Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain, Parts i and ii 9781407388175, 9781407388182, 9780860543626, 9781407317625
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English Pages [480] Year 1985
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Table of contents :
COVER -- Part I
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
RELIGION AND ARCHAEOLOGY
METALWARE AND WATERY CONTEXTS
RITUAL SHAFTS AND WELLS
HUMAN MORTUARY RITUALS
ANIMAL DEPOSITS AND CELTIC ANIMAL SACRIFICE
CELTIC SHRINES
THE CELTIC ETHNOGRAPHIES
THE CELTIC VERNACULAR LITERATURE
THE ETHNOLOGY OF BURIAL AND SACRIFICE
THE NATURE AND ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE IRON AGE
COVER -- Part II: Appendices
Copyright
Contents
INTRODUCTION TO APPENDICES
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V
Appendix VI
Bibliography
Citation preview
Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain
G. A. Wait Part i
BAR British Series l 49(i) 1985
·B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES,- England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.
B.A.R. 149 (I), 1986: 'Ritual
and Religion in Iron Age Britain' Part I
© G.A.Wait, 1986. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388175 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388182 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543626 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317625 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543626 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
T ABLE O F C ONTENTS
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
C HAPTER 1 1 . 1 1 .2 1 .3
1 .4 C HAPTER 2 2 .1 2 .2
2 .3 2 .4 C HAPTER 3 3 .1
3 .2
3 .3 3 .4 C HAPTER 4 4 .1 4 .2
4 .3 4 .4 4 .5
i x
R ELIGION A ND A RCHAEOLOGY I ntroduction AM odel o f R e lig ion T he E vidence f or C e lt ic R e lig ion T he A rchaeo log ica l E v idence C e lt ic E thnograph ies C e lt ic V ernacular L iterature E thnography F ramework o f A na lysis
1 3 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 2 1 3
M ETALWARE A ND W ATERY C ONTEXTS T he E vidence L im itat ions A nalysis C ontexts o f A rt ifacts G eographica l D istr ibut ion o f A rt ifacts D iscussion o f R esults C ont inenta l E vidence
1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 8 2 2 4 7 4 9
R ITUAL S HAFTS A ND W ELLS T he E v idence D ef init ion o f t he E vidence L im itat ions o f t he E vidence A na lysis G eographica l D istr ibut ion o f S hafts T he C ontents o f t he S hafts .F ormal C haracter istic s : D epth o f S hafts D iscussion o f R esults S ummary
5 1 5 2 5 2 5 4 6 1 6 1 6 4 7 6 7 6 8 1
H UMAN M ORTUARY R ITUALS T he E v idence D ef init ion A na lysis P opulat ion R epresented A ge S tructure D ifferent ial T reatment o f M a les/Fema les B ur ia l C ategor ies C ontexts o f D eposits o n S ites L ocat ions o f D eposits o n S ites F requency o f D eposits t hrough T ime S ummary o f R esults I nterpretat ions C onclusions
8 3 8 5 8 5 8 9 8 9 9 0 9 2 9 4 9 8 1 00 13 16 18 1 20
C HAPTER 5 5 .1 5 .2
5 .3 5 .4 5 .5 C HAPTER 6 6 .1
6 .2
6 .3
6 .4 C HAPTER 7 7 .1 7 .2 .
7 .3
A NIMAL D EPOSITS A ND C ELTIC A NIMAL S ACRIFICE T he E vidence D ef init ion o f t he E vidence A nalysis C omparison o f S pecies i n M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals a nd S pecial A nimal D eposits S pecies P references t hrough T ime C ategory P refere lces t hrolgh T ime S pecies a nd C ate c. . : ory P references C orrelated N on—Domest ic A nirals i n S )ecial D eposits C ontexts a nd L ocat ions o f S pecial A nimal D eposits F requency o f S pecial A nimal D eposits t hrough T ime C haracter ist ics o f S pecia l D eposits n ot C onsidered R esults I nterpretat ion C onclusions
1 49 1 49 1 5 11 53
C ELTIC S HRINES T he E vidence C eltic E thnographies S hrines i n t he P re—Roman I ron A ge A nalysis o f C e lt ic S hrines T he S tructures T he S ites A ssociated A rtifacts S ummary o f R esults : C e ltic S hr ines R omano—Celtic T emp les T he E vidence A nalysis T emple S tructures T emple S ites T he A rtifacts S ummary o f E vidence f rom R omano—Celtic T emples G eneral S ummary
1 54 1 54 1 55 1 56 1 71 1 7 1 1 73 1 76 1 77 1 78 1 78 1 79 1 79 1 8 1 1 86 1 88 1 90
T HE C ELTIC E THNOGRAPHIES T he E vidence L imitations A nalysis T he C eltic P antheon R e ligious S pecialists R eligious L ocations E schato logy : B e liefs o f S oul a nd A fter life S acr if ices D ivinat ion V otive O fferings S ummary
1 91 1 9 1 1 92 1 94 1 95 2 00 2 03 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 07 2 08
i v
1 22 1 1 22 i 1 22 1 26 1 26 1 32 1 32 1 32 1 38 1 38 1 47
C HAPTER 8 8 .1
8 .2
8 .3 C HAPTER 9 9 .1
9 .2 C HAPTER 1 0 1 0 .1
1 0 .2
1 0 .3
1 0 .4
T HE C ELTIC KRNACULAR L ITERATURE T he E vidence T he N ature o f t he S ources : I r ish M ythology W elsh M ytho logy L im itat ions o n I nterpretat ion A na lysis T he C e lt ic M yths I r ish D eities T uatha d e D annan T utelary G oddesses M isce llaneous I rish D eit ies W e lsh D eities H eroes C ontinental P aralle ls w ith I nsular C eltic M ythic F igures R emnant C osmogony R emnant E schatology A rt iculat ion o f S cclety w ith t he S upernatura l S acral K ingship L im inal T ime C ycle L im inal P laces: R e ligious L ocat ions R eligious S pecialists A rt iculat ion o f t he I ndividual w ith t he S upernatural G enera l F eatures o f t he S upernatural S ummary : R e ligion i n I r ish/Welsh S ociety
2 10 2 10 2 10 2 11 2 12 2 15 2 16 2 17 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 20 2 22
T HE E THNOLOGY O F B URIAL A ND S ACRIFICE A nalysis G eneral—Comparat ive A nalogies D eath a nd M ortuary R ituals S acr if icial a nd V otive O fferings S ummary : E thnography a nd A rchaeo logy
2 35 2 35 2 35 2 36 2 40 2 45
T HE N ATURE A ND R OLE O F R ELIGION I N T HE I RON A GE T he E ar ly I ron A ge : c irca 7 00 — 4 00 B C T he S ocial C ontext R itual B ehaviour T he M iddle I ron A ge : c irca 4 00 — 1 00 B C T he S ocial C ontext R itual B ehaviour T he L ate I ron A ge : 1 00 B C —A D 4 3 T he S ocial C ontext R itual B ehaviour C ult I nst itutions F ert ility C ults M ortuary C ults C ult o f S acral K ingship F uture R esearch o n C e ltic R eligion
2 46 2 47 2 47 2 48 2 52 2 52 2 54 2 57 2 57 2 60 2 62 2 62 2 63 2 65 2 68
2 23 2 24 2 25 2 27 2 27 2 28 2 29 2 3 1 2 32 2 32 2 34
A PPENDICES A ppend ix I F inds f rom W atery C ontexts S words , D aggers a nd S cabbards B ronze V essels S poons o r S coops S hields a nd H elmets T orcs
2 71 2 72 2 73 2 93 3 02 3 04 3 10
A ppendix I R itual S hafts R itual S hafts C hi—squared T ests
3 20 3 2 1 3 37
A ppendix II
3 4 1
A ppendix I V
S pecial A nimal B ur ials H uman R emains
3 57
A ppendix V C eltic S hrines
3 85
A ppendix V I
3 94
R omano—Celtic T emples
B IBLIOGRAPHY
4 31
v i
L IST O F F IGURES
C HAPTER 1 1 .1
R ELIGION A ND A RCHAEOLOGY S ystem ic M odel o f aC ult I nstitut ion
C HAPTER 2 2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4 2 .5 2 .6 2 .7 2 .8 2 .9 2 .10 2 .11 2 .12 2 .13
M ETALWARE A ND W ATERY C ONTEXTS S words o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge S words o f t he E arly I ron A ce - T hames B asin S words o f t he M iddle I ron A ge S words o f t he M iddle I ron A ge - T hames B asin S words o f t he L ate I ron A ge B ronze V essels o f t he E arly I ron A ge B ronze V essels o f t he L ate I ron A ge B ronze S poons o f t he L ate I ron A ge S hields o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge S hields a nd H elmets o f t he L ate I ron A ge T orcs o f t he E ar ly a nd L ate I ron A ge T orcs - R oman a nd U ndated F inds R egional T radit ions i n t he I ron A ge
2 3 2 5 2 6 2 8 2 9 3 2 3 4 3 7 3 9 4 1 4 3 4 5 4 8
C HAPTER 3 3 .1 3 .2 3 .3
R ITUAL S HAFTS A ND W ELLS D istr ibution o f L ate I ron A ge R itual S hafts D istribut ion o f R oman R itual S hafts D epths o f I ron A ge a nd R oman S hafts
6 2 6 3 7
C HAPTER 4 4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4
H UMAN M ORTUARY R ITUALS I ron A ge B ur ial T raditions I ron A ge S ites w ith H uman R emains i n P its A ge S tructure o f H uman R emains P roport ions o f M ales a nd F emales i n B ur ial C ategor ies F requency o f B ur ial C ategories C omparison o f B ur ial C ategor ies a nd A ge G roups : S ettlements C ompar ison o f B ur ial C ategories a nd A ge G roups : H illforts C ontexts o f H uman R emains H uman R emains a t A shville H uman R emains a t A shv ille a nd L itt le S omborne H uman R emains a t G ussage A ll-Saints H uman R emains a t O ld D own F arm H uman R emains a t O ld D own F arm H uman R emains a t T wywell a nd W innall D own H uman R emains a t H od H ill H uman R emains a t W inklebury H uman R emains a t D anebury , E ar ly I ron A ge H uman R emains a t D anebury , L ate I ron A ge N umber o f D eposits o f H uman R ema ins
4 .5 4 .6 4 .7 4 .8 4 .9 4 .10 4 .11 4 .12 4 .13 4 .14 4 .15 4 .16 4 .17 4 .18 4 .19
v ii
9
8 4 8 6 9 1 9 3 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 9 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 10 11 12 15
C HAPTER 5 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4 5 .5 5 .6 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9 5 .10 5 .11 5 .12 5 .13 5 .14 5 .15 5 .16 5 .17
C HAPTER 6 6 .1 6 .2a 6 .2b 6 .3 6 .4 6 .5 6 .6 6 .7 6 .8 6 .9 6 .10a 6 .10b 6 .11 6 .12 6 .13 6 .14
A NIMAL D EPOSITS A ND C ELTIC A NIMAL S ACRIFICE I ron A ge S ites w ith S pecial A nimal D eposits M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals a nd S pecial A nimal D eposits C ompar ison o f O ccurrence o f S pecies i n S AD a nd a s M NI S pecial A nima l D eposits o n H illforts S pecial A nimal D eposits o n S ett lements R elat ive P roport ion o f S pecial D eposits r epresented b y e ach A nimal S pecies R elat ive F requency o f e ach C ategory o f S AD C orrelation o f S pecies a nd D eposit C ategor ies i n t he E ar ly a nd M iddle I ron A ge C orrelation o f S pecies a nd D eposit C ategories i n t he L ate I ron A ge S pecial A nimal D epo ts a t A shville S pecial A nimal D eposits a t A shville a nd L ittle S omborne S pecial A nima l D eposits a t G ussage A ll-Saints S pecial A nimal D eposits a t O ld D own F arm S pecial A nima l D eposits a t O ld D own F arm S pecial A nimal D eposits a t W innall D own a nd T wywell S pecial A nimal D eposits a t W inklebury C omparison o f N umbers o f P its a nd S pecial A nimal D eposits
1 48
C ELT IC S HRINES C eltic S hrines a t D anebury C eltic S hr ines a t H ay ling I sland C eltic S hrines a t F r ilford C eltic S hr ine a t G osbecks C eltic S hr ine a t H eathrow C eltic S hr ine a t L ancing R ing C eltic S hrine a t L ittle W altham C elt ic S hrine a t M aiden C astle C eltic S hrine a t S outh C adbury C eltic S hr ine a t U ley S outh C adbury S hr ine 5 .3 1 D etail P lan C eltic S hrine a t W orth D istribution o f C eltic S hr ines H ypothetica l C eltic P o litical B oundar ies F eatures o f R omano-Celtic T emple S ites D istr ibution o f R omano-Celtic T emp les
1 58 1 59 1 59 1 60 1 62 1 63 1 64 1 65 1 67 1 68 1 70 1 70 1 74 1 75 1 82 1 85
v iii
1 23 1 27 1 28 1 30 1 3 1 1 33 1 34 1 35 1 36 1 40 1 4 1 1 42 1 43 1 44 1 45 1 46
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Iw ould l ike t o t hank t hree m en w ho h ave b een i nstrumental i n t he l ong p rocess c ulm inat ing i n t his r esearch p roject : P rofessor J ohn P age ( Westm inster C ollege) P rofessor R alph R ow lett ( University o f M issouri—Columb ia) P rofessor B arry C unliffe ( Oxford) w ho g uided m y s tud ies s uccessively t hrough A nthropology , A rchaeo logica l T heory a nd E uropean P rehistory . Ia m a lso i ndebted t o M r MH assall a nd e specially M r DB r itton f or a dvice t hroughout t he c ourse o f r esearch a nd f or e ditor ial s uggest ions. T his p resent s tudy i s a n e xtensively r evised v ersion o f m y D . P hil. t hesis a ccepted a t O xford i n A ugust 1 985 . I n a ddit ion , M r S J ones a t t he D epartment o f P rehistory a nd E thno logy ( Oxford) p rovided v aluable d iscussions o n a rchaeological a nd e thno— g raphic i nterpretat ions , a nd M s DN ash o f t he A shmolean M useum c ommented o n m y r esearch a nd u se o f t he c lassical s ources a nd I r ish m ytho logy . C ertainly I h ave b enef ited g reat ly f rom t heir i nterest a nd d iscussions ( and b een s aved f rom m any m istakes) b ut a ny r emaining s hortcom ings a re e ntire ly m y o wn . A lso , M r PF asham o f t he W essex U nit g ave m e a ccess t o i nformat ion a bout W innall D own i n a dvance o f p ub lication , a nd M r MH all ( Archaeology O ff icer f or t he T hames W ater A uthor ity) w as o f a ssistance i n d iscussing b oth t he m any f inds f rom t he R iver T hames a nd t he r ole o f r ivers i n p rehistory i n g enera l. M y t hanks g o t o b oth m en . Ih ave a lso e njoyed m any u seful a nd p roductive d iscussions w ith R obert E hrenreich , R obin H olgate , T om K ern , a nd G eorge L ambrick . T hanks a lso t o C e lia f or w rest ling w ith a n " appalling" m anuscr ipt , a nd t o A ndre d e V r ies f or h is e ditor ial a ssistance . I h app ily a cknow ledge m y d ebt t o R osalind f or h er c onstant e ncouragement a nd i nf inite p at ience .
T his s tudy i s d edicated t o J eanne W ait , t o w hom I o we m y g reatest d ebt . H er d eath o n 1N ovember 1 984 p revented h er f rom s eeing ad ream w e s hared f inally f ulf illed .
i x
CH A P T E R
1
R ELIGION A ND A RCHAEOLOGY
I NTRODUCTION T he c ivilised w orld o f t he M editerranean i n t he f irst m illennium B C w as i n n o d oubt a s t o t he i dentity o f t heir n orthern n eighbours — t hey w ere t he C elts , a nd t hey e nter i nto h istory a s b arbarians g rudgingly a ccepting G raeco—Roman c ivilisation a t t he p oint o f a R oman s word . M odern a rchaeological r esearch , e specially d uring t he l ast t wo d ecades , h as d one m uch t o c orrect t his R omano—centric a ttitude . D uring t he I ron A ge ( roughly f rom t he s eventh c entury B C u ntil R oman c onquest) t he p eoples o f F rance , S w itzerland , A ustria , s outhern G ermany , e ast c entral E urope , p art o f S pain a nd t he B ritish I sles w ere n ot a s s imple a nd p rim itive a s t hey s ometimes a ppear i n c ontemporary R oman a ccounts. T hese p eoples , w ho s hared i n s ome d egree a s imilar m aterial c ulture , w hich i s n ow c alled H allstatt a nd L a T ine , s poke s imilar l anguages ( now c alled C eltic) a nd i n s pite o f l ocal v ariations h ad a s im ilar l ifestyle . T his c ombination l eft t he G reeks a nd R omans c onvinced t hat t he C elts w ere a r ecognisab le e thnic g roup . A g roup , m oreover , w hich i n t he t hird c entury B C i nvaded a nd s acked m uch o f I taly a nd G reece a nd l eft s uccessful c olonies b ehind t hem i n c entral T urkey a nd n orthern I taly — i nvasions w hich w ere l ong r emembered i n R ome . I n t heir h omelands n orth o f t he A lps t hese C elts h ad m aintained a w ide a nd c omplex t rade n etwork , s omet imes d eeply c onnected t o t he M editerranean w orld ( Frankenstein & R ow lands 1 978) a nd a t o ther t imes l argely i ndependent ( Row lands 1 980 ; C ollis 1 984 , 6 2-8 1, 1 39157). T he C elts h ad a lso b egun t he p rocess o f u rbanisation ( Cunliffe 1 976b ; B urnham 1 979 , 2 55-72 ; C ollis 1 984 , 1 45157). W hen o n t he f ringes o f t he R oman s tate , t he C elts m ay h ave b egun t he t ransformation f rom a c omplex c hiefdom—political s ystem ( Crumley 1 974 ; R odwell 1 976) i nto i ncipient s tates ( Nash 1 978 ; H aselgrove 1 979 , 1 982 ; C unliffe 1 978 ; 1 984 , 1 2-45). T he m arvellously c omplex a nd r ich a rt s tyle f or w hich m uch o f t he C eltic m aterial c ulture i s n amed — t he L a T ene a rt — a nd t he c omplexity o f t he I rish C eltic m ythology b oth b elie a ny n otions a bout C eltic s implicity o r p rim itiveness . A mongst t his l ist o f t he m any a spects o f C eltic s ociety s upporting a ctive r esearch , o ne a spect i s c onspicuously a bsent : r eligion . E ven t he s uperstitious R omans w ere i mpressed b y t he r eligious f ervour o f t he C elts , s o r eligion m ust h ave b een a p rom inent p art o f t he C eltic c ulture . T his s tudy s eeks t o c omplement t he w ealth o f r esearch i nto C eltic s ociety b y p roviding a b asic p icture o f C elt ic r eligion , w ith p articular e mphasis o n t he e vidence f rom B ritain.
— 1—
P ast r esearch o n t he s ubject o f C eltic r eligion h as b een b oth d iverse a nd d etailed , b ut e ach s tudy h as c oncentrated o n o nly o ne o r t wo n arrow ly d efined p oints o f i nterest o r s ources o f e vidence . T he r esult i s t hat , a lthough m any i ndividual t opics a re n ow w ell u nderstood , n o o verall u nderstanding o f C eltic r eligion h as b een a chieved . O ne o f t he e arliest , a nd s till o ne o f t he b est s tudies o f C eltic r eligion i s TDK endrick 's T he D ruids ( 1927). T his w ork p resents a g ood s ummary o f t he e vidence , a long w ith K endrick 's i nterpretations . S tuart P iggott 's T he D ruids ( 1968) p resents a n u pdated v ersion o f i ts f orebear o f t he s ame t itle w ith a n e mphasis o n t he b urgeoning a mount o f a rchaeol ogical e vidence , b ut l ike i ts p redecessor i t i s s till c onstrained b y t he t opic o f D ruids a nd r arely d iverges i nto t he w ider r ealm o f C eltic r eligion . A nother m ajor w ork i s L ambrechts' ( 1942) a nalysis o f R omano-Celtic i conography . T his f ine s tudy i s s till a s tandard r eference , b ut t he i mplications o f i conography f or r eligious b eliefs i n a w ider s ense a re l eft s ubstantially u nexplored . T he s ame l im itations a pply t o t he s ubsequent r esearches o f V endryes ( 1948), D uval ( 1976) a nd D e V ries ( 1963). A nne R oss' P agan C elt f t B ritain ( 1967) i ntegrates s everal s ources , p rimarily R omano-Celtic i conography w ith C eltic v ernacular m ythology . N either s ource i s f u7ly e xploited a nd a gain t he r esult i s o f l imited u sefulness. M ore r ecently G reen ( 1976) p rovides a w elcome s tudy o f B ritish i conography , a nd t he v olume e dited b y R odwell ( 1980) c ontains s everal p apers o f g reat i nterest , b ut t here a re s till n o a ttempts a t a g eneral s ynthesis. T he i ncreased d ata a vailable f rom a ll o f t hese p revious s tudies , m akes a n a ttempt a t ag eneral u nderstanding o f C eltic r eligion p ractical a nd l ogical. T he m ajor l im itation a ffecting t he e arlier s tudies h as n ot b een a l ack o f e vidence , b ut r ather t he a bsence o f a ny g eneral f ramework b y w hich t he g reat v ariety a nd v olume o f e vidence c an b e o rganised. T his l imitation i s t rue n ot o nly o f C eltic r eligion b ut o f a rchaeology i n g eneral: t here i s a s y et n o c onsistent t heory o r m ethodology b y w hich t o i nterpret t he e vidence o f r eligious b ehaviour p reserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecords o f p rehistoric s ocieties. T his s tudy p roposes a m odel o f r eligion , d erived f rom a nthropology ( A F C W allace 1 966) b ut e xtensively m odified , w hich i s s uff iciently g eneral t o g uide a s tudy o f a ny r eligion a nd w hich c an i ncorporate b oth a rchaeological a nd n on-archaeological e vidence . T his m odel i s u sed t o o rganise a nd i nterpret t he r esults o f t he d iverse e arlier s tudies , a nd t hereby t o a ttempt a g eneral s ynthesis o f C elt ic r eligion. R eligion i s h ere d ef ined a s : ( 1) t he r ecognition o f , a nd b elief i n , s upernatural p owers , f orces a nd d eities , a nd ( 2) t he f ormulation o f p roc edures t o c ontrol b oth t he s upernatural f orces a nd t he n atural w orld , b y c orrect i nteraction w ith t he s upernatural. T he l ast p art o f t his d ef inition i s , f or t he p urposes o f t his s tudy , t he m ost i mportant , s ince r eligious b eliefs a lways h ave b ehavioural c oncomitants w hich a re d irectl y a ccessible t o t he e thnographer a nd i ndirectly t o t he a rchaeologist . T he e thnologist W illiam G oode h as p hrased i t t hus :
R eligion i s n ot s omething w hich i s o nly b elieved ; i t i s l ived r eligious b elief r equires a ction a t e very t urn , a ction i n t his w orld , t oward t his w orld ( 195 1, 2 22 , e mphasis i s o riginal).
T hus t his s tudy w ill f ocus f irst o n t he a ctions o f r eligious b ehaviour ; t his i s i nherent i n t he a rchaeological r ecord w here o nly t he r esults o f a ctions a re p reserved. T he u se o f n on—archaeological i nformation w ill b e c rucial t o a n u nderstanding o f t he n on—behavioural b elief a spects o f r eligion . C ertainly t he r elationship b etween b ehaviour a nd b elief n eed b e n either d irect n or o bvious , b ut i t m ust e xist .
AM ODEL O F R ELIGION T he b asic e lement o f r eligion i s w hat A F C W allace ( 1966 , 5 2) c alls t he " supernatural p rem ise", t he e xistence o f s upernatural f orces. R D rennan ( 1976 , 3 47) p hrases t he c oncept m ore s pecif ically a s t he " religious e xperience" , o r a d irect , e motion—based e xperiencing o f t he n uminous o r t he s upernatural. B eliefs o r b ehaviours i nvolved i n a d irect e xperience o f t he s upernatural a cquire r eligious s ignificance . H ere , s even " m inimal u nits" o f b elief a nd n ine " m inimal u nits" o f b ehaviour a re d istinguished ; t hese f orm t he b asis o f r eligion. T he s even b asic u nits o f b elief , c ombined i n v ary ing p roportions a nd i n d ifferent d etailed f orm , c onstitute w hat i s g enerally r eferred t o a s a " belief c ode" o r " belief s ystem" ( Wallace 1 966 , 8 1-83), o r a s " sacred p ropositions" ( Drennan 1 976 , 3 47). A ll a re a ccepted a s p rima f acie " true" b y b elievers a nd a ll a re i ncapable o f r ational s ubstantia— t ion. T hey a re t herefore , b y d ef inition , a rticles o f b elief . T hese i nclude ( adapted f rom W allace 1 966 , 5 2-88): 1 D irect e xperience o f t he s upernatural. A ll r eligions r ecognise a nd u se s ome m echanism o r f orm o f d irect p ersonal c ontact w ith t he s upernatural. T his m ay b e r eferred t o a s i nspirat ion ( et W allace 1 966 , 6 5-66), m ysticism , r eligious e cstasy e tc . T ypically , r eligions r ecognise o nly o ne o r t wo t ypes o f s uch e xperiences a s v alid a nd v iew a ll o ther t ypes a s s uspect . 2 E mbodiment o f s upernatural p ower i n p hysical f orm . C ertain o bjects a re h eld t o e mbody a s upernatural f orce , a ccording t o t he t enets o f a ll o r m ost r eligions. U nder c ertain c onditions i t i s b eneficial t o t ouch s uch o bjects ( mana), w hile i n o ther c ircumstances c ontact i s h eld t o b e h ighly d angerous ( taboo), ( cf M arrett 1 909 , f or s ource o f t erms " mana" a nd " taboo" i n P olynesian c ultures). 3 L im inality . A ll r eligions c onsider c ertain g eographical p laces , o r c ertain t imes ( of d ay , w eek , m onth , s eason o r y ear) t o b e l iminal — t hat i s , ap oint o f c ontact o r t hresho ld b etween t he o rdinary p rofane w orld a nd t he s upernatural w orld . 4 P antheon. T he t erm r elates t o a c ollection o f d eities a nd s upernatural p owers , n ot n ecessarily o rganised o r i nternally r elated. A p antheon u sually i mplies a h ierarchic o rganisation o f g ods , w hich o ften m ay b e i nappropriate , b ut t here i s n o a dequate a lternative t erm . T he n ature o f o rganisation a mongst s upernatural p owers , t herefore , m ust b e s pecified . 5 C osmology . A t heory o f t he u niverse , a nd p articularly i ts o rigin , i s i ntegral t o a ll r eligions. C osmology , a s a n e xplication o f t he u niverse , a lso i ncludes s ubstantive b eliefs a bout p lanes o f e xis—
t ence ( life a nd d eath , i llness).
d reams)
a nd r elations o f c ause a nd e ffect ( as i n
6 E schatology . A ll r eligions a lso o ffer , a s e lements o f b elief , c oncepts o f t he n ature o f d eath a nd t he f ate o f m an/soul a fter d eath , a nd i nclude c oncepts o f j udgement a nd a fterlife . 7 M orals. M ost r eligions s pecify c ertain b ehaviours a s " good" , p roper" o r " necessary" i n t he d aily l ives o f t he l aity . T hey a lso i nclude t he d efinition o f c ertain g oals a s " good" , a nd r equire t he l aity t o a ttempt t heir a ttainment . Ac ommon e xample i s s piritual s alvation . T here i s a lso a s eries o f e lemental b ehaviours , w hich a re s o b asic a s t o b e v irtually i nseparable f rom t he b eliefs j ust d iscussed. S uch b asic b ehavioural e lements r arely , i f e ver , o ccur a lone ; t hey a re r eligious a cts w hich i n t hemselves p ossess l ittle o r n o m eaning . I ndeed , i f t hey d id s o o ccur , t he a ction w ould h ave n o m eaning a nd w ould a llow n o i nterpretation , f or t he m eaning f ollows a s a r esult o f t he c ombination o f v arious a cts a nd b eliefs. T hese a re a dapted f rom W allace ( 1966 , 5 2-88). 8 P rayer . A ll r eligion , ; h ave c ustomary w ays i n w hich m embers a ddress t he s upernatural a nd c ommunicate w ith i t . U sually , t he c ontent o f t he a ddress , i ts s tyle o f p resentation , a nd a r equisite b ody p osture a re a ll c arefully s pecified . 9 M usic , d ancing a nd s inging . M ost r eligions u se d ancing , s ing— i ng a nd m usic a s e lements o f r eligious b ehaviour i n t he p erformance o f c eremonies . At ypical c ombination i s m usic a nd p rayer a s am echanism t o p romote a m ystical s tate a llow ing a d irect s ensate e xperience o f t he s upernatural. 1 0 P hysiological m anipulation . M any r eligions u se a s eries o f m echanisms t o i nduce a n e cstatic s piritual s tate , ad irect e xperience o f t he s upernatural. T hese i nclude h allucinogenic d rugs , a lcohol, s ensory d eprivation , d eprivation o f f ood o r w ater , o r p hysical m ortification b y p ain. 1 M ediation . M ost r eligions p rovide f or s ome p eople t o a ct a s m ediators b etween t he l aity a nd t he s upernatural. I ndividuals m ay b ecome m ediators ( perhaps m ore a ppropriately d esignated a s r eligious s pecialists) b y b irth , i nspiration o r t raining ; t heir a ssignment i s t o e xhort t he l aity o n b ehalf o f t he s upernatural a nd t o c arry r equests a nd s upplications f rom t he l aity t o t he s upernatural. 1 2 C ontrol o f t he s upernatural. M any r eligions d efine c ertain p arts o f t he s upernatural a s s usceptible t o d irect c ontrol b y m ortals i f c ertain r ituals a re f ollowed . T he k ey b elief i s t hat t he s upernatural p ower m ust , b y i ts v ery n ature , a ct a s m an d esires. T ypical e xamp les a re i mitative a nd s imulation m agic . 1 3 F easts/fasts. M ost r eligions r equire t he l aity t o p artake o f c ertain m eals , b oth a s a n a ct o f p iety a nd a s am ethod o f a cquiring a b eneficial s upernatural p ower o r f orce ( mana). C onversely , t he s ame f orce c an b e g ained , o r a d angerous f orce a voided , b y a bstinence f rom c ertain f oods a t c ertain t imes.
1 4 C ongregation . A ll r eligions i nvolve s ome a ctions i n w hich t he l aity p articipates o r w atches — r eligious b ehaviour i n a t l east s ome o f i ts a spects i s a s ocial a ctivity . T he m ost t ypical e xamp les a re m eet ings, p rocessions a nd f easts. 1 5 S acrif icial a nd v otive o ffer ings. M ost r eligions d efine c ertain d eities o r s upernatural p owers w hich m ay a ct i n a d esired f ashion i f t hey r eceive p roper i nducement . A lternat ive ly , t he l aity m ay e nter i nto a " contractual" r elationship w ith t he s upernatural; s acrifices o r v otives a re o ffered a s e ither p ayment f or , o r b r ibes f or , a d esired e ffect . I n n one o f t hese i nstances i s t he s upernatural r equired t o a ct a s i n 1 2 a bove , t hough t he s acrifice i s p redicated o n t he p resumption t hat t he s upernatural w ill a ct a s d esired. S ometimes , t he d istinction b etween c ontrol o f t he s upernatural a nd s acrifice c an b e d iff icult f or a n o utsider t o d istinguish , t hough t he c onceptual d ifferences a re c lear . 1 6 I conography a nd s ymbolism . M ost r eligions u se v arious i tems , r anging i n s ize f rom b uildings t o p ersonal t alismans , t o r epresent d eities , s upernatural p owers, m orals , v alues a nd m an—supernatural r elationships. T hese s erve a s i mmediately p ercept ib le s ummations o f m ajor r eligious p rinciples. T hey s erve t o e dify a nd t o p ictorialise , a nd t he c ontemplat ion a nd h andling o f s uch i tems i s f requent ly u seful i n a ttaining d irect e xperience w ith t he s upernatural. A s p art o f t his l ast c oncept m any s ymbols o r i cons a re b elieved t o b e c harged w ith s uper— n atural p ower — t hey b ecome m ana . T hese s even e lemental b eliefs a nd n ine e lemental b ehaviours m ay b e c ombined i n a g reat m any w ays. T hese c ombinations a re r ituals : s tandardised , r epetitive , s tereotypic s uccessions o f d iscrete a ctions o ccurring i n a s upernatural c ontext ( eg a ssociated w ith a d irect e xperience o f t he s upernatural) a nd a re u ndertaken f or a s ingle s pecific p urpose ( et W allace 1 966 , 6 7-68). A lthough t he p ossible v ariations a re l im it less , r ituals m ay b e g rouped t ogether i nto f unctional c ategories b ased u pon t he t ype o f r esult t hey a re i ntended t o p roduce . F or p resent p urposes , s even t ypes o f r ituals a re p ostulated . 1 M ortuary a nd f unerary r ituals. T he r ituals r egulate t he d isposal o f t he d ead a nd c are f or t he b ody a nd s oul a ccording t o e schatological b eliefs. T hese r ituals a re a lso i nstrumental i n m aintaining s ocial s olidarity a nd i n t he t ransference o f p ower a nd p roperty a ccording t o c osmology , m orals a nd s ubstantive b eliefs. 2 R ites o f p assage. T hese i nclude t he r ituals w hereby a s ociety r ecognises a nd e ffects c hange i n t he s acred a nd s ecular s tatus o f i ts m embers. T ypically , t hese i nclude b irth , b aptism/nam ing , a dulthood , m arriage a nd s ometimes d eath. T hese r ituals t ransfer a n i ndividual f rom o ne s et o f s acred/secular r ights a nd d uties t o a nother , a nd t he t ime o f c hange i s f requently v iewed a s a l im inal t ime w hen t he i ndividual i s p art m ember o f t wo g roups y et n ot f ully w ithin e ither . 3 F ertility r ituals. T hese r ituals a re i ntended t o e nsure t he f ertility o f p eople , a nimals , w ildlife , f ields e tc b y m aintaining a p roper" r elationship b etween a g roup o f p eople a nd t he s upernatural
p ower w hence t he f ertility i s b elieved t o o riginate . t o p lease , c ajole o r b ribe t he s upernatural r esponse .
T he r itua l
s erves
4 D ivination. A v ariety o f r ituals ( frequent ly u sing a c omb ination o f s acrifice a nd t echnological m agic) a re i ntended t o g ive k now ledge o f t he f uture o r o f e vents b eyond h uman c ontrol. S uch k now ledge m ay t hen b e u sed t o g uide a ctions i n o rder t o m axim ise s afety a nd p roductivity . 5 T echnological m agic. S ome r ituals a re i ntended t o m anipulate o r f orce a s upernatural p ower t o a ct i n a d esired m anner , t ypically t o c ause o r h eal i llness , o r t o b ring r ain o r s un a s n eeded. I f t he r itual i s p erformed a s p rescribed , t he r esult i s a utomatic ; t he s upernatural o r n atural w orld c annot h elp p erforming a s d irected . 6 W orship . R ituals p erformed b y e ither a n i ndividual o r ag roup , d uring w hich b eliefs a nd r elationships t o t he s upernatural w ill b e m inimally r eaff irmed , a re c alled w orship . U sually , o ther r ituals a re p erformed a t t he s ame t ime . 7 R ituals o f s anctification. T his c lass o f r itual c an b e q uite c omplex i n f unction ( cf D rennan 1 976 , 3 46-348), b ut i n e ssence i t i mparts t o p ersons , i nstitutions a nd v alues t he u nquestionability o f b asic r eligious b eliefs. T hus , ap erson , s uch a s ac hief o r k ing , o r a n i nstitution , s uch a s t rial b y ac ouncil o f e lders , o r av alue c oncerning c orrect s ocial b ehaviour a ll b ecome d irectly a ssociated w ith a b asic b elief a nd a d irect e xperience o f t he n um inous. T he f unctioning o f t he s ystem , b e i t p olitical, j udicial, e conom ic o r s ocial, b ecomes s ancti— f ied o r l egitimated b y t he e ntire r eligious s ystem . M any r ituals p erform t his r ole i ndirectly , b ut t here a ppears t o b e a s eparate c lass w herein t he s mooth a nd e ffective o perating o f s ociety i s t he f unction o f t he r itual. A lthough e ach o f t hese r ituals m ay i nclude a ny o f t he e lements o f r eligious b ehaviour i n t he p erformance o f t he c eremonies , s ome e lements m ay b e e xpected a p riori t o b e p rom inent i n c ertain t ypes o f r ituals. T his s ort o f c orrelation , i mperfect a s i t i s , •m ay b e u sed t o g uide i nterpretation o f t he p urpose o f a r itual w hen e xplicit e vidence i s l acking . F or e xample , f ertility r ituals p ossess a c onsistent s et o f b ehaviours. L im inality o f t ime i s i mportant ( 3), u sually r ef lecting s easonality . I conography ( 16) i s p resent , r epresenting b oth f ertility a nd r egenerat ion. T he r ituals n early a lways i nvo lve s ocial g atherings ( 14), f easts ( 13) a nd e ither p ropitiatory o r c ontractual s acrifices ( 15). D ivination a nd t echnological m agic h ave a s imilar s eries o f b ehavioural e lements. T hey u tilise a b elief i n t he n ature o f t he s upernatural a s m anipulatable ( 5), a nd b oth m ay u se s acrifice ( 15) a s t he a ctive p art o f t he r itual. R ituals o f s anctif ication , w hich p rovide t he p oint o f m aximum a rticulation b etween r eligion a nd s ociety , a re f requent ly c haracterised b y f ive e lements. T hose w hich f orm t he a ctive e lements a re : c ongregation o f t he l aity t o w itness ( 14), f easts ( 13) a nd s acrifice ( 15). T he r emainder a re : t he u se o f a d istinctive s eries o f " secular" s ymbols ( 16), a nd t he u se o f l iminal t imes a nd p laces t o h old t he e vents ( 3). T he c orrelation b etween r ituals o f s anctif ication a nd o ther s ocial
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i nstitutions , e specially i n t erms o f o verlap o f p ersonnel, s ymbols , p laces a nd s cheduling , i s d istinctive. C learly , e vidence f rom o ne o bserver o r s ource m ay b e i nsufficient t o d istinguish t he d ifferent v arieties o f r ituals. S uch d ifferentiat ion w ill o nly b e p ossible t hrough t he i ntegration o f av ar iety o f s ources. A ll s even t ypes o f r itual h ave c ertain c haracter istics i n c ommon . T he f irst i s t hat t hey a ll t end t o o ccur i n a p lace w hich i s e ither i ntrinsically s acred o r i s r endered s acred i n t he p erformance o f t he r ituals. T his i s d esigned t o r egulate c ontact b etween t his w orld a nd t he s upernatural. B ecause t hese p laces a re s acred , b ehaviour o n t hem i s n ever n ormal; m any p rofane a ctivities a re p rohibited , w hile o ther s acred a ctions d o o ccur w hich a re n ever f ound e lsewhere . S econdly , s uch r ituals w ill u sually b e p erformed b y ar eligious s pecialist o f s ome s ort . T ypically , t his i s e ither a p art—time o r f ull—time p rofessional o fficial, b ut i n s ome i nstances l ay i ndividuals ( usually s ecular s ocial l eaders) a cquire a l imited d egree o f s acred a bility t o p erform c ertain r ituals ( cf W allace 1 966 , 8 1617, " individualistic" a nd " communal" c ults). O ften , t hese l atter r ituals s eem a s m uch s ecular e vents a s r eligious c eremonies. T he a ppearance o f d ifferent k inds o f o fficials w ith r esponsibility f or d ifferent s orts o f r ituals h as i mplications f or t h3 s tructural o rganisation o f r eligious i nstitutions . T hirdly , r ituals m ay b e c haracterised b y t he n ature o f t he f unction t hey s erve . R ituals w hich s erve r egularly r ecurr ing f unctions m ay b e c alled " calendrical r ituals". M ost , i f n ot a ll, r ituals p erformed b y o therw ise l ay o ff icials a re o f t his s ort . O ther r ituals a re p erformed i rregular ly , a s t hey a re n eeded ; t hese m ay b e d esignated a s " crisis r ituals". M ortuary r ituals a re u sua lly o f t he " crisis" v ariety ( eg p erformed f or i ndividuals a t d eath) o r p erformed a t i rregular i ntervals f or a ll t he d ead s ince t he l ast r itual. R ites o f p assage m ay b e e ither c alendrical o r c risis — p erformed r egularly f or a ge g rades o r , m ore c ommonly , w hen i ndividuals a chieve a n ew s tatus. F ertility r ituals , w ith t heir c lose l inks t o s easonality , a re n early a lways c alendrical. B oth d ivination a nd t echnological m agic a re c risis r ituals , p erformed a t n eed t o a nswer s pecif ic q uestions o r t o a lter c ertain c ircumstances s uch a s h ealing i llness. W orship i s n early a lways r egular — d aily , w eekly , m onthly , s easonal a nd y early . M ost r ituals o f s anctif ication a re d eeply e mbedded i n a r egular c ycle o f s ocial l ife , b ut a f ew a re p erformed a t c risis p oints: f or e xample , s election a nd i nauguration o f a n ew l eader u pon t he d eath o f a n o ld l eader . T he f ourth c haracteristic o f r ituals i s t he u se o f i conography a nd s ymbols t o r epresent t he n ature o f t he s upernatural p ower i nvolved a nd t o i llustrate v arious a spects o f t he r elationship b etween m an a nd t he s upernatural. F or e xample , m ortuary r ituals ( eg t reatment o f b ody , g rave g oods) u se s ymbols w hich r epresent e schato logical b eliefs, a nd f ertility r ituals' s ymbols r epresent p rosper ity . W ithin t he c ontext o f a ny o ne r itual, t he s ymbolism m ay b e a mbiguous o r u nintelligible ; a w ider k now ledge o f t he c ontexts a nd a ssociations b etween s ymbols m ay a id t he i dentif ication o f r eferents f or m ost s ymbols. R ituals , e ach o f w hich m ay h ave a n umber o f c onstituent p arts , a re c ombined i n a v ariety o f w ays t o f orm " cult i nstitutions". C ult i nstitutions a re s ets o f r ituals w hich h ave e ither t he s ame o r c onceptually l inked g oals ; u sually , t hey a re e xpressly r elated b y a s ingle b elief c ode , u se a c ommon s et o f s ymbols a nd a re s upported b y t he s ame s ocial g roup ( Wallace 1 966 , 7 5-76). C ult i nstitutions i nclude s ome a spects o f b oth c osmogony a nd e schatology i n t he b elief c ode . M ost c ult
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i nst itutions m aintain a h ierarchy o f p art—t ime o r f ull—time r eligious s pecialists , w hich a llows c ult i nstitutions t o b e d ifferentiated i nto b ureaucratic o r s tructural t ypes. F or p resent p urposes , t wo v arieties o f c ult i nstitutions a re d istinguished. T he f irst m aintains p art—time o fficials a nd i s c haracteristic o f e ither s mall a utonomous s ocial g roups o r s mall, r elatively e galitarian s ocial g roups w ithin a l arger s ociety . W allace f urther p ostulates t wo s ubtypes , S hamanic a nd C ommunal, b ased u pon w hether t he o fficial i s p aid f or h is s ervices d irectly , a nd u pon h ow f requently t he o ff icial's s ervices a re n eeded ( Wallace 1 966 , 8 4-88). S ince t here i s c onsiderable o verlap , t he d istinction i s d ropped , a nd i nstead a s ingle c ategory o f C ommunal c ult i nstitution w ill b e m aintained . W hen a c ult i nstitution s erves a l arge o r d iverse g roup o ver a l arge a rea , i t d evelops a h ierarchy o f f ull—time o fficials . T he o rganisation o f o ff icials i s s upported a s a w hole b y t he l aity , a nd a c lear—cut s acred—profane d ivision o f l abour d evelops. S uch o ff icials w ill b e p rominent i n s ociety ( by v irtue o f r ituals o f s anctification) a nd a re a lso f requently o rganised a ccording t o t he s ame p rinciples a s s ecular , p olitical, m ilitary o r e conom ic i nstitutions. T hese a re r eferred t o a s e cclesiastical c ult i nstitutions. C ult i nstitutions a lso m aintain s acred p laces a nd , i n e cclesias— t ical c ult i nstitutions , t hese w ill b e h ierarchically o rganised ( and p ossibly s usceptible t o s patial a nalysis). I n a ddition , c ult i nstitu— t ions u tilise a p articular a nd c omplex s et o f i conographic s ymbols t o r epresent t he s alient a spects o f t he c ult . A ll o f t hese e lements a re r e lated i nto a c ohesive w hole b y a s eries o f b eliefs , i ncluding b oth m oral a nd l egal s ystems a nd i llustrated b y t he u se o f m ythology . T his t ightly c ohesive l inking o f a ll a spects , b oth b elief a nd b ehaviour , m eans t hat t he c ult i nstitution i s " religion" a t i ts m ost t angible . T his a lso s uggests t hat c ult i nstitutions m ay b e t reated a s a n e xample o f D L C larke 's " polythetic e ntities" ( 1978 , 3 6-37). T hus , c ertain r ituals a nd o ther r eligious b ehaviour ( eg d ifferent k inds o f r ituals a nd s pecific w ays o f p erform ing t hose k inds o f r ituals) m ay b e l inked t ogether a s a c ult i nstitution b y a n o utside o bserver , o n t he b asis o f t heir c o—occurrence w ith c ertain r eligious s pecialists , s acred p laces , i conography , m yths a nd b eliefs , d eit ies e tc . W henever s uch c o—occurrence i s f ound , a c ult i nstitution m ay b e r epresented . T his p rovides a k ey t o i nterpretation , a s a ll o f t he c onstituent p arts m ust f it t ogether w ith m inimal c ontradiction. C learly , t he m ore e vidence a vailable f rom d ifferent s ources ( eg r itual, i conography , m yths e tc) t he m ore l inks b etween v arious p arts a re e xplicit , t hus g reatly a iding i nterpretation . C ult i nstitutions p rovide f or i nteraction b etween r eligious b eliefs a nd b ehaviour a nd t he f unctioning o f t he r est o f s ecular s ociety . T he m ost o bvious p oint o f c ontact i s t he r itual o f s anctification , t hough t his l eads t o as light o ver—simplification . M ost r ituals p lay s ome r o le i n t he c ycle o f s ecular a ctivities a nd i ndirectly s erve t o l egit imate t hose a ctivities — t hey p rovide t he m eanings b ehind t hem a nd e xp lana— t ions f or w hy t hings a re d one a s t hey a re . R eligious r ituals a nd b eliefs u ltimately l ink a ll a spects o f s ocial l ife t ogether i n ac omp lex b ut i ndirect n etwork ( Drennan 1 976 , 3 47-349 ; G eertz 1 957 , 4 21-427). T his d irect a nd i ndirect l inkage o f s ocial s ystems t o t he s upernatural t ends t o r eplace m embers' r ational a ssent w ith e motional c omm itment ( Geertz 1 957 , 4 21) a nd p rovides a n e xceptionally p owerful e lement o f c ooperative b ehaviour a mong m embers . T his , i n t urn , p romotes c ontinuity , n ot o nly o f r eligion , b ut o f t he s ocial s ystem a s aw hole .
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F igure 1 .1:
THE
REL IGI OUS
S YSTEM IC M ODEL O F AC ULT I NSTITUTION
A B EL IEF CODE
EXPER IENCE
A d irect emo t ion b ased
SACRED PROPOS IT IONS
S uppo rts
E SCHATOLOGY
e xpe r ience o f t he n um inous
COS MOLOGY P ANTHEON MORALS
I nduces
FUNERARY R ITUALS
CULT
R ITES OF PASSAGE
I NST ITUT ION
FERT IL ITY R ITUALS D IV INAT ION R ITUALS OF SANCT IF I CAT I ON
SANCT IF IES, PROV IDES MORAL L EG IT I MAT ION
ECONOM IC I NST ITUT IONS SOC IAL I NSTITUTIONS POL IT ICAL I NST ITUT IONS
SECULAR SOC IETY
F igu re 1 . 1
S ource D rennan 1 978 F ig .11 .8 ,
w i th
mod i f ica t ions
I t a lso i mplies t hat c hanges i n t he s ecular s ocial s ub—systems ( econom ics , p olitics , s ubsistence e tc) w ill b e a t f irst r esisted b y t he e ntire s ocial s ystem b ut w ill e ventually l ead t o c hanges i n m ost p arts o f t he s ociety , i ncluding r eligion . R eligious i nstitutions m ust t herefore b e s tudied i n t he c ontext o f t he s ociety i n w hich t hey o ccur , a nd w hich t hey s upport . A ll o f t he a vailab le p oints o f c ontact b etween s acred a nd s ecular i nstitutions s hould b e c onsidered i n o rder t o u nderstand h ow t he r eligious s ystem f unctions a nd c hanges t hrough t ime . F igure 1 .1 r epresents a " systemic m odel" o f t he f unctional i nteraction w ithin a c ult i nstitution a nd i ts a rticulation w ith o ther s ocial i nstitutions. C ult i nstitutions , h owever , r arely , i f e ver , o ccur s ingly . R ather , an umber w ill b e m aintained s imultaneously b y a s ingle g roup o f p eople . I n t he m anner o f p o lythetic e ntities , n o o ne c ult i nst itution w ill c ount aw hole s ociety i n i ts m embership , a nd n o s ingle m ember w ill p art icipate i n a ll o f h is g roup 's c ult i nstitutions . T here w ill, h owever , b e am ore o r l ess w orkable i ntegration o f p ersonnel, p laces a nd a ctivities b etween c ult i nstitutions t o a llow f or a m aximal i nvo lvement o f t he w hole l aity . E ach c ult i nstitution r emains c onceptually d istinct a nd a utonomous , h ow— e ver i ntermixed i n p ractice ( Wallace 1 966 , 7 6). T his l oosely r elated s et o f c ult i nstitutions c onstitutes t he r eligion o f a s ociety . R eligion i s t hus a s ummative n otion ( Wallace 1 966 , 7 8), a c ollective , n ormative e ntity w hich s ubsumes d iversity . I t c an e asily b e r ecognised a nd u nderstood i n t he c ontext o f i ts c onstituent p arts , t he c ult i nstitutions.
T HE E VIDENCE F OR C ELTIC R ELIGION T he m odel p roposed h ere i s a pplied t o t he e vidence a vailab le f or C eltic r eligion. S uch e vidence i s f ound n ot o nly i n t he a rchaeological r ecord , b ut a lso f rom t hree o ther s ources : C eltic e thnographies , t he C e ltic v ernacular l iterature , a nd e thnology . T he q uantity o f e vidence a nd i ts v aried s ources, m eans t hat a s urprisingly c omplete a ccount o f C eltic r eligion i s p ossible . H ere t he e vidence w ill b e d iscussed i n g eneral t erms , a nd i ts s trengths a nd w eaknesses b rief ly o utlined . M ore c omplete , e xtensive d iscussions o f e ach s et o f e vidence a nd i ts i nherent l im itations w ill b e f ound i n t he i ntroductions t o c hapters t wo t o n ine . T he A rchaeological
E vidence
T here a re s ix c lasses o f a rtifacts o f t he P re—Roman I ron A ge o f B ritain w hich m ay p rovide e vidence f or r eligious b ehaviour . T he m ost d ramatic o f t hese c lasses i ncludes t he s everal h undred s words a nd d aggers ( of ' H allstatt C a nd D a nd m id—late L a T ine d ate r espect ively) t hat h ave b een f ound c onsistently i n a n umber o f r ivers i n B ritain . JDC owen ( 1967) a nd M J ope ( 1962) h ave p ublished d iscussions o f c ertain a spects , b ut t he c onsistent c ontext o f r ivers h as g one u nexplored . S im ilarly , t he n umerous s hields o f l ate H allstatt a nd l ate L a T ene p eriods, f rom r ivers a nd b ogs , m ay w ell b e p art o f t he s ame p henomenon . T his s peculation i s s trengthened b y a c onsideration o f t he b ronze c auldrons , o f b oth H allstatt a nd L a T ene d ate , w hich a re f ound o nly i n b ogs a nd r ivers ( Hawkes 1 951, H awkes & S m ith 1 957). T hese a rtifacts m ay b e c ontrasted i n b oth c ontext a nd s patial d istribution w ith o ther p restige i tems , s uch a s t orcs. I f t hese a rtifacts' c ontext c ontrasts w ith t he c ontext a nd d istribution o f o ther a rtifact c lasses , s ome o ther
b ehaviour m ust b e p ostulated a s a n e xplanat ion . I n t his c ase , t he l ack o f a s ealed a rchaeo logical c ontext m ay b e n o g reat h andicap t o t he u se o f t he e vidence . T hree o ther v ar ieties o f a rchaeo logical f eatures f rom I ron A ge s ites h ave b een s eparately t ouched u pon b y p ast r esearchers a s p oten— t ia lly r e ligious i n o rigin . A nne R oss' ( 1968 , R oss & F eacham 1 976) c ontroversial s peculat ions a bout r itual s hafts a nd w ells a re a n e xamp le o f p ostulat ions s er iously i n n eed o f r e—exam inat ion . S im ilar ly , t he s ubject o f h uman b ur ia l h as r eceived s ome r ecent a ttent ion , n otab ly f rom W himster ( 1977 , 1 98 1) a nd W ilson ( 198 1), b ut t he f ull r ange o f v ar iat ion , a nd t he m eaning b ehind I ron A ge m ortuary r ituals i n a r e ligious c ontext , r emain w holly u nexplained. F inally , t he p resence o f w hat a re u ndoubtedly a nimal b ur ia ls o n I ron A ge s ett lement s ites h as g one v irtually u nnot iced , w ith t he e xception o f t he n ecessar ily t entative i nterpretat ions o ffered b y G rant ( 1984a , 5 33-548). A m ore c omprehensive a nalysis i s e ssent ia l. T here r emain a rchaeological s ites b ear ing t races o f s tructures w hich a re a rguably r eligious i n n ature . T he e xistence o f r e ligious b uildings a nd s ites o f t he I ron A ge h as b een n ot iced o n m any o ccasions , n otab ly b y G r imes ( 1948), A lcocL (968 , 1 969 , 1 970 , 1 97 1, 1 972a , 1 972b), C unliffe ( 1978 , 3 20-323 ; 1 984 , 8 1-87 , 1 87189) a nd D owney , K ing a nd S offe ( 1982) , a nd t he s ubject h as r ecent ly b enef ited f rom a g eneral r eview b y D rury ( 1980). S uch r eligious c omp lexes s t ill n eed t o b e e xam ined i n t he c ontext o f C elt ic r e ligion i n g enera l a nd a s s acred p laces i n p articular . T he l ast s ource o f a rchaeo log ical e vidence i ncludes t he R omano— C e ltic t emples w hich s o d ramat ically s ymbo lise r eligion a t t he e nd o f t he p er iod u nder c onsiderat ion . A lthough t hey a re , b y d ef init ion , f rom t he p ost—conquest p eriod , t hey a re p redom inant ly C elt ic i n i nsp irat ion ( W ilson 1 973a) a nd c an , w ith c are , p rovide a r etrospect ive v iew o f s ome a spects o f C e lt ic r e ligious p ractices . R omano—Celt ic t emp les h ave b een w e ll s tudied i n t he ir o wn r ight , b eginning w ith t he s em inal w ork o f L ew is ( 1966), a nd m ore r ecent ly ( and l ess s tructure—oriented) b y W ilson ( 1972 , 1 975a) a nd R odwe ll ( 1980a), w here t he i ntegration o f t emples i nto a R omano—Ce lt ic s ocial c ontext i s b egun. T he r o le w hich t emples f ul— f illed i n R omano—Ce ltic r e ligion i s v irtually u nknown . F rom a n a rchaeo— l ogical p oint o f v iew , m uch o f t his e vidence i s o f h igh q uality , a nd t he s ize a nd c omposit ion o f t he s amp les a re s uff icient t o a llow c onf ident a nalysis . C elt ic E thnographies I n a ddit ion t o t he a rchaeological e vidence , t here a re t hree n on—archaeological s ources r elevant t o ad iscussion o f C eltic r eligion . T he f irst o f t hese i ncludes t he o bservat ions m ade b y w r iters o f t he G reek a nd R oman w or ld a bout t he C e lt ic w or ld , w hich t hey e ncountered i n f irst c entury G aul a nd B r itain . F or t his e vidence , K endr ick ( 1927) w ith h is o wn t ranslations , i s s t ill a v aluab le s ource , f o llowed b y T ierney 's ( 1960) " reconstruct ion" o f t he l ost w r it ings o f t he e ar ly o bserver P osidonius . N ash ( 1976) e ffect ively b alances T ierney 's i nterpretat ions a nd r estores t o C aesar h is a ccuracy . C hadw ick ( 1966) p resents m uch u seful d ata , b ut h er a na lysis i s b iased t oward t he c lassica l w or ld a nd c onsistent ly u nderstates t he c omp lex ity o f p agan C eltic r eligion . P iggott 's ( 1968) t reatment i s m ore e ven—handed , b ut h e f ails t o f o llow u p a ll t he i mplicat ions .
T here a re t wo i nherent l im itations t o t he i nformation p resented i n t he c lassical w ritings. F irst , n early a ll o f i t p ertains d irectly o nly t o t he f irst c entury B C i n s outhern G aul; c areful e xtension i s n ecessary t o a pply s uch e vidence t o o ther t imes a nd a reas. S econdly , e ach o f t he c lassical a uthors h ad h is o wn p urpose i n w riting , a nd h is o wn b iases a s w ell. T hese m ust b e c arefully s ifted t o d eterm ine t he p robab le r eality b ehind t he s tatements. T his p roblem o f s election i s v ery s im ilar t o t hat f aced b y e thnologists u sing e thnographic a ccounts. C onsequently , t he c lassical a uthors' a ccounts a re t reated a s i f t hey a re e thnographic a ccounts , a nd w ill b e r eferred t o a s C eltic E thnographies . A n a djunct t o t his s et o f e vidence w ill b e c onsidered i n t he e vidence f rom G aulish i conography , w hich i s r oughly c ontemporary i n t ime a nd s pace w ith m any o f t he G reek a nd R oman a ccounts a nd , l ike t hem , c omes t o b e p reserved t hrough t he a ctions o f R omans a nd R omanised C elts . T he a ppropriateness o f t he u se o f t his e vidence i n t his s tudy w ill b e d iscussed l ater ; i t p roduces s ignificantly d ifferent r esults f rom e arlier w ork . C e ltic V ernacular L iterature A v ery d ifferent s ource o f e vidence f or C eltic r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices i s t o b e f ound i n t he m assive q uantity o f e ar ly C eltic l iterature w r itten i n t he v ernacular . T his i s r eferred t o h ere a s t he C eltic V ernacular L iterature . O utstanding a nalyses o f t he l iterature a re f ound i n J ackson ( 1961, 1 964 , 1 971), S joestedt ( 1949), D illon ( 1954), a nd C ross a nd S lover ( 1936). M cCana ( 1970) p resents p robably t he b est r ecent a nalysis o f t he e vidence i n t he c ontext o f r eligious m ytho logy . A n i ntegral p art o f m any o f t hese s tudies , h owever , i s t he m any i ntimate p arallels b etween C eltic m ythology a nd G aulish i cono— g raphy . M cCana ( 1970) i s a n e xcellent s ource , R oss ( 1967) c ontains a l arge c ollection o f s uch p arallels , a nd G reen ( 1976) i ncludes a u seful g azetteer o f r elevant e lements o f i conography i n B ritain . T he s tandard w orks o n t he c ontinental i conography a re L ambrechts ( 1942) a nd V endryes ( 1948). T hese s tudies s erve t o t ie t ogether t he t wo d isparate s ources o f e vidence o f m ythology f rom I reland a nd i conography f rom F rance . T he p rincipal l imitations i n t he u se o f t his s et o f e vidence a re t he r esult o f i ts p reservation. -T he e vidence i s p reserved f rom I reland , w ith a s mall a mount f rom W ales , a nd t herefore c areful h andling i s r equired t o e nable a nalogies t o b e d rawn w ith o ther a reas. T he r eal s ource o f c onfusion l ies i n t he f act t hat n early a ll t he m aterial w as w ritten f irst b y C hristian m onk—scribes , b eginning i n t he l ate s ixth c entury A D , a nd m any m yths e xist o nly i n w ritten v ersions t hat a re m edieval c opies o f m uch e arlier w ritten v ersions. B ehind a ll l ies a l ong e xistence a s p urely o ral, e pic l iterature. T he p roblem , t herefore , i s t o s ift a side b oth C hr istian i nfluences a nd l ater ( mostly m edieval) a lterations ' to l eave o nly t he e vidence s temm ing f rom t he u ndoubtedly p agan p eriod o f t heir o ral o rigin a nd t ransmission. T he r esult i s a C elt 's v ersion o f h is o wn p agan m ytho logy i n h is o wn l anguage . T he p otential v alue i s o bvious a nd i mmeasurable . E thnography T he l ast g eneral s ource o f i nformation r elevant t o C eltic r eligion m ay b e s ummarised a s e thnographic l iterature . T his i nformation i s u seful a s a s ource o f a r ange o f p ossib le e xplanations f or , a nd r elations b etween , f eatures o bserved a rchaeologically , o r e lements f ound i n t he C eltic e thnologies o r C eltic l iterature . O ne o f t he m ost u seful
s ources i s W allace ( 1966). M ore s pecific s ubjects h ave r eceived m ore d etailed s tudy — m ortuary r ituals i n p articular . W ork b y H ertz ( 1907 , 1 960) i s s em inal, w ith r ecent s urveys a s i n H untingdon a nd M etcalf ( 1979) a nd H umphreys a nd K ing ( 198 1). O ther s pecific s tudies , i ncluding a pplications t o a rchaeo— l ogy , a re f ound i n S axe ( 1970), B inford ( 1971), T ainter ( 1973 , 1 975 , 1 978), C hapman , K innes a nd R andsborg ( 198 1) a nd O 'Shea ( 1984) a mong m any o thers. T he s tudy o f r itual p rocesses , a nd s acrifice i n p articular , r ests o n t he e arly w ork o f H ubert a nd M auss ( 1839 , 1 964) w ith m ore r ecent a ddit ions b y F irth ( 1965 , 1 970) a nd T urner ( 1969); L evy ( 198 1) i s o ne o f t he f ew a pplicat ions o f t his l iterature t o a rchaeology . T he u sefulness o f e thnology i s e ntirely p roportional t o t he s cope w ith w hich i t i s a pplied. T he p roduction o f a s ingle e thnographic p arallel f or a s ingle p henomenon o bserved a rchaeologically i s w orse t han u seless. G reater r elevance a nd a ccuracy a ccrue a s m ore p r imary e vidence i s g enerated , b ut i ts i deal u se i s t o p roduce a r ange o f p ossible e xplanations w hich c an t hen b e t ested a gainst t he p r imary d ata t o f ind o ne w hich i s b oth s imple a nd c omplete . I n t his s tudy e vidence w ill b e d rawn f rom a ll t hree p rimary s ources , w ith t heir d ifferent d etails a nd e mphases , a nd t hen a r ange o f e thnographic p arallels w hich m atch t he p rimary e vidence w ill b e s uggested t o f ill p articular g aps. T he r esult i s , o f c ourse , a rgument p urely b y a nalogy a nd i s i nconclusive ; i t c an b e , h owever , v ery c onvincing .
F RAMEWORK O F A NALYSIS T he i ntegration o f e vidence d erived f rom t hese f our s ources i nto t he g eneral m odel p roposed h ere i s c onducted i n a f our s tep s equence . T he f irst s tep i s a n a nalysis o f t he a rchaeological e vidence . E ach s et o f a rchaeological e vidence i s c onsidered i ndividually t o e stablish i ts n ature a nd t he i mplications f or r itual b ehaviour ( chapters t wo t o s ix). T his p ositive e vidence f or a s eries o f r itual a ctivities p erformed i n a r egion ( in t his c ase , s outhern B ritain), i s u sed a s t he b asis f or f urther i nterpretation . E ach o f t hese r itual a ctivities a llows s ome s imple i nferences t o b e m ade a bout r eligious b eliefs , w hich a re n oted b ut n ot e xplored a t t his s tage . T he s econd s tep i n t he a pplication o f t he p roposed m odel r eflects t he n ature o f r elevant e vidence — a c onsideration o f n on—archaeological s ources o f e vidence o f C eltic r eligion. C learly , a nalogous s ources m ay n ot b e a vailable f or s tudies o f o ther r eligions . T hese t wo s ources u tilised h ere a re t he C eltic e thnographies a nd t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature ( chapters s even a nd e ight). I n e ach c ase t he p urpose o f c onsidering s uch e vidence i s t o c orrelate t he v ariety o f r itual a ctivi— t ies w ith t he e lements o f b elief i nvolved i n t he r itual, t he r ituals w hich m ay h ave b elonged t o t he s ame c ult i nstitutions , t he p articipants o f t he v arious r ituals a nd c ult i nstitutions , a nd t he s ocial c ontexts i n w hich s uch a ctivit ies o ccurred. S uch i nformation i s o ften e xplicit i n t hese l iterary s ources a nd v ery u sefully s upplements t he i nferences t hat m ay b e d rawn f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence . T he t hird s tep m ay b e u sed b y a ll a rchaeologists , a nd w ill a ssume a m uch g reater r ole i n c ases w here n on—archaeological l iterary e vidence i s u navailable . T his i s t he u se o f e thnographic s ources t o g enerate g eneral—comparative e thnographic a nalogies. I n t he p resent s tudy t his s ource i s u sed t o s uggest e lements o f b elief a ssociated w ith h uman m ortuary r ituals a nd s acrif icial r ituals, s ubjects n ot c overed i n d etail
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i n t he s urviving l iterary s ources ( chapter n ine). T he f ourth a nd f inal s tep i s c ombining t he e lements o f b elief a nd b ehaviour o n t he b asis o f a ssociations f ound i n e ither t he a rchaeo— l ogical r ecord , t he l iterary s ources , o r s uggested b y e thnographic a nalogy . E lements o f b elief a nd b ehaviour a re a ssociated t o f orm r ituals , w hich i n t urn m ay b e c orrelated i nto c ult i nstitutions , w hich f orm t he a ctive e lements i n r eligion. I nevitab ly i n a s tudy r elying o n a rchaeology , s upplemented b y o ther l iterary s ources a nd e thnography , t he r esulting p icture o f r eligion f alls s hort o f a n e thnographic i deal. I t i s , h owever , p ossible t o b uild a g eneral p icture i n w hich m any e lements o f r eligious b elief a nd b ehaviour a re v isible . T hese e lements a re i ntimately l inked t o o ther a spects o f s ociety , s uch a s t he p olitical o rganisation a nd t rade a nd f arming p ractices , w hich a re m ore d irect ly v isible t o t he a rchaeologist . T his c lose c orrelation o f r eligious p ractices w ith o ther s ocial c ustoms a llows f urther i mplications o n t he n ature o f b oth t he r eligion a nd t he s ociety t o b e g enerated a nd t ested , a nd t he o riginal p icture o f s ociety t o b e m odified a nd e xpanded.
CH A P T E R
2
M ETALWARE A ND W ATERY C ONTEXTS
T his c hapter d iscusses t he o ccurrence o f p rest igious m etal o bjects i n w atery c ontexts s uch a s r ivers , l akes a nd b ogs . E xamp les o f t he d eposition o f s uch p rest ige o bjects r ange i n d ate f rom t he M iddle B ronze A ge ( later s econd m illennium B C) t o t he e nd o f t he P re—Roman I ron A ge i n t he f irst c entury A D . T hese f inds i nclude b ronze s words , i ron s words a nd d aggers , s heet—bronze v esse ls , b ronze s poons o r s coops , a nd h elmets a nd s hields. T orcs , a lthough t hey a re n ot a ssociated w ith w atery c ontexts , a re a lso i ncluded i n t his d iscussion s ince t hey , a lso , a re k nown t o h ave b een u sed a s s tatus s ymbo ls i n C elt ic s ociety . T he i mplicit a ttr ibut ion o f t hese a rt ifacts , i n t heir c ontexts , t o r e ligious r itual r ests o n t wo l ines o f a rgument . F irst , a nd m ost f requent ly r elied u pon , i s a s catter ing o f c omments b y G reek a nd R oman w r iters , a nd s ome g limpses g leaned f rom t he C eltic m ythology . B oth s ources i ndicate t hat r ivers , l akes a nd b ogs h eld s acred s ignif icance f or t he C e lts . P osidonius , f or e xamp le , m entions t he v ast t reasures s ubmerged i n p ools i n s acred p recincts n ear T oulouse i n t he s econd c entury B C ( below , c f P iggott 1 968 , 7). T he I rish m yths d epict l akes a nd r ivers a s c ommon l ocat ions f or s upernatural e vents ( eg T ä in B ö C ualnge). E ven i n t he s ixth c entury A D , G regory o f T ours m ent ions a G allo—Roman l akeside f est ival w hich i ncluded v ot ive o ffer ings t hrown i nto t he l ake ( Piggott 1 968 , 7). F rom t his , i t s eems r easonab le t o c onclude t hat r ivers , l akes a nd b ogs w ere f requent ly p laces o f r eligious s ignif icance ( Megaw & S impson 1 98 1, 4 05). A s econd r eason f or a ttribut ing t he p resence o f t hese a rt ifacts i n w atery c ontexts t o r itual a ct ivity i s b ased o n a d ispar ity b etween t he a rtifact a nd t he c ontext . T he o bjects a re a ll f ine e xamp les o f t he m etal w orkers' c raft a nd m ust h ave b een v ery v a luab le i tems . I tems o f s uch v alue s hould n ot r easonab ly b e e xpected t o o ccur i n r ivers , l akes o r b ogs — c ontexts f ar f rom b oth t heir c entres o f m anufacture a nd u se . C asual l oss i s a n i nadequate a lternat ive ; l oss s hould b e an ear ly r andom p rocess a nd t hese a rt ifacts o ccur o verwhelm ingly i n w atery c ontexts a nd v ery r arely o n l and . C ontrast w ith t he t orcs i s i nstruct ive h ere , a s t heir d istribution a ppears t o b e r andom . T hus t he o ccurrence o f v aluab le i tems i n w atery c ontexts p o ints t o ad eliberate a ct ivity w hich , f rom a l ogical v iewpo int , s eems i rrat iona l a nd u neconom ic . T he a ttribut ion o f t he p resence o f w ealth i n r ivers a nd b ogs t o s uch a ct ivities a s c onspicuous c onsumption a nd p otlatch—sty le d estruction o f w ealth ( usually p ictured a s p art o f a p rest ige—goods e conomy) i s l ess t han c onvincing b ecause t here i s n o o ther i ndependent e vidence o f t his
b ehaviour ( cf B radley 1 984 , 1 04105 , 12113 , 1 20122 ; a nd e specially N eedham & B urgess 1 980 , 4 38 , 4 43-449). T heir u se a s v otive o fferings , w hich b y n ature i nvolve t he d eliberate " loss" o f i tems o f v alue ( as m entioned a bove a nd c hapter s even) i s p erhaps t he b est e xplanation. T here a re , i n f act , a n umber o f I ron A ge s ites w here t he p resence o f a rtifacts i n w atery c ontexts i s g enerally i nterpreted a s e vidence o f v otive p ractice . P rominent a mong t hese a re L lyn C errig B ach o n A nglesey ( Fox 1 946 , 1 958); C arlingwark i n S cotland ( Cur le 1 9311932 ; H awkes 1 95 1; F ox 1 958); D uchow i n C zechoslovakia ( Piggott 1 968 , 7 6); t he S ource o f t he S eine ( Martin 1 963 , 1 965 ; D eyts 1 971; B audot 1 846) a nd L es R oches ( Vatin 1 969 , 1 972) b oth i n F rance ; a s w ell a s t he o riginal, b ut n ow q uestionable , i nterpretation o f t he I ron A ge t ype—site o f L a T ene o n L ake N euchatel i n S w itzerland ( Piggott 1 968 , 7 6). T here i s a c onsiderable a mount o f a rchaeological e vidence f or c oncentrations o f f ine o bjects i n u nusual c ontexts , t he a ssumption b eing t hat t hey w ere i ntentionally p laced a s v otive o fferings. I t i s t hus r easonable t o a ttach a s imilar e xplanation t o i ndividual a rtifacts f ound i n i solation i n s im ilar c ontexts , i e , t he s hield a nd s words f rom t he W itham i n L incolnshire ( eg M egaw 7 971) o r t he s words a nd s hield f rom t he T hames a t W andsworth ( Smith 1 925 , M egaw 1 971).
T HE E VIDENCE T he a rtifacts u nder c onsideration h ere a re a ll e xamples o f f ine m etalware , a nd a s s uch , h ave a ttracted a n umber o f s tudies. T hey h ave b een e xamined e ither a s c lasses o f a rtifacts o r a s i ndividual o bjects , b ut l ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o t he c ontext o f t he f inds. T he f irst a rtifact c lass t o b e d iscussed i s w eaponry , p redom inantly s words a nd d aggers. T here a re t wo m ain g roups d istinguished b y m etal t ype , t hat i s , b ronze a nd i ron , a nd b oth g roups a re p rimarily f rom r iver c ontexts. T he b ronze s words o f t he G ündlingen g roup ( [ate B ronze A ge t o E arly I ron A ge) d ate a pproximately f rom t he s eventh c entury B C ; t he a uthoritative s ource o n t hese i s J DC owen ( 1967). T he s econd g roup i s o f i ron s words a nd d aggers f rom t he I ron A ge , c overing t he f ifth t o f irst c enturies B C . T hese a re e xam ined i n B rew is ( 1923), P iggott ( 1950), C larke a nd H awkes ( 1955), J ope ( 1961), S tead ( 1967 , 1 968) a nd M acGregor ( 1978). T he s words a nd d aggers f rom t hese s ources , s upplemented b y a f ew m ore r ecent d iscoveries , t otal 1 8 1 a nd a re s ummarised i n t he g azetteer i n A ppendix I A . I tems i n t he s econd c lass o f a rtifacts a re s heet—bronze v essels , m ostly c auldrons a nd s maller b ow ls. T hese m ainly c ome f rom b og c ontexts a nd a re s ometimes d ifficult t o d ate c losely , d ue t o ag eneral a bsence o f d atable a ssociated a rtifacts a nd t he i nfrequent u se o f c losely d atab le a rtistic m otifs o n t he v essels t hemselves. T he p rincipal s ources f or b ronze v essels a re H awkes ( 1951), H awkes a nd S mith ( 1957), F ox ( 1961), B urns ( 1969 , 1 971) a nd M acGregor ( 1976). T hese s ources p rovide t he e vidence w hich i s s ummarised i n A ppendix I B , at otal o f 6 4 v essels. B ronze s poons o r s coops a re k nown f rom o nly f ifteen e xamples f rom B ritain a nd a re o ften d ifficult t o d ate . T welve o f t he s coops h ave b een f ound a s p airs , a nd t hree w ere f ound s ingly . I n e ach p air f ound , o ne s coop h as a " +" e ngraved i n t he b ow l, w hile t he s econd h as a s mall h ole d rilled t hrough t he b ow l n ear t he l ip . T he h andles u sually b ear t ypical L a T ine c urvilinear d ecoration o f v ary ing c omplexity . T heir f unction i s t otally u nknown , t hough t he p resence o f s everal s poons i n i nhumat ion b urials l ed C unliffe ( 1978 , 3 18-320) t o d iscuss t hem a s a ccoutrements o f
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r e ligious s pecialists . B ronze s coops h ave b een c onsidered i n W ay ( 1869) a nd C raw ( 1924): t hese a re s ummar ised i n A ppendix I C . T he f ourth c lass o f a rtifacts c onsists o f s heet—bronze s hie lds a nd h elmets . T here a re t wo m ain g roups , t he c ircular s hields o f t he L ater B ronze A ge , a nd t he s hie lds a nd h e lmets o f t he L ate I ron A ge ( second t o f irst c entur ies B C). T he p r incipal s ource f or t he f irst g roup a re J M C oles ( 1962) a nd N eedham ( 1979), w hile t he s econd g roup w as e xam ined b y F ox ( 1958), M egaw ( 1970) a nd C unliffe ( 1978 , 2 87-309). T he t ota l n umber o f s hie lds a nd h elmets i s f orty—four : t hese a re l isted i n A ppendix I D . T orcs , o r n eck—r ings , c ompr ise t he f ifth c lass o f a rt ifacts c onsidered h ere . T orcs a re w e ll k nown a s m arkers o f s ocial s tatus i n C e lt ic s ociety ( eg C unliffe 1 978 , 3 05-309 ; F ilip 1 977 , 1 0 1107 ; P o lyb ius ' H istor ies I 2 9). U nfortunately , l ike t he b ronze v essels a nd s coops , t he d ecorat ive m ot ifs a re r are ly s uscept ib le t o b eing d ated e xcept i n a v ery g eneral w ay . U nlike a ll t he o ther c lasses , h owever , t orcs a re r are ly f ound i n w atery c ontexts . O ne o f t he f ew g eneral s tudies o f t orcs i s M egaw ( 197 1); o ther , m ore d iscursive s tudies a re S m ith ( 1925) , F ox ( 1958), P iggott ( 1970) a nd M acGregor ( 1976). T hese 7 5 t orcs a re s ummar ised i n A ppendix I E . L im itat ions A rchaeological e vidence i s r arely c omp lete o r i deal, a nd a nalysis a nd i nterpretation m ust r ecognise a nd i ncorporate t he w eaknesses o f t he d ata a s w ell a s t he s trengths . T here a re t wo m ain p rob lems i nherent i n t he e vidence : t he f irst i s t he d iff iculty o f a ccurate ly d at ing t he a rt ifacts , b ecause v ery f ew o f t hem o ccur i n a ny c losed , d atab le c ontext . T he b ed o f ar iver f rom w hich a s word c omes , a nd t he l ayer o f p eat , p rev iously a b og , w hich p roduces a b ronze b ow l, p rovide v ery l ittle i nformat ion a bout t he d ate t he o bjects w ere d eposited . T here a re o nly a f ew e xcept ions t o t his g eneral c ase — m ainly b ronze v essels c ontaining a rt ifacts w hich a re d atable , s uch a s c oins . T he c ontexts i n w hich t he a rt ifacts o ccur a re t herefore l argely u ndatab le , a nd t he o nly a lternative i s t o d ate t he a rt ifacts t hemselves . T his c an u sually b e d one , w ithin b road l im its , b y t he u se o f c onventional t ypologies , g iving t he g eneral d ate o f m anufacture a nd t he i tem 's p er iod o f " currency" . T here i s . a s econd l im itat ion t o t he u se o f t he e vidence t hat a rises a s ar esult o f t he c ontexts a nd m ethod o f d iscovery . T he f irst p oint t o b e m ade h ere c oncerns t hose a rt ifacts — m ost o f t he s words , s hie lds a nd h elmets — w hich c ame f rom r ivers . T hese a rt ifacts w ere f ound a s a r esult o f r iver d redging a nd c hannelisat ion w ork d ur ing t he l ast o ne h undred y ears , f rom t he r ivers T hames , O use , N ene , W itham , T rent , T yne , T ees a nd T ay . T he q uestion a rises , t herefore : a re s words , s hields a nd h elmets n ot f ound i n o ther r ivers b ecause t here a re n o s uch a rtifacts t here t o b e f ound , o r s imp ly b ecause t he o ther r ivers h ave n ot b een d redged a nd m a intained? I n o ther w ords , t he p attern o f o ccurrence o f s words , e tc , m ay b e a r esult o f p rehistor ic d eposit ional p ract ices , o r o f m odern i ndustrial r iver m anagement , o r o f a c ombinat ion o f t he t wo . O ne a pproach t o t he q uest ion w ould b e t o c ompare r iver f inds t o t he p attern o f d redging — i f m any r ivers w ere d redged , b ut p roduced n o a rtifacts , t hen t he d eposit ional p attern i s l ike ly t o b e l argely p rehistor ic . T his p roblem i s f urther e xacerbated b y t he d iff iculty i n i dentify ing a r iver c hannel w hich h as b een d redged , a s o ne w hich w as i n e xistence i n t he I ron A ge : s hifts i n c hanne l a re p otent ially q uite
d ramatic ( informat ion f rom M R H all, A rchaeo logist , T hames W ater A uthor ity ; c f t he l ocation o f t he I ron A ge R iver T hames , i dent if ied a rchaeo logically a t F armoor , O xfordshire [ Lambr ick & R ob inson 1 979], w ith i ts p resent c ourse). T he d iff iculties a re i nsurmountable w ithin t he s cope o f t he p resent r esearch , b ut m any o ther r ivers h ave b een e xtensively m anaged ( notably t he S evern) , s uggesting t hat t he a bsence o f s words a nd s hie lds d oes m irror d ifferent p atterns o f d eposition o f a rt ifacts i n p rehistory . A n a nalogous p rob lem s eems t o a pp ly t o t he B ronze A ge s hie lds w hich a re f ound o verwhelm ingly i n b ogs i n t he p rocess o f p eat c utt ing a nd d rainage o perat ions. T he q uest ion h ere c ould b e p hrased : a re s hie lds o nly f ound i n b ogs b ecause n one h ave a ppeared o n d ry l and , o r i s p reservation o n d ry l and t oo p oor f or t hese a rt ifacts t o s urvive a nd t o b e f ound? I n r everse o rder , t hese q uest ions a re e asily a nswered : t here a re s uff icient f ragments o f a rt ifacts f ound d uring p loughing t o i nd icate t hat p reservat ion , t hough p oor , i s a dequate . T hus , c onsider ing t he e xtent t o w hich p loughed l and c overs m uch o f B ritain , i f f ew o r n o e xamples o f s uch a rt ifacts c ome f rom d ry c ontexts , i t i s m ore l ike ly t o b e b ecause f ew w ere d eposited OA d ry l and i n t he f irst p lace .
A NALYSIS T here a re t wo a spects o f t he e vidence w hich m ust b e c onsidered i n o rder t o a ttempt t o u nderstand t he b ehaviour b ehind t he d eposit ions : t he c ontexts p roducing t he o bjects ( contexts u ntil n ow p rejudged a s " watery"); a nd t he g eographic d istr ibution o f t he o bjects b y b oth a rtifact t ype a nd t ype o f c ontext . A c onsideration o f t he r esults o f t hese t wo e nquir ies s uggests s everal s ignif icant r egional t radit ions . T hese p atterns m ay t hen b e c ompared w ith t he c ontexts o f s im ilar o bjects i n c ontemporary c ontinental C elt ic s ocieties . C ontexts o f A rt ifacts S words At otal o f 1 8 1 b ronze a nd i ron s words i s i ncluded i n t he g azetteer ( Appendix I A) a nd i s u sed a s t he b asis f or a nalysis . T hese 1 8 1 s words m ay b e d ivided i nto t hree d ist inct c hronological g roups . T he f irst g roup , o f 6 4 s words , m ay b e d ated v ery g enera lly t o t he s eventh c entury B C o n at ypological b asis ( et C owen 1 967); t he s econd g roup o f 8 4 s words i s d ated t o t he M iddle I ron A ge ; a nd t he t hird g roup , o f t hirty—three s words , d ates t o t he L ate I ron A ge . T here a re f ive g eneral c ontexts f rom w hich n ear ly a ll o f t hese s words a re d er ived . T hese i nclude : 1
r ivers a nd b ogs ; a lso i ncluded h ere i s t he o f t he b ackwater i n W eymouth b ay ( IA 13)
2
b urials
3
h oards o f m etalware
4
o ccupat ion s ites , s ett lements
5
u nprovenanced s tray f inds
a nomalous c ontext
i ncluding h illforts a nd u ndefended
T he t otal n umber o f s words f rom e ach c ontext d uring e ach t hree c hrono logical p er iods i s p resented i n t he c hart b elow .
— 18—
o f t he
C ontext
C hrono log ical P er iods 7 th N o
B og/R iver B ur ial H oard O ccupat ion S ite S tray F ind ( Ritua l P it)
5 7 2 1 0 4
T ota l
6 4
B C
4 th-2nd B C N o %
8 9 3 2 0 6
6 2 5 0 1 6
1 st B C1st A D N o
7 4 6 0 1 3 7
1 3 5 . 1 6 4 4
8 4 T ota l S words — 1 8 1
4 1 1 6 3 1 9 1 2 9
3 3
T his c hart m akes c lear t he c ontent ion t hat t hese s words a re o verwhe lm ingly f ound i n w atery c ontexts , u sua lly r ivers . A ll o f t he r ivers w hich h ave p roduced s words a re , i nterest ing ly , e ast—f low ing r ivers ( see F igs 2 .1, 2 .2 , 2 .3 a nd 2 .13). T he a bsence o f s words f rom r ivers f low ing s outh o r w est i s v ery n ot iceab le , e spec ia lly s ince s everal, s uch a s t he v ar ious A vons a nd t he S evern , a re l arger r ivers . T he s ignif icance o f t his b ias i n d istr ibut ion i s u nknown . T he a ssociat ion b etween s words a nd r ivers i s m ost m arked i n t he G undlingen g roup , n ear ly 9 0% o f w hich c ome f rom r ivers . T his a ssociat ion d rops s teadily t hrough t ime , h owever , t o 7 4% i n t he M iddle I ron A ge , a nd f ina lly t o 4 1% i n t he L ate I ron A ge . B ut n ote t hat t he a ctua l n umbers o f f inds d oes n ot c hange e xcept o n o ccupat ion s ites . B ronze V esse ls At ota l o f 6 4 b ronze v esse ls i s i ncluded i n t he g azetteer ( Append ix I B) a nd u sed i n t his d iscussion . T he d iff icult ies o f d at ing m any o f t he v essels h ave a lready b een c ons idered , b ut e ven s o t wo d ist inct c hrono log ical g roups c an b e d ist inguished . T he f irst b e longs t o t he L ate B ronze A ge a nd v ery e ar ly I ron A ge , a nd , i ncludes n ine b ronze v esse ls . T he s econd g roup , i nclud ing f ifty v esse ls , d ates t o t he L ate I ron A ge . . A s w ith t he s words , f ive d ifferent c ontexts c an b e d ist inguished : b ogs a nd r ivers , b ur ia ls , h oards , o ccupat ion s ites a nd s tray f inds . T hese a re p resented i n s ummary i n t he f o llow ing c hart .
C ontexts
C hrono logical P er iods 1 0th-6th B C N o %
2 nd B C— lst A D N o % 1 9 5 3 1 1 3
3 8 1 0 6 2 2 2 6
U ndated N o %
B og/R iver B ur ial H oard O ccupat ion S ite S tray F ind
5 0 1 1 2
5 0 1 1 2
4 0 0 0 0
T ota l
9
5 1 4 T ota l B ronze V essels — 6 4
1 00 0 0 0 0
T his c hart m akes c lear t he f requency w ith w hich b ronze v essels a re f ound i n w atery c ontexts . T his c orrelation i s m ost o bvious i n t he c enturies o f t he L ate B ronze A ge a nd t ransition t o t he E arly I ron A ge w hen 5 5% o f a ll t he c auldrons a re f rom b ogs , a nd t he r emaining 4 5% a re s plit b etween o ccupat ion s ites , h oards , a nd s trays. T he n ext t hree h undred y ears , f rom t he f ifth t o t he t hird c enturies B C , a re a b lank , w ith n o s ecurely d ated v essels k nown . H owever , b eginning i n t he s econd c entury B C , v essels a gain a ppear , b ut i n s lightly d ifferent c ontexts. A t l east 3 8% a re a gain f rom b ogs a nd r ivers , b ut t hey a lso o ccur f or t he f irst t ime i n b urials , 1 0% o f t he t otal. T he o ccurrence o f v essels i n h oards d rops c onsiderably , w hile t he f requency o f v essels , a s a p ercentage , o n o ccupation s ites , d oubles. T wenty—four p ercent o f t he c auldrons a nd b ow ls o f t his p eriod , h owever , a re u nprovenanced . T his f igure i s s lightly m isleading , b ecause t he s tate o f p reservation o f e leven o f t he v essels i s g ood e nough t o s uggest t hat t heir s urvival d epended o n aw atery c ontext ( see A ppendix I B , n os 1, 2 1, 3 8 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 7). I f s o , i t w ould m ake t he p roportion o f v essels f rom w atery c ontexts s ome 7 % h igher t han i n t he e arlier p er iod. S ome 6 % o f a ll t he b ronze v essels c annot b e s ecurely d ated ( IB , n os 3 , 8 , 9 , 3 9), b ut o f t hese , a t l east o ne ( No .39) i s o f a t ype c urrent i n t he L ate I ron A ge a nd i s l ikely t o h ave b een f ound i n ab og . I f t hese c hanges a re m ade , t he c hart c an b e r evised a s f o llows: C ontexts
C hronological 1 0th-6th B C N o %
B og/River B urial H oard O ccupation S ite S tray F ind
5 0 1 1 2
T otal
9
5 5 0 1 1 2 2
T otal
P eriod
2 nd B C— lst A D N o % 3 1 6 3 1 1
6 0 1 6 2 1 2
U ndated N o % 3 0 0 0 0
1 00 0 0 0 0
5 2 3 B ronze V essels — 6 4
T he r evision i ndicates t hat t he o ccurrence o f b ronze v essels i n w atery c ontexts ( overwhelmingly b ogs , l ess t han 9 % f rom r ivers) r emains r elatively c onstant i n t he t wo t ime p eriods. T he i ntervening t hree c entury b lank p eriod , h owever , r emains u nexplained. T here a re t wo c hanges b etween t he t wo p eriods; f irst , v essels a ppear i n g raves i n t he l atter p eriod a nd , s econd , t hey a re f ound l ess f requent ly i n h oards. T he n umber i n c ontexts f rom o ccupation s ites d oubles a nd s tray f inds d ecrease m arkedly . B ronze S coops P alm—sized b ronze s coops o r s poons a re a p oorly r epresented , a nd t herefore p oorly u nderstood , a rtifact . O nly f ifteen s coops a re k nown f rom B ritain ; t welve f ound i n s ix p airs a nd t hree f ound s ingly . A ll o f t he d atable e xamples , d ated b y t ypology o f d ecorative m otifs , o r i f i n a g rave , b y a ssociated a rtifacts , s hould d erive f rom t he f inal c entury a nd ah alf o f t he I ron A ge , f rom c irca 1 00 B C t o A D 5 0 . T hey m ay b e d ivided b y c ontext a s f ollows , b ased o n t he e vidence i n t he g azetteer ( Appendix I C):
— 20—
B og/R iver B uria l S tray F ind O ccupat ion S ite
2p airs , 1s ingle 2p a irs 1p a ir , 2s ingle 1p air
5 4 4 2
3 3% 2 7% 2 7% 1 3%
T he s coops , t herefore , a re f ound i n t he s ame s e ries o f c ontexts a s w ere s words a nd b ronze v essels , a nd w ith t he s ame p redom inance o f f inds i n t he t wo c ontexts o f b ogs/r ivers ( 33%) a nd b ur ia ls ( 27%). S tray f inds a re u nusually p rom inent a t 2 7% . S hields a nd H elmets T here a re f orty—eight s hields a nd h elmets m ade o f s heet—bronze k nown f rom B r itain i n t he p er iod u nder c onsiderat ion . T hey f a ll i nto t wo d ist inct c hronological g roups w hich , a s w ith t he b ronze v essels , b elong t o t he L ater B ronze A ge ( Needham 1 979 , 1 28-29) a nd L ate I ron A ge . T he r ange o f c ontexts p roducing s hields a nd h elmets , h owever , i s m uch m ore l im ited : r ivers , b ogs a nd a f ew u nprovenanced e xamp les . T he d etails , f ound i n t he g azetteer ( Appendix I D), a re s ummar ised b elow .
C ontext
C hrono logical P eriods 1 2th-7th B C N o %
B og R iver B urial S tray F ind T otal
2 8 7 0 1
7 9 1 8 0 3
2 nd B C— lst A D N o %
7
6 2 j r 1
5 0 1 7 2 5 8
3 6 1 2 T otal S hields a nd H elmets — 4 8
A s t his c hart m akes c lear , s hields a nd h elmets o f b oth p er iods a re f ound a lmost e nt irely i n w atery c ontexts . T he e ar lier p er iod i s c haracter ised b y t he p redom inant u se o f b ogs f or d eposit ion , w hile i n t he l ater p eriod , r ivers b ecome m ore c ommon c ontexts2and s hields b egin t o a ppear i n b uria ls . T orcs T he l ast a rt ifact t ype t o b e d iscussed h ere i s t he t orc , a t ypically C eltic a rtifact . U nlike t he o ther a rt ifacts , t orcs a re n ot i nherently v aluab le ( unless m ade o f p recious m etal) a nd u sually i nvolve m uch l ess s killed l abour t han d o t he o ther a rtifacts . T hey a re , h owever , k nown t o h ave b een c onsidered s tatus i tems b y t he C elts ( cf F ilip 1 979 , 1 0 1107). B ased o n t his v alue f actor , a c ompar ison i s r elevant . At otal o f 6 1 d eposits o f t orcs h ave b een c o llected f or u se i n t his s tudy a nd a re p resented i n d etail i n t he a ssociated g azetteer ( see A ppendix I E). B ecause t he t orcs r arely h ave d iagnost ic d ecorat ive m otifs , m any a re p oorly d ated . T hose t orcs w hich a re d atab le b elong p redom inantly t o t he l ater I ron A ge , w ith o nly o ne f rom t he E arly I ron A ge . V ery f ew t orcs a re k nown t o d ate f rom t he p er iod b etween t he e nd o f t he f ifth a nd t he m id—second c entury B C — a b lank p er iod p aralle led
— 21—
b y t he b ronze v essels. I nformation a bout t he t orcs i s s ummarised a s f ollows: C ontext
C hronological 5 th B C N o
B og/River B urial H oard
0 1 0
O ccupation S ite S tray F ind
0 0
T otal
1
1 st B C— lst A D N o % 3 6 1 2 4 3 7 ( 19 t orcs) 1 4 2 7 1 5 2 9 5 2
P eriods
R oman-2nd A D N o % 0 0 0 3 2
5 T otal T orcs — 7 5
0 0 0 6 0 4 0
U ndated N o % 3 0 0
1 8 0 0
0 1 4
0 8 2
1 7
T he t ypes o f c ontext i n w hich t orcs o ccur a re c learly d ifferent f rom t he p revious a rtifacts. T orcs a re f ound p redom inantly o n o ccupation s ites , e specially i n t he l ater I ron A ge . T his t endency i s p robably a rtif icially l ow , b ecause m ost o f t he i dentified s ites a re h illforts w hich a re d ifficult t o o verlook , w hile t orcs l isted h ere a s " strays" m ay w ell h ave c ome f rom u ndefended ( and u nrecognised) o ccupation s ites. I n s pite o f t his , t he p redominant c ontexts a re c lear — d ry l and s ites a nd s trays. T he r ivers, b ogs a nd b ur ial c ontexts , s o p rolific i n o ther c lasses o f f ine m etal w are , h ave p roduced f ew t orcs. G eographical D istribution o f A rtifacts T he s econd t heme t o b e i nvestigated i s t he g eographical d istribution o f t he a rtifacts. T he f ind s pots f or e xamples o f e ach a rtifact c lass ( eg s words) w ere p lotted b y p eriod a nd b y t ype o f l ocation . A c omparison o f r oughly c ontemporary d istributions o f d ifferent a rtifacts m ay t hen b e u sed t o d iscern r egional p atterns. S words T he d istribution o f s words o f t he s eventh c entury B C i s f ound i n F igures 2 .1 a nd 2 .2 . T here a re f ive s ignificant c oncentrations o f s words: f irst i s t he g reat n umber o f s words f rom t he T hames B asin , c omprising n early t hree—quarters o f a ll s words o f t his p eriod . T here a re f our s words f rom r ivers i n t he L incolnshire a rea , a p rom inent s word—burial ( or p erhaps t wo b urials e ach w ith o ne s word) i n n orth Y orkshire , a nd o ne s word f rom t he T yne , p lus a nother g roup o f s words f rom S cotland , e specially f rom t he a rea o f t he T ay R iver . S words o f t he f ourth t o s econd c enturies B C a re p lotted i n F igures 2 .3 a nd 2 .4 . T hese s how s everal d ifferences f rom t he e arlier d istribu— t ion . T he T hames B asin i s s till v ery p rom inent , a nd t he L incolnshire a rea a gain h as a m odest n umber o f s words ( three a ltogether , a ll f rom r ivers). T he n orth Y orkshire a rea i s s till n otab le f or t he p resence o f s word b urials p lus a nother s word f rom a r iver . T he S cottish c oncentra— t ion a lso c ontinues , w ith a ll s words c om ing f rom r ivers. I n a ddition , t wo n ew c oncentrations o f s words a ppear , i n t he C ambridgeshire a nd N orfolk F ens t here a re f ive s words a nd a s word b urial. T he n umber o f s words f rom k nown a nd s uspected o ccupation s ites i n D orset a nd S omerset a re v ery p rom inent ; t here a re t wo s word b urials i n t his a rea .
— 22—
SWORDS 7t h
c entury
BC
CO NTEXTS
BOG & R IVER
BUR IAL
HOARD
•
S ITE
STRAY
F IND
0
I I I I I a l ä ».. . .. . . .. .. .. . .‚. '.e
F igure 2 .1:
S WORDS O F T HE E ARLY I RON A GE
2 00 km
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURES 2 .1 A ND 2 .2 7 th C entury B C S words
N umber
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
R iver/Bog 9 3 4 6( 3) 2 6 7( 2) 9 6 9 7 1 0 ( 2) 9 8 ( 4) 1 9 1 0 1 2 4 1 03 5 3 3 7 19 4 1 ( 2) 4 4 ( 2) 1 04 4 6 1 05 1 06 ( 2) 5 0 ( 2) 18 ( 2) 15 16 1 07 5 8 5 9 ( 3) 1 09 7 4 6 6 6 7 ( 2) 10 ( 2) 7 8 7 9 8 3 8 4 13
A y lesford B attersea B attersea B attersea B illinghay B ourne E nd B ow ling B rentford B rentford C hatham C hisw ick C raw ley E lcho H ammersm ith H eadp ile E yot H enley H o lme P ierpo int I s leworth K atesgrove K ingston K ingston L euchland L ondon L ondon M ort lake M ortlake M ugdrum N ewark N ewcast le P erth P erth R ichmond R ibhmond R ichmond T ap low T edd ington W andsworth W andsworth W eymouth
N umber
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
E bberston
S E8983
B ex ley
T Q4975
B rogynton C ambuskenneth C ulloden T emp le N ewson
S J2734 N S8094 N H7 140 S E3632
B ur ia l T Q7359 T Q2776 T Q2776 T Q2776 T F2 158 S V8985 N S4473 T Q5993 T Q5993 T Q7567 T Q2077 T Q254 1 N O 162 1 T Q2279 S U9079 S U7682 S K6239 T Q 1675 S U7272 T Q 1869 T Q 1869 N 06060 T Q3380 T Q3380 T Q2075 T Q2075 N 022 19 S K8054 N Z 197 1 N 0 1123 N 0 1123 T Q 1874 T Q 1874 T Q 1874 S U9082 T Q 16 17 T Q2574 T Q2574 S Y6778
2 7 ( 2)
H oard 9 5
S tray 9 1 00 1 02 8 0
F igure 2 .2 :
S WORDS O F T HE E ARLY I RON A GE — T HAMES B ASIN
25-
SWORDS 4t h 2n d
c entur ies BC
CONTEXTS
F igure 2 .3 :
BOG & R I VER
•
BURIAL
0
HOARD
*
S ITE
0
STRAY F IND
*
S WORDS O F T HE M IDDLE I RON A GE
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURES 2 .3 A ND 2 .4 4 th t o 2 nd C entur ies B C S words
N umber
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
R iver/Bog
1
2 ( 2) 5 4 2 1 5 2 0 2 2 2) 3 5 ( 1 6 3 6 8 ( 2) 8 5 1 6 1 20 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 5 1 5 2 5 5 5 6 7 0 7 2 7 4 1 24 1 22 1 23 2 1 2 5 3 6 3 9
N umber
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
W hitcombe N orth G r imstone N orth G r imstone S houldham H am H ill
S Y7188 S E8266 S E8266 T F6808 S T4717
B uria l A merden B arn E lms B attersea B attersea C ambridge C helsea C ookham H ammersm ith N ewbridge O xford R ichmond W andsworth W andsworth W ashingborough W estm inster W indsor W isbech W itham W itham L ondon L ong W ittenham M ildenhall M ortlake S ea M ills S outhwark P erth L lyn C err ig B ach L ochlee C ar lingwark C lothaho lm D atchet H ammersm ith H ertford W arren
S U9082 T Q0272 T Q2776 T Q2776 T L4658 T Q2778 S U8884 T Q2279 S P3902 S P5 106 T Q 1874 T Q2574 T Q2574 T F0270 T Q2979 S U9676 T F4609 S K9872 S K9872 T Q3380 S U5493 T L7174 T Q2075 S T5477 T Q3 179 N 0 1123 S H3076 N S4327 N X4560 S E3 171 S U9876 T Q2279 T L8564
14 6 1 6 2 7 1 3 4
O ccupat ion S ite •3 2 ( 2) 4 5 5 4 1 4 1 8 4 3 ( 2) 7 3 1 2 1
G lastonbury K ingsdown C amp M eare C aburn C amerton H unsbury S pett isbury R ings C arry H ouse C amp
S T4940 S T715 1 S T4442 T Q4408 S T6856 S P7358 S T9102 N Y8878
F lashy Q uatre B ras W est B uckland S toke A bbot W a lthamstow L akenheath
S D9456 S Y6690 S T 1720 S T4500 T Q3788 T L7182
S tray 3 0 6 5 8 6 7 6 8 2 4 7
CONTEXTS :
S WORDS O F T HE M IDDLE I RON A GE - T HAMES B ASIN
STRAY F IND
THE THAMES F igure 2 .4 :
•
SWORDS s t
1 c entury B C —
4 s t
c entury A D
CONTEXTS
BOG & R IVER
BURIAL
HOARDS
2 3
S ITE
STRAY F IND
0
F igure 2 .5 :
S WORDS O F
T HE L ATE I RON A GE
2 00 km
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .5 1 st C entury B C t o 1 st C entury A D S words
N umber
L ocation
G rid R ef
B attersea C arham C otterdale E mbleton F endoch H enley L incoln L incoln P illing M oss S adberge S utton T hropston W orton
T Q2776 N T8039 S D8394 N Y173 1 N N9 128 S U7682 S K9872 S K9872 S D4 146 N Z34 17 S K7966 S P9980 S D4972
B ugthorpe G elliniog—Wen G r imthorpe O wslebury S t L awrence
S E7758 S H4565 S E8 153 S U5224 S Z5376
B urial 1 2 3 1 3 3 1 08 11
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
B ulbury
S Y9294
H oard
R iver/Bog 3 1 7 2 3 2 8 2 9 3 8 4 8 4 9 7 4 7 9 7 12 9 2
N umber
1 3
O ccupation S ite 9 4 0 ( 4) 7 5
B redon H od H ill S tanw ick
S 09236 S T85 10 N Z1908
B oxmoor H am H ill M ortonhall T horpe B r idlington
T L0306 S T47 17 N T2574 T A 1867
S tray 8 17 5 7 8 1
R itual P it 9 4 6 0 ( 2) 1 24
B ertha N ewstead J ordan H ill
N 00529 N T5633 S Y6882
I n t he L ate I ron A ge t he d istr ibut ion o f s words s hifts a gain ( F ig 2 .5). T he T hames c oncentration d isappears a bruptly , a s d oes t he F enland g roup . L inco lnshire m ainta ins i ts t radit ion o f s words i n r ivers , a nd n orth Y orkshire h as s everal s words i n b ur ials . S cot land a lso h as s everal s words , b ut t hese a re f rom R oman c ontexts , i ncluding r itual s hafts , a long t he T ay a nd A lmond R ivers . T here a re a f ew s words s cattered a cross N orthumberland a nd C umbr ia , a ll f rom r ivers . T he D orset a nd S omerset t radit ion o f s words f rom o ccupation c ontexts , h owever , i s s t ill n ot iceab le , t hough l ess n umerous. T here a re t wo s words f rom b urials t o t he e ast o f t his g roup , o ne i n s outhern H ampshire a nd o ne f rom t he I s le o f W ight . T he s word b urial a t G elliniog—Wen o n A ng lesey i s a nomalous . B ronze V essels B ronze v essels o f t he s eventh c entury B C a nd t hose w hich c annot b e d ated a re p lotted i n F igure 2 .6 . T he o nly n oteworthy f act i s t he g enerally w est a nd n orth d istr ibut ion o f v essels i n b ogs — t wo d ated c auldrons i n W ales , a long w ith o ne u ndated v essel, a nd a f urther t wo v essels i n t he P ennines a nd s outh S cott ish u p lands. T he T hames B asin a lso h as t wo v esse ls , a n e xample f rom t he U pper T hames B asin a t S hipton , a nd a nother f rom t he T hames a t L ondon , b oth o f E ar ly I ron A ge d ate . T he s econd a nd f irst c entur ies B C s how a d ramat ic i ncrease i n t he n umber o f v essels ( there a re n one w hich c an b e d ated t o t he f ourth t o s econd c enturies). T hese a re s een i n F igure 2 .7 . S everal c oncentra— t ions a re e vident . T here a re a gain t wo i n t he L ower T hames n ear L ondon . N orth W ales h as s everal, m ost , i f n ot a ll, f rom b og c ontexts. T he F enland a rea h as s even v essels , a ll f rom b ogs , a s a re a nother s ix f rom t he s outh S cottish u plands. T he r est o f E ngland , s outh o f a l ine f rom t he S evern t o t he W ash , s hows a t hin s catter o f b ronze v essels , s ix f rom b ur ials a nd n ine f rom o ccupat ion s ites , w ith a n ot iceab le c oncentrat ion i n D orset a nd a n a bsence f rom K ent , S urrey a nd S ussex .
BRONZE V ESSELS n
t h
, th
e -0
c en tur iee
BC
CONTEXTS
BOG & R IVER
•
BURIAL
HOARD
0
S ITE
S TRAY
F IND
•
F igure 2 .6 :
B RONZE V ESSELS O F T HE E ARLY I RON A GE
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .6 9 th t o 6 th C entur ies B C B ronze V essels
D ated N umber
U ndated L ocation
G r id R ef
R iver/Bog 1 8 ( 2) 2 0 2 2 2 4
L lyn F awr L ondon N annau S hipton
S N9204 T Q3380 S H742 1 S P4716
H eathery B urn
N Y9939
O ccupat ion S ite 2 6
S ompting
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
R iver/Bog
H oard 1 2
N umber
T Q 1605
3 8 9
B aschurch C rumockdale E ckford
S T4222 S D7768 N T7126
BRONZE VESSELS n d s t c entury BC —1 c entury AD
CONTEXTS
BOG & R IVER
•
BUR IAL
HOARD
0
S ITE
STRAY
F igure 2 .7 :
F IND
B RONZE V ESSELS O F T HE L ATE I RON A GE
34-
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .7 2 nd t o 1 st C entur ies B C B ronze V essels
N umber
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
R iver/Bog 1 3 3 2 4 5 6 1 0 5 0 3 9 1 4 1 5 4 3 1 7 1 9 1 3 8 1 3 2 1 4 6 4 7 2 3 2 9 3 0 3 1 4 8
( 2)
( 4) ( 2) ( 2)
( 5)
A bercairney B armouth B attersea B ewcastle B lackburn C ar lingwark E lvanfoot F eltwell G lastonbury K incardine L amberton D anenddwyn L lyn C arrig B ach L ochar M oss E wart G ayton I psw ich L ound R un R ose A sh S anton S tanton W althamstow W hitehills W ormgay Y oulton
N umber
L ocat ion
G r id R ef
S tanw ick
N Z 1908
H oard N 00529 S H6 116 T Q2776 N Y5 785 N T7771 N X4560 N S95 17 T L7093 S T4940 N S9387 N T9758 S H5623 S H3 177 N X0471 N T9911 T F74 18 T M 1744 T M5099 S S7620 T L8 187 T L8084 T Q3788 N Y1575 T F66 11 S Y2090
2 8 ( 2)
O ccupat ion S ite 3 2 3 7 3 7 4 0 4 1 ( 2) 1 6 2 5 2 7
B agendon C olchester F elmersham H am H ill H od H ill L etchworth S ilchester S pett isbury
S P0006 T M0025 S P9957 S T4717 S T85 10 T L2333 S U6262 S T9 102
B irdlip M ount B atten W elwyn C o lchester B ulbury
S 092 14 S X5 152 T L24 12 T M0025 S Y9294
A rthog L lanycil
S H65 15 S H9153
B ur ial 3 4 ( 2) 4 5 4 9 3 6 3 5
S tray 2 4 4
S coops o r S poons T he p alm—sized b ronze s coops o r s poons a re w idely s cattered a cross E ngland. T here a re n o p articular a reas o f c oncentration , a s h as b een f ound w ith s everal o f t he a rtifacts c onsidered . T his s uggests t hat t hese s coops a re n ot p art o f a l ocalised t radition b ut i nstead w ere l inked t o a p ract ice f ound i n m ost r egional s ociet ies d ur ing t he L ate I ron A ge . M ost o f t he s coops o ccur i n c ontexts o f e ither v ot ive d eposits o r b urials ; b oth a re r itual, w hich m ay i ndicate t hat t he o r iginal f unction o f t he s coops w as a lso i n r itual p ract ices .
