Stone Axe Morphology and Distribution in Neolithic Britain, Parts i and ii 9781407389776, 9781407389783, 9780860544890, 9781407317939
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English Pages [706] Year 1987
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
COVER -- Part I
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER II
CHAPTER III
CHAPTER IV
CHAPTER V
CHAPTER VI
CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER VIII
CHAPTER IX
CHAPTER X
CHAPTER XI
CHAPTER XII
BIBLIOGRAPHY
COVER -- Part II
Copyright
APPENDIX
Citation preview
Stone Axe Morphology and Distribution in Neolithic Britain
Sylvia Chappell
Part i
BAR British Series 177(i) 1987
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR 177 (I),1987 : 'Stone Axe Morphology and Distribution in Neolithic Britain' Part I
©
Sylvia Jean Chappell 1986
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved.No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389776 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389783 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544890 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317939 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544890
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
T o a pp ly ma themat ica l p ropor t ions t on eo l ith ic c e lts m igh t s eem t ob e c our t ing d i saster , b u t i ti sc l ear t ha t measure ment s mean a g ood d ea l i nt h is c onnex ion . —Reg ina ld A . Sm i th
I N ME MORY OF MY MOTHER
R ITA JANE CHAPPELL 1 921-1984
1
ACKNO WLEDG MENTS
W i thou t t he c oopera t ion , a ss istance , a nd e ncouragemen t o f many p eop le , t h is i nves t i ga t ion w ou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ib le .
F oremost among t hese i s D r . W . A . C um m ins ,
C ha irman o f t he I mp lemen t P etro logy C omm i t t ee o f t he C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy . A t t he o u tse t o f t h is p ro jec t , D r . C umm ins g ran ted me p erm iss ion t o u se t he u npub l ished l i sts o f p etro logy r esu lts c o mp i led b y t he I mp lemen t P e tro logy C omm it tee a nd a ctua l ly p rov ided t he l i st s f o r s o me a reas .
Moreover , i n t he t rue s p ir i t o f s c ien t if i c e nqu iry , h e
e xpressed i n terest i n a nd p rov ided e ncouragemen t f o r t h is i nvest igat ion , k now ing t ha t my r esu l t s m igh t c on t rad ict h i s own . T hanks must a l so b e g iven t o t he o ther a rchaeo log ist s a nd g eo log ists who a ct a s r eg iona l c oord inat ors o f p et ro logy r esu l ts f o r p rov id ing me w ith t he u npub l ished l i sts f o r t he ir a reas .
T hese i n c lude D r . I .F . Sm i th ( s outhwes tern E ng land ) , D . B . K e l ly , E . E . Har -
r i son , A . G . Woodcock , a nd T . S chad la -Ha l l ( s ou theas tern E ng land ) , W . R . G . Moore , C . N . G ow ing , A . R . P ike , a nd J . G . R hodes ( s outheas t M id lands ) , D r . F . W . S hotton ( wes t M id l ands ) , C . H . H ou lder ( Wa les ) , D r . A . P . P h i l l ips ( Yorksh ire ) , a nd C . N . Moore a nd D . J . R ob inson ( Chesh ire a nd L ancash ire ) .
Many o f t hese p eop le a nd o thers p rov ided a ccess t o
t he i mp lemen t d raw ings o n t he p etro logy r ecord c ards wh ich w ere r e l ied u pon f o r much o f t he d a ta o n wh ich t h is s tudy i sb ased . Among t hese , s pec ia l t hanks must g o t o T . H . McK . C lough who p hot ocop ied a l a rge n umber o f r ecord c ard d raw ings f o r me a nd t o D r . I .F . Sm i th who p a instak ing ly t r aced a l a rge n umber o fd raw ings f o r me . I n a dd i t ion , Iw ish t o e xpress my a pprec iat ion t o c ura tors a nd a ss istants a t t he many museums I v i s i ted f o r p rov id ing me w ith a ccess t o r e cords a nd s pec imens , w ork s pace , a nd i n many c ases , w e lco me c ups o fc of ee a nd t ea . I n o rder t o a vo id i nadver tent ly om it t ing s o meone , Iw i l l n ot a t te mp t t ol i st t hese k ind a nd h e lpfu l p eop le . Ih ope t hey w i l l f o rg ive me f o r t h is .
1 1
B a ck i n M ich igan , Iw ish t o t hank t he member s o f my d i sser ta t ion c o mm i t t ee , D r . R ober t Wha l lon , C ha irman , D r . W i l l iam F arrand , D r . R icha rd F ord , a nd D r . H enry Wr igh t , f o r t he ir a dv ice , e ncouragemen t , a nd p a t ience o ver t he y ears .
Wh i le w r i t ing t h is
t hes is , Iwas awarded a G radua te S tuden t F e l lowsh ip f o r o ne y ea r a nd a T each ing A ss is t an t sh ip f o r o ne t e rm b y t he D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy .
T h i s f i nanc ia l a ss istance i s
g rat efu l ly a cknow ledged . On a more p ersona l n ot e , Iw ish t o e xpress my t hanks t o my p aren t s , Mr . a nd Mrs . N . G ard iner C happe l l , who p rov ided f i nanc ia l s uppor t t hroughou t my u nderg radua te e duca t ion a nd s porad i ca l ly d ur ing my g radua te c areer .
Id eep ly r eg ret t ha t my mo ther
d idn ' t l i ve t o s ee t he c omp let ion o ft h is i nves t iga t ion . H oweve r , s he n ever d oub ted t ha t i t w ou ld , o ne d ay , b e f i n ished , a nd i ti st oh er memory t ha t Id ed icat e t h is w ork . T hroughou t my y ears a t t he Un ivers i ty o fM ich igan , Ih ave b een p r iv i leged t oh ave h ad t he o ppor tun i ty t oi n terac t w i th s o many o ther b r igh t a nd e n thus ias t ic s tuden ts . S ome o f t hem w i l l r e ma in f r iends f o r l i f e .
T o t wo o f t hem , Io we p ar t i cu lar d eb t s o f g ra t i tude .
One o f t hese i s my d ea r f r iend , Me l inda Z eder , w i th whom Is ha red many a dven tures i n my e a r ly g raduat e s choo l d ays a nd who , i n r ecen t y ears , h as a lways b een o n ly a p hone c a l l a way w ith w ords o fe n couragemen t . T o T r ist ine Sma r t , Io we t hanks f o r av a r ie ty o f h e lpfu l a c t s , t o o n umerous t o men t ion h ere , t he l i t t le t h ings wh ich c hara c ter ize a t rue f r iendsh ip . L as tb u t n o t l e as t , Io we ag rea t d ea l t o my h usband , J ohn Mas len . H e wa s my s o le s our ce o ff i nanc ia l s uppor t d ur ing t he y ears i n E ng land when Iwa s c o l lec t ing t he d a ta o n wh ich t h is i nvest iga t ion i sb ased , a nd h e w i l l ing ly l e f t h i s f am i ly a nd f r iends t o move t ot he U .S . when Iwas r eady t or e turn . H e h as c on t inued t op rov ide f i nanc ia l s uppor td ur ing t he l o ng y ears o f a na lys is a nd w r i t ing .
I n a dd i t ion , h e h as k ep t t he h ome f i res b urn ing a nd
p rov ided a n ima l c are i n my a bsence . H is e ndur ing s uppor t a nd e n couragemen t a re g rea t ly a pprec ia ted , a nd Iam s ure n o o ne i s more p l eased t han h e t o s ee t he c o mp le t ion o f t h is t hes is .
i v
TABLE OF CONTENTS DED ICAT ION ACKNO WLEDGMENTS
i
L IST OF TABLES
v i i i
L IST OF F IGURES
x i
CHAPTER I . I NTRODUCT ION
1
S t one A xes i nN eo l i th ic B r i ta in T he I nvest iga t ion o fS tone A xe Morpho logy a nd D is tr ibu t ion I . THE NEOL ITH IC P ER IOD I N BR ITA IN : EV IDENCE AND I NTERPRETAT IONS
ARCHAEOLOG ICAL 7
T he E ar ly N eo l i th ic T he L a te N eo l i th ic C onc lus ion I I . S TONE AXE D ISTR IBUT ION PREV IOUS APPROACHES
I N
NEOL ITH IC
BR ITA IN : 2 8
R eg iona l P e t ro logy R epor t s : P a t t erns o fS t one Axe D ist r ibu t ion Axe D ist r ibu t ion t h rough Na tura l P rocesses : T he U se o fG lac ia l E rra t ics Ma thema t ica l Mode ls o fE xchange D is t r ibu t ions : R eg ress ion Ana lyses a nd R andom Wa lk S imu la t ions T hree -D imens iona l Mode ls o fS tone A xe D ist r ibu t ions : R e la t ive F requen cy C on tour Maps S ummary o fA pproa ches B ased o n A bso lu t e o r R e la t ive F requen c ies o fA xes S t one Axe Morpho logy a nd D is t r ibu t ion : C r i t ique o f aP re l im inary S tudy I V . THE THEORET ICAL FRAME WORK GOODS I N TR IBAL SOCIET IES
I :
D ISTR IBUT ION
OF 5 6
R eg iona l D is tr ibut ion o f Ma ter ia l G oods i nT r iba l S oc ie t ies G enera l C hara c ter is t ics o fE x change i nT r iba l S oc iet ies S ys tem i c F a ct ors T ha t May Af f e c t t he D i str ibu t ion o fG oods i n R eg iona l E xchange S yst ems S ummary V . THE THEORET ICAL FRA ME WORK I : OGY AND D ISTR IBUT ION
S TONE AXE MORPHOL -
S tone A xe Morpho logy : D imens ions o f Va r iab i l i ty S t one Axe D is t r ibu t ion a nd S pa t ia l P a t t ern ing i n Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
7 4
S tone Axe D epos i t ion a nd R ecovery : T he F orma t ion o ft he A r chaeo log ica l R ecord S ummary V I . S TONE AXE MORPHOLOGY AND D ISTR IBUT ION I N NEOL ITH IC BR ITA IN : HYPOTHESES AND EXPECTAT IONS ....
1 04
S tone Axe D is t r ibu t ion i nN eo l i th ic B r i ta in Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty Among S tone A xes i nN eo l i th ic B r ita in V I I . THE BR IT ISH NEOL ITH IC S TONE AXE DATA : PREL IM INARY CONSIDERAT IONS AND ANALYT ICAL METHODOLOGY
1 21
D ef in i t ion o ft he Da ta S et T he Morpho log ica l Da ta Ana ly t ica l Me thodo logy V I I I . THE CORN ISH GROUPS
1 38
G roup XV I G roups I V / IV a G roup I T he C orn ish G roups : C o mpara t ive S ummary I X . THE WELSH GROUPS
2 04
G roup XX I I I G roup V I I I G roup V I I T he We lsh G roups : C ompara t ive S umma ry X . THE LAKE D ISTR ICT GROUPS
2 59
G roup V I G roup XV T he L ake D is t r i ct G roups : C ompara t ive S umma ry X I . OTHER GROUPS
2 99
G roup I X G roup XX G roup XV I I I O ther G roups : C ompara t ive S ummary X I I . CONCLUS IONS
3 35
P a t terns o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty Among B r i t ish N eo l i th i c S tone Axes S pa t ia l P a t t ern ing i n Morpho log ica l V ar iab i l i ty a nd P rocesses o f Axe D is t r ibu t ion S tone Axe D ispersa l a nd P a t t erns o f Human I nt eract ion i nN eo l i th ic B r i ta in
v i
B IBL IOGRAPHY
3 46
APPENDIX
3 59
v i i
L IST OF TABLES 1 . 1 B r i t ish I mp lemen t P et ro logy G roups
3 60
2 .1 C hrono log ica l D iv is ions o ft he N eo l i th ic P er iod i nB r i ta in
3 64
3 .1 Mat er ia l G roups R epresent ed b y S t one Axe S pec imens f r om W i l t sh ire a nd S urround ing C oun t ies
3 65
7 . 1 C oun t ies i nt he S tudy A rea a nd T he ir A bbrev ia t ions
3 70
7 .2 A bundance o fC omp let e Axes i nt he Da ta S e t
3 72
7 .3 S ize a nd S hape V ar iab les a nd T he i r A bbrev ia t ions
3 74
8 .1 P r in c ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o fG roup XV I A xes
3 94
8 .2 C omp le te Axes o fG roup XV I f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
3 97
8 .3 S pa t ia l P a t terns i nS ize Var iab i l i ty Among A xes o fG roup XV I
3 99
8 .4 P r in c ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o fG roup I V Axes
4 09
8 .5 C omp let e A xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o f D epos i t i on
4 17
8 .6 S pa t ia l P a t terns i nS ize Var iab i l i ty Among A xes o fG roup I V
4 20
8 .7 C ompar isons o fD imens ion s o fG roup IAxes w i th a nd w i thou t E xpanded B lades
4 25
8 .8 P r in c ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o fG roup IA xes
4 47
8 .9 D es cr ipt ions o fG roup IAxes i nC lus ters
4 55
8 .10 C omp le te Axes o fG roup If r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
4 61
9 .1 C omp let e Axes o fG roup XX II I f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion ▪•••
4 75
9 .2 S pa t ia l P a t t erns i nS ize Var iab i l i ty Among A xes o fG roup XX I I I
4 77
9 .3 P r in c ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o fG roup V I I I A xes
4 96
9 .4 D escr ipt ions o fG roup V I I I Axes i nC lus ters
5 02
9 .5 C omp le te Axes o fG roup V I I I f r om S pec if i c C ont ex t s o fD epos i t ion
5 06
9 .6 S pa t ia l P a t terns i nS ize Var iab i l i ty Among A xes o fG roup V I I I
5 08
9 .7 C ompar ison o f L eng th /Th ickness R a t io Va lues o f G roup V I I R oughou t s a nd A xes i nN ea r -Sour ce S amp le
5 24
9 .8 P r inc ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o fG roup V I I Axes
5 31
9 .9 D escr ipt ions o fG roup V I I Axes i n C lusters
5 38
9 .10 C omp le te Axes o fG roup V I I f r om S pec if i c C ont ext s o fD eps i t ion
5 41
9 .11 C ompar isons o f Mean L eng ths o f G roup V I I Axes f r om D if f eren t C on t ex ts o fD epos it ion
5 44
9 .12 Nearest Ne ighbor Ana lys is o fT h icker a nd T h inner Axes o fG roup V I I
5 46
9 .13 C ompar ison o fD istance D ecay Mode ls o fG roup V I I Axe L eng th
5 49
1 0 .1 P r inc ipa l C omponen ts Ana lys is o fG roup V I Axes
5 77
1 0 .2 D escr ipt ions o fG roup V I Axes i n C lus ters
5 86
1 0 .3 C omp le te Axes o fG roup V I f r om S pec if i c C on tex ts o fD epos it ion
5 90
1 0 .4 C ompar isons o f Mean L eng th o f G roup V I Axes f r om O ccupat ion C on t ex ts w i th G roup V I Axes f r om Unknown C on text s F ound i n t he S ame A reas
5 94
1 0 .5 C ompar isons o f Mean L eng th o f G roup V I Axes f r om A ssoc ia t ions w i th G roup V I Axes f r om Unknown C ontex ts F ound i nt he S ame A reas .. .
5 95
1 0 .6 C ompar isons o f Mean L eng th o f G roup V I Axes f r om t he R iver T hames w i th G roup V I Axes f r om O ther S amp les
5 96
1 0 .7 C ompar ison o fD istance D ecay Mode ls o fG roup V I Axe L eng th
6 00
1 0 .8 S pa t ia l P at t erns i nS i ze Var iab i l i ty Among Axes o fG roup XV
6 14
1 1 .1 P r inc ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o f Sma l l G roup I X Axes i nE ng land a nd Wa les
6 23
1 1 .2 D escr ipt ions o fG roup I X Axes i nC lus ters
6 28
1 1 .3 C omp le te Axes o fG roup I X f r om S pec if i c C on tex ts o fD epos it ion
6 31
1 1 .4 C ompar isons o f Mean L eng th o fG roup I X Axes f r om t he R iver T hames w i th G roup I X Axes f r om Unknown C ont ex ts F ound i n t he S ame A reas
6 32
1 1 .5 P r inc ipa l C omponen ts Ana lys is o fG roup XX Axes
6 45
1 1 .6 D escr ipt ions o fG roup XX Axes i nC lus ters
6 50
1 1 .7 C omp le te Axes o fG roup XX f r om S pec if i c C on text s o fD epos i t ion
6 54
1 1 .8 S pa t ia l P a t terns i nS ize Var iab i l ity Among Axes o fG roup XX
6 57
1 1 .9 P r inc ipa l C omponen t s Ana lys is o f G roup XV I I I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 66
1 1 .10 D escr ipt ions o fG roup XV I I I Axes i nC lust ers
6 72
1 1 .11 C o mp let e Axes o fG roup XV I I I f r om S pec if i c C ont exts o fD epos i t ion .
6 83
1 1 .12 S pat ia l P a t tern ing i n S ize Var iab i l i ty Among Axes o fG roup XV I I I ..
6 84
L IST OF F IGURES 1 . 1 Quarry S i tes a nd Out crop A reas o fB r it ish I mp lemen t P etro logy G roups.
3 63
5 .1 Axes f r om A b iamp S ource : ments
3 66
S ca t ter P lot o f L eng th v s . Width Measure -
5 .2 Axes f r om Ganz -Tsenga S ources : v s . W idth -Th ickness R at io Va lues
S ca t ter P lo t o fL eng th Measuremen t s 3 67
5 .3 Mode ls o fA xe S ize D istr ibut ion
3 68
7 . 1 E ng land a nd Wa les S how ing C oun ty B oundar ies a nd S tudy A rea
3 69
7 .2 Measuremen ts R ecorded f o r S tone Axes
3 73
7 .3 L eng ths o fI mp le men ts I dent if ied a s Adzes o r Axe -Adzes
3 75
7 .4 S che me f o r Number ing 5 0 km S quares B ased o n t he Na t iona l G r id
.•
3 76
7 .5 D istr ibut ion o fA l l C o mp le te S tone Axes i nt he S tudy A rea
3 77
7 .6 O bserved Number o fS tone Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
3 78
7 .7 C orrected Number o fS tone Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
3 79
8 .1 L oca t ions o fS i tes Ment ioned i n C hap ter V I I I
3 80
8 .2 D istr ibu t ion o fC omp le te Axes o fG roup XV I
3 81
8 .3 D is tances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C omp le te Axes o fG roup XV I Have B een F ound
3 82
8 .4 R epresenta t ive Axes o fG roup XV I
3 83
8 .5 D istr ibut ion o fR oughout s o fG roup XV I
3 85
8 .6 D is tr ibut ion o fL eng ths o fG roup XV I R oughou ts
3 86
8 .7 S ca t ter P lot s o fG roup XV I R oughout s a nd Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
3 87
8 .8 S ca t ter P lot s o fG roup XV I R oughout s a nd A l l Axes
3 89
8 .9 D imens ions o fA l l C o mp lete G roup XV I Axes
3 91
8 .10 C orre la t ion Ma tr ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp le te G roup XV I Axes
3 93
8 .11 D istr ibu t ions o fP r inc ipa l C omponent S cores f o r G roup XV I Axes
3 95
8 .12 S ca t ter P lo t o fP r inc ipa l C omponen t S cores f o r G roup XV I Axes
3 96
8 .13 D istr ibu t ion o fG roup XV I A xes i nD if f erent S ize C lasses
3 98
8 .14 P a t tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup XV I Axes
4 00
8 .15 D istr ibut ion o fC omp le te Axes o fG roup I V / IVa
4 01
8 .16 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C omp let e Axes o f G roup I V Have B een F ound
4 02
8 .17 D imens ions o fC omp let e G roup I V Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
4 03
8 .18 S ca t ter P lots o fG roup I V Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le
4 04
8 .19 S cat ter P lots o fA l l G roup I V Axes
4 06
8 .20 C orre lat ion Ma tr ix o f S i ze a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp le te G roup I V Axes
4 08
8 .21 D istr ibu t ions o fP r inc ipa l C omponen t S cores f o r G roup I V Axes
4 10
8 .22 S ca t ter P lot o fP r inc ipa l C omponent S cores f o r G roup I V Axes
4 11
8 .23 R epresentat ive Axes o fG roup I V
4 12
8 .24 S cat ter P lots o fG roup I V a nd G roup I Va Axes
4 14
8 .25 F ragmentary Axes o fG roup I Va
4 16
8 .26 D istr ibu t ion o fG roup I Va A xes i nD if f erent S ize C lasses
4 18
8 .27 D istr ibut ion o fG roup I V Axes i nD if f eren t S ize C lasses
4 19
8 .28 D ist r ibu t ion o fC omp le te Axes o fG roup I
4 21
8 .29 D istr ibut ion o fC omp lete G roup IAxes w i th E xpanded B lades
4 22
8 .30 R epresen ta t ive G roup IAxes w ith E xpanded B lades
4 23
8 .31 D imens ions o fC omp lete G roup IAxes w i th E xpanded B lades
4 27
8 .32 S cat t er P lots o fG roup IAxes w i th E xpanded B lades
4 28
8 .33 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C omp lete Axes o fG roup IWi thou t E xpanded B lades Have B een F ound
4 30
8 .34 D imens ions o fC omp le te G roup IAxes i n Near -Source S amp le
4 31
8 .35 S cat ter P lots o fG roup IAxes i n Near -Source S amp le
4 32
8 .36 R epresenta t ive Axes o fG roup Ii n Near -Source S amp le
4 34
8 .37 D istr ibu t ion o fR oughou t s o fG roup 1
4 36
8 .38 R epresen ta t ive R oughouts o fG roup I
4 37
8 .39 S ca t ter P lo ts o fG roup IR oughou ts a nd Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le ••
4 39
8 .40 S ca t t er P lots o fA l l G roup IAxes
4 41
8 .41 D i mens ions o fC omp lete G roup IAxes
4 43
8 .42 C orre lat ion Mat r ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp lete G roup I Axes
4 46
8 .43 D istr ibut ions o fP r inc ipa l C omponen t S cores f o r G roup IAxes
4 48
8 .44 C lus ter Ana lys is o fG roup IAxes
4 49
8 .45 S ca t t er P lots o fG roup IAxes i nC luster Ana lys is
4 53
8 .46 G roup IAxes R epresen ta t ive o fC lust ers
4 58
8 .47 D istr ibut ion o fG roup IAxes i nC lus ters 1 -5
4 60
8 .48 S ca t ter P lot o fL eng ths o fG roup IAxes w ith E xpanded B lades Aga ins t D istance f r om S ource
4 64
8 .49 S ize D istr ibu t ion o fC omp le te G roup IAxes w ith E xpanded B lades ...
4 65
8 .50 S ca t ter P lo to fG roup IAxe L eng th Aga inst D istance f r om S ource
...
4 66
8 .51 S ca t ter P lo t o f Mean L eng th o f G roup IAxes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares Aga inst D istance f r om S ource
4 67
8 .52 Mean L eng th o fG roup IAxes i n5 0 km G r id S quares
4 68
8 .53 P at tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup IAxes
4 69
9 .1 D istr ibut ion o fC omp lete Axes o fG roup XX II I
4 70
9 .2 R epresenta t ive Axes o fG roup XX II I
4 71
9 .3 S cat ter P lot s o fA l l G roup XX I I I Axes
4 73
9 .4 D ist r ibut ion o fG roup XX I I I Axes i nD if f eren t S ize C lasses
4 76
9 .5 P a t tern o fD ispersa l G roup XX I I I Axes
4 78
9 .6 D istr ibut ion o fC omp lete Axes o fG roup V I I I
4 79
9 .7 D istances f r om t he S our ce a t Wh ich C o mp lete Axes o fG roup V I I I Have B een F ound
4 80
9 .8 D imens ions o fG roup V I I I Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
4 81
9 .9 S cat ter P lo t s o fG roup V I I I Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le
4 82
9 .10 D ist r ibut ion o fR oughou ts o fG roup V I I I
4 84
9 .11 S ca t ter P lots o fG roup V I I I R oughouts a nd Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le
4 85
9 .12 R epresenta t ive Axes o fG roup V II I
4 87
9 .13 C omp let e t hensh ire
a nd
Damaged
Axes
F ound
a t
C oygan
C amp ,
C armar 4 89
9 .14 S ca t t er P lots o fA l l G roup V I I I Axes
4 90
9 .15 D imens ions o fA l l C omp let e G roup V I I I Axes
4 92
9 .16 C orre la t ion Mat r ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C o mp lete G roup V I I I Axes
4 95
9 .17 D ist r ibu t ions o fP r inc ipa l C o mponen t S cores f o r G roup V I I I Axes
4 97
9 .18 C luster Ana lys is o fG roup V II I Axes
4 98
9 .19 S ca t t er P lots o fG roup V I I I Axes i nC luster Ana lys is
5 00
9 .20 D is tr ibut ion o fG roup V I I I Axes i n C lus ters 1 ,2 ,3 ,a nd 5
5 05
9 .21 D istr ibu t ion o fG roup V I I I Axes i n D if f eren t S ize C lasses
5 07
9 .22 P a t tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup V I I I Axes
5 11
9 .23 D ist r ibut ion o fC omp le te Axes o fG roup V I I
5 12
9 .24 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C omp le te A xes o f G roup V I I Have B een F ound
5 13
9 .25 D imens ions o fG roup V I I Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le
5 14
9 .26 S cat ter P lot s o fG roup V I I Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
5 16
9 .27 D istr ibu t ion o fR oughouts o fG roup V I I
5 18
9 .28 S ca t ter P lots o fG roup V I I R oughouts a nd Axes i nN ear -Source S amp le
5 19
9 .29 R epresentat ive Axes o fG roup V I I i n Near -Source S amp le
5 21
9 .30 L eng th /Th ickness R a t io Va lues o fG roup V I I R oughou ts
5 23
9 .31 S ca t t er P lot s o fA l l G roup V I I Axes
5 25
9 .32 D imens ions o fA l l C omp le te G roup V I I Axes
5 27
9 .33 C orre la t ion Matr ix o fS ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp lete G roup V I I Axes
5 30
9 .34 D istr ibu t ions o fP r inc ipa l C omponen t S cores f o r G roup V I I Axes
5 32
9 .35 C lust er Ana lys is o fG roup V I I Axes
5 33
9 .36 S ca tt er P lot o fG roup V I I Axes i n C luster Ana lys is
5 37
9 .37 R epresen ta t ive A xes o f G roup V I I F ound F ur ther T han 1 00 km F rom t he S ource
5 40
9 .38 G roup V I I Axes F rom S pec if i c C on tex ts o fD epos i t ion
5 43
9 .39 D istr ibu t ion o fT h icker a nd T h inner L arge Axes o fG roup V I I
5 45
9 .40 S ca t ter P lot o fG roup V I I Axe L eng th Aga ins t D istance f r om S ource
5 47
9 .41 S ca t ter P lot o f Mean L eng th o f G roup V I I Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares Aga ins t D istance f r om S ource
5 48
9 .42 Mean L eng th o fG roup V I I Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
5 50
9 .43 R es idua ls f r om B est -F it R eg ress ion Mode l o f G roup V I I Axe L eng th i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
5 51
9 .44 P a t tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup V I I Axes
5 52
1 0 .1 D ist r ibu t ion o fC omp lete Axes o fG roup V I
5 53
1 0 .2 Unusua l I mp lement s o fG roup V I
5 54
1 0 .3 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C o mp lete Axes o f G roup V I Have B een F ound
5 55
1 0 .4 D imens ions o fC omp le te G roup V I Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
5 56
1 0 .5 S ca t ter P lots o fG roup V I Axes i n Near -Source S amp le
5 58
1 0 .6 C ompar ison o f L eng th Measure ments o f C umbr ian R oughou t s , C umbr ian Axes , a nd L arge G roup V I Axes i n Near -Source S amp le ...
5 60
1 0 .7 S ca t ter P lots o fA l l G roup V I Axes
5 61
1 0 .8 D imens ions o fC omp le te G roup V I Axes
5 63
1 0 .9 S ca tter P lots o fA l l G roup V I Axes
5 72
1 0 .10 C orre la t ion Ma t r ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C o mp lete G roup V I Axes
5 76
1 0 .11 D istr ibut ion o fP r inc ipa l C omponent S cores f o r G roup V I A xes
5 78
1 0 .12 S cat ter P lot o fP r inc ipa l C omponent S cores f o r G roup V I Axes
5 80
1 0 .13 C luster Ana lys is o f Random S amp le o f 1 00 G roup V I Axes
5 81
1 0 .14 S ca t ter P lot s o fG roup V I Axes i nC luster Ana lys is
5 84
1 0 .15 G roup V I Axes R epresen ta t ive o fC lusters
5 88
1 0 .16 D istr ibu t ion o fG roup V I Axes i nC lusters 2 -3
5 89
1 0 .17 S cat ter P lot o fG roup V I Axe L eng th Aga inst D istance f r om S ource
5 97
1 8 .18 S cat ter P lo t o f Mean L eng th o f V ery L arge G roup V I Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares Aga ins t D istance f r om S ource
5 98
1 0 .19 S ca t ter P lo t o f Mean L eng th o f G roup V I Axes L ess t han 2 00 mm i n L eng th i n 5 0 km G r id S quares Aga inst D istance f r om S ource
5 99
1 0 .20 Mean L eng th o f G roup V I Axes L ess t han 2 00 mm i n L eng th i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
6 01
1 0 .21 R es idua ls f r om B es t -F i t R eg ress ion Mode l o f G roup V I Axe L eng th i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
6 02
1 0 .22 D istr ibut ion o f V ery L arge a nd Sma l ler Axes o f G roup V I i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
6 03
1 0 .23 P at tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup V I Axes
6 04
1 0 .24 D istr ibut ion o fC omp lete Axes o fG roup XV
6 05
1 0 .25 Axes o fG roup XV
6 06
1 0 .26 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C o mp lete Axes o f G roup XV Have B een F ound
6 07
1 0 .27 D imens ions o fC omp lete G roup XV Axes
6 08
1 0 .28 S cat ter P lots o fC omp le te G roup XV Axes
6 10
1 0 .29 D istr ibu t ion o fG roup XV Axes o fE ach S hape
6 12
1 0 .30 D istr ibut ion o fG roup XV Axes o f Ea ch S ize
6 13
1 0 .31 P a t tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup XV Axes
6 15
1 1 .1 D is tr ibu t ion o fC omp le te Axes o fG roup I X i n E ng land a nd Wa les
6 16
1 1 .2 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C o mp let e Axes o f G roup I X Have B een F ound i nE ng land a nd Wa les
6 17
1 1 .3 D imens ions o fC omp le te G roup I X Axes i n Eng land a nd Wa les
6 18
1 1 .4 S ca t ter P lot s o fC omp le te G roup I X Axes i n Eng land a nd Wa les
6 20
1 1 .5 C orre lat ion Ma t r ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r Sma l l G roup I X Axes i nE ng land a nd Wa les
6 22
1 1 .6 D istr ibu t ions o f P r inc ipa l C omponent S cores f o r Sma l l G roup I X Axes i nE ng land a nd Wa les
6 24
1 1 .7 C luster Ana lys is o f Sma l l G roup I X Axes i n Eng land a nd Wa les
6 25
1 1 .8 S cat ter P lot s o fG roup I X Axes i n C luster Ana lys is
6 26
1 1 .9 R epresenta t ive Sma l l Axes o fG roup I X
6 30
1 1 .10 S ca tt er P lot o fG roup I X Axe L eng th Aga inst D istance f r om S ource
6 33
1 1 .11 L eng ths o fG roup I X Axes i n 5 0 km G r id S quares
6 34
1 1 .12 P at tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup I X Axes i n Eng land a nd Wa les
6 35
1 1 .13 D istr ibut ion o fC omp lete Axes o fG roup XX
6 36
1 1 .14 Adzes o fG roup XX
6 37
1 1 .15 D istances f r om t he S ource a t Wh ich C omp lete Axes o f G roup XX Have B een F ound
6 38
1 1 .16 D imens ions o fC omp let e G roup XX Axes
6 39
1 1 .17 S cat ter P lots o fG roup XX Axes
6 42
1 1 .18 C orre lat ion Ma tr ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp lete G roup XX Axes
6 44
1 1 .19 D istr ibut ions o fP r inc ipa l C omponen t S cores f o r G roup XX Axes
6 46
...
1 1 .20 C luster Ana lys is o fG roup XX Axes
6 47
1 1 .21 S ca tter P lots o fG roup XX Axes i n C luster Ana lys is
6 48
1 1 .22 R epresen ta t ive Axes o fG roup XX
6 52
1 1 .23 Ma jor A reas o fG roup XX Axe D istr ibu t ion
6 55
1 1 .24 D istr ibut ion o fG roup XX Axes i n C lus ters
6 56
1 1 .25 P at tern o fD ispersa l o fG roup XX Axes
6 58
1 1 .26 D istr ibut ion o fC omp let e Axes o fG roup XV I I I
6 59
1 1 .27 D imens ions o fC omp let e G roup XVI I I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 60
1 1 .28 S ca tter P lots o fG roup XVI I I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 63
1 1 .29 C orre lat ion Ma t r ix o f S ize a nd S hape Var iab les f o r C omp le te G roup XV II I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 65
1 1 .30 D istr ibut ions o f P r inc ipa l C o mponent S cores f o r G roup XV II I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 67
1 1 .31 C luster Ana lys is o f G roup XV I I I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast a nd Wo lds
6 68
1 1 .32 S ca t ter P lots o fG roup XVI I I Axes i n C luster Ana lys is
6 70
1 1 .33 S cat ter P lots o fA l l G roup XV I I I Axes
6 74
1 1 .34 S ca t ter P lots o f G roup XVI I I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast / Wo lds a nd West ern Y orksh ire
6 76
1 1 .35 S ca tt er P lot s o f G roup XV II I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast / Wo lds a nd L inco lnsh ire A rea
6 78
1 1 .36 S ca tt er P lots o f G roup XV II I Axes f r om Y orksh ire C oast / Wo lds a nd N orf o lk
6 80
1 1 .37 Axes o fG roup XV II I f r om Norf o lk
6 82
x v i i i
CHAPTER I
I NTRODUCT ION
T he e ar l iest e v idence f o r a g r icu ltura l a ct iv ity i n B r i ta in t ha t marks t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic p er iod c an b e d a ted t o t he m idd le o f t he f our th m i l lenn ium b c .1 T h is p er iod c ont inued t hrough t he f i rs t q uar ter o ft he s econd m i l lenn ium b c , d ur ing wh ich meta l o b jects a nd t he t e chn iques o f meta lwork ing w ere b e ing i n troduced i n t o B r ita in a nd t he t rans it ion t o t he s ucceed ing B ronze Age was t ak ing p lace . T he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord f o r t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s uggests t ha t t h is was a p er iod o f s oc ia l c hange .
T he a va i lab le e v idence i nd icat es t ha t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic ,
B r i ta in was i nhab ited b y sma l l , l a rge ly i ndependent , e ga l i tar ian g roups , c haracter ized b y m in ima l i n terna l s ta tus d if erent ia t ion .
A t t he
e nd o f t he
p er iod ,
h uge e ar thwork
e nc losures w ere b e ing u t i l ized , a pparen t ly f o r c o mmuna l a ct iv it ies o f l a rge a nd p owerfu l s upra loca l g roups ,
a nd t here
i s e v idence o f i n creas ing s tatus d iferen t ia t ion among
i nd iv idua ls .
S tone Axes i nN eo l ith ic B r ita in
T hroughou t t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in , a xeheads o f v ar ious r ock mat er ia ls w ere p roduced a nd u sed .
T housands o ft hese s t one a xes h ave b een r ecovered a nd f o rm p ar t o f
t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .
T hrough t he t e chn iques o f p e tro log ica l a na lys is , many s t one
a xes h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o k nown q uarry s i tes o r o ut crop a reas . S o f ar , s o me t wenty -s ix
' Throughou t t h is s tudy , a l l d a tes w i l l b e e xpressed i nu nca l ibrat ed r ad iocarbon y ears ( b c ) . T hey h ave n o t b een c orrec ted t o c a lendar y ears b ecause t here i ss t i l l n o u n iversa l ly a ccep ted s tandard o fc onvers ion a nd b ecause t he u se o f ac hrono logy b ased o n u ncorrected d a tes a l lows i mmed ia te i n corporat ion o fn ew d e term ina t ions i n to t he e x ist ing f ramework .
1
2
s ource -spec if i c g roups o f t hese a xes ( and o ther i mp lemen t s ) h ave b een i d ent if ied 1 ( Tab le 1 . 1 2) . A l though many o ft he r ecogn ized s ources o fr aw ma ter ia l u sed f o r t he p roduct ion o f N eo l i th i c s t one a xes a re l o ca t ed i n h igh land a reas o fw est ern B r i ta in ( F ig . 1 . 1 ) , s t one a xes h ave b een f ound i n v i r tua l ly a l l a rea s o f B r i ta in , o f ten a t v ery l o ng d i s tan ces f r om t he i r s ources .
I n t h is s i tua t ion , t he q ues t ion a r ises o f h ow t hese a xes w ere d i st r ibu ted f r om
t he ir s ources t ot he a rea s where t hey e n tered t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T he p a t tern s a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l a re o f g rea t i n t eres t f o r t he i n s igh t s t hey may y i e ld i n t o c hang ing p a t terns o fh uman i n t eract ion d ur ing t he Neo l i th i c p er iod . I n r e cen t y ea r s , an umber o fd if eren t a pproaches t ot he a na lys is o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion p a t t erns a s ameans o fe l uc ida t ing p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l h ave b een t r ied . T hese h ave b een b ased p r imar i ly o n a bso lu te o r r e la t ive f r equenc ies o f a xes , a nd t hey h ave y i e lded i n teres t ing r esu l t s a nd t an ta l iz ing s uggest ions a bou t t he t ypes o f mechan ism s t hrough wh ich a xes w ere d i s t r ibu t ed a nd a bou t p a t terns o f i n terac t ion among t he p eop le i nvo lved . H owever , d ue t ov a r ious p rob lems i nheren t i ne ach a pproach , b o th i n g enera l a nd s pec if i c a l ly i nr e la t ion t o t he s t one a xe d a ta , t hese r esu l t s mus t b e s een p r ima r i ly a s h ypotheses t ha t s hou ld b e f ur the r t e s ted a nd c l ar if ied . Among t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes , c ons iderab le v ar iab i l i ty i n morpho logy c an b e o bserved . I n t e rms o fs i ze , a xes r ang ing f r om h uge s pec imens g reat er t han 3 00 mm i n l eng th t o t i ny s pec imens l e ss t han 5 0 mm i n l e ng th a re k nown .
Var iab i l i ty i n s hape c an
a l so b e s een among t hese i mp lemen t s . V ar ious a t tempt s h ave b een made t o d escr ibe d i f f e ren t a spec t s o f t he morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty o bservab le among B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes a nd , i n s o d o ing , t o c r eat e a xe t ypo log ies , b u t mos t o f t hese s tud ies h ave i nvo lved
1S in ce t he r e sea r ch u pon wh ich t h is i nvest iga t ion i s b ased was c arr ied o u t , a n a dd i t iona l f i ve p e t ro logy g roups h ave b een d ef ined ( Fent on 1 984 ) . H owever , t hese ma ter ia ls a re o n ly k nown t o h ave b een u sed f o r t he p roduct ion o f b a t t le -axes a nd a xe h ammers f ound i n S cot land . Whether u nperf ora ted a xes w ere made o ft hese ma ter ia ls i s a s y e tu nknown . 2A l l
t ab les a nd f i gures a re f ound i nt he a ppend ix i nV o lume I .
3
g eog raph i ca l ly r es tr i cted s amp les , a nd t he ir w ider a pp l icab i l i ty h as n o t b een a scer ta ined . T here h ave b een n o r ea l ly s ys tema t i c a t t emp t s t o d escr ibe a nd e xp la in p a t t erns o f mor p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes o n ac oun t ry -w ide s ca le . T hus , ma jor q uest ions a bou t p rocesses o fd i st r ibu t ion o fB r i t ish Neo l i th i c s t one a xes a nd a bou t p a t t ern s o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t hem r e ma in u nreso lved .
T he I nvest iga t ion o fS tone Axe Morpho logy a nd D ist r ibut ion
I n t h is s tudy , t he ma jor f o cus o fi nves t iga t ion w i l l b e t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs t one a xes i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in . H owever , i nt h is i nves t iga t ion , morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes w i l l p lay a n i mpor tan t p ar t .
E thnog raph i c e v idence s ugges t s t ha t c er ta in a spec t s o f s pa -
t i a l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes a re l i ke ly t o b e d i rec t ly r e la t ed t o p rocesses o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion . B ecause o ft h is , i tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes may y i e ld i mpor tan t i n s igh t s i n t o p rocesses o ft he ir d i spersa l . T he p o ten t ia l o f a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty f o r y i e ld i ng i n f orma t ion a bou tp ro cesses o fd i spersa l o fB r i t ish N eo l ith ic s t one a xes h a s b een r ecog n i zed b y o ther r e sea rcher s .
H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 , 1 982 ) s ough t s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om s evera l s ources a s a means o f t e s t ing a l terna t i ve mode ls o f a xe d i s tr ibut ion mechan isms .
A l though t he i r s tudy mus t b e s een a s a n
i mpor tan t f i rs t s t ep i n t he i nvest iga t ion o fr e la t ionsh ips b etween morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i st r ibu t ion o f B r i t ish N eo l ith i c s t one a xes , p rob lems i n t he ir t heore t i ca l f ramework a nd a na ly t ica l p rocedures c an b e i d en t if ied . f i ve g roups t hey i nvest iga ted
d id
t he
F u r thermore , f o r a xes f r om o n ly t wo o f t he
o bserved
s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l
v a r iab i l i ty c l ea r ly c orrespond w i th a ny o f t he p red i c ted p a t terns .
Never the less , t he f a ct
t ha t s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om t hese t wo g roups d id c or respond w ith o ne o f t he p red ict ed p a t terns i s p rom is ing a nd s ugges t s t ha t f ur ther e nqu iry a l ong t hese g enera l l i nes may b e v ery i n f orma t ive .
4
I n t he p resent s tudy , as ystema t ic i nvest igat ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among B r it ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes a nd o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a s i t r e la tes t o p at terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l w i l l b e p resented .
T h is w i l l a l low
e va lua t ion o f c onc lus ions a bou t p a tt erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion t ha t h ave b een r eached t hrough o ther methods o f a na lys is , a nd i t may y ie ld i n s igh ts i n to p at t erns o f h uman i n teract ion i n Neo l ith ic B r ita in t ha t h ave n ot b een r evea led t hrough p rev ious a pproaches t ot he i nvest iga t ion o fs t one a xe d i spersa l . T h is i nvest igat ion w i l l p roceed a l ong t he f o l low ing l i nes .
I n C hap ter I , ag enera l
i n troduct ion t o t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i n B r i ta in w i l l b e p resented .
I n t h is d i scuss ion , t he
ma jor f ea tures o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f t h is p er iod w i l l b e r ev iewed , a nd v ar ious i n terpreta t ions o f t hese f eatures w i l l b e o ut l ined .
Emphas is w i l l b e p laced u pon t he
s o c iopo l it ica l o rgan iza t ion o fB r i t ish Neo l ith ic s oc iet ies a nd u pon t he s or ts o f c hanges t ha t w ere t ak ing p lace i n c u ltura l s ys tems d ur ing t h is p er iod wh ich a re s ugges ted b y t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence .
T he p i cture o f Neo l i th ic B r ita in t ha t i sp resent ed i n t h is c hap ter
w i l l s erve a s ab ackground t ot he i nvest igat ion o fs t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i st r ibu t ion . Ac r it ica l r ev iew o fp rev ious a pproaches t o t he i nvest iga t ion o fp a t terns a nd p roces s es o f s t one a xe d i spersa l i n N eo l i th ic B r ita in w i l l b e t he s ub jec t o f C hap ter I I .
I n t h is
c r it ique , s t reng ths a nd w eaknesses o f e ach a pproach w i l l b e a ssessed , a spects o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion wh ich h ave b een r evea led t hrough t hese a pproaches w i l l b e i d en t if ied , a nd a spect s wh ich r e ma in t o b e c l ar if ied w i l l b e i nd ica ted .
T h is c hap ter w i l l c onc lude w ith a t horough
e va luat ion o f Hodder a nd L ane 's a t tempt t o i d ent ify mechan isms o f s t one a xe d i spersa l t hrough a n e xam ina t ion o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty . Nex t , at heoret ica l f ramework f o r t he i nvest igat ion o f p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i str ibu t ion i n N eo l i th ic B r ita in t hrough a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n mor p ho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among a xes w i l l b e d eve loped . T h is w i l l b eg in i n C hap ter I V w i th a g enera l d i scuss ion o f p rocesses t hrough wh ich g oods a re d i st r ibu ted among e thnog raph ic g roups a t l eve ls o f s o c iopo l it ica l c o mp lex ity s im i lar t o t hose wh ich s eem l i ke ly t o h ave
5
c haract er ized g roups i n Neo l i th ic B r ita in .
I n t h is d i scuss ion , s ystem ic f a ctors i nf luenc ing
t he o perat ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems w i l l b e i d ent if ied , a nd t he e f ects o f t hese f a c t o rs o n d i str ibut ions o fe xchanged g oods w i l l b e e xam ined . A ttent ion w i l l t hen s h if t i n C hapter V t o ac ons idera t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among s t one a xes .
G enera l d e ter m inan ts o f a xe morpho logy w i l l b e i d en t if ied , a nd p a t -
t e rns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t h ave b een o bserved among s t one a xes i n e th n og raph ic c ont exts w i l l b e d escr ibed .
Nex t , r e lat ionsh ips b etween p at t erns a nd p rocesses
o f a xe d i spersa l a nd s pa t ia l p at tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes w i l l b e e xp lored .
F ina l ly , a spect s o f s t one a xe d epos i t ion a nd r ecovery wh ich m igh t r esu l t i n
p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among a xes i n a rchaeo log ica l c o l lect ions t ha t a re u nre la ted t op a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l w i l l b e c ons idered . I n C hapt er V I , t he l i nes o f r eason ing t ha t w ere d eve loped i n C hap ters I V a nd V a bou t p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l a nd p at terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes w i l l b e i n teg ra ted w ith t he i n f orma t ion t ha t was p resen ted i n C hap ters I a nd I I a bou t B r it ish N eo l ith i c c u ltura l s ys tems a nd p rev ious a na lyses o f s t one a xe d i s tr ibu t ion p a t terns .
I n
t h is d i scuss ion , h ypotheses a bout p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l i n N eo l ith ic B r i ta in a nd a bou t r esu l t ing p a tt erns o f d i str ibut ion o f t hose a xes w i l l b e p resented , a nd e xpecta t ions f o r g enera l p at terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd f o r s pat ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i c a l v ar iab i l i ty among B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes w i l l b e o u t l ined . C hap ter V I I w i l l s erve a s ag enera l i n t roduct ion t o t he a na lys is o f t he s t one a xe d a ta .
I n i tw i l l b e i n c luded t he d ef in i t ion o ft he d a ta s e t , ad i scuss ion o f t he s or t s o f mor -
p ho log ica l d ata t ha t w ere c o l lected f o r e ach a xe , a nd a n o ut l ine o ft he a na ly t ica l p rocedures t ha t w ere f o l lowed i n i nvest igat ing p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i str ibu t ion f o r t he a xes f r om e ach s ource . Ana lyses o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i st r ibu t ion among a xes f r om i nd iv idua l s ources w i l l b e p resen ted i n C hap ters V I I I t hrough X I .
I n t hese a na lyses , s pe -
c i a l a t tent ion w i l l b e p a id t o d e term in ing whether t he o bserved s pa t ia l p att ern ing i n mor -
6
p ho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om e ach s our ce c orresponds w i th t ha t p red ict ed t o r esu l t f r om t he p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i spersa l t ha t h ave b een h ypo thes ized f o r t hose a xes b o th i n t h is s tudy ( Chap ter V I ) a nd o n t he b as is o fo ther a pproaches t o t he a na lys is o fa xe d i s tr ibut ion p a t terns ( Chapt er I I ) . F ina l ly , i n C hapt er X I I , as ummary o f t he f i nd ing s o f t h is i nves t iga t ion w i l l b e p resent ed .
C onc lus ions w i l l b e d rawn a bou t p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among
B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes , a bou t p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l , a nd a bou t p a t terns o f h uman i n t erac t ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th i c p er iod i n B r i ta in .
I n a dd i t ion ,
w ider i mp l ica t ion s o f t h is a na lys is w i l l b e d i scussed , a nd p oss ib i l i t ies f o r f ur ther r e sea rch w i l l b e s uggested .
CHAPTER I
THE NEOLITH IC PER IOD I N BR ITA IN : ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EVIDENCE AND I NTERPRETAT IONS
I n t h is c hapter , t he ma jor f eatures o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f t he Neo l i th ic p er iod i n B r ita in w i l l b e r ev iewed , a nd v ar ious i n terpreta t ions o ft hese f eatures w i l l b e c on s i dered .
A g enera l p i cture o f B r it ish Neo l ith ic c u ltura l s ystems w i l l b e d eve loped wh ich
w i l l s erve a s ab ackground f o r t he i nvest igat ion o fs t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i str ibu t ion . Dur ing t he c ourse o ft he Neo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in , an umber o fc hanges i n ma ter ia l c u l ture p a t tern ing c an b e o bserved i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . 1 On t he b as is o f t hese c hanges , t he p er iod c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo s hor ter p hases : L a te N eo l i th ic .
t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic a nd t he
W ith in t he L a te Neo l ith ic , t wo f ur ther s ubd iv is ions c an b e r ecogn ized .
T hese c an b e t e rmed t he L ater N eo l ith ic a nd t he L a tes t N eo l ith ic .
T h is c hrono log ica l
f r amework ( Tab le 2 .1 ) w i l l b e u t i l ized t hroughout t h is i nvest iga t ion .
T he E ar ly Neo l i th i c
T he
t ime
f r om
t he
e ar l iest
e v idence
o f
a g r icu ltura l
a ct iv i ty
i n
B r ita in
t o
a pprox ima te ly t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b e c an b e t hough t o f a s t he e ar ly p hase o f t he Neo l ith i c p er iod .2 I ti sn ow g enera l ly a ssumed t ha t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p hase
1T he most r ecen t g enera l i n troduct ion t o t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o f t he B r it ish Neo l i th ic c an b e f ound i n Megaw a nd S i mpson 1 979 . An o l der , b u t s t i l l v a luab le , r ef erence i s P iggot t 1 954 . F or more d eta i led i n f orma t ion t han w i l l b e p resen ted i n t h is b r ief s um mary , t he r eader i sr ef erred t o t hese t wo ma jor s ources , a nd t he r ef erences o ut l ined i n e ach , p lus t he more s pec if i c w orks n oted b e low . 2T hus , t he E ar ly N eo l ith ic o f t h is s tudy c orresponds w ith Wh it t le 's ( 1980a :332 ) E ar l i er N eo l ith ic a nd i n c ludes t he c onvent iona l /a l terna t ive E ar ly N eo l ith ic a nd M idd le Neo l ith i c t ha t h e c harts .
7
t here was a p er iod o f i n it ia l a dapta t ion o f wh ich l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r e ma ins ( Sm ith
1 974 :101-3 ;
1 979 :79 ;
B rad ley
Wh i t t le
a nd
1 977 :11 ,
H odder
1 980a :330 ,
1 979 :95 ) .
I ndeed ,
1 980b :373 ; f o r
t he
Megaw
e n t ire
a nd
E ar ly
S impson N eo l i th ic ,
a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o fd omest i c a ct iv i ty i ss carce . Wha t e v idence i sa va i lab le i nd icates t ha t d ur ing t h is t ime p eop le l i ved p r imar i ly o n i nd iv idua l , d i spersed f a rmsteads o r i n sma l l h am lets .
T hey p ract iced a m ixed f arm ing e conomy o f whea t a nd b ar ley c u l t iva t ion a nd
h erd ing o f c at t le , o v icapr ids , a nd p igs , s upp lemented b y h un t ing .
T hey u sed r ound -based
p ot tery , o f wh ich a n umber o f d i st inct ive r eg iona l s ty les h ave b een i d en t if ied ( Sm ith 1 974 :106-11 ; Wh i t t le 1 977 :77-97 ) , a nd t oo ls o f s t one , b one , a nt ler , a nd , p resumab ly , wood . T here i se v idence t ha t s o me o ft hese i t ems , p ar t icu lar ly f i ne p ot tery ( Peacock 1 969 ) a nd s t one a xes , w ere e x changed o ver modera te d i stances f r om t he ir s ources . B y t he l a t ter h a lf o ft he f our th m i l lenn ium b c , t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic i nhab i tants o fB r ita in w ere c ons truct i ng
f i e ld
monument s
o f
t wo
ma jor
c l asses— mor tuary
f a c i l i t ies
a nd
c ausewayed
e nc losures—of wh ich , i n c on trast t o o rd inary o ccupa t ion s i tes , n umerous e xamp les a re k nown . E ar ly Neo l i th ic monumenta l mor tuary f ac i l it ies v a ry c ons iderab ly i n s t ructura l d eta i l , b u t most f a l l i n to t hree g enera l c l asses : e ar then l o ng b arrows ( Ashbee 1 970 ) , r ound b arrows (Wh it t le 1 977 :55 ; Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :106-7 ) , a nd mega l ith ic c hambered t o mbs ( Dan ie l 1 950 ) . R eg iona l g roup ings o f monument s o fe ach o ft hese c l asses h ave b een i d en t if ied , a nd i ti sc once ivab le t ha t t hese may r epresen t d if erent c u ltura l g roup ing s .
O f
t he e xamp les wh ich h ave b een e xcavated , most c onta ined mu l t ip le b ur ia ls , b u t v ery f ew , a nd q u i te o rd inary , o b jec ts a s g rave g oods . I t i s n ow r ecogn ized ( Atk inson 1 968 :89 , 9 2 ; R enf rew 1 973 :545 ; Wh i t t le 1 977 :61 ; Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :95 ) t ha t n ot a l l o f t he Ear ly N eo l i th ic i nhab itants o f B r ita in were a ccorded b ur ia l i n monumenta l mor tuary f ac i l it ies . H owever , t he a va i lab le e v idence ( P iggot t 1 954 :60 , 1 39-40 ; A shbee 1 970 :138-41 ; P ierpo in t 1 980 :214 ; R enf rew 1 983 :160 ) s uggest s t hat t he p r imary d imens ions o f s oc ia l d if eren t iat ion t ha t a re r ef lec ted b y t he d i f -
9
f e rence b etween f o rma l b ur ia l i n t hese s t ru c tures a nd a l t erna t ive d i sposa l o ft he d ead a re t hose o f a ge a nd s ex , w i th a du l ts r e ce iv ing f o rma l b ur ia l more r egu lar ly t han c h i ldren i n mos t r eg ions a nd ma les more o f t en t han f ema les i n s ome a reas .
D if f eren t ia l t r ea tmen t
a l ong l i nes o f a ge a nd s ex h as a l so b een o bserved i n t he p la cemen t o f b ones w i th in monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies ( Shanks a nd T i l ley 1 982 ; B rad ley 1 984 :19 c i t ing P iggo t t 1 962 :79 a nd A shbee 1 966 :48-63 ) . T hus , t he o vera l l i mpress ion g i ven b y E a r ly N eo l i th i c monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies i st ha t t hey r epresen t " an a sser t ion o ft he c o l lec t ive , ad en ia l o ft he i nd iv idua l a nd o f d if erences b e tween i nd iv idua ls" ( Shanks a nd T i l ley 1 982 :150 ) e xcep t t hose b ased o n a ge a nd s ex .
T h is s o r t o f v ar iab i l i ty i n mor tuary d ata i s c ons is ten t w i th a p a t t ern o f
e ga l i tar ian s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i n wh ich s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion i s w eak ly d eve loped a nd i s b ased p r ima r i ly o n b i o log i ca l c r i ter ia .
I n s u ch a s i tua t ion , g roup l e adersh ip i su sua l ly i n
t he h ands o f e l der ma les o r k ing roup h eads , a nd c o l lec t ive a ct iv i ty i sb ased o n d ec is ions made b y t hese men o r o n g enera l c onsensus o fo p in ion . A l though p rev ious w r i ters ( e .g . , P iggot t 1 954 ; A tk inson 1 968 ; A shbee 1 970 ) h ad s ugges ted t ha t E ar ly N eo l i th i c monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies s erved a s f am i ly b ur ia l p la ces , R enf rew ( 1973 ) , s pec if i ca l ly r ef err ing t o t he e ar then l ong b arrows i n t he Wessex a rea o f s ou thern B r i ta in , was t he f i rs t t o s ugges t t ha t t hey w ere c ons t ruc ted b y sma l l t e rr i tor ia l ly -based k ing roups , p erhaps l i neages , a nd u t i l ized n o t o n ly f o r b ur ia l o ft he d ead b u t a l so a s c on t inu ing f o c i f o r r i tua l a c t iv i t ies . T h is a rgumen t h as b een e xpanded b y B rad l e y a nd H odder ( 1979 ) who s ugges t t ha t t hese mor tuary f a c i l i t ies s erved t o s ymbol ize l o ca l ly -based l i neages a nd r e inf orce t he i r r i gh t s t o u t i l ize t he r esources i n t he i r t e rr i tor ies . T hey f ur ther s ugges t t ha t t hese s ymbo l i c f un c t ions o f monumen ta l mor tua ry f a c i l i t ies w ou ld h ave b ecome i n creas ing ly i mpor tan t d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c a s p opu la t ion wa s i n crea s ing , t rad i t iona l r esou r ces , i n c lud ing l and b es t s u i ted f o r a g r icu l ture , w ere b ecom ing s carcer , a nd g roups w ere h av ing t o f unc t ion i n " a h eav i ly u sed a nd r ad i c a l ly a l t ered l andscape" ( i b id :95 ) .
1 0
I t was i nt h is c on tex tt ha t c ausewayed e nc losures w ere c ons tructed a nd u sed . Much l e ss c o mmon t han monumenta l mor tuary f a c i l it ies , c ausewayed e nc losures ( Sm ith 1 971 ; W i lson 1 975 ; P a lmer 1 976 ) c an g enera l ly b e d escr ibed a s r ough ly o va l a reas e n c losed b y o ne t o f our c oncen tr ic d i t ches w i th i r regu lar i n terna l e ar thwork b anks a nd n umerous u nex c avat ed c auseways . T hey v ary c ons iderab ly i n s i ze , r ang ing f r om l e ss t han 1h a t o 9 .6 h a i n max imum e nc losed a rea ( Pa lmer 1 976 :184-86 ) .
Many o f t hese s i tes a re l o ca ted o n
h i l ltops o r i no ther d ef ens ib le p os it ions , a l though o thers h ave b een f ound o n l ow ly ing r i ver t e rraces . T he f unct ions o f c ausewayed e nc losures h ave l o ng b een d ebated ( P iggot t 1 954 ; Sm i th 1 965 , 1 971 ) , a nd a n umber o fp oss ib le i n terpreta t ions o ft hese s i tes h ave b een s ug g es ted .
T hese i n c lude s t ock e nc losures , o ccupa t ion s i tes , r i tua l ( i nc lud ing mor tuary )
e nc losures , a nd d ef ens ive s i tes , a nd e xamp les wh ich h ave y i e lded e v iden ce f o r e ach o f t hese s pec if i c f unct ions c ou ld b e g iven .
C urren t ly , t he w ide ly a ccepted g enera l i n terpreta -
t i on o f c ausewayed e nc losures i st ha t t hey s erved a s c enters o r " ra l ly ing -po in t s" ( Sm i th 1 965 :19 ) a t wh ich a v ar iety o f s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , e cono m ic , r e l ig ious , a nd e ven d ef ens ive a ct iv i t ies w ere c arr ied o ut b y p eop le n orma l ly l i v ing i nd i spersed s et t lement s . B rad ley a nd Hodder ( 1979 ) s uggest t ha t c ausewayed e nc losures w ou ld h ave f unc t i oned i n t he s ame way a s monumenta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies i n s ymbo l iz ing l o ca l g roups a nd t he ir t e rr i tor ies .
I n t h is t hey f a i l t o r ecogn ize c ausewayed e nc losures a s e v idence o f a ny
s or t o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion .
I ndeed , t hey s tate c a tegor ica l ly t ha t a t t h is t ime , " l oca l
l i neages d o n o t a ppear t o h ave b een i n corpora ted i n to l a rger s pa t ia l g roup ings w i th c om mon i n terests a nd i d ent it ies" ( i b id . :95 ) . I n c ont rast , o n t he b as is o f t he amoun t o fl abor t ha t c onstruct ion o ft he d i tches a nd b anks o f c ausewayed e nc losures w ou ld h ave e nta i led , R enf rew ( 1973 ) s uggest s t ha t t hey must h ave b een b u i lt a nd u t i l ized b y l a rger n umbers o f p eop le t han t hose a ssoc ia ted w i th i nd iv idua l mor tuary f a c i l it ies . T h is a nd t he f a ir ly r egu lar s pa t ia l d i str ibut ion o ft hese s i tes ( Pa lmer 1 976 :163 , F ig . 1 ) , s o me o ft hem l o ca ted i n a pparen t a ssoc ia t ion w i th an umber o f
1 1
monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies ( Renf rew 1 973 ) , s ugges t t ha t t hey w ere c onst ruc ted b y a nd s erved a s f o c i f o r s upra loca l , p erhaps t r iba l , g roup ings . T h is i n t erpreta t ion o f c ausewayed e nc losures a s t r iba l f o c i i s more c ons ist en t w i th B rad ley a nd H odder 's ( 1979 ) s t ress a nd r esponse mode l o f c hange i n B r i t ish p reh is tory t han i st he ir o wn a pparen t b e l ief i n c o mp lete i ndependence o f l o ca l l i neages . r e sponses
t o e nv ironmen ta l
s t ress
t ha t
B rad ley
a nd
H odder
p resen t
One o f t he
i nvo lves
t he
a gg lomera t ion o f sma l ler u n i t s i n t o l a rger i n teres t g roups , b u t t hey d o n o t s ee t h is h appen i ng i n B r i ta in u n t i l t he m idd le / la t e B ronze Age a nd I r on Age .
I n c on t ras t , i tc an b e s ug -
g es ted t ha t o ne r esponse t o t he s ystem ic s t resses t ha t B rad ley a nd H odder s ee d eve lop ing d ur ing t he c ourse o ft he E ar ly N eo l ith i c was a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion , s ymbo l i z ed b y c ausewayed e nc losures . B rad ley ( 1978a :98 ) s ugges t s t ha t t hese s yst em ic s t resses may h ave i nvo lved o ver e xp lo ita t ion o f t he s o i ls b es t s u i ted f o r N eo l i th ic a g r i cu l tura l p ra c t ices , r esu l t ing i n d ec l in i ng s o i l f e r t i l i ty , r educed y i e lds , a nd f o od s hor tages .
T hese p rob lems may h ave b een
a ccompan ied b y i n creased c o mpe t i t ion , i nt he f o rm o f warfare , o ver g ood a g r i cu l tura l l and . An i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion c ou ld h ave h e lped t oa l lev ia te t hese s or t s o fs t resses t hrough f a c i l i ta t ing e xchange o f f o od among g roups l o ca ted i n d if eren t a rea s o f at r iba l t e rr i t ory , a nd t hrough f a c i l ita t ing t he f o rma t ion o fa l l ian ces f o r wa rfa re . E xchange o ff o od c ou ld h ave t aken p la ce i n t he c on tex t o f t r iba l r i tua ls h e ld a t c ausewayed e n c losures , a nd s ome c ausewayed e n c losure s i t es c ou ld h ave s erved a d ef ens ive p urpose f o r p eop le c om ing f r om s urround ing d i spersed f a rms tead s .
I fc ausewayed e nc losures c an b e i n terpre ted a s
e v iden ce o f i n creas ing s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n t he f a ce o f s ys tem ic s t resses , t hen i td oes n o t s eem s urpr is ing t ha t t hey a re f ound a lmos t e x c lus ive ly i n s ou thern a nd s ou theast ern E ng land where t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion a nd , c onsequen t ly , t he s ys tem ic s t resses w ere a pparen t ly g rea tes t . I n s umma ry , t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c i n B r i ta in c an b e s een a s at ime when members o f s ma l l , e ga l i tar ian k ing roups , c hara ct er ized b y m in ima l i n terna l s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion , w ere
1 2
p ra c t ic ing a m ixed f a rm ing e conomy o f c erea l c u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h usbandry i n a n e nv ironmen t t ha t wa s b ecom ing i n creas ing ly a l t ered a s ar esu lt o f t he ir a c t iv i t ies . T hese g roups e xpressed t he i r c o l lec t ive i d en t i t ies a nd t he i r t e rr it or ia l r i gh t s t hrough t he c ons t ru c t i on o f monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies .
I n r esponse t o s yst em ic s t resses t ha t w ere
d eve lop ing i n t h is s i tua t ion , i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion w as b ecom i ng i n creas ing ly i mpor tan t , e spec ia l ly i n a reas where t he s t resses w ere g rea t es t , a nd t ha t t h is s upra loca l , t r iba l , i n teg ra t ion was e xpressed t hrough t he c ons tru c t ion o f c ausewayed e nc losures , a t wh ich av ar ie ty o fc o mmuna l a c t iv i t ies t o ok p la ce .
T he L at e N eo l i th i c
S ta r t ing a round t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b c , an umber o f c hanges i n B r i t ish N eo l i th ic c u l tura l s ys tems c an b e i d en t if ied .
T hese c hanges mark t he e nd o f t he
E ar ly N eo l i th i c a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a t e N eo l i th i c .
T he L a te N eo l i th i c s pan s t he
s e cond h a lf o ft he t h ird m i l lenn ium b e a nd t he f i rs t q uar te r o ft he s econd m i l lenn ium b e . I t c an b e d i v ided w i th in t he f i rs t h a lf o ft he f i na l q uar t er o ft he t h ird m i l lenn ium b e i n t o t wo s hor ter p hases wh ich w i l l b e c a l led t he L at er N eo l i th i c a nd t he L a t est N eo l i th ic i n t h is s tudy .'
T he L a ter N eo l i th i c
T here i se v iden ce f r om p o l len a nd mo l luscan a na lyses t ha t a round t he m idd le o ft he t h ird m i l lenn ium b e , an umber o fa g r i cu l tura l c l ea ran ces i nv ar ious a reas o fB r i ta in , wh ich h ad a ppa ren t ly b een o pen f o r s o me t ime , r ever ted t ow ood land o r f o res t , a nd n ew c l earan c es w ere n o t i mmed ia te ly c rea ted t ot ake t he ir p lace ( Brad ley 1 978a , 1 978b ; Wh i t t le 1 978 ,
1T hus , t he L at e N eo l i th ic o ft h is s tudy c or respond s w i th t he c onven t iona l /a lt erna t ive L a te N eo l ith i c c hart ed b y Wh i t t le ( 1980a :332 ) r a ther t han h i s L a t er N eo l i th i c wh i ch i n c ludes t he c onven t iona l E a r ly B ronze A ge . T he L a ter a nd L at es t N eo l i th ic s ubd iv is ions o ft h i s s tudy c or respond g enera l ly w i th Wh i t t le 's p re -Beaker a nd e ar ly B eaker s ubd iv is ions a nd w i th B urgess 's ( 1980a , 1 980b ) Me ldon B r idge a nd Moun t P leasan t p er iods , r espec t i ve ly .
1 3
1 980a ) .
A t t he s ame t ime , a rchaeo log ica l e v iden ce i nd ica t es t ha t i n many a reas , s e t t le -
men t b egan t o s pread o n t o s e condary s o i ls a nd i n t o e nv ironmen t s t ha t h ad b een l i t t le u sed i nt he E ar ly N eo l i th i c , i n c lud ing u p lands , moor lands , h ea th lands , f en lands , s ma l l i s lands i n wa t er logged a reas , s and d unes , a nd s hore l ines ( Brad ley a nd H odder 1 979 :96 ) . T hese p a t t e rns s uggest a s h i f t i n t he s ubs ist ence e conomy away f r om t he h eavy r e l ian ce o n c erea l c u l t iva t ion t ha t h ad c ha ra c ter ized t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c a nd t oward u t i l iza t ion o f aw ider v ar ie ty o f r esources , s ome o f wh ich w ere n o t u sed p rev ious ly , m igh t h ave b een a va i lab le o n ly o n as easona l b as i s , a nd p erhaps c ou ld n o t , b y t hemse lves , s uppor t who le p opu la t ions ( Brad ley 1 978a :97 ) .
I n t he Wessex a rea o f s ou thern B r i ta in , an umber o f c l earances d id
r ema in o pen ( Brad ley a nd H odder 1 979 :96 ) , i nd ica t ing t ha tt he p rocess o fc hange was l e ss p ronoun ced h ere t han i no ther a reas ( Brad ley 1 978a :96 ) . H owever , s o me s h if t i nl and u se f r om a rab le t o p as ture i ss ugges ted e ven i n t h is a rea , mark ing t he b eg inn ing o f ap hase o f l e ss i n t ens ive a g r icu l tura l e xp lo i ta t ion ( Brad ley a nd H odder r e l ian ce o n h erd ing .
1 979 :96 ) a nd i n creased
B rad ley a nd H odder ( i b id . ) s ugges t t ha t t hese c hanges t o ok p lace i n
r esponse t o t he i n crea s ing s t ress i n t he s ubs is tence s ys tem t ha t h ad b een b u i ld ing u p d ur ing t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c . A long w i th t he a ppa ren t s h if t i nt he s ubs is tence e conomy , c hanges i n t he s e t t lemen t s ys tem c an a l so b e o bserved . D omes t ic s i tes , a l though c er ta in ly n o t a bundan t i nt he E ar ly N eo l i th i c , a re r e la t ive ly r are i n t h is p ha se , a nd " the f ew s t ruc tures wh ich a re k nown a re d i st inc t ly sma l ler t han t hose o ft he p reced ing p hase" ( Brad ley a nd H odder 1 979 :96 ) . T h is p a t tern s ugges ted t oB rad ley a nd H odder a s h if t t oward sma l ler a nd p erhaps more mob i le l o ca l p rodu ct ion u n i t s .
A t t he s ame t ime , c onst ru c t ion o f monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l it ies
o f E a r ly N eo l i th ic t ypes c eased .
B rad ley a nd H odder ( i b id . ) s ee t h is a s i nd ica t ive o f a
d e crease i n t he i mpor tance o f l i neages a s t e rr i tor ia l ly -based g roups .
H owever , i t c ou ld
s imp ly r ef lec t al e ssen ing o f t he c o mpet i t ion o ver l and a nd a c onsequen t l e ssen ing o f t he i mpor tance o fs ymbo l ica l ly mark ing g roup t e rr i tor ies .
1 4
T he mor tuary p rac t ices o ft h is p hase o ft he N eo l i th ic p er iod a re n o t w e l l u nderstood . I n g enera l , t hey a ppea r t o c o mpr ise a m ix ture o f p ract ices c ont inu ing f r om t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic a nd p ract ices wh ich were t o b ecome more c o mmon l a ter ( Burgess a nd S hennan 1 976 :313-20 ) .
A lthough monumenta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies o fE ar ly Neo l ith ic t ypes w ere n o
l onger c onstructed , s o me o f t he e x ist ing s i tes c ont inued i n u se d ur ing t h is t ime ( P iggot t 1 954 :306 ) .
O ther mor tuary p ract ices i n c luded d epos it ion o f mu l t ip le i nhuma t ions i nc aves
a nd r ock f i ssures i n s o me a reas a nd d epos it ion o f mu lt ip le i nhumat ions a nd /or c rema t ions u nder r ound mounds i n o thers ( Burgess a nd S hennan 1 976 :317 ) .
C rema t ion c e me ter ies
a nd i nd iv idua l i nhuma t ions u nder r ound b arrows h ave a l so b een d ated t o t h is p hase o ft he Neo l ith ic p er iod ( i b id . :315-16 ) . B ecause t he mortuary r ecord o ft he L a ter Neo l i th ic h as n o t y e t b een r i gorous ly e xam ined , s pec if i c a spects o f s oc ia l o rgan izat ion c annot b e d educed f r om i t . I n t he L a ter N eo l i th ic , t he s pa t ia l ly l im i ted c eram ic s ty les o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c w ere r ep laced b y a s er ies o f l e ss r est r ic ted t ypes ( t he P e terborough s er ies ;
Sm ith
1 974 :111-13 ; Megaw a nd S i mpson 1 979 :166-70 ) , a nd i th as b een s uggest ed t ha t t h is c hange may r ef lect g rea ter mob i l ity o f t he p opu lat ion o r a t l e ast w ider c on tacts among g roups ( Brad ley 1 978a :96 ) .
With r egard t o t he l a t ter p oss ib i l ity , . B rad ley a nd Hodder
( 1979 :97 ) s uggest a n i n creased i mpor tance o f e xchange i n a r t icu la t ing a nd s usta in ing sma l l l o ca l g roups u t i l iz ing v ar ied , a nd p erhaps v ar iab ly p roduct ive , r esou rces a tt h is t ime . I ndeed , t here i s e v idence f o r a n i n crease i n b oth t he v o lume a nd a rea l e x ten t o f t he e xchange o fs t one a xeheads d ur ing t h is p hase o ft he Neo l i th ic . B rad ley a nd H odder ( 1979 :97 ) s ee L at er Neo l ith ic e xchange i n B r i ta in i n t e rms o f n etworks l i nk ing s t r ict ly i ndependent , i nd iv idua l p roduct ion u n i ts .
Not h av ing r ecogn ized
s upra loca l i n teg rat ion i nt he Ear ly Neo l ith ic , t hey s t i l l d o n ot s ee i td ur ing t h is p hase . I n t he Wessex a rea , i t may w e l l b e t ha t t he s h if t t oward g reater emphas is o n p astora l is m a l lev ia ted t he s ystem i c s t resses o f t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic , l e ssen ing t he n eed f o r s upra lo ca l i n t eg ra t ion a s as t ress -re l iev ing mechan ism .
A d ecrease i n t he i mportance o f s upra loca l
1 5
i n t eg ra t ion i n t h is a rea may b e s uggested b y t he f a c t t ha t c ausewayed e nc losures w ere n o l o nge r b e ing c onst ructed a t t h is t ime ( i b id . ) .
However , L ater Neo l ith ic s herds h ave b een
f ound i n u pper l e ve ls o f d i t ch f i l l ing a t s o me o f t he E ar ly N eo l ith ic s i tes ( e .g . , W indm i l l H i l l , Sm i th 1 965 ; B r iar H i l l , B amf ord 1 980 ) s uggest ing t ha t t hey may s t i l l h ave b een u t i l i zed , t o s o me e x ten t a t l e ast , a s f o c i f o r a ct iv it ies a t as upra loca l l e ve l . I n c on trast , i tc an b e s ugges ted t hat i no ther a reas o fB r i ta in , s upra loca l i n teg rat ion may h ave b ecome more i mpor tan t i nt h is p hase o ft he Neo l ith ic t han i t was i nt he p rev ious o ne , i n t e rms o f a r t icu la t ing sma l l g roups e xp lo i t ing d if eren t r esources i n d if eren t e nv ironment s .
A s e v idence o f t h is , t he e ar l ies t e xamp les o f t wo n ew t ypes o f f i e ld
monument—henges a nd s t one c i rc les—were c onstruc ted i n s o me o f t hese a reas a t t h is t ime . Henge monuments ( Bur l 1 969 ; Wa inwr igh t 1 969 ) , l i ke c ausewayed e nc losures , c an b e d escr ibed a s c i rcu lar o r o va l e nc losures d ef ined b y ab ank a nd d i t ch .
However , i n c on -
t rast w ith c ausewayed e nc losures , t he b anks o f h enges u sua l ly l i e o u ts ide t he d i t ches . H enges n orma l ly h ave a s i ng le e n t rance o r t wo e nt rances o n o ppos i te s i des o f t he monu ment .1
L ike c ausewayed e nc losures , h enges v ary c ons iderab ly i n s i ze , r ang ing f r om
sma l l " heng i -f orm e nc losures" l e ss t han 3 0 m i n d iame ter ( Wa inwr igh t 1 969 :118 ) t o "megahenges" ( Wh it t le 1 980a :332 ) , o f wh ich t he l a rgest i s s o me 5 18 m i n max imum d iameter a nd e nc loses s o me 1 4 h a . Aga in i nc on t ras t w i th c ausewayed e nc losures , h enges a re u sua l ly l o ca ted o n l ow o r s l op ing g round , o f ten n ear water .
I n g enera l , h enges h ave a
w ider d i str ibut ion t han c ausewayed e nc losures ( c f . B ur l 1 969 :2 , F ig . 1 ;P a lmer 1 976 :163 , F ig . 1 ) ; i ndeed , t w ice a s many o ft hem a re k nown ( c f . B ur l 1 969 :20-28 ; P a lmer 1 976 :1848 6 ) . T he e ar l iest h enges f o r wh ich r ad iocarbon d at es a re k nown ( Sm i th 1 974 :127 ) a re o f modera te s i ze ( i . e . , 3 7 m t o 7 0 m i n d iameter ) a nd a re l o ca ted o uts ide t he a reas o f
1A vebury ( Sm ith 1 965 ; Bur l 1 979 ) , o ne o f t he l a rgest h enge monument s , i s u n ique i nh av ing f our e nt rances e ven ly s paced a round i t s p er imeter .
1 6
s ou thern E ng land where c ausewayed e nc losures a re most n umerous ( Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :159 ) . I th as b een s uggested t ha t h enge monumen t s d eve loped o ut o ft he c ausewayed e nc losure t rad i t ion ( Wa inwr igh t 1 969 :112 ; Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th 1 971 :203 ) , a nd i t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t hey w ere u t i l ized f o r many o f t he s ame s or t s o f a ct iv i t ies , b y t he s ame s or ts o f s upra loca l g roups , a s w ere c ausewayed e nc losures .
I n t h is c ont ex t , i th as b een
s uggested t ha t h enges p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le i n t he w idespread e xchange o f s t one a xes wh ich h as b een a l luded t o a bove ( Hou lder 1 976 ; Bur l 1 976 :24-25 ; Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :158-59 ) . S tone c i rc les ( Bur l 1 976 ) c an b e d escr ibed a s a pprox ima te ly c i rcu lar s e t t ings o f s paced s tand ing s t ones .
L ike h enge monumen ts , s t one c i rc les v ary c ons iderab ly i n s i ze .
T hey r ange f r om l e ss t han 1 0 m t o more t han 1 00 m i n max imum d iame ter , a l though b y f a r t he ma jor i ty o f t hem a re l e ss t han 5 0 m i n d iame ter ( i b id . :3 35-71 ) .'
Most o f t hese
monuments a re l o ca ted i n h igh land a reas o f B r ita in , a l though s o me a re f ound i n l ow land a reas o f s outhern E ng land ( i b id . :9 , F ig . 1 ) .
I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he e ar l iest s t one
c i rc les , wh ich i n c lude s o me o ft he l a rger e xamp les , w ere p roduced a s c oun terpar t s i ns t one o fh enges , a nd t ha t t hey w ere u t i l ized i n as im i lar manner a s f o c i f o r c o mmuna l a ct iv it ies ( i b id . :2 4-25 ) .
T he ir p oss ib le r o le i n t he e xchange o f s t one a xes i sd i scussed a t l eng th b y
B ur l , who n o tes t ha t s o me o f t he e ar l ies t s t one c i rc les a re f ound i n C umbr ia where r aw ma ter ia l s u itab le f o r mak ing t hese i mp lemen t s was a bundant ly a va i lab le . I n s ummary , t he L a ter N eo l i th ic i n B r ita in c an b e s een a s at ime o f c hange i n a n umber o fa spects o fc u l tura l s ystem o pera t ion . I n p ar t icu lar , as h if t t oward l e ss i n tens ive a g r icu ltura l e xp lo i ta t ion a nd u t i l iza t ion o f aw ider r ange o fr esources f r om aw ider v ar iety o fe nv ironmen ts may h ave b een a ccompan ied b y al e ssen ing o f t he p ressure o n a nd c om p e t it ion o ver l and , as h if t t oward sma l ler l o ca l p roduct ion u n its , a nd a r educt ion i n t he
' In c o mpar ing t he s i zes o f s t one c i rc les a nd h enges , B ur l ( 1976 :64 ) h as p o in ted o u t t ha t as t one c i r c le o f ag iven d iamet er w ou ld h ave a c en tra l a rea o fa bou t t he s ame s i ze a s ah enge o f a pprox imate ly t w ice t ha t d iameter , c l ue t o t he s pace t aken u p b y t he b ank a nd d i t ch o ft he h enge .
1 7
i mportance o f t e rr itor ia l ly -based l i neages o r a t l east a l e ssen ing o f t he n ecess i ty o f s ym b o l ica l ly mark ing g roup t e rr itor ies .
I n t h is p hase o f t he Neo l i th ic , s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion
may h ave s erved l e ss t o e ven o u t p roduct ion d i spar it ies among g roups r e ly ing o n e ssen t i a l ly t he s ame r ange o fr esources , a s i th ad i nt he e ar l ier p hase , a nd more t of a c i l i ta te d i s t r ibu t ion o f aw ider r ange o fr esour ces among g roups i n d if eren t e nv ironment s . W i th t h is s h if t i n f unct ion , s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion s ee ms l i ke ly t o h ave b ecome more i mpor tan t d ur ing t h is p hase i n a reas o f B r ita in where i t was o f l i t t le i mportance i n t he Ea r ly N eo l i th ic , a nd t h is may h ave l e d t o t he c onstruc t ion o f t he e ar l ies t h enges a nd s t one c i rc les , a s s i t es f o r c o mmuna l a ct iv it ies , i n t hose a reas .
T he L atest Neo l ith ic
T oward t he e nd o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b c , t here i s e v idence f o r r enewed f o rest c l earance i n many a reas o f B r i ta in ( Brad ley 1 978a :98-99 ) .
T h is a ct iv i ty s eems t o p eak
a round 2 000 b c ( Wh i t t le 1 980a :334 ) a nd c ont inue a t ar e lat ive ly h igh l e ve l , i n c o mpar ison w i th t he p rev ious p er iod , i n t o t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium b c ( Brad ley 1 978b :106 , F ig . 6 :2 ) .
T h is t ime c an b e s een a s " a p hase o f r enewed e conom ic g row th"
( Brad ley a nd Hodder 1 979 :96 ) c harac ter ized b y ar enewed i n teres t i n c erea l c u lt iva t ion wh ich " t ook p lace a l ongs ide a r ange o fw ider b u t l e ss d emand ing o pt ions , a l o f wh ich w ere ma inta ined i n t o t he B ronze Age" ( Brad ley 1 978a :99 ) .
B rad ley ( i b id . ) s uggest s t ha t t h is
e cono m ic r ecovery was most r ap id i n s outhern B r ita in , where , h e b e l ieves , p a t terns o f N eo l ith ic l and u se h ad c hanged l e as t . T he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uggest s t ha t d ur ing t h is l a test p hase o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod , p eop le c on t inued t o l i ve o n s ca t tered f ar ms teads o r i n sma l l h am let s ( Shennan 1 982 :56 ) .
A t t he s ame t ime , many o f t he s t one c i rc les i n u p land r eg ions o f B r ita in w ere
c onst ructed , a nd t he d eve lopment o fh enge monumen t s c ont inued ( Burgess 1 980b :253 ) . I n t he Wessex a rea , t he e ar l ies t a ct iv ity a t S tonehenge—the c onst ruct ion o f a moderate ly s i zed s i ng le -entrance h enge — took p lace j us t b ef ore 2 000 b e ( Sm i th 1 974 :127 ) .
A t a bout
1 8
t he s ame t ime , a n umber o f v ery l a rge h enges w i th d iamet er s g reat er t han 2 00 m ( "megahenges" )
w ere
c ons t ru cted
i n t h is r eg ion
( R enf rew
1 973 ) .1
A ssoc ia ted w i th
S t onehenge I a nd t he megahenges i s at ype o f d ecorat ed f l a t -based p o t tery , k nown a s G rooved
Ware ,
wh i ch i s v ery
w ide ly
d i st r ibuted
i n s ou thern
a nd
e ast ern
B r ita in
( Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th 1 971 :267 , F ig . 9 6 ; Sm i th 1 974 :118 , F ig . 1 6 ) . I n a n a t temp t t o a ccoun t f o r t he d eve lopmen t o fd if eren t c l asses o f f i e ld monumen t i n N eo l i th i c B r ita in , R enf rew ( 1973 ) c o mpared manpower r equ iremen ts f o r t he c ons tru c t i on o f monumen t s o f t he d if eren t c l asses i n t he Wessex a rea .
F rom t h is , h e c on c luded
t ha t c ons t ru c t ion o f t he Wessex megahenges w ou ld h ave r equ ired c ons iderab ly g rea ter manpower a nd o rgan iza t ion t han w ou ld c ons truc t ion o ft he e a r l ier c ausewayed e nc losures , a nd h e a rgued t ha t t he megahenges w ere p roduced b y g roups a t t he c h iefdom l e ve l o f s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion . Va r iou s a spec t s o f R enf rew 's w ork h ave c o me u nder f i re f r om o ther r esea rcher s . S tar t in a nd B rad ley ( 1981 ) r eca lcu la ted t he manpower r equ iremen t s o ft he Wessex monu men t s a nd r educed R enf rew 's e s t imat es b y o ne th ird t o o ne -ha lf .
H owever , among t he
r ev ised f i gures , t he c on t rast s r ecogn ized b y R enf rew a re s t i l l a pparen t , a nd i ti sc l ear t ha t t he Wessex megahenges r epresen t ma jor i nves tmen t s o f t ime a nd e f or t .
S tar t in a nd
B rad ley ( i b id . :293 ) c onc lude t ha t " there i s a mass ive c on t ras t b e tween t he l abour r equ ire men t s o f t he ma jor h enges a nd t hose o f e ar l ier monumen t s ."
