Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain, Parts i and ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples in Continental Europe 9780860540854, 9781407389394, 9781407389400, 9781407323497

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Contributors
Introduction
1. Romano-Celtic Temple Architecture: How Much Do We Actually Know?
2. The Decorated Stonework of Roman Temples in Britain
3. Non-Classical Religious Buildings in Iron Age and Roman Britain: A Review
4. Altars, Curses and Other Epigraphic Evidence
5. Art and Cult in the Temples of Roman Britain
6. Religion, Coins and Temples
7. Churches in Late Roman Britain
8. A Further Quantitative Approach to the Analysis of Burial Practice in Roman Britain
9. Churches on Roman Buildings
10. Temple Archaeology: Problems of the Present and Portents for the Future
11. The Temples of Roman Colchester
12. Springhead - A Brief Re-Appraisal
14. The Hayling Island Temple and Religious Connections Across the Channel
15. Natives, Romans and Christians on West Hill, Uley: An Interim Report on the Excavations of a Ritual Complex of the First Millennium A.D.
16. Religion and Burials in South Somerset and North Dorset
PART 3: GAZETTEERS
17. Romano-Celtic Temples in Continental Europe: A Gazetteer of Those with Known Plans
18. Temples in Roman Britain: A Revised Gazetteer

Citation preview

Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research in Roman Britain with a Gazetteer of RomanoCeltic Temples in Continental Europe edited by

Warvvick Rodvvell

Part i

BAR British Series 77(i)

1980

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\LA., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, ::\1. A.

B. A. R. 77 (i), 1980: "Temples, Churches and Religion.", Part i © The Individual Authors, 1980. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389394 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389400 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860540854 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407323497 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

CONTENTS

Page List of Illustrations List of Contributors Introduction

1

PART 1: GENERAL PAPERS 1. Romano-Celtic Temple Architecture: How much do we actually know?

D.

R. Wilson

5

2. The Decorated stonework of Roman Temples in Britain

T. F. C. Blagg

31

3. Non-Classical Religious Buildings in Iron Age and Roman Britain: A Review

P. J. Drury

45

4. Altars, Curses and Other Epigraphic Evidence

M. W. C. Hassall

79

5. Art and Cult in the Temples of Roman Britain

Martin Henig

91

6. Religion, Coins and Temples

Richard Reece

115

7. Churches in Late Roman Britain

Charles Thomas

129

8. A Further Quantitative Approach to the Analysis of Burial Practice in Roman Britain

R. A. Chambers

165

Richard Morris and Julia Roxan

175

Warwick Rodwell

211

9. Churches on Roman Buildings 10. Temple Archaeology: Problems of the Present and Portents for the Future

PART 2: PAPERS ON SPECIFIC SITES AND AREAS 11. The Temples of Roman Colchester

Philip Crummy

243

12

Sydney Harker

285

Robert Downey, Anthony King and Grahame So:f:fe

289

.

Springhead: A Brief Re-Appraisal

13. SEE

EDITORIAL NOTE

14. The Hayling Island Temple and Religious C,cmnections across the Channel

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Page 15. Natives, Romans and Christians on West Hill, ffiey: An Interim Report on the Excavation of a Ritual Complex of the First Millennium A. D..

Ann Ellison

305

16. Religion and Burials in South Somerset and North Dorset

Roger Leech

329

PART 3: GAZETTEERS 17. Romano-Celtic Temples in Continental Europe: A Gazetteer of those with Known Peter D. Horne and Plans Anthony C. King 18. Temples in Roman Britain: A Revised Gazetteer

Warwick Rodwell

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

36 9

557

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS

L IST OF PLATES PLATE 1 .I

Page Model o f T e mp le C a t P esch

1 1

1 .1 1

R econs tructed s ec t ion o f t he t e mp le o n t he Bu t te d es Bu is

1 1

5 .I

I n tag l io f ro m S tragea th

9 4

5 .I I

H ead o f An tenoc i t icus f ro m B enwe l l

9 9

5 .1 1 1

C oin o f C o m mius f ro m Hayl ing I s land

1 09

5 .IV

Bronze e na mel led b rooch f ro m Hayl ing I sland

1 09

9 .I

A er ia l v iew o f Ca is tor-by-Norwich

1 79

Model o f t he Te mple o f C laud ius a t C o lches ter

2 46

1 4.I

Aer ia l v iew o f t he t e mp le o n Hayl ing I s land

2 95

1 4.1 1

The c e lla o f t he t e mp le a t I :r igueux

2 95

1 1.I

L IST OF F IGURES F IGURE

Page

1 .1

P lan o f t e mp les a t Mon t d e S ene

9

1 .2

P lan o f t e mp le a t I zernore

9

1 .3

P lan o f t e mp le a t H erape l

1.4

Recons truct ion o f t e mp le a t E ls t

1 5

9

1 .5

P lan a nd s ect ions o f t he t e mp les a t Woodea ton

1 7

1.6

P lan o f V eru la mium 1

1 9

1 .7

P lan o f Fr i l ford 2

1 9

1 .8

Recons truct ion o f Brean Down t e mp le

2 1

1 .9

P lan o f t e mp le a t Har f leur

2 1

1 .10

Recons truct ion o f ' Te mp le o f J anus ' a t Au tun

2 6

2 .1A

C orn ice o f T e mp le a t Wroxeter

3 3

2 .1B

Frag men t o f C orin th ian c ap i ta l f ro m Wroxeter

3 3

2 .2A

C o lu mn f ro m t e mp le a t N e t t leton

3 9

2 .2B

C o lu mn f ro m v i l la a t B ignor

3 9

3 .1

Map o f I ron Age r e l ig ious b u i ldings i n Br i ta in

4 6

3 .2

I ron Age r ectangu lar r el ig ious b u i ld ings , Groups A -D

4 9

3 .3

Recti l inear c our tyard b u i ld ings , G roup E

5 1

3 .4 3 .5 •3 .6

Middle I ron Age s e t t le men ts a t S ou th Cadbury , L i t t le Wa l tha m a nd H ea throw

5 3

D is tr ibu t ion o f R o mano-Cel t ic t e mples i n Europe

6 1

I ron Age c ircu lar s hr ines

6 3

3 .7

Ro mano-Br i t ish r e l ig ious b u i ld ings

6 7

3 .8

Ro mano-Br i t ish r e lig ious b u i ld ings

7 1

3 .9

Ro mano-Br i t ish r e l ig ious b u i ld ings

7 3

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F IGURE

Page

5 .1

Repoussee b ronze p laque f ro m U ley

1 05

6 .1

H is togram o f c o ins f ro m U ley

1 19

6 .2

H is togra m o f c oins f ro m r ura l s i tes i n Br i ta in

1 19

6 .3

C o in p lot :

r ad ia tes t o c o ins a f ter 3 50

1 21

6 .4

C o in p lot :

U ley a ga ins t Br i t ish G roup I

1 23

6 .5

C o in p lot :

U ley ' corrected ' a ga ins t B r i t ish Group I

1 23

6 .6

C o in p lot :

d ev ia t ion o f U ley f ro m Br i t ish G roup I

1 25

6 .7

D iagra m o f c oin a nd p er iod r e la t ionsh ips a t U ley a nd K ingscote t o t he Br i t ish means

1 27

7 .1

D iagra m o f i n terna l a reas o f Ro mano-Br i t ish c hurches

1 51

7 .2

D iagra m o f i n terna l a reas o f s ix Ang lo-Saxon c hurches

1 53

7 .3

P lans o f c hurch a t I ck l ingham

1 55

8 .1

Record ing f or m f or g enera l c e metery d a ta

1 69

8 .2

Record ing f or m f or b ur ia ls

1 73

9 .1

Map o f c hurches a nd R o man s i tes i n E ssex

1 77

9 .2

Deve lop men t p lans o f R ivenha l l , E ssex

1 89

9 .3

D iagra m t o i l lus tra te e ccles ias t ica l d eve lop men t o f v i l la s i tes

.2 04

1 0.1

C e l t ic t e menoi i n Br i ta in

2 14

1 0 .2

Poss ible d evelop men t s equence a t U ley

2 15

1 0.3

Recons truct ion o f t he t e menos a t S lonk H i l l

2 17

1 0.4

Chel ms ford 3 :

2 25

1 0 .5

Pagans H i l l :

p lan a nd r econs truct ion p lans

2 27

1 1.1

L oca t ion o f t e mples a t C o lches ter

2 45

1 1.2

C o lches ter :

t e mp le p lans

2 47

1 1.3

C o lches ter :

t e mp le p recinct p lans

2 49

1 1.4

C o lches ter :

d eta i l o f ' vau l ts ' o f T e mp le 1

2 50

1 1.5

C o lches ter :

r econs tructed p lans o f T e mp le 1

2 50

C o lches ter :

r econs truct ion o f f acade o f T e mp le 1

1 1.6

p recinct

2 51

C o lches ter :

t he S heepen s anctuary

C o lches ter :

p lan o f T e mp le 2

2 54

C o lches ter :

p lans o f Te mp les 4 a nd 5

2 55

C o lches ter :

p lan o f Bu i ld ing B a t S heepen

2 57

C o lches ter :

p lan o f Bu i ld ing a t S t . He len 's S choo l

2 57

C o lches ter :

p lan o f T e mp le 6

2 59

C o lches ter :

t he G osbecks s anc tuary

2 59

C o lches ter :

c rop marks a nd b u i ld ings a t G osbecks

2 61

2 53

C o lches ter :

p lan o f Bu tt Road c e me tery

2 63

C o lches ter :

p lan o f Te mp le 9

2 67

C o lches ter :

e as t e nd o f Te mp le 9

2 67

C o lches ter :

Ba lkerne Lane p lans

2 69

C o lchester :

p lan o f Bu i ld ing A a t Ba lkerne Lane

2 70

C o lches ter :

p lan o f t he ' m i thraeu m '

2 71

C o lches ter :

c o in h is togra m

2 73

S pr inghead :

g enera l p lan

2 87

Hayling I s land :

p lan o f I ron Age f ea tures

2 91

Hayling I s land :

p lan o f R o man f ea tures

2 92

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F IGURE

Page

1 5 .1

U ley:

p lan o f p reh is tor ic a nd e ar ly Ro man f ea tures

3 07

1 5.2

U ley:

p lan o f l a te Ro man f ea tures

3 11

1 5 .3

U ley:

p lan o f s ub-Ro man f ea tures

3 15

1 5.4

U ley:

i n terpre ta t ion p lan o f p os t-te mp le b u i ld ings

3 17

1 5 .5

U ley:

r econstruct ion o f c u l t-f igure o f Mercury

3 23

1 5.6

U ley:

b ronze f igur ine o f Mercury

3 24

1 5 .7

U ley:

d ef ix io N o. 2

3 26

1 5 .8

U ley

d ef ix iones No . 3a nd N o . 4

3 28

1 6.1

Map o f Ro man s i tes i n s ou th S o merset a nd n or th Dorset

1 6.2

Lamya t t B eacon :

1 6.3

Brad ley H i l l :

e xcava t ion p lan

e xcava t ion p lan

3 30 3 33 3 39

1 6.4

C o mpara t ive p lans o f sma l l e as t '-wes t b u i ld ings

3 51

1 7.1

Map o f R o mano-Cel t ic t e mp les i n Europe

4 94-5

1 7.2

P lans o f t e mp les a t L a Panouse-de-Cernon , Hofs tadel ez-A los t , Haegen , L abu iss iere , Va l-Suzon , L es Tourne l les , Tr ier G , Nages , Z ingsKei m , S t Ouen a nd S angu ine t.

1 7.3

5 00

P lans o f t e mp les a t La G rau fesenque , G robbendonk E , O f fe mon t , S chauenburger f lue , B eau mon t-le-Roger A , S t Pardow c , Pup i l l in , C o lo mbieres-sur-Orb , Taden , Essar ts , G ero ls tein a nd Bre t ten .

1 7.4

5 01

P lans o f t e mples a t S t Marce l A , S t Marcel B , Baudrev i l le , La Mare-du-Pu i ts , N ewel , Mon t B erby , Or iva l , Ve lzeke , P les tin-les-Greves , Va t tev i l le-la-Rue , S t S a ns a nd Mon t jus t in .

1 7.5

5 02

P lans o f t e mp les a t Tr igueres B , C hâ teau-Porcien , B igonas , S t Margarethen , B ern-Engeha lbinsel D , Bausend orf , Ava l lon , Bregenz A , Bregenz B , Tav igny, Tre mb lois a nd V iei l le-Tou louse.

1 7.6

5 03

P lans o f t e mp les a t Tr ier A , Tr ier B 1 , Tr ier C , Tr ier D a nd E , Tr ier F , Tr ier H , Tr ier I , Tr ier J , Tr ier L a nd Tr ier M.

1 7.7

gand

R , Tr ier S , Tr ier U , C arnac A , Carnac B ,

Ke mp ten , L ouviers a nd C ha la in-d 'Uzore. 1 7.8

5 04

P lans o f t e mp les a t Tr ier N , Tr ier P , Tr ier T , Tr ier 5 05

P lans o f t e mples a t P esch A , Pesch , l oca t ion p lan , P esch B , Wind isch , Loubers , La Londe , Bracque mon t , H eudrev i l le-sur-Eure , V idy-Lausanne a nd Ep ia is-Rhus A .

1 7.9

Orgevi lle , C ivaux , H ochscheid , Koblenz a nd U fenau . 1 7.10

5 06

P lans o f t e mp les a t Har f leur , Cra in , Caudebec-lbs-Elbeu f , 5 07

P lans o f t e mp les a t J ubla ins A , Mon t Beuvray , L inz , Kon tich , L iberchies-Bons-V i l lers a nd S t Amand-surOrna in .

1 7.11

P lans o f t e mples a t Avenches A , B ern-Engeha lbinse l A ,

1 7.12

P lans o f t e mples a t R ibe mon t-sur-Ancre , Augs t D ,

1 7.13

P lans o f t e mp les a t Au tun A , Nu i ts-S t- Georges a nd

G robbendonk , l oca t ion p lan a nd G robbendonk A . Aesch i a nd E ls t . P lo modiern . Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

5 08 5 09 5 10 5 11

F IGURE 1 7.14

Page P lans o f t e mp les a t Tr ier -Heidenborn A , Tr ier He idenborn _ B a nd C , Tegna , S tu t tgar t a nd Roquefor ts ur-Sou lzon .

1 7.15

P lans o f t e mp les a t S a in tes B , S tuden G , S t Aubin-surMer , Augs t C , Net tershei m a nd L e Ca tel ier-de-Cr iquebeu f .

1 7.16

5 13

P lans o f t e mples a t B eau mon t-le-Roger B , G usenburg a nd Cracouv i l le .

1 7.17

P lans o f t e mples a t Ka iseraugs t , Dhronecken , O trang

1 7.18

S t Ouen-de-Thouberv i l le , Regensburg , Möhn a nd S t

a nd Mouzon . Aubin-suf- G a i l lon . 1 7.19

5 12

5 14 5 15 5 16

P lans o f t e mp les a t Eu A , B a nd C , H ecken müns ter A a nd B , Heckenmüns ter , l oca t ion p lan , Marger ides A— a nd B a nd Ma tagne-la-Pe t i te A a nd B .

1 7.20

5 17

P lans o f t e mp les a t B ierbacker K los terwa ld A a nd B , C ö tes , Mon t-de-Sene A ,a nd B , S orcy-S t Mar tin A , B a nd C a nd Kornel i müns ter A , Ba nd C .

1 7.21

P lans o f t e mp les a t G ergov ie A a nd B , Fon ta ine-Va lmon t

1 7.22

P lans o f t e mples a t Cha mpigny-les-Langres A a nd B ,

1 7.23

P lans o f t e mples a t V iei l-Evreux , l oca t ion p lan , V iei l-

A a nd 1 3 _ , . G ena inv i l le a nd G robbendonk C . Essaro is A a nd B a nd Ancey e t Ma la in . Evreux C , V iei l .Evreux A a nd Agus t B . 1 7.24

5 19 5 20 5 21

P lans o f t e mp les a t Vers igny , Poi t iers A a nd B a nd Po m mern A , B a nd C .

1 7.25

5 18

5 22

P lans o f t e mples a t Auxerre , Hannu t , N ieda l tdor f B , S te Ru f f ine , H ecken müns ter C , Caren to ir , Erquy , G ohI l l is a nd G ree- Mahe.

5 23

1 7.26

P lans o f t e mp les a t A l ise-S te Reine C , Le Herape l a nd

1 7.27

P lans o f t e mp les a t S anxay A , Tr ier K , S t R ever ien A ,

1 7.28

P lans o f t e mples a t Faye-l 'Abbesse , Moaners , Crozon , Craon a nd P er igueux .

5 26

1 7.29

P lans o f t e mp les a t Vendeuvre a nd Ta l mon t .

5 27

1 8 .1

Map o f C lass ica l t e mples i n Br i ta in

5 77

1 8 .2

Map o f Ro mano-Ce lt ic t e mp les i n Br i ta in

5 79

1 8 .3

Map o f sma l l r ectangu lar t e mples i n Br i ta in

5 81

1 8 .4

Map o f s i mp le c ircu lar t e mp les i n Br i ta in

5 83

1 8 .5

Map o f b as i l ica l a nd r ec tangu lar t e mp les i n Br i ta in

5 85

Chassenon A . Budapes t , P fünz a nd B eau mon tle-Roger C .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

5 24 5 25

L IST OF CONTRIBUTORS

T . F . C . B lagg , M .A . Ru therford C o l lege , U n ivers i ty o f K ent R . A . C ha mbers , B .A . F ie ld O f f icer , Oxfordsh ire A rchaeo log ica l U n i t P . J . C ru m my , M . A . D irec tor , C o lches ter A rchaeo log ica l T rus t P . J . D rury , A .R .I .C . S . D irec tor , C he l msford E xcava t ion C o m mi t tee R . R . Downey , B .A . A ir P hotographs U n i t , Roya l C o m miss ion o n H is torica l Monu men ts ,. L ondon Mrs . A . B . E l l ison , M .A . ,P h .D . ,F . S .A . D irec tor , Wessex A rchaeo log ica l U n i t S . R . H arker G ravesend H is tor ica l S oc ie ty M . W . C . H assa l l , M .A ., F . S .A . I ns t itu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n iversi ty o f L ondon M . E . Henig , M .A ., D . P h i l ., F . S .A . I ns t itute o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f Oxford P . D . H orne , B . A . I ns t itu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f L ondon A . C . K ing , B .A . I ns t itu te o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f L ondon R . H . L eech , M .A . ,P h .D . ,F . S .A . D irec tor , C u mbria a nd L ancash ire A rchaeo logica l U n i t R . K . Morris , B .A . ,B . Ph i l . Depart ment o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f L eeds R . M . Reece , B . S c ., D . P h i l ., F . S .A . I ns t i tute o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f L ondon W . J . Rodv ve l l , B .A ., D . P h i l ., F . S .A . D irec tor , C omm i t tee f or Rescue A rchaeo logy i n Avon , G louces tersh ire a nd S o merse t

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Miss J . Roxan , B .A . Depart men t o f A rchaeo logy , U n ivers i ty o f L eeds G . S of fe , B .A . A ir Photographs U n i t , R oya l C o m miss ion o n H is torica l Monu men ts , L ondon P rofessor A . C . Tho mas , M .A ., F . S .A ., H on . M .R .I .A . I ns t itute o f C orn ish S tudies , U n ivers ity o f E xe ter D . R . Wi lson , M .A ., B . L i t t ., F . S .A . C omm i t tee f or Aeria l Photography , U n ivers i ty o f C a mbridge

EDITORIAL NOTE I ti s w i th t he u t mos t r egre t t ha t we p ubl ish t h is v o lu me w i thou t p aper N o . 1 3 .