K EY S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .8 1 st C entury B C t o 1 st C entury A D S coops
N umber
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
R iver/Bog 3 9 6
C rosby ( pair) W eston ( pair) L ondon
N Y62 15 S T7266 T Q3380
B urnmouth ( pair) D eal ( pair)
N T966 1 T R3752
L lanfair ( pair) A ndover L ondon
S J1455 S U3645 T Q3380
B ur ial 2 4
S tray 5 1 7
O ccupation S ite 8
P enbryn ( pair)
S N2952
B RONZE S POONS s t , s t 1 c entury BC — 1 c entury AD
CONTEXTS
NUMBER
S INGLE
BOG
P A IR
•
i
BUR IAL
S ITE
0
STRAY F IND
*
•
• M IN mm
mr
1
0
F igure 2 .8 :
B RONZE S POONS O F T HE L ATE I RON A GE
—3 7 —
2 00 km
S hields a nd H elmets T he d istr ibut ion o f t he c ircular b ronze s hields o f t he L ate B ronze A ge ( see F ig 2 .9) f o llows a p attern t hat i s n ow f am iliar . T he T hames B asin i s p rom inent w ith f ive s hields i n t he L ower B asin a nd t wo m ore f rom t he U pper , a ll f rom e ither t he T hames o r n earby b ogs . T he F enland a rea h as f our s hields, a ll f rom b ogs , a s a re t he f ive f rom n orth W a les . L inco lnshire p roduced t hree s hie lds , a lso a ll f rom r ivers a nd b ogs . N orthumber land a nd t he B order u p lands c ontain a p rom inent c luster o f f ive s hields , f our f rom b ogs a nd a n u nprovenanced e xamp le w ith g ood p reservation , s urely i ndicating a b og c ontext . S cotland h as e ight s hields f rom o nly t wo c ontexts — f ive f rom a b og i n A yrshire a nd t hree m ore f rom n ear A berdeen . T he b lank c enturies f rom t he f ifth t o t he s econd e nd w ith a d rastic r educt ion i n t he n umber a nd d istr ibution o f s hields ( see F ig 2 .10), v ery m uch a s n ot iced w ith s words ( Fig 2 .5). T he L ower T hames a t L ondon a nd t he W itham n ear L inco ln h ave p roduced s everal f amous s hields ( eg W andsworth a nd W itham) a nd a h elmet ( Water loo), w hile t he L lyn C err ig B ach d eposit o n A nglesey a nd t he T orrs b og d eposit i n K irkcudbr ight a re w e ll k nown b ut w idely d ispersed e xamples . T he f ragmentary s hield b oss f rom S omerset m ay b e a n a nomalous s tray , a lthough t he t hree s hields f ound i n b urials o f w arriors a t O wslebury , W hitcombe a nd S aint L awrence m ay s uggest t hat i t t oo i s f rom a b ur ial c ontext .
SH IE LDS 1
t h—6 t hcentury
BC
CONTEXTS
BOG
0
R IVER
0
STRAY
F I ND
A
S
0
2 00 km
F igure 2 .9 :
S HIELDS O F T HE E ARLY I RON A GE
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .9 1th t o 6 th C entur ies B C S hields
N umber
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
N umber
B og 1 2( 3) 4( 5) 5 6 8 9( 3) 1 0 1 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 1 2 2 2 4 ( 3)
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
C arlton E ynsham H ampton L ondon L ondon W oolw ich
S K7964 S P4309 T Q 1370 T Q2776 T Q2776 T Q4379
A ydon
N Y9964
R iver A berystwyth A uchmaledd ie B e ith B runby B urr ingham C hester C oveny D oneymouth E llermere H ar lech I ngoe L angwood L ea L itt le W ittenham M oel S iabod S utton Y e ltholm
S N5882 N J8847 N S3454 S E8909 S E8309 N Z2752 T L488 1 S N6293 S J4035 S H583 1 N Z0475 T L3986 T Q3888 S U5693 S H7258 T G3823 N T8 128
7 1 2 1 3 1 9 2 0 2 3
S tray 3
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .10 2 nd t o 1 st C entur ies B C S hields a nd H elmets
N umber
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
B og 2 7 3 2
L ocation
G r id R ef
B attersea B rentford W andsworth W ater loo W itham
T Q2776 T 0 1778 T Q2574 T Q3380 S K9872
P o lden H ill
S T4336
R iver L lyn C errig B ach T orrs
S H3076 N X4560
O wslebury S t L awrence W hitcombe
S U5224 S Z5376 S Y7188
B urial 3 3 3 4 3 5
N umber
2 5 2 6 3 0 ( 2) 2 9 3 1
S tray 2 8
SH IELDS & HELMETS 1
s t
c entury BC
CONTEXTS
BOG
•
R IVER
0
STRAY F IND
BUR IAL
. 1 2 00 km
F igure 2 .10 :
S HIELDS A ND H ELMETS O F T HE L ATE I RON A GE
T orcs N early a ll o f t he t orcs k nown f rom t he P re—Roman I ron A ge a re d ated t o t he l ast t wo c enturies b efore t he C onquest ; t he s ingle d ated e xception i s f rom a b urial i n n orth Y orkshire . T he d istribution o f t he r emaining e xamples i s c learly u nlike t he d istribut ion o f t he a rtifacts c onsidered a lready ( see F ig 2 .11). T here a re t he f our f amous h oards o f p recious m etal t orcs a long t he e astern s eaboard ( Ipsw ich , S nettisham , U lceby a nd N ew C airnmuir) a nd a f ew b og c ontext f inds f rom t he S cots B order u plands. O therw ise , t here i s a d iffuse s catter o f t orcs f ound e ither o n o ccupation s ites o r a s s trays ( also p robably f rom a s y et u nrecognised s ettlements) a cross m ost o f t he r est o f E ngland a nd W ales , w ith a v ery n oticeable c oncentration i n D orset , S omerset a nd A von . M ost o f t he u ndatable t orcs ( see F ig 2 .12) a re p robably o f I ron A ge o rigin , b ut t heir d istribution i s e qually d iffuse , t hough a s mall g roup i n t he F ens a nd N orfolk m ay b e d iscerned . T he t hree R oman t orcs ( see F ig 2 .12) a re t oo f ew t o p roduce a s patial p attern . T orcs , u nlike t he o ther a rtifacts c onsidered h ere , s how n o t endency f or w atery c ontexts , b ut a re o rerwhelm ingly f rom d ry s ites. F urther , t he o nly s patial c lustering t hey s how i s a m arked c oncentration i n D orset a nd S omerset a nd p ossibly i n t he F enlands , w ith a w ide s catter o f e xamples a cross t he r est o f E ngland.
TORCS CONTEXTS
BUR IAL 1 500-400 BCI
C 7
BUR IAL 100 BC-SO AD I1
BOG 8 ,R IVER
HOARD
I L
S ITE
0
STRAY
F IND
0
F igure 2 .11:
T ORCS O F T HE E ARLY A ND L ATE I RON A GE
2 00 km
K�Y TO SITES IN FIGURE 2.11 Tores
1st Century BC to 1st Century AD
5th Century BC
Number
Number Location Grid Ref
Location
Grid Ref
River/Bog 24 26 28
Burial
Hyndford Lamberton Lochar
NS9141 NT9758 NY0471
Ipswich New Cairnmuir Snettisham Ulceby
TM1744 NT4734 TF6834 TF4272
57
Hoard 25 35 47 52
(6) (4) (6) (3)
Occupation Site 6 11 12 20 22 23 27 30 31 48 51 - 53
Cadbury Colchester Cold Kitchen Hi11 Ham Hill Hengistbury Ho11ingbury Llandyssul Maiden Castle Meare Spettisbury Tre'r Ceiri Worlebury
ST6225 TM0025 ST8438 ST4717 SZ1790 TQ3207 SN4242 SY6688 ST4541 ST9102 SH3848 ST3363
Attermire Clynnog Cross Axbridge Dorchester Dorset Giggleswick Greenhill Needwood North Creake Perdeswel l Polden Hill Portland Sickhi11 Trenoweth Wraxa11
SD8264 SH4249 ST4-154 SY6890
Stray 1 10 13 14 15 17 19 34 36 37 38 39 49 50 54
S08164 SV6878 SK1624 TF8538 S09647 ST4326 SY6870 NT7239 SW7533 ST4973 -44-
Arras
SE9341
TORCS CONTEXTS
RO MAN
P ER IOD
S ITES
STRAY
F I NDS
UNDATED
BOG 1 R IVER
STRAY
F INDS
0
F igure 2 .12 :
T ORCS - R OMAN A ND U NDATED F INDS
— 45-
•
2 00 km
K EY T O S ITES I N F IGURE 2 .12 T orcs
R oman N umber
U ndated L ocation
G r id R ef
O ccupat ion S ite 4 4 1 5 5
B enwell R icker ly W roxeter
L ocat ion
G rid R ef
R iver/Bog N Z2164 N Y3957 S J5608
S tray 7 4 5
N umber
2 2 9 3 2
A y lesford L ondon M ildenhall
T Q7359 T Q3682 T L7074
B awsey C lench C ommon C levedon E mbsay G lascote H ammersm ith N ew R ow R eeth R udboxton S carborough S edgford S hepherds F en S lay H ill
T M3440 S U 1765 S T407 1 S E0053 S K2203 T Q2279 S D89 12 S E0499 S N 1020 T A0489 T F7036 T L7074 T Q8467
S tray C ar lisle S keine
N Y4056 T A0455
3 8 9 1 6 1 8 2 1 3 3 4 0 5 6 ( 2) 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 6
D ISCUSSION O F R ESULTS T he f oregoing e vidence s uggests t hat B r itain i n t he I ron A ge c an b e d ivided i nto s everal r egional t radit ions o n t he b asis o f r itua l p ract ices . F irst , t here a re t he a reas f or w hich t here i s p osit ive e vidence f or v otive d eposit ions o f p rest igious m etalwork i n w atery c ontexts. S econdly , t here a re t wo a reas w hich s how t he p resence o f d ist inct ive r itua l t raditions i n p osit ive e vidence f or d ifferent r itual t reatment o f as im ilar r ange o f a rt ifacts . T he t hird t radit ion i ncludes m uch o f t he r est o f B r itain , f or w hich t here i s a s y et n o p osit ive e vidence f or a ny r ituals i nvo lving e ither p rest igious m eta lwork o r w atery c ontexts ( see F ig 2 .13). T he L ate B ronze A ge a nd E ar ly I ron A ge S ix r egions c ontain p ositive e vidence f or t he v ot ive d eposition o f s words , v essels o r s hie lds i n w atery c ontexts d uring t he L ater B ronze A ge a nd E ar ly I ron A ge . T hese r egions a re t he T hames B asin , t he F enlands , c entra l L incolnshire , n orth W ales , t he S cott ish B order u plands a nd t he R iver T ay B asin . O ne r egion s hows p osit ive e vidence o f a d ifferent r itual t radit ion . T his i s t he a ppearance o f s words i n b ur ials i n e ast Y orkshire , a s p art o f t he " Arras" c ulture a t t he v ery e nd o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge p er iod . H ere , s words d o n ot a ppear i n av ot ive c ontext , b ut r ather w ere u sed i n m ortuary r ituals. T here i s v ery l itt le p osit ive e vidence f or t he r est o f B r itain , a s t hese a rtifacts a re r arely f ound . P resumab ly s uch a rt ifacts w ere , i n f act , a vailab le e lsewhere , b ut w ere n ot u sed i n e ither v otive o r m ortuary r ituals . T he M iddle I ron A ge T he p ersistence o f a ll o f t hese r egional r itual t radit ions m ay b e s een i n t he M iddle I ron A ge , b ut o n a v ery r educed s cale ( cf T orbrügge 1 970/1971). F our o f t he s ix r egions — t he T hames B asin , F enlands , L incolnshire a nd n orth W ales , h ave a ll p roduced a f ew i tems o f t he p rest ige c lasses f rom w atery c ontexts , b ut t he n umbers a nd v ar iety o f a rtifacts a re f ar f ewer . T he S cott ish B order r egion a nd t he T ay B asin h ave v irtually n o p osit ive e vidence . T his r itual w as a pparent ly n o l onger p ract ised a s w ide ly , o r a s i ntensively , a s i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge . Y orkshire c ontinues t o s how p ositive e vidence o f a d ifferent r itual t radit ion , b y t he p resence o f s words i n b ur ials a s p art o f ad ist inct ive m ortuary t radit ion . D uring t he M iddle I ron A ge , p robab ly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he p er iod , t he D orset a nd S omerset r egion b egins t o a ssert a n i ndividuality b y p roducing s words f rom o ccupat ion s ites , w hich i s p ositive e vidence f or a r egiona l t radition t hat d id n ot u se s words i n v otive r ituals . Af ew s cattered s words a nd v essels f rom b ur ia ls ( two i n t he D orset a nd S omerset r egion) h int a t l ocal p ractices a t a l evel t oo d etailed t o b e d ealt w ith h ere . T he L ate I ron A ge D uring t he L ate I ron A ge t here m ay b e as light i ncrease i n t he u se o f t he r itual o f v ot ive d eposit ions o f m etalwork i n w atery c ontexts. M any o f t hese L ate I ron A ge d epositions a re o f b ronze v essels , w hich w ere p resent , b ut u ncommon , i n t he E arly I ron A ge . T he f avoured E ar ly I ron A ge o bjects — s words a nd s hields — a re p resent , b ut r are , i n t he L ate I ron A ge . A f urther c hange i s t hat , a lthough a ll o f t he f ormer r egions o nce a gain s how t he u se o f r ivers a nd b ogs f or v ot ive o ffer ings ,
— 47—
REG IONAL TRAD IT IONS AREAS OF P REST IGE OBJECTS I N WATERY CONTEXTS
AREA OF PREST IGE OBJECTS ON S ITES
AREA OF P REST IGE OBJECTS I N
BUR IALS
AREAS W ITHOUT POS IT IVE E V IDENCE L EFT B LANK
9
0
F igure 2 .13 :
R EGIONAL T RADITIONS I N T HE I RON A GE
200 km
t he f ind s pots a re l ess t ight ly c lustered . T his s uggests t hat a n ew c lass o f a rt ifacts w as f avoured f or u se i n t his v ot ive r itual a nd t hat t his r itual w as m ore w idely f ollowed , b ut l ess i ntensive ly s o , i n a ny p art icular r egion . T he Y orkshire A rras c ulture s t ill d istinct ively i ncludes s words i n b urials ; t he D orset a nd S omerset r egion c ont inues t o p roduce s words a nd b ronze v essels f rom d omest ic s ites , i ndicat ing t hat t hese a rtifacts w ere n ot u sed i n r itua l t here . D ur ing t he L ate I ron A ge t he d istribution o f t orcs c ontrasts w ith t he o ther a rt ifact c lasses i n b oth c ontexts a nd g eographic d istr ibut ion , p robab ly i ndicat ing t hat t hese s tatus i tems w ere r arely d eposited i n r itual c ontexts . T hus t he a rchaeo logical e vidence i ndicates t hat a n umber o f w ide ly s eparated r egions a ll p ract ised s im ilar r itual d eposit ions i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge , a nd c hose f or t hese p ractices a l im ited r ange o f p rest igious a rtifacts . D uring t he M iddle I ron A ge t hese r ituals w ere a bandoned i n s ome a reas a nd w ere p ract ised f ar l ess i ntensively i n t he r emaining a reas . O ther r egions p resent c ontrasting p ract ices , w ith t he u se o f t he s ame s eries o f a rtifacts i n v ery d ifferent r itual c ontexts ( Yorkshire), o r b y n ot u sing t he a rtifacts i n a ny r itual a t a ll. T he L ate I ron A ge s ees a r educed c ont inuat ion o f t he p ractice o f v ot ive d eposit ion ; b ut n ow a n ew a rtifact c lass i s u sed a nd t he r itual p ract ice s eems t o h ave b een p erformed b y m ore w idely s cattered g roups , r ather t han i ntensive ly i n o nly a f ew g eographically r estr icted r egions.
C ONTINENTAL E VIDENCE T hroughout t he e ar ly c enturies o f t he I ron A ge , B ritain a nd m uch o f t he C ontinent p art icipated i n av ery w idespread e xchange s ystem b ased o n b ronze a nd b ronze a rtifacts ( Bradley 1 984 , 9 6156 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 1 4 1150 ; c hapter 1 0 b elow). D ur ing t his p er iod ( the E ar ly I ron A ge i n t he p resent c hrono logy), B r itain a nd n orth—west E urope a lso s hare i n o ne o ther w idespread p henomenon : av enerat ion o f w atery p laces c e lebrated b y t he r itual d eposition o f v aluab le , p restige a rtifacts ( Cowen 1 967 , m aps B , D , E , F ; C o llis 1 984 , 7 6-79 , F ig 1 8g ; v on B runn 1 980 ; T orbrügge 1 970/1971, 1 146). T his r itual c ongruence i s n ot t otal h owever , b ecause f rom H allstatt C /D o nwards s uch p rest ige i tems . a lso o ccur i n a nother r itual c ontext — b urials — i n s outhern G ermany ( K imm ig 1 969 , 1 975 ; F rankenstein & R ow lands 1 978) a nd s light ly l ater i n t he C hampagne a nd M arne r egions o f F rance ( Bretz—Mahler , 1 97 1; F louest & S tead 1 979 ; D uval & K ruta 1 975 ; P iggott 1 965 , 2 15-2 16 ; 1 968 , 8 6). S uch w ealthy ( "prince ly" o r " chieftain" b urials) c ont inue f or s evera l c enturies a longside t he w atery d eposits. S omet ime t owards t he e nd o f t his p er iod ( circa 4 50-400 B C), t he E uropean b ronze t rade n etwork c o llapsed ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 38144) a nd B ritain b ecame m ore i nsular ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 1 52160). T his p er iod o f i nsular ity p ersisted u ntil t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury B C , w hen b oth s ocial a nd e conom ic c ontacts w ere r enewed ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 1 60 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 44155). T hroughout t his p hase ( the M iddle I ron A ge), t he w atery d eposits c ontinue i n b oth B ritain a nd o n t he c ont inent , a lthough i n m uch s maller n umbers ( as i ndicated b y t his r esearch ; T orbr ' ügge 1 970/ 1971; F itzpatr ick 1 984 , 1 83184). T he e nd o f t he i nsular p hase i n B r itain ( circa 1 00 B C) c o incides w ith a c hange i n b urial c ustoms i n n orth a nd c entral F rance , f o llow ing e ar lier c hanges i n G ermany . T he n ew b ur ial r ite i s b y c remat ion , i nurned i n f lat c emeter ies w ith f ew g rave g oods ( Bretz—Mahler 1 971, 1 69197 ; F ilip 1 977 , 1 7918 1, 2 22-223 ; H odson & R ow lett 1 973 , 1 87188).
T he d eposition o f p restige o bjects i n w atery c ontexts c ont inues b ut i s i nfrequent , a lthough t here i s a r esurgence d uring t he R oman p eriod i n n orthern E urope ( Torbrugge 1 970/1971; T odd 1 975 , 1 82-208). T he L ate I ron A ge i n B ritain , c onversely , w itnesses t he a ppearance o f s ome w ealthy b urials ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 8 7-90) a nd a n i ncrease i n r itual d eposits i n w atery c ontexts. D uring t his p eriod s ome r egional p atterns w ithin B ritain a re a pparent , s uch a s t he p resumptively i ntrusive A rras c ulture i n Y orkshire ( w ith s word a nd c hariot b urials ; S tead 1 967 , 1 979 ; F louest & S tead 1 979 , 5 9-74) a nd t he D orset a nd S omerset r egion , w here p restige o bjects o ccur o n s ites. T herefore i t m ay b e s uggested , t hat i n t he E arly I ron A ge b oth B ritain a nd t he C ontinent s hare i n a w idespread r itual t radition o f v otive d eposits i n w atery c ontexts. C oncurrent w ith t he e nd o f t he E uropean—w ide b ronze t rade t his r itual t radition p ersists , b ut o nly o n a m uch s maller s cale i n b oth B r itain a nd E urope . T he L ate I ron A ge a nd i ts r esumption o f c ross—channel t rade b rings a r esurgence o f t his r itual t radition i n B ritain. S ometime l ater , d uring t he R oman p eriod , r itual d eposits i n w atery c ontexts i n n orthern E urope a lso r esume .
CH A P T E R
3
R ITUAL S HAFTS A ND W ELLS
O ne o f t he p rincipal c haracteristics o f t he v otive a nd s acrificial o fferings d iscussed a bove , i s t hat t hey m ust b e r emoved f rom t his w or ld a nd p laced b eyond h uman r ecovery a nd r e—use . A c ommon m ethod o f a ccomplishing t his w as t o t hrow t he o bjects i nto w ater — a l ake , s tream o r b og — a s d iscussed i n t he p revious c hapter . A s econd m ethod , v ery c ommonly e mployed , w as t o b ury t he o bjects i n t he g round , i n p its o r d eeper s hafts a nd w ells. L ater c hapters w ill d iscuss t he u se o f p its i n r eligious r ituals ; h ere , t he f ocus i s o n t he d eep s hafts a nd w ells. T he u se o f s hafts f or t he d eposition o f v otive a nd s acrificial o fferings , a nd a lso o f i tems w hich i n t he c ourse o f a r itual b ecome i mbued w ith a d angerous a mount o f s upernatural " power" , o ccurs w idely i n t ime a nd s pace , r anging f rom N eolithic B ritain ( Wainwright & D onaldson 1 972) t o V iking D enmark ( Norlund 1 948). T he c lassical w orld o f t he M editerranean p articipated i n t his g eneral t radition — t he G reeks t oo u sed v otive s hafts ( Thompson 1 958 , 1 48153 ; S hear 1 973 , 1 26134 ; K roll 1 972 , 2 03 ; R ouse 1 902 , 3 46 ; A ltheim , 1 938 , 1 20). I n s pite o f al ack o f d etailed s tudies , i t a ppears c ertain t hat t he C eltic w orld m ade e xtensive u se o f s hafts f or r itual p urposes. T he p resence o f d eep s hafts w ith c ontents o f p utatively r itual o rigin w ithin t he r ectilinear e nclosures k nown a s " viereckSchanzen" i s n ow w ell d ocumented t hroughout s outhern G ermany a nd t he M arne a nd S eine a reas o f F rance ( Schwarz 1 962 ; 1 975 , 3 42-360 ; Z um n 1 971). R itual s hafts a re a lso c ommon o n a v ariety o f o ther s ites t hroughout t he C ontinental I ron A ge ( both H allstatt a nd L a Tne), o n R omano—Celtic t emple s ites ( Baudry & B allereau 1 873), a s w ell a s o n s ettlement s ites ( Fettich 1 956 , P ieta 1 971, P etres 1 972), a nd l ess w ell u nderstood s ites ( Rybova & S oudsky 1 962 , S chuchhardt 1 943). T he o nly a ttempts t o s tudy r itual s hafts a s a w idespread C eltic p henomenon a re r egional i n s cope , f ocused o n n orth c entral F rance a nd l ow land B ritain , a nd a re a ll b y D r A nne R oss ( 1968 , 1 980) a nd R oss & F eachem ( 1976). B ecause t he w ork o f R oss r emains t he f irst a nd o nly t hematic s tudy o f C eltic r itual s hafts , i t f orms t he b ackground t o t he p resent r esearch a nd w ill b e d iscussed b riefly . T here a re s everal c riticisms a pplicable t o R oss' w ork ; t he f irst i s t he i ntuitive b asis b y w hich t he c haracter— i stics o f r itual s hafts ( as o pposed t o r ubbish—f illed p its) a re d erived . T his i ntuitiveness i s u nderstandable i n s uch a " first—time" s tudy , b ut a r evision o f t he c riteria u sed b y R oss , i n t he l ight o f h er r esults , c an o nly h elp t o s trengthen t he c ase , e ither f or o r a gainst , t he r itual
— 51—
n ature o f t he s hafts. T his f ault l eads d irectly t o a s econd , t he i nclusion o f d ub ious e xamples o f s hafts w hich a re p resumed t o b e r itual i n n ature ( Ross 1 968 , 2 58-275). F or e xample , t he s hafts a t t he s ites o f B edford , D anebury , D arenth , T hanet , K idlington , L ondon , M aiden C astle , s everal a t N ewstead , W e llingborough a nd W roxeter a re , o n t he b asis o f R oss' i nformation a nd t he p ublished a ccounts , l ess t han c onvincing e ven b y R oss' c riteria . I n e ach c ase , t he s hafts a re e ither t oo s hallow o r c ontained t oo f ew d istinctive a rtifacts t o d istinguish t hem f rom n ormal d omestic r ubbish d eposits . T he t hird c riticism i s t hat R oss' a nalysis a nd i nterpretation i s a necdotal a nd l acks a ny a ttempt t o p resent s hafts o r t heir c ontents a s p art o f af unctioning r eligious " system". T he b ones o f h are a nd c ock , f requent c omponents o f s hafts' c ontents , a re c orrelated w ith s tatements o f C aesar a nd D io C assius, w ho r efers t o t he a nimals' s anctity ( 1968 , 2 75), b ut t here i s n o e xplanation o f w hy s acred a nimals s hould b e f ound i n s hafts. F urther , R oss' i nterpretation o f t hese s hafts a s a B elgic p henomenon i s n ot s upported b y h er d istr ibution m ap ( 1968 , 2 80 , F ig 6 7) w hich s hows s hafts d istributed al a cross l ow land B ritain . L ast ly , s he u ses R oman m ilitary s ites t o a rgue f or a B elgic r eligious r itual, w hile f ailing t o e xplain w hy t he R oman a rmy s hould a dopt o ne C eltic t ribe 's p ractices a nd c arry t hem f ar b eyond t he t ribal h omelands . D isturbing a s t hese f ive f aults a re , R oss' m ain p oint i s n ot s eriously c hallenged : t here a re a l arge n umber o f s hafts o f I ron A ge a nd R oman d ate w hose c ontents c an b est b e e xplained i n t erms o f r eligious p ractices. T he p urpose o f t his c hapter i s , t herefore , t o a ttempt t o o vercome t he f aults o f R oss' s tudies , t o c ompile a u seful g azetteer o f c onvincing s hafts, a nd t o p resent a n a nalysis o f h ow s hafts m ay h ave b een u sed i n C eltic r eligious r ituals.
T HE E VIDENCE D efinition o f t he E vidence T he f irst s tep i n t he c ollection o f e vidence f or r itual s hafts m ust b e t he d evelopment o f a s et o f c ategories b y w hich t he s haft a nd i ts c ontents c an b e e xplicitly c ategorised . R oss ( 1968 , 2 8 1) u sed a s eries o f t hirty—f ive c ategories , b ut a c areful s tudy o f h er r esults i ndicates t hat s everal c ategories a re o f l ittle i mportance ( eg N o 3 3 , s mooth s tones) a nd t hat o thers m ay b e l ogically c ombined ( eg p ins a nd o rnaments m ay b e c onsidered a s j ewelry). T his p rocess r esults i n ad esignation o f t wenty—seven c ategories o r c haracteristics w hich w ill b e u sed i n t he p resent s tudy . T hese c haracteristics a re a s f ollows : 1
D eliberate l ayers . T his r efers t o t he p resence o f d istinct a nd d eliberate l ayers o f f ill i n t he s hafts. T ypically , t his i nvolves l ayers o f c lean s ilt , g ravel o r c halk s eparating l ayers o f d istinctive a rtifacts s uch a s a nimal b urials o r g roups o f c omplete p ottery v essels . T his a lso i ncludes t he u se o f l arge f lat s tones w hich e ffectively s eparate t he f ill i nto t wo o r m ore m ajor l evels . S uch s tones a re f requently p ierced i n t he c entre b y a l arge h ole t hrough w hich a rtifacts c ould b e p assed o r t hrown i nto t he l ower s ection o f t he s haft . T his c ategory a lso i ncludes a d eliberate p lacement o f i tems w ithin o ne s uch l ayer , f or e xample , c omplete p ots s urrounding a s kull.
2
L ining . M any o f t he f ram ing , p uddled c ha lk ,
s hafts a re l ined , e ither c lay , t ile o r w ickerwork .
3
C attle b ones . T his s kulls , w hen r ecorded ,
4
D og b ones .
5
P ig b ones .
6
H orse b ones .
7
S heep b ones .
8
D eer b ones ,
9
B ird b ones .
1 0
M isce llaneous a nimal b ones f or w hich n o g enus i s k nown .
1
O yster s he lls .
1 2
H uman b ones .
1 3
W eapons ,
1 4
B ody a rmour ,
1 5
C omplete c eram ic v essels — v essels c omp lete u pon d eposit ion .
1 6
C eram ic v esse ls — w hich a re c omp lete , b ut w hich w ere b roken i n a nt iquity i n t he p rocess o f d eposit ion .
1 7
P otsherds . T his r efers n ot t o t he o ccasional s herd , w hich m ay b e f ound i n a ll c ontexts o f h uman a ct ivity , m ore o r l ess b y c hance , b ut r ather t o d istinct c oncentrations o f s herds , u sually l ayers , w hich a re u nlikely t o b e t he p roduct o f c hance .
1 8
L eather o bjects — e specially s hoes a nd s andals . T his c ategory a nd t he f o llow ing t hree a re e ntire ly d ependent o n w ater— logged c ontexts f or p reservat ion a nd r ecognit ion .
1 9
O rganic m aterial — e specially l eaves a nd g rasses .
2 0
T rees o r l ogs .
2 1
N uts a nd t w igs.
2 2
V otives . T his r efers a lmost b y d ef init ion t o o bjects o f R oman d ate , i ncluding a ltars , p aterae , f igurines o f b ronze o r s tatuary o f s tone , m iniature b ronze a xes , s pears , s hields e tc , a ll w ell k nown f rom R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le s ites .
2 3
I ron t oo ls — u sually c arpenters' o r b lacksm iths '
2 4
Q uern s tones .
2 5
A shes , c harcoal a nd c harred w ood o ccurr ing l enses i n t he f ill o f s hafts ( does n ot f lecks o f c harcoal).
2 6
J ewelry . T his i ncludes r ings , b racelets e tc .
2 7
C oins.
i ncludes s kulls , a nd i s n oted e xplicit ly .
t he
w ith
t imber
p resence o f
i ncluding a ntlers .
S kulls a nd c omplete b odies n oted e xp licitly .
s uch a s s words a nd s pearheads . s uch a s s hields.
f ibulae ,
t oo ls .
i n l ayers o r d ense i nclude o ccasional
p enannular
b rooches ,
p ins ,
I ncluding b oth C eltic a nd R oman t ypes .
I t i s r eadily a pparent t hat n one o f t hese t wenty—seven a rt ifact c ategor ies i s , a lone , s uff icient t o c haracter ise a s haft 's c ontents a s o f r itual o rigin . I ndeed , e ven t wo o r t hree o f t hese c ategor ies
t ogether n eed n ot b e s ignificant . T he s ingle m ost c onvincing c ategory i s t he f irst , i nvolving t he d eliberate o rganisation a nd p lacement o f a rtifacts i nto d ifferent l ayers o r w ithin a s ingle l ayer . U nfortunately , s uch d eliberate p lacement o f a rtifacts o ccurs i n o nly a bout 2 0% o f t he s ample . T herefore , i t s eems b est t hat t he a ttr ibution o f s hafts t o r itual a ctivities s hould d epend u pon a c omb ination o f s everal o f t hese c ategories. T he u se o f s imple d escriptive s tatistics i n t he f ollow ing a nalysis w ill d efine s ome o f t he m ore c ommon c ombinations , a s w ell a s t he p oints o f d ifference b etween s ome p ossible g roups o f s ites. T he a pplication o f t his r evised l ist o f c ontent c ategories , a nd t he u se o f a2 .5 m etre m inimum d epth , r esults i n t he e limination o f m any o f t he m ore d ubious s hafts. T his r educed s et o f e vidence h as b een u pdated b y t he a ddition o f s everal s hafts w hich h ave e ither b een d iscovered s ince R oss w rote ( 1968) o r w hich w ere o m itted f rom h er o riginal c atalogue ( 1968 , 2 58-275). T he r esult o f t his i s a c ollection o f 1 02 s hafts f rom 5 2 s ites ( summarised i n t he g azetteer i n A ppendix I) f or w hich t here i s p rima f acie e vidence o f r itual a ctivity . T he g azetteer i s n either c omprehensive n or e xhaustive ( some o f t he d iscarded s hafts m ay i n f act b e r itual i n n ature , a nd t here a re u ndoubtedly s ome s hafts n ot c onsidered) , b ut i t d oes i nclude a ll o f t he m ore c learly d efined r itual e xamples k nown a nd t hus f orms a u seful b ase a gainst w hich n ew s hafts o r u ncertain e xamples m ay b e c ompared a nd e valuated . L imitations o f t he E vidence S ince a rchaeological e vidence i s n ever i deal, a ppropriate a nd s uccessful a nalysis d epends u pon a c lear u nderstanding o f t he n ature o f t he e vidence a nd t he l imitations i nherent i n i t . S everal a spects o f t he e vidence w ill l imit a nalysis , a nd t hese l im itations a re d iscussed b riefly h ere . T he f irst i s t hat m ost o f o ur k now ledge o f t he s hafts i s t he r esult o f c hance d iscoveries i n t he l ast c entury , a nd n ot o f s ystematic a rchaeological f ield—work . T his h as t wo s ignificant c onsequences : f irst , m any o f t he s hafts c annot b e p laced a ccurately i n a ny s ort o f s ite c ontext ( in a f ew c ases t he p resence o f as ite o f s ome s ort a round t he s haft m ay b e p resumed , b ut i s u ndocumented); s econdly , s everal o f t he d iscover ies o ccurred d uring t he e xpansion o f t he r ailway s ystem i n t he n ineteenth c entury , a nd t he p ublished a ccounts f all h opelessly s hort o f m odern a rchaeological s tandards. T he l ack o f s ite c ontext a nd d etailed r ecording m eans t hat t he a nalysis o f t he i nformation c an o nly b e c arried o ut o n a f air ly g eneral l evel, a nd t hat t he r esults w ill t herefore l ack t he s pecificity w hich c ould b e d er ived f rom m odern e xcavation. T he s econd p roblem i s o ne o f d efinition . T here i s a rguably a c ont inuum o f f eatures f rom t he u biquitous I ron A ge s torage p its t hrough s hafts o f v ary ing d epths t o t he s urprisingly d eep w ells f ound o n t he c halk u plands a nd , a t f irst g lance , a ny d ivisions m ay a ppear a rb itrary . I n p ractice , t his i s n ot t he c ase . S hafts w hich a re l ess t han 2 .5 m etres i n d epth a re u sually o f t he " storage p it" c ategory a nd , i n f act , c ontain a d istinct r ange o f d eposits ; t hese a re d iscussed i n c hapters f our a nd f ive . S hafts w hich a re o ver 2 .5 m etres d eep s eem r arely t o h ave f unctioned a s s torage p its , a nd p roduce t he d istinctive c ontents w hich f orm t he b asis o f t he p resent d iscussion . S ome , o r m any , o f t hese d eeper s hafts , h owever , m ay h ave p enetrated d eeply e nough t o h ave s erved a s w ells . F or p resent p urposes , a d istinction b etween d ry s hafts a nd
w ells i s i rrelevant , s ince w ells m ay h ave s erved a s p laces f or r itual a ctivity b oth d uring a nd a fter t heir p eriod o f a ctive u se a s w ells ; t he e mphasis h ere i s o n t he r itual n ature o f t he c ontents . O ne p ossible r esult o f a nalysis m ay b e t o d istinguish b etween s hafts i ntended a nd u sed a s w ells , a nd s hafts w hich d id n ot f unction a s s uch . H owever , t he p resence o f w ater—logged p reservation i s n o s ure s ign o f aw ell, b ecause c hanges i n w ater t able i n t he i ntervening c enturies m ay h ave d ried m any w ells o r s ubmerged s ome s hafts. O ne o ther q ualification s hould b e m ade w hich a pplies t o a ll o f t he a rchaeological e vidence . T he e vidence u sed h ere i s d rawn f rom B ritain d uring t he I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman p eriod. I nterpretation i s t herefore a pplicable o nly t o B ritain , a nd o nly b y a nalogy c an i nterpretations b e e xtended t o s ites i n c ontinental E urope . T here a re s ufficient s hafts k nown f rom t he c ontinental I ron A ge t o s uggest t hat g eneral p atterns o f b ehaviour m ay h ave b een s imilar , b ut d etailed e vidence w ill b e n ecessary b efore t he m atter c an b e f urther c onsidered.
A NALYSIS T hree d ifferent a pproaches t o t he e vidence s hould y ield r esults o f i nterest . T he f irst o f t hese i s t he g eographic d istribution o f r itual s hafts . T his p attern c an b e c ompared w ith d istr ibutions o f s ites o f a ll t ypes f or b oth t he I ron A ge a nd R oman p eriods , t hus t esting R oss' ( 1968 , 2 68) a ssertion o f aB elgic o rigin , a s w ell a s a ny o ther c orrelations t o o ther a spects o f s ettlement d istribution . T he s econd a pproach i s t o e xamine t he n ature o f t he c ontents o f t he s hafts . W ith 1 02 s hafts a nd t wenty—seven c ategories o f c ontents , n o i ntuitive m ethod o f a nalysis c an b e r eliable . F urthermore , a s ag lance a t t he s ummarised e vidence w ill s how ( below , T ables 3 .1 t o 3 .5), m ost o f t he e vidence i s o f t he p resence/absence f orm , a c onsequence o f e ar ly , o ften a mateur , e xcavation a nd p ublication. S uch d ata i s o n a " nominal s cale", r eflecting d ifferences i n k ind w hich c annot b e m easured ( Thomas 1 976 , 1 9). N ominal s cale d ata i s s usceptib le t o s tatistical a nalysis u sing " non—parametric" s tatistics ( Thomas 1 976 , 2 61-264). T he n on—parametric s tatistic a pplicable t o t he p resent s ituation i s t he C hi—square t est , w hich c an b e u sed t o e liminate ' m uch o f t he a rbitrari— n ess o f ap urely i ntuit ive a pproach . T he t hird a pproach c onsiders t he f ormal c haracteristics o f t he s hafts t hemselves. I deally , t here a re t hree f eatures o f i nterest — d epth , d iameter a nd s hape o r p rof ile . U nfortunately , t he e vidence f or d iameter i s o ften l acking , a nd i nformation o n s hape i s r arely a vailab le . T his l eaves d epth , w hich i s u sually r ecorded a nd i s , i n f act , f ound t o v ary s ignificantly w ith o ther a ttributes o f t he s hafts . T he f o llow ing c harts a re a c ondensed v ersion o f t he f ull e vidence p resented i n t he g azetteer i n A ppendix I. H ere , t he s hafts a re l isted i n a lphabetical o rder b y s ite n ame , a nd t he c ontents o f e ach a re n oted . A n " X" m arks t he p resence o f a n a rtifact c ategory i n e ach s haft . A n umeral f ollowed b y " c" i ndicates t he n umber o f c omplete e xamples o f t he a rtifact c ategory , f or e xample , o r c omp lete b urials o f a nimals. A n umeral f ollowed b y " s" i ndicates t he n umber o f s kulls o f a p articular a nimal s pecies k nown t o b e p resent , w here s uch d etailed e vidence i s r ecorded . B lank s paces r epresent t he a bsence o f a rtifact c ategories f or p articular s hafts .
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M aiden C ast le ( V S1 3 a nd 1 4 ;
F igure 6 .7)
T he h illfort o f M aiden C ast le h as t wo s hr ines l ocated c lose t ogether i n a n o therw ise o pen a rea o n t he s umm it o f t he h ill. T he e ar lier o f t he t wo ( V S 1 3 , s tructure L 1 i n W heeler 1 943 , 7 2-78) p robab ly d ates t o t he f ourth c entury B C , e ither l ate i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge o r v ery e ar ly i n t he M iddle I ron A ge . T he s tructure i s i rregular ly r ectangular , a bout s ix b y t hree m etres , p ossib ly o f t wo r ooms , a nd r epresented b y p ostho les . I t l ies i mmediate ly a djacent t o t he m ain t rack o r s treet t hrough t he f ort f rom t he e astern g ate . T he l atter s tructure ( V S 1 4), o f t he f irst c entury B C , i s a c ircular s tructure e ight m etres i n d iameter r epresented b y d rystone w all f oundat ions a nd p ostho les f or a p ortico . T he e ntrance i s t o t he e ast , a t t he t erm inus o f t he t rack t hrough t he f ort f rom t he e ast g ate . T he c ircular s hr ine i s j ust t hree m etres w est o f t he E arly I ron A ge s tructure . T he c ircular s hrine w as r eplaced w ith a c ircular R omano—Celtic t emp le i n t he t hird c entury AD ; c ontinuity o f f unction i s l ike ly , b ut c ont inuity o f o ccupation i s l ess s o . A ssociated w ith t he c ircular I ron A ge s hr ine w ere b rooches , c oins , h arness f ittings , s everal i ron w eapons a nd s everal i nfant b urials ( Wheeler 1 943 , 1 27 , 1 3 1135 ; C unliffe 1 978 ; D rury 1 980a , 6 4-65 , F igures 3 .6 , 3 .7). M untham C ourt ( V S1 5) A p ossib le I ron A ge s hrine i s r epresented b y p ostho les f orm ing a r ectangular s tructure , a bout t wo b y t hree m etres , l ocated i n ap alisaded t emenos . T he s hr ine a nd p alisade w ere l ater r eplaced b y a c ircular R omano—Celtic t emple a nd t emenos. T he I ron A ge s tructure i s p robab ly o f t he L ate I ron A ge , a nd t here i s e xtensive s urround ing I ron A ge o ccupation ( Ho lleyman & B urstow 1 955 , 2 04-205 ; H o lleyman 1 96 1; G reen 1 976 , 2 20). P ilsden P en ( V S1 6) I n t he c entre o f a n I ron A ge h illfort i s av ery l arge s tructure , w hich h as o n s everal o ccasions b een i nterpreted s tructure , u sually a s a t emenos ( eg G elling 1 977 , 2 63-286 ; 5 0-52). M ore r ecent d iscussion i ndicates i t i s a lmost p ost—medieval r abbit w arren ( B C unliffe , p ers c omm). I t h ere o nly t o m ake t his p o int a nd i s • n ot d iscussed f urther . S outh C adbury ( V S1 7 ,
1 8 ,
1 9 ,
2 0 ;
F igures 6 .8 ,
r ectilinear a s a r itual D rury 1 980 , c ertainly a i s i ncluded
6 .10a)
T he h illfort a t S outh C adbury h as f our r ectangular s tructures w hich a re r easonably i nterpreted a s s hr ines ( A lcock 1 969 , 1 971, 1 972b). T wo s tructures , w hich d ate r oughly t o t he m id—second c entury B C , a re l ocated i n a n o pen a rea i n t he c entre o f t he h illfort , o n t he s umm it o f t he c entral r idge . O ne , S 1 7 ( A lcock 's s tructure 8 , 1 972b , F ig 1 0) i s f our m etres s quare , o riented e ast — w est w ith a n e ast—facing e ntrance , a nd i s d ef ined b y p ostholes . N earby i s t he s econd ( S 1 8 h ere , S 9 i n A lcock 1 972b) , w hich i s t wo b y t hree m etres l ong , o riented e ast — w est , a gain w ith a n e ast—facing e ntrance . B oth s tructures a re i nterpreted a s a s mall r oom a nd e ntrance p orch . I mmediately o utside t he p orch o f S 1 8 w as t he b ur ia l o f a c ow . A t t he w est e nd o f t he c entral r idge w as a nother s hr ine . T his o ne ( S 1 9 h ere , A lcock 's C 1 , 1 969 , 3 6-37) i s l arger , a t f ive b y f our m etres , b ut l ike t he p revious t wo i s d ef ined b y p ostholes , o r iented t o t he e ast a nd i s i nterpreted a s ar oom a nd p orch
F igure 6 .8 : C ELTIC S HRINE A T S OUTH C ADBURY ( after A lcock 1 972 , F igs 4 , 9 , 1 0)
2 00 m
I ZM IR
2 0 m
S .29 •• •
S .28
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S .3 1
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S ou th C adbury
F igure 6 .9 : C ELTIC S HRINE A T U LEY ( after E llison 1 980 , F ig 1 5 .1)
1 0m
Wes tH i l l , U ley
o r p ort ico . A ssociated w ith t his s tructure w as a b ronze p endant e mbossed w ith t wo d ucks ' h eads , a nd s ix p its w ith c attle a nd h orse s kull d eposits . T he f ourth s tructure ( S 2 0 h ere , A lcock 's s tructure 2 7 , 1 970 , 1 8-20) i s t he l atest o f t he f our , a nd m ay b e a r eplacement f or S 1 8 a bove . T his s hr ine i s d ef ined b y b edding t renches w hich f orm a s ma ll r oom w ith a n o pen e ast—facing p orch ; t he w hole i s 2 .5 b y f our m etres . O utside t his s hrine w as a n a rc o f o ver t wenty a nima l b ur ials i n p its , m ost ly l ambs , p iglets a nd c alves. T his s hrine d ates t o t he v ery l ate I ron A ge , o r U ltimate D urotr igian p hase , a nd w as p robab ly d estroyed w hen t he f ort w as s acked c irca A D 6 1. T here i s c ircumstant ial e vidence f or a R omano—Celtic t emple e lsewhere i n t he s ite — c ont inuity i s p ossib le i nto t he R oman p er iod , b ut u nproven . T he I ron A ge s hr ines s pan o ver t wo h undred y ears , w ith i mportant i mplicat ions f or r eligious c ont inuity ( et D anebury a bove). T hist leton ( V S2 1) Ap ossible I ron A ge s hrine i s r epresented b y ap enannular g ully a nd a rea o f l imestone p aving o f 1 2 .6 m etres d iameter , w hich w as r efurb ished a t l east o nce b efore t he c onstruction o f ac ircular R omano—Celt ic t emple o n t he s ame s pot c irca A D 1 00 . A ssociated a rtifacts a re C eltic c o ins a nd b rooches . C ont inuity i s h ighly l ikely . ( Greenf ield 1 964 , 2 38 ; D rury 1 980 , 6 8-69). U ley ( V S2 2 ,
2 3 ;
F igure 6 .9)
T wo I ron A ge s tructures a re k nown a s p ossible p redecessors t o t he R omano—Celt ic t emple c omplex ( Ellison 1 980 , 3 05-309 , F igure 1 5 .1; D rury 1 980 , F igure 3 .2 ; R odwell 1 980a , 2 16 , F igure 1 0 .1). T he f irst ( S 2 2) i s r ectangular ( 5 .5 b y 4 .7 m etres), o riented n orthwest — s outheast a nd o pen t o b oth n orthwest a nd s outheast , a nd i s f ormed b y t wo p arallel b edding t renches . I t i s l ocated i n t he n orth h a lf o f a n i rregular d itched t emenos , a nd i s a ligned o n t he e ntry o f t he t emenos . T he s econd s tructure , w hich m ay b e e ither c ontemporary w ith , o r as uccessor t o t he f irst , i s e ight b y s even m etres , d ef ined b y b oth b edding t renches a nd p ostho les . I t i s o pen t o t he e ast . T his s tructure i s f ive m etres f rom t he f irst , a lso i n t he n orth h alf o f t he t emenos: I t i s a ssociated w ith a n i nfant b ur ial, a d eposit o f i ron s pearheads , c omp lete p ots , u nusua l b one t oo ls a nd t he a rticulated l imb o f a c ow . T his s tructure w as r eplaced , e ar ly i n t he s econd c entury A D , b y a s quare R om i -.. n o—Celt ic t emple o f u nusual d esign , a nd t he l ines o f t he t emenos w ere p reserved b y r anges o f o ther b uildings . T his R omano—Celt ic t emp le w as d edicated t o M ercury ( et A ppendix V I T 9 8). C ontinuity o f o ccupation i s a lmost c ertain . W oodeaton ( V S2 4) W oodeaton c ertainly r epresents a n I ron A ge s hrine s ite , i n s pite o f t he f act t hat n o I ron A ge s hrine s tructure h as y et b een f ound. A p re—Roman p alisade t emenos o f t he f irst c entury B C u nderlies a R oman s tone t emenos o f t he m id—first c entury A D , W ithin t he R oman t emenos , b ut l ocated o ff—centre , w as a R omano—Celtic t emple ( Goodchild & K irk , 1 954 , 1 5-37 ; H arding 1 972 , 6 4-65). A rt ifacts o f t he P re—Roman I ron A ge a ssociated w ith t he p alisade t emenos i nclude : C eltic c oins , s ix m iniature b ronze s pears , f our m iniature b ronze a xes a nd s everal b rooches ( Green 1 976 , 1 77178). T here i s c onsiderab le M iddle a nd L ate I ron A ge o ccupation e vidence f rom t he s urrounding f ields , d iscovered b y f ield w alking . C ontinu ity o f o ccupation a nd f unction a re b oth v ery l ikely . — 169—
F igure 6 .10 : S OUTH C ADBURY S HRINE 5 .3 1 ( after C unliffe 1 983 , F ig 6 3) A ND C ELTIC S HRINE A T W ORTH ( after K le in 1 928 , F igs 2 , 3 )
a
S ou th
C adbury
s .3 1
0
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0 0
Wo r th
W orth ( V S2 5 ;
F igure 6 .10b)
A C eltic s hrine a t W orth i s r epresented b y f our p ostho les , w hich s urvive u nder a R omano—Celtic t emple , a nd p robably d ef ine e ither a r ectangular o r a s quare s tructure . A ssociated a rtifacts i nclude t hree m iniature b ronze s hields a nd b rooches w hich s hould d ate t o t he L ate I ron A ge . T he R omano—Ce ltic t emple d ates f rom t he m id—f irst c entury A D , a nd c onsequently c ont inuity i s p robab le ( K lein , 1 928). T hese t wenty—four s tructures o n s ixteen s ites h ave b een p reviously , i ntuit ively , i nterpreted a s C elt ic s hr ines. T he f ollow ing a nalysis i s d esigned t o i dentify t he c onsistent f eatures o f C elt ic r eligious b uildings a nd r itual b ehaviour . T hese f eatures , r epresenting d eliberate r itual a ctions , a re t hen u sed t o s peculate a bout t he p robable r e ligious b e liefs w hich g uided t he b ehaviour .
A NALYSIS O F C ELTIC S HRINES T hree d ifferent a spects o f t he s hrine s ites m ay b e s tudied t o p rovide e vidence o n C eltic r itua l b uildings a nd b ehaviour . T hese a re : f irst , t he s tructures t hemselves ; s econdly , t he s ites o n w hich t hey o ccur ; a nd t hirdly , a ny a rtifact a ssociated w ith t he s tructures . E ach o f t hese t hree a spects w ill b e d iscussed i n t urn . T he S tructures T he s tructures a re d escr ibed b y t heir s hape , s ize , m ethod o f c onstruction a nd o rientat ion , a nd w here t hey a re l ocated o n s ites . J ust u nder 7 0% o f t he s tructures a re k nown t o b e e ither r ectangular o r s quare , i ncluding t hose a t t he s ites o f D anebury , H arlow , H eathrow , L ancing , L ittle W altham , o ne a t M aiden C astle , M untham C ourt , S outh C adbury , U ley a nd W orth . O nly f our s tructures , 1 6% o f t he t otal, a re c ircular ( Fr ilford , H ay ling , M aiden C ast le a nd T histleton). T he r emaining — B ath , G osbecks a nd W oodeaton — h ave n ot y et p roduced s tructural r emains ; t heir s hape i s u nknown . T here w ould , t herefore , a ppear t o b e a s trong p reference f or r ectangular s hr ines , t hough t his m ay b e m isleading . A s d iscussed e ar lier , r ectangular s tructures a re d istinctive o n s ites c omposed p r imarily o f r ound h ouses . R ound b u ildings a re m ore l ikely t o b e i nterpreted a s h ouses u nless t here a re o ther p ersuasive r easons t o t hink t hem r eligious . F or e xamp le , a ll t he k nown c ircular C eltic s hrines w ere i mmediately s ingled o ut a s p robab le s hr ines b ecause a ll w ere o verlain b y R omano—Celtic t emples . R ound C e lt ic s hrines w hich w ere n ot r ebuilt a s R omano—Celtic t emples m ay w ell h ave g one u nrecognised. A s econd a spect o f t he s hrine s tructures i s t heir s ize . T his i s i mportant b ecause s ize c arr ies i mplicat ions f or t he a ct ivities t he s tructures w ere d esigned t o e ncompass . T he k nown C eltic s hrines v ary f rom j ust t wo b y 2 .5 m etres t o r elat ively l arge o nes o f n ine b y e leven m etres , o r t welve m etres i n d iameter . V ery s mall s hrines , w ith f loor a reas o f o nly f ive o r s ix s quare m etres a ccount f or o ver 2 5% o f t he t otal. A lmost h alf o f t he s hrines h ave f loor a reas o f l ess t han o ne—fifth o f t he a rea o f t he l argest . P resumab ly , t hese s maller s hr ines w ere n ot i ntended t o a ccommodate p eop le . T he r emainder o f t he s hrines a re p rogressively l arger , w ith t he l argest e nclosing a f loor a rea o f
a bout 10 s quare m etres. F rom t his e vidence i t w ould s eem t hat C eltic s hrines m ay v ary c onsiderably i n s ize , b ut a re m ost f requently o f a s mall, u nimposing n ature . T he t hird f eature o f t he s hrine b uildings d iscussed h ere i s t he m ethod o f c onstruction u sed. T hree m ajor t echniques a re r epresented. D rystone w all f oundations w ere u sed o nly o nce , f or t he c ircular s hrine a t M aiden C astle . T his i s n ot s urprising , s ince m asonry c onstruction o f b uildings i n s outhern B ritain d uring t he P re—Roman I ron A ge a ppears t o b e q uite r are. T he n ext m ost f requent t echnique , u sed i n 4 0% o f t he k nown s tructures , i s r epresented s imply b y p ostholes. S uch w alls a re g enerally r econstructed a s p ost u prights f raming w alls i nf illed w ith o ther m aterials. T his i s as imple c onstruction m ethod a nd w ould a ppear t o b e v ery c ommon i n t he I ron A ge . O ver h alf o f t he k nown s hrines a re r epresented b y b edding t renches , w ithin w hich t he i mpressions o f t he b ase o f u prights a re u sually d iscernible ( used o n a ll f our s tructures a t D anebury , a t L ancing R ing , o nce a t S outh C adbury , t wice a t U ley a nd a lso a t H ay ling I sland). A ll o f t he s hrines k nown , w ith t he e xception o f t he a nomalous F rilford e xample , c ould v ery e asily h ave b een r oofed . T here w ould , t herefore , a ppear t o b e n othing u nique a bout t he c onstruction o f C eltic s hrines , a t l east o n p resent e vidence , a lthough t he c ombination o f a r ectangular s hape a nd t he u se o f w all p lates i s d istinctive . T he f ourth a spect o f t he C eltic s hrines i s t he d irection i n w hich t heir d oors f ace — t heir o rientation. A t l east s ixteen s hr ines h ave d oors o n t he e ast s ide o f t he b uilding ( all f our a t D anebury , H arlow , H ay ling I sland , H eathrow , L ancing , b oth a t M aiden C astle , a ll f our a t S outh C adbury , T histleton , a nd o ne a t U ley). T wo o thers , a t L ittle W altham a nd U ley , f ace n ortheast a nd s outheast r espectively . F r ilford , w hich i s u nusual i n s o m any r espects , h as i ts e ntrance f acing w est . T hus , e ighteen o f t he n ineteen s tructures w hose o rientation i s d iscernible , a re o riented b etween n ortheast a nd s outheast , o r 9 5% . T his o verwhelming p reference f or e ntrances t o f ace e ast c annot b e b y c hance , i t m ust r epresent a d eliberate c onsistent c hoice . C eltic s hrines a re l ocated w ithin a r ecognisab le t emenos e nclosure i n l ess t han 4 0% o f t he c ases k nown ( these a re G osbecks , H arlow , H ay ling , L ancing , M untham , U ley a nd W oodeaton , a nd p ossib ly a t F rilford). T he r emaining 6 0% s how n o e vidence o f a t emenos , t hough a t s ome o f t he s ites ( Worth , T histleton) e xcavations w ere n ot e xtensive e nough t o h ave l ocated a t emenos , h ad o ne b een p resent . S even o f t he n ine s hrines l ocated w ithin t emenoi a re l ocated e ccentrically w ithin t he e nclosure . T his a ssociation o f s hrines w ithin t emenoi b eing l ocated o ff—centre i s t oo f requent t o b e b y c hance . T here a re f ourteen s hrines o n s even s ites w hich p robably d id n ot h ave a n a ssociated t emenos b ut a re n onetheless p laced i n a n o pen a rea i n t he s ite . I n o ther w ords , a t l east t welve o f t he f ourteen s hrines a re s patially s egregated f rom d omestic s tructures. I n t hese c ases t here m ay h ave b een a l ight d ividing s tructure , s uch a s af ence o r h edge , s eparating t he s hrine f rom t he r est o f t he s ite , w hich h as l eft n o t race . I f t his w ere t rue t hen o ver 9 0% o f t he C eltic s hrines w ere s eparated i n s ome w ay f rom t he r est o f t he d omestic s ites. I n a ny c ase , C eltic s hrines a re r arely , i f e ver , f ound n ear t o d omestic a reas o n s ites , i nstead t hey a re a lways s eparate .
T he S ites T here a re s evera l a spects o f t he s ites u pon w hich s hrines o ccur t hat p rovide i nformation a bout C eltic r eligion . T he f irst o f t hese i s t he t ype o f s ite , i n t erms o f t he s ize a nd s ocio—po litical s tatus. T he s econd i s t he e lement o f c ont inuity o f b oth t he o ccupation o f t he s ite a nd t he u se o f t he s hrine i tself . T his q uest ion w ill a lso b e a pproached f rom t he p erspect ive o f R omano—Celt ic t emp les i n t he f ollow ing s ection o f t his c hapter . T he t hird a spect i s t he g eographica l d istr ibution o f t he s hr ine s ites , a nd a ny p ossib le c orre lations t o o ther a spects o f C e lt ic s ociety , s uch a s t ribal c apitals o r p o litical b oundaries . T he t wenty—four s hr ines o n s ixteen s ites w ould i ndicate t hat C eltic s hrines w ere m ost l ike ly t o b e l ocated o n o r n ear s ites o f c oncentrated p opulation , e ither n ucleated s ett lements , h illforts o r o ppida . O ver 5 0% o f t he s ites o f C e ltic s hrines a re l ike ly t o h ave b een p opulation c entres ( including D anebury , F rilford , G osbecks , H eathrow , L ancing R ing , L itt le W a ltham , M aiden C ast le , M untham C ourt , S outh C adbury , W oodeaton). S ignif icant ly , t here a re n o i dentif ied s hr ines f rom t he n umerous s mall, r ural, f armstead h am lets t ypif ied b y L ittle W oodbury , G ussage — A ll— S aints , O ld D own F arm , A shville , T wywell a nd s o o n. T he r emaining 4 0% o f t he s ites ( Bath , H arlow , H ay ling I s land , T hist leton , U ley , W orth) h ave n o k nown a ssociated s ett lements . F urthermore , e ach o f t hese s hrines w ere l ocated a nd i dentif ied o nly b y v irtue o f b eing l ater r ebuilt a s R omano—Ce ltic t emp les . T his s uggests t hat m ost C eltic s hrines w ere l ocated a t t he " condensed p opulation" e nd o f a s pectrum , a nd t hat s ome m ay w ell h ave b een i so lated r ura l s hr ines u nassociated w ith a ny d omestic s ite . T his l atter t ype i s p ossibly t he v ariety r eferred t o i n t he C elt ic e thnographies a s " temp les a nd e nclosures" , i mp lied a s s eparate f rom s ett lements . T his r ural s anctuary t ype o f s ite m ay w e ll b e d ifficult t o i dentify , u nless i t w as r ebuilt a s a R omano— C e ltic t emple , t hus l eaving r ema ins m ore e asily i dentif ied , b oth i n f ie ldwalk ing a nd o n a eria l p hotographs . T he c ont inuity o f r e ligious u se o f s ites a nd s tructures f rom t he I ron A ge t o t he R oman p er iod i s a n i mportant i ndicat ion o f t he p ersis— t ence o f s ome C elt ic b eliefs , i n s pite o f R omanisation . O ver 6 0% o f t he s ites o f C eltic s hr ines c ontinued t o b e u sed a s r eligious s ites i n t he R oman p er iod . T he r emaining 4 0% ( Danebury , H eathrow , L itt le W altham , M aiden C ast le , S outh C adbury) a re a ll o n s ites w hich h ad c eased t o b e i nhabited e ither b efore , o r a s a c onsequence o f , R oman c onquest . T he e vidence a vailab le i ndicates , t herefore , t hat w herever a s hrine s ite w as a ctively i nhabited , a nd w here o ccupation w as n ot d isrupted a s a c on— s equence o f c onquest , t he C elt ic s hr ine w as r ebuilt a s a R omano—Celt ic t emple d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury A D . T here i s a lso s ome e vidence t o i ndicate t hat t he s anct ity o f a s hr ine s ite , a nd a s mall s ca le ' o ccupat ion o f t he s hrine a nd a f ew a ssociated b uildings , c ould p ersist f or m any y ears a fter t he s ites w ere g enerally d eserted ( Danebury , M aiden C astle , S outh C adbury). I n a f ew c ases r e ligious o ccupation w as r evived s ome c onsiderab le t ime l ater ( eg M aiden C ast le a nd S outh C adbury) b y l ate R omano—Ce lt ic t emples ( Cunliffe 1 971, 5 3-70). T he t hird a spect o f t he s ites t o b e s tudied h ere i s t heir s patial d istr ibution a nd l ocation i n r elat ion t o s uch e lements o f t he C elt ic s ocial l andscape a s t r ibal c apitals a nd p o litical b oundar ies . I n F igure 6 .11, t he l ocations o f t he s ixteen s hrine s ites d iscussed a re s hown , d ifferentiated b y t he s hape a nd n umber o f s hr ines p resent . T h is c an b e c ompared w ith t he a pproximate t ribal o r c hiefdom b oundaries i n
F igure 6 .11: D ISTRIBUTION O F C ELTIC S HRINES ( For s ites i ncluded s ee A ppendix V )
U
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4
R ec tangu la r s h r ines
C i rcu la r s h r ines
S hape u nknown
C ELT IC SHR INE S ITES
0
F igure 6 .12 : H YPOTHETICAL C ELTIC P OLITICAL B OUNDARIES ( after G reen 1 976 , F ig 2 ; C unliffe 1 978 , F igs 6 .1, 6 .8 , 7 .1, 7 .2 , 7 .6 , 7 .8)
t he l ate P re—Roman I ron A ge a nd t he l ocations o f t he c ivitas c apitals a nd m ajor R oman t owns, m any o f w hich a re t hought t o o verlie P re—Roman p olitical c entres ( Figure 6 .12). O nly o ne s hrine s ite — G osbecks — i s f ound o n , o r n ear t o , a ny o f t he s uspected p re—Roman p olitical c entres w hich l ater d eveloped i nto R oman c ivitas c apitals. T his i s h ardly s urprising , a s t his i s v irtually t he o n ly C eltic o ppidum o f t he L ate I ron A ge w hich i s a t a ll w ell k nown . W hether o r n ot s hrines u sually a ccompanied t he d eveloped L ate I ron A ge p olitical c entres o r o ppida c an o nly b e d etermined b y f uture e xcavations. H owever , t hree o ther s hrine s ites — a t D anebury , M aiden C astle a nd S outh C adbury — a re o n l arge , d eveloped h illforts w hich v ery p robably f unctioned a s p olitical c entres . T his w ould s upport t he s uspected a ssociation o f s hrines w ith p olit ical c entres . T here a re s ix s hrine s ites w hich a re l ocated v ery n ear t o t he s uspected b oundaries b etween t he L ate I ron A ge p olitical g roups ( compare F igures 6 .11 a nd 6 .12). T hese i nclude H arlow , b etween t he T rinovantes a nd t he C atuvellauni; H eathrow , b etween t he C atuvellauni a nd t he A trebates ; F rilford a t t he j unction b etween t he C atuvellauni, D obunni a nd p ossibly A trebates ; W oodeaton b etween t he C atuvellauni a nd D obunni, a nd e ither o r b oth o f M untham C ourt a nd L ancing R ing , p laced b etween t he C antiaci a nd A trebates. T his i s f ully o ne—third o f t he C eltic s hr ine s ites — s uch a p ositive c orrelation c an h ardly b e b y c hance . F urthermore , o f t hese s ix s ites , o nly L ancing i s ad efended s ite — t he o ther f ive a re o pen s ites a nd c ould e asily h ave f unctioned a s i nter—tribal m eeting a nd m arketing c entres , a r ole o ften p ostulated ( Goodchild & K irk 1 954 ; B radford & G oodchild 1 939 ; W ilson 1 973a , 3 1). A ssociated A rtifacts T he t hird a spect o f t he C eltic s hrines , a fter t he s tructures t hemselves a nd t he s ites , i s t he p resence o f a rtifacts t hat c an b e d irectly a ssociated w ith t he s hrines ( either i n p ostholes , n earby p its o r e nclosure d itches). A rtifacts c an b e a ssociated w ith j ust o ver h alf o f t he s hrines , i ncluding F rilford , G osbecks , H arlow , H ay ling I sland , M aiden C astle ( both s hrines), S outh C adbury ( S 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0), T hist leton , U ley ( S 2 3), W oodeaton a nd W orth . T here a re a t l east t en t ypes o f a rtifacts f ound a ssociated w ith t emples , b ut o nly a f ew a re f ound m ore t han o nce . B rooches a nd c oins a re t he m ost f requently r ecovered , o ccurring o n s even a nd f ive s ites r espectively ( brooches : H arlow , H ay ling , M aiden C astle S 1 4 , S outh C adbury S 1 9 , T histleton , W oodeaton a nd W orth ; c oins : G osbecks , H arlow , M aiden C astle S 1 4 , T histleton a nd W oodeaton). T he n ext m ost f requently o ccurring a rtifact i s t he p resence o f ab urial o f c omplete o r p artial a nimals i n ap it v ery n ear t he s hrine a t f our s hrines ( South C adbury , S 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , a nd U ley S 2 3 ; H ay ling I sland m ight h ave s uch a nimal d eposits b ut i s n ot y et p ublished i n d etail). M iniature w eapons o f b ronze , r eal w eapons o f i ron , a nd h orse o r c hariot f ittings o ccur o n t hree s ites ( miniature w eapons a t F r ilford , W oodeaton a nd W orth ; w eapons a nd h orse f ittings a t H ay ling I sland , M aiden C astle S 1 4 , a nd U ley S 2 3). O ther a rtifacts i nclude c omplete p ots ( Uley), c urrency b ars ( Hay ling I sland), a nd a p loughshare ( Frilford). A ll o f t hese a rtifacts a re t he k inds o f t hings c ommonly u sed a s v otive o fferings t o t he s upernatural. B ecause t hese s hrines a nd s ites a ppear t o b e v ery s imilar t o t hose w ithout a rtifacts , i t w ould a ppear t hat a rtifacts c ould o ccur a t a ny k ird o f C eltic s hrine . D eposits o f v aluable m aterial o bjects , o r o f a nimals w ith m eat v alue , i s c learly a n e xpensive a ctivity a nd s hould n ot b e e xpected t o o ccur e ither
o ften , o r o n e very s ite. L ess e xpensive o ffer ings , s uch a s f ood , l ibations o f l iquor , a nd c loth , w ere p robably m ore c ommon , b ut a s t hey w ould l eave l ittle o r n o t race t his i s a s y et u nprovable . S ummary o f R esults:
C eltic S hrines
T he f oregoing d iscussion o f t he k nown C eltic s hrines h as h igh— l ighted a n umber o f f eatures o f C eltic r eligion. T hese w ill b e b rief ly s ummarised h ere b efore t he t hird s ource o f e vidence — R omano—Celtic t emples — i s c onsidered. T he f irst f eature o f C eltic s hrines n oted a bove w as t hat r ectangular s hrines f ar o utnumber c ircular o nes. I t i s a s y et d ifficult t o d etermine w hether t his i s t he r esult o f a b ias i n d iscovery o r a ccurately r eflects C eltic p references f or t he s hape o f r eligious s tructures . N o c ircular s hrines h ave y et b een i dentified w ithout t he b enefit o f a R omano—Celtic s uccessor t o e nsure t hat t he s anctity o f t he e ar lier b uilding w as r ecognised . T his s uggests t hat o ther c ircular s hrines h ave n ot b een r ecognised. T he e vidence i s i nadequate t o i ndicate i f t here w ere f unctional d ifferences , o r w hether t he d ifferent s hapes r epresent c ult p references. A s econd f eature o f t he C eltic s hrines d iscussed w as t he s ize o f t he s tructures. A d istinctive g roup o f s mall r ectangular s hr ines w as n oted , w ith t he r emaining s hrines g row ing p rogressively l arger , b ut n ot c lustered t ogether i n s ize . T hese s mall s tructures w ere p resumably n ot i ntended t o a ccommodate m any p eople , a lthough t hey c ould h ave s heltered a n i con o r a ltar a nd a f ew i ndividuals i n t he a ntechamber o r p ortico , w hich a re c ommon e lements o f t he s mall s hrines. T his r elative l ack o f a ttendance c apacity i mplies t hat C eltic r eligious p ractices d id n ot i nvolve c onsistent c eremonies o f c ommunal w orship . T he c onstruction t echniques u sed f or s hrines a re a lso a ttested i n s ecular b uildings, u sually i ncluding u pright t imbers s et i nto n arrow f oundation t renches , w ith i nfill w alls a ttached t o t he u prights. A ll o f t he s hrines ( except F rilford?) w ere p robably r oofed. T he l ack o f d istinctive c onstruction f eatures i ndicates t hat d ifferences b etween s hrines a nd d omestic b uildings w ere s uperstructural a nd o rnarental a nd h ave l eft n o t race . T he o verwhelm ing o rientation o f s hrines i s t o t he e ast . T his o rientation i s a lso f ound , t hough l ess u niform ly , i n I ron A ge d omestic s tructures. T he n ear u niversality o f s hrine d oors f acing e as ' , , s uggests s ome f orm o f r eligious p rescription r egulating e ither t he p lacement o f t he d oor o r o ther , i nternal s tructures. T his i n t urn m ay s uggest a d egree o f s anctity a ssociated w ith t he d irection , s uch a s i s f ound i n C hristian c hurches a nd I slamic m osques ( Alexander 1 979 , 2 20). T he d omestic s tructures m ay h ave b een s im ilarly o riented t o b enefit f rom t he s acred o r p ropitious d irection . T he f inal c haracteristic o f t he s hrine s tructures i s t heir p lacement w ithin t he s ites. N early 4 0% o f t he s hr -i nes a re p laced w ithin ac learly d emarcated t emenos e nclosure , w hile m ost o f t he r est a re s et i n o pen a reas , w ithin t he o ccupation s ite , b ut r pt c lose ly a ssociated w ith d omestic a ctivity . T his o pen a rea c ould h ave b een m aintained b y a s mall, l ight b arr ier , s uch a s a f ence . W hether e nclosed b y ad itch a nd p alisade o r a s imple f ence , C eltic s hr ines a nd t he s acred w orld t hey s ymbolised w ere s eparated f rom t he m undane w orld o f t he d omestic o ccupation . T his o pen a rea a round s hr ines w as p robably f or c eremonial
u se , a nd p erhaps c ontained o ther s ymbols o f t he s upernatural, s uch a s t rees , i cons o r a ltars. I nformation a bout t he k inds o f s ites w ith s hrines i s l im ited b y a n , a s y et , u navoidable b ias i n t he p rocess o f d iscovery . A ll o f t he s hrines a ssociated w ith c ontemporary d omestic s ites a re f rom n ucleated s ites o f h illfort o r v illage s tatus. T he r emaining s hrines , f or w hich n o s urrounding s ite i s k nown , w ere f ound b ecause t hey w ere o verlain b y R omano—Celtic t emples , a nd s imply l ack p osit ive e vidence o f c ontemporary d omestic o ccupation . H owever , t he a bsence o f s hrines f rom t he s mall h amlet a nd f armstead s ites s o c ommon o n t he c halk l ands o f s outhern B ritain s upports t he s uggestion t hat s hrines w ere f eatures o f p opulation c entres o f s ome s ize , t hough i t i s a lso l ikely t hat s ome s tood i n r ural i solation . O ne o ther f eature o f t he l ocations o f C eltic s hrines i s a p reference f or s ites a long t he h ypothetical p olitical b oundaries ( though h ere a gain t here i s a p roblem w ith s ample b ias). T his a ssociat ion w ith b oundaries f inds c onfirmation i n t he C eltic c onception o f b oundaries a nd t he p lacement o f c hurches i n e arly C eltic I reland ( O 'R iain 1 972 , 1 2-29). T here a re v ery f ew a rtifacts a ssociated w ith s hrines . L ess t han o ne—half o f t he s hrines h ave a ny a rtifacts w hatsoever , a nd a ll t he a rtifacts t hat d o o ccur m ay b e n o m ore t han v ery g eneralised v ot ive o fferings. A ll o f t hese a rtifacts i ndicate t hat t he o ffering o f s acrifices a nd v otives w as a n a ccepted C eltic m ethod o f c ommunication w ith t he s upernatural. N one o f t he a rtifacts s eem p articular ly c losely a ssociated t o a ny k nown d eity o r c ult .
R OMANO—CELTIC T EMPLES C eltic r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices d id n ot e nd w ith t he a rrival o f R oman c ulture i n t he m iddle f irst c entury A D . C eltic r eligion a nd s ocial c ustoms b oth c ontributed g reatly t o t heir h ybrid R omano—Celtic d escendants. T he R oman c ontributions t o t his h ybr id a re i n s ome w ays b etter u nderstood t han t he C eltic c ounterparts . T hus , a s tudy o f R omano—Celtic t emples s hould a llow s everal o f t he m ore p ure ly C eltic t raditions t o b e i dentified . T hese c ustoms i nspired b y C eltic t raditions m ay t hen b e u sed t o s upplement o r c orroborate e vidence o f C eltic c ustoms f rom t he p re—Roman p eriod . T he E vidence A s tudy o f R omano—Celtic t emples i s d ifficult , f or i n s everal r espects t he e vidence i s o f l amentably p oor q uality . I n g eneral, t hree p roblems a re e ncountered. T he f irst o f t hese i s t hat m any e xcavations w ere v ery ' small s cale , o ften e ncompassing n o m ore t han t he t emple s tructure i tself . A s a c onsequence t he p resence a nd n ature o f o ther f eatures , s uch a s a t emenos o r o ther b uildings , m ay b e c onjectural o r p oorly k nown. A s econd p roblem h as b een a c onsistent p reoccupation w ith t he " plan" o f t he s tructure , i ts c onstruction t echnique a nd a ny a rtifacts r ecoverable . U seful a s s uch i nformation i s , i t c an n ot r eplace e vidence f or r itual a ctivities , s anctuary p lanning a nd u sage ( Rodwell 1 980a , 2 11). S uch i nformation i s e ssential t o s tudies o f t he n ature a nd r ole o f r eligion i n R omano—Celtic s ociety . T he t hird p roblem i s i nadequate r eporting o f e xcavations — s ome s ites a re k nown o nly f rom d iscussions o nly a f ew p aragraphs l ong .
S im ilar p rob lems a re p art o f a ll a rchaeo logical e vidence a nd t he m ajor c onsequences a re t o l im it a nalysis a nd i nterpretat ion t o ag eneral l evel a nd t o r estr ict t he n umber a nd t ype o f q uest ions w hich m ay b e a sked . F ortunately t he p resent s tudy i s c oncerned w ith g eneral q uest ions a bout C eltic r eligion , t op ics f or w hich e vidence i s f requent ly a vailab le . T he e vidence f or t he p resent s tudy c onsists o f 14 R omano—Celtic t emp les , i ncluding p utat ive s hr ines , o r t emp les a ttached t o v illa c omplexes . T he d etailed e vidence f or e ach s ite i s • p resented i n a g azetteer i n A ppendix V I. I n g enera l, h owever , t he a vailab le e vidence i ncludes s ize a nd s hape , t he p resence o f a ssociated s tructures a nd t heir n ature ( if k nown), a s elect ion o f t he f inds , s pecif ically i ncluding a ny t hat m ight p rovide a c lue t o t he d e ity a ssociated w ith t he t emple ( not a ll f inds a re p ub lished i n d etail f or m any s ites), a nd a n a pproximately d ated p eriod o f u se ( usually b ased o n c oin e vidence , a nd t herefore a pproximate a t b est). B ecause o f t he p rob lems w ith t he d ata n oted a bove , e vidence f or e ach o f t hese p oints i s n ot a vailable f or e ach s ite . N onethe less , t his i s s uff icient t o a llow t he a ccuracy o f s ome o bservat ions f rom I ron A ge e vidence t o b e c hecked o r a mp lif ied . I n t he f ollow ing d iscussion a d ist inction i s m aintained b y t he u se o f t he l abel " temp le" t o r efer t o R omano—Celtic r eligious b uildings , w hich a ppear l arger a nd m ore i mposing t han t he I ron A ge s tructures ( ca lled " shr ines"). I n a R omano—Ce lt ic c ontext , s hr ine w ill b e u sed t o r efer o nly t o s mall b uildings a ttached t o v illa c omplexes ( et d iscussion i n R odwell 1 980a , e specially 2 12 , 2 32-234). I deally " Romano—Celt ic t emp le" s hould a pp ly o nly t o b uildings t hat i nclude b oth a c ella a nd a c oncentr ic a mbulatory ( W ilson 1 973a , 3 -5) a nd c onsequently s tructures w hich l ack e ither o f t hese e lements w ill b e r eferred t o h ere a s " simp le" R omano—Ce ltic t emples . I n s hort t hen , " Romano—Celtic t emple" r efers t o r eligious b uildings w hich i nclude b oth a c ella a nd a n a mbulatory , w hile a s imple R omano—Ce lt ic t emple i s l ikew ise a f ree—standing s tructure b ut l acks a n a mbulatory , a nd a R omano—Celtic s hr ine i s a r eligious r oom o r b uilding ( usually l acking a n a mbulatory a nd t herefore s im ilar t o t he s imp le t emples), w hich i s p art o f av illa o r l arge t ownhouse c omplex . A na lysis I n o rder t o o btain t he m aximum i nformat ion r elevant t o t he I ron A ge f rom t his e vidence , t he a na lysis i s s tructured i n p arallel t o t hat f ollowed a bove w hen d iscussing C e lt ic s hrines , f ocusing o n t emple b uildings , t he t ypes o f s ite t hat t hey o ccur o n , a nd t he k inds o f a rt ifacts f ound a ssociated w ith t he t emples . A t e ach s tep a n a ttempt i s m ade t o d ist inguish b etween C eltic t raits t hat c ont inue i nto t he R oman p er iod a nd c ustoms o f R oman p agan c ults w hich w ere a dopted i nto R omano—Br itish r eligious p ract ices . T emp le S tructures T he t ypical R omano—Ce ltic t emple i s r ectangular , w ith i ts g reatest d imension f rom f ront t o b ack , a nd c omposed o f a n i nternal c ella a nd a c oncentr ic a mbulatory . T he d esign o f t his s ort o f s tructure i s s uff iciently d ist inct ive f rom t hat o f t he t ypica l, c lassical R oman t emple t hat D R W ilson ( 1975a , 3 -5) c oncluded t hat i t i s C e ltic i n i ts i nspirat ion w hile R oman i n c onstruct ion , a nd w ent s o f ar a s t o s tate t hat " where a t emple i s i dentif ied f rom i ts c haracter ist ically " Romano—Celt ic" p lan t he d edicat ion m ay b e a ssumed t o b e C eltic a lso
c. . ..it w ould b e u nlikely f or t he d eity h oused i n a t emp le o f t he R omano-Celtic t ype a ctually t o h ave b een a m ember o f t he R oman P antheon ," ( but c f H enig 1 984 , e specially 1 57 , f or a c ontradictory d iscussion). T he p eculiar ly " Celtic" d esign f eatures o f t he t emples l eads W ilson t o c onclude t hat C elt ic g ods d id n ot l ive i n b oxlike s tructures , b ut r equired o nly a r oof ; t hat a n a mbulatory w as p rovided t o s helter a p rocession a round t he s tructure a nd t he v ot ives a ttached t o t he w all o f t he s tructure , b ut n ot a ll a mbulator ies w ere r oofed ; a nd l astly , t hat R omano-Celt ic t emples w ere n ot d esigned f or c ongregat ional w orship , b ut r ather f or i ndividual w orshippers ( 1975 , 1 4 ; H enig 1 984 , 3 8-42 , 1 3 1133). A lthough n ot a ll t emp les o f t he R omano-Celtic p eriod a re o f t he t ype r eferred t o b y W ilson , t he c onclusions w ill p robably a pply t o a ll R omano-Celt ic t emp les ( indeed , t he t emp le a t H ay ling I sland i s ac ircular , s imple R omano-Ce ltic t emple a nd i s u sed b y H enig [ 1984 , 3 8-42 , 1 3 1133] t o i llustrate e ach o f t hese p o ints). I n f act , j ust o ver t wo-thirds o f t he t emples w hose s hapes a re k nown a re e ither s quare o r r ectangular , b ut a f ew o f w hich d o n ot i nclude b oth ac e lla a nd a n a mbulatory . S lightly l ess t han o ne-third o f t he t emples a re e ither c ircular o r p o lygonal, o f w hich 2 0% h ave b oth c ella a nd a mbulatory . T he r est a re t herefore s imple R omano-Ce ltic t emples . T hus s ome 6 6% o f t he t emples a re f ull R omano-Celtic t emp les w ith c e lla a nd a mbulatory , a nd a bout o ne-third a re s imp le t emp les . T here i s a s trong t endency f or r ectangular o r s quare t emp les t o h ave c ella a nd a mbulatory , a nd f or c ircular o r p olygonal t emples t o b e o f t he " simple" v ariety o f t emple .
T he R omano-Ce ltic t emples a re o n t he a verage c onsiderably l arger t han t he C eltic s hr ines d iscussed a bove . M ost n ot iceab ly , t he v ery s mall r ectangular s hrines k nown f rom t he I ron A ge f ind n o c ounterparts i n t he R oman p eriod . T he m ean s ize f or t he 6 6 k nown s quare a nd r ectangular R omano-Celtic t emples i s a bout s even b y e ight m etres , w ith a f loor a rea o f j ust o ver 5 6 s quare m etres , o ver t w ice t he I ron A ge a verage s ize . C ircular a nd p olygonal t emples a re s omewhat l arger , a veraging a bout 7 4 s quare m etres , o r a d iameter o f j ust o ver n ine m etres. T hese a verage s izes w ould i ndicate t hat R omano-Celtic t emples c ould h o ld l arger g roups o f p eop le f or c eremonies t han c ould t he I ron A ge s hrines , b ut a re s till n ot d esigned t o c ope w ith c ommunal w orship ( as a b asilican s tructure w ould b e ; W ilson 1 975 , 1 4). R omano-Celt ic r e ligion , l ike b oth R oman a nd C e ltic p rogenitors , w as b ased o n n on-congregational w orship , f avouring i nstead t he i ndividual p ilgrim a nd w orshipper ( Henig 1 984 , 3 8-42 ; W ilson 1 975a , 1 4). T he R omano-Celtic t emp les a re o verwhelm ingly o riented t owards t he e ast , t hat i s , t heir e ntrances a re u sually o n t he e ast s ide o f t he b uilding . T he c ircular/po lygonal s imp le R omano-Celtic t emp les a re t he m ost c onsiStently o r iented : 9 2% a re o riented t o t he e ast , w hile t he r emaining 8 % a re a ll o riented s outheast . T he s quare a nd r ectangular t emples a re l ess c onsistent - o nly 6 2% a re o riented e ast . Af urther 2 9% a re o r iented t o t he s outheast a nd 2 % t o t he n ortheast . T he r ema ining 7 % a re o riented t o t he n orth , s outh a nd s outhwest . T hus a ll o f t he t wenty-four c ircular o r p o lygonal t emples w hose o r ientation i s k nown a re o riented t o t he q uadrant f rom n ortheast t o s outheast . F ully 9 3% o f t he s quare o r r ectangular t emples f all i n t he s ame o r ientat ion q uadrant . T he p resence o r a bsence o f a t emenos e nclosure s urrounding R omano-Celtic t emples c an o nly o ccasionally b e k nown w ith c ertainty . F ar t oo m any t emple e xcavations a re c f t he t emple s tructure a lone , a nd e xcavations e xtensive e nough t o e ncou7ter a t emencs z -e e xtreme ly r are .
E xcavat ions o f t he i nter ior o f a t emenos a rea a round a t emp le a re e ven l ess c ommon . T his s evere ly r estr icts d iscussion o f t he p resence a nd r ole o f a t emenos i n R omano-Celtic r eligion . N evertheless , 8 0 o f t he s ites s tudied h ere c an b e c lassed a s e ither w ith o r w ithout a t emenos w ith s ome c onf idence . T here a re 5 7 r ectangular t emples f or w hich e v idence i s a vailable : f orty o f t hese ( or 7 0%) d o h ave a t emenos w hile s eventeen ( 30%) d o n ot . T here i s i nsuff icient e vidence f or s ixteen s ites , b ut o f t hese , f ive a re s et i nside I ron A ge h illforts w hose r amparts c ould w ell h ave f unct ioned a s a t emenos . S ome t wenty-three c ircular o r p o lygonal t emp les h ave s uff icient ly l arge s cale e xcavations ( or a er ial p hotographs) t o a llow s ome c onf idence : f ourteen o f t hese ( 6 1%) a re s et i n t emeno i, w hile n ine a re n ot ( 39%). I n a ddit ion , t wo o f t he t we lve s ites w ith i nadequate e vidence a re s et i nside h illforts . I n g eneral, t herefore , a bout 6 8% o f t he t emp les f or w hich t here i s s uff icient e vidence t o m ake a c onclusion a re s et w ithin t emenos e nclosures . R ectangular t emp les a re s light ly m ore l ikely t o b e s et i n t emeno i t han c ircular t emp les . T emple S ites T he s mall s ca le o f m any o f t he t emp le e xcavations h inders a ttempts t o c orrelate t he t emp le w ith s urrounding o r a djacent d omest ic o ccupat ion , b ecause t he l atter i s s e ldom k nown v ery w e ll. H owever , f ollow ing t he t echnique a dopted a bove - s elect ing o ut t hose s ites f or w hich t he e vidence i s r e lative ly g ood a nd a ssuming t hese a re r epresentative o f t he g roup a s aw hole - t wo a spects o f t he t emple s ites c an b e s tudied . T he f irst i s s imp ly t o n ote t he p resence o r a bsence o f s mall a ncillary b uildings o r a nnexes a ssociated w ith t he t emp le . T hese a re m ost c ommonly i nterpreted a s p r iests' q uarters , a lthough a t a f ew s ites ( eg L ydney , U ley) m uch m ore e xtensive b uildings a re p resent . T he s econd a spect i s t he n ature o f a n a ssociated d omestic s ite , i f s uch i s k nown . T he p oor q uality o f t he e vidence o nly p erm its a s imp le f our-fo ld h ierarchy o f r ural, v illa , s ettlement o r s mall t own , a nd c ivitas c apital o r c olonia . A s c an b e c lear ly s een i n F igure 6 .13a b elow , a t l east 6 0% o f a ll R omano-Ce lt ic t emp les h ave s mall a ncillary b uildings i n t he i mmediate v icinity . T his i s t rue r egardless o f t he s hape o f t he t emple , a nd s hould b e r egarded a s a m inimal e stimate , s ince t he f act t hat n o a ncillary b uildings a re k nown d oes n ot m ean t hat n one a re p resent . T he c orrelat ion o f t he s hape o f t he t emp les ( rectilinear v ersus c ircular) a nd t he t ype o f s ite t hey o ccur o n i s s hown i n F igure 6 .13b b e low . R ectangular o r s quare t emp les a re m uch m ore c ommon t han c ircular t emples , o n a ll t ypes o f s ites e xcept v illas : a ll o f t he s eparate b uildings i n v illa c omp lexes s uspected o f r eligious f unction a re e ither c ircular o r p o lygonal a nd a ll a re o f t he " simp le" v ariety , l acking t he c ella a nd a mbulatory d ist inction . A pproximately t wo-thirds o f a ll t emples i n b oth r ural a nd s ettlement o r s mall t own c ontexts a re e ither s quare o r r ectangular . H owever , a d isproportionately l arge n umber o f c ircular o r p o lygonal t emples o ccur i n a r ural c ontext - j ust u nder o ne-half o f a ll c ircular t emp les a re r ural. I n s ett lements , r ectangular a nd c ircular t emples o ccur i n t he e xpected p roport ions - r oughly t wo t o o ne . I n t he l arge w alled R oman t owns , i ncluding t he c ivitas c apitals a nd c o lonia , c ircular t emples a re v ery r are ; o ver 9 0% o f a ll t emples k nown f rom t his t ype o f s ite a re s quare o r r ectangular . T hese r esults m ay b e g eneralised t o i ndicate t hat a ll t emples a ssociated w ith v illas a re c ircular , w hile a bout t wo-thirds o f t emp les i n r ural a nd s ett lement
F igure 6 .13 :
a )
F EATURES O F R OMANO—CELTIC T EMPLE S ITES
T emples a nd A ssociated B uildings S quare/Rectangular
C ircular/Po lygona l
A ssoc iated B u ildings
4 2
5 8%
2 1
6 0%
N o A ssociated B uildings
3 1
4 2%
1 4
4 0%
T ota l
7 3
1 00%
3 5
1 00%
b )
T emples a nd T ype o f S ite
C ontexts R ura l V illa
S quare/Rectangular 2 7 0
3 7%
2 2
3 0%
C ivitas
2 4
3 3%
T otal
7 3
1 00%
R ura l V illa
N umber 4 3 6
1 7
0 %
S ett lement
C ontexts
C ircular/Po lygona l
6 1 0
4 9% 1 7% 2 8%
2 3 5
%R ectangular 6 3 0
S ett lement
3 2
6 9
C ivitas
2 6
9 2
6 % 1 00%
%C ircular 3 7 1 00 3 1 8
c ontexts a re r ectangular , a nd t hat t emples i n c ivitas a nd c olonia w ill b e a lmost u niversally r ectangular . T he t hird f actor t o b e c onsidered i n t he s ite a na lysis i s c ont inuity . I t w ill b e r ecalled f rom t he d iscussion a bove t hat t he f act o f c ontinuity o f u se o f a r eligious s ite p roved t o b e o f p rime i mportance i n t he p rocess o f r ecognising C eltic s hrines. T here a re t we lve R omano—Celtic t emples w hich a lmost c ertainly d irect ly o verlie a nd c ontinue t he r eligious f unction o f C eltic I ron A ge p redecessors ( Bath ; C olchester T 3 0 , t he G osbecks S ite ; F rilford ; H arlow ; H ay ling I sland ; L ancing R ing ; M aiden C astle ; M untham C ourt ; T histleton ; U ley ; W oodeaton a nd W orth). T o t hese t welve a f urther t welve m ay b e a dded f or s peculation , i ncluding : B ozeat ( VI T 7 ), B rigstock ( VI T 9 a nd 1 0), C hanctonbury ( VI T 2 1), C olchester ( VI T 2 8), C old K itchen H ill ( VI T 3 4), F ar ley H eath ( VI T 4 2), K elvedon ( VI T 5 7), S lonk H ill ( VI T 8 4), S pringhead ( VI T 8 5-91), T itsey ( VI T 9 7) a nd W est C oker ( VI T 1 03). E ach s ite i n t his s econd g roup o f t welve i s aR omano—Celtic t emple b uilt o ver c onsiderab le L ate I ron A ge o ccupation ( indicating c ontinuity o f o ccupation o n t he s ite) b ut f or w hich t here i s n o c onvincing s tructural e vidence o f a n I ron A ge s hrine . T he d iscussion i n t he p receding s ect ion o f t his c hapter i ndicates t hat t here a re f ew u nequivocal f eatures o f a n I ron A ge s hr ine t hat w ould b e a pparent w ithout v ery e xtensive e xcavation . N onetheless , i f t hese t wenty—four s ites a re a ccepted f or p urposes o f d iscussion , t hey s till r epresent o nly 2 1% o f a ll t he k nown R omano—Celtic t emples u sed i n t his s tudy ( see F igure 6 .14 f or l ocations). T his s uggests t hat t he e xistence o f a n a ctive C eltic s hrine w as i nstrumental i n t he s iting a nd e stablishment o f o nly o ne—fifth o f t he R omano—Celtic t emples . F urthermore , s uch f eatures a s s hape , p resence o f a ncillary b uildings , a nd t ype o f s ite o ccur i n t his s ample o f t wenty—four s ites i n t he s ame p roportions a s t hey o ccur i n t he w hole s ample o f 13 s ites — i ndicating t hat t here i s n othing p articularly d istinctive a bout t hese s ites. T hey c ould , i n f act , b e a r andomly s elected g roup o f t wenty—four s ites . T he f ourth a nd l ast a spect o f t he s hr ine s ites t o b e c onsidered h ere i s t hat o f t heir g eographic d istribution . T he g eneral d istribution o f a ll t he R omano—Celtic t emples u sed i n t his s tudy i s p resented b elow i n F igure 6 .14 . T his d istribution m ay b e c ompared w ith t hose f ound i n F igures 6 .11 a nd 6 .12 ( Distribution o f C eltic S hrines a nd C eltic T r ibal B oundaries r espectively). T here w ould a ppear t o b e o nly e leven R omano—Celtic t emple s ites t hat a re l ocated p articularly c lose t o t he p re—Roman , C eltic t r ibal b oundaries . T hese s ites a nd t he b oundary t hey o ccur u pon a re a s f ollows : B ozeat :
C oritani — C atuvellauni
B rigstock :
C oritani — C atuvellauni
C old K itchen H ill:
D obunni — D urotriges
F arley H eath :
A trebates — C antiaci
F rilford :
D obunni — A trebates — C atuvellauni
H arlow :
T rinovantes — C atuvellauni
L ancing R ing :
A trebates — C antiaci
— 183—
M untham C ourt :
A trebates
C ant iaci
S lonk H ill:
A trebates - C antiaci
T histleton :
C oritani - I ceni
W oodeaton :
D obunni - C atuvellauni
T hese e leven s ites r epresent o nly 1 2% o f t he t otal n umber o f t emple s ites u sed i n t his s tudy . I n s pite o f t he e mphasis p laced u pon t his c ontext i n d iscussions o f R omano-Celtic t emples ( eg W ilson 1 973a) t his d oes n ot a ppear t o b e am ajor f actor i n t he s iting o f t emples . H owever , a ll o f t hese s ites a re e ither c ertainly , o r p robably , s ites o f p reR oman , C eltic s hrines a s w ell. T he f act t hat a ll o f t hese s ites a re l ikely t o r epresent C eltic-Roman r eligious c ontinuity i s v ery u nlikely t o o ccur b y c hance . T his s uggests t hat C eltic s hr ines l ocated o n o r n ear t ribal b oundaries w ere p articularly l ikely t o b e t ranslated i nto R omano-Celtic t emples . T he d istribution o f R omano-Celtic t emples s hown i n F igure 6 .14 m ay a lso b e u sed t o m ake t hree o ther p oints. A lthough t he d istribution i s a g eneralised l ow land o ne , t here a re s ignificant v ariations. ( The a pparent l ack o f t emples n orth o f t he S evern-Wash l ine i s n ot r eal t here a re t emples i n t he n orthern a reas , m ostly i n m ilitary c ontexts [ Rodwell 1 980 , F igure 1 8 , 1 -5], b ut t hese a re o m itted h ere b ecause o f t heir m ilitary a ssociations [ cf G reen 1 976].) O ne c lear f eature o f t he d istribution o f t emples i n F igure 6 .14 i s t he a bsence o f t emples i n t he s outhwest b eyond t he R iver P arrett . T his a rea r oughly c orresponds t o t he t erritory o f t he C eltic t r ibe o r c hiefdom o f t he D umnonii, l ater g overned f rom t he R oman c ivitas c apital a t E xeter . S urely t emples w ill h ave b een p resent i n E xeter a nd a wait d iscovery , b ut i t i s d iff icult a t p resent t o d eterm ine i f t he p aucity o f o ther t emples r eflects t he s uperficiality o f R omanisation , o r d ifferent r e ligious b eliefs o n t he p art o f t he i ndigenes. T wo o ther a reas o f l ow land B ritain h ave o nly a f ew k nown R omanoC eltic t emples. N orfolk h as f ew o utside i ts c ivitas c apital o f V enta I cenorum ( Caistor-by-Norw ich). K ent , e ast o f t he R iver M edway , a nd e ast S ussex , e ast o f t he R iver A dur , a re a lso m arkedly e mpty o f t emples ( cf R odwell 1 980 , F igures 1 8 .118 .5). A gain , i t i s d ifficult t o d eterm ine w hether t his r eflects v ariation i n t he p rocess o f R omanisation o r d iffering C eltic r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices . T he s econd f eature o f t his d istribution i s , c ontrarily , t he d ensity o f R omano-Celtic t emples i n t he D obunnic t err itory a round t he m outh o f t he S evern . T his a rea i s d istinctive f or o ther c haracteristics o f R omano-Celtic r eligion , s uch a s t he p revalence o f t he t r iplet-gods , G enii c ucullati, t he M other-Goddess , a nd M ars i n c lassical g uise ( cf G reen 1 976 , F igures 7 , 1 5 , 1 6 ; c hapter s even b elow). T he d istinctiveness o f t he D obunnic t erritory o n s everal c ounts s uggests a s trong r egionalisation o f b eliefs a mong t he C eltic D obunni. A t hird f eature o f t he d istribution o f R omano-Celtic t emples i n F igure 6 .14 i s ac luster o f s imple c ircular a nd p olygonal t emples t o t he e ast o f t he F ens o n t he s outhern b order o f t he C oritani a nd n orthern b order o f t he C atuvellauni ( cf R odwell 1 980 , F igure 1 8 .4 ; G reen 1 976 , 7 3 , 7 8). I t i s v ery d iff icult t o a ssociate t his d istinctive c luster o f t emples w ith o ther e vidence f or p articular d eities ( eg G reen 1 976 , 7 3-80), b ut i t c learly r epresents a c oncentration o f b eliefs o f s ome f orm .
F igure 6 .14 : D ISTRIBUTION O F R OMANO—CELTIC T EMPLES ( For s ites i ncluded s ee A ppendix V I)
T hese w ould a ppear t o b e t he m ajor f eatures o f t he d istribution o f R omano-Celtic t emples , w hich o therw ise c orresponds t o a g eneralised l ow land E ngland d istribution . D oubtless o ther f eatures a re l ess r eadily o bservable a nd w ill r equire m ore d etailed r esearch t han i s p ossible i n t his b rief c onsideration . T he A rtifacts I n p arallel w ith t he d iscussion o f C eltic s hrines a bove , t he t hird m ajor a spect o f R omano-Celtic t emples t o b e d iscussed a re t he a rtifacts w hich a re f requently a ssociated w ith t he s tructures . T hese w ill b e c onsidered i n t hree g roups: v otives , i conography , a nd p riest ly a nd r itual p araphernalia . A t l east f ive c lasses o f a rtifacts t hat a re c ommon o n R omano-Celtic t emples a ppear t o b e ac ontinuation o f p re-Roman C eltic t raditions. T hese i nclude , f irst , a nimal b urials s uch a s t he p ig b ones a t H ay ling I sland , a nd t he g oat a nd c ockerel a t U ley ( Henig 1 984 , 1 3 1), t he b irds a t J ordan H ill ( VI T 5 6), a nd t he s heep a t t he r ecently e xcavated t emple a t H addenham , C ambs ( Ian H odder , p aper d elivered a t a c onference o f t he O xford U niversity A rchaeological S ociety , M ay 1 984). S uch a nimal r emains a re i nterpreted a s e ither v otive d eposits o r t he r esults o f s acrifice a nd r itual m eals , a p rominent p art o f b oth C eltic a nd R oman r eligion ( Henig 1 984 , 1 3 1132). M iniature b ronze a xes , s words, s pears a nd s hields c ontinue t hrough t he R oman p eriod a s v otives b ut h ave a n o rigin i n t he L ate I ron A ge ( examples f rom W orth V I T 1 08 , W oodeaton V I T 1 07 , S ilchester V I T 8 1-83 , a nd m any o ther s ites , c f G reen 1 976 , 4 2-43 ; H enig 1 984 , 1 48149). T he r emaining t hree c lasses o f a rtifacts w ith I ron A ge a ntecedent i nclude c oins a nd i tems o f j ewelry s uch a s r ings , b racelets a nd b rooches ( perhaps p articularly t he " horse a nd r ider" f orm o f b rooch , k nown f rom H ay ling I sland [ Downey , K ing & S offe 1 980 , 2 98] a nd N ornour , H ockwold , C o ld K itchen H ill, L amyatt B eacon a nd W oodeaton [ Butcher 1 977]). T here a re s ix c lasses o f a rtifacts u sually i nterpreted a s v otive o fferings, w hich a ppear o n R omano-Celtic t emples , b ut h ave n o c lear I ron A ge a ntecedents. T hese i nclude b ronze l etters ( as a t W oodeaton V I T 1 07), l ead c urse t ablets ( eg B ath V I T2 ), c eramic l amps, m iniature p ots ( eg C laydon P ike ; W ait , f orthcom ing ; B rigstock V I T 9 10 ; V erulamium V I T 1 01), c lay a nd b ronze f igur ines ( such a s t he V enus f igurines a t N ornour V I T 7 1; M ercury a t C olchester V I T 3 0 , G osbecks a nd a t U ley V I T 9 8). T he s ixth c lass o f a rtifact i s t he l eaf- o r f eather-shaped s heet m etal p laques ( Green 1 976 , 4 4-45), w hich a re o ccasionally i nscribed w ith s pecific d edications , a s t o M inerva a t M aiden C astle , M ercury a t U ley , M ars a t W oodeaton , N odons a t L ydney , a nd A pollo a t N ettleton ( Henig 1 984 , 1 45146). A p rom inent c haracteristic o f t hese a rtifacts , w ith t he e xception o f s ome o f t he c urse t ablets , t he f igurines , a nd a f ew o f t he l eaf p laques , i s t heir v ery g eneral n ature . V irtually a ny a rtifact c ould h ave b een a v otive o ffering t o o ne d eity a s e asily a s t o a ny o ther ( Henig 1 984 , 1 48). T his c ontrasts w ith t he m inority o f e xamples w here a n i nscribed d edication i s i ncluded , w here i t w as n ecessary t o s pecify t he g od p recisely . I t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he n on-specific v otives ( eg c oins , b rooches , p lain l eaves e tc) w ere a ccompanied b y v ery s pecif ic v erbal d edications ( Henig 1 984 , 1 43). I t i s e xceedingly d iff icult t o a ssess t he i mplications o f t hese n ew a rtifacts f or C eltic r eligion , a s t hey m ay a ll b e n o m ore t han n ew f orms o f v otives i ntroduced b y t he R omans, w hich d o n ot c onf lict w ith a ny C eltic b eliefs.
186-
R omano—Ce lt ic t emples a re a lso a ssociated w ith a l arge a rray o f i conographic a rt ifacts , w hich a re a lmost u nknown f rom p re—Roman c ontexts . T h is i ncludes s tone a nd b ronze s tatuary a nd s tone a ltars. E xcellent s tudies o f t his v ery c omplex s ubject a re a vailab le i n R oss ( 1967), G reen ( 1976) a nd H enig ( 1984). B r ief ly t hough , t he s tatuary a nd d edicat ions r ange f rom t he t horough ly R oman J upiter O pt imus M aximus ( eg M aryport a nd V indo landa ; H enig 1 984 , 9 0 , F igure 3) a nd M ars ( Green 1 976 , p late If), t o R omano—Celtic c onf lations s uch a s A pollo C unomaglus ( Apollo H ound—Lord) a t N ett leton ( VI T 6 9-70) a nd S ulis M inerva a t B ath ( VI T 2 ), t o t he t horoughly C e ltic d eit ies o f E pona , R osmerta , o r S uce llus a nd N antosue lta ( Green 1 976 , 1 66 , 1 71). T he v ariety i s t remendous , b ut s evera l g eneralisations c an b e m ade , w ith i mportant i mp lications f or C e lt ic b eliefs a nd p ractices . T he r apidity a nd e ase w ith w hich a nthropomorphic s tatuary r epresentat ions o f R omano—Ce lt ic c onf lat ions o f d e ities a ppear s urely s uggests t hat t he C e lts b oth v isualised t heir g ods i n h uman f orm a nd w ere a ccustomed t o p ortray ing t hem i n t his g uise . T hat C e ltic d eities w ere a nthropomorphised i s r eadily c onf irmed b y t he C eltic m yths f rom I re land ( see c hapter e ight b elow). F urthermore , C e ltic p ortrayals o f d e ities i n h uman f orm a re n ow k nown i n w ood u nder u nusually g ood c ondit ions o f p reservation ; E pona f rom W inchester a nd t he s tags a t F e llbach—Schm iden ( Planck 1 982) a re r ecent e xamp les . I t m ust b e e qually l ike ly t hat C e ltic s hrines w ere f urnished w ith a ltars a nd o ther f ixtures w hich , i f m ade o f w ood o r o ther p er ishab le m ater ials , w ould r are ly s urvive . T he t hird m ajor f eature o f R omano—Ce lt ic t emples a nd r eligion i ncludes p r iestly a nd r itual p araphernalia . A lthough n o c onvincing I ron A ge e xamp les h ave y et b een i dentif ied , ac onsiderat ion o f R omano—Celtic f orms s uggests t he k inds o f a rtifacts t hat c an l egit imately b e s ought i n I ron A ge c ontexts . A mong t he m ost i mpressive o f s uch i tems a re t he c rowns o r h eaddresses w hich w ere o nce p art o f p riest ly g arb . P art icularly g ood e xamples a re k nown f rom H ockwo ld ( VI T 5 4); C avenham H eath , S uffolk , a nd S tony S tratford , B ucks ( Henig 1 984 , 1 37 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 12 , 1 79 , 2 13). A t l east s ome o f t he l eaf o r f eather p laques m entioned a bove m ay w ell h ave s erved a s d ecorat ion o n c rowns o r o ther h eadgear , a s w ell a s d ecorat ing t emple w alls ( eg W oodeaton , G reen 1 976 , 1 77). O ther e lements o f p riest ly e quipment a re s ceptres , s uch a s t he m ace o r s ceptre k nown f rom W illingham F en , C ambs ( Henig 1 984 , 1 40 , p l 6 2 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 10), w hich m ay b e l inked t o a n ew ly e xcavated t emp le a t t he n earby s ite o f H addenham ( I H odder , p ers c omm). P arts o f s ceptre m ounts a re a lso k nown f rom F ar ley H eath ( VI T 4 2 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 19) a nd W oodeaton ( Green , 1 976 , 2 18-219). ' I tems f or u se i n t he c ourse o f r itua l i nclude s hallow b ow ls , p aterae , u sed f or p ouring l ibations o f w ine , b eer o r o ther l iquids. P aterae a re m ade o f c eram ic , p ewter , b ronze o r s ilver , a nd n ot i nfrequent ly c arry a n i nscribed d edicat ion t o t he d eity i n w hose t emple t hey w ere t o b e u sed ( eg t he p ewter p atera d edicated t o S ulis f rom B ath , V I T2 ; H enig 1 984 , p l 5). T he p erformance o f a nimal s acr if ice n ecessitates r itual w eapons , s uch a s p o le—axes , c leavers a nd k nives . A ll a re a lso d epicted o n a ltar s cenes , b ut a re d iff icult t o i dentify o n s ites b ecause a s acred k nife m ay w ell l ook l ike a ny o ther k nife . P robab le e xamp les i nclude a b ronze c leaver f rom M untham C ourt ( VI T 6 7) , a nother b ronze a xe f ound n ear C anterbury , a nd a n i ron k nife f rom N ett leton ( VI T 7 0); f ew o thers a re k nown ( Henig 1 984 , 1 31).
