Roman Life and Art in Britain, Parts i and ii: A celebration in honour of the eightieth birthday of Jocelyn Toynbee 9781407387475, 9781407387482, 9780904531916, 9781407320731

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
FOREWORD
CONTRIBUTORS
JOCELYN TOYNBEE - AN APPRECIATION
1. GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND ROMAN NUMISMATICS
2. FIGURED AMBER IN THE ASH MOLEAN MUSEUM, OXFORD
3. THE CLASSICAL TRADITION IN THE POPULAR SCULPTURE OF ROMAN BRITAIN
4. SCHOOLS OF STONEMASONS IN ROMAN BRITAIN
5. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ROMANO-BRITISH WALL PAINTING
6. MYTHOLOGICAL FIGURES AND SCENES IN ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS
7. THE CENTRAL SOUTHERN GROUP OF ROMANO-BRITISH MOSAICS
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
8. TRADITION AND INNOVATION IN THE COINAGE OF CARAUSIUS AND ALLECTUS
9. MIRRORS IN ROMAN BRITAIN
10. ASPECTS OF ART IN ROMANO-BRITISH POTTERY
11. ART IN THE 'SMALL TOWNS': 'CELTIC' OR 'CLASSICAL'?
12. THERIOMORPHISM, AND THE ROLE OF DIVINE ANIMALS IN ROMANO-BRITISH CULT ART
13. WINGLESS VICTORIES
14. ROMAN GEMSTONES: FIGURETYPE AND ADAPTATION
15. DEATH AND THE MAIDEN: FUNERARY SYMBOLISM IN DAILY LIFE
16. EGGS AND POMEGRANATES: AN EXAMPLE OF SYMBOLISM IN ROMAN BRITAIN
17. ART AND RELIGION IN ROMAN LONDON: AN INQUEST ON THE SCULPTURES OF LONDINIUM
18. MOSAICS AND CARPETS
19. ART, ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTIQUARIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

Roman. Life and Art in Britain A celebration in honour of the eightieth birthday of Jocelyn Toynbee edited by

Julian Munby and Martin Henig Part i

British Archaeological Reports 4 I (i) 1 977

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 78P, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.C.C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M.Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A. ADVISORY EDITORS

NeilCossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. C. B. Burgess, B.A., F.S.A. Professor B. W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D.� F.S.A. SoniaChadwickHawkes, B.A., M.A., F.S.A. Professor G. D. B. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. P. A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P. A. Rahtz, M.A., F.S.A. B.A .R. 41 (I), 1977: ''Roman Life and Art in Britain. A celebration in honour of the eightieth birthday of Jocelyn Toynbee" Volume I © the individual authors, 1977. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387475 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387482 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780904531916 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407320731 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531916 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS PART i Foreword Contributors Martin Robertson

Jocelyn Toynbee - An Appreciation

1

1.

J. M. C. Toynbee

Greek Mythology and Roman Numismatics

3

2.

David Brown and Martin Henig

Figured Amber in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford

21

E. J. Phillips

The Classical Tradition in the Popular Sculpture of Roman Britain

35

3. 4.

T. F. C. Blagg

Schools of Stonemasons in Roman Britain

51

5.

Joan Liversidge

Recent Developments in Romano-British Wall Painting

75

6. 7.

D. J. Smith

Mythological Figures and Scenes in Romano-British Mosaics

105

David E. Johnston

The Central Southern Group of RomanoBritish Mosaics

195

PART ii 8.

John Casey

9.

Tradition and Innovation in the Coinage of Carausius and Allectus

217

G·. Lloyd-Morgan

Mirrors in Roman Britain

231

10.

Dom Perring

Aspects of Art in Romano-British Pottery

253

11.

Martin Millet

Art in the 'Small Towns': 'Celtic' or 'Classical'

283

Theomorphism..

297

Wingless Victories

327

Roman Gemstones: Figuretype and Adaptation

341

Martin Henig

Death and the Maiden: Funerary Symbolism in Daily Life

347

Paul Arthur

Eggs and Pomegranates: An Example of Symbolism in Roman Britain

367

12. Miranda Green 13. M. 14. 15. 16.

w.

C. Hassan

Martin Henig

1 7.

Ra lph Merr if ield

Ar t a nd Re l ig ion i n Roman L ondon — An I nquest o n t he S cu lp tures o f L ondin iu m

3 75

1 8.

R ichard Reece

Mosa ics a nd Carpets

4 07

1 9.

J u l ian Munby

Ar t , Archaeo logy a nd An t iquar ies

4 15

B ib l iography

4 37

FORE WORD

The ma jor i ty o f t he p apers p resen ted h ere were g iven a t ac on ference h eld b etween 1 9 th a nd 2 1s t N ove mber 1 976 u nder t he a usp ices o f t he Ox ford U n ivers i ty d epart men t f or E x terna l S tud ies .

C ircu ms tances p reven ted t wo o f t he

s peakers f ro m s ub m i t t ing wr i t ten v ers ions o f t he ir p apers a nd we a re mos t g ra te fu l t o D av id Brown a nd P au l Ar thur f or f i l l ing t he g aps . As i t wou ld s carce ly h ave b een p oss ib le t o r e f lec t t he f u l l b read th o f J oce lyn T oynbee 's i n teres ts i n ac oup le o f d ays , i t was d ec ided t o c oncen tra te o n R o man a rt i n Br i ta in :

Ar t i n B r i ta in u nder t he R o mans ( w i th i t s c o mpan ion C a ta logue

Ar t i n R o man B r i tain ) c an b e r egarded a s t he f ines t i nd iv idua l s tudy o f a ny a sp ec t o f R o man Br i ta in s ince H ors ley 's B r i tann ia R o mana.

Th is s hou ld n o t b e

t aken t o imp ly a ny l ack o f i n teres t i n t he a nc ient wor ld b eyond t hese s hores b y P ro fessor T oynbee ( as t he b ib l iography o f h er works i n P . B.S .R . 4 0 , 1 972 , 1 -10 d e mons tra tes ) o r , i ndeed , b y t he e d i tors a nd o ther p ar t ic ipan ts , a nd i t i s g ood t o s ee h ow many o f t he c on tr ibu tors h ave a pproached t he ir c hosen t opics w i th t he e yes o f C lass ica l Archaeo log is ts , n o t f orge t t ing t ha t B r i tann ia was b u t o ne p rov ince i n av as t Empire .

C on tr ibu tors h ave a l l s ub m i t ted t he ir

p apers s ince t he c on ference a nd t hese a re t here fore n o t n ecessar i ly a s d el i vered .

T he e d i tors h ave a t te mp ted a c er ta in u n i for m i ty i np resen ta t ion b y

s tandard is ing r eference s ys te ms a nd p r in t ing o ne c onso l ida ted b ib l iography a t t he e nd .

We h ope t ha t t h is e xper i men t p roves l ess i rr i ta t ing t o o ur r eaders

t han t o o ur a u thors .

On t he o ther h and , al i s t o f p la tes a nd f igures h as b een

t hough t s uper f luous . M .H . was a ble t o a cco mp l ish a g rea t d ea l o f h is e d i t ing d ur ing E as ter T er m 1 977 i n t he Un ivers i ty where J oce lyn T oynbee o ccup ied h er C ha ir w i th s uch d is t inc t ion , a nd h e owes a s pec ia l d ebt o f g ra t i tude t o S t C athar ine ' s Co ll ege a nd a lso t o Max B u tcher f or p rov id ing s uch a f r iend ly a nd c ongen ia l a tmosphere .

J .M . h as b een g rea t ly a ss is ted b y t he d o mes t ic c om for ts o f B ishop

O t ter C o l lege , C hiches ter a nd h is h o me i n Ox ford . We s hou ld l i ke t o t hank S h ir ley H er mon a nd Trevor R ow ley f or o rgan is ing t he p rac t ica l s ide o f t he c on ference .

P ho tograph ic p rob le ms w ere e ased b y

t he g enerous h e lp o f R ober t Wi lk ins a nd C orne l ia S tarks .

Encourage men t ,

h osp ita l ity a nd e d itor ia l a ss is tance w ere p rov ided b y an u mber o f f r iends a nd i np articu lar b y Michael C oker a nd H e len P or ter .

I s le o f Muck , S co t land . S ep te mber , 1 977.

CONTR IBUTORS

MARTIN ROBERTSON

L inco ln P ro fessor o f C lassica l Archaeo logy a nd Ar t , Un ivers i ty o f Ox ford .

J . M. C . TOYNBEE

P ro fessor Emer i ta o f C lassica l A rchaeology , Un ivers i ty o f C a mbr idge .

DAVID BRO WN

As i ir -n lean Museu m , Ox ford .

MARTIN HEN IG

I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Beau mon t S treet , Ox ford .

E .J. PH ILLIPS

Un ivers i ty o f S he f f ie ld .

T . F. C . BLAGG

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f London .

J OAN L IVERS IDGE

Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd E thno logy , Un iv ers i ty o f C ambr idge .

D .J . SMITH

Museu m o f An tiqu i t ies , Un ivers i ty o f N ewc as t le u pon T yne .

DAVID E . JOHNSTON

Depar t men t o f Adu lt Educat ion , S outha mp ton Un ivers i ty .

JOHN CASEY

Un ivers i ty o f Durha m .

G . LLOYD- MORGAN

G rosvenor Museu m , C hester .

DO M PERR ING

I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers ity o f London .

MART IN MILLETT

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , Beau mon t S tree t , Ox ford .

MIRANDA GREEN

2 2, P an tyce lyn Road , L landurgh , n r . Penar th , S . G la morgan .

M .W. C . HASSALL

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f London .

PAUL ARTHUR

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f London .

RALPH MERR IFIELD

Museu m o f L ondon .

R ICHARD REECE

I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f London .

JULIAN MUNBY

B ishop O t ter C o l lege , C h iches ter .

PROFESSOR J. M. C. TOYNBEE

JOCELYN TOYNBEE - AN APPREC IAT ION* Mar t in R ober tson

I 'm a fra id t ha t t he f ew words w i th wh ich Is hal l b e d e ta in ing y ou n ow , t o c lose t h is v ery s uccessfu l c onference d o n o t r ea l ly c orrespond t o wha t y ou a re o f fered o n t he p aper .

Iam d own t here , Is ee , t o g ive y ou ' sum mary a nd c on-

c lus ions ' ; b u t t ha t If ear i s s o meth ing Ic anno t d o , f or t wo g ood r easons - o r p erhaps r a ther , b ad r easons ; c er ta in ly n e i ther o f t he m d oes me a ny c red i t ; b u t r easons t hey r e ma in .

T he f i rs t i s t ha t , t hrough c ircu mstances o u tside

my c on tro l a nd t o my v ery g rea t r egre t , Ih ave b een a b le t o a t tend o n ly a sma l l n umber o f t he p apers d e l ivered t h is week-end ; s o as um mary i s n o t i n my p ower .

T hose Id id h ear Ih ave e n joyed g rea t ly , a nd Iw ish Ic ou ld h ave

b een t o a l l ; b u t e ven h ad Id one s o , Is hou ld h ave s a t a s al i stener a nd l earner , n o t t o c on tr ibu te o r t o s yn thesize .

Iam n o R o man is t ; a nd f or me t o s um u p

a nd d raw c onc lusions f ro m a c on ference o n R o man a r t , i n o r o u t o f B r i ta in , wou ld b e i mper t inen t i n t he e x tre me . Wha t t hen , y ou may we l l a sk , am Id o ing h ere?

We l l , t here i s o ne t h ing ,

t he t h ing Ib e l ieve Iam r ea l ly h ere f or , wh ich i s s o me th ing Ic an d o a nd am d e l igh ted t o d o :

Tha t i s , t o s peak t he p ra ise o f t he g rea t s cho lar , i n whose

h onour Mar t in Hen ig a nd t he r est h ave o rgan ised t h is c on ference , J oce lyn T oynbee .

B u t t hen b y wha t r igh t d oes a c on fessed n on-Ro man is t s tand u p i n

t h is c o mpany t o p ra ise t he d oyenne o f R o man a r t h is tor ians , t he g rea tes t f igure o f o ur t ime i n t his f ie ld?

We l l , l e t me t ake a n a na logy - Ih ope y ou

won 't f ee l i ta n o u trageous o ne .

Dan te i n P arad ise , when h e r eaches t he

f our th h eaven , t he s phere o f t he S un , h ears t he p ra ise o f S t . F ranc is s poken n o t b y aF ranc iscan b u t b y aD o min ican , t he p ra ise o f S t . D om in ic b y a F ranciscan ; a nd It h ink , t o c ompare sma l l t hings w i th g rea t , t he mode l i s a g ood o ne f or u s , s ince R o man is t a nd H e l len ist , n o l ess t han D om in ican a nd F ranciscan , a re much more i mpor tan t ly me mbers o f o ne b ody t hen t hey a re r epresen ta t ives o f t wo d isc ip l ines . T h is may n o t , p erhaps , b e u n iversa l ly a ccep ted ; b u t i fi ti s n o t , t ha t i s n o t J oce lyn T oynbee 's f au l t .

N o o ne h as

d one more t han s he- n o o ne p erhaps s o much - t o e s tab l ish a nd make c lear t he p ro found u n i ty o f t he G reco-Ro man a r t ist ic t rad i t ion , f ro m h er f irst g rea t b ook , T he H adr ian ic S choo l , t o t h is F r iday 's l ec ture o n G reek my tho logy a nd R o man n um is matics :

o ne o f t he p apers , I 'm h appy t o s ay , wh ich Id id manage

t o h ear , t o my g rea t p rof i t a nd p leasure . We l i ve i n a n a ge o f s pec ia l iza t ion .

I n e very f ie ld o f s tudy t he mere

a ccu mu la t ion o f f ac ts t o b e k nown i s s o g rea t t ha t a n u ndesirab le d egree o f s pec ia l is m i s v ir tua l ly f orced o n a l l s cho lars .

I n o ur p ar t icu lar a rea , we

t end t o t ake i tf or g ran ted t ha t w e b eco me e i ther H e l len ists o r R o man ists , n o t t o t ouch o n t he s pecia l iza t ion w i th in t hose t wo h ead ings . We t ry t o k now s o me th ing a bou t t he o ther s ide , b u t t he r i f t i s t here a nd we a re i nc l ined t o t h ink o f i ta s s o meth ing d i f feren t .

N o t s o J oce lyn T oynbee .

S choo l wh ich a ppeared i n 1 934 , i s s ub t i t led : G reek Ar t ;

T he H adr ian ic

A C hap ter i n t he H istory o f

a nd t h is was s ure ly a d e l ibera te c ha l lenge .

C onc lud ing r e marks t o Conf erence , S unday 2 1st N ovember , 1 976. 1

T ha t y ear , 1 934 , was my l ast a s a n u ndergradua te . When w e were t augh t t he h istory o f a nc ien t a r t t hen , we c ou ld sm i le a t P l iny f or s ay ing t ha t a r t d ied i n t he 1 21st O ly mpiad a nd was b rough t t o l i fe a ga in i n t he 1 56th ;

b u t wha t

we l earn t o urse lves c a me u nco m for tab ly c lose t o as im i lar p osi t ion .

A f ter

t he b a t t le o f A c t iu m , i ts ee med , G reek a r t ists t urned t o o ne a no ther a nd s a id ; " I t 's n o u se u s t ry ing t o b e o r ig ina l a ny more .

L e t 's t urn o u t c op ies o f o ur

o ld mas ters f or o ur R o man p a trons , s ince t ha t 's wha t t hey wan t o f u s , a nd l e t t he m g e t o n w i th t heir p or tra i ts a nd t he ir i mper ia l monumen ts a nd t he ir f rescoed h ouses" .

Is t i l l f ind a t race o f t h is a t t i tude ,

a fra id a s we l l a s o ther p eop le 's ;

i n my o wn t hough t I 'm

a nd o f c ourse t here i s ag ra in o f t ru th i n i t ;

p erhaps s o me H e l len ists , a nd i ndeed s o me R o man ists , wou ld s ay more t han a g ra in ;

b u t It h ink most o f u s h ave c o me t o r ecogn ise t ha t a t A phrod isias a nd

S per longa a nd many o ther p laces we c an s ee ap ower fu l l i ving-on o f H e l len ist ic o r ig ina l i ty d eep i n to t he i mper ia l p er iod , f orm ing o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l s trea ms wh ich f eed R o man a r t ;

t ha t t he H adr ian ic S choo l i s i ndeed a c hap ter i n t he

h istory o f Greek a s we l l a s o f R o man a r t ;

a nd t ha t t h is s tream i s n o t c on f ined

t o t he H e l len is t ic e as t a nd t he Imper ia l c en tre b u t c an b e f e l t r igh t t hrough t he emp ire t o i t s wes tern b orders .

I ft h is i s n ow g enera l ly a ccep ted a s at ru th ,

t ha t i s i n v ery l arge p ar t d ue t o J oce lyn T oynbee 's i n f luence . T o l ook a side f or a mo men t a t af ie ld i n w h ich Ih appen t o h ave a p ar t icu lar i n teres t , t ha t o f mosa ic : f i f th c en tury ;

t he r a ther p r im i t ive p ebble-p ic tures o f t he G reek

t he e xqu is i te s oph ist ica t ion o f t he s a me t echn ique i n l a te f our th-

c en tury Macedon ;

t he e ar ly t esse l la ted p avemen ts a t Morgan t ina a nd A lexandr ia ;

t hese l ead s tra igh t o n t hrough P erga mon , D e los a nd P o mpe ii t o t he g rea t w or ld o f R o man i mper ia l mosa ic , wh ich i n t urn merges t hrough t he l a te a n t ique i n to Byzan t ium .

T here 's n o j o in t where o ne c an g e t ak n i fe i n ;

a nd i ti s p leasan t

t o n o te i n P rofessor T oynbee 's a r t ic les o n B e l lerophon a nd t he C h i m maera i n mosa ic , t ha t t he d ozen e xa mp les s he c an l i st b eg in w i th a p ebb lef loor a t O lyn thus a nd e nd a t C ons tan t inop le a nd R avenna . e xa mp les i s i n Br i ta in , a t Lu l l ingstone ;

One o f t he i n ter med ia te

a nd s he s howed u s j us t t he s a me s ort

o f s pread o n F r iday , i n t he Greek my ths , t he l abours o f H ercu les a nd t he r es t o n c oins a nd r e l ie fs. Tha t aH e l len is t l i ke myse l f s hou ld b e a sked t o s peak t he e nco m ium o n t h is o ccas ion , It ake t o b e af ur ther s ign o f t he r ecogn i t ion o f t he e ssen t ia l u n i ty o f o ur s tudies .

Iwas mos t f la t tered t o b e a sked a nd q u i te d e l igh ted t o

u nder take i t , n o t o n ly a s aH e l len is t b u t a s a n o ld f r iend .

If irs t a t tended a

l ec ture b y M iss T oynbee i n 1 930 o r 3 1 , Is uppose , when Iwas r ead ing f or t he f irs t p ar t o f t he C lass ica l T r ipos a t C a mbr idge a nd s he was l ec tur ing o n T ac i tus .

S ince t hen , whenever Ih ave a c hance t o h ear h er s peak It ake i t ,

a nd Ih ave n ever b een d isappo in ted .

S o me s pecia l o ccas ions s tand o u t .

T he

l ec ture o n t he A ra P acis d e l ivered a t t he B r i t ish A cade my i n 1 953 i s o ne s uch -a n ea t h al fway mark , In o te , b e tween 1 930 a nd t oday;

b u t e very t ime Ih ear

h er t a lk , o r r ead s o meth ing s he h as wr i t ten , Ic o me away w i th a h appy s ense o f k now ledge a nd u nders tand ing e n larged , a nd p leasan t ly e n larged . t ha t Io we h er a g rea t d ea l , a nd s o Iam s ure d o a l l o f y ou . J oce lyn T oynbee , t hank y ou .

2

Ik now

1 .

GREEK MYTHOLOGY AND RO MAN NU M IS MAT ICS J .M .C. T oynbee

When l ook ing t hrough t he r ecen t w ork o f H . S ich ter mann a nd G . K och , G r iech ische My then a u f r ö mischen S arkophagen , 1 975 , my e ye was p ar t icu lar ly c augh t b y t he p la te o n p . 1 32 , i l lus tra t ing n o . 5 1 i n t he ir c a ta logue ( P l . 1 ,I , A ).

I ts hows t he r igh t-hand s hor t s ide o f al a te-second c en tury marb le s ar-

c ophagus, w i th g ab led l i d , i n t he Museo N aziona le d i S an Mart ino a t N ap les ; a nd o n ly o n t h is s ide o f t he p iece i s t here f igured c arving . s cene f ro m t he Odyssey , i s l i t t le k nown .

T h is r e l ie f , a

I n f ac t , t he o n ly e ar l ier f u l l p ub l i-

c a t ion o f i to f wh ich Iam aware i s t he d escr ip t ion a nd d raw ing i n C ar l R ober t , D ie a n tike S arkophat re l iefs .

1

O . T ouche feu- Meyn ier men t ions i tv ery b r ie f ly

i n h er The m - e s o dysseens d ans l ' ar t a n t ique ,

2

b u t d oes n ot i l lus tra te i t .

On

t he r igh t o f t he p ic ture Odysseus , whose h ead h as b een b ad ly d e faced , i s s ea ted t owards t he l e f t i n b eggar 's d ress o n ac y l indr ica l o b jec t i n f ron t o f h is p a lace d oor .

H is l egs a re c rossed .

h and o n h is s ea t .

H is r igh t h and r es ts o n h is r igh t k nee , h is l e f t

On t he l e f t i s Odysseus 's f a i th fu l o ld h ound Argos , a pproach ing

h is mas ter w i th h is r igh t f oreleg b en t , h is l e f t f ore leg r a ised i n g ree ting , a s i s h is s nou t , a s h e g azes u p i n to Odysseus 's f ace . wh ich h is t a i l i s l ashed , a re a lso r a ised .

H is h indquar ters , r ound

H ere we h ave a f ree i l lustra t ion o f

t he t ouch ing s cene i n Odyssey x vi i , 2 90-327 , w i th t he move men ts o f t he d og 's h ead , e ars , a nd t a i l more o r l ess a s H o mer d escr ibes t he m , b u t n o t d epic t ing h is f i l thy c ond i t ion , r ecu mben t p osture , a nd i nab i l i ty t o d raw n earer t o h is master wh ich a re r ecoun ted i n t he p oe m .

An e ven g rea ter d isregard o f H o mer 's

t ex t i s d isp layed b y t he r ender ings o f av igorous a nd l i ve ly Argos i n s cenes o f O dysseus 's h o meco ming o n w orks o f t he c lass ica l Greek p er iod , f or i nstance , i n t he p a in t ing o n af i f th-cen tury B . C. s ta mnos a t P ar ma ( P l . 1 .I I , A ) a nd i n t he r el ie f o n af our th-cen tury B . C. E truscan b ronze mirror i n R o me .

3

T he s tory o f Argos i s b u t s eldo m r epresen ted i n Graeco-Ro man l arges ca le a r t .

Ic an o n ly r eca l l o ne o ther s cu lp tura l r endering o f i t , t ha t o n o ne

o f t he a cro ter ia o f t he g ab led l i d o f ap rov inc ia l marb le s arcophagus i n t he Musse B ore ly a t Marse i l le , where t he o ld n urse Euryk le ia r ecogn ises Odysseus , b y whose s ide l ies Argos c ur led i n s leep o r d ea th ;

wh i le i n av ery s im i lar

s cene o n a n e ar ly-i mper ia l t erraco t ta p laque i n t he Museo N aziona le R o mano Argos l i es b eside Odysseus 's s ea t .4

Wi th t hese may b e c o mpared a H e l len ist ic

C a le tan p ot tery c up w i th Odyssean s cenes i n r e l ie f t ha t i nc lude a t iny g roup o f O dysseus w i th h is b eggar 's s ta f f s ea ted b eside Argos o n wha t a ppear t o b e r ocks .

5

B u t i t was f or Graeco-Ro man g e m-engravers t ha t t he Argos t he me

s ee ms t o h ave h ad t he c h ie f a t trac t ion . a re k nown - i n t he B r i t ish Mu seum ,

6

A t l eas t n ine g e ms

i n B er l in ,

f ro m t he R oman f or t a t Y G aer , n ear B recon , C o l lec t ion ,

1 2

C o l lec t ion .

1 4

1 1

i n t he Wyndha m C ook C o l lec t ion ,

G eneva ,

7

8

w i th t h is mo t i f P ar is ,

9

Mun ich , "

i n t he S tory Maske lyne 1 3

a nd f or mer ly i n t he P our ta les

On most o f t hese g e ms O dysseus s tands o r wa lks t owards t he

3

r igh t , wear ing h is c on ica l c ap a nd b eggar 's d ress , g enera l ly h o ld ing a s ta f f , a nd mak ing a g esture o f r ecogn i t ion t owards a s pr igh t ly Argos , who s tands t o r igh t o r l e f t , l ook ing u p a t h is master , o f ten w i th h is t a i l r a ised , o r s n i f f ing a t h is f ee t .

The Mun ich g em ( P l . 1 .1 , B ) i s ap ar t icu lar ly f ine e xa mple .

O f

t he P our ta les g em i ti s r ecorded t ha t Odysseus i s s ea ted , a s o n t he Nap les a nd Marse i l le s arcophag i , t he t erraco t ta p laque i n R o me , a nd t he C a le tan r e lie f-cup . I t was a l most c er ta in ly f ro m a g em t ha t C a ius Ma m i l ius L ime tanus 's d iee ngraver g o t h is mode l f or t he d enar ius r everse-type s truck i n 8 2 B .C . I .I , C ) .

1 5

( P 1.

H ere Odysseus , wear ing b eggar 's d ress a nd c on ica l c ap , wa lks r igh t-

wards , h is s ta f f i n h is l e f t h and a nd h is r igh t h and e x tended t owards Argos , who s tands t owards t he l e f t w i th h is t a i l r a ised a s h e l ooks u p i n to h is mas ter 's f ace . T he t ype i s b e l ieved t o a l lude t o t he moneyer 's c la im t o b e d escended f ro m t he s on o f O dysseus b y C irce , T e legonos , who f ounded Tuscu lu m , f ro m wh ich t he Ma m i l i i c a me. Bu t w i th T e legonos Argos a ppears t o h ave l i t t le c onnec t ion : t he i n tr ins ic c har m o f t he Argos s tory a nd t he a va i lab i l i ty o f g lyp t ic mode ls a re more l ike ly t o h ave i n f luenced Ma m i l ius 's c ho ice o f t h is t ype .

I t s a t trac-

t iveness i s f ur ther e v idenced b y t he f ac t t ha t i t was c hosen f or o ne o f ' res tora t ions ' o f r epubl ican c o ins .1 6

Tra jan 's

T he Argos c oin-type i s o ne o f t he r e la t ive ly f ew i ns tances o f t he a ppearance i n R o man n um is ma t ic a r t o f t he mes d rawn f ro m G reek , a s c on trasted w i th R o man , my tho logy , t ha t i s , o f r ender ings o f e pisodes o r i nciden ts f ro m t he H e l len ic r eper toirs , a s d is t inc t f ro m r epresen ta t ions o f s ing le f i gures , o r g roups o f f igures , o f G reek d iv in i t ies o r p erson i f ica t ions who a re n ot i nvo lved i n s o me s tory o r e ven t .

And i ti s t he Argos t ype o f C a ius Mam i l ius L i me tanus

t ha t h as p ro mpted t he e nsu ing s urvey o f s uch G reek my ths a s c ons t i tu te t he r eversetypes o f c oins a nd meda l l ions i ssued f ro m t he L a tin-speak ing min ts o f t he wes tern R o man wor ld . f ro m r epub l ican t imes.

O f t hese a f ew d a te , l ike t he Argos d enar ius ,

The mos t v ar ied a nd a r t is t ic t ypes a re f ound o n

Hadr ian ic a nd An tonine meda l l ions ;

wh i le t he r e igns o f P ostumus ( 259-268 )

a nd Probus ( 2 76-282 ) a na o f t he T e trarchs ( 29 4 -3 13 ) w i tnessed a n o u tburs t o f s cenes d ep ic ting t he d eeds o f H erak les - a l l o f h is t welve ' o ff ic ia l ' o r ' canon ica l ' l abours a nd o ne o f h is ' un-o f f ic ia l ' o r ' non-canon ica l ' e xp lo i ts b e ing r epresen ted o n c oins a nd meda l l ions o f t h is l a te-an t ique p er iod .

P ostu mus 's c o in-types

o f t he t we lve l abours h ave b een s tud ied , c a ta logued , a nd i l lustra ted b y P . Bas t ien i n R evue Nu m is ma t ique , 1 958 ;

b u t a l l t he c orresponding t ypes o f

Probus a nd t he T e trarchs h ave n o t , s o f ar a s Ik now , b een c ol lec ted t oge ther o r r e la ted t o t he t ypes o f P os tu mus a s h as b een a t te mpted h ere . S truck much e ar l ier t han t he Argos d enar iu s , n a me ly b e tween 1 89 a nd 1 80 B .C ., i s t he a es r eversetype o f a no ther me mber o f t he Mam i l ian g ens , Luc ius , wh ich a lso p resen ts a n e pisode f ro m t he s tory o f Odysseus :

h old ing

as ta f f h e s tands t owards t he r igh t o n as h ip 's p row a nd migh t b e t hough t o f a s v oyag ing h o mewards e i ther b e fore o r a f ter h is C irce a dven ture .

1 7

A s t i l l

e ar l ier a es r everse-type , i ssued f ro m t he R o man min t b e tween 2 17 a nd 2 15 ( P l . 1 . 1 1 , B ) , s hows H erak les s tand ing t o t he r igh t , b rand ish ing h is c lub a nd h o lding b y t he h a ir t he C en taur N essos , who a lso f aces r igh twards .

1 8

T o r e turn

t o t he l a ter d enar iustypes — t ha t s truck b y Luc ius Vo lumn ius S trabo i n 8 1 ( P l . 1 . 1 1 , C ) p resen ts Europa s ea ted w i th f l y ing v e i l o n t he b ack o f t he Z eus-bu l l , who p rances s k i t t ish ly l e f twards ;

1 9

wh i le t he s a me t he me , b u t w i th t he b u l l 4

A

PLATE 1 .1 :

ARGOS AND ODYSSEUS

A , S arcophagus : B , I n tag l io : C , Denar ius.

Nap les, Museo Naz ionale d i s an Mar t ino.

Mun ich , S taat l iche Mt inzsa m mlung.

A

PLATE 1. I I :

A .

S ta mnos :

B .

Aes ;

Par ma Museu m.

C -E, Denar i i.

a dvanc ing more s eda te ly r igh twards ( P l . 1 .1 1 ,D ) , was c hosen i n 4 5 b y Luc ius Va ler ius Ac iscu lus ,

2 0

a nd was ' r estored ' b y T ra jan .

2 1

H erak les r eappears ,

t h is t ime i n h is f irst ' o f f ic ia l ' o r ' canon ica l ' l abour , f ac ing l e f twards a nd s laugh tering t he N e mean l i on

( P l . 1 .I I , E ) , wh ich l eaps u p a nd f as tens o n h im ,

o n ad enar ius o f C a ius Pub l ic ius , i ssued i n 8 0 : f or H erak les a nd r estored h is a l tar .

aP ub l ic ia h ad b u i l t at e mp le

B e l lerophon , r id ing P egasos , t owards

2 2

t he r igh t a nd h ur l ing h is s pear d ownwards a t t he C h i ma ira , wh ich i s n o t , h owever , a c tua l ly i nc luded i n t he p ic ture ( P l . 1 .I I ,A ) , i s r epresen ted o n ad enar ius o f Luc ius C ossu t ius S abu la , m in ted i n 7 4 .

2 3

T he t ype s truck i n 4 4 b y L uc ius

Ae m i l ius Buca w i th S e lene a pproach ing t he p rostra te f igure o f as leeping man p ropped a ga ins t r ocks ( P l . 1 .1 1 1 , B ) , wh ich h as b een i n terpre ted b y E .A. S ydenha m , M.H . C rawford , a nd many o ther s cho lars a s d ep ic ting S uHa 's d rea m , h as r ecen t ly b een c onv incing ly s hown b y J .R . F ears t o r epresen t t he s tory o f S elene a nd E ndy m ion , w i th Aura , w inged a nd h old ing a b a ton , i n a tt endance o n S e lene .

2 4

F ears s ugges ts t ha t t h is mo t i f , l a ter we l l k nown f or i t s

f unerary a ssoc ia t ions o n s arcophag i a nd o ther r e l ie fs , may a l lude t o C aesar 's d ea th .

Las t ly , s o f ar a s t he R epub l ic i s c oncerned , ad enar ius t ype s truck b y

S ex tus P o mpe ius a t s o me p rov incia l min t , d epic ts t he K a tanean b ro thers , Amph ino mos a nd Anapias , o n e i ther s ide o f P ose idon a nd c arry ing o n t he ir s hou lders t he ir p aren ts ( P l . 1 .I I , C ) , who m t hey a re r escu ing f ro m a n e rupt ion o f E tna .

2 5

T h is t ype o ccurs o n af i rst-cen tury B .C . G reek b ronze c o in

o f K a tana , b u t w i thou t P ose idon ; was ' restored ' b y Tra jan .

2 6

a nd w i th P ose idon 's f igure t he R o man c o in

2 7

F ro m t he l ast c en tury B .C . we must n ow p ass t o t he s econd c en tury A . D., when t he p h i lhe l len ic H adr ian i naugura ted , a nd i nspired h is An ton ine s uccessors t o c on tinue , t he g rea t s er ies o f b ronze meda l l ions , o r p resen ta t ion p ieces , whose u sua l ly l arge f l ans l en t t he mse lves p ar t icu lar ly we l l t o t he p ic turesque r ender ing o f my tho log ica l e p isodes o n t he ir r everses .

Dupond i i-sized a nd

a s-s ized p ieces o f H adr ian , s o me i den t i f iab le a s q uas i- meda l l ions b y t he a bsence o f t he l et ters S C o n t he ir r everses , wh i le o thers a s c o ins c arry t he m , p or tray t he s he-goa t Ama l the ia s tand ing t owards t he r igh t a nd s uck l ing t he i n fan t Z eus a f ter h is b ir th i n C re te .

2 8

O n ad upond ius-sized p iece w i thou t S C s truck b y

An ton in .us P ius i n 1 54-5 Ama l the ia s tands t o t he r igh t a nd b ears o n h er b ack t he i n fan t Z eus who i s s ea ted f ac ing t he s pec ta tor w i th h is r igh t h and o u ts tre tched .

2 9

T he s ane g roup ( P l . 1 .1 1 1 , D ) a ppears o n t wo f u l l meda l l ions

i ssued b y P ius i n 1 40-145 , where t o t he r igh t o f Ama l the ia a nd Z eus t here i s ag ar landed a l tar w i th a n e ag le o n i t s f ron t i n r e l ie f a nd a t ree b eh ind i t . " Bronze meda l l ions o f An ton inus P ius a nd Marcus Aure l ius s how a n e x trac t f ro m t he g igan to machy ( P l . 1 .1 1 1 , E ) -Z eus t ack l ing a g ian t f ro m h is c har io t .

3 1

Af avour i te t he me w i th An ton ine b ronze meda l l ion d esigners i s i nc iden ts i n t he s tory o f D ionysos 's v is i t t o N axos .

A meda l l ion i ssued f or Marcus Aure l ius

a s C aesar i n 1 45 d ep ic ts t he g od d r iv ing i n aC en taur-drawn c har io t a nd s urr ounded b y t he D ionysiac t h iasos ( P l . 1 .1 1 1 , F ) : h ere h e may b e t hough t o f a s b e ing o n h is w ay t o f ind t he s lumbering Ar iadne , who i s n o t s hown o n a ny o f t hese p ieces a s l ying a sleep a na wa i t ing f or t he g od t o r ouse h er , p erhaps b ec ause o f t ha t moti f 's f unerary a ssoc ia t ions.

3 2

Ano ther meda l l ion r everse o f

Marcus a s C aesar , d a ted 1 57 , s hows D ionysos o n t he l e f t s ea ted r igh twards o n ar ock , g rasping h is t hyrsos i n h is l e f t h and a nd l ook ing b ack a t Ar iadne , who s tands f u l ly d raped o n t he e x tre me l e f t b eh ind h im a nd s ee ms t o b e i n

7

c onversa t ion w i th h im .

I ti s j ust p ossib le t ha t t h is s o mewha t l angu id ma le f igure

i s H erak les , t urned w o man a nd h o ld ing a d ista f f , i n wh ich c ase t he d raped wo man t a lk ing w i th h i m wou ld b e Ompha le , a l though o ne c an s ee n o d e f in i te t race o f t he l i on 's s k in t ha t s he o ugh t t o b e w ear ing . 33 wha t may b e a n a nc ien t b ronze c as t f ro m a meda l l ion s truck f or P ius i n t he V ienna c ab ine t ( No . 3 7414 ) d epic ts D ionysos a nd Ar iadne s ea ted t ogether o n ar ock a nd s urr ounded b y t he g od 's t ra in .

On y e t at h ird p iece i ssued f or Marcus a s C aesar ,

i n 1 49 , D ionysos a nd Ar iadne a re d rawn r igh twards i n ac har iot t o wh ich t wo l eopardesses a re h arnessed , wh i le t he t h iasos sw ir ls a round t he m .

3 4

I n o ne

more D ionysiac meda l l ion t ype , t h is t i me i ssued i n P ius 's o wn n a me i n 1 39 , D ionysos a nd Ar iadne r ide t oge ther i n ac har io t p u l led b y a n i l l- ma tched t ea m -a S a tyr a nd a l eopard ;

t he g od h o lds h is t hyrsos a nd f l ings h is o ther a rm

r ound Ar iadne , who i s n aked s ave f or a f lu t ter ing v e i l .

3 5

My ths i n wh ich A thene p layed a c onsp icuous r ole a re a lso p opu lar r everset ypes o n H adr ian ic a nd An ton ine b ronze meda l l ions .

Med ium-sized p ieces

s truck f or H adr ian s how t he c on tes t b e tween A thene a nd P ose idon o ver t he o l ivetree o n t he A then ian A cropo l is , ac ho ice o f t he me p erhaps r e mo te ly i ns p ired b y t he wes t p ed i men t o f t he P ar thenon .

I n t he c en tre i s t he o l ive-tree ,

o n t he r igh t o f wh ich A thene , f u l ly a r med , s tands l e f twards , whi le P ose idon w i th h is t r iden t i n h is r igh t h and a nd h is l e f t f oo t p lan ted o n ap row , f aces h er f ro m t he o ther s ide o f t he o l ivetree .3 6 At ype s truck i n 1 45 f or b o th P ius a nd Marcus a s C aesar p resen ts t he a f ter ma th o f t he c on test ( P l . 1 .1 1 1 , G ) : o n t he r igh t i s P ose idon s ea ted l e f twards a nd o n t he l e f t i s A thene s tanding r igh twards , wh i le b e tween t he m i s at ab le s ur moun ted b y av ase i n to wh ich N ike , s tanding b eh ind t he t ab le , c asts h er v o te i n A thene 's f avour :

i n t he b ackground b e tween

A thene a nd t he t ab le t he o l ivetree c an b e d iscerned .

3 7

P ieces i ssued a t d i f-

f eren t d a tes i n t he n a mes o f P ius , o f F aus tina I , a nd o f Marcus a s C aesar c arry t he s tory o f H epha istos f org ing a r ms w i th A thene 's h e lp ( P l . 1 .IV , A ) . h e i s s ea ted o n t he l e f t r igh twards , w ork ing o n af u l men : r igh t l e f twards :

t here i s a n a nv i l b e tween t he m .

P ius H epha is tos i s mak ing a h e l me t . meda l l ions a s p a troness o f c ra f ts .

2 8

H ere

s he i s s tand ing o n t he

On o ther meda l l ions o f

A thene a ppears t w ice a gain o n An ton ine

3 9

On a p iece i ssued i n 1 45 a nd 1 46 f or Marcus

a s C aesar ( P l . 1 .I V , B ) s he s tands , f u l ly a rmed f acing t he s h ipwr igh t A rgos , who i s s ea ted r igh twards o n t he l e f t , a t work o n t he c en tra l ly p laced s h ip Argo , wh ich A thene h e lped h im t o b u i ld . 46

On a meda l l ion i ssued f or P ius i n 1 41-

1 43 ( P l . 1 .IV , C ) A thene i s o n t he r igh t , f ac ing t o t he l e f t a nd l aying h er r igh t h and o n t he h ead o f t he man , s tanding o n ab ase , who i s b eing mode l led o u t o f c lay b y P ro me theus , t he g oddess h av ing b een i nstruc ted t o a id h im i n t h is t ask . 41 I ti s i n teres t ing t o r eca l l t he l a ter i conograph ic h istory o f t h is moti f i n s cu lpt ure - o n at h ird-cen tury p agan s arcophagus i n t he C api tol ine Museum , where Pro me theus i s mode l l ing a c oup le o f men w i th A thene 's a ssis tance , a nd o n a f our th-cen tury C hr is t ian s arcophagus i n t he V a t ican Museum , where G od t he Fa ther , G od t he S on , a nd G od t he H o ly S pir i t a re p u t t ing t he f in ish ing t ouches t o E ve , who h as j ust emerged f ro m Ada m 's s ide . 42

T here i s a lso a f ine

p a in ted v ersion i n ap agan t o mb o f e ar ly-th ird-cen tury d a te o n t he V ia O st iensis ; b u t o n a no ther p agan s cu lp tured s arcophagus i n t he L ouvre A thene d irec ts o pera t ions f ro m b eh ind P ro me theus 's b ack , i ns tead o f f acing h im . 43 E ven more i mpor tan t f ro m t he s tandpoin t o f p ol i t ics a re t he An ton ine meda l l ion-types i l lustra t ing my ths c oncern ing H erak les , s ince t hese c ou ld b e 8

PLATE 1 .1 1 1 : A -C, Denar i i ;

D-G , Bronze meda l l ions.

PLATE I .I V : AF ,Bronze meda l l ions.

r egarded a s p arad ig ms o f imper ia l e xp lo i ts o f v a lour a nd b enevo lence .

A

meda l l ion o f P ius , wh ich was f ound a t Aosta i n 1 968 a nd o f wh ich Ih ave a p ho tograph ( P l . I .V ,A ) ,

a l though Ih ave n o t c o me a cross a s y e t a ny p ubl ica t ion

o f i t , d epicts i n t he c en tre t he i n fan t H erak les s trang l ing t he s erpen ts i n t he p resence o f Amph i tryo , who s tr ides r igh twards o n t he l e f t , a nd o f A lkmene , who r ushes a way w i th h er y ounger s on I ph ik les i n h er a r ms o n t ne r igh t , wh i le a n o lder c hi ld a lso f lees o n t he r igh t a nd a w o man t o t he l e f t o f A lk mene makes g es tures o f t error .

H erak les 's t we l f th ' canon ica l ' l abour , h is a dven ture i n

t he g arden o f t he H esper ides , i s r ecorded o n aH adr ian ic p iece , where t he s erpen t-en tw ined a pp letree o ccup ies t he c en tre w i th H erak les s tand ing o n t he l e f t a nd t hree H esper ides o n t he r igh t . "

T here t he h ero h o lds a n a pp le ;b u t

o n av ery s im i lar r eversetype , i ssued i n t he n a me o f P ius ( P l . I .IV ,D ) ,h e i s p luck ing a n a pp le f ro m t he t ree a nd h is p osi t ion a nd t ha t o f t he H esper ides a re r eversed .

4 5

O n meda l l ions o f Marcus Aure l ius a nd C o m modus a s C aesar 46

o f L uc ius Verus ,

4 7

a nd o f C o m modus a lone 48

H erak les , i n t he a c t o f c rown ing

h i mse l f , i s i n t he c en tre o f t he p ic ture , w i th t he a pp letree o n t he l e f t a nd a n a l tar o n t he r igh t .

Meda l l ions a lso o f C o m modus a lone h ave t he a l tar i n t he

c en tre , w i th H erak les , h o ld ing a c ornucopia a nd s acr i f icing , o n t he r igh t a nd o n t he l e f t t he a pp le-tree o n wh ich t he l i on 's s k in i s d raped .

A r are meda l-

4 9

l ion o f Marcus a s Caesar s hows H erak les f ac ing t he s pec ta tor a nd g rasp ing r ound t he wa is t t he g ian t An ta ios ( P l . I .V , B ) , wh i le t he l a t ter 's mother G e r ises i np ro tes t f ro m r ocks o n t he r igh t . "

On o ther r are meda l l ions o f P ius

a nd o f Marcus a s Caesar H erak les f aces r igh twards a nd k nee ls o n t he b ack o f t he C en taur N essos ( P l . LIV , E ) , who m h e s e izes b y t he h a ir .

5 1

Aga in o n

s o me r are meda l l ions o f P ius we h ave t he s tory o f t he f ind ing o f T e lephos b y Herak les ( P l . I . IV , F ) , who s tands o n t he l e f t t owards t he r igh t , wh i le o n t he r igh t t he h ina , s tanding r igh twards , b u t l ook ing b ack l e f twards , o n r ocks , s uck les t he i n fan t :a bove t he h ind a n e ag le h overs.

5 2

We may i n terpre t a s a no ther a l legory o f imper ia l b ene f icence t he my th , a s t o ld o n t hree A n ton ine meda l l ions , o f T r ipto le mos , t he f avour i te o f De me ter , who t aught h im a gr icu l ture a nd t he t rans m ission o f t h is k now ledge t o t he wor ld . For t h is purpose s he g ave h im ac har io t d rawn b y w inged s erpen ts , i n wh ich h e f lew o ver t he w or ld s ca t ter ing s eed .

On a p iece s truck f or F aus tina ID e me ter

i s s ea ted o n t he l e f t t owards t he r igh t a nd h ands c orn-ears t o T r ip to le mos , who s tands o n t h

r igh t f ac ing h er , w i th t races o f h is s erpen t c ar b eside h im .

5 3

On a no ther p iece o f t he s a me empress D e me ter s tands o n t he l e f t t owards t he r igh t , wh i le o n t he r igh t T r ip to lemos h overs i n h is s erpen t-drawn c ar a nd s cat ters s eed i n to t he l ap o f G e , w ho r ec l ines b e low .

5 4

Th is l ast mo t i f i s

magn i f icen t ly r endered o n af ra med meda l l ion o f P ius ( P l . I .V , C ) where Deme ter d oes n o t a ppear , b u t T r ip to le mos f l ies r igh twards i n h is s erpen tc har io t s ca t ter ing s eed i n to t he l ap o f G e , who r ec l ines l e f twards b e low .

5 5

An a pparen t ly u n ique meda l l ion o f H adr ian s hows Odysseus l eav ing P o lyp he mos 's c ave u nder t he b e l ly o f t he r am . 1 972 .

5 6

I t was a t M i tnzhand lung Base l i n

F or t he f i rst s ix ty y ears o f t he t h ird c en tury o n ly a f ew G reek my tho l-

o g ica l r eversetypes h ave b een r ecorded .

A s i lver meda l l ion o f S ep ti m ius

S everus , wor th a bou t t en d enar i i a nd s truck i n 2 07 , s hows a n e x trac t f ro m t he G igan to machy ( P l . I .V D ) -Z eus i n aq uadr iga f ac ing t o t he r igh t a nd h ur l ing h is b o l t a t t wo s nakelegged g ian ts , o ne o f who m t urns h is b ody t owards t he s pec ta tor a nd b randishes a s t ick a nd a s tone a s h e l ooks u p l e f twards a t t he g od .

1 1

5 7

On a d enar ius a lso o f 2 07 Z eus h as a ga in t aken o n ap a ir o f g ian ts .

5 8

on

d enar i i o f C araca l la i ssued i n 2 15 a nd 2 16 we a ppear t o h ave t he s tory o f t he b ir th o f t he M ino taur - Minos e n throned o n t he r igh t , f ac ing l e f twards a nd e xt end ing h is r igh t h and t owards a t iny M ino taur , w ho s tands f ac ing t he s pec ta tor a t h is f a ther 's f ee t .

5 9

On a n e x tre me ly r are a ureus i ssued f or G e ta i n c . 2 03

( P l . 1 .V , E ) D ionysos a nd Ar iadne a re s ea ted t oge ther , p resumab ly o n N axos , f ac ing r igh twards , o n t he l e f t o f t he p ic ture , w i th a sma l l r eve l l ing f igure o n e i ther s ide o f t he m , al eopard a t t he ir f ee t , a nd a S a tyr ( ? ) , ap iper , a nd a d anc ing Maenad i n f ron t o f t he m .

6°

A f ter t h is t here i s ag ap u n t il t he j o in t

r e igns o f Va ler ian a nd G a l l ienus ( 253-260 ) , when a n ton in ian i o f G a l l ienus , w i th t he r everselegend P IET (as )

S AECVLI , p resen t t he g oa t Ama l the ia f ac ing

t o t he l e f t , n ow c arry ing t he i n fan t Z eus o n h er b ack , n ow s uck l ing h im .

6 1

G o ld a nd s i lver meda l lions , w i th p or tra i ts o f G a l l ienus a nd S a lon ina o n t he ir o bverses , s how o n t heir r everses Ama l the ia s tanding t o t he r igh t b enea th a t ree a nd s uck l ing t he i n fan t Z eus , ( P l . 1 .V , F ) , wh i le a no ther c h i ld i s s ea ted o n t he g round b e tween h er f ore legs : c h i ld .

6 2

a n e ag le o f t he r igh t i den t i f ies t he s uck led

T he r everselegend o n b o th g o ld a nd s i lver i s P IETAS FALER I .

FALER I s tands f or t he my th ica l a nces tor o f G a l l ienus , V a ler ius :

P IETAS

a l ludes t o t he empress S a lon ina 's c har i ty i n r escu ing c h i ldren w ho h ad b een d eser ted i n t he p lague . F ina l ly we c o me t o t he g rea t s er ies o fH erak lean my ths r epresen ted mos t ly o n c o ins , w i th a f ew o n meda l l ions , i ssued b y t he G a l l ic emperor P ostumus , b y P robus , a nd b y t he T e trarchs , a l l o f who m h ad a p ar t icu lar d evo t ion t o H erak les a s a mode l f or emperors c la i ming t o b e b ene fac tors o f t he h u man r ace . H ere , a s h as b een a lready s a id , a l l o f h is t we lve ' canon ica l ' l abours a nd o ne o f h is ' non-canon ica l ' a ch ieve men ts a re r epresen ted ;

a nd a l l o f t hese

l a te t ypes d isp lay a h igh a r t ist ic s tandard i n b o th s ty le a nd e xecu t ion .

On s o me

o f t he c oins t he r everselegends g ive H erak les t he e p i the t a ppropr ia te t o e ach p ic ture .

T he s trang l ing o f t he N e mean l i on ( P l . 1 .V , G ) -a t ype c lose ly r e-

s e mbl ing t he r epub l ican o ne o f 8 0 B .C ., a l though h ere H erak les i s s een f ro m t he b ack , i ns tead o f f ro m t he s ide - i s l abe l led HERCVL I NE MAEO o n d enar i i o f P ostumus ,

6 3

V IRTVS AVGG o n q u inarii o f Max im ianus Hercu leus 64

a nd o n

a n ton in ian i o f C ons tan tius I , 65 V IRTVT I AVGG o n a n ton in ian i o f D ioc le t ian , HERCVL I CONSERVAT(or i ) CAES (ar is ) , V IRTVS PERPETVA AVG , a nd CONSERVATOR I AVG N (os tr i ) o n f ol les o f 3 06-7 , 3 08 , 3 09-10 .

6 7

6 6

T he s lay ing

o f t he Hydra ( P l . 1 .V , H ) a ppears o n d enar i i o f P os tumus w i th t he l egend HERCVL I ARG IVO , o n a ure i o f 2 93-4 , 2 95-6 , a nd 3 02-5 w i th t he l egends HERCVL I DEBELLAT(or i ) a nd HERCVL I V ICTOR I , a nd o n a ure i o f 2 95-305 w i ththe l egend V IRTVT I AVGG .

6 8

Ab ronze meda l l ion o f Max im ian w i th t he

r everse-legend HERCVL I DEBELLATOR ( i ) p resen ts t he s a me mo ti f . 69 H erak les c arr ies t he E ry man th ion b oar o n h is s hou lders o n sma l l g o ld meda ll i ons o f P robus w i th t he l egend HERCVL I ERYMANTH I0 ,

7° o n

o f P os tu mus w i th t he l egend HERCVL I ERYMANT IN0 ,

a nd o n a ure i o f 2 93-4

7 1

a ure i a nd d enar i i

w i th t he l egends V IRTVS AVGG a nd V IRTVT I AVGG . 72 S o me o f t hese t ypes , i nc lud ing t he P robus g o ld p ieces , s how H erak les s tand ing a nd f acing t he s pect a tor , o thers s how h im s tr iding r igh twards t owards t he p i thos i n w h ich Eurys theus t ook r e fuge ( P l . 1 .V , I ) .

A marb le r e l ie f l e t i n to t he t h ir teen th-cen tury

west f acade o f S an Marco i n V en ice s hows e xac t ly t he s a me f igure o f Herak les a dvanc ing w i th t he b oar t o t he r igh t , a nd w i th E urystheus i n o ccupa t ion o f t he p i thos.

T h is r e l ie f h as b een v ar ious ly d a ted t o t he f i f th c en tury o r t o a 1 2

PLATE 1 .V :

A-C, Bronze meda l l ions ; D , F , S i lver meda l l ions; E , Aureus ; Denar i i.

PLATE 1 .V I :

A , G o ld meda l l ion ;

B-J , Denar i i .

Byzan t ine c lass ica l r ev iva l o f t he t en th , e leven th , o r t we lf th c en tury . c er tain ly n o t aV ene tian work .

I ti s

7 3

O ne o f t he most p opu lar o f H erak les 's t we lve l abours i n t h is c on tex t i s t he f our th , h is s lay ing o f t he K eryne ian s tag .

T he mo t i f o ccurs o n a ure i o f

Probus a nd d enar i i o f P ostumus w i th t he l egend HERCVL I ARCAD I0 .

The

7 4

h ero a nd h is v ic t im b oth f ace r igh twards , t he f or mer k nee ling w i th h is l e f t k nee o n t he g rounded a n i ma l 's b ack a nd g rasp ing i t s h orns w i th b o ths h ands . Qu inar i i o f Max im ian c o mbine t h is g roup w i th t he l egend V IRTVS AVGG ,

7 5

a s d o a lso a ure i o f D ioc le t ian , Max im ian , a nd C ons tan t ius Ii ssued i n 2 95-305 7 6 a nd a f ine f ive-aurei meda l l ion o f C onstan tius I ( P l . 1 .V I , A ) .

T h is r end-

7 7

e r ing o f t he s tory i s d er ived d irec t ly f ro m t ha t o f t he b ronze g roup n ow i n t he P a lermo Museum , b u t f ound a t P o mpe i i , wh ich i s h e ld t o b e b ased o n aL ysippan o r ig ina l .

7 8

A nd p rec ise ly t he s a me g roup r eappears o n af i f th- o r s ix th-

c en tury A .D . marble r e l ie f i n t he Museo N aziona le a t R avenna .

7 9

L abours f i ve t o t en a re l ess f requen t ly r epresen ted o n t he c o inage o f t h is p er iod . Aure i o f Pos tumus d epic t H erak les 's s laugh ter ing w i th b ow a nd a rrow o f t he S ty mpha l ian b irds ( P l . 1 .V I , B ) w i th t he l egend HERCVL I AUG ( us to ) . 8 0 On d enar i i a ga in o f P os tumus , w i th t he l egend HERCVL I P ISAEO , H erak les wa lks l e f twards , h o lds a ma t tock , a nd h as a wa terjar a t h is f ee t f or c leansing t he Augean s tab les ( P l . 1 . W , C ) .

8 1

Aure i y e t a ga in o f P ostumus , w i th t he

l egend HERCVL I CRETENC I o r CRETENS I s how h im r unning t o t he r igh t a s h e c onquers t he C re tan ( or Mara thon ian ) b u l l ( P l . 1 .V I , D ) . 8 2 A lso s truck b y P os tu mus a re a ure i a nd d enar i i w i th t he l egend HERCVL I THRAC IO a nd H erak les o verco ming t he h orse o f D io medes ( P l .

1 .11 1 ,

E ) ;8 3

d enar i i w i th t he l egend

HERCVL I I NV ICTO s how ing t he s tea ling o f t he g ird le , a nd s lay ing , o f t he p ros tra te Amazon H ippo ly te ( P l . 1 .V I , F ) ;8 4

a nd d enar i i w i th t he l egend HERCVL I

GAD ITANO a nd t he h ero i n c omba t w i th t hree s old iers who r epresen t t he t r iple mons ter Geryon ( P l . 1 .V I , G )8 5 -r e minding u s o f t he mosa ic i n t he t r iconch t r ic l in iu m o f t he P iazza Ar mer ina v i l la , where t he monster a lso t akes t he f or m o f t hree a r med men . e leven a nd t we lve .

8 6

Ra ther more f requen t a re t he r ender ings o f l abours

D enar i i o f P os tumus , a ure i o f P robus , a nd a ure i o f 2 95-

3 05 , a l l w i th t he l egend HERCVL I IM MORTAL I o r I NMORTAL I , p resen t H erak les wa lk ing r igh twards a nd d ragg ing b eh ind h im K erberos i n c ha ins ( P l . 1 .V I , H ).

8 7

D enari i o f P ostumus p or tray h im s tand ing i n t he g arden o f t he

H esper ides , w ho a re g rouped t o t he l e f t o f t he a pp letree ( P l . 1 .V I , I ) , t he l egend r ead ing HERCVL I RO M o r RO MA o r RO MANO ;8 8 a nd o n a n ton in ian i o f Max im ian a nd C ons tan t ius Ih e s tands i n t he g arden u nder t he s erpen te n tw ined a pp letree , b u t w i thou t t he H esper ides . H erak les ' s s trang l ing o f t he g ian t An ta ios

8 9

One ' non-canon ica l ' l abour ,

( P l . 1 .V I , J ) , w i th t he l egend

HERCVL I L IBVCO , o n a ure i o f P ostumus , c loses t he s er ies . " F ro m t h is r ap id n um is ma t ic s urvey a f ew c onclusions may b e d rawn .

A s

c o mpared w i th t he v ast mass o f c oin a nd meda l l ion t ypes i l lustra t ing o r a l lud ing t o R o man h is tory a nd l egend , d ep ic ting R o man d e i t ies a nd R o man p erson if ic a t ions , a nd f ea tur ing t he a c t iv i t ies a nd q ua l i t ies o f R o man emperors a nd emp resses - c o mpared w i th t hose , s cenes f ro m Greek my tho logy a re r are a nd r es tr ic ted i n t he ir r ange .

S o me mo t i fs - Odysseus a nd Argos , E uropa , a nd B e l lerophon

-d o n o t a ppear a f ter r epubl ican t imes , e xcep t o n T ra jan 's ' restora t ions '.

T he

meda l l ions o f i mper ia l t imes w ere s pec ia l p resen ta t ion p ieces o f f ic ia l ly s pons ored a nd d es igned f or p ar t icu lar ly c u l t iva ted p ersons - p ersons o f t he s a me 1 5

s tandard a s e duca t ion o f t hose f or who m my tho log ica l s arcophag i a nd my tho log ica l f l oor- mosa ics a nd p a in t ings were made ;

a nd i ti s t o meda l l ions t ha t t he

my ths i n wh ich A thene f igures , a nd most o f t hose c oncerned w i th D ionysos , a re c on f ined . Bu t s o me t he mes , t hose o f t he i n fancy o f Z eus a nd o f t he e xp loi ts o f H erak les , wh i le more e labora te ly t rea ted o n meda l lions , a re s hared b y t he l a t ter w i th t he c urren t c oinage a nd t hus p resuppose a t l eas t ac er ta in d egree o f k now ledge a nd a pprec ia t ion o f Greek l i tera ture a nd a r t among t he g enera l r un o f o rd inary i nhab i tan ts o f t he wes tern R o man wor ld - i n d istan t p rovinc ia l Br i ta in , a s we l l a s i n o ther wes tern p rovinces .

Th is i sp ar t icu lar ly

e v iden t i n t he c ase o f t he H erak les c oin t ypes o f l a te-an t ique t imes , wh ich , wh i le p r i mar i ly a l legor ies o f imper ia l v ir tus , may b e s a id a lso t o r epresen t af i na l f lower ing o f i n terest i n H e l len ic c u l ture o n o f f ic ia l R o man monumen ts , b e fore t he -convers ion o f t he Empire t o C hr is tian i ty b an ished p agan s ub jec ts f ro m t he r eper toire o f t he o f f ic ia l R o man min ts .

T he s urv iva l i conograph ica l ly o f G reek

my tho logy i n R o me d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he f our th c en tury o n t hose e n igma t ic , u nof f ic ia l b ronze o r b rass , s truck o r c as t , c oinl ike o b jec ts c a l led c on torn ia tes , o bv ious ly d esigned a s g i f ts f or öt ,T r : oXX6 I . t ha t i s a nother f ascina t ing s tory , o n t he o u tsk ir ts o f R o man n um is ma t ics , i n to t he d e ta i ls o f w h ich we c anno t e n ter h ere .9 1

1 6

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R ober t , i , 1 890 , p p . 1 61-2 , n o . 1 50 ,

2

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3

Mac toux , 1 975 , p ls. 7 , 8 .

4

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6

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7

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8

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9

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1 1

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5

1 0

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1 3

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1 4

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1 5

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1 6

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1 7

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1 8

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1 9

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I i , p l . 4 7.

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2 0

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2 1

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2 2

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2 3

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P .

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p l . 5 6;

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n os . 5 -8 . 2 6

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1 7

c f . C laud ian , C ar m ina Minora ,

2 7 2 8

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B . M. C. i i , 1 936, p p .

4 38 , n o .*

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( SC ) ;

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2 9

B . M. C. i v , 1 940 , p . 3 31 , n o . 1 979.

3 0

Gnecch i , 1 912 , i , p . 1 6 , n os. 6 0 , 6 1 , p l . 5 0 , n o . 4 .

3 1

I b id ., i , p . 1 4 , n o . 4 9 , p l . 4 9 , n o . I ; p . 2 8 , n o . I , p l . 6 0 , n o . I .

3 2

I b id ., i,p . 3 6 , n os. 7 3 , 7 4 , p l . 6 5 , n os. 8 , 9 ;

n ot Venus a s G necch i

s ays. 3 3

I b id ., i,P .

3 2 , n o . 4 1 , p l . 6 2 , n o . 3 :

G necch i o pts f or H erak les

a nd Ompha le . 3 4

I b id ., i,p . 3 6 , n o . 7 2 , p l . 6 5 , n o . 7 :

n o t Venus a nd F or tuna ( ? )

a s Gnecch i s ta tes. 3 5

p . 1 3 , n o . 3 7 , p l . 4 6, n o . 9 .

3 6

I b id ., i i ,p . 2 0 , n o . 1 00 ;

p l . 1 46, n os. 8 , 9 .

3 7

I bid ., p . 1 8 , n o . 7 9 , p ls . 5 1 , n o . I ;

5 2 , n o. 5 ;

p . 3 5 , n o . 6 4 , p l .

6 5 , n o . I . 3 8

I b id .

i,p . 1 8 , n os . 7 7 , 7 8 , 8 3 , 8 4 , p ls . 5 1, n o . 3 ;

p . 2 6, n o . 1 8 , p l . 5 9 , n o . I ; 3 9

I b id ., i ,

P .

p . 3 5 , n o . 6 5 , p l . 6 5 ;

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5 2 , n o . 4 ; n o . 2 .

A thene i n s tatue-for m s tands

b eh ind Hepha istos. 4 0

I b id ., i,p . 3 6 , n o . 7 6 , p l . 6 5 , n o . 1 0 .

4 1

I b id ., i,p . 2 0 , n o . 9 8 , p l . 5 4 , n o . 8 .

4 2

v an Der Meer a nd Mohr mann , 1 958 , f igs. 1 71 , 1 72 .

F or t wo o ther

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Bu l le t t ino d e lla C omm issione Archeolog ica C o munale d e R o ma , l xxxv , 1 953-5 , p p . 1 09-15 , p l . I ;

R ober t , i i ,

3 , 1 919 , n o . 3 56 .

4 4

Gnecch i , 1 912 , i , p p . 4 , n o . 1 0 ;

4 5

I b id .,

4 6

Br i t ish Museu m Quar ter ly , i x , 1 934-5 ,

4 7

Gnecch i , 1 912 , i , p . 4 8 , n o . 2 7, p ls . 7 5 , n o . 1 ;

4 8

I b id ., i,p . 6 0 , n os. 7 8 , ' 7 9 , p l . 8 3 . n os. 5 , 6 .

4 9

I b id ., i , p p . 5 3 , 5 4 , n os. 2 1 , 2 2 , p l . 7 9 , n os. 5 , 6 .

5 0

Wen twor th C ol lec tion S a le C a ta logue , May , 1 949 , n o . 3 54 , p l . 1 8 .

5 1

1,P .

7 , n o . 4 3 ;

p l . 4 2 , n o . I .

1 9 , n os . 8 7 , 8 8 , p ls. 5 2 , n o . 1 0 ; P .

5 4 , n o. I .

5 0 , n o . 3 9, p l . 1 6 , n o . 4 . 7 7, n o . 1 .

Num is ma t ik , 1 2/1 Dec . 1 933/Jan . 1 934 , f ig . o n p . 1 45 ; G necch i , 1 912 , i ,

P .

3 5 , n o . 6 9 , p l . 6 5 , n o . 5 .

5 2

I b id ., i,p . 1 9 , n o . 9 2 , p l . 5 3 , n o . 2 ;

5 3

I b id ., i , p . 2 5 , n o . 1 6 ( bu t n o t H erak les o n t he r igh t a s G necch i s ta tes ) , p l . 5 7, n o . 1 0 . 1 8

Münzhand lung B ase l 1 972 .

5 4

Base l S a le C a ta logue , 1 2/13 , x i , 7 0 , p . 4 3 , n o . 3 57, p l . 2 3 .

5 5

S track , i i , 1 937, p l . 2 1 , n o . 5 99 ;

5 6

I ts p resen t whereabou ts u nknown : u npubl ished?

5 7

Gnecch i , 1 912 , i , p . 4 5 , n o . 1 ; p l . 2 2 , n o . 2 .

5 8

B . M.C . v , 1 950 , p . 2 62 , n o . .

5 9

I bid ., p . 4 54 , n o . 1 22 , p l . 7 0 , n o. 1 6 .

6 0

I bid ., p . 2 43 , n o . *;

T oynbee , 1 944 , p l . 1 5 , n o . 5 .

R .I. C. i v , 1 , 1 936, p . 3 18 , n o . 3 3 :

n ot q u i te c orrec t ly d escr ibed . 6 1

R .I .C. v , 1 , 1 927, p . 9 9 , n os. 3 93 , 3 94.

6 2

I b id ., p . 1 05 , n os. 1 , 2 ; 1 ;

p ls . 3 , n o . 7 ;

G necch i , 1 912 , i , p p . 8 , n o . 1 ;

Bast ien , 1 958 , p l . 4 , n os. 1 -5 ;

6 4

I b id ., p . 2 80 ) n o . 5 28 .

6 5

I bid .,

6 6

I b id ., p . 2 30 , n os. 1 00-106 :

6 7

R .I.C., v i , 1 967,

6 8

5 4 , n o .

2 7 , n o . 8 .

6 3

P .

d e ta i ls

V ienna C abine t .

R .I. C. v , 2 , 1 933 , p . 3 65 , .no . 3 49 .

3 01 , n o . 6 69 .

P .

o n 1 07 N ike c rowns H erak les .

2 93 , n o . 8 7;

p . 2 95 , n o . 9 9 ;

R .I.C . v , 2 , 1 933 , p . 3 64 , n os. 3 41, 3 42 ; n os. 9 , 1 0 ;

P .

1 74 , n os . 9 1 , 9 2 ;

p . 3 78 , n o . 2 14 .

R .I. C. v i , 1 967 , p . 1 64 ,

p p . 4 55-7, n os. 1 -3 , 1 2 , 1 4 , 2 5 ;

Bast ien , 1 958 , p l . 4 , n os 6 -12 . 6 9

Gnecch i , 1 912 , i , p . 1 28 , n o . 4 , p l . 1 26 , n o . 5 .

7 0

I bid ., i , p . 1 0 , n o . 4 , p l . 4 , n o . 1 ;

R .I. C. v , 2 , 1 933 , p . 7 9 , n os .

5 86 , 5 87. 7 1

I bid ., p . 3 65 , n os. 3 44 , 3 45 ;

Bastien , 1 958 , p ls. 4 , n o . 1 4 ;

5 , n os.

1 5-22 . 7 2

R .I .C . v i , 1 967, p . 1 65 , n os . 2 4 , 2 5 .

7 3

De mus , 1 960 , p p . 1 25-7, f ig . 3 8 ;

7 4

Bas t ien , 1 958 , p l . 4 , n o . 1 3 ; p l . 3 , n o . 1 0 ;

Beckwi th , 1 970 , p . 1 33 , f ig . 2 46.

R .I. C. v , 2 , 1 933 , p .79 , n o . 5 85 ,

p . 3 64 , n o . 3 40 .

7 5

I b id ., p . 2 80 , n o. 5 30 .

7 6

R .I .C. v i , 1 967 , p . 1 73 , n os. 8 4 , a , b , 8 5 .

7 7

I b id ., p . 1 63 , n o . 3 ;

7 8

C o l l ignon , 1 905 , p . 7 6 a nd f ig . 1 7.

7 9

Gero la , n .d ., p l . 4 2 .

8 0

R .I .C. v , 2 , 1 933 , p . 3 59 , n o . 2 71;

8 1

R .I .C ., p . 3 65 , n o . 3 50 ;

Bast ien , p l . 5 , n o . 2 4.

8 2

R .I.C ., p . 3 59 , n o . 2 72 ;

Bastien , p l . 5 , n o . 2 7.

A re thuse , i , J an . 1 924 , p . 5 2 , n o . 8 , p l . 8 .

1 9

Bastien , 1 958 , p l . 5 , n o . 2 6.

8 3

R .I.C.,

P .

3 59 , n o . 2 75 ;

Bast ien , p l . 5 , n os . 2 8-30 .

8 4

R .I . C.,

P .

3 65 , n o . 3 48 ;

Bast ien , p l . 6 , n os . 3 2-44 .

8 5

R .I . C.,

P .

3 65 , n o . 3 46;

Bastien , p ls. 6 , n o . 4 5 ;

8 6

G en t i l i , 1 960 ,

8 7

R .I . C. v , 2 , 1 933 ,

P .

R .I. C. v i , 1 967,

7 8 , f ig . 3 3 . 3 65 , n o . 3 47 , p l . 1 3 , n o . 1 6;

P .

P .

1 69 , n o . 4 8 ;

8 8

I b id ., p l . 7 , n os. 4 7-50 ;

8 9

I b id ., p p . 2 85 , n os. 5 68-9 ;

9 0

I bid .,

P .

7 , n o . 4 6.

3 59 , n o . 2 73 ;

P . 7 9 , n o . 5 88 ;

Bas tien , 1 958 , p l . 7 , n os. 5 2-4 .

R .I. C. v , 2 , 1 933 ,

P .

3 65 , n o . 3 51.

3 01 , n o. 6 70 .

B ast ien , 1 958 , p l . 7 , n o . 5 1.

I ti s i n teres t ing t o c o mpare w i th t hese l a te wes tern i ssues a s er ies o f mid-i mper ia l G reek c oins s truck i n b ronze a t A lexandr ia w i th r everset ypes i l lus tra t ing e xp lo i ts o f H erak les ( B .M . C a t . Greek C oins : a ndr ia

A lex-

1 892 , p p . 1 22-4 , 1 56 , 1 88 , n os . 1 044 , 1 046-8 , 1 050-2 , 1 054

( a l l f or An ton inus P ius ) , 1 289 ( f or Marcus Aurel ius ) , 1 479 ( f or G e ta ) , p l . 6 ) .

The t ypes d epict ing An ta ios a nd t he Ery man th ian b oar a re

much t he s a me a s t hose i n t he R o man s er ies , e xcep t t ha t t he l a t ter s hows E rys theus i n t he p i thos .

Bu t t he N e mean l i on , Augean s tables ,

S ty mpha lian b irds , C retan b u l l , T hrac ian h orses , a nd H esper ides v ers ions a re d i f feren t f ro m t heir R o man c oun terpar ts ( t he S ty mp ha l ian b irds o n ly s l igh t ly s o ) ;

a nd t here a re a lso t hree t ypes , a l l

o f An ton inus P ius , n ot f ound i n t he Wes t -H erak les f igh t ing a s nakel egged g ian t ( i bid ., n o . 1 053 ) , H erak les h ack ing d own t he v ine o f S yleus ( i bid ., n o . 1 055 ) , a nd H erak les b e ing e n ter ta ined b y t he C ent aur P ho los ( i bid ., n o . 1 057) .

A G reek ' meda l l ion ' o f A dr ianopo l is

i n Thrace , s truck u nder G ord ian I I , h as a s i t s r everse-type Herak les r es t ing a nd e ncirc led b y mina ture r ender ings o f h is t we lve ' canon ica l ' l abours ( Nu m iz ma t ika iE pigra f ika , v , 1 965 , 9 1

P .

1 13 , f ig . 1 ) .

O f t he s cenes f ro m Greek my thology p or trayed a s c on torn ia te r everset ypes s o me h ave t he ir c oun terpar ts o n o f f ic ia l c o ins a nd medal lions o f t he r epubl ican p er iod a nd o f imper ia l t imes d own t o t he e nd o f t he Te trarch ies - D ionysos a nd h is t rain o n N axos , i n v ar ious v ersions , S e lene a nd Endy mion , B el lerophon a nd t he C h i ma ira , t hree o f H erak les ' canon ica l ' e xp loi ts .

O thers a re q u i te n ew t o western R o man n um is-

ma tics - Hepha istos f org ing t he s h ie ld o f A ch i l les u nder A thene 's e ye , H ero a nd Leander , H ypsipyle ( an e rror o f A lk mene ) a nd t he i n fan t Herak les , t he p un ish men t o f D irce , J ason o verpowering a f i re-brea th ing b u l l , H ector 's f arewe l l t o Andro mache , Ach i l les a nd P en thesi leis , Odysseus a nd K irke , Odysseus u nder P olyphe mos 's r am , S kylla a t tack ing a s h ip 's c rew , t he d ea th o f L aokoon a nd h is s ons . A lföld i , 1 976 .

2 0

S ee

. 2.

F IGURED AMBER I N THE ASH MOLEAN MUSEU M , OXFORD Dav id Brown a nd Mar t in Hen ig

Ma jor p ieces o f c arved amber a re r are f inds i n Roman c on tex ts.

Re-

c orded e xamp les c o me , a l most i nvar iab ly , f ro m g raves a nd i ti s s a fe t o a ssu me t ha t mos t o f t he l arger p ieces n ow k nown were o r ig ina l ly b ur ied a s g rave g oods.

Nor th o f t he A lps t here i s s o meth ing o f ac oncen trat ion i n t he

Rh ine land w h ich h as e ven l ed t o as uggest ion t hat amber was b e ing c arved a t Cologne w here many o f t he f i nds h ave b een made.

Br ita in h as y et t o p rod-

u ce a n impor tan t p iece o f f igured amber a lthough b eads a nd t he l ike a re k nown , b ut a s s o me v ery c ho ice a nd w e l l p reserved s pec i mens c o me f ro m t he N etherl ands , o n ly j ust a cross t he N or th S ea , s uch a d iscovery i s n ot a t a l l u n l ike ly .1 The t rad it iona l c en tre o f t he amber ' i ndus try ' ( and p erhaps t he o n ly o ne ) l ay i n N or th-East I ta ly , a nd s pec if ica l ly a t Aqu i le ia where many o ther v ar iet ies o f g e ms tone were c arved .

Here , f or c en tur ies , l ay t he Med iter-

r anean t erm ina l o f t he g rea t amber r oute f ro m t he Ba lt ic . 2

The Ro man

i ndustry a ppears t o h ave f l our ished i n t he f irst a nd s econd c entur ies A .D. d ur ing wh ich t i me amber was e normous ly p opu lar a s al uxury :

P l iny t e l ls

u s t hat a h uman f igur ine c u t i n t he s ubstance was r egarded a s more v a luab le t han a n umber o f s laves i n g ood h ea lth .

By t he e ar ly y ears o f t he t h ird c en-

t ury , p o l it ica l c ond it ions i n t he n or th h ad d eter iorated t o s uch a n e x ten t t hat t he s upply w as d isrup ted a nd h ence t he manu facture o f amber o b jec ts v ir tua l ly c eased. 3 The A sh mo lean c o l lec t ion , a l though sma l l , i s v ery s e lect a nd wou ld d oubt less h ave a ppea led t o t ha t g reat a nc ien t c onno isseur o f amber , a s o f o ther b eau t ifu l t h ings , t he emperor Nero.

We a re d e l igh ted t o i l lus tra te

t hese r are a nd d e l icate t reasures a s at hank-of fer ing t o J oce lyn T oynbee. I t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t o n ly o ne ( No. 5 ) o f t he p ieces d escr ibed h ere h as a p rovenance , a nd t ha t i s Aqu ile ia ;

t h is p iece c o mes f ro m t he c o l lect ion o f

S ir J ohn E vans, w ho a cqu ired i ti n 1 883. The o ther f our i t e ms h ave b een a cqu ired i n r ecen t y ears a nd o n e x tre me ly f avourab le t erms f ro m t he c o l lecti on o f Mr . J a mes B o mford . CATALOGUE 1 .

L ion a nd d eer .

The l i on l i es o n i t s r igh t s ide w ith i t s l ef t h ind l eg

s tretched o ut t o h o ld t he n eck o f ad eer whose h ead r ests i n t he a ng le o f i t s b ody .

The l ion 's h ead i s t urned t o i nvest iga te i t s p rey , a nd i t s mou th i s

o pen i n a n t ic ipat ion o f i t s mea l. V iewed f rom a bove t he c oncep t ion i s p ower fu l ( P l. 2 .1a ).

The l i on 's

h ead i s mass ive a nd menac ing , a nd b etween i ta nd t he s trong musc les o f t he h ind q uar ters t he d eer 's h ead i s l ike a n u ti n ac racker . v u lnerab i l ity o f t he p rey i s f u l ly b rough t o u t . 2 1

The weakness a nd

The s ide v iew i s much l ess i mpress ive ( P l. 2 ,1b ).

The d eer i s c u t

o f f a cross t he n eck a nd i s r ea l ly o n ly r epresen ted b y i t s h ead.

The l i on i s

c u t o f f a long i t s b ackbone a nd n o a t te mp t h as b een made t o c arve t he u ndern ea th o f t he b ody . C lear ly t he g roup w as mean t t o b e s een f rom a bove. The u nders ide i s h o l low — p robab ly a n atura l h o l low i n t he amber — a nd t he e dges a re c ut f l a t s o t hat t he p iece w ou ld f i t a ga inst a f l a t s ur face . There i s as ing le h o le d r i l led i n to t he u nders ide w here t he amber i s t h innes t ; t here i s n ow n o t race o f af asten ing i n t h is h ole , b ut t here may o nce h ave b een o ne. The workmansh ip s ee ms c o mpeten t . p iece h ard ly d e mands i t .

T here i s n o f i ne d eta i l , b ut t he

Undercut t ing o f t he l i on 's l eg a nd i n to t he j aws h as

b een a ch ieved b y d r i l l ing . The p iece i s c arved i n o range amber . Af ew sma l ler c h ips h ave b een f i l led i n r ecen t ly w ith c o loured r es in. A s ubstan t ia l c h ip , f rom t he l i on 's n eck i s a n a nc ien t b reak a nd was made g ood w ith a s epara te p iece a t tached w ith a r ivet ;

t h is i s n ow m iss ing .4

L eng th 1 0.5c m ;

h e igh t 4 .5cm.

Museum

n umber 1 971.818. 2 .

Apo l lo.

i s a n Apol lo.

The f igure i s s ad ly b at tered , b ut t here i s n o d oubt t ha t i t

He i s i n h a l f-re l ief a ga inst a f l at b ackground ( P l. 2 . I ) wa lk-

i ng t owards t he r igh t , n ude s ave f or h is man t le h ang ing f ro m h is r igh t s hou lder . H is r igh t a rm r eaches a cross h is b ody t owards t he l yre , b ut t here i s n o s ign o f t h is , n or o f t he l e f t a rm. H is h ead i s t urned i n t he d irect ion o f h is b ody ;

i ti s c overed w ith t h ick h a ir , b ut o ther d eta i ls a re l ost .

A t t he

b ot tom t he p iece h as b een b roken a nd t he l ef t l eg i s miss ing b e low t he k nee. The r ight l eg i s a lso m iss ing , f ro m a bove t he k nee , b ut t h is d oesn 't l ook a s t hough i th as b een b roken ;

t he amber l ooks a s t hough i th as b een c u t t o a

s tra igh t e dge r unn ing d iagona l ly a cross t he l eg ( Fig . 2 .1a ).

The c u t i s i n

t wo p lanes , o ne a t r igh t a ng les t o t he b ackground , t he o ther s lop ing u p a cross t he l eg. Obv ious ly t he p iece was n ot i n tended t o l ook l ike t h is , a nd i t must mean t ha t t he o r ig ina l f igure w as made u p o f t wo o r more p ieces a nd t ha t t h is i s t he p os it ion o f aj o in wh ich h as c o me c lean ly a par t .

Once t h is i s r ea l ised ,

t he d isappearance o f t he o ther s ide o f t he f igure i s e xp l icab le. A lthough t he e dge i s b a t tered , t here i s n o s ign o f a mass ive b reak wh ich wou ld h ave b een n ecessary t o r e move a l l t race o f t he l e f t a rm , t he l yre a nd t he r ight h and ; i ti s f ar more l i ke ly t ha t t here w as a nother j o in o n t ha t s ide r unn ing d own f rom t he l ef t s hou lder t o t he l ef t k nee.

f irst ;

Thus i ta ppears t ha t t he o b ject i s n ot q u ite s o b at tered a s i ts ee ms a t i ti sj us t af ragmen t f ro m a l arger s cene. The b ack o f t he p iece i s

f l at , a nd t here i s n o s ign o f a ny a t tachmen t . T here i s n o h int , i nt he sma l l a rea o f t he b ackground wh ich s urv ives a round t he f igure , o f a ny o ther e le men ts i n t he s cene. H owever , t here p robab ly were s ome , a s w i l l b ecome a pparen t . The f l a t b ack i mp l ies t hat t he p iece was f i t ted f l ush a ga inst a s ur face , b u t i n t h is c ase , u n l ike t he l i on a nd s tag , t he c ra f tsman h ad n o t p roduced a s e lfc on ta ined s hape w h ich c ou ld s tand b y i t se lf i n i so la t ion o n t he l i d o f ab ox . The j o in ts s how t ha t h e was b u i ld ing u p as cene o u t o f s evera l p ieces.

I f o ne

c omp letes t h is i n t erms o f Apo l lo a lone , t here w ou ld b e a n o pen s pace a longs ide t he l e f t k nee , u nder t he l e f t a rm wh ich mus t s ure ly h ave b een f i l led w ith a nother f igure , r a ther t han l e f t b lank , a nd t hus a s cene c an b e b u il t u p t o as hape l arger a nd more r egu lar t han t ha t wh ich a ny n atura l l ump o f amber

2 2

PLATE 2 .I :

a , b .

L ion w ith p rey . ( Ash mo lean Museu m)

PLATE 2 .I I :

Apo l lo p lay ing h is l yre . ( Ash mo lean Museu m )

C

F IG . 2 .1:

a , A po l lo ;

b , R econs truct ion d rawing o f p laque .

c , C ock le s he l l .

PLATE 2 .1 1 I :

a , b .

Pyx is s how ing c up ids a t p lay . ( Ashmo lean . Museu m)

PLATE 2 .1V :

a . b .

P yx is s howb iz c up ids a t p lay . ( Ash mo lean Museu m

wou ld a l low .

Fro m t hese b eg inn ings i ts eems n a tura l t o p ropose t hat o ur

p iece i s b u t ap ar t o f ac o mpos ite r ectangu lar p ane l made o f s evera l p la tes. No d oub t t he p ane l wou ld h ave b een l arge e nough t o c on ta in t he f u l l h e igh t o f f igures o n t h is s ca le — s ometh ing o f t he o rder o f 1 0.0c m h igh ( F ig . 2 .1b ). A s cene s uch a s i s i mag ined w ou ld p robab ly work b et ter i n av er t ica l r a ther t han a h or izon ta l p os it ion , a nd i t may b e s uggested t ha t i tc o mes f ro m ab ox whose s ides w ere c overed w ith r ectangu lar p ane ls o f t he s or t e nv isaged. The p ieces c ou ld h ave b een f astened t ogether w ith g lue , a nd t he c o mp lete p ane ls h e ld i n p lace b y t he e dge o f t he f ra me ;

t h is wou ld p rov ide p er fect ly

a dequate f asten ing f or t he m. S urv iv ing h e igh t 7 .0c m. 3 . p lay .

Museum n umber 1 971.819

P er fu me p ot c arved i n h igh r e l ief w i th a s cene o f c up ids o r p u t t i a t

I th as b een b roken a cross t he c en tre r esu l t ing i n t he l oss o f t wo d eep

s p l in ters o f amber f ro m t he s ides , a nd d a mage t o i ts t op e dge .

The p iece

h as a n o b long o u t l ine a nd t he f igures o f t he p ut t i a re g rouped a t e ach e nd . F or tuna te ly o n ly o ne h as b een d a maged b y t he b reak : The s cene i s s et i n t he p a laestra. wh i le a f i f th a cts a s t ra iner .

i th as l ost i t s h ead .

Two p a irs o f p ut t i a re wrest l ing ,

He i s t he o n ly o ne t o b e c lothed , w ear ing a

s hor t t un ic h itched u p o ver t he l ef t s hou lder ( P l . 2. I I Ib ).

By h is r igh t s ide

t here i s al arge b a l l — a l most a ' med ic ine b a l l ' — o n t he g round .

We a re

r em inded o f t he s p ir ited g a me , p a in ted o n t he w a l l o f at o mb o n t he V ia P or tuense , Ro me o n ly h ere t he b a l l i s sma l ler a nd i s i n t he a ir . t wo p ut t i a re wrest l ing .

5

B eh ind t he t ra iner

They h ave e ach o ther b y t he a rms a nd s ee m e ven ly

ma tched , t hough o ne h as j ust s tuck o u t h is l e f t l eg i n a n a t te mp t t o o ver turn h is o pponen t ( P l. 2 .I I Ia , 2 .IVb ). A t t he o ther e nd o f t he p o t t here i s a no ther p a ir o f wrest lers ( Pl. 2 .IVa ). Here t he c ontest i s a l l b u t o ver ;

o ne o f t he c on tes tan ts h as t hrown t he o ther

a nd h as h im o n t he f loor b y t he h and a nd t he a nk le. t he m iss ing p iece.

The h ead o f t he v ic tor i s

S epara t ing t he t wo p a irs o f w rest lers , o n t he o ppos ite s ide

o f t he p ot t o t he t ra iner , i s ah erm ( P l. 2. IVb ). The i ns ide o f t he p o t was h o l lowed o ut o n al athe , a nd a s ea t ing f or t he l id c ut i n t he u pper e dge o f t he r i m. d eep g rooves ( P l. 2 .Va ). g raf f ito. word .

The b ase t oo was t urned w ith a s er ies o f

S cratched i ns ide o ne o f t hese g rooves , t here i s a

I ti s n ot r ead ily i n te l l ig ib le b u t s ee ms more l i ke a n umber t han a

I t may r ecord t he c apac ity o f t he p ot . The o b ject i s s e lf-con ta ined , a nd a par tf ro m t he d a mage , l acks o n ly a

l id.

Overa l l d i mens ions , 7 .0c m b y 4 .3c m b y 4 .8c m h igh ;

s e l f measures 2 .0c m d ia meter b y 3 .8c m d eep. 4 .

S he l l.

The b ack o f t he s he l l , wh ich a ppears t o b e ac ock le , i s

c arved i n l ow r e l ief w ith a s ea s cene ( P l. 2. V Ia ; sw i ms t o t he r igh t a cross t he s he l l ; t he e dge o f t he s he l l. t he d o lph in 's b e l ly . c reatures.

t he c on ta iner i t -

Museum n u mber 1 976.570.

F ig . 2. 1c ).

Al arge d o lph in

i th as a f i ne c urv ing t a il e x tend ing u p t o

Be low a nd i n f ron t o f i t af i sh s w i ms t o t he l ef t u nder

A f ine c arved , wavy s ea f orms t he b ackground t o t he t wo

Around t he e dge , a nd p ar t icu lar ly n ear t he h inge , t he s hape o f

t he s he l l i s r endered a ccura te ly .

2 8

PLATE 2 .V :

a , Base o fp yx is w ith g raf f ito . ( Ashmo lean . Museum) b ,c .

Musse l s he l l . ( Ash mo lean Museu m)

PLATE 2 .V I :

a , b .

C ock le s he l l w ith d o lph in i n l ow r e l ief . ( Ash mo lean Museu m)

On t he i ns ide , t he s he l l i s smooth a nd p robab ly makes u se o f an atura l h o l low i n t he amber , e x tend ing o n ly t o p rov ide r ea l ist ic u ndercut t ing a round t he h inge ( P l. 2 .V lb ). The u pper s ur faces o f t he f i sh a nd t he d o lph in a re b oth worn , a nd t he d e ta i l i s n ow s een b et ter i n ad raw ing t han a p hotograph .

O therw ise t he c on-

d i t ion i s g ood a nd t he p iece i s c o mp lete. D i mens ions 8 .0cm b y 6 .6c m b y 2 .0c m h igh .

Museu m n u mber 1 976.571.

5 . S he l l . A s i mp le musse l s he l l , smooth o n t he i ns ide , c arved w ith r ad iat ing l ines o n t he o uts ide ; t he o n ly d eta iled work o ccurs where t he l i nes meet o n t he h inge.

The s he l l i s i n g ood c ond it ion , a nd c o mp lete ( P l. 2 .Vb ,c ).

D imens ions 5 .5c m b y 5 .0c m b y 1 .5c m. The p iece was f ormer ly i n t he c o l lect ion o f S ir J ohn Evans, who a cqu ired i ti n Aqu ile ia i n 1 883. Museum n u mber 1 927. 4 496. D ISCUSS ION The t wo s hel ls , n os. 4 a nd 5 , a re c o mp lete o b jects wh ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed f unct iona l ly , a s s aucers f or s coop ing a nd p our ing l i qu ids a lthough , a s B arb h as s hown , s uch s he l ls w ere e ndowed w ith o ther-wor ld ly s ign if icance a s s ymbo ls o f o cean. 6

The d o lph in o n t he l arger , more e laborate s he l l i s we l l

k nown a s a n a l lus ion t o t he j ourney o f t he s ou l o ver O cean t o t he B lessed I s les ( Paper 1 5 , b e low ). I n a ny c ase , t hey s hou ld b e c o mpared w ith t he t wo o ther k nown e xa mp les o f amber s he l ls, b o th o f wh ich w ere f ound i n Co logne

. 7

The more e laborate

o ft hese i s ab iva lve ( sa id t o b e a musse l ) w ith a s ea-dragon ( ketos ) a nd s he l ls o n t he o uts ide , a nd a g a l ley b e ing r owed b y c up ids o n t he i ns ide.

Th is s he l l

d i f fers f rom t he o thers i n b e ing c er ta in ly t oo o rna te f or a ny f unct iona l p urpose. The l esser o f t he Co logne s he l ls i s ag ood ma tch f or o ur No. 4 .

I t i s a mus-

s e l , p la in o n t he i ns ide a nd c arved l ike a d o lph in i n l ow r e l ief o n t he o u ts ide. The t wo s he l ls a re a bout t he s a me s ize. The f our th s he l l , No. 5 , i s a lone i n t he s i mp l ic ity o f i t s d ecora t ion . The t wo C o logne s he l ls b oth c ome f ro m t he L uxe mburger S trasse , t he a rea o f ak nown c emetery o f t he s econd a nd t h ird c entur ies.

The sma l ler p iece

c omes f rom a g rave , whose c on ten ts a re r ecorded a nd d a tab le t o t he l a ter s econd c en tury .

8

The p er fu me p o t , n o. 3 , i s matched b y t wo s im ilar p ub l ished e xa mp les ; b o th were f ound a t Aqu i le ia , a nd o ne ( f ro m a g rave ) i s i n t he museu m t here w h i le t he o ther ( w ith o n ly a p robab le p rovenance ) i s i n t he Br it ish Museum . 9 The makers o f a l l t hree p ots h ave t aken a dvan tage o f t he n a tura l ly i rregu lar s hape o f t he o r ig ina l l u mp o f amber , t o c arve t he ir f igures i n h igh r e l ief w herever p oss ib le.

On t he Br it ish Museu m p ot , t wo p ut t i a re b usy g ather-

i ng g rapes a nd t he Aqu i le ia v esse l s hows t hree l onglegged b irds ( Cranes ) d evour ing s nakes. w i th mou ld ings ;

The Aqu ile ia p o t was f ound w ith a t urned l i d c o mp lete

t he Br it ish Museu m e xa mp le h as n o l id , a lthough t here a re

i n t he museu m t wo l ids w ith e labora te c arved t ops a nd a t h ird w ith p la in mou ld ings. c entury ;

Dona ld S trong d a ted t he Br it ish Museu m p iece t o t he e ar ly s econd

Brus in t hough t t ha t t he Aqu i le ia s pec i men was o f f irst-century d a te.

3 1

These amber p ots a re c lear ly w e l l p ara l le led i n t he sma l l b one ' pyx ides ' wh ich a re much more f am i l iar .o These b one b oxes a re o ften d ecorated w ith c arved s cenes a nd amongst t hese , p u t t i p redom ina te.

The sma l l s ize o f t hese

p ots , w hether o fb one o r o f amber , makes t hem p ar t icu lar ly s u i tab le f or c h i ld l ike f i gures , a nd d oub ly s o i n t he c ase o f amber where t he c hubby l imbs o f p ut t i c an b e c arved more s a fe ly t han c an t he s lender l imbs o f a du lts. P u t t i a re s hown o n s arcophag i e ngaged i n t he v in tage ( as o n t he Br it ish Museum p ot ) a nd i n wrest l ing ( as o n o ur v esse l ). 1 1

S uch s cenes a re a l lego-

r ies o f t he j oys o f p arad ise. P u tt a re s hown o n an umber o f amber o b jec ts i nc lud ing a s he l l f ro m Co logne c i ted a bove a nd , most n otab ly , af ree-stand ing g roup o f ap a ir o f c up ids wrest l ing f or a p a lm-branch t rophy f rom a t o mb i n Aqu i le ia .1 2 The l i on a nd d eer , n o. 1 , h as n o f unct ion a s a n o b ject i n i t s own r igh t . I ts f l a t u nders ide s hows t hat i tw as o r ig ina l ly f i t ted o n to a nother o b ject , a nd i ts ee ms mos t r easonab le t o s uggest t ha t i tw as , a t l eas t f ro m af unct iona l p o in t o f v iew , mere ly d ecorat ive.

Good p ara l le ls f or t ha t i n c arved b one a re

p rov ided b y t he b onein la id wooden c ouches , s evera l e xamp les o f w h ich h ave b een f ound i n I t a ly .1 3 Apar t f ro m t he n umerous f l at p la tes o f b one , t hese c ouches a re embe l l ished w ith s ing le a pp l iqué d es igns a nd g roups o f f igures c arved o ut o f s evera l p ieces o f b one. The t reatmen t o f t he amber l i on a nd d eer i s v ery s im i lar t o t he o rna men ted b one a pp l iqués o n t he c ouches , s ave o n ly t hat t he l i on a nd d eer s ee m d es igned f or t he t op o f a n o b jec t w hereas t he b one p lates o rnamen t t he s ides o f t he c ouches . No o ther p iece o f amber w ou ld s ee m t o h ave b een t reated i nq u ite t h is manner , a l though i ti s , a ga in , p robab le t ha t t he o r ig ina l s hape o f t he p iece o f amber — i t p resu mab ly h ad a l arge n atura l c lef t o n o ne s ide — d eterm ined h ow i tc ou ld b e u sed. The s ub ject i s ac o m mon o ne o n f unerary monumen ts a nd a s e xa mp les w e may c i te t he Corbr idge L ion a nd s im i lar f ree-stand ing s cu lp tures , a s w e l l a s r e l iefs s uch a s ag rave a l tar i n t he F itzw iL l iam Museum , Cambr idge w h ich b ears a r epresen tat ion o f al i on a t tack ing a w i ld a ss. 1 4

Amongs t smal ler

o b jects t here a re j et f igur ines i nc lud ing o ne f rom Che lmsford ( d iscussed a nd i l lustra ted i n p aper 1 5 b e low ) w h ich s how l i ons w ith t he ir p rey . A l though t he s ub ject i s , a pparen t ly , n ot o therw ise r ecorded i n amber , i ti s s o mewhat r em in iscen t o f t he h ounds wh ich o rna men t amber r ings , k n ife-hand les a nd l arger o b jects a nd wh ich a ppear t o h ave a c h thon ic mean ing . 15 The Apo l lo p laque , n o. 2 , i s l i kew ise w i thou t p ub l ished p ara l le ls amongst amber p ieces , y et t here s ee ms t o b e n o d oubt t ha t i t was o r ig ina l ly o n ly o ne o f as er ies o f f igures made u p o f an umber o f s epara te p ieces o f c arved amber . The o bv ious p ara l le ls t o t h is a re t he b one a nd i vory p ane ls u sed t o embe l l ish t he l i d a nd s ides o f wooden b oxes , a nd i t ems o f f urn iture s uch a s c ouches • 16 I n p ar t icu lar , t he c arved b one p laques o n t he c orners o f ac ouch i n t he F itzw il l iam Museum , Cambr idge ma tch t h is p iece i n t echn ique a nd s ub ject — f or h ere , t oo , Apo l lo p lays h is l yre ( a lthough h e i s s hown f u l ly c lo thed ). 1 7 When made o f b one , c o mpos ite p ane ls o ft h is s or t c an b e made u p o f r egu lar ly s haped ( rectangu lar ) p ieces ; w ith amber t he r aw mater ia l c o mes i n v ary ing s hapes a nd s izes , a nd i t was n ot p oss ib le t o c u t t he p ieces a l l t o t he s ame s ize ;

h ence t he d iagona l c u ts wh ich f orm t he e dges t o t h is o b jec t . 3 2

I t i s p oss ib le t ha t t he l egendary s tory o f t he o r ig in o f amber , t ha t i t c ons is ted o f t he t ears o f t he d augh ters o f Phaethon , may h ave p rov ided t he i nsp irat ion f or t he f igure o f Apo l lo .1 8

There i s as cu lp tura l p roto type —

p oss ib ly a n Apo l lo b y Agorakr itos ( f if th c en tury ) o r S kopas ( f our th c en tury ) — a lthough p ermuta t ions o n t he c lass ica l o r ig ina l s ee m t o h ave b een p erpet rated t hroughou t t he He l len ist ic a ge , g enera l ly s how ing t he g od f u l ly c lothed . F igures o f Apo l lo a re , h owever , s hown n ude ( apar t f rom t he man t le ) o n g e ms a nd t hese i mp ly t ha t av ar ian t o n t he s tock t ype r epresented , f or e xa mp le , b y t he N eron ian c o in , was n o t u nusua l i n t he f i rst c entury A . D .

1 9

The f unerary n ature o f s o much o f t he s urv iv ing amber c arv ing i s v ery much a pparen t .

I n p ar t i td oub t less r ef lects t he f ac t t hat t he p ieces wh ich

h ave s urv ived a re j ust t he o nes t hough t s u itab le f or p lac ing i n t o mbs ;

h owever

we must n ot f orget t ha t t here w as a p ro m inen t c h thon ic c u l t o f L ibero a nd L ibera i n t he a rea a round Aqu i le ia , p rov id ing s o meth ing o f as t i mu lus f or t he r epresenta t ion o f o ther-wor ld ly t he mes. 2 ° P l iny i s more c oncerned a t d isc uss ing amber a s al uxury t han f or i t s s upposed amu let ic v ir tues , a lthough h e d oes men t ion t he m. 2 1 Two c ons idera t ions , t o b r ing t h is e xot ic p aper b ack t o t he ma in t he me o f t he v o lu me , Ro man Br ita in , a re t hat l ike j et , amber h as e lectrostat ic p rope r t ies a nd t ha t P l iny , a t a ny r a te , a pprec iated t he o rgan ic n ature o f b o th s ubst ances. 2 2

I n t he f irst a nd s econd c entur ies i n I ta ly a nd t he Rh ine land , a nd i n

t he t h ird a nd f our th c entur ies i n Br ita in a nd Germany , o b jects made f ro m t hese mater ia ls w ere c arved a nd u sed a s g rave g oods.

There i s n o r ea l c or-

r espondence i n d istr ibut ion , ( excep t i n t he Rh ine land ) a nd t he d ates a t wh ich o b jects w ere made i n t he t wo mater ia ls d o n ot a ppear t o o ver lap . t he s im i lar ity b etween s o me o f t he s ub jects :

However ,

c rouch ing l i ons , c up ids , g or-

g one ia i s ah in t t ha t f ro m t he b r igh t d ays o f amber i nto t he d arker o nes o f j et , men a nd w o men i n t he Ro man Emp ire f ro m P o mpe i i t o York p reserved many o f t he s a me a t t itudes t o d eath a nd t o l i fe

2 3

We a re c oncerned w ith a h igh ly

c onservat ive c u lture , where t he u nusua l was o f ten i nvested w ith mag ica l o r amu let ic p owers , e i ther ma l ignan t o r f r iend ly a ccord ing t o c ircums tance. NOTE From what c an b e d educed a bove a bou t b oth t he l i on a nd d eer p iece , No. 1 , a nd t he Apo l lo p laque , N o. 2 , i ti s p oss ib le t ha t b oth c ou ld h ave d ecorat ed s im i lar o b jec ts ;

a nd s ince , s o f ar a s i s k nown , Mr . B o mford a cqu ired

b oth a t t he s a me t ime , i ti s e ven p oss ib le t ha t b oth o r ig ina l ly d ecorated t he s a me o b ject .

3 3

REFERENCES

1 .

La Bau me , 1 968, 1 14 ;

Chap man , 1 974 , 2 73f a nd 2 76 n ote 1 1;

v an

Buche m , 1 975 , 2 08-218. 2 .

S trong ,

1 966a , 3 3-34 ;

o n t he g e m-cut t ing i ndustry S ena Ch iesa , 1 966.

3 .

P l iny , N . H. XXXV I I, 4 9.

4 .

Th is p iece i s d escr ibed a nd i l lustrated i n t he Cata logue o f t he e xh ib it ion

v an Buche m , 1 975 , 2 16.

An t iqu it ies f ro m t he Bo mford Co l lect ion , Ashmo lean Museu m, 1 966 , 7 8 n o. 3 78 p l. XL. 5 .

Band ine l l i , 1 971, 1 43, f ig . 1 51.

6 .

Barb , 1 953, 2 06.

7 .

L a Bau me, 1 968, 1 08, n os. 2 a nd 3 .

8 .

Poppe lreuter , 1 906, 3 61, p l. 2 3.

9 .

Brus in , 1 934 , 2 33, f ig . 1 36;

S trong ,

1 966a , 9 2-93 No. 1 14 , p l. x l i.

1 0.

Marangou , 1 976, 6 1-62 a nd 1 25-6 n os. 2 17 a nd 2 18.

1 1.

S tuveras , 1 969 , 5 3-55 f ig . 1 31 ( v in tage ) ;

P ls. 6 4 a -f .

6 1 a nd 9 9 f ig . 3 5 a nd Ca lza ,

1 940 , 2 10-215 f ig . 1 15 N o. 1 2 ( wrest l ing ). 1 2.

Exh ib it ion Ca ta logue , On e Argen t i d e l l ' Ita l ia Ant ica , Tur in 1 961, 1 42 a nd p l. l i i i n o. 4 18.

1 3.

R ich ter , 1 966, 1 06.

1 4.

Toynbee , 1 964 , 1 14 a nd p l. x x ix b ;

Budde a nd N icho l ls , 1 964 , 8 9 a nd

p l. x lv i i i n o. 1 43. 1 5. 1 6.

v an Buche m , 1 975 , 2 12 f ig . 4 ;

Ber tacch i, 1 964 , 5 7-59.

Marangou, 1 976 , p ass im e spec ia l ly 4 6f . f or my tho log ica l a nd e p ic t he mes. p ls. 1 6 a nd 1 7 s how h ow t he p la tes were j o ined ;

R ich ter , 1 966,

1 06. 1 7.

F itzw il l ia m Museu m , Ca mbr idge.

Museu m Nu mber GR3.1973.

1 8.

P l iny N .H. XXXV I I, 3 1.

1 9.

R ich ter , 1 970 , 2 12 a nd f ig . 7 52, a lso f i g. 7 41 ( co in o f Nero );

c f S trong ,

1 977 , 1 08-110 p ls. 8 0 a nd 8 1;

1 966a, 3 .

R ich ter , 1 971, 3 1 n o. 7 4 ;

B ieber ,

Hen ig , 1 975a,

1 5 a nd p l. 1 n o. 1 3. 2 0.

Ber tacch i, 1 964 , p ass i m.

2 1.

P l iny , N . H. 2 0 (V I I, 5 1;

S trong ,

2 2.

P l iny N .H. XXXV I I, 4 2;

XXXV I, 1 41;

2 3.

1 966a , 1 0-11. R .C. H. M., 1 962, 1 41-4.

Hen ig , 1 974, i , 9 9, No. 7 56 a nd p l. x l ix f or a p a ir o f c up ids o n aj et p endan t ;

c f. c up ids o n t he Br it ish Museu m p yx is.

1 6-17, f ig . If or a medusa h ead i n amber ; p l. 6 8 ( j et ). 3 4

B iavasch i, 1 951,

a s R .0 . H. M. , 1 962, 1 42,

3 .

THE CLASS ICAL TRAD IT ION I N THE POPULAR S CULPTURE OF RO MAN BR ITAIN E .J. P h i l l ips

L oca l ly p roduced works c arved i n t he c lassica l t rad i t ion f or m t he b u lk o f R o mano-Br i t ish s cu lptures .

Y et l i t t le a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he ir s ty le ,

a l though t heir s ub jects h ave o f ten b een d iscussed .

P erhaps t h is i s i n p ar t d ue

t o t he f act t ha t t hey c onst i tu te t he n or m a nd , a s H aver f ie ldl h as r e marked , " Excep t ions a re a lways more i n terest ing t han r u les."

P erhaps , t oo , t he c on-

d e mna t ion o f c lassica l a r t i n R o man Br i ta in b y C o l lingwood h as c on tr ibu ted t o t he f requen t n eg lect o f t heir a esthe tic a spects.

C o l l ingwood 's words , wh ich

c o me i n ac hapter wh ich h e r egarded a s t he b est t h ing h e h ad e ver wr i t ten ,

2

a re wor th q uot ing i n f u l l : " Ro me t augh t t he B r i tons t o c arve s tone , t o p a in t wa l l-p laster , t o d ec ora te f l oors i n mosa ic .

Bu t , o f a l l t he r esu l ts , t here i s h ard ly a ny-

t h ing t ha t r ises a bove t he l eve l o f d u l l , mechan ica l im i ta t ion t o t ha t o f e ven t h ird-ra te a r tist ic a ch ieve men t . were p oor e nough ;

The R o man mode ls t he mse lves

t he empire was n ot a n a ge o f g ood t aste ;

b u t t here

i s p erhaps n o p rov ince where l oca l a t te mp ts t o r eproduce t he m f a i led s o d is ma l ly a s t hey f a i led i n Br i tain .

E lsewhere t he p rov incia ls t hrew

t he mse lves w i th a c er tain d egree o f c on f idence o r e ven e n thusias m i n to t he p roduction o f r o man ized works o f a r t , a nd i ft hey p roduced n oth ing g rea t , a t l east t hey p roduced s o me th ing c o mpe ten t :

s o mething t ha t

was n o d isgrace e i ther t o t he R o man t radi t ion o r t o t heir own s k i l l . Bu t o n a ny Ro mano-Br i tish s i te t he impression t ha t c onstan t ly h aun ts t he a rchaeo log ist , l ike a b ad sme l l o r as t ick iness o n t he f ingers , i s t hat o f a n u g liness wh ich p ervades t he p lace l i ke a L ondon f og :

n ot

mere ly t he c o m mon v u lgar u g l iness o f t he R o man empire , b u t ab lund ering , s tup id u g l iness t ha t c annot e ven r ise t o t he l eve l o f t ha t v u lg ar i ty . "3 A lthough t h is a ssess men t h as b een e choed b y s o me wr i ters ,

4

P rofessor

F rere h as p o in ted o u t t ha t i t " co mp le te ly u nderesti ma tes t he a ch ieve men ts o f R o man-Bri t ish a r t" .

5

I ti s , h owever , n o t mere ly t ha t C o l lingwood h as e xpressed

as ub ject ive v a lue j udge men t wh ich i s o pen t o e qua l ly s ub ject ive c r i t icis m ; h is u nder ly ing a rgu men ts d o n ot s tand u p t o s cru t iny .

The ir weaknesses a re

im med ia tely a pparen t when a ppl ied t o s cu lpture. I n t he f irs t p lace C o l lingwood wrong ly a ssu mes t ha t a ll R o mano-Br i t ish s cu lptures were c arved b y n a t ive Br i tons , a lthough h e d oes l a ter make a n e xc ep t ion o f t he B a th G orgon , wh ich h e r egards a s t oo g ood t o b e t he work o f a n a tive a r tist .

6

The t echn ique o f s tone c arv ing was b rough t t o Br i ta in b y f or-

e ign s cu lptors , s o me o f who m u ndoub ted ly c a me t o t he p rov ince a s c iv i l ians t o e arn t he ir l i v ing , o thers b ecause t hey were s erv ing i n t he a r my.

3 5

Af ew a re

k nown b y n a me , b u t t he p resence o f many more o r o f a r t ists w ho h ad b een t ra ined b y f ore ign s cu lptors may o f ten b e s ur m ised f ro m f ore ign s ty l is tic f eat ures , u n less i ti s a ssumed t ha t t hese d e ta i ls w ere i nvar iab ly t aken b y n a t ive a r t ists f ro m f oreign p a t tern b ooks , wh ich s ee ms most i mprobab le . U nder C o l lingwood 's t heory t he w orks o f f oreign s cu lp tors s hou ld b e r ead i ly d ist ing u ishab le f ro m t hose o f t he ir n a t ive c oun terpar ts b y t he ir s uper ior q ua l i ty . Bu t i t wou ld b e n a ive t o a t tr ibu te a work t o a n i mm igran t s cu lp tor s o le ly o n t he d egree o f t echn ica l c ompe tence . u n ique ly b ad i s u nrea l .

H is v iew t ha t R o mano-Br i t ish a r tists were

E ven a c asua l g lance a t E sperand ieu , f or i nstance ,

w i l l r evea l t ha t t hey h ad n o monopo ly i n t h is r espec t .

C ol lingwood 's e xp lana-

t ion o f t h is a l leged u n iqueness i s t ha t " The t rad i t ion wh ich R o me b rough t t o h er p rov inces was c o mp le te ly u nsu i ted t o t he n eeds o f am ind t ra ined a s t he a r t ists o f B r i ta in h ad b een t ra ined" .

N a t ive a r t ists i n o ther p rov inces , h ow-

e ver were i n as im i lar s i tua t ion a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t t o s ee why , a ccord ing t o C o l l ingwood 's t heory , t hey s hou ld h ave r esponded s a t isfac tor i ly t o t he c lassica l t rad it ion a nd t he B ri tons s hou ld n o t .

Moreover , t he B r i tons , o r a t l east s o me

o f t he m , h ad a cqu ired a p red i lec t ion f or c lassica l a r t b e fore t he R o man c onq uest .

