). T h is h ard ly s uggests a n a t temp t t o r eproduce t he E as t G au l ish s amian i ndus try i n Br i ta in , w i th t he s ame p ot ters a t work ;

r a ther , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t

t he Ox fordsh ire p ot ters a dded a r ange o f s am ian f orms t o t he ir r eper toire a t at ime when t he o r ig ina ls were b eco ming s carce b u t were s t i l l af a mi l iar a nd marketable c o m mod i ty. Ad e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t he p ot tery i t se lf emphas ises t he i dea t ha t t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween O xfordsh ire a nd East G au l i s i n f ac t al arge-sca le i ns tance o f i )a nd i ) a bove i n c o mbina t ion . F or t h is p urpose , t he e ar l iest O x fordshire wares , t hose made p robably f rom c . A .D . 2 40 a nd c er ta in ly f ro m c . A .D . 2 70 , s hou ld b e c o mpared w i th t he p roduc ts o f t he l a tes t s am ian i ndustr ies o n t he C on t inen t ( see T ab le 1b e low a nd f igs . 1 7.2 a nd 1 7.3 ). The t erm ina l d a te o f t hese i ndus tr ies —in e f fec t , Tr ier a nd R he inzabern— is s t i l l u ncer ta in , b u t i ti s p robab le t ha t t hey were c on t inu ing t o e xpor t s ome p o t tery t o Br i ta in a t t he p er iod when t he O x fordsh ire p o t ters b egan t o make r ed c o lourc oa t wares ( 2 f . B ird f or thco ming ). Af ur ther p oin t b rough t o u t i n t he t ab le i s t ha t t he h igher p ropor t ion o f d a ted c lose c op ies o ccurs i n t he e ar l ier g roup . Th is i s a dm i t ted ly a v ery sma l l s amp le , b u t i td oes s uggest t ha t t he O x fordsh ire p o t ters b egan b y c opy ing s amian c lose ly a nd t hen d iversi f ied i n to t he ir own c harac ter is t ic s tyle . S o me more g enera l d i f ferences b etween t he p roduc ts o f t he t wo i ndustr ies may a lso b e n oted h ere . The most o bv ious i s t he c omp le te a bsence o f t he u se o f mou lds t o d ecora te O x fordsh ire r ed c o lour-coa t v esse ls , b u t o ther i mp or tan t f ea tures o f t he t h ird-cen tury O x fordsh ire p roduc ts i nc lude t he much g rea ter u se o f r ou le t t ing o n aw ide r ange o f f orms ; t he v ar ie ty o f t ypes , s uch a s f l agons a nd b eakers , made i n r ed c o lour-coa t ware ; t he s carc i ty o f p o t ters ' s tamps , a nd t he f ac t t ha t most o f t hose t ha t were made were n ot l i tera te ; t he i nfrequency o f l i on 's-head s pou ts o n ' Dr . 4 5 ' mor tar ia ; a nd t he a l mos t c o mp le te a bsence o f p ierced p our ing h o les o n t he s ame f orm. The r ed c o lour-coa t r ange made i n O xfordsh ire s hou ld t here fore b e s een a s ac on t inua t ion o f t he s amian t rad i t ion p ossessing i t s own i nd iv idua l f ea tures , a nd p robab ly made b y n a t ive p ot ters . The r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he e ar l ier

2 97

Oxfordsh ire t ypes p robab ly d a ting c . AD 2 40+ ( f ig . 1 7.2A ) C 4

S am ian p ara l le l Lud Kb

C o m men ts S im ilar r im , b u t C 4 h as o ne h and le i ns tead o f t wo

C 8

Lud KMa

G enera l ly s i mi lar

C 22

For r im , c f . O swa ld & Pryce , p l . 8 3 , n os. 4 , 7 , wh ich a re f lagons

C 49

Lud To '

C lose ly s i mi lar

( Dr 3 6/Cur le 1 5 ) C 51

( Dr 3 8/Lud S d

C lose ly s i mi lar , c o m mon t ype e lsewhere t oo

C 55

Lud S e

C lose ly s i mi lar ;

C 55 n ot

a lways r ou let ted C 58

Dr 3 7

C 58 s ta mped , n ot mou lded

C 97

Dr 4 5

C 97 r are ly h as s pou t o r a pp l ied mask ;

s o met i mes

r ou let ted

Oxfordsh ire t ypes d a ting c . AD 2 70+ ( f ig . 1 7.3 )

S am ian p ara l lel

C 3

C o m men ts F or s i mi lar f lagons , c f . O swa ld & Pryce , p l . 8 3

C16 C18 C 20

Lud Va , V b

N o t c lose p ara l le ls ;

c o m mon

t ype e lsewhere C 23

Lud V f

O n ly g enera l ly s i mi lar

Lud VMg

O n ly g enera l ly s im i lar —

C 24 C 25

p ropor t ions v ery d if feren t C 26-29 C 44

Dr 3 1/ Lud S b

C o m mon t ype e lsewhere t oo

C 45

Dr 3 1/Lud S a/Sb

C o m mon t ype e lsewhere t oo

C 47

Dr 3 6/ Lud T 1 '

C 47 l ess a ngu lar

C 48

Dr 3 6

C 48 n ever h as s e lf-coloured b arbotine 2 98

O x fordsh ire t ypes i n s am ian f orms , f or wh ich d a t ing e v idence i s s can ty ( f ig . 1 7.2C )

S am ian p ara l le l

C o m men ts

C 40 .1

Dr 3 2

C 40 .1 h as i n terna l b ead

C 40 .3-5

L ud Th

C 40 .3-5 s o me t i mes r ou le t ted

C 41 .1

L ud Tk i

C lose ly s im i lar

C 41 .2-5

Lud Tn '

C lose ly s i mi lar

C 42

Lud Tc l/Tg

C lose ly s i mi lar

TABLE 1 :

Th ird-cen tury O x fordsh ire r ed c o lour-coa t t ypes a nd t he ir s amian p ara l lels ( Oxfordsh ire t ypes a s Y oung , 1 977 , c hap ter 1 0 ;

f or s amian t ypes , s ee O swa ld & P ryce 1 920 )

2 99

A

4 .1 l llllllllll 1 1,111§ m w 11111,111111111 011 , MM IV IS

0 ,1. 41 ,

1

" 41 ,1 , 44 44.4b4.

5 1 .4

5 5 .2 1

d e iNg ga ed ie 5 8 . '

k

*Af tI

40 .3

40 .5

42.1

F ig . 1 7 .2 A : Oxfordsh ire t ypes probably d a t ing f rom c . AD 2 40. C : Oxfordsh ire t ypes p robab ly c opy ing s a r nf än f orms but o f uncerta in d a te. ( Af ter Young , 1 977, C s er ies). 1 :4 .

3 00

1 8 .1

J JJJJJJ J

d i

JJJJJJJ J • 0

. 1.

0 o f • . i. Oolo t W.0,0 ,04 4 940

"

r

e u xue ,e ! mee f , . . . fe e zz , " . .

2 4 . 1

2 5 .2

26 .1

28 .1 P 17 1 1 M in i l l InV ,WV2 "

2 7 .3 4 4 .1

F ig .

1 7 .3 B : Oxfordsh ire t ypes d a t ing f rom c . AD 2 70. Young, 1 977 , C s er ies.) 1 :4 .

3 01

( Af ter

/ 1 0 7

8

1 3 3

-1 ,

71 i i Tr I TTTI TT

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1 11 1 ( 1 ( 111 111 1 1( 111 1 f il l ( I

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1 9

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XO

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F ig. 1 7 .4 P ottery f rom K i ln 3 , Harston.

3 02

1 :4 .

Ox fordsh ire p roduc ts a nd t he s amian wares o f e as tern G au l was s ure ly s i mi lar t o t ha t b e tween t he O xfordsh ire wares o f t he l a ter t h ird a nd f our th c entur ies a nd t hose o f t he Argonne ( see C henet 1 941 ) , w h ich s hared s o me b road ly s im ilar f or ms a nd d ecorat ive t echn iques ( s ta mp ing , w hite p a in t o ver t he s l ip ) b u t u sed t he m i n v ery d is t inct ive w ays . L INKS BET WEEN THE OXFORDSH IRE I NDUSTRY AND SOME MINOR FOURTH-CENTURY POTTER IES The s econd p ar t o f t he p aper c onsiders t he e v idence f or migra t ion o f p ot ters f ro m t he U pper Thames Va l ley t o o ther a reas o f R o man Br i ta in. An i ncreas ing n umber o f minor l a te R o man f ine-ware p roduc t ion c en tres i s b eco m ing k nown , many o f wh ich s how l i nks w ith o ne o r more o f t he ma jor l a te R o man p ot ter ies.

H ere we c onsider t hree p ot ter ies where t here a ppear

t o b e p ar t icu lar ly c lose l i nks w ith t he O x fordsh ire i ndus try .

The t hree manu-

f actor ies were s i tua ted r espec t ive ly a t Hars ton , s ou th o f C a mbr idge , a t Har tsh i l l i n t he M id lands , a nd i n t he P evensey a rea o f S ussex . a ) Hars ton , ( f ig . 1 7.4 )1 Th is s i te was d iscovered i n 1 978 b y me mbers o f t he C a mbr idge An t iq uar ian Archaeo log ica l R esearch G roup d ur ing t he c onstruc t ion o f t he M11 . A t l eas t t hree k i lns l ay w i th in a l arge R o man r ura l s e t t le men t , b u t i t was o n ly p oss ib le t o r ecover p ot tery f ro m o ne k i ln a nd t he a rea a round i t . A l mos t a l l t h is p o t tery was made i n a wh i te o r p ink s andy s o f t f abr ic , most ly w i th a r ed c o lour-coa t .

There were s o me mor tar ia i n t he s ame f abr ic b u t

w i thou t ac olour-coa t ( e .g . f ig . 1 7.4 , n o . 2 ) a nd a f ew s herds o f b ow ls w i th r ed p a in ted d ecora t ion wh ich s hou ld b e r egarded a s p archmen t ware ( e .g . f ig . 1 7.4 , n o . 1 ) .

There were a lso a f ew s herds o f g rey s andy ware wh ich

was p robab ly n o t made o n t he s i te . A l l t he t ypes p roduced i n t he s of t p ink-wh i te ware , whe ther mor tar ia , p archmen t ware o r r ed c o lour-coa ted ware , h ave p ara l le ls i n t he O x fordsh ire i ndustry , whose p roduc ts d o o ccur o n s i tes i n t he r eg ion .

There i s l i t t le o r

n o a pparen t i nf luence f ro m t he f ine-ware p roduc ts o f t he N ene Va l ley o r H adha m wh ich o ccur p ro l i f ica l ly i n C ambr idgesh ire.

Harston t ype ,

O x fordsh ire

Da te o f

f ig . 1 7.4

p ara l le l

O xfordsh ire t ype

P 24 M22

2 40-400+ 2 40-400+

3

C 8

2 40-400+

4

C 6

N o d a te

1 2

5

C 16

2 70-400+

6

C 18

2 70-400+

7

C 23

2 70-400+

C 40

N o d a te

8 9 1 0 1 1

C 41/P16

3 00-400 +

C 45

2 70-400 +

C 45/50 b ase

3 03

2 40-400 +

Harston t ype ,

O x fordsh ire

D a te o f

f ig . 1 7.4

p ara l le l

O x fordsh ire t ype

1 2

C 47

2 70-400+

1 3

C 49

2 40-400+

1 4

C 50

3 25-400+

1 5

C 51

2 40-400+

1 6

C 55

2 40-400+

1 7

C 71

3 00-400+

N ot i l lus tra ted 1 8

C 75 C 81

3 25-400+ 3 00-400+

1 9

C 84

3 50-400+

2 0

C 97

2 40-400 +

2 1

C 100

3 00-400 +

TABLE 2 :

Harston t ypes a nd t he ir O x fordsh ire p ara l le ls ( Ox fordsh ire t ypes a s Y oung , 1 977 , c hap ters 5 , 6 , 1 0 )

The r ange o f Hars ton t ypes i s i l lus tra ted o n f ig . 1 7.4 ;

Tab le 2 s e ts o u t

t he p ara l le ls w i th t he O xfordsh ire i ndus try ( see Y oung f or thcoming f or f u l l p ubl ica t ion ).

O f t he f orms f ro m Hars ton , N os . 1a nd 1 7 a re o f p ar t icu lar

i n terest i n t he c on tex t o f t h is p aper , s ince b o th t ypes a re o therw ise made a l most e xc lus ive ly b y t he Ox fordsh ire i ndustry.

N o. 1 c op ies t he d ist inc t ive

Ox fordsh ire p arch men t-ware b ow l , u nknown f ro m o ther p o t ter ies a par t f ro m av ery f ew c op ies i n t he N ew F orest ( Fu lford 1 975 , f i g . 2 3 , n os . 9 0 .1-4 ) . N o . 1 7 c op ies t he d ouble b ead-r im med b ow l , ac o mmon O x fordsh ire t ype b u t t o ta l ly u nknown i n o ther i ndus tr ies . The o ther t ypes f ound a t Harston , a l though i n s o me c ases h av ing p ara l le ls i n o ther i ndus tr ies , a l l o ccur i n t he Ox fordsh ire r eper to ire .

N o . 2c op ies

f our th-cen tury wh i te -ware mor tar ia , a nd N os . 2 0 a nd 2 1 c opy t he c o m mon c o lour-coa t mor tar ia o f t he O x fordsh ire p ot ter ies .

B ow ls c opying Dr .3 1R ,

Dr . 3 6 , Cur le 1 5 a nd Dr . 3 8 ( f ig . 1 7.4 , n os . 1 0-15 ) a re a l l s tap les o f t he Ox fordsh ire r ange a s a re t he r ou le t ted b eaker , N o . 7 , a nd t he wa l l-s ided b ow l , N o. 1 8 .

S tyl ist ica l ly t oo t he Harston p ot tery i s c loser t o t he p roduc ts

o f t he O xfordsh ire p ot ters t han t o t hose o f t he N ene V a l ley o r o f Hadham , e ven when t he l a t ter p roduced t he s ame f orms .

T here was v ery l i t t le u se o f

d ecora t ion o n t he c o lour-coa ted wares , a par t f rom r ou le t t ing a nd v ery o cc as iona l u se o f wh i te p a in t . Because a l l t he f orms c an b e ma tched i n t he O x fordsh ire p o t ter ies a nd c er ta in o f t he m were o n ly made t here , a nd b ecause o f t he s ty l ist ic s im i lar i t ies , i ts ee ms t ha t a migran t o r migran ts f rom t he O x fordsh ire p o t ter ies mus t h ave worked a t Harston .

I ft he Harston p ot ters h ad b een l oca l men r espond ing t o

d emand f or f i ne wares , t here w ou ld s ure ly h ave b een more i m i ta t ion o f l oca l ly p redo minan t wares s uch a s t hose o f t he N ene Va l ley .

The a bsence o f s uch

i nf luence s treng thens t he c ase f or a n U pper Thames migran t . The c urren t ly k nown d is tr ibu t ion o f t he Hars ton p ot tery i s s can ty , s ugg est ing t ha t t he v en ture was n ot s uccessfu l .

I tc annot y e t b e c lose ly d a ted .

A c o in o f A .D . 3 19 was f ound i n t he k i ln , a nd t he O x fordsh ire t ypes c op ied i nc lude s evera l i n troduced a f ter c . 3 25 a nd o ne p robab ly i n troduced c . 3 40 . 3 04

1 04 4 ,4 ,1 ‚ , 1 1

I t l et oh i

I i

Ii II II i ii pI g i d ioo m l o w

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I O N4 000 000

4 6 1 )

' , 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 t h e :4 ' I , I

4 f 9 44 1 .

1 0

7

I I I II II II II II I I I 1 1 I II I1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 1

1 11111, IU I II II

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t le li tI ti t

ä I I I tI t 4 44.

. 1 1 1 1 1

1 4

F ig . 1 7.5 P o ttery f rom K i ln 6 , Har tsh i l l. 1 :4.

3 05

( Af ter K . F . Har t ley.)

O n t he o ther h and , t he v ery l im i ted u se o f d ecora t ion , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he a bsence o f s tamped d ecora t ion , s uggests t ha t t he p ot tery i s u n l ike ly t o d a te l a ter t han c . 3 50 i fa n O x fordsh ire p ot ter was i nvo lved .

A t p resen t , t hen ,

t he s econd q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury i s t he b est d a te t ha t c an b e o f fered f or t he Hars ton p ot tery. b ) Har tsh i l l ( f ig . 1 7.5 ) A t Har tsh i l l t he p os i t ion o f a migran t wou ld h ave b een v ery d i f feren t f ro m t ha t a t Hars ton , s ince a ny p ot ter mov ing t o Har tsh i l l was e n ter ing o ne o f t he ma jor l a te R o man p ot ter ies i n Br i ta in , s pec ia l is ing p r i mar i ly i n t he p roduct ion o f mor tar ia .

Mrs . H ar t ley h as k ind ly c on tr ibuted a n

Append ix o n t he g roup o f c o lour-coated p o t tery r ecovered d ur ing h er e xcavat i ons , wh ich i s t he e v idence f or a m igran t p ot ter i n t h is c ase ( see b e low ). Th is p o t tery s tands o u t s harp ly f ro m t he ma in r un o f Har tsh i l l p roduc ts , wh ich were p r inc ipa l ly mor tar ia .

N o t o n ly were t he ware a nd f or ms d i f feren t

f ro m a nyth ing e lse made a t Har tsh i l l , b u t i t was a lso made i n av ery d is t inct i ve k i ln , a s Mrs . Har t ley h as s hown ( Har t ley , 1 973 , f ig . 2 , G ).

T yp ica l ly ,

t he l a ter k i lns a t Har tsh i l l h ad o ne o r more f ree-stand ing p edes ta ls w i th a p ermanen t v en t-holed f l oor ( Har t ley , 1 973 , f ig . 1 , E ).

The k i ln a ssoc ia ted

w i th t he c o lour- c oa t ware h ad a t ongue p edes ta l a nd a s er ies o f c orbe ls s uppor t ing a p ermanen t v en t-ho led f loor .

Th is k i ln i s u n ique a t Har tsh i l l ,

b u t t hree o f i den t ica l t ype h ave b een f ound i n O x fordsh ire p ot ter ies , a nd i t c an b e r egarded a s at yp ica l l a te R o man O xfordsh ire k i ln t ype ( Young , 1 977 , 3 8-40 ).

E lsewhere i n Br i ta in o n ly o ne e xamp le o f t h is k i ln t ype i s k nown ,

a t Wiggonho l t i n S ussex , where i ti s d a ted t o t he s econd c en tury ( Evans , 1 974 , f ig . 6 ). The p o t tery t oo i s v ery d i f feren t f ro m t he u sua l Har tsh i l l/ Mance t ter p roduc ts .

The t ypes f ound a l l h ave p ara l le ls i n t he O x fordsh ire i ndustry.

They i nc lude p a in ted a nd r ou let ted e nc losed v esse ls ( f ig . 1 7.5 , n os . 1 -4 ) , p a in ted a nd r ou le t ted b eakers ( f ig . 1 7.5 , n os . 5 -10 ) a nd b ow ls c opying Dr . 3 1 , Dr . 3 6 a nd Dr . 3 8 ( f ig . 1 7.5 , n os . 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 6 ).

There were a lso

b ead-r i m med b ow ls i den t ica l t o t ypes made i n t he U pper Thames Va l ley ( f ig . 1 7.5 , n os . 1 1 , 1 4 ).

Har tsh i l l t ype ,

O xfordsh ire

f ig . 1 7.5

p ara l le l

1

Da te o f O x fordsh ire t ype

?C 1/11 b ody

2

C 27 b ody

2 70-400+

3

C 27 b ody

2 70-400+

4

C 27 b ody

2 70-400+

5

C 23 b ody

2 70-400 +

6

C 22

2 40-400 +

7

C 22

2 40-400+

8

C 27 b ody

2 70-400 +

9

C 24 b ody

2 70-400 +

1 0

C 105

N o d a te

1 1

C 69

3 25-400+

1 2

C 51

2 40-400+

3 06

Har tsh i l l t ype ,

O x fordsh ire

f ig . 1 7.5

p ara l le l

Da te o f O x fordsh ire t ype

1 3 1 4

C 51 C 68

1 5

C 47

2 70-400+

1 6

C 45

2 70-400+

TABLE 3 :

2 40-400+ 3 00-400+

Har tsh i l l c o lour-coa t t ypes a nd t he ir O x fordsh ire p ara l le ls ( Oxfordsh ire t ypes a s Young , 1 977 , c hap ter 1 0 )

Decora t ive s ty les u sed were a lso t yp ica l o f Ox fordsh ire p o t ters .

The

e x tens ive u se o f r ou le t t ing i s o ne o f t he ir h a l l marks a nd was l i t t le u sed i n o ther l a te f ine-ware i ndus tr ies.

Pa in t was more w ide ly u sed b u t t he f l ow ing

a nd b ifurca t ing s cro l ls u sed a t Har tsh i l l a re t yp ica l o f Ox fordsh ire a nd n ot o f ten f ound e lsewhere i n Br i ta in . Aga in , t he ma tch w i th t he work o f t he O x fordsh ire p ot ters i s s o c lose t ha t a migran t f rom t he U pper Tha mes Va l ley mus t b e i nvo lved .

N o c lose

d a t ing i s a va i lab le b u t t he t ypes c op ied i nc lude s o me l a ter t han c . 3 25 . The a bsence o f s tamped d ecora t ion s ugges ts t ha t p roduc t ion b efore t he midd le o f t he f our th c en tury .

h ad c eased

Af l oru i t i n t he s econd q uar ter o f

t he f our th c en tury i s t here fore i nd ica ted .

The s parse k nown d is tr ibu t ion

s uggests t ha t t he e xper imen t was n ot s uccessfu l . c ) Pevensey ( f ig . 1 7.6 )2 ' Pevensey ' ware i s u sed t o d escr ibe a h ard r ed-orange ware w ith a d eep r ed o r o range-red c o lour-coa t , o f ten w i th a p i mp ly s ur face .

The p roduc t ion

c en tre i s n ot k nown b u t i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t i t may l i e i n t he P evensey a rea o f E as t S ussex ( Fu lford , 1 973 ;

G reen , 1 977, 1 58-9 , 1 75-8 ).

Al im i ted n u mber o f f or ms was p roduced , ma in ly c o mpr is ing c op ies o f Dr . 3 6 a nd Cur le 1 5 , b ead-r im med b ow ls a nd n ecked b ow ls . O ne b eaker o r j ar a nd o ne mor tar ium o f u ncer ta in f orm h ave a lso b een r ecorded . D ecora t ion i nc ludes r ou let t ing , p a in t ( f ig . 1 7.6 , n os. 6 -8 ) , h err ing-bone s ta mps ( f ig . 1 7.6 , n os. 9 -10 ) a nd s tamped r ose t tes a nd d em i-rose t tes ( not i l lustra ted ).

The ware i s d a ted t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c en tury.

I t was more s uccessfu l t han t he o ther t wo wares d iscussed a bove , a nd i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t i tc o mpe ted s uccessfu l ly w i th O x fordsh ire wares i n S ussex a f ter c . A .D . 3 50 ( Green , 1 977 , 1 77-8 ). L ike ly i n f luences o n t he i ndustry , i fi th ad d eve loped among e x ist ing l oca l p o t ters , wou ld h ave b een b oth O x fordsh ire a nd t he New F orest .

The r ange o f

f orms h as p ara l le ls i nb oth i ndustr ies b u t t he s tyl ist ic a f f in i t ies a ppear t o l i e s o le ly w i th t he U pper T ha mes Va l ley.

R ou le t ted b ands a re a c harac ter is t ic

f ea ture o f t he Ox fordsh ire wares a nd a re a l mos t u nknown i n t he New F orest ( Fu lford , 1 975 , 3 4 ).

P a in t was u sed b y a l l t hree i ndustr ies , b u t t he P evensey

p ot ters c on formed s ty l ist ica l ly t o O x ford .

N ew F orest p a in ted d ecora t ion

t ends t owards g eo me tr ic p a t terns s uch a s t r iang les , l a t t ices o r c irc les , whereas t he P evensey p ot ters u sed f low ing a nd i n ter lock ing .scro l ls ,t yp ica l o f

3 07

, t .

4 1 1 , 1 0 1 0 4 1 1 1 t 1 f 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 4 1

5

7

1i F ig. 1 7 .6 P evensey ware. ( Nos. 1 , 3 , a f ter Fu lford, 1 973.) 1 :4.

3 08

a f ter Green 1 977, o thers

Ox fordsh ire .

S im i lar ly , h err ing-bone s tamps ( f ig . 1 7.6 , n os . 9 , 1 0 ) o ccur

b oth i n P evensey a nd i n O x fordsh ire wares b u t a re u nknown i n t he N ew F ores t . Rose t te a nd d em i-rose t te s tamps a re t yp ica l o f b oth i ndustr ies .

P evensey t ype , f ig . 1 7.6

O xfordsh ire

Da te o f

p ara l le l

O xfordsh ire t ype

1( Green , 1 977, f ig . 7 9 , n o. 1 80 )

C 110

2( Fu lford

C 16

2 70-400+

C 49

2 40-400+

C 48

2 70-400+

C 68

3 00-400+

1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 1 4 )

3( Green , 1 977 , f ig . 7 9 , n o. 1 82 ) 4( Fu l ford

1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 4 )

5( Green , 1 977 , f ig . 7 9 , n o. 1 81 ) 6( Fu lford

? 300-400±

1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 1 2 )

C 69

3 25-40G+

7( Fu lford , 1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 1 1 )

C 77

3 40-400+

8( Fu lford , 1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 9 )

C 77

3 40-400+

9( Fu lford , 1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o. 5 )

C 78

3 40-400+

1 0 ( Fu lford , 1 973 , f ig . 1 , n o . 2 )

C 78

3 40-400+

TABLE 4 :

P evensey t ypes a nd t he ir O xfordsh ire p ara l lels ( Ox fordsh ire t ypes a s Y oung , 1 977 , c hap ter 1 0 )

The l i nks b e tween P evensey a nd O x fordsh ire a re t hus v ery c lose.

S ince

New Fores t wares a re we l l r epresen ted i n S ussex , New F orest f ea tures wou ld s ure ly h ave a ppeared i n t he r eper to ire o f p ure ly l oca l p o t ters t ry ing t o c o mp e te i n t he f ine-ware marke t . Th is i s c lear ly n ot t he c ase , a nd s ince t he p ara l le ls w ith O x fordsh ire a re s o c lose , i ti s l ike ly t ha t a n O x fordsh ire migran t p o t ter was a ga in i nvo lved . CONCLUS IONS As d iscussed a bove , i t s ee ms e v iden t t ha t t he O x fordsh ire r ed c olourc oa t r ange was n ot t he work o f im migran t East G au l ish p ot ters b u t t he r esp onse o f a n e x is t ing i ndus try t o a market d e mand —a v en ture t ha t was h uge ly s uccessfu l .

O n t he o ther h and , i th as b een s hown t ha t t here was migra t ion

f ro m t he O xfordsh ire i ndus try , s ince s o me p ot ters s e t u p n ew p roduc t ion c en tres away f ro m t he U pper Tha mes Va l ley.

I ti s p robab le t ha t a n e n ter-

p r ising p o t ter o r midd le man s aw a n o ppor tun i ty t o u ndercu t t he Ox fordsh ire i ndus try b y p roduc ing l oca l ly , a nd i ti s s ign i f ican t t ha t a l l t hree p ot ter ies l i e n ear t he e dge o f t he ma in O xfordsh ire d istr ibu t ion a rea .

H owever , t he

a va i lab le e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he b enef i ts o f l oca l p roduc t ion were n ot s u f f ic ien t t o e nab le n ew p o t ter ies t o e stab l ish t he mse lves i n c o mpet i t ion w i th t he O x fordsh ire p roduc ts.

N e i ther Harston n or Har tsh i l l was s uccess-

f u l , a nd t he d istr ibu t ion o f P evensey ware i s v ery r estr ic ted . I n a dd i t ion , t he s tudy h as s hown t ha t i ti s s o me t imes p ossible t o d e tec t migrant p o t ters i n t he l a te R o man p er iod , e ven i n t he a bsence o f p ot ters ' s tamps , a nd t h is i s a n a venue o f r esearch t ha t c ou ld p rob a b ly b e p ursued f ur ther .

3 09

APPEND IX Har tsh i l l , K i ln 6 , b y K . F . Har t ley T he sma l l b u t h o mogeneous g roup o f p o t tery f rom K i ln 6 i s o bv ious ly k i ln-was te : s o me p ieces a re o ver f ired , o thers u nder f ired , s ome h ave e xp loded i n t he k i ln , a nd much o f t he s cro l l d ecora t ion h as f laked o f f t o s how o n ly g host-tra i ls ; f abr ics a nd s l ips a re f requen t ly d isco loured . N o o ther f ragmen ts o f t hese t ypes were f ound e lsewhere o n t he s i te , n or were a ny o ther t ypes o f p ot tery f ound i n K i ln 6 o r i t s s tokeho le . O range , o r r ed-brown , a nd wh i te ( i ron-free ) b ody f abr ics w ere p roduced , b oth w i th r ed-brown s l ip ; i n t he v ery sma l l s amp le f ound , o n ly im i ta t ion Dr . 3 8 was made i n b o th f abr ics .

Tr ick les o f s l ip o n t he i ns ide o f t he b ea-

k ers s how t ha t t hey were h e ld b y t he r im wh i ls t b e ing d ipped i n to t he s l ip . THE POTTERY ( f ig . 1 7.5 ) 1 . The l ower h a lf o f al arge b eaker w i th r ou le t ted d ecora t ion , i n f a ir ly h ard f abr ic p robably i n tended t o b e r ed-brown b u t d isco loured t o g rey-brown . 2 . B ody f ragmen t f ro m a l arge b eaker , p robably s im i lar t o n o. 1 , i n h ard , r ed-brown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip a nd wh i te p a in ted s cro l l p a t tern . 3 . Af ragmen t f ro m a s i mi lar v esse l i n s imi lar b u t s of t f abr ic w i th d isc oloured s l ip . 4 . Fragmen t f ro m a b eaker w i th s im i lar d esign t o n o . 8 ;

s andw ich f abr ic

( dark b räwn w i th o range-brown c ore a nd i nner c ore o f d ark b rown ) , s urface mos t ly b lack . S l igh t t races o f r ou le t t ing s urv ive o n t he u pper a nd l ower e dges o f t he f ragmen t . 5 . Af lake ( i ns ide s ur face miss ing ) i n as o f t ish wh i te f abr ic w i th f i ne ly e xecu ted r ou le t t ing wh ich p reserves t races o f r ed-brown s l ip . 6 -7 . R ims o f t wo b eakers i n o range-brown f abr ic w i th t races o f r ed-brown s l ip . 8 . B eaker i n h ard s andw ich f abr ic ( greyish b rown , r ed-brown c ore a nd d ark b rown i nner c ore ) ; s l ip d isco loured t o muddy b lack ish-brown b ut a t r ick le o n t he i nside i s r ed-brown ; t he s urv iv ing p a in t i s wh i te . 9 . The l ower h a lf o f ab eaker i n h ard , o range-brown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip a nd r ou le t ted d ecora t ion . 1 0 . Fragmen ts f rom a t l eas t t wo sma l l b eakers o f t h is t ype w ere f ound ; t he o ver f ired f abr ic v ar ies f rom o range t o b lack ish-brown w i th s l ip most ly d isc o loured b u t r ed-brown i nside t he n eck o f o ne ;

t he s p ira l d es ign i s i n wh i te

p a in t . 1 1 . An i mi ta t ion o f s amian f orm Dr . 2 9 i n s of t , s l igh t ly s andy , o range-brown f abr ic w i th v ery t h ick g rey c ore a nd r ed-brown s l ip , r ou le t ted d ecora t ion a nd wh i te p a in ted s crol l . T he b ow l h ad e xp loded i n t he k i ln . 1 2. An i mi ta t ion o f Dr . 3 8 i n f i ne-tex tured , s of t , w h i te f abr ic w i th t races o f r ed-brown s l ip .

3 10

1 3.

An im i ta t ion o f Dr . 3 8 i n s of t , s l igh t ly s andy , o range-brown f abr ic w i th

t races o f r ed-brown s l ip . 1 4.

An i m i ta t ion o f Dr . 2 9 w i th r ou le t ted d ecora t ion i n s of t , o range-brown

f abr ic w i th t races o f r ed-brown s l ip ; wh i te p a in ted d ecora t ion . 1 5.

i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o s ee i fi th ad a ny

An i m i ta t ion D r . 3 6 i n s of t , o range-brown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip .

( D iame ter u ncer ta in ). 1 6.

An i m i ta t ion D r . 3 1 i n s of t , f ine-tex tured c ream f abr ic w i th t races o f

r ed-brown s l ip .

A l l t he f ragmen ts i n wh i te f abr ic a re w ider f ired .

The p o t tery f ro m t h is k i ln d if fers t o ta l ly i n c harac ter f ro m t he r est o f t he p o t tery k nown t o h ave b een made o n t he s i te . The k i ln t oo i s i n c ont rast t o t he t ypes n orma l a t Har tsh i l l a nd b o th p ot tery a nd k i ln c o mpare i n f in i te ly more c lose ly w i th p ot tery a nd k i lns i n t he O x ford r eg ion . p o t tery a nd i t s O xfordsh ire p ara l le ls a re d iscussed a bove ;

The

t he k i ln i s i l lus-

t ra ted i n Har t ley , 1 973 , f ig . 2 , Ga nd c f . Harden , 1 936 , f ig . 1 4 , p l . XV I b ; Young , 1 972 , p l . I V . I t s ee ms a c lear e xamp le o f ap ot ter migra t ing f ro m o ne p o t tery- mak ing c en tre t o a nother . A s earch t hrough t he s tore a t t he J ewry Wa l l Museu m , L eicester , s howed o n ly o ne o r t wo v esse ls wh ich c ou ld c once ivably h ave b een made b y s uch a p ot ter a t Har tsh i l l . As L e icester was o ne o f t he b iggest l oca l mark e ts i t may r easonab ly b e a ssu med t ha t t he e xper imen t was n ot s uccessfu l . I ti s s urpr ising t ha t t he a t te mp t t o u se t he e xce l len t i ron-free c lay u sed f or mor tar ia was u nsuccessfu l . I ti s p erhaps p ossib le t ha t t he t wo c lays r eq u ired d i f feren t f i r ing t e mpera tures f or t he b es t r esu l ts . NOTES 1 .

We a re mos t g ra te fu l t o Mrs . J . Pu l l inger o f t he Cambr idge An t iquar ian Archaeolog ica l Research G roup f or p erm i t t ing u s t o s tudy t he Harston ma ter ia l a nd make u se o f i th ere.

2 .

We a re g ra te fu l t o Dr . M. G . Fu l ford , Mr . C . M. G reen a nd t he Ed i tor o f t he S ussex A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty f or p ermiss ion t o u se p ot tery d raw ings p rev ious ly p ubl ished i n t he S ussex Archaeo log ica l C o l lec t ions.

B IBL IOGRAPHY B ird , J ., f or thco ming .

' The s am ian ware ' i n t he r epor t o n e xcava t ions

a t S hadwe l l , Trans . L ondon M idd lesex Archaeo l . S oc . ( f or thco m ing ). C henet , G ., 1 941 . Macon , 1 941 .

L a C era m ique G a l lo-Ro ma ine d ' Argonne d u -I V—me S iec le ,

Danne l l , G . B ., 1 973 .

' The p ot ter I ndix iv ixus t i n De ts icas , 1 973 , 1 39-42.

D ets icas , A . P ., e d ., 1 973 .

C urren t R esearch i n Ro mano-Br i t ish C oarse

P ot tery , C ounc . B r i t . Archaeo l . R es . R ep . N o . 1 0 , 1 973 . Evans , K . J ., 1 974 .

' Excava t ions o n aR o mano-Br i t ish s i te , Wiggonho l t ,

1 964 ' , S ussex Archaeo l . C o l lec t ., 1 12 ( 1974 ) , 9 7-151 . Frere , S ., 1 967.

Br i tann ia ( 1st e d .) , L ondon , 1 967. 3 11

Fu lford , M. G ., 1 973 .

' A f our th-cen tury c olour-coa ted f abr ic a nd i ts t ypes

i n S ou th-east E ng land ' , S ussex Archaeol . C ol lec t ., 1 11 ( 1973 ) , 4 1-4. Fu lford , M. G ., 1 975 .

New F orest R o man Pot tery ,B .A . R. 1 7, Oxford ,

1 975. G reen , C . M., 1 977.

' The R o man p ot tery ' i n Be l l , M.,

' Excava t ions a t

B ishopstone ' , S ussex Archaeol . C ol lec t ., 1 15 ( 1 977 ) , 1 52-178. Harden , D . B ., 1 936.

' Two Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot ters ' f i e lds n ear Oxford ' ,

Oxon iensia , 1( 1936) , 8 1-102. Har t ley , K . F ., 1 973.

' The k i lns a t Mance t ter a nd Har tsh i l l , Warw icksh ire '

i n Dets icas 1 973 , 1 43-7. Har t ley , B . R ., 1 977.

' So me wander ing p ot ters ' i n G reene , K . 8 1 Dore , J .,

( eds.) , Ro man Po t tery S tud ies i n Br ita in a nd Beyond . t o J ohn G i l la m , J u ly 1 977, B .A .R . S upp . S er . Ludow ic i , W., 1 905 .

Papers Presen ted

3 0 , Oxford , 1 977.

S te mpe lBi lder Rö mischer T öpfer a us Me inen Aus-

g rabungen i n Rheinzabern 1 901-5 , Ka ta log I Mun ich , 1 905. O swa ld , F . 8 z Pryce , T . D ., 1 920. S ig i l la ta L ondon , Young , C . J ., 1 972.

An I n troduc t ion t o t he S tudy o f Terra

1 920. ' Excava t ions a t t he Church i l l H ospi ta l , 1 971 :

i n ter im

r epor t ' , Oxon iensia , 3 7 ( 1973 ) , 1 0-31 . Young , C . J ., 1 977.

The R o man P ot tery I ndus try o f t he Ox ford Reg ion ,

B .A .R . 4 3 O x ford , 1 977. Young , C . J ., f or thco ming .

' The p ot tery f ro m K i ln 3 ' i n Pu l l inger , J . ( ed .) ,

r epor t o n e xcava t ions a t Harston ( f or thco ming ).

3 12

1 8.

SO ME NENE VALLEY FOLDED BEA KERS

W ITH ANTHROPO MORPHIC DECORATION . C hr is G o ing

I n an o te o n as herd o f N ene Va l ley ware f ro m t he Kn ipe C o l lect ion p reserved i n t he Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd E thno logy , C a mbr idge , Dr . Webster ( 1979 , 6 -7 ) c i ted a s p ara l lels f or i t s d ecora t ion ( a s ea ted f igure h o ld ing a r ad iate b ust , i dent if ied a s S o l ) wha t a ppeared t o b e t wo f o lded b eakers , f ound a t G reat C hesterford , o n wh ich f igures o f d e i t ies were a pp l ied i n b arbot i ne . N e i ther v esse l c an n ow b e t raced , a nd h i therto t he ir o n ly r ecord was i n R oach Sm ith ( 1 857 , 9 1-2) . However , ap las ter-of-par is c ast o f o ne o f t hese v essels ( Roach Sm i th , 1 857 , 9 1) was r ecent ly l ocated b y t he wr i ter i n S a ffron Wa lden Museu m .

T he museu m r ecords s how t ha t t he c ast was p resented i n

1 890 ( Access ions R eg ister '0, 1 880-92, 1 67 , A cc . No . 1 890 .47 ) , b u t t ha t t he o r ig ina l was d ona ted b y J oseph C larke , f or mer ly c ura tor o f t he museu m , t o J ohn Mayer , whose c o l lect ion was most ly d estroyed when L iverpoo l Museu m was b o mbed d ur ing t he S econd Wor ld War . The s econd b eaker i s r ecorded a s b e ing i n t he c o l lec t ion o f t he 4 th L ord B raybrooke , a t Aud ley E nd , i n 1 890. I t s whereabou ts i s n o t a t p resen t k nown .

The c ast ( F ig . 1 8. 3 a ) , s hows t ha t

t he d raw ing p ub l ished b y Roach Sm i th i s f a ir ly a ccura te , a nd b y i n ference t ha t o f t he s econd b eaker a lso .

Desp ite a w ide s earch o n ly t wo f urther e xa mp les

o f f o lded b eakers d ecora ted i n as im i lar manner were f ound , a l though f rag ments o f o thers may e x ist u nrecogn ised i n museu m c o l lect ions.

These b eakers

s ee m t o f or m a d ist inc t g roup — indeed t he t wo G rea t C hester ford e xa mp les may wel l b e b y t he s a me h and —and f or t h is r eason t hey a re c onsidered t ogether h ere . I ti s n o t p ossib le t o b e c er ta in , b u t t he f abric o f o ne o f t he G reat C hesterf ord b eakers ( t he o ther i s n ot d escr ibed ) , ' a s a l mon c o lour , c overed w ith a d u l l b rown g laze wh ich i n t he most p ro m inent p arts h as a r edd ish h ue ' ( Roach Sm i th , 1 857 , 9 2) , c oup led w ith t he ir s ty l ist ic af in i t ies , s ugges t b o th were f ro m t he N ene Va l ley . e lsewhere .

C erta in ly , t hey a re much more d i f f icu l t t o p ara l le l

A t C o lchester , d esp i te t he wea lth o f b arbot ine d ecorated s cenes ,

my tho log ica l t he mes a ppear r are ly , i fa t a l l ( Hu l l , 1 963a , 9 8) .

The t h ird

b eaker , f ound a t L o thbury , L ondon , a nd p reserved i n t he B r it ish Museu m , i s i n Nene Va l ley f abr ic ( Wa l ters , 1 908, 3 97-8 , f ig . 2 43 , I nv . No . M2483) , b u t t he f ourth s pec i men , f ound a t R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox , 1 932, 1 85-6 , P 1. XL IL I ) , i s i n a' f ine g rey f abr ic w ith a d arker g rey p o l ished s ur face ', a nd may b e l oca l . The s hape o f t he v esse ls h as l argely d ictated t he ir r ather f or ma l d eco ra t ive s che me .

The r ound-topped f o lds a re r em in iscen t o fn iches o r a rcades ,

a rch itectura l f eatures o f t e mp les o r s hr ines i n wh ich s cu lptures o f s tand ing o r s ea ted d e i t ies were c o m mon ly p laced .

3 13

The f igures o n t he G rea t C hesterford

F ig .

1 8 .1

F o lded b eakers f rom Grea t Ches terford ( af ter R oach Sm i th ) . S ca le 2 :3

3 14

•

v esse ls f ace o utwards , t he f ee t ' on p oin t ', t he l e f t l eg s l igh t ly f l exed , t he l e f t f oot i n p rof i le , wh i le t he r igh t l eg i s t urned o utwards , t he f oot f ac ing t he o nl ooker . I n F ig 1 8.1a t he l ef t h and f igure h olds a s pear i n h is l e f th and , a nd g r ips t he t op o f as h ield , s een e dge o n , w i th h is r ight .

Apar t f ro m a s hort

p lea ted s k irt t he f igure i sn aked , b u t a round h is n eck i s a n o b ject r ese mb l ing ac loak , a l though n o o ther p art o f i ti s s hown . I t s many t w ists , h owever , s uggest t he o b ject may h ave b een i ntended t o b e at ore . T he h ead o f t he f igure i s m iss ing , b u t t he o r ig ina l d raw ing s hows i t s ' scar ', w ith t wo p ro ject ions , s ugges t ing a h e l met p ushed b ack o n t op o f t he h ead . T he f i gure i s p robab ly Mars. T o h is l e f t as econd f igure , t he h ead a lso b roken o f f , h o lds i nh is l ef t h and a t hunderbol t , a nd i n h is r ight h and wha t a ppears t o b e as taf f , a l though i t s l ower t i p i s m iss ing .

A round h is n eck wha t a ppears t o b e ac loak i s f astened ,

b u t h e i s o therw ise n aked . T he f igure a l most c erta in ly r epresen ts J up i ter . Two f igures a re a lso v isib le o n t he s econd v esse l ( F ig 1 8.1b & c ) . T he l e f t h and f i gure i s v ery f rag mentary , b u t t he l egs a nd f eet s urv ive . T he w inged s hoes . a nd t he c aduceus i n t he v an ished l e f t h and , s how i tt o b e Mercury . T he h eav i ly d raped f igure t o Mercurys ' l e f t , a pparent ly f e ma le , a ppears t o b e h o lding a c ircu lar r ibbed o b jec t i n f ron t o f h er t orso . I tc ou ld b e as h ield , b u t e qua l ly , ac a tenary f o ld o f d rapery . T o h er r ight a c loak , o r t resses o f h a ir c an b e s een . R oach Sm i th i dent i f ied t h is f igure a s Venus o r P a l las , a nd Webster , M inerva .

I t may , h owever , b e L una ( see b e low ) .

T he s ing le f igure

o n t he v esse l f ro m L o thbury ( F ig 1 8 ,2) , a lso f aces o utwards , w i th h is l e f t l eg f l exed a nd c rossed o ver h is r ight . I n h is l e f t h and h e h olds t he e dge o f a s h ield , s een f ro m t he s ide , a nd h e l eans o n al ong s taf f o r s pear , h e ld i n h is u pra ised r igh t h and . T he f igure i s n aked e xcept f or a c loak o r al i on-sk in d raped o ver h is r igh t s hou lder . T he f igure p robab ly r epresents Mars , o r p ossib ly Hercu les .

T he p os ture o f t h is f i gure , a nd t he t rea tment o f h is b ody

h a ir ( t he h ead i s m iss ing ) , r epresen ted b y p e l lets , s uggest i ti s i n ad i f ferent h and f ro m t he v essels d escr ibed a bove . T he f our th v esse l , f ro m R ichborough ( F ig , 1 8.3 b -e ) , i s e n ig ma t ic . F ound i n ap it w ith a T heodosian c o in h oard ( Bushe F ox , 1 932, 3 4) , i ti s p robab ly c onsiderab ly l a ter i n d a te t han t he o ther e xa mp les . I n t he f our s urv iv ing f o lds , f our f rag mentary mou lded f igures f ace o u twards , t he ir r ight a r ms u pra ised , a nd b en t a t r igh t a ng les. Two o f t he f our , wear ing l ong r obes , h ave r ad iate c rowns a nd c arry wh ips , s ymbo ls o f S o l I nvic ta , i n t he ir l e f t h ands ( F ig . 1 8 .3b-c ) . At h ird f igure , o f wh ich o n ly a f rag ment o f d rapery s urv ives ( F ig .18.3d ) , h as s tamped b y i t s s ide t he n a me ' 0G M IA '. I n I r ish my tho logy t h is g od i s d escr ibed a s ' gr iana inech ', t he ' sun f aced ' ( Bushe F ox , 1 932, 1 86 ; Ross , 1 967 , 3 81) . T he f our th , u ncrowned , f igure i s n aked , a par t f rom a w ide b e lt ( F ig . 1 8.3e ) . I th o lds t he s a me p ose a s t he o thers , a nd i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t a l l r epresen t S o l/Og m ios . The c ast o f F ig . 1 8.1a s uggests t he b eaker was s eptagona l o r o ctagona l , a nd Roach Sm i th , a l most c erta in ly aware o f t he t heor ies a dvanced t o i den t ify t he n iched b usts i n t he h a lf-octagona l ' Jup i ter c olumn ' f rag ment f ro m G reat C hesterford ( Hu l l , 1 963b , 8 3-4 ) , made t he i n terest ing s uggest ion t ha t t he f igures o n t he v esse ls w ere t he p lanetary d e i t ies o f t he d ays o f t he week . C er ta in ly J up i ter a nd Mars , o p F ig . 1 8.1a , d o n ot c on f l ict w i th t h is v iew , a nd F ig . 1 8.1b may we l l h ave h ad t he s a me t he me , i ft he f e ma le .f igure c an b e

3 15

F ig .

1 8 .2

F o lded b eaker f rom L o thbury , S ca le 2 :3

3 16

L ondon ( af ter Wa lters ) .

a

1

F ig .

1 8 .3

Draw ing a : d ecora t ion o f F ig . 1 8 .1a , t aken f rom a c ast; d raw ings b -e : f o lded b eaker f rom R ichborough ( af ter Bushe-Fox ). S ca le 1 :2

3 17

a ccep ted a s L una . On b oth v essels a n e ighth n iche c ou ld b e f i l led b y t he i nc lusion o f F ortuna o r B onus E ven tus . T he L o thbury v essel c ou ld we l l b e o f t he s a me t ype , a l though t he f igure m ight b e H ercu les , d ep icted c o m mon ly e nough ( Perr ing , 1 977 , 2 62) . The N ene Va l ley p ot ter ies p roduced a n umber o fv essels i n t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies w i th r e l ig ious o r my tho log ica l s cenes e ither s how ing v igorous a c t ion , t he v esse l f or ms p er m i t t ing a f reer s ty le ( e .g . Hercu les c lubb ing t he L ernean Hydra ; P erring , 1 977 , 2 62 , f i g . 1 0 .7a ) , o r a s a bove , f ron ta l r ows o f g ods a nd g oddesses . I nsp ira t ion f or t he l a t ter a ppears t o l i e i nv esse ls , ma in ly g lobu lar b eakers , p roduced i n t he C en tra l G au l ish p ot teries , a nd d ecorated w i th a pp l ied f igures ( Deche let te , 1 904 , S er ies A , 1 69-187 ) . One v esse l i l lustrated b y Deche let te s hows f i ve f i gures , i dent if ied a s V u lcan , F ortuna , a nd Apo l lo , i n a n a rcade ( Dechele t te , 1 904 , 1 79 f , 1 80 g , 1 81 h , 1 82 i ) .

S o me d e i t ies , s uch a s Hercu les a nd V enus , a ppear t o h ave b een

c o m mon ly r epresented , b u t n one o f t he v esse ls s ee m t o h ave t he l i nk ing t he me p roposed h ere . I nv iew o f t he v ar ious d ei t ies d ep icted Webster c onc luded t ha t t o l ook f or a u n i fy ing t he me may b e u nw ise ( Webster , 1 969 , 7 ) , a nd i ti s r ea l ised t ha t t hese v essels may o n ly r epresent a p an theon o f t he b et ter-known g ods . However w i th t he ir s even o r e igh t ' n iches ' t hese f o lded b eakers may h ave s ugges ted a s pec if ic t he me t o t heir p o t ters. T hus f or t hese f or ms i t may b e i n o rder t o p ropose a l i nk , p ar t icu lar ly a s r epresen ta t ions o f t he d e i t ies o f t he d ays o ft he week were n o t a n u nco mmon s cu lp tural mo t i f i n t he wes tern p rov inces o ft he Emp ire ( B lagg a nd G ibson , 1 980 , 1 55) . The S o l/Og m ia b eaker f ro m R ichborough , h owever , makes i tp la in t ha t a l though s uch a g roup ing m m igh t b e u sed , i t was n o t t he o n ly o ne . ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS . T he wr i ter i s i ndeb ted t o t he s ta f f o f S af fron Wa lden Museu m f or p erm ission t o p ub l ish t he c as t i n t he ir p ossession , a nd t o G eof f Marsh , Hugh Tol le4 a nd P au l Drury f or i n for ma t ion a nd o bserva t ions o n ad raf t o f t h is n o te . RE I LRENCES B lagg a nd G ibson 1 980 .

B lagg , T ., a nd G ibson , S ., ' The Recons truc t ion o f

t he Arch ', T he Ro man R iverside Wa l l a nd Monu men ta l Arch i n L ondon , e d . T ony Dyson .

L ondon a nd M iddx , Arch . S oc ., S pec ia l p aper No .3 ,

1 980 , 1 53-6 . Bushe-Fox 1 932.

Bushe-Fox , J . P ., Th ird Repor t o n t he Excava t ions o f t he

Ro man F or t a t R ichborough K en t . S oc . An t . R esearch Rep , 1 0 , 1 932.

D echelet te 1 904 . Dechelet te , J ., L es Vases r o ma ine. I , P ar is , 1 904. Hu l l 1 963a .

c e ram iqu es o r nes

d e l a Gau le

Hu l l , M . R ., The Ro man P o t ters ' K i lns o f C o lches ter . S oc . An t .

R esearch R ep . 2 1 , 1 963. Hu l l 1 936 .

Hu l l , M . R ., ' Ro man G aze t ter t, A H istory o f t he C oun ty o f Essex ,

V ic tor ia C ounty H istory S er ies , V o l I I , Ox ford , 1 963.

3 18

P err ing 1 977.

P err ing , D ., ' Aspects o f Ar t i n Ro mano-Br i t ish P ot tery ',

R o man L ife a nd Ar t i n B r i ta in P t . ie ds ., J u l ian Munby a nd Mart in H en ig , BAR 4 1 , Ox ford , 1 977 , 2 53-282. Roach-S m i th 1 857 . Ross 1 967.

Roach-S m i th , C ., C o l lec tanea An t igua I V , 1 857.

Ross , A ., P agan C el t ic B r i ta in , L ondon , 1 967.

Wa l ters 1 908. Wa l ters , H . B ., A Ca ta logue o f Ro man P ot tery i n t he Depar tmen ts o f A n t iqu i t ies o f t he B r i t ish Museum , L ondon , 1 908. Webster 1 979.

Webster , G ., ' A D ecora ted S herd a t C a mbr idge ' Durobr ivae

7 , 1 979 , 6 -7 .

3 19

1 9.

S O ME CONTINENTAL BEAKERS OF THE F IRST AND S ECOND CENTURIES A .D. Anne C . Anderson .

When t h is s tudy was f i rst u nder taken t he a i m was t o r eassess t he imp ortance o f t he R oughcast b eaker a s av iab le c era m ic c a tegory .

A t t ha t t ime

Roughcast b eakers were c lass if ied s o le ly a ccording t o t heir t ype o f d ecora t ion , t ha t i s t he s urface o ft he v essel i s c overed w i th a s pr ink l ing o f t i ny c laypart idies o r s and g iv ing a r ough efec t .

The c r i ter ia l a id d own f or t h is c lass o f

v essel d id n o t d i f feren t ia te b etween f or ms o r f abr ics . However , u pon c lose i nspect ion i ts oon b eca me a pparen t t ha t t hese v essels b roke d own i n to a s eries o f d ist inct ive t ypes , a ccord ing t o f or ms a nd f abr ics . Ac lassi f icat ion o f t hese d if feren t t ypes wou ld f ac i l i ta te i n e s tab l ish ing t he d a te a nd o r ig in o f i nd ividua l v essels .

More o ver , i ts oon b eca me o bvious t ha t Roughcast b eakers d id n o t

e x is t i n i so la t ion b u t were p ar t o f al ong a nd c on tinuous t rad i t ion o f f i ne t ab le wares , wh ich c o mp le men ted r ather t han c o mpeted w i th s am ian ( Greene , 1 979 . 3 ) .

The p r inc ipa l f or m o ft he c o lour-coa ted f ine ware r eper to ire , i n t he f i rst

a nd s econd c en tur ies , was t he b eaker .

As t h is f or m i s n o t p ar t icu lar ly we ll

r epresen ted i n s am ian , t he f ine ware b eakers s hou ld n ot b e v iewed a s a c heaper a l terna t ive b u t r a ther a s v esse ls w i th a s pec ia l ized f unct ion ( i b id , 3 ) . Iti s g enera lly a ssu med t ha t s uch b eakers were p r i mar i ly u sed a s d r ink ing v essels , a n a ssu mp t ion o f ten b orne o u t b y t he e xpress ive u se o fv ine l eaves a nd b unches o f g rapes a s d ecora t ive mo t ifs.

At rad i t ion o f n on-sig i l la ta

d r ink ing v essels c on t inued u p t o a nd b eyond t he e nd o f t he ma jor s am ian i nd ustr ies i n t he t h ird c en tury A .D . I t was o n ly when t ha t i ndustry s tar ted t o d ec line a nd e xpor ta t ion r educed t ha t t he r ange o f c o lour-coa ted f ine wares b egan t o d ivers i fy , t o i nc lude f lagons , b ow ls a nd d ishes , i n o rder t o r ep lace s am ian a s a n a l l p urpose t ab le ware .

Pr ior t o t h is t he t wo t ypes o f t ab le ware were

l argely i n ter-dependent , a s i n t he s econd c en tury t he ma jor i ty o f t he s am ian f ac tor ies were p roduc ing a ux i l liary c o lour-coa ted wares , a s a t Tr ier a nd Rheinzabern . On t he o ther h and , a t s o me c en tres c o lour-coa ted f i ne wares were p roduced a longs ide c oarse wares , s uch a s f lagons , mor tar ia a nd o ther k i tchen wares , a s was t he c ase a t C o logne , Ma inz- We isenau a nd N idaHeddernhei m ( Anderson , 1 980 ) . Consequen t ly , R oughcast b eakers were o n ly o ne e le men t i n t he f i ne ware r eper toire o ft he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D .

I n a dd i t ion t o b eakers

d ecora ted i n t h is manner , b eakers w i th o ther , s o met i mes more e labora te , me thods o f d ecora t ion were p roduced . T he l a t ter i ncluded r ou let t ing , b arbo t ine s ca les a nd c o mp lex b arbot ine d es igns u t i l iz ing p lan t , a n i ma l a nd h u man mo t ifs . H owever , a mean ing fu l c lass if ica t ion o f s uch b eakers h ad t o t ake i n to a ccoun t more t han j ust t he d ecorat ion . Any n ew a ppra isa l h ad t o i nc lude f or ms , r im t ypes a nd a bove a l l f abr ics , i ft he i nd iv idua l i ndustr ies c oncerned w ere t o b e a scerta ined a nd a f ra mework f or t he i den t if icat ion a nd d at ing o f i nd iv idua l v esse ls e stab l ished . 3 21

I n t he l i gh t o ft h is t he t erm Roughcast b eaker , t aken o n i t s o wn , h as l i t t le mean ing u n less ' f abr ic , f or m a nd r im t ype a re s pec i f ied . I nstead t hese v esse ls s hou ld b e v iewed a s p ar t o f ac o mp lex s er ies o f b eakers p roduced b y t he f i ne ware i ndustr ies o ft he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D. T h is p aper i s p r imar i ly c oncerned w i th i so la t ing a nd d ef in ing t he p roduc ts o ft wo s uch i ndustr ies , o ne i nt he L ower Rh ine land a nd t he o ther i nN or th-eastern G au l , whose p roduc ts i n f luenced t he g enera l d evelop men t o ff i ne wares . T he s i tua t ion a f ter c . A .D. 7 0 c hanged r ad ica l ly f ro m t ha t wh ich h ad p reva i led i nt he p receed ing p er iod . T he v ir tua l d isappearance o f L yon ware a nd t he h em ispher ica l c up c rea ted at e mporary h ia tus i nt he f i ne ware marke t . L ezoux d id n o t a ssu me t he r o le o f L yons , a s t he l ead ing manu fac turer b u t i nstead t ha t i ndus try t oo wen t i n to d ec l ine i n c . A .D . 7 5. T he f ocus o f a t tent i on a ppears t o move a way f ro m c en tra l G au l , a lbe i tt e mporar i ly , t o t wo n ew a reas , N or th-eastern G au l a nd t he Rh ineland . I n a dd i t ion t hese F lav ian i nd ustr ies w ere q u i te d if feren t i n c hara ter t o t he ir p re-F lav ian p recursors. I n t he p re-F lav ian p er iod f i ne ware p o t tery was manu fac tured a t an u mber o f c en tres a nd i n e ach c ase t he wares p roduced were h igh ly i nd iv idua l . T he wares p roduced a t L yons , L ezoux , L a G rau fesenque a nd i nS pa in were a l l d ist inc t ive ly d iferen t i n an umber o f ways , i nc lud ing f abr ics , f orms , r im t ypes a nd d ecora t ion . H owever , t he i ndus tr ies o f t he l a te f i rst a nd s econd c entur ies A .D . d o n o t f o l low t he s a me p a t tern . I nstead t hey w ere o f ten l i nked t ogether b y t he u se o f ac ommon r eper to ire o f f orms a nd s im i lar d ecorat ive t echn iques . T he i den t if i ca t ion o f i nd iv idua l i ndustr ies i s n ecessar i ly r el ian t o n d if feren t f abr ics , s l igh t mod i f ica t ions t o t he f or ms a nd s ub t le c hanges i n d ecora t ion a s d e tec ted i n d ifer ing f i gure t ypes . T h is c o mmon r eper to ire may r ef lec t ac o mmon h er i tage o r may b e t he p roduc t o f s epara te d eve lopmen ts u nder s im i lar c ons tra in ts . T h is c o m mon r eper to ire o r t rad i t ion , h owever , d oes d iv ide i n to t wo d is t inc t b u t c on te mporary b ranches f ro m at echn ica l a nd g eograph ica l p o in t o fv iew . T he f i rst b ranch o f t he t rad i t ion c an b e f ound i n t he R h ineland . T he l a te f i rst a nd s econd-cen tury f i ne ware i ndus try i nt h is a rea was b ased o n t he p roduc t ion o f t he c orn ice-r im med b agshaped b eaker . P r ior t o t h is t he i ndus try h ad r el ied o n i m ita t ing L yon b eaker f or ms a nd r im t ypes a nd b orrow ing S pan ish b arbo t ine mo t i fs , i n o rder t o p roduce i t s own f orms o fh igh-shou ldered b eakers w i th e labora te f o l ia te b arbo t ine d ecora t ion ( F ig . 1 9.1 , n os. 1 -3 ; Anderson , 1 980 , F orm 1 ) . C ups were a lso p roduced i n t he p re-F lav ian p er iod b u t t hese d ied o u t r ap id ly a f ter c . A .D . 7 0 .

These v esse ls w ere manu fac tured a t

C o logne i n t he L ower R h ine land a nd He ide lburg a nd Rheinzabern i n t he Upper Rh ine land . T he ma in p roducer was u ndoub ted ly C o logne a nd i t was t h is i ndus try t ha t t ook t he l ead i n t he F lav ian p er iod . Ac arefu l s tudy o ft he b eakers p roduced a t C o logne h as d e monstra ted t ha t t he b ag-shaped b eaker w i th c orn ice r im ( Anderson , 1 980 , F or m 2 .1) d eve loped f ro m t he e arl ier h igh-shou ldered b eaker w i th a g rooved r im ( i : 1 2 14 , f or m 1 .2) . An u mber o fv esse ls were p roduced w h ich mixed t ra i ts o f b o th s ty les o f b eaker t ogether , a s f or e xa mp le a b eaker w i th ac orn ice r im , a g lobu lar p ro f i le a nd b arbo t ine d ecora t ion h ark ing b ack t o t he S pan ish f o l ia te d es igns ( F ig . 1 9 .1 , N o .4 ) . C onsequen t ly , a t C o logne t he b ag-shaped b eaker e vo lved o ver a c ons iderab le n umber o f y ears f rom t he h igh-shou ldered v esse ls a nd t h is d evelopmen t was p robab ly a n i ndustr ia l s imp li f ica t ion i n o rder t o f ac i l i ta te mass-product ion . 3 22

I n a dd i t ion t o t he b ag-shaped b eaker a n ew f orm was a dop ted i n t he e ar ly s econd c entury , af orm b asica l ly d er ived f rom t he s am ian f or m , D eche le t te 7 2 ( i l . 21 4 , F or m 3 ) . T h is f or m i s c o mpr ised o f ab u lbous b ody w i th a s hor t , v er t ica l , c urved n eck w i th a s i mp le r im . T he f orm was p robab ly i n troduced i n to t he L ower R h ine land w i th t he c o mmence men t o f s am ian p roduc t ion a t T r ier . I t was q u ick ly a bsorbed i n to t he C o logne r eper to ire a nd p roduced i n c o lour-coa ted ware . I n a dd i t ion , p erhaps b y means o f c ross f er t i l iza t ion , t he T r ier p o t ters t he mse lves s tar ted t o manu fac ture c o lour-coa ted f i ne wares , i n t he f orm o f b ag-shaped b eakers a nd t he b u lbous u pr igh t-curved n eck v ar ie ty . T owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury t he b u lbous b eaker w i th u pr igh tc urved n eck e vo lved i n to a b eaker wh ich , wh i le r e ta in ing a b as ica l ly g lobu lar s hape , b eca me more a ngu lar i n p ro f i le w i th a s l igh t ly c urved i nc l in ing n eck a nd e ver ted r im , at ype c o mmon ly r eferred t o a s N iederb ieber F or m 3 2 ( Oe l mann , 1 914 ; A nderson , 1 980 , F or m 4 ) . Th is f orm was p roduced a t C o logne i n c o lour-coa ted ware a nd a t s evera l s am ia n f ac tor ies i n b o th c o lourc oa ted a nd s am ian f abr ics. O ne o ther ma jor f orm p roduced i n t he Rh ine land a t t h is t ime , i n c o lourc oa ted ware , was a b eaker w i th a b arre l s haped p ro f i le a nd w i th mu lt ip le g rooves a round t he n eck a nd s o me t imes a round t he f oo t ( Anderson , 1 980 , F or m 5 ) . I t was p r imar i ly p roduced b yt he Upper Rh ine land/ Wet terau i ndust r ies i n t he An ton ine p er iod b u t av ers ion o ft he f orm was p roduced a t C o logne i n t he l a te F lav ian-Tra jan ic p er iod . The f i ve f orms b road ly o u t l ined a bove r epresen t t he b asic c o mmon r eper to ire p roduced t hroughou t t he Rh ine land b u t t he i ndustry i s b es t e xe mpl i f ied b y C o logne , wh ich r e ma ined t he l arges t f i ne ware p roducer , w i th t he l onges t s pan o fp roduc t ion , a nd was c er ta inly t he l ead ing e xpor ter o f s uch wares . T he p ot ters a t C o logne w ere c er ta in ly s o me o f t he most i nnova t ive , p roduc ing H unt c ups a nd G lad ia tor b eakers i n f i ne ware a nd p roduc ing aw ide r ange o f o ther e xo t ic b eakers i n c oarse , c o lour-coa ted a nd l ead g lazed f abr ics . I t was t he d irec t i n f luence o f C o logne t hat p roduced f i rst t he C o lchester a nd t hen t he L ower N ene Va l ley i ndustr ies . B o th t he l a t ter r epresen t t he Rh inel and t rad i t ion o f f i ne ware p roduct ion i n Eng land . T he s econd b ranch o f t he f i ne ware t rad i t ion c an b e f ound i n N or the as tern G au l . Here , u n l ike a t C o logne where a t rad i t ion f or manu fac tur ing c o lour-coa ted f i ne wares h ad b een e s tab l ished s ince t he C laud ian p er iod , t he e stab l ish men t o f af i ne ware i ndus try i n c . A .D. 8 0 a ppears t o b e ac o mp le te ly n ew f ounda t ion w i th n o d irec t a n te-ceden ts i n t he a rea . However , t he p o t tery manu fac tured d oes b ear c er ta in s im i lar i t ies , a lbe i t i n r espec t o f t echn iques i fn ot f orms , t o t ha t p roduced i n c en tra l G au l a nd i n p ar t icu lar L ezoux . A f ter c . A .D . 7 0 L ezoux c on t inued t o p roduce , i n c o lour-coa ted w are , t he d is t ic t-i ve b arre l s haped b eakers , f i rs t s een i n t he p re-F lav ian p er iod , u p t o t he Hadr ian ic p er iod . An ew r eper to ire o f f or ms was i n troduced i n t he An ton ine p er iod b u t t he v esse ls w ere p roduced i n as am ian f abr ic w i th a b lack c o lour-coat . T echn ica l ly s uch v esse ls a re n o t ' t rue '. a ux i l iary f i ne wares , i n t he s ence t ha t t hey a re p ar t o ft he s am ian t rad i t ion a nd n o t s epara te f ro m i t . T h is i s mos t c lear ly e xpressed i n t he f or ms p roduced , a s b ag-shaped b eakers were n ot i nc luded i n t he r eper to ire ( Anderson , 1 980 , 5 ) . L ezoux b arre l s haped b eakers o f ten b ear b arbo t ine d ecora t ion r eferred t o a s t ear d rops a nd h a ir 3 23

p ins. T he f or mer mo t i f i s a lso f ound o n N or th G au l ish v esse ls , p ar t icu lar ly a s a me thod f or d ecora t ing b ag-shaped b eakers. C onsequen t ly , t he p o t ters who worked i n N or th-eas tern G au l may h ave b een i nf luenced t o s o me e x ten t b y L ezoux p roduc ts o r may h ave b een p ot ters who m igra ted t o t ha t a rea e i ther d irect ly f ro m L ezoux o r v ia L a Made le ine . However , t here a re d ivergen t c harac ter is t ics t ha t , a tt he l east , r epresen tn ew i deas . T he p r inc ipa l f orm p roduced b y t he N or th G au l ish i ndustry was t he b ags haped b eaker , o f av ery d i f feren t p rof i le t o t hat made i n t he R h ine land , w i th a g rooved c orn ice r im . T he b ag-shaped b eaker w i th a c orn ice r im t ook as econdary p osi t ion a nd was p robab ly n o t p roduced u n t i lt he An ton ine p er iod . T he b ag-shaped b eaker w i th g rooved c orn ice r i m was d eve loped i n t h is a rea , f ro m whence i t s p roduc t ion s pread t o wes tern B r i ta in , b u t t h is f orm was n ever a dop ted b y t he Rh ine land i ndus try o r i t s o f f-shoo ts i n s ou th-eas t Eng land . A f ter c . A .D. 1 40 t h is s i tua t ion c hanged s o mewha t . T he g rooved c orn ice-r i mmed b eakers w ere a pparen t ly d ropped f ro m t he r eper to ire t o b e r ep laced b y c orn ice r i mmed v essels. H owever , t he l a t ter w ere , man i fes t ly , n ot p roduced i nv ery l arge n umbers a s o n ly a f ew e xamp les h ave b een r ecorded . I ns tead v ers ions o f F or m 3 a nd s ubsequen t ly F or m 4 w ere manu factured i nvar iab ly i n as am ian f abr ic w i th a b lack c o lour-coa t . T hese c hanges t o t he r eper to ire may b e c orrela ted w i th t he i n troduc t ion o f an ew r ange o fv esse ls a t L ezoux i n c . A .D. 1 40 , when t he ' barre l ' s haped b eakers w i th a bs trac t b arbo t ine d es igns a nd o ther n on-sig i l la ta f i ne wares a pparen t ly c eased t o b e p roduced i n f avour o f b lack c o lour-coa ted s am ian f abr ic d r ink ing v esse ls . T h is c onnex ion a ga in u nder l ines t he c lose t i es b etween t he i dustr ies o f C en tra l G au l a nd N or th G au l. C o lour-coa ted f i ne wares were p roduced a longs ide s am ian a t s evera l d if feren t c en tre i n N orth-eastern G au l . A l though a l l ied b y ac om mon r epert o ire o f f or ms, t hese i ndus tr ies c an b e d i f feret ia ted b y c er ta in t echn ica l v ar ia t ions. F or e xa mp le , t he b ag-shaped b eakers p roduced a t L avoye ( Nor th G au l F abr ic 2 ? , s ee b e low ) a re w ide , r a ther s hor t a nd s qua t w i th a r ounded p ro f i le. I n c on trast , v esse ls p roduced i n N or th G au l F abr ic 1 ( s ee b e low ) a re t a l l a nd n arrow w i th r a ther c u mberso me g rooved c orn ice r i ms , wh ich a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced b y c u t t ing t he c lay a way w i th a k n i fe. A s i nd ica ted a bove , t he e xac t o r ig in o f s ome o ft hese v esse ls i s a s y e t u nde term ined . T he f i ne ware i ndustry i n N or th G au l was , t herefore , o f aq u i te d iferen t n a ture t o t ha t i nt he Rh ine land . I nstead i t was c losely a l l ied t o t he p roduc t ion o f s am ian a nd t o t echn iques a nd d ecora t ive d es igns emp loyed i n C en tra l G au l . T he t wo c era m ic t rad i t ions o u t l ined a bove s erve t o i l lustra te b o th t he c ommon a nd d iverse e le men ts w i th in t he f i ne w are i ndustr ies o f t he f i rst a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D. These t rad i t ions wou ld a ppear t o c orrespond d irect ly w ith g eograph ica l a reas , s uch a s C en tra l G au l , N or th G au l , Eas t G au l , t he Rh ine land a nd Eas tern Eng land . T hese i ndus tr ies s hared c erta in f ac tors , s uch a s t he p roduc t ion o f s im i lar f orms a nd r im t ypes , b u t i ndepend en t d eve lop men ts e nsured marked d iferences b etween t he m , e nab l ing t he c rea t ion o f ac lass i f ica tory s yste m t o f ac i l i ta te t he i den t i f ica t ion a nd d a t ing o f i nd iv idua l v esse ls .

3 24

THE POTTERY :

COLOGNE

F abr ic T he f abr ic o f a l l t he v esse ls d escr ibed b e low i sh ard , v ery f i ne a nd p ure wh i te i n c o lour . A dverse s o i l c ond i t ions c an r educe i tt o ac ha lky , p owdery c onsis tency . T he f abr ic t ends t o l am ina te when f rac tured . T he c o lour c oa t ing r anges f ro m a l mos t b lack t o o range-brown a nd i s i nvar iab ly g lossy b u t c an b e ma t t . T h is c o lour c oa t ing c an a ppear r a ther b lo tchy d ue t o a n u neven d ist rubu t ion o ft he s l ip . D if feren t ia l f i r ing p a t terns c an a lso b e o bserved , p art i cu lar ly a round t he b ase o f av esse l a nd o n t he i n ter ior s ur face . T h is f i ne p ure wh i te f abr ic a ppears t o h ave b een p roduced a t C o logne i n t he L ower Rh ine land , where t he s a me c lay was u t i l ized f or t he p roduc t ion o f l a mps a nd f igur ines . F orms F or m 1 :The h igh s hou ldered b eaker T h is f or m was d er ived f ro m L yon b eaker p ro to types . The f or m i s s ubd iv ided b y r im t ypes . Ear ly v esse ls t end t o h ave a d is t inc t ive h igh s hou ldered p ro f i le , wh i le l a ter v esse ls b eco me more g lobu lar . T he l a ter t ype c an o ccur , a lbe it r are ly , w i th a c orn ice r im i l lustra t ing t he o ver lap b etween F or ms 1 a nd 2 . H igh s hou ldered b eaker w i th c upped r im T h is r im t ype was d er ived f ro m L yons b eakers o f G reene Types 2 0.2 a nd 2 0 .4 ( Greene , 1 979 , F ig . 8 ) a nd i s c harac ter ized b y i t s c upped o r c oncave i n terna l s ur face . S uch b eakers r are ly h ave a s hou lder g roove. a nd g ir th-constr ic ted e xamp les s e ldo m o ccur .

I nden ted

I to ccurs w i th a v ar iety o f d ecora t ion :R oughcas t s and , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly . Rou le t t ing , i n b ands . ( F ig . 1 9.1 N o .2) B arbo t ine s ca les , c onf ined t o t he a rea o ft he s houlder . B arbo t ine f o l ia te d es igns , u l t i ma te ly d er ived f ro m S pan ish b eaker p recursors . O n t he l a t ter , t wo l eaf t ypes o ccur : - L eaf T ype 1 i s c harac ter ised b y ar ounded b ase , e nd ing i n ap o in ted t i p w i th ah igh c en tra l r e l ief . L ea f Type 2 i s h ear t s haped . B o th l ea f t ypes were p robab ly d er ived f ro m t he i vy l eaf . F low ing f o l ia te p a t terns , c o mpr ised o f l eaves a n d s te ms , were a ccompan ied b y r ows o f b arbo t ine d o ts b o th a bove a nd b e low t he f r ieze a nd b yb ands o f r ou le t t ing ( F ig . 1 9.1 N o . 3 ) . App l ied f ace masks . H igh s hou ldered b eaker w i th g rooved r im T h is r im t ype was e vo lved f ro m L yon b eakers o f G reene T ypes 2 0 .3 a nd 2 0.5 ( Greene , 1 979 , F ig . 8 ) . min ing a round t he r im .

I ti s c harac ter ized b y a n e x terna l g roove

Mos t o f t he b eakers h ave a s hou lder g roove .

I to ccurs w i th av ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : R oughcast s and , o n t he e x ter ior s u face o n ly ( F ig . 1 9. 1 ., N o . 1 ) . R ou le t t ing , i n b ands . B arbo t ine s ca les , c on f ined t o t he a rea o f t he s hou lder . B arbo t ine f o l ia te d es igns , i den t ica l t o t hose f ound o n t he p receed ing f or m ( F ig . 1 9.1 N o . 3 ) . Da t ing f or b oth v ar ie t ies o f F orm 1 :- C . A .D. 4 0-80/85. 2 25

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3 26

S ca le 1 :3.

F or m 2 :T he b ag-shaped b eaker . T h is f or m i s s ub-d iv ided b y b ody s hape a nd r im t ype . B ag-shaped b eaker w i th a c orn ice r im ( ear ly t ype ) Ab ag-shaped b eaker , r a ther r ounded i n p rof i le , w ith wa l ls t ha t f l are o u t i m media te ly a bove t he b ase r esu l t ing i n as hor t , b road v esse l .

T hese

b eakers a re u sua l ly a ssocia ted w i th a d el ica te ly mou lded c orn ice r im ( Anderson , 1 980 , 9 , C orn ice R im t ype 2 ) . I nden ted e xa mp les a re f requen t a nd t hese i nvar iab ly b ear t wo s hou lder g rooves wh ich d el im i t t he e x ten t o f t he d ecora t ion . I to ccurs w i th av ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : Roughcast w i th c lay p art icles , o n t he e x ter ior s urface o n ly . T he l a t ter w as emp loyed f or d ecora t ing p la in a nd i nden ted v esse ls ( F ig . 1 9.1 , No . 5 ) . B arbo t ine s ca le , c on f ined t o t he a rea b etween t he r im a nd t he c ar inat ion . B arbo t ine z oo morph ic a nd f o l iate d es igns , r eferred t o a s H un t C ups ' ( F ig . 1 9 .1 , N o .7 ) . T he l a t ter h ave c haracter ist ic f igure t ypesD ogs : A l arge , s tocky h ead , A s hor t , t h ick s nou t . Ah eavy l ower j aw , wh ich p ro jects w ith a n a ngu lar p ro f i le . The t ee th o n t he u pper a nd l ower j aw a re we l l d ef ined. As inuous b ody . N ea t , r ounded e ars. I nvar iab ly a c o l lar a round t he n eck . S tags :

N a tura l ist ic a nt lers , wh ich o f ten p ro ject o ver t he t op l i ne o f b arbo t ine d ots ( see b elow ) .

Rounded e ars. Hares : L ong e ars w i th r ounded t ips. Sma l l e yes . A r ow o f b arbo t ine d ots i s u sual ly p laced a bove a nd b e low t he b arbot ine f r ieze . I n a dd i t ion , r ows o f b arbo t ine d o ts w ere p laced b e tween t he f igures , c rea t ing p ane ls o r metopes , r a ther t han a c o mp lete ly f ree f l ow ing s cene . i n f i l ling .

L eaves o f b o th T ypes 1 a nd 2 w i th s te ms were u sed f or

C o mb ined b arbot ine a n thropo morph ic , z oomorph ic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s ' G lad ia t ior B eakers '. The men a re u sua l ly p or trayed i n p rotect ive c loth ing , c onsis t ing o f wha t a ppear t o b e meta l s tuddedlea ther j erk ins , h e l mets w i th c heek p ieces , l eg g uards a nd a rm g uards. S uch f igures may b e am ix ture o f b arbo t ine a nd a pp l ique t echn iques.

These men a re i nvar iab ly r epresented

i n c o mbat w i th e ach o ther o r p i t ted a ga inst w i ld a n i ma ls , s uch a s• b ears. L eaves a nd s te ms were a ga in u sed f or i n f i l ling . Da t ing : - C . A .D. 8 0- 1 50/160 f or r oughcas t o r b arbo t ine s ca le d ecora ted e xa mp les . c . A .D. 1 20-150/160 f or t he Hun tC ups a nd G lad ia tor B eakers.

Q9, 7

B ag-shaped b eaker w i th .a c orn ice r im ( l a te t ype ) . Ab ag-shaped b eaker w i th a n a ngu lar p rof i le , t he a ng le o ft he l ower wa l l c ons iderab ly s teeper t han t ha t o ft he p receed ing .for m . S uch v essels a ppear e longa ted d ue t o an arrow ing o f t he w id th i n p ropor t ion t o t he h e igh t a nd h ave at endency t o l ook t op h eavy . These b eakers a re u sua l ly a ssocia ted w ith a c orn ice r im t ha t h as a n e xaggera ted h ooked p rof i le ( Anderson , 1 980 , 9C orn ice R i m Type 3 ) . I nden ted e xa mp les a re r ela t ive ly c ommon a nd t hese i nvar iab ly b ear t wo s hou lder g rooves wh ich d el im i t t he e x ten t o ft he d ecora t ion. I to ccurs w ith a v ar iety o f d ecorat ion :Roughcas t w i th c lay p ar t ic les , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly , ( F ig . 1 9.1 , No . 6 ) . T he l a t ter was emp loyed f or d ecora t ing p la in a nd i nden ted ex a mp les. Rou let ting , i n b ands . B arbo t ine z oo morph ic a nd f o l ia te d esigns , r eferred t o a s ' Hun t Cups ' ( F ig .19.2 , No 7 The l a t ter h ave c haracter ist ic f igure t ypes Dogs :

Al ong , p o inted h ead Al ong , p o in ted s nou t . T he t eeth a re b ad ly d ef ined o r e n t irely om m i t ted . The e ares a re l ong a nd p o in ted . The b ody i s p oor ly model led . I nvar iab ly a c ol lar a round t he n eck .

S tags :

The a n t lers a re l arger a nd i nd iv idua l f ronds b eco me f ea thery i n a ppearance.

Hares :

They a re g enera l ly l ess n a tura l ist ic .

The

a n t lers o f ten p ro ject o ver t he t op l i ne o f b arbo t ine d o ts. The e ars a re more p o inted . L onger e ars w ith p o in ted t ips. L arge e yes.

These l a ter d esigns b eco me more a bstract , l ess n a tura l ist ic i n a ppeara nce .

There i s at endency t o e longa te f igures o r p ar ts o f f igures , s uch

a s t he e ars o r a n t lers. B arbo t ine d o ts were s t i l l emp loyed , a bove a nd b elow t he s cene a nd t o c rea te p anels. L eaves , ma in ly o f Type 1 , a nd t endr i ls were u sed f or i n f i l l ing . I nvar iab ly ad eep b and o f r ou let t ing was p laced b e low t he c ar na t ion . Dat ing : - C . A .D. 1 50/160-180/190 f or a l l t he v ar iet ies. B ag-shaped b eaker w i th a s i mp le r im . Ab ag-shaped b eaker w i th a n a ngu lar p rof i le , t he l ower wa l ls s lop ing u p a t a n a cu te a ng le f ro m t he b ase .

I n g enera l s uch v essels a ppear r a ther t a l l

a nd n arrow . I n a ddi t ion s o me d evelop a s hort f oo t , c rea t ing t he t endency t o l ook t op h eavy . T hese b eakers u sual ly h ave a s imp le r im , s o met i mes s l igh t ly t h ickened t owards t he t op o r c ha mpered t o g ive a s tra igh t l i p ( F ig . 1 9.2 N o .15) . S uch v essels were n ever i nden ted b u t t hey u sual ly h ave a s hou lder g roove wh ich d el im t is t he e x ten t o ft he d ecora t ion . I to ccurs w i th av ar iety o f d ecora t ion : Rou let t ing , i n b ands w ith i n terspersed g rooves a nd r idges , ( F ig , 1 9 .2, N o . 1 4) B arbo t ine f o l ia te d es igns , o ccur o n t he ir own ( F ig . 1 9.2, N o . 1 5) . 3 28

9

8

1 3

1

1 2

1 5

1 4

1 6

F ig . 1 9 .2 Co logne Ware.

3 29

S ca le 1 :3.

The l a t ter u t i l ized s i mp le s cro l ls , u l t i ma te ly d er ived f ro m p lan t t endr i ls , wh ich were a rranged i n c urv i l inear p at terns a round t he p o t . B arbo t ine d o ts were p laced a bove a nd b e low t he f r ieze. B arbo t ine z oo morphic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s ' Hun t Cups '. T he l a t ter u t i l ized t he s a me f igure t ypes a s t hose f ound o n t he l a te t ype o f b ag-shaped b eaker w i th c orn ice r im , b u t w i th a n i ncreas ing d egree o f a bstrac t ion .

T he b and o f r ou let t ing b e low t he c arina t ion was u sua l ly

om it ted. Da t ing : - c . A .D. 1 50/160-250 f or a l l t he v ar iet ies. F or m 3 :T he b u lbous b eaker w ith u prigh t-curved n eck . Ab u lbous b eaker , a l mos t s pherica l i n p rof i le , w i th a r ounded s hou lder a bu t t ing a n u pr igh t-curved n eck . Th is f or m a ppears t o b e al oose t ransla t ion i n to c o lour-coated ware o f t he s am ian v esse l D echelet te F orm 7 2 o r 6 6 . T he f or m i s s ub-d iv ided b y r im t ype . B u lbous b eaker w i th u pr igh t-cur ved n eck a nd a s i mp le r im . N or ma l ly t h is b eaker o ccurs w i th a s i mp le , s l igh t ly o u tcurved , r im . I tc an b e f ound i nden ted , w i th a g ir th c onstr ict ion o r w i th mu l t ip le g ir th c ons tr ict ions ( F ig . 1 9.2, No .12) .

A l l t hese p er mu ta t ions , r egard less o f d ecora t ion ,

h ave t wo n arrow s hou lder g rooves wh ich d e l im i t t he e x ten t o ft he d ecora t ion . I to ccurs w i th a v ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : Roughcas t w i th c lay p art icles o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly , ( F ig . 1 9.2, N os 9 & 1 0 ) Th is o ccurs o n a l l t he p er muta t ions o f t he f orm . Rou let t ing , i n b ands , i n terspersed w i th g rooves a nd r idges.

( F ig . 1 9.2, No 1 1) .

Th is i s n or ma l ly c onf ined t o t he g ir th c onstr icted v essels . B arbo t ine f o l ia te d es igns , o ccur o n t heir own . These f o l ia te p a t terns were u sua l ly emp loyed t o d ecora te g ir th c onstr ic ted v essels.

L eaves a nd s te ms were e ntw ined i n o rder t o c rea te a bstrac t

d esigns. B arbo t ine z oo morph ic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s

H un t C ups ', ( F ig .19 ,2

n o 1 3) . These d esigns o n ly o ccur o n t he p la in v essels .

They u t i l ized a n ima l

f igures o f as im i lar n a ture t o t hose f ound o n t he e ar ly b ag-shaped b eakers w i th c orn ice r im . Da t ing : c . A .D. 1 20/130-180/190 f or r oughcas t , r ou let ted a nd b arbo t ine f o l iate d es ign e xa mp les . c . A .D. 1 20/130-160 f or t he Hun t Cups . F or m 4 :The b u lbous b eaker w i th i ncl ined-curved n eck . Th is b eaker i s c haracter ized b y ag lobu lar b ody wh ich h as d eveloped a more a ngu lar p rof i le r esu l t ing i n al ong s lender f oo t a nd s harp ly a ng led s hou lder . A s l ight ly c urved n eck s lopes i n f rom t he s hou lder t o t he r im . T h is f or m , wh ich e vo lved f ro m F or m 3 , c an b ev iewed a s o ne s tage n earer t he f u l l b u lbous b eaker , wh ich was i t s d irect s uccessor. d iv ided b y r im t ype . 3 30

T he f or m i s s ub-

bu lbous beaker with i ncl ined-curved neck and everted r im

T h is f orm i s n or ma l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a sma l l , p o in ted e ver ted r im . I nden ted e xamp les a re f requent . B o th p er mu ta t ions o f t h is f orm u sua l ly h ave t wo n arrow s hou lder g rooves wh ich d e l im i t t he e x ten t o f t he d ecora t ion . I to ccurs w ith av ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : R oughcas t w i th c lay p ar t icles , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly . T he l a t ter n or ma l ly o ccurs o n t he p la in v esse ls a nd i s c o mpara t ive ly r are . R ou le t t ing , i n b ands i n terspersed w i th g rooves a nd r idges , ( F ig . 1 9.2, N o 1 6 ) B arbo t ine z oo morph ic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s ' Hun t C ups '. T he l a t ter u t i l ized f igure t ypes o f as im i lar n a ture t o t hose f ound o n t he l a te b ag-shaped b eakers w i th c orn ice r im b u t w i th a n i ncreas ing d egree o f a bstrac t ion . D a t ing : c . A .D . 1 80/190-250 f or a l t he v ar ie t ies . F orm 5 :T he mu l t ip le g rooved n eck b eaker . Ac y l indr ica l b eaker w i th a smoo th b arre l-shaped p ro f i le , c urv ing f ro m r im t o b ase . T he r im a nd b ase a re u sua l ly , a pprox i mate ly , t he s a me d ia metre . Around t he n eck a re a s er ies o fh or izon ta l g rooves , f ro m 4 t o 9i n n umber , wh ich c rea te a c orruga ted e f fect . N or ma l ly s im i lar g rooves w ere p laced a round t he b ase . Exa mp les c an a lso o ccur w i th e i ther o ne o rt wo h and les . T he f orm i s s ub-d iv ided b y r im t ype . Mu l t ip le g rooved n eck b eaker w i th a s imp le r im . T h is f or m o ccurs w i th a s imp le r im , w ith t he g rooves p laced j us t b e low t he r im . Exa mp les w i th e i ther o ne o r t wo h and les a lso o ccur . D ecora t ion : R oughcas t w i th c lay p ar t icles , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly . T he l a ter o ccurs o n b o th p la in a nd h and led v ersions . T he r oughcast ing i s n or ma lly c on f ined t o t he a rea b e tween t he g rooves . Mu l t ip le g rooved n eck b eaker w i th a n e ver ted r im . Th is f orm o ccurs w i th a sma l l , p o in ted e ver ted r im , w i th t he g rooves p laced i mmed ia te ly b e low t he r im .

Examp les w i th e i ther o ne o r t wo h and les

a lso o ccur . D ecora t ion : R oughcas t w i th c lay p art ic le , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly . T he l a t ter o ccurs o n b o th p la in a nd h and led v ers ions. i s n orma l ly c on f ined t o t he a rea b etween t he g rooves . Da t ing: c . A .D. 8 0-120 . f or a l l t he v ar ie t ies .

3 31

The r oughcas t ing

NORTH GAUL FABR IC 1 F abric Th is ware i s c haracter ised b y a n e x tre mely h ard , f i ne r ed f abr ic w i th i n many c ases a d ark g rey c ore. The c o lour-coa t i s u sual ly b lue-b lack o r more r arely b rown-red a nd i s f requen t ly e x tre mely g lossy w i th a n a l mos t me t tal l ic l ustre . Ano ther d is t inct ive f ea ture i s t he o ccurence o f d iagona l w ipe- marks , o n t he i n ter ior s urface j us t b elow t he r im .