I n g eneral, t emp les w ere p robab ly f urnished w ith d isplays o f t he v arious v otive o bjects d iscussed a bove , a s w ell a s a ltars a nd i mages o f t he d eity i n b ronze o r s tone . A ltars a nd s tatuary w ere d edicated t o a d eity a nd d onated t o a t emple b y p r ivate i ndividuals o r g roups , f unctioning a s v ery o stentatious v ot ives . A ll o f t hese a rticles o f p riest ly a nd t emple r itual p araphernalia c an b e e xpected t o h ave b een p resent o n C elt ic s hr ines . T he i dentif ica— t ion o f s uch a rt icles h as b een h indered b y t wo f actors . T he f irst i s t he l ikelihood t hat t hey w ere m ade o f p er ishab le m ater ial ( such a s w ood , l eather a nd c loth) , a nd t herefore w ill s urvive o nly i n e xceptional c ircumstances . T hese c onditions h ave r are ly b een e ncountered o n s ites w ith s hrines . T he s econd p rob lem a ffects m ost o f t he a rt icles w hich w ould b e m ade o f d urab le m ater ials , s uch a s r itua l v essels , p aterae , s poons , r itual k nives a nd s o o n . T he d iff iculty i s t o i dentify r itual p ots a nd k nives f rom o rdinary p ots a nd k n ives ; t he d istinction i s m ost l ike ly t o b e i n t he c ontext i n w hich t he a rt ifacts a re e ncountered . T he b ronze s poons o r s coops f ound i n b oth g raves a nd b ogs ( both r itual c ontexts , c hapter t wo a bove) a re l ike ly e xamp les . M ost o f t he r itual a ctivities i nvo lving s uch a rticles o f r itual a nd p r iest ly p araphernalia ( votive o fferings , s acr if ices , l ibations , p rocessions e tc), c an b e i ndependent ly a ttr ibuted t o C eltic r eligion , s o t hat t he c onclusion m ust b e t hat C e ltic e xamples o f a rticles m ust e xist , b ut h ave n ot y et b een i dentif ied . S ummary o f E vidence f rom R omano—Celtic T emp les T his b r ief s urvey o f R omano—Ce ltic t emp les s upp lements t he e vidence f or C eltic s hr ines a nd r itual i n s everal i mportant r espects , a s w ell a s p roviding c onf irmation f or s everal o ther f eatures . T he e vidence o f R omano—Celtic t emp le s tructures i s p art icular ly v aluable . T he p redom inance o f s quare a nd r ectangular t emples o ver c ircular o r p o lygonal f orms s uggests t hat t he s ame p reponderance o f r ectangular s tructures i n t he C e ltic s hr ines m ay c lose ly r ef lect p references f or r ectangularity . A nother i mp licat ion i s t hat m ore c ircular s hrines u ndoubtedly e xisted . T he s ize a nd d esign f eatures o f R omano—Celtic t emples a re o riented t oward i ndividual a nd s mall g roup -r itual c eremonies ( as o pposed t o c ommunal w orship). T his i s c ertainly a f eature o f R oman r eligion , b ut i ts o ccurrence i n t he C eltic i nspired R omano—Ce lt ic t emp les i mplies t hat C eltic r e ligion w as s im ilar ly o r iented , t hus c onf irm ing o bservations m ade f rom t he C eltic s hrines . A nother a spect o f t he d esign o f R omano—Celtic t emples i s t he a mbulatory , i ntended t o p rovide a c ourse f or p rocessiona ls a nd t o s helter d isplayed v ot ive m ater ial. N either o f t hese f unctions a re p articular ly c lear ly r epresented. b y t he r emains o f C eltic s hr ines , t hough b oth m ay b e s uspected f rom p assages i n t he C e ltic e thnographies ( see c hapter s even). O ver 9 0% o f a ll R omano—Celtic t emples a re o r iented t o t he e ast ( between n ortheast a nd s outheast), v ery c onvincingly c onf irm ing t he o bservations m ade o f t he I ron A ge e vidence , a nd s trengthening t he l ikelihood t hat t he o rientation w as r itually p rescr ibed . T he p resence o f s acred g roves a nd t he p rovision o f a s acred a rea f or s acr if ice , f easting a nd o ther c eremony s uggested i n t he I ron A ge e vidence i s a lso f ound i n t he e vidence o f R omano—Celt ic t emples . O ver 6 5% o f R omano—Celtic t emples a re s et w ithin t emeno i d ef ined b y s tone w alls , a nd o thers m ay h ave h ad l ess p ermanent s acred b oundaries . T his i s c erta inly a f ormalisation o f C e ltic c ustoms o f l ong s tanding i n t he R oman m edium o f m asonry , a nd r epresents a c lose c onjunction o f b eliefs a nd p ractices i n t he t wo r eligions . — 188—
T he s ites i n w hich R omano—Celt ic t emp les o ccur a re a lso i nformat ive a bout s ome a spects o f C e ltic c ustoms . D ur ing t he R oman p er iod , r ural R omano—Celt ic t emp les w ere e ither a m ajority , o r v ery l arge m inor ity , o f a ll t emples . T his s uggests t hat t here w ere l ikew ise m any r ural C elt ic s hr ines f or w hich t here i s e vidence o nly w hen t hey w ere t ranslated i nto R omano—Ce lt ic f orm . A ny t hat w ere n ot s o u pdated — a nd t here w ere p robab ly m any — h ave i n t he p ast e scaped d etection a nd w ill p robab ly c ontinue t o d o s o . M ost R omano—Ce ltic s ett lements , i ncluding t he c entres o f v illa e states , a lso h ave t emp les , i ndicat ing t hat C elt ic s hrines w ere p robab ly s ituated t o s erve I ron A ge p opulation c entres , a f act a lready n oted f or C eltic s hr ines . T he f requent p resence o f a ncillary s tructures w ith t emp les ( over 6 0% h ave a ssociated b uildings o f s ome s ort) m ay w ell r epresent p rovision o f q uarters f or p riests . C loser s tudy o f s uch b uildings m ay c lar ify t he ir n ature a nd s uggest w hat I ron A ge p arallels s hould b e s ought . T he e xistence o f s ome s ites w hich i nclude s everal t emp les , p lus a ncillary b uildings , a nd p erhaps a mphi— t heatre t heatres a s w ell ( eg B ath , C o lchester , C ollyweston , F r ilford , N ett leton , S pringhead , V erulam ium , W ycomb a nd S apperton) m ay b e i nsular p arallels f or t he " conciliabula" k nown ( but n ot w ell u nderstood) i n G aul ( Leday 1 980). T he ir r ole a s l arge c entres f or r e ligion i ncludes p ilgr image a nd p robab ly m uch e lse . C elt ic s hr ines l ocated o n o r n ear t r ibal b oundaries w ere a pparently p articular ly l ike ly t o b e r ebuilt a s R omano—Celt ic t emp les : t he p lacement o f ar eligious s ite o r a n o therw ise l im inal f eature a t a b oundary i s e videnced i n b oth a rchaeology a nd t he C e lt ic l iterature . T he g eneral d istribution o f R omano—Ce ltic t emp les m atches t hat o f C eltic s hrines , a nd s erves t o e mphasise s ome a spects w hich t he I ron A ge e vidence l eaves a mb iguous . F oremost a mong t hese i s t he a bsence o f R omano—Celt ic t emp les i n t he s outhwest , a nd t heir r elat ive r arity i n t he s outheast a nd N orfo lk . T he s ame d istr ibut ion p attern i s v isib le i n t he I ron A ge , t hough h ere t he s mall n umbers i nvo lved r equire c aut ion . H owever , c onsiderat ion o f t he R oman e vidence a s w e ll a s t he I ron A ge , s uggests t hat t hese t hree a reas d id n ot u tilise s hr ines o r t emp les l ike t he o ther a reas o f s outh B r itain . T h is , i n t urn , s uggests s ome d ifference i n b e liefs ; w hat t his m eans i n d etail w ill r equire c onf irmation a nd e laboration f rom o ther e vidence t han f rom t emples a lone . T he a rt ifacts t hat a re a ssociated w ith R omano—Ce ltic t emp les s erve t o s uggest t hat C elt ic p arallels c ertainly e xisted . B oth I ron A ge a nd R oman s ites h ave a nimal b ur ials ( see c hapter f ive) w hich a re p robably t races o f r itual s acr if ice a nd s acred m eals . I n s ome c ases p roscr ip— t ions p eculiar t o c ertain d e it ies a re v isib le , a s i n t he a bsence o f b eef b ones a t H ay ling , o r t here IS a p reference f or g oat a nd c ock a t U ley . M any o f t he t ypes o f v otive o bjects p resent o n R omano—Ce ltic t emples h ave I ron A ge p ara llels , w hile o ther o bjects m ay b e R oman i ntroductions . I conography , i n t he f orm o f a ltars a nd s tatuary , i s k nown o nly f rom t he R oman p er iod , t hough t his i s p robab ly t he r esult o f t ranslat ing a ccepted C e ltic c ustoms f rom t he p er ishable m edium s uch a s w ood , i nto e ndur ing s tone . C areful a nalysis o f R omano—Celt ic i conography h o lds g reat p otential f or i llum inating t he C e ltic c oncept ion o f t heir d e ities ( see c hapter s even). L ast ly , t he p resence o f a rt icles o f p riest ly a nd r itual p araphernalia o n R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le s ites s uggests t hat o bjects f ulf illing s im ilar f unctions w ere s urely p resent o n C eltic s hr ines , b ut m ay w ell b e d iff icult t o d istinguish f rom m ore m undane o bjects .
— 189—
G ENERAL S UMMARY T his s tudy o f C eltic s hrines h as i ndicated s everal i mportant a spects o f C eltic r eligion. T he m ost o bvious i s t hat C elt ic r eligion w as n ot " atectonic" a s L ew is p ostulated ( 1966 , 4 ). R eligious s truc— t ures , r eferred t o g enerally h ere a s s hr ines , c ertainly e xisted a nd p robably f unctioned a s i mportant c entres f or r eligious o bservances. T he s hrines t hemselves d id n ot n ecessarily s erve a s a bodes f or d eities , b ut r ather a s s helters f or , a nd f ocal p oints o f , s upernatural f orces. S hrines c ould b e e ither c ircular o r r ectangular , t hough t he l atter a re m ore n umerous , a nd c ould r ange i n s ize f rom v ery s mall s tructures t o m odest b uildings . A ll w ere p robably d esigned t o s erve i ndividual a nd s mall g roup c eremonies , r ather t han t o s helter c ongregational w orship . V ery n early a ll a re o riented s o t hat t he d oor o f t he s hrine f aces e ast ; t he r egularity s uggests a r eligious p rescription w hich , i n t urn , i mplies s ome s acred s ignificance w as a ttached t o t he d irection " east". M ost s hrines w ere s ituated w ithin e nclosures o f p alisades a nd d itches , a nd t he r est a re s urrounded b y a c lear a rea , b ut l ack p ositive e vidence o f w hat s eparated t his a rea f rom t he d omestic a ctivities o f t he s urrounding s ite . T his a rea a round t he s hrines m ay h ave c ontained a s acred t ree o r g rove , b ut a lso p robably s erved a s a p lace f or o bservers a nd p articipants o f v arious r itual c eremonies . M ost o f t he C eltic s hrines w ere p robably r ural, p ossibly b uilt i n r elation t o v arious n atural f eatures s uch a s r ivers , f orests a nd s pr ings . O ther f eatures o f t he l andscape , w hich w ere n atural t o t he C elts , a nd w hich a dditionally w ere l im inal, w ere s ocio—political b oundaries . T hese w ere p robab ly c ommon p laces f or s hrines t o o ccur , w here r eligious s anctification c ould b e a pplied t o o therwise m undane a ctivities , s uch a s t rading a nd o ther s ocial a ctivities. S hrines w ere a lso p robably p resent i n m ost , i f n ot a ll, p opulation c entres l arger t han h am lets , s uch a s v illages a nd h illforts. T hese s hrines w ere u ndoubtedly i ntended t o s erve t he r eligious n eeds o f b oth l ocal r esidents a nd t he s urrounding c ountryside . T he r elative s carcity o f s hrines i n t he s outhwest , t he s outheast a nd i n N orfolk s uggests t hat s hr ines i n t hese a reas t ook a d ifferent f orm , p erhaps i mplying m ore b asic d ifferences i n r eligious b eliefs i n t hese a reas. M any o f t he r itual c eremonies a ssociated w ith s hr ines a re r eflected i n t he a rtifacts f ound o n s hrine s ites . Ab asic c eremony , t he r itual p rocession , p robab ly i ncluding c ircling t he s hrine , i s e videnced b y t he d esign o f t he s hrine a nd t emple s tructures . O ther c eremonies i nvolve t he s acrifice o f a nimals , a nd t heir l ater v otive d eposition a nd u se i n s acred m eals. O ther v otive d eposits o f s mall o bjects o f v alue h int a t t he p revalence a nd i mportance o f t his m edium o f c ommunication b etween t he C elts a nd t heir s upernatural. N o d oubt m any o ther v otive o fferings w ere o f p erishable m aterial a nd h ave l eft n o t races . R eligious s tatuary a nd i conography a re v ery c ommon i n R oman c ontexts , s o c ommon t hat i t s eems w ilfully o btuse t o i magine t hat C eltic s hr ines d id n ot h old i conography , p robably o f w ood. F inally , t he p resence o f v arious e laborate a nd c ostly e lements o f p riestly g arb , s uch a s h eadgear , s ceptres , k nives a nd o ffering b ow ls , i n R oman c ontexts, p lus t he k now ledge t hat C eltic r ituals w ould r equire o bjects t o f ulfil a ll t he s ame f unctions, i ndicates t hat C eltic r itual o bjects e xist , b ut a re u nrecognised .
CH A P T E R
7
T HE C ELTIC E THNOGRAPHIES
T here r emain t wo f urther s ources o f i nformation o n C eltic r eligion w hich h ave n ot y et b een u t ilised . T he f irst o f t hese , r eferred t o h ere a s t he C eltic E thnographies , i ncludes t he o bservations o f a n umber o f G reek a nd R oman w riters , w ho e ither d irectly o bserved C eltic s ociety i n n orthern I taly i n t he s econd c entury B C , o r i n G aul b efore o r s hortly a fter R oman c onquest , o r w ho q uoted f rom s ources w ho h ad d one s o . T he s econd s ource i s t he I rish V ernacular L iterature , m ainly m edieval r ecensions o f o ral I r ish l iterature , r ecorded i n t he v ernacular i n t he s ixth c entury , b ut p reserving m any e lements o f t he p re—Christian , u n—Romanised C eltic s ociety . B ecause o f t he d ifferences i n t he n atures o f t he t wo s ources , t hey w ill b e c onsidered s eparately . T his c hapter d iscusses t he e thnographies , a nd t he f ollow ing c hapter , t he I rish l iterature .
T HE E VIDENCE T he c lassical t exts w ith r eferences t o t he C elts a nd C eltic r eligion f orm a d iverse b ody o f e vidence a nd o nly a b rief d iscussion i s p ossib le h ere . T he e arliest e xtant w riters a re J ulius C aesar i n t he m id—f irst c entury B C , a nd S trabo a nd D iodorus S iculus i n t he l ate f irst c entury B C t o e ar ly f irst c entury A D . T hese t hree w riters , w ith t he m uch l ater A thenaeus ( circa A D 2 00) h ave b een u sed b y P rofessor T ierney ( 1960) t o " reconstruct" a n e thnography o f P osidonius ( circa 8 0 B C). P osidonius , w ho i s q uoted e xtensively a nd d irectly b y S trabo , D iodorus S iculus a nd A thenaeus, t ravelled i n s outhern G aul a nd u sed M assiliot s ources , a nd t hus h ad c onsiderable f irst h and c ontact . T ierney o riginally c onsidered J ulius C aesar t o b e l ittle m ore t han a c opy ist o f P osidonius , a nd a p oor o ne a t t hat ( 1960 , 2 11-214), b ut N ash h as a rgued c ogently f or C aesar ( and S trabo t oo) a s ar eliab le s ource i ndependent o f P osidonius ( 1976 , 16) a nd h er a rguments a re a ccepted h ere . F ollow ing t hese w riters , a nd u sing t hem a s s ources , a re L ucan , P omponius M ela a nd T ad itus , a ll w riting i n t he f irst c entury A D . A ll o f t hese w riters h ave b een g rouped t ogether a s a " Posidonian" t radition b y C hadw ick ( 1966 , 1), a nd P iggott h as a mplified t his w ith a d iscussion o f t he g roup 's c haracteristic " hard p rim itivist" s tance o f u nf lattering d isapproval o f t he C elts ( 1968 , 9 2 , 9 6-98). A s econd s eries o f w riters , e xtant f rom t he s econd t hrough t o t he f ourth c enturies A D a nd w riting i n A lexandria u sing o ther s ources , f orm a n e qually c oherent g roup ; t hese C hadw ick
c alled t he " A lexandr ian" t radition . P iggott r efers t o t his g roup 's a pproach a s o ne o f " soft p r im itivism" f or t heir m ore r espectful a tt itude t owards t he C elts ( 1968 , 9 8-99). T his g roup u sed f or t heir s ources t he l ost w orks o f T imaeus ( circa 3 00 B C), a nd T imagenes a nd A lexander C ornelius P olyhistor , b oth c ontemporar ies o f P osidonius . C onsequent ly , t heir i nformat ion i s n ot n ecessar ily l ater t han t he P osidonians ', n or n ecessar ily l ess r e liable , a nd t he d ifferences b etween t he g roups a re m ainly o f e mphasis . C omplete t exts o f t he P osidonian t radition a re i n T ierney ( 1960); s elected e xcerpts o f t he A lexandr ian t radition a re g iven i n C hadw ick ( 1966) a nd P iggott ( 1968). S tanding a part f rom t hese t wo g roups o r t raditions a re t wo w r iters w hose i nformat ion i s a lmost t otally i ndependent f rom t hese t raditions . P olybius , w r it ing c irca 1 50 B C , r elied o n t he l ost t exts o f T imaeus o f T auromenium , a nd d iscusses t he C eltic p eop les o f t he P o V alley a rea i n I taly . [ ivy , w r iting t owards t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury B C , r e lied o n b oth P olybius a nd T imaeus , a nd a lso c oncentrates o n t he s ociety a nd h is— t ory o f t he C elts i n I taly . N either o f t hese w r iters f its i nto e ither t he P osidonian o r t he A lexandrian t raditions , t hough t hey a re l ess c r itical t han s ome o f t he P osidonians . L ivy h imself w as o f C e lt ic , n orth I talian d escent , w hile t he G reek P o lyb ius l ived a nd t ravelled e xtensively i n t he o nce C eltic p rovinces o f I taly . T hus , w h ile n either c ould o bserve t heir C eltic s ubjects d irect ly , t hey w ere w ell p laced t o u se s ources w hich w ere b oth f irst h and a nd c ontemporary r ecords o f C elt ic c ulture . L im itations T he b rief d iscussion a bove w ill s erve t o i dentify t he s ources u tilised h ere . N ow t he i nherent l im itations o f t his e vidence m ust b e d eterm ined — w hat m ay b e u sed a nd h ow m ay i t l egitimate ly b e i nterpreted? T here a re f our l im itat ions w hich a pp ly t o a ll o f t hese s ources . T he f irst i s t hat n ear ly a ll o f t hese w r iters a re r eferring t o t he C elts o f G aul, a nd p robably s outh G aul — t he o nly C elts w ith w hom m ost o f t he M editerranean w or ld w as f am iliar i n t he f irst c entury B C . T o e xtend t heir o bservations t o t he C elts o f B r itain a nd I reland , i t m ust b e a ssumed t hat g eneral a nd s alient f eatures o f C eltic s ociety w ill h ave e xisted o n b oth s ides o f t he E nglish C hannel. A v ery l arge n umber o f s uch c ommon f eatures a re a lready w ell k nown ( O lmsted 1 979 , 10119 ; J ackson 1 964) a nd t he a ssumpt ion s eems u ncontroversia l. I n t he c ourse o f t his d iscussion e lements w hich a re m ore t ruly p an—Celt ic m ay b e d ist inguished f rom t hose o f m uch m ore l im ited d istr ibut ion . T he s econd l im itat ion i s at empora l o ne . T he s ources o f a ll t hese C eltic e thnographies o riginate i n t he p eriod f rom a pproximate ly 1 50 B C t o A D 1 00 . D uring t his p eriod , t here i s g ood e vidence o f l arge—sca le c ultural c hange i n t he C eltic w orld i n a dvance o f t he R oman C onquest , m ost n otably i n t he f ield o f p olitics ( Crum ley 1 974 ; N ash 1 978 ; c f C o llis 1 984 , 1 39157). T hus , t he o bservers w ere p robably s eeing s mall s ectors o f a C e ltic w or ld i n a r apid f lux , a nd a s N ash a rgues ( 1976 , 19122), t his m ay w ell l ead t o d iffering o bservations b ecause t he s ocial f acts w ere c hanging . A pparent c ontradict ions a re f requent ly r eso lved b y ac areful c onsideration o f t he s equence o f t he o bservations a nd o f t he c hanging s ociety .
T he t hird l im itation m ust b e a ssessed o n am ore i ndividual b asis. T his c oncerns t he b iases , p olitical o r p hilosophical, w hich m ay i nfluence t he c omments o f e ach w r iter . T here a re s everal e xamples d iscernible . T he d ivision o f t he s ources i nto t wo t raditions , P osidonian a nd A lexandrian , i s o ne s uch . I n t his i nstance , t he d if— f erences b etween t he t wo a re s imple : t he A lexandrians o m it r eferences t o C elt ic h uman s acrifice a nd , i nstead , e mphasise t he j udicial a nd p hilo— s ophical a spects o f C eltic b elief ( Chadw ick 1 966 , 5 1-68). T he o pposing P osidonians o veremphasise C eltic " barbarity" i n t he f ace o f R ome 's " civilising" a dvance ( Chadw ick 1 966 , 1 6 , 2 8 , 3 0). S im ilarly , t he p olitical m otives o f s ome o f t he w r iters m ay h ave i nf luenced t heir c ommentary — t his i s p articularly t rue o f , a nd w ell e stablished f or , J ulius C aesar ( Piggott 1 968 , 9 7 ; N ash 1 976 , 1 21123 ; T ierney 1 960 , 2 13-214), b ut i s e qually t rue t o a l esser e xtent w ith b oth S trabo a nd T acitus ( et P iggott 1 968 , 9 8). T he e xuberant r hetoric o f P liny ( eg x vi 9 5) a nd L ucan ( i 4 41) p robably h as f act f or a b asis , b ut t he p resentation i s e qually c oncerned w ith a d esired e ffect o n t he r eader . A f ourth l imitat ion w hich a pplies t o a ll o f t he s ources i s t he g eneral l iterary c onstraints u nder w hich t hey w rote , f or n one o f t hese a uthors w as p rimarily i nterested i n " Celtic e thnography". I n e ach c ase , t he p assages t hat c omprise t he e thnography w ere m ore o r l ess a n " extra". P osidonius w as a n h istor ian a nd g eographer i n t he G reek t radition , w hose p urpose w as t o c omplete a h istory b egun b y P olybius — t he e thnographic p assages w ere r equired b y t he g eographic t radition i n w hich h e w rote ( Chadw ick 1 966 , x ix—xx ; T ierney 1 960 , 1 98-20 1). D iodorus w as a n h istorian ; h is p assages o n t he C elts a re t o p rovide b ackground m aterial. S trabo w as a g eographer a nd h istorian ; h is p assages a re f rom h is G eographia a nd i nclude e thnography a s an ecessary p art o f t he t radition , a s w ith P osidonius ( Tierney 1 960 , 2 03-204 , 2 07-208). T he s ame p oint c an b e m ade f or a ll o f t he o ther w riters. T his i s n ot t o b elittle t hem ; r ather , i t i s t o p oint o ut a l imiting f actor : t ime a nd s pace . N one w as c oncerned t o w rite a c omplete e thnography e ven i n t he c ontemporary s ense , m uch l ess t o p resent s tandards. T heir c oncern w as s imply t o p oint o ut t he f eatures o f C eltic s ociety w hich w ere e ither t ypically C eltic , o r w hich w ere s o u nusual b y M editerranean s tandards a s t o s et t he C elts a part a s ad istinct p eople . A g ood e xample o f t he f ormer i s t he t ypically .Celtic p olit ical p rinciple o f " clientage" ( cf N ash 1 976 , 16117). A n e xample o f t he s econd t ype i s p robab ly h uman s acrif ice , w hich c ould s erve t he d ouble p urpose o f s etting t he C elts a part f rom t he M editerranean p eoples a nd p resenting t hem i n a b arbaric a nd p r im itive l ight . A ll o f t he c ommentaries m ust b e v iewed i n t his c ontext : t he c ommon a nd o rdinary c ould b e o m itted i n f avour o f t he u nusual a nd d istinctive . O ne f urther c omment i s i n o rder h ere . T here i s a d istinct t rend t owards m ore c oncise a nd a bbreviated c omments n oticeable i n t he l ater w riters o f e ach t radition . S trabo a nd D iodorus S iculus , f or e xample , c ould a bbreviate P osidonius d rastically ( as T ierney m aintains , 1 960 , 2 22) f or t he s imple r eason t hat t heir r eaders w ould h ave h ad a ccess t o P osidonius i n t he o riginal, a s w ell a s C aesar , T imagenes , P olyhistor a nd p robably T imaeus a nd P olyb ius. T his i s t he p robable c ause o f m uch o f t he c onflation a nd c ondensing w hich m ake a nalysis d ifficult . O ther m ore s pecif ic e xamples o f b iases o r c onf lations w ill b e n oted a s t hey a re e ncountered i n t he d iscussion b elow .
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A NALYSIS B ecause o f t he f our l im it ing f actors j ust d iscussed , i t i s n either a s imple n or d irect p rocedure t o e xtract t he " facts" o f C eltic s ociety a nd r eligion f rom t he e thnographic c ommentar ies . I n o rder t o m ake u se o f t he c ommentar ies , i n s pite o f t heir l im itations , a na lysis m ust b e t wo—fold . T he f irst s tep i s t o a sk w hy e ach c omment i s f ound i n t he t ext ( or , r ather , w hy i t w as p ut t here i n t he f irst p lace). I s i t av ery " Celtic" f eature , f or e xample , a n i ntegral p art o f C eltic r eligion? O r i s i t a f eature o f C e lt ic r eligion w hich , b ecause o f i ts o ddity v alue , i s u sed t o t ypify t he C elts? I n m any c ases , t his d ilemma i s s o lved b y e xam ining t he R oman o r M editerranean c ontext o f t he w riters . T o p review a n e xample — h uman s acr if ice i s p robab ly m ore p rom inent i n t he c ommentar ies t han i ts r o le i n C eltic r eligion w ould j ustify ; i t h as c onsiderab le " oddity" v alue . I n s ome c ases i t w ill b e a rgued t hat f eatures w hich a re b ased o n e thnographical a nalogy o r s imp le r eason , b ut w hich w ould a lso h ave s eemed u nremarkable t o aR oman , a re s imp ly o m itted f or t his r eason ( as i n t he d iscussion o f s hrines b elow ). I n s cm ie c ases n othing c an b e d one o ther t han t o h ypothesise . T he s econd s tep i n t he a nalysis i s a r esponse t o t he c ondensat ion o f i nformat ion w hich l ies b ehind m any o f t he s ources . I n g eneral t erms , t his c an b e r eferred t o a s " maxim ising" t he d ata . I i p ractice , i t m eans t hat e ach r eference w ill b e s plit i nto a s m any p arts a s p ossib le , t o e mphasise t he p ossib le v ar iations b ehind o therw ise r elative ly s imp le s tatements . E xamples o f t his p rocedure w ill b e f ound b elow , w here i t i s a rgued t hat t here w ere a n umber o f r eligious s pecialists , n ot a s ingle c lass o f " Druids" , a nd a lso w here t he v ar iety o f l ocations u sed i n C e lt ic r eligion i s d iscussed . T his a pproach i s j ust if ied o n t he b asis o f t he d egree o f v ariation t hat i s t o b e e xpected f rom e ven s imple s ocieties ( cf W allace 1 966 , G oode 1 95 1) , a nd C eltic s ociety w as c ertainly n ot a s imple o ne . T his p rocedure i s i n d irect c ontrast t o s everal o f t he p revious s tudies o f C e lt ic r e ligion ( especially K endrick 1 927 , P iggott 1 968 a nd C hadw ick 1 966) w hich , f ocused o n t he D ruids , a ttempted t o r elate a ll e vidence o f r eligion t o t he D ruids a nd t hus s erved i nevitab ly t o e mphasise s imp licity a nd u niform ity i n C eltic r eligion . A s p art o f t his p rocess o f d iversify ing t he i nformation , D ruids w ill b e d iscussed o nly i n t he c ontext o f t he e thnographic c omments . P iggott a mply d emonstrates ( 1968) t hat " Druid" i s a n e motion— a nd p reconception— loaded t erm a nd i s b est a voided i n s uch a d iscussion . S imilar ly , t he t erm " priest" i s a voided a nd i nstead t he m ore c umbersome b ut n eutral t erm " religious s pecialist" w ill b e u sed . F ollow ing t hese g eneral p oints , t he e thnographic d ata c an b e d iscussed u nder s even h eadings. T hese a re : 1
C e ltic p antheon
2
R eligious s pecialists
3
R e ligious l ocations
4
B eliefs o f s oul a nd a fter life
5
S acr if ices
6
D ivination
7
V otive o ffer ings
N ote : T hroughout t he f ollow ing d iscussion , r eferences t o t he t exts o f t he P osidonian t radition ( Strabo , D iodorus S iculus a nd C aesar) w ill b e f ound i n T ierney ( 1960) — t he r eference t o b oth t he s ect ion o f t he o riginal w ork a nd t he p age i n T ierney w here i t w ill b e f ound , a re g iven . R eferences f rom t he A lexandrian t radit ion w ill b e f ound i n C hadw ick ( 1966), P iggott ( 1968), K endr ick ( 1927), o r i n t he t ranslat ions c ited i n t he B ib liography .
T he C e ltic P antheon A d iscussion o f t he d eities o f C eltic r eligion b ased o n t he e thnographies a lone w ill b e m isleadingly b rief a nd s implist ic . T here a re , i n f act , o nly t wo p assages f rom t he s ources w hich d iscuss t he C e lt ic g ods. C aesar i s c haracter istically t erse a nd w orth q uot ing i n f ull: O f a ll t he g ods t hey m ost w orship M ercury . H e h as t he l argest n umber o f i mages a nd t hey r egard h im a s t he i nventor o f a ll t he a rts , a s t heir g uide o n t he r oads a nd i n t ravel, a nd a s c hief ly i nf luential i n m ak ing m oney i n t rade . N ext t o h im t hey w orship A pollo , M ars , J upiter a nd M inerva . A bout t hese g ods t hey b elieve n ear ly a s o ther p eople d o : t hat A po llo d r ives a way d isease , M inerva f irst i nst ituted t he a rts a nd c rafts , t hat J upiter r ules t he h eavens a nd M ars t he i ssue o f w ar . ( VI 1 7 , T ierney 2 72). T he o nly o ther c lassical w r iter t o m ent ion t he d eities i s L ucan ( i 4 44-446) , w ho m ent ions t hree m ore : T eutates , E sus a nd T aranis — g iving t hree C eltic n ames b ut n o o ther i nformation . T he i nference f rom t hese w r iters i s t hat t he C elts h ad a p antheon o f g ods , f unct ionally d ifferentiated a nd t hereby r elatab le t o t he R oman . p antheon . T here i s , h owever , a nother s ource o f i nformat ion w hich c an b e a ppropr iately u tilised h ere — t he v ast n umber o f p ictor ial r epresentat ions o f d e ities , a nd i nscr iptions m ent ioning d eities , f rom b oth G aul a nd B r itain . T his s ubject i s s o l arge a nd d iverse t hat o nly a s ummary w ill b e o ffered h ere ; m ore d etailed a na lyses w ill b e f ound i n L ambrechts ( 1942), D illon a nd C hadw ick ( 1967), O lmsted ( 1979) , P iggott ( 1968) , G reen ( 1976), R oss ( 1967), S joestedt ( 1949), V endryes ( 1948), D e V r ies ( 1963) a nd H att ( 1970). T he p r incipal l im itation i n t he u se o f t hese d ata i s t hat , a lmost b y d ef init ion , a nd n ear ly w ithout e xception , t he r epresentation/inscriptions a re o f R oman d ate a nd u se L at in . C onsequently , s ome d egree o f i nterpretive s yncretism h as o ccurred , e ither I nterpretatio R omana o r C eltica ( Green 1 976 , 6 -7). N evertheless , an umber o f l egitimate o bservat ions c an b e m ade a nd , f rom t hese , u seful i nferences m ay b e d rawn . T he f irst i mpression g a ined f rom t he r epresentat ions , a nd e specially f rom t he i nscr iptions , i s t he h uge n umber o f C eltic d eit ies k nown . A n ow v ery d ated c ount ( Piggott 1 960 , 1 516 ; S joestedt 1 949 , 1 416) s howed 3 74 C e ltic g od—names , o f w hich 3 05 o ccurred o nly o nce e ach . F urthermore , o ne R oman g od c ould b e t ranslated i nto a n umber o f C e ltic g ods — M ars r eceived C e ltic s urnames o r w as a ssociated w ith a t
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l east 6 9 d ifferent C eltic g ods ( Piggott 1 968 , 1 6) , a nd f orty—f ive d ifferent e pithets o r s urnames a re a ssociated w ith M ercury ( Green 1 976 , 1). I nterestingly , P o lybius m entions ( H istor ies I 3 2) t hat t he I nsubrian C elts o f t he M ilan a rea o f I taly , c irca 2 23 B C , h ad a t emple t o M inerva , w hich i ncluded i cons o f s ome s ort w hich w ere t aken d own a nd c arried t o w ar — a c lear c onf lat ion o f t he R oman g oddess w ith a C eltic o r iginal w ho i nvolved t he a rts a nd h ad a w arr ior a spect a s w ell. T his p resents a m ult itude o f C eltic d e it ies , o r g odlings , o f w hich m any a re v ery r are a nd o nly a f ew a re w idespread . V ery p robab ly , n one o f t hese c an b e d irectly t ranslated o r e quated w ith a R oman g od . T his e ffectively b e lies t he s implicity o f C aesar 's s tatement a bove . C aesar 's u se o f f unctional a ttributes t o d ifferentiate b etween C e ltic d eit ies , a nd t hen t o a ssociate t hem w ith R oman d eities o n t his b asis , i s t he v ery h eart o f I nterpretatio a s m entioned a bove , a nd d oes f orm t he b asis f or m ost i nterpretat ion o f t he C eltic d eities t oday . I ts e ffectiveness , h owever , i s l im ited b y t he d ifference i n t he c riteria u sed b y R oman a nd C elt t o d efine t heir g ods . T he R omans u sed f unct ion — M ars w as t he g od o f w ar . T he C elts u sed f unction t oo , b ut i n al im ited s ense . M ars w as t ranslated a s M ars T eutates ( as o ne o f 6 9 C eltic f orms) , w hich s imply m eans M ars , G od o f t he P eop le ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , 1 7). C elt ic g od f unctions a re l ess a bstract , m ore d irect , a nd m ore c oncrete a nd l im ited t han w ere R oman d eit ies' f unct ions . P aradoxically , C e ltic g od f unctions a re m ultiple , e ven m ore t han i n R ome , s o t hat a ny o ne R oman g od w ill h ave s everal C eltic " avatars" , a nd c onversely , o ne C eltic g od c ould b e a n " avatar" o f s everal R oman g ods . R oman M ars w as t he g od o f w ar ; i n G aul, M ars w as e quated w ith g ods w hose p r ime f unct ions w ere h ealing a nd s erving a s ap eaceful l ocal p rotector , a s w ell a s aw arr ior f orm ( Green 1 976 , 1). S joestedt o bserved ( 1949 , 7 5-95) t hat n ear ly a ll C elt ic g ods w ill b e a f ather—protector t o t he ir p eop le , i n a ddition t o s erving i n o ther c apacit ies , a nd g oddesses m ay a ll b e l inked t o f ert il— i ty a nd p rosperity ( et G reen 1 976 , 1 4). T his p rocess o f r educt ionism , i f c arried t oo f ar ( as b y S joestedt , 1 949 , 7 5-95) , s erves o nly t o o bscure t he b asic v ariety i nherent i n t he C e ltic d eities . I n s ummary , e ach o f t he m any C e ltic d eities h ad m ultiple f unctions , w hich h e s hared u nevenly w ith t he o ther d eit ies — b ut d eities . s haring o ne o r m ore f unct ions w ere n either i nterchangeab le n or d irect ly e quivalent ; t hey w ere s eparate d eities . T he m ajor f actor t hat s erves t o d ifferentiate g ods w ho s hare t heir f unctional a ttributes i s l ocality . T he d e it ies a re t he g ods o f t heir r espective f unctions f or a p art icular g roup o f p eople , o r o f a n a rea , o r o f a s ingle p lace . T he l ocalisat ion o f t heir p owers a nd r esponsib il— i ties s eems t o b e i nherent i n t he C eltic c oncept o f g od—hood ( Green 1 976 , 8 ; P iggott 1 968 , 8 5 ; S joestedt 1 949 , c hapter I). N ot s urpr i— s ingly , t his l ocalisation i s n oticeab le i n t he g eographic d istr ibution o f g od—names a nd f orms . T hree—headed g od f orms a re f ound m ost c ommonly a mong t he R em i i n t he M arne a nd C ote D 'Or ( Be V ries 1 961, 1 59 ; P iggott 1 968 , 8 5 ; S joestedt 1 949 , 1 6); t he w heel—bearing g od i s f ound i n t he M assif C entral a nd a long t he R hone , w hile t he h ammer—god i s p art icularly c oncentrated f urther u p t he R hone a nd a long t he R hine a nd S eine ( Be V ries 1 963 , 9 2 ; L ambrechts 1 942 ; G reen 1 976 , 1; P iggott 1 968 , 8 5). C ernunnos , t he s tag—antlered g od , i s p redom inant i n e astern G aul; t r ip le g enii c ucullati a re f ound i n t he C otswo lds o f E ngland a nd a long t he R hine a nd M ose lle o f G aul a nd G ermany ( Green 1 976 , 1 0 , 2 7); a nd t he M atres a re f ound p articular ly i n t he a rea o f t he T reveri ( Sjoestedt
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1 949 , 1 7). A f urther i llustrat ion o f t his i s M ercury , w hom C aesar s aid w as t he m ost p rom inent G aulish g od . T his m ay w ell b e t rue , f or M ercury a nd M ars e ach h ave f ar m ore C eltic e quivalents a nd r epresentat ions t han a ny o ther R oman g ods , b ut t he s ignif icant f actor h ere i s t hat M ercury d oes n ot h ave m ere ly o ne C e ltic e quivalent , b ut r ather a g reat m any . A pparently , m ost G auls h ad a g od w ho w as t he o r iginator o f a rts a nd a g uide t o t rave llers a nd t raders , b ut e ach o f t hese g ods w as l ocalised , a nd t hus w as n ot t ruly e quivalent t o t he a bstract , g eneralised M ercury o f R ome . I nterestingly , t his e lement o f l ocalisat ion i s m uch m ore p revalent a mong C eltic g oddesses t han g ods , a nd a lthough t his h as b een o veremphasised b y s ome s cholars ( eg S joestedt 1 949 , c hapter I a nd p ages 9 2-95), t he t rend i s u nm istakab le . O ne l ast g eneral f eature o f t he C elt ic d eities n eeds t o b e d iscussed b efore e xam ining s ome o f t he m ore w idespread d eities . T his i s a n a bsence o f a ny i nternal o rganisation a mong t he d eit ies . E ach o ne a ppears t o b e c omplete a nd s elf—contained . T hus , f or t he p resent , t he w ord " pantheon" i s n ot u sed t o r efer t o t he d eit ies c o llectively , s ince i t g enerally i mplies a h ierarchy o f t he g ods ( pace W a llace 1 966 , 7 1). T his p oint , h owever , m ay b e m ore a pparent t han r eal. T he r elationship b etween s everal d eit ies w ould n ot g enerally a ppear i n t he k inds o f i nscr iptions t hat h ave s urvived ( most ly d edicat ions), a nd w hile i t m ight o ccur i n i conography , t he r ecovery o f s uch i nformation w ithout t he u se o f m ytho logy i s n otor iously d iff icult ( Piggott 1 968 , 1 7 ; a nd c f O lmsted 1 979 f or a n a ttempt u sing m yths). A n e xam ination o f t he I rish v ernacular m yths i n t he n ext s ect ion w ill s ubstantia lly m odify t his p osition . T he w or ld o f t he C eltic g ods i s t hus d iff icult t o g rasp . T he p icture a ppears t o b e o ne o f m any g ods , e ach o f m ult ip le f unctions , b ut u sually v ery l ocalised i n o ccurrence . T he a malgamation o f t his C eltic p attern a nd t he a bstract a nd g eneralised R oman p antheon p robab ly p roduced t he p aradoxical s ituation i n w hich o ne R oman g od w ill h ave s everal, o r m any , C e lt ic e quivalents a nd e ach o f t he C eltic g ods c ould b e a ssociated w ith s everal R oman g ods a s w ell. T his p attern i s d isrupted b y t he p resence o f a f ew C eltic g ods w hose c ults w ere a pparent ly q uite w idespread . C onsider ing t he g eograph— i c d istribut ion o f t he o ccurrence o f t hese f ew , t hey m ay b e n early p an—Celtic ( Sjoestedt 1 949 ; O lmsted 1 979 , 1918 1). I t i s p robab ly a ppropr iate t o u se t he t erm " cult" h ere , t o r efer t o t he w orship o f a g od w ho d oes n ot h ave a c ommon d istr ibution w ith o ther g ods , e ach g od b eing s erved b y d ifferent c ult i nstitutions ( Wallace 1 966 , 8 4-89). H ere , o nly a f ew o f t he g ods w ith w ider d istr ibut ions a re d iscussed ; t his l ist w ill b e b oth e xtended a nd a mplified w hen t he I rish e vidence i s c onsidered .
J upiter a nd T aranis B oth L ambrechts ( 1942) a nd G reen ( 1976) a ssociate J upiter ( who r ules t he h eavens , s ee C aesar a bove) w ith t he C eltic g od T aranis w hose n ame m eans T hunderer ( see L ucan a bove), a nd t hen l ink b oth t o t he C eltic w heel—god . I f s uch a ssociation i s c orrect , t hen t his d eity c an p robab ly b e f ound t hroughout G aul a nd i nto B r itain ( Green 1 976 , 1 0 , 1 719). T he f unctions o f t his g od a re s omewhat o bscure , b ut a g eneralised r o le o f a s ky—god m ay b e ac lose a pproximation .
C ernunnos T he a ntler—headed , c ross— legged g od C ernunnos i s f ound t hrough m uch o f e astern G aul a nd i s k nown f rom B r itain ( Green 1 976 , 1 0 , 3 2 ; L ambrechts 1 942 , C arte I ) . H is f unctions a re g enerally i nterpreted a s n atural f ert ility a nd p rosper ity ( cf O lmsted 1 979 , 1 60166). S uce llus S uce llus i s u sually d epicted c arry ing a h ammer a nd c auldron , o r s ometimes a c lub a nd p ot , a nd i s o ften a ccompanied b y ac onsort g oddess , u sually n amed " Nantosuelta" . T he d istr ibution o f S ucellus a nd/or N antosue lta c oncentrates i n t he u pper a nd l ower R hone a rea , b ut m ore g enerally c overs m uch o f e astern G aul ( Lambrechts 1 942 , C arte V ; D e V r ies 1 963 , 9 2) a nd i ncludes B ritain ( Green 1 976 , 112 , F ig 1 7). S ucellus i s a n a rchetypical C eltic g od ; h is h ammer s ymbo lises h is p rotect ion o f h is p eople a nd t he c auldron r epresents a bundance f or t hem ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , c hapter I). S ucellus i s p robab ly v ery p rom inent i n I re land u nder a d ifferent n ame ( see c hapter e ight). H is c onsort , w hose n ame m eans " W inding R iver" ( Green 1 976 , 1) , i s p robab ly t he t utelary g oddess c onnected w ith l ocal f ertility o f t he e arth ( Green 1 976 , 1; c f S joestedt 1 949 , 2 0-25). D eae M atres A ppear ing s ingly a mong t he T reveri ( see a bove) , b ut m ore f requently i n t riplicate f orm , t he M others a re e verywhere a ssociated w ith p rosper ity a nd f ert ility , s ymbolised b y c ornucopiae , f ood a nd c hildren ( Green 1 976 , 1 4), T he M others a re k nown f rom m uch o f G aul a nd B r itain ( eg G reen 1 976 , 1 4 a nd F ig 1 5). M ercury A ccording t o C aesar , M ercury w as t he m ost c ommonly w orshipped o f a ll t he C e lt ic d eities , a nd t here a re t wo s orts o f e vidence i ndicating t hat t his w as t rue . F irst , t he p rom inence o f M ercury a s a g od o f c rafts , t ravellers a nd t raders' p rosperity w ould h ave c ontrasted g reat ly w ith t he R oman t radition , w here h e w as m uch l ess p rom inent . S uch a c ontrast w ould b e s urprising t o C aesar a nd t hus w orthy o f c omment . S econdly , M ercury i s t he m ost p rom inent ly r epresented d eity i n i nscriptions a nd i conography . I t m ay b e s tr ictly m ore a ccurate t o s ay t hat e very l ocality h ad a C eltic g od w ho c ould b e a ssociated w ith M ercury i n s ome w ay — 16 o f t he i nscr iptions t o M ercury a dd a C elt ic e pithet a nd ' f orty—f ive d ifferent e pithets a re k nown . M any t emp les w ere d edicated t o M ercury ( Green 1 976 , 1). T his i ndicates t hat , a lthough e very l ocality h ad a n a vatar o f M ercury , t here w ere m any d ifferent s uch a vatars , r ather t han o ne c ommon t hroughout G aul. T he p rom inence o f a g od w hose p r imary a ssociation i s t o t rade a nd c raft i n t he c ontext o f C e ltic s ociety i s s triking , b ut i s c losely p aralle led i n t he I rish e vidence .
M ars T he R oman g od M ars , w hose p rimary f unct ion i s i n w ar , h as h ad 6 9 C e ltic e pithets c oupled t o h is o wn , a nd p resumably a lso h ad a l arge n umber o f C eltic a vatars. A s n oted a bove , M ars w as a ssociated w ith g ods w ith a ttributes o f b oth p eaceful p rosperity a nd h ealing , a s w ell a s w ar . T here a re r elatively f ew t emples d edicated t o M ars; h e i s k nown l argely t hrough e pigraphy , t hough l ess t han M ercury ( Green 1 976 , 1). T he r elative l ack o f p rom inence o f a g od o f w ar a mong a p eople w hose r eputation w as a v ery w ar— like o ne i s a s s triking a s t he p rom inence o f M ercury , b ut i s a lso p aralleled i n t he I r ish l iterature . T hroughout b oth G aul a nd B ritain , M ercury a nd M ars t end t o b lur t ogether . B oth a re f ound w ith C eltic s ymbols , s uch a s t he p resumptively c hthonic/fertility r am—headed s nake , w hich i s a lso f ound w ith C ernunnos a nd w ith t he M others i n G aul. I n B ritain , M ercury i s v ery o ften f ound w ith h is o nly o ccasional G allic c onsort o f R osmerta ( cf G reen 1 976 , 2 0-21, 1 71, 1 87). M ars a nd M ercury s hare s im ilar d istribut ions , a nd a lso m ay s hare a n umber o f C eltic s urnames a nd e pithets ( Green 1 976 , 2 9). A c omplete s urvey o f t he a ssociations o f C eltic g ods a nd e pithets w ith R oman g ods m ight w ell s how w hat a spects o f w hich g ods a re a ctually i nvolved i n t he a ssociations , b ut s uch a n u ndertaking i s f ar b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent s tudy . T he C ult o f t he H ead T he w ell—known C eltic c ult o f t he h ead i s d iscussed a s as pecif ic C eltic c ult . T he r easons f or t his h andling , r ather t han a ttr ibut ing t o i t t he s tatus o f a p an—Celtic t radition , w ill b ecome c lear a s t he e vidence i s r eviewed. H ead—hunting o ccurs p rom inently i n t he C eltic e thnographies , s urely b ecause o f i ts e xotic o ddity v alue f or s eparating C elts f rom o ther p eoples , a nd , c onsidering o ur s ources ( Strabo a nd D iodorus , b oth b ased o n P osidonius), i t w ould a lso h ave s erved t o e mphasise C eltic p r imitive— n ess . S trabo w rites t hus : " They p ossess a t rait o f b arbarous s avagery w hich i s e specially p eculiar t o t he n orthern p eoples , f or w hen t hey a re l eaving t he b attlefield t hey f asten t o t he n ecks o f t heir h orses t he h eads o f t heir e nemies , a nd o n a rriving h ome t hey n ail u p t his s pectacle a t t he e ntrances t o t heir h ouses ," ( V 2 9 5 , T ierney 2 69 ; S trabo 's c omments a re a ttributed b y h im t o P osidonius). T he v ery c lose p arallel f ound i n D iodorus S iculus i ndicates h is s ource , t oo , m ay b e P osidonius , t hough h e a dds a v ery i nteresting c omment . D iodorus S iculus w rites b riefly : " They c ut o ff t he h eads o f e nemies s lain i n b attle a nd a ttach t hem t o t he n ecks o f t heir h orses ; t hey n ail u p t hese f irst f ruits u pon t heir h ouse §j ust a s d o t hose w ho l ay l ow w ild a nimals i n c ertain k inds o f h unting". ( V 2 9 T ierney , 2 50 , e mphasis a dded). S trabo 's c omment o ccurs i n a p urely s ecular m anner , r elating a n e xample o f t he c e lebra— t ion o f m artial v alour a nd s uccess w hich w ould b e a ppropr iate t o a n h eroic s ociety . D iodorus S iculus , h owever , i ntroduces a p hrase , i n a v ery u nclear p assage , w hich m ay b e a r eference t o r eligious p recepts o f s ome f orm — " these f irst f ruits" — f irst f ruit s acrifices b e ing a n e xtremely w idespread a nd c ommon r itual ( see c hapter n ine). T hese a re t he o nly c omments i n t he e thnographies w hich r efer t o h ead—hunting , o ne o f w hich i s s ecular a nd t he o ther p ossibly i mply ing a r eligious c onnotation .
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I n t he a rchaeological e vidence t here i s s pectacular , b ut v ery l im ited , e vidence o f u nequivocal r eligious b elief f ocused o n t he h uman h ead . T he m ost f amous e xamples c ome f rom t he r eligious s anctuaries o f t he s ites o f R oquepertuse a nd E ntremont . T he r emains c onsist o f m onumental s tonework w ith c lear G reek i nf luence , b ut d ecorated i n p urely C eltic s ty le — d oor j ambs a nd l intels w ith s culptured h uman h eads , a nd , m ore i mposing , n iches s haped t o h old s kulls , s ome o f w hich w ere s till h eld i n p lace b y n ails ( Benoit 1 955 , 1 95F ; c f P iggott 1 965 , 2 30 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 2 95-296). T he " Hall o f S kulls" a t E ntremont d ates t o t he l ast p hase o f t he o ppidum b efore i t w as s acked b y t he R omans i n 1 23 B C , b ut t here a re t races o f e arlier d isplays o f s kulls ( Benoit 1 957). A t G lanum , S aint R emy—en—Provence , t here w ere a gain a l intel a nd p illars w ith s kull n iches w hich w ere r e—used i n t he s econd c entury B C , w hile a t S aint — B laise , A lpes M aritimes, w as f ound a j amb—stone w ith n iches a ppropriate f or s kulls , l ater i ncorporated i nto G allo—Greek s tructures o f t he f ourth c entury B C ( Benoit 1 955 ; P iggott 1 968 , 5 1). T hus , t here i s c lear e vidence f or a r eligious c ult o f t he h ead , w ith a p otential f or c onsiderab le a ntiquity , w hich s urvived t o b e c elebrated i n m onumental s tonework w hen t he n ative—sty led r eligious s anctuaries o f s outhern G aul w ere r ebuilt i n s tone , u nder G reek i nf luence . N orth o f t he M assif C entral, h owever , t he e vidence f or s uch a c ult i s a t b est v ery s parse . N owhere a re t here c onvincing a ssocia— t ions o f s kulls o r s culpted h eads w ith r eligious s ites. T here a re , o f c ourse , af ew s culptures o f h uman h eads , b ut a n o ccasional s tone h ead i s t oo s cant e vidence u pon w hich t o b uild a c ult . A v ery f ew h illforts m ay h ave b een d ecorated w ith s kulls , a s a t L 'Impernal n ear C ahors ( Benoit 1 957 , 2 2-23) o r a t B redon i n G loucestershire ( Hencken 1 938), b ut i n n either c ase i s t here a ny n eed t o i nvoke r eligion f or a n e xplanation , a nd i ndeed , t he v ery c ontext ( ornamental g ateways) s eems c ivil a nd s ecular . T herefore , l ike t he o ther c ults/deities d iscussed h ere , t he c ult o f t he h ead i s l imited i n d istribution , i n t his c ase t o t he C elto— L igurian a rea . R eligious S pecialists T he c lassical w ritten s ources a re m uch m ore i nformative a bout t he C eltic r eligious s pecialists t han a bout t he g ods. T here i s n ear u nanimity a mongst t he s ources i n d ividing t he C eltic i ntellectual e lite i nto t hree c lasses, t wo o f w hich a re c learly r eligious s pecialists. T he n on—religious e lite w ere t he b ards , o r p anegyric p oets , t hat f orm a n a p— p ropriate p art o f a n h eroic s ociety ( Piggott 1 968 , 1 09). T he r emaining t wo g roups a re c alled D ruids a nd V ates ( Ammianus M arcellinus , q uoting T imagenes, X V 9 3 0-32 ; S trabo I V 4 , T ierney 2 69 ; D iodorus S iculus V 3 1, T ierney 2 51). T he d istinction b etween t he t wo i s n ot a lways c lear — w itness t he . d ifficulties o f C hadw ick a nd P iggott i n f ocusing o n t he D ruids. I n g eneral, t he D ruids a re o f c onsiderably g reater s tatus a nd p restige ( eg , e xempt f rom m ilitary s ervice a nd t axation , C aesar V I 1 4 , T ierney 2 72) a nd a re g lossed a s p hilosophers a nd t heologians , w hereas t he V ates a re c oncerned w ith d ivination a nd s acr ifice ( et S trabo , D iodorus S iculus a nd A mmianus M arcellinus a bove). E ven t his d ist inction i s t oo f acile , h owever , s ince , a s w ill b e s een , D ruids a re s pecifically m entioned a s n ecessary o fficials i n a t l east s ome s acrif ices. T his w ill b e d iscussed i n g reater d etail b elow , w hen t he v arious f unctions o f t he r eligious s pecialists a re c onsidered . F or t he m oment , t here a re t wo c lasses o f r eligious s pecialists w ith s light ly d iffering b ut o verlapping d uties , b ut a t hird p ossible c lass i s m entioned b y L ucan ( iii 3 99) a s a
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" sacerdos" o r " pr iest" a t a r eligious s ite n ear M arse illes ( though t he l ocat ion i n t he C elto-Ligurian p rovince w ith i ts l ong s tanding c ontact w ith t he M editerranean w or ld m eans t hat t his c ould c once ivab ly b e a n i mported r o le f or a r e ligious s pecialist). A s w ill b e d iscussed b e low , t he s pecif ied p lace a nd d ut ies m ay l ead t o t he a cceptance o f t his a s a t hird s ubdivision i n t he C eltic r eligious h ierarchy . F urther i nformat ion a bout t he o rganisat ion o f t he r eligious s pecia lists , o r a t l east t he D ruidic e lement , i s f ound i n t he w ritings o f J ulius C aesar . C aesar s tates t hat t he D ruids w ere o rganised i n a n a ssemb ly , p resided o ver b y a c hief D ruid , w hich w ould m eet a t f ixed t imes , i n ah oly p lace i n t he t erritory o f t he C arnutes . H e c la ims t hat t he d iscip line o r iginated i n B r ita in a nd t hat d iligent s cho lars w ould s t ill g o t here f rom G aul t o s tudy t he d iscipline ( VI 1 3 , T ierney 2 7 1). T here a re t wo l im iting c onsiderat ions a pp licab le h ere . F irst , C aesar h ad a v ested i nterest i n e mphasising t he s ocial s ophist icat ion o f h is C e ltic e nem ies t o t he S enate i n R ome . S econdly , C aesar s aw t he C elts a t t he p eak o f t he ir i ndependent d eve lopment , a t t he v ery m oment o f t he c onquest h e h imself w as d irect ing . T he p rob lem i s a cute b ecause C aesar i s t he o nly o ne t o d iscuss s uch s tructural e laborat ion a mong t he r e ligious e lite . I f N ash 's ( 1976) a rguments f or t he r eliability o f C aesar h owever , a nd f or t he p o litical d evelopment i n G aul o f t he m id-f irst c entury B C ( 1978) a re a ccepted , t hen i t s eems r easonab le t o a ccept C aesar 's s tatements a s f actual. F urthermore , t he d evelopment o f a n o rganisat ion o f a r eligious e lite , a c oncom itant t o p o lit ical e laboration , w ould b e a l ogical, e ven e xpected o ccurrence ( cf W allace 1 966 , 8 6-88 , a nd c hapter o ne a bove). I n s hort , C aesar a lone i s r eporting a d egree o f r e ligious o rganisat ion b ecause i t d eveloped a fter t he e ar lier o bservers w rote a nd , h ence , h e a lone c ould o bserve i t a t t he e nd o f C e lt ic i ndependence . C aesar f urther s pecif ies t hree o f t he d uties o f t he C eltic r e ligious s pecialists . T he f irst o f t hese i s t eaching , t hough t he c ontent o f t heir t eachings c an o nly b e d erived f rom t he v ar ious e vidences f or r e ligious p ractices . C aesar s tates t hat m any s tudents g o t o t he D ruids o f t heir o wn a ccord , o r a re s ent b y t heir p arents , a n a ttraction h e a ttr ibutes t o t he t ax-exempt s tatus o f t he D ruids . H e a lso s ays t hat t he t raining p er iod m ay e xtend u p t o t wenty y ears , a nd i nvolved m uch m emor isat ion o f o ral l iterature a nd d iscourses u pon t he h eavenly b odies a nd t heir m otion , t he s ize o f t he u niverse a nd t he w or ld , t he n ature o f t he p hysical w or ld , a nd t he s pheres o f a ctions o f t he g ods ( V 1 4 , T ierney 2 72). P omponius M ela a lso r efers t o t he t eaching r o le ( iii 2 ), a nd S trabo 's " moral p hilosophy" a nd D iodorus S iculus' " theology a nd p hilosophy" p robab ly a lso r efer g enerally t o t he t eachings . H ere , a s w e ll a s i n o ther t opics w hich w ill b e d iscussed ( below), t he o versimp licity o f C aesar 's u se o f " Druid" m ust b e b orne i n m ind . A ll o f t he o ther s ources d ist inguish a t l east o ne o ther g roup o f r e ligious s pecialists ( eg t he V ates), a nd e ven t his m ay b e o ver ly s implif ied , b ut C aesar r efers o nly t o D ruids , t hereby s ubsum ing o ther g roups w hich w ere p robab ly d istinct t o t he C e lts . As econd r esponsibility o f s ome o f t he r eligious s pecialists c an b e r eferred t o a s t he p ract ice o f c alendr ics . C aesar s aid t hat t he C elts c ount p eriods o f t ime , n ot b y t he n umber o f d ays , b ut b y t he n umber o f n ights , a nd i n r eckoning b irthdays , n ew m oon a nd n ew y ear , t he ir u nit o f r eckoning i s t he n ight f ollowed b y t he d ay ( VI 1 8 , T ierney 2 73). I n f act , t his f inds s tr iking c onf irmat ion i n a rchaeo logy - t he C o ligny C alendar . T his i s a n A ugustan c alendar i n b ronze , c over ing a p er iod o f
20 1-
6 2 l unar m onths , w hich u ses R oman n umerals a nd l etters , b ut w ritten i n G aulish : i t r eckons b y n ights , m arks l ucky a nd u nlucky d ays , a nd s hows c onsiderable a stronomical k now ledge ( Piggott 1 968 , 16). I t c learly m ust h ave b een t he w ork o f a n i ntellectual e lite , a nd t he p assage a bove a bout D ruidic s tudy o f t he m otions o f h eavenly b odies s urely c orrelates w ith t his c alendar . F urther , t he d ivision o f d ays , m onths a nd y ears i nto a uspicious a nd i nauspicious p arts ( cf R ees & R ees 1 961, 9 3 , 3 26 , 3 4 1, a nd c hapter e ight b elow) i s b ased o n o mens w hich c losely t ie c alendrics t o r eligion . A t hird d uty o f t he D ruids , i n p articular , i s s uperf icially s urprising i n a r eligious c ontext , f or t he D ruids w ere j udges a nd a rbiters i n a ddition t o t heir o ther d uties . C aesar a gain r efers t o t he p restige o f t he D ruids a s j udges i n a ll m atters , b oth p ub lic a nd p rivate , a nd c omments t hat t he y early D ruidic A ssembly j udged s uits f rom a ll o ver G aul, f rom w hich t here w as n o a ppeal. H e f urther s pecif ies t hat t heir u ltimate e nforcement w as b y t hreat o f e xcommunication , w ith a c onsequent l oss o f a ll l egal a nd r eligious r ights ( VI 1 3 , T ierney 2 71). S trabo ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 69) e choes C aesar 's c omments , b ut a dds t hat a bove a ll e lse , t he D ruids s ettled c ases o f m anslaughter , a nd f ormerly a rbitrated i n w ar . D iodorus S iculus r ather c ryptically s tates t hat i n b oth p eace a nd w ar , t he G auls w ould l isten t o t he D ruids a nd c arefully o bey t heir d ecisions ; p resumably t his i s aj udicial r ole ( V 3 1 , T ierney 2 51). T hus , b efore t he R oman c onquest , t he D ruids f ulfilled t he r oles o f j udge a nd a rbitrator , a pparently i n b oth c ivil a nd p rivate d isputes. A p erfect e xample o f t he i ntegration o f s ecular a nd r eligious s ubsystems , w ith a r ite o f s anctification ( the s acro—judicial t rial) a t t he p oint o f a rticulation ( cf c hapter o ne a bove). A f ourth r ole o f t he r eligious s pecialists , w hich c annot b e a ttributed t o a ny s pecif ic s ub—set , w as m edical. P liny t he E lder , p ossibly u sing T imaeus a s h is s ource , o r m ore l ikely w riting f rom h is o wn k now ledge , p resents D ruids ( here a gain t his m ay b e a c atch—all g eneralisation) a s m agico—doctors ( xvi 9 5 , x xiv 6 263 , s ee C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 1-33) a nd e mphasises t he i mportance o f t his r ole . H e m ay h ere b e g uilty o f o ver—emphasis i n t he a rea o f h is o wn i nterest . T ierney c onstrues t his r ole a s t he s ource o f d ruidic p restige ( 1960 , 2 15), w hile C hadw ick ( 1966 , 3 2) b elittles i t a s t rivial f or l ack o f c orroboration. I n f act , t here i s c orroboration ; C aesar ( VI 1 6 , T ierney 2 72) r efers t o t he u se o f s acrifices a s p art o f t he t reatment o f i llnesses. H ere a gain i s a n a pparent c onf lation o f d uties — b oth D ruids a nd V ates a re r equired o ff icials . S ome r eligious s pecialists , a t l east , h eld a m edical r ole , h owever , w hich i s c ertainly t o b e e xpected o f r eligious s pecialists i n m ost s ocieties ( Wallace 1 966 , 13125). T he f ifth r ole o f t he r eligious s pecialists h as b een i mplicit s ince i t w as e stablished t hat t here w ere a t l east t wo c lasses o f s pecialists — t hey w ere c losely a ssociated b y d istinct p erformances o f s acrif ice a nd d ivination . T hese a re e ach d iscussed b elow i n g reater d etail a s c ult p ractices ; h ere , o nly t he b asic p ractice i s n oted. W here d ivination i nvolves s acrifice , b oth D ruids a nd V ates a re i nvolved , a ccording t o S trabo ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 6), C aesar ( VI 1 3 , T ierney 2 7' 1), D iodorus S iculus ( V 3 1, T ierney 2 51) a nd P liny ( xvi 9 5), w hile d ivination a lone m ay b e m ore d irectly a ttributed t o t he V ates o nly , a s i n S trabo ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 69). T he o nly d irect r eference t o r eligious l iturgy i n t his c ontext i s m entioned b y D iodorus S iculus , w ho s ays t hat " for o fferings t o b e
a cceptable t o t he g ods , t hey m ust b e m ade t hrough t hose w ho a re a cquainted w ith t he ir n ature s ince t hey k now t heir ( ie , t he g ods') l anguage" ( v 3 1, T ierney 2 5 1). A s ixth d uty o f r eligious s pecialists w as m entioned a bove . T his i nvolves t he c are o f t emples a nd o ther r eligious l oci. L ucan m entions a p riest ( sacerdos , a ppropr iately u sed i n d ist inction t o t he o ther m ore c ommon t erms o f D ruid a nd V ates) w ho c ared f or a s acred w ood ( iii 3 99 ; s ee C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 5-37) a nd i n S trabo 's p assage a n i sland s hr ine i s s taffed w ith w omen d edicated t o D ionysus , s omet imes i nterpreted a s " priestesses" ( IV 6 , T ierney 2 69-270 ; c f P iggott 1 968 , 5 3 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 35). T hese w ould a ppear t o b e t he o nly i nstances o f t he u se o f " pr iest" ; i n e ach o f t he o ther r eferences t o C eltic r eligious s pecialists , t he e thnographers u sed t erms w hose p r imary r eference i s n ot " priest". T his c orrelat ion o f a s pecif ic t it le a nd a p art icular d uty m ay n ot b e e ntirely c onvincing e vidence f or a s eparate c lass o f r e ligious s pecialist , b ut i t i s c lear ly d ist inct f rom t hose a ssigned t o e ither D ruids o r V otes ( cf P iggott 's d iscussion o f g utuator i n t his r espect , 1 968 , 1 03). T here w ere u ndoubtedly s t ill m ore d ut ies o f r eligious s pecialists f or w hich t he s ources a re s ilent . O ne o bvious e xample i s t he o ff icial a t b urial c eremonies ( which a re d escr ibed) w ho i s n ever m entioned , a lthough s uch c eremonies a re a lmost c ertainly a r eligious r itual ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 978). R eligious L ocations A fter t he C e ltic d eit ies a nd t he r eligious s pecialists , t he t hird m ajor s ubject c onsistent ly d iscussed i n t he e thnographies c oncerns t he v ar ious t ypes o f l ocat ions i n w hich t he C e lts c onducted r itual p rac— t ices . C aesar s peaks w ith u nhelpful a mb iguity o f m any s acred p laces i n w hich w ere p laced v otives ( VI 1 7 , T ierney 2 72-273), w ithout s pecify ing w hat t hese p laces w ere . S trabo i s m ore p recise ; n ear a t emp le s anctuary n ear T oulouse w ere s acred e nclosures a nd p ools ( or l akes?), w hich h e ld v otives i nviolab le , a nd h e f urther s tates t hat t here w ere m any s uch p laces ( IV 1 3 , o n t he a uthor ity o f P osidonius , •T ierney 2 62). S trabo a lso r efers t o a n i sland o ff t he m outh o f t he L oire w here C elt ic p r iest— e sses ( or a t l east f emale r eligious s pecia lists) m aintained a t emple ( IV 6 , T ierney 2 69-270). D iodorus S iculus c ites t emp les a nd s anctuaries ( or p ossibly " shrines a nd e nclosures") t hroughout t he c ountry , p robab ly o n t he a uthor ity o f P osidonius ( V 2 7 , T ierney 2 49). D ur ing t he f irst c entury A D , r eferences a re f ound o f t he u se o f s ecluded g roves o r c lear— i ngs i n w oods f or r eligious s ervices ; T acitus s peaks o f g roves o n A nglesey ( xiv 3 0 A nnals ; C hadw ick 1 966 , 2 8), P liny p laces h is f amous m ist letoe r itual i n ag rove ( xvi 9 5 , C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 4), P omponius M ela ( i ii 2 ) a nd L ucan ( i 4 47) m ention t hem i n g eneral, a nd r efer s pecifical— l y t o a s acred w ood n ear M arse illes , w hich h ad c rude s culptures o f d eities a nd w as a ttended b y a p r iest ( sacerdos) ( iii 3 99 i n P harsalia , C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 6-37). P omponius M e la a lso r efers t o a nother i sland , t his o ne o ff t he s outhwest t ip o f B r ittany , w here c ould b e f ound n ine p r iestesses w ith a v ar iety o f p owers ( Chorographia II v i 8 , D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 35). D io C assius m ent ions s anctuar ies u sed d ur ing t he B oudican r evolt i n B r itain ( lxii v i 7 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 38). A mong t he G ermani, T acitus w r ites o f a v irgin p rophetess o r s eer w ho l ived s ecluded i n a h igh t ower ( Histor ies , i v 6 1-65 , v 2 2 2 4 ; c f C hadw ick 1 966 , 6 9-80).
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P olyb ius , w riting o f t he I nsubr ian C e lts i n t he a rea a round m odern M ilan , m akes a c omment w e ll w orth q uot ing f ully . H e s ays ( Histor ies I 3 2) o f t he C e lts t hat w hen t hreatened b y aR oman a rmy i n 2 23 B C : " They g athered a ll t heir f orces , t ook d own t he g o lden s tandards w hich a re k nown a s t he " Immovab les" f rom t he T emp le o f M inerva a nd m ade a ll t he o ther p reparat ions f or w ar .." T hree p oints o f i nterest e merge f rom t his c omment . F irst , t he e xistence o f at emple ; s econdly , t he a doption o f t he R oman M inerva ; a nd t hirdly , t he u se o f s tandards o f g old , p robab ly t o b e i nterpreted a s i cons . T hese I nsubrian C elts w ill, o f c ourse , h ave h ad c onsiderab le c ontact w ith t he E truscan/Roman w or ld , a nd t hus a mple o pportunity t o a dopt c lassical a tt itudes a nd o bjects , b ut t he r est o f P olyb ius' d escr iption o f t he C e lts s eems v ery C eltic i n n ature , a nd t he p ossibil— i ty i s s trong t hat t emples a nd s tandards r epresent i ndigenous C eltic t radit ions . I t i s p erhaps s ignif icant t hat t he e ar lier s ources , i ncluding P osidonius , S trabo , D iodorus S iculus a nd C aesar , a ll r efer t o s anctuar ies/enclosures w ith t emples , a nd s ome w ith l akes/pools a s w ell, a pparently s cattered t hroughout G aul. I n a ddition , t wo i slands a re m entioned , o ne a t l east w ith a d ef inite s hr ine . T his r ef lects a t endency f or l arge r eligious s ites t o b e a way f rom t he l arge v illages o r o pp ida , w hich m ight h ave a ppeared u nusua l a nd n oteworthy t o a M editerranean o bserver . B ut i t d oes n ot l ead t o t he " absence o f f ormal b uildings" t hat P iggott p ostulated ( 1968 , 1 05106 ; c f L ew is 1 966 , 1 4). I ndeed , t here a re s everal r eferences t o t emples o r s hrines i n t he s anctuar ies , a nd s hr ines i n C elt ic v illages m ay h ave s eemed t oo c ommonplace t o d eserve c omment . I t i s d ur ing t he f irst c entury A D t hat a n a ura o f r ust icity i n r eligious s ites b ecomes c ommon , f or t hese s ources e mphasise t he r emote a nd s ecluded g roves/clearings u sed f or s pecif ically D ruidic p ract ices . C hadw ick h as a rgued t hat t his c hange o f e mphasis f rom t he f irst c entury B C t o t he f irst c entury A D i s t he r esult o f t wo u nrelated , b ut c oncur— r ent , p rocesses . F irst , t he C e ltic r eligious h ierarchy w ould i nevitab ly h ave l ost p rest ige t o t he R oman o ver lords , a nd m ight h ave b een r educed t o t he u se o f r emote a nd p oor s ites . T he s econd p rocess m ay h ave b een m ore d rastic — a n a ct ive R oman s uppression o f t he D ruids ( not n ecessari— l y o f G aulish r eligion , w hich r evived c onsiderab ly i n t he t hird c entury A D [ Ferguson 1 970 , 2 11-243]) a s a r esult o f t heir G a llic—nat ionalist a ct ivities ( 1966 , 6 9-83). R egardless o f t he e xtent o f t his r epression o f t he D ruids ( the e v idence i s e quivocal), t he f irst p rocess a lone c ould b e s uff icient f or a c hange i n t he n ature a nd l ocation o f C eltic r e ligious l ocations . I n s ummary , t here a re r eferences f or a n umber o f p robab ly r ural r eligious s anctuar ies , m any w ith t emples o r s hr ines , s ome w ith p ools o f w ater . I n a ddition , t here i s a t rend f or r eligious l oci o n i s lands , s ometimes w ith t emples , a nd t here a re t he " shr ines a nd e nclosures" w ithout a ny e laborat ing c omments . T he p ossib ility o f v illage s hr ines , w hich w ould p robably h ave b een u nremarkab le t o a G reek o r R oman o bserver , m ay w ell h ave g one u nnoted , e specially i f t hey l acked t he i mpressive v otive d eposits o f t he r ural s anctuar ies .
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E schatology :
B eliefs o f S oul a nd A fter life
T he c lassical e thnographers m ake a n umber o f r eferences t o o ne s pecif ic r eligious b e lief o f t he C elts , w hich i ronically h as r esulted i n am odern c ontroversy . T his i s t he C e lt ic b elief i n t he i mmortality o f m an 's s oul, a nd m ore i mportantly , i ts f ate a fter d eath . J ulius C aesar w rote t hat t he D ruids a ttach p articular i mportance t o t heir t eaching t hat t he s oul d oes n ot p er ish , b ut p asses a fter d eath f rom o ne b ody t o a nother ( VI 1 4 , T ierney 2 72). S trabo a grees w ith t his , a nd a dds t hat t he C eltic c osmology w ould a llow f ire a nd w ater t o t emporar ily p revail o ver t he i ndestructib ility o f t he s ouls ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 769) , t his p robab ly o n t he a uthor ity o f P osidonius. D iodorus S iculus r efers t o t he i mmortality o f t he s ouls , a nd a dds t hat a fter a c ertain p eriod o f t ime t he s ouls e nter u pon a n ew l ife , e quat ing t his b elief t o t he G reek P ythagoreans ' t ransm igrat ion o f s ouls ( V 2 8 , T ierney 2 50). S light ly l ater , i n t he m id—f irst c entury A D , P omponius M ela r epeats t he s ame v iew a nd f o llows C aesar i n u sing t he b elief i n a n a fterlife a s a n e xp lanation f or t he C e ltic r eadiness f or w ar ( iii 2 , c f C hadw ick 1 966 , 2 9-30). L ucan a lso m ent ions t hese t hemes , i ncluding a n a fter life ( i 4 4 1). T he f ourth c entury A mm ianus M arcellinus , r ely ing o n t he m id—f irst c entury B C T imagenes , a lso w rites o f t he C eltic b e lief i n t he i mmortality o f t he s oul i n a ssociat ion w ith ? ythagorean d octr ines ( v 2 8 , w hether T imagenes s poke o f P ythagoreanism o r w hether t his i s a M arcelline c ommentary i s u ncertain). T here a re t wo q uite d ifferent a spects t o t hese s tatements . T he f irst a spect , w hich i s d irect ly a ttributable t o t he C elts , i ncludes a b elief i n a n i mmorta l s oul a nd a n a fter life f ollow ing d eath i n t his w or ld . T he s econd a spect i s t he a ttr ibut ion , o r a ssociat ion , o f t hese b eliefs t o t he d octr ine o f t he t ransm igration o f s ouls o f P ythagoras . T his s econd a spect , o f P ythagoreanism , l ed C hadw ick i nto a d iscursive d iscussion o f h ow t he C e lts b orrowed t his b elief f rom t he G reeks ( or e ven , v ice v ersa , 1 966 , 5 1-68). T his i s , h owever , a n u nnecessary c omplicat ion , f or n one o f t he w r iters r efer t o a C eltic b e lief t hat m atches a t ransm igration o f s ouls i n t he P ythagorean s ense , w hich i nvo lves a ll f orms o f l ife ( cf P iggott 1 968 , 14). I nstead , i t a ppears t hat P ythagoreanism w as u sed a s a n a pproximate a nalogy t o r ender t he C eltic b e lief m ore u nderstandab le t o aM editerranean a udience . W hat i s t here i n t he C elt ic a fter life w hich w ould r equire s uch a n a nalogue? T he R oman c onception o f a n a fterlife w as o f a g r im a nd f orb idding e x istence — f or s ouls w ere i mmortal t o t he R omans t oo — w herein r etr ibution c ould b e e xacted f rom t he d ead ( Ferguson 1 970 , 1 32149). H ow d id t he C eltic b e liefs d iffer? T here a re t hree c omments f rom o ur s ources w hich s hed s ome l ight o n t he n ature o f t he C eltic a fterlife . D iodorus S iculus m ent ions , i n i ncredulity , t hat t he C elts w ould c ast l etters o nto a f uneral p yre w ith t he e xpectation t hat t he d eceased w ould r ead t hem i n t he a fterlife ( V 2 8 , T ierney 2 50). S im ilar ly , C aesar s ays t hat " everything w hich t he d ead l oved i n l ife i s g iven t o t he f uneral p yre" ( VI 1 9 , T ierney 2 73). P omponius M ela c onf irms t hese c omments d ur ing t he f irst c entury A D : " that s ouls a re e ternal a nd t hat t here i s a nother l ife a nd i t i s f or t his r eason t oo t hat t hey b urn o r b ury w ith t heir d ead , t hings a ppropr iate t o t hem i n l ife , a nd t hat i n t imes p ast t hey e ven u sed t o d efer t he c ompletion o f b usiness a nd t he p ayment o f d ebts u nt il t heir a rrival i n a nother w or ld" ( iii 2 1 819 , c f K endr ick 1 927 , 8 7-88). T his p ract ice i s i mmediately u nderstandab le i n t he c ontext o f t he d iscussion i n t he c hapter o n e thno logy ( chapter n ine), r equir ing t he d estruct ion o f
o bjects i n t his w orld i n t he p rocess o f t heir r e—appearance i n a n a fterlife o r w or ld o f t he g ods. T hus , t he C elt ic a fter life w as o ne i n w hich a ll t he p ossessions o f t he l iving h ad a p lace — s uggest ive o f a n a fter life n ot u nlike t his l ife . A n u nderstanding o f t his b e lief w ill b e e nhanced c onsiderab ly w ith t he a ddit ion o f t he I r ish v ernacular l iterature b elow . F or t he m oment , h owever , t his p resents a c onsistent a nd r easonable p icture w ithin t he C eltic c ontext , h owever u nusual i t w as t o t he M editerranean w r iters , o r i ncredib le i t s eemed t o T ierney ( 1960 , 2 06). S acrif ices T he f ifth a spect o f C eltic r eligious p ract ices w hich i s c lear ly r epresented i n t he C eltic e thnographies i s t he r itual s acr if ice o f b oth h umans a nd a nimals . T he s acrif ice o f h umans r eceives p rom inence t hrough an umber o f c ensorious c omments b y t he c lassical w riters , b ecause o f t he p erceived b arbarity w hen c ompared w ith R oman c ivilisat ion ( Strabo I V 1 , T ierney 2 11); t his b arbar ity h as a ffected m odern s cholars n o l ess . C hadw ick a rgues u nconvincingly t o s eparate D ruids f rom t he a ctual k illing ( 1966 , 3 7), w hile P iggott a llows b oth i ts o ccurrence a nd D ruidic i nvolvement , b ut l abels t he r eligion " crude" ( 1968 , 10111). A ll t hese v iews a re e thnocentr ic i n t he e xtreme ; i t r equires n o c ondonat ion t o a ccept t he p ract ice o f s acr if ice i n C eltic r eligion — a ny o ther a pproach w ill g ive a b iased a nd i naccurate p icture o f t hat r eligious s ystem . T he e arliest r eference t o C eltic s acr if ice i s f rom S opater i n A thenaeus ( iv 5 1 , c f C hadw ick 1 966 , 2 9) w ho m entions t he G alatians ( ie C elts) s acr if icing p r isoners o f w ar t o t he -i t g ods , c irca 2 70 B C . T he n ext r eferences a re f rom t he f irst c entury B C , w hen C aesar s peaks o f c o lossal f igures o f w icker w hich f ormed t he p yre f or l arge—scale s acr ifices ( IV 1 6 , T ierney 2 72); t his i s e choed i n S trabo ( IV 5 , T ierney 2 69) a nd D iodorus S iculus ( V 3 2 , T ierney 2 52). I n t his c ontext , S trabo a dds a nimals t o t he h uman v ict ims. C aesar s pecif ies t hat h uman s acrif ices w ere m ade i n t ime o f g reat d anger o r i mportance ( VI 1 6 , T ierney 2 72); t hat D ruids w ere o ff icials i n t he p erformance o f s uch s acrif ices i s f ound i n C aesar ( above) a nd i n D iodorus S iculus ( V 3 1 , T ierney 2 5 1). D iodorus S iculus a nd S trabo s hare a g raphic a ccount o f o ne v ersion o f t hese s acr if ices , b y m eans o f s tabb ing a m an a nd d ivining t he f uture f rom h is d eath t hroes ( Strabo I V 5 , T ierney 2 69 ; D iodorus S iculus V 3 1 , T ierney 2 5 1; b oth p ossib ly q uote P osidonius). S trabo m entions t he s acr if ice o f u nspecif ied v ict ims b y s hooting t hem w ith a rrows o r i mpaling t hem i n t emples ( the o nly t ime t he p lace o f t he r itual i s s pecif ied [ IV 4 , T ierney 2 69]). D iodorus S iculus e mphasises t he i mpiety o f u sing c r im inals , p r isoners o f w ar , a nd c aptured a nimals a s v ictims o f s acr if ice , t hough n ot o bjecting t o t he s acrif ice o f a nimals p er s e ( V 3 2 , T ierney 2 52). C aesar m entions t he u se o f a nimal s acrif ices i n t imes o f i llness ( VI 1 6 , T ierney 2 72). T he r esponsib ility f or p erformance o f t hese r ituals i s a ssigned t o t he D ruids b y C aesar , h ere a pparent ly r eferr ing t o b oth h umans a nd a nimals ( VI 1 3 a nd 1 6 , T ierney 2 71-272), a nd b y D iodorus S iculus ( V 3 1 , T ierney 2 5 1). S trabo n ames t he V ates a s o ff icials , t hough i n t his p assage h is t one i s g eneral a nd m atter o f f act a nd s o t he s acrif ices m ay b e a nimals ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 69). L ater r eferences t o s acr if ices i nclude D io C assius' t o h uman s acrif ices i n B ritain i n t he f irst c entury A D ( D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 38); p ossib ly c omments i n T acitus o n A nglesey ( Annals x iv 3 0 , C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 0); o n t he c ontinent , b y L ucan ( iii 3 99); a nd o ne o n s acr if ice o f
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a nimals i n P liny ( xvi 9 5 , C hadw ick 1 966 , 3 4). F inally , P omponius M ela i n t he m id—f irst c entury B C , s peaks o f h uman s acrifice b y t he C elts a s s omething o f t he p ast ( iii 2 ). T he d iscrepancies i n t he m atter o f o fficials r esponsible f or c onducting s acrifices w ere n oted a bove . B oth V ates a nd D ruids a re m ent ioned , b oth t ogether a nd a s s eparately r esponsib le . F urther , t he d iversity o f b oth v ictims a nd o f m ethods i s n otable . T his a ppears t o b e a c ondensation , o r c onflation , o f a v ar iety o f r ituals i nto a n o versimplif ied f ramework . R ecalling a gain t he d iscussion i n c hapters f our a nd f ive a bout s acrifices a nd W allace's ( 1966 , 8 6-87) d iscussion o f c ult i nstitutions , i t m ay b e s uggested t hat b ehind t hese r eferences t here w ould h ave b een a d ivision o f s acrifices b y v ictim , m ethod , g oal o r f unction , d eity a nd o ff icial i nvolved , w ith s ome o verlaps. F or e xample , V ates a lone w ould h ave c onducted s ome s acrif ices , D ruids o thers , a nd s ome s acrif ices m ay h ave r equired t he p resence o f b oth. D ivination C losely a ssociated w ith s acrifice i n t he C eltic e thnographies i s t he s ubject o f d ivination a nd a ugury . T here a re o nly a h andful o f r eferences t hat d eal w ith d ivination , d oubtless b ecause i t w ould h ave s eemed c ommonplace t o t he R omans. N ot s urprisingly , s everal o f t hese r eferences a re o f d ivination i nvolving t he a bhorred h uman s acrif ice . C aesar s peaks o nly o f t he D ruidic r esponsibility f or t he c orrect i nterpretation o f p erformance o f r itual, w ithout s pecify ing w hat r itual, t hough i t i s a rguably d ivination t hat i s i mplied ( VI 1 3 , T ierney 2 71). D iodorus S iculus i s m uch m ore f orthcoming , s peaking o f t he r ole o f t he V ates a s d iviners a nd a ugurers a s w ell a s s acrificers ( VI 3 1, T ierney 2 5 1), a nd m entioning a ugury f rom t he f light o f b irds a s w ell a s f rom t he s acrif ice o f a nimals. H e t hen r ecounts t he p assage o f d ivination f rom t he d eath t hroes o f a h uman s acrifice ( VI 3 1, T ierney 2 5 1). S trabo e choes b oth t he r ole o f V ates a s s acr ificers a nd d iviners a s w ell a s t he p assage o f d eath t hroes d ivination , w ith a m ore d irect r equirement f or a D ruidic p resence f or t his l ast t ype o f s acrifice ( IV 4 , T ierney 2 69). F rom t hese c omments , s everal p oints m ay b e r easonably m ade : t he C elts u sed a t l east t wo m ajor f orms o f d ivination — t he o bservation o f n atural e vents , i nterpreted a s o mens , a nd t he s acr if ice o f a nimals a nd p eople . T he f irst o f t hese i s c ertainly o ne o f t he d uties o f t he V ates , b ut t he s econd i nvolved b oth D ruids a nd V ates i n s ome w ay . H ere a gain, i t w ould s eem t hat p rogressive s implification i n t he s ources h as o bscured t he o riginal c omplexity . V otive O fferings E vidence r emains f or o ne f urther a spect o f C eltic r eligion , m entioned b rief ly w hen c ult l oci w ere c onsidered , a nd t his i s t he d edication o f m aterial o bjects a s v otives t o t he g ods. T he e vidence i s v ery b rief a nd i s f ound i n t he p rincipal s ources o f C aesar , S trabo a nd D iodorus S iculus. C aesar r elates t he e xistence o f m any s acred p laces w ithin w hich c ould b e s een m ounds o f v otive o bjects , e specially b ooty g ained i n w ar , w hich , h e s ays , w ere h eld i nviolable o n p ain o f d eath ( VI 1 7 , T ierney 2 72-273). I n S trabo i s f ound t he a ccount o f t he t emple s anctuary , w ith g reat t reasure s tored i n s acred e nclosures a nd p ools , h eld i nviolable b y t he C elts g enerally , b ut p lundered b y t he C onsul C aepio , c iting P osidonius a nd T imagenes f or t he i nformation ( IV 1 3 , T ierney 2 62). T he a ccount i n D iodorus S iculus i s l ess s pecific t han
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S trabo 's , s imply c ommenting t hat i n t he t emples a nd s anctuaries d edicated t hroughout t he l and w ere l arge a mounts o f g old v otives , i nviolable t hrough r eligious s anction ( V 2 7 , T ierney 2 49). A pparently , t he s trangeness o f t his c ustom w as t he v aluable n ature o f t he v otives , t heir r elative a ccessibility w ithin t he s anctuaries , a nd t he r ural l ocation o f t he s anctuaries. T his m ay h ave s eemed p eculiar t o t he R omans , b ut w ell r einforces C aesar 's o bservation ( IV 1 67 , T ierney 2 72) t hat t he e ntire n ation o f G aul w as p rone t o r eligious o bservances. O ne f inal p oint m ay b e m ade , w hich s tands u nique a mong a ll t he i nformation c ontained i n t he C eltic e thnographies. I n L ivy ( History , V3 4), t here a re g iven t hree l egends f or t he c auses o f t he C eltic m igra— t ions a cross t he A lps i nto n orth I taly a nd i nto t he P o V alley , a nd o ne o f t hese s eems t o b e aC eltic m yth r epeated b y R omans ( including [ ivy), w ho d id n ot u nderstand i ts o riginal s ignif icance . [ ivy w rites o f K ing A mbitgatus , o f t he B ituriges , " who b y h is p ersonal q ualities , a ided b y t he g ood l uck w hich b lessed b oth h imself a nd h is s ubjects , h ad a ttained v ery g reat p ower ; i ndeed , u nder h is r ule G aul b ecame s o r ich a nd p opulous t hat e ffective c ontrol o f s uch l arge n umbers w as a m atter o f s erious d ifficulty" a nd t hat m ass m igration w as t he m eans f ound t o e mploy t he s urplus m anpower a nd w ealth . T he i mportant p oint t o b e m ade h ere i s t he g reat l uck a nd w ealth w hich a ccrued t o t he B ituriges u pon t he p ersonal q ualities o f t he K ing . A lthough t his h as n o p arallel i n t he C eltic e thnographies t o s uggest i ts m eaning , i t i s p erfectly e xplained i n t he c ontext o f C eltic m ythology d iscussed i n t he n ext c hapter .
S UMMARY A s h as b een s een , t he e vidence o f b oth t he C eltic e thnographies a nd t he i nscriptions a nd r epresentations i s p lentiful a nd v aried , a nd i s e specially i nformative o n w hat c ould b e c alled t he s tructural a nd f unctional a spects o f C eltic r eligion . I n s pite o f t he l im itations i nherent i n t he e vidence , ag eneral p icture o f C eltic r eligion h as b een a ssembled. T he n umerous C eltic d eities a re d ef ined b y b oth t heir f unctional a ttributes a nd b y t he l ocality w ith w hich t heir p ower i s a ssociated . M ost o f t he g ods a re c onnected t o f ertility a nd p rosperity , b ut t he p re—em inence o f M ercury—avatars o f c raft , t ravel a nd t rade i s n oteworthy . T he u se o f m ulti—factor a nalyses w ould p robab ly a llow a m uch c loser a nd m ore d etailed d escription. T he e vidence f or C eltic r eligious s pecialists i s e specially g ood. S everal c lasses o f s pecialists a re i ndicated , o f v ary ing s tatus ; t he p redominant D ruids w ere h ighly o rganised a nd w idespread. T he o ther c lasses w ere p robably o f l ess s tatus a nd p ossibly l ocal c ult r epresentatives , b ut t he e vidence i s l ess c ertain f or t his . A t l east s even f unctions c an b e a ttributed t o o ne o r m ore o f t he c lasses o f r eligious s pecialists : 1
T he t each ing o f t he r eligious d octr ine
2
C ivil
3
M edicine
4
C alendrics
j ustice
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5
D ivinat ion
6
S acr if ice
7
C are o f t emples
O ther f unct ions , s uch a s f uneral c eremonies , a re h ighly p robab le , b ut a re a s y et u nattested . T hrough t hese v ar ious f unctions , i t c an b e c onf idently s tated t hat r eligion w as i ntimately " embedded" i n a ll a spects o f C e ltic s ociety , f rom p olit ics a nd e conom ics t o m ora lity a nd t he d ay t o d ay w ork ing o f t he s ocia l s ystem . T his i s , o f c ourse , e xactly w hat w ould b e e xpected , b ased u pon t he e thnologica l l iterature ( eg G oode 1 95 1, o n D ahomey). Am ore d etailed a ssessment o f t he r o le o f r e ligion i n C eltic s ociety w ill b e m ade a t t he e nd o f t he f o llow ing s ect ion o n t he I rish e vidence . T here i s a lso e vidence f or a v ar iety o f r eligious l ocat ions w hich m ay b e f unctionally d ifferent iated . T he e vidence f or C e ltic b e lief i n t he s oul a nd a n a fter life i s p art icular ly i nteresting i n c onjunction w ith t he d iscussion i n t he p revious c hapter o f b ur ial r ites a nd t heir a ssociated r ituals. T he s acrif ice o f a nimals a nd h umans i s w ell a ttested i n t he e vidence a nd i s e ssent ia l i nformat ion f or u nderstanding h ow t he C elts i nteracted w ith t heir s upernatural, a s a re a lso d ivinat ion a nd v otive o fferings .
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CH A P T E R
8
T HE C ELTIC V ERNACULAR L ITERATURE
I re land a nd W ales , u nique a mong t he o nce—Ce ltic r egions , h ave p reserved c onsiderable q uantities o f C elt ic m ytho logy . S peculat ive ly , t his m ay b e a ttr ibuted t o t he a bsence o f , o r r elatively s uperf icial n ature o f R oman o ccupat ion , f or , u nlike t he s ituat ion i n G aul, w here C eltic p aganism w as a ssim ilated b y R oman c ulture a nd r eligion , C e ltic p aganism i n I re land a nd W ales w as p reserved u ntil s upplanted b y C hristianity . T hus , o nly o ne p er iod o f t ransition o ccurred , o nly o ne s et o f c hanges e vo lved . F urther , w hen C hr istianity d id a rrive i n I reland , i t w as d irected b y n at ive I r ish c lergy , m en a lready s teeped i n t he l ore a nd t radit ions o f t heir p eop le . T hese C hr istian m onks , t hough f ervid i n t heir f aith , w itness t he f lorescence o f t he C eltic C hurch ( D illon & C hadw ick 1 967), w ere l iberal e nough t o v a lue a nd t o r ecord t he t raditional m yths o f t heir f ellow C elts . L acking a n i ntermediate R oman r ep lacement , t his t radit ional m ythology w as C eltic : p agan C eltic . T he r esult i s t hat a n i mpressive q uant ity o f i nformat ion o n C elt ic s ociety a nd r eligion i s p reserved i n t he m ytho logy .
T HE E VIDENCE T he N ature o f t he S ources I r ish M ytho logy T he I r ish m yths a nd s tor ies a re p reserved i n a n umber o f m edieval m anuscr ipts w hich a re , i n t urn , c opies o f s till e ar lier v ersions , a ll w ritten i n t he v ernacular , t hat i s , O ld I r ish . B efore e ven t he f irst w r itten v ersions , n o l onger e xtant , t he m yths w ere p assed t hrough o ral t ransmission f or a c onsiderab le l ength o f t ime ( Jackson 1 964 ; O 'Rahilly 1 967 ; G antz 1 98 1, 2 0-27). T he e ar liest e xtant m anuscr ipt i s t he L eabor n a H uidre ( henceforth " LH"), o r B ook o f t he D un C ow , f rom t he s criptorium o f C lonmacno is . T he c hief s cribe t here i s k nown t o h ave b een s lain b y r aiders i n 106 , p roviding a " term inus a nte q uem" f or t he c odif icat ion o f t he s tories i ncluded . A lthough l ess t han h alf o f t he o r iginal m anuscript s urvives , t he L eabor n a H uidre i ncludes m ore o r l ess c omp lete v ersions o f t hirty—seven m yths a nd s tor ies . A s econd m anuscr ipt , k nown a s t he B ook o f L einster , d ates i n i ts p resent f orm t o a bout 160 . T he B ook o f L einster i s n ear ly t hree t imes a s l ong a s t he s urviving t ext o f t he L H a nd p rovides c omplete v ersions o f m any o f t he l atter 's p artial
n arratives , i ncluding a c omplete a nd p olished a ccount o f t he e pic Tin B 6 C üalnge . T wo l ater m anuscripts a re a lso i mportant b ecause t hey p rovide c omplete v ersions o f s tories w hich t he e arlier m anuscripts c ontain o nly i n p art ; t he f ourteenth c entury Y ellow B ook o f L ecan a nd t he E gerton m anuscript n umber 1 782 , w hich i s d ated t o 1 419 . W hile t hese a re n ot t he o nly m anuscripts t o c ontain I rish m ythology , t hey a re t ypical o f t he c ollection ( for f ull d iscussions s ee O 'Rahilly 1 978 ; M urphy 1 961; J ackson 1 964 , 1 971; G antz 1 98 1; M cCana 1 970). T he l ate d ate o f t hese m anuscripts h as o ccasioned d ebate o ver t heir a uthenticity , a nd i t i s i mportant t o a ssess t he p rocess b y w hich t he m anuscript c ame i nto b eing . W ith t he i ntroduction o f w riting , t ales w hich h ad b een o rally t ransmitted f or g enerations c ould b e s et d own i n w ritten f orm . I t i s p robable t hat t he o riginal r enderings w ere d one b y m onks , e ither t hemselves f am iliar w ith t he s tor ies , o r p erhaps a s t hey w ere h eard f rom t he p rofessional s tory—tellers . T hese m anuscripts , p reserved i n m onasteries, w ere l ater c opied b y o ther m onks. T his p rocess o f t ransmission i s v erified b y t he s urviving " tab le o f c ontents" f rom t he B ook o f D ruimm S nechtai, w hich l ists m any o f t he s tories o f l ater m anuscripts a nd i s d ated t o t he v ery e arly e ighth c entury ( Gantz 1 98 1, 2 0-21). T hus , t he w ritten t radition o f t he I rish v ernacular l iterature b egan b y a t l east t he e arly e ighth c entury ; t he e xtant v ersions , c opies m ade s everal c enturies l ater , a re t herefore s ubject t o t he o bjections i nherent i n c opies s everal t imes r emoved f rom t he o riginal. A m ore i mportant f actor , t he d ating o f t he s tories t hemselves , o r t he d ating o f t heir c omposit ion , i s a m ore p erplexing t ask . T he I r ish s tory t ellers g rouped t he m yths b y t hematic t ypes , s uch a s b irth , d eath , w ooings , v isions , v oyages e tc , a rranged i n t riads f or e ase o f r emembering ( Gantz 1 981, 2 2 ; M cCana 1 970 , 1 7). A m ore a rtificial m ethod o f g rouping h as b ecome c onventional w ith m odern s cholars , b ased o n f our " cycles". T he f irst i s t he M ythological C ycle , w hich d eals w ith t he e xplicitly s upernatural w or d o f t he g ods , t he S ide a nd t he O therworld . S econd i s t he U lster , o r H eroic C ycle , r evolving a round a s er ies o f p urportedly h istorical p eople a nd e vents o f t he U laid. N ext i s t he F inian C ycle , w hich c hronicles t he F iana b ands a nd t heir l eader , F inn m ac C unaill. T he l ast c ycle , T he K ings C ycle , i s l ess s tructured; s imply a c ollection o f t ales o f v arious k ings o f I reland. A s M cCana ( 1970 , 1 7) p oints o ut , h owever , e ven t he l ast t hree c ycles c ontain m uch m ythic m aterial. M any o f t he c haracters , e specially t he g ods a nd h eroes , a ppear i n s everal o f t he c ycles.
W elsh M ythology E arly W elsh m ythology s urvives i n r ecognisab le f orm i n s ix s tories , w hile a f urther h alf d ozen s tories a re l argely m edieval r omances w ith f ew v estiges o f p urely C eltic t raditions. F our o f t he s ix e arly s tories f orm a l oosely u nited w hole , k nown s ince 1 849 a s T he M abinogion ( Guest 1 8381849). T he o ther t wo e ar ly s tories a re " Culhwch a nd O lwen" a nd " The D ream o f R honabwy". T he e arliest e xtant c omplete v ersion o f t he M abinogion i s i n t he R ed B ook o f H erqest , c irca 1 400 , a nd i s t he p roduct o f as ingle a uthor/ r edactor , w ho d eliberately a ttempted t o p roduce a u nified s equence o f s tories ( Gantz 1 976 , 2 1). S cattered f ragments o f s tories f rom t he M abinogion a re i n t he s urviving p art o f t he W hite B ook o f R hydderch , c irca 1 325 , a s w ell a s a f ew l ines o f t wo s tories i n t he m anuscript P eniarth 6 , w hich i s d ated t o a bout 1 225 ( Gantz 1 976 , 2 9), o r p erhaps
e ar lier ( McCana 1 970 , 7 5). T he v olume o f W e lsh m ytho logy , t herefore , i s m uch s maller t han t hat o f t he I r ish , a nd a pparently t ook w r itten f orm s everal c entur ies l ater . L im itations o n I nterpretation A ttempts t o i nterpret p agan C elt ic r e ligious b eliefs f rom t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature , n o m atter h ow s ophist icated t he m ethods o f a nalysis e mployed , a re l im ited b y s evera l f eatures i nherent i n t he l iterature i tse lf . T he l im itations m ay b e c lassif ied i nto t hree t ypes : s patial, t emporal a nd s ty listic. B ecause t hese d iffer s lightly f or t he t wo s ets o f l iterature , t hey w ill b e d iscussed s eparately a nd t hen c ompared w ith e ach o ther . I rish M ytho logy T he m ost o bvious f eature o f t he I r ish v ernacular l iterature w hich l im its i nterpretat ion i s , o f c ourse , t hat i t i s I r ish . T he f act t hat I reland a lone a mong t he C e ltic n ations d id n ot u ndergo c olonisation b y t he R omans , p ermitted a dditional c entur ies o f l oca l d evelopment t o o ccur . H istor ical e pisodes w ould b e o f I r ish o r igin ; t raditions a nd c ustoms w ould a ssume a n I r ish f lavour n ot n ecessar ily a pparent i n a nother l ocale a nd c ulture . T hus , w hile r esults o f a s tudy o f I r ish m ythology a re u ndoubtedly a pplicab le t o C elt ic m ater ial f rom W ales , E ngland a nd F rance , s uch a pplication m ust b e d one b y c areful a nalogy b ased o n e xtensive p arallels. T he s econd l im iting f actor i s a t emporal o ne . T he w ritten c odif icat ion o f t he I rish m yths w as u nder w ay b y a bout A D 7 00 , b ut t he s tor ies r ecorded w ere a ncient e ven w hen f irst w r itten d own . T he r ecognition o f a n e xtensive p er iod o f o ral t ransm ission i s n ow a n a ccepted f eature o f t he m yths ( see M cCana 1 970 , 1 416 , 1 31137 ; O lmsted 1 979 ; J ackson 1 964 , 4 3-55). K H J ackson ( 1964) h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat t he s ociety p ortrayed i n t he I rish m yths w as a n h eroic s ociety , w ith p arallels i n t he a rchaeology o f B r itain a nd G aul, a s w ell a s w ith t he s ociety o bserved b y t he c lassical e thnographers . F urthermore , J ackson ( 1964 , 1 971) a nd M cCana ( 1970) b oth s how t hat t he s ociety p ortrayed i n t he m yths i s a p agan s ociety , a nd w here C hrist ian o ver lay o ccurs , i t m ay o ften b e r ecognised a s a n i ll—f itting a nd d eliberate a ddition . T he c onclusion i s , t herefore , t hat t he s tor ies w ere b eing o rally t ransm itted b efore t he a rr ival o f C hr ist ianity i n I re land i n t he e ar ly f ifth c entury . A t t he v ery l east , t he s tor ies a re p ostulated t o h ave s urvived 3 00 y ears o f p ure ly o ral p reservation , a nd p ossib ly a m uch l onger t ime s pan ( O 'Rahilly 1 967 , x iv). T here i s n othing i nherent ly i nexplicable a bout t his , f br a s J ackson ( 1964) , G antz ( 198 1, 1 8-20), O lmsted ( 1979 , 18), a nd M cCana ( 1970 , 1 415) a ll d emonstrate , t he C eltic c lass o f p rofessional p oets ( filid i n I r ish) e xisted t o p erform j ust t his f unct ion . I ndeed , a p aralle l c lass i n I ndia ( Rees & R ees 1 961) p reserved t he C anonical V edic t exts i n o ral f orm f or s omething a pproaching 3 ,000 y ears ( O lmsted 1 979 , 18). J ackson p referred a n e ar ly l im it f or c omposition o f a bout 2 00 B C a nd a l ater l im it o f a bout 3 00 A D ( 1964), w hile O 'Rahilly ( 1967 , x iii—xiv) a ppears t o f avour t he l ater p art o f t his t ime s pan . A n o r igin i n t he f irst t wo c enturies A D s eems a r easonable c omprom ise . I n a ny e vent , t he m ilieu o f t hese s tories i s ap agan C elt ic s ociety .
T here a re s everal o ther f eatures o f t he m yths w hich i mpede i nterpretat ion ; t hese h ave b een c omb ined t ogether a s i nternal o r s ty list ic b iases. T he f irst o f t hese r esults f rom t he s tatus o f t he o r iginal s cr ibe , f or a lthough t he o rigin o f t he s tor ies i s p agan , t hey w ere a ll w r itten d own b y t rained , e ducated m onks . T hus , t he p otential f or a lteration d ue t o t he a ttitudes o f t he m onk ish r edactors i s e normous. I n p ract ice , h owever , t he e ffects a ppear t o b e l ess d ramat ic , p ossib ly b ecause t he m onks w ere s urpr isingly l iberal. W herever C hristian e lements h ave b een a dded , o r u sed t o s upp lement p agan c oncepts , t he c hange i s r elat ively o bvious . F or e xample , c haracters a nd c oncepts m ay b e c hanged w ithout a ny o ther a lterat ions t o t he p agan s tory ( see " The V oyage o f M ael Din" , i n J ackson 1 971, 1 65172 , w here a C elt ic v isit t o t he O therworld b ecomes a C hr ist ian " peregr inat io n ) . M uch m ore d iff icult t o r ecognise i s t he s imple o m ission : w hat a nd h ow m uch h as b een l eft o ut? H ere a gain , t he p otential e ffect i s c onsiderable . I n p ractice , i t l ed C hadw ick ( 1966 , 5 6-58) t o c onclude t hat C elt ic r eligion c ould n ot h ave h ad a ny c onceptual o rganisat ion s ince n o s uch e lements r emain . M cCana ( 1970 , 1 34135) a stute ly n otes t hat t hese a re p recise ly t he f eatures t hat a m onk—redactor w ould b e m ost l ikely t o f ind o bject ionab le , a nd w here h e c hose t o c ombat t he p agan i dea b y s imply l eaving i t o ut , h e w as m arkedly s uccessful. T here i s n o s imple w ay t o r ecognise a nd f ill s uch a l acuna , t hough , e ventually , d etailed s tudy m ay f ill s ome o f t he v oids. U ntil t hat t ime , t he l ack o f s ystems/concepts , a nd t he a pparent ly a narchica l n ature o f C elt ic m yth m ust b e s imp ly a ccepted , n ot a s ap r imary d ef icit ( as C hadw ick), b ut a s af actor o f t he ir p reservat ion . W e lsh M ytho logy M any o f t he c omments a pplicab le t o t he I r ish m ythology a re a lso r e levant t o t he W elsh m ater ial, b ut t he e mphasis m ust b e s hifted s light ly , f or , i n g eneral, t he W elsh m ater ial s uffered f ar m ore a t t he h ands o f r edactors t han d id t he I r ish . T he s patial l im itat ions o f t he W elsh m aterial a re r elat ively s traightforward . A ll t he s tor ies r amble w ide ly , t hroughout n ot j ust W ales , b ut t hrough D evon a nd C ornwa ll; t hey w ere c urrent t o m uch o f w estern C e lt ic B r itain . T he t emporal l im itations i nherent i n t he W elsh m aterial d er ive f rom t heir r elatively l ate d ate o f t ranscr iption . P revious a ttempts t o d ate t he m ater ia l o f t he s tor ies , b ased o n i nternal e vidence a nd u sing t he s ame t echniques a pplied t o t he I r ish m aterial, h ave n ot b een c onvincing a nd t he m atter i s u nreso lved . W illiams a rgued f or c ompilat ion a s e ar ly a s 1 060 ( 1930), w hile W atkins a rgues ( 1963) f or a d ate i n t he t hirteenth c entury . " Culhwch a nd O lwen n , t he . e ar liest o f t he W e lsh m ater ial ( Gantz 1 970 , 2 4 , 3 0), c ould b e o f t he e leventh c entury , b ased o n s im ilar l inguistic a nd t hemat ic c r iter ia . " The D ream o f R honabwy" , a lthough p reserving a t radit ional C eltic t heme a nd s ty le , m ust d ate i n i ts p resent f orm t o a fter 150 b ecause o f t he h istorica l c haracters i nvo lved i n t welfth c entury P owys ( Gantz 1 976 , 2 4). T hus , t he W elsh m ater ial w as f irst w ritten d own a t l east f our h undred y ears l ater t han t he I r ish , a nd p ossibly e ven m ore . T he f irst c onsequence o f t he l ate d ate o f c odif ication i s t hat i t p rovided s everal c enturies i n w hich C hr ist ian a tt itudes c ould o perate t o r emove o r d isguise t he o riginally m ythic e lements o f t he s tor ies ; f or e xample , t he a bsence o f a ny d ruids a t a ll, t he f requent o aths s worn t o t he C hr ist ian G od , a nd t he n aturalness o f t he a ppearance o f p r iest a nd
b ishop i n " Manawydan". A s econd a spect i s t he t horoughness o f t he " euhemer isation" ( in G antz' s ense o f t he w ord , 1 98 1,2) o f m any o f t he c haracters . B ran , M ath , G ofannon a nd R h iannon b etray t he ir o r igin a s g ods , b ut a re c onsistently t reated i n t he s tor ies a s i f t hey w ere h uman . I n l ike m anner , c auldrons a re a f requent s ymbo l o f t he s upernatura l i n t he I rish m yths ; t hey a ppear a s e xpected i n W elsh m yth , a nd i n t he c or— r ect m ythic c ontext , b ut t heir i mportance i s u nderstated . T he t hird c on s equence i s t hat , b y t he t welfth c entury , W ales h ad l ong b een i n c on— t act w ith F rance . O ne m anifestat ion o f t his i s t he t angled r e lat ionsh ip o f W elsh t radit ion w ith t he m edieval r omances o f C restiens d e T royes , a nd v ice v ersa . T his r elationship i s p rob lemat ic ( Gantz 1 976 , 2 5), b ut l argely i rrelevant h ere ; t hose s tor ies w ith a n o bvious a ncestry o r e x— c essive b orrow ing f rom F rench r omances h ave b een d isregarded . E ven t he r ema ining s ix s tor ies , h owever , s how s ome t races o f l ate i nf luence , s uch a s t hose w hich f ormed t he b asis f or t he W atkins—W illiams d ebate n oted a bove . O ne f urther l im itat ion a pplies e qually t o b oth t he I r ish a nd W elsh m yths : t he u se o f m yths t o u nderstand " be lief" , f or m yth a nd b elief a re n ot s ynonymous. M yths a re n ot t he " gospe l" o f a r eligion . M yths a re s tor ies o f t he a ctivit ies o f g ods ; t hey d escribe t he o r igins o f t he g ods , t he w orld , m an a nd s ociety . M yths i l lustrate i n p arab le o r s tory f orm t he m any p rinciples o f a r eligion ( Wallace 1 966 , 5 79). B ut m yths m ay l ack t he c onnecting l ogic t hat t ies a ll t he a spects o f a r eligion t ogether . W hen t he m yths d id c ontain t he c onnect ing l ogic , t hese a re t he p arts o f t he m yth t hat w ould h ave s uffered i n r ecording/ t ransmission . H owever , D illon a nd C hadw ick ( 1967 , 1 34 , 1 55) n ote t hat w hile m ytho logy d oes n ot o ffer a d ef inition o f r eligious b elief , i t d oes o ffer a s ymbo l a nd a n e xample o f t he b eliefs . T hese s ymbo ls c an b e u sed t o u nderstand b eliefs , i f t here i s s uff icient s ymbolism t o i ndicate w hat t he o riginal c oncept—referents w ere . T his h as , i n f act , b een a n a ssumption o f s everal p revious s urveys ( Powell, 1 958 ; P iggott 1 968 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 ; M cCana 1 970). A s econd p rob lem r esulting f rom l ate c odif icat ion h as u sually b een s olved b y a n e qually t acit a ssumption . A s imple c ompar ison o f t he r eligious b eliefs i n a c lassical e thnography o f s outhern G aul, c irca 1 00 B C , w ith I r ish m yths , c irca A D 4 00 , c an c ome d angerously c lose t o i mply ing a r eligion o r l ifesty le c ommon t o a ll C elts a t a ll t imes . S uch u niform ity t hrough t ime a nd a cross s pace w ould b e h ighly u nlikely ; b ut t his d oes n ot m ake a ll c ompar isons i nvalid . A s M cCana w r ites : " to s peak o f aC eltic M ythology i s n ot t o i mply a c lose u nity , b ut m erely t o r ecognise a t angib le r elat ionship b ased u pon c ommon ( cultural) i nher itance" ( 1970 , 1 8). S uch c ultural i nher itance i s c lear i n P owe ll ( 1958), J ackson ( 1964) a nd , o n am uch w ider s cale , i n R ees a nd R ees ( 196 1). T he e xplicit a ssumpt ion h ere i s t hat t he g eneral, s tructural f eatures o f m yth a nd r eligion w ith w hich t his s tudy i s c oncerned a re s uff icient ly b asic t o b e p art o f t he " Celtic—ness" o f t he v ar ious p eop les , a n a ssumption a lso m ade b y R oss ( 1967) , D illon a nd C hadw ick ( 1967) , a nd M cCana ( 1970).