E ven i fi ti s a rgued t ha t t he p o t tery a nd t he f ew works o f s cu lp ture

wh ich c a me i n to t he c oun try f ro m t he c on t inen t b e fore t he c onques t were t reas ured b ecause t hey w ere d ip lo ma t ic g i f ts o r b oo ty , o r f or s o me o ther n ona esthet ic r eason , t he e v idence o f l oca l c o in t ypes p roves b eyond d oub t at as te f or c lass ica l a r t f orms.

7

F ur thermore , e c lect ic s cu lp tures o f t he Ro man

p er iod , wh ich c o mb ine b o th c lass ica l a nd C e l t ic s ty l ist ic f eatures s how , a s Professor Toynbee h as i l lustra ted , 8t ha t t he t wo a r t ist ic t rad it ions w ere n o t i nco mpa t ib le. I ti s n ot o n ly i n h is c la im t ha t R o mano-Br i t ish a r t i s i n fer ior t o t ha t o f t he o ther p rov inces a nd i n h is e xp lana t ion o f t h is a l leged i n fer ior i ty t ha t C o llingwood e rrs.

H e makes t he e rroneous a ssump t ion t ha t t he R o mano-Br i t ish s cu lp tors

were s i mply t ry ing t o i m i ta te c lassica l mode ls . wh ich a f fec ts p opu lar R o man a r t a s a who le .

T h is i s a n i mpor tan t ma t ter ,

U n for tuna te ly n o p opu lar s cu lp-

t or h as l e f t a ny wr i t ten r ecord o f wha t h e was t ry ing t o d o a nd i ti s , t here fore , p ossib le t o d raw c onc lusions o n ly f ro m t he s cu lp tures t he mse lves . T h is means t ha t ad ist inc t ion c anno t b e made b e tween a s cu lp tor 's i n ten tion a nd h is a c tua l a ch ieve men t .

T he t wo a re n o t n ecessar i ly i den t ica l .

Many a r t ists a t t he

R ena issance , f or e xa mp le , c la i med t ha t t hey w ere i m i ta t ing c lass ica l a n t iqu i ty , a l though i n f ac t t he ir works were d is t inc t ly n on-c lassica l i n v ar ious r espec ts. I m i ta t ion i s s e ldo m c opy ing , p ure a nd s i mp le , a nd e ven t he works o f s o-ca l led c opyists a re r are ly e xac t c op ies d own t o t he l ast d e ta i l . t o f orge t t h is .

9

Archaeo log ists t end

T hey a re o f ten s o p reoccup ied w i th t rac ing o r ig ins a nd i n f luences

t ha t t hey i gnore e v idence o f o r ig ina l i ty .

S o me R o mano-Br i tish s cu lp tures a p-

p ear t o f o l low c lassica l mode ls c lose ly , t hough w i th v ary ing d egrees o f s k i l l . Bu t t he e v idence o f many o ther p opu lar s cu lptures i n t he p rov ince p oin ts t o t he c onc lusion t ha t , wha tever t he a r t ists may h ave t hough t t hey were d oing , t hey f requen t ly d ev ia ted f ro m t he p r inc ip les o f t he c lassica l t rad i t ion .

T hey u sed

c lassica l f igure t ypes , b u t o f ten t rea ted t he m i n a way t ha t i s e ssen tia l ly =c lassica l . T o ac er ta in e x ten t t he p opu lar t rad i t ion o f s cu lp ture i s , a s B ianch i Band ine l l i h as o bserved , t he o u tco me o f ap rocess o f s i mp li f ica t ion .

1 0

T here c an b e n o

d oub t t ha t i tc a me a bou t a s t he r esu l t o f i n fer ior a r t ists p roducing s cu lp tures t o mee t t he n eeds o f c l ien ts who c ou ld n o t a f ford t op q ual i ty works .

Ana to m ica l

i naccurac ies s o me t i mes r evea l t he s cu lp tor 's l ack o f t echn ica l e xper t ise .

3 6

On

t he r e l ie f o f H ercu les a nd t he H ydra a t C orbr idge , f or e xa mp le , (P 1.3.Ia ), t he p ect ora ls a re t oo h igh a nd s can t a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he l ower p ar t o f t he t orso

1

.More o f ten , h owever , a nato m ica l f orms a re t o lerab ly a ccurate , b u t

l ack t he s ub t le ty o f f irst c lass w ork . The t rea tmen t t ends t o b e s uper f ic ia l a nd t he s cu lp tor a ppears n ot t o h ave f u l ly u nderstood t he u nder ly ing a nato m ica l s tructure. S omet i mes t he muscu lature i s s imp ly i nc ised o r c u t i n v ery l ow r e l ief o n t he s ur face o f t he b ody , a s o n t he s ta tue o f Hercu les f rom Rudches t er .

1 2

P oses , t oo, a re o f ten s imp l if ied. The Rudchester H ercu les i s b ased

o n ac lass ica l f i gure t ype, o f w h ich t he w e l l-known b ronze s tatue o f Hercules f rom t he Theatre o f P ompey i n R o me p rov ides a n e xa mp le. 1 3 H u t t he e asy , c on f id en t p ose o f t he l a t ter i s g one ; i n stead H ercu les s tands s ti f f ly u pr igh t w i th h is s hou lders h unched , h is u pper a rms h e ld c lose t o h is b ody a nd h is l egs t oge ther . S o me t i mes , t oo , s i mp l if icat ion i s a ch ieved b y s tress ing t he ma in f eature o f ap ose . T he t endency t owards s i mpli f ica t ion i s , h owever , a pparen t a bove a l l i n t he t rea t men t o f d rapery .

T he c o mp lex i t ies o f c lassica l d rapery a re o f ten

r educed t o s i mp le , r egu lar , l i near p a t terns.

T he p rocess c an b e i l lustra ted

b y c on trast ing t he s ta tue o f Minerva f ro m S ibson 1 4 w i th t he r e l ie fs o f Br igan t ia , whose f igure i sb ased o n M inerva , f ro m B irrens .

1 5

A l though o ne i s i n t he

r ound a nd t he o ther i n r e l ie f , t h is a lone d oes n o t a ccoun t f or t he d i f ferences i n t he t rea t men t o f t he ir d rapery .

T he f o lds o f t he d rapery o n t he s ta tue o f

Minerva a re d eep ly c u t a nd a re o f i rregu lar s ec t ion .

T he ir o vera l l p a t tern i s

n ot c o mpl ica ted , b u t r egu lar i ty h as b een a voided b y v arying t he d irec t ion o f t he f o lds o n t he l e f t s ide o f t he c hest , n ear t he l e f t e nd o f t he b ot to m o f t he man t le , a nd b e tween t he l egs.

B r igan t ia 's d rapery , o n t he o ther h and , i s

much s ha l lower .

I n f ac t t he f o lds b e tween t he l egs a re r epresen ted mere ly

b y i nc ised l i nes .

The p a t tern ing o f t he f o lds i s s tra igh t forward a nd t here i s

l i t t le a t te mp t t o i n troduce v ar iety . T hese p rocesses o f s i mp l i f ica t ion were b y n o means e i ther u n iversa l o r u ni for m .

B u t t hey r epresen ted a d epar ture f ro m t he p r inc ip les o f c lassica l

a r t a nd p aved t he way f or t he i n troduct ion o f n ew s ty l ist ic f ea tures wh ich were e ven more a l ien t o t he c lassica l t rad i t ion .

I ti s d ue t o t he r e laxa t ion o f t he

c lassica l r u les t ha t t here i s g rea ter v ar ie ty i n p opu lar a r t t han i n e l i te a r t . N ew s yste ms o f p ropor t ions w ere o ccasiona l ly i n troduced .

I th as b een

c la i med t ha t t he s cu lp tors o f t he R o man p er iod d id n ot d epend u pon s yste ms o f p ropor t ions f or t he c onstruc tion o f t he ir f igures a s t he ir c lassica l G reek p redecessors h ad d one ,

1 6

b u t V i truv ius was f am i l iar w i th s uch s yste ms 1 7

a nd i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t e l i te s cu lp tors o f t he R o man Emp ire work ing i n t he c las sica l t rad i t ion wou ld h ave a bandoned s uch ap ro m inen t f ea ture o f c lassica l a r t .

Bu t wh i le t h is may b e t rue o f e l i te s cu lp ture , i td oes n o t s ee m t o a pp ly

t o p opu lar s cu lp ture a s a who le .

Un for tuna te ly l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he c las-

s ica l s yste ms o f p ropor t ions , b u t V i truv ius g ives s o me i n for ma t ion .

An

e xam ina tion o f ar ando m s a mp le o f s cu lp tures h as l ed t o t he c onc lusion t ha t R o mano-Br i t ish s cu lp tors d id n o t f o l low t he V i truv ian s yste m , o r , i ts ee ms , a ny o ther p ar t icu lar s yste m .

I ti sp robab le t ha t t hey n or ma l ly g auged t he

p ropor t ions o f t he ir f igures b y e ye , r a ther t han b y t he a pp lica t ion o f ap rec ise ma the ma t ica l s yste m o f p ropor t ions.

P erhaps s uch s yste ms were k nown ,

b u t w ere n o t o f ten a pp l ied , j us t a s masons k new o f r u lers a nd s e t s quares , b u t , a s t he l op-sided s hapes o f many a l tars a nd g ravestones s how , f requen t ly d id n o t b o ther t o u se t he m .

N one the less , t here i s e v idence t o s how t ha t t he

3 7

PLATE 3 .1 1 :

Mercury , Newcast le .

PLATE 3. I I I:

PLATE 3 .

R iver God , Chesters.

PLATE 3 .V :

F ortuna , B irdoswa ld .

v a lue o f s yste ms o f p ropor t ions w as k nown , a t a ny r a te , t o s o me s cu lp tors . A c onsp icuous e xa mp le i s ar e l ief o f Mercury i n N ewcast le u pon Tyne ( P 1.3.I I ). 1 8 T he p ose o f t he f i gure c an b e t raced b ack t o af our th-century B .C. Greek t ype i l lustra ted b y t he Her mes o f Andros a nd p ossib ly i n troduced b y P rax i te les . The p ropor t ions o f t he t orso , h owever , a re P o lyc l i tan a nd t he f igure t hus a ppears t o b e a n e clec t ic w ork i n t he c lassica l t rad i t ion . B u t t he s yste m o f p ropor t ions

n on-c lassica l .

T he h ead i s u nusua l ly l arge a nd , t ogether w ith

t he n eck , a ccoun ts f or a bou t o ne t h ird o f t he t o ta l h e igh t o f t he f igure .

T hese

p ropor t ions a re c lose ly p ara l le led o n t he s trong ly Ce l t ic G en ius Cen tur iae i n Car l is le ( P l.

I n s o me c ases a no ther s imp le s yste m u nder wh ich

t he h ead i s aq uar ter t he h e ight o f t he f i gure w as u sed. I nnova t ions were a lso made w i th r egard t o a na to my .

S o me t i mes t he c han-

g es w ere n o more t han minor d is tor t ions , l i ke t he h unched s hou lders , wh ich o ccur o n t he R udchester Hercu les a nd a r e l ief o f Mercury f ro m S tanw ix , 3

2° (P l.

a s w e l l a s o n an u mber o f c on t inen ta l s cu lp tures. Occas iona l ly t he t reat-

men t o f f igures i s e x tre me ly n atura l ist ic, a s o n ar e l ief o f Mercury f ro m Corb r idge . 2 1

I \ l ereury 's f igure i s n ot o n ly s l im ly p ropor t ioned , a s b ef its a y outhfu l

g od , b ut i s more l ight ly musc led t han u sua l a nd l acks t he c usto mary e xaggera t ion o f t he e x terna l o b l ique musc les , wh ich was a n a r t ist ic d ev ice t o d isgu ise t he a es the t ic w eakness o f t he wa ist .

C onverse ly t he muscu la ture i s s o me t i mes

g ross ly e xaggerated a s , f or e xa mp le , o n as econd -cen tury d ed ica t ion s lab w h ich c o mes f ro m H igh R oches ter a nd b ears a f igure o f H ercu les w i th a sma l l h ead a nd a h eav i ly musc led t orso a nd l imbs .2 2 S im i lar e xaggera t ion o ccurs o n t he sma l l e ar ly-th ird-cen tury r e l ie f o f H ercu les , w h ich i s b ased o n t he F arnese H ercu les a nd was f ound i n t he t h ird-cen tury h eadquar ters b u ild ing a t Chesterho lm ( P l. 3 ,Ib ). 2 3 On t hese e xa mp les t he t reatmen t o f t he a nato my i s a ppropr ia te t o t he s ub jec t .

B u t t h is i s n o t a lways t he c ase .

As ta tue o f

J up iter a t C orbr idge r eproduces a c o m mon c lass ica l f i gure t ype ( P 1.3.IVa ), b u t h as a t h in , f l at b ody i nstead o f t he u sua l mature a nd p ower fu l p hys ique. 2 4 T he d rapery i s n ea t ly e xecu ted a nd i t may b e d oub ted whe ther t he s cu lp tor w as s o i nco mpeten t t ha t h e b ung led t he a nato my . Two e xp lanat ions may b e a dvanced , T he s cu lp tor may h ave b een i n f luenced b y t he f la tness o f C e l t ic a r t , s ince a C e l t ic s ta tue o f J upi ter h as b een f ound a t C orbr idge .

2 5

B u t i l log ica l i ty i s a n

o ccasiona l f eature o f p opu lar a r t a nd i ti s n o l ess p ossib le t ha t h e d e l ibera te ly a l tered t he c lassica l f igure t ype w i thou t r egard t o t he c harac ter o f t he g od w ho m h e w as p or tray ing . The p at tern ing o f d rapery i s s o met i mes c arr ied t o s uch e x tre mes t hat i tc ann o t b e r egarded merely a s t he r egu lar isat ion o f c lass ica l s che ma ta. Thus t he ma jor ity o f t he f o lds o n t he s tatue o f ar iver g od a t Ches ters ( P 1.3 . IVb ) 26 a re c urved r i dges o f t he k ind w h ich w as i n troduced i n to Greek a r t i n t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c en tury B .C. a nd w h ich Rhys Carpenter 27 h as a pt ly n a med mode l l ing l ines b ecause t hey a ccen tua te t he r ounded f orm o f t he l imb b eneath. Bu t t he ir r egu lar ity o n t h is s tatue c reates a n e f fect wh ich i s t o ta l ly d if ferent f ro m t ha t o f t he mode l l ing l i nes o n , s ay , t he s ea ted f igures f ro m t he e astern p ed i men t o f t he Par thenon.

N on-class ica l p a ttern ing o f d rapery w as a lso u sed t o g ood e f-

f ect o n s uch f igures a s t he s tatue o f F or tuna f ro m B irdoswa ld ( P 1.3.V )2 8 a nd t he woman o n t he g ravestone f rom Murre l l H il l , C ar l is le. 2 9

The c lose r e la t ion

b etween d rapery a nd t he b ody b enea th , wh ich i s c haracter ist ic o f c lass ica l a r t i n g enera l , • was n o t i nfrequent ly n eg lected. S o met i mes , a s o n t he B irdoswa ld

4 3

F or tuna , t he d rapery c o mp lete ly c onceals t he b ody. c lassica l s che ma ta were misapp l ied .

S o me t imes, t oo , t he

On t he g ravestone o f aw o man f ro m

B owness-on-Solway 3 ° mode l l ing l i nes a re u sed o n t he d rapery o ver t he t h ighs, b u t t hey b ear l i t t le r e la t ion t o t he s hape o f t he l imbs b eneath i ta nd i ti s c lear t ha t t he s cu lptor , e i ther d e l ibera te ly , o r t hrough i gnorance , h as emp loyed t he m t o c rea te a p ure ly d ecorat ive e f fect .

E ven more b latant ly d ecorat ive a nd i l -

l og ica l a re t he c urving f olds o n t he r e lie f o f aG en ius o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he Museu m o f A n t iqu i ties a t N ewcast le u pon T yne ( P 1.3 . V Ia ). 3 1

The f act

t ha t t hey a re u pside d own s hows t ha t t heir t rue f unc t ion a s mode l ling l i nes was n ot t he d eterm in ing f actor f or t he ir u se. A n ot iceable f ea ture i s t he n on-classica l l ack o f i n terest i n d ep th . f ar o u tnu mber s ta tues i n t he r ound .

R el ie fs

S o me w orks a re ambiguous i n t ha t t hey

a re e i ther c arved p ar t ly i n t he r ound a nd p ar t ly i n r e l ie f , l ike t he f igure o f Ar i manes a t Y ork ,

o r e lse t he ir o u t line i s c arved i n t he r ound , b u t t he ir

3 2

i nner d e ta i l ing i s r estr ic ted t o t he f ron t o f t he s tone , a s t hough i t was i n r e lief . A r e markable e xa mp le o f t he l a t ter i s af igure o f as ea ted g oddess a t Marypo . r t .

3 3

I t i s l i t t le more t han a n a ngu lar , s tepped b lock o f s tone , o n t he f ront o f w h ich t he f igure h as b een i nc ised. b u t where more t han o ne f igure o ccurs t he c o mposi t ion g enera l ly a voids r epres en ta t ion o f d ep th . a t C orbr idge ,

3 4

Among t he r are e xcep t ions a re t he f r ieze o f t he Do l ichenu m

t he B r idgeness d ed ica t ion s lab ( P 1.3.V Ib ) 35 a nd a r el ief o f t he

Ma tres a t C irencester .

3 6

F igures a re f or t he most p ar t e i ther f ron ta l o r i n

p rof i le a nd t hree-quar ter v iews a re n ot c o mmon . ar educt ion i n t he n u mber o f p lanes. t e mp le o f S u l Minerva a t B a th 3 7 3. V I Ia ), 3 8

S ha l low c arv ing r esu l ted i n

Occasiona l ly , a s o n t he p ed i men t o f t he

a nd a r e lie f o f aD ioscurus a t C orbr idge ( P l.

t here a re t wo ma in p lanes. The i nner d eta ils a re c arved o n t he ma in

f ronta l p lane a nd t he s ides o f t he f igures r ecede s harp ly w ith l i t t le o r n o modell ing b ack t o t he r ear p lane , wh ich f orms t he b ackground. Two ma in p lanes w ere a lso u sed o n ar el ief o f a Ma ter f ro m B ewcas t le ,

3 9

b u t t he c arv ing i s u nusua l ly

s ha l low , b e ing o n ly 0 .01 m d eep a nd , a s t hough t o d eny t he f igure a ny c orporea li ty , t he s cu lptor h as d e l ibera te ly r ecessed t he d rapery o ver t he k nees. I n e l i te a r t t echn ica l r ef ine men t was a s ine q ua n on . c rude i n c o mpar ison .

o f i nco mpetence o r s loven l iness. T oynbee 4°

P opu lar a r t i s o f ten

I t s c oarseness h as f requen t ly b een c ensured a s as ign B u t t h is i s n o t a lways t he c ase .

Professor

h as c o m men ted o n " the s k i l led a nd c arefu l work mansh ip" o f ar e-

l i e f o f a Hun ter G od f ro m Box i n Wi l tsh ire.

C o mpe ten t work t hough t h is

r e lie f i s b y t he s tandards o f p opu lar a r t , i t s b ackground i s c overed w i th t he marks o f ac law c h ise l a nd t he f o lds o f t h e t un ic t owards t he r igh t s ide o f t he c hest a re r ough ly e xecu ted .

S uch f ea tures wou ld n ot b e t o lera ted i n e l i te a r t ,

y et t hey e v iden t ly d id n ot b o ther p opu lar s cu lptors.

E ven q u i te c rude s cu lp tures

c an s o me ti mes b e s een t o b e much b e t ter works o f a r t t han t hey m igh t a ppear t o b e a t f irst s igh t . p oin t .

4 1

h orse .

T he g ravestone o f Dannicus a t C irencester i s ac ase i n

T he c arv ing i s c oarse a nd t he r ider i s o bv iously t oo l arge f or h is Bu t t he g roup f i l ls t he n iche we l l a nd c are h as b een t aken t o a rrange t he

t he l imbs o f t he f al len b arbar ian a nd t he l egs o f t he h orse a nd r ider i n ac lear i n ter locking p a t tern .

Aga in , u pon e xa m inat ion ,

f unerary b anque ts a t C hester ( P 1.3 . V I Ib ) 42

t he s er ies o f c rude ly c arved

r evea l t he i ngenu ity w ith wh ich t he

s cu lptor o r s cu lp tors h ave v ar ied t he d eta ils s o t hat n o t wo g ravestones a re a l ike.

4 4

PLATE 3 .V I I :

To mbstone ,

T he t echn iques o f c arv ing were n o t a lways c lassica l .

T oo l marks o n f in ished

s cu lptures r evea l e x tens ive u se o f p o inted a nd f lat c h ise ls, b u t a s ar ule p rov ide e v idence o n ly f or t he i n it ial s hap ing o f t he b ack o f t he s tone a nd f or t he f i na l s tages o f t he c arv ing o n t he f ron t . The f ew u nf in ished s cu lp tures a re more i nf ormat ive. P erhaps t he most i ns truct ive i s t he s tatue o f Hercu les, wh ich was f ound i n Car l isle a nd i s n ow a t C ast ietown , Rockc l if fe. 43 I nstead o f work ing o ver t he e n t ire s tatue a t e ach s tage o f t he c arv ing i n a ccordance w ith t he s tandard c lass ical p ract ice, t he s cu lp tor r ough ly b locked o ut t he l i onsk in a nd t he b ow l c on ta in ing t he Apples o f t he H esperides , b u t d id n ot p roceed a ny f ur ther w ith c arv ing t hese p ar ts o f t he s ta tue .

H e n o t o n ly b locked o u t t he r est o f t he s ta tue ,

b u t worked a l l o ver i tw i th a f l a t c h ise l .

I nstead o f u sing a c law c h ise l o n t he

e n t ire s ta tue i n t he n ex t s tage o f c arv ing , h e c o mple ted t he h ead , l e f t s hou lder , a nd l ef t s ide o f t he c hest .

S im i lar ly a s tatue o f a Mater f rom Housesteads 44

h as b een c o mpleted a bove t he w aist , b u t b e low i ti s s t i l l c overed w i th t he marks o f ap oin t .

T hese e xa mp les i l lustrate h ow p opu lar s cu lptors i n t he p rov ince

d epar ted f ro m t he c lassica l p rocedure o f c arv ing , b u t i ti s , o f c ourse , imp ossible t o d eter m ine h ow t ypica l t hey were . I t i s c lear t ha t p opu lar R o mano-Br i t ish s cu lpture c annot b e d is m issed s i mply a s i nco mpe ten t mi m icry o f c lass ica l mode ls. c a l f igure t ypes i s o f ten d ist inc t ly u nclassica l .

T he t rea t men t o f c lassi-

E li te s cu lpture i n t he c lassica l

t radi tion i s b asica l ly n a tura lis t ic a nd t hree d i mensiona l .

P opu lar s cu lp ture ,

o n t he o ther h and , t ends t o b e more s ty lised , l i near , a nd t wo d i mensiona l i n c haracter .

Moreover , i td oes n ot f o l low t he g enera l c hrono log ica l d eve lop men t

o f e li te s cf t i lpture . 45

Dev ia tion f ro m t he c lassica l r u les s o me t i mes r esu l ted i n

i ncoherence a nd i l log ica l i ty .

Bu t a t i t s b est p opu lar s cu lp ture i n fused a f resh

v ita li ty i n to t he c lassica l t rad i tion .

REFERENCES 1 .

H averf ie ld , 1 923 , 5 4 .

2 .

C o l lingwood , 1 939 , 1 44.

3 .

C ol lingwood a nd Myres , 1 937 , 2 49-50 .

4 .

E .g . P iggot t , 1 965 , 2 43 ;

5 .

F rere , 1 974 , 3 54 .

6 .

C ollingwood a nd Myres , 1 937 , 2 56.

7 .

T oynbee , 1 964 , c hap . 2 .

8 .

T oynbee , 1 961 , 1 3-15 .

9 .

A sh mo le , 1 927, 4 .

1 0 .

Bandine l li , 1 950 , 2 33.

C ook a nd J ohnston ,

1 967-8, 1 63.

H e e xaggera tes t he u se made o f t he d r i l l i n

p rov inc ia l a r t . 1 1.

Toynbee , 1 962 , n o . 6 2 , p l . 7 1 ;

1 2.

Col l ingwood Bruce , 1 870-5 , n o. 8 2;

1 3 .

Roscher , 1 886 , c o l . 2 179 . 4 7

P h i l l ips , 1 977 , n o . 6 . P h il l ips, 1 977, n o. 1 89.

1 4.

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 2 7, p l . 2 6 .

1 5 .

I b id . n o . 8 0 , p l . 7 7.

1 6.

Von He intze, 1 972, 6 .

1 7.

V i truv ius ,- De Arch i tectura 3 , 1 . 2 -3 .

1 8 .

P h i l lips , 1 977, n o . 2 05.

1 9 .

R .I . B. 9 44 ;

2 0 .

Col l ingwood Bruce, 1 870-5 , n o. 5 10 ;

2 1 ..

Ph i l lips , 1 977, n o . 2 3.

2 2 .

R .I. B. 1 284 ;

2 3 .

B ir ley , R ich mond a nd S tan f ie ld . 1 936 , 2 31 ;

2 4 .

P h i l lips , 1 977, n o . 9 .

2 5 .

I b id . n o . 1 0 .

2 6.

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 3 0 . p l . 3 6 .

2 7.

C arpen ter , 1 959 , 6 5-7;

2 8 .

Co l l ingwood Bruce, 1 870-5, n o. 4 18;

2 9 .

Wr igh t a nd P h i l l ips, 1 975 . n o . 1 8 , p l . i va . Wr ight a nd Ph il l ips, 1 975, n o. 1 81.

Ph i l lips , 1 977, n o . 2 97 . Arch . Ae 1 .4 x l i , 1 963 , 2 21.

1 960 , 1 32 f .

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 8 9 , p l . 8 6 ;

Wr ight a nd Ph il l ips, 1 975, n o. 1 72.

Wr igh t a nd Ph i l lips, 1 975 , n o . 2 28 ,

p l . x . 3 0 .

I b id . n o . 2 30 , p l . x ia .

3 1.

Ph i l lips, 1 977, n o . 3 36 .

3 2.

R . C. H . M., 1 962 , 1 20 , n o . 5 8 , p l . 4 6 .

3 3 .

Ba i ley , 1 915 , 1 53 , n o . 3 7.

3 4.

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 9 2 , p l . 9 5 ;

3 5 .

R .I . B. 2 139 ;

3 6 .

T oynbee , 1 962

3 7.

I b id . n o . 9 1, p. 9 6.

3 8 .

P h i l lips, 1 977, n o . 5 5 .

3 9 .

T oynbee , 1 962

Ph il l ips , 1 977, n o . 5 2.

P h i l lips , 1 972-4 , 1 76-81. n o . 7 2 , p l . 7 6.

n o . 7 4 , p l . 8 1;

Wr igh t a nd Ph i l l ips , 1 975 , n o . 1 83 ,

p l . v . 4 0 .

T oynbee , 1 964

1 79 .

4 1.

R .I . B. 1 08 , p l . i i .

4 2 .

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond , 1 955 , n os. 4 3 , 6 5 , 6 6 , 1 08 , 1 09 , 1 11 , 1 12 , 1 13 , 1 15 , 1 16 , p ls . x v , x ix , x xv i i i , x x ix , x xx ; 5 62 , 5 63 , 5 65 , 5 66 , 5 67 , 5 68 .

4 3 .

E .J . Ph i l l ips , Arch . J . 1 33, 1 976. 5 3-4.

4 .

R .I .B . 4 97, 5 22 , 5 23 , 5 58 ,

4 4.

Col l ingwood Bruce, 1 870-5 , n os. 2 31-3;

E . J . P h il l ips, Arch. J .

1 33, 1 976, 5 4. 4 5 .

Band ine l li , 1 950 , 2 39 s ee s im i lar i t ies i n t he d eve lop men t o f d rapery i n e li te a nd p opu lar a r t , b u t t hey d o n o t a ppear t o b e g enera l ly v a lid i n Br i ta in .

4 9

4. SCHOOLS OF STO�"'E1IASO SIN R Ol\IA1 BRITAIN T. F. C. Blagg 'It is in stonecarving that we find the best and most distinctive work of Romano-British craftsmen, whether immigrant Gauls or Britons.'1 When Professor Toynbee wrote these words, she was really referring to sculpture, but I hope that it will not be thought inappropriate to examine a related field, that of architectural ornament, in the light of her statement, and to offer this paper to her with warm and grateful thanks for her generous help and encouragement, and the inspiration she has given to all students of Roman Art. I shall not be studying figure sculpture in this paper, nor such other aspects of stonecarving as altars, tombstones or inscriptions. This is not to suggest that these would not also be fruitful sources of information about the stonemason' s craft. Nor is the choice meant to imply that masons engaged in carving architectural stonework might not also be employed in producing objects from the other classes as well. In studying 'schools' , it is not sought to identify individual workshops, in the sense of groups of men working together in the same premises as partners or under common direction. That would be too restricted a con­ cept, and indeed, it would ignore the possibility that even in such a work­ shop there might be two or three men with individual and identifiable styles. Given that the proportion of the surviving material to what was originally produced is so small, such detailed and individual identification is scarcely possible. So I shall be seeking to identify some of those areas and classes of material in which common styles and methods of execution can be observed, remembering that within them a number of 'workshops' might have been operating, either contemporarily with one another, or consecutively over a period of time. In this way it is hoped that something of the manner in which the stonemason' s craft was organised will emerge, and that some­ thing can eventually be learned of the social and economic factors which governed this aspect of the life of the province. Two examples, both of restricted classes of material, will serve as an initial illustration. First, roof finials, of which there are several quite different types, with one very clear division in their distribution (Fig. 4. 1 ). The type shaped in the form of a pine-cone, sometimes with the scales represented in the carving, sometimes left plain, shows a heavy concentration along the line of Hadrian' s Wall, with a northern outlier at Inveresk. 0.1tside the frontier zone, the others, with the exception of what appears to be the fragment of one from the villa at Holcombe in Devon,2 are from military sites: York,3 Caerleon and Chester. 4 They appear also in relief as motifs on tombstones, and it is likely that it was on funeral monuments that most of them were 51

o r ig ina l ly p laced .

I fs o , i t i s i n terest ing t ha t t he ir d istr ibut ion s hou ld h ave

s o m i l itary a b ias, a s i t c o mp le ments t he v iew e xpressed b y B irö i n h is r ecen t p aper o n t he i nscr ip t ions o f R o man B r ita in ,5 t hat i n t h is p rov ince t he p ract ice o f e rect ing t o mbstones was a lso a l most e xc lusive ly a f ea ture o f mi l itary s i tes, whether made f or t he ir m i l i tary o r f or t he ir a ssoc ia ted c iv il ian p opu la t ions . P ine-cone f i n ia ls t hus s ee m t o b e b asica l ly c onf ined t o t he r eper to ire o f s tone masons w ork ing a t m i l itary s i tes o r s i tes w ith s trong m i l itary c onnect ions . O ther t ypes o f f i n ia l p resen t ad if feren t p icture .

L eav ing a side a sma l l

n u mber o f a pparen t ly p ha l l ic r epresen ta t ions a nd s o me u n ique t ypes,

s uch

a s t he c ornucop ia f i n ia ls f ro m C orbr idge, 6 w e a re l e f t w ith t wo t ypes w i th av ery l im ited d istr ibut ion i n t he s ou th-west , i t s e astward l im i t l y ing a t S i lc hester .

T hese a re b oth o f b road ly s im i lar t owerl ike

f ro m N et t leton S hrub 7 s quare b ase ,

f orm.

i l lustra tes T ower t ype A ( P la te 4. Ia ).

A f i n ia l T h is h as a

s uppor t ing a s tructure a pparen t ly r epresent ing a f our-way a rch

s tand ing o n s quare p iers w i th i mpost mou ld ings a nd c rowned b y ap itched r oof w ith wha t l ook l i ke d or mer w indows . s o met i mes p ierced ,

I n o ther e xa mp les t he a rch i s

s o me t i mes a mere r ecess .

i s s ur mounted b y ap ed i men t ,

I n o ne f ro m B a th t he a rch

a nd t here i s af ur ther s uperstructure a bove ,

wh i le t he Dew l ish f i n ia l h as a m idd le s tage w i th s ca l loped e dges , a rch i n t he t op s tage a nd a p innac le a nd a croter ia o n t he r oof . a re k nown f ro m Caerwen t ,

f ro m t he v i l las a t R ockbourne ,

8

ab l ind O ther e xa mp les

Chedwor th ,

t w it Ma jor a nd We l low a nd f ro m t he t e mp le a t Pagan ' sH i ll . 9

L lan-

T he s ca l loped

o r c hamfered e dges a re a f ea ture s hared w ith T ower t ype B f i n ia ls, wh ich r epresen t as i mp l if ied v ers ion o f t ype A w ithout t he a rch ,

h aving a s quare

b ase w ith wa isted o r t aper ing s ides l ead ing u p , i n c o mp le te e xamp les, ac orn icel ike p ro ject ion , w i th a d o med o r c on ica l t op . S i lchester ,

Ba th ,

Caerwen t ,

I n s o me c ases,

Caer leon ,

B r is l ing ton a nd K ingsweston .

a l l t ha t s urv ives i s t he t opmost c one o r p innac le w ith

av ar iab le n u mber o f w ing- o r l ea fl ike p ro ject ions ( e .g . i n Wi ltsh irel l a nd B rean D own 1 2 ) .

S i lches ter ," H o lbury

T hese c an p robab ly b e a ttr ibuted t o T ower

t ype A : i n t he f in ia l o f t ha t t ype f ro m We l low , S o merset , f or m ,

t o

They o ccur a t

1 3

t he t op i s o f t h is

a s i t i s o n t he B a th a nd Dew l ish e xa mp les a lready c ited .

T he ma jor i ty o f t hese f i n ia ls c o me e i ther f ro m v i l las o r f ro m t e mp les . O ne migh t i n fer t ha t u nprovenanced e xamp les i n c o l lect ions f ro m t owns ( e .g . S i lchester ,

Caerwen t ,

Ba th ) a lso o nce a dorned t e mp les o r p r iva te h ouses .

S tone f i n ia ls r ece ived b r ief a t tent ion i n H ugh T ho mpson ' s e d i tor ia l a dd it i on t o L ow ther ' sp osthu mous ly p ub l ished a r t ic le o n T erracot ta C h i mney Pots, t o s o me o f wh ich t hey h ave a g enera l t hough n o t as pec if ic r ese mb lance . 1 4 H e r e marks o n t he ir s im i lar ity t o ag roup o f q uadrangu lar p ot tery t owers f ro m P annon ia a nd t o ac lass o f h ouse-shaped l a mp h o lders d escr ibed many y ears a go b y L oeschke . o f b u i ld ing ,

C lear ly t he ir u lt i ma te o r ig ins a re a s mode ls o f s o me s or t

a nd h e s uggests a q uadr ifons a rch o r at own g a te .

O ne wonders

whe ther i n f act f unera l monu ments s uch a s t ha t o f t he J u l i i a t G lanum ( wh ich h e men t ions) w i th i t s a rch ,

t he t o mb o f t he S ecund in i i a t I ge l ( w ith a croter ia

a nd p ed i men t ) , o r t he much sma l ler t ower- monument f ro m B ierbach , S peyer ( w ith a rch a nd r oof-p innac le) d o n ot f urn ish c loser p ara l le ls .

1 5

A lthough

t hese t ower- monu men ts s how many v ar ia t ions, i n o ne way o r a nother t hey p rov ide a n teceden ts f or most o f t he d ecora t ive f ea tures o f t he T ower-type f in ia ls . 5 2

F IG . 4 .1 :

D is tr ibu t ion o f R oo f F in ia ls .

PLATE 4 .I :

a( above) , F in ia l , Ne t t le ton S hrub . b( be low ) , C or in th ian Cap ita l f ro m t he Pr ine ip ia , Chester .

F IG . 4 .2:

D is tr ibu t ion o f P la in - Mou lded a nd Decora ted Tab le T ops .

The few-dated examples belong to the third and fourth centuries. We clearly have here a class of object which is found in a restricted area, centring around Bath, the production of which can be explained as the work of a school of carvers, whether it evolved locally or resulted from some inspiration from outside Britain. The school need not be confined to Bath itself, though admittedly the finials are small and portable and could all have been made in one place. Another product of this school may have been the stone slabs, between 5 and 10 cm thick, with facetted decoration round the sides which recalls the chip-carving of wood and similar decoration on late Roman metalwork (Fig. 4. 2). They have been described as imposts for arches, 16 but now

that more examples have come to light it seems clear that they were some form of table top. The lower edge of the front is usually chamfered, and there are slightly projecting squarish panels at each end of the front, between which on occasional examples such as those from Cirencester and Caerwent, the fronts are bowed. 17 A rectangular slab from Rockbourne was marked out on top with compass-incised concentric circles, and quarter-circles in In other cases the corners, implying that the top was meant to be seen.18 the top is slightly sunk within a border. that is not architectural.

Both features suggest a function

There are also slabs of similar form but with plain mouldings inst ead of the 'chip-carving' . One should not, perhaps, make too much of the apparently exclusive distribution of the two types, in which the plain-moulded ones form a ring to the north and east of the others. It may, however, be noted that the former are all on the edge of, or beyond, the distribution of the Tower-type finials, while the decorated table tops lie within it. These closely related objects also suggest the restricted area of operation of a school of craftsmen. It should be added that the north-eastern outlier at Chesterton, Huntingdonshire, is a very battered piece, and there is some doubt about its identification as a table top, while the chip-carved example attributed to Silchester is in fact a little apart from the rest, being a rather small fragment of Purbeck marble, with rather different motifs from the rest in its decoration. 19 The examples that have been used so far provide closely definable groups of limited occurrence. Column bases, however, are much more fundamental To the casual observer, and commonplace among architectural material. one column base looks much like another, and the subtle variations in profile But it is just by such incidental or proportion appear of little significance. geometric features, not likely to attract the detailed scrutiny of a customer who, one suspects, would be satisfied so long as he got a more or less matching set of about the right size, that the individual preferences of the stonemason and the idiosyncracies of local traditions can be detected, like the give-aways of speech patterns for which the philologist listens. The significant variations seem to be in the combination and manner of execution of the mouldings and in the proportions of parts to one another. But there are several difficulties in their analysis, particularly where one is dealing with an area prolific in unprovenanced and/or undated material. Thus, among the Tuscan column-bases from Bath illustrated by Cunliffe, 20 56

0

5 CM

F IG . 4 .3:

C o lu mn Bases f ro m t he v i l la a t G rea t Wi tco mbe , G louces tersh ire .

YORK

WR OXETER

CHESTER

CATTER ICK

” 1

v o lute-

if

g ei r e !.

, e,. . e e. . i te me te 2 . 6.. , 3 4 1 r i ,2. ,!, — a bacus

e u r 4 v 1 , 1 . .7 e

h e l lces

c a lyx c au l icu lus

F IG . 4 .4:

( above ), C o lu mn Bases ( sca le 1 :10 ) . ( be low ), C or in th ian C ap i ta l , B ath ( a f ter C un li f fe , 1 969 , f ig . 4 ).

n o t wo a re r ea l ly a l ike , t hough t hey d o s hare c er ta in c o m mon c haracter ist ics . A nother d if f icu lty may b e i l lustra ted b y o ne o f t hose c ases where we d o h ave s evera l e xamp les o f as et ,

s uch a s t he s ix c o lu mn b ases f ro m t he l a ter p er iod

o f t he v i l la a t Grea t W itco mbe ( F ig .

4 .3 ) .2 1

T he t ype o f mou ld ing i s s hared

b y a l l: a sma l l f i l let a t t he t op , s ucceeded b y as ha l low-prof i led c ave t to mou ld ing ,

a nd t hen t wo p ro ject ing t or i w ith t he h o l low s cot ia b etween t he m

b ordered b y f i l lets .

T hey s tand o n r ectangu lar p l in ths .

T hese b ases s how

t he c haracter ist ic r i l led t oo l marks f ro m h av ing b een f i n ished o n al a the , b u t o bv ious ly n o t e mp la te was emp loyed . v ar ies b etween 1 1.9 a nd 1 4 .5 cm ,

2 2

T he t o ta l h e igh t o f t he mou ld ings

af actor o f 1 7% o f t he max i mu m .

d iameter o f t he s ha f t v ar ies b e tween 1 7 .0 a nd 1 8 . 3 cm , o r 7 % ,

T he

a nd t he l a t ter

v ar iat ions d o n ot c orre la te w ith t he v ar ia t ions i n t he h e igh t o f t he mou ld ings . T he h e igh t o f t he p l in ths a lso v ar ies .

O ne c annot t herefore e xpect t o b e

a b le t o e xpress t he d i mens ions i n p rec ise mathe ma t ica l r a t ios i n o rder t o c rea te q uas i-V itruv ian modu les t o s erve a s t he s tandards f or d ist ingu ish ing b e tween o ne s choo l a nd a nother .

I n a ny c ase , d amage

a nd v ary ing d egrees

o f wea ther ing wou ld a lso v it ia te a ny a na lys is b ased o n measure ment t o t he n earest m i l l i metre . With in c ruder l im its,

h owever ,

r esu lts c an b e a ch ieved .

Q u ite a l o t

o f w ork r ema ins t o b e d one b efore I c an p resen t c onv inc ing d iv is ions o f t he w estern a nd s outhern Br it ish ma ter ia l, o f wh ich t he Witco mbe b ases f or m p ar t ,

s o a s e xa mp les f or t he p resen t p aper t here may b e t aken t he b ases

f ro m s ites n or th o f t he J urass ic r idge a s f ar a s L ancaster a nd Ca t ter ick . T h is a rea i nc ludes t he c iv itas c ap ita ls o f Wroxe ter a nd L e icester , t he c o lon ia o f L inco ln a nd t he l eg ionary f or tresses o f C hester a nd L inco ln ,

a nd t hus

g ives a n o pportun ity t o c o mpare t he work o f s tone masons emp loyed b y c iv il i an a nd m i l i tary a uthor it ies . i dent if ied .

T hree ,

p oss ib ly f our , d ist inct s choo ls c an b e

The f i rst was w ork ing i n Wroxeter , C hester a nd R ihchester . A b ase f ro m t he F oru m c o lonnade a t Wroxeter i l lustra tes i t s c haracter ist ics ( F ig . 4 .4) . 23

T he u pper c yma , o r o g iva l, mou ld ing i s v ery h igh i n p ropor t ion

t o t he t ota l p rof i le ,

a nd a t t he t op p ro jects o n ly s l ight ly f ro m t he s haf t .

S o me o f t he t or i i n t he g roup a re g rooved a round t he midd le , o thers t h is s ha l low f ea ture may h ave wea thered a way .

a nd i n t he

T he t or i a re s em i-

c ircu lar i n s ect ion a nd t he u pper a nd l ower a re a l most e qua l i n d ia meter , t hough i t i s more o r thodox f or t he l ower t o p ro ject f ur ther . n ot v er t ica l b ut a re i nc l ined a t a n o btuse a ng le t o t he t or t , f ro m t he n orm . c hester .

T he f i l lets a re a ga in , d if fer ing

T here a re b ases o f s im i lar p rof i le a t C hester a nd a t R ib-

I n b oth p laces t he f orms o f t he t or i a nd o f t he s cot ia , wh ich i s

a ngu lar r a ther t han o f t he more n or ma l c urved p rof i le , may a lso b e o bserved i n s i mp ler b ases w ithout a dd it iona l mou ld ings, h a l l o f t he P r incip ia a t Chester .

2 4

s uch a s t hose f ro m t he c ross-

T he e x istence o f as choo l wh ich p roduced

t hese c haracter ist ic b ases, w h ich h ave n o c lose p ara l le ls e lsewhere i n Br ita in , r ece ives c onf ir ma t ion f ro m t he p resence a t a l l t hree s i tes o f at ype o f C or int h ian c ap ita l wh ich i s a lso e xc lus ive t o t he a rea , C hester P r inc ip ia ( see b e low , p .

a nd wh ich was u sed i n t he

6 3 ) .

Where t he s choo l was c en tred i s ad i f f icu lt p rob le m .

T he H adr ian ic

d ed icat ion d a te o f t he F oru m a t Wroxe ter g ives a t er m inus a nte q ue r n , b ut i t s c onstruct ion may h ave b egun c ons iderab ly e ar l ier . 5 9

T here i s a lso t he

p oss ib i l ity t ha t t he b ases were o r ig ina l ly c arved f or t he Ba ths wh ich p rev ious ly o ccup ied t he F oru m s i te .

C er ta in ly t here a re o ther a rch itectura l

mou ld ings r e-used i n t he s ty loba te o f t he F oru m c o lonnade .

T he s tone

2 5

Pr inc ip ia a t C hester was d a ted b y R ich mond a nd Webster t o T ra jan ' sr e ign . I f i t i s a ssu med t ha t t he Wroxe ter F oru m b ases were n ot c arved

2 6

f or a n

e ar l ier b u i ld ing , t he f l oru it o f t he s choo l may b e p laced i n t he f irst t h ird o f t he s econd c entury ,

a nd i t s o r ig in a ppears t o b e i n l eg ionary work , t hough

whether t ha t i mp l ies t ha t l eg ionar ies a ctua l ly d id t he work i s a nother ma t ter . T h is t ype o f c o lu mn b ase c an , h owever , b e d ist inguished f ro m t he w ork f ound a t t he o ther l eg ionary f or tress i n o ur a rea , a t Y ork . H ere, t he b ases f ro m t he P r inc ip ia a re c haracter ised b y v ery t h ick t or i, e ither w ithout f i l lets o r w ith f i l lets wh ich a re e x tre me ly t h in i n p ropor t ion t o t he t orus mou ld ings. The u pper mou ld ing i s u sua l ly a l ow g en t ly-pro f iled c yma o r ar ounded s tep . E igh teen o f t he t wen ty-f ive d oub le-torus b ases f ro m York h ave t h is p rof i le ( F ig . 4 .4 ), a nd t hree o f t he o ther s even h ave t he t h ick t or i, b u t l ack mou ld ings a bove. 2 7 Bases o f t h is t ype a re n o t f ound e lsewhere i n t he a rea u nder c ons iderat ion , n or d o t he o ther s ty les i den t if iab le i n t he a rea a ppear a t Y ork , wh ich s o f ar a s t h is c lass o f e v idence g oes s ee ms v ery much a n i s land o n i t s o wn

. I ndeed ,

i t i s s urrounded b y t he w ork o f t he t h ird s choo l , w h ich h as

b ases w ith mou ld ings o f av ery r ect i l inear o ut l ine . s quare i n s ect ion ,

T he t or t a re a l most

a nd h ave f i l lets c ut a t a n a cute a ng le .

T he mou ld ing

a bove i s e i ther a s i mp le s tep o r as hor t b u t v ery u pr ight c yma . b e c a l led t he L inco ln-Ca t ter ick t ype , a ppears .

Th is may

f ro m t he t wo ma in s ites w here i t

I n L inco ln t here a re s evera l s t i l l i n s itu i n t he Ba i lga te c o lonnade , 28

a nd f ro m Ca t ter ick t wo e xa mp les c o me f ro m t he ma in b u i ld ing a nd t he p or t ico o f t he mans io , a nd s hou ld h ave a mid-second t o t h ird c entury d a te ( F ig . 4 .4) . One , h owever ,

a ppeared t o h ave b een r e-used , b u i lt i nto a wa l l .

s ha l low p rof i le , t hough n ot t he a cute f i l le ts a nd t he s quare-cut t or t, s een r ef lected i n sma l ler b ases f ro m Win ter ton ,

3 0

The v ery may b e

D oncaster a nd Lancaster ,

wh ich m ight t hus b e s een a s o f fshoots f ro m t h is s choo l . T he f our th p ossib le s choo l t akes u s b ack t o C hester . i s ap ro ject ing b and a bove t he t orus mou ld ings .

I t s d iagnost ic f ea ture

T he e xa mp le o f af ine l a the-

f in ished b ase f ound i n t he g arden o f Wa terga te H ouse i n 1 949 3 1

c an b e c lose ly

ma tched b y a no ther f ro m Wa terga te S treet . G enera l ly , t hough , t he f eature a ppears o n l arger a nd c oarser b ases, s uch a s t hose w ith a s ing le t h ick t orus wh ich a re n ow l a id o ut i n t he s o-ca l led R o man G ardens a t C hester , b ut wh ich o r ig ina ted f ro m t he l eg ionary Ba ths i n B r idge S treet ( F ig . 4 .4 ) . Presu mab ly t hen t hey a re b road ly c onte mporary w ith t he p roduc ts o f t he Chester- Wroxeter-R ibchester s choo l .

3 2

T he ir c o mpan ions a re e lsewhere t han

i n t he t err itory o f t ha t s choo l , i n t he b ases f ro m S t . Mar t in ' s , L e icester , f ound i n 1 861 i n a n i nsu la s outh-east o f t he F oru m . 3 3 T he ma jor ity o f t he L e icester b ases , h owever , d o n ot h ave t he f ea ture o f t he p ro jec t ing a straga l mou ld ing . 3 4 T h is i s e x tre me ly u nco m mon e lsewhere , b ut i t d oes o ccur o n t wo b ases f ro m C irencester . i n c iv i l ian c on tex ts:

P oss ib ly t hese masons worked p redo m inan t ly

t he Wa terga te H ouse b ase i s n o tab ly b e t ter c arved t han

t he ma jor ity f ound i n C hester , w h ich s ee ms t o r ef lect t he r a ther l ess d isc r im ina t ing t aste o f t he m i l itary c usto mer .

N everthe less,

as ing le i f c er ta in ly

n ot iceab le a t tr ibute i s b y i t se lf i nsuf f ic ien t g round f or e stab l ish ing a s choo l o f masons,

a nd t h is i s o ne wh ich w i l l n eed f ur ther s uppor t ing e v idence . 6 0

2 9

I

Cor inth ian

G i l

F igured Cor inth ian

0

Compos ite F o l iate O ther F igured

F IG. 4 .5 :

D is tr ibu t ion o f Decora ted C olu mn Capita ls .

PLATE 4 .I I : C or in th ian C ap ita ls f ro m t he Bas i l ica , S i lchester . a( a bove) , c orner o f a bacus . b( be low ) , l ower h a lf .

O f t he ma in c lasses o f c o lu mn c ap ita ls wh ich h ave d ecora t ion o ther t han t he p la in mou lded T uscan t ype , t he most w idespread a re t he C or in th ian a nd a no ther w ith s i mp ler f o l ia te d ecora t ion b ased o r ig ina l ly o n t he C or in th ian a can thus l eaves, b ut l ack ing t he f or ma l d ispos it ion o f e le men ts o f t he t rue C or inth ian o rder ( F ig . 4 .5) .

C o mpos ite c ap ita ls, i .e .

t hose wh ich c o mb ine

t i ers o f a can thus l eaves w ith t he s cro l led v o lutes a nd d ecora ted u pper mou ldi ngs o f t he I on ic o rder ,

a re r e la t ive ly r are i n B r ita in , o ccurr ing a t Ba th ,

C hester a nd C orbr idge .

T hose f igured c ap ita ls wh ich a re b as ica l ly C or in th ian ,

b u t h ave h u man o r my tho log ica l f aces o r f igures i n t he u pper p ar t ,

a re

d ist ingu ished o n t he map b y as epara te s y mbo l, b ut w i l l b e c ons idered a longs ide t he s tandard C or inth ian e xamp les .

T here a re a lso i nstances o f f i gured

d ecorat ion a ppear ing o n c ap ita ls n ot b as ica l ly o f C or inth ian t ype , g rouped w i th a c o mmon s y mbo l b ut n ot f or m ing a h o mogeneous c lass . S o f ar a s C or in th ian a nd F o l ia te c ap ita ls a re c oncerned , t hey g enera l ly a ppear a t r a ther d if feren t t ypes o f s i te f ro m o ne a nother .

F or t he most

p ar t , t he C or inth ian a re f ound i n ma jor u rban c entres : L ondon , S i lchester , L e icester ,

3 7

Ba th ,

C irencester ,

3 8

L incoln a nd Car l is le ,

3 5

G loucester , " Caerwen t ,4 1

3 9

a s w e l l a s a t F ishbourne , 43

Wroxeter , 42

e xcep t iona l

among v i l las , a t S pr inghead ,4 4

C hester , 45

t er ick , 47

C anterbury h as r ecen t ly b een a dded t o t he

a nd H ousesteads .

4 8

Wi lderspoo 1 , 46

Veru la m iu m ,3 6

R ibchester ,

Ca t-

l i st o f c iv itas c ap ita ls, b ut o thers - C h ichester , Winchester , D orchester , E xe ter a nd C a istor b y N orw ich - h ave n ot y e t p roduced a ny . p a l emp loymen t was o n t e mp les,

t hea tres a nd p oss ib ly b a ths .

c ons iderab ly Y ork , 49

sma l ler ,

A ldborough ,

T he ir p r inc i-

b u i ld ings o f p ub l ic a nd monu men ta l c haracter : b as i l icas, F o l ia te c ap ita ls, wh ich a re u sua l ly

s ee m t o b e r estr icted t o n or thern m i l itary s i tes :

C orbr idge ,

5 °

C hesters,

5 1

I nveresk a nd B ar 1 1 1 1 ,

w ith a l arger a nd u n ique ly d ecorated e xa mp le f ro m Ba th ford ,

5 2

S o merset ,

5 3

r ea l ly i n s ometh ing o f ac lass b y i t se lf , p rov id ing t he o n ly s outhern e xa mp le . A s t he a na lysis wh ich f o l lows w i l l d epend o n c lose e xa m ina t ion o f f or ma l d e ta i ls,

t he r eader may f i nd i t h e lpfu l t o h ave a b r ief o ut l ine o f t he ma in

d ecora t ive e le men ts o f t he r egu lar C or in th ian o rder ( F ig . 4 .4) . i s d iv ided i n to t wo p ar ts, o f ten c arved o n s epara te b locks . t wo t i ers o f f or ma l ised u pr igh t a canthus l eaves,

T he c ap ita l

I n t he l ower a re

e ach w ith two s ide l obes

w ith s erra ted e dges a nd a f i f th c en tra l l obe w ith a n o verhang ing t i p .

I n t he

u pper p ar t , c a lyces o f f o l iage s pr ing f ro m c onel ike s te ms, t he c au l icu l i, a nd e ncase

r ibbed v o lutes

meet ing a t t he c orners o f t he c ap ita l ,

a nd sma l ler

t endr i ls k nown a s h e l ices meet ing i n o pposed s p ira ls i n t he m idd le o f e ach s ide .

B e tween t he h e l ices c l i mbs t he s ta lk o f a f l ower . T h is h as a l i t t le

l ea f a t t he b ot to m a nd a r ose t te a t t he t op , d ecora t ing t he s ide o f t he p la inmou lded a bacus wh ich s urmounts t he who le , e nded p ro ject ions o ver t he v o lutes .

i t s s ides c urv ing o ut t o s quare-

I t i s b y t he r eproduct ion o f t hese c on-

s t i tuen t f ea tures w ith v ary ing d egrees o f f a ith fu lness,

a nd t he v ar ia t ions i n

t he manner o f t he c arv ing , t ha t t he R o mano-Br it ish e xa mp les may b e j udged . S o me C or in th ian c ap ita ls f ro m C hester , ment ioned a bove ( p . 5 9 ) , f or m p ar t o f ah igh ly d ist inct ive g roup , we l l away f ro m t he c lassica l mode l . T he o ne i l lustra ted h ere ( P late 4. I b ) was d iscovered i n e xcava t ions o f t he Pr inc ip ia i n 1 969 .

5 4

T he a canthus l eaves a re s qua t a nd s i mp ly c arved ,

a nd t he v o lutes

a nd c a lyces f or m t wo s wags h ang ing f ro m a p ro m inent k nob o n t he r oset te s te m ,

f ro m wh ich t he h e l ices a lso s pr ing . 6 3

T he d iscovery o f t h is c ap ita l

p erm its t he e luc ida t ion o f t he d ecora t ive s che me o f a nother c ap i ta l o f t he s a me d i mens ions f ound n ear Br idge S tree t i n 1 954 ,5 5

a nd o f al ar vr o ne

f ound b y R ich mond a nd Webster i n t he c ross-ha l l o f t he P r inc ip ia? 6 d ea lt w ith t h is more f u l ly e lsewhere .

5 7

O n t hese ,

Ih ave

a nd o n o ther c ap ita ls

f ro m t he l a ter Pr inc ip ia e xcava t ions, t he s hapes o f t he l eaves a nd o ther e le men ts o f t he d ecora t ion a re b locked o ut , b ut n one o f t he d e ta i led c arv ing o f t he f o l iage h as b een e xecuted . R ich mond a nd Webster ,

i n c ons ider ing t he c ap ita l f ro m t he ir e xcava t ions,

a ppos ite ly c i ted t wo f ur ther e xa mp les o f t h is t ype f ro m t he f or t a t R ibchester . T hese h ave p rec ise ly t he s a me l ea f s hapes w ith t he d eta il u ncarved , a nd t he s a me d ispos it ion o f t he v o lutes a nd o f t he u pper p art .

T he o n ly o ther

p lace where t h is t ype o ccurs i s a t Wroxe ter , where a f ragmen t c ons ist ing o f o ne c orner o f t he a bacus a nd i t s v o lutes was f ound b y A tk inson , u nstra t if l ed b ut l y ing j ust t o t he e ast o f t he F oru m p ort ico :5 8 c o me f ro m t he F oru m , b ut we c annot b e s ure .

i t may we l l h ave

I t w ou ld s eem t ha t c ap ita ls

o f t h is t ype were c arved b y t he s ame C hes ter- Wroxeter-R ibchester s choo l a s t he b ases c ons idered a bove ,

p ar t icu lar ly s ince b oth c ap ita ls a nd b ases

o ccur i n t he C hester Pr inc ip ia . C iv i l ian c on texts i n t he s outh o f t he p rov ince p rov ide r a ther more o r thod ox e xamp les o f t he C or in th ian c ap ita l . A dm it ted ly , t he e ar l iest , t ha t f ro m F ishbourne , i s u nusua l , b ut i t s u nusua l ity d er ives f ro m Med i terranean r a ther t han f ro m p rov inc ia l s ources, t hough S trong c onsidered t ha t t he masons who c arved i t may h ave c o me f ro m S outh G au l .

5 9

T here a re n o o thers i n B r ita in

wh ich h ave a ny p ar t icu lar r ese mb lance t o i t , a nd t he s a me a pp l ies t o t ha t f ro m t he T e mp le o f S uns M inerva a t Ba th , w h ich i s p robab ly o f s im i lar F lav ian d a te .

6 0

T he f irst r ea l ly d ef inab le g roup i s f ormed b y t he c ap ita ls f ro m t he b as i l icas a t S i lchester ,

C irencester a nd C aerwen t , wh ich s how f ea tures f ound

o n an u mber o f Rh ine land

c ap ita ls. 6 1

On t ha t f ro m S i lchester ( P late 4 .I Ia )6 2

t he s ides a nd e nds o f t he a bacus a re d ecora ted w ith i ncised g rooves . a re n o v o lutes ; i nstead ,

T here

ab and o f l eaves r i ses b eh ind t he l eaves o f t he c a lyx

a nd p ar t ia l ly c overs t he a bacus, w ith a sma l l c ur l t urn ing u pwards a t t he t op . T he l obes o f t he l eaves a re d eep ly h o l lowed , a nd t he ir t ips a re c ut r a ther s quare .

T he u nders ides o f t he l eaves a t t he a ng le a re r ibbed .

Par t o f t he l ower h a lf o f o ne o f t hese c ap i ta ls ( P late 4 .I Ib ) h as a b o t to m t i er o f l ow l eaves, w ith t he t hree s erra ted p o in ts o f t he s ide l obes o f a d jacen t l eaves n ear ly meet ing , i n b etween .

a nd w ith t he f la t t aper ing m id-r ib o f t he u pper r ow

T here a re t r iangu lar-shaped s paces b e tween t he u pper p o in ts

o f t he l obes, w ith l i t t le b r idges l e f t j o in ing t he t i ps .

T he s ta lk o f t he a bacus

r oset te r ises b etween t he l ea f s hoots wh ich t ake t he p lace o f t he h e l ices . S evera l o f t he f rag men ts i n t he S i lchester c o l lect ion s how m inor v ar ia t ions i n t he d epth o f c arv ing , i n t he d eta i l o f t he e nds o f t he l eaves a t t he c orners o f t he a bacus, a nd i n t he r oset tes .

T h is s uggests t wo o r p oss ib ly t hree

d if feren t h ands a t work , p roducing c ap ita ls w h ich wou ld b e i den t ica l t o t he c asua l o bserver . T he p resen t whereabouts o f t he Caerwen t c ap ita ls i s P o l onger k nown , b ut f ro m t he p ub l ished p hotographs 6 3

t he ir l ea f-carv ing a ppears t o b e v ery

c lose t o t ha t o f t he S i lchester e xa mp les, p ar t icu lar ly i n t he d eep c oncav i ty 6 4

PLATE 4 .1 11 :

L ower h a lves o f t wo C or in th ian Cap ita ls f ro m C irencester .

PLATE 4 .1V :

U pper p ar ts o f t wo C or in th ian Cap ita ls f rom C irencester . a( above) , b( be low ) .

o f t he l obes a nd t he s quare t i ps t o t he ir s hoots .

T urn ing t o C irencester ,

t here a re t wo l ower h a lves wh ich a re i m med ia te ly c o mparab le ( P la te 4 .1 1 1 ) . T he f i rst was f ound i n t he a rea o f t he b as i l ica i n 1 808, a nd may p oss ib ly c o me f ro m i t ,

6 4

t hough w ith a d ia meter o f 1 20 cm i t i s at h ird a s l arge

a ga in a s t he s econd , f ound t here i n l a ter e xcava t ions .

T he s ame t r iangu lar

6 5

s paces a nd l i t t le b r idges o ccur , a nd t he mid-r ib o f t he u pper l eaves r ises u p i n as im i lar manner b etween t he l eaves o f t he l ower t i er ,

t hough t he

g ap b etween t hese a t t he b ot to m i s r a ther w ider t han i n t he S i lchester c ap it a ls a nd t he b ot to m l obe h as o n ly a s ing le p o in t . T he s econd l ower p ar t f ro m C irencester i s o f t he s ame g enera l f or m . I t h as s uf fered bad ly f ro m w ea ther ing a nd t he t i ps o f t he l eaves a re a l i t t le more p o in ted a nd t he l obes n o t q u ite s o d eep ly h o l lowed .

T hese v ar ia t ions

a re n o more t han o ne s hou ld e xpect w ith in t he s a me s choo l o f c arvers . I t i s n o t c lear whether t he u pper p ar t o f ac ap ita l i l lustra ted h ere ( P la te 4 .IVa ) was p ar t o f t he s a me s et .6 6 s im i lar ,

I n i t s g enera l t rea tmen t i ti s c lose ly

a nd i t s s ize i s a bou t r igh t ( i ts l ower d ia me ter i s 7 9 cm ,

w ith t he u pper d ia meter o f t he s econd l ower p ar t ,

7 7 cm) .

c o mpared

T here a re o ne

o r t wo f ea tures, s uch a s t he sma l l s em ic ircu lar n icks b e low t he t r iang les , a nd t he s l igh t ly l ess p o in ted t i ps t o t he l eaves,

i n wh ich i td if fers f ro m t he

S i lchester c ap ita l, a nd t he d ispos it ion o f t he l eaves i s c er ta in ly d iferen t , w i th a s ing le l eaf i n t he m idd le o f t he c a lyx i n p lace o f S i lchester ' sp a ir , a nd w ith t he t endr i ls b e low t he a bacus f l ower i n p lace o f S i lchester ' su pr ight l ea f .

T he a bsence o f v o lutes, h owever , t he s pray o f l eaves r is ing u p t o t he

a bacus i n t he ir p lace , a bacus,

a nd t he r ibb ing o f t he l eaves b e low t he c orners o f t he

l i nk t h is c ap ita l c lose ly w ith t he s ame t rad it ion .

C loser t o t he S i lchester c ap ita l a re t hree o ther f rag ments f ro m C irenc ester o f w h ich t he l argest i s i l lustra ted ( P late 4 .IVb ), o f t he s ame c ap ita l .

a l l p robab ly p ar ts

I n t h is, t hough t he p a irs o f l eaves i n t he c a lyx a re

p resen t a nd t he h e l ices a nd l ea f s prays a bove t he c a lyces s how i t t o b e a c ap ita l o f t he s a me t ype a s t ha t f ro m t he S i lchester b as i l ica , a re more u pr ight a nd e longa ted a nd l ess c oncave .

t he l eaves

T hese a re f ea tures a nd

p ropor t ions d isp layed a lso o n t he w e l l-known c ap ita l w h ich i s c arved w ith w ha t Mr .

P h i l l ips h as l a te ly s hown t o b e f our f igures f ro m D ionys iac my th-

o logy .

A n i ncrease i n t he h e igh t o f ac ap ita l i n p ropor t ion t o i t s d ia meter ,

6 7

a nd c onsequent ly i n t he r e la t ive h e ight o f i t s l eaves, c entury w ork , i ng .

i s at endency o f s econd

o f ten w ith a more f or ma lised a nd p at terned e f fect i n t he c arv-

O n t he g rounds o f t he ir p ropor t ions a nd o rna men t t hese c ap ita ls c ou ld

b e a t tr ibuted t o s o me t ime a f ter t he mid-second c entury ,

wh ich wou ld b e c on-

s isten t w i th t he l a te-second t o m id-th ird c en tury d a te p roposed b y Ph i l l ips f or t he B acch ic c ap ita l o n t he g rounds o f i t s a f f in ity w ith t hose o f Rh ine land J up iter c o lu mns . Iw ou ld a rgue t ha t h ere w e h ave t he p roducts o f as choo l w ith a l ong l i fe a nd a w ide r ange ,

r ef lect ing c haracter ist ics o f R o man a rch itecture i n t he o ther

w estern p rov inces , b ut w i th a n e ssent ia l ly i n terna l d eve lop ment . o f t he C irencester ,

T he d a tes

S i lchester a nd Caerwen t b as i l icas f a l l w i th in t he l ast

q uar ter o f t he f irst a nd t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he s econd c entur ies,

a nd i n

t he ir a rch itectura l o rnamen t we c an t hus s ee t he work o f a t l east o ne g enerat i on o f c arvers s pread o ver t h ir ty o r f or ty y ears .

6 7

T ypo log ica l ly l ater d eve lop-

PLATE 4 .V :

C orn ices .

a( above) , f ro m Veru lam iu m . b( be low ) , f ro m C irences ter .

men ts a t C irencester , t he n ex t g enera t ion ,

s t i l l f i rm ly w ith in t he o ne t rad it ion , must t ake i ti n to

a nd t h is d a t ing i s c onf ir med b y t he c orner o f t he a bacus

o f aC or in th ian c ap ita l f ro m t he s tage b u i ld ing o f t he t hea tre a t V eru la m iu m , o f t he t h ird q uarter o f t he s econd c en tury , w i th t he c haracter ist ic c ur l a t t he e nd o f t he l eaves where t hey o ver lap t he a bacus, t he S i lchester b as i l ica v ers ion .6 8

a s p o inted o ut a bove o n

The a rch itectura l c onnex ion b etween C irencester a nd V eru la m iu m i s r e inf orced b y t he c orn ice b lock , a lso f ro m K enyon s e xcava t ions 6 9 a lso f ro m t he t hea tre ,

a nd p robab ly

more l i ke ly t o b e o f t he s econd o r t h ird c entury t han

o f t he f our th c entury d a te i mp l ied b y i t s a t tr ibut ion t o t he monu menta l a rch b y t he t hea tre . I t w as f ound n ear t he f oundat ions o f t he a rch o n t he t hea tre s ide.

The d iagnost ic d eta i ls a re t he o ver lapp ing f o lds o f t he

l eaves o n t he b ot to m mou ld ing , t he b road l ea f-pa l met tes o n t he b racke ts a nd t he b eadl ike d ecora t ion a bove t he m ( P late 4 .Va ).

A l l t hese f eatures a re

a lso t o b e s een o n t he f ragmen t o f a n e x tre me ly l arge c orn ice i n C irencester ( P la te 4 .Vb ). 7° The w ork o f t he s choo l may h ave s pread a s f ar a s C anterbury a nd L inc o ln .

Fragments o f t he a bacus a nd u pper f o l iage o f ac ap i ta l o f t he c lass

j ust c ons idered were f ound i n 1 976 i n e xcava t ions o f as i te o ppos ite t he t hea tre i n Canterbury , r e-used a s p os tho le p ack ing . 7 1 T he S pr inghead e xamp les, t hough f ragmentary , d o n ot a ppear t o b e o f t he s ame t ype , b ut t here i s a s im ilar , u nprovenanced , p iece i n t he L inco ln C ounty a nd C ity Museu m . L inco ln ,

I n

h owever , t he c orn ice r e-used i n t he l ower west g ate o f t he c o lon ia 7 2

was n ot p roduced b y t he s choo l r esponsib le f or t he Veru la m iu m a nd C irenc ester c orn ices . There s hou ld b e n o t heoret ica l o b ject ion t o t he i mp l ica t ion t ha t t he s ame s choo l o f masons o pera ted o ver s uch a w ide a rea . med ieva l s tone masons t o t rave l f ar f ur ther ,

I t was c o m monp lace f or

a nd o ne o f o ur t wo n a med s tone-

c arvers i n B r ita in , t he l ap idar ius Pr iscus o f t he Carnu tes, was o f G au l ish o r ig in .

I ndeed , t he l i ke l ihood i s t ha t t he s choo l was f ounded b y masons

7 3

f ro m t he R h ine land , where K äh ler l ong a go ,

i n c ons ider ing t he c ap ita ls o f

h is c lass C , t o wh ich t hose o f o ur s choo l b ear a v ery c lose r ese mb lance , i nc luded t he S i lchester a nd C aerwen t e xamp les w ith in i t .

7 4

I t i s t e mp t ing t o t h ink t ha t i t was b ased o n C irencester ,

i f o n ly b ecause

t he ma jor ity o f e xa mp les a t tr ibutab le t o t he s choo l c o mes f ro m t here , a nd s hows a d eve lop men t o ver a c ons iderab le p er iod. t he l argest c iv itas c ap ita l i n t he p rov ince ,

Bu t w ha t b et ter p lace t han

at own w ith many l arge a nd impos ing

b u i ld ings , a s t he a rch itectura l s tonework s hows c lear ly ,

a nd s i tua ted i n a n

a rea w ith a bundan t o o l it ic l imestone c lose a t h and? I t i s c lear t ha t i t was n ot t he o n ly s choo l o pera t ing i n t he West C oun try . C o mp lete ly d if ferent s ty les may b e n oted i n Ba th , o n s uch w orks a s t he Q uadran t Monu men t ,

7 5

w i th a t ype o f l ea f c arv ing t o b e f ound a lso i n Caer-

w en t a nd C aer leon , t hough f ur ther w ork r e ma ins t o b e d one b efore t h is g roup i s s a t isfactor i ly d ef ined ; a nd i n G loucester , where a c ap ita l w ith v ery n arrow u pr ight l eaves a nd a c o lu mn s ha f t d ecora ted w i th l ea f s ca les r ef lects a nother R h ine land t ype wh ich i s a lso e xe mp l if ied i n af igured C or in th ian c ap i ta l f ro m C at ter ick .

7 6

O ther Cor in th ian c ap ita ls f ro m L e icester a nd Wroxeter 7 7

may

a lso b e men t ioned , wh ich r epresen t t wo more q u ite s epara te t ypes w ith n o c onnex ion w ith a ny o f t hose f ur ther s outh . 6 9

F ur ther s tud ies, n ow i n p rogress,

s hou ld r ound o ut t he p icture t ha t

h as b een p resen ted i n t h is p aper , wh ich h as b een n ecessar i ly s e lect ive , b oth r eg iona l ly ,

c hrono log ica l ly ,

a nd i n t he t ypes o f o b ject c onsidered .

T he many p la in - mou lded c o lu mn c ap ita ls a nd b ases i n par t icu lar p rov ide a b ody o f ma ter ia l whose e xa m ina t ion w i l l p er m it s o me o f t he d ist inct ions t ha t h ave b een i den t if ied a bove t o b e r ef ined a nd e xtended .

I n t he s outh , t h is

s hou ld t hrow l i ght o n s uch ma t ters a s t he e vo lut ion o f v i l la a rch itecture a nd i t s r e la t ion t o t he work o f s tone masons i n t he t owns . p ub l ic a nd p r iva te ,

Aspects o f p a tronage -

c iv i l ian a nd m i l itary - a nd t he e x terna l i n f luences o n

R o mano-Br i t ish a rch itecture a nd i t s i nterna l d eve lop ments r ema in t o b e e xp lored f ur ther .

I ti s h oped ,

h owever ,

t ha t t he f orego ing p ages w i l l s how

h ow s o me o f t he a nswers may b e p rov ided .

7 0

REFERENCES 1 .

Toynbee ,

1 964,

9 .

2 .

Po l lard , 1 974, p l .

x x iv .

3 .

R .C .H . M .,

1 32 .

4 .

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond ,

5 .

B irö, 1 975,

6 .

Corstop itu m Museu m .

7 .

L ow ther ,

1 976 , 4 0 a nd p l .

8 .

Cun l if fe,

1 969,

9 .

Nash- W i lliams,

1 962 ,

1 955,

n o .

1 86c .

4 5-47 .

p l .

v .

l xx ix ,b ; Br itann ia I V ,

1 953, 1 32

1 973 ,

p l .xxx i i i .a .

a nd p ls . i v .1 a nd x i .3 ; L ow ther ,

1 976,

4 0 f or f u l l r eferences . 1 0 .

Fox ,

1 892a , P l •xx iv •

1.

I n R ev .

G . S .

8.

Master ' sc o l lect ion i n S a l isbury Museu m o f f inds f ro m

t h is v i lla .

The p ub l ished r ecord makes n o ment ion , u n less i t i s

t he ' s ingu lar o b ject ... 1 872,

l i ke a G oth ic p oppy-head i n s tone ' :Master ,

4 1.

1 2 .

Ap-S i mon ,

1 965,

2 55-6 a nd f ig . 5 4 .10 .

1 3 .

Haver f ie ld ,

1 4 .

L ow ther ,

1 5 .

Gabe l mann ,

1 6 .

Boon ,

1 7 .

Ashby ,

1 8 .

Mor ley Hew it t ,

1 9 .

F ox a nd S t .

2 0 .

C un l if fe,

2 1.

S t .

2 2 .

B lagg ,

2 3 .

A tk inson ,

2 4 .

R ich mond a nd Webster ,

2 5 .

A tk inson ,

2 6 .

R ich mond a nd Webster ,

1 906,

1 976,

2 13 , f ig .

7 0 .

4 0-1.

1 973, p l .

4 0 a nd f urther r eferences .

1 950 , 2 1-2 . Hudd a nd K ing ,

1 911, 4 36 ,

f ig .

1 6 a nd 4 37 .

1 971, a ppend ix A .

J ohn H ope , 1 893 ,

1 969, p ls .

p l .

XXXiX.

l xxv i a nd b cxv i i i .

C la ir Badde ley . 1 907 , p l . f o l low ing p 2 46 . 1 976,

1 66-7 .

1 942,

1 942 ,

6 0f

a nd f ig .

2 4a .

1 951,

f ig .

1 951,

2 1.

6 3 .

7 1

1 6 .

2 7 .

R . C. H . M .,

1 962,

2 8 .

Fox , 1 892, 2 38.

2 9 .

I nformat ion f ro m J . S . Wacher .

3 0 .

S tead ,

3 1.

Grosvenor Museu m ,

3 2 .

Wa tk in ,

3 3 .

Haver f ie ld , 1 918 ,

3 4 .

Hebd itch a nd Me l lor , 1 973 ,

3 5 .•

Now i n t he c ryp t o f A l l Ha l lows b y t he T ower ,

3 6 .

K enyon ,

3 7 .

Fox a nd S t .

3 8 .

C un l if fe ,

3 9.

Buckman a nd New march, 1 850,

1 9-21; Cr ipps,

1 898 ,

4 0 .

Know les a nd F u llbrook L egga t t ,

1 934,

2 .

4 1.

Nash- W i l l ia ms,

1 953, 1 61 a nd p l. i v .

4 2 .

F ox ,

1 68-9, p l . I .

4 3 .

S trong ,

4 4 .

Penn ,

4 5 .

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond ,

4 6 .

Wa tk in ,

4 7 .

J .R .S .

4 8 .

Museu m o f Ant iqu it ies,

4 9 .

R ,C .H . M .,

5 0 .

Know les a nd F orster ,

1 976,

1 12-3 n o .

2 33-4,

1 886,

f i g .

1 28 .

Chester .

1 43-4 .

1 934,

3 1.

p l .

f ig .

J ohn H ope , 1 893 ,

1 897 , 1 44, 1 971, 1 958 ,

3 1 . London .

l xv i .

1 969, n os .

5 52 a nd p l .

=

M il.

1 .6-7 a nd 3 .5-6 .

7 1,

f i g .

2 07 .

1 4 . 1 08-110 a nd f ig . 1 1.

1 886,

1 955, p ls.

x l i a nd x lv i i .

2 63 .

5 0 , 1 960, p l .

1 914,

1 2a a nd b .

1 962 ,

x x i i . N ewcast le-upon-Tyne .

1 12-3 , n o . 1 909,

1 1a . 3 48 a nd f i g . 1 0 ; F orster a nd Know les,

3 01.

5 1.

C o ll ingwood ,

1 926, n o .

5 2 .

Rober tson , S cot t a nd K epp ie,

5 3 .

L iversidge ,

5 4 .

Petch,

5 5 .

Wr ight a nd R ich mond ,

5 6 .

R ich mond a nd Webster ,

5 7 .

B lagg ,

5 8 .

A tk inson ,

5 9 .

S trong ,

1 969,

9 8 . 1 975 .

f ig . 4 .10 .

1 970-1, 1 4-15 a nd p l .v .

1 976,

5 7 a nd p l . x lv i i.c .

1 951,

3 5 .

1 59-161.

1 942 , p l .

1 971,

1 955,

5 9 .d .

1 4 .

7 2

6 0 .

Cun l if fe ,

1 969,

6 1.

Käh ler ,

6 2 .

Fox a nd S t .

6 3 .

Nash- W i l lia ms,

3 7-8 .

1 939 .

Mr .

J ohn H ope , 1 893 , p l . 1 953a , p l. i v ;

x xxv i i i .

a nd p r in ts k ind ly s upp l ied t o me b y

George Boon .

6 4 .

Lysons,

1 817b , 1 24 a nd p l. v i i i.

6 5 .

Cr ipps ,

6 6 .

Cor in iu m Museu m .

6 7 .

Ph i l l ips,

6 8 .

Kenyon , 1 934 ,

6 9 .

I b id .

7 0 .

Cor in iu m Museu m .

7 1.

I nforma t ion f ro m T .

7 2 .

Co lyer ,

7 3 .

R .I .B .

7 4 .

Käh ler ,

7 5 .

Cun l if fe,

7 6 .

S ee n ote 4 7 a bove ; I ah ler , 1 939 , 3 3-41 .

7 7 .

J .R .S .

1 898 ,

2 07 . I t i s p ossib ly t ha t f ound b y Cr ipps ( l oc .

1 976 . 2 21-2 a nd p l .

l xv i .

2 38 .

1 975, p l .

W.

T .

Ta tton -Brown .

x xxv i i i .a .

1 49. 1 939, 2 4-32 . 1 969,

5 7 ,

p ls .

1 l iv .

1 967 , 1 85 a nd a bove, n ote 4 2 .

7 3

c it .)

5 .

RECENT DEVELOP MENTS I N

RO MANO-BR IT ISH WALL PAINT ING J oan L ivers idge

L ike a l l o ther b ranches o f Ro mano-Br it ish a r t , t he s tudy o f wa l lp a int ing owes much t o Professor T oynbee ' sr esearches a nd h er u n fa i l ing i nterest i n e very n ew d iscovery .

When s he wrote h er c hap ter o n Fresco

Pa in t ing i n A r t i n B r ita in u nder t he R o mans ,

s he l a men ted t he d estruct ion

o f ma ter ia l f ro m e ar l ier e xcava t ions wh ich i s r are ly p reserved o r n oted .1 T yp ica l e xamp les o f t he f ragmen ts wh ich d id a rouse e nough i n terest t o e nsure t he ir s urv iva l a re t he g ab le e nd o f ah ouse a nd t he f oot o f ad ancing g ir l f ro m t he I ck leton v i l la ( Ca mbs. )o r t he b eaut i fu l g ir l 's h ead f ound a t Caerwen t .2 S uch i nstances a re r are a nd t end t o emphas ise o ur l osses . h and t here a re a f ew h onourab le e xcep t ions,

On t he o ther

a n t iquar ians who h ave b equea thed

u s s o me r ecords o f e ar l ier d iscover ies wh ich s o met i mes s hed l i gh t o n more r ecen t d eve lop ments . T he f irst l and mark f or t he s er ious s tudy o f R o mano-Br it ish wa l l-pa in t ing was t he d iscovery o f ma ter ia l o f s evera l p er iods i n t he L u l lingstone v i l la i n 1 949-50 .

T h is i nc luded e v idence f or t he we l l k nown s cenes o f C hr ist ian

s ign if icance f ro m a f our th c en tury h ouse-church w i th a n a nteroo m .

3

Three

r epresenta t ions o f t he C h i-Rho monogra m s et i n al aure l wrea th h ave n ow b een i den t if ied a nd a r ow o f f i gures s tand ing b etween t he p i l lars o f ac o lonn ade .

T he p laster f ro m t hese t wo r oo ms h as f ound a p ermanen t h o me a t

t he Br it ish Museu m a nd t he Museu m s taf f a re c ont inu ing t he h eavy t ask o f r esearch a nd c onserva t ion a s t ime a nd f unds a l low . b een made i n c onnect ion w ith r oo m a nd c hape l,

N ew d iscover ies h ave

t he d esigns o n t he S outh Wa l ls o f t he a n te-

a nd t here i s ap oss ib i l ity t ha t p laster f ro m a p ar t it ion

wa l l may i n f act c o me f ro m t he c hape l N or th Wa l l .

Work h as s t i l l t o b e

d one o n ma ter ia l f ro m t he E ast Wa l l d ecora ted w ith t he t h ird C h i-Rho monog ra m a nd p robab ly much e lse .

L u l l ingstone r e ma ins a s i te o f u n ique i n terest

f or s tuden ts o f b oth r e l ig ion a nd i n ter ior d ecora t ion s o i t i s t o b e h oped t ha t t he r esearch w i l l b e c o mp leted a nd t he f ina l r epor t wr it ten b efore t oo l ong . Meanwh i le a n i nter im r epor t w i l l b e i nc luded w ith t he a ccoun t o f t he v i l la b y L t . C o l .

G . W.

Mea tes ,

F .S .A .,

t o b e p ub l ished a s a Research Repor t

o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies . Between 1 955-61,

Professor S . S .

Frere ' se xcava t ions a t V eru la m iu m

p roduced s ubstan t ia l amounts o f wa l l-pa in t ing .

L arge a reas f ro m s evera l

wa l ls h ave b een r econstructed a nd a re o n d isp lay a t t he V eru lam iu m Museu m . S o me o f t h is ma ter ia l h as b een b r ief ly p ub l ishe c 1 ,4 b ut a f u l l r epor t i s b ad ly n eeded a s s ubsequen t d iscover ies f ro m o ther s i tes c on t inua l ly emphasise i t s g reat i mpor tance f or c o mpara t ive p urposes . T hree o ther t owns b es ides Veru la m iu m h ave p roduced e xtens ive e v idence o f d ecora t ion .

Fro m C irencester c o mes p a in t ing o f F lav ian d a te wh ich may 7 5

h ave embe l l ished t he l i v ing r oo m wa l ls o f as hop ( F ig . 5 .1a ) . I tc onsists o f r ed p ane ls o f v ary ing s izes, p robab ly a d jus ted t o f i t i n w i th t he l eng th o f t he wa l l , o ut l ined b y y e l low o r g reen b ands d ecora ted w i th t he o ccas iona l f l ower a nd f ramed i n b lack .

S o me mot if may h ave b een p a in ted b e tween t he

p ane ls b ut t h is h as s urv ived b ad ly , a s i s u sua l ly t he c ase w i th d esigns p a inted o n ab lack g round . B e low c o mes a d ado s t ipp led t o im ita te marb le , t he f avour ite mode o f d ecora t ion f or t he l ower l eve ls o f t he wa l ls . c usto m ,

A p ract ica l

a s f resh s t ipp l ing c ou ld e asi ly b e a dded t o o b l itera te d irty marks

o r d a mage . A m id-second c entury h ouse f ound b y D r . Wacher i n 1 962 was d ecora ted w ith y e l low p ane ls o n ap ink g round s epara ted b y g reen p i laster s tr ips, o n wh ich may h ave a ppeared a g eo metr ic o r s cro l l mot if . B e low c ame a d ado o f d ark b lue , a n u nusua l c o lour , embe l l ished w ith a d iamond i n t he c entre o f a r ed a nd wh ite k ey p a t tern .

5

B efore t h is, f rag men ts r ecovered f ro m t he Dyer C our t e xcava t ions o f 1 957 p rov ided e v idence o f av ar iety o f d esigns b e long ing t o t wo p er iods, w ith t he p laster o f P er iod I s t i l l a dher ing t o t he P er iod I wa l l s ur face .

T he

e ar l ier wa l ls i nc luded f l ora l mot ifs o n b lack o r wh ite g rounds , t he l ater wh ite , b lack o r b rown .

P laster p a in ted o n ar ed g round may c o me f ro m e ither p er iod

a nd i nc ludes t he d es igns i l lustra ted ( P l . 5 .I ) . P late 5 .I a c omes f ro m a p ane l f ramed b y ag reen b and o ut l ined i n wh ite . I ns ide t he b order c o mes f irst a f i ne y e l low l i ne a nd t hen a b lue o ne .

G roups o f d ots o rnamen t t he

c orners w here t he y e l low a nd b lue l i nes meet a t r ight a ng les . Fragmen ts n ot i l lustra ted s how a b lack s tr ipe o uts ide t he g reen b and embe l lished w ith af i ne y e l low l i ne w ith a n o ccas iona l f l ower , a mot if r eca l l ing t he F lav ian p laster f ro m t he C irencester s hop . wh ite h igh l igh ts ,

P la te 5 .1 1 3 d ep icts a y e l low swag w ith

t he l ower p ar t d arker y e l low o r p urp le t o i nd ica te s hadow .

O ther p ieces s how t he s a me d es ign i n b lue a nd wh ite s haded w i th g reen . T h is p laster c ou ld n ot b e c lose ly d a ted , a nd o n ly a s hor tt ime n eed h ave e lapsed b e tween t he t wo p er iods .6 Work a t Winchester h as a lso p roduced i n terest ing ma ter ia l .

Fro m t he

Woo lwor th s i te i n 1 953 c ame f ragmen ts wh ich s uggest a wa l l w ith a wh ite d ado f ra med b y y e l low b ands a nd d iv ided i n to l arge a nd sma l l r ecta ng les, t he l arger o nes s t ipp led i n r ed . Above c ame p ane ls o ut lined b y wh ite a nd e i ther y e l low o r g reen a nd g rey l i nes w ith b roader b lack b ands a bove a nd b e low w h ich may h ave b een o rnamen ted w ith a y e l low a nd b lue s cro l l mot if .

B etween t he p ane ls a re b lack p i laster s tr ips .

T he p ane ls p roduced

e v idence f or a mot if b ased o n t he t a l l R o man c ande labru m a nd p a inted o n y e l low . P la te 5 . Ia s hows t he t op w ith t hree l i gh ts. T he s tem , i nd ica ted f or t he a r t ist b y a n i nc ised s cr ib ing l i ne , i s d ecora ted w ith y e l low s p ira ls b e low wh ich c o mes a f l ower w ith a g reen c a lyx a nd wh ite p e ta ls .

Ye l low

a nd wh ite l i nes s epara te t he r ed f ro m t he b lack p i laster s tr ip p a inted o ver t he r ed g round o n t he l e f t . P la te 5 .1 Ib , af ragment f ro m f ur ther d own t he s te m , c o mes f ro m a p ane l e dged w i th t he g rey , p a le g reen a nd wh ite f ramew ork , a nd p icks u p t he s equence a t t he f l ower ; a nd c on t inues i tw ith more s p ira ls . B e low t he m c o me a p a ir o f g reen l eaves, n ext a d ark b lue ' p inecone ' mot if o ut l ined i n wh ite , a nd t hen p robab ly a no ther f l ower . T he s equence o f mot ifs i s n o t r epea ted i n e xact ly t he s ame o rder . O ther p ieces s how a f ourp e ta l led y e l low f l ower b e low t he p inecone a nd o ne f ragmen t w ith a l arger 7 6

0

2T ?

2ft

F IG . 5 .1:

a( above ) , I nsu la V ,

C irences ter .

F lav ian p er iod ( N . Davey ) .

b ( be low ) , I nsu la XXX I .2 , Veru la m iu m .

La te 2 nd c en t . ( N . Davey ).

PLATE 5 .1 :

a( above) , b (be low ) , D yer C our t , C irencester ( L .P . Mor ley)

b lue mot if o ut l ined i n y e l low p robab ly d ep icts

t he c ande labru m b ase .

O ne

e nd o f as wag o f sma l l wh ite f l owers w ith b lue c en tres was a t tached w ith wh ite r ibbons t o ac ande labru m w ith t he o ther e nd t i ed t o ar od imag ined a s s uspended f ro m t he t op o f t he c e i l ing . I t i s p oss ib le t ha t c rea m p ane ls a lso e x isted p erhaps f or s o me s pec ia l d ecora t ive f eature . g est t ha t

A s ing le f rag men t s hows e nough o f o ne o f t hese t o s ug-

n ear t he e dge t he c ande labru m mot if was a ga in u sed , t h is t ime

p robab ly i n wh ite w ith b lack ,

r ed a nd g reen d eta i ls .

A wh ite l i ne s epara ted

i t f ro m a s pray o f wh ite d a is ies p a inted o n t he b lack g round , d es ign .

a lso a u n ique

O therw ise t he b lack p i laster s tr ips were a lso d ecora ted w ith c ande l-

a bra w ith y e l low s te ms , b ut h ere t he emphas is i s o n t he d iscs o rnament ing t he s ha f t a t i n terva ls, o ut l ined i n wh ite w ith b lue a nd wh ite b ead ing .

Ye l low

o r wh ite s p ira ls g row o ut o f t he m a nd p endan ts p oss ib ly d ang led o n e i ther s ide .

Ye l low , g reen a nd wh ite l eaves a lso o ccur .

Sma l ler r ounde ls may

h ave s prouted f ro m t he s ha f t .7 T h ird c entury p laster e xcava ted i n 1 968 f ro m a p assage l ead ing i n to t he F oru m a t Winchester i nc luded f ragments o f a r ed p ane l w ith a y e l low c ande la bru m w i th t hree l i gh ts, a nd a g ar land t i ed w ith wh ite r ibbon , v ery s im i lar t o t he e xamp les f ro m t he Woo lwor th s i te . 8 A sma l l amoun t o f ma ter ia l f ro m t he B on Marche s i te , G louces ter , p robab ly c o mes f ro m a s im i lar d es i g n .9 R ecen t e xcava t ions i n L ion Wa lk , C o lchester h ave a lso p roduced t he t op o f ac ande labru m w ith t hree l igh ts, a nd s craps w ith f l owers.

T races o f ap rob-

a b le g ar land o n r ed p ane l l ing w ere d a ted t o p re-Boud iccan l eve ls . "

B y way

o f c on trast a p oss ib le c ande labru m d es ign w ith wh i te s ha f t a nd s trea mers, f l owers w ith b lue c en tres,

r ed a nd wh ite p eta ls a nd b lue a nd wh ite l eaves,

a nd p ar t o f al arger r ed f l ower w ith p eta ls t ipped w ith y e l low a nd wh ite , was f ound p a in ted o n ag reen g round a t Dyer C our t , T races

C irencester ( F ig . 5 .2) .

1 1

o f ac ande labru m d es ign o ut l ined i n b lack o n ac rea m g round were

f ound i n L ondon i n Ange l C our t i n 1 974 .

T he ma ter ia l i s b urn t b ut t he s te m

was p robab ly d ecora ted w ith b lack l eaves a nd r ed , wh ite o r y e l low f l owers .

1 2

More c o mp lete e xamp les o f wa l ls d ecora ted w ith t he t ypes o f mot ifs j ust d escr ibed c an b e s een i n t he B r i t ish a nd Veru la m iu m Museu ms .

F ound b y

P rofessor F rere i n 1 956 i n I nsu la XX I . 2a nd d a t ing f ro m t he s econd c entury , t he s tretch i n t he Br i t ish Museum was r econstruc ted b y Dr . N or man Davey ( F ig .

5 .1b ) .1 3

H ere we h ave t he r ed p ane ls w ith y e l low c ande labra s ur-

moun ted i n t h is c ase b y f i ve l i gh ts a nd l i nked b y g ar lands t o ac en tra l r od f ro m wh ich h ang p endan ts .

S o me d eta i ls l i ke t he f l owers o n t he c ande labra

s haf ts r ese mb le t hose f ro m W inchester , o thers a re d if feren t .

T he V eru l-

am iu m d es ign i nc ludes g reen b irds o n p erches i n t he c en tre o f t he p ane l, a nd t he c ande labra a re l i nked a s hor t d istance a bove t he ir b ases b y al i ne a lso o rnamen ted w ith

p endan ts, f l owers e tc .

T hese d eta i ls a re s o

f ar

o n ly f ound a t Veru la m iu m , b ut u nprovenanced ma ter ia l f ro m L ondon a lso i n t he B r i t ish Museu m may j ust p ossib ly d ep ict a s im i lar l ink b etween t he c ande la bra b ases .

1 4

T he b lack p i laster s tr ips b etween t he Veru lam iu m p ane ls a lso

f a in t t races o f c ande labra . Another r ed Veru lamiu m wa l l f ro m I nsu la XXV I II . 3p rov ides u s w i th a b e t ter s pec i men o f t he u se o f t he c ande labru m f or a p i laster s tr ip a s i n t h is c ase i t was p a in ted o n a wh ite g round . ( F ig . 5 .3) . 7 9

1 5

S ix r ed l i gh ts a ppear

on the top disc which has decorative pendants. The shaft is shown in red with blue and red details and green leaves. Lower down is a disc lined with yellow supporting two small discs, one on each side with stems rising from small purple bases. The top of a third disc supports two more lesser lights with blue bases. This delightfully fantastic design is so far unparalleled Reference has already been made to third century material from a pass leading into the forum at Winchester. i6 Unhappily this is very fragmentary but enough survives to suggest a scene with the upper part of at least one building with elaborate decoration shown in perspective on plaster with good quality shiny red surface. Above the building is a circular boss, carefully shaded. Blue streamers, yellow ribbons and flowers may come from a swag, one end of which could have been attached to the candelabrum motif already noted. The use of perspective is known from other British sites, notably Caer­ went, where in one house painting of two periods was found superimposed. 1 • The later design belonged to a room with yellow walls, and the surviving portion extending to £· 1 m depicted a recess shown in perspective, its rea1 wall painted red. I n front is a green band, perhaps representing a rug. Possibly this was a niche for a figure painting but evidence from higher up the wall is lacking. The major urban site however which at present provides comparative material for most of the features already discussed is Blue Boar Lane, Leicester, a house excavated by Dr. J. Wacher in 1958 which produced elaborate wall-paintings of probable mid-seco:rrl century date. Like the Verulamium red wall it came from a corridor surrounding a courtyard. The west wall has been reconstructed to the height of 3 m. 18 I n place of the usual dado the design stands on a platform of tawny yellow above a green band. Various small geometric motifs indicate the base, and the top of the platform at one point curves into a single guilloche plait. This curve is in front of a niche shown in perspective and containing perhaps the glimpse of an aviary. The head survives of a large bird probably standing at the foot of a tall perch, and one or more birds appear on sprays of flowers twined around the perch. One either side of the niche are candelabra motifs one with three lights, painted on a red ground. Further to the left is a long rod ornamented with flowers suspended at three points from the top of the red panel and decorated with ten pendants. The black frieze above the cornic at this point is divided into three rectangles. Two contain shell or parasol motifs. The centre one framed in red depicts a theatrical mask painted white with a red and yellow fluted hairstyle, registering horror and dismay. A longer stretch of the same red plaster from the north corridor lacks the lower part of the design. 19 I n the centre is a semi-circular arch outlined in red on a blue ground and drawn in perspective, its interior suggesting a coffered soffit. I n it survives the upper part of a winged red-haired cupid of very unnatural appearance, holding a pedum. A white bird on a blue ground stands on the centre of the arch and on either side are white fluted columns supporting part of a building. On its roof is a second mask, per­ haps of comedy. On either side of the arch are floral rods suspended from the top of the panel with candelabra motifs at each end and garlands in between

80

F IG. 5 .2 :

C ande labru m mo ti f .

Dyer C our t ,

C irences ter ( J . C hr is t iansen ) .

F IG . 5 .3 :

C ande labru m mo t if , Veru la m iu m ( J . C hr is t iansen ) .

A b ird i s p a in ted a t e ach e nd o f o ne r od .

Var ious f anc ifu l mot ifs a ppear

a t f r ieze l eve l w ith a s er ies o f s p ira l mot ifs a long t he t op o f t he p a in t ing o n b oth wa l ls . The l ower l eve ls s urv iv ing f ro m t he n or th wa l l s how t races o f f i gure s cenes a nd a s tr ik ing b lack n egro id f ace was a lso f ound o n t he B lue Boar L ane s ite .

A sma l l a rea o f p laster f ro m t he n or th-west c orner

o f t he c orr idor s hows t he b lue d isc o f ac ande labru m l i ned w ith r ed o n a b lack g round d iv ided b y ad e l ica te wh ite f o l ia te b order f ro m a n a rea o f r ed .

2 0

S o w e f ind most o f t he d ecora t ive f eatures e nu mera ted f ro m W inchester , V eru la m iu m a nd o ther c i t ies p resent o n t he c orr idor wa l ls o f t h is L e icester h ouse .

I ti s o bv ious t ha t s econd c entury R o mano-Br it ish t ownsfo lk h ad a

c ons iderab le l i k ing f or r ed wa l ls w ith c ande labra , e ven o ccas iona l f igure s cenes .

a rch itectura l mot ifs a nd

R esearch h as n ot p rogressed f ar e nough t o

s uggest t he l oca t ion o f l oca l s choo ls o f p a int ing b ut more d eta i led s tudy o f t hese mot ifs may e ven tua l ly e nab le u s t o i den t ify t he m . T he ma jor ity o f t owns o f a l l s izes h ave p roduced s o me t races o f wa l lp a in t ing ,

I n Yorksh ire s t ipp led g eo metr ic d ados a nd s i mp le p erspect ive a re

r ecorded a t A ldborough .

2 1

A l arge u npub l ished c o l lect ion o f f ragments f ro m

Ma lton i nc ludes e v idence f or t hree p er iods o f d ecora t ion f ro m t he s o-ca l led ' Town House

w ith i t s mosa ic p ave men ts .

a lso s urv ive f ro m Ca istor b y N orw ich .

T races o f e labora te p a int ings

2 2

O ther s i tes w ith sma l ler c o l lec t ions

o f ma ter ia l i nc lude A lchester , G od manchester a nd Cambr idge .

2 3

Current

w ork i n L ondon i s a t p resen t p roduc ing p laster i n sma l l q uan t it ies a nd a f u l ler s u mmary h as n ow b een p ub l ished o f ma ter ia l f ro m S i lchester . l arge c o llect ion o f f rag men ts f ro m D orchester , D orset ,

A

2 4

( excava ted b y B rendan

0 ' C onnor ) i s b e ing s tud ied a t t he mo ment . S o me y ears a go t he e xcava t ion o f a n e x tra- mura l v i l la o n t he G orhambury E sta te,

S t .

A lbans 2 5

p roduced s o me v ery n otewor thy wa i lpa in t ing ,

much o f i t

ma ter ia l w h ich h ad f a l len f ro m a n a ps ida l u pper r oo m i nto a c e l lar .

I nc luded

was a l arge s ect ion s t ipp led i n b lue o n ag round v ary ing f ro m l i ght b rown t o g rey/b lack w ith t wo s ur faces w ith mou ld ings meet ing a t r igh t a ng les . Probab ly t hese c a me f ro m t he e nd o f t he s hor t i n ter ior c ross wa l l b ut tress o n o ne s ide o f t he a pse .

S evera l c oncave f rag men ts w i th t h is s t ipp l ing h ad b orders o f

a n u nusua l b lack a nd wh ite d es ign o n ab lue g round ( P l .

5 .L i la ) .

One p iece

a ppears t o b e t he c ap ita l o f a sma l l c o lu mn , p oss ib ly f ro m t he e n trance t o t he a pse ( P l .

5 .I Ib) .

B i ts o f t h ick wh ite s tucco w i th t races o f t he s t ipp l ing

o n t he b ack were f ound a nd a lso mode l led f ragments o f h ands, f ace .

f ee t a nd a h u man

S uch e v idence s uggests t ha t t he a pse h ad a v au lted r oof w ith t he b lack

a nd wh ite o n b lue d es ign p a in ted t o im ita te t he l i gh t a nd s hade o f f o l ia te d eco ra t ion o n ac orn ice .

A bove t he b lue may h ave c o me a b and o f p la in wh ite

s tucco a s af ra me f or a s cene w ith s tucco f i gures mode l led i n h igh r e l ief . P laster w ith d i f feren t d es igns may c o me f ro m o ther wa l ls i n t he s ame r oo m o r f ro m e lsewhere .

S uch a d ecora t ive a pse w ou ld h ave f or med t he

f oca l p o in t a nd b een a ssoc ia ted w ith p la iner wa l ls w ith r ed o r g reen p ane ls, p roduc ing s o meth ing l i ke t he s che me o f d ecora t ion r ecovered f ro m a ps ida l v au lted r oo ms i n ah ouse a t A ugsburg , o r i n t he f r ig idar iu m o f t he v i l la b a ths a t M t ins ingen i n Sw itzer land .

2 6

Ha lf a m i le f ro m H e me l H e mpstead a nd s o o n ly a f ew m i les f ro m V erul am iu m i s t he f ine v i l la a t G adebr idge Park .

8 3

2 7

H ere p laster o f d if feren t

p er iods p roduced s evera l f eatures o f i n terest .

F ragments r ecovered f ro m

a we l l , p robab ly d ebr is f ro m t he Anton ine V i l la o f P er iod 3 , i nc luded a d es ign o f s haded y e l low a nd wh ite b osses s et i n af ra mework o f f i ne r ed l i nes c onn ected b y s hor t d iagnona ls .

Each o f t he r esu lt ing r ectang les f or m ing p ar t

o f t he c of fered d es ign o ut l ined b y ag u i l loche p la it o ut l ined i n r ed ( F ig .

5 .4b) .

T he g enera l e f fect i s t ha t o f ap a in ted c e i l ing r a ther t han wa l l-pa int ing e ven t hough t here i s t he i so la ted e xamp le o f t he b oss a t W inches ter .

T he mou ld ing

o f a nother G adebr idge f ragmen t may c o me f ro m t he j unct ion o f t h is c e i l ing w ith t he wa l l .

I t s o r ig ina l l oca t ion i s u nknown b ut o ne o f t he c orr idors o f

t he w inged c our tyard v i l la s ee ms p robab le . I n Per iod 6 b eg inn ing C . A .D .

3 25 ,

ad ado was r ecovered i n s itu .

A t

f l oor l eve l i t c ons isted o f aw h i te g round w i th r ed , p urp le a nd y e l low s t ipp l ing , b ut a t ah e igh t o f 9 0 cm c ame p ar t o f at re l l is d esign o f f ine p urp le l i nes .

L a ter i n t h is p er iod t he r oo m was d iv ided u p b y p ar t it ion wa l ls a nd

f ro m t hese c a me f ragments o f a more e labora te t re l l is o ut l ined b y d oub le p urp le l i nes f orm ing a d iamond p a t tern w i th a sma l l y e l low r ounde l i n t he c en tre .

2 7

O ther s i tes h ave p roduced p a in t ings o f v ary ing d egrees o f i nterest . P laster a wa it ing s tudy a nd/or p ub l icat ion i nc ludes s o me f ro m W itco mbe a nd K ingscote ( G los .) Dew l ish ( Dorset ) ,

a nd R ivenha l l ( Essex) .2 8

f i gure s cenes i s r epor ted f ro m T arran t H inton ( Dorse t ) ,2 9 h o lt ( Han ts .) , c entury .

3 0

E v idence f or

a nd f ro m S pars -

f ro m B u i ld ing 7 d e mo l ished i n t he l a te s econd o r e ar ly t h ird

S ect ions o f p laster r econstruc ted f ro m t he f r ig idar iu m d estroyed

i n t he t h ird c entury a t S ou thwe l l ( Not ts .) s how a C up id w ith a r ed c loak sw i mm ing among f i sh , a nd t wo much sma l ler n ude f i gures a pproach ing a 3 1 p oo l I n terest ing d iscover ies h ave b een made f ur ther n or th .

A t Winter ton

( L incs .) a bundan t e v idence f or wa l l-pa in t ing was r ecovered f ro m f our b u i ldi ngs: B ,

D ,

F a nd G , a nd f ur ther t races w ere f ound i n t he c ircu lar h uts E

a nd a lso H wh ich u nder l ies F . o n a wh ite g round ,

3 2

T he ma jor ity o f t he d esigns were p a in ted

a nd many o f t he r oo ms h ad g a i ly s t ipp led d ados a nd

s tr iped f ra meworks f ro m p ane l l ing . I n D , o ne o f t he a is led h ouses, One ,

t here i s p laster f ro m a t l east 1 2 r oo ms .

3 , may h ave h ad r ed p ane ls f ramed i n g reen a nd wh ite a l terna t ing w ith

b lack w ith y e l low l i nes . a b ly d ecora ted w ith d arker g round . f igure s cene ,

Another ,

5 , h ad w h i te p ane ls o ut l ined i n r ed p rob-

y e l low b uds a nd g reen l eaves o r p a le b lue l eaves o n a

S haded b lue a nd g reen d es igns h in t a t t he d raper ies o f a a nd a b o ld p urp le l i near mot i f c ou ld p oss ib ly c o me f ro m a

c o lumn . F ro m r oo m 1 8 c a me a g reen d es ign w i th wh ite h igh l igh ts w i th t he impr in t o f ab eam o n i t s r everse s ide s uggest ing s o me c orn ice d ecora t ion n ear t he t op o f a wa l l . h ere .

A s car let f ru it w ith a y e l low s ta lk was a lso n o ted

Ma ter ia l f ro m t he ma in dwe l l ing h ouse G was p len t ifu l b u t i nco mp le te . A t l east 1 o ut o f t he 1 6 r oo ms were d ecora ted u s ing a w ide r ange o f c o lours e ven t hough t he c ho ice o f mot ifs was n ot amb it ious .

R oo m 1 w as l arge ly

wh ite w ith d eep r ose , p urp le a nd b rown u sed f or p ane l f ra meworks, a nd a c rea m d ado v e ined i n r ed . R oo m 4 h ad r ose a nd y e l low p ane l l ing , a nd R oo m 5 d eeper y e l low o ut l ined i n b lack w ith b eaded c orners, f ramed i n 8 4

PLATE 5 .1 1 :

a( above ), b ( be low ), Cande labra mot if . Winchester , 1 953.

Woo lwor th s i te ,

( City Museu m , Winchester .)

l _e mm ing

PLATE 5 .11 1 :

a( above ), b ( be low ), G orha mbury , S t . A lbans. ( Veru la m iu m Museu m )

F IG. 5 .4:

a( a bove ) , ?C ei l ing d es ign , Bu i lding F , Win ter ton . ( H .M .S .°. C rown C opyr igh t ) b ( b e low ) , C ei l ing d es ign , G adebr idge V i l la ( D . N ea l ).

S

I tII )

I I

\

1 1 1 ( )\\ .

RED

YELLO W

0

F IG . 5 .5 :

.. .

1 2 " I NC HES

a( a bove ) , R econs truc t ion o f d ado d es ign , b u i ld ing G , W in ter ton . b( be low ) , R econs truc t ion o f d es ign o f wa l l o f R oo m 1 6 , b u i ld ing G , Win ter ton .

( H . M.S .°. C rown C opyr igh t ) .

b lack , wh ite a nd r ed . Two more u nusua l d es igns p a inted o n a wh ite g round were a lso f ound h ere . One c ons ists o f f l owers w ith r ed a nd b lack p eta ls a nd b lue c en tres a rranged a l terna te ly a long a c arefu l ly i ncised s tra ight l i ne . O n o ne p iece t hese f l owers s eem t o r ise u p f ro m t he r im o f ac ande labru m d isc . T he s ame f l ora l s equence a lso a ppears b ut l ess c arefu l ly p a in ted , a long a c urved s cr ib ing l i ne , p erhaps f ro m a swag . P oss ib ly t hese a re p i laster s tr ips f ro m b e tween t he p ane ls w ith t he swags u sed a t f r ieze l eve l ( P l . 5 .I Vb) . T he s econd d es ign c ons isted o f ag reen a nd b lue l ea f p a t tern , a more d e l ica te v ers ion o f t he o ne f ound i n b u i ld ing D , p laced b etween c irc les o ut l ined i n p ink o r b lue w ith p ink f l owers i n t he c entre .

O the r p ieces s how

b lue a nd g reen l ines meet ing a t r ight a ng les, t he a ng le b e ing d ecora ted w ith sma l ler r ed f l owers i n ab lack c irc le .

A f ragmen t o f g reen c oncave mou ld-

i ng was a ssoc ia ted w ith t h is ma ter ia l wh ich may t herefore b e long t o ap a in ted c e i l ing r eca l l ing t he o ne f ound a t L e icester . T hese t wo r oo ms b oth h ave o uts ide wa l ls s o s hou ld h ave b een we l l l i t , aw indow w ere f ound i n 4 .

a nd t races o f r ed p laster f ro m

I n R oo m 7 g reen p ane ls o u t l ined i n y e l low w ith b eaded c orners a nd wh ite l i nes o ccured p robab ly a l terna te ly w ith y e l low f ramed i n b lack , g rey a nd r ed .

R oo m 8 i s c h ief ly r emarkab le f or a c o lourfu l , g eo metr ic d ado

d es ign o f c oarse g ra ined marb l ing o n ab lack g round ( F ig . 5 .5a ) , l ozenges o ut l ined i n w h ite a nd f i l led i n w ith g reen a nd wh ite o ver b lack were s et i n r ectang les w ith wh ite f l ecked w i th r ed .

T hese a l terna ted w ith r ectang les w ith

t he g reen a nd wh ite d es ign c on ta in ing r ed l ozenges w i th y e l low a nd wh ite c urv i l inear mot ifs o f t yp ica l ' f r ied e gg ' t ype . T he c orr idor , 1 0 , may h ave b een p ane l led p redo m inant ly i n wh it e e n l ivened w ith b lack , p urp le , r ed , p ink , b lue a nd g reen s tr ipes .

I t h ad a t l east o ne w indow a nd a g ra f f ito ,

s cra tched n ear d ado l eve l p erhaps b y ac h i ld . t he v i l la , a ga in h ad y e l low p ane l l ing .

R oo m 1 2 ,

L IN ,

al a te a dd it ion t o

F ur ther a long t he c orr idor was 1 3 , o ne o f t he sma l ler a nd most a t tracti ve ly d ecora ted r oo ms .