T hese marks may

h ave b een p roduced b y t he p ot ter w ip ing a c lo th a round t he mou th o f t he b eaker , p erhaps a s a means o f smooth ing a nd f i n ish ing t he s urface. Th is p ar t icu lar h ab i t p rovides a c onven ien t means f or i den t i f ing t h is f abr ic . I n g enera l t erms t he f abr ic c ou ld e asi ly b e m is taken f or e ither C en tra l G au l ish c o lour-coa ted ware o r ' Rhenish ' ware . F or ms F or m 2 :The b ag-shaped b eaker . T h is f or m i s s ub-d ivided b y b ody s hape a nd r im t ype. B road b ag-shaped b eaker w i th a c orn ice r im T h is f or m c orresponds c losely i n b ody s hape t o t hose v esse ls p roduced i n t he Rh ine land a nd East G au l . S uch v essels f lare s harp ly o u t i m med ia te ly a bove t he b ase , c onsequen t ly p roducing a w ide b eaker w i th a f a ir ly r ounded p ro f i le . The u pper wa l ls c urve i n s l igh t ly t owards t he r im . A s hor t , s qua t f oo t i s n o t u nco m mon . T hese v esse ls a re n or ma l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a c orn ice r im t ha t d isp lays l i t t le o r n o mou ld ing , wh ich i s o f ten q u ite d eep ly u ndercut . I nden ted e xa mp les a re s o f ar u nrecorded . I to ccurs w i th av arie ty o f d ecora t ion :Roughcast w i th c lay p ar t icles , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly ( F ig . 1 9.3 , No 1 7 ) . Of ten v ery s parsely a pp l ied . Da t ing : - c . A .D. 1 35/140-160+ Cy l indr ica l b ag-shaped b eaker w i th g rooved c orn ice r im . Ab eaker , c y l indr ica l i n s hape , w i th a t endency t o l ook t a l l a nd n arrow w ith a r ounded p rof i le .

Of ten t he b ase i s l ef t p la in , w i th l i t t le mou lding a nd

n o f oo t r ing . Vessels o f t h is t ype a re o f ten f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th a g rooved c orn ice r im . Th is r im t ype was p robab ly d er ived f ro m L yon b eaker p ro to types ( Greene , 1 979 , F ig . 8N o . 2 0 .5 a nd 2 1) . B o th t he c orn ice r im a nd t he g rooved c orn ice r im s hare t he s a me a n teceden ts b u t d eve loped i ndependen t ly . Vesse ls o f t he f or m u nder d iscuss ion a re i nvar iab ly f ound w i th a r a ther h eavy r im , o f ten v ery p ronounced w i th a d eep u nder-cu t t ing g roove ( Anderson , 1 980 , 9 , G rooved C orn ice R i m Type 2 ) .

I nvar iab ly t here i s af a ir ly d eep h or izon ta l

g roove o n t he s hou lder , wh ich d e l im i ts t he e x ten t o f t he d ecora t ion .

I nden ted

e xa mp les a re n o t c o m mon . I to ccurs w i th a v ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : Roughcast w i th c lay p ar t ic les , o n t he e x ter ior s urface o n ly . 1 8, 1 9 &2 4) . Rou let t ing , i n b ands. ( F ig . 1 9.3 , No , 2 3 , a f ter S enecha l ) . Da t ing :C . A .D. 8 0-135/140. 3 32

( F ig . 1 9.3 N os ,

1 7

I8

2 1

2 0

1 9

2 4 2 3 2 2

2 6

2 7

2 5

2 9 2 8

F ig . 1 9 .3 North Gau l F abr ic 1 , Nos. 1 7-24 ; Nos. 2 5-29 . S ca le 1 :3.

3 33

North Gau l F abr ic 2 ,

Cyl indr ica l b ag-shaped b eaker w i th of-se t g rooved c orn ice r im . T h is f or m h as t he s a me b ody s hape a s t ha t d escr ibed a bove b u t i s f ound w i th a s l igh t ly d if feren tt ype o f r im . T he d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture l i es i n t he f ac t t ha t al arger p ort ion o f t he r im l i es a bove t he g roove w i th a sma l ler p or t ion b e low , w i th t he r esu l t t ha t t he t op p ar t p ro jects o ver t he l ower . C onsequen t ly , t he r im i s ac o mb ina t ion o f t he g rooved c onr ice r im w i th t he c orn ice r im . I n a dd i t ion s uch b eakers a re n or ma l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith b arbo t ine a nd a pp l ique d ecora t ion , n or ma l ly d ep ict ing t he h un t a nd a bstrac t b arbo t ine d es igns . T hus t he e v idence w ou ld s uggest t ha t t hese b eakers may h ave b een p roduced i n d irec t r esponse t o t he s im i lar v esse ls p roduced i n C en tra l G au l i nt he T ra jan ic/Hadran ic p er iod ( S i mpson , 1 957 ) .

T he c ompara t ive r ar i ty o f t he

N or th G au l ish v esse ls , c oup led w i th a n u nusua l d ivers i ty o f t echn iques emp loyed a nd s ee m ing ly b orrowed f igure t ypes , may i nd icate t ha t t h ey w ere a s o mewhat u nsucessfu l u nder tak ing . I nden ted e xa mp les h ave b een r ecorded ( F ig . 1 9 .3 , N o .22 ) . I to ccurs w i th t he f o l low ing d ecora t ion : B arbo t ine a nd a pp l ique z oo morph ic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s ' Hun t C ups ', ( F ig . 1 9.3 N o . 2 1) . T hese d es igns r equen t ly i ncorporate b o th b arbo t ine a nd a pp l ique t echn iques . F or t h is r eason t he l eve l o f c ra f ts mansh ip c an a ppear more c o mpe ten t b u t t he s cene more s ta t ic . S o f ar o n ly a l im i ted r ange o f f igure t ypes h as b een r ecorded , c ons is t ing o f s tags a nd h inds . S tags : L ong s ty l ised a n t lers , wh ich d o n o t p ro jec t a bove t he t op b ands o f r ou let t ing wh ich f ra me t he d ecora t ive f r ieze . T hese f igures a re n orma lly e xecu ted i n b arbo t ine , i nh igh r e l ief b u t w i th u nn a tura l ly t h in l egs . H inds : N or ma l ly h ave l ong p o in ted e ars . Sma l l e yes . U sua l ly e xecu ted i n b arbot ine , t hey h ave u n-na tura l ly t h in l egs . T he a n i ma l f igure t ypes a ppear t o b e s o mewha t s ty l ised a nd t here a ppears t o b e ag rea ter i n f luence o f s am ian f igure t ypes. L eaves a nd t endr i ls a re u sed f or i n f i l l ing . T hese a re n or ma l ly w oven i n to i n tr ica te r unn ing p a t terns , o f as im ilar n a ture t o t he s cro l ls f ound o n s am ian . T endr i ls wou ld a ppear t o b e a pp l ied i n b arbo t ine b u t t he l eaves b y a pp l ique . T he l eaves h ave av ery d ist inc t ive s hape , u sua l ly t hree p ronged a nd a re u ndoub ted ly d er ived f ro m I vy l ea f p ro to types . T hese I vy l eaf s cro l ls w ere p laced a bove a nd b e low t he a n i ma ls a nd may b e e x tended t o f i l l i n t he g aps b etween t he f igures . I ns tead o f r ows o f b arbo t ine d o ts , b ands o f r ou let t ing were p laced a bove a nd b e low t he d ecora t ive f r ieze . B arbo t ine f o l ia te

d es igns , o ccur o n t he ir own , ( F ig . 1 9.3 , N o . 2 0 ) .

T he l a t ter u t i l ized s imp le s cro l ls , u l t ima te ly d er ived f ro m p lan t t endr i l ls , wh ich were a rranged i n c urv i l inear p a t terns a round t he p o t . B arbo t ine d o ts were p laced a bove a nd b e low t he f r ieze . B arbo t ine a bstrac t d esigns ( F ig . 1 9.3 , N o ,2 2, a f ter S enecha l ) . T he l a t ter u t i l ise ' t ear d rop ' a nd ' ha ir p in ' mo t ifs s im i lar t o t hose f ound o n L ezoux p roducts.

O ver lapp ing ' t ear d rops ' a re o f ten p laced i n

3 34

v er t ica l r ows o n i nden ted e xa mp les .

T h is ' t ear d rop ' mo t i f i s c rescen t

s haped i na ppearance w ith a sma l lt a i l , b ear ing a g enera l s im i lar i ty t o a' w ish b one '. Th is mo t i f a lso o ccurs o n N or th G au l F abr ic 2 v esse ls . However , t he ' t ear d rop ' mo t i f was n o t emp loyed o n ' Raet ian ware ,' wh ich u t i l ised c resents a nd t orcs . I n a dd i t ion s ome v esse ls w ere d eco ra ted w i th b arbo tine d o ts a rranged i n g eo me tr ic p a t terns , s uch a s d iamonds , t r iang les a nd r ec tang les . D at ing : - c . A .D . 12 0 -140 f or t he H un t C ups . c . A .D . 8 0-140 f or t he a bstrac t d es igns . NORTH GAUL F ABR IC 2 F abr ic T h is f abr ic i s q u i te d i f feren t i n c haracter t o t ha t a ssoc ia ted w ith t he p receeding ware , i nd ica t ing a n a l terna t ive s ource o f p roduc t ion . T he c o lour i s n or m al ly p a le o range t o b u f f , v ery f i ne w i th a t endency t o b e r educed t o a s of t , p owdery c onsistency when s ub jected t o a dverse s o i l c ond i t ions . F requen t ly sma l l r ed i ronstone p art ic les a nd f l akes o f g o lden m ica c an b e d etec ted i n t he f abr ic . T he c o lour-coa t v ar ies i n c o lour f ro m p a le b rown t o o range , of ten w i th a mo t t led e f fec t a round t he r im a nd b ase . o r v ery g lossy w i th a me ta l l ic s heen .

T h is c o lour-coa t c an b e ma t t

F or ms F or m 2 :T he b ag-shaped b eaker T h is f orm i s s ub-d iv ided b y b ody a nd r im t ype . B ag-shaped b eaker w i th c orn ice r im B eakers o ft h is f orm a re c harac ter ised b y wa l ls t ha t f l are o u t im med ia te ly a bove t he b ase , c onsequen t ly c rea t ing w ide v essels w i th r a ther a ngu lar p rof i les . T hey a ppear r a ther s hor t a nd w ide i n c on tras t t o t he t a l l , n arrow b eakers o f N or th G au l F abr ic 1 . S uch v esse ls o ccur w i th a c orn ice r im , o f as im i lar t ype t o t ha t f ound o n C o logne b ag-shaped b eakers . I nden ted e xamp les a re u ncom mon . S o me e xa mp les b ear a s hou lder g roove , wh ich d e l im i ts t he e x ten t o ft he d ecora t ion . I to ccurs w i th av ar ie ty o fd ecora t ion : Roughcast w i th c lay p ar t ic les , o n t he e x ter ior s urface o n ly , ( F ig , 1 9.3 N os 2 8 &2 9) . B arbot ine a bstrac t d es igns . The l a t ter emp loyed mo t ifs s im l ar t o t hose f ound o n v esse ls o f N or th Gau l F abr ic 1 . I np ar t icu lar , t he ' t ear d rop ' o r ' w ish b one ' mot i f was c o mb ined w i th ' ha ir p ins ' t o c rea te e labora te d es igns. Da t ing : - C . A .D. 1 35/140-160+ B ag-shaped b eaker w i th a g rooved c orn ice r im V esse ls o f t h is f or m t ake t he s a me b asic s hape a s t he p receed in .g b eaker f orm b u t w i th a more r ounded p ro f i le . I n a dd i t ion t hey n orma l ly o ccur w i th ad e l ica te ly mou lded , g rooved c orn ice r im ( Anderson , 1 980 , 9 , G rooved C orn ice R im T ype 1 ) , w h ich i s l i gh ter i n c harac ter a nd sma l ler t han t ha t

a ssoc ia ted w i th v esse ls O f F abr ic 1 . Mos t e xa mp les h ave a s hou lder g roove , wh ich d el im i ts t he e x ten t o ft he d ecora t ion . I nden ted e xamp les a re i n frequen t . I to ccurs w i th av ar ie ty o f d ecora t ion : Rou thcas t w i th c lay p ar t ic les , o n t he e x ter ior s ur face o n ly , ( F ig . 1 9.3 , N os . 2 5 & 25) Barbo t ine z oo morph ic a nd f o l ia te d es igns , r eferred t o a s ' Hun t C ups ', ( F igs . 1 9.3 , No . 2 7 ) . O f t he l a t ter f ew e xa mp les h ave b een r ecorded a nd n o e n t ire f igure t ype a s y e t f ound . H owever , t he f igures a ppear t o h ave b een l arge ly e xecu ted i n b arbo t ine a nd d eer f i gure t ypes p ro l i fera te . F o l ia te d es igns , u t il iz ing I vy l eaves a nd s te ms t o f orm i n ter tw in ing s cro l ls , were a lso a pp l ied i n b arbo t ine . D at ing:

c . A . D . 8 0-135/140 f or t he r oughcast e xa mp les . c . A .D . 1 20-140 f or t he h un t c ups .

THE I NDUSTRY—COLOGNE AND THE RH INELAND C o logne , a s c ap i ta l o f G er man ia I n fer ior w ith I mperia l c onnex ions a nd s i tua ted o n ap r inc ipa l wa ter c ourse a nd t rade r ou te , p ossessed t he n ecessary a t tr ibu tes t o b e t he n a tura l s uccessor o f L yons . I n a dd i t ion t he c i ty s oon a cqu ired t he n ecessary mechan is ms f or t rade , amp ly i l lustra ted b y t he i nscr ipt i ons r eferr ing t o n egot ia tores e i ther f ro m o r o pera t ing a t C o logne . V ar ious n ego t ia tores a re l i sted b y Hassa l l ( Hassa l , 1 979) . , b u t o fp ar t icu lar i mportance h ere i s o ne C . Aure l ius C L V erus ( Co logne : C IL X II I . 8 164(a ) ) . Th is i ns cr ip t ion s erves t o i l lustra te t he t rad ing c onnex ions b e tween B r i ta in a nd t he R h ine land a lthough t he o b jec ts o f s uch t rade w ere more l i ke ly t ob e s a l t , c orn , c a t t le , s laves a nd d ogs t han p o t tery . H owever , t wo f ur ther i nscr ip t ions f ro m C o l i jnsp la t t/Domburg men t ion a n ego t ia tor c re tar ius B r i tann ic ianus , t raders who were p resumab ly e ngaged i n t he s h ipp ing o f E ast G au . l ish s am ian a nd ' Rhen ish ' Wares t o B r i ta in a nd who i n a dd i t ion may h ave i nc luded C o logne p roduc ts i n t he ir c argoes . The p ipe c lay f igur ines manu fac tured a t C o logne , f ro m t he s ame c lay a s t he f i ne wares , were n o d oub t d istr ibu ted b y s uch men . C o logne u ndoub ted ly p ossessed t he n ecessary mechan is ms f or t rade , f or d isse m ina t ing p roduc ts manu fac tured i n C o logne , g oods b rough t f ro m t he immed ia te h in ter land a nd b rough t f ro m a reas f ur ther a f ie ld s uch a s t he Mosel le V a l ley a nd t he U pper Rh ine land . C o logne wou ld h ave b een t he i dea l v enue f or a sse mb l ing c o mpos i te c argoes .

However , ag rea ter p ar t o f C o logne 's

l oca l ' i ndus tr ia l o u tpu t ' wou ld h ave b een c onsumed b yt he e x tensive h o me marke t . T he L ower R h ine land , w i th i t s e x tre me s oc ia l p o lar isa t ion , e ncouraged p roduc t ion g eared p urely t o s a t ia te l oca l d e mand . C onsequen t ly , a l l t he ma jor u rban c en tres a t trac ted a r t isans who manu fac tured a l l t he f unda men ta l c onsu mer i t e ms , s uch a s p o t tery a nd me ta l v esse ls a nd u tens i ls , f or t he h ome market . T h is r esu lted i n t he v ar ious i ndustr ies r e ma in ing o n a sma l l s ca le , c o mparab le t o ac o t tage i ndustry a nd w ere u ndoub ted ly b ased o n i nd iv idua l f am i ly c oncerns. Mos t o ft he l arge u rban c en tres w ere , t herefore , s e lf-suppor t ing a s , far a s f una men ta l c onsumer g oods were c oncerned a nd t here wou ld h ave b een l i t t le i ncen t ive t o p roduce a s urp lus f or e xpor t . T he s ca t tered p roduct ion s i tes a round C o logne , w i th t he a t tendan t sma l l s ca le work ing u n i ts a nd k i lns b e l ie t h is s i tua t ion ( Lung , 1 959 , 5 2 , Abb . 2 ) . 3 36

I n a dd i t ion t o f i ne wares t hese workshops manu fac tured c oarse wares , f igur ines a nd l a mps , a nd t h is l ack o f s pec ia l isa t ion i n p roduc t ion d enotes t ha t t he a r t isans i nvo lved were k een t o p rov ide aw ide r ange o fp roduc ts f or p ros pec t ive p urchasers . However , t h is a lso t ended t o r es tr ic t t he q uan t i ty t ha t c ou ld b e manu factured o f a ny o ne t ype. Aga in t h is r ef lec ts a r e l iance o n t he k nown l oca l marke t , r a ther t han o n mass ive p roduc t ion g eared t o l ong d istance t rade a s a t L a G raufesenque . C onsequen t ly , t hose f i ne w ares t ha t w ere e xpor ted w ere p robab ly p ar t o f c o mpos i te c argoes , c o mpr ised o f o ther c era m ic p roducts s uch a s E ast G au l ish s am ian a nd C o logne f i gur ines a nd l a mps , o r o ther c om mod i t ies s uch a s g lass . T hese c argoes were u l t ima te ly d es t ined p r i mar i ly f or m i l i tary s i tes a nd t he ir a t tendan t c iv i l ian s et t le men ts , wh ich f or r easons o ft he ir n a ture o r s i te l oca t ion were o f ten i ncapab le o fp roduc ing t he ir o wn h igh q ua l i ty c onsu mer g oods . T h is f ac t i s c onf ir med b yt he r e la t ive ly l arge n umbers o f C o logne f i ne wares f ound o n t he L i mes i n n or th B r i ta in a nd U pper G ermany a nd o n i nd iv idua lf or t s i tes a nd t he ir a ssoc iated v ic i . C ons ign men ts w ere a lso u ndoub ted ly s en t t o o ther l arge u rban c en tres b o th i nt he Rh ine land a nd b eyond , a s e xamp les o f C o logne f i ne wares h ave b een r ecorded a t N i j megan , X an ten a nd B onn i n t he L ower Rh ine land a nd Ma inz i n t he U pper Rh ine land . d id n o t t rave l a s f ar s ou th a s S trasbourg .

H owever , s uch wares

F ro m c . A .D . 4 3 o nwards t here was a sma l l b u t c on t inuous t r ick le o f C o logne f i ne wares e xpor ted t o B r i ta in , w i th a n i ncrease i n t he q uan t i ty f ro m c . A .D. 1 20 o nwards d ue t o t he p robab le a dven t o f d irec t s h ipp ing f ro m t he mou th o f t he Rh ine t o t he R iver T yne . D irec t c on tact b etween t he R h ine a nd t he Nor thern f ron t ier z one i s s ugges ted b y a n i nscr ip t ion d redged f ro m t he T yne a t N ewcast le , wh ich r ecords t he a rr iva l o f r e in force ments f or a l l t hree B r i t ish l eg ions f ro m t he a rm ies o f b o th G er man p rov inces u nder t he g ovenors h ip o f J u l ius V erus .

Due t o t he g eograph ica l p rox im i ty o f s ou th-east Eng land

t o t he Rh ine land i ti sh ard ly s urpr is ing t ha t t he g rea tes t q uan t i ty o f C o logne f i ne wares wou ld a ppear t o c oa lesce l arge ly i n t h is a rea o f t he c oun try ( F ig . 1 9.4 ) . C onsign men ts p robab ly e n tered v ia e astern p or ts s uch a s R ichborough , L ondon a nd N ewcast le a nd t he v esse ls d isse m ina ted f ro m e ast t o w es t . I n a dd i t ion d irect o f f-shoo ts o f t he C o logne i ndustry , a t C o lchester a nd i nt he L ower N ene Va l ly , w ere e s tab l ished i n t he e astern r eg ion o f t he c oun try . However , a long Hadr ians wal l a nd t he An ton ine Wa l l d is tr ibu t ion i s c o mparat i ve ly e ven d ue t o ag rea ter e ase o ft ranspor ta t ion c o mmensura te w i th t he p rox im i ty o f o ccupa t ion s i tes ( F ig . 1 9.4 ) . On t he Upper G er man L i mes , C o logne f i ne wares f aced d irec t c o mpet i t ion f ro m v essels manufac tured i n t he Upper Rh ine land a nd t he We t terau . N ever t he less , C o logne p roduc ts were d ispersed a s f ar a f ie ld a s R egensburg a nd S traub ing ( F ig . 1 9.4 ) . P ot tery p roduced a t C o logne a s e ar ly a s t he Augus tan/T iber ian p er iod , was o f av ery s im i lar n a ture t o t ha t p roduced i n t he c on te mporary k i lns a t Xan ten . C o lour-coa ted wares d o n o t a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced b efore t he C laud ian p er iod. B eakers o f F or m 1were manu fac tured a tt he Mars i ls te in K i ln c o mp lex , i n K i lns 1 a nd 6 ( B insfe ld , 1 969) . T hese k i lns were s i tua ted o u ts ide t he C o Ion ia

j us t t o t he s ou th o ft he ma in e ast/west r oad t o Aachen .

T h is k i ln c o mp lex p roduced o ther t ypes o fp ot tery , n o tab ly c oarse wares , 3 37

KEY o

V esse ls

d a ted

c .A .D .

40 -8 0

•

V esse ls

d a ted

c .A .D .

80- 2 50

*

Co logne

F ig . 1 9 .4 D istr ibut ion o f Co logne Ware.

3 : 18

t yp ica l ly f i rs t c en tury i n c harac ter , b u t n one o ft he l a ter f or ms o f c o lourc oa ted ware w ere r epresen ted . However , t he l a t ter were manu fac tured a t t he Rudo l fp la tz k i ln c o mp lex , s i tua ted o nce a ga in o u tside t he C o Ion ia o n t he ma in r oad t o Aachen . F or ms 1 t o 4w ere p roduced h ere , a longs ide l a mps a nd f igur ines , i nd ica t ing c on t inu i ty o f p roduct ion f ro m t he m id-f irs t c en tury t o t he e ar ly t h ird ( B ins fei ld , 1 964 ) . P roduc t ion a t t he v ar ious k i ln s i tes i n a nd a round C o logne a ppears t o c ease i n t he e ar ly t h ird c entury . Th is may h ave b een p ar t ly d ue t o t he d isr up t ion o ft he i ndustry 's p r inc ipa l e xpor t marke t , t he Upper G er man L i mes , wh ich was i rrevocab ly d iss loca ted b y t he G rea t A le mann ic i nvas ion o f A .D . 2 33. H owever , i t was n o t u n t i l A .D . 2 57 t ha t t he L ower G er man L i mes was s er ious ly d amaged b y i nvad ing F ranks . T he l ack o f s ecur i ty p reva i l ing i n t he s econd h a l f o f t he t h ird c en tury , a f ter t he e ven tua l c o l lapse o f t he L imes , was n ot c on c lus ive t o l arge s ca le p o t tery p roduc t ion a nd l ong d istance t rade . A l though a sma l l q uan t i ty o f p o t tery was p roduced i nt he f or th c en tury a t C ologne , t his was p ure ly f or l oca l c onsu mpt ion . T he l ong d istance t rad ing p at terns o f t he s econd c entury , a s e xe mp l i f ied b yt he d is tr ibu t ion o f s am ian a nd f i ne wares , were n ever r e-es tab l ished . T he p a t tern a s e xe mp l i f ied b y C o logne , t ha t o f a n u rban b ased i ndustry where p roduc t ion w as l arge ly d ependen t o n t he e x tens ive h o me marke t a nd where t he k i lns w ere s i tua ted e i ther immed ia te ly o u ts ide t he t own o n t he ma in a r ter ia l r oads o r w i th in t he c onf ines o ft he t own i t se lf , was r epea ted a t s evera l u rban c en tres i n t he Rh ine land . X an ten a nd Ma inz h ave p roduced e v idence f or l arge s ca le c iv i l ian p o t ter ies. N i j megen was s upp l ied b y b oth m i l i tary a nd c iv i l ian p o t ter ies a nd o u ts ide t he Rh ine land a t T r ier , B e lg ic wares were manufac tured p r ior t o t he i ncep t ion o f s am ian p roduc t ion . I n a dd i t ion , s o me f or t v ic i w ere a lso e qu ipped w i th t he ir o wn l oca l p ot ter ies , a s a t H edderhe i m/ N ida a nd E chzel l i nt he We t terau a nd H e ide lburg i n t he Upper Rh ine land . H owever , t hese l a t ter i ndustr ies l argely r e l ied o n i m i ta t ing C o logne v esse ls a nd t he more amb i t ious f orms , s uch a s t he ' Hun t C ups ', were r are ly a t te mp ted . T o s u m mar ise t he p ot tery i ndustry i n t he Rh ine land was i n g enera l u rban b ased , r e ly ing o n l arge h o me marke ts . T he Rh ine i t se lf p rov ided a n a tura l t rade r ou te f ac i l i ta t ing b o th t rade a nd c o mmun ica t ion . P ar t icu lar ly i n t he L ower Rh ine land t he e s tab l ish men t o fl arge m i l i tary i nsta l la t ions a nd t he ir a t tendan t c iv i l ian p opu la t ions , c o mb ined w i th t he e ase o ft ranspor ta t ion a nd c o mmun icat ion , p roduced a h igher d egree o fu rban c oncen tra t ion t han i n a ny o ther p ar t o f t he w estern Emp ire . T h is s i tuat ion e ncouraged s e lf-suf f ic iency i n c onsumer g oods a nd e xpor ta t ion o u t s ide t he L ower Rh ine land was a b yp roduct r a ther t han an ecessi ty . THE I NDUSTRY—NORTH GAUL I n c on tras t t o t he i ndus try i n t he Rh ine land , p roduc t ion i n N or th G au l was n o t c oncen tra ted i no r a round l arge u rban c en tres . I t was p r i mar i ly a r ura l i ndustry , t he main p re-requ is i te o f wh ich w as t o b e s i tuated c lose t o t he n a tura l r esources n ecessary f or p roduc t ion , n a me ly c lay , wa ter a nd wood .

The d i f ference i nl oca t ion d e term ined a r el iance o n l ong d is tance t rade

r ather t han d ependence o n al arge s teady h o me maket .

T herefore , t he i ndus-

t ry i n Nor thGau l was o f aq u i te d i f feren t n a ture a nd b ackground t o t ha t i n t he 3 39

Rh ine land . Whereas i n t he L ower Rh ine land t he p ot tery i ndustry a ppears t o d eve lop i ndependen t ly w i th l oca l p ot ters d raw ing f ro m av ar ie ty o f s ources , t he N orth G au l ish i ndustry was u ndoub ted ly a n o f f-shoo t o ft he C en tra l G au l ish i ndustry . T he move men t o f a c tua l p o t ters , r a ther t han t he t rans m it t ing o f n ew i deas t o i nd igenous p ot ters , i s s ugges ted n o t o n ly b y t he f i ne wares b u t b y t he a t tendan t p roduct ion o f s am ian . H owever , t he f i ne w ares i n p ar t icu lar h e lp t o i l lus tra te t ha t t he s am ian/f ine ware i ndustry o f N or th G au l was s ub jec t t o ad i f feren t p a t tern o f d eve lopmen t t o t hat i n E ast G au l a nd t he R h ine land . P roduct ion was f ragmen ted , w i th k i ln s i tes s ca t tered a cross N or the as tern G au l , w i th c oncen tra t ions i nt he v icin i ty o f t he S eine a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies . I n N or th-eas tern G au l t he S e ine was t he ma in a r ter ia lt rade r ou te . Vesse ls o f N or th G au l F abr ic 1 may h ave b een p roduced i n t he F oret d e C o mp iegne . S evera l s i tes i nt h is r eg ion h ave p roduced v as t q uan t i t ies o f s uch p o t tery , w i th s econds o r m isf ired e xa mp les w e l l r epresen ted . T he s i tes i n q ues t ion i nc lude Mon t B erny , B u issonne t a nd C o mp iegne i t sel f . However , mos t o f t hese s i tes were e xcava ted u nder t he a usp ices o f N apo leon I I i n t he m id ni neteent h c en tury a nd c onsequen t ly l i t t le i s k nown o f t he ir e xac t n a ture . C o mp iegne l i es o n t he R iver O ise , at r ibu tary o ft he S eine a nd h ence w as i dea l ly s u i ted t o a c t a s ac o l lect ion p o in t f or a sse mb l ing sma l l c argoes f or s h ipp ing a long t he r iver s ys te m t o t he n or th c oas t o f F rance . Ano ther p oss ib le p roduct ion c en tre f or s uch v essels c ou ld b e J au lgesV i ll iers-V ineux , s i tua ted n ear t he R iver Y onne a nd a ga in i n ap r i me p os i t ion f or u t i l is ing wa ter t ranspor ta t ion f or s h ipp ing i t s p roduc ts. S i tes a long t he Y onne , s uch a s J ouxla-V il le , h ave p roduced a r ange o f b lack c o lour-coa ted v essels , o f ten t ak ing t he f or m o f b ag-shaped o r b u lbous b eakers w i th b ands o f r ou let ted d ecora t ion . I n a dd i t ion s am ian was p roduced a t J au lges. T he o r ig in o f N or th G au l F abr ic 2 wou ld a ppear t o l i e i nt he Argonne a rea o f N or th-eas tern G au l . O nce a ga in , t he k i lns e xcavated a t D ' A u try— L avoye , l ay c lose t o at r ibu tory o ft he S e ine , i n t h is c ase t he R iver A isne . A ccord ing t o t he e xcava tor ( Chene t , 1 920 ) , s am ian a nd c olour-coa ted f i ne wares were p roduced a longs ide e ach o ther a nd s ubsequent ly f i red i n t he s a me k i lns. T he p roduc t ion o f b ag-shaped b eakers w i th e i ther g rooved c orn ice r i ms o r more r are ly c onr ice r i ms i s b eyond d ispu te , a s s uch v essels were r epr esen ted a t t he s i te b y was ters . However , i th as p roved d if icu l t t o a scer ta in t he c orrec t f abr ic o f t he L avoye p roduc ts d ue t o t he o ver f ired n a ture o f t he was ters , t hereby l eav ing s o me d oub t t ha t t hese v esse ls c an b e c orrela ted w i th N orth G au l F abr ic 2 . S im i lar v esse ls t o t hose p roduced a t L avoye h ave b een f ound o n o ther k i ln s i tes i n t he a rea , n o tab ly a tA vocour t . D esp i te t hese p rov isos i ts ee ms c lear t ha tv esse ls o ft h is g enera l n ature were p roduced a t an u mber o f k i ln s i tes i nN or th-eas tern G au l . T hese s ca t tered p roduct ion c en tres were d ependen t o n l ong d istance t rade f or t he d ispersa l o ft he ir wares . However , p roduc t ion n ever r eached t he s a me l eve ls a s t ha t a t L a G raufesenque o r e ven L ezoux d ue t ot he d i f fuse n a ture o ft he i ndus try . I n a ddi t ion , t he v ery s truc ture o ft he i ndus try h ad c hanged f ro m t ha t wh ich h ad p reva i led a t L a G raufesenque .

Ac o mb ina t ion o f f ac tors

i nc lud ing r e la t ive ly sma l l p roduc t ion c en tres , k i lns wh ich c ou ld o n ly a cco mod ate sma ll l oads a nd n o a pparen t mechan is ms i nt he a rea f or a sse mb l ing a nd d is tr ibu t ing g oods , a s i l lustra ted b y t he p auc i ty o f i nscr ip t ions men t ion ing n ego t ia tores r ecorded f or t he a rea , c rea ted sma l l , c o mpara t ive ly l im i ted i ndustr ies .

3 40

K y o Ye sels dated c.A.D.80-140 ■ Ye el dated c. A. D. 140-160 Lavoye 2 Compiegne 3 Jaulges-Yilliers-Yineux

Fig. 19.5 Distribution of North Gaulish Wares.

341

The a pparen t r el iance o n t he R iver S eine f or t he d isse m ina t ion o f t hese wares h as c rea ted a n e ast t o west b ias i n t he ir d istr ibu t ion p a t tern ( F ig .19.5) . The b u lk o f t he p roduc t ion was p r i mari ly c onsu med b y r e la t ive ly l oca l u rban c en tres . P roducts f ro m J au lges-Vi ll iers-V ineux h ave b een f ound a t s et t lement s i tes a long t he R iver Y onne a nd f ur ther a f ield a t A les ia . However , v ery f ew e xa mp les o f N or th G au l ish wares h ave b een f ound e as t o f S trabourg a nd n one a t a l l r ecorded i n t he L ower Rh ine land .

The Argonne k i lns u ndoub tedly

s erved R ei ms b u t c o mpared t o t he L ower Rh ineland t here were c o mpara t ively f ew l arge l oca l o u t lets.

I n c on trast , ar e lat ive ly l arge p ropor t ion o f wares

was e xpor ted t o B r i ta in . Th is western b ias may h ave b een p ar t ly d ue t o t he p le thora o f i ndustr ies i n t he Rhine land manu factur ing w ares o f as im i lar n ature . I n B r i tain t he d istr ibu t ion a ppears t o b e l arge ly c onf ined t o t he wes t o f t he c oun try , e specia l ly i n Wa les a nd t he Wes t c ountry ( F ig . 1 9.5) .

I n c on tras t ,

s uch wares a re f ound i n frequen t ly o n s i tes i n t he e as t , e xcep t i nt he c ase o f t he S tanega te a nd Hadr ians Wa l l . I n b road t er ms t he d istr ibu t ion p at tern a pp ears t o r e la te t o t he l i ne o f t he F osse Way , w ith a h igher p ropor t ion f a l l ing t o t he west t han t o t he e ast .

T h is p a t tern may r ef lec t t he means b y wh ich t he

wares g a ined a ccess t o t he c oun try , w i th c argoes e n ter ing Br i ta in b y western p or ts. As i n t he c ase o f C o logne f i ne wares , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t N or th G au lish f i ne wares were e ver t raded i n t he ir own r igh t b u t r a ther a s c onst i tuen ts o f c o mposite c argoes. I n s uppor t o f t h is a rgue men t , t ha t c argoes o f s uch p ot tery e n tered B r i ta in v ia more western ly p or ts , i s t he c orrobora t ive e vidence o f s am ian d istr ibu t ion . A rgonne s am ian was a lso s h ipped t o t he s ou th a nd west o f B r i ta in f ro m t he s econd t o t he f our th c en tury .

Th is s i tuat ion i s r ef lected i n

t he c o mpara t ive ly h igh p ercen tage o f Argonne s ta mps a t Car l is le ( 2 0% o f a l t he Eas t Gau l ish s am ian ) a nd C hester ( 2 5% ) a s c ompared t o Y ork ( where i t a ccoun ted f or o n ly 5 .9% ; D ick inson a nd Har t ley , 1 971 , 1 32) . P or ts o f e n try c an a lso b e s ugges ted .

A t C lausentu m ( S ou tha mp ton ) ac o l lec t ion o f s econd

c en tury C en tra l-Gau l ish v essels may r epresent a l oad o f d umped b reakages ( Bu l mer , 1 980 , 2 7 ; i n for ma t ion f ro m B . R . Har t ley ) . I n a dd i t ion a n i n let p or t h as b een c on jectured i n t he a rea a round Ch iches ter , h and l ing c argoes f ro m L ezoux i n t he f i rst c en tury ( Danne ll , 1 977 , 2 31) .

Therefore , i tc an b e

p ostu la ted t ha t c argoes o f s am ian , f i ne wares a nd o ther c o mmod it ies were s h ipped f ro m t he mou th o f t he S eine e i ther d irect ly a cross t he Channe l , t o e i ther S ou tha mp ton o r C h ichester , o r b y f i rst c oast ing e ast t o B ou logne , a cross t he C hanne l a nd t hen wes t a long t he Eng l ish c oast . I n a dd i t ion v essels o f Nor th Gau l ish t ype w ere im i ta ted a t K i ln s i tes s i tua ted i n t he west , a t Wanborough , Wi lderspoo l a nd Caer leon b u t t h is i n f lue nce d id n ot e x tend t o t he ' Rhen ish ' i nsp ired p roduc t ion c en tres o f t he e as t . I n g enera l , t he t wo f ine ware t radi t ions , t he Rh ine land/Eas t Gau l ish a nd t he Nor th Gau l ish r espect ive ly , were g eograph ica l ly mu ta l ly e xc lus ive . I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t he r ela t ionsh ip b etween C en tra l Gau l ish , Nor th G au l ish a nd ' Raet ian ' ware.

I th as a lready b een n o ted t ha t t he b arbo t ine ' w ish-

b one ' o r ' t ear d rop ' mot if f ound o n L ezoux a nd N or th G au l ish p roducts , d oes n ot o ccur o n ' Raet ian ware '. The t er m R aet ian ' ware h as c o me t o b e u sed a s ag ener ic n a me f or f i ne wares p roduced i n S outhern G er many a nd

3 42

S w i ter land , c o mparab le t o t he u se o f ' Castor ' ware i n B r i ta in .

S uch v essels

a re a l lied b y ac o m mon u se o f a bs tract b arbot ine mo t ifs a nd p a t terns o f i ncised l i nes .

However , w i th in t he g enera l g roup , t here a re c erta in d ist inc t ive i ndus-

t r ies which c an b e c haracter ised b y d i f feren t f abr ics , f orms a nd d ecora t ion . I ti s b eyond t he p resen t s cope o f t h is p aper t o d iscuss t o d evelop men t o f t he ' Raet ian ' ware i ndus tr ies b u t i ti s o f c ons iderab le i n terest t ha t t he i ndustry was c o mposed o fd if feren t e le men ts s o me o f wh ich may h ave b een d rawn f ro m C en tra l o r N or th Gau l ish s ources . T o s u mmar ise t he N or th Gau l ish i ndus try was f unde men tal ly r ura l i n c harac ter , d ependen t o n r ela t ive ly l ong d istrance t rade. F ine ware p roduc t ion was p robab ly o f s econdary impor tance t o t he manu facture o f s am ian . The t i es b etween C en tra l Gau l a nd Nor th G au l a ppear t o h ave b een e x tre me ly c lose , w ith t he migra t ion o f p o t ters e i ther d irect ly f ro m L ezoux o r v ia L a Made leine . CONCLUS ION T he a im o ft h is p aper h as b een t o d e monstra te b o th t he c o m mon a nd d iverse e le men ts w i thin t he f i ne ware i ndustry , t o i l lustra te a r ange o fv essels a nd d ecorat ive t echn iques emp loyed i n t he f i rs t a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D. Dur ing t h is p er iod t he i ndustry was c o mposed o f s evera l p ara l lel , o f ten i n terl ock ing , t rad it ions.

Two s uch t rad i t ions , t he Rh ine land a nd t he N or th G au l ish ,

h ave b een d iscussed h ere .

I n a dd i t ion men t ion h as a lso b een made o f t he

C en tra l G au l ish , t he Eas t G au l ish a nd t he Rae t ian t rad i t ions .

A l though a d e-

t a i led t rea t men t o ft he l a t ter i s b eyond t he s cope o f t h is p resent p aper , Tab le 2i l lustra tes h ow t hese t rad i t ions were r e la ted . T he ma jor ity o f t he i ndustr ies were b road ly c onte mporary , of ten p ara l lel d eve lop men ts , t hereby mak ing t he t ask o f d ist ingu ish ing b e tween t he a ctua l move men ts o fp o t ters o r i deas o r i ndependen t d evelop men t u nder s im il ar c on tra in ts , e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t . Most o f t he i ndus tr ies w ere l i nked b y a c o mmon b ackground , t ha t o f t he f i ne ware i ndus try o f N or th I t a ly , where many o ft he f orms a nd t echn iques e vo lved i n t he l a te Repub l ican-early Imper ia l p er iod ( Greene , 1 979 , 3 -4) .

Many o f t he e le men ts s hared b y s ubsequen t

i ndustr ies may b e d er ived f ro m t h is c o mmon b ackground b u t t he i nven t iveness o fl oca l , o f ten i nd igenous , p ot ters a nd t he move men t o f p o t ters o r i deas c ont r ibu ted t o t he g row th o f e clec t ic , y e t b road ly h o mogene ious , f i ne ware t rad i t ions.

3 43

1 4

The I ndustr ies

The Trad i t ions

CENTRAL GAUL

J au lges-V i l liers-

NORTH GAUL

B l ickwei ler

Rheinzabern

EAST GAUL

The f ine ware t rad i t ions o f t he l a te f i rs t a nd s econd c en tur ies A .D.

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ACKNO WLEDGE ME NTS . Th is p aper i s ar ev ised a nd u pda ted v ers ion o f ap aper p resen ted t o t he B r i t ish Archaeo log ica l Assoc ia t ion , f or wh ich t he a u thor was s ebsequent ly awarded t he Reg ina ld Tay lor Essay P r ize ( 1 979) . Iwou ld l ike t o t hank t he B .A.A . f or t he ir p er m iss ion t o p ub l ish i th ere. t hank Mr . P . E verson a nd Mr . J . C herry .

I n p ar t icu lar Iwou ld l ike t o

I n a dd i t ion , Iwou ld l ike t o t hank

t he f o l low ing p eop le f or t he ir h elp a nd e ncourage men t : Dr . K . T . Greene , Mrs . V . Swan , Mr . G . Marsh , Dr . H . Hel lenke mper , Mme. F . B eck a nd Herr H . G . S i mon .

Research l ead ing t o t h is p aper was made p ossib le b y a

L eicester Un ivers i ty Research B oard Gran t .

F ina l ly Iwou ld l i ke t o e xpress

my t hanks a nd g ra t i tude t o G raha m f or a l l h is h e lp a nd e ncouragmen t i n t h is a nd o ther p ro jects. B IBLIOGRAPHY Anderson 1 980 . Anderson , A . C ., A Gu ide To Ro man F ine Wares , VORDA Res , S er . 1 , H ighwor th , 1 980 B insfe ld 1 964. B in fe ld , W., Z u d en Ro m ischen T op fere ien am Rudo l fp la tz i n Ko ln ', Ko lner J ahrbuch , 7( 1 964) , 1 9-32. B insfe ld 1 969 . B insfeld , W., ' Ta t igke i tsber ich t f ur d as J ahr 1 958,' K o lner J ahrbuch 1 0 ( 1 969) , 9 1-104. Bu l mer 1 980 .

Bu l mer , M ., ' An i n troduc t ion t o R o man S am ian Ware , w i th

s pec ia l r eference t o c o l lec t ions i n C hester a nd t he Nor th Wes t ', J ourna l o f t he Ches ter Archaeo log ica l S ocie ty , 6 2 ( 1 979) , r epr in ted 1 980 C henet 1 920 .

Chene t , C ., ' Gob le ts o vo ides mou les ' D 'Au try-Lavoye ( Cera m ique

Gal lo-Ro ma ine D 'Argonn .e ) ', P ro A lesia

P ar is , 1 920 .

Dannel l 1 977. Danne l l , G . B ., ' The s am ian f ro m B agendon t, i n Dore , J . a nd G reen , K . T . ( eds.) , Ro man p ot tery s tud ies i n B r i ta in a nd b eyond , BAR . S upp . S er . 3 0 , Ox ford , 1 977. D ick inson a nd Har t ley 1 971.

D ick inson , B . M . a nd Har t ley , K . F ., ' The

e vidence o f p ot ter 's s ta mps o n s am ian ware a nd o n mor tar ia f or t he t rading c onnec t ions o f Ro man Y ork ', i n Bu l ter , R .M . ( ed .) , S o ld ier a nd c iv i l ian i n Ro man Y orksh ire :

e ssays t o c o m me mora te t he n ine teen th

c en tenary o f t he f oundat ion o f Y ork , York , 1 971 . G reene 1 979.

Greene , K ., U sk :

The P re-F lav ian F ine Wares , Card i f f , 1 979.

Hassa l l 1 978.

Hassa l l , M ., ' Br i ta in a nd t he Rh ine P rovinces : e p igraph ic

e v idence f or Ro man t rade ', i n d u P la t-Tay lor , J ., a nd C leere , H ( Eds .) , R o man s h ipp ing a nd t rade : L ondon , 1 978. Heuke mes 1 964.

B r i ta in a nd t he Rh ine P rov inces , C .B .A. 2 4 ,

Heuke mes , B ., Ro man K eram ik a us He ide lburg , M .R .K .

8 , B onn , 1 964. L eredde a nd J acob 1 974. L eredde , H . a nd J acob , J . P ., ' Les Vases a c ouver te me ta l lescen te , i n L es P o t iers G au lo is a l a c onquete d u monde Ro ma in r, L es Dossiers d e 1Archeo log ie , 6( 1 974) . 3 46 •

L ung 1 959 .

L ung , W.,

Z ur Vor-und F ruhgesch ich t l ichen K era m ik i n Ko lner

Rau m ', K o lner J ahrbuch 4 ( 1 959 ) , 4 5-65. Oel mann 1 914. O el mann , F ., D ie k eram ik d es Kas tel ls N iederb ieber , F rankfur t , 1 914. S enecha l 1 972. S enecha l , R ., C on tr ibu t ion a Pe tude d e l a C era m ique Me ta l lescen te r ecue i l le a A lesia , 1 , D i jon , 1 972. S i mpson 1 957 .

S impson , G ., 'Meta l l ic B lack s l ip v ases f ro m C en tra l G au l

w ith a pp l ied a nd mou lded d ecorat ion ', An t iq . J ., 3 7 ( 1957 ) , 2 9-42 .

3 47

2 0 .

PEACOCKS ON DECORATED BEAKERS E l isabeth E t t l inger

D r G raha m Webster h as p ub l ished s evera l p apers o n d ecorated b eakers o f N ene V a l ley Ware ( Webster , 1 959a , 1 959b , 1 966 , 1 979 ). h im w ith a s im i lar b eaker f ro m Sw itzer land .

Ih ope t o amuse

T he f ragmen ts o f t he b eaker

w ere f ound i n t he v icus o n t he E nge P en insu la n ear B erne a nd t hey a re n ow i n t he H istor ica l Museu m o f B erne . D ur ing t he s econd a nd e ar ly t h ird c en tur ies t here were k i lns o perat ing o n t he E nge P en insu la , where b o th s ig i l la ta a nd c o lour-coated wares were p roduced .

T he f i nds h ave n ot b een

s trat igraph ica l ly d ated ( Et t l inger a nd Roth , 1 979 , 7 3 ) . F ig . 2 0 . 1 -3 : t a l l b eaker , ar are e xa mp le o f N iederb ieber t ype 3 1 ( = G ose 1 94 ) ( Oe lmann , 1 914 ) . S o me p ar ts o f t he wa l l a nd t he who le b ase a re r estored i n p las ter .

Therefore , ag ood p ro f i le c ou ld n ot b e d rawn .

d ia meter :

h e igh t :

1 0 .2 cm ;

2 3 .3 cm .

U pper

A ccord ing t o i t s f or m t he b eaker

c anno t b e d ated more e xact ly t han "t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury A .D ., p erhaps e ven l ater ".

T he c lay i s med iu m g rey w i th a g ood b r i l l ian t

c oat ing o f t he s a me c o lour . T he b arbo t ine d ecorated a rea i s b ordered a bove a nd b e low b y "s cro l ls" b etween b ands o f r ou let t ing . Ap a ir o f p eacocks i s s hown i n h era ld ic d isposa l o n e i ther s ide o f ag rape v ine w ith l arge b unches o f g rapes . B o th b irds h ave l arge t a i ls ; t he t a i l o f t he o ne a t t he r igh t i s r ounded a nd t hat o f t he o ther o n t he l ef t i s s tra ight a t t he e nd . B etween t he e nds o f t he t a i ls w e s ee f our l arge a nd t wo sma l l h ear t-shaped l eaves p laced i n ar ather o vercrowded f ash ion a nd w ithou t a ny s y m metry , t ogether w ith a t ree w i th s even , t hree l obed , l eaves . Af ew f ur ther l eaves f i l l t he s pace a bove t he b irds . B ecause o f t he ir d om inat ing t a i ls t he b irds a re i den t if ied a s p eacocks , a l though t he t yp ica l 'e yes ' a nd t he sma l l f eather c rowns o n t he ir h eads a re m iss ing a nd e ven t he b od ies a ppear r ather s quat . T he p o t ter h ad v ery p robab ly n ever s een r ea l p eacocks i n h is l i fe .' T he b eaker ( I nv . n o 2 8165 ) was f ound i n t he r ubb ish p it o f ap ot ter ' sworkshop i n 1 923 ( Jahrb . B ern . H ist . Mus . 1 923 , 7 2 ) . Two f ur ther s herds , d esp ite t he ir f ragmen tary s tate , c on f irm t hat p eacock mot ifs w ere s o met i mes u sed b y t hese p o t ters . F ig . 2 0 .4 : S herd o f ab eaker o f y e l low-redd ish c lay w ith a l i ght r ed c oat ing o f i r idescen t g loss . T he b arbo t ine d es ign s hows p ar t o f ap eacock , l ook ing r igh t , w i th a l ong t a i l d ecorated w ith c lear ly marked "e yes" ( I nv . n o . 3 4831a ) . F ig . 2 0 .5 : A .s herd s im i lar t o t he p rev ious o ne . C lay , r edd ish-brown c o lour c oat , r ed-brown , w ith a d u l l g loss . T he b arbo t ine d ecorat ion s hows o nce a ga in p ar t o f ap eacock , t h is t ime f ac ing f orward a nd d isp lay ing h is p lu mage ( I nv . n o . 3 4831b ). B oth a re o ld f i nds , w ithou t i nd ica t ion o f t he f i ndspo t a t t he "Enge" . T he b eakers t o wh ich t hese t wo s herds b e longed h ad c erta in ly b een made l oca l ly .

T he d o n o t d i f fer i n a ny way f ro m t he c era m ics made o n t he Enge

3 49

Des ign o f d ecorat ion o f t he b eaker F ig. 2 0.3. c 9.

a ) 7 i c s ' C . ) C l )

C: ) C

CN 1

•—

z 4

S em inar d er Un ivers ität Bern.

F ig . 2 0.3

Who le b eaker, a s r estored. Museum B ern.

S ca le c . 1 :3 .

Pho to H is t.

P en insu la a nd i n Avenches-Aven t icu m .

These v esse ls a re l ight r ed , a l most

w ithou t e xcep t ion , a nd o n ly v ery r are ly b lack . most c o m mon f or m .

T he g lobu lar b eaker i s t he

T he q uan t i tat ive r e lat ionsh ips b etween f orm a nd d ecor-

a t ion h ave b een c o mp i led b y K aenel ( 1974 ) .

T he f irst b eaker men t ioned t hus

d if fers n o t o n ly i n f or m a nd c o lour b ut a lso i n d ecorat ion f ro m t he o thers . N ever the less , Id o n o tb e l ieve t hat i ti s a n impor ted i t em .

The p aratact ic

c o mpos it ion a nd t he l eaves , wh ich h ave n ot b een e xecuted i n ap ar t icu lar ly l ive ly manner , s uggest t hat t he b eaker was p robab ly made h ere r ather t han i n a no ther p o t tery c en tre .

T he c urren t ly k nown c en tres wh ich made f igure

d ecorated c o lour-coated ware a re :

t he R h ine land , t he N ene V a l ley a nd

C o lchester , Wes tern Sw itzer land a nd C en tra l G au l .

T hese c era m ics must ,

h owever , b e v iewed i n c on junct ion w ith t he s im i lar i ly d ecorated t erra s ig i l lata , t hereby s uggest ing a r ather l arge a rea w ith in wh ich t he v ar ious d ecorat ive i deas were p robab ly f ree ly e xchanged ( Oe l mann 1 911 , T yp 3 0b a nd 3 2h ; D eche let te , 1 904 , I , P 13 ;

J acob a nd L eredde , 1 974 , 4 4 , 4 9 a nd 7 6-77 ;

O sw ald a nd P ryce , 1 920 , P is , 7 9-81 ;

C henet a nd G audron 1 955 , f igs . 2 9-31 ).

T he G au l ish v esse ls f ro m L ezoux a nd A . les ia ( a waster ' .) a re e spec ia l ly e laborate w ith a pp l iques o f g ods , h un t ing s cenes a nd b eau t ifu l g ar lands o f l eaves .

T he s ig i l lata b eakers f ro m t he Argonne r eg ion a nd Rhe inzabern s how

g a me o r o f ten b irds b etween v igorously d rawn g ar lands ; h u man f i gures a re f requen t ly emp loyed .

i n R he inzabern

T he a n i ma ls a nd t he g ar lands o n

t he b lack-coated L ower R h ine land b eakers , o f wh it ish c lay w ith h un t ing s cenes , h ave b een d rawn i n ac a l mer manner .

T he Br it ish c era m ics s how a s urp r is-

s ing ly d iverse a ssor t men t o f s ub jects a nd a d e l ight i n n ew c reat ions a nd i n t he u se o fh u man f igures .

Rows o f d o ts , wh ich h ave b een u sed l ess s yste ma t ica l ly

o n t he Argonne v esse ls a nd a lso o n t he A les ia b eaker , a re f requen t ly u sed a s d iv id ing l ines b etween v ar ious s cenes o n t he B r it ish v esse ls .

T he S w iss

g roup r em inds o ne o f t he Br it ish i n s evera l ways , a lthough t he imag inat ive u se o f s ub jects i s l ess v igorously d eve loped .

I ti s t yp ica l o f t he S w iss s cenes

t hat e very a n i ma l i s s che ma t ica l ly s eparated f ro m t he o thers s o t hat i nstead o f t he f l ow ing move men ts o f ah un t ing s cene we s ee a s er ies o f s ing le , l eap ing a n i ma ls .

T he a n i ma ls i n B r i ta in a re t he s a me a s i n Sw itzer land :

b ears , l i ons , d ogs w i th c o l lars .

d eer , h ares ,

T he s ea monsters a nd h erons o r c ranes

wh ich a re q u i te c o m mon i n Sw i tzer land s ee m , h owever , t o b e r are i n Eng land . On t he o ther h and n o r epresen tat ions o f g ods h ave s o f ar b een f ound i n Sw itzer land .

T here a re , n everthe less , s cenes s how ing a r t isans a nd e ro t ic

s ub jects . T he a n t ithet ic p a ir o f p eacocks o n t he B ernese b eaker i s a s y et t he o n ly o ne k nown t o me ,

I ngeborg L uschey ( 1978 , 1 59 f ) h as wr it ten a d e ta i led

a ccoun t o f t he p eacock i n a nc ien t a r t a nd J ucker ( 1961 , 1 41 ) h as c o l lected r eferences t o t he ir r epresen tat ions . s ub ject :

Therefore , o n ly a f ew words o n t he

T he p eacock c a me f ro m I nd ia t o t he N ear-East a nd f ro m t here t o

S a mos where i tb eca me t he h o ly b ird o f H era . s econd c en tury B . C .

I t was f irst p or trayed i n t he

S im i lar i ly i tb eca me a n a t tr ibute o f J uno i n Ro me .

I t

o ccurs r are ly i n t he f i rst c en tury A .D ,, b ut b eco mes i ncreas ing ly f requen t l ater o n , a s f or e xa mp le o n t he c o ins o f t he Empresses , f ro m F aust ina I o nward , i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury .

The s che me o f t he t wo

p eacocks f l ank ing a k an tharos o r av ine t hen b eca me a n e x tre me ly p opu lar s y mbo l o f im mor ta l ity i n l ate Ro man a nd E ar ly C hr ist ian ar t . 3 53

L ong b efore

F ig . 2 0.4

S herd o f ab eaker.

1 :2.

F ig . 2 0.5

Sherd o f ab eaker .

1 :2 .

3 54

this an other-worldly .significance had' already been attributed to this representation. Numerous examples, to be seen in the mosaics of Antioch, Ravenna and Rome have been listed by Lu schey. How did the Enge potter came to make his peaco.ck decoration ? Other barbotine decorations had very general schemes such as 'a hunting scene' or 'scrolls of leaves' and allowed the artist to draw rather freely. Here the potter had, however, come upon a definite, almost canonical representation. It is quite possible that the 'Tree of Life' he added to the common heartshaped leaves on the rear also belonged to the scheme. The potter can scarcely have been inspired by the relief sigillata because we seldom see peacocks on them, and as far as I can tell even more rarely in a heraldic context. In Oswald's Index there are only the numbers 2362-2377, some of which are probably not representations of peacocks at all. We have to add to them, however, Chenet-Gaudron 1955, fig. 56E. Oswald's list shows that almost all the peacocks appear on vessels made by East-Gaulish potters, especially often on those by Reginus and Cibisus. A graffito on the neck of a jug found at Peyrestortes (Pyren. -orient.) seems to be an early example of the antithetic peacocks with a kantharos between them. The vessel was discovered in a pit where numerous graffiti were found on associated ceramics, mostly sigillata from the middle and the second 1 half of the first century A. D. Therefore, it seems probable that the jug fragment with the peacocks also dates from the same period. The inscription above the two peacocks might give a clue to the symbolic nature of the scene. It is, however, quite enigmatic and even its reading is not entirely free from doubt: AD DVOS PAVONIIS COPIA CADIIT SOFOSCATA PLASM.ARVM (Claustres 1958a and b). 2 One wonders how the paecock representation came to be known in Central Europe. The mosaics and reliefs show that it became more popular in the Mediterranean countries only during the late Empire. It is possible that the motif appeared on goods, most probably on textiles, imported from the Orient into the West and the North. J.P. Wild (1978, 79) has warned against overrating the significance of imported textiles. But most of them are hope­ lessly lost. In affluent towns like Avenches-Aventicum, near Berne, it must have been possible to see expensive, imported textiles at least occasionally. There is a noteworthy piece of evidence for.such an assumption. Some years ago the grave of an over life-size Minerva statue was discovered on the capitol of Aventicum. The head, forearms, and feet of the statue as well as the gorgoneion were of marble. The body, no longer extant, must have been of wood and draped with a cloth fabric. Two very delicately decorated glass discs of the type known in Egypt were found together with the marble pieces and they can only be interpreted as ornaments on the garments of the deity. It is most probable that the cloth with the discs had been imported from the Orient (B6gli 1975). Rodenwaldt (1930, 116 ff and PlS. 1, 2, 28 and especially 180) provides us with a further piece of evidence. He demonstrates clearly that there were oriental prototypes in textiles for the ornamentation with two peacocks and vines on the sarcophagus of S. Lorenzo discussed by him and dating from the first half of the third century. Rodenwaidt assumed, certainly correctly 3 55

t hat t he mar ine c reatures a nd g a me w ithout h un ters—tha t a ppear s o o f ten o n o ur b eakers —can b e t raced b ack t o t ex t i le p at terns c reated i n S yr ia a nd Egyp t .3 Greene ( 1 977 , 1 29 ) h as s uggested t hat t he p o t ters o f t he N ene V a l ley a nd C o lchester m igh t h ave b een impor ted s laves . Ic anno t a gree w i th t h is v iew . C o mpar isons b etween t he c era m ics d iscussed h ere f rom Br i ta in , t he L ower R h ine land a nd Sw itzer land a s we l l a s b etween t he s ig i l la ta v esse ls w i th t he s a me b arbo t ine s cenes f ro m C en tra l G au l , Argonne a nd Rhe inzabern d o , i ndeed , s how v ery s im i lar y et e as i ly d ist ingu ishab le s ty les .4 T hey i nd ica te a dap tat ions o f Med iterranean i nf luences wh ich h ave b een a f fected more o r l ess s trong ly b y t he l oca l i deas o f r epresen tat ion a nd f or m .

T he d ex ter i ty

s hown i n t he impress ion ist ic manner o fb arbo t ine p a in t ing , wh ich l ike t he d ecora t ion o n c er ta in b ronzes , g oes b ack t o t he l ate L a T ene p er iod , i s p ar t icu lar ly impress ive .5 NOTES 1 .

P rof . E l isabeth S ch m id h as k ind ly i n for med me t ha t among t he i den t if ied

b ones f ro m Ro man e xcavat ions i n Sw itzer land , u p t o t he p resen t t ime , n o r e ma ins o f ap eacock h ave b een f ound . 2 . C laustres t rans lates "a ux d eux p aons : e l le t o mbera l a r ichesse empourpree d e v os r oues" T h is i s n o t f u l ly c onv inc ing , b u t Ic anno t o f fer a ny a lterna t ive . D r . H ans L ieb , who m It hank f or h is k ind a nswer t o my q uery , h as s a id t hat t he i nscr ip t ion c ou ld n ot b e e xp la ined i n a ny s at isfactory way .

I ts ee ms t o me

t hat t he c onc lud ing words "s ofosca ta p las maru m" wh ich migh t b e r ead r hy thmica l ly , s uggest a l i terary r eference . T hese t wo r are words c an c er ta in ly n o t h ave b e longed t o c o l loqu ia l l anguage . 3 . H e b ased h is o bservat ions o n t he f abr ics o f t he mat tresses wh ich h ave b een c arved i n r e l ief o n t he s arcophaguses . 4 .

Though Imust a dm it t hat Ih ave n o t y et s een e nough o r ig ina l p ieces o f

c o lour-coated ware f ro m t he L ower Rh ine l and a nd B r i ta in t o b e a b le t o j udge t he ir d if ferences o r s im i lar it ies w ith c er ta in ty . Accord ing t o my Br i t ish c o l leagues t here a re o bv iously c ases where s uch j udge men ts a re v ery d iff i cu lt . 5 .

It hank D r . E eva Ruof f f or t he t rans lat ion o f t he G er man t ex t .

3 56

B IBL IOGRAPHY Bög l i 1 975 . Bu l l .

B ög l i , H ., "Rappor t p re l im ina ire s ur l es f ou i l les d u C ap ito le",

d e l 'a ssoc iat ion Pro Aven t ico p 2 3 ( 1975 ) , 4 Of f .

C henet e t Gaudron 1 955.

C henet , G . e t G audron , G ., L a c era m ique s ig i l lee

d ' Argonne d es Ie e t Me s iec les , S upp l . äG a l l ia , 6 , 1 955 . C laustres 1 958a .

C laustres , G„ " Graf f i tes d e P eyrestortes", G a l l ia 1 6

( 1958 ) , 4 1f f . C laustres 1 958b . E p igr .

C laustres , G ., "Graf f i t tes d es P eyrestortes"

Ann e

( 1958 ) , 5 3 .

D eche let te 1 904 .

D eche let te , J ., L es v ases c era m iques o rnes d e l a G au le

Ro ma ine , P ar is , 1 904 . E t t l inger-Roth 1 979 .

E t t l inger , E . u nd Ro th-Rub i , K ., H e lvet ische R e l ief-

s ig i l la ten u nd d ie Ro l le d er Werksta t t B ernEnge , Ac ta B ernens ia , 8 , Bern , 1 979 . G reene 1 977.

Greene , K ., "L eg ionary P ot tery , a nd t he S ign if icance o f Ho lt ' ;

BAR S upp l .

S er .

3 0 , Ox ford 1 977.

G ose 1 950 . Gose , E ., G ef ässtypen d er r öm ischen Kera m ik im R he in land , Keve lear , 1 950 . J ucker 1 961 .

J ucker , H ., D as B i ldn is im B lat terke lch , O lten , 1 961 .

K aene l 1 974 .

Kaene l , G ., C era m iques g a l lo-ro ma ines d ecorees , p roduct ion

l oca le d es 2 e e t 3 e s iec les .

C ah iers d 'a rcheo l og ie r o mande , 1 ; Aven t icu m

I , A .venches , 1 974 . L eredde e t J acob 1 974 .

L eredde , H . e t J acob , J .-P ., "L es v ases ä c ouver te

me ta l lescen te", L es D oss iers d e l 'a rcheo log ie , 6 , D i jon , 1 974 , 4 3f f . L uschey 1 978 .

L uschey-Sch me isser , I . , The P ictor ia l T i le C yc le o f H at

B eh a t i n I sfahan a nd i t s I conograph ic Trad i t ion , I st ituto I t a l ian° p er i l med io e d e stre mo Or ien te , R eports a nd Me mo irs , v o l . O e l mann 1 914 .

1 4 , Ro me , 1 978 .

O e l mann , F ., D ie K era m ik d es K aste l ls N iederb ieber ,

F rankfur t , 1 914 . O swa ld a nd P ryce 1 920 .

O swa ld , F . a nd Pryce , T .D ., An I n troduct ion t o

t he S tudy o f T erra S ig i l lata . , L ondon , 1 920 . Rodenwa ld t 1 930 . J ahrb .

Rodenwa ld t , G ., "D er K l inensarkophag v on S . L orenzo",

d es D eu tschen Arch . I nst ., 4 5 ( 1930 ) , 1 16f f .

Webster 1 959a . Br i ta in", Webster 1 959 1%

Webster , G .A ., "The Product ion o f" C astor " Ware i n Re i c re tar iae r o manae f au toru m A c ta , 2( 1959 ) , 7 5f . Webster , G .A ., "A n o te o n Ro mano-Br i t ish p o t tery w i th

p a in ted f igures", An t . Webster 1 966 .

J ourna l , 3 9 ( 1959 ) , 9 1f f . .

Webster , G .A ,, "A p a in ted s herd o f Ro mano-Br it ish p o t tery

f ro m S aw try , Hun ts .",

An t . J ouna l , 4 6 ( 1966 ) , 3 38f f .

3 57

Webster 1 979 .

W e bster , G .A ., "A D ecorated S herd a t Ca mbr idge",

D urobr ivae , 7( 1979 ) , e f f . Wi ld 1 978 .

Wi ld , J .P ., "C ross-Channe l t rade a nd t he t ex t i le i ndustry",

R o man s h ipp ing a nd t rade : R ep . 2 4? L ondon , 1 978 .

B r i ta in a nd t he Rh ine p rov inces CBA Research

3 58

2 1.

THE APPL ICAT ION OF CHE M ICAL ANALYS IS TO THE S TUDY OF 'RHEN ISH ' WARES R ob in P . S y monds

I n t he e ar ly s tages o f as tudy o f i t se lf ;

R hen ish ' wares , ap rob le m p resen ted

i t was a pparen t t hat a t l east t wo o r more s ources , o r workshops ,

were r espons ib le f or t he r ange o fp o t tery k nown ( i n Br i ta in ) a s

R hen ish '

wares , a nd wh i le i t was p oss ib le t o s eparate t he p o t tery i n to g roups a ccord ing t o v is ib le c haracter ist ics , i t was n ot c lear wh ich s e t o f c haracter ist ics , i f a ny , c ou ld d ef ine t he p ot tery f ro m a g iven s ource .

I tt herefore s ee med

l og ica l t o t urn t o s o me f or m o f c o mpos i t iona l a na lys is , wh ich m igh t c on f irm o r d ispute t he h o mogene ity o f t ypo log ica l g roups s ub m it ted t o i t . T he wr i ter t herefore p resen ted t h is p rob le m , t o t he R esearch L aboratory f or Archaeo logy , K eb le Road , Ox ford , t o a scer ta in wh ich methods migh t b e a ppropr iate t o i t , a nd a va i lab le . T h is p aper r ecords t he work ( wh ich i s c on t inu ing ) w ith c he m ica l a na lys is , a s a pp l ied t o 'Rhen ish ' a nd s im i lar wares , s ubsequen t ly u nder t aken , w ith t he c ooperat ion o f t he Ox ford R esearch L aboratory . I ti s n ecessary t o b eg in w ith a d escr ip t ion o f' Rhen ish ' wares , s ince t hey w i l l s erve a s t he p r i mary e xa mp le t hroughou t . 'Rhen ish ' wares a re a t ype o f Ro man p o t tery made i n c en tra l G au l a nd t he Rh ine land , a nd impor ted i n to Br i ta in f ro m t he e ar ly s econd t o t he l ate t h ird c en tury .

The ir manu-

f acture i s c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith t hat o f t erra s ig i l lata ( TS ) , o r s am ian . T hey a re c haracter ized b y af ine r ed f abr ic , s o met i mes h av ing a l igh t o r d ark g rey c ore , w ith a v ery g lossy p o l ished o r me ta l l ic b lack , o r d ark r ed o r d ark g reen c o lour-coat ing . They u sua l ly o ccur a s b eakers a nd c ups , o r , l ess f requen t ly , c arafes o r f l agons . T yp ica l d ecorat ions a re r ou let t ing , i nden t ing , a nd f o ld ing , a nd d ecorat ions e n b arbo t ine ', e i ther u nder t he c o lour-coat ing o r p ain ted o n i ti n aw h i te 'p a in t ' . B arbo t ine d ecorat ion u nder t he c o lourc oat ing i s more t yp ica l o f c en tra l G au l ish v esse ls , a nd s o met i mes i nc ludes f igure-types c o m mon ly f ound o n c en tra l G au l ish T S ( Deche let te , 1 979 ; S i mpson , 1 957 & 1 973 ; a nd J ohns , 1 963 ) . The wh ite p a in ted ' d ecorat ion i s more c o m mon t o v esse ls f ro m t he Rh ine land , where t hey a re r eferred t o a s s pruchbechers , o r mot to ' b eakers , b ecause t he d ecorat ion o f ten c onsists o f ar epeat ing s cro l l u nderneath a word , o r mot to ', u sua l ly a n e xhor tat ion t o d r ink ( Loeschcke , 1 931 ;

G ose , 1 976 ) .

'R hen ish ' wares a re o n ly k nown

b y t hat n a me i n B r i ta in : i n F rance t hey a re k nown a s v ases me ta l lescen ts , a nd i n G er many t hey a re k nown a s s pruchbechers o r a s Mose lkera m ik .

L et u s b eg in w ith t he a na lysis o f p ot tery i n a rchaeo log ica l t erms .

Excep t

i n t he r are c ase o fp o t tery f ro m a k i ln e xcavat ion , a l l t he a na lyt ica l methods emp loyed , i nc lud ing t he s tudy o f f or m a nd d ecorat ion t ypo log ies , must b e c o mparat ive , a nd must a im t o e s tab l ish g enera l c r iter ia b y w h ich t he p o t tery c an b e d iv ided i n to s ubgroups , s uch t hat w hen t he s ource a nd/or d ate r ange 3 59

o f ar epresen tat ive s a mp le o f ag iven s ubgroup i s e stab l ished , t hese p ara meters c an b e s a id t o a pp ly t o t he e n t ire s ubgroup . a ny o f t hree c era m ic a spects :

T he c r i ter ia c an b e d rawn f ro m

f abr ic , f or m , o r d ecorat ion .

When d ef in ing

as pec if ic s ubgroup , i ti s p referab le t o h ave a s many c r iter ia a s p oss ib le , b ecause t he more s uch c r iter ia a s c an b e e s tab l ished t he h igher t he l ikel ihood o f f i nd ing a t l east a f ew o f t he m p resen t o n sma l l s herds . I n o ne o f t he f ew Br it ish p ub l icat ions d evo ted s pec if ica l ly t o

Rhen ish '

wares ( Brewster , 1 972 , 2 05-217 ) , i ti s s uggested t hat t he g roup f ound a t C orbr idge i s am ix ture o f v esse ls f ro m t he Rh ine land a nd c en tra l G au l , a nd t hat a t l east s o me v esse ls f ro m t hese s ources c an b e d ist ingu ished b y t he ir f or ms .

T he r ou let ted a nd s o met i mes i nden ted o r f o lded b eakers , a nd t hose

w ith wh ite 'p a in ted ' d ecorat ion , a re t aken t o b e f ro m t he Rh ine land , wh i le t he b arbo t ine-decorated b eakers a nd t wo-hand led c ups a re s a id t o b e f ro m c en tra l G au l , p robab ly L ezoux , a nd p la in , b ow l-shaped c ups a re o fu ncer ta in o r ig in , o ne b e ing p oss ib ly f ro m L ezoux wh i le t he o ther "h as p retensions o f b e ing t rue R hen ish ware"

( Brewster , 1 972 , 2 16 ).

F ro m B rewster ' sc o m men ts ,

a nd f ro m a n e xa m inat ion o f t he C orbr idge p ot tery o n wh ich h is work was b ased , a s we l l a s g roups o f 'R hen ish ' wares f ro m a n u mber o f o ther e xcavat ions e lsewhere i n B r i ta in , i t was n oted t hat t here were a t l east t hree d if feren t a spects o f t he p ot tery wh ich m igh t l ead t o i t s i den t if icat ion .

F irst , a lthough a l l t he

v esse ls h ave r ed o r p ink f abr ics b eneath t he c o lour-coat ing , s o me h ave g rey , s andw ich-l ike l ayers a s we l l , wh ich c an b e e xp la ined , a s Brewster p u t i t , "b y t he v ar iab les o f a nc ien t methods o f manufacture :

t e mperature , t he

p ene tra t ion o f g ases , f i r ing i n a r educ ing o r o x id iz ing a t mosphere" 1 972 , 2 07 ) .

( Brewster ,

T hese g rey l ayers s ee med t o o ccur v ery r are ly w ith f or ms

t hough t t o b e c en tra l G au l ish . S econd ly , w ith r egard t o f or m t ypo logy , t here a ppeared t o b e t wo d ist inct v ar iet ies o f b ase : t he c urved v ers ion o f b eakers f ro m t he Rh ine land , a nd t he a ngu lar , p edes ta l v ers ion o f t he 1 3 arbo t ine-decorated b eakers , "f ro m L ezoux ", a nd t he c ups .

F ina l ly , t here s ee med t o b e ac lear

d ist inct ion b etween t he wh ite 'p a in ted ' d ecora t ion ( o f wh ich Brewster g ives n o e xa mp les ) o n v esse ls f ro m t he R h ine land , a nd t he b arbot ine d ecorat ion ( under t he c o lour-coat ing ) o n I ,

L ezoux ' ware".

A l l o f t hese d ist inct ions a re s o mewhat s ub ject ive .

T hey were i n it ia l ly

d er ived f ro m a r e lat ive ly sma l l n u mber o f v esse ls , o r r ather s herds , a l l f ound i n Br i ta in .

With t he s ubsequen t o bservat ion o f a much l arger n u mber

o f v esse ls , most ly who le , i n t he Rh ine land a nd F rance , t he n u mber o f e xcept ions h as g rown , a lbe it i n a way wh ich h as s hone l igh t o n t he e vo lut ion o f t he i ndustry .

Ye t t he p o t tery i n t he o r ig ina l s a mp le w as r e markab ly h o mongeneous

i n a ppearance :

were i tn o t f or Brewster ' sa r t ic le a nd t hese d ist inct ions i n

p ar t d er ived f ro m i t , o ne migh t e as i ly h ave p resu med t hat a l l t he v esse ls were f ro m o ne s ource , a nd u nd iscern ing ly l abe l led t he m 'Rhen ish wares '. C o mpos it iona l a na lys is was t herefore f irst p roposed i n o rder t o t est t he v a l id ity o f t hese d ist inct ions , a nd t o g ive t he m s o me s tat ist ica l o b ject iv ity . The t wo t ypes o f a na lys is wh ich h ave b een emp loyed i n t h is p ro ject , i n t he Ana lyt ica l D epar t men t o f t he R esearch L aboratory f or Archaeo logy , a re X -ray f l uorescence ( XRF ) a nd a to m ic a bsorp t ion s pectrography ( AAS ) .

I t

s hou ld b e emphas ized t ha t s ince t here a re many p ossib le me thods o f a na lys is , t hese t wo were a dop ted b o th b ecause t hey were a ppropr ia te t o t he p ot tery i n

3 60

q uest ion a nd b ecause t hey were im med iate ly a va i lab le .

B r ief ly , t he XRF

s yste m c ons ists o fa n X-ray t ube , ad etector , a nd a d a ta p rocessor .

A

c lean f l a t a rea i s g round o n t he e dge o f as a mp le s herd w ith a ( hand-he ld ) t ungsten c arb ide d r i l l , l arge e nough t o a cco mmodate t he X -ray b ea m ( l ess t han 2m m i n d ia meter ) ( Po l lard , H atcher , &S y monds , 1 981 ) . T h is s po t o n t he s herd i s t hen b o mbarded w ith X -rays f rom t he t ube , wh ich c ause i tt o em it s econdary , o r f l ourescen t , X -rays o f wave leng ths c haracter ist ic o f t he e le men ts p resen t i n t he s a mp le ( CBA H andbook , 1 970 , A/XRF ) .

"E ach

e le men t em its s econdary X -rays a t s evera l c haracter ist ic a nd s harp ly d ef ined wave leng ths wh ich d epend o n i t s a to m ic n u mber ... C onsequen t ly , t he d eterminat ion o f t he c onst ituen t wave leng ths o f t he s econdary X -rays p rov ides t he b asis f or i den t ify ing t he e le men ts p resen ts i n t he s pec i men wh ile t he i n tens ity o f t he X -rays a t ap art icu lar wave leng th p rov ides a n e st i mate o f t he c oncen trat ion o f t he a ssoc ia ted e le men t"

( T ite , 1 972 , 2 67 ) .

"I n a to m ic a bsorp t ion s pectro metry , n ear u ltra-v io let o r v is ib le l ight w ith a s harp ly d ef ined wave leng th , wh ich c orresponds t o t he c haracteri s t ic em iss ion wave leng th o f t he p ar t icu lar e le men t c hosen f or a na lys is , i s f ocused o n to t he a to m ized s a mp le . S ince , f or i so lated a toms , a bsorp t ion a nd em iss ion o ccur a t t he s a me c haracter ist ic w ave leng th t he a to ms o f t he c hosen e le men t a bsorb a p ropor t ion o f t he i nc iden t l i ght ; t he e nergy a ssoc iated w ith t he l igh t b e ing t ransferred t o t he o uter e lectrons w h ich a re c onsequen t ly e xc i ted o ut o f t he ir g round s tate .

T he e x ten t t o wh ich t he l igh t i s a bsorbed t herefore p rov ides

a n e st i mate o f t he c oncen trat ion o f t he c hosen e le men t i n t he s a mp le . "L ight o f t he c haracter ist ic wave leng th i s p rov ided b y ah o l low c athode l a mp ; t he s a mp le , wh ich i s i n s o lu t ion , i s a to m ized i n af l a me a nd t he i n tens ity o f t he emergen t l ight b ea m , a f ter a bsorp t ion b y t he s a mp le , i s measured u s ing a p ho tomu lt ip l ier . Ad if feren t l a mp i s r equ ired f or e ach c haracter ist ic wave leng th s o t hat t he a na lys is o f e ach e le men t n ecess i tates a s eparate measure men t"

( T ite , 1 972 , 2 64 ) .

I n t he c ase o fp o t tery , "t he p owdered s a mp les must f i rst b e d isso lved i n a mixture o fh ydro f luor ic a nd p erch lor ic a c ids wh ich i s s o mewhat u np leasan t t o u se"

( T ite , 1 972 , 2 66 ) .

The e n t ire p rocedure i s t ime-consu m ing :

ab atch

o f 3 0 s a mp les may r equ ire t wo t o t hree weeks t o p rocess , whereas a r ough c o mpar ison o f t he s im i lar ity o r d iss im i lar ity o f t wo s herds c an b e c arr ied o ut b y XRF i n a ma t ter o f minutes . Bu t t he AAS r esu lts a re e x tre me ly a ccu rate , a nd g enera l ly d o n ot c oncen trate o n t he s a me e le men ts a s XRF , a l though t here i s s o me o ver lap wh ich a l lows f or c o mpar ison b e tween t he t wo methods . S o f ar t here h as b een n o s ign if ican t d isagree men t b etween t he m . A t p resen t most o ft he v ar ious methods o f c ompos it iona l a na lysis c om mon ly u sed i n Br i ta in a re l im ited i n a pp l icat ion e ither t o c oarse o r t o f ine p o t tery . Broad ly , t h in-sect ion ing a nd h eavy m inera l a na lysis , t o n a me t wo , a re more a ppropr iate t o c oarse w ares , wh i le XRF a nd AAS a re more a ppropr ia te t o f ine wares , a l though a l l o f t hese methods c an a nd h ave b een a pp l ied t o a l l s or ts o f c era m ics , n ot t o men t ion o ther mater ia ls . C oarse wares t end t o h ave i den t if iab le i nc lus ions , a nd a p oten t ia l ly s ign if ican t d egree o f c o mpos it ionä l v ar iab i l ity , a nd s o a me thod i s r equ ired wh ich c an i den t ify t he i nc lus ions ( or • t he ir c onst ituen t e le men ts ) u s ing a r e lat ive ly l arge amoun t o f s a mp le t o c o mpensate f or t he v ar iab i l ity . F ine wares , l ack ing l arge i nc lus ions a nd 3 61

b e ing o f g enera l ly u n ifor m c o mpos i t ion , r equ ire a more s ub t le a pproach .

T he

u n ifor m ity o f f i ne ware c o mpos it ion i s af or tunate a t tr ibute , s ince t hese wares a re of ten t reated a s i n tr ins ica l ly more v a luab le b y museu ms a nd o ther a rchaeo log ica l i nst itu t ions , wh ich means t he a na lyst i s e xhorted t o k eep t he amoun t o f s a mp le t o b e d estroyed i n t he c ourse o f a na lys is t o a n a bso lute m in i mu m .

H ence t he a p tness o f XRF a nd AAS t o t he a na lys is o f f ine p o t tery ,

s uch a s 'R hen ish ' wares : XRF r equ ires v ir tua l ly n o d estruct ion , mere ly a s herd-edge c leaned w i th a h and-dr i l l , wh i le AAS r equ ires a max i mu m o f 5 0 mg o f p owder , u sua l ly d r i l led f rom t he s a me c leaned s po t .

G iven t he

s oph ist icated n ature o f t hese methods , i ti s u nderstandab le t hat t hey a re c onducted a t ar esearch l aboratory b y p rofess iona l a na lysts , r ather t han b y a n a rchaeo log is t w ith a dd it iona l t ra in ing , a s m igh t h appen w ith t h in-sect ion ing , f or e xa mp le . T h is means t hat a p ro ject must f i rst b e p roposed t o al aboratory , s uch a s t he R esearch L abora tory f or Archaeo logy , wh ich m igh t c hoose t o r e ject i t , s ince i ti s g enera l ly t rue t hat work o f t h is n ature i s u nder taken o n ly when i t i s i n s o me w ay l ike ly t o a dvance t he p ract ice o f a na lys is , a s we l l a s a id t he a rchaeo log ist . I n f act , t he

Rhen ish ' w ares p ro ject p resen ted t he p oss ib i l ity o f t ack l ing

an u mber o fa na lyt ica l p rob le ms . I t was , f or e xamp le , t he f i rst p ro ject a t t he R esearch L aboratory f or Archaeo logy t o emp loy XRF a nd AAS i n p ara l le l , t hereby t est ing e ach o ther ' sa ccuracy a nd i ncreas ing t he n umber o f e le men ts a na lysed i n e ach s a mp le .

T here i s a lso a w ide r ange o f l aten t p rob le ms

wh ich c ou ld c onsp ire t o p roduce u nc lear r esu l ts i n a ny c era m ic a na lys is ; t he a na lys is o f 'Rhen ish ' wares a ppeared t o p rov ide a g ood mode l f or s o lv ing s o me o f t hese p rob le ms : 1 ) V ar iat ion i n t he c lay .

Exper i men ta l work a t Ox ford b y t he Research

L aboratory ( pers . c o mm .) , a t L ezoux b y D r . P icon o f t he CNRS L aborato ire d e C era mo log ie ( pers . c omm .) , a nd a t Rhe inzabern b y D rs . S chne ider , H of fmann , a nd W irz h as s hown t hat i ti s d if f icu lt t o e stab l ish a r elat ionsh ip o n t he b as is o f c he m ica l a na lys is b etween c lay b eds a nd p ot tery p roduced a t n earby workshops .

T he c lay u sed f or p ots may b e a mix ture o f c lays f ro m

v ar ious p arts o f t he s a me b ed ( Schne ider , Ho f fmann , & Wirz , 1 978 ) ;

t he

p roduct ion p rocess i nvo lves c lean ing t he c lay ( w i th water wh ich may c on ta in impur it ies ) a nd p erhaps a dd ing t e mper(s ) ; a nd t he f i r ing o f t he p ot tery may c ause c he m ica l c hanges i n t he c lay , e spec ia l ly a t h igh t e mperatures ( Magget t i & Ross man ith , 1 981 ) .

T he f iner t he p o t tery , t he s tronger t hese i n f luences

a re l ike ly t o b e . 2 ) V ar iat ion i n as ing le v esse l . T here a re v ary ing d egrees o f 'f ineness ' among f i ne wares : wh i le t erra s ig i l lata a nd 'Rhen ish ' wares g enera l ly h ave n o v is ib le i nc lus ions o ther t han mica , many o ther wares d o h ave f l ecks o f f e ldspar o r o ther impur i t ies , a nd a s ing le a na lys is c oncen trat ing o n t hese o r om it t ing t he m c an p roduce a d istor ted r esu lt .

T herefore , t he d egree o f

v ar iat ion i n s ing le v esse ls n eeds t o b e a ssessed f or e ach f abr ic t ype , i n o rder t o a id i n t he a ssess men t o f ar easonab le marg in o f e rror b etween a na lyses o f v esse ls f ro m o ne s ource . 3 ) Weather ing .

P rof . R .C .A , Rot t länder h as s uggested t ha t c he m ica l

a na lyses may b e c ons iderab ly d istor ted b y a dverse b ur ia l c ond it ions wh ich may c ause c hanges i nu ns tab le e le men ts i n s o me s herds ( pers . c om m .). 3 62

A lthough o ur a na lyses h ave n ot r ef lected t h is , p erhaps b ecause n one o f t he e le men ts f or wh ich we a na lyse

i s s uf f ic ien t ly u nstab le t o u pset t he a ggrega te

a na lys is , i ti s c er ta in ly t rue t hat weather ing c an a f fect t he a ppearance a nd f ee l o f s herds , a nd t h is may we l l a f fect t he ir a rchaeo log ica l c ategor izat ion b efore a na lys is ( a s tudy o f t he e f fect o f weather ing o n c er ta in e le men ts i s i nc luded i n T ubb , P arker a nd N ick less , 1 980 ) . 4 )

I n terference .

I f ag iven v esse l h as b een c onstructed u s ing t wo s ep-

a rate c lays ( no t m ixed ) , o r u s ing o ne c lay wh ich h as u ndergone t wo c he m ica l ly d ist inct p rocesses , t here i s ar isk t hat t he a na lys is w i l l n ot make t he d ist inct ion . F or e xa mp le , i ti s u sua l ly a ssu med t hat t he c o lour-coat ing o n R o man f ine wares i s c reated b y f ur ther r ef in ing t he c lay u sed f or t he b ody f abr ic .

With

d ark v esse ls , h owever , o ne migh t p os tu late t he a dd it ion o f ad arken ing a gen t , a long w ith r educt ion i n t he k i ln .

I fas herd i s v ery t h in , i t may p rove d if f icu lt

t o a na lyse t he b ody w ithou t t he i n terference o f t he c o lour-coat ing .

T h is h as

r e ma ined o n ly a h ypothet ica l p rob le m , s o f ar . 5 )

P rob le ms o f a na lyt ica l d iscr im inat ion .

( a ) S herds o r v esse ls

a rchaeo log ica l ly d ef ined a s b e ing f ro m a s ing le s ource m igh t p rove t o v ary w ide ly i n c o mpos it ion , o r ( b ) v esse ls a rchaeo log ica l ly s hown t o h ave b een manufactured a t s eparate s ources m igh t b e c he m ica l ly i nd ist ingu ishab le , o r ( c ) t he methods o f a na lys is a nd d a ta i n terpre tat ion m ight e ither b e t oo p owerfu l t o b r ing o ut g enera l l eve ls o f h o mogene i ty , o r ( d ) t oo weak t o n ot ice r e levan t d ist inct ions b etween s eparate 6 ) S yste mat ic e rrors i n a na lys is . These a re most l ike ly t o d istor t r esu lts when a na lyses h ave b een c arr ied o u t s equen t ia l ly o ver a l ong p er iod . A lthough s uch e rrors a re most f requen t ly l im ited t o s ing le e le men ts(esp ec ia l ly w ith AAS ) , i ft hey b eco me s uf f ic ien t ly l arge t hey w i l l i n terfere w ith t he c o mputer s e lect ion o f h o mogeneous g roups , a nd t he g roups s e lec ted w i l l b eco me s a mp les f ro m p ar t icu lar b atches o f a na lys is r ather t han f ro m t he s a me s ources .

E l im inat ing s yste mat ic e rrors i s t herefore a c ruc ia l p ar t o f

t he a na ly t ica l p rocess . 7 )

P rob le ms o f d ata i n terpretat ion .

I n v iew o f t he l ast t wo s e ts o f

p rob le ms , i ti s o bv ious ly n ecessary t o h ave a s yste m f or i n terpret ing t he n u mbers p roduced t hrough a na lys is wh ich i s c lear a nd s i mp le , y et wh ich c an d ist ingu ish s yste mat ic e rrors a nd l ar it ies b e tween s a mp les .

n o ise ' f ro m r ea l d if ferences a nd s im i-

A t p resen t a l l o f t he r aw d ata g enerated b y a na lyses

a t t he R esearch L aboratory f or Archaeo logy i s f ed i n to t he Ox ford Un ivers ity C o mpu t ing S erv ice I CL 2 980 c o mputer .

I ti s t hen s ub jected t o as er ies o f

d iscr im inan t a nd c lus ter a na lyses , u sing t he CLUSTAN s u ite o r p rogra m mes d eve loped b y Wishar t ( 1978 ) , a dap ted f or a rchaeo log ica l a pp l ica t ion b y D r . A . M . P o l lard ( Po l lard , H atcher , &S y monds , 1 981 ) .

Th is s yste m i s e f f ic ien t ,

a nd we l l s u ited t o p o t tery a na lys is , b ut i ti s n onethe less r epresen tat ive o f o n ly o ne p art icu lar w ay o f a pproach ing t h is s or t o f d a ta .

C luster a na lys is

a bsorbs a l l o f t he d a ta f or a g iven s a mp le , c o mpares i tw ith a l l o f t he d a ta g iven f or o ther s a mp les , a nd t hen s uggests l ike ly g roups o f s a mp les ; i ti s l ess e f fect ive when p resented w i th i nco mp lete d a ta ( when a na lys is f or o ne o r more e le men ts i s m iss ing ) , a nd i td oes n ot p rov ide f or we igh t ing t he d a ta ( suggest ing , f or e xa mp le , t hat o ne e le ment may b e more s tab le t han a nother ). I ti s , a l l t he s a me , av ery p owerfu l t oo l ; 3 63

o ne o f i t s s trongest a dvan tages i s

t he c lear a nd c onc ise way i n wh ich i tp resen ts i t s r esu l ts . a na lys is i s r eproduc ib le :

A lso , c o mputer

t he s a me d ata s ub jected t o t he s a me p rocedures

a lways p roduces t he s a me r esu lts , s o t hat o ne c an a rgue a bou t t he mer i ts o f p rocedures i n r e lat ion t o d iferen t s or ts o f d a ta , b ut n o t a bout what e ach p rocedure a ctua l ly d oes . 8 )

P rob le ms o fa rchaeo log ica l d iscr im inat ion .