T he a u thor o f t ha t p aper h ad , i n a ccordance w i th C iv i l S erv ice

r equ ire men ts , t o s ub m i t i tt o t he D irec tor o f A nc ien t Monumen ts a nd H is tor ic Bu i ld ings ( DOE ) f or o f f ic ia l c learance b e fore p ubl ica t ion . A f ter f our mon ths o f wa i t ing t here was s t i l l n o i nd ica t ion o f t he p aper b e ing r e leased , a nd t he p roduct ion o f t he v o lume c ou ld n o t b e d e layed a ny l onger .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

INTRODUCTION

Despite the inherent fascination of temples, religious cults and the whole field of ancient ritual, there has been remarkably little detailed study under­ taken on the religious sites of Roman Britain. There has been only one previous volume devoted to the subject-M. J. T. Lewis', Temples in Roman 1 Britain (1966)-and two papers of substance, by Mr Wilson and Mr Muckelroy. Dr Lewis has conveniently collected together in one seminal volume plans and brief accounts of all certain and probable temples which had been pub­ lished up to 1963. At the time of writing he was able to refer to recent or current excavations on several important temple complexes which promised to make substantial contributions to our understanding of religious sites in Roman Britain; they included Springhead, Harlow, Colchester (Sheepen temples), Thistleton and Nettleton Shrub. In the mid 1960s there was a gen­ eral feeling that new knowledge of Romano-British temples was fast accruing, not merely in the form of plans, but also in the more pressing issues of ori­ gins, topographical setting, morphological development and cult associations. But the burst of knowledge which was anticipated did not manifest itself. A mere trickle of bits and pieces of information became accessible. It is a sad reflection that, 15 years or so later, not one of the sites mentioned above can be accredited with a full published report. The death of excavators, pressure of other work and basic disinclination to write reports have all taken their toll. On the more positive side, however, several sites which remained un­ published from earlier years, or were currently under excavation when Lewis wrote have appeared in print in full during the intervening time: eg. Bath, Brean Down, Collyweston and Pagans Hill, and half of the long-awaited report on Lullingstone has just become -available. Temples, like Roman villas, have suffered from ill-conceived trenching (for 'the plan') and over-hasty clearance, with the result that our knowledge of the latest, and post-temple, phases of activity on most sites is negligible. Likewise, knowledge of the origins of temple buildings and their spatial and temporal relationships to their immediate environs is still at a very elemen­ tary level. It is therefore most welcome that in the last few years entirely fresh approaches to the related problems of excavation techniques, analysis and interpretation have been brought to bear on sites such as Hayling Island and Uley. But large-scale excavation is only one approach; the re-examin­ ation of old sites, the problems of reconstruction and interpretation, and the study of all classes of finds have been proceeding steadily at the hands of many scholars in the last two decades, and several important papers have been published. In view of the evident growth in Romano-British temple archaeology and allied subjects, it was felt that the time was ripe for a general assessment of the current state of knowledge, both in the form of a conference and a volume

1

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

of up-to-date reports and research papers. Accordingly, a conference held under the auspices of the Department for External Studies took place in the University of Oxford in May 1979. Many of the papers contained in this volume are based on those given at the conference (happily there were no defaulters), while several others were specially prepared for this publication. It was determined at the outset that the papers should cover, as far as possible, the whole field of temple archaeology in Britain and that the Roman period should be seen against a slightly wider chronological background. Thus immediately pre- and post-Roman aspects of religious practice are here em­ braced, and we are mindful of the Christian as well as the pagan. The volume is divided into three parts. Part 1 contains the general papers, beginning with Mr Wilson's review of the evidence for the architec­ tural form of the Romano-Celtic temple, the best-known type of religious building in Roman Britain. In particular, he assesses critically the evidence for colonnaded ambulatories and open-sided cellae. Mr Blagg then takes a hard look at the moulded stonework which once adorned the entablatures and colonnades of, it seems, a relatively small number of temples. The vexed question of temple origins in Britain is explored by Mr Drury, who examines the ever-growing body of data which relates to the long ancestry of religious buildings of simple form. At last, Heathrow can be seen as an element in a respectable Iron Age ancestry for the Romano-Celtic temple, and not as an inexplicable intruder (pace Lewis). In a pair of closely related papers Mr Hassall and Dr Henig present a conspectus of evidence for the dedications of temples, their altars and cult objects, for the offerings received and the vows made, thus bringing alive the human and super-human aspects which are enshrined in the stone and tim­ ber buildings which previous papers have illuminated. Religious symbolism on Celtic and Roman coins is well known, as is the ubiquity of these small objects on most temple sites; and in a two-part paper Dr Reece examines first the influence of Christianity on Roman coin-art, and secondly the nature of coin assemblages on temple sites. He demonstrates, contrary to previous belief, that there is p.othing exceptional about temple coin assemblages and that the loss pattern is entirely comparable with that on other rural and semi­ rural sites. The same theme, with specific reference to temple coinage of Colchester, is taken up by Mr Crummy, who also concludes that assemblages from religious sites around the colonia are not immediately distinguishable by their composition. The important and much neglected subject of churches in Roman Britain is explored by Professor Thomas in a wide-ranging appraisal of the evidence. He shows in a penetrating examination of churches, chapels and martyria in post-Roman Britain and beyond how these clearly owe something to an insular tradition which went before. In the later Roman period there was an increasing association between inhumation burials and religious structures, but skeletons which are not accompanied by intrinsically interesting grave-goods have been woefully neglected, regardless of whether they are pagan or Christian, and Mr Chambers introduces us to a new approach to the systematic study of burials, which has recently been devised. In the Anglo-Saxon period burial and religion became inseparably associated and the remarkably high incidence of post-Roman Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

2

churches and graveyards which lie in potentially meaningful relationships to significant features of the Roman landscape, especially villas, cannot all be fortuitous. Mr Morris explores these relationships and suggests some of their implications. His paper provides a timely reminder of how little we know about the religious structures which were undoubtedly associated with villas, even if we cannot now easily recognise house-temples and house-churches. To conclude the first part, I have summarised some of the recent advances made in Romano-British religious archaeology, have delved into one or two aspects in slightly greater detail, and have outlined a few of the more acute problems which still face us, venturing to point to future directions for research. Part 2 contains six carefully selected papers on recent excavations and research relating to particular temple sites or areas. The material contained in each paper tells us not just about the site or area under consideration, but has wider implications too. It is perhaps fitting that this section should begin with a Roman city-Colchester-where Mr Crummy reviews the largest agglom­ eration of religious structures known from any site in Britain. These range from the Classical Temple of the Imperial Cult, through Romano-Celtic tem­ ples, to small shrines and a martyrium. In sharp contrast to Colchester is Springhead, a small compact town with a group of temples at its centre; Mr Harper outlines the concluding stages of many years' work there by the late W. S. Penn and presents an up-to-date plan of the complex. At Godmanchester, another small Roman town, Mr Green has excavated the well-known mansio and, more recently, has discovered and excavated an associated temple com­ plex. In his paper he not only presents structural evidence, but also discusses finds of religious material in Celtic and Roman Godmanchester. * The isolated temple site at Hayling Island, which Messrs Downey, King and Soffe are currently excavating is remarkable in two ways: first, there was an Iron Age timber shrine here which attracted a considerable wealth of offerings; and secondly the succeeding Roman masonry temple was of a type so far unparalleled in Britain. Its origin and parallels have to be sought in Gaul. Uley is remotely situated on the Cotswold scarp, and here a temple-dom­ inated settlement has recently been discovered, the partial excavation of which by Dr Ellison has yielded a remarkable sequence of enclosures, structures and ritual deposits which span the period from the first century B. C. to the sixth century A. D . No site in Britain has yielded more evidence in situ for the performance of Roman ritual and for its necessary accoutrements. The origins of religious activity at the Uley site may, however, go back to early prehistoric times. Finally, still in the South West, Dr Leech examines an area of country­ side in south Somerset and north Dorset where Roman settlement was dense and where temples and inhumation cemeteries are reasonably well represented in the archaeological record; here is an interface zone between Roman pagan­ ism and Celtic Christianity. The implications of this paper, and one recently published by Professor Rahtz on 'The End of Roman Temples in the West of Britain', are profoundly important for the period of the fifth to eighth centuries. 2 * Unfortunately withdrawn: see editorial note. 3

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Part 3 is largely devoted to a major work which represents a tour de force by Messrs Horne and King: they have brought together in the form of an illustrated gazetteer plans, brief descriptions and bibliographies of all the published Romano-Celtic temples in Continental Europe, providing for the first time a conspectus of data which will be of lasting value to every scholar in the field of provincial Roman religious architecture. Finally, I have added a list of temple sites in Britain for the purpose of updating Lewis' gazetteer; new distribution maps are included. Each paper in this volume is self-contained, with its own bibliography; figure referencing is linked to the sequential number of the paper. Through­ out the text sites are referred to by their most familiar names; general details of county location and bibliography will be found together in the gazetteer (section 18), alongside the maps. Acknowledgements My thanks are due to Trevor Rowley and Mick Aston for organising the conference under the auspices of the Department for External Studies, and to Shirley Hermon for undertaking all the associated administration. I am also grateful to the scholars whose names appear above who willingly commtrni­ cated their researches to the conference and have committed them to print here, with a minimum of bullying from me. Warwick Rodwell

Bristol December 1979 NOTES 1.

D. R. Wilson, 'Romano-Celtic Temple Architecture', J. Brit. Archaeol. Assoc. (ser. 3) 38 (1975), 3-27. K. W. Muckelroy, 'Enclosed Ambulatories in Romano-Celtic Temples in Britain', Britannia 7 (1976), 173-91.

2.

P. A. Rahtz and L. Watts, 'The End of Roman Temples in the West of Britain', in P. J. Casey (ed.), The End of Roman Britain (1979), 183-210 (BAR 71).

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

4

1. ROMANO-CELTIC TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE: HOW MUCH DO WE ACTUALLY KNOW? D. R. Wilson Introduction The study of the architectural appearance of Romano-Celtic temples had its beginning towards the end of the nineteenth century. Although a number of examples had come to light previously, it was only in the final decade of the century that the pace of discovery quickened and improving standards of archaeological recording led to the publication of significant architectural de­ tails. An early discovery of lasting importance was at Champigny-l�s-Langres (Haute-Marne), where column-bases found in position on the outer foundations of a matching pair of square temples conclusively proved the existence of a colonnaded portico on all four sides (Babelon, 1892). Similar arrangements were demonstrated at Mllhn, near Trier (Rheinland-Pfalz), in 1886-7 (Hettner, 1901) and at the Butte des Buis (Eure) in 1894-5 (de Vesly, 1909). The com­ bined effect of these discoveries was firmly to establish the view that the normal treatment of the ambulatory in temples of Romano-Celtic type was as an open portico. De Vesly attempted a reconstruction of the Fanum des Buis which he put on view in the Salon des Champs-Elys�es in 1895 but did not publish in printed form until 1909: this covered the cella and its surrounding portico with a single pyramidal roof (see below, p. 10). The growing number of temples known and excavated prompted compara­ tive studies, like those of Hettner (1901, supplemented by Hettner and Jacobs, 1910) and of de Vesly already cited (subject to correction and addition by Deglatigny, 1922, 1925, 1927). A new reconstruction by Schultze (in Lehner, 1919) saw the cella as a central tower rising above the ambulatory roof (see below, p. 8 ). This, despite some dissenters (e.g. Goodchild and Kirk, 1954; Hull, 1961), has remained the orthodox interpretation. The term 'Romano-Celtic' was given currency in English by Wheeler (1928), in a magisterial survey which he characteristically appended to his rescue publication of a poorly recorded excavation at Harlow. His study was limited to temples of square or rectangular plan, of which he listed 69 examples. Wheeler noted their similarity to a class of circular of polygonal ambulatory-temples also occurring in the Celtic provinces, but it was left to Koethe (1933) to demonstrate that plans of both shapes formed part of the same Romano-Celtic tradition. Koethe (1932) had also _added 10 temples of rectangular plan to Wheeler's list; one of these, at Trigu�res (Loiret), con­ tained a menhir as cult-object whose bulk virtually filled the cella and actually projected over its rear wall (0. 3 m high) into the ambulatory. The natural conclusion is that the inner chamber of this temple was not totally walled off from the ambulatory, but was largely open to it. Other probable examples of Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 5 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

'open' cellae, in the sense that colonnades took the place of solid walls, not that they were open to the sky, were noted by Oelmann (1933) in a penetrating review of temples with Gallic plans. In this category he included both the ambulatory-temples and the simple one-roomed shrines from which they clearly developed, emphasizing the diversity of detail to be found amongst them. Among other Gallic peculiarities he inferred the occurrence of side­ facing gables, at least in temples where the cella was broader from side to side than from front to rear. The diversity referred to is exemplified above all in the Altbach valley at Trier (Rheinland-Pfalz), where more than 70 temples and religious buildings have been uncovered (Loeschke, 1938, 1942; Gose, 1972). None of the temples is distinctively Classical in form; all are more or less Celtic, with or without an ambulatory. For at least two of them (Temples 6 and 41) it was demonstrated that the primary structure consisted of a cella only, the ambu­ latory being added later. Mylius (in Loeschke, 1942) provided reconstructions of two of the simple shrines (3 and 4) and of two· orthodox ambulatory-temples (6 and 38). More controversial was Temple 2, which had a number of Classi­ cal features incorporated in a Romano-Celtic plan. The most obvious of these was an entrance with columns arranged distyle in antis, presumably carrying a pediment; a similar feature is known at the temple of Lenus Mars at 'Trier and possibly also at Cornelimtlnster near Aachen (Nordrhein-Westfalen). Alternative restorations by Mylius and Krencker were presented by Gose (1955) and a third suggestion, increasing the height of the cella, was made by Wilson (1975). The most comprehensive survey of Romano-Celtic temples to date is that of Grenier (1960). This draws, on much literature that is inaccessible outside France, but the accuracy and draftsmanship of the redrawn plans leave much to be desired. For Britain the standard work is by Lewis (1966 ). The chapter devoted to Romano-Celtic temples makes full use of comparative material from the Continent and is very sound on structural details, but the book as a whole is disappointingly uninterested in distinguishing Roman and Celtic traits in individual buildings (Wilson, 1967). Reciprocal influences be­ tween Classical and Celtic temple architecture were considered briefly by Grenier (1958) and more explicitly by Duval (1965) and Wilson (1975). The present paper is complementary to my 1975 essay, to which the reader is referred for detailed discussion of a number of topics not repeated here. As an introduction to the results of archaeological excavation presented elsewhere in this volume, I wish to place some emphasis on definitions and to re-examine the criteria for making reconstructions from the limited evi­ dence afforded by the majority of excavations. The need for reappraisal has been made plain by Muckelroy (1976), who brings a healthy scepticism to the results of temple excavation in the past, but proves not to be critical enough. His arguments are reviewed in detail in the later sections of this paper. Bibliographical references for all published Romano-Celtic temples in Britain and on the Continent are given in the lists below, beginning on po. 559 and 371 respectively, and are not generally included in the following discussion.