P urp le p ane ls s urrounded b y aw ide b and o f s of t

g reen were i dent if ied , a l terna t ing p erhaps w ith wh ite f ramed b yb lack l i nes . T races o f d e l icate p urp le f l owers o n a mauve g round , a nd g reen l eaves a nd b err ies w i th b lack s ta lks o n w h ite were a lso n oted , a nd r ounde ls s haded f ro m r ed t o y e l low . Wh ite p ane ls f ramed i n t wo s hades o f b rown , b lack a nd r ed w ere f ound i n 1 4, p erhaps a bove a n o range b and a nd a d ado o f p urp le a nd p ink r ectang les w ith wh ite l i nes, p robab ly i nd ica t ing g eo metr ic mot ifs .

1 5

a nd 1 6, t he l ast t wo r oo ms , b o th h ad d ados f ound i n s i tu . I n 1 5 t h is c ons isted o f r ectang les o f g reen ish-b lue , p urp le s t ipp led w ith wh ite , a nd wh ite w i th p erhaps

ap ink l ozenge o u t l ined i n b lack .

A bove c ame p ink a nd y e l low

b ands a nd t hen r ed w ith sma l l r ectang les marked o ut i n g reen a l terna t ing w ith w ider o b longs o ut l ined i n y e l low . T he o b longs may h ave c o me b enea th ay e l low p ane l f ramed b y p urp le l i nes a nd t he sma l ler s quares f ro m b e low g reen p i laster s tr ips, a s g reen v er t ica l s tr ipes were i den t if ied a t t he c orners o f r oo m 1 5 . I n 1 6 t he d ado s urv ived t o ah e igh t o f 7 5 cm ( F ig .

5 .5 b) .

A b and o f

p ink f l ecked w ith b lack 1 5 cm h igh o ccured a t f l oor l eve l a nd t hen t he u sua l r ec tang les , p urp le 4 5 cm w ide , s t ipp led i n r ed , g reen a nd b lue o ut l ined b y af i ne y e l low l i ne w ith b eaded c orners ,

a l terna t ing w ith g reen s t ipp led w i th

r ed , b lue a nd y e l low , o u t l ined i n b lack .

F ine b lack a nd wh ite l i nes d iv ide

8 9

p urp le f ro m g reen .

T h is d ado was s epara ted b y ah or izon ta l g reen s tr ipe

a nd a wh ite b and s tr iped w ith s ix b lack o r d ark g reen l i nes f ro m t he u pper p ar t o f t he wa l l wh ich was p a in ted b r igh t r ed .

O b longs o ut l ined i n y e l low

r esemb le t hose f ound i n 1 5 b ut h ere t he g reen r ectang les a re m iss ing . G reen b ands f ra me t he p ane ls o ut l ined i n p urp le e dged w ith wh ite , o r wh ite e dged w ith p urp le , p robab ly u sed a l terna te ly . Y e l low a nd wh ite may h ave b een u sed t o d ecora te p laster s tr ips b e tween . T here i s t herefore s o me s im i lar ity i n t he d ecora t ion o f r oo ms 1 5 a nd 1 6 .

E lsewhere r oo ms i n c lose p rox im ity

t end t o h ave c o mp lete ly d if feren t c o lour s che mes . T he o pportun ity t h is ma ter ia l g ives u s t o v isua l ise s uch v ar ia t ions i n 1 r oo ms o f as ing le b u i ldi ng i s s o f ar u n ique i n Br ita in . .T he l ast i t em i n t he l i st o f t he W in ter ton d iscover ies, i s b u i ld ing F , t he b a ths . Wh ite p ane l l ing w ith mu lt ico loured f rameworks w as i den t if ied f ro m t wo r oo ms h ere , a nd i n t he t h ird y e l low p ane ls may h ave a l terna ted w i th t he wh ite . A d es ign o f b lack l i nes w i th r ed a nd b lack b uds a nd l eaves p robab ly c o mes f ro m a c e i l ing , ( F ig . 5 .4a ) . T he most i n terest ing ma ter ia l, h owever , was f ound i n r oo m 6 , t he f r ig idar iu m , t o B u i ld ing F .

p robab ly a l a ter a dd it ion

L arge f ragments o f t he e ast wa l l d iscovered l y ing o n t he

t esse l la ted f l oor were l i f ted a nd r econstruc ted ( P l. 5 . Va ) . A f i gure s cene p a inted o n ap redo m inant ly g reen g round a ppeared w i th , o n t he r igh t , t he l egs o f a wo man a pparen t ly emerg ing f rom ab as in .

S he i s t urn ing t o e x tend

h er h ands t o a sma l l b oy w ith y e l low h a ir a nd d ark e yes who r eaches u p t owards h er . B etween t he m i s b lue wa ter f ro m a s pr ing f a l l ing f ro m t he b as in t o t he g round n ear t he b oy ' sl e f t f oo t . B eh ind t he c h i ld i s af l uted c o lumn o ut l ined i n p urp le , a nd p ar t o f a nother wo man a ppears o n t he l e f t , a pparen t ly mov ing a way . O ther ma ter ia l f ro m t he wa l l i nc ludes a nother c o lu mn a nd t he h ead o f ad ark h a ired b oy p resu mab ly a c up id ( P l . 5 .IVa ) . T he o ther wa l ls o f t he r oo m s ee m t o h ave b een c overed w ith p a int ings o f f i sh o ut l ined i n p ink a nd p urp le o n b lue a nd p a le g reen g rounds , a nd p urp le o r b rown wa ter weed u sua l ly p a in ted o n y e l low . T he W in ter ton f i gure s cene may d ep ict n ymphs a t as pr ing a nd a p ara l le l f or t he f e ma le f i gure o n t he r igh t o ccurs o n a mosa ic f ro m V o lub i l is, t he ' Ba th o f t he Ny mphs ' where a n y mph i s j us t s tepp ing o ut o f as pr ing w h ich s trea ms d own a l l a round h er . 3 3 T he W in ter ton t ype o f b as in c an a lso b e p ara l le led b y we l ls i n t he c a taco mbs b ut s ome d eta i ls a re o bscure a nd t he r econstruc t ion o f t he a rea im med ia te ly b enea th i t i s v ery h ypothe t ica l a nd p oss ib ly t oo s y m metr ic .

More p robab ly i t r es ted o n s o me w eed c overed

r ocks . T he c losest Br it ish p ara l le l f or t h is s cene i s t he S outhwe l l d iscovery a lready ment ioned , b ut t he W in ter ton c up ids a l so r eca l l v ery marked ly t he o nes who d ispor ted t he mse lves o n t he c e i l ing o f t he C onstan t in ian p a lace f ound u nder t he Ca thedra l a t T r ier a nd o f much t he s ame p er iod .3 4 F ish a s ab a throo m d ecora t ion a re h ard ly s urpr is ing . e ar l ier d a te ,

A f i ne s e lect ion a l though o f

a ppear o n t he v au lt o f t he M i ins ingen f r ig idar iu m a nd o thers

a re k nown f ro m H ö lste in ,

a nother Sw iss s econd c en tury v i lla .

A cross t he H u mber i s t he v i l la a t B ran t ingham .

3 5

H ere a q uan t ity o f

p laster was f ound l y ing o n t op o f t he m idd le o f a mosa ic f loor .

R esearch

a nd t he r econstruc t ion o f t he l arge f ragmen ts l ed t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t h is ma ter ia l was more l i ke ly t o h ave f a l len f r om t he c e i l ing r a ther t han f ro m t he wa l ls .

3 6

I t i nc luded t he b ust o f aw oman h er r edd ish h a ir p la ited 9 0

PLATE 5 .IV :

a ( above ) , C up id ' sh ead , b u i ld ing F . Win ter ton . b ( be low ) , F lora l d es igns, b u i ld ing G . Win ter ton . ( H .M .S .O .

Crown C op /r igh ;

PLATE 5 .V :

a ( above) , F igure s cene , Fr ig idar iu m, b u i ld ing F . Win ter ton . ( H . M .S .O .

Crown C opy

< T i lt

b ( be low ) , I nter ior o f ar oo m i n t he Pa in ted H ouse , Dover . ( B . Ph i lp , G IB A . R .C . ( Ken t) ) .

F IG . 5 .6 :

P a in ted p las ter f ro m Bran t ingha m ( J . C hr is t iansen ).

F IG . 5 .7 :

Pa in ted p las ter f ro m B ran t ingha m ( J . C hr is t iansen ) .

w ith y e l low l eaves o r r i bbons, w ith a n i mbus s et i n ar ounde l o f b lue ( F ig . 5 .6 ) .

T h is p robab ly o ccup ied t he c en tre o f t he c e i l ing .

R ound t he s ides

c ame b lue r ectang les f ra med b y r ed a nd wh ite b ands, s o me w ith a r ough c oncave e dge wh ich may i nd ica te t he j unct ion b etween wa l l a nd c e i l ing . O ne r econstructed r ectang le i n p ar t icu lar s hows c lear ly t he f ace o f ab lue-eyed d ark-ha ired w o man ,

( F ig .

5 .7 ) ,

a nd f ragmen ts o f o ther e yes a nd n oses were

a lso f ound b u t n o f ur ther a na tom ica l f ea tures . I t s ee ms p oss ib le t ha t t he r ectang les d ep ict a c of fered c e i l ing . T he mosa ic f l oor o n wh ich t he p a int ings f e l l was a lso d esigned w ith a c en tra l b ust w ith a n i mbus s urrounded b y e ight r ec l in ing wa ter n ymphs w i th a r ow o f f our o r more f e ma le b usts a t e ach e nd . S o h ere f loor a nd c e i l ing s ee m t o h ave b een d es igned a s p ar ts o f t he s ame s che me o f d ecora t ion .

A s a t Winter ton , t he n earest p ara l le ls f or t he

b ust i n t he r ounde l a re t he p or tra its f ro m t he C onstant in ian p a lace a t T r ier . P laster p a inted w ith f o l ia te mot ifs o r s tr iped o r s t ipp led was n oted w hen t he R udston v i l la ( Yorks . , East R id ing ) was f i rst e xcava ted a nd a f ew p ieces o f i t w ere p reserved .

3 7

T he f ur ther e xcava t ion i n 1 97 1/2 o f as ec-

o nd b u i ld ing p roduced a q uan t ity o f ma ter ia l f ro m t he n or th a nd west wa l ls o f r oo m 2 , s o me o f wh ich c ou ld b e r econstructed a nd i s n ow d isp layed i n H u l l Museu m .

3 8

t he n or th wa l l .

T he r econstruct ion s hows a s ect ion f ro m t he c en tre o f A r ed a nd y e l low d ado was p a inted i n p erspect ive p erhaps

t o g ive t he e f fect o f ap la t form . T he n ex t s ector a bove t h is i s m iss ing b u t much h igher u p t he wa l l w ere t wo b ands o f r ed w ith p urp le a nd p ink mot ifs p a in ted t o s uggest a c arved c orn ice .

B e low t he m s et i n ag reen

f rame e dged w ith b lack l i nes c o mes a n iche i nd ica ted i n p erspect ive b y t he sma l ler p ane ls o n e i ther s ide . I n t he n iche a ppears wha t i s p robab ly t he t op o f a n a rch . A lso f ro m t h is a rea c o mes g reen a nd f l esh p ink , p oss ib ly i nd ica t ing a f i gure ( ? n y mph ) p erhaps i n ar ura l s et t ing . R e ma ins o f t he c ap ita l a nd s haf t o f a wh ite c o lu mn w ith b lack d eta i ls were a lso f ound . T h is may h ave s uppor ted o ne s ide o f t he a rch . N ot much i s k nown o f t he d ecora t ion o f t he r est o f t he wa l l . T he c orni ce d es ign c on t inued a nd t here i s e v idence f or o ne o r more w indows . A l arge p urp le f l ower , t races o f ap ink c o lu mn c overed w ith p urp le s ca les a nd p ar t o f ab order o f p urp le s p ira ls o n p ink c a me f ro m t he n or th-west c orner o f t he r oo m .

The west wa l l a l so s ee ms t o h ave h ad a n iche w ith a n a rch .

T he c orn ice mot ifs r ecur I n as l igh t ly d if feren t s equence , a nd s wags o r o ther f l ora l d eta i ls a ppear b e tween c orn ice a nd a rch . a t l east o ne more p ink a nd p urp le c o lu mn .

T here i s e v idence f or

Above t he c orn ice d es ign o n t he n or th wa l l t he g reen f ramework c on t inued . A bove i t c ame a f r ieze w i th c lu mps o f g reen p lants,

s o me w ith p urp le o n

y e l low f l owers . H igher u p a ppeared f i rst a l i ght b rown o rnamen ta l f ence o r t re l l is, a nd t hen a nother sma l ler a rch itectura l mot if o n r ed , n o d oubt f ro m t he t op o ft he wa l l . wa l l ma ter ia l .

T races o f t hese d es igns a lso o ccurred w ith t he w est

T he wa l l-pa int ings l ooked d own o n a mosa ic c ons ist ing o f al arge c en tra l c ircu lar p ane l p or tray ing a c har ioteer w i th h is v ictor ious t eam . n ers o f t he mosa ic w ere b usts o f t he S easons a nd o ne o f t hese , t he work o f a mosa ic ist o f e xcep t iona l s k i l l .

S u m mer , h owever , t he o n ly

o ther c o mp le te b ust t o s urv ive i s a work o f o n ly a verage a b i l ity .

9 5

I n t he c orS pr ing , i s 3 9

W ithout

more d eta i ls o f t he p resu med f i gure p a in t ing i t i s impossib le t o d iscover whe ther wa l ls a nd f l oor h ave a ny mot ifs i n c o m mon . I ti s a lso d if f icu l t t o a ssess t he a r t ist ic a b i l ity o ft he p a in ters . T he d es ign , h owever , i s among t he most s oph ist ica ted i n R o man B r ita in .

T he d ev ice o f t he g arden f ence

h as, o f c ourse , I t a l ian p ara l le ls, b ut t he o n ly o ther Br it ish e xamp le f ro m a V eru lam iu m w a ll d a ted t o A .D .

3 00 .

c o mes

4 0

T he f our th-century mosa ics f ro m t he Y orksh ire a nd L inco lnsh ire v i l las p resen t am ix ture o f n a ivety a nd s oph ist icat ion wh ich h as b een s tud ied b y Dr . Dav id Sm ith . wa l l-pa in ters .

a reas o f d ecora t ion c e i l ing .

I t n ow s ee ms t ha t as im i lar s i tua t ion e x isted among t he

F ro m R udston a nd B ra n t ingham w e h ave e v idence f or t wo f ro m t wo r oo ms, t he f l oor a nd e i ther t he wa l ls o r t he

W in terton t oo h as p roduced t hese c o mb ina t ions.

O ne wou ld g ive

much t o k now d eta i ls o f t he wa l l p a int ings f ro m t he n e ighbour ing L inco lnsh ire s i te o f H orkstow , where t he c en tra l p or t ion o f al arge mosa ic c ons isted o f al arge c ircu lar meda l l ion d iv ided u p l i ke t he s pokes o f aw hee l, much d ama ged , b ut p eop led w ith n ere ids, t r itons a nd s ea- monsters. T he d ecorat ive s cene w ith i t s u se o f c o loured b ackgrounds , u nusua l i n a mosa ic , s ee ms l i ke ly t o h ave b een o r ig ina l ly d esigned f or a c e i l ing .4 1 Reconsidera t ion o f t he d es igns r ecorded f ro m t he Harpha m v i l la ( Yorks ., East R id ing ) s uggests t ha t h ere a ga in t here i s p robab le e v idence f or a c e i l ing t he r ounde ls w ith l eaves r eca l l ing t he e xamp le f ound a t L e ices ter . 42 An i ncreas ing n u mber o f R o man m i l itary s i tes i n Br ita in a re n ow p roducing p a inted ma ter ia l . Ear l ier f i nds a re most ly s parse a nd u nremarkab le b ut r ecen t d iscover ies f u lf i l h opes f or b e t ter t h ings . N o tab ly t hose f ro m t he f or tress a t Y ork where p or t ions o f s t ipp led g eo metr ic d ado w ere f ound i n s i tu d ur ing t he e xcava t ions u nder t he M inster .

T hey c ame f ro m a wa l l i n a

r oo m i nser ted o n t he n or th-west s ide o f t he p r inc ip ia w hen t h is was mod if ied i n t he f our th c entury a nd f ragments f ro m t he u pper p ar t o f t he wa ll f ound s ca t tered i n t he r oo m h ave b een r econstructed , ( F ig . 5 .8) .4 3 A lthough t here i s ac ons iderab le g ap i n t ime , s o me f ea tures o f t he d esign r eca l l t he wa l ls f ound a t L e icester . Fro m t he f r ieze a mask o f s in ister a ppearance l ooks d own o n t he c en tra l a rea o f t he wa l l o n as cene a pparen t ly s et o n as tage w ith a t l east t wo n iches b etween p a irs o f c o lu mns, o ne p a ir w ith e labora te c ap i ta ls .

O ne sma l l h u man

f i gure s urv ives a nd t wo l arge b irds .

I n 1 973/4 e xcava t ions a t P iercebr idge p roduced d ecora t ions f ro m a f our th c entury b arrack b lock i nc lud ing t he v erandah a nd t wo r oo ms i n t he C en tur ion ' sq uar ters . mot ifs were i den t if ied .

Pane l l ing w ith mu lt i-co loured f rameworks a nd f l ora l 4 4 More ma ter ia l o f t he s ame p er iod w as f ound i n

t he C o m mandan t ' sH ouse a t B inchester w ith e v idence o f s evera l p er iods o f d ecora t ion .

4 5

F ur ther n or th p a int ing f ro m t he C o mmandant ' sH ouse a t

C hesters o f p robab ly p re-Sever-a n d a te i nc ludes f rag men ts o f s evera l h u man f aces .

4 6

A b u i ld ing w ith a d ist inct ly m i l itary f l avour p roduced p a in t ings o f t hree d if feren t p er iods a t Ca t ter ick ( Yorks, N . R id ing ) . 47 I t s ee ms t o h ave b een a mans io b u i lt a bove t he b a th-house o f a n A gr ico lan f or t e vacua ted C . A .D . 1 20 . T he b u i lders were p robab ly a c ohor t o f t he S ix th L eg ion a nd t he b u i ld ing may h ave b een d estroyed i n t he e ar ly t h ird c entury .

T he f ew f rag-

men ts s urv iv ing o f t he e ar l iest p laster s hows s prays o f g reen f o l iage .

O n

t op o f i t c ame a p ane l led d esign w ith a p i la ster s tr ip d ecora ted w ith f o l iage , 9 6

4 th c en t , p las ter f ound u nder t he Mins ter ( N . Davey ).

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s o me g row ing o ut o f ac antharus .

A f ter a l a ter r econstruct ion l arger p ane ls

w ere s epara ted b y l i near d es igns a bove a d ado o f r ectang les a nd l ozenges f i l led i n w ith p a in ted im ita t ion c oarse-gra ined marb le .

Pane ls w ith marb l ing

were a lso i den t if ied f ro m a t h ird c entury s hop a t Ca t ter ick . I n S outhern Br i ta in t he S axon S hore f or ts h ave a lso p roduced e v idence o f wa l l d ecora t ion f ro m t he s ace l lu m a t R ecu lver i n 1 960 , 48 a nd a lso f ro m L ympne a nd R ichborough where C . R oach Sm ith r ecorded f ragmen ts s how ing ab eaded c orner a nd p ar t o f af i ne e xamp le o f ac ande labrum p a t tern , o ver ah undred y ears a go . 49 T he ma jor d iscovery i n t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try , h owever , was made i n 1 971 when e xcava t ions a t D over r evea led a h ouse s tand ing j ust o uts ide t he s econd c entury f or t o f t he C lass is Br itann ica . 5 0 -A bout A . D . 3 00 t h is was p ar t ly i ncorpora ted i nto t he n ew S axon S hore f or t . Pa in t ing s urv ives f ro m t wo a d jacen t r oo ms wh ich b oth h ave t he u sua l d ados im ita t ing marb le wa l l v eneers a nd a bove t he m a l i gh t c o loured a rea g iv ing t he s ame i mpress ion o f as tage o r p la t form a lready n o ted a t L e icester a nd York ,

( P la te 5 .V b) . Wh ite p ane ls b ordered i n p ink ,

r ed , o r

y e l low t hen d iv ide u p t he wa l l s pace s epara ted b y wh i te f l uted c o lumns . O b jects i nc lud ing t orches, a t hyrsus a nd l ea f s prays r est o n t he s tage a nd a ppear t o l ean a ga inst t he p ane ls . Par ts o f h u man f igures h ave a lso b een n oted . Pub l ic i n terest l ead ing t o t he f ounda t ion o f ac har itab le t rust h as e nab led t hese p a in t ings t o

b e r econstructed i n s i tu .

T here r e ma in t e mp les a nd t o mbs, l esser b u i ld ings wh ich may h ave a lso b een p a in ted . T hese h ave n ot y e t b een v ery p roduct ive b ut i n terest ing ma te r ia l was f ound i n t he t e mp le o f Apo l lo C uno mag lus a t N e tt leton S hrub, ( W i lts . ) 5 1 a nd t he me mor ia l c hape l a bove t he t wo b ur ia ls i n l ead c of f ins a t L u l l ingstone h ad p a in t ings w ith f i gures t woth irds l i fe s ize a pparen t ly e ngaged i n s o me r i tua l a ct iv it ies . 5 2 O ther s i tes w ith wa l l-pa in t ing i nc lude Pagan ' sH i l l ( So merset ) , W inchester , a nd s evera l o f t he t e mp les a t S pr inghead ( Ken t ) 5 . Ma ter ia l f ro m t he t e mp le a t C he l msford f ound b y Mr .

P . Drury i s n ow b e ing s tud ied .

Fro m t o mbs t here i s ar ecord o f af rag men t , p erhaps f ro m a c or n ice , r ecorded a t Warbank ,

K eston i n 1 828 .

L a ter e xcava t ions h ave p roduced

f ur ther f ragments b ut n one p a t te r ned .5 4 T he ma jor d iscovery i n t h is f i e ld o f c ourse , c o mes f ro m t he l arge c e me tery a t P oundbury , n ear D orchester , D orset . 5 5 H ere t he n u merous b ur ia ls, b oth p agan a nd C hr ist ian , i nc luded an u mber o f f our th c en tury r ectangu lar mauso lea e rected o ver s evera l b ur ia ls i n l ead o r s tone c of f ins .

Two o f t hese h ad t he i n ter ior p lastered a nd p a in ted

w ith p o lychro me d es igns i nc lud ing h u man f igures .

T he l argest c on ta ined

s even b ur ia ls i n w ood c of f ins p acked w ith g ypsu m ,

a nd s ect ions o f t he p a in t ings

w h ich h ad f a l len f ro m t he wa l ls a nd c e i l ing h ave b een r econstructed . S even h u man f igures, a bou t t wo-th irds l i fe s ize , h ave b een i den t if ied f ro m t he s outh wa l l c lad i n p urp le , wh ite o r g reen r obes o r t un ics a nd e ach h o ld ing a k nobbed s taf f .

T he u pper p ar t o f t he f i gure i n t he f oreground h as wh ite o r l i ght c o l-

o ured h a ir , moustache a nd b eard a nd wears a wh i te g armen t w ith p urp le l i nes a nd a s quare n eck e dged w ith p urp le . B eh ind c o me t wo more f i gures b oth c lad i n p urp le , o ne w ith b lack h a ir a nd ab ushy b eard , t he o ther y ounger a nd c lean s haven . B e tween t hem i s a nother c lean s haven i nd iv idua l w ear ing a g reen r obe . T he o ther f igures d o n ot s urv ive s o we l l . A b order o f h or iz onta l b lack , wh ite a nd g reen s tr ipes o ccurs a bove t he m a nd t hen t he c urve o f t he v au lted c e i l ing b eg ins .

T h is t oo s ee ms t o h ave b een d ecora ted w ith 9 9

h u man f i gures . R esearch c on t inues a nd t here i s g ood e v idence t o s uggest t ha t t hese a re C hr ist ian b ur ia ls, b ut a s a t L u l l ingstone i t i s n ot c er ta in who t he p a in t ings r epresen t .

N o f ea tures s urv ive f ro m t he wa l l-pa int ing t o i den-

t i fy t he m w ith B ib l ica l c haracters . ween r epresen ta t ives

A t p resent t he c ho ice s ee ms t o b e b e t-

o f ar a ther l arge f am i ly , o r o n a ccoun t o f t he s ta f f

wh ich e ach c arr ies, me mbers o f t he D orchester o rdo .

5 5

I t i s o bv ious t ha t e v idence f or wa l l-pa in t ing i s l i ke ly t o c o me t o l i ght i ncreas ing ly f ro m s i tes o f a l l t ypes . T he n eed f or v ery p unct i l ious r ecord ing d ur ing e xcava t ion c annot b e s uf f ic ient ly s tressed .

C o loured t rac ings o f

ma ter ia l u ncovered l y ing f ace u pwards b e fore i t i s moved c an b e i nva luab le i n a dd i t ion t o p lans a nd p hotographs .

O ne s ke tch c an o f ten s ave t he r estorer

h ours o f w ork . Ma ter ia l f ound l y ing o nt esse l la ted f l oors i s o f ten o f p ar t ic u lar v a lue . I t o f fers g ood c hances f or r econstruct ion a nd i n t he c ase o f a mosa ic f l oor a n impress ion o f t he who le s che me o f d ecora t ion f or a r oo m may b e o bta ined .

A s a t B ran t ingham a r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he s ub jects

u sed f or f l oor a nd wa l l o r c e i l ing may b ecome a pparen t . F ur ther s tudy o f i nd iv idua l mot ifs, n o tab ly t he c ande labru m , a rch itectura l d eta i ls s uch a s c o lu mns, c orn ice d es igns a nd t he u se o f p erspect ive s hou ld a l l p rove p rof itab le . Professor Pe ters h as p o inted o u t i n a r epor t o n p laster d a t ing f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury f ound i n t he f or tress o f N i j megen , t ha t wa l l d ecora t ion u sing marb led d ados a nd p ane ls s epara ted b y c ande labra o ccurs i n G au l a nd G erman ia ma in ly i n t he l ast q uar ter o f t he f irst a nd t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury .

T hese e le men ts a re a lso

f ound a t P o mpe i i i n t he t ime o f V espas ian .b 6

Prec ise c hrono log ica l d a ta

i s n ot a lways o bta inab le i n Br ita in b ut t he e v idence a va i lab le s uggests t ha t t he f ash ions c urren t i n t he n e ighbour ing p rov inces were s oon a dopted h ere . We may f i nd a s l igh t t ime l ag i n t he a ppearance o f c ande labra , we may f i nd t h is mo t if e ndur ing a l i t t le l a ter t han e lsewhere , t hese a re among t he q uest ions i t s hou ld o ne d ay b e p oss ib le t o s o lve . T he u se o f a wh ite b ackground f or p ane ls i n p ar t icu lar b u t a lso f or o ther d es igns i s a lso t he s ub ject o f r esearch b y s evera l s cho lars . A t P o mpe i i i t i s f i rst f ound w ith t he s econd s ty le a nd i t c on t inues i n I t a ly a t R o me a nd O st ia w i th v ary ing d egrees o f e labora t ion i n to t he t h ird c en tury . A l ix B arbet i n h er s tudy o f wa l l-pa in t ing f ro m G lanum f i rst p o in ted o u t i t s p resence i n t he p rov inces a t s i tes i n G au l a nd a s f ar a f ie ld a s D e los a nd Masada e tc .5 7 Professor P e ters ment ions o ther s i tes i n S w i tzer land a nd G ermany i n c onn ect ion w ith t he N i j megen ma ter ia l t ogether w i th p oss ib i l it ies a t Augsburg , Carnun tu m a nd e lsewhere i n Pannon ia . 58 I n B r ita in i th as a lready b een n oted i n v i l las s uch a s L u l l ingstone . R udston , c an b e a dded t o t he l i st , t he f our th c entury .

5 9

N ow t he e v idence f ro m W in ter ton a nd

s how ing t ha t t h is f ash ion p ersisted i n to

C o mpara t ive ma ter ia l f or t h ird a nd f our th c en tury s i tes i n t he western Emp ire i s n ot e asy t o f i nd a s t he u pper l eve ls o f e xcava t ions a re s o l i ab le t o d estruct ion . A s more e v idence f or f i gure s cenes, u sua l ly l a te , a ccu mu la tes i n Br ita in , f ur ther d iscover ies i n o ther p rov inces may p rov ide p ara l le ls i n a dd it ion t o t hose f rom T r ier a lready c i ted i n c onnect ion w ith t he Win ter ton f r ig idar iu m .

B efore t he L u l l ingstone e xcava t ions h ard ly a nyone f orsaw t ha t

wa l l-pa in t ing i n R o man Br ita in c ou ld e ver p lay a n i mpor tan t p ar t i n t he s tudy o f t he a r t o ft he p rov inces . Now we c an l ook f orward w i th c onf idence t o t he f resh d eve lop men ts i n t he y ears t ha t l i e a head . 1 00

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1 850 ,

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( CIB , D over , 1 975) .

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( Pagan ' sH i l l) . 5 4 .

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1 38 ; Wacher ,

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6 .

MYTHOLOG ICAL F IGURES AND S CENES I N RO MANO-BR ITISH MOSAICS D .J . Sm ith

N o o ne h as d one mor e t han J oce lyn T oynbee t o d escr ibe t he my tho log ica l f i gures a nd s cenes i n a r t o f t he R o man p er iod i n Br ita in , a nd i ti s w i th r espect a s we l l a s a f fect ion t ha t Iv en ture t o o f fer t h is c on tr ibut ion t o t he p resent v o lume o f s tud ies i n h er h onour . The p urpose o f my c on tr ibu t ion i s s i mp ly t o b r ing t oge ther , w ith b r ief d escr ip t ions, t he my tho log ica l f i gures a nd s cenes i n R o mano-Br it ish mosa ics, w h ich c o mpare i n n u mber , v ar iety a nd i n terest w i th t hose o f t he mosa ics o f a ny o ther n or th-western p rov ince o f t he Emp ire .

I ti s a lso my h ope t ha t t he

c o mp i la t ion w i l l c a tch t he e ye o f , a nd p rov ide a r eady s ource o f r eference f or , s tuden ts o f G raeco-Ro man a r t a nd i cono logy , a nd o f l i tera ture , r e l ig ion ( Chr ist ian a s we l l a s p agan) a nd e duca t ion i n t he R o man p er iod .

T he s ub jects

a re c lass if ied a s: I . I .

F igures, b usts a nd masks, b y n ame , a lphabe t ica l ly . Two-f igure s cenes, b y s i te , a lphabe t ica l ly .

I I .

T hree-f igure s cenes, a s I .

I V .

F our-f igure s cenes , a s H .

V . V I .

Af ive-f igure g roup . S o me i ncer ta .

I t mus tb e u nderstood t ha t 'f i gure ' h ere means s tr ict ly a f i gure i n h uman o r p ar t ly h uman f orm , a nd t ha t c er ta in s ub jec ts h ave b een om it ted a s u n iden t if i ab le -p ar t icu lar ly b usts a nd masks w ith i nde term ina te o r n o a t tr ibu tes - o r a s t oo l i t t le p reserved f or a dequa te d escr ip t ion . D i mens ions a lso h ave b een e xc luded a s n ot e ssen t ia l i n t he p resen t c on tex t . F or G reek d e it ies t he R o man n ames

a re u sed , t hough t he s ub jects g en-

e ra l ly d er ive f ro m G reek my tho logy . T he my ths t he mse lves h ave n ot b een r e la ted ( e xcept i nc iden ta l ly ) . F or t hese t he r eader c an t urn t o T he O x ford C lass ica l D ict ionary , o r t o t he e ncyc loped ias o f Daremberg-Sag l io , P au lyW issowa a nd Cabro l-Lec lercq ( e .g . f or O rpheus) , a nd e spec ia l ly t o R oscher , 1 884 , ar ep lace men t f or wh ich , L ex icon I conograph icu m My tho log iae C lass icae i s i n p repara t ion . I tc an b e a ssu med t ha t f igures a re d ep ic ted f ron ta l ly ( unl ess o therw ise d escr ibed ) a nd t ha t mode l l ing i s g enera l ly c onven t iona l . C o lours a re n ot n o ted u n less t hey a re o f e xcept iona l i n terest o r s ign if icance . Re la t ive ly f ew s ub jects a n teda te t he f our th c en tury , a nd t hese a re e i ther d a ted , o r d a tab le , t o t he p er iod f ro m t he m id-second c entury t o t he e ar ly t h ird . T he b ib l iography f or e ach mosa ic i s c on f ined t o n o t ing t he most i nstruc t ive i n terpre ta t ion a nd d iscuss ion a nd t he b est , e as i ly a ccess ib le i l lustra t ions. 1 05

Names o f c oun ties a re t hose p r ior t o t he r eorgan iza t ion o f l oca l a u thor it i es i n 1 975 . T he f o l low ing a bbrev ia t ions a re u sed : c o l . e ng . c o l . l i thog .

c o loured e ngrav ing c o loured l i thograph

C o l l .

C o l lect ion

dwg .

d raw ing

p t .

p ar t

T op . C o i ls . w tr . c o l .

T opograph ica l C o l lect ions ( S oc . An ts . L ondon ) wa ter c olour .

-T here i s a n I ndex o f S ub jec ts a nd a n I ndex o f Mosa ics, a t t he e nd , p . 1 56-8 . T he p la tes d o n ot n ecessar i ly s how t he mosa ics i n t he ir e n t ire ty . Iw ish t o r ecord my warmest t hanks t o c o l leagues , p hotographers, i ns t i tut ions, a nd g overn men tb od ies f or most o f t he i l lustra t ions, a s a cknow ledged i n t he c ap t ions .

1 .

F IGURES , BUSTS AND MASKS

ABRAXAS ( 1 )

Brad ing ( I . o f W . ) , Rm . 3 . P l . 6 .I Vb .

C en tra l ly i n a n o b long p ane l

i s ab u i ld ing o f wh ich t he f ron t a nd d ex ter s ide a re s hown .

I th as a p itched

r oof , w ith a p ed i men t t opped b y a sma l l f i n ia l o ver a l arge d oorway .

T he

d oorway i s a pproached b y wha t l ooks l i ke a l adder b ut i s p resumab ly a f l igh t o f s teps .

T he b u i ld ing i s , e v iden t ly , at e mp le .

T o t he r igh t s t and t wo g r if f ins,

o ne a bove t he o ther , t he u pper f ac ing t he t e mp le , t he l ower f ac ing away f rom i t .

T o t he l e f t s tands a f i gure i n h u man f orm a nd w ith h ands, b u t h aving t he

h ead o f ac ock , t urned t owards t he t e mp le a nd s o s een i n p rof i le . He wears a k neeleng th s tr iped t un ic w ith V -shaped c ape i n f ron t a nd f u l l s leeves g a thered i n a t t he wr ists .

H is l ef t f oot i s miss ing b u t p resu mab ly d up l ica ted t he c ock ' s

c laws, w ith s pur a bove , o f t he r igh t f oot .

T h is f i gure h as l ong b een r ecogn ized

a s t he G nost ic d e ity A braxas, o f w ho m t here a re n u merous r epresen ta t ions . I ti s , h owever , t he o n ly k nown r epresen ta t ion o f Abraxas i n mosa ic , a nd t he o n ly r epresen ta t ion o f an on-c lass ica l d e ity i n R o mano-Br it ish mosa ic.

T he

t e mp le a nd g r if f ins h ere a ssoc ia ted w ith t he f i gure a re a s y et u nexp la ined . O f t he s urv iv ing p ane ls o f t h is mosa ic t wo d ep ict b usts w ith wands, o ne d ep ic ts ag lad ia tor ia l c o mba t , a nd o ne a f ox r unn ing p ast a t ree t owards ad o med b u i ld ing . Whe ther t he p ane ls a re i n ter-re la ted i s a ma t ter f or c on jecture . F our th c en t . ( l a s i tu) Pr ice , 1 881, 8 , P l . 8( co l . l i thog ) ; F ig . 2 2 ;

V .C. H . H an ts a nd I . o f W . 1 , 1 900 , 3 14 ,

T oynbee , 1 962 , N o . 1 97 , P l . 2 31;

i b id ., 1 964, 2 55 .

ACHATES ( 2 )

L ow Ham ( So m .) . P l . 6 . XX I Ib .

An o b long p ane l d ep icts t hree r ound-

b ot to med g a l leys mov ing t o t he r igh t , e ach w ith a r ow o f o ars, ac entra l mast , as a i l a nd r igg ing , e ach w ith t he p row r is ing i n t he f orm o f ab ird ' sh ead f ro m ac utwa ter a nd w ith t he s ternpost r is ing a nd c urv ing f orward , a nd e ach w ith a

1 06

r a i l o n c re :: --1, 3r aced p osts a long t he s ide .

Above t he r a i l o f t he r ear most

v esse l a ppear t wo ( ? ma le) h eads, b oth w i th t he e yes l ook ing s ide long e i ther a t e ach o ther o r a t ad o me-shaped f ea ture a t t he f oo t o f t he mast .

I n t he s h ip

a head o f t h is t hree ma le h eads a ppear a bove t he r a i l , o ne a t t he s tern i n a c res ted h e l me t g lancing s ide long t o h is l ef t , t he n ex t b areheaded a nd g lanc ing t o h is ( or h er?) r ight , a nd t he t h ird , f orward o f t he mast , i n a Phryg ian c ap a nd g lanc ing t o h is l ef t .

Th is v esse l h as p ar t ly o vertaken t he t h ird , b e tween

t he mast a nd p row o f wh ich a ppear t he h ead o f s hou lders o f as ing le ma le f igu re , i n p rof i le ( and h e l meted?) .

H is b are r igh t a rm emerges f ro m a n amp le

c loak t o h o ld o ver t he p row a l arge o b ject o f f orm s uggest ing a g rea t c o l lar , w ith a f asten ing a t t he n arrowest p ar t wh ich , i f ac o l lar , wou ld b e a t t he b ack o f t he n eck . A lso h o ld ing t he c o l lar w ith h is b ared r igh t a rm o utstre tched a nd f ace u pturned t owards i ti s ac loaked ma le f i gure b ear ing a s pear o ver h is l ef t s hou lder .

H e i s d ep ic ted i n p rof i le a nd a ppears t o b e o n h is b ack i n r e la t ion

t o t he s h ips s o t ha t h e c an f ace t he s cene i n a n a d jacen t p ane l o f t he s a me mosa ic , t o wards wh ich h e i s p roceed ing : ( 132) .

The s h ips h ave b een i den t if ied a s

r epresen t ing t he Tro jan f lee t , t he ir o ccupan ts t he r efugees who f l ed f ro m Troy w i th t he ir l eader Aeneas .

T he h e l meted h ead i s t oo e v iden t ly a l ive t o r epresen t

t he Pa l lad ion , a s h as b een s uggested , wh i le t ha t i n t he Phryg ian c ap may d ep ict A scan ius t he s on o f Aeneas who a ppears w ith h is h ead s o c overed t w ice e lsew here i n t he mosa ic :

s ee ( 130 ) . ( 132) .

T he

k ey t o t he s cene a nd t o t he i den t ity

o ft he f igure l ast d escr ibed i s t he c o l lar , f or t h is must b e 'Acha tes, t he f a ithf u l c o mpan ion o f Aeneas, s en t b y t he l a t ter a f ter h is a rr iva l a t D ido ' sc our t , b ack t o t he T ro jan s h ips t o f etch A scan ius a nd p resents f or t he q ueen .

These

i nc luded a c o l lar s e t w ith p ear ls a nd a d oub le d iade m , b e jewe l led a nd o f g o ld ... o ne o f wh ich t he mosa ic ist h as d ep icted' A ene id i , 6 54-5) .

( Toynbee , 1 964, 2 43 , c i t ing V irg i l,

An a l most i den t ica l f igure o f Acha tes i s p or trayed i n o ne o f

t he min ia tures o f t he Va t ican V irg i l o f c . 4 00 .

P ost c . A .D . 3 30 . ( So merse t

C ounty Mus . ) . J .R .S . XXXVI , 1 946 , 1 42 . P l . X I ; 1 962 .

N o . 2 00, P ls . 2 35, 2 60 ;

P ls. 3 .5 , 3 .6 ;

i b id ., XLIV , 1 954, 9 9-100 ;

i b id ., 1 964, 2 41-46, P l. LV I I I ;

Nea l , 1 976 , 2 48-50 , F ig . 3 87 ;

mosa ics b y C .A .R . Rad ford f or thco m ing .

T oynbee , Sm i th , 1 969 ,

r epor t o n t he e xcava t ion a nd

S ee a lso ( 106) , ( 126) , ( 130) , ( 132) .

ACTAEON ( 3 )

C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1849, A ) P l . 6 .X I Ia .

A meda l l ion d ep icts a

ma le f i gure , n ude s ave f or a c loak f astened a t t he r igh t s hou lder a nd t hrown o ver t he l ef t b reast , s hou lder a nd u pper a rm . s tar ing e yes t o h is r igh t .

He s teps t o h is l ef t wh i le l ook ing w i th

An t lers r ise f ro m h is h a ir .

H is r igh t a rm i s o u t-

s tretched w ith t he h and o pen , wh i le t he l ef t h and i s l owered a nd c lasps a l agobo lon wh ich r ests o n h is l ef t s hou lder . o ne a lready b it ing a nd d raw ing b lood .

Two h ounds l eap a t h is r igh t l eg ,

T he f i gure i s t he u n for tuna te h un ts man

Actaeon who i nadver ten t ly c ame u pon D iana ( i .e . t he Greek

Ar te m is) i n t he

a ct o fb a th ing a nd f or t h is was t ransfor med b y t he g oddess i n to a s tag , t hereu pon t ob e t orn t o d ea th b y h is own h ounds.

T he s cene i s s e t b e tween r ocks,

w ith a sma l l t ree s tand ing t o Actaeon ' sr igh t a nd a b are t runk t o h is l ef t . C . A .D . 2 00?

( Cor in iu m Mus. ) .

Buckman a nd New march , 1 850 , 4 0-42 , P l . I ( opp . p .38 ) ; 2 69-70 ;

Sm i th , 1 975, 2 84-5, P l . WO N T , 2 .

( 97) . 1 07

T oynbee , 1 964 ,

S ee a lso ( 6 ) , ( 17) , ( 36) , ( 43 ) , ( 86) ,

ANAX I MANDER ( 4 ) Brad ing ( I . o f W . ) ,R , . 1 2 . P l . 6 .V Ib. A s quare p ane l d ep icts a s ea ted ma le f i gure , b earded , d raped a bout t he l ef t f orearm a nd l egs, a nd a pp aren t ly r est ing h is l e f t e lbow o n t he c urved b ack-ra i l o f ac ha ir .

H e h o lds

i n h is r igh t h and a r od w ith wh ich h e t ouches a g lobe s tand ing i n ac ircu lar h o lder w ith t hree l egs i n t he l ower l e f t h and c orner o f t he p ane l . The g lobe i s d iv ided i n to t hree s egmen ts b y av er t ica l l i ne , r igh t o f c en tre , f ro m w h ich a nother l i ne d epar ts a t a n u pward a ng le t o t he l ef t . c o lu mn s ur moun ted b y as und ia l ( gno mon) .

A bove t he g lobe s tands a

I n t he l ower r igh t h and c orner o f

t he p ane l s tands a v esse l l i ke a mor tar i n wh ich i s a( ?) s t irr ing r od .

( The

mosa ic h ard ly s uppor ts t he n ine teen th-cen tury i l lustra t ions r epresen t ing t h is a s as te m w i th l eaves . ) An e ar ly S everan mosa ic i n T r ier d ep icts a c omparab le f igure , s ea ted i n ac ha ir w ith a c urved b ack-ra i l, wh ich t here i s r eason t o i den t ify a s ap or traya l o f Anax i mander : P ar lasca , 1 959, 2 9 , P ls. A .1, 2 8 .2 . I fs o , t he a t tr ibutes o f t he f i gure a t Brad ing s uggest e ven more s trong ly h is i den t if ica t ion a s Anax i mander :

H e i n troduced i n to G reece t he g no mon , w h ich

h e u sed f or a strono m ica l o bserva t ion , a nd d rew t he f i rst map o f t he e ar th ' ( 0 .C. D ., s .v . ) . C once ivab ly , t he mor tar s ymbo l izes med ic ine , wh ich w as p rofound ly i nf luenced b y a stro logy ( i b id ., s .v . A stro logy) .

?F our th c en t .

( h i . s i tu) . Pr ice , 1 881, 1 5 , P l . 1 0 ( co l . l i thog . ) ; Morgan , 1 886 , 2 37 ; V .C. H . Han ts . a nd I . o f W. i , 1 900, 3 14 , F ig . 2 3 ; T o 3mbee , 1 962 , n o . 1 96 , P l . 2 33 ; i b id ., 1 964, 2 57 . S ee a lso ( 4 1) , ( 83 ) , ( 108 ) , ( 1 15) , ( 1 16) , ( 1 17 ) , ( 118) , ( 1 19) , ( 133) .

BACCHUS ( 5 )

C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1849, A ) . P l . 6 .X I Ia .

Af ragmen tary meda l l ion

p reserves t he u pper p art , n ude , o f as tand ing ma le f igure .

H is h ead i s

wrea thed w i th v ine l eaves ( a c luster o f g rapes h ang ing b y t he r igh t c heek?) , h is l e f t a rm i s r a ised a nd c rooked t o e nfo ld at hyrsus, w ith t he h and c lasp ing t he t op o f i t . Be low , t o h is r igh t , r e ma ins p ar t o f t he s pot ted c oa t o f a n a n ima l, p resu mab ly a l eopard , o ne o f t he f e l ines s acred t o Bacchus . Doubt less t h is was s tand ing s ideways b eh ind t he g od w ith h ead r a ised t owards a c an tharus i n h is r igh t h and .

F ur ther t o t he g od ' sr igh t i s at ree w ith t wo b are b ranches .

c . A .D . 2 00 ? ( Cor in iu m Mus . ) . Buck man a nd N ewmarch , 1 850 , 4 2 , P l . I ( opp . p .38) ; f or o ther r efs. s ee ( 3 ) .

S ee a lso ( 3 ) , ( 16) , ( 35) , ( 43) , ( 8 6) , ( 97) . ( 6 )

F ramp ton ( Dorse t ) , mosa ic B . P l . 6 .X IVa .

Af ragmen tary meda l l ion

p reserved most o f t i e f i gure o f al eopard w i th h ead t o t he s pecta tor ' sr ight b u t t urned b ack w ith o pen mou th a nd p ro trud ing t ongue .

O ver h is b ack was a

c loth w ith r ed a nd y e l low f o lds o r s tr ipes, a nd i n f ron t o f t h is, f rom b e low t he e dge o f t he c loth a nd i nc l ined a t a n a ng le t owards t he r ight , was t he l ower p ar t o f as taf f . U nder t he l eopard were t wo s prays o f l eaves . There c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t h is meda l l ion d ep icted Bacchus, r ec l in ing o n t he a n i ma l ' sb ack , t he l eopard b e ing o ne o f t he f e l ines s acred t o Bacchus, wh i le t he s ta f f w i l l h ave b een a t hyrsus. T he c loth was p robab ly p ar t o f t he g od ' sd rapery . F our th c en t . ( Destroyed ) . F or r efs. s ee ( 17 ) . S ee a lso ( 12) , ( 57) , ( 121) , ( 1 34) , ( 135) . 1 08

( 7 )

G , . . .este l ., B e l l L ane ( 1 966) . P l. 6 . XVIb .

F rag ments o f ac en tra l

meda l l ion p reserved p ar ts o f as pot ted a n i ma l mov ing t o t he r igh t a nd o f a d raped f igure s ea ted o n i t s b ack .

T he r e ma ins h ave j ust if iab ly b een i n terpreted

a s t hose o f ar epresen ta t ion o f al eopard b ear ing Bacchus o n i t s b ack . c en t . ( G loucester C ity Mus. ) .

F our th

T .B .G . A.S . XCII I , 1 975, 2 6 , P ls . I , I I , A . ( 8 ) L ondon , L eadenha l l S t . P l . 6 . XXT b. Ac en tra l meda l l ion d ep icts Bacchus r ec l in ing l angu id ly o n h is r igh t e lbow o n t he b ack o f ar ed a nd y e l low t iger wh ich moves t o t he s pecta tor ' sl e f t b ut t urns b ack i t s h ead t owards t he g od .

The g od i s a l most n ude b ut wrea thed w ith v ine l eaves t i ed w i th s car le t

r ibbons a nd l oose ly d raped i n ac loak wh ich f a l ls f ro m h is r igh t s hou lder a nd i s g a thered o ver h is r igh t t h igh . A c an tharus sw ings n eg l igen t ly f ro m h is r igh t h and . H is l ef t a rm i s r a ised a nd c rooked t o e n fo ld at hyrsus l igh t ly h e ld n ear t he t op .

He wears l aced b usk ins.

T he c o lours o f wrea th a nd c loak a re

e xcep t iona l ly e nr iched b y emp loymen t o f o paque g lass t esserae o f i nd igo, u ltramar ine , c oba l t , t urquo ise a nd Wedgwood b lue , a nd t he t hyrsus i s emera ld g reen

?E ar ly t h ird c en t . ( Br it . Mus . ) .

Morgan , 1 886 , 1 79-81, P l . o pp . p .80 ;

H inks, 1 933 , 9 7 , N o . 3 2a , F ig . 1 08 ,

R .C. H . M ., 1 928 , 1 27 , P l . 4 9 ( co l. l i thog .) ; ( 9 )

S tonesf ie ld ( Oxfords .) .

T oynbee , 1 964, p .278 .

A meda l l ion d ep icted Bacchus, a pparen t ly

s tand ing , a nd b eh ind h im al eopard mov ing t o t he s pecta tor ' sr ight .

The g od

was a dorned w ith a n amp le wrea th o f v ine l eaves, p oss ib ly w ith a c luster o f g rapes h ang ing o n e i ther s ide o f h is f ace , a nd a c loak was t hrown r ound h is s hou lders a nd u pper c hest t o p ass b eh ind t he r ight s hou lder , f a l l b y h is r igh t s ide , a nd c over h is r igh t l eg . a nd h e ld a c an tharus .

H is r igh t h and was r a ised t o s hou lder h e igh t

H is l ef t a rm was r a ised a nd c rooked t o e nfo ld a t hyrsus .

L eaves were s ca t tered a bou t t o r e l ieve t he b ackground . T op . Co l ls ., Ox fords . v o l :

F our th c en t . ( Destroyed ) .

c o l . s ca le dwg . b y W. L ew ington , c . 1 712 ;

h ence c ol . e ng . I n Haver f ie ld C o l l ., A sh mo lean Mus ., a nd a pparent ly o ther i l lustra t ions ;

F ow ler , 1 796-1818 , N o . 2 1 ;

V . C. H . O xon . I , 1 939, 3 15 ,

P l . XX IV ;

T ay lor , 1 941, 1 -8 , P l . I ;

P l . 3 .15.

S ee a lso ( 62) . S ee b e low , p . 4 23f .

( 10)

T oynbee , 1 964, 2 74 ;

T hrux ton ( Han ts) , P l . 6 . XXXa .

Sm i th , 1 969,

I n a mosa ic a lso o rna men ted w ith

b usts o f t he S easons a nd e ight sma l l s ty l ized h eads, a c en tra l meda l l ion d ep icted Bacchus a pparent ly s i t t ing r a ther t han r ec l in ing o n ad ispropor t iona te ly sma l l l eopard .

The g od was n ude e xcep t f or a h ead-dress o f v ine l eaves a nd

ac loak f a l l ing b eh ind h is b ack f ro m t he r igh t s hou lder , o ver t he l eopard ' s b ack , u nder h is r igh t l eg , l eav ing t h is l imb e xposed , a nd g a thered o ver h is l e f t l eg , t he k nee o f wh ich was r a ised . h e ld a c ha l icel ike v esse l , u pr igh t .

H is r igh t h and was o utstre tched a nd

H is l ef t a rm was c rooked t o e nfo ld a

t hyrsus r est ing o n h is l ef t k nee a nd l i gh t ly h e ld n ear t he t op .

L arge v ine

l eaves r e l ieved t he b ackground . At esse la ted i nscr ip t ion a bove t he f igured p ane l p reserves t he t r ia n om ina o f ac er ta in Q u in tus Na ta l ius N a ta l inus a nd a pparen t ly p ar t o f a nother n ame . B e low h ad b een a no ther i nscr ip t ion , o r ac on t inua t ion o f t he t ex t a bove , t owards t he e nd o f wh ich t here s urv ived t he l et ters V .. 0 . I th as b een c on jectured t ha t t hese m ight b e t he r e ma ins o f t he words e x v oto, a nd a ccord ing ly t ha t t he 1 09

mosa ic was c or : 1-,s io

d i n d ischarge o f av ow .

H owever t he f act t ha t i t

a dorned a r oo m i n a n a is led f ar mhouse r enders t h is h igh ly i mp lausib le , a nd t he p ro m inence o f t he i nscr ip t ion s uggests t ha t i t much more p robab ly c o mme mora ted t he n a mes o f t he p ropr ie tor o r p ropr ie tors o f t he v i l la .

C er ta in ly

i ti s t oo p ro m inen t a nd l eng thy t o h ave r ecorded t he n a mes o f t h e mosa ic ist o r mosa ic ists .

F our th c en t . ( Br it . Mus. l arge ly d estroyed b efore a cqu is it ion ) .

C o l . e ng . t o s ca le b y J . L ick man , 1 823 ( cop ies i n t he Haver f ie ld Co l l ., A sh mo lea .n Mus . ) ; h ence o thers i nc . t ha t o pp . p . 2 41 i n t he S a l isbury v o l . o f t he R oya l Arch . 1 , 1 900 , 3 00 ;

L nst ., 1 851;

H inks, 1 933

Sm i th, 1 969 , 9 4, P l . 3 .9 . ( 11)

C .I .L . V I I , 3 ;

V .C .H . Han ts. a nd I . o f W.

1 01, n o . 3 5 , F ig . 11; T oynbee , 1 964, 2 31, 2 59-60 ; S ee a lso ( 94) .

V eru la m iu m , I ns. XXVI I , H o . 2 , Rm . 8( 1959) .

Af rag men tary sma l l

r ectangu lar p ane l p reserved t he d ex ter s ide o f ap oor ly d ep ic ted b ust w ith a c luster o f t esserae o f b lue g lass a bove t he t e mp le , s uggest ing g rapes a nd a cc ord ing ly t he h ead-dress o f Bacchus .

N ot e ar l ier t han c . A .D . 3 70 .

( Veru lam iu m Mus .) . An t .J . XL , 1 960 , 2 0, P l . V ;

T oynbee , 1 964, 2 77 .

BELLEROPHON ( 12)

F ramp ton ( Dorset ) , mosa ic B . P l . 6 .X IVb .

Af ragmen tary c en tra l

meda l l ion p reserved p ar t o f ar ear ing h orse w ith t he r igh t l eg o f ar ider , t he f oot i n ab usk in , a nd , t o t he r igh t , p ar t o f a no ther r ear ing q uadruped w i th t a i l c urv ing u p a nd e nd ing i n ab u lbous t r if id .

T he s cene was o r ig ina l ly r estored

t o d ep ict a moun ted h un ts man a t tack ing a s pr ing ing l i oness.

B u t i t h as r e-

c en t ly b een c onv inc ing ly r estored t o d ep ict B e l lerophon , a str ide t he w inged h orse Pegasus, i n t he a c t o f s pear ing t he C h i maera .

Par t o f t he r igh t w ing

o f Pegasus h ad i n f act b een r ecorded , a nd t here h ad a lso s urv ived t he b ack o f t he n eck o f t he g oa t ' sh ead o n t he Ch i maera ' sb ack , wh ich h ad b een m ist aken f or t he b ack o f al i oness ' sn eck , wh i le t he b u lbous t r if id i s e v iden t ly a misunders tand ing o f t he h ead o f t he s erpen t f orm ing t he Ch i maera ' st a i l . F our th

c en t . ( Destroyed ) .

F or r efs. s ee ( 17). ( 13 )

S ee a lso ( 6 ) , ( 57 ) , ( 121) , ( 134) , ( 135) .

H in ton S t . Mary ( Dorse t ) .

P l . 6 . XV I lb .

Ad a maged meda l l ion

p reserves t he r igh t f ore-arm a nd r igh t l eg o f ac loaked f igure r id ing a h orse t o t he r igh t a bove a n i n tact r epresen ta t ion o f t he Ch i maera .

T he f igure , e v i-

d en t ly Be l lerophon , h o lds t he k nobbed e nd o f as pear o f wh ich t he h ead i s p o ised t o p ierce t he g oa t ' sh ead o n t he mons ter ' sb ack . The l i on ' s mane o f t he C h i maera i s as ty l ized p a t tern o f d ia monds a l terna te ly r ed a nd y e l low ; b ut i t s t a i l i n t he f orm o f as peck led s erpen t w ith ( crested?) h ead , c urv ing u p a nd t owards Be l lerophon a s i ft o s tr ike , i s r e la t ive ly r ea l ist ic .

F our th

c en t . ( Br it . Mus . ) . J .R .S . L IV , 1 964, 8 -10 , P l . I( co lr .) ; 1 969, P l . 3 .29 ; ( 14)

T oynbee , 1 968 , 1 81, P l . I ;

H i l ler , 1 970 , 7 9-82 , P l . 2 9.

L u l l ingstone ( Ken t ) .

P l . 6 . XX IVa .

Sm i th ,

S ee a lso ( 112 ) . Ap ane l i n t he f or m o f ac oncave-

s ided s quare s e t o n o ne a ng le p reserves i n tact , ar epresen ta t ion o f Be l lerophon

1 10

a t tack ing 2 1A rnaera . A r ed c loak i s s lung o ver Be l lerophon ' sb ody i n s uch a way a s t o l eave t he r igh t s ide a nd a rm b are , a nd e xcep t f or b usk ins t h is i s h is o n ly d ress.

H is l e f t h and g r ips t he g o lden b r id le , d ep icted i n r ed , wh ich

A thena h ad g iven h im , wh i le t he r igh t a rm i s r a ised a nd c rooked s o a s t o p os it i on t he h and t o p rope l t he s pear i nto t he g oa t ' sh ead o n t he C h i maera ' sb ack , a nd t he h ero l eans o ver t he monster i n o rder t o g a in e x tra t hrust . a era i s y e l low a nd r e la t ive ly p oor ly d ep icted ;

r ecogn izab le a s s uch , a nd f l oa ts a im less ly b eh ind t he c rea ture . a re n otab le f or t he ir l ack o f mode l l ing .

T he C h i m-

i t s s erpen t-headed t a i l i s h ard ly T he f i gures

F our l i ve ly c o loured d o lph ins a nd t wo

s ty l ized b iva lves c o mp lete t he p ane l, a r em inder t ha t Pegasus was s o n a med b ecause h e made h is a ppearance n ear t he s ources ( T ur o u ts ide i ta re f our meda l l ions d ep ict ing t he S easons . ?c .m id-Four th c en t .

g a .s i t u ) .

Arch . Can t . LX II I , 1 951, 4 6, P l . V , a ; i b id ., 1 964 , 2 64-5 , P l . LX ,b ; 6 6-69, P l . 2 5 .

o f O ceanus, a nd P ost c . A .D . 3 30 .

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 1 93 , P l . 2 28 ;

i b id ., 1 968 , 1 86-8 , P l . 4 ;

H i l ler , 1 970 ,

S ee a lso ( 27) , ( 89) .

BONUS EVENTUS ( 15)

B ramdean ( Han ts .) . P l . 6 .V I Ia .

E ither B onus Eventus o r F or tuna

was p resu mab ly p or trayed a s t he d e ity p res id ing o ver t he e igh th d ay i n a miss ing p ane l o ft he mosa ic d ep ic t ing t he g ods o f t he d ays o f t he R o man i n tern und ina l w eek . F our th c en t . ( Destroyed ) . R oach Sm i th , 1 852 , i , 5 6-64, P l . XX I I ; V .C .H . Han ts . a nd I . o f W ., i , 1 900 , 3 08 , F ig . 1 8 ;

T oynbee , 1 964, 2 58 ;

Sm ith , 1 969, P l . 3 .4 .

( 32) , ( 33) , ( 3 6) , ( 42) , ( 46) , ( 7 9 ) , ( 98 ) , ( 103 ) .

S ee a lso

F or ( ?) B onus E ventus e lse-

w here s ee ( 2 5) .

CENTAUR ( 16)

C irencester , Dyer S t . P l . 6 .X I la .

Af ragmen tary c ircu lar meda l l ion

p reserves t he f orefee t o f ah orse , most p robab ly p ar t o f t i e f igure o f ac en taur ( Ch iron ? ) .

C . A .D . 2 00? ( Cor in iu m Mus . ) .

B uck man a nd Nev v-march , 1 850 , 3 9-40, P l . I ( opp . p .38) ; ( 3 ) .

f or o ther r e fs

s ee

S ee a lso ( 5 ) , ( 35) , ( 43) , ( 8 6) , ( 97) .

CL IO ( ) s ee ( 48) .

CUP ID ( 17)

F ramp ton ( Dorse t ) mosa ic B . P l . 6 .X IVa .

C en tra l ly i n t he b order

o n o ne s ide o f a mosa ic h ere w ere p reserved t he l egs a nd t he e nds o f af l oa t ing s to le o f a sma l l f igure i den t if ied b y t he r eference t o C up id i n t he t esse l la ted i nscr ip t ion i n a n a d jacen t p ane l .

Th is p ane l was u ndoubted ly o ne o f t wo f l ank ing

1 11

t he f i gure , t he o ther p resu mab ly a lso b ear ing a t esse l la ted i nscr ip t ion .

T he

t ex t o f t hese p ane ls was s ee m ing ly t o b e r ead w i th t ha t i n t wo more p ane ls f lank ing a mask o f N ep tune , n amed i n o ne o f t he m , i n t he b order o n a nother s ide o f t he mosa ic .

T he t ex ts h ave b een r estored a s f our h ep tame ter l i nes

f or m ing a q ua tra in e xa lt ing t he y oung g od o f e rot ic l ove o ver t he g od o f t he s ea .

O ppos ite t he mask o f Neptune was a c irc le c on ta in ing a C h i-Rho, a p-

p aren t ly c on te mporary .

F our th c en t . ( Des troyed) .

L ysons, 1 813 , p t . i i , 2 -4, P l . V ; An tho log ia L a t ina :

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 50-51 ;

Sm i th , 1 969, 1 09, P l . 3 .27 .

( 135) .

B ueche ler , F .,

Carm ina L a t ina Ep igraph ica I , 1 897 , n o . 1 524 ;

T oynbee , 1 962 , n o . 1 99, P l . 2 34 ; P l . 2 ;

C .I . L . V I I , 2 ;

i b id ., 1 968 , 1 81f f .,

S ee a lso ( 6 ) , ( 12) , ( 57 ) , ( 121) , ( 134) ,

F or C up id i n o ther c on tex ts s ee ( 124) , ( 130) , ( 132) .

CUPIDS ( EROTES) ( 18) B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 3 . P l . 6 .1 1 1 . Ap ane l r unn ing l i ke a f r ieze ' be low ' t he a ps ida l mosa ic p or tray ing J uno , d ep icts n ine w inged c up ids a t t ired a s g lad ia tors , w ith c ons iderab le a t ten t ion t o d e ta i l i n t he r epresen ta t ion o f t he a rmour a nd weapons,

a nd t hree a s t ra iners ( l an istae) c lad i n d a l ma t ics .

A t t he l ef t as ecu tor a nd a r e t iar ius a re e ngag ed u nder t he e ye o f at ra iner , r od i n h and , t o t he r igh t .

On t he g round b e tween t he m i s ab lock w ith a n i ron

l oop a s u sed t o c ha in s laves t ra ined o r t ra in ing f or t he a rena .

T o t he r igh t

o f t h is g roup i s a nother i n wh ich a s ecu tor a dvances w ith d agger a t t ie r eady a ga inst a r e t iar ius who i s l arge ly miss ing , b u t h ad a pparen t ly f a l len a nd was l ook ing u p a t h is o pponen t , wh i le a t ra iner , wav ing h is r od , s pr ings f orward . T o t he r igh t a ga in t wo c up ids a re a rm ing a nd a t ra iner , r od i n h and , l eads f orward a r e t iar ius c arry ing h is n et .

F ina l ly , a t t he r ight h and e nd o f t he p ane l,

ar e t iar ius b leed ing f ro m a wound i n h is r igh t t h igh r ec l ines o n t he g round , h is t r iden t b es ide h im a nd a nother b lock w i th i ron l oop a bove , wh i le a s ecu tor whose h e l me t l i es a t h is f ee t , e xecu tes a d ance o f v ictory . F or r efs . s ee ( 3 1) . ( 19)

F our th c en t . ( L i‚ s itu) .

S ee a lso ( 19) .

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 3 .

E igh t o blong p ane ls r ad ia t ing f ro m

a n o ctagona l p ane l e ach d ep icted a w inged c up id s k ipp ing o r d anc ing a nd b eari ng o ne o r more o f t he a t tr ibu tes o f d evo tees o f Bacchus, s uch a s at hyrsus, at a mour ine , a nd a v ine-st ick ( v it is) i n t he f or m o f ap edu m .

( LIs i tu) .

F our th c en t .

F or r efs . s ee ( 3 1) . ( 20)

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 2 6 .

F our o va l p ane ls i n t he a ng les o f al arge-

l y d estroyed d es ign p resu mab ly e ach d ep ic ted a w ing less c up id , t hough o n ly p ar t o f o ne r e ma ined .

T here s urv ived t he r igh t s ide o f h is b ody w ith h is

r igh t h and h o ld ing a s to le f l oa t ing f ro m t he s hou lder a nd h is l e f t l eg c rossed b eh ind t he r igh t .

O ther p ane ls d ep ic ted d o lph ins, o thers a ( ?) p eacock p erched

o n ac ornucop ia a bove a c luster o f g rapes, a nd o ne p reserves t he l et ters TER ( ER l i ga tured ) wh ich a re most e as i ly e xp la ined a s t he a bbrev ia ted

s igna ture '

o f a mosa ic ist n amed e i ther T er t ius o r ( perhaps l ess p robab ly ) Teren t ius . F our th c en t .

( LI

F or r efs . s ee ( 8 1) . 1 12

( -)

C aerwen t ( Mon .) .

S ee ( 84) .

( -) C hedwor th ( G los .) .

S ee ( 85) .

( 21) C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1783) .

R e ma ins o f a mosa ic d ep ict ing a

v ar iety o f a qua t ic c rea tures a lso d ep icted a w inged c up id p osed a s t hough f l oa t ing o r s w i mm ing t o t he r igh t wh i le s uppor t ing w i th h is r igh t h and t he r im o f a whee l .

Be low was p ar t o f a nother , r id ing a d o lph in t o t he l e f t w ith h is

r ight h and t hrown o ut a s i fi n s a lu ta t ion . t h ird

T here r e ma ined a lso t he h and o f a

?La te s econd o r e ar ly t h ird c en t . ( Par t s t i l l i n s i tu?) .

L ysons, 1 817 , p t . i , P l . V I I ; N o . 1 82 , P l . 2 13 ; ( 22)

i b id .,

Arch . LXD ( , 1 920 , 17 5 , N o . 8 ;

1 964, 2 70 .

F ishbourne ( Sussex ) .

T oynbee , 1 962 ,

S ee a lso ( 66) .

Ac en tra l meda l l ion d ep icts a w inged c up id ,

b ear ing a t r iden t l i ke a s cep tre i n h is l ef t h and , moun ted a str ide a l i ve ly d o lp h in sw i mm ing t o t he l ef t .

F our s urround ing s em ic ircu lar p ane ls e ach d ep ict

as ea- monster a nd q uar ter-c ircu lar p ane ls i n t he a ng les a re f l u ted i n im i ta t ion o f s ca l lop s he lls.

c . A .D . 1 50 . ( l a s itu) .

C un l if fe , 1 971, 1 637 4 , P ls . XLV I I-L II I . ( 23)

H orkstow ( L incs .) .

P l . 6 . XV I I I : b .

I n t he o uter z one o f ah eav i ly

d amaged c oncen tr ic c ircu lar d es ign , w i th s ea-crea tures a nd n ere ids f lank ing meda l l ions p robab ly e ach d ep ict ing a s a tyr a nd maenad , aw inged c up id was s tand ing b eh ind t he b ody o f as ea-cow b ear ing t wo n ere ids, t wo w ing less c up ids were d ispor t ing t he mse lves i n a n a d jacen t p ane l o f wh ich t he p r inc ipa l s ub ject was most ly d estroyed , a nd i n a nother p ane l a nother w inged c up id was sw i mm ing t owards a ( ?) merma id b ear ing a n ere id . d estroyed .

D oubt less o thers h ad b een

T he b ackground was r ed .

A f ragmen t o f ap ane l i n t he i nner z one p reserved p ar ts o f t hree c up ids, t wo i fn ot a l l w ith w ings, a pparen t ly b e tween t he m d raw ing a l ong s wag o r g ar land o u t o f ab asket .

A ga in , t he b ackground was r ed .

F our th c en t .

( For mer ly Br it . Mus ., n ow Mus. o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon Hu l l) . F ow ler , 1 796-1818 , 2 ; 1 36-8, P l . o pp . p . 1 36 ;

L ysons, 1 813 , p t . i ,2 ,

P l . I V ;

Morgan , 1 886,

H inks, 1 933 , 1 02 , 1 06, n os. 3 6 , e ,g , 1,f i gs. 1 12 ,

17 , 1 18 , 1 22 ;

T oynbee , 1 964, 2 81 ;

1 03 , F ig . 12) ,

P l . X ( a f ter L ysons) .

( -)

L ow Ha m ( So m .) .

( -)

L u l l ingstone ( Ken t ) .

( -)

P itney ( So m .) .

Sm i th , 1 976 ,

2 5 , F ig . 3( a f ter H inks,

S ee a lso ( 30) , ( 68) , ( 122) .

S ee ( 106) . S ee ( 27) .

S ee ( 9 1) .

( 24) S i lchester ( Han ts .) , I ns. X IX , H o . 2 .

On o ne s ide o f as quare d es ign ,

a nd p oss ib ly a lso o n t he o ther wh ich h ad b een d estroyed , aw inged a nd c loaked c up id was d ep icted a s s tand ing o n ap edesta l w ith h is h ands r est ing o n t endr i ls o f as cro l l e x tend ing t o e i ther s ide o f h im .

?F our th c en t . ( Frags . I n Read ing

Mus . ) . Arch . LV I , 2 45, P l . X IV ; B oon , 1 974 , 2 17-8 , P l . 2 8 ;

V .C. H . Han ts . a nd I . o f W. I , 1 900 , 3 68 , P l . V I ; T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 59 .

1 13

( 25)

Woodchester ( G los .) , Rm . 1 0 , P l . 6 . XXX Ic .

An i n tact o ctagona l

p ane l o f a n o therw ise l arge ly d estroyed mosa ic d ep icted t wo c onfron ted c up ids d raped o n ly i n f l ut ter ing s to les a nd h o ld ing u p b e tween t hm , w h i le l ook ing t owards t he s pecta tor , al arge b aske t o f f ru it a nd s prays o f l eaves . t he m , i n t esserae , a re t he words BONV M EVENTV M .

Benea th

These were e v iden t ly

t o b e r ead w ith t he t esse l la ted i nscr ipt ion i n t he f ragmen tary o c tagona l p ane l d iagona l ly o ppos i te , o f wh ich t he r e ma in ing l e t ter B I IN I IC were r estored b y L ysons t o r ead B I INI I ( = BE NE) s a lu ta t ions,

COL ITE.

e n joy y ourse lves ' a nd

T hese h ave b een r egarded a s t wo

we w ish y ou h app iness ' ( Toynbee ) .

B ut

i ta lso s ee ms p oss ib le t o r ead b oth t oge ther a s as ing le e xhor ta t ion , w ith t he g enera l mean ing o f 'r ender d ue worsh ip t o B onus Even tus ' ( a s s uggested t o t he p resen t wr iter b y t he l a te S ir I an R ich mond) ;

a nd a f ragmen t o f t he c en tra l

p ane l p reserved wha t may h ave b een p ar t o f ar epresen ta t ion o f t h is v ery R o man g od , where f unct ion was t o b r ing a l l t h ings t o ah appy i ssue .

F our th

c en t . ( l a s i tu , b ur ied ) . L ysons, 1 797 , 6 -7 , P l . X IX ;

i b id ., 1 817 , p t . i , P l . XX I I I ;

Sm ith , 1 969, 1 01-02, P l . 3 .14 ;

R .C. H . M ., 1 976, P 1 .19.

C .I . L . V I I , 7 7 ; S ee a lso ( 127) .

F or B onus Even tus s ee a lso ( 15) . D IDO ( -)

S ee ( 126) , ( 130) , ( 132) .

EUROPA ( 26)

L ondon , Broad S t .

A r e la t ive ly sma l l s quare p ane l c entra l i n al arge

g eo me tr ic mosa ic was d amaged b ut p reserved t he g rea ter p ar t o f af e ma le f i gure , n ude s ave f or a s to le wrapped r ound h er l ef t f orearm a nd b i l low ing i n a n a rc o ver h er h ead a nd d own t o h er r ight h ip , a nd p ar ts o f ab lue q uadruped , b ound ing t a i l i n a ir t o t he s pecta tor ' sr igh t , o n whose b ack s he r ec l ines .

Her

r igh t a rm i s r a ised a nd h er h and r ests o n h er h ead , a s i ft o h o ld h er h a ir i n p lace a ga inst t he w ind .

T he s cene h as b een d esc ibed a s d ep ict ing a b acchan te

o n ap an ther ; b u t s uch a s cene b y i t se lf mos t p robab ly p or trayed t he educt ion o f Europa a cross t he s ea b y J up iter i n t he f or m o f ab u l l :

c f . ( 27 ) .

F our th

c en t . ( Destroyed ) . V .C. H . L ondon I , 1 909 , 9 2 , F ig . 3 9 ; T oynbee , 1 964, 2 78 ; ( 27)

R .C.H . M ., 1 928 , 1 08 , P l . 4 8 ( c o lr .) ;

Merr if ie ld , 1 965, 2 88 , n o . 3 23 , P l. 6 4 .

L u l l ingstone ( Ken t ) P l . 6 . XX IVb .

An a ps ida l p ane l d ep icts a f e-

ma le f igure , h a lf d raped i n ag ar men t o f d iaphanous ma ter ia l a nd w ith a r ms r a ised t o h o ld ab i l low ing c loak a bove a nd b eh ind h er h ead , r ec l in ing o n t he b ack o f ab u l l b ound ing t o t he r igh t . b y J up iter i n t he f or m o f ab u l l . t he a n i ma l ' sh ead . n eckband .

The s cene i s t ha t o f E uropa ' sa bduct ion

E uropa ' sh ead i s t urned i n t he d irec t ion o f

S he wears b race le ts o n t h e u pper a nd l ower a rm , a nd a

Ahead o f t he b u l l s tr ides a w inged c up id , l ook ing b ack a nd g a i ly

wav ing h is r igh t h and t oward E uropa , t he o ther h and h o ld ing a h era ld ' sw inged wand wh ich r ests o n h is l ef t s hou lder . g r ipp ing h is t a i l w ith b oth h ands

F o l low ing t he b u l l a nd p lay fu l ly

i s a nother c up id .

T he f igures a re e xecuted

e n t ire ly i n l i ne , w i th n o mode l l ing a nd l i t t le c o lour , a nd s e t a ga inst ab ackg round o f wh ich t he u pper a nd l arger p ar t i s wh ite a nd t he l ower p ar t d ark b lue , e v iden t ly t o s ign ify t he s ky a nd t he s ea r espec t ive ly . 1 14

A l l s ave t he b u l l ' s

h ind f ee t a nd

a ropa ' sl ef t f oo t a re i n t he s ky .

A cross t he c hord o f t he a pse ,

worked i n t esserae , i s a n e leg iac c oup le t r e la t ing o b l ique ly t o t he s cene a nd i nsp ired b y a n e p isode r ecoun ted i n t he f irst b ook o f t he Aene id .

P ost c .

A .D . 3 30 . ?c . mid-Four th c en t . ( 1 . 2 s i tu) . Arch . C an t . LXI I I , 1 951, 4 4-45 , P l . V , b ;

T oynbee , 1 962 , No . 1 92 , P l . 2 29 ;

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 62-64 , P l . LX ,a ; i b id ., 1 968 , 1 88 , P l . 5 .

S ee a lso ( 14) ( 89) .

FLORA ( 28)

I t chen Abbas ( Han ts .) .

d raped b ust .

P l . 6 . XIXa .

A meda l l ion d ep icted a n u n-

T he h a ir , t hough s ty l ized , was d ep icted i n d isordered l ocks

w ith s trands f a l l ing t o t he l e f t s hou lder .

I n i t , a bove t he f orehead , was a

l arge f our-pe ta l led f l ower , f ro m wh ich s prang t hree c urv ing s te ms e nd ing i n s tarl ike l eaves, a nd t wo o ther wavy s te ms e nd ing i n r ound e igh t-peta l led f l owers i n t he f i e ld o n e i ther s ide o f t he h ead .

Be low t hese , f ro m t he h a ir ,

i ssued t wo more s te ms e nd ing i n s tarl ike l eaves.

T he s tarl ike l eaves

s uggest s ty l ized v ine l eaves , a nd s o b r ing Bacchus t o mind .

But t he h ead-

d ress was n ot t he wrea th o fv ineleaves a nd g rapes w ith wh ich a r epresentat i on o f Bacchus wou ld h ave b een u nm istakab ly a dorned .

I t was p la in ly c o mposed

o f f l owers a nd l eaves a nd , a l though a r epresen ta t ion o f o ne o f t he S easons w ithou t t he o ther t hree i s e xcep t iona l , i ti s d if f icu lt n ot t o a ccep t t he i den t if ic a t ion o f t h is b ust a s o f F lora , t he g oddess o f S pr ing a nd f l owers.

F our th c en t .

( s itu , b ur ied?) J .B .A .A . XXXIV , 1 878 , F ig . o pp . p .504 ;

i b id ., XXV , 1 879, 1 09 ;

T oynbee ,

1 964 , 2 59 .

FORTUNA ( -)

O r B onus Even tus?

S ee ( 15) .

GANY MEDE ( 29)

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 7 . P l . , 6 .I l b .

A meda l l ion d ep icts , f ron ta l ly ,

magn if icen t e ag le w ith o u tspread w ings b ear ing a lof t ay ou th .

a

T he b ird ' s

h ead i s t urned t o i t s r igh t a nd i t s r igh t c law i s g r ipp ing t he y outh ' sr igh t h ip . T he d e l inea t ion a nd r ich c o lour ing o f t he p lu mage , i n wh ich c lear g lass t ess erae a re a lso l i bera l ly emp loyed , r epresen t p erhaps t he most s tr ik ing e xa mp le o f t he R om a n mosa ic ist ' sa r t i n Br ita in . g r ip .

The y ou th i s p ass ive i n t he e ag le ' s

H e i s n ude s ave f or a P hryg ian c ap , b usk ins, a nd a g rea t s car le t c loak

t hrown w ith many f o lds o ver h is l ef t a rm a nd s hou lder a nd r e-appear ing o n h is r igh t .

H is l ef t h and h o lds ap edu m wh i le t he r igh t a rm i s o u tstre tched w ith

t he h and o pen a s i fg estur ing , a nd h is h ead a nd e yes a re t urned t o h is r igh t . H is l egs a re c rossed , h ere s ign ify ing mot ion t hrough t he a ir .

The s cene i s

c lear ly t ha t o f t he r ape o f G any mede b y J up iter i n t he f orm o f a n e ag le . F our th c en t . ( l a s i tu) . L ysons, 1 817 a , 1 964 , 2 60 .

I , P ls . V , V I I ;

T oynbee , 1 962 , N o. 1 90, P l . 2 24 ; i b id .,

S ee a lso ( 20) , ( 3 4) . 15

G IANTS ( G IGANTES ) ( 3 0) H orkstow ( L incs .) . P l. 6 . XVI I Ib . I nt he a ng les o f as quare p ane l f our r ed muscu lar f i gures were d ep icted a s s uppor t ing a c ircu lar d es ign w i th t he ir h eads a nd u pra ised h ands .

A t t he ir k nees t he ir l egs b ecame t wo s erpen ts,

w ith s peck led b e l l ies a nd t ongues d ar t ing f ro m o pen j aws i n l arge c rested h eads, wr i th ing u p t owards t he f i gures ' h ands. T he f i gures h ave g enera l ly b een d esc r ibed a s T itans b u t s hou ld more p roper ly b e c a l led g ian ts .

F our th c en t .

( . A .D . 3 50?) ( Former ly Br it . Mus ., n ow Mus. o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon H u l l . ) F or r efs .

s ee ( 23) .

S ee a lso ( 67 ) ( 1 22) .

I NO ( ?) ( -) S ee ( 131)

JUNO ( 3 1)

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 3 . P l . 6 .1 1 1 .

A meda l l ion c en tra l i n a n

a ps ida l mosa ic p or trays a f e ma le b ust o f w h ich t he h ead i s a dorned w ith a d iadem a nd d ign if ied b y al arge l i ght b lue n i mbus . T he e yes g aze t ranqu i l ly a t t he s pecta tor .

I n t he h a ir i n f ron t o f t he d iade m i s ar ow o f s ix sma l l

wh i te c rosses, e ach o n ar ed g round ( j ewe ls ? ) .

The h a ir i t se lf f a l ls f ro m a

c en tra l p ar t ing i n amp le waves o f r ed a nd y e l low t o b eh ind t he n eck , whence c ur l ing l ocks r e-appear o n b o th s hou lders . T he n eck l ine a nd u pper f o lds o f ad iaphanous d ress a re d ep icted .

T he meda l l ion i s f l anked b y l ea fy s wags,

s uspended f ro m i t s f ra me t o t he b order o f t he mosa ic , w ith t he ir e nds t i ed i n p lace b y r ibbons . O n b o th swags, f ac ing t he meda l l ion , i s p erched a l ongt a i led b ird wh ich r a ises i t s h ead o n as lender n eck t owards a l ea fy t w ig b eari ng ap ear-shaped f ru it : t he s hape o f t he l eaves p rec ludes d escr ip t ion o f t he f ru i t a s af i g. B e low , o n e i ther s ide o f t he meda l l ion , i s as i mp le c ornucop ia . T he b ust h as b een i den t if ied a s V enus, s een a s i t were i n h er own m irror . Bu t t he f igure i s u ndoubted ly d raped , as ta te u ncharac ter ist ic o f V enus ;

a nd

i ti s d if f icu lt n ot t o r egard t he f l ank ing b irds a s p eacocks, d esp i te t he ir l ack o f ac rest , a nd s o t o i den t ify t he p or tra it a s o f t he g oddess among whose a tt r ibutes t he p eacock was u n iversa l ly k nown , n ame ly J uno .

F our th c en t .

( I L I s i tu) . L ysons, 1 817a , 3 , P l . X IX ; P l . 3 .1. S ee a lso ( 18 ) , ( 19) .

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 61, P l . L IX ,b ; F or J uno e l sewhere s ee ( 131) .

Sm ith , 1 969,

JUP ITER ( 32)

Bramdean ( Han ts .) . P l . 6 .V IIa .

I n ar ad ia l d es ign o f e igh t t runca ted

t r iangu lar p ane ls, d ep ic t ing b usts o f t he d e i t ies who p res ided o ver t he d ays o f t he R o man i n ternund in ia l week , t he b ust r epresen t ing t he s ix th d ay p or trayed t he s ty l ized h ead a nd d raped s hou lders o f J up i ter .

U pr igh t a cross h is r igh t

s hou lder i s w ha t a ppears t o b e at r iden t , w i th t he c en tra l p rong l onger t han

16

t he o ther t wo , b u t wh ich mus t o bv ious ly b e ac onven t iona l ized ( i f n ot misunders tood ) f u l men .

F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ).

F or r e fs . s ee ( 15 ) .

S ee a lso ( 3 2 ) , ( 3 6 ) ,

( 4 2 ) ,

( 4 6) ,

( 7 9 ) ,

( 98 ) ,

( 1 03) .

F or J up i ter e lsewhere s ee ( 1 31) , ?( 1 37) . LUNA ( 3 3 )

Bra mdean ( Han ts .). P l . 6 .V I Ia .

The b us t r epresen t ing t he t h ird d ay

o f t he week was l arge ly d es troyed b u t p ar t o f t he h ead o f Luna a dorned w ith a c rown s ur moun ted b y ac rescen t was p reserved . For r e fs . s ee ( 15 ) .

S ee a lso ( 3 2 ) ,

( 3 6 ) ,

( 4 2 ) ,

F our th c en t . ( Destroyed ) .

( 46 ) ,

( 7 9 ) ,

( 98 ) ,

( 1 03 ).

MAENADS ( 3 4)

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 7 .

S ix h exagona l p ane ls s urrounding a h exa-

g ona l f oun ta in e ach d epic t af e ma le f igure r unn ing o r d ancing o nb are f ee t . They a re n ude s ave f or a b i l low ing v e i l a nd o ther f lu t ter ing d rapery , a nd a lt ernate ly f ace a nd h ave t heir b acks t o t he s pecta tor . t a mbour ines .

A t l eas t t hree c arry

F our th c en t . ( l i l s i tu ) .

F or r efs . s ee ( 29) . ( 35)

C irencester , Dyer S t ( 1849 a ) , P l . 6 .X I Ia .

An i nterst it ia l s quare

p ane l i n a mosa ic d ep ict ing Bacchus a nd S i lenus p reserves most o f an ude f ema le f i gure mov ing t o h er l ef t a nd h o ld ing o ut i n h er r igh t h and a b unch o f l eaves .

T he f i gure a l most c er ta in ly r epresents a maenad .

c . A .D . 2 00?

( Cor in iu m Mu s.) . F or r e fs . s ee ( 5 ) ,

S ee a lso ( 3 ) ,

( 1 6 ) ,

( 4 3 ) ,

( 8 6) ,

( 9 7) .

F or a ( ?) maenad

e lsewhere s ee ( 1 42 ) , a nd f or maenads w i th s a tyrs s ee ( 1 17) , ( 127) ,

( 1 20 ) ,

( 1 22 ) ,

( 128 ).

MARS ( 3 6)

Bra mdean ( Han ts .) . P l . 6 . Vla .

T he b us t r epresen t ing t he f our th

d ay o f t he week p or trayed Mars , h e l meted b u t w i th t he c res t o f t he h e l me t s een f ro m t he s ide , a nd w i th d raped s hou lders .

A t as l igh t a ng le a cross h is r igh t

s hou lder i s as pear w i th a sma l l b ar j us t b elow t he h ead .

F our th c en t . ( Des-

t royed ) . F or r efs . s ee ( 15 ) . ( 3 7 )

S ee a lso ( 3 2 ) ,

( 3 3 ) ,

( 42 ) ,

( 4 6 ) ,

( 7 9 ) ,

F ra mpton ( Dorse t ) , mosa ic A . P l . 6 . XI II .

( 98 ) ,

( 103) .

A s quare p anel d ep icts

a ma le f igure f ac ing t he s pecta tor b u t s tepp ing t o h is l e f t .

T he c res t o f a

h e l me t i s d iscern ible a bove f u l l , wavy h a ir , a nd a s car let c loak i s f as tened a bove t he r igh t s hou lder a nd t hrown o ver t he l e f t , l eaving e xposed t he c u irass a nd k i l t o f aR o man o f f icer .

H is f ee t a re i nb usk ins .

I n h is l e f t h and h e h o lds

as pear , wh i le t he r igh t i s r a ised a nd h o lds a l ea fy t wig p lucked f ro m t he t ree b y h is s ide .

The f igure h as b een i den ti f ied a s Mars , a nd more s peci f ica l ly

a s Mars P ac i fer .

F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ) .

L ysons , 1 813 , p t . i i , 1 -2 , P l . I V ; T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 51; ( 38 )

R . C. H . M., 1 952 , 1 50 P l . 1 27 , 1 ;

i b id ., 1 968 , 1 92 , P l . 3 .

Fu l ler ton ( Han ts .) . P l . 6 . XVIa .

S ee a lso ( 5 6) ,

( 1 10 ) ,

( 1 36) .

I n t he c en tra l o ctagona l p ane l i s

d ep icted a s tand ing ma le f igure , n ude s ave f or a ( p lumed?) h e l met a nd a c loak

1 17

s lung r ound h is n eck a nd h ang ing b eh ind h im .

H is r igh t a rm i s r a ised a nd

c rooked t o e n fo ld a s pear , o n wh ich h e r es ts h is weigh t , h o ld ing t he weapon j us t b e low t he b lade.

H is l e f t h and g rasps t he e dge o f a n o va l s h ie ld r es t ing

o n t he g round b es ide h is l e f t f oot .

Th is f igure h as b een i den t i f ied a s e i ther

Mars o r V ir tus , b u t t he l a t ter wou ld a ppear t o b e u npare l le led i n mosa ic a nd t he i den ti f ica t ion a s Mars s ee ms u nques t ionab le .

I ti s i n teres t ing , h owever ,

t hat t he e igh t s urrounding e longa ted h exagona l p ane ls d epict a t tendan ts o f Bacchus i n t he f or m o f s a tyrs .

F our ( wrea thed?) b us ts i n t he a ng les o f t he

d es ign , t hough l ack ing d is t inguish ing a t tr ibu tes , p oss ibly r epresen t t he S easons . Four th c en t . ( I n F u l ler ton Manor , Wherwel l , H an ts .) . Recorded i n ap a in t ing b y D . S . N ea l ; 2 58-59 ;

r epor t a s y e t u npub lished ;

T oynbee , 1 964 ,

R a iney , 1 973 , P l . 2 , B .

MEDUSA ( 39 )

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 3 3.

A meda l l ion c en tra l i n ac oncen tr ic c ir-

c u lar d es ign d ep ic ted a s ty l ized h ead o f Medusa .

I t was e ncirc led b y a n i vy

s crol l , g u i l loche , a nd a s i mple meander w i th i nse t f igures o f b irds , af ish , a nd a d o lph in .

I nt he a ng les o f t he c on ta in ing s quare were e x tre mely s i mp l i-

f ied h eads o f t he S easons . t he v i l la ) .

( ?) F our th c en t . ( ear l ier t han t he n or th r ange o f

( 2.1s i tu . ,b ur ied ) .

Lysons , 1 817 a , 6 , P l . XX IV . ( 40 )

S ee a lso ( 8 2 ) .

B ignor ( Sussex ) , Rm . 5 6.

A meda l l ion c en tra l i n a n o therw ise g eo-

metr ic mosa ic i n t he a pody ter iu m o f t he b a ths d ep ic ted t he h ead o f Medusa w i th f ace e ncircled b y a mop o f s ty l ized c ur ls f ro m wh ich i ssued wr i th ing s nakes . F our th c en t .

s i tu ., b ur ied ) .

L ysons , 1 817 a , 4 , P ls . XXV I-XXVI I I ; ( 4 1 )

T oynbee , 1 962 , N o. 1 89 , P l . 2 23.

Brad ing ( Han ts .) , Rm . 1 2 , P l . 6 .V .

A meda l l ion c en tra l i n a mos-

a ic o f f igured p ane ls d ep ic ts t he h ead o f Medusa w i th w ings , o n e i ther s ide a bove t he t e mp les , a s we l l a s wr i th ing s nakes .

F our th c en t . ( i n s i tu .)

For r efs . s ee ( 4 ) . S ee a lso ( 8 3 ) , ( 42)

( 108 ) , ( 1 15 ) ,

( 1 16) ,

( 1 17) ,

( 1 18 ) , ( 1 19 ) ,

Bra mdean ( Han ts .) , P l . 6 .V I Ia .

( 1 33 ).

An o ctagona l p ane l w i th in t wo i n ter-

l aced s quares a t t he c en tre o f t he mosa ic d ep ic t ing b us ts o f t he g ods o f t he d ays o f t he week , p or trayed a s ty l ized w inged h ead o f Medusa o f wh ich t he s nakes were a pparen t ly misunders tood a nd r endered a s d rooping , f ern-l ike l eaves . Four th c en t . ( Des troyed ). F or r e fs . s ee ( 15 ). ( 43 )

S ee a lso ( 32 ) ,

( 3 3 ) ,

( 3 6 ) ,

C irences ter , Dyer S t . ( 1849 , A ) .

( 4 6 ) ,

( 7 9 ) ,

P l . 6 .X I Ia .

( 98 ) ,

( 103) .

I n o ne o f t he i n ters t i t ia l

s paces o f t he mosa ic i s d ep ic ted t he h ead o f Medusa , t urned s l igh t ly t o h er r igh t . C . A . D. 2 00? ( Cor in iu m Mus . ) B yck ma—n a nd N ew march , 1 850 , 4 5 , P l . I ( o pp . p . 3 8 ) ; ( 3 ) . S ee a lso ( 6 ) , ( 1 7 ) , ( 36 ) , ( 86 ) , ( 9 7) . ( 44 )

C irences ter , D yer S t .

( 1849 , B ) .

F or o ther r efs . s ee

I n aq uadran t-shaped p ane l i n a n

a ng le o f t h is mosa ic i s d ep icted a r e la t ively r ea l is t ic w inged h ead o f Medusa , w i th r ed h air a nd a t ouch o f r ed i n t he w ings , wh i le t he s nakes ' t ongues a re

1 18

a lso p icked o u t i n r ed .

E ar ly t h ird c en t . ? ( Cor in ium Mus ) .

F or r efs . s ee ( 54 ). ( 45 )

Y ork , T of t Green .

F ragmen ts o f ah ead o f Medusa c an b e d iscerned

i n t he c en tra l s quare o f as quare p a t tern o f a l l-over meander i n t he c orners o f wh ich f our o ther s quares a re o ccup ied b y b us ts o f t he S easons . 2 70 ( pos thu mous c o in o f C laud ius I u nder t he mosa ic ).

A f ter A .D .

( The Y orksh ire

Museu m ). R . C. H .M . 1 962 , 5 7-58 , n o . 3 5 , f ig . 4 8 , P l . 2 4, a nd f ront isp iece ; T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 89 , P l . LX IV ,b .

S ee a lso ( 9 5 ).

MELPO MENE

( )

s ee ( 48 ).

MERCURY ( 46)

B ra m c lean ( Han ts .) , P l . 6 .V i la .

The b us t r epresen t ing t he f i f th d ay

o f t he week p or trayed Mercury a s d raped , w i th s tyl ized w ings a pparen t ly s pr ing ing f ro m h is h a ir a nd w i th a s tyl ized c aduceus u pr igh t a cross h is r igh t s hou lder .

F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ).

F or r efs . s ee ( 15 ) . ( 47)

S ee a lso ( 3 2 ) ,

( 3 3 ) ,

R uds ton ( Yorks .) , P l . 6 . XX IXa .

( 3 6) ,

( 42 ) ,

( 79 ) ,

( 98 ) ,

( 103) .

Ap oor ly e xecu ted b us t i n ap anel

f l ank ing t he Venus Mosa ic t akes t he f or m o f ah ead o n at runca ted c one wh ich r epresen ts t he n eck a nd s hou lders .

The e yes g lance s ide long t owards t he

s pecta tor 's l e f t a nd t h is s ide 0 1 t he f ace i s h eav i ly s haded ( sugges ted b y a p a in ting?) .

On t he h ead i s at r iangu lar o r c on ica l h a t w i th v eined l ea f-l ike

f ea tures a t tached t o e i ther s ide wh ich h ave b een i n terpre ted a s t he w ings o f Mercury 's p etasus .

P ro ject ing a t a n a ng le f ro m t he r igh t s hou lder i s ac aduceus .

T he b us t i s f l anked b y c rudely d epicted v ines i ssu ing f ro m d ebased c an thar i , o ne a t e i ther e nd o f t he p ane l . t he o ppos i te s ide o f t he mosa ic .

T here a ppears t o h ave b een a s im i lar p ane l o n F our th c en t .- ? t h ird q uar ter ( Mus . o f

T ranspor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ings ton u pon H u l l .) F or r e fs . s ee ( 107).

S ee a lso ( 1 00 ) .

MUSES ( 48 )

A ldborough ( Yorks .) , F ig . 6 .1, P l . 6 .1.

Af rag men tary a ps ida l

mosaic p reserved p ar ts o f f our o b long p ane ls i n ar ow , e v iden t ly o r ig ina l ly o f n ine p ane ls .

The p anel a t t he s in is ter e nd o f t he r ow p reserved a l l s ave t he

h ead a nd s hou lders a nd r igh t b reas t a nd a rm o f af igure , f acing t he a pse , f u l ly d raped i n ag ird led t un ic .

T he l e f t a r m was c rooked w i th t he h and r aised i n

f ron t o f t he b reas t t o h o ld o ne e nd o f a n o pen s cro ll , t he o ther e nd o f wh ich w i ll h ave b een h e ld b y t he miss ing r igh t h and . l e f t l eg were d epicted s tylized r ocks .

T he f eet were b are .

B es ide t he

Above t hese , a nd b enea th t he f igure 's

l e f t e lbow , was t he word ( H )EL ICON i n t wo r ows , e ach o f t hree G reek l e t ters i nt esserae o f b lue g lass .

N o th ing r e ma ined o f t he s ub jec ts o f t he t wo p anels

t o t he l e f t , b u t t he f our th p reserved t he l ower p ar t o f af igure , a lso f acing t he a pse , i n as tr iped a nk le-leng th r obe o r t un ic .

The f ee t were c oncea led e i ther

b eh ind t he h em o f a n u ndergar men t o r i n p oor ly r epresen ted b oots .

1 19

B oth f igures

a ppear t o h ave b een d ep icted a s s tand ing o n at h in s quared s lab . T he n a me o f M t . H e l icon , t he l egendary h o me o f t he Muses h ere d ep ic ted a s s ty l ized r ocks , a nd t he p u ta t ive n u mber o f p ane ls , t oge ther i nd ica te b eyond d oub t t ha t t hese p ar t ly p reserved f igures r epresen ted t wo o f t he n ine Muses . i den t i f ied b y h er o pen s cro l l a s C l io , t he Muse o f H is tory ;

T he f i rs t c an b e a nd i ft he f ee t o f

t he f igure i n t he f our th p ane l were a ctua l ly s hod s he c an b e i den t i f ied a s Me lpo mene , t he Muse o f T ragedy , who a lone o f t he Muses i s t rad i t iona l ly s peci f ied a s wear ing c o thurn i o r b usk ins .

T he p os i t ion o f C l io a s t he f irs t a nd

t ha t o f Me lpo mene a s t he f our th i n t he r ow o f n ine s ugges ts t ha t t he o rder , t hough r unn ing f ro m r igh t t o l e f t , was t ha t o f H es iod ( Theog . ,5 5 , 1 , 7 6ff .) , h i mse lf a n a t ive o f B oeo t ia i n wh ich Mt . H e l icon l i es .

I fs o , t he m iss ing f i g-

u res were , f ro m r igh t t o l e ft , t hose o f E u terpe t he Muse o f Lyr ic P oe try , T hal ia t he Muse o f C o medy , T erps ichore t he Muse o f C hora l D ance , E ra to t he Muse o f E ro t ic P oe try ,

P o lyhymn ia t he Muse o f P an to m i me , U ran ia t he Muse

o f As trono my , a nd C a l l iope t he Muse o f E p ic P oe try .

F our th c en t . ( L i s i tu .,

b u t h as d e ter iora ted i n r ecen t y ears .) Sm i th , 1 852 , 4 1-42 , P l . XVI I I ;

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 84-85 .

NA IADS ( 49 )

B ran t ingha m ( Yorks .) , P l . 6 .V il la .

E igh t s em ic ircu lar p ane ls a t t he

e nds o f t he ' spokes ' o f a n e igh t-spoked whee l d es ign e ach d ep ic ted a f e ma le f igu re r ec l in ing o n h er l e f t s ide w i th h er l e f t e lbow s uppor ted o n a n o ver turned v esse l , t he s y mbo l o f as pr ing .

T he r igh t h and , r es t ing o n t he s l igh t ly r a ised

r igh t k nee , h e ld a w i l lowy b ranch w i th l ong l eaves .

T he d rapery h ad s l ipped

f ro m t he u pper p ar t o f t he b ody a nd l ay a round t he l e f t f orear m , l eav ing o n ly t he l egs c overed . T he p ose , c os tu me , a nd a t tr ibu te a re c harac ter is t ic o f w a ter n y mphs . T he c en tra l o c tagona l p ane l o f t he d es ign d ep ic ted a t yche . F our th c en t . -? s econd q uar ter ( Mus . o f T ranspor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ings ton u pon Hu l l . ) F or r e fs . s ee ( 101 ) , ( 50 )

P itney ( So m .) , P l . 6 . XXV I I .

I n ad es ign o f e igh t t runca ted t r iangu-

l ar p ane ls r ad ia t ing f ro m a n o c tagona l p ane l , e ach o ccup ied b y af i gure , o ne o f t he t rapezoida l p ane ls d ep ic ted a p ar t ly d amaged b u t u ndoub ted ly f e ma le f igu re , d raped a round t he s hou lders , b ack , l egs , a nd f ee t , a nd s ea ted o n ac onv en t iona l ized r ock .

H er l e ft e lbow was r es t ing o n ar ounded f ea ture e v iden t ly

t he mou th o f a n o ver turned v esse l , wh ich s he w as h o ld ing w i th h er r igh t h and . T he l e f t f ore f inger a ppears t o h ave b een p o in t ing t owards h er mou th . f igure c an h ard ly h ave b een o ther t han t ha t o f a wa ter n y mph .

T he

F our th c en t .

( Des troyed ) . ( 5 1 ) T he c orrespond ing p ane l o n t he o ppos i te s ide o f t he s a me d es ign d ep icted a much more d a maged b u t c lear ly f e ma le f igure e v iden t ly s im i lar ly a t t ired a nd a lso s ea ted o n ac onven t iona l ized r ock .

H er r igh t h and h e ld t he mou th o f a n

o ver turned v esse l r es t ing o n t he r ock b y h er r igh t h ip , wh i le h er l e f t h and r a ised a p an-p ipe a bove t he s hou lder , a s i fa bou t t o p u t i tt o h er l i ps .

H er

f ee t were b are . A l though n o l i qu id f lowed f ro m t he v esse l t h is f igure l i kew ise c an h ard ly h ave b een o ther t han t ha t o f aw a ter n y mph . F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ) . T op . C o i ls ., S om . V o l :

c o l .l i thog . o f t he mosa ic b y S . Hase l l , 1 828 ; Co lt

H oare , T he P itney Pave men t . 1 831 ( repr . 1 832 ) ;

1 20

V .C .H . S om . I , 1 906,

3 27 , F ig . 8 4 ; ( 60 ) , ( 96 ) , ( 5 2 )

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 48-9 ;

( 1 13 ) ,

( 140 ) , ( 141 ) ,

( 1 42 ) ,

Sm i th , 1 969 , P l . 3 .3 .

S ee a lso

( 143 ) , ( 144) .

Woodches ter ( G los .) , Rm . 1 . P l . 6 . XXX I I .

I n e ach o f t he f our

s pandrels b e tween t he c en tra l c oncen tr ic c ircu lar d es ign o f t he Orpheus mosa ic a nd i ts p ane l led f ra me , o n e i ther s ide o f ac o lu mn-base , were t wo f e ma le f igures i n r ec l in ing o r f l oa t ing a t t i tudes . g rea ter p ar t o f t wo o thers s urvive ;

On ly o ne r e ma ins i n tac t , wh i le t he

t he r es t a re l arge ly o r e n t ire ly miss ing .

A pparen t ly a l l were e i ther n ude o r a t mos t n eg l igen t ly d raped , b u t a t l eas t t wo wore b usk ins .

The h a ir o f o ne f e l l i n waves o n e i ther s ide o f h er f ace f ro m a

t op-kno t s ecured b y a( ? ) c o mb s tr iped i n r ed a nd wh i te ; a nd t he h a ir o f a n.o ther was b rushed u p a nd o u t i n to a b a l l , h e ld i n p lace b y an e t o r c age o f p ear ls , w i th a t op-kno t s ecured , p erhaps , b y as tr iped c ord .

T he i n tac t f igure a nd

a no ther a l mos t i n tac t , f lank t he o n ly r e ma in ing c o lu mn-base .

T hese b o th

r es t t heir l e f t e lbows o n av ase , l y ing o n i t s s ide , f ro m wh ich wa ter f lows . A l l t he f igures were d ep icted a ga ins t ab lu ish b ackground , p resu mab ly r epres en t ing wa ter , r el ieved b y u ndu la t ing s tr ips o f y e l low , p robab ly i n tended t o l ook l i ke weed .

F our th c en t .

( L i s i tu ., b ur ied ) .

L ysons , 1 797 , P ls . V I I , V I I I , I , I X , X ; i b id ., 1 817 , p t . i , P ls . XXVI , XXVI I ; T oynbee , 1 962 , N o . 1 86 , P l . 2 22 ; i b id ., 1 964 , 2 73 ; Sm i th , 1 969 , P l . 3 .13 ; i b id ., 1 973 , 4 , i l lus tr . o n f ron t c over , P ls . 1 , 1 0 ; 1 7 , 2 0 .

S ee a lso ( 65 ) ,

R .C. H .M ., 1 976 , P ls .

( 78 ) .

NEPTUNE ( o r Oceanus?) An ude ma le f igure w i th w indb lown h a ir a nd b eard d om ina t ing a c o mpos it i on o f mar ine c rea tures i s i nvar iab ly d escr ibed a s N ep tune , o r ig ina l ly a n I t a l ian g od o f s pr ings a nd r ivers a nd e ven tua l ly t he g od o f t he ( Med i terranean ) s ea . S uch a f i gure n or ma l ly h as a s a n a t tr ibu te t he t r iden t o f P ose idon , w i th who m N ep tune b eca me i den t i f ied , a nd may a lso h ave a p a ir o f c lawl ike e xcresc ences p ro trud ing f ro m t he h a ir a bove t he t e mp les .

Ma le b us ts w i th w indb lown

h a ir a nd b eard a nd t hese a t tr ibu tes c an t hus b e i den ti f ied a s N ep tune .

T here

a re , h owever , ma le b us ts a nd masks w i th w indblown h a ir a nd b eard a nd c lawl i ke e xcrescences b u t n o t r iden t , a nd a lso b us ts a nd masks w i th w indb lown h a ir a nd b eard b u t n ei ther c lawl ike e xcrescences n or a t r iden t . S uch b us ts a nd masks a re c o m mon ly s a id t o b e o f O ceanus , o r o f ' Nep tune o r Oceanus ' , p oss ib ly b ecause t he a bsence o f at r iden t a ppears t o p rec lude i den t i f ica t ion w i th N ep tune. Y e t a mask w i th c lawl ike e xcrescences b u t w i thou t at r iden t was i den t i f ied a s ar epresen ta t ion o f N ep tune i n at esse l la ted i nscr ip t ion i n a mosa ic o f Fra mp ton ( 57) .

I n a no ther mosa ic a t F ra mpton a ma le b us t w i th w ind-

b lown h a ir a nd b eard was d ep ic ted w i th t wo t h in l ines c urv ing d ownward o n e i ther s ide f ro m t he t op o f t he h ead ( 5 8 ) . A t f irs t s igh t t hese a re r em in iscen t o f t he c onven t iona l ized f lags ( r eeds ) o f ten p ro trud ing f ro m t he h a ir o f r iver g ods a nd n a iads , b u t t hey c ou ld b e t he s ty l ized l egs o f ac rab . l y s o i n t he c ase o f a ma le b us t f ro m H e mswor th ( 59 ) . mosa ic o f V ienne i s p ar t icu lar ly i ns truc t ive .

T h is i s c er ta in-

H ere a b lack a nd wh i te

T h is d ep ic ts , r ea l is t ica l ly , a

mask w i th w indblown h a ir a nd b eard , ac rab 's l egs p ro trud ing f ro m t he h a ir o n e i ther s ide o f t he f ace a nd i t s c laws f ro m t he h a ir a bove t he t e mp les : ( Lafaye , 1 909, n o . 1 85 ) .

I ti s a s t hough t he mask h as b een s uper i mposed o n a

c rab 's b ody , l eav ing t he l egs p ro trud ing . 1 21

G iven t he o bv ious d er iva t ion o f t h is

mosa ic f ro m t he b lack a nd wh i te mar ine mosa ics o f I t a ly, a nd p ar t icu lar ly o f Os t ia , i t s ee ms r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t t h is mask r epresen ts N ep tune , n ot Oceanus .

I t may b e r eca l led t ha t N ep tune w as a b ene f icen t a nd p opu lar d e i ty ,

wh i le Oceanus was a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s ou l 's v oyage t o t he B lessed I s les , a nd w i th o ther mys ter ies a s we l l a s w i th d ea th a nd t he h erea f ter , a nd a ppears t o h ave b een l i t t le worsh ipped :

c f A rch . A e l ., 5 th S er ., I V , 1 976 , 1 71-3 .

T here

s ee m , t here fore , g rounds f or s ugges t ing t ha t ab us t o r mask o f a n a qua t ic d ei t y w i thou t at r iden t was n ever the less a l mos t c er ta in ly i n tended t o r epresen t n o t Oceanus , e xcep t i n f unerary c on tex ts , b u t N ep tune . I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t N ep tune was u nequ ivoca l ly r epresen ted a s af u l ll eng th f igure i n at h ird mosa ic a t F ra mp ton ( 5 6 ) , a nd t ha t t h is s i te l i es i n wa ter- meadows n ot f ar f ro m t he s ource o f t he a queduc t o f Dorches ter-Durnov ar ia . ( 53 )

C irences ter , Ashcro f t V i l las , P l . 6 .X a .

H ere was p or trayed N ep tune ,

i den t i f iab le b y t he t r iden t a ppear ing a t a n a ng le f ro m b eh ind t he r igh t s ide o f h is h ead , a s a n impress ive b us t w i th d ign i f ied f ea tures a nd f low ing h a ir a nd b eard , t he l a t ter e nr iched b y b lue-green t esserae o f g lass . e d s ea- mons ters f aced t he b us t o n e i ther s ide .

D o lph ins a nd w ing-

F our th c en t . ( s i tu ., b ur ied ).

P ho tograph i n t he H aver f ie ld C o l l ., Ash mo lean Mus ., Ox ford ; 1 920 , 1 76 , N o . 2 0 ; ( 5 4 )

A rch . LX IX ,

R a iney , 1 973 , P l . 8 ,A .

C irences ter , D yer S t . ( 1849 , B ) .

One o f t he f our i n ters t i t ia l p ane ls

d ep ic ts a ma le mask . T he u pper h a l f i s f ramed b y ac orone t w i th l arge a cornl ike p ro tuberances a t t he t op a nd a bove t he t e mp les , sma l l r ounded p ro trubera nces b e tween t hese a nd o ppos i te t he t e mp les , a nd c ur l ing t endr i ls s pr ing ing f ro m i ta bove t he t e mp les .

The c orone t i s d rawn i n o n e i ther s ide t o t ouch t he

c heeks a nd t hen , s prou t ing f o l iage , e nds b y t urn ing o u tward . f ir m ly a t t he s pec ta tor .

T he mou th i s sma l l , w i th t h ick l i ps .

T he e yes g aze T he c heeks a nd

c h in d isso lve i n to a b eard o f o ver lapp ing a nd t w is t ing b lue l eaves .

The u pper

p ar t o f a n a pparen t ly i den t ica l h ead i s p reserved i n a no ther o f t he i n ters t i t ia l p anels .

Presu mab ly , t herefore , t here w ere o r ig ina l ly t wo more i n t he o ther

t wo i n ters t i t ia l p ane ls .

These a re n ow o ccup ied b y af l ower a nd a g u i l loche ma t

s urrounded b y p e l tae b u t t here i s r eason t o t h ink t ha t p ar t o f t he mosa ic , i nc lud ing t hese , was r e- made i n a n t iqu i ty .

A l though l ack ing u nequ ivoca l a t tr i-

b u tes t hese masks c an b e s a id t o r eca l l , i n g enera l c haracter , h eads a nd masks o f N ep tune , a nd t hey h ave i n f ac t b een d escr ibed a s s uch . i n a mosa ic o f c . 1 30 a t Os t ia : p oss ia mo d ire O ceano .'