A NALYSIS T he d iscussion a bove e mphasises t hat a ny a ttempt t o i nterpret e vidence o f C e lt ic m ytho logy m ust b e d esigned t o c ope w ith t he l im ita— t ions i nherent i n t he m yths a s t hey s urvive i n w r itten f orm . F or p resent p urposes , t he l im itations a re d ivided i nto t wo g roups w hich r equire d ifferent m anagement . T he f irst g roup i ncludes t he s pat ial a nd t emporal a spects o f t he m yths , w hich a ct a s l im itat ions o n t he a pp licab ility o f r esults , t hough t hey a re n ot p rob lems i n t he i nterpretation o f r esults. T hese a re d iscussed i n g reater d etail i n c hapter t en , w hen t he r esults a re u sed t o b egin b uilding a p icture o f C e lt ic r eligion . T he s econd g roup o f l im itat ions a re t hose l abelled t he " internal b iases" o f t he m yths . I n g eneral, t hey m ay t ake a ny o f t hree f orms : 1 T he l oss o f d etails o r e lements f rom s tor ies . " Element" i s d ef ined a s a g od , m ythic p ersonage , s upernatural s ymbo l o r r itual a ct ion , r elatively c oncrete u nits o r p arts o f t he m yths . A n e xamp le w ould b e a d ruidic a ct o f p rophecy , o r a g od's p erformance o f s hape— c hanging . 2 T he l oss , o r d eliberate o m ission , o f t he l inking c oncepts o r t hemes o f t he p agan b elief s ystem ( though s uch c oncepts m ay n ever h ave b een p resent). T he t erm " theme" r efers t o t he " why" e xplanation t hat a b e lief s ystem s upplies t o l ink t wo o r m ore " elements" i nto a c oherent s ystem . A n e xamp le w ould b e s acral k ingship , w hich r elated n atural f ertility , p roper g overnment a nd t he p owers o f t ute lary g oddesses i nto o ne c onceptual w hole , w hich w as c alled " The T ruth o f t he R uler". 3 T he i mposit ion o f C hr ist ian e lements a nd/or c oncepts i nto a s tory i n p lace o f p agan e lements. A ll o f t hese a re a ttr ibutable t o b iases o n t he p art o f t he r edactor(s). T he f irst o f t hese l im itations , t he l oss o f d etail, c an , i n t heory , b e r esolved b y a n a nalysis o f m any m yths , u sing p aralle l e pisodes t o f ill l acunae i n s tor ies. T he l oss o f p agan c oncepts , i f o m itted f rom a ll t he s tor ies w here t hey o r iginally o ccurred , i s p robably i rremediab le . T he r edactors , h owever , w ere s eldom s o c onsistent , a nd f requently , s evera l p arallel s tor ies c an b e u sed t o f ill a l acuna i n o ne s tory , o r e lse t o i ndicate w hat h as b een r eplaced b y C hr ist ian c oncepts ( eg , t he e xample o f t he " Voyage o f M ael Din"). F urther , t he c onsistent a ssociat ion o f o ne o r m ore m ythic e pisodes m ay b e u sed t o i nfer s uch t hemes w hen t hey a re l eft ( or m ade) i mp licit . T he t hird f orm o f i nternal b ias , t he i mposit ion o f C hr ist ian e lements , i s r eadily r ecognisab le a nd t hus p oses a p rob lem o nly i n d eterm ining t he o riginal c ontent f or 'which t he c hanges w ere m ade . T he a nalyt ica l p rocedure r equires a d ata b ase o n t wo l evels . T he f irst i s a c atalogue o f a ll t he g ods , m ythic c haracters , s ymbols , e pisodes , e tc ( ie , e lements) t hat c an b e c ulled f rom a s e lect ion o f m yths. T hese c an s erve a s t he b asis f or t he i nference o f t hemes . T he s econd l evel i s m ore a bstract , a nd c onsists o f a s er ies o f r eligious t hemes o r c oncepts . T hese i nclude s uch t hemes a s " Sacra l K ingship" , " Tutelary G oddess" , " Lim inal P lace" , e tc. T his h as , i n f act , b een a r ecurrent f eature o f m any p revious s tudies o f C eltic m ytho logy ( Sjoestedt 1 949 ; P owe ll 1 958 ; P iggott 1 968 , 5 1-89 , 1 02114 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 ; R oss 1 967 ; M cCana 1 970 ; O lmsted 1 979) a nd w ould a ppear t o b e a n a cceptable p rocedure .
T he C e ltic M yths T he m yths a nd s tor ies u sed w ere s e lected o n t he b asis o f t wo f actors : t he a vailability o f r easonab ly a ccurate a nd r eadab le t ranslat ions , a nd t he r elative d ate o f t he c odif icat ion o f t he s tory . T he f irst i s s e lf—explanatory ; t he s econd i s d one o n t he p rem ise t hat a n e ar lier d ate o f w r itten f orm s hould m inim ise t he e ffects o f r edactor b ias . T he s elect ion o f s tories i s f ar f rom c omplete a nd t otally n on—random . I t i s i ntended t o b e r epresentat ive o f t he m ythology a s a w hole o nly i n a g eneral w ay . T he s tor ies u sed a nd t he ir b ib liographic s ources a re a s f o llows : R EFERENCE N OTATION I N T EXT
I RISH M YTHS
B IBLIOGRAPHIC S OURCE
T he W ooing o f E tain
W E
)
T he D estruct ion o f D a D ergas H ostel
D DH
)
D ream o f O engus
D O
)
C attle R aid o f F röech
C RF
)
L abour P a ins o f t he U laid
L PU
) E ar ly I r ish
B irth o f C I C hulainn
B CC
) M yths a nd
B oyhood D eeds o f C ( C hulainn
B DCC
) S agas ,
D eath o f A ffe 's O nly S on
D AS
) G antz 1 98 1
W asting S ickness o f C ü C hulainn
W SCC
)
T ale o f M acDaThö 's P ig
M DTP
)
I ntoxicat ion o f t he U laid
I U
)
B ricriu's F east
B F
)
E xile o f t he S ons o f U isliu
E SU
)
T hin B ö C üalnge
T BC
K inse lla 1 969
T BC
O 'Rahilly 1 967
AC eltic M isce llany
A CM
J ackson 1 971
C elt ic M ytho logy
C M
M cCana 1 970
W ELSH M YTHS T he M ab inogion P wy ll
P wy ll
B ranwen
B ranwen
) )
M anawydan
M anawydan
antz 1 976 ) G
M ath
M ath
)
H ow C ulhwch W on O lwen
C ulhwch
)
T he D ream o f R honabwy
D ream
)
— 2 16—
T he m yths a bove p roduced n early t wo d ozen s eparate , b ut c losely i nterrelated t hemes u nder s ix c ategories : t he p agan d eities ; r emnant c osmogony ; e schatology ; t he a rticulation o f s ociety w ith t he s uper— n atural; t he a rticulation o f t he i ndividual w ith t he s upernatural; a nd g eneral f eatures o f t he s upernatural. F or a ll b ut t he f irst t he I r ish a nd W elsh e vidence i s d iscussed t ogether , s ince ( in t he p rocess o f a nalysis) i t w as n oted t hat , w here W elsh e vidence s urvived , i t w as c onf irmatory o f t he I rish t hemes a nd n ever c ontradictory ; t he l ack o f W e lsh e vidence w as n ot i nterpreted a s e vidence o f t he l ack o f ab elief . I r ish D eities I rish m ythology i s e xtraordinarily r ich i n e vidence f or t he m ultitude o f g ods. T here a ppear t o b e t hree t ypes o f d eities i n t he I r ish m ythology . T hese g roups a re n ot m utually e xclusive ; t heir m embership m ay o ver lap a nd t he c haracters c ertainly i nteract i n s everal i nstances , s o t he d istinction i s p erhaps m ore a rtif icial t han p art o f t he C eltic b elief s ystem . T üatha d g D annan T he f irst t ype t o b e d iscussed h ere a re t he T üatha D e D anann — T he P eople o f t he G oddess D anu ( here a bbreviated s imply a s T üatha). T he t itle c arries i mplications o f ah ierarchy o f g ods , o r p erhaps a " mother" o f g ods , f or w hich v ery l ittle o ther e vidence s urvives. T he T uatha w ere t he f ifth , b ut t he l ast , o f t he d ivine p eople t o c onquer I reland ; t hey c ompleted t he c reat ion o f t he c ountry ( see C osmogony) b efore b eing , i n t urn , c onquered b y t he m ortal S ons o f M il, " ancestors" o f t he C elts. C onsequent u pon t his d efeat t hey r etreated u nderground , i nto t he S id m ounds ( the p rehistoric b urial m ounds), f rom w hich e vent s tems t he c onception o f t he S ide—folk a nd t he S ide O therworld ( see E schatology). W ith t he e xception o f t he " Second B attle o f M agh T uired" , w hich t ells o f t he T r iatha 's c onquest o f I reland ( McCana 1 970 , 5 9), a ll o ther s tories t reat t he T üatha a s m ore o r l ess s ynonymous w ith S ide—folk . T he T üatha a re d iscussed h ere o nly i n t erms o f s everal g eneral c haracteristics , f or w hich i ndividual e xamples w ill b e p rovided. .A m ore c omprehensive d iscussion w ill b e f ound i n S joestedt ( 1949), D illon & C hadw ick ( 1967) a nd M cCana ( 1970). T he f irst g eneral c haracteristic o f t he T üatha i s t hat t hey l ive i n ad ivine s ociety , af eature o f a ll t he s tories o f t he T üatha . T he w or ld o f t he T üatha i s as uperlative p arallel o f E arth ( see O therworld) a nd o f h uman s ociety ; t he T üatha m eet i n c ouncil ( as a t M agh T uired), t hey d isagree a nd f ight ( DO), o r t rick e ach o ther ( WE), a nd a ll t he r ules o f C elt ic s ociety a pply ( as w hen N üada r esigns o ffice w hen w ounded , i n a ccord w ith t he r ules o f s acral k ingship , s ee D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 84). S econdly , t he T üatha a re v irtually u nique a mong I rish d eities b y b eing c lear ly d istinguished b y i ndividual f unct ions. T his i s i n c lear c ontradiction t o t he " polyvalent" v iew o f I rish d eities e mphasised b y S joestedt ( 1949) a nd e ven b y D illon a nd C hadw ick ( 1967). E xamples o f t his a re n umerous: N uada A irgetlam ( meaning S ilver H and , f or t he a rtificial h and m ade f or h im); D ian C echt t he d ivine h ealer ( who m ade t he S ilver H and); t he t hree d ivine c raftsmen , G obniu t he s m ith , L uchta t he w heelwright , a nd C reidne t he m etal w orker . O gma i s t he C hampion o f t he d ivine s ociety , a nd t here w ere d ivine h arpers , p oets , c up—bearers e tc. T he t wo m ost p rominent m embers o f t he T üatha , h owever , c ontradict
t his g eneral t rend a nd r evert t o t he p olyvalence o f S joestedt ( 1949), f or w hich t hey a re t he t wo m ain e xamples. T he f irst i s t he D agda ( the G ood G od , m eaning g ood a t e verything), a s ort o f a ll—purpose g od . H e i s a lso c alled R uad R ho—fhessa , o r L ord o f G reat K now ledge , a s ap atron g od o f d ruidism ( McCana 1 970 , 6 6). T he D agda i s s ymbolised b y a n i nexhaustable c auldron , e nsuring p lenty f or h is p eople , a nd b y a g iant c lub w ith w hich h e d efends h is p eople . I t w as t he D agda w ho d irected t he r etreat o f t he T üatha i nto t he S i d m ounds. T he s econd a ll—purpose T üatha i s L ug , w hose e pithet " Sam ildgnach" m eans " expert a t m any s kills t ogether" a nd w ho w as a dmitted i nto t he T uatha f or h is p o lyvalent e xpertise . H is s ymbols a re t he s pear a nd s ling , w eapons w hich k ill a t a d istance ( hence h is o ther s oubriquet " Llamfadha" o r " Long A rm"). L ug l ed t he T üatha i n t he S econd B attle o f M agh T uired i n w hich h e k illed t he F omorian K ing B alar w ith a s lingshot ( McCana 1 970 , 2 7-29 , 6 0-65 ; D illon & C hadwick 1 967). T he c entral c haracter istics o f t he T üatha , t herefore , a ppear t o b e t heir s ocial o rganisation , w hich p arallels h uman s ociety , a nd t heir f unctional d ifferentiation. T his l atter , w hich p rovides a d ivine p atron f or n early e very c raft ( farming a nd a nimal h usbandry a re n otable b y t heir a bsence), a nd t he d ominance o f t he D agda a nd L ug ( expert a t a ll c rafts) m ake t he T Gatha a n e xcellent p ossibility f or w hat M cCana c alled " gods o f aw ider s ignificance a nd c ult" ( 1970 , 2 6). T utelary G oddesses T he s econd , a nd b y f ar t he m ost n ume . -G us , t ype o f d e -: . ty i n C eltic—Ireland w as t he T utelary G oddess. C onsidering t he D innshenchas ( see b elow), a s w ell a s t he m yths , i t a ppears t hat e very d istrict , r iver a nd g athering p lace h ad i ts o wn t utelary g oddess. T here a re f our g eneral f eatures w hich a re a pplicable t o a ll t he t utelary g oddesses. T he f irst i s t hat t he g oddess r epresents t he s ocial, l egal a nd r itual d ominion o f t he l and f or w hich s he i s r espdnsible . T his t akes t he f orm o f t he f ertility o f t he l and , m aking t he t utelary g oddess t he a ppropriate p atroness o f t he f arming a nd a nimal h usbandry f unctions u nfulfilled b y t he T r iatha . T his r itual s overeignty o r d ominion t akes t he f orm o f a m arriage b etween t he k ing a nd t he t utelary g oddess o f t he k ing's l and ; i f s uch a m arriage o ccurs a nd t he k ing f ulf ils h is r esponsibility o f c orrect b ehaviour , t he g oddess e nsures t he c ontinuing f ertility a nd p rosperity o f t he l and , c rops , a nimals , r ivers , f orests e tc . F or e xtended d iscussions s ee M cCana ( 1970 , 17123). T he s econd g eneral f eature o f t he t utelary g oddesses i s t hat t hey a re a ssociated w ith d efinite , u sually q uite l ocalised , a reas. T he m ost e xpansive o f s uch a ssociati9ps i s t hat o f t he ( triplicate) e ponymous g oddesses o f a ll I reland , E riu , B anba a nd F ödla ( McCana 1 970 , 8 5). O therw ise , t he l ocalisation i s m uch g reater — B öand t o t he R iver B oyne ( WE), S iannon w ith t he R iver S hannon , M edb w ith C onnacht ( but s ee d iscussion o f H eroes), B righid w ith L einster , M acha w ith E main M acha ( LPU), Ä ine w ith C noc K ine , a nd T ailltiu w ith T ailtiu ( McCana 1 970 , 8 6 ; R oss 1 967 , 2 19). A ppropriately , t he a ssociation o f t he g oddess w ith f ertility a nd r egeneration m eans t hat t he g oddess i s f requently d epicted w ith c opious s exual c apacity ( eg , M edb i n T BC , M acha i n L PU , E tain i n W E , e tc).
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T he t hird g eneral a spect i s a r esult o f t he l oca lisat ion o f t he g oddess a nd h er r esponsib ility f or t he l and's p rosper ity , f or s uch g oddesses f requently t ake o n w ar like a spects i n d efence o f t heir d omain. F or e xample , M edb i s r uthless i n c ommand o f t he C onnacht a rmy ( TBC), a nd B r ighid ( even u sing h er l ater C hrist ianised n ame , S aint B r ighid) a ct ively d efends h er L e inster ( McCana 1 970 , 8 6). T he f ourth a spect o f t he t ute lary g oddesses i s t hat t hey a re f requent ly t r iple . T r iads a re a f eature o f t he C eltic s upernatural i n g eneral, b ut a re u nusually c ommon a mong t he g oddesses . T here a re , f or e xamp le , t hree M orri gans , t hree B r ighids , t hree M achas , a nd t he t hree e ponymous g oddesses o f I reland . T he t utelary g oddesses a re r arely f ound i n e ach o ther 's c ompany ( hardly s urpr ising , c onsidered t he ir l oca lisat ion), b ut a re f ound f requent ly w ith t he T uatha , a s w ell a s w ith h eroes a nd w ith k ings . T his m ay i ndicate t hat t he T uatha a nd t he t utelary g oddesses w ere n ot d istinct g roups t o t he C elts , b ut r ather f unct ioned t ogether i n as ort o f c onceptual a nd r itua l c ooperat ion . M isce llaneous I rish D eit ies T here r emains t he s mallest a nd m ost d iverse t ype o f d eity , am ore o r l ess m iscellaneous c ollect ion o f g ods . T hey , p erhaps , s hare l itt le i n c ommon a mong t hemse lves , b ut t hey a re d ef inite ly d ist inct f rom t he o ther t wo t ypes. P r incipal a mong t hese i s M ananngn m ac L ir , " Son o f t he S ea" , t he G od o f t he O therwor ld p ar e xcellence . M ananngn 's O therworld i s p erhaps t he I sle o f M an , t he w ho le o f t he I r ish S ea , o r p erhaps t his i s j ust o ne o f t he s er ies o f O therwor lds , a nd M anannän j ust t he m ost p rom inent o f a s er ies o f O therwor ld k ings ( WSCC m ent ions o thers). M ananngn m ay f unction a s ap sychopomp o r f igure o f r eb irth ; i f s o , h e i s t he o nly m ale d eity t o b e s o d irect ly a ssociated w ith r ebirth a nd r egenerat ion ( D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 5 1154). H e r emains a loof f rom t he o ther I r ish d eities , a nd c ur iously , i s o ne o f t he f ew O therworld f igures n ot a m ember o f t he T Gatha ( but s ee M cCana 1 970 , 7 3 , f or a l ate s tory i n w hich h e a ppears a s a T Gatha). A nother s uch f igure i s D onn , t he d ef initive K ing , o r G od , o f t he L and o f t he D ead ( discussed u nder E schato logy), w ho r emains a t otally a loof , s olitary , c hthonic f igure , w ith f ew s urviving a ppearances i n t he e xtant t exts ( McCana 1 970 , 4 1-44). I n c ontrast , C r R ol ' i s a n e ponymous a nd t utelary g od o f h is n ative K erry ( perhaps t he o nly m ale d eity i n t his r o le). C t R oi i s n ot T üatha , n or i s h e a ssociated w ith a ny o ther d eities ; h e i s am aster o f s orcery , a g reat t rave ller a nd w arr ior , a nd f requent ly h e a ppears a s ag iant c hur l o r h erdsman ( BF , a lso M cCana 1 970 , 1 0010 ]). H e a lso f igures p rom inent ly i n t he H er ioc U lster c ycle , a t l east o nce a s as upernatural j udge a warding t he p osit ion o f c hampion o f t he U laid t o C ü C hulainn ( BF , a lso " Death o f a l C hulainn" i n O 'Rahilly 1 967). T here a re s everal t hemes w hich a re c ommon t o n ear ly a ll t he s upernatura l f igures i n t he I r ish m yths. S hape—shift ing ( or z oomorphism) i s e xtremely c ommon , a nd t he a ppearance o f a nimal a vatars i s n ear ly a s p revalent . G enerally , t he d eit ies h ave a p art icular a nimal f orm ( or , a lternate h uman g uise) i nto w h ich t hey c hange . A mong t he T üatha , O engus c hanges i nto a s wan i n q uest o f C äer I bormeith ( DO), w ho i s h erself n ot s pecif ica llly T üatha , b ut i s c ertainly S ide , a nd l ives a lternate y ears a s s wan a nd h uman . L ug t akes b ird f orm t o f ather C ü C hulainn ( in B CC), a nd a nother u nspecif ied b ird—deity f athers C onare M or ( in D DH). T he M orrigans a re p art icular ly f requent s hape—changers , u sually i nto c rows o r r avens ( Bodb , o ne o f t he t hree M orrigans , m eans
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c row , h er f avourite a lternate f orm , s ee A CM , J ackson 1 971, 4 2-48). M orrigan , i n p articular , f ights C i 7 C hulainn i n t he f orms o f e el, w olf a nd h eifer ( in T BC), a nd t he t hree c ollectively h aunt b attlefields i n c row f orm ( McCana 1 970 , 8 9-90). C ü R o l ' a ppears i n v arious , u sually h uman , g uises ( especially B F). M anannän m ac L ir a lso s hape—shifts ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 51-152). F inally , a nd m ost d ramatically , t he t wo d ivine s w ineherds , b oth " learned i n t he d ruidic a rts" , F rw ich a nd R ucht , c hange i nto c rows , s tags , w arriors , p hantoms , d ragons , m aggots , a nd e ventually i nto t he t wo g reat m ythic b ulls , F innbennach a nd D unn C ualnge , o ver w hich t he T h in B ö C üalnge i s w aged ( see T BC , K insella 1 969). E xamples o f a nimal a vatars , w here t here i s n o d irect e vidence o f s hape—shifting , a re e qually c ommon : M acha i s a ssociated w ith h orses ( [PU) a nd E tain E chrade ( WE) m eans r tain " Horse—troop" ( Ross 1 967 , 2 25). T his f eature a lso a ppears f requently a mong t he C eltic H eroes. W elsh D eities T he W elsh m ythic t radition h as s uffered g reatly t hrough t rans— m ission , a nd m uch o f t he M abinogion , w hile s uggestive , i s r arely s uff iciently d irect o r c omplete t o a llow f irm c onclusions. T his i s c ertainly t rue o f a scribing d ivinity t o t he l eading c haracters ; t heir d ivinity i s c lear b y a nalogy t o t he I rish m aterial, b ut r arely b ased o n i nternal e vidence . F or t his r eason , a nd a lso b ecause o f t he r elative p aucity o f m yth , s ome w ay o f d iscussing t he g ods o ther t han b y " type" h ad t o b e d evised. T he i nternal s tructure o f t he M abinogion f ollows t he m embers o f t hree f am ilies o r d ynasties , a nd t his s tructure i s s ub— s tituted f or t ype . T he f irst f amily i s t hat o f P wyll, L ord o f D yfed , w ho a ppear i n t he f irst a nd t hird B ranches o f t he M abinogion ( Pwy ll a nd M anawydan — P ryderi a ppears o nly b rief ly i n M ath). T he p rincipal c haracter i s P wy ll, L ord o f D yfed. H is n ame t ranslates l iterally a s " Wisdom" , a nd t his i s u sed t o j ustify h is d ivine s tatus a s a n O therworld g od b ecause o f h is a ctions i n A nnwn ( = N on—World ; M cCana 1 970 , 8 3-84). P wyll, h owever , g oes t o A nnwn a s a s ubstitute f or t he o penly O therworld K ing A rawn ( who i s t hus s urely a d eity i n h is o wn r ight), a r ole w hich f inds m any p arallels i n I reland a mong h eroic m ortals ( Cü C hulainn i n W SCC , f or e xample). H is a scription a s ag od , t herefore , i s c onceivab le , t hough h e f its m ore c omfortably i nto t he c lass o f h eroes. T he d ivine s tatus o f t he s econd c haracter , R hiannon , i s b eyond q uestion. H er n ame m eans " D ivine Q ueen" ( McCana 1 970 , 8 4); s he i s o penly f rom t he O therworld , s he f irst a ppears i n u nquestionably s upernatural c ircumstances , a nd s he i s a ssociated w ith h orses a nd g reat e quine s peed ( Pwy ll). F urthermore , P wy ll s ojourns t w ice i n t he O therworld i n o rder t o w in R hiannon f rom a n O therworld r ival. L ater , i n " Branwen" a nd " Manawydan" , R hiannon i s a ssociated w ith t he t hree s weet—singing B irds o f R hiannon. R hiannon i s , t herefore , c ertainly a d eity , a nd w hile t here a re n o n ame c ognates i n I reland , t here a re s ufficient f unctional p arallels . T he t hird c haracter o f P wy ll i s P ryderi, s on o f P wy ll a nd R hiannon. P ryderi's n ame m eans " Anxiety" ( Gantz 1 976 , 6 4), h is b irth ( on 1 M ay , B eltane , s ee L im inal T imes) i s c oincidental w ith t hat o f a f oal t o T eyrnon ( = G reat L ord ; M cCana 1 970 , 8 4) a nd h is g rowth i s p recocious . T hese f eatures i ndicate ac lose f unctional p arallel t o C ü C hulainn ; n either i s c onsidered d ivine h ere , b ut r ather a s ah ero .
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T he s econd p otentially d ivine f amily o f W ales i s t hat o f L lyr , f ound i n t he s tories " Branwen" a nd " Manawydan". T he a ttribution o f d ivine s tatus t o t he m embers o f t his f am ily i s m arginally m ore s ecure t han i n t he c ase o f P wy ll. T he p atronym " mac L lyr" m eans " Son o f t he S ea" , c ognate t o t he I rish g od a nd c ertainly s uggestive o f d ivinity . T he t hree m ain c haracters a re B ran ( the B lessed , m eaning R aven S on o f S ea), B ranwen ( White B reast) a nd M anawydan. B ran i s a lmost c ertainly a g od; h is g iant s tature , t he s ympathetic d evastation o f I reland a nd W ales w hen h e i s d isfigured i n b attle , a nd h is h ead w hich r emained l iving l ong a fter d ecapitation a re a ll v ery s uggest ive ( Branwen). B ranwen p lays s uch a m inor r ole t hat c onclusions m ust b e c autiously d rawn , b ut a s a s ister t o B ran a nd M anawydan , a nd w ith h er a ssociations t o b irds , h er d ivine s tatus i s r easonably c ertain ( Branwen). T he t hird f igure i s M anawydan m ac L lyr , a n a lmost e xact c ognate o f M ananngn m ac L lyr o f I r ish m yth ( McCana 1 970 , 7 9). H e i s p atient , r esourceful a nd w ise , a nd v ery s killed i n " druidic a rts" ( Manawydan), b ut n owhere d oes h e m anifest a ny f unctional d ivine f eatures , n or d oes h e h ave a ny c lear l inks w ith e ither t he s ea o r w ith t he O therworld , a s d oes t he I rish M anannan. J ust a s M anannan i s a lways s eparate f rom t he T natha , t he m ain b ody o f I rish d eities , M anawydan i s n ever a ssociated w ith t he W elsh F am ily o f D on. T he d ifferentiation o f M anawydan f rom t he F amily o f D on i s s ignificant b ecause t he F am ily o f D on i s u nquestionab ly d ivine a nd c ontains m any p arallels w ith t he I rish m aterial. T he F am ily c onsists o f t he b rother , s ons a nd d aughter o f D on , c ognate w ith D anu , t he e ponymous m other o f t he T üatha ( Gantz 1 976 , 9 9 ; M cCana 1 970 , 7 6). M ath i s t he b rother o f D on ; h e i s a b arely e uhemerised g od. M ath c an h ear a nything s aid i n h is k ingdom a nd p ossesses t remendous m agical, e specially s hape—changing , p owers ( Math). D on h as t hree s ons a nd a d aughter , a ll c ertainly d ivine . O ne s on , G wydion , s hares w ith M ath g reat m agical p owers o f s hape—changing a nd i llusion. S o t oo d oes G ilfaethy , i n s pite o f h is l im ited a ppearances. T he t hird s on i s G ofannon , ac lose c ognate o f G obniu o f t he T uatha , a nd l ike G obniu , G ofannon i s ad ivine s m ith w ho m akes m agical w eapons ( Math). T he d aughter o f D on i s A rianrhod , a s orceress w ho i s a lso t he m other o f t wo f urther d escendants w ith d ivine s tatus. H er f irst s on i s D y lon E il D on ( "Sea S on o f W ave" , G antz 1 976 , 1 06 ; M cCana 1 970 , 7 5), w ho i mmediately u pon b irth a nd b aptism ( he i s b orn a s as mall c hild) t akes t o t he s ea a nd " took o n i ts n ature" ( Math). H er s econd s on i s e ventually ( through t he m agic a nd c unning o f G wydion) n amed L leu [ lau G yffes , " The B right O ne o f t he S kilful H and" ( Gantz 1 976 , 1 09), w hich i s ad irect p arallel o f t he I rish L ug i n b oth n ame a nd e pithet . F urther , L leu p reserves a f ew t races o f t he s kill a nd c raft o f L ug ( McCana 1 970 , 7 5-76). I n " Culhwch" , r eference i s m ade i n p assing t o y et a nother s on o f D on , A mathaeon ( literally , D ivine P loughman ; M cCana 1 970 , 7 6), w ho i s s aid t o b e t he o nly o ne w ho c an t ill a s ect ion o f l and i n a m iraculously s hort t ime ( Culhwch). H ere , t he c umulative e vidence o f t he F am ily o f D on i s v ery c onvincing ; t hey m ust d erive f rom t he s ame b asic s tock a s t he T uatha i n I reland . O ne f urther p arallel e xists i n t he k nown W elsh m ythic c haracter N udd [ lau E reint , N udd o f t he S ilver H and . T his i s , o f c ourse , a c ognate o f N uadu S ilver H and o f t he T natha . I nterest ingly , N udd i s n ot a ssociated w ith t he F amily o f D on , w here t he r est o f t he W elsh p arallels t o t he T uatha a re f ound. M any o f t he d ivine f eatures o f t he I r ish g ods a lso a ppear w ith t he W elsh g ods. T he W elsh c haracters o ccur i n t riads ( Math), t hey s hape—change ( Pwy ll, M anwydan , M ath), a nd t hey h ave a nimal a vatars ( Branwen , R hiannon i n B ranwen). A l acuna , h owever , i s t hat t here a re n o
t utelary g oddesses k nown f rom t he W elsh m yths. H eroes I rish a nd W elsh m ythology p reserve a v ery s trong t radition o f a c lass o f c haracters t hat i s , i n s ome s ense , m id—way b etween m ortals a nd t he g ods. T his t radition i s f ound e specially i n t he U lster a nd F iana C ycles. T he f irst c hronicles t he U laid ( or p eople o f U lster) a nd t he m ain c haracter i s t he g reat I rish h ero C ü C hulainn; t he l atter p rovides a n a ccount o f t he f iana b ands a nd t heir l eader F inn m ac C umaill. D illon a nd C hadw ick t reat b oth g roups a s e xtensively e uhemerised • g ods ( 1967 , 1 54155). M cCana r emains u ncomm itted a bout C u C hulainn , b ut d oes c onsider F inn t o b e d ivine i n o rigin ( 1970 , 13). B oth o f t hese c onclusions s eem u nwarranted . I n b oth t he U lster a nd F iana C ycles , o ther o penly d ivine f igures a ppear f requently ; i f t he h eroes a re e uhemerised g ods , w hy w ere n ot t he o ther g ods e uhemerised a s w ell? F urther , t he h eroes t hemselves m anifest a r ange o f r elative d ivinity ; C u C hulainn p erhaps d isplays m ore d ivine c haracteristics t han d o C onall C ernach o r F röech ( CRF). T his s ort o f p ostulated u neven e uhemerisation d oes l ittle t o i mprove t he i nterpretation o f t he m yths. T he r eso lution o ffered h ere i s t hat t he h eroes w ere i ntended t o r epresent a s em i—divine s tatus , b etween m an a nd g ods; t hey w ere n ever g ods a t a ll. T his s tatus w ould b e p erfectly i n k eeping w ith a n " heroic" s ociety i n w hich c ontact w ith t he s upernatural w as a n e veryday a nd c ontinuing c ircumstance o f l ife , b ut w hich o ccurs i n a v ariety o f f orms c losely r elated t o p ositions i n t he c omplex C eltic s ocial s tructure . T here a re a n umber o f g eneral f eatures o r c haracterist ics w hich s eem t o a pply t o t he " Hero" s tatus. O nly C ü C hulainn a nd P ryderi s eem t o e mbody a ll o f t he f eatures; o ther h eroes p ossess o nly a f ew a nd a re t herefore c onsidered t o h ave a l ess " lim inal" p osition i n t he C eltic c onceptual w orld . T o b egin w ith , t here a re f our f eatures c onnected w ith t he b irth o f h eroes: f irst , t he h ero h as o ne d ivine p arent ( Cü's f ather i s L ug , B CC ; P ryder i's m other i s R hiannon , P wy ll). S econdly , t here a re u sually t wo d uplicating s tories o f t he b irth t o a ccount f or t he d oub le p arent ( Cü w as b orn t wice , B DD ; P ryderi w as b orn t o R hiannon b ut a ppears t o T eyrnon t o b e r aised , P wyll). T hirdly , t he b irth o f a h ero i s c oincidental w ith t he b irth o f a nimals a nd w ith s trange w eather p atterns ( both a re a ssociated w ith t he b irth o f f oals a nd b oth a re b orn d ur ing s torms). F inally , t he b irth o f a h ero o ccurs a t o ne o f t he f our g reat y early r itual f estival d ays ( Cü a t S amain a nd P ryderi a t B eltane). A nother f eature o f t he h ero i s t hat h e d emonstrates e xtreme p recocity t hroughout h is y outh , e specially i n g rowth a nd m art ial s kills ( both C u a nd P ryderi g row a t t w ice n ormal r ates). T his l eads d irectly t o a nother f eature , af orm o f m artial i nvincibility ; b oth C u a nd P ryder i a re k illed o nly w hen " overtaken" b y t heir g essa ( see G essa) ( for C u , s ee " Cü C hulainn a nd T he V alley o f t he D eaf" i n A CM , J ackson 1 97 1; . P ryderi i s t ricked i nto g iving a way h is O therworld p igs w ithout f ulfilling t he O therwor ld p roviso o r c onditions a nd h e i s p romptly k illed , s ee M ath). T he l ast f eature o f t he h eroes i s t hat t heir d eath , w hen i t d oes o ccur , t ends t o b e a t o ne o f t he f our g reat l im inal f estivals ( CI d ies a t S amain; P ryderi's d eath i s n ot d ated , b ut o ne m ust r emember t hat t he f estivals a re g enerally e xpunged f rom t he W elsh m ythology ; P ryder i's d eath n onetheless o ccurs i n a c ycle o f e vents s uggesting s easonality , c losely a ssociated w ith t he g reat f estivals).
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T hese c haracteristics c learly d elineate t he e m inent C eltic h eroes , C ü C hulainn a nd P ryderi. O ther f igures w ho p ossess s ome o f t he t raits a nd a re t he " lesser h eroes" a re F inn m ac C umaill ( who m ay r ival CL 1 i n s tature , M cCana 1 970 , 1 06115), F ergus m ac R o ich ( see T BC), C onall C ernach , F röech , P wy ll, a nd t he W elsh G wynn , c ognate o f F inn . I nterestingly , t he C onnacht Q ueen M edb i s i n a v ery s imilar p osition . S he i s t reated i n t he l iterature a s p urely h uman , e ven i n t he p resence o f g ods , y et s he h as a c ertain d ivinity , i n p articular h er r ole a s t he p ersonification o f t he s overeignty o f C onnacht ( TBC , O D). M cCana ( 1970 , 8 5-86) t reats M edb a s ae uhemerised t utelary g oddess , a n e xample o f t he s ort o f s elective e uhemer isation h eld s uspect h ere ; h owever , t he c oncept o f a h ero u sed h ere w ould a llow t he m ortal, b ut h eroic , M edb t o e mbody c ertain d ivine t raits. T he p rincipal f unction o f t he H eroes i n m ythology a ppears t o b e a s a n e arthly s ubstitute f or o ne o r m ore d eities . I n s ituations w here c ertain g ods h ad a n i nterest i n t he w elfare a nd l ives o f a s ocial g roup o r at erritory , t he h ero i s f requently e mployed a s a n i nstrument o f t he g od's p lans a nd w ishes. C ü a nd P ryderi a re b oth p rotectors o f t heir p eoples a nd b oth a re i nstrumental i n e ffecting s ocial c hanges ( eg [ PU , M ath). H eroes , t herefore , w ere p eople w ith c ertain s pecial r elation— s hips w ith t he s upernatural, a nd b ecause o f t heir l im inal s tatus c ould s erve a s i ntermediaries b etween t he g ods a nd m en . T here i s , i n a ddition , a f ascinating c oncept p roposed b y S joestedt ( 1949 , c hapters V I a nd V II) d istinguishing b etween " Heroes o f t he t r ibe" ( eg C ü , P ryderi), w ho t ypify t he t ribal i deals , a nd " Heroes o utside t he t r ibe" , w ho a re t he i dealised p ersonification o f a ll t he v aluable o r u seful t raits w hich d o n ot f ind e xpression i n t he t ribal i deal ( eg F inn). W ithout m ak ing t oo m uch o f t he b asic d istinction , i t d oes p rovide a n e xplanat ion f or t he t wo c ycles a s w ays o f i ntegrating d iverse v alues i nto o ne c onceptual s ystem o f i nteraction w ith t he s upernatural. C ontinental
P arallels w ith I nsular C eltic M ythic F igures
N umerous s tudies h ave d emonstrated t he w ide r ange o f p arallels b etween t he g ods k nown f rom G aulish i nscriptions a nd t hose o f t he i nsular C eltic m ythology . A mong t he m ost c arefully • r easoned a re S joestedt ( 1949), R oss ( 1967), M cCana ( 1970) a nd , w ith m ore d aring , O lmsted ( 1979). A lso u seful a re B romw ich ( 196 1), R ees & R ees ( 1961) a nd G antz ( 1976 , 1 98 1). B ecause t his s ubject i s a lready w ell e xam ined , o nly af ew e xamples w ill b e g iven . S ome o f t he b est p arallels a re t hose m ade b etween t he G aulish g ods a ssim ilated w ith R oman M ercury , a nd t he I rish L ug—Welsh L leu ; a s eries o f e quations t hat a re c onvincing a re m ade b y M cCana ( 1970 , 2 7-29), D illon & C hadw ick ( 1967 , 1 43144) a nd O lmsted ( 1979 , 1 51-157), t hough t he l atter 's e xtensions t o i nclude E sus a nd C ü C hulainn a re n ot p ersuasive . G aulish M inerva f orms t ranslate w ell f unctionally . t o t he I rish t riple B rlghid ( McCana 1 970 , 3 4-35 ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 1 44). ö engus M ac i nd O c c an p robab ly b e c orrelated t o G aulish M aponos ( McCana 1 970 , 3 3), w hile t he G aulish V ulcan v ariants c learly c orrelate t o t he I rish/Welsh p air o f G obniu a nd G ofannon ( McCana 1 970 , 3 5-37) a s d ivine s m iths. G aulish O gmios i s c ognate t o I r ish O ghma , a nd b oth a re C hampions ( the C eltic c onception o f a c hampion i s l ess a g reat w arrior t han a m aster o rator). T he G aulish " Dis P ater" g od(s) f inds a p arallel i n I reland i n D onn , t he G od o f t he D ead , a nd b oth w ere r egarded a s t he a ncestors o f t heir r espective g roups ( McCana 1 970 , 4 1-43). S ucellos t he G ood S triker , w ith h is c lub a nd c auldron o f p lenty , i s a f unctional
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p arallel t o t he D agda , w hile t he G aulish g od o f f orest a nd n ature f ertility , C ernunnos , s hares a n ame r oot w ith C onnall C ernach a nd s hares f unction w ith F inn a nd , m ore n oticeably , w ith C R oi a s a g iant c hurl/herdsman ( McCana 1 970 , 4 6-48). T he d ivine M atrona , a b latantly c onf lated g roup o f g ot iesses , m ay v ery w ell p arallel t he m any I rish t utelary g oddesses ( eg E riu , B anba a nd F ödla). T he l ist i s l engthy a nd t he p attern i s c lear . I t w ould s eem b eyond d oubt t hat t he G auls , I rish a nd W elsh d rew o n a b asic s et o f g od f orms a nd f unctions , w hich t hen d eveloped a long s lightly d iverging c ourses i n e ach a rea . F or e xample , M anannan a nd M anwydan a re a lmost c ertainly o ut o f t he s ame b ase , t hough t hey d eveloped d ifferently , w hile a G aulish p arallel i s u nknown . G aulish M aponos a nd M ac i nd O c a re c ognates b ut d iffer i n f unction ; M aponos i s a h ealer , w hich i s t he f orte o f ( 5 engas' T üatha c ompanion , D ian C echt . A d etailed a nalysis o f t he p atterns , o r p arallels a nd d iscontinuities , c ould p robab ly e lucidate m uch o f t he h istory o f t he d ifferent s ets o f g ods , b ut a t l east t he c onclusion s eems c lear t hat t here a re e xtensive p arallels a nd a nalogies b etween t he G aulish a nd t he i nsular g ods. R emnant C osmogony A c osmogony i s t he s et o f b eliefs w hich a p eople h old t o e xplain t he o riginal c reation o f t he w orld , p eople a nd s ociety . T his i s p recisely t he s ort o f b elief p attern , o r s eries o f c oncepts , w hich a C hristian m onk c ould b e e xpected t o o m it i n h is t ranscriptions o f p agan C eltic m yth . S omething o f t he s ort u ndoubtedly d id t ake p lace , p roducing t he l ack o f a n o rganised s ystem o f b elief t hat C hadwick d erided ( 1966 , 5 6-58) a nd t he a narchical n ature o f r esidue e mphasised b y S joestedt ( 1949) a nd D illon & C hadw ick ( 1967). M cCana ( 1970 , 1 32136) r eacts a gainst t his a nd n owhere m ay h is a rguments b e b etter s ubstantiated t han w ith C eltic c osmogony . T here a re , i n f act , t races o f aC eltic c osmogony p reserved i n t wo d ifferent s ources. T he m ore i mportant o f t he t wo i s t he " Leabor G abäla E irainn" ( LGE , B ook o f C onquests , C ross & S lover 1 936). T he B ook o f C onquests o utlines a s eries o f s ix i nvasions a nd o ccupations b y f ive g roups o f g ods a nd l astly b y h umans. D uring t he c ourse o f t hese c onquests , I reland d eveloped i ts m odern f orm a nd c haracter , a nd i t i s t his c haracteristic w hich m akes t he L GE a ppear t o b e a r emnant c osmogony . C hristian i nfluence i s c lear , f or e xample , t he f irst c onquest i s b y C esair , w ho i s s ometimes c redited w ith b eing a d escendant o f N oah , t hough a n o lder p agan t radition m akes C esair a d escendant o f B anba , o ne o f t he e ponyms o f I reland ( McCana 1 970 , 5 7 ; S joestedt 1 949 , c hapter o ne). T he C esair p erished i n T he F lood ( this c ould b e C hr istian , b ut n eed n ot b e , s ee M cCana 1 970 , 1 35). F ollowing t he f lood c ame P artholan a nd h is f ollowers , w ho f irst c leared l and , m ade f ields a nd l akes , b rought c attle a nd i ntroduced s ocial c oncepts s uch a s f osterage a nd a l egal c ode ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , c hapter o ne). P artholan a lso f ought t he f irst b attle a gainst a r ace k nown a s t he F omorians , w ho a re a lways p oised o n t he I r ish m ythic h orizon w aiting t o i nvade I reland , a nd w hom S joestedt v iewed a s t he e nemy i n t he f irst o f m any c onflicts b etween o rder a nd l ight ( Partholan) a nd t he c hthonic d arkness ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , c hapter o ne). P artholan a nd h is g roup w ere e ventually w iped o ut b y ap lague . N ext c ame N emed a nd h is f ollowers , w ho c leared m ore l and a nd m ade m ore l akes , b ut w ho w ere e ventually d om inated b y t he F omorians. A b attle e nsued , a nd t he f ew N emed t o s urvive l eft I reland i n t wo g roups ,
l ater t o r eturn . T he f irst g roup t o r eturn w ere t he F ir B olg w ho , w ith t heir a llies t he G ailioin a nd F ir D onanann , b ecame t he f ourth w ave o f i nvaders . B y t his t ime , m uch o f p hysical I reland w as c reated , a nd t he F ir B olg i ntroduced m any s ocial e lements , s uch a s m onarchy , w arlike a ristocracy , t he f ive p rovinces , a nd i mportantly , t he r apport b etween t he r ighteousness o f a k ing a nd t he f ertility o f t he l and ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , M cCana 1 970 , 5 8). T he F ir B olg w ere i n t urn d efeated a t t he F irst B attle o f M oytura ( or M agh T uired) b y t he T üatha d e D anann ( the s econd h alf o f t he s urvivors o f N emed) w ith t heir s uperior s kill i n m agic a nd c raft , a s i llustrated b y t heir f unct ional s pecialisation. T he T uatha w ent o n t o d o b attle w ith t he F omorians a t t he S econd B attle o f M oytura w hen o rder a nd l ight f inally t riumphed o ver t he c hthonic d arkness ( Sjoestedt 1 949 , c hapter o ne ; C ross & S lover 1 936 , T he S econd B attle o f M agh T uired), t hough b y t his t ime t he a ccount o f M oytura r epresents t he F omorians l ess a s m onstrous d emons t han a s g ods. T he B attle o f T ailtiu s ees t he T Gatha s upplanted b y t he m ortal S ons o f M il; h ere c osmogony e nds a nd m ythic " history" b egins. T here i s a s econd s ource f rom w hich a n e ven m ore d iffused r emnant o f c osmogony m ay b e s alvaged. T his i s t he b ody o f l ore ( of t welfth c entury c odification) c alled t he D innshenchas o r " The L ore o f P rom inent P laces" ( McCana 1 970 , 4 9). S joestedt d escr ibed t his v ery a ptly a s t he " mythic g eography" o f I reland ( 1949). I t i s , i n f act , ac omprehensive , t opographic g uide t o I reland. Av ast n umber o f p laces a re d escr ibed a nd a s tory r ecounted t o e xplain h ow t he p lace w as f ormed/named ( the t wo c oncepts a re p robably s ynonymous , s ee M cCana 1 970 , 5 7). T hree c omments a re r elevant t o t his s ource . F irst , t his i s o ne a spect o f t he p eculiar ly I rish c oncern w ith , a nd r apport b etween , n ature a nd t he s upernatural. S econdly , m any o f t he p laces s o d ealt w ith a re p rom inent , n ot o nly a s p laces c reated b y t he a ctions o f g ods o r m ythic c reatures ( eg D onn C üalnge i n t he T hin , s ee K insella 1 969), b ut b ecause t hey c ontinue t o h old a " lim inal" s tatus t hroughout b oth m ythic h istory a nd f actual h istory . T he t hird p oint i s t he d om inant r ole o f t utelary g oddesses i n t he f ormation o f t he l andscape ( McCana 1 970 , 4 3-50); o nce a gain , t his e xhibits a r apport b etween m an/nature/supernatural, a nd f ocuses o n t he r egenerative/fertility a spects o f t he f emale t utelary d eity a s a pplicable t o l ocalised p laces. T he c orrelation o f t he f eatures o f t he L GE a nd t he D innshenchas m ust s urely r epresent s urviving t races o f a C eltic c osmogony a fter i ts m utilation a t t he h ands o f m onkish s cribes. T he p articular b eliefs a re p robably b eyond r ecovery , b ut a f ew c oncepts b egin t o a ppear . I n k eeping w ith t he r est o f C eltic m ythology i s t he m isleadingly s imple a ppearance o f d irect p arallels b etween t he s upernatural a nd h uman s ociety ( or i s t his a r esult o f e uhemerisation?) s een i n t he c reation o f t he l andscape . T he r emarkable r apport o f m an/land/supernatural h as b een m entioned a lready . A lso n otable i s t he p robab ly p agan o r igin o f a c reation—catastrophe c ycle w ith i ts p ossib le a ppearance i n t he C eltic E thnography , w here i t w as s aid t hat " souls w ere i mmortal t hough a t t imes s ea a nd f ire m ay p revail". R emnant E schatology E schatology , j udgement a nd a n f ared b adly a t t he t hough , a s i n t he
o r c oncepts d ealing w ith t he f ate o f t he s oul, a a fterlife , l ike c osmogony , c an b e e xpected t o h ave h ands o f h ostile m onastic r edactors. T his i s t rue , c ase o f c osmogony , a f ew t races s till s urvive . T wo
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p reliminary p rovisos m ust b e m entioned : f irst , t he m odern c oncept o f a s oul i s n ot a ppropriate f or a d iscussion o f C eltic m ythology i n w hich t he d ead r eappear a s p hysical b eings i n a n O therworld o r a fterlife c onceived i n p hysical t erms. S econd , t here a re n o t races w hatever o f a " judgement" i n t he C hristian s ense ; i t w ould a ppear t hat t he C elts b elieved t hat a ll t he d ead f ared t he s ame , i rrespective o f b ehaviour i n t his l ife . T he C eltic O therworld r emains a d ifficult p lace a nd c oncept t o d eal w ith . I n o ne s ense , t he O therworld i s a p arallel t o t his w or ld , w here t he p eople l ive m uch a s h umans d o , b y f arm ing a nd c attle—raising , a nd w here t hey i ndulge i n t he t raditional C eltic p astimes o f r aiding a nd f ighting ( WSCC , M cCana 1 970 , 1 25126 ; S joestedt 1 949 , c hapter f ive ; D illon & C hadw ick 1 967). T he O therworld i s n ot a d irect p arallel t hough , f or i ts m ost c ommon p rospect i s a s a s uperlative w or ld w here h arvests a re p lentiful, r ivers a re f ull o f f ish , h erds a re n umerous , m en a re n oble a nd w omen b eautiful. A ll c astles a nd h omes a re f urnished w ith i ncredible r ichness , a nd t he s tandard d rink i s s parkling w ine ; n o o ne g rows o ld o r s uffers s ickness ( WSCC , A dventure o f N era o r M idhir 's I nvitation t o F airy land i n A CM). T he s uper lative c haracter o f t he O therworld i s w ell r epresented b y t he s eductive n ames a pplied t o i t . I t i s c alled , f or e xample , -F ir i nna m Beo , T he L and o f t he L iving , T ir i nna m Ban , T he L and o f W omen , T he L and o f P romise , T he G entle L and , T he P lain o f T wo M ists , T he P lain o f D elights , a nd m any , m any m ore . P aradoxically , t hough t he O therworld f olk d o n ot s icken o r g row o ld , t hey m ay b e k illed ( WCSS), d emonstrating c learly t he f luidity a nd i nconsistency o f t he C eltic O therworld ( McCana 1 976 , 1 26). A nother f eature o f t he O therworld w hich d emonstrates f luidity i s t he n umber o f p laces w here t he O therwor ld i s l ocated a nd t he n umber o f p laces t hrough w hich i t c an b e r eached . T he m ost c ommon p lacement o f t he O therworld , a nd p oint o f a ccess t o i t , a re t he S i d m ounds ( the p rehistoric l ong b arrows a nd h ills w ith c aves a ll a cross I reland) t o w hich t he T i ratha r etreated a fter t heir d efeat b y t he S ons o f M il. F or t his r eason , t he T i latha , t he Sne f olk a nd t he Sn m ounds b ecome n early s ynonymous ( see W E , D O , A dventure o f N era). T he O therworld i s o ccasionally p laced u ndersea , a s i n t he " Voyage o f K ing R uadh" ( ACM), o r m ore c ommonly , o n a n i sland w hich i s u sually t o t he s outhwest o f I reland b ut m ay a lso b e M an , h ome o f t he O therworld L ord M anannän ( Dillon & C hadwick 1 967 , 1 50152 ; " Voyage o f M ael D uin" , T he V oyage o f U i C horra , a nd I sland o f E arthly P aradise , a ll i n A CM). A ccess t o t he O therworld i s a ccomplished v ia m any d ifferent p laces a nd b y m any d ifferent m eans . T he m ost c ommon p oint o f a ccess i s t he S id m ounds , f ollowed b y s ea v oyages , l akes ( WSCC), a nd m ists w hich a rise w hile h unting ( Finn , i n C M , P wyll), t hough v irtually a ny p lace o r a ction c an s erve . ' T hese p oints o f a ccess a re n ot o pen i ndiscrim inate ly ( except a t S amain); i ndeed , t he a ccess i s v ery s elective , a t l east f or m ortals t o v isit t he O therworld a nd r eturn. I t i s a lmost b y d efinit ion t hat b oth k ings a nd h eroes , a nd o nly k ings a nd h eroes, v isit t he O therworld a nd r eturn ( WSCC , P wy ll, F inn , N era , C onle , C onn , R uadh , B F e tc), i ndicative o f t heir u nique p osition i n r elation t o t he O therworld. T he s electivity o f a ccess i s f urther e mphasised b y a nother a spect , w hich a lso r einforces t he f luid n ature o f t he s uperlative . T he m otivation o f t he v isitor d etermines w hat s ort o f O therworld h e f inds u pon a rrival; t he o ne w ho a rrives b y i nvitation f inds t he s uperlative w or ld d escribed a bove . T he o ne w ho a ttempts t o r aid t he O therworld f inds a d angerous , p owerfully m alevolent w orld w aiting ( as i n P reiddon
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A nnwn , M cCana 1 970 , 1 26 , 1 28129). A nother a spect o f t he f luidity o f t he O therwor ld i s t he c omplete i rrelevance o f e arthly c onceptions o f t ime a nd s pace . A S id m ound o f h ill s ize m ay e ncompass a w hole w orld ( eg N era). V isitors r eturning f rom y ears i n t he S i d m ay r e—enter t his w orld w ithin m oments o f l eaving i t ( Bran), o r t hey m ay t urn t o d ust a s t he r esult o f a n i ncalculab le p assage o f t ime ( McCana 1 970 , 1 24). T here i s a nother t radition w hich h as s uffered v ery b adly i n t he p rocess o f p reservation , p erhaps a n i ndication o f i ts r elat ive a ge . T his c omplicates t he s imple i mplication t hat t he O therworld i s t he f inal d estination o f t he d ead , a n i mplication t hat i s n ever m ade t ruly e xplicit , a nd w hich m ay n ot b e t he c ase a t a ll. T here a re t races o f a t radition t hat t he L and o f t he D ead i s s pecif ically t o b e f ound w est o f M unster i n t he s ea a nd t hat i ts L ord i s D onn. D onn , m eaning " Brown" o r " Dark", i s t he o nly I rish g od s pecified a s t he L ord o f t he D ead a nd t hereby i s d istinguished f rom a ll o ther g ods ( and , u niquely , h e i s f unctionally s pecific b ut n ot T Gatha). H is L and o f t he D ead , t he H ouse o f D onn , m ay b e a r elatively m ore s ombre p lace t han t he E lysian O therworld , b ut v ery f ew t races o r d escriptions r emain ( McCana 1 970 , 1 21129). T here i s v irtually n othing m ore k nown a bout t he H ouse o f D onn a s d istinct f rom t he O therworld ; p ossibly a ll t he c onnecting l inks h ave b een l ost . A lternatively , t his m ay r ef lect a nother a spect o f C eltic O therworld f luidity ; t he O therworld i s f requent ly p ortrayed a s a c onceptual a rchipelago i n w hich t he n ature o f i ndividual i slands m ay v ary t remendously ( Voyage o f M ael Minn , A CM). T hus , t he H ouse o f D onn c ould b e o nly a p articular i sland o f t he O therwor ld a rchipelago . U nfortunately , t his d oes n ot r esolve t he q uestion o f w here t he d ead w ent . T he O therworld a nd t he H ouse o f D onn a lmost c ertainly r epresent t he l ast v estiges o f w hat m ust h ave b een a c olourful c onception o f t he a fterlife. S everal p oints , h owever , r emain c lear . F irst , t he C eltic a fter life a nd O therworld w ere c onceived a s a p hysical p lace , w ith e veryday a ctivities i n p arallel w ith t his w orld . S econdly , t he O therworld w as a p lace w hich , u nder s pecific c ircumstances , c ould b e v isited b y s pecif ic m ortals. U nfortunately , a ll t he c onceptual l inks , t he " what d id i t m ean?" , h ave b een l ost .
A rt iculation o f S ociety w ith t he S upernatural S acral
K ingship
T here a re a n umber o f e pisodes i n t he m yths w hich i llustrate t he v ar ious w ays i n w hich I rish s ociety , o r t he g roup , i nteracted w ith t he s upernatural. I n a m onarchical, a ristocratic , h eroic s ociety , t his i nevitably f ocuses o n t he k ing , n ot a s m an o r i ndividual, b ut a s a p osition w hich c arr ies w ith i t c ertain r itual r esponsibilities f or t he s ociety a s aw hole . T he m yths s how k ingship a s a f ocal p oint o f s everal r eligious f orces , w hich l ed M cCana ( 1970 , 17) t o w rite o f s acral k ingship . T he k ingship p assed i n p o litical t erms t hrough a f am ily o r " derbfine" b y a s ystem n ow c alled t anistry . T his i s t he m undane , p rofane p rocess , b ut i n e very c ase t he s election a nd/or r atif ication o f t he k ing i s i n t he h ands o f t he s upernatural. I n t he c ase o f t he k ingship o f T ara i n M ide , a B ull—feast w as t he m eans o f s election; a d ruid a te o f a s acr ificial
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b ull a nd t hen s lept w ith a n i ncantation c hanted o ver h im b y o ther d ruids , a nd w hoever h e s aw i n h is d ream w as t he r ightful k ing ( DDH ; M cCana 1 970 , 19). T his h as p arallels i n t he a ccount o f G eraldus C ambrensis o f ar ite o f h is o wn t ime : t he s acrifice a nd r itual m eal o f a h orse a t a nother I rish k ingly i nauguration ( D illon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 9 2). R egardless o f t he m ethod o f s election , a k ing w as a lways r atif ied b y t he s upernatural a nd w as c onstantly i n t he p rocess o f b eing c onf irmed . R atification t ook t he f orm o f ar itual m arriage b etween t he k ing a nd a t utelary g oddess r epresenting t he s overeignty o f t he l and . T his c oncept i s p resumed t o h old f or e ach o f t he s everal g rades o f k ings ; c ertainly , t utelary g oddesses a re k nown w ho a re a ppropriate t o t he v ar ious s izes o f t erritory . T he c ontinuing c onfirmation o f a k ing i s c alled " Fir F laithemhan" o r t he T ruth o f t he R uler , b y w hich a k ing 's c ontinuing r ight t o r ule a nd t he r ightness o f h is r ule , i s c onf irmed b y t he t utelary g oddess a nd m ade m anifest i n t he c ondition o f t he l and. M aterial p rosperity i s t he s ure s ign o f s upernatural s upport f or t he r ule o f a k ing . S hould t he k ing b e b lem ished i n b ody o r s pir it , t he l and b ecomes a b lasted , d evastated l andscape ( as i n D DH , M anawydann , B ranwen e tc). T his c lose c onnection o f k ing , g oddess a nd t he l and i s y et a nother a spect o f t he C eltic c oncept ion o f t his w orld/Otherwor ld r elations . T he d eviation o f a k ing f rom h is " r ighteousness" i s m arked i n a s ymbolic s ense b y t he v iolation o f h is " gessa" , o r t he t aboos w hich h edge h is b ehaviour a nd i nsulate h im f rom t he w orld ( McCana 1 970 , 19120). A ll I rish C elts h ad p ersonal g essa ( singular " geas"), b ut c ertain s pecial a dditional g essa a pplied t o k ings q ua k ings. T he g essa v ary i n n umber a ccording t o t he r elative s tatus o f t he k ing ; t he K ing o f T ara h ad s even , p rovincial k ings h ad f ive , w hile l esser k ings p ossessed o nly f our ( Dillon & C hadwick 1 970 , 1 90). G essa a nd t he T ruth o f t he R uler a re l inked t autologically ; a k ing's f ailure w ill b e o bvious w hen f ate f orces h im t o v iolate h is g essa , w hich i n t urn i s t he o nly s ure s ign ( along w ith a b arren l and) t hat t he k ing i s b lemished . T here a re s everal i nstances i n w hich a k ing i s " overtaken" b y h is g essa a nd k illed , f requently i n a b urning h ouse a t S amain. T his i s f ollowed b y t he s uccession o f a n ew k ing. T he s equence i s r epetitive a nd c onsistent e nough t o s upport s peculation o f a t radition o f t he r itual m urder o f ak ing , p ossib ly b y h is s uccessor ( Gantz 1 98 1, 1 88189 ; M cCana 1 970 , 19). L iminal T ime C ycle O ne o f t he m ost p rom inent a spects o f s ocial i nteraction w ith t he s upernatural i s t he y early c ycle o f r eligious f est ivals. T he f our f estivals w ere : N ovember 1 , S amain ; F ebruary 1 , I mbolc; M ay 1 , B eltane ; a nd A ugust 1 , L ugnasad ; a nd t hey s eem p an—Celtic , a lthough t he ir l ocal p rominence c an v ary ( Dillon & C hadw ick 1 967 , 9 2109). T he f our f estivals c elebrated a w ide v ariety o f m ore o r l ess m undane p urposes. S amain m arks t he e nd o f s ummer g razing , I mbolc i s t he l ambing s eason , B eltane t he e nd o f s pr ing p lanting , a nd L ugnasad p erhaps t he b eginning o f h arvest . F urther , d ur ing t he f estival p eriod , e ach p rovince o r t uatha m et t o t ry l egal c ases , r eview l aws , l evy t axes , t rade , s ocialise e tc ( WE , D DH , [ PU , I U). T he l ocal p reference f or t he m ost i mportant c ould v ary : S amain a t T ara , L ugnasad a t E main M acha . A lthough e ach o f t he f our f estivals c arries t remendous r itual a nd s upernatural s ignificance , o ne r anks f ar a bove t he o thers . I t i s n o e xaggeration t o s ay t hat e very e vent o f p olitico—religious i mportance
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( inseparable a s t hey a re) o ccurs a t S amain . G ods m eet a nd p rocreate a t S amain ( WE , D O), k ings a re i naugurated ( IU , C CH), k ings a nd h eroes a re b oth k illed a t S amain ( DDH , C ü C hulainn , D iarmid m ac C erbhaill). A ll t his i mplies t hat S amain w as a t ruly " lim inal" t ime . T he p eriod i ncluding t he n ight o f 3 1 O ctober a nd t he d ay o f 1N ovember i s at ime o f c ongruence b etween t he n atural a nd t he s upernatural w orlds , w hen n atural l aws a re s uspended . T his i s a m anifestation o f a c ommon b elief , t hat t he t ime o f c hange b etween t wo c ycles , s uch a s y ears , i s o utside o f n ormal t ime , a " threshold" p eriod ( McCana 1 970 , 1 27). T hus , i n I rish C eltic t erms , S amain w as t he t ime w hen t he S id w ere o pen t o h uman i nvasion a nd , i mportantly , t he T üatha a nd S ide—folk l iterally w alk t his e arth w ith m an a nd s ometimes i nterfere v iolent ly i n m en's a ffairs. F or e xample , T ara w as d estroyed y early a t S amain b y a n O therwor ld b e ing u ntil F inn m ac C umaill k illed h im ( McCana 1 970 , 10), a nd t he S ide o f C r t lachan e ngage N era i n h is A dventure . I t w as t hus a ppropriate t o t he C elts t o c onduct r itual o bservances o n t hese f our r eligiously i mportant d ays , a nd e specially o n S amain w hen t he p erfect c ongruence o f n atural a nd s upernatural w ould l end e fficacy t o t he r itual. T he W elsh m ythology , p erhaps s urprisingly , i s m uch l ess d efinite t han t he I rish. O nly B eltane i s m entioned e xplicitly , t hough a ppropriately e nough , i t i s t he b irth t ime o f t he H ero P ryderi ( Pwyll). O therw ise , t he o nly s urviving e vidence i s t he s trong t endency f or t he m ajor e vents o f t he s tories t o o ccur a t o ne—year i ntervals , a nd a t f estivals o r f easts a t t hese t imes ( eg P wy ll a nd R hiannon i n P wyll, y early t ravels o f M anwydan a nd P rydin i n M anawydan , t he y ear ly s hape—changing o f G wydion a nd G ilfaethy i n M ath). E ach o f t he e vents o ccurring a t t hese y early f easts i s i n s ome w ay s upernatural. H ence t he s uggestion i s s trong t hat t he c orrelation o f s upernatural e vents a nd y ear ly f easts p arallels t he I rish r itual c a -i endar , b ut p resumab ly e uhemerisation a nd C hristianisation h ave r obbed t he W elsh m ythology o f t he d etail. T here s eems t o b e c lear e vidence f or a w idespread C eltic y early c alendar o f f our p arts , e ach m arked b y ap rofane p olitical f estival w ith r itual e lements a nd a m ythological o rigin. T he y early c ulm ination o f t his c ycle w as a t S amain , w hen t he n atural a nd s upernatural w orlds c ame i nto p erfect c orrelation. T his e xtreme o f " lim inality" m ade S amain a ppropriate f or t he p erformance o f t he r ituals b y w hich t he s ociety a s a w hole i nteracted w ith t he s upernatural w or ld . L iminal
P laces :
R eligious L ocations
I n p arallel w ith t he h ighly d eveloped c alendar o f r itual e vents i s a n e xtensive s eries o f p laces w hich a re i n s ome w ay l iminal, p oints o f c ontact b etween t his w orld a nd t he s upernatural. E ight t ypes o f s uch p laces h ave b een i dentified . T hree o f t he t ypes o f p laces a cquire t heir l im inality t hrough t heir r ole a s p oints o f a ccess b etween t his w orld a nd t he O therwor ld . T he m ost f requently o ccurring a re t he S i d m ounds , w hich , a s h omes o f t he T üatha a nd e ntrances/exits t o t he O therworld f or a ll s upernatural t raffic , a re a n e xpected l iminal p lace ( WE , D O , C RF , B CC , A CM , C N , P wy ll, M anawydan). L akes a lso f igure p rominently i n p urely s upernatural a ction ( DO , B F , L lyr) a nd a s e ntry/exit p oints t o t he O therwor ld ( WSCC , D O , B ranwen). T he t hird s uch l ocation i s a n i sland i n t he m idst o f t he s ea , u sually t o t he s outh a nd w est , a nd u sually r eached b y a v oyage ( ACM , H ouse o f D onn).
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A f ourth l im inal p lace f ollows u pon w hat m ay b e ap r ime f eature o f l akes a nd i slands — w ater . W ells a nd s pr ings a re t he s ett ing f or a n umber o f c lear ly s upernatural e vents ( WE , D DM , D O), b ut t he a ctivit ies ( not i ncluding O therwor ld a ccess) d o n ot i ndicate a ny c onsistent r o le f or s uch p laces . F ords a cross r ivers a re a lso a c lear ly l im ina l l ocat ion , b ut a gain , t he a ctual s ignif icance i s d iff icult t o d eterm ine . M any i f n ot a ll r ivers h ad t utelary d eities ( Boand f or t he B oyne , S iannon f or t he S hannon), s o t he w ater i tself m ay h ave b een l im inal b y v irtue o f i ts c lose a ssociat ion t o t he g oddess. M oreover , i t i s t he c rossing p oints , b y w hich m en c ross t he ' t hresho ld" o f o ne d eity 's d omain a nd e nter a nother 's , t hat a re s o c onsistent ly t he s cene o f s upernatural a ction ( the D agda m ates w ith t he M orri gan a t a f ord) a nd h eroic c ombat ( TBC , P wy ll, B DCC , W DCC). As ixth l im inal f eature m ay b e b oundar ies o f a ll k inds , a s i t s eems v ery l ikely t hat f ords m ay b e a s pecial c ase o f a m ore w idespread c onceptualisat ion o f s ocio—political b oundaries , a nd e specially b oundary—crossing p oints , a s l im inal ( O 'R ia in 1 972 , 1 2-29). T his l im inality i s p robab ly d er ived f rom t he a ct o f c rossing f rom o ne t ute lary g oddess' d omain i nto a nother 's d omain. T he s eventh l im inal p lace m ay b e t he w oods i n g eneral. T he m ythic e vidence h as b een e xtensively e uhemer ised , b ut t here a re n umerous s upernatural c onsequences o f h unting ( as i n P wy ll), o r c hances o f e nter ing t he O therwor ld ( as i n t he m any e ncounters o f t he F iana , M cCana 1 970 , 1 09). I ndeed , t he w ho le o f t he F iana C ycle i s v ery m yth—like i n a tmosphere , a s i f a ll t he F iana a nd a ll t he w oods w ere o nly a s tep o utside t he O therwor ld . T he d ichotomy h ere m ay b e b etween t he o rdered f am iliar ity o f t he s ocial l ife a nd t he d isordered w ildness o f t he w oods ; t hose w ho l ive i n t he w oods ( or w ho e nter t hem) a re o utside t he s ociety a nd t hereby c loser t o t he s upernatura l w or ld ( McCana 1 970 , 1 08110). I n a ddition , t he s ingle r eference t o C elt ic h unting i n t he C e ltic E thnographies ( see c hapter s even) i ncludes t he p hrase " f irst f ruits" , s uggesting a r itual c ontext . G iven t he e xtremely s trong l im inal f lavour o f a ll h unting a ctivit ies i n t he m yths , i t s eems l ike ly t hat h unting a nd h unters w ere p otentia lly s usceptib le t o O therworld i nf luence a nd w ere c onsequent ly c onstrained b y m any t aboos a nd g essa . T here r emains y et o ne m ore m ajor t ype o f l im inal p lace . T his i s t he s eries o f g reat f east g ather ing p laces , t he t r ibal a nd p rovincial c entres w here t he T üatha g athered f or t he f our y ear ly f easts. P rincipal a mong t hese i s T ara i n M fde , s ynonymous w ith I reland a s aw ho le i n t erms o f s acral k ingship ( McCana 1 970 , 17). P rovincial s acral c entres a re C r i lachan ( CRF , T BS , A dventure o f N era) , E main M acha ( LPU), U isnech M i de ( WE), T emuir ( DDH), a nd T em iur L üachra ( FU), a s w ell a s H ar lech ( Branwen) a nd G ossedd A rberth ( Pwy ll a nd M anawydan) i n W a les. T he s ites b ecame l im inal, u sually b y v irtue o f t he m yth ic e vent b y w hich t he p lace w as c reated a nd t he t radit ional g athering f irst h eld ( Macha i n [ PU o r U isnech M ( de o f t he D agda [ WE a nd 0°R ahilly 1 946 , 1 7 1]) o r , a lternatively , b ecause o f t he p resence o f a p oint o f a ccess t o t he O therwor ld ( Crüachan a nd t he S i d C ave o f C rüachan). T here m ay a lso b e a t radit ion f or t hese f estival s ites o r " 6enach" t o s erve a s b uria l p laces f or t he t err itor ial r oyalty ( Wadde ll 1 983 , 2 1-24). T hus t hese s ites a re a l im inally a ppropr iate p lace f or t he C elts t o m eet t o c onduct b oth p rofane a nd r itual b usiness . Ap art icular s ubset o f t his i s ah ouse ( or i ron h ouse w ithin a w ooden h ouse) w ithin w hich t he i naugurat ion a nd p ossibly r itual d eath o f k ings o ccur , a s a t T em iur L üachra ( IU), a t a n u nspecif ied p lace ( Branwen), a t D ind R ig ( Gantz 1 98 1, 1 89), a nd a t D a
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D ergas H ostel ( DDH). U nfortunately , n o d etail s urvives a bout t hese h ouses ( but s ee D DH), t hough i t i s r easonable t o p resume t hat s uch h ouses w ere s tructurally d istinctive i n s ome m anner . T here i s o ne f urther p oint o f c ontact b etween t he C elt ic s ociety a nd t he s upernatural, o ne n ot l im ited b y e ither t ime o r p lace ; t his i s t hrough t he a ctions o f r eligious s pecialists. R eligious S pecialists W hen c onsidering p eople w ho , b y v irtue o f s tatus a nd r ole , a re i ntermediaries b etween s ociety a nd t he s upernatural, t he S acral K ing m ust b e g iven r ecognit ion. T he m yths n o l onger c ontain a ny e xamples o f h is a ctual d uties, b ut h is p osition a s s ymbolic h usband o f t he L and a nd S overeign m akes h im r esponsible f or t he c ontinuing f ertility , p rosperity a nd p eace o f t he t uatha ( land a nd p eople). W hile t he o nly c eremony e mbodied i n t he t exts i s t he r itual m arriage , o ther s uch r itual f unctions , p robably a ssociated w ith f ertility r ituals , a re l ikely . A s econd , a nd m uch m ore c ommon , g roup o f s pecialists a re t he d ruids. I nterestingly , i n s pite o f a t l east f ive f unctions a ssigned t o d ruids , t here i s n o a pparent s pecialisation w ithin t he c lass o f d ruids. T he s ocial s tatus o f d ruids m ay b e j udged b y t he o rder o f p recedence o f s peaking a t a n a ssembly o f t he U laid ; n o c ommon m an c ould s peak t o a n i ssue b efore t he K ing , a nd t he K ing c ould n ot s peak b efore h is d ruid . ( Curiously , G antz i n I U [ 1981, 1 96] t ranslates t his a s " druid" , s ingular f orm , w hile K insella i n T BC [ 1969] t ranslates i t a s " his t hree d ruids".) T here a re f ive f unctions a ssigned t o d ruids i n t he I rish m yths ( the W elsh m yths h ave n o d irect r eferences t o d ruids , p resumab ly t hrough C hristian i nfluence). F irst , d ruids a re i nvolved i n t he s acrifice o f a nimals i n t he c ontext o f f unerals ( in W E a nd D AS) a nd a t t he b ull—feast o f r oyal s uccession ( in D DH). T he s econd f unction a ttributed t o d ruids i s d ivination ; h owever , o f t he n ine e xamples n oted , d ruids w ere o nly s pecified i n f ive c ases. T hree o f t he r emaining f our c ases a re a ttributed t o " filid" ( seer o r p oet , M cCana 1 970 , 1 5), t wo o f w hom a re w omen , a nd t he f ourth i s a " physician" ( ACM). D ruidic d ivination a lso o ccurs i n t he c ontext o f t he b ull—feast ( DDH) a nd i n E SU b y t he l ay ing o n o f h ands. I n t wo c ases ( BDCC a nd T BC), t he d ivination i s p erformed b y a s pecif ic t echnique , a k now ledge o f w hat d ays a re a uspicious f or w hich s orts o f a ctions. S ome d ays a re g ood f or t aking u p a rms ( BDCC), w hile o thers a re g ood ( or e qually , n ot g ood) f or u ndertaking m ilitary a ction ( TBC). I t i s p robably m ore a ccurate t o s ee t his a s a n e xample t hat s ocially i mportant a ctions i n t his w orld a re a lways l inked t o r itual r ules , a nd t hat s uccess o r f ailure d epends o n p erform ing t he a ction i n a ccordance w ith t hose s upernatural r ules. O therw ise , d ivination o ccurs b y t he s eer 's " insight" ( BF , D DH , A CM , T BC ; c f N agy 1 982 , 1 35143). T here a re t wo e xamples o f d ruids s erving a s d octors ( ACM a nd W SCC) a nd a t hird h ealer i s n ot s pecified a s b eing a d ruid b ut i s a " seer" ( ACM). T here a re a lso s everal i nstances o f h ealing b y O therworld f igures , f or e xample , L ug i n T BC , o r b y t aking t he i njured p erson b ack t o t he O therworld , w here h e i s h ealed ( CRF). T he f ourth f unction o f r eligious s pecialists i s a ssigned s pecifically t o d ruids. T his i s " teaching" , a nd a lthough i n B DCC t he d ruid C athbad t aught 1 00 m en r egular ly , t he o nly e xample o f t he c ontent o f h is t eaching t o b e r ecorded i s k now ledge o f w hat d ays a re a uspicious a nd f or w hat e vents. T he f ifth a nd f inal f unction i s b y f ar t he m ost a mb iguous, b eing n o m ore t han t he g eneral a ssertion o f d ruidic " magic" ,
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as, for example, to make Conare Mor thirsty, and thus bring about his death (in DOH), or, more dramatically, to change shape, for example, the two swineherds in TBC and Math are a11 said to change shape by druidic power or skill, but since each of these people is almost certainly divine, it is unclear whence come the shape-shifting powers. In summary then, the myths provide evidence of a variety of functions assigned to Druids, in which they · possess knowledge unavailable to common men or perform acts that common men· can not. The religious knowledge of the Druids includes auspicious/inauspicious days, and whatever else Cathbad taught; ritual actions include "seeing" (divination), healing, sacrificing animals, and performing -magic. In each case, an otherwise normal man is enabled by inherent or learned abilities to come in contact with the supernatural on behalf of the laity. Articulation of the Individual with the Supernatural The Celtic myths also preserve traces of at least two ways in which the lay individual came into contact with the supernatural. Neither of these is "ritual" in the conventional sense; though rituals must have existed, they may not have been recorded in myth, or they may have been altered beyond recognition. The first is an everyday and continuing contact with the These apparently applied to supernatural in the form of gessa. everyone, though the very nature of the heroic style of myth precludes knowledge of common folk, so the applicability of gessa to the whole population is really only a suggestion (McCana 1970, 129). A "geas" is a binding, supernaturally enforced prohibition against certain acts. Gessa are individual and apply only to one person, with the exception of those gessa which apply to anyone who becomes king. Gessa seldom serve any discernible purpose, for example, Conare's prohibition against leaving Temuir every ninth night (DOH), though some appear almost totemic in nature (Cu's geas against dog flesh and Conare's agai._nst Probably all such gessa had a ritual significance now killing birds). lost from thi myths; the religious importance, however, is clearly shown by the imp_lication' of a fated breach of gessa, of which the inevitable .consequence is death. The second mannerin which an individual comes in contact with the supernatural may be either deliberate, or simply as the result of In the former case, the· supernatural is reached through a ace ident. voyage or pilgrimage undertaken for the purpose, for example, in Mael DGin and Ut Chorra (ACM). This tradition was strong enough (and amenable enough) to be incorporated into the basic conceptual repertoire of the early Celtic· Church (McCana 1970, 134). Not all such voyages, of course, were directed toward this goal; King Ruadh was unintentionally precipitated into the Otherworld while on a voyage (ACM). Hunters in woods, with their frequent Otherworld contacts, may be in an analogous situation. Both of these last two examples may indicate that the place was perhaps as important as either the action or the intention. General Features of the Supernatural Three classes of information remain which carry clear supernatural si�n�ficance, though their specific meaning has been lost from the myths. The first group will be referred to simply as symbols of the These are symbols which appear to represent the supernatural. -232-
s upernatural i n g eneral r ather t han i n a ny s pecific a spect . T he s econd i s t he c oncept o f t r iads; t he g rouping o f t hree s im ilar e ntit ies i nto o ne g reater i ndividual, o r t he d ivision o f o ne e ntity i nto t hree l esser , v irtually i ndistinguishable i ndividuals. T he t hird i s t he r ole o f t he h uman h ead i n r itual c ontext . A mong s ymbols o f t he s upernatural, c olours p lay a p rom inent r ole . R ed i s a ssociated w ith c hthonic d eit ies ( DDH) a nd d eath a nd d estruction i n g eneral ( TBC). A nimals w hich a re w hite w ith r ed e ars a re a lways f rom t he O therworld ( CRF , P wyll), a nd t he s upernatural s ignificance o f p ure w hite a nimals i s a lso i mplicit . G reen i s c onsistently a ssociated w ith t he S ide—folk a nd h ence w ith t he T Gatha ( SCSS , W E), w here t he r eferent a ppears t o b e t he s uper lative n ature o f t he O therworld. R ed a nd g reen n ot i nfrequently o ccur t ogether , a s i f t o c onceptually b alance e ach o ther ( WSCC a nd W E). A nimals a re g iven c onsistently s upernatural r oles i n t he m yths b ut l ack t he d irect c orrelations i mplied b y s hape—changing o r a nimal a vatars. B irds a re v ery c ommon , f requently a ppearing j oined b y s ilver c hains a s s upernatural i ndicators ( DO , B CC , W SCC). B oars a nd s tags b oth s erve t o l ead m ortals i nto c ontact w ith t he s upernatural, b ut l ack a ny f urther d irect a ssociation ( Pwyll, M anawydan , C ulhwch , a nd M cCana 1 970 , 5 0-55 , 1 08110 f or e xamples f rom t he F iana C ycle). A f ourth , t horoughly m ythic c reature , w hich a ppears o nce i n t he I rish m yths i n p urely s upernatural c ircumstances , i s t he r am—headed s nake ( CRF), w hich h as n umerous i conographic p arallels i n G aul. S everal o ther s ymbols a lso r ecur . T he c auldron i s d irectly a ssociated w ith t he D agda a s a s ymbol o f p lenty , a nd t hough i t o ccurs v ery o ften w ithout a ny r eference t o t he D agda , i t m ay r etain t he s ame c onceptual r eferent . C auldrons l acking s uch s pecific a ttr ibution o ccur i n T BC , B ranwen ( tw ice), M anawydan , a nd t hree t imes i n C ulhwch. A n e xample o f a n a ction w hich b etokens s upernatural i mport i s at urn t o t he r ight , c alled s un—w ise , a nd t he c ontexts i ndicate i ts m eaning t o b e i n s ome w ay p ropitious ( TBC , L PU). O ne f urther s ymbol w ith p otentially s upernatural a spects i s t he O gam a lphabet . C ü C hulainn u sed a m essage i n O gam s everal t imes t o s top t he a dvancing C onnachta w arriors u ntil h is w r itten a nd b inding c hallenge i s f ulfilled ( TBC). I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he O gam l etters a re s upernaturally b inding b y v irtue o f t heir o rigin i n t he D ivine C hampion O gma ( for w hom t hey a re n amed), w ho m ay b e a g od w ith b inding p owers ( LeRoux 1 961, • R ees & R ees 1 961), a nd w ho m ay b est b e i nterpreted a s t he c hampion o f o ratory , r iddlemastery a nd w itty c onversation ( as i n M cCana 1 970 , 1 37141). T he O gam w riting m ay a lso s ymbolise a rcane k nowledge , a nd a ny k now ledge n ot g enerally h eld w as p robably a c onceptual s ource o f s upernaturally d er ived p ower ( Nagy 1 982 , 1 35143). T he u se o f t riads o r t r iples i n C eltic m ythology i s w ell d ocumented , t hough t he s ignificance o r m eaning i s l ess w ell u nderstood . I t i s p ossible t hat i n t he m any t riads o f d eities , e specially t utelary g oddesses , t riplication m ay s erve t o e mphasise p ower a nd t o a ssociate d iverse f unctions i nto a s ingle t riadic f unctional e ntity . O ther f orms o f t riads i nclude s everal i nstances o f t hree s equential p artners o f a p ossibly t utelary/fertility f emale f igure , a s i n W E , E SU , P wy ll, M ath . H ere t he u nderly ing c oncept m ay w ell b e a c ycle o f r egeneration a nd f ertility , f or m ost o f t he s equences i nvolve e pisodes o f o ne y ear 's d uration. O therwise , t riads w ere a f avour ite f orm f or c onserving t he o ral l iterature , i n b oth I reland a nd W ales ( McCana 1 970 , 4 8). T riads t hus s eem t o s erve b oth t o i ntensify a nd t o c onvey t he c onceptual w holeness o f t hings. O ther m eanings w ere p robably p resent a s w ell.
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T he h uman h ead m ay a lso s erve a s a s ymbol o f t he s upernatural, o r p erhaps s ome p articular a spect o f t he s upernatural. T he m any i nstances w here h eads a re c ollected a s w ar t rophies ( WE , D DH , D O , B DCC , I U , T BC) a re t reated a s p urely p rofane m artial a ctivit ies a nd s eem t o e mphasise t he h ead a s as ymbol, b oth o f t he w hole m an a nd o f h is s kill a nd p ower . T he p ossibility r emains t hat t he o riginally r itual c ontext o f t hese a ctions h as b een l ost t o e uhemerisation a nd m onkish b ias , t hough n o s ign o f l acunae r emains. T here a re , h owever , t wo s cenes w hich a re c learly • o f s upernatural i mportance . T he f irst a re t he s equential b eheading s cenes i n B F ( it i s a lso a t riple s cene) i n w hich C R ai e ventually d eclares C ü C hulainn t he U laid C hampion . T he s econd i nstance i s i n B ranwen w hen t he H ead o f B ran p rovides e xcellent c ompany t o h is s even s urviving c ompanions o n a n 8 7 y ear s ojourn , b oth i n t his w orld a nd o n a n O therworld i sland , a nd o nly b egins t o d ecay w hen h is d y ing r equests ( or g essa) a re u nheeded. T hese s cenes p robably h eld c onsiderable m ythic s ignificance , b ut t he m eaning b ehind t hem i s n ow l ost .
S UMMARY :
R ELIGION I N I RISH/WELSH S OCIETY
T he d iscussion p resented h ere i ndicates t hat r eligion p robab ly p layed a m ajor r ole i n C eltic l ife a nd s ociety . T he i nsular C elts p opulated b oth t his w orld a nd a n O therwor ld w ith a m ultitude o f d eities , w ho c ould a nd d id h ave a n i nf luential p art i n e veryday l ife . T here a re c lear t races o f a n e xtensive a nd c omplex c osmogony b y w hich t he i nsular C elt e xplained t he o rigins o f t he w orld a nd h is o wn s ociety . V estiges o f a n e schatology i ndicate t hat t here w as p robably a v ery c omplex c onception o f t he f ate o f m an a fter d eath a nd h is s ubsequent i nteraction w ith h is a ncestral g ods. B y t he c ombination o f c oncepts o f a s acral p osition o f k ingship , t he k ing's d ut ies , a nd h is r elationship t o t he s upernatural, t he i nsular C elt c ould e xplain , a nd i n s ome w ay h ope t o i nf luence , t he a ll i mportant c ycles o f a gr icultural f ertility . T he e ntire y ear ly c ycle w as o rdered b y f our g reat f est ivals , w hich s erved i nnumerable e veryday f unct ions , b ut w hich a lso e xplicitly t ied C eltic s ociety i nto t he s upernatural o rder t o e nsure . t hat e arthly s ociety f unctioned i n a ccordance w ith s upernatural l aws . R eligion a lso s anctif ied a nd g ave a uthority t o t he C eltic p olitical s ystem , b y v irtue o f t hese f estivals a nd t he r eligiously o rdained l iminal c entres w here t he f estivals w ere h eld. T here w as a w ide—ranging s eries o f t imes a nd p laces w here t he i nsular C elts c ould e xpect t o c onfront a nd , i n as ense , e xperience t he s upernatural. N ot s urprisingly , a n a pparently e xtensive c lass o f r eligious s pecialists e xisted w ho h ad t he k now ledge a nd s kills t o i ntercede w ith t he s upernatural o n b ehalf o f t he s ociety a s aw hole , a s w ell a s ' for i ndividuals. T here a re t races o f w hat m ust o r iginally h ave b een a n e normous r ange o f b eliefs a nd a ctions , b y w hich t he i ndividual i nteracted p ersonally w ith t he g ods . T hrough a ll t hese a spects r uns a s eries o f s ymbols o f t he s upernatural w hich t he i nsular C elts u sed t o b oth r epresent a nd l ink t ogether a ll t he o ther f acets o f t he C eltic s upernatural.
CH A P T E R
9
T HE E THNOLOGY O F B URIAL A ND S ACRIFICE
T hus f ar t he e vidence f or C eltic r eligion f rom t wo s ources — a rchaeology a nd l iterature — h as b een d iscussed. T he m ater ial f rom t he l atter s ource , i ncluding t he C elt ic e thnographies a nd t he v ernacular m ythology , h as p rovided m uch i nformat ion , s uch a s e lements o f b elief , w hich c an n ot b e p reserved c ompletely i n a rchaeology . U nfortunately , n either o f t hese l iterary s ources h as s urvived u nscathed t o t he p resent , a nd t here a re s everal i nstances w here t oo m uch o f t he C eltic b elief c ode h as b een l ost t o a llow c onf ident i nterpretation. I n p articular , t he b eliefs s urrounding d eath a nd h uman m ortuary r ituals , a nd v otive a nd s acrificial r ituals , a re m issing o r i ncomplete . B elief a nd b ehaviour a re , h owever , c losely l inked t ogether , a nd b ehavicur d efined a rchaeo— l ogically m ay b e c ompared w ith s imilar b ehaviours a nd b eliefs f ound i n s ocieties s tudied e thnographically . T his m ay s uggest a r ange o f b eliefs t hat m ay h ave b een c orrelated w ith t he k nown b ehaviour ( ie m ortuary a nd s acrificial r ituals).
A NALYSIS G eneral—Comparative A nalogies T he u se o f e thnographic a nalogy ( or p erhaps m isuse) b y a rchaeo— l ogists i s w ell—known ( Orme 1 98 1, 1 16). T he p referred a lternative t o p iecemeal a nalogy i s a m ore h olistic a pproach ( Orme 1 98 1, 1 8-24 ; F lannery 1 972 , 2 9 ; U cko 1 969 , 2 62). I deally , t here s hould e xist a n umber o f c lose p arallels, i n t erms o f s ubsistence , e nvironment , a nd g eneral s ocial a nd p olitical c omplexity , b etween a n a rchaeological c ulture a nd ' a n e thnographic c ulture b efore p articular a nalogies a re d rawn b etween t he t wo ( eg L evy 1 982 , 1 9). T he g reater t he n umber o f k nown p arallels, t he m ore c onvincing a f urther p ostulated p arallel b ecomes. T his r equires v ery c lose c ontrol o f t he e vidence . T hese c onditions a re n ot e asily , o r o ften , f ulfilled ( Ucko 1 969 , 2 62-263 ; O rme 1 98 1, 2 7-28). I f a c lose a nd d etailed p arallel i s d ifficult o r i mpossible t o f ind , t he e thnographic ( or m ore p robab ly , t he e thnologic) l iterature m ay b e u sed t o l ocate a nd s tudy c onsistent r elat ionships b etween m aterial c ulture r emains , s ocial r elations , a nd b elief p atterns a mong a s election o f k nown s ocieties ( Naroll 1 962 ; B inford 1 97 1), w hat L evy c alled g eneral—comparative a nalogies ( 1982 , 1 8). T he g oal i s t o d efine c onsistent p atterns b etween b ehaviour a nd b elief a mong m any s ocieties , w hich c an i n t urn b e u sed t o s uggest t he b elief w hich m ay b e
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r elated t o b ehaviour k nown f rom a n a rchaeologically d efined s ociety . T his c hapter i s d ivided i nto t wo s ections . T he f irst d eals w ith b eliefs a bout d eath a nd c onsequent m ortuary r ituals ; t his i s r e levant t o t he d iscussion o f h uman b urials i n t he I ron A ge o f s outhern B ritain. T he s econd s ection i s f ocused o n b eliefs a nd r ituals o f s acr ifice , w hich m ay b e r eflected i n t he m etal f inds f rom w atery c ontexts , r itual s hafts a nd a nimal b urials. D eath a nd M ortuary R ituals T he s urvey o f t he a rchaeological e vidence a llowed t he d ef inition o f s ix v arieties o f h uman b ur ial o r m ortuary r emains i n I ron A ge B ritain. B riefly t hese w ere : 1
C omplete s ingle i nhumations
2
S ingle p artial
3
M ultiple p artial
4
B urials o f a rticulated l imbs a nd j o ints
5
S kulls
6
S ingle b ones
i nhumations i nhumations
S everal p oints s hould b e r e—emphasised. F irst , t he t otal n umber o f i ndividuals r epresented i s o nly a s mall f raction o f t he I ron A ge p opulation. S econdly , a t l east t hree d ifferent m ortuary r ituals m ust b e r epresented , t wo o f w hich r esult i n t he d eposition o f o nly p arts o f b odies. T hirdly , t he b ur ials o ccur o n a ll k inds o f s ettlement s ites , p ossibly i n t he c ontext o f r ubbish . T hese o bservations a re t rue o f t he I ron A ge b urials i n c entral s outhern B r itain — c an e thnology s uggest b eliefs a nd r ituals t hat w ould p roduce s uch r esults? T he d eath o f i ndividual m embers i s t he m ost u niversal e vent w ith w hich c ultures m ust c ope a nd t he c ultural r esponses a re a s v aried i n f orm a s d eath i s u niversal ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 ) . N ot s urprisingly , t his h as l ed t o t he a ccumulat ion o f am assive e thnological l iterature ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 979 ; B loch & P arry 1 982 ; H umphreys & K ing 1 981; B artel 1 973 , 1 982 ; H abenstein & L amers 1 963 ; a nd H ertz 1 960 ; t o n ame o nly a f ew). T he a pplication o f t his l iterature t o a rchaeological e vidence i s n ow w ell d eveloped ( Saxe 1 970 ; B inford 1 971; G oldstein 1 976; T ainter 1 978 ; B artel 1 973 , 1 98 1, 1 983 ; a nd n ow O 'Shea 1 984). M uch o f t he " archaeology o f d eath" a nd s ome o f t he " anthropology o f d eath" l iterature i s i rrelevant t o p resent p urposes b ecause i t d eals w ith m ortuary r ituals a pplied t o m ost o r a ll o f a p opulation , w hile t he a rchaeological e vidence d iscussed h ere r epresents t he d isposal o f o nly p art o f t he p opulation. T he f irst , a nd s till m ost i nfluential s tudy o f m ortuary r ituals i s t hat o f R obert H ertz : " A C ontr ibution t o t he S tudy o f t he C o llect ive R epresentation o f D eath" ( 1960 [ 1907]). H ertz' a pproach w as t hematic , a nd d ealt w ith a s eries o f p ractices w hich i nvolved a t l east t wo f unerary c eremonies , s eparated b y v ary ing l engths o f t ime . R elevant t o t he p resent i nterest i s t hat t his p rovides a n o pportunity f or e ither p urposeful o r a ccidental m anipulation o f t he r emains , i n t he p rocess o f w hich s ome b ody p arts a re s aved o r l ost , w hile t he r emainder a re d is-
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p osed o f i n t he s econd f uneral. H ertz ' o r iginal s tudy w as o f s ociet ies i n B orneo a nd I ndonesia , b ut s im ilar f unerary p ract ices a re n ow r ecognised i n a w ide v ar iety o f c ultures f rom a ll o ver t he w or ld , i ncluding : t he H uron o f N orth A mer ica ( Hertz 1 960 , 7 1 ; D r iver 1 96 1), S outh A mer ica ( Crocker 1 977), M elanesia ( Hadden 1 908 , 1 49 ; T uzin 1 977), C entral A sia ( Lopat in 1 960 , 9 0114) , M adagascar ( B loch 1 97 1, 1 982), G reece ( A lexiou 1 974 , 4 7-49), N ew H ebr ides ( Gurait 1 963 , 2 30 , 2 40), A ustralia ( Goode 1 95 1, 2 10), N ew B r itain ( Va lent ine 1 965), O ceania ( M iles 1 965) , A frica ( Rattray 1 959) a nd i n p arts o f t he J udaic t radit ion ( Meyers 1 97 1). I n g eneral, s uch p ract ices a re r eferred t o a s s econdary f unerary ( or m ortuary) r itua ls. I n s pite o f t he v ar iety o f s ociet ies r epresented h ere , t here a re s everal b e liefs a nd p ract ices w hich c ons istent ly o ccur t ogether a nd a ppear f unct ionally r elated . F o llow ing H ertz , t he b eliefs a re e xam ined f irst , a nd t hen t he b ehavioural c onsequences a re c onsidered . T he m ost b asic , a nd t herefore m ost c ommon b e lief a ssociated w ith s econdary f unerary r ituals f orms t he c ore o f H ertz' a na lysis . T his i s t he p erception o f d eath a s a p rocess , n ot a n e vent ; a p rocess o f t ransition f rom o ne s tatus t o a nother , f rom f ully a live t o f ully d ead . T h is p rocess b ecomes a p er iod o f l im ina lity b etween t wo s tates . T his c oncept o f l im inality w as m ore f ully d eveloped b y a c ontemporary o f H ertz , A V an G ennep ( 1960 [ 1909], c f T urner 1 967), i n w hich d eath w as u sed a s a p r ime e xample o f a c lass o f r ituals d esigned t o a lter a n i ndividual's s tatus , k nown a s r ites o f p assage ( Van G ennep 1 960 , 1 9 1). B oth t he b eginning a nd e nd o f d eath a s a p rocess o f t ransit ion a re a rb itrary , b ut t he m inimal d ef init ions i ndicate t hat d eath i s u sually t hought t o b egin w hen b reathing a nd h eartbeat s top , a nd i s n ot c omp lete u nt il t he f inal d issolution o f t he p hysical b ody ( Hertz 1 960 , 4 5 ; H unt ington & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 214). T here a re s evera l c orrelates o f t his c entral b elief i n d eath a s a t ransitional, e ndur ing p eriod . F irst , a nd m ost i mportant ly , t his p resupposes a b elief i n as oul w hich s urvives p hysica l d eath t o c omplete t he " passage" t o a n ew s tatus ( Hunt ington & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 314 ; H ertz 1 960 , 3 4). S econdly , t hese b eliefs a lso r equire t he b elief i n a n " otherwor ld" t o w hich s pir its g o a fter d eath i s f inal. T his l eads t o a t hird c orrelate , w hich i s a n e lement o f b ody—soul p aralle lism , i n w hich t he f ate o f t he b ody r epresents t he f ate o f t he s oul. I n o ther w ords , t he s p ir it i s p art o f t he b ody i n l ife , c aught b etween t his w orld a nd t he n ext d ur ing d eath , a nd e nters t he o therwor ld o nly w hen a ll l inks t o t his w or ld a re s evered b y t he f inal d ecomposition o f t he p hysical b ody ( Hertz 1 960 , 3 4-37 , 9 5 ; H unt ington & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 4). T his f inal e vent c omp letes t he t ransition a nd i s u sually c elebrated w ith a s econd f unerary r itual. A f ourth c orrelate o f a b elief i n d eath a s a t ransitiona l s tate i s a f ear • a nd h orror o f t he s oul, w ithout i ts b ody a nd c aught b e tween t his w or ld a nd t he o therwor ld w here i t s hould b e ; t he s oul p artakes o f t he s upernatural p ower o f t he o therwor ld , b ut r emains i n t his w or ld , w here t hat p ower i s a n u nnatural a nd f earsome t hing . C onsequent ly t he w ho le p rocess o f d eath a nd b ur ial b ecomes f raught w ith d anger t o t he s urvivors . T hese b eliefs a re m ade m anifest i n as equence o f f unerary r itua ls . T he f irst o ccurs j ust a fter d eath b egins ( ie h eartbeat s tops) a nd i nvolves t he p artial s eparat ion o f t he s oul f rom t he b ody . T his i s m arked b y m ourning c eremonies a nd a p r imary d isposal o f t he b ody — b urial a nd e xposure a re t he m ost c ommonly u sed a lternatives. A s econd f uneral c elebrates t he a rr ival o f t he s pir it i n t he o therwor ld b y a
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s econd d isposal o f t he r emains i n a f inal r esting p lace . T he m inimum t ime b etween t he t wo f unerals i s t he t ime i t t akes f or t he b ody t o c ompletely d ecompose t o b are b ones o r t o b e r itually d ismembered. T he u pper l im it f or t his i nterval m ay b e m any y ears , a s t he s econd f uneral f requent ly i nvolves e laborate f easting t o c elebrate t he s oul's a rriva l w ith t he s pirit w orld , a nd t he c ost o f t he f east m ay b e c onsiderable , n ecessitating a l ong p eriod o f s avings ( eg G oode 1 95 1, 9 5-98). T here a re s everal a lmost a ccidental b y—products o f t his c eremonial s equence w hich a re e ssential t o t he c urrent e nquiry . T he f irst i s t hat t he l onger t he p eriod b etween f irst a nd f inal f uneral, t he g reater t he l ikelihood t hat p art o f t he b ody w ill n ot b e g athered a nd f inally d isposed o f . S ome s ocieties c ollect o nly s uch b ones a s a re c onvenient o r r epresentative f or r e—disposal ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 979 , 8 6). I n o ther c ases t he a ctivities o f d omestic a nd w ild s cavengers ( eg d ogs , p igs , h yenas , c ats e tc) s erve t o d isturb t he f irst " bur ial" a nd s pread s ome h uman r emains o ver a w ide a rea , e nding u p i n r efuse c ontexts. I n m ost o f t he s ocieties d iscussed t he s econdary f uneral r ituals a re " normative" — t hey a re w hat a ll m embers o f a s ociety s hould r eceive t o e nsure t he p roper t ransfer o f t heir s pirits i nto t he o therworld. T his w ould c ontradict t he f act t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence r epresents o nly a p art o f t he p opulation . T his c ontradiction m ay b e m ore a pparent t han r eal, f or e ither o f t wo r easons . F irst , n orms a re r arely a pplied u niversally , a nd i n p articular i t i s l ikely t hat m ost s ocieties e mploy a n a bridged v ersion o f t he n ormative f uneral w hen t hat n ormative f uneral i s e xpensive . W hen e laborate f easting i s i nvolved t he c ost c an b e a stronomical ( eg G oode 1 95 1, 9 5-98) a nd t hus a vailable o nly t o t he m ore w ealthy f am ilies o r l ineages . T hus , m any p eople d o n ot r eceive t he f ull s et o f r ituals c ulm inating i n a s econdary f uneral, a s a mong t he B erawan ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 979 , 7 8) a nd o ther g roups i n B orneo ( M iles 1 965). I n m ost c ases , t he b ody i s n ever r ecovered o r r e—disposed , i t s imply r emains i n i ts p lace o f p rimary i nterment . T he s econd a lternative , o f c ourse , i s s imply t hat r ituals o f a s econdary f uneral m ay b e a pplied o nly t o a p opulation s ector , n ot b y t he s ubconscious p rocedure n oted a bove , b ut b y a d eliberate c hoice . M otivations f or t his c hoice a re d iscussed b elow . I n s ummary , s econdary f uneral c eremonies ' a re a ssociated w ith a b elief i n a s oul, a n a fterlife , a nd d eath a s a p eriod o f t ransition b etween t his w orld a nd t he n ext . A t wo—stage f uneral i s e mployed t o s eparate t he s oul f rom t his w orld a nd t hen t o e nsure i ts a cceptance i nto t he o therwor ld. A f requent c oncomitant o f t hese p ractices i s t hat r emains , v arying f rom s ingle b ones t o c omplete l imbs , a re m issed i n t he s econd f uneral a nd m ay f ind t heir w ay , b y a v ar iety o f m eans , i nto r efuse c ontexts. T here . w ould a ppear t o b e o nly o ne o ther a lternative m ortuary p ractice w hich w ould r esult i n t he s catter ing o f h uman r ema ins a mong a v ariety o f c ontexts o n s ettlement s ites. T his i s t he u se o f e xposure o f t he c orpse a s ad isposal p ractice . A s t he b ody d ecomposes v ar ious b ody p arts s eparate a nd c an , t hrough s cavenger a ctivity , b e q uite w idely d istributed . I f d one a t a d istance f rom a s ettlement , t his w ould p robably l eave n o a rchaeological t race — w hich m akes i t a p articular ly a ttractive e xplanation f or t he m ajority b urial r ite i n t he I ron A ge ( as d iscussed a bove , c hapter f our ; c f C unliffe 1 978 , 3 16). I f e xcarnation i s t he n ormative r ite , a nd o ccurs a t ad istance f rom t he s ettlement , i t r emains p ossible t hat p ost—decomposition m anipulation o f t he r emains , a s d escribed a bove , w as a ccorded t o s ome o f t he d ead a s a m inor ity r ite ;
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t he r esult c ould b e t he c omplete a nd p art ial r ema ins o n s ites. T he m ot ivat ion f or t he s econdary m anipulat ion a nd d isposal o f t he r ema ins c ould b e e ither c omplimentary ( as f or a c hief), o r d erogatory ( as f or a c r im inal). T here a re s evera l m inor ity g roups w hich c ommonly r eceive a d ist inct ive b ur ial r itual. I n g eneral, t hese r epresent e ither t he p innacle o f t he s ocial s cale - r eligious o r p olit ical e lites - o r e lse t hey a re c onsidered t o b e o utside s ociety i n s ome w ay . H ertz w as t he f irst t o r ecognise t hat p urely e m ic d ef init ions a re u sed t o s eparate s uch o utcast g roups ( 1960 , 8 4-86): i n h is s ample s ociet ies b oth y oung c hildren a nd e lder ly a dults w ere b uried d ifferently f rom t he r est o f t he p opulat ion . T his w as d one o n t he b asis t hat t hey w ere n ot f ully f unctioning m embers o f s ociety - t hey h ad n ot y et d eveloped a s ocial l ife , o r n o l onger m aintained t he ir s ocial t ies . T his m eans t hat t hey w ere l ess i nvolved i n t his w or ld a nd t hus w ere r elatively c loser t o t he o therwor ld . C onsequently , t hey n either r equired n or d eserved t he f unerary'r ituals a ppropriate t o o ther p eople . S im ilar r easoning a nd s e lect ion o ccurs a mong c entral . A sian s ociet ies ( Lopatin 1 960 , 7 1, 9 6), a mong t he M a lekula ( Lyard 1 942), a nd t he A sante ( MacLeod 1 98 1, 3 7). A nother c lass o f p eople w ho f requent ly r ece ive d ist inct ive f unerals a re t hose c onsidered t o b e s ocia lly u nclean , o r w ho d ied i nauspicious d eaths . D ef initions o f i nauspicious d eaths m ay v ary , b ut H ertz f ound t hat v iolent d eaths , w omen w ho d ie i n c hildb irth , t hose k illed b y l ightning o r d rowning , a nd s uicides a re a ll i nauspicious d eaths i n B orneo ( 1960 , 8 5), a s t hey a re i n C entral A sia ( Lopat in 1 960 , 9 6), i n N ew G uinea ( Hoglin 1 965), a nd t he A sante ( MacLeod 1 98 1, 3 6-39). P eople w ho a re i n s ome w ay u nclean ( what a n a nthropo logist o r s ociologist m ight c a ll " deviant") a re a lso s ubject t o d ist inct ive f unerary r ituals . S ocial u ncleanness u sually i ncludes t hose w ho a re " incomplete" ( as i n t he c hildren a nd e lder ly , a bove) a s w ell a s t hose w hose l ifesty le i s u nacceptab le : w itches , c r im inals a nd t he v io lent ly a nt i-social, a nd r eligious h eret ics , a ll a re b uried d ist inct ive ly ( Saxe 1 970 ; B inford 1 97 1, 1 4 , 1 9 , 2 1, 2 3 ; H ertz 1 960 , 8 5 i n B orneo ; C rooke 1 899 , 2 79 i n I ndia ; W edgewood 1 927 , 3 95 i n M e lanesia ; M cLeod 1 98 1, 3 8 i n t he A sante). I nterest ingly , t he A sante b ury a ll t he u nclean a nd i nauspicious d eaths i n v illage r efuse m iddens , a nd m ut ilat ion o f t he r emains o ccasiona lly o ccurs ( McLeod 1 98 1, 3 7-39) - a c lose p arallel t o t he a rchaeological r esults n oted a bove . A ll o f t hese g roups a re , b y v irtue o f t heir l ifesty le o r m ode o f d eath , s et o utside t he n orma l p opulat ion . A nother g roup o f p eople w ho f requent ly a re s elected f or s pecial b urial a re t hose w ho a re a t t he p eak o f t he s ocial s tructure - t he r eligious a nd p olit ical e lite . P r iests , s hamans o r w itch d octors r eceive s pecial f unerals i n C entral A sia a nd T ibet ( Lopat in 1 960 , 13), a mong t he B erawan ( Huntington & M etcalf 1 979 , 8 5), a nd a mong b oth t he m edieval C hr ist ians a nd M oslems ( eg A lexander 1 979 , 2 19). M ore s tr ictly p olit ical e lites n ear ly a lways r eceive a n e laborated v ersion o f t he n ormative r ite ( B inford 1 971, 1 9 , 2 1, 2 3 ; S axe 1 970 ; f or c ross-cultura l c ompar isons , c f B loch 1 971 a mong t he M er ina ; R attray 1 959 a nd M acLeod 1 98 1, 3 7-39 a mong t he A sante ; a nd H untington & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 22152 a mong t he B erawan a nd D inka). I n m ost s ociet ies l ess i ndustr ia lised a nd s ecular ised t han i n t he m odern w or ld t he s ocia l e lite c lass i s a b lend o f b oth r eligious , p olit ical a nd e conom ic f unctions . I n t hese s ituations t he e lites u sually f unct ion a s i ntermediaries b etween t he g enera l p opulace a nd t he s upernatural a nd s o , l ike y oung c hildren a nd t he v ery e lder ly , h ave o ne f oot i n t he o therwor ld a lready ( eg A ncient E gypt i n H unt ibgton & M etcalf 1 979 , 1 22152 ; D ahomey , G oode 1 95 1,
1 4 1152). E lites n ot o nly r eceive a n e laborate , d ist inct ive f unera l, t hey a lso f requent ly m aintain a p lace o f i nterment ( eg b urial, e xcarnat ion , c remat ion e tc) w hich i s r estr icted t o m embers o f t he e lite c lass o r l ineage . S uch a t radit ion i s u sually a ssociated w ith c lass o r l ineage c ontro l o f c rucia l r esources a nd l eg it imat ion o f s tatus b y d escent f rom t he a ncestors ( frequent ly b ut n ot n ecessar ily a n a ncestor c ult) ( Saxe 1 970 , 19). T his a ssociat ion h as b een e xtensive ly t ested c ross—culturally ( Binford 1 97 1, 2 1-23 o n f orty s ociet ies ; G o ldstein 1 976 , o n t hirty s ociet ies). T his b rief r eview o f t he e thnographic l iterature c oncerning m ortuary r ituals h as p rovided s everal p atterns o f b elief a nd b ehaviour w hich a re a pplicab le t o t he a rchaeological e vidence f rom t he I ron A ge i n s outhern B r itain . T he m ost l ikely n ormat ive r ite i s p robab ly e xposure , p ossib ly i nvo lving s econdary m anipulation o f t he r ema ins , a ll o ccurr ing a t ad istance f rom s ettlement s ites . T he n on—normat ive r ite w as a lmost c ertainly e xposure , w ith s econdary r itua ls o ccurr ing i n o r a round s ett lements , f o llowed b y b oth d eliberate a nd a ccidental d epositions o f h uman r emains i n s ett lement s ites . T he m inor ity s ector o f t he p opulation f or w hom t his r ite w as r eserved w as p robab ly c ompr ised o f t he o utcast a nd u nclean m embers o f C eltic s ociety . S acr if icial a nd V otive O ffer ings T hus f ar e vidence h as b een p resented f rom t wo s ources w hich i ndicate t hat t he C elts p ractised s acr if icial o ffer ings . I n t he f irst s ource , a rchaeology , s acrif ices t ake t wo f orms : t he s acrif ice o f a nimals ( represented b y t he a nima l b urials , c hapter f ive) , a nd t he v otive o fferings o f v aluable o bjects ( the f ine m etalware f rom w atery c ontexts , c hapter t wo , a nd t he o bjects f rom r itual s hafts , c hapter t hree). T he s econd s ource t hat i ndicates t hat s acrif ice w as a n e lement i n C elt ic r eligion i s t he C eltic e thnographies ( chapter s even). A ccounts f rom R oman o bservers r efer t o t he s acr if ice o f b oth h umans a nd a nimals f or d ivinatory , p ropitiatory , a nd h ealing p urposes. T here a re a lso r eferences t o s tores o f o bjects i n r eligious p recincts d edicated t o t he g ods — s urely v otive o ffer ings . T he c onclusion t hat t he C eltic e thnographies r efer t o r ituals t hat l ead t o a nimal b ur ials a nd o bjects i n w atery c ontexts a nd s hafts , i s s upported b y t he v ery n ature o f s acrif ice" , w hich r equires t he p ermanent r emoval o f o therw ise u seful a nd v aluab le o bjects f rom u se i n e veryday l ife — a nimals a nd f ood m ust b e d estroyed a nd o bjects p laced b eyond r ecovery . T his c entral c haracteristic o f s acr if ice c ertainly a pp lies t o t he a rchaeo logical e vidence . I t d oes n ot , h owever , e xplain t he r ole a nd f unct ion o f r itual s acr ifice i n C eltic r eligion . R o le a nd f unct ion c an o nly b e s uggested b y a nalogy , u sing e thno logical e vidence . "
T he s ubject o f r itual s acr if ice h as r ece ived r elat ive ly l itt le a ttention i n t he e thnological l iterature . T he d ef init ive w ork o n t he s ubject i s H ubert a nd M auss , S acr ifice : I ts N ature a nd F unction ( 1964 [ 1899]). T hey d eveloped a n " em ic" ( Harr is 1 968 , 5 7 1-575) f unct ional d ef init ion o f s acr if ice a s " a r eligious r itual w hich , t hrough t he c onsecration o f av ict im , m odif ies t he c ondit ion o f t he m oral p erson w ho a ccomplishes i t o r t hat o f c ertain o bjects w ith w hich h e i s c oncerned" ( 1964 , 1 3). U sing t his d ef inition , a nd e vidence g athered p r imar ily f rom H ebraic a nd H indu r eligious p ract ices , H ubert a nd M auss d er ived a s eries o f g eneral f eatures c haracter ising s acrif ice a s r itual.