E ven i fa p rogra m me o f

a na lys is h as e ncoun tered n o a pparen t methodo log ica l p rob le ms , b ecause t he s a mp les a re a rchaeo log ica l i n n ature , a ny i n terpre tat ion o f t he r esu lts must i nc lude t he p oss ib i l ity o fa rchaeo log ica l a no ma l ies . K i ln g roups , f or e xa mp le , a re r are ly w i th o ut t he o ccas iona l i n trusive s herd . S eparab le g roups migh t o ccur among v esse ls a l l t hough t t o emanate f ro m o ne s ource , d ue e ither t o c hrono log ica l c hanges , s uch a s t he a dd i t ion o f more c a lc iu m t o t erra s ig i l la ta a f ter c . 1 20 a t L ezoux ( P icon , V ichy , & Me i l le , 1 971 , 1 91-208 ) , o r t o mu lt ip le c lay s ources , a s a t R he inzabern ( Schne ider , H of fmann , & Wirz , 1 978 ) . O r , c once ivab ly , t here c ou ld b e a s n earby workshops .

t ranspor t o f c lay t o d istan t a s we l l

O ur f i rst p rogra m me o f a na lysis c ons isted o f t wen ty s a mp les f ro m s evera l e xcavat ions i n Br i ta in . T hese were d iv ided i n to t wo g roups a ccord ing t o t he s uperf ic ia l d ist inct ions d escr ibed a bove ( presence o r a bsence o f g rey , s andw ich-l ike c ore ;

c urved o r p edes ta l b ase ;

b arbo t ine u nder t he c o lour-

c oat ing o r a bove i ti n wh ite 'p a in t ' ) ,c orrespond ing , p resu mab ly , t o t he t wo l ike ly p roduct ion a reas , c en tra l G au l a nd t he Rh ine land . The c o mputer p rogra m m ing was n o t y et o perat iona l a t t h is s tage , b u t , f or tuna te ly , i t was u nnecessary , g iven t he sma l l n u mber o f s a mp les a nd t he c lar ity o f t he r esu lts : t he a na lys is c on f ir med t he t wo g roups a s c he m ica l ly d ist inct a nd r e lat ive ly h o mogeneous . I ft he r esu lts o b ta ined f ro m o n ly t wen ty s a mp les c ou ld n ot b e s a id t o e l im inate a l l o f t he p o ten t ia l p rob le ms , i td id s ee m u n l ike ly t hat t hey were who l ly a ma tter o f c hance .

T hese r esu lts s ee med t o d e monstrate

c onv inc ing ly t hat t he p ot tery was s u i tab le f or a na lys is , a nd t hat t he a na lyt ica l methods were s u i tab le f or t he p o t tery , s o t hat we c ou ld t hen e xpand t he work , t o a sk n ew a rchaeo log ica l q uest ions a nd t o s yste mat ize t he a na lyt ica l i n terpreta t ion a nd p resen tat ion o ft he r esu l ts . I th as l ong b een s uspected t hat 'Rhen ish ' wares a re c lose ly r e lated t o t erra s ig i l la ta

( Greene , 1 978a , 1 9 ) .

T he r ed f abr ic o f 'Rhen ish ' wares ,

e spec ia l ly t hose f ound i n B r i ta in , i s c ons isten t ly o f af ineness a nd q ua l ity a s h igh o r h igher t han t hat o f TS f ro m c en tra l a nd E ast G au l . T ypo log ica l ly , t he r e lat ionsh ip i s c loser w ith c en tra l G au l ish v esse ls , where b etween t he r ange o f c en tra l G au l ish

Rhen ish ' wares ( i .e . b lack c o lour-coated v esse ls

o f c haracter ist ic f or ms n o t f ound i n 11 ) a nd t he r ange o f c en tra l G au l ish T S f or ms , t here i s a lso a c ategory o f TS f or ms wh ich a re f requen t ly f ound w ith ad ark c o lour-coat ing , wh ich may i n s o me c ases h ave b een a cc iden ta l , b ut o n many v esse ls h as b een q u ite d e l iberate . I n E ast G au l , a t Tr ier , t here i s n o o bv ious r e lat ionsh ip a t a l l b etween t erra s ig i l la ta a nd Rhen ish ' wares . T here a re a f ew e xa mp les o f t yp ica l 'Rhen ish ' w are b eakers wh ich a ppear t o h ave b een a cc iden ta l ly d epr ived o f ad ark c o lour-coat ing , a nd t hus l ook r ed l i ke T S, b u t t hese a re e xcep t ions , n one s ee ms t o h ave b een d e l iberate , a nd t here a re n o f or ms wh ich g enu inely o ver lap b etween t he t wo t ypes .

A t

Rhe inzabern , h owever , a TS workshop wh ich d id n ot p roduce b lack c o lour-

3 64

c oated v esse ls ( Dr . F . R eu it t i , p ers .

c omm .) , t here a re c er ta in TS f or ms

wh ich were d ecorated w ith wh ite 'p a in t ' ,a s w ere 'R hen ish ' v esse ls a t T r ier ( Gose , 1 976 , 1 5 , n os .

1 68 , 1 72 , &1 73 ) , a l though t he s ty les o f d ecorat ion

a t R he inzabern a re d ist inct ive f ro m t hose a t T r ier . F irst , t herefore , i fi tc ou ld b e s hown t ha t 'R hen ish , wares f rom e i ther p robab le p roduct ion a rea matched c he m ica l ly w ith TS f rom a ny p ar t icu lar k nown workshop i n t ha t a rea , t hen i tc ou ld b e r easonab ly s urm ised t hat t he Rhen ish ' wares a nd TS

c a me f ro m t he s a me c lay s ource a nd were t here-

f ore p robab ly made a t t he s a me workshop .

S econd , b ecause o f t he a bsence

o f s ta mps o r a ny o bv ious t ypo log ica l e vo lut ion , 'Rhen ish ' wares h ave a lways b een r ather b road ly d ated : i ft here was a d irect l ink w ith TS, wh ich i s g ene ra l ly w e l l d ated , t here o ugh t t o b e s o me c hance o f d at ing 'Rhen ish ' wares more c lose ly .

T herefore , a na lys is was i nder taken o f af ur ther f i f ty s a mp les

o f 'Rhen ish ' wares ( f ro m s evera l Br it ish e xcava t ions ) a long w ith f i f ty s a mp les o f TS ( borrowed f ro m D r . G race S i mpson a nd t he Museu m o f L ondon ) i den t if ied o nt ypo log ica l g rounds a s b e ing f ro m T r ier , R he inzabern , B l ickwe i ler , C he mery , L a Made le ine , L avoye , L ezoux , L es Mar tres d e V eyre , and C o lchester . Our c onc lus ions f ro m t h is a na lysis were a s f o l lows : "We h ave s hown t hat t he R hen ish ' wares f ound i n B r i ta in w ere a l most e xc lus ive ly manufactured a t e i ther Tr ier o r L ezoux ( a ssu m ing t hat : ( a ) o ur f our Tr ier s herds a re r epresen ta t ive [ f ur ther s herds o f T r ier T S h ave s ince b een a na lysed a nd f ound c ons isten t w i th Tr ier 'R hen ish ' w ares ] a nd ( b ) n o o ther s ource e x ists w ith a s im i lar c lay c ompos it ion ) , a nd f ro m v ery s im i lar c lay t o t hat u sed f or t erra s ig i l lata . O n ly a h andfu l o f t he 7 0 v esse ls a na lysed d id n ot o r ig inate f ro m t hese c en tres ... t hese may b e a ssoc iated w ith m inor p roduc t ion c en tres ( m inor , t hat i s , i n t er ms o f s upp ly t o B r i ta in ) . S a mp les o f t erra s ig i l la ta f ro m l i ke ly c and idates a re c urren t ly b e ing e xa m ined .

I n g enera l , w e h ave

c on f ir med t ha t t he v isua l a ids t o d iscr im inat ion d escr ibed i n t he i n troduct ion [ above ] a re a r easonab le g u ide , b ut a l arge n umber o f s herds h ave b een f ound wh ich c anno t b e c lass if ied b y t hese means . I n t hese c ases , c he m ica l a na lys is i s t he o n ly r e l iab le g u ide ... "T he c oncep t o fu s ing d ated t erra s ig i l la ta t o e s tab l ish c hanges i n f abr ic c ompos it ion w ith t ime , a s was d one b yP icon w ith e ar ly L ezoux w ares ( P icon , V ichy , & Me i l le , 1 971 , 1 91-208 ) , h as s o f ar b een u nsuccessfu l d ue t o t he l ack o f s uf f ic ien t d ated s herds f rom t he r e levan t s ources . We a re a t p resen t p rocess ing d a ta f ro m f ur ther e xa mp les o f T r ier , Rhe inzabern a nd C o lchester t erra s ig i l la ta , a nd h ope t o p ursue t h is a venue o f i nvest igat ion ." ( Po l lard , H atcher , &S y monds , 1 981 ) . The t rue v a lue o f c o mposi t iona l a na lys is i s i n i t s a b i l ity t o p rov ide a n a dd it iona l , r e lat ive ly o b ject ive b as is f or a rchaeo log ica l j udge men ts . A s r esu lts h ave a ccu mu la ted , s o h as c on f idence i n t he m . Y et i s i s impor tan t t o k eep t he r o le o fa na lys is i n ap roper p erspec t ive . A lthough r ough c o mpar isons c an b e made b y XRF v ery r ap id ly , t here w i l l a lways b e an eed t o r e late c o mpos it iona l s im i lar i t ies t o g enera l t ypo log ica l a spec ts :

i n i t s p resen t

f or m, a na lys is i s t oo e xpensive , c o mp l ica ted a nd t ime-consum ing t o b e a nything o ther t han a f or m o f g u ided s a mp l ing . I n t h is r egard t he r esearcher ' s p rocedure c anno t b e mere ly a mat ter o fp ost-operat ive s yn thesis , l ike t hat o f a n e xcavator w ith a r t ifacts s en t o f f f or s pec ia l ist r eports . 3 65

C o mpos it iona l

a na lys is must b eg in w ith a n a rchaeo log ica l a ppra isa l o f t he mater ia l , f rom wh ich a re d ist i l led a l im ited n u mber o f q uest ions t oward wh ich a na lys is c an b e a i med .

I ft hese a re s uccessfu l ly a nswered , t here c an b e f eedback , l ead-

i ng t o n ew q uest ions . A lso , c o mposi t iona l a na lys is d oes n o t n ecessar i ly l ead d irect ly t o i den t ify ing t he s ource o f t he p ot tery . T h is p ro ject h as b een f or tunate , w ith Rhen ish ' wares , i n e s tab l ish ing a l i nk w i th t erra s ig i l la ta t wh ich h as a l ong h istory o f i n tens ive s tudy , a nd c o mes , f or t he most p ar t , f ro m we l l-known p roduct ion c en tres .

Withou t t ha t l i nk , o r s ome s ort o f

c ompar ison e i ther w i th mater ia l f ro m k i lns o r w ith o ther we l l u nderstood p ot tery t ypes , n o more c ou ld b e s a id t han t hat g roups o f Rhen ish ' wares a re c he m ica l ly d ist inct .

T S i s p ar t icu lar ly u sefu l , s ince t hrough i tc an b e e stab-

l i shed a s izeab le b ank o f k nown s ources a ga inst wh ich t o c o mpare o ther p o t tery . N ew q uest ions a re n ow b e ing a sked , b ased o n t he r esu lts s o f ar .

I n

c en tra l G au l , L ezoux i s f ar f ro m b e ing t he o n ly workshop t o h ave p roduced b o th TS a nd f i ne c o lour-coated wares .

I ti s p oss ib le t hat v esse ls f ro m

T ou lon-sur-A l l ier , V ichy , C ler mon t-Ferrand a nd L es Mar tres d e V eyre m igh t a l l b e s im i lar i n c o mpos i t ion t o t hose f ro m L ezoux , s ince t he c lay s ources f or a l l o f t hese workshops a re l ike ly t o h ave b een i n t he v a l ley o f t he A l l ier . S a mp les o f t he f i ne-ware p roducts o f t hese s ources h ave b een c o l lected , b ut t he a na lyses a re n o t y et c o mp lete .

S a mp les h ave r ecen t ly b een c o l lected

f rom o ther T S w orkshops b etween c en tra l G au l a nd t he R h ine land , s uch a s G ueugnon a nd J au lges—V i l l iers-V ineux ( and w i l l b e c o l lected f ro m t he Argonne i n 1 981) , t o s ee i ft hese c ou ld a ccoun t f or t he f ew u nc lass if iab le s herds a na lysed . T r ier

S o me r ecen t ly o b ta ined r esu lts s uggest t ha t t he l arge n u mber o f

R hen ish ' wares wh ich h ave b een e xa m ined may s eparate i n to t wo

g roups . T h is r equ ires f ur ther a na lyt ica l c onf ir ma t ion , b ut i ti s a n e xa mp le o fp oten t ia l ly u sefu l f eedback . A lso u nder c ons idera t ion i s t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t ypo log ica l d ist inct ions a lso r ef lect t h is s eparat ion .

I fs uch d ist inct ions

a re f ound , c on tex tua l i n for mat ion f or t he s a mp les , a nd f or o ther s herds o r v esse ls w i th t hese d ist inct ions , c ou ld b e i nvest iga ted , i n s earch o f c hrono log ica l o r c on textua l p at terns . T h is p aper h as d ea lt e xc lus ive ly w ith p r inc ip les , r ather t han n umbers . T here was s o me t e mp ta t ion , a t t he o u tset , t o p resen t as er ies o f r esu lts , a nd t hen t ry t o e xp la in t he m . B u t s uch a n a pproach wou ld i nev i tab ly h ave f ocused o n t he g enera l it ies o r i rregu lar i t ies i n t he s pec if ic d a ta q uo ted , r ather t han o n methodo log ica l p r inc ip les a nd p rob le ms . A .r epresen tat ive s a mp le o f d ata f ro m o ur 'R hen ish ' wares a na lyses w i l l b e f ound i n t he f or thco m ing p ub l icat ion ( Po l lard , H atcher & S y monds , 1 981 ) . T o s o me e x ten t , e ach a rchaeo log ist who b eco mes i nvo lved i n work o f t h is n ature f inds a n ew s et o f p rob le ms wh ich a re s pec if ic t o h is o r h er s ub ject ma t ter .

I ti s h oped t hat t he p reced ing d is-

c uss ion h as s erved t o i l lu m inate s o me o f t he more u n iversa l a spects o f c he m ic a l a na lyses a s a pp l ied t o R o man f i ne wares . ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS A l l o f t he a na ly t ica l work o n wh ich t h is p aper i s b ased w as c arr ied o ut b y D r . A .M . P o l lard a nd Miss H . H atcher a t t he R esearch L aboratory f or Archaeo logy , 6K eb le R oad , Ox ford .

Iwou ld a lso l i ke t o e xpress my t hanks

t o t he m f or t he n u merous c o m men ts , c orrect ions a nd h e lpfu l s uggest ions 3 66

wh ich t hey h ave c on tr ibuted , a lthough t he r espons ib i l ity f or a ny e rrors i s f ir m ly mine . Iwou ld l ike t o t hank P rofessor E .T . H a l l a nd D r . R .E . M. H edges f or t he ir s uppor t o f t he a na lyt ica l p rogra m me , a nd Professor S .S . F rere f or h is s uppor t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l work . Iwou ld a lso l ike t o t hank t he f o l low ing e xcavat ions u n its , museu ms , a nd i nd iv idua ls who h ave k ind ly a l lowed u s t o a na lyse t he ir s herds : Mr . P au l B oo th ( excavat ions a t A . lcester ) Mr . P au l Drury—The C he l msford & E ssex Museu m Ms Margaret B u l mer —Excavat ions S ect ion , T he Grosvenor Museu m , C hester Mr . P au l S ea ley—The C o lchester & E ssex Museu m D r . D .J . Sm ith— C orbr idge Museu m Ms . L isa Brown ( excavat ions a t D orchester-on-Tha mes & M idd leton S toney ) Dr . L awrence B ar f ie ld ( excavat ions a t B ays Meadow , D ro itw ich ) Mr . H ugh C hap man & Mr . G eof f Marsh—The Museu m o f L ondon Mr . P au l Aust in ( DoE e xcavat ions a t P enr i th) D r . Grace S i mpson Oxfordsh ire Archaeo log ica l U n it ( excavat ions a t Towcester ) P rofessor S .S . F rere ( Veru la m iu m Excavat ions ) M. e t Mmm J acques Ro meuf ( excavat ions a t L es Mar tres d e Veyre ) M . P h i l ippe B et ( excavat ions a t L ezoux & T ou lon-sur-A l l ier , L a F oret ) M . Hugues Ver tet ( excava t ions a t T ou lon-sur-A l l ier , C ha mps L arry ) M me F oncere — Mus e d e Mou l ins M . A la in d e V a lence ( excavat ions a t Gueugnon ) M . H enr i L eredde & M . J -P J acob ( excavat ions a t J au lges —V i l l iers-V ineux ) M . Rene J of froy— Mus e d es An t iqu ites N a t iona les , S t . G er ma in-en-Laye D r . He inz C üppers—Rhe in isches L andes museu m , Tr ier D r . F r ido l in Reu i t t i ( excava t ions a t Rhe inzabern ) D r . Kar l-V ik tor D ecker— M it te lrhein isches L andes museu m , Ma inz D r . A .-B . F o l l mann-Schu lz & Dr . Doro thea H aup t—Rhe in isches L andes museu m , Bonn ( excava t ions a t S inz ig ) D r . M. R iede l—Rö m isch

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2 2.

A RO MANO-BRITISH POTTERY

AT B IDDLE S DEN , BUCK INGHA MSH IRE P eter Woods Roy Tur land S teve Has t ings

T he e normous v ar ia t ion i n t he c onstruct ion o ft he s ub terranean e le men ts o f Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery k i lns i s we l l d ocu men ted . T he s uscep t ib i l i ty o f t h is k ind o f s tructure t o l oca l i d iosyncrasy , p art icu lar ly i n t he mat ter o ft he f urn i ture u t l ized w i th in t he k i ln , h as b een t he s ub ject o fn umerous r epor ts d ur ing t he p as t t wo o r t hree d ecades . We n ow k now t ha t t here were k i lns w i th p or ta b le p edes ta ls , f ree-s tand ing b o l lard-type p edes ta ls a nd s o l id t ongue-pedes ta ls i n tegra l w i th t he w a l l o f t he f urnace . We a lso k now t ha t t he f l oor o f t he f i r ingc ha mber was s ome t i mes c onstructed o f r e movab le f i re-bars a nd a t o ther t imes was a more p er manen t f ea ture , t he u sua l a rrange men t b e ing ah or izon ta l p la t form w i th p er fora t ions. F ro m t hese a ccoun ts i t wou ld s ee m t ha t t he n u mb er o fv ar ia t ions w as l im ited o n ly b y c er ta in t echno log ica l c onsidera t ions , t he p hys ica l p roper t ies o ft he ma ter ia ls u sed a nd t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he p ract i sing p o t ters o f t he t ime were p repared t o i ndu lge i n i nnova t ion a nd e xper i men t . O ccas iona l ly , h owever , t here i s d iscovered a k i ln , o r s er ies o f k i lns , wh ich a dds a n ew d i mens ion t o o ur k now ledge o ft h is v ery impor tan t e le men t o f t he e cono my o f Ro man B r i ta in . I ti s t he c on ten t ion o ft h is p aper t ha t t he k i lns wh ich were r ecen t ly u ncovered a t B idd lesden , o n t he Nor tha mp tonsh ireB uck ingha msh ire b order , f a l l w i th in t h is c a tegory . S ITE LOCATION ( F ig .22.1 -22.2) The s i te ( SP 6 39398) i s l ess t han s even mi les f ro m T owces ter a nd Wa t l ing S tree t . C ons iderab ly n earer i s t he c ourse o f t he R o man r oad f ro m T owces ter t o A lches ter . The k i lns a re l oca ted c lose t o t he p o in t where t he O o l it ic L imestone g ives way t o ad epos i t o f B ou lder C lay . T here i s as and p i t i n a n a d jacen t f i e ld . S i tua ted i n a n a rea wh ich , e ven t oday , i s wel l s upp l ied w i th t imber a nd wa ter , t he p o t ters h ad e asy a ccess t o a l lt he r aw ma ter ia ls o f t he ir t rade a nd t he i mpor tan t u rban c en tre o f L ac todoru rn . The ir p roduc ts c er ta in ly r eached t he R o mano-Br i t ish v i l la a t D eanshanger .1 THE D ISCOVERY ( F ig .22.3) The e x istence o ft he s i te b eca me k nown when g rad ing o pera t ions a nd t he c u t t ing o f s tanch ion p i ts f or an ew mi lk ing c o mp lex a t Abbey House ( f ar m ) u ncovered l arge q uan t i t ies o f R oman p ot tery a nd k i ln d ebr is o n a rab le l and j us tn orth o ft he f armhouse . A mechan ica l e xcava tor o pera tor r epor ted t hese d iscover ies t o t he S ou th N or than ts. Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty . S ubsequen t ly , t he wr i ters w ere a sked t ov is i t t he s i te a nd , a t t he i nv i ta t ion o ft he o wner , 3 69

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3 71 S ite L ocat ion

Mr . E . B . P a terson , ar escue o pera t ion was h urr ied ly a rranged . By t h is t ime a t l eas t t wo k i lns ( K i lns Ia nd V ) h ad b een c o mp le te ly d es troyed a nd o thers ( K i lns I a nd I V ) d a maged b y t he e xcava t ion o ft he f ounda t ion p i ts . A n umber o f p ost-ho les , p i ts a nd d i tches w as a lso n oted . O ne o f t he d i tches p roduced t he b ronze f i tmen ts f rom a L a te C e lt ic t ankard .2 A l though t he w ork h ad t o b e c arr ied o u t u nder emergency c ond i t ions , much i mpor tan t i n for ma t ion was s a lvaged . K ILN I I ( F igs. 2 2.3 , 2 2.6 , 2 2.9 ) T h is k i ln h ad a pparen t ly b een u ncovered s o me h ours b efore i t s e xami na t ion b yt he wr i ters . T he f urnace-cha mber h ad b een s truck b y a mechan ica l e xcava tor ,r educ ing t he wal l o n o ne s ide , a nd s l igh t d a mage h ad a lso b een c aused t o t he f l ue , wh ich was o n ly p ar t ly e xposed . T he r em inder o f t he f l ue a nd t he s tok ing a rea were c overed w i th a c o mpressed l ayer o f s o i l d epos i ted b y t he move men t o f p lan t a cross t he s i te . When t h is was r e moved t he k i ln was s een t o b e a l igned N .E. —S .W . w i th t he s tokeho le t o t he S .w . I t s o vera l l l eng th was 2 .8 m . B ecause o ft he u neven g rad ing o ft he f urnace a nd t he l imi ta t ions o f t ime i t was n o t p oss ib le t o r ecord t h is k i ln i n p lan i n i t s u nexc ava ted s ta te . T he S tokeho le F ina l c lean ing o ft he s tok ing p i t r evea led a n o vera l l l eng th o f 1 .4 m a nd a max i mu m w id th o f 8 5 cm . T he g rea tes t s urv iv ing d ep th was 5 0 cm . T he s tokeho le n arrowed s l igh t ly t owards i t s S .W . e nd a nd i t s s teep ly s lop ing s ides were a l most v er t ica l i n p laces . The b o t to m 5-7 cm o ft he f il ing c o mpr ised a sh a nd c harcoa l , p robab ly f ro m t he f i na l r ake-back b e fore t he f lue was s ea led . p o t tery .

T he ma in f i l l ing c ons isted o f av ery d ark s o i lw i th much

T h is d ense b lack d epos i t h ad av ery e ven , a l mos t s i lky , t ex ture

a nd s ee med t o b e made u p o f s o i l h eav i ly c on tam ina ted w i th f i ne ly p owdered c harcoa l . Immed ia te ly a bove t h is was a l evel l ing-o f f l ayer o f sma l l p o tsherds , b urn t c lay a nd s tones . F ound i n t he r ounded b u t t-end o ft he p i t was h a l f o f o ne o ft he a rched f i re-bars f ro m t he f urnace-chamber ( t ype l c : s ee b e low ) a nd a b one t oo l ( F ig . 2 2.12 , H ) . T he F lue T he t o ta l l eng th o ft he f l ue was 5 3 cm . I t s u pper mos t w id th was 3 0 cm a t t he s tok ing e nd a nd j ust u nder 2 8 .5 cm a t t he j unct ion w i th t he f urnacec hamber . T h is marg ina l r educt ion was r eversed a t f l oor l evel where t he measure men ts were 3 0 cm a nd 4 5 cm r espec t ive ly . I n t he v ic in i ty o f t he s tokeho le t he c lay-rendered wa l ls were v er t ica l , b u t c lose t o t he f urnace t hey w ere e ither s p layed o u twards o r u ndercu t , t hus e f fec t ive ly i ncreasing t he w id th o ft he f l ue a t t h is l eve l b y s o me 1 6 cm . P ar ts o ft he e as tern w a l l h ad a marked o verhang ( F ig . 2 5.6 ) . U n for tuna te ly , t ime d id n o t a l low a d eta i led e xam ina t ion o ft he f l ue c heeks , b u t t he g enera l -i mpress ion g a ined was t ha t t hese w ere l a ter a dd i t ions ( i .e . s econdary t o t he e xcava t ion o ft he k i ln p i t ) . Two s tones , o n e i ther s ide o f t he c hanne l , may h ave s uppor ted s o me k ind o f f l ue c over ing .

When e xcava ted t he f l ue was f ound t o h ave b een .

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p acked w i th t he l oca l B ou lder C lay c on ta in ing k i ln d ebr is a nd af ew p o tsherds . T he v ery c arefu l s ea l ing o f t h is k i ln wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te t ha t ar educed f i r ing was i n tended . T h is was b orne o u t b yt he e x cep t ional ly h igh p ercen tage o f g rey wares f ound i n a l l p ar ts o f t he k i ln . C onsol ida ted u nder t h is p ack ing mater ia l was a c on t inua t ion o ft he a sh a nd c harcoa l l ayer r ecorded i n t he s tokeho le . T h is d epos i t was b etween 5 a nd 7 cm t h ick a nd was l y ing d irec t ly o n t he f l oor o ft he f lue wh ich h ad b een c u tt o ad ep th o f a t l eas t 4 7 cm i n to t he n a tura l c lay . Ab arbed-andtanged a rrowhead ( F ig .22.12 , G ) was f ound o n t he g raded s urface a t t he e dge o ft he f lue c hanne l . T he F urnace T he max imum s urv iv ing d ep th o f t he f urnace-chamber , where i th ad n o t b een d a maged d ur ing t he r e mova l o f t opso i l , was 6 5c m . T he a verage i n terna l d ia me ter was 9 6 cm . R educ ing c ond i t ions i n t he k i ln h ad d isco loured t he c layr endered wa l ls g rey t o ad ep th o f b etween 5 a nd 6 cm a nd b eyond t h is t he n a tura l c lay was s corched f or a no ther 5 cm . T he c lay l in ing e xh ib i ted a n u mber o f wel l-def ined t oo l- marks . I t wou ld a ppear t ha t we t c lay h ad b een smeared o n to t he wa l ls a nd t hen p ressed i n to p lace w i th a wooden b lock o r a n imp le men t r ese mb l ing ap lasterer 's f l oa t . T h is s ur face s howed much e v idence o f c rack ing , c aused b yd ry ing o u t a nd c on trac t ion d ur ing t he i n i t ia l a nd s ubs equen t f i r ings . T he f urn i ture r ecovered f ro m t h is k i ln was o f at ype h i ther to u nrecordered . The K i ln F urn i ture A .

A rched f i re-bars— type 1 ( F ig . 2 2.8, C )

Type l a . L arge , s em i-c ircu lar c lay s uppor t . Max imum h e igh t : 3 6 cm ; o vera l l s pan : 6 4 cm ; s ec t iona l measure men ts : 1 3 cm f ro m f ron t t o r ear a nd j us t o ver 1 2 cm f ro m i ns ide t o o u tside. Th is t ype h as a s ing le p er fora t ion , o f2 2 mm d ia me ter , n ear t he c en tre o ft he a rch . Two r ecovered . Type l c.

S im i lar t o t ype l a a nd o f a pprox ima te ly t he s a me d imens ions .

S ec t iona l measure men ts : 2 0c m f ro m f ron t t o r ear a nd 1 0 cm f ro m i ns ide t o o u ts ide . C harac ter ised b yt hree p er fora t ions , i rregu lar ly s paced . O ne r ec overed , p ar t o f wh ich was f ound i n t he s tokeho le . H eavy f urn i ture o f t h is k ind wou ld a l mos t c er ta in ly h ave b een c ons truc ted b yt he a pp l ica t ion o f s uccessive l u mps o f c lay u n t i l t he r equ ired c urva ture was a ch ieved . B .

S pacers— type 2 ( F ig . 2 2.8, D )

T h ick , s ausage-shaped wads o f c lay w i th s l igh t ly e xpanded e nds . A m in i mum o f e igh t o f t hese wads were i nser ted a t i n terva ls b etween t he ma in s uppor ts . T he l edgel ike c oncav i ty a t b o th e nds , c orrespond ing e xac t ly t o t he s hape o ft he u pper e dges o ft he c urved b ar , d e monstra tes t he ir u se a s s pacers . T h is f unct ion wou ld h ave s erved t he d ua l p urpose o f a dd ing t o t he s tab i l i ty o ft he s tructure b y r educ ing t he p oss ib i l i ty o fl a tera l move men t a nd p rov id ing a more efec t ive f l oor f or t he p o t tery l oad . e igh t were r ecovered .

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S even o f t he p oss ib le

C . Wads u sed t o s ecure t he a rched s uppor ts t o t he f urnace-chamber t ypes 3 a nd 4 ( F ig . 2 2.8 , E ) I rregu lar-shaped l u mps o f c lay wh ich r e ta in t he s hape o ft he ma in f i reb ars a nd p ar ts o ft he f urnace . T he ir u se was t o f ix t he t hree ma in me mbers i n s uch away t ha tt hey b ecame a n i n tegra l p ar t o ft he k i ln 's s truc ture. T he t wo t ypes a re d ist ingu ished a s f o l lows : T ype 3 . T hese w ere u sed b etween t he l ower p ar ts o ft he a rched s uppor ts a nd t he j unc t ion o ft he wa l l a nd f l oor o ft he f urnace-cha mber . F our w ere f ound i n s i tu a nd t wo o x id ized a reas o n t he r ear wa l l o f t he f urnace s howed where s im i lar p ieces h ad b eco me d etached . A l l s ix r ecovered . T ype 4 .

S im i lar t o t ype 3 , b u t u sed b etween t he a rched s uppor ts a nd

t he u pper wa l l o ft he f urnace-cha mber . T hey may b e r egarded a s av arian t o f t ype 2 , b u t t hey d if f er i nh av ing o n ly o ne e nd l edged . T he o ther e x tre m i ty was a t tached t o t he k i ln wa l l . T he t wo p ieces f ro m t he r ear o ft he f urnace were r ecovered i n g ood c ond i t ion . b u t c ou ld n o t b e r ecovered i n tac t .

T he t wo f orward p ieces were s een i n s i tu

Where t ypes 3 a nd 4 mee t t he c urva ture o ft he f urnace w a l l t hey t end t o merge w i th e ach o ther , t he i n terven ing s paces b e ing f i l led w i th , h owever , c lear e v idence t o s how t ha t t hey h ad b een c onstruc ted a s s epara te e le men ts. Types 2 -4 were a l l s ub ject t o s l igh tv ar ia t ions o f s hape a nd s i ze . K ILN I V ( F ig 2 2.4 ) A l igned a l most d ue N .-S ., t h is k i ln l ay s o me 1 4 m S .W . o f K i ln I I . T he f urnace-chamber h ad b een s ubstan t ia l ly d estroyed b y c onstruc t ion w ork , b u t e nough h ad s urv ived t o a l low p os i t ive i den t i f ica t ion o ft he t ype. A l though t he n ecess i ty o fh av ing t o p reserve t he p ro f i le o f as tanch ion p i t imposed a s evere r estr ic t ion o n t he a rea wh ich c ou ld b e e xam ined , i t was p ossib le t o e xcava te a sma l l p ar t o f wha t r e ma ined o ft he f urnace , a l l o f t he f l ue .a nd a r epresen ta t ive s ec t ion o ft he s tokeho le . T he S tokeho le An a ccura te p lan o f t he s tok ing p i t was n o t r ecoverab le . C on trac tor 's p lan th as c aused s er ious d a mage t o t he u pper l eve ls a nd t he o r ig ina l d imens ions c ou ld o n ly b e e s t i ma ted . However , ac er ta in amoun t o f work was p oss ib le a tt he S . e nd wh ich was i n a much b e t ter s ta te o fp reserva t ion . T he l owes t d eposi t , c ons iderab ly r eddened b y l arge q uan t i t ies o f o x id ized k i ln r ubb ish , c on ta ined v ery l i t t le a sh o r c harcoa l .

Above t h is was a g enera l

mix ture o f d ark s o i ls , b urn t c lay a nd o ther d ebr is ( i nc lud ing wea thered l imes tone ) , b u t n o p o t tery was f ound i nt he f i l l ing . The F lue The o vera l l l eng th o ft he f l ue was 3 7 cm a nd i t s w id th v ar ied f ro m 3 8 cm a cross t he j unc t ion w i th t he f urnace t o 2 8 cm n ear t he s tok ing a rea . T he f l ue wa l ls , r endered w i th c lay , s urv ived t o wha t was p robab ly t he ir t o ta l h e igh t o f 5 8 cm . T he f l oor o ft he f lue a nd b o th wa l ls were h eav i ly o x idized . S corch ing t o ad epth o f 5 cm was r evea led when l arge p ieces o ft he c lay r ender ing f e l l 3 75

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away d ur ing e xcava t ion . Ap a ir o fp ot tery b ases , i ncorpora ted i nt he f l ue c heeks , h as a pparen t ly s erved t he s a me f unc t ion a s t he t wo s tones s im i lar ly p os i t ioned i n K i ln M. T he emergency c ond i t ions p reven ted f ur ther work , b u t i t was a ga in f e l t t ha t t he f l ue a rea was o f s econdary c ons truct ion . Ar a ther h urr ied e xam ina t ion s ee med t o i nd ica te t ha t al arge o va l p i th ad b een d ug t o a cco mmoda te t he k i ln a nd t hen s ome o f t he n a tura l c lay s po i lh ad b een r e int roduced t o f orm t he f l ue c ons tr ic t ion .

F ro m t he f i l l ing o f t he f l ue , wh ich

c o mpr ised a m ix ture o f a sh , d ark s o i l , b urn t c lay a nd k i ln ma ter ia l , was r ecovered much p o t tery , a l l o bv iously manu fac tured o n t he s i te a nd p robab ly o r ig ina t ing f rom t h is k i ln . R e la t ive ly l i t t le wood a sh was f ound b e low t h is l eve l o n t he r eddened c lay f l oor . T here was n o th ing t o i nd ica te t ha t t he f l ue h ad b een s ea led i n t he me t icu lous manner o ft ha t p rev ious ly d escr ibed . T he F urnace. Mos t o f t he f urnace-cha mber h ad b een r e moved b y a mechan ica l e xcav a tor , b u t 1 8 cm o ft he N . s ide r e ma ined . D esp i te c onsiderab le d amage t he wa l ls s urv ived t o ah e igh t o f 5 8 cm a nd t he max i mum i n terna l d iame ter r ec orded was 8 3 cm . T he t horough ly o x id ized l i n ing was 5 cm t h ick . An a rched f ire-bar ( t ype l b ) , b roken i n to t hree p ieces , h ad f a l len a cross t he e n trance t o t he f l ue . Ar e ta in ig wad ( t ype 3 ) f or t h is s uppor t h ad s urv ived i n s i tu . I n a l l r espec t K i ln I I a nd I V w ere v ery s im i lar i n t he ir methods o f c onstruc t ion . T he K i ln F urn i ture A .

Arched f i re-bars — type 1 ( F ig , 2 2.7 , B )

Type l b . p erfora t ions.

S im i lar t o t ypes l a a nd l c , b u td ist ingu ished b yh av ing t wo Max i mu m h e igh t : 4 6 cm ;

o vera l l s pan :

6 3 cm ;

s ec t iona l

measure men ts : 2 3 cm f ro m f ront t o r ear a nd 8 cm f ro m i ns ide t o o u ts ide . T he p er fora t ions h ave ad ia me ter o f 3 0 mm . T hey were i nser ted b yp ush ing as t ick o r wooden p eg t hrough f ro m t he u pper s ur face a nd f o ld ing t he s Urp lus c lay a round t he e dges o ft he h o les o n t he u nderside . T he ' l egs ' o f t h is f i reb ar a re t w isted i nwards .

T h is d istor t ion p robab ly o ccurred when i t was b e ing

p os it ioned a ga inst t he c urv ing wa l l o ft he f urnace-cha mber . A l though t he t ex ture o ft he c lay i s u neven , s o me a t te mp t h ad b een made t o smoo th o u t t he s ur face .

S evera l d iagona l l i nes , s tar t ing 5 cm a bove t he f l oor l evel a nd e x-

t end ing a bou t 2 9 cm h igher , h ad b een s cored i n to t he s ur face o f o ne o ft he l egs wh ich f aced t he k i ln wa l l . T h is k ey ing may h ave b een n ecessary t o e nsure t ha t t he wad a dhered t o t he r e la t ive ly smoo th s ur face o ft he c urved f i re-bar . B .

R e ta in ing wads— type 3 ( F ig . 2 2.8 , E )

Two o ft hese were f ound i n s i tu . t han t hose i n K i ln I I .

T hey were l oca ted a t ah igher l eve l

T h is was n ecessary b ecause t he l egs o f t he a rched

f ire-bar were i n c on tac t w i th t he l ower p ar t o ft he f urnace wa l l . T hus t he wads c ou ld n o t b e p laced a round t he f eet . T hey h ad t o b e p os i t ioned a t t he p oin t where t he c urved s uppor t a nd t he wa l l were s uf f ic ien t ly f ar a par t t o a l low f or t he ir i nser t ion .

3 77

3 78 B idd lesden, K i ln

K ILN I ( F igs. 2 2.3 a nd 2 2.5) T he a x is o f K i ln H Was E .- W . w i th t he f urnace-cha mber a t t he W . e nd . T he g rea ter p art o f t he s tokeho le h ad e i ther b een d estroyed b y as tanch ion p i t o r , a t t he r eques t o ft he c on trac tor , was n o t a va i lab le f or e xcava t ion . C onsequen t ly , w ork was l argely r es tr ic ted t o t he f urnace a rea a nd t he f lue . T he e v idence o b ta ined , h owever , was s u f f icien t t o a l low ap os it ive t ypo log ica l i den t i f ica t ion . K i ln I may b e r egarded a s b e long ing t o t he s ame c lass a sK i lns I I a nd I V . T he c o mp le te d imensions w ere n o t r ecoverab le , b u t a n e s t i ma te , b ased o n t he e xcava ted a reas , s uggests t ha t t h is was t he l argest o f t he t hree k i lns e xp lored . T he S tokeho le O n ly t he S .W . c orner o f t he s tok ing p i t w as u ncovered a nd i tw as n o t p oss ib le t o r e move a ny o f i t s f i l l ing . T he e xposed a rea r evea led a more c urved o u t l ine t han t hose p rev ious ly e xa m ined , r esu lt ing i n a much s hor ter f l ue . T here was n o e v idence , o n t he s ur face , t o i nd ica te mod i f ica t ions o f t he k ind n oted a t Waker ley where t he f lue o f o ne o ft he k i lns h ad b een e x tended i n to t he s tok ing a rea ( J ackson a nd Ambrose , 1 978 , f i g . 2 0 ) . T he e st ima ted w id th o f t he s tokeho le was a t l east 1 .2 m a nd t he l eng th p robab ly e xceeded 1 .6 m . T he F lue A s n o ted a bove , t he p lan o ft h is k i ln d ifered f ro m t he o thers i n h av ing af igure-o f-e igh t a ppearance . T h is k ind o f a rrangmen t , w i th f oreshor tened f l ue , i s at ype w el l-known f rom t he u pper N ene v a l ley ( Woods , 1 974 , f i g . 2 t ype I lc ) . I t s a ncestry c an b e t raced b ack t o t he s ur face-bu i l t k i lns o f t he p re-F lav ian p er iod ( i b id ., f i g . 2 , t ype I c ) . S panning t he c onstr icted a rea was al arge f i re-bar ( t ype 5 ) c on ta in ing a n u mber o fp er fora t ions . R e mova l o f t h is c over e xposed t he 3 1 cm w id th o f t he f l ue wh ich was f u l l o f b urn t c lay a nd k i ln r ubb le .

T h is f i l l ing was n o t r e moved .

T he F urnace T he f urnace-cha mber measured 1 .3 m f rom E .- W . a nd 1 . 2m f ro m N .- S . I ncorpora ted i n to t he n or thern wa l l o f t he f urnace were a n u mber o f l arge s tones . T he wa l ls w ere s p layed o u twards , i ncreas ing t he d i mens ions o ft he o r ig ina l c hamber . H owever , as econd l i n ing was e ncountered s ome 8 -10 cm b e low t he s urv iv ing r im , wh ich r educed t he i n ter ior t o 1 .2 m f ro m E .- W. a nd 1 m f rom N .- S . T he e xcava t ion o f t he f urnace c ou ld n o t b e c o mp le ted i n t he t ime a va i lab le , b u t f ragmen ts f rom s evera l a rched f i re-bars ( t ype l a o r l b ) w ere r ecovered . A sma l l amoun t o f p o t tery w as a lso f ound i n t he f i l l ing . B o th t he f i re-bars a nd t he p o t tery s howed e v idence o fh av ing b een f i red t o av ery h igh t e mperature , u nder o x id iz ing c ond i t ions . S uper imposed a bove t he ma in f i l l ing o ft he f urnace was a l ayer o f f i rer eddened l imes tone w h ich a ppeared t o h ave b een b urn t i n s i tu . Th is c ou ld o n ly h ave o ccurred a f ter t he d es truc t ion o f t he f i ri ng-c hamber a nd when t he k i ln h ad b een a bandoned .

3 79

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T he K i ln F urn i ture A .

S l igh t ly a rched , p er fora ted f i re-bar— type 5 ( F ig . 2 2.7A )

U sed t o c over t he f lue c hanne l o r t he f urnace-cha mber . L eng th 8 1.4 cm w id th : 3 0 cm ; t h ickness 8 cm . T here a re 1 3 p er fora t ions a rranged i n s taggered r ows o f 4 , 5a nd 4 . T he d iame ters o f t he h o les v ary f ro m 1 .6 cm t o a bou t 8 cm ( max imum s p lay ) . D ISCUSS ION A .

T he a rched f i re-bars — type 1 ( F ig . 2 2.7B a nd F ig . 2 2 .8C )

T he u se o f p refabr ica ted a rched f i re-bars i n a n u pdraught k i ln p rov ides s evera l ma jor a dvan tages : 1 . T he a rch w ou ld b e t he s tronges t method o f s uppor t ing t he k i ln l oad a nd wou ld t herefore a l low a l arger q uan t i ty o f p o t t o b e f i red a t at ime t han was p oss ib le i nt he c onven t iona l t ype o f k i ln w i th af l a t f l oor o f r ad ia l f i re-bars o r more p ermanen t c onstruc t ion . A l though l i t t le o r n o th ing i s k nown a bou t t he a bove-ground c ons truc t ion o ft hese k i lns , t he i ncreased e f f ic iency o f t h is t ype o f f urnace c ou ld s u stain a g rea ter v er t ica l e x tension o f t he f i r ing-chamber w i thou t a ny s acri f ice o f q ua l i ty . T h is wou ld r esu l t i n l arge e conom ies o f f ue l a nd t ime . 2 . T he u se o f a rches wou ld l end i t se lf a dm irab ly t o a n e x tens ion o f t he k i ln h or izon ta l ly a s we l l a s v er t ica l ly , s o t ha t e ven l arger l oads m igh t b e c onv en ien t ly a cco m moda ted . Apart f ro m p eak t e mpera tures , t he s uccess o f a f i r ing d epends v ery l arge ly o n t he smoo th , s low r ise i n t e mpera ture , t he m .aintenace o f a' soak ing ' p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he who le t h ickness o f t he wares i s a l lowed t o e qua l ize a nd a n e ven s lower f al i n t e mpera ture t o ap o in t where t he k i ln c ou ld b e s a fe ly o pened a nd emp t ied . I tw i l l b e s een t ha t a l l t hese r equ ire men ts a re more e asi ly o b ta ined w i th a l arger , r a ther t han sma l ler , k i ln . 3 .

T he f l oor o ft he f urnace , b eing u nencu mbered , wou ld b e more e as i ly

r aked -ou t a nd f i l led t han o ne c on ta in ing a c en tra l o r t ongue-shaped p edes ta l . I t wou ld a lso b e much more s ecure s ince when p ush ing f i rewood d own an arrow f l ue i t wou ld b e q u i te p oss ib le t o d is lodge a p edes ta l o r movab le f i re-bars w i th d isas trous c onsequences . 4 . Ak i ln , i nt he c ourse o f af i r ing c yc le , u ndergoes q u i te l arge c hanges i n d i mens ions ; p ar t ia l ly f i red c lay w i l l c on trac t u p t o 1 0 p er c en t o n h ea t ing t o o range-red , t he s o i l r ound t he k i ln i n to wh ich i th as b een b u i l t w i l l c on trac t t hrough d ry ing a nd t he more t e mporary u pper wa l ls a nd r oo f o ft he k i ln c ont ract c ons iderab ly . Ap o t ter n or ma l ly d ea ls w i th t h is b yp laster ing c racks w ith a s of t m ix ture o f s and a nd s l ip a nd t h is p rocess may h ave t o b e r epea ted s evera l t imes i n t he c ourse o f af i r ing . F ur ther more , p ar ts o f t he k i ln r eachi ng t he h ighes tt e mpera tures may q u i te e as i ly s of ten a nd b end u nder t he w eigh t o ft he l oad .

A l l t hese p o in ts t end t o s how t he s uper ior i ty o f s ecurely s ea ted

a rches , w i th a dequa te s pacers , o ver r ad ia l f i re-bars s uppor ted b y ap edesta l a t o ne e nd a nd b y n o tches o r al edge i n t he k i ln wa l l a tt he o ther . T he s a me c ons idera t ions wou ld a pp ly t o k i lns w i th p er manen t f l oors s uppor ted b yt ongues o r i ndependen t p edes ta ls . l ead t o c o l lapse .

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5. The domed roof of the furnace would make it possible, in the last stages of the firing, to introduce far larger quantities of unburned material before the final sealing in reduced firings, thus leading to a more complete reduction of the ware than would otherwise be possible. At the same time, during the initial firing it would be much easier in this type of kiln to obtain a complete and reasonably thick fire-bed, than would be possible in a circular kiln with a central obstruction. It is impossible to overemphasize the fact that a firing is a dynamic process. The potter wishes to obtain a particular result, as suggested in Section 2 above, but he is at all times subject to the vagaries of fuel,. weather and materials. B. Perforated fire-bar-type 5 (Fig. 22. 7 2 A) There is evidence for the use of slightly arched, perforated fire-bars, of different construction to those previously described, as coverings for the flue or furnace-chamber·of at least one kiln. The example found lying across the flue cheeks of Kiln II had been made from two (or more) large pieces of wet clay bonded together. Thirteen holes had been pushed through its thick­ ness with a stick or similar tool. The largest of these has a minimum diameter of 3. 2 cm. The hole splays out on either side of the slab to give a maximum aperture of about 8 cm. These perforations must have been formed by push­ ing the stick through the bar from the upper surface. The extremities were probably enlarged by moving the peg from side to side and then in a circular motion. The surplus claywas smeared outwards around the underside of the hole. All the indications suggest that this bar had either been re-used in a manner for which it had not been originally intended or, more likely, it had been tipped over when the kiln was finally abandoned. As found, the bar sagged slightly into the upper part of the flue channel. In this position at least seven of the perforations would not have functiored properly. It is only when the bar is reversed that they become fully effective. The displacement could have occurred quite easily. This part of the structure would necessarily be temporary and removable since access to the actual furnace area would be needed when sealing to obtain reduction and for raking-out. There is also reason to believe that the use of a perforated covering increases the effective­ ness of the draught through the flue channel. An alternative explanation for the function of these slabs is that they were used instead of the arched fire­ bars (type 1) and formed a covering to the furnace area. During the partial excavation of Kiln Ila fairly substantial ledge, some 8-10 cm below the sur­ viving rim, was noted. This had been formed by the addition of a further lining to the furnace-chamber. 'the type 5 bars could have stood on this-they are of the appropriate length-and served as a less markedly arched floor to the oven. If so, this could be regarded as a variation or development of the type 1 arrangement. The fragments of the type 1 bars found in Kiln II are not necessarily from that structure. They could represent debris dumped into the kiln at a later stage.

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THE POTTERY(F igs. 2 2.10-22.12) Ac ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f p o t tery was f ound i n t hose p ar ts o ft he k i lns wh ich c ou ld b e e xcava ted . T he ma ter ia l f ro m t he d es troyed K i ln I , wh ich l ay s o me d is tance t o t he S .E . o f K i lns I -IV ( F ig . 2 2.2) , was r ecovered f ro m t he c on tractor 's s po i l h eap .

Al arge p ar t o ft h is k i ln h ad b een s cooped u p i n

a n e xcava tor b ucke t a nd d epos i ted n earby . A ssoc ia ted w i th t he r e ma ins were an umber o f f rag men ts o f c igar-shaped f i re-bars ( F ig . 2 2.8, F ) . T hese s ugges t t ha t t he s truc ture o f t h is k i ln was more i n k eep ing w i th t ypes k nown f ro m a n u mber o f F lav io-Tra jan ic s i tes i n t he u pper N ene v a l ley ( Woods , 1 974 ) . A l though u nstra t if ied , t he p o ts f ro m K i ln I( F ig . 2 2.12 , n os . 3 8-54 ) a re i nc luded t o g ive s o me i nd ica t ion o ft he r ange o f f or ms b e ing p roduced a t B idd iesd en d ur ing t he F lav ian p er iod . S evera l a re c lear ly wasters. T he r e ma inder o f t he v esse ls were s ecure ly s tra t i f ied i n K i lns I -V I . O x id ized a nd r educed wares a re r epresen ted i na bou t e qua l p ropor t ions . I t was n o t iceab le t ha t t he f i r ings were mos t ly t o h igh t e mpera tures a nd o f s u f f icien t d ura t ion t o p roduce aware wh ich was n ear ly a lways c o mp le te ly ma tured t hroughou t t he t h ickness o ft he b ody a nd e x tre me ly h ard . T he r ange o f s hapes i s l im i ted . T here a re w ide- mouthed b ow ls i n s evera l s izes w i th a c lear ly d ef ined n eck a nd s trong ly e ver ted r im ( F ig . 2 2.10 , n os . 1 7-21 a nd f ig . 2 2.11 , n os . 3 1-33 a nd 3 6-37 ) . T hese o ccur i n b o th o x id ized a nd r educed wares .

' P ie-d ishes '

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2 2-27 ) a re f requen t ly f ound a nd o ccur i n av ery l igh t , r educed ware , t yp ica l o f much o f t he p o t tery f ig . 2 2.10 , n os 2 -3 ) , a nd a lso i n a n o x id ized ware wh ich h as a dark b rown c o lour-wash ( 22. g . f i g . 2 2.11 , n os . 2 4-26 ) . S o met i mes t he s l ip h as b een p ar t ia l ly s craped a way o n t he o u tside .

T he s ame

p rac t ice i s s een o n f ig . 2 2.11 , n os . 2 2-23 w here t he c o lour-wash p ers ists o n t he o u ter s urface where s crap ing a nd p o l ish ing h ave b een i nsu f f icien t t o r e move t he s l ip f ro m t he more d eep ly c u t p ar ts l ef t b y r a ther r ough t urn ing . Smal l , b eakerl ike j ars , o f at ype w el l-known f rom B r ixwor th ( Woods , 1 972 , n o . 1 49 ) , D eanshanger ,

3

T owces ter4 a nd Wood B urco te ,5 a re a lso r epresen ted .

Apar t f ro m t he p roduc ts o ft he e ar ly K i ln It here i sv ery l i t t le d ecora t ion . T hree n arrow- mou thed j ars ( F ig . 2 2.10 , n o . 1 6 a nd f ig . 2 2.11 , n os . 2 9 a nd 3 4 ) h ave a r ough ly d rawn wavy l i ne b etween t wo g ir th-grooves . S evera l v esse ls ( F ig . 2 2.10 , n os . 4 -5 , 1 0 , 1 3 , 1 5 , a nd 1 9 a nd f ig . 2 2.11 , n os . 2 3-26 , 2 9 , 3 1 , a nd 3 4-35) h ave b een c o lour-washed ( o r b rushed ) w i th a d ark b rown s l ip a nd t here i s o ne f o lded b eaker ( F ig . 2 2.10 n o . 1 4 ) wh ich i s a lso c o lourw ashed . I n g enera l , t he l a ter k i lns ( I-IV ) w ere u sed f or mass p roduced d omest ic w are . T he t hrow ing i s o f ten q u i te r ough a s t hough t he v esse ls h ad b een made i n ah urry . K i ln Ih as an umber o fh igh ly d ecora ted f l anged b ow ls w ith r eeded r i ms a nd r ou le t t ing ( F ig . 2 2.12, n os 4 3-44) . T he o n ly o ther e xa mp les o f r ou let t ing , o ccas iona l ly c o mb ined w i th c o lour-wash ing , c ome f ro m K i lns ( F ig . 2 2 ,10 n os . 4 , 6a nd 1 5) . Av ery marked f ea ture o f a l l t he p o t tery i st he i nc lus ion o f f oreign b od ies , f errous , c a lcareous a nd e ven v ege tab le , wh ich h ave l ed t o b urs t ing d ur ing f i r ing a nd c are less p repara t ion o f c lay s o t ha t b ubb les a nd v o ids h ave b een a l lowed t o f or m . 3 86

K i ln I ,p roduced much more h igh ly d ecora ted r educed ware . T he t wo b ow ls p rev ious ly r eferred t o ( F ig . 2 2.12 , n os . 4 3-44 ) h ave v ery f l a t r i ms a nd h ave b een e x tens ive ly d ecora ted o n t he e x terna l s ur face w i th r ou let t ing ( i n o ne c ase t here a re a t l east s even r ows w h ich h ave b een b roken u p b y a s er ies o f g ir th-grooves ) . O n b o th e xa mp les t he f l a t , h or izon ta l o r s l igh t ly d roop ing r im h as a lso b een r ou let ted a nd g rooved . Med ium- mou thed j ars ( F ig . 2 2.12, n os 4 5-50 ) a nd d ishes ( F igs . 2 2.12 , n os . 3 8-39 ) a ppear a nd b es ides t wo s herds w i th b lack p a in ted d ecora t ion ( F ig . 2 2.12 , n os 4 0-41) t here a re t hree b arbo t ine d ecorated v esse ls . T hese h ave a g lobu lar p rof i le a nd h ave p ane ls o f b arbo t ine d o ts , r ough ly a nd i rregu lar ly a pp l ied , v ary ing i n s ize a nd , i n s o me c ases , r unn ing i n to e ach o ther . O ne q u i te sma l l f rag men t ( F ig . 2 2.12 , n o .51) h as v ery d ark g rey b arbo t ine d o ts ( ? p a in ted ) o n al i gh t g rey b ody .

S im i lar v esse ls i n a n o x id ized ware w i th sma l ler a nd more c areful ly

a pp l ied b arbo t ine d o ts p icked o u t w i th r ed p a in t a re k nown f ro m Harr ingwor th 6 a nd Wood B urco te . 7 Ano ther e xcep t iona l v esse l wh ich b urst i nf i r ing i s a n ear v er t ica l s ided p o t w i th t hree a l mos t e qua l ly s paced h eavy c ordons . T he i n ter ior s hows t ha t t he c ordons were p lanned d ur ing t he t hrow ing a s t he b ody was p ressed s trong ly o u twards . T hey were s harpened a f terwards b y t oo l ing , b u t p oor ly p repared c lay a nd f oreign b od ies c aused a b urs t . R eeded-r im b ow ls , i den t ica l t o t hose s hown i n f i g . 2 2.12, n os . 4 3.44 , h ave b een f ound i n F lav ian c on tex ts a t D eanshanger 8 a nd j ars w i th c oarse b arbo t ine d ecora t ion o ft he k ind i l lus tra ted i n f i g , 2 2 ,12 , n os . 5 1-53 a re c o mmon i n t he e ar l ier l eve ls a t T owces ter .9 T he s herds w i th b lack p a in ted d ecora t ion ( F ig , 2 2.12, n os . 4 0 .41) a re f ur ther e v idence o ft he e x is tence o f t h is t echn ique i n t he u pper N ene v a l ley a nd b eyond d ur ing t he e ar ly y ears o f t he Occupa t ion . Ap rel im inary e xa m ina t ion o ft he p o t tery f ro m K ilns I -IV s ugges ts a n e ar ly A n ton ine d a te ( c .A .D. 1 40-160 ) f or i t s p roduc t ion .

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POTTERY CATALOGUE

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NOTES 1 .

Excava t ion d irected b y Peter Woods i n 1 972.

R eport i n p reparat ion .

2 .

These r e ma ins a re t o b e t he s ub jec t o f t he s epara te p aper .

3 .

S ee n o te 1 a bove .

4 .

Iam i ndeb ted t o Mrs. C . Woodf ie ld f or t h is i nfor ma t ion .

5 .

Excava t ion c urren t ly i n p rogress.

6 .

R ecen t e xcavat ion d irec ted b y Mr . D . J ackson .

7 .

S ee n o te 5 a bove .

8 .

S ee n o te 1 a bove .

9 .

S ee n o te 4 a bove .

Repor t f orthco m ing . R epor t f orthco m ing .

AC KNO WLEDGE ME NTS T hanks a re d ue t o Messrs . E . B . a nd M . W. Pa terson , o f Abbey House Far m , B idd lesden , f or p er m iss ion t o e xcava te o n t he ir l and a nd t o Mrs. J . M . Pa terson f or n u merous k indnesses a nd h osp ita l i ty .

G ra tefu l t hanks a re

a lso d ue t o Mr . J . F . Haynes , t he mechan ica l e xcava tor o perator , f or t he p ro mp t manner i n wh ich h e r eported t he d iscovery .

We a re v ery much i n-

d eb ted t o Mr . P . J . F ow ler ( Secretary R .C .H. M . ( Eng ) ) f or a l low ing u s t o i nc lude T ony B erry 's r econstruct ion d raw ing o f K i ln I I i n a dvance o f p ubl i cat ion a nd Mrs. V . Swann f or p u t t ing h er e x tensive k now ledge o f Ro manoB ri t ish k i lns a t o ur d isposa l . B IBLIOGRAPHY J ackson a nd Ambrose 1 978.

J ackson D . A . a nd Ambrose T . M ., ' Excava t ions

a t Waker ley , Northants , 1 972-75 ', B r i tann ia , 9( 1 978) , 1 15-242. Woods 1 972 .

Woods P . J ., B r ixwor th E xcavat ions .

Br it ish V i l la , 1 965-70 .

P ar t I .

V o l . IT he R o mano-

T he Ro mano-Br it ish C oarse P o t tery a nd

D ecorated S am ian Ware ', r epr in ted f ro m J . Northan ts . Mus . Ar t G a l lery , 8( 1970 ) , 3 -102 , N or tha mp ton , 1 972 . Woods 1 974 .

Woods P . J ., ' Types o f L a te B e lg ic a nd Ear ly Ro mano-Br i t ish

P ot tery K i lns i n t he N ene V a l ley ', B r i tann ia , 5( 1974 ) , 2 62-281 .

3 95

2 3.

EARLY RED-S UPPED WARE FRO M L INCOLN Mirgaret J . D ar l ing

T o t he s tudent o f p ot tery f ound o n R o man m i l itary s i tes i n B r i ta in ,

L inco ln

i s a n i n fur iat ing l ady , p repared t o o f fer o n ly t he o ccasiona l t an ta l is ing g l impse o f h er a t tract ions . T he l ady c an b e p erson if ied i n t he C athedra l , aq ueen s ure ly , a nd h er s pouse , t he N orman c ast le ; t he ir c h i ldren a re t he b u i ld ings o f a rch itectura l a nd h istor ic v a lue s i t t ing o n t op o f most o f t he r e ma in ing a rea o f t he l eg ionary f or tress .

T h is f am i ly , a lbe it l ove ly , h ave a l lowed l i t t le

o ppor tun ity f or e xcavat ion i n t he p ast a nd a re u n l ike ly t o r e l inqu ish t he ir h o ld i n f u ture . T here i s , h owever , c onso lat ion t o b e f ound i n t he i mport an t g roups o f e ar ly p o t tery e xcavated b y Graham Webster ( Webster , 1 949 ) a t N orth R ow a nd Westgate , t o wh ich f urther s craps o f e v idence h ave b een a dded s ince ( Petch , 1 962 ; T ho mpson , 1 956 ; T hompson & Wh itwe l l , 1 973 ; D ar ling , f or thco m ing ) .

When t he e ar ly p ot tery f rom L inco ln i s l a id o u t , i tc onsists

v ery l arge ly o f f ragmen tary s craps , f or many o f wh ich i ti s d if f icu lt t o e stabl i sh e ven t he v esse l f or m , a nd y et t here a re c haracter ist ic f abr ics a nd f or ms t o b e e x tracted t en tat ive ly—a n ecessary p rocess i fa ny u nderstand ing o f t he l a ter p o t tery o f t he c i ty i s t o b e r eached . T h is p aper w i l l c ons ider o ne s pec if ic g roup , a nd t he v a lue o f t he N or th Row e xcavat ions w i l l b e a pparen t i n t he r eappearance h ere o fp o t tery e xcavated t hen .

Af ur ther a spect o f my

s e lect ion o f t h is p o t tery i s t he s at isfact ion t o b e d er ived f rom work ing o n f ine q ua l ity e ar ly R o man p o t tery , a nd o pportun i t ies f or s uch i ndu lgence s hou ld n o t b e m issed ; O ccupa t ion o f t he l eg ionary f or tress a t L inco ln i s n ow t hough t t o h ave s tar ted i mmed iate ly a f ter t he B oud ican r evo lt , when v ex i l lat ions o f t he I X th H ispana r e-un ited t o f or m i t s f i rst g arr ison ( Frere & S t . J oseph , 1 974 , 3 9 ; s ee a lso p aper 1 2 a bove ).

An e ar l ier m i l i tary ( p erhaps a ux i l iar ies g arr isoned

w ith a l eg ionary v ex i l lat ion ) p resence s ou th o f t he l ater f or tress , c on tro l l ing t he r iver c ross ing , i s l i ke ly i n v iew o f e ar ly f i nds , i nc lud ing m i l itary i t e ms , f ro m t he H o l mes G ra in Warehouse s i te e xcavated i n 1 972 ( Co lyer , 1 975a , 7 ; s ee J ones , 1 980 f or r ecen t d iscuss ion ) . T here s ee ms l i t t le d oub t t hat c iv i l ian s et t le men t o ccurred i n t he a rea o f t he l ater l ower c o lon ia d ur ing t he l eg ionary o ccupat ion , s ince t he e ar l iest p hases ( e .g ., f ro m T he P ark , West P arade : C o lyer , 1 975 ; S i lver S treet : Wacher , 1 979 , 8 3 ) p roduce p o t tery o f t he t ype f ound i n l eg ionary d epos its .

O ccupat ion b y t he I X th was r e lat ive ly s hor t , t he

u n it b e ing moved n or th o n c a mpa ign ( u lt i mate ly t o t he n ew f or tress a t York ) c . A .D . 7 1 , when i tw as r ep laced f or a s hort p er iod a t L inco ln b y t he Ind Ad iu tr ix .

M i l i tary o ccupat ion a ppears t o h ave c eased c . A .D .

7 7 , a nd t he

f or tress s i te b eca me t he c o lon ia , f ounded o n t he e v idence o f t he i nscr ip t ion f ro m Ma inz ( C .I .L . X I I I , 6 679 ) , C . A . . D . 9 0 . O ccupat ion o f t he l eg ionary f or tress i s c on f ined t herefore t o ap er iod o f a pprox i mate ly f i f teen y ears .

3 97

1 ,

1

1

2

/

I /

3i l ' i

1

9 I

iI

I

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J L _ _ _ _ _ -i r --

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i

/ I

L ower

4 ir 1 I I

, .z1 . _ -eI _ _

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TI

I

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L inco ln: s i tes ment ioned i n t he t ext. 1 . North Row, 1 946; 2 . Temperance P lace, 1 969 ; 3 . E ast B ight, 1 964-66 ; 4 . E ast B ight, 1 953; 5 . E ast Gate, 1 959-62 ; 1 963-66; 6 . O ld B ishop 's P a lace, 1 955-58; 7 . West P arade, 1 971 ; 8 . The P ark, 1 970-72; 9 . S i lver S i lver, 1 973 ; 1 0. Ho lmes Gra in Warehouse, 1 972.

3 98

THE POTTERY

( see f ig . 2 3. 2 )

T he e ar l ies t p o t tery f ro m L inco ln ( o ther t han I ron Age ) d if fers f ro m t hat f ound a t t he f or tresses a t U sk , Wroxeter a nd I nchtu th i l i n b e ing d er ived f ro m s evera l d if feren t s ources a nd t rad it ions , a nd a l igns more w i th t he a sse mb lage f ro m G loucester a nd , p erhaps , C o lchester .

T h is i s e n t ire ly c ons isten t w ith

i t s l oca t ion , p er iod o f o ccupat ion a nd t he manner i n wh ich t he a r my a rranged p o t tery s upp l ies , a lready d iscussed f u l ly e lsewhere ( Dar l ing , 1 977 ; 1 979b ) .

Greene ,

The b u lk o f t he a sse mb lage , n o t s urpr is ing ly , c ons ists o f c ook ing-

p ots i n a n I ron Age t rad it ion a nd f abr ic , most ly s he l l-te mpered ( t yp ica l e xa mp les a re :

T ho mpson , 1 956 , f ig . 6 , n os . 2 , 7& 8 ;

n os . 4 , 5 ; f ig . 6 , n o . 1 7 ; 7& 1 2 ).

P etch , 1 962 , f ig . 5 ,

Tho mpson & Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f ig . 1 4 , n os . 1 , 6 ,

Gradua l ly s and-te mpered wares o ccur i n much t he s a me f orms , a nd

t he n at ive p ot ters were a lso t ry ing t o im itate n ew Ro man f or ms i n t he i i . t rad i t iona l f abr ics , af eature o f t he p o t tery f ro m s evera l e ar ly s i tes , a s a t L ong thorpe where e ven a mor tar iu m i s made i n s he l l-te mpered f abr ic ( Frere &S t . J oseph , 1 974 , f ig . 5 6 , n o . 1 47 ) , a nd a lso a t Great C aster ton ( Todd , 1 968, f ig . 1 6 , n o . 1 0 ) .

I n a dd it ion , an u mber o f f iner s and-te mpered f abr ics

were i n troduced f or f l agons a nd o ther Ro man v esse l f or ms .

I ti s d if f icu lt

t o i so late t he e ar l ier e xa mp les o f f l agons e tc . i n t he h ard c rea m f abr ic s ince t he f abr ic c on t inues v irtua l ly u nchanged i n to t he s econd c en tury . More d ist inct ive i s as of ter , p ink ish , m icaceous f abr ic u sed f or f l agons , b ow ls , im itat ion D r . 2 4/25 c ups , h oney p ots a nd o ccas iona l ly sma l l j ars o r b eakers . T here i s ad ist inc t p robab i l ity t hat mor tar ia were a lso b e ing made l oca l ly i n t he e ar l iest p er iod i n b o th c rea m a nd p ink ish f abr ics .

A lso c haracter ist ic o f

l eg ionary d epos its i s a micaceous c rea m t o l ight-grey f abr ic wh ich f ired t o ad arker g rey e xter ior , u sed p ar t icu lar ly f or c losed f or ms .

T he most c o m mon

f or m i s t he b eaker ( Tho mpson & Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f ig . 1 3 , n os . 1 0 &1 3 ) a nd c ups a lso o ccur o f t yp ica l p re-F lav ian f or m b ut wh ich d o n ot c lose ly c opy t he u b iqu it ious p re-F lav ian c ups f ro m Lyon , h av ing e x tre me ly d e l icate p o in ted r i ms .

T h is s a me f abr ic i s u sed f or r ust icated j ars ( Webster , 1 949 , f ig .1 1 ,

n o .2 0 ) s o c haracter is t ic o f e ar ly m i l i tary s i tes i n t he M id lands ( e .g . Marg idunu m , The L un t , Wa l l e tc .) , a nd a lso o n t he e ar ly s i te a t O ld Win ter ingha m , L incs . The r e ma in ing d is t inct ive v esse ls f ro m t he l eg ionary o ccupat ion a re i n a n i ron-free c rea m f abr ic ( as u sed f or f l agons e tc .) , s l ip-coated w ith a mat t r ed-brown c oat , a nd i ti s t h is d ist inct ive g roup a nd t echn ique t hat w i l l b e c ons idered h ere .

I t must b e emphas ized , h owever , t hat t he f iner f abr ics

r epresen t o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he l eg ionary a sse mb lage , d om inated a s i ti s b y I ron A .ge t rad it ion p o t tery , a nd t he r ed-s l ipped wares a re r e lat ive ly s carce .

C oncen trat ion o n t h is g roup i s warran ted s ince t he t echn ique i s r are

i n B r ita in a t t h is p er iod , more v esse ls h ave o ccurred i n e xcava t ions s ince t he Nor th Row/Westgate e xcavat ions , a nd work o n t he L ong thorpe 'v ex i l lat ion f or tress ' a nd k i lns h as p roduced i n terest ing c onnect ions .

S i tes men t ioned a re

s hown o n F ig . 2 3 . 1 . T he f abr ic i s n or ma l ly c rea my-wh ite , b ut c an v ary t o p inker o r b rowner s hades , w ith o ccas iona l ly a g rey ish c ore .

The s l ip i s f requen t ly d isco loured

d ue t o b ur ia l c ond it ions a nd/or b urn ing , b u t i s u sual ly a l ight r ed-brown , mat t , a nd s o met i mes f ug it ive .

T he f abr ic i s h ard , b u t n ot e xcep t iona l ly s o , a nd

3 99

smoo th ;

t he i nc lus ions a re i l l-sor ted s ub-rounded q uar tz , u sua l ly s parse ,

a nd s parse r ed a nd b lack f errous g r its , v ary ing g reat ly i n s ize .

Most s herds

h ave mica i n t he f abr ic , b ut f ew c an b e r egarded a s p ar t icu lar ly m icaceous . V irtua l ly a l l t he v esse ls a re s l ipped o n b o th s urfaces e xcep t t he c op ies o f P o mpe ian r ed ware p lat ters a nd t he b ow l b ase No . 1 4 ( one o f t he r ed-s l ipped p lat ters f ro m L ong thorpe h ad a s im i lar u ns l ipped b asa l z one ) . I n t he s a me f abr ic a s t he s l ip-coated p o t tery a re a n u mber o f p a in ted v esse ls ( Nos . 1 61 9 ) wh ich c an b e c ons idered p ar t o f t he s a me g roup . S o me o f t he s herds c ons idered h ere o ccurred r es idua l ly i n l a ter , s o met i mes s econd-cen tury , c on tex ts , a nd h ere in l i es a f ur ther ma jor d if f icu lty . The s econd-cen tury k i lns a t S outh C ar lton ( We bster , 1 944 ) a lso u sed s l ip-coat ing o n a n i ron-free f abr ic a nd t he t echn iques o f p a in t ing , a nd s ince s ome u nusua l f or ms were p roduced t here , i ti s o f ten d if f icu lt t o d eterm ine whether a s herd f ound o ut o f c on tex t b e longs t o t he e ar ly p er iod o r i s i n t he S outh C ar lton r ange . T he c lays u sed b y b o th g roups a re l ike ly t o h ave c ome f rom t he s a me b eds , p erhaps i n t he h as s er ies a long t he e scarp men t n or th o f L inco ln , s o t hat a na lys is i s u n l ike ly t o p roduce d ec is ive r esu l ts .

I t may p rove p oss ib le , t hrough

f ur ther e xcavat ion , t o e stab l ish more f u l ly t he r ange o f f or ms p roduced a t S outh C ar l ton , b ut a t p resen t t he t en tat ive a t tr ibu t ion o f ar es idua l v esse l t o t he e ar ly t rad it ion i s b ased o n t he wr iter ' si nst inct ' . I ti s o bv ious f ro m t he f or ms a t p resen t k nown ( f ig . 2 3 . 2 ) t hat t h is t echn ique was u sed p r i mar i ly f or t ab leware . T he s l ip-coated wares a t L ong thorpe a re c lose ly s im i lar i n t h is r espect ( W i ld , 1 977 , t at 3 ; D anne l l , 1 979 , 1 81 ) , a lthough t he p o t ters s ee m t o h ave c oncen trated o n t he p lates c opy ing , i n v ary ing d egrees o fa ccuracy , e ar ly s am ian f ro ms . Im i tat ions o f s am ian f orms a re r e lat ive ly c o m mon a nd whether u sefu l c o mmen t c an b e made o n m inor v ar iat ions o f f or m i s d eba tab le , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f D rack ' ss urvey o f im itat ions i n Sw itzer land ( Drack , 1 945) . T he p lat ters f ro m L inco ln , most ly c opy ing t he D r . 1 5/17 f or m , wou ld f i t v ar iat ions o f D rack ' st ype 3 , r ang ing i n d ate f rom l a te T iber ian t hrough t o t he F lav ian p er iod ( Drack , 1 945 , t af . I , n os . 6 -16 ;

t afs . I I &I V ) .

Most o f t he L ong thorpe v esse ls a lso r ese mb le

D r . 1 5/17 ( W i ld , 1 977 ) b u t o ne s ee ms c loser t o t he e ar ly D r . 1 5 ( pers . G .B . D anne l l ) , t he s am ian o r ig ina l b e ing v ery r are i n Br it ian .

c o mm .

The p lat ter ,

N o . 6 , o n t he o ther h and , f ro m t he u pper f i l l o f t he l eg ionary d i tch a t E ast G ate i s c loser

i n f or m t o aD r . 1 8 , av esse l l ess f requen t ly c op ied o n t he

C on t inen t ( Drack , 1 945 , t at V ) , o r i n B r i ta in .

O n ly o ne im i tat ion s am ian

p lat ter i s k nown i n a nother f abr ic f ro m L inco ln ; t h is c a me f rom t he f i l l o f t he r obber t rench f or t he c o lon ia wa l l a t E ast G ate , b ut t here i s n o d oub t f rom t he f or m ( rese mb l ing a n e ar ly D r . 1 8 w i th e x terna l o f fset ) a nd t he g rey s andy f abr ic t hat i tb e longed t o t he e ar ly o ccupat ion .

An e xa mp le o f a n im itat ion

D r . 1 8 i s k nown f ro m t he D ragonby k i ln 4 d ated t o t he l ate f i rst c en tury , b u t i t was n o t c er ta in ly made t here ( May , 1 966 , f ig . 2 , n o . 1 0 ) .

I ti s n o tab le

t ha t n o im i tat ions o f t he r e lat ive ly c om mon t erra n igra p lates a re k nown f rom l eg ionary d epos i ts i n L inco ln , o r f or t hat mat ter i n t he e ar ly c o lon ia p er iod . I ti s d if f icu lt t o b e c er ta i no f t he f or ms r epresen ted b y t he b ases , N os . 8 , 1 3 a nd 1 4 , a l l f ro m c ar inated t ypes w ith i n terna l mou ld ings o r o f fsets ( and o ccas iona l ly e x terna l e laborat ion ) , i nc ised c oncen tr ic c irc les o r r oul et t ing o n t he i n ter ior f l oor .

N os . 1 3 a nd 1 4 a re l arge , r e lat ive ly c lu msy

4 00

b ases f or p lat ter f or ms , b ut t he r ou let ted c irc les o n N o . 8r eca l l t he f orms D r . 1 5/17R a nd 1 8R , a nd a lso o ccur o n r are P o mpe ian r ed ware p lat ters ( i n F abr ic 3 , P eacock , 1 977 ) a t I nch tuth i l ( f or thco m ing r eport ) a nd C aer leon ( Boon , 1 967 , 4 0 , f ig . 3 , n o . 1 3 ) . Im i ta t ions o f P o mpe ian r ed ware p la t ters o ccur a t b o th L inco ln a nd L ong thorpe, b ut a re f a ir ly c om mon a nd t he o n ly n o tab le f eature o f t he L inco ln s herds i s t ha t o n ly sma l l p la t ters ( a s N o . 9 ) a re k nown . D esp ite t he s l ight g rooves b e low t he r i ms o f N os . 1 0 a nd 1 1 , t hese v esse ls a lso a ppear t o b e i n t he P o mpe ian r ed ware t rad it ion . T he c opy ing o f s am ian f or ms a lso o ccurs i n t he r ange o f b ow ls f rom e ar ly d eposits , r epresen ted h ere b y N o . 1 1 f ro m N or th R ow , im i tat ing t he e ar ly f or m , R it ter l ing 1 2 .

S im i lar im i tat ions a lso o ccur i n t he e ar ly p ink m icaceous

f abr ic . R eeded r im b ow ls a re n o t a s c o mmon a s o ne wou ld e xpect , b u t o ccur a t N orth R ow ( Webster , 1 949 , f ig . 1 2 , n o . 4 0 ) a nd a lso f ro m o ther s i tes , most ly a s f ragmen ts o f f l ange .

T he f l ange-r i m med b ow l N o . 1 5 f ro m H o l mes

G ra in Warehouse i s o f s im i lar f abr ic a nd s l ip-coat ing t o t he o ther v esse ls , b ut i s l ess c onc lus ive ly o f f i rst-cen tury d ate . I ti s n ot , h owever , o f S ou th C ar l ton manufacture , a nd p robab ly b e longs w i th t he e ar ly mater ia l . I t wou ld b e d if f icu lt t o a rgue f or t he o r ig in o f s uch a s i mp le f or m , b ut i ti s wor th n o t ing t ha t s im i lar v esse ls o ccur i n t he P o mpe ian r ed ware r ange f ound o n t he C on t inen t ( Goud ineau , 1 970 ) , a nd a n e xa mp le i s k nown f ro m Wroxeter u npubl i shed ) .

T he Wroxeter e xa mp le i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een imported , a nd i t s

d ate i s u nknown . T he mos tu nusua l b ow ls f ro m L inco ln a re t he p a in ted c ar inated b ow ls p ar t icu lar ly N os . 1 6 a nd 1 7 f ro m N or th R ow a nd E ast G ate r espect ive ly . F rag men ts f ro m s im i lar b ow ls d ecorated w ith d iagona l l i nes a re k nown f ro m s evera l o ther s i tes . C ar inated b ow ls o ccur i n g reat v ar iety o n c on t inen ta l m i l i tary s i tes ( Greene , 1 979a , 1 10 r egard ing t erra n igra b ow ls ) , most c o mmon ly i n R aet ia a nd Upper G er many ( U lber t , 1 959 , t at 6 , n o . 7i n c oarse ware , n o . 1 7 i n t erra n igra , f or i nstance ) , a nd a lthough l ess c o m mon i n B r i ta in , t he t ype c on t inues u n t i l t he e nd o f t he f i rst c en tury .

Two b ody s herds o f p a in ted

c ar inated b ow ls a re k nown f ro m Marg idunum ( Todd , 1 969a , f i g .

5 , n o . 4 ;

f i g . 1 3 , n o . 8 ) , b u t t he d ecorat ive s ty le i s d iss im i lar a nd t here c an b e n o c er ta in ty t hat t hese a re t rue p ara l le ls , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he im i tat ion D r . 3 0 f ro m t he e ar l ier e xcavat ions a t t he s a me s i te ( Oswa ld , 1 948 , P l . X I I , N o . 8 , i n ag roup p robab ly t o b e r e-da ted t o t he F lav ian—Tra jan ic/Hadr ian ic p er iod ) . T he u nusua l r im f orm o ccurs o n ab ow l f rom L ong thorpe ( Frere & S t . J oseph , 1 974 , f i g . 5 6 , n o . 1 27 ) , b u t i ti s n ot s tated t hat t he b ow l was made i n t he l oca l k i lns . A more c ur ious f eature t hat c anno t b e i l lustrated o n t he d raw ings i s t hat b o th b ow ls , N os . 1 6 a nd 1 7 , h ave s l igh t t races o n t he s urv iv ing s herds o f s ome f or m o f a t tach men t , e i ther a h and le o r s pou t .

T he

smear ing t races o n N o . 1 6 s uggests a h and le a t tached b e low t he r im a nd a t t he c ar inat ion ( s im i lar p erhaps t o N o . 1 8 , s ee b e low ) , b u t i ti s p oss ib le t hat t he b ow ls h ad b o th h and les a nd s pou ts .

I fs o , t hese c ou ld b e s o me f or m o f

w ine s tra iner , a s k nown f ro m o ther s i tes , s o me c er ta in ly e x tend ing i n to t he s econd c en tury ( Marsh , 1 978 , 1 81 , t ype 4 6 f ro m L ondon w i th r eferences t o c on t inen ta l a nd o ther Br it ish s i tes ) . Un t i l more s herds a re t raced , t h is must r e ma in a s pecu lat ion . A l ternat ive ly , t hese c ou ld b e t wo-hand led b ow ls , wh ich a re a pparen t ly a bsen t i n t he Rh ine land , where t he c onstr icted t wo-hand led b ow l a s f ound a t t he U sk f or tress ( Greene , 1 973 , f ig 1 , n o 9 ;

4 01

D ar l ing , 1 977 ,

f i g . 6 .4 , n o 2 0 ) was c o m mon .

T here i s , h owever , n o d oub t t hat t he c ar inated

t wo-hand led b ow ls w ere o f Med iterranean , p robab ly I t a l ian , a ncestry a s t hey a re e v iden t among t he I t a l ian i n f luenced v esse ls a t C or in th ( Hayes , 1 973 , p l 9 0 , n os 1 96-7 , b o th s l ip-coated , o ne d ecorated w ith r ust icated wh ir l-pat terns ) . T he t wo b ow ls N os . 1 8 a nd 1 9 may b e o f as im i lar t ype b ut a re l ess c er ta in ly a t tr ibu tab le t o t he l eg ionary p er iod . N o . 1 8 c a me f ro m a g roup a t T e mperance P lace ( Wh itwe l l , 1 980 ) c ons ist ing o f t ypes c ommon ly f ound i n l eg ionary d epos its , b u t i nc lud ing o ne c o lour-coated r oughcast b eaker s herd , p robab ly o f s econd-cen tury d ate , a nd o ne s herd f rom a D r . 1 5/17R o f F lav ian o r e ar ly T ra jan ic d ate . N o . 1 9 i s f ro m a n u nstrat if ied c on tex t a t E ast B igh t ( Dar l ing , f orthco m ing ) .

S im i lar ly N o . 2 0 c o mes f rom a s econd -

c entury d epos i t a t t he P ark , b ut t he c lose t echn ica l s im i lar i ty t o t he e ar ly b ow ls N os . 1 6 a nd 1 7 i nc l ines o ne t o c ons ider t h is a r es idua l s herd .

T he

p a in ted b ow l N o . 2 1 f ro m H o l mes G ra in Warehouse may a lso b e l a ter i n d ate , a s d esp ite t he p oss ib i l ity o f i tb e ing f rom a c ar inated v esse l a nd t he d iagona l p a in ted l i nes , t he e x tre me ly smoo th s urface f i n ish i s u nusua l f or t he g roup a nd u n l ike t he e xa mp les f ro m N or th R ow a nd E ast G ate . A s im ilar v esse l , r a ther l arger , o ccurred i n af i rst-cen tury c on tex t a t O ld Win ter ingha m ( R igby & S tead , 1 976 , f i g . 7 8 , n o . 7 4 ) . T urn ing t o d r ink ing v esse ls , a n u nusua l f or m i s t he f ragmen tary r im f rom ,Nor th R ow , n o . 2 2 , r ese mb l ing t he L oeschcke f orms 7 a nd 8 , ac up more o f ten f ound i n aG a l lo-Be lg ic f abr ic . T he d er ivat ion o f t he c up o r sma l l b ow l , N o . 2 3 , f ro m E ast G ate i s u ncer ta in d esp ite i t s s uperf ic ia l r ese mb lance t o aD r . 2 4/25 , b ut t h is i s e xact ly p ara l le led b y f orm 6 0 a t C a mu lodunu m where i ti s , u n fortunate ly , r are ( Hawkes & H u l l , 1 947 , 2 27 , p l . L I I I ) . An e xa mp le o f t he c up im itat ing D r . 2 4/25 , as am ian f orm u n l ike ly t o h ave b een p roduced a f ter t he N eron ian p er iod , h as a lready b een p ub l ished f ro m L inco ln ( Petch , 1 962 , f ig . 6 , n o . 2 1 ) , b u t t he f or m i s n o t l im ited t o t h is s l ipped ware , a s i s i l lustrated b y e xa mp les i n ap ink ish m icaceous f abr ic f rom E ast G ate ( Tho mpson & Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f ig . 1 3 , n o . 1 4 ) a nd f ro m E ast B igh t ( Dar l ing , f or thco m ing ) . C op ies o f t h is f or m , h ere N os , 2 4 a nd 2 5 , a re l ess c o mmon n at iona l ly t han t hose o f D r . 2 7 f or i nstance , b ut a f ragmen tary e xa mp le was f ound a t t he L ong thorpe k i lns , i n al oca l r ed-brown f abr ic , w ithout s l ip-coa t ing. T he a bsence o f c op ies o f D r . 2 7 c ups a t L inco ln i s p ar t icu lar ly n o tab le i n v iew o f t he ir c o mparat ive f requency e lsewhere , f or i ns tance a t Wroxeter , F ishbourne e tc . a nd o ther s i tes e x tend ing i n to t he s econd c en tury . Apar t f ro m t he v esse ls r e lated t o s am ian f or ms , t he t wo s l ip-coated c ups , N os . 2 6 a nd 2 7 , a re v ery c lose c op ies o f t he p re-F lav ian L yon ware c ups ( a c up b ase a t L ong thorpe was s im i lar ly s l ip-coated ) , whereas t he b eakers i n t h is f abr ic/ techn ique , N os . 2 8 a nd 2 9 , d o n ot h ave t he d e l icacy o f t he L yon b eakers .

Ac ur ios ity a t L inco ln i s t he f act t hat b eakers i n o rd inary u ns l ipped

c rea m f abr ic a re c loser t o t he impor ted f ine ware f orm ( and v ery s im i lar t o b eakers f ound a t L ong thorpe , s ee Wi ld , 1 977 , t af . 3 , b o t to m r igh t ) , whereas c ups i n af i ne g rey f abr ic , wh i le c opy ing t he f i ne w are f orm , h ave d e l icate p o in ted r i ms q u ite u n l ike t he c o m mon L yon c ups . T here i s , h owever , n o e v idence t o s uggest t hat t he b eakers were s l ip-coated a l l o ver a s o n a l l k nown e xa mp les t he s l ip s tops j ust b e low t he s hou lder g roove , a nd c o mpar ison w ith L yon ware t hus s ee ms u nwarran ted .

As l ipped b eaker s im i lar t o t he L inco ln

e xa mp les i s k nown f ro m Ancaster ( Todd , 1 969a , 1 , n o . 4 ) . 4 02

I n a dd it ion t o t he p a in ted b ow ls , e v idence f or p a in ted f l agons h as o ccurred o n s evera l s i tes ( Petch , 1 962 , f ig . 5 , n o . 6 ; Tho mpson & Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f ig . 1 3 , n o . 7 ) . T he u se o fp a in ted d ecorat ion i s r are i n t he f i rst c en tury , a nd t he L inco ln e xa mp les d o n ot c o mpare s ty l ist ica l ly w ith t he f ew s herds k nown f ro m t he M id lands ( Hob ley , 1 969 , n os . 1 32-136 ; G ou ld , 1 964 , n os . 1 25 , 1 26 , 1 50 , 1 51 & 1 62-170 ;

1 972 , n os . 1 32 , 1 77 ;

1 968 , n o . 4 5 ;

O swa ld ,

1 948 , P l . X I I , n o . 8 ; P l . XV I , n o . 6 ) o r L inco lnsh ire ( a s a t O ld Win ter ingha m , R igby & S tead , 1 976 , f ig . 7 8 , n o . 7 3 ) . N ear ly a l l t he k nown e xa mp les o f f i rst-cen tury p a in ted wares a re b eakers , a nd t he s ty le o f p a in t ing i s q u ite d if feren t f ro m t hat f ound a t L inco ln . Ar ing-and-do t b eaker i n c rea m f abr ic w ith b rown b arbo t ine i s k nown f ro m Marg idunum ( Oswa ld , 1 948 , P l . X I , n o . 1 1 ) , b ut s urpr is ing ly t he o n ly e v idence f or a s im i lar b eaker f rom L inco ln c ons ists o f j ust t wo s herds f ro m t he c onstruct ion t rench f or t he c o lon ia wa l l a t E ast B igh t ( Tho mpson , 1 956 , f ig . 6 , n o . 6 ) .

T hese a re i n ap ink micaceous

f abr ic ( w ith s l igh t ly g r it ty p ink b arbo t ine ) wh ich o ccurs i n t he l eg ionary c on tex ts , b ut e qua l ly t h is v esse l c ou ld c o me f rom t he e ar ly c iv i l ian o ccupat ion . T he l ast t wo p o ts p ub l ished h ere a re

s trangers ';

N o . 3 0 f ro m E ast B igh t

c annot b e a t tr ibu ted t o ar ecogn izab le f or m , t he c ordon a t t he b ase o f t he s herd b e ing p ar t icu lar ly p erp lex ing . I ti s u nfor tunate t hat t he f orm i s s o e lus ive ( even t he d ia me ter a nd p itch a re d oubt fu l o n s uch a sma l l s herd ) a s t h is was s trat if ied i n a n e ar ly p ost-trench , a t tr ibu tab le t o t he l eg ionary o ccupat ion ( Wh itwe l l , 1 980 ; D ar l ing , f or thco m ing ) . T he s ha l low d ish ( ?) N o . 3 1 i s v ery u nusua l a nd t he o n ly p oss ib le p ara l le ls t raced a re t wo s ha l low v esse ls a t t he k i lns f or t he l eg ionary f ortress a t N i j megen ( Ho lwerda , 1 944 , P laat I I , n os . 2 71 , 2 18 ) , d a tab le t o a f ter A . D . 7 1 . THE LONGTHORPE CONNECT ION I tr e ma ins t o c ons ider what i n for mat ion c an b e g a ined f ro m t h is g roup o f f i ne p o t tery , b ear ing i n mind t ha t i tr epresen ts a v ery sma l l p roport ion o f t he p ot tery a sse mb lage f ro m t he l eg ionary c on tex ts . The t echn ique o f s l ipc oat ing i s u nusua l a t t h is p er iod ( t he s l ip-coat ing a t C a mu lodunu m ' sk i ln 2 3 i s n ot c o mparab le b e ing l im ited t o c op ies o f L yon ware b eakers , H awkes & H u l l , 1 947 , 2 82 , f i g . 5 8 , n os . 1 0 &1 1 ) , a nd i t s o ccurrence a t L ong thorpe , where a v ex i l lat ion o ft he I X th l eg ion i s c ons idered t o h ave b een i n g arr ison p r ior t o t he move o f t he e n t ire l eg ion t o L inco ln , i s o bv ious ly s ign if ican t . T he s im i lar ity o f t he im i tat ion s am ian p lat ters a t b o th s i tes i s u ndoub ted , b u t t he c onnect ion i s s treng thened when t he c harac ter o f a l l t he p o t tery i s c ons idered . The p o t tery f rom L ong thorpe i s we l l i l lustrated b y t he mater ia l p ub l ished f ro m t he f or tress ( W i lson , 1 974 , f igs . 7 1 t o 7 6 ) . T h is w i l l b e s upp le mented b y t he f or thco m ing p ub l icat ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he k i ln s i te ( W i ld & D anne l l , f or thco m ing i n Br i tann ia . s ee Wi ld , 1 977 f or s u mmary a nd i l lustrat ions ; t he c haracter o f t he p ot tery f ro m t he k i lns i s a lso d iscussed i n Wi ld , 1 973 a nd D anne l l , 1 975 ) . T he f o l low ing c onc lus ions o n t he p o t tery f ro m L ong thorpe a re b ased o n t he p ub l ished mater ia l , p art icu lar ly f ro m t he f or tress , a nd may we l l r equ ire amend men t o nce t he k i ln mater ia l i s p ub l ished . i nu se i n t he f or tress s ee ms t o d iv ide i n to t hree b as ic g roups :

4 03

T he p o t tery

a .

t he s l ip-coated a nd o ther s and-te mpered Roman ized v esse ls , f l agons , b ow ls , b eakers e tc ., many c lose ly p ara l le led b y e xa mp les f rom L inco ln .

b .

t he 'B e lg ic ' t ype v esse ls , we l l r epresen ted i n t he p o t tery f ro m t he f or tress , s o me o f wh ich were a pparen t ly made o n t he k i ln s i te .

c .

t he c a lc ite-gr i t ted v esse ls ( W i lson , 1 974 , n os . 8 7-120 ) . T h is f abr ic i s c o m mon i n t he E ast M id lands a nd N orthan ts . a rea i n t he I ron Age a nd c on t inues t hrough t he Ro man p er iod a nd l a ter ;

a lthough s herds

were f ound o n t he k i ln s i te , i ti s p oss ib le t hey were n o t made t here ( W i lson , 1 974 , 9 6 ) . T hese v esse ls may r epresen t as upp ly c om ing i n to t he f or tress f ro m o ther l oca l k i lns . T he i nd iv idua l f or ms o f t he n at ive w ares f rom t he t wo s i tes a re d iss im i lar— i ti s t he u se o f l oca l ly a va i lab le n at ive p ot tery ( however t he s upp ly was a rranged) s upp le men ted b y o ther p o t tery o f c on t inen ta l R o man f or ms , p ar t icu lar ly i n t ab le ware , t hat p rov ides t he b as ic c onnect ion . T he d iverse o r ig ins o f t he L ong thorpe p ot ters a re i l lustra ted b y t he d if feren t k i ln t ypes ( W i ld , 1 977 , t afs . 1& 2 ) , a nd wh i le p o t tery b ack f il led i n to d efunct k i lns d oes n o t n ecessar i ly r epresen t t he v esse ls f i red i n t he k i lns , i ts ee ms p robab le t ha t t he k i lns d ug i n to t he s ubso i l ( as o pposed t o t he s coop ' t ype ) p roduced t he more R o man ized v esse ls ( k i ln 2 c on ta ined s herds o f l oca l ly made mor tar ia , l i ds a nd im i tat ions o f D r . 1 5/17 s am ian p lates ;

B r i tann ia 4 ( 1973 ) , 2 91 ) .