B eca t t i 1 961 , N o . 2 28 , P l . LXVI I I , ' che

? Th ird c en t .

( Cor in ium Mus . ) .

Buck man a nd N ew march , 1 850 , 3 6 , P l . V I ; 2 80 , P l . CXX , 2 ; ( 55 )

C f . t he masks

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 69 ;

N ea l 1 976 , 2 47-48 , F ig . 3 84 .

Sm i th , 1 975 ,

S ee a lso ( 4 4 ) .

D orches ter ( Dorse t ) , F ord ing ton H igh S tree t .

P l . 6 .X I I I ) .

C en tra l ly

p laced i n a n a ps ida l p ane l i s a mask o f a n a qua t ic d e i ty , l ack ing d is tinc t ive a t tr ibu tes b u t w i th t he c harac ter is t ic a spec t o f masks o f N ep tune a nd w i th a d o lph in a nd a f ish o n e i ther s ide .

T he f ea tures a re n o t we ll d rawn , t he n ose

a nd i ndeed t he e n t ire f ace b eing t oo l ong .

T he e yes g lance t o t he g od 's r igh t

a nd t he mask i t se l f i s s l igh t ly t urned i n t he s a me d irec t ion .

F ram ing t he d o med

f orehead i s ab and f ro m wh ich f l oa t c lus ters o f l eaves ( s eaweed?) , wh i le f ro m al ea fy e xcrescence a t t he t op o f t he b and t wo l ong l eaves c urve o u twards t o

1 22

d roop o n e i ther s ide .

More l eaves ( or s eaweed?) f or m s ide-wh iskers , a

moustach io , a nd a b eard wh ich i s d rawn o u t i n to a t a i l r e-curv ing a nd f ork ing i n to l eaves o n e ither s ide. J .R .S . XVI I , 1 927, 2 07, 2 50 ;

? Ear ly t h ird c en t .

( Dorset C oun ty Mus . ) .

An t . J . V II I , 1 928 , 2 37-38 , P l . XLL I I ;

T oynbee , 1 964 ,

Sm i th , 1 975 , 2 83-84 , P l . CXXV I , 1 . ( 56)

F ra mpton ( Dorse t ) , Mosa ic A , P l . 6 .X I IIb .

A s quare p ane l d ep icted

N eptune f ron ta l ly b u t w i th h ead t urned t o h is r igh t a nd h is r igh t l eg a dvanced i n t he s a me d irect ion .

T he g od was n ude s ave f or a c loak s w ir ling a bove h is l e f t

u pper a rm , wh ich was a k i mbo , a nd f a l l ing b eh ind h im . h e ld a n i nver ted t r iden t n ear t he e nd o f i t s s ha f t .

H is r igh t h and , r a ised ,

Below t he t r iden t a sma l l

w inged s ea- monster r a ised i t s r igh t f orepaw t o c aress t he g od 's r igh t k nee . T he c rab 's c laws wh ich c harac ter is t ica l ly , t hough n o t i nvar iably , p rotrude f ro m b o th s ides o f t he g od 's h ead were a pparen t ly a bsen t h ere , p erhaps b ecause t he h ead was i np rofi le :

b u t c f ( 60 ) .

F or r e fs . s ee ( 37).

S ee a lso ( 1 10 ) ,

( 57)

Four th c en t . ( Des troyed ). ( 1 36 ).

F ra mpton ( Dorse t ) , Mosa ic B , P l . 6 .X IVa .

A mask , c en tra l i n t he

b order o n o ne s ide o f t he mosa ic , was i den t i f ied i n a n a cco mpanying t essel la ted i nscr ipt ion a s Neptune , ' cu i c eru lea e s ( t ( f rons ) ) ' . h ave r ese mb led r ed l eaves ( seaweed?) .

The g od 's h a ir a ppears t o

Two c onven t iona lized c rab 's c laws

p rotruded f ro m i t , o ne o n e i ther s ide a bove t he t e mples .

R ed a nd y e l low l ocks

f e l l t h ick ly o n e ither s ide o f h is f ace a nd h e h ad a l arge s pread ing b eard l ooki ng l ike o ver lapping l eaves o f y e l low a nd b lue , r ed a na b lue , a nd r ed , b lue a nd y e l low .

Two d olph ins were d ep icted a s s wi m m ing o u t o f h is mou th , o ne t o t he

r igh t a nd t he o ther t o t he l e f t , t he ir t a i ls b eing s t i l l i ns ide .

F our th c en t .

( Destroyed ) . F or r efs . s ee ( 17). ( 58 )

S ee a lso ( 6 ) ,

( 12 ) ,

( 121) ,

( 1 34 ) ,

F ra mpton ( Dorse t ) . Mosaic D , P l . 6 . XVc.

( 1 35 ) . A c en tra l o ctagona l

p anel p or trayed a ma le b us t , d a maged a t t op a nd b ot to m .

H is b lue a nd y e l low

h a ir f el l i n c ur ls o n e i ther s ide o f h is f ace a nd o n t o h is s hou lders , wh i le s idewh iskers c ur led t owards h is c h in .

F ro m t he h a ir a t t he t op o f t he h ead t wo

t h in r ed l i nes c urved s l igh t ly d ownward t o e i ther s ide , s ugges ting t he s ty l ized r eeds wh ich a re among t he a t tr ibu tes o f a qua t ic d ei t ies .

The i den ti f ica t ion o f

t h is bus t a s t hat o f N eptune i s s uppor ted b y t he p erson i f ica tions o f t he w inds i n f our o ther o c tagona l p anels a nd b y t he t en r epresen ta t ions o f d olph ins i n s ubo rd ina te p ane ls .

F ourth c en t . ( Des troyed ).

L ysons , 1 813 , p t . i i , 4 , P l . V I I ;

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 52 ;

Sm i th , 1 969 , P l . 3 .28 .

S ee a lso ( 1 11) . ( 59 )

H e mswor th ( Dorse t ). P l . 6 . XV I la .

w i th n ude s hou lders .

A meda l lion d epicts a ma le b us t

The h a ir i s a mass o f l ocks a nd f ro m i t , o n e i ther s ide ,

p ro ject t hree f eatures i n t he f or m o f a n i nver ted V . c rab 's l egs , a ttr ibu tes o f N ep tune :

c f ( 5 7) .

These a re h igh ly s tyl ized

T he h ead i s t urned s l igh t ly t o t he

r igh t a nd t he e yes g lance f ur ther t o t he r igh t .

A mous tache c urves r ound t he

mou th t o j o in a b eard c ur led i n to o pposed s pira ls o n t he c h in .

F our th c ent .

( Dorset C oun ty Mus . ) . P .D .N .H .A .S . XXX 1 909 , 6 , P l . o pp . p . 1 2 ;

1 23

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 52 , P l . L IX ,a .

( 60 )

P i tney ( S om .) , P l . 6 . XXV I I .

One o f e igh t p anels r ad ia t ing f ro m a

c en tra l o c tagona l p ane l d ep ic ted a b earded ma le f igure moving t o h is r igh t , n ude s ave f or b usk ins a nd a c loak b i l low ing b eh ind h im .

Fro m h is h ead , f ac ing

i n t he d irec t ion o f h is move men t , p ro trude t wo h ornl ike f ea tures , d iv ided a t t he e nd , wh ich c an b e r ecogn ized a s c rab 's c laws .

T he r igh t h and i s r a ised

a nd t he h and e x tended a nd o pen . T he l e f t h o lds a l ong s ta f f t opped b y t hree d im inu t ive p rongs . F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ) . For r e fs . s ee ( 50-51) . ( 6 1)

S ee a lso ( 9 6 ) , ( 1 13 ) , ( 1 40 ) ,

Ruds ton ( Yorks .) , P l . 6 . XXV I I Ia .

( 1 41 ) ,

( 142 ) , ( 1 43 ) ,

( 1 44 ) .

Af rag men tary mosa ic d ep ic t ing

a qua t ic c rea tures p reserved p ar t o f ac en tra l mo t i f w i th p ro jec t ions f ro m t he s ide i n t he f or m o f a n i nver ted L .

T hese h ave b een i n terpre ted a s e i ther

s tyl ized c rab 's l egs o r s ty l ized r eeds . d e i ty , p robab ly N ep tune .

S uch a t tr ibu tes i nd ica te a n a qua t ic

F our th c en t? -t h ird q uar ter . ( Mus . o f T ranspor t

a nd Archaeo logy , K ings ton u pon Hu l l ) . T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 87; ( 6 2 )

Sm i th , 1 976 , 1 5-16 , P l . V I ;

S tones f ie ld ( Ox fords ) .

i b id ., f or thco m ing .

T he d ebased a can thus s crol l e nc irc l ing t he

meda l l ion d ep ic t ing B acchus i ssued f ro m a c onven t iona l ized mask .

Above t he

l e f t t e mp le was a b i furca ted e xcrescence wh ich c an b e i n terpre ted a s ac rab 's c law , a nd a l though n o c orrespond ing f ea ture i s r ecorded a bove t he r igh t t e mp le t h is s u f f ices t o i den t i fy t he mask a s o f N ep tune .

The i den t ifica t ion i s s uppor ted

b y t he r epresen ta t ion o f t he b eard , f l ow ing t o r igh t a nd l e f t f ro m c heeks t o c h in a nd f or med o f s tr ipes o f b lue a nd wh i te o bv ious ly s ugges t ing s trea ms o f wa ter . F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ) . For r e fs . s ee ( 9 ) . ( 6 3 )

Veru la m iu m ,

( I ns . T V , H o . 8 , Rm . 4 , P l . 6 . XXXI I " .

As quare p ane l

d ep ic ts t he h ead a nd n ude s hou lders o f a mous tached a nd b earded b us t w i th v enerab le f ea tures a nd w indb lown h a ir .

Two h ornl ike f ea tures emerge f ro m

t he h a ir , c urv ing u pward o n t he u nders ide wh i le t he o ther s ide a nd t he e nd a re s ca l loped .

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t hese r epresen t t he c onven t iona l ized

a n t lers o f as tag a nd t ha t t he b us t th ere fore d ep ic ts a C e l t ic d e i ty s uch a s C ernunnos , mean ing ' t he h orned o ne .'

Bu t n o C e l t ic d e i ty i s r epresen ted i n

a ny k nown R o man mosa ic , a nd t hese ' horns ' c an u ndoub ted ly b e r ecogn ized a s c onven t iona l ized c rab 's c laws , a t tr ibu tes o f N ep tune . The g od 's e yes g aze u pward a nd t o h is r igh t , a nd t he h ead i t se l f i s s l igh t ly t urned i n t he s a me d irec t ion . c . A. D. 1 60-90.

( Veru lam iu m Mus.).

Whee ler , 1 936 , 1 46 , N o . 8 , P ls . XLI , XLV , A ; Arch . A e l ., 4 th S er ., XXX IX , 1 961 , 7 0 ;

J . B. A .A . XVI I I , 1 955 , 1 5 ;

T oyn bee , 1 962 , No. 1 78 , P l . 2 07 ;

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 75-76. ( 64 ) Wi th ing ton ( G los .) , P l . 6 .X ) (X lb . L e f t o f c en tre i n a n o b long p ane l i s an ude ma le b us t . F ro m t he t e mp les p rotrude t wo l arge c rab 's c laws , t o b o th o f wh ich a n e x tra c law h as b een a dded .

T he e yes g aze a t t he s pecta tor .

T he mous tache i s c ur led i n to a s p ira l a t b o th e nds wh i le t he b eard h angs l ank a nd l ong . At r iden t c ross ing t he g od 's c hes t a nd r igh t s hou lder a t a n a ng le wou ld e v iden t ly h ave b een h e ld i n h is r igh t h and b u t f or t he t runca t ion o f t he b us t .

A cross t he b o t to m o f t he b us t r uns a n arrow c hequered b and .

s ide o f t he g od 's h ead i s ar ose t te o f e igh t p e ta ls ( j e l ly f ish?).

1 24

T o e i ther

Two d o lph ins

s w im i n o ppos ite d irec t ions o u t o f h is mou th , t he ir t a i ls s t i l l i ns ide , a nd t wo more b e low t hese s w im t owards h im , o ne o n e i ther s ide.

T o h is l e f t a re t wo

l ive ly c apr icorns , o ne s po t ted , a nd a t e i ther e nd o f t he p ane l i s ac onven t iona l ized t ree .

F our th c en t . ( Bri t . Mus . ) .

Lysons , 1 817, p t . i , P l. XX ; 1 964 , 2 71-72 ; 1 976 , P l . 1 5 . ( 6 5 )

l inks , 1 933 , 1 13 , N o . 3 7d , F ig . 1 28 ;

Sm i th , 1 965 , 1 07, F ig . 1 1;

i b id ., 1 969 , P l . 3 .11;

T oynbee ,

R .C. H . M.

S ee a lso ( 7 7) .

Woodches ter ( G los .) , Rm . 1 , P l . 6 . XXX I Ia .

The d ebased a can thus

s cro l l e ncirc l ing t he Orpheus mosa ic i ssues f ro m a n a x ia l mask , p ar t ly d es troyed , f acing t he p resu mable e n trance t o t he g rea t h a l l .

Fro m t he h ead p ro trude t wo

r ed f ea tures r ecogn izab le a s s ty l ized c rab 's c laws .

L arge e yes g aze a t t he

s pec ta tor f ro m a f u l l f ace s urrounded b y waves o f h a ir e xcep t where i n terrup ted b y af l ow ing moustache o f a lterna t ing b lue a nd wh i te s tr ipes :

c f ( 62 ) .

F our th

c en t . ( 1 . 2 2 s i tu ., b ur ied ) . L ysons , 1 797 , P l. V I I ; 1 86 , P l. 2 22 ;

i bid ., 1 817 , p t . i . P l . XXVI ;

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 73 , P l . LXI I b ;

1 973 , 3 , P ls . 1 , 1 1;

T oynbee , 1 962 , No .

Sm i th , 1 969 , P l . 3 .13 ;

R .C .H . M., 1 976 , P l . 1 7.

S ee a lso ( 5 2) ,

i b id .,

( 78 ) .

NEREIDS ( 6 6 )

C irences ter , D yer S t . ( 1 783 ) .

R e ma ins o f a mosa ic d ep ic t ing a qua t ic

c rea tures p reserved a lso p ar t o f af e ma le f igure , d raped a bou t t he l egs , s ea ted s ideways o n t he b ack o f ad o lph in o r s ea- mons ter . t ha t o f an ere id .

F or r efs . s ee ( 2 1). ( 6 7)

T he f igure was u ndoub ted ly

?L a te s econd o r e ar ly t h ird c en t . ( Par t s t i l l i n s i tu?) F or n ere ids e lsewhere s ee ( 2 3) ,

H ors tow ( L incs .). P l . 6 . XV I II.

( 68 ) ,

( 1 33) .

T he o u ter z one o f ac oncen tr ic

c ircu lar d es ign s uppor ted b y G ian ts d ep icted mar ine f igures a ga ins t ar ed g round .

O f t hose wh ich r e ma ined , o ne was a ( ?) s ea-cow b ear ing o n i ts b ack

t wo h a l f-draped f igures , a pparen t ly f e ma le .

One , w i th h er b ack a ga ins t t he

n eck o f t he ( ? ) s ea-cow , was c over ing h er f ace w i th h er r igh t h and , s uppor t ing t he r ight a rm w ith t he l e f t .

T he o ther , f acing t he s pec ta tor a nd e x tend ing t he

l e f t h and t o h er r ight s hou lder , was b ear ing i n h er r igh t h and a k nobbed r od o r wand ,

T o h er r ight , b eh ind t he ( ?) s ea-cow 's b ody a ppeared a w inged c upid ,

f ac ing t he s pectator .

Ano ther g roup c o mpr ised a f igure h a l f f e ma le a nd h a lf

c onvo lu ted f i sh , w i th b oth h ands f orward t o h o ld t he e dge o f av ei l o r c loak b i l low ing a round h er , a nd a no ther f e ma le , n ude , r id ing o n h er f ishes b ack a nd e x tend ing h er l e f t h and t o h o ld t he e dge o f t he v e i l a bove t he o ther 's h ead . t he r igh t aw inged c up id was s w im m ing t owards t he m .

T o

At h ird g roup a ppears

t o h ave b een s im i lar t o t he l as t , a nd t here r e ma ined t wo c upids o f af our th g roup a nd a f ish-ta i l o f a nother .

T here were e v iden t ly e igh t g roups i n a l l .

F ourth

c en t . ( For mer ly Br i t . Mus ., n ow Mus . o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ings ton u pon Hu l l ). F or r e fs . s ee ( 23 ).

S ee a lso ( 3 0 ), ( 1 22 ) .

ORPHEUS ( 68 )

Brad ing ( I . o f W.) Rm . 1 2 , P l . 6 .V Ia .

Ad a maged meda l l ion d ep icts

a ma le f igure i n a Phryg ian c ap , t un ic , b reeches a nd c loak , i n as i t t ing p os i t ion . 1 25

On h is l e f t t h igh r es ts a l yre , s tead ied a t t he t op b y h is l e f t h and , wh i le t he r igh t h and a pproaches t o p luck t he s tr ings .

T o h is r igh t i s ab lack b ird w i th

c res t a nd r ed b eak a nd , a bove t h is , as ea ted monkey w i th a r ed c ap .

T o h is

l e f t , a bove t he l yre , i s a sma l ler , g rey b ird w i th r ed b eak a nd b y h is l e f t k nee i s af ox w i th i t s muzz le r a ised t owards t he l yre . A l l t hese c rea tures f ace t he c en tra l f igure. B e low t he f ox was a no ther c rea ture , a l mos t e n t ire ly d es troyed . The s cene i s Orpheus s ubdu ing n a ture t hrough h is e nchan t ing v o ice .

I n t he a ng les

o f t he c on ta in ing s quare were h eads o f t he S easons , c rude ly d rawn .

F our th

c en t . ( L i s i tu .) . P r ice , 1 881 , p p . 9 -10 , P l . 9( co l . l i thog . ) ; V . C .H . H an ts . a nd I . o f W . i , 1 900 , 3 14 ; . ( 69 )

T oynbee , 1 962 , N o . 1 95 , P l . 2 32 ;

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 55-56.

C irencester , Bar ton Farm , P l. 6 .Xb , X Ia.

A meda l l ion e nc irc led b y a

p rocess ion o f b irds , wh ich i n t urn i s e nc irc led b y ap rocess ion o f a n i ma ls , d epic ts Orpheus i n as i t t ing p os ture , h is l e f t k nee h a l f r a ised a nd s uppor t ing h is l yre .

T he s inger 's h ead i s t urned s l igh t ly t o h is r igh t .

H e i s a t t ired i n

ar ed P hyg ian c ap , o rna men ted w i th t hree sma l l s tars , as tr iped t un ic ,

b e l t ,

b reeches , a nd s tock ings o r l ong , c losef i t t ing b oots , wh i le a s tr iped c loak b lows o u t t o h is r igh t . s tr ings o f t he l yre .

H is r igh t h and r eaches a cross h is c hes t a nd p lucks t he

T he l e f t h and i s m iss ing .

T o h is l e f t af ox i s d ep ic ted a s

i f mov ing a round t he r im o f t he meda l l ion w i th i t s b ack t o t he s inger .

F our th

c en t . ( Cor in iu m Mus . ) . Buck man a nd N ew march , 1 850 , p p . 3 2-34 , P l . V I I ; P l . 2 21 ;

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 68 , P l . LX I a ;

T oynbee , 1 962 , N o . 1 85 ,

i b id ., 1 968 , 1 88-9 , P l . 6 ;

R .C. H . M.

1 976 , P l . 1 . ( 70 )

C irences ter D yer S t . ( 1820 ) P l . 6 .X 1b .

I n a meda l l ion e nc irc led b y

ap rocess ion o f b irds , wh ich i n t urn was e nc irc led b y ap rocess ion o f a n i ma ls , were d ep ic ted t wo f igures , o ne a bove t he o ther . i den t i ty o f t he o ther i s p rob le ma t ica l :

T he l ower was Orpheus .

T he

i ta ppears t o h ave h ad a h u man h ead ,

w i th a c on ica l c ap , t he b ody a nd t a i l o f ab ird , c onvo lu ted l egs w i th t a i ls o f f ish i ns tead o f f ee t , a nd h u man a r ms , t he r igh t b rand ish ing a s pear , t he l e f t a n ( ? ) a xe .

T o t he r igh t aq uadruped was d ep ic ted mov ing a round t he r im o f

t he meda l l ion t owards Orpheus , w i th i t s b ack t o t he f igures , wh i le t o t he l e f t a no ther q uadruped l eapt u p t he r im o f t he meda l lion away f ro m O rpheus .

T he

d escr ip t ion e n t ire ly d epends , h owever , o n as ke tch p ub l ished f or ty-six y ears a f ter t he d iscovery o f t he mosa ic .

F our th c en t . ( Des troyed ) .

Beecha m , 1 886 , 2 67 , P l. o pp . p . 2 66 ; 1 07-08, F ig . 1 2.

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 68-69 ;

Sm ith , 1 965 ,

( 7 1 ) H ors tow ( L incs .) . I n af ragmen tary meda l lion a t t he c en tre o f ad es ign i n t he f or m o f a n e igh t-spoked whee l , w i th a n i ma ls a nd b irds i n r eg is ters b e tween t he ' spokes ' , O rpheus was d ep ic ted i n c onven t iona l b u t u nsoph is t ica ted t er ms .

H is h ead was t urned s l igh t ly t owards h is r igh t , where s urv ived p ar t

o f t he b ody a nd t he s lender n eck o f ab ird -p resu mab ly a p eacock : w i th h ead t urned t owards t he s inger .

c f ( 7 8 ) -

T o h is l e f t was p reserved t he h ead a nd

p ar t o f t he b ody , w i th t he f ore legs , o f af oxl ike c rea ture , mov ing a round t he meda l l ion w i th i t s b ack t o Orpheus b u t h ead t urned t owards h is l yre . F our th c en t .

( Meda l l ion d es troyed ;

C . m id-

o ther f rags . o f t he mosa ic f or merly i n

Br i t . Mus ., n ow i n Mus . o f T ranspor t a nd A rchaeo logy , K ings ton u pon H u l l .)

1 26

F ow ler , 1 796-1818, n o. 2 ;

L ysons , 1 813, p t . i , 2 , p l. I I :

n o. 3 6;

Toynbee, 1 964 , 2 80 ;

p l. X E.

S ee a lso ( 23 ), ( 30 ), ( 6 8 ), ( 122 ).

( 72 )

Sm ith , 1 965 , 9 8, f ig . 1 ;

L it t lecote P ark ( W i l ts.).

P l. 6 .XX Ia.

H inks , 1 933, 1 01,

i b id., 1 976 , 2 5-26 ,

I n a meda l l ion a t t he c en tre

o f ad es ign o f af our-spoked w hee l , w ith a f e ma le f igure moun ted o n a n a n i ma l i n e ach o f t he f our p ane ls b e tween t he ' spokes ', Orpheus was d ep icted a pparen t ly i n c onven t iona l t erms.

Four th c en t.

a l s i tu , b ur ied ).

F or r efs s ee ( 139 ). ( 73)

N ew ton S t . L oe ( So m.). P l. 6. XXV Ia.

A meda l l ion e nc irc led b y a

z one o rna men ted w ith a n i ma ls d ep icted Orpheus , i n as i t t ing p osture , a t t ired i n a Phryg ian c ap , g ird led t un ic , b usk ins, a nd c loak . b usk ins t he l egs were a pparen t ly b are.

B etween t un ic a nd

H is l ef t a rm was o bscured b y al arge

l yre , p resu mably s uppor ted b y h is l ef t h and , t hough t hat a lso was n o t s een . H is r ight a rm c rossed h is c hest w ith t he h and p laced t o t he l yre a nd f oref inger p luck ing t he s tr ings.

To h is l e f t was a d og , s tand ing o n i t s h ind l egs a nd h elp ing

t o s uppor t t he l yre b etween i t s f orepaws.

( ? e ar ly ) Four th c en t.

( Br isto l C ity

Mus., i n f rags.) Co l. t rac ing , made a t t he t ime o f d iscovery , i n Br isto l c i ty Mus.: XXV I, 1 936 , 4 3-46, p ls. V I I-IX ; f ig . 1 0 ; ( 74 )

Toynbee, 1 964 , 2 47-48;

J . R.S.

Sm ith , 1 965, 1 07 ,

i b id., 1 969 , p l. 3 .10. P it Meads ( W ilts.).

A f ragmen t o f ac ircu lar p ane l i n as quare mosa ic

h ad p reserved n ear t he p er i meter o f t he c irc le, wha t a ppears t o h ave b een t he h ind l egs o f aq uadruped a nd , f ur ther r ound t he p er i meter , as uggest ion o f s o me f orm o f v ege tat ion.

I ti s d if f icu l t n ot t o s ee h ere t he r e ma ins o f at yp ica l ly

Ro mano-Br it ish c oncen tr ic c ircu lar d es ign d ep ict ing Orpheus i n a meda l l ion e nc ircled b y a n i ma ls , s uch a s t hose o f N ew ton S t . L oe ( 73 ) a nd With ing ton ( 77 ). I ts ee ms i mprobab le t hat t he d es ign a t P it Meads c ou ld h ave i ncorporated a s i n t he o ther Ro mano-Br it ish Orpheus mosa ics a p rocess ion o f b irds i n az one b etween t he meda l l ion a nd t ha t o f t he a n i ma ls. Co l tHoare , 1 821, p l. o pp. p . 13, f ig . 4 ;

Four th c en t .

( Destroyed.)

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 54 ;

Sm ith , 1 965 ,

1 08, f ig . 1 3. ( 75 )

What ley ( So m.).

P l . 6 .XXXb.

Rema ins o f as quare mosa ic p reserved

e v idence f or a c en tra l s quare p ane l w ith a b order c o mpr is ing t wo c on fron ted a n i ma ls s eparated b y at ree o n e ach s ide a nd a t ree l y ing a cross e ach a ng le. O f t he c en tra l s quare t here s urv ived o n ly a s uggest ion o f af l ower o r f o l iage i n o ne c orner , b ut o f t he a n i ma ls t here r e ma ined , i n who le o r i n p ar t , al i on c on fron t ing a s tag , ab ear o r af e l ine c on fron t ing a n e lephan t , a nd t wo o thers o f wh ich o ne h ad a h ead w ith d roop ing wh iskers a nd a lso a pparen t ly p ar t o f a w ing s uggest ing , p erhaps , ag r if f in . amph ithea tre.

These a re n ot s cenes f ro m a h un t o r t he

They i nv ite c o mpar ison w ith t he s che me i n tended t o c o mpr ise

f our p a irs o f c on fron ted a n i ma ls s epara ted b y t rees wh ich e nc irc les t he meda ll i on d ep ict ing Orpheus f rom N ew ton S t . L oe ( 73 ), o n ly t en m iles away .

I t

s ee ms h igh ly p robab le , t herefore , t hat Orpheus w as t he s ub ject o f t he c en tra l p anel a t What ley .

F our th c en t .

( Destroyed? )

Con te mp. c o l. l i thog . f rom dwg . b y J . H i l l o f What ley , p ub l ished b y B edford 's L ithography , Br is to l ( copy i n S o merset Coun ty Mus.); I , 1 906, p . 3 17, f ig . 7 7 ;

T oynbee , 1 964, 2 49. 1 27

S ee a lso ( 102 ).

V .C.H. S o m.

( 76 ) Win ter ton ( L incs.), mosa ic A .

I n a n o ctagona l p ane l a t t he c en tre o f

ad es ign i n t he f orm o f a n e igh t-spoked w hee l , w ith a n a n i ma l i n e ach o f t he p ane ls b etween t he s pokes, was d ep icted Orpheus.

Accord ing t o a n e ngrav ing

made a t t he t ime o f d iscovery i n 1 753 t he l yre was l arge a nd Orpheus w as a c tua l ly d ep ic ted a s s i t t ing i ns ide i t s f rame.

Recen t r e-excavat ion h as r e-

v ea led b oth t hat t he s urv iv ing f igures w ere r e markab ly c rude a nd t ha t t he e ngrav ing i s af ar f ro m a dequate r ecord .

The f igure o f Orpheus i s l ost a nd

c anno t s afe ly b e d escr ibed f ro m t he e ngrav ing ;

b u t i ts ee ms p oss ib le t hat t he

d ispropor t ionate l yre may h ave b een a m isrender ing o f ab i l low ing c loak . c . A .D. 3 50.

( Meda l l ion d estroyed.)

Sm ith , 1 976a , 2 59-60 , p ls. XV I , XV I I , XX IV. ( 77 ) With ing ton ( Glos.).

P l. 6 .200( Ib .

A d a maged meda l l ion e nc ircled

b y ap rocess ion o f a n i ma ls p reserved s uf f ic ien t t o s how t hat i th ad d ep icted Orpheus i n as i t t ing p osture , a t t ired i n t un ic , b reeches , b usk ins a nd a b il lowi ng c loak , w ith h is l ef t k nee r a ised , a nd s uppor t ing a l yre.

H is l ef t h and c ou ld

b e s een s teady ing t he l yre f ro m b eh ind , a nd t he f ingers o f t he r ight h and w ere o n t he s tr ings.

To h is l ef t ad og r eared u p o n i t s h ind l egs , i t s muzzle c lose

t o t he l yre a nd i t s f orepaws a ctua l ly t ouch ing i t .

( Meda l l ion d estroyed?

O ther

f rags. i n Br it . Mus.) Four th c en t . Lysons , 1 817, p t . i , p l. ) 0 ( ; 2 72 ;

Sm ith , 1 965 , 1 07 , f ig . 1 1;

( 78 )

H inks , 1 933, 11, n o. 3 7 ; i b id., 1 969, p l. 3 .11.

Woodchester ( G los ). Rm. 1 .

P l . 6 .200 Ma .

Toynbee , 1 964 ,

S ee a lso ( 64 ).

I n ad es ign c o mpr is ing

ac en tra l o c tagona l p anel , s a id t o h ave d ep ic ted ' f ish ', e nc irc led b y ap rocess ion o f b irds, wh ich i n t urn w as e nc irc led b y ap rocess ion o f a n i ma ls , Orpheus w as d ep icted i n t he p rocess ion o f b irds, f ac ing t he p resu mab le e n trance t o t he g rea t h a l l.

There r e ma ined , h owever , o n ly p ar t o f h is t un ic , b e lted a nd w ith

av er t ica l z igzag b and i n f ron t , p ar t o f h is r igh t a rm c ross ing h is c hest , h is l e f t l eg , s how ing t hat h e was w ear ing a nk leleng th p antaloons , h is l ef t f oo t , a pparen t ly i n as hoe a nd p o ised o n t he t oe , t he l ower h a lf o f h is l yre r est ing o n h is l ef t k nee, a nd a c loak b i l low ing o u t t o h is r igh t . c onven t iona l.

o n ly p ar ts o f t he h ind l egs a nd t a il r e ma ined ; c en t .

The p ose was e v iden t ly

To h is r igh t was a p eacock , t o h is l e f t ad og o r f ox , o f wh ich b oth f aced Orpheus.

F our th

a l s i tu , b ur ied.)

Lysons , 1 797 , 3 , p l. V I I ; n o. 1 86 , p l. 2 22 ; 2 , p ls. 1 , 1;

i b id., 1 817 , p t . i , p l. XXV I ;

i b id., 1 964 , 2 72-73;

T oynbee , 1 962,

Sm ith , 1 969 , p l. 3 .13 ;

R .C.H. M ., 1 976 , p ls. 1 7 , 2 0.

i b id ., 1 973,

S ee a lso ( 52 ), ( 65 ).

S ATURN ( 79 )

Bra mdean ( Han ts.). P l. 6 . Vi la.

S aturn w as p resumably p or trayed

a s t he d e ity p res id ing o ver t he f i rst d ay i n am iss ing p anel o f t he mosa ic d ep ict ing t he g ods o f t he Ro man i n ternund ina l week . F or r efs. s ee ( 15 ).

Four th c ent .

( Destroyed .)

S ee a lso ( 32 ), ( 33 ), ( 36 ), ( 42 ), ( 46 ), ( 9 8), ( 103 ).

S ATYRS ( 80 )

F u l ler ton ( Han ts.).

P l. 6 . XV Ia .

E igh t e longated h exagona l p ane ls

s urround ing a n o ctagona l p ane l p or tray ing Mars, e ach d ep icted a ma le f igure , n ude s ave f or a s e mb lance o f ac loak b eh ind o r t o o ne s ide.

1 28

Three o f t he m,

a nd p ar ts o f t wo o thers, s urv ive.

One , mov ing t o t he r igh t w ith h is b ack t o

t he s pecta tor b ut l ook ing o ver h is l ef t s hou lder , b ears a p edum, c rook d own , i n h is l ef t h and.

Another , w i th l egs c rossed i n ad ance s tep , h o lds u p t o h is

l e f t w ith b o th h ands a t a mbour ine. w ith t he r igh t h and.

Ano ther h o lds a s taf f o ver h is s hou lder

P ar t o f a no ther h o lds a p edu m o ver h is r igh t s hou lder .

T he d raughts mansh ip i s p oor b u t t hese a re u ndoub ted ly r epresen tat ions o f s atyrs.

F our th c en t .

( Fu l ler ton Manor .)

For r e fs. s ee ( 38 ). ( 1 28),

For s a tyrs e lsewhere s ee ( 1 17 ), ( 120 ), ( 122 ) , ( 127 ),

? (146 ).

S EASONS ( 81)

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 2 6.

P l. 6 .IVa.

O f f our o c tagona l p ane ls i n

t he a ng les o f ad es ign w ith a f i f th i n t he c en tre t here s urv ives o n ly o ne , d ep ict ing a b ust , muff led i n as ombre c loak w ith o n ly t he f ace e xposed , ' sad , s tern a nd c o ld ' ( V .C.H.).

On h er l ef t s hou lder r ests a b are b ranch .

O f t he

a t tr ibutes o f Win ter t he h ood o r c loak o ver t he h ead a nd a b are b ranch o ver t he s hou lder a re t he most c ommcm.

Four th c en t .

Lysons , 1 817a , p . 1 , p ls. XV , XX I I ; o pp. p . 2 2 ;

Toynbee, 1 962, n o. 1 88, p l. 2 18;

( 82 ) B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 3 3.

( I j 2 s i tu.)

V .C.H. S ussex I I, 1 935, 2 2, p l. i b id., 1 964 , 2 61.

A d a maged s quare mosa ic d ep ic t ing a h ead

o f Medusa e nc irc led b y a n i nhab ited meander a lso p or trayed , i n t he a ng les , a nd e xcep t iona l ly f ac ing i nward , v ery s ty l ized a nd p oor ly d rawn b usts o f t he S easons.

I n f act , o f t he f our o n ly Win ter i s c er t e . , in ly i den i lt iab ie b y " L . ur H ood

a nd c loak .

Four th c ent .

( L a s i tu , b ur ied.)

Refs. a s f or ( 39 ). ( 83)

B rad ing ( I . o f W.), Rm. 1 2.

P l. 6 .V Ib.

Quar ter-c ircu lar c o mpar t-

ments i n s quare p anels d ep ic t t he S easons i n c lockw ise o rder i n t he a ng les o f a mosa ic w ith r e ma ins o f my tho log ica l s cenes.

One i s m iss ing , b u t av ine

l eaf a nd g rapes r e ma in i n ac orner o f t he s quare p ane l t o i nd icate t hat h ere was t he h ead o f Autu mn ;

b e low t hese s ymbo ls r e ma ins p ar t o f ap eacock ,

n ot n orma l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith Autu mn .

I n t he o ppos ite a ng le t he d raped b ust

o f S pr ing i s i den t if iab le b y h er l eafy h ead-dress.

S u m mer , a lso d raped , i s

a dorned w ith a l uxur ian t h ead-dress o f y e l low e ars o f c orn a nd r ed f l owers , p resu mab ly p opp ies , wh i le i nt he o ther p ar t o f t he s quare p ane l i s ac o lourf u l p eacock — t he b ird s acred t o t he g oddess a f ter who m t he mon th o f J une i s n a med — w ith i t s l ef t f oo t a dvanced a nd h o ld ing a f l ower b y t he s te m. Winter i s h eav ily c loaked a nd h ooded a nd a ga inst h er l ef t s hou lder r ests a b are s t ick f ro m t he e nd o f w h ich i s s uspended , h ead d own , ad ead b ird. F our th c ent. L i s itu.) Pr ice , 1 881, p l. 1 0 ;

Morgan , 1 886 , p l. o pp. p . 2 34 ( co l. l i thog .) ;

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 56-57.

S ee a lso ( 4 ), ( 4 1), ( 83 ), ( 108), ( 1 15 ), ( 1 16 ), ( 1 17 ) ,

( 118), ( 1 19 ), ( 133 ). ( 84 )

Caerwen t ( Mon .), H o. V I I, Rm. 6 .

F our sma l l s quare p ane ls p or-

t rayed v ery s ty l ized b usts o f t he S easons i n t he a ng les o f a mosa ic a lso d ep ict ing a n i ma ls a nd f our t orch-bear ing c up ids.

One i s m iss ing .

Win ter ,

a t t ired i n ah ooded c loak , i s a pparen t ly i n t he a ct o f muff l ing h ersel f s t il l c loser ;

b ut , i f s o , t he h ands a re h ard ly r ecogn izab le a s s uch .

p osite a ng le S u m mer i s i den t if iab le b y ac hap let o f f l owers.

1 29

I n t he o p-

N oth ing c er ta in ly

i nd icates whether t he t h ird b ust i s t hat o f S pr ing o r Au tu mn b u t t he f ormer i s t he more p robab le.

Four th c en t . - ?m id o r t h ird q uar ter .

Arch. LV I I I, 1 902, 1 40 , p l. X ( co l. l i thog .); ( 85 ) Chedwor th ( G los.), Rm. 5 .

( Newpor t Mus.)

Toynbee, 1 964, 2 66.

P ls. 6 .V I I Ib , I Xa-c. I n t r iangu lar p anels,

i n t he a ng les o f as quare e nc los ing e ight t runcated t r iangu lar p anels r ad ia t ing f ro m a c en tra l o ctagona l p ane l , t he S easons w ere d ep icted a s c up ids. i s n ude s ave f or a s to le f l oat ing a round h is w a ist .

S pr ing

A swa l low p erches o n t he

f ingers o f h is o u tstretched r igh t h and wh i le i n t he c rook o f h is l ef t a rm i s a b asket o f f l owers.

H is l egs a re c rossed a s h e d ances t o h is l e f t .

e n t ire ly n ude , a nd w inged.

S ummer i s

H e s w ings a w reath o f r ed f lowers , p resumab ly

r oses, i n h is r igh t h and wh i le , l ike S pr ing , i n t he c rook o f h is l ef t a rm i s a b asket o f f l owers.

H e s tr ides v igorous ly t o h is l e f t .

Au tumn i s d a maged ,

b ut i s n ude s ave f or a s to le f l oa t ing a round h is wa ist a nd b ears a b aske t i n t he c rook o f h is l ef t a rm ;

h is h ead a nd r igh t h and a re l ost.

Win ter i s ag nome-

l ike f igure i n af ly ing s car f o r c loak a nd ah ooded c ape ( a b irrus b r itann icus? ) o ver a t un ic a nd t h ick h ose.

W ith h is r igh t h and h e s w ings a h are b y i t s h ind

l egs wh i le i n h is l ef t h e h o lds a b are b ranch . e ach d ep ic ted a s atyr a nd a maenad. d estroyed.

F our th c en t.

( 1 2 s i tu .)

Toynbee , 1 962, n o. 1 87 , p ls. 2 14-16 ; 2 5-26, p ls. 5 .2, 6 ;

The t runcated t r iangu lar p anels

The s ub ject o f t he c en tra l p ane l w as i b id., 1 964, 2 67 ;

R .C.H. M ., 1 976 , p ls. 4 -5.

Goodburn , 1 972,

S ee a lso ( 1 20 ).

( 86 ) C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1849, A ). P l. 6 .X [ ,

Four meda l l ions i n

t he a ng les d ep icted b usts o f t he S easons. S pr ing i s p or trayed i n as leeve less g rey-b lue t un ic f aced w ith b lu ish b lack a nd a g a ily f l owered h eadband w h ich h o lds i n p lace h er h ead-dress o f l eaves a nd l arge r ed f lowers.

Across h er

r ight s hou lder l i es a s pray o f t he s a me f l owers a nd o n h er l e f t s houlder p erches a swa l low .

S um mer , w ith b are s hou lders , h as a magn if icen t h ead-

d ress o f l eaves a nd e ars o f c orn a nd a wrea th o f p opp ies.

A cross h er r igh t

s hou lder l i es a s ick le a nd a cross t he l ef t as pray o f c orn-ears .

Au tumn i s

d raped i n as pot ted t un ic a nd a dorned w ith a l uxur ian t h ead-dress o f l eaves a nd c lusters o f g rapes.

The s po ts o f h er t un ic r eca l l t he l eopard wh ich w as

o ne o f t he f e l ines s acred t o Bacchus, g od o f w ine a nd s o g enera l ly o f t he s eason o f t he v in tage i n Au tu mn .

Across h er r igh t s hou lder l i es a b i l l-hook

( f or p run ing ). Her l e f t s hou lder i s d estroyed. The b ust o fW in ter i s m iss ing b u t c an c on f iden t ly b e v isua l ized a s a t l east c loaked a nd h ooded. Tesserae o f r ed g lass a re emp loyed t o g ive i ntens ity t o t he c o lour o f t he r ed f l owers i n t he h ead-dress o f S pr ing a nd S u m mer .

c . A .D. 2 00?

Buckman a nd N ewmarch , 1 850, 4 2-44 , p ls. I I-V ; 1 81, p ls. 2 10-12 ;

i b id., 1 964 , 2 69 ;

( Cor in iu m Mus.)

Toynbee, 1 962, n o.

Sm i th , 1 975 , 2 84-85, p l . CXXV I , 2 .

S ee a lso ( 3 ) , ( 5 ), ( 16 ), ( 35 ), ( 43 ), ( 97 ). ( 87 ) Dorchester , C o l l iton P ark . The S easons w ere r epresen ted b y masks i n meda l l ions, o f wh ich o n ly t wo s urv ived. One , d ep ic t ing a n o va l f ace f ramed b y t he f o lds o f ah ood , w as Win ter . Ano ther , h owever , d escr ibed a s h av ing ' l ong r ing lets a nd a f l ower o n e i ther s ide o f t he f ace ,' was t hought t o d ep ict S pr ing b ut e qua l ly may h ave d ep icted S um mer.

F our th c en t . ( L i

s i tu , b ur ied.) P ostcard , Dorset Coun ty Mus.;

P .D.N .H.A.S. L IN , 1 938, 8 ;

1 964 , 2 50.

1 30

T oynbee,

( 88) L inco ln , Ba i lgate.

A meda l l ion p robab ly f ro m a n a ng le o f ar ect-

a ngu lar mosa ic d ep icts a h ead a dorned w ith l eaves o r p erhaps e ars o f c orn , s uggest ing a p erson if icat ion o f S um mer.

B ut d oubt i s c ast o n t he s uggest ion

b y what may b e ar epresen tat ion o f ac ornucop ia r is ing f ro m t he l e f t s hou lder . Th is i s n o t a n a t tr ibu te o f a ny S eason i n Ro mano-Br it ish mosa ic. c en t .

F our th

( L inco ln C ity a nd Coun ty Mus.)

P ostcard , L .C.C. Mus.;

T oynbee, 1 964 , 2 82.

( 89 ) L u l l ingstone ( Ken t ) P l. 6 .) . (XV.

The S easons w ere p or trayed a s ma le

b usts i n f our meda l l ions, o f w h ich t hat o f Au tu mn was d estroyed , d isposed a round t he p ane l d ep ict ing B e l lerophon .

S pr ing , a t t ired i n ab rown h igh-necked

t un ic w ith a r ed c loak t hrown o ver h is l ef t s hou lder , h as a b oy ish f ace a nd y e l low h a ir o ut l ined i n r ed.

H e t urns h is h ead t o g aze a t a swa l low wh ich h as

a l igh ted o n h is r igh t s hou lder . s hou lder .

S u m mer h as o n ly a r ed c loak o ver h is l ef t

Fro m h is y e l low a nd r ed h a ir d roop l ong l eaves a nd e ars o f c orn.

H e t urns h is h ead t o g aze s l igh t ly d ownward t o h is r igh t . l i t t le t o h is l ef t , i s f u l ly d raped i n ad ark h ooded c loak .

Win ter , t urned a A l l a re u n mode l led.

The b usts a re s et a ga inst a b ackground o f t esserae sma l ler t han t hose o uts ide t he meda l l ions, wh ite i n t he c ase o f S pr ing a nd S u m mer a nd y e l low i n t he c ase o f Winter , a nd t he meda l l ions a re o ut l ined i n r ed.

The o r ien tat ion o f t he

b usts, t ha t o f S pr ing f ac ing t he m iss ing Au tu mn a nd t hat o f S um mer f ac ing Win ter , i s e xcept iona l , a s i s t he ir s ty le.

P ost c . A .D. 3 30 ( ?m id-four th c en t .).

( In

s i tu.) Refs. a s f or ( 14 ). ( 90 ) Ma lton ( Yorks.). I n a much d a maged mosa ic t he S easons w ere e v id en t ly d ep icted i n f our s quare p ane ls, t wo a t e i ther e nd , f ac ing o u tward , b u t o n ly o ne s urv ived.

Th is d ep ic ted a b ust o f Win ter w ith h ead a nd s hou lders

s wathed i n ac loak a nd a b are b ranch r est ing a ga inst t he r igh t s hou lder . s ex i s u ncer ta in b ut p robab ly f e ma le.

P ost c . A .D. 3 00 ( in format ion , b ased

o n p ot tery f ound b elow t he mosa ic, f ro m Mr . J . P . G i l la m , c . 1 951). s i tu , b ur ied.) J .R.S. XL , 1 950 , 9 8, p l. V I I;

The

i b id. XL I, 1 951, 1 25-26 , f i g . 1 7 ;

( I 2 Toynbee,

1 964 , 2 86-7. ( 91) P itney ( So m.).

P l. 6 .XXV I I.

I n f our r ectangu lar p ane ls i n as quare

p at tern o f a l l-over meander t he S easons w ere p erson if ied b y w inged c up ids, f ac ing o u twards, o ne o f wh ich w as m iss ing .

S pr ing w as d ep icted a s s k ipp ing

t o t he l ef t , n ude s ave f or a r ed s to le f l oat ing a bou t h is w a is t , as wa l low p erched o n h is r a ised r igh t h and , t he o ther h o ld ing o ver h is l ef t s hou lder a p edu m w ith a milk ing p a i l s w ing ing f ro m t he c rook . r ight b u t l ook ing b ack , w as s im i lar ly a t t ired .

S u mmer , s tr id ing t o t he

With h is r igh t h and h e b ore o ver

t he s hou lder a n i mp le men t r ese mb l ing a h edger 's b i l lhook b ut p erhaps i n tended t o r epresen t as cy the, wh ile w ith h is l ef t h and h e h eld u p p ar t o f h is s to le. F ive r oses were s ca t tered a round h i m. The m iss ing S eason w as Au tu mn. W in ter , a t t ired l ike t he o ther t wo , was s tepp ing t o t he l e f t .

I n h is r igh t h and

h e h eld u p t wo ( ? ) s t icks w h i le w ith h is l ef t h e s hou ldered a r ake.

Four th c en t .

( Destroyed.) For r efs. s ee ( 50-51).

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 113 ), ( 139 ), ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 142 ),

( 143 ).

1 31

( 92 ) Rudston ( Yorks.). P l. 6 .20 (V I I 1b.

Meda l l ions i n t he a ng les o f a

s quare mosa ic d ep icted o utward-fac ing b usts o f t he S easons, o f wh ich Autu mn was m iss ing a nd Win ter much d estroyed . S pr ing i s an atura l ist ic p or tra it o f ay oung wo man w ith a uburn h a ir , u ndraped , l ook ing t o h er r igh t a nd w ith a swa l low n est l ing o n h er r igh t s hou lder .

S u m mer i s a lso f e ma le a nd u ndraped ,

w ith c orn a nd r ed f l owers ( presu mab ly p opp ies ) i n h er h a ir , a nd l ook ing t o h er l ef t .

O f Win ter t here s urv ives o n ly t he l e f t e yebrow , f orehead , h a ir , a nd t he

l ef t s hou lder , o ver wh ich i s ar ake :

c f . ( 9 1), ( 93 ), ( 95 ).

A l arger , c en tra l

meda l l ion p or trayed a v ic tor ious c har io teer a nd l atera l r ectangular p ane ls d ep icted b irds w ith f ru it .

F our th c en t . -s econd q uar ter , ?t owards A .D. 3 50 )

( Mus. o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon Hu l l.) Sm ith , 1 976, 9 , p ls. 1 , I ;

i b id., f or thco m ing .

( 93 ) S poon ley Wood , S ude ley ( Glos.).

A s quare p anel d ep icted a p oor ly

d rawn ma le b ust w ith a r ake r is ing a bove t he r ight s hou lder , p resu mab ly Win ter i n o ne o f f our p ane ls p or tray ing t he S easons o f wh ich t he o ther t hree h ad b een d estroyed :

f or t he r ake c f . ( 9 1 ), ( 92 ), ( 95 ).

Four th c en t .

( Re-

p or ted t o h ave b een r e moved t o S udeley C ast le b u t n o t n ow k nown t here.) Arch. L I T, 1 890 , 6 57 , p l. XV I I ;

R .C.H. M ., 1 976 , p l. 1 5 .

( 94 ) Thrux ton ( Han ts.) P l. 6 . XXXa. F our f e ma le b usts f ac ing o u tward , o ne o f w h ich w as m iss ing , p erson if ied t he S easons i n t he a ng les o f t he mosa ic i n wh ich B acchus w as d ep icted i n ac entra l meda l l ion .

The b ase o f e ach was

r ounded a nd s ca l loped a nd e ach was f l anked b y s prays o f l ong l eaves s pr ing ing f ro m t he s hou lders. r igh t .

The h ead a nd e yes o f e ach w ere t urned s l igh t ly t o h er

Win ter w as r ecogn izab le b y h er h ood , b u t t he o ther t wo s urv iv ing

w ere n o t i den t if ied b y a t tr ibu tes p ecu l iar t o a ny o f t he o ther t hree S easons. B oth w ore a c ap a dorned w ith a r ow o f r ed a nd wh ite f l owers a bove wh ich r ose ah ead-dress o f l eaves , a nd l eaves a lso h ung o n e ither s ide o f t he f ace a nd n eck .

P resu mab ly o ne w as S pr ing a nd t he o ther S um mer , s ince n e ither h ad

t he more d ist inct ive h ead-dress o f v ineleaves a nd g rapes p ecu l iar t o Au tu mn. Four th c en t . ( Br it . Mus.) F or r efs. s ee ( 10 ). ( 95 ) Y ork , To f t Green .

Bus ts o f t he S easons w ith c onven t iona l ized h a ir

a nd model l ing , p robab ly f e ma le, o ccupy f our s quare s paces i n as quare o f a l l-over meander p a t tern o f wh ich t he c en tra l s quare p reserves f ragmen ts o f ah ead o f Medusa.

S pr ing g azes a t as wa l low o n h er r ight s hou lder .

S u m mer ,

d iagona l ly o ppos ite , h as o ver h er r igh t s hou lder what a ppears t o b e ad ead b ranch a nd h as a ccord ing ly b een i den t if ied a s Win ter .

Bu t t he o ther b ust o n

t he s a me s ide o f t he mosa ic b ears a r ake o ver t he r igh t s hou lder a nd t h is i s a n a t tr ibu te o f Win ter :

c f . ( 9 1), ( 92 ), ( 9 3 ) ;

t he a pparen t ly d ead b ranch must

t herefore b e ap oor r epresen tat ion o r e ven a m isrender ing o f s ta lks o f c orn a nd l eaves , t he a t tr ibu te o f S u m mer . The b ust o f Autu mn , r epa ired i n modern t imes , a pparen t ly h ad a c luster o f g rapes o ver t he r igh t s hou lder . P ost A .D. 2 70 ( posthu mous c o in o f C laud ius I u nder t he mosa ic ). Yorksh ire Mus.) F or r efs. s ee ( 45 ). S E MELE ( ) S ee ( 131)

1 32

( The

S HEPHERD ( 96 ) P itney

. om.). P l. 6 .X .XV I I.

One o f t he e ight t runcated t r iangu lar

p ane ls r ad iat ing f rom a c en tra l o c tagona l p ane l , e ach d ep ict ing a f i gure , p ort rayed a ma le f igure s eated o n ac onven t iona l ized r ock .

He w as a t t ired i n a

P hryg ian c ap , l ong-s leeved a nd g ird led t un ic, c loak , b aggy h ose, a nd s hoes. H is l ef t h and was r a ised t o h is t hroat wh ile h is r igh t r eached a cross h is b ody t o h o ld t he c rook o f ap edu m , t o h is l ef t , l ean ing a ga inst t he r ock .

The c os-

t u me a nd p edu m t ogether s uggest t he t ype o f s hepherd c rea ted i n He l len ist ic p a in t ing . F our th c en t . ( Des troyed.) For r efs. s ee ( 50-51). S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 113 ) , ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 142 ), ( 143 ), ( 144 ).

For s hepherds e lsewhere s ee ( 1 18) , ( 135 ).

S ILENUS ( 97 ) C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1849, A ). P l. 6 .X I Ia . A p ar t ly d a maged meda l l ion d ep icts a h a lf-draped , f l eshy ma le f igure r ec l in ing o n t he b ack o f a mu le f ac ing t he s pec tator 's l e f t.

H is h ead i s b a ld , a nd a dorned w ith a

f i l le t f rom w h ich a c luster o f g rapes h angs a t t he s urv iv ing r igh t t e mp le , a nd h is f eatures g enera l ly a re c haracter ist ic o f r epresen tat ions o f S i lenus, e ven t o t he s nub n ose a nd t h ick l i ps . s ide o f h is mouth.

A mous tache h angs i n l ank s trands o n e ither

P ar t o f t he s car let d rapery wh ich e nvelops h is l egs i s

d rawn u p b eh ind h is l ef t a rm a nd l i es b unched o n t he s hou lder.

H is r igh t

h and h o lds a c an tharus b y o ne h and le a s w e l l a s t he r e ins o f t he mu le. l e f t a rm w as c rooked t o e n fo ld a t hyrsus r est ing o n h is l ef t h ip . i s b r id led.

The a n i ma l f aces a g reen v ine.

The mu le

I t s f ee t a re s et o n as tr ip o f

g reen f rom w h ich , b etween i t s l egs, a no ther v ine g rows. For r efs. s ee ( 3 ).

H is

( Cor in iu m Mus.)

S ee a lso ( 5 ), ( 16 ), ( 35 ), ( 43 ) , ( 86 ).

S QL ( 98) B ramdean ( Han ts.).

P l. 6 .V I Ia.

The b ust r epresen t ing t he s econd

d ay o f t he w eek v ias p ar t ly d es troyed b u t p reserved h a lf o f t he r ad iate c rown o f S o l a nd most o f h is d raped s hou lders. s hou lder w as a wh ip.

Four th c en t.

For r e fs. s ee ( 15 ).

A t a n a ng le a cross h is r igh t

( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 32 ), ( 33 ), ( 36 ), ( 42 ), ( 46 ) , ( 79 ), ( 103 ).

THESEL TS ( 99 ) O ldcoates ( Not ts.).

T he c en tre o f al abyr in th p a t tern w as ' unfortun-

a te ly much i n jured , b u t t he l ower p or t ion o f ah u man f igure r e ma ined i n a n a t t itude o f a t tack :

o ne a rm h ad b een e x tended , w ith a s hor t b road sword

p o in ted d ownwards, t he l ower p ar t o f t he b lade r e ma in ing , a nd o ver t he s hou lder t he o u t l ine o f a n o va l s h ie ld w as e v iden t .' *

S uch a f i gure a t t he

c en tre o f al abyr in th c an b e n one o ther t han Theseus , a nd i ti s p oss ib le t hat t he M ino taur was r epresen ted i n s o me f orm b ut e i ther d estroyed b efore d iscovery o r o ver looked.

F our th c en t .

* Arch . J . 2 0 (V I I I, 1 871, 6 6 ; XV I I I, 1 959 , p p. 3 05-06 ;

( L . s i tu , b ur ied?)

h ence i b id. XL I I I, 1 886 , 3 2;

Toynbee, 1 964 , 2 79.

1 33

B .B.C.S .

TR ITONS ( 100 ) Rudston ( Yorks.). P l. 6 . XX IXa.

Ac rude ly d ep ic ted f igure w ith

h u man h ead , t urned t owards t he f igure o f V enus, a rms w ith c law-l ike h ands h o ld ing u p at orch , a nd t he b ody o f af i sh , w as e v iden t ly i n tended t o r epresen t at r iton .

Four th c en t . -? th ird q uar ter .

( Mus. o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo l-

o gy , K ingston u pon Hu l l.) For r efs. s ee ( 107 ).

S ee a lso ( 47 ).

F or t r itons e lsewhere s ee ( 133 ).

TYCHE .( 101) Bran t ingha m ( Yorks.). P l. 6. V I I Ia.

The s urv iv ing d ex ter h a l f o f

meda l l ion i n a n o c tagona l p ane l a t t he c en tre o f a n e igh t-spoked-whee l d es ign p reserved t he h ead a nd r ight s hou lder o f an i mbate b ust s et a ga inst a r ed g round.

The h ead , t urned s l igh t ly t o t he l e f t , i s a dorned w i th a mura l c rown ,

a nd t he c ur ls w h ich f ra me t he f orehead a nd t e mp les i nd icate t ha t t he f igure i s f e ma le.

The emp loymen t o f b lue t esserae f or t he p up ils o f t he e yes s tr ik ing ly

c onveys a s ense o f c a l m.

The b ust i s d raped i n aw h ite d a lma t ic w ith a b road

r ed s tr ipe d escend ing f ro m h er r ight s hou lder , p resumab ly ma tched o n t he l ef t , a nd r est ing o n h er l ef t s hou lder w as a lso p resumab ly a c ornucop ia. Between t he s pokes o f t he wheel w ere c an thar i a nd a t t he e nd o f e ach s poke w as as em ic ircu lar p ane l d ep ict ing a r ecl in ing w a ter-nymph , wh i le o n o ppos ite s ides o f t he mosa ic w ere r ows o f f our n i mba te f e ma le b usts. s econd q uar ter .

Four th c en t .,

( Museu m o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon Hu l l.)

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 86 ;

Br itann ia I V , 1 973 , 9 2-93, 9 7 , p ls. V I, B , X ;

Sm ith , 1 976 , 1 9-21, p l. V I I I. ( 102 ) Wha t ley ( So m.).

S ee a lso ( 49 ).

P l. 6 . XXXb.

A meda l l ion p or trayed a f e ma le b ust ,

n i mbate, a dorned w ith a mura l c rown , a nd w ith a c ornucop ia r est ing a ga inst h er l ef t s hou lder .

A l though i den t if ied a s C ybe le t here i s n o i nd icat ion o f

Cybe le 's c haracter ist ic v e i l o r o f t he l i ons s acred t o t hat g oddess.

I n f act ,

a bove a nd b elow t he meda l l ion w ere p a irs o f c onfron ted d o lph ins, wh i le a n a d jacen t p ane l d ep icted f i sh a nd a s ea- monster a nd a n a d jacen t mosa ic may h ave d ep icted Orpheus.

F our th c en t . ( Destroyed? )

F or r efs. s ee ( 75 ) , a dd ing Ra iney , 1 973, p l. 1 5 , A . VENUS ( 103 ) Bra mdean ( Han ts.). P l. 6 .V I Ia.

The b ust r epresen t ing t he s even th

d ay o f t he w eek p or trayed V enus w ith s hou lder-leng th h a ir p ar ted c en tra l ly a nd f a l l ing o n e i ther s ide o f h er f ace.

A round h er n eck w as a n eck lace.

r igh t s hou lder w as b are , t he b us t o therw ise d raped. r igh t s hou lder , w as a m irror . For r efs. s ee ( 15 ).

F our th c en t .

H er

Upr igh t , a cross h er

( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 32 ), ( 33 ), ( 36 ) , ( 42 ), ( 46 ) , ( 79 ) , ( 98 ).

( 104 ) H e mswor th ( Dorset ).

An a ps ida l p ane l s urrounded b y b orders

d ep ict ing f i sh a nd s ea- monsters w as p ar t ly m iss ing b ut p reserved t he l egs o f af igure , a pparent ly n ude s ave f or a c loak b il low ing a bove a nd f a l l ing b eh ind , s tand ing i n o r i n f ron t o f al arge, empha t ica l ly f luted s ca l lop s he l l e dged w ith k nobs b etween t he f l u tes.

Th is w as u ndoubted ly a r epresen ta t ion

o f t he b ir th o f V enus ( i .e. t he Greek g oddess , Aphrod ite ) f rom t he s ea ,

1 34

s ymbo l ized b y t he s hel l.

An i vy l eaf f l oa ts o n e i ther s ide.

F our th c en t .

( Br it . Mus.) H inks , 1 933, 9 9-100 , n o. 3 3, p l. ) 0 (X ; ( 105 ) K ingscote ( Glos.).

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 52.

A meda l l ion e nc irc led b y a n i vy s cro l l d ep icts

af e ma le b ust o f wh ich t he r igh t s hou lder a nd u pper p ar t o f t he f ace a nd h ead a re u n for tuna tely d estroyed .

The c rest o f ad iade m a nd p ar t o f an eck lace

a re , h owever , p reserved , a nd u pr ight a cross t he l ef t s hou lder i s a n o va l m irror , a n a t tr ibu te o f V enus .

? Fourth c en t .

( I L Is i tu,

b ur ied.)

K ingsco te Arch . S oc., 1 976 , The Chessa ls, K ingsco te :

Excavat ions 1 975-

7 6 , 1 2. ( 106 ) L ow Ha m ( Som.). P l. 6 . XX I I Ia. The c en tra l o ctagona l p ane l o f t he mosa ic i l lus trat ing e p isodes i n t he r o mance o f D ido a nd Aeneas d ep icts a n ude f e ma le f igure.

S he i s p osed w ith h er w e igh t o n h er l ef t l eg a nd t he h ip t hrown

o u t a ccord ing ly.

H er h a ir , p ar ted c en tra l ly , f a l ls o n e ither s ide o f h er f ace ,

a nd a round h er h ead i s aj ewe l led b and f ro m wh ich r ises a d o med c rown o r d ia de m.

On t he e v idence o f t h is a t tr ibute t he f igure h as b een i dent if ied a s V enus

G enetr ix :

s ee, f ur ther , ( 132 ).

The g oddess 's h ands a re r a ised a bove t he

s hou lders , h o ld ing b y t he c orners a f r inged r ed c loak wh ich h angs b eh ind h er . Th is a ct ion c an b e i n terpreted s i mp ly a s o ne o f d isrob ing , a s i n r epresen tat ions o f V enus a bou t t o b athe , o r i tc an b e i n terpreted s ymbo l ica l ly a s s ign ify ing a n e p iphany o f t he g oddess .

I t may e ven b e t ha t t he c o lour o f t he c loak was s e lected

s pec if ica l ly a s s ymbo l ic o f l i gh t :

c f . 0 .0 . D

,s .v . Co lours, s acred.

That t he

p or traya l i s i n f act o f as ymbo l ic c harac ter i s i nd icated b y t he t wo c up ids f l ank ing t he g oddess.

The c up id o n h er r igh t s tands w ith l egs c rossed , h ere

s ign ify ing a n emot iona l s i tua t ion , h as c losed e yes a nd b ears a n i nver ted t orch. I n c ontrast , t he c up id o n t he g oddess 's l ef t s pr ings t owards h er w ith e yes o pen a nd a n u pr igh t t orch h eld a lof t .

The f irst c up id c lear ly s ymbo l izes t he d espa ir

a nd d ea th o f D ido wh ile t he s econd must a l lude t o t he t r iu mphan t d est iny o f A eneas.

P ost c . A .D. 3 30.

For r e fs. s ee ( 2 ).

( So merset Coun ty Mus.)

S ee a lso ( 126 ), ( 130 ).

( 107 ) R udston ( Yorks.).

P l. 6 . XX [Xa.

A meda l l ion s urrounded b y p ane ls

d ep ict ing b est iar i i, a n i ma ls a nd b irds, p or trays t wo f i gures. f e ma le, s tand ing , a nd g lanc ing s ide long t owards h er r igh t .

One i s an ude H er b ody i s s een

f ron ta lly b u t t he l egs a re i n p rof ile w ith t he f eet t urned t o h er r ight , t he l ef t h ip b e ing d istor ted i n c onsequence. r igh t a nd l e f t . l i t.

Her h a ir i s l ong a nd s trea ms o ut t o

The r igh t s ide o f h er f ace i s i n s hadow w h ile t he l ef t i s b r igh t ly

Her a rms a re o u tstre tched a nd b race leted.

The r ight i s r a ised , t he l ef t

r eaches d ownwards , a nd b oth h ands h ave f ingers l ike c laws. p ubes a re emphas ized , t he b reasts n ot . t aper t o d im inut ive f eet.

The n ave l a nd

Fro m p ro m inen t c a lves h er l egs

The l e f t h and r eaches d own t owards a f eature wh ich

i s o bv ious ly a mirror , a n a t tr ibu te o f V enus , wh i le t he r igh t h o lds a lo f t b etw een t humb a nd f oref inger a sma l l r ound o b ject o n as te m.

The l at ter ,

t hough u npara llel led i n mosa ic, h as j ust if iab ly b een i den t if ied a s t he g o lden a pp le awarded t o V enus ( or more s tr ict ly , t o Aphrod ite ) a s t he p r ize i n a c elebrated b eauty c ontest .

T o t he g oddess 's r igh t a nd b e low h er a rm, w ith

b ody d ep ic ted f ron ta l ly b u t h ead t urned t owards h er , i s a sma l ler f igure o f w h ich t he u pper h a l f i s c rude ly a n thropomorph ic, t he l ower t he b ody a nd t a il o f af ish c urv ing u p t owards h er r igh t k nee.

1 35

I n h ands l ike t hose o f V enus

t h is t r iton h o lds u p a nd t owards t he g oddess a b urn ing t orch ( or m isrendered c onch? ).

The s urround ing a n i ma ls a re f our i n n u mber a nd p oss ib ly r epresen t

t he S easons.

The b irds, o f wh ich t here a re a lso f our , a re p igeons , p erhaps

i den t if iab le w ith t he d oves s acred t o V enus. F our th c ent .- ? th ird q uar ter . ( Mus. o f Transpor t a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon Hu l l.) Y .A.J. ) 00 ( I, 1 934 , 3 67 , p l. I ; Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 87-88 , p l . LX 1V ,a ; Sm ith , 1 976 , 1 2, p ls. I V , V ;

i b id., f or thco m ing .

S ee a lso ( 47 ), ( 100 ). WINDS ( 108 ) Brad ing ( I . o f W.) , Rm. 1 2. P l. 6 . V.

Four t r iangu lar p ane ls d ep ict

ma le b usts , t he h ead o f o ne o f wh ich i s m iss ing .

Two h ave a c loak o ver t he

l ef t s hou lder wh ile o n ly p ar t o f ac loak r es ts o n t he l ef t s hou lder o f t he o ther t wo , t he f igures b e ing o therw ise n ude.

Two sma l l w ings emerge f rom t he

h a ir o f t he t hree r e ma in ing f igures, a nd w ith h is r a ised r igh t h and e ach f igure h o lds a c onch s he l l , t ru mpet-l ike, t o h is l i ps.

The w ings a nd c onch a re t he

a t tr ibutes i den t ify ing p erson if ica t ions o f t he w inds. For r efs. s ee ( 4 ).

F our th c en t .

L i s i tu.)

S ee a lso ( 41), ( 83 ) , ( 1 15 ), ( 1 16 ), ( 1 17 ) , ( 118 ), ( 1 19 ),

( 133 ). ( 109 ) East Coker ( So m.).

P l. 6 .X I I Ia.

The e igh teenth-cen tury d raw ing

wh ich i s t he o n ly g raph ic r ecord o f t he mosa ic d ep icts, f ac ing o utward i n t he a ng les, f our b usts o f Mercury.

Two h ave a c aduceus a cross t he r igh t

s hou lder , t he o ther t wo a cross t he l ef t , a nd a l l h ave a w inged h at .

B u t t he

r ar ity o f r epresen tat ions o f Mercury i n mosa ic r a ises a s usp ic ion t ha t t hese b usts c ou ld h ave b een m is in terpreted b y t he d raughts man.

I n f act , t hey w ere

a l most c er ta in ly b usts p erson ify ing t he f our w inds s uch a s t hose o f F ra mpton ( 110 ), ( 111), wh ich e ven L ysons d escr ibed , d esp ite t he ir u nequ ivoca l a t tr ibutes , a s b usts o f Mercury .

Four th c en t. ( Destroyed.)

F or r efs. s ee ( 131). ( 1 10 ) F ra mp ton ( Dorset ), Mosa ic A . P l. 6 .X I I Ib.

Four meda l l ions d e-

p icted o utward-fac ing ma le b usts, e ach w ith u ps tand ing o r w indblown h a ir f ro m wh ich a w ing emerges o n e ither s ide o f t he h ead.

Two h ave a c onch

s hel l a t a n a ng le a cross t he r ight s hou lder , t he o ther t wo a cross t he l e f t . Four th c en t .

( Destroyed.)

For r efs. s ee ( 37 ).

S ee a lso ( 56 ), ( 1 36 ).

( 1 11) Fra mp ton ( Dorset ), mosa ic D . P l. 6 . XVc.

Four meda l l ions d e-

p icted o utward-fac ing b usts, p robab ly ma le , e ach w ith t hree l ocks o f h a ir u pstand ing a bove t he f orehead a nd t he r es t f a l l ing i n c onven t iona l ized c ur ls t o t he s hou lders.

Two h ave a c onch s he l l a cross t he r igh t s hou lder , t he

o ther t wo a cross t he l ef t.

A c en tra l meda l l ion p or trayed ab ust o f N ep tune

wh i le o ther p ane ls d ep icted d o lph ins.

F our th c en t . ( Destroyed.)

For r efs. s ee ( 58 ). ( 1 12 ) H in ton S t . Mary ( Dorset ).

P l. 6 .XV I I Ia.

Four q uar ter-c ircu lar

p ane ls i n t he a ng les o f as quare mosa ic d ep ict o u tward-fac ing ma le b usts w ith t hree o r f our u pstand ing l ocks o f h a ir a bove t he f orehead a nd t he r est f a l l ing t o t he s hou lders i n c onven t iona l ized c ur ls o r waves .

E ach i s d raped

i n ac loak , f astened o n t he r igh t s hou lder b u t l eav ing t he r igh t a rm e xposed.

1 36

Th is a rm i n e ach b ust i s b en t a t t he e lbow , w ith t he h and a nd g reater p ar t o f t he f orearm i ns ide t he c loak , a nd i s d ispropor t ionate ly sma l l i n r e la t ion t o t he b ust .

Two o f t he b usts h ave a l eafy t w ig w ith a p o megranate o n e ither s ide

o f t he h ead , t he o ther t wo a n e igh t-pe tal led r oset te.

Bu t i ft hese a re t o b e r e-

g arded a s a t tr ibutes t hey d o n ot d iver t a t ten t ion f ro m t he f act t hat t he f aces a nd h a ir o f t he b usts c ompare r e markab ly c lose ly w ith t he f aces a nd h a ir o f t he b usts o f t he w inds i n t wo mosa ics o f Fra mp ton ( 1 10 ) ( 1 11) , o n ly s o me s ixt een miles d istan t ;

a nd i ts ee ms g enera l ly a greed t hat t he b usts o f H in ton

S t . Mary w ere o r ig ina l ly d es igned a s b usts o f t he w inds a nd w ere ' de-pagan ized ' i n a ccordance w ith t he w ishes o f ac l ien t whose r equ ire men ts a lso i ncluded a c entra l meda l l ion p or tray ing C hr ist .

H is c ho ice o f b usts o f t he w inds a s w e l l

a s ap or tra i t o f Chr ist c an p erhaps b e e xp la ined i n t he l ight o f at ex t o f S t . I renaeus , o f c . 1 85 , wh ich ' r e lates t he n umber o f t he Gospe ls t o t hat o f t he f our ma in w inds a nd o f t he e ar th 's f our q uar ters, t o wh ich i s w af ted t he l i feg iv ing message o f t he Word o f God...;

a nd i tc ou ld b e t hat t he H in ton S t . Mary

b usts a re p ar t ly Winds , w ith r oset tes a nd p o megrana tes , s ymbo ls o f l i fe a nd i m mor ta l ity , s ubst ituted f or t he h ead-w ings a nd c onches , a nd p ar t ly t he Four E vangel ists ' ( Toynbee ,

1 968 ).

J . R.S. L IV, 1 964, 8 -10 ;

F our th Cen t . ( Br it . Mus.) Toynbee , 1 968, 1 85-86 , p l. 1 ;

Sm ith , 1 969,

8 8, n . 3 , p l. 3 .29. ( 1 13 ) P itney ( So m.). P l. 6 .)0 (V I I.

Four t r iangu lar p ane ls i n t he a ng les

o f a mosa ic d ep icted o utward-fac ing b us ts, u ndraped.

Two h ad l ong h a ir , w ith

s trands c ur l ing a round t he n eck a bove t he s hou lders, a nd a lso f aces s uggesti ng t ha t t hey were f e ma le. The o ther t wo a ppear t o h ave b een ma le. One o f t he ma les a nd o ne o f t he f e ma les h ad a c onch a t t he ir r ight s hou lder a nd t he o ther ma le h ad a c onch a t h is l ef t s hou lder , b u t a cross t he l ef t s hou lder o f t he o ther f ema le l ay a l ong s te m t erm inat ing i n al eaf .

The l ast may r epresen t

ap oor r epa ir i n Ro man t imes , w ith s acr if ice o f ac onch .

Bu t , d esp ite t he

i n troduct ion o f t wo f e ma les i n p lace o f t wo ma les, i ti s d if f icu l t n o t t o r egard t hese b usts a s p erson if icat ions o f t he f our w inds. For r e fs. s ee ( 50-51).

Four th c en t . ( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 1 13 ), ( 140 ), ( 141) , ( 142 ),

( 143 ), ( 144 ).

1 37

I .

TWO-F IGURE S CE NES

A ldborough ( Yorks.) ( 114 ) Ro mu lus a nd Re mus. P l. 6 .I Ia.

A s quare p ane l d ep icts a b ushy-

t a iled q uadruped f ac ing t he s pectator 's l ef tb ut w ith h ead t urned t oward h im , e ars u p , mou th o pen a nd t eeth b ared , a nd w ith t he r igh t f ore leg c rooked a nd c rossed o ver t he l ef t .

Under i t s b e l ly a re t wo d im inut ive f igures.

To t he

l ef t s tands a t ree wh ich i s b en t t o c on t inue o ver t he c reature 's b ack .

T he

e xecu t ion i s r e markab ly c rude b ut t he s cene i s c lear ly a r epresentat ion o f t he t w ins Ro mu lus a nd R e mus w ith t he s he-wo l f , t he ir f oster mo ther , u nder t he l egendary f ig-tree.

F ourth Cen t . ( Leeds C i ty Mus.).

Sm ith , 1 867 , w ith c o l. l i thog .;

Toynbee , 1 962, 1 84, p l . 2 20 ;

i b id .,

1 964 ,284. Brad ing ( I . o f W.), Rm. 1 2. ( 1 15 ) C eres a nd Tr ip to le mus.

P l. 6 .V.

A r ec tangu lar p ane l d ep icts ,

l ef t , ad raped a nd v e iled f e ma le f igure w i th h ead f ac ing t he s pectator b u t b ody t urn ing t o h er l ef t .

Her l ef t h and h o lds a s taf f , r est ing o n t he g round , wh ile

h er r igh t , h o ld ing a l arge e ar o f c orn , i s e x tended t owards t he f igure o n t he r igh t .

The l at ter i s an ude y outh , h a lf t urned t owards t he f e ma le f igure a nd

e x tend ing h is r igh t h and t o r ece ive t he e ar o f c orn f ro m h er .

H is l e f t h and

h o lds t he e nd o f t he s haf t o f a n a rd , t he s hare o f wh ich r ests o n t he g round b etween t he t wo f igures.

The s cene h as b een r ecogn ized a s d ep ict ing C eres

( De meter ) b estow ing t he k now ledge o f a gr icu lture o n Tr ip to le mus , t he h ero o f t he E leus in ian myster ies , who i nven ted t he p lough a nd t augh t a gr icu l ture t o men.

Fourth c en t .

For r efs. s ee ( 4 ).

( I n s i tu .) S ee a lso ( 4 1), ( 83 ), ( 108 ) , ( 116 ), ( 1 17 ) , ( 118 ) , ( 1 19 ),

( 133 ). ( 1 16 ) Lycurgus a nd Ambros ia , P l. 6 . V.

A d amaged r ec tangu lar p ane l

p reserves, l ef t , t he g rea ter p ar t o f an ude ma le f igure s tand ing w ith f eet w ide a par t a nd l ean ing s l igh t ly b ack p repara tory t o s tr ik ing , w ith a d oub le a xe h e ld w ith b o th h ands, a f e ma le f igure c ower ing t o h is l e f t. p ins h er r ight l eg t o t he g round.

H is l e f t f oo t

Her d ress i s s l ipp ing f rom h er l ef t

s hou lder a nd h er b ody f rom t he h ips u p i s a lready e xposed. s ide long l ook o f f ear t o h er r igh t .

S he d ar ts a

Her r ight a rm i s e x tended , w ith t he h and

b eh ind t he l ef t t h igh o f h er a t tacker , a s i fi n a n a t te mpt t o d is lodge h is f oo t , wh ile h er l ef t h and i s t hrown u p i n at err if ied g esture. a re v ine l eaves a nd t endr i ls.

Around b oth f igures

The s cene h as b een r ecogn ized a s d ep ic t ing

Lycurgus, k ing o f Thrace a nd e ne my o f B acchus o r ( more s tr ict ly , h is Greek e qu iva len t , D ionysus ), a t tack ing o ne o f t he g od 's d evo tees , Ambros ia , whom ( accord ing t o o ne my th ) t he g od t ransformed i n to a v ine, t he t endr ils o f wh ich s trang led Lycurgus. For r efs. s ee ( 4 ).

Four th c en t .

( i n s i tu.)

S ee a lso ( 41), ( 8 3 ), ( 108 ), ( 115 ), ( 1 17 ), ( 118 ) , ( 1 19 ) , ( 133 1 38

( 117 ) S a tyr a nd maenad.

P l. 6 . V.

A d a maged r ectangu lar p ane l p reserves ,

l e f t , t he l egs o f af igure, a l most c er ta in ly ma le , whose l ef t f oo t i s s tepp ing t owards a f e male f igure.

The l a t ter , h er d rapery f ly ing a nd f a l l ing t o e xpose

h er b ody , i s p ivot ing o n h er r igh t f oo t a nd s tepp ing sw if t ly t o e scape t o t he r igh t . H er h ead , l arge ly m iss ing , was p robab ly t urned t owards h er p ursuer . H er b ack t o b elow t he h ips i s t urned t owards t he s pectator a nd e xposed , h er d rapery h av ing f a l len i n t he s w if tness o f h er t urn a nd f l ut ter ing b eh ind h er a nd f ro m h er l egs. Her r igh t h and i s t hrown u p i n p an ic, w ith t he f ingers o utstretched. Her l egs a nd b are f eet a re d ep icted i n p rof ile. The s cene i s d oubt less t hat o f as atyr p ursu ing a maenad. For r e fs. s ee ( 4 ).

Four th c en t . ( 1 12 . s i tu.)

S ee a lso ( 41), ( 83 ), ( 108 ), ( 115 ), ( 116 ), ( 1 18 ), ( 1 19 ),

( 133 ). ( 118 ) S hepherd a nd n a iad.

P l. 6 . V.

A r ectangu lar p ane l d ep icts, l ef t ,

af e ma le f i gure w ith h er d rapery t hrown b ack t o e xpose h er b ody b ut s t i l l e nv e lop ing h er l egs, wh ich a re d iscern ib le t hrough i t .

I n h er h a ir a re r eeds.

H er r igh t a rm c rosses h er b reast t o r est t he h and o n a n o ver turned v ase wh ich s upports h er l ef t e lbow , a nd h er l ef t h and i s r a ised a bove t he s hou lder.

Her

r igh t l eg i s c rossed o ver t he l e f t a nd h er f eet a re p la in ly e xecut ing a d ances tep.

The r eeds i n h er h a ir a nd t he o ver turned v ase a re a t tr ibutes o f an a iad

o r water-nymph.

To h er l e f t s tands a ma le f igure a t t ired i n aP hryg ian c ap ,

as hor t b e l ted t un ic o ver a k nee-leng th t un ic , b aggy b reeches, a nd b usk ins. W ith h is l e f t h and r a ised t o s hou lder h e igh t h e h o lds u p ap an-p ipe , wh i le h is l e f t h and h o lds t o h is s ide a p edu m , t he c rook o f wh ich r ises a bove t he s hou lder . H is l egs a nd f eet a re a par t , t he r igh t f oot i n p rof ile , a s i fh e w ere a bout t o s tep o r t urn t owards t he n a iad. s hepherd :

c f . ( 96 ).

For r e fs. s ee ( 4 ).

H is c ostu me a nd a t tr ibu tes a re t hose o f a

Four th c en t .

( I n s i tu.

S ee a lso ( 41), ( 83 ), ( 10b), ( 14 , 5 ), ( 1 16 ), ( 1 17 ), ( 1 19 ),

( 133 ). ( 119 ) P erseus a nd Andromeda.

P l. 6 .V lb.

A d a maged r ec tangu lar p ane l

p reserves , o n t he l ef t , t he g reater p ar t o f af e ma le f i gure , s ea ted b ut l eani ng b ack , s uppor t ing h erse lf o n h er l ef t a rm , a nd t urn ing h er h ead a nd e yes t o g aze i n to t he e yes o f t he f igure o n h er l ef t .

H er d ress i s s l ipp ing f ro m h er

l e f t s hou lder a nd b eh ind t he a rm , l eav ing h er b ody e xposed t o t he t op o f h er t h ighs.

H er r igh t h and r ests l igh t ly o n h er r ight t h igh.

The o ther f igure ,

l ess we l l p reserved b ut o f d arker c o lour ing a nd t herefore e v iden t ly ma le , i s l ikew ise s eated a nd t urn ing r ound t o r eturn h is c o mpan ion 's g aze.

H is r igh t

a rm i s r a ised t o h o ld b etween t he m b u t a bove t he ir h eads t he h ead o f Medusa , w h ile r est ing o n h is l ef t t h igh h is o ther h and h o lds t he e nd o f t he f a lx w ith w h ich h e h ad b eheaded t he G orgon.

The s cene o bv ious ly d ep icts P erseus '

r escue o f Andro meda , whom h e t hen marr ied. For r e fs, s ee ( 4 ).

Four th c en t .

Qa .s i tu .)

S ee a lso ( 4 1), ( 83 ), ( 108 ), ( 115 ), ( 1 16 ) , ( 1 17 ), ( 1 18 ) ,

( 133). Chedwor th ( Glos.) ( 120 ) S a tyrs a nd maenads. P l. 6 .V I I lb , I Xd-f . O f e igh t t runcated t r iangu lar p anels r ad iat ing f ro m a n o ctagona l p ane l t here r e ma in p ar ts o f f i ve wh ich i nd icate t ha t e ach d ep icted a ma le a nd a f e male f igure.

1 39

O f o ne t here s urv ives

o n ly a d raped r ight l eg a nd b are f eet a nd o f a no ther o n ly t he b are l egs o f a c loaked f igure, p robab ly ma le.

One o f t he o thers, h owever , p reserved , l ef t ,

t he h ead a nd s hou lders o f a ma le f igure t urned t o h is l ef t a nd h is r igh t l eg f rom k nee t o f oo t i n t he a ct o f r unn ing o r s pr ing ing . o f ( ? ) r eeds.

He wears a h ead-dress

Beh ind h im f l u tters a c loak i n t he f orm o f ac onvent iona l ized

h ide o f as po t ted a n i ma l , u ndoub ted ly i n tended t o r epresen t al eopard 's s k in . Th is f igure h as s e ized a nd i s b ear ing i n h is a rms a f e ma le f ig ure whose e yes l ook i n to h is. H is l ef t h and , a ppear ing f rom b eh ind h er l ef t s hou lder , g rasps h er l ef t wr ist , r a is ing h er h and h e lp less ly i n t he a ir , b u t h er r igh t a rm h angs s ub m iss ive ly a round h is s hou lders.

Wha t r e ma ined o f h er b ody , t o b e low t he

b reasts , i s n ude , b u t ac loak f ly ing a bove h er a nd t o h er l ef t may h ave e nve lo ped a t l east h er l ower l imbs.

B elow , o n t he ' ground ',

i s p reserved p ar t o f

at hyrsus a nd , a bove i t , p erhaps p ar t o f t he t a i l o f t he l eopard 's s k in , w h i le i n t he l ower r igh t c orner o f t he p anel i s p ar t o f t he h ead o f t he t hyrsus a nd a b er ibboned f i l let . The s econd o f t he t hree b est p reserved p anels d ep icts , l e f t , af e ma le f igure o f wh ich s uf f ic ien t r e ma ins t o i nd icate t hat s he i s l arge ly d raped a nd s eated , s uppor t ing h erse lf o n h er s tra igh t a nd b are l ef t a rm.

To t he r igh t

s its a ma le f igure , n ude s ave f or a c loak f l ut ter ing b eh ind h im a nd p ar t ly c over ing h is r ight t h igh.

He i s a dorned w ith a h ead-dress o f w h ich t he c har-

a cter i s o bscure a nd h o lds w ith h is r igh t h and a s pear-l ike s cep tre wh i le h is l ef t a rm i s o utstretched b y h is s ide t o h o ld a ( ? ) t a mbour ine r est ing o n i t s e dge b es ide h is l ef t k nee. The b est p reserved p ane l d ep icts i n t he c en tre a f e ma le f i gure w ith h er b are b ack t owards t he s pec tator b ut h ead t urned t o h er r igh t , a r ms t hrown o u t i n p an ic , a nd l egs c augh t i n h er d rapery a nd c rossed , w ith b o th b are f eet i nt urned i n e v iden t c on fus ion a s s he f a l ls t o h er l ef t .

Beh ind h er , s pread ing

h i mse l f a nd t hrow ing o u t h is s trong r igh t l eg t o b lock h er p a th , i s a ma le f igure , n ude s ave f or a f l ut ter ing c loak i n t he f orm o f ac onven t iona l ized w ild b east 's s k in .

H is h ead i s m iss ing .

l y ing o n t he g round.

H is r igh t f oot s teps o n ap edu m

To t he r ight o f t he f i gures i s at hyrsus a nd, i n t he l ower

r igh t c orner o f t he p ane l , ap an-p ipe.

F our th c en t.

I n s i tu .

F or r efs. s ee ( 85 ). Fra mp ton ( Dorset ) ( 121) V enus a nd Adon is.

P l. 6. X [Va , XVa.

A s quare p ane l d ep ic ted , l ef t , a

n ude ma le f igure r ec l in ing l angu id ly t o t he l ef t o n a mu lt ico loured ( ?) c loak . Bes ide h im , o n t he r ight , s tood a f e ma le f igure — e v iden t ly a g oddess — , d iade med a nd f u l ly r obed , w ith h er r igh t h and o n h er b reast i n ag esture o f g r ief a nd t he l ef t h o ld ing t he e nd o f a n i nver ted t orch , s ymbo l ic o f d ea th . The s cene h as p laus ib ly b een i den t if ied a s d ep ict ing t he my th o f Adon is , b el oved b y V enus.

F our th c en t .

F or r efs. s ee ( 17 ).

( Destroyed ).

S ee a lso ( 6 ), ( 12 ), ( 57 ), ( 134 ), ( 135 ).

Horks tow ( L incs.) ( 122 ) S atyrs a nd maenads.

P l. 6 . XV I I Ib.

O f f our meda l l ions i n ac on-

c entr ic c ircu lar d es ign s uppor ted b y f our a ngu ipede g ian ts o ne was l ost b ut 1 40

t wo p reserved p ar ts o f t wo f igures d ep icted a ga inst a b lue b ackground a nd t he f our th p reserved most o f o ne f i gure.

On ly t he h ead o f t he l ast was m iss ing .

T he b ody w as n ude s ave f or a n amp le c loak f a l l ing o n e i ther s ide, a nd t urned t owards t he s pectator 's r igh t , w here t here h ad e v iden t ly b een a s econd f i gure. Another meda l l ion d ep icted , l e f t , af i gure o f w h ich a ga in t he h ead was l ost. T h is f igure w as a t t ired i n ak nee-leng th t un ic p ar ted f rom t he wa ist a nd e xp os ing t he r igh t l eg .

The l ef t l eg s ee ms n o t t o h ave b een a pparen t , b ut t he

l e f t a rm w as e x tended w i th t he h and c lasp ing t he b ack o f t he h and o f as econd f igure.

Th is was a n ude f e ma le , w ith h er l ef t a rm r a ised t o g rasp t he f ore-

a rm o f t he o ther f igure a nd e ase o r d islodge i tf ro m h er h ead , h er r igh t a rm h ang ing d own w ith t he h and o n t he i ns ide o f h er r igh t t h igh , h er r igh t l eg f u l ly e x tended a cross t hat o f t he o ther f igure , a nd h er l e f t l eg d oub led u p b eh ind h er .

An i nexp l icab le b and o r r od r ises v er t ica l ly f ro m t he e n tw ined

f orear ms a nd a s to le f l ut ters f rom t he f e ma le 's l ef t s hou lder . b o th f igures i n t he t h ird meda l l ion w ere l ost . b eh ind t he m.

The h eads o f

Both w ere n ude s ave f or c loaks

The f i gure t o t he l ef t , who a ppears t o h ave b een ma le, was

l ean ing t o t he l ef t a nd h o ld ing i n t he r igh t h and o ne e nd o f ac ord o r r od o f w h ich t he o ther e nd was h e ld u p i n t he r igh t h and o f t he s econd f i gure.

The

l a t ter , p robab ly f e ma le , w as t urn ing t o h er l ef t , e xpos ing h er b ack t o ah a lf v iew .

U nder h er r ight h and , a s i fs uspended f ro m i t , w as a l arge c ircu lar

o b ject s een i n p erspect ive ( a t a mbour ine?).

The s tandard o f d raugh ts man-

s h ip i n t h is mosa ic w as med iocre , a nd d escr ip t ion o f t hese f igures r e l ies t o ac ons iderab le e x ten t o n t he c o loured e ngrav ings p ub l ished s oon a f ter t he d isc overy o f t he mosa ic i n 1 797, s ince when much h as b een l ost .

Bu t i ts ee ms

most p robab le t ha t t he f igures i n e ach meda l l ion w ere t hose o f as atyr a nd a maenad .

Four th c en t .

( Former ly i n Br it . Mus., n ow i n Mus. o f Transpor t

a nd Archaeo logy , K ingston u pon Hu l l.) For r e fs. s ee ( 23 ).

S ee a lso ( 30 ), ( 67 ).

K eynsham ( So m.) ( 123 ) Europa a nd a c ompan ion .

P l. 6 .X IXb.

A s quare p ane l d ep icts a

r ecu mben tb u l l , f ac ing t he s pec tator 's r igh t , o n whose b ack s i ts a h a lf-draped f e ma le f i gure , f ac ing t he s pec tator b ut l ook ing d own a t t he e nd o f as trand o f mater ia l h e ld i n h er r ight h and a nd wh ich s he h as h ung a round t he b u l l 's n eck . H er l ef t h and i s a d just ing t he ma ter ia l b eh ind i t s h orns.

A t t he r igh t s ide o f t he

t he p ane l a no ther h a l f-draped f e ma le s tands w ith h er b ack h a lf t urned t o t he s pectator a s s he h o lds a ( ? ) b asket t o t he b u l ls ' muzz le.

The s cene i s c lear ly

t hat o f E uropa a nd o ne o f h er c o mpan ions a do r n ing a nd p a mper ing J up iter i n t he f orm o f ag en t le b u l l.

F our th c en t .

Arch . LXXV , 1 926 , 1 28, p l. XV I I , 1 ;

( Fry 's Choco la te Factory , S o merda le ) Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 40-41, p l. LV I I,b.

S ee a lso ( 137 ), ( 138 ). L e icester , H igh Cross S t . ( 124 ) Cypar issus a nd C up id. P l. 6 .)0 (a. An o c tagona l p ane l f ro m a n o therw ise l ost mosa ic d ep ic ts i n t he c en tre a s tag , f ac ing t he s pec tator b ut t urn ing i t s h ead t o t he r igh t t o t ouch w ith i t s muzz le t he r igh t c heek o f an ude ma le f igure s tand ing b es ide i t , wh ile a f igure o f Cup id s tands o n t he o ther s ide a bou t t o l oose a n a rrow t owards t he s tag 's h ead .

1 41

Th is g roup h as l ong

b een r ecogn ized a s i l lustra t ing t he my th o f Cypar issus who , h av ing a cc ident a l ly k i l led a s tag o f wh ich h e w as e x tre me ly f ond , w as s o s tr icken w ith g r ief t ha t t he g ods t ransfor med h im i n to a c ypress. Here Cypar issus i s n ude s ave f or a c loak d raped f ro m h is l ef t a ,w h ich i s r a ised , t he h and t ouch ing h is h ead.

H is r ight h and c aresses t he s tag 's t hroat .

i nd ica t ion o f emo t ion .

H is l egs a re c rossed , a n

Cup id l eans b ack , s igh t ing h is t arget , a nd s preads h is

f eet t o s teady h is a i m?

L ater s econd o r e ar ly t h ird c ent .

( Le icester C i ty

Mus.) ( Paper 1 9 b e low , p . 4 26 , n .74 ), Fow ler , 1 796-1818, n o.11; I , 1 907, 1 92-4 , p l. I I ;

Toynbee , 1 962, n o. 1 83, p l . 2 19 ;

V .C.H . L e ics.

i b id ., 1 964 , 2 79 ;

Sm ith , 1 975 , 2 84 , n . 7 0. L en thay Green ( Dorset ) ( 125 ) Apo l lo a nd Marsyas.

P l. 6 .)0 (b.

An o ctagona l p ane l d ep icts , l e f t ,

an ude ma le f igure s eated o n s ty l ized r ocks , w ith a l arge l yre r est ing o n h is k nees , s tead ied a t t he t op b y h is l ef t h and a nd p layed w ith t he f i ngers o f t he r igh t .

To h is l ef t i s a nother n ude ma le f igure , w ith h is b ack t o t he s pec ta tor

b ut h ead t urned t o h is l ef t a nd s een i n p rof i le.

Bo th a r ms o f t h is f igure a re

r a ised , t he r ight a bove h is h ead , w ith t he h ands h o ld ing t o h is mouth a nd t he f ingers p lay ing a p a ir o f p ipes.

H is r igh t l eg i s b en t a nd t he l e f t r a ised a s

i fi n t he a ct o f e xecut ing a l i ve ly d ance.

T he s cene i s t hat o f t he mus ica l

c on test b etween Apo l lo a nd t he s a tyr Marsyas , n a ive ly e xecu ted .

Four th c ent .

( Re-la id i n t he d a iry a t S herborne Cast le.) R .C.H. M ., 1 952, 1 99, p l. 1 27 , 2 ;

T oynbee , 1 964 , 2 52-3 ;

Sm ith , 1 969,

p l. 3 .31. L ow Ha m ( So m.) ( 126 ) D ido a nd Aeneas. P l. 6 . XX I Ia.

A r ectangu lar p ane l d ep icts , l e f t ,

as tand ing f e ma le f igure , t urned t o h er l ef t a nd s een l arge ly i n p rof ile , n ude s ave f or a ( ? ) d iadem a nd a s to le wh ich f a l ls f ro m h er l ef t s hou lder , r ound h er r igh t h ip , a nd a cross t he f ron t o f h er b ody , i t s l ower e nd a ppear ing f ro m b eh ind h er l ef t h ip . h ead .

Her h a ir a ppears t o b e w orn i n ab un o n t he c rown o f h er

Her l ef t f oot i s p laced b eh ind t he r igh t , a s i fs he were p ress ing h er

b ody f orward.

H er a rms a re r a ised a nd t he h ands a round t he n eck o f a

s tand ing ma le f igure whose r ight h and a ppears o n h er b ack wh i le h is l e f t h and i s r a ised t o c lasp h er r igh t s hou lder , a nd t he ir f aces a re c lose.

Her c om-

p an ion , l ikew ise s een i n p ro f i le , i s b earded a nd a t t ired i n aP hryg ian c ap , s hor t-s leeved t un ic w ith b e l t , a nd b usk ins. On e i ther s ide o f t he c oup le s tands a t ree.

The s cene h as b een i den t if ied a s d ep ict ing D ido a nd Aeneas

i n t he c l i mact ic e p isode o f t he ir r o mance a s r e lated b y V irg il i n t he f our th b ook o f t he Aene id.

P ost c . A .D. 3 30.

For r efs. s ee ( 2 ).

( So merset County Mus.)

S ee a lso ( 106 ), ( 131 ), ( 133 ).

Woodchester ( Glos.) ( 127 ) S a tyr a nd maenad.

P l. 6 . XX X [c.

Fragments o f a n o ctagona l p ane l

o f t he mosa ic p erhaps p or tray ing Bonus Even tus p reserved t he l ower p ar ts o f t wo f igures.

One , t o t he l ef t , a nd s tepp ing t o t he l ef t b u t p robab ly t urn ing

1 42

t owards t he s econd f igure , w as n ude a nd ma le.

The o ther , e v iden t ly s tepp ing

away f rom t he ma le , w as d raped a bout t he l egs a nd p resu mab ly f e ma le. There s ee ms l i t t le d oubt t hat t h is p anel d ep icted a s atyr a nd maenad.

Four th c en tury.

a l s itu , b ur ied.) For r e fs. s ee ( 25 ). ( 128 ) S a tyr a nd maenad .

Af ragmen t o f a nother o ctagona l p ane l , a t t he

n or th e nd o f t he c orr idor o n t he e ast s ide o f t he c our t e nc losed b y t he p r inc ip a l a partmen ts o f t he v i l la , p reserved , l ef t , t he u pper p ar t o f a ma le f igure , n ude s ave f or a s pot ted c loak , w ith h is h ead t urned t owards a f e ma le f igure o f wh ich o n ly t he h ead r e ma ined.

Aga in , t here s ee ms l i t t le d oub t t hat t h is

p ane l d ep icted a s atyr , w ith l eopard-sk in c loak , a nd a maenad . F our th c en t . a l s itu , b ur ied?) Lysons , 1 797, 1 4 , p l. XV I , 2 .

1 43

I I.

THREE-F IGURE S CENES

Bra mdean ( Han ts.) ( 129 ) H ercu les, An taeus , a nd T e l lus. P l. 6 .V I Ib.

A c en tral o ctagona l

p ane l d ep icted a n ude , muscu lar ma le f igure w ith l egs a par t , g r ipp ing a s im i lar f igure a bout t he wa ist a nd h o ld ing h im o f f t he g round a ga inst h is t h igh.

The l egs o f t he s econd f igure w ere c rossed.

Bes ide t he l ef t l eg o f

t he f irst f igure was wha t a ppear t o h ave b een a n a rcher 's b ow , aq u iver , a nd a c lub , a t tr ibu tes o f Hercu les.

The s cene h as t herefore j ust if iab ly b een

i den t if ied a s d ep ict ing t he wrest l ing c on test b etween H ercu les a nd An taeus , who was i nv inc ib le s o l ong a s h e r e ma ined i n c on tact w ith h is mo ther t he Ear th , a nd i n wh ich t he g od o verca me t he L ibyan g ian t b y h is a b il ity t o r a ise h im f rom t he g round — i nd ica ted i n t he mosa ic b y a n u ndu la t ing l ine — a nd c rush h im i n h is a rms.

Th is e xp la ins a f i gure t o t he l ef t o f t he c ontes tan ts.

A l though a t f irst s igh t s uggest ing M inerva , t h is must h e i den t if ied a s T e l lus ( i .e. t he Greek Goddess, Ge ), t he Ear th a nd mother o f An taeus.

S he w as

d ep icted a s s eated o n ad a is, h er h ead h a l f t urned t owards t he s pectator a s s he g estured w ith h er r igh t h and t owards h er v anqu ished s on , wh ile h er l e f t h and h e ld a l ong s taf f o r s cep tre — n o t as pear — r est ing o n t he d a is b y h er f eet .

What a ppears a s M inerv i's

ghiel

r t b e

s ymbo l iz ing t he e ar th , w h i le what a ppears a s M iner

da : . 3 '3

p lumed

must

b e am isrender ing o f ad iade m a nd o f t he b ranches o f at ree s he lter ing t he g oddess :

c f . S tevenson , 1 889 s .v . T e l lus S tab il.

Four o ther o c tagona l p anels

e ach d ep icted a b ust , f e ma le i n a spect , w i th d raped s houlders b ut n o i den t ifyi ng a t tr ibu te, a nd l esser p ane ls d ep icted c an thar i a nd p a irs o f d o lph ins. Four th c en t . ( Destroyed.) Roach Sm ith , 1 852, 1 900 , 3 08, f ig . 1 9 ;

i , 5 4-64 , p l. 2 0 ( I ;

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 58;

V .C.H. Han ts. a nd I . o f W. I ,

R a iney 1 973, p l. 2 , A .

L ow Ha m ( So m.) ( 130 ) D ido , Aeneas, a nd Ascan ius. P l . 6 . XX I Ia.

An o b long p ane l o f t he

mosa ic i l lustrat ing t he r o mance o f D ido a nd Aeneas d ep icts t hree f igures o n h orses g al lop ing t o t he r ight , o ne a f ter t he o ther .

The l eader i s ab oy a t t ired

i n ar ed P hryg ian c ap , t un ic , b reeches, b usk ins , a nd a r ed c loak wh ich s trea ms o ut b eh ind h i m.

H is e yes a re f i xed o n t he g round a head b u t h e i s

h a l f t urned i n t he s add le a s i ft o l i ste l i f or t he h oofbeats o f t he e ther h orses. The f igure f o l low ing h im i s ab earded ma le, n ude s ave f or a P hryg ian c ap , b usk ins , a nd a s tr iped c loak wrapped r ound h is l ef t a rm a nd b i l low ing b eh ind h i m.

H is h ead i s t urned t owards t he s pec ta tor b u t h is e yes l ook t owards t he

t h ird f igure , b r ing ing u p t he r ear .

Th is f i gure i s f e ma le a nd n ude s ave f or

a( ? ) d iade m, b usk ins, a s to le wrapped a round h er b ody a nd o ver h er l e f t a rm a nd a s tr iped c loak b i l low ing b eh ind h er . Her h a ir a ppears t o b e w orn i n ab un o n t he c rown o f h er h ead. Her e yes a re f ixed o n t he b earded ma le

1 44

f igure.

Th is s cene h as b een i den t if ied a s d ep ict ing D ido a nd Aeneas h un t ing

n ear Carthage , a s r elated b y V irg i l i n t he f our th b ook o f t he Aene id , t he f irst f igure b e ing r ecogn izab le a s C up id i n t he g u ise o f Ascan ius a s s een i n a no ther p ane l o f t he s a me mosa ic :

s ee ( 132 ).

P ost C . A .D. 3 30.

Mus.) For r efs. s ee ( 2 ).

S ee a lso ( 106 ), ( 126 ), ( 132 ).

1 45

( So merset Coun ty

I V.

FOUR-FIGURE S CENES

East Coker ( So m.) ( 131 ) The b ir th o f Bacchus. P l. 6 .X [ I Ia.

I n as ketch made a t t he t ime o f

d iscovery a c en tra l meda l l ion d ep icts , l ef t , as tand ing f e ma le f i gure , d raped a nd c rowned , a nd t o h er l ef t ab earded a nd d raped ma le f igure s tand ing b eh ind ac ouch o n wh ich r ec l ines a no ther f e ma le f i gure.

Bo th s tand ing f igures a re

g estur ing t owards t he r ec l in ing f igure, t he f e ma le w ith h er l e f t h and , t he ma le w i th h is r igh t , h is l ef t h o ld ing u p af l am ing t orch.

For tunately , t here

i s a lso p reserved a c onte mporary v erba l a ccoun t o f t h is s cene wh ich s upp lemen ts t he s ketch , p ar t icu lar ly i n t hat i ta l ludes t o af our th f i gure.

Th is

d escr ibes t he s cene a s d ep ict ing ' aw o man d resst , ' t is t hough t , i n t he R o man s to la w ith i t s p urp le l at ic lave , o r b order ;

a nother much d amaged ;

wh ich ,

w ith t he f ormer , e ach g ive a h and t o f ix t he c loaths a bou t a no ther wo man , l y ing o n ac ouch n aked t o b e low h er w a ist , a nd o n who m t he p hys ic ian h ard b y p repared t o d o s o me o perat ion b y t he f ire , e i ther c upp ing o r b urn ing a b le t o s u it t he u se o f t he r oo m .T*

The l a te S ir I an R ich mond p erce ived ( and s ug-

g ested t o t he p resen t wr i ter ), t hat t he s ketch must d ep ict S e me le , o n t he c ouch , a t t he mo men t o f g iv ing b ir th t o B acchus ( D ionysus ) i n t he p resence o f J up iter ( Zeus ) a nd J uno ( Hera ).

J uno , j ea lous o f J up iter 's l ove f or S eme le, c on tr ived

h is s e l f-reve lat ion t o t he l a t ter .

S e me le g ave p re ma ture b ir th t o t he ir s on

a s s he was c onsu med b y t he l igh tn ing wh ich a cco mpan ied J up iter 's man ifestat ion .

Accord ing t o o ne v ers ion o f t he my th , J up iter c oncea led t he b ir th f ro m

J uno b y s ew ing u p t he c h i ld i n h is t h igh.

Ano ther r e lated t ha t t he i n fan t g od

was c arr ied o f f a nd n ursed b y S e me le 's s is ter , I no. t he n ymphs o f Mt . Nysa.

He was b rough t u p b y

The f igure m iss ing f ro m t he s ketch w as t herefore

p resumab ly e ither I no o r an ymph , t he d escr ipt ion i n t he v erba l a ccoun t o f t he mosa ic p erhaps f avour ing t he f ormer .

The c rown i n t he s ke tch must b e

am isrender ing o f ad iade m i n t he mosa ic , a nd t he t orch a m isrender ing o f J up iter 's f u l men.

The s ketch a lso d ep icts a b ust o f Mercury i n e ach a ng le

o f t he mosa ic , r eca l l ing t he f igure o f Hermes i n o ther r epresen tat ions o f t he b ir th o f Bacchus.

Bu t t here i s g ood r eason t o r egard t hese b usts a s

f ur ther m isrender ings b y t he d raugh ts man o f b usts p erson ify ing t he f our w inds :

c f : ( 110 ) , ( 111), ( 112 ).

The s ub jec t o f t he b ir th o f B acchus, t hough

s a id t o h ave b een d ep icted i n p a in t ing a s e ar ly a s t he t h ird c en tury B .C., i s r are i n Graeco-Ro man a r t .

I t i s k nown i n r e l ief s cu lp ture , a nd e ven i n a

l ate Ro man t ex t i le f ro m Egyp t , b u t n ot a s y et i n a ny o ther mosa ic. c en t .

Four th

( Destroyed .)

Draw ing p reserved i n ac opy o f Co l l inson 's S o merset i n t he Bodle ian ( Gough , S o m. 1 0 ) ;* f ig . 8 8;

Gen t . Mag ., 1 753, 2 93 ;

Toynbee , 1 964, 2 40 ;

V .C.H. S o m. I , 1 906 , 3 30 ,

Sm ith , 1 969 , 9 1, f ig . 3 .3.

1 46

L ow Ha m ( So m.) ( 132 ) A eneas, Ascan ius, D ido , V enus.

P l. 6 .XX I I Ib.

An a l most s quare

p anel d ep icts f ro m l ef t t o r ight a b earded ma le f igure , ab oy , an ude f e ma le f igure a nd a nother f e ma le f igure.

The ma le f igure i s a t t ired i n aP hryg ian

c ap , ah a l f-s leeved t un ic w ith ab road b el t o r c u mmerbund , a nd b usk ins , a nd as tr iped c loak f astened a t h is r igh t s hou lder c overs h is b reast a nd l ef t s hou lder a nd h angs d own h is l e f t s ide.

He s tands, g lanc ing s ide long a t t he

s econd f e ma le f igure , h o ld ing a s pear n ear t he h ead w ith h is r igh t h and a nd w ith h is l e f t h and o n h is b e lt , w h ile h is r igh t l eg i s c rossed o ver t he l e f t . T he b oy i s h a l f t urned t o h is l e f t , w ith e yes g az ing a head.

H e i s a t t ired i n

a Phryg ian c ap r evea l ing t he f r inge o f h is h a ir a nd a r ed c loak wh ich c overs a l l a par t f ro m t he r ight s leeve o f h is t un ic ( w ith t r ip le-banded c uf f ) a nd h is b reeches a nd b usk ins. h is r igh t s hou lder .

H is r igh t h and r ests o n as hor t s pear l ean ing a ga inst

The n ude f e ma le f igure i s p osed w ith h er w e igh t o n h er

l e f t l eg , t he l ef t h ip a ccord ing ly t hrown o u t , a s s he p asses h er r igh t a rm b eh ind t he b oy 's n eck t o r est t he h and o n h is r igh t s hou lder , wh ile w ith h er l e f t a rm s he g en t ly d raws t he o ther f e ma le f orward. c en tral ly a nd b obbed.

Her h a ir i s p ar ted

S he i s a dorned w ith a d o med c rown o r d iade m r is ing

f ro m a j ewe l led h eadband , an eck let , a nd , s uspended o n h er b reast , a n o va l g em f rom w h ich c ords ( or c ha ins?) p ass o ver b o th s hou lders a nd a round h er w a ist.

T he s econd f e ma le f igure s tands , g lanc ing s ideways t owards t he

b earded ma le.

Her c o iffure i nc ludes a l arge b un o n t op o f t he h ead.

S he i s

d raped a bou t t he h ips a nd l egs i n ap ar t ly d iaphanous g armen t o f wh ich t he u pper p ar t h as f a l len o pen f rom t he s hou lders t o e xpose h er b ody f rom t he w a ist u p .

Her l ef t a rm c rosses h er b ody a nd t he h and g rasps t he g armen t

a t h er r igh t s ide , t hough w hether t o a rrest o r t o h asten i t s f a l l i s l ef t t o t he i mag ina t ion.

Her r igh t h and i s r a ised w ith t he f oref inger t o h er l ips , ag es-

t ure s uggest ing a g asp , wh i le t he t ransparen t d ress r evea ls h er l egs t o b e p osed e xac t ly a s t hose o f t he b earded ma le. e ach o ther i s unm istakab le.

The a bsorpt ion o f t hese t wo i n

T h is s cene h as b een r ecogn ized a s d ep ict ing t he

meet ing b e tween Aeneas a nd D ido , q ueen o f Car thage , t he n ude f e ma le f igure b e ing i den t if iab le b y h er d iade m a s V enus Genetr ix , mo ther o f Aeneas, a nd t he b oy a s Cup id , a lso h er s on , i n t he g u ise o f Aeneas 's s on A scan ius. c . A.D. 3 30.

( So merset Coun ty Mus.)

For r efs. s ee ( 2 ).

S ee a lso ( 106 ), ( 126 ), ( 130 ).

1 47

A f ter

V .

A F IVE-FIGURE GROUP

Brad ing ( I . o f W.) ( 133 ) Tr itons a nd n ere ids. P l. 6 . V.

An o b long , f r ieze-l ike p ane l d ep icts,

i n t he c entre, a n ude ma le f i gure w ith l egs c o iled i n to f ish ta i ls f ro m t he k nees. With h is r igh t h and h e h o lds a n o ar o ver h is s hou lder a nd i n h is c rooked l e f t a rm b ears a b asket o f ( ? ) o vo id f ru it ( or e ggs ).