T he f irst g eneral f eature o f s acrifices i s t he d efining c haracterist ic o f s acrifice e ncountered a bove . T his r equires t hat t he s acrifice o f a nimals i ncludes t heir d eath , w hile m aterial o bjects a re b roken a nd/or p laced b eyond h uman r ecovery ( Hubert & M auss 1 964 , 9 ; c f F irth 1 965 , 3 24-333). T he b elief w hich m otivates t his b ehaviour i s n early u niversal: t hat t he v alue o r l ife—force o f a s acrifice c annot e nter t he o therworld , a nd s o b e o f u se t o a s upernatural f orce , w hile t he o bject s till i s t ied t o t his w or ld . T he o nly w ay t o s ever a ll c onnections t o t his w or ld w ould b e t o k ill t he v ictim , d estroy i t , o r p lace i t w here n o m an c an r ecover i t ( Firth 1 965 , 3 3 1-332). T he r easoning h ere i s c losely r elated t o t he b ody—soul p arallelism f ound a bove i n m ortuary r ituals . T he s econd g eneral f eature o f s acrif ice w as a c areful s eparation o f t he v arious p ersonnel i nvolved , a nd t he r ole o r f unction e ach f ulfilled i n t he r itual. T he f irst o f t hese i s t he p erson o r g roup r esponsible f or p roviding t he v ictim/object ( ie , t hey p ay f or t he v ictim a nd c ost o f t he c eremony). T his p erson H ubert a nd M auss c all t he s acrifier ( 1964 , 9 ). T he s econd i s t he p erson w ho a ctually c onducts t he c eremony a nd p erforms t he a ct o f s acrifice . T his p erson , t he s acrificer , i s a r eligious s pecialist w ho h as t he a bility t o c ome i nto c lose c ontact w ith t he s upernatural p ower d uring t he c ourse o f t he r itual ( Hubert & M auss 1 964 , 2 0 , 2 3-24). T he t hird p erson i nvolved i s t he p erson ( or g roup) t o w hom w ill a ccrue t he b enefits o f t he s acrif ice : t his b eneficiary i s f requently t he s ame a s t he s acrifier b ut n eed n ot b e ( Hubert & M auss 1 964 , 9 , 1 9). T he f ourth p articipant i s t he v ictim : h uman , a nimal, v egetable f ood o r a n o bject . T he v ictim s erves a s t he m edium t o s hift s upernatural f orces f rom t he s upernatural w or ld ( eg a d eity) t o t he b eneficiary o f t he r itual, w hile k eeping t he s acrificer f rom t oo c lose c ontact w ith t he s upernatural w orld ( Hubert a nd M auss 1 964 , 2 9-44). T hese r oles a re a ll c onceptually d istinct , t hough c learly t hey m ay b e c ombined — o ne m an c an e asily b e t he s acrifier , s acrificer a nd b eneficiary — b ut t his b ecomes p rogressively l ess l ikely a s t he v alue o f t he v ictim a nd s er iousness o f t he g oal i ncreases . T he g oal o f s hifting a s upernatural f orce f rom t he s upernatural w orld t o a b enef iciary i n t his w or ld w as t he * s ubject o f H ubert a nd M auss' t hird g eneral f eature o f s acrif icial r ituals. T hese g oals o r p urposes o f s acrifices a re , o f c ourse , e m ic m otivations , a nd H ubert a nd M auss d istinguish t wo c riteria t o a pply t o a ll s acrifices. T he f irst o f t hese d ivides s acrif ices i nto t wo c ategor ies , d epending o n w hether t he b eneficiary i s a p erson o r o bject — p ersonal a nd o bjective s acrifices ( Hubert & M auss 1 964 , 1 315). S econdly , s acrifices m ay b e p erformed i n o rder t o e ither i ncrease o r d ecrease t he a mount o f s acred f orce i n a p erson o r o bject ( this p resupposes t hat a ll l iving c reatures a nd o bjects w ith w hich m an h as c ontact m ay e mbody a s acred f orce , u sually o f l ow p ower , a s " man e). T hese t wo p rocesses a re c alled s acralisation a nd d esacralisation ( Hubert & M auss 1 964 , 5 1-60). T he g oal o f i ncreasing o r d ecreasing t he a mount o f s acred f orce i n t he b eneficiary m ay b e : 1
C urative ( presupposing t hat t oo l ittle s acred f orce)
2
P ropit iatory ( eg , t o r epay d eity i nto , ad esired a ct)
i llness a d eity
i s f or ,
c aused o r
b y
c ajole
t oo m uch o r o r
b ribe a
3
C onf irmatory ( to s eal o r c onsecrate o r b etween m en a nd t he s upernatural)
a n
a greement
b etween m en
4
D ivinatory ( to a ct a s a m edium t o p rovide m en w ith a n u nderstanding o f e vents a nd p rocesses b eyond t heir i mmediate c ontrol o r k now ledge).
T his f ourfold d ivision o f g oals i s s till a ccepted , a nd m ay b e c orrelated w ith t he s even v arieties o f r itual d iscussed i n c hapter o ne : r ituals o f s anctification , o f p assage , t echnologica l m agic , a nd m ortuary r ituals m ay a ll i nclude e xamples o f c onfirmatory s acrif ice , w hile f ertility r ituals c ould i nclude p ropitiatory s acrif ices , d ivinat ion m ay i nvolve d ivinatory s acrif ice , a nd s o o n. A nother g eneral f eature o f s acrifices , a ccording t o H ubert a nd M auss ( 1964 , 2 5-26), i s t hat t hey a re a lways p erformed a t s pecific , s acred s ites. S uch s ites a re u sually t raditional a nd u sed r epeatedly ; t he s anctif ication o f t he s ite i s s ometimes a c onsequence o f t he s acrificial r ites. U nfortunately , H ubert a nd M auss d o n ot m ake a ny o ther o bservations a bout t he p laces o f s acrif ices . T heir w ork , i mportant a s i t i s , i s l imited b y t wo f actors . F irst a nd f oremost i s t he s mall s ample o f s ocieties u sed : H indu a nd H ebraic. T his i s u sually t hought v ery i nadequate f or g eneral c omparisons ( though i n f act t heir c onclusions a re s till a ccepted a s v alid). S econdly , t hey r ely e ntirely o n e mic f actors — w hat t he p articipants b elieve i s t he p urpose a nd n ature o f t he r itual. " Etic" f actors , w hich a re d irectly o bservable b y a n on—participant , r eceive s cant a ttention ( eg t he p lace w here s acrif ices a re p erformed). T hese t wo f actors l im it t he c onf idence w ith w hich t heir r esults m ay b e u sed a nd , m ore i mportantly , r estrict t he a pplicability o f t he r esults t o a rchaeological i nterpretat ion. T he a lternative i s c learly a c ross—cultural s tudy w hich p laces g reater r eliance o n e tic c haracteristics o f s acrificial r ituals. T he o nly c ross—cultural s tudy o f s acrifice s ince H ubert a nd M auss i s t hat o f L evy ( 1982), d esigned t o a id i n t he i nterpretation o f r itual d eposits o f t he D anish B ronze A ge . L evy u sed a n e thnographic s ample o f t wenty—eight s ocieties , d rawn f rom t he H uman R elations A rea F iles ( 1982 , 1 819). A lthough t he s ample i s n ot r andom , L evy c onvincingly a rgues f or f ive g eneral c haracteristics o f r itual d eposits ( ie s acrifices/votive o fferings) w hich a ppear t o b e v ery c ommon a mong c ultures. T hese f ive c haracter istics a re a ll a pplicable t o t he e vidence p resented h ere a nd v ery u sefully s upplement t he t heoretical b asis s upplied b y H ubert a nd M auss. T he f irst g eneral c haracteristic o f s acrif ices t hat L evy m akes c oncerns t he p lace w here r itual d eposits o ccur ( 1982 , 1 9). T here a re f our p oints o f i nterest t hat c onsistently a pply t o l oci f or r itual d eposits. R itual l oci a lways h ave r estr icted a ccess , t hat i s , s ome p arts o f t he p opulation a re f orbidden t o e nter , a nd m uch o f t he r est o f t he p opulation m ay o nly e nter i n t he c ourse o f ac eremony . T his o ccurs b ecause t he r itual l ocus i s a l iminal p lace , ap oint o f c ontact b etween t his w or ld a nd t he s upernatural: c ontact w ith t he s upernatural i s d angerous u nless i t o ccurs w ithin t he c ontext o f a r itual. O rdinary p eople a nd o rdinary d omestic l ife m ust b e k ept f rom t oo c lose c ontact w ith t he s upernatural. R itual l oci o ccur i n a w ide v ariety o f f orms , w hich c orrelate l oosely w ith t he s ocial s tatus o f t he s acrifier . I n o ther w ords , s acrifices o ffered o n b ehalf o f a r egional g roup w ill u sually o ccur a t a " central p lace" o f t he r egion , w hile s acrifices o n
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b ehalf o f av illage u sually o ccur i n as acred p recinct i n t he c entre o f , o r o n t he p er imeter o f t he v illage ( Levy 1 982 , 1 9 , 5 6-57). N ot s urpr isingly , t he s ize a nd l ocation o f r itual l oci a lso b ears s ome c orre lat ion w ith t he q uality a nd q uant ity o f o bjects s acr if iced o r d eposited t here . O ne q ualif icat ion t o t his g eneral c haracter ist ic i s t hat t he s eparat ion o f r itual a nd p rofane a reas i n a s ite i s l argely c onceptual, a nd a l oose f ence o f s takes m ay b e s uff icient t o s eparate a r itual l ocus f rom a d omest ic a rea , e specially w here t he r itual l ocus i s i ntended t o s erve a s mall h am let o r f armstead . T he s econd g eneral f eature o f r itual s acr if ices i s a s er ies o f p rescriptions t hat a r e ligious c ode a pplies t o t he s e lect ion o f a ppropriate v ictims o r o bjects . A lthough t here i s v ery l itt le c ross-cultural c onsistency i n w hat o bjects a re s acr if iced i n p articular c ircumstances , o r f or p art icular g oals , L evy n otes t hat m ost r eligions s pecify t he s pecies , a ge , s ex a nd c o lour o f a nimals w hich a re a ppropr iate f or s acr if ice , a nd t he q ua lity o f m ateria l o bjects i s a lso s t ipulated ( 1982 , 2 0). A lso , K uper ( 1973) h as s uggested t hat p ersonal o rnaments a nd w eapons a re p articularly l ikely t o b e i mbued w ith s ymbolic m eaning ( and t herefore a ppear i n s acrif icia l c ontexts , f or e xample , g rave g oods i n f unerary o fferings). K uper s uggests t hat t his i s d ue t o t heir o bvious l inks t o s ocial s tatus a nd d ifferentiation ( 1973 , 3 46-373). Am ore g eneral f ormulation o f t his p o int w as m ade b y WG oode : " symbols a nd i tems u sed i n s acr if ices w ill b e l im ited i n p art b y t he i tems w hich a re i mportant w ithin a s ociety" ( 195 1, 2 56); t hose i tems w hich a s ociety u ses t o m ark i mportant s ocial, e conom ic a nd p o lit ical r elationships w ill f igure p rom inent ly i n r itual c ircumstances . T he c orrelation o f t his p oint t o r ituals o f s anctif icat ion ( above , c hapter o ne ; D rennan 1 976 , 3 46-348) i s o bvious . L evy a lso f ound s ome i ndicat ion o f ac onsistent c orrelation b etween t he s acr if ier a nd t he o bject s acr if iced . I n p articular , t he s ocial s tatus o f t he s acr if ier i s r ef lected i n t he q ua lity/quantity ( eg v alue) o f t he o bjects s acr if iced ( 1982 , 5 6). T hus , e lites , u sually ( but n ot a lways) a cting o n b ehalf o f a s ocial g roup , t end t o s acr if ice g reater v alue , i n t he f orm o f m ore o r f iner a nimals/objects , t han d o a verage m embers o f as ociety . W hen t he s acrif ice i s o n b ehalf o f t he g roup ( ie t he g roup i s t he b enef iciary) t hen t he g roup w ill h ave h ad s ome r esponsib ility t o c ontr ibute t owards t he c ost o f t he c eremony ( for e xample , t hrough t axation) a nd t he c eremony t ends t o b e a p ub lic o ne . S acr if ices b y a n e lite , w hich a re i ntended t o b enef it t he e lite a s a p erson , f am ily o r l ineage , w ill b e p erformed i n p r ivate c eremonies . U nfortunate ly , t he e thnographic l iterature c oncerning p ub lic v ersus p r ivate s acr ificial c eremonies i s a mbiguous o r u navailable a nd t hese t wo t rends a re h ypothet ical. E qually u nproveab le , b ut n onetheless r easonab le , i s ac orrelat ion b etween t he v alue o f t he s acrif ice a nd t he p lace o f s acrif ice . I f t he e lite d o i ndeed s acr if ice g reater v alue , t hen s uch s acrif ices s hould o ccur w here t he e lite a re - o n o r n ear e lite s ites . F urthermore , w hen s uch s acr if ices a re m ade o n b eha lf o f t he g roup t hey s hould o ccur o n o r n ear t he c entral p lace o r r eligious c apital o f t he g roup ( usually , b ut n ot n ecessar ily , t he s ame p lace a s a n e conom ic a nd p olitical c entral p lace). S acrif ices o f t his s ort s hould c orre late t o t he " ecclesiast ical" c ult i nstitutions d iscussed a bove ( chapter o ne), a nd a lso s erve a s r ituals o f s anctif ication ( above , c hapter o ne , c f D rennan 1 976) l inking r e ligious a nd p olitical i nstitut ions t ogether i nto a f unct ioning w ho le .
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I n s o f ar a s r itual i s s tereotypic , p atterned a nd r epet itive b eha— v iour ( Firth 1 970 , 1 99 ; R appaport 1 97 1, 6 2) t he u se a nd o rganisation o f t he v ar ious e lements o f r itual a re s tandardised . Ac onsequence o f t his i s t hat t he r emains o f r itual a re s tandardised . L ogically , t herefore , t he a rrangement o f i tems i n ad eposit , w hich i s t he g oal a nd r esult o f a r itual, s hould a lso b e s tandardised. L evy f ound t his t o b e t rue i n a m inority o f h er s ample s ocieties ( 1982 , 2 0) , a lthough t he e thnographic l iterature w as c onsistent ly u ninformat ive o n t his d etail. T he c on— s istent l ayer ing a nd a rrangement o f i tems i n t he r itual s hafts , d is— c ussed a bove ( chapter t wo), a re a lmost c erta inly e xamp les o f t his p oint . T he f ifth a nd l ast g eneral c haracter istic o f r itual s acr if ices i s a n a ssociation o f f ood i n t he r itual. T h is m ay t ake t he f orm o f r itual s laughter o f a nimals , d estruct ion o f v egetab le f ood , r itua l f easts , o r l ibations o f b lood o r l iquor p oured f or t he s upernatural. L evy f ound t his a ssociation o f s acrificed/vot ive o ffer ings a nd f ood t o b e n ear ly u niversa l ( 1982 , 2 0). I n m any i nstances , t he f ood e aten i s p art o f t he r emains o f t he a nima l o r f ood s acrif iced , a nd s erves t o t ransfer t he s upernatura l f orce t o t he b eneficiary , a s p roposed b y H ubert a nd M auss ( 1964 , 3 6-38 ; c f t he D ahomey i n G oode 1 95 1, 5 7-64 , 1 88194 ; t he A sante i n M cLeod 1 98 1, c hapter f our ; t he N yoro i n B eattie 1 967 , 2 55-287). T he s acrif ice o f m ater ia l o bjects i s a lso a ssociated w ith f east ing , f unc— t ioning t o p romote s ocial s olidarity a nd a s hared e xperience o f t he s upernatural a mong t he a ssembled c ongregat ion . I t i s u nfortunate t hat t he e thnographic l iterature i s s o u ninfor— m ative a bout w hat h appens t o t he r emains o f t he a nimals s acrif iced , a fter t hey h ave b een e ither d edicated t o t he s upernatural a nd b urned , o r b uried , o r e aten b y o bservers . B ecause t he a nimal o nce e mbodied f orce o r m ana , m uch o f w hich w as t ransferred t o t he b enef iciary , i t i s e xpected t hat s ome m ana s hould r emain . T his w ould i n t urn r equire a " proper" ( ie r itualised) d isposal o f t he r ema ins , b ut t his i s e ntirely h ypothetical. T he s tudies r eviewed h ere i ndicate t hat t he p lace o f o ffering , t he v alue o f t he o ffering , a nd t he n umber o f p eople i nvo lved a re a ll v ery c lose ly l inked ( cf L evy 1 982 , 5 6-57). L ower v a lue o fferings , w hich o ccur o n a ll t ypes o f o ccupation s ites , m ay r epresent t he a ct ivities o f f am ily s ized g roups . S lightly m ore v aluab le o ffer ings s hould c orre late w ith c ommunal a ctivity , c onducted b y p art—t ime r eligious o ff icials o n b ehalf o f a c ommunity ( communa l c ult i nstitution , s ee c hapter o ne). L arge o fferings , v aluab le b ecause o f t he q uantity i nvolved o r t he q uality o f i tems , w hich o ccur o n s ites o f e lite o ccupation o r " central p lace" s ites , c an p robably b e a ttr ibuted t o r ituals c onducted b y p rofessional r eligious s pecialists , r epresenting a n e cclesiast ical c ult i nstitution , (cf c hapter o ne), o n b ehalf o f a r egional g roup ( tr ibe , c hiefdom o r s tate). F ollow ing L evy 's s uggest ion ( 1982 , 5 6), o ffer ings o f af ew i tems , e ach o f h igh v alue d ue t o q ua lity o r v ar iety , p robab ly r epresent o fferings o f a c ult i nst itution r estr icted t o a s ocio— p olitical e lite . C learly , t here i s c onsiderab le c orre lation b etween t he i mp lications o f s acrif icial a nd v otive o ffer ings f or r eligious s tructure a nd t he s tructure o f c ult i nstitut ions d er ived f rom f eatures o f o rganisat ions ( as i n c hapter o ne , c f W allace 1 966). U nfortunately , t here a re n o a pparent c orrelations b etween t he t ype o f o ffer ing m ade a nd e ither t he d eity i nvolved , o r t he f unctiona l g oal o f t he o ffering ( eg d ivinatory , p ropitiatory , c urat ive , o r c onf irmatory), i n a ny g eneral—comparat ive s ense . E ach c ulture s pecifies e xact ly w hat s hould b e o ffered t o w hich d eity , a nd f or w hat p urpose , b ut t here i s n o
c ross—cultural c onsistency . T his m akes i t v ery d iff icult t o a ttr ibute o ffer ings t o t he c ult i nst itut ion o f a ny p art icular d e ity , t hough t he l eve l o f t he c ult i nst itut ions ( either c ommunal o r e cclesiastica l), t he s pecialists i nvolved , a nd t he g roup b enef it ing f rom t he o ffer ing m ay a ll b e d iscernib le .
S UMMARY :
E THNOGRAPHY A ND A RCHAEOLOGY
T he p urpose o f t his c hapter w as t o i nvest igate g enera l c ross— c ultural p atterns i n t he r e lat ionship b etween m ater ia l r emains a nd s ocial r e lat ions o r b e lief p atterns . T wo a spects o f t he a rchaeo logical e vidence , m ortuary a nd s acrif icia l r ituals , w ere n ot e laborated i n t he d iscussion o f t he C elt ic e thnograph ies , o r t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature , b ecause n either s ource c ontained s uff icient ly d etailed e vidence . T hus , l ack ing a ny m ore d irect m ethod o f i nterpretation , c ross—cultural c omparat ive a na logies h ave b een p resented . T he f irst a spect o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f or w hich a nalogy h as b een s ought w as t he p resence o f a t l east t hree d ifferent m ortuary r ituals , r epresenting a s mall p art o f t he I ron A ge p opulation . A nalysis o f t he e thnologic l iterature o n m ortuary r ituals i ndicated t hat t wo s egments o f a p opulat ion a re l ikely t o b e d isposed o f i n d ist inct ive m anners — a s ocio—po litical e lite , o r a s er ies o f s ocial g roups w hich c an b e c onf lated a s o utcast/unclean . B ecause t he I ron A ge b ur ia ls o ccur o n e ven r e latively m inor s ites a nd c omprise s evera l d ifferent f orms o f m ortuary r ituals , i t i s u nlikely t hat a n e lite c lass i s r epresented . T his s uggests t hat i n t he I ron A ge s everal c lasses o f p eop le , w ho w ere i n s ome m anner r itually " unclean" o r " inauspicious" , r eceived a m ortuary r itual i nvolv ing a s econdary m anipulat ion o r m utilat ion o f t he r emains a nd c oncluding i n d isposal i n d itches a nd p its a round d omest ic s ites . T he s econd a spect o f t he a rchaeo logical e vidence w h ich w as n ot e lucidated b y d irect l iterary s ources w ere t hree v ar iet ies o f r itual o ffer ings — a nima l s acr if ice , a nd v otive o ffer ings o f o bjects i n w atery c ontexts o r s hafts . A nalysis o f t he e thno logic l iterature i ndicates t hat t he v alue o f t he o ffer ing , t he p erson o r g roup p ay ing f or t he o ffering ( sacr if ier), t he p erson w ho c onducts t he,ceremony ( sacr if icer), a nd t he p erson o r g roup w ho r eceive t he b enef its ( beneficiary) a re a ll c losely c orrelated . O n t his b asis i t i s p ossib le t o s uggest t hat a nimal s acr if ice w as w idely p ractised , p erformed f or e ven q uite s mall c ommunal g roups ( fam ily , c lan , l ineage?), b y e ither c ommunal r eligious o ff icia ls o r l ocal r epresentat ives o f a m ore w idespread c ult i nstitution . T he p resence o f v ery v aluab le s tatus i tems ( swords , c auldrons , s hie lds e tc) i n w atery c ontexts a lmost c ertainly r epresents a c ult i nstitut ion r estr icted t o a n e lite c lass , p ossib ly a ssociated w ith e lite r ituals o f s anct if ication . T he p resence o f m uch m ater ial o f m oderate v alue i n r itual s hafts , a ssociated w ith b oth I ron A ge o ccupat ion s ites a nd n on—domest ic , p resumptively r itual s ites , m ay r epresent e ither c ommunal o fferings , o r o ffer ings c onducted o n b ehalf o f a r egiona l s ocial g roup b y a n e lite , o r m ore p robab ly a c ombinat ion o f b oth . U nfortunately , i t h as t hus f ar p roved i mpossible t o c orrelate t he t ype o f o ffer ing w ith t he f unct ional g oal o f t he r itual i n a ny c onsistent c ross—cultural p attern . L ack ing a ny m ore s pecif ic m ethod o f i nterpretat ion , i t i s p robably s afest t o a llow e ach o f t he o ffer ings a ny o f s everal p ossib le m ot ivations .
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CH A P T E R
1 0
T HE N ATURE A ND R OLE O F R ELIGION I N T HE I RON A GE
T he p revious e ight c hapters h ave a ssembled t he e vidence a vailab le p ertaining t o I ron A ge r eligious p ractices a nd b eliefs. F or t he s ake o f c larity , e ach c hapter d iscussed o nly o ne s et o f e vidence a nd c ross— r eferencing w as k ept t o am inimum . T his , h owever , c reates a n a rtificial a nd m isleading d istinction b etween b ehaviours w hich w ere o nce p art o f a s ingle b elief s ystem . I t i s n ow n ecessary t o b egin t he p rocess o f i ntegrating a ll o f t he e vidence t ogether i nto a m ore c oherent w hole , b ased o n t he f ramework o r m odel p resented i n t he f irst c hapter . T he g eneral i ntegration o f e vidence w ill b e p erformed i n e ach o f t he t hree b asic c hronological p eriods u sed i n t he a nalysis h eretofore . T hese p hases a re n ot s imply c hronological p eriods a rbitrarily c hosen , b ut r ather r epresent t hree p eriods d uring w hich c ultural a nd s ocial e volution i n s outhern B ritain p roceeded a long p articular t rajectories , a nd d uring w hich s ocial c haracter istics , s uch a s e conomy , p olitical s tructures , s ettlement p attern , s ubsistence f arm ing e tc , d id n ot c hange g reatly i n k ind ( the n orth o f E ngland p robably f ollowed a d ifferent , a s y et l ess w ell u nderstood c ourse). D uring s uch p eriods o f r elative s ocial s tability , r eligious p ractices m ay a lso h ave b een s table , r esulting i n c onsistent b ehaviour t hat m ay b e v isible a rchaeologically . D uring t he I ron A ge t here w ere t wo s hort p eriods i n w hich r apid a nd d rastic s ocial c hanges o ccurred — t he w ho le d irection o f s ocial e volution s hifted , t o r esult i n n ew s ocial p atterns ( eg C unliffe 1 984b). T he f irst o f t hese o ccurred a bout 4 00 B C , t he s econd a round 1 00 B C , a nd t hey s erve t o d emarcate t he E arly , M iddle a nd L ate I ron A ges . S ocial c hanges o f t his m agnitude m ay h ave r esulted i n d ecisive c hanges i n r e ligious p ractices , w hich m ay s erve t o h ighlight t he c onsistent p rac— t ices o f t he t hree m ajor p eriods a nd a id i n t he c orrelation b etween r eligious r itual p ractices a nd o ther f eatures o f s ociety . T he i ntegration o f e vidence f or I ron A ge r eligion w ill, t herefore , p roceed i n a t hree s tep s equence , c orresponding t o t he m ajor p hases o f s ocial e volution d uring t he I ron A ge . ,W ithin e ach o f t hese t hree s teps t he s ocial c ontext , o r n ature o f s ociety d ur ing t hat p hase o f t he I ron A ge w ill b e v ery b riefly r eviewed . P articular a ttention i s p aid t o t hose e lements o f s ociety t hat a ppear t o b e m ost c losely a ssociated w ith c ontemporary r eligious p ractices. F ollow ing t his , t he e vidence f or r itual b ehaviour i s s ummarised , a nd t he p robable c orrelations b etween f eatures o f s ecular I ron A ge s ociety a nd r eligious p ractices w ill b e d iscussed i n g reater d etail.
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T HE E ARLY I RON A GE :
C IRCA 7 00-400 B C
T he S ocial C ontext O ne o f t he m ost p rom inent f eatures o f t he E arly I ron A ge i s t he d im inut ion a nd t hen f ailure ( dur ing t he s ixth c entury B C) a p an—European s ystem o f r egional t rade n etworks , b ased o n v aluab le , w ell—made , b ronze p restige i tems. T his t rade s ystem , w hich b egan i n t he B ronze A ge , m oved i tems l ong d istances , c reating w idespread a rtifact s ty les w hich w ere c op ied t o p roduce l ocal v ar iants ( Megaw & S impson 1 98 1, 2 55-259 , 2 97-340 ; B radley 1 984 , 14124 , 1 28132 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 30-331). O rdinary t oo ls w ere t raded t hrough s mall s cale n etworks a nd t ravelled m uch s horter d istances . T he p rest ige i tems , s uch a s s words , b ody a rmour , ' v esse ls a nd s ome o rnaments , p robab ly s erved a s s ymbo ls o f e lite s tatus a nd w ere u sed i n t he p erformance o f s ocial r elations b etween e lite i ndividuals a nd g roups ( Bradley 1 984 , 9 6127). T hrough s ocial c ustom , s uch s ocial r elat ions a s m arr iage , a lliance f ormat ion , a nd t ribute w ould b e p erformed u sing t he a ccepted a rt ifacts a s t okens . T he f ailure o f t his s ystem b y t he s ixth c entury B C m ay h ave b een d ue t o i ncreasing e conom ic p ressure o r l im ited r esources ( both c opper a nd t in a re r are , o r h ave l im ited d istr ibut ion) b y e xpanding s ocial s ystems ( Megaw & S impson 1 98 1, 3 31-339 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 27 , 1 32). I n a ny c ase , t he c auses o f i ts f ailure l ie o utside B r itain . A lthough t he b ronze t rade , o r c ross—channe l t rade i n g eneral, d id n ot s top c omp lete ly , b y t he f ifth c entury B C i t w as o nly a s ma ll f ract ion o f i ts f ormer v o lume a nd s cale a nd , a s a c onsequence , B r itain w as i ncreasingly c ut—off f rom d evelopments o n t he c ontinent , a nd b oth a rtifact s ty les a nd s ocia l d evelopments a re p rogressively m ore i nsular i n n ature ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 1 52157 ; 1 984 , 3 1). C oncurrent w ith t he d w indling o f t he E uropean b ronze t rade i s a s hift i n s ett lement p atterns i n t he B r it ish E ar ly I ron A ge . T he p attern w hich h ad e volved i n t he L ate B ronze A ge w as o ne o f s cattered h illtop e nclosures s erving a s t ribal, s easona l s ocia l c entres u sed f or m anage— m ent o f f locks a nd h erds a nd a lso f or t he p erformance o f s ocial i nter— a ction ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 2 43-286 ; 1 984 , 3 0-32 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 3 55-367). M ore d ense ly s cattered f armsteads a ppear t o b e e conom ically s e lf—suff icient a nd m ay r epresent t he r esidences o f m uch o f t he p opula— t ion ( Bradley 1 984 , 13 , 1 38). T he f inal e lement o f t his s ettlement p attern i s r iverside v alley s ites w hich m ay b e i nvolved i n s pecialised c ommercialised t rade a nd m anufacture ( eg R unnymede , N eedham & B urgess , 1 980 ; a nd N eedham a nd L ongley i n B arrett & B radley 1 980). H owever , d uring t he c ourse o f t he E arly I ron A ge t he h illtop e nclosures a re e ither a bandoned o r r eceive q uite d ramat ically i mproved d efensive e arth— w orks o n a s cale i mply ing t he o rganisat ion a nd d irection o f l abour o n a w ide s cale ; a lmost c ertainly t he e lite w ielding i ts a uthor ity ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 34136 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 2 43-287 ; 1 984b , 1 3-23). T hese e ar ly h illforts s how e vidence o f c onsistent a nd i ntense d omestic o ccupat ion , u nlike t he s easona l u se o f t he h illtop e nclosures . F urther , t he m ili— t ary n ature o f t he e arly h illforts i s c lear ly r epresented b y t he ir d efences a nd t he s tores o f s lingstones ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 1). O ther f unctions o f t he e ar ly h illforts a ppear t o b e g rain s torage ( Gent 1 983 , J ones 1 984) a nd a s c entres f or l amb ing a nd c alving ( Grant 1 984). T he e ar lier f ort lets a re a bandoned a t t his t ime . T his s uggests t hat t he e lites s hifted r esidence f rom t he f ort lets t o t he e ar ly h illforts d uring t he E arly I ron A ge . T here a ppears t o b e l ittle c hange i n t he n ature a nd
p lacement o f r ural f armsteads ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 31133 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 1 61193). T hroughout t he L ate B ronze A ge a nd t he E ar ly I ron A ge t he s ubsistence e conomy w as b oth s tab le a nd c onsistent , b ased o n m ixed a rable f arm ing w ith c att le a s c ommon a s s heep a s t he p r ime p astoral r esources ( Jones 1 984 , G rant 1 984). D uring t he c ourse o f t he L ate B ronze A ge , r egional c eram ic s ty les s ucceed t he e ar lier , a nd m ore g eneralised , D everel—R imbury t radit ions . I t i s s peculated t hat t hese r egional c eram ic s ty les m ay r epresent t he t err itories o f e thnic g roups ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 3 1-67 , 8 3114 , 31-332). A t l east t wo l arge s cale s ocial p rocesses m ay b e s een i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge , a nd t hey m ust b e c ausally r elated . T he f irst i s t he d im inution o f t he b ronze t rade , a nd t he s econd i s t he s hift i n t he n ature o f t he e lite c lasses. D ur ing t he L ate B ronze A ge/Ear ly I ron A ge t he e lites s eem t o h ave m aintained t heir s tatus t hrough c ontrol o f t he b ronze t rade a nd t he p ossession o f b ronze p rest ige g oods . A s t he s upplies o f b ronze d w indled t he e lite s tatus s ystem w as t hreatened a nd a n a lternative b asis f or s ocial s tatus s ought . B eginning i n t he L ate B ronze A ge o n t he D ownlands t his a lternative w as l and : d irect c ontro l o f l and a nd s ubsistence p roduct ion g radually s upp lemented c ontro l o f t rade ( Cunliffe 1 984 , 3 0-32). R iver ine s ocial g roups , w ith c loser a ccess t o t rade r outes , m ay h ave r e lied o n c ontrol o f t rade m ore t han t he ir u p land n eighbours . H owever , t he c ontro l o f t he b ronze t rade , a nd p ossession o f b ronze i tems r emained i mportant e nough t o t he E ar ly I ron A ge e lite f or t he f inal c ollapse o f t he t rade s ystem , d ur ing t he s ixth c entury B C , t o h ave d rastic c onsequences . S ociety a cross m uch o f s outhern B r itain a pparently u nderwent a s hort p eriod o f i ntense s ocial s tress a t t his t ime , r epresented b y t he a ttack , s ack a nd d estruction o f m any o f t he e ar ly h illforts ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 0 ; B radley -1 984 , 1 34136 , F ig 6 .3 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 2 68-278). T his p eriod o f s ocial s tress c hanged t he c ourse o f s ocial d eve lopment i n I ron A ge B r itain , a nd i s n ow c onventionally u sed t o s eparate t he E ar ly f rom t he M iddle I ron A ge . T wo f urther p oints s hould b e e mphasised . T he f irst o f t hese i s t he r ole o f t he d evelopment o f i ron t echno logy i n t his p rocess o f s ocial c hange . T his i s a s y et v ery p oor ly u nderstood . K now ledge o f i ron t echno logy h ad b een a vailab le f or s everal h undred y ears ( Champion 1 975 ; 1 980 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 28132 , 1 34), d uring w hich t ime i t a ppears t o h ave b een u sed a nd c irculated a s ap rest ige i tem . T he d w indling s upp lies o f b ronze d uring t he s eventh a nd s ixth c entur ies B C culd h ave p romoted a n i ncreasing u se o f i ron a s a n a lternat ive m etal. O n t he o ther h and , t he w ide a vailability o f i ron c ompared w ith c opper a nd t in m ay h ave p layed a m ore a ctive r o le i n t he f ailing b ronze t rade . U nfortunately , b eyond t hese s implistic o bservations v ery l ittle m ay b e u sefully s aid . T he s econd p oint t o e mphasise i s t hat t he c hanges a t t he e nd o f t he f ifth c entury B C w ere p art , n ot o f a s ingle e vent , b ut o f a p er iod o f r apid c ulture c hange t hat w as t he c onsequence o f s evera l s ocia l p rocesses t hat e ach r eached p hases o f s tress , a nd i n i nteract ing , c omb ined t o p roduce a n a lteration i n t he c ourse o f s ocial c hange . R itual B ehaviour D uring t he c enturies o f t he L ate B ronze A ge a nd E ar ly I ron A ge t here a re t hree k inds o f b ehaviour t hat a lmost c erta inly r epresent r eligious r ituals . T he f irst o f t hese i s t he p resence o f t he m any s words o f G undlingen t ype , v esse ls o f b ronze f ound i n r ivers a nd b ogs . T hese w atery d eposits a re d istinctive , b oth i n t he t ypes o f a rt ifacts
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r epresented a nd t heir c ontext . T he c onsistency i ndicates a d eliberate b ehaviour , b ut t he v alue o f t he o bjects a nd t he i rretrievable c ontext m akes t he b ehaviour v ery u neconom ic. T he m ost l ikely m otivation a nd e xplanation f or t his b ehaviour i s t hat i t r epresents v otive o fferings m ade i n r ivers a nd b ogs ( cf N eedham & B urgess 1 980 ; B radley 1 980 , 1 984). T his t radition f irst a ppears i n t he B ronze A ge a nd c ontinues i nto t he E ar ly I ron A ge. E thnographic r esearch b y L evy ( 198 1) s uggests t hat o fferings o f v aluable o bjects a re t ypical o f r ituals p erformed b y a nd f or e lite i ndividuals o r s ocial g roups. F urther s upport i s p rovided b y K uper ( 1973), w ho n oted t he u se o f i tems t hat s ymbolise i mportant s ocial r elations i n r eligious r ituals. A f inal c lue m ay b e i nferred f rom D rennan ( 1976), t hat r ituals m aking p rominent u se o f s ocial s ymbols a re l ikely t o f unction ( implicitly) t o s anctify t he s ocial r elations s ymbolised. T he c onclusion , t herefore , i s t hat t hese o bjects w ere d eposited i n r ivers a nd b ogs b y e lite i ndividuals i n r ituals b elonging t o a n e lite c ult i nst itution , a nd t hat s uch r ituals p rovided l egitimat ion o r s anctification o f b oth t he e lite c lass a nd o f t he s ocial r elations t hat t he e lite c lass d om inated ( cf d iscussion i n R ow lands 1 980 , 1 5-21, 4 6-48). A n i nteresting f eature o f t hese e lite , p restige i tems i s t heir m artial a spect - s words p redominate . T his m ay s uggest t hat t he e lite w as , a t l east i n p art , a m ilitary e lite a nd t hat s ome o f t he s ocial r elations s ymbolised m ay h ave i nvolved m ilitary d om ination . T he c onsistently w atery c ontexts o f t hese d eposits s uggests t hat r ivers a nd b ogs w ere t hought t o b e l im inal p laces t hrough w hich h umans c ould e ffectively c ontact t he s upernatural w old. T his m ay i nvolve w ater d eities , b ut n eed n ot , a s t he n ature o f t he l im inal f eature ( eg a r iver) d oes n ot n ecessarily c orrelate w ith a ny p articular f eature o f t he o therwor ld. T he c hoice o f o nly e ast f low ing r ivers f or p restige d eposits m ay b e d ue t o e ither t he l ocations o f t rade r outes a nd o f e lite g roups c ontrolling t rade , o r b ased o n r eligious p r inciples. T he s econd s et o f e vidence f or r eligious b ehaviour d uring t he E arly I ron A ge i s t he h uman m ortuary r ituals. T his e vidence i s d rawn l argely f rom t he d ownland s ites , a nd t hus b elongs t o a s ocial s ystem i n w hich e lite s tatus i s i ncreasingly b ased o n c ontrol o f l and a nd p roduction a s w ell a s c ontrol o f t rade . A lthough m ost o f t he e vidence i s f rom h illforts , w hat e vidence i s a vailable f rom s ettlements p resents a s imilar p icture . T he n ormative m ortuary r ite i s o ne t hat l eft n o a rchaeological t races. C remation o r e xposure a t l ocations d istant f rom o ccupation s ites a re a lternatives , w ith t he l atter p erhaps m ore l ikely . H owever , s everal m inority r ites m ay r epresent u p t o f ive p ercent o f t he p opulation. T his m inority s ector o f t he E arly I ron A ge p opulation , r epresented a rchaeologically , a re n early a ll a dultL M ost a re r epresented b y s ingle b ones , a f ew a s c omplete i nhumations ( in p its o r u nder h illfort r amparts), a nd a f ew p artial b urials a nd s ingle s kulls a ppear o n h illforts. S ingle b ones a nd c omplete i nhumations o ccur o n a ll s ites; t he p artial b urials a nd s kulls a ppear o nly o n h illforts. T he f act t hat n one o f t hese m inority r ites i nvolve c remation i ndicates t hat e xposure i s t he m ore l ikely n ormative r ite . S ince v irtually n one o f t he s ingle b ones o r p artial i nhumations s how e vidence o f d eliberate d ismemberment , i t i s l ikely t hat t he p er iod o f e xposure w as i nterrupted i n t he m inor ity r ites
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a nd t he p artially d ecomposed r emains m anipulated i n a r itual a nd t hen p arts d isposed o f , e ventually f inding t heir w ay i nto t he c ontexts o f d iscovery . As eries o f m ortuary r ituals i nvolving t his s econd m anipula— t ion o f t he r emains a re c alled, i n g eneral, s econdary m ortuary r ituals. E thnographic r esearch i ndicates t hat s econdary m ortuary r ituals a re u sually a ssociated w ith f our c losely l inked b eliefs. T hese i nclude t he c onception o f a n i mmortal s oul; d eath a s a l im inal, t ransitional p rocess ( not a n e vent); a b ody—soul p arallelism i n w hich t he f ate o f s oul a nd f lesh a re l inked ; a nd a b elief i n a n " otherworld" t o w hich t he s oul g oes a fter d eath h as b een f inalised b y t he f inal d estruction/deposit ion o f t he p hysical b ody . I t s hould b e e mphasised t hat s uch b eliefs m ay b e h eld w ithout p ractising s econdary m ortuary r ituals , b ut t hat w hen s uch r ituals a re f ound , t hese b eliefs c onsistently f orm t he c onceptual f oundation f or t he r ituals . I f t hese f our b eliefs a re p ostulated a s p art o f t he E arly I ron A ge b elief c ode , t he m ortuary r ituals a re m ore e asily e xplainable . I n a s ystem w here t he n ormal d eposition w as o ff—site , a nd i n w hich b ody—soul p arallelism o ccurs , t he a ppearance o f c omplete i nhumations i mplies a r itual d esigned t o r etain t he s oul a t t he p lace o f b urial. T he a ppearance o f s uch b urials u nder r amparts s uggests f oundation b urials , i ncorporating t he s oul o f t he d eceased i nto t he p hysical d efences t o p rotect t he i nterior f rom s upernatural a ssault a s w ell a s p hysical a ttack . L ikew ise , b urials i n p its m ight b e i ntended t o r eturn t he s oul t o t he e arth i n af ertility o riented r itual — t he c onnect ion o f b urials a nd g rain s torage p its h as b een m ade p reviously ( Cunliffe 1 983 , 1 64). B oth o f t hese k inds o f d eposits c ould i mply h uman s acrifice p receding d isposal. T he s eries o f i nhumations o f p artial b odies , o ccurring o nly o n h illforts , m ay s im ilarly h int a t s acrif ice . I n t his c ase , h owever , t he d ispersal o f t he r emains s urely i ndicates s ome d ifferent t reatment o f t he s oul a s w ell — f or e xample , t his m ay i nvolve a n a lternative t o e ither s ending t he s oul t o t he o therworld , a s i n t he n ormative r ite , o r t o r etaining t he s oul i n t he p lace o f b urial. H uman s acrifice , w hich m ay b e b ehind t hese m ortuary r ituals , u sually o ccurs i n r eligious r ituals p erformed o n b ehalf o f l arger s ocial g roups — i t r arely o ccurs i n t he c ontext o f f am ily r ituals f or e xample . T he d eposits o ccurring o nly o n h illforts — t he r esidences o f e lites a nd p ossibly " central p laces" o f s ocial g roups — a re t herefore m ore l ikely t o b e s acrif ices. D eposits s uch a s i nhumation i n p its , w hich o ccur o n s mall r ural f armstead s ites , a re m uch l ess l ikely t o b e d ue t o s acrif ice . A n a lternative i s t hat t hese l atter a re f ertility o riented b urials o f n atural d eaths , w hich c ould o ccur i n r ural c ontexts. T he c onsistent o ccurrence o f s ingle , a dult , m ale s kulls i n p its o n h illforts m ay i mply e ither r itual h eadhunting o r , m ore l ikely , t he c ollection o f h eads a s m artial t rophies. I n t his c ase , t he f inal d eposition o f t he s kull p robably s erved a potropaic f unctions , a s d id t he r ampart b urials . T he m ortuary r itual t hat r esulted i n s ingle b ones w as e mployed f ar m ore o ften t han t he p receding r ituals. T hese b ones a ppear w idely s cattered a cross s ites. T hese p robably r epresent p eople w ho e ither d id n ot d eserve , o r d id n ot n eed , t he n ormative r ites , a s ector o f t he p opulation r eferred t o h ere a s o utcast o r u nclean. O utcast a nd u nclean s tatus b urials c ould o ccur i n r ural c ontexts , s uch a s t he f armsteads a nd s ettlements , a s w ell a s o n h illforts .
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T he p resence o f d istinct m ortuary r ituals b ased o n s ocial s tatus ( probably d efined b y r eligious c riteria) s uggests a s ocial s ystem o f c onsiderable c omplexity . N othing i n t he a rchaeological e vidence c ontradicts t his s uggestion , b ut e qually , s upporting e vidence i s n ot y et k nown . T he t hird s et o f e vidence f or E arly I ron A ge r itual i s t he s eries o f s pecial a nimal d eposits. T hese b elong t o t he s ame s ites , a nd t herefore s ame s ocial s ystem , a s t he h uman m ortuary r ituals . T he a nimals i nvolved a re t he f ive p rime d omestic s pecies — c attle , s heep , h orse , p ig a nd d og. T he d eposits r epresent a t radition o f c onsistent , u neconomic b ehaviour . T he b est e xplanation i s t hat t he r emains r epre— s ent s everal v arieties o f a nimal s acrifice , d ifferentiated b y s pecies , a nd t he p arts o f t he a nimal b uried — w hole o r n early c omplete b odies , s kulls , o r a rticulated l imbs. T his h ints a t a v ery c omplex s et o f u nder lying r ituals. S everal g eneral p oints , h owever , c an b e m ade a bout t hese d eposits. F irst , d uring t he E ar ly I ron A ge , h illforts a nd s ettlements s how s ome s imilarities i n r itual p ractices. S heep a re n umerically m ost c ommon , b ut w hen c onsidering t he g reater m eat v alue o f ac ow , c attle a re r emark— a bly p rom inent . H orses a re e qually c ommon o n b oth t ypes o f s ites. P igs , h owever , o ccur o nly o n h illforts , a nd d ogs a re m uch m ore c ommon o n s ettlements. O n b oth t ypes o f s ites m ost s pecial d eposits a re o f s kulls. T his m akes e conom ic s ense , a s t he d eposit o f a s kull m ay b e s ymbolically a cceptable , w hile a llow ing m ost o f t he m eat p roducts t o b e c onsumed , p robably i n ar itual m eal. T hese a nimal d eposits o ccur e xclusively i n t he d isused s torage p its , w hose p otential a ssociation w ith f ertility , a s g rain s tores o f c onsiderable e conom ic s ignificance , h as a lready b een m entioned. A lthough t here a re p roblems i n e stablishing c ontemporaneity , t he p its c ontaining a nimal b urials a ppear t o b e m ore c losely s ituated t o e ither h ouses, o r o ther d omestic s tructures , t han w as t rue f or h uman b urials . T his p attern h olds t rue f or b oth s ettlements a nd h illforts , a nd a nimal d eposits a re c ommon o n s ettlements . T his i mplies t hat t he r ituals r esulting i n s uch d eposits w ere p erformed b y r esidents o n a ll s ites , a nd t he a ssociation w ith d omestic s tructures c ould i ndicate t hat t he r ituals w ere p erformed b y l eaders o f s mall s ocial g roups , s uch a s a f amily , l ineage o r c lan. T he p resence o f a nimal s acrifices a nd h uman b urials i n p its p robably i ndicates t hat t he p its h ave a s ignificance b eyond t he e conomic i mportance o f g rain s torage . J ust a s t he d eposition o f v otives i n w ater i mplies t hat t he r ivers w ere l im inal p laces , t he u se o f p its t o h old s acrifices a nd b urials i ndicates t hat t hey t oo w ere l im inal f eatures . H uman a nd a nimal s acrifices i mply s everal f eatures o f t he E arly I ron A ge c onception o f t he d eities a nd t he s upernatural w or ld . F oremost a mongst t hese i s t he b elief t hat t he p erformance o f t hese s acrificial a nd v otive r ituals i nfluenced t he s upernatural a nd n atural w orlds. I n p articular , i t i s p robably n atural f ertility w hich i s t he g oal o f t he r ituals. A lthough i t i s i mpossible t o d istinguish b etween t he e xact f orms t hat s uch i nfluence c ould t ake — r anging f rom b ribery , t o c oercion , t o r espectful t hank — t he b asic b elief i s t he s ame : t he c orrect r ituals e nsure t hat 1 ,e s upernatural a nd n atural w orlds w ill m ore c losely c onform t o m an's w ishes. A c losely r elated b elief i s t hat f ertility a nd p rosperity a re o f d ivine o r s upernatural o rigin. F ertility r ituals i nvolving s acrifice a re e thnographically c ommon m eans t o e nsure p rosperity .
U nfortunately , t he t hree s ets o f b ehaviour c onsidered h ere a re t he o nly o nes a t p resent a rchaeo logically v isib le i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge . T he f irst , t he r itual d eposit ion o f f ine m etalware i n r ivers , p robab ly r epresents a n e lite 's c ult i nstitution i n w hich r ituals o f s anct if icat ion a re p rominent . W hen t he e conom ic t rade s ystem t hat t he e lite d epended u pon , a nd w hich s upplied t he p rest ige m etalware t hat f eatured p rom inently i n t he a ssociated r ituals , w as t hreatened f rom o utside t he r egion , t he e lite , t heir c ult , a nd e ventually m uch o f t he d ependent s ocial s ystem w as e ndangered . B y t he s ixth c entury B C , t he e conom ic s ystem m ore o r l ess c ollapsed. I nterest ingly , a f inal p er iod o f p art icularly i ntense d eposition m ay h ave o ccurred a t t his t ime ( Needham & B urgess 1 980). T wo f urther E ar ly I ron A ge c ult i nst itutions a re v isib le , a m ortuary c ult a nd p robab ly a f ertility c ult . B oth o f t hese a re m ore c ommon o n t he d ownlands , w here t hey a re c lose ly a ssociated , a lthough t here i s s ome e vidence f or t heir p resence i n t he T hames B asin a nd o ther l ow land a reas . W hether o r n ot t he e lite 's v otive c ult i nstitut ion a nd t he m ortuary a nd f ertility c ults o ver lapped a nd w ere p ract ised b y t he s ame s ocial g roups i s a s y et i ndeterm inab le . T he c ollapse o f t he b ronze t rade , w hich s o t hreatened t he e lite c ult i nstitutions , w as a lso a ssociated w ith c hanges w hich e ventually a ffected t he d ownland s ocial g roups — w itness t he s acked h illforts . H ere , h owever , t here i s l ittle e vidence o f t hat e lite c ult i nstitut ion a nd i nstead t he r itual e mphasis a ppears t o b e o n f ertility . T his p ara llels t he u se o f l and a nd p roduce a s t he b asis o f s ocial s tatus t hat t he h illforts r epresent . H ere t hen , t he r eligious s ystem w as b ased o n c ommodities t hat w ere n ot t hreatened , a nd s ocial u pheaval a nd c hange m ay n ot h ave c aused a ny p ermanent c hanges i n r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices .
T HE M IDDLE I RON A GE :
C IRCA 4 00100 B C
T he S ocial C ontext B y t he e nd o f t he f ifth c entury B C t here e merged f rom t he s ocial u pheaval o f t he c o llapse o f t he E uropean b ronze t rade , a nd t he c rumbling o f t he s ocial s ystem d ependent u pon t hat t rade , a M iddle I ron A ge s ociety , d ifferent i n n ature f rom t hat o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge . A lthough c ross—channel t rade d id n ot s top c ompletely , d uring t he M iddle I ron A ge i t w as v ery s mall i n s cale . L ack ing t he s upplies o f b ronze o bjects e ssential f or t heir s ocial i nteraction , t he E ar ly I ron A ge e lite s ystems f e ll a part . N ew s ocial s ystems a rose , p robab ly u sing l and , c rop p roduce a nd a nimals a s s ymbols o f p restige a nd a uthor ity a nd a s t okens i n s ocial e xchange . T hese n ew s ocial s ystems d eveloped a long t heir t rajectories f or t hree c entur ies b efore a s econd p hase o f s ocial s tress d eve loped . F o llow ing t he d estruction o f m any o f t he " ear ly" h illforts a t t he e nd o f t he f ifth c entury B C , a n ew f orm o f " developed" h illfort a ppeared. D eveloped h illforts m ay b e e ither r efurb ished " ear ly" f orts o r n ew f oundations ; t hey a re f ewer i n n umber , m ore w idely a nd m ore r egularly s paced , t hus d om inating l arger t err itor ies ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 2 43-286 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 28129 ; C unliffe 1 984b , 3 0). T he n ew h illforts a re m assively d efended a nd t hus r equired f ar g reater l abour i n c onstruction , i mply ing m ore s ocial c ontro l b y a n e lite t han i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge . F urthermore , t he d eveloped h illforts e xhibit e vidence o f i ntense p ermanent o ccupat ion , w ith o rganised i nteriors d ivided i nto
a reas f or h ousing , g rain s torage , s tock m anagement e tc , a nd o nce e stablished , t his o rganisat ion c ould b e m aintained f or s everal c entur ies ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 0-38 ; G uilbert 1 975 ; A lcock 1 972 ; S tanford 1 970 , 1 974 , 1 98 1; W hee ler 1 943). T he d eveloped h illforts a lso s eem t o h ave s erved a s c entral g rain s tores f or t err itories m uch l arger t han c ould b e f armed d irect ly f rom t he s ites , a nd r ecent e vidence i ndicates t hat s ome p robably s erved a s l amb ing a nd c alving c entres ( Grant 1 984a , 1 984b). H illforts a lso s how e vidence o f e xtensive c raft p roduct ion ( Cunliffe 1 976 , 1 3814 1). I n s hort , t he d eveloped h illforts m anifest i ncreasing c entralised c ontro l o ver f arm ing a nd m anufactur ing b y ar esident e lite . W ithin t he h illfort t err itor ies a re n umerous s mall f armsteads a nd s ett lements ( both e nclosed a nd o pen), s ituated t o e xplo it a vailab le r esource z ones — s ome s uch s ites b ecome i ncreasingly s pecialised i n t he l ater p art o f t he M iddle I ron A ge ( Megaw & S impson 1 98 1, 3 67-375 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 4 1). T he m ixed a rab le f arm ing s ystem , w hich h ad b een s tab le s ince t he B ronze A ge , w as m ore i ntensively a pp lied d ur ing t he M iddle I ron A ge . S heep b ecome f ar m ore n umerous t han c att le , p robab ly r ef lect ing t he ir u se f or m anur ing f ields , i n a ddition t o p roviding w ool, m eat e tc . W ith i ntensif ication t his s ystem m ay h ave b ecome u nstab le t hrough p rogressive d egradat ion o f t he a rable l and 's f ert ility ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 0-3 1). B y t he e nd o f t he M iddle I ron A ge t here i s e vidence o f d isease i n d omest ic a nimal p opulations , w hich m ay i ndicate t hat b oth f arm ing a nd a nimal h usbandry p ract ices w ere r eaching a s tate o f c hronic s tress ( Grant 1 984b). T hroughout t he M iddle I ron A ge n ew s ites a ppear a nd e stablished s ites m ay e xpand w hich , c omb ined w ith e vidence f or i ncreased a rab le l and b eing m ore i ntensively c ropped , m ay i ndicate a g row ing p opulat ion ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 39142 ; C unliffe 1 984b , 3 1; 1 983 , 1 73). A n i ncreasing p opulation , c oupled w ith a p rogressively s tressed f arm ing s ystem , c ould h ave r eached a s ituat ion w here t he p opulat ion a pproached a s ocially p erceived c arry ing o r h o lding c apac ity o f t he l and . T his , i n t urn , w ould p ut p ressure o n t he s ociety t o a dapt i ts c ustoms , r esulting , i n t urn , i n s ocial s tress . T he M iddle I ron A ge e mphasis o n m assive d efences a nd w eaponry , a nd p eriodic e vidence o f w arfare m ay a lso r epresent i ncreasing s ocial s tress ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 1). T he M iddle I ron A ge i s ap er iod o f d eveloping c raft s pecialisation , b oth w ithin a nd b etween s ites . T his i s p articular ly t rue o f c eram ics , s een i n t he d evelopment a nd c onso lidat ion o f t he r egional s ty le z ones w hich o riginated i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge , s ome o f w hich m ay r epresent f ull—time c raft p roduction . A lso d ur ing t he M iddle I ron A ge , s pecialised s ites f or m ining , s alt p roduct ion , g lass m aking a nd t extiles , a s w ell a s c eram ics , a ppear ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 40 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 3 82-40 1; C unliffe 1 978 ,287-3 10). T here i s e vidence f or s tandardised u nits o f s ize a nd v alue f or s ome c ommodities , s uch a s s alt , b ronze a nd i ron ( A llen 1 967 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 2 73), a nd c att le a nd s heep p robably h ad t raditional e xchange v alue a s w ell. M uch o f t he c raft s pecialisat ion m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he h illforts , a nd h ave o ccurred u nder e lite p atronage ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 42143). T hroughout t he M iddle I ron A ge , a s a c onsequence o f t he g reatly r educed t rade w ith t he c ontinent , B rit ish c raft p roducts b ecome i nsular i n n ature a nd d iverge f rom c ontinental s ty les. I n s ummary , t he M iddle I ron A ge i s c haracter ised b y t he d evelopment o f a s ocial s ystem , d om inated b y a n e lite r esident i n h illforts , w hose a uthority w as b ased o n c ontro l o f l and a nd p roduce . T he d eve lopment o f c raft s pecialisat ion i mp lies a d eveloping s ocial h ierarchy w ith v ar ious
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status positions, many c raftsmen probably working under elite patronage. Evidenc e from hillforts indic ates that they dominated bloc ks of land and rec eived tribute of grain and animals from the surrounding territory. In general terms, these hillforts and territories may approximate the "c hiefdoms" known ethnographic ally. ·Larger soc ial ethnic groups may be disc ernible in the c eramic style zones that show c ontinuity from Early Iron Age origins. Sometime towards the end of the sec ond c entury BC, the Middle Iron Age agric ultural regime may have reac hed a c ritic al level of stress and, as a c onsequenc e, warfare may have bec ome endemi c . At the same time, events known historic ally in the expansion of the Roman empire began to impinge forcefu11y upon southern Br.itain. The c ombination of these proc esses 1ed to a phase of major sacial reorientation, ending the Middle Iron Age "trajec tory" of soc ial evolution. Ritual Behaviour The �ecline of the Late Bronze Age bronze trade, with its dramatic social consequences, might have been expected to involve changes in the elite cult institution so closely linked to the social system. Such a change in religious practices is clearly visible. The deposition of fine metalware in watery contexts does not stop completely, but is very reduced in scale. A few of the areas previously so prominent have a few sword deposits (no shie1ds or vessels are known): these may be areas where the elite managed to preserve their control over the reduced trade and local manufacture, and thus maintained the traditional cult institu tion which legitimated their social authority. The appearance of iron swords in this context may represent a broadening of the resource base the e1ites contra11ed, and hence used, in the rituals of their cult institution. During the second half of the Middle Iron Age, swords and other prestige iterns appear on normal domestic sites in the Dorset-Somerset region. There is nothing in the contexts of these finds to suggest ritual activity, and they probably represent a different set of belief In particular, there appears to have been no and behaviour patterns. tradition related to the elite cult in the eastern river valleys.
There is d�monstrable continuity of human mortuary rituals in · southern Britain from the Ear 1 y to Midd1e Iron Age. There is now pasitive evidence for these practices from a wider variety- of sites, over a much wider area, whic_h may represent the spread of the beliefs or, more likely, reflects the relatively poor data base in the Early Iron Age. Some slight changes are also visible during the Middle Iron Age, apparently differences in practices on hillforts and settlements, which may correlate to different levels in the social hierarchy. On hillforts, �11 of the old practices continu� - the rampart burials, pit burials, partial burials, single skulls and single bones. There is, however, an increase in the relative number of complete burials in pits, and a commensurate decrease in the relative number of individuals represented by single bones. The additional pit burials are mostly of infants, although. burial of adults also increases. A second possible change on hillforts in the Middle Iron Age is a shift from predominantly perimeter locations of remains (ramparts and ditches), as in the Early Iron Age, to interior contexts (mostly pits). In neither period do the contexts clearly relate to any contemporary domestic structures or activity areas.
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If the mortuary rituals practised on hillforts are only slightly changed from the Early Iron Age, the rituals on settlements deviate more dramatically. There is a rapid increase in the occurrence of single inhumations in pits, especially of infants, but adults too become far more numerous. The partial burials and skull deposits are extremely rare on settlements. The mortuary rituals resulting in the deposition of single bones were apparently performed much less frequently. This shift in deposits from single bones to inhumations may represent a dramatic reduction of the period of exposure (and. decomposition) allotted to the dead of certain sectors of society. The upsurge in the number of infant burials must mark another change in practice, if not in belief. These infant burials represent the extension of traditional practices in a new direction, to apply to a During the Early Iron Age, the new minority set of the population. mortuary ritual applied to normal infant deaths was the normative rite, leaving no archaeological trace. This remains true for the Middle Iron Age, sinee the known infant burials are probably too few to represent the "norrrial" level of infant death. Therefore, these burials represent They are unlikely to represent sacrifice, a sub-set of infant deaths. since infants are rarely the subject of sacrifice, and because such rites are unlikely to occur on small settlements where infant burials are so common. Two sorts of infant deaths seem applicable - those who died before a ritual of naming/baptism occurred, or the vietims of infanticide. In neither case would the normative mortuary rite be necessary, as such infants would not have "officially" entered this world (such an entry is officially noted at rites of passage such as naming or baptism). The shift in minority rites involving a reduced period of exposure could apply here as well, since scattered single infant bones would rarely be preserved and recognisable and so would not appear in the Early Iron Age mortuary evidence. One further point may be of interest here. Infanticide is usually practised by social groups who perceive their population as approaching the carrying capacity of their land (though this social carrying capacity is usually well below a "real", or theoretieal carrying capacity) (Harris 1977, 17-28, 56-64). This could correlate with suggestions made · above and elsewhere that the Middl·e Iron Age subsistence economy was threatened by· diminishing returns and an increasing population. Two normative mortuary traditions appear during the Middle Iron Age which have left good archaeological evidence. The first· of these is the by now well known Arras tradition of east Yorkshire (Whimster 1981, 7.5-128; Stead 1965, 1977, 1979; Dent 1978; Brewster 1976). The normative rite of this probably .intrusive, social group was inhumation under small· barrows, in small· square ditched enclosures. Grave goods occur, including pottery, ornaments, weapons and a few vehicles, all reminiscent of a presumed cultural homeland in the Marne region of northeast France (Stead 1977, 1979). This distinctive funerary tradition does not imply any particular set of eschatological beliefs, though those postulated here as current during the Early Iron Age, when southern Britain was closely integrated with the continent (and thus could have shared beliefs), are not incompatible with the evidence. The second known mortuary tradition to appear during the later Mi.ddle Iron Age is the Cornish cist burial tradition (Whimster 1981, 60-74). Here inhumations occur within stone lined cists and are only rarely accompanied by grave goods (which include metal ornaments and -255-
other objects imported from other areas of Britain, as well as from Franee and Spain). This tradition becomes preva1ent in the second Again, the use of century BC and continues to the Roman conquest. inhumation as a normative rite is not incompatible with the beliefs discussed here. In neither the_Arras nor Cornish traditions have minority mortuary rites, such as are visible in central southern Britain, as yet been If minority rites did exist and were applied to similar identified. sectors of those societies, as discussed above, it _would be more probable that a similar set of underlying beliefs were present.
The special animal deposits which were so apparent a feature of the Early Iron Age ritual practices become even more numerous in the Middle Iron Age. On hillforts, where the greatest continuity in practices occurs, cattle become less common than previously. Most of the special deposits take the form of burials of skulls, following the Early Iron Age tradition. On settlements greater changes appear. Burials of skulls are replaced with deposits of complete animals and of articulated limbs, and burials of dogs become increasingly common. Whatever these changes may mean in detai1, the genera1 practices of anima1 sacrifice and deposit, presumably with fertility overtones, continue unchanged. The decrease in the prominence of cattle may be correlated with the more general changes in animal husbandry discussed above, in which sheep become a more important element of agriculture. Further, the expansion of arab1e 1and may have occurred at the expense of margina1 1and and woods previously used for pig forage, as pig burials become less common. Ritua1 practices in a fertility cult might be expected to vary with changes in agricu1tura1 practices, and this seems to be the case in the . Middle Iron Age. A fourth set of evidence of re1igious practices appears in the Middle Iron Age - formalised religious structures or shrines. Three shrines appear in Middle Iron Age contexts on hillforts (Danebury, Maiden Castle and South Cadbury) and a fourth in a nucleated settlement at Heathrow. These are consistently small rectangular buildings, located in open areas within the occupation sites - the hil1fort shrines are a11 located in the most prominent 1ocation i·n the interior of the -sites. They appear to be designed to shelter icons and votives, and at most small groups of worshippers. Communal worship, if it. occurred, must have been an open air activity. There is, as yet, no positive evidence to associate any of these shrines with any particular deity or cult, although at South Cadbury the animal burials near the shrines may suggest links to the fertility cult. The appearance of shrines on nucleated sites parallels the types of sites on which craft specialisation occurs. As the craft specialisation implies an increase in social complexity with new status positions, this may be true of religion as we11: a class of full time religious specialists may be seen .developing under elite_ patronage in the Middle Iron Age. The likelihood of religious institutions' organisation paralleling the organisation of social institutions has already been suggested. In summary, the small limited scale of This cult may continue elsewhere it loses its
Middle Iron Age witnesses the continuation on a the Early Iron Age elite cult of votive deposits. as an elite cult in a few restricted areas, while elite association.
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M eanwhile , m uch o f s outhern E ngland c an n ow b e s een t o p ractise a s er ies o f f ert ility c ults i nvolving a nima l s acr if ice , a nd s evera l m ortuary c ults a re v isible . T he a nimal s acr if ices , p ract ised a t a ll s ocial l eve ls , b ut m ore i ntensely b y a h illfort r esident e lite , a nd c ertain t ypes o f s acrifice o f c ertain a nimals ( especially p igs) m ay a lso b e r estr icted t o t he e lite . S im ilar ly , i t i s l ikely t hat h uman s acr if ice w as c onducted i n t his s ame f ert ility c ontext , a lso a s p art o f e lite c eremonies . T hese e lite c eremonies m ay i nvo lve a n i ncreasingly p rofessional c lass o f r e ligious s pecialists . O rdinary , human m ortuary r ituals , i ncluding s pecialised r ituals a pp lied t o a m inor ity s ector o f t he p opulat ion ( probably o utcast/unclean g roups) w ere p erformed a t a ll s ocial l eve ls o n a ll s orts o f o ccupat ion s ites . B ecause t he m ortuary r itoals a nd m uch o f t he a nimal s acr if ices o ccur o n s ites w ith n o d irect e vidence f or a n e lite , t hey a re p robab ly p arts o f c ult i nst itut ions o rganised a t a c ommunal l evel, a s w as t he c ase i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge . C ertain s pecif ic r ituals ,( either h uman s acr if ice o r p articular f orms o f a nimal s acr if ice) r estricted t o h illforts m ay b e a ssociated w ith a n e lite c ult , b ased o n s im ilar b eliefs , c onducted b y i ncreasingly p rofessional r eligious s pecialists . T he M iddle I ron A ge r itua l p ract ices i mply t he c ont inuat ion o f b eliefs w hich w ere p revalent i n t he E ar ly I ron A ge . T hese i nclude e schatologica l b eliefs a bout m an's s oul a nd t he n ature o f d eath a nd t he o therwor ld . O ther b eliefs i mplied a re t hat t he s upernatural w or ld ( and t hrough i t t he n atural w orld) w as o pen t o i nf luence , a nd t hat t he p erformance o f s acr if ice a nd v ot ive o ffer ings w ere a m ajor f orm o f i nf luence .
T HE L ATE I RON A GE : C IRCA 1 00 B C —A D 4 3 T he S ocial C ontext A ccording t o t he s cenar io d eve loped t hus f ar , i t w ould a ppear t hat d ur ing t he s econd c entury B C , s ociety i n s outhern B r itain s uffered c hronic s tress d ue t o a n e xpanding p opulat ion m eet ing s tat ic o r d im inishing a gr icultural p roduct ion . A s ocial h ierarchy o f s ome d epth h ad d eve loped , a nd c raft s pecialisat ion , m anufactur ing i nsular a rt ifact sty les , h ad g rown t o r eplace t he e ar lier b ronze t rade ; i ron w as u niversa lly u sed. A n e lite d raw ing i ts a uthor ity f rom c ontro l o f l and a nd p roduce d om inated l ocal t err itor ies f rom p roto—urban h illforts . L arger e thnic g roups m ay b e p erce ived i n d istinctive c eram ic s ty le z ones. O ne o f t he m ost i nf luential o f t hese c haracteristics m ay b e t he a gricultural s tress w hich c an m ake a s ocia l s ystem v ulnerab le t o o utside i nf luences ; b eginning i n t he l ast d ecades o f t he s econd c entury B C o utside i nf luences i ntruded f orcefully i nto s outhern B r itain . T he R oman c onquest o f s outhern G aul i n t he l ate s econd c entury B C p rompted a r evitalisation o f t he w estern t rade r outes b y w hich t he M editerranean w or ld h ad t raded w ith B r itain i n e arlier c enturies . A lthough t he t rade r outes w ere u sed i n t he M iddle I ron A ge , e ntrepreneur ial R oman m erchants g reat ly i ncreased t he s ca le o f t he t rade . O ne o f t hese r outes w as t hrough t he C arcassone G ap t o t he G ironde , u p t he w est c oast o f G aul t o B r ittany , a nd t hence t o c entral s outhern E ngland . T he s econd r oute w ent u p t he R hone r iver , a cross t o a ni l t hen d own t he S eine , a nd t hen a cross t he C hannel a gain t o c entral s äuthern E ngland ( Cunliffe 1 982 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 4 17-421; B radley 1 984 , 1 44146). -P roducts t raded i nto B r itain i ncluded w ine , f ine c eram ics a nd m anufactured g oods , w hile B r itish e xports i ncluded
( according t o S trabo) h unting d ogs , m inerals , g rain a nd s laves . B eginning s hortly b efore 1 00 B C , a nd c ont inuing u nt il t he m id—f irst c entury B C , t his t rade s ystem f lourished , w ith s uch t rade e ntrepots a s H engistbury H ead s erving a s n odal p oints ( Cunliffe 1 978 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 4 17-42 1). A lthough t he c ausal c onnect ions a re n ot y et c lear , c onsiderab le s ocial c hanges o ccurred i n c entral s outhern E ngland d ur ing t his p eriod , a nd t he r esurgence o f t rade a nd s ocial c hanges c an h ardly b e u nrelated . I nto t his p er iod o f c hange m ust a lso b e t hrown t he v exed q uestion o f t he B e lgae . C aesar r efers t o t heir r aiding a nd t hen s ettling i n " mar it ime B ritain" b efore h is B ritish c ampaigns i n t he m id—f irst c entury B C . F or l ong , t his p rocess w as t hought t o b e r epresented b y t he a ppearance o f c oinage , c eram ics a nd c remat ion b ur ials , a ll w ith G aulish a ntecedents i n K ent , E ssex a nd H ertfordshire . R ecent r esearch a nd n ew c hrono logies n ow m ake t his a ssociation l ess c onvincing ( Birchall 1 963 ; R odwell 1 976 ; K ent 1 98 1; S tead 1 976 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 6 7-82 , 1 6 1192 , 2 87-326). A n a lter— n ative i nterpretation h as b een p roposed b y C unliffe ( 1984b ; a lso s ee S e llwood 1 984) , w hich h ypothesises a B e lgic s ett lement n orth o f t he S olent , b ased o n B elgic c oinage a nd c eram ics . T he e vidence i s t enuous ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 6). B oth o f t hese c andidates f or t he B elgic i nvasion c an b e e xplained a dequately b y t rade c ontacts a s w ell a s i nvasion , a nd a lthough C aesar 's d escr iption l eaves l ittle d oubt t hat t he i nvasion o ccurred , n either i ts t ime , p lace n or c onsequent c ulture c hanges c an b e i dentif ied a rchaeologically w ith a ssurance ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 84). T he m ost d ramatic o f t he a pparent c hanges t o o ccur a bout 1 00 B C i n c entral s outhern E ngland m ay b e aw idespread a bandonment o f h illforts a s d ensely o ccupied c entres . A lthough p ositive e vidence o f a bandonment i s l im ited t o a h andful o f s ites , t here a re v ery f ew h illforts w here a f irst c entury B C o ccupat ion o f a ny m agnitude c an b e d emonstrated ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 2 43-286 , 3 27-344 ; 1 984b , 3 2-38). C oncurrent w ith t he a bandonment o f h illforts a re t wo c hanges i n t he r ural s ettlement p attern . T he f irst i s a s hift f rom s mall i ndependent f armsteads t o l arger , l oosely n ucleated , m odular s ett lements o f f armsteads s tretched a long t rackways o r i n c lusters ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 4). T his s hift m ay b e s een e arlier , e specially i n e astern E ngland , w here n ucleated v illages d om inate t he s ettlement p attern ( Cunliffe 1 978 , 1 61192 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 3 74). A lso c ontemporary w ith t hese c hanges i s t he b eginning o f r eorganisation i n t he a gr icultura l l and— s cape , w ith l arger , l inear f ield s ystems a nd c lear ly d ef ined t rack s ystems d eveloping , e specially i n s ome r iver v a lleys ( Hingley & M iles 1 984 ; M iles & P almer 1 983a , 1 983b ; M iles 1 983). S ome n ew c rops b ecame c ommon , a nd s pecialised s ites a re m ore c ommon a s w ell ( Jones 1 984 ; G rant 1 984b ; C unliffe 1 978 , 1 8619 1). T he t rend t o g reater c raft s pecialisat ion , w hich b egan i n t he s econd h alf , o f t he M iddle I ron A ge , a ccelerated i n t he L ate I ron A ge a cross m ost o f s outhern E ngland . T his i ncludes t he i ntroduction o f t he p otter 's w heel a nd c eram ics o f n orth G aulish i nspiration ( Cunliffe 1 984b , 3 3 ; M egaw & S impson 1 98 1, 4 02 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 2 87-3 10). A nother n ew d evelopment i s t he a ppearance o f c oinage o f G aulish i nspiration m inted i n q uantity , p ossib ly i ncluding s mall d enom inat ion c o ins t o f acilitate e xchange o f g oods a nd s ervices ( Sellwood 1 984 ; K ent 1 98 1; C unliffe 1 98 1; R odwe ll 1 976 ; H aselgrove 1 979 , 1 982). M ost o f t hese c hanges m ay b e n o m ore t han a s udden a ccelerat ion o f t rends i n M iddle I ron A ge s ociety a nd e conomy i n r esponse t o n ew t rade o pportunities . T he a bandonment o f h illforts , s hould i t p rove t o b e a s d ramat ic a s i t n ow a ppears , w ould h int a t d eeper m ore s ignif icant
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c hanges. H owever , t his s ocial s ystem i n t he m idst o f r apid c hange w as s trongly a ffected b y J ulius C aesar 's c onquest o f a ll o f G aul d ur ing t he m id—f irst c entury B C . C aesar 's c onquest o f G aul b rought C e lt ic B r itain a nd t he R oman E mpire i nto m ore d irect c ontact ( Cunliffe 1 984 , 3 3 ; B radley 1 984 , 1 44156) t han h ad e xisted p reviously . I n t he p resent d iscussion t wo c onsequences a re i mportant . F irst , i t s hifted t he p rime t rade a xis f rom S eine—to—So lent t o t he e ast , t urning u p t he R hone , t hen a cross t o a nd d own t he R hine , a nd t hen a c ross—Channel r oute t o t he T hames E stuary a nd t he E ssex c oast ( Rodwell 1 976 ; C unliffe 1 976 ; 1 978 , 6 7-82 , 3 27-344 ; 1 984b). C oncom itant w ith t his w as a m ajor d ecline i n t he v o lume o f t rade p assing a long t he S e ine—So lent a nd A t lant ic c oast r outes , t hough b oth r outes c ontinued t o f unction . T he s econd c onsequence w as a v ast i ncrease i n t he s cale o f t rade , w ith f ar g reater q uantit ies o f c ontinental g oods e ntering e astern E ngland , a nd p resumably i ncreased B rit ish e xports a s w ell. W ithin a d ecade o r t wo i t i s l ikely t hat a " Prestige—Goods E conomy" w as o perat ing i n e astern E ngland , c entred o n a c ore a rea o f K ent , E ssex a nd H ertfordshire ( Haselgrove 1 982). P olit ical r epercussions i nclude t he d evelopment o f i ncipient s tates ( as s een i n t he d ynast ic e mphasis o n i nscr ibed c oinage a nd t he v ery r ich b urials o f W elwyn t ype) ( Bradley 1 984 , 1 44 ; C unliffe 1 978 , 7 5-8 1; S tead 1 967 , 1 976). A f urther a spect o f p olit ica l d evelopment a nd c entralisat ion i s t he o ppida w hich a lmost c ertainly h eld u rban f unctions a s p o litical, m arket , m anufacturing a nd p ossibly r eligious c entres. T he b est k nown e xamples i nclude V erulam ium ( Rodwell 1 976 , 3 25-339), C olchester/ C amulodunum ( Hawkes & H ull 1 947 ; H awkes 1 980) a nd C hichester ( Bradley 1 97 1). M any f urther p ossib le e xamples a re l ess w ell k nown ( Rodwell 1 976 ; C unliffe 1 976 ; 1 978 , 2 84-286 , 3 38-339). B y l ate i n t he f irst c entury B C , d ynast ic k ingdoms h ad d eveloped i n a " core" a rea o f e ast E ngland , w hose n ames a re p reserved i n t he R oman a dm inistrat ion , i ncluding t he C ant iaci ( Kent), T r inovantes ( in E ssex), C atuvellauni ( Hertfordshire) a nd A trebates ( in S urrey , S ussex a nd e ast H ants). S urrounding t hese c hiefdoms/kingdoms w as a " per iphery" o f c hiefdoms w ith l ess c raft s pecialisation a nd p robab ly a l ess h ierarchic s ociety , w hich w ere e xploited a s s ources o f r aw t rade g oods b y t he s ociet ies i n t he " core" ( Hase lgrove 1 982). T hese c hiefdoms i nclude t he D urotriges , D obunni, C or itani a nd I ceni. I t s hould t hus b e c lear t hat a fter 5 0 B C e astern E ngland e xper ien— c ed u nprecedented p olit ical a nd e conom ic d evelopment , a nd p olit ical c entralisation . C entral, s outhern E ngland ( Wessex) d uring t his s ame p eriod f ailed t o k eep p ace a nd c ont inued s ocial c hange o ccurred m ore s low ly : t he c entre o f s ocial d evelopment s hifted f rom t he S o lent t o t he T hames . I ndependent C elt ic s ocial d evelopment i n B r itain e nded w ith t he C laudian i nvasion i n A D 4 3 , a nd s ubsequent c hanges o ccurred i n a p ro— g ressively m ore R oman c ontext . T he r apid p ace o f s ocial c hange i n t he f irst c entury B C a nd e ar ly f irst c entury A D m ay w e ll h ave l ed t o c onsequent c hanges i n b oth r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices. H owever , t his p er iod w as t oo s hort f or s ocial, e conom ic a nd p o litical p ractices t o r each e quilibr ium , a nd r eligious p ractices l ikew ise m ay h ave r emained i n f lux . I f s o , n ew r e ligious p ractices m ay b e d iff icult t o i dent ify a nd i nterpret . T he g eneral t rends , h owever , d o r emain c lear ly d iscernib le .
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R itual B ehav iour T here i s m uch m ore e vidence f or r itua l p ractices i n t he L ate I ron A ge t han i n p revious p er iods. A lso , a nd m ore i mportantly , t he C elt ic e thnographies a nd t he C elt ic v ernacular l iterature , w hich o riginate i n t he L ate I ron A ge , i nclude a l arge a mount o f e vidence a bout r eligious b e liefs t o s upp lement t he e vidence o f r itual. I n o rder t o a ccommodate t his i ncrease i n e vidence , t he d iscussion f o llows a d ifferent c ourse . F irst t he a rchaeo logical e vidence i s v ery b r ief ly r eviewed . T o t his f oundat ion , t he l iterary e vidence i s a dded i n a s peculat ive d iscussion o f s evera l g enera lised c ult i nstitut ions ( as d ef ined i n c hapter o ne), w hich a re p robably c ommon t hemes i n m uch o f C e lt ic r eligion . D uring t he L ate I ron A ge t here i s e vidence o f ag enera l r evival o f t he o ld t radit ion o f v otive d eposits i n w atery c ontexts . H owever , t hese L ate I ron A ge d eposits , t hough m ore n umerous t han i n t he M iddle I ron A ge , a re w idespread r ather t han i n t he c lusters t hat b egan i n t he B ronze A ge/Ear ly I ron A ge ( only i n t he F enlands a nd c entral L inco lnshire a re t here e nough d eposits t o r epresent a c luster). F rom t his i t w ould a ppear t hat t he E ar ly I ron A ge e lite c ult i nstitut ion , f o llow ing t he c ollapse o f t he b ronze t rade , h ad d evo lved i nto a c ommon v otive p ract ice a cceptable i n m ost a reas , b ut p erhaps n o l onger a n i ndependent c ult , a nd c ertainly n o l onger a n e lite i nstitut ion. T he b asic b eliefs , s uch a s t he e ff icacy o f w ater d eposits i n i nf luencing t he s upernatura l a nd t he l im inality o f w ater , s urvived i ntact . T he m ajor ity o f a rt ifacts i n t his r evival o f r iver a nd b og d eposits a re c auldrons , w hich s eem t o h ave e njoyed e ither a g reat r esurgence , o r p erhaps t he d evelopment o f a p rom inent s tatus a s r eligious s ymbo ls i n t he L ate I ron A ge . I nterestingly t he D orset/Somerset r egion i s s t ill d ist inct ive i n t he o ccurrence o f m eta lware o n o ccupat ion s ites — p robab ly r ef lect ing d ifferent b eliefs a bout e ither t he a ppropr iate f orms o f v otives , o r t he l im inality o f w ater , o r b oth . T he u se o f s hafts o r w ells f or d eposits o f v otive c haracter b ecomes w idespread i n t he L ate I ron A ge , a lthough t here i s e vidence o f a l ong p er iod o f d evelopment i n t he e ar lier I ron A ge a nd e ven t he B ronze A ge . T hese r itual d eposits i nclude m etalware , a nimal s acr if ices , f ood o ffer ings i n c eram ic v essels , a nd b urnt o ffer ings . S ome l ocal t raditions a re d iscernible i n t he d ifferent v otives ( eg , t he p resence o f b ird a nd d og • b ones i n s hafts i n K ent a nd S urrey). T his p ractice c orroborates b eliefs a bout t he e ff icacy o f v otive o fferings a nd t he l im inality o f p its a nd s hafts i mplied b y M iddle I ron A ge e vidence . T he n ature o f t he d eposits i n s hafts s eems o verwhe lm ingly f ocused o n f ert ility i n t he n atural w or ld . T wo n ew n ormative m ortuary r itua ls a ppear d uring t he L ate I ron A ge , i n a ddition t o t he t wo t hat o riginated d ur ing t he M iddle I ron A ge . T he f irst o f t hese i s t he u se o f s imp le f lat i nhumat ions , s omet imes i n c emeter ies a nd s omet imes w ith a f ew g rave g oods . T his r ite i s a pparent— l y an ormative r ite i n t he a rea o f t he D urotr iges , e specially i n D orset ( Whimster 1 98 1, 3 7-59). T he s econd r ite i s o ne o f c remat ion , f ollowed b y u rned b uria l i n c emeter ies , a nd " fam ily c lusters" a re s ometimes d iscernible . T his m ortuary r ite i s d iagnost ic o f t he s o—called A y lesford—Swarling " culture" a nd i s p rom inent i n K ent , E ssex a nd H ertfordshire ( Whimster 1 98 1, 1 47166 ; B irchall 1 965 ; S tead 1 967 , 1 976 ; R odwe ll 1 976). T he a ppearance o f b oth o f t hese t raditions m ay b e a s e asily a ttr ibuted t o c ulture c ontact a long t he t wo m ajor L ate I ron A ge t rade a xes a s t o a ctual m igrations o f p eop le . T he t wo o lder n ormative
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r ites — t he A rras b arrow b ur ials a nd t he C ornish c ist b urials — b oth c ont inue i nto t he L ate I ron A ge . I n c entral s outhern B r itain t he L ate I ron A ge n ormat ive r ite p robably c ont inues t o b e e xposure . T he m inor ity r ites t hat s upplement t he n ormative r ite o f e xposure c an a lso b e s een c ont inuing t hrough t he L ate I , ron A ge . O n h illforts , f or a s l ong a s t hey w ere o ccupied , t he M iddle I ron A ge p ract ices c ont inued n ear ly u nchanged , w ith m ost h uman r emains a ppear ing a s s ingle b ones , a s w ell a s s mall n umbers o f s ingle s kulls , p art ial b uria ls a nd c omplete i nhumat ions . O n s ettlements , t he M iddle I ron A ge t rend f rom r ites r esult ing i n s ingle b ones t o r ites l eading t o c omplete i nhumations c ont inues ; s ingle b ones a re n ow a s mall m inor ity , s kulls a nd p art ial b ur ials o ccur n ot a t a ll, a nd m ost r ema ins a re c omplete i nhumat ions . T he b eliefs i mplied b y t hese r ites i n t he E ar ly a nd M iddle I ron A ge , i ncluding a n i mmortal s oul, d eath a s at ransit iona l p hase , b ody—soul p ara lle lism , a nd a n o therworld , a re a ll l ikely t o p ersist w ithout m ajor c hange i nto t he L ate I ron A ge . A s n oted e ar lier , t he a dopt ion o f an ew n ormative r ite f requently o ccurs w ithout a ny c hange i n b eliefs . T hus , t hese b eliefs a re l ikely t o b e v ery b asic e lements i n C eltic r eligion . T he u se o f p its f or d eposits o f h uman r emains i n t he L ate I ron A ge r einforces t he s uggest ion t hat p its a nd s hafts w ere v iewed a s l im inal f eatures . T he f ourth r itual p ract ice o bserved a rchaeologically i s t hat o f a nima l s acr if ice , a s r epresented b y t he s pecial a nima l d eposits w hich c ontinue u ninterruptedly f rom t he E ar ly I ron A ge . A s w ith m ortuary r ituals , t here i s r e latively l itt le e vidence f or a nima l s acr if ice a nd b ur ial o n h illforts i n t he L ate I ron A ge . O n s ett lement s ites , t here a ppears t o b e a c hange i n t he p erformance o f t he s acr if icial r itual, r ef lected i n t he b ur ia l o f c omplete a nimals a nd a rt iculated l imbs i nstead o f s kulls , f or m ost s pecies . I n s pite o f t hese c hanges i n d etail i t i s a pparent t hat t he g enera l s acr if icia l a nd d eposition p ractices c ont inued. T he i mplied b eliefs t herefore a lso c ontinue , i ncluding t he u se o f s acr if ice t o i nf luence n atural f ert ility a nd t he l im inality o f p its . A rchaeo logical e vidence o f r itual i s a lso f ound i n t he m any m ore C eltic s hr ines w hich h ave b een i dent ified i n t he L ate I ron A ge . T hese r emain s mall, g enera lly r ectangular s tructures , a pparently d esigned f or i ndividual o r s mall g roup c eremonies , l eaving c ommuna l w orship t o o ccur i n t he o pen a ir . T hese C eltic s hr ines , l ike m ost C eltic d omest ic s tructures i n B r itain , w ere o r iented e ast/southeast ; t his m ay i ndicate t hat t his d irect ion w as a uspicious , w hich i s h inted i n t he I r ish m yths . A n umber o f R omano—Celtic t emples c ont inue L ate I ron A ge C elt ic f oundations , s uggest ing t hat t he s hr ines w ere s uff icient ly w ell i ntegrated i nto C elt ic r eligion a nd s ociety t o h ave b een _ p erpetuated u nder R oman o ccupat ion . S hrines i n t he L ate I ron A ge s omet imes o ccur i n s ma ll c lusters i n n ucleated s ett lements a nd i t i s l ikely t hat , a t l east i n t he s outh a nd e ast , m ost s ett lements l arger t han v illages c onta ined s hr ines . M ore r ura l l ocat ions a re a lso k nown , i ncluding o ld r e ligious f oundations i n h illforts n ow l argely a bandoned , p ossib ly w ithin t he e ven o lder e ar ly h illforts a nd p lateau e nclosures , a nd a long C elt ic p o litical b oundaries . A ll o f t hese l ocat ions w ere l ater u sed f or R omano—Celtic t emples. T here i s l ittle p ositive e vidence t o a ssociate s hr ines w ith a ny o f t he o ther r itual p ractices , a nd t he e vidence o f t he l ater R omano—Celt ic t emp les a lso i ndicates t hat s hr ines p robab ly s erved s everal c ults a nd f unctions a nd m ay h ave b een g eneralised r itual s tructures .
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Cult Institutions
The literary evidence available- during the Late Iron Age indicates that the _ritual practices observed archaeologically were the active parts of cult institutions whose beliefs and other details are known, particularly through the Irish myths. The following discussion there fore presents a speculative model of several of the major themes of Celtic religion. Each theme, discussed as a cult institution, has an ancestry stretching back through the Iron Age, traceable in the archaeo logical evidence of ritual. These cult institutions are considered in some detail, drawing together the inferences from the earlier chapters, and pointing out relations between the various cults. The relationship between the cults and other aspects of Late Iron Age society is given particular attention in order to illustrate the role of religion in Celtic society. This discussion undoubtedly makes Celtic religion a too passive element of Celtic society, but this is probably unavoidable in a general study, such as attempted here. In reality, Celtic religion probably played a dynamic role in the daily course of Celtic society. Fertility Cults
Both the Celtic ethnographies and the Celtic vernacular literature contain evidence about beliefs and practices concerned with the fertil ity of the natural world, and the pros�erity of the social group. This, in fact, forms a large part of the information available about religion, perhaps s 1 ightly over-represented but nonetheless appropriate to the rural agrarian social contexts of Celtic society. The basic purpose of the fertility cults was undoubtedly to maintain the fertility of land, crops and animals. The several basic beliefs implied in the archaeology are confirmed in the literary sources. The most basic belief was that fertility of the natural world is not a part of natur�, but originates in the supernatural world of the gods. A direct action on the part of a deity is necessary in order to · shift the fertility into the natural world. The deities responsible for _this are open to influence by the actions of men - without human ritual the deities may withhold fertility. The way in which the Celts sought to prompt the gift of fertility from their gods.was through maintaining a balance in the flow of fertility � what the gods sent was returned to them by the sacrifice of anima 1 s or the offering of materi a 1 votives. It is not possible to determine if this relationship was thought to be contractual or propitiatory. The fertil�ty -cults are seen in four sets of behaviour, all found These inc 1 ude the in both ar'chaeo 1 ogy and the 1 iterary evidence. deposition of meta 1 vot ives in watery contexts, of whi eh cau 1 drons, probab 1 y symbo 1 ising prosperity, are a major e 1 ement; the variety of votives in ritual shafts, all probably for fertility and prosperity; animal sacrifices, for fertility; and possibly human sacrifices as well. Each of these fouf sets of rituals has been shown to subsume a variety of slightly differing practices, and it is likely that a number of different cults are conflated into a generic term of fertility cult. The religious specialists officiating in the fertility cults probably belong to several levels in the hierarchy of specialists Both the Celtic ethnographies and Celtic vernacu 1 ar proposed above. 1 iterature agree that the sacrifice of anima 1 s and humans required
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o fficials c alled D ruids a nd V ates. B oth s ources a lso a gree t hat b y t he L ate I ron A ge t he D ruids w ere a s upra—tribal o rganisation , a nd a lthough t his m eans t hat t he o rganisation m ust h ave b egun d evelopment m uch e arlier , t here a re n o e arlier s ources t o d ocument w hen t his o ccurred . I t m ay h ave b een a p art o f t he d evelopment o f c entralised k ingdoms , b ut a t l east s ome o f t he a ssociated r ituals , s uch a s f ertility s acrifices , h ave a m uch e arlier o rigin. T his s uggests t hat a t l east s ome o f t he f ertility c ults o f t he L ate I ron A ge w ere " ecclesiastical" c ult i nstitutions. O ther f ertility r ites , i ncluding s ome o f t he s acrifices a nd t he v otive o fferings, h ave n o n amed o fficiants a nd m ay b elong t o m ore l ocally a dministered a nd p ractised " communal" c ult i nstitutions. A t l east f our l ocations w ere c onsidered t o b e l im inal a nd u sed f or f ertility r ituals — r ivers , b ogs ( lakes?), p its a nd s hafts. A ll f igure p rominently a s t he s cenes o f r eligious e vents i n t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature a nd C eltic e thnographies , a s p oints w here t he n atural a nd s upernatural w orlds m eet . T here i s as trong t heme i n t he I r ish m yths o f c onsidering b oundaries b etween t wo e ntities , a nd e specially p laces w here t he b oundaries a re c rossed , a s p owerfully l im ina l. T his s uggests t hat t here w as a C eltic t radition o f c onsidering p laces t hat w ere b oth r eligious a nd s ocio—political b oundaries a s e specially i mportant , t o b e c elebrated b y t he i ntense p erformance o f c ult r ituals. T he f ertility c ults w ere u ndoubtedly d irected p rincipally a t t he t utelary g oddesses, w ho a re s ynonymous w ith t he f ertility a nd l egal d ominion o f l and i n t he I rish m yths . T utelary g oddesses w ere a pparently r esponsible f or s pecific l ocalised a reas, v ary ing i n s ize f rom s mall p lots t o k ingdoms , a nd e ven a ll I reland. E xamples a re k nown f rom b oth t he B ritish I sles a nd G aul, i ndicating a w ide c urrency o f t he g oddess—type. T he d ifferent s izes o f t err itory o f e ach g oddess m ay b e c orrelated t o d ifferent l evels o f c ult o rganisation , r anging f rom c ommunal t o e cclesiastical. A v ariant a ssociated w ith p ersonal a nd s ocial p rosperity r ather t han l ocal f ertility m ay b e r ites d irected t oward t he g od—patrons o f v arious c rafts, s uch a s b lacksmithing , w oodworking , m edicine e tc. E xamples o f t his t ype o f g od ( most , b ut n ot a ll, w ere m ale d eities) a re f ound i n t he T uatha d e D annan a nd F am ily o f D onn i n B ritain , a nd a lso i n s ome o f t he d eities k nown i conographically i n G aul. T hese c ults m ay h ave a ppealed t o d ifferent s ocial g roups ( free , n on—nob le c raftsmen?) i n C eltic s ociety a nd m ay b e s upra—tribal " ecclesiastical" c ults . T he m ultitude o f d eities w ith o ver lapping s pheres o f i nfluence , a ll a ssociated w ith f ert ility a nd p rosperity i n s ome m anner , p robably m eans t hat i ndividual C elts p articipated i n m any f ert ility c ults. B y p articipating i n c ults o f a ll t he d eit ies u nder w hose d ominion h e w orked a nd l ived , aC elt c ould h ope t o e nsure t he n ecessities o f l ife . M ortuary C ults T he a rchaeological e vidence d emonstrates u nequivocally t hat a n umber o f m ortuary r ituals w ere u sed b y t he L ate I ron A ge C elts , w hich m ay r epresent d ifferent m ortuary c ults. U nfortunately , t he l iterary e vidence o ffers l ittle d etail a bout t hese v arious r ituals , a nd t he b eliefs b ehind t he r ituals h ave a lso s uffered t hrough t ime . T he f ollow ing c ult i nstitution i s t herefore a n a malgam , u tilising t he e thnographic e vidence t o l ink t he f ew p oints o f r itual a nd b elief k nown. T he r ituals s tudied a re a ll f rom c entral, s outhern B ritain a nd t he c ult p roposed a pplies m ost d irectly t o t his a rea . I f t he o ther m ajor m ortuary r ites ( Arras , C ornish a nd D orset i nhumations , A ylesford
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c remations) c an b e s hown t o h ave u sed a s im ilar s eries o f d ist inctions o f p eople a nd m inority r ites , i t i s m ore l ikely t hat t he o ther r ites a re s imply v ariants o n t his c ult t heme . T he b asic p urpose o f t he m ortuary c ult w as t o e ffect t he t ransfer o f t he s oul o f t he d eceased t o t he a fterlife o r o therworld t hrough c orrect r itual. O ne a spect o f t his p rocess w as p robably t o m aintain p roper r elations b etween t he h uman a nd s upernatural w orlds. T he e schatological b eliefs w hich f orm t he f oundation f or t his C eltic m ortuary c ult w ere t hat m an h as a n i mmortal s oul, a nd t hat t here i s a n a fter life i n a n o therworld f ollowing p hysical d eath . T he n ature o f t he C eltic o therworld i s k nown f rom t he I rish m yths , w here i t i s d istinctive a s af luidly s uperlative v ersion o f t his w orld ( although i t i s o ften i mplied t hat t his i s w here t he s ouls o f t he d ead g o , t his i s n ever e xplicitly s tated). O ther i mportant e lements o f C eltic e schatology p robably i nclude b eliefs a bout a b ody—soul p arallelism , w herein t he b ody a nd s oul r emained l inked d uring d eath u ntil t he f inal d issolution o f t he p hysical b ody f reed t he s oul, a nd a b elief t hat d eath w as a t ransitional p hase b etween t wo s tates . T hese t wo b eliefs a re i mplied i n t he s pecific r ituals p ractised , b ut c annot b e c orroborated i n t he l iterary . s ources. T he b elief o f d eath a s a t ransitional p hase c orrelates w ell w ith t he C eltic c onception o f b oundar ies. T he C eltic m ortuary c ults a pparently e mployed a v ariety o f s pecif ic r ituals, d ependent u pon t he t ype o f p erson i nvolved. T he n ormative r ite , a pplied t o t he g reat m ajority o f t he p opulation , w as p robably e xposure f ollowed b y a f inal d isposal o f t he r emains ( the o ther n ormative r ites f ill t he s ame r ole), a ll s erving t o c onvey t he s oul o f t he d eceased t o t he O therworld. A s eries o f m inority r ites a re k nown w hich a ll e ntail a d ifferent d isposal r ite , v ary ing b oth t he l ength o f e xposure a nd t he f inal d isposal o f t he b ody . I n t he c ase o f v ictims o f h uman s acrifice , i t a ppears t hat t he w hole b ody w as b uried u nder r amparts b efore t he f lesh d ecomposed , t hus f ixing t he s oul i nto t he p hysical d efences o f t he s ite . O ther r ites , m ore c ommonly p ractised , i nvolve t he b urial o f c omplete o r p artial b odies i n p its a fter s hort p eriods o f e xposure , a nd a re p robably a ssociated w ith o ne o r s everal c lasses o f o utcast a nd u nclean p ersons. T hrough t he I ron A ge t here i s a s hift i n t he d isposal o f t hese c lasses , f rom r etaining a f ew r epresentative b ones , t o t he b urial o f t he w hole b ody . M ortuary r ituals i nvariably h ave a r eligious s pecialist o f s ome s ort d irecting t he p roceedings. T his o fficial i s n ever s pecified i n e ither t he C eltic e thnology o r C eltic v ernacular l iterature . C onsidering t hat t he D ruids ( probably u sed a s a g eneric c lass) h ad a t l east h alf—a—dozen o ther d uties s pecif ied , i t s eems l ikely t hat D ruids d id n ot c onduct f unerary r ituals. T hus e ither s ome o ther c omparab le c lass o f s pecialist t hat w as n ever n amed m ust b e p ostulated ( which i s u nlikely), o r e lse t he o fficials w ere l ocal c ommunity l eaders , s uch a s v illage o r c lan e lders. T he p resence o f h uman r emains o n m ost , i f n ot a ll, L ate I ron A ge o ccupation s ites i n c entral s outhern E ngland , e ven s mall h amlets w here a r esident e lite w ould b e u nlikely , m ay s upport t his a lternative . A lso , t he p rominence o f f am ily—lineage i n t he p agan I rish C eltic s ociety , i n b oth m yth a nd t he l aw c odes, a s a p aramount e lement i n s ocial o rganisation c ould f urther c onfirm t his. I f s o , i t i s l ikely t hat C eltic m ortuary c ults w ere c onducted a s l ocal c ommunal c ult i nstitutions , a lthough b ased o n w idely s hared b eliefs. T he a ttr ibution o f t he m ortuary c ult ( or c ults) t o s pecif ic C eltic d eities i s ad iff icult t ask . I n G aul, t here w as a C eltic e quivalent t o D is P ater a s L ord o f t he U nderworld , b ut h is C eltic n ame ( or n ames) i s
u nknown . I n I rish m yth , w here t he O therworld i s m ultifaceted , t he g od D onn i s s pecif ied a s t he L ord o f t he D ead , b ut t he r elationsh 44 p b etween D onn a nd h is H ouse o f D onn ( the O therworld) a nd M anannon M ac L ir ( also L ord o f t he O therworld) i s n ever r eally c lear . T hey m ay r epresent d ifferent c ults , o r a lternate O therworlds w ithin t he s ame c ult . T oo m any e lements o f b elief h ave b een l ost f rom t he I rish m yths t o a llow a ny f irm c onclusion . T here i s s ome d egree o f o verlap b etween t he C eltic f ertility c ults a nd s ome o f t he m ortuary r ituals , e specially h uman s acrifice , b ut o ther r ites a s w ell. B esides t he a spect o f s acrifices , b oth c ults m ake u se o f t he a lready d isused s torage p its a s t he p rime p lace o f b urial. T his m akes i t d iff icult t o f ind c onsistent e xplanations f or w hat m ay h ave b een v ery d ifferent r ituals. T his o verlap i n t he b eliefs a nd r ituals o f f ertility a nd m ortuary c ults w as p robably p aralleled b y e xtensive s har ing o f r eligious o ff icials ( possibly l ocal c ivic l eaders i n e ach c ase) a nd c ertainly o f m embership . C ult o f S acral
K ingship
A t hird c ult i nstitution w hich m ust h ave p layed a c entral r ole i n C e ltic r eligion a nd s ociety i s n ot c learly r epresented i n t he a rchaeo— l ogical r ecord, b ut n onetheless p ervades t he C eltic v ernacular l iter— a ture . T his i s t he c ult o f t he k ing o r r uler a s a s acred p ersonage . S acral k ingship s hould n ot b e i nterpreted t o m ean t hat t he r uler a s a p erson w as s acred , b ut r ather t hat t he s tatus o f k ingship i nvolved t he p erson i n i ntimate , c ontinuing c ontact w ith t he s upernatural w orld a nd t hus s et h im a part f rom t he r est o f s ociety . T he c ult o f t he s acral r uler ( for i t a pparently c ould a pply t o b oth k ings o r q ueens) h ad t wo a pparent p urposes w hich w ere c onceptually i ndivisible i n C eltic t hought . T he f irst o f t hese i s t o e nsure t he f ertility o f t he l and a nd t he p eople , a nd t he s econd , t o e nsure c orrect g overnance o f t he l and. P olitical r ule h ad t o b e r itually c orrect o r e lse i t w ould d isrupt p roper r elations b etween s ociety a nd t he s uper— n atural w orld . S uch a d isruption w ould r esult i n t he d eath o f t he r uler a nd a n i mpoverished l and. T he b asic b eliefs b ehind t his c ult a re a lready f am iliar , s ince t hey w ere a lso a t t he c ore o f t he f ertility c ults. P rime a mongst t hese i s t he b elief t hat t he f ertility o f a l and i s d erived f rom t he a ppropr iate t utelary g oddess. S econdly , s uch g oddesses w ere n ot m erely o pen t o i nfluence , b ut m ay a ctually h ave r equired c ertain r itual a ctions ( eg s acrifice) b y m en , i n o rder t o b less t he l and w ith f ertility . I n t his m anner a h appy , p roductive l ife d epended o n a ctive c o—operation b etween m en a nd t he g ods. S everal o f t he r ituals o f t his c ult m ay b e d iscussed w ith s ome c onfidence , i f o nly i n g eneral t erms. P erhaps t he m ost i mportant o f t hese w as a r itual " marriage" b etween t he k ing ( or q ueen?) a nd t he t utelary g oddess. T his r itual w as p robably a m ost i mportant a spect o f t he r itual, c eremonial i nauguration o f a n ew r uler . O ther r ituals i ncluded t he u se o f s acrifice i n d ivinatory r ituals i n s electing a c andidate f or t he k ingship , p ropitiatory s acrifices t o t he g oddess , a nd s acrifices c onfirm ing t he m arriage . U nless t he k ing " married" t he g oddess h is r ule w as n ot s anctified b y h er , a nd n either h is l and n or h is p eople w ould p rosper . A p roper i nauguration o f a r uler w as a lone i nsuff icient t o e nsure c ontinuing f ertility — t he r ule o f a k ing w as c ontinually b eing c onfirmed i n a p rocess k nown a s t he T ruth o f t he
R uler . T his r equired t hat t he k ing a ct i n a ccordance w ith c ertain r itual t aboos , o r g essa ( singular g eas). T hese w ere d ivine r ules r egulating h is b ehaviour , b oth p ersonal a nd p ublic , a nd v iolating a g eas i ndicated t he r uler w as n o l onger a cting i n h armony w ith t he g ods. I n C eltic t hought t he c onsequence w as t he d eath o f t he k ing a nd/or a d esolated l and . T hese b eliefs p lace t he r uler i n a l iminal p osition , a s p art o f b oth t his w orld a nd a lso t he s upernatural w orld , b ut n ot w holly b elonging t o e ither . T his s uggests t hat C eltic k ings m ay h ave p layed a n a ctive p art i n r eligious r ituals. F ert ility r ituals i nvoking t he t utelary g oddesses a re a n o bvious e xample . T he I rish m yths a lso s pecify t hat " Druids" ( apparently u sed a s ag eneric l abel) w ere a lso i nvolved i n p erforming m ost o r a ll o f t hese r ituals — c ertainly t hose i nvo lving t he k ing's s election , i nauguration , m arriage a nd c onfirmation. I n t he I rish m yths t he k ings' p rincipal r esidence a nd t he c apital o f h is g overnment i s a lso t he s ite o f t he c elebrations o f t he f our g reat r eligious f estivals. A ll o f t hese f unctions o ccur a t t hese p laces b ecause t he p lace w as c reated b y t he t utelary g oddess o f t he t erritory ( and s o i s l iminal) a nd i s a lso p robably t he c onceptual " centre" o f t he t erritory a nd m ay b e w here t he t utelary g oddess l ives. A ll o f t hese f unctions o ccurring i n o ne p lace , a nd f requently a ll a t t he s ame t ime a t t he f our f estival p eriods ( which w ere a lso l iminal), m eans t hat a ll w ere i ntricately i nterrelated a nd e ach s erved t o r einforce a nd s anctify t he o thers. T his c oncentration o f r itual e lements m ay b e a rchaeo logically v isible ( eg M egaw & S impson 1 981, 4 65), b ut i s a s y et p oorly s tudied. I t s hould b e c lear t hat t he p rincipal d eities i nvolved i n t his c ult w ere t he t utelary d eities a ssociated w ith t he a ppropr iate t err itories. T he v arious g oddesses a ssociated w ith o verlapping t erritories o f d ifferent s izes m ay i ndicate t hat t his c ult w as p ractised a t d ifferent l evels , r anging f rom l ocal c lan l ands t o t erritorial k ingdoms , e ven u p t o i nclude a ll o f I reland ( eg e quating t he H igh K ing o f I reland a t T ara w ith t he g oddesses E riu , B anba a nd F odla). I t m ay b e a n o versimplification t o s peak o f o nly t utelary g oddesses , a s C u R oi w as d efinitely t he t utelary g od o f K erry , a nd o ther m embers o f t he T uatha d e D annan , s uch a s t he D agda a nd O engus M ac O c , m ay a lso h ave h eld s imilar p ositions i n t he l and a round t he R iver B oand. A lthough t he o vert p urpose o f t his c ult w as .u ndoubtedly t o p romote f ertility a nd m aintain p roper g overnance , i t m ay a lso h ave f ulfilled a m ore s ubtle , l atent r ole i n s tabilising t he C eltic s ocial s ystem . I n t he f irst i nstance t he c ult , l inking t ogether t he R uler a nd h is g overnment w ith t he f ertility o f t he l and , w ould p rovide a p owerful e lement o f l egitimation t o t he k ing's a uthority . T his w ould e nsure t hat c ivil u nrest a nd c onfusion w ere m inimised — e veryone w ould c ooperate i f t he d irectives w ere o f d ivine o rigin. I n t he s econd i nstance , h owever , t he c ult w ould a lso i nsure t he s ocial h ierarchy f rom d isruption , b y p lacing t he r esponsibility f or p roper s table r ule a nd p rosperity o n t he k ing . S hould a d isaster o ccur o nly t he k ing w as r esponsib le , n ot t he n oble c lass. T he s election o f a n ew k ing b ecame t he f irst s tep i n c ombating t he d isaster . T hus, t he g eneral s ecurity a nd s tability o f s ociety w ere c arefully p rotected. H ow t his s ystem w ould r espond t o a l ong t erm c hronic t hreat , s uch a s t he e conomic s tress h ypothesised a bove d uring t he M iddle I ron A ge , i s u nknown ; i n I reland t he c ult p robably s urvived u ntil t he a rrival o f C hristianity , i ndicating t hat e ither n o s uch s tress a rose t here , o r e lse t he c ult f ound s ome w ay t o a djust . F urther e vidence w ill b e n ecessary t o r each a ny c onclusions o n t his p oint .