A s im i lar d ivers ity

o f p o t tery o b ta ins a t t he f or t a t G reat C aster ton , l i ke ly t o h ave b een more . c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith L ong thorpe , where t he c haracter o f t he a sse mb lage i s a na logous i n i t s u se o f n at ive wares , a nd where a s l ip-coated b ow l , s im i lar t o N o . 1 2 f ro m L inco ln , a lso o ccurs ( Todd , 1 968 , f i g . 1 9 , n o . 5 7 ). I ti s c once ivab le t hat t he f abr ic may b e f ro m L ong thorpe , a nd t he p oss ib i l ity o f l eg ionar ies f or m ing p ar t o f t he G reat C aster ton g arr ison may b e a lso r e levan t ( Todd , 1 968 , 3 6 ) . T he g enera l s im i lar ity o f t he L inco ln v esse ls t o p ot tery a ppear ing a t mi l i tary s i tes s uch a s H o ldeurn , V indon issa , N euss , Ho l t e tc . i s o f l i t t le s ign if icance i n c o mpar ison t o t he c era m ic c onnect ion w ith L ong thorpe . I t s ee ms l eg it i mate t o d raw t he c onc lus ion t hat s o me o f t he p o t ters work ing f or t he l eg ionary v ex i l lat ion a t L ong thorpe moved w i th t he g arr ison t o L inco ln . S im i lar move men ts o fp o t ters w i th m i l i tary u n its h ave b een p os tu lated o n t he C on t inen t ( Et t l inger , 1 951 ) , a nd t h is q uest ion h as b een a dm irab ly d iscussed b y G reene ( 1977 ).

C au t ion i s , h owever , v ery n ecessary s ince t he s l ip-coa ted

wares a t L ong thorpe a nd L inco ln c ou ld h ave b een made b y o n ly o ne o r t wo p o t ters , a nd e ven t he manufacture o f f l agons a nd o ther R o man ized v esse ls n eed n o th ave e n ta i led a l arge work-force . T he t h inner-wa l led Ro man ized v esse ls a t t he L ong thorpe f or tress may b e u nderrepresen ted i n t he i l lustrated mater ia l , s ince t hey wou ld o ccur i n a much more f ragmented s tate d ue t o t he s ha l low d epth o f p lough-so i l o ver t he s i te ( Frere & S t . J oseph , 1 974 , 1 : o n ly C . 6 -9 i n . t h ick ) , b u t t he mass o f t he p ot tery i s c lear ly o f l oca l n at ive manuf acture ( even i fc on tro l led b y t he a rmy ) , a nd p resen ts a p icture i den t ica l i n t h is r espect t o t he e ar ly a sse mb lage f rom L inco ln . The v esse ls o f I ron Age t rad it ion a t L inco ln c an b e p ara l le led b y p o t tery f ro m Dragonby ( pers . c om m . T . Gregory ) , as i te s pann ing t he c onquest p er iod , a nd a lso f ro m O ld Win ter ingha m

4 04

( R igby & S tead , 1 976 , f igs . 7 4-76 ) ;

t here i s n o r eason t o b e l ieve t hat t he

L inco ln p ot tery o f n at ive t rad it ion was made b y o ther t han l oca l men . I ts ee ms , h owever , u n l ike ly t hat t he p o t ters p roduc ing t he 'B e lg ic ' s ty le a t L ong thorpe moved t o L inco ln .

A lthough s im i lar p o t tery o ccurs a t L inco ln ,

t here i s n o e v idence t o s uggest i tf or med a n a pprec iab le p ar t o f t he p ot tery u sed i n t he f or tress .

T he p auc ity o f 'B e lg ic ' s ty le p o t tery a t L inco ln i s

s trange , a nd may a r ise f ro m t he i nadequate a nd sma l l q uan t ity o f mater ia l k nown f ro m t he m i l itary l ayers . B e lg ic !

T here i s , h owever , t he p oss ib i l ity t hat t he

p o t ters a t L ong thorpe c a me f ro m s outh-eastern B r ita in ( see D anne l l ,

1 975 f or d iscuss ion ) ; many o f t he f or ms a t L ong thorpe c an b e e as i ly p ara l le led a t C o lchester , V eru la m iu m , a nd p ar t icu lar ly a t B a ldock , where t he b est p ara l le ls a ppeared i n c on tex ts d ated c . A .D . 3 0 t o 5 0 ( pers . c om m . M iss V a lery R igby ) .

I t i s c once ivab le t hat when t he L ong thorpe g arr ison moved

t o L inco ln t o r eun i te w ith v ex i l lat ions o f t he L X th H ispana , who may t he ms e lves h ave made t he ir own a rrange men ts f or p ot tery s upp ly , t he p o t ters w ere n o l onger r equ ired .

B e lg ic '

T h is may s uggest t hat t he B e lg ic p o t ters

were f ree c raf ts men ( Greene , 1 979b , 1 02 ). I ti s impor tan t t o b ear i n m ind t hat d esp ite t he u nusua l c haracter o f t h is r ed-s l ipped p o t tery , i tf or ms a v ery sma l l p ar t o f t he a sse mb lage u sed b y a l eg ion wh ich was s p l it i n to t wo o r t hree v ex i l lat ions , a nd t he p ot tery f ro m o n ly o ne o f i t s f or tresses p r ior t o L inco ln i s k nown .

I ndeed , t here i s n o

c er ta in ty a s t o t he l ocat ion o f t he r est o f t he l eg ion , a nd f ur ther s pecu la t ion i s f u t i le u n t i l p erhaps t he s i te a t N ew ton-on-Tren t h as b een s a mp led .

T he

most t hat c an b e s uggested a t p resen t i s t hat t he p ot ters p roduc ing t he s l ipc oated a nd o ther R o man ized v esse ls , s uch a s f l agons , b ow ls a nd mor tar ia , were t he o n ly p o t ters t o move w ith t h is p ar t icu lar v ex i l lat ion t o L inco ln ( see D anne l l , 1 975 f or a lterna t ive s uggest ions ) .

T he o ther v ex i l lat ions may h ave

a lso a rr ived w ith p o t ters a t tached t o t he m , a nd i ti s a t l east s uggest ive t hat p o t ters

w i th a d if feren t t rad it ion , mak ing r ust icated wares ( unknown a t

L ong thorpe , b ut c o m mon o n many M id land s ites ) were i n e v idence a t L inco ln f ro m t he e ar l iest o ccupat ion . D ISCUSS ION :

IMPL ICAT IONS FOR OTHER LEG IONARY S ITES

S ince t hese p ot ters were p roduc ing a r e lat ive ly sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he p ot tery r equ ired b y t he l eg ion , i ti s r e levan t t o a sk why t he I X th l eg ion s hou ld h ave h ad p o t ters a t tached t o i t .

T here i s n o e v idence t o s uggest , f or i nstance ,

t hat t he Ind A ugus ta w as s im i lar ly s erved a t Exeter , a nd t he p ot ters work ing f or t he 2 0 ( th a t U sk a nd t he X lV th a t W r oxeter , where t hey p roduced v ir tua l ly a l l t he p ot tery r equ ired , were f u lf i l l ing a more u rgen t n eed .

T h is q uest ion ,

h owever , c anno t b e e xp lored w ithou t c ons ider ing t he o r ig ins o f t he p o t ters , a nd i ti s c lear t hat L inco ln w i l l n o t p rov ide a dequate e v idence o n t h is a spect . T he o r ig ins o f t he p o t ters c an o n ly b e c ons idered o nce t he p o t tery f ro m t he k i lns a nd f or tress a t L ong thorpe h as b een r esearched , b u t b ear ing i n mind t he q uan t ity o f p ot tery f rom P annon ia p ub l ished b y Boa ts ( 1942 ) , wh ich p rov ides n o e v idence f or s trong c onnect ions w ith L ong thorpe o r L inco ln , a nd t he p ara l le ls a pparen t w i th mater ia l i n t he Rh ine land , i t s ee ms c lear t hat t he l eg ion a rr ived i n Br i ta in w ith p o t ters a t tached t o i t , c once ivab ly c o l lected i n

4 05

t he R h ine land ( f or a lternat ive v iew , s ee D anne l l , 1 975 , 2 0 ) , a nd t hese were s upp le men ted w here n ecessary b y p o t ters f ro m s ou th-eas t .' I t may s ee m s urpr is ing t hat t he o ther t hree l eg ions w ere s erved d if fere n t ly , b ut t he ir l ocat ion o n t he western f ron t ier i s r e levan t . I ts hou ld b e emp has ized t hat p o t tery o n m i l itary s i tes w i l l n ecessar i ly d i f fer , n o t o n ly s ty l ist ica l ly , b ut a lso i n t he mode o f s upp ly , o n ag eograph ica l b as is . T he r eason i s a s b as ic a s t he e x istence i n B r i ta in o f aH igh land a nd L ow land z one ( Fox , 1 959 ) , a f fect ing l i fe t hroughou t p reh istory , wh ich b eca me i n t he e ar ly R o man p er iod a r ough d iv is ion b etween m i l i tary a nd c iv i l .

T he f actors t hat

d e ter m ine t he t ype o f p ot tery s upp ly f or a ny m i l i tary s i te a re i t s l ocat ion , t he a dequacy o r o therw ise i n q uan t ity , n ot n ecessar i ly q ua l i ty , o f l oca l ly p roduced p ot tery , t he s ize o f t he g arr ison t o b e s upp l ied a nd t he c ond it ions , p eacefu l o r o therw ise , o f t he a rea i n wh ich t he f or t/ for tress i s s i tuated .

A l l t hese

f actors must b e b orne i n m ind when c ons ider ing t he p o t tery s upp l ies t o a ny i nd iv idua l s i te , a nd t he d icho to my s ee m ing ly e v iden t b e tween e ast a nd w est i s t o b e e xpec ted , a lthough n o t p ure ly g overned b y g eography . T he u se o f p redo m inan t ly n at ive p o t tery b y t he Ind a t Exeter ( B idwe l l , 1 979 ) i s e n t ire ly c ons isten t w i th t he l ocat ion o f t he f or tress i n a n a rea w here a dequate s upp l ies o f D uro tr igan ( and impor ted ) p ot tery c ou ld b e o b ta ined .

T he p ecu lar it ies o f

t he a sse mb lages a t U sk a nd Wroxe ter h ave a lready b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Greene , 1 973 ; D ar l ing , 1 977 ) , b u t i ti s c lear t hat t he l eg ions g arr ison ing t hese s i tes a lso h ad p o t ters a t tached t o t he m , whether mi l i tary p ersonne l o r c ivi l ians . I ti s , h owever , a pparen t t hat i ft he I X th h ad p ot ters a t tached t o t he l eg ion a t L inco ln , whatever t he ir o r ig in o r s tatus , t h is a rrange men t h ad l apsed b efore t he move t o York , where t he 'l eg ionary ' p o t tery i s e n t irely d if feren t ( K ing , 1 974 ; P err in , 1 977 ) . D esp ite b e ing s uccess ive f ortresses f or t he s a me l eg ion , t here i s n o e v idence f or a ny c era m ic c onnect ion b etween L inco ln a nd York , where t he 'l eg ionary ' ware c an b e l ikened t o s im i lar p o t tery p roduced a t H o lt f or t he C hester f or tress ( Gr i mes , 1 930 ) , a nd a t C aer leon ( Boon , 1 966 ) . T he c hange o f g arr ison f ro m t he I X th t o t he Ind Ad iutr ix a t L inco ln may b e r e levan t .

T he s tatus o f t he p ot ters i s d if f icu lt , i fn o t imposs ib le , t o d eter-

m ine ( Greene , 1 977 , 1 25 ;

1 979b , 1 02 ;

Breeze , 1 977 , 1 36 ) b u t i ts ee ms

c once ivab le t hat t he I X th l ef t n o t o n ly t he ir f or tress , b u t p erhaps a lso t he ir sma l l c on t ingen t o f p ot ters t o s erve t he i nco m ing l eg ion ( on ly f or med f ro m t he N avy i n A . D . 6 9 ) . Whether t he p ot ters were f ree c raf ts men o r a t tached t o t he l eg ion a s s laves ( Greene , 1 979b , 1 02 , p roposa ls D a nd E ) wou ld make n o d if ference i n t h is s i tuat ion .

Moreover t here i s n o c er ta in ty t hat York

w as f ounded a s al eg ionary f or tress im med iate ly ( Har t ley , 1 971 , 5 5 ) , p ar t icu lar ly a s t he I X th was a ct ive ly i nvo lved c a mpa ign ing w i th C er ia l is .

B y

t he t ime t he l i nd Ad iutr ix l ef t L inco ln , t he o r ig ina l p o t ters may h ave b een r et ired o r d ead ; ac on t inuat ion o f t he t rad it ion w ou ld s ee m u n l ike ly . N e i ther i s t here e v idence t o s uggest , i n t he w est , t hat t he XX th l eg ion , h av ing made i t s own p ot tery a t U sk , d id s o a t Wroxe ter o r i n it ia l ly a t C hester ( t he works d epo t a t H o lt b e ing a l a ter a rrange men t , s ure ly r e lated t o t he p roduct ion o f t i les :

C arr ing ton , 1 977 , 1 47 ).

I ti s c once ivab le , a lthough i t

wou ld b e d if f icu lt t o p rove , t hat t he ) 0 ( th t ook o ver t he p o t ters p rev ious ly emp loyed b y t he X lV th l eg ion a t Wroxeter , p ar t icu lar ly when i ti s b orne i n

4 06

mind t hat t he X IV th l ef t Wroxeter i n A .D . 6 6/7 t o g o o n c a mpa ign i n t he E ast ( Tac itus , H is tor ies , i , 6 ; i , 1 ) , a nu n l ike ly a ss ignmen t f or p o t ters , e sp ec ia l ly i fc iv i l ians .

I ti s , moreover , c lear t ha t t he XX th l eg ion h ad c hanged

t he ir mode o fp o t tery s upp ly d ur ing t he l ast y ears o f t he ir o ccupat ion o f t he U sk f or tress , a nd were d raw ing s upp l ies f rom s evera l d if feren t , p resu mab ly c iv i l ian , s ources ( Greene , 1 973 ) . T ha t t he XX th l eg ion im med iate ly r ep laced t he X IV th a t Wroxe ter i s a modern a ssu mp t ion , b ased o n p robab i l it ies , a s t here i s n o d at ing e v idence c apab le o f d if feren t iat ing b etween s ay A .D , 6 5 a nd A .D . 7 0 o r l a ter . I t may n o t b e i rre levan t t o c ons ider t he d isastrous s i tua t ion i n t he Emp ire i n A .D . 69/70 , w ith t he l eg ions i n B r ita in d ep leted b y v ex i l lat ions s en t t o c a mpa ign o n t he C on t inen t , a nd e v idence t hat t he Br it ish a r my was i n as tate o f mut iny , w ith p erhaps t he XX th b e ing t he worst a f fected ( Tac itus , H istor ies

i , 6 0 ;

i ,

5 7 , 6 5 , 6 6 ; i i , 1& 2 2 ) . T ha t t he p rov ince was s uperf ic ia l ly p eacefu l i n t he m id-s ix t ies s ee ms p oss ib le n ot o n ly f ro m t he n arrat ive o f T ac itus , b u t a lso f ro m t he f act i tw as c ons idered f eas ib le t o w ithdraw a l eg ion ( un less t h is mere ly i l lustrates N ero ' sc apr ic ious i dea f or a c a mpa ign?) .

I ti s imposs ib le

t o d ef ine when t he d isaf fect ion o f t he a r my f or T rebe l l ius Max i mus s tar ted , b u t w ith t he a bnor ma l s i tuat ion o f ad ep leted a nd mu t inous a rmy , m i l i tary movemen ts may n ot h ave f o l lowed a p ar t icu lar ly l og ica l c ourse .

I td oes n ot s ee m

i nconce ivab le t ha t t he W r oxe ter f or tress h ad a s hor t p er iod w ith a c are taker g arr ison ( l eg ionary v ex i l lat ion a nd/or a ux i l iar ies?) b efore t he t roub les o f A .D . 6 9-70 were r eso lved , a nd a ny s ign o f c on t inu ity i n t he p ot tery t rad it ion o f t he XX th wou ld b e r e markab le . I tc o mes a s n o s urpr ise , t herefore , t o f ind t here i s n o s trong r ese mb lance b etween t he p ot tery a t Wroxeter a nd t ha t u sed , p resu mab ly b y t he XX th , a t I nchtu th i l . o f l oca l

A s a t Wroxeter , most o f t he p o t tery f rom I nch tu th i l a ppears t o b e

mi l i tary ' manufacture , c ons isten t w ith i t s l oca t ion , t he s ize o f t he

g arr ison , t he n on-ex istence o f l oca l n at ive p o t tery , a nd , moreover , t he r equ ire men ts f or t i les , wh ich a ppear t o b e o f t he s a me c lay ( pers .

c o mm .

D r . D av id Wi l l ia ms ) . Arrange men ts f or p o t tery s upp ly d id n o t r e ma in s tat ic— a s t hey v ar ied f ro m s i te t o s i te a nd c hrono log ica l ly , s o t hey a lso c hanged a s c ircu mstances a ltered .

Th is i s we l l i l lustrated b y G i l la m ' sd iscuss ion o f

p o t tery f ro m n orthern mi l itary s i tes ( G i l la m , 1 973 , 5 3 ) . I ft here a re p rob le ms w ith t he p o t tery f ro m s i tes s upposed ly o ccup ied b y t he XX th l eg ion , what t hen o f t he Ind Augusta? T he p ot tery f ro m E xeter h as b een p ub l ished i n s o me d eta i l ( B idwe l l , 1 979 ;

D ar l ing , 1 977 ) , a nd i ft he l eg ion

d id n o t l eave Exeter u n t i l c , A .D . 7 5 ( B idwe l l , 1 979 , 1 7 ) , i tb eco mes i ncreasi ng ly d if f icu lt t o f i t t he G loucester f or tress i n to t hat l eg ion ' sp era mbu lat ions , u n less t he l eg ion was s p l it , wh ich i n i t se lf wou ld h ave imp l icat ions f or p ot tery s upp ly . N ever the less , i ti s r e levan t t o n o te t hat t he G loucester g arr ison d rew i t s p ot tery s upp l ies f rom a v ar iety o f s ources , a nd t he manufacture o f 'C aer leon ware ' d id n o t f o l low immed iate ly t he t ransfer o f t he l eg ion t o i t s l ong-ter m b ase . T he s o-ca l led 'l eg ionary ' wares i n Br i ta in a rose f ro m v ery a ltered c ircu ms tances f ro m t hose o b ta in ing when t he l eg ions f i rst a rr ived . I ti s a x io mat ic t ha t t he s tudy o f p ottery f ro m m i l i tary s i tes must t ake i n to a ccoun t many f actors a nd r estra in ts i l lustrated b y t h is b r ief d iscuss ion . A lthough impor tan t e v idence c an b e o b ta ined r e lat ing t o t he p robab le c oeva l 4 07

occupation of military sites (as at Kingsholm and Cirencester, Dlrling, 1977), pottery will not necessarily illustrate a legion's movements. The situation of a military site, not only geographically, but also in the progress (or lack of it) of campaigns, is of paramount importance� and the depletion of a legion would also affect the mode of pottery supply. Pottery cannot be viewed in isolation any more than a site can be considered �thout its finds or vice-versa. Longthorpe and Lincoln are connected by the fact that the IXth legion appears to have remained fairly statically in the East Anglian/East Midlands area. At the same period, the western legions, more actively involved in campaigns were either able to obtain adequate native supplies or were forced to produce virtually all their own pottery. The only legion likely to show any continuity in its later fortresses, the XXth, was probably moved to Wroxeter in antici­ pation of forthcoming campaigns (as was the case with the move of the IXth to York), and it is the circumstances of the move, coupled with a probable change in supply arrangements at Usk, which probably accounts for the lack of ceramic continuity. The only legionary sites, therefore, with unequivocal ·ceramic connections are Longthorpe and Lincoln. So far as Lincoln is concerned, one is left with the thankful feeling that perhaps the ill-fated IXth legion was not always unlucky, and had managed to obtain more stylish potters in the initial phases of the conquest, who moved with them from Longthorpe to Lincoln. The final tantalizing question, which brings one back firmly to the groundwork on which much of this admittedly speculative discussion is based-the work of Dr. Graham Webster at Lincoln­ did the potters stay in Lincoln after the transfer of the legions, and could they conceivably have any bearing on the relatively unusual pottery made at South Carlton- by their descendants ••• ? I offer this modest contribution to Graham Webster in gratitude for his friendship, constant advice, encouragement and inspiration, particularly in the field of pottery studies. I hope he will forgive the speculations, some far beyond the available evidence, and the concentration on one small part of an assemblage, but that he -will enjoy recognizing pots he originally drew himself so many years ago. NOTES 1. Although Pannonia is normally accepted as the base of the IXth legion before coming to Britain, the legion's last known location was in Africa in A. D. 23 (Tacitus, Annals, iv, 23-24), and it is a modern assumption that the legion returned to Pannonia when withdrawn by Tiberius from the campaign against Tacfarinas. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe Geoff Dannell and John Peter Wild a considerable debt relating to their kindness in allowing me to study their material from Longthorpe, so vital for the early Lincoln pottery, at the time of the excavation, and for subsequent discussions; the views expressed are my own responsibility. I am also grateful to Dennis Petch and Ben Whitwell for allowing me to use vessels from their excavations at East Gate and East Bight/Temperance 408

P lace r espect ive ly b efore p ub l icat ion o f t he s i tes .

My t hanks a re a lso d ue t o

Tony Gregory f or r ead ing t h is p aper i n d raf t a nd mak ing many h e lpfu l s uggest ions .

F ina l ly , g rat itude i s d ue t o Graha m Webster f or d igg ing N or th Row i n

t he f i rst p lace . I LLUSTRATED POTTERY

( f ig .

2 3.2)

I n t he f o l low ing d escr ip t ions , t he s i te f ro m wh ich t he s herd c a me i s g iven f irst , t ogether w i th t he e xcavat ion r eference a nd c on tex t . i s d escr ibed a bove .

The b as ic f abr ic

Un less s tated o therw ise , t he s herds a re s l ipped o n b o th

s urfaces . 1 . West P arade .

WP 7 1 I I ( BZ ) .

Res idua l i n ad eposit a ssoc iated w ith t he

c onstruct ion o f t he l ower c o lon ia d efences ( Co lyer , 1 975b , f ig .

7 , l ayer

BZ ). 2 . E ast B ight , 1 966.

EB 3 61 .

E ar ly c o lon ia c on tex t p re-dat ing c o lon ia

r a mpar t w ith p o t tery o f t he l eg ionary p er iod a nd N eron ian-F lav ian s am ian . 3 . E ast B igh t , 1 966 .

EB 3 42 .

Ear ly c on tex t , p robab ly l ate l eg ionary , w ith

f irst-cen tury c oarse wares a nd N eron ian-F lav ian s am ian . 4 . Nor th Row .

NR . 2 .e .

L eg ionary c on tex t .

, Burn t o n r im a nd i n ter ior . 5 . E ast B ight , 1 966.

EB 3 33.

P inker f abr ic t han u sual .

( Webster , 1 949 , f ig .

1 2 , n o .

3 7) .

F ro m c o lon ia r a mpar t , w ith mid t o l ate

s econd-cen tury c oarse wares a nd H adr ian ic-An ton ine s am ian .

H eav i ly

b urn t p ost-fracture . 6 . East Ga te , 1 959 .

EG . 1 .4.

Upper f i l l o f l eg ionary d itch , p robab ly o f

Hadr ian ic d ate . 7 . East B ight , 1 966 .

EB 2 64.

F ro m c o lon ia r a mpar t w ith l ate s econd-

c en tury c oarse p o t tery a nd s am ian g iv ing a t er m inus p ost q uern o f c . A . D .160 8 . E ast B ight , 1 966 . c o lon ia wa l l . 9 . Nor th Row .

EB 3 25.

C on tex t d ate : NR. 1 .k .

F ro m i nf i l l b etween l eg ionary r a mpart a nd Tra jan ic/Hadr ian ic .

L eg ionary c on tex t .

n a lly a nd smoo thed b ase l z one . 1 0 . Ho l mes Gra in Warehouse. I ron Age o ccupat ion . 1 1. N orth Row .

Burn t e x terna lly .

Traces o f s l ip o n r im e x ter-

( Webster , 1 949 , f ig .

HG 7 2 ( MC ) .

1 2 , n o .

3 8.)

Ear ly Ro man c ontex t f o l low ing

Ex ter ior s urfaces f l aked , b ut t races o f s l ip s urv iv ing .

NR . 1 .o .

L eg ionary c on tex t .

S l ipped o ver r im e x terna l ly

w ith t races o f smoo thed b ase l z one . 1 2 . N orth Row . f ig .

NR . 1 .k .

1 2 , n o .

1 3 . N orth Row . 1 4 . The P ark ,

L eg ionary c on tex t .

Burn t a t r im .

( Webster , 1 949 ,

L eg ionary c on tex t .

Base l z one c lu msi ly t r i m med .

3 6.) NR . 1 .k .

P . 7 1 ( QL ).

e x ter ior k n ife-tr i m med ;

F irst-cen tury c on tex t . b urn t p ost-fracture .

4 09

I nter ior o n ly s l ipped ,

2 3L 4 \

6 1 5

F E- 7

9

. 3 .4

l o i \ i i i 4 1 1

8 1 2

-

1f l i e L4 mommue me r

14 1 1 8 1 8

"-

7

1 1 1 3 1

1 9

2 5 2 2

2 7 1=a32 1

2 6

3 0

0

5

1 0

1 5

F ig . 2 3 .2

2 0

3 1 c

m.

P ot tery f ro m L inco ln 4 10

1 :4

1 5. H o l mes Gra in Warehouse .

HG 7 2 ( LF ).

Ear ly Ro man c on tex t f o l low ing

I ron Age o ccupat ion . 1 6. N orth Row .

N i t . 1 .p .

L eg ionary c on tex t .

Drawn f ro m n onjo in ing s herds.

L ight r ed-brown p a in ted d ecorat ion o n c rea m f abr ic. a t tach men t b e low r im a nd o n c ar inat ion .

Traces o f ?h and le

( Webster , 1 949 , f ig .

1 1 , n o .

2 3 .) 1 7. E ast Gate , 1 959-62 . 2 . 2 3 , 2 .70 , 2 .71 .

S evera l n onjo in ing s herds f ro m EG 2 .20a , 2 .22 , L ight r ed-brown p ain ted d ecorat ion o n c rea m f abr ic ,

o ccasiona l d r ip o f p a in t o n i n ter ior .

S l ight smear ing a s f or a ? hand le

a t tach men t o n t wo s herds a t t he c ar inat ion .

Ear ly c on tex t w ith p ot tery o f

t he l eg ionary p er iod . 1 8. T e mperance P lace .

TP '6 9 Bag 9 5 .

Most o f p ot tery f ro m t he l ayer o f

f irst-cen tury d ate b ut s o me p robab ly e ar ly t o mid-second c en tury ; S am ian :

F lav ian o r Tra jan ic S outh G au l ish .

P ain ted l ight r ed-brown o n

c rea m f abr ic i n d es ign c urv ing t owards h and le . 1 9 . E ast B ight , 1 966.

EB 1 59 .

Unstrat if ied .

P ain ted i n l ight b rown o n

smoothed c rea m f abr ic . 2 0 . The P ark .

P7 1 ( PY ) & ( PW ) n onjo in ing s herds .

F ro m e ar l iest r a mpart

( l ower c o lon ia ) w ith mid-second-century p ot tery a nd r es idua l mater ial . S l ipped e xterna l ly a nd p art ia l ly o n i n ter ior w ith s igns o f a n a ir b ubb le a nd d r ips .

Crude ly t r i m med b ase l z one .

2 1. Ho l mes Grain Warehouse . b u i ld ing o n t he s i te ; c entury .

Heav i ly b urn t p ost-fracture .

smoo thed c rea m f abr ic ; 2 2 . Nor th Row . f in ished .

HG 7 2 ( FW ).

L ayer o ver ly ing t he f irst s tone

p ot tery d ate f or t he g roup :

NH . 1 .y .

l ate f irst t o e ar ly s econd

P a in ted d iagona l b rown l ines o n

i n ter ior h as smoothed z one j ust b e low r im . L eg ionary c on tex t .

Bot to m o f r i m-f lange p oor ly

( Webster , 1 949 , f ig . 1 2 , n o . 3 5) .

2 3. East G ate , 1 963-66.

EG 2 71.

Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f i g . 1 5 , n o . 2 4 . The P ark .

P7 1 I I ( MB ) .

F il l o f l eg ionary d itch .

( Tho mpson &

5 .)

E ar ly f eature w ith p ot tery c urren t i n t he

l eg ionary p er iod . 2 5. West P arade .

WP I I ( BZ ).

2 6 . East G ate , 1 963-66 .

Con tex t a s N o. 1 a bove .

EG 3 18.

F ro m p ost-p it f or l eg ionary g ate .

o r ig ina l ly b arbo t ine d ecorated j udg ing f ro m s cars o n e x ter ior .

P robab ly

( Tho mpson

& Wh itwe l l , 1 973 , f ig . 1 3 , n o . 1 8.) 2 7. E ast B ight , 1 966 .

EB 3 30 .

F ro m c on tex t p re-dat ing t he c o lon ia r a mpart,

w ith p ot tery o f f i rst c entury d ate a nd S outh Gau l ish s am ian , p robab ly F lav ian . 2 8 . North Row .

NR . 1 .o .

L eg ion a ry c on tex t .

Pa in ted i rregu lar ly o n

e xter ior t o b e low t he s hou lder g roove a nd a lso i nside r im ; e xter ior a nd t r i m med b asa l z one . 2 9 . E ast Gate , 1 963-66 . c onstruct ion .

EG 2 48.

smoo thed

( Webster , 1 949 , f ig . 1 1 , n o . 2 5.)

L eg ionary p it s ea led b y e ar ly c o lon ia

P a in ted o n e xter ior t o b elow s hou lder g roove a nd o n 4 11

i n ter ior o f r im . 3 0 . E ast B igh t , 1 966 .

( Tho mpson & Wh i twe l l , 1 973 , f i g . EB 3 47.

1 4 , n o .

F ro m l eg ionary p os t-trench .

5 .)

R im a nd p itch

q uest ionab le d ue t o sma l l s ize o f s herd . 3 1 . H o l mes Gra in Warehouse .

HG 7 2 ( GD ) .

L ate f i rst-century c on tex t .

B urn t o n r im . B IBL IOGRAPHY B idwe l l 1 979 .

B idwe l l , P .T ., T he L eg ionary B ath-house a nd B as i l ica a nd

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2 0 , 1 942 .

B oon 1 966 .

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J ., 4 7 ( 1967 ) , 2 7-42 .

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4 12

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4 13

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4 14

Excavat ions i n

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4 15

2 4.

THE F IRST DARF IELD HOARD AND THE DATING OF BLACK-BURN ISHED WARE R .A .H . F arrar

P o t tery v essels c on ta in ing R o man c o in h oards h ave n o t a lways b een p ub l ished d esp i te t he o ppor tun i ty t he c ircums tances a f ford o f ac loser d a t ing f or t he ir manu fac ture a nd u se t han may o therw ise b e p oss ib le . I ft he e xp lan a t ion f or t he om iss ion h as s o me t i mes b een t he i nconven ience o f d iscuss ing c eram ics i n as pec ia l is t n um is ma t ic j ourna l , t he c on tr ibu t ions o f P h i l ip C order t o t he N um is ma t ic C hron icle i n r espect o ft he s econd a nd t h ird h oards f ro m Dar f ie ld , Y orksh ire , were i n t he ir t ime w e lco me i nd ica t ions o f aw ind o f c hange ( Corder , 1 948, 8 1 , a nd 1 950 , 3 16-7 ) . T he f i rst Dar f ie ld h oard ( Wa lker , 1 946 ) was n o t s o f ortuna te i n t h is r espec t , a nd t he o n ly b r ief r ecord o f t he c on ta iner i den t i f ied i ta s o f c a lci te-gr i t ted ware ( Greene , 1 951 , 1 17-8) . I ti s , h owever , o f b lack-burn ished ware c a tegory 1 ( BB1) .

T ha t amends s hou ld b e made i n

t h i ' s v o lume o f e ssays may b e t hough t a ppropr ia te i n r ecogn i t ion o f G raha m Webster 's o wn c on tr ibu t ion i n l i ke c ircums tances , i n c onnec t ion w i th t he Hord ley G range h oard , n ear E l les mere , S hropsh ire , a lso c on ta ined i n av esse l o f b lack-burn ished ware ( Webster , 1 961 ) . T he p o t ( F ig . 2 4 .1) i s o n e xh ib i t ion i nt he S hef f ie ld C i ty Museu m ( a ccess ion n o. J 1 947 .315 ) , t oge ther w i th p ar t o ft he h oard .1 I th as b een r epa ired f ro m f rag men ts a nd s ubstan t ia l p ar ts o ft he u pper b ody h ave b een r es tored i n p laster , i nc lud ing t he who le o ft he l i p wh ich h as b een g iven a s tra igh t p rof i le , o n ly s l igh t ly e ver ted a nd w i thou t al i p b ead ing . I n t he d raw ing t h is h as b een c orrec ted i n a ccordance w i th t he n or ma l c urv ing o r s l igh t ly a ngu lar BB1 p rof i le , t he o n ly s ign if ican t u ncer ta in ty b e ing t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he e x tre me d ia me ter o ft he l i p may h ave a pproached t ha t o ft he max i mum g ir th o ft he b ody . T he p or t ion o fn eck t ha t s urv ives i sn o t t urned o u t s uf f ic ien t ly t o s ugges t t ha t i te xceeded i t . T he c o lour i s g enera l ly b lack o n b oth f aces w i th s o me b rown d isco loura t ion ; s o me s craps n o t u sed i n t he r epa ir s how a n or ma l c oarse s andy b ody , w i th b lack c ore s andw iched b etween t h in b rown z ones u nder t he b lack s ur faces . T he i n ter ior s hows f i nger marks a nd s l igh tt races o fh or izon ta l s cra tch ing . T he e x ter ior h as a c harac ter is t ica l ly g ood s hou lder b urn ish , a nd as cra tch i ly b urn ished l ower b ody b e low t he ma t t z one wh ich i s d ecora ted w i th o b tuse-ang led l a t t ice o r c ross-ha tch ing , t he u pper marg in o f wh ich i s s harp ly d ef ined b yt he b urn ish ing o f t he s hou lder a nd b y af a in t a nd i n ter m i t ten t ly t oo led h or izon ta l l i ne . T he u nder-base i s n ea t a nd smoo th , a s i fr e la t ive ly u nworn . A s f ar a s macroscop ic e xam ina t ion c an t ake u s , t he f abr ic a nd f i n ish a re c ons is ten t w i th manu fac ture i n P urbeck , Dorse t . The p resence o f t hree h oards a t Dar f ie ld—or , more s tr ic t ly , f our , s ince a l ost h oard i nc lud ing s o me g o ld c o ins was f ound t here c . 1 680 ( Carson , 1 948 , 7 9 )—s t il l d ef ies e xp lana t ion , s ince t he a rea i s n o t o the r w ise k nown f or

4 17

I NS .

0

3

0

F ig. 2 4.1

4 18

S ca le 1 :2 .

Ro man o ccupa t ion . Dar f ie ld l i es s o me n ine m i les n or th o ft he s i te o ft he f or t a t T e mp leborough n ear Ro therham a nd t h ir teen s ou th o f C as t leford ( Lagen t ium ) o nn o k nown r oad , a nd t he t hree h oards , a l l f ound i n t he s a me a rea o f b u ild ing d eve lopmen t , mus t n ever theless , i ts ee ms , b e r egarded a s s epara te t reasures . The t wo c loses t t ogether , h oards 2 a nd 3 , were o n ly a bou t 6 0m a par t 2 b u t h ad b een made u p b yd a tes s epara ted b y s o me s ix ty y ears o r more , n o . 2i n a n i nden ted b eaker o fh ard g rey ware , a nd n o . 3( t he l a ter o f t he t wo , w i th a t er m inus p os t q ue r n o f A .D .276 ) i n ac oun tersunk-hand led j ar , d oub t less o f Eas t Y orksh ire manufac ture . H oards 1 a nd 2 , a l though c losed , j udg ing b y t he f reshness o ft he ir l a tes t i ssues , i n o r s hor t ly a f ter A .D.236-8 a nd 2 13 r espec t ive ly , m igh t we l l , i n Mr C arson 's v iew , h ave b een b ur ied—or a bandoned , i fb ur ia l was t he ir n or ma l mode o f s afe-keep ing—as t he r esu l t o f o ne a nd t he s a me e ven t . T he d is tance o f a bou t 3 50 m b etween t he m , h owever , s uggested s epara te ownersh ip . T he r easons f or t he c oncea l men t o f ah oard , o r a bandon men t o f o ne n or ma l ly k ep t i n as ecret p lace , w i l l o f ten h ave b een whol ly p ersona l , a nd we h ave n o i ndependen t e v idence s ugges t ing a ny l oca l o r g enera l t hrea t t o s ecur i ty a bou t t h is t ime . Mr C arson , h owever , h as i n c orrespondence k ind ly amp l i f ied h is p ub l ished r e marks , s ta t ing t ha t ' I n t he c ase o ft he f i rs t t wo Dar f ie ld f i nds t he c o m mon r eason f or t heir c oncea l men t may b e l i nked t o t he f act t ha t t hey c ons is t a l mos t e xc lus ive ly o fd enar i i wh ich w ere s tored a way when t he a n ton in ianus b eca me t he more c o mmon d eno m ina t ion ', a p rocess a cco mp l ished u nder G ord ian I I ( A .D.238-244) . T he t e mp ta t ion t o a ssu me t ha t t h is g ives u s as ecure t erm inus a n te q ue m f or t he manu fac ture o f o ur b lack-burn ished v esse l h as t o b e r es isted ; b ur ia l o f t he h oard may h ave b een d eferred f or a c ons iderab le t ime , a nd a v esse l t hereupon s e lec ted , f or t he p urpose , t ha t was i n c urren t u se i fn o t f resh ly p urchased . C onverse ly , i tm igh t we l l h ave b een t he money-box wh i ls t t he h oard was b e ing amassed . S ince ad a te o f c . A .D .240 i s c en tra l t o .bo th t hese p ossib i l i t ies , a nd h as t he mer i t o f a gree men t w i th t he r easonab le s uppos i t ion t ha t at reasure made u p , b u t n o t t o b e r ea l ized im med ia te ly , i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een s a lted away w ithou t much d e lay , i ti s h ere a ccep ted a s ah ypo thes is t o b e t ested a ga inst e x terna l e v idence . B efore 1 976 t he o n ly s ubstan t ia l c o l la t ion o f s uch e v idence f or b lackb urn ished wares was t o b e f ound i n J ohn G i l lam 's c lass ic p aper o n c oarse p ot tery i n n or thern B r i ta in ( G i l la m , 1 957/70 ) , h ereaf ter r eferred t o a s ' Types ' . D esp i te t wo r eissues wh ich i nc luded s o me r ev ised d a tes , a nd d is t ingu ished f or t he f i rs t t ime b e tween b lack-burn ished wares o f c a tegory 1 ( BB1) a nd c a tegory 2 ( BB2) a nd g rey wares o f s im i lar f or m a nd p urpose , many s tuden ts o f R o man p ot tery h ave f ound d i f f icu l ty i n s e lec t ing a n a ppropr ia te t ype n umber , t o ma tch a g iven s herd o r v esse l i n o ne o r o ther o f t hese f abr ics , f ro m s er ies t ha t were n o t o r ig ina l ly s e lec ted w i th s uch d is t inc t ions i n m ind . I ti s n o t s urpr ising , t herefore , t ha t t hey h ave o f ten q uo ted a na log ies t ha t d on o t i n f ac t b e long t o t he ware i n q uest ion when o ne o f t hese h as s ee med t o ofer t he c loser ma tch i n s hape. I n 1 976 , h owever , Mr G il la m t ook u p t he c ha l lenge o f r ev iew ing t he t ypo log ica l s equence a nd d a t ing o f Hadr ian ic a nd l a ter BB1 ( G i l la m , 1 976 ) . The v ir tues o ft h is f resh a pproach l i e i n i t s n a t iona l s cope , e nab l ing t he 4 19

i nclus ion o f c o mmon t ypes f or o ne r eason o r a no ther r are o r a bsen t i n n orth B r i ta in , a l low ing s o me c ons idera t ion o f t he l a tes t p hase o f t he i ndustry f o l low ing i t s l oss o fn or thern markets , a nd p er m it t ing i l lus tra t ion more c ons is ten t ly b y who le o r r e la t ive ly c o mp le te e xa mp les t han was p oss ib le w i th in t he c onstra ints o f s elec t ion f ro m n or thern d a ted g roups .

The n ew s er ies

s i mp l if ies i den t if icat ion a nd c o mpar ison b y g iv ing u s 8 8 t ypes o stensib ly o f BB1 , more e ven ly d istr ibuted o ver t he p er iod d ur ing w h ich i tw as aware o f n at iona l i mpor tance , w here s econd c en tury .

T ypes ' o n ly g ave u s 3 4 , p reponderan t ly o f t he

I n 1 957 t he c r i ter ia f or d a t ing were o u t lined i n t he ' Types ' p reface — p r i mari ly , t he a ppearance o f at ype i n p ub l ished n orthern d epos i ts d a ted b y ' ev idence o ther t han t ha t o f c oarse p ot tery , a nd ..securely r e la ted t o t he f i rm c hrono log ica l f ra mework p rov ided b y c on te mporary wr iters a nd i nscr ip t ions '. Th is was s upp le men ted b y c onsidera t ion o f u npub lished o r u nda ted i ns tances a nd o f i ns tances i n o ther r eg ions , b y t he o p in ions o f o ther s tuden ts , a nd l as t ly b y ' pure ly t ypo log ica l c ons idera t ions '. I n 1 976 a rrange men t w as ( p .61 ) 'o n t he s treng th o f s i te e v idence a nd t ypo log ica l c onsidera t ions t aken i n c o mb ina t ion '. I t was n a tura l t o s ub m i t t he Dar f ield v esse l t o t he t est o f b o th t hese s ources. F a i lure t o r econc i le t he r esu lts s o o bta ined l ed t owards a n e va luat ion o f t he ,e x ten t t o wh ich morpho log ica l c ons idera t ions may h ave b een o ver-stressed i n t he l a ter work . The d iagnost ic f ea tures o f t he Darf ie ld p o t a re ( i ) ac urving b u t d ist inc t ly e ver ted r im t ha t m igh t b e a s much a s 1 0 mm g rea ter i n d ia me ter t han Ih ave s ugges ted i n i l lustra t ion , b u t wh ich c anno t w i thou t d is tor t ion b e made t o e xc eed t he max i mu m g ir th o ft he b ody ;

( i ) ab ody h e igh t ( f ro m b ase t o j unct ion

w i th n eck ) s o me 1 8 mm g rea ter t han i t s max i mu m g ir th ;

( i i i ) as ha l low z one

o f t oo led o b tuse l a t t ice , r ather w eak ly d ef ined a s i t s u pper marg in b y at oo led h or izonta l . I n t he T ypes ' p aper i tt hus c orresponds most n ear ly w ith n o .146 , t he r a t ios o f b ody h eigh t t o g ir th b e ing s im i lar , a s f ar a s o ne c an j udge f ro m t he r econs truct ion o f i t s B ewcas t le t ype-speci men ; t he d a te s hou ld a ccord ing ly h ave f a llen b etween c .A .D.280 a nd 3 50.

T he 1 976 p aper g ives a c ho ice b etween

t wo t ypes , n o . 9( F ishbourne) a nd n o .10 ( S i lches ter ) . A l though t he f or mer i s more b o ld ly s hou ldered , i t s r a t io o f p ropor t ions a pprox ima tes t he more c losely w i th Darf ield 's , wh i le t he r im o f t he S i lchester v essel h as a more p ronounced s p lay t han we c an a low f or o urs . T he d a t ings t here in p roposed , 'm id t o l a te t hird-cen tury ' f or n o . 9a nd ' l a te t h ird-century ' f or n o .10 , migh t s ee m s a t isfactory f or o ur p urpose wh ichever p aral lel we c hose , s ince t hey c orrespond w ith t he c en tra l a nd l a ter r ange o f p oss ibi l i ty s uggested f or t he s elec t ion o f t he v essel a s a money b ox . B u t t he a rgu men t c anno t r est t here . Co mparison s hows t ha t n o . 9( F ishbourne ) i s a n e xa mp le o f Type 1 46 ;

t here

a re d i f ferences , c er ta in ly , b u t t hese a re n o t t ypo log ical ly d ist inct ive a nd t hey a re a l l ma tched i n o ther e xa mp les o f Type 1 46 l i s ted i n t he e ar l ier p aper . There h as t hus b een a s ubs tan t ia l r evision i n t he d a te o f T ype 1 46 f ro m a n i ncidence l arge ly i n t he f our th c en tury t o o ne whol ly i n t he t h ird , a nd , a s we s ha l l s ee , more n arrow ly t han t he p hraseo logy s uggests. The r evision may we l l b e c orrec t , a nd i t s d ras t ic n ature i s l ess d isq u ie t ing t han i t wou ld h ave b een h ad t he d a t ing i n ' Types ' b een s ecure . T here

4 20

n ever was much d irec t e v idence f or Type 1 46 , a s i s c lear f ro m t he s i te r eferences g iven , a nd mos t o f i t was f ro m B ewcas t le , where h or izons may y et b e r eda ted a s ar esu l t o f r ecen t e xcava t ion . B u t i f we l ook a tt he r es t o f o ur n ew s er ies w e s ha l l f i nd t ha tn o .9 ( F ishbourne ) i s p receded a nd f o l lowed b y o thers t ha t r evea l t he s a me k ind o f c hange , i nvo lv ing s hor t s equen t ia l l i fe-spans a nd a r educed d egree o f o ver lap b etween t he m .

N o .10 ( S i lchester )

a nd n o .11 ( Ch iches ter ) h ave b een s epara ted c hrono log ica l ly , a l though t hey p ossess p rac t ica l ly i den t ica l b ody p ropor t ions , wh i le t he d ispar i ty i n r im , which i n e ach c ase ma tches g ir th , i s n eg l ig ib le— i fi ndeed c ompar ison b etween t he ir o r ig ina l i l lus tra t ions , r a ther t han t he ir r eproduc t ion i n 1 976 , d oes n o t c ause i tt o v an ish a l toge t her .3 N os . 7a nd 8 ( b o th f ro m Y ork ) a re mos t c lose ly ma tched b y Type 1 45 ( Lanches ter , c .230-300 ) , b u t n e i ther i sd a ted l a ter t han t he m idd le o f t he t h ird c en tury . T he p rocess i s v is ib le e verywhere—a p rocess s urely i ndependen t o f a ny r ev is ion o f Hadr ian 's Wa l l d a t ings s ince 1 970 , a nd c er ta in ly w i thou t b enef i t o f a ny c o mparab le a ssess men t o f d a ted h or izons i n B r i ta in a s awho le . T he c leares t i ns tance o f a l l i sn o . 2( M i lecas t le 4 8) , b ecause t h is i s ar epe t i t ion o ft he t ype-spec i men o f T ype 1 25 ( 2 .120-180 ) i a t he e ar l ier p aper . O ccurr ing i n T ra jan ic/ear ly Hadr ian ic d epos i ts a t C hesterho lm , T hrop , a nd Ha ltwh is t le B urn , a s we l l a s i n s evera l Wa l l p er iod I A l evels o f c .120-140 , t h is i s o ne o f t he v ery f i rs t BB1 t ypes t o a ppear i n t he n or th ; h ere , h owever , i ti s r eda ted 'm id s econd-century '. ' T he k ey t o t he n ew s er ies a nd i t s c hrono logy b eco mes c lear when i ti s a pprec ia ted t ha t wha t s ee ms t o b e , f or c oarse p o t tery , as u i tab ly b road o r g enera l ized e xpress ion o f d a tes i n n a med p hases , r a ther t han i n b racke ts o f y ears a s i n ' Types ', i s i n f ac t ar ig id a nd s tandard ized s ys te m , a l though t h is i s c learer i fs e t o u t i nt abu la ted f or m . H ere , Tab le Id oes t h is f or t he c ook ingp o t s eries , n os . 1t o 1 4 , s pann ing a l most 2 50 y ears i n t he s che me . F ro m t h is we s ee t ha t af u l l c en tury i s d iv ided i n to s ix p hases , t he l as t o f wh ich «r uns

o n i n to t he n ex t c en tury . T hese ' phase-na mes ', a s t hey may b e c a l led , n ever v ary ; i tf o l lows t ha t i ti s p oss ib le t o t rans la te t he m i n to t er ms o f y ears , e ven t hough n o o ne , l eas t o f a l l t he a u thor o ft he s che me , wou ld r egard t he r esu l tan t b racke ts a s more t han a pprox i ma t ions. T ab le I s e ts t he m o u t a ccord ing ly , i n r ound f i gures , b eg inn ing w i th c .A .D .120 , s ince Mr G i l la m d isc la i ms a ny i n ten t ion o f d ea l ing w i th e ar l ier p hases o ft he BB1 i ndus try

p r ior t o i t s m i l i tar i ly i nsp ired , e xpans ion a t a bou t t ha t d a te . P rov id ing o ne r e me mbers t o wh ich p hase a nd 'cen tury n o . 1b e longs , i ti s t hus p ossib le t o c a lcu late h is p roposed d a te f or a ny n u mbered t ype i n t he s equence . S uch u n i for m r esu lts c anno th ave b een r eached o n s i te e v idence , t o w ha tever d eg ree t he l a t ter m igh t b e s upposed t o h ave g overned t he i n i t ia t ion o r c losure o f as er ies o r a c ted a s ac on tro l i n b etween . T he h omo logous n a ture o r p red ic tab le r hy th m o f t hese p hases , c en tury b y c en tury , c a l ls a t ten t ion t o t he f ac t t ha t e ach t ype h as b een a l lo t ted t he s a me l i fe-span o f a pprox i mate ly t h ir ty y ears , a nd t ha t e ach i s made t o o ver lap w i th i t s i m med ia te n e ighbours d ur ing t he f i rs t a nd s econd h a lves o f i t s l i fe r espect ive ly . T he s ys te m h as b een f o l lowed , w i thou t e xcep t ion a l though n o t a lways w ith u n in terrup ted p rogress , t hroughäu t a l l c lasses o fv esse l p resen ted i n 1 976 ; o n ly f or t he ' f ish-d ish ' ( no . 8 5) i s ad i f feren t p hase-na me emp loyed , 'l a te t h ird- t o l a te f our th-cen tury ' , and t h is s pec i f ica l ly r efers t o t he c lass 4 21

Tab le I G il la m i sd a t ing f ra mework , a nd i t s a pp l ica t ion t o c ook ing-po ts ( Types 1 -14 ) c en tury

'e ar ly

" e ar ly t o m id " mid

" mid t o l a te

2 nd

-

1

2

3

3 rd

6 1 2

7

8

9 -

4 th

1 3

1 4

T ab le I

The d at ing o f c ook ing-pots ;

N o . -

c . 1 00-130

1

c . 1 20-150

2

c . 1 35-165

N o .

" l ate 4 1 0 -

" l ate t o e ar ly ' 5 1 1 -

G i l la m ' sp hases a pprox i mated i n y ears

6

c . 2 00-230

No . 1 2

c . 3 00-330

7 8

c . 2 20-250 C . 2 35-265

1 3

c . 3 20-350

1 4

c . 3 35-365

3

c . 1 50-185

c . 2 50-285

c . 3 50-385

4

c . 1 70-200

1 0

c . 2 70-300

c . 3 70-400

5

c . 1 85-215

1 1

c . 2 85-315

c . 3 85-415

9

4 22

a nd n o t t o t he i nd iv idua l t ype i l lus tra ted . G il la m f igures n o t wo s tr ic t ly c ont e mporary c ook ing-po ts ; h e h as , h owever , s even h and led b eakers ( n os . 2 3-29 ) t o f i t i n to t he s hor t p er iod c . 1 20-185 , a nd t hey a re d iv ided i n to t hree g roups , f i t t ing— i f a ga in w e v isua l ize t he s er ies i n t abu la ted f or m— in to t hree c onsecu t ive f rames , t he m idd le f rame a cco m moda t ing t hree i ns tead o ft wo c on te mporary t ypes . T here a re r easons why t he p resen t wr i ter wou ld n o t a ccep t t he s elec t ion o f t ype-spec imens w h ich h as b een made f or t h is c lass , b u t l e t u s h ere t ake a t i t s f ace v a lue t he d ef in i t ion o ft endenc ies i n b ody s hape a nd h and le p os i t ion a f ford ing c lues t o e ar l ier o r l a ter d a te i n t he s er ies , I n t h is l i ght , n o .2 5 s ee ms t o c o mb ine c on trast ing i ns tead o f i n ter med ia te d a t ing f ea tures s uch a s a re d isp layed b y i t s t wo s upposed c on te mporar ies ( n os . 2 6-27 ) , a nd t he c o mp ro m ise o f i t s c ons ign men t t o t h is m idd le f ra me may b e t hough t t o o we more t o t i d iness t han e x terna l e v idence . T he h and led b eaker c lass i s u nhappy i n o ther r espec ts . G i l la m e nds i tc .185 w i th n os. 2 8 a nd 2 9 , b oth 'm id t o l a te s econd-century ', b u th is t ex t ( p .66 ) d iscusses i t s c on t inuance , e ven i nn or thern marke ts , i n to t he t h ird c en tury . U n less h is s che me h as b roken d own , w i th n os . 2 8 a nd 2 9 s t i l l i np roduc t ion i n t he t h ird c en tury , i ts hou ld h ave b een p oss ib le t o i l lus tra te t wo more e vo lu t ionary s tages t o b r ing t he s er ies a s l a te a s c .215 , a nd p erhaps at h ird t o b r ing i tt o c .230 .4 I ft he t h ir ty-year l i fec yc le d oes n o t h o ld g ood h ere , a nd i td oes n o t a ppear t o d o s o , i tw i l l b e h ard t o a ccep t i te lsewhere . ' Equa l ly impor tan t i s t he q ues t ion o fp r inc ip le r a ised b yt he a dm ission t ha t , b ecause f ew BB1 e x amp les e xh ib i t ac o mp le te p rof i le , t h is c lass h as b een i l lus tra ted w i th t ype-spec i mens ma in ly o f ag rey b urn ished f abr ic ' a l l ied t o b u t d is t inct f ro m BB1 '. Th is h as b een d one e lsewhere t oo , f or e xa mp le w i th t he d ish n o . 7 2 a nd , i t may b e s uspec ted , w i th o ne o r t wo o ft he c ook ingp ots. T he p rac t ice i sd efended ( p .61) b yt he a ssu mp t ion t ha t ' a l l ied ' t ypes p resu mab ly ' obey t he s ame morpho log ica l r u les '. T he p resen t wr i ter i s n o t s ure t ha tt h is n eed b e t rue i n d eta i l , s t il l l ess t ha t c hange n eed b e c o inc iden t e verywhere w i th in t he n arrow c on f ines o f G i l lam ' sc hrono logy . I ti s d ue i n n o sma l l measure t o h is work t ha t we n ow s eek , i n t h is v ery p la in c ook ingware , t o d is t ingu ish d iferen t f abr ics a nd t heir s ources , i n t he e xpec ta t ion t ha t l igh tw il l e ven tua l ly b e s hed u pon t he marke t e cono my o f Ro man B r i ta in , a nd u pon t he r ap id i ty o ft ypo log ica l d if fus ion a nd t he a genc ies b y wh ich i t was e f fec ted ; t hese a re q ues t ions t ha t o ugh t n o t t o b e b egged . I n d ea l ing w ith s o c o m mon a nd w idespread a w are a s BB1 , w e s hou ld r e jec t a ny s equence t ha t i nc ludes t ypes f or w h ich n o a dequa te e xa mp le c an b e f ound i n t he w are , a nd n ot l eas t i n c ircums tances where a s ubst itu te i s made t o o ccupy a n e xc lus ive p lace i n as equence. A s o ther c lasses a re e xa m ined s igns o f s tra in a re e v iden t i n f i t t ing t he a va i lab le ma ter ia l i n to t he s che me . On ly t hree t ypes o f m in iature c ook ingp ot ( n os . 1 6-18) a re ofered w i th in a l ong n o t iona l p er iod f ro m c .120 t o c .300 . S ince G il la m n ever the less emp loys t he s ame h omo logous f ra mework b u tw i th t wo u n f i l led f ra mes b e tween n os .1 6 a nd 1 7 a nd f i ve b etween n os .17 a nd 1 8 ,a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he c lass d id n o t o u t las t t he t h ird c en tury , we s hou ld b e e n t i t led t o p ostu la te s even more t ypes y e t t o b e d ist ingu ished .5 T he s uggest ion i s p erhaps n ot s o f r ivo lous a s i t may s ound . As G il lam s ays , c ook ing-po ts mos t ly f a l l b etween 1 50 a nd 2 30 mm i n h e igh t , m in ia tures b e tween 8 0 a nd 1 20 mm , a nd ap age o fD orches ter c e me tery v esse ls ( R.C.H .M ., 1 970 ,579) g ives n o 4 23

l ess t han f our who le e xamp les b etween 9 0 a nd 1 18 mm , a nd t hree more i nt he n o man 's l and b etween 1 20 a nd 1 50 mm—one o f t hese amorpho log ica l ly l a te o r v ery l a te t ype c onven ien t ly r eproduced a ga in b y S wan ( 1 975 , n o . 2 8) . T here i s s o me j us t i f ica t ion f or a s ugges t ion t ha t , s ince D orse t was t he f ons e t o r igo o ft he ware a nd , i f we a re t o b e l ieve t he r esu l ts o f r e la t ive ly f ew m inera l a nalyses , o f a ma jor p ar t o f B r i ta in 's s upp ly f or 2 50 y ears , r oo m migh t w i th a dvan tage b e f ound h ere f or more t han o ne v esse l ( n o . 7 4 ) f ro m t h is r eg ion o f p roduc t ion a nd t wo ( n os . 1 3 a nd 6 0 ) f ro m i t s p er iphery . T here a re o ther c lasses , f or e xa mp le d ishes w i th g rooved r im o r w i th b ead r im ( n os . 6 8-74 ) , where we e ncoun ter g aps i nc hrono log ica l s equence t ha t a re a pparen t ly r ando m a nd h ard t o e xp la in , b ecause i n t hese c lasses t ypo log ica l d i f feren t ia t ion i s g enera l ly e xcep t iona l ly s l igh t a nd t herefore u n l ike ly t o h ave a rgued i n o ne d irec t ion r a ther t h in t he o ther when d ec id ing wh ich s paces s hou ld b e f i l led a nd wh ich l ef t b lank . I nt he c ase o f ' ear ly t h ird-cent ury ' t ypes 7 2 a nd 7 3 , wh ich f o l low a s ing le g ap b u t a re p a ired a s c on te mporary , t here i s as imp le e xp lana t ion ( p . 7 8) ; G i l lam h as f ound t ha t b o th h ave s agg ing b ases i ns tead o f t he s econd-cen tury c hamfers b yw h ich t hey were o r ig inal ly d a ted . T he much l onger i n terva l b etween t hese t wo a nd t ype 7 4 , h owever , i s n o t s o e asy t o a ccoun t f or i n t er ms o f t he s ys te m , a l though t he ' l a te t h irdc en tury ' d a te f or t he l a t ter , b ased u pon t he more u pr igh t wa l ls t ha t h e b e l ieves e ven tua l ly t o d eve lop i nt he c lass , d oub t less o wes s o meth ing t o t he e v idence g iven 'on f i rs t p ub l ica t ion o f t he t ype-spec i men ( Farrar , 1 973 , 9 0 ) . T hen a ga in , t abu la t ion o f t he p la in-r immed d ishes ( n os . 7 5-84 ) g ives t en t ypes f i t t ing i n to n ine c hrono log ica l f rames , b u t r evea ls s even f rames l ef t b lank . P la in ly , t he p rob le m h as b een t o f i nd s u f f ic ien t d ist inct ive t ypes i n ag iven c lass t o f i l l a l l t he f ra mes b etween i t s f i rst a ppearance a nd i t s d isappearance ; t he l og ic i s t ha t w e must s ure ly a l low l onger l i fe-cyc les f or i nd iv idua l t ypes t han G i l la m h as s upposed , s o me p erhaps much l onger .

6

I ts ee ms t ha t i n o ne i ns tance h e h as d one j us t t ha t , w i th t he e ar l ies t t ypes , n os . 4 2-44 , o f t he f langed b ow l s er ies , t hose i n wh ich t he f l ange i s o n ly j us t d eve lop ing o u t o f t he ' f la t-r im '.

H ere d i f feren t ia t ion b e tween t ypes

i s d ependen t o n r im f or m a lone a nd i s a lready a s f i ne a s i ti s e ver l i ke ly t o b e . T hese t hree t ypes h ave t herefore t o c over , u na ided , t he p er iod c . A .D . 1 85-285 , wh ich t hey c ou ld n o t d o u n less e i ther t he ir d a tes were mu tual ly e xc lus ive ( wh ich i s u n th inkab le ) , o r t hey h ad l onger i nd iv idua l l i ves . I nt h is p ar t icu lar s er ies , t hen , t he t erm 'l a te s econd— to e ar ly t h ird-cen tury ', f or n o . 4 2 , means c . 1 80-230 r a ther t han c .185-215 , w i th n o . 4 3 c .210-260 a nd n o . 4 4 c .235-285 —w i th p erhaps s o me a d jus t men t t o t he s econd f ig ure i n e ach c ase i ft h is p ar t o f t he f l anged b ow l s er ies i s s t il l d ee med t o l as t u n t i l c .300 , a s i t was i n ' Types '.

Wi th f if ty-year i ns tead o ft h ir ty-year l i fe-spans , t h is s hor t

s er ies h as b een s tre tched t o t he u t mos t s o t ha t t here c an b e a smoo th a nd u nbroken e vo lu t ion b etween t he l a tes t f l a t-r i mmed b ow l ( n o . 4 1 , c .170-200 ) a nd t he e ar l ies t t ype w i th f u l ly d eve loped f l ange ( n o . 4 5, c .270-300 ) , a nd i ti s q ues t ionab le whe ther , c o mmon t hough i ti s , i ti sc o m mon e nough t o h ave c arr ied t he e n t ire l oad f or s o l ong .

T o p u t i ta no ther way , h ow much l onger

may t he f l a t-r i mmed c lass h ave c on t inued i n p roduc t ion t han G il la m a l lows? I ti s e as ier t o s ay when a n a r tefac t was f i rs t i n troduced t han when i tc eased t o b e made . T here i s r oo m f or d iscuss ion , t oo , a s t o wha t e x ten t t he d is t inc t ion made b etween n os . 4 2 t o 4 4 i s s ign i f ican t i n d a t ing , a nd whether n o .43 c an b e 4 24

d ist ingu ished i np rac t ice f ro m n o . 4 4 , o r e ven o ugh t t o b e , b ecause a s ing le s pec imen o f s uch ah and- made b ow l may s how b o th c harac ter is t ics i n d iferen t p arts o f i t s r im . F or t he r e ma inder o ft he f l anged b ow l s equence , t he f u l ly d eve loped t ypes 4 5 t o 4 9 , w e r ever t t o t he n o t iona l t h ir ty-year c yc le . H ere , where t ypo log ica l a nd c hrono log ica l d is t inc t ion i s made u pon t he d egree t o wh ich t he f l ange h as c o me t o b e s i ted e ver l ower d own t he wa l l , t he d iferences a re p erp lex ing ly e vanescen t , a nd s carcely c ons is ten t i nn o . 4 9 , a l though t h is m igh tn o t p rove t o b e o f BB1 f abr ic . N ever theless e ach t ype h as b een a l lot ted as uccess ive n iche i n t he s er ies . G il lam e nds t he s er ies , o r r a ther h is i l lustra t ion o f i t , w i th t wo ' ear ly t o m id f our th-cen tury ' t ypes ( .320-350 ) , a l though t he c lass i s a dm i t ted ( p . 7 0 ) t o c on t inue u n t i l t he e nd o ft he R o man p er iod .

I ti s n o t c lear why t he l a ter p rogress o f t he BB1 i ndus try o r i ndus-

t r ies , i nt h is a nd o ther c lasses , h as b een d ea l tw i th o n t he who le p erfunctor i ly , f or , a s G i l lam ' smap 4 i l lus tra tes , t he ware r e ta ined a n a pprec iab le h o ld i n t he s ou th a f ter t he m idd le o f t he c en tury . Wha t we m iss , e ven w ere we t o a gree t ha t t ypes l i ke n o . 4 8 d id n ot c on t inue much l a ter t han i s h ere s ugges ted , a re t he t ypes , f requen t ly p la in a nd o f ten t h ick-wa l led a nd c lumsy , w i th s hor t s tubby f l anges o f ten s et h igh u p . T hese a ppear t o b e l a te , o r a t l eas t t o c on t inue l a te , a s a t S hakenoak ( Brodr ibb e t a l 1 968 , n os . 4 7-52 ; 1 973 , n os . 6 75-6 ; 1 978, n os . 1 200-1210 ) . T hese h igh f l anges f l ou t t he c r i ter ion o n which G i l la m h as b ased h is d a ted s equence .

T he S hakenoak s er ial n u mbers q uo ted

a bove i nc lude e xamp les o f t he f l anged d ish , wh ich i s q u i te c o mmon i n s ou thern B r i ta in , a s h e a grees ( p . 7 3) , a nd i n f or ms n o t r es tr ic ted t o t he t h ick-wa l led l a te t ypes , a l though i ti s o ne o f t hese , n o . 6 7 , f ro m C arrawburgh , t ha t h e h as c hosen t o i l lus tra te , p resu mab ly b ecause i ti s a s y et t he o n ly r ecogn ized e xa mp le o f t he d ish i n n or thern B r i ta in . We a lso miss t h ick-wa l led e xa mp les o f t he u ndecora ted p la in-r i mmed d ish , a l though t h is a ppeared i n t he e ar l ier p aper a s T ype 3 30 ( c .330-370 ) . G il la m f igures i ns tead a n e xamp le o f l i gh ter we igh t ( n o . 8 4 , Caer leon ) , a nd i ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t he d a tes a l lo t ted t o t h is t ype ( la te f our th-cen tury ', e . 3 70-400 )a nd t o t he a foresa id f l anged d ish , n o 6 7 ( 'm id t o l a te f our th-cen tury ', c . 3 50-385) , b ecause n othing d a ted s o l a te a s e i ther o ft hese i s t o b e f ound i n a ny o ther s er ies h ere .

T here i s as pec ia l r eason f or t h is t rea t men t ;

b o th

t ypes a re r are i n t he n or th b u t q u i te c om mon e lsewhere , a nd G i l la m i n fers t ha t t hey h ad o n ly r ecen t ly c o me i n to p roduct ion when t he BB1 i ndus try l ost i t s h o ld o n n orthern marke ts i n a bou t A .D. 3 70 . We c an s ee t ha t t he c los ing d a tes h e g ives t he m r ecogn izes t ha t e ach s hou ld n ever the less b e a l lowed a 3 0 y ear l i fe-span , a l though o ne o f wh ich t he l a ter s tages were e n joyed e lsewhere . N o o ne i s l i ke ly t o d ispu te t ha t i n t he f our th c entury t he ma jor c lasses i nt h is ware were c ook ing-po ts , f l anged b ow ls ,a nd p la in-r immed d ishes . O f t hese t he d ishes , a s w e h ave j us t n o t iced , h ave b een a l lowed t o c on t inue a s l a te a s c .400 , wh i le t he f l anged b ow ls l ast e qua l ly l ong a l though d en ied t o u s a f ter c .350 i n t he i l lustrated s er ies . I tt herefore c omes a s as hock t o f i nd t ha t amongs t t he c ook ing-po ts t here i s n oth ing l a ter t han 'm id f our th-cen tury ' ( Type 1 4 , c .235-365) , a nd t ha tt h is om iss ion i s d e l ibera te .

G i l lam 's r eason

f or d enyi ng t he c ook ing-po t ' i n i t s t rad i t iona l f orm ' ap lace a f ter t he m idd le

4 25

o f t he c en tury —even , h e t h inks , i n i t s D uro tr ig ian h o meland ( p .63 ) —was s i mp ly t h is :-

t here was n o d iscern ib le morpho log ica l e vo lut ion b eyond T ype

1 4 ( High Wyco mbe ) , a nd i t was s carcely c once ivab le t ha t s uch d eve lopment s hou ld h ave c o me t o as udden e nd wh i le p roduct ion s t i l l c on t inued u n t i l t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod . I t was n o t im med ia te ly a pparen t why t he morpho log ica l d eve lop ment o f a r tefacts s hou ld h ave b een r egarded a s i n s o me way a k in t o a s teady a nd i nexorab le p rocess o f b io log ica l e vo lu t ion , b u t when t he c ook ingp ots h ave b een s et o u t a s i n Tab le I i tb eco mes c lear t ha t i ti s t he l og ic o f t he s che me r a ther t han t he e v idence o f a rchaeo logy t ha t d e mands t he ir t erm ina t ion a f ter t he d a te a l lo t ted t o Type 1 4. C on t inuance u n t i l c .400 wou ld h ave r equ ired a t l eas t t wo a nd p erhaps t hree d is t inc t a nd more d evo lved t ypes i n t he r eper tory .

I f we a pp ly t his r eason ing t o a n i ndustry t ha t m igh t h ave

s urv ived f or , s ay , f i f ty o r ah undred y ears l onger , h ad t he d isrup t ion o f R o mano-Br i t ish e cono my b y T eu ton ic a nd o ther p ressures b een d eferred , i t s f alacy i s e xposed i n t he c on te mp la t ion o f t he f unc t ion less r esu l ts o f s ix , o r n ine , f ur ther s tages o f d evo lu t ion b eyond Type 1 4 . We c anno t n ow c ons ider h ow f ar w hat we a lready k now o f t he d eve lopmen t o f t he c ook ing-pot i n t he f i rst c entury A .D. ma tches u p t o G i l la m 's c anons o f e vo lu t ionary c hange . One t h ing must b e s a id , h owever ; e nqu iry wou ld h ave t o b eg in b y q ues t ioning t he s tar t ing d a te o f c .120 g iven b y h im t o t he f i rst t ype i n e ach s econd-cen tury s er ies w i th t he s o le a nd s peci f ic e xcep t ion o f t he f la tr i m med d ish ( no . 5 3 , ' ear ly s econd-century ', i .e . c .100-130) .

7

T he a r t i f ic ia l

d is t inct ion o f ten made b e tween t he ware b efore a nd af ter t he s udden e xpansion o f t he market f or BB1 , c . 1 20 , d ies h ard .

The i mp l ica t ion , d oub t less u n in-

t en t iona l b u t n one t he l ess r ea l , t ha t e very t ype t ha t a ppears i n m i li tary d eposi ts c oaeva l w i th t h is e xpans ion was a f resh ly d esigned o r f resh ly e vo lved t ype , i s n ot , i n t he wr i ter 's v iew , ar easonab le o ne . I ft h is v iew i s a ccep ted , i tf ol lows t ha t a ny o ne o f G il la m 's i n terna l ly c oherent s equences may h ave g ot o f f t o af a lse s tar t . I t may b e a rgued t ha t t h is i s a n u nco mpro m is ing v iew , a nd t ha t we s hou ld a lways b e p repared t o g ive o r t ake a f ew y ears ; n ever thel ess t here r e ma ins a t p resen t ap ress ing i nv i ta t ion t o d eny a p re-Hadr ian ic d a te t o a ny d epos i t i n wh ich t hese t ypes o ccur , a nd i n t ha t d irec t ion t here l i es l i t t le h ope o f p rogress. Th is p aper , t hen , i s ap lea f or t he r eten t ion o f a n o pen- minded a pproach t o t he d a t ing o f BB1 a nd a lied wares . There w ou ld h ave b een l ess s cope f or c r i t icis m h ad t ypes w i th in e ach c lass b een g rouped , r a ther t han d a ted i ndiv idual ly , a nd g iven b roader d a t ings a ppropr ia te t o t he g roups , l eav ing f or d ef ini t ion i n t he t ex t t hose c haracter ist ics t hat a re b e l ieved t o r ef lect e ar l ier o r l a ter t endencies . S uch a n a pproach wou ld , i ti s s ugges ted , n o t o n ly b e s a fer i n t he p resen t s ta te o f k now ledge , b u t a lso t echno log ica l ly more r ea l ist ic , i n a l low ing f or c onserva t is m , o r i ndeed f or e n terpr ise , i n i nd ividua l e stabl i sh men ts , o r i n i nd iv idual p ot ters i ft hey worked a lone . T he wr iter wou ld t herefore i ns ist o n r e ta in ing t he w ider r ange o fp oss ib i l ity i n d a t ing t he l a te C orfe Mu l len g roup t han G i l la m wou ld a l low ( p .61 ) , a nd w ou ld a rgue t ha t t he H igh Wyco mbe g roup s hou ld b e d ated o n s i te e v idence , a s f ar a s c ircu ms tances p er m it , r ather t hen morpho log ica l ly ; E a ,r f ie ld t oo—wh ich b r ings u s b ack t o t he q uest ion t hat s et t h is e nqu iry i n mot ion . H ere o f c ourse we h ave n o s i te e v idence t o h e lp u s b ut i t s e qu iva len t i s t he h oard c on ta ined i n t he v esse l , w h ich , a s w e h ave s een , g ives C . A .D . 4 26

2 40 a s al i ke ly c en tra l p o in t i n t he r ange o f p oss ib i l ity f or i t s manufacture . O b tuse-ang led l a t t ice a lready d ef ined a t i t s u pper marg in b y at oo led l i ne may t herefore b eg in i n t he e ar ly y ears o f t he t h ird c en tury .

B u t t he v esse l ' s

s hape , a ss ign ing i tt o T ype 1 46 , e qu iva len t t o n o .9 i n t he p resen t s er ies , wou ld t hen c on trad ict e ven t he f resh ly p roposed b ack-dat ing o f t he t ype t o c . 2 50-285 . _ 1

Moreover G i l la m , wh i le a rgu ing n ow a n e ar ly d ate i n t he c en tury

f or o b tuse-ang led l a t t ice ( nos . 7 , C . 2 20-250 , a nd 8 , c . 2 35-265 ) c ons iders t hat 'f ro m t he l a ter p ar t o f t he t h ird c en tury o nwards , t he s cored l i ne i s n ear ly a lways p resen t , w h i le b efore t hat d ate i ti s e x tre me ly r are ' ( p .63 ). T ypo log ica l c ons iderat ions , b ased u l t i mate ly o n d ated c on tex ts , t herefore

a rgue f or a d a te d ist inct ly l a ter t han 2 40 , w ith t he imp l icat ion t hat t he h oard r e ma ined a bove g round , o r was g iven a f resh c on ta iner , a pprec iab ly l a ter t han t he d ate h oard ing c eased . T h is i s n o t a t a l l as a t isfac tory s ta te i n wh ich t o l eave t he q uest ion , b ecause i ti s a rchaeo log ica l ly more importan t t o d eter m ine a s p rec ise ly a s p oss ib le when t he c hange i n d ecora t ive s ty le ( o f ten r ecogn izab le i n b ody-sherds a lone ) was t ak ing p lace , t han i ti s t o a gree a d a te f or a ny p art icu lar f or m , d epending , a s t he l a t ter d oes , s o o f ten u pon n uances i n wh ich t he wr i ter h as l i t t le f a ith , a nd w h ich a re o f ten h igh ly s ub ject ive i n d eter m inat ion w here s herds a re i nvo lved . A lthough s tra t igraph ica l d a t ing i n a bsolu te t er ms i s n o tor ious ly d i f f icu l t t hroughou t much o ft he t h ird c entury f olow ing t he s et t le men t o f t he n orthern f ron t ier b y S everus a nd Caracala , t he a t te mp t s hou ld b e made .

4 27

NOTES 1 .

Iam i ndeb ted t o Mr J .E . B ar t let t , D irec tor , a nd M iss P . B esw ick , K eeper o f An t iqu i t ies a t t he S hef f ie ld C i ty Museum , f or i n for ma t ion a nd f or p er m ission t o p ub l ish t he v esse l , a nd t o Mr R . A . G . C arson , K eeper o f C o ins a nd Meda ls a t t he B r i t ish Museu m , f or f ur ther c o m men ts o n t he h oard .

2 .

3 . 4 .

I n 1 965 O rdance S urvey e s tab l ished t he p osi t ion o f t he t hree h oards , i n t wo c ases t o w i th in o ne me tre , a s f ol lows :Hoard n o .

I , manhole a t r ear o f 6 7 N or th S treet ; S E 4 1348:04815

Hoard n o . Hoard n o .

2 , i n f ron t o f 8C larney P lace ; S E 4 1006 :04709 3 , i n f ron t o f 3 3 C larney A venue ; S E 4 0950464.

F or s ources o fv esse ls l i sted b y G i l la m s ee h is t wo c i ted works. Mr G il la m q uo tes D r Webs ter 's Hord ley G range v essel r eferred t o a t t he b eg inn ing o ft h is p aper b u t d oes n o t s uggest where i tf i ts i n .

I t s

c oin h oard , c losed c .280 , a ccords w i th t he r ela t ive ly l a te d a te imp l ied b y i t s l a t t ice z one d ef ined a bove b y at oo led l i ne. C lear ly t h is i s n o t ac ase where t he h igh ly-p laced h and le i s ' ear ly ', a nd t here a re o thers , e .g . a t B oker ly Dyke ( Hah tz , 1 963 , 9 3 , F ig . 1 0 , n o . 4 8) a nd Wyke R eg is ( Farrar , 1 950 , 7 1) . 5.

Ab et ter c ase m igh t b e made o u t f or t he t rea t men t o f ' m in ia ture ' c ook ingp ots a s ad is t inc t c lass i ft here were more o f t he m , f or o n ly n o . 1 6 , o f t he t hree we a re ofered , i s n ot o bv ious ly ma tched i n t he r egu lar s er ies. The s a me i s t rue o fv ery l arge c ook ing-po ts o r s toragejars , wh ich a re n ot n o t i nc luded i n t h is s urvey . Mr G il la m makes t he p o in t ( p .61) t ha t s i ze may i n f luence d eta i ls o f s hape , b u t s o me o f t he imp l ica t ions a re n o t r ef lec ted i n h is i lustra ted s er ies. Thus , a pprec iab ly l arger v essels w ith a t tenua ted p ropor t ions ma tch ing t hose o f n o . 1 4 ( High Wyco mbe ) , a nd w i th r i ms e qua l ly o versa i ling , wou ld b e h ard t o f ind , y et we a re n ot e n t i t led t o s uppose t ha t o n ly sma l l c ook ing-pots were made a f ter t he ' ear ly f our th c en tury '. T he l arger c on te mporar ies o f t ypes l i ke n os . 1 3 a nd 1 4 mus t t herefore b e s ough t amongst f or ms l i ke Type 1 48, i l lus tra ted i n 1 976 b y t he c o mp lete L ondon v essel n o . 1 2, h ere d en ied ad a te l a ter t han c . 3 30.

6 .

There a re o ne o r t wo p rob le ms h ere . T he l a te t h ird-cen tury d ate I o f fered f or n o . 7 4 ( Redc l if f ) was i n tended t o a pp ly t o t he p ecu l iar d ecora t ion r a ther t han t o t he l i fe-span o f t he d ish t ype , a nd t h is d epended e xp l ic i t ly o n t he o ccurrence o fn o f ewer t han s ix o r s even b urn t e xa mp les , w ith t h is ' Redc l i f f mo t if ', i n t he Ho lborough B arrow c re ma t ion a t S nod land , a ssoc ia ted w i th a n amphora r eda ted l a te t h ird-cen tury b y D r P eacock ( Farrar , 1 973 , 9 0 ). Mr G i l la m 's n o . 7 8 ( ear ly t hird-cen tury ') i s o ne o f t he S nod land d ishes i n q ues t ion , a nd t he d a tes a re t herefore i ncons isten t .

The i ssue i s p robab ly n o t a f fec ted b y Dr Wi l lia ms '

4 28

s ubsequen t e vidence f or t he e x is tence o f t he mo t i f a lready i n Hadr ian ic o r e ar l ier c ontex ts ( W i l l ia ms , 1 977 , 1 92) . We h ave a lready n o t iced t he a wkward ly l ong g ap i n Mr G il la m 's b ead-r im med s er ies b etween n os . 7 3 a nd 7 4 , a nd Ia gree w i th h im t hat t he c lass i n g enera l h ard ly s ee ms t o o u t last t he s econd c en tury . H e may t herefore we lco me t he o bserva t ion t ha t i n my o p in ion n o . 7 4 , wh ich h e h as r edrawn w i th a more d is t inct a nd more c onsisten t b ead ing t han i tp ossesses , i s more n ear ly r e la ted t o t he p la in-r im med c lass , a nd s hou ld a ccording ly b e t ransferred .

Is uspect , t oo , t ha t n os . 7 6 a nd 8 2,

wh ich h e d oes p lace amongs t t he p la in r i ms , a re f ur ther e xa mp les w i th t he v es t iga l b ead , wh ich i s af ea ture t ha t may a ppear i n o ne p ar t o f a v essel 's r im b u t n o t i n a no ther .

T he c ircu ms tances c al l a t ten t ion t o

t he d i f f icu l ty o f s ound t ypo log ica l d ist inct ion i n m inu t iae where h and made v essels a re c oncerned . 7 .

I ti s n o t y et a pparen t whe ther n o . 5 3 ( Gel lygaer ) i s t yp ica l o f i t s p er iod b u t Mr G i l la m 's u n ique i nc lus ion o f t h is ' ear ly s econd-cen tury ' t ype may o we s o me th ing t o h is s pecia l i n terest i n t he e ar ly d evelopment o f t he f la t-r im , wh ich h e c ons iders e vo lved u nder t he i n f luence o f e ar ly f or ms o f r eeded-r im i n wheel-thrown f abr ics ( pp . 6 7-8) . s ti l l s ee ms l ess t han c lear-cu t .

The i ssue

The Exeter r im ( B idwe l l , f orthco m ing ,

T ype 5 1 .1 ) , wh ich Mr G i l la m s ees a s a' passage-for m ' f ro m o ne t o t he o ther , b e longs t o ac lass o f c ar ina ted b ow l w i th ah igh ly o r ig ina l v ar ie ty o f r im f or ms , s o me o f wh ich h ave a f l ange a t tached a s l ow d own t he s ide a s i n a ny o f o ur f am i l iar l a te f l anged b ow ls , a nd f requen t ly t hese f l anges a re d ecora ted w i th a t oo led w avy l i ne o r l i nes ( Farrar , 1 966 , 1 16-7 ). T rue f l a t-r i ms , p resu mab ly p recursors o f t he s econd-cen tury b ow ls b u t n one a s y e t w i th a c o mp le te p rof i le , o r w i th a l a t t ice p a t tern , o ccur i n t he s ame Exeter h or izon o f c .A .D. 8 0-90 .

N e i ther c lass

a ppears t o b e long t o BB1 f abr ic 3 1 ( Purbeck ) , b u t t o av ar ian t b lack s l ip-coa ted BB1 , f abr ic 4 0 a s d ef ined b y Mr B idwel l ( 1 979 , 1 93 ) , a nd which , a s h e h as s uggested t o me , may h ave a wester ly c en tre o f d ist r ibu t ion , p oss ib ly i n S o merset . B IBL IOGRAPHY B idwe l l 1 979. 1 979.

B idwe l l , P . T .,

B idwe l l f or thco m ing .

Exeter Archaeo log ica l Repor ts , I , Torquay

B idwe l l , P . T ., E xeter Archaeo log ica l R epor ts , I V ,

f or thcom ing . B rodr ibb e t a l ., 1 968 , 1 973 , 1 978 .

B rodr ibb , A . C ., H ands , A . R ., a nd

Wa lker , D . R ., E xcavat ions a t S hakenoak , I , p r ivate ly p r in ted , 1 968 ; I V , p r ivate ly p r in ted , 1 973 ; V , B r it ish Archaeo l . R ep ., 1 978 . C arson 1 948.

C arson , R . A . G ., ' A s econd h oard o f Ro man d enar i i f ro m

Dar f ie ld i, Nu m is . C hron ., 6 th s er ies , 8( 1 948) , 7 8-81. C order 1 948. Corder , P ., i n Carson , R . A . G ., ' A s econd h oard o f Ro man d enar i i f ro m Dar f ield ', Num is . C hron ., 6 th s er ies , 8( 1 948) , 7 8-81.

4 29

C order 1 950 .

C order , P ., i n B agga ley , J . W., ' A t h ird h oard o f Ro man

c o ins f ro m Darf ie ld ', Nu m is. Chron ., 6 th s er ies , 1 0 ( 1 950 ) , 3 15-317 . F arrar 1 950.

F arrar , R . A . H ., ' Archaeo log ica l N o tes , 1 949 ', P roc . Dorset

Na tur . H ist . Archaeo l . S oc., 7 1 ( 1 950) , 6 0-72. F arrar 1 966 .

F arrar , R . A . H ., ' Ro man i nhu ma t ion b ur ia ls a t Bur ton

B rad s tock a nd C h ickere l l , Dorset ', Proc. Dorse t Na tur . H is t Archaeo l . S oc ., 8 7 ( 1 966 ) , 1 14-118. F arrar 1 973. F arrar , R . A . H ., ' The t echn iques a nd s ources o f Ro manoB r i t ish b lack-burn ished ware ', i n Dets icas , A . ( e d .) , Curren t Research i n R o mano-Br i t ish C oarse P o t tery ', L ondon , 1 973 , 6 7-103. G il la m 1 957/70.

G i l la m , J . P ., ' Types o f Ro man c oarse p ot tery v esse ls i n

n or thern B r i ta in ', Archaeo l Ael iana , 4 th s er ies , 3 5 ( 1 957 ) , 1 80-251 ; r epr in ted w i th r ev isions , Newcast le-upon-Tyne , 1 968 a nd 1 970. G il la m 1 976 . G i l la m , J . P ., ' Coarse f u med ware i n N or th B r i ta in a nd b eyond ', G lasgow Archaeo l . J ., 4 ( 1 976 ) , 5 7-80 . G reene 1 951.

G reene , D . ( ed .) , 'R o man Yorksh ire ', Y orksh ire Archaeo l . J .,

3 7 ( 1 951) , 1 07-120. Rah tz 1 963.

Rah tz , P . A ., ' An e xcava t ion i n B oker ley Dyke , 1 958 ', Archaeo l .

1 18 ( 1 963) , 6 5-99. R .C .H. M . 1 970 . Roya l C o mm ission o n H is tor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ) , D orset , I , p ar t 3 , H er Ma jesty ' sS tat ionery O f f ice , 1 970 . Swan 1 975.

Swan , V . G ., P ot tery i n Ro man Br i ta in l Pr inces R isborough ,

1 975. Wa lker 1 946 .

Wa lker , J ., ' The Dar f ield h oard o f Ro man d enar i i i, Nu m is.

th s er ies , 6 ( 1946 ) , 1 47-150. C hron ., 6 Webster 1 961.

Webster, G . A ., ' A n o te o n t he R o man c o in h oard f ound a t

Hord ley G range ', Trans. S hropsh ire Archaeo l . S oc , 5 6 ( 1 961) , 1 38-139. Wil lia ms 1 977. i ndustry :

Wil l ia ms , D . F ., ' The Ro mano-Br i t ish b lack-burn ished a n e ssay i n c harac ter iza t ion b y h eavy minera l a na lys is ', i n

. P . S . ( ed .) , P ot tery a nd Ear ly C o m merce , L ondon , 1 977 , P eacock , D 1 63-220 .

4 30

2 5.

POTTERY AND T ILE K ILNS I N RO MAN BRITA IN :

THEIR PREDECESSORS AND THE IR S UCCESSORS K enne th J a mes B ar ton

" No i ndustry h as l ef t s uch a bundan t a nd i nstruc t ive t races o f i t se lf a s p o t tery"

( Co ll ingwood a nd Myres , 1 949 , 2 35)

G r i mes p ioneered t he s tudy o f t he c lass i f ica t ion o f l d lns i n R o man B r itain ( Gr i mes , 1 930 ) .

S te mm ing f ro m h is work a t Ho lt h e l a id t he f ounda t ions o f

s ubsequen t s tud ies o n t he s ub ject o f t he me thods o f p roducing c eram ics i n R o man B r ita in . I n h is p aper h e d ea ls p rinc ipal ly w ith t he p ot tery mak ing k i lns a nd t he ir i n terna l s truc tures. The s truc ture o f k i lns a lso a t tracted t he a t tent ion o f C order , f o l low ing h is e xcava t ions a t L inco ln ( Corder , 1 950 ) ;

h ere h e

c lassif ied p ot tery k ilns b u t p a id n o a t ten t ion t o t i le k i lns ( Corder , 1 957 ) .