To h is r igh t i s a nother f i g-

u re w ith t he n ude b ody o f a ma le b u t t wo f i nny f ore legs a nd a l ong e e l-l ike t a i l i nstead o f l ower l imbs.

H e s w i ms t o t he l ef t , h o ld ing a p edu m o ver t he

s hou lder w ith h is r igh t h and a nd r each ing o u t w ith t he l ef t t o s teady a f e ma le f igure r ec l in ing o n h is t a il w ith h er h ead t urned t owards h is a nd h er b are b ack t o t he s pec tator .

S he l i es o n p ar t o f t he d rapery w h ich e nve lops h er l egs a nd

i n h er r igh t h and h o lds u p a n i vy l eaf .

T o t he l ef t o f t he c en tra l f igure i s a

s im i lar p a ir , t he ma le sw imm ing t o t he r igh t a nd h o ld ing u p ap ipe ( or c onch? ) i n h is l ef t h and wh i le r each ing o u t w ith t he r ight t o s teady t he f e male r ec l in ing o n h is t a il . S he i s n ude s ave f or d rapery a round h er l egs a nd b i l low ing i n a n a rc b eh ind h er h ead , a nd f aces t he s pecta tor .

Together t hese f igures c an b e

r egarded a s r epresen t ing a ' mar ine t h iasos ' o r g roup o f mar ine d evo tees o f Bacchus. Four th c en t . F or r efs. s ee ( 4 ).

( 1. 1s itu .) S ee a lso ( 4 1), ( 83 ) , ( 108 ), ( 1 15 ), ( 116 ) , ( 117 ), ( 1 18 ),

( 1 19 ).

V I.

S O ME I NCERTA

Fra mpton ( Dorset ), mosa ic B . ( 134 ) P l. 6 .X IVa.

A much d a maged s quare p ane l p reserved , l ef t , t he

l ower p ar t o f t he l egs a nd f eet o f af igure , a pparen t ly a c h i ld , t urned a way f ro m t he s pec tator .

On t he r ight w ere t he r e ma ins o f a n a du l t f igure , f u l ly

d raped b ut w ith b are f eet , p laced u pon a s ea t , a pparent ly h o ld ing v er t ica l ly al ong s taf f r est ing o n t he g round a t h is l e f t s ide a nd t urned t owards t he sma l ler f igure.

F our th c en t .

F or r efs. s ee ( 17 ).

( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 6 ), ( 12 ), ( 57 ), ( 121), ( 135 ).

( 135 ) P l. 6 .X [Va , XV b . o n ac onven t iona l ized r ock .

A s quare p ane l d ep icted , l ef t , af igure s eated He w as a t t ired i n aP hyrg ian c ap , at un ic w ith

a( ? ) c u m merbund , a nd b aggy t rousers , b u t was b arefooted. t he s pec tator b u t h is h ead a nd l egs w ere t urned t o h is l ef t .

H is b ody f aced H is r igh t h and

r ested o n t he t op o f as hor t s taf f a nd t he o ther h e ld a p an-p ipe o n h is l e f t k nee. To t he r ight s tood a f e ma le f igure , o n who m h is e yes were t urned.

H er

d rapery was t hrown b ack , e xpos ing h er b ody f ro m t he h ips u p , a nd w ith h er r igh t a rm s he g estured t owards t he ma le f igure.

Fro m h is c os tu me a nd t he

p an-p ipe t he l a t ter i s t o b e r ecogn ized a s as hepherd , b ut t he f e male f i gure

1 48

has no identifying attribute. It has nevertheless been suggested that the scene depicts another episode in the myth of Venus and Adonis: cf. (121). It might, however, depict any celebrated episode involving a shepherd and a female figure such as Paris and Aphrodite. Fourth cent. (Destroyed.) For refs. see (17). See also (6), (12), (57), (121), (134). Frampton (Dorset), mosaic A. (136) The central square panel preserved only representations, at the top, of a hand evidently raised above the head of the missing figure, holding or swinging what has been described as a cluster of grapes. To the right of this is the knobbed head of a staff. The figure has been restored and des­ cribed as Bacchus but, although no alternative suggestion seems possible, the identification of a cluster of grapes is unconvincing and its position in any case improbable if not unparalleled in any representation of Bacchus. Fourth cent. (Destroyed?) For refs. see (37). See also (56), (110). Keynsham (Som.) (137) Pl. 6.XIXd. A damaged rectangular panel preserves, left, the greater part of a draped figure with bare arms and feet, almost certainly female, seat­ ed with feet apart on a high-backed chair. To the right, and partly behind her, another draped and barefooted figure steps to the right, exposing the left leg from lmee to foot, with both hands thrown up and the fingers outspread in an obvious gesture of alarm or horror. Unfortunately the heads of both figures are missing. Above them, apparently rising above a screen or wall, are the shoulders and bearded head of a male figure bearing a wand or sceptre over his left shoulder. The scene has been tentatively identified as depicting 'Leda and the swan, with a maid fleeing in horror and Jupiter looking down from heaven on his own disguise' (Toynbee). But the supposed tail feathers of the swan a ppear more probably to be folds of drapery covering the chair and falling to the left of the right leg and also between the legs of the seated figure. Perhaps a more plausible suggestion, for which I am indebted to Mr.I. M. Barton, is that the scene may depict Achilles on Skyros. Fourth cent. (Fry's Chocolate Factory, Somerdale.) Arch. LXXV, 1926, 126-28, pl. XVI, 2; Toynbee, 1964, 240. See also (123), (138). (138) Pl. 6.XIXc. The surviving part of a rectangular panel preserves, left, most of a barefooted figure draped in a long girdled tunic, bending forward to the right and playing on a double pipe (tibiae pares). On the right are remains of a similarly attired figure beating with the left hand a tambour­ ine held against the right thigh. On the ground between them, inside an ir­ regular frame, is a beardless (but certainly male) head in a crested helmet, lying on its left side with a pipe projecting from the mouth. The two figures are evidently either musicians or maenads. It has been suggested that the helmet is a misrendered Phrygian cap and the head that of Orpheus, severed by the frenzied Thracian maenads and cast into the river Hebrus, where it continued to sing as it floated away. But it seems doubtful whether a 149

Phryg ian c ap c ou ld h ave b een s o m isunders tood a s t o s o c lear ly r ese mb le a c rested h e l met .

Four th c en t .

( Fry 's Choco la te F ac tory , S omerda le.)

Arch . LXXV , 1 926 , 1 28, P l. XV I I, 2 ;

Toynbee , 1 964, 2 41.

S ee a lso

( 123 ), ( 137 ). L it t leco te P ark ( 139 ) P l. 6 . XX [a.

I n af our-spoked w hee l-des ign , w ith a c entra l meda l-

l ion p or tray ing Orpheus , t he f our p ane ls b e tween t he s pokes e ach d ep ic ted a f e ma le f igure r ec l in ing o n t he b ack o f ap ranc ing q uadruped. i n a n a n t i-c lockw ise d irect ion . h ind , a nd a l eopard.

A l l were mov ing

The a n i ma ls w ere a s po t ted b u l l , ag oa t , a

The f igure o n t he b ack o f t he b u l l was f u l ly d raped s ave

f or h er a rms, a nd h er r igh t a rm w as r a ised t o r est t he h and o n t he h ead o f a c ru tch-l ike s taf f e n tw ined w ith l eaves. The f igure o n t he b ack o f t he g oa t was s im i lar ly a t t ired .

S he r a ised h er r ight h and i n ag esture s uggest ing a g reet-

i ng b u t b ore n o a t tr ibu te.

The f igure o n t he b ack o f t he h ind w as d raped o n ly

a bou t t he l egs. With h er r igh t h and s he r a ised a nd h e ld b efore h er f ace a r ound o b ject s uggest ing e ither a m irror o r ac up o n i t s s ide.

The f i gure o n t he

b ack o f t he l eopard was a ga in d raped o n ly a bou t t he l egs.

H er r ight a rm was

p ar t ly o utstretched a nd s uppor ted a l arge s lender-necked b ird ( peacock? ) w ith i t s h ead t urned t owards h er f ace.

These f i gures h ave g enera l ly b een i dent i-

f i ed a s r epresen tat ions o f t he H orae o r S easons , b u t o n ly t hree h ad a t tr ibutes a nd n ot o ne o f t he f igures i s a tt ired i n t he h ood n orma l ly i den t ify ing Win ter . N or d o t he a n i ma ls a ppear , a s i n c er ta in o ther mosa ics, t o h ave b een s e lected a nd o rdered t o r epresen t t he S easons.

I ft hey w ere , t he l eopard a s s acred

t o Bacchus w ou ld r epresen t Autu mn , t he s eason o f t he v in tage ;

b ut t he f igure

b ear ing what a ppears t o h ave b een a t hyrsus, a n a t tr ibute o f B acchus a nd h is d evo tees , i s mounted o n t he b u l l.

Ad m it ted ly , t he f igures i nv ite c o mpar ison

w ith t hose moun ted o n a n i ma ls wh ich a re d ep icted o n al ate R oman s i lver s i tu la f ro m s ou thern Gau l , i n t he Br it ish Museu m ; b u t , w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he c ho ice o f ap anther f or S pr ing a s w e l l a s f or Autumn , t hese a re c lear ly i den t if iab le b y t he ir a t tr ibutes a s p erson if icat ions

o f t he S easons.

I n s hor t ,

s o me o ther i n terpretat ion must b e s ough t f or t he f igures o f L it t lecote P ark , t hough wha t t hat s hou ld b e r e ma ins o bscure.

Four th c en t.

( 1 2 . s itu , b ur ied.)

Co l. e ng . b y Tho mas V er tue , a f ter o r ig . dwgs., i n t he H aver f ie ld C o l l., Ash mo lean Mus.; I X ;

F ow ler , 1 796-1818, n o. 2 0 ;

Co l t Hoare , 1 821, 17, p l. I ;

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 53-54.

Lysons, 1 813 , p t. i v , 4 , p l.

R ich mond , 1 947 , p l. o pp . p . 3 3 ;

S ee a lso ( 72 ).

P itney ( So m.) ( 140 ) P l. 6 .X :XV I I.

The c en tra l o c tagona l p ane l , f ro m w h ich r ad ia ted

e igh t p ane ls e ach d ep ict ing a f igure , p or trayed a ma le f igure w ith h is d rapery t hrown b ack o ver h is l ef t s hou lder a nd a round t he r igh t , e xpos ing h is b ody f ro m t he h ips u p , s eated o n ac onven t iona l ized r ock .

H is r a ised r igh t h and

h e ld what a ppears t o h ave b een a v esse l w i thout h and les wh i le h is l ef t h and a lso was r a ised t o h o ld , n ear t he t op , as ta f f o r s cep tre r es t ing o n t he g round b es ide h is l ef t f oo t . a nd s ty l ized t hyrsus. Four th c en t .

The f i gure h as b een i den t if ied a s Bacchus , w ith a c up The f eet h ave b een c u t o f f b y t he f rame o f t he p anel.

( Destroyed.)

1 50

For r efs. s ee ( 50-51).

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 1 13 ), ( 141), ( 142 ), ( 143 ),

( 144 ). ( 141) P l. 6 . XXV I I.

One o f t he e ight p anels r ad ia t ing f ro m a c en tra l o ct-

a gona l p ane l d ep icted a n ude male f igure , w ith a c loak s lung o ver h is r igh t f orearm a nd a s to le w ound a round h is l e f t f orearm , s tr id ing t o t he l ef t wh i le h a l f f ac ing t he s pec tator . H is r igh t h and h e ld a s hor t s t ick , t he l ef t t he h and le o f w ha t a ppears t o h ave b een a w ooden b ucket c on ta in ing sma l l s o l id o b jects.

T he f igure h as b een i den t if ied a s Mercury b u t t he i den t if icat ion i s

h ard ly s a t isfactory .

Four th c en t.

For r e fs. s ee ( 50-51).

( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 1 13 ), ( 140 ), ( 142 ), ( 143 ),

( 144 ). ( 142 ) P l . 6. XXV I I.

One o f t he e igh t p ane ls r ad ia t ing f ro m a c en tra l o ct-

t agona l p ane l d ep icted a f e ma le f igure , i n as eated p osture, w ith a v e il b il lowi ng a round h er h ead a nd b ack a nd o ver h er r igh t t h igh a nd l e f t l eg , e xpos ing most o f h er b ody .

H er r igh t h and , c ross ing h er b ody , h e ld a l ong s taf f r est ing

o n h er r igh t s hou lder wh i le h er l ef t h and was r a ised t o h o ld p ar t o f h er v e il. The f igure h as b een i dent if ied s i mp ly a s ad anc ing maenad.

Four th c en t .

( Destroyed . ) For r e fs. s ee ( 50-51). ( 143 ) P l . 6 .2 aV I I.

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 1 13 ), ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 143 ), ( 144 ).

One o f t he e igh t p ane ls r ad iat ing f ro m a c en tra l o ct-

a gona l p ane l d ep icted a f e ma le f igure w ith h er d rapery t hrown o ver h er l ef t s hou lder a nd a round h er r igh t , e xpos ing h er b ody f ro m t he h ips u p , s eated o n ac onven t iona l ized r ock .

H er r ight h and c rossed h er b ody t o a d just t he d rapery

o n h er l e f t s ide wh i le h er l e f t h and w as r a ised t o t he s hou lder , a pparen t ly a ga in t o a d just t he d rapery .

To t he r igh t , b es ide h er l egs, l ay o r was f a l l ing

w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a p a ir o f h inged wr it ing t ab lets. t a t ive ly b een i den t if ied a s P haedra. For r e fs. s ee ( 50-51). ( 144 ) P l. 6. XXV I I.

Four th c en t .

The f igure h as t en-

( Destroyed.)

S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 1 13 ), ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 142 ), ( 144 ).

One o f t he e igh t p ane ls r ad iat ing f ro m a c en tra l o ct-

a gona l p ane l d ep icted a ma le f igure w ear ing b usk ins b u t o therw ise n ude s ave f or a c loak s l ipp ing f ro m h is l e f t s hou lder a nd h ang ing b eh ind h i m. s tepp ing b r isk ly t o t he r igh t w h ile l ook ing t o t he l ef t .

He was

H is r igh t h and w as i n

f ron t o f h is b reas t , p a lm f orward a nd f ingers o utspread , a nd h e h e ld a l ong s taf f v er t ica l ly i n h is l ef t h and. H ippo ly tus.

Four th c en t .

For r e fs. s ee ( 50-51).

The f i gure h as b een i den t if ied t en ta t ive ly a s

( Destroyed.) S ee a lso ( 60 ), ( 96 ), ( 113 ), ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 142 ), ( 143 ).

( 145 ) P l. 6. XXV Ib. A meda l l ion d ep icted a n ude y outh s pr ing ing t o t he r ight b u t w ith h is h ead t urned b ack t owards a s erpen t r is ing t o a t tack h i m. H is r igh t a rm was u pra ised a nd i n t he h and was a s t ick w ith wh ich h e was a bou t t o s tr ike t he r ep t ile. Bes ide h is r a ised l ef t k nee, h is l ef t h and h e ld wha t a ppears t o h ave b een a w ooden b ucket f ro m wh ich t he c on ten ts w ere s p i l l ing . The s cene h as b een i den t if ied t en tat ive ly a s e ither Apo l lo k i l l ing t he Py thon o r a s H ercu les k i l l ing t he Hydra , b ut t he f igure i s p la in ly f l ee ing f ro m t he s erpen t .

Iam i ndebted t o Dr . G . L loyd- Morgan f or s uggest ing t ha t t he s cene

1 51

m igh t i l lustra te t he my th o f T ires ias, a nd t o Dr . Mar t in Hen ig , c i t ing R ich ter , 1 971, 7 0 , n o. 3 28, f or a s uggest ion t hat i tm ight i l lustrate t he my th o f C ad mus. Four th c en t .

( Destroyed.)

Top. Co i ls., S o m. v o l., p en a nd w tr . c o lr. dwg . b y S . H ase l l , t he o r ig ina l o f h is c o l. e ngs.;

V .C.H. S o m. I , 1 906 , 3 27, f ig . 8 6 ;

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 49.

Rudge ( W i l ts.) ( 146 )

A much d a maged meda l l ion p reserved , l e f t , t he g rea ter p ar t o f a

d raped f i gure , p robab ly f e ma le, w ith h er r igh t f oo t t urned t owards h er r igh t ; t he sw ing o f h er d rapery i s s uggest ive o f b r isk move ment i n t hat d irect ion . To h er l ef t t here r e ma ined t he b are l egs o f af igure , u ndoub ted ly ma le , a nd t he l ower p ar t o f ac loak b eh ind h i m. b ucket , s p i l l ing i t s c on ten ts. Four th c en t .

B e tween h is l egs was a n o ver turned ( ?)

The s cene may h ave d ep icted a s atyr a nd n a iad.

( Destroyed.)

Co l t Hoare , 1 821, 1 21, p l. o pp. p . 1 21;

Toynbee , 1 964 ,

P .

2 54.

Then ford ( Nor than ts.) ( 147 ) P l. 6 .)0( IXb.

A meda l l ion d ep icts, f ro m t he wa is t u p , af e ma le

f igure i n at igh t-f it t ing d iaphanous d ress w ith s hor t s leeves p a t terned a round t he h e m.

On t he c rown o f h er h ead i s ar ed c ap.

B eneath t h is h er h a ir i s

p arted c en tra l ly t o f a l l i n s ty l ized waves t o t he s hou lders. a t t he s pec tator a nd h er c heeks a re marked ly r ed.

H er e yes s tare

The a rms a re t runcated

a bove t he e lbows b y t he f ra me o f t he meda l l ion , b u t r is ing a cross t he l e f t s hou lder , a s i fh e ld i n t hat h and , i s ab ranch b ear ing a f ew l eaves.

The l ast

i s n o t t he a t tr ibu te o f Win ter , whose b ranch i s i nvar iab ly b are , a nd t he c ostume i s c er ta in ly n ot t hat o f Win ter , n or d oes t he f igure r epresen t a ny o ther S eason.

Four th c en t . ( 2 . A .D. 3 50?)

( Then ford House.)

Excavat ion r epor t b y Mr . I . F . S anders f or thco m ing , w i th n ote o n t he mosa ic b y D . J . Sm ith . Wh it t lebury ( Nor than ts.) ( 148 )

A d a maged s quare p ane l p reserved most o f af e ma le b ust , w inged ,

t he h ead a dorned w ith s o me f orm o f h ead-dress h av ing t hree sma l l s em ic ircu lar p ro tuberances a nd r ese mb l ing a c oronet r a ther t han , a s h as b een s uggested , a wreath.

A t t he t op r ight h and c orner o f t he p ane l t here r e ma ined ,

a pparen t ly , p ar ts o f t wo l eaves , p resu mab ly t he t op o f ab ranch o r s pray o f l eaves r est ing a ga inst t he l ef t s hou lder.

T he b us t h as b een t en tat ive ly i den-

t i f ied a s V ictor ia , b ut t h is s ub ject s ee ms i mprobab le i n a mosa ic. c en t .

F our th

( Repor ted t o h ave b een r e moved t o W indsor Cast le b u t a pparen t ly n o t

k nown t here.) J .B.A.A. V I I, 1 852, 1 07 , p l. X E ;

V .C.H. N or thants. I , 1 902, 1 99 ,

Ra iney , 1 973, 1 56 , p l. 1 4A. Win ter ton ( L incs.), mosa ic C . ( 149 ) P l. 6 . XXX Ia.

A meda l l ion d ep ic ts a d raped b ust o f u ncer ta in s ex

w ith a c ornucop ia r is ing a bove t he r ight s hou lder .

1 52

Th is i s as ymbo l o f

i ncrease a nd p len ty a nd , a ccord ing ly , a n a t tr ibu te o f p erson if ied c oncep ts s uch a s h app iness a nd p rosper i ty .

The b ust m igh t t herefore b e ap erson if ica-

t i on o f Abundan t ia, Fecund itas, F e l ic itas , For tuna , Prov iden t ia, o r s o me s im i lar c oncep t , a lthough i n a l l c ases t he c ornucop ia i s n orma l ly b orne o ver t he l e f t s hou lder .

c . A .D. 3 50 .

( Scun thorpe Mus.)

Sm ith , 1 976a , 2 56-58, P ls. .XV I I I, XX I, XX [ I. W in terton ( L incs.) mosa ic B . ( 150 )

A meda l l ion was r ecorded i n 1 753 a s d ep ict ing a b ust , d raped a nd

w ith a h a irsty le s uggest ing t he f e ma le s ex .

Aga inst t he l ef t s hou lder was a n

a t tr ibute d escr ibed a s as hea f o f c orn , a nd t he b ust w as a ccord ing ly i den t if ied a s C eres.

B u t r ecen t r e-excava t ion h as e nab led t he a ctua l r e ma ins o f t h is

mosa ic t o b e s tud ied , a nd a l though l ess t han h a lf o f t he meda l l ion h ad s urv ived t h is p reserved t he h ead o f t he b ust a nd a f ew t esserae o f t he t op o f t he a t tr ibu te. These t esserae, wh ich f ormed more t han a n o u t l ine , w ere b lue a nd p urp le. S uch c o lours r ender i td if f icu l t i fn o t i mposs ib le t o a ccep t t he i dent if icat ion o f t he a t tr ibu te a s as heaf o f c orn , a nd t he i den t if icat ion o f t he b ust a s Ceres i s c onsequen t ly q uest ionab le. o f fered ;

A t t he s ame t ime, n o o ther s uggest ion c an b e

a nd i t may b e t hat t h is b ust i s o ne o f an u mber i n Ro mano-Br it ish

f our th-cen tury mosa ics wh ich a ppear t o h ave n o p ar t icu lar s ymbo l ic s ign if ic ance , e ven w hen p rov ided w ith s o me f orm o f a t tr ibu te : ( 148 ), ( 149 ).

Four th c en t .

( Scun thorpe C iv ic C en tre.)

Sm ith , 1 976a , 2 58-9, p ls. XV I, XV I I, XX I I I.

1 53

c f . ( 3 8), ( 129 ), ( 147 ),

EP ILOGL TE

With t he s ing le e xcep t ion o f Abraxas ( 1 ), e very f igure , b ust , mask a nd s cene i n Ro mano-Br it ish mosa ic i s d rawn f ro m Graeco-Roman s ources , a nd more e spec ia l ly f rom Greek my tho logy.

T he most p opu lar s ub jects a ppear

t o h ave b een J up iter i n h is s evera l me tamorphoses , Bacchus ( and v ar ious f igures i n t he Bacch ic t h iasos ), N ep tune , a nd , e spec ia l ly , O rpheus.

The

c ho ice imp l ies a t l east t hat t he mosa ic ists ' p atrons w ere e duca ted i n , n o t t o s ay d evoted t o , t he c lass ics. 1

I t c an b e s a id t hat V irg il a nd Ov id a re n o tab ly

r epresen ted , wh i le mosa ics s uch a s t hose o f Brad ing r ef lec t w ider i n terests, r e l ig ious a s w el l a s l i terary ;2

i ndeed t he r eper tory o f t he f our th-cen tury

f igured mosa ics o f Br ita in d eserves f ur ther s tudy n ot o n ly f rom t he a r t-h ist or ica l s tandpo in t b u t a lso i n t he c on tex t o f c on te mporary s oc ia l a nd r e l ig ious h istory .

I t must b e r e me mbered , h owever , t hat t he mosa ics w ith mos t

f igures a nd s cenes a re l arge ly f rom o ne p ar t o f Br ita in , n ame ly S o merset a nd Dorset ;

a nd t h is i n i t se l f i s s ure ly o f s o me s ign if icance.

Aq uest ion o f o uts tand ing i n terest i s t ha t o f t he mode ls b eh ind t he mosa ics. I t i s p erhaps g enera l ly a ssu med t hat t he i m med iate mode ls w ere p at tern-books. Moreover , i th as b een s uggested t hat t here w as a n i ndustry s pec ial iz ing i n t he p roduct ion o f p at tern-books f or a r t ist-cra f ts men s uch a s mosa ic ists , a nd t ha t s im i lar it ies i n t he r epresen ta t ion o f t he s a me s ub jec t i n w ide ly d istan t p laces c an t hus b e e xp la ined. 3

I n f act , t he ' s ty le ' o f n on-represen ta t iona l mosa ics

o f fers more c onv inc ing e v idence f or t he u se a nd r e-use o f d es igns, p a t terns a nd mo t ifs t han d oes t he t rea tmen t o f f igure-sub jects ;

b u t t he s a me e v idence

a lso d e monstrates t ha t d es igns w ere p roduced i n o r f or workshops e s tab l ished i n c i t ies a nd t he p r inc ipa l t owns a nd o pera t ing t herefro m u p t o ad istance o f n ot more t han a bou t t wo d ays ' j ourney .

H ere , t he a l most i den t ical r epe t it ion

o f ad es ign a t p laces a s f ar a par t a s Woodchester a nd Tr ier i s s o r are a n e xc ept ion a s t o p rove t he r u le . 4 ad if feren t c ategory ;

I tm igh t b e a rgued t ha t f igure-sub jects a re i n

y et t here i s n o s ub ject wh ich i s t reated s o s im i lar ly

o r s o f requen t ly a s t o s uppor t ab e l ief i n t he w ide c ircu lat ion o f p at tern-books. On t he c on trary , c er ta in f igure-sub jects a ppear i n t he mosa ics o f o ne p rov ince a nd n o o ther , o r o n ly i n w ide ly s eparated p rov inces , wh ile s ome a re r are , d ep ict ing a pparen t ly l i t t le k nown my ths o r my tho log ica l e p isodes, a nd s ome a re s o f ar u npara l le led a nywhere.

There i s r eason t o b e l ieve , t herefore ,

t hat c ho ice o f f i gure-sub jects w as n o t i nvar iab ly g overned b y t he a va i lab il ity a nd c on ten ts o f p at tern-books , a nd a lso t ha t i t was g enera l ly — a s o ne w ou ld e xpect — t he c l ien t r ather t han t he mosa ic is t who d e term ined t he c ho ice. I t i s h ere t ha t t he q uest ion o f mode ls a r ises.

Fa m il iar s ub jec ts , a nd i cono logy ,

were s ure ly l earn t ' i n t he t rade ', a nd t rans m it ted f rom e ach g enerat ion o f mosa ic ists t o t he n ex t , d oub t less w ith a c on t inua l t endency t owards s imp l if icat ion .

From t ime t o t ime , p resu mab ly , c onven t iona l ized f igures a nd s cenes

wou ld b e e laborated o r o therw ise g iven n ew l i fe b y ac reat ive ly m inded mastermosa ic ist o r i n r esponse t o t he i deas o f ap ar t icu lar c l ien t .

1 54

F or u n fa m il iar

s ub jects mode ls w i l l g enera l ly h ave b een a va i lab le i n o ther med ia — t ex t iles , s cu lpture, w a l l-pa in t ings , i vory c arv ings, me ta lwork , a nd i l lustrated manus cr ip ts , t o c i te o n ly t he most o bv ious.

For e xa mp le , t he c yc le o f s cenes i n

t he mosa ic f rom Low Ha m ( 2 ) ( 1 26 ) ( 130 ) ( 132 ), a s y et u npara l le led i n mosa ic , a re s uf f ic ien t ly a k in t o m in iatures i n l ate manuscr ip ts o f t he Aene id a s t o s ugg est t hat s uch a manuscr ip t p rov ided t he mode ls o n wh ich t hey w ere b ased . I f s o , h ow many o ther l ate Roman mosa ics d ep ict ing my tho log ica l f igures a nd s cenes r eferab le t o l i terature may h ave b een s uggested b y , i fn ot a ctua l ly mode l led o n , i l lustrat ions i n manuscr ipts wh ich h ave n o t s urv ived? 5

The

q uest ion i s a dm it ted ly r hetor ica l , a nd i t may b e a s w e l l t o a dd t hat s uch mos a ics c an p erhaps o n ly b e i den t if ied b y s ty l ist ic a nd t echn ica l f eatures , a s w e l l a s o bv ious r eference t o l i tera ture , wh ich s et t he m a par t f ro m o therw ise c onv en t iona l mosa ics :

s uch a re , f or i nstance , t he mosa ics o f L u l l ingstone ( 14 ),

( 27 ). I n c onclus ion , i ts ee ms w or th men t ion ing t wo o u tstand ing n eeds i n t he s tudy o f Ro man a r t .

One i s t he c o mp i lat ion o f d escr ip t ive a nd i l lustra ted s urveys

o f my tho log ica l f igures a nd s cenes , i n e very med iu m , t hroughou t t he Emp ire. The o ther i s a n a uthor ita t ive i l lustra ted d ict ionary o f a t tr ibu tes , s ymbo ls, a nd i cono logy g enera l ly .

REFERENCES 1 .

J ackson , 1 953, 1 09-10 ;

R ich mond , 1 966, 1 9.

2 .

R ich mond , 1 955 , 1 22-3;

T oynbee , 1 962, 1 2;

3 .

Toynbee , 1 962, 1 5 ;

4 .

Par lasca , 1 959 , 5 0 p l. 5 0 ;

Sm ith , 1 969, 16-7.

Toynbee , 1 964 , 1 0-11. Sm ith , 1 965 , 1 13-4 f ig . 1 8;

Sm ith , 1 969 , 1 16,

p l. 3 .32. 5 .

We itz mann , 1 959 , c hap ter i v , p ass i m.

C f . Hen ig f or thco m ing , o n t he

p robab le e x istence o f s uch manuscr ip ts i n Ro man Br ita in ,

1 55

I NDEX I :

SUBJECTS

Abraxas ( 1 )

Me lpomene ( 48 )

? Abundant ia e tc. ( 149 ), ( 150 )

Mercury ( 46 ), ( 47 )

Acha tes ( 2 )

?M inotaur ( 99 )

? Ach i lles ( 137 )

Muses ( 48)

Actaeon ( 3 )

Na iads ( 49 )-(52 ), ( 118), ? ( 135 ),

Adon is ( 121),

?( 135 )

?( 146 )

Nep tune ( 53 )(65 )

Aeneas ( 126 ), ( 130 ), ( 132 )

Nere ids ( 23 ), ( 66 ), ( 67 ) , ( 133 )

A mbros ia ( 116 )

? Oceanus :

Anax i mander ( 4 )

Orpheus ( 68)(78),

Andro meda ( 119 )

?P ar is ( 135 )

An taeus ( 129 )

Perseus ( 1 19 )

Apo l lo ( 125 )

? Phaedra ( 144 )

s ee N eptune ?( 138 ), ( 139 )

Ascan ius ( 130 ), ( 132 )

Po lyhymn ia ( 48)

Bacchus ( 5 )(11)

Re mus ( 1 14 )

Be l lerophon ( 12 )(14 )

Ro mu lus ( 1 14 )

Bonus Eventus ( 15,) ? ( 25 )

S aturn ( 79 )

Ca l l iope ( 48)

S atyrs ( 80 ), ( 1 17 ), ( 120 ), ( 122), ( 127 ), ( 128 ),

Cen taur ( 16 )

?( 146 )

Ceres ( 115 )

S easons ( 8 1)(95 )

C l io ( 48 )

S e mele ( 131)

Cup id ( 17 ), ( 124 ), ( 132 )

S hepherd ( 96 ), ( 118), ( 135 )

Cup ids ( erotes ) ( 18)(25 )

S ilenus ( 97 )

Cypar issus ( 124 )

S o l ( 98 )

D ido ( 126 ), ( 130 ), ( 132 )

Terps ichore ( 48)

Erato ( 48 )

Tha l ia ( 48)

Europa ( 26 ), ( 27 ), ( 123 )

Theseus ( 99 )

Eu terpe ( 48 )

Tr ip to le mus ( 115 )

F lora ( 28 )

Tr itons ( 100 ), ( 133)

?For tuna ( 15 )

Tyche ( 101), ( 102 )

Ganymede ( 29 )

Uran ia ( 48 )

G ian ts ( g igan tes ) ( 30 )

Venus ( 103 )(107 ), ( 121), ( 132 ),

Hel icon , Mt . ( 48 )

?V ictor ia ( 148)

Hercu les ( 129 )

Water n ymphs :

2I no ( 131)

Winds ( 108 )-(113 )

s ee Na iads

J uno ( 31), ( 131) J up iter ( 32 ), ( 131), ? ( 137 ) ?L eda ( 137 ) Luna ( 33 ) Lycurgus ( 1 16 ) Maenads ( 34 ), ( 35 ), ( 117 ), ( 120 ), ( 122 ), ( 127 ), ( 128), ( 142 ) Mars ( 36 ), ( 37 ), ( 38 ) Marsyas ( 125 ) Medusa ( 39 )(45 )

1 56

?( 1 35 )

I NDEX I :

MOSAICS

( en tr ies w ith r eferences u nder l ined )

A ldborough ( Yorks ) :

Muses ( 1.§ . )

A ldborough ( Yorks ) :

Ro mu lus a nd Re mus ( 1 14 )

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 3 : J uno

c up ids a s g lad iators ( 4. 1 ), c up ids a s s a tyrs ( 1 .2 ),

( n)

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 7 :

Ganymede ( ? _2 ), maenads ( 34 )

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 2 6 :

c up ids ( 20 ), Win ter ( j)

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 3 3:

Medusa ( ), S easons ( 82 )

B ignor ( Sussex ), Rm. 5 6 :

Medusa (L O )

Brad ing ( I . o f W.), Rm. 3 :

Abraxas ( 1 )

Brad ing ( I . o f W.), c orr idor :

Orpheus (L 3 )

Brad ing ( I . o f W.), Rm. 1 2:

o ther s ub jects ( 1 ), ( 41), ( 83 ), ( 108), ( 115 ), ( 116 ),

( 117 ), ( 118), ( 1 19 ), ( 133 ) Bra mdean ( Han ts.) :

Medusa ( 42 ), d iv in it ies o f t he week ( 1 .), ( 32 ), ( 33 ), ( 36 ),

( 46 ), ( 79 ), ( 98), ( 103) Bra mdean ( Han ts.) :

An taeus, H ercu les , Te l lus ( 129 )

Bran t ingha m ( Yorks.) : Caerwen t ( Mon .) :

n a iads ( 49 ), Tyche ( 101)

S easons ( z i )

Chedwor th ( G los.):

c up ids a s S easons Q 3.D, s atyrs a nd maenads ( 120 )

C irencester , Ashcrof t V il las : C irencester , Bar ton F arm :

Nep tune ()

Orpheus ( _2 )

C irencester , Dyer S t. ( 1783 ) :

c up ids ( j), n ere id ( 66 )

C irencester , Dyer S t. ( 1820 ) :

Orpheus ( 12 )

C irencester , Dyer S t. ( 1849 , A ) :

S easons ( f.f ), o ther f igures ( D, ( ),

( 35 ), ( 12 ), ( 97 ) C irencester , Dyer S t . ( 1849 , B ) :

Medusa ( 44 ), Nep tune ( j1 )

Dorchester ( Dorset ), Col l iton P ark :

Win ter (I )

Dorchester ( Dorset ), Ford ing ton H igh S t.: E . Coker ( So m.) :

Nep tune ()

Winds ( 109 ), b ir th o f Bacchus ( 131)

F ishbourne ( Sussex ) :

c up id (2 )

Fra mpton ( Dorset ), A :

g ods

Fra mpton ( Dorset ), B :

Bacchus ( 6 ), Bel lerophon ( 12 ), Cup id ( 11 ), N ep tune

( 56 ), Winds ( 110 )

(n ),

( 57 ), my tho log ica l s cenes ( 121), ( 134 ), ( 135 ) Fra mpton ( Dorset ), D : Fu ller ton ( Hants.):

Neptune ( _h 3 ), Winds ( 1 11)

Mars @D,

G loucester , Bel l L ane :

s atyrs ( 80 )

Bacchus ( 1 )

He mswor th ( Dorset ) :

Neptune ( )

He mswor th ( Dorset ) :

Venus ( 104 )

H in ton S t . Mary ( Dorset ) : Horkstow ( L incs.) :

Orpheus (2 ), o ther f igures ( 23 ), ( 30 ), ( 67 ), ( 122 )

I tchen Abbas ( Han ts.) : K eynsha m ( So m.):

Be l lerophon ( II ), ' W inds ' ( 1 12 )

F lora ( 28)

Europa ( 123 ), o ther s cenes ( 137 ), ( 138)

1 57

K ingscote ( Glos.) :

Venus ( 105 )

L e icester , H igh Cross S t.: Lenthay Green ( Dorset ) :

Cup id , Cypar issus ( 124 )

Apo l lo , Marsyas ( 125 )

L inco ln , Ba ilgate : ( ? ) S eason ( . 8 3 ) L it t leco te P ark ( W il ts.) : Orpheus ( 72 ), o ther f igures ( 139 ) London , O ld Broad S t .:

Europa ( 1)

L ondon , L eadenha l l S t .: Bacchus ( 8 _.) L ow Ha m ( So m.): V enus ( 106 ), s cenes f ro m t he Aene id ( 2 ), ( 126 ), ( 130 ), ( 132 ) Lun ingstone ( Ken t ) : Ma lton ( Yorks.) :

Be l lerophon ( 11 ), Europa, c up ids ( 27 ), S easons ( 89 )

Win ter ( 22 )

New ton S t . L oe ( So m.): O idcoates ( No t ts.): P it Meads ( W ilts.) : P itney ( So m.) :

Orpheus ( ')

Theseus, ( ?) M ino taur ( 2 _ 2 ) ( ?) Orpheus ( 71 )

c up ids a s S easons ( 91), o ther f igures ( 50 ), ( 1 .), ( 60 ), ( 9 1),

( 96 ), ( 113 ), ( 140 ), ( 141), ( 142 ), ( 143 ), ( 144 ) P itney ( So m.) :

y outh a ttacked b y s erpen t ( 145 )

Rudge ( W il ts.) :

( ?) s atyr a nd maenad ( 146 )

Rudston ( Yorks.) :

Mercury ( 47 ), t r iton ( 100 ), Venus ( 107 )

Rudston ( Yorks.) :

Nep tune ( §1 . )

Rudston ( Yorks.) :

S easons ( 21 )

S ilchester ( Han ts.) :

c up id ( 21 )

S poon ley Wood ( Glos.) : S tonesf ield ( Oxon .) :

Thenford ( Nor than ts.) : Thrux ton ( Han ts.) :

Win ter ( 22 )

Bacchus ( 2 ), Neptune ( 62 ) u n iden t if ied b ust ( 147 )

Bacchus ( 12 ), S easons ( 94 )

Veru la m iu m :

Bacchus ( 11)

V eru la m iu m :

N eptune ( 51 )

What ley ( So m.) :

( ?) Orpheus ( 12 ), Tyche ( 102 )

Wh it t lebury ( Nor than ts.) : Winter ton ( L incs.) :

( ?) V ictor ia ( 148)

Orpheus (2 )

Winter ton ( L incs.):

( ? ) Trov iden t ia ' ( 149 )

Win ter ton ( L incs.):

u n iden t if ied b ust ( 150 )

With ing ton ( Glos ) : Nep tune (L ), Orpheus ( 21 ) Woodchester ( Glos.) : ( ?) Bonus Eventus, c up ids ( 1 .) , s atyrs, maenads ( 127 ) Woodchester ( Glos.) : Na iads ( 52 ), N eptune ( 65 ), Orpheus (B ) Woodchester ( Glos.) : Y ork , Tof t Green :

s atyr a nd maenad ( 128)

Medusa ( i 5 _ ), S easons ( 95 )

1 58

Clio

Euterpe Thalia Melpomene Terpsichore Erato Polyhymnia Urania Calliope

FIG. 6. 1 :

Aldborough, Yorks.

The Muses (Reconstruction by D.J. Smith).

•

PLATE 6.I:

a (above), Aldborough, Yorks. (48). Smith, 1852, pl. XVIII. b (below), ibid., pt. of (48). (Walter Scott, Bradford, Yorks.)

PLATE 6 .I I :

a( above ) , A ldborough , Yorks . ( 1 14) . Sm i th , 1 867 . b( be low ) , B ignor , S ussex ( 29) . L ysons, 1 817a , p l . V I I .

• * 1 g * ". 0

g

do k.

•1,

0

0

** **7. 4w M

r

=

i gg b.

**s

r ag i teg k

4

A i 4 1

* • .gagi

*

;

4 1 0 4 1 ›. 44 . • 0• 44 , a

e re . *e.

PLATE 6 .1V :

a( above ) , B ignor , S ussex ( 8 1) . b( be low ) , B rad ing , I . o f W. ( 1 ) .

( Dav id Baker ) . Pr ice , 1 881.

p l . 8 .

PLATE 6 .V :

Brad ing , I . o f W . ( 4 ) , ( 4 1) , ( 108) , ( 1 15) , ( 1 16) , ( 1 17) , ( 1 18) , ( 1331 Pr ice , 1 881.

p l . 1 0 .

PLATE 6 .V I :

a( above) , Brad ing , 1 . o f W. ( 68) .

Pr ice , 1 881, p l . 9 .

b( be low ) , Brad ing , I . o f W, ( 4 ) , ( 83) , ( 1 19) ,

Pr ice , 1 881. P l . 1 0 .

PLATE 6 .V I I :

a( above) ,Bra mdean , H an ts. ( 15) , ( 32) , ( 33) , ( 3 6) , ( 42) , ( 46) , ( 79 i ( 98) , ( 103) .

Roach Sm ith , 1 852 , I .

b( be low ) , i b id . ,( 129) .

p l . 3 0 ( I I .

R oach Sm ith , 1 852 , I , p l . XX I .

d r: l r

PLATE 6 .V I I I :

l i ed"

a( above) , Bran t ingham , Y orks . ( 49) , ( 101) , Pa in t ing b y D .S . N ea l . ( Crown C opyr igh t ) , b( be low ) , C hedwor th , G los . ( 85) , ( 120) , C o l. dwg . F ox C o l l . S oc ie ty o f A n t iquar ies o f L ondon .

a

PLATE 6 .IX :

a -f , C hedwor th , G los . ( 85) , ( 120) , Co l. d wgs . S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon .

F ox C o l l .

PLATE 6 .X :

a( above ), C irencester , G los ;

Ashcrof t V il las.

( 53 ) P ho to.

b( be low ), i b id ., B ar ton F arm. ( 69 ). Co l. e ng . ( bo th , H aver f ie ld Co l l., Ashmo lean Museu m ).

PLATE 6 .X I

a -c .

C irencester , G los ;

( Stud io Rah tz, Br isto l ).

Dyer S tree t 1 849A. ( 86) .

is . 4 8 1 .

in .

i n. •‚ or

4 1 . ,f l e

' I l i

1

s .

1

es>

. , . . , . .

0 i

•0

0

% 4

r „ ,,

—

a .

•

, . . 1 6 , l „ , e -.

" `

_

f#• 7

. 0 *

'

. . .

ff # .

I

.

. . .

e

t 1 %

'




>

\ \ %

al

i 1 / 1 i 1 i

,

> • •, , > >

•8. I . • .? e u s e j , • • • • ,t , , .

PLATE 6 .X I :

` , ! _

:

% ‘

I l •1 •— _ . , T :• 1 .! m o . • . . . . . .,

er, . . .

. , . -

a( above) , C irencester , G los ; ( Haverf ie ld Co l l ;

•I • . . . „ . e . , , i , , _,

Bar ton Far m ( 69) .

Co l . 1 th .

Ash mo lean Museu m)

b( be low ) , C irencester , G los ;

Dyer S tree t 1 820, ( 70) .

z t uren tre t . ' . .Inge .2. , tclua tra rgee

PLATE

a( above) . C irencester , G los ; Dyer S treet 1 849A. ( 3) , ( 5 ) , ( 16) , ( 35) , ( 43) , ( 86) , ( 97) , C o l .l ithog . b( be low ) , Dorchester , Dorse t ; ( Dorse t C oun ty Museu m) .

F ord ing ton H igh S treet . ( 55) .

( . , a repr i r 0 rz e lt erz rzrz fAi sz Arr izz 4 e

. ‘. „ . , 0 • N l i •

t , . f ig e w e . wf ,. « .e a r erz ah

e

e

im ir o fr o .er

1 7 2: 1 1

it l eV s :‘

."‚

PLATE 6 .2ü 1 1 :

, ,,

, . , . • 4, / 1 ' 1 '• t . i , . / .0 ,4 i r . rwe 4 0, 4 er

» . 4

N EPTvN iv ERTExREC MEN O RT 1T re /rf ilLEv ENT(S

PLATE 6 .X IV :

a( above) , Framp ton , D orse t . ( 6 ) , ( 12) , ( 17 ) , ( 57) , ( 121) , ( 13 ( 135) . L ysons , 1 813 , p t . i i , p l . V . b( be low ) , F ramp ton , D orse t . ( 12) , r estored b y D .S . N ea l ( Crown C opyr igh t ) .

a

PLATE 6 . XV :

a .

Fra mpton , Dorset .

p t . i i, p l. V .

( 121 ), b . i b id., ( 135 ).

c . Fra mp ton , Dorset .

1 813, p t. i i , p l. V I I.

Lysons, 1 813.

( 58 ), ( 1 11).

Lysons,

zI t y r e g u e c v e,i m u u t im a n t a ar i t a t i ta ku K a i ki buiut e .

t r • ., f . . . • • "

/f ee , . M ..V t 4 4r PI .* * * : .› *l e e .

e e Na p i e

PLATE 6 . XV I :

* ". 44

•

418 e t if fa vrate4 M .Alra lr e M. t l ' 144

e

4 i ik :

z e k .

a( above) , F u l ler ton , H an ts . ( 38 ) , ( 80) .

x

4 1 1 .3 3.1 . t r

( Dav id Baker) .

b( be low ) , G loucester , Be l l L ane . ( 7 ) . Pa in t ing b y D .S . Nea l ( Crown C opyr igh t) .

PLATE 6 . XV I I :

a( above ), He mswor th , Dorset .

( 59 ) ( R.C.H. M. -

Crown Copyr ight ). b( below ), H in ton S t Mary , Dorset . Crown Copyr ight ).

( 13 ) ( R.C.H. M.

-

PLATE 6 . XV I I I:

a( above ), H in ton S t . Mary , Dorset .

( 112 ). ( R.C.H. M.-

( Crown Copyr ight ). b( be low ), Horkstow , L incs. Lysons, 1 813, p t . i , p l.IV.

( 23 ). ( 30 ). ( 67 ) . ( 122 ),

PLATE 6 .X EX :

a , I tchen Abbas, Han ts.

( 28 ) L ithog . J .B.A.A. XXX IV,

1 878, p l. o p. p . 5 04. b , K eynsha m , S o m. ( 123 ); ( J. S . Fry a nd S ons, L td.).

c . i b id., ( 138), d , i b id., ( 137 )

PLATE 6 .20 ( :

a( above ), L e icester , H igh Cross S treet . ( 124 ). F ow ler , 1 796-1818, n o. 1. b( be low ), L en thay Green , Dorset. Cr own Copyr ight ).

( 125 ).

( R.0 . H. M. -

PLATE 6 .XX I :

a ( above) , L it t lecote Park , Wi l ts . ( 72) , ( 139) . De ta i l o f C o l . e ng . b y T . V er tue ( Haver f ie ld C o ll ., A sh mo lean Museu m) . b ( be low ) , L ondon , L eadenha l l S tree t . ( 8 ) . pL 4 9 .

R .0 .H .M . 1 928 ,

_

r Em b . .. .. *. ss ir de t terf f l e s tr 1: 9 1 r 1r. * a ttar ' e l i g r. % tea t et i e .4, • t e

r

PLATE 6 . XX I I : a ( above) , L ow Ha m , S om . ( 2 ) , ( 106) , ( 1 26) , ( 130) , ( 132) . ( S . Brown , T iver ton , Devon) . b ( be low ) , i b id ., ( 2 ) ,

( So merset Count y Museu m) .

PLATE 6 . XX I I I :

a( a bove) , L ow Ha m , S om . ( 106) . b ( be low ) , i b id ., ( 132) . ( b oth , S o merse t C oun ty Museu m) .

VA

VO i t ir ei r dil it el l

PLATE 6 . XX IV :

K w , Mkt

. 1 2 1 1s e e fe' 3 19 .

a( above ), Lu l l ingstone, K en t ( 14 ), ( 89 ). b( be low ), i b id., ( 27 ).

( both , D . J . Sm ith.)

PLATE 6 . XXV :

a , b . a nd c .

L u l l ingstone , K en t ( 8 9)

( D .J . Sm ith) .

:u; \� �--�·.

h ·. :i:.

PLATE 6.XXVI:

a (above), Newton St Loe, Som. (73). (Bristol City Museum b (below), Pitney, Som. (145). Col. eng. by S. Hassell, (Somerset County Museum).

PLATE 6 . XXVI I :

P itney , S om . ( 50) , ( 51) , ( 60) , ( 9 1) , ( 96) , ( 113) , ( 140) , ( 141) , ( 142) , ( 143) , ( 144) .

PLATE 6. XXV II I:

a( above ), Rudston , Y orks. ( 61). P a in t ing b y D . S . N ea l ( Crown Copyr ight ). b( be low ), ( 92 ).

( A. L . P ae it to

copyr ight ).

PLATE 6 .20 ( I .X :

a( above ), Rudston , Yorks , ( 47 ), ( 100 ), ( 107 ), P a in t ing b y D . S . N ea l ( Crown Copyr ight ). b( below ), Then ford , N or than ts. ( 147 ) ( R.0 . H. M. — Cr own C opyr ight ).

PLATE 6 . XXX :

a( above) , T hrux ton , H an ts . ( 10) , ( 94) .

C o l . e ng ,

Winchester C i ty Museu m ( D .E . J ohnston ) b( be low ) , Wha t ley , S om . ( 75) , ( 102 ) , C o l . e ng . ( So merse t Coun ty Museu m ) .

a

PLATE 6 . XXX I :

a .

Winter ton , L incs . ( 149) .

b .

With ing ton , G los . ( 64) , ( 77) , L ysons, 1 817 . p t . 1 . p l . XX .

F ow ler , 1 796-1818, n o . 5 .

c .

Woodchester , G los . ( 25) , ( 127) .

L ysons, 1 797 . p l . XD ( .

PLATE XXX I I :

a( above) , Woodehester , G los . ( 52) , ( 65) , ( 78) , L ysons, 1 797 , p l . X . b( be low) , i b id ., ( 52) .

( Dav id Baker ) .

PLATE 6 . XX X [ I I:

Veru la m iu m , Her ts. ( 63 ), Whee ler , 1 936 , p l. X T , T• ( Soc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon ).

7 . THE CENTRAL S OUTHERN GROUP OF RO MANO-BR ITISH MOSAICS Dav id E . J ohnston

Many o fu s c an c la im w i th p r ide t ha t we owe o ur i n terest i n R o man Ar t t o t he t u it ion o f P ro fessor T oynbee ; a nd i tw as s he who i n troduced me , a s a n u ndergradua te , t o t he w ork o f Dr Dav id Sm ith o n t he 'S choo ls ' o f R o manoBr it ish Mosa ic .

I ti s t here fore a s at r ibute t o h er i nsp ira t ion t ha t Io f fer t h is

c on tr ibut ion o n t he s ame t he me . Dr Sm i th h as d e monstra ted t he e x istence o f t e mporary a nd p ermanen t work— s hops f or mosa ic- mak ing i n Br ita in f ro m t he e ar ly y ears o f t he p rov ince , a nd n oted t he g row th o f ad ist inct ive B r it ish r eper tory o f d es igns .

I

B y t he 4 th

c entury f our ' schoo ls ' c an b e d ist ingu ished , e ach w ith i t s own c haracter ist ic s ty le a nd r eper tory , e ach s erv ing a d ef inab le a rea , a s l ong a s t he d e mand e xi s ted .

2

Wi th in t hese g roups, i t may e ven b e p oss ib le t o i den t ify t he h and iwork

o f i nd iv idua l d es igners, t hough t he o n ly p ave men t w ith a l i tera te s igna ture TER ( a t B ignor ) h as n ot y e t b een a t tr ibuted t o ak nown ' schoo l ' .3 Dr Sm ith ' s work i nev i tab ly l eaves t wo impor tan t q uest ions u nanswered :

who d es igned a nd l a id

t he n u merous o ther , u na t tr ibuted , p ave ments o f t he 4 th c entury , a nd wha t b ec ame o f t he mosa ic ists when t he d e mand i n t he ir a rea dw ind led o r d isappeared? I n ap ar t ia l a nswer t o t hese q ues t ions, t h is p aper p ostu la tes a f i f th ' schoo l ' , p robab ly a n o f fshoo t o f t ha t c en tred o n C or in iu m , s erv ing a n a rea o f Br itann ia S uper ior o r Pr i ma i n wh ich t he l uxury o f ad ecora ted mosa ic was a r e la t ive ly n ew p heno menon i n t he 4 th c en tury . Dr Sm ith h as n amed t he p r inc ipa l

s choo ls ' f ro m t he t owns o f Pe tuar ia ,

D urobr ivae , C or in iu m a nd Durnovar ia n o t b ecause o f t he d iscovery o f p hys ica l r e ma ins o f t he s upposed o f f icinae b ut b ecause t he d istr ibut ion o f a t tr ibutab le mosa ics p o inted t o t hese a s t he c entres o f o pera t ions.

T h is f i f th g roup was

o f fered t o t he C on ference a s 'T he C entra l S ou thern G roup ' ( and i ndeed i th as a ppeared i n p r in t u nder t h is n a me ) , s ince t here i s s o f ar n o i den t if iab le f ocus . 4 T he h a mmer f ound a t S i lchester ( now i n R ead ing Museu m ) m igh t we l l b e a mosa ic ist ' st oo l , t hough a modern mosa ic ist h as e xpressed d oubt t o me a bou t t he c h ise l d isp layed w i th i t . T h is s tudy a rose f ro m a d e ta i led s tudy o f t he v i l las o f Hampsh ire a nd p ar ts o f t he a d jacen t c om i t ies ( F ig . 7 .1) a n a rea l arge e nough t o i nc lude t he v i l las o f Bas i ldon , R ockbourne , Brad ing a nd B ignor , t hree c iv i tas c ap ita ls ( S i lchester , W inchester , C h ichester ) t hree S axon S hore F or ts ( Por tchester , Car isbrooke, B i t terne ) a nd t hree ma jor i ndustr ia l a reas .

T he a rea was modera te ly p rosper-

o us i n t he 4 th c en tury , t hough n ot a s r ich i n mosa ics a s t hose o f C irences ter a nd Dorchester .

T he d ear th o f p ictor ia l d es igns i s n oteworthy , a nd t here i s

n one i n o ur c iv itas c ap i ta ls i n t he 4 th c en tury .

Ih ave a rgued e lsewhere t ha t

t he g roup ing o f v i l las i s i nconc lus ive , b ut t ha t t here a re s o me a rch itectura l s im i lar it ies, e spec ia l ly i n t he d i mensions a nd d es ign o f b a thsu ites, t he i nsta ll a t ion o f f i rep laces , a nd t he d es ign o f mosa ics. 1 95

5

I t chen Abbas ;

t " . •

•

8 . Bas i ldon.

C . )

6 . Bra mdean ;

Mosa ics o f t he Cen tral

C V.

L C ;

Ch ichester ;

gusi ed g 1 / 1 11 13

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rr

PLATE 7 .1 :

S ilchester x xv i i.

• •

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:

l e

„

4

1 r oo m 1 8, S t . J ohn Hope 1 902, p l. i i.

e f i r s i ta n nl i m ni ne lA t tn i t i hN l iR IO e lA t I 1 1 1 1 1Wi t t E r . •I t I f ire r e e n fupqm , i' t « .I MM IN 14 1 10 i4 1. 10 1 1 1 1 i n t i tR i l lN i t l f l i t l E i l l ft i t t uf i t h ie t f i te i n te : : _ _ . I i t l i VC ,I Te : . 1 ! ; ! ! !I t e t te l i d i« AM MO 0 1 1 1 .e tt l i e lI s 0 1 1 1 1 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t i t ten i s t I N IM l i t r4 1 t e i ti l tt o,' we l l

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ae , .. .. . . .tw e im :

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a t z. 1 1 )

r

PLATE 7 .1 1 :

1 11

r o om 2 , Co l l ier , 1 878. r o om 12, ( draw ing , D . E . J ohnston ).

a( above ), I tehen Abbas b( be low ), S parsho lt

*c an . AN %

te re

i • , , M A IA : 775 9 2 1, 7P 2k

d at e l.

W et.

r u ille4i 3 OW* •

PLATE 7 .1 1 1:

IN

•

r o ll t i l l it s i z•

f i tg A1 4. / , : egg i na K ite i t,t ZeZe i n : :,

. . .

•

k n ow e e zt e am &AMIN

I ,

eil di l e l l e ela l l 10 1 1 141 11 . 11 111 1"

i mu m e ma tu r•

W i t n i t erZt t le

i n ie lmeloun i 4

RO M

V O L

P«

o lgurr ‚iMANIi t "AM M 1 ' 4 141 164

a( above ), I tchen Abbas r oo m 1 , Co l l ier , 1 878. b( be low ), Bas ildon , Roach Sm ith , 1 852, H .

PLATE 7 .1V :

a( above ), S parsho lt r oo m 7 , ( D. E . J ohnston ). b( below ), B ignor , ( D. E . J ohnston ).

PLATE 7 .V :

a( above ), Ch i lgrove, ( A. Down ). b( be low ), Bra mdean , Roach Sm ith , 1 85 2,

CO C \ 1

C \ 1

l i h : : • : . : • . * :e : r . . .

: i • : i : K . .

• : e ? : : " ' • : K : ' : : . " ' Z .>

% : • : • : . Me :

* ; : i : • : : : -

• : : : . : . : : : : : . *

• i * : : : i :z

: : • : .

c o

c o

7 1 -

A l l t he mosa ics s tud ied h ere a re b e l ieved t o b e c on te mporary , t hough t he d a t ing e v idence i s v ery weak . S o me may , o f c ourse , b e l a ter i nser t ions i n to t he ir b u i ld ings ; t h is i s c er ta in ly s o a t S parsho lt , a nd p robably a t G ra te ly ( da ted o n ly b y ac o in o f Ga l l ienus ( 2 53-268 ) ) . Two a pproaches h ave b een u sed t he s ub ject ive o ne o f c o mpar ing d es igns a nd l i nk ing wha t a ppear t o b e s ign i f ican t s im i lar i t ies, a nd t he more o b ject ive u se o f c luster a na lys is, i nc lud ing a l l mosa ics o ver a l arge a rea o f s ou thern B r i ta in . T he S tudy o f S im i lar it ies S parsho l t i s t he c en tra l s tar t ing-po in t . Two r oo ms h ere d up l ica te t hose o n o ther s i tes . T he d esign i n r oo m 1 2 ( P l . 7 .I l b ) i s i nco mp lete , b ut e nough s urv ives t o s how t ha t i tc an b e r econs truc ted o n ly o n t he l i nes o f I t chen A bbas r oo m 2 ( Meander-pane l t ype A ) ( P l. 7 .h a ) . A s t he S parsho lt e xamp le h as a n a dd i t iona l g u i l loche p ane l t o make i tf i t t he r oo m , i t may h ave b een l a id s eco nd . T he o ther d up l ica t ion i s o f t he ma in mosa ic i n r oo m 7w i th t ha t i n S i lchester x xv i i ,1 r oo m 1 8 ( P l . 7 .1 ) , w h ich a ppears t o b e a n i ngen ious a dap tat i on o ft he d esign t o f i t a n a ps ida l t r ic l in iu m . T he s ign if ican t f ea ture i s t he c o mb ina t ion o f g u i l loche , meander a nd wave .

T hree o ther f ea tures i n t he o ther

S parsho l t mosa ic ( P l . 7 .IVa ) s hou ld b e n o ted - t he c en tra l s tar o r 'd ah l ia ' , t he f l ora l c ups ' i n t he s pandre ls , a nd t he b order o f 'L -b locks ' . T he d ah l ia ( F ig . 7 .3 ,4) a ppears i n t h is f or m o n t wo o ther s i tes, a t I t chen A bbas( in r oo ms 1 a nd 3w ith L -b locks,

s p iked k no t ' a nd 'z ig-zag ' )a nd a t

Basi ldon ( w ith s p iked k no t , z ig-zag a nd a p a ir o f i n ter laced s quares) ( P l . 7 .1 1 1 , a ,b) .

T he d ah l ia h as a n teceden ts i n t he 2 nd c en tury , b oth i n o ur own a rea

( e .g . p robab ly a t West Dean ) a nd e lsewhere , ( e .g . a t C o lchester , L e icester , G rea t W itcombe , t hough t hey d if fer c ons iderab ly a nd t h is f orm i s p robab ly u n ique t o o ur a rea i n t he 4 th c entury .6 Af ur ther mot if a ppears t o b e u n ique t o o ur a rea - s urpr ising ly s ince i ti s s uch a s i mp le o ne . T h is i s t he "s p iked k not ' ,( F ig . 7 .3 ,3) a s i mp le g u i l loche k not w ith t wo l eaves, a nd i ta ppears 5 t imes ( a t Basi ldon , Bramdean , I t chen A bbas, C h i lgrove a nd B ignor ) , e nab l ing u s t o e x tend t he s earch i nto S ussex . A t B ignor i n S ussex we mee t a nother , more r e markab le , mot if t ha t h as n o p ara l le l a nywhere i n t he Emp ire , a nd i s t ru ly a h a l l mark o f o ur mosa ic is t (s ) . T h is i s t he b order o f' L-b locks ' ( F ig . 7 .4 ,5 ; P l . 7 .IV ,b) wh ich i s u sed , p erh aps e xper i men ta l ly , i n t hree v ersions a tB ignor .

T he most a t tract ive f orm ,

i n wh ich e ach a l terna te L -shape i s i nver ted , r eappears a t Bramdean ( P l . 7 . V ,b) I t chen A bbas a nd S parsho lt .

A t t he l ast i ti s e xecuted c are less ly i n t he

o u ter b order , p erhaps a s as ign o f f a t igue o r h aste . T he o n ly b order i n Br i ta in t ha t i s r e mo te ly l i ke i ti s a t C o lchester , d a t ing t o t he m id-second c en tury ;7 b u t t h is i s s o f unda men ta l ly d if feren t t ha t i ti s p robab ly c o inc idence .

T he

e ssent ia l d i f ference h ere i s t ha t t he a l terna te b locks a re n ot o n ly i nver ted b ut r eversed , s o t ha t t hey i n ter lock . T he C o lchester b order , t he 'l i gne d e c hevron s i mbr iques ' ,i s a lso f ound i n t he c on t inen ta l r eper tory .8 B ignor s hares w ith Bas i ldon a no ther mo t if , t he ' saw tooth ' b order ( F ig . 7 .4,7) t ha t a ppears t w ice o n ly i n Br i ta in a s as er ies o f r ectangu lar t r iang les. I ti s , h owever , f am i l iar t o o ur c on t inen ta l c o l leagues a s t he 'd en ts d e s c ie ', mak ing i t s a ppearance o n t hese t wo Br it ish s i tes a lone a l l t he more s urpr is ing .

2 06

9

A more c onv inc ing h a l l mark , e ven t hough i tt oo i s f ound o n ly t w ice , i s t he 'f l ora l c up ' a t S parsho l t a nd C h i lgrove ( F ig . 7 .2 ,9 ; P l . 7 .V ,a )b as ica l ly a ' t u lip ' ,o r ( more p roper ly) a l o tus ', s uch a s i s c o m mon ly f ound , w i th o r w i thout at r iangu lar b ase ( F ig . 7 ,2 ,2) . I t s f l ora l n a ture i s c on f irmed b y t he t endr i ls. H owever , i th as much o f t he c haracter o f t he t wo-hand led c up , o r 'c an tharus ' ,e spec ia l ly t ha t c haracter ist ic o f t he C or in ian s choo 1 3. T he d ist ingu ish ing f ea tures o f t i e l ast a re t he t r iangu lar s o l id f oo tr ing , t he s purs o n t he h and les, a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he r ow o f 'j ewe ls ' i n r ed a nd wh ite t ha t a re p ecu l iar t o t hese c ups, a nd n o t f ound i n a ny meta l p rototype t ha t Ik now o f . T h is i n terest ing a nd a t tract ive s yn thes is, r epea ted i den t ica l ly o n t wo s i tes i n o ur a rea , must s ure ly b etray t he h and o f o ne p ar t icu lar d esigner . T hese t hen a re 7f ea tures t ha t a re u n ique t o t h is g roup a nd f orm a n e twork o f c rossl inks b etween i t s members ( F ig . 7 .5) .

I n t h is c onnect ion o ne s hou ld

n ote t wo f ur ther s ty l ist ic t ra its t ha t p erhaps s treng then t he c ase .

F irst , t he

f orm o ft he l o tus, wh ich i s d is t ingu ished f ro m a l l o r most o f i t s more u b iqu it ous f e l lows b y i t s p lu mpness ( F ig . 7 .2 ,2) . T h is p lu mp l otus u sed i n as cro l l a t B ignor i s r epea ted e xact ly i n o ne f ur ther mosa ic wh ich was r escued i n f rag men ts f ro m t he Dav id G re ig s i te i n C h ichester a nd - o n g enera l g rounds a s we l l -s hou ld j o in t he n ew g roup ( P l . 7 .V I) .4 At h ird o ccurrence i s a t C h i lgrove , i n t he c orners o pposi te t he f l ora l c ups, a nd a f ur ther p ossib le l i nk i s t o S i lchester x iv ,1 r oo m 2 7 , i n t he o c tagona l b order o f o ne s urv iv ing p ane l .

A t

t h is p o in t , h owever , i tb eco mes h ard t o d ist ingu ish i tf ro m t he o rd inary l o tus, o r e ven o ne o f i ts n e ighbours i n h ouse x xx iv ,1 r oo m 2where i tl ooks more l i ke a p o megran a te . H owever , t he s ame o ctagona l p ane l s hares a p ecu l iar i ty , h i ther to u nnot iced , w i th t he Dav id G re ig p ave men t -t he u se o f t esserae s et o b l ique ly t o s of ten t he s haded e dge ( F ig . 7 .2 ,1) .

I ft h is

s of tened e dge ' t ech-

n ique i s i ndeed a l i nk , t hen t he d a te o f o ne o rb oth m igh t b e i n q uest ion ;

f or

Dr Sm ith h as a rgued o n o ther g rounds, a lso s ty l ist ic, t ha t t he d es ign o f S i lchester x iv , 1r oo m 2 7 b e longs t o t he s econd c en t ury .i 0 T he u se o f c luster a na lys is N ine ' un ique ' f ea tures t hen l i nk t he p ave men ts o n 8s i tes ( t ak ing t he t wo S i lchester p ave men ts a s o ne s i te) . H owever , t h is m igh t s ound l i ke s pec ia l p lead ing i f we i gnore t he e v idence f ro m t he n u merous o ther l a te mosa ics i n t he r eg ion , where f ur ther , i fs pur ious, g roup ings m igh t b e p oss ib le .

A ccord-

i ng ly , as tudy was made o f t he 2 3 f ea tures ( mos t o f t he m q u i te ' co m mon ' ) o n t he 2 4 s i tes i n t he r eg ion t ha t h ave mosa ics w here c ommen t i s p oss ib le . T he 2 3 f ea tures a re n u mbered o n F ig . 7 .6 a nd 7 .8 a nd l i sted o n p .214 Most a re i l lustra ted i n F igs , 7 .2 - 7 .4 , a nd i n P ls. 7 .I - 7 .V I . N o . 6i s t he meander-pane l f ound a t S parsho lt a nd I t chen A bbas ( P ls. 7 .I I ,b ; I I ,a ; I V ,a ) , wh i le n o .2 0 i nc ludes t he o ther v ar ian ts.

N o .8 i s t he c o mbina t ion o f g u i l loche ,

meander a nd wave f ound a t S parsho lt a nd S i lchester ( P ls. 7 .I ; I V ,a ) , a nd n o .10 ( t he f igured p ane ls ) r equ ires n o i l lus tra t ion .

T he s a l t ire ( n o .2 2 ) i s t he a r-

r angemen t o f p ane ls i n t he f or m o f aS t Andrew 's C ross , al ayou t c harac ter is t ic o f t he C or in ian S choo l , b u t f ound o n 3s i tes i n o ur r eg ion . Any a t te mp t t o i den t i fy a ' house s ty le ' o f a mosa ic is t o r g roup mus t t ake a ccoun t o f o vera l l d es ign , a s w e l l a s c ho ice a nd t rea t men t o f mo t i fs ; p ave men ts a re i nc luded i n t he a na lys is .

2 07

f or t h is r eason f i gured

0

0

1

8

2

3

I

4 6

5

7

0 4

8

5

,

6

.

, 0

4 3

5

7

0 7

8 , 0

4 3 0

5 .

i F IG . 7 .5 .

7

0

R e la t ionsh ip b etween s i tes ( Nu mbered a s o n F ig . 7 .1).

1 2 3

4 5

6 7 8

9

1 0 1

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

Bas i ldon B ignor Bra mdean Ch ichester Ch ilgrove I tchen Abbas S ilchester S pa r sho l t Abbot ts Ann Car isbrooke 4-

Cherh il l Co mb ley Cr onda l l o wn ton Fu l ler ton Grate ley L it t lecote P enns Mead Rockbourne Thrux ton Twyford W. Meon W inchester Brad ing

F ig . 7 .6

Matr ix A .

1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3

t a t ) r .

e .

0

c f )

0 •

P r 1

P r 1

. .

` •. >

g)

P A

E 4

g 1 . 4

1

•

0 p 0 z, r d 0 t

Abbo t ts A im

› g O

Car isbrooke

r o

• 1 • •

Ch ichester

S i lchester

8

M ao

C ' D men.

h t i W e s r c n • 06 i

MI. 1 1

M

O»

•• •••

•

OM »

••■• 1 1 1 1M•••

• •••• •

•• •• •• 1 1 MM .

• 04 • 1

C D

d own•

1 2 3

S pa r sho l t I tchen Abbas Ch ilgrove Br a mdean B ignor Bas ildon Twy ford Fu l ler ton Br ad ing Thrux ton P enns Mead L it t leco te Ch er h il l Winchester Downton

6 7 8

9

1 0 1

M I M I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 11 i i i I IMM IN I i II

Car isbrooke Grate ley Abbo ts Ann.

M

I L'

I I I M U 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1

1111 1 1111 11 11 1I I I I I l 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 IN I I I I I I H IN I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II IIII

1111 1 11 111 111 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 I II II 1 1 111 1 1 11

l a

I 9 11 111 1 I I I 11 11

Comb ley

Cr ondal l

1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3

1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 1 1 1 11

W. Meon

Rockbourne

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

1111 . 1 I

S ilchester Ch ichester

4 5

• F ig . 7 .8

I I

Matr ix B

I

T h is c an b e p resen ted a s a ma tr ix ( F ig . 7 .6 ) f ro m wh ich i tc an b e s een t ha t t he c o m mon g round ( t ha t i s , t he s hared f ea tures) i s c ons iderab le .

H owever ,

t he 9 s i tes c luster s a t isfactor i ly t hrough t he ir u se o f t he ' un ique ' f ea tures ; moreover , n o o ther s a t isfactory c lusters c an b e f ormed i n t h is way .

A l l t he

o thers a re c o m mon o uts ide t he a rea , many o f t he m v ery g enera l ly d is tr ibu ted . O n ly o ne f ea ture i s n ot s hared w ith t he g roup , t ha t wh ich i s c a l led f or c onven ience meander-pane l v ar ian ts ' ( n o .2 0) . S ign i f ican t ly , t hese a re o ther v ers ions o f t he a l l-over meander d es ign w ith p ane ls, o f wh ich we h ave s een a 'u n ique ' v ers ion a t S parsho l t a nd I t chen A bbas ( n o .6 ) . Ma tr ix A ( F ig .7 .6 )p rov ides t he r aw d a ta f ro m wh ich a n i ndependen t c onf irma t ion was s ough t , u s ing a c o mputer .1 1 T he a i m was t o p roduce s a t is factory c lusters o f s i tes, n ot o f f ea tures, t hough b oth w ere c oded a nd p unched . A t r ia l r un w ith l im i ted d a ta r evea led o ne impor tan t f actor ;

i n an u mer ica l s e-

q uence o f f ea tures, e ach i s t rea ted a s o f e qua l i mpor tance , o r s ign if icance . N ow t h is i s n ot s o i n f act , a s i th as b een s ta ted a bove t ha t c er ta in f ea tures a re ' un ique ' t o t he r eg ion , a nd o thers a re R o mano-Br it ish r eper to ire .

c o mmon ' t o t he who le o ft he

T he o n ly o b ject ive way t o t ake t h is i n to a ccoun t

wou ld b e t o c ode t he e n t ire c orpus o f R o mano-Br i t ish mosa ics , a nd a l though t h is i s b e ing d one f or t he c on t inent , i th as n ot y e t b een d one f or t h is c oun try . I ndeed , i ti s h oped t ha t t h is l im ited e xercise may d e monstra te t he n eed f or i t t o b e a t te mped e ven tua l ly. A ccord ing ly , ac ompro m ise p rocedure was a dopted f or t he s econd r un b y wh ich av isua l s crut iny o ft he e n t ire c orpus e stab l ished t he u n iqueness o f f ea tures 1 -9 ; t hese were c oded s epara te ly f ro m t he r est a nd t he p rogram me was r un t w ice . T he r esu lt a ppears a s ap a ir o f d endrograms. I ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t t hese a re n ot l i nked , a nd a re p resen ted t oge ther i n F ig . 7 .7 o n ly f or c onven ie nce :

a lso t ha t t h is d oes n ot p rov ide f u l ly o b jec t ive p roof o f t he e x istence o f

t he G roups , a s s i tes 1 -8 were p re-se lected o n t he b as is o f t he ' un ique ' f eat ures.

H owever , i td oes d e monstra te r e la t ionsh ips b e tween me mbers o f t he

G roup a nd among t he o thers .

T he l eve l o f s im i lar ity c an b e g auged f ro m t he

s ca le , wh ich r anges f ro m 0 .00 ( co mp le te d iss im i lar ity ) t o 1 .00 ( f u ll i den t ity w ith in t he t erms o f r eference o f t he j ob) . O n t hese t er ms, 4 s i tes a ppear t o b e i den t ica l , a s t hey a l l c on ta in f igured s cenes a nd s hare n one o f t he f ea tures o ft he o thers . By c on trast , t he l owest l eve l o f s im i lar ity ( 0 .015) embraces t he m a l l , a s t he p oss ib le p ermuta t ions o f f ea tures a re i n f in i te , a nd most a re u sed i n p ract ice . With in t he G roup , t he g enera l ly l ow l eve ls o f s im i lar i ty s ugges t ac onsisten t d es ire f or v ar ie ty i n t he u se o f t he 2 4 o r s o f ea tures i n t he r eper tory a va i lab le f or c ho ice . A t i t s s i mp lest , t h is means t ha t c usto mers p robab ly d id n o t s tudy d es igns o f mosa ics l a id e lsewhere a nd a sk f or t he s a me w ith m inor v ar ia t ions ; e v iden t ly w ith b o th p ictor ia l a nd g eo metr ic e lemen ts t hey w ere g iven a f ree c ho ice ( perhaps u s ing p a t tern-books o r i l lu m ina ted manuscr ip ts) a nd t he d es ign was made u p t o o rder .1 2 T he a pparen t g roup ings, o r c lusters, w i th in t he o thers s hou ld b e n oted , a s t hey may b e s ign if ican t . H owever , when t he r esu lts a re p resen ted a s a s econd Ma tr ix f o l low ing t he a rrange men t o f t he d endrogram ( F ig . 7 .8) t he n a ture o ft he l i nks c an b e s tud ied . n o .14 ( t he

T hey a re d ue t o t he u se o f f ea tures s uch a s

t horns ' b order ) o r 2 3 ( i n ter laced s quares) . 2 12

T here i s n oth ing r e-

markable about these; admittedly their frequency within and outside the region cannot be precisely compared until the entire corpus has been analysed by computer, but it is safe to say that they are the stock-in-trade of designers throughout the empire. On present evidence, then, these minor clusters are probably meaningless. This does not, incidentally, exhaust the possibilities of our method of analy­ sis. It would be possible, for instance, to integrate the two dendrograms in one job - and indeed to make the procedure more sophisticated by weighting the val ue of each feature. This would have to be done from a n analysis of the whole country, or at least from a larger sample. Alternatively, the job could be run the other way round, to give clusters of features rather tha n sites; one consequence of this might be the production of tighter clusters in Matrix B. However, the exercise has proved valuable as an objective check on the sub­ jective methods previously employed, and enabled the Group to be studied in the context at least of its immediate region. Discussion The immediate region contains 16 mosaics, whose workmanship we ca nnot attribute to a known 'school', partly because ma ny of them are too fragmentary or badly recorded, partly beca use their date is unknown. In addition there are numerous sites where loose tesserae 1n·dicate the loss of decorative mosaics. In any case, there is no good reason why a competent builder could not have laid a mosaic of simple design - as is obvious from a most peculiar performance at Combley, I. 0. W. This is one extreme end of the spectrum, and the highly professional figured pavements the other. The professional musivarius could, of course, command the specialised techniques of tessera-cutting and prefabri­ cation, and the supply of unusual coloured stones. Research into the latter is currently in progress. The hand of the builder is most clearly seen in the numerous tessellated floors with simple designs (meander, chequer etc) in coarse tesserae of brick and grey limestone. In identifying a Central Southern Group lt is not clear whether we are dealing with one, two or more mosaicists. The workmanship at Sparsholt, Chilgrove and Chichester (D avid Greig) is of a high order, while the others are known only from engravings and the quality cannot be judged. Standards vary at Bignor, but the pavements may have been laid at different times. Two men are suspected to have worked at Sparsholt, where of the floral cups one was . laid from left to right, the other vice versa. In the complicated panelled de­ sign at Bignor, variations in the L-blocks suggest two or three men at work simultaneously. We can guess the origins of at least one of the team, as the floral cups show strong Corinian affinities, and the D avid Greig pavement at Chichester would not look out of place in the Corinian area. I have already suggested that this Group represents an offshoot from the Corinian School,of enterprising craftsmen moving eastwards in search of new business. 4 The reflooring of the main rooms at Sparsholt at a time of prosperity may be a pattern repeated elsewhere.

213

TABLE A Mosa ics o f t he Cen tra l S outhern G roup S i lchester , x xv i i .1, r oo m 1 8 ( S t . J ohn H ope , 1 903 , p l .i i ) C h ichester , Dav id G re ig S i te ( Johnston , 1 974) S parsho lt ( unpub l ished ) I t chen A bbas ( Co l l ier , 1 878 , 1 879) C h i lgrove ( unpub l ished , b ut i n for ma t ion f ro m Mr . A . Down ) Bramdean ( Roach Sm i th , 1 852 , 1 ,54-63 ) B ignor ( Lysons, 1 817 , a ) Basi ldon ( Roach Sm ith , 1 852 ,1 1 , p l . x x iv )

TABLE B F ea tures r eferred t o b y n u mber , i n F igs, 7 .2-7 .4 , 7 .6 , 7 .8 1 .

S of tened e dge .

1 3 . A rabesque .

2 .

P lu mp l o tus s cro l l .

1 4.

3 .

S p iked k no t .

1 5. C an tharus.

4 .

Dah l ia .

1 6 . S wast ika k not .

5 .

L -B locks .

1 7 . C ab le .

6 .

Meander-pane l t ype A .

1 8 .

7 .

S aw tooth b order .

1 9 . S wast ika l ozenge .

8 .

G u i l loche- meander-wave

2 0 .

Meander-pane l v ar ian ts .

2 1.

G u i l loche k not .

c o mb ina t ion 9 .

F lora l c up .

1 0 .

F igured p ane ls .

1 1.

Z ig-zag b order .

1 2 .

D ia monds b order .

T horns b order .

C rowstep b order .

2 2 . S a lt ire . 2 3 .

2 14

I n ter laced s quares.

AC KNOWLEDGE MENTS Much o f t h is s tudy wou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ib le w ithout t he h e lp o f t he C o mputer Cen tres a t S ou tha mp ton , Cambr idge a nd Un ivers i ty C o l lege L ondon . B ut my p ar t icu lar g ra t itude i s d ue t o Mrs S . S hennan , who p repared t he c ards, d iscussed t he r esu l ts w ith me a nd most g enerous ly p laced h er e xper ience o f t h is k ind o f a na lysis e n t ire ly a t my d isposa l .

D iscuss ion o f t h is p aper a t t he

C on ference h as c ons iderab ly s harpened i ti n many r espec ts ;

f or many y ears I

h ave b enef ited f ro m t he a dv ice a nd c r i t ic is m o f Dr Sm i th , a nd Iwou ld l i ke t o c onc lude b y r epea t ing my i ndeb tedness t o P rofessor T oynbee f or h er b en ign c ourage men t s ince It ook my f i rs t s teps, l ong a go, i n t he a bsorbing s tudy o f R o man mosa ics.

REFERENCES 1 .

Sm i th ,

1 975 .

2 .

Sm ith , 1 969, 9 5-113 .

3 .

J ohnston , 1 967 .

4 .

J ohnston , 1 974 .

5 .

J ohnston , 1 977 .

6 .

Sm ith , 1 975 , P ls . C IX .1,

7 .

Sm i th ,

8 .

B lanchard e t a l ., 1 973 , n o .156 .

9 .

I b id ., n o .157 .

CXXX I I I . 2 , CXXV .

1 975 , P l . CX I .1.

1 0 .

Sm ith , 1 975 , 2 75 .

1 1.

T he Ca mbr idge I BM 3 70/165 c o mputer , u s ing t he 'p ackage ' CLUSTAN ( not e spec ia l ly d es igned f or a rchaeo log ica l u se) .

C f . Wishar t ,

D ., 1 971 , C lus tan U ser Manua l , S t Andrews . 1 2 .

F or manuscr ip ts a nd mosa ics , s ee H en ig , f or thco m ing .

2 15

Roman. Life and Art in Britain A celebration in honour of the eightieth birthday of Jocelyn Toynbee edited by

Julian Munby and Martin Henig Part ii

British Archaeological Reports 4 I (ii) 1 977

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A. ADVISORY EDITORS

Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. C. B. Burgess, B.A., F.S.A. Professor B. W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D.: F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F.S.A. Professor G. D. B. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. P. A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. F ranees Lynch, M.A. , F.S. A. P . A. Rahtz, M.A. , F.S.A.

B.A .R. 41 (II), 1977: "Roman Life and Art in Britain. A celebration in honour of the eightieth birthday of Jocelyn Toynbee" Volume II © the individual authors, 1977.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387475 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387482 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780904531916 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407320731 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531916 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS PART i Foreword Contr ibu tors Mar t in Rober tson 1 .

J . M . C . Toynbee

2 .

Dav id Brown a nd Mar t in Hen ig

3 .

E . J . P h ill ips

J oce lyn Toynbee — An Apprec iat ion

1

Greek My tho logy a nd Ro man Nu m is mat ics

3

F igured Amber i n t he Ash mo lean Museu m , Ox ford

2 1

The C lass ica l Trad it ion i n t he Popu lar S cu lpture o f Ro man Br ita in

3 5 5 1

4 .

T . F . C . B lagg

S choo ls o f S tone masons i n Ro man Br ita in

5 .

J oan L ivers idge

Recen t Develop men ts i n Ro mano-Br it ish Wa l l P a int ing

6 .

D . J . Sm ith

7 5

My tho log ica l F igures a nd S cenes i n Romano-Br it ish Mosa ics

7 .

Dav id E . J ohnston

1 05

The Cen tra l S ou thern Group o f Ro manoBr it ish Mosa ics

1 95

PART i 8 .

J ohn Casey

Trad it ion a nd I nnovat ion i n t he Co inage o f Caraus ius a nd A l lectus

2 17

M irrors i n Ro man Br ita in

2 31

10. Dom P err ing

Aspects o f Ar t i n Ro mano-Br it ish P ot tery

2 53

1.

Ar t i n t he ' Sma l l Towns ':

9 .

G . L loyd- Morgan

Mar t in M il let

' Ce lt ic ' o r

' Class ica l '

2 83

1 2.

M iranda Green

Theo morph is m . .

2 97

1 3.

M. W. C . Hassal l

Wing less V ictor ies

3 27

1 4.

Mar t in Hen ig

Roman Ge mstones :

F iguretype a nd

Adap tat ion 1 5.

Mar t in Hen ig

Death a nd t he Ma iden :

3 41 Funerary S ymbo l is m

i n D a ily L ife 1 6.

Pau l Ar thur

Eggs a nd Po megranates :

3 47 An Exa mp le o f

S ymbo l is m i n Ro man Br ita in

3 67

1 7.

Ra lph Merr if ield

Ar t a nd Rel ig ion i n Roman L ondon — An I nquest o n t he S cu lp tures o f L ondin iu m

3 75

1 8.

R ichard Reece

Mosa ics a nd Carpets

4 07

1 9.

J u l ian Munby

Ar t , Archaeo logy a nd An t iquar ies

4 15

B ib l iography

4 37

8 . TRADITION AND I NNOVAT ION I N THE COINAGE OF CARAUS IUS AND ALLECTUS J ohn Casey

As t he emperor S ep t im ius S everus l ay o n h is d ea th b ed i n York h e o f fered h is s ons , C araca l la a nd G e ta , h is b ened ic t ion a nd t he b enef i t o ft h is a dv ice , d is t i l led f rom e igh teen y ears o f s upre me p o l i t ica l p ower : " S t ick t oge ther , e nr ich t he s o ld iers , c are n o th ing f or a nyone e lse." 1 Caraca lla , wh ils t sw if t ly r e jec t ing t he f irs t o ft hese p recep ts , e n thus ias t ical ly embraced t he o ther t wo , d ec lar ing : "Nobody i nt he wor ld s hou ld h ave money b u t me , a nd Iwan t t o g ive i t t o t he s o ld iers." 2 These q uo ta t ions a re t he mos t d ra ma t ic e xpress ions o f t he t rend o f e ven ts wh ich w ere a lready e v iden t i nt he l as t q uar ter o ft he s econd c en tury a nd w ere t o d o mi na te t he p o l i t ica l h is tory o ft he t h ird , t he f i nanc ia l d e mands o f t he a rmy b o th i nt he d efence o ft he Emp ire a nd i nt he i n ternec ine s trugg les o f c on tend ing i mp er ia l c la i man ts. The d e mands made o n t he r esources o f t he Emp ire e f fect ive ly d es troyed t he c urrency o ft he s ta te a nd s hook t he s tab il i ty o f i t s s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l f abr ic.

F inanc ing t he n eeds , o r d e mands , o f l arger a nd l arger

a rm ies, i n i t sel f a n i n to lerab le s tra in o n as ta t ic e cono my , was e xacerba ted b yt he f requency w i th wh ich emperors were c rea ted a nd d es troyed b y t he a rm ies o ft he p rov inces. B uy ing t he l oya l ty o ft he s o ld iers w i th d ona t ives was n o l onger a ma t ter o f misgu ided g eneros i ty , a s may h ave b een t he c ase w i th Caracal la , b u t an ecess i ty o f imper ia l s urv iva l. The c ond i t ion o ft he s tandard s i lver c o in o ft he t h ird c en tury , t he s o-ca l led An ton in ianus o r d oub le d enar ius , r ef lec ts t he s i tua t ion w i th d epress ing a cc uracy.

B e tween 2 38 a nd 2 58 t he a n ton in ianus l os t 4 0% o f i t s we igh t a nd 6 8%

o f i t s s i lver c on ten t.

Acce lera ted d eprec ia t ion t ook p lace b e tween 2 58 a nd

2 70 , b y wh ich d a te t he c o in w e ighed a mere 2 .5-3 g a nd c on ta ined , a t b es t , 2 % s i lver . 3 The r eform o f A ure l ian i n 2 73 h ad l i t tle ma ter ia l e f fec t o n t he c o inage , mere ly c on t inu ing t he i ssue o f l ow a l loy b i l lon c o ins wh ich w ere , p robab ly , u nrea l is t ica l ly t ar if fed a t ah igh r a te.

The i ssue o f f rac t iona l b ase

me ta l c o ins was a bandoned a s u nprof i tab le. Wh i ls t t he i n tr ins ic v a lue o ft he c urrency d ec l ined t he v o lu me n eeded t o c onduc t t rade i n at ime o f i n f la t ion i ncreased. The i ncre men t i n p roduc t ion was a ccompan ied b yt he o pen ing o f n ew m in ts , s ign if ican t ly a d jacen t t o m i l it ary c en tres , a nd a n i ncrease i n t he p roduc t ive c apac i ty o f e x is t ing e s tab l ishmen ts. The c rea t ion o f n ew m in ts a nd t he n eed f or v o lu me p roduc t ion i n a mach ine less s oc ie ty n a tura l ly h ad t he ir e f fec t o n t he a ppearance o f t he c o ina ge b u t t he f ac tor d om ina t ing t he n ew , l ow r e l ief c o inage was t he t echn ica l

2 17

p rob le m o f g iv ing a s i lver s ur face t o al ow s i lver a l loy f l an .

Th is was

a ch ieved b y b lanch ing t he b lanks t o p roduce a s i lver r ich s ur face wh ich , o n s tr ik ing , g ave a t e mporary b r i l l iance t o t he c o in . Bu t t he f low o f c o inage f ro m t he Imper ia l m in ts , a l though mone tar ily w or th less , ma in ta ined t he h igh s tandards o f p or tra i ture wh ich d is t ingu ished t he Ro man c o inage i n e ar l ier p er iods. Wi th t he d ec l ine i nt he r ea l v a lue o ft he c urrency t here i s ac orr espond ing c hange i nt he t rea t men t o ft he t ype c on ten t f ro m a ' c iv i l ian ' t one t o ad is t inc t ly m i l i tary o ne , wh i ls t t he t rea t men t o f t he i mper ia l p or tra i t u nderwen t s o me th ing o f at ransforma t ion .

The t h ird c en tury s aw t he f u l l d e-

v e lopmen t o ft he h i ther to r are t he me o ft he emperor r epresen ted i n f u l l b a tt le e qu ip men t w i th h e l me t , a rmour , s pear a nd s h ie ld ( P l. 8 .1 ,1). The t rans i t ion o ft he emperor f ro m i mpera tor , l eader o f t he a rm ies i nt he a bs trac t, t o d ux , l i tera l ly f i gh ting i nt he f ron t l ine ( and d y ing t here i n t he c ase o f Tra jan D ec ius ) i s r ef lec ted i nt he c o inage.

H ero ic i mages p lay a n i ncreas ing r o le

i nt he d ep ic t ion o ft he r u ler . Th is i s n o t as urpr is ing d eve lopmen t. The i ncrease i n min ts a cross t he emp ire g ave p o ten t ia l u surpers b e t ter a ccess t o c o in ing f ac il i t ies a nd t o t he imper ia l a u thor i t ies t he a b il i ty t o p roduce t ypes s pec if ic t o r eg iona l e ven ts. Bo th p ar t ies h ad t he impera t ive n eed t o p roduce , t hrough t he med iu m o f t he c o inage , a means o f impress ing t he s o ld ier w i th t he f ea tures o f t he f ocus o f h is l oya l ty .

The more e labora te t he image t he more t he impac t , t hus a cces-

s ion d ona t ives a nd f es t iva l c o ins p resen t s pec ia l o ppor tun i t ies f or s uch d isp lay . Wh i ls t n um is ma t is ts h ave c oncen tra ted o n t he r everse t ypes o ft he imper ia l c o inage i n as earch f or h is tor ica l s ign if icance i ti s c er ta in t ha t n o s uch emphas is w as p laced i n a n t iqu i ty . imper ia l image e n t ire ly . a nd s uperscr ip t ion?"

4

The message was c on ta ined b yt he

Chr is t a sked h is d isc ip les "Whose i s t h is i mage

a nd t he t roops o f Va len t in ian Ik new f u l l w e l l t he im-

p l ica t ion o f a ccep t ing t he c o inage o ft he u surper Procop ius wh ich was " aureos , s c il ice t n u m mos , e f f ig ia tos i n v u l tu m n ov i p r inc ip i....". 5

The c eremon ia l

a nd s ymbo l ic f unc t ion o f c o inage i n t he a nc ien t w or ld i s emphas ised b y t hese i ns tances — t he ' K ings s h il l ing ' a spec t o f money .

I ti s a ga ins t t h is b ackground

t ha t w e s ha l l e xam ine t he i ssues o ft he u surpers C araus ius a nd A l lec tus. The c ircu ms tances t ha t s urround t he a ccess ion o f C araus ius r e ma in s tubb orn ly o bscure.

Tak ing o ver Br i ta in w i th i t s c omp le men t o f t hree l eg ions a nd

i t s n u merous r eg i men ts o f a ux i l iary t roops a ppears t o h ave b een a cco mp l ished b y as udden c oup p rec ip i ta ted b y Max im ian 's d es ire t o e l im ina te h is amb i t ious s ubord ina te. There i s n o th ing t o s ugges t t ha t B r i ta in , a s s uch , p layed a ny p ar t i nt he r evo l t , mere ly p rov ing a r efuge i n t he f irs t i ns tance a nd a d o ma in i nt he l onger t erm. Wha tever t he mechan ics o ft he r evo l t, o r t he r easons f or i t , t he p resence o f al arge a r my , i ncre men ted b yt he Caraus ian f l ee t a nd v ex i la t ions o f c on t inen ta l f orces , made t he o rgan isa t ion o ft he f i nances o ft he i s land a p ress ing n eed f or t he n ew r eg i me , n o t mere ly f or l ongter m f i sca l r easons b u t, more i m med ia te ly , t o p ay a n a ccess ion d ona t ive t o t he t roops. Ra is ing t he money f or t h is d ona t ive c lear ly p resen ted d i f f icu l t ies s ince t he a ccess ion c o inage was i ssued i n s i lver a nd n o t , w i th a s ing le e xcep t ion , i n g o ld . Norma l ly c rown g o ld w ou ld h ave b een o f fered b y , o r r a ther b e e x trac ted f ro m , t he c iv i ta tes o ft he i s land .

T he a ccess ion o f Max im ian s hor tly b efore t he a d-

v en t o f C araus ius w ou ld h ave b een a cco mpan ied b y s uch a l evy , s o t ha t t he p rov inces w ere a l mos t c er ta in ly d ra ined o f b u l l ion b y t he t ime C araus ius a rr ived . 2 18

T o c o mpe te w i th t he l argesse o fD ioc le t ian a nd Max im ian , s o r ecen t ly d isp ensed , r equ ired t he mob il isa t ion o f p rec ious me ta l a nd t he e s tab l ishmen t o f am in t. 6 S o me b u l l ion s ee ms t o h ave b een a t h and i nt he f orm o f t he p ira te l oo t t he n on-re turn o f w h ich s ee ms t o h ave p rec ip i ta ted Caraus ius 's f l igh t ; i ta lmos t c er ta in ly c ons is ted o f s i lver p la te. The m in t h ad t o b e c rea ted f ro m s cra tch s ince n o i mper ia l c o ins h ad b een s truck i n Br i ta in s ince t he r e ign o f An ton inus P ius. 7

The t rad i t ion o f c o inage wh ich Caraus ius i nher i ted was

t ha t o ft he p roducers o ft he c op ies o ft he c o inage o f t he G a l l ic Emp ire wh ich f ormed a l arge c o mponen t o ft he c urrency b e tween c . 2 60 a nd t he a rr iva l o f t he n ew r u ler . The c op ies h ard ly f ormed t he b as is f or t he r ecru i t men t o f w orkers f or a n imper ia l m in t b e ing i l l i tera te o f l egend a nd u ncou th o f a ppeara nce. As e v idenced b yt he c op ies , t he minor c raf ts o ft he i s land w ere i n p oor s hape i nt he l a ter t h ird c en tury . A s ource o f workers m igh t , h owever , b e s ough t i nt he j ewe l lery t rade a nd e spec ia l ly i n t he r anks o f s ea l-cu t ters w ho wou ld p ossess t he s k i l l t o w ork o n am in ia ture s ca le a nd i n i n tag l io.

I n

t he e ven t t hree min ts were e s tab l ished , a pparen tly a t t he s a me t ime , i n L ondon , p robab ly a t Co lches ter a nd a t a n u nknown l oca t ion . Two o ft hese e s tab l ishmen ts s igned t he ir w ork w i th a d is t inc t ive m in t s igna ture , ' L ' a nd ' C ', t he t h ird i s a nonymous.

Af our th a lso e x is ts wh ich s igned i t s w ork RSR ;

t h is min t mark h as b een c onv inc ing ly i n terpre ted a s i nd ica t ing t ha t t h is m in t w orked u nder t he c on tro l o ft he Ra t iona l is S u mmae Re i,t he f orerunner o f t he Co mes S acraru m L arg i t ionu m , a nd a s s uch was c oncerned w i th t he p aymen t o f m i l i tary d ona t ives. I ti s l ike ly t ha t t h is m in t w as a b ranch , o r e ven t he p redecessor , o ft he L ondon m in t wh ich p roduced c eremon ia l c o inage a t t he b ehes t o ft he r a t iona l is . The f ac t t ha t af ew c o ins i n s i lver h ave t he m in t mark ML , t he e ar l ies t mark o f L ondon , s ugges ts t ha t t hey w ere p roduced b y RSR w orkers mark ing t he d ies i n e rror , t ha t i s i n t he manner o ft he ir n or ma l d ie o u tpu t.

Af ter t he c onques t o f p ar ts o f n or thern G au l , i n 2 89/90 ,

af ur ther m in t was e s tab l ished o nt he Con t inen t. Wh i ls t t he o f f icium o f t he r a t iona l is h ad t he p r ior i ty o f t he p roduc t ion o f s i lver a nd t he l im i ted e ar ly g o ld c o inage t he b u lk o f t he b i l lon i ssues o f t he r e ign were p roduced b yt he o ther t hree min ts. The m in ts w i th s igna tures d isp lay e v idence f or a c on tro l led s er ies o f s equence marks wh ich , t hough u n in te ll ig ib le i n d e ta il , a l low t he s uccess ion o f t he i nd iv idua l i ssues t o b e e s tab l ished .

I t i s t hus p oss ib le t o s ee d eve lopmen ts i n t he c on ten t a nd s ty le

o ft he c o inage w i th in a c hrono log ica l f ra mework .

The a ppearance o f s uch

s ig la o n c o ins i s i t se lf a d eve lopmen t o f as ys te m u sed s pasmod ica l ly e lsew here i n t he Emp ire f ro m t he m idd le o ft he t h ird c en tury , b u t t he Caraus ian a nd A llec tan s ys te m i s p erhaps t he mos t f u l ly d eve loped , a nd c ons is ten t i n a pp l ica t ion , b efore t he D ioc le t ian ic r e for m o ft he c urrency i n 2 94 b rough t t he p rac t ice i n to u se t hroughou t t he Emp ire. I t s ee ms r easonab le t o a scr ibe t he e s tab l ish men t o f s uch a c o mprehens ive m in t s ys te m i n s uch i nausp ic ious c ircu ms tances t o A l lec tus w ho h e ld t he p os t o f r a t iona l is s u m mae r e iwhen h e c on tr ived t he murder o f C araus ius i n 2 93. 8 An e xam ina t ion o ft he c o inage o ft he t wo r e igns i n t he l i gh t o f a r t is t ic i mpu lses a nd a ch ieve men ts i s p erhaps a l i t tle u nrea l. C lear ly t he o rgan isat i on o f t he m in t s ys te m a nd t he e f f ic ien t d is tr ibu t ion o f i t s p roduc ts w as o f a v ery h igh o rder.

Th is , a f ter a l l , i s l arge ly wha t t he b us iness o ft he f i nanc ia l 2 19

a u thor i t ies was a bou t — t o s pread t he c o inage o f t he n ew r eg i me t hroughou t t he n ew ly a cqu ired t err i tory . Ar t is t ic c ons idera t ions , i n t erms o f e xecu t ion , w ere n o d oub t s econdary t o t h is o b jec t ive. N one the less t he c o ins t he mse lves a t tes t ac oncern f or i conography a nd n um is ma t ic p ropr ie ty e n t ire ly a ppropr ia te t o t he ir d ay .

There i s a lso s o me s l igh t e v idence f or a es the t ic c ons idera-

t i ons p lay ing a r o le i n t he c o inage a nd e ven p erhaps d issa t isfac t ion b e ing e xpressed a s t o i t s a ppearance — o r r a ther t he i mper ia l a ppearance. B u t t he n a ture o ft he i mage i t se lf p rec ludes r ad ica l c hange ;

i n t he l i gh t o f t he

i ns tances q uo ted a bove i ti s c lear t ha t t he r ecogn i t ion o ft he i mper ia l f ea tures was i mpor tan t. A r ad ica l c hange o f s ty le , a l though a es the tica l ly d es irab le , m igh t b e p o l i t ica l ly u ndes irab le. Augus tus 's f ea tures h ard ly v ar ied t hrougho u t h is l ong r e ign a nd i n modern t imes w e m igh t i ns tance t he t rau ma wh ich a ccompan ied t he a brup t c hange o f Queen V ic tor ia f ro m y oung g ir l t o a ged ma tron . F ur ther c ons idera t ions m i l i ta te a ga ins t t he a r t h is tor ica l a pproach t o a mass-produced c o inage a ch ieved w i thou t mach inery . The n eed f or a h uge v o lu me o f d ies mus t i t se lf b e i n im ica l t o t he d eve lop men t o f s ty l is t ic r ef ine men t o r c ons is tency i n w orkmansh ip. F ur thermore , t he s heer mass o f t he c o inage , i t se lf a sma l l f rac t ion o ft he m i l l ions c ircu la t ing i n a n t iqu i ty , p resen ts u s w i th s uch a r ange o f m inor s ty l is t ic v ar ia t ion t ha t o n ly t he mos t c ursory s urvey o ft he ma ter ia l i s p oss ib le.

E ven s o s ome g enera l isa t ions

c an b e a dvanced wh ich i l lu m ina te t he w ork o ft he i nd iv idua l min ts. Th is i s e spec ia l ly t rue o ft he RSR m in t ( es tab l ished t o p roduce t he s i lver c o inage o f t he a ccess ion p er iod a nd t he r are b ronze meda l l ions o ft he r e ign o f Caraus ius ) a nd t he t wo o ther m in ts w h ich s igned t he ir p roduc ts. The RSR m in t i ssued t he e ar l ies t c o inage o ft he r e ign s pec i f ical ly f or t he a ccess ion d ona t ive , t he i ssue o f wh ich may h ave c o inc ided w i th C araus ius 's f irs t , s e lfi mposed , c onsu lsh ip , h e ld f rom J anuary i s t 2 87.

Two h ands c an

b e d e tec ted i nt he p roduc t ion o ft hese e ar ly c o ins , o ne c apab le o f ac ons idera b le d egree o f s ens i t iv i ty i n p or tra i ture ( P l. 8 . 1, 2 ) a nd a c o l league who s ee ms t o h ave b een c apab le o n ly o f i n fer ior w orkmansh ip ( Pl. 8 .1,3 ). B o th c raf ts men c on tr ibu ted t o t he meda l l ic i ssues o f t he c onsu lsh ip a nd t hey o bserve i n b o th t he meda ls a nd t he c o ins a n i mpor tan t i conograph ic p r inc ip le , t ha t t he i mper ia l b us t when d isp layed i n c onsu lar r obes s hou ld f ace t o t he l ef t. D ev ia t ions f ro m t h is p rac t ice a re v ery r are , a nd i ti s o bserved b y a l l m in ts a nd r u lers f rom t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury . I ti s s ign if ican t t ha t w ha t m igh t a ppear t o b e a sma l l ma t ter o f i conograph ic e t ique t te was o bserved f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign a nd t h is s ugges ts t ha t t he p erson , o r p ersons , c on tro l l ing t he i ssue o f t he c o inage was f am i l iar w i th i mper ia l m in t p rac t ices . The o b jec t o ft he d isp lay o f t he emperor i nt h is manner was , n o d oub t , i n tended t o d raw t he a t ten t ion o f t he r ec ip ien t o ft he c o in t o t he s pec ia l n a ture o f t he e ven t wh ich h ad l ed t o i t s em m iss ion . We s ha l l d iscuss t h is e le men t i nt he c o inage i n r ela t ion t o o ther l ef t-fac ing p or tra i ts l a ter ( Pl. 8 .1 , 4 ,5 ). The b us t t ypes p roduced b y t he RSR m in t a re s im i lar t o t hose o ft he L ondon m in t b i l lon i ssues a nd a re i n f luen t ia l i n p rov id ing t he model f or t he i ssues o f b o th C o lches ter a nd t he ' un marked ' m in t.

Fro m t he f i rs t t he p or-

t ra i t o f C araus ius i s d is t inc t ive. Un l ike o ther u surpa t ion c o inages t here i s n o th ing t en ta t ive a bou t t he e ar l ies t i ssues o f t he r eg i me. There i s n o a dapt a t ion o ft he p or tra i ts o f f am i l iar emperors i n a dvance o f t he a rr iva l o f t he imag ines o ft he n ew r u ler .

The p rov is ion o f a n o f f ic ia l l ikeness s ee ms t o

2 20

1 3

1

1 7

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 3

2 6

PLATE 8 .1

1 8

h ave b een a n e ar ly p r ior i ty i n t he r e ign .

The p or tra i t s hares t he a es the t ic

o f i t s a ge t o af u l l d egree , t he e xaggera ted b us t a nd t he h eavy d eve lop men t o f t he n eck a re f am il iar f ac tors i n imper ia l c o in p or tra i ture f ro m t he r e ign o f Ga l l ienus o nwards.

Th is t rad i t ion p erhaps s te ms f ro m Ga l l ienus 's p reoccupa-

t ion w i th N ero , whose p or tra it b us ts w ere r ev ived a nd whose u nder c h in b eard was emu la ted b y G a l l ienus.

The f l eshy J u l io-Claud ian p rov ided a n image f or

t he l ean t imes o f t he l a te t h ird c en tury .

When h and led w i th c are t he r esu l t ing

Caraus ian image was a s trong , w e l l mode l led c oncep t.

I n t he h ands o f t he

d ie-cu t ter u nder p ressure i tb eca me g ro tesque ( P l . 8 .I , 6 ). The s i lver c o inage o ft he RSR m in t p resen ts a n u mber o f t ypes wh ich a re p roper t o t he a dven t o ft he n ew r e ign .

A l mos t a l l a re t rad i t iona l i n c on ten t

a nd t he im med ia te mode ls f or s pec if ic t ypes c an b e t raced t o c o ins wh ich m e t w e l l h ave b een a va i lab le a s e xe mp la o f t he c hosen t he me. The imper ia l e n try t o L ondon i s c e lebra ted w i th a n ADVENT V S i ssue , a nd l a ter b y o ne f or Co lches ter .

The t ype i s t he p roper o ne f or t he o ccas ion w i th t he emperor o n

h orseback mak ing a b enevo len t g es ture.

The mode l f or t he c o in w as c lear ly

ap os t-refor m p iece o f Aure l ian , o r Probus , s ince t he d eno m ina t iona l mark XX I , a ppears i n t he e xergue.

Th is n u mera l i nd ica tes t he v a lue o f ab i l lon

c o in a nd h as n o r e levance t o as i lver i ssue , c lear ly t he d ie-cu t ter f o l lowed h is mode l a l l t oo c lose ly a nd i nco mprehend ing ly ( Pl . 8 .1 , 7 ).

O ther t ypes

c e lebra te t he n ew r e ign , a nd c onsu lsh ip , w i th r e ferences t o FEL ICITAS , r ep resen ted , a s i th ad b een s ince t he d ays o f H adr ian , b y ag a l ley .

A t f irs t

s igh t t he i ssue w i th t he ma ture Caraus ius d ispor t ing h i mse lf a s t he p r inceps i uven tu t is m igh t s ee m i ncongruous b u t t he t ype i s a n impor tan t a l lus ion t o t he c ons t i tu t iona l p os i t ion t o wh ich Caraus ius p re tended i n r e la t ion t o t he s en iores , D ioc le t ian a nd Max im ian , t he p os i t ion o f h e ir-apparen t ( Pl. 8 .1 , 8 ) .

The

t i tle h ad a lready b een a ssu med d ur ing h is r e ign b y F lor ian a nd w as l a ter t o b e a dop ted , a t a n a dvanced a ge , b y Cons tan t ine.

CONCORD IA M IL ITV M i s

e voked b y t he s tock t ype o f c lasped h ands ( Pl. 8 .1 , 9 ) a nd RO MAE AETERNAE b y t he u sua l t ype o f t he t e mp le o f C ap i to l ine J up i ter .

I ft hese t ypes a re e n-

t ire ly s tock i t e ms i n t he c o in r eper to ire o ft he t h ird c en tury t wo C araus ian t ypes i n s i lver r epresen t ac o mp le te d epar ture f ro m we l l-worn t rad i t ions. The c o in o f C araus ius w i th t he r everse l egend EXPECTATE VEN I h as l ong o ccup ied a p lace o f a f fec t ion i n t he m inds o f h is tor ians o f Ro man Br i ta in . The c o in , wh ich d ep ic ts t he emperor b e ing w e lco med b y Br i tann ia , b ears a n a dap ta t ion o f at agl ine f ro m t he Aene id ( P l. 8 .1,10 ).

True t he f u l l c on tex t

o f t he q uo ta t ion i s h ard ly a usp ic ious a s ag ree t ing f or a n ew r u ler , f or t he Hec tor , l ong e xpec ted , was h ard ly t he warr ior o f y es teryear : " And , o h , h ow h arrow ing was t he s igh t o f h im ; h ow c hanged h e w as f ro m t he o ld H ec tor ... N ow h is b eard w as r agged a nd h is h a ir c lo t ted w i th b lood , a nd a l l t hese w ounds wh ich h e h ad s us ta ined f igh t ing t o d efend t he wa l ls o f h is h o me land c ou ld s t i l l b e s een ."

9

I t m igh t b e s ugges ted t ha t t he l egend s i mp ly r epresen ts a n a cc la ma t ion , p erh aps t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th a n a dven tus c ere mony a nd t ha t i th as n o Verg il ian s ign if icance a t a l l.

H owever , t here i s o ther e v idence o f a Verg i l ian q uo ta t ion

i n t he c o inage wh ich s ee ms t o h ave e scaped a t ten t ion h i ther to a nd wh ich t hus l ends s uppor t t o t he e xpec ta te c o in .

Un ique t o t he e n t ire r eper to ire o f t he

Ro man c o inage i s t he Caraus ian i ssue w h ich r epresen ts VBERTAS ( Plen ty )

2 22

has a milkmaid seated on her stool beside a cow (Pl. 8.1, 11). The conventional representation of VBERTAS is a woman holding out a bunch of gmpes but in the second Georgie there is a description of rural bliss and rustic 3implicity which harks back to the roots of Roman society in its uncorrupted 3tate. Among the fruits of nature in this bucolic idyll: "Ubera vaccae lactea demittunt" 10 The full-uddered cows let down their milk. The happy equation of uber /udder and ubertas/plenty has stimulated one of the most felicitous types in the entire Roman coinage. The issue life of the RSR mint was short and terminated by 289, and with it dies this extraordinary literary tradition. Of the other mints, that on the Continent also had a brief life, a distinctive style and no influence on the insular coinage (Pl. 8.I, 12). The main burden of the production of currency issues fell upon the London, 'Colchester' and the 'unmarked' mint, with the overwhelming mass of the issues bearing the simple PAX reverse type (Pl. 8.I, 13). Although this type is found throughout the contemporary coin:1.ge its sheer volume among the issues of the British usurpers suggests that it was intended, for once, to convey something of significance. None of the mints producing the bulk coinages of the reigns achieved anything like the mundane facility which distinguishes contemporary Continental issues of Diocletian and Maximian from their Lugdunum mint, nor does the coinage of the British regime owe anything to the established mints of the Empire. Individually the three insular mints vary somewhat in the overall quality of their products with the London mint holding the doubtful distinction of producing the worst work, perhaps because it also produced the largest volume. The style is bold but the execution poor and it is possible to detect a steady decline in quality of craftsmanship which reaches its nadir in the issues 289 /90 (Pl. 8.I, 14). The types struck by London are on the whole routine with a single exception, a series of coins struck early in the reign to commemorate the legions and vexillations under Carausius' command and showing the emblems of the units. The legionary series has a long history in the Roman coinage, stretching back to Mark Antony but more immediately produced by Gallienus and, in gold, by Victorinus. The activities of the 'Colchester' mint closely parallel those of London and the 'unmarked' mint, participating for instance, though to lesser extent, in the legionary issues. But portraiture differs from the London style in some details and is, in general neater than the London work. Although the routine work of the 'C' mint appears to have been distinguished by the bravura mediocrity of the Carausian coinage, in general it appears to have given satis­ faction in its own day and the mint was assigned the task of producing the less mundane of the billon issues. Reverse types df the more exotic variety strongly tend to be from the 'Colchester' atelier. Some of these coins, though falling short in execution, are spectacular in conception, the boldest design being a full-face portrait piece (Pl. 8.I, 15) perhaps inspired by an aureus of Postumus (PI. 8.I, 16). The mint also produced types commemorating Carausius as RESTITVTOR BRITAN and the GENIO BRITANNI.