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T here a re m any a spects o f C eltic r eligion t hat a ppear i n e ither t he C eltic e thnographies o r t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature t hat c annot b e l inked d irectly t o a ny o f t hese c ults. T his m ay i n t ime b e o vercome b y m ore d etailed s tudies o f b oth t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature a nd C eltic i conography . P rom inent a mong t hese a re t he C eltic c osmological b eliefs, c oncerning t he c reation o f a nd n ature o f t he w orld . C eltic c osmogony w as c learly a b right , f lamboyant a nd e laborate s eries o f b eliefs, w ith i ts m ultitude o f m ult ifunctional l ocalised g ods w ho s ettled i n a nd c reated I reland. A ll o f t he l andscape a nd a ll o f t he s ocial c ustoms o riginated i n t he a ctivities o f m embers o f o ne o r m ore o f t he f ive w aves o f d ivine i nvasions o f I reland , a nd e ach p lace o r c ustom r emained u nder t he i nfluence o f t he e ponymous d eity . I n C eltic c osmogony i t a ppears t hat t he a ct o f n am ing s omething w as s ynonymous w ith c reating i t — t he n ame c onferred a r eligiously d efined s tatus a nd m ade i t " real" ( and h ence t he b urial o f i nfants m ay r epresent t hose i nfants w ho d ied b efore a " naming" c eremony c ould b e h eld f or t hem). C learly , t he t houghts b ehind s uch b eliefs w ere s ubtle . A nother a spect o f C eltic r eligion i s p robably u nder—emphasised i n t he I rish m yths, d ue t o t he e lite h eroic n ature o f t he s ociety . T his i s t he C eltic c onception o f g essa , w hich a re e xplicitly s aid t o a pply t o a ll t he n oble m en. I t i s , h owever , l ikely t hat o ther , m ore g eneral g essa a pplied t o a ll p eople , n ot j ust t he k ings a nd c hieftains i n o ppida a nd h illforts, b ut a lso a ll t he c ommon f armers a s w ell. T hese g essa k ept t he C elts i n a r itually c orrect r elationship w ith t he s upernatural w orld. C onsidering t hat i n C eltic t hought t he O therworld w as a lways a ll a round a nd t horoughly i nterm ixed w ith t his w orld ( just o ut o f s ight a round a c orner), i t w as i mportant n ot t o b reak a ny c ommandments. D irect c ontact w ith t he s upernatural w orld w as a lways h azardous a nd o ften f atal. E ven i f h e s urvived , s omeone w ho v iolated h is g eas w as i mpure a nd b ecame a s ocial o utcast — a re s ome o f t he m inority m ortuary r ites r eserved f or s uch u nfortunates? A f urther a spect o f C eltic r eligion i s h inted i n t he C eltic v ernacular l iterature i n p articular , a nd t his i s t he s trong c orrelation o f h unting a nd h unters a nd t he s upernatural w or ld. T his, p lus c omment o n h unting t rophies a s f irst—fruit s acrifices , a nd t he g eneral s carcity o f w ild a nimal b ones o n I ron A ge s ites i n s outhern E ngland , m ay s uggest t hat h unting w as a n a ctivity r egulated b y g eneral t aboos a nd r itual r egulations. O ther a spects o f C eltic r eligion f ind n o p lace i n a g eneral d is— c ussion s uch a s t his. T he m ultitude o f s acred s ymbols , e vents , p erson— a ges, a nd s o o n m ake C eltic r eligion a f ascinating s ubject a nd p rovide a w ealth o f f inely d etailed i nformation . C areful s tudy o f s uch d etailed e vidence , f ollow ing s ome o f t he g eneral o utlines e stab lished h ere , c ould p rovide a s till m ore c omprehensive p icture o f C eltic r eligion. T he d evelopment o f a R omano—Celtic s ociety a nd r eligion i n B ritain i n t he f irst c entury A D , f ollow ing t he R oman C onquest , a lso p rovides i nteresting a nd u seful i nformation a bout t he i ndigenous p agan b eliefs a nd p ractices. M any , i f n ot m ost , o f t he r itual p ractices c ontinued i nto t he e arly R oman p eriod. T his s urely i ndicates a b asic c ontinuity o f r eligious b elief , a nd s uggests t hat C eltic r eligion w as s ufficiently f lexible , a nd i ndependent o f t he C eltic p olitical s tructures t o c ontinue t o f unction u nder R oman r ule . T he n ature o f t he C eltic d eities i s s een , t hough p erhaps n ot e asily i nterpreted , i n t he c omplicated p rocess o f c onflation a nd a ssociation t hat o ccurred u nder t he I nterpretat io R omana. C aesar 's s horthand s ketch o f C eltic d eities i n t erms o f t he R oman
p antheon i s u seful e nough o n a s uperf icial l evel, b ut i t c onceals t he u nderly ing c omplexity t hat c an b e s een i n t he c ombinations o f S ulis a nd M inerva a t B ath , A pollo a nd C unomaglus a t N ett leton , H ercules S aegon a t S ilchester , a nd i n m any o ther d edications . T he e vidence f rom R omano— C eltic t emples i s e qually u seful, p roviding c lues t o C eltic c ustoms o f r itual a nd w orship a nd t o t he r ole t hat r itual s tructures m ay h ave f ulf illed i n C eltic r eligion . I n s hort , C eltic r eligion n o m ore s topped a t A D 4 3 t han d id C eltic s ociety o r l anguage . A ll a spects o f C elt ic c ulture p ersisted , w hile g radually c ontributing t o t he h ybrid s uccessor o f R omano—Celtic c ulture a nd r eligion . E ven t he b rief o verview a llowed i n t his d iscussion p oints o ut e lements o f c ontinuity a s w ell a s c hange , a nd b oth a re u seful f or u nderstanding C eltic r eligion.
F UTURE R ESEARCH O N C ELTIC R ELIGION T he p resent s tudy h as p robably p roceeded a s f ar a s p resent e vidence a llows t owards e stablishing a g eneral m odel o f t he n ature a nd r ole o f r eligion i n C eltic s ociety . T he u se o f a ll o f t he m ajor s ources o f e vidence a bout C eltic r eligion , w ithin a f ramework c apable o f i nter— p reting s uch d iversity o f e vidence , h as p roduced a v ery u seful m odel o f C eltic r eligion i n B ritain w here n one e xisted p reviously , b ut i n t he p rocess h as m ade u se o f m ost , i f n ot a ll, o f t he k inds o f e vidence p resently a vailable . T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat t here i s n o m ore t o b e d one — c lear ly t here i s s cope f or , a nd a n eed f or , n ew r esearch . O ne o f t he s trengths o f t he a pproach a dopted i n t his s tudy o ver p revious r esearch m odels i s i n l inking r eligious b elief a nd b ehaviour t o o ther a spects o f s ocial l ife . E ach o f t he s pecific l inks p roposed h ere , s uch a s t he p resence o f a c ult o f s anctif ication a ssociated w ith t he m ani— p ulation o f t he b ronze t rade b y a n e lite i n t he L ate B ronze A ge/Early I ron A ge , n eeds t o b e e xamined i n d etail a nd t hen t ested a gainst n ew a nd b etter d ata . S imilarly , t he h ints a t r egional p ractices s een i n t he L ate I ron A ge c ould b e s et i n r egional c ontexts o f b oth s ocial a nd e conomic s ystems, i n o rder t o p roceed t owards a m ore d etailed u nder— s tanding o f t he n ature a nd r ole o f r eligion . H owever , a ll o f t he n ext l evel o f s tudies w ill r equire a n i mproved d ata b ase . T his m ust t ake t wo f orms. T he u se o f r igorous e xcavation t echniques o n e xcavations d esigned t o p rovide a nswers t o s pecific q ues— t ions, s uch a s t he n ature a nd d iversity o f v otive o fferings i n p its , i s o f p rime i mportance . T he u se o f i ncreasingly s ophisticated a djuncts t o e xcavation — s uch a s t race—element a nalysis t o i dentify t he p resence o f o rganic d eposits i n p its w hich h ave l ong s ince d isappeared f rom t he v iew o f t he e xcavator 's e ye ( Cunliffe p ers c omm) — a lso h olds t remendous p romise. I mproved e vidence f rom e xcavations m ust b e p aralleled w ith t he u se o f i mproved t echniques o f a nalysis. I n p articular , t he u se o f t he s impler v arieties o f n on—parametr ic s tatistics t o d escribe a nd d iffer— e ntiate g roups o f e vidence w ithin t he d ata b ase c an a llow m ore o bjective a nd d etailed i nterpretation o f p rehistoric b ehaviour p atterns. T he r esearch m odel o f r eligion d eveloped h ere h as b een e qual t o t he v ar iety a nd q uality o f d ata a vailable f or s tudy . F urthermore , t he m odel h as p ointed o ut a reas w here n ew e vidence i s n eeded , a nd a lso s uggested a reas w here i t c an b e t ested a gainst o ther d ata , b oth t hat c urrently a vailable a s w ell a s e vidence y et t o b e s ought i n e xcavation . H owever , j ust a s t he e vidence m ust b e i mproved t o c larify a nd e xpand a n u nder— s tanding o f C eltic r eligion , s o t oo m ust t he r esearch m odel b e r efined
— 268—
a s i t b ecomes p ossib le t o h ypothesise i n d eta il a bout t he n ature o f r ituals a nd c ults p ractised , a nd t he l inks b etween t he c ults a nd o ther a spects o f C e lt ic s ociety .
Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain .
G. A. Wait Part ii
BAR British Series 149(ii) 1985
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.
B.A.R. 149 (II), 1986: 'Ritual and Religion in Iron Age Britain' Part II
©
G.A.Wait, 1986.
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388175 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388182 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543626 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317625 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543626 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
APPEND ICES AND B IBL IOGRAPHY
A PPENDICES A ppendix I F inds f rom W atery C ontexts S words , D aggers a nd S cabbards B ronze V essels S poons o r S coops S hields a nd H elmets T orcs
2 71 2 72 2 73 2 93 3 02 3 04 3 10
A ppendix I R itual S hafts R itual S hafts C hi—squared T ests
3 20 3 2 1 3 37
A ppendix II
3 4 1
A ppendix I V
S pecial A nimal B urials H uman R emains
3 57
A ppendix V C e lt ic S hrines
3 85
A ppendix V I
3 94
B IBLIOGRAPHY
R omano—Celtic T emples
4 31
I NTRODUCTION T O A PPENDICES
I n o rder t o r educe t he v olume o f d etail i n t he t ext , i t h as p roved ap ract ical n ecessity t o p resent s uch d etail i n t he f orm o f as eries o f a ppendices . T hese a re d esigned t o p rovide t he r eader w ith t he b asic i nformation o n e ach a rtifact o r s ite , a s w ell a s t he m ajor s ources f or r eference . T he f ollow ing s ix a ppendices a re a rranged i n p arallel o rder t o t he s ix c hapters o f t he t ext , t hat i s , r iver f inds , r itual s hafts , s pecial a nimal b urials , s pecial h uman b urials , C eltic s hrines a nd R omano—Celtic t emples. N one o f t he g azetteers i s c omprehensive o f t heir r espective s ubjects ( details o n s election a re i n t he i ntroductory p aragraphs t o e ach a ppendix) t hough a ll r eadily a vailable e xamples u p t o 1 9821983 a re i ncluded . A c onsistent f ormat h as b een u sed f or a ll t he g azetteers , t hough m inor v ariation o ccurs d ue t o t he n ature o f t he d ifferent s ubjects ( as s pecified i n t he i ntroduction t o e ach a ppendix).
G eneral
f ormat :
S ite N ame ,
C ounty
1
N ational G rid R eference ( six f igures u sed , i f a vailab le ; o therw ise , a n a pproximate f our—figure r eference i s u sed)
2
R eference n umber o f e ntry , m aps
3
C ontext o f f ind
4
D escription o f a rtifact o r f eature
5
D ate o f a rtifact/feature/site
6
B ibliographic r eferences
u sed
i n t ext a nd d istribution
E ntries a re b y a lphabetical o rder o f s ite n ame . A s a n a id t o c ross—referencing , a n i ndex i s p resented a t t he e nd o f e ach g azetteer l ist ing a ll o f t he e ntries i n n umerical o rder o f t he r eference n umber .
271-
AP P E N D I X
I
F INDS F ROM " WATERY" C ONTEXTS
I NTRODUCTION T he f ollow ing g azetteer c ontains a ll o f t he a rtifacts f ound i n " watery" c ontexts ( eg r ivers , b ogs) w hich w ere c onsidered i n t he t ext . T he g azetteer i s n ot e xhaust ive o f t he v arious t ypes o f a rtifacts. T he s ect ion o n s words f rom r ivers i s b ased o n t he t wo m ajor w orks o n t he s ubject : J ope ( 1961) a nd C owen ( 1967) , t o w hich a n umber o f e xamples h ave b een a dded f rom l ess c omprehensive w orks s uch a s P iggott ( 1950) , C larke a nd H awkes ( 1953), S tead ( 1967 , 1 968) a nd M acGregor ( 1976). I n a ddit ion t o t hese , v o lumes o f t he f o llow ing j ournals , p ub— l ished s ince 1 970 , w ere r eviewed t o s upp lement t he p ublished m ater ial: P roceedings P rehistor ic S ociety , O xoniensia , A ntiquar ies J ourna l a nd A rchaeological J ournal. T hus , t he g azetteer i s d eliberately n ot c om— p rehensive , t hat b eing b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent w ork , b ut i t i s r easonably c omplete a nd c ertainly r epresentat ive o f t he m aterial k nown u p t o 1 982 . T he f ormat o f t his a ppendix f ollows t hat o utlined i n t he I ntro— d uction t o A ppend ices . E ach a rtifact e ntered h as a u nique r eference n umber w ith a l etter p refix : S words = A C auldrons = B S poons = C H elmet /Shields = D T orcs = E
S WORDS ,
A MERDEN , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D AGGERS A ND S CABBARDS
T APLOW , B ucks S U 9 082 . A1 . R iver T hames . B ronze s word s cabbard . S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; V CH B ucks I , 1 86 .
A YLESFORD , K ent 1 T O 7 30592 . 2 A9 3 ( Thames t ype 1 3 i n C owen 1 967). 3 U nprovenanced , R iver M edway? 4 B ronze s word , T hames t ype . 5 H allstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 50 . B ARN E LMS , n ear H igh B ridge , S urrey 1 T Q 0 272 . 2 A2 ( No 1 3 i n J ope 1 961). 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze s cabbards. 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 J ope 1 96 1a , 3 32 ; R ead 1 9 13 ,
5 7 .
B ATTERSEA , S urrey 1 T O 2 776 . 2 A3 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; K emble 1 863 , p l x viii 4 . 2 3 4 5 6
A4 ( No 6 i n J ope 1 961). R iver T hames . I ron d agger b lade . H allstatt D , p robably s ixth-f ifth c entury B C . J ope 1 961, 3 3 1.
2 3 4 5 6
A5 . R iver T hames . B ronze s word s cabbard . T hird-second c entury B C . S m ith 1 925 , 10 ; P iggott 1 950 ,
2 3 4 5 6
A6 ( Nos 1 71173 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames. T hree b ronze s words , G undlingen t ype . H allstatt C , s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 42 ; S m ith 1 925 , p l I 3 .
2 3 4 5 6
A2 6 ( No 4 i n J ope 1 961). R iver T hames . I ron d agger i n s heath . H allstatt D , p robably f ifth c entury B C . J ope 1 961, 3 30 .
2 8 .
2 3 4 5 6
A4 2 ( No 1 7 i n d ope 1 961). R iver T hames . B ronze d agger s heath . T hird—second c entury B C . d ope 1 961, 3 35 .
B ERTHA , T ayside 1 N O 0 529 . 2 A9 4 . 3 R itual p its a long c onf luence o f R ivers T ay a nd A lmond . 4 I ron s words , n o n umber p ub lished . 5 F irst—second c entury A D . 6 S tuart , 1 852 , 2 05 . B EXLEYHEATH , K ent 1 T Q 4 975 . 2 A9 5 ( Thames t ype , N o 1 2 i n C owen 1 967). 3 H oard . 4 B ronze s word , T hames t ype . 5 H allstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . 6 K endricks & H awkes 1 932 , 1 33134 , p l x iv ; C owen 1 967 , 4 50 ; C owen 1 952 , 1 45 . B ILLINGHAY D ALES , T attersall, L inco lnshire 1 T F 2 158 . 2 A7 ( Nos 1 89190 i n C owen 1 967). 3 C onf luence o f B illinghay S kirth a nd R iver W itham . 4 T wo b ronze s words , G undlingen t ype . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 P hillips 1 933 , 1 42 , p l x iii B ; C owen 1 967 , 4 43 . B OURNE E ND , B ucks 1 S U 8 985 . 2 A9 6 ( No 1 0 , T hames t ype i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze s word , T hames t ype . 5 H allstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 50 . B OWLING , D umbarton 1 N S 4 473 . 2 A9 7 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 08 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver C lyde . 4 I ron s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 46 . B OXMOOR , H erts 1 T L 0 306 . 2 A8 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 F ranks 1 880 , 2 54 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 .
B REDON , H ereford a nd W orcester 1 S O 9 236 . 2 A9 . 3 H illfort . 4 I ron s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 7 7 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ;
H encken 1 938 ,
B RENTFORD , M iddlesex 1 T Q 5 993 . 2 A1 0 ( Gund lingen t ype N os 1 75 , 1 76 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze s words . 5 H a llstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 42 ; P eake 1 922 , p l x iv 5 . 2 3 4 5 6
A9 8 ( Thames t ype N os 3 -6 , i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . F our b ronze s words , T hames t ype . H a llstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 49-450 ; C owen 1 952 , 1 45 , p l x v ii 5 .
B ROGYNTON S ELATTYN , S a lop 1 S J 2 734 . 2 A9 9 ( Gund lingen t ype , N o 1 94 i n C owen 1 967). 3 U nprovenanced . 4 I ron s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 . B UGTHORPE , E ast Y orkshire 1 S E 758 . 2 A1 2 . 3 B ur ial. 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; S m ith 1 925 , 15 . B ULBURY , D orset 1 S Y 9 29942 . 2 A1 3 . 3 H oard , h illfort . 4 I ron s word h ilt . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; C unpington 1 882 , 15120 . C ABURN C AMP , S ussex 1 T Q 4 44089 . 2 A1 4 . 3 H illfort . 4 I ron s word , i ron d agger . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; C urwen & C urwen 1 927 ,
1 -56 ,
p l i v .
p l x iii.
C AMBRIDGE F ENS , C ambr idgeshire 1 T L 5 648 . 2 A1 5 . 3 B og . 4 I ron s word . 5 T hird—second c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 7. C AMBUSKENNETH , n ear S t ir ling , S t ir lingsh ire 1 N S 8 094 . 2 A1 00 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 0 1 i n C owen 1 967). 3 U nprovenanced . 4 I ron s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 45 . C AMERTON , 1 2 3 4 5 6
A von S T 6 856 . A1 8 ( No 3 7 i n J ope 1 96 1). O ccupat ion s ite I ron d agger . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . J ope 1 96 1, 3 40 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; H orne 1 937 ,
C ARHAM , B orders 1 N T 8 039 . 2 A1 7 . 3 R iver T weed . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 09 ; M unro 1 894 , C ARLINGWARK , D umfr iess 1 N X 4 560 . 2 A1 23 . 3 H oard? P ossib ly f rom L och . 4 P o ints o f e ight i ron s words . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 . C ARRY H OUSE C AMP , B irt ley , N orthumber land 1 N Y 8 878 . 2 A1 2 1. 3 H illfort . 4 I ron s word . 5 S ecönd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 . C HATHAM , K ent 1 T O 7 567 . 2 A1 9 ( Hybr id t ype , N o 1i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver M edway . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 49 ; J essup 1 930 , 1 05 , p l v5 .
1 6 1.
5 0 .
C HELSEA , M iddlesex 1 T Q 2 778 . 2 A2 0 ( No 1 i n J ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze d agger s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 J ope 1 96 1b , 6 9-83 , p l 11a ; J ope 1 96 1a , 3 3 1. C HISWICK , 1 2 3 4 5 6
P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ;
S m ith 1 925 ,
1 09 ;
M iddlesex T Q 2 077 . A1 0 1 ( Thames t ype , N o 2i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word , T hames t ype . H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 49 ; C owen 1 952 , 1 45 , p l x v ii 1 .
C LOTHERHOLME , n ear R ipon , Y orksh ire 1 S E 3 17 1. 2 A2 1. 3 R iver S wale . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; R ead 1 9 15 , 2 14 . C OOKHAM , B erks 1 S U 8 884 . 2 A2 2 ( No 2 5 i n J ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze d agger a nd b ronze s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 C larke & H awkes 1 955 , 2 26 , N o 4 1; P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; S m ith 1 925 , 10 . C OTTERDALE , N orth Y orkshire 1 S D 8 394 . 2 A2 3 . 3 R iver U re . 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-20 ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 08 ;
F ranks 1 880 , 2 5 1-266 .
C RAWLEY N EW T OWN , C har lwood , S urrey 1 T Q 2 54 1. 2 A2 4 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 07 i n C owen 1 967). 3 P olesf leet S tream n ear R iver W andle . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 42 ; L owther 1 958 , 1 22123 . C ULLODEN , 1 2 3 4 5 6
I nverness N H 4 170 . A1 02 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 07 i n C owen 1 967). U nprovenanced . I ron s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 45 .
D ATCHET , 1 2 3 4 5 6
B erks S U 9 876 . A2 5 . R iver T hames . T wo i ron s words . S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 0 ; L awrence 1 929 , 7 4 .
orth Y orkshire E BBERSTON , n ear P icker ing , N 1 S E 8 983 . ype , N o 1 95 i n C owen 1 967). 2 A2 7 ( Gundlingen t 3 B urial. 4 T wo b ronze s words. 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 ; E lgee 1 930 , 1 72 , p l x xv 3 a nd 5 ; B rew is 1 923 , F ig 4 5 . E LCHO , T ayside 1 N O 1 621. A1 03 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 03 i n C owen 1 967). 2 R iver T ay . 3 4 I ron s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s ixth c entury B C . 5 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 45 . E MBLETON , 1 2 3 4 5 6
C ockermouth , C umbria N Y 1 73 1. A2 8 . B og? I ron s word . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-21; S m ith 1 852 , 1 53 ;
F ENDOCH , T ayside 1 N N 9 128 . 2 A2 9 . R iver T ay . 3 4 I ron s word . F irst c entury A D , p robab ly R oman . 5 P iggott 1 950 , 2 0-21. 6 F LASBY , S kipton , W est Y orkshire 1 S D 9 456 . 2 A3 0 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 S word s cabbard . 5 T hird-first c entury B C . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-21; F ranks 1 880 ,
2 53 .
G ELLINIOG-WEN , A nglesey 1 S H 4 59658 . 2 A3 1. 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 .
K emb le 1 863 ,
p l x viii 3 .
G LASTONBURY , S omerset 1 S T 4 93408 . 2 A3 2 ( Nos 3 3 a nd 3 4 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 " Lake" v illage s ite . 4 T wo i ron s words . 5 T hird—second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 96 1, 3 39-340 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 . G RIMTHORPE , Y orkshire 1 S E 8 16534 . 2 A3 3 . 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 . H AM H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
S omerset S T 4 78 170 . A3 4 ( No 4 0 i n d ope 1 96 1). B ur ial. I ron s word ( dagger?). S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . d ope 1 96 1, 3 41; C larke & H awkes 1 955 , 2 26 ;
P iggott 1 950 ,
A 17 . U nprovenanced. I ron d agger w ith a nthropoid h ilt . T hird—second c entury B C . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; W alter 1 923 , 1 49 .
H AMMERSMITH , M iddlesex 1 T Q 2 279 . 2 A3 5 ( Nos 1 8 a nd 2 4 i n d ope 1 961). 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze d agger s cabbards . 5 T hird—second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 961, 3 37 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; L awrence 1 929 , 8 7 , F ig 2 .3 . 2 3 4 5 6
A3 6 . R iver T hames . F our i ron s words a nd t hree b ronze s cabbards . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; L awrence 1 929 , 8 7-88 .
2 3 4 5 6
A5 3 ( No 2 6 i n d ope 1 961). R iver T hames . I ron d agger w ith b ronze s heath . H allstatt D , p robably f ifth c entury B C . d ope 1 96 1a , 3 38 ; d ope 1 96 1b , p l d .
H EADPILE 1 2 3 4 5 6
[ VOL n ear B ray , B erks S U 9 079 . A3 7 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 80 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word . H allstatt C , p robably s ixth c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 43 .
2 6 .
H ENLEY , O xon 1 S U 7 63825 . 2 A3 8 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 R ut land 1 972 , 3 45-346 . 2 3 4 5 6
A 19 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 8 1 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word , G undlingen t ype . H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 43 .
H ERTFORD 1 2 3 4 5 6
W ARREN , S uffo lk T L 8 564 . A3 9 ( No 1 5 i n J ope 1 96 1). B og . I ron d agger a nd b ronze s cabbard . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . J ope 1 96 1a , 3 33-334 ; C larke & H awkes 1 955 , P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 .
H OD H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D orset S T 8 57 106 . A4 0 . H illfort . F our i ron s words . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . B railsford 1 962 ; P iggott 1 950 , 1 -28 .
1 98-227 ;
H OLME P IERPOINT , N otts 1 S K 6 239 . 2 A4 1 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 92193 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T rent . 4 T wo b ronze s words . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C .. 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 . H UNSBURY , 1 2 3 4 5 6
N orthants S P 7 38583 . A4 3 . H illfort . T wo i ron s words , o ne w ith b ronze s cabbard , o ne w ith i ron s cabbard . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; F e ll 1 936 , 5 7 , 6 4-65 .
I SLEWORTH , M iddlesex 1 T Q 1 675 . 2 A4 4 ( Hybrid t ype , N o 2i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze s words . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 49 .
J ORDAN H ILL , D orset 1 S Y 6 882 . 2 A1 24 . 3 R itual p it i n R omano-Celt ic t emp le . 4 I ron s word . 5 L ate f irst c entury B C o r e ar ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M anning 1 972 , 2 24-250 . K ATESGROVE , B erks 1 S U 7 272 . 2 A1 04 ( Thames t ype , N o 1 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver K ennet . 4 B ronze s word , T hames t ype . 5 H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 50 . K INGSDOWN C AMP , M e lls , S omerset 1 S T 7 185 17 . 2 A4 5 ( No 3 8 i n J ope 1 96 1). 3 H illfort . 4 I ron d agger . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 J ope 1 96 1a , 3 4 1; P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 . K INGSTON , 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
S urrey T Q 1 869 . A4 1 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 77 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 43 . A1 05 ( Thames t ype , N o 9i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word , T hames t ype . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 50 .
L AKENHEATH , S uffo lk 1 T L 7 182 . 2 A4 7 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 I ron s word a nd b ronze s cabbard . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; F ox 1 923 , p l x v iii 1 . L INCOLN , L incs 1 S K 9 872 . 2 A4 8 . 3 R iver W itham . 4 I ron d agger i n b ronze s cabbard . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; K emb le 1 863 , p l x v iii 2 .
2 3 4 5 6
A4 9 . R iver W itham . I ron s word i n b ronze s cabbard . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 ; H awkes 1 946 , p l ii;
K emb le 1 863 ,
p l x iv 2 .
L EUCHLAND F ARM , B rechin , G ramp ian 1 N O 6 060 . 2 A1 06 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 05 , 2 06 i n C owen 1 967). 3 B og . 4 T wo i ron s words. 5 H allstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 45 . LYN-CERRIG-BACH , A nglesey 1 S H 3 05760 . 2 A1 24 . 3 B og . 4 E leven i ron s words . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; F ox 1 946 . L OCHLEE C RANNOG , T arbo lton , S trathclyde 1 N S 4 327 . 2 A1 22 . 3 L och . 4 F ive i ron s words o r d aggers , v ery f ragmented . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 ; M unro 1 894 , 1 25 . L ONDON ( no m ore p recise p rovenance) 1 T Q 3 380 . 2 A5 0 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 82183 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze s words . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 43 . 2 3 4 5 6
A5 1 . R iver T hames . I ron s word i n b ronze s cabbard . S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; K emb le 1 863 , p l x v 2 .
2 3 4 5 6
A 18 . R iver T hames ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 84186 i n C owen 1 967). F our b ronze s words . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 43 .
L ONG W ITTENHAM , O xon 1 S U 5 493 . 2 A5 2 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 R ut land 1 972 , 3 45-346 .
M EARE , S omerset 1 S T 4 45422 . 2 A5 4 ( No 3 5 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 " Lake" v illage . 4 I ron d agger . 5 T hird—second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 961a , 3 40 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; B ulleid & G ray 1 917 , 2 36 , p l 1 . M ILDENHALL , S uffolk 1 T L 7 174 . 2 A5 5 . 3 R iver W issey . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; L ethbridge & O 'Re illy 1 930 , M ORTLAKE , 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 52 .
S urrey T Q 2 075 . A5 6 . R iver T hames . I ron s word i n b ronze s cabbard . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 9 .
2 3 4 5 6
A 15 ( No 2 i n d ope 1 961). R iver T hames . I ron d agger i n b ronze s heath . H allstatt D , p robab ly s ixth c entury B C . d ope 1 961a , 3 30 .
2 3 4 5 6
A 16 ( No 1 i n d ope 1 96 1). R iver T hames . I ron d agger i n b ronze s heath . H allstatt D , p robab ly s ixth c entury B C . d ope 1 961a , 3 29 .
M ORTONHALL , E dinburgh , L othian 1 N T 2 574 . 2 A5 7 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 7 ; K emb le 1 863 , p l x viii
5 .
M UGDRUM , N ewburgh—on—Tay , T ayside 1 N O 2 219 . 2 A 1 07 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 02 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver l ay . 4 I ron s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robably s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 .
N EWARK , N otts 1 S K 8 054 . 2 A5 8 ( Gund lingen t ype , N o 1 9 1 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T rent . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 . N EWBRIDGE , S tand lake , O xon 1 S U 3 902 . 2 A7 4 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 . 2 3 4 5 6
A 1. R iver T hames . I ron s word . T hird—second c entury B C . P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 .
N EWCASTLE—UPON—TYNE , T yne a nd W ear 1 N Z 1 97 1. 2 A5 9 ( Gund lingen t ype , N o 1 98-200 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T yne . 4 T hree b ronze s words . 5 H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 ; E vans 1 88 1, 2 8 1, F ig 3 44 ; H averf ie ld 1 905 , 2 07 ; B e ll 1 892 , 1 60 . N EWSTEAD , 1 2 3 4 5 6
R oxburgh , B orders N T 5 65335 . A6 0 . R itual p its? T wo i ron s words . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D , p robab ly R oman . P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-2 1; C ur le 1 9 11, 1 84185 .
N ORTH G RIMSTON , E ast Y orkshire 1 S E 8 29669 . 2 A6 1. 3 G rave . 4 I ron d agger . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; M ort imer 1 905 , 1 54 . O WSLEBURY , H ants 1 S U 5 25246 . 2 A1 08 . 3 G rave . 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 C o llis 1 968 , 1 8-3 1.
O XFORD M INSTER D ITCH , O xon 1 S P 5 106 . 2 A6 3 ( No 1 4 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 P ossib ly f rom r e lict c hanne l o f R iver T hames . 4 B ronze d agger s cabbard . 5 T hird—second c entury B C . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; R ead 1 9 13 , 4 97-498 ; d ope 1 96 1a ,
3 32-333 .
P ERTH , T ayside 1 N O 123 . 2 A1 09 . 3 R iver l ay . 4 I ron s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 45 . 2 3 4 5 6
A7 4 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 2 04 i n C owen 1 967). R iver l ay . B ronze s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C owen 1 967 , 4 45 .
P ILLING M OSS , L ancs 1 S D 4 146 . 2 A6 4 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-2 1; H averf ie ld 1 906b , 2 47 . Q UATRE B RAS , P evere ll, D orset 1 S Y 6 690 . 2 A6 5 . 3 L and f ind , u nprovenanced? 4 I ron s word . 5 T h ird c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 9 1. R ICHMOND , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S urrey T Q 1 874 . A6 6 . R iver T hames . I ron s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . L awrence 1 929 , 6 9-90 .
2 3 4 5 6
A6 7 ( Thames t ype , N os 7 a nd 8 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . T wo b ronze s words . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 50 ; C owen 1 952 , 1 45 , p l x vii 3 .
2 3 4 5 6
A6 8 ( No 1 6 i n d ope 1 96 1) R iver T hames . B ronze d agger s cabbard . T hird—second c entury B C . d ope 1 96 1a , 3 33 ; B ra ilsford 1 953 , S m ith 1 925 , 10 .
6 2 ;
P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ;
2 3 4 5 6 S ADBERGE , 1 2 3 4 5 6
A 10 ( Hybr id t ype , N os 4 a nd 5 i n C owen 1 967) R iver T hames . T wo b ronze s words . H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 49 ; C owen 1 952 , 1 45 a nd p l x vii 3 . D urham N Z 3 4 17 . A6 9 . R iver W ear . I ron s word a nd s cabbard . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-2 1; G reenwell 1 895 , 4 .
S T L AWRENCE , I sle o f W ight 1 S Z 5 376 . 2 A 11. 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 S tead 1 968 . 1 48190 . S EA M ILLS , n ear B r isto l, A von 1 S T 5 477 . 2 A7 0 ( No 3 9 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver A von . 4 I ron d agger w ith a nthropo id h ilt . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 4 1; C larke & H awkes 1 955 ,
26 ;
P iggott 1 950 ,
S HOULDHAM , N orfolk 1 T F 6 83085 . 2 A7 1 . 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s word w ith a nthropo id h ilt . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 C larke & H awkes 1 955 , 1 98-200 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 . ' S OUTHWARK , S urrey 1 T Q 3 179 . 2 A7 2 ( No 2 8 i n J ope . 1 96 1). 3 R iver T hames 4 I ron d agger . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 39 ; C larke & H awkes 1 955 , " WETTISBURY R INGS , D orset 1 S T 9 15020 . 2 A7 3 . 3 H illfort . 4 I ron s word a nd s cabbard . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 ; G resham 1 939 , 1 24 .
2 27 ;
P iggott 1 950 ,
( . ' )
S TANWICK , 1 2 3 4 5 6
M e lsonby , N orth Y orksh ire N Z 1 908 . A7 5 . P ossib ly o pp idum I ron s word a nd b ronze s cabbard . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 962 , 1 7-57 ; G reenwe ll 1 906 , 2 89 ; K emb le 1 863 , p l x v iii 2 .
S TOKE A BBOT , D orset 1 S T 4 500 . 2 A7 6 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 9 1; P iggott 1 950 , 2 7 . S UTTON—ON—TRENT , N otts 1 S K 7 966 . 2 A 7. 3 R iver T rent . 4 B ronze s word s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 R ut land 1 972 , 3 45 ; C larke & H awkes 1 955 , 2 15-2 16 ; P hillips 1 934 , 1 05106 , F ig 5 . T APLOW , B ucks 1 S U 9 082 . 2 A7 8 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 79 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 43 ; H awkes 1 938 , 1 85187 , p l L IV . T EDD INGTON , M iddlesex 1 T Q 1 671. 2 A7 9 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 78 i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 43 . T EMPLE N EWSON , L eeds , W est Y orkshire 1 S E 3 632 . 2 A8 0 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 62 i n C owen 1 967). 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 44 . T HORPE B RIDLINGTON , E ast Y orkshire 1 T A 1 867 . 2 A8 1. 3 U nprovenanced? B urial? 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-2 1; G reenwell 1 906 , 2 57-258 .
T HRAPSTON , N orthants 1 S P 9 98800 . 2 A 12 . 3 R iver N ene . 4 I ron s word . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 M egaw 1 976 , 1 65170 . W ALTHAMSTOW , E ssex 1 T Q 3 788 . 2 A8 2 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 6 . W ANDSWORTH , S urrey 1 T Q 2 574 . 2 A8 3 ( Thames t ype , N o 1i n C owen 1 967). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze s word . 5 H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 C owen 1 967 , 4 49 . 2 3 4 5 6
A8 4 ( Gundlingen t ype , N o 1 74 i n C owen 1 967). R iver T hames . B ronze s word . H allstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 42 .
2 3 4 5 6
A8 5 ( one i s N o 1 9 i n J ope 1 96 1). R iver T hames . T wo b ronze d agger s cabbards . T hird—second c entury B C . J ope 1 96 1a , 3 35 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 , p l 1 2 ; S m ith 1 925 , 10 , F ig 1 20 .
2 3 4 5 6
A1 6 ( No 2 2 i n J ope 1 96 1). R iver T hames . I ron d agger i n b ronze s cabbard . S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; S m ith 1 925 , 10 , F ig 19 ; K emb le 1 863 , p l x viii 3 .
W ASHINGBOROUGH , L incs 1 T F 0270 . 2 A1 20 . 3 R iver W itham . 4 T wo i ron s words . 5 S econd c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 8 ; P hillips 1 934 , 9 7187 .
W EST B UCKLAND , S omerset *1 S T 1 720 . 2 A8 6 ( No 2 1 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze d agger s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 36 ; P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ;
R ead 1 9 13 ,
5 7-58 .
W ESTMINSTER , M idd lesex 1 T Q 2 979 . 2 A8 7 ( No 1 2 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze d agger s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 2 5 ; L awrence 1 929 , 8 7 ; d ope 1 96 1a , W EYMOUTH , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D orset S Y 6 778 . A 13 ( Thames t ype , N o 1 4 i n C owen 1 967). B ay . B ronze s word , T hames t ype . H a llstatt C , p robab ly s eventh c entury B C . C owen 1 967 , 4 50 .
W HITCOMBE , D orset 1 S Y 7 11880 . 2 A 14 . 3 B ur ia l. 4 I ron s word . 5 S econd c entury B C . 6 A itken 1 967 . W INDSOR , B erks 1 S U 9 676 . 2 A8 8 ( No 2 0 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze d agger s heath . 5 T h ird-second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 36 . W ISBECH , L incs 1 T F 4 609 . 2 A8 9 ( No 2 9 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver N ene . 4 I ron s word i n b ronze s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 39 ; P iggott 1 950 ,
5 .
W ITHAM , L incs 1 S K 9 872 . 2 A9 0 ( No 3 1 i n d ope 1 96 1). 3 R iver W itham . 4 I ron d agger a nd s cabbard . 5 T hird-second c entury B C . 6 d ope 1 96 1a , 3 39 ; C larke & H awkes 1 955 , K emb le 1 863 , p l x xv i 2 .
2 14-2 16 ;
31.
T ATTERSALL F ERRY , W ITHAM , L incs 1 T F 2 158 . 2 A9 1. 3 R iver W itham . 4 I ron s word . 5 T h ird—second c entury B C . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 3 -4 ; K endr icks 1 939 ,
1 94 .
W ORTON , L ancs 1 S D 4 92728 . 2 A9 2 . 3 R iver? 4 I ron s word a nd b ronze s cabbard . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 950 , 1 7-2 1; S m ith 1 925 , 1 08 , K emb le 1 863 , p l x v iii 1 .
F ig 17 ;
I NDEX : S WORDS ,
A 1 A 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 A 6 A 7 A 8 A 9 A1 0 A1 A1 2 A1 3 A1 4 A1 5 A1 6 A1 7 A 1 8 A1 9 A2 0 A2 1 A2 2 A2 3 A2 4 A2 5 A2 6 A2 7 A2 8 A2 9 A3 0 A3 1 A3 2 A3 3 A3 4 , A 3 5 A3 6 A3 7 A3 8 A3 9 A4 0 A4 1 A4 2 A4 3 A4 4 A4 5 A4 6 A4 7 A4 8 A4 9 A5 0
A merden , T aplow , B ucks B arn E lms , S urrey B attersea , S urrey B attersea , S urrey B attersea , S urrey B attersea , S urrey B illinghay D ales , L incs B oxmoor , H erts B redon , H&W B rentford , M iddlesex N ewbr idge , S tandlake , O xon B ugthorpe , E ast Y orks B ulbury , D orset C aburn C amp , S ussex C ambridge F ens , C ambs W andsworth , S urrey C arham , B erw ick C amerton , A von C hatham , K ent C he lsea , M iddlesex C lotherholme , N orth Y orks C ookham , B erks C otterdale , N orth Y orks C raw ley , S urrey D atchet , B erks B attersea , S urrey E bberston , N orth Y orks E mbleton , C umbr ia F endoch , T ayside F lasby , W est Y orks G elliniog-Wen , A nglesey G lastonbury , S omerset G r imthorpe , N orth Y orks H am H ill, S omerset H ammersm ith , M iddlesex H ammersm ith , M iddlesex H eadpile E yot , B erks H enley , O xon H ertford W arren , S uffo lk H od H ill, D orset H olme P ierpo int , N otts B attersea , S urrey H unsbüry , N orthants I sleworth , M iddlesex K ingsdown C amp , S omerset K ingston , S urrey L akenheath , S uffolk L incoln , L incs L inco ln , L incs L ondon
D AGGERS A ND S CABBARDS
A 5 1 L ondon A5 2 L ong W ittenham , O xon A5 3 H ammersm ith , M iddlesex A5 4 M eare , S omerset A5 5 M ildenhall A5 6 M ortlake , S urrey • A5 7 M ortonhall, E dinburgh , L othian A5 8 N ewark , N otts A5 9 N ewcast le-upon-Tyne , T&W A6 0 N ewstead , R oxburgh A6 1 N orth G r imston , E ast Y orks A6 2 N orth G rimston , E ast Y orks A6 3 O xford , O xon A6 4 P illing M oss , L ancs A6 5 Q uatre B ras , D orset A6 6 R ichmond , S urrey A6 7 R ichmond , S urrey A6 8 R ichmond , S urrey A6 9 S adberge , D urham A7 0 S ea M ills , A von A7 1 S houldham , N orfolk A7 2 S outhwark , S urrey A7 3 S pett isbury R ings , D orset A7 4 P erth , T ayside A7 5 S tanw ick , N orth Y orks A7 6 S toke A bbot , D orset A7 S utton-on-Trent , N otts A7 8 T ap low , B ucks A7 9 T eddington , M iddlesex A8 0 T emp le N ewson , W est Y orks A8 1 T horpe B r idlington , E ast Y orks A8 2 W althamstow , E ssex A8 3 W andsworth , S urrey A8 4 W andsworth , S urrey A8 5 W andsworth , S urrey A8 6 W est B uckland , S omerset A8 7 W estm inster , M iddlesex A8 8 W indsor , B erks A8 9 W isbech , L incs A9 0 W itham , L incs A9 1 W itham , L incs A9 2 W orton , L ancs A9 3 A y lesford , K ent A9 4 B ertha , T ayside A9 5 B ex ley H eath , K ent A9 6 B ourne E nd , B ucks A9 7 B ow ling , D unbarton A9 8 B rentford , M iddlesex A9 9 B rogynton S elattyn , S alop A 100 C ambuskenneth , S tirling
A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 20 1 2 1 1 22 1 23 1 24
C hisw ick , M iddlesex C ulloden , I nverness E lcho , T ayside K atesgrove , B erks K ingston , S urrey L euchland F arm , G rampian M ugdrum I sland , T ayside O wslebury , H ants P erth , T ayside R ichmond , S urrey S t L awrence , I sle o f W ight T hrapston , N orthants W eymouth , D orset W hitcombe , D orset M ort lake , S urrey M ortlake , S urrey H am H ill, S omerset L ondon H enley , O xon W ashingborough , L incs C arry H ouse C amp , N orthumberland L ochlee C rannog , S trathclyde C arlingwark , K irkcudbr ight , D umfriess J ordan H ill, D orset
B RONZE V ESSELS
A BERCAIRNEY , T ayside 1 N O 0 529 . 2 B1 . 3 B og , n ear c onf luence o f T ay a nd A lmond . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 " Late I ron A ge" . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 , N o 3 00 i n g azetteer . A RTHOG , G wynedd 1 S H 6 5 15 . 2 B4 2 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze b ucket . 5 P robab ly n inth-e ighth c enturies B C 6 H awkes & S m ith 1 957 . B AGENDON , 1 2 3 4 5 6
G los S P 0 006 . B3 2 . H illfort/opp idum . B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . F irst c entury A D . C lifford 1 96 1, 1 82183 , F ig 3 6 .4 .
B ARMOUTH , 1 2 3 4 5 6
C lwyd S H 6 116 . B3 3 . B og . B ronze b ow l, L amberton M oor t ype . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . E vans 1 92 1, 4 , F ig 3 2 .
B ASCHURCH , S a lop 1 S J 4 222 . 2 . B3 . 3 B og , o nce a s tream c ourse . 4 B ronze c auldron . 5 U ndated . 6 S m ith 1 907 , 3 24 . B ATTERSEA , S urrey 1 T A ,2776 . 2 B2 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 F ox 1 946 ; S m ith 1 9 18 , 8 7-88 ; 1 907 ,
3 28-329 .
B EWCASTLE , C umbr ia 1 N Y 5 675 . 2 B4 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze c auldron , S anton t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 C ur le 1 932 , 2 77-397 ; H awkes 1 95 1, ( No 3 08 i n g azetteer).
1 83 ; M acGregor 1 976 ,
1 70
B IRDLIP , G los 1 S O 9 2 14 . 2 B3 4 . 3 B ur ia l, f ema le . 4 T wo b ronze b ow ls , R ose A sh t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 F ox 1 96 1, 1 94195 a nd p l x xxiv a a nd b . B LACKBURN M ILL , B erw ick , B orders 1 N T 771. 2 B5 . 3 P eat b og , o r igina lly a l och . 4 T wo b ronze c auldrons , B attersea t ype . 5 F irst-second c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ( No 3 0 1-302 i n g azetteer) ; P iggott 1 953 , 3 1 , 4 0 ; C ur le 1 932 , 3 13-3 17 ; H awkes 1 95 1, B ULBURY , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D orset S Y 9 29942 . B3 5 . H illfort , p robab ly f rom a f ema le b ur ia l. B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . F irst c entury A D . C unliffe 1 972 , 2 98-299 , F ig 4 a nd p l l v ii.
C ARLINGWARK L OCH , K irkcudbr ight , 1 N X 4 560 . 2 B6 . 3 L och . 4 B ronze c auldron , S anton 5 F irst-second c entury A D . 6 H awkes 1 95 1, 1 83 ; C ur le M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 , N o
D umfr iess
t ype . 1 932 ; S kene 1 866 , 3 09 i n g azetteer .
C OLCHESTER , E ssex 1 T M 0 025 . 2 B7 . 3 I n ap it . 4 B ronze c auldron . 5 P robab ly L ate B ronze A ge 6 H awkes & S m ith 1 957 , 1 60165 , 2 3 4 5 6
B3 6 . F emale b ur ial. B ronze b ow l. F irst c entury A D . F ox 1 958 , F ig 5 8 .
F ig 1 4 .
7 ;
1 83 .
C RUMMOCKDALE , W est Y orkshire 1 S D 7 768 . 2 B8 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze c auldron . 5 U ndated . 6 H awkes 1 95 1, 1 80185 , E CKFORD , 1 2 3 4 5 6
F ig 4 7 ; M att ison & P a lmer 1 837 ,
R oxburgh , B orders N T 7 126 . B9 . L och , n ow d ra ined . B ronze c auldron . U ndated . P iggott 1 953 , 1 -50 .
E LVANFOOT , L anark , B orders 1 N S 9 5 17 . 2 B1 0 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ( No 3 03 i n g azetteer); S prat ling 1 97 1, 11112 ; B urns 1 969 , 2 9-34 . E WARTY S HANK , A lnham M oor , N orthumber land 1 N T 9 9 11. 2 B 1. 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ( No 3 04 i n g azetteer). F ELMERSHAM-ON-OUSE , B eds 1 T L 9 957 . 2 B3 7 . 3 I n p it . 4 B ronze b ow l. 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 W atson 1 949 , 4 2-45 , F ELTWELL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
F igs 5 a nd 6 .
N orfolk T L 7 093 . B5 0 . B og . B ronze c auldron . S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . C unliffe 1 978 , 3 23 .
G AYTON T HORPE , N orfo lk 1 I F 7 4 18 . 2 B3 8 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . 5 P robably f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 .
1 64165 .
G LASTONBURY , S omerset 1 S T 4 93408 . 2 B3 9 . 3 B og , o utside " lake" v illage . 4 B ronze b ow l. 5 U ndated . 6 B ulleid & G rey 1 9 11, 1 7918 1 a nd p l I . H AM H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D orset S T 4 78 170 . B4 0 . H illfort . B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . G ray 1 924 , p l x iii E 7 .
H EATHERY 1 2 3 4 5 6
B URN C AVE , S tanhope , D urham N Y 9 939 . B1 2 . C ave . B ronze c auldron . P robab ly e ighth c entury B C . H awkes & S m ith 1 957 , 1 49 ; E vans 1 88 1, 4 12-4 14 ; G reenwe ll 1 892 , 8 8105 .
H OD H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D orset S T 8 57106 . B4 1. H illfort . T wo b ronze b ow ls , R ose A sh t ype . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . S m ith 1 925 .
I PSWICH , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S uffolk T M 1 744 . B1 3 . U nprovenanced . B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . C lark , 1 939 , 7 3 ; M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 .
K INCARDINE M OSS , S t ir ling , C entral 1 N S 9 387 . 2 B1 4 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 P iggott 1 953 , 1 -50 ; F ox 1 946 ; A nderson 1 885 , 3 13 . L AMBERTON M OOR , B erw ick , B orders 1 N T 9 758 . 2 B1 5 . 3 B og . 4 F our b ronze b ow ls , L amberton M oor t ype . 5 C irca 1 00 A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 ( Nos 2 92-296 i n g azetteer); S tevenson 1 966 , 3 1 , p l 2 6 ; A nderson 1 905 , 3 7 1-372 ,
F ig 3 .
L ETCHWORTH , H erts 1 T L 2 33339 . 2 B1 6 . 3 D itch o f a n e nclosure . 4 F ragmentary b ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 P robably s econd c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 7 0 ; M oss-Eccardt 1 976 , 1 73177 . LANENDDWYN , G wynedd 1 S H 5 623 . 2 B4 3 . 3 U nknown . 4 T wo b ronze b ow ls , L amberton M oor t ype . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 ; E vans 1 92 1, 1 03104 . LANYCIL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
G wynedd S H 9 135 . B4 4 . U nprovenanced . B ronze b ow l. F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 .
L LYN-CERR IG-BACH , A nglesey 1 S H 3 177 . 2 B1 7 . 3 B og . 4 T wo b ronze c auldrons , B attersea t ype . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 F ox 1 946 , 8 7-88 . L LYN F AWR , G lamorgan 1 S N 9 204 . 2 B1 8 . 3 B og . 4 T wo b ronze c auldrons . 5 P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . 6 H awkes 1 95 1, 1 80 ; F ox 1 939 , 3 72-373 L OCHAR M OSS , D umfr iess 1 N Y 0 47 1. 2 B1 9 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze b ow l, L ambert3n M oor t ype . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 ( No 2 97) ; S m ith 1 925 , W ilson 1 863 , 4 48-449 , p l II. L ONDON 1 2 3 4 5 6
T Q 3 380 ( approximate). B2 0 . R iver T hames . B ronze c auldron . P robably s ixth c entury B C . H awkes & S m ith 1 957 , 1 9 1.
1 58 ;
L OUND R UN , S uffo lk 1 T M 5 099 . 2 B2 1. 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze c audron , S anton t ype . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 C larke 1 939 , 1 09 , p l x x ; M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ; H awkes 1 95 1,
1 79 .
M OUNT B ATTEN , D evon 1 S X 5 152 . 2 B4 5 . 3 B ur ial. 4 B ronze b ow l. 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 S pence 1 866 , 5 04 ; M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 . N ANNAU , n ear D o lgelly , G wynedd 1 S H 7 42 1. 2 B2 2 . 3 L ake . 4 B ronze c auldron . 5 P robab ly n inth-e ighth c entur ies B C . 6 H awkes & S m ith 1 957 , 1 3 1134 . R OSE A SH , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D evon S S 7 66208 . B4 6 . B og . B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . F ox 1 96 1, 1 90192 , F ig 5 .
S ANTON , N orfo lk 1 T L 8 187 . 2 B4 7 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 F ive b ronze b ow ls , 1S anton t ype , 1R ose A sh t ype , . 3 a typ ica l. 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 S m ith 1 909 , 1 54155 ; M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 , 1 70 . S TANTON D OWNHAM , S uffo lk 1 T L 8 09848 . 2 B2 3 . 3 H oard . 4 B ronze c auldron , S anton t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . • 6 C lark 1 939 , 7 1-73 ; S m ith 1 909 ,
1 46163 ,
S HIPTON , O xon 1 S P 4 7 16 . 2 B2 4 . 3 R iver C herwe ll. 4 B ronze c auldron . 5 P robab ly s eventh-f ifth c entury B C . 6 L eeds , 1 930 , 1 -36 .
p l x v .
S ILCHESTER , H ants 1 S U 6 262 . 2 B2 5 . 3 I n ap it o r w e ll. 4 B ronze c auldron , S anton t ype . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ; F ox & S t J ohn H ope 1 90 1, 2 46 . S OMPT ING , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S ussex T Q 1 605 . B2 6 . P it . B ronze c auldron . P robably s eventh c entury B C . C urwen 1 948 , 1 57163 .
S PETT ISBURY , D orset 1 S T 9 15020 . 2 B2 7 . 3 H illfort . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 P robab ly s econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 35 , F ig 1 47 . S TANWICK , 1 2 3 4 5 6
M e lsonby , N orth Y orkshire N Z 1 908 . B2 8 . H oard . T wo b ronze b ow ls , L amberton M oor t ype . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 1 68 ( No 2 98 i n g azetteer); M acGregor 1 962 , N o 1 21.
W ALTHAMSTOW , E ssex 1 T Q 3 788 . 2 B2 9 . 3 " Pile d wellings" . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 P robab ly s econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 ; S m ith 1 907 , 3 29 . W ELWYN G ARDEN C ITY , H erts 1 T L 2 4 12 . 2 B4 9 . 3 B ur ia l. 4 B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 S tead 1 967 , 2 3-25 , F igs 1 2 , 1 3 a nd p l V . W HITEHILLS M OSS , D umfriess 1 N Y 1 575 . 2 B3 0 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze c auldron , B attersea t ype . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 B urns 1 969 ; M itche ll 1 890 , 1 6 .
W ORMGAY , N orfo lk 1 T F 6 6 11. 2 B3 1. 3 U nprovenanced . 4 B ronze c auldron , S anton t ype . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 1 70 . Y OULTON , C ornwa ll 1 S X 2 090 . 2 B4 8 . 3 B og . 4 B ronze b ow l, R ose A sh t ype . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 F ox 1 96 1, 1 92 a nd p l x xx iii a a nd b ; M acGregor 1 976 ,
1 68 .
I NDEX :
B 1 B 2 B 3 B 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 B 8 B 9 B1 0 B1 B1 2 B1 3 B1 4 B1 5 B1 6 B1 7 B1 8 B1 9 B2 0 B2 1 B2 B2 3 B2 4 B2 5 B2 6 B2 7 B2 8 B2 9 B3 0 B3 1 B3 2 B3 B3 4 3 5 B3 6 B3 7 B3 8 B3 9 B4 0 B4 1 B4 2 B4 3 B4 4 B4 5 B4 6 B4 7 B4 8 B4 9 B5 0
B RONZE V ESSELS
A berca irney , T ayside B attersea , S urrey B aschurch , S a lop B ewcast le , C umbr ia B lackburn M ill, B erw ick C ar lingwark , D umfriess C o lchester , E ssex C rummockdale , W est Y orkshire E ckford , R oxburgh , B orders E lvanfoot , L anark , B orders E warty S hank , N orthumbr ia H eathery B urn C ave , D urham I psw ich , S uffo lk K incardine M oss , S t ir ling , C entra l L amberton M oor , B erw ick , B orders L etchworth , H erts L lyn-Cerr ig-Bach , A nglesey L lyn F awr , G lamorgan L ochar M oss , D umfr iess L ondon L ound R un , S uffo lk N annau , n ear D a lge lly , G wynedd S tanton D ownham , S uffo lk S hipton , O xon S ilchester , H ants S ompt ing , S ussex S pett isbury , D orset S tanw ick , N orth Y orkshire W a lthamstow , E ssex W hitehills M oss , D umfr iess W ormgay , N orfo lk B agendon , G los B armouth , C lwyd B irdlip , G los B ulbury , D orset C o lchester , E ssex F elmersham-on-Ouse , B eds G ayton T horpe , N orfo lk G lastonbury , S omerset H am H ill, D orset H od H ill, D orset A rthog , G wynedd L lanenddwyn , G wynedd L lanycil, G wynedd M ount B atten , D evon R ose A sh , D evon S anton , N orfo lk Y oulton , C ornwall W e lwyn G arden C ity , H erts F e ltwe ll, N orfo lk
S POONS/SCOOPS
A NDOVER , 1 2 3 4 5 6
H ants S U 3 645 . C1 . U nprovenanced , n o a ssoc iat ions . O ne b ronze s poon , e ngraved w ith " +" o n s coop . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . A nonymous 1 933 , 4 64-465 .
B URNMOUTH , B erw ick , B orders 1 N T 9 66 1. 2 C2 . 3 B ur ial. 4 P air o f b ronze s poons . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 C raw 1 924 , 1 43160 . C ROSBY R AVENSWORTH , W estmor land , 1 N Y 6 2 15 . 2 C3 . 3 B og , n ear a s pr ing . 4 P a ir o f b ronze s poons . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 W ay 1 869 , 5 2-83 . D EAL ,
C umbr ia
K ent 1 T R 3 752 . 2 C4 . 3 B ur ia l. 4 P a ir o f b ronze s poons . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 C raw 1 924 , 1 43160 .
L LANFA IR , 1 2 3 4 5 6
D enb igh , C lwyd S J 1 455 . C5 . . U nprovenanced , n o a ssociat ion k nown . P air o f b ronze s poons . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ay 1 869 , 5 2-96 .
L ONDON 1 2 3 4 5 6
T Q,3380 . C6 . R iver T hames . O ne b ronze s poon w ith p erforated e dge . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ay 1 869 , 5 2-96 .
2 3 4 5 6
C7 . B r ickhill L ane , n o a ssociat ions . O ne b ronze s poon . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ay 1 869 , 5 2-96 .
P ENBRYN , C ardigan , D yfed 1 S N 2 952 . 2 C8 . 3 I n p re—Roman h illfort C aste ll N adolig . 4 P a ir o f b ronze s poons . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 F ox 1 958 , 7 0 . W ESTON , S omerset 1 S T 7 266 . 2 C9 . 3 N ear a s pring , n o a ssociat ions . 4 P a ir o f b ronze s poons . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 D av ies 1 929 , 2 22 ; W ay 1 869 , 5 2-96 .
S HIELDS A ND H ELMETS
A BERYSTWYTH , C ardigan , D yfed 1 S N 5 882 . 2 D1 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 M eyr ick 1 93 1, 9 5 , p l x iii. A UCHMALEDD IE , A berdeen , G ramp ian 1 N J 8 847 . 2 D2 . 3 B og . 4 T hree b ronze s hie lds . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 G ray 1 898 , 8 10 . A YDON C ASTLE , C orbr idge , N orthumbr ia 1 N Y 9 964 . 2 D3 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 5 1. B ATTERSEA , S urrey 1 T Q 2 776 . 2 D2 5 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 P robably f irst c entury A D , p ossib ly s light ly e ar lier . 6 B railsford 1 975 , 2 5-3 1; K emb le 1 863 , 1 9019 1. B EITH , A yr , S trathclyde 1 N S 3 454 . 2 D4 . 3 B og . 4 F ive b ronze s hie lds . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 M 'Culloch 1 864 , 1 65 . B RENTFORD , M iddlesex 1 T Q 1 778 . 2 D2 6 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 H orn-cap h e lmet . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C . 6 S m ith 1 9 18 , 2 2 , B RUNBY M OOR , L incs 1 S E 8 909 . 2 D5 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 S m ith 1 9 19 , 1 47148 , F ig 2 . 304-
B URRINGHAM C OMMON , L incs 1 S E 8 309 . 2 D6 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 S tanton 1 867 , 2 00 ; P eacock 1 849 ,
3 95 .
C ARLTON-ON-TRENT , N otts 1 S K 7 964 . 2 D7 . 3 R iver T rent . 4 O ne b ronze s h ie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 B agga ley 1 950 , 1 95 p l x xx . C HESTER-LE-STREET , D urham 1 N Z 2 752 . 2 D8 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s h ie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 5 1. C OVENEY F EN , C ambs 1 T L 4 88 1. 2 D9 . 3 B og . 4 T hree b ronze s hie lds. 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 46 ; K emb le 1 863 ,
1 67 p l x i 5 .
D OVEYMOUTH , G wynedd 1 S N 6 293 . 2 D1 0 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 H emp 1 9 18 , 1 70 . E LLERMERE , S a lop 1 S J 4 035 . 2 D1 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M ic j t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 52 ; S tanton 1 867 , 2 00 . E YNSHAM , O xon 1 S P 4 309 . 2 D1 2 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 45 ; K emb le 1 863 ,
1 67 p l x i 3 .
H AMPTON ( WALTON) , S urrey 1 T Q 1 370 . 2 D1 3 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 52 ; F ranks 1 867 ,
5 18 .
H ARLECH , G wynedd 1 S H 5 83 1. 2 D1 4 . 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 4 29 ; K emb le 1 863 ,
1 67 p l x i 4 .
I NGOE , N orthumbria 1 N Z 0 475 . 2 D1 5 . 3 B og . 4 T hree b ronze s hie lds 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 M organ , 1 86 1, 1 57 . L ANGWOOD 1 2 3 4 5 6
F EN , C HATTERIS , C ambs T L 3 986 . D1 6 . B og . O ne b ronze s hie ld . M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . B rown & B lin-Stoy le 1 959 , 2 04 ; F ox 1 923 p l v iii.
L EA V ALLEY , M iddlesex 1 T Q 3 888 . 2 D1 7 . 3 P robab ly b og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 S m ith 1 9 19 , 1 45146 , F ig 1 . L ITTLE W ITTENHAM , O xon ( Day 's L ock) 1 S U 5 67935 . 2 D1 8 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id , t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, F ig 4 28 ; K emb le 1 863 p l x i 2 . L LYN-CERRIG-BACH , A nglesey 1 S H 3 05760 . 2 D2 7 . 3 B og . 4 O ne i ron s hie ld b oss . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 F ox 1 958 , 4 3 ; F ox 1 946 .
L ONDON 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
T Q 2 776 . D1 9 . R iver T hames . O ne b ronze s hie ld . M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . K emb le 1 863 , p l x i 6 . D2 0 . R iver T hames . O ne b ronze s hie ld . M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . S m ith 1 9 19 , 1 50 ; E vans 1 88 1,
3 45 .
M OEL S IABOD , G wynedd ( Cape l C urr ig) 1 S H 2 758 . 2 D2 1. 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 H emp 1 9 1719 18 , 1 69170 ; M eyr ick 1 83 1. O WSLEBURY , H ants 1 S U 5 25246 . 2 D 3. 3 B ur ia l. 4 I ron s hie ld b oss . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 C o llis 1 968 , 1 8-3 1. P OLDEN H ILL , S omerset 1 S T 4 336 . 2 D2 8 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne i ron s h ie ld b oss . 5 S econd c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 S m ith 1 925 , F ig 1 64 . . ST L AWRENCE , I SLE O F W IGHT 1 S Z 5 376 . 2 D3 4 . 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s hie ld b oss . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 S tead 1 968 , 1 48190 . S UTTON , S t M ichae l's , S talham , N orfo lk 1 T G 3 823 . 2 D 2. 3 B og . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 C larke 1 960 , p l 1 9 .
T ORRS , K irkcudbr ight , D umfr iess 1 N X 4 560 . 2 D3 2 . 3 B og . 4 P ony-cap . 5 T hird c entury B C . 6 A tk inson & P iggott 1 955 ,
1 97-235 .
W ANDSWORTH , S urrey 1 T Q 2 574 . 2 D3 0 . 3 R iver T hames . 4 T wo b ronze s hie lds . 5 P robab ly s econd c entury B C . 6 B ra ilsford 1 975 , 1 4-24 ; J ope 1 976 , W ATERLOO 1 2 3 4 5 6
B RIDGE , L ondon T Q 3 380 . 02 9 . R iver T hames . O ne b ronze h e lmet . L ate f irst c entury B C . B ra ilsford 1 975 , 3 2-39 ;
1 67184 .
F ranks 1 867 ,
3 42 .
W HITCOMBE , D orset 1 S Y 7 188 . 2 D3 5 . 3 B ur ial. 4 I ron s hie ld b oss . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 A itken 1 967 . W ITHAM , n ear L inco ln , L incs 1 S K 9 872 . 2 D3 1 . 3 R iver W itham . 4 O ne b ronze s hie ld . 5 P robab ly s econd c entury B C . 6 J ope 1 976 , 6 1-68 ; B railsford 1 975 , W OOLWICH , 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 013 ; M eyr ick 1 83 1,
9 2-97 .
3 93 ; M 'Culloch 1 864 ,
1 65 .
S urrey T Q 4 379 . D2 3 . R iver T hames . O ne b ronze s hie ld . M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . E vans 1 88 1, 3 5 1.
Y ETHOLM , R oxburgh , B orders 1 N T 8 128 . 2 D2 4 . . 3 B og . 4 T hree b ronze s hie lds . 5 M id t o L ate B ronze A ge . 6 E vans 1 88 1, 3 49-35 1; J effrey 1 870 ,
I NDEX : S HIELDS A ND H ELMETS
D 1 D 2 D 3 D 4 D 5 D 6 D 7 D 8 D 9 D1 0 D1 D1 2 D1 3 D1 4 D1 5 D1 6 D1 7 D1 8 D1 9 D2 0 D2 1 D2 2 D2 3 D2 4 D2 5 D2 6 D2 7 D2 8 D2 9 D3 0 D3 1 D3 2 D3 3 D3 4 D 3 5
A berystwyth , C ard igan , D yfed A uchma leddie , A berdeen , G ramp ian A ydon C ast le , N orthumbr ia B e ith , A yr , S trathclyde B runby M oor , L incs B urr ingham C ommon , L incs C ar lton o n T rent , N otts C hester—Le—Street , N otts C oveny F en , C ambs D oveymouth , G wynedd E llermere , S a lop E ynsham , O xon H ampton , W alton , S urrey H ar lech , G wynedd I ngoe , N orthumbr ia L angwood F en , C ambs L ea V a lley , M iddlesex L itt le W ittenham , O xon L ondon L ondon M oe l S iabod , C apel C urr ig , G wynedd S utton , S t M ichae l's , N orfo lk W oo lw ich , S urrey Y etho lm , R oxburgh , B orders B attersea , S urrey B rentford , M iddlesex L lyn—Cerr ig—Bach , A nglesey P o lden H ill, S omerset W ater loo B r idge , L ondon W andsworth , S urrey W itham , n ear L inco ln , L incs T orrs , K irkcudbr ight , D umfriess O wslebury , H ants S t L awrence , I s le o f W ight W hitcombe , D orset .
T ORCS
A RRAS , N orth Y orkshire 1 S E 9 304 13 . 2 E5 7 . 3 B ur ial. 4 O ne t orc , a typical. 5 F ifth c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 15 ; G reenwell 1 906 , 2 75 . A TTERMIRE , S ETTLE , W est Y orkshire 1 S D 8 264 . 2 E1 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 R a istr ick 1 939 , 1 39 ; M acGregor 1 976 ,
13 ,
N o 1 97 i n G azetteer .
A YLESFORD , K ent 1 T Q 7 30592 . 2 E2 . 3 R iver M edway . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; F ox 1 958 p l 2 6b . B AWSEY , N orfolk 1 T M 3 440 . 2 E3 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 T wo p enannular t w isted t orcs . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11; M aryon 1 944 ,
1 4915 1.
B ENWELL , N orthumbr ia 1 N Z 2 164 . 2 E4 . 3 R oman f ort . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 S econd c entury A D . 6 S impson & R ichmond 1 94 1, 2 3-25 , p l i ; M acGregor 1 976 , 13 , N o 1 98 i n g azetteer . B IRDLIP , G los 1 S O 9 2 14 . 2 E5 . 3 B ur ia l. 4 O ne t orc , a typica l. 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; G reen 1 949 ,
1 88 ,
F ig l a .
C ADBURY C ASTLE , S omerset 1 S T 6 28252 . 2 E6 . 3 H illfort . 4 T wo t orcs , o ne W raxa ll c lass , o ne t ubular . 5 U ndated , p robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; A lcock 1 972 , 1 40 , p l 6 4 . C ARLISLE , 1 2 3 4 5 6
C umbr ia N Y 4 056 . E7 . U nknown . O ne b eaded t orc . S econd c entury A D . F erguson 1 88 1, 5 34-535 ; M acGregor 1 976 , 13 , N o 1 99 i n g azetteer .
C LENCH C OMMON , W ilts 1 S U 1 765 . 2 E8 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne t orc , a typica l. 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; C unnington & G oddard 1 934 , 2 05 , C LEVEDON , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S omerset S T 4 07 1. E9 . U nknown . O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . U ndated . M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; F ox 1 958 ,
F ig 3 4a .
p l 2 5b .
C LYNNOG , G wynedd 1 S H 4 249 . 2 E1 0 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne t orc , p ossib ly W raxa ll c lass . 5 U ndated , p ossib ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 G r imes 1 95 1, 2 27 . C OLCHESTER , E ssex 1 T M 0 025 . 2 E1 . 3 U nknown , e ither L ate I ron A ge o r R oman c ivitas . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 37 . C OLD K ITCHEN H ILL , W ilts 1 S T 8 438 . . 2 E1 2 . 3 I ron A ge u ndefended s ett lement . 4 O ne t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 C unnington & G oddard 1 934 , 2 05 .
C ROSS A XBRIDGE , A von 1 S T 4 154 . 2 E1 3 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11; H awkes 1 940 ,
13 .
D ORCHESTER , D orset 1 S Y 6 890 . 2 E1 4 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne t ubular t orc . 5 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11; M egaw 1 97 1,
1 48 ,
F ig 3 .
D ORSET 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 47 ,
F ig 2 .
1 49 ,
F ig 4 ; S m ith 1 925 ,
F ind s pot u nknown . E1 5 . U nprovenanced . O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . E ar ly f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; M egaw 1 97 1,
E MBSAY , S KIPTON , W est Y orkshire 1 S E 0 053 . 2 E1 6 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 A nonymous 1 846 , 5 17 a nd p l x x iii. G IGGLESWICK , W est Y orkshire 1 S O 8 164 . 2 E1 7 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , N o 2 0 1. G LASCOTE , 1 2 3 4 5 6
T AMWORTH , S tafford S K 2 203 . E1 8 . U nknown . O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . U ndated . P a inter 1 970 .
G REENHILL , W EYMOUTH , D orset 1 S Y 6 878 . E1 9 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . 5 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; M egaw 1 97 1,
1 5 1.
H AM H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S omerset S T 4 78 140 . E2 0 . H illfort . O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . P ossib ly f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 11.
H AMMERSMITH , M iddlesex 1 T Q 2 279 . 2 E2 1. 3 N o p rovenance . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 . H ENGISTBURY H EAD , H ants 1 S Z 1 790 . 2 E2 2 . 3 O pp idum . 4 T hree p enannular t w isted t orcs . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; B ushe—Fox 1 9 15 , 6 0 a nd p l x2 .5 a nd p l x xx 1 3 . H OLLINGBURY H ILL , S ussex 1 T Q 3 22078 . 2 E2 3 . 3 H illfort . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11. H YNDFORD , 1 2 3 4 5 6
L anark N S 9 14 1. E2 4 . B og o r l ake . O ne b eaded t orc . F irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , N o 2 02 ; C ur le 1 932 , 3 8 1.
S tevenson 1 948 , 2 95 ,
p l l iii 4 ;
I PSWICH , S uffo lk 1 T M 1 744 . 2 E2 5 . 3 P ossib ly a.h oard . 4 S ix p enannular t w isted t orcs . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 B ra ilsford & S tap ley 1 972 ; O w les 1 971, 2 94-296 a nd p l x lv ; 1 969 , 2 08-2 12 . L AMBERTON M OOR , B erw ick , B orders 1 N T 9 758 . 2 E2 6 . 3 H oard — c f C auldrons B 1 5 . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst—second c entury A D 6 M acGregor 1 976 , N o 2 03 ; S tevenson 1 966 , 2 6 , p l 2 6 ; 1 948 , 2 94 , p l l iii 3 ; A nderson 1 905 , 3 72-374 , 3 68 , — 3 13—
F ig 1 .
L LANDYSSUL , P EN-COED-FOEL , C ardigan , D yfed 1 S N 4 25427 . 2 E2 7 . 3 S ma ll h illfort , s tray f ind . 4 O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; G r imes 1 95 1, 26 p l x v iii. L OCHAR M OSS , D umfr iess 1 N Y 0 471. 2 E2 8 . 3 B og - s ame h oard a s c auldron B 1 9 . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , N o 2 04 ; P iggott 1 970 , N o 1 39 ; F ox 1 958 , 1 07 , p l 2 9b ; S m ith 1 925 , 1 57158 , F ig 1 88 . L ONDON , M iddlesex 1 T Q 3 682 . 2 E2 9 . 3 R iver W albrook . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 . M A IDEN C ASTLE , D orset 1 S Y 6 69885 . 2 E3 0 . 3 I ron A ge h illfort . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; W hee ler 1 943 , 2 76-277 , M EARE , S omerset 1 S T 4 54 1. 2 E3 1. 3 " Lake" v illage . 4 O ne p enannular , t w isted t orc . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; B ulle id & G ray 1 953 , M ILDENHALL , S uffo lk 1 T L 7 074 . 2 E3 2 . 3 B og . 4 O ne t orc , a typica l. 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ;
p l x lix ,
B unbury 1 834 , 6 10 .
M OW R OAD , R OCHDALE , L ancs 1 S D 8 9 12 . 2 E 3. 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , N o 2 05 ; A llen 1 904 , W hatton 1 834 , 5 95-597 .
F ig 9 0 .11.
1 09110 ;
E1 39 .
N EEDWOOD 1 2 3 4 5 6
F OREST , S tafford S K 1 624 . E3 4 . U nprovenanced . O ne p enannular , t w isted t orc . P robab ly f irst c entury B C . M acGregor 1 976 , 11; H awkes 1 937 ,
3 -4 , p l i c .
N EW C AIRNMUIR , N ETHERURD , P eeb les , B orders 1 N T 4 734 . 2 E3 5 . 3 H oard . 4 F our t orcs , p enannular t w isted . 5 F irst c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11 a nd N os 1 9 1194 i n g azetteer . N ORTH C REAKE , N orfolk 1 T F 8 538 . 2 E3 6 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; C larke 1 949 ,
5 9-60 ,
p l II a , b .
P ERDESWELL , W orcs 1 S O 9 647 . 2 E3 7 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; E llacombe 1 844 , A ppend ix 54-555 . P OLDEN H ILLS , S omerset 1 S T 4 336 . 2 E3 8 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury B C . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11; H arford 1 808 , P ORTLAND 1 2 3 4 5 6
I SLAND , D orset S Y 6 870 . E3 9 . U nknown . O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . E ar ly f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 15 ; M egaw 1 97 1,
p l x ix 6 .
1 46 ,
R EETH , N orth Y orkshire 1 S E 0 499 . 2 E4 0 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U nknown . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 , g azetteer N o 1 96 .
F ig
R ICKERLY 1 2 3 4 5 6
P ARK , C ar lisle , C umbr ia N Y 3 957 . E4 1. R oman o ccupat ion . O ne b eaded t orc . F irst-second c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 13 , g azetteer N o 2 08 ; S impson & R ichmond 1 94 1, 2 3-25 .
R UDBAXTON , P embroke 1 S N 1 020 . 2 E5 6 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 T wo t orcs . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 ,
15 ;
S m ith 1 925 ,
1 38 .
S CARBOROUGH , N orth Y orkshire 1 T A 0 489 . 2 E4 2 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; S m ith 1 934 . S EDGFORD . N orfolk 1 T F 7 09365 . 2 E4 3 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11; B ra ilsford 1 97 1, a nd p l v i a . S HEPHERDS F EN , M ILDENHALL , S uffo lk 1 T L 7 074 . 2 E4 4 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; L ethbr idge & O 'Re illy 1 93 1,
1 619 ,
1 52 , p l v i ,
F ig 1 .
S KERNE , H umberside 1 T A 0 455 . 2 E4 5 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst-second c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 , g azetteer N o 2 07 . S LAY H ILL , S ALT INGS , U PCHURCH , K ent 1 T Q 8 467 . 2 E4 6 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne p enannular r od t orc . 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 13 ; S m ith 1 925 , 3 7 .
3 16-
F igs 1 , 2 ,
S NETTISHAM , N orfolk 1 T F 6 80349 . 2 E4 7 . 3 H oard . 4 S ix t orcs - t wo p enannular t w isted , f our t ubular . 5 F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; B urns 1 97 1, 2 88-289 , p l x; C larke 1 954 , 4 5-46 , p l v iii-x i. S PETTISBURY R INGS , D orset 1 S T 9 15020 . 2 E4 8 . 3 H illfort , u nprovenanced . 4 O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; H awkes 1 940 , S T ICHALL , 1 2 3 4 5 6
12114 ,
F ig 1 .
R oxburgh , B orders N T 7 239 . E4 9 . S tray . O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . U ndated , p robab ly f irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 13 a nd g azetteer N o 2 10 ; P iggott 1 970 , M egaw 1 970 , N o 2 98 ; S tevenson 1 966 , 3 2 , p l 6 .
T RENOWETH , S T S TEPHEN , C ornwall 1 S W 7 533 . 2 E5 0 . 3 U nprovenanced . 4 O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . 5 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; M egaw 1 967 ,
5 -8 , p l 1 .
T RE 'R C EIRI, G wynedd 1 S H 3 848 . 2 E5 1 . 3 I ron A ge o ccupat ion , h illfort . 4 O ne b eaded t orc . 5 F irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 970 , 11113 ; H ughes 1 907 , 4 0-42 , U LCEBY , L incs 1 T F 4 272 . 2 E5 2 . 3 U nknown . 4 T hree p enannular t w isted t orcs . 5 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; L eeds 1 933 . W ORLEBURY , S omerset 1 S T 3 363 . 2 E5 3 . 3 I ron A ge h illfort . 4 O ne t orc , a typ ical. 5 U ndated . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 15 ; D obson 1 93 1,
1 20 .
F ig 2 .
N o 1 38 ;
W RAXALL , B udcombe C ourt , A von 1 S T 4 973 . 2 E5 4 . 3 U nknown . 4 O ne W raxa ll c lass t orc . 5 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 6 M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; F ranks 1 892 , A ppendix 4 95-496 , W ROXETER , 1 2 3 4 5 6
p l x lv ii.
S alop S J 5 608 . E5 5 . R oman c ivitas . O ne p enannular t w isted t orc . F irst c entury A D . M acGregor 1 976 , 11113 ; B ushe—Fox 1 9 13 ,
3 0 ,
p l x , F ig 2 .16 .
I NDEX : T ORCS
E 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 E 5 E 6 E 7 E 8 E 9 E1 0 E1 E1 2 E1 3 E1 4 E1 5 E1 6 E1 7 E1 8 E1 9 E2 0 E2 1 E2 E2 3 E2 4 E2 5 E2 6 E2 7 E2 8 E2 9
A tterm ire , W est Y orkshire A y lesford , K ent B awsey , N orfolk B enhill, N orthumbr ia B irdlip , G los C adbury C astle , S omerset C ar lisle , C umbria C lench C ommon , W ilts C levedon , S omerset C lynnog , G wynedd C olchester , E ssex C old K itchen H ill, W ilts C ross A xbridge , A von D orchester , D orset D orset E mbsay , S kipton , W est Y orks G igglesw ick , W est Y orkshire G lascote , T amworth , S tafford G reenhill, W eymouth , D orset H am H ill, S omerset H ammersm ith , M iddlesex H engistbury H ead , H ants H ollingbury H ill, S ussex H yndford , L anark , B orders I psw ich , S uffolk L amberton M oor , B erw ick , B ds L landyssul, C ardigan , D yfed L ochar M oss , D umfr iess L ondon , M iddlesex
E3 0 E3 1 E3 2 E3 3 E3 4 E3 5 E3 6 E3 7 E3 8 R3 9 E4 0 E4 1 E4 2 E4 3 E4 4 E4 5 E4 6 E4 7 E4 8 E4 9 E5 0 E5 1 E5 2 E5 3 E5 4 E5 5 E5 6 E5 7
M aiden C ast le , D orset M eare , S omerset M ildenhall, S uffolk M ow R oad , R ochda le , L ancs N eedwood F orest , S tafford N ew C airnmuir , P eeb les , B ds N orth C reake , N orfo lk P erdeswell, W orcs P o lden H ills , S omerset P ortland I s land , D orset R eeth , N orth Y orksh ire R icker ly P ark , C arlisle , C umbria S carborough , N orth Y orkshire S edgford , N orfo lk S hepherds F en , S uffo lk S kerne , H umberside S lay H ill, U pchurch , K ent S nett isham , N orfo lk S pettisbury R ings , D orset S t ichill, R oxburgh , B orders T renoweth , C ornwall T re 'r C e ir i, G wynedd U lceby , L incs W or lebury , S omerset W raxall, A von W roxeter , S a lop R udbaxton , P embroke A rras , N orth Y orkshire
AP P E N D I X
II
R ITUAL S HAFTS
I NTRODUCTION T he f ollow ing g azetteer o f r itual s hafts i ncludes a ll o f t he s hafts o r w e lls c onsidered i n c hapter t hree o f t he t ext . I t i s. b y n o m eans e xhaust ive . T he b asis f or t his g azetteer a re t he s tudies b y R oss ( 1968 , 1 976) , a nd G reen ( 1976). A n umber o f t he p its c onsidered b y R oss h ave b een o m itted h ere , a s t hey s eemed t oo s hallow o r s imply t oo i nnocuous i n f ill. Af ew m ore r ecent ly f ound s hafts h ave b een a dded , t o m ake a t otal o f 1 02 . T his s upplementary e vidence w as d rawn f rom a s earch o f t he c ounty j ournals f or O xfordshire , N orthamptonshire , W iltshire , D orset , S ussex a nd H ampshire f rom 1 9701980 . T hese w ere c hosen t o s upplement t he m any d ocumented e xamples f rom K ent a nd S urrey f ound i n t he r esearch o f R oss ( 1967). T here a re u ndoubtedly s hafts o f r itual s ignificance m issing , a nd s ome o f t hose i ncluded m ay n ot b e r itual, b ut t he f ill o f t he s hafts i s a s r emarkably c onsistent i n n ature a s i t i s d ifferent f rom t he o rdinary r ubb ish p it f ill.
A RDLEIGH , 1 2 3 4
5 6
E ssex T M 0 57286 . P robab le f armstead . RS1 . O ne s haft , 3m d eep x 1 .5 m d iameter . C ontents : p ottery , h orse b ones , h orse s kull, d eer a nt lers , a ll d eliberate ly a rranged i n l ayers l ined w ith a h o llowed o ak—tree t runk . P robab ly R oman . E r ith 1 965 , 3 0-38 ; R oss 1 968 , 2 84 .
A RMSLEY , H ants 1 S U 1 64 160 . 2 S ett lement . 3 RS2 . 4 O ne s haft , o ver 2 m d eep . C ontents : m uch o rganic m ater ial, a nima l b ones , t hree c omp lete p ots , av ot ive w ooden h ead , o ne h orse s kull, c o ins , i ron t oo ls , q uern s tones , d eer b ones a nd a nt lers . 5 P robab ly R oman . 6 E dwardes 1 93 1, 5 6-62 ; R oss 1 968 , 2 84 . A SHILL , N orfo lk 1 I F 8 804 . 2 A 5h ectare , r ectangular d itched e nclosure , n o d omest ic o ccupat ion . 3 RS3 ( No 1 i n R oss 1 968). 4 D epth 1 3 m , d iameter 1 m . L ined w ith o ak . C ontents a re d e liberate ly l ayered : a shes , b ones o f d eer , c att le , p ig . 5 0 c omp lete p ots . P reserved o rganic m ater ia l i nc lud ing h aze lnuts , a corns , o ak t w igs . B ronze f ibula , i ron t oo l.
O ver
3 4
RS4 ( Ashill N o 2i n R oss 1 968). D epth 7 m . L ined . C ontents : c omp lete p ots , c ow s ku ll a nd d eer a nt lers .
3 4
RS5 ( Ashill " Pit" i n R oss 1 968). D epth 2 m . L ined w ith a n o ak b arrel. C ontents : m any p otsherds ; g oat s kull; p ig , c att le a nd d eer b ones .
5 6
P robab ly R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 84-285 ; G regory 1 977 , 9 -30 ; M anning 1 875 , 1 08 ; 1 889 , 3 52 .
A SHTEAD , S urrey 1 T Q 1 94577 . 2 S ett lement : 3 RS6 . 4 6m d eep . C ontents :
a shes ,
p ottery , m any a nima l b ones .
3 4
RS7 . 3m d eep .
5 6
P robab ly s ixth c entury B C . R oss 1 968 , 2 59 ; L owther 1 933 , 9 3-98 .
C ontents : p ottery , m any a nima l b ones .
A STHALL , O xon 1 S P 2 8 11. 2 R oman s ite ; p ossibly c ult s ite . 3 RS8 ( Well A sthall N o 1i n R oss 1 968). 4 3m x 1 .5 m . D eliberate ly l ayered f ill i ncluding f ive c omp lete d og s keletons , h orse j aw , c omplete p ots , m any p otsherds a nd a nima l b ones , o ne f irst c entury b rooch . 3 4
RS9 ( We ll N o 2i n R oss 1 968). 3m x 1 .8 m . M uch p ottery .
3 4
RS1 0 ( Asthall " Pit" i n R oss 1 968). 1 .2 m x 0 .75 m . P ottery s herds , c harcoal, p ins , i ron o bjects .
5
R oman . S ubsequently , am iniature b ronze v ot ive a xe a nd a b ronze s wan—shaped j ug h andle w ere f ound o n s ite . R oss 1 968 , 2 59 ; C ook 1 955 , 2 9 .
6
b one a nd b ronze
A YLESFORD , K ent 1 T Q 7 30592 . 2 B e lgic c remat ion c emetery . 3 RS1 ( Ay lesford P it 1 i n R oss 1 968). 4 4mx2 .2 m . E nt irely f illed w ith a nimal b ones . 5 F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 59 ; E vans 1 890 , 3 17 . B AR H ILL , 1 2 3 4
5 6
S trathclyde N X 2 382 . R oman f ort . RS1 2 . 1 4 mx1 .3 m . D e liberately f illed . C ontents : c olumn s ect ions , o ne a ltar , l arge p ieces o f o ak , t welve l eather b oots , c oins , d eer a ntlers , c att le a nd s heep b ones , h azelnuts , h awthorn t w igs , o ne l arge a mphora c ontaining a b ag o f i ron t oo ls a nd i ron o bjects , o yster s he lls . R oman , s econd c entury A D . R oss & F eacham 1 976 ; R oss 1 968 , 2 59 ; M acöonald 1 906 , 4 03-546 .
B EKESBOURNE , K ent 1 T R 1 955 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS1 3 ( Bekesbourne N o 1i n R oss 1 968). 4 6m x 1m . L ined w ith o ak p lanks , c ontents d eliberately l ayered , a lternat ing f lints a nd c omp lete p ots a nd h orses' o n , a f lat s tone c overing b ottom .
t eeth
3 4
RS1 4 ( Bekesbourne N o 2i n R oss 1 968). 5m x 1m . F illed w ith f lint n odules , • w ith t hree c omplete u rns a nd a n a mphora .
5 6
P robably f irst c entury A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 60 ; B rent 1 859 ,
4 3-48 .
B ERTHA , T ayside 1 N O 0 529 . 2 L eft b ank o f R iver A lmond , u nknown s ite . 3 RS1 5 . 4 6m x ?m . T ota l o f e ight s hafts o bserved , a ll w ith c omp lete p ots f ull o f a shes o n t he b ottom , r est o f f ill a pparent ly s ter ile . O ne a lso h ad a h e lmet , as pearhead a nd a l ead b ar . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 60 ; S tuart 1 852 , 2 05 . B IDDENHAM , B eds 1 T L 0 249 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS1 6 . 4 1 m x 1m . C ontents : a n a ltar , o ne c omp lete h uman s ke leton , o ne m ut ilated s tatue , s tone s lab w ith i ncised r epresentat ion o f ac rane , f ragments o f 5 0 R oman u rns ; b ones o f h orse , c ow , p ig , d ogs , f ox . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 60 . B IRCHINGTON , K ent 1 T R 3 069 . 2 S ea s hore o f M innis B ay? R omano—Br it ish " p it d welling" t o n orthwest . 3 RS 1 7 . 4 1 0 m x 1m . C ontents d e liberately l ayered . T op 8 m o f f ill o f a nima l b ones o f c ow , h orse , p ig , t hen a s andstone s lab w ith c entra l h o le . B e low , ah orse s kull, s ome a nimal b ones a nd p ieces o f o ak . B ottom 0 .5 m c onta ins m ore t han 2 00 u nopened o yster s he lls . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 60 ; B urcha ll 1 949 , 5 2 . B OSSENS , 1 2 3 4
5 6 B RAMPTON , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S t E rth , C ornwa ll S W 5 58348 . S ub—rectangu lar d efensive e nclosure , p ossib ly R oman f ort let . RS 1 8 . 1 2 m x ?m . C ontents : v ot ive b ronze p atera t o M ars ; o ne b ronze j ug ; ' q uern s tones ; as econd , t wo—handled p atera ; f ragments o f h orse b ones a nd l eather . P robably R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 6 1; B or lase 1 769 , 3 16 . C umbria N Y ,536 1. R oman t ilery s ite . RS 1 9 . 3m x 0 .5 m . C ontents : 6 0 i ron t oo ls , m ost ly a gr icultural a nd m ost b ent d oub le . 1 00125 A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 62 ; M anning 1 966 , 1 -36 .
B RISLINGTON , A von 1 S T 6 17 1. 2 R oman v illa s ite . 3 RS2 0 . 4 4 2 mx1 .3 m . U pper 4 m o f f ill o f p otsherds , n ext 2 m f ill w ith m any a nima l b ones , s evera l h uman s kulls , s evera l c omp lete m eta l a nd c eram ic v esse ls , r est o f f ill o f p otsherds , a nima l b ones , a nd s ome b ronze o bjects . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 62 ; B arker 1 90 1, c xiii D 8 . C ABURN , S ussex 1 T Q 4 44089 . 2 L ate I ron A ge h illfort o ccupat ion . 3 RS2 1. 4 3m x 3m . A nima l b ones o f c ow , p ig , r abb it , c ock . A t b ottom , p otsherds , a n i ron " clinker" a nd t he b ones o f ad og . 5 S econd—f irst c entury B C . 6 C urwen & C urwen 1 927 , 1 . C ADBURY C ASTLE , n ear T iverton , D evon 1 S S 9 205 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 RS2 2 . 4 1 8 mx1 .5 m . S haft l ined w ith p uddled c lay . F ill o f s herds , a shes , f ragments o f b one , t wenty b ronze b racelets a nd f our o f s ha le , o ne r ing w ith p aste i ntag lio , s evera l g lass a nd e name l b eads , h orses ' t eeth a nd h uman b ones . 5 P robab ly P re—Roman I ron A ge . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 62 ; F ox 1 952 , 1 05 ; T ucker 1 848 , 1 93198 . C AERWENT , 1 2 3 4
M onmouth , G went S T 4 79 1. R oman c ivitas . RS2 3 ( We ll C aerwent N o 1i n R oss 1 968). 9 m x 1m . C ontents : a nima l b ones o f c ows , m any s herds , c o ins , ab ucket , h aze lnuts a nd t w igs .
t hree
3 4
RS2 4 ( We ll N o 2i n R oss 1 968) . 7m g0 .6 m . F ragments o f h uman s kull, s evera l o x s kulls , o ther a nimal b ones , p ottery , f ragments o f ab ucket .
3 4
RS2 5 ( We ll 2 2 i n R oss 1 968). N o d imensions . F ive d og s kulls .
3 4
RS2 6 ( We ll 2 6 i n R oss 1 968). N o d imensions . O ne d og s kull.
3 4
RS2 7 ( We ll 3 i n R oss 1 968). 3m x ?m . C ontents d e liberate ly l ayered . A t 7f eet d epth , a s andstone s lab w edged a cross w e ll, b eneath a v oid f or 8 f eet . B eneath t h is s t e in ing g a ve w ay t o s labs o n e dge , f ill o f s tones , s lab , t iles , m ortar , b elow t his s everal b uckets a nd a nother s lab . A t b ottom , ap ewter j ug a nd p late o rnamented w ith a w hee l i n s quare f rame . P ottery , w ood , m etal f itt ings a nd a c ow 's r ib a lso o n b ottom .
3 4
RS2 8 ( We ll 4 i n R oss 1 968). N o d imensions . S tatue o f as eated d e ity , i ron t oo ls .
5 6
R oman , s econd—third c entur ies A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 62 ; A shby , H udd & M art in 1 902 ,
a nd a c o llect ion o f
1 905 ,
1 906 .
C ALKE W OOD , R ick ingha ll, S uffo lk 1 T M 0 475 . 2 I ron A ge o ccupat ion s ite . S ome t wo d ozen s hafts , n oted . 3 RS2 9 . 4 1 0 m x ?m . S haft l ined w ith c lay a nd a n o rganic s ubstance . M asses o f p ottery s herds , b ones a nd l umps o f b aked c lay . 5 P robab ly P re—Roman I ron A ge w ith s ome R oman o ccupat ion . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 63 ; W acher 1 960 , 1 -28 . C ARRAWBURGH , N orthumber land 1 N Y 8 573 . 2 R oman F ort o f B roco lit ia , C ovent ina 's W e ll. 3 RS3 0 . 4 2m x2m . S quare s ect ioned . 1 3 ,000 c o ins d ated A D 4 1 t o A D 3 83 ; 2 4 a ltars , s evera l t o C ovent ina ( a C e lt ic d e ity) , s evera l w ith r ings f or s uspension o ver o r i mmersion i n w e ll, p ins a nd b rooches , b ronze f igur ines o f h orse a nd d og , s hr ine b e lls , a nd a h uman s kull. 5 R oman , f irst—fourth c entur ies A D . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 63 ; C layton 1 880 , 1 -39 . C RAYFORD , 1 2 3 4
5 6
K ent T Q 5 1075 1. U nknown . RS3 1. 1 2 m x ?m . F ill c onta ined a 4 m t h ick d eposit o f p ottery v esse ls ; l ower w ere p re—Roman , u pper i nc luded S am ian a nd U pchurch w ares . A lso i ncluded w ere a nima l b ones , b its o f i ron a nd o yster s he lls . P re—Roman I ron A ge a nd e ar ly R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 63 ; H averf ield , 1 932 , 1 46 .
D UNSTABLE , B eds 1 T L 0 332 16 . 2 R oman s ett lement , a lso k nown a s " Sewell" o r " Ma iden B ower" . 3 RS3 2 . 4 3 8 m x 1m . F ill o f p otsherds , h uman b ones , a nima l b ones , t iles , c o ins , a shes a nd c harred w ood . 1 3 4
T L 0 192 17 . RS3 3 . 2 4 mx1 .2 m . A ssociated w ith a t imber b uild ing . F ill i nc luded f ive c omp lete h uman s ke letons , o ne h uman c remat ion , s evera l h orse s kulls , a nother h uman s kull, a n o x—goad , i ron k nife , b ronze s patula b rooch a nd r ing , o ne c omp lete p ot ( ear ly s econd c entury d ate), a s ilver r ing , c herry s tones a nd h aze lnuts .
5 6
R oman , f irst—second c entur ies A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 64 ; M atthews & H utch ings 1 972 ,
2 1-34 .
[ WELL , S urrey 1 T Q 2 28599 . 2 I ron A ge a nd R oman s ett lement . 3 RS3 4 . 4 U p t o 1 0 s hafts f ound , d epths v ar ied 3 m t o 1 2 m . C ontents i ncluded , i n a n o rder ly s equence : l arge a nima l b ones ( cow , s heep , d eer , p ig) , al ayer o f S am ian s herds , s ome c omp lete v esse ls , al ayer o f r ich o rganic m ater ia l, b ones o f c ock a nd h are a nd a c omplete d og w ith s kull d isp laced , f o llowed b y a mphorae a nd o ther v esse ls , a nd i ron t oo ls o n t he b ottom . 5 P robab ly R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 64 ; D iamond 1 847 , 4 5 1-455 . F ELIXSTOWE , S uffo lk 1 T M 3 034 . 2 I ron A ge a nd R oman s ett lement . 3 RS3 5 . 4 2m x0 .75 m . L ined w ith o ak p lanks . O n b ottom i n n ortheast d ormer a c omplete R oman v esse l f illed w ith a corns . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 64 ; M anning 1 874 , 3 03 . F RITTENDON , K ent 1 T Q 8 14 1. 2 U nknown . 3 RS3 6 . 4 4 m x ?m . T imberwork , p ossib ly l ined . T wo U pchurch u rns o n b ottom o f p it f illed w ith d ecayed v egetab le m atter . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 64 ; H averf ie ld , 1 932 , 1 46 . G REAT C HESTERFORD , E ssex 1 T L 5 03430 . 2 R oman t own . 3 RS3 7 ( No 5 i n N ev ille 1 855 , 1 856 , 1 860). 4 1 .8 m x ? m . 9 6 i ron t oo ls , a" sm ith 's h oard" . 3 4
RS3 8 ( No 6 i n N ev ille). 3m x ?m . B ones o f c att le , o ne c omp lete d og , c omp lete p ots .
3 4
RS3 9 ( No 1 8 i n N eville). 1 .8 m x ? m . O ne c omp lete p ot , m any s herds , s ke leton .
3 4
RS4 0 ( No 1 9 i n N eville). 3m x ?m . O ne c omplete p ot , o ne c omp lete d og s ke leton .
3 4
RS4 1 ( No 3 8b i n N eville). 5m x ?m . A nima l b ones o f c att le , o ne c omp lete p ot , c omp lete d og s ke leton , o yster s he lls .
3 4
RS4 2 ( No 4 3 i n N eville). 6m x ?m . P ot s herds , c att le b ones , d og b ones , o yster s he lls , s ix c omp lete p ots .
5 6
R oman . N eville 1 855 ,
1 09126 ;
1 856 ,
1 13 ;
326-
1 860 ,
t ota l o f n ine
o ne c omp lete d og
17127 .
o ne
o ne d og s kull,
G REENHITHE , K ent 1 T Q 5 874 . 2 U nknown , b ut a n I ron A ge s ettlement a pproximately 3 00 m a way . 3 RS4 3 . 4 1 0 m x 7m . A nimal b ones o f h orse , p ig , c ow , d eer a nd b irds . P otsherds , o ne i ron k ey , n a ils a nd a h oop , t wo c arved b one s ockets , a nd t hree c omp lete h uman s keletons s ide b y s ide o n b ottom . 5 P robably I ron A ge . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 65 . H ARDHAM , 1 2 3 4
S ussex T Q 0 4 17 . R oman o ccupat ion s ite . RS4 4 ( No 2 i n R oss 1 968). 2 .5 m x 0 .5 m . S haft l ined , a t b ottom w ith o ak p lanks. O ne h uman c remat ion i n u rn , w ith a s hallow p atera n ext t o i t ; t hree c att le h orn c ores a nd b ones o f c att le , h orse a nd p ig , l eather f ragments .
3 4
RS4 5 ( No 2 i n R oss 1 968). 2 .5 m x 0 .5 m . L ined w ith o ak p lanks . T wo c omp lete p ots o n b ottom , l eather f ragments , t hree c ow h orn c ores , o ne i ron r od , b ronze p in , ap ottery w ine f unnel a nd a nother c eram ic v ase , a ll i n av ery a shy f ill.
3 4
RS4 6 ( No 3 i n R dss 1 968). 2 .5 m x 0 .5 m . O ne c inerary u rn , t wo h orn c ores o n aR oman b rick a nd n umerous s herds .
3 4
RS4 7 ( Shaft 6 i n R oss 1 968). 2 .5 m x 1 .5 m . L ined s haft , b ottom l ined w ith f lints , a n a mphora u pside d own w ith t wo c o ins a nd a q uant ity o f d ark m atter i nside .
5 6
R oman . R oss 1 968 ,
H EYWOOD , 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 65 ;
D awkins 1 864 ,
5 2-64 .
W ilts S T 8 753 . U nknown . RS4 8 . N o d imensions. C onsiderable q uant ity o f p otsherds . O ne c ow s kull, o ne h orse s kull, a nd p arts o f f our h uman s kulls . U ncertain , p robably I ron A ge . R oss 1 968 , 265 ; G r insell 1 957 , 7 6 .
I PSDEN , O xon 1 S U 6 385 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS4 9 . 4 N o d imensions , t hough o f " considerab le" d epth . t hree h uge l ogs w ere s et u pr ight . 5 U ndated , p robably I ron A ge . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 66 .
A t b ottom ,
I PSWICH , S uffolk 1 T M 1 744 . 2 U nknown , p robably R oman? 3 RS5 0 . 4 9m x 1m . L ined w ith c lay , o ne s herd o f R omano—Br it ish p ot a nd a s ect ion o f h air o f e ither h are o r b adger . 3 4
RS5 1 . 2 0 mx2m . T op 2 0 f eet o f f ill d eliberate a nd c lean s ilt , a p iece o f h air l ike R S 5 0 a bove , u nder t he b ase o f ap illar o f c lay w ith b lack f lints p ressed i nto s urface w hich s tood u pr ight i n c entre o f s haft . S o il c laimed t o c ontain i ron o xides . N ear b ottom , t wo s mall s ilver s heets a nd a c y linder o f p olished m arble . B ottom a p avement o f c halk f lints .
5 6
P robably R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 66 ; M oir 1 935 ,
1 4 1149 .
J ORDAN H ILL , D orset 1 S Y 6 89823 . 2 R omano—Celtic t emple . 3 RS5 2 . 4 4m x ?m . L ined w ith c lay a nd t iles s et o n e dge . O n b ottom , o n ab ed o f c lay , w as a c ist o f s tones i n w hich w ere t wo R oman u rns , o ne i ron s word , o ne i ron s pearhead , a n i ron k nife , t wo i ron b ars a nd a s teelyard . A bove t his w as a t hick l ayer o f s tone t iles , t hen a l ayer o f a shes . T hen s ixteen r epet it ions o f : p airs o f t iles w ith o ne b ird s keleton a nd o ne c o in b etween e ach p air . H alfway t o t op , a nother s tone c ist w ith a n i ron s word , s pearhead a nd t wo u rns . B irds w ere c row , r aven , b uzzard a nd s tar ling . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 67-268 ; M anning 1 972 , 2 24-250 . N EWSTEAD , 1 2 3 4
R oxburgh , B orders N T 5 65335 . R oman f ort . RS5 3 ( No 1 i n C ur le 1 9 11). 7 .6 m x 6 .1 m . W ell l ined w ith r ed s andstone b locks . C ontents i ncluded i ron t ools , a rmour , c oins , t wo h uman s kulls , c att le b ones , " many" h orse s kulls , d eer a nt lers , o ne a ltar t o J upiter , m uch j ewelry , o ne c omplete h uman s ke leton .
3 4
RS5 4 ( Railway P it i n C ur le 1 9 11; R oss & F eacham 1 976 , 2 34). 3m x 1m . O ne h uman s keleton s tanding u pr ight o n b ottom .
3 4
RS5 5 ( No 6 i n C urle). 3m x 1 .8 m . G lass f ragments ,
3 4
RS5 6 ( No 7 i n C ur le). 5m x 2 .6 .m . S everal c omplete p ots , as pearhead , m any a nimal b ones , h orse s kulls , o ne b ird l eg , o yster s hells .
3 4
RS 5 7 ( No 1 0 i n C ur ie). 6mx2 .6 m . Aw ood b oard , s pearheads , ak ett le .
p ig b ones a nd a p ig s kull.
h aze l t w igs ,
t wo q uerns ,
t wo
3 4
RS5 8 ( No 1 4 i n C urie). 5m x 1 .5 m . O ne s word , b ronze c ook ing p ot , t welve i ron t oo ls a nd e ight o ther i ron o bjects , t wo w ooden b ow ls .
3 4
RS5 9 ( No 1 6 i n C ur ie 1 911). 6 .7 m x 2 m . T wo g lass b ow ls , s evera l c omp lete p ots . A nimal b ones o f h orse , c ow , d og . O ne s word , f ive s pearheads a nd n ineteen o ther i ron t oo ls , b its o f l eather a nd o ne h uman s kull.
3 4
RS6 0 ( No 1 7 i n C ur ie 1 911; R oss & F eacham 1 976 , 2 36). 9 .8 m x 1 .8 m . N ine c omplete h orses , o ne c omplete h uman f ema le s ke leton w ith a d og s kull i mmediately b elow , ac ow s kull, p otsherds a nd o yster s hells , a n i ron h ammer , s ty lus , r ing , s aw a nd h aze lnuts .
3 4
RS6 1 7 .6 m x s ickle , aq uern
3 4
RS6 2 ( No 2 3 i n C ur ie 1 911; R oss & F eacham 1 976 , 2 36). 9 .2 m x 2 .6 m . An ine—foot l ong b irch b ranch s tanding u pr ight , b elow w hich w ere " many" d eer a nt lers , f ive d og s kulls , ah orse s kull a nd a b ucket , o ne h uman s kull, t wo c omplete w hee ls , a nd t wo m ore h orse s kulls .