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 6 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Definition and Description of the Romano-Celtic Type of Temple We must begin with a brief description of the essential features of the type. This is defined in terms of the building's plan, in which one rectangular, circular or polygonal foundation lies inside another: the inner one bounds a small central chamber or cella, in which the statue and other cult-objects would be housed; the outer one, a broad surrounding passage or gallery. Each of the two foundations might carry either a solid wall or a line of posts or columns; so it is inappropriate to speak of the outer passage as a portico or verandah unless columns or posts have actually been proved. A better term for this feature is the ambulatory, which (like the German Umgang) begs the question of its function, but at least is neutral with regard to the struc­ tural details. The width of the ambulatory was commonly about half that of the cella, though there was considerable variation in this respect, and the individual members of the ambulatory were normally the same width as each other, except where there were special features to be accommodated, such as a bench down one side or an apse projecting from the rear wall of the cella. The rectangular plan is the commonest and its overall proportions usually approximated to a square. Most often the longer axis was from front to rear, as in the cella of Temple B at Mont de S�ne near Santenay (Cote d'OI') (Fig. 1.1); quite frequently the sides were of equal length; but in a number of examples the longer axis ran from side to side, as in the cella of Temple A at Mont de S�ne. Not shown on the plan reproduced here is a kind of safe­ deposit beneath the cella floor of Temple B, in which votive objects and broken statuettes were found; a similar accumulation of sacred debris filled the nearby store-building C. The nearly square proportions of such temples are also to be found amongst temples of the familiar Classical type, but are rare by comparison with the common oblong plan. Conversely, proportions of 2:3 or even longer can be found in a few temples of the Romano-Celtic type, but these are uncommon and are usually associated with other romanizing features such as a stone entablature or pedimented entrance. In the Temple of Mercury at I zernore (Ain) the very Classical proportions of the cella draw particular attention to the un-Classical dimensions of the porticoed ambulatory (Fig. 1. 2). The existence of actual columns here is certain, though simple arithmetic suggests that they would become equally spaced if there were two fewer columns allotted to each side. Among polygonal temples the eight-sided plan was by far the most common. In the example illustrated (Fig. 1. 3) at Herapel (Rheinland-Pfalz) the outer wall survived to a height of 1. 60 m. The general equivalence of circular and polygonal plans is shown by a number of examples in which a circular cella is surrounded by a polygonal ambulatory. In the most easterly Romano-Celtic temple so far known, at Aquincum (Budapest) in Pannonia, the ambulatory has fifteen sides (not sixteen as is sometimes stated). In those polygonal temples where the evidence survives for the siting of the columns, they are placed solely at the angles of the polygon; so, by increasing the number of sides from 8 to 15, or to 16 as at Siichester, you make it possible for the columns to stand that much closer together. At Aquincum, however, the presence of columns has not been certainly established. The twelve steps lead up to a podium 2. 40 m high; so, if the ambulatory did have an open colon­ nade, we should probably think of a screen or balustrade between the uprights. A similar effect could have been obtained by setting dwarf columns on a Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In parapet-wall. Continental Europe. 7

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It was normal for the door of the temple to face east or south-east, ex­ cept where the orientation was governed by architectural effect, for instance so as to face towards one of the principal streets inside a town. Entrance into the ambulatory was quite often made via a two-columned porch, itself often preceded by a flight of steps. The porch at St Ouen de Thouberville (Eure), not far from Rouen, had stone columns estimated as being 4-5 m high; there were no other columns in the temple, both cella and ambulatory having solid walls. The steps are a reminder that many Romano-Celtic temples were raised above ground-level, and that the outer wall among its other functions might need to retain a substantial earth podium. The height of the podium can be calculated from the number of steps, where the base of these survives, as well as from the remains of the walls themselves; some British examples were as much as 2 m high. The steps, like the porch, were normally no wider than the cella, but in some important temples in the Low Countries they ran the full width of the building in the Classical manner. These were the chief temple of the Batavi at Elst (Over-Betuwe), that of the Tongri at Tongeren (Limburg), and probably also a pair of temples at Nijmegen (Gelderland). In other respects, as we shall see, these temples followed the normal Romano­ Celtic model. A final feature to be noted is the provision of annexes attached to the out­ side of the ambulatory at a number of temples, most of which occur in Britain. They may be part of the primary structure; as at the rear of Temple I and at the front of Temple II at Springhead, or they may be secondary additions, as at the front of Temple I at the same site (see Fig. 12.1). While I know of five comparable examples of annexes attached to Continental temples (Alesia, Cotes, Cracouville, Harfleur, Poitiers), it is more usual there for the equiv­ alent buildings (which the French also call annexes) to be free-standing, like Building C at Mont de S�ne. British examples, as well as being more numer­ ous, also attract attention by their customary symmetry-a somewhat unexpec­ ted trait in the planning of Celtic religious sites. Reconstruction: Three Alternative Models The remains of Romano-Celtic temples are in general very poorly pre­ served. It is the exception for them to survive as high as the ancient floor­ level, especially when this was raised by even a modest podium, and in most cases excavation reveals what I described first of all: a pair of concentric foundations, rectangular, circular or polygonal. This makes architectural reconstruction peculiarly difficult and hazardous. There is nothing in the plan as such to dictate a particular type of structure, and one would not suggest that buildings of more or less similar plan in Iran or China should be restored in the same manner as Romano-Celtic temples, or vice versa. There are in fact three alternative reconstructions which have been suggested for Romano-Celtic temples, and these have been carefully reviewed by Michael Lewis in his book, Temples in Roman Britain (1966). We need only look at them briefly, before considering how far, if at all, we can infer one or other of these models from the examination of mere foundations. What evidence there is, and it can hardly be called abundant, is for the reconstruction offered by Rudolf Schultze for Temple C in the sanctuary at Pesch (Rheinland-Pfalz) in the Eifel mountains, shown here in a model prepared Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 8 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

r 4

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Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

•b J . 1 4

b y K . Menser ( P la te 1 .1 ) .

T he e ssen t ia l c haracter is t ic i s t ha t t he c e l la r ises

a bove t he r oof o f t he ambu la tory , wh ich c lasps i tr ound t he midd le . T he c o lumns , a s a lready o bserved , a re a n o p t iona l f ea ture . A t P esch t hey were 3m h igh .

T he ir w ide s pac ing , i mp lying a t imber s upers tructure , i s c on jec-

t ura l b u t i n a ccordance w i th t he d a ta f ro m o ther s i tes .

De ta i ls o f r oof a nd

w indows a re h ypo the t ica l . Th is r econs truct ion , w i th c en tra l t ower , h as t he a dvan tage o f g iv ing c lear a rch i tec tura l e xpress ion t o wha t we c an s ur m ise o f t he f unc t ions , a nd e ven o f t he h is tory , o f t h is t ype o f b u i ld ing .

The e ssen t ia l f ea ture i s t he c e l la , f orm-

i ng t he c ore o f t he t e mp le b oth i n al i tera l a nd i n af igura t ive s ense .

S i mp le

c e l lae w i thou t ambu la tor ies a re a lso f ound i n t he C e l t ic p rov inces , i n t he c o mpany o f ambu la toryte mp les a s w e l l a s o n t he ir o wn , a nd a f ew were a c tua l ly c onver ted t o t he R o mano-Ce l t ic t ype b y t he a dd i t ion o f a n ambu la tory a s as econdary f ea ture ( above , p .

6 ) .

We may a lso n o te t he s urv iva l o f t he

c e l la o f C o lches ter 1 0 a f ter t he d isappearance o f i t s ambu la tory ( be low , p . 2 72 ) . I ti s n o t e asy t o e nv isage t h is s uccess ion f ro m s i mp le o ne-roo med s hr ine t o ambu la toryte mple o r v ice v ersa i n t he c ase o f t he s econd r econs truct ion , p u t f orward b y L eon d e V es ly f or t he t e mp le whose e xcava t ion h e h ad c o mp le ted o n t he Bu t te d es Bu is , i n t he f ores t o f L ouv iers ( Eure ). who le b u i ld ing w i th a s ing le r oof .

T h is c overed t he

D iscovery o f ap os t-base a t o ne o f t he c or-

n ers s howed t ha t t here was a t imber p or t ico a s we l l a s at imber s upers truct ure .

T h is r econs truct ion i s f avoured b y e xcava tors who h ave e xposed a n

i nner f ounda t ion wh ich t hey s uppose t oo s l igh t t o h ave c arr ied a t owerl ike c e l la .

Bu t when we l ook a t t he r es tored s ec t ion o f t he t e mp le ( P la te 1 .1 1 ) , we

s ee t ha t t he i nner wa l ls wou ld i n a ny c ase h ave r isen h igher t han t he o u ter , i f t hey were t o p lay a ny p ar t i n s uppor t ing t he r oof ; a nd i t wou ld h ave t aken a r e la t ive ly s l igh t i ncrease i n h e igh t f or t he c e l la a c tua l ly t o h ave emerged a modes t d is tance a bove t he ambu la tory. T he t h ird a l terna t ive r ep laces t he c e l la w i th a n o pen y ard o r l igh t-we l l s urrounded b y al i t t le c lo is ter .

T h is a rrange men t h as b een s ugges ted when

t here i s ah ear th i n t he c en tra l s pace , o r a wa ter t ank , o r when t he i nner f ounda t ion i s s o s l igh t t ha t i t s ee ms e ssen t ia l t o r es tr ict t he l oad u pon i tt o t he a bso lu te min imu m . R eaders o f L ewis ' b ook w i l l r ecogn ise i n t hese t hree r econs truc t ions wha t h e d escr ibed r espect ive ly a s T ypes I , I a nd I I . b u t r egre t tab ly mis lead ing .

These l abe ls a re c onven ien t ,

Imus t emphas ize t ha t t hey d o n o t r efer t o t hree

t ypes o f R o mano-Ce l t ic t e mp le , t hough o f ten r egarded a s d oing s o , e spec ia l ly i n t he r ecen t C on t inen ta l l i tera ture .

They r efer t o t hree a l terna t ive mode ls

f or t he h ypo the t ica l r econs truct ion o f as ing le t ype o f t e mp le .

L ew is d evo ted

much s pace t o a n a cade m ic e xercise i n wh ich h e a ssessed t he p oss ib i l i t ies f or e ach o f t he t e mp les i n Br i ta in c ons idered o n i t s o wn mer i ts ; b u t t h is was o n ly a s tep t owards a rr iv ing a t ag enera l ly a pp l icable r es tora t ion f or t he c lass a s a who le . I ti s t rue t ha t h e d oes n o t make a ny c lear s ta te men t t o t h is e f fec t , b u t i t s ee ms t o b e impl ied i n h is c onclus ions . These a re a l l v ery t en ta t ive , w i th g ood r eason , b u t t here i s o ne i n p ar t icu lar t ha t Is hou ld l i ke t o q uo te .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 1 0 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

P la te 1 . I Mode l b y K . Menser o f T emp le C a t P esch , a s r es tored b y I L S chu l tze .

P la te 1 .1 i

( Whee ler , 1 928 , p l . 4 6, f i g . 2 .)

R econs truc ted s ec t ion b y L . d e V es ly o ft he t e mp le o n t he B u t te d es B u is . ( de V es ly , 1 909 , p l . 1 0 . )

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

"Except that type I raises the cella walls and roof a few feet higher than type II, the two are identical; and it is conceivable, though perhaps on balance unlikely (bearing in mind that there is no direct evidence for the type), that II was the original form of the Romano-Celtic temple, later developed into type I by the desire for more light in the cella and for a more impressive appearance." (The italics are mine. ) To the epithet 'unlikely' I would add a second, and that is 'unnecessary'. It is essential in any case to remember that, despite all their minor variations, the plans of Romano-Celtic temples are regarded as defining a single type of building, and that we are therefore seeking (broadly speaking) a single general reconstruction for them. It is on these grounds that Lewis' type III reconstruc­ tion must fail, for no one suggests that any but a small minority of Romano­ Celtic temples could ever have had a central space open to the sky; and I cannot accept that a building of this form is simply a variation on the bas'ic form with central cella, however roofed. It will be noted that, although the central area of the temple at Uley was apparently unroofed (below, p. 310), its plan does not actually conform to the Romano-Celtic type, despite a strong resemblance to it at an intermedi-ate stage of excavation. We should bear this in mind when supplying the plans of temples from fragmentary remains or partial excavation: not every temple with a corridor at rear and sides had a similar corridor at the front also (see further discussion, Rodwell pp. 330-2). The only Romano-Celtic temples whose fabric survives to an appreciable height above the ambulatory roof are the so-called Temple of Janus at Autun (Saone et Loire), a colossal structure standing nearly 24 m high, and a group of equally colossal circular temples, of which the best known is the Tour de Vesone at P�rigueux (Dordogne). The interpretation of none of these is with­ out difficulty, and they certainly cannot be claimed as representative examples. In my former paper I tried to illustrate the change in character of a building resulting from such an increase in scale by invoking the analogy of a parish church and a cathedral. I have to admit that in some respects this comparison may be naive. We are all able to see the family resemblance between the two Christian buildings, but if we tried to reconstruct the appearance of a typical parish church from a study of the details at Canterbury Cathedral, let us say, we might arrive at some bizarre and unjustified conclusions. Foundations Failing a Romano-Celtic temple of normal size still standing to full height, we have only the character of the foundations from which to make a direct in­ ference about the relative height and strength of walls and colonnades. The foundations are precisely what we do have in the majority of temples, if nothing else, but the scope of valid inference is severely restricted. Now, the higher a wall is built and the greater the load it carries, the thicker it must be to remain adequately stiff so as to resist buckling. We cannot, how­ ever, use this simple relationship to infer relative wall height from relative foundation thickness, because too many other factors are also involved. Lewis is particularly good on this point, though he proceeds to ignore his own argu­ ments when he comes to consider actual examples. Some of the factors involved are these. 12

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

1)

Foundations designed to carry a wall wholly or partly of timber framing will be slighter than for a masonry wall of the same height. There is no reason why masonry and timber walling should not have been combined in the same structure; this seems to have been done at Lullingstone, for example, where the cella had walls of chalk decorated with figured wall­ paintings, but the ambulatory wall was mostly timber-framed.

2)

In a partly timber-framed building a stone foundation carrying post-bases would not necessarily have the same thickness as one intended for a sill-beam.

3)

In a masonry temple a wall incorporating niches might be considerably thicker than a plain one; and the provision of pilasters, if not echoed in the foundations also, would have a similar effect.

4)

Furthermore, if the outer wall served as a revetment for a podium, it would often have been thickened to resist the outward thrust of the earth and gravel filling.

5)

We should also mention the possibility of steps attached to the outside of a colonnaded ambulatory, giving access to the temple platform on all sides. These would increase the width of the outer foundation very considerably. A stereobate arranged in this way is common amongst Greek temples but appears to be unknown in a Roman or Celtic context, and on present evi­ dence it is perhaps best left out of consideration here.

Some allowance can be made for these factors: for example, when the floor-levels survive, it is known if there was a podium or not. But the overall effect is that little can be inferred simply from the relative width of wall­ foundations. What is more relevant, but less commonly recorded, is their relative depth and strength. In the second temple at Elst the foundation of the cella was 1. 80 m wide and rested on oak piles; that of the ambulatory was 1.50 m broad, without piles. What matters is not the difference in width, for which there could be many reasons, but the provision of piles beneath the cella wall, implying an appreciable difference in the expected load. The temple is therefore restored with a lofty cell a (Fig. 1.4). Remains of the columns were found in the excavation, but it is not known for certain if they were external or internal. The romanizing front steps would, however, lose their point unless seen below a portico. In many cases there is in fact no difference in character between the two foundations. I do not think we can conclude much from this, except that their cellae did not rise to excessive heights. The complications which must be kept in mind when making inferences from fragmentary remains can be well illustrated from Woodeaton. In Fig. 1. 5 sections across the temple are shown at the bottom and their positions are given in the plan at the top. Two structural periods are represented. The base of the cella walls of Period 1 survived in part� having been re-used as the foundation for the cella of Period 2. It is not known if there was an ambulatory in Period 1; no trace of one was found. The excavators argued from the fact that "the outer walls had...deeper and broader foundations than the inner ones" that they "carried the full weight of the structure." Although the differences are not all that great, their conclusion might possibly stand

13

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if the inner and outer foundations had been put in at the same time; but this is not the case. The builders of Period 2 accepted the existing (Period 1) foundations of the cella and built their new walls on the stubs of the old ones; but for the ambulatory they dug a completely new foundation-trench. These two operations are not directly comparable, and we cannot say if the ambulatory foundation was deliberately made deeper, or only accidentally. The fortunate survival of one course of Period 2 masonry in the cella wall makes the sequence of events tolerably clear. Without it, the story would be no different, but would be more difficult to read, and the reader may ask himself if he would have deciphered it correctly. Before leaving the question of foundations, one further problem must be faced, and that concerns temples whose foundations are supposedly too slight to have supported the standard central tower. The prime examples are on the Sheepen site at Colchester, Temples 3, 4 and 5, described by Crummy below (p. 252). Their peculiarities, such as they are, have been held to establish a local type-or at least a local variety-of Romano-Celtic temple, possibly of Lewis's Type III. The problem is, however, very largely illusory. Temple 4 immediately attracts attention because of the gross discrepancy between the widths of its two foundations, but the inner one is O. 60 m (2 ft) wide, which is perfectly normal for a temple of its size. The published information about Temple 3 is misleading, as explained below; we now learn that its two founda­ tions were of equal thickness. In Temple 5 the outer foundation was only 0. 37 m thick, reducing to O. 30 m (12 in) above the ground, while the cella wall had no stone foundation at all, being based simply in a wooden sleeper-beam. In 1960, when this temple was uncovered, we had not grown so accustomed as we are now to substantial timber-framed buildings of Roman date resting on the ground without any foundation below the surface. A space of 30 cm for a tim­ ber wall between the ambulatory and the cella seemed to imply such a flimsy structure that it has been described by commentators as a mere screen or partition. A moment's reflection shows that this view is very wide of the mark. A framework of timber 30 cm thick is no f limsy partition but a very solid solid piece of construction. This is the size of timber used for the gate­ towers of Roman forts, for example. It is true that these military structures were founded in sizeable post-pits; and a one-room timber cella standing on its own would, no doubt, also have needed to be anchored with earthfast posts. But the ambulatory temple of Romano-Celtic type was a very stable structure: if its timber framework could rest securely on drystone footings, as is recorded for a number of Continental examples, it could equally well have stood on the surface of the ground. H ere the inner frame, protected from the weather, rested on the ground, while the outer one, which was more exposed, was raised a little way above it. Walls and Colonnades We must now turn from the actual foundations to what they supported. I have already stated that each foundation might carry either a solid wall or a line of posts or columns, and examples have been presented of all the expected combinations. At St Ouen de Thouberville and Springhead (Temple I) both the cella and the ambulatory had solid walls. At Springhead (Temple II) there were internal piers or columns and an enclosed ambulatory. At the Fanum des Buis, Izernore and Pesch (Temple C) there was a closed cella surrounded by an exter­ nal port�co.