223

The p roduc ts o f t hese t wo m in ts f a l l i n to t wo c lear p er iods w h ich c o inc ide w i th c hanges i n i mper ia l f or tune.

I n 2 89 a n u nsuccess fu l a tte mp t a t t he r e-

c onques t o f Br i ta in b y Max im ian r esu l ted i n t he e s tab l ish men t o ft he Caraus ian r eg i me i n t he n or th o f G au l.

A t t he s a me t ime t he c o inage u nderwen t ap os-

s ib le r eva lua t ion a nd t he a dd i t ion o f ad eno m ina t iona l mark , XX I.

Add i t ion

was a lso made t o t he imper ia l t i tle w i th t he i nc lus ion o f C [aesar ] t o t he o bverse t i tu la ture.

Two f ur ther n um is ma t ic e ven ts f lowed f rom t he

Con t inen ta l c onnec t ion , t he s tr ik ing o f c o ins i nt he n a mes o f t he c en tra l empe rors D ioc le t ian a nd Max im ian , ac our tesy n o t r ec iproca ted , a nd t he emp loymen t o f n ew workers i n t he i s land m in ts .

The n on-accep tance o ft he Caraus i-

a n p or tra i t b yt he l eg i t i ma te emperors c lear ly i nd ica tes a r e jec t ion o f Caraus ius a s ac o l league i n emp ire.

The a ccep tance o f p or tra i ts was s ur-

r ounded a t t h is p er iod w i th a r i tua l o f i t s own a nd i nvo lved t heuse o f s acra s i mu lacra i n b o th a d ip lo ma t ic a nd i n a n a po tropa ic manner .

1 1

C er ta in ly

Caraus ius d oes h is c o l leagues t he c our tesy o f emp loy ing c o mpe ten t workers t o p roduce t he ir f ea tures ( P l. 8 .1 , 1 7 ,18 ).

Whe ther o r n o t r ecogn i tion w as

a ch ieved t he o pen ing u p o f p ar t o f t he c on t inen t made a va i lab le w orkers o f g rea ter c o mpe tence t han h ad b een a va i lab le h i ther to.

Wh ils t t here i s a n o ver-

l ap i n t he i ssues o f t he y ear 2 89/90 b e tween t he t wo s ty les t he b e t ter s ty le p reva i ls t hereaf ter .

The d is t inc t ion i s v ery g rea t w i th t he imper ia l p or tra i t

r endered i n a smoo ther , r ounder s ty le d evo id o ft he g ro tesque e xaggera t ion o f f ea tures t ha t h ad p reva i led t hus f ar ( P l. 8 .1 , 1 9 ).

I t was t he n ew workers

who p roduced a g o ld c o inage o f g rea t d is t inc t ion a t t he L ondon m in t ( Pl. 8 .1 , 2 0 ) a nd t he o u ts tand ing c o in o f t he r e ign , at r ip le p or tra i t o f Caraus ius a nd h is u nw i l l ing c o l leagues w i th t he l egend CARAVS IVS ET FRATRES S VI ( P l . 8 .1, 2 1). The s ource o ft hese n ew w orkers i s d i f f icu l t t o t race.

Wh i ls t t he ir w ork ,

a nd w e a ssu me more t han o ne w orker was i nvo lved s ince a l l o ft he m in ts c hange s ty le a t t he s a me t ime , i s u t ter ly u n l ike wha t m igh t b e t ermed t he n a t ive i nsu lar s ty le i t owes n o th ing t o t he c on te mporary m in t a t L ugdunu m . There i s n o q ues t ion o f at ransfer o f s ta f f f ro m t he l eg i t i ma te i mper ia l s erv ice , t o t ha t o f t he u surper .

Wha tever t he o r ig ins o f t he workers t hey h ad

n o impac t o n t he c on ten t o f t he c o inage mere ly o n t he s ty le , t hough n ew t echn ica l mas tery may h ave s t i mu la ted more amb i t ious o bverse t ypes o n o ccas ion . These w orkers c on t inued t o d eve lop t he ir n ea t s ty le t hroughou t t he r e ign o f A l lec tus a nd , i ndeed , r e ta ined t he ir emp loy men t u nder t he r es tored imper ia l a dm in is tra t ion .

1 2

We h ave a lready n o ted t ha t t here i s ac ere mon ia l a spec t t o a nc ien t c o ina ge a nd t ha t w e c an t race t h is a spec t i n t he c o inage o f Caraus ius a nd A l lec tus i n av ery p rec ise manner .

Th is i s d ue t o t he o rdered s equence o ft he c o in-

a ge wh ich h as b een e s tab l ished b y o bserva t ion o f c hanges i n t he m in t marks a nd imper ia l t i tles o f t he i ssues o f t he L ondon a nd ' Co lches ter ' min ts . t ing s che me , e s tab l ished b y R . A . G . Carson i s a s f o l lows : 13

2 24

The d a-

Table I London

'Colchester'

IMP CARAVSIVS PF AVG 286

ML

C

to

Lj

MC

ML 289

FjO ML

290

B\E MLXXI

CXXI, MCXXI

291

BjE MLXXI

S\C , SC, SP C

SMC

IMP C CARA VSIVS PF AVG 291

B\E MLXXI

S\C SC, SP C '

292

SIP MLXXI

S\P C

293

SJP ML

SIP C

ALLECTUS 293 to

SJP ML

IMP C ALLECTVS PF AVG S\P C

S\A ML

295

S\A MSL

�

295-6

QL

QC

CL

Any examination of coinage of the two reigns makes it clear that the over­ whelming bulk of material consists of issues on which the ruler appears facing right to the spectator; wearing a breastplate, the paludamentum and the radi­ ate crown, the latter item being not an actual piece of imperial regalia but a denominational mark. There are, however, issues with distinctive obverse types. One of these types can be associated with a specific event, the cele­ bration of a consulship and on the evidence of the coins it is possible to de­ monstrate that Carausius held two consulships but that Allectus celebrated none. Of Carausius' consulates the first was celebrated with coins from the London mint depicting the emperor in the trabea with consular mappa and sceptre, together with RSR issues in silver and medallions in bronze (Pl. 8.I, 4, 5). The second celebration is commemorated with coins bearing the mintmark dated to 289/90, which are paralleled by a gold issue of the Contin­ ental mint which opened in that year (Pl. 8 .I, 22). The scarcity of these coins is evidence of their ceremonial nature, though whether they were used 225

in a consular sparsio is uncertain. It would seem unlikely that the silver issues were issued with anything less than ceremony rather than thrown down on a free-for-all occasion. Two further exotic obverse types were produced on a regular basis, sup­ plemented from time to time by other exceptional issues in which the emperor appeared with co-rulers, deities or in unusual poses (Type III. Table II). To deal with this residual category first we find in this series Carausius and Sol in conjoined portraits (Pl. 8. I, 23), a device adapted from the coinage of Aurelian, and a half-length portrait of the emperor derived, probably, from a gold coin of Victorinus (Pl. 8. I, 24, 25). The derivation of this last coin from a gold type may hint at the existence of Carausian gold coins which have survived only in the form of strikings in billon. It is worth emphasising that these issues were produced from the beginning of the reign and continued to the end and that the insular die-cutters participated in the production of this coinage and thus in a complex artistic operation. The necessity to strike exceptional coins is thus emphasised, the need for them overriding the ability of the mint workers to produce them to a standard commensurate with their iconographic detail or design potential. It is notable too that these issues are virtually confined to the 'Colchester' and 'unmarked' workshops. This may mean that the workers in these establishments were held in higher esteem than their London colleagues, though two other possibilities should be noted. The first is that the 'unmarked' mint may have been part of the London mint, or that the part of London in the production of the bulk coinage was so large that it left little spare capacity for the production of exuberant types. On the whole, however, the production of the rare dies for the festival coinage can hardly have been a great burden and the assignment to mint by reason of proficiency seems more likely. This discrimination continued even after 289/90 when both London and 'Colchester' changed their styles, but it is reversed by Allectus who after a single issue transferred to London the production of such coins. The common variety of exceptional coinage, if such we may call them, are military types in which the emperor carries weapons and faces to the left, in contrast to the normal Roman practice of right facing busts. There are two varieties within this group of coins. Type I has the emperor wearing a helmet of elaborate style encircled by a radiate crown and wearing armour. On the left shoulder is a decorated shield in the right hand a spear (Pl. 8.I, 27). Type II is similar except that the emperor does not wear a helmet though the head still bears the denominational radiate crown (PI. 8 .I, 26). The reverses of these coins generally conform to those of the normal currency issues and there is nothing to suggest that the exceptional issues were of higher intrinsic value than the commoner coins. Coins of Types I and II are not an introduction of the Carausian or Allectan period. The type can be traced back to eastern tetradrachm issues of Caracalla and his successors and achieve a place in the metropolitan coinage of Rome in the joint reign of Valerian and Gallienus (252-8), the type is com­ monly found on the double sestertii of Postumus and is issued in increased volume during the reigns of Aurelian and Probus, though always as a minority element in the coinage as a whole. The increased use of the type can be 226

c orre la ted w i th t he d ec l ine i nt he i n tr ins ic v a lue o ft he c o inage a nd i ti s t e mp t ing t o s ee t he i ssue o ft hese c o ins i n t er ms o f d ona t ives.

Un for tuna te ly ,

i ti s imposs ib le t o e f fec t ad irec t c orre la t ion s ince t he h is tory o f t he imper ia l l argess i s v ery s can ty f or t he t h ird c en tury .

C lear ly t he s es ter t i i o f P os tumus

a re s i mp ly c urrency i ssues a l though s ince h e was a t te mp t ing t o c ircu la te a f rac t iona l c urrency wh ich w as o bso le te e lsewhere i n t he Emp ire i n h is d ay i t may b e t ha t s o me p res t ige w as c on ferred o n t he c o ins b y t he u se o f t he h ero ic b us t t ype . The p roduc t ion p a t tern f or t he t ype i n t he B a lkan m in ts f or t he r e igns o f Aure l ian a nd Probus s ee ms t o c orre la te w i th t he k nown move men ts o ft hese emperors a nd i t may b e t ha t t he t ype was s truck f or d ona t ion a t c eremon ies g raced b y t he imper ia l p resence.

Tha t t hey w ere i ssued o n a n a nnua l

b as is c an b e d e mons tra ted b yt abu la t ing t he d a ted i ssues o f Caraus ius a nd A l lec tus.

The s ign if icance o ft here b e ing t wo t ypes , w i th a nd w i thou t h e l me t

i s o bscure. The e v idence f or a c oheren t p o l icy o f i ssue i s mos t s tr ik ing (Tab le I ) , t he t ype b e ing mos t c o m mon a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he r e ign o f C araus ius a s migh t b e e xpec ted i ft he c o ins w ere d ona t ive i n c harac ter .

The c ons is ten t p a t tern o f

t he i ssues f or A l lec tus , w i th t hree t ypes e ach y ear , i s a lso s tr ik ing a s i s t he f ac t t ha t t he t ype i s s truck i nt he l a tes t c o inage o ft he r e ign , t he s o-ca l led q u inar ius wh ich was i ssued i m med ia te ly b efore t he r ecovery o f t he i s land b y Cons tan t ius Ch lorus. The l i nk ing o ft hese s pec if ic b us t t ypes w i th imper ia l g if ts i s made e xp l ic i t i n t he c o inage o f Caraus ius s ince i ti s c oup led w i th a r everse t ype L IBERAL ITAS AVG wh ich s hows t he emperor d is tr ibu t ing h is l argess f ro m a t r ibuna l ( Pl. 8 .1 , 2 8 ).

The s cene i s n o t u n ique t o t he r e ign b y a ny means s ince i ti s u sed

f ro m t he s econd c en tury o nwards , b u t t h is d oes n o t d e trac t f ro m t he s ign if ic ance o ft he c o mb ina t ion o f c ere mony a nd imper ia l i magery .

The p ropor t ion

o f t hese c o ins i n t he c urrency r ange i s v ery sma l l i ndeed a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t, a ssu m ing t he d ona t ive p ropos i t ion i s c orrec t , t ha t t hey f or med o n ly a s ymbo l ic e le men t i nt he d ona t ive , whe ther m i l i tary o r c iv i l , a nd t ha t t he r ema inder w as p a id i n n orma l c o in .

S ince t he t ype e x is ts i n g o ld , s i lver a nd

i n b i l lon s o me s tra t if ica t ion i nt he c lass o f r ec ip ien ts m igh t b e p os tu la ted , t he h igher v a lue c o ins b e ing p roper t o h igher r anks. The c o inage o f Caraus ius a nd A l lec tus a l lows a u n ique g l i mpse i n to t he w ork ing o f a Ro man m in t s ys te m a nd i t s d eve lop men t i n a r t is t ic a nd mone tary t er ms o ver a s hor t b u t , i n terna l ly , w e l l-da ted p er iod . The e v iden t s k il l w i th wh ich t h is m in t s ys te m was s e t u p , i n emergency c ond i t ions a nd i n ap rov ince w i thou t e xper ienced m in t w orkers o r t he a dm in is tra t ive b as is f or m in t ing i s v ery r emarkab le.

The f ac t t ha t t he workers p roved i nadequa te , a s t he c hange

i n s ty le a nd , p resu mab ly , s taf f when Con t inen ta l workers b eca me a va ilab le , t o t he d e mands o ft he imper ia l a u thor i t ies i n t he ir e xecu t ion o ft he c o inage s hows t he i mpor tance t ha t w as a t tached t o t he p roduc t ion o f ac o inage wh ich r ef lec te d s o me a rt is t ic c red i t o n t he r u ler whose f ea tures i td isp layed t o t he wor ld .

E qua l ly i mpor tan t i st he f ac t t ha t f ro m t he v ery f i rs t t he c o inage o f

t he r e igns d e mons tra tes a c o mp le te u nders tand ing o f t he i conograph ic t rad it ions o ft he imper ia l c o inage o ft he d ay .

Th is m igh t i nd ica te e i ther t ha t

A l lec tus , w ho m w e a ssu me t o h ave b een t he mov ing s p ir i t i n Caraus ian f inanc ia l a f fa irs , h ad e xper ience o f m in t p rac t ices o r t ha t t he Caraus ian e p isode

2 27

i s l ess o f as udden e ven t t han m igh t b e s upposed f ro m t he h os t i le a nc ien t s ources a nd t ha t t he c arefu l ly p lanned c o inage i nd ica tes s o me f ore though t. I n a ny e ven t t he c o inage r ef lec ts , o n t he who le , b ad ly u pon t he a b i l i t ies o f t he minor a r t is ts a nd c raf ts men a va i lab le f or i mper ia l emp loymen t i n t he l a te t h ird c en tury i n Br i ta in . The c o inage p roduced d own t o 2 89/90 , w i th a f ew e xcep t ions , a ppears t o r e in force Professor T oynbee 's c on ten t ion t ha t wha t was c o mpe ten t i n Br i ta in c a me f ro m G au l , w ha t was p leas ing c a me f ro m I ta ly a nd wha t was d ep lorab le was h o me p roduced. 1 4 On t he o ther h and t he c o ina ge , o r r a ther i t s i mprove men t, i l lus tra tes t he g ood t as te o f A l lec tus , a r u ler f or who m l i t tle g ood h as e ver b een c la i med.

REFERENCES

Th is p aper w en t t o p ress t oo e ar ly t o make c i ta t ion o f B .A.R . 4 0 ( Norman S h ie l , The Ep isode o f C araus ius a nd A l lec tus :

The L i terary a nd

Nu m is ma t ic Ev idence ). 1 . Cass ius D io ( ed. E . C ary ).

LXXV I. 1 5. 2 /3.

2 . I b id., LXXV I I. 1 0.4. 3 . Cope , 1 969. 4 . Ma t thew. 2 2.20. 5 . Am m ianus Marce l l inus XXV I. 7 . 1 0-13. 6 . The S u l ly ( G la morgan ) h oard c on ta ined g o ld mu l t ip le a ure i o f Max im ian , d a tab le t o b efore t he Caraus ian o ccupa t ion o f Br i ta in . i s o f p os t-reconques t d epos i t d a te.

The h oard i t se l f

The p rox im i ty o f t he h oard t o t he

b ase o f L eg io I Augus ta , a t Caer leon may b e s ign if ican t. 1 900. 7 . Todd , 1 966. 8 . Eu trop ius , H is tor ia ( ed . C . Z angme is ter ). 9 . Verg i l , Aene id I . 2 82-5. 1 0. V erg i l , G eorg ics I . 1 1. Bruun , 1 976. 1 2. Carson a nd K en t 1 956. 1 3. Carson , 1 959. 1 4. Toynbee , 1 964 p ass im .

2 28

C f . Grueber ,

TABLE I

CARAVS IVS

M in t/Da te LONDON 2 86/9

M in t

Type

' COLCHESTER ' 2 86/9

I

Type

ADVENT VS AVG

_ L

ML

Min t _

Type

UN MARKED ' ADVENT VS CARAVS I CONSERVATOR ( I ov i )

CONSERVATOR ( I ov i )

LAET ITIA

LAETIT IA L IBERAL ITAS PAX AVG

PAX AVG

PAX AVG

PROV ID AVG

PROV ID AVG CO MES AVG

CO MES AVG I

I

REST IT SAECVL I

PAX AVG

I PAX AVG

I l

ML

GER MANIC VS MAX

MC

FORTVNA (E mp/So l )

FORTVNA ( E mp/So l )

SOL I I NV ICTO ( Torso )

I NV IC ( Torso ) LAET IT IA AVG ( Torso ) FORTVNA REDVX ( Consu lar ) PAX AVG ( Consu lar )

2 89 F1 0 ML

2 89

PAX AVG V ICTOR IA AVG

EXPECTATE VEN I

SMC

I

I

PAX AVG

EXPECTATE VEN I

U I PAX AVG ( Consu lar ) 2 90/2 BI E MLXK I

2 90/2 PAX AV9

PAX AVG

PROV IDENT IA AVG S ALVS PVBL ICA

I I PAX AVG ( E mp ./So l )

2 92/3 S IP M U M

2 92/3

I

S C

PAX AVG

SPES PVBL ICA

TE MP FEL IC IT PAX AVG 2 93

2 93

S P ML

S I

I I V IRTVS AVG ( E mp ./So l )

P

PAX AVGGG ( Max im ian ) CARAVS IVS ET FRATRES SV I ALLECTVS 2 93/4 S P ML

I LAETITIA PAX AVG PROV IDENT IA

2 95 S IA ML

PAX AVG I LAETIT IA PAX AVG PROV IDENT IA

2 96

sI A

LAETITIA

MSL

PAX AVG PROV IDENT IA

2 96 QL

V IRTVS AVG

Type

I :

Rad ia te, h e l meted , c u irassed b ust l ef t , h o ld ing s pear a nd s h ield.

Type E h

Rad iate, c u irassed b ust l ef t , h o ld ing s pear a nd s h ield.

Type I I :

J ugate, b usts , h a lf l eng th p ortra its, f ac ing p ortra its e tc.

9 .

MIRRORS I N RO MAN BR ITAIN G . L loyd- Morgan

T here a re f ew e xa mp les o f R o man M irrors wh ich c an b e c onsidered a s Ar t , a nd n one i n my o pin ion , s how a ny t races o f G rea t Ar t .

T h is i s i n c o rn-

p le te c on tras t t o Mirrors f ro m T he G reek Wor ld where among e ven t he s i mp les t p ieces , t here a re e labora te a nd l uxur ious i t e ms wh ich a re h igh ly f in ished a nd d ecora ted , w he ther t hey b e h and mirrors , mirrors s uppor ted b y as tand ing f igure o r a rch i tec tura l me mber o n ab ase ,

1

o r t he we l l k nown l i d mirrors

s tud ied b y V ichner i n h is G r iek ische K lappsp iege l .

2

E truscan M irrors were

a lso d ecora ted - t he mos t c o mmon f or m b e ing t he h and mirror w i th e ngraved s cenes o n t he b ack , o f ten o f my tho log ica l o r d o mest ic e ven ts w i th t he p ar t icip an ts n ea t ly l abe l led w i th t heir n a mes o r e p i the ts .

Ac o mprehensive s urvey

was p ub lished b y Dr . E dward G erhard i n h is monumen ta l E trusk ische S piege l p ub l ished b e tween 1 843 a nd 1 897 .

3

B y c on tras t R o man M irrors h ave n o t o n ly b een n eg lec ted , b u t l ook d ist inc t ly d owdy i n a ppearance .

L i t t le a t ten t ion h as b een g iven i n t he p as t t o

t hese p ieces e xcep t o n t hose o ccas ions when s o me s pec tacu lar e xa mp le c o mes t o l i gh t , p erhaps i n ah oard , i n ar ich g rave o r o n ac o mprehensive ly s tud ied a nd p ubl ished e xcava t ion .

T hese p ieces a re r are , a nd c o me t o l ess t han 1 %

o f t he r ough t o ta l o f p ieces f ro m I t a ly a nd t he N or th Western P rov inces , e xc lud ing t he I ber ian p en insu la . S o me i t e ms , s uch a s t he p ieces f ro m t he B oscorea le H oar e a nd t he C asa d e l Menandro h oard 5 owe much t o t he G reek t rad i t ions o f m irror d ecora t ion . T he u se o f t he emb le ma i s ac on t inua t ion o f t he t ype o f d ecora t ion u sed i n t he l i d mirrors o f ma in land Greece , o r t he i t e ms f ound i n t he C anosa t reasure f ro m S .E . I ta ly .

6

T hese h igh ly e labora te s i lver o r s i lver b ronze mirrors p robab ly

made d ur ing t he t i me o f Augus tus a nd T iber ius , were t he i nsp ira t ion f or t he sma l ler , i n f in i te ly s i mp ler m irrors p roduced i n N or thern I t a ly i n s o me c ons iderab le q uan t i ty .

I t was t h is t ype o f m irror , wh ich was more s u i ted t o t he

modes t p urse o f t he p rov inc ia ls - a nd p eop le o u ts ide t he L i mes a rea - wh ich i s f ound o n most s i tes t oday .

T hese p ieces a re o f ten f ragmen tary s ince t hey

were made o f ah igh p ercen tage t in b ronze wh ich t ends t o f rac ture e asi ly . T hese o f ten d espised f ragmen ts c an h owever b e l i nked w i th t heir more i l lust r ious p ro to types f ro m I t a ly - a nd amus ing ly e nough a re o f ten b e t ter e xcava ted a na d a ted . T he mirrors o f t he R o man p er iod c an b e r ough ly b roken d own i n to t he f o l low ing g enera l t ypes :- 7 1 . 2 .

t he r ec tangu lar mirror a nd s i mp le d isc m irrors ( Groups A -F ) t he h and mirrors -t ha t i s w i th t he h and le a t tached t o t he mirror p la te a t o ne p o in t a long t he c ircum ference ( Group G -M )

2 31

F IG . 9 .1 :

D is tr ibu t ion map.

3 .

L id Mirrors ( Groups Q -S )

4 .

Mirrors w i th h and les a cross t he b ack a nd v ar ious r e la ted p ieces ( Groups W-X )

5 .

G lass mirrors a nd t he ir v ar ious t ypes o f f ra me ( Group Y )

6 .

Misce l laneous f ragmen ts ( Group Z )

T hese c a tegor ies w i l l b e b r ie f ly d iscussed a nd s o me i l lus tra t ions g iven o f t he Mirror a s f ound i n v ar ious p ieces o f B r i t ish r epresen ta t iona l a r t , w i th f ina l ly s o me c o m men ts o n t he u se o f t he mirror a s al uxury i t em , a nd a s a n i nd ica tor o f t rade . ' Rec tangu lar a nd d isc mirrors R ec tangu lar mirrors were p robably i nven ted d ur ing t he H e l len is t ic p er iod , b u t i t was n o t u n t i l t he R o man p er iod t ha t t hey a re f ound i n a ny q uan t i ty .

T hey

a re o ne o f t he t hree mos t c o mmon f or ms o f mirror f ound t hroughou t t he Empire -p oss ibly b ecause t hey were s o s i mp le t o make . f in ished a nd t he e dges a re u sua l ly i rregu lar .

On ly t he r e f lec t ing s ide was

An a c tua l f ragmen t o f wood

a t tached t ot he b ack o f ab roken e xa mp le f ro m N i j megen 8 a nd e ncrusta t ions r ound t he e dge o f s o me c o mp le te i t e ms wh ich h ave n o t b een c leaned b y z ea lous l ab a t tendan ts , s uggest t ha t m irrors o f t h is t ype were h e ld i n f ra mes o r b oxes . J ohn Ward , wr i t ing i n 1 911 , p u t f orward t he i dea t ha t s o me p ieces may h ave b een f i t ted i n to t he l i ds o f t o i le t b oxes .

9

T he d is tr ibu t ion map o f t h is g roup

i nd ica tes t he s pread o f p rovenanced p ieces c o mpi led i n 1 974 .

S ome 1 0% o f t he

t ota l f ound i n Western E urope c o mes f ro m B r i tain . D isc m irrors c o me i n v ar ious s izes a nd v ar ia t ions a nd a n umber o f t he u ndecora ted e xa mp les were p robab ly f ra med i n as im i lar manner t o t he r ect angu lar p ieces .

An e x tre me ly r are e xa mp le f ro m C o logne s t i l l h as p or t ions

o f t he s o f t c lo th wrapping a dhering t o t he r e f lec t ing s ur face .1 0 H and M irrors A bou t ad ozen e labora te s i lver h and m irrors n ow h oused i n t he Museo N aziona le Archeo log ico N ap les , s how . av ar ie ty o f f or m i n d ecora t ion , a nd i n t he t rea t men t o f t he s hape a nd p ropor t ion o f t he d isc a nd h and le .

T hese c an b e

r egarded a s t he p roto type o f t he much p lainer h and mirror i n g enera l c ircul a t ion d ur ing t he f irst a nd e ar ly p ar t o f t he s econd c en tury A .D.

T he most

p opu lar t ype h as a c ur ious b order o f c ircu lar h o les b ored t hrough r ound t he e dge , e xcep t a t t he p o in t where t he h and le i s s o ldered o n t o t he d isc .

T h is

h and le u sua l ly h as a b a luster t ype o f g r ip - t hough s ing le ( P l . 9 .1a ) o r mu l t ip le ( P l . 9 .l b ) l oop h and les a re n o t u nknown ( and i nciden ta l ly c an i n s o me c ases b e c o mpared w i th t he C e l t ic s er ies i n B r i ta in ) .

T here a re f ive i n terest ing

e xa mp les f ro m C o lches ter " a nd more r ecen t ly a c o mp le te p iece was f ound a t Wh i tchurch , S hropsh ire . I n t h is p iece t he h and le was t o ta l ly o u t o f p rop or t ion w i th t he s ize o f t he d isc , a nd i s t ypo log ica l ly q u i te l a te i n t he s er ies .1 2 F ragmen ts f ro m e xcava t ions a t N uns F ie ld , C hes ter , 1 964 h ave f ine t races o f wood f i bre s t i l l a t tached ( P l . 9 .I c ) , wh ich s ugges ts t ha t s o me h and m irrors l i ke t he r ec tangu lar a nd d isc m irrors were a lso k ep t i n s pec ia l b oxes t o p rot ec t t he r e f lec ting s ur face f ro m d a mage

A l though t h is t ype i s a s c o m mon a s

t he r ec tangu lar mirror , t he p ropor t ion o f p ieces i n B r i ta in i s n o t s o h igh , b eing j ust u nder 6% o f t he t ota l f or Wes tern E urope .

a

C

PLATE 9 .1 :

a , b ,

C hester , mirror h and le . C o lchester , m irror h and le .

c ,

C hester , f ragments o f h and mirror .

N uns F ie ld , 1 964 .

A s i mpler t ype o f mirror w i th a c harac ter ist ic l oop h and le a nd s i mple mirror d isc , w i th s pin marks a nd l igh t t urn ings v isib le o n t he b ack h as o cc asiona l ly b een f ound i n t h is c o u n try .

I tc an b e d a ted t o t he F lav ian p er iod ,

1 3

a nd t he c en tre o f manufac ture a ppears t o b e i n t he L ower R h ine p rov ince , p ossib ly b ased o n t he r eg ion o f N i j megen . L id Mirrors The we l l k nown Greek l i d m irrors a re c harac ter ised b y t heir s ize , e legan t p ropor t ion a nd r ich d ecora t ion . sma l l , f l imsy a nd d u l l .

B y c on trast t he R o man v ersions a re o f ten

T hey o ccur i n ah igh c oncen tra tion i n F rance ,

e specia l ly i n t he r eg ion o f P rovence . Br i ta in t hey s hou ld b e n oted ,

1 5

1 4

A l though t hey a re d istinc t ly r are i n

s ince o ne o f t he more i n terest ing d eve lop men ts

o f t h is t ype , d ecora ted w i th c o ins , o r d esigns t aken f ro m c oins o f N ero f or m a n i n teres t ing s ub-group.

T hese p ieces were s tudied b y F roehner

i nciden ta l ly l e f t o u t s evera l f i nds f ro m o u tside France . e xa mple i sf ro m C oddenha m .

1 7

1 6

- who

The o n ly Br i t ish

Each v a lve h as a sma ll p aper t h in s i lvered

b ronze mirror , h e ld d own b y an arrow f lange .

A sma l l l i p a t t he e dge e nsures

t ha t t he s ec t ions c an b e s epara ted , a nd t ha t t hey c anno t b e p ushed t oge ther s o t igh t ly t ha t t he mirrors g e t d a maged .

Most mirror b oxes o f t h is t ype h ave

p ortrai ts o f N ero - wh ich u se t ypes f ro m t he o richa lcu m i ssue o f t he min t o f Lugdunum ( A . D. 6 4-68 ) .

1 8

One l a te e xa mple u ses t he o bverse o f ac oin o f

Marcus Aure l ius a nd a r everse o f C o m modus . a t Winse l ing n ear N i j megen .1 9

I tc o mes f ro m t he r iver Waa l

However a n umber o f u npro tec ted t h in s i lvered

b ronze mirror d iscs o f sma ll d ia me ter h ave b een d iscovered , wh ich may h ave b een k ep t i n t urned wooden b oxes l ike t he t wo s uperb p ieces f ro m H awara , n ow i n Edinburgh . "

I nc iden ta l ly t here a re t hree e xa mples o f sma l l mirrors o f

t h is t ype i n amber b oxes c arved i n to e labora te f or ms - b u t n one i n t h is c oun try . M irrors w i th h and les a cross t he b ack The l argest s urv iving R o man Mirror , i n Br i tain , a nd , t o t he b est o f my k nowledge , e lsewhere i s t he Wroxe ter Mirror n ow i n t he C l ive H ouse Museu m , S hrewsbury ( P l . 9 . Ia ).

2 2

U n l ike o ther R o man mirrors , t here d oes n o t a ppear

t o b e a ny p ara l lel f or t he t ype w i th a h and le a cross t he b ack l i ke a b uck ler i n e i ther t he G reek , o r I t a l ian wor ld .

M irrors w i th t h is t ype o f h and le f i t t ing

a ppear e i ther a t t he e nd o f t he f irst c en tury A . D. o r d uring t he s econd c en tury -b u t t here a re f ew p ieces f ro m s ecure ly d a ted c on tex ts wh ich c an b e u sed t o p rove b eyond d oubt when a nd where i t was f irst i nven ted . The H ercu les k no t , i n t he d oub le h andled f or m o f wh ich t he Wroxe ter p iece i s t he n on p are i l , d oes h ave a f ew p ara l lels.

One p la in e xa mple was o n t he

Ar t Marke t i n Swi tzer land f our y ears a go , a no ther u nprovenanced p iece i s n ow i n Ha mburg ,

2 3

a nd more r ecen t ly o ne was f ound i n a Grave i n C yprus.

2 4

T he

f inds , main ly f e ma le o rna men ts , a re n ow i n ap r iva te c ol lec t ion i n t he N e therl ands.

T he g roup h as b een d a ted t o t he t h ird c en tury .

S evera l s tray h and les

o f t he s a me t ype a re k nown , o ne f ro m t he Weiden b ei Man t o mb , v ar ian t i s n ow i n t he Br i tish Museu m .

2 5

a nd a no ther

2 6

A s i mpler f or m o f mirror w i th a s ing le l oop h and le a cross t he b ack c rops u p more f requen tly .

One t ype w i th a c harac terist ic l ow c onvex mou lded b order

o n t he n on-re lect ing s ide , o ccurs i n b oth u ndecora ted , a nd d ecora ted f or ms.

2 35

2 1

a

PLATE 9 .I :

a , Wroxe ter , s i lver m irror ( E lectrotype , Row ley ' sH o . Mus ., S hrewsbury) . b , C hester , l ead m irror c over . Nuns F ie ld , 1 964 . c , C hester , s andstone r e l ief o f l ady w i th mirror . d , L n tag l io , Venus w ith a mirror . G rosvenor Mus . 3 12 .R . 1 975 .

( P laster impress ion ;

A sh mo lean Museum) .

Ac o mple te u npub l ished e xa mp le was f ound a t Veru la m ium d ur ing D r . S tead 's e xcava tions ,2 7 a nd o ther p ieces h ave b een f ound a t C hester , T hese a re u sua l ly o f s i lvered b ronze .

2 8

a nd a t C orbr idge .

A l arger v ar ian t , wh ich i sp robab ly n earer t o t he Wroxe ter t ype , h as t he s a me s ing le l oop h and le b u t i s g enera l ly l arger i n s ize t han t he C orbr idge t ype o f mirror . i n Bonn ,

A ll e xa mp les a re o f s i lver - s uch a s t he p iece f ro m Aachen , n ow t he p iece f ro m t he Bursa Treasure n ow i n t he Br i t ish Museu m , "

2 9

a nd t he t wo f ragmen ts f ro m t he T rapra in L aw T reasure p rev ious ly d escr ibed a s p la tes ,

3 1

d esp i te t he c onvex i ty o f t he u ndecora ted s ide .

G lass Mirrors Desp i te t he E lder P l iny 's r e ference t o g lass mirrors ,3 2 e xcava t ion h as n o t s o f ar p roduced a ny e xa mp les t h is e ar ly i n d a te . T h is may b e d ue t o t he e x tre m ly d e l ica te s ta te o f t he g lass , wh ich may b e l ess t han 0 .03 cm t h ick . An u mber o f p ieces h ave b een f ound i n t h is c oun try .

3 3

T he l argest c ol lec t ion

was f ound i n t he c e me tery a t O spr inge i n K en t , when s ix mirrors were f o u nd . One was f ound a t R ecu lver a bou t t he s a me t ime , l arger p ieces i n e x is tence - c o mes f ro m Y ork .

3 6

t o f ind t he c overs o r f ra mes f or t he mirrors .

3 5

3 4

a nd a no ther - o ne o f t he I ti s more c o m mon , h owever ,

A s t hese a re u sua l ly o f l ead-

a t l east i n t he western p ar t o f t he Empire - t hey h ave u sua l ly s urv ived much b e t ter t han t he mirror t hey were s upposed t o p ro tec t .

T hey a re u sua l ly we l l

d ecora ted a n c t c ast i n av ar ie ty o f s hapes a nd f or ms , s o me t i mes w i th e ncoura g ing messages l ike t he p iece f ro m N i j megen wh ich r eads ' AM [ 0 ]1 1...A M [. ' 3 7 o r h ave t he maker 's n a me WIR IANUS F I IC IT ' 38 a s o n a no ther p iece f ro m t he s ame l oca l i ty . T h is o ne i s p ar ticu lar ly i n terest ing a s t he s urv iv ing mirrors s t i l l h ave t he s i lvering i n tac t , a nd b i tu men o n t he b ack o f t he f ra me t o h o ld t he g lass i n p lace . T hree e xa mp les a re k nown i n B r i ta in , f ro m Ospringe , Veru la mium4 °a nd C hes ter 41

( P l . 9 .I b ) .

T hey a re a l l w i thou t t he ir mirrors .

G lass mirrors were p roduced i n s o me q uan t i ty b o th i n t he Ba lkans ,

4 2

a nd i n

t he C o logne workshops , 43 a nd were p robab ly p roduced a nd u sed b e tween t he s econd a nd f our th c en tur ies .

I ti s t he most c o m mon f or m o f mirror d ur ing

t h is p eriod -b eing c heaper t o p roduce a nd more e asi ly s tored t han t he l arger me ta l p ieces . The g lass u sua l ly h as a d ia me ter o f a round 3 -5 cm . Frag men ts Fragmen ts o ccur e verywhere a nd a re o f ten u n iden t i f iab le e i ther b ecause ac haracter ist ic e dge i s missing , o r d ue t o c orrosion .

Ih ave a lso i nc luded

u nder t h is h ead ing t hose p ieces wh ich a re men t ioned i n p ub lica t ions w i thou t a ny f ur ther d escr ipt ion , s uch a s t he i t em f ound n ear F e lixstowe C hurch a nd e xh ibi ted t o t he S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies i n 1 885 44

o r t he p ieces n ow l ost wh ich

c a me u p d ur ing d igg ing i n C as t le S tree t , C an terbury , d ur ing t he l as t c en tury . 45 A s l igh t ly more f ru i t fu l , a nd a r t is t ic f ie ld o f i nqu iry i s i n r epresen ta t ions o f Mirrors .

T hese c an b e h e ld e i ther b y mor ta l wo men , a s o n t he G rave

monu men ts i n Chester 46

( P l . 9 . 1c ) ;

b y Venus a s o n a n impress ion o f a n i n tag l io

f ro m C hester b u t n ow l ost 47 ( P l . 9 . 1d ) , o r o n a mosa ic p ave men t , s uch a s t he o ne f ro m Ruds ton ( Above , P l . 6 . XXIXa ). Occasiona l ly o ne f inds C up id w i th a Mirror , 49 p resumab ly f ro m a G roup w i th a Venus Anadyo mene .

More u nusua l ly o ne h as a n u n iden ti f ied ma le h o ld ing 2 37

3 9

a mirror , a s i n t he e xa mp le f ro m L ondon B r idge , n ow i nt he B r i t ish Museum .

5 0

P resu mab ly h e i s a n A don is o r G any mede r a ther t han a n o rdinary mor ta l . One i s r em inded o f t he r a ther r ude c o m men ts J uvena l ( Sa t ire I , 1 . 9 9-109 ) makes a bou t O tho u sing a mirror . Un for tuna te ly we d o n o t h ave a ny c on te mporary r e ferences t o M irrors i n R o man B r i ta in , n e i ther d o we h ave , e i ther h ere o r e lsewhere , t he g i lded o r b e jewe l led mirrors t ha t S eneca ( Na tura les Quaes t iones B ook IS ec t . 1 5-18 ) a nd P lu tarch men t ion ( Mora l ia 1 38 , ' Adv ice o n Marr iage ' , s ec t . 1 4) . H owe ver , t here i s al a te r e ference i n B ede ( H is t . A ng l . I I . x i ) t o t he g i f t o f a s i lver M irror made b y P ope B on i face V t o Queen E the lburga o f N or thu mbr ia i n 6 25 . A l though s o me mirrors , s uch a s t he p ieces f ro m t he C asa d e l Menandro a nd t he V i l la B oscorea le were f ound i n t he h ome , i ti s u nusua l t o f i nd a c o mp le te mirror o n a n i nhabi ted s i te . F ragmen ts a re much more c o m mon a nd b ear w i tness t o u nrecorded d o mest ic c a tas trophes .

T he s i lver m irror f ro m

Backwor th a l though f ound w i th t he c e lebra ted h oard , was b ad ly d amaged , a nd h ad l os t i t s h and le , a nd may we l l b e c onsiderably o lder t han t he o ther i t e ms .5 1 I ndeed i tb ears a c loser r e la t ion t o t he r ich m irrors o f C a mpan ia t han d o mos t o f t he o ther mirrors f ound i n B r i ta in . I ti s u sua l ly t he c e me ter ies wh ich h ave p roduced t he l argest p ropor t ion o f p rovenanced mirrors - t hough n ot a lways t he mos t i n teresting p ieces . T he r iches t c o l lec t ion c o mes f ro m t he C olches ter c e me ter ies w i th a t l eas t 4 2 mirrors . The s econd l arges t g roup i st he O spr inge c e me tery w i th 7 .

Many o f t he p ieces r epu ted t o b e f ro m L ondon n ow i n t he

B r i t ish Museum o r t he Gu i ldha l l Museum a re n ot R o man , a nd t here i s ag ene ra l ly d isappoin ting t rend f ro m o ther p ar ts o f t he c oun try . F or e xa mple , Y ork , e xc luding a ny f ragmen ts wh ich may h ave b een r e tr ieved b y t he U n i t o ver t he l ast f ew y ears , h as o n ly p roduced f our e xa mp les , L inco ln o ne , a nd C hes ter t hree f ro m t he s econd c en tury I n f irmary F ie lds C e me tery - t hough i n t he l a ter c ase t here a re f ragmen ts f ro m w i th in a nd w i thou t t he c astra a rea , i nc lud ing o ne u npub l ished p iece f ound i n t he Amph i thea tre e xcava t ions i n 1 966. . I nc iden ta l ly , i t migh t p erhaps b e a ppropr ia te t o men t ion h ere t ha t Ip lace n o c redence i nt he h ypo thesis p u t f orward b y P ro f . N ewstead , and a ccep ted b y l a ter a rchaeo log is ts , t ha t t he mirrors i n t he I n f ir mary F ie ld C emetery , C hester , were d e l ibera te ly b roken a s p ar t o f t he b ur ia l r i tes. 5 2 A s h as b een n o ted a bove , mirrors w i th f ragmen ts o f t he ir f ra mes o rb oxes , o r i n t heir o r ig ina l c lo th wrappings h ave b een f ound e lsewhere i n B r i ta in a nd t he c on t inen t . T here i s n o men t ion i nt he c lassica l a u thors o f s uch a p rocedure . Excava t ions o f s arcophag i , i nhu ma t ions a nd c re ma t ions w i th in t he empire o r o n t he f r inges , s uch a s t he m irrors f ro m C o . K i lkenny i n I re land , 5 3 a nd L ubsow o n t he B a l t ic , t o t he massive g rave f i e lds a t N i j megen , K re fe ld , C o logne 55 a nd o ther p laces o n t he R h ine , i n V a isonla-Ro ma ine , C apua , R o me , Arsinoe i n C yprus , B enghazi o r H awara i n E gyp t , a l l t he e v idence p o in ts t o t he l oving c are w i th wh ich m irrors a nd o ther p recious o r d o mes t ic i t e ms were d eposi ted w i th t he d ead . Bur ia ls w i thou t m irrors , b u t o ther g oods , i sp robab ly d ue t o al ack o f wea l th , o r i t may h ave b een p referab le t o h and o n t he m irror a s a n h eir loo m f or s evera l g enera t ions ( a s i n t he c ase o f t he B ackwor th mirror ) . I n o ther c ases l ack o f mirrors may b e d ue p ar t ly t o al ack o f wea l th o r af a l l-of f i n t rade o f s uch l uxur ies . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f m irrors i n B r i tain ( F ig . 9 .1 ) 2 38

5 4

w i th i t s c oncen tra t ions a round t he s ou th-eas t c orner p roab ly r e f lec ts t rade p a t terns w i th t he p rov ince o f L ower Ger many : t he l ine f ro m D over t o L ondon i s e specia l ly i n teres ting .

I ti sp ar t icu lar ly s a lu tory t o f ind t ha t N i j megen

a lone h as p roduced a bou t t hree h undred i t e ms w i th s evera l n ew p ieces f ound i n t he s um mer o f 1 976 d ur ing i n i t ia l work o n t he n ew Museu m e x tensions . T h is n umber i s g rea ter t han t he t o ta l f or t he who le o f Br i ta in .

The n u mber

o f r ectangu lar mirrors f ro m N i j megen a lone makes u p o ne t h ird o f t he t o ta l o f e xa mp les k nown t o me .

C o logne h as l i kew ise p roduced mirrors i n t ens a nd

h undreds a nd p robab ly s upp l ied a w ide a rea n o t o n ly w i th g lass v ases b u t g lass m irrors . Ye t i n c on trast t o t h is r a ther g loo my s ta t is t ica l s u m mary , B r i ta in h as t he Wroxe ter mirror , wh ich mus t h ave b e longed t o a n e xceed ing ly wea l thy wo man -o ne who mus t h ave h ad a s many a t tendan ts t o d ress h er a s t he w o men o n s evera l o f t he Neumagen r e l ie fs .

5 6

I ti s c er ta in ly n o t a mirror wh ich o ne

c ou ld h old t i p a nd d o o ne 's h a ir a t t he s a me t ime , n or d oes t he c urva ture o f t he s ur face p roduce t he b es t i mage i fh e ld t oo c lose . Aga in , t he l ead c over f or a g lass mirror i n C hes ter ( P l . 9 .l i b ) s ugges ts t he s treng th o f t rade i n l uxury o b jec ts b e tween t he R h ineland a nd a r a ther f ar-f lung l eg ionary f or tress i n t he l ater emp ire , j us t a s t he f ragmen ts o f mirror f ro m a p re-F lav ian c ont ex t a t U sk 5 7

s hows t he e x ten t o f t he e ar ly t rade .

An e ven more d is tan t mirror

a nd o ther g rave g oods d a t ing t o t he s econd c en tury were f ound i n aR o man c re ma t ion g rave a t Wa ter ford , C o . K i lkenny , d ur ing t he l ast c en tury . The s urv iva l o f mirrors , t he f or tunes o f e xcava t ion a nd t he q u irks o f e xcava tors a nd a n t iquar ians may g ive a s o mewha t b iased p ic ture i n o ne a rea o r a nother , b u t Ib e l ieve t he g enera l t rends t o b e c orrec t .

S o a l though R o man

M irrors may n o t b e Grea t Ar t , t hey may b e c onsidered a s v a luab le i nd ica tors o f t as te , o f s ty le a nd t rade i n t he marke t i n l uxur ies d ur ing t he R o man o ccup a t ion .

REFERENCES 1 .

Ober W i lder , 1 967 .

2 .

Z t ichner , 1 942 .

3 .

G erhard , 1 843-97.

4 .

d e V i l le fosse , 1 899, i t e ms n o . 2 1 , 2 2 p . 8 8-92

n o . 9 8

P .

1 28

F ig 's

4 5-47 , p l . X IX, XX . 5 .

Ma iur i , 1 932 .

6 .

Bar toccin i , 1 935 .

7 .

Group l e t ters r e fer t o t he t ypo logy d e fined i n t he f or thco m ing ' Ro man Mirrors i n t he N e ther lands ' , C a ta logue o f t he c o l lec tions i n t he R i jksmuseum G . M. K am .

N i j megen n o . V I I I .

I n a dd i t ion t o t he G roups

d iscussed , we may n o te G roup N ( m isce l laneous h and les ) a nd G roup P , a sma l l c lass o f C a mpan ian mirrors w i th a s uspension r ing o n t he b ack o f t he mirror d isc ( apar t f ro m a n e xa mple f ro m Aqu i le ia n one h as b een f ound o u tside C a mpan ia ).

2 39

8 .

N i j megen i nv . n o . CC 1 47 .

Ver meu len , 1 932 ,

P .

1 56-7.

p l . X I II

G rave 2 6. 9 .

Ward , 1 911 , p . 2 63 .

1 0 .

R om ische G erman isches Museum , C o logne i nv . n o . 5 3699 , G ereonsdr iesch , C o logne , G rave 1 02 .

1 1 .

C o lches ter Museu m n o 's Ia nd VA f ro m t he Wes t L odge a rea ; n o. J . 5 24 e x J osl in C o l lec t ion . Br i t ish Museum n o . 1 854. 4 -25 . 4 , 1 870 . 4 -2 . 2 48 t he l a t ter e x P o l lex fen C o l lec t ion .

1 2 . 1 3 .

R ogerson , Mus ty w i th L loyd- Morgan , 1 973 , p . 2 78-81.

F ig . 3 , p l . LVb .

F or e xa mp le , ap iece n ow i n t he L inco ln C i ty a nd C oun ty Museu m was f ound o n S ou th C o m mon , L inco ln , J an . 1 911 , i n ac is t b ur ia l w i th a n u rn a nd t wo t ea t b ot t les .

More r ecen t ly a no ther f rag men t was f ound i n c re-

ma t ion b ur ia l n o . 3n ear t he a pproach o f Wa t l ing S tree t t o t he e astern d e fences o f Wroxe ter . 1 4 .

C f .

S au te l , 1 926-7 , p p . 2 97-311 , n o's 8 17-896 .

1 5 .

D own a nd Ru le , 1 971 , p . 8 1 , 1 10 , F ig . 5 .16 , G rave 1 95 , S t . Pancras C e me tery i s af ragmen t o f a mirror o f t h is t ype .

1 6 .

F roehner , 1 889 , p p . 3 95-405 .

1 7.

B r i t ish Museum n o . 3 8 . 3 -31 .1 .

Arch . 2 7 , 1 838 , p p . 3 59-60 .

P l . 2 5 ; Arch . J .14 , 1 857 , p . 2 88 ; T oynbee , 1 964 , p p . 3 84-5 , p l . LXXVI I I . I ti s c ur ious t ha t Froehner s hou ld h ave missed t h is we l l k nown p iece , a nd a no ther e xa mp le f ro m t he N e ther lands p ub l ished b y J anssen i n 1 869 . 1 8 .

Iam most g ra te fu l t o Dr . Dav id MacDowe l l f or i den t i fying t he c oins a nd f or a most s ti mu la t ing d iscussion o f t he p ieces .

1 9 .

J anssen , 1 869 , p . 1 14 e t s eq .

2 0 .

R oya l S co t t ish Museum n o . 1 911 . 2 10 .4 , F l inders P e tr ie , 1 911 , p . 2 0 . p l . X IV .

2 1 . One e xa mp le a nd p ossib ly a s econd i s i n t he Museo Archeo log ico , Aqu i le ia , a no ther i s i n N imes , a nd a more e labora te p iece i nt he f orm o f ah and mirror c o mes f ro m a g rave i n t he L uxe mbourger S trasse , C o logne . 2 2 .

A tk inson , 1 942 , p p . 1 96-8 , p l . 4 6 ; LXXVI I Ia ;

T oynbee , 1 964 , p p . 3 34-5 , p l .

S trong , 1 966 , p . 1 79 .

2 3 .

Museum f i ir Kuns t u nd G ewerbe n o . 9 17.178 , d ia m . 1 0 .7 cm .

2 4 .

K lass ieke Kunst u i t P ar t icu l ier B ezi t -n eder landse v erza me l ingen 1 575-1975 E xh ib i t ion C a ta logue ( Leiden/N i j megen 1 975 ) n o . 7 97 p l . 3 35 f ro m Ars inde d ia m . 1 8 .2 cm .

2 5 .

F re mersdor f , 1 957 , p . 4 8 .

T a f . 5 8 .

2 6 .

Med ieva l Dep t . i nv . n o . 4 8 .

6 -1.5 , Da l ton , 1 901 , p . 8 6, n o . 3 96.

2 7.

SAUD B ur ia l 4 , a t p resen t i n t he D ep t . o f t he Env iron men t n o . 6 7.0277. Iam most g ra te fu l t o Dr . S tead f or s upp ly ing me w i th d e ta i ls o f t he p iece p r ior t o p ubl ica t ion . 2 40

2 8 .

Grosvenor Museu m , C hes ter n o . 2 24. R . 1 976,

Newstead , 1 921 , p p .

5 0-51 . Grave 3 0 . 2 9 .

Rhein isches L andes museum Bonn n o . 2 5 , 8 76. d ia m . 2 1.5 cm . 1 917,

3 0 .

33 . 3 4 .

Wa l ters , 1 921 , p . 3 2 n o . 1 24 .

XV I .

P l .

Na t iona l Museum o f An t iquar ies o f S co t land , n o 's GV81 , GV82a , 1 923 ,

3 2 .

Lehner ,

5 7. F ig . 4 1.

Dep t . o f Greek a nd Ro man An t iqu i t ies i nv . n o. 1 913 . 5 -31.1 d ia m . 1 8 .8 cm .

3 1.

P .

P .

5 9 . n o 's 8 1, 8 2 .

Cur ie ,

XXV I I , XXV I I I .

P l .

N .H . XXXV I . 1 93. v an Buche m , 1 976, p p . 1 -22 . Wh i ting , 1 925 , p . 8 7.

Group 2 CXV I I ;

X )O CV I I I ; 1 926 , p . 2 7. Group XL I I I ;

8 9 .

P . P .

1 31.

Group XXX I ; p . 9 5 .

Group

Group XLV ; Wh i ting , Haw ley ,

a nd May 1 931 , p p . 9 7-9 . 3 5 .

Wh i ting , 1 924 ,

3 6 .

Yorksh ire Museu m , York . u nnumbered d ia m . 5 .4-5 .8 cm

P .

2 4. ' Group C .... d ia m . 1 .25 i nches ' . f ro m S yca more

Terrace 1 901; R . C. H. M. 1 962 , p . 7 3a . 1 41a , F ig . 5 8 . 3 7.

R i jks museu m G . M. Ka m . n o . K112 ; v an Buche m , 1 976 ,

P .

8 , 2 2 . n ote

2 2. A lb . 7 . 3 8 .

R i jks museu m G . M. Ka m . n o . XX I . f /Y .2 ; v an Buche m , 1 976 , p . 8 , 2 2 n o te 2 2 . A fb. 7 .

3 9 .

Wh i ting , Haw ley a nd May , 1 931, p .100 . p l . L IX .

4 0 .

Frere , 1 972 ,

4 1.

Nuns F ield e xcava t ions 1 964

P .

1 45 . n o. 1 80 , F ig . 5 2 . ( unpub l ished ) , n ow i n t he Grosvenor Museu m

w id th 5 .0 cm d ia m . o f o pen ing f or mirror 2 .65 cm . 4 2 .

For e xa mple , Tudor , 1 959 , p p . 4 15-432 . F ig . 1 .7.

4 3 .

Fre mersdor f , 1 939 , p p . 6 -22 . Ta f . 1 0 ; 1 958 , p p. 7 -10 , Ta f . 1 .

4 4.

Proc . S oc . An t . London ., s econd s er ies v o l . 1 1 ,

4 5 .

Bren t , 1 879 ,

4 6.

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond , 1 955 , n o . 1 20 . p . 4 9 . p l . X )OC E ; n o . 1 16 wh ich

P .

4 9 .

p robab ly s hows a mirror 4 7.

( 1885-1887) p . 1 3 .

P .

4 6. p l . XXX .

Grosvenor Museum , C hes ter n o . 3 12 . R . 1 975 ;

Wa tk in 1 886, p . 2 05

w i th f igure ; H en ig , 1 974, n o . 2 77. 4 8 .

Now i n t he Transpor t a nd Archaeology Museum , p p. 4 -5 . F ig . 1 ;

p p. 8 1 , 8 3 , 1 07, 1 25 , 4 9.

Hu l l .

R ich mond , 1 933 ,

Toynbee , 1 964 , p p . 2 87-8 . p l . LX IVa ;

Sm i th , 1 969 ,

p l . 3 .20 .

Rhein isches Landes museum , Bonn . n o . 4 2 .28 . B .J . 1 48 , 1 948 , p . 3 26. p l . 5 5 .1 ;

R i jks museum v an Oudheden , L eiden . n o . C0139 e x C orazzi

C o l in . C or tona .

2 41

5 0 .

N o . 4 8. 8 -3. 4 4 , Roach Sm i th , 1 840 , p p . 3 8-9 . p l . W; p l . X l i C .Xa ; L loyd- Morgan , 1 974 , p p . 8 5-6 . p l . XXV I I Ia .

Toynbee , 1 964 , p . 1 18 . Iw ou ld l ike t o

t hank P rofessor T oynbee f or h er c o m men ts o n t h is f igurine i n al e t ter d a ted 3 .4 .1973 , a nd f or a l l h er e ncouragmen t . 5 1.

Br i t ish Museu m n o . 5 0 . 6 -1. 2 , H awk ins , 1 851 , 4 0 ;

S trong , 1 966, p . .

1 60 . 5 2 . 5 3 .

N ewstead , 1 914 ,

P .

1 41; 1 921 , p .51; Tho mpson 1 965 , p . 4 9 .

N a tiona l Museu m o f I re land , Dubl in . n o . 1 881:334a . d ia m . 9 .4 cm Ba teson , 1 973 , p p . 7 2-73 . n o . 2 2 o b jec t n o. C w i th f u l l b ib l iography .

5 4. • Pern ice , 1 912 , p . 1 27 , 1 40-2 . Abb . 8 . 5 5 . 5 6.

A s f or e xa mp le Haberey , 1 938 , p p . 1 97-204. Abb . 1 . v on Massow , 1 932 , p p . 1 58-161. Abb . 1 06 n o . 3 14

5 7.

USK 1 967

T a f . 3 4 , n o . 1 84a ; p . 2 20

Ta f . 6 0 . I

5 4

1 9

f ragmen t o n ly .

Dr . W. H . Mann ing , U .C. W . C ard i f f .

2 42

I n for ma t ion k indly s upp l ied b y

APPENDIX RO MAN MIRRORS FRO M BR ITISH S ITES

P rovenance

I nv . N o .

Type

Dro i tw ich Bays Meadow

DB M 7 1 V 18 0

Z a

Droi twich Bays Meadow

DB M 7 1 V 3 3d

A

Un iversi ty o f B ir m ingha m , D ept . o f •Ancien t H is tory a nd Archaeology .

Droi tw ich Bays Meadow

•DB M

Droi tw ich Bays Meadow

7 2 V I I 1 0 3 03

Z c

DB M 7 3 V I I 4 8 6 02

Z c

Bristo l C i ty Museu m S ea M i l ls , Br isto l S ea M i l ls , Br isto l

Nb

S ea M i l ls , Br isto l

Z a

S ea M i l ls , Br isto l

Z b

Caerleon L eg ionary Museum Caer leon

F4 389 b + c

Caer leon

F6 1 a +b

Z c

Caer leon

F6 8

Z c

C a mbr idge , Un ivers i ty Museum o f Archaeo logy a nd E thnology Ma l ton „ n r . Orwe l l

A

U . C. W . C ard iff , Dep t . o f Archaeology Usk

USK 6 7 I 5 4 1 9

Usk

USK 7 3 HCR 2 5

Usk

USK 7 3 H II+

Z a

S t . Werburgh S treet , C hester

1 32 b /1899

Z d

Princess S tree t , C hester

CC 1 15. 1 939 ( P l. 9 .Ia )

Na

Deanery F ield , C hester

2 19 . R . 1 976

A

A

C hester , G rosvenor Museum

2 43

Provenance

I nv . N o .

T ype

K ings Bu i ld ings , C hester

2 20 .R .1976

A

" Chester"

2 21. R .1976

Z a

Amph i theatre

2 22 .R .1976

Z a

I n f ir mary F ield , G rave 1 9 , Chester

2 23 .R .1976

u ncer ta in

I n f ir mary F ie ld , Grave 3 0 , C hester

2 24 .R .1976

Xa

C rook S tree t , C hester

CRK 8 3 5

Z a

N uns F ie ld , C hes ter

NF 6 41 7( Pl. 9. 1b )

Nuns F ie ld , C hes ter

NF 6 4411 ( Pl. 9 .Ic )

N or thga te Brewery, Chester

NGB I 7 4 I3 5 6

Z a

N or thga te Brewery , Chester

NGB I 1 974 V 2 25 1 26

N b

Deanery F ie ld , C hester

?Za

Queen 's P ark , C hester

Z d

Chesters, S i te Museu m Chesters

1 327

Chesters

1 361

A

Ch ichester C i ty Museu m S t . P ancras C e my . Grave 2 6 , C h ichester 2 6 . E

Z a

Grave 6 0

6 0 . L

A

Grave 8 7

8 7. L

A

Grave 1 95

1 95 . B

R b

C h ichester

1 48/73

C h ichester

1 88/73

C irencester , C or in iu m Museu m Bagendon

A 3 42

A

Bagendon

A 3 42

A

Bagendon

A 3 42

A

Bagendon

A 3 42

C irencester?

B3 99 X

C olchester , C olchester a nd E ssex Museu m West L odge , C o lchester Wes t L odge , C o lchester

P .0 I ( 204 ) 2 44

Z a

P rovenance West L odge ,

I nv . N o .

C o lchester

T ype

P .C . 3

G b

West L odge , C o lchester

I V

?Ha

Wes t L odge ,

C o lchester

VA

West L odge ,

C o lchester

VB

F ingr inghoe , Wick

4 63 :60

A

F ingr inghoe , Wick

4 86 :60

?Ra

J osl in C o l lec tion , C olches ter

5 04

J oslin C o l lec t ion , C o lches ter

5 09

J oslin C o l lec tion , C olches ter

J5 17

J osl in C o l lect ion , C o lches ter

5 18

J oslin C o l lec t ion , C olches ter

J os 5 21

J osl in C o l lection , C o lches ter

J5 23

J oslin C o l lec tion , C o lches ter

J5 24

J os lin C o l lec tion , C olches ter

J os 5 25

J osl in C o l lec t ion , C o lches ter

J os 5 27

A

J osl in C o l lec tion , C o lches ter

J os 5 28

H a

J oslin C o l lec tion , C o lches ter

J5 30

J oslin C o l lec t ion , C o lches ter

J5 32

J oslin C o l lec tion , C olches ter

J5 41

J oslin C o l lec t ion , C olches ter

J os 9 3/1184

A

J osl in C o l lec tion , C olches ter

J . .

?F

J ar man C ol lec t ion , C o lches ter

3 8

G a

C o lches ter

1 58

A

A

A A

R e C orbridge , C orstop i tu m S i te Museum C orbr idge

Xa

C orbr idge

" box 8 "

2 45

X a

P rovenance C oven try , H eiter t Museum Lun t , Bag in ton

Z b

Lun t , Bag in ton

Z b

Doncas ter , C i ty Museu m Doncas ter

1 971 DT/VN 3 15

?R

1 881.334a

Ha

D ub lin , N a t iona l Museum o f I re land S ioney ford , C o . K i lkenny Ed inburgh , N a t iona l Museum o f An t iquar ies o f S co t land GV 8 1 a lso n o 'd V 20 . 6 7

Trapra in L aw

GV 8 2a H exha m , V indo landa T rus t , B ardon M i l l V indo landa

3 12/70 a lso n o 'd 8 52

I pswich , I psw ich Museum LM 9 58 . 1 25

Long Mel ford Un iversi ty o f L ancas ter , D ep t . o f C lassics

1 972.823.ABX

Brough ing , n ear Pucker idge

1 972.507.A IP

A ? A

L inco ln , C ity a nd Coun ty Museu m S ou th C o m mon , L inco ln

3 6 .11

G b

Burgh ley Estate O f f ice , L incs. C o l lyweston G rea t Wood , N or than ts

-

L iverpoo l , Merseyside C oun ty Museum G i l ton , K en t .

G rave 9 4

6 074

G i l ton , K en t . G rave 9 4

6 074

Na

L ondon , B r i t ish Museum , D ep t . o f P reh istor ic

a nd Ro mano Br i t ish An t iqu i t ies Dever i l S t ., S ou thwark , L ondon

( 1837.1-1 .2 ( 1837.1-1 .2

N a

C , oddenha m , S u f fo lk

1 838 .3-31 .1

S o

Backwor th , N or thumber land

1 850 .6-1.2

H a

C o lches ter

1 854 .4-25 .4

2 .4A

I nv . N o .

Type

Dever i l S t ., S ou thwark , L ondon

1 854.12-27.75

Ha

Pollex fe n C ollec t ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .29

Na

Po l lex fe n Col lect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .230

Na

Pollex fe n C o llec t ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .232

P ol lex fe n C ollect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .233

Pollex fe n C ol lect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .235

A

P ollex fen C o llect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .236

A

Po l lex fen C ollect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2.241

A

P ol lex fen C ol lec t ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .244

A

Pollex fe n Col lect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .247

G b

Pol lex fen C ol lect ion , C o lchester

1 870 .4-2 .247

N b

Po llex fen C ollect ion

1 870 .4-2 .248 ( P l. 9 .Ib )

P rovenance

C o lchester

Ha

( 8 3.10-24.1

H a

Dea l

( 83 .10-24.2

N e

S nod land , Ken t

1 962 .4-3 .2

?Z c

S . London

C9 12

A

S . L ondon

T 9/5 F 24

Ea

S ou thwark

1 5 .261 1 935 .211

?Ra

Veru lam iu m

6 7 0 277

Xa

Veru lam iu m

6 8 2 633

Veru lam iu m

6 8 2 917

L ondon , C uming Museu m , S ou thwark

L ondon , D .0 .E . L abs

B i ller icay , E ssex Whi tchurch , S a lop R ichborough

7 3 5 0180

R ichborough

7 3 5 0186

R ichborough

7 3 5 0748

H a

R ichborough

7 3 5 0847 a nd 5 0849

N b

R ichborough

7 3 5 1119

Z c

2 47

?F

Provenance

I nv . N o .

T ype

L ondon , Gu i ldha l l Museum ? Wh i techape l , L ondon

7 83

Qa

7 84

Qa

7 85

Qa

Manches ter , L ord E l les mere C ol lec t ion C ast le f ield , Manchester

Na

Norw ich , C ast le Museu m Needha m

1 13

A

Ca istor-by-Norwich

M 1 7

C c

S tan ley Avenue , N orwich

1 33 .9 50

G c

Ca istor-by-Norwich , F i tch Co l ln .

7 17. 7 6 .9 4

C a istor-by-Norwich , F i tch C ol ln .

Z c

Ospr inge , Ma ison D ieu Ospr inge Grave 2 7 Grave 3 1 Grave 3 8 G rave 4 3 Grave 4 5 Grave 9 4 ( BU ) Group BM Ox ford , A sh mo lean Museum Ash , n ear S andw ich , Ken t

1 836 .235 c

A

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 5 GI V 4

?Zb

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 6 LV I 3 .20

X

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 7 VV1 5 1 23

Z a

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 8 A I2 3 1 79

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 8 AI5 8 3 53

Z b

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 8 AI V +5 3

N a

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 8 AV I 3 3 3 00

N b

Veru la m iu m

Ver 5 9 EI V 29 0

Z b

Ox ford , I nst i tu te o f Archaeology

2 48

P rovenance

I nv . N o .

T ype

V eru la m iu m

Ver 5 9 B I9 3 19

Y

V eru la m iu m

V er 5 9 B I6 5 9 3

Ga

V eru la m iu m

V er 5 9 D XX IV 2 1 6 3

Z b

V eru la m iu m

Ver 5 9 X XX I 3 4 4 38

Z b

V eru la m iu m

Ver 6 0 G XV 6 1 06

G a

P e terborough , Museum a nd Ar t G a l lery Barnack

u ncer ta in

R eading , C i ty Museum S i lches ter

2 1 :66

G

S i lches ter

2 6 :11

F

S i lches ter

2 6 :11

Z a

S i lches ter

2 6 :11

Z a

S i lches ter

2 6 :11

Z c

S i lches ter

-

A

S i lches ter

-

A

S i lches ter

-

A

S i lches ter

-

A

S i lches ter

-

F

S i lches ter

-

K

S i lches ter

-

Z c

S i lches ter

-

Z c

- ( P l. 9 .1 1a )

Wa

S t . A lbans , Veru la m ium Museum Veru lam iu m Veru lam iu m i ns . I V . 8 S hrewsbury , C l ive H ouse Museum Wroxe ter S hrewsbury , Row ley 's H ouse Museu m Wroxe ter

A 1 38

Wroxeter

A 1 39

G b

Wroxe ter

A 2 80

?Nb

2 49 .

P rovenance

I nv . N o .

np _f _

S hropsh ire R o man R esearch Group Wa t l ing S t ., Wroxe ter , G rave 3

Gb

Warr ing ton , Mun ic ipa l Museum Wi lderspoo l , Warr ing ton

7 501

Z a

Wi lderspoo l , Warr ing ton

6 04 ,00

A

Wi tha m , Bra mston S choo l Archaeo log ica l U n i t C ressing , n ear Bra in tree

Z c

C ressing , n ear B ra in tree

Z c

Y ork , Y orksh ire Museum Y ork

8 62

York

8 63

York York R epor ted mirrors p resen t d ay l oca t ion u ncerta in C an terbury , S t . E d mund 's C hurch

N e

Can terbury , C as t le S t .

N c ( two o r

C an terbury , C as t le S t .

Z d

C o lches ter , L exden R d . ( 1850 )

Z d

Fe l ixstowe , F e lixs towe C hurch

Z d

more )

H e me l H e mpstead , G adebr idge P ark V i l la

Z c

H e me l H e mps tead , G adebr idge P ark V i l la

Z c

R ecu lver , F ord , K en t

"Group C "

S t . A lbans , P ark S t . V i l la

Z b

P ark S t . V i l la

Z c

P ark S t . V i l la

Z c

S andy

?A

Wh i tchurch / Med io la .num ( 1965-6 )

C l ( 4 0 )

Z c

Wh itchurch

E 2 ( 3 1 )

Z c

Wh itchurch

E 2 ( 3 1 )

Z c

2 50

P rovenance

I nv . N o .

T ype

O ther R o man Mirrors i n B r i t ish C o l lec t ions A berdeen , An thropo log ica l Museu m , Mar ischa l C o l lege Wi lson C o l lec t ion

?A thens

7 87

Wi lson C o l lec t ion

?A thens

7 87

B r igh ton , C en tra l Museu m -

S ir A . Wo l laston-Franks. C o lin .

R3 132/5

R a

C irences ter , C or in ium Museum Bow ly C o l lec t ion .

?f ro m C irences ter

B2864 1 .1

B ow ly C o l lect ion .

?f ro m C irences ter

B 2864 I .E

B ow ly C o l lec t ion.

?f ro m C irences ter B2864 I V .G

B ow ly C o l lec tion .

?f ro m C irences ter B 2864 V I I .J

?F

Bow ly C o l lec t ion . ? f ro m C irences ter B 2864 V I I I .F

?F

B ow ly C o l lec t ion .

?f ro m C irences ter B 2864 I X .D

E xe ter , R oya l A lber t Me mor ia l Museum Mon tagu C o llec t ion

5 /1946 .232

Montagu Co llect ion

5 /1946 .234

Mon tagu Co l lect ion

5 /1946 .235

Xa

N a

G lasgow , H un ter ian Museum A . H enderson . B ishop C ol lec t ion

B1 951 .2736

L inco ln , C i ty a nd C oun ty Museu m H ow le t t C o l lec t ion

1 78 .30

L ondon , B r i t ish Museu m , D ep t . o f P reh is tor ic a nd R o mano Br i t ish An t iqu i t ies 1 907.10-24.3 P .O .A .3 P .O. A .3

N b

P .O.A.4

N b

P .O.A.6 1 297.70

2 51

A

P rovenance

I nv . N o .

T ype

L ondon , Gu i ldha l l Museum 2 4405

Ra

M x v i i i .6 5 .7858

?Qb

NOTE S ince t h is l ec ture was g iven a n umber o f o ther mirrors h ave b een b rough t t o my a t ten t ion .

T hese a re a s f o l lows :- 1 r ec tangu lar mirror f ro m C he l ms-

f ord ( Mr . P au l Drury ) ; 1r ec tangu lar mirror a nd 5 o ther p ieces f ro m B eaucha mp , Wick ford , E ssex , n ow i n S ou thend Museu m ( Mr . Warw ick R odwe l l ) , Mr . C hr is G oing h as d rawn my a t ten t ion t o ap iece f ro m S ib le H ed ingha m , E ssex a nd Mr . L .J .F. K epp ie h as r epor ted a s econd mirror i n t he Hun ter ian c o l lec t ion .

Iwou ld l ike t o t hank t hese g en t le men f or t he ir i n teres t , a nd a l l

Museum s ta f f i n t h is c oun try who h ave made t he g a ther ing o f ma ter ia l a nd i n for ma t ion s o p leasan t at ask o ver t he l ast f ew y ears.

2 52

1 0.

ASPECTS OF ART I N RO MANO-BR IT ISH POTTERY D om P err ing

T he p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o p resen t a n o u t line o f t he v ar ious t ypes o f d ecora t ion emp loyed o n R o mano-Br it ish p ot tery .

My p r i mary c oncern

.I s t o i so la te s ty l ist ic g roups a nd t rends, t hrough p lac ing t he d ecora t ion f ound o n Ro mano-Br it ish p ot tery w ith in a t ypo log ica l f ramework . A s tudy o f t h is l eng th c annot h ope t o d ea l a dequa te ly w ith a l l a spects o f t he s ub ject .

T o p lace t he ma ter ia l w ith in i t s f u l l a r t ist ic a nd h istor ica l

c ontex t Imust t herefore r efer t he r eader t o Professor T oynbee ' si nva luab le w ork Ar t i n Br ita in u nder t he R o mans .

A lso many v esse ls o f i nd iv idua l

mer it a re om it ted a s t hey d o n ot a dd t o t he a rgu ments p resen ted . I nev itab ly t h is p aper g ives g rea ter emphas is t o t hose g roups o f ma ter ia l w ith in w h ich s ty l ist ic t rends c an b e i dent if ied , s uch a s f ace- a nd h ead-pots. T he s tudy o f o therw ise more n o tab le g roups , s uch a s b arbot ine w ares , i s l im ited b y t he l ack o f p ub l ished mater ia l a nd t he g enera l h o mogene ity o f t he d es igns p roduced b y t hese f orms o f d ecorat ion. T he ma ter ia l i s g rouped a ccord ing t o t he method b y wh ich i t was d eco ra ted .

A pp lied wares a re f ur ther s ubd iv ided b ecause o f t he s pec ia l ised

n ature o f s o me o f t he v esse ls b ear ing t h is f orm o f d ecorat ion . o f ma ter ia l i s e xam ined c hrono log ica l ly ,

Each g rout

a t ten t ion b eing p a id t o k nown k i ln

g roups . W ith in t h is f ra mework Ih ave a tte mp ted t o d ef ine s ty l ist ic g roups a nd t rends i n t he d ecora t ion o f R o mano-Br it ish p ot tery . I t i s o bv ious t ha t f ur ther r esearch i s n eeded t o a ccoun t f or s o me o f t hese t rends .

I t wou ld b e e spec ia l ly u sefu l t o k now who was mak ing t he

p ot tery , t he i ntended f unct ion o f s o me o f t he more u nusua l v esse ls , a nd t he marke ts a t wh ich t he d es igns were a i med .

I t i s w ith t h is i n m ind t ha t t h is

p aper i s p resented a s ab as is f or t he f ur ther s tudy o f a r t a nd d ecora t ion o n Ro mano-Br it ish p ot tery . My t hanks a re owed t o Mr .

J . Munby , Dr . R .

Reece ,

M iss M .

Dar l ing ,

Mr . M. J ones, Dr . M. Hen ig , Mr . M. M il let , Mr . M. Redknap a nd Mr . R .

Densem , f or t he a dv ice a nd i nfor ma t ion t hey h ave g iven ,

G .

Ex ton f or t yp ing o ut t he f i na l d ra f t .

a nd t o Mrs .

APPL IED DECORAT ION App l ied d ecora t ion was u sed most f requen t ly t o c rea te s i mp le d ecorat ive mot ifs , more c o mp lex t ypes b e ing p roduced i n l im ited q uant it ies f ro m t he s econd c entury o nwards .

S evera l o f t he more n otab le p ieces w ere p robab ly

t he o ccas iona l p roducts o f p ot ters n ot n or ma l ly p roduc ing d ecora ted wares . R epresenta t ive o f t hese i s as ty l ized t hu mb p inched f ace f ro m Worcester , ( F ig .

1 0 .1a ) . 12 53

a

b 1

d

F IG . 1 0 .1:

P ot tery w i th a pp l ied d ecora t ion ,

( sca les , v ar ious ).

More s ign if icant ly , a pp l ica t ion '

t he s econd c entury s aw t he a dopt ion o f ' mou ld-cast

o r ' app l ique '

b y R o mano-Br it ish p ot ters ,

A s i n many c ases

where mou lds were emp loyed , most o f t he ma ter ia l d oes n ot f i t i n to c onv en ient r eg iona l g roups, p resu mab ly owing t o t he e ase w ith wh ich Br it ish p ot ters c ou ld a cqu ire a nd u se c lass ica l mou lds . t i on '

Most ' mou ld-cast a pp l ica-

i s f i gura t ive a nd i s f requen t ly c lass ica l i n i nsp ira t ion , most n otab ly

i n S outh E ast Br ita in .

A v ar iety o f s ub jec ts were d ep icted ;

ag lad ia tor o n a mou ld f ro m C o lchester ,

2

o n a mou ld f ro m K et ter ing ( F ig .

3

1 0 . l b) .

t hese i nc lude

a nd wha t i s p oss ib ly a b a l l g a me R e l ig ious f igures,

h owever , p re-

d om ina te . A f a ir ly w ide r ange o f c lass ica l d e it ies w ere a pparent ly r epresented , i nc lud ing H ercu les, J up iter , S a turn , S o l a nd Mars .4 Po t ters work ing a t C orbr idge p roduced o ne o f t he o n ly i dent if iab le g roups o f a pp l ied w ares. A l l t he ma ter ia l , w ith t he e xcept ion o f t wo mou lds d ep icti ng t he Whee l G od ' Taran is ', a pparen t ly r e la tes t o a Sm ith G od .5

T yp ica l

o f t h is g roup i s ab earded f igure b rand ish ing t ongs a nd a p oss ib le h am mer ( F ig . 1 0 ,1c) . Another g roup f ro m " Ma lton a nd Nor ton c lose ly p ara l le ls t he C orbr idge ma ter ia l i n s ty le a nd c onten t , w ith i t s a pp l ied f i gures, whee ls, h am mers a nd t ongs .

' Sm ithjars '

6

s hare a s im i lar i nsp ira t ion ; t he a pp l ied

h am mers , t ongs a nd a nv i ls r inged b e low t he n eck o f t he v esse l a re t yp ica l o f t h is more w ide ly d istr ibuted n on-f igura t ive t ype ( F ig .

1 0 .1d ) .

I n t he f ourth c entury a pp l ied d ecorat ion was l ess p opu lar . s h ire , o f t he ma jor k i ln g roups,

7

O n ly Oxford-

s ign if ican t ly a dopted t h is method o f d ecora-

t i on a nd t hen f or t he s i mp lest d ecora t ive mot ifs o n ly .

8

F ace- a nd H ead-Pots Face - a nd Head-pots f orm a d ist inct ive g roup o f a pp l ied wares . u nusua l d es ign o f t hese v esse ls,

T he

t he ir s econdary u se i n b ur ia l c on tex ts a nd

t he f requent u se o f f r i l led r ims i n t he ir d ecora t ion s trong ly i nd ica te a r i tua l f unct ion . S o me o f t he e ar ly p ost-Conquest f ace-pots p ara l le l led t ypes p roduced o n t he Rh ine ( a g ood e xa mp le was f ound a t N iederb ieber ) , 9 wh i le most o f t hese e ar ly v esse ls were f ound o n m i l itary s i tes .

I tt hus s ee ms p lausib le t ha t

f ace-po ts w ere i ntroduced t o B r ita in f ro m t he Rh ine land b y t he Army . T he e ar ly t ypes ( 2 . A .D . most p ar t , h owever ,

5 5-120) , v ary c ons iderab ly i n s ty le .

t hey were e i ther f a ir ly s i mp le ,

t he L it t le C hester k i ln ,

1 0

F or t he

a s a n e xamp le f rom

o r w ere o bv ious ly i n im ita t ion o f R hen ish t ypes,

a s a n e xamp le f ro m U sk wh ich p ara l le ls H ofhe im t ype 3 3 .1 1 I n t he s econd c entury s ty l ist ic g roups emerged . t ha t d eve loped i n C o lchester f ro m c . A .D . f i g ,

1 20 .

T he d ecora t ion s hown o n

1 0 . 2 a i s t yp ica l o f t he e ar ly C o lchester s ty le .

t he f r i l led r im ,

T he b as ic t ype was N o te t he t hree h and les ,

t he p os it ion o f t he f ace h igh o n t he b e l ly o f t he p ot a nd t he

p ronounced h ornl ike e yebrows ; t hese a re a l l s tandard f ea tures . b eards a nd h orns were o ccas iona l ly a dded a nd , p ha l lus .

S tabbed

i n r are i nstances, a n a pp l ied

Most k nown e xamp les o f t h is t ype w ere f ound i n C o lchester ,

l z

a l though v esse ls i n t h is s ty le h ave a lso b een f ound o n s i tes a s f ar a par t a s York ,

L ondon , Wroxeter a nd Can terbury .

2 55

1 3

" 7 .

a

e tc. 4( 4 1 7---

•

' 0 0

t :2

0 0 0 0 ei )o

• .°0

0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •0

•

0

0

00 0 0 .0 40 • • • 2 01 79 :9° v 00 0 • t ry oo 0 1,0 • 9

om 0 0 0 0 0N m e000l0000000000 o bO A 0 0 d o n Itoto obO MJ 100 1 1 1 P

F IG. 1 0 .2 :

Face-pots ,

( 1 :2).

0

0

r "

e

0

2

Most p ot ters i n t he S outh East a dopted t he C o lchester s ty le , n ear Veru lam iu m , v ar ian t .1 4

t hough p o t ters

a nd p oss ib ly i n L ondon a nd C o lchester , p roduced a s l igh t

F ig . 1 0 , 2 b i l lustra tes t he t ype : t he f ace i s p laced h igh o n t he

c o mpara t ive ly l arge

v esse l , t he e yebrows a re s hown merg ing w ith ,

i n t he i l lustra ted c ase , b eco m ing t he r im . i n t ha t i t r e ta ins t he f r i l led r im , w ith t h is g roup o f f ace-pots . C o lchester t ypes,

o r , a s

T he v esse l i l lustra ted i s u nusua l

a n o pt iona l r a ther t han s tandard f ea ture

A s ty l ist ic g roup d er ived b ut d ist inct f ro m t he

p redo m ina ted n or th o f C o lchester , n o tab ly i n East Ang l ia .

Most c o mmon ly f ound i n t he s econd c entury , t hese v esse ls l ack t he f r i l led r i ms,

t hree h and les a nd t he f orma l l ayout o f t he C o lchester t ypes .

T he

v esse ls a re l arger a nd l ess s qua t , t he e yebrows n o l onger o bv ious ly im ita te h orns a nd t he f eatures h ave b ecome g enera l ly c ruder a nd more ' ce lt ic ' , -w h i le

s tabbed b eards a re f requen t ( F ig .

1 0 . 2 c) .1 5

I t s ee ms l ike ly t ha t t hese l oca l p roducts g radua l ly i n f luenced t he C o lchester p ot ters,

f or i n t he m id-th ird c entury t he C o lchester p roducts u ndergo a

s ty l ist ic c hange .

F ig .

1 0 .3a s hows t he l a te t h ird c entury C o lchester t ype .

I n c o mpar ison w ith t he e ar ly t ype , t he f ace i s sma l ler a nd p laced l ower d own o n t he v esse l . S tabbed b eards a re more f requen t a nd t he e yebrows l ess p ron ounced ; t he f ace i s more e xpress ive a nd g enera l ly more P a nl ike . 1 6 T o

t he n orth o f East Ang l ia ,

s ty les a re more l oca l ised a nd v ar ied ,

e spec ia l ly w ith t he i n f luence o f h ead-pots ( d iscussed b e low ) .

Two l a te-

s econd-century v esse ls f ro m C orbr idge f orm a d ist inct ive g roup .

F ig .

1 7

1 0 . 3 b s hows t he l ow p rof i le a nd u se o f p a in ted h igh l igh ts, p roduc ing a n a l most t wo-d i mens iona l e f fect . D esp ite t h is t he f in ished p roduct i s f ar l ess s ty l ised t han t he t ypes men t ioned s o f ar . Three t h ird- o r f our th-cen tury v esse ls f rom B rough g roup .

1 8

f ea tures,

o n H u mber ( probab ly p roduced a t T hro lam) f orm a nother d ist inct ive T

h ese ,

i n c on trast w ith t he C orbr idge p ieces ,

a pp l ied s tr ips a nd c oarse ly s tabbed b eards .

h ave sma l l p inched

T he i l lustra ted s herd

i s u nusua l , t hough n ot e xcep t iona l, i n t he p os it ion ing o f t he f ace u pon a w idened n eck i nstead o f o n t he b e l ly o f t he p ot .

I t a lso l acks t he s tabbed

b eard o f t he o ther e xamp les i n t h is g roup .

1 0 .3c) .

( F ig .

T he d istr ibution o f f ace a nd h ead-pots ( F ig . 1 0 .14) s hows t ha t f ace-po ts a re r are t o t he west o f al i ne d rawn r ough ly f ro m York t o L ondon . Most o f t he v esse ls west o f t h is l i ne c o me , i n f act , f ro m f irst c en tury m i l itary s i tes . H ead-pots ( dep ict ing t he h ead r a ther t han j us t t he f ace) , e x tend o n ly a s f ar s outh a s C o lchester a nd a re most c o m mon n or th o f t he Nene Va l ley . T he most n otab le g roup o f h ead-pots i s e xc lus ive t o York . 1 9

F ig .

1 0 .3d

s hows t he f u l lness o f t he mou ld ing , i nc lud ing d e l ica te t rea t men t o f c o mp lex h a irsty les . T h is g roup i s sma l l a nd d ist inct ive , a nd i s a pparen t ly t he work o f as ing le p o t ter o f t he s econd o r t h ird c entur ies .

I t i s h ard t o a scerta in

whe ther o r n ot h ead-pots were a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r i tua l f or wh ich f ace-pots were d es igned ; c er ta in ly t h is York g roup s ee ms t o owe more t o t he i nf luence o f mou lded g lass p ro to types t han t o f ace-po ts. "

A v esse l r ecen t ly f ound

a t P iercebr idge p oss ib ly p ara l le ls t h is York t ype a nd ' s hou ld b e n oted f or t he f u l l , i f s omewhat s ty l ised , t reatmen t o f t he h a ir .2 1

The ma jor ity o f h ead-

p ots, h owever , d o n o t r ese mb le t h is York t ype. With t he e xcept ion o f t he a bove g roup t here a re t hree r ead i ly i dent if iab le r eg iona l g roup o f h ead-pots .

F ro m York a ga in c o me t wo , u nusua l ly s qua t , 2 57

' 2

0 °0C C C

7" ). 0

0

s

,

°

c g

0 306 0 o 0

I

F IG . 1 0 .3 :

F ace a nd h ead-pots ,

( 1 :2 e xcep t e , a t 1 :4).

F IG . 1 0 .4 :

F ace-neck f lagons ,

( 1 :2 ) .

a

et % 0

0,

0

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F IG . 1 0 .5 :

F ace-neck f lagons ( at o e ) a nd l i on s pou t mor tar iu m ( f ) , ( 1 :2 e xcep t da nd e )

w ide-necked v esse ls , w ith l ow p rof i le f ea tures a nd h eav i lyinc ised d e ta i l ( F ig ,

1 0 , 3 e ) ,

2 2

R ecen t e xcava t ions a t F laxenga te ,

L inco ln h ave u near thed

f rag men ts f ro m s evera l a t tract ive h ead-pots i n a pparen t ly l oca l ( Swanpoo l) f abr ic ,

T he t h ird g roup c ons ists o f t wo p ots f ound a t k i ln s i tes i n t he

2 3

N ene Va l ley , wh ich d if fer f r om t he L inco ln v esse ls o n ly i n d eta i l, n otab ly i n t he u se o f a pp l ied s tuds a round t he f ace . f i t i nto t hese g roups d eserve ment ion .

2 4

Two h ead-po ts wh ich d o n ot

T he f i rst f ro m C o lchester ( F ig .

1 0 ,3f ) a nd t he s econd f ro m L inco ln ( F ig .

1 0 .3g ) s hare t he t a l l a nd r e la-

t i ve ly s lender f or m a nd d e l ica te mou ld ing o f t he L inco ln a nd N ene Va l ley t ypes .

B o th v esse ls, h owever , b ear p a in ted d eta i l a nd emp loy f u l ler

2 5

a nd l ess s ty l ised mou ld ing .

T he L inco ln v esse l i s e spec ia l ly s ign if ican t

f or h av ing ' DO M I IRCUR IO ' p a in ted a bove t he b ase .

T h is s uggests t ha t t he

p ot may h ave b een u sed a s av ot ive o f fer ing , t hus a dd ing we igh t t o t he a rgumen t f or a r i tua l f unct ion . Most h ead-pots ( exc lud ing t he e ar ly York g roup) a pparent ly d a te t o t he l a te t h ird o r f our th c entur ies .

P erhaps b y t h is t ime t he t rad it ions g overn ing

f ace-pot s ty les h ad b een f orgot ten a nd p ot ters were a b le t o i n troduce t h is u nor thodox f or m , p oss ib ly i nf luenced b y t he s econd o r t h ird c en tury York h ead-pots . F ace-neck F lagons These f l agons h ave a f ace , u sua l ly f e ma le , i l lustrated i n F ig , 1 0 .4a .

2 6

a pp l ied t o t he n eck ,

a s

T hey o r ig ina ted f ro m t he c on t inen t ( notab ly

G er many a nd Gau l )2 7 a nd w ere p roduced b y R o mano-Br it ish p ot ters i n t he t h ird a nd f ourth c en tur ies . Ow ing t o t he d ependence o f t h is f or m o f d ecorat i on o n mou lds,

t he many s ty l ist ic g roups d o n ot f o l low r eg iona l b oundar ies .

Most o f t hese f aces a re s hown wear ing u nadorned , c en tra l ly-parted h a ir . O f ten d ecora t ion was a dded a round t he f ace ,

s uch a s t hu mb impress ions,

2 9

o r r ed p a in ted s ide d ecora t ion , p opu lar i n C o lchester a nd York ( F ig . 1 0 .4b) . V ar ious o ther h a irsty les w ere o ccas iona l ly d ep icted ,3 1 t hough t he most p opu lar a lterna t ive t o t he c en tra l ly-par ted s ty le were t hose wear ing a f or m o f d iade m a nd/or h eaddress, s uch a s F ig .

1 0 .4c f ro m L e icester .

3 2

More c o mp lex t ypes t end t o b e i so la ted p roducts, w ith t he n o tab le e xcept ion o f t he ' Toot B a ldon ' O xford s ty le . T h is g roup , p robab ly o f f our th c en tury d a te ,

h as a lready b een f u l ly d escr ibed .

F ig . 1 0 .4d f ro m R ich-

3 3

b orough i lustra tes t he c o mp lex p i led h a irsty le , wh i le t he s i mp ler d er iava t ive t ype i s s hown o n F ig .

1 0 .4e f ro m N ea tha m .

3 4

A sma l l b ut d ist inct ive g roup o f i mag ina t ive ly d ecora ted f l agons f ro m C u mber land a lso d eserve men t ion ( F igs .

1 0 .5d , e ) .

3 5

With t he e xcep t ions men t ioned , f ace n eck-f lagons a re a pparen t ly d istr ib uted r egard less o f d a te o r t ype ,

a s e xe mp l if ied b y t wo c on trast ing f l agons

f ro m Co lchester ( F igs .

c ) .

1 0 .5a , b ,

3 6

I m itat ions o f s am ian mor tar ia ( Drag . 4 5 ) These mor tar ia b ear c op ies o f t he a pp l ied b a ts-head a nd l i ons-head s pouts,

f ound o n s am ian mor tar ia .

B y t he f our th c entury t hey were b e ing

2 61

2 8

3 0

p roduced i n l im ited q uan t i t ies, most n otab ly b y Oxfordsh ire a nd Nene V a l ley p ot ters ( F ig . 1 0 .5f s hows a N ene Va l ley e xamp le ) . 3 7 T he e ar ly t ypes f o l low t he s am ian o r ig ina ls f a ir ly c lose ly , b ut t he l a ter p ieces h ave more s ty l ised

a nd h uman ised f aces .

An e xamp le , p oss ib ly p roduced b y t he F arnham k i lns

was r ecen t ly f ound a t Nea tha rn ,

3 8

I t s f ace r ese mb les t ha t o f a monkey r a ther

t han o f al i on . Al a te v esse l f ro m t he O xfordsh ire k i lns h as a n o bv ious ly h u man f ace , e xecuted i n p a in t r a ther t han a pp l ied , 3 9

BARBOT INE DECORAT ION B arbo t ine d ecora t ion was p roduced b y ' i c ing ' t he v esse ls w ith f l u id c lay , much i n t he way t ha t ac ake i s i ced . T hough t h is f orm o f d ecora t ion was b orrowed f ro m t he c on t inent , t he B r it ish d es igns were f requen t ly more n a tu ra l ist ic a nd f l ow ing t han t he ir c on t inen ta l c oun terpar ts . " L arge s ca le p roduct ion o f b arbot ine wares c o m menced i n t he e ar ly s econd c entury a t t he N ene Va l ley a nd C o lchester k i lns .

B oth c en tres a dopted s im i lar s ty les

a nd d es igns, r e ly ing l arge ly o n c on t inenta l t ypes . I t i s p oss ib le t ha t t hey g a ined impe tus f ro m im m igran t c on t inen ta l p otters . 1 U sua l ly t he d ecora t ion c ons isted o f o ne o f aw ide r ange o f f l ora l mot ifs 4 Most c o m mon was a r epea t ing s cro l l p a ttern , t hough o ccasiona l ly f a ir ly c o mp lex d es igns were a t te mp ted . O f t he f i gura t ive t ypes ' hun t c ups ' ,s uch a s F ig .

1 0 .6a f ro m Wa ter N ew ton , p roved most p opu lar .

T he a n i ma ls most

f requen t ly d ep icted were h ounds, h ares, d eer a nd s tags . 42 t hese h un t c ups were t apestr ied o r t wo-t iered . 43

O ccas iona l ly

C o mp lex f i gurat ive work t ends t o b e r are , t hough o f a h igh s tandard . T he t wo v enatores d ep icted o n av esse l f rom B ed ford Pur l ieus e xe mp l i fy t he w ork o f t he N ene Va l ley p ot ters a t i t s b est ( F igs .

1 0 .6 br, c ) .

4 4

O ther

c o mp lex f i gura t ive t ypes i nc lude c har io t a nd c ircus s cenes .L l a T he Nene Va l ley p ot ters d epar t f ro m c on t inen ta l p receden t w ith t he ir my tho log ica l a nd r e l ig ious s cenes .

H ercu les i s c o m mon ly d ep ic ted .

F ig .

1 0 .7a s hows a

H ercu les, r em in iscen t o ft he C erne G ian t , c lubb ing a r a ther i nef fectua l L ernean Hydra , 46 Equa l ly p opu lar were f ron ta l r ows o f G ods a nd G oddesses, o ccas iona l ly s tand ing i n a rcad ing . 47 More s k i lfu l, i f l ess o r ig ina l, t rea tmen t i s s hown i n t he p or traya l o f a n i ma ls , n otab ly b y t he N ene Va l ley p ot ters .

T he L ion a nd t he Do lph in

i l lustra ted a s F igs , 1 0 , ' 7 b , cs how a n a r t ist ic a b i l ity r are ly e qua l led o n c on t i nen ta l b arbot ine p roducts . 48 T hough C o lchester p roducts s howed more i mag ina t ion i n c omposit ion a nd s ub ject ma t ter , t hey were g enera l ly p oor ly e xecuted i n c o mpar ison t o N ene V a l ley p roducts , T he v esse l i l lustra ted a s F igs . 1 0 . 8 a , b g ives s o me i dea o f t he v ar iety o f s pec ies o f v ege ta t ion a nd w i ld l i fe d ep icted .4 9 The v ena t io s cene o n F ig . 1 0 , 8 c l acks t he f l ow a nd l i fe o f t he b et ter Nene V a lley p ieces .5 ° C o lchester p ot ters r are ly i ndu lged i n t he my tho log ica l s cenes o f t he N ene Va l ley , w ith t he n o tab le e xcep t ion o f a n imag ina t ive ly p ortrayed s cene p oss ib ly d ep ict ing av in tage c ere mony .5 1 I nstead t hey t u .rned t o p ure o r n ear f an tasy . b ) .

5 2

S ea- monsters , c apr icorns a nd f l y ing p ha l l i a re t yp ica l ( F igs . 1 0 .9a ,

T he v ena t io s cene ( F ig .

1 0 .9c) i s more e n igma t ic, i n i t s u se o f a

h unchback , h ounds, g en i i c ucu l la t i, b ears, v ena tores a nd o ther f i gures a nd a n i ma ls . 5 3 2 62

a

F IG . 1 0 .6 :

N ene V a l ley b arbo t ine p o t tery ,

( 1 :2 ) .

F IG . 1 0.7 :

N ene V a l ley b arbo t ine p o t tery ,

( 1 :2 e xcep t c ) .

C I S

. 4 •

4 . 1

• 1 •

•

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I t i s s urpr is ing h ow f ew k i lns a t te mp ted t o i m itate t hese b arbo t ine w ares. T hose t ha t d o , s uch a s t he N ew F orest a nd Ox fordsh ire k i lns , a t te mp t o n ly t he s imp lest v ine-scro l ls . 5 4 Barbo t ine r eached t he p eak o f i t s p opu lar i ty i n t he l a te s econd a nd t h ird c entur ies, b ut t hen d ec l ined w ith t he g row th i n s ign if icance o f t he l ess a r ti s t ica l ly d e mand ing , b ut more e cono m ica l ly p roduced ,

p a in ted wares .

PAINTED DECORAT ION T here w ere v ar ious i nf luences o n t he p a in ted d ecora t ion o f R o mano-Br it ish p o t tery .

I mported p a in ted wares ( such a s

' Rhen ish ' w are ), d es igns b orrowed

f ro m o ther f or ms o f d ecora ted p o t tery ( such a s b arbo t ine d ecorat ion ), ac ons iderab le amoun t o f i nd igenous d eve lop men t ,

p lus

s ee m t he most a pparen t .

Ear ly R o mano-Br it ish p a in ted wares a re i nfrequent a nd u n insp ired .

O ne

o f t he f irst k i lns t o p roduce n o tewor thy ma ter ia l was s i tua ted i n N or thampt onsh ire , a nd p roduced s i mp le b ut a t tract ive r ed-brown p a in ted d es igns i n t he l a te f irst t o e ar ly s econd c entur ies, a s o n F ig .

1 0 .10a w ith i t s c oncen tr ic

c irc les a nd l a tt ic ing .5 5 Ear ly p a in ted d es igns t end t o b e o ccas iona l p roducts o f k i lns n o t n or ma l ly d ecora t ing t he ir v esse ls . T hus a n u mber c f u n ique d es igns were p roduced , s uch a s t he u nusua l r ed-brown p a inted f ace o n a f l agon f ro m S hakenoak ( F ig . 1 0 . 1 0b) .

5 6

T he e ar ly s econd c en tury s aw a g radua l i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f w h itep a in ted f i gura t ive s cenes . An e ar ly e xamp le , t hough p oss ib ly impor ted , i s a wh ite p a in ted h orse a nd r ider o n af ragmen t f ro m Dorchester , O xon . 57 L arge s ca le p roduct ion o f v esse ls b ear ing wh ite , o r o ccas iona l ly r ed , p a inted d ecora t ion b egan when t he N ene Va l ley p ot ters d iscovered t ha t b arbot ine d esi gns c ou ld b e r endered e f fect ive ly i n p a in t . I n it ia l ly t he p a in t was u sed t o s upp le men t t he d ecora t ion o n b arbot ine

p o t tery .

S herds f ro m n ear P eter-

b orough d isp lay a b arbot ine g oa t a nd c ock , b o th w ith p a in ted d eta i l, s ty l ised r ed-pa inted t ree .

5 8

F ig .

f i gura t ive wares w ith i t s d ep ict ion o f as pec if ic s cene , a sm ith a t w ork .

a nd a

1 0 . 1 0c i s f a ir ly t yp ica l o f t he N ene Va l ley i n t h is c ase t ha t o f

5 9

I n s p ite o f t he a bove men t ioned e xamp les, n ear ly a l l p a inted wares were n on-f igura t ive .

S i mp le wh ite p a in ted s cro l ls w ith b err ies were most p opu lar ,

e spec ia l ly w i th t he N ene Va l ley p ot ters . " Gradua l ly p a in ted d ecorat ion r ep laced b arbot ine a s t he p r inc ipa l f orm o f d ecora t ion o n R o mano-Br it ish f i ne wares .

T h is p rocess was a cce lera ted i n

t he l ast d ecades o f t he t h ird c entury , w ith t he g row th o f t he N ew F orest , O x ford a nd C ra mbeck k i lns .

T hese c entres u t i l ised t he q u icker a nd l ess e x-

p ens ive t echn ique o f u s ing p a in t t o d ecora te t he ir mass-produced f i ne wares . T he New F orest f i ne wares were g enera l ly d ecora ted w ith s i mp le a bstract wh ite p a inted d es igns ( F ig .

1 0 .11a s hows a more c o mp lex e xa mp le) .

a l ly t hese mot ifs were p a in ted o n to p ro ject ing r ounde ls ( F ig . O x fordsh ire k i lns p roduced c on te mporary d es igns .

O xfordsh ire ' parch men t ware '

6 1

b ut g enera l ly i nfer ior wh ite p a in ted b ow ls, h owever ,

a t tract ive i n terna l r ed p a in ted d ecora t ion ( F ig .

1 0 . 1c) .

n ing o f t he f our th c en tury t he k i lns a t Cast le H oward , r ed p a in t , b oth f or i n terna l a nd e xterna l d ecora t ion . 2 67

O ccas ion-

1 0 . 1 1b) .

6 2

f requen t ly h ad Fro m t he b eg in-

Cra mbeck , ( F ig ,

a lso u sed

1 0 .11d ) .

6 3

F IG . 1 0 .10 :

P a in ted p ot tery ,

F IG . 1 0 .11:

Pa in ted p ot tery ,

( 1 :2 ).

T here w ere o ther l a te c en tres, n o tab ly a t F arnham , Pevensey a nd S wanp oo l wh ich p roduced p ot tery w i th p a in ted d ecora t ion , b ut t hese g enera l ly f a i led t o p roduce d ecora t ive s cenes o r mot ifs t ha t w ere u p t o t he b e t ter s tandards o f t he ma jor k i ln g roups .

6 4

By t he f our th c en tury N ene Va l ley p a in ted p roducts h ad b eco me b oth l ess w ide ly d istr ibuted a nd l ess c o mpe ten t ly e xecuted .6 5 T hus t he Nene Va l ley ' s more c lass ica l f i gura t ive a nd f l ora l d es igns d isappear , t o b e r ep laced b y t he s i mp ler a bstract t ypes o f t he o ther c en tres . T he d ec l ine o f t he Nene Va l ley i s t hus a lso t he d ec l ine o f a r t a s o pposed t o d ecora t ion .

I NCISED AND BURN ISHED DECORA T ION I nc ised a nd b urn ished d ecora t ion o n p ot tery d ec l ined i n p opu lar ity d ur ing t he p er iod o f R o man o ccupa t ion .

I nc ision , h av ing b een a c o mmon p re-Ro man

method o f d ecora t ion , was u sed f a ir ly f requen t ly i n t he f irst a nd s econd c en tu r ies A .D . Most e ar ly i nc ised t ypes were i n t he ' Upchurch ware ' s ty le , t yp ica l ly w i th i nc ised s em i-c irc les a nd p ara l le l v er t ica l l i nes ( F ig . n o . 1 0 .12a ) . 6' ) Ear ly b urn ish ing , a s o n b lack b urn ished ware , i s e qua l ly u n insp ir ing . A g roup o f N or tha mp tonsh ire d ishes a re more a t tract ive t han mos t ( Fig . 1 0 . 1 2b ) .

6 7

I nc ision was u sed b y t he sma l ler k i lns a nd was p r incipa l ly emp loyed o n c oarse wares . A p opu lar f orm o f i nc is ion , e spec ia l ly i n t he t h ird c en tury , was c o mb ing , f ound , f or e xa mp le , o n t he s torage j ar f ro m L u l l ingstone , ( F ig . 1 0 .12c ) ,6 8 I n t he f our th c entury t he N ew F orest p ot ters w ere t he o n ly ma jor f i ne-ware p roducers t o make r egu lar u se o f i nc ised d ecora t ion ( F ig .

1 0 .12d s hows a c o mp lex N ew F orest i nc ised t ype ) .

6 9

T he more e labora te i nc ised a nd b urn ished t ypes t ended t o b e u n ique p roducts . O ne s uch , f ro m C hadwe l l S t . Mary , E ssex p oss ib ly made a t Muck ing , h as a n u pper p ane l p or tray inj t hree c rude a n thropo morph ic f i gures, p oss ib ly g en i i c ucu l la t i ( F ig . 1 2 . 1 2e) . 7 ° A l i d f ro m L inwood , H ampsh ire h as a c en tra l s che ma t ized ' Venus '

f i gure c onstructed f ro m s cro l ls , w ith

s t ick f i gures t o e i ther s ide ( F ig . 1 0 . 1 2f ) .7 1 T hese l ast ment ioned p ieces a re e xcept iona l . F or t he most p ar t , h owever , i nc ision a nd b urn ish ing were emp loyed f or s i mp ler d ecora t ive mot ifs, a nd p layed o n ly a m inor p ar t i n t he d eve lopmen t o f a r t o n R o mano-Br it ish p o t tery .

STA MPED DECO R AT ION S ta mped d ecorat ion , h owever , p lays a more s ign if ican t r o le . C en tres o f p roduct ion d eve loped i n t he s econd c en tury , n o tab ly a t West S tow H ea th , w ith i t s s i mp le c ircu lar s tamped mot ifs, 7 2 a nd i n Yorksh ire where t he more a t tract ive , a bstract ,

s ta mped ' Par is ian ware '

was p roduced ( F ig .

1 0 . 1 3a ) .

7 3

Many t h ird c en tury s tamped wares were d es igned i n im ita t ion o f s am ian t ypes . Ag ood e xa mp le , p roduced i n N or thamptonsh ire i s i l lustra ted i n F ig . 1 0 .13b , 7 4 T hese t ypes f a i led t o c o mpe te s uccessfu l ly a nd t he t h ird c entury s aw a d ec l ine i n t he p opu lar ity o f s tamped wares . 2 70

F IG . 1 0 .12 :

I nc ised a nd b urn ished p o t tery ( 1 :2 e xcep t ca nd fa t 1 :4 ) .

t,

l b e

Ce l te.4

a

e r 2 gA t t,/

10

1 4

. 011fi tt(1 1111it i s (1 1 t iI l

II1 I g"

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II I

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4 11,

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r ig i ti e ter fitr ir t fi t o l i

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tu / ,‚ 1 11.7 f ill I f

-

F IG . 1 0 .13 :

S ta mped p o t tery ( 1 :2 ) .

m m tuts mi d/

I n t he f our th c en tury ,

s tamped wares b enef it f ro m t he t rend t owards

c heap ly p roduced f i ne wares .

T he New F orest a nd Oxfordsh ire k i lns u sed

s im i lar s tamped d ecora t ive mo t ifs, t hough t he O xfordsh ire p roducts were u sua l ly s uper ior i n d es ign a nd e xecut ion ( F ig .

1 0 .13c) .

7 5

T owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth c en tury a n u mber o f 'R o mano-Saxon ' w ere p roduced .

t ypes

A v esse l f rom G rea t C aster ton h as t he t yp ica l s ta mped b osses

a nd c ross i n c irc le s ta mped mo t ifs ( F ig . 1 0 .13d ) .

7 6

T hroughou t t he p er iod

o f t he R o man o ccupa t ion o f B r ita in s tamped wares were a pparen t ly more p opu lar a long t he East c oast a nd i n t he S outh East . t ha t

A lthough i ti s c once ivab le

t he g row th o f s tamped ware p roduct ion i n t he f our th c entury was s t i mu-

l a ted b y a n i ncreas ing ly G erman ica l ly-or ien ta ted market , t he d es ign a nd manufacture o f t hese v esse ls b e longed t o aR o mano-Br it ish t rad it ion .

OTHERS ' Br it ish s am ian ' ,f ro m t he C o lchester a nd t he A ldga te/Pu lborough workshops c annot b e d iscussed w i thout a f u l l s tudy o f Gau l ish s am ian w h ich w ou ld b e b eyond t he l im ita t ions o f t h is p aper. 7 7

I t wou ld a lso b e a bsurd t o

c ons ider t he a r t o n p o ts p roduced i n i m ita t ion o f meta l v esse ls a par t f rom a s tudy o f a r t a nd d ecorat ion o n meta lwork .

Br it ish p ot ters p roduced n o o ther

mou lded w ares o f c onsequence. S U M MARY T hroughou t t he R o man p er iod t he most s ign if ican t s ing le f actor i n d ete rm in ing t he t ype o f d ecora t ion p roduced b y Br it ish p ot ters was t he n a ture o f t he v esse ls b e ing d ecora ted .

V esse ls o f s pec ia l ised f orm o r f unct ion

t ended t o b ear f a ir ly s pec ia l ised a nd t herefore a typ ica l d ecora t ion .

F or t he

most p ar t , h owever , t he s ign if ican t f actor was t he f abr ic t ype . Coarse wares, most ly p roduced f or l oca l d e mand , w ou ld , a t a l l, b ear s i mp le a nd o f ten t rad it iona l d es igns . more ' nat ive '

i n o r ienta t ion .

T hese p roducts were f ar

R arer e xamp les o f more c o mp lex d ecora t ion

owed more t o ac rude i nd iv idua l ity , w ith ' ce lt ic ' R o man t rad i t ion .

i f d ecora ted

u nder tones, t han t o a ny

T he d ecora t ion o n f i ne wares , o n t he o ther h and , b e longs

i nd isputab ly t o Ro man w orkshop p ract ice , h owever s trong t he B r it ish i nf l uences .

I n t he f irst c entury d ecora ted f i ne wares h ad t o b e impor ted .

t he e ar ly s econd c en tury ,

B y

h owever , t he B r it ish marke t h ad d eve loped s uf f ic-

i en t ly t o make t he i nd igenous p roduct ion o f d ecora ted f i ne wares e cono m ica l ly v iab le ,

T h is R o man ised marke t was most d eve loped i n t he C o lchester r eg ion ,

f or o bv ious h istor ica l r easons . t astes g rew u p i n C o lchester .

I nev i tab ly , k i lns o r ien ta ted t owards R o man Another i mpor tan t k i ln g roup g rew u p i n t he

N ene Va l ley , where g ood c lay a nd a ccess t o t he e ar ly c en tres o f d e mand ( notab ly i n t he s outh-east a nd n or thwards a long t he e ast c oast ) h ad a t tracted c ons iderab le t a lent ,

p oss ib ly i nc lud ing imm igrant c on t inen ta l p ot ters .