3 4
RS 6 3 ( No 1 2 i n C ur ie 1 911). 4 .3 m x 3 m . C omplete p ots , o ne d og s kull, o ther b ird b ones.
3 4
RS6 4 ( No 2 6 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 3 .7 m x 1 .2 m . H azelnuts , m iscellaneous a nimal b ones , s hells .
3 4
RS6 5 ( No 2 7 i n C urie 1 911). 3m x 1 .8 m . C ow s kull, f our p ieces o f a rmour , p ots , t wo d og s kulls , d eer a nt lers .
3 4
RS6 6 ( No 2 8 i n C ur ie 1 911). 3 .7 m x 1 .2 m . L ined s haft , w ith c att le b ones , o yster s hells , o ak p lank , b asketry a nd f our c omplete p ots .
3 4
RS6 7 ( No 3 7 i n C ur ie 1 911). 3 .7 m x 2 .6 m . M asses o f t w igs i n f ill, h orn c omb a nd o yster s hells.
3 4
RS6 8 ( No 5 6 i n C ur le 1 911). 4 .9 m x 1 .5 m . T wo d og s kulls , o ne c ow s kull, o ne h orse s kull, t wo c omplete p ots , t wo i ron r ings , b one p in w ith h uman b ust t erm inal.
3 4
RS6 9 ( No 6 1 i n C ur ie 1 911). 1 mx2 .1 m . O ne w hetstone , t wo c omplete p ots , i ron g r idiron , t wo h orse s kulls , q uern s tone , o ne c ow s kull, h azelnuts a nd t w igs , l eather a nd b racken .
( No 2 2 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 2 .6 m . H aze l t w igs , o ne c omplete p ot , p otsherds , o ne o ne a rm let , t hree h e lmets , o ne d og s kull, d eer a nt lers , s tone .
o ne b ird s kull,
o yster
t wo c omplete
t wo c omp lete p ots ,
3 4
RS7 0 ( No 6 2 i n C ur ie 1 911). 6 .7 m x 1 .8 m . B irch b ranches , p ot .
3 4
RS7 1 ( No 6 5 i n C ur ie 1 911). 5m x 1 .8 m . T wo c oins , f ibulae , s urgeon's p robe , i ron h anging— lamp , t hree c omplete p ots , a nd a n u pr ight s teer ing o ar o f o ak .
3 4
RS 7 2 ( No 6 6 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 1 0 mx3m . T wo c oins , t wo c omplete p ots , t wo q uerns , e ight h orse s kulls , t hirteen c att le s kulls , a nd d eer a nt lers i n a n o therw ise c lean g rave l f ill.
3 4
RS7 3 ( No 7 1 i n C ur ie 1 911). 3m x 1 .8 m . F ull o f a nimal b ones .
3 4
RS7 4 ( No 8 3 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 5m x 2 .6 m . A n a ltar o f A po llo , m asses o f t w igs , s hie ld b oss , p otsherds .
3 4
RS7 5 ( No 8 8 i n C ur ie 1 911). 3 .7 m x 0 .9 m . M asonry l ining . B ones o f h orse , s heep , c att le , p ig a nd d eer , i ron f ork , l eather s craps , ab ucket .
3 4
RS7 6 ( No 8 9 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 4 .9 m x 2 .7 m . P otsherds , w hetstone , i ron h oe , b ones o f c attle , h orse , o ne d og s kull.
3 4
RS7 7 ( No 9 1 i n C ur ie 1 9 11). 5m x 0 .9 m . Ad eliberately b uilt c lay s urface s ealed s haft e xcept f or a 1 f oot s quare a perture . F illing b lack a nd u nusually f riable , f ull o f o rganic m ater ial, c attle b ones , o yster s hells , a nd f our c omp lete p ots a mongst m any s herds .
3 4
RS7 8 ( No 9 2 i n C ur ie 1 911). 2 .6 m x 1 .5 m . C lean f ill e xcept f or m asses o f c att le b ones , o ne h orse f igurine a nd a b ronze c ircular d isc .
3 4
RS7 9 ( No 9 4 i n C ur ie 1 911). 5m x 1 .8 m . L ined w ith b arrels w ith p ine s taves . I ron s hovel, p otsherds , o ak b ranches , as heep s kull a nd c o ins i n f ill.
3 4
RS8 0 ( N6 9 5 i n C urie 1 9 11; R oss & F eacham 1 976 , 2 36-237). 5m x 2 .7 m . A t b ottom , aw hee l a nd v ar ious b ronze h arness f ittings. A n i ron k ey , o ne c o in , d eer a ntlers , o ne c ow s kull, s everal l ogs o f w ood , s ix c omp lete p ots .
5 6
R oman p er iod ; af ew m ay p redate R oman o ccupation . C ur ie 1 9 11; R oss & F eacham 1 976 , 2 29-237 .
l eather s craps ,
o ne c omplete
f ragmentary
l eather s hoes ,
N ORTHFLEET , K ent 1 T Q 6 274 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS8 1. 4 1 5 m x ?m . Ah orse s kull w ith o ne c omp lete p ot , f orty-one f lint f lakes o n as he lf i n ac hamber . A nima l b ones i n t he f o llow ing , a pparent ly p urposeful g roups : 1 D og , h orse a nd s heep b ones w ith a l arge d og 's s kull 2 S kull o f ah orse w ith a n o x t ooth 3 S ke leton o f af ox w ithout s kull 4 S kull o f t he f ox w ith b ones o f b adger , b ird , d og a nd s heep 5 S kull o f t he b adger w ith j aws o f t he d og 6 B ones o f b adger , b ird a nd h orse 7 B ones o f h ornless s heep a nd a h orse t ooth 8 S ome b ones a nd t wo s kulls o f s heep , w ith s ome b ird b ones . S ku lls o f b adger a nd s heep , h orse b ones , s kull o f h orse , s kull o f f ox , s kull a nd l imb b ones o f ah orn less s heep w ith l ower j aw o f a n o x . 5 P robab ly m id-f irst t o m id-second c entury A D . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 70 ; B urcha ll 1 949 , 1 3 . P AGAN 'S H ILL , S omerset 1 S T 56 , 6 26 . 2 AR omano-Ce lt ic t emp le c omp lex i n a n I ron A ge h illfort , s haft p art o f R omano-Celt ic c omp lex . 3 RS8 3 . 4 1 7 .2 m x 0 .75 m . S haft l ined w ith s tone b locks . F ill i ncluded a nima l b ones o f c ow a nd s heep , f ifteen c o ins , o ak b ranches , a nd c lose t o 5 0 c omp lete p ots . 5 L ate R oman p er iod , s econd-fourth c entur ies A D . 6 R ahtz 1 95 1, 12142 ; R ahtz & H arr is 1 958 , 1 05112 . P LUMSTEAD , K ent 1 T Q 4 477 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS8 2 . 4 1 5 m x 5m . A t b ottom , s even o r e ight c omp lete U pchurch u rns , a n i ron k nife a nd b e ll, a nd o yster s he lls ; u pper f ill i ncluded s kulls o f c ow , p ig , g oat a nd d og a nd d eer a nt lers . 5 P robab ly R oman p er iod . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 70 ; P ayne 1 89 1, 2 45 . P URBERRY S HOT , E we ll, S urrey 1 T Q 2 1862 1. . 2 U nknown , b ut c onsiderab le o ccupat ion o f b oth I ron A ge a nd R oman p er iod n earby . 3 RS8 4 . 4 1 3 m x ?m . L ined w ith c halk a nd c lay . A n o therw ise c lean f ill c ontained s ome p otsherds , ac omp lete p ot , a n i ron b rooch , ar azor a nd a k nife . 5 P robab ly p re-Roman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 7 1; L owther 1 94 1, xv ; 1 949 , 9 -46 .
R AMSGATE , 1 2 3 4
5 6
K ent T R 3 864 . U nknown RS8 5 . 3 5 m x0 .75 m . A lmost c omp lete ly f illed w ith f lints . B ottom 0 .75 m o f f ill o f a lternat ing l ayers o f e arth , f lint , a nd b ones o f c ow , h orse , d eer . O ne c omp lete p ot , m any p otsherds . N ear b ottom , as tone s lab , 0 .75 m i n d iameter , w ith a h o le t hrough t he c entre . Af ew b its o f i ron . P robab ly R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 7 1; H averf ie ld 1 932 , 1 46 .
R ICHBOROUGH , K ent 1 T R 3 24602 . 2 N ear R oman f ort . 3 RS8 6 . 4 N o d imensions . F ill v ery r ich w ith o rganic m ater ia l, d eer a nt lers , a nd b ones o f p ig , g oat a nd s heep . 5 R oman . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 7 1; S m ith 1 850 , 5 5 . R OTHERFIELD P EPPARD , O xon 1 S U 7 18 1. 2 U nknown . 3 RS8 7 . 4 1 5 .5 m x ? m . C ontents i ncluded t wo c omp lete p ots , s kulls , h aze lnuts a nd a w ho le o ak t ree t runk . 5 P robab ly I ron A ge . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 7 1; T ay lor 1 939 , 3 39 . S ANDWICH , 1 2 3 4
5 6
t wo d eer
K ent ( also c a lled E astry) T R 3 358 . P ossib le R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le? RS8 8 . 2 1.8 m x 1 m . C hamber a t b ottom o f s haft 1 .3 m x 2 .4 m . P robab ly t hree c omplete b ut b roken p ots p laced o n b ottom . F ill o f c hamber -I n c ludes l arge q uant ities o f R omano—Br it ish p otsherds w hich m atched t he s herds i n t he d e liberate s ea ling o f t he m outh o f t he s haft . M ost o f s haft f ill o f p otsherds a nd a nima l b ones . F irst—second c entury A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 7 1; B urchall 1 949 .
S ILCHESTER , H ants . 1 S U ' 6 39624 . 2 R oman c ivitas . 3 RS8 9 ( In B lock II , S outh o f H ouse 1 ) . 4 2 .8 m x 0 .75 m . F illed w ith p erfect ly c lean g rave l w ith f our c omp lete j ugs a rranged o n b ottom . 3 4
RS9 0 ( No 2 , I nsula x xiii). 6 .4 m x 0 .75 m . C o llection o f o ver 1 00 i ron t oo ls ; m ost a s m ith 's t oo ls b ut a lso s ome c arpentry t oo ls . A lso f our b ronze c ooking p ans a nd t wo c omplete p ots .
3 4
RS9 1 ( Insula 1 ) . 3m x 1 .2 m . L ined w e ll o r s haft . I nc luded a n i ron s word b roken i n t wo , a nd b e low t hat a c o llect ion o f o ver 6 0 i ron t oo ls ; o n b ottom i n as tone c ist w ere t wo c omp lete p ots .
5 6
R oman , p robab ly s econd—third c entury A D . F ox & S t J ohn H ope , 1 90 1, 9 6 , 2 47 ; 1 890 ,
7 42-743 .
S OUTHWARK , S urrey 1 T Q 3 179 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS9 2 . 4 2 .5 m x ? m . S haft l ined w ith o ak p lanks . F i ll i ncluded t hree c omp lete p ots , o ne c omp lete " vot ive" p ot , a nd d eer a nt lers . 5 S econd c entury A D . 6 B lo ice 1 975 , 2 56-259 . S TONE , B ucks 1 S P 7 8 12 . 2 U nknown , b ut a R oman e arthwork 3 00 m t o e ast . 3 RS9 3 . 4 8 .3 m x ? m . S ome 2 m f rom s urface , s haft w idened i nto a s mall c hamber " roofed" b y as tone s lab w ith a c entra l h o le . T he c hamber c ontained m any w ho le a nd p art ia l c inerary u rns , s ome w ith h uman b ones , b urnt o ak a nd b eech , a nd b ones o f l arge a nima ls . A bout 3 m b e low t his w as a s econd c hamber b e low a s im ilar ly h o led r ock s lab . T his a lso h ad f unerary u rns a nd b ones , p lus a n o x s kull, t we lve c omp lete u rns , t wo b ronze r ings a nd b ucket w ith i ron h oops . 5 P robab ly R oman p er iod . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 73 ; A kerman 1 852 , 2 1-32 . S TROOD , K ent 1 T Q 7 369 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS9 4 . • 4 3 .m x 1 m . C omp lete v essels o f b oth S am ian a nd U pchurch t ypes , c o ins , f inger r ings , i ron n ails , k nives a nd c ha in , g lass , a nimal b ones o f c ow , p ig , d og a nd d eer , o ne h uman s ke leton . F rom a g roup o f a bout a d ozen v ery s im ilar s hafts f ound s et c lose t ogether . 5 R oman p er iod . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 73 ; H averf ie ld 1 932 , 1 46 . S TURMINSTER ,MARSHALL , D orset • 1 S Y 9 499 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS9 5 . 4 3m x 1 .8 m . O ne o f ag roup o f s ix s im ilar p its . O ne c ontained f ive c omp lete p ots w ith t he s kulls o f a n o x a nd a d og o n t he b ottom . 5 P robab ly P re—Roman I ron A ge . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 73 ; W arne 1 872 , 3 30 .
T ALLINGTON , L incs 1 T F 1 0 1100 . 2 R omano-Br it ish f armstead . 3 RS9 6 . 4 N o d imensions p ublished . F ill m ost ly p otsherds , o ne u ninscribed a ltar a nd o ne c omplete p ot . 5 R oman p er iod , s econd-third c entury A D . 6 P eacock 1 961, 10124 . W ARBANK K ESTON , K ent 1 T Q 4 21640 . 2 N ear a R omano-Celtic t emp le? 3 RS9 7 . 4 4 .9 m x 3 .3 m . A mong a shes o f h aze l, o ne c remated d og a nd a f ew p otsherds . c lean c halk . 5 U ncertain , p robably R oman . 6 F ox 1 967 , 1 84191.
b ut i ncluded
b irch a nd h awthorn w ere O therw ise f illed w ith
W INTERBOURNE K INGSTON , D orset 1 S Y 8 697 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS9 8 ( Shaft N o 1i n R oss 1 968). 4 2 1.5 m x 2 .4 m . S haft w as l ined a nd c ontained o ne c omp lete p ot , p otsherds a nd a shes . 3 4
RS9 9 ( Next t o 9 0 , S haft N o 2i n R oss 1 968). 2 6 .1 m x 0 .75 m . F ill c ontained a m etal s heet w ith a h are e mbossed o n i t , aP urbeck m arb le v ase , b ronze f ibulae a nd o ther b its o f j ewelry , c oins , n ails , p otsherds , s hale , g lass , b ones o f c ow , d og , p ig a nd s heep , a nd o yster s hells . A bout f our f eet e ast o f t his s haft w as a c ircle o f s ix f eet d iameter d emarcated b y t iles s et u pright ; i n t he c entre w as a s mall c onica l s arsen s tone b eside w hich w as f ound a n i ron k nife .
5 6
U ndated , b ut p robably R oman . R oss 1 968 , 2 74 ; M ansel-Pleydell 1 890 ,
1 16 ; W arne 1 872 ,
2 04 .
W OLFHAMCOTE , S awbr idge , W arks 1 S P 5 065 . 2 U nknown . 3 RS 1 00 . 4 1 2 .3 m x 1 .2 m ( bottom n ot r eached). S quare s haft b locked a t a bout 6 .8 m i n d epth b y as tone w ith a c entra l h o le c hopped t htough i t . O n t his w ere p laced t welve c omplete p ots . T we lve o thers w ere b elow t he s tone a nd w ere o riginally c omp lete b ut b roken b y ar ock f all. R est o f f ill c lean . 5 U ndated . 6 R oss 1 968 , 2 74 ; H averf ield 1 907 , 2 49 .
W ROXETER , 1 2 3 4
5 6 W YCHWOOD , 1 2 3 4 5 6
S alop S J 5 608 . R oman c ivitas . RS1 0 1 ( Wroxeter N o 3i n R oss 1 968). 3 .7 m x 0 .8 m . F ill o f p otsherds , t wo i ron k nife b lades , i ron n a ils , ap air o f b ronze t weezers a nd a c o in , a nima l b ones . O n t he b ottom w ere t hree c omp lete p ots w ith s ome f lat p ieces o f o ak . R oman , p robab ly s econd—third c entury A D . R oss 1 968 , 2 74 ; B ushe—Fox 1 9 12 , 1 9 13 , 1 9 14 . O xon S P 2 9 18 . U nknown . RS 1 02 . N o d imensions . F ill c onta ined a nima l b ones o f p ig , s heep a nd c ow , o yster s he lls , p otsherds , i ron n a ils a nd a b ill—hook . P robab ly R oman . T ay lor 1 939 , 3 39 .
I NDEX
R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S ' R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S R S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1
A rdle igh , E ssex A rmsley , H ants A shill, N orfo lk A shill, N orfo lk A shill, N orfo lk A shtead , S urrey A shtead , S urrey A stha ll, O xon A stha ll, O xon A stha ll, O xon A y lesford , K ent B ar H ill, S trathclyde B ekesbourne , K ent B ekesbourne , K ent B ertha , T ayside B iddenham , B eds B irchington , K ent B ossens , C ornwa ll B rampton , C umbr ia B r islington , A von C aburn , S ussex C adbury C ast le , D evon C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C a lke W ood , S uffo lk C arrowburgh , N orthumbr ia C rayford , K ent D unstab le , • B eds D unstab le , B eds E we ll, S urrey F e lixstowe , S uffo lk F r ittendon , K ent G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reat C hesterford , E sse* G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reenhithe , K ent H ardham , S ussex H ardham , S ussex H ardham , S ussex H ardham , S ussex H eywood , W ilts I psden , O xon I psw ich , S uffo lk I psw ich , S uffo lk
R S 5 2 R S 5 3 R S 5 4 R S 5 R S 5 6 R S 5 7 R S 5 8 R S 5 9 R S 6 0 R S 6 1 R S 6 2 R S 6 3 R S 6 4 R S 6 5 R S 6 6 R S 6 7 R S 6 8 R S 6 9 R S 7 0 R S 7 1 R S 7 2 R S 7 3 R S 7 4 R S 7 5 R S 7 6 R S 7 R S 7 8 R S 7 9 R S 8 0 R S 8 1 R S 8 2 R S 8 3 R S 8 4 R S 8 5 R S 8 6 R S 8 7 R S 8 8 R S 8 9 R S 9 0 R S 9 1 R S 9 2 R S 9 3 R S 9 4 R S 9 5 R S 9 6 R S 9 7 R S 9 8 R S 9 R S 100 R S 10 1 R S 102
J ordan H ill, D orset N ewstead , R oxburgh , B orders N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N ewstead , R oxburgh N orthf leet , K ent P lumstead , K ent P agan 's H ill, S omerset P urberr 3 ; S hot , E we ll, S urrey R amsgate , K ent R ichborough , K ent R otherf ie ld P eppard , O xon S andw ich , K ent S ilchester , H ants S ilchester , H ants S ilchester , H ants S outhwark , S urrey S tone , B ucks S trood , K ent S turminster M arsha ll, D orset T a llington , L incs W arbank K eston , K ent W interbourne K ingston , D orset W interbourne K ingston , D orset W o lfhamcote , W arks W roxeter , S a lop W ychwood , O xon .
AP P E N D I X
11
2
X2 T ESTS
T he f o llow ing t hree X2 t ests w ere p erformed a s ap relim inary t o t he a nalysis o f r itual s hafts i n c hapter t hree . T he f irst t est ( II 2 1 ) c ompares a ll I ron A ge s hafts w ith a ll R oman s hafts . T he s econd ( II 2 2 ) c ompares a ll I ron A ge s hafts w ith R oman c ivilian s hafts . T he t hird ( II 2 3 ) c ompares R oman c ivilian s hafts w ith R oman m ilitary s hafts . I n e ach t est t he d erived X2 v alue f ar e xceeds t he a lpha v alue = 0 .0 1 e xpected v alue o f 4 5 .64 . T his i ndicates t hat t he d ifferences o bserved b etween t he c ompared g roups a re m ost u nlikely t o o ccur b y c hance a lone .
I 21
C HI-SQUARE :
I RON A GE S HAFTS v s R OMAN S HAFTS ( 0-E) 2
0 (IA)
E (R)
O -E
( 0-E) 2
1 9 1 9 3 8 3 1 3 3 4 4 2 9 3 0 1 0 1 6 2 9 2 3 1 0 1 4 1 4 2 5 1 9 7 4 3 2 0 1 0 1 9 2 9 2 0 5 1 0 5 7 2 4 3 7 3 8 2 8 5 7 4 8 5 1 1 9 2 6 1 4 7 1 9 2 3 5 2 2 1 9 3 1 5 1 0 2 4 6 1 9 1 9 5 1 9
1 8 .6 1 9 .4 3 3 .7 3 5 .3 3 7 .6 3 9 .4 2 8 .8 3 0 .2 1 2 .7 1 3 .3 2 5 .4 2 6 .6 1.7 1 2 .3 1 9 .0 2 0 .0 1 2 .7 1 3 .3 3 0 .8 3 2 .2 1 4 .2 1 4 .8 2 4 .0 2 5 .0 7 .3 7 .7 5 .9 6 .1 2 9 .8 3 1 .2 3 2 .2 3 3 .8 5 1 .3 5 3 .7 7 .8 8 .2 2 2 .0 2 3 .0 1 0 .3 1 0 .7 2 0 .5 2 1.5 1 3 .2 1 3 .8 2 4 .4 2 5 .6 7 .3 7 .7 1 4 .7 1 5 .3 1 8 .6 1 9 .4 1.7 1 2 .3
0 .4 0 .4 4 .3 4 .3 4 .6 4 .6 0 .2 0 .2 2 .7 2 .7 3 .6 3 .6 1 .7 1 .7 5 .0 5 .0 6 .3 6 .3 1 2 .2 1 2 .2 4 .2 4 .2 5 .0 5 .0 2 .3 2 .3 0 .9 0 .9 5 .8 5 .8 5 .8 5 .8 5 .7 5 .7 2 .8 2 .8 3 .0 3 .0 3 .7 3 .7 1 .5 1 .5 8 .2 8 .2 5 .4 5 .4 2 .3 2 .3 9 .3 9 .3 0 .4 0 .4 6 .7 6 .7
0 .16 0 .16 1 8 .49 1 8 .49 2 1.16 2 1.16 0 .04 0 .04 7 .29 7 .29 1 2 .96 1 2 .96 2 .89 2 .89 2 5 .00 2 5 .00 3 9 .69 3 9 .69 1 48 .84 1 48 .84 1 7 .64 1 7 .64 2 5 .00 2 5 .00 5 .29 5 .29 0 .8 1 0 .8 1 3.64 3.64 3.64 3 3 .64 3 2 .49 3 2 .49 7 .84 7 .84 9 .00 9 .00 1 3 .69 1 3 .69 2 .25 2 .25 6 7 .24 6 7 .24 2 9 .16 2 9 .16 5 .29 5 .29 8 6 .49 8 6 .49 0 .16 0 .16 4 4 .89 4 4 .89
0 .00 0 .00 0 .55 0 .52 0 .56 0 .54 0 .00 0 .00 0 .57 0 .54 0 .5 1 0 .49 0 .25 0 .22 1 .3 1 1 .25 3 .13 2 .98 4 .83 4 .62 1 .24 1 . 19 1 .04 1 .00 0 .72 0 .69 0 .13 0 .13 1 . 12 1 .07 1 .04 0 .99 0 .63 0 .60 1 .00 0 .95 0 .4 1 0 .39 1 .33 1 .30 0 .2 1 0 .10 5 .09 4 .5 1 1 . 19 1 .13 0 .72 0 .69 5 .88 5 .65 0 .00 0 .00 3 .84 3 .65 X 2=72 .53
I 22
C HI S QUARE :
I RON A GE S HAFTS v s R OMAN C IVILIAN S HAFTS ( 0-E) 2
0 (IA) 1 9 2 3 8 3 8 3 4 2 2 9 3 1 1 0 2 2 9 1 8 1 0 1 6 1 4 2 4 1 9 7 4 3 2 4 1 0 2 0 2 9 2 4 5 4 5 2 2 4 4 4 3 8 2 4 5 7 5 1 7 7 1 9 2 2 1 4 2 1 9 1 8 5 2 9 1 9 3 3 5 7 2 4 1 1 9 1 8 5 2 0
E (RC) 2 0 2 1 3 7 3 9 3 6 3 9 2 9 3 1 1 6 1 6 2 3 2 4 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 3 1 3 3 2 3 5 1 5 1 5 2 6 2 7 4 5 3 4 3 3 5 3 0 3 2 5 2 5 6 6 6 2 0 2 1 8 8 1 8 1 9 1 6 1 8 2 5 2 7 6 6 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 2 1 3
O -E 1 1 1 1 3 3 0 0 6 6 6 6 3 3 0 1 0 6 6 1 1 5 5 3 3 1 1 2 2 9 9 8 8 5 5 1 1 1 1 6 6 1 1 1 1 6 6 1 1 7 7 1 1 7 7
( 0-E) 2 1 1 1 1 9 9 0 0 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 9 9 0 1 00 3 6 3 6 1 21 1 2 1 2 5 2 5 9 9 1 1 4 4 8 1 8 1 6 4 6 4 * 2 5 2 5 1 1 1 1 3 6 3 6 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 6 3 6 1 1 4 9 4 9 1 1 4 9 4 9
0 .05 0 .05 0 .03 0 .03 0 .25 0 .23 0 .00 0 .00 2 .25 2 .25 1 .56 1 .50 0 .69 0 .69 0 .00 7 .14 2 .76 2 .76 3 .78 3 .45 1 .66 1 .66 0 .35 0 .33 0 .25 0 .20 1 .33 1 .00 2 .45 2 .3 1 2 .13 2 .00 0 .48 0 .44 0 .16 0 .16 0 .05 0 .04 4 .50 4 .50 0 .05 0 .05 7 .56 6 .72 1 .44 1 .33 0 .16 0 .16 2 .88 2 .72 0 .05 0 .05 4 .08 3 .76 x 2=86 .74
I 23
C HI S QUARE :
0 (RC)
E (RM)
2 2 1 7 3 8 2 5 4 2 5 0 3 1 3 1 2 2 1 1 8 3 3 1 6 1 4 2 4 2 8 7 1 2 4 1 7 2 0 1 9 2 4 1 7 4 1 9 2 1 7 4 4 3 1 2 4 3 6 5 1 4 7 7 1 9 2 2 3 3 2 1 7 1 8 3 3 2 9 1 7 3 3 3 1 7 1 7 1 3 1 8 2 2 2 0 1 9
1 9 2 0 3 0 3 3 4 4 4 8 3 0 3 2 1 6 1 7 2 4 2 7 1 4 1 6 2 5 2 7 1 4 1 5 2 0 2 1 1 9 2 0 2 0 2 1 1 1 2 9 1 0 3 6 3 9 2 9 3 1 4 7 5 1 1 2 1 4 2 6 2 9 9 1 0 2 4 2 7 2 2 2 4 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 7 7 1 9 2 1 1 9 2 0
R OMAN C IVILIAN S HAFTS v s R OMAN M ILITARY S HAFTS
( 0-E)
( 0-E) 2
3 3 8 8 2 2 1 1 6 6 6 6 2 2 1 1 7 4 4 4 1 1 4 4 7 7 7 7 8 8 5 5 4 4 5 5 4 4 7 7 6 6 7 7 2 2 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
9 9 6 4 6 4 4 4 1 1 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 4 4 1 1 4 9 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 1 1 6 1 6 4 9 4 9 4 9 4 9 6 4 6 4 2 5 2 5 1 6 1 6 2 5 2 5 1 6 1 6 4 9 4 9 3 6 3 6 4 9 4 9 4 4 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 1 1 1
( 0-E) 2 0 .47 0 .45 2 .13 1 .94 0 .09 0 .08 0 .03 0 .03 2 .25 2 .11 1 .50 1 .33 0 .29 0 .25 0 .04 0 .03 3 .50 1 .06 0 .80 0 .76 0 .05 0 .05 0 .80 0 .76 4 .45 4 .08 5 .44 4 .90 1 .80 1 .60 0 .90 0 .80 0 .30 0 .30 2 .00 1 .80 0 .60 0 .50 5 .40 4 .90 1 .50 1 .30 2 .20 2 .00 0 .10 0 .10 1 .50 1 .20 2 .30 2 .30 0 .50 0 .05 0 .05 0 .05 X2= 75 .6 1
340-
AP P E N D I X
II I
S PECIAL A NIMAL B URIALS
I NTRODUCT ION T he f o llow ing g azetteer c onta ins a ll o f t he s pecial a nimal b ur ia ls c ited i n c hapter f ive o f t he t ext . A nima l b ur ia ls c onta in l itt le o r n oth ing w hich w ould l ead a n u nsusp ect ing ( un-expect ing?) e xcavator t o s ee i n t hem s ometh ing o ut o f t he o rdinary , s omething d ifferent f rom t he n orma l p ract ices o f a nimal h usbandry . T hus , i t i s v irtually c erta in t hat m any e xamp les , e spec ia lly f rom s ites e xcavated b efore t he l ast f ew d ecades , h ave g one u nreported , o n t he a ssumpt ion t hat t hey w ere n o m ore t han t he r esults o f n ormal b utchery p ract ices . U nfortunate ly , t he n ature o f t he a nima l b ur ia ls w orks i n b oth d irect ions , a nd i t r ema ins a p ossib ility t hat , i n s p ite o f e fforts t o d iscr im inate b etween t he t wo , s ome o f t he b ur ia ls i ncluded h ere a re , i n f act , t he r esult o f o rdinary b utchery . I n g eneral, h owe ver , r ema ins w ith e vidence o f b utchery , w hen t his h as b een r eported , h ave b een e xcluded t o r educe t he l ikelihood o f i nc luding n on-r itual d eposits . F urther , o nly a s e lect ion o f s ites h as b een i ncluded i n t his g azetteer , s o t here a re u ndoubtedly s ites w ith p ub lished e xamp les o f a nima l b ur ia ls w hich a re n ot a p art o f t h is s tudy . T wenty-e ight s ites w ere s e lected t o r epresent t he w ho le o f t he p er iod o f t he I ron A ge o f s outhern B r itain , a nd m ost o f t he v ary ing s ocio-po lit ica l-econom ic t ypes o f s oc ia l g roups . A m ore d eta iled d iscussion o f t he l im itat ions t his p laces o n i ntef .pretat ion i s f ound i n t he t ext . I n g eneral t he c oncentrat ion o f s ites i n c entra l s outhern B r ita in f o llows t he s ame g eographical b ias t hat o ccurs w ith n ear ly a ll o ther a spects o f I ron A ge m ater ial c ulture , c omp lement ing c urrent k now ledge a nd t hus a llow ing a m ore c omp lete s oc ia l c ontext f or t he a nimal b ur ia ls t o b e d iscussed . T he f ormat u sed i n t he g azetteer f o llows t he g eneral p attern o ut lined i n, t he p reface t o t he a ppendices , w ith t he e xception o f a s er ies o f a bbrev iat ions u sed t o d escr ibe t he t ype o f b ur ial. T he a bbreviat ions u sed a re a s f o llows : A=b ur ia l o f c omp lete o r p art ia l a nima l B= b ur ia l o f as kull, w ith m andib le u nless s pecif ied C= b ur ia l o f ac omp lete a rt iculated l imb . W here p ossib le , b ur ials a re d ated b oth i n t erms o f t he s ites' p hases a nd w ithin a p er iod o f o ne o r t wo c entur ies .
A LL C ANNINGS C ROSS , W ilts 1 S U 0 80634 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 3 A B 1 . 4 D og , B . 5 I n P it 5 9 . 6 P robab ly e ighth—sixth c entury B C . 7 C unnington 1 923 , 6 4 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 2 . T hree c att le , B . T hree s kulls , l ack ing m axillae , i n s eparate u nspec if ied p its . P robab ly e ighth—sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 6-47 .
A PPLEFORD , O xon 1 S U 5 2 1936 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 A B 3 . 4 D og , B . 5 F eature 1 39 . P art ia l d og s kull. 6 P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . 7 H inch liffe 1 980 , 8 4 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 . H orse , B . F eature 1 4 . P robab ly f irst c entury B C — f irst c entury A D . H inchliffe 1 980 , 8 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 . O ne h orse , B ; o ne d og , B . P it 1 45 . B oth s kulls o n p it b ottom c overed b y c lean g rave l. P robab ly f irst c entury B C . H inchliffe 1 980 , 3 9 .
A SHVILLE , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7
O xon S U 4 83973 . I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . A B 6 . H orse , C . P ostho le 4 30 . U nphased . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 ,
1 25 .
A B .7 . C att le , B ; l acks m andible . B ull's s kull u pr ight o n n orth s ide o f p it f acing s outh o f P it 7 1. P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 . A B 8 . S heep , A . P it 8 2 . Aj uvenile s heep , i n a rt icu lat ion b ut l ack ing f ore limbs . P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington . 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 . C att le , B ; l acks m andib le . P it 14 . B ull's s kull u pside d own o n s outh s ide o f p it , n orth . P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 0 . C att le , B ; h orn c ores r emoved . P it 2 33 . P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5
A B 1. C att le , B ; l acks m andible . P it 2 88 . J uvenile c ow ; l ower l eft h ind l eg o f s ame a n imal ( ?) p resent i n s ame p it ( C). P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
6 7 3 4 5
f ac ing
6 7
A B 1 2 . C att le , B . P it 3 03 . J uvenile s kull; a lso o ne h umerus a nd o ne t ib ia o f s ame a nimal ( ?) p resent . P robab ly t h ird—f irst c entury B C . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 3 . D og , A . P it 6 3 . J uvenile d og . P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 4 . D og , A . D itch 1 03 . B ur ia l c omp lete , e xcepts l acks v ertebrae . P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entur A D . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 5 . C att le , B . D itch 3 92 . P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ilson i n P arr ington 1 978 , 1 25 .
B ARLEY , A LDW ICK , H erts 1 T L 3 98388 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 A B 1 6 . 4 D og , A . 5 P it 3 7 . 6 P robab ly s econd — f irst c entury B C . 7 C ra la ster 1 961, 2 3 , 2 9 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 7 . D og , A . P it 7 1 . S kull d isp laced , l ocated b eh ind b ack o f a nima l. P robab ly s econd—f irst c entury B C . C ra 'aster 1 96 1, 3 0 .
A lso r eferences t o m any c ow s kulls ( p 3 2) a nd a rt iculated l imbs ( p 3 5), b ut n o o ther d eta ils g iven . B ISHOPSTONE , S ussex 1 T Q 4 67007 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 A B 1 8 . 4 L amb , c ategory u ncertain , p robab ly A . 5 P it 9 20 . L amb b ones a nd c arbonised g ra in i n ac omp lete p ot p laced o n b ottom o f p it . 6 P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . 7 B e ll 1 977 , 2 79 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 9 . P ig , A ; t hree . N o s pecif ic p rovenances , p robab ly a ll s eparate . P robab ly s econd—f irst c entury B C . B e ll 1 977 , 2 79 .
C ADBURY C ASTLE , ( South C adbury) , S omerset 1 S T 6 28252 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 A B 2 0 . 4 C att le , A . 5 P it , u nnumbered . J ust o utside e ntry t o " Shr ine" b uild ing N o 2 7 , o r iented n orth—south , h ead t o n orth , o n r ight s ide ( et a ppend ix V S 2 0). 6 P robab ly f irst c entury B C . 7 A lcock 1 972 , 1 64 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 2 1. C att le , A ; a nd h orse , A ; n umbers u nspecif ied . P its , i n a n a rc i n f ront o f s hr ine b uilding N o 2 7 , " de liberately" l aid o n b ottom o f p its . P robab ly f irst c entury B C . A lcock 1 972 , 5 3 , 1 36 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 2 2 . C att le 1 4 , A ; p ig 3 , A ; s heep 3 , A . P its i n f ront o f s hr ine b uilding N o 2 7 , P robab ly f irst c entury A D . A lcock 1 972 , 8 1-83 .
a ll
a ll j uveniles .
C ROFT A MBREY , H ere -& W orcs 1 S O 4 45668 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 A B 2 3 . 4 S heep , C ; p it u nspecif ied . 5 A rticu lated l ower h ind l imb i n as ha llow p it w ith f our b urned s takes i n b ottom . 6 P roba lAy s econd—f irst c entury B C . 7 S tanford 1 974 , 8 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 2 4 . S heep , A ; C omp lete P robab ly S tanford
p it u nspec if ied . g oat b ur ia l i n as ha llow p it . f irst c entury B C . 1 974 , 9 3 ( Fig 4 3) , 2 15 .
D ANEBURY , H ants 1 S U 3 23376 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . F or c omp lete g azetteer s ee G rant 1 984a S pec ial A nimal B ur ials s ummar ised a s f o llows : C att le A B
1 0 3 1 3
P ig A B C
1 9 2 8 1
S heep
A
2 4 5 5 1 0
D og A B C
8 1 0
H orse
A B C
3 2 7 1
F ARMOOR , O xon 1 S P 4 43053 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead . 3 A B 2 5 . 4 S heep , A ; n ot i n a rt icu lat ion . 5 F eature 3 4 . 6 F irst c entury A D . 7 L ambr ick & R ob inson 1 979 , 1 6 . 3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5
A B 2 6 . H orse , A ( two); S heep , C . F eature 3 7 . B oth h orses l ack f orequarters ; u pper h orse h as s ku ll d isp laced , l ocated u nder r ear q uarters ; l ower h orse t w isted i nto a n " S" s hape ; o ne a rt icu lated f ore limb o f as heep i n s ame p it . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . L ambr ick & R ob inson 1 979 , 1 6 , 1 30132 .
6 7
A B 2 7 . H orse , B . F eature 100 . Ap enannular h ouse g ully ; t erm inal, m andib le i n n orth t erm ina l. P robab ly f irst c entury B C . L ambr ick & R ob inson 1 979 , 2 3 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 2 8 . D og , A . F eature 1 054 , ap it . U ncertain . L ambr ick & R obinson 1 979 ,
2 3 .
s kull
i n s outh
G USSAGE A LL S A INTS , D orset 1 S T 9 98 10 1. 2 I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . 3 A B 2 9 . 4 O ne d og , A ; o ne h orse , A . 5 P it 3 07 . 6 P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . 7 W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 4 . 3 4 5 6 7 H OD H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 0 . C ow , A ( one?). P it 6 1. A dult f ema le d ied i n c a lv ing ; f oetus i n p e lv is ; o r iented e ast-west , h ead t o e ast , o n l eft s ide . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W a inwr ight 1 979 , 3 4 . D orset S T 8 57 106 . I ron A ge h illfort . A B 1 0 1. H orse , c att le a nd p ig m and ib les ( B). P it " B" i n p enannular g ully , a ssociated w ith H B 8 1 a nd H B 8 2 i n a ppend ix I V . P robab ly f ifth-third c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 2 6-28 .
L ITTLE S OMBORNE , H ants 1 S U 3 89328 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . 3 A B 3 2 . 4 P ig , B . 5 P it 2 7 . U pper h a lf o f ap it f ill o f d eliberate ly p acked f lint n odules . 6 T hird-f irst c entury B C . 7 N ea l 1 980 , 1 0 1 3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 3 . C ow , B . P it 5 1. O n b ottom o f p it , p laced t o b e l ooking u p . F ifth-third c entury B C . N ea l 1 980 , 1 0 1.
3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 4 . D og , A . P it 3 24 . T hird-f irst c entury B C . N ea l 1 980 , 1 23 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 5 . D og , A . P it 3 12 . T hird-f irst c entury B C . N eal 1 980 , 1 04 , 1 23 .
L ITTLE W OODBURY , W ilts 1 S U 1 50279 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead . 3 A B 3 6 . 4 D og , A . 5 P it 1 02 . 6 P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . 7 B ersu 1 940 , 5 2 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 7 . S pec ies u nknown , B( probab ly s heep?). P it 13 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . B ersu 1 940 , 5 9 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 8 . S heep , B . P it 15 . T hree h a lf-skulls , a ll s p lit l engthw ise d own c entre . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . B ersu 1 940 , 5 9 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 3 9 . S heep , B . P it 1 35 . O ne s heep s kull, s p lit l engthw ise d own m iddle . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . B ersu 1 940 , 5 9 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 0 . C ow , C . P it 1 36 . A rt iculated l eft f ore limb o f c ow . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . B ersu 1 940 , 5 9 .
M A IDEN C ASTLE , D orset 1 S Y 6 69885 . • 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 A B 4 1. 4 D og , B . 5 P it D 3 , n ear t op o f f ill. 6 A pprox imate ly 5 0-25 B C . 7 W hee ler 1 943 , 3 70 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 2 . D og , A( "near ly c omp lete" d og s ke leton). P it D 4 . A pproximate ly 2 5-0 B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 2 70 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 3 . P ig , B( two). P it B 4 2 . A pproximate ly 2 5-0 B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 69 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 4 . C ow , A ( three i n f ragmentary c ond it ion). P it D 3 1 . A pproximate ly 5 0-25 B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 68 .
W hee ler a lso m akes r eference t o p its w ith w ho le a nd p art ial b ur ia ls , a s w e ll a s s kulls a nd a rt icu lated l imbs ( 1943 , 5 3). m ay b e a nimal b ur ia ls . O LD D OWN 1 2 3 4 5
S ome
6 7
F ARM , H ants S U 3 56465 . I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . A B 4 5 . S heep , A ( e ight). P it 9 37 . P art ia l s keletons o f s even m ature s heep , s ome b utchered a nd s ome n ot , b ones a dm ixed ; a lso , o ne n eonatal c omp lete a nd a rt iculated . P robab ly e ighth c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 9 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 6 . D og , A . P it 2 623 . C omp lete d og , m issing s kull a nd m andib le . P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 10 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 7 . D og , B . P it 2 38 . P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 10 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 8 . H orse , C . P it 2 623 . R ight h ind l imb o f a dult h orse . P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 10 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 4 9 . H orse , B( three). P it 2 778 . P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 10 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 0 . O ne c ow , A ; o ne s heep , A . P it 2 664 . C a lf m issing h ind-quarters , d etails p ub lished . P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 15 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 1 . H orse , C . P it 2 53 . L ower h ind l imb . P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 15 .
l amb i s p art ia l,
l amb ,
b ut n o
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 2 . S heep , A ( f ive). P it 5 63 . F our m ature s heep , o ne n eonata l b ut n ot b utchered . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 29 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 3 . S heep , A . P it 3 86 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 28 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 4 . D og , B ; s kull, m andib le a nd m etapodia . P it 2 758 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 1 30 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 5 . D og , A ; l ower l imbs m issing . P it 2 3 17 . P ossib le b utchery m arks? P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 30 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 6 . D og , A ; t wo l imbs m issing . P it 2 140 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 30 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 7 . D og , A ; h ind-quarters m issing . P it 5 63 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 30 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 8 . S heep , C ; a rt iculated h ind l imb . P it 9 66 . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 40 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 5 9 . . C ow , C ; a rt iculated f ore-quarter . P it 2 345 . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 40 .
3 4
A B 6 0 . • C ow , A ; c a lf , c onsist ing o f s kull a nd m and ib le , f orelegs a nd u pper v ertebrae . P it 9 66 . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 39 .
5 6 7
l amb ,
n ot a rt icu lated
S ALMONSBURY , G los 1 S P 1 73208 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 A B 1 03 . 4 G oat , B . 5 P enannular d itch o f H ut I , S ite I V . 6 P robab ly s econd—f irst c entury B C . 7 D unning 1 976 , 8 7 .
N ear H B 1 35 ( Append ix I V).
S WALLOWCLIFFE D OWN , W ilts 1 S T 9 68254 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 A B 6 1. 4 F our c att le , B ; t wo h orses , B ; o ne s heep , B ; o ne d og , 5 P it 5 4 . A ll s kulls i n c lose a ssoc iat ion . 6 P robab ly f ifth—third c entury B C . 7 C lay 1 927 , 6 9 . T OLLARD R OYAL , W ilts 1 S T 9 42 197 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . 3 A B 6 2 . 4 H orse , A . 5 I nner e nclosure d itch . 6 P robab ly f irst c entury A D . 7 W ainwr ight 1 968 , 1 08 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 6 3 . D og , A . I nner e nclosure d itch . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 968 , 11.
3 4 5 6 7
A B 6 4 . S heep , A . I nner e nclosure d itch . P robab ly f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 968 , 1 08 .
T WYWELL , N orthants 1 S P 9 52787 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . 3 A B 6 5 . 4 D og , A ( f iye , t hough p ossib ly n ot a ll c omp lete). 5 P it 1 . 6 U ndated , p robab ly t hird—second c entury B C . 7 J ackson 1 975 , 5 7 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 6 6 . D og , A . P it 1 48 . P robab ly t hird—second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 .
B
3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5 6 7
A B 6 7 . P ig , A . P it 1 49 . I n a" curled p osit ion" , w ith t hree l imestone s labs p laced a s a" p illow" u nder s kull. P robab ly t h ird-second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 . A B 6 8 . T wo p ig , A ; o ne d og , A . P it 1 53 . O ne p ig a nd d og o n b ottom , c overed b y al ayer o f p ebb les ; o ther p ig i n al ayer o f s tones a nd b lue c lay a bove t he l ayer o f g rave l. P robab ly t h ird-second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 . A B 1 02 . C att le , B . P it 1 64 . O x s kull a ssociated w ith c h ild b ur ia l ( see H B 1 40 , A ppendix I V). P robab ly t h ird-second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 , 8 7 .
W INKLEBURY , H ants 1 S U 6 13529 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 A B 6 9 . 4 D og , A . 5 P it 6 9 . 6 P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury A D . 7 S m ith 1 977 , 5 9 . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 0 . H orse , B( three). P it 3 9 16 . U ndated . S m ith 1 977 , 6 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 1, H orse , A( art iculated r ib c age a nd h ind-quarters). G ully 2 253 . U ndated . S m ith 1 977 , 6 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 2 . . S heep , A ( parts n ot s pecif ied). P it 2 727 . U ndated . S m ith 1 977 , 6 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 3 . S heep , A( one , l acks s kull); B ( one s kull o f a nother s heep). P it 1 6 14 . U ndated . S m ith 1 977 , 5 9 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 4 . F ox , A ( twe lve); r ed d eer , A ( one , P it 3 825 . P robab ly t h ird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 6 1-62 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 5 . O ne r aven , A ; p ig , A . P it 2 6 11. R aven s pread o ut o n b ottom , P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 6 0 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 6 . T wo h orses , B . P it 2 129 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 4 6 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7. C ow , A( ca lf , n eonata l?). P it 2 60 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 4 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 8 . C att le , B( e leven); h alf c ranias , P it 6 16 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 5 6 .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 7 9 . P ig , A( parts n ot s pecif ied , i n al arge d eposit o f b ones). P it 1 399 . P robab ly t h ird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 5 6 .
a dult m a le).
p ig h igher i n f ill.
s p lit ,
p robab ly b utchered?
W INNALL D OWN , H ants 1 S U 4 98323 . 2 I ron A ge f armstead/sett lement . 3 A B 8 0 . 4 T wo s heep , A . O ne l acks h ead a nd f orequarter , l egs . 5 P it 2 558 . 6 P robab ly s ixth—fourth c entury B C . 7 F asham , p ers c omm . 3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 1. D og , A . P it 1 490 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 2 . S heep , A ( lacks s kull a nd f orequarters). P it 7 257 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
s econd l acks
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 3 . H orse , A ; h are , A . P it 1 0 16 1: P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 4 . D og , A . P it 4 006 . F oeta l d og . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 5 . D og , A( two , f oeta l). P it 6 038 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 6 . D og , A ( foeta l). P it 8 564 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 7 . D og , A ( two , f oeta l). P it 7 257 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 8 . C att le , C( two h ind-quarters). P it 7 257 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 8 9 . C attle , C( two l imbs , u nspecif ied). P it 8 95 . entury B C . P robably t h ird-f irst c F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 0 . nspecif ied). S heep , C( two l imbs , u P it 8 60 1. entury B C . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 1. nspecif ied). S heep , C• ( two l imbs , u P it 8 630 . entury B C . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 2 . H orse , C( four l imbs , u nspecif ied). P it 4 006 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 3 . D og , C( one h ind l imb). P it 1 655 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 4 . D og , C( one h ind l imb , u nspecif ied). P it 1 372 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 5 . H orse , C( one f ore l imb , u nspec if ied). P it 1 49 1. P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 6 . S heep , C( one f ore l imb , u nspecif ied). P it 1 94 1. P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 7 . C att le , C( four f ore l imbs) ; h orse , C( one f ore l imb). P it 4 006 . P robab ly t h ird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 8 . O ne d og , B . P it 7 257 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 9 9 . O ne h orse ,, B . P it 8 60 1. P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
A B 1 00 . O ne s heep , B . P it 8 630 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
T he f o llow ing R omano—Celt ic t emple s ites a lso h ave s pecial a nimal d eposits . B ecause t hey d ate t o t he R oman p er iod , t hey a re n ot i ncluded i n t he a nalysis o f s pecial a nimal d eposits i n c hapter f ive . R eferences g iven b elow a re t o t he a ppropr iate s ite e ntry i n t he g azetteer i n A ppendix V I. B ourton G rounds
H orse s kull
V I T 3
B r igstock
S heep b urial,
C hanctonbury
C attle s kulls
V I T2 1
H enley W ood
S heep b uria ls
V I T5 3
H ockwo ld
P ig a nd b ird b ur ials
V I T5 4
J ordan H ill
B ird b urials
M untham C ourt
O x s kulls
V I T6 7
S lonk H ill
S heep a nd p ig a rt iculated l imbs
V I T8 4
a rt iculated l imb o f c ow
V I T 9
I R S 5 2 V I T5 6
I NDEX
A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B
1—A B 2 6—A B 1 5 1 6 —A B 1 7 1 8 —A B 1 9 2 0 —A B 2 2 2 3 —A B 2 4 2 5 —A B 2 8 2 9 —A B 3 1 3 2 —A B 3 5 3 6 —A B 4 0 4 1 —A B 4 4 4 5 —A B 6 0 6 1 6 2 —A B 6 4 6 5 —A B 6 8 6 9 —A B 7 9 8 0 —A B 1 00 1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 — A B 4 28
A ll C annings C ross , W ilts A shv ille , O xon B ar ley , H erts B ishopstone , S ussex C adbury C ast le , S omerset C roft A mbrey , H ere & W orcs F armoor , O xon G ussage — A ll—Saints , D orset L itt le S omborne , H ants L itt le W oodbury , W ilts M aiden C ast le , D orset O ld D own F arm , H ants S wallowcliffe D own , W ilts T ollard R oyal, W ilts T wywell, N orthants W ink lebury , H ants W innall D own , H ants H od H ill, D orset T wywell, N orthants S a lmonsbury , G los D anebury , H ants
AP P E N D I X
IV
H UMAN R EMAINS
I NTRODUCTION H uman b urial p ract ices i n t he I ron A ge a re t he s ubject o f o ne f air— l y c omprehensive s tudy b y W himster ( 198 1). T he g azetteer p resented h ere v aries s light ly i n s ubject f rom W himster i n t hat h e f ocuses o n t he m ore o r l ess s ocially s tandard r ites , e specia lly i nhumation. T he p resent s tudy s upplements h is w ork b y c onsider ing a w ide r ange o f m ortuary r ites w hich w ere a pparent ly a pp lied t o o nly a s mall p art o f t he p opulat ion a nd a t i nfrequent i ntervals , a s d iscussed i n c hapter f our o f t he t ext a bove . T his g azetteer i ncludes a ll t he b urials u sed i n t he a na lysis a nd d iscussion i n t he t ext . I t i s n ot h owever e xhaust ive o n t he s ubject . B ecause h uman r emains a re f airly d ist inct ive a nd b ecause t hey a re h uman , t hey t end t o b e r eported w herever t hey a re f ound ( in c ontradistinct ion t o t he s pecial a nimal b ur ials i n a ppendix II, a bove). A t otal o f t wenty—eight s ites a re i ncluded i n t he s ample . C onsequently , t he g azet— t eer p robably i ncludes a ll t he h uman r emains f rom t hose t wenty—e ight s ites ; i t i s i ntended t o b e g enerally r epresentative o f t he I ron A ge s ites o f c entral s outhern E ngland ( cf i ntroduct ion t o a ppendix II). T he f ormat o f t his g azetteer f ollows t he p attern o utlined i n t he p reface a nd d eve loped i n t he t hree p receeding g azetteers . H owever , t here a re s everal a bbreviat ions u sed : T ype o f b ur ial
1= C omplete i nhumat ion 2= P art ial
i nhumation
3=M ultiple i nhumat ion 4=A rticulated l imbs 5= S ingle s kull 6= I solated ,
u nart iculated b ones .
O rientat ion , w hen a pplicable , i s g iven b y i ndicating i n w hich d irection t he h ead i s l ocated ( N =n orth , S=s outh , e tc) a nd , i f k nown , w hich d irect ion t he " face" i s " looking".
A LL C ANNINGS C ROSS , W ilts 1 S U 0 80634 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 3 H B 1 . 4 A dult , m ale o cciput , 6 . 5 P it 1 9 121. 6 P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . 7 C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 . A dult , m ale o cciput , 6 . P it 1 9 12-2 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 . A dult , u nsexed p ar ietal, 6 . P it 1 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 . A dult , u nsexed , r ight p ar ietal, 2 a nd 6 . P it 3 0 . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 . A dolescent , f emale f rontal, 6 . P it 4 0 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 6 . U naged , u nsexed p arieta l, 6 ; p ossib le w ear o n e dge? P it 6 2 . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 . A dult , f emale o cciput a nd s upra-orb ital f ragment , P it 6 2a . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington . 1 923 , 4 2-43 . 1
3 4 5 6 7
H B 8 . U naged , u nsexed p ar ietal, 6 . P it 9 6 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unningtön 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 . U naged , u nsexed o cciput , 6 . P it 1 02 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
6 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 0 . A do lescent , u nsexed f ronta l, 6 . P it 17 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1. A dult , m a le f ronta l, 6 . P it 17a . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 2 . U naged , u nsexed f rontal, 6 . P it 1 33 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 3 . U naged , u nsexed p ar ieta l, 6 ; w ear o n e dges? P it 2 46 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 6 6 7
H B 1 4 . U naged , u nsexed , l eft a nd r ight p ar ieta ls , 6 . P it 3 00 . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 5 . U naged , u nsexed , l eft p ar ieta l, 6 . P it 3 67 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 6 . A dult , f emale o cciput , 6 . P it 3 67a . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 7 . A dult , m a le s kull, 5 ? ( comp leteness u ncertain). P it 3 69 . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 8 . U naged , u nsexed , l eft p ar ieta l, 6 . P it 4 10 . P robab ly e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 9 . A dult , m a le o cciput , 6 . P it 4 10a . P robably e ighth-sixth c entury B C . C unnington 1 923 , 4 2-43 . 359-
A PPLEFORD , O xon 1 S U 5 2 1936 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 3 H B 2 0 . 4 N eonata l i nfant , 1 . 5 F eature 1 77 , o f D itch 1 2 1. 6 L ate I ron A ge , p robab ly f irst c entury B C . 7 H inchliffe 1 980 , 4 0 . 3 4 5 6 7 A SHVILLE , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 1. A do lescent f ema le , 1 . F eature 1 04 . E xtended , a ligned N E-SW , U ndated . H inch liffe 1 980 , 4 1 a nd F ig 2 5 .
h ead t o N E ,
s up ine .
O xon S U 4 83973 . I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . H B 2 2 . A dult , u nsexed v ertebrae , 6 . P it 3 88 . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 3 . A dult , u nsexed f emur , 6 . D itch 3 92 . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
3 4
H B 2 4 . A do lescent , u nsexed t ib ia , 6 ; t wo b ones o f a n i nfant , u nspecif ied , 6 . P it 6 9 . F irst c entury B C f irst c entury A D . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 5 . A dult m ale , 1 . P it 6 2 . C rouched , s upine , n o o r ientat ion . F eature " b locks" e ntrance t o ad itched a nnexe o f as em i-circular e nclosure . F irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B,26 . A dult , u nsexed t ib ia , 6 . P it 7 2 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 7 . A dult , u nsexed o ccip ita l, 6 . P it 7 9 . P robab ly f ifth-third c entury B C . P arr ington 1 978 , 9 2 .
B ARLEY , A ldw ick , H erts 1 T L 3 98388 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 4 H B 2 8 . 4 N eonata l i nfant , 1 . 5 P it 9 0 . 6 P robably s econd—f irst c entury B C . 7 C ra 'aster 1 96 1, 2 9 . B ISHOPSTONE , S ussex 1 T Q 4 67007 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 3 H B 2 9 . 4 A do lescent f ema le w ith n eonata l i nfant , 1 . 5 B ur ial 1 , i n Sc orner o f s ett lement d itch . F lexed , s up ine , o r iented E —W , h ead t o E . I nfant b eside h ead . A ssoc iated s p indle w hor l a nd a p erforated b one t oo l. 6 P robab ly t hird c entury B C . 7 B e ll 1 977 , 7 8-80 . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 0 . A dult m a le , 1 . B ur ial I , P it 6 6 , h a lfway u p f ill o f p it . o r iented N —S , h ead t o N , f ace t o E . P robab ly s econd—f irst c entury B C . B e ll 1 977 , 8 1-83 .
C rouched ,
s up ine ,
S OUTH C ADBURY , S omerset 1 S T 6 28252 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 H B 3 1. 4 A dult , u nsexed s kull f ragments , 6 . 5 R ampart b ank . 6 P robab ly s econd—f irst c entury B C . 7 W ilson 1 98 1, 1 54 . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 2 . A dult m a le , 1 . P it b uria l i n r ear o f t he L ate I ron A ge r ampart . s up ine , h ead d ownwards i nto p it . P robab ly f irst c entury B C . W ilson 1 98 1, 1 59 .
C rouched ,
C ROFT A MBREY , H ere & W orcs 1 S 0 .4 45668 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 H B 3 3 . 4 A dult , u nsexed h umerus , 6 ; p ossib ly m arks o f b utchery . 5 U nprovenanced . 6 U ndated . 7 S tanford 1 974 , 2 15 , 2 20 .
D ANEBURY ,
H ants
1 S U 3 23376 . F or c omp lete g azetteer s ee C unliffe 1 984 . S pecial h uman b urials m ay b e s ummar ised a s b elow : C ategory 1 T wenty—f ive b urials i n n ineteen p its a nd o ne g ully . E leven a dult m ales , f ive a dult f emales , t wo a dolescents , f ive n eonata l i nfants , t wo c hildren . E leven w ere t ightly c ontracted ( eight o n s ide , t wo s upine a nd o ne p rone). S even w ere f lexed ( four s upine , t hree p rone). C ategory 2 S even d epositions . P it 3 7 , a n a dolescent m ale , n o s kull o r a rms . P it 2 26 , a n a dult f emale , w ith s p inal c o lumn d isplaced . P its 1 49 a nd 1 20 , s everal c hildren r epresented b y s kulls , d isart iculated l imbs a nd t orso f ragments . P it 3 74 , s kull f ragments , r ibs a nd s ternum , r ight p atella , l eft u lna a nd a n a rt iculated r ight f orearm a nd h and . P it 1 20 , l eft h umerus , s capula , c lavicle a nd f ibula o f ac hild . C ategory 3 ( Multiple i nhumations) P it 9 23 , m ixed s kulls a nd s keletons o f t en b odies : o ne n ear ly c omplete a dult f emale , o ne p art ia l f emale , t wo a dolescents , t wo c hildren , f our m ale s kulls . P it 1 078 , m ixed r emains o f e leven s keletons : o ne c omp lete a dolescent ; o ne n ear ly c omplete a dult f emale ; p artia l s keleton o f a nother a dult f emale , a n a dult m ale , a nd a c hild ; s kulls o f t hree o ther c hildren a nd o ne a dult m a le ; a nd v ertebrae o f a s mall c hild . C ategory 4 ( Category " E" i n C unliffe 1 984) F our e xamples . P it 1 6 , p elvis o f a n a dult f emale . P it 1 020 , b utchered f emurs a nd p e lvis o f .a y oung m ale . P it 9 00 , p elvis a nd f ive l umbar v ertebrae o f ay oung m ale . P it 9 4 , p elvis a nd f emur h ead o f ac hild . C ategory 5 ( Category " D" i n C unliffe 1 984) E ight e xamples : s ix m ales , o ne f emale , o ne u nsexed i n p its 9 06 , 4 48 , 6 39 , 2 3 , 2 7 , 6 2 , 7 8 , 2 87 . C ategory 6 Am inimum o f t hirteen i nd ividuals i n 16 c ontexts : 7 p its , t wo p ostholes , o ne g ully , a nd t en l ayers o f r ampart q uarry h o llows . S kull a nd f emur f ragments p redom inate .
F ENGATE , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7
N orthants T L 2 06988 . I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . H B 3 4 . U naged , u nsexed s kull, 5 . P it u nspecif ied . " Late I ron A ge" . P ryor & C ranstone 1 978 , 2 5 . H B 3 5 . U naged , u nsexed b uria l, P it , n o o ther d etails . " Late I ron A ge" . P ryor & C ranstone 1 978 ,
1 .
2 5 .
F IFIELD B AVANT , W ilts 1 S U 0 0 1255 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement s ite . 3 H B 3 6 . 4 U naged , u nsexed s kull f ragments , 6 . 5 P it 5 . 6 P robably e ighth—f ifth c entury B C . 7 C lay 1 924 , 4 63 , 4 89 . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 7 . U naged , u nsexed s kull f ragments , 6 . P it 3 5 . P robably e ighth—f ifth c entury B C . C lay 1 924 , 4 89 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 8 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 8 0 . C rouched , o n l eft s ide , o r iented N E—SW , P robably e ighth—f ifth c entury B C . C lay 1 924 , 4 67 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 3 9 . U naged , u nsexed s kull, 5 ; l acks m andible . P it 1 02 . P robab ly e ighth—f ifth c entury B C . C lay 1 924 , 4 68 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 0 . U naged , u nsexed s kull, 5 ; e dges s haped t o f orm a c up . P it 1 05 . P robab ly e ighth—f ifth c entury B C . C lay 1 924 , 4 90 .
G USSAGE — ALL—SA INTS , D orset 1 S T 9 98 10 1. 2 I ron A ge f armstead . 3 H B 4 1. 4 U naged , u nsexed s kull f ragments ( 8), 6 . 5 E nclosure d itch , s ect ions C , G , M , P , N . 6 F ourth—second c entury B C . 7 W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 .
h ead t o N E .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 2 . I wo n eonatal i nfants , 1 . E nclosure d itch s ections I G , I R . P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 3 . A do lescent f ema le , 1 . P it 4 35 . C rouched , o n l eft s ide , o riented S W-NE , h ead a nd b ack o ut lined b y f lint n odules . P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 4 . I nfant , 1 . P it 4 39 . C rouched , o n l eft s ide , o r iented N -S , P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 5 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 ; a dult r ight f emur f ragment i n a ssociation , 6 . P it 4 70 . P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 6 . I nfant b urial, 1 . P it 5 3 1. C rouched , o n r ight s ide , o r iented E -W , P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 7 . A dult , u nsexed c rania , 6 . P it 5 44 . P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 4 8 . I nfant b urial, 1 ; d isart iculated . P it 7 69 . P robably f ourth-second c entury B C . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 2 4 .
3 4 5
H B .4 9 . A dult , u nsexed , 1 . E nclosure d itch , s ect ion i 3 0 L . T ight ly c rouched , w ith l imbs d istorted . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 79 , 3 2 .
6 7 3 4 5 6 7
h ead t o S W ,
h ead t o N .
h ead t o W .
H B 5 0 . A dult , u nsexed , 2 . E nclosure d itch , s ect ion i 1 30 L . P artial b urial, r ight l eg a nd p elvis m issing ; s kull r esting o n ap ile o f p ot b oilers . A pproximately 6 0100 A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 1. F our i nfant b uria ls , 1 . D itches 1 30/13 1. T hree a re d isarticulated b ut c omplete , o ne l acks b oth l egs . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 2 . T wo n eonatal i nfants , 1 . D itch 3 10 , S ect ion W . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 3 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 3 1. F lexed , p rone , o r iented N -S , h ead t o N , f acing W . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 4 . F our i nfants , 1 . P it 3 4 . A ll d isart iculated , n ear b ottom o f f ill. P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5
H B 5 5 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 6 2 . C rouched , o n r ight s ide , o r iented N -S , f acing W . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainright 1 979 , 3 2 .
6 7 3 4 5
h ead t o N ,
6 7
H B 5 6 . O ne i nfant , 1 . P it 9 6 . E xtended , s upine , o r iented N W-SE ; h ead t o N W , f acing W ; p laced a gainst W w all o f p it a nd c overed w ith f lint n odules . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 5 7 . O ne i nfant , 1 . P it 1 21. D isart iculated . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5
H B 5 8 . F our i nfants , 1 . P it 1 32 . A ll e xtended , s upine ; t hree o riented N -S w ith h eads t o N ; o ne o riented E -W , w ith h ead t o E . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 2 .
6 7
3 4 5
6 7
H B 5 9 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 1 39 i . L oosely c rouched , o n l eft s ide , o riented E —W , t o E , f acing S . A ssorted a nimal b ones ( unspecif ied) f ound i n d irect a ssociat ion . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 6 0 . T wo i nfants , 1 . P it 1 39 i. L oose ly c rouched , n o o rientat ion . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 6 1. O ne i nfant , 1 . P it 1 72 . C omplete b ut d isart iculated . P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
3 4 5
H B 6 2 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 2 04 . T ight ly c rouched , o n l eft s ide , o r iented E —W , E , f acing S . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
6 7 3 4 5
h ead
h ead t o
6 7
H B 6 3 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 2 05 . F lexed , o n r ight s ide , o r iented E —W , f acing N . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 2 4 ,
3 4 5 6 7
H B 6 4 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . P it 2 09 . D isart iculated . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 3 .
3 4 5
H B 6 5 . A dult m ale , 1 . P it 2 85 . F lexed , s upine , o r iented N E—SW , h ead t o N E ; i njuries a t t ime o f d eath t o s kull, l eft a rm ; t wo u nspecif ied i ron o bjects f ound a t w aist . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
6 7 3 4 5
6 7
H B 6 6 . T wo i nfants , 1 . P it 2 85 ( same a s a bove , b ut l ower i n f ill). O ne o riented N W—SE , h ead N W . S econd o riented N —S , h ead S . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 2 .
h ead t o E ,
3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
H B 6 7 . T hree h uman i nfants , 1 . P it 2 93 . T wo e xtended , o r iented N -S , h eads t o N . T hird i s d isart iculated a nd l ower i n f ill. P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 3 .
6 7
H B 6 8 . O ne i nfant , 1 . P it 3 11. E xtended , o riented N E-SW i n as hallow " coff in" s haped p it . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 5 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 6 9 . O ne i nfant , 1 . P it 3 47 . N ear b ottom o f f ill; d isart iculated . P robab ly f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 3 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 0 . A dult m ale , 1 . P it 3 59 . F lexed o n r ight s ide , o r iented N -S , f acing W . P robab ly f irst c entury B C f irst c entury A D . W a inwright 1 979 , 3 3 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 1. U naged , u nsexed c ranial f ragment , 6 . P it 3 8 1. P robably f irst-second c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 3 .
3 4 5
6 7
H B 7 2 . A dult m ale , 1 ; a lso a r ight f emur a nd f ibula , 6 . P it 3 87 . T ightly c rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented N -S , h ead t o N , f acing W . E xtra h uman b ones a nd A B 2 9 ( see A ppendix II, i n d irect a ssociat ion). P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 3 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 4 10 . F lexed a nd s upine , o r iented E -W , h ead t o E , f acing N . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 4 . I nfant , 1 . P it 4 18 . P robably f irst c entury B C -f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 4 .
h ead t o N ,
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 5 . I nfant , 1 . P it 6 61. D isarticulated . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 6 . T wo n eonatal i nfants , 1 . P it 7 09 . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 7 . I nfant , 1 . P it 7 8 1. D isarticulated . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwr ight 1 979 , 3 4 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 7 8 . I nfant , 1 . P it 8 4 . V ery f ragmentary . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 5 .
3 4 5
H B 7 9 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . P it 9 42 . R ectangular p it . O r iented N W—SE , c overed b y a l ayer o f f ine c halk r ubb le , s ealed b y al ayer o f f lint n odules . P robably f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W ainwright 1 979 , 3 4 .
6 7 H OD H ILL , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5 6 7
D orset S T 8 57106 . I ron A ge h illfort . H B 8 0 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it , a s a" foundation b urial" i n r ampart ; Ns ide o f " Steepleton G ate" . C rouched , u pright , i n as mall p it . P robably f ifth—third c entury B C? R ichmond 1 968 , 1 6 . H B 8 1, H B 8 2 T wo a dult f emales , 1 ; o ne ( uppermost i n f ill) w ith n eonatal i nfant . P it B , o ne . o f t hree i n ap enannular e nclosure ( No 1 5). L ower , p rimary b ur ial i s c rouched , a nd a p ot w as f ound n earby . T he u pper , s econdary b urial i s a lso c rouched , w ith i nfant , a nd a ssociated w ith l oomweights . P ossib le . a ssociation w ith m andibles o f h orse , c att le a nd p ig . P robably . f ifth—third c entury B C? R ichmond 1 968 , 2 6-28 . H B 8 3 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it C i n p enannular e nclosure . C rouched t ightly o n l eft s ide , n o o rientation . P robably f ifth—third c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 2 6-28 .
3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5
H B 8 4 . D isart iculated h uman b ones , 6 ; u nspecif ied . P it B D 6 a ( S ite 6 ) , i nside a nother e ar lier p enannular g ully . E ither a d isturbed b ur ia l o r p ossib ly a s ingle p art ia l b ur ial, c ategory t wo . P robab ly f ifth—third c entury . BC . R ichmond 1 968 , 2 8 .
6 7
H B 8 5 , H B 8 6 . T wo a dult m a les , 1 . P it B D 6 c ( S ite 6 ) , i nside s ame p enannu lar e nclosure a s H B 8 4 a bove . L ower , p r imary b ur ia l o f a n a dult w ith a c hild ( infant?) i n ac rouched p osit ion . U pper , s econdary b ur ial o f a m ale , p osit ion u nspecif ied . P robably f ifth—third c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 2 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 8 7 . A dult f ema le , 2 . G ateway . P art o f a n a dult f ema le ; p arts u nspecif ied . U ndated . W ilson 1 98 1, 1 54 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 8 8 . S kull f ragment , 6 . P it 9 8 B D . " Late I ron A ge" , p robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 3 0 .
3 4 5
6 7
H B 8 9 . A dult f emale , 2 . S cattered o n o ld g round s urface u nder r ampart , n ear " Steepleton G ate" . F ragmentary r emains o f a n a dult f ema le , p arts n ot s pecif ied . " Late I ron A ge" , p robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 1 26 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 0 . A dult , u nsexed , 1 . " Home G ate" , i n as ha llow s coop u nder c ounterscarp . " Late I ron A ge" , p robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . R ichmond 1 968 , 3 1.
L ITTLE S OMBORNE , W ilts 1 S U 3 89328 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 H B '9 1, H B 9 2 . 4 T wo a dult m ales , 1 . 5 P it 3 65 . U nder a t hick l ayer o f f lint n odules . S ke leton 7 98 , am a le a ged 1 7-22 y ears . S keleton 7 99 , am a le a ged 2 5-35 y ears . N o d eta ils o n p osit ions o r o r ientat ions . 6 P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . 7 N eal 1 980 , 1 05106 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 3 . T hree f ragments o f t wo a dult , u nsexed s keletons , 6 . P it 1 22 . I ncludes r ight h umerus , l eft p ar ietal, a f ragmentary r ight h umerus . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . N eal 1 980 , 1 02 .
M AIDEN C ASTLE ,
D orset
T his s ection d oes n ot i nclude t he f orma l b urials , n umbers 3 1 t o 8 2 , i n t he " War" c emetery — f or t hese , s ee W himster 1 980 , 2 62-27 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S Y 6 69885 . I ron A ge h illfort . H B 9 4 . A dult , u nsexed , 1 . S ite H , f oundation b urial. C rouched , P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . W heeler 1 943 , 3 46 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 5 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . T rench l xiv ; B urial N o T7 , i n as hallow p it . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 46 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 6 . S kull f ragments , 6( age , s ex a nd n umber u nspecif ied). R ampart f ill, v arious p rovenances . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . W heeler 1 943 , 3 46 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 7 . F our i nfants , 1 . R ampart , f ill, s ites L , Qa nd R . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . W heeler 1 943 , 3 46 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 8 . A dult f emale , 1 . T rench x lviii, Y d itch f ill, B ur ial T 1 . F lexed , o n l eft s ide , o r iented E —W , h ead t o W , f acing N . F irst c entury B C . W heeler 1 943 , 3 47 . •
3 4 5 6 7
H B 9 9 . A dult , m ale s kull, 5 . T rench l xxv , P it T 1 0 , B ur ial T 9 . E arly f irst c entury A D . W heeler 1 943 , 3 47 .
3 4 5
H B 1 00 . A dult f emale , 1 . T rench l xxxiv , P it T 1 0 , B ur ial T 1 3 . F lexed , o n r ight s ide , o riented N W—SE , E ar ly f irst c entury A D . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 47 .
6 7
o riented N —S ,
h ead t o S E ,
h ead t o S .
f ac ing N E .
3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
H B 1 0 1. A dult f emale , 1 . T rench l xxv , P it 1 0 , B ur ial T 1 4 . F lexed , o n r ight s ide , o r iented E NE—WSW , E ar ly f irst c entury A D . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 47 .
h ead t o E NE ,
f acing N .
H B 1 02 . A dult m ale , 2 ; n o s kull. T rench c ii, B ur ial T 1 7 . F lexed , o r iented E —W , h ead t o E . L ate f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 47 . H B 1 03 . A dult f ema le , 1 . T rench c xi, i n r ampart f ill, B ur ia l T1 8 . C rouched , o n l eft s ide , o r iented S E—NW , h ead t o S E , F irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 47 . H B 1 04 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . T rench l ix , f ill o f Yd itch o f Ee ntrance , C rouched , o r iented E —W , h ead t o W . F irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 47 .
f ac ing S .
B ur ia l T1 9 .
H B 1 05 . A dult f ema le , 1 . T rench l xxx iii, p it u nder c ounterscarp , B ur ia l T2 4 . C rouched o n l eft s ide , o r iented N E—SW , h ead N E , f ac ing S . L ate f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
6 7
H B 1 06 . A dult f ema le , 1 . P it Q 4 . F lexed , o n l eft s ide , o r iented ' S W—NE , h ead t o S W , f acing N ; a ssociated s ha le b ang le , c ha lk l oomwe ight , a nd 17 s lingstones . F irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 07 . A dult f ema le c ranium a nd f emur , P it B 4 2 . L ate f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
3 4 5
H B 1 08 . A dult m a le , 1 . P it N 1 , i n c ounterscarp o f m a in d itch , a t Ne nd o f h ornwork . C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented N —S , h ead t o N , f ac ing W . F irst c entury A D . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
6 7
5 , 6 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 09 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it N 2 . C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented N E-SW , f acing N W . F irst c entury A D . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 10 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . P it R 1 . L ate f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 11. T wo n eonata l i nfants , 1 . P it R 2 . L ate f irst c entury B C . W hee ler 1 943 , 3 48 .
O LD D OWN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
h ead t o N E ,
F ARM , H ants S U 3 56465 . I ron A ge s ett lement . H B 12 . N eonata l i nfant , 1 . P it 2 683 . P robably s eventh c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 11.
3 4 5 6 7
H B 13 . A dult , u nsexed c ranial f ragments , 6 ; c hild 's l eft p ar ieta l, 6 . P ostho le 4 5 1. P robab ly s eventh c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 11.
3 4 5 6 7
H B 14 . T wo a dult , u nsexed c rania l f ragments , 6 . P its 1 095 a nd 2 780 ( two f ragments e ach?) . P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 18 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 15 . C hild 's m axillae , 6 . P it 2 290 . P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 18 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 16 . T wo n eonata l i nfants , 1 . P ostho le 2 647 . P robably d isart iculated , P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 1 33 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 17 . A dult , u nsexed c rania l f ragment , 6 . P it 2 032 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . D avies 1 98 1, 1 33 .
v ery f ragmentary .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 18 . A dult , u nsexed c rania l f ragment , 6 . P it 1 09 1. P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 33 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 19 . A do lescent m a le , 1 . P it 2 793 . C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented E —W , f acing N . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 22 , 1 33 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 20 . N eonata l i nfant , i ncomp lete ; p robab ly 1 . P it 2 134 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 33 .
3 4 5
H B 1 2 1. A do lescent m ale , 1 . P it 2 40 . C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented E —W , h ead t o E , f ac ing N . M assive c ut w ounds t o s kull, n eck , r ibs , l eft a rm a nd l eft p elvis , a t t ime o f d eath . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . D av ies 1 98 1, 1 22 , 1 32133 .
6 7 3 4 5
h ead t o E ,
6 7
H B 1 22 . A do lescent f ema le , 1 ; ( w ith n eonatal i nfant , 1 ) . P it 9 79 . E xtended , p rone , o r iented E —W , h ead t o W . N eonata l i nfant p laced u nder f eet . A ssociated : t wo b rooches . E ar ly f irst c entury A D . D avies 1 98 1, 1 34135 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 23 . T hree a dult , u nsexed b ur ia ls , 1 . E nclosure d itch . N o f urther p rovenance O r d etails . P robab ly e ar ly f irst c entury A D? D av ies 1 98 1, 1 35 .
S ALMONSBURY , G los 1 S P 1 73208 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 H B 1 24 . 4 A dult f emale , 2 . 5 S ite II, P er iod I, p hase i , b e low a n a rea o f p aving . C onsist ing o f l ong b ones a nd s kull d eliberate ly b roken — f or c annibalism , a ccording t o e xcavator . 6 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 7 D unning 1 976 , 16117 . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 25 . A dult u nsexed , 1 . R ampart , S ite V II. C rouched o n r ight s ide , h ead t o S E , f acing N . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 9 3 .
o r iented S E—NW ,
3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
H B 1 26 . A dult f ema le , 1 . P it D , S ite I V . P osture u nspecif ied , o n r ight s ide , o r iented E —W , w ith h ead t o E . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 7 .
6 7
H B 1 27 . U naged , u nsexed , 1 . P it B , S ite I V . P robab ly f lexed o n l eft s ide , o r iented E —W , h ead t o E . M uch d isturbed b y aR oman p er iod d itch . . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 7 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 28 . A do lescent f ema le s kull, 5 . H ut I d itch , S ite I V . S kull S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 7 .
3 4 5
H B 1 29 . A do lescent f ema le , 1 . P it B , S ite II. F lexed o n l eft s ide , o r iented E —W , f acing S . Af lat s tone p laced a t e ach e nd o f b ody . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 4 .
6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
i n h ut g ully .
h ead t o E ,
H B 1 30 . A dult m ale , 1 . P it E , S ite II. C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented N —S , N , f acing W . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unn ing 1 976 , 8 3 .
6 7
H B 1 3 1. A dult f emale , 1 . P it D , S ite I . F lexed o n r ight s ide , f acing N . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unn ing 1 976 , 8 3 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 32 . T wo n eonatal i nfants , 1 . P it A , S ite I . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 33 . A dult f emale , 2 . P it E , S ite I . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 2 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 34 . U naged , u nsexed , 2 . P it D , S ite I . R ib c age a nd v ertebrae . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 2 .
o r iented E —W ,
h ead t o
h ead t o E ,
4 5 6 7
U naged , u nsexed , 2 . P it H , S ite I . R ibs a nd v ertebrae . S econd—f irst c entury B C . D unning 1 976 , 8 2 .
S WALLOWCLIFFE D OWN , W ilts 1 S T 9 68254 . 2 I ron A ge s ettlement s ite . 3 H B 1 36 . 4 F our u naged , u nsexed , 6 . 5 P it I . O ne f rontal, t wo p ar ietals , 6 P robably f ifth—third c entury B C . 7 C lay 1 925 , 6 4 .
a nd h alf o f al eft h umerus.
T OLLARD R OYAL , W ilts 1 S T 9 42197 . 2 I ron A ge s ettlement/farmstead . 3 H B 1 37 . 4 A dult m ale , 1 . 5 P it . E xtended , s upine , o riented N W—SE , 6 P robably f irst c entury A D . 7 W ainwright 1 968 , 11. T WYWELL , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N orthants S P 9 52787 . I ron A ge s ettlement . H B 1 38 . A dult m ale , 1 . P it 1 33 . C rouched p osit ion , T hird—second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 , 8 7 .
h ead t o N W ,
f acing E .
n o f urther d etails .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 39 . C hild , u nsexed , 1 . P it 1 46 . C rouched p osition , T hird—second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 8 7 .
3 4 5
H B 1 40 . C hild , u nsexed , 1 ( possibly l acking l egs?). P it 1 64 . N o p osit ional i nformat ion . P ossib ly a ssociated w ith a n o x s kull? T hird—second c entury B C . J ackson 1 975 , 6 0 , 8 7 .
6 7
n o f urther d etails .
W ANDLEBURY , C ambs 1 T L 4 95533 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 H B 1 4 1. 4 C hild , u nsexed , 2 . 5 P it 2 . E xtended , s upine , n o l egs ; n o o r ientat ion . P robab ly a ssociated w ith a b ronze p in a nd t races o f ac loth s ack . 6 P robably f ifth—third c entury B C? 7 H artley 1 957 , 1 415 , 2 6-27 .
4 5 6 7 3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5
6 7
A dult f emale , 1 . P it 1 2 . E xtended , p rone , n o o r ientat ion . d isp laced b ut p resent . P robably f ifth—third c entury B C? H art ley 1 957 , 2 6-27 .
H B 1 43 . A dult f emale , 2 . P it 1 9 . S kull d isplaced b ut p resent ; f emurs b roken o ff j ust b e low p elvis a nd m issing ; v ertebrae i n a rt iculation , o ther b ones d isart iculated a nd s cattered . A ssociated h orse b ones? P robably f ifth—third c entury B C . H art ley 1 957 , 1 5 , 2 6-27 . H B 1 44 . M ultiple b urial, a t l east f ive i ndividuals , f our m ale ( 3), o ne p ossibly f emale ( 3). P it 1 . T wo m ales i n e xtended p ost ion , o ne p rone , o ne s up ine , o ther t hree p ositions u nknown ( rema ins t oo m ixed). M ore b ones v isib le i n s ect ions a t e ither e nd o f t rench , s o b urial d eposit e xtends i n e ach d irect ion a n u nknown d istance . U ndated . T ay lor & D enton , 1 977 , 1 -3 .
W INKLEBURY , H ants 1 S U 6 13529 . 2 I ron A ge h illfort . 3 H B 1 45 . 4 A do lescent f emale , 1 . 5 P it 3 834 ( Skeleton 3 910). C rouched , t o E , f acing N . 6 P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . 7 S m ith 1 977 , 7 6-78 . 3 4 5
6 7 3 4 5
C ervical v ertebrae
p rone ,
o riented E —W ,
h ead
H B 1 46 . A dolescent f ema le , 1 . P it 2 615 ( Skeleton 2 745). P robab ly a c omplete b urial, a s a lthough s kull i s m issing , t here i s e vidence o f d isturbance i n a ntiquity . N o d etails . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 5 .
6 7
H B 1 47 . U naged , u nsexed b ones , 6 . F eature 2 247 . O ne u nspecif ied l ong b one , am andib le , a nd a v ertebral c o lumn w ith s ix ( not n orma l f ive) l umbar v ertebrae . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 48 . A dult , u nsexed , 1 . S keleton 4 0 10 . N o d etails o f c ontext , P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8 .
p osture o r o r ientat ion .
4 5 6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
A dult f emale , 2 . P it 1 614 ( Skeleton 1 624). N o s kull, o ther b ones s cattered o ut o f a rt iculat ion ( possible d isturbance?). P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 5-76 . H B 1 50 . A dult m ale , 2 . P it 9 79 ( Skeleton 111). C rouched , p rone , o riented N -S , t o N . S kull d isplaced b ut p resent , b ut n o l eft a rm . P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 6 .
h ead
6 7
H B 1 5 1. A dult , u nsexed , 6 ; i nfant , 6 . P it 9 79 . F our s kull f ragments a nd r ight f emur o f a n i nfant . O ne t emporal b one , m etatarsals a nd m etacarpals o f a n a dult . P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 52 . N eonatal i nfant , 1 . P it 6 15 . P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 53 . A dult m ale , 5 . P it 2 738 . O ne s kull w ithout m andible . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8-79 .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 54 . A dult , u nsexed , 5 . U nprovenanced . P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . S m ith 1 977 , 7 8-79 .
W INNALL D OWN , H ants 1 S U 4 98303 . 2 I ron A ge s ett lement . 3 H B 1 55 . 4 F ive a dult , u nsexed f ragments , 6 . 5 S ect ion 5 A o f e nclosure d itch . 6 P robably s ixth-fourth c entury B C . 7 F asham , p ers c omm . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 56 . T wo a dult , u nsexed f ragments , 6 . S ect ion 5 B o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth-fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 57 . T wo a dult , u nsexed f ragments , 6 . S ect ion 5 C o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth-fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm . 377-
4 5 6 7
F our a dult , u nsexed f ragments , 6 . S ect ion 5 F o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 59 . T hree a dults , u nsexed f ragments , 6 . S ect ion 5 R R o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 60 . O ne a dult , u nsexed s kull f ragment , S ect ion M o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 61. I nfant , 1 . S ect ion M o f e nclosure d itch . P robably s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 62 . I nfant , 1 . P it 5 777 . P robab ly s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5
H B 1 63 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 8 265 , B urial 5 08 , i n N W q uarry " cemetery" . o r iented E —W . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
H B 1 64 . C hild , u nsexed , 1 . P it 8 184 , B urial 5 05 , N W q uarry . o riented N —S , h ead N , f acing W . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
6 7
H B 1 65 . C hild , u nsexed , 1 . P it 8 294 , B uria l 5 06 , N W q uarry . p oor p reservat ion . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 66 . I nfant , 1 . P it 8 184 , B urial 4 60 , N W q uarry . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
— 378—
6 .
F lexed ,
C rouched ,
o n r ight s ide ,
O r iented N —S ;
b adly e roded ,
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 67 . I nfant , 1 . P it 6 280 , B ur ial 3 97 , N W q uarry . E xtended , o r iented N —S , h ead t o N , f acing E . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 68 . I nfant , 1 . B ur ial 5 07 . O r iented E —W , h ead t o W . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 69 . I nfant , 1 . B ur ial 4 57 , N W q uarry . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 70 . I nfant , 1 . B urial 3 555 , N W q uarry . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5
H B 1 7 1. A dult m ale , 1 ; a lso a n i nfant , 1 . P it 8 564 , B ur ial 5 00 , S" cemetery". C rouched o n r ight s ide , o r iented N W—SE , h ead t o N W , f acing S . I nfant ( Burial 3 563) i n a ssociation? P robably t hird—first c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
6 7 3 4 5 6 7 3 4 5
H B 1 72 . A dult f emale , 1 . P it 8 630 , B urial 5 74 , S" cemetery" . o r iented S W—NE , h ead t o S W . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
o n l eft s ide ,
T ightly c rouched ,
p robably
6 7
H B 1 73 . T wo i nfants , 1 . P it 8 630 , B ur ials 4 70 a nd 5 3 1, S " cemetery" ( upper f ill o f a bove). P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F ahsam , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 74 . I nfant , 1 . P it 8 594 , B urial 5 67 , S" cemetery" . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 75 . O ne a dult f emale , 6 ; o ne a dult , u nsexed , P it 8 630 ( Nos 3 566 a nd 3 566a). P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
— 379—
6 .
3 4 5
6 7
H B 1 76 . A do lescent m ale , 1 . P it 4 475 , B ur ia l 1 74 . F lexed , o n l eft s ide , o r iented N W—SE , h ead t o N W , f acing N . A ssociated s ha le b race let a nd b ronze t humb r ing . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 77 . A do lescent , u nsexed , 2 . P it 4 475 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 78 . A dult , u nsexed s kull f ragments , 6 . P it 4 475 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 79 . I nfant , 1 ; a dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . P it 4 006 , B ur ia l 1 56 . I nfant e xtended , o r iented E —W . b one i n a ssociat ion? P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 80 . I nfant , 1 . P ostho le 8 547 , B ur ial 4 87 . E xtended , o r iented E —W . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5
H B 1 8 1. I nfant , 1 . P ostho le 8 576 , B ur ia l 4 88 . C rouched , o n l eft s ide , o r iented E —W , h ead W , f acing N . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C F asham , p ers c omm .
6 7 3 4 5
A dult
6 7
H B 1 82 . I nfant , 1 . G rave 4 239 , B ur ia l 1 59 . C rouched , o n r ight s ide , o r iented E —W , h ead t o E , f acing N . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 83 . I nfant , 1 . G rave 4 264 , B ur ia l 1 6 1. O r iented N W—SE ; P robab ly • t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 84 . I nfant , t wo f ragmentary b ones , 6 . P ostho le 1 42 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
n o o ther d eta ils .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 85 . O ne i nfant b one , 6 . P it 8 585 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 86 . O ne a dult , u nsexed f ragment , 6 ; o ne i nfant f ragment , 6 . G ully 1 989 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 87 . O ne a dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . P it 6 84 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5
H B 1 88 . A dult f emale , 1 . G rave 2 020 , B urial 3 5 . C rouched , h ead t o S E , f acing W . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
6 7 3 4 5
o n l eft s ide ,
o r iented N W—SE ,
6 7
H B 1 89 . A dult , u nsexed , 1 . G rave 1 0312 , B urial 6 29 . C rouched o n l eft s ide , S W—NE , h ead t o S W , f acing N W . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 90 . I nfant , 1 ; a lso f ragments o f f rom t wo t o s ix o ther i nfants ( 1). P it 2 4 16 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 9 1. I nfant , p robably 1 ; a lso t wo , 6( one i nfant b one a nd o ne a dult , u nsexed b one). P it 7 372 , B urial 4 20 . P robab ly t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H a 1 92 . I nfant , 1 . P it 1 473 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B .193 . I nfant , 1 . P it 2 002 . P robably t hird—f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
o r iented
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 94 . I nfant , 1 . P it 5 789 . P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 95 . A dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . S ect ion C C o f d itch 5 ( unspec if ied b one). P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 96 . A dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . F eature 2 778 ( unspecif ied b one). P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 97 . A dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . P it 1 49 1 ( unspecif ied b one). P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 98 . A dult , u nsexed b one , 6 . P it 3 90 1 ( unspecif ied b one). P robab ly t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 1 99 . A dolescent u nsexed , 2 . P it 5 548 ( parts u nspecif ied). P robably t hird-f irst c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 H B 2 00 . 4 T wo a dult , u nsexed , 6 . 5 P it 2 258 ( bone n ot s pecif ied). 6 .P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . 7 F asham , p ers c omm . 3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 0 1. O ne a dult u nsexed , 6 . S ect ion 5 G G ( bone n ot s pec if ied). P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 02 . O ne a dult u nsexed , 6 . S ect ion 5 J ( bone n ot s pecif ied). P robab ly s ixth-fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 03 . O ne a dult u nsexed , 6 . P it 5 797 ( bone n ot s pecif ied). P robably s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
3 4 5 6 7
H B 2 04 . O ne a dult , u nsexed , 6 . Q uarry p it 74 1 ( bone n ot s pecif ied). P robab ly s ixth—fourth c entury B C . F asham , p ers c omm .
I NDEX
H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B H B
1— 2 0 — 2 2 — 2 8 2 9 — 3 1 3 3 3 4 — 3 6 — 4 1 — 8 0 — 9 1 — 9 4 — 12 — 1 24 — 1 36 1 37 1 38 — 1 4 1 — 1 45 — 1 55 — 2 04 —
H B H B H B
1 9 2 1 2 7
H B H B
3 0 3 2
H B 3 5 H B 4 0 H B 7 9 H B 9 0 H B 9 3 H B 11 H B 1 23 H B 1 35
H B H B H B H B H B
1 40 1 44 1 54 2 04 4 49
A ll C annings C ross , W ilts A ppleford , O xon A shville , O xon B arley , A ldw ick , H erts B ishopstone , S ussex S outh C adbury , S omerset C roft A mbrey , H ere & W orcs F engate , N orthants F if ield B avant , W ilts G ussage — A ll—Saints , D orset H od H ill, D orset L itt le S omborne , H ants M aiden C astle , D orset O ld D own F arm , H ants S almonsbury , G los S wallowcliffe D own , W ilts T o llard R oyal, W ilts T wywell, N orthants W andlebury , C ambs W inklebury , H ants W innall D own , H ants D anebury , H ants
AP P E N D I X
V
C ELTIC S HRINES
I NTRODUCTION T his g azetteer i ncludes a ll o f t he p utat ive s hrines c onsidered i n c hapter s ix o f t he t ext a bove . T he r esults o f t he o nly g enera l s tudy m ade o f C e ltic r eligious b uildings ( Drury 1 980) a re i ncorporated h ere , e xtensively s upplemented . T hree p r incipal s ources w ere u sed t o p rovide s upplementary m ater ial: C BA A nnual B ibliography , ad eliberate s earch o f h illforts a nd s ett lements w ith s uff iciently l arge s cale e xcavations t o h ave f ound p ossible s hr ines , a nd l ast ly a ll t he R omano—Celt ic t emp les o n s ites w hich h ave I ron A ge t o R oman c ont inuity o f o ccupation b ut w here n o s tructural r emains o f a n I ron A ge s hr ine a re k nown ( cf R odwell 1 980 , DRW ilson 1 975 , 1 980). T hus , t he g azetteer i s a s c omp lete a s p ossible , t hough s ome s ites a re u ndoubtedly o m itted a nd c onverse ly s ome o f t hose i ncluded m ay n ot i n f act b e s hrines . T he f ormat o f t his g azetteer f ollows t he b asic p attern o ut lined i n t he p reface w ith s everal m inor a lterations . T hese i nclude : 3
D escr ipt ion o f s hr ine b uilding s ize , o rientation , c onstruct ion
( probab le v s
p ossib le):
s hape ,
4
R elat ionship t o o ther b uildings a nd f eatures o f t he s ite
5
F inds . T his i s n ot a n e xhaustive l isting , b ut s imply a b r ief m ent ion o f i tems o f p resumed r itual s ignif icance .
B ATH , A von 1 S T 7 464 . 2 S1 ( cf T 2 ). 3 Ap robable I ron A ge s hrine s ite . N o s tructural r emains a re k nown ; t hese a re p resumed t o h ave b een d estroyed b y t he e xtensive R omano-Celt ic t emple c omp lex l ater b uilt o n t he s ite . T he a ttr ibut ion o f a n I ron A ge s hr ine t o t his s ite r ests o n t he f act t hat t he l ater R oman t emple w as d edicated t o S ulis M inerva , a nd s ince S ul w as a C elt ic d eity t he l ocus m ust h ave b een s acred b efore t he R oman M inerva a rr ived . 4 U nknown , t hough p resumed t o h ave b een u nder t he R omano-Celt ic t emple . 5 N o s pecif ically p re-Roman f inds a re k nown . 6 U ndated . 7 C unliffe 1 969 , 1 -6 . D ANEBURY , H ants 1 S U 3 237 . 2 . S 2a nd S 3 . 3 T wo s imple r ectangular b uildings , e ach a pproximately 2 m w ide b y 2 .5 m l ong , o ne w ithout a ny w all t o t he e ast ( R S4 ) , t he s econd w ith a d oor a t t he e ast e nd o f t he s outh w all ( R S3 ). B oth a re d ef ined b y b edding t renches . 4 T wo o f ag roup o f f our r ectangular b uildings s et s omewhat a part f rom t he d omestic o ccupation a t t he f oca l p oint i n t he c entre o f t he h illfort , f acing t he m ain e ntrance a nd a t t he t erm inus o f a" street" . 2 3
4 2 3
4 5 6
7
S4 . As quare b uilding ( designated R S 1 ) , 9m s quare , d ivided i nternally i nto t wo r ooms , o riented N -S a nd E -W . P osition o f d oor i s u ncertain . W alls d ef ined b y ac ont inuous b edding t rench w ith u pright t imber p osit ions . T he t hird o f t he g roup o f f our r ectangular b uildings . S5 . As quare b uilding ( designated R S 2 ) , 3m s quare i nternally , o riented N -S a nd E -W , w ith d oor i n t he c entre o f t he e ast w a ll. W alls d ef ined b y ac ontinuous b edding t rench . A n " ambulatory" , d ef ined b y p ostholes , i s p ossib le ( cf D rury 1 980 , 4 5 a nd F ig 3 .2 .10 ; C unliffe 1 979 , 3 39). T he f ourth o f t he g roup o f f our r ectangular b uildings . N one k nown . S hrines 2 a nd 3 d ate t o e ither t he e arly o r m iddle p hases a t D apebury , " h ence a re E ar ly I ron A ge i n c hronology u sed h ere . S hrine 5 w as n ext , p ossibly c ontemporary o r s lightly l ater , p robab ly i n t he l ate p hase a t D anebury . T entat ively a ssigned t o M iddle I ron A ge . S hrine 4 i s t he l ast i n t he s equence , b e longs t o t he L ate I ron A ge a nd s urvives p ast t he e nd o f t he m ain d omest ic o ccupation o f t he s ite , c irca 1 00 B C . C unliffe 1 976 , 1 979 , 1 984 ; D rury 1 980 , 4 5-47 .
F RILFORD , 1 2 3
4
5
6
7
G OSBECKS 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
O xon S U 4 396 . S6 . Ar itual s tructure c onsists o f ac ircular/sub—rectangular d itch , w ith a n e ntrance g ap t o t he w est a nd a d iameter o f a pproximately s ix m etres i nternally . D itch s ect ions i ndicate t hat t he d itches w ere r ecut a n umber o f t imes . I nside t he d itch t wo p arallel l ines o f t hree d oub le p ostho les e ach a re o r iented N —S , a nd a s quare p it a pproximately 1 m s quare w as o n t he s outh s ide n ear t he e ntrance . Af urther p ostho le n ear t he e ntrance m ay r epresent a g ate p ost . T he d itch p ostho les a nd s quare p it w ere a ll d eliberately f illed w ith c lay , c irca A D 8 0-90 . As imple c ircular R omano—Celt ic t emp le w as b uilt o ver t he d e liberately l evelled s ite . C ont inuity a ppears t o b e d irect . As quare R omano—Celt ic t emp le n earby . i ron A ge f inds i nclude a n i ron p loughshare i n o ne o f t he s ix d oub le p ostho les , a nd m iniature b ronze s word a nd s hield f rom t he s quare p it . T he p enannular d itch e vident ly h ad a l ong l ifetime u nt il i t w as d e liberate ly f illed i n d ur ing t he R oman o ccupat ion . I ts c on— s truct ion c lear ly p ost—dates E arly I ron A ge p its , w hich i t c uts , b ut c an n ot b e m ore p recisely d eterm ined . B radford & G oodchild , 1 939 , 1 -70 ; H arding 1 972 , 6 1-64 ; D rury 1 980 , 6 3 , F ig 3 .6 .65 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 93194 . F ARM , C o lchester , E ssex T L 9 67225 . S7 . Ap ossible I ron A ge s hr ine s ite . T he I ron A ge s tructural r emains c onsist o f t he s quare m ult iple d itched a nd w alled t emenos . T he p rimary f ill c ontains p re—Roman s herds a nd c oins ; a nd R oman s herds a ppear o nly i n t he u pper f ill. C o lchester R oman t emp le V a nd t emenos b uilt i nside t he p re—Roman d itch . O ccupation a ppears t o b e c ont inuous . N o I ron A ge f inds f rom t he s ite o f p resumably r itual s ignif icance . P robably l ate f irst c entury B C a nd e ar ly f irst c entury A D . H awkes & H ull, 1 947 , 1 011, 1 4 ; H ull 1 958 , 2 64 , 2 70-27 1; G reen 1 976 , 2 14 ; D rury 1 980 , 5 1 .
H ARLOW , E ssex 1 T L 4 711. 2 S8 . 3 As eries o f p ostholes a nd d itches u nder ly ing a R omano—Celt ic t ef iple p robab ly r epresent a p re—Roman s hr ine . T he s hape a nd s ize o f t he s hr ine b uilding i s o bscured b y t he l ater R oman c onstructions b ut a s quare o r r ectangular p alisaded t emenos c an b e s een . 4 T he H arlow R oman t emple o f c irca f irst t o f ourth c entury A D d ate o ver lays t he p re—Roman s tructures . O ccupation a ppears c ont inuous f rom C elt ic t o R oman t imes. 5 P re—Roman f inds c onsist o f 2 05 c oins a nd 5 0 b rooches i n n ear p erfect c ondition , f alling i nto t hree c hronologically d ist inct g roups a ssociated w ith t he p re—Roman s tructural r emains . A ll d ate b etween c irca 5 0 B C a nd A D 5 0 . 6 C irca 5 0 B C —A D 5 0 . 7 W hee ler 1 928 ; S elk irk 1 968 , 2 87-290 .
H AYLING I SLAND , H ants 1 S U 7 206 . 2 S9 . 3 T he p re—Roman s hr ine w as c ircular , a bout 8 m i n d iameter w ith a n e ntrance t o t he e ast , d ef ined b y t renches a nd p ostho les . 4 T he s hr ine i s s et c entrally i n ar ectangular t emenos , a lso d ef ined b y ap alisade d itch . Ac ircular s tone—built R oman t emple i nside a r ectangular s tone t emenos w as c onstructed d irect ly o ver t he I ron A ge s tructure , c irca A D 6 0 . O ccupat ion a ppears c ontinuous . 5 F inds i nclude s everal e xamples o f h orse a nd c har iot f ittings , s eventeen s pearheads , s evera l p ieces o f s word s cabbards , b elt h ooks , f ragmentary i ron c hain , t wo t riskele e mbossed s trap l inks , t wo b ronze t ankard h andles , a nd s everal s word—currency b ars . A dditionally , t he f aunal r emains s how a n u nusual t otal a bsence o f c attle b ones . 6 M id f irst c entury B C —m id f irst c entury A D . 7 D owney , K ing & S offe , 1 980 , 2 89-304 . H EATHROW , 1 2 3
4
5 6 7
M iddlesex T Q 0 876 . S1 0 . Ap re—Roman s hr ine h ere i s r ectangular w ith c oncentr ic a mbulatory . C e lla m easures 5 .5 m x 4 .6 m , t he a mbulatory i s 1 mx9 .5 m . T he c ella i s d ef ined b y ac ont inuous b edding t rench w ith u pright p osts a t c orners a nd d oor j ambs , t he a mbulatory i s d ef ined b y p ostholes . T he o r ientat ion i s N —S a nd E —W , w ith d oor t o t he e ast . T he s hrine i s p resumab ly c ontemporary w ith a n ucleated s ettlement l ater e nclosed i n ad itch a nd b anked , b ut w as l eft i n t he c entre o f ac lear a rea a nd t hus s eparate f rom t he d omestic o ccupat ion . N one k nown . A pproximately t hird c entury B C . G rimes 1 948 , 7 4-78 i n F rere 1 96 1, 2 5-26 ; D rury 1 980 , 5 2-54 , F ig 3 .2 .D .
L ANCING R ING , S ussex 1 T Q 1 706 . 2 S 1. 3 A n I ron A ge s hr ine , 2m etres s quare , w ith a c oncentr ic a mbulatory 3 m x 3 m . O r ientat ion i s N —S a nd E —W , w ith e ntrance t o e ast . B oth c ella a nd a mbulatory a re d ef ined b y w all b edding t renches . 4 L ocated e ccentr ically w ithin a d itch a nd p alisade t emenos . I mmediately p ost—conquest a m asonry R omano—Celt ic t emp le a nd t emenos w all r eplace t he I ron A ge s tructures . C ont inuous o ccupation i s p robable . 5 N one . 6 L ate f irst c entury B C —e ar ly f irst c entury A D . 7 F rere 1 940 , 1 6 1171; B edw in 1 98 1, 3 7-56 .
L ITTLE W ALTHAM , E ssex 1 T L 7 0 12 . 2 S1 2 . 3 Ap ossib le I ron A ge s hrine i s r epresented b y a n i rregular ly r ectangular b uilding , a pprox imately 8 m x 4 m , o riented r ough ly N W—SE . E ntrance i s u ncertain . C onstruction i s p osthole . 4 I n ac lear a rea i n t he c entre o f t he p hase I n ucleated v illage . 5 N one . 6 P robably s econd c entury B C . 7 D rury 1 978 , 1 3 , 2 4-26 , 1 24 ; 1 980 , 5 2 a nd F igs 3 .2 .3 a nd 3 .4 . M AIDEN C ASTLE , D orset 1 S Y 6 688 . 2 S1 3 ( designated L 1 b y e xcavator). 3 A n I ron A ge s hr ine o f s light ly i rregular r ectangular s hape , a bout 6 m x 5 m , o riented N W—SE . E ntrance u ncertain . •C onstruct ion o f p osthole t ype . P robab le i nterna l d ivision i nto t wo r ooms . 4 L ocated b eside a nd r espect ing a s lightly h ollowed t rackway l eading f rom t he m ain g ate t o t he s umm it o f t he h ill, i n a n o therw ise o pen a rea . 5 N one . 6 P robably f ourth c entury B C . 7 W heeler 1 943 , 7 2-78 ; D rury 1 980 , 4 8-49 , F ig 3 .2 .8 . 2 3
4
5 6 7
S1 4 . A n I ron A ge s hrine o f c ircular s hape , a pproximately 8 m i n d iameter w ith d rystone w alls o f c halk a nd l imestone . T he e ntrance i s t o t he e ast . S ix p ostho les m ay r epresent a p orch o r p ortico s tructure . T he s hrine d oor i s a ccurately a ligned o n t he h o llowed t rackway f rom t he h illfort g ate , a nd t he s hr ine i s l ocated j ust 3 m w est o f t he e ar ly I ron A ge r ectangular s hr ine S 1 3 ( above). P robably l ocated i n a n o pen a rea o n t he s umm it o f t he h ill. L ater r eplaced b y t he c ircular R omano—Celt ic t emple o f t he l ater t hird c entury , b uilt c oncentr ically w ithin t he I ron A ge s hr ine . A pproximately f ifteen b rooches , i ron w eapons , p ony b ones a nd a ssociated h arness f ittings , s ix c o ins , s everal i nfant b ur ia ls . F irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D . W heeler 1 943 , 1 27 , 1 3 1135 ; D rury 1 980 , 6 4-65 , 6 8 , F igs 3 .6 .14 a nd 3 .7 .22 .
M UNTHAM C OURT , S ussex 1 T O' 109095 . 2 S1 5 . 3 Ap ossible I ron A ge s hrine m ay b e r epresented b y o ne o f s everal r ectangular b uildings a pproximately 2m x 3 m of p ostho le c onstruction . 4 L ocated i n ap alisaded e nclosure . O verlain b y ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emple . E xtensive I ron A ge o ccupat ion . 5 N one . 6 U ndated . 7 H olleyman & B urstow 1 955 , 2 04-205 ; H o lleyman 1 96 1; G reen 1 976 , 2 20 .
P ILSDON P EN , D orset 1 S T 4 10 1. 2 S1 6 . 3 Ar ectilinear s tructure f orm ing t hree s ides o f as quare h as b een i nterpreted a s ar itual s tructure o n s everal o ccasions , f or e xample , G e lling 1 977 , 2 63-286 ; R odwell 1 978 , 2 5-42 ; D rury 1 980 , 5 0-52 . M ore r ecent d iscussion i ndicates i t i s a lmost c ertainly a p ost-medieval r abb it w arren i nserted i nto t he i nter ior o f t he I ron A ge h illfort ( B C unliffe , p ers c omm). S OUTH C ADBURY , S omerset 1 S T 6 225 . 2 S1 7 ( A lcock 's s tructure S 8 ). 3 Ap robable I ron A ge s hr ine i s r epresented b y S8 , ar ectangular s tructure a pproximately 4 m etres s quare , o riented E -W , w ith e ntrance t o t he e ast . C onstruction i s r epresented b y s ix p ostho les , t wo o f w hich a ppear t o d emarcate t wo r ooms , o ne a p orch . 4 F ound c lose t o S9( see S 1 8 b elow) i n a n o pen a rea o n t he c entral r idge o f t he h illfort . 5 N one k nown . 6 U ndated , p robably M id t o L ate I ron A ge . 2 3
4 5 6 2 3 4
5 6
2 3
4
S1 8 ( S 9i n A lcock). As econd p robable I ron A ge s hr ine , a pproximately 2 m x 3 m , o riented E -W w ith a n e ntrance t o e ast . A s i n S1 7 ( above), i nternal p ostholes m ay s eparate a n i nterior r oom f rom a p orch ; c onstruction i s p osthole . F ound n ext t o S1 7 ( above), i n a n o pen a rea o n c entra l r idge o f h illfort . Ab urial o f ac ow w as i n ap it j ust i n f ront o f S1 8 . U ndated , p robably M id t o L ate I ron A ge . S1 9 ( C 1i n A lcock). At hird r ectangular b uilding , a pproximately 4 .9 m x 4 m , o riented E -W , a gain o f p osthole c onstruction . F ound n ear w estern e nd o f t he c entral r idge o f h illfort . A round t his s tructure w ere s ix p its w ith s pecial a nimal b ur ials : s kulls o f h orses a nd c att le , a nd o ne p it w ith o ne h orse s kull a nd f our c attle s kulls . A n o val b ronze p endant e mbossed w ith t wo d ucks' h eads w ith p aste d ecorat ion . S tructures S 1 7 , S1 8 a nd S 1 9 a re c ontemporary w ith t he m id t o l ate I ron A ge d omestic o ccupation o f t he s ite ; p robab ly s econd t o f irst c entury B C . . S2 0 ( Structure 2 7 i n A lcock). Af ourth I ron A ge s hr ine i s r epresented b y ar ectangu lar s tructure a pproximately 4 m x 2 .5 m , o r iented E -W , w ith e ntry t o t he e ast . C onstruction i s ac ont inuous b edding t rench f or u pr ight p osts . T wo s purs o f t renches d ivide t he i nterior i nto ar oom w ith a n e ast f acing p ort ico o f a bout 1 m d epth . S2 0 i s a n a pparent s uccessor t o S1 8 . J ust o utside t he p ort ico a nd a ligned o n i t i s ab and o f o ver t wenty b urials o f p iglets , l ambs a nd c alves . T his i s t he o nly s tructure t o d ate t o t he U ltimate " Durotr igian" I ron A ge , w hen t he d omest ic o ccupation w as a pparent ly e lsewhere . T here i s c onsiderab le c ircumstantial e vidence f or a l ate R omano-Celtic t emp le s omewhere w ithin t he h illfort . 390-
5 6
A n ima l b ur ia ls . P robab ly c onstructed f irst c entury A D , d estroyed w hen h illfort w as s acked c irca A D 6 1.