F ur thermore , t hey a rgue
( i b id . ) t ha t t here i s ac orrespond ing d if erence i n l abou r o rgan isa t ion . ...T he s ca le o f t he l abour f o rces i nvo lved i n t he l a rger h enges w ou ld s ugges t af a r g reat er o rgan isa t ion o ft he w ork f o r ce . A l though S tar t in a nd B rad ley a re l o a th t o c a l l t he s oc ie t ies wh ich p rodu ced t hese monu men t s c h iefdoms , t hey s ugges t t ha t t hese g roups w ere c ha ra c ter ized b y " i n terna l d if eren c es o fa u thor i ty a nd w ea l th" ( i b id . ) .
1S evera l h enges o f s im i la r s i ze a re f ound i n Y orksh ire ( Bur l 1 969 ) . L i t t le e v iden ce f o r d a t ing t hese s i tes h as b een r ecovered , b u t i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hey w ere a l so c on s t ru c ted d ur ing t he L a tes tN eo l i th i c .
1 9
Wh i t t le ( 1981 ) p resen t s a n e ven g rea ter c ha l lenge t o R en f rew 's mode l o f c h iefdoms i n L at e N eo l ith ic Wessex .
A l though a dm i t t ing t ha t t he megahenges w ou ld h ave r equ ired
c ons iderab ly g reat er i nvestmen t s o f manpower t han t he e ar l ier c ausewayed e n c losures , Wh i t t le p o in ts o u t t ha t t he t imetab le f o r c onst ruct ing t hese monumen t s i su nknown . T hus , t hey c ou ld h ave b een c onst ructed b y ar e la t ive ly sma l l n umber o fp eop le w ork ing f o r al ong p er iod o f t ime , r a ther t han b y ar e la t ive ly l a rge n umber o f p eop le w ork ing f o r as hor t p er iod o f t ime , a s i s o f ten a ssumed .
I n t he f o rmer c ase , t he amoun t o f o rgan iza t ion
r equ ired f o r c onst ruc t ion o ft he megahenges m igh t h ave b een n o g rea ter t han t ha tr equ ired f o r c ons t ruc t ion o fc ausewayed e n c losures . E ven i ft he megahenges w ere c onstru cted b y a r e la t ive ly l a rge w ork f o r ce o ver a r e la t ive ly s hor t p er iod o f t ime , i ti sn ot a t a l l c l ea r a t wha t p o in t f o rma l ized c en t ra l d i rect ion w ou ld h ave b een n ecessary f o r s uch a n u nder tak i ng . T hus , f r om t he l abor r equ is i tes f o r t he megahenges t hemse lves , t here i sn o u nequ ivo c a l e v idence f o r c h ief dom o rgan iza t ion i nt he Wessex a rea d ur ing t he L a tes t N eo l i th i c . N or i st here a ny o ther c onv inc ing e v idence f o r c h iefdom o rgan iza t ion i n B r i ta in a t t he t ime o fc ons t ru c t ion o ft he megahenges . P eeb les a nd Kus ( 1977 ) h ave a rgued t ha t t he s a l ien t f ea ture o f c h iefdom o rgan iza t ion i s a s ystem o f a scr ibed s ta tus , o r r ank ing . E v iden ce o f t h is s or t o f s oc ia l d i f f eren t ia t ion i s u sua l ly s ough t i n mor tuary d a ta ( i b id . ) . H owever , f o r t he t ime o fc ons truc t ion o ft he l a rge h enge monumen t s i n t he Wessex a rea , t he mor tuary r ecord i sp oor ly u nders tood . T he c rema t ion c eme tery o fS tonehenge I( A tk in s on 1 979 :27-29 ) i sc l ear ly c on temporary w i th t he megahenges . T here i sa l so e v idence f o r d epos i t ion o f mu lt ip le i nhuma t ions a nd /or c rema t ions u nder a nd i n t he b ody o f r ound mounds
( Burgess a nd S hennan
1 976 :317 ;
Megaw a nd S impson
1 979 :173 ) a nd f o r
i nd iv idua l i nhuma t ion b ur ia l u nder a r ound b arrow ( Burgess a nd S hennan 1 976 :316 ) a t t h i s t ime .
H owever , t hese f o rms o f b ur ia l w ere a ppa ren t ly p ra c t i ced t hroughou t t he L a te
N eo l i th i c a nd i n to t he E ar ly B ronze Age . p an ied o r
B ecause many o f t hese b ur ia ls a re u naccom -
a ccompan ied b y o b ject s o f c hrono log ica l ly
n on -d iagnos t i c t ypes
( Shennan
2 0
1 982 :156 ) ,1 i t i s d i ff i cu l t t o d et erm ine wh ich s pec if i c b ur ia ls w ere c ontempora ry w i th c ons t ruc t ion o ft he ma jor h enges . T heref ore , r i gorou s a na lys is o ft he mor tuary p ra ct ices o f t he megahenge b u i lders i n o rder t o i d en t ify p a t terns o f s oc ia l d if eren t ia t ion i si mposs ib le a t t he p resen t t ime . I n c on t ras t t o R enf rew 's p i c ture o ft he Wessex megahenges a s p roduct s o f c h iefdom o rgan iza t ion , Wh i t t le ( 1981 :323 ) b e l ieves t ha t t hese monument s , l i ke t he ir p rede cessors , c ausewayed e nc losures a nd s ma l ler h enges , " can b e a s cr ibed a r o le o f f o c i o f c ommuna l c ohes ion" f o r g roups l e ss c omp lex ly o rgan ized . H e s uggest s t ha t t he i r g reat er s i ze " cou ld t hen b e s een n o t s o mu ch a s a n e xpress ion o f i n creased c en t ra l i sa t ion o f p ower a s o f a n i n creased n eed f o r s o c ia l c ohes ion" ( i b id . ) among al a rger n umber o fi nd iv idua l c o mmun i t ies ( i . e . , ag reat er n umbe r o fp eop le ) . Wh i t t le s ugges t s t ha t a t t he t ime o fc onst ruc t ion o ft he Wessex megahenges , c ompet i t ion f o r b as i c r esour ces , s u ch a s a rab le l and a nd w ood land f o r p annage a nd t imber , was a ga in i n creas ing , a s i th ad t owa rd t he e nd o ft he E ar ly N eo l i th ic , a nd h e n otes ( i b id . ) : T he c ha lk o f s ou thern E ng land i n p ar t icu la r s eem s o n p resen t e nv ironmen ta l e v idence t o h ave b een mos t s ub je c t t os uch p ressures , t hough o ther a reas c ou ld h ave b een p rone t ov ary ing e xt en t s . A s i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c , a ma jor r esponse t o i n creas ing p ressure o f t h is s or t p robab ly i nvo lved a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , r ef lec ted i n t he c ons truct ion o f s i tes f o r c o mmuna l a c t iv i t ies .
A t t h is t ime , p opu la t ion i n t he Wessex a rea s eems l i ke ly t o h ave
b een g rea ter t han i n p rev ious p ha ses o ft he N eo l i th i c , a nd t h is i sp robab ly r ef lec ted i n t he i n creased s i ze o ft he megahenges .2
1G rooved Ware p o t tery , s o c l ear ly a ssoc iat ed w i th t he Wessex megahenges , h as b een f ound i n f unera ry c on t ex t s i n o n ly t wo c ases , b o th f r om n or thern E ng land ( Sm i th 1 974 :119 ; Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :172 ) . 2T hese r e marks c an b e a pp l ied t o t he Y orksh i re m egahenges a s w e l l , a l though t hese w ere n o t d i scussed b y Wh i t t le . R e la t ive ly h igh d ens i t ies o f an umber o ft ypes o fN eo l i th i c a r t ifact s , among t hem s t one a xes , i nd i cat e ap opu la t ion d ens i ty i n t h is c oun ty t ha t i s s im i lar t o , a nd p erhaps e ven g rea ter t han , t ha t i n Wessex a t t h is t ime . T hus , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is a rea w as s ub jec t t ot he s ame s or t s o fs yst em i c s t resses a s was t he Wessex a rea .
2 1
A long w i th t he G rooved Ware p o t t ery men t ioned a bove , n ew t ypes o f s t one , b one , a nd a n t ler o b jec t s a ppeared a round t he b eg inn ing o f t he L at est Neo l i th i c ( Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :172-76 ) .
S o f r equen t ly h ave a n umber o f t hese i t ems b een f ound i n
a ssoc ia t ion t ha t t hey h ave b een r ef erred t o a s t he Macehead C o mp lex ( Roe 1 968 :155-62 ) , a f t er t he mos td i st inc t ive t ype o fo b jec t . A ma cehead c an b e d ef ined a s a n i mp lemen t w i th as ha f tho le t ha t d oes n o t h ave a c u t t ing e dge , b u t i n s tead i sc onvex i n s hape a t b oth e nds ( i b id . :145-46 ) .
T he ma jor i ty o f ma ceheads a re o f s t one ma ter ia ls , a nd b anded r ocks o r
r o cks t ha t a re o therw ise v i sua l ly a t t ra c t ive w ere o f ten u t i l ized f o r t he ir p roduc t ion ( Roe 1 979 :30 ) .
Many s t one ma ceheads a re v ery f i ne ly f i n ished , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hey
f unc t ioned a s p res t ige o b je c t s .
A l though t he ma jor i ty o f maceheads h ave b een r ecovered
a s s t ray f i nds , af ew h ave b een f ound i n f unerary c on tex ts ( Roe 1 968 :153-55 ) .
S tone
maceheads a re w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i n B r i ta in ( Roe 1 979 :35 , F ig . 1 1 ) , a nd a n umber o f s pec imens h ave b een f ound a tc ons iderab le d i stances f r om t he s ources o ft he r aw mat er ia ls o f wh i ch t hey w ere made ( i b id . ) . T h is s ugges t s t ha t many p eop le w ish ing t o o b ta in t hese v a luab le o b jec t s h ad t oa cqu ire t hem t hrough e xchange . T he i mpor tan ce o fe x change i nL a tes t N eo l i th i c c u l tura l s yst e ms h as b een d i s cussed b y B rad ley a nd H odder ( 1979 ) a nd Wh i t t le ( 1981 ) .
Aga ins t ab a ckg round o f i n creas ing
c o mpe t it ion f o r b a s ic r esour ces , t hese a u thors s ee i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups i nvo lved i n w idespread e xchange i n o rder t o o b ta in b o th u t i l i tar ian a nd n on -u t i l i tar ian i t ems .
T hey
s ee e xchange a s a mechan ism t hrough wh ich s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls c ou ld b e a ch ieved a nd t hrough wh ich c er ta in t ypes o f o b jec ts , s uch a s G rooved Ware , s t one ma ceheads , a nd s t one a xeheads w ere w ide ly d i st r ibu ted . A t a bou t t he s ame t ime a s t he c ons tru ct ion o f t he ma jor h enge monumen t s i n Wes s ex , a n ew t ype o f p o t t ery—Beakers—f i rs t b egan t o a ppear i n B r i t ish a ssemb lages . B eaker p o t tery h ad i t s o r ig ins i n c on t inen ta l E urope ( Ha rr ison 1 980 ) , a nd u n t i l r e la t ive ly r e cen t ly i t wa s u nques t ion ing ly b e l ieved t ha t B eakers w ere i n t roduced i n t o B r i ta in b y o ne o r more i mm ig ra t ions o f s o -ca l led B eaker F o lk ( C larke 1 970 ; L an t ing a nd v an d er Waa ls
2 2
1 972 ) who w ere p hys ica l ly d i st ingu ishab le f r om t he i nd igenous Neo l ith ic p eop le a nd who w ere r espons ib le f o r an umber o fi mpor tan t i nnova t ions i nL ate Neo l i th ic c u l tura l s ystems . B es ides t he ir d i st inct ive ly -shaped p ot t ery , B eaker F o lk h ave b een c red ited w ith i n t roduc ing meta l o b jec ts a nd * meta lwork ing i n to B r ita in a l ong w ith t he p ra ct ice o fi nd iv idua l i nhuma t i on b ur ia l u nder ar ound mound . I n a dd it ion , i th as b een a ssert ed t ha t t hey " brough tn ew c oncepts o fp o l it ica l p ower , o rgan isa t ion a nd s oc ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion" ( Burgess 1 974 :173 ) . I n r e cen t y ears , i t h as b ecome i n creas ing ly a pparen t t hat many o f t he c hanges f o rmer ly a t t r ibu ted t o t he i mm ig rat ion o f B eaker F o lk h ad a l ready b egun i n p re -Beaker t imes ( Burgess a nd S hennan 1 976 ; Wh it t le 1 981 ) .
T hus , i th as b een d emonst ra ted t ha t
i nd iv idua l i nhuma t ion b ur ia l u nder a r ound b arrow was p ract iced i n B r ita in b ef ore t he a ppearance o f B eakers , a nd Wh it t le ( 1980b :371 ; 1 981 :304 ) h as d ec lared t he p oss ib i l i ty o f p re -Beaker i n troduct ion o f meta l lurgy i n to B r ita in a n o pen q uest ion .
I n r ef erence t o t he
r o le o f B eaker F o lk i n t he c onst ruct ion o f t he Wessex megahenges a nd i n t he c hanges i n s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion t ha t h e b e l ieves w ere t ak ing p lace d ur ing t he L a te Neo l ith ic i ns ou thern E ng land , R enf rew s tated a s e ar ly a s 1 973 , t ha t " i t i s p ref erab le t o t h ink o f t he ir p ar t i c ipat ing i n t he emerg ing s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , r ather t han d e term in ing i t " ( Renf rew 1 973 :552 ) . S ince R enf rew 's c o mment was w r i t ten , e ven t he c oncept o fB eaker F o lk a s ap hys i c a l ly d i st ingu ishab le e thn ic g roup h as b een s er ious ly q uest ioned ( Burgess a nd S hennan 1 976 ; Wh i t t le 1 981 ) , a nd t he t rad i t iona l b e l ief t ha t B eaker p ottery was i n t roduced i n to B r ita in b y i mm ig ra t ions o f s uch p eop le h as b ecome l a rge ly o u tmoded .
I n 1 976 , Burgess
a nd S hennan s uggested t ha t B eakers were i n troduced i n to B r i ta in a s " par t o f a n e xot i c a sse mb lage" ( i b id . :313 ) d i sse m ina ted t hrough " norma l i n ter -t r iba l c onta ct" ( i b id . :310 ) .
A s
s uch , t he n ew ly i n t roduced B eakers " were o n ly a n e xot ic v eneer o n i nd igenous t rad i t ions" ( i b id . :318 ) , " a g l oss o n e x ist ing c o mmun it ies" ( i b id . :314 ) .
I n t he s ame v e in , Wh it t le
( 1981 :331 ) h as s uggested t hat B eakers , b ecause o f t he ir " nove lty a nd c on t inenta l b ack -
2 3
g round ," w ere r ead i ly i n corporat ed a s p rest ige g oods i n t o t he s ys tem o f c o mpet it ive e x change t ha t was d eve lop ing i nL at e N eo l i th i c B r i ta in . B eaker p o t tery wa s u t i l ized t hroughou t t he L at est N eo l i th i c a nd i n to t he E ar ly B ronze A ge i nB r i ta in . An umber o fd if eren t s ty l is t i c g roups o fB eaker p ot tery h ave b een i d en t if ied ( C larke
1 970 ) ,
a nd t hese c an b e c l ass if ied i n to E ar ly , M idd le ,
c hrono log i ca l g roups ( Wh i t t le 1 981 :307 a f ter C ase 1 977 ) .
a nd L a te
I n g enera l , t he s ty les i n t he
E ar ly a nd M idd le g roups w ere u t i l ized d ur ing t he L a test N eo l i th i c , a s d ef ined i nt h is s tudy , wh i le t he s ty les i nt he L a te g roup w ere u t i l ized d ur ing t he E ar ly B ronze Age . B eaker p o t t ery o f L ates t N eo l i th i c s ty les h as b een f ound o n s et t lemen t s i t es , i n g raves , a nd a t h enge monumen ts a nd s t one c i rc les ( Harr ison 1 980 :70-97 ) . I n t he Wessex a rea , u sers o f B eaker p o t t ery p layed i mpor tan t r o les i n c on t inued c ons t ruct ion a nd r emode l l ing a t s evera l o f t he ma jor h enges ( i b id . :95-97 ) . I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t p eop le who u sed B eaker p o t tery w ere r espons ib le f o r t he s econd p hase o f c on st ru c t ion—the d oub le b luest one c i rc le—a t S tonehenge ( A tk inson 1 979 :159-60 ) , wh i ch t o ok p la ce n ea r t he c l ose o f t he N eo l i th i c p er iod . F rom t he a ppea ran ce o f B eaker p o t tery i n t he L a tes t N eo l i th i c o nward i n to t he E ar ly B ronze Age , t he p rac t ice o fi nd iv idua l b ur ia l i n creased i n p opu lar i ty a t t he e xpense o fc o l lec t ive b ur ia l . T he s imp les t f o rm o f i nd iv idua l b ur ia l i n t he L a tes t N eo l i th ic was a n i nhuma t ion c overed b y a r ound mound ( Harr ison 1 980 :84 ) .
I n many c a ses , s evera l
i nhuma t ions w ere c overed b y t he s ame b arrow ( e .g . , a t Wes t Over ton i n W i l tsh ire ; Megaw a nd S impson 1 979 :189-91 ) , b u t t hese c an s t i l l b e t hough t o f a s i nd iv idua l b u r ia l s s i n ce t hey a re u sua l ly s pa t ia l ly d i st inct , w ere o f ten d epos it ed a td if eren t t imes , a nd w ere s o me t imes
a ccompan ied
b y
g rave
g oods
t ha t
a re
c l ear ly
a ssoc ia ted
w i th
t he
s pec if i c
i nd iv idua l .1
' These p a t terns c an b e c on t ras ted w i th t hose o f c o l lec t ive b ur ia l i n E ar ly N eo l i th ic monumen ta l mor tuary f a c i l i t ies . I n t hese s t ru c tures , b ones o f d if eren t i nd iv idua ls a re o f ten f ound j u mb led t ogether , a s ar esu l t o fh av ing b een d epos i ted a t t he s ame t ime , wh i le i n t he f ew i n stances i n wh ich g rave g oods h ave b een f ound i n t hese f a c i l i t ies , i ti si mpos s i b le t od e term ine w i th wh i ch p erson t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly a ssoc ia ted .
2 4
I n t he L a tes t N eo l i th ic , B eaker p o t s w ere o f t en d epos i ted a s g rave g oods w i th i nd iv idua l b ur ia ls .
W i th many b ur ia ls , t he p o t was t he o n ly i t em o fg rave f urn i sh ing , b u t
w i th a n umber o f b ur ia ls , o ther g oods w ere i n c luded a s w e l l . C larke ( 1970 :438-47 ) l i st ed o ver 2 00 B eaker b ur ia ls f r om G rea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land t ha t w ere a ccompan ied b y a dd i t iona l g rave g oods . Among t hose a t t r ibu tab le t o t he L at es t N eo l i th ic ( o n t he b as is o f B eaker s ty le ) f o r wh ich a ge a nd s ex i n f orma t ion i s a va i lab le , n ear ly 6 4% a re o f a du l t ma les , 3 2% a re o f a du l t f ema les , a nd o n ly 4% a re o f c h i ldren .
C lear ly , t he i n c lus ion o f
g rave g oods a dd i t iona l t o t he B eaker was a lmos t e xc lus ive ly a p reroga t ive o f a du l t s i n L a tes tN eo l i th i c B r i ta in . Among t he a du l t B eaker b ur ia ls , t hose o ff ema les w ere g enera l ly s pa rse ly f urn ished w i th o n ly o ne o r t wo a dd i t iona l i t ems , s uch a s a n e x tra B eaker p o t , a sma l l c opper o r b ronze aw l , o r o ne o r more f l in t f l akes , b lades , o r s crapers .
Among ma le b ur ia ls , g rea ter
v ar iab i l i ty i n q uan t i ty , q ua l i ty , a nd v ar ie ty o f g rave g oods c an b e o bserved . S ome ma les r e ce ived o n ly s imp le g oods , a pparen t ly e qu iva len t t o t hose d epos i ted w i th f ema les , s uch a s a n e x t ra B eaker p o t , af l in t d agger , o r o ne o r more f l in t a rrowheads o r s c raper s . O thers r e ce ived , i n a dd it ion t o o r i n s tead o f t hese g oods , i t ems t ha t w ere p robab ly r egarded a s more v a luab le , i n c lud ing c opper d agger s , g o ld e arr ing s , g o ld b u t ton c aps , a nd a r chers ' w r is tguard s , o r " bracers" , o f s t one .
T hese a re i t ems t ha t s eem l i ke ly t o h ave b een
o bta ined t hrough e xchange . T hese p a t terns o fg rave g oods a ssoc iat ed w i th L a tes t N eo l i th i c B eaker b ur ia ls s eem t o b e t he r ema ins o f as oc iety i n wh ich s ta tus was a ch ieved , n o t a scr ibed , a nd t heref ore l im it ed a lmos t e x c lus ive ly t o a du l ts . Among a du l t s , s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion , a s measured b y v ar iab i l i ty i n q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f g rave g oods , a ppears t o h ave b een g rea tes t among ma les .
S in ce t h is s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion i s marked b y d if eren ces i n n umbers o f v a luab le
g oods t ha t w ere p robab ly o bta ined t hrough e x change , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he d if erences i n s ta tus w ere a ch ieved , a t l e ast i np ar t , t hrough d if eren t ia l s uccess i ne x change e ndeavor s .
2 5
S uch a p at tern o f d if erent ia l s tatus a ch ievemen t among a du l t ma les t hrough d i f f e rent ia l s uccess i ne xchange i ss im i lar t o p a tt erns o bserved among e thnog raph ic g roups i n N ew Gu inea t hat h ave b een c a l led B ig Man s oc iet ies ( e .g . , R ube l a nd R os man 1 978 ) .
I n
s uch s oc iet ies , s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan izat ion i se ga l itar ian i n t he s ense t ha t s ta tus a nd p os i t i ons o f l e adersh ip a re n ot a scr ibed b y b i r th a l one b u t a re a ch ieved . ways i n wh ich s ta tus i sa ch ieved i st hrough s uccess i n e xchange .
One o f t he ma jor
I nd iv idua ls w ish ing t o
b ecome i nf luent ia l B ig Men t ry t o max im ize t he ir e xchange r e la t ionsh ips s o t ha t t hey c an c on t ro l t he movement s o fl a rge q uant i t ies o fb oth v i ta l r esources a nd p rest ige g oods . c ess i n t hese a c t iv it ies e arns t he r espect o f l e ss f o r tuna te k insmen .
S uc -
S uccessfu l B ig Men
a re r ecogn ized a s l e aders o f t he ir l o ca l k ing roups , a nd t hey r epresen t t hese g roups i n c om muna l a ct iv it ies s uch a s c eremon ia l f east s a nd e xchanges .
L oca l B ig Men t ha t a re e spe -
c i a l ly r espect ed a nd i nf luent ia l may b e r ecogn ized a s l e aders o f more i n c lus ive s oc ia l g roup i ngs , s uch a s s ubc lans o r c l ans , a nd i n t ha t c apac i ty , t hey o rgan ize a nd c oord inate a c t iv it ies a ppropr ia te t o t hose g roups .
T h is g enera l p a t tern o f s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion
among g roups i n N ew Gu inea w ou ld s eem , o n t he b as is o f t he a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , t o b e a n a ppropr iat e mode l f o r s oc iopo l it ica l o rgan izat ion among B eaker -us ing g roups i nL at es t Neo l ith ic B r i ta in . I n s um mary , t he L a tes t Neo l ith ic i n B r i ta in c an b e s een a s at ime when r enewed e cono m ic g rowth , p resumab ly a ccompan ied b y p opu la t ion g row th , was a ga in c rea t ing s ys t em ic s t resses i nvo lv ing p ressure o n a nd c o mpet it ion o ver a va i lab le l and a nd o ther r esour c es .
A s i n t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic , r esponse t o t hese s t resses a ppears t o h ave i nvo lved a n
i n crease i n t he i mpor tance o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd t he c onstruct ion o f s i tes a t wh ich c o mmuna l a ct iv i t ies t o ok p lace .
I n s o me a reas , s i tes o f t ru ly monumenta l p ropor t ions a re
f ound . T he s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan izat ion o ft he g roups r espons ib le f o r c onstruct ing t hese s i tes h as b een , a nd c ont inues t ob e , h ot ly d ebat ed .
I n t h is r ev iew o ft he a rchaeo log ica l d ata , n o
c onv inc ing e v idence i ns uppor t o ft he c h iefdom p ropos it ion h as b een r evea led . I ns tead , t he a va i lab le d ata t end t o s ugges t t ha t t hese g roups w ere o rgan ized a s t r iba l s oc iet ies i n wh ich
2 6
s ta tus a nd p os it ions o fg roup l e adersh ip a t b oth l o ca l a nd s upra loca l l e ve ls w ere a ch ieved b y a du l t ma les , a t l e as t i n p ar t t hrough s uccess i n e x change .
T h roughou t t he L a t es t
N eo l i th ic , t here i se v idence f o r w idespread e xchange o f av ar iety o f g oods , i n c lud ing b o th u t i l i tar ian a nd d on -u t i l itar ian i t ems , a nd i t h as b een s uggested t ha t n ew ly i n t rodu ced e xo t i c g oods , s uch a s B eaker p o t s a nd meta lwork , w ere r ead i ly i n corpora t ed i n t o t he e x is t i ng e xchange n etworks a s v a luab le g oods a nd s ymbo ls o fh igh s ta tus a ch ievemen t .
C on c lus ion
E xam inat ion o f t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord f o r t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i n B r i ta in h as r evea led an umber o fc hanges o ver t ime a nd d if eren ces o ver s pa ce i n ma ter ia l c u l ture p a t t e rn ing . T hese p a t terns h ave b een i n t erpre ted i n t e rms o fv ar iab i l i ty i n s ubs is ten ce p ra c t i ces , i ns et t lemen t s ys tems , a nd p erhaps mos t i n t erest ing ly , i ns oc iopo l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion . A l though t he s o c iopo l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion o fB r i t ish N eo l i th i c g roups r e ma ins at op i c o f c urren t d eba te , i ts eems mos t l i ke ly , o n t he b as is o ft he a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l e v iden ce , t ha t t hroughou t e ga l i tar ian .
t he N eo l i th i c
p er iod ,
s oc iopo l i t ica l
o rgan iza t ion
was
p redom inan t ly
H owever , o ver t ime a nd s pa ce , t he s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion o f B r i t ish
N eo l i th i c g roups a ppears t o h ave v ar ied a l ong t wo ma jor d imens ions—those o fs upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion . T he p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion t ha t h ave b een i n f erred f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l d a ta r ev iewed i n t h is c hap ter i mp ly c o mp lex a nd v ar ied p a t terns o f i n tera ct ion among i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups o ver t ime a nd s pa ce . T hese p a t terns o fi n terac t ion a ppea r t o h ave i nvo lved a s i gn if i can t c o mponen t o fe x change o f ma ter ia l g oods , a nd i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t a n i nves t iga t ion o fp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fd i s tr ibu t ion o ft hese g ood s w i l l y i e ld i n s igh t s i n to t he p a t terns o fi n tera c t ion . I ti st he p urpose o ft h is s tudy t oe xp lore t he p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion o f o ne t ype o f N eo l i th i c a r t ifa c t—st one a xes .
I n d o ing t h is , i ti se xpect ed t ha t t he r esu l t w i l l
b e ap i c ture o f c hang ing p a t terns o f i n teract ion among g roups d u r ing t h i s i n terest ing
2 7
p er iod o f B r i t ish p reh is tory t ha t i s c o mp lemen tary t o t he p i c ture o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s o c iopo l it ica l o rgan iza t ion a nd o ther a spe c ts o f c u ltura l s ys tem o pera t ion t ha t h as b een p resen ted i nt h is c hap ter .
CHAPTER I I
S TONE AXE D ISTR IBUT ION I N NEOL ITH IC BR ITA IN : PREV IOUS APPROACHES
An umber o fd if eren t a pproa ches t o t he a na lys is o f d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t erns o f B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes h ave b een made i n a n a t tempt t o e l u c ida te p a t t erns a nd p roce sses o f a xe d i spersa l .
I n t h is c hap ter , ac r i t ica l r ev iew o f p rev ious i nves t iga t ions o f B r i t ish
N eo l i th ic s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e p resen ted . t h is .
T here a re t wo ma jor p urposes i nd o ing
T he f i rs t i st o i lus t ra te t he v ar ie ty o f a pproaches t o t he i nves t iga t ion o f s t one a xe
d i spersa l t ha t h ave b een p rev ious ly p u rsued a nd t o i d en t ify s t reng ths a nd w eaknesses i n t hese a pproaches b o th i n g enera l a nd i n s pec if i c r ef eren ce t o t he s t one a xe d a ta .
T he
s econd i st o r ev iew wha t h as a l ready b een d i scovered a nd t o i nd i cat e wha t r e ma in s t o b e c l ar if ied a bou tp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fs t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion i nN eo l i th i c B r i ta in . T he h i s tory o f t he s tudy o f B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xe d i spersa l c l ose ly p a ra l le ls d eve lopmen t s i n t he i mp lemen t p e t ro logy p rog ram i n B r i ta in ( r ev iewed b y G r imes 1 979 ) : a s more a nd more i mp lemen t s f r om d if eren t a reas o fB r i ta in h ave b een t h in -se c t ioned a nd t he r esu l t s p ub l ished , more c o mprehens ive mode ls o ft he d i s t r ibu t ions o ft hese i mp lemen t s h ave b een d eve loped i na n a tt emp t t oe xp la in p a t terns a nd p rocesses o ft he i r d i spersa l .
R eg iona l P et ro logy R epor t s : P a t terns o fS tone A xe D ist r ibu t ion
T he e a r l ies t r epor t s o f p e t ro log ica l r esu l ts w ere t hose p ub l ished b y t he S ub C omm i t tee o f t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A r t Ga l ler ies o n t he P e t ro log ica l I den t if i ca t ion o f S tone Axes ( Ke i l ler e t a l . 1 941 ; S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 947 , 1 951 ) .
T hese
r epor t s c on ta ined p et ro log i ca l i d en t if i ca t ions o f i mp lemen t s f r om , p r imar i ly , t he Wessex
2 8
2 9
a rea o f s outhern E ng land a nd t he s ou thwest p en insu la .
I n t hem , maps s how ing d i str ibu -
t i ons o fa xes a t t r ibu ted t og roups r ecogn ized a tt he t ime w ere p resent ed . On t hese e ar ly maps , i tc ou ld b e s een t ha t s t one a xes w ere o f ten f ound a t c on s i derab le d i stances f r om t he ir s ource a reas , a nd i t was a ssumed t ha t t hese i mp lemen ts w ere d i str ibu ted t hrough " t rade ."
I t was p art icu lar ly n o t iceab le t ha t l a rge n umbers o f
a xes f r o m many o ft he k nown s ources w ere c oncen tra ted i n t he Wessex a rea . T h is l e d t he a uthors o f t he T h ird R epor t ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :132-33 ) t o r e mark t ha t t he Avebury d i st r ict wh ich i n c ludes s uch w e l l -known s i tes a s W indm i l l H i l l , t he West K ennet Avenue , S i lbury H i l l , t he S an ctuary a nd Avebury i t se lf , may b e d escr ibed a s t he c ap i ta l empor ium o ft he who le a xe t rade o ft he c ountry . T h is s uggest ion o f t he p r imacy o f t he Wessex a rea i n t he s t one a xe t rade h as i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions b oth f o r t he o pera t ion o f N eo l i th ic e xchange s ys tems a nd f o r t he c u ltura l c hanges t ha t w ere a pparen t ly t ak ing p lace d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic p er iod i n t h is a rea . H owever , t he a pparen t p rom inence o f t he n orthern Wessex a rea o n t he e ar ly maps i n t e rms o f q uant i ty o f a xes a nd v ar iety o f a xe g roups p resent may b e , t o s o me e x ten t , a r esu l to fs amp l ing b ias . One o f t he most i mpor tan t f i gures i n t he d eve lop men t o f t he i mp lemen t p etro logy p rog ram i n B r ita in was A lexander K e i l ler , t he f i rs t c ha irman o ft he S ub -Comm i t tee o ft he S outh - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A r t Ga l ler ies o n t he P etro log ica l I dent if i ca t ion o f S t one Axes ( Gr imes 1 979 :1 ) .
H e was a l so t he e xcavator o f W indm i l l H i l l , t he West Ken -
n e t Avenue , a nd Avebury ( Sm ith 1 965 ) , a nd h e s ub m i t ted f o r p etro log ica l e xam ina t ion t he many p ar ts , f ragment s , a nd f l akes o f a xes , a s w e l l a s c o mp le te a xes , r ecovered d ur ing h i s e xcavat ions .
On t he e ar ly maps ( e .g . , S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :135 , F ig . 9 ) , a l l o f t hese
p art s a nd f ragmen ts o f a xes w ere r epresen ted a l ong w ith c o mp le te a xes a s u nd if f eren t i a ted a xe s pec imens . A s ar esu lt , t he Avebury a rea e as i ly a ppea red t ob e t he ma jor c on s umer o fn on loca l a xes i ns ou thern B r ita in .
3 0
Moreover , a l l o ft he mat er ia l g roups n ow k nown t ob e r epresent ed b y a xe s pec imens f r om Wi l tsh ire w ere r epresented b y a xe s pec imens k nown a t t he t ime o ft he 1 951 r epor t ( Tab le 3 .1 ) .
I n c ont rast , f ewer mater ia l g roups w ere r epresented b y a xe s pec imens f r om
t he s urround ing c oun t ies . T h is a dded t o t he a pparen t i mpor tance o f t he n or thern Wessex a rea i n t he s t one a xe t rade .
However , i n r ecen t y ears , a xe s pec imens r epresenta t ive o f
a dd it iona l mater ia l g roups h ave b een e xam ined i n t he c ount ies s urround ing W i l tsh ire ( Tab le 3 .1 ) , i n creas ing t he n umbers o fg roups r epresented i nt hose c ount ies n earer o r e ven e qua l t ot he n umber o fg roups r epresen ted i nW i l tsh ire . F rom a b roader p erspect ive , b ecause a na lys is o f i mp lement p etro logy p rog ressed more s l ow ly i n o ther a reas o f B r ita in t han i n t he S outh - Western r eg ion , t he n umbers o f a xes o f v ar ious mater ia ls f ound i n a reas b etween ma jor s ource a reas ( e .g . , o f G roups V I a nd V I I ) a nd t he Wessex a rea w ere l ong u nknown , a nd t he l a rge b lank a reas o n t he e ar ly maps ( e .g . , S t one a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :117 , F ig . 3 ) f ur ther a dded t o t he i lus ion o f t he i mpor t ance o f Wessex i n t he s t one a xe t rade .
A l l o f t h is i sn ot t o s ay t ha t Wessex was n ot
i mportan t i n t he N eo l i th ic s t one a xe t rade , b u t r a ther t ha t t h is p ropos it ion must b e i nves t i gated f ur ther . O ther h ypo theses a bou t t he n ature o f t he Neo l i th i c s t one a xe t rade t o emerge f r om t he e ar ly S ou th - Wes tern r epor ts w ere b ased o n i n spec t ion o f t he s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ions o f a xes f r om t he v ar ious s ources .
T hese i n c lude a h ypothes is o f o ver land ( and r i ver ine )
movemen t o ft he i mportan t n orthern G roups V I a nd V I I ( Ke i l ler e ta l . 1 941 :67 ; S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :118 , 1 20 , 1 32 ) , a nd a h ypo thes is o fc oasta l movemen to fo ther g roups o fa xes , e spec ia l ly G roup Ia nd t he sma l ler C orn ish g roups ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :103 , 1 06 , 1 089 , 1 28 ) .
T he l a t t er h ypothes is i n c luded a s uggest ion t ha t t he B ournemou th a rea was o f
p ar t icu lar i mportance a s a n e ntry way t o t he Avebury d i st r ict a nd a s a n i mpor tan t p ort a rea f o r c ross -channe l t rade ( i b id . :122 , 1 36 ) . T he l a test r epor ts o f t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup ( Evens e t a l .
1 962 ; E vens e t
a l . 1 972 ) p resen ted many more p etro log ica l r esu lts a s w e l l a s r ef inement s i n t he mater ia l
3 1
g roup s cheme , i n c lud ing d es cr ip t ions o fg roups n ew ly r ecogn ized a nd r e -a l loca t ions o f s o me a r t i fa c t s t o n ew o r o ther g roups . T hese a dd i t iona l r esu l t s a l lowed t he a uthors o ft he mos t r e cen tr epor t t or e cogn ize t hree d if eren t p a t tern s o fd i s t r ibu t ion f o r a xes o f g roups h av ing s our ces i nC ornwa l l . F or G roups I Va a nd XV I I , t he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns o fa r t ifact s w ere v ery l o ca l ized . T o E vens e t a l . ( 1972 :258 ) t h is s uggest ed p rodu c t ion o f a xes f o r r e la t ive ly l o ca l c onsump t i on o n ly , wh i ch m igh t h ave i nvo lved d i rec t i n t era c t ion b e tween p roducers a t t he s ources a nd c onsumers a t s hor td i s tances a way , b u tn o w ider c on tac t s . F or G roups I V a nd XV I , d i st r ibu t ions o f a xes w ere more w idespread b u t s t i l l a pparen t ly c onf ined t o t he a rea c overed b y t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup .
T h is s ugges ted
p r imar i ly l o ca l ized p rodu c t ion a nd c onsump t ion , b u t s o me d i spersa l " a long c hanne ls o f o rgan ized , i fs t i l l c o mpa ra t ive ly sma l lsca le , t rade" ( Evens e ta l . 1 972 :258 ) . I n c on t ras t , many o f t he i mp lemen t s o f G roup Iw ere f ound i n a reas a t v ery l ong d i stan ces f r om t he s our ce , s uch a s Wessex , E ast Ang l ia , Y orksh ire , a nd Wa les , w i th f ewer s pec imens f ound i nc l oser a reas s uch a s E as t C ornwa l l a nd D evon ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :2585 9 ) . T o E vens e t a l . , t h is d i st r ibu t ion s ugges ted d i rec t iona l t rade w i th f avored a reas , c ar r i ed o n b y s ea . T h ir ty y ears e l apsed a f ter t he p ub l ica t ion o f t he f i rs t S ou th - West ern r epor t b ef ore p ub l ica t ion o f p et ro log i ca l r esu l t s f r om a no ther ma jor a rea o f B r i ta in t ook p lace .
I n t he
Y orksh ire r epor t ( Keen a nd R ad ley 1 971 ) , l i t t le i ss a id a bou t e x change p a t terns e x cept t o n ot e ap redom inan t ly c oa s ta l d i st r ibu t ion o f G roup I a xes a s i nd ica t ive o f c oasta l t rade w i th C ornwa l l ( i b id . :19 , 2 9 ) .
H owever , i n t h is c ounty a l l o f t he a xe g roups e xh ib i t a
p redom inant ly c oasta l d i s t r ibu t ion , wh ich i s n o t s urpr is ing s i n ce t he c oasta l a rea was a pparen t ly t he ma in f o cus o fs e t t lemen t a t t he t ime ( i b id . :29 ) . T hus , f ur ther i nvest iga t ion i sc l ear ly n ecessary i n o rder t o a nswer t he q ues t ion o f c oasta l movemen t o f G roup Ia xes t oY orksh ire .
3 2
T he n ex t ma jor r eg iona l r epor t t o a ppear was t he o ne f o r E a st Ang l ia ( C lough a nd G reen 1 972 ) .
I n i t , ac ompa ra t ive a na lys is o f t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f a xes o f v ar iou s g roups
a l lowed t he a u thors t o s ugges t d if eren t p a t terns f o r movemen t o f a xes i n t o t he a rea .
I n
E as t Ang l ia , s t one a xes a re c oncen t ra ted i n t wo ma jor a reas o f a ppa ren t ly i n t ense N eo l i th i c o ccupa t ion :
t he e ast ern e dge o f t he F ens , n or theas t o f C ambr idge , a nd t he
C o l chest er / Ipsw i ch a rea o n t he E ssex c oas t ( i b id . :113 ) . T hese a xe -r ich a reas a re s epa rat ed b y a n a rea o f b ou lder c l ay where f ew a xes h ave b een f ound ( i b id . ) .
C lough a nd G reen
n o ted t ha t a xes f r om t he w est ern a nd n or thern g roups ( e .g . , G roups V I , V I I , a nd XX ) w ere c oncen t rat ed i nt he F en land a rea , a s t hough t hey w ere t ranspor ted o ver land f r om t he s ources , wh i le f ew o ft hem w ere f ound i nt he C o lchest er / Ipsw ich a rea ( i b id . :115 , 18 , 1 20 ) . On t he o ther h and , r e la t ive ly g reat er n umbers o f C orn ish a xes w ere f ound o n t he E ssex c oas t ( i b id . :116 ) , a s t hough b rough t t here b y s ea .
H owever , al a rge n umber o f G roup I
a xes w ere a l so f ound i n t he F en land a rea , s ugges t ing o ver land movemen t f r om Wessex , p erhaps a l ong t he I ckn ie ld Way , aw e l l -known r i dgeway t ra i l ( i b id . ) .
I n c on t ras t t o b oth
t hese p a t terns o f d i s t r ibu t ion , t he ma jor c oncen t ra t ion o f G roup XV I I I i mp lemen t s , l a ter b a t t le -axes a nd a xe -hammers a s w e l l a s a xes , was i n n or thern N orf o lk ( i b id . :120 ) .
T he
u l t ima te s ource o f t he r aw ma ter ia l o f wh ich t hese i mp lemen t s a re made i si n n or thern E ng land , a nd t h is d i s t r ibu t ion s ugges ted t o C lough a nd G reen s ou thward c oasta l t rade a s t he means o fd i spersa l o ft he a xes . T he t wo mos t r ecen t ly p ub l ished p e tro log ica l r epor t s f o r ma jor a reas o fB r i ta in c over t he c oun t ies o f L inco lnsh ire , N o t t inghamsh ire , a nd R u t land ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 ) a nd D erbysh ire a nd L e icest ersh ire ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 ) .
I nf orma t ion f r om t hese
c oun t ies f i l ls i n t he g ap b e tween t he ma jor a xe -consum ing a reas o f Y orksh ire a nd E as t Ang l ia , a nd g ives f ur ther c l ues t o r eg iona l p at terns o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion .
W i th in L in -
c o lnsh ire , N ot t inghamsh ire , a nd R u t land , t he d i st r ibu t ion o f a xes l o oks a s t hough " a l l t he a xes h ad b een d umped i nN or th L in co lnsh ire a nd t r ick led d own f r om t here o ver t he r es t o f t he a rea" ( Cumm in s a nd Moore 1 973 :221 ) .
H owever , t h is d i s t r ibu t ion may b e s imp ly a
3 3
r ef lect ion o f t he p reh istor ic s et t lemen t p a t tern a nd /or d i f f erent ia l i n tens i ty o f c o l lec t ing a ct iv it ies , s o t he p a t tern o fa xe d i spersa l i nt h is a rea i sl e ss t han c er ta in . I n t he L inco lnsh ire r epor t , C umm ins a nd Moore ( 1973 :223 ) n oted t ha t G roup V I I a xes w ere r e lat ive ly more c o mmon i n t hose c oun t ies t han i n e i ther Y orksh ire o r E ast Ang l ia . T hey s uggest ed t ha t t h is m igh t i nd icat e p ref erent ia l move ment o fG roup V I I a xes t ot h is a rea . T he q uest ion o fc oasta l t rade o f G roup Ia xes was a l so d i scussed b y t he a u thors o f t hese t wo r eports . I n t he L inco lnsh ire r epor t , t hey s uggested t ha t G roup Ia xes s howed n o t endency t oward c oasta l d i str ibut ion l i ke t ha t s een i n o ther a reas ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :223 ) , wh i le i nt he D erbysh ire a nd L e icestersh ire r epor t , t hey n o ted t ha t G roup Ia xes w ere c o mparat ive ly r are i n t hat r eg ion wh ich " fur ther d emons t rat es t he p redom inan t ly c oasta l d i str ibu t ion o ft hese a xes" ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :76 ) . C lear ly , t he q uest ion o f c oasta l movemen to fG roup Ia xes r equ ires c l ar if i ca t ion . A l though t he l a s t o f t he ma jor r eg iona l r epor t s was p ub l ished i n 1 974 , i mp lement p et ro logy w ork h as c ont inued s i nce t hen , a nd r epor ts f r om o ther a reas a re c ur rent ly b e ing p repared ( W . A . C umm ins , p ers . c o mm . ; A . F . Hard ing , p ers . c o mm . ; C . H . Hou lder , p ers . c o mm . ; F . W . S hot ton , p ers . c o mm . ) . I n t he mean t ime , s pec ia l ized r epor ts o n i nd iv idua l g roups o f i mp lemen t s h ave a l so a ppeared ( Shott on e ta l . 1 951 o n G roup X I I ; Hou lder 1 956 o n G roup V II ; S ho t ton 1 959 o n G roups X IV , XV , a nd XX ; H ou lder 1 961 o n G roup XX I ; a nd S hot ton 1 972 o n G roup XX II I ) .
A lthough S hot t on made n o a t tempt t o d i scuss p rocesses t hrough wh ich t he s t one
i mp lements h e d escr ibed w ere d i str ibuted , H ou lder d i d o f er s uggest ions a bou t p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l .
F or G roup V I I , h e s uggested t ha t d i st r ibu t ion p robab ly t ook p lace
t hrough " hand -to -hand b ar ter , 1 956 :x lv i ) .
s tar t ing f r om
t wo
o r
t hree
ma in
c en tres"
( Hou lder
O f c ourse o ne o f t hese w ou ld h ave b een t he s ource i t se lf , wh i le t here was " a
s t rong i nd ica t ion o f a n i mportan t s econdary c ent re o f d i st r ibut ion i n t he B ournemou th a rea , a nd p erhaps o ne a l so i n t he S evern e stuary" ( i b id . ) . Hou lder h ypothes ized t hat b u lk
3 4
t ranspor t o f a xes f r om t he s ource i n Nor th Wa les t o t he s econdary c enters t ook p la ce b y way o ft he western s ea r ou te . Hou lder r ea f i rmed h i s mode l o f s t one a xe d i st r ibu t ion p rocesses i n 1 961 a nd a ga in i n 1 976 . I n b oth t hese p apers , h e p ostu lated t he e x ist ence o f " a d ef in ite g roup o f' m idd le men ' , t he r ea l t raders who k new wha t was n eeded b y t he c onsumer , a nd a l so k new where t o g et i t " ( Hou lder 1 961 :138 ) , a nd " who w ere e xper ts i n t he h azards o f t rave l , w ork ing b etween t he mas ter c raf tsmen o f t he f a ctor ies a nd t he d i stan t marke t a reas" ( Hou lder 1 976 :56 ) .
T he e x is tence o f s pec ia l is t t raders i s d if i cu lt t o d emonstra te a rchaeo log ica l ly .
H owever , t he q ues t ion o f d i rect t ranspor t o f g oods t o d i stan t c onsumers , a s o pposed t o s imp le v i l lage -t o -v i l lage e xchange , c an a nd s hou ld b e i nvest iga ted , s i nce t hese t wo p a t terns o fd i spersa l h ave v ery d if eren t i mp l icat ions f o r t he o rgan izat ion o fr eg iona l e xchange s ys t ems a nd t he r e la t ionsh ips among e xchang ing g roups . A s a n a l terna t ive mode l f o r t he d i st r ibu t ion o f G roup V I I a xes , Hou lder a l so p roposed , p erhaps n ot v ery s er ious ly , t ha t " I t i se ven p oss ib le t ha t t he who le o pera t ion o f t he f a c tory was c arr ied o n b y p art ies wh ich t rave l led s easona l ly f r om Wessex" ( Hou lder 1 956 :x lv i i i ) .
A l though d i spersa l o f G roup V I I a xes t o d i stan t ly l o ca ted g roups t hrough
d i rect a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s ource s eems r ather u n l ike ly d ue t o t he g rea t d i s tances i nvo lved , i ti sn o t t o ta l ly i n conce ivab le a nd t heref ore s hou ld b e i nves t igated . Two f ur ther s pec ia l ized r epor t s ( Fe l l 1 964 a nd Manby 1 965 ) d i scussed t he d i s t r ibu t i on o f ac erta in t ype o f v ery l a rge a xe , t he C umbr ian a xe .
A lthough many a xes o f t h is
t ype a re o f G roup V I mater ia l , o thers a re n o t , b u t a l l w ere p resumed b y t he a u thors t o h ave o r ig inat ed i n t he L ake D ist r ict . T hrough mapp ing t he f i nd s pots o ft hese l a rge a xes , t hese a uthors p roposed a n umber o fc oasta l a nd o ver land " t rade r outes" f o r t hem b ased o n t he ir p rox im i ty t o c oasts , r i vers , p asses , a nd k nown c o mmun ica t ion r ou tes .
H owever ,
t hese " t rade r outes" a re r ea l ly o n ly h ypo thet ica l , a nd t he mechan isms t hrough wh ich t hese a xes moved o u tward f r om t he s ource a rea w ere n ot d emonst ra ted .
3 5
I n s ummary , t he d i st r ibu t ion maps t ha t w ere p roduced a s p et ro log ica l r esu l t s w ere o bta ined c l ear ly d emons t rat ed t ha t s t one a xes w ere f r equen t ly f ound , o f ten i nc ons iderab le n umbers , a t l ong d i s tan ces f r om t he ir p resumed s ources . T hese d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t erns w ere g enera l ly i n t erpret ed i n t e rms o f e xchange , a nd v ar iou s p a t t erns a nd p ro cesses o f e x change h ave b een s uggest ed f o r v ar ious g roups o f a xes .
H owever , a s Wr igh t ( 1972 :95 )
h as n ot ed , s tud ies wh ich s imp ly map t he d i st r ibu t ion o f d i s t inct ive a r t ifa c t s i n a reas r e moved f r om t he i r l o cus o f p roduc t i on . .. o n ly d emonst rat e t he e x is tence a nd s pread o f t rade n e tworks ; t hey p rov ide n e i ther e l u c ida t ion o f t he mechan isms o f i n terreg iona l e x change n or t e s t s f o r t he e xp lanat ion o f v a r ious c u l tura l d eve lopmen t s i n t e rms o f c hang ing e x change n e t w orks . F or t hese o b jec t ives t o b e me t , o ther me thods o f a na lys is , wh ich c ons ider t he v o lume a nd / o r t he v a lue o fe xchanged c o mmod i t ies , mus tb e emp loyed ( i b id . ) . O ther , more s oph is t ica ted , methods o f a na lys is o fs t one a xe d i st r ibu t ions h ave b een emp loyed i n a n a t temp t t o e luc ida te mechan isms o f a xe d i spersa l .
H owever , b ef ore t hese
a re d i scussed , t he p oss ib i l i ty must b e c ons idered t ha t t he d i st r ibu t ions o f a xes mapped i n t he r eg iona l p e t ro logy r epor t s d id n o t r esu l tf r om e xchange a t a l l .
A xe D ist r ibu t ion t hrough Na tura l P rocesses : T he U se o fG lac ia l E rra t ics
I n 1 976 a nd 1 977 , B r igg s a dvan ced t he h ypo thes is t ha t a xes o f v ar ious s t one ma ter ia ls f ound i n a reas a t l ong d i stances f r om t he r ecogn ized s our ces o f t hose ma ter ia ls m igh t s imp ly r ef lec t t he u se o f r ocks f ound l o ca l ly t ha t w ere t ranspor ted t ot hose a rea s b y n a tura l p rocesses s u ch a s g lac ia l a ct ion . C umm ins c oun tered t h is h ypo thes is i n 1 978 a nd 1 979 b y c i t ing a n umber o f f a c tors a s e v idence a ga ins t B r iggs 's v i ew a nd i n f avor o f h uman t ranspor t o f a xes o u tward f r om s our ces .
T hese f a c tors i n c lude t he p oor c orre -
s pondence t ha t c an b e o bserved b etween t he l o ca t ion o f g lac ia l d r if t t ha t m igh t c on ta in r o cks o f t he r ecogn ized g roups a nd t he l o ca t ion o f c on cen t ra t ions o f a xes o f t hose g roups , t he r e la t ive a bundan ce o fa xes o fs pec if i c g rouped ma ter ia ls i na reas where t he g la c ia l d r if t w ou ld h ave c on ta ined a bundan t o ther ma t er ia ls p robab ly e qua l ly s u i tab le f o r t he p rodu c -
3 6
t i on o fa xes , t he l o ca t ion o fr oughou ts o fv ar ious g roups n ear t he s ources o ft hose ma t er ia ls b u t n o t i n t he d i stan t a reas , a nd t he g enera l u n if orm i ty i n s hape o f a xes o f d if eren t g roups a t a l l d i stances f r om t he s our ces o f t hose g roups , wh ich w ou ld n o t b e e xpec ted i f t he a xes w ere p rodu ced f r om g la c ia l e rra t i cs i n d if eren t l o ca l i t ies .
On t he b as is o f t h is
e v idence , C umm ins r e jected B r igg s 's h ypothes is o ft he u se o fg la c ia l e rra t ics t o a ccoun t f o r t he w idespread d i st r ibu t ion o fa xes o ft he v ar ious g rouped ma ter ia ls , a nd h e c on c luded t ha t t hese a xes c ou ld o n ly h ave r ea ched t he i r f i nd s po t s t h rough h uman t ranspor t . H owever , f o r o ne ma jor g roup o fa xes t he p oss ib i l i ty r e ma ins t ha t g la c ia l d r if t may h ave b een a s i gn if i can t s ource o f t he r aw ma ter ia l .'
T h is i sG roup XV I I I , f o r wh i ch t he
o ut crop s our ce i s t he Wh in S i l l f o rma t ion o f n or thern E ng land .
K een a nd R ad ley
( 1971 :25-27 ) n o ted t ha t r ocks o ft h is mat er ia l h ave b een f ound o n t he b ea ches a nd i n t he c l if s o f e as tern Y orksh ire , h av ing b een t ranspor ted t here t hrough g lac ia l a c t ion .
T hey
s ugges ted t ha t a xes o f G roup XV I I I may h ave b een made b oth i nt h is a rea a nd i nt he a rea o f t he a c tua l o ut crop .
A c ons iderab le n umber o f i mp lemen t s o f t h is mat er ia l h ave a l so
b een f ound i nn or thern Norf o lk , ac oas ta l r eg ion t o wh ich g lac ia t ion may a l so h ave b rough t G roup XV I I I ma t er ia l . T he q ues t ion o f whe ther t he a xes o fG roup XV I I I i n t h i s a rea w ere p roduced i n s i tu f r om g la c ia l ma ter ia l s o r made i n n or thern E ng land o r Y orksh ire a nd t ranspor ted t ot h is a rea t hrough e x change i so ne t ha t s hou ld b e i nves t iga ted f ur ther .
Ma thema t ica l Mode ls o fE x change D is t r ibu t ions : R eg ress ion Ana lyses a nd R andom Wa lk S imu la t ions
E ven b ef ore t he more r ecen tr eg iona l p et ro logy r epor t s a ppeared , i n teres t i n t he u se o fr eg ress ion a na lys is t o mode l e x chang e d i s t r ibu t ions a nd i nves t iga te e xchang e p rocesses was d eve lop ing ( Renf rew e t a l . 1 966 , 1 968 ) .
I n t h is s or t o f a na lys is , t he r e la t ionsh ip
" I t i sa l so p oss ib le t ha t an umber o fa xes o fu ng rouped mat er ia ls w ere made o fr o cks f ound i n l o ca l a reas , b u t t h is i so f n o g rea t s i gn if i cance f o r t he p resen t e nqu i ry wh ich i s c on cerned p r imar i ly w i th t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fa xes o fg rouped ma ter ia ls .
3 7
b e tween d i stan ce f r om t he s our ce a nd a bundance o ft he r aw ma ter ia l o r f i n ished p rodu ct i s a ssessed a nd r epresent ed i nt e rms o f ar eg ress ion e qua t ion o ft he f o rm : A = a+ b D +e i n wh i ch " A" r epresen t s a bundance , " D" r epresen t s d i stance , " a" a nd " b" a re c onstan t s , a nd " e" i sa n e rror t e rm . I n t heory , t he v a lues o ft he c ons tan t s i n b es t -f i t r eg ress ion e qua t i ons , wh i ch d et erm ine t he s hape o ft he r eg ress ion l i ne , s hou ld b e d e term ined b y i mpor tan t a spec t s o fd i s t r ibu t ion p rocesses . I n 1 974 , H odder a pp l ied t h is method o f a na lys is t o a xes o fG roups Ia nd V I a s w e l l a s s evera l o ther s e t s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . I n h i s a na lyses , h e was i n teres ted i nc o mpar i ng t he c oe f i c ien t o fd i s tan ce ( " b" , t he v a lue wh ich d e term ines t he g rad ien t o f t he r eg res s i on l i ne ) a nd t he e xponen t o f d i s tance ( a lpha i n l o gar i thm ic f o rms s u ch a s l o g A = a— b Da + ea nd l o g A = a — bl o g Da + e ,t he v a lue wh i ch d e term ines t he c urva ture o ft he r eg ress ion l i ne ) o f b es t -f i t r eg ress ion e qua t ions f o r t he d if eren t s e t s o f d a ta i n o rder t o d e term ine i f d if eren t v a lues o f t hese c ons tan t s m igh t r esu l t f r om d if eren t e xchang e p rocesses . H o ld ing a lpha v a lues c ons tan t , H odder ( 1974 ) c a lcu la ted t he g rad ien t s f o r s evera l s e t s o f d a ta .
F or a g roup o f B ronze A ge a xe -hammers t he g rad ien t was f a ir ly s t eep a t
—0 .077 , s how ing r ap id d ecrease i n t he f r equency o f t he i mp lemen ts w i th i n creas ing d i s t ance f r om t he s our ce , p robab ly a s ar esu l t o fp r ima r i ly l o ca l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he h eavy t o o ls ( i b id . :179 ) . F or t he G roup V I a xes , t he g rad ien t was l e ss s t eep a t —0 .02 , i nd ica t ing more w idespread d i s t r ibu t ion , wh i le f o r t he G roup I a xes , t he g rad ien t wa s a n o rder o f mag n i tude l e ss s t eep a t
—0 .002 ( i b id ) .
T h is v ery g en t le g rad ien t s ugges ted t o H odder
w idespread d i spersa l o fG roup Ia xes t hrough s ea t rade . I n h i s a na lys is o fb es t -f i t a l pha v a lues , H odder ( 1974 :179 ) f ound t ha t t he v a lues f o r t he s e t s o fd a ta h e was i nves t iga t ing f e l l i n t o t wo ma in g roups . I n o ne g roup , a l pha v a lues v ar ied f r om 0 .9 t o g rea ter t han 2 .5 ( i b id . :182 ) .
H odder s ugges ted t ha t t hese v a lues w ere
c ons is ten t w i th l a rge -sca le c on cerns a ssoc ia ted w i th f i ne p rodu ct s f o r wh ich r andom wa lk
3 8
p rocesses w ou ld p robab ly b es t d escr ibe movemen ts o f t he g oods .
W i th in t h is g roup f e l l a
t ype o f f i ne E ar ly N eo l i th i c p o t tery , H embury Ware , w i th a n a lpha v a lue o f 1 . 6 , a nd t he G roup ,V I a xes w i th a n a l pha v a lue o fg rea ter t han 2 .5 ( i b id . :182-83 ) . T he s e cond ' g roup o f a lpha v a lues v ar ied f r om l e ss t han 0 .1 t o 0 .6 , a nd H odder ( 1974 :179 ) s uggested t ha t t hese v a lues w ere c ons is ten t w i th sma l l -sca le l o ca l c oncerns i n wh i ch g oods w ere d i spersed t o c onsumers t hrough f r equen t n on cost ly moves .
T he h eavy
a xe -hammers h ad a v a lue o f0 .6 , f u r ther c onf i rm ing t he i r p redom inan t ly l o ca l ized d i st r ibu t i on ( i b id . :182 ) .
H owever , G roup Ia xes w ere f ound t o h ave a n a lpha v a lue o f l e ss t han
0 .1 , b u t t he i r d i s tr ibu t ion i sc l ear ly n o t l o ca l ized . H odder e xp la ined t h is a noma lous v a lue a s ar esu l to fs ea t rade ( i b id . ) . Wh i le t hese r eg ress ion r esu l t s t end t o c onf i rm s ome o f t he s uggest ions a bou t p a t t e rns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion t ha t w ere p resen ted i n t he r eg iona l p e tro logy r epor t s , t hey s hou ld b e v i ewed i n l i gh t o f t he l im i ted d a ta o n wh i ch t hey w ere b ased .
I n
t h i s e ar ly w ork , H odder u sed s t one a xe d a ta f r om o n ly t he S ou th - Wes tern r epor t s a nd t he Y orksh i re r epor t ( Hodder 1 974 :186 , F ig . 2 2 ) .
A t t h is t ime t here was n o i nd ica t ion t ha t
t he r e la t ive a bundance o fG roup Ia xes w ou ld b e g rea ter i nE as t Ang l ia t han i n e i ther t he S ou th - Wes tern a rea o r Y orksh ire , o r t ha t t he r e la t ive a bundance o f G roup V I a xes w ou ld b e g rea ter i n Y orksh ire t han i n a rea s n earer t he s our ce ( Cumm ins 1 974 , 1 979 ) . T hese a spect s o f t he a xe d i st r ibu t ions w ou ld s ure ly h ave r esu l ted i n v a lues o f t he r eg ress ion e qua t ion c ons tan t s t ha t w ere r a ther d if eren t f r om t hose o bta ined b y H odder . H odder 's n ex t a t temp t a t i nves t iga t ing e xchange p ro cesses i nvo lved s imu la t ion o f r andom wa lk p rocesses t od e term ine whether d if eren t s pa t ia l p rocesses w ou ld p roduce d i f f e ren t f o rms o f r eg ress ion c urve ( Hodder a nd O rt on 1 976 :126-53 ) .
T he f i rs t s imu la t ions
w ere ma thema t i ca l o n ly , n o t r e la ted t o a ny p ar t i cu la r s e t s o f d a ta .
I n t hem , H odder
v ar ied t he d i rect ion t aken a t e ach s t ep i n t he wa lk , t he l e ng th o ft he s t ep a l lowed , a nd t he t o ta l n umber o f s t eps a l lowed . A f ter e a ch s imu la t ion , h e c a l cu la ted t he f r equen cy o f d o ts i n d i stance b ands a round t he s our ce a nd f i t t ed r eg ress ion c urves t o t hese d a ta .
H e t hen
3 9
c o mpared t he r eg ress ion c urves t o s ee h ow t he g rad ien t a nd a lpha v a lues v ar ied i nr e la t ion t ot he s ta tes o ft he v ar iab les d ef in ing t he r andom wa lk p rocess . F rom t hese s imu la t ions , H odder made t wo c on c lus ions t ha t a re r e levan t t os t one a xe s tud ies . F irs t , h e n o ted t ha t v ery f l a tr eg ress ion c urves ( i . e . , t hose w i th a g en t le g rad ien t ) , l i ke t ha t o bserved f o r G roup Ia xes , r esu lted f r om r andom wa lks i nvo lv ing a sma l l n umber o f r e la t ive ly l o ng s t eps ( Hodder a nd O r t on 1 976 :139 ) .
H odder s uggested t ha t t h is w ou ld
b e c ons ist en t w i th t he s or to fp a t t ern o bservab le i ns ea t r ade where f ew l and ing s a re made a nd t hese a re q u i te f a r a par t .
H is s e cond c onc lus ion w as t ha t h igher a lpha v a lues , l i ke
t ha t f o r G roup V I a xes , r esu l ted f r om r andom wa lks i nvo lv ing l a rge n umbers o f s hor t s t eps ,
s uch
( i b id . :142 ) .
a s
m igh t b e
e xpec ted
i n o ver land v i l lage -t o -v i l lage
e xchange
o f g oods
T hus H odder 's c onc lus ions a bou t s t one a xe e x change p rocesses b ased o n r an -
d om wa lk s imu la t ions a re c ons is ten t w i th h i s c on c lus ions b ased o n emp ir ica l c ons idera t ion o ft he a xe d a ta . More r e cen t ly , C lark ( 1979 ) h as r e cons idered t he v a lue o f u s ing r eg ress ion a na lys is t o d escr ibe e x change i n a r chaeo log ica l c ont ex t s t hrough t e st ing h ypo theses a bou t " b" a nd a lpha a nd a bou t r e la t ion s among t hese a nd t he s ca le o f p rodu ct ion o f t he i t ems b e ing t raded . H e c onc luded t ha t t he g rad ien t o f ar eg ress ion e qua t ion c an b e s een a s a measure o f t ranspor t e ff i c iency ( i b id . :181 ) .
U s ing d a ta f r om a l l t he p ub l ished r eg iona l s t one a xe
r epor t s a s w e l l a s l im i ted d a ta f o r o ther a reas o f B r i ta in c on ta ined i n t he e ar l ies t S ou th Wes tern r epor ts , C lark r e ca lcu la ted t he v a lues o f" b" f o r G roups I ,I V , V I , V I I , X I I , X IV , XV I , XV I I I , a nd XX .
F or a l l b u t G roup I , t hese v a lues r anged f r om —0 .00513 t o
—0 .00928 wh i le t he v a lue f o r G roup Iwas mu ch more g radua l a t —0 .00156 ( i b id . :183 , T ab le 4 ) .
I t i s i n t r igu ing t ha t t he v a lues f o r mos t o f t he s t one a xe g roups c o mpare
f avorab ly w i th t he v a lue o f —0 .00890 f o r at ype o f R omano -Br i t ish p ot tery p resumab ly t raded o ver land , wh i le t he v a lue f o r G roup Ia xes c ompares w ith t he v a lue o f —0 .00146 f o r t he s ame t ype o f R omano -Br i t ish p o t t ery a ppa ren t ly t raded b y wat er ( i b id . ) .
T h is
4 0
t ends t os ugges tt ha t G roup Ia xes w ere t ranspor ted b y wa ter wh i le t he o ther g roups s eem t oh ave b een t raded o ver land . C lark ( 1979 ) t hen p o in ted o u t t ha t i n terpre ta t ion o fv ar ia t ion s i n t he v a lue o fa l pha was more d i ff i cu l t .
H e s uggest ed t ha t t here a re a t l eas t f ou r p oss ib le ways t o e xp la in
v ar ia t ion i n a lpha v a lues , a nd h e emphas ized t ha t more w ork i s n eeded t o c l a r ify t hese ( i b id . :186 ) .
C lark o bta ined a l pha v a lues f o r t he s t one a xe g roups t ha t a re q u it e d if eren t
f r om t hose H odder o bta ined , p robab ly a s ar esu l t o f u s ing a l a rger d a ta s e t .
H is a lpha
v a lues f o r G roup Ia nd G roup V I w ere 1 0 .7 a nd 5 .3 r espec t ive ly , w i th t he v a lues f o r o ther g roups v ary ing f r om —0 .9 t o6 .2 ( i b id . :184 ) . Unf or tuna te ly , C lark d i d l i t t le t oc l a r ify wha t s uch v a lues m igh t mean i n t e rms o f e x change p rocesses , a nd s o me o f h i s e xp lana tory h ypo theses c an b e d i rec t ly c on t rad ic ted b y wha t w e a l ready k now o f t hese g roups .
F or
e xamp le , C lark s ugges ted t ha tv ery l ow a lpha v a lues m igh tb e a ssoc ia ted w i th g oods wh i ch w ere p roduced i n sma l l q uan t i t ies f o r l o ca l c onsumpt ion o n ly a nd w ere n o t e x changed o ver l o ng d i s tances .
B u t t he l owes t v a lue o f a lpha t ha t h e p resent ed i s —0 .9 f o r G roup V I I
a xes , whereas G roup V I I i sk nown t o h ave b een t he t h ird mos t a bundan t a xe g roup i n B r i ta in ( Cumm ins 1 979 :7 ) , a nd a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound n ear ly 4 00 km f r om t he s our ce . I n s hor t , a l though C lark h e lped t o d ef ine f ur ther t he p rob lem o f wha t d if eren t r eg ress ion l i nes mean i n t e rms o f e xchang e p rocesses , h e r ea l ly d id l i t t le t o s o lve t he p rob lem a nd s a id n oth ing n ew a bou t p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i s tr ibut ion i n Neo l i th i c B r i ta in . I n s ummary , r eg ress ion a na lyses o f s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion d ata h ave made s o me c on t r ibu t ions t o o ur u nders tand ing o fr eg iona l e x change p rocesses i n Neo l ith i c B r i ta in , b u t l im ita t ions i n t h is a pproa ch c an b e i d en t if ied , a nd much r e ma ins t o b e e xp la ined a bou t s t one a xe d i spersa l . T hus , H odder 's c onc lus ions a bou t g enera l mechan isms o fd i spersa l o f a xes o fG roups Ia nd V I a re i n a g reemen t w i th t he s ugges t ions a bou t d i st r ibut ion o ft hese g roups t ha t w ere p resent ed i n t he r eg iona l
p e t ro logy r eport s ,
s o t ha t e v idence i s
a ccumu la t ing f o r ag enera l p i c ture o f d i spersa l o f G roup Ia xes t hrough s ea t rade a nd o f
4 1
G roup V I a xes t h rough o ver land g roup -t o -g roup e xchange . H owever , H odder d id n ot d ea l w i th a ny o ft he o ther r aw mat er ia l g roups o f wh ich a xes a re k nown . A lthough C lark d id d ea l w i th a n umber o f t hese , h i s i n terpreta t ions o f h i s r esu l ts a re n o t p ar t i cu lar ly e n l ight en ing . I ti sa ppa ren t , f r om C lark 's w ork i n p ar t i cu la r , t ha t a ma jor p rob lem i n t he u se o f r eg ress ion a na lys is t o i nves t iga t e d i s tr ibu t ion p rocesses i st ha t i ti s n o t y e t c l ear p re c ise ly h ow v ar iab i l i ty i nt he s hape o fr eg ress ion c urves r e lat es t o t he p oss ib le p rocesses o f mat er ia l d i st r ibu t ion t ha t w e wan t t oi nvest igat e . A f ur ther , a nd e qua l ly s er ious , p rob lem w i th r eg ress ion mode ls i s t ha t t hey a re e ssen t ia l ly t wo -d imens iona l d escr ipt ions o f d i s tr ibu t ions o f e x changed g oods ( Er i cson 1 977 :110 ) i n wh i ch a l l t he e x change i n f orma t ion f r om a r eg ion i sc o l lapsed i n t o as i ng le e qua t ion . Wh i le s uch e qua t ions m igh t a ccurat e ly d escr ibe s ymme t r i ca l e x change d i st r ibu t i on s ( i b id . ) , d ue t ot he i nf luen ce o fo ther f a ctors w i th in a r eg ion ( s ee C hap ter I V ) , s t r i c t ly s ymme t r i ca l d i s t r ibu t ions o f e x changed g oods s eem more l i ke ly t o b e t he e x cep t ion t han t he r u le . B e cause o ft h is , s i gn if i can t v ar iab i l i ty i n d i str ibu t ions o fg oods t ha t m igh t r ef lec t i mpor tan td if eren ces i ne xchange p rocesses a nd i n teract ion p a t t erns w i th in ar eg ion w ou ld b e masked i n ar eg ress ion e qua t ion d escr ip t ion ( i b id . ) . R ecogn iz ing t he l im i ta t ions o f t wo -d imens iona l mode ls o f e x change d i st r ibu t ions , H odder t urned t o t hree -d imens iona l r andom -wa lk s imu la t ions o f s t one a xe d i spersa l ( E l l io t t , E l lman , a nd H odder 1 978 ) .
I n t hese s imu la t ions , a xes w ere a l lowed t o " wa lk"
w i th in a t wo -d imens iona l g r id s ymbo l iz ing a map o f G rea t B r i ta in ( i b id . :81 ) . I n t h i s way , t he s imu la t ions i n corpora ted d i rec t ion a s w e l l a s d i stan ce f r om t he s our ce i n wh i ch t he a bundan ce o f a xes c ou ld v a ry ( h ence t he t hree d imens ions : d i re c t ion ) .
a bundan ce , d i s tan ce , a nd
I n a dd i t ion , a xes f r om t wo s ources ( o f t he t hree c hosen f o r i nves t iga t ion :
G roups I ,V I , a nd V I I ) w ere a l lowed t o " wa lk" a t t he s ame t ime i n a n a t tempt t o mode l t he i nf luence o fa l terna t ive s ources o n d i s t r ibut ions o fe xchanged g oods . T he a u thors r e cogn ized a nd o u t l ined a n umber o f p rob lems i n t h is i nvest iga t ion ( E l l io t t e t a l . 1 978 :85-87 ) . P erhaps t he most s er ious o f t hese i nvo lves t he a ssump t ion o n
4 2
wh ich t he who le e xerc ise i sb ased : t ha t a l l g roups o fB r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes w ere d i s t r ibut ed t hrough s imp le , o ver land , v i l lage -to -v i l lage e xchange wh ich c an b e mode led b y r andom wa lk p rocesses .
I n t h is i nvest iga t ion , t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t s o me a xes ( e spec ia l ly
t hose o fG roup I ) May h ave b een d i s t r ibu t ed t hrough d i rec t t ranspor t t o d i s tan tc en t ers f o r s ubsequen td i spersa l was a cknow ledged a t t he o u tse t , b u t c ons idered n o f ur ther . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he g enera l ly p oor c orrespondence b etween t he r esu l t s o f s imu la t ions i nvo lv ing G roup Ia nd t he o bserved d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f t h is g roup ( i b id . :84 , T ab les 2 a nd , e spe c ia l ly , 4 ; 8 5 , F ig . 6 ; a nd 8 6 , F ig . 81)r ef lect s d i spersa l o f t hese a xes t hrough t h is a l terna t ive mechan ism . I n o rder t oc o mpa re t he r esu l t s o ft he v ar ious s imu la t ions , f o r e a ch o ne t he d if eren c es b e tween t he p red ict ed a nd o bserved r e la t ive f r equenc ies o fa xes f o r e ach c e l l o ft he g r id w ere c a l cu lat ed a nd a veraged ( E l l io t t e t a l . 1 978 :82 , 8 4 ) .
T h is a l lowed i d en t if i ca t ion , f o r
e a ch p a ir o fa xe g roups , o ft he s imu la t ion (s ) t ha t r esu l ted i nt he l owest a verage d if erences b e tween p red i c ted a nd o bserved v a lues a nd t hus b es t a pprox ima ted t he o bserved d a ta . T hese a ssessmen t s o fr e la t ive g oodness o ff i to ft he s imu la t ion r esu l t s a l lowed i d en t if i ca t ion o f t he s tat es o f t he v ar iab les d ef in ing t he r andom wa lk p rocesses t ha t b es t p red ic t ed t he o bserved d a ta . F or G roups V I a nd V I I , s imu la t ions b ased o n s t ep l eng ths o f 1 50-175 km w ere o bserved t of i tt he a ctua l d a ta b est , wh i le f o r G roup I ,s imu la t ions b ased o n as hort er s t ep l e ng th o f 1 00 km f i t b est ( i b id . :83 ) . T he i mp l ica t ions o f t hese r esu lt s i nt e rm s o ft he r e la t ive d i stan ces o ver wh i ch a xes o f e ach g roup w ere moved b e tween e x chang e t ransa c t i ons a re d i rec t ly o ppos it e t o t he c on c lus ions H odder d rew f r om h i s t wo -d imens iona l r an d om wa lk s tud ies d i scussed a bove .
I n t h is c ase , i t wa s s ugges ted t ha t r easons f o r t he
s hor ter s t ep l e ng th a ssoc ia ted w i th G roup Ia xes m igh t b e r e la ted t o d if erences i n v a lue b e tween t hese a xes a nd t hose o f G roups V I a nd V I I o r p oss ib ly t o " h igher p opu lat ion d en s i t ies a nd g reat er l o ca l ised w ea l th i n t he l a ter p er iod" i n wh ich G roup I a xe s w ere
1I n F ig s . 6a nd 8 , n ote e spec ia l ly t he c ons ist en t ly g rea t er p ercentages o f G roup I a xes o bserved i n a rea s a t l ong d i s tances f r om t he s ource ( i . e . , 3 00+ km ) t han w ere s imu l a ted t ot hose a reas .
4 3
p r ima r i ly d i st r ibut ed ( i b id . :85 ) .
H owever , n o a t te mp t was made t o d emons t ra t e s uch
r e la t ionsh ips . T he r ea l v a lue o f t hree -d imens iona l s imu la t ions o f t h is s or t w ou ld s eem t o l i e i n a ssess ing where t he p red ic ted r esu l t s a pprox ima t e t he a ctua l d a ta a nd where t hey d o n o t , a nd t hen s eek ing e xp lana t ions f o r t he o bserved a no ma l ies . H owever , t h is was n ot d one i n t h is c ase . A l though t he s imu la t ions w ere t hree -d imens iona l , t he r esu l t s w ere d i scussed i n t wo -d imens iona l t e rms .
T hus , t he p ub l ished r esu lt s o f t h is i nves t iga t ion a re n o t mu ch
more i n f orma t ive a bou t p rocesses o fs t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion t han w ere t he r esu l t s o fr eg res s i on a na lyses a nd t wo -d imens iona l r andom wa lk s imu la t ions .
T hree -D imens iona l Mode ls o fS t one A xe D is t r ibu t ions : R e la t ive F requen cy C ont ou r Maps
A l though H odder 's a t temp t s a t r eg ress ion a na lys is a nd r andom wa lk s imu la t ion o f s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ions i nvo lved d ata f r om more t han o ne r eg iona l p e t ro logy r epor t , t he f i rs t a t tempt s t o s yn thes ize s t one a xe d a ta f r om a l l a rea s o fB r ita in w ere made b y C um m ins ( 1974 , 1 978 , 1 979 ) .
H e r ecogn ized t ha t c oun t ry -w ide d i s t r ibu t ion maps o f a xes
w ou ld b e s t rong ly i nf luenced b y r eg iona l v a r ia t ions i n n umbers o f a xes t ha t m igh t b e r e la ted t o f a ct ors o ther t han e xchange .
S uch f a c tors m igh t i n c lude N eo l i th i c p opu la t ion
d ens i ty a nd t he i n tens i ty o f p reh ist or i c a ct iv i ty , t he i n tens i ty o f a r chaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ing , a nd t he p ercen tages o f k nown a xes t ha t w ere e xam ined p e t ro log i ca l ly .
T o o ver come t h is
p rob lem , C umm ins d ec ided t o w ork w i th r e la t ive f r equency a s a measure o f a xe a bun d ance . F or h i s i nves t iga t ion o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion , C umm ins u sed p ub l ished a nd u npub l ished d a ta f r om a l l o fE ng land a nd Wa les , a nd h e l o oked a t t he e i gh t mos t a bundan t a xe g roups . T hese h e d et erm ined t ob e , i no rder o fd e crea s ing a bun d ance , G roups V I , I ,V I I , V I I I , XV I I I , XX , XV I , a nd I V ( Cumm ins 1 979 :7 ) .1 F or e a ch
1I n h i s c a lcu la t ions o f a xe a bundan ce , C umm ins c ount ed f ragmen t s o f a xes a s h a l f a n a xe a nd f l akes f r om a xes a s o ne q ua r ter a xe . I n t he p resen t i nves t iga t ion , o n ly c or n -
4 4
g roup , h e c a l cu la t ed t he r e la t ive a bundance o fa xes a s ap er centage o ft he t o ta l n umber o f s t one a xes i n 5 0 km s quares , a nd h e d rew c on toured maps o ft hese r e la t ive f r equency d i s t r ibu t ions ( i b id . ) . F or G roups V I I , V I I I , XV I I I , XX , XV I , a nd I V , C umm ins ( 1979 :7 ) n ot ed t ha t t he maps " show a c oncen t r i c p a t tern f o r e ach g roup , c en t red a bou t a max imum , a nd v ery c l ear ly c on t ro l led b y t he l o ca t ion o f t he a xe f a ct ory o r p resumed s our ce a rea f o r t he g roup ." T h is i st he p a t tern o fa xe a bundance t ha t w ou ld b e e xpe c ted i ft he a xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted o u tward f r om t he s ources t hrough g roup -t o -g roup e xchange . H owever , i nn one o f t hese c ases a re t he c ont our l i nes u n if orm ly c oncen t r i c a round t he s our ce ( i b id . :8-10 , F igs . 4 -6 ) . T he o bservab le e ccen t r i c i t ies i n c lude s kewed d i st r ibu t ions a nd "m in i cen ter s" o f h igher r e la t ive f r equency t han i s s een i n s urround ing a reas a t s o me d i s tan ce f r om t he s our ces . R easons f o r t hese m inor v ar ia t ions a re n o t d i scussed b y C umm in s .
C lea r ly f ur -
t her w ork i s n eeded t o c l ar ify wha t t hey mean i n t e rms o f r eg iona l e x change s ys tem o pera t ion a nd p a t terns o fi n teract ion among g roups . I n c on t ras t t ot he g enera l ly s our ce -cen tr ic r e la t ive f r equen cy d i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns o f mos t g roups , C umm ins ( 1979 ) o bserved v ery d if eren t p a t terns f o r G roups Ia nd V I . F or e ach o f t hese g roups , t he a rea w i th t he g rea tes t r e la t ive f r equency o f a xes w as n o t t he s ource a rea b u t a n a rea s o me d i s tan ce away . F or G roup I ,t he a rea o f g rea tes t r e la t ive f r equency o f a xes wa s o n t he E ssex c oas t ( i b id . :11 , F ig . 7 ) , wh i le f o r G roup V I , t he g rea tes t r e la t ive f r equency o f a xes wa s s een i n t he Humbers ide a rea o ft he Y orksh i re a nd L inco lnsh ire c oas t s ( i b id . :F ig . 8 ) .
T o e xp la in t hese d i st r ibu t ions , C umm ins p roposed a
mode l o ft wo -stage t rade . H e s uggest ed ( i b id . :9 ) t ha t t he d i spersa l o f t he a xes t o ok p la ce i n t wo s tages :— ( i ) movemen t o f t he b u lk o ft he f a c tory p roduct s t o ad i s tan t c en t re o r c en t res , a nd ( i ) d i spersa l f r om t hese c en t res , i nt he s ame way a s t he o ther g roups s pread o u tf r om t he a xe f a ctor ies t hem se lves .
p le t e a xes a re c ons idered . T h is a ccoun t s f o r t he d i screpancy b e tween C umm ins 's r ank ing o fo vera l l a xe g roup a bundan ce a nd my o wn ( s ee T ab le 7 . 2 ) .
4 5
A ccord ing t o t h is mode l , a xes f r om L ake D is tr i c t s ources , p a r t icu lar ly G roup V I , w ou ld h ave b een moved i n q uan t i ty t o t he Humbers ide a rea , f r om where t hey w ou ld h ave b een t raded t o g roups i nt he r es t o fY orksh ire a nd i n c oun t ies t ot he s ou th a nd w es t , wh i le a xes f r om C orn ish s ources , p ar t icu la r ly G roup I ,w ou ld h ave b een s h ipped i n b u lk a l ong t he s ou th c oas t t ot he E ssex a rea , f r om where t hey w ou ld h ave b een t raded i n land .' A l though C umm ins 's mode l o f t wo -stage t rade i s c l ea r ly s uggested b y t he r e la t ive f r equen cy d i s t r ibu t ion maps , a ma jor p rob lem i nw ork ing w i th p er cen tages a s measures o f a bundance a nd i nd ica tors o fd i s t r ibu t ion p rocesses mus t b e s t ressed . P er cen tages o fi t ems i n a n a rea f r om d if eren t s ources a re n ecessar i ly i n t erdependen t .
B ecause o f t h is ,
v ar iab i l i ty i n t he a bundance o fi t ems f r om o ne s ource , wh ich may b e r e la ted t o t he p roces s es o fd i s t r ibu t ion o ft hose i t ems , w i l l r esu l t i nv ar iab i l i ty i nt he p ercen tages o fi t ems f r om o ther s ou rces t ha t a re u nre lat ed t o p rocesses o f d i s tr ibu t ion o f t hose i t ems .
T hus , i f
u nusua l ly l a rge n umbers o fi t ems f r om o ne s our ce a re p resen t i n a n a rea f o r s o me r eason r e la t ed t o p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion f r om t ha t s ource , t he p ercen tages o f i t ems f r om a l l o ther s ou r ces w i l l b e d epressed i n t ha t a rea .
S im i lar ly , i fo n ly sma l l n umbers o f i t ems
f r om o ne s our ce a re p resen ti na n a rea d ue t oa spect s o ft he d i s tr ibu t ion p rocesses o ft hose i t ems , t he p ercen tages o fi t ems f r om a l l o ther s ources w i l l b e i nf la ted i nt ha t a rea . I n b o th i n stan ces , t hen , s o me p or t ion o f t he v ar iab i l i ty i n p er cen tages o f t he o ther i t ems i su nre l a ted t op rocesses o fd i st r ibu t ion o ft hose i t ems . B ecause p ercen tages o fi t ems may v ary i n ways t ha t a re u nre la ted t o t he p ro cesses o f d i st r ibu t ion o f t hose i t ems , i ti sc l ear t ha t t o i n t erpre t s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i np ercen tages o fi t ems d i rect ly i n t e rms o fd i s t r ibu t ion p roces -
" In t he c ase o f G roup I ,C umm ins w en t o n t o s ugges t t ha t L ondon w ou ld h ave b een ab e t t er c ent er f o r s econdary d i s t r ibu t ion t han t he E ssex c oas t , h av ing b e t ter c o mmun i ca t i on c onnec t ions w i th o ther a reas o f s ou thern B r ita in ( Cumm ins 1 979 :10 ) . H e s ugges ted t ha t t he sma l ler r e la t ive f r equen cy o fG roup Ia xes t ha t i so bserved i n t he L ondon a rea a s c o mpared w i th t he E ssex c oas t m igh t b e d ue t o t wo f a c tors : f i rs t , t he p resen ce o f many a xes o f o ther g roups i nt he L ondon r eg ion m igh t t end t o r educe t he r e la t ive i mpor tance o f G roup Ii nt ha t a rea ( i b id . :12 ) , a nd s econd , t he h igh r e la t ive f r equen cy o fG roup Ia xes o n t he E ssex c oast m igh t b e p r ima r i ly a r esu l t o f a cc identa l l and ing s a nd s h ipwrecks ( i b id . :10 ) .