T he me thods a nd s ty les o f d ecora t ion were more o r l ess c o mp lete ly imp or ted , b ut , o nce e stab l ished , d eve loped a long i nd igenous l i nes . E xper imen ts w i th mou lded a nd s ta mped s am ian-type v esse ls were r e la t ive ly u nsucc essfu l s ince t hese l oca l im ita t ions were u nab le t o c o mpe te w ith t he q ua l i ty

2 73

• o •

I— 2 e xamp les 3— 6 6+

F IG . 1 0 .14 :

D is tr ibu t ion o f R o mano-Br i t ish f ace p o ts a nd h ead-pots .

a nd p rest ige o f t he g enu ine a r t ic le . Barbot ine d ecora t ion , b e ing c heaper a nd l ess t echn ica l ly d e mand ing , s oon b eca me t he ma in f or m o f a r t o n R o manoB r it ish p ot tery ,

I n t he l a te t h ird c entury t he N ene Va l ley p ot ters s tar ted t o

u se p a inted d ecora t ion a s as upp le men t t o t he ir b arbot ine t ypes . I n t he e ar ly f our th c en tury f i ne ware p roduct ion e xpanded c ons iderab ly , w i th t he g row th o f s evera l n ew k i ln g roups .

T hese n ew c en tres l acked t he

p oo l o f a r t ist ic t a len t t ha t h ad b een a cqu ired b y t he N ene Va l ley a nd C o lchester k i lns,

a nd t herefore t urned t o u nde mand ing a bstract p a t terns ,

e xecuted i n p a int .

D ec l in ing s tandards,

most e as i ly

l a ter i n t he f our th c entury ,

e nab led

t he sma l ler k i lns t o c o mpete w i th t he ma jor c entres , w i th a r esu ltan t i ncrease i n t he s ign if icance o f c oarse ware t ypes .

B y t he e nd o f t he c entury l oca l ly

p roduced , u sua l ly u ndecora ted , c oarse wares were s upersed ing s tamped f ine w ares .

I n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod p ot tery ,

a nd i t s d ecora t ion ,

c ame u nder a

v ar ie ty o f n ew i nf luences, n one o f t hese ow ing much t o R o man Br ita in .

2 75

NOTES ON F IGURES F ig . 1 0 .1 a .

S herd i n c oarse ware w ith a pp l ied h u man f ace ; H e igh t o f f ace :

Worcester .

5 .2 cm .

b .

Impress ion f ro m a c lay mou ld ;

K et ter ing .

He igh t 9 .1 cm .

c .

S herd i n c oarse g rey-b lack f abr ic ;

d .

Fr i l led u rn i n g rey f abr ic w ith a w h it ish c oa t ;

C orbr idge . H e ight c . 1 2 cm . C o lchester .

F ig . 1 0 .2 a .

F r i l led f ace-urn ( Ca m . 2 88 ) i n b uf f f abr ic ;

C o lchester .

A f ter H u l l , 1 959 . b .

Fr i l led , f ace-urn i n b uf f f abr ic ;

c .

F ace-urn i n l i gh t g rey f abr ic ;

V eru lam iu m .

A f ter Br iscoe , 1 955 .

L akenhea th , S uf fo lk .

A f ter

R ichardson , 1 944 .

F ig . 1 0 .3 a .

S herd o f f ace-urn i n c oarse g rey f abr ic ;

C o lchester .

b .

Face-urn/ jar i n g rey f abr ic, 'f u med a nd p o l ished ';

C orbr idge .

A f ter B ir ley , 1 959 . c .

J ar i n s toney-hard g rey f abr ic ;

Brough o n H u mber .

Af ter

Wacher , 1 969 . d .

H ead-vase i n s of t l igh t r ed-brown f abr ic ;

e .

F ace- Head-vase i n p ink ish b uf f f abr ic w ith ab lue g rey c ore ; York .

f .

Af ter D ick inson a nd Wenham , 1 958 .

Head-vase ( Ca m . 2 92) i n wh ite f abr ic w i th r ed p a in ted d e ta i ls ; C o lchester .

g .

Y ork . A f ter May , 1 912.

A f ter H u l l, 1 958 .

Headjar i n l i gh t b u f f f abr ic w i th b rown a nd b lack p a in ted d eta i ls ; L inco ln .

Af ter Wa lters , 1 908 .

2 76

F ig . 1 0 .4 a .

F ace -neck f lagon i n

r ed g lazed ware;

L ondon .

Af ter Wa l ters, 1 908 .

b .

F ace -neck f l agon i n g rey-wh ite f abr ic w ith r ed-brown p a in ted b ands ; p robab ly York ' . A f ter May , 1 912 .

c .

F ace -neck f lagon i n h ard o range-brown f abr ic, w ith s e lf s l ip ; L e icester .

d .

Af ter K enyon , 1 948 .

F ace -neck f lagon i n b u f f-orange f abr ic w ith r ed-brown c o lour c oa t ; R ichborough .

e .

A f ter B ushe-Fox , 1 928 .

F ace -neck f lagon i n f i ne o range f abr ic w ith wh ite p a in ted d ots ; N ea tha m .

C our tesy o f M . M i l le t E sq .

F ig . 1 0 .5 a .

F ace -neck f lagon i n s of t y e l low-buf f u nder f ired f abr ic ;

C o lchester .

A f ter H ul l , 1 963 . b , c N eck o f f lagon?, i n b uf f f abr ic ;

C o lchester .

Af ter H u l l, 1 963 .

d .

F ace -neck f l agon ;

e .

F ace -neck f l agon i n c ream t o l i gh t r ed f abr ic ;

f .

B urgh b y S ands, C u mber land .

Mor tar ia i n d rab f abr ic w i th a b rown s l ip ;

Car l is le .

L e icester .

A f ter

K enyon , 1 948 .

F ig . 1 0 .6 a .

B arbot ine b eaker w ith c o lour c oa t ;

n ear Water N ew ton .

A f ter

A r t is, 1 828 . b , c . B arbot ine b eaker w i th b lack c o lour c oa t ; N or than ts .

Bed ford P ur l ieus ;

Af ter H ar tshorne, 1 848.

F ig . 1 0 .7 a . b .

B arbot ine s herd i n

C astor ware ';

B arbot ine s herd i n d rab f abr ic w i th b rown p o l ish ' ; L inco ln .

c .

We lney , N or fo lk . m icaceous s urface a nd p ink ish

A f ter Wa lters , 1 908 .

B arbot ine s herd w i th 'l ead c o lour ' c o lour c oa t ; A f ter Ar t is, 1 828 .

2 77

Water N ew ton .

F ig . 1 0 .8 a ,b . Barbot ine b ow l ( Cam .3 08) i n t h in h ard d ark g rey f abr ic w i th c o lour c oa t ; c .

C o lchester .

Af ter H u l l, 1 963 .

Barbot ine b ow l ( Cam . 3 08) i n t h in h ard r edd ish f abr ic, w i th p urp l ish me ta l l ic c o lour c oa t ; C o lchester . A f ter H u l l, 1 963 .

F ig . 1 0 .9 a .

Barbot ine b ow l i n b uf f c reamy-ye l low f abr ic w ith f i ne e ven mat t c hoco la te c o lour c oa t ;

C o lchester .

C o lchester .

A f ter H u l l , 1 963 .

b .

Barbot ine s herd ;

Af ter H u l l , 1 963 .

c .

L arge b arbot ine b eaker i n r ed b rown f abr ic w ith f i ne p urp le t o c hoco la te c o lour c oa t ; C o lchester . A f ter H u l l, 1 963 .

F ig . 1 0 .10 a .

O vo id b eaker i n p ink ish b uf f f abr ic w i th r ed p a in ted d ecora t ion ; Bannaven ta , N or than ts.

Af ter Woods , 1 970 .

b .

F lagon ? i n h ard c rea m f abr ic w i th b rown p a in ted d ecora t ion ; S hakenoak . Af ter Brodr ibb, Hands a nd Wa lker , 1 971.

c .

S herd i n wh i t ish f abr ic w ith a p inkl igh t b rown s ur face a nd w i th l i gh t a nd d ark umber p a in ted d ecora t ion ; i n Wisbech museum . A f ter Wacher , 1 969 .

F ig . 1 0 .11 a .

G lobu lar f l ask ( Fu lford t ype 9 .3) i n f i ne s andy f abr ic w ith a c o lour c oa t a nd w ith wh ite p a in ted d ecora t ion ; L ower S loden , Han ts . A f ter S wan , 1 973 .

b .

G lobu lar b eaker ( Fu lford t ype 3 9) i n f i ne s andy f abr ic w ith ac o lour c oa t a nd w ith i nc ised a nd wh ite p a inted d ecora t ion ; W i lts, . A f ter F u lford , 1 975 .

c .

d .

Ho lbury V i l la ,

Parch men t ware b ow l w ith wh ite s l ip a nd r ed p a in ted d ecora t ion ; H ead ington , O xon . A f ter Oxon iens ia , 1 7/18, 1 952-3. B ow l i n b uf f-ye l low s l igh t ly s of t f abr ic w ith r ed-brown p a in ted d ecora t ion ;

S carborough .

Af ter Hu l l , 1 932 .

2 78

F ig . 1 0 .12 a .

B ow l i n g rey-b lack f abr ic ;

b .

D ish i n d ark g rey f abr ic ;

c .

S i lchester .

A f ter May , 1 916 .

D uston , N or than ts .

L arge s torage j ar i n h ard g rey f abr ic ;

Af ter Woods, 1 970 .

L u l l ingstone .

A f ter Mea tes,

G reen f ie ld a nd B irchenough , 1 953 . d .

Bag b od ied b eaker ( Fu lford t ype 4 8) i n f i ne s andy f abr ic w ith a c o lour c oa t ; Dorchester , D orse t . Af ter F u lford , 1 975 .

e .

F lask i n g rey ware , u pper h a lf i n s e lf s l ip ; A f ter Farrar , 1 971.

f .

C hadwe l l S t Mary , E ssex .

L id o f wa ter j ar i n h ard d ark g rey f aced b uf f g rey f abr ic ; H an ts .

L inwood ,

A f ter Hawkes, 1 938 .

F ig . 1 0 .13 a .

B eaker i n u npo l ished g rey ware w ith a smooth b lack s ur face ;

Y ork .

A f ter Wenham , 1 968 . b .

B ow l i n h ard b uf f-orange f abr ic w ith s l igh t ly d arker ma t t c o lour c oa t ; i n N or than ts Museu m .

A f ter Woods , 1 970 .

c .

S herd o fb ow l i n r ed f abr ic w i th r ed c o lour c oa t ; Af ter A tk inson , 1 941.

d .

L arge b eaker/urn i n d ir ty wh ite f abr ic w ith av ery d ark b rown c o lour c oa t ; Caster ton , R ut land . A f ter C order , 1 961.

2 79

C ow ley , O xon .

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4 2 . Art is,

3 .47 ;

Cunn ing ton

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9 .21,

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1 8„ F ig .

4 4 .795 ;

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1 1 a nd 1 24 ,

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1 961/2 ,

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8 8 ,

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3 2 .

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7 3 ,

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a nd G oddard ,

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4 1 .

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4 7 .

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2 81

2 45 ;

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p p

4 8 ,

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4 9 .

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9 3 ,

5 0 ,

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F ig ,

8 0 .2 ,

5 1 .

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5 2 ,

I b id ,

F ig .

9 7 .2 a nd F ig .

5 3 ,

I b id ,

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5 3 ,8 .

5 4 .

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5 5 ,

Woods, .

1 908 , p p 3 97-403 , F ig .

2 46 ;

Ar t is,

1 828 ,

p l.

3 0 .1,

a nd 2 ,

5 5 .2 .

F ig .

1 970, 3 8 ,

F ig .

5 3 . 7 .

8 , t ype 1 /10 .8 ;

F ig .

3 8 .

C un l if fe,

1 971,

t ypes 2 70 , 2 73 a nd 2 74 ,

F ig . 18 .369 . F ig ,

3 9,

t ypes

J ew it t ,

1 851,

2 75 t o 2 78 .

5 6 .

Brodr ibb ,

H ands a nd Walker ,

5 7 .

Frere ,

5 8 .

Webster ,

1 959, p p 9 1-94,

5 9 .

Webster ,

1 959,

1 964,

1 39,

F ig .

F ig .

1 971,

1 7 .167,

8 0 .

P l .

F ig .

3 2 .237 .

7 b .

P l . 2 4F .

1 .

6 0 .

V .C.H. Hun ts. V , 1 926, 2 43, P l. 6 .4 a nd P l. 8 .1 a nd 2 .

6 1 .

F u lford ,

6 2 .

Oxon iens ia xv i i/xvni,

1 975, 4 6,

p p 5 2-67 , P l . 6 3 .

Corder , 1 930 ,

6 4 .

Cun l if fe ,

1 952-3 ,

2 24, F ig .

p p 3 18-20, F igs .

H u l l,

F ig . 1 75,

K enyon , 1 948 ,

2 10, F ig .

6 6 ,

May , 1 916 ,

6 7 .

Woods, 1 970,

6 8 ,

Mea tes,

6 9 .

Fu lford , 1 975,

7 0 ,

Farrar ,

7 1 .

Hawkes, 1 938 ,

7 2 ,

West ,

7 3 ,

Corder , 1 958 ,

7 4 .

Woods,

7 5 .

Fu lford , 1 975,

F ig , 2 1;

A tk inson ,

7 6 ,

Corder , 1 961,

6 8 ,

2 4 .5 .

7 7 ,

Hu l l, 1 958 , F ig . 3 9 t o 4 2 ;

1 71, p l .

F ig .

t ype 3 5 .7 ;

6 . Webster ,

1 947,

5 6 .28 a nd 2 9 .

7 1.164 . F igs . 2 a .1 t o b .2 .

Greenf ie ld a nd B irchenough ,

1 971,

1 932 ,

3a nd 4 .

6 5 .

2 7 ,

4 5 .5 t o 7 ;

7 .1 a nd 2 .

F ig . 2 1.1 t o 1 8 ;

1 975,

p p 6 1-79,

F ig . 9t ype 9 .3 .

1 953,

6 2,

F ig .

1 5 .91 a nd 9 2 .

F ig . 1 6 , t ype 4 8 . F ig .

7 .

p p 1 14-136,

F ig .

4 ,

P l . : 3 8 .

1 955, p p 3 5-43 . p p 4 8-52 ,

1 970 , p p 3 9-46,

1 975,

F ig .

F igs . F igs .

p p 1 63 t o 1 70 ,

1a nd 2 .

6 ,

7a nd 4 0 . 1 941, p p 8 -20,

F ig .

S i mpson , 1 952 , p p 6 8-71, F igs .

1a nd 2 .

2 82

5 .37 a nd 3 9 .

F ig .

5 ;

Webster ,

1 1.

ART I N THE

' S MALL TO WNS ' :

' CELT IC ' OR ' CLASS ICAL '?

Mar t in M i l let t

I n 1 932 R . G . Co l l ingwood wrote :

" The C iv i l izat ion o f Roman Br i ta in w as

n e ither mere ly p rov inc ia l n or mere ly c os mopo l itan , n e ither C el t ic n or Ro man s imp ly , b ut a f us ion o f t he t wo , t hough a n i mper fect a nd u ns tab le f us ion , whose e le men ts w ere mixed i n v ary ing p rofor t ions i n d if feren t s oc ia l s tra ta a nd i n d i f ferent p ar ts o f t he c oun try ....".

Much o f t he w ork o n Romano-Br it ish

a r t i n t he l as t 4 0 y ears h as i l lustrated t h is " i mper fect a nd u nstab le f us ion" i n t he s tudy o f i nd iv idua l o b jects .

The a im o f t h is p aper i s t o c ons ider t h is

f us ion f rom a d if feren t v iewpo in t .

N ear ly a l l t he a r t o b jects f ro m t he ' sma l l

t owns ' h ave b een d iscussed i nd iv idua l ly b y Professor Toynbee ,

2

b u t a s y et

t here h as b een n o a t te mp t t o l ook a t t he mater ia l a s ag roup t o s ee h ow Ce l t ic a nd C lass ica l t astes a re r ef lected i n t he o vera l l p at tern , a nd whether t h is p at tern v ar ies b etween t he " d if feren t s oc ia l ( and e cono m ic ) s tra ta".

I n s hor t ,

t he a im o f t h is p aper i s t o c ons ider t he c u l ture o f t he ' sma l l t owns ' t hrough t he med ium o f a r t . Before t h is i s p oss ib le i ti s n ecessary t o d ef ine t he g roup o f s i tes t o b e s tud ied.

T he p rob le m i n d o ing t h is w ith t he ' sma l l t owns ' i s t ha t l i t t le i s

k nown o f t he m e ither i nd iv idua l ly o r a s ag roup , a nd t hus i tw ou ld b e m is leadi ng t o a t temp t t o a pp ly a s tr ic t d ef in it ion .

Here t he t erm i s u sed t o i nc lude

a ny n ucleated c iv i l s et t le men t i n Ro man Br ita in wh ich i s n ot g enera l ly a ccepted a s a' Civ itas Cap ita l ', a mun ic ip iu m o r a Co lon ia 3 ( F ig. 1 1.1 ).

The o n ly e x-

c ep t ion t o t h is i s Bath , wh ich i s n ot i ncluded i n t he a na lys is a s b o th t he q uant i ty a nd q ua l ity o f i t s a r t i m med ia te ly d ist ingu ishes i tf ro m a l l t he o ther ' smal l t owns '.

The g roup e xa m ined t hus f orms n o t ac lass , b u t ah etero-

g eneous c o l lect ion o f s i tes.

V il lages a nd o ther s et t le men ts a re s o met i mes

i nc luded w here t hey a ppear t o b e n uc leated , t hough t h is i s s i mp ly a ma tter o fj udge men t , a nd f ur ther d iscover ies may b e r equ ired t o p rove t hat t hey must b e c ons idered a s ' sma l l t owns '.

The t erm i s u sed l arge ly f or c onven ience ,

a nd c an o n ly b e j ust if ied u n t i l more s a t isfac tory d ef in it ions a re a va i lab le , a l though t h is d oes n o t a dm it t ha t a ny o r a l l t he ' sma l l t owns ' w ere n on-urban a s Wacher h as s uggested ,4 o n ly t ha t t hey d if fer f ro m t he ' l arge ' t owns . 5 The mater ia l b rough t t ogether h ere i nc ludes a l l a r t o b jects f rom t he s i tes e xcep t s uch t h ings a s mass-produced b rooches a nd p ot tery w h ich a re p res u med t o h ave b een manufactured a nd d istr ibu ted c o m merc ia l ly , l eav ing l i t t le r oo m f or i nd iv idua l t aste. An o b ject ion m igh t b e made t ha t t he ma ter ia l f ro m e ach s i te r epresen ts t oo sma l l ag roup t o make i t s c ons idera t ion wor thwh i le. Wh i lst i ti s t rue t hat t he g roups a re sma l l , a nd t hus s ub ject t o r ad ica l c hange a s n ew d iscover ies a re made , n e ither t he method n or t he r esu l ts a re n ecessar ily i nva l id.

Ar-

c haeo log ica l e v idence i s b y i t s n a ture i nco mp lete b ut t he a rchaeo log ist 's t ask

2 83

i s t o d ef ine a nd a na lyse t he p a t terns i n t h is i nco mp lete mater ial mak ing i nter im s ta te men ts a s h e d oes s o.

The f act t hat t he g roups c ons idered h ere a re sma l l

c annot , i n t hese t erms, a f fect t he v a l id ity o f t he r esu l ts f or t hey a re s i mp ly g roups r epresent ing t he s um o f o ur p resen t k now ledge , a nd n o t s a mp les i n a ny s ta t ist ica l s ense.

The p ercen tages a nd n u mbers ( Tab les 1 -4 , Append ices 1

a nd 2 ) wh ich d escr ibe t hese g roups f orm r easonab ly c ons isten t p at terns wh ich d eserve c ons iderat ion a nd e xp lanat ion . The method u sed h as b een t o c o l lec t a l l t he ma ter ia l f rom ' Sma l l T own ' s i tes, t o d iv ide i ti nto c ategor ies s uch a s mosa ics a nd s cu lp ture , a nd c ompare t he p ropor t ions o f t hese c ategor ies b etween g roups o f s i tes , t o a scer ta in , f or i ns tance , w hether mosa ics a re more c o m mon i n wa l led o ru nwa l led t owns. I n d iv id ing t he o b jects i nto g roups a f unda men ta l d ist inct ion h as b een made b etween p or tab le i t e ms — wh ich m igh t b e l ess c er ta in i nd icators o f c lass ica l t as te — a nd o b jects f ixed i n ap ar t icu lar l ocat ion.

The l a tter a re more l ike ly

t o r ef lec t t he ir owner 's t as te t han t he f ormer , wh ich may e as i ly h ave b een c asua l a cqu is it ions o r g if ts.

One t h inks f or e xa mp le o f t he d if ference b etween

t he v ase g iven a s aw edd ing p resen t — b y wh ich n o n ew ly marr ied c oup le wou ld w ish t o b e j udged — a nd t he c arpet t hey h ave c hosen f or t he mse lves.

Th is

d iv is ion i s o bv ious ly p ar t ly a n i mposed o ne ; h owever , i n c u l tura l t erms t he p or tab le o b jects d o r epresen t ad if feren t l eve l o f Ro man isa t ion.

Mosa ics a nd

a rch itectura l o rna men t w ere i n tended f or d isp lay a nd c an b e n o th ing b u t d el i berate, wh i lst p or tab les may e ither i nd icate a l eve l o f s uper f ic ia l Ro man isat i on ( ' beads f or t he n at ives ' ), o r a l terna t ive ly may s how a d eeper u nders tandi ng where i nd iv idua ls w ished t o h ave c lass ica l ly i nsp ired o b jects f or t he ir own u se. The o ther a pproach h as b een t o c ons ider t he s ub jects d ep icted i n t he a r t , t o a ssess h ow impor tan t v ar ious r e l ig ions w ere.

The b as ic d iv is ion w as , o f

c ourse , b etween C lass ica l a nd N at ive d e it ies , b u t s ince C e l t ic r e l ig ion was e ssen t ial ly n on-represen tat iona 1 ,

6

a l l d ep ict ions o f n on-Ro man d e it ies may b e

s een a s t he r esu lt o f Ro man i n f luence.

The p icture w il l t hus a lways b e b iased

a ga inst t he n on-Class ica l f orms, wh ich a re t rad it iona l ly a n icon ic.

N ever the-

l ess a s t h is b ias i s p resu mab ly t he s a me f or a l l s i tes t he p ropor t ion o f Ro man t o n on-Roman d e it ies w il l g ive s o me i dea o f t he d egree o f Ro man isa t ion . With t hese p rov isos i n m ind o ne may l ook a t t he p at te r n a nd c ons ider h ow i tr ef lects t he a rchaeo log ica l d iv is ions b etween s ome o f t he s i tes.

The most

s tr ik ing p o in t t o emerge i s t he s carc ity o f ma ter ia l — o n ly s o me 2 64 o b jects f ro m t he 1 76 p oss ib le s i tes k nown t o me.

Th is i s p ar t ia l ly t he r esu l t o f t he

a bsence o f l arge s ca le e xcava t ion , b u t e ven t he b et ter k nown s i tes h ave p rodu ced f ew o b jects i n c o mpar ison w ith t he ' l arge t owns '. t he mater ia l s u m mar ised o n T ab le 1 i s p or tab le.

O ver t wo-th irds o f

Amons t t he n on-por tab les ,

a rch itectura l o rna men t i s r are, mosa ics a nd s cu lpture more c o m mon .

The

mosa ics p ose a p rob le m s ince n ot a l l o f t he m c o me f rom w ith in t he ma in p ar t o f t he s et t le men t ( Tab le 2 ) .

T h is c on f irms t he v iew t ha t t here w ere f ew f ine

Ro man ised b u ild ings w ith in t he ' Sma l l Towns '

7

a nd p erhaps s uggests t ha t t hose

w ea l thy e nough l ived j ust o u ts ide t he s et t le men ts . 8 Ge mstones a re t he mos t c o m mon p or tab le o b jects ( Tab le 3 )

9

a nd t he ir

u b iqu ity may b e o f s ign if icance s ince most o f t he m a re o f f irst o r s econd c ent ury d a te. l u

Abou t h a lf t he o b jects p or tray r ecogn isab ly r e l ig ious s ub jects , 2 85

TABLE 1 1.1 S u m mary o f t he Ar t f ro m ' Sma l l Town ' S ites ( See Append ix 1 f or i nd iv idua l s ites )

Non-por tab le

P or tab le

A l l s i tes —S ites

8

2 8

3 1

4

2 0

2 2

Gems tones

O ther n on-p .

Ar ch itectura l

1

0

1 1

0

C l )

( 1 ) ( 4 5

3 1

6 9

8 6

2 64

5

1 8

4 3

4 4

1 56

6

1 3

2 6

4 2

1 08

1 0

7

1 3

3 1

3 4

1 021

2 1

4

1 8

3 8

5 2

1 62

1 2

3 5

w ith mi l itary

o r ig ins

_

O thers : _non- m i l itary

4

8

[ Unwa l led s i tes

2

5

Wa l led s i tes

6

2 3

2

1 2

9

-

Poss ib le C iv itas Cap ita ls*

4

-

4

1

Brough-on-Hu mber , I lchester a nd Water N ew ton .

TABLE 1 1.2 Mosa ics f ro m ' Sma l l Town ' S ites S how ing L oca t ion o f F inds

Town Dro itw ich

With in s et t le men t

O u ts ide s et t le men t

Tota l 2

2

Gatcombe

1

G t. Caster ton

3

3

G t. Ches ter ford

1

1

2

I lches ter

2

1

3

Kenchester

3

3

K ingsco te 1

N ea tha m

1

Ma l ton Wa ter N ew ton To ta ls

7

2 1 2

1 4

2 86

9 2 6

t he most c om mon o f wh ich a re c lass ica l , w i th l i t t le d e monstrab ly Chr ist ian ma ter ia l ( Tab le 4 ). S pec if ic g roups o f s ites may n ow b e c ons idered a ga inst t h is b ackground , t ak ing f irst t hose wh ich Frere c ons iders t o h ave h ad a m i l itary o r ig in a nd c ompar ing t he m w ith o thers w i thout s uch e v idence ( Tab le 1 ). 1 1

The ma in

d i f ference b etween t hese g roups i s t he p auc ity i n mosa ics a nd s cu lp ture s hown b y s i tes o f n on- m il itary o r ig in .

The c oro l lary o f t h is i s t hat t he s a me s i tes

h ave a r e lat ive a bundance o f p or tab le a r t.

However , t here i s a no ther d if-

f erence h ere a s t he s i tes o f m i l itary o r ig in h ave more g e mstones.

The f act

t ha t most o f t he Ro mano-Br it ish g e mstones a re o f e ar ly d ate i s d oub t less s ign if ican t , s ince t h is i s p rec ise ly t he p er iod when t he a rmy was most i mport an t i n t he a rea u nder c ons iderat ion. 1 2

The s ub jects a lso d if fer b etween s i tes

o f m i l itary a nd n on- m il itary o r ig in ( Tab le 4 a ) :

s urpr is ing ly t here a re more

r ecogn isab ly c lass ica l d e it ies f ro m t hose o f n on- m i l itary o r ig in . However , t h is i s p ar t ial ly a ccounted f or b y t he p ipeclay V enus f igur ines wh ich f orm a s ign i f ican t p ropor t ion o f t he mater ia l f ro m n on- m i l itary s i tes .1 3

As t hese a re

mass-produced t hey n eed n o t n ecessar i ly r ef lect c lass ica l t aste , n or e ven b e ' Class ica l ' a t a l l , a s M iranda Green h as s uggested a n at ive c onnect ion 1 4 I ft he ir r e mova l f ro m t he c lass ica l g roup i s a ccep ted t he r esu l t wou ld make more s ense , w ith t he s ites o f m il itary o r ig in h av ing more c lass ica l d e it ies ( Tab le 4 b ).

The g e mstones f ro m s ites o f m il itary o r ig in c on form t o t h is

p at tern w ith t he ir marked p re ference f or c lass ica l s ub jects s uch a s Gods , Goddesses a nd S ymbo l ic s cenes ( Tab le 3 ).

Th is c on trasts w ith t hose o f n on-

m i l i tary o r ig in where Ro mano-Br it ish im itat ions , Ca meos a nd b rooch g e ms a re more p opu lar.

The c ompar ison b etween t hese t wo g roups o f s i tes t hus

p rov ides s ome s uppor t f or t he p ostu lated Ro man is ing e f fect o f t he a rmy i n Br i ta in. 1 5 A c o mpar ison o f u nwa l led w ith wa l led s i tes a nd t hose wh ich h ave b ecome C iv i tas Cap ita ls ( Brough-on-Humber , I lchester a nd Water New ton )1 6

i s a lso

i ns truct ive , a l though i ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t t wo o f t he t hree p oss ib le p ro mot i ons ( l lchester , a nd Brough-on-Hu mber ) h ave p roduced l i t t le a r t , s o t he p at tern f or t he ir g roup i s d om inated b y Wa ter N ew ton .

The u nwa l led t owns

s how a l ower l eve l o f Ro man isat ion t han t he wa l led o nes ( i nc lud ing t he p oss ib le C iv i tas Cap i ta ls ) a s t hey a re d ef ic ien t i n mosa ics , a rch itecture a nd s cu lp ture w h i lst N a t ive d e it ies a re r e la t ive ly a bundan t ; more impor tan t i nu nwa l led c en tres.

i n a dd it ion g e mstones a re much

Th is may b e a ccounted f or b y t he

g reater i mpor tance o f t he wa l led t owns i n t he l a ter p er iod a l though t he a bsence o f n on-por tab le a r t i n t he u nwa l led c en tres w i l l h ave made t he g e mstones a ppear more impor tan t i n t he m.

There a re s im ilar t hough l ess marked d i f-

f erences b e tween t he wa l led c en tres a nd t he p oss ib le C iv itas Cap ita ls , b u t t hese may s i mp ly r ef lect t he q ua l ity a nd q uan t ity o f t he a r t f ro m Wa ter N ew ton w h ich may r esu l t f ro m i t s e cono m ic s upre macy , t he amoun t o f e xcavat ion , o r i t s a dm in istrat ive s tatus — r ef lected i n i t s p ro mo t ion t o aC iv i tas Cap ita l. The mean ing o f t he d if ferences b etween t hese t hree g roups o f s i tes i s d iff i cu l t t o u nderstand.

The p a t tern s hows a d if ference i n t he l eve ls o f Ro man isa-

t ion b etween t he t ypes o f s i tes a nd t h is d if ference s hou ld p resumab ly b e s een a s ar esu l t o f t he m ix ture o f s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd p o l it ic a l f actors wh ich w ou ld h ave b een i n terdependen t .

There i s ad e monstrab le h ierarchy i n t he l eve ls

2 87

TABLE 1 1.3 Ge mstones f ro m ' S ma l l Town" S ites S ub ject o f g e mstones c o mpared w ith o ther s i tes ; g iven a s p ercentages

4 9 c d

c s c d

Gods

1 5

1 1.6

4 .3

5 .8

1 0

1 5.9

1 5

Cup ids

4 .5

4 .3

1 .4

4 .3

1. 4

5 .8

5

Bacchus

5

-

1. 4

-

1. 4

1 .4

4

5

5 .8

1 .4

7 .2

1 .4 1 .4

Bonus Eventus Goddesses

1 2

3 3

4 .3

7 .2

4

8 .7

8 .7

1.5

Fe ma le p ersons

5

1 .4

-

3

Or ien ta l

1

-

-

-

-

-

1. 5

Chr ist ian

0 .5

-

-

-

-

-

0 .5

Amu lets

1

-

1 .4

1. 4

-

1. 4

Co mb inat ions

2

-

-

-

-

-

Apotropa ic

1

S ymbo l ic

4

I nscr ip t ions

0 .1

-

-

3

3

-

3

-

3

-

-

-

5

2 1. 5 1

5 .8

4 .5

-

0 .5

My tho log ica l

7

3

3

3

3

5 .8

9

Por tra its

1

1 .4

1 .4

1. 4

1 .4

3

1

Da i ly l i fe

5 .5

1 .4

3

1. 4

3

4 .3

4 .5

S h ipp ing

1

1 .4

1 .4

1. 4

1 .5

RB Im itat ions

6

Ma m mals

9

My tho log ica l a n i ma ls

-

-

3

3

3

3

5 .8

4 .3

4 .3

5 .8

2

4 .3

-

1. 4

3

B irds

4 .5

5 .8

4 .3

5 .8

4 .3

I nsects a nd Crustaceans

1

-

-

-

-

-

P lan ts

-

-

-

Ca meos

5

1. 4

1. 4

3

Brooch i n tag l ios

1 .5

1 .4

1. 4

1. 4

1 00% Note :

1 00%

Ge ms f ro m ' s ma l l t own ' s i tes t ota l 6 9 ;

2 88

5 .8 1 0 4 .3 1 0 -

5 6 2 .5 4 1 .5 0 .5

-

3

8 .5

1 .4

3

0 .5

1 00%

1 00%

1 00%

e ach g em r epresen ts 1 .4%

TABLE 1 1.4a

C O

c r )

• . c p

c e

u )

C i ) C e Z

A l l s ites

75

.e 0

r Z c • •

4 4

4

S ites w ith mil itary o r ig ins 2 5

2 7

2

O thers :

2 6

1 7

2

Unwa l led S ites

1 7

2 3

Wa l led s i tes

3 4

2 1

[

n on- m i l itary

P oss ib le C iv itas Cap ita ls

8

r :

g . 4

5 1

7

b l

" a l

6 5

6 9

2 64

5 1

4 3

1 56

2 3

1 4

2 6

1 08

1

1 1

1 9

3 1

1 021

3

2 0

4 6

3 8

1 62 ]

1

3 1

0 Z

8

3

1 5

TABLE 1 1.4b Breakdown o f De i t ies f ro m a l l S ites ( To ta l 5 1) Apol lo

2( 1 M il itary )

Bacchus

1( M )

Ceres

1( M )

D iana

1( M )

Fortuna

1( M )

Funerary l i on 2 ( M )

Hercu les

3

(M )

J up iter

5( 3 M )

L una

1( M )

Mars

2( M )

Mercury

6( 2 M )

M inerva

6( 2 M )

P an

2

V esta

i

O s ir is Venus

1 1 6 ( 5 M )

2 89

Ge mstones

The S ub ject Mat ter o f Ar t f ro m ' Sma l l Town ' S ites

1

3 5

o f Ro man isat ion , w ith t he p oss ib le C iv itas C ap i ta ls a t t he t op a nd t he u nwa l led c en tres a t t he b o t to m.

As t he p rov is ion o f w a l ls was a matter f or i mper ia l

p o l icy t hey m igh t b e s een t o r esu l t f ro m a s i te 's a dm in istrat ive i mportance. 1 7 However , t he p rov is ion o f w a l ls w ou ld o n ly h ave r esu lted f ro m a r equest f rom a C iv itas p assed o n t o t he Emperor , a nd s ince t he c ost w ou ld f a l l u pon t ha t C iv i tas t he ir p resence may a lso r ef lec t t he w ea lth o f as ite wh ich w il l a lso b e s een i n i t s a r t a nd c u l ture.

Thus a l though a r e lat ionsh ip c an b e s hown

b etween t he p resence o f w a l ls a nd t he l eve l o f Ro man isa t ion i ti s n ot c lear whether e cono m ic o r a dm in istrat ive f actors w ere more i mpor tan t i n d etermi n ing t h is l eve l. These o bserva t ions a re n ot d e f in it ive b u t t hey d o s how s o me o f t he w ays i n wh ich t he l eve l o f Ro man isat ion i n t he Prov ince v ar ied b etween d if feren t g roups o f s i tes.

The e v idence i l lustrates h ow m il itary f actors w ere i mpor-

t an t i n t he e ar ly p er iod , a nd h ow t hey were s uperceded b y o ther f actors s uch a s as i te 's a dm in istrat ive a nd e cono m ic i mpor tance.

These b road t rends

a re e v idence much more o f o ur i gnorance t han o u t k now ledge , a l though i ti s h oped t hat t h is w i l l s pur o n f ur ther r esearch r ather t han d eter i t . p erspect ive i ti s t he me thod t hat i s o f fered a s o f g rea ter v alue.

I n ab roader I t i s o n ly b y

c o mpar ing a sse mb lages o f a r t ist ic a nd o ther o b jects f ro m d if feren t s ites t hat w e c an d o more t o u nders tand t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic v ar iat ions a cross t he Prov ince , a nd t he Emp ire a s a who le.

Iw ou ld l ike t o t hank R ichard Reece f or d iscuss ing t hese i deas w ith me ; a nd S i mon K eay , L aurence Wr igh t a nd J u l ian Munby f or r ead ing a nd c omment ing o n a n e ar l ier d raf t o f t h is p aper.

J ohn S hepherd a nd S ydney Harker

k ind ly p rov ided me w ith i n forma t ion o n t he S pr inghead ma ter ia l

2 90

REFERENCES 1 .

Co l l ingwood , 1 932, 9.

2 .

Toynbee , 1 964.

. , a .

Wacher , 1 975 , Chap ter 1 .

4 .

Wacher , 1 975.

5 .

M i l le t t , 1 976.

6 .

Ross , 1 974.

7 .

M il le t t , 1 976.

8 .

c f. T odd , 1 970 , 1 24-6.

9 .

Hen ig , 1 974.

1 0.

Hen ig , 1 974 , i , 4 2.

1 1.

Frere , 1 975, 4 -7.

1 2.

Hen ig , 1 974 , i , 4 2.

1 3.

Green , 1 976 , 2 0-1, f ig . 1 3.

1 4.

Green , 1 976 , 2 0.

1 5.

Frere , 1 974 , 3 43 f or i nstance.

1 6.

S ee Wacher , 1 976 , o r more o b jec t ive ly Hodder , 1 972, 8 93-5.

1 7.

Frere , 1 975 , 2 84-5.

Iw ou ld l ike t o t hank Professor J . J . Wi lkes f or

d iscuss ing t h is p o in t w ith me a nd c lar ify ing t he l ega l s i tuat ion.

2 91

APPENDIX 1 ART IST IC MATER IAL FRO M ' SMALL TO WN ' S ITES D iv ided o n b as is o f p or tab i l ity . October 1 976.

F igures c orrect o n p ub l ished s ources t o

M =M i l itary o r ig in ( a f ter Frere , 1 975 );

W = Wa l led ;

Ar ch itectura

*= ? Civ itas C ap ita l.

A lcester

M

C o 0 C )

c v j

s a )

C o

I

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4

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1

4

W

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1

5

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2

2

1 _

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2 -

1

1

1

1 -

4 3

Berkha mstead

-

-

-

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-

-

1

1

Bour ton o n t he Water

_

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1

1

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1 3

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2 3

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1

1

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2

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1

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1

2

W

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3

3

W

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1

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1

W

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4

1

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1

2

8

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1

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3

1

5

A lchester A l fo ldean Ancaster Ba ldock

M

Braugh ing Brock ley H i l l

M

Brough o n Fosse

M

Brough o n Humber*

M

Ca istor b y Yarmouth Ca istor

( L incs.)

Ca mbr idge

?M

W

W

Ca mer ton Caves I nn ( Tr ipon t iu m )

-

9

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1

M

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2

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Chester ton o n Fosse

?M

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Coddenha m Cr ay ford

?M

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1

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Chel msford

Dorchester Oxon . Dorn Dro itw ich

M

W

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W

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E . Br idgeford ( = Marg idunu m ) East S toke

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7

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Gatco mbe God manchester

M

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3

9

Grea t Caster ton

M

W

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3

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3

1

7

Grea t Chester ford Hacheston

M

W

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2 -

1 -

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4 -

6 1

5 1

1 8 2 3

Hardha m ( Pu lborough )

_

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1

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Hereford

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1

Heybr idge

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6

W

2

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1

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2

5

I lchester* Ir cheste r

?M

2 92

M

K enchester K ingsco te L it t lechester

W M

Mahon

M

M i ldenha l l ( W ilts.)

M

W

-

-

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3

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1 -

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0

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Ge mstones

Arch itectura l K e lvedon

a )

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1

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2

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8

1

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1

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1 7 6 2

N eatha m

-

1

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2

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4

7

O ld Ford

-

-

-

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1

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1

Ox ford

-

-

1

-

-

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5

6

P ucker idge

-

-

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1

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1

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2

2

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1

1

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1

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1

5

S pr inghead

2

2

2

1

3

4

S tow o n t he Wo ld

-

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1

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Rochester

?M

W

S andy S ea M il ls

T owces ter

M

1 0

2 4 1

?M

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Wa l l

M

W

1

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7

Wanborough

M

W

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1

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5

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Water N ew ton/Chester ton* M

W

2

9

3

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4

1

8

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1

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6 9

8 6

2 64

W ick ford

M

W ickham B ushes Worcester To ta ls

M

8

2 93

2 8

3 1

1 1

3 1

1 1 3 6 2 7

s o i gu qui x po s a . is

1 1

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1 1

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s Pa la s teu l luu '11 X J A I g reanu mx u o l lu l lu lI 2 u idd i t iS

r e 01 2 0I 0 1 1 S I A I T IOC IU MS

s 4a Inu iV s uosaad •Mel s assappoo

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Fro m Hen ig , 1 974 ,

s pop

c r ) C . ) c r i 0 g C . )

c d

c l )

P : 1 r 4

2 94

)

P C 3 c d

Che l ms ford

snwan

. 4

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sol guqui p ooa g

SOGIL IE D

1 1

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sassappo p

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.4 CV

295

1 2.

THER IO MORPH IS M ,

*

AND THE ROLE OF D IV INE AN I MALS

I N RO MANO-BR IT ISH CULT ART M iranda G reen

I n h er r ecen t s uper la t ive work , An i ma ls i n R o man L ife a nd Ar t ,1

Prof-

. e ssor T oynbee g a thered t oge ther a nd a na lysed much o f t he e v idence f or a n ima l r epresen tat ion i n a l l med ia o f a r t i n t he R o man wor ld .

T h is work , t o-

g e ther w ith t he s tud ies wh ich I h ave made o f Ro mano-Br it ish c u l t d ep ict ions , e spec ia l ly i n t he l ow land a reas o f B r ita in ,2

h as l ed me t o c ons ider t he r o le

o f b easts i n t he r i tua l a r t o f t h is p rov ince a nd t o s urvey t he c urren t ly a va i la b le e v idence .

[ See Append ix f or l i st o f B r i t ish s i tes men t ioned i n t he t ex t ,

t he ir p resen t l oca t ion a nd p ub lished r e ferences .]

T here i s r e levan t ma ter ia l

f ro m Br ita in i n t he f orm o f s cu lpture , b ut more p ar t icu lar ly sma l l v ot ive o b jects, n orma l ly i n b ronze , wh ich a re my s pec ia l c oncern h ere .

I t i s r ec-

o gn ised t ha t s uch t her io morph is m owes i t s p resence t o ad ivers ity o f o r ig ins r e la t ing d irect ly t o t he f us ion o f t he many d iferent c u lts a nd p ract ices b e longi ng t o t he s evera l r ac ia l g roups e x ist ing i n ap rov ince s uch a s B r ita in . I n Br i ta in ,

a s i n G au l , i t i s p oss ib le t o i so la te t hree ma jor e le men ts

c orrespond ing t o t he t hree ma in e thn ic g roups p resent i n t he p rov ince O r ienta l,

C lass ica l a nd n at ive C e lt ic .

A n i ma ls were impor tant t o ag rea ter

o r l esser e x ten t i n a l l t ypes o f c u lt a nd t herefore i n c u lt-represen ta t ion .

I

s ha l l b e c ons ider ing Or ien ta l a nd C lass ica l t her io morph is m , b ut my r ea l i nt erest l ies i n t he c u lt a r t p roduced a s ar esu l t o f n a t ive b e l iefs, t o al arge d egree b y t he p resence o f R o me a nd R o man i deas .

s t i mu la ted

T he a ssoc ia-

t i on a nd c o mbina t ion o f Ro man a nd n a t ive e le men ts l ed t o f or ms o f c u lt d ep ict ion j us t ly t er med ' Ro mano-Ce lt ic '

I t i s t h is m ixture o f i deas a nd a rt-

f or ms wh ich p resents t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord w ith o bscure a nd o f ten we ird z oo morph ic d eit ies . I n o rder t o g a in s o me u nderstand ing o f t he f unct ion o f a n i ma ls i n r i tua l , i t i s a dvan tageous b r ief ly t o c onsider t he o r ig ins o f a n i ma l-worsh ip i n Anc ien t E urope ,

t he n ear East a nd Egyp t .

The meg inn ings o f a ny manner o f w or-

s h ip a re g enera l ly a ccep ted a s b e ing i n t he f orm o f a n im is m .3

T h is most

b as ic a nd p r im it ive o f r e l ig ions e n ta i led t he r ecogn it ion o f d iv in ity i n a l l a spects o f n ature ; o f s p ir its t o b e a ppeased i n t rees, wa ter a nd t he s un . I t was n a tura l t herefore , f or t he w i ld a n i ma ls wh ich s urrounded man , f or e xa mp le ,

Pa laeo l ith ic E urope ,

i n

a nd o n who m h is s urv iva l d epended , t o

b e r evered a s we l l a s h un ted . T here wou ld h ave b een a dm ira t ion a nd r esp ect f or q ua l it ies s uch a s s treng th a nd s w if tness, c ourage , f eroc ity a nd c unn ing .4

U pper Pa laeo l ith ic r ock a r t f ro m a bou t 4 0 ,000 B .C.

d ep icts many

*T he t erm ' Ther io morph is m ' a s h ere u sed s hou ld b e i n terpre ted a s a n i ma lr epresenta t ion i n a r t f or c u lt-purposes . ( 1 975) ,

p 1 51f f ,

F or s uch u se o f t h is t erm s ee C lark

a nd B r it ish Museu m ( 1969) p 16 . 2 97

o f t he b easts h un ted , a nd i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee i n t hese p a in t ings a nd c arv ings n ot o n ly a n a pprec ia t ion o f ab east ' sq ua lit ies, b ut a lso a d es ire t o g a in s o me o f i t s p ower b y c reat ing i t s i mage .

A n i ma ls w ere n ot p or trayed i n as p ir it

o f d ecora t ion b ut a s s erv ing a s pec if ic p urpose . T hey h ad myster ious p owers a nd were h e ld t o b e p ro tected b y s uperna tura l f orces . 5 I n a ncien t Egypt ian r e l ig ion , b efore i t b ecame d i luted a nd mod if ied b y G reek a nd t hen b y R o man i n f luence , a n i ma ls w ere p ro m inent , a nd t h is i s r ef lected i n c u lt a r t f ro m p re-dynast ic t imes r igh t t hrough t o t he P to lema ic p er iod .6

I t i s e specia l ly i n for ma t ive t o dwe l l f or a mo ment o n a ncien t E gyp-

t ian t her io morph ic c u lti magery b oth s ince i t p ers isted i n s o me f or m t hrougho ut t he R o man p er iod a nd a ppears i n p rov inces s uch a s Br ita in , a nd b ecause i t may s hed l i ght o n l ess-eas i ly i n te l l ig ib le t her io morph is m f ar away i n t he C e lt ic w or ld . I n p reh istor ic Egyp t ( pre 3 000 B .C . )e ach s et t lement h ad i t s own d e ity man ifest i n a n i ma l f orm . L ater , when Egyp t was f or ma lized i n to ac en tra l s ta te a nd t he r oya l d ynast ies b egan , t hese t her io morph ic d e it ies a ssu med h u man l imbs a nd c haracters . B ut t her io morph is m a nd a nthropomorph is m were e ven t hen v ery m ixed ; t he a n ima l c onnect ion l i ngered a nd t he o ld impor tance o f z oo morph is m was w ide ly r ev ived i n t he L a te Per iod ( a f ter 1,0 00 B .C . ) :7 mos t a n i ma l f i gur ines d a te f ro m t h is t ime . Anub is , g od o f t he U nderwor ld , h ad t he a ppearance o f aj acka l ; Bast , o r ig ina l ly f ro m B ubast is, was a c a t-de ity ; H or ns s on o f t he h igh g ods O s ir is a nd I s is, h ad t he h ead ( or h ead a nd b ody ) o f af a lcon . L arge a n i ma l c e me ter ies i n t he v ar ious c u lt-cen tres, c onta in ing t housands o f emba l med b easts , s uch a s t he i b is n ecropo l is d ed ica ted t o t he s cr ibe-god T hoth a t H er mopo l is , p o in t t o t he p opu lar ity o f t h is f orm o f c u lt-express ion ; i n terest ing ly t hese c e me ter ies were e spec ia l ly p reva len t i n t he P to le ma ic a nd R o man p er iods .

8

I n t he L a te B ronze Age o f C en tra l E urope , c er ta in b easts o ccur i n t he i conography wh ich a re met w ith a ga in i n t he I ron Age a nd d ur ing t he p er iod o f R o man i n f luence i n C e lt ic l ands .

Aqua t ic b irds a nd r avens a ppear t o

h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w ith S o lar c u lts ,9 a s d o b u l ls, 1 0 h orses a nd s tags .1 A s e ar ly a s t he 8 th c entury B .C . ab ronze p in f ro m G ot land i nd ica tes a c onnect ion b e tween t he r am a nd t he s nakel 2 - a r e la t ionsh ip t ob eco me i ncreas ing ly s ign if ican t a s s ha l l b e s een b e low . V ar ious o b jects f ro m B r ita in a nd t he C on t inen t i nd ica te t he impor tance o f c u lt b easts i n t he p re-Ro man I ron Age . T he b oar , au b iqu itous b east i n t he R o man p er iod , i s a lso c o m mon e ar l ier . A b oar mot if w as d ep icted o n t he C e lt ic s h ie ld f ro m t he R iver W itham i n L inco lnsh ire, a s a n emb le m o f f eroc ity a nd i ndo m itab i l ity .

1 3

p resu mab ly

A t Woodendean n ear Br ighton

a sma l l b ronze b oar was r eputed ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a n Ear ly I ron Age s wan ' s n eck p in . L a T ene a r t o n t he C on t inent a bounds w ith a n i ma l s y mbo l is m , t he b oar a nd t he b u l l b e ing e spec ia l ly p ro m inen t .1 4

A s tag-horned d e ity ,

p or trayed o n t he l a te p re-Ro man c u lt-vesse l f ro m G undestrup i n J u t land i s a ssoc ia ted w ith b oars , b u l ls, s tags, h orses,

r am-horned s erpen ts, a nd

o ther s trange , s o met i mes c o mpos ite , c reatures, many o f whom o ccur l a ter i n Ro mano-Ce l t ic i conography . I ti s d i f f icu lt t o o f fer a ny u sefu l a t te mp t a t i n terpre ta t ion o f t he a ppearance o f t hese p re-Ro man C e lt ic c u lt a n i ma ls u n t i l t he R o man p er iod , when t he v ast i ncrease i n i conography o f a l l k inds, t he a ssoc ia t ion o f C e lt ic w i th more f am i l iar R o man d e it ies a nd t he n am ing o f

2 98

H A R P O CRATES T H A MES L O N D O N B RI D GE .

Pres d.b y MEsS? RuN01 1 1 . &

B RI D G E.

18 2 5.

a

PLATE 1 2 .1 :

a , Bronze Harpocra tes , L ondon :

h e igh t 7 cm ( Copyr igh t

B .M . T rustees) . b , Bronze I b is h ead , Caerwen t :

3 .3cm l ong .

c , Marb le c ockere l , Bradwe l l V i l la : ( Copyr igh t Pa tr ick McHa le ) .

h e igh t 1 0 .2 cm

a

PLATE 1 2.1 1 :

a , Bronze Mercury e tc ., Veru la m iu m : b , Bronze p eacock , L ondon :

h e ight 8. 4 cm

h e ight 6 .6c m ( Copyr ight

B . M. T r ustees ). C , S i lvered b ronze g oat , London :

h e igh t 5 .4c m.

s o me Ce lt ic d iv in it ies, makes t he p rob le m s l igh t ly l ess e qu ivoca l . A l l we c an s ay a t t h is s tage i s t ha t f ro m l ong b efore t he c om ing o f R o me a n i ma ls p layed a n e x tre me ly impor tan t r o le i n C e lt ic s ymbo l is m . I n Ro mano-Br it ish c u lt a r t a n i ma ls may o ccur a lone o r a cco mpany ing a n thropo morph ic d e i t ies, o r a n thropo morph ic r epresen ta t ions may h ave a n ima l p ar ts t o t he ir b od ies . I ti s n ecessary t o l ook s epara te ly a t t he t hree e thn ic g roups p resen t i n B r i ta in d ur ing t he p er iod i n o rder t o e lucida te t hese d if ferences i n t he r o le o f z oo morph is m i n t he r e l ig ious a r t o f t he p rov ince . I n Ro man Br ita in t here w ere t wo ma in s ources o f Eastern r e l ig ious I nf luences . O ne was t he A r my a nd t he o ther t ha t o f merch a n ts .1 6 We h ave ' seen t ha t r igh t u p u nt i l t he R oman p er iod i n E gyp t , a n i ma l-represen ta t ion was a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f Egyp t ian c u lt-expression . I n B r i ta in t here i s e v id ence o f Egyp t ian c u lts a lbe it s parse . T he G raeco-Ro man v ers ion o f H or ns, H arpocra tes , ag en ius o f wa tch fu lness a nd t ac iturn ity , h as a s h is emb le ms b easts wh ich b est

r epresen t t hese q ua l it ies - a d og , t or to ise , c ockere l a nd

s nake : ab eaut ifu l l i t t le f i gur ine f ro m L ondon ( P l . 1 2 .I a ) a ppears w ith a l l t hese a t tr ibu tes . T he a n i ma ls i n t h is i nstance a re a d junc ts t o , r a ther t han r epresen ta t ive o f , t he g od h i mse lf , a nd i n t h is way Harpocra tes ' r e la t ions h ip t o t hem i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f s o me c lass ica l d e it ies, wh ich a re d iscussed b e low .

O ther Egyp t ian ma ter ia l f ro m B r ita in , h owever , i nd ica tes t rue t her io-

morph is m .

T he I b is i n Egyp t ian r e l ig ion r epresen ted t he g od T hoth t he S cr ibe

o f t he p an theon ,

a nd sma l l b ronze h eads o f t h is e xot ic b ird a re k nown a t

Caerwen t , ( P l . 1 2 .lb) , R ochester , a nd C h idd ingfo ld V i l la ( Surrey ) ; t he h awk , r epresen ta t ive o f H or ns, i s a lso r ecorded : ab ronze h awk i s k nown , f or i nstance , f ro m t he R o mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a t F ar ley Hea th , A lbury ( Surrey ) . A p otsherd b ear ing t he r am-horned h ead o f Ammon , e qua ted i n t he R o man p er iod w ith J up iter , i s r ecorded f ro m C anterbury , f rom B orough G reen ( Ken t ) .

a nd a s im i lar o b ject c o mes

O ther O r ien ta l d e it ies, s uch a s C ybe le , w ho was a dop ted i nto t he R o man p an theon a s e ar ly a s 2 04 B .C . ,1 7 a nd J up i ter D o l ichenus, 1 8 w ere c lose ly c onnected w i th b easts ,

a l though n ot i n t he s ame n ecessary manner a s i s t he

c ase i n E gyp t ian r e lig ion .

Most f am i l iar , t hough , i s t he P ers ian g od M ithra s, 1 9

p ar t icu lar ly a s o ld iers ' a nd merchan ts ' g od , w ho i s we l l-known i n B r ita in . H is c u lt was c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a n i ma ls, a nd h e i s most o f ten p or trayed i n s cu lpture a str ide , a nd i n t he a ct o f s lay ing , ad iv ine b u l l, w hose l i feb lood f er t i l izes t he e ar th i n t he my tho logy . marb le r ounde l f ro m L ondon ,

2 0

M ithras a ppears t hus o n a

O n many M ithra ic r e l iefs may b e s een a

d og , s nake a nd s corp ion b enea th t he b u l l .

I n t h is d ua l ist ic c u lt t hese b easts

w ere t rad i t iona l ly t he s ervan ts o f t he a n t i- M ithras , s en t b y h im t o l i ck u p t he b lood b efore i t c ou ld s ink i n to t he e ar th a nd g ive i t l i fe . T he p resence o f t he d og a nd t he s nake i s i n terest ing s ince t he d og , a s s ha l l , be s een , r epr esen ted t he U nderwor ld i n o ther c u lts , a nd t he s nake , e ven i n p re-C lass ica l G reece , a lso h ad c h thon ic a ssoc ia t ions . 2 1 G raeco-Ro man d e it ies a ppear i n Br ita in , a s e lsewhere i n t he p rov inces, a ccompan ied b y b easts .

I n B r ita in r epresen ta t ions o f c lass ica l d e i t ies a re

r e la t ive ly r are away f ro m c en tres o f a rmy a ct iv ity , b ut t hey a re k nown . A p ar t icu lar ly f ine f i gur ine o f Mercury , w i th h is t or to ise , 3 01

r am a nd c ockere l ,

c o mes f rom V eru la m iu m ( p l. 1 2.1 1a ). The marb le c ockere l f rom t he Bradwe l l R o man V i l la p robab ly c o mes f ro m a c lass ica l Mercury g roup ( p l . 1 2 .I c ) . 2 2 D iv ine b easts, h owever , d o n ot a ppear t o h ave p layed n ear ly a s v i ta l ap ar t i n t he d eve loped c lassica l r e l ig ion o f o ur p er iod a s , f or e xamp le , i n a nc ien t Egyp t ian c u lts, o r i n t ru ly C e lt ic c u lts , a s s ha l l b e d iscussed l a ter .

O ne

d oes n ot f i nd Mercury o r J up iter r epresen ted a s z oo morph ic c u lti mages, b ut e ach g od h as o ne o r more a n i ma l emb lems . A s d e Vr ies s o c orrect ly p o in ts o ut ,2 3 j ust b ecause Mercury i s f requen t ly a cco mpan ied o n r e l iefs a nd s ta tue t tes b y at or to ise , i t d oes n o t mean t ha t t he t or to ise i s Mercury i n a n i ma l f or m , n or t ha t t he g od f i rst o f a l l e x isted a s at her io morph ic a nd l a ter a s a n a nthropo morph ic i mage . I n t he c ase o f Mercury h is a n i ma l emb le ms e i ther r epresen t a n a spect o f t he g od ' s my tho logy o r o f h is c haract er . T hus t he p resence o f t he t orto ise h arks b ack t o Mercury 's i nven t ion o f l yre u s ing a t or to ise-she l l, 2 4 a nd t he c ockere l w ou ld r efer t o Mercury ' st radi t iona l r o le , t aken f ro m h is G reek c oun terpar t H ermes, a s H era ld o f t he g ods ,

2 5

j ust a s t he c ockere l i s t he h era ld o f t he n ew d ay . J up iter ' s emb le m w as t he e ag le , r epresen t ing t he g od ' sf unct ion a s S kylord . T he i mposing e ag le f ro m S i lchester i s p robab ly f ro m a l arge b ronze J up iter g roup s tand ing i n t he b as i l ica :2 6 J uno ' sp eacock i s az oo morph ic i mage o f t he h eavens - t he g lor ious c irc le o f t he t a i l s ymbo l izing t he o rb o f t he s ky . ( p l .

T he L ondon b ronze

1 2 .1 lb) may a lso b e f ro m a s ta tue tte o f t he g oddess .

D iana a nd S i lvanus

o f ten a ppear i n c lass ica l i conography w i th s tags o r h ounds,

s ymbo ls o f w ood-

l and a nd h un t ing : A escu lap ius '

d og o n t he o ther h and , i s a s ymbo l o f h ea l ing .

M inerva ' sa t tr ibute , t he ow l,

r epresen ts t he w isdo m e le men t i n t he g oddess '

c o mpos ite f unct ion .

I t i s e n l igh ten ing t ha t a n ima ls s ee m t o h ave p layed a

s ubord ina te r o le i n G raeco-Ro man c u l ts a s r epresen ted i n Br i ta in ; t hey were impor tant i n c lass ica l r e l ig ious t hough t a nd a r t b u t a s s pec if ica l ly d iv ine i mages .

a d juncts r ather t han a s

S o me a n i ma ls b oth among R o mans a nd C e l ts a ppear t o h ave h ad a p r i mar i ly f unerary i mpor tance . I n t h is c a tegory c o me d evour ing a n i ma ls, d o lph ins a nd s nakes .

T he s nake , a par t f ro m i t s s ign if icance i n mystery c u lts, s ymbo l-

i z ing i n i t s s k in-s lough e terna l d ea th a nd r eb ir th ,

2 7

h ad a c h thon ic a nd

h ea l ing s ymbo l is m i n t he G raeco-Ro man wor ld . I t was a n emb le m o f t he h ea ler g od A escu lap ius, a nd f ro m p re-c lass ica l t imes h ad c onnect ions w ith d ea th . Sma l l b ronze s nakes f ound i n B r ita in , f or e xa mp le a t S ydenham ( Ken t ) o r i n t he t r iangu lar s hr ine a t V eru lam iu m , may we l l h ave b een v o t ive o f feri ngs t o ag od s pec if ica l ly a ssocia ted w ith d ea th o r w ith h ea l ing - t he t wo c oncep ts b e ing c lose ly l i nked i n c lass ica l b e l ie f . 2 8 Z oo morph ic r epresen tat i ons o f t he s ymbo l is m o f t he t r iu mph o f d ea th o ver l i fe , wh ich h ave t he ir o r ig in i n t he c lass ica l wor ld ,

2 9

a re r ecorded i n B r ita in .

T hese may o ccur

i n s tra igh t forward a n i ma l f orm - s uch a s t he l i on f ro m C orbr idge d evour ing a n a n i ma l v ict im , " p resu mab ly o r ig ina l ly f rom a t o mb- monument a nd s im il ar t o e xamp les f ro m L ondon a nd Cambr idge ; a nd t he C o lchester b ronze p ant her c lasp ing a s h ie ld i n t he f orm o f ar am-horned h u man h ead , o r i n mons trous f orm - s uch a s t he p ar t-hu man-par t-an i ma l C o lchester s ph inx ,3 1 o r t he b ronze l i onl ike b east r eputed ly f ound n ear Ox ford .3 2 T he c ouch a n t l i on c arved i n k i m mer idge s ha le f ro m J ordon H i l l ( Dorse t ) may a lso h ave a r i tua l s ign if icance . Do lph ins , t oo , f requen t ly f eature i n R o man f unerary a r t a s s y mbo ls o f t he j ourney o f t he s ou l a cross t he O cean t o t he B lessed I s les ,

a nd i t may b e

t ha t t he b ronze d o lph ins f ound i n s uch R o man t owns a s L e icester a nd V eru lam iu m may r epresen t a n a spect o f R o mano-Br it ish c h thon ic r i tua l . 3 02

a

PLATE 1 2 .1 11 :

a , P ipe c lay p igeon , L ondon : h e igh t 8 .5c m . b , Bronze h orse man , Westwood Br . ,Pe terborough : h e igh t 9 .5c m .

BR ONZE F IGURE O F A HORSE , R OMAN P ER IOD, F OUND I N EAST ST REET , CH ICHESTER Given b rE . Heron A l&w , 7 927 .

PLATE 1 2.1V :

a , Bron ze Epona w ith p on ies, Wil ts.:

h e igh t 7 .5c m

( Copyr igh t B .M . Trustees ). b , Wh ite p a in t/s l ip h orse o n s herd , Wroxe ter : S hrewsbury Mus. c , Bronze h orse , Ch ichester :

h e ight 5 .3cm.

4 .25c m

An i ma l-worsh ip among t he C e lt ic p eop les o f G au l a nd B r ita in d ur ing t he R o man o ccupa t ion was v ery p ro m inen t , a nd t here was a s much o f an ece ssary c onnect ion b e tween a n ima l a nd h u mano id d e ity a s p erhaps among t he E gyp t ians .

C e lt ic t her io morph is m t ook s evera l f orms i den t if iab le f ro m t he

a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . A s s ta ted e ar l ier G raeco-Ro man d e it ies a re t o b e f ound i n t he C e lt ic p rov inces , b ut i tw ou ld a ppear t ha t t he a n i ma ls f am i l iar t o c lass ica l r e l ig ion h ere o ccur o f ten a lone a s sma l l v ot ive o b jects a nd t here i s f requen t ly n o e v idence t o s uggest t ha t t hese b easts e ver a cco mpan ied a h umano id r epresen ta t ion , t hough t h is may o f c ourse b e t he c ase i n s o me i ns tances. I ft hese v o t ive b eas ts a re o ccurr ing w ithout t he d e it ies wh ich t hey a re t rad it iona l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith , i t l ooks a s t hough f or t he C e lts t he b easts w ere o f p ar t icu lar s ign if icance , a nd w ere a b le t o r epresent t he R o man d e ity i n q uest ion d isregard ing t he a n thropo morph ic e le men t . Sma l l a n i ma l emb le ms o f t h is n a ture a re n ot u nco m mon i n B r ita in : we may c i te a s e xamp les t he b ronze e ag les f ro m t he Woodea ton ( Oxon ) R o mano-Ce lt ic t e mp le-s ite :J 3 t he b ronze g oa t f ro m L ondon ( p l . 1 2 .H c) , p erhaps a n emb le m o f Mercury ; t he b ronze c ockere l i n t he f orm o f ac and lest ick f ro m N e t t le ton S hrub i n W i ltsh ire , at e mp le-s ite w here Mercury a nd h is C e l t ic c onsor t , R os mer ta w ere worsh ipped ; o r V enus '

d ove i n wh i te p ipe-c lay f ro m C o lchester a nd

L ondon ( P l . 1 2 . Ma ) . T hese b easts a re i n s o me i nstances more f requent o ccurrences t han s ta tue t tes o f t he g ods t hey a re t rad it iona l ly c onnec t ed w ith t h is i s c er ta in ly t he c ase w ith J up i ter ' se ag le . T he d ove a nd t he c ockere l a re s o me t i mes p or trayed i n p ipe-c lay , wh ich i s e spec ia l ly i n terest ing s ince c u lt-ob jects manufactured i n t h is ma ter ia l a ppear t o h ave b een made e xc lus ive ly i n af ew G au l ish c en tres, n o tab ly a t Mou l ins-sur-Al l ier a nd l a ter a t C o logne i n t he f irst a nd s econd c en tur ies,

3 4

a nd were o n ly t raded t o R o mano-Ce lt ic

l ands s uch a s G au l i t se lf a nd B r i ta in ; o ne m igh t t herefore b e f org iven f or t en ta t ive ly a ssu m ing a C e l t ic market a nd c l ien te le . Many a n i ma ls d ep icted i n s tone , meta l, c lay o r b one i n R o mano-Ce lt ic a r t a re n o t i m med ia te ly i den t if iab le w ith a ny o ne p ar t icu lar d iv in i ty , a nd s o met i mes a C e lt ic o r ig in may b e a ssu med . b oars,

T hese i nc lude h orses , b u l ls,

s tags , d ogs, h ares a nd s evera l s pec ies o fb ird ( bes ides t hose c onnected

w ith c lass ica l g ods) . Many o f t hese b easts h ave b een ment ioned a bove i n c ons ider ing p re-Ro man c u lts . T he h orse , ac o m mon a n i ma l i n R o mano-Ce lt ic i conography , a ppears a s t he emb lem o f v ar ious g od-types . A R o mano-Ce lt ic d e ity , n amed a s Mars w herever t here i s e v idence ( h e a ppears f or i nstance a s Mars C orot iacus a t Mar t lesham i n S uf fo lk ,3 5 o ccurs n or ma l ly a s a sma l l f i gure o n h orseback . T here a ppears t o h ave b een a B r it ish h orse man c u lt b ased o n t he t err itory o f t he C a tuve l laun i a nd s ou thern C or itan 13 6

c en tred o n t he 3 rd c en tury n a t ive

t e mp le c omp lex a t B r igstock ( Nor thants) where s evera l b ronzes a re r ecorded .3 7 A n e xamp le i s k nown f ro m t he P eterborough a rea ( p l . 1 2 .I lb ) ; o ther b ronzes c o me f ro m C anterbury , a nd W i l l ingham F en ( Cambs) ; p ipe-c lay h orse men a re r ecorded a t Wroxe ter , C an terbury ,

a nd G rea t C hester ford .

H orses a nd

p on ies o ccur c onstan t ly a s n ecessary a nd i nseparab le c o mpan ions o f t he G au l ish h orse-goddess Epona ,3 8 w ho s i ts a str ide o r s ide-sadd le o n ah orse , o r b e tw een t wo p on ies; h er c u lt was p ar t icu lar ly p opu lar i n e astern G au l .

T he g od-

d ess a ppears s pas mod ica l ly i n B r ita in , t he o n ly w e l l-authen t ica ted b ronze f i gur ine b e ing a n e xamp le i n t he B r it ish Museu m ( p l .

3 05

1 2 .I Va ) p rovenanced

mere ly t o W i ltsh ire .

3 9

T he d ear th i n B r ita in o f p or traya ls o f Epona i s n ot

s urpr is ing s ince t he p rov ince i s f ar f ro m t he ma in d istr ibut ion a rea i n e aste rn Gau l .

I n G au l" a nd i n B r ita in 4 1

u nacco mpan ied sma l l mode ls o f h orses

a re c o m mon . A t A ssche-Ka lkoven i n B e lg iu m a c ache o f p ipe-c lay h orses was d iscovered , p robab ly f ro m a l ost t e mp le-s ite . 42 T he h orses a re s im i lar t o e xa mp les f ro m C an terbury " a nd Wroxeter , a nd a l i fe-s ize s tone h ead

o f ah orse f ro m Wroxeter p erhaps d enotes s o me ma jor h orse-cu lt , a s p oss ib ly d oes t he d ep ict ion o f ah orse o n ap o tsherd f ro m t he s ame s i te ( p l .

1 2 .

I Vb) . Sma l l b ronze h orses l i ke t he e xamp le f ro m C h ichester ( p l . 1 2 .IVc) a re n ot u nco m mon i n B r ita in . I f we g lance a t t he Gau l ish e v idence we s ee t ha t s o me v ot ive h orses may b e a ss igned t o l oca l C e lt ic c u l ts .

A h orse i s

d ed ica ted t o S ego mo a t B o lards f or i nstance ; 44 a nd a t Neuvy-en-Su l l ias a b ronze h orse f ormed a n o f fer ing t o R ud iobus .4 5 Mars Mu l lo , p a tron o f mu les, was p opu lar among t he Namne tes . 46 B o th R ud iobus ( or Rud ianos) a nd S ego mo i n G au l a re l i nked w i th Mars, a s i s Mu l lo, a nd b ear ing i n m ind t he e questr ian Mars f i gures ment ioned e ar l ier , h orses d o a ppear v ery c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t h is d e ity i n h is C e lt ic f orm .

We must a lso n ot f orge t ap oss ib le S o lar c on-

n ect ion w ith h orses, a s t here was i n p reh is tory ; t he a n i ma l o ccurs f or i n w ith t he s un-god Apo l lo i n R o mano-Gau lish s acred s pr ing s i tes s uch a s S a in te S ab ine . 47 T he f orego ing s urvey d emonstra tes t ha t t here a re s eve ra l c u lts t o wh ich sma l l v ot ive h orses f ound i n B r ita in may b e a ss igned , b ut i t i s i mpor tan t t o b e wary o f a t tr ibut ing c u lt-s ign if icance t o a l l p or traya ls o f h orses, a s i ndeed t o o ther b easts . T he l i t t le h orse f ro m C h ichester l ooks more l i ke a t rophy o r man te lp iece o rnamen t t han a c u lt-ob ject . T he b oar i s ac o m mon mot if i n t he C e l t ic w or ld b efore t he R o man o ccup a t ion a s h as b een men t ioned . F igur ines o f b oars a re r ecorded f ro m b oth t he p re-Ro man a nd R o man p er iods i n G au l a nd i n B r ita in , a nd t he ir o ccurrence a lso i n I re land ( unprovenanced e xamp les e x ist i n t he Na t iona l Museu m o f I rel and ) a rgues f or t he ir b e ing a n e n t ire ly C e l t ic p heno menon ( p l . 1 2 . Va ) , a s d oes t he l i t t le a n i ma l f ro m Woodendean n ear B r ighton , o f r epu ted ly v ery e ar ly I ron Age d a te a lready r eferred t o .

A n a tura l ist ic b ronze b oar i s k nown

f rom t he U l t i mate p re-Roman I ron Age b arrow a t L exden n ear C o lchester ( p l. 1 2. V Ia ), where a b u l l w as a lso d iscovered. The b ronze r e l ief o f as la in o r d y ing b oar , wh ich i nd icates b oth C e lt ic a nd Roman a r t-sty les , f ro m t he s hr ine a t Mun tham Cour t , S ussex ( p l. 1 2.Vb ) , f rom w h ich o ther v ot ive o b jects a re k nown , may i nd icate a h unter c u lt . A v o t ive c lay l eg , s ymbo l ic o f h ea l ing , was a lso f ound h ere , a nd a s im ilar m ix ture o f h un t ing a nd h ea l ing a ppears t o h ave e x isted a t L ydney , wh ich w e s ha l l c ome t o l a ter .

I n teres t ing ly e nough

t wo sma l l b ronze b oars w ere f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith a m in iature b ronze w hee l ( p l. 1 2. V lb ) , as ymbo l a dop ted b y t he Romano-Ce l t ic J up iter ,4 8 a t Houns low ( M idd lesex ). 4 9 The C e lt ic S ky-god 's p or traya l a s aw arr ior o n t he s o-ca l led ' Jup iter-G ian t Co lu mns ' o f G au l , " t he w hee l 's a ssoc ia t ion w ith b oars a t Houns low , a nd t he o ccurrence o f ab oar a s a mot if o n t he Witham S h ie ld , a l l p erhaps p o in t t o aw ar s ign if icance f or t h is p ar t icu lar a n i ma l. B u l ls a re c o m mon ly f i gured i n G a l lo-Roman a r t , a l though whether w e may i den t ify t he a n i ma l w i th t he B ronze A ge S o lar b u l l, o r t he ' Tarvostr iga ranus f ro m t he T iber ia .n monu men t i n Par is ,5 1

o r w i th t he e xot ic l i t t le b u l ls

o n t he G undestrup B ow 1, 5 2 i s u ncer ta in t o s ay t he l east . I t m ight b e s a fer mere ly t o t h ink o ft he R o mano-Ce lt ic b u l l a s a n emb le m o f s treng th a nd f er ti l ity , o r a s t he image o f a n a nony mous C e l t ic d iv in ity . n or thern F rench R o mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine a t H ar f leur 5 3

c lay - a ma ter ia l w ith s pecif ica l ly C e lt ic c onnota t ions . 3 06

Excava t ion a t a

y ie lded a b u l l o f p ipeS evera l b u l l-dep ict ions

PLATE 1 2 . V :

a , Bronze b oar , I re land :

l eng th 7 .7c m Na t . Mus. I re land ,

Dub l in . b , Bronze b oar , Mun tham C our t : Wor th ing Mus . ) .

l eng th 9 .5c m ( Copyr ight

a

b

PLATE 1 2 .V I :

a , Bronze b oar , L exden b arrow , C o lches ter : 7 .3 cm . b , Bronze b oar , H ouns low :

l eng th 4 .7 cm .

max . h e igh t

a

PLATE 1 2. V I I :

a , Bronze b u l l 's h ead moun t , P eterborough : b , Bronze b u l l 's h ead , Chester :

l eng th 5 .7c m.

5 .5c m Grosvenor Mus.

b

C

PLATE 1 2 .V I I I :

a , b , Bronze moun t , T hea lby :

l eng th 5 .9c m ( Copyr igh t

S cun thorpe Mus .) . c , Bronze s tag , M i lber D own :

l eng th 5 .2c m .

a re r ecorded f ro m B r i ta in ; af ew may r epresent R o man s acr if ic ia l b easts, b ut t he ma jor ity a ppear t o p or tray R o mano-Ce lt ic r a ther t han p ure ly c lass ic a l emb lems .

K nob-horned e xamp les i nd ica te C e lt ic s ty l iza t ion : o ne s uch

b u l l i s k nown f ro m t he L exden t u mu lus , where t he a n i ma l w as a ssoc iated w ith ab oar i n al a te p re-Ro man I ron Age c on tex t . F requen t ly t he h ead a lone o f t he b u l l i s f ea tured a s a t P eterborough where t he a n i ma l ' sh ead f orms a moun t ( p l . 1 2 . Vi la ) , a t C hester ( p l . 1 2 . Vi lb) a nd a t L e icester , where o ne o f t he t wo h eads k nown may i n f act h ave h ad a w ooden b ody . T here a re p oss ib le l i nks b etween t he b u l l a nd a k nown C e lt ic d e i ty : a t T hea lby i n L inc o lnsh ire t wo b ucket- moun ts f i gure a c o mb ina t ion o f ab u l l ' sa nd e ag le ' sh ead ( p l .

1 2 .V I I Ia ,b) a nd a s im i lar moun t b ut w i th t he a dd it ion o f ah u man h ead ,

was d iscovered i n t he R iver R ibb le .5 4 A t Wi l l ingham F en ( Cambs . ) 5 5 t he « Romano-Ce lt ic ? Jup iter w i th C e lt ic whee l-e mb le m a nd R o man e ag le , i s a ssoc ia ted w ith t he h ead o f ab u l l, o n p ar t o f ac o mp lex , p resumab ly c eremon ia l o b ject .

T he a ssoc ia t ion o f b u l ls w ith e ag les a t Th ea lby a nd w i th

t he whee l-god a t W i l l ingham F en , may b e s uf f ic ient t o s uggest s o me k ind o f l i nk b e tween t h is S ky-god a nd t he b u l l . T he emphasis i n t he f orego ing e xamp les o f t he h ead o f t he a n i ma l may r e la te t o t he p ar t icu lar i mpor tance a scr ibed t o t he h u man h ead i n C e lt ic r e l ig ious i conography .5 6 T he t hreeh orned v ar iety o f b u l l i s r ev iewed b e low . I n R omano-Ce lt ic a s i n c lass ica l a r t t he s tag a ppears a s t he a t tr ibu te o f s uch R o man d e it ies a s D iana a nd S i lvanus .

O n t he G undestrup Cau ldron

t he a n i ma l i s a ssoc ia ted w ith a s tag-ant lered d e ity , c a l led o n a Par is s te le , C ernunnos ( The H orned O ne ) . 5 7 I n G au l t he s tag may e i ther o ccur i n i cono graphy a lone o r w i th o ther b e ings s uch a s C ernunnos, Apo l lo a nd Mercury a s at r iad a t Re i ms,

5 8

a nd t he C e lt ic H ercu les a t l e D onon .

5 9

I n it ia l ly

a t l east t he s tag f or t he C e lts must h ave s ymbo l ized f er t i l ity a nd p rosper ity , a nd p erhaps a lso v a lour , l i ke t he b u l l a nd b oar . Where t he s tag a cco mpan ies ag od i n R o mano-Br it ish a r t i t i s S i lvanus, t he R o man w ood land a nd n a ture d e ity who w as t o s o me e xten t C e lt ic ized . I ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t S i lvanus a nd C e lt ic E ar th , V egeta t ion a nd F er t i l ity s ymbo l is m a re c oncep ts w h ich wou ld n atura l ly c o me t oge ther i n a ny marr iage b etween R o man a nd C e lt ic b e l iefs . Wood land s p ir its w ere a s i mpor tan t i n B r ita in a s i n S i lvanus ' n a t ive I t a ly . A C e lt ic v ers ion o f S i lvanus, n amed C a l l ir ius ( Wood land K ing ) h as a d ed ica t ion i n t he f orm o f a sma l l b ronze v ot ive p laque , f ro m a p i t i n C o lchester , a ssoc ia ted w ith a s hr ine : 6° a b ronze s tag was a lso f ound , b ut n o s tatue t te o f S i lvanus h i mse lf . A nother b ronze s tag , a ssoc ia ted w ith a r aven a nd a d uck i s r ecorded f ro m t he I ron Age h i l lfor t a t M i lber D own i n D evon ( p l .

1 2 .V I I Ic) .

The d og i n t he c lass ica l w or ld was t he t rad it iona l a n i ma l-emb lem o f Aescu lap ius , g od o f med ic ine a nd h eal ing , a nd a lso o fD iana t he H un tress. I n c lass ica l my tho logy , h owever , t he t hree-headed d og C erberus w as t he c an ine g uard ian o f t he Underwor ld. A t f i rst g lance t hese a t tr ibutes o f h ea l ing a nd d eath wou ld s ee m t o c onf l ic t , b u t Pro fessor Toynbee h as p o inted o ut t hat t he l i nk may w e l l l i e i n t he v ery a nc ien t c oncep t o f Mo ther E ar th , i n whose d ep ths dwe l t t he d ead , b ut w ho a lso b rough t n ew l i fe a nd p rosper ity t o t he l i v ing .6 1 C er ta in ly t he Cel ts a dop ted a l l t hese f unct ions f or t he d og i n t he Ro man p er iod , a l though f rom t he e v idence i ta ppears t o h ave h ad l i t t le i mpor tance i nt he p re-Roman

3 11

a

PLATE 1 2. IX :

a , Bronze d og a t tachmen t , Can terbury : b , Bronze r avens , F e lm ingha m Ha l l ;

h e ight 3 .2c m.

l arger 6 .4c m h igh.

C e lt ic i conography .

I n G au l t he d og may b e s een t o h ave h ad c onnect ions

w ith s evera l Ro man a nd n on-Ro man d e it ies, a l l o f who m a re i n s o me way l i nked w i th a l l o r s o me a spects o f h ea l ing , h un t ing , f er t i l ity a nd d ea th ; a nd g rea t i n teract ion b etween c lass ica l a nd C e lt ic t he mes may b e o bserved . T he b east o f ten o ccurs a t t he s i tes o f t herapeut ic s pr ings where s anctuar ies w ere b u i l t , a s a t t he S ource o f t he S e ine s hr ine i n G au 1 , 62 a nd a t S pr inghead i n K en t . T he d og a ppears w i th t he C e lt ic h orse-goddess Epona i n G au l, who b y h er emb le ms o f c orn a nd f ru its a ppears t o

b e s o me k ind o f f er t i l ity

g oddess a s we l l a s p a troness o f h orses ; t he a n i ma l s o me t i mes o ccurs w ith mother-goddesses i n G au l a nd B r ita in ,

a nd w ith t he l oca l mother-goddess

o f Do mburg , Neha lenn ia , a s a n i nseparab le c ompan ion ,6 3 a nd s he a lso . perhaps makes a n a ppearance a s ap ipe-c lay f i gur ine a t Ca n terbury .6 4 O n t he Gundestrup B ow l t he d og i s p or trayed a s ar aven ing w o lfl ike c reature p erhaps s ymbo l ic o f d ea th ; t he b east a lso f requen t ly a cco mpan ies t he G au li sh d e ity S uce l lus , who h as a ssoc ia t ions w ith p rosper ity b ut a lso w ith t he U nderwor ld .6 5 I n B r i ta in we h ave s evera l p ieces o f n oniconograph ic e v idence f or a n U nderwor ld d og-cu lt .

Two o ccurrences d eserve b r ief men t ion h ere - o ne i s

t he d iscovery i n t he U pchurch Marshes ( Ken t ) o f e igh t d og s ke letons, o f t he m p upp ies, b ur ied i n u rns,

6 6

s even

wh ich may we l l s ign ify a c onnect ion w ith

c h thon ic f orces : i ti s d if f icu l t , t oo , t o d issoc iate t he p resence o f n u merous d og s ke letons i n t he 2 00 f t s ha f t n ear t he Mun tham C our t t e mp le-s ite i n S ussex ( I nfor ma t ion f ro m Wor th ing Museu m ) f ro m c h thon ic is m . I n s outhern Br it ish c u lt a r t s evera l r epresen ta t ions o f d ogs h ave b een r ecorded .

A t t he impor tan t

a nd we l l-known l a te R o man h ea l ing c u lt e stab l ish men t a t L ydney ( G los .) t he C e lt ic g od N odens a ppears t o h ave b een c onnected b oth w i th h un t ing a nd w ith h ea l ing , a s h as b een s uggested a t Mun tha rn C our t e ar l ier . Mode l v ot ive l imbs a nd o ccu l ists ' s tamps a t t he s i te a t test t he h ea l ing a spect ; t he e p igraph ic a ssoc ia t ion o f Nodens ' n ame w ith t ha t o f S i lvanus s uggests a w ood land o r h unt ing f ace t t o t he c u lt . T he n u merous p or traya ls o f d ogs a t t he s hr ine i nd ica te t ha t t he a n i ma l must h ave h ad a s acred s ign if icance f or t he g od .

6 7

Two c an ine d ep ict ions o f p ar t icu lar i n terest a re t he n a tura l ist ic b ronze d eerh ound , a nd t he s tone f ragmen t o f t he f orepaws o f ad og w i th a n i nc ised S t . A ndrew ' sC ross b etween , w h ich may i nd ica te a n u nderwor ld a spect t o t he c u lt .

I t h as b een s uggested b y C ont inenta l s cho lars t ha t t h is s ign was a dopted

b y t he C e lts a s af unerary s ymbo l . 68 I n o ther p ar ts o f Br ita in s tray f i nds o f d ogs , p resu mab ly i n s o me c ases v ot ive , a re k nown ; t he b ronze f ro m C an terb ury ( p l .

1 2 .L Xa ) i s t yp ica l o f s evera l r ecorded t hroughou t t he p rov ince .

O ther s pec ies o f b east a re k nown i n R o mano-Br it ish i conography ; t he h are , men t ioned b y D io ( LX I I , 2 ) a s as acr if ice t o t he C e lt ic war-goddess A ndraste b y Boud icca o n t he e ve o f b a t t le , i s k nown i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a t L inco ln , a nd a t t he t e mp le-co mp lex a t T h ist leton Dyer i n t he d ist r ict o f R u t land .

T he sma l l j et b ear f ound i n ac h i ld ' sg rave a t Ma lton

( Yorksh ire ) , may mere ly b e at oy , b ut a b ear-goddess, Ar t io, was w orsh ipped among t he H e lvet i i ,6 9 a nd s he i s p oss ib ly b e ing i nvoked h ere a s ac h thon ic p rotectress . Many s pec ies o f b ird may b e s een t o h ave h ad d iv ine s ign if icance i n R o mano-Ce lt ic o r C e lt ic c u lts .

We h ave s een t ha t c er ta in b irds g enera l ly 3 13

a cco mpan ied c lass ica l d e it ies s uch a s J up iter a nd Mercury . P ortraya ls o f o ther b irds i n G au l ish a nd B r it ish i conography wou ld a ppear t o h ave f ew c onnect ions w ith G raeco-Ro man r e l ig ious i deas ,

a nd may b e r egarded a s

s pec if ica l ly C e lt ic p heno mena . D iv ine b irds i n C e l t ic r e lig ion a s p or trayed i n a r t f a l l i n to t wo d ist inct g roups - me mbers o f t he c row f am i ly , a nd a quat ic b irds . B irds o f t he c row s pec ies a re c o m mon o ccurrences i n G au l where t hey may a ppear a lone o r a cco mpany ing v ar ious C e lt ic d e it ies, where t hey n or ma l ly a ppear a lone .

a nd i n Br ita in

D ep ict ions o f c rows a nd r avens were

f requen t o ccurrences, f or i nstance a t A les ia ;

7 0

t he C e lt ic d iv ine c oup le

S uce l lus a nd Nantosue lta a re f i gured w ith a r aven , f or e xa mp le a t S arrebourg , a nd I t i s c ons idered t ha t t hey may h ave a n U nderwor ld s ign if icance i n t h is c on tex t .

B irds w h ich may b e r avens a re i nc ised o n as oep tre-b ind ing f ro m

Far ley H ea th ( S urrey ) , t he s i te o f aR o mano-Ce lt ic s hr ine ,

a ssoc ia ted w i th

ap oss ib le S uce l lus7 2 I t i s we l l-known t ha t t h is d e ity h ad f unerary a ssoc iat i ons i n G au l . 7 3 C er ta in ly i n e ar ly I r ish l i tera ture , much o f w h ich p robab ly d a tes i n o r ig in t o t he p agan I r ish I ron Age ,7 4 r avens h ad a f unerary a s w e l l a s ap rognost ic f unct ion . 7 5 O ther d iv in it ies i n G au l a lso h ave t he r aven a s t he ir emb le m ; as te le , f or i nstance f ro m A ltr ier , d ep icts Epona w i th a d og a nd a r aven .

7 6

I n B r ita in c rows a nd r avens u sua l ly o ccur a s sma l l b ronzes .

A t M i lber

D own ( Devon ) ab ronze r aven a ssoc ia ted w ith a s tag a nd a wa ter-b ird , c o mes f ro m t he s i te o f a n I ron Age h i l lfor t ; ab ronze c row o n af erru le i s r ecorded f ro m C o lchester . A t Fe lm ingha m H a l l ( Nor fo lk ) ar i tua l h oard o f 3 rd c en tury b ronze-work i nc ludes a m in ia ture v ot ive whee l a nd t wo r avens ( p l . 1 2 .I Xb ) o ne o f wh ich h as i n tr igu ing ly s ty l ized c ircu lar f ea thers o n i t s b ack , e ach w ith a p e l le t i n i t s b eak .

7 7

T h is p heno menon o ccurs a lso w i th a qua t ic b irds,

a nd i s d iscussed i n t h is c on tex t b e low . A t W i l l ingham Fen ( Cambs) 78 p ar ts o f a n e labora te c ere mon ia l o b ject b ear ing a d ep ict ion o f t he Gau l ish whee l-god , o ther d e it ies a nd r i tua l i t e ms, a nd f i gur ines o f r avens were f ound i n a ssoc iat i on .

H ere a nd a t F e lm ingham Ha l l t here i s e v idence o f t hese b irds f ound

t ogether w ith t he R o mano-Ce lt ic S ky-god o r h is emb le m t he whee l . Wa ter-b irds a re more p ro l if ic i n R o mano-Br it ish i conography t han memb ers o f t he c row f am i ly , o nce a ga in r epresen ted a _ s sma l l p or tab le v ot ive o b jects . A p ot tery d uck i s r ecorded f ro m D erby ,7 9 ( p l . 1 2 .L Xc) ; p ar t o f a c astorware p ot i n t he s hape o f ad uck w i th p a in ted f ea thers h as r ecen t ly b een u ncovered i n N ormanga te F ie ld , o ne o f t he i ndustr ia l s uburbs o f t he wa l led t own o f D urobr ivae i n t he N ene V a l ley ( i nforma t ion f ro m M iss C . G . D a l las a nd Dr . J . P . W i ld ) ; ab ronze e xamp le c o mes f ro m A shby-dele-Launde ( L incs .) , a nd a nother f ro m R o ther ly D own ( W i ltsh ire) b ears o n i t s b ack ad ep ict ion o f ah u man h ead , p ossib ly a t herapeut ic o r f unerary s ymbo l . 8 0 A d uck i nb ronze f ro m M i lber D own b ears a c ake o r p e l let i n i t s b eak , a nd i t s a ssoc ia t ion w i th a r aven i s i nterest ing w hen i t i s r eca l led t ha t t he t wo r avens f ro m F e lm ingham H a l l a lso c arry t hese p e l le ts .

I t s hou ld a lso b e

b orne i n m ind t ha t t he d uck-headed p row o f t he r i tua l b ronze b oa t c arry ing t he g oddess S equana , f ro m t he S e ine , b ears a p ossib ly r i tua l p e l let i n i t s b eak . 8 1 Whether i n e ach o f t hese c ases t he p e l let r epresen ts a s acr if ic ia l c ake o r whether t here i s s o me h idden s ymbo l is m c anno t b e j udged , b ut t he

3 14

7 1

p heno menon i n Br ita in d oes i nd ica te i n terest ing l i nks b etween a qua t ic b irds a nd r avens .

I t may b e r eca l led t ha t b oth b irds were a ssoc ia ted w i th p re-

h istor ic s un-cu lts o n t he C on t inent , a nd i t may b e t ha t i n C e lt ic r i tua l t he t wo s pec ies w ere c lose ly c onnected i n s o me c apac ity . Monsters a nd mu ta t ions h ave f i na l ly t o b e c onsidered i n t h is s urvey . I n G au l ish a nd Br it ish i conography i n t he R o man p er iod , o ccur v ar ious z oomorph ic r epresen ta t ions e i ther p ure ly a n i ma l o r s em i-hu mano id , b ut wh ich h ave u nna tura l monstrous c haracter ist ics, p resu mab ly t o e nhance t he p otency o f t he d e i ty b e ing i nvoked . Two ma in t ypes o f t her io morph ic monster a re k nown i n t he C e lt ic w or ld - t he f i rst where a n a n i ma l h as s o meth ing a dded , a nd t he s econd where a d e ity i s d ep icted a s ah u man i mage b u t w ith h orns . • T he b est-known o f t he f i rst c a tegory a re t he t hree-horned b u l l a nd t he r amh eaded s nake . I t s hou ld b e emphas ized t ha t muta t ions o f t he h u man o r a n ima l image i n t h is p er iod a nd c on text wou ld a ppear t o b e a n e n t ire ly C e lt ic q u irk wh ich s ee ms t o h ave r esu lted f ro m t he b asica l ly a n im ist ic a t t itude t o d iv in ity s t i l l p redo m inan t i n C e lt ic t hough t . H owever , monsters a re n ot u nknown i n c lass ica l e xpress ion - t he mu lt i-headed H ydra a nd C erberus, f or i nstance , b ear w itness t o t h is . T he t hree-horned b u l l o ccurs ma in ly i n s outhern Br ita in ,

a nd i n e astern

G au l where i ti s much more c o m mon a nd where i t s d istr ibut ion c en tres must h ave l a in . 8 2 Tr ip l ica t ion i s a we l l-a t tested p heno menon i n G au lish a r t a nd r e l ig ion .

T he a r t i nd ica tes a l ean ing t owards t he n u mber '3 ' ,a nd t r iads o f

d e it ies, s uch a s t he T hree Mothers, 8 3 a nd G en i i c ucu l la t i8 4 a re f am i l iar i n t he i conography . G ods a ppear t r ip le-headed , e spec ia l ly i n t he R e i ms a rea ,

8 5

a nd o ccas iona l ly a lso i n B r ita in ( f or e xamp le a t Wroxeter ). T hus i t i s n o t s trange t ha t d iv ine b u l ls s hou ld s o me t i mes b e r epresen ted w ith t hree i nstead o f t wo h orns .

The s ign if icance may mere ly b e a mu lt ip l ica t ion o f p ower , t he

h orns s ymbo l iz ing f er t i l ity a nd s treng th , t he n umber ' 3 ' a dd ing a mag ica l s ign if icance t o t he a dd it ion , o r t here may b e ad eeper my tho log ica l i n terp re ta t ion l i nk ing u p w ith t he b u l l-andthree-cranes o n t he Par is s te le ' Tarvostr igaranus ' B ow l .

8 6

-o r e ven p erhaps w ith t he t r ip le b u l l o n t he G undestrup

S ome f if ty t hree-horned b u l ls a re r ecorded f ro m G au l ; e xamp les

may b e c i ted a t S t . R e my ,8 7 a nd a t B esan9on :8 8 at hree-horned b oar f ro m G au 18 9 r em inds u s t ha t b easts o ther t han t he b u l l were o ccas iona l ly e ndowed w ith t hese s ymbo ls o f p ower ( p erhaps i n t hese i nstances t he c ra f ts men were i gnoran t o f t he t rue s y mbo l is m ) . O n ly a bout h a lf-a-dozen t hree-horned b u l ls a re k nown f ro m t he l ow land a reas o f B r ita in . Two a re o f e spec ia l i n terest t ha t f rom Ma iden Cast le ( p l .

1 2 . Xa ) ,

a nd o ne f ro m C o lchester ( p l .

1 2 . Xb) .

T he f ormer i s made o f s i lvered b ronze a nd c o mes f ro m a l a te r e l ig ious c on tex t i n a4 th c en tury s hr ine .

9°

T he r e ma ins o f h u man f i gures, p resu m-

a b ly d e it ies , may b e s een o n t he b ack o f t he a n i ma l , a nd t he ' S ' s hape f ormed b y t he t a i l may b e s ign i f icant i n ap oss ib le c onnect ion w ith t he R o manoC e lt ic J up iter . A b ronze f i gure o f t he whee l-god f ro m L e C hä te le t i n G au 1 , w ith t hunderbo lt a nd whee l , b ears ' S ' s haped o b jects h ang ing f ro m i t s a rm , a nd a p ot f ro m S i lchester b ears whee l a nd ' S '

s ymbo ls .

b u l l i s a lso i mpor tan t a l though f or d if feren t r easons .

9 2

T he C o lchester

I t c o mes f ro m a

c h i ld ' sg rave , wh ich i nd ica tes a c h thon ic s ymbo l is m ; s econd ly t he b u l l h ere was a ssoc ia ted w ith a r epresen ta t ion o f H ercu les ; t h ird ly t he a n i ma l a nd o ther i t ems i n t he g rave ( i nc lud ing H ercu les) were manufactured f ro m p ipec lay , l i ke t he t wo-horned b u l l f ro m Harf leur ment ioned a bove . 3 15

9 1

T he r a m-headed s nake i s p erhaps e ven more we ird a nd i n tr igu ing . T he s nake h ad a c h thon ic f unct ion v ery e ar ly i n t he G reek wor ld . T he r am was r evered a s as ymbo l o f f er t i l ity , a nd a ppears t hus i n i t s a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he c lass ica l Mercury . 93 T he t wo e le men ts o f r am a nd s nake a re l i nked a s e ar ly a s t he U rnf ie ld p er iod o n aS cand inav ian b ronze p in , a s s ta ted e ar l ier . T he im med ia te ly p re-Ro man G undestrup B ow l b ears d ep ict ions o f r am-horned s nakes, a nd o n t h is r i tua l v esse l t he s nake i s c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s tag-horned h u mano id d e ity - L ord o f An i ma ls - t o wh ich we s ha l l r eturn . I n G au l ish i conography t he r am-horned s nake f i gures c ons isten t ly w ith t he s tag-horned g od , a nd o ccurs ma in ly i n n or th-east G au l . T he s erpen t i s a ssoc ia ted w ith Mercury , f or e xamp le a t B eauva is ,94 a nd w ith Mars a t Mav i l ly . I t a ppears w ith a t hree-headed Mercury c arv ing i n Par is, 96

a nd sma l l b ronze

r a m-horned s nakes a ppear a lone , f or e xamp le a t T r ier . 97 T h is monster i s a r are o ccurrence i n Br ita in b ut i ti s k nown , a nd i t s c on tex ts a re i n format i ve . A b ronze f i gure o f aC e lt iclook ing Mars f ro m t he v o t ive h oard o f f i gur ines d iscovered a t S outhbroo m i n W i ltsh ire ( p l . 1 2 . Xc) , c lasps a r amh orned s erpent i n e ach h and . A r e l ief o f t he s tag-horned d e i ty f ro m C irenc ester d ep icts t he g od c lutch ing t wo o f t he c rea tures ; t he s nake a lso o ccurs wrapped r ound a s tone a l tar f ro m t he C o tswo lds a t L yp ia t t P ark ( G los . ) ,98 a nd t h is s a me a l tar b ears a c arv ing o f a whee l a t t he t op , t hus p erhaps c onn ect ing t he s erpen t w ith t he R o mano-Ce lt ic J up iter .

T h is a ssoc ia t ion i s p art i-

c u lar ly i mpor tan t s ince t here may b e l i nks w ith t he s o-ca l led ' J up i ter-G ian t C o lu mns ' p ro l if ic i n e astern G au 1, 9 9 where o n t he s umm it o f al o f ty p i l lar a n e questr ian J up iter r ides d own , o r i s s uppor ted b y , a monster who s inks i n to t he e ar th a nd whose b ody e nds i n t he t a i l o f as nake ; h ere t he s nake a t tr ibute a ppears t o h ave a c h thon ic s y mbo l is m .

I n s u m mary t h is s trange

c o mpos ite b east i s aC e lt ic p heno menon wh ich i s f ound w ith s evera l d i f feren t d iv in it ies ; i t s b as ic i n terpreta t ion wou ld a ppear t o l i e w ith in t he e n igma t ic a ssoc ia t ions b etween c h thon ic is m a nd f er t i l ity s o f am i l iar i n R omano-Ce lt ic i conography . Two ma in t ypes o f d iv ine h u mano id r epresen ta t ion , p or trayed w ith t he a dded a n i ma l a t tr ibute o f h orns, a re k nown i n t he R o mano-Ce lt ic w or ld . T he f irst i s ah o mogeneous g roup c ons ist ing o f ac rosslegged h uman f i gure , u sua l ly ma le , w ith s tag-an t lers o n h is h ead . We h ave a n ame f or t h is t ype o f d ep ict ion - C ernunnos ( Horned O ne ) . T he g od f igures a s ' Lord o f An i ma ls ' o n t he G undestrup B ow l, a cco mpan ied b y s tags a nd r am-horned s erpents , a nd i s c o m mon o n R o mano-Ga l l ic s tone monumen ts a ga in o f ten a ssoc ia ted w ith t hese b easts ; h e o ccurs i nfrequent ly i n B r ita in . I n G au l t he monu men ts a ppear ma in ly i n th e e ast o f t he p rov ince n or th o f t he J ura , more t han t h ir ty b e ing k nown a l together . 1° ° P ipe-c lay f igur ines o f C ernunnos a re r ecorded , 1" o f ten o rnamen ted w ith s o-ca l led f unerary s ymbo ls . T he p or traya l o f t he d e i ty i n G au l w ith s tags a nd s nakes, a ssoc ia ted s o met i mes w i th Mercury , w ith p urses o f money a nd w i th c h thon ic s ymbo ls ,1 02

w ou ld s eem t o g ive h im

s ign if icance a s s o me k ind o f p rosper ity a nd U nderwor ld d iv in i ty . I n B r ita in t he s carc ity o f C ernunnos r epresen ta t ions i nd ica tes o nce a ga in t ha t t he p rov ince l i es o uts ide t he ma in d istr ibu tion a reas o f t h is t ype o f a r t-form .

T he b es t-

a uthen t ica ted B r it ish o b ject i s a sma l l s tone r e l ief s how ine t he g od c rossl egged w ith t wo r am-horned s nakes, f ro m C irencester ,1 °3 a n a rea r enowned f or C e lt ic d ep ict ions i n C otswo ld s tone .

1 °4

A p oss ib le C ernunnos-head , a long

w ith t wo o ther r e l iefs, was b u i lt i n to C o l l i t ion H ouse i n Dorchester . 3 16

1 °5

9 5

PLATE 1 2. X :

a , Bronze 3 -horned b u l l , Ma iden Cast le :

h e igh t 9 .5c m.

b , P ipe-c lay 3 -horned b u l l , Co lchester :

h e igh t 1 0 .4c m.

C , Bronze Mars w ith s erpen ts, S ou thbroo m : ( Copyr igh t B .M . Trustees ).

h e ight 1 0.2c m

a

PLATE 1 2 .X I :

a , Bronze h orned mask , A the lney : b , F ace u rn w ith h orns, C o lchester :

w id th 3 .8cm . h e igh t 2 6 .75c m .

T he p resence o f a n t lers o n t he h ead o f t h is G aul ish d e ity - t he b orrow ing o f a n a t tr ibute f ro m a n a t tendan t b east - must r ef lect t he a dop t ion b y a g od o f c er ta in p owers o f f er t i l ity a nd s treng th r ecogn ized i n t he s tag . The s econd t ype o f h orned d ep ict ion i s i n f act f ar more c o mmon i n B r i ta in , e spec ia l ly i n t he n or th o f t he c oun try ,1 °6 t han e lsewhere ; i t t akes t he f or m o f t he a dd i t ion o f h orns ( u sua l ly t hose o f ab u l l, l ess c o mmon ly t hose o f ag oa t

o r r am ) t o c er ta in d iv in it ies, g enera l ly p or trayed i n s tone .

I n t he n or th o f Eng land h orned d ep ict ions a re v ery n u merous a nd n o o ne p ar ti cu lar h orned g od may b e d is t ingu ished . J ust a s i n p ar ts o f t he C on t inen t e ven i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod , a nd i n Br ita in , s o me d e it ies a re of ten r epr esented b y h eads a lone ( s ince t he h ead was d iagnost ic o f ag od a nd t here• f ore c ons idered mos t impor tan t ) , i n much t he s ame way many d e it ies were r epresented w ith

t he p oten t s ymbo l o f h orns .

g iven t o c er ta in g ods a t

T hey a ppear t o h ave b een

c er ta in t imes, p resu mab ly t o e nhance t he ir p ower .

B ecause o f t he ir r ar ity t he f ew s outhern B r i t ish e xamp les d eserve p ar t icu lar men t ion . A h orned mask i n b ronze c o mes f rom A the lney ( So merset ) ( p l . 1 2 .X Ia ) ; t he b u l l-horned b ucke t-hand le d a t ing f ro m t he I ron Age f ound a t B oughton A luph ( Ken t ) i s w e l l k nown . E ven a f ace-urn f ro m C o lchester h as b een a dorned w ith g oa t-horns ( p l . 1 2 .X 1b) . T hese g ods, i f g ods t hey b e , a re n ame less a s a re t he v ast ma jor i ty o f B r it ish h or ned b e ings, b ut a p ipe-clay f i gur ine o f Venus f ro m Marypor t h as b een e ndowed w ith a sma l l p a ir o f h orns ( i nforma t ion f ro m Dr . M . G . J arret t , U n ivers ity C o l lege , C ard if f ) . S ou thern e xamp les a re r are a nd i t i s i n t he n or th t ha t o ne f i nds u b iqu itous h orned d ep ict ions, l i ke t he s tone h ead f ro m C arvoran . h orn-g iv ing i s aC e lt ic c usto m , i s p len t ifu l .

T h is

a nd i s p ar t icu lar ly a pparen t w here s tone

I t i s t hus i n terest ing t ha t t he C o tswo ld r eg ion , wh ich h as a bun-

d an t e v idence o f C e lt ic r e l ig ious s tone c arv ing , h as a d ear th o f h orned b e ings: i t l ooks a s t hough B r igan t ia was a g enu ine c en tre f or t he t rad i t ion . With h orns we h ave p erhaps t he u lt i ma te i n f us ion b etween a n thropomorph is m a nd t her io morph is m . T here i s i n as ense l i t t le d i f ference b e tw een t he a dd it ion o f h orns t o h u mano id g ods a nd t he E gyp t ian c usto m o f r epresen t ing g ods i n b oth z oomorph ic a nd a n thropo morph ic manner , o r w ith a n a n i ma l ' sh ead o n ah u man b ody .

C er ta in ly t he C e l t ic t rea tmen t o f a n i-

ma ls i n r e l ig ious e xpression i s c loser t o t he Egyp t ian p ercep t ion o f b easts a ctua lly a s g ods t han t o t he d eve loped c lass ica l u se o f a n i ma ls a s a t tendan ts t o t he ir d e it ies . I n R o mano-Ce lt ic e xpress ion , h owever , t here i s n o q uest ion o f a n i ma l b e ings p re-da t ing h u mano id d epict ions n or b e ing c ons idered a more p r im it ive man ifesta t ion . I ndeed , i n t he c ase o f h orns, we h ave d e l ibera te c ho ice o n t he p ar t o f C e lt ic p eop les, i n a dd ing a n i ma l a t tr ibutes t o h u mano id f i gures .

T he v ery c lose a ssoc ia t ion o f a n i ma ls w i th r e l ig ion among t he

C e l ts a ppears t o b e d ue t o t he s ame p henomenon wh ich made n a ture , p rosp er ity a nd f er t i l ity r epresen ta t ions s o e ssen t ia l - ab as ic i den t if icat ion w ith n a tural f orces , o r a n im is m. T here w as n o o rgan ized C e lt ic s tate a nd t heref ore n o f orma l ized s ta te c u lt l i ke t ha t o f t he R o mans . T he d if ference b e tween t he a n im ist ic r everence w h ich C e lt ic p eop les h e ld f or d iv ine b easts a nd t he ir q ua l it ies, a nd t he r espect w h ich t he ir S tone Age a ncestors h ad f or t he a n i ma ls t hey h unted a nd r ecreated i n t he ir a r t , i s ad i f ference o f d egree r ather t han k ind. Romano-Ce l t ic worsh ippers d id n o t n ecessar ily h unt i n o rder t o s urv ive , b ut t hey n ever the less f requen t ly p rop it iated t he ir g ods b y r epresen t ing t hem i n t her iomorph ic o r s em i-ther iomorph ic a r t-form . 3 19

APPEND IX Cata logue o f Br it ish S i tes men t ioned i n t he T ex t Where a s i te f orms p ar t o f t he wr i ter ' sc orpus o f Ro mano-Br it ish R e li g ious ma ter ia l f ro m c iv i l ian Br ita in ( Green , a lone i s q uo ted , t o t h is work . b e low .

1 976) ,

r e ference t o t h is w ork

s ince f ur ther p ub l ished s ources a re c i ted i n t he g aze t teer

References t o o b jects f ro m o ther s ites a re q uo ted i n t he l i st

T he p resen t p rovenance o f a l l o b jec ts i s a lso s ta ted w here k nown .

A shby-dela-Launde ( L inco lnsh ire):

L inco ln C ity & C oun ty Museu m ( Green ,

1 976, p 2 03) . A the lney ( So merset ) : Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

1 976,

B orough G reen ( Kent ) : Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green , B ough ton A luph ( Ken t ) :

p 1 82) .

1 976 ,

Ma idstone Museu m ;( Green ,

p2 27 ) .

1 976,

p 2 30 ) .

Bradwe l l, O ld ( Buck inghamsh ire) : B radwe l l A bbey F ie ld C en tre ; ( Green , 1 974 ) . B r igstock

( Nor than ts) : West f ie ld Museu m ,

K e t ter ing ; ( Green ,

C aerwent ( Gwen t ) : Newpor t Museu m ; ( Green , Cambr idge : ( Green ,

1 976 ,

p 1 81) .

1 976 , p 1 83) .

Cambr idge U n ivers i ty Museu m o f Archaeo logy & E thno logy ; 1 976 , p 2 10) .

Canterbury ( Ken t ) :

C an terbury C ity Museu ms ( bronze h orse man , Ryda le

F o lk Museu m , Yorksh ire ) ; ( Green , 1 976 , p 2 31) . Carvoran ( Nor thu mbr ia ) :

R oss, 1 967 ,

P l .

4 3b ) .

C h ichester ( Sussex ) : Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green , C h idd ing fo ld V i l la ( Surrey ) : C irencester ,

1 976 , p 1 97) .

C o lchester & E ssex Museu m;(Green ,

C orbr idge ( Nor thu mbr ia

Derby :

G u i ld ford Museu m ; ( Green ,

( G loucestersh ire) : C or in iu m Museu m ; ( Green ,

C o lchester ( Essex ) :

p l .

1 976 , p 1 97) .

C orbr idge Museu m ; ( Toynbee ,

1 976 , p 1 73 ) . 1 976 , p p 2 15-217) .

1 962 , C a t . No . 4 7 ,

5 1) . Derby Museu m .

D orchester :Dorse t C oun ty Museu m ( t hree-horned b u l l) C o I l i ton House ( an t lered h ead ) ; ( Green , 1 976 , p 2 01.) . F ar ley H ea th ,

A lbury ( Surrey ) : B r it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

F e lm ingham Ha l l, ( Nor fo lk ) : G rea t C hester ford ( Essex ) : & E thno logy ; ( Green ,

B r it ish Museum ; ( Green ,

1 976 , p 2 19) . 1 976 , p 2 05) .

C a mbr idge U n ivers i ty Museu m o f A rchaeo logy

1 976 , p p 2 10-211) . 3 20

H ounslow ( M idd lesex) :

Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

J ordon H i l l, Preston V i l la : L e icester :

L e icester

B r it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

Museu ms;

1 976, p 2 02) .

( Green , 1 976 , p . 1 66 ).

L exden , N r . Co lchester ( Essex) : 1 976, p 2 19) . L ondon :

1 976, p 2 21) .

C o lchester & E ssex Museu m ; ( Green ,

B r it ish Museu m ( Harpocrates, p eacock , p igeon , g oa t ) .

Museu m o f L ondon (M i thras r ounde l, l ion-scu lp ture ); L ydney ( G loucestersh ire) :

( Green , 1 976, p p. 2 21-226 ).