T he

s tudy o f g roups o fk i lns i s n ow much more s oph ist ica ted a nd i n tens ive t han h ither to , f o l low ing al ead s e t p erhaps f i rst b y Hul l ( Hu l l , 1 963 ) a nd s ubsequen t ly b y o thers , n o tab ly F u lford ( Fu l ford , 1 975) .

Much o f t he c urren t t h ink ing o n

Ro man c era m ics s te ms f ro m t he works o f G r i mes , Hul l , C order a nd Webster , t he l at ter o f who m p roduced t he f i rst c o mprehensive g uide t o Romano-Br i t ish c oarse wares ( Webs ter , e d ., 1 966 ) . However , i n most c ases s can t a t ten t ion i s p a id t o t he t i le k i ln a nd i t s r ela ted p ot tery p roducing v ar ian ts .

Mus ty , i n h is c lass if ica t ion o f k i lns f ro m

t he S axon t o t he P os t- Medieval p er iod ( Musty , 1 974 , 4 7) , s peci f ies t he m a s b r ick o r t i le k i ln a nd p o in ts o u t t ha t t here i s n o d iference e xcep t i n u se .

A l l

t he wr i ters h ave c oncerned t he ms leves most ly w ith t he i n terna l f i t t ings o f t he k i ln a nd l ess w i th t he who le s truc ture i t se l f . I ti s b y l ook ing a t t he who le t ha t as i mp le p at tern o f s truc ture emerges wh ich h as ah istory o f u se f ar b eyond t he Ro man p er iod a nd w h ich e x tends a l mos t t o t he p resen t d ay . T he k ilns d iscussed h ere f a l l i n to t wo c a tegor ies n ame ly , t he p ot tery k iln a nd t he t i le k i ln , a lso r eferred t o i n t he Med ieva l a nd l a ter p eriods a s t he "Br ick a nd T i le K i ln" .

T he f i rs t o f t hese h as a l ong h is tory i n o ne s tage o f i t s

d eve lop men t a s as ing le f lue u pdraugh t k i ln .

T h is c lassi f ica t ion i t se lf f a l ls

i n to t wo d ist inc t t ypes ( d is t inct s hou ld b e c onsidered i n p aren thesis a s t he f in ished p roduc t d epends a s much o n t he s k i l l o f t he p o t ter a s t he e f f ic iency o f t he k i ln ) ;

t ype A i s ak i ln i n wh ich t he " f ire b ox" i s d iv ided f ro m t he " oven"

b y af lue , p roducing i n p lan a " ban jo" s hape s truc ture .

T ype B i s ak i ln i n

wh ich t here i s n o f lue b u tt he " f ire b ox" f eeds d irec t ly i n to t he o ven t hrough a n a rch ;

t h is t ype i s n o t a lways r ound i n p lan b u t i s of ten o vo id o r l yre-shaped .

T here i s a lso a n o tab le d eve lopmen t o f t ype B i n t he " doub le f lue u pd raugh t K i ln" , w h ich i s i n efec t al eng then ing o f t he s ing le f lue k i ln b y t he a dd i t ion o f a no ther f lue o f s im i lar t ype a t t he o ppos i te s ide . S uch " stre tched" k i lns t end t o b e o va l i n p lan , p r incipa l ly b ecause t he h ea t f low i n i n f in i te ly

4 31

more s uccessfu l i n s uch a s hape ;

a s k i lns b eco me l onger more f i re h o les a re

n eeded t o ma in ta in t he r equ ired t e mpera ture.

As ys te m e vo lved i n Eng land i n

t he M idd les Ages wh ich improved t he k i ln 's c apac i ty a nd t h is i s p erhaps b es t i l lus tra ted a t Nunea t ion ( Mayes a nd T ho mson , 1 968, 2 08-9 ) . A l though t h is p aper d ea ls o n ly t he f or m a nd n o t t he w ide v ar ie ty o f i n terna l s tructures i t w i l l e xam ine t hose t ha t a re c o mmon t o b o th p r inc ipa l f or ms o fk i ln . T he " ban jo" s haped k i ln h as a l ong h is tory a nd was w e l l e s tab l ished a t l eas t b y t he s ix th c en tury B .C. i n G reece . T he p o t ters o f G reece , who s o l av ish ly i l lus tra ted t heir wares i n t he s ix th t o t he f if th c entur ies B .C., a lso i l lustra ted t heir p ot t ing p rac t ises o n s evera l v esse ls a nd p laques . These i l lus tra t ions a re b es t s een t o a dvan tage o n a n A t t ic h ydra n ow i n Mun ich ( Beaz ley , 1 956 , 3 62 o r 3 5), a C or in th ian p inax n ow i nt he L ouvre , P ar is ( Paynes , 1 931, 1 17 , n o te 2 ) a nd a no ther p inax a t p resen t i n t he S taa t l iches Museum , B er l in ( An t ique D enkmae ler—p l . 8 , N . 1 2) . A l l t hese v essels b ear i l lus tra t ions o fp ot ters a t work i n a nd a round s ing le f l ue k i lns . T he b est i l lus tra ted a nd b es t d escr ibed e xa mp le i s p ub l ished b y C ook ( Cook , 1 972 , 2 44 , f i g . 4 1) ; t h is i s ap laque o f A t t ic d a te f rom P en teskouph ia , wh ich i s d a ted t o t he f i f th c en tury A .D . I ts hows a s ing le f lue u pdraugh t k i ln o f " ban jo" t ype w i th a s ing le p edes ta l a nd a p ierced f l oor . T h is k i ln 's s upers truc ture a ppears t o h ave b een p er manen t f or i ts hows a smal l d oor o n t he s ide ,, a c o mmon f ea ture o ft hese i l lus trat ions . I ti s p robab le t ha t t hese were i n f ac t s py h o les . S uch s py h o les a re men t ioned i n af a mous p oe m c a l led " K i ln" ( Nob le , 1 966 , 1 06 ) i n wh ich t he p o t ter 's f ace i s s corched b y ab ack f ire f ro m t h is h o le . Wha t was c om mon t o G reece was a lso c o m mon t o R o man a nd t o p reRo man I t a ly ; d i Cap ino ( d i C ap ino , 1 971 ) , i n h is g rea t c lass i f ica t ion o f s uch s tructures , i den t if ies t wo t ypes o f k i ln i n c o m mon u se t hroughou t t he who le p er iod . T hese a re t he s ing le f lue u pdraugh t k i ln a nd t he t unne l k i ln . T he s ing le f lue k i lns a re a l o f " ban jo" s hape a nd t he i n terna l f i t t ings a re e i ther k i ln b ars o n p edesta ls o r w i th a n a rched f l oor . I n t he c ase o ft he l a t ter a s er ies o f c onsecu t ive wa l ls a re b u i l t i n p ara l le l w i th a s pace o f s im i lar d i mension t o t he w a l l b etween e ach wa l l , t ha t i s ,a f our a nd a h a l f i nch s pace b etween e ach f our a nd ah a l f i nch t h ick w a l l . Each wa l l h as a n o pen ing i n t he f or m o f a n a rch b u i l t i n to i ts o t ha t l ooked a t i nd iv idua l ly t h is a rched wa l l wou ld l ook l i ke ab r idge . T hese wa l ls a re c ons truc ted a cross t he f l oor o ft he k i ln a nd a l low t he p assage o fh o t g ases t o p ass t hrough t he t unne l made b y t he a rches a nd u p t he s paces i n b etween . S uch a s truc ture i s b o th s trong a nd s pac ious a nd i s c ommon ly u sed i n l arge k i lns where we igh t a nd q uan t i ty a re impor tan t b u t a lso where q ua l i ty a nd , i n l a ter p er iods , h igh t e mpera tures a re r equ ired . S uch f l oors were c o mmon i n p ot tery k i lns i n R o man t imes , l ess s o i n l a ter p er iods . T hey d o h owever c ons t i tu te t he b as ic p r inc ip le o n wh ich t he t i le k i ln i s b u i l t. D i C ap ino c lass if ies t hese a s h is t ype 2 k i ln . He e s tab l ishes q u i te c lear ly t ha t t he r ange o f k i lns c o mmon t o R o man B r i ta in was a lready i n c o mmon p roduc t ion s evera l h undred y ears b efore t he i nvas ion o f A .D. 4 3 . T he b es t e xa mp le o ft he i n troduced k i ln i nt he t rue I t al ian s ty le i s t he " ban jo" s haped p ot tery k i ln w i th a n a rched f l oor f ound a t H o l t ( Gr imes , 1 930 , 5 6 ) ; t h is was c ons idered b y G r i mes t o b e am i l i tary t ype a nd d a ted b yh im t o 4 32

"before 100 A.D."• This ldln type is matched exactly in the "Samian" kiln at Colchester (Hull, 1963, No. 31). Other "banjo" kilns are known throughout Roman Britain from the first to the fourth century. For example at Colchester thirty were excavated dating from A.D. 60 to·A.D. 350. At Mucking, Essex (Jones and Rodwell, 1973, plate 2) where Mrs. M. V. Jones excavated six which were dated throughout the period of the occupation, as well as another unique rectangular kiln of "Gallo Belgic" type, which is also a single flue kiln, dated by her to minus A. D. 100. Also in the first century are two banjo kilns from Castor (Jewitt, 1883, In the second century A.D. there are examples from Wappenbury, Warwickshire (Stanley 196 4 and into the third century at Llncoln, as shown by Corder (Corder, 1950). At the end of the Roman period there are the kilns of the New Forest (Fulford, 1975) which stretch through the third and fourth centuries A.D. 24).

However, not all the kilns of Roman Britain conform to the classical style of the "banjo" shape. The "lyre" shaped kiln, that is, a kiln without the benefit of a flue separating the "firebox" from the "oven" is also recorded. Although not listed as a known type by di Capino there are early dates for such kilns occurring in Roman Britain such as that at Wa:ppenbury alongside the two "banjo" kilns which are contemporary in date and the eighteen examples at Little Chesters, Derby shire (M. Brassington, 1971). This suggests that potters were dispensing with the flue, perhaps before the invasion and parallels· can be found in France. This �ype continues in use throughout the period, as shown at Doncaster (Annable, 1960, Nos. 1-8) where Annable found eight lyre shaped kilns dated to two separate periods of use, the first from A.D. 110 to 170 and the second from A.D. 290 to 340 Wild (Wild, 1973, 135-8) published two lyre shaped kilns from Peterborough, dated to after A.D. 300. When "lyre" shaped kilns are enlarged they are made into an oval shape, for a totally round kiln would present heating problems at the points furthest away from the flue arches. The oval shape guarantees an even flow of heat at the widest part of the kiln. Double flue updraught kilns are known in Roman Britain; two were excavated in Colchester (Hull, 1963, Fig. 4) in 18 77. These are classified by Corder as his type 2 although he though they were confined to Farnham, Surrey and the Alice Holt forest and based his premise on the example found at Tilford, Surrey (Corder, 1950; Surrey Archaeological Collections, 1949, 29-56). Others are known from Farnham found in 1906 and Snailslynch Farm nearby, which was found in 1926 (Antiquaries Journal, 1928). The finder of the 1906 kiln, a Mr Faulkner (Surrey Archaeological Collections, 1907, 231) reporte-d that "such rude kilns were in use on a large scale in this part of the county (Surrey) until recent times" (The area around Farnham and Farnborough on the Surrey-Hampshire border has been a centre for major pottery production from the early middle ages to the nineteenth century). The dating of the Romano-British examples so far pub­ lished shows that the stretched double flue kiln was used in selected areas throughout the whole period. The end of the Roman rule in the fifth century saw a complete return to hand making and clamp firing of pots. The use of kilns did however remain across the North Sea in the Low Countries, where they were to continue in use 433

f or h undreds o f y ears f or t he p roduct ion o f t he n eo-c lass ica l v esse ls o f f irst t he Merov ing ian a nd l ater t he C aro l ing ian p er iods .

I tw as d ur ing t he l ate

e ighth a nd n in th c en tur ies t hat c era m ics f ro m t hese s ources a rr ived i n s uch q uan t it ies a s t o h ave a n e f fect o n t he l oca l p roducts b u t i t was n o t u n t i l t he e nd o f t he n in th c en tury t hat p ot tery manufacture b y s k i l led a nd t herefore p robab ly im m igran t p ot ters was r esu med i n t h is c oun try . A lthough t here i s ar epor t o f ak i ln o f " ban jo" s hape p roduc ing p ot tery i n Ox fordsh ire ( Ar thur a nd J ope , 1 962-3 , F ig . 3 ) i n t he s ix th o r s eventh c ent ury i th as n ow b ecome s o d evo id o f p ara l le ls f rom o ther l i ke s i tes t ha t i t s ee ms u n l ikely t ha t p o t tery mak ing k i lns o ccur s o e ar ly i n t he S axon p er iod . F ur ther more s uch k i lns t hat a re k nown a re a l l "l yre" s haped a nd s ing le f l ue i n s ty le . T hese most ly o ccur i n E ast Ang l ia a t Thet ford ( Knocker a nd H ughes , 1 950 ; Dav idson , 1 967 ) , B ircham , Norfo lk ( Rogerson a nd Ada ms ; 1 978, 3 4-41) a nd I psw ich , S u f fo lk ( Smed ley a nd Ow les , 1 963 , 3 30 ) a nd T orksey , L inco lns h ire ( Ba i ley , 1 964 :

1 79) a l though a n o tab le o u t l ier e x isted a t M ichel mersh ,

Ha mpsh ire ( Hopk ins , 1 971 1 67 ) . t o t he t we l th c en tury A .D.;

They r ange i n d a te t hrough t he t en th c en tury

M ichel mersh i s d a ted t o t he e leven th c en tury .

T here i s n o r ea l e vidence f or t he c o m mon u se o f " ban jo" k i lns i n t he S axon p er iod a l though t he Exe terk i ln d escribed b y F ox a nd Dunning ( Fox a nd Dunn ing ; 1 957 ; F ig . 1 ) i s n ow t hough t t o b e o f l a te S axon d a te a nd t h is i s a v ery , s oph is t ica ted s ing le f lue k i ln w i th t he h ea t c arr ied i n to t he u pper o ven b y as eries o ft ubes f ro m t he l ower o ven . e lsewhere i n Eng land a t a ny p er iod .

S uch s oph is t ica t ion i s n o t r ecorded

Nor i s t here r e l iab le e v idence f or d oub le

f lue u pdraugh t i n t h is p er iod a l though s uch a o ne i s c la i med a t I psw ich ( Smed ley a nd Ow les , 1 963 , 3 20 ) where t he o ppos ing f lue was n o t s een . T he p resen t weigh t o f e vidence s uggests t ha t s uch k inls were n o t r ein troduced a t t h is t ime . Mov ing i n to t he l a te S axon p er iod , s o me t i mes k nown a s t he S axo-Nor man b u t c era m ica ly s peak ing a p art o f t he s a me d eve lopmen t , a l l t he s ing le f l ue k i lns a ppear t o b e " lyre" s haped .

S tar t ing a s e ar ly a s a t S ta mford , L inco ln-

s h ire t h is was t he p lace where , i n t he e ar ly t we lf th c entury , p os t-Ro man p ot tery t ook a d i f feren t c ourse a nd b eca me f i rs t ly a n Eng l ish t ype o f p ot tery , t ha t s pread i n to Wes tern European . S uch k i ln t ypes c an b e f olowed i n to t he t hir teenth c entury a t S tamford ( S i mpson , 1 964 , 2 95) , P inner ( Sheppard , 1 977 , 3 2) i n t he f ourteen th c en tury , a t O lney Hyde ( Mayes a nd Mynard , 1 968 , 2 07 ) a nd o n i n to t he l a te f our teenth c entury a t P ot tespury ( Jope , 1 971, 1 77 ). A t N ewpor t , Mon mou thsh ire ( Mus ty , 1 968) t hey were p roduc ing i nto t he f i f teen th c en tury . S ing le f lue k i lns were g rea t ly i n t he minor i ty b yt he t ime t he t h ir teen th c en tury h ad b een r eached f or i ti s i n t h is c en tury t ha t t he d oub le u pdraugh t k i ln r e turns , a l most a s i to nce was i n S urrey ( Surrey Archaeo log ica l Co l lec t ion , 1 949 , 4 0 ) a nd C o lches ter ( Hul l , 1 963) s o me t housand y ears b efore , u nchanged i n p r incip le a nd p urpose .

S o f ar t here i s n o e v idence t o s uppor t i t s r ein tro-

d uc t ion b efore t he t h ir teenth c en tury ;

p erhaps t he e ar l ies t e xa mp le i s t ha t a t

Ha m G reen ( Bar ton . 1 963 , 1 00 ) , n ear B r is to l , d a ted t o t he e ar ly t o mid t hir teen th c en tury A .D . C h iches ter ( Down a nd B arton , 1 971 , 1 53) a nd Au c l le m ( Webster , 1 960 ) f o l low w i th Downpa tr ick ( Po l lock a nd Wa ter man , 1 963) a nd N unea ton ( Mayes a nd Tho mson , 1 968) c los ing t he t h ir teen th c en tury a nd mov ing i n to t he f our teen th . L i mpf ield ( Ket ter ingha m ; 1 979 , 2 77 ) a nd B ri l l ( Jope , 4 34

1 953 , 3 9) c o mp lete t he med ieva l p er iod u p t o t he f i f teen th c en tury .

W ith a

w ide r ange o f i n terna l f i t t ings a l l t hese k i lns i l lustra te c lear ly t he b as ic r eq u ire men t o ft he s ize a nd s hape a s as a t is fac tory f ul f i l men t o f t he p o t ter 's n eeds .

Even s o t h is k i ln t ype h as a s hor t l i fe i n t he Nor th o f Eng land a nd i t

r e ma ins p r inc ipal ly a S ou thern Eng l ish p heno menon i n t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he M idd le Ages . I nt he Nor th East M idlands r ad ica l c hanges t ake p lace a nd t h is i s b est s hown a t Nunea ton ( Mayes a nd Tho mson , 1 968) . T h is c hange i s r elected i n t he k i lns o f t he p ost- Med ieva l p er iod.

Doub le

f lue k i lns a re r ecorded i n t he f if teen th c en tury a t C hea m , S urrey ( Marsha l l, 1 924 , 8 4 ) a nd K n igh ton , I s le o f Wigh t ( Fenne l ly , 1 969 , 1 02) . I n to t he s ix teen th c en tury we move t o Nunea ton ( Mayes a nd T ho mson , 1 968) a nd t o F arnborough ( Holing , 1 971 , F ig . 6 ) a nd i n t he s even teen th c en tury t o B oresford , H erefords h ire ( Morgan , 1 956 , p art 2 ) a nd P au lesbury , N or tha mp ton a nd t o G ower ( Morr is , 1 967 , 1 8) i n t he e igh teen th c en tury .

T here d o n o t a ppear t o b e a ny

s uch k ilns l a ter t han t h is e xcep t t hose men t ioned b y F aulkner ( Surrey Archaeo log ica l C ol lec t ion , 1 907 , 2 31) i n S urrey f or t he n ine teenth c entury .

Mr F ish ley

Ho l land , a we l l k nown p o t ter f ro m C levedon , t o ld t he wr i ter t ha t h e h ad u sed s uch k i lns t o f i re " b iscu i t" when h e was a n a ppren t ice i n B arnstap le i n t he l a te n ine teen th c en tury .

T herefore t here i s s ubstan t ia l e v idence f or t he c on t inued

l i fe o f t h is t ype o fk i ln i n t he S ou th o f Eng land f ro m t he t h ir teen th c en tury i n to t he e ar ly t went ie th c entury . S ing le f lue k i lns d o e x is t i n t he p os t- Med ieva l p er iod b u t t hey a re f ew i n n u mber .

O f t he t hree Imen t ion h ere a l l v ary i n s o me way o r a no ther .

However a l l a e" ban jo" k i lns a nd o f t he t hree t wo o ccur i n t he s ix teen th c ent ury a t C rocker ton , Wi l tsh ire ( Hurst , 1 968, 1 87 , f ig 6 1) a nd L ower P arrack , East S ussex ( Freke , 1 979 , 8 2) .

The f or mer i s ac lassica l e xa mp le o f t he

r ound k i ln w i th a c en tra l p l in th a nd f i re b ars a nd a n e longa ted f lue ; L ower P arrack h as a s em i-rectangu lar o ven f ed b y af lue .

t he k i ln a t

The p roduc ts o f

t h is k i ln s ugges t t he p ot ter may h ave o r ig ina ted f ro m t he L ow C oun tr ies o r Nor thern F rance , wh ich wou ld a ccoun t f or t he v ar ia t ion i n s hape. The b es t e xa mp les o f t he " ban jo" s haped k i lns a re t hose f ound a t Verwood ( A lgar , L igh t a nd T reho me , 1 979) where A lgar a nd o thers h ave s hown t ha t k i lns w i th " arched" f loors were i n c o mmon u se f ro m a f ter A .D . 1 700 u nt i l t he midd le o f t h is c ent ury . T he p lan o ft he l a tes t Verwood k i ln a pprox i ma tes t o t he p lans o f b o th t he Ho lt c ircu lar k i ln a nd t he Co lches ter " Sa m ian" k i ln . k iln was i n u se u p t o t he s econd world war .

T h is l ast Verwood

There a re n o " lyre" s haped s ing le f lue k i lns p ub l ished f or t he f i f teen th t o t he n ineteen th c en tur ies A .D. This l ack o f at radi t iona l t ype w ith a l ong h is tory o f u se i s n o t e as i ly e xp la ined n or i s t he o ccurrence o f " ban jo" s haped k ilns i n t he s ix teen th c en tury e as ier t o e xp la in i n t he e igh teen th c entury when g rea t t echn ica l a dvances were b eing made .

The a nswer c ou ld s i mp ly b e t ha t

t hese t ypes h ave n ot y e t b een d iscovered . The t i le k i ln h as a l ess d iverse h istory t han t he p ot tery k i ln .

I ti s wel l

e stab l ished i n p reh istor ic a nd h istor ic I ta ly ( d i C apino , 1 971) a nd a ppears i n Br i ta in w i th t he mi l i tary a t Ho l t ( Gri mes , 1 950) .

T his s ty le o f k i ln i s a

r ec tangu lar s tructure w i th p ierced wa l ls mak ing a f lue o r t unne l .

The h ea t

c arr ied a l ong t he t unnel a nd t hrough t he s paces b e tween t he wa l ls. S uch k i lns a re d esigned t o t ake g reat weigh ts a nd l arge d ense q uant i t ies o f c era m ic 4 35

ma ter ia ls.

S ix o f t he Ho l t k i lns h ave s ing le f lues a nd t h is i s t he c ase w i th

most o f t he e xa mp les a t C o lchester ( Hu l l , 1 963) , A shdon ( Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , Vo l X , 2 1) , Can terbury ( J enk ins , 1 956 , 4 0 ; J enk ins , 1 960 , 1 54) i n t he f irs t c entury a nd I t ch ing f ie ld ( Green , 1 970 , 2 3) , L e igh S in ton ( Wa ters , 1 963 , 1 -5) a nd Gr i mescar ( Purdy a nd Manby , 1 973) i n t he s econd c en tury . However d oub le f lue k ilns a re k nown a t Ho l t ( Gr imes , 1 950 ) f ro m t he f irst c entury a nd a t Muncaster ( Cu mber land a nd Westmoreland Archaeo log ica l S oc iety , 1 908, 6 7 ) i n t he s econd c en tury ; t he Hol t k i ln i s t he l argest Ro man k i ln s o f ar p ub lished i n B r i ta in , measur ing t h ir ty f eet b yt h ir ty f ee t . Wha t i s most s ign if ican t i s t ha t a l l t he p ub l ished e xa mp les a re d a ted n o l ater t han t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tury A .D. T here a ppears t o b e n o k nown e xa mp les o f l a ter t i le k i lns. T i les a re k nown t o h ave b een made i n c lamps a nd s uch f ir ing p laces were e xcava ted b y G r i mes a t H o l t . o f l a te Ro man t i les s uch a s t hose p roduced b y t he

The l arge n umbers

C lass is B r i tann ica ' a ppear

n o t t o h ave b een made i n k i lns. I n c o m mon w i th t he d oub le f lue p ot tery k i ln , t he t i le k i ln i s n ot k nown i n t h is c oun try u n t i l i tr eturns i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury .

There i s s o f ar n o

e v idence f or t i le k i lns a s s uch i n t he S axon p eriod a l though P rofessor B idd le i n for ms me t ha t t i les a re r epu ted t o h ave b een made h ere i n t he l a te S axon p er iod a nd t i lers a re d ocu men ted a s work ing t o p roduce t i les f or t he S axon C a thedra l i n Winchester . The s tructure o f t he k i lns a re n ot k nown b u t t i les a re n o t a lways made e xclusively i n t i le k i lns. The O rchard S treet k i ln , C h ichester ( Down , 1 971) wh ich o pera ted b etween A .D. 1 250 a nd 1 280 was a d oub le f lue k i ln wh ich p roduced g lazed f la t a nd r idge t i les , a s d id t he s ix teen th c en tury p o t tery a t Kn igh ton , I s le o f Wight ( Fenne l ly , 1 969 ) .

P o t ters a nd t i lers

work ing t ogether i s n o t u nknown a nd b oth e xcava ted e xa mp les o f t he " Sussex" t ype o fk i ln a t Rye ( V idler , 1 932) a nd a t B instead ( Bar ton , 1 979) p roduced t i le i n q uan t i ty ; i n t he l a tter e xa mp le t he p ot ters ' k i ln was b u i l t o n t he waster h eap o f a n a d jacen t d oub le f lue t unnel t i le k i ln o f f our teen th c en tury d a te ( Sussex k i lns a re p ot k i lns w i th p ara l le l f l ues a nd s prung a rches a f ter t he s ty le o f t he t i le k i lns b u t much sma l ler a nd l ess r obust ) . None o f t he k nown Med ieva l e xa mp les h as s ing le f lues a nd a l l h ave t wo o r t hree f lues.

T he e ar l iest e xa mp les f or t he d oub le f lues a re C hertsey

( Gard iner a nd Ea mes , 1 955) f ro m A .D. 1 260 t o 1 270 , B ever ley , Y orksh ire ( Ea mes , 1 961) f ro m A .D. 1 275 t o 1 325, Rep ton ( J ew i t t , 1 883) f ro m A .D. 1 300 t o 1 400 a nd S hou ldha m , Norfo lk ( Sma l lwood , 1 978) f ro m A .D. 1 300 t o 1 400.

Tr ip le f l ue k i lns o ccur a t Nor th Berw ick ( R ichardson , 1 928) f ro m A .D.

1 250 t o 1 350 , B oston , L inco lnsh ire ( Mayes , 1 965) f ro m A .D. 1 300 t o 1 350 a nd L ondon ( Pr ice , 1 865-69 ) b etween A .D. 1 350 a nd 1 450 . I n t he p ost- Med ieva l p er iod s uch k i lns b eco me more f requen t i n u se b u t h ave b een l ess f requen t ly e xcavated .

Da ted e xamp les i nc lude t wo d oub le f l ue

k i lns f ro m L it t le B r ickh i l l , N ortha mptonsh ire ( Mynard , 1 975 ) o f A . D . 1 530 . At r ip le f l ue k i ln i n F arr ingdon S treet , L ondon ( Jew it t , 1 883 ) was d estroyed i n t he F ire o f L ondon i n A . D . 1 666 a nd a s ing le f l ue k i ln f ro m Ro man R iver , E ssex ( Co lchester Arch , 1 964 ) i s a lso o f m id s even teen th c en tury d ate . S uch k i lns were c o m monp lace i n t he c oun trys ide o f n ineteen th a nd e ar ly t wen t ieth c en tury B r i ta in , where c lay was a va i lab le a nd d e mand s u f f ic ien t . T h is v ery s uccessfu l a nd l ong l i ved k i ln c on t inued t o t hr ive , a s i th ad d one f or o ver t wo t housand f i ve h undred y ears . 4 36

APPENDIX Iam h onoured t o h ave t he o pportun i ty t o ofer t h is p aper t o Dr . Webster , af r iend a nd mentor o f o ver t h ir ty y ears s tand ing .

A l though p rimar i ly a

Ro man ist Dr . Webster 's own work o u tside t ha t p er iod o n t he med ieva l p ot tery k i lns a t Ash ton , C hesh ire a nd h is p ub l icat ion o f t he l arge Post- Med ieva l g roup o f p ot tery a nd p ipes f ro m Tr in i ty S treet , C hester a re i nd ica t ions o f t he b readth o fh is i n terests . I ti s t o ma tch t h is w ide i nterest t ha t t he p aper h as b een wri t ten . B IBL IOGRAPHY Annab le 1 960 . A nnab le , K ., ' The Ro mano-Bri t ish p o t tery a t C an t ley Housing E sta te , Doncaster ( K i lns 1 -8) '; Museu m a nd Art G a l lery p ub . ( 1 960) . An t ike Denkmae ler 1 . P l . B erl in : n . 6 16 '. Ant iq . J ourn . 1 928. Arch . J ourn .

8 No 1 2. ' Corin th ian P inax i n t he S taat l iches Museum ,

An t iq J ourn , V I I I ( 1 928) 4 8-53.

V o l . X , 2 1. ' A Ro man t i le k i ln a t A shdon , Essex ( an o te ) ',

A rch J ourn X , 2 1. Ar thur a nd J ope 1 962-3. Ar thur , B . a nd J ope , E . M ., ' Ear ly S axon p ot tery k i lns a t P urewel l F ar m , Cressing ton , Ox ford ', MED . Arch ., V I-VI I ( 1 962-3) Bar ley 1 964 . Bar ley , M . W., ' The Medieva l B orough o f Torksey Excava t ions 1 960-62 ', An t iq . J n l. ( 1 964) 1 75-87. B ar ton 1 963. Bar ton , K . J . ' A Med ieva l p ot tery k i ln a t Ham G reen , B r isto l ', B r is to l a nd G los. Arch . S oc. 8 2 ( 1 963) 9 5-126. Bar ton 1 979.

Bar ton , K . J ., The H is tory a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f Med ieva l p ot tery

i n S ussex , P h il l i more , Ch iches ter , 1 979. B eazley 1 956 . B eaz ley , J . D . ' At t ic Hydra b y t he p a in ter o ft he L eagros g roup i n t he G lyp to thek u nd Museum a n t iken K l ienkunst , Mun ich ' , A t t ic B lack F igure Vase Pa in ters ( 1 956 ) , 3 62, n . 3 6 C o lchester Arch 1 964 .

' A k i ln a t Ro man R iver ', C o lches ter Arch . iN o . 2

1 7-22. C ol l ingwood a nd Myres 1 949. S et t le ments. C ook 1 972.

C ol l ingwood .

Ro man B r i ta in a nd t he Eng l ish

Ox ford , 1 949

Cook , R . M., Greek Pa in ted p o t tery ;

C order 1 950 . Dep t . C order 1 957 .

2 44 , f ig . 4 1 , L ondon , 1 972

Corder , P . , A Ro mano-Br i t ish k i ln o n t he L inco ln r ace c ourse : Adu l t Educa t ion Pubs. ( 1 950) Corder , P ., ' The s truc ture o f Ro mano-Br i t ish k i lns ', Arch

J ourna l 1 14 ( 1 957 ). Cu mb . a nd Wes tm . A rch . S oc . Trans. V I II , 6 7. ' A Ro mano-Br i t ish t i le ki ln a t Muncas ter C as t le , Cumber land ( an o te ) ', Cu mb . a nd West m . Arch . S oc. T rans. V I I I

4 37

d i C ap in° 1 971.

d i Cap ino , N inina c uo mo , ' Proposta d i c lass if icazione d e l la

F ornaci p er c era m ica e l a ter izi n el l ya rea I ta l iana ( d a l la p reh istor ica a t u t ta P epoca Ro mana ) ' S IBRU M ( 1 971). Down 1 971. Down , A . ( Bar ton , K . J . i n )Orchard S tree t k i ln , C h ichester , i n C h iches ter Excava t ions Vo l. I , 1 971 , 1 53-164 . Ea mes 1 961. Ea mes , E ., ' A 1 3 th C . t i le k i ln s i te a t N or th G range , Meaux , B ever ley , Y orksh ire ,' N EED. Arch . C ( 1 961) . F ennel ly 1 969. F ennel ly , L . R ., ' A l a te Med ieva l k i ln a t Kn ighton , I .O .W .' Han ts. F ield C lub , 2 6 ( 1 969) , 9 7-110 . F ox a nd Dunn ing 1 957 .

F ox , A . a nd Dunn ing , G . C . ' A Med ieva l p ot tery k i ln

i n Exeter ', An t iq . J n l ., 3 7 ( 1 957 ) . F reke 1 979 . F reke , D .J ., ' The e xcava t ion o f t he 1 6th c . p o t tery k i ln a t L ower P arrack , Har t f ie ld , East S ussex 1 977 ', P os t . Med . Arch . 1 3 ( 1 979) F u l ford 1 975. 1 975.

F uL ford , M . G ., N ew F orest Ro man p o t tery :

BAR 1 7 Ox ford

Gardner a nd Ea mes 1 955. Gardner , J . S . a nd Ea mes , E ., ' A t i le k i ln a t C her tsey Abbey ' , B r i t . Arch . Ass . XVI I ( 1 955) 2 4-42. G reen 1 970 . G reen , T . K ., ' A Ro man t i le works a t I t ch ing f ield ', S ussex Arch . Co l l ., 1 08 ( 1 970 ) , 2 3. G r i mes 1 930. G r i mes , W., ' The works Depo t o f t he ) 0 ( L eg ion a t Cast le L yons ( Denb ighsh ire ) ', Y CY M MRODOR XL I ( 1 930 ) . lo l l ing 1 971.

Ho l l ing , F . W., ' A p rel im inary n o te o n t he p o t tery o f t he Han ts/

S urrey b orders ', S urrey Arch. C o l l . LXVII I ( 1 971) , F ig . 6 . Hopk ins 1 971. Hopk ins , B . G ., ' A l a te S axon k i ln a t M iche l mersh , Han ts:, Med . Arch . 1 5 ( 1 971) 1 76 . Hul l 1 963.

Hu l l , H . R ., The Ro man p ot ters ' k i lns o f Co lches ter , S oc . An t iq.

Res . Rep ., 2 1, Ox ford , 1 963. Hurs t 1 968.

Hurs t , D ., ' A l a te 1 6th c . k i ln a t C rocker ton , Wi l ts ' i n ' Pos t

Med ieval B r i tain ', e d. D . G i l l ian Hurs t .

P os t . Med . Arch . 2( 1 968) ,

1 87 , f ig . 6 1. J enk ins 1 956 . J enk ins , F .

' A Ro man t i lery a nd p o t tery k i lns a t Dorovernum ,'

Arch . J nl ., XXXV I ( 1 956 ) , 4 0-41. J enk ins 1 960.

J en lins , F .

' Two p o t tery k i lns a nd at i lery o ft he Ro man p er iod

a t C an terbury ', Arch . C an t ., LXX IV ( 1 960 ) 1 54-5. J ew i t t 1 883.

J ew it t , L. C eramic Ar ts i n Grea t B r i ta in.

V ir tue a nd C o . p2 4

f igs. J ones a nd Rodwel l 1 973.

J ones , M . V . a nd Rodwe l l , W. J ., ' Ro mano-Br i t ish

p ot tery k i lns f ro m Muck ing , E ssex Arch . S oc . T rans ., 1 8-47 , p late 2 . J ope 1 953.

J ope , E . M ., 'Med ieva l p o t tery k i ln a t Br il l ', Records o f Bucks .

1 4 ( 1 953/54) , 3 9-41. 4 38

J ope 1 955.

J ope , M ., ' P lan o f as ing le f lue k i ln a t P ot terspury ,

N or than ts ',

AH is tory o f T echno logy I ( 1 955) 2 96 . Ket ter ingha m 1 979.

Ket ter ingha m L .,

i mpsf ield L i mpsf ield p o t tery k i ln , L

C hart , S urrey ', Med . Arch .23 ( 1979 ) p lan p .277. Knocker a nd Hughes 1 950.

Knocker a nd Hughes , ' Ang lo-Saxon T he t ford ',

A rch. N ewslet ter N o I I ( 1 950 ) Marshal l 1 924.

Marshal l , J ., ' A Med ieva l p ot tery k i ln d iscovered a t C hea m ',

S urrey A rch . C o l l . ) (XXV ( 1 924) , 7 9-96 . Mayes 1 965,

Mayes . P ., ' A Med ieva l T i le k i ln a t B os ton , L ines ', B r i t . Arch .

A ss. 2 8 ( 1 965) , 8 6-106 . Mayes a nd Mynard 1 968.

Mayes , P . a nd Mynard , D ., ' O lney Hyde , Bucks

Med ieva l k i ln ', Med. Arch . 1 2 ( 1 968) , p lan p . 2 07. Mayes a nd Tho mson 1 968. Mayes , P . a nd Tho mson , R . G ., 'Med ieva l k i lns a t Ch i lves C o ton , Nunna ton ( Twen ty s even e xa mp les f ro m d oub le f l ue t o mu lt i-f lue ) ', i n "Med ieva l B ri ta in" Med . Arch . 1 2 ( 1 968) , 2 08-9. Morgan 1 956.

Morgan , F . C . " Hereford p ot ter ies ', Trans. Woo lhope N a t .

F ie ld C lub 3 5 ( 1 956) p ar t 2 . Morris 1 967.

Morr is , B ., ' An e igh teen th c en tury p ot tery k i ln i n G ower ',

Ju l . G ower S oc . 1 8 ( 1 967 ) . Mus ty 1 968. Mus ty , J ., ' Newpor t p o t tery k i ln ', i n We lsh C era m ics a d ocumen tary a nd a rchaeo log ica l s urvey b y Er ic Ta lbo t . P os t Med . Arch 2 ( 1 968) . Musty. Musty , J ., 'Med ieva l p ot tery k i lns. ' Med ieva l P o t tery f ro m Excav a t ions : e d . E vison , Hodges a nd Hurs t p . 4 7. L ondon , 1 974 . C lassif ies b r ick a nd t i le Mynard ,

i mn a s 4 b a nd 4 c .

Mynard , D . C . ' The L i t t le B r ickh i l l t i le k ilns a nd t he ir p roducts '.

R ed . o f B ucks , XXXV I I I ( 1975 ) . Mynard .

1 971.

Mynard , D .

Med. Arch . 1 5 ( 1 971) , 1 77.

N ewso me 1 979. N ewso me , C . J ., The Verwood P o t ter ies b y A lgar , L igh t a nd T reha me. R ingwood , Han ts , 1 979. N ob le 1 966. Nob le , J . V ., The T echn iques o f P a in ted A t t ic P o t tery , F aber a nd F aber , 1 966. The p oe m "K i ln" i s a t tr ibuted t o Ho mer a nd t hough t t o h ave b een wr i t ten b etween 5 20-480 B . C . Mi lne . Payne 1 931.

Trans la ted b y Mar jor ie J .

Payne , H . ' Cor in th ian P inax i n t he L ouvre Museu m , P ar is ',

Gazet te a rcheo loque V I , 1 05. 1 17 , N o te 2 . P ol lock a nd Wa ter man 1 963.

Hu mphrey Payne i n N eocor in th ia ( 1 931) ,

P o l lock a nd Wa ter man , ' A Med ieva l p ot tery

k i ln a t Downpa tr ick , Co . Down '. U lster Ju l . o f Arch . 2 6 ( 1963 ). P r ice 1 865-69.

P rice , J . E ., ' A Medieva l k i ln f or f i r ing e ncast ic t i les :

d iscovered New F ar ingdon Road , C lerkenwelP, L ondon a nd M iddx , Arch. S oc. T rans . i i ( 1 865-69) , 3 1-35. 4 39

Purdy a nd Manby 1 973.

Purdy , J . G . a nd Manby , T . G ., ' Excava t ion a t t he

Ro man T ilery ,Gri mescar 1 964 ', Y orks . Arch . J n l . 4 5 ( 1 973 ) , 9 6-107. R ichardson 1 928.

R ichardson , J . S ., ' A 1 3 th C . t i le k i ln a t Nor th B erw ick , Eas t L o tha in l, P roc. S oc . An ts . S co ts . LX L I I ( 1 928)281-284.

Smedley a nd Ow les 1 963.

Smed ley , N . a nd Ow les , E ., ' Saxon k ilns i n C ox

l and , I psw ich , 1 961 ', P roc . S u f fo lk I ns t . Arch . ) 00CLX , ( 1 963) , 3 05-335, p 1 .3. S oc . Ant iqs. J i l l . ' A Tra jan ic k i ln c o mp lex , n ear L it t le Chesters , Derbs . 1 968 ' S oc . An t iqs . J n l. U ( 1971) , 36 -70. S tan ley. S tan ley , M . a nd B . ' The Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot ters f i eld a t Wappenbury , Warw ick '.

B ir m Arch . S oc . 7 9 ( 1964 ) .

S urrey Arch . C o l l . XX ( 1 907) p . 2 31 - n o tes V icler 1 932.

V idler , A ., 'Med ieva l p ot tery k i lns a t S t . Bar tho lo mews Hosp i ta l ,

Rye , S ussex ', S ussex Arch . Co l l. 1 , 20( [1 1 ( 1 932) , 8 3-101. Wa ters 1 963.

Wa ters , P . L ., ' A Ro mano-Br i t ish t i le a t S and in Far m , L eigh

S in ton , worcs r, Trans . Worcs . Arch . S oc . 4 0 ( 1 963) , 1 -5. Webster 1 960.

Webster , G ., ' A Med ieva l p o t tery k i ln a t Au cle m , Chesh ire ',

Med . Arch. I V ( 1 960 ) . Webster 1 976 .

Webster , e d ., Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery : as tuden ts ' g u ide

C .B . A. Res. Rep . N o. 6 , 1 976 . Wi ld 1 973.

Wi ld , J . P . ' A F our th c en tury P o t ters workshop a nd k i lns a t

S t ibb ing ton , P eterborough ', i n De ts icas , A ., C urren t Research i n Ro mano-Br i t ish C oarse P o t tery , C .B .A. 1 0 , L ondon , 1 973.

4 40

2 6 .

A GROUP OF POTTERY FRO M ECCLES , KENT A lec Detsicas

I NTRODUCTION T he g roup o fp ot tery d iscussed i n t h is p aper i s p art o f ad epos i t f ound i n t he b ackf i l l ing o fa n e ar ly d itch , D i tch X , wh ich p assed p art ly b e low t he s ou th-east w ing o f t he v i l la a t E cc les , K en t ( De ts icas , 1 972 , 1 02 ; 1 973 , 7 4 ) . A t l east t h ir ty v esse ls w ere p resent i n t h is d eposi t , a nd a r epresen ta t ive s e lect ion i s i l lustra ted h ere ( F igs. 2 6 .1 a nd 2 6 .2) . A l l t hese v esse ls a re c lear ly wasters f rom t he k i ln (s ) n ear t he v i l la ( Dets icas , 1 977 ) where many s herds o f i dent ica l p ots were a lso f ound , b u t i ti s n ot i m med ia te ly a pparen t why t hese p ots were t ransported s o me d istance a nd t hrown i n to t he d i tch r a ther t han d iscarded a t t he k i ln s i te where v ery l arge amoun ts o f waste mater ia l w ere f ound . THE VESSELS A l l t hese p o ts s how r e markab ly l i t t le v ar ia t ion i nh e igh t a nd s ize a s i f t hey were made t o as tandard c apac i ty . However , t he ir o u tstand ing c o mmon f ea ture i s t hree e qu id istan th o les r ound t he b ody o f t he v esse l a nd a f our th t hrough i t s b ase , made w i th a k n ife b efore f i r ing . Apar t f ro m n o . 1 8 ( F ig . 2 6 .2) , t hese h o les a re t r iangu lar , w ith t he a pex t owards t he n eck o f t he p ot ; e xcept iona l ly , t he a pex p o in ts t owards t he b ase ( F ig . 2 6 .2 , n o . 1 1 ) . T he h o le t hrough t he b ase v ar ies f ro m t he r ounded t o t he o va l a nd was c lear ly c u tw i th much l ess c are t han t he t r iangu lar h o les ; s im i lar ly , c are less r e mova l f ro m t he whee l h as r esu l ted i n s l igh t ly a ng led b ases wh ich make s o me o f t hese p ots l ook t i l ted t o o ne s ide . I n s evera l c ases , t oo , t he b ases w ere t r i mmed w i th a k n i fe g iv ing t hem a p o lygona l r a ther t han r ounded o ut l ine . The p aste o f a l t hese v esse ls was made f ro m t he l oca l c lay , w i th v ary ing a dm ix tures o f s and ; t hey were 'g enera l ly f i red t o af a ir ly h ard , s andy f abr ic a nd a re ma in ly b iscu i t-co loured—a f ew v ar ia t ions i n c o lour ing , f ro m c ream t o p ink , d o n ot a ppear i n ten t iona l b u t r a ther t he r esu l t o f t he f i r ing , a s t heir d iferent c o lour i s p a tchy . T here i s l i t t le v ar ia t ion , t oo , i n t he f or m o ft he r im o f t he f i rst g roup o f p o ts ( F ig . 2 6 .1 , n os . 1 -9 ) , wh ich h ave t h icker s ec t ions , a nd i n t he s hape o f t he v esse l . I t wou ld s ee m t ha t t he g enera l i nt en t ion was t o p roduce a r a ther g lobular p ot ; h owever , i n s o me c ases t he l ower p ort ion o f t he p o t was s o mewha t c onstr ic ted i n o rder t o a rr ive a t a more c on ica l s hape . Nos . 1 -9 ( F ig . 2 6 .1) , wh ich c lose ly r ese mb le e ach o ther , h ave more o r l ess s tra igh t r i ms , w i th o n ly t he s l igh test c onstr ic t ion a tt he n eck t o p rod uce a s l igh t s hou lder . N o . 4i s b ad ly d istor ted r ound t he b ody a nd r a ther c ream i n c o lour ;

n o . 9 , b ad ly d istor ted a t t he r im a nd s hou lder , h as a r o l l

r im a nd i s l ess g lobu lar a nd s l igh ty t a l ler t han t he r es t . 4 41

N os . 1 0-17 ( F ig . 2 6.2)

F ig. 2 6.1

4 42

S ca le 1 :4 .

h ave g enera l ly t h inner wa l ls a nd g rea ter v ar ia t ion i n s hape a nd r im f or m . The r im o f n o . 1 0 , a n o bv ious waster w i th ad istor ted b ody , i sn earest t o t he r i ms o f n os . 1 -9 , t hough i ti s a sma l l a nd l ess g lobu lar p o t ; n o . 1 1 h as a s l igh t ly e ver ted r im a nd i st he o n ly v esse l s ä f ar r econs truc ted t ha t h as i nv er ted t r iangu lar h o les .

N o . 1 2 s hows a s l igh t b ead-r im a nd a more g lobu lar

b ody , l i ke n o . 1 1 ; n o . 1 3 h as at r iangu lar r i m whereas t he r i ms o fn os . 1 4 a nd 1 5 a re much more r o l led . N o . 1 5 , a lso a b ad ly d istor ted was ter , i s r a ther p ink i n c o lour , w i th s evera l g rooves r ound t he b ody g iv ing i t as l igh t ly b arre ll ike a ppearance . T he r im o fn o . 1 6 i s u pr igh t a nd t r iangu lar , a nd n o . 1 7 i sv ir tual ly r i mless . N o . 1 8 i s q u i te u n l ike a ny o f t he o ther v essels i l lustra ted . I ti s t he t a l lest a nd h as a t h ick , u pr igh t b ody g iv ing i tt he o u t l ine o f ab eaker ; t he l ower p or t ion o f t he b ody h as b een p ared w i th a-k n ife t o g ive t he v esse l a more wa isted l ook . T he r -i m o ft h is p o t i s f a ir ly h eavy a nd t he b ody h as s em i-c ircu lar h o les t hrough i ti ns tead o ft he u sua l t r iangu lar o nes . A s t h is p o t i s s o f ar t he o n ly o ne o f i t s s hape i den t i f ied , i ti s wondered whe ther i t may h ave b een t he p ro to type f or t he who le s er ies , c opy ing a n u nknown mode l w i th s em i-circu lar h o les ; a nd , i fs o , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t r iang u lar h o les w ere e ven tua l ly p referred t o s em i-c ircu lar o nes a s t he f or mer a re e as ier t o c u t t hrough t he b ody o ft he v essel s t i l l i n ap las t ic c ond i t ion . DAT ING T he d i tch i n wh ich t hese p o ts w ere f ound a n teda tes t he c ons truc t ion o f t he v i l la 's s ou th-eas t w ing a nd , t hough t h is w ing was a l a ter a dd i t ion t o t he v i l la , i ti s c lear t ha t D i tch X was f i l led i n b efore t he b u i ld ing o ft he f i rs t h ouse c . A .D . 6 5. F ur ther more , t he k i ln(s ) manu fac tur ing t hese p o ts c eased t o p roduce a bout t ha t t ime , t oo . I ti s c er ta in t hat t hese p o ts w ere made d ur ing t he d ecade a f ter A .D .50 . D ISCUSS ION E ver s ince t he ir d iscovery i n 1 973 , t he p urpose o ft hese v essels h as b een a ma t ter f or c on jec ture ; h owever , t he t en ta t ive s ugges t ion ( De ts icas , 1 974 , 3 05 ) t ha t t hey may h ave b een i n tended f or u se i nver ted o ver a l i gh t s ource s uch a s a sma l l l a mp c an n ow b e a bandoned . F or , t hough n o p ara l le ls a re k nown t o me f ro m R o man B r i ta in , v esse ls w i th h o les t hrough t he ir wa l ls h ave b een f ound i n G reece a nd I t a ly : i n A thens , s ou th o ft he H epha iste ion ( Burr T hompson , 1 937 , 3 96-425 ) ; i n P o mpe i i , i n t he g arden o f 'T he H ouse o f t he S h ip E uropa ', i n 'T he H ouse o f t he H ebrew ', i n t he g arden o f T he T r ic l in ium w ith t he Mosa ic F oun ta ins ', i n t he p er isty le o f T he H ouse o f t he C en tenary ' a nd , a lso , i n t he v i l la a t T orre A . nnunz ia ta ( J ashe msk i , 1 974 , 3 994 00 ) a nd a t ak i ln-s i te a t P r i ma P or ta . ( Hayes , i n l i t .) . A l l t hese v esse ls a re g enera l ly r ather l arger t han t he E cc les p o ts , o f d i f feren t f orms a nd c o lour , b u t a l l h ave a t l east t hree h o les t hrough t he ir b od ies a nd o ne t hrough t he b ase . J ashe msk i i n terpre ted h er P o mpe ian p o ts a s u sed f or t he p ropaga t ion o f s eed l ing t rees b efore r e-p lan t ing r a ther t han f or mak ing a ir l ayers wh ich w as t he i n terp re tat ion o f t he s im i lar b u t l arger p o ts f ound i n A thens ; s he f ur ther r eferred t o t he u se o f 'p o ts w i th mu l t ip le h o les f or g row ing g raf ted t rees a nd s hrubs ' ( J ashe msk i , 1 974 , 4 00 ) i n 1 973 a t a modern P o mpe ian n ursery . I ti s a lso w e l l k nown t ha t P l iny ( Na tura l H is tory , 1 2.16 ) r e fers t o t he u se o f p o ts w ith b rea thi ng h o les f or t he r oo ts o f impor ted v ar iet ies o ft rees , wh ich wou ld e xp la in 4 43

F ig. 2 6.2

4 44

S ca le 1 :4 .

t he p resence o f s uch v essels a t I t a l ian s i tes.

S o me t ree s pecies were impor ted

i nto B r i ta in b yt he Ro mans , e .g . t he c herry , a nd t h is c ou ld e xp la in t he d isc overy o f t heir c on ta iners i n Ro mano-Br i t ish c on tex ts ;

b u t , t hough i tc an b e

a rgued t ha t t he E ccles p o ts were mode l led o n s uch imported c on ta iner p o ts , t h is d oes n o t e xp la in t he r eason f or t he ir manu facture a t t he Eccles k i ln-s i te a s e ar ly a s A .D. 5 0-65 a nd t he q uest ion mus t r e ma in o pen f or t he t ime b e ing . ACKNO WLEDG MENTS Iam g ra tefu l t o Mrs . G . G oodw in , f or u nder tak ing t he r econs truct ion o f t he E cc les p o ts ;

a nd t o Dr . J . Hayes , f or d raw ing my a tten t ion t o t he

I ta l ian p aral le ls . B IBL IOGRAPHY B urr Tho mpson 1 937.

Burr Tho mpson , D ., ' The Garden o f Hepha istos ',

H esper ia , 6( 1 937) , 3 96-425. Detsicas 1 972.

D e ts icas , A . P ., ' Excava t ions a t Eccles , 1 971 ', Archaeo l .

C an t iana , 8 7 ( 1 972) , 1 01-110 . D etsicas 1 973. C an t iana D etsicas 1 974.

D e ts icas , A . P ., ' Excava t ions a t E ccles , 1 972 ', Archaeo l . 8 8 ( 1 973) , 7 3-80 . D e tsicas , A . P ., ' F inds f ro m t he P ot tery K i ln(s ) a t Eccles ,

K en t ', An t iq . J ourn ., 5 4 ( 1 974 ) , 3 05-6 . D etsicas 1 977.

D e tsicas , A . P ., ' F irst-Century P ot tery Manu fac ture a t

Ecc les , K en t ', i n J . Dore a nd K . G reene ( eds .) , Ro man P o t tery S tud ies i n B r itain a nd b eyond ', BAR S 30 , Ox ford , 1 977 , 1 9-36 . J ashe msk i 1 974.

J ashe msk i , W. F ., ' The D iscovery o f a Marke t-Garden

Orchard a t P o mpe i i :

The Garden o f t he " House o f t he S h ip Europa"

Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy , 7 8 ( 1 974) , 3 91-404.

4 45

2 7.

THE LATE RO MAN POTTERY

OF GREAT CASTERTON—THIRTY YEARS ON J . R . P err in

T h ir ty y ears a go , i n l ate J u ly-Ear ly August , 1 950 , as er ies o f s u mmer t ra in ing e xcavat ions , wh ich c on t inued a nnual ly u n t i l 1 958 , b egan a t t he R o man t own a nd v i l la o f G reat C aster ton , t hen i n R u t land , n ow i n L e icestersh ire . T he o ver-a l l d irector o f t he e xcavat ions w as D r P h i l l ip C order .

H is a ss ist-

a n ts w ere G raha m Webster , J ohn G i l la m a nd Maur ice B ar ley . I n t he f i na l s eason G raha m Webster was c oncen trat ing o n h is own t ra in ing e xcava t ions a t Wroxeter , a nd w as r ep laced b y B r ian H ar t ley . p roduced :

T hree p ub l icat ions were

G reat C aster ton I , Ia nd I I ( GC I , GC I , GC I I ).

The d iscover ies i n t he v il la i n 1 950 i ncluded a l arge d epos i t o f p ot tery a ssoc ia ted w i th t he d estruc t ion o f o ne o f t he b u i ld ings , t hen t er med t he ' barn ' .1 C oins f ro m t he d ebr is ( GC I , 1 8-19 a nd 2 2-3) i ncluded a h oard o f 3 27 m in i ms d ated t o a f ter c . A . D . 3 50-3 , a nd o thers d at ing d own t o V a len t in ian I( A . D . 3 64-375 ) . O ne t he sma l l b ronze c o ins b ore a n Ar les m in t mark wh ich d id n o t c o me i n to u se u n t i l a f ter c . A . D . 3 75 . T he p o t tery was p ub l ished i n d e ta i l b y J ohn G i l la m ( GC I , 2 4-40 , f igs . 8 -10 , n os . 1 -55 ) a s ad epos i t b e long ing t o , 't he mo men t when t he v i l la was f ina l ly d estroyed , a t ad ate l a ter , p erhaps c ons iderab ly l a ter , t han A .D . 3 75 ' ( op c i t . 2 4 ) . Excava t ions i n s ubsequen t y ears u ncovered a s er ies o f o ther b u i ld ings wh ich were f ina l ly p ub l ished a s t wo ma in c o mp lexes —a l arge b arn w i th c ircu lar d ry ing f loor , l a ter c onver ted i n to a dwe l ling-house , a nd a s ou th w ing w i th b a th h ouse . The ' barn ' o f 1 950 f or med p ar t o f t h is s ou th w ing ( GC I I , 5 9-77) . O ther l a te g roups o fp o t tery r ela t ing t o t he f ina l d estruc t ion o f t he v il la were f ound i n t he dwe l l ing-house a nd s ou th w ing .

Assoc ia ted w i th t he p o t tery were

c o ins , s o me wel l worn , o f Va len t in ian l ( A.D . 3 88-92) ; 9 6 ) ;

Arcad ius ( A.D. 3 88-

Theodosius ( A .D . 3 88-95) a nd Eugen ius ( A .D. 3 92-4 ) .

The o n ly p o t tery

p ub l ished was a g roup f ro m t he f lues o f t he dwe l ling-house c orn-dry ing f l oor a ssocia ted w i th a Theodosian c o in o f A .D. 3 88-400 ( op c i t , 6 6-9 , f ig . 2 4 , n os. 1 -15). Tha t f ro m t he b a th-house , h owever , ' exact ly ma tched t ha t p rev iously f ound a nd f u l ly p ub l ished ' ( op c i t , 7 6) . The c onc lus ion d rawn i n t he f ina l r epor t was t ha t t he f ina l d es truct ion o ft he v il la , i nclud ing t he ' barn ' o f 1 950 , was , ' cer ta in ly a f ter A .D. 3 88 , a nd p robab ly a f ter A .D. 3 95 ' ( op c i t , 7 6 ) .2 The p o t tery f ro m t he d estruc t ion o f t he v illa a t G rea t Cas ter ton , a s r epresen ted b yt ha t p ub l ished ,

3

i s s t i l l , t h ir ty y ears o n , t he ma in s ecure ly

d a ted l a te f our th- t o e ar ly f i f th-cen tury g roup f ro m t he a rea . O ther d epos i ts c on ta in ing p o t tery w i th a n e ssen t ia l ly l a te c harac ter h ave b een e xcava ted more r ecen t ly , b u t t heir d a t ing i s o f ten f ar f ro m s ecure , a nd t he r ange o fv esse l t ypes a nd wares i s a lways t o s o me d egree l im ited . 4 47

The p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o c o mpare t he G rea t C as ter ton p o t tery w i th t ha t f ro m o ther l a te g roups , w i th a v iew t o i so lat ing , i fp oss ib le , t he t ru ly l a te v essel t ypes , r epresen t ing t he l a test p roduc ts o f t he N ene Va lley i ndustry ; t ypes ;

t o r ev iew t he d a t ing o f t he ma in f our th- c en tury c o lour-coa ted

a nd t o c onsider o ther f our th- c en tury p ot tery u sed i n t he N ene Va l ley .

T he d iscuss ion i s i n t wo ma in p ar ts .

The f irs t a nd l arges t d ea ls w i th t he

N ene Va l ley f our th- c en tury c o lour-coa ted wares .

The s econd c overs o ther

f ourth-cen tury wares p resen t i n , o r a bsen t f ro m , t he G rea t C as ter ton d epos i ts . T he o ther l a te g roups u sed f or c o mpars ion f a l l b road ly i n to t hree c a tegor ies , t hough t hey a re n o t a lways c onsidered s epara tely o r i ndiv idua l ly . P ot tery f ro m C hester ton , C astor , O r ton Hal l F ar m , a nd S t ibb ing ton r epresen ts t he s e t t le men t c lose t o Durobr ivae a nd t he p o t tery p roduc t ion c en tre .4 G roups f ro m C a mbr idge , i t s e nv irons , a nd t he C ar Dyke g ive s o me i dea o f t he more im med ia te markets a nd s pheres o f i n f luence ; p o t tery f ro m L inco ln5 a nd V eru la m iu m , t ogether w i th t he v i l las o f L ock leys , P ark S tree t , B oxmoor , N or thchurch a nd G adebr idge , p rovide a v iew o f t he more d is tan t a reas wh ich s t i ll h ad c era m ic l i nks w i th t he N ene Va l ley . Each g roup h as i nheren t p rob le ms afect ing a ccura te c o mpar ison , ma in ly r e la ted t o t he a ctua l d a te , t he t ype o f d epos i t a nd r ange o fv essels w i th in i t . S o me o f t he C hes ter ton 6 p ot tery , f ro m t he s o-ca l led ' bases r oo m ' i n B u i ld ing 9 , i s s ecure ly d ated b y c o ins t o p ost c . A . .D . 3 50 a nd p robab ly p ost c . A .D . 3 75 , b u t t he r est i s f ro m u nsea led l ayers , i nc lud ing a l a te d i tch c ont a in ing r es idua l p o t tery .

The l a tes t p ot tery f ro m S t ibb ing ton i s f ro m a wel l

wh ich c on ta ined a c o in o f Honor ius , b u t a l most t hree-quar ters o f t he v essels a re f l agons a nd t he r ange o f o ther t ypes i s sma 1 1 .7 T he S t ibb ing ton k i ln g roup , e xcava ted i n 1 969 ( W i ld , 1 974 , 6 2-3 , f ig .8, a 1 ) , may n ot h ave a l l b een c on te mporary w i th t he l ast f ir ing , a s i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he d isused k i ln was u sed a s ad u mp f or l a ter ma ter ia l made e lsewhere .8 T he l a te t h ird- t o e ar ly f our th-cen tury d a te g iven f or t he k i ln was b ased , b y a na logy , o n t he p roduc ts o ft he 1 957 k i lns ( Hart ley , 1 972, 9 -12, f ig .3 , n os 3 -11 ; f ig .4 , n os .5, 8 -12 , 1 4-18) , wh ich i n f ac t h ad n o i ndependent , e x terna l , d a t ing e v idence , a nd were s im i lar ly

i nd irec t ly d a ted b yt he f or ms p resen t .

9

The p o t tery f ro m t he l arge v i l la a t C astor ( W i ld , 1 974 , f ig .4) was mos t ly f ro m d isturbed l ayers l oca ted i n sma l l a reas o r n arrow t renches , s o me i n a reas a d jacen t t o t he ma in c o mp lex .

1 0

C o ins a ssocia ted w i th o ne o f t he

e xcava t ions c overed t he p er iod c .A . D .260-375 .1 1 O r ton H a l l F ar m ( Mackreth , 1 978) was a Ro man f ar ms tead , c ont inua l ly c hang ing , b u tw i th f ew h or izons o r a ltera t ions a f fec t ing t he who le s i te a t o ne t i r re. d if f icu l t t o d ef ine .

G roups a re t herefore o f ten

T he c o in s equence f or t he s i te e nds w i th Arcad ius ( A .D.

3 88-96) , b u t t here i s ac onsiderab le S axon p resence o n t he s i te. T here i s a s y e t l i t t le p ub l ished p o t tery f ro m C ambr idge o ther t han t he Arbury Road f inds ( Har t ley , 1 955 , Append ix I I , 2 6-39 , f igs . 5 -7 , n os . 1 -99 ) , wh ich i nc luded sma l l g roups d a t ing u p t o t he t hird q uar ter o f t he f ourth c en tury ( op c i t , P i ts 1 ,5 ,6 ,8) .

1 2

The u pper f i l l ing o f t he C ar Dyke ( Clark , 1 949 , 1 53-

4 48

1 58, f igs .6 -8, n os . 1 -44) p roduced a mixed g roup o f p ot tery d a t ing d own t o a round t he m id f our th c entury ( op c i t , 1 57-8) .

The C a mbr idge a rea h ad l oca l

p ot tery i ndus tr ies o f i t s own i n t he Ro man p er iod , a nd was a lso c lose t o f our th c en tury p roduc t ion c en tres o ther t han t he Nene Va l ley .

Th is was a lso t rue o f

t he Veru la m iu m a rea where a ssess men ts o f t he d a t ing a nd c o mpos i t ion o f l a te g roups h ave l ong b een i n f luenced b y t he ma ter ia l d u mped i n to t he d isused t hea tre ( Kenyon , 1 935 , 2 54-8 , f igs .10-11 , n os . 1 6-32) .

The 2 569 c o ins f ound

w i th t he p ot tery d a ted d own t o Honor ius , t hough 1 143 were o f t he t h ird c en tury ( op c i t ,2 39-41) .

T he L ock leys V i l la i s t hough t o h ave j us t c on t inued i n to t he

l ast q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury ( Ward-Perk ins , 1 938 , 3 51) , a nd g roups o f f ourth-cen tury p o t tery d a t ing t hrough t o c . A .D.340-50 a re P ub l ished ( op c i te 3 57-375 , f igs . 9 -13 ) .

T he P ark S tree t V il la was d estroyed o r a bandoned i n

t he 3 60 's ( O 'Nei l , 1 945 , 2 9-30 ) a nd a c ons iderab le amoun t o f p ot tery f ro m t he f ina l l ayers was p ub l ished ( op c i t , 8 5-95, f igs . 1 8-21) .

B ox moor , Nor th-

c hurch a nd Gadebr idge wen t i n to d ecl ine a round t he m id-four th c en tury ( Nea l , 1 974-6 , 1 28) , a nd l arge f our th c entury g roups o f p ot tery a re p ub lished ( op c i t , 3 9-47 , f igs . XX I I I-XXVI I , n os.36-159 ; 9 5-98, f igs. LV I I-LVIL I , n os 4 3-84 ; N ea l , 1 974 , 2 35-52 , f igs . 1 05-12, n os . 2 59-323 , 3 39-371 , 3 77-421) . The e xcava t ions a t Veru la m iu m i n 1 957-60 o f I nsu la X IV s howed t ha t b u i ld ings a nd f ea tures i n t ha t a rea l as ted i n to t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he f our th c entury a nd p ossib ly l a ter ( Frere , 1 972, 1 08-112) .

The p ub l ished p ot tery i nc luded f our th

c en tury g roups d a t ing d own t o 3 75-410+ ( op c i t , 3 45-364 , f igs . 1 32-139 , n os. 1 098-1293) .

F ina l ly p ot tery f ro m The Park i n L inco ln was c ons idered

r epresen ta t ive o f ' t he l a tes t Ro man p ot tery i n u se a t L inco ln , a nd i t s d a te i s l ike ly t o e x tend i n to t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he f i f th c en tury ' and was p ub l ished i n d eta i l ( Dar l ing , 1 977) .

The d a t ing i s b ased o n 1 7 c o ins r ang ing i n d a te f ro m

c . A . D. 2 50-395, wh ich were d istr ibu ted t hroughou t t he s tra t i f ica t ion o f t he s i te.

As n o ted i n t he r epor t , as im ilar s itua t ion o ccurred i n t he V eru lm iu m

t hea tre ( op c i t ) a nd b o th t hese d epos i ts i n many ways e p ito m ise o ne o f t he b as ic p rob le ms o f c o mpar ing l a te g roups o f p o t tery d a ted b y c o ins.

There i s

at endency t o c ons ider t he d eposi t a nd a l l t he p o t tery i n i ta s d a t ing t o t he p er iod c overed b yt he l a test c o ins , r a ther t han t he t o ta l d a te r ange o f a l t he c o ins .

I n s o d oing t he p rob le ms o f r es idua l i ty c an o f ten b e o bscured .

I n t h is

a rt icle , f o l low ing G i n & sp receden t , l a te g roups a re c ons idered t o b e made u p o f t hree e le men ts : t ru ly r es idua l p ieces b roken b efore t he d epos it ion a nd t he im med ia tely p reced ing r ela ted o ccupa t ion ; ' o ld-fash ioned ' v essels t ha t h ad b een i n u se f or a l ong t ime when t he d epos i t ion o ccurred ; r ecen t ly i n troduced a t t he t i me o f t he d epos i t ion .

a nd t ypes o nly

S epara te t ypes a nd t he ir

p ossib le d eve lop men ts a re i den t i f ied , t he t ype a nd l oca t ion o f t he d epos i ts i n wh ich t hey o ccur a re n o ted , a nd t hen s uch d a tes a s e x ist a re a dded .

I n t h is

way i ti s h oped t ha t ab as ic t ypo logy a nd c hrono lgy f or f our th-century wares i n t he Nene Val ley may b e e s tab lished .

The f ina l a nswer l i es i n t he e xcavat ion

a nd p ub l ica t ion o f many o ther wel l-da ted l a te g roups . Over f i f ty p ercen t o f t he p ot tery f ro m t he G reat C asterton v i l la d estruct ion d eposi t was c olour-coa ted ware , p robab ly a l l o f Nene Va l ley o r ig in .

The

ma in v esse l t ypes were f lagons , n arrow- a nd w ide- mou thed j ars ( or b ow ls ) ,

4 49

f l anged b ow ls , p la in o r b eaded d ishes , a nd p la t ters .

T here were a lso e xa mp les

o f b eakers , l i ds , b oxes , a nd a n im i ta t ion s am ian f orm 3 8.

A c er ta in d is t inct ion

i n t he c o lour-coa ted wares s hou ld b e c ons idered a t t h is s tage .

Essen t ia l ly

' f ine ' t ypes s uch a s b eakers , f lagons a nd b oxes were a l l b e ing made we l l b efore t he f our th c en tury . O ther t ypes , of ten t er med 'c oarse ' ,s uch a s f l anged-bow ls a nd j ars , o n ly a ppeared o n t he market a s s uccessors t o s im i lar g rey wares wh ich were p ar t o f t he b as ic ' l oca l ' p roduc t ion o f t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies. The f irs t a rr iva l o f t hese ' coarse ' c o lour-coa ted t ypes i s t herefore r e la ted t o t he d ecl ine o ft he g rey ware i ndus try , a l though t he d a te t ha t t h is o ccurred i s u ncer ta in . C o lour-coa ted p roduct ion a t S t ibb ing ton i s d a ted f ro m t he l a te t h ird t o e ar ly f our th c en tury o nwards f or r easons g iven a bove .

S o me o f t he S t ibb ing ton

1 969 k i ln p roduc ts ( op c i t , f ig .8, f , h , i )h ave p ara l le ls i n t he O x fordsh ire r eg ion where s im i lar f lagons a nd im i ta t ion s am ian wares were made f ro m c . A .D. 2 70 ( o r i n s o me c ases c . A .D. 2 40 ) o nwards ( Young , 1 977 , 4 5-51, 9 7 ). 4 1 1. 1.•

Ano ther c on tr ibu t ing f actor c ou ld h ave b een t he r eorgan isat ions i n it iated b y D ioc let ian a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird a nd i n t he e ar ly f our th c entury wh ich c rea ted n ew p rov inces , w i th f ron t iers a nd c us to ms , a nd p ossib ly n ew n etworks o f t rade a nd s upp ly . These c ou ld h ave c aused t he l oss o r c on trac t ion o f p ree x ist ing marke t a reas , a l lowed n ew i n f luences t o c ome t o t he f ore o r p u t p ressure o f v ary ing t ypes o n t he N ene V al ley a nd o ther p ot tery i ndustr ies . O ne r esu lt c ou ld h ave b een t he m igrat ion o f p ot ters t o a nd f rom t he N ene V a l ley . T he s im i lar i ty b etween s o me ' coarse ' t ypes o f Nene Val ley c o lour-coa ted wares a nd Ox ford p roduc ts i s n o ted a bove . P erhaps i t was Ox ford p ot ters who s tar ted a t rend wh ich e ventua l ly t ook i n more l oca l t ypes o f v essel .

T he

s im i lar ity b e tween N ene Va l ley a nd Swanpoo l c o lour-coa ted p roduc ts h as of ten b een n o ted ( s ee n o te 5 ) .

The Swanpoo l i ndus try p robab ly b egan i n t he e arly

f our th c en tury ( Webster , 1 976 ,23) .

There i s a lso e v idence f or Nene Va l ley

p ot ters a t C ra mbeck i n Eas t Y orksh ire ,

1 3

a nd t he b as ic C ra mbeck g rey ware

o f t he f our th c en tury i s v ery c lose i n a ppearance t o N ene V a l ley g rey wares . The s tar t o f Cra mbeck p roduc t ion i s a lso t hough t t o b e e ar ly f our th c en tury . Most o f t h is e v idence f or t he s tar t o f p roduct ion o f 'c oarse ' c o lour-coated v esse ls i s o bv ious ly c ircu mstan t ia l , b u t a ppears t o s uggest t he l ate t h ird t o e ar ly f our th c en tury .

Quan t it ies o f BB1 a ppear i n t he N ene V a l ley f or t he

f i rst t ime d ur ing t h is p er iod a nd may h ave e xer ted a n i nf luence . More t han at h ird o ft he c olour-coa ted v essels f ro m t he p ub l ished Grea t Cas ter ton d estruc t ion p ot tery were s tra igh t-sided f l anged b ow ls ( GC I , f ig . 9 , 3 5-7 ). Th is t ype i s c ons is ten t ly p resen t i n t he l a tes t p hases o f a l l l oca l s i tes , a nd i n t hose o fa l l t he o ther p laces a nd a reas b e ing c ons idered .1 4

T here

c an b e n o d oub t t hat t h is t ype w as p roduced f ro m t he v ery b eg inn ing o f Ic oarse ' c o lour-coa ted p roduct ion , t hroughou t t he f our th c en tury , a nd p robab ly u p t o t he v ery e nd o ft he i ndus try . I th as b een s uggested ( Har t ley , 1 972 , 2 6 , n o .1 6 ) t ha t t he e ar l ier v essels a re s hal lower i n p ropor t ion t o t he d iame ter t han l ater o nes .

C er ta in ly most o f t he k nown g rey f l anged b ow ls a nd c o lour-coated

e xa mp les f ro m C astor a nd t he S t ibb ing ton 1 969 k i ln ( op c i t . f i g .8 , j )a re s ha l low , w hereas t hose i n t he G reat C aster ton d es truct ion d epos it a nd o ther l a te g roups a re ma in ly d eep .

I ti s d if f icu lt t o s ay w hether t h is was a g radua l ,

n atura l p rogress ion , o r was r e lated t o f unct ion o r s o me o ther i n f luence . 4 50

D ishes w i th p la in o r s l igh t ly b eaded r ims a ccoun ted f or o ver a t en th o f t he Grea t C as ter ton p ot tery ( GC I , f i g . 1 0 , 4 0-41) . The s l igh t ly b eaded v ar iety i s u nco m mon a nd i t s d eve lop ment i s u ncer ta in .

T he p la in-r i m med d ish i s a n

e ver-present t ype , i n t he N ene V a l ley , a s i s t he f l anged b ow l .

I ti sp oss ib le

t hey f ormed a ' cassero le ' s e t a s w i th BB1 f l anged b ow ls a nd p la in d ishes ( Gi l lam . 1 976 , 7 0 , a nd f i g . 6 , n os . 9 0-91) . Most l a ter e xamp les h ave a c urved p rof i le , h av ing l ost t he d emarca t ion b etween wa l l a nd b ase a pparen t o n e ar lier v esse ls ( c f GC I , f i g . 1 0 , n o . 4 0 w i th S t ibb ing ton , 1 969 , f i g , 8g ) .

1 5

About a f i f th o ft he c o lour-coa ted v esse ls were w ide- mou thed j ars ( or b ow ls ) ( 2E1 , f i g . 8 , 1 5-16; f i g . 9 , n o . 2 5 ; GC I I , f i g . 2 4 , n os . 1 3-14 ) . T hese a lso o ccur i n f our th a nd l a te f our th-cen tury g roups , n ot o n ly l oca l ly b u t i n w ider marke t a reas . I ti s u ncer ta in whe ther t here were c hanges i n f orms d ur ing t he f our th c entury . T here a re e xamp les o fb oth l ong a nd s hor tn ecked v esse ls , w i th t he l ong-necked p erhaps b e long ing t o t he e ar lier p er iod , a nd mos t o f t he l a te e xa mp les h av ing s hor t n ecks .

T he ir g rey ware p rede-

c essors were made w i th b oth l ong a nd s hor t n ecks , h owever , s o t he d if ference may b e o ne o f t ype r a ther t han c hrono log ica l . T he e xamp le f ro m t he S t ibb ington 1 969 k i ln ( oi . c i t . ,f i g . 8 , k ) h as a s hor t n eck . The p ropor t ion o f f l agons a nd n arrow- mou thed j ars was a pprox ima te ly e qua l a t a round a t en th e ach . G i l lam s ta ted t ha t , ' There i s more v ar ie ty o f t ype w i th in t he f l agon c lass t han w i th mos t o f t he c lasses ' ( GC I , 2 8) .

H e

i l lustra ted f our o f t he s eventeen c o lour-coa ted f l agons t ha t o ccurred , a nd n oted t ha t o ne o ft he o ther t ypes was p inched-necked ( GC I , 2 8, f i g . 8 , n os . 1 -4) . The v ar ie ty i n t he S t ibb ington We l l f l agons was c onsiderab ly l ess .

Most

w ere c o mparab le t o GC I . f i g . 8 , n o . 2 , w i th a f ew o thers b e ing s im i lar t o GC I , f i g . 8 , n o . 3 . B oth o f t hese t ypes a lso o ccurred w i th p inched n ecks . F lagons f ro m o ther l a te g roups i n t he N ene Va l ley a re most ly s im i lar t o GC I , f i g . 8 , n o . 2 ; many a re o f t he p inched-necked v ar ie ty .

T hese h ave n ow

o ccurred i n s uf f ic ien t n u mbers e lsewhere t o a l low u sefu l c o mpar ison .

I ti s

n ot c er ta in i ft he t a l l, c y lindr ica l-necked t ype r epresen ted b y r ounded a nd p inched-necked v ar ie t ies o f GC I , f i g . 8 , n o . 2a re t he l a test d eve lopmen t i n N ene Va l ley f l agons , o r w he ther t he t ypes h ad d if ferent f unc t ions wh ich w ou ld c ause e ach t ype t o b e made a nd u sed a t a ny t ime wh i le a d emand e x isted . H owever , t he v ery n arrow-necked v ar ie t ies ( Har t ley , 1 972 , f i g . 4 , n os . 8 -9 a nd 1 2-13; S t ibb ing ton , 1 969 , 9 2 .c i t . ,f i g . 8 , c -d) a re c o m monest i n g roups d a t ing u p t o t he midd le o ft he f our th c entury , a s i n t he C ar D yke ( C lark , 1 949 , f i g . 7 , n os . 2 6-27) , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he d emand f or t hese t ypes d ec lined i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c entury . 1 6 The n arrow- mouthed j ar ( GC I , 3 0 a nd f i g . 8 , n o . 1 4) i s a lso a c om mon l oca l t ype o ccurr ing o n most s i tes w i th l a te d epos i ts , i nc luding O r ton H a l l F arm , C hester ton , S t ibb ing ton ( i nc lud ing t he we l l) , Wa ter N ew ton a nd s o o n . I ti s p erhaps n ot q u i te s o e v iden t o n s i tes w i th a s l igh t ly e ar lier d a te r ange , s uch a s C astor .

There were f ew v esse ls r ecogn isab ly o f t h is t ype among t he

S t ibb ing ton 1 969 k i ln ma ter ia l, a nd i td oes n ot , o n p resen t e v idence , a ppear t o h ave b een w ide ly e xpor ted . R ims c an b e g rooved , a s w i th t he Grea t C aster ton e xamp le a nd a t Or ton H a l l F arm , c urved, o r s l igh t ly s quare i n p rof i le . There d oes n o t a ppear t o b e a ny c hrono log ica l s ignif icance i n t hese v ar ie t ies .

A nother v esse l t ype may h ave a b ear ing o n t he d a te o f c o lour4 51

c oa ted n arrow- mou thed j ars . 1 ? ) ,

T he l i ds w i th o r w i thou t s tea m-ho les ( g _g _I , f i g .

n os . 2 1 9-50 ; GC I I , f i g .2 4 , n os . 9 -10 ) f i t t hese j ars s o w e l l , a s t o make

i tp robab le t ha t t hey w ere o f ten made a s as et . T h is t ype o f l i d h as b een c ons idered i n t he p as t a s d a t ing ma in ly t o t he l as t q uar ter o ft he f our th c en tury a nd a f ter . H owever , t h is b e l ief p robab ly s te mmed f rom t he o ccurrence i nf ac t o f t he t ype i n t he G rea t C aster ton d estruct ion d epos its , a nd s im i lar l i ds w ere made a t S t ibb ing ton i n t he e ar ly f our th c en tury ( Har t ley , 1 972 , f i g . 4 , n o .1 4 ) . F u ture e v idence w i ll h opefu l ly s how whe ther t he d a te r ange o f b o th l i ds a nd j ars n eeds t o b e w idened o r n arrowed a ccord ing ly . T here i s as im i lar p rob le m w i th t he w ide p la t ters , n ine o f wh ich o ccurred a t G rea t C as ter ton ( GC 1 , f ig .10 , n os . 4 3-46 ) . Examp les a re f ound i n mos t l a te g roups i n t he N ene V a l ley a nd t hey h ave a lso o f ten b een r egarded a s b e ing o f a n e ssen t ia l ly l a te t ype . H owever , t he S t ibb ing ton 1 969 k i ln h ad a f ew e xamp les ( op c i t ., f i g .8 , e ) , a nd t hey h ave b een f ound i n e ar l ier g roups , f or e xamp le a t O r ton H a l l F arm a nd C astor . T he t ype w as a lso made a t S wanpoo l ( Webster a nd B oo th , 1 947 , D 24-32 , p .72 a nd f i g .4 ) . Mos t o f t he S wanpoo l v esse ls , a nd GC I , f i g .1 0 , n o .46 , r ese mb le t he s am ian f orm 3 6 a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he d ist inc t ion b etween t hese a nd t he more w a l l-s ided v ar ie t ies i s s ign if ican t . "

More e v idence i s a ga in n eeded .

T he t ypes d o n o t a ppear t o

h ave b een w ide ly e xpor ted i n l arge n umbers . T he ma in t ypes o f c o lour-coa ted ware o ccurr ing i n t he G rea t C as ter ton d es truc t ion d epos i ts h ave n ow b een c ons idered . Two o ther w el l-known t ypes d id n o t f ea ture i n s ig n i f ican t q uan t i t ies , n a me ly t he b eaker a nd c as tor b ox . T he c onc lus ion i st ha t b oth h ad b een i n d ec l ine i n t he p er iod l ead ing u p t o t he d es truc t ion . T he f ew b eakers t ha t d id o ccur were a l l o f t he f unne l-necked v ar iety w i th b ead , o r f l a ttopped b ead r i ms. ( GC I ,f i g . 8 , n os . 1 2-13 ) . N one a re f o lded , n one h ave s ca le o r a ny o ther b arbo t ine d ecora t ion ; s ome a re p a in ted . T he ir p ropor t ions a re g enera l ly sma l l a nd n arrow .1 8 B eakers f ro m o ther l a te g roups a re s im i lar . E v idence f ro m a n u mber o f s i tes , i nc lud ing L inco ln ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , f ig .2, n os . 2 7-28 ) , s uggests t ha t p en t icemou lded a nd d imp led , a s o pposed t o f o lded , v ar ie t ies may b e a ss igned t o t h is , p oss ib ly t he l a tes t , p hase o f b eaker p roduc t ion . T he o bv ious r eason f or t he d ec l ine i n b eaker p roduc t ion i st ha t d e mand f or v esse ls o f t h is t ype h ad c eased . I th as a lready b een n o ted t ha t c er ta in t ypes o f f l agon , n o tab ly t he sma l ler , n arrow-necked t ypes , may h ave a lso d ec l ined i n t he l a t ter p ar t o ft he f our th c en tury , a nd i ti s t e mp t ing t o l i nk b o th w i th s o me c hange i n f ash ion , p erhaps d r ink ing h ab i ts . I ti s i n teres t ing t o n o te t ha t an ew t ype o fv esse l t ha t o ccurs o n ly i n l a te g roups i s o f b eaker f or m , b u t i si n f ac t aj ug , h av ing h ad t he l i p p ul led d own t o make a s pou t , a nd a h and le a dded . GC I , f i g .8 , n o .12 i s a l mos t c er ta in ly o ne o ft hese , a nd o thers a re k nown f ro m C hester ton , S t ibb ing ton a nd Wa ter N ew ton . T he t ype .a ppears t o h ave a p ure ly l oca l d istr ibu t ion . C as tor b oxes , o r a t l eas t t he ir l i ds , were s t i l l i n u se i n c . A .D . 3 50 , t he d a te g iven t o t he g o ld c o in h oard , d iscovered i n 1 974 , c on ta ined i n ab ow l c overed b y ab ox l i d ( Durobr ivae 3 , 1 975 , 1 0-12) . T here was o ne f ro m t he G rea t C as ter ton d es truc t ion d epos i t . 3 8) . N u merous e xa mp les o ccur o n o ther l oca l s i tes , a nd i n t he l oca l a nd d istan t marke t a reas , b u t t he l a tes t

e s) ,

e xa mp les a re ma in ly i n d epos i ts a round t he midd le a nd t h ird q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury ( e .g ., Arbury R oad , Cambr idge : Har t ley , o p c i t , f ig 7 , n os 8 4-5) . T he l a tes t C as tor b oxes a nd l i ds a re d is t inc t f ro m t he ir s econd a nd 4 52

t h ird c en tury p redecessors i n t ha t t hey , l i ke t he d ishes , d isp lay a c erta in s lackness o f p ro f i le , w ith t he e dges b etween wa l l a nd r im a nd o f t he d ecorated z ones d isappear ing a nd b eco m ing more r ounded . T he b ases a re o f ten much b roader a nd f l at ter ( 9 1 H ar t ley , 1 972 , f i g .4 , n os . 1 7-18 , a nd S t ibb ing ton 1 969 k i ln ;

o p c i t , f i g .8 , 1 ) , a nd t he r ou let t ing i s p oor ly e xecu ted o n t he l a ter

v esse ls a nd t he l i d g rooves a re n o t s o e v iden t .1 9 T he o ther t ypes o f c o lour-coa ted ware i n t he G rea t C as ter ton d eposi t , f or i ns tance , t he sma l l b eaker ( c f . GC I , f ig .9 , n o .24 ) , o dcur t oo i n frequen t ly e lsewhere t o b e u sefu l ly d iscussed h ere. One o r t wo wel l-known a nd s o me r are t ypes d id n o t o ccur i n t he d epos i ts. There were n o e xa mp les o f i mi ta t ion s am ian f or ms 3 1 , 3 7 o r 4 5 , a nd o n ly t wo o f f or m 3 8 i n c o lour-coated ware . T here i s as im i lar a bsence o fa l l c o lour-coated i m i tat ion s am ian v esse ls o ther t han f or m 3 8 i n l a te g roups a t S t ibb ing ton , Or ton Ha l l F ar m , C hes ter ton a nd Wa ter N ew ton . They o ccur i n s o me n u mbers , e xcep t ing f or m 4 5 h owever , a t Cas tor , Ca mbr idge , i n t he Car Dyke ( op c i t , f ig .6 , n os. 1 , 5 -7 ) a nd e ar l ier g roups a t S t ibb ing ton , i nclud ing t he 1 969 k i ln

( op c i t , f ig .8 , h ,i ) .

There a re

n one f ro m l a te g roups i n t he more d istan t markets , b ut i ti s p robab le t hat c o mpet it ion f ro m o ther k i lns r es tr icted t he ir w ider e xpor t . T he l east c om mon a re im i tat ions o f f or m 4 5 . F or m 3 7 , w ith o r w ithout , r ou let t ing , o ccurred i n sma l l q uan t it ies i n t he S t ibb ing ton 1 969 k i ln mater ia l a nd i n r ough ly t he s a me n u mbers a s t he sma l l c o lour-coated b ead-r im b ow ls w i th w h ite p a in ted a rc d e ' corat ion ( Hart ley 1 972 , f i g .3 , n o .6 ) . An e xa mp le o f t he l a t ter a t L inco ln ( op c i t , f i g .1 , n o .1 7 ) i s o ne o f t he l a test k nown .2 0 I ti s f ar more c o mmon i n e ar l ier d epos its , a s i n t he C ar D yke ( op c i t , f i g .6 , n o .4 ) .

C urren t e v idence

s uggests t hat t he i m i tat ions o f f or ms 3 7 a nd 4 5 may n o t h ave o ut lasted t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he f ourth c en tury , t ha t t hose o f f or m 3 1 , 3 6 a nd t he sma l l d ecorated b ow l , p robab ly l asted i n to t he m idd le t o t h ird q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury , a nd t hat o n ly t hose o f f or m 3 8 w ere a round i n a ny n u mbers i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he f our th c en tury , a nd a f ter . One , a nd p oss ib ly t wo , v essel t ypes f ro m t he S t ibb ing ton wel l were n o t r epresen ted i n t he G rea t Cas ter ton ma ter ia l . The f irs t i s an arrow- mou thed j ar d is t ingu ised b y i t s t hree h andles a nd s ta mped d ecora t ion . 21 f ound i n t he dwel l ing-house c orn-dryer f lue (

The v esse l

Il l , f ig .24 , n o .5) i s most

p robab ly o ft he s a me t ype , w i th n o t e nough o f t he r im h av ing s urv ived t o s ugges t t ha t i th ad t hree h and les .

S ta mped c o lour-coa ted s herds f ro m v esse ls

o f s im ilar f or m h ave b een f ound a t L incoln , Hockwo ld i n Norfolk a nd Or mby i n L inco lnsh ire ,u n fortuna tely i n u nstra t if ied c on tex ts. 22 The s econd t ype i s at hree-hand led , f a ir ly d eep b ow l , w i th wh i te p a in ted d ecora t ion . N o e xact l oca l p ara l le ls a re k nown ; v esse ls w i th t he s a me mou lded t ype o f p ro f i le a re k nown f ro m C hes ter ton a nd N or manga te F ield , b u t n o t e nough s urv ived t o i nd ica te t he p resence o r a bsence o fh andles .

Def in i te p ara l le ls o ccur ,

i n teres t ing ly , a t C o lches ter where t hey were f ound i n v ery l a te f our th- t o e ar ly f i f th-century c on te x ts • 23 These h and led b ow ls a nd j ars may we l l b e s o me o f t he l a test n ew t ypes o f c olour-coa ted ware p roduced i n t he N ene Va l ley . F our d i f ferent f abr ics o ther t han c o lour-coa ted ware were r epresen ted i n t he Grea t Caster ton d es truct ion p o t tery . T hese were c a lc i te-gr i t ted ,2 4 d ark a nd l igh t s el f-co loured , 25 a nd p seudo-sam ian ware ( GC I , 2 6-27 ) . Most o f t he c a lc ite-gr it ted v essels were j ars , w i th o ne o r t wo p la in d ishes , a nd

4 53

s tra igh t—and c urved-s ided b ow ls ( GC I , f i g .8 , n os. 1 7-20 ; f ig .9 , n os . 3 2-3 ; f i g . 1 0 , n o .42 ; a nd GC I I , f ig .24 , n os . 1 -2) . Th is , o r s im i lar ware ,o ccurs o n a l l Nene Va l ley s i tes t hroughou t t he Ro man p er iod . L i tt le t ypolog ica l d evelop men t i s a pparen t , o ther t han t ha t l a te e xa mp les o f j ars h ave u ndercu t r i ms , a nd ' s lack ' s hou lders . T he ware a nd f or ms a re a lso c o mmon t hrougho u t t he Ro man p er iod i nt he Ca mbr idge a nd V eru la m iu m a reas .