7
A lcock 1 967 , 6 17 ; 1 968 , 3 0-40 ; 1 970 , 1 4-25 ; 1 97 1, 1 972 , 1 63164 ; D rury 1 980 , 4 7-48 , F ig 3 .2 .4-6 .
1 -7 ;
T HISTLETON , R ut land 1 S K 9 10 171. 2 S2 1. 3 Ap robab le I ron A ge s hr ine i s r epresented b y ac ircular g ully s urrounding a l imestone p aved a rea , 1 2 .6 m i n d iameter , r edug a nd r ep laced s evera l t imes b efore a s econd c entury t esse lated f loor w as a dded . 4 U nder lies t he s econd-third c entury A D c ircular R oman t emp le ; a nd t he t hird c entury G reek-sty le b asilica b uilding . Al ong h all b uilding n earby i s a lso s econd-third c entury A D . 5 P re-Roman f inds i nclude t hirteen C or itanian c o ins , s evera l b rooches a nd c onsiderab le q uant it ies o f c eram ics . 6 E ar ly f irst c entury A D . 7 G reenf ie ld 1 964 , 2 38 ; L ew is 1 966 , 8 4 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 67 . U LEY ,
( West H ill) , G los 1 S T 7 898 . 2 S2 2 . 3 Ap robab le I ron A ge s hr ine i s r epresented b y t wo s tructures ; t he f irst i s r ectangular , a bout 5 .5 m x 4 .7 m , d ef ined b y t wo b edding t renches , o r iented N W-SE a nd ( ) Pen a t e ach e nd . 2 3
S2 3 . As econd p robab le I ron A ge s hr ine i s a lso r ectangular , a bout 8m x 7m , o r iented N -S b ut w ith n o w a ll t o t he e ast . W alls a re d ef ined b y a n " L" s haped b edding t rench t o m ark h a lf o f t he w est w all a nd t he s outh w a ll. T he n orth w a ll i s d ef ined b y t hree p ostho les .
4
B oth b uildings a re i n t he n orth h a lf o f at emenos e nclosure d ef ined b y t hree d itch s egments w ith a g ap i n t he N E c orner . B oth b uildings a re a ligned o n t his " entry" g ap . B uilding S 2 2 a nd S 2 3 a re a pprox imate ly 5 m a part . B eg inning i n t he s econd c entury A D as tone b uilt R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le w as b uilt o ver S2 3 , r espect ing i ts a lignment . A t l east f our o ther a ssociated s tructures i n t emple c omplex . A n i nfant b ur ia l w as l ocated i n ap it i n t he c entre o f S2 3 . T wo i nfants w ere b ur ied i n t wo p ostho les i n t he n orth t imber s lot o f S2 2 . T o t he e ast o f S2 3 ap it w as f ound t o c onta in s evera l i ron s pearheads , e ight p art ly c omp lete D obunnic f ine w are p ots , u nusua l b one t oo ls a nd a n a rt iculated r ear l imb o f a c ow . Al ater r ecut l eft f urther d eposits o f D obunnic f ine w are . P robab ly f irst c entury B C ear ly f irst c entury A D . R itua l o ccupat ion a ppears c ont inuous . E llison 1 978 ; 1 980 , 3 05-309 , F ig 1 5 .1; R odwe ll 1 980 , 2 16 , F igs 1 0 .1.2 a nd 1 0 .2 ; D rury 1 980 , F ig 3 .2 .17 .
5
6 7
W OODEATON , O xon 1 S P 5 3 12 . 2 S2 4 . 3 Ap robable I ron A ge s hrine s ite , e ven t hough n o s tructural r emains o f t he s hr ine b uilding a re k nown . 4 AR omano—Celt ic t emple a nd t emenos a re k nown t o o ver lie a p re—Roman p alisade t emenos , a nd t here i s ac onsiderab le q uantity o f I ron A ge o ccupat ion d ebr is a nd v otive o bjects f rom b oth t he t emenos a nd s urrounding f ields . C ont inuity i s p robable . 5 B e lgic c o ins ; s ix m iniature b ronze s pears a nd f our m iniature b ronze a xes m ay a lso b e p re—Roman . 6 P robab ly f irst c entury B C —f irst c entury A D ; R omano—Ce lt ic t emple b egun c irca A D 6 5 . 7 G oodchild & K irk 1 954 , 1 5-37 ; H arding 1 972 , 6 4-65 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 77178 . W ORTH , K ent 1 T R 3 355 . 2 S2 5 . 3 Ap robable I ron A ge s hr ine i s r epresented s tructurally b y o nly f our p ostholes f ound t o u nderlie t he R omano—Celt ic t emp le . T he p ostho les o ccur i n t wo p airs , o ne p air j ust i nside a nd p arallel t o t he N E R oman w all, t he o ther p air a re i nside a nd p arallel t o t he N W w all. 4 O ver lain b y aR omano—Celt ic t emple . N o o ther s tructures k nown . 5 O ne c omplete m iniature b ronze v ot ive s hie ld a nd p arts o f t wo o thers , t hree p re—Roman b rooches , a nd c eram ic s herds o f L ate I ron A ge ( Be lgic). 6 P robably s econd h alf o f f irst c entury B C a nd f irst c entury A D ; w hen R omano—Ce ltic t emple b egan . 7 K lein 1 928 , 7 6-86 ; H awkes 1 940a , 15121; G reen 1 976 , 2 31-232 .
— 392—
I NDEX
S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 S 5 S 6 S 7 S 8 S 9 S1 0 S1 S1 2 S1 3 S1 4 S1 5 S1 6 S1 7 S1 8 S1 9 S2 0 S2 1 S2 S2 3 S2 4 S2 5
B ath D anebury D anebury D anebury D anebury F r ilford G osbecks H ar low H ay ling I sland H eathrow L ancing R ing L itt le W a ltham M a iden C ast le M a iden C ast le M untham C ourt P ilsdon P en S outh C adbury S outh C adbury S outh C adbury S outh C adbury T hist leton U ley U ley W oodeaton W orth
AP P E N D I X
VI
R OMANO—CELTIC T EMPLES
I NTRODUCTION T his g azetteer i ncludes a ll o f t he R omano—Celtic t emples d iscussed i n c hapter s ix o f t he t ext a bove . T hese , h owever , a re o nly a p art o f t he t otal n umber o f R omano—Celt ic t emples k nown f rom B r itain . T he f irst g azetteer , a nd s t ill t he p r imary a nalysis , i s i n M3T L ew is' T emples i n R oman B r itain ( 1966). T he g azetteer h as b een r ecent ly e xpanded a nd u pdated b y W R odwe ll ( 1980). T hese a re t he c omp lete g azetteers o f t emples ; t he a pproximately 1 00 t emples i ncluded i n t his g azetteer a re s imply a s e lective s ample . T he s election p rocess w as n on—random , a nd i ntends o nly t o p rovide a r easonable s amp le b ased o n t emple s hape , s ite t ype a nd c omplexity a nd g eneral l ocat ion w ith in t he " civilian" d istr icts o f R oman B r itain , a nd i ncludes o ver h alf o f t he R omano—Ce ltic t emp les k nown . I n a ddit ion t o L ew is a nd R odwe ll, o ther u seful s ources i nclude W ilson ( 1973 , 1 975 , 1 980) a nd G reen ( 1976). T he f ormat o f t his g azetteer i s n ear ly i dent ical t o t hat f ollowed i n a ppendix V a bove , w ith t he a ddit ion o f a nother e ntry t o s pecify t he t ype o f s ite i n w hich t he t emple i s f ound ( eg r ural s ett lement , c ivitas c apital e tc). W here a ppropr iate , t his g azetteer i s c ross—referenced w ith a ppendix V a bove , t o a id r eference w hen o ne s ite h as b oth a C elt ic s hrine a nd a R omano—Ce lt ic t emple .
B ANCROFT , 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B radwell, B ucks S P 8 26404 . T1 . O ctagonal s tone b uilt s tructure , N o o ther r eligious b uildings . V illa c omplex . N one . U ndated. G oodburn 1 979 , 3 04 .
a pproximately 7 m i n d iameter .
B ATH , A von 1 S T 7 464 . 2 T2 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le w ith m uch c lassical i nf luence . B uilt o n a n a rt if icial, s tone f aced p odium a nd b uilt o f f inely s haped a nd c arved s tone , t he c ella m easures 1 mx8m , w ith a c o lonnaded p orch i n f ront o f a pproximate ly 8m x6m . T he p odium i s a pproximately 1 0 mx2 0 ma nd o riginally s tood a pproximately 1 .6 m h igh . T he t emple i s o r iented E -W , w ith t he s teps l eading u p t o t he p odium f rom t he e ast . 4 T he t emp le w as s et e ccentr ically o n a n E -W a xis t hrough a l arge c olonnaded t emenos o f 7 9 mx5 1 m , a lso o r iented E -W . T wo w alls f lank ing t he t emple t o n orth a nd s outh d ivide t he t emenos i nto t wo h alves. D irect ly i n f ront o f t he t emp le , h alfway b etween t he t emple a nd t he e ast t emenos e ntrance , w as a l arge m asonry a ltar b ase . I n t he S E c orner o f t he t emenos , d irect ly s outh o f t he a ltar b ase , w as t he e laborate m asonry r eservoir o f t he s acred s prings , a ttached t o t he s outh s ide o f w hich w as t he v ery l arge a nd o rnate b athing c omplex , h oused i n a n e xtensive r ange o f b uildings , a lso o r iented E -W . A lso a p ossib le t heatre n earby . 5 T he t emple t o S ulis M inerva w as l ocated i n t he l arge w a lled t own o f A quae S ulis , b ut i s a s g rand a nd c lassica l i n s ty le a s p ub lic b uildings f rom c o lonia . 6 T here i s av ast r ange o f f inds , i ncluding a n o ver l ife-size b ronze b ust o f M inerva , ad ist inctly C elt ic s ty led f ace o f a m ale G orgon o n t he t emple 's p ediment , m any a ltars , o f w hich s ome a re d edicated t o S ul, a s w ell a s at in m ask , ag roup o f 3 4 c arved g emstones , p lus h undreds o f c urses , c oins a nd p ieces o f j ewe lry . 7 P robably l ate f irst - e ar ly s econd c entury c onstruction , f inally f alling i nto d isuse a fter s evera l p hases o f r econstruct ion i n t he l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 C unliffe 1 969 . B OURTON B RIDGE , G los 1 S P 1 620 . 2 T3 . 3 C ircular s tructure a bout 1 2 md iameter . S tone c onstruction w ith d oor t o e ast . 4 P ossible t emenos e nclosure w alls , aw ell, a nd a r ectangular s tone b uilding a pproximately 8 i nx4m . As econd r ectangular b uilding r eplaces t he c ircular s tructure i n m id-third c entury . A pproximately 9 0 mf rom R iver W indrush . 5 R ural c ontext . 6 A bout 5 0 c oins a nd a c omplete p ot i n b ottom o f w ell.
395-
7
8
C ircular s tructure : m id—f irst — m id—second c entury A D . S econd r ectangular s tructure : m id—second — l ate f ourth c entury A D . R enfrew 1 977 , 1 978 ; W ilson 1 965 , 1 97198 .
B OURTON G ROUNDS , B ucks 1 S P 7 2933 1. 2 T4 . 3 As quare t emple , b uilt o n a n a rt if icial p latform b eside R iver T w in , l ess t han 1 00 m f rom a R oman r oad . C ella 6 .1 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 2 .9 m s quare . Ap ort ico f aces e ast , f lanked b y t wo a nnexe r ooms , e ach 3 m s quare . A n a dult m ale b uria l u nder f loor o f a mbulatory i n e ntryway . F oundations o f s tone , w ith t imber w alls . O r iented N S—EW . 4 A pproximate ly 5 0 mN W as econd , p ossib ly b asilical b uilding a lso o r iented N —S , a pproximately 1 3 .8 m x 5 .5 m . T wo r ows o f p ostholes f orm a n ave , w ith r ough l imestone f loor . U nder t hreshold a h orse s kull r inged w ith o yster s hells w as b uried i n ap it . As econd s er ies o f b uildings , a rranged E —W a nd f acing t he t emple m ay f orm a c ourtyard . 5 R ural c omplex . 6 T emple : a bout 3 00 c oins . A ncillary b uilding : p otsherds , a b ronze p in , b rooch , w indow g lass , c o ins . 7 M id—third — l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 G reen 1 966 , 3 56-366 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 79 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 3 , 1 64 . B OW H ILL , S ussex 1 S U 8 209 . 2 T5 . 3 As quare t emple , a bout 5 .5 m x 5 .5 m , w ith c ella a nd a n a mbulatory " verandah" d ef ined b y p ostho les . P ainted w a ll p laster a nd r oof t iles h int a t c onstruct ion . N o o rientat ion n oted . ( One r eport m entions v ague ly f lint a nd m ortar w alls .) 4 S o litary b uilding , o n ah ill o n r idge s et o ff b y c ross—dykes ( undated). 5 R ural. 6 M ore t han 1 50 c oins . 7 L ate f irst — f ourth c entury A D . 8 W inbo lt , V CH S ussex II 1 935 , 1 5 1; B edw in 1 980 , 1 9 1192 . B OXTED , K ent 1 T Q 8 52662 . 2 T6 . 3 As quare t emple o f m ortared f lint c onstruction. C ella 6 .7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 3 .4 m s quare . O riented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . 4 N o a ssociated b uildings k nown , as olitary b uilding . 5 R ural. 6 N one r eported . 7 P robably s econd c entury A D . 8 W illiams 1 969 , 9 ; B r itannia 1 973 , 3 22 ; G reen 1 976 . B OZEAT , N orthants 1 S P 8 96600 . 2 T7 . 3 Ac ircular t emple o f 1 5 .2 m d iameter . W alls s tone b uilt , e ntry t o e ast . F our a symmetr ica l i nternal w alls s eparate t wo s mall r ooms , a nd f our i nternal p ier b ases a re o ver 1 m d iameter .
4 5 6 7 8
S o litary b u ilding , n o a ssociated s tructures . S ett lement n earby . N one s pecif ied , b ut c o ins w ere p resent a nd u sed f or d at ing . E ar ly t o m id—th ird c entury A D . H a ll & N ickerson 1 970 , 5 7-65 ; T odd 1 974 , 8 5 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 80 ; D rury 1 980 , 7 0 , F ig 3 .8 .29 .
B REAN D OWN , S omerset 1 S T 2 93588 . 2 T8 . 3 As quare t emp le w ith a dded p orch a nd t wo a nnexes . C e lla 4 .9 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 0 .4 m s quare . A mbulatory o n b oth s ides a nd b ack , b ut w a lled o ff t o f orm a f ull—w idth v est ibule i n f ront . O r iented N W—SE , e ntry t o S E . L ater a nnexes a dded t o b ack a nd s ide c orners o f a mbulatory . C onstruct ion w e ll e xecuted i n l imestone . 4 S o litary b u ilding ; n o a ssociated s tructures e xcept a l ate p ost—temp le d omest ic b uilding t o s outh , c ontemporary w ith a s quatter" d omest ic u se o f t emp le i n l ate f ourth c entury A D . 5 R ura l s ite , o n h eadland i n B r isto l C hanne l. 6 B ronze l eaf , b ronze s poon , b ronze s heet r o lled i nto a t ube , b ronze b race let a nd r ing , i ron s ty lus , s evera l b one p ins , a nd 4 86 c o ins . 7 E ar ly — m id—fourth c entury A D c onstruct ion ; a bandoned b y l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 A pS imon 1 965 , 1 95-258 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 82 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 64 . B RIGSTOCK , N orthants 1 S P 9 6 1858 . 2 T9 . 3 C ircular t emp le , 1 0 .1 m d iameter , o r iented t o e ast . S tone f oundat ions , p robab ly t imber w a lls a bove . I nterna l p ostho les a nd b urnt c lay f loor . B uilt e ccentr ically w ithin a p re—dat ing ( possib ly I ron A ge?) p enannular g ully . 4 N ear T 1 0 ( be low). M uch R omano—Ce lt ic s ett lement i n a rea , r ema ins u nexcavated . 5 R ura l c omp lex o f t emp les? 6 2 65 c o ins , m iniature b ronze a xe a nd t ab le , s ha le b race let , t wo l eaf s haped p o le—t ips o f b ronze , o ne c omp lete b eaker—shaped p ot , o ne p it w ith a n a rt icu lated l eg o f c ow , a nd b ronze s tatuettes : t hree w ith h orse a nd r ider , o ne s o litary h orse . 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
T1 0 . P o lygona l R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le f ound 6 m s outh o f T9 , o f 7 .7 m d iameter ( internal). I t i s 1 2—sided , w ith s tone f oundat ions p laced e ccentr ically w ith in a nd o ver a n e ar lier p enannular g ullly ( possib ly I ron A ge?). O r iented t o e ast . I nterna lly , a p it w ith t he b ur ia l o f ay oung s heep a nd t hree , p robab ly n on—contemporary , o ven b ases ; a nd t hree o ther p its w ith a nima l b one d eposits . 6m s outh o f T9 . R ura l c omp lex o f t emp les? P ossib le s ett lement n earby . T hirteen c oins , s mall b ronze f ema le h ead . M id—third — l ate f ourth c entury A D , f or b oth t emp les . G reenf ie ld 1 963 , 2 28-263 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 8 1; L ew is 1 966 , 8 0 , 8 4 , 1 88 .
B URY H ILL , G los 1 S T 7 898 . 2 T 1. 3 Ap ossib le R omano—Ce lt ic t emple s ite . A4 .9 m s quare p latform , w ith f our i nterna l p ostho les f orm ing a c oncentr ic s quare , 1 .5 m o n as ide . O r ientation u nknown . 4 N o a ssociated s tructures k nown , s o litary b uilding . 5 R ural, i n a n I ron A ge h illfort . 6 B ronze f ibula p in , K immer idge s hale b race let , aj et o rnament , c o ins . 7 P robably t hird c entury A D . 8 D avies & P hillips 1 927 , 1 415 , 2 2-24 ; W ilson 1 973 , 4 0 . C ADBURY—CONGRESBURY , S omerset 1 S T 4 267 . 2 T 1 2 . 3 Ap ossible R oman t emple s ite . Ap enannular r ock—cut t rench f or w ooden f oundations , 1 md iameter . P ossib ly h exagona l, w ith o ne s ide m issing a s ad oorway . O r ientation N W—SE , w ith e ntrance t o S E , w ith p ostho les f or a n e ntry p orch . 4 S o litary b uilding . 5 R ural, i n a n I ron A ge h illfort . 6 T wo b one l eaf—pendants . 7 L ate f ourth—sixth c entury A D . 8 F ow ler , G ardner & R ahtz 1 970 , 1 87 ; R ahtz & W atts 1 979 , 1 83-2 10 . C AERWENT , G went 1 S T 4 790 . 2 T1 3 . 3 AR omano—Ce lt ic t emple r epresented b y au nique a psida l c ella i n as quare a mbulatory i nside a r ect ilinear t emenos . C ella 7 m s quare w ith a pse t o n orth . A mbulatory 1 4 mx1 3 .2 m , w ith b uttresses a long e ach s ide a nd a t c orners . E ntry t o s outh . T emenos w ider a t s outh t han n orth . 4 L ong a psidal b uilding t o s outh , p robab ly a n e ntrance h all. 5 C ivitas c apital. 6 P ossible r itual p its n earby . I nscr ipt ions t o M ars L enus a nd M ars O cellus V e llaunus . M any b ronze v ot ives i nclude m iniature t ables , m ask , e agle , p ipe—clay M inerva a nd E pona , b ronze s nake . 7 M id—third — f ourth c entury A D . 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
T 1 4 . A n o ctagonal t emple i n a n o val o r c ircular t emenos o utside c ity w all b y e ast g ate . T emple d iameter 1 6 .3 m ; t emenos 6 9 m d iameter . , Temenos e ntrance t o n orth , t emple e ntrance t o e ast? N o ,k nown b uildings i n .a ssociat ion . C ivitas c apital. P ossible r itual p its n earby . U ncertain . W acher 1 974 ; W ilson 1 975 , 2 0 ; G reen 1 976 , L ew is 1 966 , 1 64 , 1 97 , 2 03 .
1 83 ;
C A ISTOR-BY-NORWICH , N orfo lk 1 T G 2 303 . 2 T1 5 . 3 Ar ectangular t emp le i n I nsula I X . C e lla 6 .1 m x 6 .1 m , a mbulatory 1 4 .4 m x 1 3 .2 m . S tone b uilt , o r iented N S-EW . 4 O ne o f ap air o f t emp les ( see T 1 6 b e low) i n c entre o f t own , o ther d irectly a ssociated b u ildings . N o t emenos . 2 3 4
n o
T1 6 . Ar ectangular t emp le . C e lla 5 .5 m x 4 .9 m , a mbulatory 1 3 .8 m x 1 2 .9 m . S tone b uilt , o r iented N S-EW . Ap odium i n c e lla . S econd o f p air o f t emples i n t own c entre . N o o ther d irect ly a ssociated b u ild ings . N o t emenos .
5 6 7
C iv itas t emp les g roup . M iniature b ronze a xes f rom b oth . 2 00-300 A D ; T1 6 s light ly l ater?
2 3
T1 7 . Ar ectangular t emp le . C e lla 1 .3 m x 1 0 .1 m , a mbulatory 1 8 .1 m x1 6 .6 m . O r iented N S-EW . I n at emenos e nclosure w ith m onumenta l g ateway a bout h a lf a m ile N E o f t own . N o o ther b uildings k nown . C ivitas c ap ital. B ronze l eaf , r ectangular r e lief o f B acchus , b ronze p ha llus , b ronze c ock , t hree s mall j o ined c ups o f b ronze . L ate s econd - l ate f ourth c entury A D .
4 5 6 7 8
C AMERTON , 1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8
L ew is 1 966 , 6 9-70 , 7 1 , 9 6 , 1 30 , 1 40 , G reen 1 976 , 2 04-205 ; W acher 1 974 .
1 64 ;
S omerset S T 6 857 . T1 8 . As quare b uild ing w ith f our s ma ller a nnexe r ooms , s et i nto a s em i-circular w a lled c ourtyard . B uild ing 7 .7 m s quare , s tone w a lled , o r iented N W-SE , w ith t he e ntry t o t he S E . T hree a nnexes a dded t o t he w est ( back w a ll) a nd f ourth t o n orth w a ll. M a in b uild ing f loored w ith c ement . N o a mbulatory . S em i-circular c ourtyard 2 3 mx1 9 m . S ma ll s ett lement . S k irt a nd f eet o f as tatue ; as tone h ead , p ossib ly i n C elt ic s ty le ; as ma ll b ronze V esta ; m any c o ins , f ibulae , ab race let , a n i nscr iption c irca A D 2 35 . P robably l ate s econd - m id-fourth c entury A D . L ew is 1 966 , 9 6 , 1 98 , F ig 9 8 ; W edlake 1 958 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 86 .
C ANNINGTON , S omerset 1 S T 2 440 . 2 T1 9 . 3 Ap ossib le c ircular R omano-Ce lt ic s hr ine . Ar ock-cut p enannular g ully 7 m d iameter , w ith a k erb o r f oundat ion o f n onloca l r ed s andstone . E ntry t o e ast . 4 A ssociated w ith a n i nhumat ion c emetery , p ossib ly L ate I ron A ge o r R omano-Ce lt ic . I ron A ge h illfort . C annington P ark i s a djacent . N o a ssoc iated b uild ings .
5 6 7 8
R oman c ontext p robab ly r ura l. N one . U ndated . R ahtz & W atts 1 979 , 1 87199 .
C ASTOR , C ambs 1 T L 1 298 . 2 T2 0 . 3 AR omano—Ce lt ic t emp le b uilt o n ap odium 1 8 .4 m x 1 .3 m . N o a mbulatory . O r iented N W—SE , e ntrance p orch a nd s teps t o S E . S tone b u ilt . A rea 9 .2 m x 9 .2 m i nside t emp le h as f loor s unk 0 .6 m b e low t he f loor a t t he e ntry e nd . 4 As er ies o f o ther s tructures , p ossib ly h ouses , a round t emp le . 5 S ett lement . 6 N one . 7 U ndated . 8 L ew is 1 966 , 6 1, F ig 5 8 . C HANCTONBURY , S ussex 1 T Q 1 39 121. 2 T2 1. 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le . C ella 9 .2 m x 7 .0 m . A mbulatory u nf inished t o N E , Ea nd S E . A pprox imate ly 1 4 mN —S . F oundations o f s tone . O r iented N S—EW , e ntry p robab ly t o e ast . 4 As even—sided b uilding r eported t o t he S W . Ap ossib le k iln t o N E , w ith a v ar iety o f h o llows a nd g ullies . 5 R ura l t emple . I nside a n I ron A ge h illfort a nd e ar lier p lateau e nclosure . 6 C o ins : 3 6 R oman a nd 1 p re—Roman ; b rooches , ak nife b lade . A n a rea o f c oncentrat ion o f c att le s kulls a nd s heep m and ib les . 7 L ate f irst — f ourth c entury A D . 8 M itche ll 1 9 10 , 1 3 1137 ; B edw in 1 980 , 1 73-222 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 20 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 65 . C HEDWORTH , G los 1 S P 0 5 11. 2 T2 2 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 1 2 .6 m x 1 2 m . S tone f oundat ions , o r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o n orth . J ust i nside e ntry , i n a mbulatory , ap it w ith h uman b ones , r ed d eer b ones , a nd a b ronze p in . 4 N o t emenos o r d irect ly a ssociated b uildings : C hedworth V illa i s 7 00 m . B eside R iver C o lne . 5 R ura l, p ossib ly a ssociated v illa . 6 T wo a ltars , o ne p lain a nd o ne w ith S t A ndrew 's c ross a nd f igure o f ,a m an . R e lief o f ah unter g od w ith s tag , h are a nd h ound . A s mall c rude a ltar w ith r epresentat ion o f S ucellos? , b ut d edicated t o M ars L enus . A nother c rude a ltar w ith a t wo—dimensional f igure . B ronze s ceptre b inding , b ronze f igur ine . F our s tones h ave i nscr ibed C hi—Rho s ymbo ls . C ircular b rooch w ith h uman h eads a s d ecorat ive m ot if . 7 S econd — f ourth c entury A D . 8 B adde ley 1 93 1, 2 55-264 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 74 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 65 .
C HELMSFORD , E ssex 1 T L 7 08063 . 2 T2 3 . 3 A n o ctagona l R omano-Celtic t emple . C ella 1 m d iameter , a mbulatory 1 7 .7 m . S tone f oundat ions . 4 P robably p receded b y o ne o r m ore p revious t emples , b ut e vidence i s a mbiguous. C ontemporary b uildings i nterpreted a s p r iests ' q uarters a nd s hops . 5 S ettlement s ite . 6 O ver 1 30 c o ins ; f ibulae , b rooches a nd r ings f rom p receding p hase? P ipe-clay B acchus , b ronze l ion a nd h uman h ead . 7 O ctagonal t emple i s f ourth c entury A D , t he p receding w ooden b uildings a re l ate s econd a nd t hird c entury A D . 8 D rury 1 972 , 3 -29 ; R odwell 1 972 , 2; G reen 1 976 , 2 12 . C LAYDON P IKE , G los 1 S U 1 91996 . 2 T 14 . 3 Ac ircular , s imple R omano-Celtic t emple . D iameter a bout 7 m . O r ientat ion u ncertain , c ould b e e ither N W o r S E . W all f oundat ions o f m ortared s tone , s uperstructure p robab ly o f w ood . 4 N o k nown a ssociated s tructures ; C laydon P ike v illa i s l ess t han 1 00 m t o t he w est . T emple i s l inked t o aR oman r oad a pprox imately 1 00 m t o t he n orth b y ac obb led t rackway . 5 P robably a ssociated w ith t he n earby v illa . 6 B ronze l eaf p laque , m iniature b ronze a xe , m iniature p ot s ealed i nto c obbled f loor o f t emp le , a pproximately 2 00 c oins . 7 T emple a nd c obb led t rackway d ate t o t he l ate t hird a nd f ourth c entury A D o n c o in e vidence . 8 W ait , f orthcom ing ; c f M iles & P almer 1 983 a , b ; H ingley & M iles 1 984 . C OLCHESTER , E ssex 1 T M 0 025 . 2 T2 4 ( Colchester 2 i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 48). 3 As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emple . C ella a bout 1 2 ms quare , a mbulatory 1 8 .4 m . O r iented N W-SE , e ntrance t o S E . W alls o f m ortared s tone . 4 W ith t he l arge , w alled , i rregular ly s haped t emenos " The S heepen S anctuary" o f t hree a cres e xtent . T emenos w all w as b uttressed b oth i nside a nd o ut . T emenos f ronts o n t wo r oads ( see C rummy 1 980 , F ig 1.7). A l arge b uilding r ange o f n ine r ooms i n a n " L" s hape l ies j ust o utside t he t emenos t o t he N E . I nterpreted a s p r iests ' q uarters . 5 E xtramural, b ut c lose t o t he C o lonia ( 400 m t o e ast). 6 F our a ltar b ases l ine t he S E w all a nd f lank e ntrance . 7 L ate f irst - l ate f ourth c entury . 2 3
4
5 6 7
T2 5 ( Co lchester 3 i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 52). Ar ectangular R omano-Celtic t emp le . C ella 7 m x 6 m , a mbulatory 1 3 mx1 m . O r iented N W-SE . E ntrance u ncertain. B uilt o n a n e ar lier m ound . T emp le s tands a lone , a cross r oad a nd a bout 1 00 m N W o f t he S heepen S anctuary a nd T 2 4 a bove . N o a ssociated b uildings k nown . E xtramural, b ut c lose t o C o lonia . N one r eported . T hird - f ourth c entury A D .
2 3
4
5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6 7 2 3
4
5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3
T2 6 ( Co lchester 4 i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 52-256). Asquare R omano-Celt ic t emp le . C e lla i s 5m x 5 m overa ll, t he a mbulatory 1 2 mx1 2 m . O r ientat ion N W-SE . E ntrance p orch t o S E . S even i nternal p ostho les p ara lle l c e lla w a lls , ac entra l p it . S tone b uilt . C e lla u nroofed? I nside i rregular r ect ilinear t emenos a pproximate ly 5 0 mo n a s ide , w ith T 2 7 ( below , " Colchester 5 ") i mmediate ly a djacent t o N E . O ther b uildings f ound i n i nter ior , b ut n ot e xcavated i n d eta il. T emenos w a ll h as r ectangular r ecesses , o r e xedrae , f or b enches a nd s tatues . A bout 5 00 m f rom C o lonia , i n ac omp lex . A bout 2 50 m n orth o f t he S heepen S anctuary a nd T 2 4 . N one . M id-f irst - l ate t hird c entury B C . T2 7 ( Co lchester 5 i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 52-256). Ar ectangular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 4 m x 3 .8 m , a mbulatory 9 .2 m x 9 m . O r iented N W-SE , e ntrance t o S E . C e lla * w a ll t imber-framed . A mbulatory o f s tone . I mmed iate ly t o n orth o f T2 6 a bove , i nside t he i rregular r ect ilinear t emenos . O ther b uild ings p resent i n t emenos . E xtramural c omp lex o f t emp les . O ver 7 0 c oins . L ate s econd - e ar ly f ourth c entury A D . T2 8 ( Co lchester 6 i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 58 ; i n t he R oya l G rammar S choo l P lay ing F ie lds). Ar ectangular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le o f o ne r oom , w ithout a mbulatory . 9 .2 m x 6 .1 m . O r iented N W-SE , e ntrance u ncertain . W a lls o f s tone . L ocated i nside a n i rregular p o lygona l d itch , w hich m ay b e o f I ron A ge d ate . T o s outh i s al arger h a ll b uilding , 1 8 .4 m x 8m , w ith a w ide e ntrance g ap i n i ts s outh w all. E nclosing a ll t his i s ap o lygonal t emenos w a ll, w hich r espects t he p o lygonal d itch b y ab ow i n i ts w est w all. T emenos 5 2 mx4 0 m , w ith a n e ast e ntrance g ap a ligned o n t emp le . T emp le , h all a nd t emenos p robab ly c ontemporary . As olitary t emp le a pproximate ly 1 k m S W ' o f C o lonia . S evera l c o ins , ab ronze s tag a nd t wo b ronze p laques , o ne d edicated t o S ilvanus C a llir ius . D at ing u ncerta in . T2 9 ( Co lchester 7 , L ayer 's T emp le , i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 58). As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 5 .5 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 0 .7 m . E ntrance S E . L ocated MO m N W o f C o lonia ls " Ba lkerne G ate" . As o litary t emp le? N one . D at ing u ncertain . T3 0 ( Temp le 8 , t he G osbecks S anctuary i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 58-264) ( cf S 7 , a ppendix V ). As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emple . C e lla 7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 4 ms quare . O r iented N S-EW . E ntrance u nclear . S tone b uilt?
4
5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6
7 2 3
4
5 6 7 2 3
4
5 6 7
L ocated i n S E c orner o f as quare d itch ( 60 m s quare , p robab ly p re-Roman) w ith a n e ast e ntrance , w h ich i s w ith in a s quare d oub le c o lonnade , a lso w ith m atching e ast e ntrance . T his i s i n t urn l ocated a long t he w est w a ll o f al arge r ect ilinear t emenos , d iv ided i n h a lf b y aN -S w a ll, a s y et i ncomp lete ly t raced . T his w a ll h as r egular ly p laced r ecesses o r " exedrae" . A djacent t o t his t o t he s outh a re t wo o ther v ery l arge w a lled e nclosures , o ne o f w hich ( to t he e ast) c onta ins a l arge t heatre . A ll c entres o f t he p re-Roman , p ossib ly r oya l, f armstead . P ossib ly a r ural c omp lex . Av ery f ine s tatue o f M ercury f ound j ust o utside t he t emp le t emenos , t o t he n orth . R oman o ccupat ion m id-f irst c entury - ? T3 1 ( Temple 9 , B utt R oad B uild ing , i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 64-266). Ar ectangu lar , a psida l e nded b uild ing , 2 5 m x 7m . O r iented E -W , w ith a pse t o e ast . E astern e nd w ith i nterna l p ostho les c reate a isle a nd p robab ly s ix b ays . Ap robab le b ur ial c omp lex j ust i nside S E c orner o f b uild ing . S tone b uilt . I nterpreted a s aM artyrium . T o S E al arge c emetery o f t wo p hases , b oth R oman . A bout 2 00 m s outh o f C o lonia 's w est g ate . Ap it i n S E c orner c onta ined 2 00 c o ins a nd m any b ird b ones ; a h uman s kull a nd f emur f ound a t t he b ottom m ay b e d er ived f rom t he d isturbance o f t he g rave m ent ioned a bove . E ar ly f ourth c entury - e nd o f f ifth c entury A D . T3 2 ( Temple 1 0 , t he B alkerne L ane T emp le i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 66-272). As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 5 ms quare . O r iented N S-EW . E ntrance u ncerta in . S tone b uilt . L ocated j ust o utside t he o rnamenta l, m a in w est g ate o f C o lonia , o n n orth e dge o f m a in L ondon - C o lchester r oad . Al arge m asonry a ltar b ase s tood b etween t emp le a nd r oad . S hr ine ( see T3 3 b e low) w as j ust a cross r oad t o s outh . C o lonia . N one. E nd o f f irst c entury A D -m id-to l ate t hird c entury A D . T3 3 ( "Shr ine" , B a lkerne L ane i n C rummy 1 980 , 2 66-272). As quare b u ilding , 1 0 ms quare . S outh w a ll d ef ined b y aw a ll f oundat ion t rench ; t he W , Na nd E w a lls m arked b y s ix p ier f oundations . O r iented N S-EW . E ntrance u ncerta in . L ocated j ust o utside t he o rnamenta l m a in w est g ate o f C o lonia , o n s outh s ide o f L ondon - C o lchester r oad . A cross r oad i s T3 2 a bove . C o lonia . N one . E nd o f f irst c entury - m id-to l ate t h ird c entury A D .
2 3
7
T9 2 . Al arge c lassical R oman t emp le . B uilt o n ap odium 3 2 mx 2 3 .5 m . R econstruct ion o f t he t emp le f rom t horough ly r obbed f oundat ions i s p rob lemat ic , b ut w as a lmost c erta inly o ctasty le . C e lla p robab ly a pprox imate ly 1 7 mx2 1 mw ith a c o lonnaded p ort ico a pproached u p s teps f rom t he s outh ( a lthough o r iented N -S t he e ntrance w as t o t he s outh). C onstruct ion o f i mported s tone . T emp le l ocated i n ap rec inct w ith m onumenta l g ate a nd a rcade . T races o f r ooms a nd w a lls o n o ther t hree s ides o f p rec inct . R oman C o lonia , l ocated i n f orum . E xtensive s er ies f rom t he C o lonia ( see G reen 1 976 , 2 16-2 17) b ut f ew a re s pecif ica lly f rom t his t emp le . M id-f irst - l ate f ifth c entury A D .
8
L ew is 1 966 ,
4 5 6
1 65 ,
1 96 ;
H ull 1 958 ; C rummy 1 980 , 2 43-283 .
C OLD K ITCHEN H ILL , W ilts 1 S T 8 37388 . 2 T3 4 . 3 Ap robab le R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le , u nrecognised b y e xcavator . P ub lished r eports d o n ot c onta in a ny i nformat ion o n s tructure(s) p resent . 4 U ncerta in , b ut p robab ly a ncillary b uildings p resent . 5 P robab ly a r ura l t emp le . 6 O ver 1 50 c oins , i nc luding s everal C e lt ic c o ins , o ver 5 0 b rooches , r ings , b racelets , m any g lass b eads , b ronze s poons , i ron k nives , s pearheads a nd m isce llaneous i ron f itt ings . 7 L ate s econd - e ar ly f ourth c entury A D . 8 N anK ive ll 1 924 , 1 80191, 3 27-328 ; G r inse ll V CH W ilts I , 1 957 , 4 8 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 24125 , 1 30 , 1 4 1. C OLESHILL , W arw ick 1 S P 1 95906 . 2 T3 5 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano-Ce lt ic t emple . C e lla 1 m x 1 0 m , a mbulatory 1 7 mx1 6 m . O r iented W SW-ENE , e ntrance t o e ast . S tone c onstruct ion . A n a pse i n b ack o f w est w a ll o f c ella , l ater r emoved w hen a mbulatory a dded . T wo p orches ( approximate ly 2 m x 3 m ) a dded o nto e ast e xter ior o f a mbulatory a t n orth a nd s outh c orners . C e lla f loor o f o pus s igninum . 4 A ssociated s tructures , i ncluding a b ath c omp lex . S et i nside a " D" s haped , s ub-rectangular t emenos w ith e ntrance f acing e ast . T emenos i s .65 m x 4 5 m . T emp le o verlies a n e ar lier , s light ly s ma ller t emple o f c e lla d ef ined b y b eam s lots a nd a mbu latory b y p ostho les ( ce lla 6 .5 m x 6 m , a mbulatory 1 m x 1 0 m ). T wo o ther a ssociated s tructures : o ne a r ectangular b uild ing w ith h earth a nd t he o ther a s em i-c ircle o pen t o S W . B ath c omplex i s a bout 5 0 mt o s outh o f t emp le . 5 R ural t emp le g roup . 6 S mall " vot ive" c ups , m any b rooches , t weezers , s ome c oins . 7 M id-second - m idlate f ourth c entury A D . 8 M agilton 1 979 , 1 980 .
C OLLYWESTON , N orthants 1 S K 9 902 . 2 T3 6 . 3 A n o ctagona l R omano-Ce ltic t emp le . D iameter a bout 6 m . O r iented N S-EW . E ntrance u ncerta in . S tone f oundat ion , p robab ly w ooden s uperstructure . F oundat ions f or i nterna l s tructures . O pus s igninum f loor . N o a mbulatory . 4 I n ac omp lex o f a t l east f our t emp les a nd t hree o ther a ncillary b uildings . P ossible t emenos v isib le o n a er ia l p hotographs . 5 P robab ly a r ural t emp le c omp lex . 6 H a lf o f am illstone , r eused a s ab ase f or a c ult f igure . 7 S econd - t hird c entury A D . 2 3
4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
T3 7 . Ah exagona l R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . D iameter a bout 6 m . O r iented N S-EW . E ntrance t o S E . F loor o f l imestone s et i n c lay . H earth a long N W w a ll, n iche i n N W w a ll. P ossib le A mbulatory . S tone f oundat ions , w ood s uperstructure . A s a bove . A s a bove . Ab ronze f lagon , n eedle . L ate f irst - f ourth c entury A D . T3 8 ( Circ le " C" i n K nocker 1 966). Ac ircular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . D iameter 1 2 .9 m . S tone f oundat ion , w ooden s uperstructure . A s a bove . E ither c uts o r i s c ut b y ar ectangular b uild ing i n K nocker 1 966). R e lat ionship u ncerta in . A s a bove . N one . L ate f irst - f ourth c entury A D . T3 9 ( Structure " F" i n K nocker 1 966). Ac ircular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . D iameter 9 .8 m . E ntrance t o e ast . S tone f oundat ion , w ooden s uperstructure . F loor r ough ly p aved . C entra l p illar b ase . A s a bove . A s a bove . N one: L ate f irst - f ourth c entury A D . K nocker 1 966 , 5 2-72 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 67 ; D rury 1 980 , 7 1-73 , F ig 3 .9 ; L ew is 1 966 ,
7 8-85 ,
1 4 1,
1 88 .
C ROFT A MBREY , H ere & W orcs 1 S 0 53 1576 . 2 T4 0 . 3 Ap robab le R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le o n ap ossib le p re-Roman s ite . S tructure p robab ly r ectangular , t erraced i nto h illside . A mb iguous i nternal p its , p ostho les a nd c lay f loor . O r iented N S-EW . 4 N o d irect ly a ssociated s tructures . T errace i n h ills ide o f s outh s ide o f h illfort , w ith in a l ate a nnexe . 5 U nknown , p robab ly r ural? 6 O ver 1 00 c omp lete p ots s mashed o n s ite , b rooches , r ings , a n i ron b e ll ( paralle led a t M aiden C ast le). M any b urned b ones o f s heep a nd c att le . 7 M id-f irst - m id-second c entury A D . 8 S tanford 1 974 , 1 37 . 405-
C ROWNTHORPE , N orfolk 1 T G 0 88029 . 2 T4 1. 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 9 .5 m x 8 .6 m . A mbulatory 1 7 .2 m x 1 5 m . O r iented N S—EW . E ntrance u ncertain . H earths , p ostho les i n c ella , a nd a m assive m asonry f oot ing i n c entre o f c ella . 4 U nknown . 5 U nknown . 6 N one . 7 U ncertain . 8 L ew is 1 966 , 1 0 , 1 66 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 04 . F ARLEY H EATH , S urrey 1 T Q 0 544 . 2 T4 2 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 6 .7 m s quare , a mbulatory 2 0 ms quare . O r iented a pproximately N S—EW . E ntrance u ncertain . S tone f oundations . 4 S et i n a n i rregular t en—sided t emenos ( paralleled a t C ob lenz) a bout 1 25 m d iameter . T his i s w ithin a r hombo idal d itch a nd b ank o f p re—Roman d ate w ith a R oman w all a dded , a pproximate ly 2 00 m o n as ide . Ap aved p ond j ust o utside S E c orner . N o o ther b uildings k nown . 5 C onsiderable R oman o ccupation o f n earby f ields o f t hird — f ourth c entury A D . E ither r ural o r s ettlement s ite . F requently i nterpreted a s ar ural f air s ite . 6 O ver 1 000 c oins . B ronze s ceptre b inding d epict ing : d og , s tag , r aven , ap ossib le S ucellos f igure w ith a xe—hammer , w ith T aranis a nd h is s ymbol o f aw hee l o r r osette , at r ident , p ossib ly a b ull b oar a nd t wo r avens . T hree e namel i nlaid b ronze m iniature s too ls , ab ronze e agle , ab ronze p laque o f C upid w ith s hield a nd M edusa h ead , ab ronze h awk , m any b rooches , b racelets a nd r ings . 7 L ate f irst — e ar ly f ifth c entury . 8 T upper 1 850 ; W inbolt 1 927 , 1 94195 ; G oodchild 1 938 , 1 0-25 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 19 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 66 , 1 98 . F RILFORD , 1 2 3
4
5 6 7
O xon S U 4 39962 . T4 3 . As quare R omano—Celtic t emp le . C ella 7 .7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 6 .9 m s quare . O riented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S tone f oundations . T hree r ectangular a nnexe r ooms a dded t o t he b ack ( west) w all, a nd a s maller s quare r oom a dded t o t he n orth w a ll a t e ast e nd i n l ate t hird c entury A D . As econd r ound R omano—Celtic t emple i s n earby t o s outh ( T 4 4 b elow), a nd c onsiderable R oman o ccupation i s i mmediately a djacent . I nside t emenos? T heatre t o e ast o f t emp les . P robably a r ural s ett lement r eligious c omplex , a s a t G osbecks ( see a bove , T2 4-33). N one . L ate f irst — f ourth c entury A D .
— 406—
2 3
4
5 6 7 8
T4 4 . Ac ircular R omano-Celt ic t emp le , 1 md iameter . E ntrance t o e ast . S tone f oundat ions , p robab ly t imber s uperstructure . A h earth i n n orth p art o f i nter ior m ay b e as econdary f eature . T he s quare R omano-Celt ic t emp le ( T 4 3 a bove) i s 2 0 mt o n orth i nside t emenos . T heatre n earby . B uilt d irect ly a bove a C e lt ic s hr ine ( S 1 2) w hich w as d e liberate ly l eve lled , c irca A D 8 0 , t o a llow c onstruct ion o f t his t emple . A s a bove . M in iature s word a nd s hie ld m ay b e e ither f rom t he C e lt ic s hr ine o r aR oman d eposit d ur ing t he l eve lling o f t he s ite . L ate f irst - l ate f ourth c entury A D . B radford & G oodchild 1 939 , 1 -70 ; H ard ing 1 972 , 6 1-64 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 93194 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 66 , 1 88 .
G ODMANCHESTER , H unt ingdon 1 T L 2 470 . 2 T4 5 . 3 Ac ircular R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . N o o ther d eta ils p ub lished . 4 U nder lies T 4 6 b e low . I n m ansio c omp lex . 5 S mall t own . 6 S mall b ust o f M inerva , p ipe-c lay V enus , t hree b ronze l eaves , o ne w ith i nscr ipt ion t o M aband/Aband inus . 7 P robab ly f irst - s econd c entury A D . 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3
T4 6 . As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le o f s tone f oundat ion w ith t imber s uperstructure t o c e lla a nd a mbulatory . O ver lies T 4 5 a bove . M ansio c omp lex . S ma ll t own . A s a bove . S econd - t h ird c entury A D .
4 5 6 7
T4 7 . A n i rregular o ctagona l R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le w ith o nly s ix m asonry w a lls - r est o f t imber . C lose t o T4 6 a bove , i n m ansio c omp lex . A s a bove . A s a bove . L ate t hird - f ourth c entury A D .
8
R odwe ll 1 980 ,
5 63 ,
5 67 ,
5 71; G reen 1 976 , 2 09 .
G REAT C HESTERFORD , E ssex 1 T L ,5 042 . 2 T4 8 . 3 As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 7 m o n as ide , a mbulatory 1 2 .3 m s quare . S tone c onstruct ion , o r iented N S-EW , w ith p orch t o e ast . C e lla h ad m osa ic f loor w ith s pace f or a c entral a ltar . W a lls p lastered , w ith d esign o f f ruit a nd f lowers . 4 O ne o f ap air o f b uildings ( the s econd i s r ectangular , 4 .6 m x 3m , b y 3m d eep) a bout 1 m ile e ast o f t he R oman t own . M any p otent ially r itual s hafts n earby ( see a ppendix I a bove). 5 A pprox imate ly 1 m ile e ast o f R oman t own , o therw ise s o litary .
6
7 8
B ronze r eclining r iver g od ( from a s haft) , b ronze b ust o f L una , s tee lyard w e ight d ep ict ing D iana , b one k nife h andle o f H ercules w ear ing a t orc , p ipe-c lay h orse a nd r ider , s ilver v ot ive m ask , s evera l b ronze f eathers , as ma ll s ilver d isc w ith a s tand ing f igure o rnament , m any c o ins . M id-f irst - l ate f ourth c entury A D . N eville 1 848 , 8 9 ; B r inson V CH E ssex II, 1 963 , 8 3 ; G oodburn 1 979 , 3 10 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 10-2 11; L ew is 1 966 , 1 66 .
G REAT D UNMOW , E ssex 1 T L 6 224 . 2 T4 9 . 3 As ma ll r ectangular R omano-Celt ic t emp le w ithout a mbulatory . D imensions 6 .5 m x 5 .5 m . 4 At imber l ined w e ll n earby , a nd i n e ar ly f ourth c entury a t wor oomed t imber b uild ing 4 .8 m x 4 .5 m b uilt o ver t he w ell. A ssociated t hree s ma ll p its w ith r itua l d eposits . 5 S ma ll t own . 6 R itual p its : g lass v esse ls , c o ins , p ewter b ow l. O ver 2 00 c o ins a nd f ragments o f b ronze b race lets f ound i n a nd a round t emp le . 7 P robab ly t hird - f ifth c entury A D . 8 R odwell & R ow ley 1 975 , 8 8 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 11; D rury , E ssex A rch H ist , f orthcom ing . G REENWICH P ARK , K ent 1 T Q 4 077 . 2 T5 0 . 3 As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le , a bout 1 0 mo n as ide . N o e vidence o f a n a mbulatory . O r iented N S-EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S tone c onstruct ion , o n a n .a rt if ic ia lly r aised p latform . T esse lated f loor . 4 I n at emenos . N o a ssociated b uildings , s o litary? 5 P robably r ura l. 6 M any c oins , i nscr ipt ion t o A esculap ius , a nother p ossib le i nscr ipt ion t o N umen o f E mperor , al imestone s culpture f ragment o f ad raped f emale a rm . 7 E nd o f f irst - l ate f ourth c entury A D . . 8 H averf ie ld 1 932 , 1 ; S he ldon & Y ule 1 979 , 3 11-3 17 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 26 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 26129 , 1 4 1. H ARLOW , E ssex 1 T L 4 7 11. 2 T5 1 ( cf S 8 , a ppendix V ) . 3 As quare R omano-Ce lt ic t emp le . C e lla 5 .8 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 4 .9 m s quare . O r iented N W-SE , e ntrance t o S E . S tone c onstruct ion . A nnexe r ooms a dded t o f ront , p ossib ly t o s ides a lso . 4 I nside a t emenos w hich s urrounds a l ow h ill b eside R iver S tort , t emp le o n h ill-top . T emenos l ater r ebuilt w ith a nc illary r ooms t o e ast a nd w est o f g ate , c irca A D 2 00 . P robab ly r itua l I ron A ge a ntecedents . 5 P robably a r ural c omplex . 6 A ltar i nscr ipt ion t o N umen o f E mperor , ab ronze l ar , s mall b ronze h ead o f S ilenus , m iniature a xes a nd s pears , l ead c urse d ed icated t o M ercury . 7 L ate f irst - e ar ly f ourth c entury A D . 8 W hee ler 1 928 , 3 00-326 ; S e lk irk 1 968 , 2 87-290 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 09-2 10 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 67 , 1 97 .
H AYLING I SLAND , H ants 1 S U 7 206 . 2 T5 2 ( cf S 9 , a ppendix V ). 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emple . D iameter 1 3 .8 m . P orch t o e ast . S tone f oundat ion a nd l ower w all c ourses . 4 L ocated j ust o ff—centre o f as quare d oub le—wa lled t emenos , a ligned a ccurately E —W w ith a n e ast f acing e ntrance . M aximum d imensions 4 0 m s quare , w ith a n i nternal a mbulatory b etween t he t wo w a lls 4 m w ide . I nner t emenos w all p robab ly a c o lonnade . E astern c olonnade f illed b y ar ange o f r ooms — p robab ly a n e ntry h all a nd t wo f lanking a ncillary r ooms . A mbulatory g ravelled , a nd a g ravelled p ath l eads t o t emenos e ntrance a nd t hrough t o t emple p orch . O verlies a n I ron A ge s hr ine p redecessor , c ont inuity c lear . 5 S ocial c ontext i s r ural — n o k nown n earby b uildings . C onstruction s ty le a nd t echnique a re p ara lleled a t t he c ontemporary p alace a t F ishbourne , a nd c onstruct ion a t b oth p laces p robably i nvolved t he s ame a rchitects a nd b uilders . 6 A l arge n umber o f c oins a nd b rooches a nd o ther b ronze o bjects . T wo b rooches a re o f ah orse a nd r ider t ype p ara lleled a t t he t emple s ites o f H ockwo ld , N ornour , C old K itchen H ill, L amyatt B eacon a nd W oodeaton , w hile a t hird a lso h as a p aralle l a t N ornour . 7 B egun c irca A D 5 5-60 , o ccupat ion e nds i n e ar ly t hird c entury A D ( decline i s c ontemporary w ith t hat o f t he F ishbourne p a lace). 8 D owney , K ing & S offe 1 980 , 2 89-304 . H ENLEY W OOD , Y atton , S omerset 1 S T 4 4 1652 . 2 T5 3 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 7 .7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 5 .4 m s quare . S tone c onstruct ion . C ella f loor r aised a bove a mbulatory . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S heep b ur ials u nder s lab f loor o f a mbulatory . 4 B uilt o ver t wo e ar lier p hases o f r ectangular b uildings, p robably e ar lier s hr ines o r t emples. D itched t emenos , w ith e ntrance a t N E . N o o ther b uildings k nown . 5 P robably r ural. 6 C oins , b ronze f igurine o f af emale d eity . 7 E arly t hird — l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 W ilson 1 965 , 2 16 ; 1 969 , 2 27 ; 1 970 , 2 96 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 82183 . H OCKWOLD , N orfolk 1 T L 6 87888 . 2 T5 4 . 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emple w ith , u niquely , as quare c ella . N o d imensions p ublished . C ella f ormed o f f our b irch c o lumn b ases , b eneath e ach o f w hich w as a d eposit o f p ig a nd b ird b ones. C onstruct ion o f t imber s uperstructure . 4 A ssociated f ore—buildings o f v ar ious p eriods , o ne c ircu lar . T wo s econd c entury c remat ions i n f ront o f t emple s ealed w ith d eer a ntlers a nd p art o f as tatuette . 5 R ural.
— 409—
6
7 8
S ix c rowns f rom f loor o f c ella , o ne m iniature b ronze a xe , o ne b ronze l etter " M" , b ronze h and h o lding a p ine b ranch p robab ly o f A tys , t wo b ronze d iscs w ith C elt ic h eads , b ronze v ase w ith m edallion o f A tys. E arly s econd — l ate f ourth c entury A D . W ilson 1 963 , 1 38 ; 1 966 , 2 09 ; 1 967 , 2 4 1; M uckleroy 1 976 , 1 73-291; G reen 1 976 , 2 12 ; L ew is 1 966 .
I RCHESTER , N orthants 1 S P 9 265 . 2 T5 5 . 3 As quare R omano—Celt ic t emple . C e lla 5 .2 m s quare , a mbulatory 1.6 m . S tone f oundat ions , o r iented N W—SE , e ntrance t o S E . C ella i s o pen t o S E , a mbulatory h as e nlarged d oor j ambs . 4 I nside r ectilinear t emenos , w ith e ntrance f acing S E a nd a ligned o n t emple e ntrance . P ossibly a ssociated b uilding , i nterpreted a s p riests' q uarters? 5 I n s mall t own . 6 T orso o f M ercury o f s tone , p ipe—c lay V enus , p ossib le f ragment o f aJ upiter—co lumn . 7 E arly s econd — t hird c entury A D . 8 H all & N ickerson , 1 967 , 6 5-99 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 8018 1; L ew is 1 966 , 2 , 1 3 , 5 1 , 1 67 . J ORDAN H ILL , D orset 1 S Y 7 082 . 2 T5 6 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 7 .69 m s quare . O uter w all o f a mbulatory w as n ot f ound , t hough a p ort ico a nd p avement e ncircling c ella w as r ecognised . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . R itual s haft i n S E c orner ( R S5 2 , a ppendix I). 4 I nside a s quare t emenos e nclosing h illtop . N o a ssociated b uildings k nown . R oman c emetery n earby . 5 P robably r ural. 6 S haft c ontents ( swords , c o ins , b ird s keletons), o ver 5 00 c o ins . O ther h oards f rom t he s ame h ill h ave p roduced a lmost 5 000 m ore c oins. 7 E arly m id—third — l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 M anning 1 972 , 2 24-250 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 0 1; L ew is 1 966 . K ELVEDON , E ssex 1 T L 8 65 190 . 2 T5 7 . 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emple 7 .5 m d iameter . E ntrance f aces e ast . T imber c onstruction . F loor m etalled o r t esse lated . 4 N o a ssociated s tructures . P its n earby h eld f inds l isted b elow , b ut n o d omestic d ebris . 5 S mall t own . 6 P ipe—clay l ion a nd p late b rooch f rom t emple . F rom p its : al ead c urse d edicated t o M ercury , s even c ast b ronze l etters , o ne p alaeolithic h and a xe , s everal s mall b ronze r ods . 7 F irst — t hird c entury A D . 8 R odwell 1 972 , 3 33-334 ; R ichmond 1 958b , 1 50 ; R odwell & R ow ley 1 975 , 8 8 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 13 .
K ENCHESTER , H ere 1 S U 4 343 . 2 T5 8 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . N o d etailed i nformat ion . S tone f oundat ions . 4 O ther b uildings p resent , a ssociat ion u nproven . 5 S mall t own . 6 O ne b ronze b ull h ead , o ne b ronze h orse h ead , b ronze f igur ines o f l ion , s tag a nd c ock , s ix m iniature b ronze a xe , a n a ltar , t wo b usts o f M inerva , ap ot w ith l id p laced u nder f oundations . 7 U ndated . 8 R odwell & R ow ley 1 975 , 1 0 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 69 . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T5 9 . Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . A ssociated b uildings . 4 00 i nf rom e ast g ate , s outh o f r oad . I dent if ied o n a er ial p hotographs , u nexcavated . U ndated. B aker 1 966 , 1 92195 ; L ew is 1 966 , 2 , 7 1.
L AMYATT B EACON , S omerset 1 S T 6 69362 . 2 T6 0 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 5 m s quare . N arrow v est ibule/ambulatory t o e ast , w hile t he N , Sa nd W a mbulator ies a re l aid o ut a s s eparate r ooms , t he w ho le b eing 1 0 ms quare . A d oor i n t he m iddle o f t he o uter w all o f t he s outh a mbulatory l eads d own a f light o f s teps t o as unken r oom . T wo a nnexes a dded t o N E a nd S E c orners t o f lank e ntrance . S tone c onstruction . O r iented r oughly N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . 4 As econd r ectangular b uilding o r iented E W l ies 1 m n orth o f t emple . As mall c emetery b eyond . 5 R ural s ite . 6 P art o f a n i ron s ceptre , s ix v otive s pearheads , m ode l s ickles a nd c hoppers , g lass b eads , f ive e namelled b rooches o f h orse a nd r ider t ype ( cf H ay ling I sland , N ockwo ld , . N ornour , C o ld K itchen H ill a nd W oodeaton) , b racelets , r ings , s poons , v otive p laques , b ronze f igurines o f t wo M ercur ies , o ne M ars , o ne M inerva , o ne H ercules , o ne P aterfam ilias , a nd p art o f al ife s ize s tatue o f M ars. O ver 2 500 c oins . R ed d eer a ntlers ( cf B rean D own). 7 L ate t hird — f ourth c entury A D . 8 W ilson 1 974 , 4 52 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 85 ; L eech 1 980 , 3 31-333 . L ANCING R ING , S ussex 1 T O,177066 . 2 T6 1 ( cf S 1 i n a ppendix V ). 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C e lla 5 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 2 .5 m s quare . B uttresses o n a mbulatory c orners . S tone c onstruct ion . O riented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S everal p hases. C ella p aved w ith s andstone . 4 I nside t emenos , a lso o f s everal p hases . T he s leeper b eam/ u pright t imber I ron A ge p redecessor i s af ew m eters t o t he e ast . R omano—Celt ic c remat ions t o S W a nd S E o f t emp le . I nside a n a rea d emarcated b y c ross—dykes , a bout 2 00 m f rom I ron A ge h illfort .
5 6 7 8
P robab ly r ural? N one? L ate f irst — t hird c entury A D . F rere 1 940 , 1 4 1172 ; W inbolt 1 935 , G reen 1 976 , 2 20 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 67 .
5 9-60 ;
B edw in 1 98 1,
3 7-56 ;
L OWBURY H ILL , B erks 1 S U 5 482 . 2 T6 2 . 3 AR omano—Ce ltic t emp le s ite . D ifficult t o d eterm ine s ize o r s hape f rom p ub lished a ccounts . F oundat ion b ur ial o f aw oman , S E c orner . 4 T emenos p resent . P ossib ly o ther b uildings . 5 R ural. 6 2 8 b rooches , a t l east t en s ignet—r ings , s even b racelets , f our p airs t weezers , 7 50 c oins . 7 L ate f irst — f ourth c entury A D . 8 A tkinson 1 916 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 94 ; L ew is 1 966 , 7, 9 7 . L ULLINGSTONE , K ent 1 T Q 5 365 . 2 T6 3 . 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emple , 5 .5 m d iameter . O r iented e ast , r oughly t esselated f loor . S tone f oundat ions . R ectangular s pace i n w est w all o pposite d oor . 4 L ocated t o n orth o f v illa c omp lex . N o o ther b uildings . 5 V illa c omplex . 6 N one . 7 F irst — s econd c entury A D . 8 M eates 1 958 , l xiii; M eates 1 959 , 1 32133 ; W ilson 1 96 1, 1 89190 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 27 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 67 . L YDNEY P ARK , G los 1 S O 6 203 . 2 T6 4 . 3 L arge r ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 1 5 .3 m x 8 .6 m . A mbulatory 2 4 .6 m x 1 8 .4 m . O r iented N W—SE , e ntrance t o S E . S tone c onstruction , o n a n a rt if icial p odium . N W w all o f c ella d ivided i nto t hree " chapels" . M osaic f loor o f f ish a nd s ea m onster . F uneral— like c eram ic s tructure i n f loor o f c ella , i nterpreted a s ap lace t o d eposit v otives. 4 I nside a d itch a nd b ank e nclosure o f I ron A ge d ate . Aw ater t ank t o n orth . A ssociated b ath c omp lex . A ssociated " Abaton" o r l ong r esidential b uilding f or p r iests a nd s upplicants . A nother g uest h ouse , i n c ourtyard s ty le . 5 R ural t emple c omp lex . 6 N ine s tatuettes o f d ogs o f b ronze a nd s tone , b ronze r elief o f a s ea d eity , f ragment o f ab ronze " f isherman" w ith t r itons , o culist 's s tamps , v otive l imbs , s tone s tatuette o f M other G oddess w ith c ornucopiae , b ronze f igur ine o f V enus , h ead p laque o f e ither B acchante o r A po llo , v otive c hainmail, 3 00 b ronze b racelets , 3 20 p ins , 4 0 b ronze s poons , n early 5 000 c o ins , f our i nscriptions t o N odons . 7 L ate t hird — m id—f ifth c entury A D . 8 W heeler 1 932 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 69170 ; L ew is 1 966 , 2 00 , 1 90 .
M AIDEN C ASTLE , D orset 1 S Y 6 688 . 2 T6 5 ( cf S 1 4 i n a ppendix V ). 3 Ac ircular ( oval) R omano-Celtic t emple . D iameter 7 m . D rystone w a lls , s tone f loor . E ntrance f aces d own p ath ( to e ast) t o m ain e ast g ate . Ac arefully m ade p it-hearth i n f ront o f d oor . 4 L ocated 7 m s outh o f T6 6 b elow . I nside I ron A ge h illfort , s tone o rnamental g ate i nserted i n I ron A ge g ateway w hen t emp le b uilt , s o h illfort m ay s erve a s at emenos . O ther b uildings p resent . F our E -W o r iented b ur ials i nside h illfort w est r ampart o f f ourth c entury . 5 R ural t emple c omplex . 6 1 71 c oins , t wo b ronze f ragments o f M ars f igur ines , b ase o f a s tatue o f D iana , w ith d ogs . 7 P robably m id-fourth c entury A D . 2 3
4
5 6 7 8
T6 6 . As quare R omano-Celtic t emple . C e lla 3 m x 3 m . A mbulatory 6m x6m ( paved f loor). O riented W NW-ESE , e ntrance t o E SE . S tone c onstruct ion . C ella p lastered . L ocated 7 m n orth o f T6 5 . B uildings a djacent i nterpreted a s p riests' q uarters , r ectangular , t wo r oomed , 2 .8 m x 4 m , e ntrance a t n orth e nd . P aved a pproach p ath , w ith t wo p ost s ockets n ear S E c orner o f t emple . R ural t emple c omplex . M odel h ammer , t hree h orned b ull f igur ines , an ude f emale f igur ine , af eathered p laque o f M inerva , c o ins . M id-fourth - l ate f ifth c entury A D . W heeler 1 943 , 7 2-78 , 1 3 1; G reen 1 976 , 2 00 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 68 .
M UNTHAM C OURT , S ussex 1 T Q 1 09095 . 2 T6 7 ( cf S 1 5 i n a ppendix V ). 3 Ac ircular R omano-Celtic t emple , 1 md iameter . N o a mbulatory . D ef ined b y p ostho les f or u pr ight t imbers . N o o rientation n oted . 4 I n ap alisaded ( temenos?) e nclosure . O ther b uildings p resent , e specially r ectangular p ostho le s tructures , i nterpreted a s g ranar ies o f I ron A ge , b ut c ould b e b uildings . 5 P robably r ural. 6 T hree s hallow p its i n f loor , e ach w ith t he s kull o f a n o x r esting o n t he j umbled b ones o f t he p ost-cranial s keleton . A lso a b ronze b oar p laque , ab ronze p ommel, b ronze h orse b ridle c heek p iece , a n e namel f ish b rooch , a nd a v ot ive c lay h uman l eg . A lso a f ourth c entury w ell w ith m any d og s keletons i n f ill. 7 T hird - f ourth c entury A D . 8 H olleyman & B urstow , 1 955 , 2 04-205 ; B urstow & H olleyman 1 956 , 1 96198 ; 1 957 , 2 22-223 ; H o lleyman 1 96 1, 2 0 . M UTLOW H ILL , C ambs 1 T L 6 063 ( approximately). 2 T6 8 . 3 Ac ircular R omano-Celtic t emple , 1 0 .7 m d iameter . o f c halk b locks , p robab ly a t imber s uperstructure . o r ientation .
F oundations N o
4 5 6 7 8
B uilt n ext t o aL ate N eolithic t umulus , w ith s everal B ronze A ge u rned c remat ions . N o o ther R oman s tructure k nown . R ural. O ne h uman s keleton w ith a b ronze r ing - p rovenance u ncerta in . O ne s ty lus , t hree f ibulae , t wo b ronze a mulets , 7 9 c o ins. T hird - f ourth c entury A D . N eville 1 852 , 2 29-230 .
N ETTLETON S CRUBB , W ilts 1 S T 8 22769 . 2 T6 9 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano-Celtic t emple , 1 9 .5 m x 7 .3 m o verall. C e lla o r i nner r oom 5 .5 m x 7 .3 m . O riented N E-SW , e ntrance i n S E c orner . T erraced i nto h illside . F loor p aved , ad rain l eads o ut f rom t he r ock f ace , p ossib ly a s acred s pr ing . 4 O n ah illside n ear a s tream o verlooking a R omano-Celt ic s ma ll t own o r v illage , a nd o pposite T 7 0 b elow . T hree a ssociated b uildings n earby . 5 T own o r v illage . 6 R e lief o f D iana , r elief o f aw hee led c ross , am iniature b ronze a xe , t wo f ragmentary r eliefs o f M ercury a nd R osmerta , c oins . 7 P robab ly l ate s econd - l ate f ourth c entury A D . 2 3
7
T7 0 . A n u nusual o ctagonal R omano-Celt ic t emple , w ith t hree c oncentr ic o ctagons a nd a c e lla i nterpreted a s " open" . O uter a mbulatory 2 0 md iameter , c ella d iameter a pproximately 6 .7 m . E ntrance t o e ast . O riented N S-EW . A edicula b uilt i nto a mbulatory w all. I nternal d ivision i nto s even c ells a round c e lla , o f u ncertain p urpose . I n aR omano-Celtic s ettlement . P robab ly b uilt o ver a nd r eplacing a n e arlier , s imple c ircular t emple a bout A D 2 50 . N o d etails o n e ar lier s tructure . A n a ssociated s tructure i s d esignated x viii, t wo r oomed r ectangular o f s tone c onstruction , a bout 2 m n orth , b uilt a long t he a rt if icial c hannel o f t he r iver ( 18 .5 m x 7 m o verall). S ett lement . A ltar t o A pollo C unomaglus , t hree m iniature a ltars . A n a ltar t o S ilvanus a nd t he N umen o f t he E mperor f rom t he a ssociated b uilding x v iii. B ronze p laques o f A pollo p robab ly f rom t his t emple . M id-third - l ate f ourth c entury A D .
8
L ew is 1 966 ,
4
5 6
N ORNOUR , 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 8
1 0 ,
1 86 ;
G reen 1 976 ,
1 89190 ;
W edlake 1 982 .
I s les o f S cilly S U 9 44 148 . T7 1. Ac ircular R omano-Celtic t emp le w ithout a mbulatory . S tructure 1 2 md iameter , w ith m assive d rystone w a lls . E ntrance t o e ast . A ssociated b uildings . E vidence o f l oca l m anufacture o f j ewelry a nd p ipe-clay f igur ines. N o t emenos . P robably r ural. A t l east s ix p ipe c lay V enus f igur ines , s even D eae N utr ices o f p ipe-clay , s everal m iniature v ot ive p ots , 2 0-30 r ings , g lass b eads , a nd o ver 2 50 w heel-brooches , o ver 2 00 c oins . P robably l ate f irst - l ate f ourth c entury A D . D udley 1 967 , 1 -64 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 98 .
O RTON L ONGUEVILLE , H unt ingdon 1 T L 1 49977 . 2 T7 2 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 4 m s quare , a mbulatory a pproximate ly 9 m s quare . S tone f oundations , t imber s uperstructure . O r ientation u ncertain , p robab ly t o e ast . 4 I nside a t emenos , a ssociated w ith a n a gr icultural " estate" o r s ett lement . N o d irect ly a ssociated b uildings k nown . 5 E state o r s ettlement . 6 N one . 7 T hird — f ourth c entury A D . 8 W ilson 1 974 , 4 33 . P AGAN 'S H ILL , S omerset 1 S T 5 57626 . 2 T7 3 . 3 A n o ctagonal R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 8 m d iameter , a mbulatory 1 8 m . S tone c onstruction . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . C ella r aised a bove a mbulatory a bout 3 0 c m . A mbulatory p aved w ith i rregular f lagstones , e xter ior o f a mbulatory r egularly b uttressed . C e lla i nterpreted a s a n o pen p ort ico t ype ; u nlike ly . At hree s ided o pen f oundat ion i n c entre o f c ella , f acing e ntrance , p ossib ly a s b ack ing f or a s tatue . A rea b etween d oor o f c ella a nd t he a mbulatory e ntrance p art ially e nclosed a s av estibule . 4 E nclosed i n ac ourtyard f ormed b y b uildings t o e ast a nd n orth . E astern r ange o f t wo l ong r ooms w ith f ront v erandahs(?) s eparated b y ac entral e ntrance a ligned o n t emp le . N orth r ange o f a t l east t en r ooms , j oined t o e ast r ange s light ly l ater b ut a pparently p art o f o riginal d esign . N o b uildings o r t emenos t o s outh o r w est . T o w est o f t emple a w ell ( cf R S 8 3 i n a ppendix I). P ath l eads f rom t emenos e ntrance t o t emp le , r oughly p aved , w ith c o ins t ramp led i nto m akeup . T races o f I ron A ge o ccupation b eneath t emple , a nd t emenos r anges o verlie a n I ron A ge d itch . 5 R ural t emple c omplex , o n h ill s lope o verlook ing R iver C hew . 6 A t l east 2 00 c oins , a bout t we lve c omp lete p ots f rom t he w all, a f ragment o f ap erforated b ronze s heet , ar ing , b rooches . 7 M id— late t hird — f ifth c entury A D . 8 R ahtz 1 95 1, 12142 ; R ahtz & H arris 1 958 , 1 5-5 1; G reen 1 976 , 1 84 ; R odwell 1 980 , 27 , F ig 1 0 .5 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 97 , 1 70 . P ULBOROUGH , S ussex 1 T Q 0 5 18 . 2 T7 4 . 3 As mall s quare R omano—Celtic t emple , 8m s quare . A mbulatory p ossibly n ot r ecognised . S tone f oundat ions , p robab ly t imber s uperstructure . O rientation u nknown . 4 N o a ssociated s tructures k nown . 5 R ural. 6 C oins , b racelets . 7 F irst — t hird c entury A D . 8 G reen 1 976 , 2 19 ; L ew is 1 966 , 8 6 .
R AINSBOROUGH , N orthants 1 S P 5 26348 . 2 T7 5 . 3 As mall s quare p robably R omano—Celtic t emple , 3m s quare . S tone f oundat ions . N S—EW o r ientation . 4 B uilt o ver t he f illed— in i nner d itch a nd c auseway o f e ntrance o f I ron A ge h illfort . N o o ther a ssociated s tructures . 5 R ural? 6 C oins . 7 T hird — f ourth c entury A D . 8 A very , S utton & B anks 1 967 , 2 11. R APSLEY , S urrey 1 T Q 0 84 1. 2 T7 6 . 3 A n u nusual s em i—circular s tructure i nterpreted a s as hrine o r t emple . As olid m asonry s em icircle 2 .7 m x 2 .6 m , p ossib ly a l arge b asin , a s a ssociated w ith a d rain a nd p ipes . S urrounding t his a s em icircle d ef ined b y p ostholes , 9 .5 m x 4 .6 m . O r iented N —S . P orch t o Ea t b ase o f s em icircle . T esselated f loor . 4 I n av illa c omplex , b ut n o a ssociated s tructures . 5 V illa . 6 N one . 7 E ar ly s econd — e ar ly t hird c entury A D . 8 H anworth 1 969 , 1 7 . R ICHBOROUGH , K ent 1 T R 3 23598 . 2 T 7. 3 A n u nusual R omano—Celtic t emp le w ith c ella 5 .8 m s quare b ut a r ectangular a mbulatory 1 2 .3 m x 1 2 m . O r iented N W—SE , e ntrance t o S E . C onstruction o f c halk b lock f oundations , p ossib ly t imber s uperstructure . B uilt o n ar aised p odium . 4 O ne o f ap air o f t emples , s ee T 7 8 b elow . N o t emenos . 5 3 50 m s outh o f R oman f ort . 6 C o ins , ab ronze s patula o r s poon . 7 L ate t hird — f ifth c entury A D . 2 3
4 5 6 7
T7 8 . R ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 7 m x 6 .7 m , a mbulatory 1 4 .1 m x 1 3 .2 m . C onstruction o f c halk b lock f oundation . O r ientation N W—SE , e ntrance t o S E . O ne o f ap air o f t emples w ith T 7 a bove . 3 50 m s outh o f R oman f ort . C oins , S am ian w are . L ate t hird — f ifth c entury A D .
8
B ushe—Fox 1 926 ,
7 , 3 4 ;
L ew is 1 966 ,
3 , 1 3 ,
5 1 ,
1 68 .
S APPERTON , G los 1 S O 9 503 . 2 T7 9 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple . 4 I nside a s harply q uadrangular t emenos o f t hree b anks a nd t wo d itches . O utside t emenos a re t hree o ther r ectangular a nd s quare b uildings . K nown f rom a er ia l p hotographs a nd s tray f inds ; u nexcavated .
5 6 7 8
R ura l c omplex . S tray f inds o f n umerous c oins a nd R omano—Celt ic s herds . U ndated . R CHM G loucestershire I , 1 976 , 9 9 .
S ILCHESTER , H ants 1 S U 6 462 . 2 T8 0 ( Temple i n I nsula X XX i n B oon). 3 As quare R omano—Ce lt ic t emp le . C ella 1 m x 1 m , a mbulatory 2 2 mx2 2 m , b uilt o n ap odium . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . 4 O ne o f ap air o f t emples ( see T 8 1 b elow) i n aw alled t emenos i nside e ast c ity g ate . A n a ssociated b uilding i nterpreted a s p r iests' q uarters , a lso a n a psida l b uilding . 5 C iv itas c ap ital, C alleva A trebatum . 6 T we lve m iniature b ronze a xes , p robab le d edication t o H ercules S aegon a nd a b ronze f igurine o f H ercules . O ther f inds f rom a rea l isted b elow , s ee T 8 3 . 7 • M id—f irst — e arly f ifth c entury A D . 2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6
7
T8 1 ( in I nsula X XX i n B oon). As quare R omano—Ce lt ic t emple . C ella 5 .5 m x 5 .5 m , a mbulatory 1 2 .25 m s quare , b uilt o n al ow p odium t o s outh o f T8 0 a bove . S econd o f ap air o f t emples i n t emenos i nside e ast c ity g ate . A ssociated p r iests ' q uarters a s a bove . A s a bove . A s a bove , a lso t wo t erracotta m iniature l amps . M id—f irst — e ar ly f ifth c entury A D . T8 2 ( in I nsula X XV i n B oon). Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 4 .3 m x 3 .7 m , a mbulatory 1.1 m x 1 0 .7 m . O r iented N S—EW e ntrance t o e ast , t esselated f loor . I n i nsula o f c ity , a pproximately 1 00 m s outh o f F orum . A ssociated b uildings n ature u ncertain n orth t emenos . A s a bove . S ee b elow , T8 3 , a t l east t hree p ieces o f t wo s tone s tatues , a t l east o ne o f M ars , t he o ther e ither P eace o r V ictory . M id—f irst — m id—third c entury A D . T8 3 ( Temp le i n I nsula V II i n B oon). A n u nusual R omano—Celtic t emple , w ith c ircular c ella 1 0 .8 m i n d iameter w ithin a s ixteen—sided a mbulatory o f 2 0 md iameter . S tone f oundations f or w ooden s uperstructure . T esselated f looring . I nside a r ectangular t emenos s outh o f F orum i n c ity . A ssociated b uilding i n t emenos , o f u ncertain t ype . A s a bove . F inds f rom c ity , u nascr ibed t o a ny p art icular t emple : u ninscribed a ltars , b ronze a nd g o ld l eaves/feathers , b ronze b ust o f M inerva , b ronze V enus A nadyonene , b ronze V enus , b ronze h orse , b ronze b usts o f M ercury a nd B acchus , b ronze s tatuette o f V enus , t hree p ipe—clay V enuses , b ronze c ock , b ronze e agle . L ate f irst — m id—third c entury A D .
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T 13 ( in I nsula XXVI i n B oon). As quare R omano—Celt ic t emp le , a bout 6 m o vera ll a nd l ack ing a n a mbulatory . O riented N S—EW . O f s tone c onstruction . I nside a r ectangular t emenos ( 30 m x 3 5 m ) i n I nsula XXVI. T wo a ssociated p its . A s a bove . T wo m iniature v otive p ots , f ive c omp lete a nd b roken p ins a nd a g lass s ett ing f rom a r ing o r b rooch . U ndated . B oon 1 974 , 1 52172 ; L ew is 1 966 , G reen 1 976 , 1 95196 .
1 68 ,
2 03-204 ;
S LONK H ILL , S ussex 1 T Q 2 26065 . 2 T8 4 . 3 Ap ossib le R omano—Celtic t emple , as quare s tructure 1 2 mo n a s ide o riented a ccurately N S—EW . E ntrance t o e ast . P ostholes f or u pright t imber f ram ing . 4 I nside a d itched t emenos , w ith a n e ast e ntrance . 5 R ural. 6 N one , p ossibly l amb a nd p ig l imbs i n ap it . 7 F irst — e ar ly s econd c entury A D . 8 H artridge 1 978 , 6 914 1; R odwell 1 980 , 2 16-2 18 , F ig 1 0 .3 . S PRINGHEAD , K ent 1 T Q 6 18725 . 2 T8 5 ( Temple 1 i n P enn 1 958). 3 As quare R omano—Ce ltic t emp le , b uilt o n ap odium . C e lla 4 m x 4m , a mbulatory 8 m x 8 m . N S—EW . S tone c onstruction. A n i ntegral a nnexe r oom , 2m s quare , i n c entre o f w est w all w ith e ntrance f rom a mbulatory . T wo a nnexe r ooms a dded t o f ront t o f lank o n n orth a nd s outh t he e ast—facing e ntrance , 3m s quare e ach . C entre o f t he w est w all o f c ella h as a m asonry f oundation b uilt i n i t . 4 I n a n e xtensive c omp lex o f a t l east e ight t emples a nd m any o ther a ssociated s tructures , w ithin a t emenos p recinct . 5 T emple c omplex i n as mall t own . 6 Ap seudo—Venus , ab ronze t humb , am iniature b ronze a xe , a b ronze p laque o r d ef ixio , b rooches , c oins , t weezers , p ins , b race lets , J upiter C olumn? 7 L ate f irst — t hird c entury A D . 2 3
4 5 6 7
T8 6 ( Temple I i n P enn 1 962). As quare R omano—Ce lt ic t emple o f u nusua l d esign b uilt o n a n a rtif icial p odium . C ella 5 .5 m x 5 .5 m , a mbulatory 1 .4 m x 1.4 m . S tone c onstruction . C ella b uilt o f e ight p illars , p robably c olonnaded . A mbulatory s o lid w alls a nd a ll o f s tone . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S tone b ench a long i nner w all o f a mbulatory . A ltar b ase i n m iddle o f w est " wall" o f c ella . T wo a nnexe r ooms f lank e ast e ntrance s teps , 3m s quare . A s a bove . A bout 2 m s outh o f T8 5 , a bove , l inked b y aw all. T iled a ltar b ase i n f ront o f t emp le . A s a bove . C oins , b rooches , v otive p ots , f ace—urns , t wo d ef ixios . S econd — t hird c entury A D .
2 3
4 5 6 7 2 3
4 5 6
7 2 3
4 5 6
7 2 3
4
5 6 7 2 3
4
T8 7 ( Temple II i n P enn 1 960). Ar ectangular s tructure , p ossib ly a t emp le o r as acral p oo l, 8 .9 m x 5 .8 m . O riented E -W . E xtremely t hick s tone w a lls w ith c lay a nd o pus s igninum f acing . A bout 2 m n orth o f T emple 8 5 a bove . A s a bove . F ull o f p otsherds , b ut n o o ther r ubbish i n f ill. M id-second - l ate t hird c entury A D . T8 8 ( Temple I V i n P enn 1 960). Ar ectangular R omano-Celtic t emple o f t wo r ooms . O r iented N E-SW , e ntrance p robab ly t o S W . S tone c onstruct ion . I nner r oom 2 .1 m x 1 .5 m . O uter r oom ( or p orch , e ntry v est ibule?) 2 .1 m x 2 .1 m . O uter r oom h as a m asonry a ltar b ase i n m iddle o f t he N E w a ll, a nd a h earth i n N E c orner . A bout 1 0 mN E o f T8 5 a bove . A s a bove . F our i nfant f oundat ion b ur ia ls , t wo w ere d ecapitated . B ronze n eck lace , f ert ility p endant , as ilver l eaf , t wo b racelets f ragments , ad ecapitated b ird f oundation b ur ial. D ate u ncertain . T8 9 ( Temple V i n P enn 1 962). Ar ectangular R omano-Celtic t emple o f o ne r oom , 4 .6 m x 3 .0 m . S tone c onstruction . O riented N S-EW , e ntrance t o e ast . P robably e ither a p orch o r a ntechamber t o e ast . A bout 2 m s outh o f T8 6 ( above) w ith a f ront w all a ligned o n t he f rontage o f T8 6 . A s a bove . T hree c oin h oards , e ach i n s eparate j umb led p iles , p ins , b rooches , b racelets ( possibly a ssociated w ith c hildren a nd f ertility?) a nd t hree f ace-urns . P robably t hird - f ourth c entury A D . T9 0 ( Temple V I/Gateway i n P enn 1 967). As quare b ulding , p ossib ly e ither a t emp le o r a n e xceptionally m onumenta l g ateway s tructure i nto t emenos e nclosure , 6 .75 m s quare , o f s tone c onstruct ion . N o c ella , i n c entre o f f loor a t iled b ase f or a s tatue . Av ot ive p it ( see f inds b elow). O riented N S-EW , t wo e ntrances e ast a nd w est . B uilt a ligned w ith e ast w all o f t emenos , w ith e ast w all a lso f ront ing o nto t he " East T emenos R oad" f rom w hich t here i s a p ossible e ntrance , a ligned o n t he e ntrance i n t he w est w all. A s a bove . I n v otive p it , ab ird b urial, a b ronze r ing , a n i ron r ing , 2 1 c oins a nd p art o f a n i ncense c up . D ate u ncertain . T9 1 ( B 2 0 i n F ig 1 2 .1, H arker 1 980). As quare R omano-Ce ltic t emple . S tone c onstruction . C ella 4 m s quare , a mbulatory 8 m s quare . O r iented N S-EW , e ntrance t o e ast . L ocated " behind" a nd t o t he w est o f T8 5 a nd T 8 7 i n N W c orner o f t emenos p recinct . F ront o f T9 1 i s a ligned w ith b ack w alls o f T8 5 a nd T 8 6 .
5 6 7 8
A s a bove . N one . U ncertain , p robab ly s econd — f ourth c entury A D . P enn 1 959 , 1 960 , 1 961, 1 963 , 1 965 , 1 968 , 1 969 ; H arker 1 980 , 2 85-288 ; G reen 1 970 , 2 28 ; L ew is 1 966 ,
1 69 , 2 04 .
S TROUD , H ants 1 S U 7 223 . 2 T9 3 . 3 Ap ossible R omano—Celtic t emp le r epresented b y a n o ctagonal b uilding , 8 .3 m i n d iameter a nd o r iented N S—EW . C onstruct ion i s o f s tone , w ith f oundations n ear ly 1 m t hick . Ap it w as f ound i n t he S E c orner , b ut m ay n ot b e ap r imary f eature . 4 L ocated i n S E c orner o f av illa c omp lex b etween t he m ain w ing o f v illa a nd a s econd w ing ( at r ight a ngle t o f irst) o f g ranary a nd s heds . I nterpreted a s e ither a s hr ine o r ag arden p avilion . 5 V illa c omplex . 6 N one . 7 U ncertain . 8 W illiams 1 909 , 3 3 ; R odwell 1 980 , 2 19 ; L ew is 1 966 , 8 6 , 5 0-52 . S OUTHWARK , S urrey 1 T Q 3 27803 . 2 T9 4 . 3 Ap robable R omano—Celt ic t emple i s r epresented b y af ew c onstruction f eatures , b uilding r ubb le a nd f inds i n t he C athedral C rypt S ite . R emains t oo s canty f or s ize , s hape , o rientation e tc . 4 U nknown . 5 C ivitas . 6 I n w ells o r p its : o ne s tatue o f ah unter g od w ith h ounds a nd s tag , o ne l imestone a ltar . 7 U ncertain . 8 H ammerson 1 978 , 2 06-2 12 ; G oodburn 1 978 , 4 53 . T HISTLETON , R utland 1 S K 9 10 171. 2 T9 5 ( cf S 2 1 i n a ppendix V ). 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emp le , 1 2 .6 m i n d iameter . O r iented E —W , e ntrance t o e ast . O r iginally o f t imber c onstruction w ith l imestone s lab f loor , p robab ly I ron A ge , l ater r ebuilt w ith w alls o f l imestone . S econd p hase a n a ltar b ase o f c ement s et i n f loor . L ater a t esselated f loor . 4 T races o f ar ectangular b uilding c losely a ssociated , n o t race o f ' a d omestic o ccupation b ut n o o ther i nformat ion . 5 P robably r ural. 6 C o ins , as ilver p laque d edicated t o V eteris , a nd s ilver f eather , b oth f rom s mall p its n ear t emp le . 7 F irst — e ar ly f ourth c entury A D . 8 S t J oseph 1 958 , 9 8 , p l x v .2 ; W ilson 1 961, 1 75 ; 1 962 , 1 7 1173 ; G reenf ield 1 964 , 2 38 ; W ilson 1 965 , 2 07 ; L ew is 1 966 , 8 4 , 1 90 , 9 0-95 .
T HORPE , N otts 1 S K 7 60504 . 2 T9 6 . 3 Ac ircular R omano—Celtic t emp le . N o p ub lished d etails . 4 I n at emenos , i n s mall R oman t own b eside R iver T rent . 5 S mall t own . 6 N one . 7 U ndated. 8 W ilson 1 975 , 1 2 ; R odwell & R ow ley 1 975 . T ITSEY , S urrey 1 T Q 4 054 . 2 T9 7 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 6 .4 m x 6 .1 m . A mbulatory w alls n ot f ound , d ue t o u nusua l d isturbance a round c ella . O r iented N W—SE , e ntrance t o S E . F oundat ion t renches m ore t han 1 m d eep , w alls 1 m o f s tone c onstruction . C ella " front" c orners ( NE a nd S E) b uttressed , o r p ossib le s tatue b ases? 4 I nside a r ectangular t emenos w hich f aces o nto a R oman r oad , r oad o nly 5 m f rom f ront w all o f c ella . Av illa i s m ore t han h alf a m ile a way , a ny a ssociat ion p rob lemat ical. N o o ther b uildings. 5 R ural? 6 C o ins , ab ronze l ozenge s haped s heet , as trip o f l ead. 7 L ate f irst — t hird c entury A D . 8 G raham 1 936 , 8 410 1; G reen 1 976 , 2 26 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 69 , 2 0 1. U LEY ,
( West H ill), G las 1 S T 7 898 . 2 T9 8 ( et S 2 2 a nd S 2 3 i n a ppendix V ). 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 9 m x 8 m , a mbulatory 1 4 mx1 2 m . O r iented N W—SE , e ntrance t o N E . S tone f oundations , p ossibly w ooden s uperstructure . A mbulatory o nly o n t hree s ides ( NW , S W , S E), w ith a s econdary p orch a dded i n f ront o f c ella o ver e ntrance t o N E . C entre o f c ella a l arge p it , p ossib ly f or a l ead— lined w ater t ank , w ith m any c o ins . B uilt o ver a p robab le I ron A ge s hr ine , a nd p robab ly p receded b y a t l east o ne e ar lier R oman t emple t o S E o f t his t emple . 4 A ssociated w ith a t l east t wo o ther r ectangular s tructures , b oth o f w hich c ould s erve a s p r iest/guest a ccommodat ion a nd a " temple s hop" . S everal e ar lier , s im ilar b uildings p robab ly d emo lished b efore t emp le b uilt , a nd a ssociated t herefore w ith a p redecessor . P ossibly s ucceeded o n s ame s ite b y aC hr istian c hurch . 5 R ural c omplex . 6 L arge q uant ities o f c oins , b racelets , p ins , b rooches , s poons , b ronze l eaves/feathers , d ef ixios , m iniature a xes a nd s pears , f igurines o f S o l, J upiter , W inged V ictory , t wo a ltars t o M ercury , o ne M ercury f igur ine , f ragments o f a n o ver l ife—size s tone s tatue M ercury . B ones o f o vi—capr ids ( 93% o f t otal) a nd o f c ocks s upport a scr iption o f t emple t o M ercury . 7 E ar ly m id—fourth — l ate f ourth c entury A D f or t his t emple . T he p utative t emple o f s econd — t hird c entury d ate r emains u nidentif ied b ut i s l ikely i n v iew o f t he a ssociated s tructures a nd f inds . 8 E llison 1 980 , 3 05-328 .
U PTON S T 1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
L EONARD , G los S O 8 5915 1. T9 9 . A n o ctagonal R omano—Celtic t emple , w ithout a mbulatory , o f 1 0 m d iameter . D ef ined b y b eam—slot f oundation g ullies , t herefore p robably o f w ooden c onstruct ion . O r iented t o e ast , a pproached b y am etalled p ath . I nside a d itched e nclosure o f t hree s ides , o pen t o f ourth . S everal p robably a ssociated r ectangular s tructures . R ural. B eside P ortway R oman R oad. Ad efaced s culpted s tone h ead , c oins . U ndated . R awes 1 978 , 113 .
V ERULAMIUM , S t A lbans , H erts 1 T L 1 307 . 2 T3 00 . 3 As quare R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 7 m s quare , a mbulatory 1 6 ms quare . S tone c onstruct ion . O riented N W—SE , e ntrance t o N E . 4 I nside a t emenos , b ehind t heatre . T wo a ssociated r ectangular b uildings a ttached t o o utside N W a nd S E w alls o f a mbulatory . 5 C ivitas . 6 C oins , f ragments o f d ef ixios . 7 L ate f irst — f ifth c entury A D . 2 3
4
5 6
7 8
T1 0 1. Au nique t r iangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . A pproximate ly 3 0 mx 2 6 mo verall. O riented S W—NE . N o c ella i n u sual s ense . A n o uter w all e ncloses a c olonnaded c ourtyard w ith e ntry f rom s treet a t n arrow e nd t o S E . B eyond t his t o N W , a t b road e nd o f t riangle a re t hree r ooms , o ne i n e ach o f t he b ack c orners a nd o ne i n t he c entre , a ligned o n t he e ntry , w ith a w ater t ank i n f loor , t his o ne m easures 5 .2 m s quare . T he o uter w all m ay f orm a n e nclosure , a nd t here a ppears t o b e a c oncentr ic f ence o utside t his . T he t wo a ncillary r ooms i n t he c orners a lso h ave t anks i n f loor . C ivitas . O x s acr if ices i n s outh c orridors o f c ourtyard . L amp c himney , g lass M edusa m edallion , s mall b ronze s nakes , 1 5 m iniature p ots , av otive o x s kull. A pproximately f irst — f ifth c entur ies A D . F rere 1 972 ; L ew is 1 966 , 9 5-96 , 1 9 1, F igs 9 6 , W ilson 1 975 , 2 4-25 ; G reen 1 976 , 2 06-207 .
9 7 ;
W ALTON O N H ILL , S urrey 1 T Q 2 255 . 2 T 1 02 . 3 Ac ircular/po lygonal R omano—Celtic t emple , 9 .8 m d iameter , c ircular o utside b ut p olygona l i nside . D eep s tone f oundations . W indow g lass . N o i nformation o n o r ientation . N o a mbulatory . 4 L ocated t o s outh o f m ain v illa c omplex , n o a ssociated f eatures . 5 V illa . 6 N one . 7 L ate s econd c entury — ? 8 L owther 1 940 , 1 8 1, p l X VIII; L ew is 1 966 , 8 6 .
W EST C OKER , S omerset 1 S T 5 113 . 2 T1 03 . 3 AR omano-Ce lt ic t emple o f u ncertain s ize o r s hape . O r iginally i dent if ied a s av illa , t he f inds l eave l ittle d oubt t hat i t w as a ctually a t emple ( cf L eech 1 980 , 3 29). 4 A ssociated s tructures o f u nknown t ype . 5 P erhaps i n av illa , o r p erhaps m ore l ikely i n at emple c omp lex s im ilar t o U ley? 6 As tone l ined c ist w ith s heep b ones , ab ronze s tatuette o f M ars , b racelets , c oins , ab ronze p laque o r d ef ixio t o M ars R igisamus . 7 U ncertain . 8 M oore 1 862 , 3 92-395 ; 1 863 , 3 21; H averf ield 1 906 , 31; L eech 1 980 , 3 29 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 84 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 27 , 1 41. W EYCOCK H ILL , B erks 1 S U 8 21778 . 2 T1 04 . 3 A n o ctagonal R omano-Celtic t emp le , c ella 1 0 .7 m d iameter , a mbulatory 1 9 .3 m d iameter . M assive s tone f oundat ions o ver 2 m d eep a nd 1 m w ide . O riented N S-EW , e ntrance p robab ly t o e ast . 4 T emenos w a lls v isible o n a er ia l p hotos . A n a ssociated i nhumation c emetery o f E -W o r iented b ur ia ls . S evera l w alls , o ne o f w hich c ontained a c omplete(?) h orse , a nd t o s outh o f t emple p robab le a ncillary s tructures . 5 P robab ly r ural. 6 B ronze h ead o f af emale d eity , m any c o ins . 7 P robably m id- f ourth c entury - ? 8 N eville 1 849 , 14123 ; C otton 1 957 , 4 8-68 ; 1 96 1, 3 0 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 71. W INCHESTER , H ants 1 S U 4 829 . 2 T 1 05 . 3 Ar ectangular R omano-Celtic t emple o n L ower B rook S treet S ite . C ella 7 m x 6 m , a mbulatory 1 3 .2 m x 1.7 m . O r iented W NW-ESE , w ith e ntrance t o E SE . F ront o f c ella w ith t wo c orner p ilasters , f ront o f a mbulatory w ith f our p ilasters , f lanking e ntrance . P robab ly s tone c onstruct ion . 4 A ssociated w ell, a nd a s econd s tructure t o s outh , d ef ined b y b eam s lots , 9m x 5m , w ith a r oom a nd a p roject ing e ast f acing p orch ( cf S hrine 2 0 a t S outh C adbury i n a ppendix V ). 5 C ivitas . 6 I nscr iption t o M atres o f G ermany , I taly , G aul a nd B r itain . W o c iden f emale d eity f rom w e ll, p robab ly E pona? , a lso t wo b ronze s tatues . 7 L ate f irst c entury - c irca 3 00 A D . 8 B iddle 1 975 , 2 95-337 , F ig 1 0 . W INTERTON , L incs 1 S E 9 10 18 1. 2 T 1 06 . 3 Ac ircular R omano-Celtic t emp le 1 7 .5 m i n d iameter . S tone c onstruct ion , e ntrance p robab ly t o e ast . O ver lies b oth a n e ar lier a nd s maller c ircular b uilding . F our r ectangular p illar b ases s et 5 m a part i n as quare , c entrally w ithin t he t emp le .
423-
4 5 6 7 8
B uilt o ver a s unken w ater t ank i n v illa c omplex . V illa c omplex . B ronze e agle . E ar ly s econd — l ate s econd c entury A D . S tead 1 976 , 5 1 , F ig 2 6 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 62 .
W OODEATON , O xon 1 S P 5 33 123 . 2 T 1 07 ( cf S 2 4 i n a ppendix V )? 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella 5 .8 m x 5 m , a mbulatory 1.8 m x 1 m ( ear liest p hase m ay n ot h ave h ad a n a mbulatory). S tone f oundat ions , p robab ly w ooden s uperstructure . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . 4 I nside a w alled t emenos , p arts o f w hich w ere d estroyed i n 1 9th c entury a gricultural w orks . N o k nown a ssociated b uildings , b ut q uantity o f d omestic d ebris p loughed o ut i n t his f ie ld a nd a djacent f ields m akes e ither a t emp le , a ssociated g roup o r s mall s ett lement l ike ly . T emple i s p laced e ccentr ically w ithin t emenos . P robab le I ron A ge a ntecedents f or t emple a nd t emenos . M assive q uantity o f f inds h as l ed t o s peculation a bout u se o f s ite f or p er iodic f airs o r m arkets . 5 E ither a r ural g roup o r a ssociated w ith a s ett lement . 6 F inds c oncentrate i n t he o pen a rea o f t emenos , n ot i n t emple . B ronze m odel a nchor , v otive c ha in m ail, f igures o f s heet b ronze c rown , b ronze V enus , b ronze k ilted C e ltic g oddess , b ronze l etters M , N , A , T , V , E , b ronze p laque o f M ars , f ive b ronze e agles , t wo s ceptre h eads i n f orm o f ah elmeted b usts o f M inerva , b ronze p laques o f C upid , p laque o f an ude m an w ith c lub a nd c loak , f ragmentary s tone r elief o f M ars , b racelets , r ings , c oins. 7 M id—f irst — f ifth c entury A D . 8 G oodchild & K irk 1 955 , 1 9-38 ; H arding 1 972 , 6 4-65 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 77178 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 70 , 2 0 1. W ORTH , K ent 1 T R 3 35558 . 2 T1 08 ( et S 2 5 i n a ppendix V )? 3 Ar ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple . C ella 5 .69 m x 5 .79 m , a mbulatory 1 5 .82 m x 1 6 .17 m . O r iented N W—SE , p robab ly e ntry t o S E . F oundat ion a nd w alls o f u nmortared c ha lk b locks . F ragmentary p ebbled f loor i n e ast c orner o f c ella , a nd a l oose f lint s tructure i n t he n orth c orner? P robab le I ron A ge p redecessor , r epresented b y f our p ostho les . 4 N o t emenos o r a ssociated s tructures k nown . 5 R ural. 6 C oins , ac omplete p ot , b rooches , t wo f ragments o f as tone s tatue i nclude a h and h olding a s pear a nd a h and r est ing o n a s hield . 7 M id—f irst — l ate f ourth c entury A D . 8 K lein 1 928 , 7 6-86 ; H awkes 1 940 , 15121; G reen 1 976 , 2 3 1-232 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 70 .
W ROXETER , S alop 1 S J 5 608 . 2 T1 09 . 3 Ar ectangular t emple , l arge ly c lassical b ut w ith s ome R omano—Ce ltic f eatures . C ella 9 .5 m x 7 .7 m o n p odium r aised a bove f loor o f a mbulatory/court . A mbulatory 3 0 .15 m x 1 5 .3 m . O riented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . C ella s et h alfway b ack i n " ambulatory" l eaving a c olonnaded " court" i n f ront . P edestals f or s tatues a t a ngles o f c e lla . 4 A ssociated s hops a nd a r ectangular e nclosure , l ike t heatre a t V erulam ium . 5 F ronts o n W at ling S t , j ust s outh o f F orum , c ivitas c ap ital. 6 H ead a nd l eg ( life s ize) o f s tone g oddess , h orse 's h ead i n s tone , r elief o f p hallus w ith q uadr iga , r e lief o f t wo n ude s tanding f igures a nd a ltars . D eposits o f p ots w ith o x a nd s heep b ones u nder s outheast c orner o f a mbulatory . 7 M id— late s econd — l ate t hird c entury A D . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T 10 . Ar ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple . U nexcavated , l ocated o n a erial p hotos . A ssociated o ne—room r ectangular b uilding . N orth o f F orum , C ivitas c apital. N one — b ut c f G reen 1 976 f or l ist o f r itual f inds f rom c ity a rea . U ndated. L ew is 1 966 , G reen 1 976 ,
3 , 3 6 , 1 84 , 1 62164 .
6 9-71,
9 6 ; W acher 1 974 ,
F ig 8 1,
p h 7 2 ;
W YCOMB , G los 1 S P 0 220 . 2 T 11. 3 As quare r ectangular R omano—Celtic t emple o f t wo r ooms ( no a mbulatory). 1 2 .6 m x 6 .4 m o verall, o riented N —S . E ntrance t o e ast , i nto t he s outh a nd l arger r oom . T he n orthern r oom i s 2 m x 1m . C entre o f f loor o f s outh r oom a m assive s culpted s tone n ow d efaced. S tone f oundations . 4 U nder lied T 12 b elow . E xtensive a ssociated f oundations i n t his a nd a djacent f ields , at emenos e nclosure a nd p robably a t heatre . 5 R ural t emp le c omplex? 6 O ver 5 00 c oins ; f ibulae , k eys , t weezers , s ty li, p ossib ly b ronze s tatuette o f aw arr ior g od , p ossib ly M ars ( this m ay c ome f rom T 12 b elow). 7 F itst — p robab ly e ar ly t hird c entury A D . 2 3
4 5
T 12 . As quare R omano—Celt ic t emple . C ella w as p robab ly p resent b ut u nrecognised a s s uch . A mbulatory 1 3 .5 m s quare . O r iented N S—EW , e ntrance t o e ast . S tone f oundat ions . A mbulatory p aved w ith f lat s labs . O ver lies T 11 a bove ; i nside t emenos w ith o ther a ssociated b uildings a nd a p robable t heatre . R ural t emple c omplex .
6
7 8
C oins , m iniature b ronze a xe , t wo G enii C ucullat i r eliefs , o ne w ith t wo f igures o n e ither s ide o f ah ooded g od c arry ing a r ound o bject . S econd r elief , af igure a lso h o lding a r ound o bject s tands b eside t he G enius , at hird f igure i s b roken o ff . T hird - f ifth c entury A D . L awrence 1 864 , 3 02-306 , 4 22-426 ; L ew is 1 966 , 1 09 , 1 70 , 1 87 , 1 94 , F ig 3 2 ; G reen 1 976 , 1 75 .
I NDEX
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5
B ancroft , B ucks B ath , A von B ourton B r idge , G los B ourton G rounds , B ucks B ow H ill, S ussex B oxted , K ent B ozeat , N orthants B ream D own , S omerset B r igstock , N orthants B r igstock , N orthants B ury H ill, G los C adbury C ongresbury , S omerset C aerwent , G went C aerwent , G went C aistor—by—Norw ich , N orfo lk C a istor—by—Norw ich , N orfo lk C a istor—by—Norw ich , N orfo lk C amerton , S omerset C annington , S omerset C astor , C ambs C hanctonbury , S ussex C hedworth , G los C he lmsford , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o lchester , E ssex C o ld K itchen H ill, W ilts C o lesh ill, W arks
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5
C o llyweston , N orthants C ollyweston , N orthants C ollyweston , N orthants C o llyweston , N orthants C roft A mbrey , H ere C rownthorpe , N orfolk F ar ley H eath , S urrey F r ilford , O xon F r ilford , O xon G odmanchester , H untingdon G odmanchester , H unt ingdon G odmanchester , H untingdon G reat C hesterford , E ssex G reat D unmow , E ssex G reenw ich P ark , K ent H ar low , E ssex H ay ling I s land , H ants H enley W ood , S omerset H ockwold , N orfo lk I rchester , N orthants J ordan H ill, D orset K elvedon , E ssex K enchester , H ere K enchester , H ere L amyatt B eacon , S omerset L ancing R ing , S ussex L owbury H ill, B erks L ullington , K ent L ydney P ark , G los M aiden C astle , D orset M aiden C ast le , D orset M untham C ourt , S ussex M ut low H ill, C ambs N ett leton S crubb , W ilts N ettleton S crubb , W ilts N ornour , S cilly O rton L ongueville , H untingdon P agan's H ill, S omerset P ulborough , S ussex R ainsborough , N orthants
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
7 6 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9 1 00 1 0 1 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07 1 08 1 09 10 11 12 13 14
R apsley , S urrey R ichborough , K ent R ichborough , K ent S apperton , G los S ilchester , H ants S ilchester , H ants S ilchester , H ants S ilchester , H ants S lonk H ill, S ussex S pringhead , K ent S pr inghead , K ent S pr inghead , K ent ' S pr inghead , K ent S pr inghead , K ent S pr inghead , K ent S pringhead , K ent C olchester , E ssex S troud , H ants S outhwark , S urrey T hist leton , R ut land T horpe , N otts T itsey , S urrey U ley , G los U pton S t L eonard , G los V erulam ium , H erts V erulam ium , H erts W alton o n H ill, S urrey W est C oker , S omerset W eycock H ill, B erks W inchester , H ants W interton , L incs W oodeaton , O xon W orth , K ent W roxeter , S alop W roxeter , S alop W ycomb , G los W ycomb , G los S ilchester , H ants C laydon P ike , G los
BI B L I O G R A P H Y
A BBREVIATIONS B .A .R . O xford = B rit ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports C .B .A .
L ondon = C ounc il f or B r it ish A rchaeo logy
A NONYMOUS
1 846 :
A ppendix .
A NONYMOUS
1 933 :
N otes .
A ITKEN , G .M .
1 967 :
A rchaeo log ia
5 17 , p l xiii.
A nt iquar ies J ourna l
W hitcombe , D orset .
1 3 , 4 64-465 .
C .B .A . G roup 1 2 ,
N ewsletter .
A KERMAN , J .Y . 1 852 : A ccount o f t he d iscovery o f R oman a nd o ther S epulchral R emains a t t he V illage o f S tone , n ear A y lesbury , B uck inghamsh ire . A rchaeo logia 3 4 , 2 1-32 . A LCOCK ,
J . 1 965 : C e lt ic W ater C ults i n R oman B r ita in . A rchaeo logica l J ournal 7 2 , 1 12 .
A LCOCK ,
L . 1 966 : S ome A spects o f C e lt ic R e ligion i n G loucestersh ire a nd t he C otswo lds . T ransact ions B r isto l a nd G loucestershire A rchaeo logical S ociety 8 5 , 4 5 . 1 968 : E xcavat ions a t S outh C adbury C ast le 1 967 . J ournal 4 8 , 6 17 .
A ntiquar ies
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