14

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E

A '

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. 1 5 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

At the other sites described the evidence was either deficient or equivocal. We have for too long assumed in such cases that a portico is the most prob­ able restoration. Such reconstruction� have been based on the evidence of a few early discoveries where porticoes were present, supported by analogy from the familiar use of porticoes in Classical temples; but we should be wiser to assume that Romano-Celtic temples had solid walls throughout ex­ cept where we have evidence to the contrary. It has always seemed paradoxi­ cal that a closed temple with solid ambulatory wall and open colonnaded cella should be represented as being just a variation oii a standard type with en­ closed cella and open porticoed ambulatory. We are bound to regard these arrangements as being to some degree opposed in concept. It is far easier to see both of these as variants of a type in which both the cella and the ambu­ latory normally had solid walls-the more so if we think in terms of a timber­ framed prototype, in which the presence or absence of wattle-and-daub wall­ panels between the uprights would make no difference to the basic structure. With such considerations in mind Muckelroy (1976) took a close look at the known Romano-Celtic temples in Britain and found that virtually all for which there was adequate evidence had had closed ambulatories rather than open porticoes. He contrasted this with the accepted picture on the CoIJ.tinent, where porticoes seemed to predominate, and concluded that ·British temples tended to have a distinctly insular look to them. There is some truth in both the premisses in this argument, but they need correction and modification to an extent that leaves the conclusion in some doubt. Muckelroy draws our attention to some intriguing and unexpected possibilities, but if he is rigurous in excluding unproven porticoes, he must be equally rigorous in accepting only the certain examples of ambulatories with solid walls. In my opinion about half of his examples are doubtful, even if often plausible, and for some of them he makes this clear enough himself. His reassessment of the known remains is in any case limited to Britain, so that he accepts uncritically for the Continental material the same view that he has rejected for Britain, namely that most examples will have had an open portico. Needless to say, this invalidates the comparison he makes. When his own principles are applied to the Continental temples it is found that the ratio of porticoes to enclosed ambulatories is different from what he supposes. Before these criticisms are justified in greater detail, we should con­ sider with some care the criteria to be used in identifying the features in question. The best evidence for a colonnaded portico is the presence in situ of one or more column-bases or post-bases, or else a line of postholes. The shafts or capitals of columns will only serve our purpose if they can be associ­ ated surely and specifically with the outer foundation, in preference to the inner foundation or the entrance porch. This may be possible from consider­ ation of their exact position of discovery, or by a process of elimination· If the cella is proved to have had a solid wall. We also used an argument based on typological considerations for certain temples in the Netherlands and Belgium, which seemed to copy the facade of a Roman temple of Classical type: there would have been little point in a broad flight of steps leading up to a blank ambulatory wall.

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 16 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 1 7 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Solid·walls are most clearly attested by surviving remains, but they rnay also be implied by fallen wall-plaster, especially if this has a painted design which can be restored to ·give a minimum height for the painted surface. When a temple is built up against an existing wall, as for example at St Aubin sur Gaillon (Eure), a solid exterior wall can be inferred at least on that side, and this is a relationship which appears to be recognisable even on air-photo­ graphs of unexcavated sites. Buttresses and pilasters, if sufficiently well distinguished from the foundations for column-bases, are also evidence for a solid wall. At Pagans Hill, for example, the features projecting from the robber-trench of the outer foundation are not sited in relation to columns at the angles but are placed opposite the corners of the cella, showing that they were indeed buttresses on a solid wall. This conclusion is confirmed by the discovery of wall-plaster from both the inner and the outer surfaces. At Brean Down solid walls were inferred from the character of doorways between the front antechamber and the remaining portions of the ambulatory: the, frames appeared to have rebates for actual doors, which would have been pointless unless the ambulatory had been walled. A similar conclusion is probably justified, though with less certainty, in all those temples whose am­ bulatories are subdivided into separate rooms by doorways. The temple east of the forum at Caerwent provides an example. The division of ante-chamber and rear chamber from the side galleries would seem to have little point unless some of these spaces were walled, and the most plausible interpretation would assign solid walls throughout. There are some confusing combinations of features which must be borne in mind. It is possible for a low wall to be built in the spaces between the columns of a portico, as was found at Ml:Shn, so that fragmentary remains of what appears to be an enclosing wall must nevertheless be assessed in re­ lation to the possible spacing of a colonnade. The corners will be the most critical area for this purpose. A similar effect is obtained by placing dwarf columns on a p�rapet-wall. This arrangement, although common in villas, is less often attested in temples, and it is better not to invoke it except where actual columns have been found; but the possibility remains that any wall sur­ viving less than a metre high carried a line of dwarf columns, giving the am­ bulatory an open aspect. It is generally assumed that where the temple had an internal colonnade, as at Springhead Temple II, the ambulatory was closed by a solid wall. There seems to be no inescapable reason why a Romano-Celtic temple should have had at least one set of solid walls, since the simpler one-roomed shrines could be open just as well as closed; but no example of an ambulatory-temple with columns throughout has ever been noted or suspected, and the arrange­ ment does not appear to be very probable. Annexes A new and interesting suggestion put forward by Muckelroy is that the presence of annexes attached to the ambulatory wall implies that the ambulat­ ory itself was walled. He argues that although there is no evidence for the function of such annexes, it is commonsense that they would have been fully enclosed, and "architectural aesthetics would seem to demand a totally en­ closed ambulatory to complete the ensemble". I have already suggested that Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

18

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B radford a nd G oodch i ld , 1 939 , f i g . 9 .) Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 1 9 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

annexes may be the equivalent of the free-standing storehouses that occur more frequently on the Continent; if so, they would certainly have been walled, and when they were part of the primary structure of the temple Muckelroy's argument from architectural design would hold good. It so happens that the only certain examples of annexes in a primary context, those at Springhead already mentioned, form part of temples believed to have had solid walls for other reasons. The rear annexe of Temple I could certainly have been a store­ room and was so regarded by its excavator. The front annexes flanking the entranc�s of Temples I and II are more enigmatic, having no surviving floor and no trace of occupation. Those of Temple I, which were in fact secondary additions, appeared to have no connexion with the ambulatory, which would suit a storeroom but not an extension of the ambulatory. Annexes in Britain vary considerably in size, shape and position, and it is almost certainly misleading to group them all together in a single category under the label 'annexes', as if they might all have had the same function. Those at Verulamium and Frilford are obviously exceptional, forming as they do major extensions of the temples, not just simple extra rooms. At Verulamium (Fig. 1. 6) the two long side galleries are almost equal in floor area to the ambulatory; their projecting ends were apparently waHed off to make separate rooms, and it is possible that these alone formed lock-up stores which would have been walled. Two rows of crosses on Lowther's plan at the front and rear of the temple mark the conjectural position of posts or columns for which the excavation furnished no evidence. These are wisely ignored in a reconstruction drawing by Martin Simmons (McWhirr, 1971), who gives colonnades to the annexes and solid side walls to the ambulatory. The end rooms are ignored, however; the annexes are roofed at a lower level than the ambulatory, which either makes the annexes very squat or makes the am­ bulatory uncommonly lofty; and unless there was extensive rebuilding in Period 2, which is not impossible, it implies that the ambulatory of Period 1 was closed at the side and open at front and rear, which seems unlikely. At Frilford (Fig. 1. 7) the little annexe on the north side looks like Con­ tinental examples at Harfleur and Cracouville, attached somewhat casually to one corner of the ambulatory; but the structure labelled 'Annexe 1' consti­ tutes a significant modification of the building as a whole. As far as I know, no one has been rash enough to attempt a reconstruction of this. The spacing of the internal foundations is not that of a conventional basilical structure, in which the nave is about half the total width of the building, nor does it echo the dimensions of cella and ambulatory so exactly that we can safely conclude that the �bulatory roof was extended to run over the side aisles, though that may in fact be how the building was arranged. The only serious attempt to restore the appearance of annexes of less exceptional form was made by ApSimon (1965). His reconstruction of the temple on Brean Down (Fig. 1. 8) is the best yet published. for a British example of the type. At Brean Down we can be confident that both the ambulatory and the annexes were walled (p. 18). At Springhead pairs of annexes flanked the entrance steps to both the main temples and were clearly designed to make a particular architectural effect. The late Mr W. S. Penn who excavated them was adamant that they had never been used as rooms and suggested that they

20

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

IT

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Reconstruction by A. M. ApSimon of the temple on Brean Down. (ApSimon, 1965, fig. 51.)

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Plan of temple at Harfleur: (a) actual state as excavated; (b) reconstruction by A. Naef. Intact portions of floor are shown by stipple; features damaged or destroyed, by hatcWng; secondary walling, by cross-hatching. (After Naef, 1894.)

21

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

had had a purely ornamental function, standing perhaps no more than half a metre high. I do not find it easy to believe in this interpretation, and there may be some significance in the resemblances between Springhead and Harlow, where two out of a series of four rooms attached to the ambulatory formed a symmetrical pair flanking the entrance, with an altar base immediately in front of them. These rooms were plastered internally and in one of them a fragment of tessellated pavement was preserved, so there can be no doubt that they were in fact used, in one way or another, as actual rooms. All the annexes described, apart from some of those at Springhead, have been secondary features added to existing temples, sometimes more than a century later. I doubt very much if we should infer anything about the original form of the temples from the nature of the additions, since the temple was obviously designed and constructed without reference to them. Muckelroy 's assumption is that it would be unthinkable to attach a walled annexe to a col­ onnaded ambulatory, even in a secondary phase. I should have thought it was not unusual in any age for the adaptation of an existing structure to be con­ spicuous for its lack of sensitivity, and the only temple to furnish us with evidence on this point seems to be showing us just that, though the evidence is somewhat circumstantial. The temple in question is at Harfleur (Seine-Martime); the plan (Fig. 1. 9) shows on the left the remains as actually uncovered, and on the right a resto­ ration by the final excavator A. Naef. The temple stood on a podium 1 m high, but the entrance steps were not preserved. Both the cella and the ambulatory had a sort of rustic mosaic pavement, but while the cella floor was level, that of the ambulatory had a distinct slope from north to south. This feature ap­ pears to be unique, but the excavation report by Naef is quite explicit. Frag­ ments of the shafts and capitals of columns were found, as well as an elabor­ ate stone entablature with modillions on the cornice, but no column-bases. The restored plan shows a portico on the analogy of Champigny-l�s-Langres. There is some reason to believe that this arrangement is correct, since it furnishes an explanation of the treatment of the floors: the slope of the ambu­ latory has been designed to shed rainwater entering between the columns, while the weatherproof cella has been given a floor that is truly level. The annexe is a secondary addition, built up against the plastered side of the po­ dium. Its floor was 0. 80 m below that of the ambulatory, and since there were no steps going up from the annexe to give direct access to the higher level, we must assume that the space between the columns was closed off by a wall forming part of the back of the annexe. I would only differ from Naef when he places the entrance to the temple on the south, which he strongly in­ sisted on for no very obvious reason. We should expect the entrance to be on the east, even if this means that the annexe has been attached to the front of the temple. The evidence at Harfleur is admittedly circumstantial, yet it serves to raise a doubt over the value of secondary annexes in them·selves for establish­ ing the original appearance of the ambulatories to which they were eventually attached. I should not be in the least surprised if Muckelroy's interpretation of all or most of these buildings were in fact perfectly correct; indeed I have argued above that we should assume solid walls except where we have evidence for something different; but such probabilities and assumptions fall too far short of the proven data required for the comparison which follows.

22

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C o mpar ison o f Br i t ish a nd C on t inen ta l T e mples Warned b y t he e xa mp le o f Har f leur , a nd a rmed w i th t he c r i ter ia p rev ious ly r ev iewed , we a re n ow r eady t o make a n a ssess men t o f Mucke lroy 's t hes is . H e b egan b y l i s t ing t en e xamp les o f Ro mano-Ce l t ic t e mp les i n Br i ta in t o wh ich h e a nd L ew is a greed i n a scr ib ing c losed ambu la tor ies , t hough L ewis was u sua l ly l ess d ef in i te t han h e . O f t hese Ic an a ccep t f i ve w i thou t r eserva t ion . C aerwen t 1h ad a s ubd iv ided ambu la tory a nd b u t tresses o r p i las ters o n i t s o u ter wa l l . C o lches ter 4 ( Per iod 1 ) was b u i l t i n t imber ; t he o u ter wa l l was p las tered w i th d aub . Pagans H i l l : t he o u ter wa l l was p las tered a nd b u t tressed . S pr inghead 1 : r econs truct ion o f f a l len p las ter f ro m t he ambu la tory wa l l g ave a min imum h eigh t o f 0 .93 m ; t here was n o e v idence f or d war f c o lumns . S pr inghead 2 h ad i n terna l p iers o r c o lumns i n p lace o f a wa l led c el la . T he o ther f i ve e xamp les g ive r ise t o d oubts . C o lches ter 3 a nd 5 : f or t hese Mucke lroy 's a rgumen t i s t he s a me —the i nner f ounda t ion i s s o s l igh t t ha t t he o u ter wa l ls mus t h ave c arr ied t he r oof a nd mus t t here fore h ave b een s o l id . Ih ave a lready d iscussed t he v iew t ha t t imber s tructures 3 0 cm t h ick a re t oo s l igh t t o b e l oadbear ing ( p . 1 4 ) . The s ugges t ion t ha t o n ly s o l id wa l ls a re c apable o f s uppor t ing r oo fs s ee ms e qua l ly l ud icrous , e specia l ly when we a re d ea l ing w i th b u i ld ings c ons truc ted l arge ly o f t imber . C o lches ter 4 ( Per iod 2 ) : Mucke lroy a rgued t ha t when t he t imber t e mp le was r ebu i l t w i th s tone f ounda t ions , t he p rev ious a rrange men t w i th c losed amb u la tory wou ld h ave b een e xac t ly r eproduced . T h is d oes n o t f o l low . A s truct ure may b e r ebu i l t b ecause o f d i lap ida t ion , o r t o make i t more i mpress ive o r u pto-da te , o r t o c arry o u t a l tera t ions ; o r f or a ny c o mbina t ion o f t hese r easons . I ti s c er ta in ly n o t u nusua l f or R o mano-Ce l t ic t e mp les t o b e a l tered d ur ing r econs truct ion , a nd t he p rov is ion o f ar e la t ive ly b road o u ter f ounda t ion i n P er iod 2 ( Fig . 1 1.2.4 ) i mp l ies a t l eas t s o me c hange i n t he a ppearance o f t he ambu la tory. I ft h is f ounda t ion c arr ied awa l l i ncorpora t ing n iches , t he ambu la tory wou ld t hen h ave b een a c losed o ne ; b u t w i thou t s o me d irec t e v idence f or n iches o r o ther a rch i tec tura l embe l l ishmen t , t h is r e ma ins mere ly a n a t tract ive c on jec ture . L anc ing : t he p ubl ished p lan s hows t he s tubs o f wa l ls p ro jec t ing f ro m t he o u ter c orners o f t he t e mp le . I ft hese c an b e i n terpre ted a s b u t tresses r is ing t o s o me h eigh t a bove f l oor l eve l , t hey i mply a c losed , o r a t a ny r a te p ar t ly c losed , ambu la tory. On e x is t ing e v idence , h owever , t hese f ea tures c anno t b e f u l ly u nders tood a nd t he ir i n terpre ta t ion i s n o t c er ta in . Woodea ton ( Per iod 2 ) : t he c o mpara t ive s treng ths o f t he f ounda t ions o f c e l la a nd ambu la tory h ave a lready b een d iscussed ( p . 1 3 ) . E ven i ft he ambul a tory f ounda t ions were i n tended t o b e s ign i f ican t ly s tronger t han t hose o f t he c e l la , t h is n eed n o t i mp ly a s o l id o u ter wa l l ( see C o lches ter 3 a nd 5 a bove ).

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 2 3 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Muckelroy continued with a list of eight 'probable' examples, by which he meant that he and Lewis were no longer in agreement. Of these I can accept probably four. Bourton Grounds: the published plan shows symmetrical annexes flanking the entrance, apparently with level floors of tile at a lower level than the am­ bulatory. The walls were severely robbed and it is not known if these annexes were original or secondary structures. The fact that they were sited, like those at Springhead and Harlow, with some consideration for architectural effect makes it somewhat unlikely that they were fitted awkwardly between the columns of a porticoed ambulatory like the single annexe at Harfleur. It is thus probable, though far from certain, that the ambulatory was walled. Brean Down has a subdivided ambulatory with doorways apparently in­ tended for real doors. Harlow had secondary annexes including two rooms flanking the entrance. The argument from architectural design, if admitted for Bourton Grounds, applies equally here. Maiden Castle 2 had outer walls 0. 9 m high, with no evidence for dwarf columns. The other four examples cited are all quite uncertain. Chedworth: here the outer wall still stands over 2 m high including its foundation, but the floor levels have not been preserved. When we bear in mind the great thickness of this wall, amounting to 1. 50 m, we will naturally conclude that it retained a lofty podium. A podium of this height is inferred from similar evidence at Weycock Hill and is definitely proved for Silchester 1. The known column fragment at Chedworth might have come from either an internal or an external colonnade, as Muckelroy himself observed. Frilford 2: the architectural treatment of the annexes here is quite uncertain. Irchester: Muckelroy claimed that the inner foundation was not complete along the front; that the cella was therefore not fully enclosed; and thus that the ambulatory must have been closed by solid walls. It is not clear if these conclusions are based on the nineteenth-century excavation plan or on recent air-photography, but neither of these sources would exclude the possibility of robbing or accidental damage. There has been no modern re-examination of the structure, and there is no evidence for either the presence or absence of columns. Verulamium 1: there is no firm evidence for the architectural treatment of either the annexes or the ambulatory. Altogether I am accepting nine of Muckelroy's sites as being reasonably certain examples of a closed ambulatory, out of an original list of eighteen. This is no inconsiderable number, but it is not so overwhelming as at first appeared. Lamyatt (below, Fig. 16. 2), with its subdivided ambulatory and symmetrical annexes flanking the entrance, can now probably be included. 1 myself would add Lydney, with its internal piers and rectangular bays in the ambulatory wall, by which it was undoubtedly enclosed; but not. everyone will 24 Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

agree that Lydney was of Romano-Celtic type. Another temple which I identify as Romano-Celtic is Verulamium 2 (the 'Triangular Temple'). The ambulatory certainly had a solid wall at the rear and probably at the sides also, but the front was open to the peristyle forecourt. It is only to be expected that when temples are found in a more elaborate architectural context (eg. with attached forecourt), variations may be introduced which no longer fit into a simple general classification. Thus, although Verulamium 2 is essentially an example with closed ambulatory, it had better be left out of account. In looking for examples of temple porticoes in Britain Muckelroy found only one, in the mausoleum-temple at Lullingstone. At none_of the sites where fragments of columns have been found would he concede that they could be assigned with any confidence to the ambulatory rather than the cella. This is an important criticism, and there is no doubt that the possibility of an in­ ternal colonnade has been too little considered in the past. I would not, how­ ever, expect such a colonnade in the sixteen-sided temple, Silchester 4. Here the ambulatory was polygonal but the cella foundation was circular on its inner side only. The only natural place to set the columns, of which fragments were found in excavation, is at the sixteen angles of the outer foundation. If the inner foundation were a mere stylobate, why give it such a complicated form, curved on the inside and angular on the outside? And if the builders were ready to construct circular forms, why opt to give the ambulatory six­ teen sides, which so nearly approximate to a circle but do not actually achieve it? When columns are set at the sixteen angles, the straight sides are at once explained by the beams forming the architraves between them. In my view this is actually how polygonal temples came into being, posts being set up at intervals around a circle and then linked with horizontal timbers. Such speculation, though plausible, does not furnish the concrete evidence on which Muckelroy insists, however. The temple at Lullingstone had an ambulatory wall 0.90 m high with traces of a wooden beam on its level top. Muckelroy followed Lewis in sugges­ ting that this was for posts or columns to stand on, but the most obvious func­ tion for such a beam is to be the plate at the base of a timber framework. How much of that framework would have been left open we cannot now say. The only convincing example of a Romano-Celtic temple portico in Britain seems to be at Godmanchester. In Britain then, y.;e have found eleven walled ambulatories and one open portico out of a total sample of 55 ambulatory-temples. When we look at the Continental temples with the same jaundiced eye as in Britain, we encounter some surprises. At some very famous sites like the Temple of Janus (Fig. 1.10) and the Tour de Vesone we find that we are able to calculate the height and the spacing of the columns with great precision, provided that they ever existed, but of their original existence there is no firm evidence. Checking the Continental literature with the care required is not indeed a light task. The original excavation reports are often not available in British libraries, and secondary sources like Grenier (1960) are seldom sufficiently detailed and specific for a critical reassessment, and their accuracy is not beyond question.. I am glad to acknowledge here the assistance given by Peter Horne and Anthony King, whose valuable bibliography appears below (p. 371). There Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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(Lehner, 1919, Taf. 30.) Fig. 1. 10 Reconstruction by R. Schultze of the 'Temple of Janus' at Autun.