The L inco ln

c a lci te-gr i t ted ware i s d is t inc t i n f abr ic a nd f or m , b u t i s a n e qu iva len t ware i n t er ms o f i t s d a te a nd d is tr ibu t ion l oca l ly ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , 1 4-16 , f igs.5-6 n os 9 0-110) . T he o n ly s ign if ican t d ist inc t ion b etween t he Nene Va l ley a nd e lsewhere , a part f ro m s l igh t d i f ferences i n f abr ic , c oncerns t he c urved-s ided f l anged b ow l ( ag.I , f ig .9 , n o 3 3) wh ich d oes n o t o ccur o n Nene Val ley s i tes . I ti sv ery c o m mon i n a nd a round Ca mbr idge ( Arbury Road : Har t ley , o p c i t , f ig 7 , n o.93 ) a nd Veru la m iu m ( Thea tre : K enyon , o p c i t , f ig 1 1 , n os. 2 6-7 ; I nsu la X IV : F rere , 1 972, f ig .138, n os .1258-9 ; a nd P ark S tree t : O 'Nei l , . 9 2 c i t , f ig .20 , n os 5 -7 ) . 26 I t s a bsence i n t he N ene Valey i s p robab ly r e la ted t o t he d om inan t p osi t ion h e ld l oca l ly b y t he c o lour-coa ted f langed b ow l . One o r t wo c urved-sided f l anged b ow ls h ave b een n o ted a t Or ton Ha l l F ar m , b u t t hese h ave a v ery l arge d ia meter a nd a re o f ten d ecora ted o n t he r im a s a t V eru la m ium Thea tre ( Kenyon , o p c i t , f ig .11 , n o 2 6 ) . The o r ig in o f t he c urveds ided b ow ls i s u ncer ta in .

S im i lar v essels i n s he l lte mpered ware were p ro-

d uced i n t he k i lns a t Harro ld , B edfordsh ire . " The Or ton Ha l l F ar m o u tsize e xa mp les may h ave b een made l oca l ly . The d ark s el f-co loured ware i s p robab ly a l l f ro m s ources i n t he East M id lands i nc lud ing t he Tren t Va l ley , a nd L inco lnsh ire.

GC I , f ig .9 , n o .26

a nd GC i f i , f ig .24 , n o .3 a re c o m mon t ypes ( 2L T odd , 1 968 , f i g .1 , n os . 1 -6 ; a nd Swanpoo l ( op c i t ) , f ig . 4 , D 13 , n os . 1 9-25 , 3 7-43) . F our th c en tury d eposi ts o n a l l s i tes i n t he N ene Va l ley h ave g rey wares wh ich were n o t p rod uced l oca l ly , t he c o m monest t ype b e ing t he c urved-sided f langed b owl . GC I , f ig .9 , n os.22-3 a re s im i lar t o Swanpoo l p roduc ts ( op c i t , f ig .3 , C 22-31) . Aj ar a l most i den t ica l t o GC I , f ig .9 , n os 2 3 o ccurred i n t he S t ibb ing ton wel l , a nd s im i lar s herds were f ound a t Or ton Hal l F ar m .

The l igh t , s elf-co loured

n arrow- mou thed j ars w i th f r i l led c ordons ( GC I , f i g .8, n os.7-9 ) a lso o ccur i n g rey ware a nd a re a lso s im i lar t o Swanpoo l p roducts ( op .c i t , f ig .3 , C 40-48) . These d ark a nd l i gh t s e lf-coloured j ars , a nd b ow ls , h ave l oca l e qu iva len ts i n b o th t he Ca mbr idge a nd V eru la m ium a reas . T he f i na l a dd i t iona l f abr ic n o ted b y G i l lam was p seudo-sa m ian ware . T he n arrow- mou thed j ar ( GC I , f ig . 8 , n o .11) i s most p robab ly Hadha m o r ar e la ted ware . O ther Hadha m ware s herds o ccurred a t G rea t Cas ter ton . Most o f t he im i ta t ions o f s am ian f or m 3 8 were Ox fordsh ire p roduc ts. C o lourc oa ted Ox ford ware o ccurs c onsisten t ly o n mos t N ene Val ley s i tes t hroughou t t he f our th c en tury . The ma in t ypes a re im i ta t ions o f s am ian f or ms 3 1 ,36 , a nd 3 8 , o ther b ow ls o fv ar ious t ypes , of ten r ou le t ted o r s ta mpedond t he o ccas iona l mor tar iu m . Wh ite ware mor tar ia a re a lso c o mmon . S o me o f t he G rea t Caster ton mortar ia ( i nc lud ing GC I , f i g .9 , n os. 2 7-8) were Oxford p roduc ts .

As y et n o p arch men t ware h as b een n o ted . 28

A s im i lar r ange o f

t ypes o ccurs a t L inco ln , Ca mbr idge a nd Veru lam iu m , i nd ica t ing t he e x ten t o f t he f our th c en tury Ox ford market ing a rea . Q uan t i t ies a re , n o t s urpr is ing ly , h igher i n t he s ou th , a nd p arch men t w are d oes o ccur t here . I ti s a s y et u ncer ta in h ow t he O xford p o t ters managed t o b eat t he monopo ly o f l oca l N ene V a l ley 4 54

k i lns a nd s upp ly s i tes o f a l l t ypes i nc lud ing f ar msteads s uch a s O r ton H a l l F ar m . Ap oss ib le l ink w ith t he l a te t h ird c en tury p rov inc ia l r eforms h as a lready b een n o ted .

O ther o range o x id ised wares o f n on-loca l o r ig in o ccur

o n N ene V a l ley s i tes i n t he f ourth c en tury . S o me a re t hough t t o b e f ro m t he H adha m k i lns a nd t he West S uf fo lk/Essex/East i f er ts a rea wou ld s ee m a l ike ly s ource f or much o f t he mater ia l . O ne H adha m-type n arrow- mou thed j ar w ith s ta mps a nd a l i on mo t if was f ound i n t he C hester ton B u i ld ing 9 b ases ' r oo m w ith a s he l l-gr i t ted j ar a nd a 'b eaker ' j ug .

I ti s t herefore d a teab le t o p ost c .

A . D .350 a nd p robab ly p ost 3 75 . G rey H adha m v esse ls a re k nown ; f or i nstance t he b ow l c on ta in ing t he g o ld c o in h oard f ound i n 1 974 , d ated t o c. A .D .350 ( Durobr ivae 3 , o p e i t ) .

B o th C a mbr idge a nd V eru la m iu m , b u t -a pparent ly

n ot L inco ln , a lso r ece ived v esse ls f ro m t he H adha m a rea a nd r e la ted k i lns . O ne ware wh ich d id n o t f ea ture i n t he G rea t Cas ter ton d estruc t ion ma ter ia l o r i n o ther l a te Nene Va l ley g roups , b u t d oes o ccur e ar l ier , i s BB1. S ites l i ke Castor , C hes ter ton a nd Or ton Ha l l F ar m h ave p roduced n o t iceab le amoun ts , w i th f l anged b ow ls a nd p la in d ishes b e ing t he mos t c o mmon t ypes , t ogether w i th o ne o r t wo c ook ing-po ts.

The r easons why t h is ware s hou ld

s udden ly f i nd marke ts , l i ke Ox ford ware , i n t he Nene Va l ley i s a lso u ncer ta in . A s n oted a bove t he p er iod w hen i t was i n u se a ppears t o b e t he l a ter t h ird t o m id f our th c en tury . r e levan t .

Aga in t he r eforms o f t h is p er iod may o r may n o t b e

T he p ot tery f ro m t he G rea t Caster ton v i l la d estruc t ion d epos its , a nd f our th c en tury d epos i ts i n t he N ene Va l ley a s a who le , h as n ow b een c onsidered i n s o me d eta i l . T he p resen t c onclus ions a re a s f o l lows. I n t he l a te t h ird t o e ar ly f our th c entury N ene Val ley p ot ters b egan p rod uc ing c o lour-coa ted v ers ions o f ' coarse ' t ypes wh ich h ad p revious ly o nly b een made i n g rey ware , p erhaps a s ar esu l t o f c hang ing f ash ions o r t he p rov inca l r efor ms o f t ha t p er iod . The g rey ware i ndus try d ec l ined , p robab ly r ap id ly a f ter t h is , a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha t p ot ters m igra ted t o o ther a reas . Three b asic v esse l t ypes — the s tra igh t-sided f l anged b ow l , t he p la in d ish a nd t he w ide- mou thed j ar o r b ow l—were made f ro m t h is p er iod r igh t u p t o t he e nd o f p ot tery p roduc t ion . Im i ta t ions o f s am ian f or ms 3 1,36,37 ,38 a nd 4 5 were made. O n ly t hose o ff or m 3 8 l asted i n to t he l a ter f our th c en tury , w i th v esse ls o f f or m 3 7 a nd 4 5 p robab ly n o t l ast ing b eyond t he f i rst q uarter , a nd t hose o f f or ms 3 1 a nd 3 6 d ecl in ing a f ter t he midd le o f t he f our th c en tury .

I ti s p oss ib le

t ha t s o me Ox ford p ot ters were i nvolved i n t h is d eve lop men t o r t ha t i t was i nf luenced b y Ox fordsh ire p roducts. N ew t ypes o fb eaker a ppeared i n t he f our th c en tury , b u t t hey a nd c astor b oxes d ec l ined t hroughou t t he c entury a nd were p robab ly f ew i n n u mber b yt he t h ird q uar ter .

F lagons were made t hrough-

o u t t he f our th c en tury b u t may h ave c hanged i n t ype. C hang ing f ash ion may h ave c on tr ibu ted t o t he d em ise o f t he b eaker a nd c er ta in f lagon t ypes , a nd c u lm inated i n t he d eve lop men t o ft he ' beaker 'jug .

Wide p la t ters a nd n arrow-

mou thed j ars w i th l i ds may h ave b een p roduced t hroughou t t he f our th c en tury o r h ave b een l im i ted t o t he l a ter p er iod . Handled j ars , s o me s ta mped , a nd b ow ls a ppear t o b e n ew t ypes i n troduced l a te i n t he l i fe o ft he Nene V a l ley k i lns . Oxford ware , Hadha m o r r ela ted wares , Eas t M id lands a nd L inco lnsh ire wares a l l o ccur i n sma l l amoun ts i n t he f our th c en tury . T he c o mp le te r ange o f t ypes a nd a ssocia ted d a te r anges f or t hese h ave y et t o b e r ecogn ised . BB1 i s p resent f ro m t he l a te t h ird , p oss ib ly u p t o t he midd le f our th c entury .

4 55

L i ..2 J )

,

1 1111111111 1111111 1111111111111111111eliilliiI M) 11 1,111i . , 1111111 1,1111, 1 1111111111 ,1 1tillo m m i

1 4

"I I I I I V I II I I ' , Il li li ': Ili li 'l li i: :: ' • ; 1l ' ' 1 1: 111 1:

V I II Y I' , 11 7 :: 1 :111 1:i

1 5 I l i11 .11,11.1111111111111111111111 . ndillii m 1 11.1111,11111 111111111 , 111111111 1 11 ,11 1 1 11 11 . 1,

1 111110,11111 ,111,111 .111111

F ig. 2 7.1

, 111

(1, 1, 11,11,11

Types o f f our th c entury Nene Va l ley c o lour-coated wares, s ca le 1 :4.

4 56

F igure 2 7.1

F igure 2 7.2

Types o ff our th c en tury N ene Val ley c o lour-coa ted wares . 1 . 2 .

S tra igh t-s ided f l anged b ow l . P la in-r i m med d ish .

3 .

Wide- mou thed j ar o r b ow l .

4 . 5 .

W ide- mou thed j ar o r b ow l . L id w i th ' s tea m ' h o le .

6 .

N arrow- mou thed j ar .

7 .

Im i ta t ion s am ian f or m 3 1.

8 .

Im i ta t ion s am ian f or m 3 6.

9 . 1 0.

Im i ta t ion s am ian f or m 3 7. B ead-r i mmed b ow l w i th wh i te-pa in ted d ecora t ion .

1 1.

I m ita t ion s am ian f or m 3 8.

1 2.

Im i ta t ion s am ian f or m 4 5.

1 3.

W ide d ish o r p la t ter .

1 4.

' Castor b ox ' l i d.

1 5.

' Cas tor b ox '.

Types o f f our th c en tury N ene Va l ley c o lour-coa ted wares. 1 6. 1 7.

' Di mp led ' b eaker w i th b ead r im . ' Pen t ice- mou lded ' b eaker .

1 8. 1 9.

J ug o f b eaker f or m . F lagon w i th t al l , c y l indr ica l n eck a nd c ircu lar s pou t .

2 0. 2 1.

F lagon w i th t a l l , c y l indr ica l n eck a nd p inched s pou t . Two-hand led f lagon w i th wh i te-pa in ted d ecora t ion .

2 2. 2 3.

T hree-hand led j ar w i th s ta mped d ecora t ion . T hree-hand led b ow l w i th wh i te-pa inted d ecora t ion .

4 57

1 6

2 1

1 9

2 . 14 1 : 1 120 1a l l e

T r n i r ru r r r rr r rr iTar r rr rrru r 7 7; r f iji 1 7 7 ( Tr ie r if e r7 r7 7-7 7"

F ig. 2 7.2

Types o f f ourth c entury Nene Va l ley c o lour-coated wares, s ca le 1 :4.

4 58

T he ma in v a lue o ft he G rea t Caster ton v i l la d estruc t ion d epos i ts l i es i n t he s ecure d a te a nd t he w ide r ange , p robab ly n ear-co mprehens ive , o f v essel t ypes a nd f abr ics r epresen ted .

As n o ted a tt he b eg inn ing a l l t he o ther

l a te g roups e xcava ted s ince t hen h ave s hor tcom ings o f e i ther d ate , o r r ange o f t ypes , o r b o th .

U n t i l a no ther g roup o r o ther g roups s im i lar t o t ha t f ro m

G rea t Caster ton a re e xcava ted a nd p ub l ished , i tw i l l r eta in i t s p re-e m inen t p lace i n l a te Ro man p ot tery s tud ies o f t he Nene Val ley a nd s urround ing a rea .

ACKNO WLEDGE ME NTS N u merous p eop le h elped i n t he p repara t ion o f t h is a r t ic le. Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank Mr . T . Mck . C lough , Mr . A . Havercrof t , Mr . M . Howe a nd Mr . R . Murdoch , r espec t ive ly o f Oakha m , V eru la m iu m , P eterborough a nd Ca mbr idge Museu ms , f or a ss is tance i n e xam in ing p o t tery i n t he c o l lect ions . D r J . P . Wi ld , a nd Mrs. J oyce Pu l l inger k ind ly a l lowed a ccess t o t he ir u npub l ished ma ter ia l , a nd Mr . B . R . Har t ley , G o ing , M iss M . Dar l ing a nd Mrs. i n for ma t ion . F ina l ly , Iwou ld l i ke a nd e ncourage men t o ver a n u mber

Mr . A . C ha l lands , Mr . B . D ix , Mr . C . K . Har t ley p rov ided u sefu l i t e ms o f t o t hank G raha m Webs ter f or h is a dv ice o f y ears .

NOTES 1 .

Ano ther b arn was e xcava ted i n 1 951-3 ( GC I , 1 1-19 ). I n t h is r epor t a nd t he f ina l r epor t , t he b arn o f 1 950 h ad b eco me t he ' car t s hed ' ( GC I , 1 1 ; GC I I , 6 0 a nd 7 1-2).

2 .

I n t he s econd r epor t i t was s ta ted t ha t , ' wha t e v idence t here i s p o in ts t o t he f i na l a bandon men t o ft he ( dwe l l ing ) h ouse c er ta in ly n o t b efore A .D.400/10 , a nd p oss ib ly much l a ter '.

3 .

Av is i t t o t he museu m a t Oakha m where t he p ot tery f ro m G rea t Cas ter ton i s n ow s tored c onf ir med t ha t o n ly t he p ub l ished ma ter ia l , t oge ther w i th s o me a dd i t iona l p ot tery , n ow s urv ives .

Al o t o ft he o ther p ot tery was

r ebur ied a t t he t ime o f t he e xcavat ions , f o l low ing t he p o t tery s ess ions ' i nvo lv ing Ph i l ip C order , G raha m Webster , J ohn G i l la m , a nd B . R . Har t ley t ha t t ook p lace d ur ing e ach s eason o f e xcava t ion ( 2 U I ,4 ) . 4 .

O ther g roups o fp ot tery f ro m Wa ter N ew ton , Nor manga te F ield , a nd Ches ter ton a nd S t ibb ing ton d o e x ist , b u t a re c urren t ly i n t he h ands o f t he ir r espec t ive e xcava tors .

A t p resen t o n ly a l i t t le i s k nown o f t hese

g roups b y t he a u thor . 5 .

The p rob le m o fd ist ingu ish ing Nene Va l ley a nd Swanpoo l p roduc ts i s a r ea l a nd p ress ing o ne . I th as b een d iscussed r ecen t ly ( Dar l ing , 1 977 , 2 3-5) .

6 .

E xcavat ions i n 1 957 b y E rnest G reen f ie ld o n b eha lf o f t he t hen M in istry o f Works . T he f oundat ions o f t en s tone a nd t wo t imber b u i ld ings were u ncovered , t ogether w ith s erv ice r oads , meta l led a reas , p ost-ho les , p i ts , d i tches , h ear ths , o ven b ases a nd b ur ia ls .

4 59

L ate p o t tery c a me f ro m B u i ld ing 9 , e spec ia l ly t he 'b ases r oo m ', p ossib ly a s hr ine , a nd a d itch ( F90 ) c u t t ing a cross B u i ld ing 6 a nd 7 . T he 'b ases r oo m ' o ccupat ion a nd d estruct ion l ayers c on ta ined o ver 1 25 c o ins r ang ing i n d ate f ro m C . A . D .270-379 , w i th most ( over 1 00 c o ins o r s o ) p ost-dat ing c.A . D .350 . 7 .

I n for ma t ion f ro m Dr . J . P . Wi ld . b y t he a u thor .

8 .

I n for ma t ion f ro m Dr . J . P . Wi ld a nd Mr . A . C ha l lands .

9 .

I n for ma t ion f ro m Mr . B . R . Har t ley .

1 0 .

Al t he wel l p ot tery h as b een e xam ined

Excava t ions b y Mr . C . G reen 1 957-8, M iss C . G , Da l las 1 973-4 , Mr . G . B . Da rnel l a nd Dr . J . P . W i ld 1 970-73 , a nd t he N ene V a l ley R esearch C o mm it tee 1 980 . Mos t o f t he Ro man p ot tery f ro m t hese e xc ava t ions h as b een e xa m ined b y t he a u thor .

1 1.

I n for ma t ion f ro m Mr . A . C hal lands.

1 2.

R ecen t e xcava t ions b y Dr . J . A lexander a nd Mrs . J . P u l l inger h ave y et t o b e p ub l ished . The a u thor h as e xa m ined most o f t he p o t tery f ro m Mrs. Pu l l inger 's e xcava t ions , a nd p ot tery i n t he C a mbr idge Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd An thropology Ro man r eserve c ol lect ions. •A lexander 's p ot tery

1 3.

w as

Dr

b e ing moved a nd was n ot a vai lab le.

Mor tar ia o f e ssen t ia l ly N ene Val ley f or m b u t i n af abr ic t yp ica l o f C ra mbeck were f ound i n t he e xcava t ions u nder Y ork M inster 1 966-72. ( I nfor mat ion f ro m Mrs . K . H ar t ley .) I ti s c once ivab le t ha t migra t ing Nene Va l ley p ot ters a lso b rough t t o C ra mbeck t he t echn iques o fp rod uc ing g rey ware v esse ls w i th a wh i te f abr ic .

The ma in p rob le m i n

p rov ing a ny l i nks w ith Ox ford , Swanpoo l a nd C ra mbeck i s t he b as ic d iss im i lar ity o f k i ln t ypes . 1 4.

Areas l ike C a mbr idge a nd Veru la m ium a nd t he N or th h ad t he ir own l oca l k i lns p roduc ing f langed b ow ls a nd a l l o ther b asic v esse l t ypes , b u t s o me N ene Va l ley p roduc ts were s t i l l a b le t o f i nd marke ts.

1 5.

The p a inted d ish f ro m t he dwe l l ing-house c orn-dryer f lues i sv ery u nco m mon ( GC I I , f ig . 2 4 , n o .8.) . The d eve lop men t o fv esse ls l i ke t h is a nd wares l i ke Nene Va l ley p arch ment ware ( s ee n o te 2 8) i s u ncerta in a s e xa mp les a re f ew .

O ther t ypes o f v essel , most ly w ide , s ha l low

b ow ls h ave wh i te p a in ted d ots o n t he r im .

P resen t e vidence s ugges ts

t ha t t hey a re p robab ly o f l a te f ourth-cen tury d a te . 1 6 .

I ti s d eba tab le whether p inched-necked v esse ls a re a ctua l ly v ar iet ies o ff lagon , o r as eparate t ype , n a me ly a j ug . Th is wou ld o bv iously a f fect a t te mp ts t o i nclude p inched-necked v essels i n af l agon t ypo logy a nd c hrono lgy ; f or a s j ugs t hey might b e e xpected t o h ave a s epara te a nd i ndependen t t ypo logy a nd c hrono logy .

1 7.

These p a in ted im i ta t ions o f s am ia n f or m 3 6 may b e t he s uccessors t o t he o rd inary p la in c o lour-coa ted v esse ls ( page 1 1) . g roups o fp o t tery w i l l p rov ide a s o lut ion .

4 60

Hopefu l ly , f uture

1 8.

S ome o f t hese t ypes a re a ga in s im i lar t o Ox fordsh ire p roducts , f or e xamp le Y oung , o p c i t , C 23 , 1 03-105.

1 9 .

T he b el ie f t ha t a l l l a ter N ene Val ley p roducts a re t h icker , c oarser a nd more p oor ly f i n ished c o mpared t o e ar l ier p roducts i s , t o s o me e x tent , mis lead ing .

L a te f l anged b ow ls , p la in d ishes , b oxes a nd s o o n a re

o f ten i ndeed a pparen t ly c rude b ut a t t he s a me t ime q u i te t h in-wa l led a nd i n tr icate t ypes , l i ke f l agons , were b eing p roduced . S o me o f t he t h ickeni ng may b e d ue t o ac hange i n f unct ion a nd u se f or s ome o f t he v esse ls , n ecess ita t ing more r obust e xa mp les .

F or i nstance , t he f langed b ow l

may h ave b een u sed a s am ix ing b ow l i n t he l a ter f ourth c en tury a nd a f ter . C er ta in f ea tures , h owever , s uch a s t he g enera l s lacken ing i n p rof i le , t he p oor r ou let t ing , a nd p erhaps e ven t he c o lours o f t he c o lourc oa ts ( f or i ns tance , d eep r ed ) , a re c haracter ist ic o f l a ter p roducts. 2 0.

M iss M . D ar l ing s tates t ha t t he f abr ic o f t h is v esse l ( hard , d ense , v ery s parse r ed f l ecks ) , c i t , 2 4 ) .

wou ld b e a typ ica l i n t he N ene V a l ley '

( 22

T he f act t hat i ti s s uch a we l l-known t ype i n t he N ene V a l ley ,

h owever , t oge ther w ith t he f act t hat n o o ther a reas a re k nown t o p roduce s im i lar v esse ls , wou ld s ee m t o s uggest t hat , d esp ite t he p rob le m o ver f abr ic , i ti s aN ene V a l ley p roduc t . 2 1.

The s ta mps were f or med b y p ressing t he i nside o f t he v essel i n to a mou ld h e ld o n t he o u ts ide o f t he p o t .

2 2.

I n for mat ion f rom M iss M . D ar l ing .

2 3.

I nfor ma t ion f ro m Mr . C . G o ing .

2 4.

I ti s more u sua l t o u se t he t er m s he l l-gr i t ted f or s uch wares i n t he M id lands , Eas t Ang l ia a nd t he S ou th-East . T here i s al o t o f v ar iety i n t he v ar ious w ares .

S hel l-gr i t ted wares i n t he Nene Va l ley t end t o

b e o range , o r o range-p ink i n c o lour . b ow ls a re g enera l ly i n ab u f f ware . 2 5.

The smal l c urved-sided f l anged

Mos t o f t he l i gh t s e l f-co loured v essels were mor tar ia .

Many o f t hese

were o f N ene V a l ley o r ig in , b u t s o me were Ox fordsh ire p roducts i nc lud ing GC I ,f i g .9 , n os 2 7-28. The f am i l iar r eeded-ha mmer-head Nene Va l ley mor tar iu m was n ot r epresen ted i n t he d es truct ion p ot tery , s ugges t ing t hat i t , t oo , h ad d ec lined a f ter t he mid f our th c en tury .

GC

I , f ig .9 , n o . 2 9 may b e t he l a ter t ype o f N ene V a l ley mor tar iu m . T he Cra mbeck mor tar ia o f N ene Va l ley t ype ( No te 1 3) were t he r eeded h a m mer-head v ar iety , a nd a re d a ted f ro m a round t he m idd le f our th c entury , o r p erhaps a l i t t le e ar l ier . I ti s a ga in t e mp t ing t o r e la te t he d ecl ine o f o ne a nd t he s tart o f t he o ther , a t a pparen t ly t he s a me t ime , t o a n a ctua l m igra t ion o f t he p ot ters c oncerned . 2 6 .

I td id n ot o ccur a t G adebr idge o r L ock leys wh ich may h ave e nded e ar l ier , s uggest ing t ha tt he t ype i s ma in ly a ssignab le t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f ourth c entury .

2 7 . 2 8.

I nfor ma t ion f ro m Mr . B . D ix . Wh i te wares w i th r ed o r b rown-pa in ted d ecora t ion were made t hroughou t t he ma in Nene Va l ley p roduct ion p er iod , e specia l ly a t S t ibb ing ton . 4 61

F ourth-century ' parch men t ' t ypes a re k nown b u t a re r are .

More e vidence

i s n eeded b e fore t he f u l l t ype r ange a nd t he ir d a tes c an b e g iven .

B IBL IOGRAPHY C lark 1 949 .

C lark , J . G . D ., 'R epor t o n e xcavat ions o n t he C a mbr idgesh ire

C ar D yke , 1 947 ', An t iq . J . 2 9 ( 1949 ) , 1 45-163 . D ar l ing 1 977 .

D ar l ing , M . J .,

A G roup o f L ate R o man P ot tery f ro m L inco ln ',

L inco ln Arch Trust XVI-I . Durobr ivae 3 .

Durobr ivae ., A Review o f Nene Va l ley Archaeology :

3

P eterborough , 1 975. F rere 1 972. F rere , S . S ., Veru la m iu m Excava t ions 1 , Res . Rep . S oc . Ant . L ondon , XXVI I I , 1 972. G i lla m 1 976 .

G i l la m , J . P ., ' Coarse F u med Ware i n Nor th B r i ta in a nd B eyond ',

G lasgow Arch . J . 4 , ( 1 976 ) , 5 7-80 . GC I . , C order , P . ( ed .) , The Ro man Town a nd V i l la a t G rea t Casterton , Ru t land , 1 950 , Un ivers i ty o f No t t ingha m , 1 951. GC I .

C order , P . ( ed .) , The Ro man Town a nd V ila a t Grea t Casterton , Ru t land , 1 951-3 , Un iversi ty o f No t t ingha m , 1 954 .

GC I I .

C order , P ( ed .) , The Ro man Town a nd V i l la a t G rea t Caster ton ,

Ru t land , 1 954-58, Un iversi ty o f No t t ingha m , 1 961. Har t ley 1 955.

Hart ley , B . R ., ' The P o t tery ' i n F rend , W. H . C ., ' A Ro mano-

B r i t ish S e t t le men t a t Arbury Road , Ca mbr idge ', Proc .

Ca mbr idge

An t iq . S oc .48, ( 1 955) . 1 0-43. Har t ley 1 972.

Har t ley , B . R ., No tes o n t he Ro man P o t tery I ndustry i n t he

N ene Val ley , P eterborough Museu m S oc .

O ccasiona l P apers 2 , 1 972.

K enyon 1 934 . K enyon , K . M ., ' The Ro man Thea tre a t Veru la m iu m , S t A lban 's Archaeo log ia W OOC IV ( 1 934) , 2 13-261. Mackreth 1 978 . Mackreth , D . F ., 'O r ton H a l l F ar m , P eterborough : A Ro man a nd S axon S et t le men t ' i n Todd , M . ( e d .) , S tudies i n t he Ro manoB r i t ish V il la , L eices ter , 1 978, 2 09-228. N ea l 1 974.

N ea l , D . S ., ' The Excava t ion o f t he R o man V i l la i n Gadebr idge

P ark t He mel He mps tead , 1 963-8, R es . Rep . S oc. An t . L ondon , XXX I , 1 974 . Nea l 1 974-6 . S ta t ion :

Nea l , D . S ., I Nor thchurch , B ox moor , a nd He me l He mpstead The Excava t ion o f Three Ro man Bu i ld ings i n t he Bu lbourne

Va l ley ', Her t fordsh ire Archaeo logy 4 ( 1 974-6 ) , 1 -135. O 'Nei l 1 945.

O 'Nei l , H . E ., ' The Ro man V i lla a t P ark S treet , n ear S t A lbans ,

Her t fordsh ire : Report o n t he Excava t ions o f 1 943-45 ', Arch . J ., C I I ( 1 945) , 2 1-110 . 4 62

Todd 1 968.

Todd , M ., ' The C o m moner L a te Ro man C oarse Wares o ft he

Eas t M id lands ', An t iq . J ., XLV I I I ( 1968) , 1 92-209 . Ward-Perk ins 1 938.

Ward-Perk ins , J . B ., ' The Ro man V i l la a t L ock leys ,

We lwyn ', An t iq . J ., XVI I I ( 1938) , 3 39-376 . Webster 1 976 . Gu ide

Webster , G . ( ed .) , Ro mano-Br i t ish C oarse P ot tery :

A S tuden t 's

CBA R es. Rep . 6 , 3 rd . e d i t ion , L ondon , 1 976.

Webster a nd B oo th 1 947.

Webster , G . a nd B oo th , N ., ' The Excavat ion o f a

Ro mano-Br i t ish P o t tery K i ln a t Swanpoo l, L inco ln ', An t iq . J ., XXV I I ( 1 947) , 6 1-79 . Wi ld 1 974.

Wi ld , J . P , ' Ro man S et t le men t i n t he L ower N ene Va l ley ', Arch .

J ., CXXX I ( 1 974) , 1 40-170. Young 1 977.

Y oung , C . J , Ox fordsh ire Ro man P o t tery , B .A. R ., 4 3 , Ox ford ,

1 977.

4 63

2 8.

SO ME S ECOND CENTURY MORTARIA FRO M CHESTER P . C arr ing ton*

I NTRODUCTION A l most a l l o f t he mor tar ia r each ing Chester i n t he f irst c en tury c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t wo s ources :

t he Veru la m iu m d istr ic t , e spec ia l ly Rad let t a nd

Brock ley H i l l , a nd a s econd c en tre , i n n or th-eastern Gau l o r Ken t .

A l though

c onc lusive f igures a re n ot y e t a va i lable , i ta ppears t ha t t he f irst s ource was more i mpor tan t a s f ar a s C hes ter was c oncerned .

Be tween c . 1 00 a nd 1 30

most v essels r each ing t he f or tress a nd o f f ic ia l e xtra- mura l b u i ld ings were p robably made a t H o lt .

The n a ture o f t he s upp ly t o t he c anabae a nd o ther

n eighbour ing c iv i l ian s et t le ments d uring t h is p er iod r e ma ins u ncer ta in.

I n

t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies , t he mor tar ia u sed b y s old iers , o f f ic ia ls a nd c iv i lians a l ike were a ga in c o ming f ro m v ir tua l ly o n ly t wo s ources :

p r inc ipa l ly

Har tshi l l a nd Mancet ter i n Warw icksh ire a nd , o f l esser i mpor tance , t he Ox fordsh ire k i lns , b oth b e ing p roducers who , a t t he s ame t ime , d o mina ted markets t hroughou t much o f Br i ta in .

However , t he s econd c en tury s aw a

g rea ter n u mber o f c en tres , c o mpr ising n ot o n ly t he d ec lin ing g ian ts o f t he f irst c en tury a nd t he r ising s tars o f t he t h ird a nd f our th , b u t a lso s o me whose l i fe was c onf ined t o t ha t c en tury a nd whose a c t iv i ty was n ever more t han o f l oca l o r r eg iona l impor tance . Thus , i n t he p er iod c . 1 30 - c . 2 00 a f ew mor tar ia c on t inued t o a rr ive f ro m t he V eru la miu m d istr ic t , b oth i n t he u sua l g ranu lar c ream f abr ic a nd a n o range o ne , wh i le a h ooked r im v esse l i n wh i te f abr ic h as r ecent ly b een f ound wh ich i s a t tr ibu table t o t he Oxfordsh ire k i lns.

There were s trange ly

f ew p roducts o f t he Har tsh i l l- Mance t ter k i lns wh ich s ee m t o h ave o verwhe l med t he C hester market s udden ly a t t he s tar t o f t he t h ird c entury .

Most a re i n

t he more o r l ess s andy o x id ised f abr ics c haracter ist ic o f Wa les , t he n or thwest mid lands a nd n or th-western Eng land .

Few a re s tamped .

Many a re

t i laet ians ' o r h ave o ne o r more ' I lae tian ' c haracter ics . A r ap id s urvey o f t h is mater ia l s uggests a n u mber o f smal l-sca le s upp l iers . A f ew o f t he v esse ls c an b e r ecogn ised a s c o ming f ro m t wo we l l-known s ources : Wroxeter , p roducing ' Rae t ians ' , a nd Wi lderspoo l p roduc ing s ta mped , ' Raet ian ' a nd o ther u nsta mped mor tar ia .

Among t he n u merous r e ma in ing v esse ls , t wo

more f abr ics h ave n ow b een d e f ined , p r i mar i ly o n t he b asis o f t he ir c onsistent ly l igh t-coloured s urfaces a nd a r ange o f f orms a pparen t ly e xc lusive t o t he m when s tud ied i n d eta i l :

t he f irst a s andy o ne , a pparen t ly u sed f or v esse ls

w i th o n ly o ne b asic r im f orm, t he s econd a f i ner o ne , u sed f or a v ar iety o f f or ms.

The t wo f abr ics c an e asi ly b e d ist ingu ished f ro m o ne a nother b y t he

n aked e ye a nd microscop ic a na lysis s uggests t ha t t hey h ad d if ferent s ources.

4 65

FABR ICS Fabr ic 1 Hard , h arsh t o t he t ouch e xcep t where d e l ibera te ly smoo thed ( usua l ly j us t o n t he r im ) , f i ne ly i rregu lar o r s ub-concho ida l f rac ture ;

r ed

o r l i gh t r ed c ore ( Munse l l 2 .5 YR 5 /6 -6 /6 ) w i th r edd ish-ye l low s ur faces ( 7 .5 YR 7 /6) a nd u sua l ly a l i gh t r ed t o r ed s l ip ( 2 .5 YR 6 /6 - 1 0 R4 /6 ) , o f ten b urn ished , o n t op o f t he r i m.

Th in s ec t ion ing r evea led o n ly n u merous

s ubangu lar q uar tz g ra ins u nder 0 .10 m m i n s ize w i th o ccas iona l l arger g ra ins a nd f l ecks o f mica . Fabr ic 2 S of t o r h ard , p owdery o r smooth t o t he t ouch , s ub-concho ida l f racture ; r ed o r l i gh t r ed c ore ( 2 .5 YR 4 /6 - 6 /8 ) w i th r edd ish-ye l low s ur faces ( 7 .5 YR 7 /6 ) a nd , o n s o me v esse ls , ar ed t o l igh t r ed s l ip ( 2 .5 YR 4 /6 - 6 /6 ) , o f ten b urn ished , o n t op o f t he r im .

M icroscop ic e xamina t ion

b y t he a u thor s howed f requen t s ubangu lar q uar tz g ra ins u p t o c . 0 .5 m m i n s ize , q uar tzi te a nd f lecks o f mica . V esse ls i n b o th f abr ics h ad mixed t r i tura t ion g r i ts , t he ir s ize a nd f req uency v arying f ro m v esse l t o v esse l . A l though t he ma ter ia ls u sed may h ave p reven ted t hese v esse ls b e ing a s a bras ive a nd h ardwear ing a s , s ay , t hose f ro m t he V eru la m iu m a rea a nd H ar tsh i l l- Mancet ter , t hey were , n evert he l ess , c arefu l ly made w ith a t ten t ion b e ing g iven t o t he f in ish , i n c on trast , f or e xa mp le , t o t he c on te mporary Wi lderspoo l p roducts ( see H art ley & Webster 1 973 , 9 1 ) .

CATALOGUE ( See F ig . 2 8 .1 ) NOTE : O n ly e xa mp les r ecovered b y t he G rosvenor Museum Excava t ions S ec t ion s ince 1 972 a re i nc luded . There a re many more i n t he c o l lec t ion i n t he Museum 's Archaeo logy S tore . s herd .

An a s ter isk i nd ica tes a n i l lus tra ted

Fabr ic 1 T ype l a c f . Wi lderspoo l ( Har t ley & Webster 1 973 ) n o . 1 00 , b u t h eav ier , a nd more d istant ly , H o lt ( Gr i mes 1 930 ) n o . 3 . * Crook S tree t 1 973-4 , I( 117 ) :

l eve l l ing d eposi t i n c en tur ion 's

q uar ters , c on ta in ing p o t tery u p t o t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury. A bbey G reen 1 975-8 , V ( 6 67) :

s econd c en tury s lo t .

The s a me

s i te p roduced a no ther f our e xamp les f ro m p ost-Ro man c on tex ts . ' Arrowcrof t S che me ' ( Forega te S tree t ) 1 977-9 :

u ns tra t if ied , b u t

f ound w i th p ot tery c h ief ly o f t he l a te f irs t-ear ly s econd c en tury . Two e xa mp les. T ype l b S im i lar t o T ype l a , b u t w ith b ead . o thers. ' Rae t ian ' s pou t . C rook S treet 1 973-4 , IF .202 : a bove ) ;

I( 103 ):

S o me e xa mp les a re f l a t ter t han

s ands tone r ubb le o ver ( 117 ) ( see

t h ird c en tury r ubbish d epos i t .

* Abbey G reen 1 975-8 :

t wo e xa mp les f ro m p os t-Ro man c on tex ts.

4 66

l a

l b

2 3

4

F ig. 2 8.1

Mortar ia, s ca le 1 :4.

4 67

F abr ic 2 T ype l b

* Cast le S treet 1 976 , We l l I ( 8 ) , C . 1 30-80 .

( Mason 1 980 , n o . 5 4 ) ;

n o s l ip o n r im. T ype 2

c f . W i lderspoo l n o . 9 9 a nd a n u npub l ished t ype f ro m H o lt . * Crook S tree t 1 973-4 , F . 2 26 :

p i t i n c en tur ion 's q uar ters f i l led

w i th s ands tone r ubble , c f . F . 2 02 a bove . N or thga te Brewery 1 974-5 :

t hree e xamp les f ro m p os t-Ro man

c on tex ts . A bbey G reen 1 975-8 : T ype 3

o ne e xamp le f ro m a p ost-Ro man c on tex t .

c f . W i lderspool n o . 7 6.

R im b urn ished , n ot s l ipped .

C ast le S tree t 1 976 , We l l I ( 8 ) , c . 1 30-80 .

Two e xamp les ( Mason

1 980 , n o . 5 5 ). There a re a nother t hree e xamp les o f t he s ame f orm i n wha t a ppears t o b e t he s ame f abr ic , b u t more h igh ly f i red : C rook S treet 1 973-4 , I( 117). N or thga te Brewery 1 974-5 :

o ne e xamp le f ro m a p ost-Ro man

d epos i t . A bbey G reen 1 975-8 , V I ( 405 ) : r oad : T ype 4

c f . Wi lderspool n o. 8 2 o r 1 09. * Abbey G reen 1 975-8 :

T ype 5

p ack ing a round d ra in o n i n terva l lum

mid-second c en tury.

t wo e xa mp les f rom p os t-Ro man c on tex ts .

c f . H ol t n o . 5 . * Crook S tree t 1 973-4.

I( 116 ):

d e mo l i t ion d epos i t i n c en tur ion 's

q uar ters , b enea th ( 117 ). A bbey G reen 1 975-8 , V ( 608 ) : N o te :

l a te 2 nd -4 th c en tury l ayer .

S tudy o f t he f i nds f ro m t he Abbey G reen e xcava t ion h as o n ly r ecen t ly b egun a nd t he d a t ing o f l ayers g iven h ere may t herefore b e c hanged l a ter .

D ISCUSS ION The i nc lusions r ecogn ised i n t he t wo f abr ics a re f a ir ly c o mmon o nes a nd b y t hemse lves a re n ot d ist inc t ive e nough t o p inpo in t a ny p ar t icu lar a rea . N ever the less , t he c loses t p ara l le ls f or s o me o f t he f or ms s ee m t o b e p rov ided b y H o l t a nd e spec ia l ly Wi lderspoo l p roduc ts , b u t n one h ave b een f ound among t he p ubl ished ma ter ia l f ro m t he s et t le men ts a t Nor thw ich ( Webs ter 1 972 ), Manchester ( Webster

1 974 ) o r Wh i tchurch ( Webster

1 969 ) , a l though

f ur ther e xcava t ions a t t hese s i tes c ou ld c once ivab ly c hange t he p os i t ion .

I t

t herefore s ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he s ources o f t hese t wo f abr ics a re t o b e s ough t i n t he Chesh ire P la in , q u i te p oss ibly w i th in t en m i les o f C hester . S o f ar , e xamp les o f Fabr ic 1 h ave b een f ound i nside a nd o u ts ide t he f or tress , wh i le Fabr ic 2 h as o n ly b een f ound i ns ide ; a cc iden ta l .

h owever t h is may b e

Wha t i s n eeded n ow i s t he d iscovery o f t he a c tua l k i ln s i tes , b o th

f or i t s own s ake a nd t o e stab l ish whether a ny o ther c lasses o f p o t tery were b e ing p roduced t here , a nd more p rec ise d a t ing e v idence , i n p ar t icu lar t o d eter m ine w hether t hese v esse ls were b eing u sed i n t he c iv i l ian s e t t le men t b efore c .130 .

4 68

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iam g ra tefu l t o t he C ura tor o f t he G rosvenor Museum , Mr . C . N . Moore , a lso t he F ie ld O f f icer o f t he E xcava t ions S ec t ion , Mr . T . J . S tr ick land a nd t he o ther e xcava tors , Messrs . J . C .

McPeake , D . J . P . Mason , S .

Ward a nd T . E . Ward , f or p erm iss ion t o u se t he p ot tery f ro m t he s i tes n amed a bove f or t he p resent s tudy.

Dr . Dav id Wi l l ia ms ( D .o .E. C eram ic P etro logy

Pro jec t , D epar tmen t o f Archaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f S ou thamp ton ) k ind ly t h ins ec t ioned a n umber o f s amp les a nd p rov ided p e tro log ica l r epor ts , o f wh ich o ne i s u sed h ere ( Fabr ic 1 ) , a nd much h e lpfu l a dv ice .

Mr . G . Bevan o f

Wrexham h as a l lowed me f ree a ccess t o h is d raw ings o f p o t tery c o l lec ted d ur ing f i e ld wa lk ing o ver t he H o lt s i te , a nd p repared t he d raw ings u sed h ere . F ina l ly , Mrs . K . F . Har t ley k ind ly c o m men ted o n a n e ar l ier d ra f t o f t h is n o te . A l l r esponsib i l i ty f or e rror r e ma ins w i th t he a u thor . * The a u thor w ishes i tt o b e k nown t ha t t he c opyr igh t o f t h is a r t ic le r es ts w i th t he C hes ter C i ty C ounc i l .

B IBL IOGRAPHY G r i mes , W . F ., 1 930 .

Ho lt , D enb ighsh ire :

L eg ion a t C ast le L yons ,

t he works-depo t o f t he Twen t ieth

( Y C y m mrodor 4 1 ) ( 1930 ) .

Har t ley , K . F . & Webs ter , P . V .

1 973.

' Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery k i lns

n ear Wi lderspool ' , Archaeo l . J ., 1 30 ( 1973 ) , 7 7-108 . Mason , D . J . P . 1 980 . Excava t ions a t C hester , 1 1-15 Cas t le S treet a nd n eighbour ing s i tes 1 974-8 : ap oss ible R o man p os t ing-house ( mans io ) , G rosvenor Museu m Archaeo log ica l E xcava t ion a nd S urvey Repor ts n o . 2 , C hester , 1 980. R ober tson , A . S .

1 975.

B irrens ( B la tobu lg iu m ) , Ed inburgh , 1 975.

Webster , P . V . 1 969. ' The c oarse p ot tery ' , i n J ones , G . D . B . a nd Webs ter , P . V . ' Med io lanu m : E xcava t ions a t Wh i tchurch 1 965-6' , Archaeo l . J ., 1 25 ( 1969 ) , 2 22-44. Webster , P . V .

1 972.

' Coarse p o t tery f ro m t he 1 968-70 e xcavat ions ', i n

J ones , G . D . B ., ' Excava t ions a t N or thw ich ( Conda te ) ' , Archaeo l . J ., 1 28 ( 1972 ) , 6 6-73 . Webster , P . V .

1 974.

' The c oarse p ot tery ' , i n J ones , G . D . B ., R o man

Manches ter , A l tr incha m ,

1 974 , 8 9-118 .

4 69

2 9.

PA INTED F INE WARES MADE I N THE RAETIAN WORKSHOPS NEAR WILDERSPOOL , CHESH IRE Ka thar ine F . Har t ley

I NTRODUCTION I n 1 973 P e ter V . Webs ter a nd Ip ub l ished a r eappra isa l o f t he p ot tery made a t S tock ton H ea th , n ear W i lderspoo l ( Har t ley & Webster , 1 973 , 7 7-103 ). S o me o f t he workshops c oncerned p roduced r ae t ian mor tar ia c o mparab le t o t hose made a t Wroxeter , Hol t , C hes ter a nd e lsewhere i n n or th-west Br i ta in ( i b id ., 9 1 a nd 9 8-103 ;

Har t ley

1 975 i n R ober tson , 1 975 , 2 41-244 ).

This

1

t ype o f mor tar iu m h ad b y t rad i t ion a r ed-brown s l ip , o f ten r em in iscen t o f t ha t o n s am ian , wh ich was n orma l ly l imi ted t o t he u pper s ur face o f t he f lange a nd a l im i ted z one b e low t he r im i n terna l ly.

D esp i te t he l abe l ' raet ian '

a t tached t o t hese mor tar ia , t here i s n o l onger a ny d oubt t ha t mos t , i fn ot a l l , o f t hose f ound i n Br i ta in were made h ere .

The u se o f al ower c ase ' r ' f or

' rae t ian ' p erhaps a vo ids t he a bv ious g eograph ica l l im i ta t ion . They s hou ld n ot b e c on fused w i th mor tar ia made a t Caer leon o r S hep ton Ma l le t wh ich h ave s o me s uper f ic ia l s im i lar i ty , n or w i th mor tar ia s uch a s t hose o f t ype G i l la m 2 37 wh ich c o m mon ly h ad a t hin , ma t t , r ed, o r o range-brown o vera l l wash . The b as ic k ey t o i den t i f ica t ion i s n orma l ly t he l im i ta t ion o f t he s l ip .

F orms

r ange f ro m t he mos t d is t inc t ive o nes w i th l ug-hand les t o t hose d ist ingu ished f ro m o rd inary mor tar ia o n ly b y t he p ar t ia l r ed s l ip . I n i t ia l ly , t he t rad i t ion u ndoub ted ly s te m med f ro m Rae t ia a nd U pper G er many where p roduc t ion a ppears t o h ave s tar ted i n t he F lav ian p er iod a nd c on t inued i n to t he t h ird c en tury.

S o me workshops p roduc ing t he m a re k nown ,

i n t he s ou th v icus o f t he f or t a t S traubing i n R ae t ia ( Wa lke , 1 965 , 4 2-43 , A bb. 1 3 & Ta f . 1 41 ) , a t We i l im S chdnbuch a nd We lzhe im i n U pper G ermany ( Bersu , G oess ler & P are t , 1 911 , 1 19-125 & 1 28-135 ) a nd i ti s c lear f ro m t he p ub l ic a t ions t ha t o ther c oarse a nd f i ne wares were made a t t he s ame workshops. Among t he v esse ls d e monstrab ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p roduc t ion o f Rae t ian mor tar ia a re s o me wh ich i ncorpora te t he u se o f s im i lar s l ip t o t he o ne wh ich makes t he mor tar ia s o d is t inc t ive . The r aet ian mor tar ia made i n western Br i ta in o n aq u i te c ons iderab le s ca le a re more o r l ess c on te mporary w i th t he c on t inen ta l o nes t hough many o f t he f orms d i f fer .

H owever , t here was n o e v idence t ha t a ny o f t he Br i t ish

workshops h ad u sed t he r aet ian-type s l ip o n v esse ls o ther t han mor tar ia e xcep t a t Ho l t , wh ich a s al eg ionary d epo t h as a lways b een r a ther e xcep t iona l a nd wh ich , a s i th appens , r are ly u sed t h is s l ip o n i t s mor tar ia .

Work o n t he

Wi lderspool p aper was a lready c o mp le ted when t he p resen t wr i ter f ound i n Warr ing ton Museu m a d ish o r b ow l f ro m Wi lderspoo l wh ich was d ecora ted w i th r ed-brown p a in t .

S ince Wi lderspool p o t tery i s o f ten i n s of t f abr ic t he

s l ip , whether wh i te o r r ed , i s f requen t ly p reserved o n ly i n p a tches a nd may

4 71

n ot s urv ive a t a l l .

Th is p iece w i th r e la t ive ly we l l-preserved r ed-brown

d ecora t ion h ad j us t n ot b een s een b efore. I t was a lready t oo l a te t o i nc lude t he v esse l i n t he p ub l ica t ion b u t i t s p resence s ugges ted t ha t s imi lar p ot tery s hou ld b e s ough t i n t he a rea o f d ist r ibut ion f or t he Wi lderspoo l k i lns . P e ter Webs ter p ub l ished a n o te o n ab ow l f ound a t Lancaster wh ich h ad we l l-preserved d ecora t ion i n r ed-brown s l ip ( Fig . 2 9 .1 , n o . 3 ;

Webster , 1 976 ).

O n l ook ing a ga in a t p ar t o f t he May a nd

Kendr ick c ol lec t ions i n t he Warr ing ton Museum h e f ound f ragmen ts o f b ow ls w i th t iny amoun ts o f t he s l ip s urv iv ing , s o t ha t t here was n ow n o r eason t o d oubt manu fac ture a t S tock ton Hea th , n ear Wi lderspoo l ( Webs ter , 1 977 ).

I n

1 980 wh i le s earch ing f or t he d ish o r b ow l s een s evera l y ears p revious ly I l ooked t hrough most o f t he c oarseware s t i l l s urv iv ing f ro m T homas May ' s e xcava t ions a t W i lderspoo l a nd S tock ton H ea th .2

I n t he l i gh t o f o ur i mproved

k now ledge , i t was p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish a c ons iderab le amoun t o f f ine ware wh ich h ad b een p a in ted t hough o f ten o n ly t i ny f lakes s urv ived a nd s o me t i mes ad ist inc t c hange i n s ur face c o lour ing s how ing where i th ad b een . Decora t ion The e x terna l r ed-brown d ecora t ion o n t he l arger f ine ware j ars a nd b ow ls made a t Wi lderspoo l n or ma l ly c ons ists o f d iagona l s tr ipes u sua l ly s lop ing f ro m t op l e f t t o b ot to m r igh t , w i th s o l id z ones o f c o lour a bove a nd b e low . Even t he b ases s eem t o h ave b een s l ipped e x terna l ly a l though t he s l ip s ee ms u sua l ly t o h ave b een a pp l ied w i th a b rush ( Webs ter , 1 976 , 2 0 ).

The r esu l t

i s t ha t t he n a tura l o u ter s ur face o f t he p ot i s s een o n ly b e tween t he s tr ipes ( Fig . 2 9.1 , n os . 3 , 5 , 6& 7 ) .

The s l ip may e nd i n as tra igh t l i ne j ust i ns ide

t he r im b u t t he i nside s ur faces o f t he l arger j ars a nd b ow ls o f ten h ave a v ery p a tchy a ppearance p resu mab ly d ue t o d rops o f s l ip f ro m t he b rush u sed f or p a in t ing .

The e x ter iors o f t hese v esse ls were p robab ly a lways b urn ished

a nd t he b urn ish ing was u sua l ly c arr ied o ver t o e nd j us t b e low t he i ns ide o f t he r i m. O ther t ypes o fb ow l s o me t i mes h ave a c o mp le te c oa t ing o f d ark r ed s l ip c o mb ined w i th ' rou let ted ' d ecora t ion ( Fig . 2 9 .1 , n os . 8& 9 ) .

D iagona l s tr ipes

were a lso u sed o n o ther v esse ls u sua l ly i n t he b ow l o r d ish c lass ( F ig . 2 9 .1 , n os . 1 0 &1 1 ) .

B eakers were o f ten c overed e x terna l ly w ith s l ip wh ich was

c arr ied o ver t o e nd i n as tra ight l ine j ust i ns ide t he r im .

As o l id z one o f

c o lour was s o met i mes u sed a t t he t op o f r oughcast a nd p erhaps r ou let ted ' b eakers b u t b oth were s o me t i mes c o mp le te ly s l ipped e x terna l ly . Sma l l s egmen ta l b ow ls a nd i m i ta t ion f orm Dr . 3 8 a lso h ad v arying t ypes o f d ecora t ion i n d ark r ed o r b rown ish p a in t ( Fig . 2 9.1 , n os . 1 2-15 ). The t o ta l e s t i ma te o f t he p a in ted f ine wares made a t Wi lderspoo l , a s s hown i n t h is p aper , i s e ssen t ia l ly a c onserva t ive o ne e ven f or t he May a nd Kendr ick c ol lec t ions , s ince s evera l v esse ls w i l l h ave l ost a l l v est ige o f t he ir d ecora t ive s l ip a nd t hose h ave n ot b een c ons idered .

We d o n o t k now wh ich

o f t he f or ms r epresen ted were a lways d ecora ted w i th d ark r ed s l ip a nd t here a re c er ta in ly a f ew a dd i t iona l o nes p ub l ished i n H ar t ley & Webs ter 1 973 wh ich were p robably d ecora ted t hough p rec ise e xamp les a re s t i l l l ack ing ( e .g . n os . 5 6 , 5 7 &6 4 ).

I ts hou ld a lso b e n oted t ha t t he v ery u nusua l n arrow-necked

j ar p ub l ished i n 1 973 ( i bid ., f ig . 3 , n o. 1 9 ) a nd n o t r epubl ished h ere , i s d ecora ted w i th d ark r ed p a in t . 4 72

F abr ic The makers o f r ae t ian mor tar ia a i med a t af ine-tex tured f abr ic g iv ing a n o range- o r r ed-brown c o lour a f ter f i r ing .

T he f abr ics p roduced a t

Wi lderspoo l r ange f ro m t hose w i th a d ist inct ly a bras ive q ua l ity t o r e lat ive ly f i ne-tex tured o nes w h ich b urn ish we l l .

T he r aet ian mor tar ia made a t

Wi lderspoo l a re u sua l ly , n ever the less , i n a much c oarser f abr ic t han t he f ine wares a nd a re o f ten b o th c oarser a nd g enera l ly i n fer ior t o r aet ian mor tar ia made i n o ther p ar ts o f B r ita in .

E ven t he f ine wares f ro m Wi lderspoo l c on ta in

s o me s and p art ic les wh ich a re v is ib le t o t he n aked e ye . The W i lderspoo l mor tar ia a nd t o s o me e x ten t t he c oarse ware e ncourage t he b el ie f t ha t t he p o t ters i nvo lved c ou ld h ave b een more e f f ic ien t a t t he ir t rade ( Har t ley & Webs ter , 1 973 , 9 1 , 1 03 ).

I ti s , t here fore , ac ons iderab le

s urpr ise t o f i nd t ha t t hey were mak ing p a in ted f i ne wares wh ich , o n t he r are o ccas ions when t hey h ave s urv ived i n g ood c ond i t ion , a re o f f a ir ly g ood q ua li ty a nd n o t u nacceptable .

P e ter Wi l l iams , t he g eo logy o f f icer a t Warr ing ton

Museu m may h ave p rov ided a c lue t o e xp la in t he a pparen t c rud i ty o f s o me o f t he c oarser wares .

I n h is o p in ion t he l oca l c lays wou ld b e v ery d if f icu l t t o

u se f or p ot t ing a nd i t was c lear ly a ma t ter o f wonder s hou ld h ave t r ied .

t o h im t hay a nyone

I t may b e t ha t i n s uch c ircumstances t he p roduc ts o f

c o mpeten t p o t ters migh t f a l l b e low t he g enera l R o mano-Br i t ish s tandards. The d if ferences b e tween t he Wi lderspoo l f abr ics s ee m t o b e l arge ly d ue t o v arying amoun ts o f s and i n t he c lay whe ther i ti s n a tura l s and o r a dded t e mper ing .

The p o t tery i n t he c o l lec t ions i n Warr ing ton Museu m a nd many

o f t he mor tar ia f ound o n s et t le men t s i tes c lear ly i nd ica te t ha t t here was a t endency t o u se l ow f i r ing t e mpera tures a l though t he b ow ls f ro m L ancaster a re we l l-f ired a nd o f g ood q ua l i ty . Ex ten t o f p roduc t ion The f abr ic , t he u se o f t he r ae t ian s l ip , a s we l l a s t he d istr ibu t ion i n t he n orma l Wi lderspoo l market ing a rea , a l l i nd ica te t ha t t h is p a in ted , f ine ware p ot tery was made i n t he r aet ian workshops n ear Wi lderspoo l .

H owever , t he

n u mber o f s uch v esse ls s o f ar r ecorded f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions a t Wi lderspool a nd e lsewhere d oes n o t l ead o ne t o e xpec t p roduc t ion o n more t han a l imi ted s ca le .

Pe ter Webs ter p o in ts o u t t ha t J . H . Wi l l ia ms 's e xcava t ions o f 1 966-69

a t Wi lderspoo l p roduced o n ly t wo s uch v esse ls , b oth b ow ls , f ro m a t ota l o f 3 96 i l lus trable o nes ( Webs ter , 1 977 ). H owever , t he marke t ing a rea f or t he Wi lderspoo l k i lns c overed L ancash ire , C hesh ire a nd a t l eas t p ar ts o f C u mbr ia a nd t he ir p roduc ts a re o ccas iona l ly f ound i n S cot land t hough t hese may n o t h ave r eached t heir d es t ina t ion b y n orma l t rade ( i bid ., 8 9 &9 7; 1 42 , n o. 2 ).

Har t ley , 1 975 i n R ober tson , S cot t & Kepp ie , 1 975 ,

The t hree b ow ls f ro m Lancas ter a nd t ha t f ro m Wa l ton-le-Da le

e ncourage h ope t ha t f ur ther s earches t hrough ma ter ia l f ro m s i tes a s f ar n or th a s Car l is le w i l l i n t ime s how t he t rue d is tr ibu t ion o f t h is ware . Da te There i s n o d oubt t ha t t he most impor tan t p er iod o f p ot tery p roduc t ion a t W i lderspool was C . A .D . 1 10-160 t hough t he r ae t ian mor tar ia p robab ly c ont i nued t o b e p roduced o n a sma l ler s ca le l a ter i n t he s econd c en tury.

The

p a in ted , f ine wares wou ld u ndoubted ly b e c on te mporary w i th t he p roduc t ion 4 73

o f r aet ian mor tar ia .

I t may b e wor th n ot ing t ha t i ft here i s ac onnex ion

b e tween t he c ordonned b ow ls ( Fig . 2 9.1 , n o . 3 ) a nd t he s am ian f orms Dragendor f f 4 4 a nd Wa l ters 8 1 , t here i s n o n eed t o p os tu la te a p os t-Tra jan ic d a te , s ince Wa l ters 8 1 was c urren t s oon a f ter A .D . 1 00 .

I ti s , i n a ny e ven t ,

n ot i mposs ib le t ha t t he s am ian a nd n on-sam ian v ersions o f t he t ype d er ive f ro m a c o m mon a nces tor , whe ther i n s am ian ware ( e .g . f ro m Dr . 2 4 ) o r o therw ise .3 C o mmen ts The W i lderspoo l p a in ted ware h as s o me a f f in i t ies w i th a t ype o f r edp a in ted ware f ound i n Y orksh ire 4 b u t t he ma in p ara l le ls a re u ndoubted ly w i th s i tes i n Raet ia a nd U pper G ermany , s uch a s S traub ing a nd C a mbodunu m w here r ae t ian mor tar ia were u sed i n q uan t i ty. B ow ls w i th b as ica l ly s im i lar t ypes o f d ecora t ion i n r ed s l ip a re r ecorded ( Wa lke , 1 965 , A bb. 5 5 , n os . 6& 7 ; F ischer 1 957 , Ta f . 1 3 , n os. 6 & 7 ) ;

t here a re a lso l i nks i n o ther t ypes o f

d ecora t ion u sed a t Wi lderspoo l a nd S traubing n o tably i n t he r o l ler-s tamped ware a nd b eakers w i th b arbo tined s ca le p a t tern ( see n os . 2 1 &2 2 ). The manu fac ture o f r ae t ian mor tar ia i n Br i ta in i s c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a reas i n t he n or th-wes t where t he a r my was p resen t , a nd w i th Wroxe ter wh ich h ad p rev ious ly h ad a f or tress.

The r ae t ian mor tar ia made a t Wroxe ter

a re v ir tua l ly a l l l i ke ly t o b e Hadr ian ic a nd An ton ine wh ich l ong p ost-da tes t he p resence o f t he a r my a nd t here i s n o e v idence t ha t l eg ions i n Br i ta in were mak ing p ot tery a f ter c . A .D . 1 25. S old iers may wel l , h owever , h ave b een among t he ma jor p urchas ters i n Br i ta in a nd t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t he t rad i t ion o f mak ing r ae t ian mort ar ia c ame t o Br i ta in v ia t he a rmy a nd p erhaps t hrough men who h ad b een t ra ined i n p o t t ing o n t he C on t inen t . work a s v eterans .

S o me may h ave c on t inued i n t h is t ype o f

The o bv ious s olu t ion wou ld b e t he i n troduc t ion o f t he

' rae t ian ' t echn iques t o H ol t b y l eg ionar ies t rans ferred f ro m V indon issa . a move men t c anno t , h owever , b e d ocumen ted .

S uch

Rae t ian mor tar ia i n Br i ta in

a re c er ta in ly more s i mi lar t o c on te mporary p roduc ts o n t he C on t inen t i n t he F lav ian-Tra jan ic p er iod t han l a ter a nd i ti s a t t h is t ime t ha t t he t rad i t ion mus t h ave b een i n troduced . THE POTTERY

( Fig . 2 9.1 )

The p a in ted d ecora t ion f requen t ly s urv ives i n o n ly v ery sma l l a reas a nd where p oss ib le t he d ' es ign h as b een r estored i n t he d raw ings . 1 . Warr ing ton Museum.

Access ion n o . 1 230 .

P rev iously p ubl ished i n

Webs ter , 1 977 , 2 6 a nd f ig . 4 5 , " in l i gh t r ed f abr ic c on ta in ing s o me s andy f i l ler ...

The d ecora t ion t akes t he f orm o f d iagona l l i nes o f d ark r ed s l ip

a nd t races o f s l ip e lsewhere o n t he b ody s how t ha t t he d iagona ls were o nce c losed b y s o l id b locks o f s l ip a bove a nd b e low ." 2 .

Warr ing ton Museum .

N o n umber .

J ar i n s l igh t ly a brasive o range-

b rown f abr ic r ead i ly a t tr ibu tab le t o t he Wi lderspoo l workshops .

The r ed-

b rown p a in ted d ecora t ion s urv ives o n ly i n t he c rev ice o f t he n eck : n os . 1& 2a re g ood e xa mp les o f t he d eter iorat ion i n t he s l ip d ecorat ion wh ich o ne c an e xpect i n t h is w are . N os . 1a nd 2 c ou ld b e af orm p ub l ished i n Har t ley & Webster , 1 973 , f ig . 6 , n o . 5 3 . 4 74

d i tn t

8

L 1 0

1 2

1 3

4 . 1 1 1 1

V

-

1

7 . 1

r

1 9

1 6

F ig .

2 9 .1

P a in ted wares made i n t he r ae t ian workshops n ear W i lderspoo l , Chesh ire . S ca le 1 :4

4 75

3 .

Lancas ter ( Webs ter , 1 976 , 2 0-21 , f ig . 7 ) .

A c ordonned b ow l ( G i l la m

2 00 ) i n f ine-tex tured , s andw ich f abr ic , d rab f awn w i th o range-brown a nd f awn c ore a nd d ecora t ion i n r ed-brown p a in t o r s l ip , a pp l ied w i th a b rush . T he o u ts ide i s b urn ished a nd t he b urn ish ing i s c arr ied o ver t o e nd i ns ide t he r im.

T h is p iece i s i n a n e xce l len t s ta te o f p reserva t ion a nd s hows t he q ua l i ty

wh ich c ou ld b e p roduced .

The i nside s ur face h as r ough p a tches o f c o lour

p robab ly r esu l t ing f ro m a cc iden ta l d r ips f ro m t he b rush a nd f ro m s p lash ing . Af ragmen t f ro m a nother b ow l o f i den t ica l t ype h as b een n oted i n t he o ld L ancas ter c o l lec t ions b y S tephen P enney o f t he Lancas ter Museu m . 4 . Warr ing ton Museum . Accession n o . 1 182. F ragmen t f ro m t he r im o f ab ow l o f u ncer ta in t ype i n s o f t ish , s l igh t ly g ranu lar o range-brown f abr ic w i th d ark r ed-brown s l ip o n t he o u tside e nd ing i n as tra igh t l i ne j ust i ns ide t he r im. 5 .

Lancas ter .

A r i m-fragmen t f ro m a b ow l i n h ard , o range-brown f abr ic

w i th p a ler s ur face a nd t h ick r ed-brown s l ip d ecora t ion i n v ery g ood c ond i t ion . 6 .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

N o a ccess ion n umber .

F rag men t f ro m a b ow l i n

o range-brown f abr ic , b urn ished o n t he o u ts ide b u t s l igh t ly a brasive i n t he i ns ide : c o lour .

d ecora ted w i th d ark r ed s l ip i n d iagona l b ars b e low a s o l id z one o f N o s l ip s urv ived b e low t he b ars b u t t he l ower p ar t o f t he b ow l was

p robably c overed w i th s l ip o r ig ina l ly .

T he b ow l i s r em in iscen t i n f orm , o f

b ow ls f ound a t H o l t ( Gr i mes , 1 930 , 2 18 , f ig . 6 6 , n o . 9 1 ) , a nd C a mbodunu m ( Fischer 1 957, Ta f . 1 3 , n os . 6 -7; i n g lossy r ed-brown s l ip ).

t hese a lso h ave a s i mi lar t ype o f d ecora t ion

There a re o ther r im-fragmen ts i n t he c o l lec t ions

wh ich a re p robab ly f ro m b ow ls o f s im i lar t ype. An u mber o f r i m-fragments f ro m j ars a nd b ow ls were f ound i n t he Warr ing ton Museu m C o l lec t ions w i th t races o fd ark r ed-red-brown p a in t o n t he m . I th as n ot y e t b een p oss ib le t o a sse mb le t he m a l l a nd t o g ive a ny r e liab le e st i ma te o f t he n u mber o fb ow ls a nd j ars i nvo lved b u t t hey a re p robab ly a l l f ro m v esse ls s im i lar t o n os . 1 -6 . 7 .

Wa l ton-le-Da le ( P icker ing , 1 957 , 3 9-40 , f ig . 1 6 , n o . 2 6;

Hadr ian ic-An ton ine ) .

P hase I ,

Three f ragmen ts f ro m a b ow l r e la ted t o s a mian f orm

Dr . 2 7 , i n s of t , f ine-tex tured , p ink-brown f abr ic w i th a l i t t le q uar tz , g rey , r ed-brown a nd s o f t o paque wh i te t e mper ing .

Pa tches o f d eep r ed-brown

p a in t s urv ive s u f f ic ien t ly we l l t o r es tore t he e x terna l d ecora t ion :

i ts ee ms

l i ke ly t ha t t he i ns ide wou ld b e e n t ire ly c overed w i th s l ip b u t i to n ly s urv ives j us t i ns ide t he r i m. 8 . Warr ing ton Museu m .

No a ccession n u mber .

Fragmen t f ro m a ' rou le t ted '

b ow l o f s i mi lar t ype t o Har t ley a nd Webs ter , 1 973 , f ig . 7 , n o. 5 8 w ith t races o f r ed-brown s l ip o n t he i ns ide a nd o u tside s ur faces wh ich s uggest a c o mp le te c olour-coa t .

I n f ine-tex tured o range-brown f abr ic .

9 . Warr ing ton Museu m . 1 228 . A sma l l b ow l i n v ery f ine-tex tured , o range-brown f abr ic , c o mp le te ly c oa ted w i th d ark r ed-brown s l ip . The s l ip o ver lays t wo d if feren t t ypes o f u neven T rou le t t ing t , p robab ly p roduced b y a ' s tu t ter ing ' t echn ique r a ther t han a r ou le t te .

Ano ther f ragmen t f ro m a s i mi lar

b ow l was n oted . 1 0 .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 230 .

Ab ow l w ith d eep c o l lar , i n v ery f i ne-

t ex tured o range-brown f abr ic , wh ich i s v ery smooth t o t he t ouch .

The c ol lar

i s d ecora ted w i th n arrow d iagona l b rush-strokes i n d ark r ed-brown p a in t : t h is d ecora t ion p robably c on t inued a l l r ound t he c o l lar b u t o n ly a f ew o f t he s trokes s urv ive .

4 76

1 1 .

Kendr ick C o l lec t ion , Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 231 .

Al arge p ar t o f a

s ha l low d ish o f t he s ame t ype a s Har t ley & Webs ter 1 973 , 8 8 , f ig . 7 , n o . 6 7, i n s im i lar f abr ic t o n os . 7a nd 1 0 ; r e min iscen t o f s amian ware .

t h is f abr ic i s f ine e nough t o b e s trong ly

The i ns ide a nd r im a re d ecora ted w i th d iagona l

b ars o f d ark r ed-brown p a in t , t he o u ts ide a nd b ase b y r ando m b rush s trokes. The d ecora t ion s urv ives o n o n ly p ar t o f t he v esse l .

F ragmen ts f ro m f our

o ther s imi lar v esse ls were n oted . 1 2.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 51 .08 .

Af langed b ow l i n i m i ta t ion o f t he s am ian

f or m Dr . 3 8 , i n f i ne-tex tured , f awn f abr ic w i th d ark r ed s l ip o n t he f lange a nd t he i n terna l s ur face ; 1 3.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

t here i s n o i nd ica t ion o f s l ip o n t he o u tside . N o a ccess ion n umber .

a bras ive o range-brown f abr ic w i th t h in g rey c ore ;

A s ha l low b ow l i n s l igh t ly t races o f d iagona l s tr ipes

o f d ark r ed p a in t s urv ive o n t he r im . 1 4.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 176.

S egmen ta l b ow l w i th r ed-brown s l ip o n t he

f lange a nd b ead . 1 5.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

N o a ccess ion n u mber .

A sma l l s egmen ta l b ow l

i n f a ir ly smooth o range-brown f abr ic w i th d ark r ed s l ip o n t he r im o n ly . 1 6.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

N o a ccess ion n u mber .

Ab eaker i n f awn f abr ic ,

smoothed o n t he o u tside b u t s l igh t ly p i mp ly o n t he i ns ide ;

r ed-brown s l ip

c overs a l l o f t he s urv iv ing o u ter s ur face b u t e nds i ns ide i n as tra igh t l i ne j ust b elow t he r i m. 1 7.

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 182.

A r oughcast b eaker i n s of t b u t s l igh t ly

a bras ive , f ine-tex tured , o range-brown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip c over ing t he who le o f t he o u ts ide s ur face a nd e nd ing i ns ide i n as tra igh t l i ne j ust b e low t he r i m. 1 8 .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 225 ( Long Bank 1 870 ).

R oughcas t b eaker i n

f ine-tex tured , o range-brown f abr ic w i th b uf f-brown s ur face .

The r ed-brown

s l ip a ppears t o b e r es tr ic ted t o t he z one a bove t he r ough-cast s ur face a nd e nds i ns ide i n as tra igh t l i ne j us t b e low t he r im . 1 9. Warr ing ton Museu m .

N o a ccess ion n u mber .

Ab eaker i n f ine , f awn-

p ink f abr ic w i th p ink c ore a nd b rown ish s l ip o ver t he whole o f t he s urv iv ing o u ter s ur face , e nd ing i n as tra igh t l i ne i ns ide j ust b e low t he r i m. The u pper e dge s urv ives o f d ecora t ion p erhaps i n c u t-g lass t echn ique r a ther t han ' rou let t ing '. 2 0 .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 7'32.

Ab eaker i n s l igh t ly g ranu lar , o range-

b rown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip c over ing t he who le o f t he s urv iv ing o u ts ide s ur face a nd e nd ing i n al i ne i ns ide , j us t b e low t he r im . The s l ip o n t he b eakers t ends t o b e more b rown ish t han t ha t o n t he o ther vesse l t ypes . 2 1 .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

1 232.

Ab ody f ragmen t f ro m a b eaker w i th

b arbot ine s ca le p a t tern a pp l ied ; i n v ery f ine-tex tured o range-brown f abr ic w i th r ed-brown s l ip o n t he o u ts ide .

Ab eaker w i th s i mi lar p a t tern , a pparen t ly

i n b arbo t ine , i s p ub l ished f ro m S traub ing t hough t he s l ip i s o f ad if feren t t ype ( Wa lke , 1 965 , T af . 4 9 , n o . 1 5 ) .

4 77

2 2. No t p ubl ished .

Warr ing ton Museu m .

Ab ody f ragmen t i n r a ther c oarse

o range-brown f abr ic w i th n o s l ip o r n one s urv iv ing , w i th r o l ler-s tamped p a t tern s im i lar t o t hose r ecorded a t S traub ing ( i bid ., T al . 8 2 , n os. 1 -3 a nd 6 ). I ti s a lso wor th n ot ing t ha t t he u nusua l h eav i ly d ecora ted , n arrow-necked j ar i n Har t ley & Webs ter , 1 973 , 8 3 , f ig . 3 , n o . 1 9 , h as s o me d ecora t ion i n r ed-brown p a in t .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T hanks a re d ue t o t he C ura tors a nd s ta f f o f t he Museu m a nd Ar t G a l lery a t Warr ing ton , t he L ancas ter C i ty C ounc i l Museu m a nd t he Museu m a nd E xhib i t ion C en tre a t L eyland f or t he ir k indness i n a l low ing a ccess t o t he ir c o l lec t ions .

A lso t o G eof frey A l len f or a ccess t o , a nd i n forma t ion a bou t

t he p ot tery f rom Wa l tonle-Da le .

Br ian R . Har t ley h as k ind ly r ead t he

manuscr ip t a nd made a f ew s ugges t ions .

Iam e spec ia l ly g ra tefu l t o P e ter

Webs ter f or i n forma t ion c oncern ing , a nd p ermiss ion t o p ubl ish a b ow l f ro m L ancaster ( no . 5 ) , a nd h ope fu l ly f or h is f orebearance o f ac er ta in amoun t o f p oach ing !

NOTES 1 . I t was o r ig ina l ly i n tended t o make r aet ian mor tar ia i n Br i ta in t he s ub jec t o f t h is p aper b u t p ub l ica t ion h as b een p os tponed t o a l low f or f ur ther work d ur ing t he n ex t y ear .

A l though n ow s omewha t o u t-of-da te , a n i n troduc t ion

t o t hese mor tar ia i s a va i lab le i n Har t ley , 1 975 ( Rober tson , 1 975 , 2 412 44 :

t he t erm s ub-rae t ian i s n o l onger b eing u sed ).

2 . Wi lderspoo l a nd S tock ton H ea th a re c lose t oge ther a nd c lear ly f orm p ar t o f t he s ame c o mp lex ;

t hey a re u sua l ly r eferred t o a s Wi lderspoo l

( Har t ley ß z Webster , 1 973 , 7 7 ). 3 . I nforma t ion k ind ly s upp l ied b y Br ian R . Har t ley . 4 .

J . R . P err in k ind ly d rew my a t tent ion t o t h is ware ( Keen , 1 970 ).

B IBL IOGRAPHY Bersu , G ., G oess ler , P . a nd Pare t , 0 ., 1 911 . " Rö m ische T öpferöfen b e i We i l i . S chönbuch , Wa lhe im u nd We lzhe i m" , F undber ich te a us S chwaben X IX , 1 911 , 1 19-135. F ischer , U lr ich , 1 957.

Ca mbodunumforschungen 1 953 - I K era m ik a us d en

H o lzhausern , Ka l lm t inz , 1 957. G r i mes , W. F ., 1 930 .

' Ho l t , D enb ighsh ire :

T he Works-Depot o f t he

Twen t ieth L eg ion a t Cas t le L yons ' Y C y m mrodor XL I , 1 930. Har t ley , K . F . a nd Webs ter , P . V ., 1 973 .

' Romano-Br i t ish Po t tery k i lns

n ear W i lderspoo l ' , The Archaeo t . J . 1 30 , ( 1 973 ) , 7 7-103 .

4 78

Har t ley , Ka thar ine , 1 975.

' Raet ian Mor tar ia ' , 2 41-244 i n Rober tson 1 975.

Hart ley , Kathar ine , 1 975.

' Mor tar iu m S ta mps ' i n Rober tson , S co t t a nd

Kepp ie 1 975 , 1 42-146. Keen , L aurence , 1 970 .

' Ro man Red-pa in ted Ware f ro m Y orksh ire ' ,

An t iq . J . L ( 1970 ) p ar t i , 8 8-93. P icker ing , F . E ., 1 957.

' Ro man Wa lton-le-Da le .

Excava t ion Repor t f or

t he y ears 1 947-1957' , Trans . H ist . S oc . o f Lancs. a nd C hes. 1 09 ( 1957). Rober tson , Anne S ., 1 975.

B irrens ( Bla tobu lg iu m ) , Ed inburgh , 1 975.

Rober tson , Anne , S cot t , Margaret a nd Kepp ie , Lawrence , 1 975. A R o man For t a nd i t s F inds. Wa lke , N orber t , 1 965 .

Bar H i l l :

Br i t ish Archaeo l . Rep . 1 6 , Oxford , 1 975.

Das R ö mische Donaukaste l l S traubing - S orv ioduru m.

Rö mische-Germanische Ko m mission d es Deu tschen Arch . I ns ti t . Ber l in , 1 965. Webs ter , Pe ter , 1 976. Con trebis 4 ( 1976 ).

' An Unusua l Ro man Vesse l f ro m t he Mi tre Yard ' , A Bu l let in o f Archaeo l . f or Lanes a nd t he N or th

Wes t , p . 2 0-21 . Webster , P eter , 1 977.

' The Mi tre Yard Bow l Aga in ' , C on trebis 5 ( 1977 ) ,

2 6-28.

4 79

3 0 .

' PANNON ISCHE GLASIERTE KERA M IK ' : AN A SSESS MENT P au l Ar thur a nd Dav id Wi l l iams

1 .1

I NTRODUCTION Wh i le o ne o f t he wr i ters was r esearch ing i n to p o t tery i n n or thern I ta ly

h e was a ble t o e xam ine t he ma ter ia l f rom a l a te R o man k i ln s i te a t C ar l ino n ear Aqu i le ia , b e ing e xcava ted b y D o t t . L u isa B er tacch i .

S ubsequen t

b ibl iograph ica l s tudy i nd ica ted t ha t t he C ar l in° ma ter ia l was j us t p ar t o f a v ery d is t inct ive g roup o f p ot tery c harac ter ised b y t ypo log y a nd t he t echn ique o f l ead-g lazing , a nd d istr ibu ted w ide ly t hrough n or thern I t a ly , n or thern Yugos lav ia , Sw i tzer land , Austr ia a nd Hungary , p redo m inan t ly i n t he f our th c en tury A .D .

Ap rel iminary n o te o n as tray f ind f ro m C a is ter b y Yarmou th

a ppeared i n Br i tann ia I X ( Ar thur a nd Wi l l iams , 1 978 , 3 94-395 ).

E ven t hough

t h is p resen t s tudy i s b ased ma in ly o n a n a na lys is o f p ub l ished f inds a nd n o t o n ,a t horough p ersona l e xam ina t ion o f t he ma ter ia l , i ti s t he f irst o ne t o a t te mp t ag enera l s urvey o f t h is i mpor tan t a nd w ide ly d istr ibu ted ware . Th is p aper i s o f fered a s at r ibu te t o Dr . G raham Webster . 2 .1

TYPOLOGY

( Figs . 3 0 .1 - 3 0 .6 )

Th is i s n o t i n tended t o b e e xhaust ive , b ased a s i ti s o n p ubl ished v esse ls a nd e xamp les e xamined i n I ta ly. The c o m monest f orms a re p robab ly a l l r epresen ted , a nd i l lustra ted where p oss ib le . T ype 1 Mor tar iu m w i th t r i tura t ion g r i ts a nd i n ter ior l ead-g laze wh ich o n o ccas ion r uns o n to t he f lange .

S i mp le s pou ts a re s o me t i mes e ncoun tered , a l though i t

i s b y n o means c er ta in t ha t a l l e xamp les were s pou ted . a n o vera l l s l ip t oge ther w i th t he l ead-g laze .

Af ew v esse ls b ear

There i s aw ide v ar ia t ion

amongs t t he v esse ls w h ich migh t we l l b e d ue t o i nd iv idua l workshop s tyles . 1 . Ca ister b y Yarmou th , E ng land .

Hard , o range t o d ark b u f f a nd l i gh t

b rown f abr ic w i th a l i gh t g reen t o d ark t reac le b rown i n ter ior l eadg laze .

The t r i tura t ion g r i ts a re o f wh i te q uar tzi te .

A ssoc ia ted w i th

c o ins o f t he H ouse o f C onstan t ine ( Ar thur a nd Wi l l iams , 1 978 , 3 94-395 ). 2 .

3 .

Carnun tu m , Austr ia . F ine o range f abr ic w i th a d ark o l ive-grey i n ter ior l ead-g laze ( Grunewa ld , 1 979 , p l . 6 3 , n o . 1 ) . Gundrem mingen , G ermany.

S l igh t ly micaceous f abr ic , l ea ther-brown

e x ter ior a nd g rey i n ter ior , w i th a n i n ter ior b rown ish l ead-g laze ( Bersu , 1 964 , f ig . 1 8 a nd p . 6 9 , n o. 1 ) . 4 .

Mooseburg , n ear Murnau , G ermany.

4 81

( Garbsch , 1 966 , p l . 4 9 , n o . 1 ) .

1

1 5

1 2

1 . 7

1 4

1 6

1 . 9

F ig . 3 0.1

4 82

S ca le 1 :3 .

5 .

Aqu i le ia , I t a ly.

Hard , d ark o range f abr ic w i th r ed s l ip d ecora t ion ,

r ou let t ing a nd g reen g laze c over ing t he sma l l t r iturat ion g r i ts . Unpubl ished .

C our tesy o f D ot t . L . Ber tacch i .

Aqu i le ia Museum ,

I nv . n o. 1 23567. 6 .

Munchener-Denn ing , G er many.

Brown-ochre c o loured f abr ic w i th a n

i n ter ior g reen g laze ( Czysz , 1 974 , p l . 1 7 a nd p . 8 7 , n o. 8 ) . 7 .

Carnun tu m , Austr ia .

L igh t g rey f abr ic w i th a l i gh t g reen g laze

( Grunewa ld , 1 979 , p l . 6 3 , n o . 1 4 ). 8 .

P fa f fenhofen ( Pons Aen i ) , S udbayern , G ermany. w i th a b rown i n ter ior g laze .

Br ick-co loured f abr ic

Th is mor tar iu m was f ound i n ab ur ia l

( Ke l lner , 1 971 , f ig . 3 2 , n o. 1 0 a nd p . 1 20 , n o . 2 3 ). 9 .

Mooseburg , n ear Murnau , G ermany ( Garbsch , 1 966 , p l . 5 3 , n o . 2 3 ).

1 0 . S re mska M itrov ica

( S irmiu m ) , Yugoslav ia .

N o d escr ip t ion ( Parov ic-

Pes ikan , 1 973 , p l . x ix , n o . 1 , b u t c f . a lso n o . 2 wh ich h as a n o l iveg reen i n ter ior g laze ). 1 1 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

V en t im ig l ia ( A lbin t im i lu m ) , I ta ly.

Var ious f ragments

w i th a g reen i n ter ior l ead-g laze , f ro m a d ump d a t ing t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i f th c en tury ( Lambog l ia , 1 950 , f ig . 8 2 a nd 1 2 , .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Pav ia ( T ic inum ) , I ta ly.

w i th a l i t t le q uar tz a nd mica .

P .

1 48 , n os . 7 6-79 ).

Fa ir ly h ard , o rangy f abr ic

At h in r edd ish-brown g laze c overs

t r i tura t ion g r i ts o n t he i n ter ior ( B lake , 1 977a , f ig . 3 5 , n o . 3 ;

c f .

a lso n o . 5 ) . 1 3.

Un i l lus tra ted .

Turkheim , G o ldberg , G ermany.

Var ious e xamp les

( Wa lke , 1 963 , p l . 1 30 , f ig . 2 , n os . 1 0-13 ). 1 4.

Un i l lus tra ted .

P fa f fenhofen ( Pons A en i ) , G ermany.

Var ious e xamp les

( Ke l lner , 1 971 , f ig . 1 0 , n os . 4 -9 ). 1 5.

Un i l lus tra ted .

U n tersaa l , G ermany.

( Garbsch , 1 967 , f ig . 9 , n o . 4 ).

1 6.

Un i l lus tra ted .

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Hungary.

Var ious e xamp les c la imed

t o h ave b een p roduced a t t he s i te ( see b e low ). a nd p l . 1 06 , n os . 6 4-74 ;

( Tho mas , 1 956 , f ig . 3 ,

Tho mas , 1 964 , p l . 2 08 ).

1 7.

Un i l lus tra ted .

L jub l jana ( E mona ) , Yugos lav ia .

1 8 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

C hur , Sw i tzer land ( I n for . f ro m D ot t . A . H ochu l i-Gyse l ).

1 9.

Un i l lus tra ted .

G orsiu m ( Hercu l ia ) , Hungary.

Var ious e xamp les ( I nfor .

f ro m D ot t . Z . Bank i ). 2 0 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

D o mbovar , Hungary.

E xamp les f ro m a c eme tery

( A lbeker Mar ia , 1 978 ). 2 1 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

P ecs ( Sop ianae ) , Hungary.

R im f rag men t f ro m a l arge

mor tar iu m w ith a n i n ter ior g laze a nd s tamped ( ?) d ebased r ose t tes a round t he f lange ( Tho mas , 1 964 , p l . 1 83 ). 2 2.

Un i l lustra ted .

I nnsbruck ( Ve ld idena ) , Aus tr ia .

1 974 , p 1 .6 ) .

4 83

Many e xamp les ( Do lak ,

2 1 1 8 I (

0

3 1

33

32

-

1 7"

5 1

8 1

6 1 F ig. 3 0.2

S ca le 1 :3

4 84

Type 2 R ibbed-r im med b ow l . 1 . S re mska Mi trov ica ( S irmiu m ) , Yugos lav ia .

C overed w i th a l ead-g laze

wh ich i s p robab ly o l ive-green i n c olour ( Parov ic-Pesikan , 1 973 ,

P .

2 5

a nd p l . x b c , n o. 4 ) . 2 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

S re mska Mi trov ica ( S irm iu m ) , Yugos lav ia ( Parov ic-

P es ikan , 2 2 . c i t ., p l . x ix , n o. 3 ) . T ype 3 F la t-r im med b ow l .

Th is i s o ne o f t he t ypes f ro m t he s upposed k i lns a t

Tac-Fovenypuszta , n ear Lake Ba la ton ( see b e low ).

The u pper s ur face o f

t he r im i s u sua l ly p la in , b u t s o me t i mes b ears r ou le t ted o r d i mp led d ecora t ion . 1 . Ravenna , I ta ly .

Hard , s l igh t ly micaceous , o range-brown f abr ic w i th

as imi lar c o loured , o vera l l , l ead-g laze .

U npub l ished .

C our tesy o f

Prof . G iovanna Bermond Mon tanan. 2 .

Carnun tu m , Aus tr ia ( Grunewa ld , 1 979 , p l . 6 7 , n o . 9 ) .

3 .

Carnun tu m , Austr ia ( Grunewa ld , 1 979 , p l . 6 7 , n o. 1 ) .

4 .

Un i l lustra ted .

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Hungary.

Var ious e xamp les , b oth

p la in a nd d ecora ted ( Tho mas , 1 956 , f ig . 3 , n os. 3 6-45 ). 5 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

G orsiu m ( Hercu l ia ) , Hungary.

Var ious p la in a nd

d ecora ted e xamp les ( Jeno , , 1 975 , p l . i x , n os. 4 -8 ). T ype 4 Hooked-r im b ow l . 1 .

Gundre m mingen , G ermany. a nd n o tches o n t he r im .

Decora ted w i th c ircu lar i nden ted s tamps

Micaceous , b u f f , f abr ic w i th a n o vera l l d ark

y e l low-green l ead g laze .

( Bersu , 1 964 , p l . i i , f ig . 7 ).

A par t f rom

f ragmen ts o f s o me h undred mor tar ia ( Type 1 ) , t h is was t he o n ly o ther g lazed v esse l f ro m G undre m mingen . T ype 5 G lobu lar t re fo i ll ipped f lagon . 1 . Pecs ( Sop ianae ) , Hungary.

E xa mp le i n ab r ick-red f abr ic w i th a

b rown ish-ye l low g laze o n t he e x ter ior s ur face .

Th is v esse l c ame f ro m

a n i nfan t i nhu ma t ion —Grave R/203 , S zechenyi S quare , C i ty Par ish C hurch , 1 939 ( Fu lep , 1 977 , p l . 2 8 , R/203 , n o. 3 ) . 2 . S agvar , H ungary ( Burger , 1 966 , f ig . 1 26 , n o . 1 8 ) . T ype 6 Ovoid t re foi l-l ipped f lagon . 1 . P ecs ( Sopianae ) , Hungary. g reen l ead-g laze . a nd p . 1 3 , n o. 3 2 ).

Br ick-red f abr ic w i th a s h iny b rown ish-

Fro m a d is turbed g rave R/18 ( Fu lep , 1 977 , n o . 6 N ote t he u ng lazed t re fo i ll ipped f l agon f ro m t he s a me

d epos i t ( Fu lep , a p..c i t ., n o . 7 ). 4 85

(

7 1

92

9 1

1 01

1 02

1 05 F ig .

3 0 .3

S ca le 1 :3

4 86

2 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

Rusovce ( Geru la ta, C zechos lovak ia .

Brown g lazed

e xamp le f ound i n a ma le i nhuma t ion ( grave 1 67 ) w i th a l a te c rossbow b rooch , amongs t o ther f i nds ( Kraskovska , 1 976 , f ig . 8 1 , n o . 1 1 a nd p . 4 5 ). T ype 7 O ne-hand led b icon ica l f l agon . 1 . Wess l ing , S udbayern , G ermany. g reen g laze .

Br ick-red f abr ic w i th a p a tchy y e l low -

F ound i n g rave 1 5 o f Wess l ing c e metery w i th t wo f o l les o f

C ons tan t ine I( Ke l lner , 1 971 , p . 1 20 a nd f ig . 3 2 , n o . 6 ). T ype 8 O ne-hand led j ug w i th p la in e ver ted l i p . 1 . Munchen-Har lach ing , S udbayern , G ermany . y e l low-brown l ead-g laze .