L ydney p r iva te museu m ; ( Green ,

L yp iat t Park , B is ley ( G loucestersh ire) : Ma iden C ast le ( Dorset) :

1 976, p 1 69) .

S troud Museu m ; ( Green ,

1 976, p 1 72) .

Dorset C ounty Museu m , Dorchester ; ( Green ,

1 976 ,

p 2 00) . Ma lton ( Nor th Yorksh ire) :

Ma lton Museu m .

Mart lesham ( Suf fo lk) : B rit ish Museu m ; ( Green , Marypor t ( Cu mbr ia ) : I n p ossess ion o f Dr .

M .

1 976, p 2 18 ) . G . J arre tt ,

Un ivers ity C o l lege,

Card if f ) . M i lber Down ( Devon) :

T orbay Na tura l H istory S oc iety Museu m ; ( Green , 1 976,

p 1 98 ) . Muntha m C our t ( Sussex ) :

Wor th ing Museu m ; ( Green ,

N et t leton S hrub (W i ltsh ire) : N or manga te F ie ld , wr iter :

D ev izes Museu m ; ( Green ,

Castor , ( Ca mbr idgesh ire) :

1 976,

p 2 20) .

1 976, p .

1 90) .

C urrent ly i n p ossess ion o f t he

r oper ty o f Peterborough Deve lop ment Corpora t ion .

O xford ( near ) :

Ash mo lean Museu m ; ( Green ,

P eterborough ( Ca mbr idgesh ire) :

1 976, p 1 77) .

Peterborough C ity Museu m ; ( Green , 1 976,

p 2 08 ) . R ibb le ( r iver ) :

( Green ,

R ochester ( Kent ) :

1 976 .

( Green ,

1 976 , p 2 29) .

R other ley D own (W i ltsh ire) : S i lchester ( Ha mpsh ire) :

p 1 9) .

( Green ,

1 976, p 1 90) .

Read ing Museu m ( bronze e ag le) ; ( Green ,

1 976,

p p 1 95-6) . S outhbroo m (W i ltsh ire) : S pr inghead ( Kent ) : S ydenha m ( Kent) :

Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

( Green ,

1 976 ,

1 976, p 2 21) .

S cunthorpe Museu m ; ( Green ,

T h ist leton ( Le icestersh ire & R ut land ) : Upchurch ( Kent ) :

( Green ,

p 1 91) .

p 2 28 ) .

Br it ish Museu m ; ( Green ,

T hea lby ( L inco lnsh ire) :

1 976,

( Green ,

1 976 ,

p 1 62) .

1 976, p 1 67) .

1 976 , p 2 30) .

V eru la m iu m ( Her tfordsh ire) :

Veru la m iu m Museu m & Hypocaust ; ( Green ,

1 976, p p 2 06-7) . 3 21

Wi l l ingham Fen ( Ca mbr idgesh ire) : o logy & E thno logy ; ( Green , Wi ltsh ire :

1 976, p 2 10 ) .

B r it ish Museu m ; ( Johns,

Witham ( r iver ) ( L inco lnsh ire) : Woodea ton ( Ox fordsh ire) : Woodeandean ( Sussex ) : Wroxe ter ( Shropsh ire) :

Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity Museu m o f Archae-

1 973 ) .

B r i t ish Museu m .

A sh mo lean Museum ; ( Green , 1 976, p 1 78) .

Br ighton Museu m ; ( Green , S hrewbury ,

1 976 , p 1 97 ) .

R ow ley ' sH ouse Museu m Wroxeter S i te

Museu m ( s tone h ead o f h orse) ; ( Green ,

3 22

1 976, p 1 63 ) .

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Thevenot , 1 968 , p1 51.

4 5 .

De Vr ies,

4 6 .

Terouanne ,

4 7 .

Thevenot ,

4 8 ,

G reen ,

4 9 ,

Br it ish Museu m ,

5 0 .

Her t le in ,

5 1.

E spgrand ieu,

5 2 ,

O l msted ,

5 3 .

De Ves ly ,

5 4 .

Green ,

5 5 .

A lfö ld i ,

5 6 .

La mbrechts,

1 954 .

5 7 .

E sperand ieu,

G au le, n os .

5 8 .

I b id .

n o .

3 653 .

5 9 .

I b id .

n o .

7 800 .

6 0 .

Lew is , 1 966 , p . 7 5.

6 1.

T oynbee,

6 2 .

Ross,

6 3 .

Hond ius-Crone , 1 955 .

1 962 ,

p l .

5 1; 1 964,

p 1 14 .

5 0 ; 1 964, p 1 13 .

1 963 , p p 1 21-2 ; H en ig a nd Munby ,

1 949, p i f f . 1 957,

1 958 .

1 911.

1 963 .

1 973 .

3 3 .

1 942 .

1 963 , p 1 18 . 1 965 . 1 951.

1 976, p 1 0 . 1 925, p p 1 47-8 .

1 910 , Gau le , n o .

1 976, f ig .

3 134 .

9D , o pp p .96 .

1 909 .

1 976, p 1 9. 1 949 .

3 132,

3 133 .

1 974, p 1 22 .

1 967 , p 3 39 ;

J enk ins 1 957a.

3 24

1 973 .

6 4 .

J enk ins,

1 956 ,

6 5 .

L ambrechts, 1 942 ,

6 6 .

N oe l Hu me ,

6 7 .

Whee ler ,

6 8 .

L inkenhe ld , 1 927 ;

6 9 .

De Vries,

7 0 .

Duva l, 1 957 , p 5 1 .

7 1 .

E spärand ieu,

7 2 .

G oodch i ld ,

7 3 .

L a mbrechts, 1 942 ,

7 4 .

McCana ,

7 5 .

R oss,

7 6 .

K rappe ,

7 7 .

B .

7 8 .

A lfö ld i,

7 9 .

D oo l,

1 976 .

8 0 .

R oss,

1 967,

8 1 .

E sperand ieu,

8 2 .

G reen,

8 3 ,

Haverf ie ld ,

8 4 .

H e iche lhe im ,

1 935 ; T oynbee,

8 5 .

E sperand ieu,

Gau le , n o .

8 6 .

O l msted ,

8 7 .

D uva l,

8 8 .

R e inach ,

8 9 .

D e Vr ies,

9 0 ,

L ew is, 1 966, p . 4 6.

9 1 .

R e inach,

9 2 .

J ohnston ,

1 903 .

9 3 .

T oynbee,

1 962 , p 1 32 .

9 4 .

E sperand ieu,

9 5 .

I b id . n o .

9 6 .

I b id .

9 7 .

Menze l,

p1 0Of f .

1 956 .

1 932 . L a mbrechts , 1 942.

1 963, p 1 22 .

Gau le ,

n os. 4 566, 4 568 .

1 947 . p1 0Of f .

1 970 .

1 967, p 2 43 .

M .

1 936 . G u ide ,

p 6 0 .

1 949.

p p 7 8 , 9 5-6 . Gau le , n o . 7 676 .

1 976, p 1 3 . 1 892 . 1 957 .

3 652 .

1 976 .

1 957,

f ig .

1, p 4 3 .

1 894, p 2 77 . 1 963, p 1 85 .

1 894,

p 3 3 .

Gau le , n o .

3 919 .

2 067 .

n o . 3 137 . 1 966, p l .

1 02a . 3 25

9 8 .

C lif ford ,

1 938 .

9 9 ,

Her t le in ,

1 910 .

1 00 .

B ober , 1 951.

1 01.

La mbrechts,

1 02 .

I b id .

1 03 .

Ross,

1 04 .

Green ,

1 05 .

T oynbee,

1 06 ..

Ross,

1 942 ,

1 967, p l .

c ap .

1 .

4 3a .

1 976, p 6 5f f . 1 964, p 1 80 .

1 961.

3 26

1 3.

W INGLESS V ICTOR IES M . W. C . H assa l l

S tuden ts o f R o man a r t a nd s tuden ts o f R o man B r i ta in o we P ro fessor T oynbee a n i m mense d eb t .

F or many , i nc lud ing t he wr i ter , t he d eb t i s av ery

p ersona l o ne a nd i ti s t here fore a p ar t icu lar p leasure t o o f fer h er t h is s hor t p aper . I n 1 969 a n ew ' d istance s lab ' was d iscovered a t H u tcheson H i l l , j us t west o f B earsden o n t he An ton ine Wa l l ( F ig . 1 3.1a , P l. 1 3.1 ). The s lab wh ich i s n ow i n t he H un ter ian Museum , G lasgow , i s l arge , j ust u nder a me tre i n l eng th , a nd c arr ies t he f o l low ing i nscr ipt ion : I mp ( era tor i ) C (aesar i ) T ( i to ) A e( l io ) Hadr iano An ton in° Aug (usto ) P io P (atr i ) P (a tr iae ) v ex ( il lat io ) l eg ( ion is ) 2 0 ( V (a ler iae ) V ( ictr ic is ) f ec ( it ) p (er ) p (edum ) I l ( M il ia ) " To t he emperor Caesar T itus Ae l ius Hadr ianus An ton inus Augustus P ius , av ex il lat ion o f t he Twen t ieth L eg ion Va ler ia V ictr ix c onstructed t hree t housand f eet". The t ex t i t se l f p resen ts n o p rob le ms a lthough i ti s o f i n terest i n t hat i ts hows t hat s o me b u ild ing s ect ions were c o m me mora ted b y t wo s labs a t e ach e nd , p oss ib ly s e t u p o nb o th t he n or th a nd t he s ou th f ace o f t he r a mpar t . T he c arv ings w i th wh ich t he s lab i s a lso a dorned , h owever , h ave p rovoked d iscussion -b y J oce lyn T oynbee h erse l f , Anne R ober tson , R ichard Wr igh t a nd K enne th S teer a nd E .A. C or mack ,

1

-

a nd i ti s t o t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t hese t ha t Iw ish t o t urn . T he f irs t a spec t o f t he c arv ing t o wh ich Iw ou ld l i ke t o d raw a t ten t ion i s t he g enera l c o mposi t ion a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he a rch i tec tura l f ra mework w i th in wh ich t he v ar ious d e ta i ls a re s e t ( F ig . 1 3.1a ). K enne th S teer h as made t he a t tract ive s uggest ion t ha t t he a rch i tec tura l f ra mework r eca l ls t he f or m o f a t r iumpha l a rch w i th c en tra l c arr iageway a nd t wo f lank ing s ide p assages.

One 's

f irst r eac t ion i s t ha t t h is a na logy s hou ld n o t b e p ressed t oo c lose ly f or t he s ide o pen ings h ave f la t a rch i traves a nd a re n o t v au l ted a s w ou ld n or ma l ly b e t he c ase.

H owever t here i s o ne e xcep t ion t o t h is r u le , a n e xcep t ion wh ich p ro-

v ides a n e xact p ara l le l f or t he s che me o f t he ' Hu tcheson H i l l Arch ' , a nd Iam g ra te fu l t o J ohn Ward-Perk ins f or p o in t ing i to u t t o me .

T he Arch o f Augustus

i nt he R o man F oru m a s o r ig ina l ly e rec ted i n 2 9 B .C . c onsis ted o f as ing le a rch b u t was r econstruc ted t en y ears l a ter w i th s ide p assages , o n t he i nside o f wh ich were i nscr ibed t he c onsu lar f ast i .2 T he f or m o f t he s ide p assages i s k nown f ro m a c on te mporary c o in o n w h ich t hey a re s hown w i th f l a t e n tab la tures a nd t r iangu lar p ed i men ts ( F ig . 1 3 .1b ). 3 T he p ara l le l i s as tr ik ing o ne , a l though i ti s u n l ike ly t hat t he man who c arved t he d istance s lab f ro m H u tcheson H i l l h ad t he Arch o f Augustus i n m ind : i ndeed h e may n o t h ave b een t h ink ing o f a n a rch a t a l l .

S im i lar a rch i tec tura l s che mes o ccur i n t wo d i mensions i n P o mpe ian

w a l l p a in t ings , a nd S usan Wa lker d raws t o my a t ten t ion , among o ther t hree d i mens iona l e xa mp les , t he p or t ico o f t he d istr ibut ion r eservo ir o f H adr ian 's a queduct a t A thens . 4

3 27

PLATE 1 3 .I :

H u tcheson H i l l d istance s lab :

c en tra l s cene .

( Hun ter ian Museum , U n ivers i ty o f G lasgow ) .

. t ! • \1 i

) . . .

ARCH ITECTURAL S ETTINGS F IG. 1 3.1:

a( above ), The Hutcheson H il l D istance S lab. b( be low ), The Arch o f Augustus i n t he Ro man Foru m.

B enea th t he s ide o pen ings a re t wo i nscr ibed t abu lae a nsa tae , a nd , b enea th t he c en tra l ' arch ' , t he f igure o f ar unn ing b oar -t he s y mbol o f t he Twen t ie th L eg ion b y who m t he s lab was s e t u p .

W i th in t he s ide o pen ings a re t wo k nee l ing

b ound c ap t ives , c o mpared b y L awrence K epp ie t o ak nee l ing c ap t ive o n wha t w as p robab ly a no ther d istance s lab o f t he Twen t ie th L eg ion f ound a t H ag Knowe .5 T he c ap t ives o n t he H u tcheson H i l l p iece s uppor t c ircu lar meda l l ions , o r p erh aps s h ie lds , wh ich c arry p ar t o f t he i nscr ip t ion . a re t wo f igures. b owed h ead .

Wi th in t he c en tra l o pen ing

On t he l e f t t he a cqu i li fer o f t he l eg ion s tands f ac ing r igh t w i th

I n h is h ands h e g raps t he s ha f t o f t he e ag le s tandard w h ich r ests

o n h is l e f t s hou lder . On t he r igh t s tands a h uman f igure p or trayed f ron ta l ly ( P l. 1 3 .1 ) . S he i s o f more t han h uman s ize . Over h er l e f t s hou lder f a l ls a c loak .

I n h er l e f t h and s he h o lds a p a tera a nd i n h er r igh t a wrea th wh ich s he

p laces i n t he b eak o f t he e ag le . a s t o t he i den t i ty o f t h is f igure .

T here a re a n u mber o f p ossib le i n terpre ta t ions S he m igh t b e V ic tory , t he most o bv ious t heory ,

o n ly s he l acks w ings a nd f or a l l o ther c o m men ta tors t h is h as b een a v i ta l o bj ec t ion .

S he m igh t b e , a s P ro fessor T oynbee h as s uggested , B r i tann ia ;

o r ,

f ina l ly , we c ou ld b e l ieve w i th Anne R ober tson t ha t s he i s t he d e i f ied e lder F aust ina , t he w i fe o f An ton inus P ius , who d ied p re mature ly i n A .D. 1 41, a y ear o r p ossib ly t wo b e fore work o n t he Wa l l c o m menced .

Is ha l l c ons ider t he t hree

p ossib i l i t ies i n t urn . F irst : V ictory . B o th V ic tor ia a nd h er G reek e qu iva len t a re n or ma l ly p or trayed w i th w ings. N ever the less N ike was s o me t i mes r epresen ted a s w ingl ess .

We k now f ro m P ausan ias 6 t ha t t here w as a t A thens a t e mp le o f N ike

Ap teros o n t he r igh t o f t he g a teway t o t he A cropo l is a nd t ha t " the A then ians t h ink t ha t N ike h av ing n o w ings w i l l a lways r e ma in where s he i s" .

E lsewhere

h e t e l ls u s t hat t he i mage was made o f wood a nd t ha t t he Man t ineans h ad made aw ing less f igure o f N ike i n i m i ta t ion o f i t .

7

h ave b een n one o ther t hen t he g oddess A thena :

N ike A p teros may , i n o r ig in , A thena , a s aw arr ior g oddess ,

s o met i mes t ook o n t he a t tr ibu tes o f t he g oddess o f V ictory a nd r epresen ta t ions o f N ike A thena ( or M inerva V ictr ix ) w i l l c er ta in ly h ave b een s hownw ing less , t hough n or ma l ly s he w i l l h ave r e ta ined h er s h ie ld a nd h e l met , a nd i s n ot t heref ore i n q uest ion h ere . h ave l ooked l i ke? o n ly l ack ing w ings .

8

Wha t w i l l h e l len ist ic r epresen ta t ives o f N ike A p teros

P resu mab ly v ery much l i ke r egu lar r epresen ta t ives o f N ike , S cu lp tures o f t he g oddess , b oth w inged a nd w ing less , a re

k nown f ro m t he n or th western p rov inces o f t he R o man Emp ire , f or e xa mp le f ro m t he p or t a nd t e mp le s i te o f D o mburg i n H o l land where b o th a re e xecu ted i n ap ure ly c lassica l s ty le , t he w ing less N ike b e ing c lose ly c o mparab le t o a f igure i n t he N ap les Museu m a lso i den t i f ied a s N ike A p teros.

9

I ti s o bv ious ly v ery d i f f icu l t t o b e s ure a bou t t he r ea l i den t i ty o f many o f t hese w ind-swep t l ad ies - t hus , t o t ake a n e xa mp le f ro m n ear h o me , t he marb le s ta tue t te f ro m Woodchester , " v ery s im i lar i n g enera l a ppearance , i s p robab ly t o b e i den ti f ied a s D iana-Luna i n v iew o f t he h ead o f t he b u l l b eside h er r igh t f oot , s ince t ha t d e i ty i s o f ten s hown r id ing i n ab u l l-drawn c har io t . We a re o n s a fer g round , h owever , where a t tr ibu tes s uch a s wrea ths a nd p a lm b ranches o r g lobes a re p resen t . F igures a cco mpan ied b y t wo o u t o f t hree o f t hese a t tr ibu tes mus t s ure ly b e V ic tory .

T here a re a f a ir n umber o f s uch

f igures a nd where t hese a re c rude ly e xecu ted we w i l l p robab ly b e c orrec t i n t h ink ing t ha t t here i s n o more s ign i f icance i n t he o ccasiona l a bsence o f w ings , t han t here i s i n t ha t o f a ny o ther s y mbo l .

3 30

S uch i nexper t ly r endered w ing less

WINGLESS V ICTOR IES F IG. 1 3.2 :

a( above l e f t ), Brough b y Ba inbr idge r e l ief . ba nd c ( above ), s am ian f igure t ypes 8 21 & 8 10. d( be low ), V ictory o n t he F ayum F lag .

" 91 1 1 1 10 13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 1 1 1 1 181 116

PLATE 1 3.1 1 :

--

a( above ), P r iest , Tyche o f P a l myra a nd N ike Ap teros. Dura. ( Inst itu te f ra na is d 'archeo log ie, Be iru t .) b( be low ), Winged V ictory . D ibs Fara j. Cen tre f or Byzan t ine S tud ie9.)

( Du mbar ton Oaks

V ictor ies i nc lude a n e xa mp le ( F ig . 1 3.2a ) f l ank ing a b u ild ing i nscr ip t ion f ound a t B rough b y B a inbr idge , s e t u p i n t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury u nder t he g overnors h ip o f V a ler ius Pudens ,

a nd s evera l c en tra l G au l ish s am ian f igure t ypes

1 1

( F ig . 1 3. 2h a nd c ). 1 2 There a re , h owever , t wo c er ta in c ases k nown t o me , b o th , p ossib ly s ign i f ican t ly , f ro m t he e astern emp ire where c arefu l ly e xecu ted r epresen ta t ions o f V ic tory a re r endered w i thou t w ings and where we may b e d ea l ing w i th R o mani sed v ersion s o f N ike A p teros. T he f irs t ( P l. 1 3. I Ia ) i s f ound o n ar e l ig ious r e l ie f f ro m D ura E uropos , a nd i s d a ted A .D . 1 59 .

1 3

I ts hows t he g uard ian

s p ir it o f P a l myra f lanked o n o ne s ide b y t he p r iest ly d onor a nd o n t he o ther b y aw ing less V ic tory c o mp le te w i th wrea th , a nd p a lm b ranch . T he s econd ( F ig . . 1 3.2d ) is o n t he f lag o f a n a ux i l iary u n i t f ound i n t he F ayu m a nd n ow i n Moscow . 1 4 At h ird V ic tory ( P l . 1 3.1 1b ) , a pparen t ly w ing less , was e xcava ted b y R ichard H arper a t t he t h ird c en tury R o man f or t o f D ibsi F ara j , N or th S yr ia ,

1 5

b u t i s

s hown o n c loser i nspec t ion t o h ave h ad w ings c arved i n v ery l ow r e l ie f .

I ft he

c arv ing h ad o r ig ina l ly b een p a in ted , t he ir p resence wou ld h ave b een much more v isib le .

T h is e xa mp le s hows h ow d i f f icu l t i tc an s o me t i mes b e t o d ec ide

whe ther o r n o t s o me r epresen ta t ions o f V ic tory were p rov ided w i th w ings . The l ack o f w ings , t hen , d oes n o t a bso lu te ly p rec lude t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he Hu tcheson H i l l f igure a s V ic tory .

N or d oes t he f ac t t ha t s he h o lds a p a tera ,

f or a p a tera was h e ld i n t he o u ts tre tched h and o f V ic tor ia V irgo i n t he s hr ine b u i l t b y t he e lder C a to o n t he P a la t ine i n 1 93 B .C . a s w e k now f ro m c o ins s truck b y ad escenden t , t he m in t master M . C a to .

1 6

I ti s t rue t ha t V ic tory i s r are ly

s hown a ssoc ia ted w i th s tandards , a l though t he B r i t ish Museu m d oes p ossess a l a mp w i th a s cene s howing V ic tory r e turn ing o ne o f t he P ar th ian s tandards .1 7 Y e t r epresen ta t ions o f e ag les w i th wrea ths i n t he ir b eaks a re e x tre me ly c o m mon , a s o n t he s lab p rev iously men t ioned f ro m B rough b y B a inbr idge ,

( F ig . 1 3 .2a ),

a nd who more r easonab le t o p u t t he m t here t han V ic tory? N ever the less , t hough t he c ase f or V ic tory b e ing s hown o n t he H u tcheson H i l l s lab i s n o t , a s Ih ope Ih ave s hown , impossib le , o n t he who le Ia gree w i th t hose who d o n o t t h ink t ha t t he f igure i s V ic tory .

T he ma in r eason i s t ha t u n-

l i ke t he e xamp les Ih ave n o ted f ro m S yr ia a nd E gyp t , s he n o t o n ly l acks w ings b u t a lso t he o ther i den t i fying s y mbo l s uch a s ag lobe o r p a lm b ranch .

I t may

b e a lso t ha t i n ten t iona l ly w ing less V ic tor ies , r are e nough i n t he e ast where t he G reek N ike A p teros n ever the less d id p rov ide s o me s or t o f p receden t , were a l most u nknown i n t he wes t ( a l though t here may b e a n e xa mp le f lank ing t he f rag men tary g a teway i nscr ip t ion f ro m C arpow

1 8

) .Western V ic tor ies - a nd t h is

i s c er ta in ly t rue o f t he V ic tor ies o n t he An ton ine Wa l l d istance s labs 1 9 a nd o ther mi l i tary s cu lp tures f ro m t he n or th o f B r i ta in - u sua l ly f a l l i n to c lear ly d e f ined i conograph ic t ypes .

T hus t he t w in V ic tor ies ( P l. 1 3. I I Ia , F ig . 1 3. 3b )

o n t he d is tance s lab f ound e ast o f Dun tocher b o th h ave r a ised a r ms wh ich r ec a l l T on io H d lscher 's V ic tory w i th s h ie ld t ype 5 , o f wh ich o ne o f t he b es t e xamp les ( F ig . 1 3 .3a ) is t he f a mous s ta tue t te o f V ic tory f ro m Augst who h o lds a bove h er h ead a meda l l ion w i th a b ust o f J up i ter s e t o ver a f lower c a lyx . I n o r ig in t h is was a H e l len ist ic t ype .

2°

The V ic tor ies s e t a s c orner a kro ter ia

o n t he t e mp le o f P ius a nd F aus t ina i n t he R o man F orum were o f t he s a me t ype a nd s he r ecurs t w ice i n ap a in ted t o mb a t P a l myra ( F ig . 1 3.3c ) , a n e xa mp le n o t n oted b y Hö lscher .

2 1

The s ea ted V ictory ( P l. 1 3.I I Ib ), o n t he t erm ina l

d istance s lab f ro m O ld K ilpa tr ick a t t he w est e nd o f t he Anton ine Wa l l , who h as

3 33

PLATE 1 3.1 1 1 :

a( above ), Dun tocher , d istance s lab :

V ictor ies a nd V ir tu .s August i.

b( be low ) , O ld K i lpa tr ick ld istance s lab.

( source a s l ast .)

WINGED V ICTOR IES F IG. 1 3.3 :

a( l ef t ), Augst b ronze f igur ine. b( above r igh t ), Dun tocher r e l ief d eta il. c( be low r igh t ), P a l myra.

Wa l l p a in t ing , r estored.

b een d escr ibed a s " rest ing a f ter h er l abours" i s r em in iscen t o f H d lscher 's V ic tory w i th s h ie ld t ype 4 , o n ly h ere t he i nscr ibed s h ie ld i s r ep laced b y a wrea th wh ich e nc irc les a n i nscr ip t ion .

Aga in t w in V ictor ies s uppor t ing

2 2

a nsa te p ane ls a re c o m mon i n B r i ta in , a nd t h is i s a moti f t ha t h as R epub l ican a n teceden ts .2 3 T he s tandard o f s o me o f t hese p ieces c ou ld b e r e markab ly h igh .2 4 Sma l l f igur ines o f V ic tory , u sua l ly i n b ronze b u t i n o ne c ase o f s i lver , a re n ot u nco m mon ly f ound i n B r i ta in , a nd a ga in a re s o me t i mes o f c o mpe tan t workmans h ip . 25 F rag men ts o f s tone V ic tor ies c arved i n t he r ound , a re a lso k nown . I f we a re t o b e l ieve T ac i tus , t here was a t l east o ne l arge s ta tue , a ppropr ia te ly i n C o lchester ( Co Ion ia C laud ia V ic tr icensis ) , wh i le w inged V ic tor ies f lanked t he c en tra l s h ie ld w i th i t s g orgon h ead o n t he p ed i men t o f Minerva a t B a th .

t he t e mple o f S u l is

T here i s n o h in t t ha t a ny o f t he m ( excep t p ossibly o ne o f

2 6

t he b ronzes ) were o ther t han w inged , a na e ven o ne o f o ur r are p ieces o f e p ig raph ic v erse f ro m t he p rov ince a l ludes t o g o lden V ic tory f lying t hrough t he a ir o n h er w ings.

2 7

As econd r eason f or d oub t ing t ha t we h ave h ere a s cene o f V ic tory p resen t ing a wrea th t o t he l eg ionary e ag le i s t ha t u nder t he emp ire , V ictory i s n ever s hown c rown ing a nyone o ther t han a me mber o f t he imper ial h ouse , o r r are ly , a s a t Dura , a no ther d iv ine b e ing .

V ic tory was o f ten s pec i f ica l ly c a l led

V ic tor ia August i o r V ic tor ia Augusta , a nd i fu nder t he emp ire a c o m mander won a v ic tory , t he c red i t a nd t he t r iumph wen t t o t he emperor -t he h o lder o f imper iu m u nder whose a usp ices h e -t he c o m mander - was f igh t ing .

Th is

' cons t i tu t iona l o b jec t ion ' wou ld n o t b e s o s trong i n t he p resen t c ase where i t i s t he l eg ionary e ag le who r ece ives t he wrea th , n ever the less s uch a n a c t ion wou ld b e a n i n fr ige men t o f t he monopo l isa t ion o f V ic tory b y t he i mper ia l h ouse .

2 8

P ro fessor T oynbee h as s uggested t ha t t he f igure i s Br i tann ia a nd i s b ased o n t he r everse t ype o f as ester t ius o f H adr ian s how ing t he emperor t oga te f ac ing a f e ma le f igure who p ours a l i ba t ion f ro m a p a tera o ver a n a l tar who m s he i den t i f ies a s t he p erson i f ica t ion o f t he p rov ince i n c on for m i ty w i th t he a ssoc ia ted l egend

A dven tu i Aug (ust i ) B r i tann iae .

2 9

T he s im i lar i ty b e tween

t he H u tcheson H i l l f igure a nd t ha t o n t he c o in i s s tr ik ing .

I f B r i tann ia c an ,

o n c oinage o f t he mid 1 50s g r ieve f or t he m i l i tary l osses s usta ined b y t he R o mans d ur ing a r evo l t i n t he n orth o f t he p rov ince ,

3 0

t here c an b e n o r eason

why s he s hou ld n o t c ongra tu la te t he l eg ions o f B r i ta in f or t he ir s uccesses a d ozen y ears e ar l ier .

Ap ara l le l o f s or ts wou ld b e t he r e l ief , n ow i n t he B r i t ish

Museum , s how ing t he n y mph C yrene b e ing c rowned b y t he g oddess L ibya a s s he s trang les a l i on ( F ig . 1 3 . 4 b ) .

Y e t a l though t he t heory i s a n a t trac t ive o ne ,

B r i tann ia i s , o n t he c o inage o f t he s econd c en tury , n or ma l ly s hown a r med w i th s h ie ld a nd s pear ( or s o me t i mes s tandard , o r o ccasiona l ly b o th ) .

I ti s t rue

t ha t e ar ly t h ird c en tury c o ins a nd a r e l ie f o n t he b ack o f at h ird c en tury i ns cr ip t ion f ro m R ibchester p robab ly d ep ic t B r i tann ia i nf lowing g ar men ts a nd w i th n e i ther s pear n or s h ie ld ,

3 1

b u t f or t he c on te mporary s econd c en tury

R o man t he a r med f e ma le f igure was t he u sua l i conograph ic t ype . s o me s or t o f l abe l a s o n t he H adr ian ic

Withou t

c oin , i ti s u n l ike ly t ha t h e wou ld a s-

s oc ia te t he H u tcheson H i l l f igure w i th B r i tann ia . T here r e ma ins D r . Anne R ober tson 's i n terpre ta t ion - t ha t s he i s t he e lder F aust ina , t he w i fe o f An ton inus P ius , who h ad d ied o n ly a y ear o r t wo p rev iously .3 2 T he r egard i n wh ich s he was h e ld a f ter h er d ea th i s n o t i n d oub t : c o ins s truck d ur ing t he r es t o f P ius ' r e ign n a me h er a nd b ear h er e f f igy more 3 36

THE WREATH G IVER F IG. 1 3.4 :

a (above l e f t ), The y ounger Agr ipp ina a nd C laud ius. b (above r igh t ), ' T he g oddess L ibya a nd t he n y mph Cyrene, c (below ), J u l ia Do mna a nd Caraca l la.

o f ten t han i s t he c ase w i th a ny o ther me mber o f t he imper ial f am i ly a f ter d ea th wh i le t he t e mp le w i th i t s V ic tor ies men t ioned a bove , e rec ted i n h er h onour i n A .D . 1 41 , a nd s ubsequen t ly d ed ica ted j o in t ly t o h er a nd P ius , s t i l l s urv ives a s t he c hurch o f S . L orenzo i n M iranda i n t he R o man F oru m .3 3 T he a ssoc ia t ion b e tween i mper ia l w o men a nd t he a r my i s g enera l ly t hough t t o b e af ea ture o f t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury , b u t i t was h er d augh ter , t he y ounger F aust ina , t he w i fe o f Marcus Aure l ius , who i n f ac t f irst b ore t he t i t le Ma ter C astroru m .

3 4

I n t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury J u l ia D o mna , b es ides b ear ing t h is t i t le , c ou ld a lso b e p or trayed a s V ictory , b o th w inged a s o n ac a meo f ound i n K asse l , w ing less a s o n a n u n .provenanced r e l ie f ( F ig . 1 3 .4c ) n ow i n P o land .

3 5

3 6

o r S uch

r epresen ta t ions w ere a n t ic ipa ted b y ac a meo f ro m C o logne ( F ig . 1 3 .4a ) wh ich s hows C laud ius c rowned b y t he y ounger Agr ipp ina , b u t p erhaps h ere i n t he g u ise o f F or tuna , T e l lus , o r C eres .3 7 I ft he Hu tcheson H i l l r e l ie f d oes r epresen t t he e lder F aust ina , i s s he a lso , l ike J u l ia D o mna , t o b e i den t i f ied a s V ic tory? b ears a p a lm , t h is i s o n t he who le u n l ike ly .

S ince s he i s n e i ther w inged n or T he R o man mi l i tary s cu lptors o f

N or th B r i ta in s ee m n orma l ly t o h ave made t he ir i conograph ic i n ten t ions c lear e nough . On o ccasion when s o me d oub t may h ave a r isen i n t he v iewer 's m ind t hey e ven wen t t o t he t roub le o f p rov id ing a c tua l l abe ls t o h elp i n t he i n terpret a t ions o f f igures o r s cenes.

E xa mp les a re t he v ex i l lum i nscr ibed LEG I

o n t he r igh t h and p ane l o f t he B r idgeness s lab ,

3 8

o r t he v ex i l lum b orne b y t he

r igh t h and f igure o n t he d istance s lab f ro m D un tocher i nscr ibed V ir tus Aug (us t i ) ( P l. 1 3. I I Ia ); V ir tus Aug (ustoru m ) i s s im i lar ly l abe l led a t C hesters.

3 9

We

a re g iven n o s uch h e lp i n t he p resen t c ase , p erhaps b ecause , a t t he t i me w hen t he c arv ing was s e t u p , n one was f e l t t o b e r equ ired .

I n t he a bsence o f ac lear

l abe l , i conograph ic o r v erba l , c er ta in ty i s p robab ly impossib le , b u t f or t he p resen t wr i ter D iva F aust ina , a s s uggested b y P rofessor R ober tson , i s t he mos t l i ke ly c and ida te f or t he Hu tcheson H i l l w rea th g iver . Ih ave p r i mar i ly b een c oncerned w i th t he H u tcheson H i l l s lab , b u t i n t ry ing t o i n terpre t i t Ih ave t ouched o n t he who le q uest ion o f w ing less V ictor ies i n R o man a r t .

T o d raw t oge ther t he t hreads o f t he a rgumen t , i ts ee ms t ha t i f

V ic tory l acks w ings t here w i l l n or ma l ly b e t hree e xp lana t ions . i gnorance o r c are lessness o n t he p ar t o f t he a r t ist ;

F irst , t hrough

s econd , p erhaps ma in ly

i n t he e astern emp ire , a s ag enu ine ly R o man ' i n terpre ta t ion ' o f t he Greek N ike Ap teros ; t h ird ly s he may n o t r ea l ly b e V ic tory a t a l l , b u t aR o man empress who h as u surped t he wrea th-g iv ing f unc t ion o f t he g oddess , a nd s o met i mes , a s w i th J u l ia D o mna , o ther o f h er a t tr ibu tes a s we l l .

I n t he c on tex t o f a r t a nd

t he R o man a r my a l l t hree o f t hese e xp lana t ions may b e p ossib le .

F ina l ly i t

a ppears t ha t e ven o n t he r e mote n or thern f ron t ier o f t he empire , t he i conog raphy o f " V ic tory" , w i th o r w i thou t w ings , c ou ld b e s urpr ising ly s oph ist ic a ted .

3 38

REFERENCES 1 .

Rober tson , 1 969, Current Archaeo logy , XV II I, J an . 1 970, p p . 1 96-7, Br itann ia I , 1 970, p p . 3 09-10, S teer a nd Cor mack 1 969, p p. 1 22-6.

2 .

C re ma , 1 959 ,

P .

2 09 , F ig . 2 05 ( p . 2 10 ) o n wh ich o ur F ig . 1 3 .1b i s

b ased . 3 .

R .I . C . n o . 1 49 = B . M.C . I ,P l . I I .4 .

4 .

S tuar t a nd R evet t , 1 762-1816 v ol . I I , c h . 4 , P l . I .

5 .

Kepp ie , 1 975 , p . 1 54 .

6 .

P ausan ias , Descr ipt ions o f Greece I I , 1 5 , 7 .

7 .

P ausan ias V , 2 6 , 6 .

8 .

Dare mberg a nd S ag l io V , 1 912 , p p . 8 31-835 .

9 .

H ond ius - C rone , 1 955 , p p . 1 10-111 , p . 7 7 p l . A ( w inged ), P . 7 9 P l . B ( w ing less ), P . 7 8 P l. A ( w ing less, Nap les ).

1 0 .

T oynbee , 1 964 , p . 8 4 , B .M . G u ide P l . XX , 1 1 , p . 5 5 , n o . 1 1.

1 1.

H ar t ley , 1 966 , p . 1 9 ( i l lustra t ion ) =J .R .S . LD ( ( 1 969 )p . 1 92 , n o . 4 w i th c orrec t ion J .R .S . L IX ( 1 969 ) p . 2 46.

1 2 .

O swa ld , 1 936/7, e spec ia l ly t ype n os. 8 10 a nd 8 21.

1 3 .

C o l ledge , 1 976 , P l . 1 46 a nd

1 4.

P .

2 27.

R ostovtzef f , 1 942 , p p. 9 2-106 , P l . I V . ( no men t ion o f t he f act t ha t V ictory i s w ing less) .

1 5 . 1 6.

H arper , 1 975 , f or t he s i te . Craw ford , 1 974 , i , p p . 3 51-2, n o. 3 43, i , P l. x lv ; P l. l i v ;

i ,

P .

4 73, i ,

Hö lscher , 1 967, P l. 1 6.1.

1 7.

H ö lscher , 1 967, p . 1 09 w i th F ig .

1 8.

Wr igh t, 1 966 , P l. X .1.

1 9.

K epp ie, f or thco m ing .

2 0.

H ö lscher , 1 967 , p p . 1 28-130 ( t he t ype ), P l. 4 , 3 , t he Augs t s ta tue tte , P l. 1 4.3, e ar ly He l len is t ic e ar-r ing i n t he Br i t ish Museu m.

2 1.

H ö lscher , 1 967, p . 1 28, s ee a lso n o te 3 3 ( t e mp le o f P ius a nd Faus tina ), C o l ledge, 1 976 , P l. 16 a nd p p. 8 4-7 ( Pa l myra ).

2 2. 2 3.

H ö lscher , 1 967, p p . 1 26-8 ( t he t ype ). E .g . R .I.B. 1 093, P l . X IV ( a s p lend id e xa mp le f ro m L anches ter ), c f . Hö lscher , 1 967 , P l . X IV ( Ro me ).

3 39

2 4.

I n a dd i t ion t o t he e xa mp les a lready c i ted f ro m Br i ta in , c f . t he we l lk nown d ed ica t ion s lab f ro m R is ingha m w i th i t s f l ank ing f i gures o f Mars a nd V ic tory R .I.B. 1 227 a nd P l. XVI I.

2 5.

F igur ines :

A lcock , 1 976, P ls. 3 7-42.

Her P l. 3 8 i s o f a n u npub l ished

e xa mp le f ro m Brough-on-Fosse , No t ts. where t he d rapery s ugges ts V ic tory a l though t he f igur ine l acks w ings. 5 82 , o n ly t he a rm s urv ives.

S i lver s ta tue t te :

R .I.B.

A p laque a t tached t o t he w r is t s hows t ha t

i t was t he V ic tory o f L eg io V I V ic tr ix . 2 6.

Co lches ter :

Tac i tus Anna ls X IV , 3 2.

Ba th :

Toynbee , 1 962, p p . 1 61-

4w i th F ig . p . 1 62. 2 7.

R .I.B. 1 954.

2 8.

The imper ia l monopo l isa t ion o f V ic tory may n o t h ave b een q u i te s o r ig id a s Ih ave s ugges ted.

The s i lver f igure o f V ic tory men tioned

a bove , n o te 2 5 , was s pec if ica l ly t hough t o f a s t he V ic tory o f Leg ion V I, wh i le o n t he d is tance s lab f ro m S u m mers ton , R .I . B . 2 193, V ic tory i s s hown i n c lose a ssoc ia t ion w ith — i fn o t a c tua l ly c rown ing — a t r iu mphan t Ro man c ava lry man a s Laurence Kepp ie p o in ts o u t t o me. 2 9.

R .I.C. n o. 8 82, Curren t Archaeo logy XV I II , J an. 1 970 , p . 1 97; Br i tann ia I , 1 970 , p . 3 10 ;

3 0.

R .I.C. n o. 9 30.

Toynbee , 1 924 , p . 1 47, P l. XX IV.3.

A l terna t ive ly , a s Professor Toynbee h as s ugges ted ,

s he i s ar epresen ta tion o f Br i tann ia C ap ta , Toynbee , 1 924 , p . 1 52 , P l. XX IV.7. 3 1.

R .I.B. 5 83 = : I . R.S . ) 0 ZXV, 1 945 , P l. I .1 a nd 2 , s he i s p robab ly a lso r epresen ted w i th a mural c rown a nd u nar med o n c o ins o f C araca l la a nd Ge ta , R .I.C. n os. 4 64 , 4 83, Toynbee , 1 924, p . 1 56 , P l. XX IV.9.

3 2.

n . 2 9 , p . 1 96 , S teer a nd Cor mack , 1 969 , p . 1 23 , Br i tann ia I , 1 970 , p . 3 10.

3 3.

Boe th ius a nd Ward-Perk ins , 1 970 , p p . 2 67-9, F ig. 1 03.

3 4.

Hö lscher , 1 967, p . 1 69.

The t i tle a ppears o n c o ins b u t n o t a pparen tly

o n i nscr ip t ions. 3 5.

Möb ius , 1 948/9, p p. 1 02-112, P l. I .

3 6.

S adurska , 1 972 , n o. 5 7, P l. 4 5.

3 7.

Möb ius , 1 948/9, p p. 12-118.

3 8.

R .I.B. 2 139 a nd P l. XV I I I , Kepp ie, f or thco m ing .

3 9.

R .I.B. 1 466.

3 40

1 4.

RO MAN GE MSTONES :

F IGURETYPE AND ADAPTAT ION

Mar t in Hen ig

S o f u l l o f S hapes i s f anc ie Tha t i ta lone , i s h igh f antast ica l l.

I n h is c hal leng ing a nd p ercep t ive c on tr ibut ion t o o ur c e lebra t ion , my f r iend Mark Hassa l l d iscusses t he a l ternat ive i n terpreta t ions o f t he Hu tcheson H i l l d istance s lab.

I s t he ' l ady w ith a wreath ' aw ing less V ictory , t he g oddess

Br itann ia o r t he e lder Faus t ina?

A f ter a n a dm irab ly f a ir a nd u n tenden t ious

d iscuss ion , Mark g ives u s t he e v idence a nd a l lows u s t o f orm o ur own c onc lus ions w h i le , a t t he s a me t ime , r evea l ing h is own .

When t he p aper was

f irst r ead i n Nove mber 1 976, Iv entured t o s uggest t ha t a l l t hree s o lu t ions m igh t b e r igh t :

t ha t V ictory w as c on f la ted w ith b oth a Ro man Empress a nd

ap rov inc ia l d e ity ;

a nd t ha t i td id n ot r equ ire v ery h eavy p o in t ing — t he

wreath w ou ld h ave b een e nougb — t o b r ing V ictor ia-Faus t ina o r t he Imper ia l ( c iv i l ) p rov ince o f Br ita in t o t he Ro man mind. I f a l l a rgu men ts c ou ld b e s et t led i n t h is way , i tw ou ld c urb t he e xcess ive a cr i mony o f s o much s cho lar ly d ebate a l though — l i ke .Alexander 's s o lu t ion t o t he k not ty p rob le m a t Gord ion — i t must i nev itab ly d epr ive f u ture g enerat ions' o f t he r ea l j oy o f o ur s tudy , s eek ing a nswers t o p rob le ms e ven where n o d ef in it i ve e xp lana t ion c an e ver b e f ound.

Is hou ld , t herefore , e xp la in t ha t my

r ead iness t o a ccep t s evera l i n terpreta t ions o f as ing le r e l ief s pr ings f ro m a g row ing c onv ict ion t ha t t he d ist ingu ish ing c haracter is t ic o f Ro man Ar t was i t s a b i l ity t o a dapt f igure t ypes r ece ived f ro m c lass ica l ( Greek ) a n t iqu ity a nd t o e ndow t he m w ith n ew mean ings , j ust a s t he most i mpor tan t f actor i n t he r e l igi ous e thos o f t he Ro man Emp ire was , o f c ourse , s yncret is m.

Th is p o in t may

b e i l lustra ted f ro m amongst r ecen t d iscover ies o f e ngraved i n tag l ios a nd t he p resent p aper p rov ides a n o ppor tun ity t o i l lustra te t hree f or t he f irst t ime. Bonus Even tus i s g eneral ly s hown a s ay ou th s tand ing w ith a p atera o r d ish o f f ru it i n o ne h and a nd t wo e ars o f c orn i n t he o ther .

Two f our th-cen tury

s tatues b y Prax ite les a nd E uphranor , r espect ive ly , p rov ided mode ls.

Both

p or trayed Tr ipto le mos , a Greek d em igod c onnected w ith a gr icu lture , a nd t hey a re k nown t o h ave s tood i n R o me a t t he t ime o f t he E lder P l iny .

I ti s p oss ib le

t ha t Euphranor 's s tatue s howed Tr ipto le mos wear ing a c h lamys a nd w ith o ne l eg f lexed ;

a t l eas t g e ms o f ten d ep ict s uch a f igure who s o met i mes c arr ies

ab unch o f g rapes , ab ranch o r ac oun tryman 's s ta f f i n p lace o f t he c orn-ears , t he d ish o rb oth .1 l and ( P l. 1 4.Ia )

A r ed j asper i n tag l io f ro m t he f or t a t Raveng lass , Cu mber-

f igures B onus E ven tus h o ld ing t wo e ars o f c orn i n o ne h and

a nd a wrea th i n t he o ther .2 c f . P l. 1 4 .Ib )

The s ubst itu t ion o f ac iv il ian f ea ture ( t he d ish ;

f or a m il itary o ne , was c lear ly a d e l ibera te a t te mp t t o ' po in t '

t he s ub ject i n s uch a way t ha t i tw ou ld h ave a n i m med iate a ppea l t o t he s o ld ier .

3 41

Bonus Even tus , t hereby b eco mes e i ther a ma le e qu iva len t t o V ictory o r a ssumes t he r o le o f t he G en ius P opu l i Ro man i o r mere ly d es ignates y ou th fu l p rowess. The t ype i s u ncanon ica l , a nd a s f ar a s Ik now , u n ique , a nd w e h ave n o w ay o f t e l l ing wha t e i ther t he g e mcut ter o r t he owner o f t he s ignet t hough t h ad b een r epresen ted , e ven t hough t he g enera l mean ing o f t he d ev ice a nd i t s i conograph ic o r ig ins a re more t han u sua l ly a pparen t . An a na logous a nd e qua l ly u nexpected u se o f a wrea th may b e o bserved o n a n o nyx f rom C irencester w h ich s hows t he g oddess R o ma h o ld ing o ne i n p lace o f h er u sua l V ictory , b ut t h is d oes n ot r eq u ite a ny r ea l a d justmen t t o t he mean ing o f t he d ev ice ( P 1.14 , I c ). 3 S o met i mes , a s o n ag e ms tone f rom N ews tead , B onus Even tus may b e c lothed i n as hor t h un t ing t un ic , wh ile b y f ur ther e vo lu t ion t he l egs c ease t o b e c rossed o ne b eh ind t he o ther . But f or h is C orn-ears , we m igh t t ake t he y outh s hown o n as tone f ound a t Chester ford , E ssex a nd n ow i n t he Br it ish Museum ( P l . 1 4, I d ) a s a n o rd inary h un tsman. 4 I n af i na l t ransformat ion , Bonus Even tus s ee ms t o b e c on f lated w ith t he t ype o f D iana V enatr ix b ased o n as tatue b y K eph isodotos t he Y ounger :

aj asper c u t w ith t he i mage o fj ust

s uch a f igure was f ound b eh ind S t . August ine 's Abbey , Canterbury a bou t t en y ears a go ( P 1.14 ,I e ). 5

The s ta f f a nd c orn-ears b e long t o t he B onus E ven tus

t rad it ion , b ut t he s tance o f t he f igure a nd t he h ound w h ich b ounds b es ide h im a re e xact ly p aral le led o n i ntag l ios wh ich d ep ic t D iana • 6 The C an terbury g em i s c o mparab le w ith a s tone f ro m t he Rh ine land a nd a nother i n t he Hanover c o ll ect ion , a nd t he t ype o f Bonus Even tus t he h un tsman w as p resumably b orn i n s ome p rov inc ia l g e m-workshop t o f u l f i l l ad emand f or a g od o f s uccessfu l h un t ing who w ou ld b e s ubt ly d i f feren t f rom t he E leus in ian p atron o f t he c erea l c rop .7 A s upre me e xamp le o f Graeco-Roman a dap tab i l ity i s t o b e s een i n as ens at iona l f i nd f ro m V indo landa ( where Iowe J oce lyn Toynbee a g reat p ersona l d ebt f or f i rst b r ing ing t he e xce l len t work o f R ob in B ir ley a nd t he V indo landa Trust t o my n ot ice ). The i n tag l io , o nce a ga in a r ed j asper , p or trays a c leans haven ma le b ust i n p ro f i le. The h ead i s s urrounded b y t he r ays o f He l ios a nd i s c apped b y t he c orn- measure o f S erap is , wh i le t he r am 's h orn o f Ammon s prou ts f ro m a bove t he t e mp le ; e ssen t ia l ly t he d e ity i s He l iosarap is. I n f ron t w e s hou ld o bserve P ose idon 's t r iden t a round w h ich t he s erpen t o f Ask lep ios i s e n tw ined ( P l. 1 4 , Ib ).

H ere i s a n e astern , s yncret is t ic i mage o f t he

H ighest God — wh ich i n a l l p robab i l ity a t tes ts t he p resence o f a n Egyp t ian o r L evan t ine t rader ( or s o ld ier ) a t V indo landa. 8 Ever s ince A lexander t he Grea t a ssumed t he d iv in ity — a nd o utward a t tr ibutes i .e. t he h orns — o f Am mon , H e l len ist ic a r t h ad d isp layed a t endency t o c o mb ine t he a t tr ibutes o f v ar ious g ods o r o f g ods a nd r u lers .

Even S arap is

h i mse lf was , i n o r ig in , ac on f lat ion o f Z eus , Hades a nd t he E gyp t ian Os ir is ( P 1. 1 4 , Ia ). The s ubst itut ion o f a Roman P r inceps f or t he P to le m ies a nd o ther e astern r u lers d id n oth ing t o c heck t he t r iumphan t p rogress o f s yncret is m. H e l iosarap is , i ndeed , i s t o b e s een o n A lexandr ian c o ins o f H adr ian 's r e ign : o ur g em a ppears t o h ave b een f ound i n al a te s econd-century c on tex t b u t i t e xh ib its many s igns o f w ear a nd may n ot h ave b een c ut l ong a f ter t he s tr ik ing o f t hese c o ins . 9 I tw ou ld c er ta in ly a ppear t o b e e ar l ier t han t he w e l l-known i n tag l io f ound a t Cas t lesteads ( bu t n ow , a las , l os t ) wh ich p or trays S ep t im ius S everus i n t he g u ise o f S arap is. 1 °

3 42

a

PLATE 1 4.1:

I n tag l ios —

a , Red j asper ;

Raveng lass.

b , Red j asper - i mpress ion ;

X4 ( R. Wilk ins ) Co lchester .

X4

(M. Hen ig ). c , Onyx ;

C irencester . X3 ( C. S hut t lewor th ).

d , Red j asper ;

Great Chester ford , X4

( R. Wilk ins ). e , Red j asper — impress ion ; ( R. Wilk ins ).

Can terbury , X4

PLATE 1 4.1 1 :

a( above ), S arap is, marb le h ead ; ( J . Munby ). b( be low ), Red j asper ;

Wa lbrook M ithraeum .

i n tag l io , V indo landa.

X4 ( R. W i lk ins ).

The c arefu l b lend ing o f t ypes a nd a t tr ibutes wh ich t he Ro mans t ook f ro m t he Hel len is t ic wor ld , a nd wh ich u l t i mate ly s pread t hroughou t t he Emp ire c onst itu tes

a n impor tan t c la im t o Ro man o r ig ina l i ty i n a r t , a nd i tc er ta in ly

h ad mo men tous c onsequences f or t he f uture.

The ' open ' a t t itude o f mind wh ich

s uch j ugg l ing w ith s ymbo ls r epresen ts , a l lowed t he r ep lace men t o f a n o ld b earded d e ity ( Zeus/Jup iter ) a s t he c h ief g od o f t he Ro man s ta te b y ay outh fu l S un g od ( He l ios/So l — o r S o l I nv ictus ) i n t he t h ird c en tury A .D . ,w ithout a ny o f t he c r ises o f f a ith o r o f c onsc ience wh ich h ave c harac ter ised much sma l ler c hanges w ith in o ther c u ltures. 1

I ndeed , t here a re e ven h in ts t ha t i n t he e ar ly

d ays o f Chr is t ian ity , as o lar C hr ist o r a Chr ist ian Orpheus were , a l ike , a cc ep tab le .1 2

Ro man a r t r e ma ined r ich ly i nven t ive , a nd c apab le o f b e ing a dapted

t o n ew c ond it ions u n t i l t he v ery e nd.

A t i t s b est i te ndowed t he i mages i nher i-

t ed f ro m t he Greek p ast w ith f resh mean ing a nd d iscovered u nexpected i ns igh ts i n a nc ien t i conography .1 3

As i n t he a r t o f Ch ina — o r i ndeed o f Byzan t iu m ,

w h ich d rew o n t he a esthet ic l egacy o f Ro me its g rea tness l i es i n d e l icate p ermu ta t ions o f c o mpos it ion o r o f n uance. I n tag l ios a re amongst t he sma l lest w orks o f a r t p roduced i n a nc ien t t imes , b u t i tc anno t b e emphas ised s trong ly e nough , t ha t t hey a re amongst t he most v a luab le s ources o f e v idence f or t he h istor ian o f a r t a nd r e l ig ion.

A l l t oo o f ten

t hey h ave b een n eg lected b y s tuden ts a s b e ing o f s o mewha t e soter ic i n terest , b u t t h is i s a ssured ly n ot a mis judge men t wh ich we s ha l l f ind i n t he wr it ings o f o ur d ist ingu ished p atron — who h as , i ndeed , c hosen t o i l lus tra te h ere t he mov ing e ncoun ter o f Odysseus a nd Argos a s s een t hrough t he e yes o f a Ro man r epub l ican g e mcu t ter .14

REFERENCES

1 .

Hen ig 1 974 , 1 ,99-100 ;

I , 3 1-32 Nos. 1 85-202.

P ls. v i , v i i.

Hen ig

1 974a. 2 .

I n forma t ion f ro m T im P o t ter .

3 .

Br itann ia V I , 1 975 , 2 73.

4 .

Hen ig 1 974 , I , 3 2 N os. 2 00 , 2 01. P l. v i i.

5 .

F or t he t ype , S est ier i 1 940/1941. P l . x l i i.

P l. x x i , c .

S ena Ch iesa 1 966, 3 03 Nos. 8 36,

8 37 ,

Iam g ra te fu l t o Mrs. Smoo thy f or a l low ing me t o e xa m ine

t he C an terbury g e ms tone , wh ich i s i n p r ivate p ossess ion . 6 .

S ena Ch iesa 1 966 , 3 9 N os. 2 54-256.

7 .

H enke l 1 913 , 1 42 N o. 1 556.

P ls. l ix ;

P l. v i i i. l xxv i , 1 97.

Z azo f f 1 975 , 2 87

N o . 1 558, P l. c cv i i i. 8 .

I n forma t ion f ro m Rob in B ir ley .

N ote a n e ar l ier f ind o f ag em d ep ict ing

Z eus S arap is i n Hen ig 1 974 , 5 1 N o. 3 55.

P l.

X i i.

c f . P l. 1 9,Ia f or

a no ther s yncret is ing i mage o fJ up iter i n ' t he Grea t Ca meo o f S t . A lbans '. 9 .

F or a n e xact p ara l le l t o o ur g em i n r ed p aste a lso o f s econd-century d a te , c f . Zazof f 1 975 , 2 90-291, No. 1 583.

3 45

P l . x xc i.

For o ther i n-

t ag l ios p or tray ing He l iosarap is,

R ich ter 1 956 , 8 3 Nos. 3 62 a nd 3 63.

P l. XXXV I I I. On t he c o ins Cook 1 914 , 1 973, 2 99 P l. c xc i i , f igs. 3 11 a nd 3 12.

3 61,

F ig . 2 77 ;

1 0.

Proc. S oc. An t iq. Newcast le I , 1 885/ 1886, 1 47 a nd f ig . I , 5 1 N o. 3 58.

1 1.

Ha lsberge 1 972, e sp. 1 31-171; 3 42.

Hornboste l 1 973, 3 26.

H ornboste l

H en ig 1 974 ,

P l. c c iv , f i g . 3 42

Ab ronze s ea l f ro m K ingsco te , G loucestersh ire c u t w ith a p or tra it

o f S o l I nv ictus i s t o b e p ub l ished b y Mar t in Hen ig i n An t iquar ies J ourna l LV II , 1 977. 1 2.

1 3.

Toynbee a nd Ward-Perk ins 1 956, 7 3 a nd p l. 3 2; Toynbee 1 968, 1 88-189. Toynbee 1 973, 2 88-294. N ow c f. B ieber , 1 977, 2 72-3.

' The s p ir it i n Ro man Cop ies [ of s cu lp ture ]

a s we l l a s i n L a t in L itera ture i s R o man , e ven when t he mode ls w h ich i nsp ired t he m w ere Greek , a nd when t hey were d one b y G reeks o r p rovi nc ia l a r t ists '. 1 4.

The wr iter a po log ises f or i ndu lg ing i n what h e s uspects c an o n ly a ppear t o o thers a s g lyp to man ia - b ut i ti s a t l eas t a s h ar mless a s af ixa t ion o n s am ian p ot tery o r mi l itary e ar thworks , a nd p oss ib ly more u se fu l a s a n i ndex t o t he t astes o f t he a verage R o man .

3 46

1 5.

DEATH AND THE MAIDEN :

FUNERARY S Y MBOL IS M I N DA ILY L IFE Mar t in H en ig

" Now t hat t hey a ccusto med t o b urn o r b ury w ith t he m t h ings where in t hey e xce l led , d e l igh ted , o r wh ich w ere d ear u n to t he m i n t he o ther wor ld , i s t est i f ied b y a l l An t iqu ity .

Observab le f rom t he G e mme o r Ber i l l R ing u pon t he

f i nger o f C yn th ia , t he M istresse o f P roper t ius , when a f ter h er F unera l l Pyre h er G hos t a ppeared u n to h i m. And n otab ly i l lustra ted f ro m t he C on ten ts o f t ha t Ro mane Urne p reserved b y Card ina l l F arnese , where in b es ide g reat n umber o f G e m mes w ith h eads o f G ods a nd G oddesses , w ere f ound a n a pe o f Aga th , aG rashopper , a n E lephan t o f Ambre , a Crysta l l Ba l l , t hree g lasses , t wo s poones , a nd s ix n u ts o f Crysta l l." 1 T he s tudy o f f unerary p rac t ices p rov ides t he a rchaeo log ist w ith v a luab le e v idence a bou t p ersona l b e l ie fs c oncern ing t he p lace o f man i n t he n a tura l w or ld a s w el l a s b eyond i t .

I n h er D eath a nd Bur ia l i n t he Ro man Wor ld , J oce lyn

T oynbee h as e n larged o ur u nderstand ing o f t he Ro man a t t itude t o d ea th a nd s hown t ha t , c ontrary t o am is taken b u t w ide ly-he ld b e l ief , i t was e ssen t ial ly o p t im ist ic. Th is e ssay , h owever , t akes a s i t s s tar t ing p o in t ap ercep t ive p assage i n Ar t i n Br ita in u nder t he Ro mans where s he c o mmen ts o n t he s ubj ec ts p or trayed u pon d ecora t ive p arade-armour : "Why ...do we f i nd n o t o n ly s ub jects r ead i ly e xp la ined b y t he ir m i l i tary a nd c ava lry c on tex ts - Mars , M inerva , V ictory , t he D ioscur i , b a t t les , e ag les , s h ie lds , e tc . -b u t a lso s o me q u ite u nm il itary mot ifs - Cup ids , s ea-dragons , s nakes , d o lph ins , e tc. - t he mes t ha t a ppear p ers isten t ly o n a l l t ypes o f Roman-age f unerary monumen ts? I ti s , i ndeed , h ard t o b e l ieve t ha t t he c ho ice o f a l l t h is w ea l th o f i conograph ic d eta i l was p ure ly f or tu itous a nd c onv en t iona l a nd h ad n o s pec ia l r e la t ion t o t he i n teres ts a nd p reoccupa t ions o f t hose f or w ho m t hese a rms w ere made."

2

I f s o ld iers were c oncerned w ith t he f a te o f t he ir s ou ls - a nd Ih ave a lready n oted a s im ilar s e lect ion o f o ther w or ld ly d ev ices o n t he b eze ls o f s ignet-r ings f rom mi l i tary s i tes 3 - wha t a bou t o ther p eop le i n Ro man Br ita in? I t s ee med t o me t ha t t here was s o me e v idence a pper ta in ing t o t he mundus mu l iebr is i n t he f orm o f d ress j ewe l lery , j ewe l b oxes e tc. t ha t m igh t b e r e levan t h ere h ence my t i t le - a l though Id o n ot w ish t o c on f ine mysel f t o women a lone. My p urpose i s t o i so la te a nd d iscuss o ne s trand i n Ro man Ar t a nd , i t mus t b e s tressed f ro m t he o u tse t , i ti s n o t t he o n ly o ne. Much w il l d epend o n c on tex t .

T he l i t t le g lad ia tor ia l c up ids s hown o n aB ignor mosa ic a re , n o

d oubt , g enre f igures b u t a n o nyx c a meo d ep ict ing a p a ir o f mourn ing c up ids f orm a g rave i n S t . L eonard 's f ores t was p resumab ly s e lec ted f or b ur ia l b ecause o f i t s t he me . 4 ( P l. 1 5.Ia ). A lthough t he d o lph ins wh ich a re s hown

3 47

i ssu ing f ro m t he mou th o f N eptune o n t he Chr is t ian p ave men t r ecorded b y L ysons a t Fra mpton , p resu mab ly h ave a n e sca to log ica l s ign if icance , t he d o lph in p icked o u t o n ap iece o f l ea ther f ound i n a Ro man b oa t a t B lackfr iars m igh t h ave b een s hown mere ly b ecause o f i t s n au t ica l f l avour .5 I n t he c ourse o f t r ia l-trench ing a t t he Romano-Br it ish s et t lemen t o n Woodcu ts Co mmon , P it t-R ivers made a r e markab le d iscovery , e v iden t ly a l ady 's t o i let b ox w ith i t s f i t t ings a nd c on ten ts .6 A c os met ic p a l le t te , h a irp in , b ang les a nd aP enannu lar b rooch l eave t he p urpose o f t he c ache i n l i t t le d oubt .

The p in i s p robab ly o rna men ted w ith t he h ead o f t he v egetat ion g od

A tys who c er ta in ly a ppears u pon a b ronze p la te o f t he c asket i t se l f ( P l. 1 5.I ba nd c ) . Two o ther a t tach men ts i n t he f orm o f l unu lae ( P l. 1 5.1 1a ), p ara ll e led i nc iden ta l ly b y t he moon s hown o n t he j ewe l lery b ox b e long ing t o Reg ina u pon h er t o mbstone a t S outh S h ie lds , h eavens.

7

m igh t r e fer t o t he Aetern itas o f t he

Ac rescen t i s d ep icted o n t he t o mbs tone o f L . Ann ius Marce l lus

a t Chester a nd w e may a lso r eca l l t he p leasan t c once it o f Roman s ena tors w ear ing i vory l unu lae o n t he ir s hoes t o r em ind t he m o f t he ir s upra- mundane r espons ib i l it ies. 8 Equa l ly o ther-wor ld ly i s ah and le i n t he f orm o f t wo d o lph ins w ith a s he l l ( P l. 1 5.1 1 1 3 ). T he d o lph in c ou ld b e r egarded a s as ymbo l o f r eb ir th i n to t he a f ter-l ife wh i le t he s he l l , w h ich i s s hown o n t ombstones a nd l ead s arcophag i, i s a n a l legor ica l p ara l le l t o t he w o mb .9 Our s econd j ewe l-box w as f ound a t G od manchester . The c asket i t se l f was n o t r ecovered , b u t t he c on ten ts i nc luded t hree g e ms. Two w ere p as tes o f i n fer ior q ua l ity , b u t t he t h ird was a n ico lo o f e xcep t iona l b eau ty s how ing G anymede w ith t he Eag le 1 °.T he d ev ice o f G anymede o ccurs o n t o mbs tones f rom Este a nd Co logne a s w e l l a s u pon t he s tuccoed v au l t o f t he U nderground b as i l ica b y t he P or ta Magg iore i n Ro me , II a nd i s a n o bv ious s ymbo l o f s a lva t ion . On t he e v idence o f i nscr ip t ions u pon a r ing a nd a p a tera , t he B ackwor th Treasure was e ven tua l ly d ed ica ted t o t he Ma tres , b u t i n t he f i rs t i nstance t he j ewel lery i tc on ta ined mus t h ave b een i n tended f or u se a s p ar t o f t he mundus mu l iebr is. T he h oard c er ta in ly i nc luded t wo g o ld n eck laces w ith l una te ( and s o lar ) p endan ts o n t he m , s im i lar t o e xa mp les s hown o n p or tra itp a in t ings f ound i n Egyp t .1 2

F our r ings b ear d ev ices w ith p oss ib le o ther-

w or ld ly s ign if icance a s w e l l . A r ing i n t he f orm o f as erpen t b r ings t o m ind ac oncep t , w ide ly d isse m inated t hroughou t t he a nc ien t w or ld. S nakes w ere f am i l iars o f S abaz ios a nd a lso more g enera l ly r epresen ted t he g en i i o f t he d ead .1 3

An i ntag l io d ep ict ing a r oast-cock ( P l. 1 5.I I Ia ) b r ings t o m ind t he

l ast w ords o f S ocra tes : t o p ay t he d eb t ."

" Cr ito , Iowe a c ock t o Asc lep ius ;

w i l l y ou r e me mber

T he a ctua l b ones o f ac h icken w ere s omet i mes b ur ied w ith

t he d ead a s a n o f fer ing - f or e xa mp le i n o ne o f t he Bar t low Barrows. "

An-

o ther g em s how ing a p a ir o f c orn e ars , ( P l. 1 5.I I Ia ) i nc iden ta l ly p ara l le led b y af ind f ro m Bar t low , b r ings t o mind t he o ther w or ld ly myster ies o ft he E ar thMother .1 5 F ina l ly t here i s t he n ico lo i n tag l io s how ing a mourn ing s ervan t f igure o r g en ius , c o mparab le w ith t he S t . L eonard 's c up ids c i ted a bove o r t he f igure w ith t he l owered t orch who s tands o n o ne s ide o f V enus u pon t he L ow Ha m Mosa ic.

T he o r ig in o f t he t ype i s t hough t t ob e i n a n a dap ta t ion o f t he

o r ien ta l s ervan t f igure a nd i s most f am i l iar i n a r t o f t he Imper ia l Age a s Cau topa tes .1 6

3 48

a

C

PLATE 1 5 .I :

a , Cameo ; b , Bone p in ,

S t L eonard ' sF orest , S ussex . ?h ead o f A tys ;

Woodcuts,

c , Bronze moun t , h ead o f A tys ;

Wi lts .

Woodcuts.

PLATE 1 5 .1 1 :

a ( above ) , Bronze moun t i n f or m o f c rescen t . b ( be low ) , Bronze c aske t h and le , s he l l b e tween d o lph ins . B o th f ro m Woodcuts, W i lts .

These e xa mp les a re e nough t o d isprove , i n g enera l t erms , S ir Tho mas Browne 's o bserva t ion t ha t " An t iqu ity h e ld t oo l igh t t hough ts f ro m o b jects o f mor ta l ity". 1 7 However , ap a ir o f s i lver w ine-cups f ro m Boscorea le w ith r e l ief o rnamen ta t ion d ep ict ing d ra ma t is ts a nd p h i losophers o f t he p as t i n t he g u ise o f s ke letons , c er ta in ly e cho t he morb id ity o f T r i ma lch io 's s i lver s ke let ons. 1 8

S o me e p itaphs o n g ravestones a re a lso p ess im ist ic.

T itus F la m in ius ,

as o ld ier i n L eg io X IV , s ta t ioned a t Wroxeter a dmon ishes t he way farer w ith t he s en t imen t t hat " the g ods p roh ib it y ou f ro m t he w ine-grape a nd w a ter , when y ou e n ter T ar tarus. l i fe."

1 9

L ive h onourab ly wh i le y our s tar g ran ts y ou t ime f or

B eh ind F la m in ius ' p ess im is m w e s ee a c onsc ious r e jec t ion o f t he

s ymbo ls o f s a lva t ion - w ine , w ater a nd t he s tars - wh ich w ere a ccep ted b y s o many o f h is c on te mporar ies. A G reek i nscr ip t ion c arved o n ag ravestone f ro m Brough-under-S ta inmore ( and n ow i n t he F itzw i l l iam Museum , Ca mbr idge ) a lso s ees t he a f ter l ife i n

s hadowy t erms :

" Let s o me t rave l ler , o n s ee ing

H ermes o fC o m magene , a ged s ix teen y ears , s he l tered i n t he t o mb b y f a te c a l l o u t g ive y ou my g reet ings , l ad , t hough mor ta l t he p a th o f l i fe y ou s low ly t read , f or s w if t ly h ave y ou w inged y our w ay t o t he l and o f t he C i m mer ian f o lk '. Nor w i l l y our words b e f a lse , f or t he l ad i s g ood , a nd y ou w i l l d o h i m ag ood s erv ice" . 2 0 Aga in a n i mage o f s urv iva l -i fn o t s a lvat ion i s c hosen i n t he p unn ing u se o f t he b oy 's n ame , e qua ted w ith Hermes P sychopompos , b u t t here i s more t o i tt han t h is.

The e p itaph i s s urrounded b y emb le ms o f v ictory i n

t he f orm o fp a l m-branches a nd S o lar whee ls.

F ar f rom a b id ing f or e ver i n a

l and o f m is ts a nd s hadows , H ermes w i l l r ise u p t o t ake u p h is p lace i n t he E terna l h eavens. An umber o f s cho lars h ave r ea l ised t ha t t o mbs tones r evea l i n many i nstances , 'a s p ir itua l c oncep t ion o f d ea th a nd o f t he f a te o f t he s ou l wh ich i s f ar i n a dvance o f a nyth ing t augh tb y a ny r e l ig ious s yste m b efore t he e stab l ishmen t o f C hr ist ian ity .' 2 1 T h is t he me r uns w ith e spec ia l c lar ity t hrough J oce lyn T oynbee 's w ork whether s he i s wr it ing a bou t t he s tar-spang led s ky o n t he c anopy s hown o ver t he d eceased u pon a n Augustan r e l ief f ro m Am iternum , t he Bacch ic i magery o n t he a l tar o f Ame mp tus o r o f " the c ons tan t r epresen ta t ives i n s epu lchra l a r t o f Oceanus a nd o f t he h o meward j ourney o f t he h appy d ead o n s h ips o r i n t he g u ise o f N ere ids o r Cup ids c arr ied s afe ly o ver t he waves o n t he b acks o f f r iend ly , f ro l icso me s ea-l ions , s ea-bu l ls , s ea-horses , s eag r if f ins , s ea-cen taurs , t r itons , d o lph ins , a nd o ther Ocean-born c reatures." 2 2 S he d raws a t ten t ion t o t he o p t im ist ic c onv ic t ion o f t he ma jor ity , t hat t he a f terl i fe wou ld b e h app ier a nd more e n joyab le t han t he p resen t o ne. I s i t , t hen , s urpr is ing t o f ind t he s a me v isua l l anguage u sed i n t he b oudo ir a s i n t he c emetery? The a rgu men t w ou ld p robab ly a rouse l i t t le d issen t i fi tw ere l im ited t o t he t wo a nc ien t r el ig ions o f t he Ro man Wor ld wh ich h ave s urv ived -J uda is m a nd Chr ist ian i ty - a nd more p ar t icu lar ly t he l a t ter . T he t rad it ion o f b e l ief i s a c on t inuous o ne a nd t he modern Chr is t ian h as n o d i f f icu l ty i n a ccep t ing t he Ch iRho a s as ymbo l o f Chr is t 's v ictory o ver D eath whether i to ccurs o n at o mbs tone, o n t he Imper ia l L abarum o r o n af inger-r ing .2 3

Ap ew ter i ngo t f ro m

t he Thames s ta mped w ith t he Ch i-Rho a nd t he l egend " Spes i n Deo" c oun tena nces n o e ar th ly h ope , wh i le ab ronze r ing f rom R ichborough i nscr ibed " 1ust ine V ivas i n Deo" l ooks f orward t o e terna l l i fe i n P arad ise. 2 4 T he a rea o f s ymb ios is b etween Pagan ism a nd Chr ist ian ity w as e x tens ive a nd J oce lyn

3 51

Toynbee h as d e mons tra ted t ha t , e ven i n Br i ta in , Chr is t ians made c ons iderab le u se o f i magery c u l led f ro m t he ' Old ' r e l ig ion a nd f rom t he Mys tery c u l ts. 2 5 We n eed n o t b e s urpr ised t o f i nd P o megrana tes f l ank ing t he h ead o f Chr ist o n t he H in ton S t . Mary p ave men t .2 6 P o megrana tes a re a ssoc ia ted w ith t he Underwor ld a nd t he f ru it p lays a p ar t i n t he P roserp ina my th — b y e x tens ion i tc o mes t o s y mbo l ise i m mor ta l ity a nd s o Marc ia T hrason is i s p or trayed h o ld ing o ne u pon h er s arcophagus i n t he t o mb o f t he Marc i i u nder S t . Peter 's .2 7 I n Chr is t ian a r t d oves s ign ify t he p eace o f t he s ou l.

They a re c o mmon ly

s hown o n g ravestones , o f ten w ith t he Ch i-Rho o r t he t ree o f L ife . 2 8 Ap a ir o f d oves f lank a Ch i-Rho p a in ted o n t he w a l ls o f t he p u ta t ive House-Church a t L u l l ingstone , K en t .2 9 l onged t o Chr is t ians.

T hey a re a lso s hown o n p ersona l o b jec ts w h ich b eAl a te Ro man b ronze r ing f ro m t he s t il l u npub l ished

v i l la a t Moor P ark , Her t fordsh ire h as i t s b eze l e ngraved w ith a d ove o n e i ther s ide o f ap a lm ;

o ne o f t he s i lver r ings f rom t he v i l la a t F ifehead N ev i l le ,

Dorset b ears a d ev ice c ons ist ing o f ad ove , t wo p a l ms a nd t he C h i-Rho. 3 0 But p asser ines h ad l ong e p ito m ised t he b urgeon ing l i fe wh ich s pr ings f rom t he e ar th - t h is i s why b irds a ppear t oge ther w ith s ea-cen taurs , s ymbo l is ing t he j ourney o f t he S ou l o ver t he s ea t o t he B lessed I s les o n a Ches ter t o mbs tone a nd p erhaps why a d ove i s c hosen a s ad ev ice o n al a te-th ird c en tury g em f ro m R ibches ter , i nscr ibed " Ave Mea V ita". 3 1 L ife i s h ere i nvoked i n a metap hys ica l s ense a s i tw ou ld b e ah a lf c en tury l a ter o n s o many Chr ist ian r ings. P eacocks , wh ich p agans a ssoc ia ted w ith J uno a nd Orpheus , w ere b e l ieved t o p ossess i ncorrup tab le f l esh a nd , l ike d oves , t hey i nvoked t he c oncep t o f immor ta l ity . T hus t hey , t oo , o f ten a ppear i nt o mb-ar t , b oth Chr is t ian a nd n on-Chr ist ian . 32 P eacocks a re s hown f l ank ing a t ree o f l i fe o n al a te Roman b uck le , a l most c er ta in ly Chr ist ian , f rom Tr ipon t ium , Warw icksh ire ; t hey a re a lso a ssoc iated w ith a Ch i-Rho o n t he f l ange o f ap ew ter d ish f rom t he I s le o f E ly .3 3 A n a i l-c leaner o f f our th-cen tury d a te f ro m Or ton Longuev i l le n ear P eterborough i s a lso e ngraved w ith a p eacock ;

i n v iew o f i t s d a te a nd t he

p u ta t ive Chr is t ian s ign if icance o f t he f i sh e ngraved o n as im ilar n a il-c leaner f ound a t Bead la m V il la , Y orksh ire , w e may s uspect t ha t i tb elonged t o a Chr ist ian. 34 A t t he s a me t ime w e s hou ld n o t f orge t t ha t t he s econd-cen tury a nd p resu mab ly p agan i n tag l io f ro m R ichborough s how ing a p eacock , t ree a nd c an tharus i s r e la ted i n mean ing . As w e s ha l l s ee t he c an tharus i s a mos t p oten t s ymbo l o f i m mor ta l ity a nd i s e spec ia l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith B acchus P5 T he Bead la m V il la I ch thys a nd t he f i sh e ngraved o n t he b ow l o f af our thc en tury s i lver s poon f ro m Dorchester , Dorse t h ave e ar l ier , n on-Chr is t ian a ncestors. 36

L ike d o lph ins t hey c ou ld s ymbo l ise t he p assage o f r igh teous

s ou ls a cross O cean t o t he B lessed I s les.

Af i sh i s u sed a s as igne t d ev ice

o n ar ing a t Chester a nd o n t he b ack o f a n amber c ock le-she l l , p erhaps f rom Aqu i le ia , n ow i n t he Ashmo lean , af i sh a ccompan ies a d o lph in. H ere , i f t he s he l l r ea l ly d oes s ymbo l ise t he womb , w e h ave a n a l legory o f s a lva t ion a nd r e-b ir th i n to a no ther wor ld .3 7

F ina l ly a s econd-cen tury p ew ter s poon

f ro m L ondon ( P l. 1 5.I I Ib ) wh ich h as t hree f i sh d ep icted i n t he b ow l m igh t h ave b een d is m issed a s o f p ure ly c u l inary s ign if icance - i ndeed t he c en tra l f i sh h as b een i den t if ied a s ar ed mu l let a nd t he o thers , t enta t ive ly , a s s a l mon b u t t wo o ther s poons f ro m t he s ame w orkshop a re k nown . They w ere f ound r espect ive ly a t L ondon ( P l. 1 5.I I Ic ) a nd V indo landa a nd e ach s hows a p arro t

3 52

a

r E 1 5 .I I :

a , I n tag l ios i n g o ld r ings, c orn-ears a nd t russed c ock , Backwo r th ,N or thu mber land b , Pew ter s poon w i th f i sh, L ondon ( Museu m o f L ondon) . c , Pew ter s poon , p arrot o n c an tharus, L ondon ( Museu m o f L ondon ) .

-n ow i n Na t . Prov . Bank , Pr ince ' sS tree t .

PLATE 1 5.IV :

Go ld r ing — p an thers a nd c antharus, Corbr idge, (Mus. o f An t iqu it ies , N ewcast le u pon Tyne ).

o n ac an tharus, a Bacch ic d ev ice , wh ich t e mp ts o ne t o i nvoke a n e sca to log ica l e xp lana t ion f or t he r e ma in ing s poon .3 8 A l l t h is s hou ld l eave u s w i th s o me h ope o f i n terpre t ing t he p re-Chr ist ian s ymbo l is m o f Graeco-Ro man r el ig ion . The l a te Pro fessor R ichmond was , i ndeed , a b le t o d iscuss s o me o f t he d ev ices i n t he d ecora t ive p ane ls o f t he T hrone o f Max im ian i n Ravenna a l most w ithout r eference t o i t s s uper i mposed Chr ist ian mean ing . " The v ine-scro l ls a l ive w ith a n i ma ls i n t he Upper p ane l a nd t he p eacocks t hat s ymbo l ise i m mor ta l ity r em ind u s o f t he r ich i magery o f t eam ing l i fe b eyond t he g rave w h ich w as a ssoc ia ted w ith t he c u l t a nd e scato logy o f D e meter : b losso m , f ru it a nd f l owers , b easts a nd b irds a l l s uperabundan t i n a mag ica l r ea lm o f p len ty . T he l ower p ane l e choes t he s a me t heme , b u t i t s c en tre i s o ccup ied b y a mos t u nexpected f eature. T he c an tharus o r t woh and led v ase , o u t o f wh ich t he v ine-scro l ls s pr ing i s aD ionys iac mo t if , a s a re t he l i on g uard ians t o who m t h is p oten t s ource o f l i fe i s e n trus ted a nd a va i lab le."

3 9

I ti s n o t h ard t o f i nd s uch mo t ifs i n t he a r t o f Ro man Br ita in .

R ings f ro m

G rea t Ches ter ford , K enches ter , Wa tercrook , Corbr idge ( P l. 1 5.IV ) a nd V indo landa a re o rna men ted w ith p la tes wh ich p ro jec t a t r igh t a ng les t o t he h oop . T he d ev ice a ppears i n r e l ief i n e ach c ase a nd c ons is ts o f ac an tharus o r f oun ta in , f l anked b y p an thers. 4°

Av ery s im i lar r ing f ro m S pr ing irsbach

i s i nscr ibed " V ivas m i P ia Opp ta ta" wh ich m igh t h ave a Chr ist ian c onnota t ion -a s Char leswor th s ugges ts - a l though i ti s j ust a s l ike ly t o b e ap roduc t o f t he g enera l o ther-wor ld ly c l i mate f ro m wh ich Chr is t ian ity b enef it ted s o much i n i t s r ise t o s upre macy . T he w e l l-known i nscr ip t ion o n t he b ase o f a marb le s tatuet te f ro m t he L ondon M ithraeu m , wh ich d ep icts Bacchus a nd h is c o mp an ions , o f fers t he g od 's v o tar ies i m mor ta l l i fe i n p rec isely t he s ame s ense " Hom in ibus B ag is B ita m."

4 1

L ions a re d ep icted f l ank ing c an thar i w h ich

c on ta in t orches , o n al ead c of f in f ro m M ilton-nex t-S it t ingbourne , K en t a nd h ere , i n af unerary c on tex t , t he b easts m igh t r epresen t t ha t p r inc ip le o f f i re t hrough wh ich t he s ou l must p ass o n i t s way t o t he a bode o f t he d ead amongs t t he s tars ,4 2 b u t t he c ho ice o f aw ine v esse l t o c onta in t he t orches a ssumes a lso t he n o t ion o f s p ir itua l r efreshmen t. As poon s how ing a p arro t -t he b ird a ssoc ia ted w ith Bacchus 's I nd ian T r iumph - s tand ing o n ac an tharus , h as a lready b een men t ioned ( P l. 1 5.I I Ic ). Can thar i a re a lso r epresen ted c u t o n t he h eads o f j e t p ins f ro m Y ork , F ishb ourne a nd S i lchester wh ile t wo a re c u t i n as ha le mou ld f ro m Ha l ton Chesters u sed f or mak ing j ewel lery f rom g o ld f o i l ( o ther d ev ices i nc identa l ly i nc lude ad o lph in , as he l l a nd a s o lar d isc , a l l r e levan t t o o ur p resen t i nqu iry ). 4 3 Can thar i a re v ery c o m mon o n mosa ics ( and Ir efuse t o a ccept t ha t t hese w ere g enera l ly w ithou t s ign if icance - e ven i ft he ir i nheren t mean ing was n o d oubt o f ten i gnored . As w ith J ew ish mezuzoth a nd C atho l ic c ruc if ixes t oday t hey w ere a va i lab le i n t he b a t t le a ga ins t ma l ignan t f orces , h owever t hese w ere c once ived ). An emb le ma a t V eru lam iu m d ep ic ts t wo d o lph ins f l ank ing a c an tharusfoun ta in , a nd a f l oor a t C irencester s hows a c an tharus b etween a p a ir o f l ong t a i led b irds.

A s tr ik ing c an tharus a t F ramp ton , Dorse t i s a s-

s oc ia ted w ith a Ch i-Rho a nd mus t h ave b een i n terpreted a s a Chr ist ian c ha l ice. I n a ny c ase b o th s ymbo ls w ere c lose ly c onnected w ith t he i dea o f e terna l l i fe . 44

3 55

L iv ing c reatures a re u sed i n a r t t o e xpress t wo , f requen t ly c on trad ic tory , i deas ; b urgeon ing l i fe a nd v io len t d ea th . I n t he f ormer c ase w e h ave e nc oun tered d o lph ins a nd o ther c rea tures o f t he s ea , b irds o f v ar ious k inds a nd e ven l i ons.

T he s ub jec t o f t he a n i ma l p arad ise i s t he t he me o f ad e l ight fu l

c hap ter i n J oce lyn T oynbee 's An i ma ls i n Ro man L ife a nd Ar t a nd i ti s s uperf l uous t o r epea t wha t w as wr i t ten t here ;

b u t b eas ts h ad t he ir d arker p urposes.

T he i mage o f t he c arn ivorous a n i ma l k i l l ing o r e a t ing i t s p rey i s a n a pp ropr ia te a l legory o f d ea th . N o d oubt , i n Roman t imes , t he t heme a cqu ired a n e le men t o f a ctua l ity i n t ha t s cenes s uch a s t he l eopard l eap ing u pon t he b ack o f ag aze l le , s hown o n a mosa ic a t D ew l ish V i l la , Dorset were e nac ted i n t he Arena ( even i fi n frequen t ly i n Br ita in ). We a re r em inded o f D unbar 's l i nes o n d ea th : " He s pans n o l ord f or h is p iscence , N a c lerk f or h is i n te l l igence ; H is aw fu l l s trak may n o man f l e ; T i mor mor t is c onturba t me."

4 5

However t he i dea w as much o lder , a nd i s e ncoun tered i n Archa ic G reek a r t a nd e ven e ar l ier .

Even t he amph ithea tre w ith i t s b east-f igh ts a nd g lad ia tor ia l

c o mbats h ad a r e l ig ious o r ig in c onnected w ith t he c h thon ic p owers -a l though l a ter p o l it ica l a nd c om merc ia l e xp lo ita t ion must , i n e f fect , h ave e rased t h is f ro m men 's m inds. 4 6 I n Br ita in , t o mbstones s how ing l i ons a nd s ph inzes a re r ecorded f rom a n u mber o f s i tes i nc lud ing L ondon , Co lches ter , Cambr idge a nd C orbr idge. I n t hree c ases t he a n i ma l h as o verpowered s ome q uadruped - a l though t he Co lches ter s ph inx h as d is me mbered a man . 47 T he s ame t he me i s f ound o n j et f igur ines f ro m Che l msford ( P l. 1 5.Vb ) a nd S i lchester , a nd o n e ngraved g e ms i nc lud ing e xce l len t i n tag l ios f ro m G es t ing thorpe , Essex a nd Ba th .4 8 An amber f igur ine , p erhaps f rom a t o mb i n A qu i le ia a nd n ow i n t he A shmo lean Museu m , s hows a l i on w ith t he h ead o f as tag b e tween i t s p aws. 4 9 L ike j et , amber a ppears t o h ave b een r egarded a s a ma ter ia l a ppropr ia te f or g rave o f fer ings p erhaps b ecause o f i t s a pparen t mag ica l q ua l it ies a nd mys ter ious o r ig in . T he f a mous I nd ian s ardonyx c a meo o f S everan d ate f ro m S ou th S h ie lds s hows a b ear w ith i t s p rey . Dav id Sm ith h as c ommen ted p ercep t ive ly t ha t " i ts n ature a nd c ond it ion s uggest t ha t i tc a me f rom a b ur ia l", b u t t hat c anno t h ave b een i t s p r i mary p urpose. 5° J et b ears f ound i n g raves a t Y ork , Ma lton a nd Co lchester h ave b een d escr ibed a s t oys , b u t i ti s n o t u n l ike ly t ha t t hey t oo h ave a c h thon ic s ign if icance .5 1 I ti s p robab le t ha t t he l i tera l i n terpre ta t ion o f t he r avenous b eas t was o f ten mod if ied ;

l i ons migh t b e e ndowed w ith a c eles t ia l f unct ion ( P l . 1 5.Va ) a nd

p an thers w ere a t tr ibu tes o f Bacchus ( P l. 1 5.IV ). As J oce lyn T oynbee h as s hown u s , c arn ivores w ere b y n o means e xc luded f rom t he a n i ma l p arad ise. u` Apar t f ro m t he f l anges a nd l i ds o f t he L a te a n t ique s i lver f ro m t he M i ldenha l l T reasure wh ich s he c i tes , men t ion may b e made o f t he l i ons a nd b oars i mp ressed o n c lay l u t ing w ith j ewe l lery s ta mps d a t ing f ro m t he f i rs t c en tury A .D . b efore t he e rect ion o f t he P raetor ium o f Ro man L ondon a nd a lso o f t he

3 56

PLATE 1 5.V :

a , I n tag l io impress ion , l ion , Ch ichester X3 ( Ash m. Mus.) b , J et l i on , Che l msford , X3 ( Dep t . o f Env ironment ). c , I n tag l io , Cup id b urn ing b u t terf ly , Bath.

Actua l s ize.

d , I n tag l io impress ion , Bacchus, Ca mbr idge, X3 ( Ash m. Mus.).

c o m mon m in iature b ronze f i t t ings i n t he f orm o f l i on-heads wh ich may h ave o rna men ted j ewe l-boxes. 5 3 C er ta in ly t he f a mous mosa ic f ro m V eru lam ium wh ich p or trays a l i on h o ld ing a s tag 's h ead i n i t s j aws t e mpers i t s warn ing w ith t he c an thar i i n t he s urround ing f ra me w h ich p rom ise t ha t t he d ea th o f t he b ody i s b u t ap re lude t o t he e terna l w or ld o f p arad ise; i tr eassures t he d iners i n t he t r ic l in iu m t ha t ' t hou met 's t w ith t h ings d y ing , Iw ith t h ings n ew b orne.' 5 4 Ano ther f unerary mot if wh ich i s a lso f ound i n d o mes t ic c on tex t i s t he C up id h o ld ing a t orch .

T he o r ig in o f t he t ype i s b e l ieved t o l i e i n a n a dap tat ion o f

t he o r ien ta l s ervan t f igure , b u t i ti s i ncon tes tab le t ha t i ta ssu med a h igh ly c harged mean ing . C up ids b ear ing t orches f l ank a n i nscr ip t ion o n as arcophagus f ro m York a nd a re t o b e c ompared w ith t he p a ir o n t he f a mous V irg i l ian p avemen t f ro m L ow Ha m , S o merset where o ne h o lds a r a ised t orch a nd h is c omp an ion a l owered t orch .

V enus i s t he d isposer o f b oth l i fe a nd d ea th , a ppropr i-

a tely e nough a s s he i s ap ower fu l mo ther-goddess who h as a t h er c ommand t he b estowa l o f p ower fu l emo t ions. 5 5 Two mourn ing c up ids a re s hown o n a n o nyx c a meo , p resu mab ly o r ig ina l ly w orn i n ad isc-brooch , b u t e ven tua l ly t hough t t o b e a ppropr ia te a s a n o f fer ing i n ag rave a t S t . L eonard 's F ores t , S ussex ( P 1. 1 5.Ia ). A p a ir o f c up ids o n aj et meda l l ion f rom a g rave a t Co lches ter may a lso b e n oted i n v iew o f t he ma ter ia l o f t he c ameo a nd i t s a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t , a l though h ere t he c up ids a ppear t o b e e ngaged i n f il ing ab ag , r a ther t han s tand ing i n f or ma l f ash ion w ith t orches 5 6 Cup ids a re o f ten s hown o n d o lph ins , h ippocamps a nd t he l i ke.

P erhaps t he

b es t-known i nstance i n Br ita in i s t he F ishbourne d o lph in mosa ic , b u t t he t he me o ccurs o n g e ms a s w e l l. Here i ti s e asy t o p rov ide a n e xp lana t ion i n t erms o f t he s ou l 's j ourney a cross o cean , b u t c up ids were s o p opu lar i n e very t ype o f g enre s cene t hat i ti s p robab ly u nw ise t o p ress t he p o in t t oo f ar .

5 7

One i n terest ing t he me , a s f ar a s Ik now l arge ly r es tr icted t o g ems , mus t b e men t ioned h ere. w ith a t orch .

Cup id i s s hown h o ld ing a b u t terf ly ( Psyche ) a nd b urn ing h er

H ere i s a n a l legory o f t he s ou l b e ing t ormen ted b y t he b ody .

I fi ti s n o t f unerary ,le t u s a t l eas t g ran t t ha t i ts hows a s trong s p ir itua l c onc ept ion o f t he h u man p ersona l ity 5 8 1 5.Vc ). The s pec if ica l ly ' Ro man ' c on tr ibu t ion t o a nc ien t me taphys ica l t heory was modest a nd u n i mag ina t ive.

T h is h as m is led s ome s cho lars i n to t h ink ing t ha t

" Ro man r e l ig ion f roze t he i mpu lses o f f a ith b y i t s c o ldness a nd i t s p rosa ic u t i l itar ian is m."

5 9

H owever w e s hou ld c er ta in ly e rr i n i ns ist ing o n t oo r ig id

ad iv is ion o f Ro man b e l iefs i n to ' na t ive ' a nd ' o r ien ta l ' e le men ts.

As s ta ted

t owards t he b eg inn ings o f t h is p aper , t he Romans w ere q u ick t o a dop t Eastern a s tro log ica l t heor ies , i n wh ich t he moon c ou ld b e r egarded a s t he a bode o f t he s ou l :

l unu lae a ppear o n g ravestones a nd o n j ewe l-boxes , a s w e l l a s o n r ings

a nd p endan ts.

I n s o me i ns tances t he moon , a s as ymbo l o f D iana , c ou ld h ave

s erved a s ac h i ld-b ir th c harm b u t s uch c anno t b e t he e xp lanat ion o n m i l itary b ronzes o r o n as ignet r ing f ro m t he f or tress a t Y ork ." Fro m t he moon , t he s ou l

p assed o n t o t he S un .

S o lar-symbo ls a re a lso

f ound o n g ravestones wh i le a l ead c asket f rom Warw ick S quare , L ondon p ort rays a c har ioteer who i s p robab ly S o l i n h is C har iot . 6 1 The s o lar ' whee l ' s ymbo l i s f ound o n t he t wo Backwor th n eck laces c i ted a bove a s w e l l a s o n a s i lver n eck lace f rom N ews tead , ag o ld b race let f ro m B ackwor th a nd a j et

3 58

r ing f ound a t S outh S h ields. S o l , a scend ing t o t he h eavens i n h is c har io t i s a lso f ound o n e ngraved g e ms • 62 T he A sh-ches t o f J u l ia V ictor ina , n ow i n t he L ouvre , b r ings t ogether b o th l unar a nd s olar s ymbo l is ms. On o ne s ide w e s ee a b ust o f t he d eceased c rowned b y al una te c rescen t , o n t he o ther , t he b us t g lor if ied i n t he r ays o f t he s un . O n t he o ther t wo f aces t rees a nd b irds a re r epresen ted i n o rder t o i nd ica te t he a bundan t l i fe o f P arad ise .6 3 O f a l l t he i deas a bout d ea th wh ich Rome b equea thed t o Wes tern C iv i l isa t ion , t hese p an the is t ic a nd c os mo log ica l t heor ies w ere t he mos t p ers is ten t a nd i n f luen t ia l : " I am b orne d ark ly , f ear fu l ly a far ; Wh i lst b urn ing t hrough t he i n most v e il o f Heaven , T he S ou l o f Adona is ; l ike a s tar B eacons f ro m t he a bode w here t he E terna l a re. "64 Bus ts a re i nd igenous Roman c rea t ions. T hey a lways h ave a f unerary a spec t , a ctua l o r imp l ied , f or t hey a re c oncerned w ith me mor ia. D ona ld S trong c a l led t he t yp ica l v er is t ic p or tra it , " a s l ice o f l i fe , as cu lptured b iog raphy , ac ursus h onorum o f t he d ead man , ar ecord o f h is l i fe." 6 5 T he t wo f ine s econd-cen tury marb le b us ts f ro m L u l l ingstone w ere a pparen t ly v enerated b y t he owners o f t he v i l la i n t he f our th-cen tury .6 6

P ipec lay b usts

f rom Ro man b ur ia ls a t Br igh ton , Y ork , L ondon a nd e lsewhere a re e ven more c lear ly o f f unerary s ign if icance .6 7

P or tra its a re o f ten s hown o n r ounde ls

o r ' sh ie lds ' ( i .e. c l ipea te b us ts ) o n S arcophag i , a nd a re a lso d ep icted o n t o mbstones • 68

T hey a re o f ten r epresen ted f ron ta l ly , i n a n a t te mp t -n o d oubt

-t o p erpetua te t he p ersona l ity o f t he d eceased b yb r ing ing i ti n to i n t i ma te c on tact w ith t he b eho lder . p assed.

T he a t trac t ions o f f ron ta l ity i ncreased a s t ime

P rofessor P eter Brown h as wr it ten , " Far f rom a bandon ing t he g race

a nd i nd iv idua l ity o f t he b ody , t he p or tra its o f t he l a ter emp ire g a ther u p t h is b ody r ound t he d oors b y w h ich o ne c an p ass s tra igh t f ro m t he b ody i n to a man 's m ind. The ir emphas is i s o n t he e yes. The e yes f l ash o u t a t u s, r evea l ing a n i nner l i fe h idden i n ac harged c loud o f f l esh. g r ipp ing p or tra its."

6 9

L a te a n t iqu ity i s a n a ge o f

T he n ew a es thet ic i s w e l l s hown o n c o ins a nd a bove

a l l o n j et p or tra it meda l l ions f ro m Y ork a nd t he Rh ine land , f requen t ly f ound i n g raves a l though - l ike a l l o b jects o f t h is c lass whether t hey p or tray p or tra it b usts , c up ids o r t he u n iversa l ly a po tropa ic Medusa - d es igned f or u se a nd , g enera l ly , e xh ib it ing e very s ign o f w ear .7 0 Bus ts a re a lso f ound o rnamen t ing t he h eads o f b ronze a nd b one p ins . S o met i mes t hese r epresen t d e it ies , w ho h ave i n e ach c ase a n o ther w or ld ly c onnex ion . I s is i s s hown o n ap in f ro m L ondon ( P l. 1 5.V Ia ), M inerva o n p ins f ro m Avenches a nd Wa tercrook ; Mercury a ga in f ro m L ondon .7 1 Mos t o f t he b usts p or tray f e ma le p or tra its o f ten w ith d ist inc t ive F lav ian c o if fures , b u t a lthough t hese c an - o f c ourse -b e c o mpared w ith t he k nown i conography o f members o f t he Do mus D iv ina , t here i s r ea l ly n o r eason w hy RomanoBr it ish l ad ies s hou ld s o h onour t he l ad ies o f t he Imper ia l C our t .7 2 ( Pls. 1 5. V Ib a nd V ic ). The o ther-wor ld ly a spec t i s emphas ised b y t hose e xamp les w here t he b ust i s h eld b y ah and , i nc lud ing t he I s is c i ted a bove ( P l. 1 5.V Ia ). T here i s as im ilar e xa mp le i n t he A shmo lean where t he p or tra it i s o f s tandard h u man t ype , a nd a nother f rom V indon issa .7 3 The h and was s carce ly l ess i mpor tan t t han t he h ead a s a n e xpress ive s ymbo l , a nd i n t he f olow ing p aper Mr . Pau l Ar thur e xpounds t he metaphys ica l 3 59

b

d

PLATE 1 5 .V I :

B one p ins , a , ba nd d L ondon ( M . Hen ig ) ; c , S outhwark ( J .S . Earp) .

mean ing o fp ins wh ich d ep ict a h and h o ld ing a p o megrana te , e gg a nd o ther s ymbo ls.

An i n teres t ing t ype w h ich mus t b e r e lated , a l though i ti s h ard t o b e

c er ta in o f i t s mean ing , i s t he h and h o ld ing wr it ing t ab lets. f or t he e ndur ing n ature o f t he marr iage c on tract? 7 4

Does t h is s tand

At rad i t ion i n f unerary a r t e nv isages t he n ex t w or ld a s o ne o f c on t inuous f eas t ing .

G rave s te le f ro m C hester a nd Y ork e xe mp l ify t h is h appy b e l ief ,

w h ich s ee ms t o h ave b een g enera l i n most p ar ts o f t he Emp ire 7 5 A r e marka b le v ar ian t o n t he t ype i s t he f a mous S i mpe lveld S arcophagus w here a l ady i s s hown i n r e l ief o n t he i n ter ior w a l l o f t he c of f in , s urrounded b y o ther r e l iefs o ft he t r ic l in iu m f urn ish ings a nd e ven t he b u i ld ing o f h er v i l la. Amongs t t he g rave g oods w as a r ing i nscr ibed " Iunon i Meae" wh ich c on f irms t he s urm ise t ha t t he d eceased h ad a s trong f a ith i n t he s urv iva l o f h er p ersona l ity .7 6 A g em f ro m O uve i l lan , Aude d ep icts a man r ec l in ing a t af eas t , a l mos t c er ta in ly h is f uneraryfeast , a nd was p resu mab ly a me men to mor i o f ah appy s or t .7 7 The mo t ifs wh ich h ave b een d iscussed i n t h is p aper c an a l l b e s hown t o a l lude t o d ea th o r o ther-wor ld ly h opes o f r esurrec t ion . S o met i mes a s ymbo l w ith a s o mewhat d if feren t mean ing c an b eco me c harged w ith a s im ilar s ign i f icance.

T hus t he " dex trarum i unc t io" n orma l ly s ign if ies b e tro tha l a s i t

d oes o n a n o nyx c a meo f ro m N or th Wraxa l l , W il tsh ire a nd a j e t p endan t f ro m V indo landa , w here , h owever , t he o ther s ide i s c ut w ith t wo p ro f i le p or tra its o f a man a nd a wo man k iss ing .7 8 I ft h is h in ts a t "memor ia" s uch _is c er ta in ly t he c ase w ith a n i n tag l io f rom P ucker idge , H er t fordsh ire . 7 9 T he g em i s c omp lete ly f resh a nd w as n ever s et i n ar ing , h av ing b een i n terred w ith a f ema le c re ma t ion b ur ia l s oon a f ter manu facture. T here i s as tory h ere , i fo n ly w e c ould u nrave l i t . "Wha t s ong t he S yrens s ang o r what n a me Ach i l les a ssu med w hen h e h id h i mse l f among wo men , t hough p uzl ing Quest ions a re n o t b eyond a l l c on jec ture. Wha t t ime t he p ersons o f t hese O ssuar ies e n tred t he f a mous N a t ions o f t he d ead , a nd s lep t w ith Pr inces a nd Counse l lours , m igh t a dm it a w ide S olut ion . B u t w ho w ere t he p ropr ietar ies o f t hese b ones , o r w hat b od ies t hese a shes made u p , w ere a q ues t ion a bove An t iquar is m." 8 0 I t may , h owever , b e p o in ted o u t t ha t t he h andshake i s f ound o n G reek t o mbstones w here , a s Br i l l ian t wr ites , t he d ev ice "most p robab ly ...expresses t ha t c ont i nued c ommun ity o f t he d ead a nd t he l i v ing w ith in t he b onds o f t he f am i l iar s oc iety wh ich i n i t se l f c ons t itu tes i mmor ta l ity . I ,8 1 Ih ope t ha t t h is r ev iew w il l s uggest c er ta in l i nes o f e nqu iry , I ti s n o t e nough f or t he a rchaeolog ist t o d escr ibe h is ma ter ia l ;

h e s hou ld a lso t ry t o e xp la in i t

a nd t hus a dd a d i mens ion t o t he S oc ia l H istory o f h is c hosen p er iod .

A lthough

t he l i terary s ources f or Roman Br ita in a re h igh ly d efect ive , t here i s n o r ea l w arran t f or a n a ssu mp t ion t ha t i t s p eop le w ere p r im it ive — o r s tup id. S op h is t ica ted i deas a bou t t he l i fe t o c o me w ere e xpounded i n a r t d ur ing f our c en tur ies o f Ro man r u le a nd w hen t he Br itons u l t i ma tely b ecame Chr is t ian , af ew o f t hem , ( e.g . t he P e lag ians a nd G i ldas ), c ou ld e xpound t he r e lat ions h ip b etween G od a nd man w ith e ase a nd a u thor ity . L et u s n ot t ake e ven t he m inor a r ts f or g ran ted . A s imp le p in wh ich h as a' p ine-cone ' h ead r epresen ts t he t hyrsus ( P l . 1 5.V Id ) s uch a s B acchus i s s hown h o ld ing o n t he magn if icen t r ed j asper i n tag l io r ecen t ly d iscovered i n C a mbr idge ( P l. 1 5.Vd ) — a nd Bacchus i t mus t b e r e membered w as t he mos t p ower fu l o f t he S av iour d e it ies o f Ro me .8 2

3 61

T he t ree s hown b e tween t he p eacocks o n t he T r ipon t iu m b uck le o r b e tween t wo g oa ts o n a n amethyst f ro m Wroxeter i s ad irec t d escenden t o f t he Mesopot am ian t ree o f l i fe a nd , l ike t he p arad isetree o n t he H in ton S t . Mary mosa ic , i tl eads u s t o t h ink o f o ther-wor ld ly b e l iefs. 8 3 Corn-ears , p oppy-heads , p o megrana tes - t he s ymbo ls a re d iverse f or ' n ot b y o ne p a th a lone c an man a ch ieve s o g rea t a mys tery '• 84 D ea th w as a n e ver-presen t r ea l ity i n t he Ro man Emp ire , a l though - a s Professor K e ith H opk ins h as s hown - a t temp ts t o a ssess t he e xpecta t ion o f l i fe a tb ir th , o r e ven a f ter i n fancy , o n e p igraph ic e v idence a lone y ie ld s uspect a nd c on trad ic tory r esu lts. N ever the less h e b e l ieves t ha t i t must h ave b een " under 3 0 , w ith i n fan t mor ta l ity a bove 2 00 p er t housand ; g enera l ly t rue o f p reindustr ia l p opu la t ions."

8 5

f or t h is h as b een

I ti s n ot s urpr is ing t of i nd

O ther-word ly s ymbo l is m o n at r inket t o r em ind i t s owner t ha t " let h er p a in t a n i nch t h ick , t o t h is f avour s he must c o me ," o r t ha t g raves tones s hou ld b ear d ev ices wh ich c onvey t he i dea o f t eem ing l i fe. However , i t mus t b e a dm it ted t ha t e x treme a t te mp ts t o e xp la in e very th ing i n Ro man a r t i n t hese t erms w i l l d istor t o ur v iew o f t he Romans. Kar l S chefo ld w as r igh t ly c r it ic ised b y J oce lyn T oynbee ( i n ar ev iew o f h is b ook o n Campan ian Wa l lpa in t ings ) f or a t te mp t ing t o g ive e very th ing a n e scato log ica l i n terpreta t ion : " I f a f terl ife b el iefs w ere i n t i ma te ly woven i n to t he f abr ic o f d ayto-day r ou t ine , mundane i n terests , w hether ma ter ia l , s oc ia l o r c u l tura l , w ere n o t e xc luded f rom t hese p eop le 's h omes ." 8 6 Bu t i fw e a pproach o ur t he me i n ar espons ib le a nd c ircumspec t f ash ion , r ea l is ing t ha t mos t i nd iv idua ls i n a n t iqu ity b e l ieved i n ' powers ' o f a l l s or ts , a vo ided t he ' ev il Eye ', w ore o r s et u p p ha l l ic r epresen tat ions t o p ro mo te f er t i l ity a nd made o f fer ings t o l oca l s p ir its wherever t hey w ere , we w i l l f i nd aw or ld o f s tr ik ing a nd a t tract ive i magery . Men a nd w o men w ere k nown t o r eta in t he ir i nd iv idua l ity a nd t o a ch ieve a w or ld o f p len ty a cross t he o cean , b eyond t he s tars o r e ven a round t he t o mb i t se lf .

I tw ou ld b e f oo l ish t o l ook

f or c ons istency , c omparab le w ith Chr ist ian ' d ogma ', b u t t he i deas o f t he a nc ien ts d id i n f luence Chr ist ian b e l ief a nd a r t . The i mpor tance o f t h is l egacy h as b een e xpounded w ith s k i l l a nd s ympathy , s o o f ten a nd i n s o many d i f feren t ways b y J oce lyn T oynbee who h as s hown u s t ha t Ro man a r t-h is tory i s n o t mere ly a ma t ter o f c a ta logu ing b u t o f e xpos i t ion a nd t ha t i n s tudy ing i tw e must b e e ver " look ing f or t he o ther l i fe t ha t i s b eyond t he s tatues."

8 7

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T h is p aper owes a g rea t d ea l t o v ar ious f r iends a t t he I nst itute o f Archaeo logy , L ondon a nd e lsewhere. Mr . N icho las P o l lard o f t he I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy , Ox ford p roduced a n u mber o f p la tes f ro m p ub l ished l i ne-draw ings a nd o ther i l lus tra t ive ma ter ia l w as p rov ided b y D av id Brown , P a t T ownend , Hugh Chapman a nd P au l Drury .

3 62

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1 .

Hydr iotaph ia c ap 2 i n G . Keynes , The Works o f S ir Tho mas Browne I , s econd e dn., 1 964 , 1 44f .

2 .

Toynbee , 1 964 , 2 98.

3 .

Hen ig , 1 974 , p ar t i , 5 6.

4 .

Toynbee , 1 962, 2 00 , n o . 1 91, p ls. CC)0 (V , CCXXV I ;

Hen ig , 1 974,

p ar t i , 9 6 n o. 7 36. 5 .

Toynbee, 1 962 , 2 02f . n o. 1 99 , p l. CCX XX IV.

Merr if ie ld , 1 965, 1 96

a nd p l . XX X I I. 6 .

P it t-R ivers , 1 887, 6 1-67 p ls. X IX-X X I.

7 .

Toynbee, 1 962 , 1 60 , 8 7 p l. LX ) (XV.

8 .

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond , 1 955, 2 3 a nd p l. X II, n o. 3 5 ;

9 .

Boon ,1974a, 3 58 ( c it ing A . A . Barb ); LXXXV I ;

Cu mon t , 1 942, 9 7.

T oynbee , 1 962 , 1 61, n o. 8 9 p l.

Wr igh t a nd R ich mond , 1 955 , 4 4 , n o. 1 11 p l. XXIX ;

Toynbee

1 964 , 3 48. 1 0. 1.

Green , 1 957, 8 6, n o. 2 , p l. V I Ic = Hen ig , 1 974 , p ar t i , 6 7f , n o. 4 71. Fogo lar i, 1 957 , 3 9 a nd p l. o n 6 8; 6 426.

1 2.

Esperand ieu , Gau le , V I I I, 3 36 , n o.

Wadswor th , 1 924 , 8 1, p l. XXXV I I I , F ig . 1 .

Char leswor th , 1 961, 3 -5 a nd p ass im ;

f or t he n eck laces 3 4f . a nd p l. V I I ,

2C f . S hore, 1 972, 1 4 , p ls. I a nd X I. 1 3.

Char leswor th , 1 961, 2 5 , n os. 1 0-15 ;

L ivers idge, 1 968, 1 41f f ;

Gu iraud ,

1 975 , 7 9-87. 1 4.

Char leswor th , 1 961, 3 0 , n o. 7 9 = Hen ig , 1 974 , p ar t i , 8 9f , n o. 6 75 ; P la to , Phaedo 1 17;

1 5.

G age 1 840 , 4 .

Char lesworth , 1 961, 3 0 , n o. 7 9 = Hen ig , 1 974 , p ar t i 9 4 , n o. 7 22; Gage , 1 834, 7 f ig. 6 ;

1 6.

R ich mond , 1 950 , 2 5-29.

Char leswor th , 1 961, 2 8, n o. 6 1 = Hen ig , 1 974 , p ar t i , 7 5, n o. 5 23; Toynbee , 1 962 , 2 03-205 , n o. 2 00 , p l. CC X >O