O ·

10

M 20

N �

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

will, no doubt, be a few sites which I have placed in the 'Don't lmow' categ ory that personal inspection of an unseen report could have determined; but the great majority of Continental temples resemble most of those in Britain in being simply uninformative, or at best equivocal. Among the remainder I have found 27 examples of certain or very probable porticoes (Appendix I), and 21 examples with a closed ambulatory (Appendix II), out of a total sample of 345 (see Bibliography). Porticoes on the Continent outnumber enclosed ambulatories, then, by a small margin, a very different situation from what we know in Britain, yet not so extreme as a casual glance at the literature would lead one to believe. I venture to suggest indeed that the important thing about these figures is ac­ tually their similarity. Both in Britain and on the Continent we are quite unable to say with certainty such a simple thing as whether the ambulatory was walled or colonnaded for about 80-85% of all the temples known. The remainder of the sample is too small to yield significant conclusions, and apparent differences between one area and another may be quite illusory. I wonder also if our analysis has followed the best parameters. We have concentrated on the appearance of temple ambulatories because this was the subject of Muckelroy's paper; but this may be to take too narrow a·view. If our hypothesis should be correct, that solid walls were the normal mode of construction in a Romano-Celtic temple, then it would be the use of columns that would be significant regardless of their position in the building. It would be quite plausible to suggest that the use of columns was encouraged by the example of Classical buildings and that they would occur most frequently in areas most open to Greek and Roman influence. We have scarcely considered internal piers and columns in this paper, except as a theoretical possibility. On the Continent six examples can be identified with varying degrees of cer­ tainty; in Britain, only one (Temple II at Springhead). The octagonal temple at Pagans Hill has been plausibly restored with an internal colonnade, but only because there was no evidence for a plastered wall; in fact there is no evidence of any kind and the treatment of the interior is quite uncertain. A second example can nevertheless be added by those who agree with me in seeing the temple at Lydney as being of Romano-Celtic type: in its first phase the cella was closed at the rear but was otherwise defined by six rectangular piers. This time the British and Continental evidence is more in sympathy, there being approximately six times as many Romano-Celtic temples known on the Continent as in Britain, but this may once again be no more than an accident resulting from the comparison of inadequate samples. In this concluding section of my paper, criticism of Muckelroy (1976) has been severe, because this was the standard that he himself had set. The im­ portant thing is not that our views do not coincide, but that he has forced us to look again at what we thought we already knew and to question some of our fundamental assumptions. (I use the word 'fundamental' advisedly, of course.) Such a review can be salutary, and I hope that the emphasis I have laid on the criteria for making deductions from excavated remains will be of value to those who find themselves excavating Romano-Celtic temples.

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APPENDIX I Romano-Celtic temples on the Continent with porticoed ambulatories. (This list is probably incomplete, and I shall be glad to receive any correc­ tions or omissions). Aurillac Autun C Bierbacher Klosterwald (2 temples) Butte des Buis (= Louviers below) Champigny-l�s-Langres (2 temples) Colombi�res-sur-Orb Elst 2 Gergovia B Harfleur Izernore Margerides B MlShn

Nijmegen (2 temples) Pesch C (= A below) Saint Gervais Saintes Tongeren Trier 38 (= M below) Trier 48 (= Q below) Trier 53 (= T below) Trier 6 0 (= U below) Trier-Heidenborn A Versigny Vieille Toulouse

APPENDIX II Romano-Celtic temples on the Continent with walled ambulator, ies. (This list is also probably incomplete, and I shall be glad to receive correc­ tions and omissions). An asterisk beside the name indicates some evidence for internal columns. Avallon Cantaing-sur-Escart Civaux Essarois B Fldhweghalde (= Kaiseraugst below) Herapel Hochscheid Kornelimflnster B Martigny A Poitiers (2 temples)

Saint-Aubin-sur Gaillon B Saint-Ouen-de-Thouberville *Schleidweiler Schleitheim *SchlSnbdhl 1 (= Augst A below) *Stuttgart *Talmont Trier 2 (= B below) *Trigu�res B *Vendeuvre

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ApSimon, A. M., 1965. 'The Roman temple on Brean Down, Somerset', Proc. Univ. Bristol Spelaeol. Soc. 10, 195-258. Babelon, E., 1892. Bulletin de la Societ€ Nationale des Antiquaires de France, 1892, 216-24. Bogaers, J. E . A. T., 1955. De gallo-romeinse Tempels 1B Elst in de Over-Betuwe. ('s-Gravenhage). Bradford, J. S. P. and Goodchild, R. G., 1939. 'Excavations at Frilford, Berks. , '1937-8, Oxoniensia 4, 1-70. Deglatigny, L., 1922. Notes sur le temple gallo-romaine de St. Ouen de · Thouberville. (Rouen). Deglatigny, L., 1925. Documents et notes archeologigues, fasc. 1.. (Rouen). Deglatigny, L., 1927. Documents et notes archeologigues, fasc. 2. (Rouen). Duval, P-M., 1965. 'L'originalit€ de l'architecture gallo-romaine', in F. Chamoux and J. Jannoray (eds.), Le Rayonnement des civilisations gr�cque et romaine sur les cultures periph€riques (VIIIe Congres Inter­ national d'Archeologie Classique, Paris, 1963), 121-144. (Paris). Goodchild, R. G. and Kirk, J. R., 1954. 'The Romano-Celtic temple at Woodeaton', Oxoniensia 19, 15-37. Gose, E., 1955. Der Tempelbezirk des Lenus Mars in Trier. (Berlin) . Gose, E., 1972. Der gallo-rc!hnische Tempelbezirk im Altbachtal zu Trier. (Mainz). Grenier, A., 1958. Manuel d'arch€ologie gallo-romaine 3, i. (Paris). Grenier, A., 1960. Manuel d'archeologie gallo-romaine 4, ii. (Paris). Hettner, F., 1901. Drei Tempelbezirke im Trevirerlande. (Trier). Hettner, F. and Jacobs, J., 1910 (1911). 'Nachtrag zu dem Werke: "Drei Tempelbezirke im Trevirerlande', Trierer Jahresberichte 3, 49-66. Hull, M. R ., 1961. Roman Colchester (4th ed.). (Colchester). Koethe, H., 1932. 'Ein Menhir als Tempelkultbild', Germania 16, 276-8. Koethe, H., 1933. 'Die keltischen Rund- und Vielecktempel der Kaiserzeit', 23. Bericht der RlJmisch-Germanischen Kommission, 1933 (1934), 10-108. Lehner, H., 1919. 'Der Tempelbezirk der Matronae Vacallinehae bei Pesch', Bonner Jahrbttcher 125, 74-162. Lewis, M. J. T., 1966. Temples in Roman Britain.

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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Loeschke, S., 1938 and 1942. 1 & 2. (Berlin). Lowther, A.· W. G., 1937. Antig. J. 17, 28-55. McWhirr, A., 1971.

Der Tempelbezirk im Altbachtale zu Trier

'Report on excavations at Verulamium in 1934',

Verulamium.

Muckelroy, K. W., 1976. 'Enclosed ambulatories in Romano-Celtic temples in Britain', Britannia 7, 17 3-91. Naef, A., 1894. 'Temple romain d'Harfleur', Bulletin de la Commission des Antiquit�s de la Seine-Inf�rieure 9, 397-418. Oelmann, F., 1933. 'Zurn Problem des gallischen Tempels', Germania 17, 169-81. de Vesly, L., 1909. Les Fana ou petits temples gallo-romaines de la r�gion normande. (Rouen). Wheeler, R. E. M., 1928. 'A "Romano-Celtic" temple near Harlow, Essex, . and a note on the type', Antiq. J. 8, 300-26. Wilson, D. R., 1967.

Discussion of Lewis (1966), J. Roman Stud. 57: 238-42.

Wilson, D. R., 1975. 'Romano-Celtic temple architecture', J. Brit. Archaeol. Assoc. (3rd series) 38, 3-27.

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 30 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

2. THE DECORATED STONE\\-ORK OF ROMAN TEMPLES IN BRITAIN T. F. C • Blagg

This brief revi-ew of the place of decorated stonework in the architecture of Roman temples in Britain is meant to provide two sorts of information. The first is the material's contribution to the evidence on which to base re­ constructions of the appearance of these temples. The second relates to the social and economic conditions in which the stonemasons worked, on these and on other buildings. In considering first those temples of Classical type, consisting that is of a cella raised up on a podium and with a pedimental roof supported by columns at the front, one may agree with Lewis (1966, 57) that Britain does not have very many. It is not necessary for the purpose of this paper to disc1:1ss all of those for which he cites evidence. Study of the architectural decoration of those which have yielded that type of evidence has, however, produced some new information. The surviving remains of the Temple of Sulis Minerva at Bath include a Corinthian capital, fluted shaft and base of its columns, its cornice and much of its pediment. It is thus virtually unique in Britain in being a Roman building of which the original elevation can be reconstructed in some detail, even though no part of the frieze is known, and the attribution to the temple of a fragment of inscribed architrave is conjectural (Cunliffe, 1969, 11-12). The temple is not dated by archaeological excavation, except by inference from its association with the adjoining Baths (Cunliffe, 1969, 36-8), but stylistically the Corinthian capital is probably Neronian or early Flavian. The evidence for this conclusion is set out in a forthcoming paper (Blagg, 1979 ), where. it is also argued, on the basis of the detail of the leaves of the cornice and of the wreaths which surround the Gorgon's head on the pediment, that they are contemporary with the capital, and not a second-century or later replace­ ment (pace Richmond and Toynbee, 1955). There are in any case arguments against the latter proposition independent of the stylistic criteria. The Bath capital can be distinguished from the type which became established throughout most of southern Britain from the later years of the first century onwards, which may be exemplified by those from the basilicas of Silchester and Caerwent (Blagg, 1977, 64ff). Nevertheless, it can be linked with the prototypes of the north-east Gaulish type of capital (Ktthler, 1939, his Form C) from which that British type was derived. If it thus shows an earlier economic contact with approximately the same area, that contact was of a rather different nature. The stonemasons who were brought over to work on the Silchester-type capitals established a flourishing local school of carvers which lasted right through the second century. Those who came from Gaul to work on the Bath temple, however, appear to have had no wider influence in

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 31 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Br ita in .

Th is c onclusion i s r e inforced when o ne c o mes t o c ons ider t he f or m

o f t he c orn ice , wh ich i s t he o n ly e xa mp le i n Br ita in o f t he I on ic t ype , t ha t i s , w ith a p ro jec t ing c orona a nd d en t ils , b u t w i thou t t he mod i l l ions n or ma l o n t hose c orn ices wh ich were p roduced i n c o mpany w i th t he S ilchestertype c ap i tals ( Blagg , 1 . 977 , 6 9 ).

The Ba th t e mp le t hus h as t o b e s een a s ar a ther

s pec ial b u i ld ing , o ne i sola ted f ro m t he ma instrea m o f Ro man a rch i tec ture i n Br i ta in . The s a me may b e t hough t t o a pp ly t o t he Te mp le o f C laud ius a t C a mu lod unu m , b u t t he g rounds f or s ay ing s o a re ma in ly t ha t a t t he t ime i t was b u il t t here d o n ot s ee m t o h ave b een s tone masons e stabl ished i n Br ita in c apable o f d ecora t ing a b u ild ing o f t he q ua l ity i mp l ied b y t he a labas ter a nd s tucco mou ld ings wh ich a re a l l t ha t r e ma in o f i t s a rch i tectural d ecora t ion ( Hu l l , 1 958 , x xv i a nd 17 5 ).

As w i th t he Bath t e mp le a nd t he N eron ian p roto-palace

a t F ishbourne ( S trong , 19 71, 1 4) , masons must t herefore h ave b een c omm iss ioned f ro m e lsewhere , b u t whether f ro m I ta ly, Gau l o r a nother p rov ince r e ma ins u nknown .

Consequen t ly , t he l ack o f e v idence , a par t f ro m wha t c an

b e i nferred f ro m t he c onstruc t ion o f t he p od iu m , makes c on jec ture a bou t t he t e mp le 's o r ig ina l a ppearance a f orlorn a nd p oten t ia l ly m islead ing e n terpr ise. The s econd-cen tury t e mp le s ou th o f t he f oru m a t Wroxeter , h owever , t el ls a d if feren t s tory.

Excavat ion p roduced p ar ts o f i t s f i gured f r ieze, i t s

c orn ice a nd a C or in th ian c ap i tal ( Bushe-Fox , 1 913, 1 7 ;

19 14, 6 -7 ).

The

c orn ice was d ecora ted w i th a can thus l eaves , b racke t mod il l ions w ith r ose t tes b etween t he m , a n e gg-andtongue a nd a b ead-and-reel mou ld ing ( Fig. 2 .1A ). The u pper a nd l ower f rag men ts wh ich c o mpr ise t h is p rof i le h ave n ot s o f ar b een r ecogn ised a s b elong ing t oge ther , f or t he f or mer was o r ig ina l ly p ubl ished a s as epara te p anel mou ld ing ( Bushe-Fox , 1 913, f i g. 6 , n o. v , i l lustrated u pside d own ). The C or in th ian c ap ital was men t ioned b u t n o t i l lustra ted , b u t may p ossibly b e i den t if ied w ith a l arge f rag men t n ow i n Rew ley 's House Museu m , S hrewsbury ( Fig. 2 .1B ). L ew is ( 19 66, 7 0 ) r efers t o a Cor in th ian c ap i ta l 2 ' 6 " h igh , b u t a l though t h is i s p robably a bou t r igh t a s a n e st i ma te , b y a nalogy w i th t he p roport ions o f ac o mp le te c ap i ta l l a ter f ound e lsewhere i n Wroxeter ( JRS l v i , 19 67 , 1 85) , t he f rag men t u nder d iscussion i s i n f act o n ly 1 8 cm ( 7 i ns.) h igh .

I t i s u nprovenanced ;

t ha t i t was n e i ther men t ioned

n or i l lustra ted b y Fox ( 1897 ) , i n ap aper i n wh ich h e d iscussed t he a rch i tect ural s tonework f ro m Wroxeter v ery f u l ly , may b e t hough t t o s ugges t t ha t i t was f ound l a ter.

I ti s c arved i n as ty le f ound o n ly i n t he n orth-west Mid lands,

n otably a t Wroxeter , Chester a nd Wi lderspool , d ur ing t he s econd c entury. The a rch itec ture o f t he Wroxe ter t e mp le may t hus b e s een a s ap roduc t o f l ocal s tone masons , t hough u n for tuna tely t here i s f ro m o ther s i tes i n t he r eg ion i nsuf f ic ien t c o mpara t ive ma ter ia l f or t he c arv ing o f t he f r ieze a nd c orn ice t o l end s trong s uppor t t o t h is c onc lus ion .

Ra ther s im i lar mod i l l ions _

t o t hose o f t he c orn ice were emp loyed o n o thers f ro m L incoln ( Colyer , 19 75, 2 40 a nd p l . x xxv i i i , b ) a nd C orbr idge ( Know les a nd F orster , 1 909 , f i g. 1 3, n o. 8 ;

Forster a nd Knowles, 19 12, f i g. 4 , n o. 7 ) .

d escr ibed a s t yp ica l ly Ro mano-Br i t ish .

They c an a t l east b e

I n c on trast , t herefore , w ith s howp iece

b u ild ings l i ke t he Ba th a nd C olchester t e mp les, Wroxe ter 's c an b e s een a s a n e xa mp le o f p rov inc ia l t aste f or b u ild ings i n t he C lass ical manner , a nd o f t he c apac ity o f l ocal s tone masons t o s a t isfy i t .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 3 2 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

4 0

CM

A

0

0 C

F ig . 2 .1 A :

C orn ice o f T emp le a t Wroxe ter , r estored f ro m B ushe-Fox , 1 913 , f i g . 6 , va nd v i .