4 6
s es may b e m is lead ing .
T heref ore , a s a ppea l ing a s C umm ins 's t wo -stage mode l o f t rade
may b e , i t s v a l id i ty s hou ld b e a ssessed f ur ther b ef ore b e ing f u l ly a ccep ted . I n a n a t temp t t o d emons t rat e f ur ther t he e x is ten ce o f t he p a t terns s hown b y h i s r e la t ive f r equen cy d i st r ibut ions , C umm ins a l so p resen ted p l ot s o f c umu la t ive p er cen tages o f a xes f r om e a ch s ource i n d i stance b ands o fu n if orm w id th a round t he s our ce ( Cumm ins 1 979 :8-11 , F ig s . 4 -8 ) . T he c umu la t ive p ercen tage p l o t s f o r t he a pparen t ly s our ce -cen tr i c g roups a ppeared t o d emonst ra te t ha t t he g rea t est n umbers o fk nown a xes o f t hose g roups w ere f ound c l ose t o t he s ources w ith l e sser n umbers f ound f ur ther away .
I n c ont ras t , t he
c umu la t ive p er centage p l o ts f o r G roups Ia nd V I t ended t ou pho ld t he e c cen t r i c max ima o f t he r e la t ive f r equen cy maps b y d emons tra t ing t ha t t he g rea tes t n umbers o fk nown a xes o f t hese g roups w ere f ound i na nd a round t hose a reas . H owever , t he u se o f c umu la t ive p ercen tage p l ot s a s i nd i cat or s o f a xe d i spersa l p a t t e rns i s more p rob lema t i c t han t he u se o fr e la t ive f r equency c on tour maps .
S in ce c umu la -
t i ve p ercen tage p l ot s a re b ased o n a bso lu te n umber s o fi t em s i n d if eren t a reas , t hey may b e i nf luenced b y a l l o ft he s ame f a ctors t ha t w ere s uggested a bove a s p ot en t ia l ly af ec t ing s imp le d i st r ibu t ion maps . T hey a l so s uf f er f r om t he g enera l l im i ta t ions o ft wo -d imens iona l mode ls o f d i str ibu t ion d a ta .
I n a dd i t ion , af ur ther p rob lem i sa pparen t .
T h is i st ha t t he
a rea c overed b y b ands o fu n if orm w id th i n creases w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om a c en ter , s o a n i n crease i nt he f r equen cy o fa xes i nd i stance b ands a t l ong d i s tances f r om t he c en ter m ight b e r e lated t o t he i n crease i na rea r a ther t han t oa ny s i gn if i can t a spec to fa xe d i sper s a l . C umm ins a dd ressed t he l a t ter p rob lem i n a more r ecen t p ub l ica t ion ( Cumm in s 1 980 ) . I n t h is p aper , h e a t temp ted t oc on t ro l f o r t he f a ctor o fc umu la t ive i n crea se i na rea w i th d i s tan ce f r om c en ters o f d i s t r ibu t ion s o t ha t v ar ia t ion i n a bso lu te f r equen cy o f a xes c ou ld b e a ssessed more a ccurat e ly .
T o d o t h is , h e c a lcu la ted t he f r equen cy o f a xes o f
G roups I ,V I , a nd V I I p er g n i t a rea a nd p l ot t ed t hese f r equen c ies i n r e la t ion t o d i s tance f r om t he s ource a nd /or t he h ypothes ized s econdary c en ters o f d i s t r ibu t ion .
T hese p l ot s
4 7
w ere c o mpa red w ith p l o t s o f r e la t ive f r equency o f a xes i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s ou r ces o r s e condary c ent ers . F rom t h is , C umm ins c on c luded t ha t t he a bso lut e f r equency o fa xes d ecreased w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ce i n t he c ase o f G roup V I I , a nd f r om t he s econdary c ent ers o fd i st r ibu t ion , i nt he c a ses o fG roup Ia nd G roup V I , i n mu ch t he s ame way a s r e la t ive f r equenc ies w ere o bserved t od e crease . A t t he s ame t ime , C umm ins d i scovered t ha t v a r ia t ion i n t he a bso lut e f r equen cy o f a xe s was r e lat ed t o r eg iona l v ar ia t ions i n p opu la t ion d ens i ty , w i th a reas o f l a rge p opu la t i on r ece iv ing l a rger a bso lu te n umbers o f a xes t han t he ir d i s tan ces f r om t he s our ce w ou ld p red ict .
I n d i scuss ing t h i s s i tua t ion , C umm in s ( 1980 :59 ) s ugges ted t ha t t rade " passed
t hrough a reas o f l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty . . .a nd i n t o more p opu lous a reas" ( emphas is o r ig ina l ) .
I n r ef erence t o G roup V I I , h e s ugges ted t ha t t h is i nvo lved " d irect c on tac t
b e tween t he P enmaenmaw r [ s our ce ] a rea a nd t he P eak D is t r ic t , a nd t ha t t he a xes w ere ' t raded ' i nb u lk , a l ong aw e l l d ef ined ' t rade r ou te" ( i b id . :59 ) . H owever , i t may b e q uest ioned whe ther t he me chan ism o f d i rec t , b u lk t ranspor t i s n ecessary t o a ccoun t f o r t he a ppearan ce o f l a rger a bso lut e n umbers o f a xes i n a rea s o f h igh N eo l i th i c p opu la t ion d en s i ty t han w ou ld b e p red i c ted b y t he ir d i stances f r om t he a xe s ou rces . I tw i l l b e s ugges t ed i n t he n ex t c hap ter t ha t , i nt heory a t l e as t , g roups s hou ld b e a b le t o o bta in s upp l ies o f n eeded g oods i n p ropor t ion t ot he i r p opu la t ion t hrough c hanne ls o fo rd inary r e c iproca l g roup to -group e x change . T h is h a s i mp l ica t ions f o r t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f G roups Ia nd V I , a s w e l l a s a xes o f G roup V I I .
F or e ach o ft hese g roups , t he
a reas o fh ighes t a xe a bundan ce a re a l so a reas o f a ppa ren t ly h igh N eo l i th i c p opu la t ion , a s i nd i ca ted b y d i s t r ibu t ions o f N eo l i th i c a r t i fac t s o f v ar ious t ypes .
T hus , f o r a l l o f t hese
g roups , i ti su nc lear whe ther d i rec t , b u lk t ranspor ti sn ecessary t oa ccoun tf o r t he o bserved p a t terns o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion o r whe ther g roup -t o -g roup e x change o u tward f r om t he s ou rce , o r , i ndeed , s ome o ther me chan ism o fd i spersa l , m igh tb e more a ppropr ia te . F ina l ly , i n C umm in s 's 1 980 p aper , h e a t tempt ed t o g o b eyond t he p rob lem o f a xe d i spersa l me chan ism s a nd l o ok a t a xe d i st r ibu t ion p a t t erns i nt e rms o f s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion .
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H e d escr ibed a n a pparen t s h if t i nt he d i s tan ce d ecay p a t terns o fb o th a bso lu te a nd r e la t ive f r equenc ies o f G roup V I a xes a t t he b ounda ry o f t he a rea where t h is g roup i st he mos t a bundan t s i ng le g roup ( wh i ch h e c a l led " S ix L and" ) . W i th in t h is a rea , t he d ecrease i n a xe a bundance i sv ery g radua l w i th d i stance f r om t he Humbers ide max imum , b u t b eyond i t t he d ecrease s udden ly b ecomes mu ch more r ap id ( i b id . :52 , F ig . 7 ; 5 6 , F ig . 1 0 ) . C umm ins i n terpre ted t h is s h if ti n t e rms o fN eo l i th ic t r iba l t e rr i tor ies ( i b id . :45 ) . H owever , b e cause o f t he c l ose r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a bso lu te a xe a bundance a nd p opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd b e tween r e lat ive f r equen cy o fa xes a nd t he a va i lab i l i ty o fa xes f r om o ther s our ces , i t may b e q uest ioned whe ther t he o bserved s h if t i n d i stance d ecay v a lues i sr ea l ly r e la ted t o t he e x istence o f s i gn if i can t s oc ia l b ounda r ies o r whe ther i t may s imp ly r ef lec t ac hange i n p opu la t ion d ens i ty o r t he e x is tence o f a l t erna t ive s our ces i n ar eg iona l e xchange s ys tem . C lear ly t he v a l id i ty o f t h i s p a t tern a nd i t s s i gn if i cance i n t e rms o f r eg iona l e xchange p rocesses , i n terac t ion p a t terns , a nd N eo l i th ic s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion i sw or thy o ff ur ther i nves t i gat ion .
S ummary o fA pproa ches B ased o n A bso lu t e o r R e la t ive F requen c ies o f Axes
An umber o fa t temp t s t o i nves t iga te a nd c l a r ify p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fs t one a xe d i spersa l i n N eol i th i c B r i ta in h ave b een b ased o n n umbers o f a xes , e i ther a bso lu te n um b ers , i n t he c ases o f t he s imp le r eg iona l d i s tr ibu t ion maps a nd C umm in s 's s tud ies o f a bso lu te a bundan ce , o r r e la t ive f r equen c ies , i n t he c ases o f t he r eg ress ion a na lyses , s imu la t ion s tud ies , a nd C umm in s 's r e la t ive f r equency c on tou r maps . H owever , i ne a ch o f t hese c ases , g enera l p rob lems w i th t he a pproach i t se lf a nd s pec if i c p rob lems i n i t s a ppl i ca t i on t o t he B r i t ish N eol i th i c s t one a xe d ata h ave b een i d en t if ied .
B ecause o f t hese
p rob lems , t he r esu l t s a nd c onc lus ions o f t hese a na lyses n eed t o b e c or roborat ed b y o ther i n f orma t ion b ef ore t hey may b e f u l ly a ccep ted . Wha t i sn eeded t o c l ar ify t he d eve lop ing p i c ture o f p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l i sa n a l terna t ive way o f a na lyz ing t he d a ta t ha t w i l l s erve a s au sefu l c om -
4 9
p l emen tt ot he a xe a bundan ce s tud ies . I dea l ly , s u ch a n a pproach w ou ld i ndependen t ly t e s t t he c on c lus ions r ea ched i n t hese s tud ies a nd i n s o d o ing e i ther a dd c onf i rma tory w e igh t t o t hem o r i nd icat e ways i n wh ich t hey m igh tb e mod if ied . T he a l t erna t ive a pproach t ha t w i l l b e p resent ed i nt h is i nvest iga t ion i nvo lves t he a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log i c a l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes .
S tone A xe Morpho logy a nd D is t r ibu t ion : C r i t ique o f aP re l im inary S tudy
I n a n i n t e l lec tua l c l i ma te i n wh ich c er ta in b road p rob lems , s uch a s t he s tudy o f p reh ist or ic e xchange , b ecome p opu lar , a nd c er ta in s e t s o f d a ta , s uch a s t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xe d a ta , a re r e cogn ized a s p ar t icu la r ly s u i ted t ot he i nves t iga t ion o ft hose p rob lem s , o f ten n ew a pproa ches a re s een a s l og i ca l o u tg row ths o f p rev iou s a pproa ches a nd , a s s uch , a re p ursued b y i ndependen t r esearchers a t t he s ame t ime . T hus , wh i le t he d a ta w ere b e ing c o l lec ted f o r t h is i nves t iga t ion , H odder a nd L ane p resen ted t he r esu l t s o fa p re l im inary s tudy o f t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in a t t he Annua l Mee t ing o f t he S oc ie ty f o r Amer ican A r chaeo logy i n May 1 980 ( Hodder a nd L ane 1 980 ) .
T h is h as s i nce b een p ub l ished a s H odder a nd L ane 1 982 .
Wh i le t h is s tudy i n s o me ways a n t ic ipat ed t he p resen ti nves t iga t ion , an umber o fp rob lems i ni t s t heore t ica l f ramework , a na ly t ica l p ro cedures , a nd c onc lus ions c an b e o u t l ined . H odder a nd L ane c l ea r ly r ecogn ized b o th t he i n con c lus iveness o f t he r esu l t s o f p rev iou s a xe d i st r ibu t ion s tud ies a nd t he p o ten t ia l t ha t t he s tudy o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes m igh t h ave f o r e l uc ida t ing p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion . I n t he ir p aper , t hey p resen ted f our mode ls r e la t ing a xe d imens ions a nd d i st r ibu t ion p roces s es a nd t hen a t temp ted t o t e s t t hese w ith s evera l s e t s o f N eo l i th ic s t one a xe d a ta .
A s a
b a ckg round t o t he p resen t i nves t iga t ion , i ti s w e l l w or th e xam in ing H odder a nd L ane 's mode ls i ns o me d eta i l . I n t he ir mode ls o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion , H odder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) w ere c oncerned w i th r e la t ionsh ips
among
v a lue
a nd
f unct ion
o f
a xes ,
a xe
d imens ions ,
a nd
e xchange
5 0
mechan isms .
I n t he ir f i rs t mode l , Mode l A , t hey s uggested t ha t l a rger a xes w ou ld h ave
h ad a h igher v a lue a s p rest ige i t ems t han s ma l ler a xes wh i ch w ou ld h ave b een p r imar i ly u t i l i tar ian i n f un c t ion .
H odder a nd L ane p roposed t ha t , b ecause o f t he i r h igher v a lue ,
l a rge a xes m igh t h ave b een h anded o n o ver g rea ter d i stan ces f r om t he ir s ources t han s ma l ler , l e ss v a luab le a xes , wh ich m igh t h ave b een r ep laced a t l ong d i stances f r om t he s our ces b y u t i l i tar ian a xes o f l o ca l ly a va i lab le mat er ia ls .
I n t h is s i tua t ion , t he a verage
s i ze o fa xes f r om a ny o ne s ource w ou ld t end t o i n crease w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s ource a s t he sma l l a xes d ropped o u t o ft he e xchange n e tworks n earer t he s our ce a nd t he l a rge a xes c on t inued o nward .
A l though t h is mode l i sn o t c l ear ly b ased o n a ny p a r t icu lar
e thnog raph ic o bserva t ions , o ther a u thors ( e .g . , R enf rew 1 977 ) h ave n o ted t he g rea ter t rave l l ing p ower o f h igh v a lue g oods , s o t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t l a rger a xes may h ave b een moved f ur ther f r om t he ir s our ces t han s ma l ler o nes i sw or th i nvest iga t ing . H odder a nd L ane 's s econd mode l , Mode l B , i sb ased o n e thnograph i c d a ta c on cern ing s t one a xe p roduc t ion , u se , a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i nt he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea .
A ccord ing t o
t h is mode l , l a rger a xes w ou ld a ga in h ave b een r egarded a s more v a luab le , f o r b o th d i sp lay a nd w ork , t han s ma l ler a xes , b u t a s s u ch t hey m igh t h ave b een r e ta ined b y g roups l i v ing n ear t he s ources , wh i le sma l ler , l e ss v a luab le a xes w ere p assed o n i n e xchange . A s t hese a xes w ere p assed f r om p erson t o p erson , t hey w ou ld h ave b een u sed , b roken , a nd t hus r educed i n s i ze . I n t h is s i tua t ion , t he a verage s i ze o fa xes f r om a ny o ne s our ce w ou ld t end t od ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource . H odder a nd L ane 's r e ma in ing t wo mode ls , Mode ls C a nd D , a ppear n o t t o b e b ased i n a ny r e cogn izab le way o n e thnog raph i c o bserva t ions o f e x change p rocesses . F or Mode l C , i tw ou ld a ppea r t ha t H odder a nd L ane c ons idered t he e xpecta t ions o f t he f i rs t t wo mode ls , i . e . , a verage s i ze o f a xes i n creas ing w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource i n Mode l A a nd a verage s i ze o f a xes d ecreas ing w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource i n Mode l B , a nd r ea l ized t ha t t he r e ma in ing p oss ib le g enera l p a t tern t ha t m igh t b e s een was t ha t t here w ou ld b e n o r ecogn izab le c hange i n a xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he
5 1
s ou r ce .
T he d i scuss ion o f Mode l C wa s i n i t iat ed w i th t h is e xpecta t ion , a nd t hen a n
a t t emp t t oe xp la in h ow t h is p at tern m igh t a r ise wa s p resent ed . H odder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) c ons idered t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t l o ng d i stan ce b u lk t rade a nd / o r a c t iv it ies o ft rad ing m idd lemen m igh th ave moved a xes o fa l l s i zes t ol o ca t ions a t a l l d i s t an ces f r om t he s ources , b u t t hey c on c luded ( i b id . :218 ) t ha t , I t d oes n o t s eem p oss ib le t o a rgue f o r ma jor s e condary c en ters o f b u lk r ed is t r ibu t i on .. . and i n a ny c ase t here i sn o th ing i n wha t w e k now o ft he n a ture o ft h ird m i l l e nn ium B .C . s oc ie ty i n B r i ta in t ha t w ou ld l e ad u s t o e xpec t s u ch l a rge -sca le b u lk s h ipmen t s . T h is w ou ld s eem t o b e ar a ther t o o h as ty d i sm issa l o f t he p oss ib i l i ty o f b u lk t r anspor t o f g oods t o d i s tan t c en ters o f d i s tr ibu t ion . T here i se thnog raph i c e v idence f r om t he i s land c o mmun i t ies o f Me lanes ia ( Hard ing 1 967 ) t ha t t ranspor t o f l o ad s o f g oods b y b oa t o ver v ery l ong d i stan ces was u nder taken b y g roups n o more c o mp lex ly o rgan ized t han t he N eo l i th ic B r it ons a ppea r t oh ave b een . R a ther t han d i sm iss t he p oss ib i l i ty o fb u lk t r anspor t o f g oods , t h is w ou ld s eem t ob e j us t t he s or t o fh ypothes is , b ased o n a na lys is o f a xe f r equency d ata a nd f i rm ly e spoused b y a no ther r espec ted w orker i nt he f i e ld ( Cumm ins 1 974 , 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 980 ) , t ha t c ou ld b e t e sted w i th a xe morpho logy d a ta . Hav ing d i sm issed l o ng d i stance b u lk t rade a nd m idd le man t rade a s means o f mov ing a xes o fe qua l s i zes t hroughou t B r i ta in , H odder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) s eemed r a ther h ard p u t t o f i nd a nother p rocess t ha t w ou ld a ccomp l ish t h is .
T hey s ugges ted ( i b id . :218 ) t ha t " some
l e ss o rgan ized , sma l ler s ca le , d i rec t c on ta c t w i th t he s our ce a rea s may h ave o c cur red a t a l l d i s tan ces w i th in t he a xe d i s t r ibu t ions ." H odder a nd L ane 's ( 1982 ) Mode l Dr epresen t s ac o mb ina t ion o fe l emen t s o f Mode ls B a nd C .
A s i n Mode l C , t hey s t i l l s ugges ted d i rec t c on ta c t w i th s ources b y a xe -us ing
g roups a t a l l d i s tances f r om t he s our ces . B u tt hey n o ted ( i b id . :218 ) t ha t , S ome c oncep t ion o f t he d if i cu l ty o f g e t t ing t o t he s ource . .. d is t ingu i shes Mode l D f r om Mode l C , a nd i nd ica tes a s oc ia l e nv ironmen t t ha t i s , i ns o me s ense , b ounded s o t ha t movemen t s o fl a rge n umbers o f a xes o ver l o ng d i s tances c anno t b e made w i th e ase .
5 2
I n t h is s i tua t ion , H odder a nd L ane s uggest ed t ha t e ven t hough g roups may h ave b een g e t t ing a xes d i rect ly f r om s our ces , g roups l o ca ted f ur ther f r om t he s ources may h ave h ad g rea ter d if i cu l ty i n g e t t ing a xes t han g roups l o ca ted n earer t he s our ces , a nd s o t hey w ou ld h ave b een f o rced t o u se a nd r euse t he a xes l o nger t han t he g roups n earer t he s our c es , r esu l t ing i n g rea ter s i ze r educ t ions f ur ther away . t i on f o r t h is mode l i s t he s ame a s f o r Mode l B :
T hus , t he a r chaeo log i ca l e xpec ta -
t ha t t he a verag e s i ze o f a xes w ou ld
d ecrease w i th i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t he ir s our ce .
A l though H odder a nd L ane r ecog -
n i zed t ha t t he ir Mode ls B a nd D h ad t he s ame a rchaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ions , t hey o f ered n o s ugges t ion o f h ow t he d if eren t p rocesses m igh t b e d i s t ingu ished f r om e ach o ther i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord . A f ter o u t l in ing t he ir f our mode ls , H odder a nd L ane p roceeded t o t e s t t hem u s ing d a ta o n d imens ions o f a xes f r om f i ve o f t he b es t k nown a nd mos t p roduc t ive s our ces ( Groups I ,V I , V I I , V I I I , a nd XX ) . T he ir b as ic p rocedure was t of i nd a verage v a lues o ft he d imens ions f o r a l l o ft he a xes f r om e ach s ource i n 3 0 km d i s tance b ands a round t he s our ce . T hey t hen i n spec ted t hese a verage v a lues f o r e v idence o f a ny o f t he t hree p a t terns p red ict ed b y t he f ou r mode ls . H odder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) n o ted t ha t t he l e ng ths o ft he a xes o fG roup V I I a nd G roup Ia ppea red t o s how s o me p a t t ern o f s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s our c es , wh i le t h is wa s n o t t he c a se f o r t he o ther t hree g roups . T hey a l so l o oked f o r p a t t erned b ehav ior o f e dge a ng les i n r e la t ion t o d i s tance f r om t he s ources b u t c ou ld s ee n o c l ear t r ends among t he d a ta . T hey t hen r easoned t ha t t he a verage v a lues t hey h ad t aken m igh t b e " i nsens i t ive t o d e ta i led i n t erre la t ionsh ips b e tween t he d if eren t v ar iab les" ( i b id . :227 ) a nd t ha t t hese i n terre la t ionsh ips m igh t b e more i nd ica t ive o f p a t terned c hanges i n a xe morpho logy w ith d i s tance f r om t he s our ces . I n o rder t o r eso lve t h is p rob lem , t hey c arr ied o u t p r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na lyses o n t he d a ta u s ing v a lues f o r l eng th , w id th , t h ickness , e dge a ng le , a nd d i stance f r om t he s our ce a s t he v ar iab les .
T he i r r esu l t s w ere s im i la r f o r t he a xes f r om e a ch s ource :
f o r
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e a ch g roup o f a xes , t wo s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponent s were i d ent if ied .
T he
f i rst
a ccounted f o r 5 0-60% o f t he t o ta l v ar iab i l i ty , a nd t he v ar iab les t ha t h ad h igh p os i t ive v a lues i n t h is c o mponen t w ere l eng th , w id th , a nd t h ickness .
T h is i s h ard ly r e markab le
a nd n o d oub t r ef lects t he t endency f o r s t one a xes t o b e o f t he s ame g enera l s hapes a nd s i zes d ue t o f unct iona l c ons iderat ions ( Coope 1 979 ) .
T he s econd c o mponen t a ccoun ted f o r
o n ly 1 5-20% o f t he v ar iab i l i ty , a nd i n t h is c o mponen t h igh v a lues f o r e dge a ng le a nd d i s t an ce f r om t he s ource w ere s een .
Hodder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) n oted t ha t t h is r esu l t s uggests
s o me c ovar ia t ion o f e dge a ng le a nd d i stance f r om t he s ource , b u t t hey a dm i t ted t ha t t he t r ends i n a ng le v ar ia t ion w ere s l igh t a nd t ha t t he r esu l ts o f t h is a na lys is w ere u nre mark a b le ( i b id . :230 ) . Next , H odder a nd L ane u sed t e chn iques o f s pat ia l a u tocorre lat ion a na lys is t o t ry t o o bta in more i n f ormat ion o n s pa t ia l p a tt ern ing o f t he d if eren t v ar iab les i n r e lat ion t o d i s t ance f r om t he s ources .
I n t he f i rst a t temp t , t hey f ound t ha t a xes o f G roup Ia nd G roup
V I I w ere more s im i lar t o e ach o ther w ith in a 0 -200 km d i stance b and t han t o a xes f ound a t g rea ter d i stances f r om t he s ources .
F rom 2 00 km t o 4 00 km t he a xes w ere n egat ive ly
c orre lated w i th t he a xes i n t he 0 -200 km d i stance b and , a nd i n a reas b eyond 4 00 km , n o s i gn if i can t r e lat ionsh ip w i th t he a xes n ear t he s ource c ou ld b e s een . A s econd s er ies o f s pa t ia l a utocorre lat ion a na lyses was t hen p erf ormed b ased o n 1 00 km d i stance b ands . A s ar esu l t o ft hese , Hodder a nd L ane ( 1982 :231 ) s ugges ted t hat " Groups Ia nd V I I d emonst ra te s o me o rgan izat ion i n t he a xe d imens ions w ith in b ands u p t o 3 00 km f r om t he s ource ," a nd t hey c onc luded ( i b id . ) t hat " The t wo s et s o f s pa t ia l a ut ocorre lat ion a na lyses s uggest t ha t a s o ne moves away f r om t he ma jor s ources , a xes d o c hange s i gn if i cant ly i nl eng th a nd c ut t ing -edge a ng le ." However , i fo ne l o oks a t t he t ab les o f v a lues Hodder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) o bta ined f o r t hese a na lyses ( i b id . :230 , T ab le 1 0 .4 ; 2 31 , T ab le 1 0 .5 ) , d if eren t c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn . F or G roup V I I i n t he f i rst a na lys is ( i b id . :230 , T ab le 1 0 .4 ) a nd b oth G roups V I I I a nd XX i n t he s econd a na lys is ( i b id . :231 , T ab le 1 0 .5 ) , n one o ft he s pa t ia l a utocorre la t ion v a lues w ere
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s i gn if i can t , i nd ica t ing t ha t s i gn if i can t p a t tern ing o f t he v ar iab les i n r e la t ion t o d i s tance f r om t he s our ces was n ot d i scern ib le f o r t hese a xes .
E ven f o r t he t wo g roups o f a xes f o r
wh ich s o me o ft he s pa t ia l a u tocorre la t ion v a lues w ere s i gn if ican t , q u it e af ew o ft he v a lues w ere n o t , i nd ica t ing , t o me a t l eas t , r a ther i n conc lus ive r esu l ts . H odder a nd L ane 's ( 1982 :231 ) o vera l l c onc lus ions a re a s f o l lows : T he a na lyses h ave p rov ided e v iden ce t ha t a xes c hange i nd imens ions w i th i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource a nd t ha t , i n p ar t icu la r , t he a xes o f t en d ecrease i n l e ng th . T heref ore Mode ls A a nd C h ave t ob e d i scarded i nf avor o f Mode ls B a nd D . H owever , Ib e l ieve H odder a nd L ane 's r esu l ts a re l e ss c onc lus ive t han t hey w ou ld h ave u s b e l ieve .
F or e xamp le , t hey d emons t ra t ed t ha t a xes t end t o d ecrease i n l e ng th
w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources f o r o n ly t wo o ft he f i ve s ources t hey s tud ied , a nd t he ir d emons t ra t ion f o r t hose g roups was n o t a s c onv in c ing a s o ne m igh t h ope .
F or t he
o ther g roups , t he d a ta a s H odder a nd L ane p resented t hem a re s o v ar iab le t ha t n e i ther o f t he ir o ther t wo e xpecta t ions c an b e c onv inc ing ly s a id t oa pp ly . T o b e f a i r , H odder a nd L ane ( 1982 ) d id r ecogn ize c er ta in p rob lems i n t he ir a na lys is . T hey s uggest ed ( i b id . :232 ) t ha t i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t he p rocesses o f e x change l e ad ing t o t he a xe d i s t r ibu t ions w ere n umerous . A spec ts o f Mode ls A a nd C may a l so b e r e levan t t o t he e xchange p ro cess . Y e t , s i nce t he ir a rchaeo log i ca l e xpecta t ions d if er f r om Mode ls B a nd D , t he e nd r esu l t i s ab lurred p a t tern . F rom t he d a ta p resen ted , Ia g ree w ith t h is a ssessmen t . H owever , o ne o f t he ma in r eason s f o r t he a pparen t b lurred p a t tern o f t he d a ta i st ha t H odder a nd L ane 's a na ly t ica l p rocedures w ere i nadequat e t o c l ar ify t he u nder ly ing p a t t ern s o f v ar iab i l i ty .
B y l o ok ing
o n ly a t a verage s i zes o fa xes i nu n if orm d i stance b ands a round t he s our ces , t hey c o l lapsed a g ood d ea l o f i n t erest ing v ar iab i l i ty t oge ther .
A l though t hey d i scussed a spe c t s o f
v ar iab i l i ty i n s pa t ia l p a t tern ing among a xes o f d if eren t s i zes a nd v a lues i n r ef erence t o t he ir mode ls , t hey made n o a t temp t t o i d en t ify a xes o fd if eren t s i zes o r v a lues a nd c om p are t he i r s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ions .
A l though t hey s ugges ted t ha t a xes m igh t h ave b een
e xchanged t hrough d if eren t p rocesses i n d if eren t a rea s o f t he ir t o ta l d i s t r ibu t ion , t hey made n o a t tempt t o i d en t ify i ns tances o ft h is i n t he d a ta t hey a na lyzed . I n a dd i t ion , t he ir
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a pproach i n t h is a na lys is was s t r ict ly t wo -d imens iona l , s o t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe d i st r ibu t i on p rocesses i n d if eren t d i rect ions , a s w e l l a s a t d i f f eren t d i stances , f r om t he s ources c ou ld n ot b e i d en t if ied . I n c onc lus ion , Hodder a nd L ane 's a t tempt t o i nvest igate r e la t ionsh ips b etween a xe morpho logy a nd d i st r ibu t ion p rocesses c an b e s een a s a n i n t r igu ing f i rst s t ep t owards u s ing t hese a dd it iona l d a ta t o g a in a b et ter u nderstand ing o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i s p ersa l i n N eo l ith ic B r ita in .
H owever , i ti se qua l ly c l ear t ha t t h is i so n ly a f i rst s t ep a nd
t ha t t here i s much more t ha t c an b e d one .
Hodder a nd L ane 's r esu l ts , wh i le s uggest ive ,
a re i n many ways i n conc lus ive , a nd p rob le ms h ave b een i d ent if ied i n b oth t he t heoret ica l f r amework a nd t he methodo logy o f t he s tudy . b e tween a xe
I n t he p resent e nqu iry i n t o r e la t ionsh ips
morpho logy a nd d i st r ibut ion i n Neo l i th ic B r ita in , a b roader t heoret ica l
f r amework a nd t he u se o fd if eren t a na ly t ica l t e chn iques w i l l a l low many o f t he p rob le ms i nH odder a nd L ane 's i n i t ia l i nvest iga t ion t ob e o vercome .
CHAPTER I V
THE THEORET ICAL FRA ME WORK I : D ISTR IBUT ION OF GOODS I N TR IBAL SOCIETIES
T he t heoret ica l f r amework t hat w i l l b e u t i l ized i n t he i nvest iga t ion o f p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i st r ibut ion i n Neo l ith ic B r i ta in w i l l b e d eve loped i nt h is c hapter a nd t he f o l low ing o ne .
H ere , p rocesses t hrough wh ich g oods a re d i str ibu ted among e th -
n og raph ic g roups a t l e ve ls o f s oc iopo l it ica l c o mp lex ity s im i lar t o t hose wh ich s eem l i ke ly t o h ave c ha racter ized g roups i nN eo l ith ic B r ita in w i l l b e c ons idered . I n C hapter I , g enera l a spects o f t he s oc iopo l it ica l o rgan izat ion o f B r it ish N eo l ith ic s oc iet ies , a s i n f erred f r om t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , w ere d i scussed .
T he p i cture t ha t
emerged i so ne o f b as i ca l ly e ga l itar ian , t r iba l g roups , c haracter ized b y v ary ing d eg rees o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd t he p redom inance o f a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls .
I n t he f o l low ing d i scuss ion , e thnog raph ic e v idence f r om g roups wh ich c an b e
d escr ibed i n t he s ame g enera l t e rms w i l l b e d rawn u pon f o r i n s ight s i n to t he p rocesses t hrough wh ich g oods a re d i str ibu ted i n t r iba l s oc iet ies a nd t he r esu l t ing s pa t ia l p a t terns o f t hose g oods .
R eg iona l D istr ibut ion o f Mater ia l G oods i n T r iba l S oc iet ies
A l l h uman b e ings make u se o f av ar iety o f r aw ma ter ia ls a nd f i n ished p roducts i n t he ir d ay -to -day a ct iv i t ies . g oods .
T here a re t wo ma jor ways i n wh ich t hey c an o bta in t hese
One i st hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s ources . T he o ther i st hrough e xchange ,
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5 7
e i ther w i th p eop le who h ave d i rec t a ccess t o s our ces o r w i th p eop le who h ave a l so o b ta ined t he g oods t hrough e x change w i th o ther p eop le .'
D irec t A cqu is i t ion
A s a ma jor mode o f d i s t r ibu t ion , d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om s our ces i s s e lf -descr ip t ive . T o o b ta in ma t er ia l s t hrough t h is me chan ism , p eop le s imp ly g o t o t he s ource a nd t ake t he s upp l ies t hey n eed . I n t r iba l s oc ie t ies , d i rec t a cqu is i t ion o f mat er ia ls f r om s ou rces i sg enera l ly l im i ted t o members o fg roups t ha t a re l o cat ed c l oses t t ot he s our ces , wh i le members o fg roups l o ca ted f a r ther away o b ta in t he ir s upp l ies o f t hose mat er ia ls , o r i t ems made o f t hem , t hrough e xchange w i th p eop le i n t he c l oser g roups ( e .g . , S i l l i t oe 1 978 :266 ) .
T he a c tua l d i s tances
f r om t he s our ces a nd t he s hapes o f t he a reas w i th in wh i ch d i rec t a cqu is i t ion may t ake p la ce w i l l v ary a ccord ing t o o ther f a ct ors .
T he p r imary f a ct or a ppear s t o b e p opu la t ion
d i s tr ibut ion ( i b id . ) . T hus , i f as our ce i sl o ca ted w i th in t he e f ec t ive t e rr i tory o f ag roup , t he members o f t ha t g roup w i l l o f ten c l a im a nd c ont ro l a ccess t oi t , a nd t hey may o r may n o t a l low n e igh b or ing g roups d i rec t a ccess .
T he z one o f d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f o r t he ma ter ia l f r om t ha t
s ource , t hen , w i l l c ompr ise t he t e rr it ory o f t he c ont ro l l ing g roup a nd t he t e rr i tor ies o fa ny o ther g roups wh ich may b e a l lowed d i rec t a ccess t oi t . I f , o n t he o ther h and , as ource i sl o cat ed o u ts ide t he e f ec t ive t e rr i tory o fa ny g roup , s o t ha t n o s i ng le g roup c on t ro ls a ccess t o i t( e .g . , i fi ti sl o ca ted i n a n a rea u nsu i tab le f o r h ab i ta t ion ) , members o f av ar ie ty o f d if eren t g roups , l o ca ted a t v ary ing d i s tances a nd i n d if erent d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce , may g o t o i tt o o bta in s upp l ies o f t he ma t er ia l f ound
1T he a cqu is i t ion o f g oods t hrough warfa re i s a no ther p oss ib i l i ty ( Ford 1 972 ) . H owever , i ta ppea rs t ha t warfare i sr esorted t o a s a means o f a cqu ir ing g oods o n ly when a cqu is it ion t hrough t he o ther t wo mechan isms i sn o t p oss ib le ( i b id . :2 6 ) . B ecause o f t h is a nd b ecause warfa re w ou ld s eem t o b e r a ther u nre l iab le a s as our ce o f s upp ly o f n eeded g oods ( i b id . ) , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h i s w ou ld h ave b een o fl e sser i mpor tan ce a s ad i s t r ibu t i on mechan ism t han d i rec t a cqu is i t ion a nd e xchange i n mos t c ases . F or t h is r ea son , i t w i l l n o tb e c ons idered f u r ther h ere .
5 8
t here . A ga in , t he z one o fd i rec t a cqu is i t ion o ft ha t mat er ia l may c o mpr ise t he e f ec t ive t e r r i tor ies o f an umber o fd if eren t g roups , a nd b ecause o ft h is i t may b e q u ite a symme t r ica l i n s hape . T hus , t he z one o f d i re c t a cqu is i t ion o f g oods f r om a s ource may b e r e la t ive ly s ma l l ( i . e . , t he t e rr i tory o f as i ng le c on t ro l l ing g roup ) o r i t may b e v ery l a rge ( i . e . , t he t e rr it or ies o f s evera l d if eren t g roups ) .
I n t he l a t t er s i tua t ion p a r t i cu lar ly , d i rec t a cqu is i t ion may
t ake p la ce o ver v ery l ong d i stances f r om a s ource .
I ndeed , i t may b e p oss ib le t o o b ta in
g oods f r om o ne s our ce t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion i n a n a rea o f t he s ame s i ze a s t ha t i n wh i ch g oods f r om a no ther s ource c an b e o b ta ined o n ly t hrough e x change . R egard less o f t he s i ze a nd s hape o f t he z one o f d i rec t a cqu is i t ion , g roups t ha t a re a b le t o a cqu ire r aw ma ter ia ls d i rec t ly f r om s ources c an p o tent ia l ly o b ta in a l l o f t he r aw mat er ia ls f r om t hose s our ces t ha t t hey n eed o r wan t . B ecause o ft h is , r aw mater ia ls a nd f i n ished p roduc t s made f r om t hem s hou ld b e mos t a bundan t i n t he a rea o f t he ir t o ta l d i s t r ibu t ion t ha t i st he z one o fd i rect a cqu is i t ion .
E xchange
P eop le n o t a b le t o o bta in r aw ma ter ia ls o r f i n ished p roduc t s t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t i on f r om s ou rces mus t a cqu ire t he ir s upp l ies o ft hose g oods t hrough e xchange .
T hus , t he
d es ire t o a cqu ire g oods n ot o b ta inab le t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om s ources i s a ma jor r eason f o r p eop le t o e n ter i n to a nd ma in ta in e xchange r e la t ionsh ips w i th o ther p eop le ( Ford 1 972 :22 ) , a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fg oods f r om s our ces t op eop le who wan t t hem i sa n i mpor tan t f un ct ion o fe x change s yst ems . H owever , ad es ire t o o bta in s pec if i c g oods i sn o t t he o n ly , o r i n s o me c ases e ven t he p r imary , r eason f o r p eop le t o e nt er i n to a nd ma in ta in e x chang e r e la t ionsh ips .
Ano ther ,
a nd i n s o me c ases more i mpor tan t , r eason i s t o c rea te a nd ma in ta in a l l iances .
T hese
a l l iances f o rm a s o c ia l n e twork o f p eop le who r ecogn ize t i es w i th e a ch o ther a nd who w i l l
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a ss ist e ach o ther i n t imes o f s ubs is tence f a i lure , warfare , o r o ther c r is is .
T hese t i es a re
s ymbo l ized b y e xchanges o fg i f ts . Y e t a no ther r eason f o r p eop le t oe nter i n to a nd ma in ta in e xchange r e la t ionsh ips i si n o rder t o e nhance t he ir o wn p rest ige a nd s oc ia l s tand ing . I n many t r iba l s oc iet ies , s uccess i ne xchange e ndeavors i sa n i mportant q ua l if i ca t ion f o r t he a ch ievemen t o fs ta tus a nd p os i t i ons o f g roup l e adersh ip .
T hus , i n a dd i t ion t o t he d es ire t o a cqu ire s pec if i c g oods , p eop le
a l so e nter i n t o a nd ma inta in e xchange r e la t ionsh ips f o r s oc ia l r easons . F lannery ( 1972 :129 ) h as s t ressed t ha t " spec if i c t ypes o f e xchange a nd i n teract ion a re c hara cter ist ic o fv ar ious l e ve ls o fs oc iocu ltura l c o mp lex i ty ," a nd i ti s ag enera l a ssump t i on o f s tud ies o f e xchange t ha t s pec if i c p a t terns o f d i st r ibu t ion o f e xchanged g oods a re c haracter ist ic o f s pec if i c t ypes o f e xchange .
I n t he d i scuss ion t ha t f o l lows , t ypes o f
e xchange a nd i n teract ion wh ich may b e f ound among g roups t ha t c an g enera l ly b e c hara c t e r ized a s t r iba l , b u t wh ich n everthe less may v ary i nt he d eg rees o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls t ha t a re r ecogn ized , w i l l b e e xp lored , a nd r esu lt ing d i str ibu t ions o fe xchanged g oods w i l l b e d i scussed .
G enera l C haracter ist ics o fE xchange i nT r iba l S oc iet ies
Among b as ica l ly e ga l i tar ian g roups a t t he t r iba l l e ve l o f s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion , e xchange o f mat er ia l g oods g enera l ly i nvo lves r ec iproca l t ransact ions ( Sah l ins
1 972 )
b etween i nd iv idua ls who r ecogn ize s o me s or t o f r e la t ionsh ip w i th e ach o ther . _
T hese
r e la t ionsh ips u sua l ly i nvo lve a ctua l k insh ip , a l though p u ta t ive k insh ip r e la t ionsh ips ( e .g . , J ab low 1 951 :47 ; B owers 1 965 :48 ) a nd t rade p ar tnersh ips ( Hughes 1 977 :204 ) b etween u nre la ted p ersons a re a l so r ecogn ized .
T he t ransact ions b etween t hese i nd iv idua ls may
v ary f r om c eremon ia l p res ta t ion t hrough g i f t -g iv ing t ob ar ter , a nd t hey may t ake p lace i n av ar iety o fc on tex t s r ang ing f r om c eremon ia l g a ther ings t hrough i n f orma l v i s it s w ith r e la t i ves a nd f r iends t o l onger t rade j ourneys p lanned w i th t he a im o f o bta in ing s pec if i c g oods ( Jab low 1 951 ; B owers 1 965 ; S t rathern 1 966 :119 ; F ord 1 972 ; Hughes 1 977 :7 ) .
6 0
I n t r iba l s o c ie t ies , s oc ia l d i stan ce g enera l ly v ar ies i nverse ly w i th g eog raph ica l d i s t ance .
T hus , o ne 's c l oses t r e la t ives l i ve i n o ne 's o wn c o mmun i ty , more d i s tan t ly r e la ted
p erson s l i ve i n o ther c o mmun i t ies w i th in t he t r iba l t e rr i tory , a nd u nre lat ed p ersons l i ve i n a reas o fd if eren t t r iba l t e rr it or ies . F requency o fi n t era c t ion v ar ies d i rec t ly w i th s oc ia l d i s t ance a nd t hus , i nverse ly w i th g eog raph i ca l d i stan ce .
I n s u ch a s i tua t ion , i n t era c t ion
o ccurs mos t f r equen t ly among members o ft he s ame o r n e ighbor ing c o mmun i t ies a nd l e ss f r equen t ly among members o f more d i stan t ly l o ca ted c o mmun i t ies . I nter t r iba l i n t era c t ion t ends t o b e l e as t f r equen t o f a l l , s i n ce t rave l among u nre la ted p ersons , who a re t hus s t rangers ,
i s a d angerous p ropos i t ion ( Ford
1 972 :22 ) .
I n t h is c on tex t , t hen ,
mos t
i nd iv idua l movemen t s o f g oods t ake p lace o ver r e la t ive ly s hor t d i s tances , i . e . , f r om c om mun ity t on e ighbor ing c ommun i ty . T he s imp les t s pa t ia l s t ruc ture o f ar eg iona l e x change s ys tem b ased o n r e c iproca l t ransa c t ions b e tween i nd iv idua ls i n n e ighbor ing c o mmun i t ies c an b e d escr ibed a s l i nea r o r c ha in l ike . I n t h is e a ch l o ca l g roup i nvo lved i n t he e xchange c an b e s een a s al i nk i n t he c ha in , a nd e xchanged g oods move o u tward f r om t he ir s our ce a reas , f r om l i nk t ol i nk a l ong t he c ha in , t o t he mos t d i stan t ly l o ca t ed p ar t ic ipan t s i n t he e xchange s ys tem .
T h i s i st he
g enera l p a t tern o f movemen t o fg ood s t ha t R enf rew ( 1972 :465-66 ; 1 975 :41-43 , F ig . 1 0 :4 ) h a s c a l led " down the l ine" e xchange . R appapor t ( 1968 :106-9 ) d i scussed t he d ynam ics o f r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems o f l i nea r s t ructure , a nd h e s t ressed t he p rob lems t ha t g roups l o ca ted a t l ong d i stances f r om s ources m igh t e xper ien ce i n t ry ing t o o b ta in a dequa te s upp l ies o f g oods e ssen t ia l t o t he p ursu i t o f t he i r d ay -t o -day a ct iv i t ies .
H e s ugges ted t ha t t he i n c lus ion o f n on -essen t ia l
v a luab le g oods i n s uch s ys tems w ou ld h e lp o vercome t hese p rob lems b y s t imu la t ing p roduc t ion a nd e x change o f t he e ssent ia l u t i l itar ian g oods , a nd t hus a ct ing a s s yst em r egu la t ors . I n 1 977 , Wr igh t a nd Z eder p ub l ished t he r esu l t s o f ac o mpu ter s imu la t ion o f t he o pera t ion o f al i nea r e x change s ys tem o ft h is s or t . T h is s imu la t ion was d es igned t o i nves -
6 1
t i ga t e t he e xt ent t o wh ich t he e xchange o fn on -essen t ia l , o r s ymbo l ic , g oods c ou ld f unc t ion e ff i c ien t ly a s ar egu lat or o f s uch a s ystem .
T he s imu la t ion d emons t ra ted t ha t e x cep t i n
i n s tances o f e x t reme p opu la t ion f l u ctua t ion , t he s ystem , a s i t was s e t u p b y Wr igh t a nd Z eder , f un c t ioned v ery ef i c ien t ly , a nd g roups a t a l l d i stances f r om t he s our ces w ere a b le t o g e t a dequat e s upp l ies o ft he e ssen t ia l , o r v i ta l , g oods . T he e ff i c ien t o pera t ion o f ar eg iona l e x change s yst em i n t h is w ay w ou ld h ave i n t er e s t ing i mp l i ca t ions i n t e rms o f r esu l t ing d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o f e ssen t ia l , s ubs ist en ce r e la ted g oods a nd n on -essen t ia l , p res t ige g oods .
Wh i le e ssen t ia l g oods w ou ld t heoret ica l ly
b e f ound i n a bundan ce p ropor t iona te t o p opu la t ion d ens i ty i n a l l a reas where s uch g oods w ere n eeded ( bu t s ee b e low ) , t he d i s t r ibu t ions o f n on -essen t ia l g oods m igh t b e q u it e d i f f e ren t . I n s u ch a s ystem , n on -essen t ia l g oods w ou ld t end t o f l ow t owa rd g roups c on tro l l ing s our ces o fe ssen t ia l g oods i n o rder t o i n sure t he i r c on t inued p rodu ct ion o ft hose g oods , a nd s o n on -essen t ia l g oods w ou ld t end t o b e c oncen tra ted i n t hose a rea s .
I n a dd it ion , n on -
e ssen t ia l g oods m igh t f l ow t oward g roups t ha tw ere n o t i mpor tan t p roducers o fo ther g oods b u t w ere l o ca ted i n s t ra teg i c p la ces i n t he e xchange c ha in i n o rder t o s t imu la te t hem t o c on t inue p ass ing o n t he e ssen t ia l g oods t og roups n eed ing t hem . A l though i t was s uggest ed a bove t ha t i n ar eg iona l e x change s yst em s t ructured a nd r egu la ted l i ke t ha t r epresen ted b y Wr igh t a nd Z eder 's s imu la t ion , e ssent ia l , o r v i ta l , g oods s hou ld b e f ound i n a bundance p ropor t iona te t o p opu la t ion a t a l l d i s tan ces f r om t he ir s our c es , i n r ea l i ty , d if erences i n r e la t ive a bundan ce o f g oods a t d if eren t d i s tances a nd i n d i f f e ren t d i rec t ions f r om s our ces a re o f ten s een .
E thnog raph i c d a ta s ugges t t ha t mos t
r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems a re n o t s o s imp ly s t ructured n or s o w e l l r egu lat ed a s t ha t mode led b y Wr igh t a nd Z eder . S t r ic t ly l i near e xchange s yst ems o f t h is s or t a ppea r t o b e r a re .
I n r ea l i ty , r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems a re more o f t en s t ru ctured a s n e tworks w i th
i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups h av ing a v ar ie ty o fc on tact s w i th o ther i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups . I t c an b e s uggest ed t ha t t he i n creased d ivers i ty o f e xchange l i nkages i n s u ch s ys tems may r esu l t i n d ecreased ef i c iency i n t he s or t o f r egu la t ion mode led b y Wr igh t a nd Z eder , s o
6 2
t ha t o ther s ys tem i c f a ct ors wh i ch m igh t i nf luence t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchang e s ys t ems a nd l e ad t o d i f f eren t ia l d i str ibut ions o f e xchanged g ood s c ou ld h ave g rea ter e f ec t . F or a more c omp let e u nders tand ing o ft he o pera t ion o fr eg iona l e xchange s ystems i nt r iba l s oc ie t ies , i ti se ssen t ia l t o i d en t ify s u ch f a ct ors a nd o u t l ine t he ir p oss ib le e f ect s .
S ys tem ic F a ct ors T ha t May Af f ec t t he D is t r ibu t ion o fG oods i nR eg iona l E x change S yst ems
P erhaps t he mos t f r equen t ly o bserved p a t tern o f d if eren t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f g oods t ha t i ss een i n r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems i s ad ecrease i n a bundance w ith i n creas ing d i s t ance f r om t he s ource .
S o c o mmon i st h is p a t tern t ha t R enf rew ( 1977 :72 ) h a s p roposed
t he " Law o f Monot on i c D ecremen t" t od escr ibe i t . I n g enera l , h e a t tr ibu tes t h is p a t t ern t o t he e f ec t s o fi n creas ing c os t , i n t e rms o fe nergy e xpend i ture , o ft ranspor t ing g oods l onger d i s tances f r om t he ir s ources .
P opu la t ion D ens i ty a nd D is tr ibu t ion
E r i cson ( 1977 :120 ) d i sag rees t ha t d ecreases i n a bundan ce o f g oods w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om s ources i n e ga l i tar ian e xchange s ys tems c an b e r e la ted t o i n creas ing t ranspor tc os t s , a rgu ing t ha t t he e nergy e xpended b y e ach g roup w i th in wha t i se ssen t ia l ly g roup to -g roup e xchange i s r ea l ly v ery l i t t le a nd p robab ly c ons tan t r egard less o f t he g roup 's a c tua l d i s tance f r om t he s ource . I nst ead , h e a t t r ibu tes t he d ecrease i n a bundan ce o fg oods t ot he e f ec ts , w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s our ce , o fi n creas ing n umbers o f c onsumer s r e ta in ing g ood s f o r t he i r o wn u se b ef ore p ass ing t he r es t o n i n e xchange . E ssen t ia l ly , t h is i st he s ame e xp lana t ion f o r t he p at tern o fd ecrease i n a bundan ce o fg oods w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om
t he s ource
t ha t R enf rew
( 1972 :465-66 ;
1 977 :77-79 )
p roposed i nh i s f o rmu la t ion o ft he d own the l ine e xchange mode l . E r i cson ( 1977 :120 ) g oes o n t os uggest t ha ti ns i tua t ions o fh igh p opu la t ion d ens i ty , t he q uan t i ty o fe x changed g oods w ou ld b e d ep le ted f aster t han i ns i tua t ions o fl ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty .
6 3
T hus , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i np opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion may b e a ma jor f a ctor r esu lt ing i n d if eren t ia l d i st r ibu t ions o f g oods i n r eg iona l e x change s ystems i nvo lv ing t r iba l s oc iet ies .
B u i ld ing u pon E r icson 's s uggest ions , i tc an b e f ur ther p roposed
t ha t i n s u ch s yst ems , t he a bundance o f e xchanged g oods w ou ld d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource more r ap id ly i n a reas o fh igh p opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd more s l ow ly i n a rea s o f l ower p opu la t ion d ens i ty , more r egu la r ly i n a reas o f u n if orm p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion a nd more i r regu lar ly i n a rea s o fl e ss u n if orm p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion .
T ypes o fG oods
I n t hese p red ic t ions o f a bundance o f e x changed g oods i n r e la t ion t o p opu la t ion d en s i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion , t here i sa n i mp l ic i t a ssumpt ion : t ha t t he g oods b e ing e xchanged a re p opu la t ion -dependen t i n t he s ense t ha t g roups n eed a nd w i l l t ry t o a cqu ire t hem i n q uan t i t ies p ropor t iona te t o t he s i zes o f t he i r p opu la t ions .
P opu la t ion -dependen t g oods a re
g enera l ly i t ems t ha t a re n eeded b y p eop le i n o rder t o c arry o u t t he i r d a i ly a ct iv i t ies . T hese a re t he e ssen t ia l , o r v i ta l , g oods d i scussed a bove . s ymbo l ic g oods .
I n c on t ras t a re n on -essent ia l ,
S u ch g oods a re g enera l ly n o t u t i l i tar ian i n t he s ense o f b e ing n ecessary
f o r s ubs is tence o r o ther d a i ly a ct iv i t ies ( a l though t hey m igh t h ave i mportan t s oc iopo l i t ica l o r r e l ig ious f un ct ions ) , a nd t hey a re n ot g enera l ly p opu la t ion -dependen t .
T hey a re o f ten
made o f r are o r e xo t ic r aw mat er ia ls a nd t hey may r equ ire c ons iderab le t ime a nd /or s k i l l t op roduce . A s ar esu l t t hey a re g enera l ly r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems . I t mus t b e n o ted t ha t t hese t wo ma jor c a tegor ies o f g oods a re n o t r i g id ly d ef ined n or mu tua l ly e x c lus ive . t he o ther . r equ ire
G oods i n o ne c at egory may e xh ib i t g enera l c ha ra ct er is t i cs o fg oods i n
T hus , c er ta in t ypes o f v i ta l g oods m igh t b e made o f s car ce r aw ma ter ia ls o r
c ons iderab le
p opu la t ion -dependen t .
t ime
a nd /or
s k i l l t o p roduce ,
wh i le
s t i l l b e ing u t i l i tar ian
a nd
A l terna t ive ly , c er ta in t ypes o f s ymbo l i c g oods m igh t s t rong ly
r esemb le v i ta l g oods i n s o me c hara c ter is t ics , wh i le e xh ib i t ing o ther f ea tures t ha t l im i t t hem t o b e ing n on -u t i l i tar ian i n f unc t ion .
I t i s e ven p oss ib le t ha t s o me g oods m igh t b e
6 4
r ega rded a nd e xchanged a s u t i l i tar ian , v i ta l g oods i n s o me p ar t s o ft he ir t o ta l d i st r ibu t ion , b u t a s more v a luab le , s ymbo l ic g oods i no ther a reas . E r icson 's s ugges t ions a bou t t he r e la t ionsh ips b etween v ar iab i l i ty i n p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion a nd v ar iab i l i ty i n a bundance o f e xchanged g oods a re p ar t icu lar ly r e levan t t o p opu la t ion -dependen t v i ta l g oods , a nd t hey may a l so b e a pp l icab le t o s o me e x ten t t o d i s t r ibu t ions o f s ymbo l i c g oods .
H owever , R appapor t 's d i s cuss ion a nd Wr igh t a nd Z eder 's
s imu la t ion o f t he o pera t ion o f as imp le r eg iona l e x change s ys tem h ave s ugges ted t ha t i f n on -essent ia l s ymbo l i c g oods w ere f unc t ion ing a s s ys tem r egu la tors , v ery d if eren t p a t t e rns o fd i st r ibu t ion o fs ymbo l ic g oods a nd v i ta l g oods m igh t r e su l t . D if f eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o f v i ta l a nd s ymbo l ic g oods m igh t r esu l t i n o ther c i r c ums tances a s w e l l . I t was n o ted a bove t ha t b es ides t he f un c t ion o fs upp ly ing p eop le w i th n eeded g oods n o t a va i lab le i n t he ir own t e rr it or ies , e xchange m igh t a l so s erve t o c rea te a nd ma in ta in a l l iances b e tween g roups a nd t o f a c i l i ta te t he a ch ievemen t o fp ersona l p res t i ge . I n b oth o ft hese s i tua t ions , d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o fv i ta l a nd s ymbo l ic g ood s m igh t r esu l t . I f members o fg roups w ish ing t o ma in ta in a l l iances w i th e ach o ther o r i nd iv idua ls w ish ing t o e xchange w i th e ach o ther i no rder t oi n crease t he q uan t i t ies o fg oods t hey c ou ld c on t ro l w ere i nn eed o fv i ta l g oods t ha t e ach c ou ld s upp ly , s u ch g oods w ou ld move b e tween t hem . H owever , i fe a ch t rader d id n o t n eed v i ta l g oods t ha tc ou ld b e s upp l ied b y t he o ther , p erhaps b ecause t hey h ad
a ccess t o o ther s upp l ies o f t hose g oods ,
t he ir e xchange
r e la t ionsh ip c ou ld b e ma in ta ined b y t he movemen t o f v a luab le s ymbo l ic g oods a l one .
I n
t h is c ase , e a ch t rader w ou ld p robab ly t ry t o d i s t r ibu te t he v i ta l g oods h e c on t ro l led i nd i f f e ren t d i rect ions . T hus , t he t ype o fg oods b e ing e xchanged i sa n i mpor tan t f a ctor t ha t may l e ad t od i f f e ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o fg oods i n r eg iona l e x change s yst ems . I ndeed , i tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t v i ta l a nd s ymbo l i c g oods p roduced i n t he s ame a rea o r e ven a t t he s ame s our ce m igh t b e d if eren t ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted i nr eg iona l e xchange s ys te ms u nder c er ta in c i r cumstances .
6 5
A lt erna t ive S ources o ft he S ame G oods
Ano ther f a c t or t ha t c l ear ly h as a n i mpor tan t i nf luence o n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e x change s yst ems i n t r iba l s oc ie t ies a nd i sl i ke ly t o r esu l t i n a symme t r ies i n r eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ions o fg oods i st he p resence a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f a l terna t ive s ources o f t he s ame r aw ma ter ia ls o r f i n ished p rodu c ts ( Er icson 1 977 ) . I n d i scuss ing t he i mpor tance o ft h is f a ct or , b o th i t s i nf luence o n t he s upp ly o f t he r aw ma ter ia l o r f i n ished p roduc t t ha t d i f f eren t g roups o b ta in f r om e a ch s ource a nd i t s i nf luence o n t he t o ta l s upp ly o f t ha t t ype o f r aw mat er ia l o r f i n ished p roduc t t ha tt hey a re a b le t oo bta in must b e c ons idered . I n ar eg iona l s ys tem o fe x change i n wh ich e ach g roup i sc onnec ted w i th a v ar ie ty o f o ther g roups , a nd a n umber o f a l t erna t ive s our ces o f t he s ame t ype o f r aw ma ter ia l o r f i n ished p roduc t a re b e ing e xp lo i ted , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t member s o f e a ch g roup w i l l r e ce ive g oods f r om more t han o ne s our ce .
My a na lys is ( S . C happe l l i n p ress ) o f p ub l ished d a ta
( J . C happe l l 1 966 ) p er ta in ing t ot he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs t one a xeheads f r om v ar ious s our ces i n t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea s ugges t s t ha t t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies o f g oods f r om e a ch s our ce t ha t ag roup w i l l r e ce ive d epends t o al a rge e x ten t u pon t he r e la t ive s i zes o f t he s our ces i n t e rms o f t he i r k nown o u tpu t a nd o n t he i r d i st r ibu t ion i nt e rms o fd i s tan ce f r om t he g roups i n q ues t ion .
T hus , g roups l o ca ted i n a reas more o r l e ss e qu id istan t f r om a
n umber o fa l t erna t ive s ou rces w i l l t end t or e ce ive r e la t ive ly sma l l q uan t i t ies o fg oods f r om e a ch o ft he s ou rces , wh i le g roups l o ca ted n ear o n ly o ne s ource w i l l t end t o r ece ive a l a rge p ropor t ion o ft he ir t o ta l g oods o ft ha t t ype f r om t ha t s our ce . A s ar esu l t , t he r e la t ive a bundan ce o fg ood s f r om a g iven s our ce c an b e e xpe c ted t o d e crease r ap id ly a way f r om t ha t s our ce i n d i re ct ions o f a l terna t ive s our ces , a s g roups c l oser t ot hose s our ces g et l a rger p ercen tages o ft he i r t o ta l s upp l ies o fg oods f r om t hem . I n c on t ras t , t he r e la t ive a bundance o fg oods f r om a g iven s ource c an b e e xpec ted t od e crease more s l ow ly i nd i rect ions i n wh ich n o a l terna t ive s our ces a re p resen t .
T hus , t he p resen ce
o f a l t erna t ive s ou r ces o f t he s ame r aw ma t er ia l o r f i n ished p rodu c t i n ar eg iona l s yst em c an l e ad t oa symme t r ies i np a t terns o fa bundan ce o fi t e ms f r om i nd iv idua l s ources .
6 6
I n t e rms o f t he t o ta l s upp ly o f g oods o f ag iven t ype t ha t g roups i n ar eg iona l e xchange s ystem c hara cter ized b y a l terna t ive s ources a re a b le t o o bta in , i tc an b e s ug g ested t ha t g roups l o cat ed r e lat ive ly c l ose t o an umber o f a l terna t ive s ources may b e more l i ke ly t o g e t a bundant t o ta l s upp l ies o ft hose g oods , e ven t hough t hey g e t r e la t ive ly sma l l amoun ts f r om e ach s ource , t hal a re g roups l o ca ted a t t he s ame d i s tances f r om , a nd r e ly i ng a lmos t e xc lus ive ly u pon , s i ng le s ources .
S ources o fO ther E xchanged G oods
T he p resence a nd d i st r ibut ion w i th in a r eg ion o f s ources o f o ther r aw ma ter ia ls o r f i n ished p roduc ts t ha t a re e xchanged i sa nother f a c tor t ha t i sl i ke ly t o i nf luence t he o pera t i on o f r eg iona l e xchange s yste ms a nd r esu l t i n v ar iab i l i ty i n d i st r ibu t ions o f g oods f r om i nd iv idua l s ources .
P oss ib le e f ects o f t h is f a ct or h ave a l ready b een s uggest ed i n t he
g enera l d i scuss ion o ft he o perat ion o fl i near e xchange s ystems . T he a ctua l i nf luen ce o ft h is f a ctor c an b e s een i na n e xamp le o fe xchange i n t he h igh lands o fN ew Gu inea d i scussed b y S tra thern ( 1969 ) . I n t he c ase S tra thern r epor ts , t he E nga a nd t he W iru , a l though l o ca ted t he s ame d i stance f r om s ources o f s t one a xes , o bta ined v ery d if eren t s upp l ies o f a xes .
T he E nga
h ad a ccess t o s upp l ies o fo ther i mpor tan t g oods t o t rade i n to t he s ys tem , s o t hey w ere a b le t o a cqu ire r e la t ive ly g ood s upp l ies o f a xes f o r t he ir l a rge p opu la t ion .
On t he o ther h and ,
t he Wiru h ad n oth ing t o a dd t o t he r eg iona l e xchange s ys tem t ha t o ther g roups d i d n ot h ave . B ecause o ft h is , t hey w ere u nab le t oa cqu ire a dequa te s upp l ies o fg ood q ua l i ty a xes . T h is e xamp le s uggests t ha t g rea ter q uant it ies o f g oods f r om a g iven s our ce w i l l b e e xchanged i n t he d i rect ions o f s ources o f o ther i mportan t g oods w ith in a r eg iona l s ystem , a nd t ha t g roups a t t he s ame d i stance f r om t he s ources b u t i n d if eren t d i rect ions may g e t p oorer s upp l ies o f t hose g oods .
A long t he s ame l i nes , o ne c onc lus ion o f Hughes 's ( 1977 )
c o mprehens ive i nvest iga t ion o f e xchange i n t he c entra l h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea a nd t he
6 7
l ow lands t o t he s ou th was t ha t p eop le w i th s o me th ing t ot rade t ha t was n eeded b y o thers w ere a b le t oo bta in v a luab le , p res t ige g oods s ooner t han o thers i nt he a rea ( i b id . :191 ) .
Modes o fT ranspor t
Y e t a nother f a ct or t ha t may h ave a n e f ect o n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e x change s ys tem s a nd may r esu l t i n d if erent ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o f g oods i sv ar iab i l i ty i n t he mode o f t ranspor t t ha t i su t i l ized . S o f a r i nt h is d i scuss ion , o ver land t ranspor t o fg oods away f r om t he ir s our ces h as b een t a c i t ly a ssumed .
T he u se o f wa t er t ranspor t w ou ld r esu l t i n ad i f -
f e ren t ly s t ru c tured e x change s yst em i n wh ich g oods w ou ld move i n ad if eren t p a t t ern , d i f f e ren t g roups w ou ld b e more o r l e ss c l ose ly i n tera ct ing , a nd d i f f eren t g roups w ou ld b e a b le t oo b ta in more o r l e ss a bundan t s upp l ies o fg oods . I n a n e xchange s ys tem b ased o n wa ter t ranspor t , t he p r imary movemen t o f g oods w ou ld , o fc ourse , b e a l ong wa terways . G oods w ou ld t hen move i n land f r om e a ch c oa sta l o r r i ver ine t rad ing l o ca l i ty a s i n o rd inary l i near o r n e twork e x change ( e .g . , t he S iass i t rad ing mode l o f Hard ing 1 967 :16 ) . I n t h is way , g roups l o ca ted o n t he c oas t s o r r i vers w ou ld h ave t he g rea test o ppor tun i t ies f o r d i rec t i n tera c t ion w i th e a ch o ther a nd f o r o b ta in ing t he b es t s upp l ies o f g oods .
G roups l o ca ted i n land f r om c oas t s o r r i vers w ou ld i n tera c t p r imar i ly
w i th t he ir r espec t ive c oasta l o r r i ver ine n e ighbors a s w e l l a s w i th g roups f ur ther i n land , a nd t he ir s upp l ies o fg oods w ou ld d epend u pon wha tt he c oas ta l o r r i ver ine g roups r e ce ived a nd w ere w i l l ing t o t rade o nward . I n s u ch as i tua t ion , g roups l o ca t ed c l oser t ot he s our ces o f e x changed g oods , b u t i n land f r om t he wa ter t ranspor t r out es , m igh t a c tua l ly r e ce ive p oorer s upp l ies o f t hose g oods t han g roups l o ca ted f ur ther f r om t he s ources b u t o n t he wa t erways . I n r ec iproca l e x change s yst ems b ased o n o ver land t ranspor t o f g oods , t here may b e l i t t le o ppor tun i ty f o r d i rec t t rade b etween d i s tan t ly l o ca ted g roups : t he t hrea t o fh os t i l i t ies f r om u nre la t ed g roups l o cat ed i n i n termed iat e p os i t ions t ends t o l im i t s u ch movemen t . H owever , w i th wat er t ranspor t , t here i sg rea ter p o ten t ia l f o r d i rect c onta c t a nd e x change
6 8
b etween g roups l o cated a t g rea t d i stances f r om e a ch o ther .
T hus , d i rec t movemen t o f
g oods f r om s ources t o d i stan t a reas , s o t ha t g roups i n t hose a reas a re a b le t o g et b ett er s upp l ies o fg oods t han g roups l o cat ed c l oser t ot he s our ces , i sp oss ib le w i th in t he c on text o f s imp le g roup -to -group e xchange .
O bv ious ly l ong d i stance e xchange o f t h is s or t w ou ld
r equ ire a g reat er d eg ree o f o rgan izat ion a nd more f a c i l i t ies ( e .g . , b oa ts ) t han o rd inary o ver land e xchange ( Hard ing 1 967 :5 ) , b u t n o more t han i sg enera l ly s een w ith in t r iba l ly o rgan ized s oc iet ies .
. S oc iopo l i t ica l O rgan iza t ion
Up t o t h is p o int w e h ave b een d i scuss ing r eg iona l e xchange among s imp le t r iba l s oc ie t ies i n wh ich m in ima l s upra loca l i n teg rat ion i s p resen t a nd l o ca l c o mmun it ies a re e ssent ia l ly a ut onomous ( e .g . , t he C ategory One s oc iet ies i n N ew Gu inea t ha t h ave b een d i scussed b y R ube l a nd R os man 1 978 ) .
I n o ther s o c iet ies t ha t c an a l so b e g enera l ly
c harac ter ized a s t r iba l , g rea ter d egrees o fs upra loca l i n teg rat ion may b e p resen t ( e .g . , t he New Gu inea s oc iet ies o fC at egor ies Two , T hree , a nd F our , d i scussed b y R ube l a nd R osman 1 978 , a nd v ar ious n a t ive North Amer ican g roups s uch a s t he Mandan , B owers 1 950 , a nd t he H idatsa , B owers 1 965 ) , l i nk ing l o ca l c o mmun i t ies o ver w ider a reas . I tn ow r e ma ins t o c ons ider h ow r eg iona l e xchange a nd r e su lt ing d i str ibu t ions o f g oods may v ary among s oc iet ies i n wh ich g rea ter d eg rees o fs upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a re r ecogn ized . I n
s imp le
t r iba l
s oc iet ies
c haracter ized
b y
m in i ma l
s upra loca l
i n teg ra t ion ,
c eremon ia l g a ther ings a re g enera l ly r e la t ive ly sma l l -sca le c e lebra t ions a t tended b y mem b ers o f t he l o ca l g roup s ponsor ing t he e ven t a nd p erhaps t he ir k insmen f r om n e ighbor ing c o mmun it ies . I n more c o mp lex t r iba l s oc iet ies c hara c ter ized b y g rea ter d eg rees o f s upra l o ca l i n teg rat ion , r e lat ive ly sma l l -sca le e ven ts may a l so o c cur , b u t i n a dd i t ion , l a rge -sca le c eremon ies may t ake p lace s ponsored b y s upra loca l g roups whose members may l i ve i n c o mmun i t ies s pread o ver a w ide a rea . T he g roups s ponsor ing t hese c eremon ies may i nv it e o ther s im i lar g roups t op ar t ic ipat e i nt hem . T hus , p eop le f r om a v ery w ide a rea may c o me
6 9
t ogethe r f o r t hese e ven t s .
I nd iv idua l c eremon ies o f t h is s or t may b e p ar t o f c o mp lex
c eremon ia l c yc les t ha t may i n t eg ra te c o mmun i t ies o ver l a rge r eg ions , a nd t hey may t ake p la ce o n ar egu la r , s chedu led b as i s ( e .g . , t he s easona l c e remon ies o fa g r i cu l tura l g roups ) . E x change i s ac o mmon f ea ture o f c eremon ia l g a ther ing s i n t r iba l s o c iet ies . I n t h is c on tex t ,
g oods
may
c hang e
h ands
i nd iv idua l ly n ego t ia ted t r an sa ct ions .
t hrough
b o th
o rgan ized
g roup
p res ta t ions
a nd
I n e xchange i nvo lv ing g roups o f p eop le , s uch a s
c l ans , s oda l i t ies , o r e ven d i f f eren t v i l lages , g oods p rov ided b y members o f o ne g roup a re o f t en p oo led a nd d i sp layed t o a l l p resen t b ef ore b e ing d i s t r ibut ed o u t t o member s o f t he o ther g roup . T h is a c t iv i ty i su sua l ly c oord ina ted b y t he l e aders o ft he g roups . T h i s s or t o f d i s t r ibu t ion may b e v i ewed a s i n c ip ien t r ed is tr ibu t ion . I r respec t ive o f whe ther g oods c hange h ands t hrough c eremon ia l p resta t ion o r e x change b e tween i nd iv idua ls , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t a t c eremon ia l g a ther ing s i nvo lv ing s upra loca l g roups , p eop le o rd ina r i ly l i v ing s ome d i stan ce a par t who m igh t n o t c o me i n t o d i re c t c on ta c t i n as i tua t ion o f m in ima l s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion w ou ld d o s o a nd c ou ld e x change d i rec t ly w i th e a ch o ther . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is w ou ld h ave t he e f ec t o fe ven i ng o u t s upp l ies o fg oods o ver l a rge a reas a nd , i ndeed , o fa t l e as t p ar t ia l ly o vercom ing t he e f e c t s o fs ome o ft he o ther s yst em i c f a ctors i d en t if ied a bove a s p o ten t ia l ly i nf luen c ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fg oods i nr eg iona l e x change s yst ems . W ith in r eg ions i n wh ich s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i sp resen t a nd l a rge -sca le c eremon ia l e x changes t ake p la ce among s upra loca l g roups , ag ood d ea l o fe x change may s t i l l o ccu r o n t he i nd iv idua l l e ve l , o ut s ide t he c ont ex t o fc eremon ia l g a ther ings . H owever , w ith i n crea s i ng s upra lo ca l i n teg ra t ion , c l oser s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips w ou ld b e r ecogn ized b y p eop le who w ere l o ca ted i n more d i s tan t c o mmun i t ies .
I n s uch a s i tua t ion , p eop le c ou ld s af e ly t rave l
f ar ther t oe xchange d i rec t ly w i th k insmen a nd f r iends t han w ou ld g enera l ly b e p oss ib le i n r eg ions c harac ter ized b y m in ima l s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion . A s ar esu l t , i ts eem s l i ke ly t ha t more movemen t s o fg oods w ou ld t ake p la ce o ver l o nger d i s tances i n ar eg ion c hara c ter ized b y ag rea te r d eg ree o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion t han i no ne c hara c ter ized b y al e sser d eg ree .
7 0
T h is , t o o , w ou ld h ave t he e f ec t o f e ven ing o u t s upp l ies o f e xchanged g oods o ver l a rge a reas a nd o f o ver com ing , t o s o me e xt en t , t he e f f ect s o f o ther s yst em i c f a ct ors o n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fg oods . We h ave e s tab l ished t ha t i n s imp le g roup -t o -g roup e x change among i nd iv idua ls i n n e ighbor ing c o mmun i t ies , g oods t end t o move o u tward f r om t he ir s ources , f r om g roup t o g roup , t oward a reas where t hey a re n ot f ound .
I n r eg ions c hara ct er ized b y g rea t er
d eg rees o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , a nd i n creased emphas is o n c eremon ia l e xchange among s upra loca l g roups , t he s ame g enera l movemen t o f g oods w ou ld o ccur , b u t g oods w ou ld t end t o c i rcu la te more , a nd s o me g oods m igh t e ven move b a ck t oward t he ir s our ces ( S i l l it oe 1 978 :265 ) .
S i l l i toe ( i b id . :271 ) n ot es t ha t i n r e la t ion t o ad i s t r ibu t ion o f g ood s r esu l t ing
f r om s imp le e xchange among i nd iv idua ls , " ceremon ia l e xchange w ou ld b lur t he o vera l l d i rec t ion s hown f o r t he movemen t o f t h ing s ."
T hus , o n ar eg iona l s ca le , t he g rea t er t he
d eg ree o f s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion , t he more g radua l w i l l b e t he d ecrease i n s upp ly o fg oods w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s ource . A long w i th v ar iab i l i ty i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n t r iba l s o c iet ies , v ar iab i l i ty i n t he e x ten t t o wh i ch s t a tus d if eren t ia t ion c an b e a ch ieved c an a l so b e r e cogn ized .
T hus , i n
s o me s o c ie t ies , l i t t le a ch ieved s ta tu s d i f f eren t ia t ion i sr ecogn ized , a nd p os i t ions o f g roup l eadersh ip g enera l ly f a l l t o e l der members o f l o ca l k ing roups o r o thers w i th s pec ia l s k i l ls . I n c on t ras t , i n o ther s o c ie t ies , c ons iderab le a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion i s r ecogn ized , a nd t h is f o rms t he b a s is f o r a t ta inmen to fp os i t ions o fg roup l e adersh ip . A s n o ted i nC hapt er I , o ne way i n wh ich men i nt r iba l s o c ie t ies c an a ch ieve p res t ige a nd p os i t ions o fg roup l e adersh ip i st hrough s uccess i ne x change . T he a b i l i ty t oc on t ro l t he movemen ts o fl a rge q uan t i t ies o fb o th v i ta l g oods a nd s ymbo l i c g oods i so ne ma rk o f as u c c essfu l
l e ader ,
r e la t ionsh ips .
a nd men
a sp ir ing t o s uch
s ta tus t ry t o max im ize
t he i r
e xchange
T hey may s eek o u t n ew e xchange p ar tners a nd e xchange f o r t he s ake o f
e xchang ing , r a ther t han t o g e t n eeded g oods . I n t h is c on tex t , men m igh t b e more w il ing t o r i sk t he p er i ls o f l o ng d i stance e xchange w i th u nre la ted g roups t han i n ac on tex t i n
7 1
wh ich s ta tus i sn o t a t s take . I th as b een n ot ed b y L ederman ( 1984 ) t ha t B ig Men i n N ew G u inea may h ave u p t ot en t imes a s many e x change p ar tners a s men n o t s t r iv ing f o r h igh s t a tus .
T hus , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t a n i n crease i n t he i mportance o f a ch ieved s ta tus d i f -
f e ren t ia t ion a s t he b as is f o r a t ta in ing p os i t ions o fg roup l e adersh ip w ou ld b e marked b y a n i n crea se i n t he e x change o f b o th v i ta l g oods a nd p rest ige g oods , a s w ou ld -be l e aders v i e w i th e ach o ther f o r p res t ige . A l though B ig Men a re f ound i n s o c ie t ies wh i ch h ave m in ima l s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , a nd s erve a s l e aders o f l o ca l g roups ( Rube l a nd R osman 1 978 :324 ) , i n s oc iet ies c hara c t e r ized b y g reat er d eg rees o fs upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , B ig Men c an a l so s erve a s l e aders o f l a rger s oc ia l g roup ing s , a nd men may s t r ive t oa ch ieve p res t ige w i th in t he l a rger g roups i n o rder t o a t ta in t hese p os i t ions .
T h is a c t iv i ty w ou ld l i ke ly i nvo lve a g reat er v o lume o f
e x change t han i ss een i n s imp ler s o c ie t ies o r i n s o c ie t ies i n wh ich l e adersh ip i sn o t b ased o n s uc cess i ne x change e ndeavors . T h is d i scuss ion h as i nd ica t ed t ha t t here may b e a n i n t imat e r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he d eve lopmen t o fs upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i nt r iba l s oc ie t ies , a n i n crease i n a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion , a nd e x change .
W i th a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , t here a re
s upra loca l g roups , a s w e l l a s l o ca l g roups , wh ich r equ ire l eadersh ip , a nd t hus more p os i t i ons o f l e adersh ip t o b e f i l led .
T h i s may l e ad t o c o mpe t i t ion among p o tent ia l l e aders .1
T h is c o mpe t i t ion o f ten t akes t he f o rm , a t l eas t i n p ar t , o f e xchange . A sp ir ing l e aders n o t o n ly t ry t oe xpand t he i r o wn p ersona l c on ta c t s , b u t t hey a l so l e ad t he i r g roups , b o th l o ca l a nd s upra loca l , i n c eremon ia l d i sp lays a nd e xchanges .
I n t h is way b o th t he ir p ersona l
p rest ige a nd t he p res t ige o f t he ir g roups c an b e i n creased .
T hus , i n ar eg iona l s i tua t ion .
i nvo lv ing b o th i n creased s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion a nd a n i n crease i n t he e x ten t t o wh ich p os i t ions o f g roup l e adersh ip c an b e a ch ieved , w e w ou ld e xpec t b o th a g reater v o lume o f g oods t ob e e xchanged a nd more e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o ft hose g oods o ver w ider a reas .
' And a ga in , i t may n ot . I n s o me s oc iet ies , a s n oted a bove , p os i t ions o f l e adersh ip a re f i l led o n t he b a s is o fg roup af i l ia t ion a l one .
7 2
T hus , i t i s a pparen t t ha t t wo a spect s o f s oc iopo l i t i ca l o rgan iza t ion w i th in t r iba l s oc iet ies—the d eg ree o f s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion t ha t i s p resen t w i th in a r eg ion a nd t he e x t en t t o wh i ch s ta tus a nd p os i t ions o fg roup l e adersh ip c an b e a ch ieved—have a n i mpor t an t i nf luen ce o n t he o pera t ion o fr eg iona l e x change s yst ems a nd o n r esu l t ing d i s t r ibu t ions o fg oods .
S ummary
I n t h is d i scuss ion , p rocesses t hrough wh i ch g oods a re d i s t r ibuted i n t r iba l s oc ie t ies h ave b een e xp lored , a nd r esu l t ing s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ions o f g oods h ave b een c ons idered . A lthough s ome g ood s may b e d i s tr ibut ed t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om s our ces , a nd i ndeed , i ti so bv ious t ha t a l l g oods make t he ir i n i t ia l move i n t h i s way , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t mos t movemen t s o f g oods o ver l ong d i s tan ces f r om t he ir s our ces t ake p la ce t hrough e xchange .
A ccord ing ly , t he ma jor p a r t o f t h i s d i scuss ion h as f o cussed o n e x change i n
t r iba l s oc ie t ies a nd t he f a ct ors t ha t may i nf luen ce t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e x change s ys t ems a nd af ect t he r esu l t ing d i st r ibut ions o fg oods . T ak ing a s as tar t ing p o in t s imp le g roup -t o -g roup e xchange , i t was s uggest ed t ha t , i n t heory , r eg iona l e xchange c ou ld o perat e s o t ha tg roups a t a l l d i stances f r om s our ces w ou ld g et s upp l ies o fe xchanged g ood s i n a bundan ce p ropor t ionat e t ot he ir p opu la t ion s . H owever , i t was s uggest ed t ha t i n r ea l i ty , r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems i n t r iba l s oc iet ies a re n o t s o w e l l r egu la t ed , s i nce d if eren t ia l d i s tr ibu t ions o fg oods a re a lways s een . I t wa s n ot ed t ha t t he mos t c o mmon ly o bserved p a t tern o fd if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f g oods i n r eg iona l e x change s ys tems i s ad ecrease i n a bundance w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s ource , p robab ly d ue t oi n creas ing n umbers o fc onsumers r eta in ing g ood s f o r t he ir o wn u se b ef ore p ass ing t he r es t o n i n e x change .
I n a dd i t ion t o p opu la t ion d i st r ibu t ion ,
o ther f a ctors t ha t w ere i d en t if ied a s p oten t ia l ly af ect ing d i s tr ibu t ions o f g ood s i n r eg iona l e x change s ys te m s i nvo lv ing t r iba l s oc ie t ies i n c luded t he t ype o fg oods b e ing e x changed , t he
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p resence a nd d i str ibut ion o f a l terna t ive s ources o f t he s ame g oods , t he p resence a nd d i s t r ibut ion o fs ources o fo ther e xchanged g oods , a nd t he d om inan t mode o ft r anspor t . A f i na l f a ctor wh ich was s een t o h ave a c ons iderab le i nf luence o n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange "s ystems a nd o n t he r esu lt ing d i st r ibu t ions o f g oods was v ar iab i l ity i n s o c iopo l i t ica l
o rgan izat ion , i n p ar t icu lar ,
v ar iab i l i ty
i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion
g roups a nd v ar iab i l i ty i n a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f erent ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls .
among
I t was s ug -
g ested t ha t a n i n crease i n t he e xt en t t o wh ich s ta tus d i f f erent ia t ion c ou ld b e a ch ieved w ou ld b e a ssoc iated w i th a n i n crease i n t he v o lume o fg oods e xchanged , wh i le a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion among g roups w ith in a r eg ion w ou ld r esu lt i n a more e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o fe xchanged g oods w ith in t ha t r eg ion . I n t h is r egard , i tc an b e s a id t ha t s upra l o ca l i n teg ra t ion h as t he e f f ec t o f o verco m ing , t o s o me e x tent , t he c onst ra int s o fd i stance , a s w e l l a s o ther s ystem ic f a ctors , w i th in r eg iona l e xchange s ystems i n t r iba l s oc iet ies .
CHAPTER V
THE THEORET ICAL FRA ME WORK I : S TONE AXE MORPHOLOGY AND D ISTR IBUT ION
T he s e cond ma jor p ar to ft he t heore t ica l f ramework t ha t w i l l b e u t i l ized i n t he i nves t i ga t ion o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i st r ibu t ion i n N eo l ith i c B r i ta in w i l l b e d eve loped i n t h is c hapt er .
T h is w i l l b eg in w i th a d i scuss ion o f g enera l d e term inan t s o f
s t one a xe morpho logy , a nd p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes t ha t h ave b een o bserved i ne thnog raph ic c ontex t s w i l l b e d es cr ibed . T hen , a spec t s o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern i ng i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty wh i ch h ave b een o bserved t ob e r e la ted t o g enera l p a t t ern s a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l i nt he s ame e thnog raph i c c on tex t s w i l l b e e xp lored . F ina l ly , a spect s o fs t one a xe d epos i t ion a nd r e covery wh ich m igh t r esu l t i n p a t t erns o f morpho log i c a l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes i n a r chaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ions t ha t a re u nre la ted t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e c ons idered . S t one a xes w ere a n i mpor tan t c ommod i ty i n p re -con tac t e xchange s yst ems i n N ew Gu inea . B e cause c ontac t was r e la t ive ly r ecen t i n t h i s a rea ( St eensberg 1 980 :1 ) , e thnog r aphers h ave f ound t ha t l i v ing i n f orman t s o r t he ir i mmed ia te a ncest ors h ad p art i c ipat ed i n t h is e x change a nd c ou ld r e member p re -con ta c tp a t terns o fa xe p rodu ct ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd u se .
I n r e cen t y ears , e thno -archaeo log is t s w ork ing i n t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea h ave
b een a sk ing i n teres t ing q uest ions a bou t t he l o ca t ion s o f s t one a xe s ources , t he d e ter m inan t s o f morpho logy o f t he a xes p roduced , t he p rocesses t hrough wh ich a xes moved f r om p rodu cers t o c onsumers , t he c hanges i n morpho logy t ha t t ook p la ce a s a xes moved t hrough t he s ys tem , a nd t he e n t ry o f a xes i n t o t he p o ten t ia l a rchaeo log ica l r e cord . T he a nswers t o many o ft hese q ues t ions a bou t N ew Gu inea s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i s t r ibu -
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t i on w i l l b e u t i l ized i n t he d eve lopmen t o f mode ls f o r B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xe morpho l o gy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion .
S tone Axe Morpho logy : D imens ion s o fV ar iab i l i ty
I n t he c ont ex t o f ac o mprehens ive i nves t iga t ion o f e x change s yst ems i n t he C en t ra l H igh lands o f N ew Gu inea a nd t he l ow lands t o t he s ou th , Hughes ( 1977 ) a dd ressed t he q uest ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xeheads .
I n r ef erence t o t he N ew
Gu inea d a ta , h e d i scussed t hree ma jor d et erm inan t s o f t he morpho logy o f a xes a t i n i t ia l p roduc t ion ( i b id . :171-76 ) :
( 1 ) t he l im i ta t ions i mposed b y t he p hys ica l c harac ter ist i cs o ft he
a va i lab le r aw ma t er ia l , ( 2 ) t he f unc t iona l r equ iremen ts o ft he i n tended t ype o f a xe , a nd ( 3 ) t he s ty l ist i c n orms h e ld b y t he a xe makers .
I t may b e a ssumed t ha t t hese w i l l b e t he
ma jor d et erm inan ts o fs t one a xe morpho logy a t i n i t ia l p rodu c t ion i n a ny c ase , a nd t hus , i t i sw or th c ons ider ing t he i r e f ect s i n more d e ta i l .
P hys i ca l C harac ter is t ics o ft he R aw Mat er ia l
T he mos t b as ic p hys ica l c harac ter is t ics o ft he a va i lab le r aw mat er ia l t ha t may h ave as i gn if i can t i nf luen ce o n t he morpho logy o f a xes a re t he g ross s i zes a nd s hapes o f t he a va i lab le r o ck p i eces .
T hese c harac ter ist i cs w i l l c l ear ly l im i t a t t he o u t set t he s i zes a nd
s hapes o ft he a xes t ha t c an b e made . B eyond t h is , l e ss o bv ious p hys ica l c hara c ter is t ics o f t he r aw ma ter ia l , s uch a s h a rdness a nd f rac ture p a t t erns , wh ich d epend , i n t urn , o n s uch p e t ro log ica l c ha ra ct er ist ics a s m inera l c o mpos i t ion o r g ra in s i ze a nd h omogene i ty , may a l so af ec t t he s i zes a nd s hapes o f t he a xes t ha t c an b e p roduced ( Coope 1 979 ) .
I ndeed , s uch
c harac ter ist i cs may e ven l im i t t he t ypes o ft e chn iques t ha t c an b e e f ec t ive ly emp loyed i n w ork ing t he ma ter ia l , a nd t h is , t o o , may h ave a s i gn if i can t i nf luence o n a xe morpho logy ( i b id . ) . Among t he a xes made o f as i ng le r aw ma ter ia l , i ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t t here w i l l b e ma jor p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o t he p hys i ca l c harac ter is t i cs o f t he r aw
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ma ter ia l .
I t c an b e a ssumed t ha t t he i nf luence o n morpho logy o f t he p e t ro log i ca l c hara c -
t e r is t ics o f ag iven r aw ma ter ia l w i l l b e u n if orm f o r t he a xes o f t ha t ma ter ia l a nd t ha t t here w i l l b e n o morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes d ue t o s u ch c ha ra c ter ist ics . H owever , i fd if eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o f p ieces o f t he r aw ma ter ia l w ere a va i lab le a t t he s ource , c orrespond ing ly d if eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o fa xes m igh tb e p rodu ced . B e tween g roups o f a xes p roduced a t d if eren t s ou rces , t here may o r may n ot b e o bservab le p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o p hys ica l c hara c ter is t ics o ft he r aw mat er ia ls . I ft he r aw ma ter ia ls a va i lab le a td if eren t s our ces a re b road ly s im i la r i np hys i c a l c ha ra cter ist ics , i ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t t here w i l l b e s i gn if i can t p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o t h is f a ct or among t he a xes p roduced a t t hose s ources . T h is i st he s i tua t i on t ha t Hughes ( 1977 ) o bserved i nN ew Gu inea . H e n o ted t ha t , i n g enera l , t he p hys i ca l c hara cter ist ics o ft he r aw ma ter ia ls a va i lab le a t t he ma jor h igh lands s our ces w ere s im i la r a nd t ha t t he s ame t e chn iques w ere u t i l ized i n p rodu c ing a xeheads f r om t hose ma ter ia ls ( i b id . :174 ) .
H e c onc luded t ha t t he p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty h e c ou ld o bserve
among a xes f r om t he d if eren t s our ces c ou ld n ot b e r e la t ed t o t he p hys ica l c ha ra c ter is t i cs o f t he a va i lab le r aw ma ter ia ls ( i b id . ) .
H owever , i n o ther c ases , t he r aw ma ter ia ls a va i l -
a b le a t d if eren t s ources w i th in a r eg ion m ight v ary c ons iderab ly i nt he ir p hys i ca l c hara c t e r is t ics , e ven t o t he e x ten t t ha t d if eren t t e chn iques m igh t b e r equ ired t o w ork t hem .
I n
s uch a s i tua t ion , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t c ou ld b e r e la ted t o t h is f act or m igh tb e e xpec ted among a xeheads f r om t he d if eren t s our ces .
F unc t iona l T ypes o f Axes
Up t o t h is p o in t w e h ave b een u s ing t he t e rms " axe" a nd " axehead" i n ag ener i c s ense , a nd i t may b e t ha t i n many c ases o n ly a s i ng le g enera l ized t ype o f a xe wa s p roduced a nd u sed f o r av ar ie ty o f t asks .
I n o ther c ases , h owever , i t i s p oss ib le t ha t
f un ct iona l ly s pec if i c t ypes o f a xes w ere p roduced .
T hese m igh t i n c lude n on -u t i l i tar ian ,
v a luab le a xes o r d if eren t t ypes o f u t i l itar ian a xes .
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t p a t terns o f
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morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes w ou ld b e q u it e d if eren t i ff unc t iona l ly s pec if i c t ypes o fa xes w ere p roduced t han i fo n ly a s i ng le g enera l ized t ype o f a xe w ere made . I n t e rms o ft he p roduc t ion a nd u t i l iza t ion o fd if eren t t ypes o f a xes i n e thnog raph i c c ont ex t s , o bser v a t ions f r om t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea a ga in p rov ide s uf f i c ien t i n f orma t ion f o r a n i n s t ru c t ive c ase s tudy . One o ft he mos t i n t erest ing a spect s o f t he s tudy o f s t one a xe p roduct ion a nd u se i n t he N ew Gu inea h igh lands i nvo lves s o -ca l led c eremon ia l a xes a nd t he i r r e la t ionsh ip t oo rd i n a ry , o r w ork , a xes .
I n a n e ar ly d i s cuss ion o f s t one a xes f ound i n t he Mt . Hagen a rea ,
V ia l ( 1940 :158 ) n ot ed t ha t t hree ma jor t ypes o f a xe b lades w ere r e cogn ized : a xes , c eremon ia l a xes , a nd w ork a xes .
b r ide -pr ice
Axes o f t hese t hree t ypes w ere c hara c ter ized b y
d if erences i n morpho logy a nd f unc t ion . B r ide -pr i ce a xes w ere d i st ingu ished f r om o ther a xes b y t he i r e x t reme s i ze : ( 1940 :162 ) r epor t s al e ng th o f 4 50 mm f o r o ne e xamp le .
V ia l
T hese a xes w ere p o l ished a nd
s ha rpened , b u t n o t a s w e l l a s w ere c eremon ia l a xes . T hey w ere u sed o n ly i n b r ide -pr ice p aymen ts a nd d ea th c o mpensa t ion .
T hey n ever f un c t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls a nd w ere
u nw ie ldy e ven t oc arry . Mos t o ft he t ime t hey w ere k ep t i n men 's c l ub h ouses ( i b id . ) . T he b r ide -pr ice a xes i nu se i nt he a rea V ia l v i s i ted w ere p roduced a t as pec if i c s t one s our ce , t he D om q uarry . C eremon ia l a xes w ere g enera l ly sma l ler t han b r ide -pr ice a xes : g i ves a l eng th o f a round 2 70 mm a s t he s i ze o f a" good" o ne .
V ia l ( 1940 :160 )
H owever , t hese a xes
e xh ib i ted b e t ter w orkmansh ip t han t he l a rger b r ide -pr ice a xes . C eremon ia l a xes w ere c a r r i ed o n c eremon ia l o cca s ions a nd w ere u sed i n b r ide -pr i ces a nd o ther s oc ia l p ayment s . A l though t hey c ou ld b e u sed i n warfare , t hey w ere u sed o n ly v ery r a re ly f o r c u t t ing o r o ther w ork , a s t he ir b lades w ere t o o f i ne f o r h ard u sage ( i b id . :162 ) . Work a xes w ere g enera l ly sma l ler a nd t h icker t han c e remon ia l a xes , a nd t he p o l ish i ng o n t hem was l e ss f i ne ly e xecu ted ( V ia l 1 940 :160 ) . T hese a xes w ere u sed f o r e veryday t asks a nd w ere c a rr ied o n o rd ina ry o c cas ions .
T hey w ere a pparen t ly n o t u sed i n
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c eremon ia l d i sp lays n or f o r s oc ia l p ayment s ( i b id . :162 ) .
S ome a xes o ft h is t ype w ere s een
t o c o me f r om t he s ame s ource a s t he b r ide -pr ice a xes , h av ing b een made f r om p i eces o f r ock t o o sma l l t o make ab r ide -pr ice a xe ( i b id . :161 ) . I n a l a ter d i scuss ion o f s t one a xe t ypo logy i n t he Mt . Hagen a rea , S t rathern ( 1965 :185 ; 1 969 :321 ) r eported t ha t h er i n f orman ts d i st ingu ished b etween c eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes .1 C eremon ia l a xes w ere u sed i n c eremon ia l p resta t ions , i n d i sp lay , a nd i n warfare .
Work a xes w ere u sed f o r a l l o rd inary p urposes ( s ee S t ra thern 1 969 :315 , 3 28
f o r e xamp les ) .
H owever , s o me o f t he b e tter q ua l i ty w ork a xes w ere a l so u sed i n
b r idewea l th p ayment s , c arr ied a s o b jects o f d i sp lay , o r u sed i n warfare , l i ke c eremon ia l a xes . T h is f unct iona l o ver lap b etween c eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes r a ises t he q uest ion o f whether t he t wo t ypes w ere morpho log ica l ly d i st inct o r whether t hey w ere s imp ly d i f f e ren te nds o f ac ont inuum o fa xe s i zes a nd s hapes . S t ra thern ( 1969 :321 ) s tated t ha t i n t he Mt . Hagen a rea , c eremon ia l a xes w ere " i n f a c t ac l ass o f a xes wh ich w ere d e l ibera te ly f ash ioned a s o b ject s o f b eauty ." T hese a xes h ad e laborat e h af ts , a nd t he b lades s e lected f o r t hem w ere u sua l ly l o ng , t h in , a nd f i ne ly f i n ished . S tra thern ( i b id . :314 ) n oted t ha t sma l l , c hunky b lades , s o n arrow t he ir s i des m ight b e a lmos t p ara l le l , g ive av ery d i f f e ren t c l us ter o f measurements f r om t he l a rge , t h in , f l ared o nes t ha t w ere h igh ly p r ized a s d i sp lay o b jects . H owever , s he a l so s tat ed t ha t a n a xe b lade i n a n o rd inary , r ough h af t wou ld b e u sed f o r w ork wh i le t he s ame b lade i n a n e l aborate h af t wou ld b e r eserved f o r d i sp lay ( i b id . :322 ) . T h is s uggests t ha t a xe b lades u sed f o r c eremon ia l a xes a nd t hose u sed f o r work a xes were n ot c ategor ica l ly d if erent i n t e rms o f morpho logy .
I ndeed , S t ra thern w en t o n t o s ay t hat
t he d i st inct ion b etween c eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes was r ea l ly a ma t ter o fd eg ree a nd
1I n h er 1 965 r epor t , S t ra thern ment ioned t he D om b r ide -pr ice a xes b u t n oted t ha t n one o ft he m w ere i n c luded i nt he a xe c o l lect ions s he s tud ied , wh i le i nh er 1 969 a rt ic le , s he r epor ted t ha t s o me o f t hese a xes h ad b een o bta ined b y h er i n f ormants . L ike V ia l , S tra thern n o ted t ha t among t hese a xes , s i ze was emphas ized a t t he e xpense o f ag ood f i n ish , mak ing t hem t o o u nw ie ldy t ob e u sed a s o b ject s o fp ersona l d i sp lay b u t s t i l l a ccepta b l e a s w ea lth i t ems f o r u se i ne xchanges ( St ra thern 1 969 :321 ) .
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t ha t t here were n o t t wo s harp ly d if erent ia ted f o rms ( i b id . :3 22 ) .
S t ra thern 's emphas is o n
t he i mpor tance o f t he h af t i n d i st ingu ish ing b etween c eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes s ug g est s t ha t when h er i n f ormants r eported t ha t c eremon ia l a xes were d e l iberate ly f ash ioned a s o b jects o f b eau ty , t hey may h ave b een r ef err ing t o p roduct ion o ft he h af ts a s much o r more t han p roduct ion o ft he s t one a xe b lades . I n h i s a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes i n t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea , Hughes ( 1977 ) a l so a ddressed t he q ues t ion o f whether c ere mon ia l a xes w ere morpho log ica l ly d i s t inct f r om w ork a xes , a nd h e p ub l ished t he d imens ions o f an umber o f a xes t ha t h e e xam ined ( i b id . :155-58 , T ab les 9 -12 ) . A lthough Hughes was c arefu l t o p o in t o u t t ha t " the c o l le ct ion i s n ot a s ta t ist ica l ly r epresenta t ive s amp le s i nce n o s ys tema t ic s amp l ing r u le was f o l lowed" ( i b id . :135 ) , h e a l so n o ted ( i b id . ) t ha t a xes were c o l lec ted a t w ide ly s epara ted s i t es i n e very r eg ion a nd e very a xe s een i n t he f i e ld a nd mos t a xes s een i n o ther c o l lec t ions f r om t h is a rea f a l l w i th in t he r ange o fr aw ma ter ia ls , s i zes a nd s hapes o ft h is sma l l g roup . T heref ore , t hese d a ta c an b e u sed t oi lust ra te t he c o mmen ts Hughes made . A s ag enera l o bserva t ion , Hughes ( 1977 :160 ) s ta ted t ha t t he a xes o f t he c en tra l h igh lands t aken a s a who le f o rm a c on t inuum o f f o rm a nd f unct ion a nd f u l ly g round w ork a xes , i fn o t t o o sma l l , w ere v a luab le a nd w ere u sed i nc eremon ia l e xchange . W i th in Hughes 's s tudy a rea , many c ere mon ia l a xes c onf ormed " t o t he s ame d es ign a s w ork a xes , mere ly emphas is ing q ua l ity o r s i ze" ( i b id . ) .
T h is p at tern o f morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l ity i si lust ra ted b y t he a xes i n Hughes 's c o l lect ion f r om t he A b iamp q uarry .
T he
A b iamp a xes t ha t w ere i d ent if ied b y Hughes 's i n f orman t s a s c ere mon ia l a re l onger t han t he o thers ( F ig . 5 .1 ) , b u t a re s im i lar i n s hape ( s ee Hughes 1 977 :137-38 , P la tes 7 a nd 8 ) a nd a re n ot , i n t h is s amp le a t l east , c l ear ly s eparated f r om t he o thers b y a ny q uan t if iab le morpho log ica l c harac ter ist ic ( i b id . :167 ) . I n c ont rast t o t h is g enera l p a t tern , Hughes ( 1977 :160 ) n o ted t hat h i s i n f ormant s " recogn ised s o me a xes a s man if est ly c eremon ia l o n ly , l im i ted b y e i ther g rea t s i ze o r f rag i l i ty t o f unct ion a s w ea lth o b jects , o rnaments a nd weapons ." T o t h is g roup b e long t he
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h uge b r ide -pr i ce a xes p roduced a t t he D om q uarry ( i b id . ) .
G raph ic i lus t rat ion o f t h is p a t -
t e rn o f c l earcu t morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty b e tween c eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes i s p rov ided b y t he s pec imens i n Hughes 's c o l lec t ion f r om t he Ganz -Tsenga s our ces ( F ig . 5 .2 ) . H ere t he c eremon ia l b lades a re d i st ingu ished b y h av ing h igh w id th th ickness r a t io v a lues . T he w id th th ickness r a t io , o b ta ined b y d iv id ing t he max imum w id th o f t he a xe b y t he max imum t h ickness , i s a measure o f r e la t ive t h ickness a nd a n i nd icat or o ft he f r ag i l i ty o f t he a xe :
a xes wh ich a re r e la t ive ly t h in i n p ropor t ion t o t he ir l eng th a nd w id th , a nd t hus
w i l l h ave g reat er w id th th ickness r a t io v a lues , a re more f rag i le t han a xes o fg rea t er t h ick n ess . T hus , i n e thnograph i c c on tex t s i n t he h igh lands o fN ew Gu inea , t wo p a t tern s o fd i f f e rent ia t ion o fc eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes h ave b een o bserved . S ome c eremon ia l a xes , n o tab ly t he h uge D om b r ide -pr ice a xes a nd t he t h in Ganz -Tsenga c eremon ia l b lades , w ere c l ear ly d if eren t ia ted f r om w ork a xes b y q uan t if iab le morpho log ica l c hara c ter is t i cs . I n c on t ras t , o ther c eremon ia l a xes , s uch a s t he o nes p roduced a t t he A b iamp q uarry , w ere n o t c l ea r ly d if eren t ia ted f r om w ork a xes .
I nstead , t he t wo t ypes o f a xes s hared t he s ame
g enera l c ha ract er is t ics a nd s imp ly o ccup ied d if eren t p os i t ions o n ac on t inuum o f s i ze , s hape , a nd p resumab ly o ther f ea tures s uch a s f i n ish . I n t e rms o f f unct iona l ly s pec if i c t ypes o f u t i l i tar ian a xes i n t he N ew Gu inea h igh l ands , S t ra thern 's i n f orman t s d i s t ingu ished b e tween a xes a nd a dzes ( S t ra thern 1 965 :184 ) . H owever , t hey d emonst ra ted wh i ch i mp lemen t s w ere a dzes b y s how ing h ow t hey t hough t t he b lades w ere h af t ed , a nd i n t he a bsence o f h af t s , t hey o ccas iona l ly d i sag reed among t hemse lves a bou t whe ther s o me o f t he sma l ler b lades w ere a dzes o r a xes .
F rom t h is , i t
s eems c l ear t ha t a dzes w ere n o t a morpho log ica l ly d i s t inc t t o o l t ype , b u t r a ther o ne e nd o f ac on t inuum o f s i zes t ha t was j udged more s u i tab le f o r c er ta in t asks . I ndeed , i n h er l a ter r epor t , S t ra thern ( 1969 :321 ) g ave n o i nd ica t ion t ha t d if eren t t ypes o f u t i l i tar ian a xes w ere p roduced i nh er s tudy a rea .
8 1
Hughes ( 1977 :133 ) r epor ted t ha t t he w ork a xes h e e xam ined w ere , i n f a c t , mu l t i p u rpose a xe -adzes .
H e n ot ed t ha t a l though d i f f eren t s hapes o r s i zes o f a xe b lades w ere
r e cogn ized a s b e t t er s u i ted t o d i f f eren t u t i l i tar ian t asks , e . g . , l a rge b lades f o r h eavy w ork a nd s ma l l b lades f o r d e l i ca te w ork , t here was a lmos t n o s e le c t ion o fb lade t ype f o r s pec if i c t ask ( i b id . :176 ) .
T h i s t ends t o i mp ly t ha t s pe c if i c f unc t iona l t ypes o f u t i l ita r ian b lades
w ere n o t p rodu ced . I n s ummary , t wo ma jor p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes b ased o n t he i n t ended f un ct ion o ft he t o o l h ave b een i d en t if ied i n e thnog raph i c c on tex t s i n t he h igh land s o fN ew G u inea . I n o ne p a t t ern , d if eren t f un c t iona l t ypes o f a xes w ere n ot c l ear ly d if eren t ia ted .
C eremon ia l a xes a nd w ork a xes w ere o bserved t o s hare t he s ame
morpho log ica l c ha ract er ist i cs , v ary ing i n d eg ree r a ther t han f o rm ing d i s t inc t c l ust ers .
I n
t h is s i tua t ion , g ood q ua l i ty w ork a xes w ere o ccas iona l ly u t i l ized a s c eremon ia l a xes , a nd i t i sn o t i n conce ivab le t ha t c eremon ia l a xes c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls i fn eces s ary . T h is p a t t ern o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty was a l so o bserved among u t i l i tar ian a xes , w i th a xes o f d if eren t s i zes a nd s hapes b e ing u sed a s mu l t i -purpose i mp lemen t s f o r a v ar ie ty o ft a sks . I n t he o ther p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty , d if eren t f unc t iona l t ypes o f a xes w ere c l ea r ly d if eren t ia ted .
I n t h is s i tua t ion , c eremon ia l a xes e xh ib it ed c ha ra c ter is t ics s o
d if eren t f r om t hose o f w ork a xes t ha t t hey c ou ld n o t h ave b een u sed a s s uch . T hus , t he h ug e D om b r ide -pr ice a xes w ere t o o u nw ie ldy t o c arry , l e t a l one u se , a nd t he t h in Ganz T senga c e remon ia l a xes w ere t o o f rag i le t ob e u sed . T h is p a t t ern o fc l earcu t morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty wa s n o t o bserved t oc harac ter ize d if eren t t ypes o fu t i l i tar ian a xes i nt he h igh l and s o f N ew Gu inea , b u t i ti sc once ivab le t ha t s uch a p a t tern m igh t b e o bserved among u t i l i ta r ian a xes i no ther a reas .
8 2
S ty le
S ty le c an b e d ef ined a s " f orma l v ar ia t ion i n mat er ia l c u lture t ha t t ransm i t s i n f orma t i on a bou t p ersona l a nd s oc ia l i d en t i ty" ( W iessner 1 983 :256 , emphas i s o r ig ina l ) .
I n a n
e n l igh ten ing d i scuss ion o f s ty le a nd s ty l is t i c b ehav ior , W iessner h a s i d en t if ied t wo ma jor a spec t s o f s ty le .
S he h as c a l led t hese " e mb lem i c s ty le" a nd " asser t ive s ty le" ( i b id . :257-
5 9 ) . Emb le m i c s ty le i st ha t a spec to fs ty le wh ich h as a s i t s r ef eren t ad i s t in c t s oc ia l g roup a nd wh ich t ransm i t s i n f orma t ion a bou t g roup a ff i l ia t ion o r i d en t i ty t oo thers ( i b id . :257 ) . I n c on t ras t , a sser t ive s ty le i st ha t a spe c t o f s ty le wh ich i sp ersona l ly b ased a nd wh i ch t ran s m i t s i n f orma t ion s uppor t ing i nd iv idua l i d en t i ty ( i b id . :258 ) .
I td oes n o t d i rec t ly s ymbo l ize
i nd iv idua l i d en t i ty i n t he s ame s ense t ha t emb le m ic s ty le d i rec t ly s ymbo l izes g roup i d en t i ty , b u t i n st ead i tc o mmun i cat es a message t ha t i nd ica tes b o th p ersona l af i l ia t ion w i th o thers a nd i nd iv idua l ity ( i b id . ) . A ccord ing t o W iessner ( 1983 :259-61 ) , s o me i t ems o f ma ter ia l c u l ture a re more s u i tab le f o r c arry ing s ty l is t i c messages t ha t o thers . Mos t a ppropr ia t e f o r t h i s f un c t ion a re i t ems wh ich a re s oc ia l ly v i s ib le . T h is i n c ludes i t em s wh i ch h ave i mpor tan t s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l , a nd e conom ic r o les w i th in g roups a nd i t ems wh ich a re e xchanged b e tween i nd iv idua ls a nd g roups . S im i lar ly , W iessner s ugges t s t ha t i t ems wh ich h ave a l ong u se l i f e a re more l i ke ly t o c arry s ty l is t i c messages t han t hose wh i ch h ave a s hor t l i f e , s i n ce " the l o nger t he l i f e t ime o f a n i t em , t he h igher t he p robab i l i ty t ha t i t s message w ou ld r each o thers" ( i b id . :260 ) . W iessner ( i b id . :259 ) g oes o n t os uggest t ha t t he g rea ter t he n umber o ft ransf orma t iona l s tages a n i t em g oes t hrough , t he g reat er i t s c han ces o fb ea r ing s oc ia l i n f orma t ion , b ecause e a ch s tage p rov ides a n o ppor tun i ty t oa dd s oc ia l e xpress ion . S he s ugges t s t ha ti t em s wh i ch h ave al ong manufa cture t ime ( p resumab ly b ecause t hey g o t hrough a n umber o f t ransf orma t iona l s tages a t i n i t ia l manufa ctu re ) a re more l i ke ly t o c arry s ty l ist i c messages t han t hose wh ich h ave a s hor t manufa ctu re t ime .
I tc an a l so b e
s uggest ed t ha t s o me i t ems may g o t hrough a dd i t iona l t ransf orma t iona l s tages a f ter i n i t ia l manu fa cture , a nd t hese , t o o , p rov ide o ppor tun i t ies f o r s oc ia l i n f orma t ion t ob e a dded .
8 3
S tone a xes s a t isfy a l l o ft hese c r it er ia o fs u i tab i l i ty f o r c arry ing s ty l is t i c i n f orma t ion . T he e thnog raph ic d a ta w e h ave a l ready d i scussed i nd ica t e t ha t s t one a xes a re s o c ia l ly v i s ib le i t ems , c arr ied a nd u t i l ized b y men i n t he ir d ay -t o -day a c t iv i t ies a nd p lay ing i mpor t an t r o les i n e xchange .
T he u sefu l l i f e o f a xes may v ary c ons iderab ly ( Wh i t e a nd Mod -
j e ska 1 978a :280 ) , b u t , b arr ing l o ss , c an p robab ly b e r e ckoned i ny ears i n mos t c ases . T he t ime t aken t o p roduce a s t one a xe i n e thnog raph i c c ont ex t s i s u nknown b u t p robab ly amoun t s t o many h ours , p erhaps s pread o ver a n umber o fd ays . I n t he c ourse o fp rodu c t i on , s t one a xes p ass t hrough s evera l t ran sf orma t iona l s tag es , i n c lud ing i n i t ia l s hap ing o f t he b lank o r r oughou t , f i ner s hap ing o ft he i mp lemen t , a nd f i na l ly , g r ind ing a nd /o r p o l ish i ng . I n a dd i t ion , s t one a xes may u ndergo f ur ther t ransf orma t ions i ft hey a re r e -sharpened o r r e -worked ( s ee b e low ) .1 T hu s , s ty le may b e a ma jor d et erm inan t o f s t one a xe mor p ho logy a nd o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes . I n h i s a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among N ew Gu inea h igh lands s t one a xes , Hughes ( 1977 ) o bserved d i s t inc t ive p a t terns o f v a r iab i l i ty i n an umber o f mor p ho log i ca l c hara c ter ist ics among a xes o f ma ter ia ls f r om d if eren t r ock s ources .
T hese
c hara c ter is t i cs i n c lude c ross -sect ion s hape , e dge s hape , l o ca t ion o f max imum t h ickness , a nd f a ce s hape ( i b id . :154-67 ) .
Hughes n o ted t ha t " there a ppea r t o b e b as i c s hapes
p e cu l iar t o e a ch p r inc ipa l [ s our ce ] a rea" ( i b id . :167 ) .
Morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among
c eremon ia l a xes f r om d if eren t s ource a reas h as a l ready b een d i scussed i n t he p rev ious s ec t ion . T o s ummar ize t he ma jor p a t t ern , Hughes ( i b id . ) s ta ted t ha t a xes made a s v a luab les s ou th o f t he Wahg i [ i . e . , a t t he D om a nd A b iamp s ources ] c oncen trat e o n s i ze wh i le t hose made a s v a luab les n or th o f t he Wahg i [ i . e . , a t t he G anz -Tsenga s ources ] emphas ise a f l a t , w ide , t h in c ross -sec t ion a nd f i ne c urved e dges . Hughes ( i b id . :176 ) c onc luded t ha t t he ma in r eason f o r t he s ys tema t ic v ar ia t ions i n s ty le b e tween t he [ axe ] f ac t or ies o f t he c ent ra l h igh lands was t ha t e a ch d eve loped a nd ma in ta ined i t s o wn a es thet i c t rad i t ion .
1I n t h is way , t he o r ig ina l s ty l is t ic c ont ent , t ha t i n corpora ted a t i n i t ia l p rodu c t ion , may b e a l t ered o r r ep la ced .
8 4
P u t i n t he t e rms d ef ined a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is s ec t ion , t he p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty b e tween a xes p roduced a t t he d if eren t N ew Gu inea h igh lands s our ces a re a n e xpress ion o f emb lem i c , o r g roup , s ty le . T hus , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he morpho logy o f s t one a xes w i l l r ef lec t emb lem i c s ty le r e la ted t o t he p roducers o f t hem .
B etween g roups o f a xes p rodu ced a t d if eren t s our ces ,
t hen , t here may b e morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty b ased o n t he e xpress ion o f emb lem i c s ty le . A s i n t he N ew Gu inea c a se , i ft he d if eren t s ources a re l o ca ted i n d if eren t g eog raph i ca l a rea s a nd a re w orked b y d if eren t g roups o f p eop le , t hen morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l ity t ha t i s b ased o n t he e xpress ion o f emb lem ic s ty le w i l l b e e xpec ted b etween g roups o f a xes f r om t hose s ources . H owever , i ft he d if eren t s ources a re l o ca t ed c l ose t oge ther a nd a re w orked b y members o f t he s ame s oc ia l g roup , t hen morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t i sb ased o n t he e xpress ion o f emb lem i c s ty le w i l l n o tb e e xpec ted among t he a xes f r om t hose s ources . S im i lar ly , t here may o r may n o t b e morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty b ased o n t he e xpres s i on o f emb lem ic s ty le among s t one a xes made o ft he r aw ma ter ia l f r om a s i ng le s ou r ce . I f members o f d if eren t s oc ia l g roups h ave a ccess t o a nd p roduce a xes f r om t he ma ter ia l a va i lab le a t as ing le s ource , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t r ef lec t t he emb lem i c s ty les o f t he d if eren t g roups may b e s een among t he a xes .
H owever , i fas ource i s
e xp lo ited o n ly b y t he members o f as i ng le g roup o fp eop le , t here s hou ld n o t b e morpho log i c a l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes b ased o n emb lem i c s ty le . Among s t one a xes p roduced a t as i ng le s ource a nd among a xes p roduced a t d if eren t s our ces , t here may a l so b e morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o t he e xpress ion o f a sser t ive , o r i nd iv idua l , s ty le .
H owever , i t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is w ou ld t ake t he f o rm o f r andom
v ar iab i l i ty a bou t t he means p rescr ibed b y emb lem ic s ty le o r i nc hara c ter ist i cs n o t e xpress i ng emb lem ic s ty le ."
' A l though t he f o cus o f t h is i nves t iga t ion i so n a xeheads ( and t ha t i s wha t i s mean t b y t he t e rm " axe" , u n less o therw ise n ot ed ) , i ti sw or th men t ion ing t ha t s ty l is t ic i n f orma t i on may a l so b e c arr ied b y a n a xe 's h af t . I ndeed , t he h af t may b e more s u i tab le f o r t h is p urpose t han t he a xehead , s i nce i ti so f ten l a rger , a nd t hus more v i s ib le , a nd a l so l e ss l im i ted i n morpho logy b y f un c t iona l r equ iremen t s t han t he a xehead . A h af t may c a rry
8 5
S tone Axe Morpho logy a t I n i t ia l P rodu c t ion : T he I nt eract ion o fF a c tors
I n t he p reced ing s ect ions , t hree ma jor d et erm inan ts o ft he morpho logy o f s t one a xes a t i n i t ia l p rodu ct ion h ave b een d i scussed .
O bv ious ly , t he morpho logy o f a ny a xe , a s i n i -
t i a l ly p roduced , w i l l b e t he r esu l t o ft he i n tera ct ion o ft hese t hree f a ct ors . B ecause o ft h is , i n t erpreta t ion o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes i nt e rms o ft he d i f f e ren t f a ct ors w i l l n o t b e s t ra igh t f orward .
H owever , t he t ask i s made e as ier i fo ne o r t wo
o ft he t hree f a c tors c an b e a ssumed o r d emonst ra t ed t o b e c onstan t f o r t he a xes i n q ues t i on .
T hen , p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among t he a xes c an b e a ssumed t o b e
r e la ted t ot he r e ma in ing f act or (s ) . T h is p rocess o fe l im ina t ing t he f a c tors wh ich c an b e a ssumed o r d emons t ra ted t ob e c ons tan t f o r t he a xes i nq ues t ion i st he p rocedure t ha t Hughes ( 1977 ) f o l lowed i ni n terpre t i ng t he p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty h e o bserved among s t one a xes f r om d if eren t s ource a reas i nt he h igh lands o fN ew Gu inea . B ecause h e o bserved t ha t t he r aw ma ter ia ls a nd t he t e chn iques u sed t o w ork t hem w ere v ery s im i la r a nd t ha t t he s ame f unc t iona l t ypes o f a xes—ceremon ia l a xes a nd g enera l -purpose w ork a xes—were p rodu ced i nt he d i f f e ren t a rea s , h e wa s a b le t o c on c lude t ha t t he ma jor p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes f r om t he d if eren t s ource a reas r ef lec ted d if erent s ty l is t i c t rad i t ions . T he s ame a pproa ch c ou ld b e u sed t o i n t erpret p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes p roduced a t as i ng le s our ce . I n p rev ious s e ct ions , i t was s uggest ed t ha t ma jor p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty d ue t ot he p hys i ca l c harac ter is t ics o ft he r aw ma t er ia l w ou ld n o tb e e xpect ed among a xes f r om a s i ng le s our ce a nd t ha t i ft he a xes w ere p rodu ced b y members o f as i ng le s oc ia l g roup , i ti su n l ike ly t ha t t here w ou ld b e s i gn if i can t p a t t erns o f s ty l ist i c v ar iab i l i ty among t hem .
I n s uch a s i tua t ion , ad i st inc t ive p a t tern o f mor -
b o th emb lem ic a nd a sser t ive s ty le a nd t hus , i t s s ty l is t i c c ont en t w i l l s i gna l where a nd b y whom , i n b oth g roup a nd i nd iv idua l s enses , t he h af t wa s made . S in ce a xeheads may b e d i s t r ibut ed s o me d i s tance f r om t he ir s our ces b ef ore b e ing h af ted , ac o mp le te a xe c ons is t ing o f as t one a xehead a nd i t s h af t may s i gna l ac o mp lex message i nd ica t ing b o th where a nd b y wha t g roup t he a xehead was p roduced a s w e l l a s where a nd b y whom i t was h af ted .
8 6
p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes m igh t i nd i cat e t ha t d if eren t f unct iona l t ypes o f a xes h ad b een p roduced ( e .g . , t he p a t t ern o fv ar iab i l i ty among t he Ganz -Tsenga a xes i lus t ra t ed i nF ig . 5 .2 ) . O bv ious ly , i ns o me c ases t here m igh t b e s i gn if i can t p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om a s i ng le s ource d ue t o t he f a ct ors o f r aw ma ter ia l o r s ty le . T he i mpor tan t p o in t t ob e made h ere i st ha t i n e ach c ase , t he e x ten t t o wh ich e a ch f a c tor i sl i ke ly t o h ave h ad a s i gn if i can t e f ec t o n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes mus t b e a ssessed b ef ore a n i n t erpre ta t ion o fo bserved p a t t erns o fv ar iab i l i ty c an b e made .
T he F our th D imens ion o f Var iab i l i ty : R e -Sharpen ing a nd R e - Work ing
S o f ar , t hree ma jor d eterm inan t s o f t he morpho logy o f s t one a xes a t i n i t ia l p rodu c t i on h ave b een i d en t if ied , a nd p oss ib le p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes p roduced a t t he s ame s our ce a nd a t d if eren t s ources h ave b een d i scussed . I n o ne s ec t ion , i t was b r ief ly n o ted t ha t s t one a xes m igh t u ndergo f ur ther c hanges i n morpho logy a f ter i n i t i a l p roduct ion . N ow t ha t f our th d imen s ion o fv ar iab i l i ty w i l l b e c ons idered . B ecause r aw ma ter ia ls s u itab le f o r mak ing s t one a xes a re o f ten a va i lab le a t o n ly a f ew l o ca l i t ies w i th in a r eg ion' a nd b ecause t he p roduc t ion o f g round s t one a xes i s at ime c onsum ing t ask , when a xes b ecome d amaged , t hey a re o f ten r e -sharpened o r r e -worked a nd r e -used .
R e -sha rpen ing a nd r e -work ing a xes w i l l a lways a l ter t he ir morpho logy t o
s o me e xt en t . M in ima l ly , r e -sharpen ing o f ad u l l b lade w il s hor ten t he i mp lemen t . I t may a l so a l ter t he a ng le o f t he w ork ing e dge .
B eyond t h is , more e x tens ive r e -work ing o f a
b ad ly d amaged a xe may c hange i t s s i ze a nd s hape c ons iderab ly .
I n ad i scuss ion o f s t one
a xe p roduct ion a nd d i s tr ibu t ion i n t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea , Wh i te a nd Mod jeska ( 1978b :28 ) s ugges ted t ha t t he l onger a n a xe i s u sed , d amaged , a nd r e -sharpened o r r e w orked , t he more i t s o r ig ina l morpho logy w i l l b e e fa ced .
" For t he N ew Gu inea c ase , s ee Hughes 1 977 :78 , Map 2 a nd 1 35-45 . B r i t ish c ase , s ee F ig . 1 . 1 .
F or t he
8 7
I t c an b e s uggest ed t ha t morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o r e -sharpen ing o r r e w ork ing w i l l b e s een more f r equen t ly among c er ta in t ypes o f a xes t han among o thers . B ecause mos t d amage t o a xes a r ises t hrough u se , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t u t i l i tar ian , o r w ork , a xes w i l l b e d amaged more , r e -sharpened o r r e -worked more , a nd t hus c hanged i n mor p ho logy more t han c eremon ia l a xes . Undoubt ed ly , c eremon ia l a xes d o o c cas iona l ly b ecome d amaged ( Hughes 1 977 :167 ) , b u t i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is h appens l e ss o f t en a nd t ha t t he d amage i s g enera l ly l e ss s evere t han i n t he c a se o f u t i l i tar ian a xes .
T h is w i l l b e p a r -
t i cu lar ly t rue f o r c eremon ia l a xes wh ich a re morpho log ica l ly d i s t in c t f r om u t i l i tar ian a xes , wh ich a re e xc lus ive ly c eremon ia l i n f unc t ion , a nd wh i ch a re p robab ly ma in ta ined i n as pe c i a l p lace .
F or c eremon ia l a xes wh ich d if er f r om u t i l i ta r ian a xes o n ly i n t e rms o f s i ze o r
f i n ish a nd wh ich c ou ld b e u sed f o r u t i l i tar ian t asks i f n e cessary , more d amage , r e s harpen ing o r r e -work ing , a nd morpho log ica l c hange a re l i ke ly t o t ake p la ce i ft he i mp le men t s a re u sed f o r u t i l itar ian t asks .
I ndeed , t hey may b ecome a l tered t o s u ch a n e xt en t
t ha t t hey a re n o l o nger r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems a nd s pend t he r es t o ft he ir u sefu l l i ves a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls .
S tone Axe D is t r ibut ion a nd S pa t ia l P a t tern ing i n Morpho log ica l V ar iab i l i ty
I n C hap ter I V , g enera l i n f orma t ion a bou t t he d i st r ibu t ion o f ma ter ia l g oods among e thnog raph ic g roups i n N ew Gu inea wa s u t i l ized i n ad i scuss ion o f t he p rocesses t hrough wh ich g oods a re d i s t r ibu ted i n t r iba l s o c iet ies a nd t he r esu l t ing s pa t ia l p a t terns o f t hose g oods . I n a dd i t ion , i th as b een n ot ed t ha t s t one a xes w ere o ne o ft he i mpor tan t c l asses o f g oods t ha t w ere p rodu ced a nd d i s t r ibu ted among t he N ew Gu inea g roups . B ef ore d escr ib i ng t he a spe c t s o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes t ha t h ave b een o bserved t ob e r e la ted t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l , s o me s pec if i c a spec ts o ft he p roduct ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs t one a xes i nN ew Gu inea s hou ld b e r ev iewed .
8 8
S tone Axe P roduct ion a nd D istr ibu t ion i nN ew Gu inea
A lthough s t one a xe b lades w ere i n u se t hroughou t t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea , s t one s u itab le f o r mak ing a xe b lades was a va i lab le o n ly a t al im ited n umber o f s ources ( J . C happe l l 1 966 ; Hughes 1 977 ; R adf ord a nd R adf ord 1 980 ) .
A t t hese s our ces , t he r aw
ma ter ia l was r ough ly s haped i n t o b lanks wh ich w ere t hen t aken t o s et t lemen t s i tes t ob e f i n ished b y p o l ish ing ( V ia l 1 940 ) . I n g enera l , o n ly p eop le l i v ing i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f as t one s ource c ou ld o bta in t he ir a xes d i rect ly f r om t he s ource i n t h is way .
A lthough
p eop le f r om s l ight ly more d i stan t a reas c ou ld g o t o s our ces i n wh ich t hey h ad c l a ims t hrough k insh ip t i es ( S t rathern 1 965 :189 ) , p eop le l i v ing f ur ther f r om t he s ources g enera l ly h ad t oo bta in t he ir a xes t hrough e xchange . S tone a xe b lades , l i ke o ther g oods d i st r ibu ted t hrough e xchange i n t he h igh lands o f New Gu inea , moved o u tward f r om s ource a reas t oward a reas l a ck ing s ources t hrough b oth c eremon ia l p restat ion
a nd o rd inary b ar ter .
I n t h is
d ense ly p opu lated
r eg ion ,
a xes
g enera l ly moved f r om p erson t o p erson a nd g roup t o g roup o ver f a ir ly s hor t d i stances . B ecause o ft h is , t he p a t t ern o f movemen to fe ach a xe , i ft raced o u t , w ou ld l o ok l i ke a s er ies o f s hor t , c onnec ted s t eps ( Hughes 1 977 :205 ) .
T he p a t terns o f movemen t o f many a xes
t aken t ogether map o u t ac o mp lex n e twork o fe xchange r e la t ionsh ips . I n h i s i nvest iga t ion o fs t one a xe d i str ibu t ion i n t he h igh lands o fN ew Gu inea , Hughes ( i b id . :176 ) o bserved t ha t t he a xes f r om e ach s ource w ere d i str ibu ted o ver a n a pprox ima te ly c i rcu lar a rea a round i t . I n a dd it ion , h e n oted t ha t w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources , s t one a xes w ere l e ss n umerous ( i b id . :134 ) , a n o bserva t ion t ha t h ad p rev ious ly b een made b y o ther w orkers ( e .g . , S tra thern 1 969 :326 ) .
S pat ia l P a t tern ing i n Morpho log ica l Var iab i l ity Among S tone Axes i n New Gu inea
I n t he c on tex t o f e ga l i tar ian g roup to -g roup e xchange i n t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea , t he most c l earcu t g enera l r e la t ionsh ip b etween s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i str ibu -
8 9
t i on i st ha t w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources , a xe s i ze t ends t od ecrease . T h is p a t t e rn h as b een o bserved b y many w orkers i nt he a rea b oth i nt e rms o fa xes f r om i nd iv idua l s ources a nd i n t e rms o fa l l a xes i n l o ca l c o l lect ions a t v ary ing d i stances f r om s ources ( e .g . , J . C happe l l 1 966 :113 ; B u lmer 1 977 :48 ; Hughes 1 977 :134 ; Wh ite a nd Mod jeska 1 978b :282 9 ) . A s as pec if i c e xamp le , S tra thern ( 1969 :326 ) r epor ted t ha t i n t he a rea o f t he Hagen p eop le , l o ca ted i nt he West ern H igh lands r e lat ive ly c l ose t o an umber o f ma jor a xe s ources , s t one a xes a veraged 5 -6 i n ches i n l eng th .
I n c on t rast , i n t he a rea o f t he W iru p eop le ,
l o ca ted i n t he S ou thern H igh lands a pprox ima te ly 4 0 m i les s outh o f t he Hagen a rea a nd f ar ther f r om a ny a xe s ources , s t one a xes a veraged o n ly 2 -3 i n ches i nl eng th . S evera l p rocesses i nvo lved i n t he g enera l p at tern o f d ecrease i n a xe s i ze w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources h ave b een s ugges ted . I n t he ir d i scuss ion o fs t one a xe d i s tr ibu t ion i nt he h igh lands o f New Gu inea , Wh i te a nd Mod jeska ( 1978b :28 ) n o ted t ha t a s a xe b lades moved o u tward f r om t he s ources b y p assage a l ong a c ha in o f owner -users , a t e a ch s t ep a l ong t he way , s o me m igh t b e e xchanged o nward j ust a s t hey w ere r ece ived , o thers m igh t b e w i thdrawn f r om t he e xchange c ha in a nd u sed u n t i l t hey w ere l o st , o r b roken a nd a bandoned , a nd s t i l l o thers m ight b e u sed f o r a wh i le , d amaged , r e -sharpened o r r e -worked , a nd t hen t raded o nward .
I t h as b een s ta ted a bove t ha t a s a xes a re r e -
s harpened o r r e -worked , t hey b ecome s hor ter .
T hus , i t i s c l ear t ha t i n t he s i tuat ion
d escr ibed b y Wh it e a nd Mod jeska , t he a xes e ach p erson , o r i n ab roader s ense , e ach g roup , w ou ld p ass o n i n e x change w ou ld i n c lude b oth a xes o f t he s ame s i zes a s t hose t hey r ece ived a nd a xes wh ich h ad b een r educed i n s i ze t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing . T he a verage s i ze o f a l l t hese e xchanged a xes w ou ld , t heref ore , b e l e ss t han t he a verage s i ze o f t he a xes t ha t h ad b een o r ig ina l ly r e ce ived .
T h is w ou ld r esu l t i n t he o bserved p a t -
t e rn o fd ecrease i n a xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources . Wh i te a nd Mod jeska ( 1978b :29 ) a l so o bserved t hat i n t he New Gu inea h igh lands , t he l a rgest a xes w ere v a lued most h igh ly b o th f o r c ere mon ia l a nd d i sp lay p urposes a nd f o r u t il i tar ian p urposes .
T hey s ugges ted t ha t b ecause o f t h is , a t e a ch s t ep i n t he e xchange ,
9 0
t he l a rges t , mos t v a luab le a xes w ou ld b e r e ta ined a nd u t i l ized , a nd t hey i mp l ied t ha t o n ly s ma l ler , l e ss v a luab le a xes w ou ld b e s en to nward . T h is , t o o , w ou ld c l ear ly r esu l t i n ap a t t e rn o f d ecrease i n t he a verage s i ze o f a xes w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s ources . I ndeed , i n s uch a s i tua t ion , n ot o n ly w ou ld t he a verage s i ze o f a xes d ecrease , b u t s o w ou ld t he max imum s i ze o f a xes i n c o l lec t ion s , a nd a xes o f t he l a rges t s i zes p rodu ced a t e a ch s our ce w ou ld n ever b e f ound v ery f a r f r om i t . S uch a p a t t ern m igh t r esu l t i ft he l a rges t , mos t v a luab le a xes a g roup r e ce ived w ere r eta ined p ermanen t ly a s p ar t o f t he g roup 's c eremon ia l ma ter ia l . H owever , i n mos tc ases i nvo lv ing p r imar i ly u t i l i tar ian a xes , Ib e l ieve ad if eren t s i tua t ion w ou ld p reva i l . I n v i ew o f wha t w e u nderstand o fv a lues i np r im i t ive s oc ie t ies , i t may b e q ues t ioned whe ther i nd iv idua l s a nd g roups w ou ld r e ta in a l l o ft he l a rges t , mos t v a luab le a xes a t e ach s t ep i n a n e x change s yst em a nd s end o n ly t he sma l ler , l e ss v a luab le o nes o nward .
I n
e ga l i tar ian e x change i nt r iba l s oc iet ies , t he emphases t end t ob e o n g eneros i ty , p ar t icu lar ly among c l ose k in ( Sah l ins 1 972 ) , a nd o n d i sp lay , p ar t i cu lar ly i n c eremon ia l c on tex t s . B ecause o f t h is , i ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t p eop le w ou ld s e lf i sh ly k eep t he ir b es t a xes , a lways e xchang ing o nes o fl e sser q ua l i ty . A l though i td oes s eem r easonab le t ha t p eop le w ou ld u t i l i ze t he l a rges t a xes t hey o b ta ined , i ta l so s eems l i ke ly t ha t i n mos t i n stances o fe xchange , p eop le w ou ld t ry t o g ive t he b es t a xes t hey h ad o n h and .1 H owever , t he b es t a xes p eop le h ad o n h and m igh t s t i l l b e sma l ler , o n a verage , t han t he a xes t hey r ece ived , i fs o me o ft he l a rges t o ft hose h ad b een e i ther l o s t , o r b roken a nd r e -sharpened o r r e -worked , a nd s o , s hor tened . I n t h is s i tua t ion , ad ecrease i nt he a verage s i ze o fa xes w i th i n creas ing d i s t ance f r om e a ch s our ce w ou ld s t i l l b e s een .
I n a dd i t ion , i tm igh t b e e xpected t ha t s o me
v ery l a rge a xes , a s l a rge a s t he l a rges t o nes p roduced a t ag iven s our ce , w ou ld b e f ound a t
1I n d i scuss ing e xchange b e tween t he a g r icu l tura l t r ibes o f t he Upper M issour i R iver ( t he H ida tsa ) a nd P la ins n omads ( t he C heyenne ) , J ab low ( 1951 :48 ) q uo tes A lexander H enry , a n e ar ly o bserver o f e x change e p isodes b e tween t hese g roups , who r e marked t ha t i t was c ust omary " f or e veryone t oc on t r ibu te wha t h e p l eased o ft he b es t h e h ad" ( emphas is m ine ) .
9 1
l o ng d i s tances f r om t he s ource , h av ing b een p assed o n t ha t f a r w ithou t h av ing b een l o s t o r d amaged a nd r educed i ns i ze t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing a l ong t he way . F ina l ly , a nother f a ctor t ha t w ou ld c ontr ibute t ot he t endency f o r a xe s i ze t od ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s our ces i nvo lves t he f a ct t ha t f ar ther f r om s ources , a xes a re g enera l ly i n s hort er s upp ly ( s ee a bove ) . I n a reas where a xes a re l e ss a bundant , t hey w ou ld t end t o b e u sed l o nger a nd r e -sharpened r epea ted ly u nt i l t hey w ere sma l ler t han i n a reas w ith amore a bundan t s upp ly . E v idence t ha t a xes w ere u sed l o nger i n a reas f ar ther f r om s ources t han i n a reas c l oser t o t hem i n t he h igh lands o f New Gu inea was g iven b y Wh it e a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a :280 ) .
T hey q uo ted S a l isbury 's e st imat e o f ay ear a nd a h a lf
f o r t he a verage u se l i f e o fa n a xe among t he S iane p eop le who l i ve w i th in 1 5 km o f as t one a xe s ource , wh i le t hey n o ted t ha t among t he Duna p eop le t hey s tud ied , who l i ve f ar ther f r om a ny s ource o f a xes , t he a verage u se l i f e o f a n a xe was s even y ears .
Unf or tunate ly ,
Wh i te a nd Mod jeska d i d n ot g ive e nough i n f orma t ion t o d e term ine i ft he Duna a xes w ere , i nf a ct , sma l ler t han t he S iane a xes . I n t h is d i scuss ion o fp rocesses i nvo lved i nt he g enera l p a t tern o fd ecrease i na xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om s ources , r educt ion i n t he s i ze o fi nd iv idua l a xes t hrough r e s harpen ing o r r e -work ing was i d ent if ied a s a ma jor f a ctor .
A s emphas ized i n ap rev ious
s e ct ion , r educt ion i n s i ze t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing i sl i ke ly t o af ect u t i l i tar ian a xes t o a much g reater e x tent t han c eremon ia l a xes , p art icu lar ly c eremon ia l a xes o f t he e x c lus ive ly n on -ut i l itar ian t ype .
Among a xes o f t h is t ype , i t s eems l i ke ly t hat w i th
i n creas ing d i stance f r om s ources , t here w ou ld b e n o r educt ion i n a xe s i ze o r o n ly a v ery g radua l r educt ion r e lated t o m in ima l r e -sharpen ing o f a cc identa l ly d amaged b lades . A s a r e su lt o f t h is , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t i fb oth u t i l itar ian a xes a nd e xc lus ive ly n on -u t i l itar ian a xes w ere p roduced a t t he s ame s ource a nd e xchanged i n t he s ame d i rec t ions , d if eren t ia t i on i n a verage s i ze b etween t he t wo t ypes w ou ld i n crease w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource a s t he n on -u t i l itar ian a xes r eta ined t he ir o r ig ina l s i zes a nd t he u t i l itar ian a xes b ecame r educed i ns i ze .
9 2
Among c eremon ia l a xes o ft he t ype t ha t a re p roduced i nt he s ame g enera l f o rms a s u t i l i tar ian a xes , y e t ad if eren t s pa t ia l p a t tern o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty m igh t b e e xpected .
I t was s uggest ed a bove t ha t s uch a xes c ou ld , a nd p robab ly w ou ld , b e u sed a s
u t i l i tar ian t o o ls i fn ecessa ry .
I ft hey w ere u sed i n t h is way , t hey w ou ld b e s ub jec t t o t he
s ame p ro cesses o f d amage a nd r educt ion i n s i ze t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing a s o rd inary u t i l i tar ian a xes . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t n ear t he s our ces where a xes o fa l l t ypes a re a bundan t , c eremon ia l a xes w ou ld n o t h ave t o b e u sed f o r u t i l i tar ian t asks a nd s o w ou ld s how a p a t tern o f l i t t le o r n o r educ t ion i n s i ze . F ar ther f r om s ources where a xes a re l e ss a bundan t , c eremon ia l a xes m igh t b e p ressed i n to s erv ice a s u t i l itar ian t o o ls mo re f r e q uen t ly , a nd a m ore p ronounced p a t tern o f s i ze r educt ion among t hem m igh t r esu l t .
I n
t h is s i tua t ion , t he s i zes o f c eremon ia l a xes m igh t a pproa ch t he s i zes o f u t i l i tar ian a xes , a nd s o me o ft hem m igh te ven b ecome s o sma l l t ha t t hey w ere n o l o nger c ons idered s u i tab le t o f unct ion a s c eremon ia l i t ems .
T hus , i tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce
f r om a s our ce , d i f f eren t ia t ion i n s i ze w ou ld d ecrease b e tween
u t i l i ta r ian a xes
a nd
c eremon ia l a xes o ft he c on t inuum t ype , e ven t o t he p o in t t ha t t he t wo t ypes w ere i nd ist in g u ishab le . I ndeed , t h i s i s ap a t tern t ha t was o bserved i n t he h igh lands o fN ew Gu inea b y Hughes ( 1977 :160 ) , w ho n ot ed t ha t d if eren t ia t ion b e tween c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i ta r ian a xes , wh i le n ever g rea t , d ecreased a way f r om t he ma in a xe s our ces . I n s umma ry , w e h ave s een t ha t a xe s i ze i s , a t l e as t i n p ar t , r e la ted t o a xe a bun d ance , a nd v ar iab i l i ty i n b oth i s r e la ted t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion . B ecause o f t h is , v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze c an b e s een a s a n a l t erna t ive t o v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe a bundance a s a n i nd i ca tor o fp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion . I ndeed , t h is i st he ma jor p rem ise o n wh i ch t h is i nves t iga t ion i sb ased .
S t one A xe D epos i t ion a nd R ecovery : T he F orma t ion o ft he A rchaeo log ica l R ecord
Up t o t h is p o in t i no ur d i scuss ion o fr e la t ionsh ips b e tween s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n mor p ho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among s t one a xes a nd p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l , w e
9 3
h ave t a c i t ly a ssumed t ha t t he a xes a nd a xe a ssemb lages b e ing c o mpa red w ere t hose h e ld a nd u sed b y members o f e thnog raph i c g roups a t t he t ime o f c o mpar ison . a r chaeo log is t s d o n o t d ea l w i th
a ssemb lages
H owever ,
a s t hey a re u sed , b u t w i th p ar ts o f
a ssemb lages t ha t h ave b een d i scarded o r l o s t i n t he p as t a nd r e covered i nr e la t ive ly r ecen t t imes .
B ecause o f t h is , i ti se ssen t ia l t o i nvest iga te b oth p rocesses o f d epos i t ion o f s t one
a xes i n t o t he p oten t ia l a r chaeo log ica l r e cord a nd p rocesses o f a r t ifa ct r e covery a nd t o c on s i der t he e f ec t s s uch p rocesses may h ave o n t he c o mpos i t ion o f a ssemb lages t ha t may b e a va i lab le f o r a rchaeo log ist s t o s tudy .
I n t e rms o f p rocesses o f s t one a xe d epos it ion , e th -
n og raph i c d a ta f r om N ew G u inea a re a ga in i n st ruc t ive .
T he F at es o fS t one Axeheads
Wh i te a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a ) c onduct ed a n e thno -archaeo log i ca l i nves t iga t ion o f t he p rocesses o f a cqu is i t ion a nd d epos i t ion o f s t one a xes among t he Duna , ah igh land N ew G u inea s o c ie ty .
A l though t hese a u thors p resent ed a n i n terest ing d i scuss ion o f p rocesses
t hrough wh ich a xes e n tered Duna t e rr i tory a nd i nd iv idua l Duna men o bta ined t he ir a xes ( i b id . :279-81 ) , o f more i n terest h ere i st he ir d i scuss ion o ft he " fa tes" o fa xeheads o nce t hey h ad e n tered t he Duna a rea .
One p oss ib le f a te o f a xes was t ha t t hey m igh t b e t raded o r
g i ven a way a nd s o l e ave t he Duna a rea ( i b id . :283 ) .
T hese a xes a re o f n o f ur ther c oncern
h ere , a s i ti sa xes t ha t r ema in i n ag iven a rea a nd e n ter t he p oten t ia l a r chaeo log ica l r ecord t ha t a re o fp r imary i mpor tan ce i nt h is d i scuss ion . T he most c o mmon f a te o f a xeheads t ha t r e ma ined i n Duna t e rr i t ory wa s t ha t t hey w ere i n ten t iona l ly a bandoned , i . e . , d i scarded o r d e l ibera te ly n o t r ecovered when l o s t ( Wh i te a nd Mod jeska
1 978a :282 ) .
T he
a xes t ha t s uf f ered t h is f at e w ere p r imar i ly sma l l
s pec imens wh ich w ere d amaged o r b roken a nd r egarded a s n o l onger w or th r e -sharpen ing , o r wh i ch w ere r egarded a s n ear ly " used -up" a nd s o n o t w or th s ea rch ing f o r i fl o s t ( i b id . ) . T he b roken a xes w ou ld e n ter t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord a s p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s o f a xes
9 4
wh i le t he l e ss s evere ly d amaged a nd n ear ly u sed -up a xes w ou ld e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord a s t e chn i ca l ly c o mp le te , t hough sma l l , a xes . Al e ss c o mmon f a te o fa xes t ha tr e ma ined i nt he Duna a rea was t ha t t hey m igh t b e " l os t i n s erv ice" ( Wh it e a nd Mod jeska 1 978a :282 ) .
S uch a xes w ere o f u sefu l s i zes a nd
f u l ly s erv iceab le , b u t w ere l o s t , o f t en wh i le a c tua l ly b e ing u sed , a nd n ot f ound . T hese a xes w ou ld a l so e nt er t he a rchaeo log i ca l r ecord a s c omp le te , b u t t hey w ou ld b e o n a verage l a rger t han t he c o mp let e a xes t ha t e ntered t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord a s u sed -up , a nd t hey w ou ld b e f ewer i nn umber . F ina l ly , s t i l l o ther a xes , a l though r e la t ive ly sma l l n umbers o ft hem , m ight s uf f er t he f a tes o f b e ing u n in t ent iona l ly a bandoned o r d es t royed ( Wh it e a nd Mod jeska 1 978a :283 ) . Un int en t iona l ly a bandoned a xes w ou ld i n c lude t hose t ha t w ere l e f t i n ah ouse o r o ther s t orage s i tua t ion when t he o wner moved o r d i ed a nd w ere f o rgo t ten b y o ther members o f t he g roup . D es t royed a xes w ou ld i n c lude t hose t ha t w ere l o s t , f o r e xamp le , when a h ouse c on ta in ing a xes b urned d own ( i b id . :284 ) .
A l though s o me o f t hese m igh t b e d es t royed
b eyond r ecogn i t ion , o thers m igh t e nt er t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord r e la t ive ly u nsca rred b y t he ir f a t e
( i b id . ) .
A bandoned a nd s urv iv ing " dest royed" a xes w ou ld a l so e n ter t he
a rchaeo log i ca l r e cord a s c o mp lete e xamp les . I ti sl i ke ly t ha t t he s i zes o ft hese a xes w ou ld c o mpa re more c l ose ly w ith t he s i zes o f a xes l o s t i n s erv ice t han w i th t he s i zes o f u sed -up a xes .
T he C ompos i t ion o fA r chaeo log i ca l A ssemb lages o fS tone A xes
T he p oss ib le " fa tes" o f s t one a xeheads t ha t w ere i d en t if ied i n t he N ew Gu inea c ase s eem l i ke ly t ob e u n iversa l p oss ib le " fates" f o r s t one a xeheads . I fs o , t hen o ne o ft he mos t i mpor tan t l e ssons t o b e l e arned f r om t h is e xamp le i s t ha t t he a xes t ha t may e nt er t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n ag iven a rea w i l l n o t r epresen t ar andom s amp le o ft he a xes t ha t g roups i n t ha t a rea w ere a b le t o o bta in t hrough e x change , a nd , i n f a ct , t hey w i l l n o t e ven r epresen t ar andom s amp le o ft he a xes h e ld a nd u sed b y t hose g roups .
9 5
Wh it e a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a :284 ) c onc luded t ha t i nt he Duna c ase , t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord i sc o mposed o ft wo g roups o f who le a xe b lades , t hose wh i ch may b e e xpect ed t o b e ar andom s amp le o f t hose u sed i n t he s oc iety , a nd t hose wh ich a re n o l o nger u sefu l . I n t he l a t ter c at e go ry , a ccord ing t o Wh i te a nd Mod jeska , a re " used -up" b lades . T hese a xes w i l l a l l b e r e la t ive ly s hor t : t he ir s i zes w i l l c l us ter c l ose ly a round t he c u l tura l ly d eterm ined s i ze a t wh i ch a xes a re r egarded a s n o l o nger u sefu l . T h is s i ze u ndoub ted ly d epends i np a r t o n t he s t r ict ly u t i l i ta r ian c ons idera t ion o f m in ima l u sefu l s i ze o f a xes f o r t he i r i n tended t asks , b u t i t may a l so r ef lec t t he g enera l a bundance o fa xes i na n a rea . T hus , i fa xes w ere r e la t ive ly a bundan t , members o f g roups m igh t d i s card s o me med ium -s ized s pe c imens n o t y et a t t he f unct iona l ly -def ined m in imum u sefu l s i ze i n f avor o f l a rger s pec imens , wh i le i n a rea s where a xes w ere i n s hor t er s upp ly , t he a va i lab le i mp lemen t s w ou ld h ave t ob e u sed u n t i l t hey w ere n ear t oo r a tt he m in imum f un c t iona l s i ze . A s t he r andom s amp le o f who le a xes i n u se i n s oc ie t ies , Wh it e a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a :284 ) w ere a pparen t ly r ef err ing t o t he a xes l o s t i n s erv ice a nd t he u n in ten t iona l ly a bandoned a nd " des t royed" a xes .
A ssum ing t ha t t he a xes s t ored i n s i tua t ions wh i ch
w ou ld b e s ub jec t t op rocesses l e ad ing t o u n in ten t iona l a bandonmen t o r d es t ru c t ion w ere a r andom s amp le o f t he a xes i n u se , i ti sl og i ca l t o a ssume t ha t t he a xes s o a bandoned o r d es t royed w ou ld b e ar andom s amp le t o o . H owever , Ib e l ieve t ha t t he s ame c anno t b e s a id f o r a xes t ha t a re l o s t i n s erv i ce . A lthough a xes i n i t ia l ly d ropped may w e l l b e ar andom s amp le o ft hose i n u se , t hey w il n o t a l l r ema in l o s t .
D epend ing u pon t he r e la t ive v a lue o f t he a xe t ha t i sd ropped , wh ich i n
t urn d epends o n i t s s i z e a nd q ua l i ty a nd o ther f a c tors s uch a s t he g enera l s upp ly o fa xes t o t he a rea , t he o wner w i l l d ec ide whether o r n o t t o s earch f o r t he a xe , a nd i fh e d ec ides t o s ea rch , h ow much e f or t t oe xpend i nt he s ear ch . I ti sr easonab le t oa ssume t ha t v a luab le , c eremon ia l a xes a nd l a rger u t i l i tar ian a xes w i l l b e s ough t more o f ten t han s ma l ler u t i l i tar ian a xes , t ha t more e f or t w i l l b e e xpended i n t he s earch f o r t hem , a nd t ha t t hey w i l l more o f ten b e f ound .
I n a dd i t ion , t he r e la t ive s i zes o f l a rger a xes w i l l r ender t hem
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more v i s ib le t han sma l ler o nes , a l low ing t hem t o b e r ecovered more o f ten e ven w i th t he s ame e xpend i ture o f t ime a nd e nergy i n s earch ing .
T hus , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t t he
a xes l o st i n s erv ice wh i ch a c tua l ly e nt er t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord w i l l n o t b e ar andom s amp le o f t he a xes i n u se i n t he s oc ie ty . I ns tead , t h is s amp le w i l l b e s kewed t oward t he sma l ler s i zes o fa xes t ha t w ere l o st a nd n o tf ound . T he a verag e s i ze o f a xes i nt h is s amp le w i l l l i e b e tween t he a verage s i zes o f a xes i n t he s amp les o f u sed -up a xes a nd u n inten t i ona l ly a bandoned o r " dest royed" a xes . T heref ore , i n ar ev ised mode l o f t he c o mpos i t ion o f a ssemb lages o f s t one a xes t ha t a re d epos i ted i n t o t he p ot en t ia l a r chaeo log i ca l r ecord , t hree g roups o f c o mp le te a xes a re p resen t : ( 1 ) t he i n t en t iona l ly a bandoned , u sed -up a xes , ( 2 ) t he a xes l o s t i n s erv ice , a nd ( 3 ) t he u n int en t iona l ly a bandoned a nd " des t royed" a xes . T he s i zes o fi nd iv idua l a xe s i nt hese g roups w i l l o ver lap , a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i zes o fa l l a xes t ha t may e n ter t he a r chaeo log i c a l r ecord a s ar esu l t o ft he a c t iv i t ies o f ah ypothet ica l g roup i n ac er ta in a rea s hou ld l o ok l i ke F ig . 5 .3c . I n c o mpa r ison w i th a h ypo the t ica l d i st r ibu t ion o ft he s i zes o fa xes h e ld a nd u sed b y members o f t he s ame g roup ( F ig . 5 .3a ) , t h is d i str ibu t ion i s o bv ious ly s kewed t oward t he sma l ler s i zes o f a xes s i nce i ti n c ludes l a rge n umbers o f u sed -up a xes a nd sma l ler a xes t ha t w ere l o st i n s erv ice a l ong w i th sma l ler n umbers o fl a rger a xes t ha t w ere l o s tb u t n o tr ecovered o r w ere u n int en t iona l ly a bandoned o r " des t royed ." B ased o n t h is mode l o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s i zes o f s t one a xes t ha t may e nt er t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord i n ag iven a rea , a no ther mode l c an b e p roposed t ha t p red i ct s d i s t r ibu t i ons o fs i zes o fa xes t ha t w i l l e n ter t he p ot en t ia l a rchaeo log i ca l r ecord i n a reas a t v a ry ing d i s tances f r om a xe s our ces ( F ig . 5 .3d ) .
A l though t he a xes t ha t may e nt er t he p o ten t ia l
a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n a ny a rea w i l l n o t r epresen t ar andom s amp le o f e i ther t he a xes t ha t w ere r e ce ived t hrough e xchange o r t he a xes t ha t w ere h e ld a nd u sed b y p eop le i nt ha t a rea , t he s i zes o f t hese a xes w i l l d epend , t o al a rge e x ten t , b o th o n t he s i zes o f t he a xes t ha t w ere r e ce ived , h e ld , a nd u sed a nd o n t he g enera l s upp ly o f a xes t o t he a rea , a s d i s c ussed a bove .
T heref ore , d if eren ces among d i s tr ibu t ions o f s i zes o f a xes t ha t h ave
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e n t ered t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord i nd if eren t a reas s hou ld r ef lec t c orrespond ing d if erences i n t he s i zes o f a xes r e ce ived , h e ld , a nd u sed b y g roups i n t hose a reas , t ha t i s , p a t terns o f a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty r esu l t ing f r om t he o pera t ion o fd i s t r ibu t ion p rocesses . H owever , t he e xt en t t o wh ich d if erences i ns i zes o f a xes i n a rchaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions c an b e r e l ied u pon t o r ef lec t d if eren ces i n s i zes o f a xes h e ld b y g roups d epend s o n t he e x ten t t o wh ich a no ther c ond i t ion h o lds t rue . T h is c ond i t ion i st ha t t he p ropor t ions o fa xes o f t he d if eren t d epos i t iona l c l asses o u t l ined a bove a re t he s ame i n e a ch c o l lect ion t o b e c o mpared .
O bv ious ly , i fg rea ter p ropor t ions o f sma l ler u sed -up a xes w ere p resen t i n o ne
c o l lec t ion a nd g rea ter p ropor t ions o fl a rger u n in ten t iona l ly a bandoned a xes w ere p resen t i n a no ther , d if eren ces i nt he d i s t r ibu t ions o f s i zes o f a xes i n t hose c o l lect ions w ou ld b e s een wh i ch w ou ld b e u nre lat ed t op rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l . S u ch a s i tua t ion m igh t a r ise i ft he a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions r epresen ted d if eren tc on tex t s o fd epos i t ion .
C on t ex t s o fA xe D epos i t ion a nd P a t t erns o f Axe S ize
I n t he ir d i scuss ion o f p a t terns o f s t one a xe d epos i t ion i n t he Duna a rea o f t he N ew G u inea h igh lands , Wh it e a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a :282-84 ) d i s t ingu ished b e tween s e t t lemen t s , g a rdens , a nd f o rest s a s t he p r imary c on tex ts i n wh ich a xes m igh t e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord , a nd t hey s ugges ted t ha t d if eren t s i zes o f a xes m igh t e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord i n e a ch o ft hese c on tex t s . An u nderstand ing o fp a t terns o fa xe s i ze t ha t may r esu l t f r om d epos i t ion o fd if eren t c l asses o fa xes i nd if eren t p ar t s o ft he l ands cape i s ap rerequ i s i t e f o r a n a na lys is o fs i ze v ar iab i l i ty among a xes i na r chaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ions i nr e la t ion t o p rocesses o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion . Wh i te a nd Mod jeska ( 1978a :283 ) s ugges ted t ha t i n t he Duna a rea , f ew a xes w ou ld e n ter t he a r chaeo log i ca l r ecord o n s e t t lemen t s i tes . Two r easons w ere g i ven f o r t h is :
( 1 )
f ew a xes w ere u sed o n s e t t lemen t s i tes , a nd ( 2 ) b e cause o ft he i n tens ive a ct iv i ty o n s e t t le men t s i tes , i fa xes w ere " l os t" , t hey w ou ld a lmos t c er ta in ly b e f ound a ga in . H owever , i t
9 8
c an b e s ugges ted t ha t a xes o f t wo o f t he ma jor d epos i t iona l c l asses m igh t e n t er t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o n s e t t lemen t s i tes . Un in ten t iona l ly a bandoned a nd " des t royed" a xes m igh t b e d epos ited o n s e t t lemen t s i tes s i n ce t hese a xes a re l i ke ly t o e nter t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord f r om s t orag e l o ca t ions , a nd s t orage t o ok p la ce , i n t he Duna c ase a t l ea s t , p r imar i ly o n s e t t lemen t s i t es .
I t was
s uggest ed a bove t ha t t he a xes wh ich e nter t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord t hrough p rocesses o f u n in t en t iona l a bandonmen t o r " des t ruc t ion" a re l i ke ly t o b e ar andom s amp le o ft he a xes i n u se i n t he s oc ie ty , i f ar andom s amp le o ft he a xes i n u se was s t ored . I n t h i s c ase , t he s i zes o f a xes e n ter ing t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord o n s e t t lemen t s i tes w ou ld r ef l ect d i re c t ly t he s i zes o f a xes h e ld a nd u sed b y members o ft he g roups l i v ing o n t hose s i t es . H owever , t h is w ou ld n o tb e t rue i fo n ly c er ta in s i zes o fa xes , o r g rea t er p ropor t ions o fc er ta in s i zes o f a xes , w ere p la ced i n s t orage s i tua t ions o n t he s i t es . F or e xamp le , i fp r imar i ly l a rge a xes , s uch a s c eremon ia l a xes , w ere s t ored o n s e t t lemen t s i tes , d i s t r ibu t ions o ft he s i zes o fa xes i n a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions r ecovered f r om t hose s i tes w ou ld b e s kewed t oward t he l a rger s i zes o f a xes r a ther t han r epresen t ing a r andom s amp le o f t he s i zes o f a l l a xes h e ld a nd u sed . T o c o mp l icat e t he s i tua t ion e ven f ur ther , v ery sma l l u sed -up a xes m igh t a l so b e d epos i ted o n s et t lemen t s i tes . I ts eems r easonab le t o s ugges t t ha t i mp lemen t s t o o s ma l l t o b e e f ect ive ly u sed f o r t he h eav ier t asks c arr ied o u t i n g a rdens a nd f o rest a rea s m igh t b e u sed f o r sma l ler -sca le w ood -work ing a c t iv i t ies . I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t s uch a c t iv i t ies w ou ld b e c arr ied o u t o n s et t lemen t s i tes , a nd when t he a xes w ere j udged n o l onger u sefu l e ven f o r t hese t asks , t hey p robab ly w ou ld b e i n ten t iona l ly a bandoned . T hus , a xes o f a l l s i zes m igh t b e d epos it ed o n s e t t lemen t s i tes .
T he a xes i n
a rchaeo log ica l c o l lect ions f r om s uch s i tes m igh t r epresen t ar andom s amp le o f t he a xes h e ld b y t he i nhab i tan t s o ft he s i t es , o r t hey m igh t i n c lude p r imar i ly l a rge a xes o ft he s i zes t ha t w ere r egarded a s v a luab le , o r t hey m igh t i n c lude a s i gn if i can t c o mponen t o f v ery sma l l u sed -up a xes .
I ndeed , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t d i st r ibut ions o ft he s i zes o f a xes r e covered
9 9
f r om s e t t lemen t s i t e c on t ex t s m igh t b e b imoda l i fs i gn if i can tc o mponen t s o fb o th l a rge v a lu a b le a xes a nd sma l l u sed -up a xes , b u t f ewer a xes o f i n termed ia te s i zes , e n tered t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord o n s uch s i tes . I n t he N ew G u inea c a se , t he ma jor i ty o f a xes t o e n ter t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord d i d s o f r om t he ma in c on tex t s o f u se :
g arden a nd f o res t a reas ( Wh it e
a nd Mod jeska
1 978a :285 ) . Wh it e a nd Mod jeska s ugges ted t ha t mos to ft he u sed -up a xes a nd a xes l o st i n s e rv i ce wh ich w ou ld e nt e r t he p o tent ia l a rchaeo log i ca l r e cord w ou ld d o s o i nt hese c ont ex t s . T hey s ugges ted f ur ther ( i b id . :283 ) t ha t t he a verage s i zes o f a xes t ha t w ou ld e n ter t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord i ne ach o ft hese c on tex t s w ou ld b e d if eren t , w i th t he a verage s i ze o f a xes e n ter ing t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord i n f o res t a rea s t end ing t o b e l a rger t han t he a verage s i ze o f a xes e nt er ing t he a rchaeo log i ca l r ecord i n g arden a reas .
One p oss ib le
e xp lana t ion f o r t h is s i ze d if eren t ia l i st ha t p eop le m igh t t end t o s e lec t l a rger a xes f o r u se i nf o res t s t han f o r u se i ng ardens , o w ing t op ure ly f un c t iona l c ons idera t ions . H owever , t he ma jor e xp lanat ion f o r t h is p a t t ern o f a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty s eems t o i nvo lve t he d if eren t i n t ens i t ies o fh uman a c t iv i ty t ha t a re l i ke ly t o o ccur i n t hese d if eren t c on tex t s .
I n g arden a reas , t he o vera l l i n t ens i ty o f a c t iv i ty t ends t o b e h igh , w i th p eop le
w ork ing o ver t he s ame g round a ga in a nd a ga in , wh i le i nf o res t a reas , a c t iv i ty t ends t o b e much l e ss i n tens ive . B e cause o ft h is , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t g rea ter p ropor t ions o ft he a xes t ha t a re i n i t ia l ly l o s t w ou ld b e e ven tua l ly , i fn o t i mmed iat e ly , r e covered i ng arden a reas t han i n f o res t a reas .
A s ar esu l t , t he p ropor t ions o f sma l ler u sed -up a xes t o l a rger a xes l o s t i n
s erv ice w ou ld t end t o b e g rea ter i n g arden a reas t han i n f o res t a reas , a nd c orrespond ing d if erences i nt he a verage s i zes o fa xes f r om t hese a reas w ou ld b e s een . I n a dd it ion t ot he d epos i t ion c on tex t s o fs e t t lemen t s i tes a nd g a rden o r f o res t a rea s wh ich w ere r e cogn ized i n t he N ew Gu inea c ase , t wo more d epos i t ion c on tex t s may b e i mpor tan t i n o ther c ases .
One o f t hese c an b e r ef er red t o a s t ranspor t / trade r ou tes .
P rocesses t hrough wh ich a xes m igh t b e d epos i ted a l ong t ranspor t / t rade r ou tes i n c lude s imp le a cc iden ta l d ropp ing , p lacemen t i n s t orage c on tex t s ( h oards ) f r om wh i ch t he i mp le -
1 00
men t s w ere n ever r ecovered , c aps iz ing o fb oa ts o n water r out es , o r e ven l o ss d ur ing h os t i le e ncount ers .
I t i s p robab le t ha t f a r f ewer a xes w ou ld e nt er t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord i n
t ranspor t / trade c on tex t s t han i n u se c ont ex ts , a s i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t o n ly a sma l l p er c en tage o f t he a xes t ha t m igh t move a l ong t ranspor t / t rade r out es w ou ld b e l o s t a s t hey w ere moved . A xes t ha t a re moved a l ong t ranspor t / t rade r ou tes w ou ld i n c lude b oth a xes t ha t w ere b e ing t raded a nd a xes t ha tw ere c arr ied a s t he p ersona l e qu ipmen to ft he i r owners . I tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t t he s i zes o f a xes t ha t w ou ld e nter t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord a l ong t ranspor t / t rade r out es w ou ld r epresen t am ix ture o ft he s i zes o f a xes s e lec ted f o r e x change a nd t he s i zes o f a xes h e ld a nd u sed b y i nd iv idua ls t rave l ing a l ong t hose r out es .
I ts eems
l i ke ly t ha t t he a verage s i ze o f a xes i n s uch s amp les w ou ld b e g enera l ly g rea t er t han t he a verage s i ze o fa xes t ha t m igh te nt er t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f r om u se c on tex t s , o w ing t o t he l a rger p ercen tages o f sma l ler u sed -up a nd l o st a xes t ha t a re l i ke ly t o e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f r om u se c on text s . F ina l ly ,
s t one
c eremon ia l c ontex t s .
a xes may e nt er t he
a r chaeo log ica l
r ecord
i n b ur ia l s
o r o ther
Whe ther a xes a re p la ced i n b ur ia ls p robab ly d epends u pon whether
p la c ing o fg oods w i th t he d ead i s af ea ture o ft he mor tua ry p rac t ices o ft he g roups i nq ues t i on , whe ther a xes a re r ega rded a s s u i tab le g rave g oods , a nd whe ther t he s upp ly o fa xes t o t he a rea i ss uf i c ien t t ha t p eop le c an " af f ord" t o l o se t hem i n t h is manner . A xes i n c luded i n b ur ia ls m igh t b e v a luab le n on -u t i l i tar ian a xes , t he b es t u t i l i tar ian a xes h e ld b y t he g roup , o r s imp ly a xes o wned b y t he p erson b ur ied .
Whether a xes a re d epos i ted i n o ther
c eremon ia l c ont ex t s , e . g . , o n c eremon ia l s i tes , p robab ly d epends u pon whether a xes h ad i mpor tan t r o les i nc eremon ia l a ct iv i t ies a nd whe ther t hey w ere o b jec t s o fd i sp lay a nd p res t i ge .
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t a xes m igh t b e d epos i ted b o th u n in ten t iona l ly a nd i n ten -
t i ona l ly o n c eremon ia l s i tes , a nd a xes s o d epos i ted m ight i n c lude b oth c eremon ia l ly s i g n if i can t t ypes a nd o rd inary u t i l itar ian t o o ls .
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I n t h is d i scuss ion o f p oss ib le c on t ext s i n wh ich s t one a xes m igh t b e d epos i ted i n to t he p o ten t ia l a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , i th a s b een s uggest ed t ha td if eren t p ropor t ions o fa xes o fd if eren t s i zes m igh t b e d epos i ted i n t he d if eren t c on t ex t s .
A s ar esu l t , i n s amp les o f
a xes r e covered a rchaeo log i ca l ly f r om d if eren t d epos i t iona l c ont ext s , v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze p a t tern ing i sl i ke ly t o b e s een wh ich w ou ld b e u nre lat ed t o p rocesses o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion . T heref ore , i n o rder t o u se a xe s i ze p a t t ern ing a s a n i nd ica tor o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l , t he s i zes o f a xes r ecovered f r om e ach d epos i t iona l c on tex t i n a n a rea s hou ld b e c ompa red o n ly w i th t he s i zes o f a xes r ecovered f r om t he s ame d epos i t iona l c on tex t i n o ther a reas . C ompar ing t he s i zes o f a xes i n a rchaeo log ica l c o l le ct ions o n ly w i th t he s i zes o f a xes d epos i ted i n s im i lar c ont ex t s i so bv ious ly c on t ingen t u pon b e ing a b le t o i d en t ify t he c on t ex t s i n wh ich a xes w ere d epos it ed .
S ome c on t ext s o f d epos i t ion may b e f a i r ly e asy t o
r e cogn ize a nd d e l im i t i n t he a r chaeo log i ca l r ecord . T hese i n c lude s e t t lemen t s i tes , b u r ia ls , c e remon ia l s i tes , a nd s o me s pec if i c t ranspor t / t rade c on tex t s s u ch a s h oards a nd r i vers o r o ther b od ies o f wa t er . H owever , i t wa s s uggest ed i n t he d i scuss ion a bove t ha t mos t s t one a xes w i l l e nt er t he a r chaeo log i ca l r ecord i n t he c ont ex ts o fu se—gardens a nd f o res t s—and i t wa s s ugges ted f u r ther t ha t t he a verage s i zes o f a xes d epos i t ed i n t hese t wo c on tex t s m igh t b e q u i te d if eren t , d ue l a rge ly t o d if eren ces i n t he i n tens i ty o f h uman a c t iv i ty i n s u ch a reas .
G ardens a nd f o rest s , a s o f -s i te c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion , may b e v ery h ard t o
r e cogn ize a nd d e l im i t .
B ecause o f t h is , t he p rob lem o f r e cogn iz ing g a rdens a nd f o rest s i n
t he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord e f ect ive ly b ecomes a more g enera l p rob lem o f i d en t ify ing a nd c on t ro l l ing f o r t he e f ec t s o f d if erences i n i n tens i ty o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty o n t he s i zes o f a xes i nc o l lect ions r e covered f r om a reas o u t s ide o fr ecogn ized s i tes . T h is p rob lem mus t b e a ddressed b ef ore p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze c an b e i n terpre ted i n t e rms o fp a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion .
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I n tens i ty o fA r chaeo log ica l A ct iv i ty a nd P a t terns o f Axe S i ze
O ne f i na l p rob lem t ha t mus t b e c ons idered b ef ore u s ing t he s i zes o f a xes f r om a r chaeo log i ca l c o l lect ions i n a n i nves t iga t ion o f p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l i s t he p rob lem o f t he e f ec t s o f d i f f eren t ia l i n t ens i t ies o f modern a rchaeo log ica l c o l le ct ing o n d i st r ibu t ion s o f a xe s i ze i n c o l lec t ions f r om d if eren t a reas .
I t c an b e s ugges t ed t ha t i n
a reas o f more i n tense a r chaeo log i ca l a c t iv i ty , g rea t er p er cen tages o f sma l ler a xes w ou ld b e r ecovered t han i na reas o fl e ss i n t ense a c t iv ity where o n ly l a rger , more h igh ly v i s ib le a xes w ou ld b e f ound . A s ar esu l t o ft h is , t he a verage s i zes o fa xes r e covered i n a reas o fi n t ense a r chaeo log i ca l a ct iv i ty w ou ld b e sma l ler t han t hose o f a xes r ecovered i n a reas o f l e ss i n t ense a c t iv i ty , e ven i ft he a verage s i zes o f a xes o r ig ina l ly d epos i ted i n t hose a reas w ere e qua l .