Br ick-red f abr ic w i th a

From a g rave ( no . 1 2 ) d a ted t o t he mid-four th

c en tury A .D . ( Ke l lner , 1 971 , p . 1 20 a nd f ig . 3 2 , n o. 7 ) . T ype 9 One-hand led f l agon w i th e longa ted b ody a nd c o l lar-neck o r r i m.

I s ings

g lass f orm 1 26 i s s imi lar ( I s ings , 1 957 , 1 56 ). 1 . S tab io , C an ton T ic ino , Sw i tzer land .

Fro m a t h ird o r f our th c en tury

g rave ( S i mone t t , 1 972 , p . 2 31 , S .P . 2 6 ). 2 . S agvar ( Tr icc iana ) , Hungary ( Burger , 1 966 , f ig . 1 26 , n o. 2 ). 3 . Un i l lus tra ted .

S agvar ( Tr icc iana ) , Hungary.

V esse l o f s im i lar f or m

t o n o. 2 a bove , b u t w i th a r im l i ke n o . 1( Burger , 1 966 , f ig . 1 26 , n o . 1 ) . 4 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

P ecs ( Sop ianae ) , Hungary.

V esse l w i th a d ark g reen

l ead-g laze f ro m g rave R/167 , a ssoc ia ted w i th f i ve f our th c en tury c o ins ( Fu lep , 1 977 , p l . 1 5 , n o. 8 ) . 5 . U n i l lus tra ted .

A osta ( Augus ta P rae tor ia ) , I ta ly.

Th is v esse l , f ro m a

f our th c en tury g rave , a ppears t o b e as hor tened e xamp le o f n o . 1a bove ( Ba l lard in i , 1 964 , f ig . 1 52 ). 6 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Dunapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary.

Fro m a g rave

( A lfo ld i e t a l ., 1 957, p l . 1 8 , n o. 6 ) . T ype 1 0 O ne-hand led , r ounded j ug w i th a c o l lar-r im.

Th is i s av ery s i mp le

a nd c o m mon f or m w i th n u merous v ar ian ts . 1 . S olduno , L ocarno , Sw i tzer land .

E xamp le w i th a n o l ive-green g laze

f ro m a g rave t en ta t ive ly d a ted A .D . 2 00-250 ( Dona t i , 1 979 , p . 2 9 , n o . 1 34 , 7 6. 2 0 a nd p . 1 78 ). 2 . S tabio , C an ton T ic ino , Sw i tzer land .

Fro m a t h ird o r f our th c en tury

g rave ( S imonet t , 1 972 , p . 2 31 , S .P . 1 8 ).

4 87

11

1 23

1 41

1 51

1 2 2 F ig .

3 0 .4

4 88

S ca le 1 :3

3 . S tabio , Can ton T ic ino , Sw i tzer land . g rave ( S i mone t t , 1 972 , 4 .

P .

2 31 , S .P . 9 ) .

Ven t im ig l ia ( A lbin t im i lum ) , I ta ly. 1 950 , p . 1 47 , n o . 8 3 ). e xamp les c i ted . c en tur ies A .D.

Fro m a t h ird o r f our th c en tury

G reen g lazed e xamp le ( La mbog l ia ,

Th is v esse l i s n ot a s s tandard a s t he o ther

I tc o mes f ro m a d ump d a ted t o t he f our th a nd f i f th

5 . S tab io , Can ton T ic ino , Sw i tzer land . g rave ( S i mone t t , 1 972 , 6 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

P .

Fro m a t h ird o r f our th c en tury

2 31 , S .P . 4 4 ).

C aste l S forzesco , Mi lan , I ta ly.

I nforma t ion Hugo B lake

( Baron i , 1 934 ). 7 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

A os ta ( Augusta P rae tor ia ) , I ta ly.

Fro m a f our th c en tury

g rave ( Ba l lard in i , 1 964 , f ig . 1 52 ). 8 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

S agvar ( Tr icc iana ) , Hungary ( Burger , 1 966 , p . 1 26 ,

n o. 9 e t a l .). 9 . Un i l lus tra ted .

C o logne?, G ermany.

Two u npubl ished g reen g lazed

e xamp les i n C o logne Museum , I nv . n os. D 3045 a nd D 3043 . 1 0 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

D unapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A l fo ld i , 1 957 , p l .

x v i i i , n o . 1 3 e t a l .). 1 1 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

Kruppe l , n ear S chaan , Sw i tzer land .

f lagon w i th a f la t b ase a nd n o f oo tr ing .

G reen g lazed

Fro m a f or t if ied r e fuge d a ted

f ro m t he mid-th ird c en tury t o V a len t in ian I ( Ke l lner , 1 978 , 1 44 ). T ype 1 1 E legan t p ear-shaped f lagon w i th a p edes ta l-base a nd a c o l lar e nc irc l ing t he n eck o r u pper s hou lder .

The t ype i s a lso k nown i n g lassware a s I sings

f or m 1 20 ( I s ings , 1 957 , p p. 1 51-152 ) wh ich i s d a ted t o t he f our th t o e ar ly f i f th c en tur ies A .D .

S o me o f t he g lass e xamp les may b e o f C ologne manu,

f ac ture . A .

Rusovce ( Geru la ta ) , C zechos lovak ia .

Th is e xamp le i s n ot l ead-g lazed ,

b u t i s i n ag rey f abr ic w i th a t h in r ed c o lour-coa t .

I tc o mes f ro m a

l a te ma le i nhu ma t ion ( Kraskovska , 1 976 , p . 4 2 , f ig . 8 1 , n o . 1 ) . 1 . S agvar ( Tr icc iana ) , H ungary ( Burger , 1 966 , f ig . 1 26 , n o. 1 1 ). 2 . C ar l ino , I t a ly .

G rey f abr ic w ith a d ark o l ive-green l ead-g laze

( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f ig . 1 ) . 3 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Car l ino , I ta ly.

E xamp le i n al i gh t g rey f abr ic w i th a

mot t led l i gh t b rown ish-green l ead-g laze .

Th is v esse l h as s lashed

d ecora t ion o n t he c ordon a round t he n eck , a n i nc ised wavy l i ne o n t he b ody a nd a sma l l t humb-gr ip a t t he t op o f t he h and le ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f ig . 2 ). 4 .

Un i l lustra ted ,

Dunapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( Burger , 1 957 , p l .

x v i i i , n os . 1 , 2a nd 5 ) . 5 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

V ienna ( V indobona ) , Aus tr ia .

f abr ic w i th a b rown-green g laze .

Examp le i n ar ed-brown

There i s al oop a t t he b ase o f t he

h and le ( Neumann , 1 972 , p l . 1 25 ). 4 89

1 6 . 1

1 31

1 62

1 )

s t s w s s m i s s sm s 1

Z

V (7 ,7 5Ti f i lO -iT y ,—

\ ‘ (RR 44 f l i i i L l i ( i t . ( 1 1 4Y

1 8 1 F ig .

3 0 .5

S ca le 1 :3

4 90

Type 1 2 C ylindr ica l , t wo-hand led f lask .

The f or m i s we l l k nown i n g lass ( I s ings ,

1 957, f orm 1 27 , p p. 1 57-158 ) f ro m t he e nd o f t he t h ird t o t he l a te f ourth c en tury.

I ta ppears ma in ly i n Gau l a nd t he Rh ine land b u t , a t l east , o ne

e xamp le was f ound i n al a te f our th c en tury g rave i n Hungary. .1 .

P ecs ( Sopianae ) , Hungary.

Th is v essel i s d escr ibed a s b e ing i n al i gh t

g rey f abr ic a nd n o men t ion i s made o f ag laze , a l though t he v esse l a ppears g lazed i n t he p ubl ished p hotograph .

N onethe less , t he f orm i s

c haracter is t ic o f t he f our th c entury a nd t he v esse l c o mes f ro m a d ist urbed g rave ( R/18 ) t ogether w i th a g lazed f lagon ( Type 6 .1 a bove ) ( Fu lep , 2 .

1 977 , p l . 4 , n o. 5 a nd p . 1 3 , n o. 3 1 ).

Dunapente le ( I n tercisa ), Hungary ( A lfold i e t at, 1 957, p l . x ix , n o. 1 ; c f . a lso p l.

3 .

x ix ,

n o. 2 ).

Krefe ld-Ge l lep , G er many.

Redd ish f abr ic w i th a d ark g reen g laze .

Fro m a mid-four th c en tury g rave ( P ir l ing , 1 974 , p l . 2 9 , n o . 7 ;

c f .

a lso p l . 6 2 , n o . 2 ). 4 .

Un i l lustra ted .

C o logne?, G ermany.

C o logne Museu m.

Three u npubl ished e xamp les i n

Two a re b rown g lazed a nd s l igh t ly wa is ted ( I nv .

n os. D3040 a nd D3042 ), wh i le o ne i s g reen g lazed a nd h as p inched f i nger d ecora tion o n t he s hou lder ( I nv . n o . D 3044 ). Type 1 3 G lobu lar f lask w i th t wo-hand les wh ich s pr ing f ro m t he s hou lder t o a t tach t o ac ordon a round t he n eck .

C o mpare w i th t he g lass f orm I s ings 1 29 ( 1957).

1 . Dunapente le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A l fold i , e t a l ., 1 957, p l . x ix , n o. 5 ) . Type 1 4 G lobu lar , t wo-hand led j ar . 1 . S tabio , Can ton T ic ino , Sw i tzer land ( S i mone t t , 1 972 ,

P .

2 31 , S .P . 1 2 ).

Type 1 5 G lobu lar j ar w i th sma ll ba se a nd t wo ' ba t-ear ' h and les. 1 .

Dunapentele ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A lfold i e t a l ., 1 957, p l . x ix , n o. 1 4 ).

Type 1 6 One-hand led f e ma le a n thropo morph ic f lask .

The wr i ters k now o f t hree

e xa mp les f rom Mau tern , Aus tr ia , G yor , Hungary a nd R osovce , C zechos lovak ia . The s tyl is t ic a nd t echno log ica l s i mi lar i ties b etween t he t hree v esse ls wou ld s uggest t ha t t hey c o me f ro m t he s ame s ource .

As t he p ieces h ave b een

r ecen t ly d iscussed b y Ma th i lde Grunewa ld ( 1976 ) , we i n tend t o d o n o more t han l i st t he m. 1 .

Mau tern , Austr ia .

O range-red f abr ic w i th a g rey c ore a nd a f ew c a l-

c areous a nd micaceous i nc lusions.

The g laze i s ah oney-ye l low .

The

f igure h as a n a n te c octuram g ra f f ito a cross i t s midr i f f r ead ing SATR ( Grunewa ld , 1 976). 4 91

2 .

Rusovce ( Geru la ta ) , Czechoslovakia. Th is e xa mp le h as a b rown g laze w i th d ark v er t ica l s tr ipes. I tc o mes f ro m a ?ma le i nhu ma t ion ( Kraskovska , 1 976 , p p . .43-45 , f ig . 8 1 , n o . 4 ).

3 . U n i l lus tra ted .

G yor ( Arrabona ) , Hungary. •Th is v esse l b ears t he p re-

f ir ing i nscr ipt ion I ENVARIE P IE ZESES o n t he b ody. • I t c o mes f ro m a l a te R o man c e me tery o n Brewery H i l l , a l though T ho mas b e l ieves t he v esse l t o h ave b een made a s awedd ing g if t a nd n o t ag rave o f fer ing o n t he b as is o f t he e xpress ion o f b es t w ishes t o ac er ta in J anuar ius ( Tho mas , 1 961 , p . 3 2 a nd p l . 8 ) . T ype 1 7 Large o void s ca le-decora ted b eaker .

Th is i s av ery i n terest ing t ype .

I t s s ca le d ecora t ion r eca l ls t ha t o n e ar ly Imper ia l g lazed v esse ls p robably made i n C en tra l I ta ly a nd d istr ibu ted a s w ide ly a s S zechesfeherhvar , Hungary a nd Caer leon , Wa les ( Ar thur , f or thco m ing ;

Greene , 1 972 , p p . 2 8-29 ).

Their d ecora t ion , i n t urn , may h ave d er ived f ro m l a te H e l len is t ic t ypes ( 9 1 . t he s ca le d ecora ted Kra ter —Hochu l i-Gyse l , 1 977, p l . 6 0 , W37 S 188 e t a l .; a nd s im i lar ly d ecora ted ' Megar ian Ware ' c ups i n L aumon ier , 1 979 ).

We

k now l i t t le a bou t t he c ircu la t ion o f l ead-g lazed ware i n s econd a nd t h ird c ent ury Europe ( when C ologne may h ave b een a ma jor p roduc t ion c entre ) , t hus i ti s r isky t o t a lk a bou t c ont inu i ty.

N ever the less , t he s ca le-decora t ion

a ppears o n o ther l a te Imper ia l g lazed v esse ls , a par t f ro m t he R usovce S pec imen .

The p ots f ro m O br ida a nd Dunapen te le i l lus tra ted b y Ba l lard in i ( 1964 ,

f igs. 1 12-113 ) a re p robab ly l a te R o man , a s a re t he s ca le-decora ted ves se ls f ro m Ravenna ( pers . c o m m. D ot t . G . Bermond Mon tanan) , a nd Ven t im ig l ia ( La mbog l ia , 1 950 , f ig . 8 2 , n o. 8 2 ). 1 . Rusovce ( Geru la ta ) , C zechoslovak ia .

Brown g lazed v esse l f ound i n a n

i nhu ma t ion w i th a c o in o f C ons tan t ius C h lorus a nd a c rossbow f ibu la ( Kraskovska , 1 976 , p . 4 5 , a nd f ig . 8 1 , n o. 5 ) . T ype 1 8 Two-hand led s kyphos d ecora ted w i th h or izon ta l b ands o f r ou le t t ing . 1 . Ruscovke ( Geru la ta ) , C zechos lovak ia .

G reen g lazed e xamp le w i th a

r ed f abr ic f ound i n a n i n fan t b ur ia l w i th a c o in o f Va lens ( Kraskovska , 1 976, p . 4 5 , f ig . 8 1 , n o . 1 0 ). 2 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Co logne?, G ermany .

E xamp le w i th t wo z ones o f

r ou let t ing i n C o logne Museu m ( I nv . n o. D 3046 ). 3 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Unpub l ished .

Dunapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A l fo ld i e t a l ., 1 957 ,

p l . x v i i i , n o . 4 ). 4 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

G ors iu m ( Hercu l ia ) , Hungary ( Jeno , 1 975 , p l . v i i i ,

n os. 5 -9 a nd p l . i x , n os . 1 -3 ). 5 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

B udapest ( Aquncur ) , H ungary ( A lfo ld i , e t a l ., 1 957 ,

p . 7 7). 6 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Hungary ( Tho mas , 1 964 , p l . 2 05 ).

4 92

T ype 1 9 Sma l l t hree-hand led b eaker .

The f ew k nown e xamp les o f t h is t ype d is-

p lay a f a ir amoun t o f v ar ia t ion . 1 . Rusovce ( Geru la ta ) , C zechos lovak ia .

Examp le w i th a r ed f abr ic a nd

ay e l low-green g laze , f ro m a f e ma le i nhu ma t ion ( Kraskovska , 1 976 , p . 4 5 a nd f ig . 8 1 , n o . 9 ) . 2 . S agvar ( Tr iccana ) , Hungary ( Burger , 1 966 , f ig . 1 26 , n o. 1 9 ). 3 . Krefe ld-Ge l lep , G ermany.

Redd ish f abr ic w i th a g reen g laze .

Fro m

ag rave d a ted a round t he mid-four th c en tury ( P ir l ing , 1 974 , p l . 1 4 , n o . 1 5 ). 4 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

Car l ino , I ta ly.

B lack g lazed e xamp le w i th a r edd ish

f abr ic ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f ig . 3 ) .

Var ious o ther e xamp les a re k nown

f ro m Car l ino . 5 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Adony ( Ve tus S a l ina ) , Hungary.

Fro m a l a te R o man

g rave ( Barkoczi a nd Bon is , 1 954 , p l . l i x , n o . 1 1 ). T ype 2 0 Monoansa te b eaker . 1 : Dunapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A l fo ld i e t a t, 1 957 , p l . x ix , n o . 1 7 ). 2 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Car l ino , I ta ly.

G reen g lazed e xamp les wh ich a re

p robably sma l ler t han t he Dunapen te le v esse l a nd d ecora ted w i th h or iz on ta l l i nes ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f ig . 4 ). T ype 2 1 Sma l l b eaker wh ich l ooks v ery s i mi lar t o t he e ar ly Imper ia l v esse ls k nown a s ' amphora-s toppers ' o r ' cucurbi tu lae '.

The t wo mos t r ecen t s tud ies

o n t hese u nusua l v esse ls a re b y Rodr iguez-A l me ida ( 1974 ) , who c la ims t ha t t hey were amphora-s toppers , a nd b y Annecch ino ( 1977 ) , who b e l ieves t ha t t hey were d ice b oxes .

B o th v iews h ave b een c r i t ic ised , a nd a n ew r ev iew

o f t he e v idence i s b e ing p repared b y Do t t . C ar lo Pavo l in i

( pers . c om m .).

1 . Dunapen te le ( I n terc isa ) , Hungary ( A lfo ld i e t a l ., 1 957 , p l . x ix , n o . 1 5 ). — — T ype 2 2 C y lindr ica l b eaker o r g oble t .

S im ilar t ypes a ppear i n g lassware ( I s ings ,

1 957 , f or m 1 06c , p . 1 29 ). 1 .

G unzburg , S udbayern , G er many.

Br ick-red f abr ic w i th t races o f a

l ead-g laze ( Ke l lner , 1 971 , f ig . 3 2 , n o . 8a nd p . 1 20 , n o. 2 2 ). 2 .

U n i l lus tra ted .

Rusovce ( Geru la ta ) , C zechos lovak ia .

e xa mp le f ound i n af e ma le d oub le-inhu ma t ion .

Brown g lazed

The b ur ia l was c overed

w i th t i les , t wo o f wh ich were s tamped LEG X I I I I G (e m ina ) ( Kraskovka , 1 976 , f ig . 8 1 , n o. 8 a nd p . 4 5 ).

4 93

2 41

1 9 1

1 92

2 0 . 1

1 93

2 21

2 11

2 3 1

3 2

2 51 2 9

F ig . 3 0.6

S ca le 1 :3 .

4 94

)3 0

T ype 2 3 U n iden t i f ied v esse l , p oss ibly a j ug . 1 . S re mska M i trov ica ( S irmium ) , Yugos lav ia .

Vesse l i n ar edd ish-brown

g laze ( Parov ic-Pes ikan , 1 973 , p l . x ix , n o. 8 ) . Type 2 4 U n iden t i f ied v esse l . 1 . S chaan , L iech tens te in . c o loured e x ter ior g laze .

Hard o range-brown f abr ic w i th a s im i larU npubl ished , i nforma t ion f ro m Dr . F . Marxer .

Type 2 5 Two-hand led f ace j ar . 1 . V ienna ( V indobona ) , Aus tr ia . Dark b rown ish-red f abr ic w i th a b rown ishg reen g laze ( Neumann , 1 972 , f ig . 1 26 ). T ype 2 6 L i fe-size f ace- mask . 1 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Car l ino , I ta ly.

O ne e xamp le i s k nown a nd s u m mar i ly

p ub l ished ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f ig . 1 0 ). T ype 2 7 Pedesta lla mp .

Many e xamp les were f ound a t t he Car l ino k i ln-si te i n

I ta ly ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , f igs . 6 -9 ).

The l amps a re v ery s i mp le , o f o vo id

s hape w i th a c en tra l f i l l ing-hole , s o me t imes e nc irc led b y ac ordon , a nd a r ud i men tary v er t ica l l ug-hand le .

The l a mps a re a t tached t o l ong c o lu mnar

p edes ta ls o n f la t , c ircu lar b ases .

The p edes ta ls a re e i ther smooth o r p os-

s ess mu l t ip le c ordons , t hus l i ken ing t he m t o s crews . T ype 2 8 P la in l a mp .

L amps o f t h is t ype r ese mble t hose o f T ype 2 7 a bove , b u t

d o n ot p ossess p edesta ls. 1 . Un i l lus tra ted .

I a trus , Bu lgar ia .

G rey f abr ic w i th ay e l low ish-breen

g laze ( Go mo lka , 1 974 , p l . 1 8a ). 2 .

Un i l lus tra ted .

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Hungary ( Tho mas , 1 964 , p l . 2 07 ).

O ther T ypes There a re a v ar ie ty o f v esse ls wh ich p robab ly b e long t o t he g roup , b u t d ue t o t he u ncer ta in ty o r u n iqueness o f t he s pec imens t hey a re , f or t he t ime b e ing , c ons idered o u ts ide o f t he t ype s er ies. Av esse l f ro m Dunapen te le , Hungary , i s ad ark g reen g lazed p uzzlef lask where t he g lobu lar b ody i s j o ined t o t he v er t ica l s pou t b y t hree o u tward c urv ing ' l i mbs ' , o ne o f wh ich i s t ubu lar a nd p erm i ts l i qu id f low ( Fig . 3 0 .6 , n o. 2 9 —Char les ton , 1 955 , p l . 3 5 ).

4 95

Av ery u nusua l ' t eapot '-l ike j ug was f ound a t C o m mach io , n ear Ravenna ( Fig . 3 0 .6 , n o . 3 0 —Pa t i tucc i , 1 970 , 8 2 ). w i th a n o ppos ing o bl ique a nd r ounded s pou t .

I ti s l i dded a nd h as o ne h and le The l ower h a l f o f t he v esse l i s

d ecora ted w i th a ppl ied s ca les ( 9 1 . Type 1 7 a bove , f or a d iscuss ion o f s ca led ecora t ion ). A t f irst s igh t t he j ug a ppears r e markab ly s im i lar t o ' Forum Ware ' a nd o ther e ar ly med ieva l I ta l ian j ugs , a nd t o s o me o f t he ' Frank ish ' v esse ls f ro m c e me ter ies s uch a s Krefe ld-Ge l lep ( P ining , 1 974 ). The Krefe ld-Ge l lep c e me tery h as y ie lded a n u mber o f g lazed v essels T ypes 1 2.3 a nd 1 9.3 a bove ) i nc lud ing o ne-hand led j ugs ( see F ig . 3 0 .6 , n o . 3 1 —P ining , 1 974 , p l . 1 07 , n o. 3 , a nd o ther e xamp les f ro m g raves 5 56 , 1 020 , 1 235 , 1 277 , 1 490 a nd 1 857 ) a nd sma l l b eakers ( see F ig . 3 0 .6 , n o. 3 2 —P ining , 1 974 , p l . 1 07, n o. 5 , a nd o ther e xa mp les f ro m g raves 5 08 a nd 1 235 ) , b oth t ypes o f wh ich b ore s ca le-decora t ion .

Two s ca le-decora ted

j ugs s im i lar t o F ig . 3 0.6 , n o . 3 1 a re o n d isp lay i n B ie l la Museum , n or thern I t a ly ( i n forma t ion f ro m Mar ina S anzin ). 2 .2

PRODUCTION The s ec t ion o n f abr ics a nd p e tro logy b e low s ugges ts t ha t t here were a

n u mber o f d if feren t p roduc t ion s i tes f or t h is ware , a nd t ha t t hose s i tes may we l l h ave b een w ide ly d is tr ibu ted g eograph ica l ly. H owever , t o-da te v ery f ew s ecure k i ln s i tes h ave b een d iscovered .

The b es t k nown i s t ha t f ound

a t t he R o man v i l la o f Tac-Fovenypuszta t o t he n or th-east o f L ake Ba la ton i n Hungary ( Ro man Pannon ia ).

D oubt h as r ecen t ly b een t hrown o n t he e xca-

v a tor 's i n terpre ta t ion o f t he ma ter ia l , a nd t herefore t he e v idence w i l l b e e xam ined i n d e ta i l b elow . More r ecen t ly , i n 1 971 , al arge k i ln s i te was d iscovered a t Car l ino ( f raz. S . G iorg io d i Nogaro ) , I ta ly , o n t he b anks o f t he R iver Z e l l ina s o me f i f teen k i lo me tres west o f t he R o man c i ty o f Aqu i le ia ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 ; o ne o f t he wr i ters ( P .A .) was a b le t o e xamine t he f i nds i n 1 974 a nd 1 975 ). The s i te was p robably i n o pera t ion f ro m Augus tan t imes u n t i l , a t l eas t , t he mid-four th c en tury.

T he l a test f i nds , t hree s ig i l la ta c h iara b ow ls o f Hayes

f or m 5 3 A , i nd ica te t he p ossibi l i ty o f a c t iv i ty i n to t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury A .D .

Two c ircu lar a nd s ix r ec tangu lar k i lns were d iscovered a s we l l a s a

p oss ible d rying s hed c . 1 8 me tres s quare .

The l a te R o man waster d ump

,

y ie lded l arge q uant i t ies o f g lazed a nd u ng lazed p o t tery , r epresen t ing f or ms t yp ica l o f t he ware b e ing s tud ied .

Aqu i le ia , t he n in th c i ty o f t he Emp ire i n

t he l a te f our th c entury a nd we l l k nown f or i t s s pec tacu lar p a laeochr is t ian ma ter ia l , wou ld s ee m t he l i ke ly ma jor marke t f or t he Car l ino p roduc ts , . e spec ia l ly a s i t was t he p r i mary e n trepo t f or I t a lo-Pannon ian t rade .

Never-

t he less , a n e x tens ive s earch t hrough t he l oca l museu m s toreroo ms ( by Maur izio Buora a nd P . A., w i th k ind p ermiss ion o f D ot t . L . Ber tacch i ) f a i led t o y ie ld Car l ino p roduc ts .

The o n ly e xamp les o f l a te R o man l ead-

g lazed p o t tery were t he mor tar ia ( Type 1 ) , wh ich were p resen t i n a bundance . Ana lys is o f s o me s amp les s ugges t t ha t e ven t hese may n o t h ave b een made a t Car l ino ( see b e low ).

I ti s c lear t ha t much f ur ther s tudy i s n eeded t o

d iscover t he Car l ino p ot tery c onsu mer/s , b u t ap oss ib le e xp lana t ion f or i t s a bsence amongs t t he f i nds f rom Aqu i le ia w i l l b e a dvanced i n s ec t ion 2 .5 .

4 96

N o o ther k i ln-s i te p roduc ing l ead-g lazed wares i s k nown i n I ta ly , a l though t here a re i nd ica t ions o f , a t l east , t wo f ur ther p roducers .

A l ead-

g lazed waster o f ah and led j ug was e xcava ted a t Ven t im ig l ia ( La mbog l ia , 1 950 , p . 1 70 , n o . 3 9 ).

The p iece c ame f ro m a c on tex t c on ta in ing s ix th

c en tury s ig i l la ta c h iara , wh i ls t many o ther l a te R o man u ng lazed wasters c a me f ro m t he s ame s i te .

Fur thermore , o ne o f t he mor tar ia ( Type 1 )

a na lyzed f ro m A qu i leia c on ta ined i nc lus ions o f b lack v o lcan ic g lass s uggest ing ac en tra l o r s ou thern I t a l ian s ource f or t he v esse l ( see b e low ).

Even t hough

l a te R o man l ead-g lazed p o t tery s ee ms u nco m mon i n mos t o f I ta ly , af ew f ragmen ts were f ound d ur ing t he S cho la Praeconum e xcava t ions a t t he Pa la t ine , R o me ( Dr . D . Wh i tehouse p ers . c om m .) , w i th f i f th c en tury ma ter ia l .

I n

f act , t here i s l i t t le o r n o e v idence f or p roduc t ion o f s uch p ot tery i n C en tra l I ta ly u n t i l t he a ppearance o f Foru m Ware i n t he e igh th c en tury ( Wh i tehouse , 1 965 ) , wh ich was d istr ibu ted i n a nd a round R o me. The ma jor c oncen tra t ion o f t he ware u nder d iscussion i s i n Hungary , o r more p rec ise ly t he R o man p rov ince o f Pannon ia .

Recen t ly , k i lns p ro-

d ucing l a te g lazed-pot tery were d iscovered a t S zo mba the ly ( Savar ia ) a nd Tokod ( l e t ter Z . B ank i-2.2 1 977 ). U nfor tuna te ly , t he wr i ters h ave n o more i nforma t ion a bou t t hese s i tes a t p resen t .

The s i te a t Tac-Fovenypuszta

h owever , was p ubl ished a s l ong a go a s 1 956 ( Tho mas , 1 956 ).

The ma jor i ty

o f t he g lazed p ot tery was f ound i n r oo m V I I I o f al arge R o man v i l la .

The

d epos i t c onsisted o f al arge d u mp o f smashed p ot tery i n a n a shy l ayer mixed i n w i th c harcoa l a nd l u mps o f g laze .

R oo m V I I I i t se lf was a r ec tangu lar r oo m

f ac ing o n to a wa l led c our t o r p er istyle . A wa ter-channe l a pparen t ly r an f ro m t he r oo m o u t i n to t he c our t . Ma th i lde G runewa ld ( 1979 ) h as r ecen t ly d ispu ted t he i n terpre ta t ion o f r oo m V I I I a s a Werksta t te z ur Erzeugung v on g las ier ten Kera m ikge fassen ' ( workshop f or t he p roduc t ion o f g lazed p ot tery v esse ls —Tho mas , 1 956 , p . 1 22 ).

The ma jor o b jec t ions a re :

v inc ing t races o f ak i ln were d iscovered i n t he e xcava ted a rea ;

( a ) No c on( b ) I f r oo m

V I I I was a k i ln , t hen awa ter-channe l r unn ing t hrough i t wou ld b e t ota l ly i ncongruous ;

( c ) I tw ou ld h ave b een d angerous a nd n onsens ica l t o p lace a

k i ln w i th in t he s truc ture o f wha t was o bv ious ly a f a ir ly s u mp tuous v i l la ; a nd ( d ) No ' t yp ica l ' was ters were f ound a nd t he s o-ca l led was ters c an b e r ei n terpreted a s f ire-damaged a r t ic les .

I n f ac t , G runewa ld b e l ieves t he e v idence

t o p oin t t o af i re i n t he v i l la a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he smashed p ot tery m igh t h ave b een s he lved i n r oo m V I I I .

The r oo m c ou ld b e s een a s as toreroom ,

a nd t he d ark e ar th d epos i t wh ich e x tended f ro m t he r oo m i n to t he c our t migh t b e s een a s al eve l l ing d epos i t .

Even t hough k i ln s i tes a re o ccas iona l ly f ound

a ssoc ia ted w i th R o man v i l las , t hey s ee m t o c a ter e i ther f or s pec ia l ized f arm u sage ( i .e . t i les , amphorae , mor tar ia , e tc .) o r , t oge ther w i th t he v i l las , f orm p ar t o f ac o m merc ia l p roduc t ion o f a s em i-indus tr ia l ' n a ture ( 2 1 . f or e xa mp le , Wi ld , 1 978 , p . 6 6 ).

The e v idence f ro m Tac-Fovenypuszta ,

i fi ti s t o b e i n terpre ted a s ap ot tery p roduc t ion s i te , wou ld s ee m t o i nd ica te av ery sma l l-sca le b u t q u i te h igh ly s pec ia l ized p roduc t ion o f c ook ing a nd t able wares .

Th is wou ld s ee m t o b e u nusua l w i th in t he c on tex t o f t he s i te .

Fo l low ing G runewa ld , w e s hou ld p robab ly d is miss Tac-Fovenypuszta f ro m t he l i st o f l a te R o man k i ln s i tes w i thou t more c oncre te e v idence . N ever the less , t he l arge q uan t i ty o f g lazed p ot tery f ro m t he s i te migh t i nd ica te a s ource i n t he a rea o f n or th-east P annon ia , whether i tb e T okod , S zo mba the ly , G orsiu m o r s o me o ther p lace .

4 97

Fur ther t o t he s ou th , b u t s t i l l i n Pannon ia , ak i ln s i te mak ing r e l iefwares a nd l a mps was d iscovered a t V inkovc i ( C iba lae ) .

I ti s u nc lear whe ther

o r n o t g lazed p o t tery was p roduced a t t he s i te , a l though a g reen l ead-g lazed f lagon was f ound i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he k i lns ( V ik ic- B e lanc ic , 1 970 , p . 3 7 a nd p l . 8 , n o . 3 ) . 2.3 CHRONOLOGY The d a t ing o f t he ware a s a who le i s d i f f icu l t , a l though i t s ee ms g enera l ly t o h ave b een c urren t i n much , i fn o t a l l , o f t he f our th c en tury.

However ,

g iven i t s w ide d is tr ibu t ion a nd t he p robable g eograph ica l r ange o f manu fac tur ing c en tres f ro m n orth-eas t Hungary t o n or th-wes t I ta ly , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t p roduc t ion c o m menced i n d if feren t a reas a t d i f feren t t imes . T he C ar l i a io e v idence migh t s uggest t ha t p roduc t ion s tar ted i n t he Aqu i le ia r eg ion i n t he l a te t h ird o r f our th c en tury A . D.

Never the less , i n o ne s ec t ion o f Ber tacch i 's s um mary p aper

( 1976 , 1 91 ) i t wou ld a ppear t ha t s he f avours a n e ar ly f i f th c en tury d a te f or i t s a ppearance i n t he a rea .

S he c la i ms t ha t t he n umerous p ara l le ls f ro m

Dac ia a nd Pannon ia ( so me o f wh ich we d o n o t f ee l a re v a l id ) i nd ica te t ha t t he i dea a nd t aste f or g lazed p ot tery o r ig ina ted t here .

S he s uggests t ha t t h is

i n f luence s pread i n t he e ar ly f i f th c en tury w i th t he V is igo th ic i nvasion o f Venezia O r ien ta le .

The e v idence i s , h owever , b y n o means s ecure a nd o ther

s cho lars b e l ieve c onverse ly t ha t t he l a te r esurgence o f t he t echn ique o f g lazing s pread f ro m I ta ly i n to Pannon ia .

O ne o f t he ma in p roble ms i s t ha t we d o n ot

k now o f a ny e ar ly o r mid-th ird c en tury p roduc t ion o f l ead-g lazed p ot tery e i ther i n t he Pannon ian o r I ta l ian a reas.

I t may b e w or th c ons ider ing t ha t

t he t echnique c ame f ro m C o logne , where p roduc t ion may h ave c on t inued i n to t he t h ird c en tury A .D . ( . 9 1 . Char les ton , 1 955 , p . 2 5 ; Ba i ley , 1 963 , p . 2 0 ) , a nd i n whose museum u nprovenanced e xamp les o f l a te g lazed ware a re i n s tore ( see T ypes 1 0 .9 , 1 2.3 a nd 1 8 .2 a bove ).

E ven t hough t h is l a te g lazed

ware i s u nco m mon i n t he a rea ( v . P e tr ikov i ts , 1 959 , p . 1 19 ) , t he n u merous e xamp les f ro m t he c e metery a t Krefe ld-Ge l lep m igh t we l l p oin t t o al oca l p roduct ion ( P ir l ing , 1 974 ;

a nd a s v . P e tr ikov i ts , np . c i t ., s uggests ) , a nd

p oss ible c on t inu i ty o f t he g lazing t echno logy f ro m t he s econd t o t he f our th c en tury.

A t t he o ther e nd o f t he t ime r ange , t he ware d oes s ee m t o h ave

c on t inued i n u se i n to t he f i f th c en tury (. T ype 1 .11 f or e xamp le ) , e spec ia l ly i n n or thern I ta ly. The r eader may b e r e ferred t o B lake ( 1977b ) f or a r ev iew o f t he I ta l ian d a t ing e v idence . The a va i lab le e v idence i s s i mp ly n ot s u f f ic ien t t o e nab le more c er ta in c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn , b u t d oes h igh l igh t t he n eed f or d e ta i led s tud ies o f t he C ologne g lazed ware a nd o f t he c hronology o f l a te Pannon ian c u l tura l a ssemblages. 2 .4

TECHNOLOGY

Fu l l p ub l ica t ion o f t he r esu l ts f ro m t he C ar lino e xcava t ions s hou ld y ie ld much i nfor ma t ion o n t he t echn iques o f p roduc t ion o f t h is l a te Ro man g lazed ware .

I n t he mean t i me , ar ev iew o f t he p resen t e v idence i s wor thwh i le .

Mos t o f t he v esse ls u nder e xa m ina t ion were w hee l-turned f ro m r e la t ive ly we l l e lu tr ia ted c lay. Apar t f ro m t he g laze , wh ich may h ave b een i n tended a s ad ecora t ive f ea ture , many v esse ls b ear n o d ecora t ion .

4 98

Amongs t t he

d ecora t ive t echn iques t ha t were u sed , r ou let t ing a nd s tamp ing i s c o m mon . I n f ac t , s ta mped d ecora t ion a ppears q u i te f requen t ly o n l a te R o man p ot tery i n C en tra l Europe a nd may , t o ac er ta in e x ten t , h ave b een i n f luenced b y t he s tamp ing v is ib le o n impor ted N or th A fr ican s ig i l la ta c h iara ( 2 1 . H ayes , 1 972 , f igs . 3 8f f .).

C o mb ing was o ccas iona l ly u sed a s , f or e xamp le , o n t he f lagon

i l lustra ted b y B er tacch i ( 1976 , f ig . 2 ) f ro m C ar l ino .

O ne o f t he mos t i n ter-

e st ing d ev ices was t he u se o f as l ip wh ich , c ons ider ing t ha t t he v esse ls were g lazed , might s ee m s urpr is ing .

H owever , t he s l ip g enera l ly o ccurs o n t he

mor tar ia ( Type 1 ) wh ich were o n ly g lazed i n terna l ly. Vesse l T ype 1 .5 a bove , f ro m A qu i le ia , i s af i ne mor tar iu m d ecora ted w i th a b and o f r ou le t t ing o n t he e x ter ior b ody a nd a no ther b and a long t he f lange .

The v esse l was t hen

s l ipped w i th a v ery f ine o range-red s l ip a nd t hen was g lazed i n terna l ly , o ver sma l l q uar tzi te g r i ts , w i th a t h in o l ive-green l ead-g laze .

O ne o f t he mor tar ia

f ro m Aqu i le ia ( I nv . n o. 1 28516 —unpub l ished ) a nd a n e xamp le f ro m Adony ( Barkoczi a nd Bon is , 1 954 , f ig . 2 5 , n o . 2 9 ) b ear a s l ip wh ich i s ' f ea thered ' t o c rea te a marb led-e f fec t o n t he f lange .

Th is c o mbina t ion o f s l ipp ing a nd

g lazing migh t s uggest t ha t v ar ious u ng lazed v esse ls s hou ld b e c ons idered a s p ar t o f t he ' i ndus try ' u nder e xamina t ion .

Both g lazed a nd u ng lazed mor tar ia

were e xcava ted a t Murnau a nd o ne s l ipped , b u t u ng lazed , e xamp le i s s tr ik ing ly s i mi lar t o t he Adony p iece ( Garbsch , 1 966 , p l . 5 3 , n o. 4 ). I t s hou ld b e r eme mbered t ha t u ng lazed v esse ls were a lso p roduced a t Car l ino i n t he f our th c en tury. I th as b een n oted t ha t most o f t he v esse ls were whee l-turned . S o me o f t he l ess c o m mon v esse l f orms were mou lded ( Types 2 7 a nd 2 8 ) o r h andf ash ioned ( Type 2 6 ).

The f ace-pots ( Type 2 5 ) a nd a n thropo morph ic f lasks

( Type 1 6 ) were i n i t ia l ly whee l-turned a nd t hen h and-fash ioned w i th t he a dd i t ion o f a pp l ied c lay. The p rocess o f R o man l ead-g lazing h as a lready b een d iscussed ( Ar thur , 1 978 , p p . 2 97-298 ) , a nd i ti s s uggested t ha t d ur ing t he R o man p er iod t he u n fused g laze mix was p robably a ppl ied e i ther a s ap owder o r a s as uspension i n wa ter .

U n f ired a nd l ow-f ired p ieces f ro m t he k i ln s i te a t C ar l ino s ome-

t imes b ear t races o f ay e l low ish p owder ( Ber tacch i , 1 976 , p . 1 92 ).

Th is was

a na lyzed b y L . Lazzar ini a nd S . Hreg l ich ( unpub l ished i n for ma t ion k ind ly c o m mun ica ted b y D o t t . L . B er tacch i ).

The ir r esu l ts s ugges t t ha t t he p owder

was a g laze m ix a nd t ha t t herefore , a t l eas t i n t h is c ase , i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he l ea ther-hard p o t tery was c oa ted w i th a p owdered mix s o t ha t f i r ing a nd g lazing c ou ld b e c o mp le ted i n o ne k i ln f ir ing ( p l . Mannon i , 1 968 ).

Fu l l

c o mpos i t iona l a na lyses o f t he Car l ino g lazes w i l l a ppear w i th t he s i te r epor t . I n v iew o f t he f ac t t ha t l ead-based g lazes c an b e h armfu l t o h uman h ea l th (Wa ldron , 1 973 ) , Dr . H . A . Wa ldron k ind ly e xam ined a s amp le o f av esse l f ro m G orsiu m .

I t a ppeared t o c on ta in 0 .2 mgs P b. p er cm 2 o f g laze .

Th is

i s we l l w i th in t he l im i ts i mposed b y t he p resen t Br i t ish s tandard , a l though a na lyses o f R o mano-Br i t ish l ead-g lazed p ot tery i nd ica ted a w ide r ange o f v a lues , s o me o f wh ich w ere we l l a bove t he a ccep tab le l imi t ( Ar thur , 1 978 ). Wa ldron ( 1979 ) h as r ecen t ly d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he f ac t t ha t l ead-g lazes were we lcomed b y E ng l ish h ousew ives i n t he e igh teen th c en tury d ue t o t he swee tin .g e f fec t t hey c ou ld h ave o n f ood a nd d r ink .

Even t hough we d o n o t k now wha t

f oodstu f fs t he C en tra l E uropean l a te Ro man g lazed ware may h ave c on ta ined ,

4 99

5 00 Map o f s i tes l i s ted i n t he Ca ta logue.

KEY TO F IGURES 3 0.7 a nd 3 0 .8

The f igures a re b ased l arge ly o n t he i n for ma t ion c on ta ined i n t he t ypes er ies.

R eferences t o t he s i tes w i l l b e f ound i n t ha t s ec t ion .

The s i tes

a re d iv ided i n to f ive g roups , a ccürd ing t o t he way t ha t t hey a re i n terpre ted i n t he r e levan t l i tera ture .

v . Petr ikov its ( 1971 ) u sefu l ly d iscusses many

o f t he s i tes i n G roup A .

A .

' M i l itary ' o r ' Refuge ' S i tes

C .

2 0.

Munchener-Denn ing , Raet ia .

2 1 .

S re mska Mi trov ica , Pannon ia .

1 .

Ca ister b y Yar mou th ,

2 .

Carnun tu m , Pannon ia .

2 2.

Pecs , Pannon ia .

3 .

Chur , Raet ia .

2 3.

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Pannon ia .

Br i tannia .

4 .

Gundre m mingen , Raet ia .

5 .

I a trus , Moesia I nf .

6 .

Mau tern , Nor icu m .

7 .

Mooseburg , n r . Murnau ,

D .

Rae t ia . 8 .

P faf fenho fen , Nor icu m .

9 . S chaan , Raet ia . 1 0. Turkheim , Raet ia . 1 1 . B .

V i l las

Un tersaa l , Raet ia .

Towns

C e meter ies 2 4.

Aosta , I ta l ia .

2 5.

Gunzburg , Rae t ia .

2 6.

G yor , Pannon ia .

2 7.

Dunapente le , Pannon ia .

2 8.

Kref led-Ge l lep , G erman ia I nf .

2 9.

Munchen-Har lach ing , Raetia .

3 0.

Pecs , Pannon ia .

3 1 .

P fa f fenhofen , Nor icu m .

3 2 .

Rusovce , Pannon ia .

1 2.

Aqu i leia , I t al ia .

3 3. S agvar , Pannon ia .

1 3.

Budapest , Pannon ia .

3 4. S o lduno , I ta lia .

1 4.

G orsiu m , Pannon ia .

3 5.

S tabio , I ta l ia .

1 5.

L jubl jana , Pannon ia .

3 6.

Wessl ing , Rae t ia .

1 6.

Pav ia , I ta l ia .

1 7.

Ravenna , I t a l ia .

1 8.

V ent im ig l ia , I ta lia .

1 9.

V ienna , Pannon ia .

E .

K i ln-si te 3 7.

5 01

Car lino , I ta l ia .

a nyth ing wh ich was s l igh t ly a c id ic wou ld h e lp t o l each o u t t he l ead f ro m t he g laze .

I ti s i n teres ting t ha t e ven t oday t here a re many r epor ted i ns tances

o f a cu te l ead p o ison ing i n Eastern E uropean c ountr ies d ue t o t he l oca l p easan t l ead-g lazing p o t tery i ndus tr ies . 2 .5

FUNCT ION AND CONSU MERS I ti s i n tended h ere t o e xa mine t wo ma in i n ter-re la ted p roble ms .

Wha t

were t he u l t ima te d est ina t ions o f t he v esse ls , b oth i n t erms o f t he ir c onsumers a nd t he f unc t ions t o wh ich t hey were p u t? F igure 3 0 .8 s hows t he v ar ious t ypes p lot ted a ga ins t t he ir a rchaeo log ica l p rovenances.

T he most e v iden t f ea ture i s t he d iv is ion o f t ypes b e tween t hose

f ound o n s e t t lemen t s i tes , whether mi l i tary o r c iv i l , a nd t hose f ound i n c e met er ies .

The o pen-forms , mor tar ia a nd b ow ls o r d ishes , a re r are ly f ound i n

c e me ter ies , wh i ls t t he c losed f orms a re t yp ica l o f f unerary c on tex ts . Th is s uggests t wo ma jor u ses f or t he g lazed v esse ls : d o mes t ic a nd f unerary. The mos t c o m mon d o mest ic v esse l , i fn ot t he c o m mones t g lazed t ype , i s t he mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) . o ther g lazed f or ms .

I ndeed , s o me s i tes t urn u p n umerous mor tar ia a nd n o These v esse ls h ave a lready b een d iscussed i n s ec t ion

2 .4 , where i ti s p o in ted o u t t ha t t he l ead i n t he g laze was p o ten t ia l ly a h ea l th h azard . O f t he e xamp les e xamined b y t he wr i ters , v ery f ew s howed s ubs tan t ia l t races o f w ear o f t he g laze .

Th is t oge ther w i th t he p robabi l i ty t ha t t he g laze

waA i n tended ( a t l east i n t he c ase o f T ype 1 ) t o c rea te a n i mpermeab le c oa t ing , wou ld s ugges t t ha t t he v esse ls were n ot u sed f or h eavy g r ind ing , b u t r a ther f or a l i gh ter p rocess .

I n f ac t , t he v esse ls a re s o me t i mes k nown a s M i lchgefasse

b y C entra l European a rchaeolog is ts .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t T ypes 2 -4 were l i nked

t o s o me s uch f ood p rocess , a s o pposed t o b e ing o rd inary t ab lewares . Few v esse ls c an b e s een t o b e s pec i f ica l ly r i tua l a nd i ti s o n ly t he l arge p ropor t ion o f c losed f orms i n g raves t ha t s ugges ts t ha t t hese v esse ls may h ave b een made s pec i f ica l ly f or b ur ia l .

Fu lep ( 1 967 , 2 7 ) h as d rawn a t ten t ion

t o ap a laeochr is t ian mauso leu m a t P ecs wh ich h as a j ug a nd a b eaker p a in ted i n an iche .

H e s ugges ts t ha t t h is c ou ld h ave b een i n tended a s as ymbo l o f t he

Euchar ist , wh ich c an b e f ound p or trayed i n C hr is t ian c e me ter ies e xamp le K irsch , 1 972 , 1 39-140 ).

f or

From t h is h e g oes o n t o s ugges t t ha t v ar ious

c o mbina t ions o f g lass 'a nd/or p ot tery j ugs a nd b eakers f rom Pannon ian c e met er ies were l i kew ise i n tended a s E uchar is t ic s y mbo l is m.

G lazed v esse ls a re

o f ten f ound i n c o mbina t ion w i th o ther v esse ls b u t , o f c ourse , i ti s v ery d i ff icu l t t o d ec ide i f ap ar t icu lar ' set ' migh t r epresen t t he E uchar is t o r b e long t o t he we l l-estab l ished p agan g rave-goods t rad i t ion .

Wha tever t he s y mbol is m

i nvo lved , i ti s c lear t ha t t he l arge p ropor t ion o f c losed f orms e nded u p i n g raves.

I ti s p erhaps f or t h is r eason t ha t t he e x tens ive ly e xcava ted c i ty o f

Aqu i le ia i n I ta ly h as , s o f ar a s g lazed p ot tery i s c oncerned , y ie lded v ir tua l ly n oth ing b u t i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ia d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t n earby C ar l ino was p roduc ing a l l s or ts o f g lazed f orms b are ly f i f teen k i lo me tres t o t he wes t o f t he c i ty . Another p oin t wh ich may b e wor thy o f n ote i s t he f requen t a ppearance o f t h is ware o n mi l i tary s i tes .

The q uest ions o f mi l i tary s upply h ave a lways

b een n otor ious ly d i f f icu l t t o a nswer .

I n t he c ase o f t h is p ot tery a t horough

s tudy o f a l l i t s a rchaeo log ica l c on tex ts i s n eeded t o s ee i ft he ware may h ave

5 03

b een e spec ia l ly l i nked w i th t he e lus ive l a te R o man f orces .

H owever , i ti s

i n teres t ing t ha t t he p o t tery s hou ld h ave s uch a w ide d is tr ibu t ion f ro m a n umber o f c en tres , e spec ia l ly when b y t he f our th-cen tury l arge p ot tery i ndus tr ies o n t he e ar ly I mper ia l s ca le were f ew a nd f ar b etween i n E urope .

T he f ew l a te

i ndus tr ies , s uch a s Argonne a nd Mayen , a ppear t o h ave h ad a more c en tra lized p roduc t ion i n r e la t ion t o t his C en tra l E uropean g lazed ware , a l though f ar more work o n C en tra l European p ot tery i ndus tr ies i n g enera l i s u ndoubted ly n eeded f or a b a lanced p anorama . L i t t le n eeds t o b e s a id a bou t t he e x ten t o f d is tr ibu t ion a s t he map ( Fig . 3 0 .7 ) s peaks f or i t se l f . I ti s h owever b ased o n p ub l ished e v idence a nd a t horough museu m s earch i n s uspec ted a reas wou ld u ndoubted ly i ncrease t he n u mber o f f ind-spo ts.

G o mo lka ( 1974 , p . 2 19 ) i nd ica tes t ha t t he ware i s f ar

more h eav i ly r epresen ted i n Pannon ia t han i n Moes ia I nfer ior a nd Dac ia R ipens is , wh i lst v . Pe tr ikov i ts ( 1959 , p . 1 19 ) s ta tes t ha t t he ware d id n ot r each t he Rh ine land , a l though h e s uggests t ha t C ologne may h ave p roduced s o me g lazed ware . C o logne i s c er ta in ly k nown a s ap roducer o f l ead-g lazed p o t tery i n t he s econd c en tury. B lake ( 1977a a nd 1 977b ) h as r ev iewed t he e v idence f or l a te g lazed ware d is tr ibu t ion i n I ta ly. 2 .6

PETROLOGY OF S ELECTED SA MPLES A p rogram me o f t h in s ec t ion e xam ina t ion u nder t he p e tro log ica l micro-

s cope was u nder taken o n t wen tythree s herds o f l a te R o man g lazed v esse ls , ma in ly mor tar ia ( Type 1 ) .

On t he b as is o f t he n on-p las t ic i nc lusions p resen t

i n e ach s herd i t was p oss ib le t o d i f feren t ia te a t l east t en c lasses o f f abr ic , a l low ing i n s o me c ases t en ta t ive s ugges t ions t o b e made a s t o p ossib le o r ig ins . F abr ic A 1 .

Ca ister b y

Yarmou th , E ng land :

i nterna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ;

s ee Ar thur a nd Wi l l iams , 1 978 ). 2 .

Aqu i le ia , I ta ly :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows n u merous we l l-sor ted q uar tz g ra ins , a verage s ize 0 .10 m m , s o me l imestone , f lecks o f mica , al i t t le b rown h orneblende a nd c h lor i to id . o f c h lor i toid .

An a rea o f me tamorph ic r ocks i s s uggested b y t he p resence The s a mp le f ro m Aqu i le ia migh t p oin t t o a n e astern A lp ine

s ource f a ir ly c lose t o t he f ind-s i te. F abr ic B 3 .

Aqu i le ia , I ta ly :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows l arge b lack i nc lus ions o f v o lcan ic g lass , t oge ther w i th s ubangu lar q uar tz g ra ins .

The p resence o f v o lcan ic ma ter ia ls i n t he

s herd migh t s ugges t ac en tra l o r s ou thern I ta l ian o r ig in i n t h is c ase .

The

f abr ic i s e as i ly r ecogn izable i n t he h and-spec imen b y t he l arge h ard b lack v olcan ic p ar t ic les wh ich o ccur t hroughou t t he u ng lazed f abr ic . F abr ic C 4 .

Aqu i le ia , I ta ly :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows n u merous f ragmen ts o f l imestone ( t hese a re a lso

5 04

c lear ly v is ible i n t he h and-spec imen ) , w i th q uar tz a nd q uar tzi te .

Af a ir ly

l oca l s ource w ou ld b e i n k eep ing w i th t he r ange o f i nc lus ions p resen t , t hough t hese a re c om mon a nd i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o b e p rec ise f ro m t h is o ne s amp le a lone . F abr ic D 5 .

C ar l in° , I t a ly :

g lazed j ug/f lagon .

Th in s ec t ion ing r evea ls a c lay ma tr ix c on ta in ing f ine-gra ined s andstone , a bundan t q uar tz g ra ins , a verage s ize 0 .10 - 0 .20 m m , a nd a l i t t le mica . The f abr ic i s e x tre me ly s andy i n .t he h and-spec imen . f ro m t he k i lns a t Car l ino .

Th is i s a' waster '

Fabr ic E 6 . 7 .

Dunapen te le , Hungary :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Tac-Fovenypuszta , Hungary :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

8 .

G orsium , Hungary :

9 .

L jub l jana , Yugoslav ia :

g lazed j ug/f lagon .

1 0 . 1 1 .

Rusovce , Hungary : g lazed j ug/f lagon . Carnun tu m , Austr ia : i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows a bundan t f l ecks o f mica ( espec ia l ly n o . 9 ) a nd q uar tz g ra ins , a verage s ize 0 .10 - 0 .20 m m.

O ne o f t hese s herds c o mes

f ro m a r epu ted p roduc t ion s i te , t he v i l la a t Tac-Fovenypuszta , a nd t h is may i nd ica te t he g enera l a rea o f p roduc t ion f or t he g roup ( t hough s ee s ec t ion 2 .2 ). I n t he h and-spec imen t he fa br i c s i s v ery micaceous . Fabr ic F 1 2.

Mooseburg , G ermany :

1 3.

Ve man ia , G ermany :

1 4.

L orenzburg , G ermany :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) . i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows f l ecks o f mica a nd q uar tz , a verage s ize 0 .10 0 .20 m m.

Th is f abr ic g roup may b e c onnec ted i n s o me way w i th t hose i n

Fabr ic E , t hough t he amoun ts o f mica a nd q uar tz a re n o t a s g rea t a s f or t he l a t ter g roup . Fabr ic G 1 5.

G orsium , Hungary :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

1 6.

G orsium , Hungary :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows f requent f ragmen ts o f l imestone w i th p len t i fu l f lecks o f mica a nd q uar tz g ra ins .

The r ange o f i nc lus ions a re a ga in f a ir ly

c o m mon , b u t t he t ex ture o f t he s herds a re s im i lar e nough t o Fabr ic E , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he l imes tone , t o s uspec t t ha t t hey were made i n t he s ame g enera l a rea . Fabr ic H 1 7.

S chaan , L iechtenste in :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar iu m ( Type 1 ) .

1 8.

S chaan , L iech tens te in :

g lazed j ug/ f lagon .

Th in s ect ion ing s hows f requen t i nc lusions o f p lag ioc lase f e lspar , amph ibo le ,

5 05

l arge g ra ins o f b iot i te a nd q uar tz ( d iscrete a nd p o lycrys ta l line g ra ins ). s ource c lose t o a n a rea o f a c id i gneous r ocks i s s ugges ted ; f ro m t he l oca l g ran i te o u tcrops?

A

p oss ib ly d er ived

F abr ic I 1 9 . C hur , Sw i tzer land : 2 0 , C hur , Sw i tzer land :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) . i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

2 1 .

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Chur , Sw i tzer land :

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows f requen t q uar tz g ra ins , a verage s ize 0 .10 - 0 .30 mm , w i th s o me l arger g ra ins , a ndl lecks o f mica . F abr ic J 2 2.

C arnun tum , Aus tr ia :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

2 3 .

Carnun tum , Austr ia :

i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ium ( Type 1 ) .

Th in s ec t ion ing s hows f requen t i l l-sor ted q uar tz g ra ins r ang ing i n s i ze f ro m 0 .10 - 2 .0 m m , a nd f l ecks o f mica . D iscuss ion I ti s a pparen t f ro m t he r esu l ts o f t he p etro log ica l a na lys is t ha t t he l a te R o man i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ia were n ot made s o le ly a t o ne o r t wo l arge c en tres . I nstead , a l though t here may h ave b een a c oncentra t ion o f p roduct ion i n Hungary , i ti s c lear t ha t t hese d is t inc t ive v esse ls w ere a lso made a t a n u mber o f w ide ly s ca t tered workshops , p oss ib ly t o s o me e x ten t a s b y-produc ts o f o ther wares . A t Aqu i le ia , f or e xamp le , a l l t hree mor tar ia a na lyzed h ad d e mons trab ly d i f feren t f abr ics t o e ach o ther , t hough o ne o f t hese ( no . 2 ) was e nough a l ike t o t he C a is ter b y Yarmou th s amp le t o s uspec t as i mi lar o r ig in . H owever , t he o n ly s herd e xamined f rom t he n earby k i lns a t C ar l ino , ag lazed j ug t ype , t urned o u t t o b e i n aq u i te d i f feren t f abr ic t o t he s amp les t ested f rom Aqu i leia , d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t i n terna l ly g lazed mor tar ia a re k nown t o h ave b een made a t t hese k i lns i n s o me n umbers ( see s ec t ion 2 .2 ). P oss ibly a d i f feren t c lay s ource was p re ferred f or t he more d urable mor tar a , t hough t he v o lcan ic i nc lus ions p resen t i n s amp le n o . 3f rom Aqu i le ia s ugges z ,s a t l east o ne s ource f ur ther s ou th i n to I t a ly. The ma jor i ty o f t he s amp les a na lyzed h ave b een g rouped o n at ex tura l b asis , t ha t i s a ccord ing t o t he s ize , s hape a nd f requency o f t he i nc lus ions p resen t , u sua l ly q uar tz a nd mica . The mos t n o teable f ea ture o f t he l arg est g roup , F abr ic E , i s t he h igh amoun t o f mica i n t he s ec t ions . One o f t he s amp les o f F abr ic E c o mes f ro m a r epu ted p roduc t ion s i te , t he v i l la a t 7a cF ovenypuszta , H ungary , a nd t h is may i nd ica te t he g enera l a rea o f manu fac ture f or t he who le g roup . F abr ic E .

F abr ics F a nd G may b e c onnec ted i n s o me way t c

C lear ly t he n ex t s tep i s t o s amp le a w ider r ange o f ma ter ia l f rom ; he k nown o r s uspec ted p roduc t ion s i tes p roduc ing g lazed f orms i n t he l a tcr R oman p er iod ( i nc lud ing more s amp les f ro m Car l ino a nd Tac-Fovenypuszta ). I t s eems l i ke ly t hough t ha t t he g lazed mor tar ia w ere made i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther f orms o f g lazed v esse ls , s ince a l l t hree n on- mor tar ia s amp les t ested were s imi lar i n c o mpos i t ion t o mor tar ia .

5 06

3 .1

ACKNOWLEDGE MENTS Th is p aper c ou ld n o t h ave b een f or mu la ted w i thou t t he k now ledge a nd

s amp les s o f ree ly p rov ided b y t he f o l low ing s cho lars :

Z . Bank i , L . Ber tacch i ,

H . B lake , M . B uora , E . E t t l inger , P . F i l tzinger , J . G arbsch , B . Green , M. G rdnewa ld , A . H ochu l i-Gyse l , L . Kraskovska , F . Marxer , I . Paar a nd H . V e t ters .

We s hou ld l i ke t o r ecord o ur d eb t t o t he m.

Our t hanks a re a lso

d ue t o Mrs . F . G a le who k ind ly d rew t he T ype s er ies .

4.1 B IBL IOGRAPHY A lbeker Mar ia , M ., 1 978 .

' KAs6 Rö ma ikor i T erme tö D o mböväron t ,

Archaeo log ia i £ .r tesi t i i , 1 05 ( 1978 ) , 6 6-77. A lfo ld i , M. R ., g _ t

1 957.

Annecch ino , M ., 1 977.

I n terc isa I , Budapest , 1 957.

' Fr i t i l lus .

U n p iccolo v aso d i t erraco t ta ' ,

C ronache P ompeiane I I ( 1977 ) , 1 98-213 . Ar thur , P . R ., 1 978.

' The l ead g lazed wares o f R o man Br i ta in ' , i n Ar thur

a nd Marsh , 1 978 , 2 93-355. Ar thur , P . R ., f or thco ming . s

' An I ta l ian f lagon f ro m R o man C olches ter ' ,

An t iquar ies J ourna l , f or thco m ing .

Ar thur , P . R . a nd Marsh , G . ( Eds .) , 1 978 .

Ear ly F ine Wares i n R o man

Br i ta in , B .A .R., 5 7, Ox ford , 1 978 . Ar thur , P . R . a nd W i l l ia ms , D . F ., 1 978 .

' An u nusua l l a te R o man mor tar ium

f ro m C a ister b y Yarmou th ' , Br i tann ia , I X -( 1978 ) , 3 94-395. Ba i ley , D ., 1 963 .

G reek a nd R o man P ot tery La mps , L ondon , 1 963.

Ba l lard in i , G ., 1 964.

L 'Ered i ta C era m ist ica d e l l 'An t ico Mondo R o mano ,

Ro me , 1 964 . Barkoczi , L . a nd B on is , E ., 1 954.

' Das f rahro m ische l ager u nd d ie

Wohns ied lung v on Adony ( Ve tus S a l ina ) ' , Ac ta Archaeo log ica Hungar icae I V ( 1954 ) , 1 29-199 . Baroni , C ., 1 934. Mi lan , 1 934.

C ara m iche . i t a l iane minor i d e l Cas te l lo S forzesco ,

ie s pä trö mische Befest igung ' Burg le ' b e i G undre m m ingen , Bersu , G ., 1 964. D Mun ich , 1 964. Ber tacch i , L ., 1 976 .

' La c eramica i nvetr ia ta d i Car l ino ' , Aqu i le ia Nos tra ,

XLV I I ( 1976 ) , 1 81-194. B ir ley , E ., D obson , B . a nd J arret t , M . ( Eds .) , 1 974.

R o man Fron t ier

S tud ies , 1 969 , C ardi f f , 1 974. B lake , H ., 1 977a .

' Cera m ica i nve tr ia ta ' , i n Frova , 1 977.

B lake , H ., 1 977b.

' Ceramiche r o mane e med ieva l i ep ie tra o l lare d ag l i

s cav i n e l la Torre C iv ica d i Pav ia ' , O uaderno d i Archeo log ia Med ieva le , 1 977.

5 07

Burger , A ., 1 966.

' The l a te Ro man c e metery a t S agvar ' , Acta Archaeolog ica

Hungar icae , XV II I ( 1966 ) , 9 9234. Burger , A ., 1 979.

Das s pa tro mische Graber feld v on S o mo ieszi l , Budapest ,

1 979. Char leston , R . J ., 1 955. C zysz , W., 1 974.

R o man P ot tery , London , 1 955.

' Der Ro m ische Gu tshof i n Munchener-Denn ing u nd d ie

Ro merze i t l iche Besied lung Munchener S chot terbene ' , Ka ta loge d er Prah istor ischen S taa tssa mlung , 1 6 , 1 974. Do lak , E .,

1 974.

D ie Ro merze i t lfche G ebrauchkeramik v on Ve ld idena ,

Archao log ische Forschungen i n T irol I I , I nnsbruch , 1 972. Dona t i , P ., 1 979.

L ocarno.

La Necropoli Ro mana d i S olduno , Be ll inzona ,

1 979. F i tz , J ., 1 975.

' Ku ta tasok G ors iu mban 1 973-Ban ' , A lba Reg ia , X IV ( 1975 ),

2 89-303. Freke , D . J ., 1 979 .

' The e xcava t ion o f as ix teen th c en tury p o t tery k i ln a t

L ower Parrock , Har t f ie ld , East S ussex ' , P ost- Medieva l Archaeo logy , 1 3 ( 1979 ) , 7 9-125 . Frova , A ., ( Ed .) , 1 977. Fu lep , F ., 1 967.

S cav i a Lun i I , Ro me , 1 977.

' The s tra t igraphy o f S opianae a s r ef lected b y p ot tery ' ,

Re i Cretar iae R o manae F au tores Ac ta , I X ( 1967 ) , 2 3-28. Fu lep , F ., 1 974.

Neuere Ausgrabungen i n d er Ro merstad t S opianae ( Pecs ) ,

Regeszet i , Fuze tek , Budapes t , 1 974. Fu lep , F ., 1 977.

Ro man C e meter ies o n t he Terr i tory o f P ecs ( Sopianae ),

Budapest , 1 977. Garbsch , J ., 1 966.

Der Mooseberg b ei Murnau , Munchen , 1 966.

Garbsch , J ., 1 967.

' D ie Burg i v on Mecka tz u nd U n tersaa l u nd d ie Va lent in ische

Genzbefes t igung Zw ischen Base l u nd Passau ' , Bayer ische Vorgesch ich teb la t ter , 3 2 ( 1967 ) , 5 1-83 . G o molka , G ., 1 974.

' Zur S ied lungsgech ich te am s pa tro mischen L imes i n

Moesia I n fer ior ' , i n B ir ley e t a l ., 1 974. Greene , K . T ., 1 972.

G u ide t o Pre-Flav ian F ine Wares , Card iff , 1 972.

Grunewa ld , M., 1 976.

' Ein An thropo morpher Krug a us Mau ter , N o . I

Das Fundstuck ' , Ro m isches O sterreich , 4( 1 976 ) , 5 7-69. Grunewa ld , M., 1 979.

D ie G efasskera mik d es L eg ions lagers v on Carnuntu m

( Grabungen 1 968-1974 ) , Der Ro mische L imes i n Osterre ich , H ef t XX IX , Wien , 1 979. Hayes , J . W., 1 972.

La te Ro man Po t tery , L ondon ,

Hochu l i-Gyse l , A ., 1 977.

1 972.

K leinasia t iche G las ier te Re l iefkera mik ( 50 V .

Chr . b is 5 0 N . Chr .) u nd i hre O beri ta lischen Nachah mungen , Acta Bernensia V II , Base l , 1 977.

5 08

I s ings , C ., 1 957.

R o man G lass f rom Da ted F inds , G ron ingen , 1 957.

Ke l lner , E ., 1 971, 1 971 .

D ie S pa tro m ischen G rabfunde i n S udbayern , Monaco ,

Ke l lner , E ., 1 978 .

' Das Kaste l l S chaan u nd d ie S pa tze i t d er Ro m ischen

H errscha f t ' , H e lve t ia Archaeo log ica , 3 4/36 ( 1978 ) , 1 87-201 . K irsch , G . P ., 1 972. K isa , A ., 1 908 .

T he C a taco mbs o f Ro me , R o me , 1 972 .

Das G las i m A l ter tume , Bonn , 1 908 .

Kraskovska , L ., 1 976.

The R o man C e me tery a t G eru la ta Rusovce ,

C zechoslovak ia , O x ford , 1 976. Lambog l ia , N ., 1 950.

G l i s cav i d i A lb in t im i l ium e l a c rono log ia d e l la

c eram ica R o mana , Bord ighera , 1 950 . Lanyi , V ., 1 972.

' D ie s pa tan t iken G raber fe lder v on Pannon ien ' , Ac ta

Archaeolog ica Hungar icae XX IV ( 1972 ) , 5 2-213 . Lau mon ier , A ., 1 979.

L a C 6ram ique H e l l& l ist ique a R e l iefs , A thens , 1 979 .

Mannon i , T ., 1 968 .

Winera log ia e t echno log ia d e l la c eram ica a l s erv iz io

d e l l 'archeo log ia ' , Me mor ie d e l la Depu taz ione d i S tor ia P a tr ia p er l e a n t iche p rov inc ie Modesi , 5 4 ( 1968) , 2 49-258 . N eu mann , A ., 1 972 . N o l l , R ., 1 963 .

V indobona , V ienna , 1 972 .

D as r o merze i t liche Graber fe ld v on S a lurn , B onn , 1 963 .

P arov ic-Pesikan , M ., 1 973 . S irm iu m

' Excava t ions o f al a te R o man v i l la a t S irm iu m ',

( 1973 ) , 1 -44 .

Pa t i tucc i , S ., 1 970 .

' Co macch io ( Va l le P ega ).

N ecropo l i p resso L 'ecc les ia

b ea tae Mar iae i n Pa do V e tere ' , No t izie d eg l i S cav i , XX IV ( 1970 ) , 6 9-121 . v on P e tr ikov i ts , H ., 1 959 .

Das R om ische Rhe in land Archao log ische

Forschungen S e i t 1 945, Arbe i tsge me inscha f t f ur F orschung d es Landes Nordre inwes tfa len 8 6 , 1 959 . v on P e tr ikov i ts , H ., 1 971 .

' For ti f ica t ions i n t he N or th Western Ro man

Empire f ro m t he t h ird t o t he f i f th c en tur ies A .D .' , J ourna l o f R o man S tud ies , LX I ( 1971 ) , 1 78-218 . P ining , R ., 1 974.

Das R om ische-Frank ische G raber fe ld v on Krefe ld-Ge l lep

I , 1 960-63 , Ber l in , 1 974. R odr iguez-A l me ida , E ., 1 974.

' Sobre e l u so d e l a nfor isco

" Cucurb i tu la"

Me langes d e l 'Eco le Franca is d e R o me , 8 6 ( 1974 ) , 8 13-818 . S chorgendor fer , A ., 1 942.

D ie R o merze i t l iche Kera mik d er O s ta lpen lander ,

Ber l in , 1 942 . S i mone t t , C ., 1 972.

N ecropo l i r o mane n e ue t erre d e l l 'a t tua le Can ton T ic ino ,

Be l l inzona , 1 972. Tho mas , E . B ., 1 956.

' D ie Ro merze i t l iche v i l la v on Tac-Fovenypuszta f ,

Ac ta Archaeo log ica Hungar icae , V I ( 1956 ) , 7 9-152. Tho mas , E . B ., 1 961 .

' Ro man g lazed ware o rna men ta l v esse ls i n t he G yor

Museu m ' , Arrabona , 3( 1961 ) , 1 7-32. 5 09

Tho mas , E . B ., 1 964.

Roe m ische V i l len i n Pannon ien , Budapes t , 1 964.

Todd , M. ( Ed .) , 1 978 .

S tud ies i n t he R o mano-Br i t ish V i l la , L e ices ter , 1 978 .

Tr inks , U ., 1 958 .

' Fundber ich t Pa lastru ine ' , Carnun tu m J ahrbuch , 1 957,

1 958. U zsok i , A ., 1 967.

A G yor i Xan tus J anos Muzeu m Fuhrer Z ur Auss te l lung ,

Bonn , 1 967. V ik ic-Ba lanc ic , B ., 1 970 .

' Be i trag z ur p roble ma t ik d er k eram ischer

Werks ta t ten i n S udpannon ien i n d er r o mischen Ka izerze i t ' , Archaeo log ia I ugoslav ica , X I ( 1970 ). Wa ldron , H . A ., 1 973.

' Lead p oison ing i n t he Anc ien t Wor ld ' , Med ica l

H is tory , 1 7 ( 1973 ) , 3 91-398 . Wa ldron , H . A ., 1 979. ' The e x trac t ion o f l ead f ro m L ower Parrock k i ln g lazes ' , i n Freke , 1 979 , 1 20-121 . Wa lke , N ., 1 961 .

G rabung a usserha lb d er s pa tromischen Be fes t igungen a u f

d em G o ldberg b e i Turkhe im - V orber ich t 1 958-1961 ' , Bayer ische V org esch ich tsb la t ter , 2 6 ( 1961 ) , 2 8-55 . Wa lke , N ., 1 963.

' Neue Ausgrabungen i n s pa tro m ischen Turkhe im , Ld Kr .

Minde lhe im ' , G erman ia , 4 1 ( 1963 ) , 1 28-131 . Wh i tehouse , D ., 1 965 .

' Forum ware :

ad is t inc t ive t ype o f e ar ly med ieva l

g lazed p o t tery i n t he R o man C a mpagna ' , Med ieva l Archaeo logy , 9( 1965 ) , 5 5-63 . Wi ld , J . P ., 1 978 .

' V i l las i n t he l ower N ene Va l ley ' , i n Todd ( Ed .) , 1 978 ,

5 9-69. I n a dd i t ion r eaders a re r eferred t o t he f o l low ing p ub l ica t ion , d ea l ing w i th t he Car l ino l ead-g lazed l a mps , wh ich a rr ived t oo l a te f or i nc lus ion a bove : l ia les trazzi d i F i l ippo , E ., Ber tacch i , L ., Buch i , E . a nd L oprea to , P ., La L ucerna Aqu i le ise i n T erracot ta , U d ine , 1 979.

5 10

3 1 .

TWO CERA M IC REPRESENTAT IONS OF

ROMAN BU ILD INGS FRO M THE C ITY OF LONDON Hugh Chap man

The i nv i ta t ion t o c on tr ibu te t o av o lu me d ed ica ted t o G raha m Webs ter h as p rov ided t he o ppor tun i ty t o p ubl ish t wo c ur ious b u t s im i lar c eramic o b jec ts f ormer ly i n t he c o l lec t ion o f t he G u i ldha l l Museum , a nd n ow i n t he Museum o f L ondon .

B oth o b jec ts a re made o f r ed-brown t erraco t ta , p ro-

b ably f ro m t he b r ick-ear th d epos i ts t ha t c ap t he t wo g rave l t erraces o n wh ich R o man L ondon d eve loped . They a re p ar t o f t wo s quare h o l low b oxl ike s tands , w i th n o b ase , a c ircu lar h o le i n t he t op , a nd o r ig ina l ly w i th a f oo t a t e ach o f t he f our c orners . The s ide wa l ls r ange i n t h ickness f ro m 1 5-25 m m a nd a re d ecora ted b y a d eep ly-cu t ' ch ip-carved ' t echn ique , e xecu ted w i th a s harp k n i fe a f ter t he b asic s hape h ad b een mode l led a nd t he c lay s t i l l l ea ther h ard , a nd b efore f ir ing i n ak i ln .

Th is d ecora t ion , wh ich i s r e markab ly s im i lar o n b oth

p ieces , c onsis ts o f f our h or izon ta l b ands o n e ach s ide , o ne o f wh ich r epres en ts a s er ies o f r ound-headed a rched ' w indows ' c u t t hrough t he t h ickness o f t he wa l l , w i th a s ing le b and o f s quare p ane ls w i th d iagona l c ross-braces b e low .

These d iagona l b ars h ave b een f ormed b y t he r e mova l o f f our t r i-

a ng les o f c lay w i th in e ach p ane l .

Two s i mi lar h or izon ta l b ands r un a bove ,

t he p ane ls o f t he t op b and i n b oth c ases b e ing h a lf t he s ize o f t he o ne b e low . A l though i nc ised , u p t o 1 0 mm d eep , n one o f t hese p ane ls p ierce t he wa l l . I nd iv idua l d eta i ls a re n oted b e low . 1 .

( P la tes 3 1 .1 , 3 1 .2 )

Access ion Number 1 0483 ;

f ound a t t he c orner o f

S herborne Lane a nd K ing Wi l l iam S tree t , 1 914 ( La mber t , 1 915 , 2 67 a nd P l . 2 5 , f ig . 3 ) . Two-th irds o f o ne s ide a nd a t h ird o f t he a d join ing s ide s urv ive , w i th a p ro ject ing t r iangu lar f oot a t t he c orner d ecora ted w i th v er t ica l c u ts a nd r a is ing t he s tand C . 1 5 m m.

O n t he l onger s ide t wo

' w indows ' s urv ive i n tac t , t he b reak o ccurr ing a t t he t h ird , wh i le o n t he o ther s ide o n ly o ne a nd a h a lf ' w indow ' o pen ings r e ma in .

I n a l l c ases t hese a re

s epara ted b y s quare p ane ls d ecora ted w i th s ta mped c irc les .

The ma in f ea-

t ure o f t he t op i s ac en tra l ly p laced c ircu lar h o le , C . 8 0 mm d iame ter , a nd w i th a r a ised " r im o f C . 2m m .

An o bl ique c u t made t hrough t h is r im b efore

f ir ing s ugges ts p rov is ion o f al oca t ing s lot o f s o me k ind , p resu mab ly o r ig in a l ly ma tched b y o ne o r more r ound t he c ircumference o f t he h o le .

The

r ema inder o f t he a rea o f t he t op s urround ing t he h ole , i s d ecora ted b y t hree n arrow b orders o f i nc ised d ecora t ion w i th c ross-ha tched l i nes , s tamped U -shaped marks a nd c irc les.

The i ns ide s ur faces h ave b een r ough ly smoothed

w i th a t oo l , a nd a n u mber o f s tab marks a re v is ib le a t t he j o in b etween t he s ide wa l l a nd t op .

5 11

P late 3 1.1

P ottery ' s tand ' f rom S herborne L ane/King W i l l iam S tree t, C i ty o f L ondon; t op a nd s ide ( 1 :1).

P late 3 1 .2

P o ttery ' s tand ' f rom S herborne L ane/King W i l l iam S treet, C i ty o f L ondon; s ide a nd i nter ior ( 1 :1).

2 .

( P la te 3 1 .3 )

Accession Number 1 1598 ;

f ound a t t he s ou th-eas t c orner

o f t he s i te o fO ld G enera l P ost O f f ice i n 1 925 . Two-th irds o f o ne s ide a nd at op f ragmen t o f t he a d jo in ing s ide s urv ive . Two ' w indows ' a re i n tac t i n t he l onger s ide s epara ted b y ap ane l d ecora ted w i th s tamped c irc les , a nd f l anked b y t wo f ragmen tary o pen ings o f t he s ame s hape .

The c ircu lar h o le

i n t he t op h as a d iame ter o f c . 9 0 mm a nd a lso h as a p ro m inen t ly r a ised r im .

The b order d ecora t ion a round t h is d i f fers i n d es ign b u t i s c o mposed

o f t he s a me d ecora t ive e le men ts . Be fore d iscuss ing t he i n terpre ta t ion a nd f unc t ion o f t hese t wo p ieces , t hree p oin ts c an b e made .

The f abr ic o f t he c lay s ugges ts t ha t b oth were

l oca l ly made , t hough t h is a ssu mp t ion h as n ot b een c hecked b y a ny s c ien t if ic means .

Though f ound o n d i f feren t s i tes , s o me 6 50 m a par t , t he ir c o m mon

s ize a nd u se o f t he s a me d ecora t ive t echn ique i nd ica tes t ha t t hey c an b e r eg arded a s t he p roduc t o f t he s ame p o t ter . ( Ra te l , 1 959 , 1 88-189 ;

Two e xa mp les f ro m G au l h owever ,

Rousse l , 1 979 , 2 10 , f ig . 1 1 ) i nd ica te t ha t a l though

u nco m mon , t hey a re n ot u n ique t o L ondon a nd c anno t b e r egarded a s a n i d iosyncra t ic p roduc t o f t ha t R o man c i ty. S ince b oth e xamp les a re u nstra t if ied i ti s d i f f icu l t t o f i x t he ir d a te w i th a ny p rec is ion b u t L a mber t s ta tes t ha t t he e xamp le f ro m S herborne Lane/ K ing Wi l l iam S tree t was f ound ' w i th p ot tery o f t he i s t c en tury ' , wh i le o ther ma ter ia l r ecovered f ro m t he s i te o f t he s econd e xamp le , s ugges ts a l a te f irs t-ear ly s econd-cen tury d a te f or t he g enera l d epos i t .

A d a te i n t h is e ar ly

p er iod c an t herefore b e a ssumed w i th s o me c on f idence . An i n terpre ta t ion a nd a ssess men t o f t he ir f unc t ion r e ma ins , h owever , more d if f icu l t t o d ef ine . A t f irst g lance t hey wou ld a ppear t o b e long t o t he l arge g roup o f c h imney-pots a nd r oof f in ia ls p ubl ished i n L ow ther 's p os thu mous a r t ic le ( Low ther , 1 976 ) , b u t d esp i te t he s im i lar i ty i n manu fac ture a nd d ecorat ive t echn ique w i th k n i fe-cu t a per tures , t hese p oin ts c oun t f or n oth ing when t he ir b as ic s hape a nd s ize i s c ons idered . A s econd l arge g roup o f c eram ic o b jec ts k nown f ro m t he R o man w or ld , l a mp-holders o r L ichthäuschen ( Loeschcke , 1 909 ) , migh t a lso c la im t o b e r e la ted , b u t t he t wo L ondon p ieces , w i thou t b ases , c arrying h and les a nd w i th a l arge h o le i n t he t op , c an s carce ly c la im a ny d irec t a ssoc ia t ion . A t h ird p oss ible i n terpreta t ion , t ha t t hey a c ted a s t able c ha f ing d ishes o n t he mode l o f l a ter med ieva l e xa mp les o r a s p or table b raziers s im i lar t o a n e xamp le f ro m Po mpei i ( Ward-Perk ins , 1 976 , n o . 1 56 ) , i s a lso n ot s ust a ined b y t he e v idence .

Aga in t he a bsence o f ab ase , t he p er fora ted s ides

a nd t he l ack o f a ny e v idence o f b urn ing o n t he i nside s ur faces makes t h is i den t i f ica t ion u n l ike ly. The ir s hape , t he s tab i l i ty p rov ided b y t he f ee t a nd t he c ircu lar h ole l eave l i t t le d oubt t ha t t hey mus t b e i n terpreted a s s tands t ha t p rov ided s upp or t f or v esse ls o f s o me k ind .

The ir r ar i ty i nd ica tes t ha t t hey c annot h ave

b een f or d o mest ic u se a nd s o me r i tua l o r s epu lchra l f unc t ion c an t here fore b e i n ferred .

S o me s uppor t f or t h is i dea c o mes f ro m t he ir b asic s i mi lar i ty

t o t he w el l-known s er ies o f mode l b ronze r ec tangu lar f ourlegged s too ls , o f ten w i th h o les i n t he t op a nd f requen t ly h igh ly d ecora ted w i th e name l , a nd f ound o n Ro mano-Br i t ish s hr ine a nd t e mp le s i tes ( e .g . G reen , 1 976 , p l . 2 8e , i ;

1 978 , p ls. 1 26-130 ). 5 14

P late 3 1.3

P ottery ' s tand f rom O ld P ost O ff ice s i te, C i ty o f L ondon; t op a nd s ide ( 1:1).

O ne a spec t r e ma ins t o b e d iscussed .

The c u t t ing o f t he ' w indows ' a s

r ound-headed a rches a nd n ot a s r ec tangu lar o r t r iangu lar s lots , s ugges ts a d e l ibera te a t temp t t o i nd ica te a n a rch i tec tura l f ea ture a nd i tc an b e f ur ther s uggested t ha t t he c o mp lex a nd c arefu l ly c u t p ane ls w i th c ross-braces d ep ic t s truc tura l t imber-framing i n f i l l a nd r e f lec t ac o m mon R o man b u i ld ing t rad i t ion o f t he n or th-wes t p rov inces .

Represen ta t ions o f R o man b u i ld ings i n

a dd i t ion t o t hose o n wa l l p a in t ings , mosa ics a nd g lass a re n ot i nfrequen t t hough t hey r ema in t o b e s tud ied c o l lec t ive ly.

The g ra f f i to s ke tch o f ab u i ld ing

i nc ised o n ap iece o f p las ter f ro m H ucc leco te ( L ivers idge , 1 969 , 1 46 , p l . 4 .10 ) s uggest ing a t imbered c ons truc t ion o n s tone wa l l f oo t ings i s a we l l-known e xamp le .

The t wo c ups f ro m C oven t ina 's We l l d ed ica ted b y S a turn inus

G abin ius i ncorpora te a rch i tec tura l f ea tures , ( C layton , 1 880 , 7 -8 ) a nd t he g enera l a rch i tec tura l c harac ter o f c eramic c h i mney-po ts a nd r oof f in ia ls h as b een emphas ized b y L ow ther , a nd i s s e l f-ev iden t w i th many l a mp-ho lders . I ti s w i th in t h is c eramic t rad i t ion , p erhaps b es t e xemp l i f ied b y t he we l l-known mode l o f ag a te f ro m I n terc isa ( Oe lmann , 1 952 , p l . 1 ) , t ha t t he t wo L ondon s tands must b e s et .

B IBL IOGRAPHY C lay ton , J ., 1 880 .

' The Te mp le o f t he g oddess C oven t ina a t P roco l i ta ,

N or thu mber land Archaeo log ica A e l iana , 2 nd . s er . 8( 1880 ) , 1 -40 . G reen , M. J ., 1 976.

A C orpus o f R e l ig ious Ma ter ia l f ro m t he C iv i l ian

Areas o f R o man Br i ta in , B .A .R . 2 4 , Ox ford , 1 976. G reen , M. J ., 1 978.

A C orpus o f Sma l l C u l t-Ob jec ts f ro m The Mi l i tary

Areas o f R o man Br i ta in , B .A .R . 5 2 , O x ford , 1 978. L amber t , F ., 1 915.

' Recen t R o man d iscover ies i n L ondon ' , Archaeo log ia ,

6 6 ( 1915 ) , 2 25-274. L iversidge , J ., 1 969.

' Furn i ture a nd I n ter ior D ecora t ion ' i n R ive t , A . L . F .,

e d ., The R o man V i l la i n Br i ta in , L ondon , 1 969 , 1 27-172. L oeschcke , S ., 1 909.

' An t ike L a ternen a nd L ich thäuschen ' , Bonner J ahr-

b ücher , 1 18 ( 1909 ) , 3 70-430 . L ow ther , A . W. G ., 1 976.

' Ro mano-Br i t ish c h imney-po ts a nd f in ia ls ' ,

An t iquar ies J ourna l , 5 6 ( 1976 ) , 3 5-48 . O e l mann , F ., 1 952. ' D ie t önerne P or te d es I l arus v on I n terc isa ', Be i träge z ur ä l teren e uropä ischen k u l turgesch ich te , i( 1952 ) , 1 14-125. Ra te l , M. R ., 1 959.

' Le s i te a rcheolog ique d e F on ta ine- Mer le e t s on f our

d e t u i l ier G a l lo-Ro ma in ' , Me moires d e l a C om m ission d es An t iqu i t ies d u Depar te men t d e l a C ote-D 'Or , 2 5 ( 1959-1962 ) , 1 79-193 . R ousse l , L ., 1 979 .

' Fou i l les d e Mg la in- Med io lanu m ( Cote-d 'Or ) ' , G a l l ia ,

3 7 ( 1979 ) , 2 01-228. Ward-Perk ins , J . a nd C lar idge , A ., 1 976.

5 16

P ompe i i AD 7 9 , L ondon , 1 976.

3 2.

POTTERY AND H ISTORY A . K . B . E vans

H is tory i s t he s tory o f t he p as t a s f ar a s we k now i t . f ro m t he p ast i s n ot y e t h istory ;

Wha t i s u nrecovered

a nd wha t i s r ecoverab le d epends o n t he

d ocu men tary e v idence a va i lab le . F or mos t h is tor ica l work t h is e v idence i s t he wr i t ten word , a nd i ti s s o c usto mary t o u nders tand ' h is tor ica l d ocumen ts ' i n t h is s ense t ha t t he t erm ' preh is tory ' was c o ined t o d escr ibe p er iods w i thou t wr i t ten r ecord .

T o i l lu m ina te t he i l l i tera te p as t , t he p rov ince o f t he p re-

h is tor ian , r ecourse t o t he s tudy o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins i s u navo idable .

F or

t he h is tor ian , c oncerned w i th p er iods f or wh ich wr i t ten d ocumen ts s urv ive , t he e v idence p rov ided b y a r tefac ts i s l arge ly s upp le men tary.

H is a t t i tude

t o i th as l ong b een ambiguous , r ecogn is ing i t s u sefu lness t o e ke o u t s parse l i terary ma ter ia l , b u t r egard ing i tw i th s usp ic ion s ince i t s t est i mony i s e n igma t ic . Archaeology h as b een r egarded n ot o n ly a s t he h andma id o f h ist ory b u t o ne t o b e k ept s evere ly i n h er p lace . I n 1 936 a d ist ingu ished a rcha eolog is t , i n ap ubl ic l ec ture , a cknow ledged t i le , : h is p lace was ' i n t he b ackwa ters o f h is tory ' s ince h is i n teres t was more ' i n t he works o f men t han i n t he men t he mse lves ' .

1

Bu t c o m mon g round b etween t he a rchaeo lcg is t a nd t he h istor ian , h e wen t o n t o s ay , l ay i n t he d esire f or a u then t ic d ocu men ts . ma ter ia l , p ot tery i s t he most u biqu i tous a nd a bundan t .

O f a l l a rchaeo log ica l G iven i t s c heapness

a nd i t s f rag i l i ty , i ts : work ing l i fe mus t a lways h ave b een c ons iderably s hor ter t han i t s owner 's , i t s p urpose u t i l i tar ian . c lear ly u nr iva l led .

As a n a u then t ic t es t imony i ti s

T he p rob le m h as b een t od iscover wha t i ta t tes ts , a par t

f ro m i t s mere e x is tence. Un t i l c lassi f ied , b oth c hronolog ica l ly a nd b y s ources o f manufac ture , p ot tery c an b are ly b eg in t o make a p osi t ive c on tr ibu t ion t o h is tory. Wi th r egard t o t he p ot tery o f R o man Br i ta in , t hese d eve lop men ts a re s urpr is ing ly r ecen t .

I n 1 911 , i n T he R o man Era i n Br i ta in ( p . 1 60 ) , J ohn Ward wrote :

' No s a t isfac tory c lass if ica t ion o f t he p ot tery o f t he R o man e ra h as y e t b een , o r a t p resen t c an b e , d ev ised ' .I n t ha t work Ward made h is own b as ic c lass if ica t ion , i n to ' Redg laze ( or S amian ) ' a nd ' O ther f abr ics t han Redg laze '. For s am ian , a s ar esu l t o f t he work o f G erman a rchaeo log is ts , s o me d a t ing c ou ld b e a ssigned o n g rounds o f s hape , d ecora t ion , a nd t echn ique .

I n Br i ta in ,

Haverf ie ld t ook t he f irs t s tep i n a pp lying G erman methods when i n 1 899 h e d rew a t ten t ion t o t hree S amian f or ms wh ich a ppeared o n H adr ian ' sWa l l a nd were s econd-cen tury t ypes , a nd o ne wh ich was n ot f ound o n Hadr ian 's Wa l l b u t a ppeared f ur ther s ou th o n f irst-cen tury s i tes .

Ward h ad h i mse l f made

u se o f t h is work i n h is r epor t o n t he e xcava t ions a t G e l lygaer , p ub l ished i n 1 903 ( pp . 8 0 , 9 7 ).