B :

F ragmen t o f C or in th ian c api ta l f rom Wroxe ter .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 3 3 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

The Corbridge temples reflect a rather different clientele, the third-cen­ tury legionary garrison of the fb rt. In Temples I and II the plinths for the portico columns were found, though not the column bases themselves. Much of the architectural sculpture from Corbridge has survived by virtue of having been used as material for fourth-century buildings or in road-metalling. As Richmond pointed out in his important article on the temples and religious cults of Corbridge (Richmond, 1943), it is highly likely that a fair proportion of this material derived from the temples, even though none was found in direct association with them. One cannot be certain exactly where sculptured panels such as the frieze of the Dioscuri and that of the Rosaliae were used, that is, whether as a frieze proper, beneath a cornice at the top of a wall or colonnade, or set into a wall as a decorative screen. Other pieces can, however, be as­ signed to their place in one of the buildings; the Wolf and Twins pediment, and fragments of another with bulls' heads and garlands, were clearly used on Classical elevations. The religious subject-matter of these various items makes their associa­ tion with the temples very plausible, but the architectural elements from the site which lack specifically religious motifs-the capitals, cornices and friezes-are less easy to place. One of these elements is a cornice whJch is decorated on both faces. There are three blocks, all now in Hexham Abbey, though it seems fairly safe to assume that they came originally from Corbridge. The profile is decorated with a cavetto, dentils, a long bead-and-reel (longer on one side than on the other) and a cable moulding (Forster and Knowles, 1914, 3 03, fig. 14). One block is intact: on the others only one side is preserved. The width at the bottom is 35.5 cm (14 ins.). Such a relatively slight wall, designed to be impressive from both sides, is more likely to have been a screen than the main wall of a building of any size. A most appropriate con­ text is provided by the forecourt of Temple II, the width of whose superstruc­ ture was stated nowhere to have exceeded 15 inches, a fact which led Richmond to conclude that it was more likely to have been a colonnade than roofed from wall to wall (Richmond, 1943, 14 0). Another set of mouldings, built into the Saxon crypt of Hexham Abbey, can be connected with that just described. It is probably better to describe them as cornices, since although they do not have the projecting profile of an orthodox cornice, their ornamental scheme is more appropriate to that than to a frieze or an architrave. There are four slightly differing versions, two of which were illustrated by Forster and Knowles (1914, 305, fig. 15), and the mouldings include dentils, a bead-and-reel, a cable and diagonally placed oval leaves, facetted in the manner of chip-carving. The similarity in the forms of the first three of these mouldings to those of the cornice attributed to Temple II suggests that they may well have been carved by the same masons, though not necessarily for the same building. The elongated form of the 11ead-and-reel came to be used in Roman archi­ tecture late in the second century, and is particularly common on Severan buildings. Chip-carving, apart from its distinctive use on stone table-tops in the south of the province in the third and fourth centuries (Blagg, 1977, 55, fig. 4.2 and 56), is geographically virtually confined to the area of the northern frontier, and was employed mainly on altars. One of two from

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 34 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

C hester , t he s ou thern most o u t l iers , h as a c onsu lar d a te o fA .D . 1 54, a nd i s t he e arl iest p rec isely-da ted e xa mp le ( RIB 4 48 a nd 4 58 ) ;

t he l a test i s R IB

1 281 f ro m H igh Rochester , e rec ted i n t he r e ign o f S everus A lexander.

Both

t hese mo t ifs a re t herefore c ons isten t i n d a te w ith t he t e mp les , wh ich a re d a ted a rchaeolog ica l ly t o t he e ar ly t h ird c en tury. The u se o f c h ip-carv ing a nd o f t he c able mo t if i s i n t he f i rst c ase e xc lus ively , a nd i n t he s econd p redo m inan t ly , af ea ture f ound o n ly i n t he n or thern f ron i ter z one.

These d ecora t ive mot ifs t hus i nd ica te a v ers ion o f Ro man p ro-

v inc ia l c u l ture d ist inc t f ro m t ha t i n t he s ou th ( as i ndeed c an b e d ocu men ted f ro m o ther t ypes o f a rch i tec tura l o rna men t ) , at rad i t ion o fC lass ica l a rch it ec ture i n troduced b y ad if feren t r ou te t o s a t isfy a d if feren t c l ien tele. I tw i l lb e c lear , e ven f ro m t h is l im i ted amoun t o f e v idence , t ha t t here was n o s ingle model f or t he manner i n wh ich a C lass ica l t e mp le i n Ro man Br i ta in s hou ld b e d ecora ted.

I f t he t e mp le a t Bath a nd p robably t ha t a t C ol-

c hester c an b e s een a s t he work o f c raf ts men f ro m o u tside Br ita in , t hose f ro m Wroxeter a nd C orbr idge were i n terpreta t ions b y l ocal c raf ts men , r epres enta t ives o f t he d ist inc t r eg iona l t rad i t ions wh ich d eveloped w i th in t he p rov ince d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury i n r esponse t o t he d e mands o f l oca l markets. The smal l q uan t i ty o f t he s urv iv ing s tructura l e v idence g ives t he i mpress ion t ha t t hese d e mands were n o t g rea t ly d irec ted t owards c o mm iss ion ing C lassica l t e mp les, b u t i n c er ta in c ases i ti s p oss ible t o s uggest t ha t s o me i t e ms i n c ol lec t ions o f a rch i tec tura l s tonework may h ave c o me f ro m o therw ise u nknown t e mp les.

C irencester , f or e xa mp le , h as p roduced n o l ess t han f i ve

d if feren t C or in th ian c ap ita ls , i n a dd i t ion t o t he wel l-known f igured c ap i tal wh ich , s ince i t may p ossibly h ave s ur moun ted a J up iter c olu mn ( Ph i l l ips, 1 976, 4 01) , i s b et ter d isregarded f or t he p urposes o f t he p resen t a rgu men t. A l l a re f ro m b u i ld ings o f monu men ta l c harac ter , w i th c olu mns 6 0 cm o r more i n d ia meter.

Two were f ound i n o r n ear t he f oru m-basi l ica ( Lysons , 1 817 , 1 24;

C r ipps , 1 898 , 2 07 ). There i s al im i ted n u mber o f t ypes o f b u ild ing t o wh ich t he o thers migh t h ave b elonged : t he t hea tre , t he p ubl ic b a ths o r at e mp le. As w il l b e s een b elow , i ti s v ery u n l ikely t ha t at e mp le o f Ro mano-Cel t ic t ype was d ecora ted w ith C or in th ian c olu mns.

The p rocess o f e l im inat ion t hus

p resen ts a s trong p robabi l i ty t ha t a t l east o ne o f t hese C irencester c ap i ta ls b elonged t o aC lass ica l t e mp le. The u se o f f l u ted c olu mn s haf ts o n monu men ta l b u ild ings may a lso b e c ons idered ;

t he d iscussion e xcludes t he i nc idence o f s uch c olu mns o n sma l ler

b u i ld ings , wh ich i s r estr ic ted t o t he n or thern f ron t ier a rea. A l though i n t he o rthodox Ro man C or in th ian o rder a f lu ted s haf t i s c onven t iona l ( V i truv ius I I , v , 1 4 a nd I V, i , 1 ) , t he r u le d oes n ot s ee m t o a pp ly u n iversal ly t o p rov inc ial p rac t ice , a t a ny r a te i n Br i ta in .

I n t 1 r f i rst p lace , t ha t i s i nd ica ted b y t he

f ac t t ha t s urv iva ls o f C or in th ian c ap ita ls g rea t ly o utnu mber t hose o f f l u ted c olu mn s haf ts. Fur ther more , i n t hose b as i lican b ui ld ings wh ich h ave p roduced t he r e ma ins b oth o f C or in th ian c ap i ta ls a nd o f t he s haf ts wh ich a cco mpan ied t he m , n one o f t he l a t ter was f l u ted .

The c olu mns o f t he S ilchester f oru m-

b asi l ica a nd o f t he c ross-ha l l o ft he p r inc ip ia a t Chester were p la in , wh ile t hose o f t he Caerwen t f oru m-bas i l ica were d ecorated w ith imbr ica ted l eaves ( Fox a nd S t . J ohn Hope , 1 893, 5 52;

R ich mond a nd Webster , 1 951, 1 3;

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 3 5 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Ashby , Hudd a nd K ing , 1 909 , 5 72 ).

A p ubl ic h a l l a d jo in ing Westga te i n G lou-

c ester , d a table p robably t o t he s econd c en tury , h ad p la in c olu mn s haf ts 8 9 cm i n d ia me ter , t hough Hurst d oubts whether t hey w ere f ro m t he s a me b u i ld ing a s t he ' round ' ( presu mably u n f lu ted ) c olu mns o f e qu ivalen t s ize f ound w ith C or in th ian c ap itals f ur ther a long Westga te i n 1 835, b u t n ow l ost ( Hurst , 1 972, 6 2-3 , w i th f ur ther r eferences ). The o n ly c ases i n wh ich f l u ted c o lu mns c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o ak nown b u ild ing a re t he Te mp le o f S u l is Minerva a t Ba th a nd t he Quadr ifrons Arch a t R ichborough ( Cun l if fe , 19 69 ; n al ly.

S trong , 1 . 968 , 5 7-60 ) , i n e ach c ase u sed e x ter-

One may p ropose , t herefore , w i th a l l t he c au t ion d e manded b y ad educ-

t i on made f ro m s o f ew e xa mp les , t ha t i n t he monu men ta l b u i ld ings o f l ow land Br ita in t he a dd it iona l e legance o f af lu ted c olu mn was n ot a pp l ied t o a n i n ter ior, b u t was r eserved f or e x ter ior d ecorat ion , where t he e f fec ts o f l i gh t a nd s hade f ro m i t s c hannel l ing c ou ld b e a pprec ia ted t o ag rea ter d egree ; a dornmen t t o t hea tres a nd t e mp les.

t ha t i s , a s a n

I ft ha t i s s o , t hen t he p ieces o f af l u ted c olu mn s haf t c . 8 0 cm i n d ia meter f ound i n t he r esiden t ial a rea b e tween t he f oru m a nd t he t hea tre a t V eru la m iu m may b e a t tr ibu ted t o o ne o f t he f oru m t e mp les r a ther t han t o t he b as i l ica , s ince t hey a re t oo l arge t o h ave c o me f ro m t he t hea tre , t he C or in th ian c ap i tal o f wh ich was o n ly a bou t 5 0 cm i n d ia me ter ( i n for ma t ion , Veru la m iu m Museu m ; K enyon , 1 934, 2 22-3 ).

A t Can terbury , f rag men ts o f aC or in th ian c ap i tal , a

f l u ted c olu mn s haf t , a nd marble mou ld ings a nd v eneers were f ound i n t he e xcavat ion o f p ar ts o f ag ravel led p rec inc t o f c ons iderable e xten t s e t w i th in ap or t ico o n t he o pposi te s ide o f as tree t f ro m t he t hea tre ( Br i tann ia v i i i , 1 977 , 4 23-4;

i n forma t ion f ro m T . W. T . Ta t ton Brown ).

A l though n o p ar t o f a

ma jor b u ild ing h as y et b een l oca ted , t he c harac ter o f t he p or t ico, t he j ux tap osi t ion t o t he t hea tre a nd t he n a ture o f t he a rch i tec tura l o rna men t c o mb ine i n p er m i t t ing t he t en ta t ive s uggest ion t ha t t he b u i ld ing was a t e mp le , a nd a l arge a nd i mpos ing o ne. I n c on trast w i th t he manner i n wh ich C lass ical t e mp les were d ecora ted , i ts ee ms t o h ave b een t he e xcep t ion r a ther t han t he r u le f or Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp les i n Br ita in t o h ave b een embel l ished w i th d ecora ted s tonework , whe ther c olu mns o r mou ld ings.

Even a l low ing f or t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t t he r obbing o f

s tonework h as c aused t he s urv iv ing e v idence t o r epresen t a n u ndu ly l ow p rop or t ion o f t he t o ta l o fb u i ld ings s o d ecora ted , t he l i st i s b y n o means i mpress ive , a s L ew is r ecogn ised ( 1966, 4 1).

I ndeed , h e was o bl iged t o r esor t t o

C on t inen ta l e v idence f or t he a rrange men t o f p or t ico c olu mns ( 1966, 3 8f f .), t hough h e d id n ot v en ture t o d raw t he c onc lus ion t ha t f ew Ro mano-Br i t ish t e mp les o f t h is t ype were a c tua l ly c onstruc ted i n t ha t manner. N or i s t here a ny c er ta in e xa mp le o f s uch a b u ild ing b efore t he t h ird c ent ury , s ince t he a t tr ibu t ion o f d ecorat ive a rch i tec tural f ea tures t o t wo o r t hree e ar l ier t e mp les a t S i lchester i s v ery q uest ionable.

The t e mp le i n I nsu la XXXV

i s o n t he s a me a l ign men t a s t he f i rst-cen tury b a ths , a nd o ne may a ccep t Boon 's v iew ( 1974, 1 53) t ha t i t was b u i l t i n t he s a me c en tury.

Par ts o f t wo

Tuscan c ap ita ls a nd o f t wo sma l l c olu mns were f ound ' under t he h edge wh ich p asses i t s e astern s ide ' ( S t . J ohn Hope , 1 909 , 2 08 ), b u t i ti s h azardous t o s uppose t ha t t hey h ad c o me f ro m t he t e mp le , p ar t icu larly s ince o ne o f t he c ap i ta ls was c ons idered b y t he e xcava tor , w i th s o me j ust ice , t o h ave b een o f Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 3 6 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

s uch a s ize t ha t i t mus t h ave b elonged t o t he f oru m.

I n t he d ebr is a bove t he

t e mp les i n I nsu la XXX , wh ich a re o n t he s a me a l ign men t , Purbeck marble v eneers a nd s tucco mou ld ings w ere r ecovered ( Fox a nd S t. J ohn Hope , 1 890 , 7 44 ). A l though a dwarf c olu mn was l a ter f ound n earby i n I nsu la XXX I I , a nd S t. J ohn H ope ( 1903, 4 22) s pecu la ted t ha t i tm igh t h ave c o me f ro m o ne o f t he t e mp les, t he f i ndspo t was j ust a s c lose t o t he Ba ths wh ich were l a ter b e ing e xcavated wh ile h is r epor t was i n p ress.

Thus , wh i le t he v eneers a nd s tucco

may p laus ibly b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he i n ter ior d ecora t ion o fo ne o f t he t e mp les , we migh t h ave b een s pared t he e sca la t ion o f ap ossibi l i ty i n to a p robab il i ty ( Lew is, 1 966, 2 0 ) t ha t t he c olu mn a dorned o ne o f t he e x ter iors. N one o f t hese b u i ld ings, t herefore, h as a ny e x ternal a rch i tec tural s tonework i n o ther t han t he l oosest o f a ssoc ia t ions.

Un for tuna te ly, n one o f t he

f rag men ts men t ioned a re among t hose p ubl ished , s o i ti s n ot p ossible t o ampl i fy o r t est t he a rgu men t b y c onsider ing t he ir d i mens ions o r a ny d a table f eature o f t he ir t ypology.

J oyce f ound a c h ip o f ac olu mn i n t he t e mp le i n I nsu la V I I

a t S i lchester b u t , a s B oon h as r e marked , ' on a ny t el l ing , t he t e mp le i s n o t e arly ' ( 1974, 1 57-8 ).

The r e ma in ing s i tes a re a l l r ura l t e mp les, a nd h ave

p roduced t he a rch i tectura l s tonework l i sted i n Table 1 . I n a dd it ion , t here i s ar eference t o ' colu mns ' h av ing b een f ound a t Wyco mb ( Lew is, 1 966, 4 1 ).

E ven t he a bove l i st must b e q ual if ied :

t he e xcavator

c onceded t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t he Br igstock p ieces d id n ot c o me f ro m e ither o f t he t wo s hr ines ( Green f ield , 1 963, 2 38 );

l i t tle i s k nown o f t he b u ild ing a t

J ordon H il l ; a nd L ew is o bserved t ha t t he p ieces o f c olu mn f ound i n t he wel l a t P agan 's H i l l were n o t c er ta in ly f ro m t he t e mp le. There i s n o e v idence t ha t a ny Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp le i n Br i ta in h ad Cor in th ian o r , i ndeed , a ny o ther t han Tuscan c olu mns :

t he c ap i tal f ro m

t he t e mp le c o mp lex a t S pr inghead s ur moun ted a v ot ive c olu mn , a nd o ther f rag men ts p ubl ished a s b elong ing t o ad if feren t C or in th ian c ap ital a nd a t tr ibu ted t o o ne o f t he t e mp les a re i n f ac t p ar ts o f a n i mbr ica ted s haf t wh ich was p rob ably t ha t o f t he v ot ive c olu mn ( Penn , 1 96 7 , 1 23;

c f . B lagg , f or thco m ing ).

The d ecorated mou ld ings f ro m N et t le ton i nc lude p la in mod i l l ions a nd d en t ils, b u t t here i s n o e xa mp le f ro m a ny s uch s i te o f ac orn ice o r f r ieze d ecorated w ith f ol iage , o volos o r b eads-and-reels i n t he manner o f t he C lassical t e mp les a t Bath , C orbr idge a nd Wroxeter.

S uch d ecora t ion a s t here i s , t herefore ,

i s o f ar ela t ively r estra ined c harac ter. Even s o , t he p ossess ion o f t h is modest a rch i tec tura l d ecorat ion may b e t aken a s s o me i nd ica t ion o f q ual ity o r , p u t a nother way , o f t he mun if icence o f ap a tron o r c o m mun i ty.

The p ossess ion o f a mosa ic f l oor h as b een u sed

a s ar ough a nd r eady i nd ica t ion o f t he s tatus o f av il la.

Abou t 1 70 , o r a

q uar ter o f t hose k nown a d ecade a go , h ad t h is d is t inc t ion ( Sm ith , 1 969 , 7 1-2 a nd f i g. 3 .1).

Barely a q uarter o f t ha t n umber ( Ik now o f4 5 ) h as p roduced

e ven a s ingle i t em o f d ecora ted a rch i tec tura l s tonework .

Though u nsu i table

f or s ta t ist ical c o mpar ison , t he f i gures p resen t ar ela t ive o rder o f magn itude wh ich s ee ms s uf f ic ien t ly t el l ing. I t was t hus t he e xcep t iona l Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp le , a s i t was t he e xcep t ional v il la , wh ich was embel l ished i n t h is way.

One mus t a l low t ha t as im ilar efec t

m igh t h ave b een a ch ieved l ess e xpensively b y t he u se o f t imber , p oss ibly w ith

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 3 7 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

VCI I S urrey ( 1912) ,

W. J . Wedlake.

5

Decora ted

P 1

C I D c l

N et t leton S hrub

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J ordan H il l

P : 1

Chedwor th

COLU MNS

4 4 c 2

Arch i tec tural S tonework f ro m r ural Ro mano-Cel t ic Te mp les

REFERENCES

ApS i mon , 1 965, 2 56.

t r D

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 3 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

A r

5 0

B

CM

0

( 7 ( \ _ . (

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. F ig . Publishing, 2 .2 A :1980, C o lumn f rom O c tagona l S hrine a t N e t t leton S hrub . E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

) 3 :

C o lumn c ap i ta l a nd b ase f rom v i l la a t B ignor ( ha lf-prof i les ) .

t urned c ap ita l a nd b ase mou ld ings , i n p lace o f s tone c olumns.