I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is p rob lem w ou ld h ave i t s g rea t est e f ec t o n s i z es o f a xes
r e covered f r om o f -s i te u se a nd t ranspor t / trade c ont ex t s .
F or t h i s r ea son , t he e x ten t t o
wh ich a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i s r e la ted t o i n t ens i ty o f a rchaeo log ica l c o l lec t ing s hou ld b e a ssessed b ef ore s uch v ar iab i l i ty i si n terpre ted i n t e rms o fd i s tr ibu t ion p rocesses , e spec ia l ly i nt he c ases o fa xes r ecovered f r om o f -s it e c on t ex t s .
S ummary
I n t h is c hapt er , a spec t s o f s t one a xe morpho logy a nd s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n mor p ho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes h ave b een c ons idered .
I n t he f i rs t s ect ion , t hree
ma jor d e term inant s o f t he morpho logy o f a xes a t i n it ia l p rodu c t ion w ere i d en t if i ed . T hese a re :
t he l im i ta t ions i mposed b y t he p hys ica l c hara c ter is t ics o f t he r aw ma t er ia l , t he
f unc t iona l r equ iremen t s o f t he i n t ended t ype o f a xe , a nd t he s ty l is t ic n orms h e ld b y t he a xe makers .
T he e f ec t s o f t hese f a c tor s o n a xe morpho logy w ere c ons idered i n s o me
d e ta i l , a nd p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes , b o th f r om t he s ame s our ce a nd f r om d i f f eren t s ources , t ha t m igh t r esu l t f r om v ar iab i l i ty i n t hese f a c tors w ere o u t l ined .
F ina l ly , af our th d e term inan t o f a xe morpho logy wa s i d ent if ied .
T h i s was t he
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f a c tor o fr e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing . I t was n o ted t ha t p rocesses o f r e -sharpen ing o r r e w o rk ing m igh t r esu l t i nc hanges i na xe morpho logy a t a ny t ime a f ter i n i t ia l p roduc t ion a nd t hu s , f ur ther p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes . I n t he s econd s e ct ion o ft h is c hapt er , r e la t ionsh ips b e tween p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i st r ibu t ion a nd s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes w ere c ons idered .
I t was n ot ed t ha t i n e ssent ia l ly e ga l i tar ian g roup to -g roup e xchange i n
t he h igh lands o f N ew Gu inea , t he mos t c l earcu t g enera l r e la t ionsh ip t ha t c ou ld b e s een wa s t ha t w i th i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t he s ources , a xe s i ze t ended t o d ecrease .
S evera l
f a c tors i nvo lved i n t h is g enera l p a t t ern o f a xe s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om s ou rces w ere d i scussed .
I t wa s c onc luded t ha t a xe s i ze i s , a t l e as t i n p ar t , r e la ted t o a xe
a bundance , a nd t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze c an b e u t i l ized a s a n a l t erna t ive t o a xe a bun d an ce a s a n i nd ica tor o fp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion . I n t he t h ird s e ct ion o f t h is c hapt er , s evera l a spec t s o f s t one a xe d epos i t ion a nd r e covery w ere d i s cussed , a nd i t was s ugges ted t ha t t hese m igh t r esu l t i n p a t t erns o f v a r iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze i n a r chaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ions t ha t a re u nre la ted t o p a t terns a nd p ro cesses o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion . I n t h is d i scuss ion , d if eren t d epos i t iona l p ro cesses w ere o u t l i ned , a nd a r ev ised g enera l mode l o f t he s i zes o f a xes t ha t m igh t e nt er t he p ot en t ia l a r chaeo log ica l r ecord was p resen ted .
T hen d if eren t c on tex t s o f a xe d epos it ion w ere d i s -
c ussed , a nd p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty i n t he s i zes o f a xes t ha t m igh t b e d epos it ed i n e a ch d i f f e ren t c on tex t w ere e xp lored . F ina l ly , i t was s ugges ted t ha t f ur ther v a r iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze p a t tern ing m igh t r esu l t f r om v ar iab i l i ty i n t he i n t ens i ty o fa rchaeo log ica l c o l lec t ing i n d i f f e ren t a reas . T hroughou tt h is d i scuss ion , i t was emphas ized t ha tt hese p rob lems s hou ld b e a dd ressed a nd t he i r e f ec t s c on t roled f o r b ef ore i n terpre t ing s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v a r iab i l i ty i nt e rms o fp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i st r ibu t ion .
CHAPTER V I
STONE AXE MORPHOLOGY AND D ISTR IBUT ION I N NEOL ITH IC BR ITA IN : HYPOTHESES AND EXPECTAT IONS
T he t heoret i ca l f r amework t ha t w i l l b e u t i l ized i nt he i nves t iga t ion o fs t one a xe mor p ho logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i n N eo l i th ic B r i ta in h as b een d eve loped i n t he p rev ious t wo c hap t e rs . I n C hap ter I V , p rocesses t hrough wh i ch g oods a re d i st r ibuted i nt r iba l s oc iet ies w ere e xp lored , a nd r esu l t ing s pa t ia l p a t t erns o f t hose g oods w ere c ons idered .
I n C hap ter V ,
s t one a xe morpho logy a nd s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes , b o th i n r e la t ion t op a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l a nd i n r e la t ion t o p roces s es o f a xe d epos i t ion a nd r ecovery t ha t f o rm t he a rchaeo log i ca l r ecord , w ere d i s cussed . B ased o n t he i n f orma t ion p resen ted i n t hese t wo c hapt ers , h ypo theses a bou t p a t tern s a nd p rocesses o fs t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion a nd e xpecta t ions f o r morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty a nd s pa t i a l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes i n t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c c ase c an b e f o rmed . T hese w i l l b e p resen ted h ere .
S t one A xe D ist r ibu t ion i n Neo l i th i c B r ita in
I n t he r ev iew o ft he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o ft he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c t ha t was p resen ted i n C hapt er I , i t was c onc luded t ha t t he a va i lab le e v iden ce s uppor t s ap i c ture o fp r imar i ly e ga l i tar ian , t r iba l ly -organ ized g roups t h roughou t t he p er iod .
T heref ore , i tc an n ow b e
h ypothes ized t ha t d ur ing t h is t ime , ma ter ia l g oods , i n c lud ing s t one a xeheads , w ere d i s t r ibu ted i nt he ways t ha t h ave b een o u t l ined i nC hapt er I V . T hus , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t a xes f r om e ach s ource w ere d i s t r ibu ted t hrough d i re c t a cqu is i t ion i n ar e la t ive ly l im it ed a rea a round t he s ource a nd t hrough e xchange t o more d i stan t l o ca l it ies .
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I n g enera l , t h is
1 05
e x change w ou ld h ave b een c hara cter ized b y l a rg e n umbers o f t ransa ct ions b e tween p er s ons i n n e ighbor ing c o mmun i t ies a nd sma l ler n umbers o ft r ansact ions b e tween members o f more d i stant ly l o ca ted g roups ( e xcep t a s n ot ed b e low ) s o t ha t o vera l l , g oods w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave moved o u tward f r om t he i r s ources , f r om g roup t o g roup , t o t he mos t d i s tan t ly l o cated p ar t ic ipan t s i n t he e xchange . A s ar esu l t o f t hese p ro cesses o f d i s tr ibu t ion , i tc an b e h ypo thes ized t ha t t he b es t s upp l ies o f a xes , i n t e rm s o f b o th q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty , w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le t op eop le l i v ing c l oses t t o t he s ources a nd t ha t , i n g enera l , t he a va i lab le s upp l ies o fa xes w ou ld h ave d ecreased w i th i n creas ing d i stance o u tward f r om t he s ources . I n C hap ter I V , t he i nf luen ce o f an umber o f s yst em i c f a ct ors o n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e x change s yst ems i n t r iba l s o c iet ies was e xp lored , a nd p robab le e f ect s o f t hese f a c tors o n d i st r ibu t ions o f e x changed g oods i n t e rms o f v ar iab i l i ty w i th in t he g enera l p a t t e rn o f d ecrease i n s upp ly w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ces w ere s uggest ed . I n t he d i scuss ions o fB r it ish N eo l i th i c c u l tura l s ys tems i n g enera l a nd s t one a xes i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in i n p ar t i cu la r t ha t h ave b een p resent ed i n C hap ters It hrough I I , v a r iab i l i ty o ver s pace a nd t ime i n mos t o ft hese f a ct or s h as b een n o ted . T hese l i nes o fr eason ing c an n ow b e c o mb ined t o p roduce h ypotheses a bou t t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e x change s yst ems i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in a nd e xpec ta t ions f o r r esu l t ing p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty i n t he s upp ly o f s t one a xes t od if eren t a reas .
T he Ef ec t s o f Var ious S ystem i c F a c tors o n S tone Axe D is t r ibu t ion
T he f i rs t ma jor s yst em ic f a c tor t ha t was i d en t if ied a s h av ing a n i nf luen ce o n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems i n t r iba l s o c ie t ies a nd o n r esu l t ing d i st r ibu t ions o f g oods i sp opu la t ion d i st r ibu t ion .
I n C hapt er I , i t was n o ted t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i n p opu la t ion
d i s t r ibu t ion o ver s pace a nd t ime d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i n B r i ta in i s s ugges ted b y v a r iab i l i ty i n d i st r ibu t ions o f N eo l i th i c s i tes a nd a r t ifa ct s o f v a r ious t ypes .
S ome a reas ,
mos t n o tab ly t he Wessex a rea , t he C ambr idge a rea , t he P eak D ist r ic t , a nd t he Y orksh ire
1 06
a nd L in co lnsh ire Wo lds , a ppea r t o h ave b een r e la t ive ly d ense ly p opu lat ed t hroughou t t he Neo l i th i c , wh i le o ther a reas a ppear t o h ave b een g enera l ly l e ss d ense ly p opu la t ed . B ased o n t he d i scuss ion i nC hap t er I V , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t , i ng enera l , s upp l ies o fs t one a xes may h ave d ecreased more r ap id ly i n t he more d ense ly p opu lat ed a reas t han i n t he l e ss d ense ly p opu lat ed o nes a s l a rge n umbers o f c onsumers r emoved a xes f r om t he r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems f o r t he i r o wn u se . T he i mpor tance o f t he f unc t iona l t ype o f g ood s b e ing d i s t r ibu ted , whether e ssen t ia l u t i l i tar ian i t ems o r v a luab le s ymbo l ic g oods , f o r p red i c t ing p a t terns o f d i st r ibu t ion was emphas ized i n C hap ter I V .
T here i t was s ugges ted t ha t t hese d if eren t t ypes o f g oods
w ou ld p lay d if eren t r o les i n r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems a nd t ha t , a s ar esu l t , u t i l itar ian i t ems a nd s ymbo l ic g oods , e ven t hose p rodu ced a t t he s ame s ource , m igh tb e d i s t r ibu ted i n d if eren t d i rec t ions a nd /or i n d if eren t q uan t i t ies .
W i th r egard t o t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic
s t one a xes , t he f unct iona l t ype o f g oods i n t h is s ense i sn o t c l ear a t t h is p o in t . A n i mpor t an t a spec t o ft he a na lys is o ft he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c d a ta w i l l b e a n i nves t iga t ion o ft he t ypes o f a xes t ha t w ere p roduced . Once t he f unc t iona l t ypes o fs t one a xes a re d eterm ined , t hen t he c orrespond ing p a t tern s o fd i str ibu t ion t ha t w ere o u t l ined i nC hapt er I V c an b e s ough t . T he i nf luence o f a l terna t ive s our ces o f t he s ame r aw ma ter ia ls o r f i n ished p roduc t s o n d i st r ibut ions o fg oods i nr eg iona l e x change s ystems wa s d i scussed i nC hap ter I V , a nd a c l ear d i s t inc t ion was made b etween t he i nf luence o ft h is f a ct or o n t he s upp ly o f i t ems o f a g iven t ype t ha t d if eren t g roups o b ta in f r om e ach s ource a nd i t s i nf luence o n t he t o ta l s up p ly o fi t ems o ft ha t t ype t ha t t hey may o bta in . I n C hap t er I( Tab le 1 . 1 ) t he l a rge n umber o f a l terna t ive s ou rces o f B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes wa s n ot ed , a l ong w i th t he f a c t t ha t mos t o ft hese s ources a re l o cat ed i nh igh land a reas o fw est ern B r i ta in . I n a dd i t ion , an um b er o f f l in t a xe s ources a re k nown i n t he Wessex a rea , s ou theas tern E ng land , a nd E ast Ang l ia . B ased o n t he d i s cuss ion p resen ted i n C hap ter I V , i tm igh t b e e xpec ted t ha t t he s upp ly o f a xes f r om e a ch s our ce w ou ld h ave d ecreased r ap id ly i n t he d i rect ion (s ) o f o ther s ources t ha t w ere i n u se c on temporaneous ly a nd more g radua l ly t owa rd a rea s o f B r i ta in
1 07
t ha t w ere w i thou t a xe s our ces . I ndeed , t hese p a t terns o fa xe d i spersa l h ave b een o bserved b y C umm ins i n h i s w ork w i th r e la t ive a bundan ce o f s t one a xes ( a s d escr ibed i n C hapt e r I I ) a nd b y myse lf i n a n i nves t iga t ion i n t o t he i nf luen ce o f a l terna t ive s ou rces w i th in r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems ( S . C happe l l i np ress ) . I n c on t ras t , i tc an b e h ypo thes iz ed t ha t t o ta l s upp l ies o f s t one a xes w ou ld h ave b een g enera l ly a bundan t t hroughou t t he h igh land a reas where s t one s our ces a re f ound a nd p erhaps a l so i n a reas where f l in t s ources w ere u t i l ized , b u t w ou ld h ave d ecreased w i th i n creas ing d i s tance away f r om t hese a reas . T he p resence o f s our ces o f o ther e xchanged g oods i sa nother f a c tor t ha t h as b een i d en t if ied a s b e ing o f c ons iderab le i mpor tance i n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s ys t ems i n t r iba l s oc ie t ies .
Unf or tuna t e ly , f o r much o f t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic , w e h ave l i t t le
e v iden ce o fe xchange o ther t han t ha t o ft he s t one a xes . I n t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c , t here i st he e v idence , n o ted i n C hap ter I , f o r e x chang e o ff i ne p o t tery f r om a s our ce i n C ornwa l l , a nd i t may w e l l b e t ha t p o t tery p roduced i no ther a reas was e xchanged i nt h is p hase a nd i nt he L a te N eo l i th ic a s w e l l , b u t t h is s ub je c t h as n o tb een a dequa te ly i nves t iga ted . I n t he L a tes t N eo l i th i c , o b jec t s o fv ar ious t ypes t ha t mus t s ure ly h ave b een c i rcu la ted t hrough e x change h ave b een f ound , b u t t he s ources o ft hese o b ject s h ave n o t b een d et erm ined . T heref ore , i n t h is i nves t iga t ion , i tw i l l n o tb e p oss ib le t or e la te d i st r ibu t ions o fs t one a xes t od i s tr ibu t ion s o fo ther e xchanged g oods e xcep t i n av ery g enera l way . I t was s ugges ted i n C hapt er I I t ha t a l though mos t o f t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes w ou ld h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted p r imar i ly t hrough o ver land t ranspor t , s o me , mos t n o tab ly a xes o f G roup Ia nd p erhaps o ther C orn ish g roups a nd a xes o f G roup V I I , may h ave b een t ranspor ted a l ong c oasta l wa t erways . B ased o n t he d i scuss ion o ft he e f ec ts o f t he d om inan t mode o ft ranspor t o n p a t t erns o fd i s tr ibu t ion o f g oods t ha t was p resen ted i n C hap ter I V , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t c oas ta l movemen t o fa xes w ou ld r esu l t i np a t terns o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion q u i te d if eren t f r om t hose r esu l t ing f r om o ver land t ranspor t .
T hus , w i th
o ver land t ranspor t , s upp l ies o f a xes w ou ld b e e xpec ted t od ecrease s t ead i ly w i th i n creas ing d i stance o u tward f r om t he s ources , wh i le w i th c oasta l t ranspor t , t he b es t s upp l ies o f a xes
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w ou ld b e e xpect ed o n o r n ear t he c oast s w i th p a t t erns o f d ecrease i n s upp ly e xtend ing i n land . T he l a t t er i st he p a t tern o f s upp ly t ha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted i fa xes o fG roups Ia nd V I I a nd o ther C orn ish g roups w ere , i ndeed , t ransport ed a l ong c oas ta l wa terway s , wh i le t he f o rmer i st he p a t tern o fs upp ly t ha t w ou ld b e e xpe c ted f o r a xes t ha t w ere t ranspor ted o ver land . F ina l ly , t he i mpor tance o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion a s a n i nf luen t ia l f a ct or i n t he o pera t ion o fr eg iona l e x change s yst ems h as b een emphas ized i n C hapter I V . I n C hap ter I , v ar iab i l i ty i n s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion among g roups a nd i n a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls o ver s pace a nd t ime i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in w as d i scussed . C orrespond ing p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty i ns t one a xe d i s t r ibut ion c an n ow b e s ugges ted . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i n B r ita in , t he a va i lab le e v idence s uggest s t ha t l o ca l g roups w ere e ssen t ia l ly a u tonomous , t ha tt here was m in ima l s upra loca l i n teg ra t i on a nd l i t t le a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion .
I t c an b e h ypo thes ized t ha t a t t h is t ime
s t one a xes w ere d i st r ibu ted p r imar i ly t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s ources o r t hrough
r e la t ive ly
sma l l -sca le
e xchang e
i nvo lv ing
r ec iproca l
t ransa ct ions
b etween
i nd iv idua ls i n n e ighbor ing c o mmun i t ies wh ich w ere l i nked i n c ha in l ike o r n e twork l ike s t ru ctu res . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t i nt h is c on t ex t , t he s upp ly o fs t one a xes f r om e a ch s ource w ou ld h ave d ecreased f a ir ly r ap id ly w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s our ce . Dur ing t he c ourse o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic , t he a va i lab le e v idence i nd i ca tes t ha t p opu la t ion was i n creas ing a nd t ha t t hese p eop le w ere r e ly ing h eav i ly o n s eed c rop a g r icu l t ure .
T h is p robab ly g enerat ed a n eed f o r g reat er n umber s o f s t one a xes , a nd i ts eems
l i ke ly t ha t e xchange o ft hese i mp lemen t s i n creased i nv o lume t h roughou tt h is t ime . L a ter i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c , t he c ons t ru ct ion o f c ausewayed e nc losures a ppea rs t o s i gna l a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i ns o me p ar t s o f s ou thern a nd e ast ern B r i ta in , a l though i n o ther a reas , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he s imp ler o rgan iza t ion p ers is ted . B ased o n t he d i scuss ion i n C hap ter I V , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t w i th in t he a reas o fi n creased s upra -
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l o ca l i n t eg ra t ion , s t one a xes w ou ld h ave b een more e ven ly d i s t r ibut ed t han i n t he o ther a rea s . A tt he e nd o ft he E ar ly N eo l i th i c a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he L a te N eo l i th ic , c hanges i n s ubs is ten ce p ra ct i ces w ere a pparen t ly a ccompan ied b y c hanges i n s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t i on .
T hus , i n s ou thern E ng land a s h if t t oward l e ss r e l iance o n a g r icu l ture a nd g rea ter
r e l iance o n h erd ing s eems t o h ave t aken p la ce . I n t h is c on tex t , t here s eems l i ke ly t oh ave b een a d ecrease i nt he n eed f o r s t one a xes . I n o ther a reas , a t t en t ion s h i f ted t on ew t ypes o f e nv ironmen t s , a nd t h is may h ave b een a ccompan ied b y a n i n creased n eed f o r a xes . A long w i th t hese c hanges i n s ubs is tence p ra c t ices , s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion may h ave b ecome l e ss i mpor tan t i na rea s where i t was mos t i mpor tan t p rev ious ly , a nd more i mpor t an t i n a reas f ur ther n or th .
I t may b e e xpec ted t ha t t h is s h if t m igh t b e r ef le ct ed i n d i s -
t r ibu t ions o f e xchanged g oods , w i th more e ven d i s t r ibu t ions a ga in s een i n a reas where s upra lo ca l i n teg ra t ion was o fg rea t er i mpor tance . F ina l ly , i n t he L at es t N eo l i th ic , r enewed a g r i cu l tu ra l i n tens if i ca t ion a nd p opu la t ion g row th may h ave b een a ccompan ied b y a n i n creased n eed f o r s t one a xes .
A t t he s ame
t ime , ac ons iderab le i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n t he Wessex a rea o f s ou thern E ng land i ss ugges ted b y t he a ppea rance o f "megahenges ," s i tes wh ich s eem l i ke ly t o h ave s erved a s f o c i f o r c eremon ia l a c t iv i t ies o fl a rge s upra loca l g roups .
A t t he s ame t ime , t he
c ons t ruc t ion o f h enges a nd s t one c i r c les i n o ther a reas i nd ica tes t he c on t inued i mportance o fs upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n t hose a reas . I tc an b e h ypo thes ized t ha t i n a l l o ft hese a reas , c eremon ia l e x change a t t he s upra loca l l e ve l wa s a n i mpor tan t mechan ism t hrough wh i ch s t one a xes w ere d i st r ibut ed , a nd t ha t f a ir ly e ven d i s t r ibu t ions o f a xes a cross l a rge a reas w ou ld h ave b een t he r esu l t . A lso , d ur ing t he L at es t N eol i th ic , t here i se v idence o f t he i n creas ing i mpor tance o f a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua l s i n many a reas . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t h is w ou ld h ave b een a ccompan ied b y a n i n crease i n t he v o lume o fg oods b e ing e x changed a nd p erhaps a n i n crease i n e xchange l i nkages b e tween d if eren t a reas a s i nd iv idua ls
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s ough t t o e s tab l ish a nd ma inta in n ew e xchange r e la t ionsh ips i n o rder t o e nhance t he i r s oc ia l s tand ing .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty Among S t one A xes i nN eo l ith i c B r i ta in
I t was s ugges ted i n C hap ter V t ha t s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes c an b e u sed a s a n i nd i cat or o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i s p ersa l .
B ased o n t ha t d i scuss ion a nd o n t he p a t terns o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion t ha t h ave b een
h ypo thes ized a bove , e xpecta t ions f o r g enera l p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd f o r s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among B r i t ish N eol i th ic s t one a xes c an b e o u t l ined .
G enera l P a t terns o f Morpho log ica l Va r iab i l i ty
T hree ma jor d et erm inan t s o ft he morpho logy o fs t one a xes a ti n i t ia l p rodu ct ion w ere i d en t if i ed i n C hap ter V . T hese a re : t he l im i ta t ions i mposed b y t he p hys i ca l c ha ra cter is t ics o f t he r aw ma ter ia l , t he f unc t iona l r equ i remen t s o f t he i n tended t ype o f t o o l , a nd t he s ty l is t i c n orms h e ld b y t he a xe makers . I t wa s s ugges ted t ha t t he morpho logy o fe ach a xe , a s i n i t ia l ly p rodu ced , w ou ld b e t he r esu l t o f t he i n tera c t ion o ft hese t hree f a c tors a nd t ha t p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among i n i t ia l ly -produ ced a xes w ou ld b e t he r esu l t o f v a r iab i l i ty i n o ne o r more o f t hese f a ct or s .
D iff i cu l t ies i n d e term in ing wh ich f a ctor wa s
r e spons ib le f o r o bserved p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes w ere d i scussed . H owever , i t wa s s uggest ed t ha t i ft he e f ec t s o f o ne o r t wo o f t he t hree f a ct or s c ou ld b e d emons t ra ted o r a ssumed t ob e c onstan t f o r t he a xes i nq ues t ion , morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among t hem c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t o t he r ema in ing f a c tor (s ) .
T hus , f o r t he a xes f r om a
s i ng le s ource , i t wa s s uggest ed t ha t morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o t he p hys ica l c hara c t e r ist i cs o ft he a va i lab le r aw ma ter ia l w ou ld p robab ly b e l im ited t ov ar iab i l i ty i ng ross s i ze , u n less s i gn if i can t ly d if eren t f o rms o f t he r aw mat er ia l w ere a va i lab le a t t he s ource .
I n
a dd i t ion , i t wa s s uggested t ha t i fa l l t he a xes f r om a s i ng le s ou r ce w ere made b y members
1 11
o ft he s ame s oc ia l g roup , s i gn if i can t p a t t erns o f s ty l ist i c v ar iab i l i ty w ou ld n o t b e e xpec ted among t hose a xes .
Any s i gn if i can t p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes
f r om a s i ng le s ource , t hen , w ou ld p robab ly r ef lec t d i f f eren t f un c t iona l t ypes o f a xes t ha t w ere p roduced . I n t h is i nvest iga t ion o f s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in , p a t tern s o f mor p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty w i l l b e e xam ined s epara te ly f o r t he a xes f r om e ach s ource .
Among
t he a xes p roduced a t e a ch s ource , t hen , s i gn if i can t p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty , b eyond s imp le v ar iab i l i ty i n g ross s i ze , t ha t a re d ue t o t he p hys ica l c haract er is t ics o f t he r aw mater ia l w i l l n o t b e e xpect ed i n mos t c ases .1 F ur thermore , i n t he B r i t ish c ase , d i s c arded a xe r oughou t s a re s e ldom f ound o u t s ide a l im it ed r ad ius o ft he ir r espec t ive s our ces , i nd i ca t ing t ha t mos t a xes w ere p rodu ced i n t he i mmed iat e v i c in i ty o f t he s our ce .
F rom
t h is , i tc an b e s uggest ed ( un less t here i so ther e v idence t o t he c on t rary ) t ha t t he a xes f r om e ach s ource w ere made b y members o f as i ng le s oc ia l g roup a nd t ha t , a s ar esu l t , s i g n if i can t p a t t erns o f s ty l is t i c v ar iab i l i ty w i l l n o t b e s een among t hose a xes .
H owever , p a t -
t e rns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o d if eren t f unc t iona l t ypes o f t o o ls t ha t w ere i n tended m igh t w e l l b e p resen t among t he a xes f r om a s i ng le s our ce . S evera l p oss ib le p a t t erns o f m orpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes f r om a s i ng le s ource d ue t o t he i n tended f un ct iona l t ype o f t o o l w ere o u t l ined i n C hapter V . B eyond t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t o n ly a s i ng le mu l t i -purpose t o o l m igh t b e p resen t , i t was s ug g es t ed t ha t b oth c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i tar ian a xes m igh t h ave b een p roduced .
I n t he
e thnog raph ic c on tex t s d escr ibed i nC hapter V , t wo p a t terns o fd if eren t ia t ion o fc ere mon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i tar ian a xes w ere o bserved .
I n o ne p a t tern , c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i ta r ian
a xes w ere morpho log ica l ly v ery s im i la r , d if er ing i n d eg ree r a ther t han c a tegor ica l ly , a nd i t was s uggest ed t ha t t here m igh t b e f unc t iona l o ver lap among t he a xes i nt he t wo g roups . I n t he o ther p a t tern , c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i tar ian a xes w ere v ery d if eren t , f o rm ing d i s -
1B u t s ee C hap ter I X f o r t he c ase o f G roup V I I i n wh ich d if eren t f o rm s o f t he r aw ma t er ia l h ave b een o bserved a t t he s our ce a nd c orrespond ing ly d if eren t s hapes o f a xes c an b e i d en t if ied .
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t i nc t morpho log ica l c l us ters a nd h av ing d i st inc t f unct ions a s w e l l .
A lso i n C hapt er V , t wo
ma jor morpho log ica l d imens ions a l ong wh ich c ere mon ia l a xes a nd u t i l itar ian a xes m ight d if er w ere i d ent if ied . T hese a re a bso lu te s i ze a nd r e la t ive t h ickness . I n a dd it ion , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t c ere mon ia l a xes a nd u t i l itar ian a xes m igh t d i f f er i n o ther a spec ts o fs hape wh ich w ere n ot o bserved i n t he e thnog raph ic c ase d escr ibed i n C hap ter V .
F ina l ly , t he
p oss ib i l ity t ha t d if eren t f unct iona l ly s pec if i c t ypes o f u t i l i tar ian a xes m igh tb e p rodu ced a t as i ng le s ource was ment ioned i n C hapter V , a l though i n t he New Gu inea c ase t ha t was d i scussed , o n ly g enera l ized u t i l itar ian a xes , o r a xe -adzes , w ere o bserved . Among B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes f r om a s i ng le s ource , a ny o f t hese p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d ue t o t he i n tended f unct iona l t ype o f t o o l a re p oss ib le .
I ndeed ,
d if eren t p at terns m igh t b e s een among t he a xes f r om d if erent s ources . I n t h is i nvest iga t i on , t hese p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity w i l l b e s ough t among t he B r it ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xe d ata .
T h is i sa n i mportant s t ep t ha t mus t b e t aken b ef ore s pat ia l p a tt ern ing i n
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes c an b e i nvest igat ed .
A s s ugges ted i n C hapt er I V ,
d if erent f unct iona l t ypes o f a xes , p art icu lar ly c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l itar ian a xes , m igh t move d if eren t ia l ly i n r eg iona l e xchange s ystems a nd , a s ar esu l t , t hey m igh t b e d i s t r ibu ted i nd if eren t q uan t i t ies a nd /or i nd if eren t d i rect ions . I fd if eren t f unct iona l t ypes o f a xes a re i d en t if ied among t he B r i t ish d ata , p a t terns o f d i st r ibut ion a ppropr ia te t o e ach t ype c an b e s ough t . I n a dd it ion t o t he t hree d e term inan ts o f a xe morpho logy a t i n it ia l p roduc t ion , a f our th d e term inan t o f a xe morpho logy , i n g enera l , was i d en t if ied i n C hap ter V .
T here i t
was s uggested t ha t p rocesses o fr e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing m igh t a l ter t he morpho logy o f a xes i n many ways , b u t m in ima l ly w ou ld r educe t hem i n s i ze .
T hus , i n as amp le o f
B r it ish N eo l ith ic a xes t ha t w ere p roduced a t ag iven s ource , b oth u na l tered a xes o f t he s i zes a nd s hapes o r ig ina l ly p roduced a tt ha t s ource a nd a xes t ha t h ad b een r educed i n s i ze t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing w ou ld b e e xpected .
Among t he r e -sharpened o r r e -
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w orked a xes , g rea t er morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty , i n g enera l , w ou ld b e e xpect ed t han among u na l tered o r ig ina l ly -produ ced s pec imens .
S pa t ia l P a t tern ing i n Morpho log i ca l V ar iab i l i ty
I n C hap ter V , i t wa s a rgued t ha t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes i si n t ima te ly r e lat ed t op a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l . T hus , i t was p roposed t ha t t he l a rges t a xes w ou ld b e f ound c l ose t ot he s ou rces where d i st r ibu t ion t o ok p lace t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion a nd a xes w ere mos t a bundan t . A s a xes w ere moved o u tward f r om t he ir s ou rces t hrough p rocesses o fg roup to -g roup e xchange , t he a verage s i ze o f a xes w ou ld d ecrease .
T heref ore , f o r t he B r i t i sh N eo l i th i c c ase , i tc an b e h ypothes ized
t ha t t he l a rges t a xes w i l l b e f ound c l ose t o t he s ources a nd t ha t t he a verage s i ze o f a xes w i l l d e crease w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s ources .
T h is w i l l b e p a r t icu lar ly t rue f o r
u t i l i tar ian a xes wh i ch a re mos t s ub jec t t o d amage a nd t he s i ze -reduc ing p rocesses o f r e s harpen ing a nd r e -work ing .
F or c eremon ia l a xes , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l
v a r iab i l i ty may b e d if e ren t . F or a xes o ft he e xc lus ive ly c eremon ia l t ype , i tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ces , l i t t le o r n o s i ze d ecrease w i l l b e o bserved .
B ecause t hese a xes
a re n o t u sed f o r u t i l i ta r ian t asks , t hey a re n o t s ub jec t t o t he n orma l p rocesses o fd amage , r e -sharpen ing ,
a nd
r e -work ing
t ha t
a f ec t
u t i l i tar ian
a xes .
H owever ,
t hey
m igh t
o c cas iona l ly b e s l igh t ly d amaged , m in ima l ly r e -sharpened , a nd s l igh t ly s hort ened , a nd t h is m igh t r esu l t i n av ery g radua l p at tern o f s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ources .
I nst ead o f ad i s t in c t p a t tern o f s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he
s ources a s i se xpect ed among u t i l itar ian a xes , a n i n crease i n s i ze d if eren t ia t ion b etween c eremon ia l a xes o ft h is t ype a nd u t i l i tar ian a xes may b e o bserved a s t he f o rmer ma in ta in , f o r t he mos t p ar t , t he ir o r ig ina l l e ng ths a nd t he l a t ter b ecome r educed i ns i ze . I n a dd i t ion , i t c an b e s uggest ed t ha t t he p ercen tages o f c eremon ia l a xes o f t h is t ype r e la t ive t o u t i l i ta r ian a xes may v a ry o ver s pace a nd p rov ide a n i nd i ca t ion o ft he o pera t ion o fr eg iona l
1 14
e xchange s ystems .
I t was s uggested i n C hapter I V t ha t , f o r a v ar iety o f r easons ,
c eremon ia l i t ems a nd u t i l i tar ian g oods may b e e xchanged i nd i f f erent q uan t it ies a nd i nd i f f e ren t d i rect ions . Ana lys is o f p at t erns o f r e la t ive a bundance o fc eremon ia l a nd u t i l i tar ian a xes f r om t he s ame s ources may r evea l s uch p at t erns o fd i str ibut ion . F or c eremon ia l a xes o f t he c ont inuum t ype , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t ap a t tern o f d ecrease i n a verage a xe s i ze w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ources w i l l b e s een .
I t
s eems l i ke ly t ha t c l ose t o t he s ources where a xes o f a l l t ypes a re r e la t ive ly a bundan t , t hese a xes w i l l r e ma in s t r ict ly c eremon ia l i n f unc t ion . F ur ther f r om t he s ources , h owever , where s upp l ies o f a xes a re l e ss a bundant , a xes o f t h is t ype may b e u sed more a nd more f r equen t ly f o r u t i l itar ian t asks a nd t hey may b ecome s hor tened t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing l i ke o rd inary u t i l itar ian a xes . s t r ic t ly
n on -ut i l i tar ian
t ype ,
i t c an
b e
T hus , i n c ontrast t o c eremon ia l a xes o f t he s uggested
t ha t
s i ze
d if eren t iat ion
b etween
c eremon ia l a xes o f t he c ont inuum t ype a nd u t i l itar ian a xes w ou ld d ecrease w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource .
I n a dd it ion ,
i t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he p ercentage o f
c eremon ia l a xes o f t h is t ype r e lat ive t o u t i l i tar ian a xes may d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s t ance f r om s ources a s s o me c eremon ia l a xes a re r educed i n s i ze t o t he e x ten t t ha t t hey ef ec t ive ly b ecome u t i l itar ian a xes . G iven t he e xpec ted g enera l p att ern o f d ecrease i n a verage a xe s i ze w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om s ources t ha t h as b een d i scussed a bove , i tc an b e h ypothes ized t ha t mod if i ca t i ons t o t h is p a t tern may r esu l t f r om v ar iab i l ity i n t he s yst em ic f ac tors d i scussed i n g enera l i n C hapt er I V a nd s pec if i ca l ly i n r e la t ion t o t he B r it ish N eo l ith ic c ase a bove . Var iab i l ity i n t he s pec if i c f unct iona l t ype o f a xe h as a l ready b een d i scussed . o f t hese f actors i s p opu la t ion d i st r ibu t ion .
Ano ther o ne
B ecause a xe s i ze i s , i n p ar t , r e la ted t o a xe
a bundance , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t a xe s i ze w i l l d ecrease more r ap id ly i n t he a reas o f N eo l ith ic B r i ta in t ha t w ere n o ted a bove a s h av ing g rea ter d ens ity o f p opu la t ion a nd p robab ly more r ap id d ecrease i n t he s upp ly o f a xes , a nd l e ss r ap id ly i n a reas o fN eo l i th ic
1 15
B r ita in t ha t w ere n oted a s h av ing l e sser d ens i ty o f p opu la t ion a nd p erhaps r e la t ive ly s l ower d ecrease i nt he s upp ly o fa xes . B oth i n C hapt er I V a nd a bove , t he i nf luence o f a l t erna t ive s our ces o n s upp l ies o f g ood s f r om i nd iv idua l s our ces a nd o n t o ta l s upp l ies o f g oods f r om a l l s ources was d i s c ussed , a nd p a t terns o f r e la t ive a bundance o f s t one a xes f r om i nd iv idua l s our ces i n t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic c ase w ere o u t l ined . B ased o n t he d i scuss ion o f r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a xe a bundan ce a nd a xe s i ze t ha t was p resen ted i n C hap t er V , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i na xe s i ze w i l l n ot b e i nf luenced i nt he s ame way b y t he p resen ce o fa l t erna t ive s our ces a s i sr e la t ive a bundan ce o f a xes .
T hus , t he s i zes o f a xes f r om i nd iv idua l s our ces
w i l l n ot b e e xpec ted t od ecrease a s r ap id ly i nd i rect ions o fa l terna t ive s ources a s w ou ld p a t t e rns o fr e la t ive a bundance o ft hose a xes . I nst ead , i nd i rect ions o fa l terna t ive s ources , t he s i zes o f a xes a re l i ke ly t o b e g rea ter t han i n d i rec t ion s l a ck ing o ther s ou rces , r ef lect ing wha ti sp robab ly a b e t ter o vera l l s upp ly o f a xes i n t hose a reas .
C onsequen t ly , p a t terns o f
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty may i nd i ca te more a bou t t he t o ta l s upp l ies o f a xes t ha t g roups a re a b le t o o b ta in a nd t heref ore may y i e ld i n f orma t ion a bou t t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s ys tems t ha t i sc omp lemen tary t ot ha to bta inab le f r om p a t terns o fr e la t ive a bun d ance o fa xes f r om i nd iv idua l s ources . I t was s uggest ed a bove t ha t s upp l ies o f a xes m igh t b e b et t er i n d i rect ions o f o ther i mpor tan te x changed g oods t han i nd i rec t ions where n o o ther g oods w ere p rodu ced . Unf or t una te ly , i n t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c c ase , l i t t le i sk nown o fo ther e xchanged g oods . H owever , i fi n t he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes , a reas c an b e i d en t if ied a s h av ing r e la t ive ly l a rger a xes t han o ther a rea s , a nd t h is c anno t b e e xp la ined b y a ny o f t he o ther f a ct ors w e a re d i scuss ing , i t c an b e h ypo thes ized t ha t t hese w ere a rea s wh ich p rodu ced o ther i mpor tan t g oods f o r t he r eg iona l e xchange s ys tem .
S u ch h ypo theses c ou ld t hen b e t e st ed i n t he f u tu re i f more r e levan t
d ata b ecomes a va i lab le .
1 16
I th a s b een emphas ized t ha t t he g enera l p a t tern o fd ecrease i na xe s i ze w i th i n crea s i ng d i s tance f r om t he s ources i sp ar t i cu lar ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a p a t tern o fo ver land d i s t r ibu t i on . I n c on t ras t , w i th c oasta l t ranspor t o fg oods , t he b es t s upp l ies o ft hose g oods w ou ld b e f ound o n t he c oast s a nd w ou ld d ecrease i n land f r om t hem . F or t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xe c ase , i tc an b e h ypo thes ized t ha t i fa xes o f c er ta in g roups w ere d i s t r ibu ted t hrough c oasta l t ranspor t , t he l a rges t s pec imens w ou ld b e f ound o n o r n ear t he c oast s a nd t he a verage s i ze o f a xes w ou ld d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i stance i n land f r om t he c oas t s . T hus , t he h ypo theses a bou t c oas ta l t ranspor t o f a xes i n N eo l i th ic B r ita in t ha t w ere d i s c ussed i nC hapt er I I s hou ld b e r ead i ly t e stab le u s ing t he s t one a xe morpho logy d a ta . F ina l ly , t he i mpor tance o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion a s a n i nf luen t ia l f a ct or i n t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems h as b een emphas ized r epeat ed ly . I n p ar t icu lar , i t was s uggested t ha t a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion w ou ld f a c i l i ta te more e ven d i s t r ibu t ion o f e xchanged g oods o ver l a rge r eg ions t han w ou ld g enera l ly b e e xpect ed i ns i tua t ions o fg roup -t o -group e xchange among e ssen t ia l ly a ut onomous l o ca l c om mun i t ies . A l though i tm igh t b e e xpect ed t ha t p a t tern s o ff a ir ly r ap id d ecrease i n a verage a xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om s our ces w ou ld b e s een i n s i tua t ions o f m in ima l s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion , i n s i tua t ions o fg rea ter s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , much more g radua l p a t terns o fd ecrease i na verage a xe s i ze o ver w ide a rea s m igh t b e e xpec ted . S pec if i ca l ly i n r ef eren ce t o t he B r it ish N eo l i th ic c ase , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l i th i c p er iod , when l o ca l c o mmun i t ies a ppear t o h ave b een r e la t ive ly i ndependen t , t he s upp ly o f s t one a xes a nd , c orrespond ing ly , a xe s i ze w ou ld h ave d ecreased f a ir ly r ap id ly w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om e ach s our ce .
L a ter i n t he E a r ly N eol i th ic ,
when c ausewayed e nc losures w ere b e ing c onst ru ct ed i n s o me p ar t s o f s ou thern a nd e as tern B r i ta in , p erhaps r ef lec t ing a n i n crease i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n t hose a reas , t he s upp ly o fs t one a xes may h ave b ecome more e ven o ver w ider a reas a nd a xe s i ze may h ave d ecreased l e ss r ap id ly i n t hose a reas .
I n c on t ras t , a t t he s ame t ime i n o ther a rea s
1 17
where t he s imp ler o rgan iza t ion a ppea rs t o h ave p ers ist ed , s upp l ies o f s t one a xes a nd a xe s i z e may h ave d ecreased f a ir ly r ap id ly w ith i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ources a s b ef ore . I th as b een s uggest ed t ha t a t t he e nd o ft he E ar ly N eo l i th ic a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he L at e N eo l i th i c , s upra loca l i n tegra t ion may h ave b e come l e ss i mpor tan t i n a reas where i t wa s i mpor tan t e ar l ier a nd more i mportan t i n a rea s f ur ther n or th .
I n t h is s i tua t ion , i t
w ou ld b e e xpect ed t ha t i nt he n or thern r eg ion s t one a xes w ou ld h ave b ecome more e ven ly d i s t r ibut ed a nd a xe s i ze w ou ld h ave d ecreased l e ss r ap id ly t han b ef ore , wh i le i n t he s ou thern r eg ion , s upp l ies o f a xes may h ave b e come l e ss e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a nd a xe s i ze may h ave d e creased more r ap id ly w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s our ces d ur ing t h is t ime . F ina l ly , i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t i n t he L a tes t N eo l i th i c , s upra loca l i n tegra t ion wa s a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f s oc io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion i n many a reas o f B r i ta in , a nd c eremon ia l e xchange a t t he s upra loca l l e ve l was a n i mpor tan t mechan ism f o r s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion . I t was h ypo thes ized t ha t t h is w ou ld r esu l t i nf a i r ly e ven d i s t r ibu t ions o fa xes o ver l a rge a reas , a nd i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t i nt hose a rea s a xe s i ze w ou ld d ecrease o n ly v ery g radua l ly w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ces .
Aga in , i t i s a pparen t t ha t
d ur ing t h is t ime p er iod i n o ther a reas o f B r i ta in , p a r t i cu lar ly t he s ou thwes tern p en insu la a nd w es tern Wa les , s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion was o f l i t t le i mpor tance .
I n t hose a reas , i n
c on t ras t t o a reas where s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion wa s a pparen t ly w e l l -deve loped , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he s upp l ies o fa xes a nd a xe s i ze w ou ld h ave d ecreased r ap id ly w ith i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ces a s i nt he e a r l ier t ime p er iods . A long w i th v a r iab i l i ty i n s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion , v a r iab i l i ty i n t he i mpor tance o f a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls h as b een d i scussed a s a nother a spec t o f v a r iab i l i ty i ns o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion . I th as b een s uggest ed t ha t w i th a n i n crease i n t he i mpor tance o f a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls , a n i n crease i nt he v o lume o fg oods b e ing e xchanged a nd p erhaps a n i n crease i ne x change l i nkages b etween d if eren t a rea s w ou ld t ake p la ce a s i nd iv idua ls s ough t t o i n crea se t he ir p ar t i c ipa t ion i n r eg iona l
1 18
e x change s ys tems i no rder t oe nhance t he ir o wn p res t ige . More s pec if i ca l ly , i tc an b e s ug g ested t ha t a n i n crease i n a ch ieved s ta tus d i f f eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls w ou ld b e marked b y a n i n crease i nt he v o lume o fs ymbo l ic g oods b e ing e xchanged a nd a b roaden ing o ft he a reas o ver wh ich t hey w ere e xchanged . I n t he B r i t ish c ase , e v idence o ft he i n crea s i ng i mpor tan ce o f a ch ieved s ta tus d if eren t ia t ion among i nd iv idua ls i n many a reas d ur ing t he L a tes t N eo l ith i c h as b een n ot ed . E v iden ce o fa n i n crease a t t h is t ime i n t he e xchange o f s ymbo l i c g oods o f v ar ious t ypes h as b een o ut l ined i n C hap ter I .
E v idence o f s im i la r
c hanges i np a t t erns o fd i st r ibu t ion o fs t one a xes c an b e s ough t i nt h is i nvest iga t ion .
S pa t ia l P a t tern ing i n Morpho log i ca l V ar iab i l i ty a nd P a t terns o fD epos i t ion a nd R ecovery
I n C hap ter V , c ons iderab le a t ten t ion was p a id t o p rocesses o f d epos i t ion o f s t one a xes i n to t he p o ten t ia l a r chaeo log ica l r ecord a nd t he e f ec t s s u ch p rocesses m igh t h ave o n t he c o mpos i t ion o fa ssemb lages t ha tw ou ld b e a va i lab le f o r a rchaeo log is t s t os tudy . A t t he e nd o f ad i scuss ion o fp oss ib le d epos i t iona l " fa tes" o f s t one a xeheads , i t was c onc luded t ha t t he a xes wh ich e n ter t he a r chaeo log i ca l r e cord i n ag iven a rea w i l l n o t r epresent a r andom s amp le o ft he a xes t ha t g roups i nt ha t a rea o bta ined t hrough e x change n or e ven a r andom s amp le o f t he a xes h e ld a nd u sed b y t hose g roups .
Ar ev ised mode l o f t he d i st r ibu t ion o f
s i zes o f a xes i n a ssemb lages t ha t a re d epos i ted i n t o t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord was p resen ted ( s ee F ig . 5 .3c ) , a nd i ti se xpect ed t ha t , i ng enera l , d i s t r ibu t ions o fs i zes o fB r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes i na rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages w i l l b e s im i lar . E ven t hough i t was c on c luded t ha t t he a xes wh i ch w ou ld e n ter t he p ot ent ia l a r chaeo log i ca l r ecord i na ny a rea w ou ld n ot r epresen t ar andom s amp le o fe i ther t he a xes t ha t w ere r ece ived t hrough e xchange o r t he a xes t ha t w ere h e ld a nd u sed b y p eop le i n t ha t a rea , i t was s ugges ted t ha t t he s i zes o f t he a xes t ha t w ere d epos i ted w ou ld d epend , t o a l a rge e xt en t , b o th o n t he s i zes o f t he a xes t ha t w ere r e ce ived , h e ld , a nd u sed a nd o n t he g enera l s upp ly o f a xes t o t he a rea .
A s ar esu l t , i t was c onc luded t ha t d if eren ces among
d i s t r ibu t ions o fs i zes o fa xes wh i ch e n ter t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i nd if eren t a reas w ou ld
1 19
s t i l l r ef lect d if eren ces i n t he s i zes o f a xes r e ce ived , h e ld , a nd u sed b y g roups i n t hose a reas a nd t ha t d if erences i n t he s i zes o f a xes i n d if erent a r chaeo log ica l a ssemb lages s hou ld r ef lect t he p a t terns o f a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty r esu l t ing f r om d if eren t d i s tr ibu t ion p ro cesses a nd v ar ious o ther s ystem i c f a ct ors t ha t w ere d i scussed a bove . T h is i st he b as i c a ssump t ion u pon wh ich t he a na lys is o ft he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xe d a ta r es ts . H owever , i t wa s n o ted f ur ther t ha t d i f f eren ces i n t he s i zes o f a xes i n a rchaeo log ica l c o l lec t ions w ou ld r ef lec t d i f f erences i n s i zes o f a xes r e ce ived , h e ld , a nd u sed b y g roups i n t hose a reas o n ly i ft he c o l le c t ions b e ing c ompared r epresent ed t he s ame c on tex t o f d epos i t i on .
S evera l p oss ib le c on tex ts o f s t one a xe d epos i t ion w ere i d en t if ied i n t he e thnog raph ic
c ase d i scussed i n C hapt er V , a nd p oss ib le s i ze p a t tern s o f a xes d epos i ted i n e ach c on t ex t w ere
o u t l ined .
T hese
c on t ex t s
i n c luded
s e t t lemen t s i t es ,
g arden
a nd f o res t a reas ,
t ranspor t / t rade r ou tes , a nd b ur ia ls a nd o ther c eremon ia l s i t es . B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes h ave b een r e covered f r om s im i lar c on tex ts . T hus , s o me a xes h ave b een f ound o n s e t t lemen t s i tes o r i n a reas o f a pparen t ly i n t ens ive o ccupa t iona l a ct iv i ty .
O thers h ave b een f ound a sso c ia ted w i th b ur ia l s o r o n c o mmuna l s i t es t ha t
p robab ly s erved a s l o c i f o r c eremon ia l a c t iv i t ies . S t i l l o ther a xes h ave b een f ound t oge ther i n a ssoc ia t ions o r h oa rd s o r i n b od ies o f wa ter t ha t p robab ly s erved a s p reh ist or i c t ranspor t / t rade r out es .
Ag ood e xamp le o f t he l a t ter , f r om wh i ch many s t one a xes h ave
b een r ecovered , i st he R iver T hames .
H owever , t he a xes k nown t o h ave b een r e covered
f r om a l l o ft hese c on tex t s t oge ther c o mpr ise o n ly asma l l p er cen tage o ft he t o ta l n umber o f B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes . f i nds .
T he v ast ma jor i ty o f a xes w ere r ecovered a s s i ng le s t ray
A l though s ome o f t hese may h ave b een d epos i ted i n o ther c on tex t s o f wh ich n o
e v idence r e ma ins ( f or e xamp le , i f ab ur ia l mound o r as e t t lemen t s i t e w ere c o mp le te ly p l oughed o u t ) , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he ma jor i ty w ere d epos i ted i n t he o f -s i te c on tex t s o f g arden o r f o res t a reas . A l though t he s i zes o f a xes f r om k nown c ont ex t s o f d epos i t ion c an b e a na lyzed s epara te ly f o r e v idence o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty , t he a xes t ha t
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w ere r ecovered a s s t ray f i nds p resen t a more c o mp lex p rob lem .
T h is i s e ssen t ia l ly a
p rob lem o f i d en t ify ing a nd c on t ro l l ing f o r t he e f f ect s o f d i f f erences i n i n tens i ty o f p reh is t o r i c a c t iv i ty o n s i zes o f a xes i n c o l lec t ions r ecovered i n a reas o u t s ide o f r ecogn ized s i t es . I n t h is i nvest iga t ion , a n a t t emp t w i l l b e made t o a ddress t h is p rob lem . T he way i n wh ich t h is w i l l b e d one w i l l b e o u t l ined more f u l ly i nt he n ex t c hap ter . T he f i na l p rob lem i n u s ing t he s i zes o f a xes i n a r chaeo log i ca l c o l le ct ion s a s a n i nd i ca tor o fp a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l i st he p rob lem o ft he e f f ec t s o fd if eren t i a l i n tens i t ies o f modern a rchaeo log ica l c o l lect ing o n d i s t r ibu t ions o f a xe s i ze i n c o l lect ions f r om d if eren t a reas .
I n t he B r i t ish c ase , t h is p rob lem a nd t he p rob lem o f t he e f ec t s o f
d i f f eren ces i n i n t ens i ty o f p reh istor ic a ct iv i ty o n p a t t erns o f a xe s i ze a re c l ose ly r e la ted . T hus , where g rea ter n umbers o fa r t ifa c ts h ave b een f ound , i nd ica t ing more i n tense p reh is t o r ic a c t iv i ty , modern c o l lec tors w i l l i n tens ify t he ir e f or t s . T h is r esu l t s i n t he c o l lect ion o f e ven more a r t ifa c t s i nt hose a reas a nd c orrespond ing ly g rea t er d if erences i n q uan t i t ies o f g oods r ecovered b e tween t hose a reas a nd a reas i n wh ich p reh istor i c a c t iv i ty was l e ss i n tense .
B ecause t he p rob lems o f t he e f ec ts o f d if eren t ia l i n tens i t ies o f p reh ist or ic
a c t iv i ty a nd o f modern c o l lec t ing o n a xe s i ze p a t terns a re s o c l ose ly r e la ted , t hey w i l l b e d ea l t w i th t ogether i n t h is i nves t iga t ion . H ow t h is w i l l b e d one w i l l b e r evea led i nt he n ex t c hap ter i n wh ich t he me thodo logy o ft he a na lys is w i l l b e o u t l ined a nd s o me g enera l a spe c ts o ft he s t one a xe d a ta w i l l b e p resent ed .
CHAPTER V I I
THE BR IT ISH NEOL ITH IC S TONE AXE DATA : PREL IM INARY CONS IDERAT IONS AND ANALYT ICAL METHODOLOGY
T h is c hapt er w i l l s e rve a s ag enera l i n troduc t ion t ot he d a ta s e t t ha t i st he b as is f o r t h is i nvest iga t ion . A s e ssent ia l b a ckg round i n f orma t ion f o r t he a na lyses t ob e p resent ed i n s ubsequen t c hapt ers , t he f o l low ing t op ics w i l l b e d i scussed :
t he d ef in i t ion o f t he d a ta s e t ,
t he morpho log ica l d a ta , i n c lud ing t he s our ces o f d a ta a nd o ther a spe ct s o f d a ta c o l lec t ion , a nd t he p rocedures f o l lowed i nt he a na lys is o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fa xes f r om e ach s ource .
D ef in i t ion o ft he Da ta S e t
I n C hapt er I ,t wen ty -s ix s our ce -spec if i c B r i t ish i mp lemen t p e t ro logy g roups w ere i n t roduced ( Tab le 1 . 1 a nd F ig . 1 . 1 ) .
T he b as i c d a ta s e t f o r t h is i nvest iga t ion i n c ludes a l l
c o mp let e a xes o f g rouped ma t er ia ls f ound i n E ng land a nd Wa les t ha t w ere k nown a t t he t ime when d a ta w ere b e ing c o l lec ted f o r t h is s tudy ( up t om id -1980 ) . A t t ha t t ime , l i s t ing s o f i mp lemen t s t ha t h ad b een e xam ined p e t ro log ica l ly w ere a va i lab le i nt he l i t era ture f o r s o me a reas o fB r i ta in , wh i le u npub l ished r ecords c o mp i led b y members o f t he CBA I mp lemen t P et ro logy C omm i t tee h ad t ob e c onsu lt ed f o r i n f orma t ion o n i mp lemen t s f r om o ther a reas a s w e l l a s i mp lemen t s f ound i n t he f o rmer a rea s wh ich h ad b een e xam ined p e t ro log i ca l ly a f ter t he a ppearance o f t he p ub l ished r epor t s .
I mp le -
men t p e t ro logy l i sts w ere n o t a va i lab le f o r t he n or thern -mos tc oun t ies o fE ng land : C umber l and , N or thumber land , Wes tmor land , a nd Durham .
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T h is p rec luded c o l lec t ion o f a xe d a ta
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f r om t h is a rea . T heref ore , t he s tudy a rea i sl im i ted t ot ha t a rea o fE ng land s ou th o ft hese c oun t ies p lus a l l o f Wa les .1 F rom t he p e tro logy l i s t s , i n f orma t ion o n i mp lemen t s o fb oth g rouped a nd u ng rouped ma t er ia ls c ou ld b e o b ta ined .
T h is s tudy i s l im i t ed t o i mp lemen t s o f t he r e cogn ized
p et ro log ica l g roups b ecause t he l o ca t ions o f t he s ou rces o f t hese ma ter ia ls a re k nown o r c an b e r easonab ly i n f erred .
T h is i se ssen t ia l f o r a n i nvest iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty i nr e la t ion t op a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa 1 .2 S ince t h is s tudy i sf o cussed o n s t one a xes a s ag enera l morpho log ica l c l ass , a nd a ma jor a spec t o fi ti nvo lves a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t hese i mp lemen t s i n o rder t o d et erm ine whe ther d if eren t s i zes o r f o rms c an b e i d en t if ied w i th in t he g enera l c l ass , t he d ef in it ion o fa xe f o r i n c lus ion i nt he a na lys i s was made a s b road a s p oss ib le . F or p urposes o f t h is i nves t iga t ion , a n a xe ( o r p erhaps more a ccura t e ly , a n a xehead ) c an b e d ef ined a s as o l id i mp lemen t ( i . e . , w i thou t as haf tho le ) h av ing a c u t t ing e dge o r b lade a t o ne e nd p erpend icu lar t o t he l ong a x is o f t he o b jec t .
Under t h is d ef in i t ion , i mp lemen t s
c l ass if ied a s a xes , a dzes , a nd e ven c h ise ls 3 i n t he p e t ro logy l i s t s w ere i n c luded i n t he d ata s e t .4
1T he s tudy a rea i s s hown o n a map o f t he c ount ies o f E ng land a nd Wa les i n F ig . 7 . 1 . T he c oun ty a bbrev ia t ions , a s u sed t hroughou t t h is s tudy , a re p resen t ed i nT ab le 7 .1 . 2H owever , a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a tt ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty , s u ch a s w i l l b e d escr ibed f o r g rouped a xes , may b e u sefu l i n i d en t ify ing p oss ib le s ource a rea s f o r a xes o fc er ta in u ng rouped ma ter ia ls . P re l im inary r esu l t s o fw ork a l ong t hese l i nes w i th a xes o f u ng rouped mat er ia ls s uch a s g reenst one a nd d o ler it e a re p rom is ing . Af u l l i nves t iga t ion o f t h is a spec t o f t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a xe morpho logy a nd d i str ibu t ion i s o u t s ide t he s cope o ft he p resen t s tudy , b u t t h is i s ad i rec t ion i n wh ich f u ture w ork may p ro ceed . 3T here
a re o n ly ac oup le o ft hese .
4A xes t ha t h ad b een a l t ered b y p erf ora t ion w i th t he a ppa ren t p urpose o f p roduc ing e i ther p endan t s o r s haf tho le i mp lemen ts ( e .g . , s haf tho le a dzes ) w ere e x c luded f r om t he d a ta s e t u nder t he a ssump t ion t ha t b y t he t ime t hey w ere d epos ited , t hey w ere n o l onger f un c t ion ing a s a ny s or t o fa xe .
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T h is s tudy i sl im i ted t o c omp let e a xes b ecause i ti sf r om t hese , o bv ious ly , t ha t t he mos t c o mp le te i n f orma t ion p er ta in ing t o morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty c an b e o bta ined .' A l though a c o mp let e a xe c an b e d ef ined a s o ne wh ich i s n o t b roken , d ec is ions a bou t whether t o c ons ider s pec if i c a xes c omp le te o r n o t w ere n ecessa r i ly s ub jec t ive .
I n g enera l ,
i mp lement s wh i ch w ere o bv ious ly b roken a nd wh ich , i n my o p in ion , c ou ld h ave b een n e i ther h af ted n or u sed w ere e x c luded f r om t he d a ta s e t . I nc luded w ere b o th u ndamaged i mp lemen ts a nd i mp lemen t s wh i ch e xh ib i tm inor d amage , e . g . , t he t i p o ft he b u t t i sb roken o f( bu t t he a xe c ou ld s t i l l h ave b een h af t ed a nd u sed ) o r ac orner o ft he b lade i sb roken o f f ( p erhaps why t he i mp lemen t was d i scarded ) o r t he s urfa ce o f t he i mp lemen t i sd amaged b y e ros ion ( bu ti t s d imens ions a re a pparen t ly n ot s i gn if i can t ly a f ec ted ) .2 Axe r oughou t s w ere a l so i n c luded i n t he d a ta s e t f o r t wo r easons .
N o t o n ly c an
t he ir d i st r ibu t ions g i ve e v idence o ft he a reas w i th in wh ich p r imary p rodu ct ion o fa xes f r om d if eren t s ources t o ok p lace , b u t t he i r s i zes a nd s hapes c an p rov ide c l ues t o t he s i zes a nd s hapes o fa xes t ha tw ere i n i t ia l ly p roduced f r om t he r aw ma ter ia l . T he a bundan ce , b o th a bso lut e a nd r e la t ive , o f c o mp let e a xes o f e ach g roup i n t he d a ta s e t i sp resen ted i n T ab le 7 . 2 . H ere , i tc an b e s een t ha t f o r s o me g roups , n o c o mp let e
' Never the less , much c an o f ten b e d e term ined f r om p a r ts a nd f ragmen t s o f a xes a bou t t he o r ig ina l s i zes a nd s hapes o f t he i mp lemen t s , a nd s o me p a rt s a nd f r agmen t s f o r wh ich t h is i s t he c ase w i l l b e men t ioned a s e v iden ce i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f s pec if i c g roups . I n a dd i t ion , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t p ar t s a nd f ragment s o f a xes may p rov ide c er ta in t ypes o f i n f orma t ion t ha t c o mp let e a xes c anno t . F or e xamp le , i ft he s i zes o f t he o r ig ina l c o mp le te a xes c ou ld b e r econs t ruc ted f r om b roken p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he s i zes o f a xes s o o b ta ined f r om a s amp le o f p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s w ou ld r ef lec t t he s i zes o f a xes a c tua l ly u sed b y N eo l i th i c p eop le more a ccura te ly t han w ou ld t he s i zes o fa xes i n as amp le o fc o mp le te s pec imens , s i nce t he l a t t er w ou ld u ndoub ted ly i n c lude sma l l , w orked -ou t a nd d i scarded a xes a nd m igh t i n c lude a xes t ha t w ere n ever i n tended f o r u se . F ur thermore , b reakage p a t terns e xh ib i ted b y p ar t s a nd f ragment s o f a xes a nd e v idence o fu se w ear o n t hem may p rov ide more c l ues t o t he ways i n wh i ch t hese i mp lemen ts w ere u sed t han c an c omp let e a xes wh i ch may h ave b een l o s t b ef ore e ver h av ing b een u sed . A ga in , f u l l i nvest iga t ion o ft hese a spect s o f a xe morpho logy i so u t s ide t he s cope o f t h is s tudy , b u t t h is i sa no ther d i rect ion i n wh i ch f u ture r esear ch may g o . 20 bv ious ly a f ec ted d imens ions o f d amaged i mp lemen t s ( e .g . , t he max imum w id th o f a n i mp lemen t d amaged a t o ne c orner o f t he b lade ) w ere g enera l ly n o t i n c luded i n t he a na lyses o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty ; i n t he f ew i n stances where t hey w ere i n c luded , t h is i ss pec if i ca l ly n oted .
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a xes a re i n c luded i n t h is d a ta s et .
O f t hese , G roup X I I a ppears t o h ave b een u sed
e xc lus ive ly f o r t he p roduc t ion o f s haf tho le i mp le ments , wh i le G roups XX I I a nd XXV a re sma l l a nd i mp le men t s o f t hem a re n ot k nown o uts ide t he ir r espect ive s ource a reas wh ich a re o uts ide t he g eograph ica l l im i t s o ft h is s tudy . G roup XXV I was j ust b e ing d ef ined when d a ta w ere b e ing c o l lected f o r t h is s tudy , s o t he d ec is ion was made t oe xc lude i mp lement s o f t h is mat er ia l . F or t he o ther g roups , a bundance v ar ies c ons iderab ly , f r om a s i ng le c o mp lete a xe t hrough t ens o f a xes t o many h undreds o f a xes .
B ecause o f a n t ic ipat ed a na ly t ica l
p rob lems d ue t o sma l l s amp le s i ze , t he d ec is ion was made t o i nvest igat e a xe morpho logy a nd d i st r ibu t ion f o r o n ly t hose g roups o f wh ich t we lve o r more c o mp lete a xes w ere k nown . T he g roups f o r wh ich d eta i led a na lyses a re p resen ted i n t he f o l low ing c hapt ers a re i nd i c at ed i nT ab le 7 .2 . I n T ab le 1 . 1 , an umber o fg roups w ith " a" d es igna t ions a re l i s ted wh i le i nT ab le 7 .2 , t he a xes o ft hese mat er ia ls w ere c ounted a s b e long ing t o t he ma in g roups . B ef ore p roceed i ng w i th t he a na lys is , ad ec is ion h ad t o b e made a bou t h ow t o d ea l w ith a xes o f t he " a" mater ia ls , i . e . , whether t o i n c lude t hem w ith a xes o f t he ma in g roup o r t o c ons ider t hem s eparate ly .
I n e ach i n s tance , t he " a" d es igna t ions h ave b een g iven t o ma ter ia ls t ha t a re
v ery s im i lar t o t he ma ter ia l o ft he ma in g roup , d i f f er ing o n ly i n m inor p et ro log ica l c harac t e r ist ics . I ti sg enera l ly a ssumed t ha t t he " a" mat er ia ls a nd t he ma in mater ia ls o r ig ina ted a t s ources i n t he s ame a rea .
I ft h is i st he c ase , t hen i ts eems r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t
t hese mater ia ls w ere u t i l ized c onte mporaneous ly b y t he s ame g roups o f p eop le a nd t ha t t he a xes o f t hem s hou ld e xh ib it t he s ame p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i s t r ibut ion .
G iven n o e v idence t o c ontrad ic t t hese a ssumpt ions , i ts eems r easonab le t o c on -
s i der t he a xes o f e a ch " a" ma ter ia l a nd o f e ach c orrespond ing ma in ma ter ia l a s as i ng le g roup f o r a na ly t ica l p urposes , a nd t h is was d one f o r most o ft he g roups wh ich h ad a n " a" s ub -g roup . I n o ne c ase , h owever , t here i s e v idence t o i nd ica te t ha t t he ma ter ia ls o f t he " a" g roup a nd t he ma in g roup w ere n ot u t i l ized e n t ire ly c ontemporaneous ly . F ur thermore , t he
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a xes o f t hese ma ter ia l s e xh ib i t d if eren t d i st r ibu t ions .
T he ma ter ia ls i n q uest ion a re
G roups I V a nd I Va ,1a nd t he a xes o ft hese ma t er ia ls w i l l b e c ons idered s epa rat e ly . I n t he c hap ters t ha t f o l low , p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e i nves t igat ed f o r t he a xes o f v ar ious ma ter ia ls . ( F ig . 1 . 1 ) s uggest a l o g ica l way t o g roup t he a na lyses .
T he l o ca t ions o f t he s ources
P roceed ing f r om s ou th t o n or th , a
n umber o f s ources a re l o ca ted i n C ornwa l l , o thers a re f ound i n S ou th Wa les a nd N or th Wa les , a nd s evera l s our ces a re l o ca ted i n t he L ake D is t r ic t .
T he r e ma in ing s ources a re
s cat tered t hroughou t G rea t B r i ta in wh i le o ne i sl o ca ted i n N or thern I r e land a nd a no ther i s i n n or thern F rance .
T hus , t he f o l low ing c hapt ers w i l l d escr ibe a na lyses o f t he C orn ish
g roups ( Chapt er V I I I ) , t he We lsh g roups ( Chap ter I X ) , t he L ake D ist r i c t g roups ( Chapt er X ) , a nd o ther g roups ( Chapt er X I ) . T hese g eog raph ica l g roup ing s o f s t one a xe s our ces a re c r oss cu t b y c h rono logy . A l though i n most i n stan ces s pec if i c a xes c anno t b e d a ted , p er iods o fp roduc t ion a nd u se o f t he ma jor i ty o f t he a xes o f e ach g roup c an b e d edu ced .
T he a va i lab le c hrono log ica l
e v idence f o r e a ch g roup o fa xes w i l l b e d i scussed i nd e ta i l i n t he r e levan t c hapt er . H ere , i t i ss uff i c ien t t o n ot e t ha t s o me g roups a ppear t o h ave b een u t i l ized a lmos t e n t ire ly i n t he E ar ly N eo l ith i c wh i le o ther s w ere u t i l ized o n ly n ear t he e nd o ft he N eo l i th i c a nd s t i l l o thers a ppear t o h ave b een u t i l ized t hroughou t t he p er iod . I n t he f o l low ing c hap ters , c o mpar isons o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f o r a xes f r om s ou rces t ha t w ere l o ca ted i n t he s ame g enera l a rea b u t w ere u t i l ized o ver d if eren t p er iods o f t ime s hou ld y i e ld i n s ight s i n t o c hang ing p a t terns o fa xe p roduc t ion , a xe d i s tr ibu t ion , a nd h uman i n t er a ct ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic p er iod .
' The r e levan t d e ta i ls o f c hrono logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e p resent ed i n t he n ex t c hapt er .
1 26
T he Morpho log ica l Da ta
P ersona l i n spect ion o fe ach i mp lemen ti nt he d a ta s et w ou ld h ave b een t he i d ea l way i n wh ich t o e nsure t ha t c o mp lete a nd r e l iab le morpho log ica l d a ta w ere o bta ined . t unate ly , t h is was n ot p oss ib le .
Unf or -
A l though many o f t he B r it ish Neo l ith ic s t one a xes a re
h oused i n p ub l i c museums where p ersona l i n spect ion i s p oss ib le , al a rge n umber a re i n p r ivat e p ossess ion .
I n o rder t o o bta in s uf f i c ien t s amp les f o r a na lys is , morpho log ica l d a ta
o n t he i mp lements i np r ivate p ossess ion was e ssen t ia l , p ar t icu lar ly f o r t he sma l ler g roups . H owever , a ny a tt emp t t o t ra ck d own a nd i n spect t hese i mp lements w ou ld h ave b een u t ter ly i mpract ica l i nt e rms o fb o th t ime a nd c ost i nvo lved . I ndeed , i t was q u ick ly r ea l ized t ha t t he t ime a nd c ost i nvo lved i n p ersona l ly i n spect ing i mp lements i n p ub l ic museums w ere g rea ter t han e xpec ted . I n o rder t o o verco me t hese p rob lems , d raw ing s o f i mp lements o n p et ro logy r ecord c ards w ere c onsu l ted a nd r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n many i mp lement s , b oth i n p r iva te p ossess ion a nd i n museums wh ich t ime c onstra int s p revented me f r om v i s it ing . I n a dd it ion , i n f ormat ion o n morpho logy o f a n umber o f i mp lemen t s was o b ta ined f r om p ub l ished r ecords , p hotog raphs , o r d raw ings .' T he n ecess ity o fr e ly ing o n s econdary s ources f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n many i mp le ment s l im ited , t o al a rge e xt en t , t he t ypes o f d ata t ha t c ou ld b e o bta ined .
F or e xamp le ,
w e igh t , a measure o f o vera l l s i ze , was n ot a va i lab le f o r a xes r epresented b y p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings , s o i t was n o t r ecorded f o r a ny o ft he i mp lemen ts . E dge a ng le , ap os s i b le i nd icator o ff unct ion a nd /or p a t terns o fr e -work ing , i sd i ff i cu l t e nough t o measure c on s i sten t ly f r om i mp lements t hemse lves ( D ickson 1 981 :104 ) .
E dge a ng le measuremen t s
t aken f r om d raw ing s o f v ar iab le q ua l i ty c ou ld h ard ly b e v i ewed a s h igh ly a ccurat e . T heref ore , t h is v ar iab le was n ot r ecorded f o r a ny o ft he i mp le men ts e i ther .
1D esp ite t he u se o f t hese d if eren t s ources o f i n f ormat ion , morpho log ica l d ata w ere n ot a va i lab le f o r mos t i mp lemen t s f r om al a rge a rea o fs outheas tern Eng land a nd f o r s o me i mp lement s f r om o ther a reas , most n otab ly t he P eak D istr ict .
1 27
N ever the less , f o r al a rge p ropor t ion o f t he c o mp let e i mp lemen ts i n t he d a ta s e t ,1 r easonab ly r e l iab le measures o f f i ve v ar iab les r ef le c t ing d if eren t a spect s o fa xe s i ze c ou ld b e o b ta ined .
T hese f i ve v a r iab les a re :
max imum l e ng th , max imum w id th , max imum
t h ickness , w id th o ft he i mp lemen t a t t he c en ter o ft he a x is o f max imum l e ng th , a nd t h ick n ess o ft he i mp lemen t a t t he c en ter o ft he a x is o f max imum l e ng th ( F ig . 7 .2 ) .
H ereaf ter ,
t hese v ar iab les w i l l b e r e f erred t o a s l eng th , w id th , t h ickness , c ent er w id th , a nd c ent er t h ickness , r espec t ive ly ( s ee T ab le 7 . 3 ) .2 F rom t he f i ve v ar iab les r ef l e ct ing d if eren t a spec t s o f a xe s i ze , f ou r more v ar iab les r ef lect ing d if eren t a spec t s o f a xe s hape w ere c a lcu la ted .
T hese a re ( s ee T ab le 7 .3 ) : t he
l eng th /w id th r a t io , p roduced b y d i v id ing l e ng th b y w idth a nd r ef lec t ing s hape o ft he i mp le men t i n f a ce v i ew ; t he l e ng th / th ickness r a t io , p rodu ced b y d iv id ing l e ng th b y t h ickness a nd r ef l ec t ing s hape i n p rof i le v i ew ; t he w id th / th i ckness r a t io , p rodu ced b y d iv id ing w id th b y t h ickness a nd r ef lec t ing t he c r oss -sec t iona l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he max imum w id th a nd t h ickness measures ; a nd t he c r oss -sec t ion r a t io , p rodu ced b y d iv id ing t he c en t er w id th b y t he c en ter t h ickness a nd r ef le c t ing t he s hape o ft he c en ter c r oss -sec t ion . O ther i n f orma t ion o n t he s urfa ce f i n ish o f t he i mp lemen t , t he c o lor , d amage t o t he b ody o r b lade , a nd u se w ear o n t he b lade w ere r ecorded b u t n o t q uan t if ied . T hese c ha ra c t e r is t ics o ft he a xes w i l l o f t en b e i n t roduced a s c orrobora t ing e v idence i nt he i n terpreta t ion o fo bserved p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty .
A na ly t ica l Me thodo logy
F or e ach s ource -spec if i c g roup o f s t one a xes , t he a na lys i s w i l l b e d iv ided i n t o t wo ma jor p ar t s .
I n t he f i rs t p a r t , g enera l p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among t he
a xes o f t he g roup w i l l b e i nves t iga ted .
I n t he s econd p a r t , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n mor -
10 f t he 1 389 c o mp le te a xes o f g rouped ma ter ia ls t ha t w ere i d en t if ied , morpho log i c a l d a ta w ere o b ta ined f o r 1 159 , o r o ver 8 3% . 2A l l
measuremen t s w ere t aken a nd w i l l b e r epor ted i nm i l l imet ers .
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p ho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a s i t r e lates t o p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l w i l l b e e xp lored .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
P re l im inary t o t he a na lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes o fe ach g roup w i l l b e ar ev iew o f r e levant c o mmen ts i n t he l i t era ture .
I fs pec if i c p a t terns
o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity , i . e . , d i f f erent s i zes , s hapes , o r t ypes o f a xes , a re ment ioned , t hese w i l l b e s ough t i nt he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity .
A lthough s pec if i c t ypes o f
a xes a re s o me t imes ment ioned i n c onnect ion w ith s pec if i c g roups o fa xes , a nd t hese w i l l b e d i scussed i n c onnect ion w i th t hose g roups , t wo s pec if i c t ypes o fi mp lemen ts a re o f t en men t i oned i n c onnect ion w i th a xes o fv ar ious ma ter ia ls . One o ft hese i s af unct iona l t ype wh i le t he o ther a ppears t ob e as ty l is t ic t ype . Among s t one a xes i n g enera l , a dzes a re o f ten n o ted a s af unct iona l ly s pec ia l ized t ype .
Adzes a re g enera l ly c haracter ized b y ab lade t ha t i s a symmetr ica l ly g round i n
p rof i le v i ew , af ea ture c l ear ly r e la ted t o t he mode o f u se o f t h is t ype o f t o o l . a l so h ave a n a symmet r ica l ly -shaped c enter c ross -sec t ion .
T hey may
V ery f ew o f t he i mp le ments i n
t h is d ata s et c an b e r ecogn ized a s d ef in ite ly a dzes o n t he b as is o fb lade a nd /or c ross -sect ion s hape .
Many more c an b e c l ass if ied a s a xe -adzes , h av ing a s l ight ly a symmet r ica l b lade
a nd /or c ross -sect ion .
P resumab ly , t hese i mp le ments c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s e i ther a xes
o r a dzes , a s t he n eed a rose .'
Among t he 1 159 c o mp le te g rouped i mp lemen ts ( exc lud ing
r oughout s ) f o r wh ich morpho log ica l d a ta w ere o bta ined , Iwas a b le t o i d en t ify o n ly 4 9 , o r 4 .2% , a s e i ther d ef in i te a dzes o r p oss ib le a xe -adzes .
O ft hese , t he ma jor i ty a re r e la t ive ly
sma l l i mp le ment s ( F ig . 7 .3 ) . T he o bv ious i mp l ica t ion o ft h is i st ha t many i mp lements w i th a dze l ike s hapes w ere p roduced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger i mp lemen ts .
T h is may h ave
b een a n i n ten t iona l a t temp t t o p roduce f unct iona l ly s pec ia l ized t o o ls o r a n u n intent iona l
' Reca l l t ha t S trathern 's ( 1965 :184 ) i n f orman t s i n New Gu inea i nd icated t hat t he s ame a xehead c ou ld b e u sed a s a n a xe o r a n a dze , d epend ing u pon h ow i t was h af ted .
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r e su l t o f t he p rocesses o f r e -sharpen ing a nd r e -work ing .
B ecause o f t he l a t ter p oss ib i l i ty
a nd b ecause many o f t hese i mp lemen t s may h ave s erved a s d ua l -purpose a xe -adzes , t he d ec is ion was made t o i n c lude a l l i mp lemen t s w i th a dze l ike c haract er ist ics t oge ther w i th t he a xes f o r t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty . A xes w i th e xpanded b lades may r epresen t as ty l ist i c t ype .
T h is c l ass o f a xe h as
b een i n terpret ed a s a n a t temp t t o i m i tat e i n s t one t he s hape o f e ar ly c opper a xes ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :104 ) .
I ft h is i st rue , t hen a xes o f t h is t ype may h ave b een r egarded a s
mo re v a luab le t han a xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades .
F ur thermore , t hey w ou ld h ave t o b e
p la ced r e la t ive ly l a te i n t he c hrono log ica l s equence o f s t one a xe p roduc t ion a nd u se . F or t hese r easons , a xes i d en t if ied a s h av ing e xpanded b lades w i l l b e c ons idered s epara te ly f r om t hose w i thou t t h is f ea ture i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t i on . T he a ctua l a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fe a ch g roup w i l l h ave t wo ma jor s t eps .
I n i t ia l ly , a n a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f ound i n
t he v i c in i ty o ft he s ource w i l l b e c arr ied o u t u nder t he a ssumpt ion t ha t t he a xes i n s uch a s amp le w ou ld b e mos t l i ke ly t o r ef lec t t he r ange o fv ar iab i l i ty among a xes p roduced a t t he s ource a nd l eas t l i ke ly t or ef lec t v ar iab i l i ty p roduced b y r e -work ing a xes i n d if eren t l o ca l a reas a t v ary ing d i s tan ces f r om t he s our ce . T he d ef in i t ion o f t he n ear -source s amp le w i l l g enera l ly b e b ased o n ah i st og ram o ft he d i stances f r om t he s our ce a t wh ich c o mp let e a xes o f t he mat er ia l h ave b een f ound .'
I n t he a na lys is o f t hese a xes , a ny d epar tures f r om a
g enera l c on t inuum o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes t o sma l l , r e -worked a xes w i l l b e s ough t .
S uch d epa r tures m igh t i n c lude d i f f eren t f un ct iona l t ypes o f a xes , ac l ass o f
s pec ia l ized n on -u t i l i tar ian a xes , o r d if eren t s hapes o fa xes r esu l t ing f r om d i f f eren t s i zes o r s hapes o f b l o cks o f r aw ma t er ia l a va i lab le a t t he s ou rce .
I n t h is i nves t iga t ion , t he s i zes
' These d i stan ces w ere e as i ly c a lcu la ted f r om t he Na t iona l G r id r ef eren ces o f t he s ources a nd t he a xes . A l l d i s tances i nt h is i nves t iga t ion a re r epor ted i n k i lometers .
1 30
a nd s hapes o fa xe r oughou t s w i l l o f ten b e c i ted a s e v idence o ft he s i zes a nd s hapes o fa xes p roduced i nt he s our ce a rea . N ex t , a n a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among a l l a xes o ft he g roup , r egard l e ss o f d i stan ce f r om t he s our ce , w i l l b e c a rr ied o u t .
Ma jor q ues t ions o f t h is s tag e o f t he
i nvest iga t ion a re whe ther t he s i zes a nd s hapes o fa xes f ound i n t he s ource a rea a re f ound f ur ther away a nd whe ther a ny s i zes a nd /or s hapes o f a xes n o t f ound i n t he s ou r ce a rea a re f ound i no ther a reas . T he a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes o f e a ch g roup w i l l b e l a rge ly d escr ipt ive .
H ist og rams o f i nd iv idua l v ar iab les a nd s ca t t er p l ot s o f p a irs o f v ar i -
a b les w i l l b e i n spected f o r e v iden ce o f mu l t i -moda l i ty a nd /or c l ust er ing t ha t may i n d i cat e t he p resence o fd i f f eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o f a xes w i th in e ach s amp le . F or s ome o f t he sma l ler g roups o fa xes , s u ch d escr ip t ive a na lys is w i l l b e a l l t ha t i sa t tempt ed . F or o ther , l a rger g roups , more s oph i st i cat ed a na ly t ica l t e chn iques w i l l b e e mp loyed . T hus , p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is w i l l a i d i n s umma r iz ing t he s i ze a nd s hape d a ta a nd i n i d en t ify ing t he ma jor d imens ions o f v a r iab i l i ty among t he a xes o f e a ch g roup .
H is -
t og rams a nd s ca t ter p l o t s o ft he s c ores o ft he a xes i n s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c omponen t s w i l l b e i n spected f o r e v iden ce o f d if eren t morpho log ica l c l asses o f a xes w i th in e a ch s amp le . F ina l ly , t he p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s cores may b e u sed a s t he d a ta i n ac l us ter a na lys is o f t he a xes .1 P a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f e a ch g roup t ha t a re o bserved t hrough i n spect ion o fh i st og rams a nd s ca t t er p l o t s o ft he o r ig ina l v ar iab les , t hrough i n spec t i on o f h i st og rams a nd s ca t t er p l o t s o f p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s cores , o r t hrough c l us ter
' Cons iderab le p re l im inary a na lys is o f a xe d a ta i nd ica ted t ha t t he mos t i n tu i t ive ly a cceptab le r esu l t s w ere o b ta ined b y u s ing t he m in imum v ar ian ce a lgor i thm ( Ward 's me thod ) a nd t he E uc l idean d i stance measure a nd b y w e igh t ing t he v a r iab les ( p r in c ipa l c omponen t s cores ) a ccord ing t o t he ir e i genva lues i n t he p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . T he r a t iona le b eh ind t h is i st o g i ve t he d imens ion a l ong wh ich t he a xes v ary t he most ( u sua l ly , b u t n o t a lways , t ha t o f o vera l l s i ze ) t he g rea tes t w e igh t i n d e term in ing t he c l us ter s o f a xes , w i th o ther d imens ion s ( u sua l ly t hose o fs hape ) h av ing l e ss w e igh t . A s a r esu l t , t he c l ust er a na lyses g enera l ly p rodu ced ma jor s i ze c l a sses o f a xes a nd w i th in t hose , c l asses b ased o n v ar iab i l i ty i ns hape .
1 31
a na lys is w i l l b e c ompared w i th p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty n ot ed i n t he l i t era tu re f o r e a ch g roup a nd w i th t he p oss ib le p a t tern s o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes t ha t w ere o u t l ined i nC hapt er V I . E v iden ce o ft he s i zes a nd s hapes o f a xe r oughou t s a nd o ther c ha ra cter is t ics o ft he a xes t hemse lves , s u ch a s f i n ish , c o lor , d amage , a nd u se w ear , w i l l b e c on s idered i n t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he o bserved p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes .
Ana lys is o fS pa t ia l P a t t ern ing i n Morpho log i ca l Var iab i l i ty
T he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f e a ch g roup w i l l h ave t wo ma jor p ar t s .
F irs t , s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty
among a xes f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s o fd epos i t ion w i l l b e c ons idered . T hen , s pa t ia l p a t tern i ng i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om u nknown c on tex t s w i l l b e i nves t i ga t ed .'
A xes f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
F or a xes f r om e a ch o ft he s pec if i c c ont ex ts o fd epos i t ion t ha t h ave b een i d en t if ied a s r e levan t t o t he s tudy o ft he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c , i . e . , s e t t lemen t s i tes o r a reas o f a pparen t ly i n tens ive o ccupa t iona l a c t iv i ty , b ur ia ls o r o ther r i tua l s i tes , a ssoc ia t ions o fa xes o r h oards , a nd t he R iver T hames o r o ther r i ver ine c ont ex t s , morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty w i l l b e r ev iewed a nd c ompared w i th t ha t o f a xes r e covered f r om u nknown c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion i n t he s ame g enera l a rea s . I n t h is , t he p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t w ere p red icted i np rev ious c hapt ers t o r esu l t f r om d epos i t ion i n a nd r ecovery f r om t hese s pec if i c c on tex t s w i l l b e s ough t .