A f ter d iscuss ing t he e v idence o f Tac i tus , o f c o ins , o f t he

p lan o f t he f or t , a nd i t s masonry , h e h ad b een a ble t o p roduce a s af ina l a rgu men t i n f avour o f a n e ar ly f ounda t ion a ' f ragmen t o f ac yl indr ica l S am ian 5 17

b ow l ' wh ich i n G ermany a nd b y Haverf ie ld i n Br i ta in h ad b een s hown t o b e r are a f ter t he l as t d ecades o f t he f i rst c en tury A . D . N e i ther H averf ie ld i n 1 899 n or Ward i n 1 903 r eferred t o Dragendor f f 's c lass if ica t ion : i t s a ppearance i n 1 895 was t oo r ecen t f or i tt o h ave b ecome e s tab l ished .

B u t b y 1 911 Ward

was c i t ing Dragendor f f 's n u mber ing , a lbe i t i n e xp lana tory b racke ts .2 F or Ward 's ' Fabr ics o ther t han R edg laze t n o d a t ing c ou ld b e h a zarded , n or much i n t he way o f d iv is ion i n to f orms o r wares . Bu t t he p ub l ica t ion o f d escr ip t ions a nd d raw ings o f v esse ls , w i th t he ir p rovenance , was b eg inn ing t o make p oss ible wha t Ward h ad f oreseen i n t he G e l lygaer r epor t ( p .74 ) : t hat i ft he o ccup a t ion p er iod o f aR o mano-Br i t ish s i te c ou ld b e e s tabl ished , i tc ou ld c on tr ibu te t o t he c hrono log ica l c lass i f ica t ion o f t he p ot tery f ound t here . Fro m t he h is tor ian 's p oin t o f v iew , wha t was s t i l l a pparen t was t he p r imary i mpor tance o f wr i t ten e v idence .

L i terary s ources p rov ided t he h is-

t or ica l f ramework o f e ven ts wh ich e nab led a s i te t o b e d a ted . F ro m t h is , t he d a t ing o f f i nds c ou ld f o l low , a nd migh t b e t ransferab le. Agreed , p o t tery , e spec ia l ly t he c oarse k ind wh ich p resu mab ly was o f ten r ep laced , migh t b e a u se fu l means o f d a t ing . Bu t t h is i s a sma l l p ar t o f t he b us iness o f c rea t ing h is tory . Ad ocu men t h as t o b e d a ted b efore i tc an b e u sed . b u t p re l iminary. The r ea l work b eg ins a f ter t ha t .

T h is i s e ssent ia l ,

B y 1 930 , R . G . C o l l ingwood c ou ld wr i te i n The A rchaeo logy o f R o man Br ita in ( p . 2 00 ) t ha t i th ad b eco me p oss ib le t o d a te l arge c lasses o f s am ian w i th b ons iderable a ccuracy. H e a lso made t he f i rs t a t te mp t t o p resen t a s er ies o f d a ted t ypes o f c oarse p ot tery , c om men t ing t ha t o n ly t wen ty y ears e ar l ier h ard ly a s hred o f t he ma ter ia l h e was u sing was i n e x is tence ( p . 2 16 ). A s ad a t ing med ium , p ot tery h ad a rr ived .

C o l l ingwood a lso f o l lowed Haver f ie ld

i n c i t ing t he d ecora t ion o f R o mano-Br i t ish p ot tery t o s uppor t t he c on ten t ion t ha t s tandard R o man d esigns s wamped a nd s t i f led C e l t ic a r t ( Haver f ie ld , 1 915 , 4 8-51 ; C o l l ingwood , 1 936 , 2 57-8 ). a s a n i ndex o f a r t ist ic t aste .

I n t h is c onnex ion , p ot tery s erved a lso

At h ird c on tex t f or p o t tery e v idence was t he s tudy o f t he i ndus try wh ich p roduced i t .

F or t h is , k i ln-s i tes were i mpor tan t .

Ward i n 1 911 h ad d is-

c ussed k i lns o n ly a s e v idence f or t echn iques o f f i r ing .

I n t he 1 930s C o l l ingwood

was u sing k i lns a nd t he ir p roduc ts a s ma ter ia l f or e cono m ic h is tory.

B y t hen ,

R os tov tzef f 's p ioneer work o n The S oc ia l a nd E conom ic H is tory o f t he R o man Emp ire ( 1926 ) h ad a ppeared : i ts ays n ex t t o n oth ing a bou t t he i ndustry a nd c o m merce o f Br i ta in , a nd n o t much a bou t p ot tery i n p ar t icu lar i n t he Emp ire a t l arge ; b u t i t was a sk ing h is tor ica l q ues t ions a bou t t he e cono m ic l i fe o f t he Empire , a nd u s ing ma ter ia l a s we l l a s l i terary e v idence t o a nswer t hem. A sk ing h is tor ica l q uest ions was wha t C ol l ing-w ood b e l ieved t o b e t he mos t impor tan t f unc t ion o f t he a rchaeo log ist . I n t he 1 930s t h is h ad c o me t o b e a ccep ted ;

b u t C o l l ingwood r e marked i n h is Au tob iography t ha t i fh e t o ld t he

s tuden ts o f t he L ondon I nst i tu te o f Archaeo logy h ow t h is p r inc ip le was r eceiv Ed when h e s ta ted i ti n t he t wen t ies , t hey wou ld t h ink h im a n o ld l i ar ( pp . 1 26 , 1 28 ). F or t he e cono m ic h istory o f R o man Br i ta in t he a va i lable ma ter ia l was d i f f icul t t o u se : C o l l ingwood d escr ibed i ta s ' casua l a nd r e frac tory '. Never the less , i n 1 934 , C o l l ingwood o rgan ised i ti n to c a tegor ies f or t he Br i t ish s ec t ion o f T enney Frank 's E cono m ic S urvey o f Anc ien t R ome ( Vo l . I I , p ubl ished i n 1 937 ). When d iscuss ing t he p o t tery i ndus try , h e f ound i tn ecessary t o p oin t o u t t ha % ,

5 18

d esp i te t he i mpression g iven b y e xcava t ion r epor ts a nd museums , wh ich c oncen tra ted a t ten t ion o n f ine wares i mpor ted f ro m a broad , t he b u lk o f t he p o t tery f ound o n Ro mano-Br i t ish s i tes was made i n Br i ta in . Br i t ish p o t ter ies were r e markab ly v ar ied i n o rgan isa t ion .

The k nown C astor c ap i ta l is ts ,

Hampsh ire ( New Forest ) h awkers , a nd t he p ara- m i l i tary p o t ters o f H o l t i l lus tra ted t h is p leasing d iversi ty ;

b u t a l l were mass-producers , r espond ing

t o c hanged c ond i t ions u nder R o man r u le . P ot tery i n R o man Br i ta in was n ow r ecogn ised a s av a luable d a t ing i nstrumen t , a n i nd ica t ion o f s ty l ist ic i nf luences , a nd a measure o f i ndus tr ia l g row th . Moreover , i tw as c lear t hat i t s d istr ibu t ion i s r e levan t t o c o m merce ; t here were i mpor tan t q ua l if ica t ions .

b u t

C o l l ingwood d rew a t ten t ion t o t he d i f f icu l ty

o f d is t ingu ishing b etween t he i mpor t o f a rmy s upp l ies a nd g enu ine marke t t rad ing ( 1937 , 1 09-110 ) ; b u t f or p ot tery t he p roblem g oes d eeper . The d urab i l i ty o f p otsherds g ives a d is tor ted p ro m inence t o p o t tery a s at rad ing c o m mod i ty . C onsequen t ly , e ven where t here i s wr i t ten e v idence , t he we igh t o f p ot tery c an t urn t he s ca le a ga inst i t . R o mano-Br i t ish a rchaeo logy h as r ecen t ly b een d esc r ibed a s ' h istory w i thou t t he c ons tra in t o n c on jec ture o f wr i t ten s ources '. 3 Because o f t he s carc i ty o f l i terary e v idence a bou t Br i ta in 's e ar ly t rade , s uch c onstra in t i s r are ly e ncoun tered i n t h is c onnex ion .

Bu t i n o ne o f t he f ew c ases

where awr i t ten s ource e x is ts , a s f ar a s p ot tery i s c oncerned i th as b een more o f ah indrance t han a h e lp .

F or S trabo ( 2 . 4 4 B .C . -A .D . 2 3 ) i n h is we l l-

k nown s ta te men t a bou t Br i ta in 's i mpor ts f ro m t he Emp ire i n t he f irst t wo d ecades A .D. ( Geograph ica , 4 .5 , 3 ) d oes n ot i nc lude p o t tery .

I n v iew o f t he

i ndenti f ica t ion i nT he 1 920s a nd 1 930s o f Augustan a nd e ar ly T iber ian Arret ine a t London , C olchester , S i lches ter , a nd o ther p laces i n t he s ou th-east ( Pryce a nd O swa ld , 1 928 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 9 9 ;

Hawkes , 1 931 , 2 35 ) , i t was a ssu med t ha t i n

S trabo 's d ay q uan t i t ies o f I ta l ian p ot tery were r each ing s ou th Br i ta in ( Co i l ingwood , 1 936 , 7 1 ;

1 937 , 1 09 ).

The i mp l ica t ion was t ha t S trabo h ad n eg lec ted

t o ment ion t h is t hr iv ing t rade .

Fro m t he l a te 1 940s , r econsidera t ion o f t h is

' Arre t ine ' r educed t he Augus tan a nd I ta l ian e le men t o f t h is c o m merce t o a t r ick le wh ich S trabo m igh t we l l h ave o ver looked ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l , 1 947 , 1 80 , 1 89-90 ;

T odd , 1 967 , 2 84 ;

Danne l l , 1 971 , 2 62 ).

g ica l p ic ture h as c hanged a ga in .

More r ecen t ly t he a rchaeo lo-

A l though wha t P ryce a nd O swa ld a ccep ted

i n 1 928 a s L ondon 's A rre t ine h as n ow b een s hown t o b e o f d ubious p rovenance o r n ot Arre t ine a t a l l ( Marsh , 1 979 ) , n ew d iscover ies e lsewhere h ave r ehabi l i ta ted Br i ta in 's impor t t rade i n Augustan a nd T iber ian p o t tery.

The r eda t ing o f

Ro me 's a bandon men t o f H a ltern t o A .D . 9r a ther t han A .D . 1 6 ( see We l ls , 1 972 , 1 77-192 ) p laces t he Ha l tern p ara l le ls among Br i ta in 's p ot ter y i mpor ts more s ecure ly i n Augustus ' r eign .

I n a dd i t ion , t here h ave b een r ecen t f inds

o f Arret ine a nd o ther Augus tan a nd T iber ian t ab lewares i n Br i ta in , f or i nstance a t Ba ldock , S ke le ton G reen a nd Braugh ing , S heepen a t C o lchester , C h iches ter a nd F ishbourne , a nd Prae Wood a nd G orhambury a t V eru la miu m ; a nd t he s c ien t i f ic a na lysis o f p ot tery f abr ics h as b egun t o b e u sed t o e stabl ish t he ir p laces o f manu facture .

A s ar esu l t , n ot o n ly i s Br i ta in s hown t o h ave i mpor ted

p ot tery o f Augus tan d a te a nd I ta l ian p rovenance ,4 b u t e qua l ly e ar ly t radel inks a re a f f irmed w i th p o t ter ies i n C en tra l a nd Be lg ic G au l , G au l a s we l 1. 6

5

a nd a pparen t ly S ou th

I ngenious s uggest ions h ave b een made t o e xp la in t h is a way :

t ha t t he i nvad ing C laud ian a rmy was s uppl ied w i th p ot tery s tored s ince Augustus 's G erman c a mpa igns e nded i n A .D . 9 , o r t ha t t he c iv i l ian p opu la t ion

5 19

o f n ew ly-conquered Br i ta in p rov ided a n u nd iscern ing marke t where C laud ian merchan ts c ou ld u n load o ld p ot tery s tocks ( Swan , 1 975 , 4 1 ; 2 01 ).

R igby , 1 978 ,

Bu t o n t he p r inc ip le t ha t t he n a tura l e xp lana t ion f or t he a ppearance o f

t he p roduc ts o f Augustan p ot ters o n Br i t ish s i tes i s p robably t he r igh t o ne , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t p ot tery was o ne o f t he f irst i t e ms o f Br i ta in 's t rade w i th t he e ar ly Emp ire . A l though p ot tery d oes n o t s tand a lone i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f Br i ta in 's p re-C laud ian i mpor ts , n or o f t hose n ot c overed b y S trabo 's s ta te men t , i n q uan t i ty i ti s t he mos t i mpress ive , f ar o u twe igh ing t he meagre e v idence o f o ther c o m mod i t ies , f or i nstance t he g lassware ( Harden , 1 947 , 2 88-9 ;

Boon , 1 969 , 3 4 ;

Harden a nd Pr ice , 1 971 , 3 20 ;

R odwe l l , 1 976 ,

3 09-10 ) wh ich d id r ece ive men t ion b y S trabo among Br i ta in 's i mpor ts i n Augus tan t imes .

A n e xp lana t ion migh t b e t ha t p ot tery was n o t c onsidered

p ar t icu lar ly wor thy o f men t ion .

S uch r eference a s t here i s t o t rade i n

l i terary s ources t ends t o b e d isparag ing :

d id p o t tery n o t mer i t r e mark a t

a l l? The f i ne r ed-g loss ware o f Arezzo c er ta in ly c om manded r espec t i n i t s h eyday , f or a f irst-cen tury p oe t , i n as y mpa thet ic v erse t o a n A rret ine c up d e mo ted t o t he s ta tus o f a med ic ine-g lass , d escr ibed i ta s o nce t he o rna men t o f h is f a ther 's t able ( Baehrens , 1 881 , I V n o. 1 58 , c i ted b y C hase , 1 916 , 3 ). By A .D . 8 6 , when t he f irs t b ook o f Mar t ia l 's E p igrams a ppeared , i t s r eput at ion , l ike i t s q ua l ity , was i n d ec l ine :

Arret ine p o t tery l owered t he t one o f

at ab le s et w i th c rysta l v esse ls ( I , 5 3 ) . N ever the less , Mar t ia l p o in ted o ut t ha t i t was n ot t o b e d esp ised : ap r ince l i ke Lars P orsena o f o ld h ad d one h i mse l f v ery we l l w i th e ar thenware ( X IV , 9 8 ).

7

Mora l is ing wr i ters u sed

p ot tery a s as y mbo l o f a nc ien t v ir tue a nd h ones t s imp l ic i ty.

Wr it ing i n t he

f irst c en tury A .D ., F lorus ( I .13 ) l ooked b ack f or mode ls o f n obi li ty a nd a uster i ty t o t he g enera ls u nder t he Repub l ic , s uch a s Cur ius who h ad r efused t o b e b r ibed b y t he S a mn i tes , p referr ing h is e ar thenware t o t he ir g o ld . J uvena l , wr i t ing c . A . D. 9 8-128 , c on tras ted t he e xpense a nd a f fec ta t ion o f l i fe i n R o me , where o ne was a sha med t o d ine o f f p o t tery d ishes , w i th s ounder v a lues i n t he c oun try where p o t tery was i n g enera l u se ( Sa t ire I I , 1 68 ). The p oe t T ibu l lus , f r iend o f Horace , was h appy t o f east o f f c lay v esse ls s haped o n t he p ot ter 's whee l ;

l uxur ious t as tes c ou ld b e l e f t t o t he r apac ious

( I I , 3 , 4 1-48 ). Re ferences t o p ot tery t ab leware i n a nc ient l i tera ture r evea l a n ambiva len t a t t i tude t owards i t .

8

On t he o ne h and , i t was a c heap s ubs t i tu te f or s i lver o r

b ronze , i t s u se i nd ica t ing p over ty o r p arsimony .

For i nstance , P lau tus ,

wr i t ing a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c en tury B .C ., g ave a s as upre me e xamp le o f t igh t-f is tedness t he u se when s acr i f ic ing o f n o b e t ter v esse ls t han e ar thenware , b ecause t he m iser f eared t ha t e ven h is g uard ian s p ir i t migh t make o f f w i th t he d ishes ( Capt iv i , I , 2 , 3 9-42 ). o n t he o ther h and , p ot tery a voided o s ten ta t ion .

Bu t

T o d isregard word ly v a lues

b y u s ing i ts howed h igh m indedness , w i thdrawa l f ro m t he r a t-race o f amb i t ion . S eneca ( 2 . 4B .C . -A .D . 6 5 ) o bserved t ha t t he man i s g rea t who i s a s c ont en t w i th e ar thenware a s w i th s i lver ;

a nd h e a lso i s g rea t who v a lues s i lver

n o more t han e ar thenware ( Ep ist le 5 , s ec t . 6 ) .

J uvena l c o m men ted , p erhaps

more p er t inen t ly , t ha t n o-one b others t o p oison y ou i fy our c ups a re e ar thenware ( Sa t ire X , 2 5 ). v ery f requen t ly.

Ro man wr i ters men t ion p ot tery i nc iden ta l ly , a nd n o t

T he i mpress ion g iven i s t ha t i t was g enera l ly r egarded a s

5 20

c heap a nd c o m mon :

i t s u se i n p o l i te s oc ie ty n eeded t he e xcuse o f i nd igence

o r d e l ibera te a us ter i ty.

I n h is l e t ters S eneca t w ice d rew a dm ir ing a t ten t ion

t o t he S toic s imp l ic i ty s hown b y Tubero , n ephew o f S c ip io A fr icanus t he Y ounger , who , a s C icero h ad r e marked ( Pro - Murena , 3 6 , 7 5 ) , a t h is u nc le 's f unera l f eas t s pread t he c ouches w i th s habby g oa tsk ins a nd t he t ables w i th S am ian p ot tery , a s i fi t was t he a us tere D iogenes a nd n o t t he g rea t A fr icanus whose d ea th was b eing h onoured . way c onsecra ted p over ty :

S eneca c o m men ted t ha t T ubero h ad i n t h is

t he g o ld a nd s i lver v esse ls u sed b y o thers o n s uch

o ccas ions h ad l ong a go b een b roken u p a nd mel ted d own ; e ar thenware w ou ld e ndure f or e ver ( Ep ist le 9 5 , 7 2 ;

t he s tory o f Tubero 's

9 8 , 1 3 ).

S eneca was h ere r eferr ing t o p ot tery i n g enera ly ( f ic t i l ia ) : s pec i f ied S am ian ( vasa S am ia );

C icero h ad

b u t i ti s a pparen t t ha t t he t erm S amian h ad

l ong b een u sed g ener ica l ly i n t he R o man wor ld f or e ar thenware , i n t he way t ha t we u se t he t erm c h ina .

The e ar l iest k nown r eferences t o S am ian o ccur

i n t he musica l c omed ies wr i t ten b y P lau tus , c . 2 00 B .C.

Fro m t he way

P lau tus u ses t he t erm i n h is j okes i ti s c lear t ha t S am ian was we l l-known f or b e ing e as i ly b roken . I n Bacch ides ( I I , 2 , 2 2-24 ) , t he y oung man who f anc ies t he S am ian g ir l Bacch is i s warned t o h and le h er c arefu l ly : h ow f rag i le S am ian i s '.

' You k now

I n Menaech m i ( t he e ven tua l s ource o f t he p lot o f

S hakespeare 's C omedy o f E rrors ) , o ne o f t he t w ins , a d i r is ing t ha t ac our tesan 's d oor s hou ld b e k nocked o n g en t ly , i s a sked i fh e t h inks i ti s made o f S amian ( I , 2 , 6 8 ).

Being r ead i ly b reakable i s ac harac ter ist ic o f a l l e ar thenware ,

a nd t he c oarser i ti s t he more e as i ly i tb reaks .

These r eferences d o n ot

warran t a t tr ibu t ing t he f rag i l i ty o f S am ian t o t he f ineness o f i t s f abr ic . P lau tus a lso makes c lear t ha t S am ian was i n c o m mon u se : o u t o f e labora te g ob le ts ; 1 1-13 ).

t he r ich c an d r ink

t hose who a ren 't r ich u se S amian ( S t ichus V , 4 ,

P lau tus d oes n o t s ee m t o b e s pec ifying a p ar t icu lar k ind o f p ot tery ,

b u t e ar thenware i n g enera l . I n P l iny 's Na tura l H is tory ( ded ica ted t o t he f u ture Emperor T i tus i n A .D .' 77 ) , t he p assage ( XXXV , 4 6 , 1 60-1 ) a bou t t he u se o f p o t tery i n g enera l a nd S am ian i n p ar t icu lar i s ambiguous .

I th as o f ten b een q uo ted o u t o f c on-

t ex t a nd i n terpre ted i n ways t ha t t he t ex t d oes n ot s ee m t o warran t .

Q uoted

b y i t se lf , t he s en tence ma jor p ars h om inu m t erren is u t i tur v as is a ppears t o s ta te t ha t most p eop le u se e ar thenware d ishes .

Th is was p robab ly t rue ;

a nd t h is i s most l i ke ly t o b e wha t P l iny mean t , f or h e was r ambl ing o n a bou t t he v ar ious u ses o f e ar thenware .

He h ad j us t b een t a lk ing a bou t c of f ins , a nd

i n t he c on tex t may h ave mean t t ha t mos t p eop le u sed p o t tery b ur ia l c on ta iners . Bu t t he s ugges t ion t ha t h e was r eferr ing t o v esse ls u sed a t s acr i f ices ( as i n K ing , 1 980 , 1 42 ) d oes n o t s ee m t o b e ar easonab le i n terpreta t ion o f t he t ex t . I ti s t rue t ha t P liny h ad r eferred e ar l ier t o e ar thenware l ad les u sed f or l i bat i ons a t s acr i f ices , b u t h e h ad s ince men t ioned a n u mber o f o ther p o t tery a r tefac ts , i nc lud ing w inejars , wa ter-p ipes , r oof-t i les , a nd b r icks , b es ides t he c of f ins wh ich h e d iscussed i n t he s en tence i m med ia te ly p reced ing t h is o ne . I t wou ld a ppear e ven l ess r easonab le t o c arry o ver t he i n terpre ta t ion o f p ure ly s acr if ic ia l u se i n to t he n ex t s en tences : l audan tur .

S amia e t ia m n unc i n e scu len t is

Ret inen t n anc n obi l i ta te m e t Arre t ium i n I ta l ia e t c a l icum t antum

S urren tu m , Has ta , P ol len t ia , i n H ispan ia S agun tum , i n A s ia P ergamu m . For P l iny was c ont inu ing w i th h is s urvey o f p ot tery p roduc ts . t rans la t ion i s :

' Sa mian i s s t i l l e stee med f or t ab leware .

5 21

The n a tura l

Th is r epu ta t ion i s

h e ld b y Arezzo i n I ta ly , a nd , f or c ups o n ly , b y S orren to , A s t i , P o l len t ia , S agun to i n S pa in , a nd P erga mon i n As ia Minor '.

P l iny u sed t he word

e scu len ta o n o ther o ccas ions t o mean d ishes f or t he t ab le ( xxx iv .3 , 7 ; 1 59 ) :

XXXVi

t here i s n o r eason t o t h ink h e u sed i ti n ad i f feren t s ense h ere .

Wha t P liny mean t b y ' Sa m ian ' h as b een a ma t ter o f d iscuss ion f or c ent ur ies .

E ven Waage , who a rgued c onv inc ing ly i n 1 937 t ha t t he t erm S am ian

was u sed g ener ica l ly b y t he R o mans t o mean p ot tery , made a n e xcep t ion f or t h is r e mark b y P l iny : i n t h is i ns tance , h e ma in ta ined ( p . 4 8 ) ,t he t erm was u sed g eograph ica l ly , a nd P l iny mean t t ha t S amos was s t i l l e xpor t ing t ableware t o I ta ly i n h is d ay. Sma l l wonder t ha t e ar l ier wr i ters , w i thou t t he b enef i t o f a rchaeo log y , a lso t ook P l iny 's s ta te men t l i tera l ly .

Wha t i s s urpr is ing i s h ow S amian

b ecame i den t i f ied w i th r ed-g loss p ot tery . c o lour when r eferr ing t o S am ian .

9

N o a nc ien t wr i ter men t ions a ny

Bu t I s idore o f S ev i l le , i n t he l ast b ook

o f t he e ncyc lopaed ia h e c o mp i led i n t he e ar ly s even th c en tury A .D ., s ta ted t ha t a ccord ing t o t rad i t ion p ot tery v esse ls were f irst i nven ted o n t he i s land o f S amos , wh ich i s why t hey a re c a l led S am ian ;

a nd t ha t a f terwards i t was

d iscovered h ow t o a dd r ed c o lour ing a nd t o make p ot tery o f r ed c lay . a lso i nc luded a n a l terna t ive e xp lana t ion f or t he t er m S am ian :

I s idore

t ha t i t was

s a id b y s o me t o d er ive f ro m a c lay c a l led ' samian ' , wh ich i s f ound i n I ta ly n ot f ar f ro m R o me ( Ety mo log iaru m , XX , 4 , 3a nd 6 ) . marks h as a ny i ndependen t h istor ica l v a l id i ty .

Ne i ther o f t hese r e-

I s idore c o mp i led h is e ncyc lo-

p aed ia u ncr i t ica l ly f ro m t he works o f e ar l ier wr i ters , e n l iven ing i tw i th s o me g uesses o f h is own . Bu t e ven h e d oes n ot s ay t ha t t he p ot tery o f S a mos was r ed ; o n ly t ha t t he mak ing o f r ed p ot tery was a l a ter d eve lopmen t . Probab ly h e was r eferr ing t o Arre t ine a s t h is l a ter d eve lopmen t :

h e k new t ha t Arre t ine

was r ed ( XX , 4 , 5 ) , t hough t he s ource h e q uo tes f or t h is i nforma t ion i s d ubious .1 0 P l iny h ad men t ioned Arre t ium a nd a n umber o f o ther p laces i n t he Emp ire a s c en tres where p ot tery o f q ua l i ty was p roduced .

S ince t h is

l i s t o f p ot ter ies ( quo ted a bove ) f o l lowed h is s ta te men t a bou t S am ian , t he i nference c ou ld b e made t ha t a l l t hese p laces ( Arezzo , S orren to , Ast i a nd P o l lenza i n I t a ly , S agun to i n S pa in , a nd P erga mon i n A sia M inor ) " were p roduc ing S am ian-type p o t tery i n P l iny 's d ay a nd t ha t i ta l l , i nc lud ing t ha t o f S a mos , was r ed . S uch a n i nference s ee ms t o h ave b een made a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e igh teen th c en tury b y a n e rud i te Du tch man , S a mue l P i t iscus ;1 2

f or i ti s

h is a u thor i ty wh ich i s q uo ted i n t he e ar l iest Eng l ish s ta te men t o n t h is s ub jec t wh ich Ih ave b een a b le t o f ind :

G overnor P owna l l 's ' Me mo ire o n t he Ro man

Ear then Ware f i shed u p w i th in t he Mou th o f t he R iver Thames ' ( i .e . a t Pudd ing-Pan Rock ) , p ubl ished i n Archaeo log ia i n 1 779.

P owna l l c a l led t he

r ed p o t tery ' I on ian o r S am ian ' , a nd , misunders tand ing a nd q uot ing o u t o f c on tex t t he l i ne f ro m P lau tus a bou t u s ing S am ian p ot tery a t s acr i f ices ( wh ich P lau tus i n tended a s aj ok ing e xamp le o f miser l iness , n ot a s as ta te men t o f u sua l c us to m :

s ee a bove ) , s uggested t ha t t hese were h o ly v esse ls .

More

p er t inen t ly , h e a lso q uoted a r e mark a t tr ibu ted b y C icero ( De Re P ubl ica , V I , 2 , 6 ) t o C a ius L ae l ius ,

1 3

l earned f r iend o f t he y ounger S c ip io A fr icanus ,

t ha t S am ian v esse ls were p leas ing t o t he g ods .

The p assage i s o ne o f t he

f ragmen ts f ro m t he l os t s ix th b ook o f C icero ' sR epub l ic q uo ted w i thou t c on tex t b y t he e ar ly f our th-cen tury e ncyc lopaed is t Non ius ( i v , 3 98 , 2 8 ). 5 22

Lae l ius 's s peeches , wh ich were a pparen t ly e x tan t i n C icero 's d ay , h ave n ot s urv ived , b u t i n v iew o f t he S toic l ean ings o f t he S c ip ion ic c irc le t o wh ich h e b e longed , i ti s a pparen t t ha t h e was r eferr ing t o S am ian a s s y mbo l ic o f t he S toic r e jec t ion o f o s ten ta t ion :

i t was n ot t ha t S am ian p ot tery was p ar t icu lar ly

s acred , b u t t ha t t he s i mp le p ie ty s hown b y t he u se o f h o me ly v esse ls was p leas ing t o t he g ods ( as , f or i nstance , b y Tubero : s ee a bove ). •

P owna l l j us t if ied h is i den t if ica t ion o f S am ian w i th t he r ed p o t tery f ound

a t P udd ing-Pan R ock ( p . 2 88 ) b y q uo t ing f ro m P i t iscus , who h ad s ta ted t ha t p ot tery made f ro m S am ian c lay t urned t o ar ed c o lour ( ex l u to S am io i n r ubrum c o lore m v er ten te ).

E igh t y ears l a ter , i n ac on tr ibu t ion t o Archaeolog ia

p ub l ished i n 1 787 , P owna l l t rea ted h is i den t i f ica t ion o f R o man r ed p o t tery i n Br ita in w i th ' t he S amian men t ioned b y P l iny ' a s e s tabl ished ( p . 3 80 ).

O ther

c on tr ibu tors t o t he s a me v o lume were more wary , d escr ibing s uch p ot tery f inds a s ' sh in ing ' ( or ' f ine ' ) ' cora l-co loured ware ' ( pp . 1 21 , 1 22 ) o r ' red e ar then ware ' ( p . 1 32 ) , n ot a s S am ian .

Bu t g radua l ly t he p rac t ice o f u s ing

t he t erm S am ian c rep t i n . I n 1 797 S amue l L ysons was s t i l l d ubious , d escr ibing af rag men t f ound a t Woodchester a s o f t he s or t o f p ot tery wh ich ' has b een s upposed t o b e t he s ame w i th t he S am ian e ar then v esse ls men t ioned b y P l iny ' ( p . 2 0 n . 2 8 ).

B y 1 807 h e h ad c eased t o h ave d oubts .

R epor t ing t o t he S oc iety

o f An t iquar ies o n R o man p ot tery d iscovered a t C aerhun , h e d escr ibed i ta s ' rese mb l ing t he r ed S am ian ware s o f requen t ly d iscovered o n R o man s ta t ions ' ( Lysons , 1 812 , 1 28 ) , a nd t herea f ter t a lked a bou t S am ian ware w i thou t f ur ther a pparen t misg iv ing ( 1813 ;

1 817 , 1 22 ).

al i t t le e ar l ier ( Wa l ford , 1 803 , 2 5 );

O thers h ad f o l lowed P owna l l 's l ead

s o me c ont inued t o h es i ta te .

A . J . K e mpe

i n 1 832 q uoted P i t iscus a nd c i ted P owna l l t o j us t ify h is u se o f t he t erm ( pp . 1 96-7 ).

T herea f ter , R o man r ed-g loss p ot tery f ound i n Br i ta in was g enera l ly

k nown a s S am ian , o stens ib ly o n t he a u thor i ty o f P l iny , b u t i n f act a s t he r esu lt o f a n u n jus t if iab le i nference made b y a Du tch s cho lar a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e igh teen th c en tury. Waage ( 1937 ) d id n ot b e l ieve t ha t t he o r ig inal S am ian p ot tery was r ed , b u t h e d id a rgue t ha t i t s d escendan ts were b e ing p roduced i n S a mos a nd e xpor ted i n t he d ays o f P l iny.

The p roble m h e f aced was whe ther t hese

p ostu la ted S am ian v esse ls o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D . h ad l e f t a ny a rchaeo log ica l t race . He d ec ided t ha t t hey h ad , a nd t ha t t hey were r ed . F o l low ing t he s uggest ion made b y Z ahn i n 1 904 , t ha t t he p la in r ed-g lazed R o man p ot tery f ound a t Pr iene was S am ian f ro m S amos , Waage i den t i f ied s im i lar p ot tery f ound i n h is e xcava t ions i n t he Agora a t A thens ( pub l ished i n 1 933 ) a s P l iny 's • S a mian .

By t hen , t he n a t ive c lay o f S a mos was c la imed ( by T echnau a nd

E i l mann ) t o b e t he f abr ic o f t h is r ed p o t tery ( refs . i n Waage , 1 937 , 5 1nn .) . The i n terpre ta t ion o f P l iny 's words h ad s uf fered a nother metamorphosis . The e ar l ies t p ot tery o f S amos was s t i l l u nknown , b u t i t was t hough t t ha t i n P l iny 's t ime S amos was e xpor t ing p la in r ed ware w ide ly i n t he Med i terranean a rea . Waage 's ' Sam ian f ro m S a mos ' i s n ow k nown a s Eas tern S ig i l la ta B a nd i s b e l ieved t o h ave b een made a t Tra l les i n As ia M inor ( Hayes , 1 972 , 1 0 ; 1 976 , 1 ) . I tc op ies t he f orms o f p la in Arre t ine , a nd i t s p roduc t ion p robably b egan w i th t he migra t ion o f ap o t ter f ro m Arezzo i n Augustus ' sr e ign . p ot tery o f S a mos s t i l l d ef ies d e f in it iou .

T he

I ndeed , n o f i ne wares a re k nown t o

h ave b een made o n S a mos i n t he whole p er iod c overed b y t he r eferences t o 5 23

S am ian i n a nc ien t l i tera ture .

I ti s i ron ic t ha t t he l i t t le l i terary e v idence we

h ave i s c o mp le te ly a t v ar iance w i th t he p resen t s ta te o f a rchaeolog ica l k nowl edge .

I n t h is i nstance , a s w i th S trabo 's s ta te men t a bou t B r i ta in 's p re-

C laud ian t rade , p ot tery a nd h is tory h ave s t i l l t o b e r econc i led . C oncern ing t he n a ture o f p ot tery , t he l i terary r eferences a re n ot d i f f icu l t t o i n terpre t :

i t was c heap , i n c o m mon u se , a nd e as i ly b roken .

I ti s i n t he

c on tex t o f i ndustry o r t rade t ha t d i f f icu l t ies a r ise : S trabo 's omiss ion a nd P l iny 's men t ion o f i ti n t hese c onnex ions a re e qua l ly p rob le ma t ic . The t rade o f t he p ot ter was a n a nc ien t a nd r espec tab le o ne , w i th a g i ld e s tab l ished , a ccord ing t o t rad i t ion , b y t he l egendary K ing Nu ma , s uccessor o f R o mu lus a s r u ler o f R o me ( P lu tarch , Nu ma 1 7).

L ike t he o ther s even a nc ien t c ra f t

g i lds , t ha t o f t he p o t ters was e xe mp ted when t he d isso lu t ion o f workmen 's g i lds was d ecreed b y J u l ius Caesar a nd Augustus b ecause g i ld o rgan isa t ion h ad b eco me a c over f or c r i me ( Sue ton ius , J u l ius

4 2 , A ugus tus 3 2 ).

I t s

a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he r evered Numa c on tr ibu ted t o t he S to ic v iew o f p o t tery a s as y mbo l o f a ncestra l s i mp l ic i ty .

P ersius ( A . D. 3 4 -6 2 ) , wr i t ing a bou t

v esse ls u sed i n r e l ig ious r i tes , d ep lored t he o us t ing o f N u ma 's p ot tery b y g o ld ( Sa t ire I , 6 0 ).

The c era m ic i ndustry a lso d er ived r espec tabi l i ty f ro m

i t s c onnex ion w i th t he s oi l :

i t was p roper f or a l andowner t o t urn t o a ccoun t

wha tever h is e sta tes migh t p rov ide .

Trade was d emean ing , b u t t he e xp loi ta t ion

o f l anded p roper ty was s oc ia l ly a ccep tab le .

C onsequen t ly , t he R o man a r isto-

c racy d id n ot s corn t o e ngage i n t he b r ick i ndustry.

F ac tory s tamps o n b r icks

a nd s toragejars r evea l t ha t p ro minen t f ami l ies o f R o me were owners o f k i lny ards ( Dresse l , 1 891 ;

B loch , 1 949 ).

The v a l ley o f t he T iber p rov ided b oth

g ood c lay a nd t he p ozzo lana wh ich h ardens i t .

E sta tes i n t he a rea made n ot

o n ly t he u sua l h uge v esse ls ( do l ia ) n eeded f or t he s torage o f t he ir p roduce , b u t a lso b r icks , f or wh ich t here was a g rea t ly i ncreased d emand a f ter t he f ire o f R o me i n A .D . 6 4.

Br ick b us inesses p rospered .

F or i nstance ,

Do m i t ia L uc i l la , t he g rand mo ther o f Marcus Aure l ius , i nher i ted i n A .D . 1 08 a f ac tory f ounded b y h er g rand fa ther wh ich a lready h ad e xpanded t o f our b ranches ;

s he a dded a f i f th .

L uc i l la t he y ounger , i n 1 23.

The b usiness p assed t o h er d aughter , D om it ia When s he d ied , b e tween 1 55 a nd 1 61 , i th ad 4 6

workers ( s laves a nd f reedmen ) whose n a mes a re k nown f ro m t he b r icks ;

i f

t hese were o verseers , a s i s l i ke ly , t he n u mbers e ngaged i n b r ick p roduc t ion must h ave b een much l arger .

Her i nher i tance c ame t o Marcus Aure l ius a

f ew y ears b efore h e b eca me Emperor .

Even tua l ly h e owned 1 4 f ac tor ies ,

s o me o f t he m d er ived f ro m h is w ife 's f a ther , A n toninus P ius , whose mo ther Arr ia Fad i l la h ad a cqu ired ab r ickyard a t t he e nd o f Tra jan 's r e ign ( Dresse l , 1 891 , 2 65-8 e t s eq .;

Loane , 1 938 , 2 65-8 ;

B loch , 1 949 , 1 3 a nd i ndex ).

The i nc lusion o f t he words O pus D o l iare o n t he b r ick-stamps ( e .g . Dresse l , 1 891 , 1 052-4 ) d emons tra tes t he c onnex ion w i th a n e sta te-po t tery o r ig ina l ly e stab lished t o p roduce d o l ia f or d o mest ic u se . h eavy t o b e o ther t han s ta t ionary ;

Do l ia were t oo l arge a nd

b u t s ta mps o n amphorae s how t ha t l arge

e s ta tes , i nc lud ing t hose owned b y imper ia l a nd s ena tor ia l f ami l ies , a lso made v esse ls f or t he t ranspor t o f c o m mod i t ies wh ich t hey p roduced f or wha t was ( j udg ing f ro m t he d istr ibu t ion map ) f ar-f lung t rade ( Ca l lender , 1 965 , 1 , 4 7 , a nd F ig . 2 4 ).

There i s n o e v idence f or p ar t ic ipa t ion b y t he u pper c lasses

i n t he p roduc t ion o f f ine wares , b u t p ot ters ' s tamps s how t ha t , a s w i th t he b r ick i ndustry , t he p ropr ie tors o f Arre t ine f ac tor ies i nc luded a n umber o f wo men ( Oxb-Co m for t , 1 968 , x xv i i i , n os . 7 6 , 1 647, 1 850-1 ). 5 24

I n l i tera ture , t he s tock

t rea t men t o f c o m merce was t o c onde mn i ta s

g rounded i n a var ice ( Brewster , 1 917 , 3 3-37 ;

R ouge , 1 966 , 1 2-22 ).

p h i losophy was h os t i le t o t he a i ms o f t he merchan t :

t raders e ndured t he p hys ica l p r iva t ions o f s ea v oyages ; s e l l t he ir s ou ls ( Persius , S a t ire V , 1 32-153 ;

S toic

i t was f or g a in t ha t f or p rof i t t hey wou ld

V I , 7 5-78 ).

H owever , C icero

made a d ist inc t ion b etween l arge-sca le c om merc ia l v en tures a nd p e t ty t rad ing . O n a sma l l s ca le t rade was s ord id ;

b u t o n ag rand wor ld-w ide s ca le i t was

f reed f ro m c ensure , a nd i ft he a ccumu la ted p rof i ts were u sed t o b uy c oun try e sta tes s o a s t o e scape b ack t o t he l and , i t was e ven t o b e c o m mended ( De O f f ic i is , 1 , 1 51 ). a nd d ece it .

The g od o f t raders , Mercury , was a lso t he g od o f c unn ing

The t rad i t iona l i dea o f c o m merce was e xpressed b y O v id , e ar ly

i n t he f i rst c en tury A .D ., when h e d escr ibed a merchan t p raying t o Mercury f or a bso lu t ion f rom h is s w ind les p ast a nd f u ture , a nd f or p rof i table e n joy men t o f h is c areer o f f raud ( Fast i V , 6 71-90 ).

Ac en tury l a ter , J uvena l p i l lor ied

t hose who r isked t he ir l i ves a t s ea p ure ly f or g a in ( Sa t ire X IV , 2 56-291 ). O n t he o ther h and , t here was r ecogn i t ion o f t he u sefu lness o f t raders.

F or

i nstance , Ov id 's c on te mporary H orace , a l though h e j oined t he c horus o f c onde mna t ion o f t he ir a var ice , a lso d rew a t ten t ion t o t he ir s erv ices t o t he marke t a nd t he h o me ( Ep ist . 1 . 1 6, 6 7-72 , c i ted b y Brews ter , 1 917 , 3 3 , 3 9 ). Bo th v iews were t aken o ver b y C hr is t ian wr i ters .

The q uest f or wea l th

impeded s a lva t ion ( Rouge , 1 966 , 1 9 , c i t ing Augus t ine , S ermons 7 0 , 2 ). Bu t t he g if ts o f G od were n o t t o b e s corned , a nd C hr is t ians , l i ke e veryone e lse , were i nvolved i n t he b us iness o f l i fe , i nc lud ing c o m merce :

' l ike y ou ,

we s a i l t he s eas , we g o t o war , we t i l l t he g round , a nd we t rade ' ( Ter tu l l ian , Apologe t icus ( A .D . 1 97 ) , 4 2 ).

Trade was a n ecessary p ar t o f t he l i fe o f t he

R o man Emp ire , a nd t he a t t i tude o f wr i ters t owards i t was i ncons isten t a s a r esu l t .

There was h igh mora l d isapprova l o f t he p rof i t- mot ive b u t a lso

a ccep tance o f i t s p rac t ica l u t i l i ty . I n t he c ourse o f t heir u nsy mpa the t ic r eferences t o t he l abours o f merchan ts , t he s a t ir ic wr i ters o f t he e ar ly Empire men t ion a n u mber o f t he o b jec ts o f t rade ( Brews ter , 1 917 , 3 1-2 ).

Many o f t he m a re e xo t ic :

t he p epper , g o ld ,

e bony a nd i vory o f I nd ia , Ch inese s i lk , i ncense f rom Arabia , P hoen ic ian d yes , s p ices a nd p erfu mes f ro m S yr ia .

More e veryday i t ems i nc lude s a l t f i sh ,

b eaver o i l a nd t ow ( Persius , S a t ire V , 1 34-5 ). p ot tery.

Bu t t here i s n o men t ion o f

Par t ly t h is was b ecause much o f t he p ot tery t ranspor ted b y t raders

was i n t he f orm o f c on ta iners , wh ich were a s l i t t le wor thy o f n o te a s c ra tes o r p ack ing-cases :

i t was t he c on ten ts t ha t ma t tered .

Amphorae r ece ive men t ion a s e ar ly a s 2 18 B .C . i n t he L ex C laud ia , a s a measure o f s h ip-capac i ty :

s enators were f orb idden t o own s h ips h o ld ing

more t han 3 00 o f t hem ( L ivy XX1 , 6 3 , 3 -4 ;

s ee a lso R ouge , 1 966 , 1 2 n . 1 ) .

The i n ten t ion was t o b ar t he s ena tor ia l c lass f ro m s ea-going c o m merce . s h ip o f 3 00-amphora c apac i ty wou ld h ave b een sma l l :

A

a ccord ing t o Varro ,

t he y ie ld o f o ne i ugeru m ( l ess t han a n a cre ) o f v ineyard c ou ld b e 3 00 amphorae ( De R e Rus t ica I , 2 , 7 ).

Ac apac i ty o f a t l eas t 2 000 amphorae s ee ms t o h ave

b een n orma l f or a c argo-sh ip ( Cicero , E p ist . 1 2 . 1 5 , 2 ). work o u t t he e qu iva len t t onnage .

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o

R ouge c a lcu la ted t ha t as h ip c arrying 1 0 ,000

amphorae wou ld h ave a c apac i ty o f 9 3 t ons ( p . 6 8 ) , wh ich wou ld make a 3 00amphora s h ip j us t u nder 3 t ons ; Me iggs ( 1973 , 2 92 ) makes i t 7.

b u t t he L oeb e d i tor o f L ivy s ugges ts 7 t ons . I t was i n tended t o b e j us t b ig e nough f or t he

5 25

t ranspor t o f t he p roduce o f t he s enators ' own f i e lds .

L i terary r eferences t o

amphorae o ccur ma in ly i n c onnex ion w i th t he p roduc t ion a nd c onsu mp t ion o f w ine , a nd i nc lude men t ion i n Ca to 's De R e Rus t ica , t he o ldes t s urv iving l i terary p rose work i n t he L a t in l anguage :

t ha t a f ter g rape- must was f er-

men ted i n d o l ia , t he r esu l t ing l i qu id was p oured i n to amphorae t o ma ture i n s torage .

A bou t t he t ranspor t o f amphorae t here i s p ic tor ia l e v idence .

A t

P o mpei i at erracot ta p laque s e t i n to a wa l l j ust o u ts ide t he f oru m s hows t wo men w i th a n amphora s uspended b etween t he m b y r opes f ro m a p o le c arr ied o n t he ir s hou lders ( i l lustra ted i n G ran t , 1 971 , 1 94 ; C lar idge , 1 976 , 5 4 ).

Ward-Perk ins a nd

A wa l l-pa in t ing f ro m a c e l lar i n A ugst , Sw i tzer land

( i l lus tra ted i n Ca l lender , 1 965 , p l . V 1 ) , s hows t he s ame me thod o f t ranspor t b u t ad i f feren t s hape o f amphora :

t he P o mpe ian amphora i s e longa ted , w i th

s hor t h and les a nd a s hor t b asa l s p ike ( i t l ooks l i ke a n I t a l ian w ine-amphora , Koan t ype );

t he A ugst amphora i s g lobu lar .

Rouge ( p . 1 80 ) h as p o in ted o u t

t ha t i tw ou ld n ot h ave b een p rac t icab le t o c arry amphorae o n p o les p assed t hrough t he h and les ;

t he n eck o f t he amphora was t oo n arrow t o a l low f or

t wo p o les r es t ing o ne o n e ach o f t he s hou lders o f t he p or ters , a nd i fo ne p ole was u sed t he we igh t o f t he c on ten ts o f t he amphora wou ld c ause i tt o s l ide i f t he p o le was e ven s l igh t ly i nc l ined . The r e ta i l s hop a t tached t o t he H ouse o f Nep tune a nd Amph i tr i te a t H ercu laneu m h as r evea led t ha t s ca l loped wooden r acks i n wh ich s tocks o f r ecu mben t amphorae were s he lved ( i l lustra ted i n G ran t , 1 971 , 1 93 ).

F or t ranspor t o verseas , amphorae were p rotec ted w i th

j ackets o f c o i led s traw , s hown o n t he N eu magen monu men t ( Ca l lender , 1 965 , 4 3 , p l . V ).

A l though t he e ar l iest c o m mod i ty a ssoc ia ted w i th amphorae was

w ine , t he t i tu l i p ic t i a nd s urv iv ing r e ma ins o f t he ir c on ten ts h ave s hown t ha t t hey s erved a s c on ta iners f or many o ther c onsu mab les :

o l ive o i l a nd o l ives ,

f i sh-sauces a nd s a l ted f ish , f ru i ts a nd d r ied f ru i ts , n u ts , p epper , b eans , h oney , g ra in a nd f l our ( Ca l lender , C h . I V ).

Re-used , t hey s erved n u mbers

o f o ther p urposes , f ro m b ur ia ls t o u r ina ls.

Bu t t hey were n ot t he mse lves

o b jec ts o f t rade :

t he ir p roduc t ion was l oca l a nd a nc i l lary t o t rade i n o ther

c o m mod i t ies. P o t tery c on ta iners were o n ly o ne a spec t o f t he p ar t p layed b y c era m ics i n t rade .

I n t he p assage a bou t p ot tery i n t he e lder P l iny 's Na tura l H istory

( XXXV 4 6 1 60 f .) , a f ter men t ion ing p laces i n I ta ly , S pa in , a nd A s ia Minor wh ich p roduced q ua l i ty t ab leware , h e c o m men ted t ha t t he ir p roduc ts were c arr ied o ver s ea a nd l and a nd t he ir f ac tor ies were f a mous , s ince t h is was o ne o f t he ways o f w inn ing c e lebr i ty. g uous :

Th is p ar t o f h is s ta temen t i s u na mbi-

f i ne wares were n o t o n ly t he o b jec ts o f w ide t rade b u t f a mous a s we l l .

The l i fe o f t he e lder P l iny a nd t he l i fe o f P ompe i i b oth c ame t o a n e nd i n t he e rup t ion o f V esuv ius i n A .D .79.

C onsequen t ly , t he p ot tery f ound a t P o mpe i i

p rov ides a n e xac t a rchaeo log ica l c o m men tary o n P l iny 's words . The e x is tence o f p ot tery workshops i n a nd j ust o u ts ide t he c i ty d emonstra tes t ha t ag ood d ea l o f i t was made l oca l ly. O ne o f t he workshops ( Reg ion I , 2 0 , 2 -3 ) made amp horae a s we l l a s k i tchen-ware . Mos t o f t he j ugs , p ots , a nd b ow ls u sed i n t he k i tchens i n t he t own were l oca l , a nd e ven s o me s emi-f ine t ab leware ( WardP erk ins a nd C lar idge , 1 976 , n o . 2 94 ). I , 3 , 7 ) n o . 2 92 ).

O u ts ide o ne o f t he workshops ( Reg ion

was a wa l l-pa in t ing s how ing t he p o t ter w ork ing a t h is whee l i bid ., Th is p a in t ing s ee ms l i t t le k nown :

i ndeed a r ecen t wr i ter d en ies

t he e x is tence o f a ny i l lus tra t ion o f aR o man p ot ter 's whee l ( Brown , 1 976 , 7 5 ).

5 26

The p ot ter s i ts a t h is work o n a wooden s too l , r a is ing a j ug o n al ow k ickwhee l ;

o ther v esse ls , s hown much sma l ler , s tand a round o n t he f l oor n ear

t he whee l a nd n ear h is s too l , a nd t he t ower ing f igure o f Vu lcan , g od o f f urnace-cra f ts , d om ina tes t he who le s cene .

• The l oca l p ot ters d o n ot s ee m

t o h ave a t temp ted t o p roduce t he b est t ablewares.

A r e markab le f ind o f a

c onsign men t o f p ot tery s t i l l i n t he c harred r e ma ins o f i t s wooden c ra te ( Reg ion V I I I , 5 , 9 ) s hows t ha t t he f iner wares were b ough t i n f ro m o u ts ide . F or t he c ra te c on ta ined 9 0 S ou th G au l ish s amian b ow ls , n ea t ly s tacked , a nd 3 7 p ot tery l a mps ( A tk inson , 1 914 ).

The l a mps b ear t he n a mes o f p ot ters o f

N or th I ta ly a nd w ere p robab ly made t here ; f esenque .

t he b ow ls c a me f ro m La G rau-

Y e t t hey s ee m t o h ave b een i n t he s ame c ra te .

The i mp l ica t ions

a re n ot o n ly t ha t I ta ly , t he o r ig ina l h o me o f Arre t ine , was i mpor t ing p rov inc ia l v ers ions o f i t ;

b u t a lso t ha t a who lesa ler was i nvo lved , who made u p c ra tes

o f c eramics f rom d i fferen t c en tres t o c l ients 4 r equ ire men ts ;

a nd t ha t t he

c h ief s ource o f s upp ly was n o t a ny o f t he p laces men t ioned b y P l iny a s p rod ucers o f f ine t ab lewares , b u t o ne h e omi t ted t o men t ion , Gau l . The p o t tery f ound a t O st ia t e l ls a s i mi lar s tory. A lthough f ac tor ies i n I ta ly s t i l l s upp l ied p la in wares , a lready b efore t he F lav ian p er iod I ta l ian d ecora ted r ed-g loss ware h ad v an ished f ro m t he t ables o f P o mpe i i a nd O st ia , a nd G au l was s upp lying t he I ta l ian marke t ( Me iggs , 1 973 , 2 71 , 5 87 ).

Anc ien t wr i ters a re s i len t a bou t

t he p ot tery i ndus try o f G au l . I ti s p er t inen t , i f amazing , t ha t a French wr i ter o n t he e cono m ic h is tory o f a nc ien t R o me , i n a work p ub l ished a s r ecen t ly a s 1 927 ( and r e-issued i n 1 965 ) , s ta ted i n h is c hap ter o n i ndustry i n t he Emp ire t ha t ' Gau l , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f af ew c en tres i n Armor ica a nd t he c oun try o f t he Aedu i , h ard ly w orked c lay a t a l l ' ( Pau l-Lou is , 1 927 , 2 88 ).

The Abbé

H er me t 's ma jor work o n La G rau fesenque was n ot p ub l ished u n t i l 1 934 , b u t h is a ccoun t o f t he g ra f f i t i h ad a ppeared i n 1 923 : a nd t he work o f Dragendor f f a nd DA 'che let te h ad b een a va i lab le f or a g enera t ion ; Ward was u sing i ti n 1 911 . N ever the less , s ince P l iny d id n ot men t ion a ny p ot ter ies i n G au l , n umbers o f l a ter wr i ters h ave b een u naware o f t he m .

I ts ee ms l ike ly e i ther t hat P l iny ( A. D .

2 3-79 ) was wr i t ing a bou t t he p o t tery s i tua t ion i n h is e ar ly c h i ldhood r a ther t han h is p r ime , o r t ha t h e was q uo t ing a n e ar lier s ource w i thou t u pda t ing i t . Trade i n p ot tery i t sel f , r a ther t han i n c o m mod i t ies t ranspor ted i n i t , i s r epresen ted i n ar e l ie f s cu lp ture f ro m Narbonne ( i l lustra ted i n R ouge , p l . V Ia ) wh ich s hows a p or ter c arrying a l oad o f l arge v ases o n t o as h ip .

H e h as

t he m s lung o n h is b ack i n an et : h ad t hey b een f u l l o f merchand ise t hey wou ld h ave b een t oo h eavy t o b e c arr ied i n t h is way. The e v idence o f wrecks i s a lso r evea l ing .

Br i ta in 's c ons ign men t o f p la in s amian f ro m L ezou .x , wh ich wen t

d own a t Pudd ing-Pan R ock o f f t he c oas t o f Ken t n ear Wh i ts tab le i n t he r e ign o f Marcus Aure l ius o r C o m modus , was r ecovered p iece mea l i n t he e igh teen th c en tury :

t he i nfor ma t ion wh ich c an b e d er ived f ro m i ti s c onsequen t ly r es-

t r ic ted .

Recen t ly , mar ine a rchaeo logy h as r ecovered t he c argoes o f R o man

s h ips more s c ien t i f ica l ly .

A wreck o f p robably Neron ian d a te , e xp lored i n

1 962 o f f t he i s land o f I b iza , h ad a mixed c argo wh ich s ugges ted t ha t i td id a r ound t r ip o f t he Med i terranean , s tar t ing f ro m O s t ia w i th s evera l t housand I ta l ian p ot tery l a mps a nd p robab ly o ther g oods , c a l l ing p oss ib ly a t A lexandr ia a nd C ar thage , a nd p ick ing u p 2 000 amphorae o f w ine i n S pa in b e fore i tf oundered ( Fa lcon-Barker , 1 964 ).

There a re i nd ica t ions a t O st ia o f t he p rov ision o f

warehouses f or g oods i n t ransi t :

t he H orrea E paga th iana n ear t he r iver

( Reg ion I , v i i i , 3 ) , w i th i t s s ec t ions s ea led o f f b y s epara te d oors , s uggests 5 27

t ha t t he h ire o f s ecure s pace was a va i lable t o midd lemen ( Me iggs , 1 973 , 2 77 ); a nd sma l ler warehouses p resumab ly f or who lesa lers a ppear i n o ther p ar ts o f t he t own ( i bid ., F ig . 2 4 ).

AS everan r e l ief f rom n ear t he v i l la T or Ion ia

( i l lus tra ted i b id ., p l . x x ) s hows t he u n load ing o f . aw ine c argo i n t he C laud ian h arbour a t O st ia , i den t if iab le b y t he C laud ian l ighthouse i n t he b ackground : ad ocker c arr ies o ne f u l l amphora a t at ime o n h is s hou lder o ver t he s h ip ' s l and ing-p lank . T he s a me method o f c arry ing amphorae t o o r f ro m a s h ip i s s hown o n a mosa ic i n O st ia ' sP iazza le d e l le C orporaz ion i a nd o n a marb le r e l ief f ro m P or to n ow i n t he Tor Ion ia Museu m ( i b id ., p ls . x xva , x xv ia ) : t wo men c arry ing a n amphora s lung f ro m a p o le a s a t P o mpe i i a nd Augst wou ld f i nd i td if f icu lt t o n egot ia te a * g ang-p lank .

H ow c ons ignmen ts o f

c rockery w ere s tacked i n s h ips i s n o t c lear . T he N arbonne r e l ief s hows n o p ro tect ive s traw r ound t he v ases b e ing l oaded , b u t t he s cenes o f amphorae b e ing u n loaded d o n ot s how i te i ther , t hough t he s tacked amphorae o n s h ipboard o n t he N eu magen monu men t a re f urn ished w i th i t .

P erhaps p o t tery v esse ls

were p laced i n p i les i n t he h o ld , a s t he G rand C ong loue wreck s uggests ( Rouge , 7 8) ; o r p erhaps t hey t rave l led i n c rates l i ke t hat wh ich r eached P o mpe i i . M ixed c argoes i nd ica te s h ipp ing a gen ts r a ther t han d irec t c on tact w i th s ources o f s upp ly. I ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t p ot tery f ormed p ar t o f mixed c argoes , t he d urabi l i ty o f i t s s herds mak ing i tt he s urv iv ing r epresen ta t ive o f a much b roader r ange o f c o m mod i t ies. O n t he o ther h and , i t s i mpor tance s eems t o b e g rea ter t han t he n eg lec t o f a nc ien t wr i ters t o men t ion i tw ou ld s uggest . Al oca l c on trac t f or t he s upp ly o f p ot tery l a mps f or p ubl ic f es t iva ls i s i nd ica ted b y t he word p ubl ica o n o ne o f Myro 's l a mps a t R ome ; l amps f ro m h is workshop a lso a ppear a t P o mpe i i ( Loane , 1 938 , 2 71 ). Arrange ments w i th midd lemen a re s ugges ted b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f d ist inc t ive wares t o mi l i tary s i tes i n a p rov ince .

I n Br i ta in , i n t he g enera t ion a f ter t he C laud ian c onquest , i ti s

p ossible t ha t b esides g a lvan is ing l oca l c raf ts men i n to i ncreased p roduc t ion , t he a rmy a ugmen ted t he s upp ly o f p o t tery b y e ncourag ing t he o pera t ions o f c o m merc ia l f i nanc iers ( negot ia tores ) who h ad i nves ted i n t he e xpans ion o f p ot tery p roduc t ion a t L yon ( Greene , 1 979 , 1 40-141 ) . I ft h is was s o , t he l oca l a gen ts o f t he n egot ia tores p resumab ly a rranged t he s h ipmen t t o Br i ta in o f L yon ware a s p ar t o f mixed c argoes o f c om mod i t ies s a leab le t o t he mi l itary . S uch c o m merc ia l a c t iv i t ies were l ess f orma l t han s upp ly b y d irec t c on trac t . R o man l aw h ad d eve loped b efore t he f irst c en tur y B .C . b oth t he c oncept o f c red i t s a le , where d e l ivery o f t he g oods a nd p ay men t f or t hem were i n t he f u ture , a nd t he a ssoc ia ted c oncep t o fb i la tera l c on trac t , wh ich b ound b oth s ides ( N icho las , 1 962 , 1 59-165 ).

C on trac ts f or a rmy s upp l ies a lready e x is ted b efore 2 15 B .C.

They were s o ld b y a uc t ion t o t he l owes t b idder , a nd t he c on trac tor was l i ab le f or b oth t he p urchase o f g oods a nd t he ir t ranspor t . I n 1 69 B .C. a n a rmy c on trac t i nc luded t he s upp ly o f 6 000 t ogas , 3 0 ,000 t un ics , a nd 2 00 Num id ian h orses t o b e t ransported t o Macedon ia ( Bad ian , 1 972 , 1 6-17 , 2 8 , 3 5 ). T he c on trac tors were c ap i ta l is ts , n ot merchan ts. T hey were wea l thy R o mans o f t he e questr ian c lass who f ormed c o mpan ies t o s hare t he r isks ( i bid ., 1 8 , 3 7 , 4 2 ). I t was t he s ub-con trac tors , t he n ego t ia tores , who e n tered t he marke t f or t he g oods . N o-one men t ions p ot tery among t he a rmy s upp l ies , b u t p erhaps t h is was b ecause , l i ke s a l t , i t s p r ice was s o l ow t ha t i td id n o t mer it l i terary n o t ice ( i bid ., 3 3 ). Bu t i nscr ip t ions s how t ha t t here were t raders ( nego t ia tores s a lar i i ) who s pec ia l ised i n s a l t , modest ly-pr iced a s i t was , a s we l l a s t raders

5 28

i n c era mics , n ego t ia tores c retar i i , a nd i n o ther p resu mably more p rof i table g oods ( references i n Hassa l l , 1 978 ).

A merchan t f ro m Raet ia c o mbined

d ea l ings i n c eramics w i th c loaks , p erhaps a s ar e turn c argo ( i b id ., 4 5 ). The p r ice o f l and-transpor t i s l i ke ly t o h ave d r iven merchan ts t o u se s ear ou tes ( Duncan-Jones , 1 974 , a ppend ix 1 7 ) , e spec ia l ly f or a n i nexpens ive c o m mod i ty l i ke p ot tery , where p rof i ts c anno t h ave b een h igh . A s hare o f s h ipp ing-space , b o th f or p o t tery-supp ly b y c on trac t a nd f or p r iva te c o m merc ia l e n terpr ise , makes e cono mic s ense .

S har ing t rans i t-costs migh t b e t hough t

a l most a s s trong a c ons idera t ion a s t he c heapness o f s ea-transpor t , b u t i ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he c essa t ion o f p ot tery t rad ing b e tween t he Rh ine a nd t he N .E . o f R o man Br i ta in i n t he l a te Ro man p er iod , when t here were s t i l l t radel inks i n j e t a nd g lass , was t he r esu l t o f t he a bandon men t o f t he d irec t s ea-rou te ( Fu l ford , 1 977a , 5 8 ).

The b u lk a nd we igh t o f p ot tery wou ld made wa ter-

t ranspor t t he most p rac t icable . I ti s a pparen t t ha t p o t tery h as b eco me f ar more t han a means o f d a t ing , o f t rac ing t he s pread o f p o l i t ica l lyi mposed c u l tures , a nd t he g row th o f i nd us try.

I ndeed , i t s c on tr ibu t ion i n t hese r espec ts i s s ub jec t t o an u mber o f

c avea ts .

Proble ms o f r esidua l ma ter ia l c onfuse i t s c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions

( Webster , 1 977 , 3 19-22 ).

A s a measure o f c u l tura l i den t i f ica t ion i th as b e-

c o me i ncreasing ly s uspec t , f or e cono mic c ons idera t ions r a ther t han p o l i t ica l b oundar ies c ou ld d e termine i t s d is tr ibu t ion ( Webs ter , 1 973 , 1 , 3 ; 1 977a , 3 -4 ;

1 977b , 2 9 ).

e s tabl ished f or m i l i tary a nd t e mporary r easons ( Webs ter , 1 973 ; 1 977 , 1 24-5 , 1 29 ;

C o l l is ,

And p ot tery-produc t ion d epots migh t b e a r t i f ic ia l ly

Fu l ford , 1 977b ).

G reene ,

Wh i le h ea l th i ly c onsc ious o f t hese

h azards i n t he ir d isc ip l ine , i n r ecen t p ot tery s tud ies a rchaeo log ists h ave w idened t he ir a pproach t o i t s p oss ibi l i t ies .

Po t tery c an i nd ica te t rade-rou tes

u sed f or o ther , more p er ishable c o m mod i t ies ;

i tc an t hrow l i gh t o n t he f luc-

t ua t ions o f i ndus tr ia l a nd c o m merc ia l p o l icy , o n marke t o rgan isa t ion , o n l oca l p rosper i ty.

I t s s hape c ou ld e ven r evea l s oc ia l h ab i ts :

f or i nstance , t a l l

d r ink ing v esse ls migh t b e as ign o f t hose who s a t u p t o e a t ,

1 4

wh i le r ec l iners

u sed s ha l low b ow ls a nd c ups , a s P e tr ikov i ts s ugges ted ( quo ted b y Brown , 1 976 , 8 9 ) ;

a nd f la t-bo t to med p o ts wou ld b e f or h ard s ur faces wh i le v esse ls

w i th r ound b ot to ms w ere f or s of t e ar th f l oors .

I n t ha t p ot tery h as b eco me

p ar t o f t he h u man s tory , i l lum ina t ing t he a c t ions a nd i n terac t ions a nd t he t hough t-ou t p lans o f man , i th as i t se l f b eco me h istor ica l e v idence , n ot mere ly a means f or d at ing i t .

I tc an n ow b e c la imed t ha t p o t tery s tud ies h ave b eco me

more t han a s erv iceindus try. Wi th r egard t o R o man Br i ta in , G raham Webs ter h as p layed a ma jor p ar t i n t h is d eve lopmen t o f p o t tery s tud ies.

I ti s r evea l ing t o n ote h ow many

c on tr ibu tors t o t he r emarkab le s er ies o f r ecen t p ub l ica t ions o n t h is s ub jec t h ave a cknow ledged t he ir d ebt t o h im a nd c i te h is work .

He h as a lways b rough t

t o a rchaeo log ica l p rob le ms t he p rac t ica l c om mon s ense o f t he man o f a c t ion . Ac o mbina t ion o f t h is g rasp o f wha t was f eas ib le a nd a v isua l h istor ica l i mag ina t ion h as made h im b oth t he c ha l leng ing e nfan t t err ible o f a rchaeo log ica l i n terpre ta t ion a nd a s ource o f i nsp ira t ion t o ag enera t ion a nd more o f a rch: a eo log is ts .

I t was my g ood f or tune t o a t tend t he f irst s er ies o f W.E. A .

l ec tures o n R o man Br i ta in wh ich h e g ave , i n L inco ln . sma l l t o h o ld a l l who c ame t o h ear h im .

The r oo m was t oo

G round-p lans o f s i tes c ame t o l i fe

when t he e xper t ise o f t he p ro fess iona l c iv i l e ng ineer was a pp l ied t o t he m :

5 29

t he f ounda t ions o f wa l ls were t here , b u t wha t s or t o f r oo f c ou ld b e p u t o n t he m? h e wou ld a sk . The e xc i te men t s p i l led o ver i n to t he s choo l p layground where h e was e xcava t ing t he f or tress 's wes tern d efences , a nd c rea t ing f ro m p ost-ho les a t hree-d i mens iona l v ision , o f r a mpar t , d i tch a nd i n terva l t ower , wh ich i s f ami l iar t o a l l s tuden ts o f R o man Br i ta in t hrough t he s uccess ive e d i t ions o f h is G rosvenor Museum b ook le t , The R o man Army ( Fig . 2 ). Equa l ly f am i l iar i s h is C .B. A . p a mph let , R o mano-Br i t ish c oarse p ot tery : as tuden t 's g u ide , wh ich f irs t a ppeared i n 1 964.

He s howed a t rue s ense o f

h istor ica l v a lues i n p o in t ing o u t t he d angers o f g enera l isa toon : t er is t ics o f o ne f ac tory were n ot n ecessar i ly v a l id e lsewhere .

d a ted c haracI n l a ter e d i t ions

t here h as b een n o n eed t o a l ter t he w ise words o f h is I n troduc t ion :

' On ly c lose

a cqua in tance w i th a c tua l f abr ics b u i l t u p o n e xper ience c an h e lp i n t he e luc ida t ion o f t h is s or t o f p rob le m '.

Fami l iar i ty b ased o n e xper ience o f l oca l p o t tery-

t ypes h as made p oss ib le t he s tr ik ing a dvances wh ich h ave p u t Br i t ish i deas i n t he f orefron t o f r ecen t p o t tery s tud ies. Acknow ledge men ts o f d ebts t o G raham a re n ot o n ly t o h is w ork ; a lso t o t he man .

t hey a re

H is e ncourage men t , h is p ersona l war mth , h ave mean t a s

much t o h is s tudents , c o l leagues , a nd f r iends a s h is e xper t k now ledge . i s a s g ood a t d iscern ing t he p oten t ia l i t ies o f p eop le a s o f s i tes . i n h u man t er ms :

i nc lud ing p ot tery.

H e

H e s ees t h ings

F or i ns tance , i mpor ted mor tar ia i n p re-

Roman Br i ta in r evea l t o h im n ot o n ly t rad ing c on tac ts w i th t he R o man Emp ire b u t ac hange o f c ook ing h abi ts i n Br i t ish k i tchens ( Webs ter , 1 978 , 4 2 ).

H is

l i ve ly mind f inds f easib le s o lu t ions t o av ar ie ty o f a rchaeo log ica l p rob le ms : q uan t i t ies o f u nexp la ined sma l l c hange i n t he f arm-yard a t Barns ley P ark migh t h ave b een d ropped b y g a mbling d rovers t ak ing c a t t le t o C or in iu m marke t ( Webster , 1 980 , 1 4 ).

Wh i le e ngaged i n t he r escue e xcava t ion a t Wa ter N ew ton ,

where t he n ew a l ignmen t o f t he Al c u t a cross Ar t is 's k i ln a rea , h e was t he f irst t o work o u t t he p rac t ica l a pp l ica t ion f or a rchaeo log ica l p urposes o f t he magneto meter .

H ear ing i n al ec ture a t t he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies t ha t i tc ou ld

d e tec t magne t ic a no ma l ies f ro m f ired c lay , h e a sked t he C anad ian g eophysic is t Be lsh6 a d irec t q ues t ion : b ur ied k i lns?

c ou ld t he magne to me ter b e u sed t o l oca te a nc ien t

B e lsh6 t hough t i t migh t :

a nd a magne to me ter was p ro mp t ly

p rocured ( f lown o ver t ro m G ermany ) a nd u sed i n March 1 958 o n t he Wa ter New ton s i te ( A i tken , Webs ter a nd Rees , 1 958 ). G raha m 's i nvo lve men t w i th Ro man Br i ta in b egan when a s as choolboy i n S tamford h e r ead a l oca l p oet 's v erses i nsp ired b y s tand ing o n aR o man p ave men t .

When t he p oe t r e fused t o r evea l i t s whereabou ts, h e u sed h is

b icyc le a nd c lues i n t he p oe m t o t rack i td own i n as p inney a t T ixover .

Then ,

w i th S . E . Winbo lt ( excava tor o f t he C lassis Br i tann ica v i l la a t F o lkes tone ) who g enerous ly c ame f ro m S ussex i n r esponse t o t he s choo lboy ' sa ppea l , h e c onduc ted h is f irst a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion .

B oth t he p ave men t a nd t he

g oodw i l l h e met w i th t hen f ro m Winbo l t , a nd s ubsequen t ly f ro m Ph i l ip C order a nd I an R ich mond , p a id d iv idends :

f or a rchaeo logy a nd g eneros i ty o f s p ir i t

h ave e qua l s hares i n G raham 's make-up .

We may s ay o f h im n o t o n ly , a s

Tac i tus d id o f Agr ico la ( Ch . 2 2 ) , n on a l iu m d ucem o ppor tun i ta tes l ocoru m s ap ien t ius l eg isse ( no o ther d irec tor h ad a b e t ter e ye f or t he p oss ibi l i t ies o f s i tes ) , b u t a lso e sse q ua m v ider i b onus ma leba t , i ta q uo minus g lor iam p e teba t e o mag is s equeba tur ( Sa l lus t , Ca t i l ine , 5 4 ).

5 30

1 5

NOTES 1 . S ir C har les P eers , d e l iver ing t he C reigh ton L ec ture o f t he U n ivers i ty o f L ondon , p ub l ished i n H is tory XX I ( 1937 ) , 3 02. 2 . The G e l lygaer b ow l a ppears a s F ig . 4 3 n o . 1 , d escr ibed o n p . 1 64 , i n b racke ts , a s Dragendor f f 's F orm 3 0 . . 3 .

M . W. Tho mpson i n An t iq . J . L IX ( 1979 ) , 1 77.

4 . B oon , 1 969 , 2 6-7;

Danne l l , 1 977a , 2 29 ;

Br i tann ia I X ( 1978 ) , 4 35 ;

1 977b , 4 0 ;

Wi l l iams , 1 978 , 6 -9 ;

1 978 , 2 25-7 ;

Peacock , 1 977a , 1 49-

5 4 , 1 58. 5 . B oon , 1 967 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 6-7; Swan , 1 975 , 4 0 , 5 8 , 5 9 ;

1 969 , 2 9-30 ;

Br i tann ia V ( 1974 ) , 4 64 ;

R igby , 1 977 , 4 1 ;

1 978 , 2 00-201 ;

Danne l l ,

1 978 , 2 25 , 2 27;

Br i tann ia I X ( 1978 ) , 4 35 ;

Br i tann ia X ( 1979 ) , 3 49 .

6 .

Boon , 1 969 , 2 9 ;

Danne l l , 1 978 , 2 25-6;

7 .

The c oup lets i nt he t h ir teen th a nd f our teen th b ooks o f Mar t ia l 's E p igra ms were p ubl ished f irst , i n C . A .D . 8 4.

Wi l l iams , 1 978 , 7 , 8 .

8 . Ih ave p ro f i ted f ro m d iscuss ing t h is mat ter w ith my c o l leagues i n t he Un iversi ty o f L e icester , Mr . J . D . C loud a nd Mr . R . H . E vans . 9 . N ever the less , C . R oach Sm i th ( J . Br i t . Arch . A ssoc ., 4 ( 1849 ) , 1 3 ) a t tr ibu ted t o P lau tus , a nd b y imp l ica t ion a lso t o P l iny , men t ion o f v esse ls o f r ed c lay made i n S amos . 1 0 .

O n I s idore 's s ource , t he p oe t Cae l ius S edu l ius ( l a te f i f th c en tury A .D .) , s ee C hase , 1 916 , 2n . 2 .

S edu l ius 's r eference t o r ed p ot tery ( rubra

t esta ) d oes n o t n ecessar i ly mean Arre t ine . 1 1 . I n t he n ex t s en tence P l iny a lso men t ions Tra l les i n A s ia Minor a nd Modena i n I ta ly a s p ot tery-produc ing c en tres , b u t s epara te ly f ro m t he o thers , s ee m ing t o i mp ly t ha t t heir p roduc ts were d is t inc t ive .

H owever ,

Tra l les ,as we l l a s P ergamon , i s n ow t hough t t o b e ac en tre f or Arre t inet ype p o t tery i n t he f irst c en tury A .D . ( Hayes , 1 972 , 1 0 , 3 16 ).

The o ther

p laces men t ioned b y P l iny a re n ot k nown t o h ave a ny s uch a ssoc ia t ions . 1 2. S amue l P i t iscus , n ephew o f t he c e lebra ted ma the ma t ic ian B ar tho lo mew P i t iscus , was b orn a t Z u tphen i n 1 637.

H e was a p up i l o f G ronov ius a t

Deven ter , a nd s ubsequen t ly won d ist inc t ion a s ac lass ica l s cho lar a nd t eacher .

H e was r ec tor o f t he C o l lege o f S t . J ero me a t U trech t f ro m

1 685 u nt i l h is d ea th i n 1 717.

H is L ex icon a n t iqu i ta tum R o manaru m

was p ubl ished i n 1 713. 1 3.

P owna l l r enders L ae l ius a s Lae t ius .

1 4.

C ou ld t he p reference f or c apac ious b eakers r a ther t han sma l l c ups i n t he N .W . p rov inces i n t he F lav ian p er iod ( Anderson , 1 980 , 4 ) i nd ica te ac hange o f d r ink ing h abi ts , n ot mere ly o f c eramic f ash ion?

1 5.

My a t ten t ion was d rawn t o t hese a p t q uo ta t ions b y Professor J . H . W. G . L iebeschue tz.

5 31

B IBL IOGRAPHY A i tken , M. J ., Webster , G . a nd R ees , A ., 1 958.

' Magne t ic Prospec t ing ' ,

An t iq i i i ty 3 2 ( 1958 ) , 2 70-271 . Anderson , A . C ., 1 980 .

A G u ide t o R o man F ine Wares , V orda Research

S er ies I , H ighwor th , 1 980 . Ar thur , P . a nd Marsh , G . e ds ., 1 978 . Ear ly F ine Wares i n R o man Br i ta in , B .A .R . Br i t . S er ., 5 7 , O x ford , 1 978 . A tk inson , D ., 1 914.

' A h oard o f s am ian ware f ro m P o mpe i i ' , J . R o man S tud .,

4( 1914 ) , 2 7-64. Bad ian , E ., 1 972.

Pub l icans a nd S inners , O xford , 1 972.

Baehrens , E ., 1 881 .

Poetae L a t in i Minores , L eipz ig , 1 881 .

B loch , H ., 1 949 .

Ro man Br ick S ta mps n ot p ub l ished i n C .I .L . XV .i . , 967. r epr in ted Ro me , 1

M icaceous S ig i l la ta f ro m L ezoux a t S i lches ter , C aer leon Boon , G . C ., 1 967. ' a nd o ther s i tes ' , An t iq . J ., 4 7 ( 1967 ) , 2 7-42. ' Be lg ic a nd R o man S i lches ter ' , Archaeo log ia , 1 02

B oon , G . C ., 1 969 . ( 1969 ) , 1 -81 .

Brewster , E . i n1 t 9 e 1 d 7 .NewRoY y m o o a r n k,1 922. E .r epr in ted Brown , D ., 1 976.

a nd T rades men o f t he Ear ly

' Po t tery ' , i n S trong a nd Brown , 1 976 , 7 4-91 .

Ca l lender , M. H ., 1 965. Chase , G . H ., 1 916.

Ro man Amphorae , Ox ford , 1 965.

Ca ta logue o f Arre t ine P ot tery , Bos ton Museum ,

r epr in ted 1 975 . C o l l ingwood , R . G ., 1 930.

The Archaeology o f R o man Br i ta in , L ondon , 1 930

C o l l ingwood , R . G . w i th Myres , J . N . L ., 1 936.

R o man Br i ta in a nd t he

Eng l ish S et t le men ts , Ox ford , 1 936. C o l l ingwood , R . G ., 1 937.

' Ro man Br i ta in ' , i n T enney Frank , An E cono m ic

S urvey o f Anc ien t Ro me , I I , Ba l t i more , 1 937. C o l l ingwood , R . G ., 1 939. C o l l is , J . e d ., 1 977.

An Au tobiography , O xford , 1 939 .

The I ron Age i n Br i ta in :

ar ev iew , Un iv . o f S he f f ie ld ,

1 977. C o l l is , J ., 1 977a . C o l l is , J ., 1 977b . 2 9-31 . Cun l i f fe , B ., 1 971 .

• 'An a pproach t o t he I ron Age ' , i n C o l l is , 1 977 , 1 -7. ' The p roper s tudy o f mank ind i s p ots ' , i n C o l l is , 1 977 ,

E xcava t ions a t F ishbourne 1 961-1969 , I , The F inds ,

Rep . R es. C o mm . S oc . An t iq . L ond ., 2 6 , L eeds , 1 971 . C un li f fe , B . a nd R ow ley , T . e ds ., 1 976.

O pp ida i n Barbar ian E urope ,

B .A .R . S upp . S er ., I , Ox ford , 1 976. Danne l l , G . B ., 1 971.

' The s amian p ot tery ' , i n Cun l if fe , 1 971 , 2 60-316. 5 32

Dannel l , G . B ., 1 977a .

' The s amian f ro m Bagendon ' , i n Dore a nd G reene ,

1 977, 2 29-234. ' Terra S ig i l la ta ' a t Braughing , Her ts . Archaeology ,

Danne l l , G . B ., 1 977b. 5( 1977 ), 4 0-41 . Dannel l , G . B ., 1 978.

' The s a mian p ot tery ' , i n Down , 1 978 , 2 25-233.

betsicas , A . e d ., 1 973.

Curren t Research i n Ro mano-Br i t ish C oarse P ot tery ,

C ounc i l Br i t . Archaeol . Res. Rep ., 1 0 , London , 1 973. Dore , J . a nd G reene , K . T . e ds., 1 977.

Ro man Po t tery S tud ies i n Br i ta in

a nd Beyond , B . A. R . S upp. S er ., 3 0 , Ox ford , 1 977. Down , A . e d ., 1 978 .

Ch iches ter Excava t ions 3 , Ch ichester , 1 978.

Dresse l , H . e d ., 1 891 .

Corpus I nscr ip t ionu m La t inaru m , XV .i :

I nstrumen tu m

Do mesticu m , B er l in , 1 891 . Duncan-Jones , R ichard , 1 974.

The Econo my o f t he R o man Emp ire , Cambr idge ,

1 974. Fu lford , M., 1 977a .

' Pot tery a nd Br i ta in 's Foreign Trade i n t he La ter Ro man

Per iod ' , i n P eacock , 1 977 , 3 5-84. Fu lford , M ., 1 977b.

' The l oca t ion o f Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery k i lns :

I nst i tu t iona l t rade a nd t he market ' , i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977, 3 01-316. G rant , M., 1 971 . 1 971

C i t ies o f Vesuv ius :

Po mpe i i a nd Hercu laneu m , L ondon ,

•

Greene , K ., 1 973.

' The p ot tery f ro m Usk ' , i n De tsicas , 1 973 , 2 5-37.

Greene , K ., 1 977.

' Leg ionary p ot tery a nd t he s ign if icance o f H o l t ' , i n

Dore a nd Greene , 1 977 , 1 13-132. Greene , K ., 1 979.

U sk :

Harden , D . B ., 1 947.

The Pre-Flav ian F ine Wares , Card if f , 1 979.

' The G lass ' , i n Hawkes a nd Hu l l , 1 947 , 2 87-307.

Harden , D . B . a nd Pr ice , J ., 1 971 .

' The G lass ' , i n Cun l iffe , 1 971 , 3 17-

3 68. Hassa l l , M., 1 978.

' Br i tain a nd t he Rh ine p rov inces :

e p igraph ic e v idence

f or Ro man t rade ' , i n Taylor a nd C leere , 1 978 , 4 1-51 . Haverf ie ld , F ., 1 899.

' Notes o n S amian Ware ' , Trans . Cu mb. a nd West m .

Arch . S oc ., 1 5 ( 1899 ) , 1 91-6. Haverf ie ld , F ., 1 915.

The Ro man iza t ion o f Ro man Br i ta in , 3 rd e d tn .,

Oxford , 1 915 . Hawkes , C ., 1 931.

' Ro man Br itain i n 1 930 :

C olchester ' , J . Ro man S tud .,

I ( 1931 ) , 2 34-235. Hawkes , C . a nd Hu l l , M. R ., 1 947. An t iq . L ond .,

Camu lodunu m , Rep. Res . C omm . S oc .

1 4 , Ox ford , 1 947.

Hayes , J . W., 1 972.

La te Ro man Po t tery , L ondon , 1 972.

5 33

Hayes , J . W., 1 976.

Ro man P o t tery i n t he Roya l O n tar io Museum ,

Toron to , 1 976. H i l l , D . a nd J esson , M . e ds ., 1 971 .

The I ron Age a nd i t s H i l lfor ts ,

S ou thamp ton , 1 971 . J acob , E ., 1 782.

' Observa t ions o n t he R o man Ear then Ware t aken f ro m t he

. Pan-Pudd ing R ock ' , Archaeo log ia , 6( 1782 ) , 1 21-124. K ea te , G ., 1 782.

' Observa t ions o n t he R o man Ear then Ware f ound i n t he

S ea o n t he K en t ish C oas t ' , Archaeo log ia , 6( 1 782 ) , 1 25-129 . K e mpe , A . J ., 1 832 .

' Ro man An t iqu i t ies f ound n ear L ondon B r idge ',

Archaeo log ia , 2 4 ( 1832 ) , 1 90-202. K ing , A ., 1 980 .

' A G ra f f i to f ro m L a G rau fesenque ' , Br i tann ia , I ( 1980 ) ,

1 39-143. L oane , H . J ., 1 938 .

I ndus try a nd C o m merce o f t he C i ty o f R o me 5 0 B .C.

-2 00 A .D ., Ba l t i more , 1 938 . L ysons , S ., 1 797.

An Accoun t o f R o man An t iqu i t ies d iscovered a t Wood-

c hester i n t he C oun ty o f G loucester , L ondon , 1 797. L ysons , S ., 1 812 .

' So me a ccoun t o f R o man An t iqu i t ies d iscovered a t

Caerhun ' , A rchaeo log ia , 1 6 ( 1812 ) , 1 27-134. L ysons , S ., 1 813 .

Re l iqu iae R o mano-Br i tann icae , I , L ondon , 1 813 .

L ysons , S ., 1 817. ' Ro man An t iqu i t ies f ound i n G loucestersh ire ' , Archaeolog ia , 1 8 ( 1817 ) , 1 12-125. Marsh , G ., 1 979 .

' N ine teen th a nd Twen t ie th C en tury An t iqu i t ies D ea lers

a nd Arre t ine Ware f ro m L ondon ' , Trans . L ondon

Midd lesex Archaeo l .

S oc ., 3 0 ( 1979 ) , 1 25-129 . Meiggs , R ., 1 973. ' N icho las ,

R o man O s t ia , 2 nd e d tn ., Ox ford , 1 973.

B ., 1 962.

An I n troduc t ion t o R o man L aw , Ox ford , 1 962.

Ox, A . a nd C o mfor t , H ., 1 968 .

C orpus Vasorum Arre t inoru m ,

B onn ,

1 968. Par tr idge , C ., 1 977.

' Excava t ions a nd F ie ldwork a t Braugh ing , 1 968-73 ' ,

H er ts . Archaeo logy , 5( 1977 ) , 2 2-108 . P au l-Lou is , 1 927.

Anc ien t Ro me a t work :

a n e cono m ic h is tory o f Ro me

f ro m t he O r ig ins t o t he Emp ire , r e issued L ondon , 1 965 . P eacock , D . P . S ., 1 971 .

' Ro man Amphorae i n p re-Ro man Br i ta in ' , i n

H i l l a nd J esson , 1 971 , 1 61-188 . P eacock , D . P . S . ( ed .) , 1 977 . P eacock , D . P . S ., 1 977a .

P o t tery a nd E ar ly C o m merce , L ondon , 1 977 .

' Po mpe ian Red Ware ' , i n P eacock , 1 977 ,

1 47-162. P owna l l , T ., 1 779.

' Me moire o n t he Ro man E ar then Ware f ished u p w i th in

t he Mou th o f t he R iver Tha mes ' , Archaeo log ia , 5( 1 779 ) , 2 82-290 .

5 34

P owna l l , T ., 1 782.

' Ro man E arthen-ware ', Archaeo log ia , 6( 1782 ) , 3 92-395.

P owna l l , T ., 1 787.

' Accoun t o f s o me Ro man Pot tery , f ound a t S andy i n

,

Bed fordsh ire , a nd a t L incoln ' , Archaeo log ia , 8( 1787) , 3 77-381. Pryce , T . D . a nd O swa ld , F ., 1 928.

' Ro man L ondon :

i t s i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion

a s e v idenced b y e ar ly t ypes o f Terra S ig i l la ta ' , Archaeo log ia , 7 8 ( 1928 ) , .

7 3-110 .

R igby ,

V .,

1 977.

' Ga l lo-Be lg ic Wares ' a t Braugh ing , Her ts . Archaeology ,

5( 1977 ) , 4 1-44. R igby , V ., 1 978.

' The Ear ly R o man F ine Wares ' a t Ch ichester , i n D own ,

1 978 , 1 90-204. Rodwe l l , W., 1 976.

' Coinage , O pp ida , a nd t he r ise o f Be lg ic p ower i n

S ou th-Eas tern Br i ta in ' , i n Cun l if fe a nd Row ley , 1 976, 1 81-366. Rouge , J ., 1 966.

R echerches s ur L 'Organisa t ion d u C o m merce Mar i t i me

e n Med i terranee s ous L 'E mpire Ro ma in , Par is , 1 966. S trong , D . a nd Brown , D . e ds., 1 976. Taylor , J . d u P . a nd C leere , H . e ds.,

Ro man Cra f ts , L ondon , 1 976. 1 978 .

Ro man s h ipp ing a nd t rade :

Br i ta in a nd t he Rh ine p rov inces , C ounc i l Br i t . Archaeol . Res . R ep., 2 4 , L ondon , 1 978 . Swan , V . C ., 1 975. T odd , M., 1 967.

' Oare Recons idered ' , Br i tann ia , 6( 1975 ).

' An Arre tine b ow l f ro m Marg idunum ' , An t iq ..J ., 4 7

( 1967) , 2 84-285 . Waage , F . 0 ., 1 937. Wa lford , T ., 1 803.

' Vasa S a rn ia ' , An t iqu ity , I ( 1937) , 4 6-55. ' Ro man An t iqu i t ies f ound a t Topsf ie ld i n E ssex ' ,

Archaeolog ia , 1 4 ( 1803 ) , 2 4-26. Ward , J ., 1 903.

The Ro man For t o f G e l lygaer, London , 1 903.

Ward , J ., 1 911 .

The R o man Era i n Br i ta in , L ondon , 1 911 .

Ward-Perk ins , J . a nd C lar idge , A ., 1 976.

P o mpe i i A . D. 7 9 ,R oya l

Acade my o f Ar ts , London , 1 976. Webster , G ., 1 973.

' No tes o n t he Po t tery o f t he f irst c en tury A . D. i n u se

b y t he R o man Army ' , i n De tsicas , 1 973 , 1 -5. Webs ter , G . e d .,

1 976.

Ro mano-Br it ish C oarse P ot tery :

as tuden t 's g u ide ,

C ounc i l Br it . Archaeol . Res . Rep., 6 , 3 rd e d tn ., L ondon , 1 976. Webster , G ., 1 977.

' Ref lec t ions o n Ro mano-Br i t ish p ot tery s tud ies , p ast ,

p resen t a nd f uture ' , i n Dore a nd G reene , 1 977, 3 17-333. Webster , G ., 1 978.

B oudica , L ondon , 1 978 .

Webs ter , G ., 1 980 .

' Barns ley Park ' , Current Archaeology 7 2 ( 1980 ) , 1 1-14.

Wel ls , C . M., 1 972.

The G erman Po l icy o f Augustus , Ox ford , 1 972.

Wi l l ia ms , D . F . a nd D annel l , G . B ., 1 978. a nd e ar ly s a mian :

' Pe tro log ica l a na lys is o f Arre t ine

ap re li minary r epor t ' , i n Ar thur a nd Marsh , 1 978 ,

5 -13. 5 35