I n a n a rea

l ack ing s u i table b u ild ing s tone , t he r endered b r ick-bu i l t c olu mns o ft he t hea trete mp le p rec inc t a t V eru la m iu m s hou ld a lso b e n oted ( Wheeler a nd Wheeler , 19 36, 1 32).

I n c on trast , t he r e la t ively l av ish u se o f s tone d ecora t ive

f eatures i n t he t e mp le c o mp lex a t N e t t leton S hrub , where t he c a ta logue r uns t o s o me 8 0 i t e ms ( W. J . Wed lake , i n c orrespondence ), may b e t aken a s a p ar t icu larly g enerous l evel o f p a tronage o r i nvest men t. S o me o f t he ma ter ial f ro m t ha t s i te p rov ides u s w i th e v idence t ha t t he p ossess ion o fd ecora t ive s tonework w as n ot p r i mar ily d eter m ined b y t he a va i labi l ity o f s tone masons i n t he i m med ia te l oca l ity : i ndeed , t he r everse , t ha t masons were p repared t o t ravel a c ons iderable d istance t o where t he ir s erv ices m igh tb e i n d e mand. The c olu mns f ro m t he o c tagonal s hr ine a t N et t le ton a re p ar t icu lar ly c lose , b oth i n t he ir p ropor t ions a nd i n t he p rof ile o f t he ir mou ld ings, t o o thers f ro m B ignor , f ro m t he Westcotes v i l la o u ts ide L e icester , a nd f ro m C aer leon ( Fig. 2 .2) ( Hebd i tch a nd Mel lor , 1 973 , f i g. 3 1, n o. 5 8 ;

a nd i n for mat ion f ro m W. J . Wed lake a nd G . C . Boon ).

C ons ider ing

t he w ide r ange o f t ypolog ical v ar ia t ion i n t hese d eta ils o ver t he p rov ince a s a whole , t he s im ilar i ty i n t h is p ar t icu lar c ase i s s uf f ic ien t ly r e markable a s t o s uggest t ha t t hese c olu mns f ro m f our w ide ly d ispersed s i tes were t he work o f t he s a me mason . Af u l l d e monstrat ion o f t h is w ou ld p ass u ndu ly b eyond t he b ounds o ft h is p aper , b u t i ti s o ne o f o n ly t hree o r f our i ns tances , a par t f ro m t he s im ilar i ty w i th in a s et o f c olu mns f ro m t he s a me s i te ( c f . B lagg, 19 77 , 5 6-9 ) , where t h is d egree o f i den t i ty c an b e o bserved , a nd i ti s h ard t o b el ieve t hat i ti s c oinc iden tal . I ft h is c an b e t aken t o d e monstra te t ha t i ng enera l c o mpeten t s tone masons c ou ld b e s ecured f ro m s o me d istance away i fr equ ired , i td oes n ot e xp la in t he mot ive f or h av ing t he m d o t he w ork t hey d id .

I ti s n ot n ecessary t o s uppose

f or t he p urpose o f t h is d iscussion t ha t t he ir s erv ices were p ar t icu larly e xpens ive. The ir u se m igh t e qual ly w 31 1b e s een a s ac u l tural f ac tor , ag esture t owards b u ild ing i n ag rander manner t han u sual , a mat ter more o f s tyle a nd t aste t han o f t he a c tual e xpend i ture i nvolved.

On t he l ast p o in t , h owever , t he

L e icester a nd B ignor c olu mns were , l i ke t he o thers , made f ro m o ol it ic l imes tone , w i th t he d if ference t ha t i t was n o t l ocal ly a va ilable , af ac tor wh ich must h ave a dded t o t he c ost. Mi l lstone g r i t was n or ma l ly emp loyed f or c olumns i n t he ma jor p ubl ic b u i ld ings a t L e icester. Tuscan c ap itals o f l imes tone , h owever , w ere f ound i n ab u ild ing t here wh ich h as b een i n terpreted a s aM i thraeu m , a s t hey were a lso i n t he Wa lbrook Mithraeu m a t L ondon ( Wacher , 19 75, 3 54, m istaken ly d escr ibed a s b ases; Merr if ield , 19 65, 9 2-5, a nd i n format ion f ro m W. F . Gr i mes ). I t wou ld b e o t iose t o u se t h is f ea ture o f t he l a t ter b u i ld ing t o d e mons tra te t he w eal th o f t he Mithra ic s ec t i n L ondon , when t he marble s cu lp ture f ro m t he t e mp le a t tests t h is s o much more t e l l ing ly. E ven s o , t he s a me i nference may b e a l lowed a s wls made i n t he c ase o f t he Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp les , p art icu lar ly when c on trasted w i th o ther k nown Mi thraea , t hose a dj unc t t o m i l i tary e stabl ish men ts , where t he c o m mun i t ies d o n o t a ppear t o h ave a sp ired t o s im ilar s tandards.

I nb oth Mi thraea f i rst men t ioned w e a re d ea l ing

w i th a d ist inc t ive a rch itec tural f or m , t he u se o f Tuscan c olu mns i n t he n ave o f ab u i ld ing o fb asil ican p lan .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, 4 0Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Another t e mp le s i te where t he c u l tb u i ld ing i s n e ither C lassica l n or Ro mano-Cel t ic i n p lan i s L ydney.

The Tuscan c ap itals a nd f i n ial f ound a t

t ha t s i te may wel l h ave b elonged t o t he g uest h ouse , a s t he e xcava tors s uggest ed ( Wheeler a nd Wheeler , 19 32, 6 7 ) , s ince t he t e mp le d oes n ot p rov ide a n o bv ious u se , a t a ny r a te f or t he c olu mns.

N or i s i tc er ta in whether t he e n-

g aged C or in th ian c ap ita l a nd c olu mn b ase s a id t o h ave b een f ound d ur ing t he l ast c en tury a t Th ist le ton ( Lew is , 19 66, 9 3-5) a ctual ly b elonged t o t he c ircu lar s hr ine o r t o i t s l a te t h ird-cen tury b asi l ican s uccessor , o r i ndeed t o a nother s tructure ( perhaps t o av ot ive c olu mn ) . I ft o t he b asi l ica , t he C or in th ian c ap i ta l w ou ld b e t he l a test d a table i n t he p rov ince , wh ich g ives s o me c ause f or u nease ;

a ssum ing , f u ther more , t ha t ap iece n ow a pparen t ly l ost was

c orrec t ly i den t if ied i n t he f i rst p lace. I n a na lysing t he a rch itec tural o rna men t o f R o man t e mp les i n Br i ta in we a re , w ith in t he l im i ts e stabl ished b y p rovenanced mater ial , c oncerned p red om inan t ly w i th t he t wo ma jor t ypes o f t e mp le , a nd e ach was t rea ted i n a f ash ion wh ich may b e c ons idered s oc ial ly a nd e cono m ica l ly a s we l l a s f or mal ly d ist inc t.

I n C lass ical t e mp les t he r esu l ts were , i n s uch c ases a s Ba th , c on-

d i t ioned b y a rch i tectura l p rac t ice o u ts ide t he p rov ince , a nd i n o thers, f ormed p ar t o f t he d evelop ing t rad i t ions o f monumen ta lb u ild ing w i th in u rban c o m mun it i es , r eg ional v ar ian ts o f p rov inc ia l c u l ture s een t hrough t he med iu m o f a rch i tec ture a s i td eveloped d ur ing t he f i rst c entury o r s o o f Ro man a dm in ist ra t ion. I n Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp les we a re d ea l ing w i th a r a ther d if feren t p heno menon , a f fec t ing r ura lb u i ld ings a lso , a nd d evelop ing d ur ing t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies A .D.

T he d ecora ted s tonework f ro m t hese t e mp les i s

c o mparable , n ot w i th t ha t o ff oru m-basi l icas a nd t hea tres, b u t w ith t he embel l ish men t o fd o mest ic a rch i tec ture i n t own a nd c oun try. Th is d ist inc t ion s hou ld n ot b e c ons idered i n s uch s i mp le t er ms a s o ne b etween p ubl ic a nd p r ivate a rch i tec ture, wh ich wou ld b eg t oo many q uest ions a bou t t he way i n wh ich b u ild ing p rogra m mes were f i nanced.

I f most C lass ical

t e mp les c an b e s een w i th in t he d o ma in o f p ubl ic b u ild ing , i td oes n ot f o l low t ha t a Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp le c annot b e s een i n t he s a me way.

I ndeed , t he

c en tra l p os it ion a nd l ong h istory o f t he t hea trete mp le a t Veru la m iu m s uggests t he o pposi te . a nd t he f i rst-cen tury t e mp les a t S i lchester m igh t b e i n terpre ted i n as im ilar manner.

I f , h owever , t he u se o f a rch i tec tural o rna men t c an b e

s een a s i n a ny way a n i ndex o f munif icence, i ti s n otewor thy t ha t i tc annot b e o bserved o n Ro mano-Cel t ic t e mp les b efore t he t h ird c entury , a nd t ha t when s ubsequen t ly i tc an b e d e monstra ted , i ti s f ound o n ly i n am inor i ty o f s uch b u i ld ings , a s i ti s i n am inor i ty o fv i l las.

Both t ypes o fb u i ld ing were w ith in

t he amb i t o f t he s a me s chools o f s tone masons , o pera t ing i n s o me c ases o ver q u i te a w ide a rea.

A l though t he c haracter o f t he ir d ecora t ion c an b y n o means

b e d escr ibed a s o sten ta t ious , i n t he c on tex t o f c on te mporary b u ild ings e lsewhere i n t he Emp ire , t hese b u ild ings , c a l l ing u pon s uch s pec ia l ist s urv ices , e x tended i n to t he r ural l andscape o f t he p rovince o ne o f t hose e x terna l a spec ts o f Med i terranean c iv i l isa t ion wh ich , l i ke t he Pal lad ian c oun try h ouse o r t he r arer n eo-Class ica l c hurch o f l a ter c en tur ies , a l low u s i nsigh t i n to t he c u lt ura l a sp ira t ions o ft he Ro mano-Br i t ish p a tron a nd c o m mun ity.

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 4 1 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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' The F oru m a nd Basi lica o f Ro man

L eicester ,' B ri tann ia 4 , 1 -83 . Hu l l , M. R ., 1 958 , Ro man Colchester ( Research Repor t XX o f The S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon ). Hurst. H ., 1 972. Repor t ',

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' The Ro man Theatre a t Veru la m iu m , S t. A lbans ',

Archaeologia 8 4, 2 13-61. Know les, W. H ., a nd Forster , R . H ., 1 909.

' Corstop itu m :

Repor t o n t he

Excava t ions i n 1 908 ', Archaeol .Ael iana 3 5 , 3 05-424. L ew is, M. J . T ., 1 966. L ysons, S ., 1 817.

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' An Accoun t o f t he Re ma ins o f s everal Ro man Bu ild ings

a nd o ther Ro man An t iqu i t ies d iscovered i n t he Coun ty o f G loucester ,' Archaeolog ia 1 8, 1 12-25. Merr if ield , R ., 1 965. Penn , W. S ., 1 967.

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' Spr inghead :

Te mp le V I/ Gateway ', Archaeol. Can t iana

8 2, 1 05. .23. Ph il l ips, E . J ., 1 976.

' A Ro man F igured Cap i tal i n C irencester ',

J . B ri t .

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' The Ro man L eg ionar ies a t Corbr idge , t he ir S upp ly-

Base, Te mp les a nd Rel igious Cu l ts,' Archaeol. Ael iana4 2 1. 1 27-224. R ich mond , I . A . ,a nd Toynbee , J . M. C ., 1 955. ' The Te mp le o f S u l is Minerva a t Bath ,

J . Ro man S tud. 4 5, 9 7-105.

R ich mond , I . A ., a nd Webster , G ., 1 951.

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Chester , 1 948-9 ', J . C hester A rchaeo l . S oc . 3 8, 1 -38 . S t . C la ir Baddeley , W., 1 930.

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Trans. Br istol G los. Archaeol. S oc. 5 2, 2 55-64. S t. J ohn Hope , W. H ., 1 903;

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C i ty a t S i lchester , Hants . ,i n 1 902 , 1 908 ', Archaeolog ia 5 8 , 4 13-28 a nd 6 1, 4 73-86. Sm ith , D . J ., 1 969.

' The Mosa ic Pave men ts ', i n A . L . F . R ivet ( ed .), The

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o n t he Excava t ions o ft he Ro man For t a t R ichborough , Ken t ( Research Report XX I I I o f The S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon ), 4 0-74. S trong , D . E ., 1 971.

' Cor in th ian Cap i tals ', i n B . Cun l if fe , Excava t ions a t

F ishbourne, 1 961-1969 ( Research Report XXVI o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon ), i , 1 1-15. Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 4 3 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

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o f L ondon ).

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 4 4 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

3 .

NON-CLASS ICAL REL IG IOUS BUILD INGS

I N I RON AGE AND RO MAN BR ITA IN :

A REV IE W

P . J . Drury

R ecen t y ears h ave s een t he e xcava t ion o f many a pparen t ly u nsoph is t ica ted r ec tangu lar , c ircu lar , a nd p o lygona l Ro mano-Br i t ish b u i ld ings wh ich h ave b een i n terpreted a s t e mp les o r s hr ines .

Probab le I ron Age a n teceden ts f or

t he c ircu lar e xamp les h ave o f ten b een s ugges ted ( eg . L ew is , 1 966 , 8 4 ) , y e t i t h as b eco me c lear t ha t r ectangu lar s tructures , a rguably r e l ig ious i n f unct ion , c an o ccupy f oca l p o in ts i n n uc lea ted I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n wh ich t he ma jor i ty o f b u i ld ings a re c ircu lar .

T he a i ms o f t h is p aper , t here fore , a re t o r ev iew

t he e v idence f or r e l ig ious b u i ld ings i n I ron Age Br i ta in ( Fig . 3 .1) , t o s pecu la te o n t he o r ig ins a nd d eve lop men t o f t he v ar ious t ypes , a nd b r ie f ly t o c ons ider t he ir p os t-Conques t d eve lop men t a nd t he a ppearance o f s ee m ing ly r e la ted f or ms . RECTANGULAR BU ILD INGS I RON AGE RECTANGULAR S HR INES A .

Danebury , Han ts . Three t ypes o f r ectangu lar b u i ld ing c an b e s een i n t he g roup o f f our s truc-

t ures wh ich o ccup ies a f oca l p o in t a t t he c en tre o f t he Danebury h i l l for t .

A l l

a re a l igned s im i lar ly , f acing t he ma in e n trance ( Cun li f fe , 1 976 , 2 05-7 , 2 10 , a nd f igs . 1 , 1 0 ) . The ir p os i t ion a nd u nusua l f orm make i tt e mp t ing , a s Prof . Cun l i f fe h as s ugges ted , t o s ee t he m a s p ar t o f ar e l ig ious c o mp lex .

The f irs t

t ype , as i mp le r ec tang le , i s r epresen ted b y t wo e xa mp les , e ach d ef ined b y a b edd ing t rench f or a t imber wa l l .

One h as a n e n trance a t t he e as t e nd o f t he

s ou th wa l l ( Fig . 3 .2.2 ) ; t he o ther s ee ms t o b e e n t ire ly o pen o n t he e as t s ide ( Fig . 3 .2 .1 ) . The s econd t ype , ar ec tangu lar b u i ld ing d iv ided i n to t wo c o mpar t men ts , i s r epresen ted b y S truc ture 1 8 , 9m s quare a nd d ef ined b y ac on t inuous b edd ing t rench c on ta in ing u pr igh t t imbers a t i n terva ls ( Fig . 3 .2 .7) .

The i n terna l p ar-

t i t ion s ee ms l ess s ubs tan t ia l , a nd t here a re i nd ica t ions o f c o m mun ica t ing d oorways a t i t s n or th a nd s ou th e nds . The t h ird t ype , ab u i ld ing w i th a c en tra l a rea s urrounded b y ad e f ined s pace o n a t l eas t t hree s ides , i s p robab ly r epresen ted b y S tructure 1 9 ( Fig . 3 .2 .10 ) . The c en tra l s pace i s d e f ined b y ac on t inuous t rench , w i th a s ing le e n trance i n t he e as t wa l l , r ound wh ich , w i th t he e ye o f f a i th , o ne c an p erce ive c oncen tr ic p os tho les o n t hree s ides ; p i ts may a ccoun t f or t he ir a pparen t a bs ence o n t he wes t :

s ee n ow P roc. Preh is t . S oc . 4 5 ( 1979 ) , 3 39 .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 4 5 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. 4 6 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

S tructure 1 9 i s amongs t t he l a tes t d ef inable I ron Age f ea tures o n t he s i te , a nd p robably b e longs t o t he f irs t c en tury B .C. o r e ven t he e ar ly f irs t c en tury A .D. d a te .

The o ther f ea tures o f t he c o mp lex may b e o f b road ly s im i lar

Ev idence f ro m e xcava t ions u nder taken u p t o 1 975 s ugges ts t ha t , a t l eas t

i n t he a reas e xcava ted , t he ma in o ccupa t ion o f t he h i l l for t c eased c . 1 00 B .C. B .

S ou th C adbury , S o merse t ( A lcock , 1 972 , p ass im ). A l though t he s i te p roduced e v idence o f e ar l ier o ccupa t ion , t he f irs t d e-

f ences a t S ou th C adbury b e long t o t he e ar ly I ron Age .

T hey a ppear t o h ave

b een ma in ta ined , w i th r econs truct ion , t hrough t he midd le a nd l a te p hases o f t he I ron Age , b eing a bandoned t owards t he e nd o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C .

A t

t he b eg inn ing o f t he U l t i ma te ( Durotr ig ian ) p hase , p robab ly e ar ly i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D ., t he d e fences were a ga in r econs tructed ( Ra mpar t D :

A lcock ,

1 969 , 3 4 ) . Fur ther r efurbish men t , a t l eas t o f t he s ou th-wes t g a te , s ee ms t o h ave b een u nder taken a round t he t ime o f t he R o man C onques t ( Phase D 2 ) a nd t hey were f ina l ly s l igh ted f o l low ing a s uccessfu l a t tack b y R o man f orces , C . A .D . 6 1 ( A lcock , 1 971 , 4 ; c orrec ted A lcock , 1 980 ) .