I n a dd i t ion , a n a t temp t w i l l b e made t o r e lat e p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes f r om e a ch s pec if i c c on tex t t od i s tance f r om t he s ource a nd t hus ,
1F or s o me o f t he sma l ler g roups o f a xes , t he s pec imens f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion a re i n c luded i n t he g enera l a na lys is i n o rder t o i n crease t he a va i lab le s amp le s i ze . H owever , i ne ach c ase where t h is i sd one , i ti sc l ear ly n ot ed .
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t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l .
H owever , i n mos t c ases , t o o f ew a xes a re
a va i lab le f r om e ach c on tex t f o r t h is a spect o ft he a na lys is t oh ave much mean ing .
Axes f r om Unknown C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
H ow t o p roceed i n t he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fe ach g roup w i l l d epend o n t he g enera l p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t w ere i d en t if ied among t he a xes . T hus , i fd if eren t morpho log i ca l c l asses o fa xes w ere i d en t if ied wh ich c ou ld b e i n t erpret ed a s d if erent u t i l i tar ian t ypes o r u t i l i ta r ian a nd n on u t i l i tar ian t ypes , s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty s hou ld b e i nves t igat ed s epara te ly f o r e ach t ype .
A l terna t ive ly , i ft he a xes w ere s een t o v ary p r ima r i ly i n s i ze ,
r ang ing a l ong a c on t inuum f r om l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes t o sma l l , r e -worked s pec imens , w i th n o e v idence o f d if eren t f unc t iona l t ypes , t hen s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n mor p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty c an b e i nves t iga ted f o r t he e n t ire s amp le . I n e i ther c ase , whe ther a l l o f t he a xes o f ag roup a re a na lyzed t ogether o r whe ther d i f f eren t t ypes o f a xes a re t r eat ed s epara te ly , t he i nvest iga t ion w i l l p ro ceed b y l o ok ing a t s pat ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a s r ef lec ted b y t he v ar iab le o fl e ng th .
I n o rder t o d o
t h is , e ach g roup o fa xes mus tb e d iv ided i n to g eog raph ica l s amp les . F or s ome g roups ( pa r t i cu la r ly t he sma l ler o nes ) , t he s amp les f o r a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i ns i ze v ar iab i l i ty w i l l b e b ased o n g eog raph ica l c l us ter ing .
F or o ther g roups ( mos t o f t he l a rger o nes ) , s i ze
v ar iab i l i ty o fa xes w i l l b e e xam ined i ns quares 5 0 km o n as i de b ased o n t he Na t iona l G r id ( s ee F ig . 7 .4 ) . D epend ing u pon s amp le s i ze , d if eren t a na ly t ica l t e chn iques w i l l b e a ppropr iat e . F or many g roups ( aga in , p ar t icu lar ly t he sma l ler o nes ) , s imp le t ab les s ummar iz ing a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i n d if eren t a reas o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e p resent ed .
F o r o ther s , d i stance
d ecay mode ls r e la t ing a xe l e ng th a nd d i s tan ce f r om t he s ource w i l l b e e xam ined . R egard l e ss o f t he a pproach t ha t i su t i l ized , t he b as i c p a t tern t ha t w i l l b e s ough t i s ap a t t ern o f
1 33
d ecrease i n mean l eng th o f a xes w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s ource .1 D epar tures f r om t h is g enera l p a t tern w i l l b e i d en t if ied a nd a t temp t s w i l l b e made t o a ccoun t f o r t hem i nt e rms o fo ther f actors .
T he F a ct ors o fI n tens i ty o fP reh is tor i c A ct iv ity a nd I n tens i ty o f Modern C o l lec t ing I n p rev ious c hapt ers , t wo i n t erre lat ed f a c tors w ere i d en t if ied wh ich m igh t a f f ec t t he mean l e ng ths o fa xes i n s amp les f r om d if eren t a reas i n ways t ha t a re u nre la ted t op ro ces s es o f a xe d i spersa l . T hese a re t he f a ct ors o fi n tens i ty o fp reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty a nd i n tens i ty o f modern c o l lec t ing . H ow t o q uan t ify t hese f ac tors s o t ha t t he ir e f ec t s c an b e a ssessed i s a ma jor p rob lem .
A n umber o f p o ten t ia l measures o f t he i n tens i ty o f p reh is tor ic a ct iv i ty
a nd /or modern c o l lect ing c an b e p roposed , b u t f o r v ar ious r easons , n one o ft hem i si d ea l . T he n umber a nd s i ze o f s i tes i n a n a rea c an b e p roposed a s a n i nd i ca tor o f p opu la t i on d ens i ty a nd i n t ens i ty o f p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty . o c cupa t ion s i tes a re n o tab ly r are .
H owever , f o r t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic ,
Mos t o ccupa t ion d ur ing t h is t ime a ppears t o b e
r epresen ted b y s ca t t ers o f s t one ( h ere mean ing p r imar i ly f l in t ) a r t ifac ts .2 F or t he s tudy a rea a s a who le , i n f orma t ion o n t he l o ca t ions o f s uch s i tes w ou ld h ave t ob e g l eaned f r om t he s i tes a nd monument s r ecords ma in ta ined b y e ach i nd iv idua l c oun ty .
E ven i ft he t ime
w ere t aken t o d o t h is , i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he r esu lt s w ou ld n o t t ru ly r ef lec t r e la t ive i n tens i ty o fp reh is tor i c a c t iv i ty i nd if eren t a reas d ue t op rob lems o fd if eren t ia l d es t ru c t ion o fs i tes . F or N eo l i th ic B r i ta in , o ther t ypes o f s i tes , i . e . , b ur ia l s i t es a nd c o mmuna l a c t iv i ty s i t es , a ppear t o b e more a bundan t t han o ccupa t ion s i t es .
W i th t he ir b anks , d i t ches , a nd
mounds t hey h ave b een more r es istan t t o d est ruc t ion a nd more e as i ly r ecogn ized t han o c cupa t ion s i tes . E ven s o , d es tru ct ion o f s o me o ft hese s i tes i sl i ke ly t o h ave o c curred a nd
1T h is p a t t ern w i l l b e s ough t among u t i l i tar ian o r g enera l p urpose a xes . n on -u t i l i tar ian , v a luab le a xes , s u ch a p a t t ern w ou ld n o tb e e xpec ted .
Among
2S ome o f t he b et ter k nown e xamp les o f a reas o f a pparen t ly i n tens ive a c t iv i ty o f t h i s s or tw i l l b e men t ioned i ns ubsequen t c hap ters .
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i sa n u nknown f a c tor . F ur thermore , a s ag enera l i nd i cat or o fp opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd i n ten s i ty o f p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty , d i s t r ibu t ions o f t hese s i tes may b e m is lead ing .
F or e xamp le ,
l o ng b arrows a re w e l l -known i n s ou thern E ng land ( i . e . , t he Wessex a rea ) a nd t he ir a bun d ance may b e r e la ted t o p opu la t ion d ens i ty i n t ha t a rea .
I n c on t ras t , f ew b ar rows h ave
b een f ound i n E as t Ang l ia , b u t f i nds o f a r t ifac t s o f v ar ious t ypes , i n c lud ing s t one a xes , i nd icat e ar e la t ive ly h igh l e ve l o fa c t iv i ty i n t ha t a rea . T he p resen ce o fc ommuna l a c t iv i ty s i tes , i . e . , c ausewayed e nc losures , h enges , a nd s t one c i r c les , a re l i ke ly t o b e r ef le ct ive o f s o c io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion , r a ther t han p opu la t ion d ens i ty a nd a c t iv i ty p er s e .
F ur ther -
more , i ti su nc lea r h ow t he l o ca t ions o f t hese s i t es , a nd a l so o f b ur ia l s i tes , r e lat e t o t he l o ca t ions o f o ccupa t ion s i tes a nd t he l o c i o f mos t i n tens ive a c t iv i ty .
I t may w e l l b e t ha t
t hese s pec ia l p urpose s i tes w ere l o ca ted away f r om t he o ccupa t ion a reas , i n l e ss i n t en s i ve ly u t i l ized a reas , e ven a t t he b oundar ies o fg roup t e rr i tor ies . T he n umbers o f a r t ifa ct s o f v ar ious t ypes c an a l so b e p roposed a s a n i nd ica t or o f i n tens i ty o f p reh ist or i c a ct iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lect ing . B es ides s t one a xeheads , ama jor c l ass o f a r t ifa c ts i n N eo l i th ic B r i ta in i sf l in t a rrowheads .
F l in t a rrowheads a re l i ke ly t o
h ave b een l o s t i n o f -s i te c on tex t s l i ke a xeheads , a nd i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha tt he n umbers o f t hese sma l l a r t ifa c t s a re more l i ke ly t o r ef lect i n t ens i ty o f p reh is tor i c a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing a cross t he e n t ire s tudy a rea t han a re a ny o f t he s i t e t ypes men t ioned a bove .
H owever , l i ke o bta in ing i n f orma t ion f o r o ccupa t iona l s ca t ters o f f l in t s , o b ta in ing
n umbers o f f l in t a rrowheads w ou ld a l so r equ ire c onsu l ta t ion o ft he r ecords o f e a ch c oun ty i nt he s tudy a rea .1 T he s t one a xe d a ta t hem se lves c an a l so b e p roposed a s a n i nd i ca tor o f i n tens i ty o f p reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l le c t ing .
T he a dvan tage o f t h is i st ha t d a ta f o r t he
e n t ire s tudy a rea a re r ead i ly a va i lab le i n t he p et ro logy l i s t s . p rob lems i n u s ing t hese d a ta c an b e i d en t if ied .
H owever , an umber o f
T he p et ro logy l i s t s , b y d ef in i t ion , i n c lude
' Green ( 1980 ) p resent s n umerous maps s how ing d i s tr ibu t ions o f N eo l i th ic f l in t a rrowheads o fv ar ious t ypes . H owever , t hese a re n o t d i rect ly u seab le i n t he p resen t c on t ex t .
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i n f orma t ion o n ly o n i mp lemen t s t ha t h ave b een e xam ined p e t ro log i ca l ly .
T he p ropor t ions
o f k nown s t one a xes t ha t h ave b een e xam ined i n t h is way v ary c ons iderab ly i n d if eren t a reas o fB r i ta in . T hus , i n Wessex a nd s ou thwestern E ng land , p e t ro log i ca l e xam ina t ion o f k nown s t one a xes i sn ea r 1 00% ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 ) . I n c on t ras t , f o r Y orksh i re o n ly a bou t 4 0% o ft he k nown s t one a xes h ave b een e xam ined ( Manby 1 979 :72 ) . F or o ther a reas , t he p ercen tages v ary b e tween t hese t wo e x t remes ( Moore 1 979 :83 , T ab le I ) . T hus , t he n um b ers o fs t one a xes o n t he p e t ro logy l i s t s d o n o t r ef lec t a c cura t e ly t he n umbers o fs t one a xes t ha t h ave b een r ecovered i nd if eren t a rea s . F ur thermore , f l in t a xes a re n o t , g enera l ly , i n c luded i nt he p e t ro logy l i s t s , s i n ce t hey c annot b e a t t r ibu ted t o s our ces t hrough p et ro log i ca l e xam ina t ion o f t h in s e c t ion s i n t he way t ha t a xes o f o ther ma t er ia ls c an .
I n a reas o f B r i ta in where g ood q ua l i ty f l in t wa s
a va i lab le ( e .g . , Wessex a nd E as t Ang l ia ) , f l in t a xes a re f a r more n umerous t han o ther s t one a xes , wh i le i n o ther a reas ( e .g . , t he s t one a xe s ource a reas a nd o ther a reas w i thou t f l in t s ources ) , t hey a re f a r l e ss a bundan t ( Manby 1 979 :71 , T ab le I ; Moore 1 979 :83 , T ab le I ) .
T hus , f o r at rue p i c ture o f p a t terns o f a xe d epos i t ion a nd r ecovery o ver t he e n t ire
s tudy a rea , f l in t a xes w ou ld h ave t o b e c ons idered a l ong w i th t hose o f o ther s t one mat er ia ls . T he t o ta l n umbers o fb o th f l in t a nd o ther s t one a xes t ha t h ave b een r ecovered w ou ld b e amore a ccura te i nd i cat or o f t he i n tens i t ies o fp reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l le c t ing , b u t s t i l l n o t a n i d ea l o ne .
I ts eems r easonab le t o a ssume v ar iab le r a tes o f a xe u se i nd i f -
f e ren t a rea s d epend ing u pon t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t a nd s ubs is tence p ra c t ices .
T h is
w ou ld r esu l t i nd if eren t n umbers o f a xes d epos i ted a nd r ecovered i nd i f f eren t a reas g iven t he s ame i n tens i t ies o fp reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing . T hus , t here i s p robab ly n o i d ea l way t o q uan t ify t he i n tens i t ies o f p reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l le ct ing , a l though t he b est way w ou ld p robab ly b e o ne t ha t r e la tes v ar ious c l asses o fi n f orma t ion , i . e . , d if eren tt ypes o fs i tes a nd d if eren t t ypes o fa r t ifa c t s .
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F or t he p resen t s tudy , w e mus t u se wha t i sa va i lab le—the n umbers o f s t one a xes t ha t h ave b een e xam ined p e t ro log i ca l ly—a lthough r e ma in ing m indfu l o ft he i na ccurac ies i n d o ing s o .
T he l o ca t ions o f a l l o f t he c o mp let e a xes o f b o th g rouped a nd u ngrouped
ma ter ia ls wh ich h ave b een e xam ined p et ro log ica l ly a re s hown i nF ig . 7 .5 . T he n umbers o f t hese a xes i n5 0 km g r id s quares a re s hown i nF ig . 7 .6 . I fw e a re p ropos ing t o u se t he r e la t ive d ens i ty o f s t one a xes a s a n i nd ica t or o f t he i n t ens i t ies o f p reh is t or i c a c t iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lect ing , a no ther p rob lem c an b e i d en t i f ied f r om F ig . 7 .6 . T h is i st ha t f o r s o me g r id s quares , t he l and t akes u p l e ss t han t he e n t i re s qua re . T hus , t he n umbers o fa xes i n t hose s qua res d o n o t r ef lec t t he r e la t ive d en s i t ies o fs tone a xe f i nds f o r t hose s qua res . T h is p rob lem c an b e a ddressed i n t he f olow ing way . F or t he p ar t ia l ly f i l led g r id s quares , t he a pprox ima te p ropor t ion o ft he s qua re wh ich i st aken u p b y l and was d et erm ined ( t hrough u se o f ag r idded o ve r lay ) .
B ased o n t h is
p ropor t ion , ac or rec ted n umber o f a xes was c a lcu lat ed ( F ig . 7 .7 ) . T he c orrec ted n umbers o fa xes r ef lec t t he r e la t ive d ens i t ies o fs t one a xes t ha t h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he g r id s quares a nd e xam ined p e t ro log icaly . F rom F ig . 7 .7 , i ti s a pparen t t ha t c er ta in a reas w ere t he f o c i o f more i n t ens ive p reh istor ic a ct iv i ty a nd /o r modern c o l lect ing t han s urround ing o nes .
I t wa s s ugges ted i n
C hapter V t ha t mean a xe l eng ths m igh tb e e xpect ed t ob e l ower i na reas o f more i n tens ive p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l le ct ing t han i n o ther a reas . T h is w ou ld b e r ef le cted b y a n i nverse r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he mean l eng th o f t he a xes a nd t he c or rect ed t o ta l n umber o f s t one a xes i ne a ch g r id s quare .
I fs u ch a p a t tern i si d en t if ied , t hen t he e f ect s
o f t hese f ac tors w i l l h ave t o b e c ons idered b ef ore i n t erpre t ing s i z e v a r iab i l i ty i n t e rms o f p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fd i spersa l .
I fn o s uch p a t tern i ss een , t hen s pa t ia l v a r iab i l i ty i n
a xe s i ze c an b e i n terpre ted i n t e rms o f g enera l p rocesses o f d i spersa l a nd o ther s ys tem ic f a c tors .
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O ther F a ctors I n p rev ious c hapt ers a n umber o f f a ct ors w ere i d en t if ied a s h av ing t he p oten t ia l t o i nf luence t he o pera t ion o f r eg iona l e xchange s yst ems a nd a f f ec t t he r esu lt ing d i s tr ibut ions o f g oods .
T hese i n c lude p opu la t ion d ens ity a nd d i st r ibu t ion , a l terna t ive s ources o f t he
s ame t ype o f g oods , s ources o f o ther e xchanged g oods , d if eren t modes o f t ranspor t , a nd s o c iopo l it ica l o rgan iza t ion . 1 Unf or tunate ly , most o f t hese f a ct ors c anno t b e q uan t if ied f o r t he B r i t ish N eo l ith ic c ase .
H owever , t he a va i lab le q ua l ita t ive i n f orma t ion w i l l b e u t i l ized
when a ppropr iat e , a nd i n stances where t hese f a c tors s eem t o h ave h ad o bservab le e f f ec ts w i l l b e n o ted .
1T he r e ma in ing f a ct or , t he t ype o f g oods b e ing e xchanged , i s b e ing c ons idered a t t he o u tset , s i nce s pat ia l p at tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l ity i sb e ing i nvest igated s epara te ly f o r d if erent t ypes o fa xes .
CHAPTER V I I I
THE CORN ISH GROUPS
I n t h is c hap ter , p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd p rocesses o f d i st r ibu t ion w i l l b e i nves t igat ed f o r g roups o f a xes t ha t a re a t tr ibut ed t o s our ces i n C ornwa l l . T hese i n c lude G roups I / Ia , I / I Ia , I I / I I Ia , I V / IVa , V , XV I , XV I I , a nd X IX ( s ee T ab le 1 . 1 a nd F ig . 1 . 1 ) . A c tua l q uar ry s i tes where r aw mat er ia l was o bta ined a nd p re l im inary s hap ing o f a xes wa s c arr ied o u t h ave n ot b een d i scovered f o r a ny o ft hese g roups . R eason s why s uch s i tes a re n o t l i ke ly t o b e f ound f o r b as ic i gneous r ocks , s u ch a s a l l o f t hese , wh ich w ou ld h ave b een w orked p r ima r i ly b y t he p eck ing t e chn ique , h ave b een e xp la ined b y C oope ( 1979 ) .
H owever , f o r e a ch o f t hese g roups , t he r ock ma ter ia l h as b een mat ched b y
s pec imens f r om f a ir ly r es t r ict ed l o ca l i t ies i n C ornwa l l , a nd i tc an b e a ssumed t ha t t he i mp lemen t s o ft hese mat er ia ls o r ig ina ted i nt hose a reas . T he p resen ce o f a xes , a nd p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s o f a xes , o f s evera l o f t he C orn ish g roups o n an umber o fE ar ly N eo l i th i c s i tes i n s ou thwes tern E ng land , a nd a l a ck o f s uch f i nds i n d emons t rab ly l a t er c on tex t s , i nd i ca t es t ha t a xes o ft hese ma t er ia ls w ere p roduced a nd d i st r ibut ed p r ima r i ly i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c p er iod .
T he a ssoc ia t ion o f s pec imens o f
G roups I V , I Va , XV I , a nd XV I I o n t he s i tes o f C am B rea ( Cornwa l l ) , Hembu ry , Hazard H i l l , a nd H igh P eak ( Devon ) , Hamb ledon H i l l a nd Ma iden C as t le ( Dorse t ) , a nd S ou th C ad b ury ( Somerse t ) h as b een r ev iewed , w i th r e levan t r ad iocarbon d a tes , b y Sm i th ( 1979 ) .1 I n a dd i t ion , a n a xe o f G roup Ha was f ound w e l l -s tra t if ied w i th a xes o f G roups I Va a nd XV I I a t H embury ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :249 ) .
Another a xe o f t h is mat er ia l was f ound a t
' See F ig . 8 .1 f o r t he l o ca t ions o ft hese a nd o ther s i tes men t ioned i nt h is c hapt er .
1 38
1 39
W indm i l l H i l l , W i ltsh ire ( i b id . ) , where i t s p resence c an b e l i nked w i th g abbro ic ware , at ype o ff i ne p ot tery a pparen t ly o r ig inat ing i n C ornwa l l , t ha t was a l so t raded among t hese E ar ly Neo l i th ic s i tes ( Peacock 1 969 ) . T here i sy et n o d i rect e v idence f o r d a t ing a xes o f G roup I . B ased o n t he e v idence t ha t a xes o fo ther ma in a nd s ub -g roups ( e .g . , Ia nd I a , I I a nd I la , I V a nd I Va ) w ere g enera l ly c ont emporary i n u sage , a xes o f G roup I c an t en ta t ive ly b e p laced i n t h is e ar ly c h rono log ica l p er iod a l ong w ith t hose o f G roup Ia .
A lthough a l l o f
t hese g roups a ppear t o h ave b een b road ly c ont emporary w i th in t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic , t he a ssoc ia t ion o f s pec imens o f G roups Ia , I Va , a nd XVI I o n f our th m i l lenn ium b c s i te o f H e mbury ( Sm ith 1 979 :17-18 ) s uggests t ha t e xp lo itat ion o f t hese mater ia ls may h ave b egun e ar l ier t han t ha t o ft he o thers . T here i ss o me e v idence f o r u se o f t hese g roups b eyond t he ma in p er iod o fo ccupat ion o ft he e ar ly s i tes , b u t i ti ss parse . F or e xamp le , af ragmen t o f aG roup I V a xe was f ound o n F loor 1 5 o f G r imes G raves f l in t m ine , Norf o lk , s uggest ing t ha t a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l may h ave c ont inued i n u se u nt i l t he e nd o ft he t h ird o r t he b eg inn ing o ft he s econd m i l len n ium b c ( Sm ith 1 979 :18 ) . F ur thermore , a n E ar ly B ronze Age b at t le -axe o ft h is g roup h as b een f ound , a s h ave a b a t t le -axe a nd a s haf tho le a dze o f G roup XV I I ( i b id . ) .
Wh i le t hese
i mp lements c ou ld b e i n t erpre ted a s e v idence o f c ont inued u se o f t hese g roups t hroughou t t he Neo l ith ic p er iod , i ts eems more l i ke ly , i n v i ew o ft he ir s carc i ty a nd t he r e la t ive ly a bun d an t o ccurrences o f a xes o f t hese mater ia ls i n e ar ly c on text s , t ha t t hey r epresen t l a ter s porad ic r e -use o fp rev ious ly e xp lo it ed s ources , o r p oss ib ly i nt he c ase o fG roup XVI I , l a t er u se o f ad if erent s ource o ft he s ame mat er ia l ( i b id ) . F rom r ecent e xcava t ions a t C am nB rea c o mes e v idence f o r e ar ly u se o f G roup I ma ter ia l ( Sm ith 1 979 :17 ) .
However , t he r e la t ive ly sma l l n umber o f G roup I s pec imens
f ound o n t h is s i te a nd t he a bsence o fa xes o ft h is mat er ia l o n t he o ther e ar ly s i tes i nd ica tes t hat t h is s ource was o n ly o fm inor , l o ca ll i mpor tance i n t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic .
I n c on tras t ,
' The s i te o f C am B rea i s l o ca ted o n ly a bou t 2 0 km f r om t he p resumed s ource o f G roup Imater ia l i nt he Moun t 's B ay a rea ( Sm ith 1 979 :17 ) .
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n umerous a ssoc ia t ions o fG roup I( and I a ) a xes w i th G rooved Ware p ot tery i n Wessex a nd E ssex a nd w i th c eremon ia l monumen ts i n Wi l tsh ire wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t he L a test Neo l ith ic ( i b id . ; E vens e t a l . 1 972 :253 ) a t test t o t he g enera l ly l a t e d a te o f t he ma jor e xp lo itat ion o ft h is s ource . T h is i sf ur ther c onf i rmed b y t he e x istence o f an umber o f s haf t ho le i mp lements o ft h is ma ter ia l wh ich c orrespond i n d i str ibut ion t o t he b u lk o f t he a xes ( Sm ith 1 979 :18 ) . Another o f t he C orn ish g roups , G roup I I / II Ia c an a l so b e d a ted t o t he l a t es t p hase o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod .
Two f ragmen ts o f G roup I I a xes i n c ontex t a t S tonehenge w ere
p robab ly d epos ited i n t he l a te t h ird o r e ar ly s econd m i l lenn ium b c ( Sm ith 1 979 :18 ) , a nd a l a rge b u t d amaged a xe o f G roup Ma f r om G reenwe l l 's P i t a t G r imes G raves c an b e a ss igned a d ate o f 1 830± 1 30 b c ( ob ta ined f r om a n a nt ler f ound i n t he p i t ; C lough a nd G reen 1 972 :133 ) .
I n a dd it ion , ac oup le o f b a t t le -axes o f G roup I I ma ter ia l a re k nown
( Sm ith 1 979 :18 ; R oe 1 979 :41 ) . On ly t wo o ft he C orn ish g roups r e ma in t o b e c ons idered i n t e rms o fc hrono logy . O f G roup X IX , a sma l l n umber o f a xes a nd s haf tho le i mp le men ts a re k nown . i mp lements i nd ica te u se o f t h is ma ter ia l i n t he L a tes t Neo l ith ic . a xes c an b e s ecure ly d a ted .
E vens e t a l .
T he s haf tho le
However , n one o f t he
( 1972 :256-57 ) c onc luded t ha t t h is g roup
r epresen ts a s ource t ha t was b e ing u sed s porad ica l ly o ver a l ong p er iod o ft ime . O fG roup V , o n ly o ne c o mp lete a xe i s k nown a nd t ha t was a s t ray f i nd . g roup i s i mposs ib le a t t he p resen t t ime .
T heref ore d a t ing o f t h is
B ecause G roups V a nd X IX c o mpr ise v ery f ew
a xes a nd c annot b e d a ted , t hey w i l l n o tb e c ons idered f ur ther i nt h is i nvest iga t ion . I n s ummary , t he C orn ish g roups c an b e d iv ided o n t he b as is o fc hrono logy i n to t hose t ha t w ere u sed p r imar i ly i n t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic a nd t hose t ha t w ere u sed p r imar i ly i n t he L atest Neo l i th ic .
( None o f t he C orn ish g roups a ppear t o h ave b een u sed p r imar i ly i n t he
e ar l ier p hase o f t he L a te Neo l ith ic . ) T he e ar ly C orn ish g roups a re G roups I / I Ia , I V / IVa , XV I , a nd XV I I wh i le t he l a ter C orn ish g roups a re G roups Ma , a nd
O f t he e ar ly
g roups , G roup XV I i st he most a bundant , f o l lowed b y G roups I V / IVa , I / I Ia , a nd XV I I . S o
1 41
f ew c o mp lete a xes o f t he l a t ter t wo g roups a re k nown t ha t a na lys is o f p a t terns o f mor p ho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i st r ibu t ion
a s p rescr ibed i n C hapter V I I i s n ot f eas ib le .
T heref ore , o ft he e ar ly C orn ish g roups , o n ly G roups XV I a nd I V / IVa w i l l b e c ons idered i n d eta i l . O ft he l a ter C orn ish g roups , G roup I / Ia i sb y f ar t he most a bundan t , b e ing n ot o n ly t he most a bundan t C orn ish g roup b u t a l so t he s econd most a bundan t g roup i n t he e nt ire d ata s e t .
I n c ont rast , a xes o f G roup I I / I I Ia a re r e lat ive ly r are a nd s o w i l l n ot b e c on -
s i dered f urther .
B ecause a xes o f G roups XV I a nd I V / IVa w ere l a rge ly c on temporary a nd
l a rge ly r estr ic ted t o t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic , t hey w i l l b e d i scussed f i rst . s i ve a na lys is o f a xes o f G roup I / Ia w i l l b e p resented .
T hen a c o mprehen -
C ompar ison o f r esu l ts o f t he
a na lyses o f t he e ar ly g roups a nd G roup I / Ia w i l l a l low a ssessmen t o f a ny c hanges i n p rocesses o f e xchange a nd p a t terns o f h uman i n t erac t ion t ha t may h ave t aken p lace b etween t he E ar ly N eo l ith ic a nd t he L at est N eo l i th ic .
G roup XV I
Axes o f G roup XV I mat er ia l , wh ich s ee ms l i ke ly t oh ave o r ig ina ted i n t he v i c in i ty o f C amborne , C ornwa l l ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :220 ) , a ccoun t f o r o n ly 1 . 9% o ft he g rouped a xes i n t h is d ata s et . However ,
e y a ccount f o r o ver 4 1% o ft he t o ta l n umber o fa xes o ft he e ar ly
C orn ish g roups . The l o cat ions o f a l l o f t he c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef erences a re s hown i n F ig . 8 .2 . 1 On t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t most o f t he c o mp le te G roup XV I a xes a re c oncen tra ted i n t hree ma jor a reas o f s outhwest ern E ng land : western C ornwa l l , i n wh ich t he p resumed s ource o ft he r aw ma ter ia l i sl o ca ted ; s ou th D evon ; a nd t he Wessex a rea . T hese a re t he s ame g enera l a reas i n wh ich t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic s i tes a re c l us tered ( c f . F ig . 8 .1 ) . On ly a f ew a xes o fG roup XV I h ave b een f ound f ur ther away f r om t he s ource , a nd t hese w ere f ound i n w ide ly s ca tt ered l o ca l i t ies . A h i s -
' In a dd i t ion , u nprovenanced c o mp le te a xes o f t h is mat er ia l h ave b een r eport ed f r om t he c ount ies o fD orset a nd S taf f ordsh ire a nd f r om t he R iver T hames .
1 42
t og ram o f t he d i stan ces f r om t he s our ce a t wh ich c o mp let e a xes o f G roup XV I h ave b een f ound ( F ig . 8 .3 ) c l ear ly i nd ica tes t he t hree ma jor c oncen tra t ions o ft hese a xes a nd t he f ew d i stan t ly l o ca t ed s pe c imens . I n h i s a na lys is o fp a t t erns o fr e la t ive f r equen cy o fa xes o fv a r ious g roups , C umm in s n ot ed t ha t a xes o f G roup XV I a re mos t a bundan t i n t he a rea a round t he s ource a nd i n creas ing ly l e ss a bundan t i n a reas f ur ther f r om i t( Cumm ins 1 979 :8 , F ig . 4 a ) . H e i n t er p ret ed t h is p a t tern a s i nd ica t ing t ha t G roup XV I a xes w ere d i st r ibu ted o u tward f r om t he s ource , b u t h e a dm i t t ed u ncer ta in ty a bou t t he me chan ism t hrough wh i ch t h is w as a ccomp l ished ( i b id . :7 ) .
I n t h is i nves t iga t ion o f G roup XV I a xes , e v idence o f s pa t ia l p a t -
t e rn ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty wh ich may r ef lec t p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l w i l l b e s ough t .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log i ca l Var iab i l i ty
O bserva t ions i n t he l i t era ture o n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes s ugges t t ha t t he p rodu ct s o ft h is s ource a re c hara ct er ized b y ag enera l u n if orm i ty i n s hape ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :65 ) . s ec t ions ( i b id . ) .
T hey a re t yp ica l ly l o ng a xes w i th g enera l ly o va l c r oss -
S ome v ar iab i l i ty i n b u t t f o rm h as b een n oted ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :221 ) .
H owever , i tc an b e o bserved t ha t among t he t o ta l s amp le o f G roup XV I a xes , b u t t f o rm v ar ies a l ong a c on t inuum , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he more b lun t f o rms o f b u t t , p a r t i cu lar ly t he " square" f o rm , e xemp l if ied b y S omer . 1 0 ( i b id . :222 , F ig . 3 ,# 63 ) , a nd p erhaps t he " round" f o rm , e xemp l if ied b y D orse t 9 ( i b id . :#57 ) , r epresen t r e -worked b u t t s o f d amaged o r b roken a xes r a ther t han i n it ia l ly p rodu ced b u t tf o rms . Among t he t wen ty three G roup XV I a xes f o r wh ich Io b ta ined morpho log i ca l d a ta , t hree i mp lement s w i th e xpanded b lades w ere i d en t if ied .1
One o f t hese i s E ssex
1 1
( F ig . 8 .4b ) , al a rge s pec imen w ith a n a symme t r ic s hape a nd a r a ther r ough s urfa ce wh i ch
1I n
a dd i t ion , p ar t o fa n a xe o f G roup XV I ( Le i c . 4 0 ) h as b een r eport ed b y Moore a nd C umm ins ( 1974 :65 ) a s e xh ib i t ing a n e xpanded b lade .
1 43
s ugges t t ha t i t may b e u nf in ished a nd /or d amaged b y d i sso lut ion o f t he s urfa ce m inera ls . T he o bservab le s l igh t e xpans ion i n t he b lade a rea may b e r e lat ed t o t hese a spec t s o f t he i mp lemen t 's morpho logy r a ther t han t o ad e l ibera te a t t emp t t o p roduce a n a xe w i th a n e xpanded b lade . T he
o ther
t wo
S omer . 1 0 ( F ig . 8 .4f ) .
i mp lemen t s
e xh ib i t ing
e xpanded
b lades
a re
D evon 1 00 1 a nd
T hese a re b oth v ery s ma l l a xes , a lmos t c er ta in ly r e -worked f r om
l a rger o nes , a s w i l l b e s een b e low .
I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he b lade e xpans ion e xh ib it ed b y
t hese i mp lemen t s was a cqu ired d ur ing t he r e -work ing p rocess , b u t whe ther i t was d e l ibera te o r a cc iden ta l i s u ncer ta in .
I f t he e xpanded b lades o f t hese i mp lemen t s d o
r epresen t d e l iberate a t temp t s t o emu la te meta l a xes w i th e xpanded b lades , t hen t he r e w ork ing o ft hese a xes must h ave t aken p la ce d ur ing al a ter t ime p er iod t han t he p resumed p r imary p hase o fG roup XV I a xe u se i nt he E ar ly N eo l i th ic . W i th r espect t o t h is p oss ib i l i ty , t he sma l ler o f t hese t wo i mp lemen t s , S omer . 1 0 , mer i t s s pec ia l c o mmen t .
I te xh ib i t s an umber o f f ea tures wh ich s ugges t t ha t p erhaps i t
s hou ld n o t b e r egarded a s a n a xe a t a l l , a l though i ta ppears t o h ave b een p rodu ced b y r e w ork ing o ne .
F irs t o f a l l , t he b lade o ft h is i mp lemen t i sv ery r ounded a nd i sc er ta in ly t o o
b lun t t o f unc t ion e f f e ct ive ly a s au t i l i tar ian a xe .
S econd ly , i ts ee m s l i ke ly t ha t t he s hor t ,
b road , t h ick b u t t w ou ld h ave made s ecure h af t ing d if i cu l t . F ina l ly , t he s i de e dges o ft he i mp lemen t a re b road ly b eve led a nd s l igh t ly c on cave .
B eve led e dges a re s een o n n o o ther
G roup XV I a xe , a nd t he c on cav i ty o f t he s i des s eems more c l ose ly r e la t ed t o f ea tures o f c er ta in s haf tho le i mp lemen t s t han t o t yp i ca l f ea tures o f a xes .
T hese d eta i ls a re f ur ther
e v iden ce t ha t t h is s pec imen r epresen t s al a ter r e -work ing o f aG roup XV I a xe , a nd i t s eems l i ke ly t ha t i tr epresen t s s o me s or t o fs ymbo l i c o b ject , r a ther t han au t i l i tar ian i mp le men t . I n o rder t o i nves t iga te g enera l p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f a ny g roup , i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he i d ea l p rocedure i st o c ons ider i n i t ia l ly a s amp le
1N o t
i lust ra ted h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p et ro logy r e cord c a rd d raw ing .
1 44
o f a xes f ound c l ose t o t he s ource , o n t he a ssumpt ion t ha t t hese w ou ld b e mos t l i ke ly t o r ef lec t t he r ange o fv ar iab i l i ty among a xes p roduced a tt he s ource a nd l e ast l i ke ly t or ef lec t v ar iab i l i ty r e la ted t o r e -work ing o fa xes i n d i f f eren t l o ca l a reas a t v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s ource .
F or G roup XV I , t he a xes f ound i nw estern C ornwa l l , w ith in a 5 0 km r ad ius o f
t he p resumed s ource o ft he r aw mater ia l , c an s erve a s s uch a s amp le . Unf or tunate ly , o n ly t hree c o mp lete a xes o f t h is mat er ia l h ave b een f ound i n t h is a rea ( s ee F ig . 8 .2 ) .
T hese
a xes , C orn . 2 45 ,1 C orn . 2 46 ( F ig . 8 .4c ) , a nd C orn . 1 42 ( F ig . 8 .4d ) , a re a l l r e la t ive ly l a rge , w i th l eng ths o f2 10 mm , 1 76 mm , a nd 1 62 mm , r espect ive ly . F or f ur ther e v idence o f t he s i zes o f G roup XV I a xes o r ig ina l ly p roduced i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s ource , t he s i zes o fe l even a xe r oughou t s f ound i n t h is a rea ( F ig . 8 . 5 ) c an b e c ons idered . T hese r oughou ts r ange i nl e ng th f r om 1 51 mm t o 3 24 mm , a nd ah i st og ram o f t hese measuremen t s ( F ig . 8 .6 ) i nd ica tes t ha t f our d if eren t s i zes o fr oughou t s c an b e i d en t i f ied .
T h is s ugges ts t ha t f our s i zes o f G roup XV I a xes may h ave b een p rodu ced a t t he
s ource a nd t ha t G roup XV I a xes w ith l eng ths l e ss t han a pprox ima te ly 1 50 mm p robab ly h ave b een r e -worked f r om l a rger s pec imens . On s ca t ter p l ot s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts o f t he G roup XV I r oughou ts a nd c o mp let e a xes f ound i n t he s ource a rea ( F ig . 8 .7 ) , t he f our s i zes o f r oughouts c an b e s een .
I n a dd i t ion , i ti s a pparen t t ha t t he t hree a xes f ound i n t he
s ource a rea c orrespond w i th r oughouts o f t he t wo sma l ler s i zes .
However , i n t he sma l l
s amp le o fn ear -source s pec imens , n o a xes c orrespond ing w ith t he l a rger s i zes o fr oughou t s , n or a ny sma l ler , p resumab ly r e -worked a xes , a re p resen t . When a l l o ft he k nown c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes a re s hown w i th t he r oughouts o n s cat ter p l ots o fl eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s ( F ig . 8 .8 ) , t he p i c t ure i s more c o mp le te . Among t he G roup XV I a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource a re more a xes g enera l ly c orrespond ing w ith t he t wo sma l ler s i zes o fr oughouts , a s w e l l a s s pec imens c orrespond ing w i th t he t wo l a rger s i zes o fr oughou ts , a nd a l a rge n um -
1N o t
i lustra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
1 45
b e r o f a xes t ha t a re c ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han a ny o f t he k nown r oughou t s .
T h is c on -
f i gura t ion o f a xe a nd r oughou t s i zes s uggest s t ha t f i ve c l asses o f G roup XV I a xes may b e p resen t i nt h is s amp le : f our moda l s i zes o fo r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes a nd ag enera l g roup o f r e -worked a xes .1
E xamp les o f a xes i n e a ch o f t hese s i ze c l asses a re i lus t ra t ed i n
F ig . 8 .4 . C onf i rma t ion o f t he i n tu i t ive s i ze c l asses o f G roup XV I a xes a nd e v idence o f t he e x isten ce o fo ther morpho log ica l c l asses ( f or e xamp le , w i th in t he g enera l g roup o f sma l ler , p resumab ly r e -worked a xes ) c an b e s ough t t hrough t he u se o f more s oph ist i cat ed a na ly t i c a l t e chn iques . H is tog rams o f v a lues o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i n F ig . 8 .9 f o r t he c o mp le te G roup XV I a xes f o r wh i ch t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le .
A lmos t a l l o f
t hese d i s t r ibu t ions a re mu l t i -moda l , s uggest ing t he p resence o f d if eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o f a xes i n t h is s amp le .
I n p a r t icu lar , t he h i st og ram o f l eng th measuremen t s
c l ear ly s ugges t s t he p resence o fs evera l moda l s i zes o fa xes . Ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup XV I a xes f o r wh ich
a l l
o f t hese
measure men t s
a re
a va i lab le
r e la t ionsh ips among many o f t he v a r iab les .
( F ig .
8 .10 )
i nd i ca tes
v ery
s t rong
I n p a r t i cu la r , c or re la t ions g rea ter t han + .9
c an b e o bserved b e tween t he v ar iab les o f max imum w idth a nd c en ter w id th a nd b e tween t he v ar iab les o f max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h ickness , i nd i ca t ing t ha t t he v ar iab les i n t hese p a irs a re e ssent ia l ly r edundan t measures o ft he s ame a spec t s o f a xe s i ze . B ecause o f t h is , t he v a r iab les o f c en ter w idth a nd c ent er t h i ckness w ere om i t ted f r om f u r ther c on s i dera t ion .2
1. kmong t he l a t t er , t he p rob lema t i c s pec imen , S omer . 1 0 , i s c l ear ly i d en t if iab le a s t he sma l les t i mp lemen t i nt he s amp le . 2A c or re la t ion g reat er t han + .9 c an a l so b e o bserved b e tween t he v a r iab les o f l e ng th a nd l e ng th /w idth r a t io . H owever , t hese v ar iab les t heore t i ca l ly r ef lect q u i t e d if eren t c hara c ter is t ics o f a xes , n ame ly , s i ze a nd t he s hape o f t he a xe i n f a ce v i ew , r espec t ive ly . B e cause o ft h i s , i ts eems l og ica l t o i n c lude b o th o ft hese v ar iab les i n s ubsequen t s tages o f t he a na lys is , i ns p i te o ft he v ery h igh c orre la t ion b e tween t he m .
1 46
T he r e ma in ing s even v ar iab les w ere t hen s ub jected t o ap r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is i n o rder t o d et erm ine t he ma jor d imens ions o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l ity among t hese a xes .
T h is a na lys is ( Tab le 8 .1 ) y i e lded t wo s i gn if i can t c omponen ts .
T he f i rs t o f
t hese r ef lect s v ar ia t ion among t he a xes i ng enera l s i ze a nd i n s hape i nb oth f a ce a nd p rof i le v i ews , wh i le t he s econd r ef lec t s v ar ia t ion i nc ross -sec t iona l s hape . A h i st og ram o f t he c omponen t s cores o f t he f i rs t p r inc ipa l c omponen t ( F ig . 8 .11 , PC .1 ) i nd ica tes t ha t among t he a xes i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is' a re a r e la t ive ly l a rge n umber o f sma l l a xes ( w i th n ega t ive s cores ) , a sma l ler n umber o f l a rger a xes ( w i th l ow p os i t ive s cores ) , a nd a s i ng le v ery l a rge a xe ( w i th t he h ighes tp os i t ive s core ) . Ah i st og ram o f t he c o mponen t s cores o f t he s econd p r inc ipa l c o mponen t ( F ig . 8 .11 , PC .2 ) i nd ica tes t he p resence o f s evera l r e la t ive ly t h ick a xes ( w i th n ega t ive s c ores ) a nd o ne r e la t ive ly t h in a xe ( w i th t he h ighest p os i t ive s core ) , a l though mos to ft he a xes f a l l i na n i n termed ia te p os i t ion . A s ca t t er p l o t o f t he c o mponen t s cores o f t he t wo p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s ( F ig . 8 .12 ) i nd ica tes t he v ar iab i l i ty i ns i ze a nd s hape t ha t i sp resen t among t hese a xes . I n p ar t icu la r , an umber o fo ut l iers c an b e s een a round t he e dges o ft he p l o t a s w e l l a s g enera l c l uster s o f a xes i n t he m idd le . A t t he t op o f t he p l o t o f p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s cores l i es D evon 1 6 ,2 t he l a rges t o f t he G roup XV I a xes a nd t ru ly a u n ique s pec imen . N o t o n ly i si tc ons iderab ly l a rger t han t he o ther a xes , b u t i ti ss ymme t r i ca l i ns hape , am inera l v e in i nt he r o ck n ea r t he c en ter o f t he a xe h as b een c arefu l ly smoothed , p robab ly t o e nhance t he a ppearan ce o f t he i mp le men t , a nd t here i sn o e v idence o fu se w ea r o n t he b lade . T hese f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t h is a xe was s pec if i ca l ly p roduced a s av a luab le , n on -u t i l i tar ian , c eremon ia l i t em .
" One o r more measu remen t s w ere u nknown f o r s evera l o f t he c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes , s o o n ly s i x teen o ft hem c ou ld b e i n c luded i nt he p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . 2A l though measured a nd d rawn b y me , t h is i mp le men t i s n o t i lus tra ted h ere . p ho tog raph o fi ta ppears i nP ear ce 1 979 .
A
1 47
N ex t t o D evon 1 6 , t he t wo l a rges t a xes o f G roup XV I a re L ond . " 123" 1 a nd D evon 5 3 ( c f . F ig . 8 . 12 a nd F ig . 8 .8 ) . T he l a rger o f t hese t wo a xes , L ond . " 123" , i s n o t i ceab ly l e ss s ymme t r ica l i n s hape t han D evon 1 6 , b u t v e ins i n t he mat er ia l h ave b een p o l ished ( Adk ins a nd J a ckson 1 978 :44 ) , a nd t he b lade i s" b lun t b u t u ndamaged" ( i b id . ) , a c ond i t ion wh ich p robab ly i nd ica t es l a ck o f i n i t ia l f i ne s harpen ing .
T hese f ea tures s ugges t
t ha t t h is a xe may a l so h ave b een p rodu ced a s an on -ut i l i tar ian , v a luab le i t em .
A l though
s im i la r i n l e ng th t o L ond . " 123" , D evon 5 3 ( F ig . 8 .4a ) i sr e la t ive ly t h inner ( c f . F ig . 8 .8b ) a nd h as a mu ch f l a t ter c ross -se c t ion t han a ny o ft he o ther c omp le te G roup XV I a xes ( i nd i c a ted b y t he h ighes t s c ore i nt he s econd p r in c ipa l c o mponen t ) . T h i s c ha rac ter is t ic o fD evon 5 3 s ugges t s t ha t i t , t o o , may h ave b een s pe c if i ca l ly p rodu ced a s an on -u t i l i ta r ian , v a luab le i t em . T oward t he c en ter o ft he p l o t o fp r in c ipa l c o mponen t s c ores ( F ig . 8 .12 ) i s ac l u ster o f f ou r r e la t ive ly l a rge a xes .
T h is g roup i n c ludes i mp lemen t s i n t he t wo c l ust ers o f s ma l ler
l a rge a xes s een i n F ig . 8 .8 .2 T hese a xes a ppea r t o r epresen t t he more t yp ica l p rodu c t s o f t he G roup XV I s our ce .
T he sma l ler o nes , w i th l eng ths r ang ing f r om 1 53 mm t o 1 76
mm , c an p robab ly b e i n terpre ted a s g enera l ized u t i l i tar ian a xes .
T h is i n terpreta t ion i s
s ugges ted b y e v iden ce o f d amage t o t he b lade o f e a ch o f t hese i mp lemen t s , 3 wh ich a t tes t s t o t he i r h av ing b een u sed .
I n terpreta t ion o f t he l a rge r a xes , w i th l e ng ths r ang ing
f r om 1 95 mm t o 2 10 mm , i sl e ss c er ta in b ecause p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing s h ad t ob e r e l ied u pon f o r t hree o u t o ft he f our a xes a nd t he f our th i st he p rob lema t i c a xe , E ssex 1 1
1T h is i s n o t a n of i c ia l i d en t if i ca t ion n umber o f t he CBA I mp lemen t P et ro logy C om m i t tee , b u tr a ther an umber Ih ave a ss igned f o r p urposes o fi d en t if i ca t ion i nt h is i nvest iga t i on . A c tua l ly , t h is i mp lemen t i s F 87 o f S tan ley 1 976 ( s ee P la te 2 , # 87 ) a nd # 255 o f A dk ins a nd J a ckson 1 978 ( s ee i lus t ra t ion i nb a ck o fb ook ) . 2A 1 1 o f t he a xes r epresen ted i n F ig . 8 .12 a re s een i n F ig . 8 .8b . S evera l a dd i t iona l a xes wh i ch c ou ld n o t b e i n c luded i n t he p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is b ecause o fm iss ing t h ickness measuremen t s a re s hown i nF ig . 8 .8a . 3S ee F ig . 8 .4c f o r C orn . 2 46 ; F ig . 8 .4d f o r C orn . 1 42 ; a nd S tan ley 1 976 :11 , P la te 2 , # 59 f o r L ond . " 122" ; S omer . 3 5 was measured a nd d rawn b y me , b u t i sn o t i lus t rat ed h ere .
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( F ig . 8 .4b ) . B ased o n t he ir i n termed iat e p os it ion b etween a xes t ha t w ere a lmost c erta in ly u t i l i tar ian a nd o thers t ha t may h ave b een p roduced a s n on -u t i l i tar ian , v a luab le g oods , t hese i mp lemen ts c ou ld r epresen t l a rge -s ized u t i l i tar ian a xes , v ary ing f r om t he sma l ler o nes d ue t o p ref erences o f i nd iv idua l a xe makers o r d if eren t i n tended u ses o r d if eren t s i zes o f b l ocks o f r aw mater ia l a va i lab le a t t he s ource , o r t hey m igh t r epresent d ua l p urpose i mp lemen ts wh ich c ou ld f unct ion a s e i ther v a luab le i t ems o r u t i l itar ian t oo ls . L y ing i n a n i n termed ia te p os it ion b etween t he l a rge o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd a c l ust er o f sma l ler a xes i n b o th F ig . 8 .12 a nd F ig . 8 .8 i s C ambs . 1 08 .1 T h is i mp lemen t h as t he l owest s core o f a l l t he a xes i n t he s econd p r inc ipa l c o mponent , i nd icat ing a more r ounded c ross -sect iona l s hape .
Ib e l ieve t h is c an b e a ccoun ted f o r i n t he f o l low ing way .
T he s hape o f t he b lade o f t h is a xe s uggests t hat i t was r e -ground .
I n a l l o f t he l a rger
G roup XV I a xes , t he s hape b ecomes more c on ica l , w ith a more n ear ly r ound c ross -sect ion , t oward t he b ut t . I ft he b lade o f s uch a n a xe w ere r e -g round , t he c enter o f t he i mp lemen t w ou ld b e c l oser t o t he b ut t a nd t hus , t he c entra l c ross -sect ion w ou ld b e more n ear ly r ound t han i na n o r ig ina l ly -produced a xe . T he f i na l o u t l ier o n t he s ca t ter p l o t o f p r inc ipa l c o mponent s cores ( F ig . 8 .12 ) h as v ery l ow s cores i n b oth d imens ions .
T h is sma l l , r e la t ive ly t h ick i mp lemen t i s S o mer . 1 0
( F ig . 8 .40 wh ich h as a l ready b een i n t erpreted a bove a s ap robab le l a t er r e -work ing o f a G roup XV I a xe . Among t he g enera l g roup o f sma l l a xes wh ich c an b e s een i n b oth F ig . 8 .12 a nd F ig . 8 .8 ,2 c ons iderab le v ar iab i l ity i n s hape i s a pparen t ( e spec ia l ly i n F ig . 8 .12 ) .
T h is i s
t o b e e xpected among i mp lemen ts wh ich s eem l i ke ly t o h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e s harpen ing o r r e -work ing d amaged o r b roken a xes b y d if eren t p eop le i n d if eren t a reas a t d if eren t d i stances f r om t he s ource .
1N o t
i lust ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2F or most o f t hese i mp lements , p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r i n f orma t ion o n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty .
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I n s ummary , t h is i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among G roup XV I a xes h as r evea led t wo ma jor c l asses o f a xes :
l a rge a xes o f t he s i zes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly
p roduced f r om r oughout s a t t he s ource a nd sma l l a xes t ha t r epresent t he r esu l ts o f r e w ork ing l a rger a xes .
Among t he l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes , s evera l a dd it iona l s i ze
c l asses w ere i d ent if i ed .
T he a xes i n t hese c l asses r ange f r om a s i ng le h uge s pec imen
( l eng th = 3 10 mm ) wh ich s eems l i ke ly t o h ave b een p roduced a s as t r ict ly n on -ut i l itar ian , v a luab le i t em , t hrough o ther v ery l a rge a xes ( l eng th = 2 33-244 mm ) wh ich may a l so h ave b een p roduced a s v a luab le g oods , a nd sma l ler b u t s t i l l q u ite l a rge a xes ( l eng th = 1 95-210 mm ) wh ich may h ave b een d ua l -purpose i mp lemen ts o r s imp ly l a rge -s ized u t i l i tar ian a xes , t o t he sma l lest o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes ( l eng th = 1 53-176 mm ) wh ich a ppear t o h ave b een t he t yp ica l u t i l i tar ian p roducts o f t he s ource .
Among t he sma l l ,
p resumab ly r e -worked a xes ( l eng th < 1 50 mm ) , c ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity was o bserved .
T h is i s e xact ly wha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted among i mp lement s p roduced
t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing o fl a rger a xes i n d if erent l o ca l a reas a t v ary ing d i s t ances f r om t he s ource .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l ity a nd D istr ibut ion
I n t e rms o fs pa t ia l p at tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes , i t was b r ief ly n o ted a bove t ha t o n ly l a rge a xes o fs i zes o r ig ina l ly p roduced a tt he s ource w ere f ound i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he s ource , wh i le b oth l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l l , r e -worked a xes were f ound i n a reas f ur ther a f i e ld .
B ef ore i nvest igat ing t h is
g enera l p at tern f ur ther a nd c ons ider ing i t s i mp l ica t ions i n t e rms o fd i str ibu t ion p rocesses , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes f r om s pec if i c c on text s o f d epos it ion must b e d i scussed .
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Axes f r om S pec if i c C ont ext s o fD epos it ion
O ft he r e la t ive ly sma l l n umber o f c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes i n t he t o ta l d a ta s et , a s urpr is ing ly l a rge p roport ion c an b e a t t r ibuted t o s pec if i c c ontexts o fd epos it ion ( Tab le 8 .2 ) . Most o f t hese a xes h ave b een f ound i n a pparen t o ccupa t ion c ont ext s , a l though s evera l h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
No c o mp le te G roup XV I a xes h ave b een
r ecovered f r om b ur ia l o r r i tua l s i tes o r f ound a ssoc iated w i th o ther a xes .
O ccupat ion C ontext s O f t he g roup o f E ar ly Neo l ith ic o ccupa t ion s i tes i n s outhwes tern Eng land o n wh ich a xes o f t he e ar ly C orn ish g roups h ave b een f ound ( Sm ith 1 979 :17 ) , t he s i te o f C am nB rea i sc l osest t o t he p resumed s ource o fG roup XV I mater ia l , l y ing o n ly a bout 4 km away . I t h as b een s uggest ed t ha t t h is s i te was t he p r imary " d istr ibut ion c enter" f o r a xes o f t h is g roup ( Mercer 1 975 :36 ) .
Unf or tunat e ly , n o c o mp lete a xes o f G roup XV I h ave b een f ound
o n t h i s s i te , a l though t he p resence o f n umerous r oughou t s a nd b roken a xes c l ear ly i nd i c ates t ha t t he i nhab itan ts w ere t he p r imary p roducers a nd u sers o fa xes o ft h is ma ter ia l . F ur ther e as t i n s outh D evon , t wo c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes h ave b een f ound o n t he E ar ly Neo l i th i c o ccupa t ion s i te o f Hazard H i l l .
One o f t hese , D evon 2 9 , i s al a rge a xe o f
t he s i ze c l ass wh ich i n c ludes i mp lement s t ha t may h ave b een d ua l -purpose o r s imp ly l a rge s i zed u t i l i tar ian a xes . T he r ather u neven o u t l ine o f t he b lade i n t he p ub l ished d raw ing o f t h is a xe ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :222 , F ig . 3 , # 668 ) s uggests t hat i t was , a t l east p ar t ly , u t i l i tar ian i n f unct ion .
T he o ther a xe , D evon 5 0 , i s a sma l l i mp le men t w i th a d amaged
b ut t a nd ab lade t ha t may h ave b een r e -sharpened .1 I n t he s ame 5 0 km g r id s quare , t wo more c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes may h ave c o me f r om o ccupat ion c on tex t s , b ut t hese f i nds a re more p rob lemat ic .
I n t he i mp lemen t p etro l -
o gy r e cords , a sma l l G roup XV I a xe , D evon 1 9 ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :222 , F ig . 3 , # 248 ) , i s l i s ted a s c om ing f r om t he T orbryan C aves , n ear Newton Abbot t .
1T h is
o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
S tone a nd Wa l l is
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( 1951 :108 ) n ote t ha t t h is a xe " appears t o h ave b een f ound i n a Neo l ith ic c ontex t , t hough t here i sn o men t ion o f a xes i nt he p ub l ished a ccoun t o ft he T orbryan C aves ." I n a dd it ion , t he l a rge , t h in a xe , D evon 5 3 ( F ig . 8 .4a ) , was f ound o n Wh iddon D own , o n ly 1 km away f r om E ast Week F arm , where n ear ly 3 0 ,000 a r t ifact s , i n c lud ing s t one a xes a nd E ar ly Neo l ith ic l e af -shaped a rrowheads , h ave b een r ecovered f r om a n a rea o f s o me 4 00 a cres ( Pearce 1 979 :32 ) . Wh i le t h is a xe may n o t h ave b een f ound o n a n a ctua l o ccupat ion s i t e , i t was c er ta in ly l o st i n a n a rea o ff a ir ly i n tens ive p reh istor ic a ct iv i ty . T hus , o ft he f our c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes t ha t a ppear l i ke ly t o h ave b een f ound i n o ccupa t ion c ontexts i n t he s ou th D evon a rea , t wo a re o ft he l a rge s i zes o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s ource wh i le t he o ther t wo a re sma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked a xes .
On ly t wo o ther
c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes h ave b een f ound i nt h is g r id s quare , a nd b oth o ft hese a re sma l l . On ly o ne o ther c o mp let e G roup XV I a xe h as b een r ecovered f r om a n o ccupa t ion c on t ext . T h is i sE ssex 1 1 ( F ig . 8 .4b ) , t he l a rge u nf in ished a nd /or d amaged a xe w i th as l ight ly e xpanded b lade . I t was f ound a t t he s i te o f Wa l ton -on -the -Naze , o n t he E ssex C oast . B oth E ar ly N eo l i th ic a nd B eaker p ot tery h ave b een r ecovered f r om t h is s i te ( Warren e t a l . 1 936 :182 ) , a nd i ti si mposs ib le t od e term ine t o wh ich p hase o ft he o ccupa t ion t h is a xe i s r e lat ed . N o o ther c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes h ave b een f ound i nt h is a rea .
T he R iver T hames T hree c o mp le te G roup XV I a xes h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames , a nd a l l o f t hese w ere f ound i n t he L ondon a rea .
O f t he t hree , L ond . " 123" ( Stan ley 1 976 :11 ,
P lat e 2 ,# 87 ; Adk ins a nd J ackson 1 978 , # 255 ) i sv ery l a rge a nd may h ave b een p roduced a s av a luab le i t em , L ond . " 122" ( S tan ley 1 976 :11 , P la te 2 ,# 59 ) i st he s i ze o f more t yp ica l u t i l i tar ian p roducts o f t he s ource ,1 a nd L ond . 4 6 ( Adk ins a nd J ackson 1 978 , # 61 ) i s
1H owever , t he s hape o f t h is a xe s uggests t hat i t may h ave b een p roduced b y r e w ork ing a n e ven l a rger a xe , s uch a s L ond . " 123" , r a ther t han h av ing b een p rodu ced f r om ar oughou t a t t he s ource .
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s ma l l , u neven ly s haped , a nd p resumab ly r e -worked . N o o ther c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes h ave b een r ecovered f r om l and c ont ex t s i nt h is a rea .
S ummary Ana lys is o f p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV I f r om o c cupa t ion c ont ex t s a nd t he R iver T hames i sl im i ted b y t he sma l l s amp les o fa xes t ha t a re a va i lab le f r om e ach o f t hese c on tex t s a nd b y t he e ven sma l ler ( o r n onex is tent ) s amp les o f s t ray a xes f r om t he s ame a reas w i th wh ich t he s i zes o f t he a xes f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s c ou ld b e c ompared . I n t e rms o ft he q ues t ion o fd epos i t ion o fd if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c on tex t s , t hese d a ta s ugges t t ha t a xes o fa l l s i zes , b oth o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked , w ere l o s t i no c cupa t ion c ont ex t s a nd i nt he R iver T hames . H owever , sma l l s amp le s i zes d o n o t a l low r i gorous a ssessmen t o ft hese p a t terns t hrough c o mpar ison o f mean l e ng ths o f a xes o r p er c en tages o fa xes o fd if eren t s i zes f r om t he d if eren t c ont ex ts . I n t e rms o f a xe s i ze p a t tern s t ha t m igh t b e r e la ted t o d i st r ibu t ion p a t terns a nd p rocesses , t hese s amp les o fG roup XV I a xes f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s a re s imp ly t o o s ma l l f o r mean ing fu l a na lys is .
F or f ur ther i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes t ha t may r ef lec t p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i st r ibut ion , i ti sn ecessary t oc ons ider t he t o ta l s amp le o fc o mp let e a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
T he o bserved c oncen t ra t ion o f mos t c o mp let e G roup XV I a xes i n t h ree ma jor a reas o fs ou thwes tern E ng land a l lows a c onven ien t d iv is ion o ft he d ata f o r g enera l c ons idera t ion o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v a r iab i l ity a s i tr e la tes t o p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion .
T he l o ca t ions o f a xes o f e a ch s i ze c l ass r ecogn ized a bove i n t he d if eren t
a reas o ft he d i s tr ibu t ion a re s hown i nF ig . 8 .13 . T he l eng ths a nd s i ze c l asses o fa xes f ound i n t he t hree a reas o f s ou thwes tern E ng land a re p resen ted i n T ab le 8 .3 , a l ong w i th s um mary s ta t ist i cs t ha t i nd ica te , f o r e ach a rea , t he p ercen tage o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced
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a xes , t he mean l e ng th o f a l l a xes , a nd t he mean l eng th o f s ma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked a xes . I n F ig . 8 .13 a nd T ab le 8 .3 , i tc an b e s een t ha t G roup XV I a xes o f s i zes t ha t w ere i n terpreted a s o r ig ina l ly -produced h ave b een f ound i n a l l t hree a reas o f t he s ou thwestern r eg ion .
H owever , t he p ercentage o f t hese l a rge a xes d ecreases f r om a rea t o a rea , w i th
i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource .
T h is i s ap a t tern t ha t was p red i cted t o r e su l t f r om
g roup to -g roup , o r " down -the l ine" , e xchange i n wh ich , w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource , g reat er p ercen tages o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes b ecome d amaged o r b roken a nd e i ther d rop o u t o fc i rcu la t ion o r a re r e -worked t ob ecome sma l ler i mp lemen t s . A ccompany ing a nd l a rge ly r esu lt ing f r om t he d ecrease i n p er cen tage o f l a rge a xes w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s our ce i s ad ecrease i n mean l e ng th o f a l l a xes .
I fw e
d i sregard t he t wo l a rges t a xes i n t he D evon a rea , D evon 1 6 a nd D evon 5 3 , wh ich h ave b een i n terpreted a bove a s e xc lus ive ly n on -u t i l i tar ian o b jec t s a nd wh ich , a s s uch , w ou ld n o t h ave b een s ub ject t o t he s ame p rocesses o f d amage a nd r e -work ing a s u t i l i tar ian o r d ua l p urpose i mp lemen t s , t he d ecrease i n mean l e ng th o f a xes i s mos t p ronounced b e tween t he C orn ish s ource a rea a nd t he D evon a rea a nd l e ss s o b e tween t he D evon a rea a nd t he Wes s ex a rea .
T h is p a t t ern i nd icat es a s harp d ecrease i n t he a va i lab i l i ty o f G roup XV I a xes
b e tween w es tern C ornwa l l i n wh ich t hese a xes w ou ld h ave b een o bta ined t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s ource , a nd t he D evon a rea , o ver 1 00 km away , i n wh ich a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l w ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined o n ly t hrough e xchange .
T he a va i lab i l i ty o f a xes
d ecreases , b u t n o t a s s harp ly , b e tween t he D evon a rea a nd t he Wessex a rea , i n wh ich t hey w ere a l so o b ta ined t hrough e xchange . Axes o fs i zes t ha t w ere i n terpret ed a s r e -worked h ave b een f ound i nt he D evon a rea a nd t he Wessex a rea , b u t n ot i nt he s ource a rea o fw est ern C ornwa l l . I tc an b e s uggested t ha t d ue t o t he a bundan ce o f r aw ma ter ia ls s u i tab le f o r a xe p roduct ion i n w es tern C ornwa l l , d amaged o r b roken a xes w ere s e ldom r e -worked i n t h is a rea , t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c
' The p rob lema t i c sma l l " axe" , S omer . 1 0 , was e xc luded f r om t hese c a lcu la t ions .
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i nhab i tants p ref err ing t o make a n ew , l a rge a xe i n st ead .
I n t he o ther a reas o f s ou th -
w estern E ng land i n wh ich s t one a xes w ere o b ta ined o n ly t hrough e xchange a nd t hus , w ere l e ss r ead i ly a va i lab le , p eop le w ere o b l iged t o c ura te t hem b y r e -work ing a nd r e -us ing d amaged s pec imens .
T he s l igh t d ecrease i n mean l eng th o f t he sma l ler , r e -worked a xes
b etween t he D evon a rea a nd t he Wessex a rea may a t tes t t og rea t er s car c i ty o fa xes i n t he l a t ter r eg ion :
e x is t ing s pec imens w ere u sed u n t i l t hey w ere , o n a verage , e ven sma l ler
t han i nt he a rea c l oser t ot he s ource . I n a pparen t c on t ras t t o t hese g enera l p a t terns o f d e crease
i n p ercen tage
o f
o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd d ecrease i na xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ce , i tc an b e s een i nT ab le 8 .3 t ha t s o me l a rger a xes h ave b een f ound i n t he D evon a rea t han h ave b een f ound i n t he C orn ish s our ce a rea .
One o f t hese i st he s i ng le h uge a xe , D evon
1 6 , a nd a no ther i st he l a rge b u t u nusua l ly t h in a xe , D evon 5 3 . h ave b een i n t erpret ed a s e x c lus ive ly n on -u t i l i tar ian i t ems .
B oth o f t hese i mp lemen t s
T he i r p resence i n t he D evon
a rea i nd ica t es t ha t g roups h ere a nd i n w est ern C ornwa l l e xchanged n o t o n ly u t i l itar ian g oods b u t v a luab le i t ems a s w e l l .
N o c o mp le te a xes o f t he s i zes t ha t w ere i n terpret ed a s
n on -u t i l i tar ian , v a luab le g oods h ave b een f ound i n t he Wessex a rea . H owever , p ar t o f a n a xe t ha t must h ave b een l a rger t han D evon 5 3 , t hough p robab ly n o t a s l a rge a s D evon 1 6 , was f ound a t t he c o mp lex E ar ly N eo l i th ic s i te o f Hamb ledon H i l l i n D orse t .1 T h is i nd i c at es t ha t l a rge , v a luab le a xes o f G roup XV I ma ter ia l ( t hough p erhaps f ewer o f t hem ) w ere e xchanged t ot he Wessex a rea a s w e l l . T he a va i lab le d a ta d o n o t a l low r i gorous a ssessmen t o f whe ther G roup XV I a xes w ere moved b e tween t he t hree a reas o ft he s ou thwestern r eg ion b y means o fo ver land o r c oasta l t ranspor t . H owever , c oas ta l movemen t w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een e as ier , a nd i ti s s uggested b y t he n ea r -coasta l l o ca t ions o fs evera l o ft he s ou th D evon a xes . T he G roup XV I a xes f ound o u t s ide s ou thwestern E ng land h ave y e t t o b e c ons idered i n t e rms o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty .
1S ee
T he l o ca t ions o f t hese i mp le -
S e lk irk 1 981 f o r ad i scuss ion o ft he r ecen te xcava t ions a t t h is i n t r igu ing s i te .
1 55
ment s a nd t he ir s i ze c l asses a re s hown i nF ig . 8 .13 . Ad e ta i led a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p a ttern i ng i n a xe s i ze , l i ke t ha t c arr ied o u t f o r t he s outhwes tern r eg ion , i sn o t f eas ib le i n e astern E ng land b ecause o fi n suff i c ient s amp le s i ze i n a l l a reas . N everthe less , f r om t hese l im i ted d a ta , s o me g enera l s uggest ions a bou t p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l c an b e made . I n F ig . 8 .13 i t c an b e s een t ha t G roup XV I a xes o f t he l a rge s i zes o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s ource h ave b een f ound i n a reas a t v ery l o ng d i stances f r om i t( up t o 4 96 km away ) .
I n p art icu lar , av ery l a rge a xe t ha t may h ave b een p roduced p r imar i ly a s a
v a luab le i t em h as b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames i n t he L ondon a rea , a l ong w ith a l a rge a xe o f more t yp ica l , p resumab ly u t i l itar ian , s i ze .1 I n a dd i t ion , l a rge a xes o f t he s i zes t ha t c ou ld , c once ivab ly , h ave f unct ioned a s e i ther v a luab le o r u t i l i tar ian i t e ms h ave b een f ound o n t he E ssex C oas t a nd i n L inco lnsh ire a nd L e ices tersh ire .
I ndeed , o f t he
s even c o mp lete G roup XV I a xes f ound o uts ide s outhwes tern Eng land , f i ve o r 7 1 .4% a re l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced i mp lemen ts a nd f our o ft hese , o r 5 7 .1% o ft he t o ta l n umber , a re o f s i zes t hat may h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le , c eremon ia l i t ems .
T hese p ercen tages
a re l a rger t han i n a ny a rea e xcept f o r t he s ource a rea . T hese f i gures s uggest t ha t move men t o f G roup XV I a xes o ut s ide t he s outhwestern r eg ion i nvo lved p r imar i ly v a luab le i t ems 2 a nd p robab ly t o ok p lace i nt he c on text o fc eremon ia l e xchange . T he p a ths a l ong wh ich t hese a xes t rave led a re u nknown .
T he ir d i spersa l may h ave
i nvo lved move men t o ver land a nd a l ong i n land r i ver r ou tes f r om t he Wessex a rea o r t ranspor t a l ong s ou thern c oasta l waterways t o t he L ondon a rea a nd /or t he E ssex C oast , f o l lowed
b y
o ver land
movement
t o
t he
C ambr idge
a rea ,
L e ices tersh ire ,
a nd
L in -
' Th is a xe , L ond . " 122" , i s n ot p rec ise ly p rovenanced a nd s o i s n o t s hown i n F ig . 8 .13 . 2I ndeed , a ny a xe f r om a C orn ish s ource may h ave b een r egarded a s av a luab le i t em i n t hese d i stant l o ca l it ies . A c orrespond ing r e luctance t o a ctua l ly u se s uch i mp le men t s may a ccoun t f o r t he sma l l n umber o f a pparen t ly r e -worked a xes o f G roup XV I i n e as tern E ng land .
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c o lnsh ire .1 A t a ny r at e , t he s ma l l n umber o f a xes u pon wh i ch t hese s ugges t ions a re b ased i nd ica tes t ha t movemen t o fG roup XV I a xes o u t s ide t he s outhwes tern r eg ion was a c o mpara t ive ly m inor a spec to ft he ir d i sper sa l . I n s ummary , t he r esu l t s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes h ave c onf i rmed C umm ins 's c onc lus ion b ased o n p a t t e rns o f r e la t ive a bundance t ha t a xes o f t h is g roup w ere d i s t r ibut ed o utwa rd f r om t he s ource a rea i n ap redom inan t ly e as t er ly d i rec t ion ( F ig . 8 .14 ) .
I n a dd i t ion , t hese r esu l t s
h ave s ugges ted t ha t t he mechan ism t hrough wh ich t h i s t o ok p la ce was g roup -to -g roup , o r " down the l ine" , e xchange , a t l e as t f o r t he ma jor i ty o f t he G roup XV I a xes wh i ch h ave b een f ound i n t hree ma jor a reas o f s ou thwest ern E ng land . n on -u t i l i tar ian , c eremon ia l i t ems a nd u t i l ita r ian t o o ls .
T h is e xchange i nvo lved b o th
E xchange o f G roup XV I a xes
b eyond t he s ou thwestern r eg ion s eems t o h ave b een much l e ss f r equen t a nd t o h ave i nvo lved p r imar i ly l a rge , v a luab le i mp lemen t s .
G roup I V / IVa
Axes o f G roup I V mat er ia l , ar o ck t ype wh ich h as b een mat ched b y s pec imens f r om B a lst one D own , n ea r C a l l ing ton , i n e as tern C ornwa l l ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :215 ) , a nd G roup I Va ma ter ia l , as im i lar r ock t ype wh ich i s g enera l ly a ssumed t o o r ig inat e i n t he s ame a rea , t oge ther a ccoun t f o r o n ly 1 . 6% o ft he g rouped a xes i nt h is d a ta s e t .
H owever , t hey
a ccoun t f o r n ear ly 3 5% o ft he t o ta l n umber o fa xes o ft he e ar ly C orn ish g roups . C omp le te a xes o fG roup I V a re o ver t h ree t imes more a bundan t t han c o mp let e a xes o fG roup I Va .
1I t i s i n t r igu ing t ha t t he f ew G roup XV I a xes f ound i n e ast ern E ng land a re s o u n if orm ly s paced , w i th d i stances b e tween t hem v ary ing o n ly b e tween 7 9 km a nd 13 km . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t h is p a t t ern may r ef lec t g enera l l o ca t ions , i n t he E a r ly N eo l i th ic , o f ma jor g roups o f p eop le who e x changed w i th e a ch o ther , a nd t ha t t hese d i s tances r epresen t t he t yp ica l d i stan ces t ha t g oods w ere moved a t e a ch " s tep" i n t he r eg iona l e x change n e twork . W i th r espec t t o t hese s ugges t ions , i tc an a l so b e n ot ed t ha t t he s ca t t e rs o f p o in t s r epresen t ing G roup XV I a xes i n t he d if eren t a reas o f t he s ou thwes tern r eg ion a re a l so s paced a t a pprox ima te ly 1 00 km a par t ( s ee F ig . 8 .13 a nd T ab le 8 .3 ) .
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T he l o ca t ions o f a l l o f t he c o mp let e a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va wh i ch c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r e f erences a re s hown i n F ig . 8 . 15 . 1 On t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t v i r tua l ly a l l o f t he k nown c o mp let e a xes o f t hese ma ter ia ls a re c onf ined t o s ou th w est ern E ng land , . a nd o f t hese , mos t h ave b een f ound i n t he c oun t ies o f C ornwa l l a nd D evon . Ar est r i ct ed d i s t r ibu t ion i sp ar t icu lar ly n ot i ceab le f o r t he c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I Va :
a l l o f t hese h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea t o t he e as t a nd n or theas t o ft he p resumed
s our ce l o ca l i ty a nd b etween 4 0-100 km f r om i t .2 I n c on t ras t , c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I V h ave b een f ound i n a reas i n o ppos i te d i rec t ions f r om t he s ource .
T hey a re a l so more
w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted t oward t he n or th a nd e as t , w i th s evera l h av ing b een f ound i n t he Wes s ex a rea a nd o ne h av ing b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames a t ad i stance g rea ter t han 3 00 km f r om t he s ource a rea .3 I n h i s a na lys is o f p a t terns o f r e la t ive f r equency o f a xes o fv ar ious ma ter ia ls , C um m in s ( 1979 :7 ) c omb ined t he a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va a nd t r eat ed t hem a s as i ng le g enera l g roup .
H e o bserved t ha t a xes o f t he c o mb ined g roup a re mos t a bundan t i n t he
a rea a round t he s ou rce a nd i n creas ing ly l e ss a bundan t f ur ther away i n b oth w es ter ly a nd n or theas ter ly d i rect ions ( i b id . :9 , F ig . 5 a ) .
H e i n t erpret ed t h is p a t tern a s i nd ica t ing d i s -
t r ibu t ion o ft hese a xes o u twa rd f r om t he s ource ( i b id . :7 ) , a l though , a s i nt he c ase o f G roup XV I , h e d i d n o t a t temp t t od escr ibe t he mechan ism t hrough wh ich t h is t ook p lace . I n c on t ras t , E vens e t a l . ( 1972 :258 ) n o ted t he d if eren t p a t terns o f d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f e a ch ma ter ia l a nd s ugges ted t ha t t he a xes o f e a ch g roup w ere d i spersed t hrough d i f f eren t p rocesses .
T hey a rgued t ha t t he r es t r i cted d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t ern o f a xes o f G roup
I Va i nd ica tes p rodu c t ion f o r r e la t ive ly l o ca l c onsumpt ion o n ly .
T hey s uggest ed t ha t t h is
1I n a dd i t ion , a n u nprovenanced a xe o fG roup I V h as b een r epor ted f r om t he c oun ty o fS urrey . 2H owever , p a r t s a nd f r agmen t s o f a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound a s f a r a s 1 75 km f r om t he s our ce i nD orse t . 3I n a dd it ion , af ragmen t o f a n a xe o f G roup I V h as b een f ound a t G r imes G raves , N orf o lk , o ver 4 00 km f r om t he p resumed s ource a rea .
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m igh t h ave i nvo lved d i rec t c on tac t b e tween p roducers a t t he s ource a nd c onsumers a t s hor t d i s tances a way , b u t n o w ider c on ta c t s .
I n c on t rast , t hey a rgued t ha t t he more
w idespread d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f G roup I V i nd ica tes p r imar i ly l o ca l ized p roduc t ion a nd c onsump t ion , b u t s ome d i spersa l " a long c hanne ls o f o rgan ized , i f s t i l l c ompara t ive ly sma l ls ca le , t rade" ( i b id . ) . E ven t hough t he ma t er ia ls o fG roups I V a nd I Va c an b e a ssumed t oh ave o r ig ina ted i nt he s ame a rea , b ecause t he a xes o ft hese ma ter ia ls d o a ppear t oh ave q u it e d if eren t d i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns a nd b ecause t here i s s o me e v idence t ha t t hey may n o t b e s t r ic t ly c on t emporary , i ts eems more r easonab le t o t r ea t t he a xes o f e a ch ma ter ia l s epara t e ly , a s E vens e t a l . h ave d one , r a ther t han c o mb in ing t hem , a s C umm ins h as d one , i na n i nves t i ga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd p rocesses o f d i st r ibu t ion .
T h is i st he
a pproa ch t ha tw i l l b e f o l lowed h ere .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l ity
L i t t le h as b een s a id i n t he l i t era ture c oncern ing morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roups I V a nd I Va . T he o n ly s ubstant ia l c o mmen t was made b y S tone a nd Wa l l is ( 1951 :113 ) who r e marked t ha t a xes o f G roup I V a re " of t en l a rge a nd w e l l -made p o l ished s pec imens w i th t h in a nd n ear ly p o in ted b ut t s ." I n t he i nves t iga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty , a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va w i l l b e c ons idered s eparat e ly , a s s ugges ted a bove , b eg inn ing w ith t he more a bundan t a xes o f G roup I V . F or i n i t ia l i nves t iga t ion o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I V , an ear -source s amp le c an b e d ef ined o n t he b as is o f ah i stog ram o ft he d i stan ces f r om t he s ou rce a t wh ich c o mp le te a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound ( F ig . 8 .16 ) . T h is s amp le c ons is t s o fa xes f ound w i th in a 7 5 km r ad ius o ft he s our ce , a nd i t i n c ludes a l l o ft he c o mp le te G roup I V a xes f ound i nC ornwa l l a nd D evon . H ist og rams o fv a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i nF ig . 8 . 17 f o r t he c omp le te G roup I V a xes i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le f o r wh ich t hese measuremen t s a re
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a va i lab le . A lmos t a l l o ft hese d i s t r ibu t ions a ppear t ob e b imoda l o r mu l t i -moda l . T h is s ug g es t s t he p resence o fd i f f eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o fa xes i nt h is s amp le . I n p ar t icu lar t he h i st og ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s c l ear ly i nd ica tes t he p resence o f a t l e as t t wo moda l s i zes o fa xes . O n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts o f t he c omp le te G roup I V a xes i n t he n ea r -sou rce s amp le ( F ig . 8 .18 ) , a ma jor b reak b e tween g roups o f l a rge a nd s ma l l a xes c an b e s een . I n a dd i t ion , t here a ppear t ob e t wo s i ze c l as s e s w i th in e ach o f t hese g roups .
Among t he l a rge a xes , as i ng le s pec imen s tands a par t
f r om t hree a xes t ha t a re s hort er , b u t s t i l l v ery l a rge . Among t he sma l l a xes , s pec imens t ha t a ppear t ob e r epresen ta t ive o ft wo s i ze c l asses c an b e s een . T o a i d i ni n t erpre t ing t he o bserved p a t t ern o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup I V a xes i nt he n ea r -sou r ce s amp le , i tw ou ld b e u sefu l t ob e a b le t o c o mpare t he s i zes o ft he a xes w i th t he s i zes o f r oughou t s . ma t er ia l a re k nown .
Unf or tunat e ly , n o c omp le te r oughou t s o f G roup I V
H owever , b y a na logy w i th t he p a t tern o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty
o b served among a xes o fG roup XV I , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he l a rge a xes r epresen t t he s o r t s o f i mp lemen t s t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughou t s wh i le t he sma l l a xes r epresen t r e -worked s pe c imens . Ano ther i n t erest ing a spect o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he G roup I V a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le c an b e s een i nF ig . 8 .18 . Among t he a xes o fe a ch d if eren t l eng th , t hose f ound i n C ornwa l l a re b oth w ider ( F ig . 8 .18a ) a nd t h i cker ( F ig . 8 .18b ) t han t hose f ound i nD evon . T he i mp l i ca t ions o ft h is p a t tern f o r a xe p roduct ion a nd d i st r ibu t ion w i l l b e c on s idered b e low . When t he c o mp le te a xes o fG roup I V ma ter ia l t ha t h ave b een f ound f u r ther t han 7 5 km f r om t he s ource a re s hown a l ong w i th t hose i n t he n ea r -source s amp le o n s ca t t er p l o t s o fl e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s ( F ig . 8 .19 ) , ag reat er r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty i n s i ze c an b e s een .
I n p ar t i cu lar , among t he a xes f ound o u t s ide t he n ear -
s ou rce a rea a re a no ther l a rge a xe , t wo more sma l l a xes , a nd t wo a xes t ha t a re i n t er -
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med ia te i ns i ze b e tween t he l a rge a nd sma l l a xes o ft he n ear -sour ce s amp le . T h is r ange o f a xe s i zes i ss im i lar t o t ha t o bserved among a xes o fG roup XV I . I n t e rms o fs hape , i tc an b e s een i nF ig . 8 .19 t ha t t he w id th a nd t h ickness d imens ions o ft he a xes f ound b eyond t he n ea r -sour ce a rea g enera l ly f a l l b etween t hose o ft he C ornwa l l a nd D evon a xes a te ach d i f f e ren t l e ng th . F or c onf irma t ion o f t he p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup I V a xes t ha t w ere o bserved i n t he s ca t ter p l o t s , t he a na ly t i ca l t e chn iques wh i ch w ere u sed i n t he i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I a xes c an b e emp loyed . A c orre lat ion ma tr ix o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he t we lve a xes f o r wh ich a l l o f t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le ( F ig . 8 .20 ) i nd icat es s t rong r e la t ionsh ips among many o f t he v ar iab les .
I n p ar t icu lar , c orre la t ions g reat er t han + .97 c an b e
o bserved b e tween t he v ar iab les o f max imum w id th a nd c en ter w id th a nd b etween t he v ar i a b les o f max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h i ckness , i nd i ca t ing t ha t t he v ar iab les i n t hese p a ir s a re e ssent ia l ly r edundan t measures o ft he s ame a spec t s o f a xe s i ze . B ecause o ft h is , t he v ar iab les o fc en ter w id th a nd c ent er t h ickness w ere om i t ted f r om f ur ther c ons idera t ion . I n a dd i t ion , ac orre la t ion g reater t han + .93 c an b e o bserved b etween t he v ar iab les o f w id th / th i ckness r a t io a nd c ross -sect ion r a t io , i nd ica t ing t ha tt hese v ar iab les a re e ssent ia l ly r edundan t measures o f t he s ame a spec t o f a xe s hape .
B ecause o f t h is , t he v ar iab le o f
c ross -sec t ion r a t io was om i t ted f r om t he r es to ft he a na lys is .' T he r e ma in ing s i x v ar iab les w ere t hen s ub jec ted t o ap r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . T h is a na lys is ( Tab le 8 .4 ) y i e lded t wo s i gn if i can t c o mponen t s . T he f i rs t c o mponen t r ef lec t s v ar ia t ion among t he a xes i n g enera l s i ze a nd i n s hape i n f ace v i ew , wh i le t he s e cond c om p onen t r ef lec t s v a r ia t ion i n s hape i np rof i le v i ew a nd , t o al e sser e x ten t , v ar ia t ion i nc ross s ect iona l s hape .
' Corre la t ions g rea ter t han + .9 c an a l so b e o bserved among t he v a r iab les o fl eng th , w id th , a nd t h i ckness , s uggest ing t ha t t hese v ar iab les a re , t o al a rge e xten t , r edundan t r ef lec t ions o f g enera l a xe s i ze . H owever , b ecau se t hese v ar iab les t heore t ica l ly r ef lect d i f f e ren t a spec t s o fa xe s i ze , t hey h ave b een i n c luded i nt he n ex t s tage o ft he a na lys i s .