There i s amp le e v idence

o f o ccupa t ion w i th in t he d e fences i n t he e ar ly I ron Age , when t he d o mes t ic b u i ld ings may h ave b een s ix-pos t s tructures ; c f . t hose e xcava ted o n S i te T ( A lcock , 1 972 , 1 53 ).

I n tens ive o ccupa t ion c on t inued d ur ing t he midd le a nd l a te

p hases , t he p r incipa l b u i ld ings b e ing r ound-houses .

Few p i ts a nd n o h ouses

c an b e a ss igned t o t he U l t i ma te p hase ( A lcock , 1 972 , 1 63 ) , a l though A lcock ( 1 969 , 3 4-6 ) p rev ious ly a ss igned o ne r ound-house t o t h is p er iod . Aga ins t t h is b ackground s o me p o ten t ia l ly r e l ig ious s tructures c an b e c ons idered .

The mos t c lear ly d e f ined a nd t he l a tes t o f t hese was a r ec tangu lar

b u i ld ing , S tructure 2 7 ( Fig . 3 .2 .6) , l oca ted t owards t he e as tern e nd o f t he c en tra l r idge w i th in t he f or t ( F ig . 3 .4 h ere ; A lcock , 1 970 , 1 8-20 a nd f ig . 2 ; 1 972 , 8 1-4 , 1 63-4 , p l . 4 8-9 a nd f ig . 1 0 ). One o f i t s t wo d e f ined s paces was c lear ly o pen t o t he e as t , f or m ing a p orch .

The wa l ls were r epresen ted b y

b edd ing t renches 0 .4 m w ide b y 0 .3 m d eep , a nd t he e nc losed s pace h ad a s ing le e n trance , c . 1m w ide , a lso f acing e as t .

I t s r e l ig ious n a ture was

s ugges ted b y more t han 2 0 b ur ia ls o f y oung p igs , l ambs , a nd e specia l ly c a lves —presu mab ly s acr i f ices—in a we l l-de f ined b and w i th i t s a x is a l igned w i th t he p orch o f t he b u i ld ing ( A lcock , 1 971 , 5 ) .

P o t tery f ro m t he wa l l-trench i ncludes

al i t t le wh ich p robab ly b e longs a f ter c . A .D. 4 3 , b u t t h is p resumably d a tes t he a bandonmen t o f t he b u i ld ing r a ther t han i t s o r ig in .

S tructure 2 7 i s t he

o n ly i n terna l b u i ld ing wh ich c an b e a ss igned t o t he U l t i ma te I ron Age p hase o f S ou th Cadbury ( a l though a s y e t o n ly 6% o f t he i n ter ior h as b een e xcava ted ). A r el ig ious f unc t ion f or s o me e ar l ier b u i ld ings o n t he r idge i s , h owever , p robab le .

S tructure 9 ( Fig . 3 .2 .5 ) , a d jacen t t o S tructure 2 7 , h as a s im i lar

p lan , b u t d e f ined b y s ix p os t-ho les , a nd may b e i t s p redecessor e spec ia l ly s ince a f u l ly-grown c ow h ad b een b ur ied j us t o u ts ide ( A lcock , 1 970 , p l . V I b ). S tructure 8 , t o t he n or th-wes t o f S tructure 2 7 , h as a p lan v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f S tructure 9 , a nd migh t h ave f u l f i l led a s im i lar f unct ion . A l l s ee m t o l i e i n t he c en tre o f ag roup o f r ound-houses ( Fig . 3 .4 h ere ; A lcock , 1 972 , f ig . 1 0 ) . T owards t he wes tern e nd o f t he c en tra l r idge l ay a no ther s truc ture ( Fig . 3 .2 .4 ) d ef ined b y s ix p os ts , a round wh ich were c lus tered p i ts c on ta in ing d el i bera te ly-bur ied h orse a nd c a t t le s ku l ls ( A lcock , 1 969 , 3 6-7, f ig . 3 ; 1 972 , 1 52-3 ).

The i nse t p os i t ions o f t he t wo i nner p os ts s ugges ts t ha t t h is was a

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 4 7 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

s tructure o f s im i lar f or m t o S 8-9 , a l though d iv ided i n to t wo a pprox i ma te ly e qua l s paces , w i th s o w ide a n o pen ing b e tween t he m t ha t t he i nner s pace was a lso e f fec t ive ly o pen o n o ne s ide .

Bo th t h is b u i ld ing a nd S tructures 8 a nd 9

a pparen t ly b e long t o t he midd le o r l a te p hases o f t he I ron Age , b u t may n ot b e c on te mporary ; t h is w i l l d oubt less b e made c lear when t he s i te i s p ubl ished i n f u l l .

The r e ma in ing s ix-pos t s truc tures e xcava ted c ons is ted o f t wo r ows o f

t hree e qua l ly-spaced p os ts , a nd A lcock r easonab ly s ees t he m a s p o ten t ia l d o mes t ic b u i ld ings o f t he Ear ly I ron Age , e specia l ly t he c lus ter t o t he e as t o f t he c en tra l r idge . I tt hus s ee ms l i ke ly t ha t p os t-bu i l t r e l ig ious s tructures a t t he c en tre o f ag roup o f r ound-houses o f midd le t o l a te I ron Age d a te g ave way t o a more s oph is t ica ted b u i ld ing , o f e ssen t ia l ly t he s a me t ype , o n t he s ame s i te , d ur ing t he e ar ly f irs t c en tury A .D.

B y t h is t ime , t he s e t t le men t h ad moved a way

f ro m i t s f or mer p os i t ion , i fn o t o u t o f t he f or t c o mp le te ly.

H ence t here may

we l l h ave b een a p hase when t he f or t c on ta ined o n ly a r e l ig ious f ocus ( c f . t he f ina l p hase a t Danebury ) , c o inciden t w i th t he p er iod o f a bandonmen t o f t he d efences a t t he e nd o f t he l a te p hase o f t he I ron Age .

S uch a s ugges t ion may

b e s treng thened b y t he p resence o f a n u nusua l n umber o f b rooches i n t he l a tes t I ron Age r a mpar t ( A lcock , 1 969 , 3 4 , 3 6 ; 1 972 , 1 68 ) ; b rooches a re a c o m mon f orm o f v ot ive o f fer ing , a t l eas t i n t he f irs t c en tury A . D. ( eg . Drury , 1 972 , 1 9 ). T he r econs truct ion o f t he d efences e ar ly i n t he f irs t c en tury , a nd t he ir s ubsequen t r efurbish men t , n eed n o t p rec lude a p r i mar i ly r e l ig ious f unc t ion f or t he i n ter ior a t t h is t ime . T he d e fences may , f or e xamp le , h ave b een i nt ended t o p rov ide a p lace o f r e fuge . The 1 50 b rooches a nd t he b ronze p laque d ep ict ing t he h ead o f aC e l t ic d e i ty f ound i n t he d es truct ion p hase o f t he s ou thwes t g a teway ( A lcock , 1 971 , 4 ) wou ld a ccord we l l w i th i ts u se a s t he e n trance t o t he t e menos o f as hr ine ; i ndeed c ou ld t he p laque h ave o rnamen ted t he g a teh ouse i t se l f? S tructure 2 7 was e v iden t ly d es troyed b y , i fn o t d ur ing t he s ack o f t he f or t i n c . A .D . 6 1. Therea f ter t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a h ia tus i n r e l ig ious a c t iv i ty o n t he s i te u n t i l t he l a ter t h ird c en tury , when t here i s c ircums tan t ia l e v idence f or a t e mp le e lsewhere i n t he f or t ( Rad ford a nd C ox , 1 956 , 1 11 ). C .

Ma iden C as t le , Dorse t ( Whee ler , 1 943 ) T he l a te f our th-cen tury R o mano-Ce l t ic t e mp le , w i th i t s a ssocia ted r ec-

t angu lar a nd c ircu lar s tructures ( Whee ler , 1 943 , p l . XXI I ) d raws a t ten t ion t o as pec i f ic p ar t o f t he i n ter ior o f t he h i l l-for t whose p oss ible e ar l ier r e l ig ious s ign i f icance was a pprec ia ted b y Whee ler ( i b id ., 7 6) . The p r i mary s tructure i n t h is a rea was t he r ec t i l inear b u i ld ing L 1 ( Fig . 3 .2 .8 h ere ; Whee ler , 1 943 , p l . ) 0 C a nd f ig . 2 2 , P . 1 25 ) , wh ich b e longed a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he I ron Age o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te . I t was d e f ined b y h o les f or p os ts c . 0 .3 m i n d iame ter , a nd i t s i n terpre ta t ion a s a n e nc losed s tructure d iv ided i n to t wo c el ls , t hough p robably n o t b y as ol id wa l l , i s s ugges ted b y t he s urv iva l o f i t s f loor , ' l i t t le more t han a t ra mp led s ur face o f c ha lk a nd f l in t r ubb le ' ( i bid ., 1 24 ) .

T he

' ev iden t d e f lec t ion o f t he wes t e nd o f i t s n or th wa l l t o a cco m moda te t he h o l lowway l ead ing f ro m t he ma in g a te s ugges ts t ha t t he s tree t l ine was e s tab l ished b efore L i was b u i l t , d esp i te i t s e ar ly p os i t ion i n t he I ron Age s equence o n t h is p ar t o f t he s i te. Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 4 8 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F ig . 3 .2

I ron Age r ec tangu lar r e lig ious b u i ldings . G roups A-D : 1 -2 , 7 , 1 0 , Danebury ; 3 , L itt le Wa ltha m; 4 -6, S outh C adbury ; 8 , Ma iden C ast le ;

9 , H ea throw ;

1 1, C he l msford:

1 7, U ley :

S ca le 1 :200 .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Bu i ld ing L i was s ucceeded b y ' t races o f a sma l l c ircu lar f l oor 9 f t [ 2 .75 m ] i n d iame ter , d ef ined a nd r ough ly p aved b y l imes tone s labs a nd a ss ocia ted w i th t wo p os tho les a nd a f ew B s herds '.

T h is d oes n o t a ppear o n t he

p ub l ished p lan , s ave f or t he p os tho les , whose i den t i f ica t ion c an b e i n ferred . An i n fan t b ur ia l , t o t he n or th , may b e b road ly c on te mporary .

The l a ter I ron

Age c ircu lar s hr ine i s c ons idered b e low , p . 6 4 . D .

P i lsden P en , Dorse t

I n t he c en tre o f t he h i l l-for t o f P i lsden P en , P . S . G e l l ing h as e xcava ted wha t i s p robab ly t he n or th-wes t h a l f o f ar ect i l inear t imber s tructure s o me 5 5 m s quare ( F ig . 3 .3.13 a nd G e l l ing , 1 977 ).

I ti s l a ter t han mos t , i ndeed

p oss ib ly a l l , o f t he e xcava ted c ircu lar h ouses o n t he s i te , a nd i s c lear ly n o t d o mes t ic ; t he l ack o f a ssoc ia ted p o t tery makes c lose d a t ing d i f f icu l t , b u t a l a ter f irs t-cen tury B .C. d a te i s p laus ib ly s ugges ted ( i bid ., 2 83 ). T he ma in wa l ls o f t he b u i ld ing a re d e f ined b y t renches wh ich e v iden t ly h e ld s tructura l t imbers , t he n or th-wes t r ange b y t wo p ara l le l t renches , w i th c rosstrenches a nd l a tera l ' spurs ' ; t he o ther r anges b y as ing le s p ine t rench w i th ' spurs ' .

A long p ar t o f t he s ou th-wes t r ange t here i s a no ther t rench i ns ide

t he s p ine t rench .

The e xcava tor i n terpre ted t he s tructure a s af enced ' t e menos ' ,

i n wh ich t he s pur t renches h e ld b u t tress ing t imbers , w i th n arrow s tore r oo ms i n t he wes t r ange , a nd s o me r oo fed l eanto s tructures e lsewhere . Dr R odwe l l ( 1978 , 3 4-7) s aw t he s tructure a s c ons is t ing o f t hree a is les o n t he n or th-wes t s ide a nd t wo a is les o n t he n or th-eas t a nd s ou th-wes t s ides , t he o u ter wa l ls b e ing c ons tructed i n ad i f feren t manner f ro m t he r es t , o n t he g round .

l eav ing l i t t le t race

Th is s ee ms r easonab le , w i th o ne p rov iso : t ha t t hose wa l ls

n o t d ef ined b y wa l l-trenches c ons is ted o n ly o f s uf f ic ien t p os ts t o s uppor t t he r oof , w i th t he p oss ible a dd i t ion o f s o me l i gh twe igh t o r r e movab le i n f i l l ing . The o u ter a is les o n t he n or th-wes t s ide mus t h ave b een l arge ly o pen , i ft he i nner r ange o f r oo ms was t o b e l i t .

Those r oo ms b o th i n t h is a nd t he s ou th-

e as tern r ange wh ich were e n t ire ly e nc losed were d ef ined b y a n a dd i t iona l wa l l t rench ( o f ten d amaged b y l a ter f ea tures ) i ns ide t he s p ina l wa l ltrenches . A t t he wes t c orner t hree p os tho les were f ound o n t he l i ne o f t he p u ta t ive o u ter wa l l ; t hese may r epresen t t he r ep lace men t o f p os ts o r ig ina l ly s et o n t he g round s ur face , ah o le b e ing d ug t o o b ta in a f resh , f ir m b edd ing ( f or a s im i lar e xp lan a t ion o f t he g enera l a bsence o f i n terna l p os t-r ings f ro m t he P er iod I c ircu lar h ouses a t L i t t le Wa l tham , s ee Drury , 1 978a , 1 8 , 1 20-1 ) . The ma in e n trance was p robably a t t he n or th c orner , where o ne s p ine wa l l o f t he n or th-wes tern r ange was a bsen t a nd t he o ther r ep laced b y al i ne o f p os ts ; a no ther e n trance i n t he midd le o f t he n or th-eas t s ide may b e i nd ica ted b y ag ap i n t he s p ine wa l l . Th is s tructure was s ucceeded b y ab ank , f lanked b y h o l lows o r g u l l ies o nb o th s ides , e choing i n g enera l t erms t he p lan o f t he e ar l ier t imber b u i ld ing . I t s ma in e n trance s ee ms t o h ave b een t hrough t he s ou th-wes t b ank b y t he wes t c orner .

G e l l ing i n terpre ts t h is a s a n e ar thwork s tructure , b u t i ti s wor th

a sk ing whe ther i tr ea l ly r epresen ts t he r e ma ins o f as econd p hase o f t imber b u i ld ing .

Was a t imberfra med s tructure s im i lar t o t he e ar l ier o ne b u i l t o n

af la ttopped b ank o f s o i l , a l l t races o f t he p os i t ions o f t he f ram ing h av ing b een l os t i n t he t opso i l?

O r , p erhaps l ess l i ke ly , d oes t he b ank r epresen t t he

r a ised f loor o f at imber b u i ld ing o nce c on ta ined w i th in t he wa l ls o f ab oxf ra med s truc ture wh ich was s e t o n , r a ther t han i n to , t he g round?

Fro m t he

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In Continental Europe. 5 0 E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

F ig . 3 .3

R ec t linear c ourtyard b u i ldings , Group E : C o lchester ( af ter C ru m my , 1 979 );

1 2 , Gosbecks F ar m ,

1 3 , P i lsden Pen .

S ca le 1 :1000 .

Rodwell, Warwick. Temples, Churches and Religion: Recent Research In Roman Britain, Parts I and Ii: with a Gazetteer of Romano-Celtic Temples In 5 1 Continental Europe. E-book, Oxford, UK: BAR Publishing, 1980, https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540854. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

interim account presently available a detailed interpretation is impossible. What is clear, however, is that this second phase is also pre-Roman. Again the absence of pottery gives rise to difficulties in dating, but a date at the end of the first century B. C. or early in the first century A.D. seems reasonable. These successive features seem to have remained in the centre of the hill-fort after permanent occupation ceased, around the mid first century B. C. However, the absence of domestic occupation (at least in the excavated areas) does not rule out a continuing use as a place of refuge. Indeed such use is strongly indicated by large collections of slingstones on top of the rectangular mound, and the context is suggested by a Roman ballista bolt on top of a patch of chert cobbling within it. A late refurbishment of the defences is suggested, but as yet unproven (Gelling, 1977, 2 81). E. Little Waltham, Essex At the centre of the Period II 'unenclosed' but nucleated settlement of the middle Iron Age at Little Waltham ( Fig. 3. 4), occupied between the mid­ third and late second centuries B ;c., lay a sub-rectangular structure, R4 (Fig. 3.2.3), of a type unique on the site (Drury, 1978a, 25, figs. 4, 19). It was partially rebuilt at some point in its lifetime. On reconsideration it might be seen, on account of its position and plan, as being potentially religious in function. Its elongated shape, but no more positive evidence, suggests an internal division into two unequal spaces, the south-eastern one containing the frequently-recut posthole 118. F. Heathrow, Middlesex This site, excavated by Prof. Grimes 35 years ago, remains fundamental to any consideration of the problem of religious buildings in Iron Age Britain. In the absence of full publication, a detailed appraisal is impossible, and would in any case be out of place here; but some general comments may be offered on the basis of two published interim reports (Grimes, 1948; 1960), and the recent rapid expansion of our knowledge of the archaeology of Iron Age settle­ ments in the south-east. First, it is clear from the earlier site plan (Grimes, 1948, fig. 2), that the enclosure ditch and bank must be later than some of the round-houses, since at least two on the north side (Grimes, 196 0, huts E and F) lay almost wholly under the bank, and would have extended as far as the presumed lip of the ditch. Furthermore, one on the west (ibid., hut B) must have extended so close to the lip of the ditch as to leave no room for the bank. The general impression gained from the plan is that this is the southern part of a nucleated settlement quite unrelated to the earthwork (Fig. 3.4). Since the excavator concluded that the ditch was contemporary with the houses, one presumes that no later pottery was found in the section cut. This means little in itself, but there are also no internal features which can easily be related to the enclosure. Perhaps, therefore, it was non-domestic; one potential parallel is with the Conquest-period enclosure at Gun Hill, West Tilbury, on the north bank of the Thames (Drury and Rodwell, 1973, 59-63 and fig. 2). At£· 60 m square, the Tilbury enclosure was somewhat smaller than that at Heathrow, but its ditch, £· 6 m wide and 2.75 m deep (measured from modern ground level), was of almost exa