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A h i stog ram o f t he c o mponent s cores o f t he f i rst p r inc ipa l c o mponent ( F ig . 8 .21 , PC .1 ) i nd icat es t ha t among t he a xes i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is a re a l a rge g roup o f r e la t i ve ly sma l l s pec imens ( w i th n egat ive a nd l ow p os it ive s cores ) a nd a sma l l g roup o f r e la t i ve ly l a rge s pec imens ( w i th h igh p os it ive s cores ) . Ah i st og ram o ft he c o mponen t s cores o f t he s econd p r inc ipa l c o mponen t ( F ig . 8 .21 , PC .2 ) i nd icates t he p resence o f an umber o f r e la t ive ly t h ick a xes ( w i th n ega t ive s cores ) , ac oup le o f v ery t h in a xes ( w i th h igh p os it ive s cores ) , a nd s evera l a xes o fi n termed iat e t h ickness ( w ith l ow p os it ive s cores ) . A s catt er p l ot o f t he c o mponent s cores o f t he t wo p r inc ipa l c o mponent s ( F ig . 8 .22 ) i nd icates t he v ar iab i l ity i n s i ze a nd s hape t hat i sp resen t among t hese a xes .
On t h is p l ot ,
ac l ear b reak c an b e s een b etween l a rge a xes w i th l eng ths g reater t han 2 00 mm a nd sma l ler a xes w ith l eng ths l e ss t han 1 75 mm ( c f . F ig . 8 .19 1) . I n a dd it ion , a no ther b reak b etween r e la t ive ly t h ick a nd r e lat ive ly t h in a xes i sa pparen t .
W ith t he e xcept ion o f t he
l a rges t a xe , C orn . 3 88 , t he p a t tern o bserved i n F ig . 8 .18 o f a xes f ound i n C ornwa l l b e ing r e la t ive ly t h ick a nd a xes f ound i nD evon b e ing r e lat ive ly t h in c an b e s een h ere . Among t he l a rge G roup I V a xes r epresen ted i n F igs . 8 .19 a nd 8 .22 , t he l a rgest s pec imen , C orn . 3 88 ,2 i s n otab le f o r b e ing v ery w ide ( F ig . 8 .19a ) b u t r e la t ive ly t h in ( F ig . 8 .22 ) .
I n a dd i t ion , i ti sv ery s y mmetr ica l i n s hape a nd d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een
d amaged i n a ny way .
On t he b as is o f t hese f ea tures , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t h is a xe
may h ave b een p roduced a s an on -u t i l i tar ian , v a luab le i t em . T he o ther f our l a rge a xes a re s im i lar i n s i ze t o G roup XV I i mp lement s t ha t w ere i n terpreted a s e i ther n on -ut i l i tar ian o r d ua l -purpose i mp lemen ts .
Damage t o t he b lades o f t wo o f t hese , D orse t 2 5 ( F ig . 8 .23a )
a nd D evon 2 6 ( F ig . 8 .23b ) , a nd a b lade t ha t i s marked ly a symmet r ic i ns hape o n t he t h ird ,
One l a rge a xe s hown i n F ig . 8 .19a c ou ld n ot b e i n c luded i n t he p r in c ipa l c om p onen ts a na lys is b ecause i t s t h i ckness measuremen ti su nknown . 2N ot
i lust rated h ere ; i nf orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
1 62
C orn . 2 71 ,1 i nd i ca te t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s f unc t ioned , a t l e a st i n p a r t , a s u t i l i ta r ian i t ems .2 Among t he sma l ler G roup I V a xes r epresen t ed i nF ig s . 8 .19 a nd 8 .22 a re t wo i mp le men t s s im i lar i n s i ze t o G roup XV I a xes t ha t w ere i n terpre ted a s t he t yp ica l , s ma l ler u t i l i tar ian p roduc t s o ft he s ource . T he l a rger o ft hese i sS omer . 1 5 ( Ke i l ler e ta l . 1 941 :57 , F ig . 2 , I V 1 01 ) , a n a xe t ha t i su nusua l ly t h in f o r i t s l e ng th ( s ee F ig . 8 .22 ) . T he o ther i s W i l t s . 6 7 3,a n i mp lemen t t ha t i ss l igh t ly d amaged a t t he b u t t a nd s o i sn ow s o mewha t s hort er t han i to r ig ina l ly mus t h ave b een .
A l though t he r ange o f s i zes o f a xes o r ig ina l ly
p roduced f r om G roup I V ma ter ia l c annot b e d i rec t ly d eterm ined i n t he a bsen ce o f r oughou t s , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hese t wo i mp lemen t s r epresen t t he sma l ler s i zes o f a xes p roduced a t t he s our ce .
Aga in b y a na logy w i th G roup XV I i tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t t he
o ther sma l l G roup I V a xes a re p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens , a nd t h is i n terpre ta t ion i s s uppor ted
b y
t he
i r regu lar s hapes
o f many
o f t hese
i mp lemen t s
( e .g . ,
C orn . 1 50 ,
F ig . 8 .23d ) . I n s ummary , t he p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty t ha t c an b e o bserved among a xes o fG roup I V i ss im i lar i n many way s t o t he p a t t ern t ha t was o bserved among a xes o f G roup XV I .
T h is p a t tern i sc harac ter ized b y as i ng le v ery l a rge a xe ( l eng th = 2 68 mm )
t ha t may h ave b een s pec if i ca l ly p rodu ced a s an on -ut i l itar ian , v a luab le i t em , s evera l l a rge a xes ( l eng th = 2 04-240 mm ) t ha t a ppea r t o h ave f un c t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian i t ems b u t may a l so h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le g oods , t wo a xes o fi n termed ia t e s i ze ( l eng th = 1 481 74 mm ) t ha t may r epresen t s ma l l -s ized u t i l i tar ian a xes p roduced a t t he s our ce , a nd a n umber o f sma l l a xes ( l eng th < 1 40 mm ) t ha t a re p robab ly r e -worked s pec imens .
T he
t endency f o r G roup I V a xes f ound i n C ornwa l l w i th in 7 5 km o f t he p resumed s ource
1N ot
i lus t ra ted h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p et ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw -
i ng . 2F rom t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing , t he f our th C orn . 2 68 , a ppears t oh ave b een d amaged b y s urfa ce s pa l l ing . 3N o t
l a rge
G roup
i lus t rat ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
I V
a xe ,
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l o ca l i ty t o b e r e la t ive ly w ider a nd t h icker t han t hose f ound i n D evon w i th in t he s ame r ad ius i si n t r igu ing a nd w i l l b e c ons idered b e low . Morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I Va r e ma ins t o b e c ons idered . B ecause a l l o ft he " c omp let e a xes o ft h is ma t er ia l h ave b een f ound w i th in 4 0-100 km o ft he p resumed s ource l o ca l i ty , t he e n t ire g roup c an b e t hough t o fa s an ea r -sou rce s amp le , a nd morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t hem w i l l b e c ons idered a to n ce . Morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I Va c an e as i ly b e c ompa red w i th t ha t o bserved among a xes o f G roup I V when a l l o f t hese i mp lemen t s a re r epresent ed o n t he s ame s ca t ter p l o ts o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s ( F ig . 8 .24 ) . On t hese p l o t s , i tc an b e s een t ha t t wo o ft he a xes o fG roup I Va a re s im i la r i n s i ze t ot he t wo i n t ermed ia te -s ized a xes o fG roup I V , wh i le t he o ther t wo a xes o fG roup I Va a re s im i lar i ns i ze t ot he sma l ler a xes o fG roup I V .1 I n a dd i t ion t o t he a xes r epresen ted i n F ig . 8 .24 , as i ng le a xe o f G roup I Va w i th a l e ng th o f 3 65 mm i sk nown .
T h is i mp lemen t , S omer . 5 9 ,2 i s t he t h ird l a rges t g rouped
a xe i n t he e nt ire d a ta s e t a nd mus t s ure ly h ave b een a s t r i ct ly n on -u t i l i tar ian , v a luab le o b je c t . I n c ons ider ing t he o bserved p a t t ern o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I Va , i ts eems u nusua l t ha t n o o ther l a rge a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound t ha t m igh t c or respond i n s i ze w i th t he l a rge a xes o f G roup I V .
H owever , t he
a bsence o f s u ch a xes c an p robab ly b e a t t r ibu ted t o sma l l s amp le s i ze , a s p a r t s a nd f r ag men t s h ave b een f ound o fG roup I Va a xes wh ich w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een o f t hese s i zes when c o mp le te .
E xamp les i n c lude D evon 5 a nd D evon 1 0 ( F ig . 8 .25a & b ) , wh i ch w ere
b oth f ound a t t he s i te o fH embury a nd a ppear t ob e f ragmen t s o ft he s ame a xe , a nd D orse t 3 0 ( F ig . 8 .25c ) , wh ich wa s f ound a t t he s i te o f Ma iden C a st le .
1N one o f t hese a xes o f G roup I Va a re i lus t ra ted h ere b ecause p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing s w ere r e l ied u pon f o r i n f orma t ion a bou t a l l o ft hem . 2A l though i t was measured a nd d rawn b y me , t h is i mp lemen t i s n o t i lus t ra t ed h ere b ecause o fs heer s i ze .
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N o r oughou t s o fG roup I Va ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound wh i ch m igh t i nd ica te t he s i zes o f a xes t ha t w ere i n it ia l ly p roduced i n t he s ource a rea , s o i n t erpre ta t ion o f t he o bserved p a t t ern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I Va mus t f o l low t he s ame g enera l mode l t ha t h as b een s uggest ed f o r G roups XV I a nd I V . T hus , t he s i ng le h uge a xe ( l eng th = 3 65 mm ) c an b e i n t erpret ed a s an on -ut i l i tar ian , c eremon ia l i t em .
V ery l a rge
a xes , wh i ch f o r G roup I Va a re r epresen ted o n ly b y p ar t s a nd f r agmen t s o fa xes , p robab ly f unct ioned a s l a rge -s ize u t i l itar ian t o o ls , b u t may a l so h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems . T he a xes o fi n t ermed iat e s i ze ( l eng th = 1 47-162 mm ) p robab ly r epresen t sma l ler , o r ig ina l ly -produced u t i l i tar ian i mp lemen t s , wh i le t he sma l les t a xes ( l eng th < 1 30 mm ) a ppear t ob e d amaged a nd /or r e -worked s pec imens .
Morpho log ica l V ar iab i l i ty a nd D is t r ibu t ion
I n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va , i t was n ot ed t ha t c omp le te a xes o fG roup I Va h ave b een f ound o n ly t ot he e as t a nd n or theas t o f t he s ource a nd w i th in 1 00 km o f i t , a l though p ar t s a nd f ragment s o f a xes h ave b een f ound f ur ther away , wh i le c o mp lete a xes o f G roup I V h ave b een f ound i n o ppos it e d i rec t i ons f r om t he s our ce a nd i n more d i stan t a reas . F ur thermore , i t was d i scovered t ha t t he G roup I V a xes f ound i n d if eren t d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce t end t o v ary i n s hape . B ef ore i nves t iga t ing t hese p a t terns f ur ther a nd c ons ider ing t he ir i mp l ica t ions i n t e rms o f p roces s es o fd i s t r ibu t ion , p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roups I V a nd I Va f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion s hou ld b e d i scussed .
A xes f r om S pec i f i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
A s i n t he c ase o f G roup XV I , ar e la t ive ly l a rge p ropor t ion o f t he k nown c o mp le te a xes o fG roups I V a nd I Va c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o s pec if i c c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion ( Tab le 8 .5 ) . A xes o f G roup I V h ave b een f ound i no ccupa t ion c on tex t s , i na ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes ( a " hoard" ) , a nd i n t he R iver T hames , wh i le a xes o f G roup I Va h ave b een f ound o n o c cupa -
1 65
t i on s i t es o n ly .
Axes o f n e i ther ma ter ia l h ave b een r e covered f r om b ur ia l o r r i tua l c on -
t ex ts .
O ccupa t ion C ontexts T hree c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I V h ave b een r e covered f r om a pparen t o ccupa t ion c ontex ts . One o ft hese , D evon 4 7 , was f ound a t E ast Week F arm , wh ich h as a l ready b een men t ioned i n c onnect ion w i th G roup XV I a xes a s t he s i t e o f a pparen t ly v ery i n tens ive p reh istor ic
a ct iv i ty .
T h is
a xe
i s a sma l l ,
p resumab ly
r e -sharpened
o r
r e -worked
s pec imen ./ T he o n ly o ther c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I V f r om t h is g r id s quare w ere f ound t ogether i n
h oard ( s ee b e low ) .
T he s econd a xe o f G roup I V , C orn . 3 57 , was f ound a t t he s i te o f C am nB rea . a xe i st he sma l lest o f t he k nown c omp le te G roup I V ' a xes . me t r ica l i n s hape ,2 u ndoub ted ly f r om e xtens ive u se .
T h is
I t s b lade i s marked ly a sym -
One o ther a xe o f t h is ma ter ia l was
f ound i nt h is g r id s quare , a nd i ti s al a rge a xe w ith al e ng th o f2 04 mm . F ina l ly , t he t h ird a xe o f G roup I V , S omer . 1 5 ( Ke i l ler e t a l . 1 941 :57 , F ig . 2 , I V 1 91 ) , was f ound a t t he B r idged P o t S he lt er , i n E bbor G orge , S omerset .
I ti sn o t c l ear t o
me whether t here was N eo l i th ic o ccupat ion w i th in t he B r idged P ot S he lt er , b u t o n ly 0 .1 km away f r om t he f i nd s po t o f t h is i mp lemen t ,3 af ragmen t o f aj ade i te a xe , af ragmen t o f aG roup V I I a xe , a nd " o ther a r tefacts s ugges t ive o f o ccupa t ion" w ere f ound " l oose ly a ssoc ia ted w i th in a r est r icted a rea" ( Sm ith 1 979 :16 ) . T hus i ti sc l ear t ha t t h is i mp lemen t was l o s t i n ag enera l a rea o f N eo l ith ic o ccupat ion , i fn ot a ctua l ly o n a n o ccupat ion s i te . W i th a l eng th o f 1 74 mm , t h is i mp lemen t i so ne o f t he i n t ermed ia te -s ized a xes t ha t may b e i n terpre ted a s sma l l -s ized u t i l itar ian p roducts o f t he s ource .
N o o ther c o mp lete G roup
' Th is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p e tro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing . 2T h is
o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
3T h is
f i gure was c a lcu lated f r om p ub l ished Na t iona l G r id r ef erences .
1 66
I V a xes h ave b een f ound i nt h is g r id s quare w i th wh ich t he s i ze o ft h is i mp lemen t c ou ld b e c o mpared . O ft he f i ve k nown c omp let e a xes o fG roup I Va , t hree h ave b een f ound o n o ccupa t ion s i tes .
One o f t he e , D evon 1 35 , was f ound a t t he s i te o f Hazard H i l l .
T he i n t ermed ia t e
s i ze o f t h is a xe s ugges t s t ha t i t may h ave b een i n i t ia l ly p rodu ced f r om a r oughou t , b u t i t a ppears t o h ave b een s ubsequen t ly d amaged a t b oth e nds .'
N o o ther a xes o f G roup I Va
h ave b een f ound i n t h i s g r id s quare , a l though i tc an b e n ot ed t ha t t he G roup I V a xe f r om E as t Week F arm was f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare , o n ly 3 4 km a way . T he o ther t wo c o mp le te a xes o fG roup I Va f r om o ccupa t ion c ontex t s w ere b oth f ound a t t he s i te o f H embury , i n D evon . B o th o ft hese a xes , D evon 3 a nd D evon 4 ,2 a re sma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s , a nd o ne o f t hem , D evon 4 , i st he sma l les t G roup I Va a xe i n t he d a ta s e t .
T he o n ly o ther c o mp let e G roup I Va a xe f ound i n t h is g r id s quare i s
t he h uge a xe d i scussed a bove .
A ssoc ia t ions o f Axes Ag roup o ff our a xes wa s f ound a t C he ls ton T ower i nT orquay , D evon , a t ad i stan ce o f 5 5 km f r om t he p resumed s our ce o f G roup I V ma ter ia l . Two o ft he a xes i nt h i s g roup a re o fG roup I V , a no ther i so fu ng rouped g reens tone , wh i le t he f our th i s af l aked f l in t a xe . A l l f our o ft hese a xes a re l a rge . O ne o ft he G roup I V a xes , D evon 2 6 ( F ig . 8 .23b ) , h as a l e ng th o f2 26 mm . T he o ther , D evon 2 5 ( F ig . 8 .23c ) , h as ameasu rab le l eng th o f 1 82 mm , b u t i t s b u t t e nd i s b roken o f , s o i t s o r ig ina l l eng th may h ave b een a round 2 00 mm .3 T he n umber o fa xes i nt h i s g roup a nd t he l a rge s i zes o fa l l o ft hem s ugges t t ha tt h is wa s a
1N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw -
i ng . 2N e i ther o f t hese a re i lus t ra ted h ere ; t hese o bserva t ions a re b ased o n p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings . 3T he u ng rouped g reens tone a xe , D evon 2 4 , h as a l e ng th o f 1 92 mm wh i le t he f l aked f l in t a xe h as a l e ng th o f 1 91 mm . A l l o ft hese a xes w ere measured a nd d rawn b y me .
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t rue h oard o f a xes c a ched w i th t he i n ten t ion o f l a ter r e covery , r a ther t han s imp ly a n a ssoc ia t ion o f a bandoned a xes .
T hus , t he s i zes o f t he a xes i n t h is h oard p robab ly
r epresen t t he s i zes o f G roup I V a xes t ha t w ere t ranspor ted a nd /or e x changed among g roups i n t h is a rea . T he o n ly o ther c omp lete G roup I V a xe f ound i nt h i s a rea i nt he sma l l o ne f r om t he s i te o fE as t Week F arm .
T he R iver T hames As i ng le a xe o fG roup I V , L ond . 6 6 ( Adk ins a nd J a ck son 1 978 , # 71 ) , i sp resumed t o h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames i n t he L ondon a rea . A t ad i stance o f3 06 km f r om t he s our ce o ft he r aw ma ter ia l , t h is i st he most d i stan t ly l o ca t ed G roup I V a xe . I ti s asma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked s pec imen . N o o ther G roup I V a xes h ave b een f ound i nt h is a rea .
S ummary A s i n t he c ase o f G roup XV I , a na lys is o f p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup s I V a nd I Va f r om s pe c if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion i sl im i ted b y t he s ma l l s amp les o f a xes t ha t a re a va i lab le f r om e a ch o f t he d if eren t c on tex t s a nd b y t he sma l l o r n on -ex is ten t s amp les o f s t ray a xes f r om t he s ame a reas w i th wh ich t he s i zes o f t he o nes f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s c ou ld b e c o mpared . I n t e rms o ft he q ues t ion o fd epos i t ion o f d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c on tex t s , i t may b e s i gn if i can t t ha t a l l o f t he c o mp le te a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va f r om a pparen t o ccupa t ion c ont ex t s a re o f t he sma l ler o r ig ina l ly -produced s i ze o r a re r e -worked s pec imens , wh i le t he a xes i n t he h oard , wh ich was f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare a s t wo o f t he o ccupa t ion c ont ex t a xes , a re a l l l a rger . A lthough a dm i t t ed ly b ased o n meag re d a ta , t h is p a t tern o f s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among a xes d epos it ed i n d if eren t c on tex t s w i th in t he s ame g enera l a rea c orresponds w i th p red i ct ions made o n t he b as is o fe thnog raph ic o bserva t ions o u t l ined i nC hap ter V . I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t b ecause o fs uch e xpected v a r iab i l i ty , a xes f r om d if eren t c on tex t s s hou ld b e a na lyzed s epara te ly f o r e v idence o f p a t terns o f s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i n r e la -
1 68
t i on t o d i st r ibu t ion p rocesses .
Unf or tuna t e ly , b ecause o f s ma l l s amp le s i zes , mean ing fu l
a na lys is o f t he s i zes o f a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va f r om e ach s pec if i c c on tex t i sn ot p os s i b le .
F or f ur ther i nvest iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among
a xes o f G roups I V a nd I Va t ha t may r ef l ec t p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion , t he t o ta l s amp les o fc o mp let e a xes o ft hese g roups mus tb e c ons idered .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
I n o ur d i scuss ion o f G roup XV I , w e n ot ed t ha t mos t o f t he c o mp let e a xes o f t ha t ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound i n t hree a reas o f s ou thwes tern E ng land i n wh ich a n umber o f E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i tes a re c l us tered . T he p resumed s our ce o fG roup XV I i sl o ca ted i n o ne o f t hose a reas , a pprox imat e ly 4 km f r om a s i te o n wh ich a n umber o fr oughou t s a nd b roken a xes o ft ha t ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound . O n t he b as is o ft h is e v idence , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he i nhab i tan ts o ft ha t s i te c on t ro l led t he s ource o f G roup XV I ma ter ia l a nd p roduced a xes f r om i t . F rom e v idence o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV I , w e c on c luded t ha t t hese i mp lemen ts w ere e x changed f r om g roup t o g roup e as tward f r om t he s our ce t oD evon , Wessex , a nd b eyond . F or G roups I V a nd I Va , t he s i tua t ion i sq u i te d if eren t . T he p resumed s ource a rea i n e as tern C ornwa l l i sl o ca ted b e tween t he ma jor o ccupa t ion a reas o f w es tern C ornwa l l a nd D evon ( c f . F ig . 8 . 15 a nd F ig . 8 .1 ) . O ft he ma jor E ar ly N eo l i th ic s i tes , n one i sl o cated c l oser t han 4 0 km f r om t he G roup I V / IVa s our ce a rea .
O n t he b as is o f t h is e v idence , i t
c an b e s ugges ted t ha t n o o ne g roup c on t ro l led t h is s our ce a nd t ha t , i nst ead , members o f d if eren t g roups l o ca ted i n d if eren t d i rec t ions a nd a t d if eren t d i stances f r om t he s ource j ourneyed t oi tt oo b ta in d i rec t ly r aw ma t er ia l f o r a xe p rodu c t ion . I n F ig . 8 .15 ( s ee a l so F ig . 8 .26 ) , i t was s een t ha t a l l o f t he c o mp le te a xes o f G roup I Va h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea t o t he e as t a nd n or theas t o ft he p resumed s our ce l o cal i ty a nd b e tween 4 0-100 km f r om i t . I n a dd i t ion , i t was n o ted t ha t an umber o f p ar t s a nd f ragment s o f a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound f ur ther e as t i n t he Wessex a rea .
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H owever , n o t e ven b roken a xes o f G roup I Va h ave b een f ound i n t he a rea w es t o f t he s our ce .
T h is e v idence s uggest s t ha t p eop le i n t he D evon a rea w ere p r imary p roducers o f
G roup I Va a xes , p erhaps mak ing p er iod i cj ourneys t ot he s our ce a rea f o r t h is p urpose . I n o ur d i scuss ion o ft he c hrono logy o fC orn ish s our ce e xp lo ita t ion , w e s uggest ed t ha t t he p resen ce o fa xes o fG roup I Va o n t he f our th m i l lenn ium b . c . s i t e o fH embury may i nd i c a t e e ar l ier a c t iv i ty a t t h is s ource t han a t o ther C orn ish s ources .
Sm i th 's t abu la t ion o f
a bundance o f s t one a xe s pec imens a t t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c s i tes i n s ou thwest ern E ng land ( Sm i th 1 979 :17 , T ab le I )i nd ica t es t ha t G roup I Va was t he mos t a bundan t s i ng le g roup a t H embury .
I t c an b e s uggest ed t ha t t he p eop le o f H embury j ourneyed t o t he s ource o f
G roup I Va , s o me 8 2 km a way ,1t oo b ta in ma ter ia l f o r s t one a xes . A l though l o ca ted c l oser t o t he s our ce o fG roup I Va ma t er ia l t han Hembury , Hazard H i l l i sa pparen t ly s omewha t l a ter i nd a te ( Sm i th 1 979 :17 , T ab le I )a nd a xes o fG roup I Va a re r e la t ive ly l e ss a bundan tt han a xes o fo ther C orn ish g roups ( i . e . , G roup XV I a nd G roup XV I I ) a t t h is s i te ( i b id . ) .
T h is t ends t o s ugges t e xp lo ita t ion o f t he G roup I Va s our ce b y
i nhab i tan t s o f Hazard H i l l t ha ti sb oth l a ter a nd o fl e sser i mpor tan ce t han t ha t c arr ied o u t b y t he p eop le a t H embury . A l though n o c omp le te a xes o f G roup I Va h ave b een f ound i n t he Wessex a rea , s evera l p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s o f a xes , s o me o f t hem a pparen t ly r epresen t ing v ery l a rge i mp lemen t s , h ave b een r e covered a t t he s i te o f Ma iden C ast le i n D orse t . I ndeed , Sm i th 's d a ta i nd i cat e t ha t G roup I Va was t he mos t a bundan t s i ng le g roup a t t h is s i te ( Sm i th 1 979 :17 , T ab le I ) . I nhab i tan t s o ft h is s i t e c ou ld h ave o b ta ined t he ir a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l i ne i ther o ft wo ways : t hrough e xchang e w i th p eop le i nt he D evon a rea ( e .g . , a t H embury ) o r c once ivab ly , t hey , t o o , c ou ld h ave j ourneyed t ot he s ource a rea a nd a cqu ired G roup I Va
1
I ts eems l i ke ly t ha tt hey w ou ld h ave g one b y s ea .
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mat er ia l f o r t hemse lves .
Unf or tunat e ly , t he d a ta w e h ave a t p resen t d o n o t a l low u s t o
c hoose b e tween t hese a l t erna t ives .1 I n c on tras t t o a xes o f G roup I Va , c o mp let e a xes o f G roup I V h ave b een f ound i n a reas b o th e as t a nd w es t o f t he s our ce a nd a t l onger d i s tan ces f r om i t( s ee F ig . 8 . 15 a nd F ig . 8 .27 ) .
I n o ur i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I V , w e
d i scovered t ha t t hose f ound w es t o f t he s ource i n C ornwa l l a re b o th w ider a nd t h i cker , f o r t he ir l e ng th , t han t hose f ound e ast o ft he s ource i nD evon . O n t he b as is o ft h is p at tern , i t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t p eop le i n e ach d i rect ion f r om t he s our ce w en t t o i tt o o b ta in r aw ma ter ia l f o r a xe p roduc t ion .
T hey made a xes a ccord ing t o t he i r o wn v i ews o f a cceptab le
a xe s hape , a nd t he r esu l t ing p a t tern o fv ar iab i l i ty b e tween t he t wo a reas c an b e s een e ven among a pparen t ly r e -worked s pec imens ( s ee F ig . 8 .18 ) . I n T ab le 8 .6 , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he p er cen tages o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes a re t he s ame i n t he t wo a reas .
D is -
r egard ing t he s i ng le v ery l a rge a xe f ound i nC ornwa l l wh i ch h as b een i n terpre ted a s an on u t i l itar ian i t em , t he mean l e ng ths o f t he a xes f ound i n t he t wo a reas a re e ssen t ia l ly t he s ame a s w e l l .
T h is e v idence i nd icat es t ha t p eop le i n C ornwa l l a nd p eop le i n D evon w ere
a b le t oo b ta in e ssen t ia l ly e qu iva len t s upp l ies o fG roup I V ma ter ia l . C ons ider ing t he G roup I V a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource , t he p er c en tage o fl a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes a nd t he mean l e ng th o fa l l t he a xes f ound i nt he Wessex a rea a re g reat er t han i n e i ther o f t he a reas b order ing t he s our ce ( s ee T ab le 8 .6 ) . T aken a t f a ce v a lue , t h is e v iden ce m igh t i nd ica te a b e t ter s upp ly o f G roup I V a xes i n t he Wessex a rea t han i n t he a reas c l oser t o t he s ource .
H owever , b ecause o f t he p oss ib le
e f ects o f r e la t ive ly sma l l s amp le s i zes , i n wh ich a s i ng le a xe a ccoun t s f o r 2 0-25% o ft he t o ta l a nd h as a n e qu iva len t w e igh t i n t he c a l cu la t ion o f mean l e ng ths , a nd b ecau se o f t he r e la t ive ly l a rge p ropor t ion o fa xes f r om v ar ious s pec if i c c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion i ne ach a rea , i t may b e more p ruden t t ot h ink o ft he s upp ly o fG roup I V a xes t ha t was a va i lab le i n t he
' Perhaps i n f orma t ion o b ta ined d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he c urren t e xcava t ion s a t Ma iden C as t le ( Se lk irk 1 985 ) w i l l s hed l i gh t o n t h is p rob lem .
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Wessex a rea a s b e ing g enera l ly e qu iva len t t o t he s upp l ies t ha t w ere a va i lab le i n t he n ear s our ce a reas .1 O n t h is b as is , i tc an b e p roposed t ha t p eop le i n t he Wessex a rea , l i ke t hose i n D evon a nd C ornwa l l , j ou rneyed t o t he s ource o f G roup I V mat er ia l a nd a cqu ired t he i r o wn s upp l ies .2 T he f ew c o mp lete a xes a nd p ar t s a nd f ragmen t s o fa xes o fG roup I V t ha t h ave b een f ound b eyond t he Wessex r eg ion p robab ly r eached t he a reas where t hey f i na l ly e n t ered t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord t hrough e xchange .
T he r ar i ty o f s u ch s pec imens c l ea r ly i nd ica tes
t ha td i s t r ibu t ion b eyond t he Wessex a rea was n ot a n i mpor tan t a spec t o fG roup I V d i sper s a l . I n s umma ry , t he r esu l t s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n m orpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I V a nd G roup I Va h ave i nd ica ted p a t terns o f p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibut ion t ha t a re q u i te d if eren t f r om t hose p os tu la ted f o r G roup XV I .
F or b o th
G roup I V a nd G roup I Va , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he a xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted t h rough d i rect a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s ource .
T h is was p oss ib le b ecause t he s our ce , l o cated
b e tween ma jor a rea s o fE ar ly N eo l i th i c s e t t lemen t , was p robab ly n o t c on t ro l led b y a ny o ne g roup .
G roup I
A xes o f G roup Imater ia l , a l ong w i th a xes o f ma ter ia ls t ha t h ave b een d escr ibed a s " G roup I a" o r " near G roup I " , a re g enera l ly p resumed t o h ave o r ig ina ted a t as our ce i n t he Moun t 's B ay a rea , n ea r P enzan ce , C ornwa l l ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :101-103 ) .3
1T h is a pp l ies t o t he Wessex a rea a s a who le . W i th in t h is a rea , i t may b e s i g n if i can t ( s ee b e low ) t ha t t he l a rges t a xe was f ound n ea r t he s ou th c oas t , wh i le t hose a xes f ound i nn or thern Wessex a re o ft he i n t ermed ia te a nd sma l l s i zes ( s ee F ig . 8 .27 ) . 2T h is s hou ld b e q ua l i f ied b y s ugges t ing t ha t p erhaps o n ly p eop le l o ca ted n ea r t he s ou th c oast d i d t h is , wh i le p eop le i nn or thern Wessex o b ta ined t he ir a xes t hrough e xchange w i th t he s ou therners . 3H owever , s im i lar r ock h as a l so b een f ound a t C ox T or , n ear P et er tavy , D evon a nd a t T reva ss ick , n ear S t . Aus te l l , C ornwa l l ( Hope -Sanderson 1 970 :86 ) .
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T ogether 1 t hey c ompr ise t he s econd mos t a bundan t g roup o f B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes , a nd t hey a ccoun t f o r 1 7 .7% o ft he g rouped a xes i nt h i s d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o f a l l o f t he c o mp le te G roup Ia xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef erences a re s hown i n F ig . 8 .28 .2 F rom t h is map i ti sa pparen t t ha t a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l w ere d i s t r ibuted w ide ly i nN eo l i th i c B r i ta in . T hey a ppear t ob e p a r t icu la r ly a bun d an t i n c en t ra l s outhern E ng land , t he L ondon a rea , E as t Ang l ia , a nd e ven c oas ta l Y orksh ire . I n h i s a na lys is o f r e la t ive f r equen cy p a t t erns o f a xes o f v ar ious g roups , C umm ins n oted t ha t a xes o f G roup Ia re mos t a bundan t n o t i n t he C orn ish s our ce a rea , b u t o n t he E ssex c oas t a nd i nt he L ondon a rea ( Cumm ins 1 979 :11 , F ig . 7 a ) . H e i n terpre ted t h is p a t t e rn a s i nd ica t ing t ha t G roup I a xes w ere d i st r ibu ted t hrough t wo -s tage t rade , t ha t i s , t ranspor t o f a xes i n b u lk a l ong c oa s ta l wa terways d i rect ly f r om t hp s our ce t od i stant s ec o ndary c en ters f r om wh ich t hey w ere s ubsequen t ly d i s t r ibu ted t o p eop le i n i n land a reas ( i b id . :9 ) .
Wh i le t end ing t o c onf i rm t he v i ew t ha t a xes o f G roup Iw ere t ranspor ted a l ong
c oas ta l wat erways , H odder 's r esea rches ( Hodder 1 974 , 1 978 ; H odder a nd O r ton 1 976 ; H odder a nd L ane 1 980 , 1 982 ) s eem t o s ugges t more i nd irect , p erson -t o -person a nd v i l lage t o -v i l lage movemen t o ft hese a xes o u twa rd f r om t he s ource . Whether s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup Ia xes s ugges t s e i ther o f t hese , o r a ny o ther , p a t t e rns a nd p rocesses o f d i st r ibut ion i s a ma jor q ues t ion wh ich w i l l b e a ddressed i n t h is i nves t iga t ion .
' In t he r e ma inder o f t h is d i scuss ion , t he d es igna t ion " Group I " w i l l r ef er t o i mp le men t s o f " Group I a" a nd " near G roup I " mat er ia ls a s w e l l a s i mp lement s o f G roup I ma ter ia l p roper . N o t o n ly c an a l l o ft hese ma ter ia ls b e a ssumed t o h ave o r ig ina ted i n t he s ame g enera l a rea , b u t t he a va i lab le c hrono log ica l e v idence ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :253 ) g ives n o i nd ica t ion o fd if eren t p er iods o fu se f o r a ny o ft hem . F ur thermore , a xes o ft he G roup I v ar iet ies t aken t oge ther c an b e s hown t oh ave ad i s tr ibu t ion v ery s im i la r t ot ha t o fa xes o f G roup I p roper . F or t hese r easons , a xes o f a l l o f t hese ma ter ia ls w i l l b e c ons idered t oge ther f o r p urposes o ft h is i nves t iga t ion . 2I n a dd i t ion , u nprovenanced c o mp let e a xes o f t h is g roup a re r epor ted t o h ave b een f ound i n t he Y orksh ire Wo lds a nd t he C ambr idgesh ire F ens a nd r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
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Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l ity
O bserva t ions i n t he l i tera ture o n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among i mp lemen t s o f G roup Iemphas ize t he v ar iety o f s hapes t ha t c an b e s een ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :1031 04 ; E vens e t a l . 1 962 :212 ; E vens e t a l .
1 972 :239 ; C umm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :223 ) .
T hese i n c lude l o ng p o in ted -butt ed a xes ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :103 ) , " norma l" a xes ( i b id . ) , s tumpy t h ick -bu t ted a xes ( i b id . ) , s hor t c i gar -shaped a xes o f " Br id l ing ton" t ype ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :223 ) , a xes w ith e xpanded c ut t ing e dges ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :212 ) t ha t a ppear t o LI aa te c opper a xes ( S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :104 ) , a dzes , a nd a v ar iety o f s haf t ho le i mp len i rn t s ( i b id . :103-104 ) . I th as b een s ugges ted t hat " such a v ar ied a ssemb lage o f i mp lemen ts i su n ique among t he k nown a sse mb lages f r om o ther f act ory s i tes" ( i b id . :104 ) . Many o f t he d if eren t f o rms o f G roup I a xes may s imp ly r epresent c l asses o f o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked u t i l itar ian t oo ls .
I ndeed , i th as b een s ugges ted t ha t
a xes o ft he B r id l ing ton t ype a re t he r esu lt s o fl o ca l r e -work ing o fG roup Ia xes i n t he a reas o fn or theastern E ng land where t hey a re p r imar i ly f ound ( Cu mm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :223 ) . I n c on t rast , t he a xes w ith e xpanded b lades may b e as ty l ist ic t ype w i th s ymbo l ic v a lue b eyond t ha t o fo ther G roup Ia xes . O ft he 2 06 i mp lement s o fG roup If o r wh ich Io bta ined morpho log ica l d ata ,
1 4 , o r 6 .8% , e xh ib i t e xpanded b lades .'
T he d i s t r ibut ion o f t hese
i mp lements c an b e s een i nF ig . 8 .29 , a nd a n umber o ft hem a re i lust ra ted i nF ig . 8 .30 . C ompar ison o f mean v a lues o f t he v ar iab les r ef lect ing s i ze a nd s hape b etween t he G roup Ia xes w ith e xpanded b lades a nd t hose t ha t d o n o t e xh ib i te xpanded b lades r evea led an umber o fs ta t ist ica l ly s i gn if i can t d if erences ( Tab le 8 .7 ) . T hese d if erences i nd ica te t ha t a xes w ith e xpanded b lades a re g enera l ly l a rger t han t hose w ithou t e xpanded b lades . T hey a re a l so r e lat ive ly t h inner i n p rof i le v i ew a nd r ounder i n c ross -sect iona l s hape .
T hese
r esu lt s s uggest t ha t a xes w i th e xpanded b lades d o i ndeed c o mpr ise a d if eren t morpho log i -
1A n a dd i t iona l i mp lement , C orn . 3 25 , h as b een p ub l ished a s a n a xe w ith a n e xpanded b lade ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :239 ) . However , f r om p ersona l i n spect ion o f t h is s pec imen , Iam c onv inced t ha t i ts hou ld b e c ons idered ar oughou t . I t may b e ap ref orm f o r al a rge a dze . Whe ther i ts hou ld b e c ons idered t o h ave a n e xpanded b lade i sq uest ionab le .
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c a l c l ass o f i mp lemen t f r om a xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades .
A s s uch , t hey s hou ld b e c on -
s i dered s eparat e ly i ni nves t iga t ions o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion .
Axes W i th E xpanded B lades
H is tog rams o fv a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i nF ig . 8 .31 f o r t he c o mp let e G roup Ia xes w ith e xpanded b lades f o r wh i ch t hese m easuremen t s a re a va i l a b le .1 T he h i st og ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s i nd icat es t ha t t wo ma jor s i z e c l asses o f a xes may b e p resen t i n t h is s amp le .
W i th t he b reak b etween t hem a ppear ing a round
1 60mm , t hese g roups a re r em in iscen t o ft he c l asses o fl a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l ler , r e -worked a xes o bserved among s pec imens o f G roups XV I a nd I V / IVa .
I n a dd i -
t i on , t he h i s tog ram o f w id th measuremen t s i nd ica tes t he p resence o f as i ng le u nusua l ly b road a xe .
V ar iab i l i ty among t hese a xes i n o ther a spec t s o f s i ze a nd s hape i ss ugges ted
b y t he d i s t r ibu t ions o fv a lues o ft he o ther v a r iab les . On s ca t ter p l o t s o fl e ng th v s . w idth a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measu remen t s o ft hese i mp lemen t s ( F ig . 8 .32 ) , t he t wo ma jor s i ze c l asses o f a xes c an b e s een .
T hese i n c lude a
g roup o f f i ve l a rge a xes , w i th l e ng ths g rea ter t han 1 70 mm , a nd a g roup o fe i gh t s ma l ler a xes , w i th l eng ths l e ss t han 1 55 mm . Among t he l a rge a xes i st he s i ng le u nusua l ly b road s pec imen i nd ica ted b y t he h i s t og ram o f max imum w id th measu remen t s .
T h is i mp lemen t i sE ssex 1 2 ( F ig . 8 .30a ) , a nd
i ti s c l ea r ly v i s ib le o n t he s ca t ter p l o t s ( F ig . 8 .32 ) a s b o th t he w ides t a nd t he t h ickes t s pec imen i n t h is s amp le .
I n a dd i t ion t o i t s u nusua l d imens ions , t h i s i mp lemen t e xh ib i t s
s evera l b road v er t i ca l r i dges o n t he l ower p or t ion o fo ne f a ce , af ea tu re t ha t Ih ave s een o n n o o ther B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xe .
F ur thermore , t he b lade o f t h is a xe i s b lun t a nd
lO ne o f t he a xes w i th a n e xpanded b lade i s s o b ad ly d amaged t ha t n one o f i t s d imens ions a re i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is . F ewer a xes a re r epresen ted i n t he h i st og ram o f max imum w id th measuremen t s a nd i nt hose o ft he s hape r a t ios b ased o n max imum w id th ( i . e . , l eng th /w id th r a t io a nd w id th / th i ckness r a t io ) t han i n t he h i s tog ram o f l eng th measuremen t s b ecause s evera l a xes f o r wh ich t he max imum l e ng th i sk nown a re d amaged a t o ne o r b oth c orners o f t he e xpanded b lade . Ap ub l ished e xamp le o fs u ch a n i mp lemen t i sG los . 2( Ke i l ler e ta l . 1 941 :54 , F ig . 1 ,1 78 ; S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :131 , F ig . 6 ,# 78 ) .
1 75
smoo th , a s t hough i t was n ever f i ne ly s harpened .
A l l o f t hese f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t h is
i mp lemen t was p roduced a s as ymbo l ic , n on -u t i l itar ian i t em . T he s ame i n terpre ta t ion may b e v a l id f o r t he o ther l a rge G roup I a xes w i th e xpanded b lades , b ut f o r t he m i ti sl e ss c l earcut .
On o ne o f t he m , a nother f ea ture c an b e
s een wh ich i su n ique among a l l o ft he B r i t ish Neo l ith ic s t one a xes Ih ave s tud ied . T he a xe i sD evon 1 5 ( F ig . 8 .30b ) a nd t he i n terest ing f ea ture o fi ti s ap rotrud ing l ump o n o ne f ace . T h is l ump must h ave b een p roduced , o r l e f t , o n t he i mp lement d e l iberate ly , a s i tc ou ld s ure ly h ave b een p ecked away i fi t wasn 't wanted . t h is a xe i su nknown .
T he r eason f o r l e av ing t h is l ump o n
I tc ou ld h ave b een l e f t t o e nhance t he s ymbo l ic v a lue o f t he i mp le -
men t , o r p erhaps i t was l e f t t o a i d i ns tab i l iz ing t he a xe i ni t s h af t . Among t he o ther l a rge G roup I a xes w i th e xpanded b lades ,1 n o s uch u n ique f ea tures c an b e s een .
However ,
t hese i mp lement s may h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le g oods s imp ly o n t he b as is o f t he ir s i ze a nd t he ir e xpanded b lades . Many o f t he sma l ler a xes w ith e xpanded b lades a ppear t o h ave f unct ioned a s u t i l itar ian t oo ls . Ab lade t hat i sa symmetr ica l i n s hape w ith r espec t t ot he l ong a x is o ft he i mp lemen t i n f ace v i ew i s as ure s i gn t ha t a n a xe h as b een w orn a nd r e -sharpened ( G . R . C oope , p ers . c o mm .
1 980 ) .
T h is f ea ture c an b e s een o n s evera l o f t hese a xes ( e .g . ,
S uf f . 4 4 a nd E ssex 5 ,F ig . 8 .30d a nd F ig . 8 .30e , r espect ive ly ) . F urther e v idence o ft he u se o f sma l ler a xes w ith e xpanded b lades a s u t i l itar ian t o o ls c an b e s een i n t he b reakage p a t t e rn o f t wo o f t hem . I n t he p ub l ished d raw ings o fG los . 22 ( Ke i l ler e t a l . 1 941 :54 , F ig . 1 , 1 78 ; S tone a nd Wa l l is 1 951 :131 , F ig . 6 , # 78 ) , i t c an b e s een t ha t o ne c orner o f t he e xpanded b lade was b roken o f f .
An a lmost i d en t ica l i mp lemen t w ith a s im i lar b reakage
1T hese i n c lude L incs . 3 23 ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :224 , F ig . 3 , # 397 ) , Wi l ts . 2 08 ( measured a nd d rawn b y me , b u t n ot i lust ra ted h ere ) , a nd C orn . 3 86 ( unpub l ished a nd i n p r iva te h ands ; p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing r e l ied u pon f o r a xe d imens ions ) . 2T he
a xe i t se lf was d est royed t hrough e nemy a ct ion d ur ing Wor ld War I .
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p a t tern i s S taf f s . 1 6 .1 B ecause t he c orners o f t he b lade a re i t s w eakest p ar t s , t h is s or t o f b reakage i s l i ke ly t o o ccur i f , d ur ing u se , am is -h i t o ccurs i n wh ich t he c orner o f t he b lade , r ather t han t he c enter , s t r ikes t he t arget d i rect ly ( D ickson 1 981 :102 ) . T he e v idence t ha t sma l ler a xes w ith e xpanded b lades f unct ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t oo ls d oes n ot p rec lude t he ir h av ing b een r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems a s w e l l . I fs t one a xes w ith e xpanded b lades were , i ndeed , f ash ioned t oi m itate meta l a xes w ith e xpanded b lades , t hen h av ing a nd u s ing s t one a xes w ith e xpanded b lades may h ave b een r egarded a s more p res t i g ious t han h av ing o n ly a xes w ithou t e xpanded b lades . Whether t he sma l ler a xes w ith e xpanded b lades w ere p roduced f r om r oughou t s a t t he s ource o r t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes i s u ncer ta in .
T he s ymmet r ica l s hape ,
u n if orm f i n ish , a nd r e la t ive ly we l l -def ined e xpanded b lade o fs o me e xamp les ( e .g . , S uf f . 4 4 , F ig . 8 .30d ; G los . 2 , r ef erences t o p ub l ished i lust ra t ions g iven a bove ) s ugges t t he f o rmer wh i le a more a symmetr ica l s hape , l e ss u n if orm f i n ish , a nd a b lade t ha t i s o n ly s l igh t ly f l ared o n o ther e xamp les ( e .g . , E ssex 8 ,F ig . 8 .30c ; E ssex 5 ,F ig . 8 .30e ) s uggest t he l a t ter . I t s eems r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t i fc er ta in s ty l ist ic f eatures o f a xes i mpar ted g rea ter v a lue t o t he m , p eop le w ou ld t ry t oi n corporat e t hose f ea tures i n to a xes t hat w ere b e ing r e w orked . I n s ummary , t h is i nvest iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among G roup I a xes w ith e xpanded b lades h as r evea led t wo ma jor s i ze c l asses . T hese i n c lude l a rge a xes wh ich w ere p robab ly o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughouts a t t he s ource a nd sma l ler a xes a t l e as t s o me o f wh ich may h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes .
T he l a rge a xes
may h ave f unct ioned p r imar i ly , o r e nt ire ly , a s n on -ut i l i tar ian , c ere mon ia l i t ems .
T he
sma l ler a xes a ppear t o h ave s erved a s u t i l itar ian t oo ls , b u t b ecause o ft he ir s ymbo l ic c on t en t a s i m i tat ions o f meta l a xes , t hey were p robab ly r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems a s we l l .
1N ot
i ng .
i lustrated h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw -
1 77
A xes W i thou t E xpanded B lades
F or p re l im inary i nvest iga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he l a rge n umber o f G roup Ia xes wh i ch d o n o t h ave e xpanded b lades , as amp le o f a xes f ound i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he s our ce c an b e d ef ined o n t he b as is o f ah i st og ram o f t he d i s tances f r om t he s ource a t wh i ch t hese a xes h ave b een f ound ( F ig . 8 .33 ) .
T h is s amp le i n c ludes
n ine a xes wh ich h ave b een f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he p resumed s ource l o ca l i ty . H istog rams o fv a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i n F ig . 8 . 34 f o r t he G roup I a xes 1 i n t he n ea r -source s amp le f o r wh ich t hese measuremen t s a re a va i l a b le .2 T he h i s tog ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s i nd icat es t ha t t he a xes i n t h is s amp le may f a l l i n to t hree s i ze c l asses . ' S evera l o f t he o ther d i s t r ibu t ions e xh ib i t p a t terns wh i ch a re n o t s t r ic t ly n orma l a nd wh i ch may b e r e la ted t ot he p resen ce o fd if eren t s i zes o r t ypes o fa xes i nt h is s amp le . O n s ca t t er p l o t s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s o f t he G roup I a xes i n t he n ea r -sou rce s amp le ( F ig . 8 .35 ) , t hree g enera l s i zes o f a xes c an b e s een . S pec imens r epresen ta t ive o fe ach o ft hese t hree s i zes a re i lus tra ted i nF ig . 8 .36 . T o a i d i n i n terpre t ing t he t h ree s i ze c l asses o bserved among a xes i nt he n ea r -sour ce s amp le , p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among r oughou t s o fG roup Ima ter ia l c an b e i nves t igat ed .
T he l o ca t ions o f f i ve G roup I r oughout s a re s hown i n F ig . 8 .37 ,3 a nd
s evera l o ft hese s pec imen s a re i lus t ra ted i nF ig . 8 .38 . On s ca t ter p l o t s o fl e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s o f t he r oughou t s a nd t he a xes i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le ( F ig . 8 . 39 ) , i tc an b e s een t ha t r oughou t s c orrespond ing i n s i ze w i th a xes i ne a ch o f
1F or t he r ema inder o f t h is d i scuss ion , t he d es igna t ion " Group I a xes" w i l l r e f er t o G roup Ia xes w i thou te xpanded b lades , u n less o therw ise i nd ica ted . 20 ne o f t he a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le i s s o b ad ly d amaged t ha t n one o f i t s d imens ions a re i n c luded i nt h is a na lys is . 3A
s i x th G roup Ir oughou ti su nprovenanced .
1 78
t he t hree s i ze c l asses h ave b een f ound .
T h is s ugges t s t ha t a xes o f a l l t hree s i zes w ere
o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s ource . A c l oser l o ok a t t he a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le r evea ls f ea tures wh ich a l low e l abora t ion a nd mod if i ca t ion o f t h is i n terpreta t ion .
T he t wo l a rges t a xes , C orn . 3 9
( F ig . 8 .36a ) a nd C orn . 3 87 ,1 e xh ib i t f ea tures wh i ch s ugges t t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s may b e u nf in ished .
T hese f ea tures i n c lude t he u neven s hape o f t he l a t t er a nd a v ery b lun t
b lade , wh i ch was p robab ly n ever s harpened , o n t he f o rmer .
I f t hese i mp lemen t s a re
u nf in ished , i t i s l i ke ly t ha t t he f i n ished a xes w ou ld n o t h ave b een mu ch sma l ler . T heref ore , t he r e cogn i t ion o f ac l ass o fv ery l a rge G roup Ia xes p roduced f r om v ery l a rge r oughou t s , l i ke C orn . 1 80 ( F ig . 8 .38a ) , i n t he i mmed ia t e v i c in i ty o f t he p resumed s our ce s eems v a l id .
H owever , b ased o n c ompar ison o f t he n umber o f v ery l a rge a xes a nd
r oughou t s w i th t he n umber o f sma l ler a xes a nd r oughout s i nt h is s amp le ( s ee F ig . 8 .39 ) , i t c an b e s uggest ed t ha t v ery l a rge a xes w ere p roduced l e ss f r equen t ly t han sma l ler o nes . On t he b as i s o f r e la t ive a bundance o f a xes a nd r oughou t s o f d if eren t s i zes i n t h is s amp le , i t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t he i n termed ia te -s ized , b u t s t il r e la t ive ly l a rge ,2 a xes r epresen t t he more t yp ica l p roduc t s o f t h is s our ce .
A l l o f t hese , C orn . 1 45 ( F ig . 8 .36b ) ,
C orn . 6 4 ,3 C orn . 1 48 ( F ig . 8 .36c ) , a nd C orn . 3 63 ,4 a re g enera l ly s im i lar i n s hape , w i th b road b lades , o va l c r oss -sec t ions , a nd b u t t s wh ich t aper g radua l ly t o ap o in t i n b o th f a ce a nd p rof i le v i ews .5 T he s hor tes t o ne o f t hese a xes , C orn . 3 63 , e xh ib i t s ab lade wh ich i s
' No ti lus t ra t ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing . 2T hese
a xes r ang e i nl eng th f r om 1 64 mm t o 2 00 mm .
3N o t
i lus t ra t ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
4N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
5T he c ha rac ter is t ics o f a n o va l c ross -sect ion a nd a g radua l ly t aper ing p o in ted b u t t a re c o mmon t o many G roup Ia xes . T he o va l c ross -sec t ion i s af ea ture t ha t i sr e la t ed t o f unct ion . An a xe w i th a r ound c r oss -sec t ion w ou ld b e s t ronger a nd b e t te r a b le t o w i thstand b l ows t han a n a xe w i th a c ross -sec t ion o f a ny o ther s hape ( G . R . C oope , p ers . c o mm . 1 980 ) . H oweve r , a n a xe w i th a p erf ect ly r ound c ross -sec t ion w ou ld b e more l i ke ly t o t w is t s i deways i n i t s h af t t han a n a xe w i th a f l a t ter c ross -sec t ion . A n o va l c ross s ec t ion , t hen , c omb ines t he s t reng th o f ar ound c ross -sect ion w i th t he s tab i l i ty o f af l a t ter
1 79
marked ly a symmet r i c i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew , i nd ica t ing t ha t i t was u sed , w orn , a nd r e s harpened . T he b lades o fo ther s pec imen s ( e .g . , C orn . 1 45 a nd C orn . 1 48 , F ig . 8 .36b & c , r e spect ive ly ) e xh ib i t sma l ler -sca le d amage i n t he f o rm o f c h ip s cars .
T h is e v idence s ug -
g est s t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s f unc t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . A l though t he s i ng le sma l l r oughou t i nd ica tes t ha t sma l l a xes w ere p roduced i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s ource , t he r e la t ive a bundance o fr oughou t s o fd if eren t s i zes i nt h is s amp le s ugges t s t ha t p rodu c t ion o f s uch sma l l a xes was q u it e i n f requen t i n r e la t ion t o p rodu c t ion o f l a rger o nes .
I ndeed , t he t wo sma l l a xes i n t h is s amp le ( Corn . 3 18 , F ig . 8 .36d , a nd
C orn . 3 94 , F ig . 8 .36e ) e xh ib i t c ha ra c ter is t ics wh ich s ugges t t ha t t hey w ere n ot p roduced f r om r oughout s b u t i n s tead a re r e -worked s pec imens .
F ur thermore , t hese c harac ter is t ics
s ugges t t ha t e ach o f t hese a xes was p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a d if eren t p or t ion o f a d amaged l a rger a xe .
T hus , t he u ndamaged , g radua l ly t aper ing b u t t a nd o bv ious ly r e -
w orked b lade o fC orn . 3 94 ( F ig . 8 .36e ) s uggest t ha t t h is i mp lemen t was p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing a n a xe wh ich h ad b een d amaged a t t he b lade b u t n ot a t t he b u t t , o r e ven t h rough r e -work ing t he u ndamaged b u t t e nd o f av ery l a rge a xe wh ich h ad b een b roken i n t he m idd le . I n c ont ras t , t he u neven , o bv ious ly r e -worked b u t t a nd u ndamaged b road b lade o fC orn . 3 18 ( F ig . 8 .36d ) s ugges t t ha t t h is i mp lemen t was p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing a n a xe wh ich h ad b een d amaged a t t he b u t t b u t n o t a t t he b lade . I n a dd i t ion , t he f l a t o va l c r oss -sec t ion a nd c on t rast ing f i n ish o n t he t wo f a ces o f t h is i mp lemen tl s ugges t t ha t t h inn ing o ft he o r ig ina l d amaged a xe was n ecessary i no rder t op roduce t h is n ew o ne . I n s ummary , t h is i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I t ha t w ere f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he s ource h as r evea led t hree moda l s i ze c l asses . A xes
, o ne . T he g radua l ly t aper ing , p o in ted b u t t i s af ea ture t ha t may b e r egarded a s s ty l is t ic . T here s eems t o b e n o o bv ious f unct iona l r eason why a g radua l ly t aper ing , p o in ted b ut t w ou ld b e p ref erred o ver a ny o ther f o rm . N ever the less , t h is s hape o fb u t t i ss een o n a xes f r om o ther C orn ish s our ces ( e .g . , t hose o f G roups XV I a nd I V / IVa ) , a nd i t may b e i n t er p reted a s as ty l is t ic f eature r ef lec t ing manufa cture i nt h is a rea . 1T he " f ron t" o ft h is a xe , i lust ra ted i n F ig . 8 .36d , i sr e la t ive ly smooth f r om h av ing b een g round , wh i le t he r everse f a ce i sr ougher f r om h av ing b een p ecked o n ly . T h is o bser v a t ion i sb ased o n p ersona l i n spec t ion o ft he i mp lemen t .
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o f t he i n termed ia te s i ze a ppear t o h ave b een t he most f r equen t ly p roduced , t yp i ca l p roduc t s o f t he s ource , wh i le v ery l a rge a xes a nd sma l l a xes w ere p robab ly p roduced i n l e sser n umbers .
I ndeed , t he sma l l a xes i n t h is s amp le d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een
p roduced f r om r oUghout s b u t i n st ead t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes , a nd morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty b e tween t hem s eems t o b e r e lated t o t he p or t ion o f t he o r ig ina l a xe t ha t was d amaged .
T hese r esu l t s a l low u s t o p red ict t ha t w i th in a l a rger s amp le o f G roup Ia xes ,
b oth o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked sma l l a xes w i l l b e p resen t a nd c ons iderab le mor p ho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty w i l l b e e xh ib it ed b y t hem . F or i n i t ia l c o mpar ison o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l ity among G roup I a xes f ound f ur t her t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource w i th t he p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty o bserved among t he a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le , a l l o ft hese i mp lemen t s c an b e r epresen ted o n s ca t ter p l ots o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measurement s ( F ig . 8 .40 ) .
O n
t hese p l o t s i tc an b e s een t ha t among t he a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s our ce a re many
more
s pec imens
s im i lar
i n s i ze
t o t he
s ma l l ,
r e -worked
a xes
a nd
t he
i n t ermed iate -s ized , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes o ft he n ea r -source s amp le . H owever , n o more s pec imens a s l a rge a s t he t wo v ery l a rge , p erhaps u nf in ished , a xes a re p resen t .
S ince
t hese t wo i mp lemen t s a re s o much l a rger t han t he r e s t o ft he G roup Ia xes , a nd t hus , a re c l ea r ly i n ac l ass b y t hemse lves , t hey h ave b een e x c luded f r om s ubsequen t s t eps i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty . On t he s ca t ter p l o t o f l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts ( F ig . 8 .40b ) , s o me e v idence o f ma jor g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes , c orrespond ing t o t he i n termed ia te s i zed a nd sma l l a xes o f t he n ear -sour ce s amp le , c an b e s een .
H owever , n o i nd i ca t ion o f
s uch g roups i sp resen t o n t he s ca t t er p l o t o fl eng th v s . w id th measuremen t s ( F ig . 8 .40a ) , a nd n o e v idence o fa ny o ther morpho log ica l c l us ters o fa xes c an b e s een o n e i ther p l o t . H istograms o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v a r iab les f o r t hese a xes a re p resen ted i n F ig . 8 .41 .
T he d i st r ibu t ion o f l eng th measuremen t s i s c l ear ly b imoda l , w i th a b reak
a round 1 46 mm b etween g roups o fl a rger a nd sma l ler a xes . N one o ft he o ther h i s tog rams
1 81
i s a s c l ear ly b imoda l a s t ha t o f t he l eng th measuremen t s , a l though v ar iab i l ity f r om a s t r i c t ly n orma l d i s t r ibu t ion c an b e o bserved i n mos to ft hem . I n o rder t od et erm ine whe ther ma jor s i ze c l asses , o r a ny o ther morpho log ica l c l asses wh i ch c ou ld n o t b e r ecogn ized o n t he s ca t ter p l o t s o r i n t he h i stog rams , c an b e i d en t if ied among t he G roup Ia xes i n t he g enera l s amp le , t he a na ly t ica l t e chn iques wh ich p roved t o b e u sefu l i nt he i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o ft he e ar ly C orn ish g roups c an b e emp loyed . Ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup I a xes i n t he g enera l s amp le f o r wh i ch a l l o f t hese measuremen ts a re a va i lab le ( F ig . 8 .42 ) i nd icat es s t rong r e la t ionsh ips among s evera l o f t he v ar iab les .
I n p ar t icu la r ,
c o rre la t ions g reat er t han + .89 c an b e o bserved b e tween max imum w id th a nd c ent er w id th , b e tween max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h i ckness , a nd b etween t he w id th / th i ckness r at io a nd t he c ross -sect ion r a t io .
T hese r e la t ionsh ips i nd i ca te t ha t t he v ar iab les i n e a ch
p a i r a re e ssen t ia l ly r edundan t measure s o f t he s ame a spec t s o f a xe s i ze a nd s hape . B ecause o f t h is , t he v ar iab les o f c ent er w id th , c ent er t h i ckness , a nd c ross -sec t ion r a t io w ere om i t ted f r om f ur ther c ons idera t ion .1 Ap r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is was t hen c arr ied o u to n t he r e ma in ing s i x v ar iab les ( Tab le 8 .8 ) i n o rder t o i d en t ify t he ma jo r d imens ions o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among t hese a xes .
T h is a na lys is y i e lded t hree s i gn if i can t c o mponen t s wh ich t ogether a ccoun t f o r
9 9 .5% o f t he v ar iab i l i ty among t hese s pec imens .
T he f i rs t c o mponen t r ef lect s v a r ia t ion
among t he a xes i n l eng th , t h ickness , a nd s hape i nf a ce v i ew ; t he s econd r ef lec t s v a r ia t ion i n max imum w id th a nd w id th i nr e la t ion t ot h i ckness ; a nd t he t h ird r ef l ect s s hape i np rof i le v i ew b u t n o t a bso lu te t h i ckness . H ist og rams o f t he c o mponen t s cores o f t he t h ree s i gn if i can t p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a re p resen t ed i n F ig . 8 .43 . T he o n ly o ne o ft hese t ha t e xh ib i t s a ny e v idence o fb imoda l i ty t ha t m igh t r ef lect d if eren t morpho log ica l c l asses o f a xes i st he h i st og ram o f s cores o f t he
1B y om i t t ing t he " cen ter" v ar iab les a nd r eta in ing t he "max imum" o nes , f i f teen more a xes f o r wh i ch o ne o r more o f t he " center" measuremen t s a re u nknown c ou ld b e i n c luded i ns ubsequen t s tages o ft he a na lys is .
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f i rs t c o mponen t ( PC .1 ) .
L ike t he h i st og ram o f l eng th measuremen t s ( c f . F ig . 8 .41 ) , t h is
d i s t r ibu t ion i nd icates t he p resence o f t wo ma jor s i ze c l asses o f a xes i n t h is s amp le .
T he
s cores o f t he a xes i n t he o ther t wo s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponent s a re n orma l ly d i s t r ibu ted . A t t h is p o in t i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roups XV I a nd I V , s ca t t er p l ot s o ft he s cores o f t he a xes i nt wo s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s w ere e xam ined i n o rder t o d et erm ine i fc l usters o f morpho log ica l ly s im i lar s pec imens c ou ld b e i d en t if ied .
S ince t hree s i gn if i can t p r in c ipa l c o mponen ts h ave b een i d en t if ied f o r a xes o f
G roup I ,i n t roduc ing a d eg ree o fc o mp lex i ty t ha t w ou ld b e d if i cu l t t o r epresen tc l ea r ly i n a t wo -d imens iona l f o rma t , ad i f f eren t a pproa ch w i l l b e t aken h ere . T he c o mponen t s cores t ha t a re p roduced i n ap r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is a re u ncor re la ted v ar iab les t ha t r ef lec t t he v ar ia t ion among t he i t ems i n c luded i n t he a na lys is . A s s uch , t hey c an b e u sed a s t he v ar iab les i n ac l ust er a na lys is . F or t he G roup Ia xes , t he c o mponen t s c ores o ft he t hree s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s w ere u sed a s t he b a s is f o r a c l us ter a na lys is . T h i s a na lys is was c ar r ied o u t u s ing t he m in imum v ar iance a lgor i thm a nd t he E u c l idean d i stance measure .
I n t he c l ust er a na lys is , t he v a r iab les w ere w e igh ted
a ccord ing t o t he ir e igenva lues i nt he p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . T h is i st oe nsu re t ha t v ar iab les wh ich r ef lec t d if eren t p ropor t ions o f t he o vera l l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes w i l l h ave c orrespond ing ly g rea ter o r l e sser i nf luence w i th in t he c l ust er ing p rocess . T he d endrogram p roduced i n t he c l us ter a na lys is o f G roup I a xes i s p resen ted i n F ig . 8 .44 .
T he f i rs t ma jor i n crease i n t he d i stances a t wh ich l i nkages o ccurred i n t he
a na lys is ( i . e . , f r om 1 5 .864 t o 2 3 .057 ) i nd icates t ha t u p t o f our t een s i gn if i can t c l u s ters o f G roup Ia xes c ou ld b e d ef ined .
H owever , o ther ma jor i n creases i n t he d i s tances a t wh ich
c l us ters j o ined ( i . e . , f r om 5 5 .883 t o 7 6 .133 a nd f r om 8 7 .644 t o 1 44 .93 ) s ugges tt ha t s even m inor o r f our ma jor c l ust ers o f a xes c ou ld a l so b e r egarded a s s i gn if i can t .
T he s even
c l ust ers a re r epresen ted o n s ca t ter p l ot s o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s i n F ig . 8 .45 , a nd s ummary d escr ipt ions o f t he a xes i n e ach c l us t er a re
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p resented i nT ab le 8 .9 . A xes r epresen ta t ive o fe ach o ft he s even c l us t ers a re i lus t rat ed i n F ig . 8 .46 . Among t he s even c l ust ers r evea led b y t he c l us ter a na lys is a re g enera l s i ze c l asses o f v ery l a rge a nd l a rge a xes ( c lusters 7 a nd 6 , r espec t ive ly ) , t hree c l asses o f med ium -s ized a xes ( c lus ters 1 ,2 ,a nd 5 ) , a nd t wo c l asses o fv ery s ma l l a xes ( c lust ers 3 a nd 4 ) . T he t wo c l asses o f v ery sma l l a xes i n c lude s pec imens t ha t c an b e d escr ibed a s g enera l ly w ider ( c lus ter 3 ) a nd n a rrower ( c lus ter 4 ) .
Among t he t h ree c l asses o f med ium -s ized a xes , t he
s pec imens i n o ne c an b e d escr ibed a s r e la t ive ly w ide b u t o f modera te t h i ckness ( c lus ter 1 ) , t he s pec imens i n a no ther c an b e d escr ibed a s r e la t ive ly t h in b u t o f moderat e w id th ( c lus ter 2 ) , a nd t he s pec imen s i n t he t h ird c l ass c an b e d escr ibed a s o f b oth modera te w id th a nd moderat e t h ickness ( c lust er 5 ) . A t t he l e ve l o f f ou r s i gn if i can t c l us ters , t he c l ust ers o f v ery l a rge a nd l a rge a xes h ave j o ined t of o rm ag enera l g roup o fl a rge a xes , t he t wo c l u s ters o fv ery s ma l l a xes h ave j o ined t o f o rm a g enera l g roup o f v ery sma l l a xes , a nd t he c l us ters o fr e la t ive ly w ide a nd r e la t ive ly t h in med ium -s ized a xes ( c lust ers 1 a nd 2 ) h ave j o ined t o f o rm a g roup o f a xes t ha t a re w ider o n a verage t han t he a xes i n t he t h ird c l ust er o f med ium -s ized s pec imens wh ich s t i l l i si ndependen t a t t h is l e ve l . I n s ucceed ing s t eps o f t he a na lys is , t he g roups o f med ium -s ized a nd sma l l a xes a re j o ined s o t ha t t he t wo ma jor c l ust ers l e f tb ef ore t he f i na l s t ep o f t he a na lys is c ons is t o f t he v ery l a rge a nd l a rg e a xes a nd t he med ium -s ized a nd sma l l a xes . T h is p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes i n t he g enera l s amp le o f G roup Is pec imens i ss im i lar t ot he p a t t ern t ha t wa s o bserved among t he a xes i n t he n ea r s ource s amp le , a nd i n terpreta t ion o ft h is p a t tern c an f o l low t he s ame g enera l l i nes . T hus , t he c l us ters o f l a rge a nd v ery l a rge a xes t ha t w ere r evea led i n t h is a na lys is i n c lude t he i n t ermed iat e -s ized a xes o f t he n ea r -source s amp le p lus a n umber o f o ther a xes s im i la r t o t hem i n g enera l s i ze a nd s hape ( e .g . , S uf f . 5a nd D enb . 8 , F ig . 8 .46a & b , r espe c t ive ly ) . Mos t o f t he a xes i n t hese g roups a re s ymmet r i ca l i n s hape , a re smooth ly f i n ished , a nd
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h ave o va l c ross -sec t ions a nd g radua l ly t aper ing , p o in ted b u t t s .
T hese f ea tu res i nd i ca t e
t ha t t hese a xes w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced f r om r oughou t s i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s ou rce . T he l a rge a xes ( c lus t er 6 )a re o ver t hree t imes more a bundan t t han t he v ery l a rge a xe s ( c luster 7 ) a nd a ppear t o « r epresen t t he t yp i ca l p rodu ct s o f t he s ource .
E v iden ce o f w ea r o n t he
b lades o f an umbe r o f a xes i n b oth o f t hese c l us ters i nd ica tes t ha t t hey f unc t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . H owever , s o me o f t hem , p ar t icu lar ly t he v ery l a rge o nes , may a l so h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le i t ems f o r p urposes o fc eremon ia l d i sp lay a nd e xchange . A s p red i c ted i n t he d i scuss ion o f a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , ag rea t d ea l o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty c an b e o bserved among t he s ma l ler a xes i n t he l a rger s amp le . T h is v ar iab i l i ty i sr ef lect ed b y t he l a rge n umber o fc l us ters o f med ium -s ized a nd s ma l l a xes t ha t w ere p roduced i n t he c l uster a na lys is .
Among t hese a xes t here may b e s ome
s pec imens t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om sma l l r oughou t s a t t he s ource , b u t mos t o f t hem p robab ly r epresen t t he r esu l t s o f r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing l a rger a xes .
Mor -
p ho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t hese i mp lemen t s i sp robab ly r e la ted t o t he s or t o f d amage t ha t was s usta ined b y t he l a rger a xe o r t ot he p or t ion o ft he l a rger a xe t ha t was r e -worked t o p roduce t he n ew o ne .
H owever , s pec if i c i n terpre ta t ion a l ong t hese l i nes o f t he i mp le -
men ts i n e a ch c l us ter i sn o t p oss ib le . A l though t he a xes w i th in e ach c l us ter a re s im i la r i n t e rms o f g enera l s i ze a nd s hape , t hey t end t o b e v ar iab le i n t e rms o f morpho log ica l f ea t ures t ha t w ere n o t q uan t if ied , s uch a s b u t t s hape .'
I t a ppea rs t ha t e a ch c l ust er
i n c ludes a xes t ha t w ere r e -worked i n d if eren t ways o r f r om d if eren t p or t ions o f l a rger a xes .
T ha t t hese c l us ters d o n o t r epresen t t he r esu l t s o f r e -work ing a xes i n s pe c if i c l o ca l
a reas i s a ppa ren t f r om t he f a c t t ha t a xes i n e a ch c l us ter h ave b een f ound i n w ide ly s epara ted a reas o f t he G roup Id i st r ibu t ion ( F ig . 8 .47 ) . B ecause o f t he d i ff i cu l ty i ni n ter p re t ing t he c l ust ers o f med ium -s ized a nd sma l l a xes , i ts eems more u sefu l , f o r p u rposes o f
1T hus , a xes w i th g radua l ly t aper ing , p o int ed , a ppa ren t ly u ndamaged b u t t s a re f ound i n t he s ame c l us ters a s a xes w i th b road , b lun t , o bv ious ly r e -worked b u t t s . A s a s pec if i c e xamp le , t he t wo sma l l a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , wh i ch w ere s een t od if er c ons iderab ly i n b u t t f o rm , w ere a ss igned t o t he s ame c l us te r o f med ium -s ized a xes i n t he c l us ter a na lys is .
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t h is i nvest iga t ion , t o t h ink o f t he sma l ler a xes o f G roup Ia s ag enera l c l ass o f p r imar i ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s among wh i ch c ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty c an b e s een . I n s ummary , t h is i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I t ha t d o n o t h ave e xpanded b lades h as r evea led t wo ma jor c l asses o f a xes :
l a rge a xes o f
t he s i zes t ha t w ere t yp i ca l ly p roduced f r om r oughou t s i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he s ou rce a nd sma l l a xes t ha t a re p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens .
A l though a l l o f t he l a rge a xes a re
v ery s im i lar i n f o rm a nd f i n ish , v ar iab i l i ty i ng enera l s i ze wa s o bserved among t hem . T he t wo l a rges t a xes ( l eng th = 2 51-257 mm ) f ound n ear t he s ource may b e u nf in ished i mp le men ts . Among t he o ther l a rge a xes , t wo g enera l s i ze c l asses w ere r evea led b y t he c l ust er a na lys is .
T he s ma l ler l a rge a xes ( l eng th = 1 46-177 mm ) a ppear t o r epresen t t he more
t yp i ca l p roduc t s o f t he s our ce , wh i le t he v ery l a rge o nes ( l eng th = 1 88-217 mm ) may h ave b een r egarded a s more v a luab le b ecause o f t he ir s i ze a nd t he i r r e la t ive r ar i ty . H owever , a xes i n b o th c l asses a ppea r t o h ave f unc t ioned , a t l e as t i n p ar t , a s u t i l itar ian t oo l s . Among t he sma l l a xes ( l eng th < = 1 48 mm ) , c ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty , a pparen t ly r esu l t ing f r om t he r e -work ing o fa xes t ha t w ere d amaged i nd if eren t ways , l e d t o t he i d en t if i ca t ion o f al a rge n umber o f c l us ters o f t hese a xes i n t he c l ust er a na lys is . H owever , s pec if i c i n t erpre ta t ion o f t he a xes i n t hese c l us ters was n o t p oss ib le , s o f o r p ur p oses o f t h is i nves t iga t ion , t hese a xes w i l l b e c ons idered a s as i ng le , g enera l ly -def ined g roup .
Morpho log i ca l Var iab i l i ty a nd D is t r ibut ion
B ef ore i nves t iga t ing s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup Ii n g enera l , p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s pec imens f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion s hou ld b e e xp lored . e xpanded b lades w i l l b e c ons idered .
I n t h is d i scuss ion , a xes w i th a nd w i thou t
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Axes f r om S pec if i c C on t ex t s o fD epos i t ion
N o s pec if i c c ont ex t o f d epos i t ion i sk nown f o r n ear ly 8 5% o f t he c o mp le te G roup I a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t .
H owever , af ew a xes a re k nown t o h ave b een f ound o n o ccupa t ion
s i t es , a t r i tua l s i t es , a nd i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes , a nd a r e la t ive ly l a rge n umber o f a xes h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames ( Tab le 8 .10 ) .
O ccupa t ion C on tex t s Axes o f G roup Ih ave b een f ound i n a pparen t o c cupa t ion c ont ex t s i n C ornwa l l , E as t Ang l ia , a nd L inco lnsh ire .
T hese v ary i n s i ze f r om v ery sma l l t o l a rge a nd i n c lude
e xamp les w i th a nd w ithou te xpanded b lades . Two a xes o fG roup Iw ere f ound o n o ccupa t ion s i tes i n w est ern C ornwa l l , w i th in 2 5 km o f t he p resumed s our ce o f t he r aw ma ter ia l .
One o f t hese ,
C orn . 2 49 , 1 wa s
r e covered d ur ing e xcava t ion a t t he mu l t i -per iod s i te o f Gw i th ian , f r om a l ayer wh i ch a pparen t ly r epresent s ac ons iderab le p assage o f t ime ( Mercer 1 975 :36 ) .
T h is s ugges t s
t ha t t h is i mp lemen t may h ave b een a c han ce l o ss o n t he s i te d ur ing a p er iod when i t was n o t i n tens ive ly o ccup ied , r a ther t han a l o ss d ur ing a ctua l o ccupa t ion .
T h is a xe i s v ery
sma l l a nd a pparen t ly h eav i ly d amaged .2 On ly 9 km f r om t he s i te o f Gw i th ian i st he s i te o f C am B rea , where s o many a xes o ft he e ar ly C orn ish g roups h ave b een f ound . A t t h is s i t e as i ng le c o mp let e a xe o f G roup I was r ecovered .
H owever , t h is a xe , C orn . 3 63 , 3 was n ot f ound i n ac l osed c ont ex t ( Sm i th
1 979 :17 ) , s o i ti su ncer ta in whe ther i t wa s l o s t d ur ing t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c o ccupa t ion o ft he s i te o r whe ther i t was a l a ter c hance l o ss o n t he s i te . T h i s a xe i sl a rge a nd i t s a symme t r i c a l ly s haped b lade s uggest s t ha t i th ad b een w orn t hrough u se .
1N o t
i lus t rat ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2F or t h is r eason , i t was n o t i n c luded i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup Ia xes . 3N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
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On ly o ne o the r c omp le te G roup Ia xe h as b een f ound i nt he s ame g r id s qua re a s t he o nes f r om Gw i th ian a nd C am nB rea . I ti sC orn . 1 45 ( F ig . 8 .36b ) , av ery l a rge a xe , l a rger t han b o th o ft he o nes f r om t he o c cupa t ion s i t es . I n t he a d ja cen t g r id s quare , i n wh ich t he p resumed s our ce o fG roup Ii sl o cat ed , f ou r c omp let e a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l w ere f ound , a nd t h ree o ft hese a re l a rger t han t he o nes f r om Gw i th ian a nd C a m nB rea . Two c omp let e a xes o f G roup Ih ave b een f ound i nt he H ockwo ld -cum -W i lt on /Fe l twe l l a rea o fN or f o lk , a n a rea o fi n tens ive p reh ist or i c o c cupa t ion a nd a ct iv i ty ( C lough a nd G reen 1 972 :133 , 1 37 , 1 40 ) .
B o th o f t hese a xes , N or f . 1 68 ( F ig . 8 .460 a nd N orf . 1 89 ,1 a re
v ery s ma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s , a nd b o th h ave b een d amaged b y l e a ch ing o ft he s urfa ce m inera ls .2 I n t he s ame g r id s quare , s i x teen o ther c o mp le te a xes o f G roup Ih ave b een f ound a nd a l l o f t hese a re l a rger t han t he t wo f ound i n t he H ockwo ld -cum W i lt on /Fe l twe l l a rea . S even c omp le t e a xes o fG roup Ih ave b een f ound a t t he s i te o f Wa lton -on -the -Naze , o n t he E ssex c oas t .
T hree o f t hese , E ssex 5 , E ssex 8 , a nd E ssex 1 2 ( F ig . 8 .30e , c ,& a ,
r e spec t ive ly ) h ave e xpanded b lades .
E ssex 1 2 i st he u nusua l ly b road a xe w i th r i dges o n
i t s s ur face wh i ch was i n terpreted a s an on -u t i l i ta r ian , v a luab le i t em .
T he o ther t wo a re
s ma l ler i mp lemen t s t ha t p robab ly f un c t ioned a s u t i l i ta r ian t oo ls .
T hese
a xes
w i th
e xpanded b lades , wh ich may h ave b een p roduced i n t he f o rm o f e ar ly meta l a xes , a re p robab ly r e lat ed t o t he B eaker o c cupa t ion o f t h is s i te r a ther t han t o t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c o c cupa t ion ( Warren e t a l . 1 936 :182 ) .
I ti si mposs ib le t o d e term ine t o wh i ch p hase o ft he
o c cupa t ion t he f our G roup Ia xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades a re r e la ted .
1N o t
Among t hese a re
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
2N orf . 1 89 h as b een d amaged t o s uch a n e x ten t t ha t i t s o r ig ina l d imens ions a re u n cer ta in . C onsequen t ly , i t was n ot i n c luded i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty d i s cussed a bove .
1 88
o ne l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced s pec imen ( Essex 9 ) a nd t h ree sma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked o nes ( Essex 1 ,E ssex 7 ,a nd E ssex 1 0 ) .1 F ive o ther c o mp let e G roup Ia xes h ave b een f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare a s t he o nes f r om Wa l ton -on the -Naze . Two o ft hese h ave e xpanded b lades . B oth a re v ery s im i lar i ns i ze t oE ssex 8 , t he l a rger o ft he t wo sma l ler a xes w i th e xpanded b lades f r om t he s i t e . I fE ssex 1 2 i si n c luded , t he mean l e ng th o ft he a xes w i th e xpanded b lades f r om Wa l ton -on t he -Naze ( 158 .33 mm ) i sg rea t er t han t he mean l eng th o f t he a xes w i th e xpanded b lades f ound i no ther a reas o ft he g r id s quare ( 145 .50 mm ) . H owever , i ft he u nusua l , a pparen t ly n on -u t i l i tar ian a xe i se xc luded , t he mean l eng th o f t he a xes f ound away f r om t he s i t e i s g rea ter t han t he mean l e ng th o ft he o nes f ound a t t he s i te ( 133 .00 mm ) . T he o ther t hree c omp le te G roup Ia xes f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare a s t he s i te o f Wa lt on -on the -Naze d o n o t h ave e xpanded b lades .
Two o f t hese a xes h ave b een d amaged
s o t ha t t he ir measurab le l e ng ths a re l e ss t han t he ir o r ig ina l , u ndamaged l e ng ths must h ave b een . E ven s o , t he mean l e ng th o ft hese t hree a xes ( 139 .67 mm ) i ss t i l l g reat er t han t he mean l e ng th o f t he f our a xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades f r om Wa l ton -on -the -Naze ( 124 .25 mm ) . F inaly , ac o mp let e G roup I a xe h as b een f ound a t t he s i te o f N ormanby , n ear S cun thorpe , L inco lnsh i re . D es t ruc t ion o f t h is s i te d ue t o s and q ua rry ing h as b een t ak ing p la ce f o r o ver t wen ty y ears , a nd t he s i t e h as y i e lded a w ide r ange o f mat er ia l d a t ing f r om t he Meso l i th i c t o t he B ronze A ge ( May 1 976 :58 ) .
S herds o f L a ter N eo l i th ic P et erborough
p ot tery h ave b een f ound a t t h is s i t e , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he a xe , L incs . 1 23 , 2 was c on temporary w i th t hem .
Two o ther c o mp le te a xes o f G roup I h ave b een f ound i n t he
s ame g r id s quare . B o th o ft hese a re l a rge , a nd t he l e ng th o f t he a xe f ound a t N ormanby
lE ssex 7 , E ssex 9 , a nd E ssex 1 0 w ere mea sured a nd d rawn b y me b u t a re n ot i lust ra t ed h ere ; t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing was r e l ied u pon f o r i n f orma t ion a bou t E ssex 1 . 2N o t
i lust ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
1 89
f a l ls o u t s ide o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 14 .14 ) o f t he mean l e ng th ( 160 mm ) o f t hose o ther s pec imens . F rom t hese d a ta , i ta ppears t ha t G roup Ia xes r ecovered f r om o ccupa t ion c ontex t s t end t o b e sma l ler , o n a verage , t han G roup Ia xes r e covered f r om o f -s ite c ont ex t s i n t he s ame g enera l a rea s .
T h is i st he p a t tern t ha t was p red i c ted t o r esu l t f r om i n t era c t ion o f
t he f a ctors o f d if eren t ia l i n tens i ty o f p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd d if eren t ia l i n tens i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ing i n d i f f eren t c on tex t s . T hus , more i n t ens ive p reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty o n o c cupa t ion s i t es t han i n o f -s i te c on tex t s w ou ld r esu l t i n p reh is tor ic r ecovery o f g reat er p ropor t ions o f l o s t , b u t s t i l l u sefu l , a xes o n s i tes t han i n o f -s it e a reas .
A s ar esu l t , t he
s amp les o f a xes t ha t w ou ld e n t er t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord f r om o ccupa t ion s i tes w ou ld i n c lude g reat er p ropor t ions o f sma l l , d i scarded a xes t han w ou ld t he s amp les o fa xes f r om o f -s i te c ont ex t s . T hese w ou ld i n c lude g rea ter p ropor t ions o fl o st , b u t s t i l l u sefu l , a xes . I n a dd i t ion , more i n t ens ive a rchaeo log ica l a c t iv i ty , i n c lud ing b oth s urface c o l lect ing a nd e x cava t ion , o n k nown o c cupa t ion s i tes w ou ld r esu l t i n r ecovery o f a xes o f a l l s i zes wh i le l e ss i n tens ive c o l le c t ing i n o f -s i te c on tex t s w ou ld r esu l t i n r ecovery o fg reat er p ropor t ions o fl a rger a xes i nt hose a reas . I n t e rms o fa xe s i ze p a t t erns t ha t m igh t b e r e la ted t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion , l i t t le c an b e d e term ined f r om t h is s amp le .
W i th t he e x cep t ion o f t he t wo a xes
f r om t he s our ce a rea , a l l o ft hese a xes w ere f ound w i th in a v ery n arrow r ange o fd i s tances f r om t he s ource , a l though t hey w ere f ound i n d if eren t d i rect ions f r om i t . T he a xes f ound a t Wa l ton -on -the -Naze d emons t ra t e t ha t l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l r ea ched a n a rea o ver 5 00 km f r om t he s ource .
H owever , t he mechan ism t hrough wh i ch
t h is t o ok p lace c anno t b e d e term ined f r om t h is s amp le .
1 90
R i tua l C on tex t s A s i ng le c omp let e a xe o f G roup I , W i l t s . 2 09 , 1 was f ound a t t he L a t e N eo l i th i c r i tua l s i t e o f Woodhenge , i n o ne o f t he p os tho les , where i t was a ssoc ia t ed w i th s herds o f G rooved Ware ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :213 ) . I ti s av ery sma l l a xe , p resumab ly r e -worked a nd a pparen t ly d amaged a t t he b lade .
A s s uch , i ti st he s econd sma l les t o f t he s i x c o mp le t e
G roup Ia xes f ound i n t h is g r id s quare f o r wh ich morpho log i ca l d a ta a re a va i lab le .
T he
s i ze o f t h is a xe s ugges t s t ha t r a ther t han b e ing a d e l ibera t e r i tua l d epos i t , i ti ss imp ly a w orn -ou t a xe t ha t was d i scarded a nd , l i ke t he G rooved Ware s herds , f e l l i n to t he p os tho le .
A ssoc ia t ions o fA xes A t Har t ing ton , N e ther Quar ter , N ewhaven , D erbysh ire , a n a xe o fG roup Ia nd o ne o f G roup V I w ere f ound a t t he s ame t ime , a l though t here i sn o d ef in i te p roof t ha t t hey w ere a ssoc iated ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :61 ) .
T he G roup Ia xe , D erby . 6 9 ,2 i s s ma l l
a nd t he G roup V I a xe , D erby . 7 3 , i sv ery sma l l ( l eng th = 9 2 mm ) .
T he s i zes o f t hese
a xes s ugges t t ha t i ft hey w ere , i ndeed , a ssoc ia ted , t hey c an p robab ly b es tb e i n t erpre ted a s a xes l o s t o r d i scarded a tt he s ame t ime .
T he R iver T hames A t l e as t t wen ty -f our c o mp le te a xes o f G roup Ima ter ia l h ave b een r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames . 3 Mos t o f t hese w ere f ound i n t he L ondon a rea a l though t wo w ere f ound f ur ther w es t i n B erksh ire , a nd s evera l a re n o t p rec ise ly p rovenanced . Among t he t wenty a xes f o r wh ich morpho log i ca l d a ta a re a va i lab le , o ne i sv ery l a rge , t wo a re l a rge , a nd s even teen a re sma l l . T he mean l eng th o fa l l o ft hese a xes i s1 35 .45 mm .
1N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2N ot
i lus t ra t ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ing .
3Ma ny o f t hese a xes a re i lus t ra ted i n C e lor ia 1 974 , S tan ley 1 976 , a nd Adk ins a nd J a ckson 1 978 . S ee T ab le 8 .10 f o r t he s pec if i c r ef erences .
1 91
I n t he L ondon a rea ( g r id s qua re # 53 ) , s evera l G roup Ia xes h ave a ppa ren t ly b een r e covered f r om l and c ont ex t s . H owever , Ih ave morpho log ica l d a ta f o r o n ly o ne o ft hem , a l a rge a xe w i th a l e ng th o f 1 51 mm .
T h is i sl a rger t han t he mean l eng th ( 137 .57 mm ) o f
t he T hames a xes k n own t o h ave b een f ound i n t h is a rea , b u t i tf a l ls w ith in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 28 .67 ) o ft ha t mean . I n t he B erksh ire a rea ( g r id s quare # 52 ) , an umber o f G roup I a xes h ave b een r e covered f r om l and c ontex t s .
T he mean l eng th o f a l l o f t hese a xes ( 116 .33 mm ) i sc on -
s i derab ly l e ss t han t he mean l eng th o f t he t wo T hames a xes f r om t h is a rea ( 138 mm ) . T h is i s t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween T hames a xes a nd a xes f r om l and c ont ex t s t ha t was p red ic ted t o r esu l t f r om d if eren t ia l d epos i t ion o f d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n t hese c ontex ts . T hus , s amp les o f a xes r e covered f r om l and c on tex t s w ere p red i ct ed t o i n c lude g rea ter p ropor t ions o f sma l l a xes b oth b ecause l a rger a xes w ere o f t en r e covered a nd r e -used a nd b ecause many sma l l a xes w ere s imp ly a bandoned when i tb ecame a pparen t t ha t t hey w ere n o l o nger u sefu l .
I n c on t ras t , s amp les o f a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames w ere
p red i c ted t o i n c lude g rea ter p ropor t ions o f l a rge a xes a nd l e sser p ropor t ions o f s ma l l a xes b oth b ecause a xes d ropped i n t he T hames g enera l ly c ou ld n o t b e r ecovered i n p reh ist or ic t imes a nd b ecause i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t f ew u sed -up a xes w ere a c tua l ly d i sca rded i n t he T hames . I nst ead , t he a xes d ropped i n t he T hames w ere p robab ly p r ima r i ly u sefu l a xes c ar r ied b y p eop le u s ing t he T hames a s at ranspor t r out e . I n t e rms o f i d en t ify ing a xe s i ze p a t terns t ha t m igh t b e r e lat ed t o p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibut ion , t h is s amp le o fa xes f r om t he R iver T hames i so fl i t t le u se , s i n ce i t i sa ppa ren t ly a s amp le f r om a d i f feren tp opu la t ion t han t he s amp le o f a xes f r om l and c on t ex t s a nd t hus c anno tb e c o mpared d i re ct ly w i th t hem .
S umma ry Ana lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I f r om s pec if i c c ont ext s o f d epos i t ion h as y i e lded i n terest ing r esu l t s i n t e rms o f t he q ues t ion o f d epos i t ion a nd r e covery o f d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c on text s .
A l though t he
1 92
s amp les o f a xes f r om r i tua l c on text s a nd a ssoc ia t ions w ere t o o sma l l f o r mean ing fu l c om p ar ison w i th s amp les o f a xes f r om o ther c ontexts , c o mpar ison o f t he s i zes o f a xes r ecovered f r om o ccupa t ion c ontex ts a nd t he R iver T hames w i th t he s i zes o f a xes f r om u nknown c ontexts i n t he s ame a reas y ie lded r esu l ts wh ich t end t o s uppor t t he p red ict ions made i n C hapt er V I r egard ing r e lat ionsh ips b e tween t he s i zes o f a xes f r om d if eren t c on t exts .
T hus , a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c ont ext s a ppear t o b e g enera l ly sma l ler t han a xes
f ound i n o f f -s ite c ontexts i n t he s ame a reas , a nd a xes f r om t he R iver T hames t end t o b e g enera l ly l a rger t han a xes f ound i nl and c ont exts i nt he s ame a reas . I n t e rms o f a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity i n r e la t ion t o p a tt erns a nd p rocesses o fd i str ibu t ion , l i t t le c an b e d one w i th t hese a xes f r om s pec if i c c on t ext s o f d epos i t ion d ue t o sma l l s amp le s i ze a nd Jor l im i ted g eog raph ica l d i st r ibut ion o ft he s amp le .
F or f urther i nvest igat ion o f t h is q uest ion , i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider t he o ther
8 5% o ft he c o mp le te G roup Ia xes f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c on tex t o fd epos i t ion i sk nown .
G enera l C ons iderat ions
I n t he
a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty
among a xes o f G roup I , i t was
d emonstra ted t ha t t he s pec imens w i th e xpanded b lades a re , a s ag roup , s ta t ist ica l ly d i f f e ren t i n s i ze a nd s hape f r om a xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades , a nd i t was a rgued t ha t t hese t wo c l asses o f a xe s hou ld b e c ons idered s eparat e ly i n i nvest iga t ions o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd
d i str ibut ion .
We
h ave a l ready c ons idered p at t erns o f morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l ity among t hese a xes ; w e n ow t urn t od i str ibut ion .
Axes W ith E xpanded B lades A lthough mu ch l e ss n umerous t han o ther a xes o f G roup I , a xes w ith e xpanded b lades a ppear t o h ave a b road ly s im i lar d i st r ibut ion ( c f . F ig . 8 .28 a nd F ig . 8 .29 ) .
T hus ,
t here i sn o th ing t o s uggest t hat i mp lement s o ft he t wo c l asses w ere d i str ibu ted i n d if eren t d i rect ions .
1 93
T he l e ng ths a nd s i ze c l asses ( c f . F ig . 8 .32 ) o ft he G roup Ia xes w i th e xpanded b lades a re s hown i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s ou rce i nF ig . 8 .48 a nd o n ad i s t r ibu t ion map i n F ig . 8 .49 .
I n t hese t wo f i gures , i tc an b e s een t ha t l a rge a xes w ith e xpanded b lades a re
f ound a t a l l d i s tances f r om t he s our ce . I ndeed , t he l eng ths o ft hese l a rge a xes c an b e s een t oi n crease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource , a nd t he t wo l a rgest o nes a re f ound i n a rea s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion t ha t a re f a r thes t f r om t he s ource .
I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t h is
p a t t ern o f i n crease i n a xe l e ng th w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s our ce r e su l t s f r om a p ro cess i n wh ich t he l a rges t , a nd p resumab ly t he most v a luab le , a xes a re p assed o n t o e x change p ar tners a te a ch s t ep i nt he e xchange n etwork .' T here i sl i t t le o bv ious s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among t he sma l ler a xes w i th e xpanded b lades ( s ee F ig . 8 .48 a nd F ig . 8 .49 ) . T he f a c t t ha t a l l o ft hese i mp lemen t s w ere f ound f ar ther t han 2 00 km f r om t he s ource i s ag ood i nd ica t ion t ha t t hey w ere p roduced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes .
T hese i mp lemen t s a re s o w ide ly s ca t tered i n
s pa ce t ha t f ew mean ing fu l c l us ters c an b e d ef ined f o r c o mpar ison o f mean l e ng ths o f a xes . H owever , i tc an b e n oted t ha t t he mean l e ng th o f t he f our s pe c imens f ound o n t he E ssex c oa s t a nd n earby i nS uf f o lk ( a t a n a verag e d i stance f r om t he s our ce o f 5 18 km ) i s1 39 mm wh i le t he mean l eng th o f t he t wo a xes f ound i n S omerse t a nd G loucest ersh i re ( a t a n a ve rage d i s tan ce f r om t he s ource o f 2 65 km ) i s 1 37 mm .
C lea r ly t here i sn o d e crease i n
mean l e ng th o fa xes w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s our ce t ob e s een h ere . A l though a dm i t t ed ly b ased o n av ery s mal s amp le , t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l ity among a xes o f G roup Iw i th e xpanded b lades s uggest s t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s w ere d i st r ibut ed i n av ery d if eren t w ay f r om a xes o ft he s ma l ler C orn ish g roups . F or f ur t her e v idence o fp a t tern s a nd p rocesses o f d i spersa l o f G roup Ia xes , t he l a rger s amp le o f i mp lement s w ithou te xpanded b lades mus tb e c ons idered .
1T he v ery r egu la r s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft hese a xes ( F ig . 8 .49 ) i sa l so i n tr igu ing . I t c an p erhaps b e s ugges ted t ha t t he a rea s where t hese a xes h ave b een f ound—Cornwa l l , D evon , t he Wessex a rea , E as t Ang l ia , a nd t he Humbers ide a rea o f n or thern E ng land— w ere ma jor n odes i n t he e xchange n e twork o f G roup Ia xes . F ur ther e v iden ce o f t h is w i l l b e p resen ted b e low .
1 94
Axes W i thou tE xpanded B lades T he l eng ths o ft he G roup Ia xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c on t ex t s o f d epos i t ion a re k nown a re s hown i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s our ce i n F ig . 8 .50 . D isregard ing t he t wo l a rges t i mp lemen t s f ound i n t he i mmed ia t e v i c in i ty o ft he s our ce , t here i sn o e v idence o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i n r e la t ion t od i s tance . C lear ly , a xes o fa l l s i zes , b o th l a rge a nd sma l l , h ave b een r ecovered i n a reas a t a l l d i s tan c es f r om t he s ource . T h is p a t tern i sa l so s een i n ap l o t o f t he mean l e ng ths o f t hese a xes i n 5 0 km g r id s quares a ga inst d i stan ce f r om t he s our ce ( F ig . 8 .51 ) .1 A c orre la t ion o f — .2994 b e tween t hese mean l e ng ths o f a xes a nd d i stance i nd ica tes a s l igh t t enden cy f o r a xe l e ng th t o d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource , b u t t h is c orre la t ion i sn o t s i gn if i can t a t e ven t he . 05 l e ve l .
F ur thermore , e ven t h is s l igh t t endency f o r a xe s i ze t o d ecrease w i th
i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s ource c an b e d emons t ra ted t ob e e n t ire ly d ue t ot he p resence o f t he t wo v ery l a rge a xes i n t he s our ce a rea : when t hese i mp lemen t s a re e x c luded f r om t he c a lcu la t ion , t he c orre la t ion b etween mean l eng th o f a xes a nd d i stance f r om t he s ource b ecomes + .0476 .
T hus , o u t s ide t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he s ource , n o s i gn if i can t p a t -
t e rn ing i n a xe s i ze v a r iab i l i ty i nr e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s ource i sa pparen t i n at wo d imens iona l a na lys is . T h is i s av ery d if eren t p i c ture f r om t ha t p resent ed b y H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 , 1 982 ) .
A s ar esu l t o f t he ir a na lyses , t hey c l a imed t o s ee a p a t tern o f
d ecrease i na xe s i ze w i th i n crea s ing d i stance f r om t he s our ce f o r G roup Ia xes . I n o ur t heoret ica l d i scuss ion o ft he u se o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i na xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a s a n i nd ica tor o f p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l , t he p rob lem o f t he e f ec t s o f d i f f e ren ti n tens i t ies o fp reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing o n t he s i zes o fa xes d epos i ted a nd r ecovered i n d if eren t a reas was c ons idered a t l eng th .
I t was s ugges ted t ha t t he
i nf luence o f t hese f a c tors m igh t b e i nd i ca ted b y as i gn if i can t n ega t ive c orre la t ion b e tween
' On ly g r id s quares c on ta in ing t wo o r more c o mp le te a xes o fG roup Ia re i n c luded i n t h is p l o t d ue t ot he f a c t t ha tt he l eng ths o fs i ng le a xes i ng r id s quares a re h igh ly v ar iab le .
1 95
t he mean l e ng th o f t he a xes a nd t he c orrect ed t o ta l n umber o f s t one a xes i n e a ch g r id s quare .
F or t he G roup Ia xes w i thou t e xpanded b lades , ac orre la t ion o f + .2197 b etween
t hese v ar iab les wa s o b ta ined . s i gn if i can t a t t he . 05 l e ve l .
F or t he 2 7 g r id s qua res i nvo lved ,1 t h i s c orre la t ion i s n o t
T hus , f o r t hese a xes , t he f a ct ors o f i n t ens i ty o f p reh istor i c
a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing , a s measured b y t he c orre c ted t o ta l n umber o f s t one a xes , d o n o t a ppear t o h ave a s i gn if i can t g enera l i nf luence o n t he o bserved s i zes o f a xes i n t he g r id s qua res .
T heref ore , f o r f u r ther i nvest iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty
among a xes o f G roup I ,t here s eems t ob e n o n eed t oc on t ro l f o r t hese f a c tors b ef ore i n ter p re t ing t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i nt e rms o fp a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l . S ince n o e v idence o f s i gn if i can t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup Iwas o bserved i n at wo -d imens iona l a na lys is o f a xe l e ng th a nd d i s tance f r om t he s our ce , w e n ow t urn t o at h ree -d imens iona l r epresenta t ion o ft he d a ta f o r c l ues t op a t terns a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l .
I n F ig . 8 .52 , t he mean l e ng ths o ft he a xes i n 5 0 km g r id
s quares a re p resen ted i n map f o rma t . F rom t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f mean l e ng th v a lues o n t h is map , w e c an s ee t ha t a xes o f G roup Iw ere d i s t r ibut ed b y means o f c oasta l a nd r i ver ine t r anspor t . T he l a rges t mean l eng th s o f t he G roup I a xes a re f ound i n t wo g r id s qua res i n w est ern C ornwa l l .
T h i s r esu l t i s n o t s u rpr is ing s i n ce t h is i s t he s ou r ce a rea f o r t hese
i mp lemen t s . I n a l l o ther a reas o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion , t he l a rges t mean l e ng ths o ft he a xes a re f ound i n g r id s quares b order ing t he c oas t o r ma jor r i vers wh i le mean l e ng ths o fa xes a re s ma l ler i n g r id s quares i n i n land l o ca t ions .
T hus , o n t he s ou th c oas t o f E ng land , ar e la -
t i ve ly l a rge mean l e ng th v a lue i ss een i n g r id s quare # 22 .2 I n land f r om t h is a rea , mean a xe l e ng ths a re sma l ler .
T h is i s t he p a t tern o f a xe s i ze v a r iab i l i ty t ha t i s e xpec ted t o
' Aga in , o n ly g r id s quares c on ta in ing t wo o r more c omp let e a xes o f G roup Iw ere i n c luded i nt he c a lcu la t ion . 2I n t h is s qua re a re l o ca ted t hree L a te N eo l i th i c h enge monumen t s . T hese a re E gga rdon a nd Maumbury R ing s , b o th r e la t ive ly sma l l s i t es w i th d iame ter s o f 5 6 m a nd 8 5 m r espe ct ive ly , a nd Moun t P leasan t , o ne o ft he Wessex "megahenges" w i th a d iame ter o f3 66 m ( Bur l 1 969 :11-12 , 2 2-23 , 2 6 ) .
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r esu l t f r om c oas ta l t ranspor t o fa xes a nd g roup -t o -g roup e xchange i n land f r om t he c oas ta l t rad ing l o ca l i t ies . R e la t ive ly l a rge mean l e ng ths o f a xes i n g r id s quares b order ing t he R iver S evern ( #50 , # 64 , # 79 ) a nd s ma l ler mean l e ng ths o f a xes i n g r id s quares f ar ther away i nd i cat e t ha t t h is r i ver was a ma jor c orr idor o f t ranspor t o f G roup I a xes i n to t he i n ter ior o f B r ita in .
A n umber o f s i ng le f i nds o f G roup I a xes i n g r id s quares i n t he Wes t M id lands
a nd Wa les ( s ee F ig . 8 .28 ) f ur ther u pho lds t h is i n t erpreta t ion .
T he t wo a xes t ha t a re
r epresen ted b y t he mean l e ng th f i gure o f 1 58 mm i n g r id s quare # 76 o n t he w es t c oas t o f Wa les a l so s eem l i ke ly t o h ave r ea ched t he ir d es t ina t ion t hrough movemen t a l ong t he S evern r out e r a ther t han t h rough d i rec t t ranspor t t o t he We lsh c oas t .
Ne i ther a xe i s
l o ca t ed n ea r t he c oas t a nd o ne , a t l e as t , i s l o ca ted n ear a r i ver t ha t c onnec ts w i th t he S evern s yst em . I n c on t ra s t , a xes a re l o cat ed o n a nd c l ose t ot he s ou th c oast o f Wa les ( g r id s quare # 48 ) . T h is i nd i ca tes t ha t e x change o f G roup Ia xes t o ok p lace a l ong t h is c oast a nd t ha t p eop le l i v ing i n land f r om i t( e .g . , i n g r id s quare # 63 ) o b ta ined t he ir a xes f r om p eop le l i v ing o n t he c oas t . G o ing e as t t o t he L ondon a rea ,' s evera l a xes h ave b een f ound o n l and i n g r id s quare # 53 ( t he c en t ra l L ondon a rea ) , b u t s i ze d a ta w ere a va i lab le f o r o n ly o ne . H owever , s i ze d a ta w ere a va i lab le f o r a n a dd i t iona l n ine a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames i n t h is a rea .
T he mean l e ng th o f a l l o f t hese a xes i s 1 38 mm ( s ee F ig . 8 .52 ) . A l though
s t r i ct ly s peak ing , t he l e ng ths o f T hames a xes s hou ld n o t b e c o mpared w i th t he l e ng ths o f a xes f r om o ther c on t ex t s , t hese d a ta d o s ugges t t ha t t he L ondon a rea was a nother d i s t r ibu t ion c enter f o r G roup Ia xes . T he d a ta p resen ted i n F ig . 8 .52 s ugges t t ha t G roup Ia xes c ou ld h ave r eached t he c en t ra l Wessex a rea f r om t h ree d if eren t d i re c t ions :
t he s ou th c oast , t he R iver S evern ,
a nd t he L ondon a rea . B e cause o ft h is , i ts eems u nusua l t ha t t he mean l eng th s o f G roup I
1S ize d ata w ere u nava i lab le f o r mos t o f t he f ew G roup Ia xes f ound i n t he c oun t ies o fs ou theas tern E ng land .
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a xes i n t hese s qua res a re s o l ow .
Is uspec t t ha t t he r eason f o r t h is may i nvo lve l o ca l
e f f ec t s o f d i f f eren t ia l i n tens i t ies o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing wh ich t he d a ta a t my d i sposa l d o n o t a l low me t oa ssess f u l ly . Mov ing f ar ther e as t a nd n or th f r om t he L ondon t rad ing l o ca l i ty , w e c o me t o t he E ssex c oast .
I n t h is a rea ( g r id s quare # 69 ) at o ta l o f 1 2 c o mp le te a xes o f G roup Ih ave
b een f ound . F ive o ft hese h ave e xpanded b lades a nd a re r epresen ted i n F ig . 8 .49 . O f t he o ther 7 , 4w ere f ound a t t he s i te o f Wa l t on -on the -Naze wh i le 3 w ere f ound i no f -s i te c on t ex t s .
I t i s t he mean l e ng th o f t hese 3 i mp lemen t s t ha t i s s hown i n F ig . 8 .52 .1 T h is
f i gure i nd ica tes t ha t t h is a rea was a no ther i mpor tan t c oasta l t rad ing l o ca l i ty f o r G roup I a xes . Wh i le n o t ing t he r e la t ive ly l a rge n umber o f G roup Ia xes f ound o n t he E ssex c oa s t , C umm ins ( 1979 :10 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t t hey may b e a ccoun ted f o r i n t e rms o f s h ips b l ow i ng o f f c ourse o n t he i r way t o t he L ondon a rea , wh ich h e h ypo thes ized a s t he p r ima ry e as tern d i s t r ibu t ion c en ter f o r G roup Ia xes . Ib e l ieve t ha t t he a va i lab le d a ta i nd ica te t ha t r a ther t han b e ing a cc iden ta l r ec ip ien t s o fG roup Ia xes , t he s i t es o n t he E ssex c oas t w ere r egu lar t rad ing l o ca l i t ies f o r t hese i mp lemen t s . T h is a rea i sr i ch i ns i tes a nd b ur ia ls o ft he t h ird a nd s econd m i l lenn ia b . c .
E v iden ce o f w ooden p add les a nd a c anoe a t s i t es i n t he
a rea ( Warren e t a l . 1 936 :184 ) s ugges t t ha t t he i nhab i tan t s may h ave b een a ct ive p a r t i c ipan ts i nt he c oas ta l / r iver ine t rade a nd c o mmun ica t ion s yst em . T he d a ta p resen ted i n F ig . 8 .52 s ugges t t ha t t he o ther G roup Ia xes i n E as t Ang l ia c ou ld h ave r eached t he ir l o ca l i t ies o fd epos i t ion i n t hree ways : o ver land f r om t he L ondon a rea , a cross t he E as t Ang l ian b ou lder c l ay r eg ion f r om t he E ssex c oas t , o r f r om o ther c oas ta l l o ca t ions i n S uf f o lk a nd N orf o lk .
W i th t he e x cep t ion o f S uf f . 5 , al a rge a xe f ound
a t L ound R un n ea r t he e as t c oas t o f S uf f o lk , n one o ft he o ther E ast Ang l ian G roup Ia xes a re l o ca ted i np rox im i ty t ot he c oas t . T h is s ugges t s t ha t c oas ta l t ranspor t was n ot r espon -
1T h is f i gure mus t b e v i ewed a s am in ima l o ne , a s t wo o f t he a xes u pon wh i ch i ti s b ased a re d amaged s o t ha t t he ir measurab le l e ng ths a re s o mewha t l e ss t han t he ir o r ig ina l l e ng ths mus t h ave b een .
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s i b le f o r t he ir d i st r ibu t ion .
C lough a nd G reen ( 1972 ) h ave s uggested t ha t t he b ou lder c l ay
r eg ion was a b arr ier t o c o mmun ica t ion a nd movemen t o f a xes .1 T h is l e aves o ver land t ranspor t o f a xes f r om t he L ondon a rea a s t he mos t p robab le p a t tern o f movemen t o f G roup Ia xes t ot he C ambr idge a rea a nd i n land a reas o fN orf o lk . A l though s eparat ed f r om t he f a ir ly d ense d i str ibu t ion o f G roup Ia xes i n s ou thern E ng land b y a n a rea o f r e la t ive ly s carce f i nds ( s ee F ig . 8 .28 ) , ac ons iderab le n umber o f G roup Ia xes a re k nown f r om e as tern a reas o fn or thern E ng land , i n c lud ing Y ork sh ire , L in c o lnsh ire , a nd t he P eak D is tr ic t .
T he l a rges t mean l e ng th o f t hese a xes i sf ound i n t he
Humbers ide a rea , i nd ica t ing t ha t t h is was a n e n t ry l o ca l i ty f o r t he G roup Ia xe s f ound i n L in co lnsh ire a nd t he P eak D is t r ic t . I n a dd it ion , ar e la t ive ly h igh mean l e ng th o f G roup I a xes i s f ound i n t he B r id l ing t on a rea o f t he Y orksh ire c oast ( g r id s quare # 137 ) w i th a sma l ler mean l e ng th o bserved f o r t he g r id s quare ( #136 ) i mmed ia te ly i n land . T h is s pa t ia l p a t t ern o f a xe l eng th i s s t rong e v iden ce o f c oasta l t ranspor t o f G roup I a xes t o t h is a rea .2 I n s ummary , t he r esu l t s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pat ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup Ic l ear ly i nd i ca te t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s w ere d i s t r ibut ed t hroughou t G rea t B r ita in b y means o f c oasta l a nd r i ver ine t ranspor t .
I n t h is way , t he
e f f ect s o f d i stance i n ar eg iona l e xchange s ys tem w ere o vercome , a nd g roups l o ca ted a t v ery l ong d i stances f r om t he s our ce w ere a b le t o g e t a xes o f t he s ame s i zes a s g roups l o ca ted n earer t he s our ces . T h is c on c lus ion a bou t t he mode o f t ranspor t o f G roup I a xes b road ly a g rees w i th c on c lus ions r ea ched i n s o me o f t he o ther s tud ies o f a xe d i str ibu t ion t ha t w ere b ased o n r e lat ive f r equency , r eg ress ion mode ls , o r s imp le i n spect ion o fa xe l o ca t ion maps . H owever ,
1T h is
w i l l b e d emonst ra ted w i th r espec t t oG roup V I a xe s i n C hap ter X .
2T h is p a t tern i se ven more r emarkab le when i ti s c ons idered t ha t t he v ery l a rge t o ta l n umber o f a xes i n t he c oasta l a rea i nd i ca tes t ha t t h is was t he a rea o f mos ti n t ens ive p reh is tor ic a ct iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lec t ing i n t he r eg ion . I n s u ch a n a rea t he mean l e ng th o f a xes w ou ld b e e xpect ed t o b e sma l ler t han i n n ea rby a reas o f l e ss i n t ens ive p reh is tor ic a ct iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lect ing , i fa l l o ther f a ct ors w ere e qua l .
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i ns ome d eta i ls t he r esu l t s o ft h is a na lys is d i f f er f r om t he r esu l ts o fo ther s tud ies a nd i nd i c at e t ha t t he c on c lus ions o ft hose s tud ies s hou ld b e mod if i ed . A l though t he r e su l t s o f t h is a na lys i s c onf i rm t he v a l id i ty o f C umm ins 's c on c lus ion b ased o n r e la t ive f r equency d i st r ibu t ions t ha t a xes o f G roup I w ere moved t o a reas o f e as tern E ng land a l ong c oasta l wa t erways , t hey a l so i nd i cat e t ha t C umm ins 's emphas is o n t he L ondon a rea a s t he o n ly i mpor tan td i stan t d i str ibu t ion c en ter f o r G roup Ia xes mus tb e mod if ied .
Ih ave a l ready a rgued t ha t t he p resen ce o f G roup Ia xes o n s i t es o n t he E ssex
c oa s tr epresen t s ad e l ibera te f a ce t o ft he c oasta l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft hese a xes , r a ther t han a n a cc iden t a s C umm in s s uggest s . I n a dd i t ion , t h is a na lys is h as emphas ized t he i mpor tance o f an umber o fo ther c oas ta l l o ca l i t ies w ere G roup Ia xes w ere d e l ivered .
E v iden ce o f t he
i mpor tance o f s o me o f t hese l o ca l i t ies ( e .g . , t he c oas t o f S ou th Wa les , t he S evern c orr idor , t he B r id l ing t on a rea o fY orksh ire ) i sp resen t o n C umm ins 's r e la t ive f r equency d i s t r ibu t ion map ( Cumm ins 1 979 :11 , F ig . 7 a ) , b u t t hese a reas a re o vershadowed b y t he a pparen t s i g n if i cance o ft he L ondon JEssex c oas t a rea , a nd t hey w ere n ot n o ted b y C umm ins . T hus , r a ther t han a p i c ture o f b u lk t ranspor t o f G roup I a xes t o as i ng le ma jor e as t ern c en ter f o r s ubsequen t d i s tr ibu t ion i n land , a s s ugges ted b y C umm ins , t h is a na lys is i nd i cat es a more c o mp lex p a t tern o fc oasta l a nd r i ver ine move men t o ft hese a xes i nvo lv ing g roups i n an umber o fc oasta l l o ca t ions . Among t he d a ta p resen ted i nt h is a na lys is , t here i sn o e v iden ce t o s ugges t t ha t t he L ondon a rea wa s more i mpor tan t a s ac en ter f o r d i s t r ibu t ion o fG roup Ia xes t han w ere a ny o ft he o ther c oas ta l l o ca l i t ies . A l though t h is a na lys is h as s hed c ons iderab le l i gh t o n t he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t erns o f G roup I a xes , t here a re s t i l l i mportan t a spec t s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion p rocess t ha t r e ma in u nc lea r .
Ib e l ieve t ha t t here i ss uff i c ien t e v iden ce t o i nd i ca te t ha t a f t er t he a xes r eached
e ach c oas ta l t rad ing l o ca l i ty , t he ir movemen t f a r ther i n land t ook p la ce t hrough g roup -to g roup e xchange .
H owever , t he p rob lem r e ma ins o f t he mechan ism t hrough wh i ch t he
G roup Ia xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted f r om t he s ource t oe a ch c oas ta l l o ca t ion . T here a re a n um b er o f ways i n wh i ch t h is c ou ld h ave o ccurred . One p oss ib i l i ty i st ha tg roups i ne a ch ma jor
2 00
c oas ta l l o ca l i ty t raded p r imar i ly w i th g roups i ne ach a d ja cen t ma jor c oas ta l l o ca l i ty , s o t he a xes p rog ressed o u tward f r om t he s our ce i n ag roup -t o -g roup p a t tern a l ong t he c oas t s . A lt erna t ive ly , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t g roups i ne a ch o ft he c oas ta l a rea s c ou ld h ave j ourneyed t o t he s our ce a rea t oo bta in s upp l ies o fa xes f r om t he p roducers t here . F ina l ly , i ti se ven p os s i b le t ha t as i ng le g roup o fp eop le , s pec ia l iz ing i n c oas ta l n av iga t ion a nd t rade , c ou ld h ave d i st r ibu ted G roup Ia xes t o a l l t he d if eren t c oasta l l o ca l i t ies .
T h is g roup n eed n o t n eces -
s ar i ly h ave b een t he a xe p rodu cers , b ut c ou ld h ave b een l i v ing i n a ny o f t he o ther c oasta l l o ca l i t ies . T he a va i lab le d a ta a l low n e i ther s t rong s uppor tf o r n or r e jec t ion o fa ny o ft hese p oss ib i l i t ies , a nd i n r ea l i ty , t he s i tua t ion may h ave i nvo lved a v ar ie ty o f movemen t s o f e a ch o ft hese t ypes .
T he C orn ish G roups : C ompara t ive S ummary
I n t h is c hapter , p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een i nves t iga ted f o r f our g roups o f a xes o r ig ina t ing a t s ources i n C ornwa l l .
When t he r esu l t s
o ft he a na lyses a re c o mpared , b o th s im i lar it ies a nd d if eren ces among t hese g roups c an b e s een .
I n t he f i rs t s ec t ion o f t h is c hap ter , d if eren t p r imary p er iods o f p rodu c t ion a nd
u t i l iza t ion w ere o u t l ined f o r a xes o ft hese g roups . C ompa r ison o ft he r esu l t s o ft h is i nves t i ga t ion i nt he c hrono log ica l f ramework y i e lds i n t erest ing i n s igh t s i n t o c hang ing p a t terns o f e xchange a nd h uman i n tera ct ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in . T he a va i lab le c hrono log ica l e v iden ce i nd ica tes t ha t a xes o fG roups XV I , I V , a nd I Va w ere p roduced a nd d i s tr ibu ted p r imar i ly d ur ing t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic p er iod .
W i th in t h is
p er iod , i n i t ia l p roduct ion o f a xes o f G roup I Va c an b e d at ed t o t he f our th m i l lenn ium b . c . , wh i le p roduct ion o fa xes o ft he o ther t wo g roups a ppea rs t oh ave b egun i nt he t h ird m i l len n ium b . c . I n c ont rast , t he p r imary p er iod o fp roduct ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fa xes o fG roup I c an b e d a ted t ot he L a test N eo l i th ic p er iod . T he a na lyses o fg enera l p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o ft he C or n i sh g roups h ave r evea led , f o r e ach g roup , g enera l c l asses o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced
2 01
a xes a nd sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes .
Among t he l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes o f
e a ch g roup , c ons iderab le v ar iab i l ity i n s i ze was o bserved . F or e ach g roup , ac l ass o f a xes was i d ent if ied wh ich c ou ld b e i n terpreted a s t he t yp ica l u t i l i tar ian p roducts o f t he s ource . L arger a xes w ere i n terpreted a s d ua l -purpose i mp le ments , p r imar i ly v a luab le a xes , o r i n t he c ase o fs evera l l a rge s pec imens , s t r ict ly n on -u t i l i tar ian o b ject s . I ti sp ar t icu lar ly i n ter e st ing t ha t t he s i ze c l asses i d en t if ied among a xes o f G roup Ia re s o s im i lar t o t hose i d en t i f ied among a xes o ft he e ar ly g roups . T h is i nd ica tes a C orn ish t rad i t ion o f a xe p rodu ct ion t ha t e xtended v i rtua l ly u nchanged t hroughou t t he N eo l i th ic p er iod . T he a na lyses o f s pat ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f t he C orn ish g roups h ave s ugges ted d i f f eren t p at terns a nd p ro cesses o f d i s tr ibu t ion f o r e ach g roup .
F or b oth G roup I V a nd G roup I Va , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he a xes
w ere d i str ibu ted t hrough d i rect a cqu is it ion f r om t he s ource . T h is was p oss ib le b ecause t he s ource , l o ca ted b etween ma jor a reas o f E ar ly Neo l i th ic s e t t le men t , was p robab ly n o t c l ose ly c ont ro l led b y a ny o ne g roup . I n c on tras t , t he s ource o fG roup XV I was l o ca ted w e l l w i th in o ne o f t he ma jor a reas o f s e t t lemen t , o n ly 4 km f r om o ne o f t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic s i t es .
I t s ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he i nhab itan ts o f t h is s i te c l ose ly c on t ro l led a ccess t o t h is
s ource a nd d i str ibu t ion o f i t s p roducts .
A s ar esu l t , o n ly p eop le i n t he s ource a rea w ere
a b le t o o bta in a xes o f G roup XV I t hrough d i rect a cqu is it ion .
Out s ide w es tern C ornwa l l ,
a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l w ere d i s tr ibu ted t hrough g roup -to -g roup e xchange . I n c o mpar ing t he r esu lts f o r t hese t hree g roups o f a xes , e v idence f o r c hrono log ica l c hange w i th in t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic p er iod c an b e s een .
P roduc t ion o f a xes o f G roup I Va
a ppears t o h ave b egun a t a n e ar l ier d a te t han p roduc t ion o f a xes o f G roups I V a nd XV I . T he v ery r estr ic ted d i st r ibu t ion o fi mp lement s o ft h is mater ia l ' i sc ons is ten t w i th t he p i c t ure o f sma l l -sca le , l a rge ly i ndependen t l o ca l g roups , ma inta in ing o n ly m in ima l c ontac t
" Over 5 6% o f t he k nown s pec imens ( b oth c o mp lete a nd p ar t ia l a xes ) h ave b een r e covered a t t he t wo s i tes o f H embury a nd Ma iden C as t le , a nd n one h ave b een f ound b eyond t he Wessex a rea n or w est o ft he s ource i n C ornwa l l .
2 02
w ith n earby g roups , t ha t was p resent ed i n C hap ter I f o r t he e ar l ies t y ear s o ft he N eo l i th i c p er iod . A tt he t ime o ft he e ar l ies t p rodu c t ion o f a xes o fG roup I Va i n t he f our th m i l lenn ium b . c . , t here may h ave b een l i t t le h uman a ct iv i ty i nw es tern C ornwa l l . H owever , a round t he t urn o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium b . c . , t he s i te o f C a m nB rea a ppeared a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he s our ce o f G roup XV I ma t er ia l , a s w e l l a s t he s our ce o f G roup I V ma ter ia l , b y p eop le i n t ha t a rea b egan .
I n t he o ppos i te d i rec t ion , t he f i rs t t en ta t ive c on tac t s o u ts ide t he s ou th -
w est ern r eg ion , a s i nd icat ed b y t he f ew G roup I V a nd G roup XV I a xes f ound i n t hose a reas , a l so a ppea r t oh ave t aken p lace i nt he t h ird m i l lenn ium b . c . T hese d eve lopmen t s c an b e r e la ted t o t he p i ctu re o fi n creas ing p opu la t ion , i n tens ive a g r i cu l tura l e xp lo i ta t ion , a nd i n creas ing s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion i n s ou thern E ng land t ha t was p resen ted i n C hapter I f o r t he l a ter y ears o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic p er iod .
T hus , t he
e stab l ishmen t o ft he s i t e o fC am nB rea a nd o ther s i tes i nt he t h ird m i l lenn ium b . c . a t tes tt o i n creas ing p opu la t ion wh i le t he d i scovery a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f n ew s ources o f r aw ma ter ia l f o r a xe p roduct ion r ef lec t i nreas ing n eed f o r g ood q ua l i ty a xes f o r u se i n a gr i cu l tura l a c t iv i t ies .
T he i mpe tus f o r movemen t o f a xes f r om t he C orn ish s ources t o Wessex a nd
b eyond may h ave b een a n i n creased d emand f o r s t one a xes b y a n i n creas ing p opu la t ion i n t hose a reas , a nd t he d i s t r ibut ion o ft hese i mp lemen t s may h ave t aken p la ce i n t he c ont ex t o f i n creas ing s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion a nd i n t er -g roup c on ta c t s t ha t s eem s t o h ave b een d eve lop ing a t t h is t ime . I n C hap ter I , i t was s ugges ted t ha t t he s ys tem i c s t resses o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic w ere a l lev ia ted b y as h if t i n t he s ubs is ten ce e conomy away f r om i n tens ive a g r i cu l tura l e xp lo ita t ion t og rea ter r e l ian ce o n o ther a nd more v a r ied r esources . I n t he Wessex a rea o f s ou thern E ng land , t h i s a ppea rs t oh ave t aken t he f o rm o f as h if t i nl and u se f r om a rab le t o p asture a nd a n i n creased r e l iance o n h erd ing . n eed o f s t one a xes .
I n t h is c ont ex t , t here may h ave b een l e ss
T h is i sc ons is ten t w ith t he a pparen t h ia tus i n a xe p roduc t ion a t C or -
n i sh s our ces f r om t he e nd o ft he E ar ly N eo l i th ic u n t i l t he L a tes t N eo l i th ic .
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I n c on t ras t t o a xes o f t he e ar ly C orn ish g roups , a xes o f G roup I a re much more w ide ly d i s t r ibut ed ; i ndeed , t he ma jor i ty o fc omp let e s pec imens h ave b een f ound o ut s ide t he s ou thwest ern a rea .1 T he a na lyses p resent ed i n t h is c hapt er h ave i nd icat ed t ha t t hese a xes w ere d i s tr ibu ted t hrough c oas ta l a nd r i ver ine t ranspor t .
I n t h is way , t he e f ec t s o f
d i stan ce i n ar eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion s ys tem w ere o ver come , a nd g roups a t l o ng d i s tan ces f r om t he s ource w ere a b le t o g e t a xes o ft he s ame s i zes a s g roups l o ca ted mu ch c l oser t o t he s ource . A l though s ome a spe c t s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f G roup Ia xes , s uch a s t he p ersonne l i nvo lved i n t he c oa sta l a nd r i ver ine t ranspor t o f t hese i mp lemen t s , c anno t b e d eterm ined f r om t he a va i lab le d a ta , t he p i cture o f w idespread d i spersa l a nd a pparen t c on tac t s among p eop le l i v ing i n v ery d if eren t a reas i s c ons is ten t w i th t he p i c ture o f L a tes t N eo l i th i c B r ita in , p resent ed i nC hap ter I , t ha t was c hara c ter ized b y r enewed p opu la t ion g row th a nd a g r icu l tura l i n tens if i ca t ion , i n creas ing c o mpet i t ion f o r l and a nd o ther r esources , a nd i n creas ing s upra lo ca l i n teg ra t ion .
T hese d eve lopmen t s w ere p robab ly a ccompan ied b y
i n creased d emand f o r g ood q uE l i ty s t one a xes a nd i n creased i n teres t i nc on t ro l l ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u ch i t em s a s ameans o fa ch iev ing s ta tus w i th in l o ca l a nd s upra loca l g roups . I n c onc lus ion , t h i s i nves t iga t ion h as r evea led p a t t erns o fp roduct ion a nd d i st r ibu t ion f o r f our g roups o f a xes o r ig ina t ing a t s ources i n C ornwa l l wh i ch i nd i ca te c hang ing p a t terns o f e x change a nd h uman i n tera ct ion i n t he N eo l i th i c p er iod i n B r i ta in t ha t a re c ons is ten t w i th t he p a t terns o fs oc ia l a nd e conom i c c hange t ha tc hara ct er ize t h is p er iod .
1T he w idespread d i s t r ibu t ion o f G roup I a xes a s o pposed t o t he e ssen t ia l ly s ou th w est ern d i st r ibu t ion o fG roup XV I a xes i si nd icat ed b y t he f a c t t ha t o ver 6 5% o ft he c om p l et e a xes o fG roup XV I h ave b een f ound i ns i x c oun t ies o f Wessex a nd t he s ou thwes t ( i . e . , C ornwa l l , D evon , D orse t , S omerset , W i l t sh ire , a nd Hampsh ire ) wh i le o n ly 2 2% o ft he c om p l e te a xes o fG roup Ih ave b een f ound i nt he s ame a rea .
CHAPTER I X
THE WELSH GROUPS
I n t h is c hapt er , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e i nves t i gat ed f o r g roups o fa xes t ha t o r ig inated a t s ources i n Wa les . T hese i n c lude G roups V I I I , X I I I , a nd XX I I I f r om S ou th Wa les a nd G roups V I I a nd XX I f r om N or th Wa les ( s ee T ab le 1 . 1 a nd F ig . 1 . 1 ) . A ctua l s i t es where r aw ma ter ia l was o bta ined a nd p re l im inary s hap ing o fr oughou t s t ook p lace h ave n o t b een d i scovered f o r a ny o ft he S ou th We lsh g roups . H owever , f o r e ach o f t hem , t he ma ter ia l o f wh ich t he a xes a re made h a s b een mat ched b y s pec imens f r om o ut crops i n n or thwes t P embrokesh ire .
T he o ut crops f r om wh ich ma ter ia ls d es cr ibed a s
G roups X I I I a nd XX I I I a re p resumed t o h ave o r ig ina ted a re l o ca ted i nt he s ame a rea , a nd S hot ton ( 1972 :89 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t t hese ma ter ia ls , a nd mat er ia ls t rans i t iona l b etween t hem , c ou ld b e t hough t o fa s as i ng le g roup . H e h as g one o n t op ropose t ha t " perhaps t hey s hou ld a l l b e c ons idered t oge ther when d ea l ing w i th t he q ues t ion o f a r tefa c t d i spersa l" ( i b id . ) .
H owever , h e c i ted " good h i s t or i ca l r easons" why t he d es igna t ion " Group X I I I"
s hou ld b e u sed o n ly f o r t he s pot ted d o ler i te , o r " prese l i t e" , a nd a d if eren td es igna t ion , i . e . , G roup XX I I I , s hou ld b e u sed f o r t he o ther ma ter ia ls ( i b id . ) . T here a re a l so g ood c hrono log ica l r easons why i mp lemen t s o f G roups X I I I a nd XX I I I s hou ld b e c ons idered s epara te ly when d ea l ing w i th q ues t ions o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . f o r a l l o ther g roups , l im i ted .
T he e v iden ce f o r d a t ing t he S ou th We lsh g roups i s , l i ke t ha t H owever , i td oes s ugges t t ha t t he p r imary e xp lo i ta t ion o f
G roup X I I I ma t er ia l t o ok p lace d ur ing a l a ter t ime p er iod t han t he p r imary e xp lo i ta t ion o f ma ter ia ls o fG roups V I I I a nd XX I I I .
2 04
2 05
P roduct ion o f a xes a ppears t o h ave b een t he l e ast i mportan t u se o f t he s po t ted d o ler ite k nown a s G roup X I I I . A lmos t t hree t imes a s many s haf tho le i mp lemen ts a s c om p l ete a xes a re k nown o f t h is ma ter ia 1 .1 H owever , t he most n otab le u se o f t h is s ource was f o r t he b luestones o f S tonehenge .
Movemen t o f t hese s t ones f r om P embrokesh ire t o
S a l isbury P la in a nd c onst ruct ion o f t he b luestone c i rc le k nown a s S t onehenge I was a pparen t ly u nder taken b y B eaker -us ing p eop le d ur ing t he L atest Neo l i th i c ( A tk inson 1 979 :159 ) .
I t s ee ms r easonab le t o s uggest t ha t t he t ypo log ica l ly e ar ly s haf tho le i mp le -
men ts a nd t he f ew a xes o ft h is mater ia l w ere a l so p roduced d ur ing t h is t ime . I n c ont rast , t he a xes o fG roups V I I I a nd XX I I I a ppear t o h ave b een u sed p r imar i ly d ur ing e ar l ier p hases o f t he N eo l ith ic p er iod .
Axes , o r p ar ts a nd f r agmen ts o f a xes , o f
G roup V II I h ave b een f ound i nc on text s d a t ing t o t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic i n Wa les a nd i n c on t ex t s d a t ing t o t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he L a te Neo l i th i c i n Wessex ( Sm ith 1 979 :19 ) .2 T hey h ave n o t b een f ound i n l a ter c ont ex ts , a nd n o s haf tho le i mp lements o f t h is mater ia l a re k nown ( i b id . ) . T h is e v idence s t rong ly s uggests t ha t u t i l iza t ion o f G roup V I I I ma ter ia l was l im i ted t ot he E ar ly N eol i th ic a nd t he e ar l ier p ar to ft he L a te Neo l i th ic . T he e v idence f o r d at ing t he e xp lo ita t ion o f G roup XX II I mat er ia l i s l e ss c l earcu t . P ar t o f a n a xe o fG roup XX I I I h as b een f ound a t t he E ar ly Neo l i th ic s i te o f C legyr -Bo ia , P embrokesh ire ( Shot ton 1 972 :90 , T ab le 1 ) , a nd n o a xes h ave b een f ound i n d emonstrab ly l a ter c on tex ts .
Af ew s haf tho le i mp lemen ts o f G roup XX I I I , p resumab ly d a t ing f r om t he
L a test N eo l ith ic , a re k nown ( i b id . , T ab le 2 ) , b ut t hey a re g reat ly o utnumbered b y t he k nown a xes ( i b id . , T ab le 1 ) . T h is e v idence s ugges t s t ha tt he p r imary e xp lo ita t ion o fG roup XX I I I mater ia l f o r a xe p roduct ion t o ok p la ce i n t he E ar ly N eo l ith ic . The L a test N eo l i th ic u se o ft h is mater ia l f o r s haf tho le i mp lemen t s was a pparent ly o fl e sser i mpor tance .
' Roe ( 1979 :41-47 ) l i sts 1 4 s haf tho le i mp lemen ts o f G roup X I I I , i n c on trast t o t he 5 c o mp lete a xes o ft h is mat er ia l i nt h is d a ta s e t . 2T here i se ven e v idence f o r t he u se o f t h is mater ia l i n t he Meso l ith i c p er iod , t hough n o t , o fc ourse , f o r p o l ished a xes ( Sm i th 1 979 :19 ) .
2 06
I n c on t ras t t ot he S ou th We lsh g roups o f a xes , a ctua l " axe f a c tory" s i t es where r aw ma ter ia l was o b ta ined a nd p re l im ina ry s hap ing o fr oughou t s t o ok p lace a re k nown f o r b o th o f t he N or th We lsh g roups .
A xes o f G roup V I I ma ter ia l o r ig ina t ed a t t he G ra ig Lwyd
" axe f a c tory" i n n or thern C aernarvonsh ire ( Hou lder 1 956 ) , wh i le a xes o f G roup XX I mat er ia l o r ig inat ed a t t he Mynydd R h iw " axe f act ory" o n t he L leyn P en insu la o ft he s ame c oun ty ( Hou lder 1 961 ) . I n t e rms o f c hrono logy , t here i ss t rong e v idence t ha t e xp lo i tat ion o f t he G roup V I I s ource b egan i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c ( Sm i th 1 979 :19 ) .
H owever , w idespread d i spersa l o f
G roup V I I a xes s eems t oh ave t aken p la ce p r imar i ly i nt he L a te N eo l i th ic , a nd af ew s ha f t ho le i mp lemen t s o f t h is ma ter ia l i nd ica te t ha t i t wa s u sed u p t o t he e nd o f t he p er iod ( i b id . ) . F ragmen ts o f a xes o f G roup XX I h ave b een f ound o n t wo s i tes i n N or th Wa les , D yser th C ast le a nd K ing C ha r les 's B ow l ing G reen , Gwaunysgor ( Hou lder 1 961 :138 ) , wh ich h ave a l so p roduced p o t tery a nd f l in t a rrowheads o f E ar ly N eo l i th ic t ypes ( Gr imes 1 965 :56 ) . Axes o fG roup XX I h ave n o t b een f ound i nd emons t rab ly l a ter c ont ex t s a nd n o s haf tho le i mp lemen t s o ft h i s ma ter ia l a re k nown . T h is e v iden ce s ugges t s t ha t e xp lo i ta t ion o ft he G roup XX I s our ce may h ave b een l im it ed t ot he E ar ly N eo l i th ic . Among t he g roups o f a xes t ha t o r ig ina ted a t s ources i n Wa les , a xes o f G roup V I I a re t he mos t a bundan t ( s ee T ab le 7 . 2 ) . I ndeed , t here a re o ver f our t imes a s many c om p l e te a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l a s o f t he s e cond most a bundan t We lsh g roup , G roup V I I I . R ank ing t h ird among t he We lsh g roups i na bundance o f a xes i sG roup XX I I I , f o l lowed b y G roup XX I , a nd f i na l ly , G roup X I I I . C omp le te a xes o ft he l a s t t wo g roups a re s o r are t ha t a na lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty a nd d i st r ibut ion a s p rescr ibed i n C hap ter V I I i s n o t f eas ib le .
T heref ore , o n ly G roups V I I , V I I I , a nd XX I I I w i l l b e c ons idered i n
d e ta i l . Among t hese t hree g roups , a bundance o f a xes s eems t o b e d i rec t ly c orre la ted w i th d ura t ion o f t he p er iod o f p roduc t ion a nd u se .
T hus , a xes o f G roup XX I I I a re t he l e as t
2 07
a Pundan t , a nd t h is mater ia l a ppears t oh ave b een u sed f o r a xe p roduct ion p r imar i ly , i fn ot o n ly , i n t he E ar ly N eo l ith ic .
Axes o f G roup V I I I a re more a bundan t , a nd t hey a ppear t o
h ave b een u sed o ver a l o nger p er iod :
i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c a nd i n to t he L ater N eo l i th ic .
F ina l ly , a xes o f G roup V I I , t he mos t a bundan t We lsh g roup , w ere a pparen t ly p roduced a nd u sed o ver t he l o ngest p er iod , f r om t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic t o t he e nd o f t he L atest Neo l ith ic .
Ana lys is o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd d i str ibut ion o ft he a xes o f
t hese t hree g roups , t hen , may y i e ld v a luab le i n s igh t s i n t o c hang ing p a t terns o f h uman i n teract ion d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic p er iod i nB r ita in .
G roup XX I I I
G roup XX I I I i s n ot , i n t he o p in ion o f t he g eo log ist who f i rst d i scussed i ti n p r int ( Shott on 1 972 :88 ) , " a c l ear ly -def ined f act ory g roup n or y e t a n e xact p etro log ica l g roup ." I nst ead , i t i n c ludes i mp lement s o f g ranod ior i te ( wh ich h as b een d es igna ted XX I I Ia ) , q uartz -do ler ite ( wh ich h as b een l abe led XX I I Ib ) , a nd mater ia ls t rans i t iona l b etween t hese t wo e x tremes ( wh ich a re r ef erred t o a s XX I I Ia /b ) . A l l o ft hese r ocks a re f ound a s i gneous i n trus ions i n t he c am s , o r h i l l s umm i ts , o f n or thwest P embrokesh ire , b etween S t . Dav id 's Head a nd t he P rese lau H i l ls ( i b id . :88 , F ig . 3 ) . F or s o me i mp lements , t he s pec if i c c am nf r om wh ich t he r aw mat er ia l s eems l i ke ly t o h ave b een o bta ined c an b e i d ent if ied ( i b id . ) . However , S hot ton h as r ecommended t ha t a xes o f t hese d if eren t ma ter ia ls s hou ld b e c on s i dered t oge ther when d ea l ing w i th q uest ions o fa xe d i spersa l ( i b id . :89 ) . H is r ecommenda t i on w i l l b e f o l lowed i nt h is i nvest igat ion . Axes wh ich h ave b een i d en t if ied a s made o f ma ter ia ls t ha t a re i n c luded i n G roup XX I I I a re r are .1 T ogether t hey a ccoun t f o r o n ly 0 .9% o f t he t o ta l n umber o f g rouped a xes i n t h is d ata s e t a nd o n ly 5 .0% o f t he a xes k nown t o h ave o r ig ina ted a t s ources i n Wa les .
1H owever , S hot ton ( 1972 :85 ) s uggests t ha t a dd it iona l i mp lements wh ich w ere e xam ined p etro log ica l ly b ef ore t he d escr ipt ion o f G roup XX II I a nd c harac ter ized a s made
2 08
T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he k nown c omp lete a xes o fG roup XX I I I mat er ia ls a re s hqwn i n F ig . 9 .1 .1 O n t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t a lmos t a l l o ft hese a xes a re c on cen t ra ted i n t hree ma jor r eg ions o f Wa les . T hese r eg ion s i n c lude t he g enera l a rea o ft he r aw ma ter ia l o ut crops i n t he c oun ty o f P embrokesh ire , t he Va le o f G lamorgan o n t he c oas t o f S ou th Wa les ,
a nd
s evera l
c oun t ies
i n m id - Wa les .
T he
s ou thwest ern
p en insu la
a nd
t he
s ou theast ern c oa sta l a rea a ppear t o h ave b een ma jor f o c i o f N eo l i th ic o c cupa t ion a nd a ct iv i ty i n Wa les , wh i le l e ss i n t ens ive a c t iv i ty a ppea rs t o h ave t aken p lace i n m id Wa les .2 T he c l ose s pac ing o f t he G roup XX I I I a xes i n t he f o rmer a reas a nd t he w ider s pa c ing o ft he o nes i nt he l a t ter r eg ion a re c ons is ten t w i th t hese o bserva t ions . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fG roup XX I I I a xes s uggest s t ha t t hey may h ave b een t ransport ed d i rec t ly b e tween t he s our ce a rea a nd e ach o f t he more d i s tan t o ccupat ion a reas , wh i ch i mp l ies , i nt urn , t ha t g roups o fp eop le i ne ach a rea w ere i n d i rec t c on tac t w i th e ach o ther . I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t he a xes w ou ld h ave c hanged h ands b e tween t hese g roups o f p eop le t hrough t he mechan ism o f r ec iproca l e x change .
I n t h is i nvest iga t ion , e v iden ce o f s pa t ia l
p at t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup XX I I I wh ich c orresponds w i th t h is h ypo thes ized p a t tern a nd p rocess o fa xe d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e s ough t .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
T he a xes o f ma ter ia ls r ef erred t o a s G roup XX I I I h ave b een g enera l ly d escr ibed b y S ho t t , on ( 1972 :85 ) who emphas ized t ha tt hey a re
o f u ng rouped q uar tz -gabbro o r q uar tz -do ler it e may , i n f a c t , b e o f ma ter ia ls t ha t c ou ld b e i n c luded i nG roup XX I I I . ' In a dd i t ion , p ar t s o f a xes o f G roup XX I I I ma ter ia ls a re k nown f r om H eref ordsh ire a nd O xf ordsh ire . T he b u t t e nd o f a n a xe f r om N or thamptonsh ire a nd a .sma l l c o mp le te a xe f r om Warw icksh ire " cou ld b e r ef erred t o a s XX I I Ia a nd ? XX I I Ia /b r espec t ive ly ," a ccord ing t o S ho t ton ( 1972 :85 ) . H owever h e i s" re luc tan t t od o t h is s i nce s im i lar r ocks a re k nown i n N or th Wa les" ( i b id . ) . H e d i d n o t i n c lude t hese s pec imens i n h i s s chedu le o f i mp lemen t s o f G roup XX I I I ma ter ia ls ( i b id . :90 , T ab les 1 a nd 2 ) , s o t hey h ave n ot b een i n c luded i nt h is a na lys is . 2T hese o bserva t ions a re b ased o n S avory 's maps o f N eo l i th ic a r t ifa ct s a nd r i tua l monumen t s ( Savory 1 980 :211 , F ig . 5 .2 , a nd 2 18 , F ig . 5 .4 ) .
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e xt reme ly l a rge a xes . T hey a re v ery s imp le i n f o rm , w i th r ound -ova l c ross s ect ion a nd , w i th o ne e xcept ion , q u it e s harp ly p o inted a t t he b u t t . T hey a re u sua l ly c om p l et e ly smoo thed , w i thou t t races o f c h ipp ing o r p eck ing s cars , a nd a bove a l l a re c ha rac ter ised b y t he ir mass ive c haracter . S hott on n oted t ha t t he sma l les t c o mp lete G roup XX I I I a xe h e h ad s een was 1 90 mm l ong , wh i le t he l a rgest was 2 73 mm l ong , a nd a n i n comp lete s pec imen o f wh ich h e was aware w ou ld o r ig ina l ly h ave b een o n t he o rder o f3 00 mm l ong ( i b id . ) . Mos t o f t he G roup XX I I I a xes i n my s amp le a re o f t he s imp le f o rm S hott on h as d escr ibed ( F ig . 9 .2a -e ) .
However , o ne s pec imen , C ard . 7( F ig . 9 .2f ) , i sq u it e d if eren t .
e xh ib i ts a n e xpanded b lade o n ar e la t ive ly n arrow a nd t h in b ody .
I t
I ti s , i n f a c t , v i rtua l ly
i d ent ica l i n s i ze a nd s hape t o S hrop . 3 7 ,1 a n a xe o f G roup XV ma ter ia l , wh ich was p robab ly p roduced a nd u sed a t t he e nd o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod .
I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t
C ard . 7 was c on temporary w i th S hrop . 3 7 a nd t he f ew s haf tho le i mp le men ts o f G roup XX I I I mater ia ls , b u t n ot w ith t he o ther a xes o ft h is g roup . A lthough v i r tua l ly a l l o f t he k nown a xes o f G roup XX I I I a ppear t o b e o f t he s ame g enera l s hape , i ti sc l ear t ha t t hey v ary c ons iderab ly i n o vera l l s i ze ( s ee F ig . 9 .2 ) , a nd t he q uest ion a r ises o f whether s i ze c l asses , l i ke t hose i d ent if ied among a xes o f o ther g roups , c an b e s een .
I n a ddress ing t he q uest ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f a ny
g roup , t he p rocedure o f f i rst c ons ider ing a s amp le o f a xes f ound c l ose t o t he s our ce a nd t hen s eek ing t he c l asses o f a xes f ound i n t ha t s amp le among t he r es t o f t he a xes i n t he g roup h as b een e stab l ished .
F or G roup XX I I I , i ti sa pparent f r om F ig . 9 .1 t ha t o n ly t wo
c omp lete a xes h ave b een f ound i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in ity o f t he o ut crops o f r aw mater ia l . B oth o f t hese i mp lements , P emb . 6a nd P emb . 7 4 ,2 a re v ery l a rge .
T he f o rmer h as a
l e ng th o f 2 30 mm . T he l a t ter h as a measurab le l e ng th o f 2 88 mm , b u t t he t i p o f i t s b u t t
' See b e low , C hapter X , F ig . 1 0 .25a . 2N e i ther i si lust ra ted h ere b ecause p etro logy r e cord c ard d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d ata o n e ach o f t hem . P emb . 6i si lus tra ted i n S hott on 1 972 :86 , F ig . 1 , # 51 .289 P 6 .
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h as b een b roken o f f , s o t he o r ig ina l l e ng th s eems l i ke ly t o h ave b een more l i ke 3 00 mm .1 B ased o n p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty e xh ib it ed b y o ther g roups o fa xes , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hese t wo i mp lemen t s r epresen t t he s i zes o f a xes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughou t s a t t he s ource .
Unf or tunat e ly n o r oughout s o f G roup XX I I I ma te r ia ls a re
a va i lab le f o r u se i nt e s t ing t h is p ropos i t ion . T o f a c i l i ta t e c o mpar ison o ft he s i zes o ft he G roup XX I I I a xes f ound i nt he v i c in i ty o f t he o ut crops w i th t he s i zes o fo ther G roup XX I I I a xes , a l l o ft hese a xes c an b e r epresented o n s ca t t er p l ot s o fl e ng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s ( F ig . 9 . 3 ) . On t hese p l o t s , t he a xe w i th a n e xpanded b lade c l ear ly s tands o u t a s d i f f eren t i n s hape f r om t he r es t o ft he s pec imens . Among t he o ther a xes , g enera l s i ze c l asses c an b e i d en t if i ed .2 A t t he t op o f e ach s ca t ter p l o t i s ac l us ter o f s i x v ery l a rge a xes . T hese r ange i n l e ng th f r om 2 30 mm t o 2 94 mm . Among t hem a re t he t wo a xes f ound i nt he s our ce a rea . Two o ther a xes r epresen ta t ive o f t h is g roup a re B reck . 1 0 ( F ig . 9 .2a ) a nd G lam . 5 9 ( F ig . 9 .2b ) .
T he r e la t ive a bundance o f t hese v ery l a rge i mp lemen ts w i th in t he e n t ire
s amp le o fc o mp le te G roup XX I I I a xes i nd ica tes t ha t t hey r epresen t t he t yp i ca l p roduc t s o f G roup XX I I I ma ter ia l .
A xes o f t h is s i ze o f o ther ma t er ia ls ( e .g . , G roup XV I ) h ave b een
i n t erpre ted a s v a luab le i t ems , p erhaps u sed p r imar i ly f o r c eremon ia l p u rposes . i n t erpre ta t ion may b e v a l id f o r t hese a xes a s w e l l .
S uch a n
H owever , t i ny c h ips o f f t he b lade o f
o ne s pec imen ( Breck . 1 0 , F ig . 9 .2a ) a nd a b lade t ha t i sa symme tr i c i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew o n a no ther ( Pemb . 7 4 3)i nd i ca te t ha t s o me o f t hem f unct ioned , a t l e as t o cca s ionaly , a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . Sma l ler t han t he s i x v ery l a rge a xes a re t wo a xes t ha t , w i th l e ng th s o f2 08 mm a nd 1 88 mm , c an s t i l l b e d escr ibed a s l a rge . T hese a xes a re Me r l . . 3( F ig . 9 .2c ) a nd G lam . 1 8
' Th is i st he l a rge i n comp le te a xe t ha t was men t ioned b y S hot ton . 2T hese c an b e s een more c l ear ly o n t he p l o t o f l e ng th v s . t h i ckness mea suremen t s ( F ig . 9 .3b ) t han o n t he p l o to fl e ng th v s . w id th measuremen t s ( F ig . 9 .3a ) . 3N o t
i ng .
i lus t rat ed h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw -
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( F ig . 9 .2d ) . B oth o f t hese i mp lemen t s a re s ymme t r ica l i n s hape a nd smoo th ly f i n ished , i nd ica t ing t ha t t hey , t o o , w ere p roduced f r om r oughou t s i n t he G roup XX I I I s ource a rea . T hese a xes may h ave b een i n tended more a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls , a nd e v idence o fw ear a l ong t he b lade o ft he s ma l ler o ne a t t es t s t ot h is . W i th a l eng th o f a pprox imat e ly 1 50 mm , G lam . 5 41 c an b e d escr ibed a s med ium s i zed . I th as a p o in ted b u t t l i ke o ther G roup XX I I I a xes , b u ti t s a rea o f max imum w id th i s a t t he b lade r a ther t han s o me d i stance a bove i t , a s i st he c ase f o r t he l a rger a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l . T h is s hape s ugges t s t ha t t h is i mp lemen t wa s p roduced t h rough r e -work ing t he b roken b u t t o f al a rger G roup XX I I I a xe ( e .g . , P emb . 4 , S ho t t ,on 1 972 :86 , F ig . 1 ,# 432 87 ) . T he s ma l les t G roup XX I I I a xe a nd t he o n ly c o mp let e e xamp le f ound o u ts ide Wa les i s S uf f . 1 54 ( F ig . 9 .2e ) .
T h is i mp lemen t h as s ure ly b een p roduced t h rough r e -work ing a
p or t ion o f al a rger a xe . T iny c h ips o u t o ft he m idd le o ft he b lade i nd i ca te t ha t i t was u sed a s au t i l i tar ian t o o l . I n a dd i t ion t o t he a xes s hown o n t he s ca t ter p l o t s , a no ther G roup XX I I I a xe w i th a l e ng th o f 3 70 mm i sk nown . i n t h is d a ta s e t .
T h is h uge a xe , G lam . 8 ,2 i st he s econd l a rges t g rouped a xe
I t s s i ze i nd ica t es t ha t i t was p roduced a s as t r i ct ly n on -u t i l i tar ian ,
c eremon ia l i t em . I n s ummary , t h is i nves t iga t ion h as r evea led a p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XX I I I t ha t i ss im i la r t o t he p a t terns o fv a r iab i l i ty o bserved among a xes o f o ther g roups .
T hus , t he s ame g enera l s i ze c l asses o f h uge , v ery l a rge , l a rge ,
med ium -s ized , a nd sma l l a xes t ha t h ave b een o bserved among i mp lemen t s o fo ther g roups h ave b een i d en t if i ed among t he s pec imens i nt h is s amp le .
' Not i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ing . 2A l though measured a nd d rawn b y me , t h is a xe i s n o t i lus t ra ted h ere b ecause o f s heer s i ze ; s ee G r imes 1 951 :241 , F ig . 5 3 , # 1 .
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H owever , t he p ropor t ions o f a xes i n e ach s i ze c l ass a re v ery d i f f eren t f r om t he p ropor t ions o f a xes o fo ther mat er ia ls i ne qu iva len t s i ze c l asses . F or o ther g roups o f a xes , sma l l , r e -worked s pec imens h ave b een mos t a bundan t , f o l lowed b y l a rge , o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced a xes t ha t w ere i n t erpreted a s g enera l ized u t i l i ta r ian t o o ls , wh i le v ery l a rge , p er h aps p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes w ere r are . Among a xes o fG roup XX I I I , ar everse p a t t ern o f a bundance h as b een o bserved . p rodu c t s o f t h is s ource .
V ery l a rge a xes a ppear t o h ave b een t he t yp ica l
I ft hese a xes w ere i n tended a s p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i t ems , t hey
w ou ld s e ldom h ave b een u sed i n way s t ha t m igh t r esu l t i n b reakage .
T h is , t hen , w ou ld
a ccoun t f o r t he r e la t ive s car c i ty o f sma l ler , r e -sharpened o r r e -worked i mp lemen t s o f t h is ma ter ia l .
Morpho log ica l V ar iab i l i ty a nd D is t r ibu t ion
B ef ore i nves t iga t ing s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XX I I I a xes i n g enera l , morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s o f d epos i t ion s hou ld b e c ons idered .
A xes f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
On ly t hree o f t he c o mp le te a xes o f G roup XX I I I ma ter ia ls c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion , a nd a l l o f t hese w ere f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes ( Tab le 9 .1 ) .
A ssoc ia t ions o f Axes Two c o mp let e a xes o fG roup XX I I I w ere f ound t oge ther o n T y 'n -yr -w t ra F arm , n ear C arno , Montgomerysh ire , a t ad i stance o f 1 43 km f r om t he s our ce a rea .
B o th o f t hese ,
Mon t . 2 2 a nd Mon t . 2 3 ,1 a re v ery l a rge a xes w i th l eng ths o f 2 64 mm a nd 2 58 mm , r espec t ive ly .
1S ee
MO 2 3 .
G r imes 1 951 :241 , F ig . 5 3 , # 3 a nd # 4 ; S ho t t on 1 972 :86 , F ig . 1 , MO 2 2 a nd
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A s i ng le c omp let e a xe o f G roup XX I I I wa s f ound t oge ther w i th a f l in t a xe a t S t . C yres , P enar th , G lamorgan , a t ad i stance o f 1 53 km f r om t he s ource a rea . T h is a xe , G lam . 5 9 ( F ig . 9 .2b ) , i sv ery l a rge , w i th a l e ng th o f 2 71 mm , a nd t he f l in t a xe w i th wh i ch i t was f ound i sa l so v ery l a rge , w i th al e ng th o f2 67 mm .1 T hus , a l l t hree o f t he G roup XX I I I a xes t ha t w ere f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes a re e xamp les o ft he v ery l a rge a xes t ha t a ppea r t oh ave b een t he t yp ica l p rodu c t s o f t h is s ou rce . T he l o ca t ions o ft hese a ssoc ia t ions , o ne i n e a ch o ft he t wo r eg ions b eyond 1 00 km f r om t he s ou rce a rea where c oncen t ra t ions o fG roup XX I I I a xes c an b e o bserved , i n d i c a t e t ha t u ndamaged a xes o f t he v ery l a rge s i zes p rodu ced i n t he s ource a rea w ere t ranspor ted o u t o ft ha t a rea t o t he more d i s tan t l o ca l i t ies .
F or f ur ther e v iden ce o f s pa t ia l
p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty t ha t may b e r e la ted t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t i on , t he t o ta l s amp le o fG roup XX I I I a xes mus tb e c ons idered .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
F or a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty , t he t o ta l n umber o f c om p l et e G roup XX II I a xes c an b e d iv ided i n t o t he t hree r eg iona l s amp les p rev ious ly i d en t i f ied , p lus t he s i ng le a xe f ound i n S uf f o lk .
T he t hree s amp les i n c lude a xes f ound w i th in
t he s our ce a rea a nd a xes f ound i ne ach o f t he t wo f ur ther r eg ions a t s im i la r d i s tan ces b u t i nd if eren t d i re ct ion s f r om t he s ource . T he l o ca t ion s o ft he a xes i n t he d if eren t s i ze c l as s es r ecogn ized a bove a re s hown i n t he d i f f eren t a reas o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion i n F ig . 9 .4 . T he l e ng ths a nd s i ze c l asses o ft he a xes f ound i n t hese a rea s a re p resen ted i nT ab le 9 .2 , a l ong w i th s ummary s ta t is t ics t ha t i nd i ca te t he mean l e ng th o ft he a xes i ne ach a rea .2
' Th is a xe , Na t iona l Museum o f Wa les # 56 .440 /1 , was measured a nd d rawn b y me , b u t i sn o t i lust ra ted h ere . 2T he s i ng le a xe w i th a n e xpanded b lade i sn o t i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is b ecause i ti s c l ear ly a d i f f eren t t ype o f a xe f r om t he r est o f t he G roup XX I I I s pec imens , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t i t was p roduced i n al a t er t ime p er iod .
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I n T ab le 9 .2 , i tc an b e s een t ha t i nd iv idua l G roup XX I I I a xes l a rger t han t hose f ound i n t he i mmed ia t e v i c in i ty o f t he s ource h ave b een f ound i n e a ch o ft he m ore d i stan t a reas .
I n p ar t icu lar , t he s i ng le h uge a xe was f ound i n G lamorgan o n t he S ou th We lsh
c oast wh i le t he l a rges t o f t he v ery l a rge a xes was f ound i n B re cknock i n c en t ra l Wa les . H owever , sma l ler a xes t han t hose f ound i nt he s ource a rea h ave a l so b een f ound i ne a ch o f t he more d i stan t l o ca l i t ies . T he mean l e ng th o ft he G roup XX I I I a xes i ne a ch o ft he more d i stan t l o ca l i t ies i ss ma l ler , a l though o n ly s l igh t ly s o , t han t he mean l eng th o ft he t wo a xes f ound i nt he n ear -source a rea . T hese a spec t s o fs pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a re c ons is ten tw i th g roup t o -g roup e xchange i nvo lv ing p r ima r i ly c eremon ia l a xes .
B e cause p r ima r i ly c eremon ia l
a xes a re l e ss s ub je c t t ot he p rocesses o fu se , d amage , a nd r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing t ha t s erve t o r educe t he s i zes o f p r imar i ly u t i l ita r ian a xes , a xe s i ze r educ t ion w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s our ce i s n o t e xpec ted among a xes o f t h is t ype .1 I nst ead , g roups l o ca ted i n a reas a way f r om t he s our ce w ou ld r ece ive a xes o f t he s ame s i zes a s t hose p rodu ced a t t he s our ce . I ndeed , t hey m igh te ven g e t l a rge r a xes t han t hose k ep tb y p eop le i n t he s ource a rea ( e .g . , G lam . 8a nd B reck . 1 0 ) i ft hose p eop le p ar t icu lar ly w ished t o i mpress t he ir t rade p ar tners . I th as b een n o ted i n C hap ter I V t ha t t he e xchange o f v a luab le , c eremon ia l i t ems i s o f ten a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f r eg iona l e x change s yst ems . f r iend ly r e la t ions among g roups i n n earby a rea s . e xchange o f n eeded u t i l i tar ian i t ems . XX I I I
a xes
may
h ave
a ided
I t may a id i n ma in ta in ing
I t may a l so f unc t ion t o f a c i l i ta te t he
I n E ar ly N eo l i th i c Wa les , t he e xchange o f G roup
i n ma inta in ing
t i es
among
g roups i n s ou thwes tern ,
s ou theas tern , a nd c en t ra l a reas o ft he c oun t ry . I n a dd i t ion , e x change o f t hese a pparen t ly
1H owever , s o me r educt ion i n mean l e ng th o f a xes m igh t b e o bserved i fs ma l l p er c en tages o f t he a xes w ere u sed , d amaged , r e -worked , a nd r educed i n s i ze . T h i s p robab ly a ccount s f o r t he s l igh t r educt ion i n mean l e ng th o f a xes t ha t i so bserved h ere . E v iden ce t ha t t wo o ft he v ery l a rge a xes h ad b een u t i l ized a t s o me t ime wa s o u t l ined a bove , a nd t he l i ke l ihood t ha t t he s i ng le med ium -s ized a xe , G lam . 5 4 , wa s p roduced t hrough r e -wo rk ing a p or t ion o f ad amaged l a rger s pec imen wa s a l so n ot ed .
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p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes may h ave s erved t o f a c i l i ta te t he e x change o f u t i l i tar ian g oods ( e .g . , a xes o fG roup V I I I , s ee b e low ) among t he s ame g roups o fp eop le . On ly o ne a xe o f G roup XX I I I r e ma ins t o b e d i s cussed . l e s t k nown c omp le t e G roup XX I I I a xe .
T h is i sS uf f . 1 54 , t he sma l -
B oth t he s i ze ( 94 mm i n l e ng th ) a nd t he l o ca t ion
( 413 km f r om t he G roup XX I I I s our ce a rea ) o f t h is a xe a re u n ique f o r t h is g roup .
T h is
e v iden ce i nd ica tes t ha t l o ng d i stance movemen t was n o t ar egu lar f ea tu re o f t he d i st r ibu t i on o f G roup XX I I I a xes , b u t t ha t t h is p ar t i cu lar s pec imen f o r tu i t ous ly e n tered e xchange n etworks t ha t e x tended o u t s ide Wa les , a nd s o e ven tua l ly r ea ched i t s f i na l l o ca t ion o f d epos i t ion , h av ing b een mu ch u sed a nd r e -worked a l ong t he way . I n s umma ry , t he r esu lt s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XX I I I ma ter ia ls i nd ica te t ha t t hese a xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted a lmos t e x c lus ive ly w i th in Wa les .'
I n p ar t i cu lar , t hey a ppea r t o h ave b een d i st r ibu ted t hrough
g roup -t o -g roup e xchange b e tween g roups i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he s ource , who p robab ly p rodu ced t he a xes , a nd g roups i nc en t ra l Wa les a nd o n t he s ou th c oas t o f Wa les ( F ig . 9 .5 ) . T he e v idence o ft hese a xes s ugges t s t ha t g roups i nt hese a rea s w ere i nvo lved i n af a i r ly sma l l -sca le r eg iona l e xchange n e twork wh i ch was n o t a r t icu la ted , t o a ny g rea t e x t en t , w i th e xchange n e tworks o u t s ide Wa les .
G roup V I I I
Axes o f G roup V I I I ma ter ia 1 , 2 wh i ch h as b een mat ched b y s pec imens f r om R am s ey I s land a nd Moun t joy , P embrokesh ire ( Hope -Sanderson 1 970 :91 ) , a re r are i n c o in -
1H owever , a s n o t ed a bove , r e -exam ina t ion o f t h in -sec t ions o f a xes f r om d if eren t a reas c ou ld c ons iderab ly a l t er t h is p i c ture . 2I n a dd i t ion t o a xes o f G roup V I I I p roper , a n umber o f s pec imens o f mat er ia l d escr ibed a s " near G roup V I I I" o r " Group V I I I v ar ie ty" a re k nown . T h is mat er ia l i sv ery s im i la r t o t he mat er ia l o f G roup V I I I p roper , a nd i t was p robab ly o b ta ined i n t he s ame g enera l a rea . A lso , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f " near G roup V I I I" o r " Group V I I I v ar iety" i sv ery s im i la r t o t he d i st r ibu t ion o f a xes o f G roup V I I I p roper . T heref ore , a xes o ft hese ma ter ia ls w i l l b e r egarded a s b e long ing t o as i ng le g enera l g roup f o r p urposes o ft h is i nves t i ga t ion .
2 16
p ar ison w i th a xes o ft he ma jor g roups ( i . e . , G roups I ,V I , a nd V I I ) , a nd t hey make u p o n ly 3 .0% o f t he g rouped a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t .
H owever , t hey a re r e la t ive ly a bundan t i n
Wa les , a nd t hey a ccoun t f o r 1 7 .6% o ft he a xes o ft he We lsh g roups . T he l o ca t ions o f a l l o f t he c omp let e G roup V I I I a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef eren ces a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .6 .1 O n t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t a xes o f t h is ma t er ia l a re mos td ense ly c oncen t ra ted i n S ou th Wa les . I n p ar t i cu lar , t hey h ave b een f ound p r imar i ly i n t he s ou thwest ern p en insu la , where t he p resumed s our ce o f t he r aw ma ter ia l i s l o ca ted , a nd i n s ou theast Wa les , i n t he Va le o f G lamorgan a nd o n t he s ou theast ern e dg e o f t he B la ck Moun ta ins .
A s n ot ed a bove , t hese a reas a ppear t o h ave
b een t he ma jor f o c i o fN eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a nd a ct iv i ty i n S ou th Wa les . G roup V I I I a xes e xt ends i n to N or th Wa les .
At h in s ca t ter o f
Ou ts ide Wa les , ab i furca t ion i n t he d i st r ibu -
t i on o fG roup V I I I a xes i sa pparen t , w i th s pec imens h av ing b een f ound i n t he Wessex a rea o fs ou thern E ng land a nd i n ab road b and e xt end ing a cross n or thern E ng land a s f a r a s E as t Ang l ia , b u t n ot i n i n t ermed ia te a reas o fc en t ra l E ng land . T h is p a t tern s ugges ts t ha t a xes o f G roup V I I I may h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t wo s epara t e t ra jec tor ies , i n s ou theas ter ly a nd n or theas ter ly d i rect ions f r om t he s our ce a rea . N o e v idence o ft h is u nusua l p a t t ern o fd i s t r ibu t ion c an b e s een i nC umm ins 's p resen t a t ion o f r e la t ive f r equen c ies o f G roup V I I I a xes ( Cumm ins 1 979 :8 , F ig . 4 a ) .2 N or was t h is p a t t ern r ecogn ized b y H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 , 1 982 ) i n t he ir a t t e mp t t o i d en t ify p a t t e rn ing i n G roup V I I I a xe d imens ions i n d i s tance b ands o fu n if orm w id th s urround ing t he s our ce . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he i n con c lus ive r esu l t s t hey o b ta ined f o r t h is g roup may b e d ue t o t he ir f a i lure t o r ecogn ize t he d ua l n a ture o f t he G roup V I I I d i s tr ibu t ion a nd t o
1I n a dd i t ion , as i ng le a xe o f t h is ma ter ia l wa s r ecovered f r om t he R iver Wye a t a n u nknown l o ca l i ty i nH eref ordsh ire . 2T h is i s u ndoub ted ly b ecause C umm ins d id n o t map v a lues l e ss t han 5% . T he G roup V I I I a xes f ound i n Wessex a nd t he n or thern c oun t ies a ccoun t f o r o n ly v ery sma l l p ropor t ions o ft he t o ta l n umbers o fs t one a xes i n t hose a reas i n r e la t ion t o t he l a rge n um b ers o f a xes o f G roups I ,V I , a nd V I I . T he u nusua l p a t t ern o f d i st r ibu t ion o f G roup V I I I a xes c an b e s een o n C umm ins 's map o f t he a ctua l a xe s pec imens ( Cumm ins 1 983 :193 , F ig . 6 .2 ) .
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c ons ider t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t a xe s i ze p a t t ern ing m igh t b e d if eren t i n e ach ma jor b ranch . T h is p oss ib i l ity w i l l b e c ons idered a nd i nves t igat ed i n t he p resen t a na lys is o f G roup V I I I a xe morpho logy a nd d i st r ibu t ion .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log i ca l Var iab i l i ty
B ecause o f t he ir r ar i ty , p ar t i cu lar ly i n a rea s o u ts ide Wa les , l i t t le h a s b een s a id i n t he l i t era ture c on cern ing morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I I I .
T he o n ly
s ubs tan t ia l c o mmen t wa s made b y C umm ins a nd Moore ( 1973 :231 ) , who n o ted t ha t c on s i derab le v ar ia t ion i n s i ze c ou ld b e o bserved among t he G roup V I I I a xes f ound i n L in c o lnsh ire a nd N ot t inghamsh ire . F or i n it ia l i nvest iga t ion o f p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I I I , an ea r -source s amp le c an b e d ef ined o n t he b as is o f ah i st og ram o ft he d i stan c e s f r om t he s our ce a t wh i ch c omp le te a xes o f t h is mat er ia l h ave b een f ound ( F ig . 9 .7 ) . T h is h i st og ram
i nd ica tes
a ma jor
g ap
i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion
o f G roup
V I I I
a xes
a t
a pprox imat e ly 1 00 km f r om t he s our ce . T heref ore , f o r t he n ea r -source s amp le , t he e l even a xes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he p resumed s ource a rea w i l l b e u sed . H is tog rams o ft he v a lues o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i nF ig . 9 .8 f o r t he c o mp le te G roup V I I I a xes i nt he n ear -sour ce s amp le f o r wh i ch t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le .1 T hese h i st og rams s ugges t t ha t c ons iderab le v ar iab i l i ty i s p resen t among t hese a xes i n t e rms o f b o th s i ze a nd s hape .
I n p a rt i cu la r , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f l eng th
mea suremen t s c l ear ly s ugges t s t he p resence o fs evera l moda l s i zes o fa xes . On s ca t ter p l ot s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s o f t he a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le ( F ig . 9 .9 ) , t he d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i nd ica t ed b y t he h i s t og ram o f l eng th measuremen t s c an b e s een . T hese i n c lude , f r om l ongest t os hor tes t , t wo
10 ne o f t he a xes i n t h is s amp le , C ard . 3 6 , was f ound o n ab each a nd a ppea rs t o b e c ons iderab ly wa t erworn , s o n one o f i t s measu remen ts w ere i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is . A no ther a xe , P emb . 4 1 , h as b een d amaged a t o ne c orner o f t he b lade , s o i t s o r ig ina l max i mum w id th i su nknown . T he c en ter w id th a nd t h i ckness a re k nown f o r t ha t a xe , b u t n o t f o r a no ther , P emb . 4 2 .
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v ery l a rge a xes , as t r ing o f f ou r sma l ler , b u t s t i l l r e la t ive ly l a rge a xes , a nd f our sma l l a xes .1 T h is p a t tern o f v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s i ze i s s im i lar t o t ha t o bserved among a xes o f o ther g roups .
B y a na logy w i th t hose g roups , i t c an b e p roposed t ha t t he l a rger a xes
r epresen t t he s or t s o fa xes t ha t w ere p rodu ced a t t he G roup V I I I s our ce , wh i le t he sma l ler a xes a re r e -worked s pec imen s . F or t e st ing t h is p ropos i t ion , morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I I r oughout s f ound w i th in 1 00 km o f t he p resumed s ource a rea ( F ig . 9 .10 ) c an b e i nves t iga ted .
On
s ca t t er p l o t s o fl eng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts o ft hese r oughout s a nd t he a xes i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le ( F ig . 9 .11 ) , t wo d i s t inc t s i zes o fr oughou t s c an b e o bserved .
A s i ng le r oughou t c or responds i n s i ze w ith t he t wo l a rges t a xes .
T he o ther
r oughou t s c orrespond i n s i ze w i th t hree o f t he sma l ler b u t s t i l l l a rge a xes .2 T h is c om p a r ison o f a xe a nd r oughou t s i zes t ends t o c onf i rm t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t he l a rger a xes r epresen t t he s or t s o f a xes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughou t s a t t he s ource , wh i le t he sma l ler a xes a re r e -worked s pec imens . O n t he b as is o f t he ir g rea t s i ze , b o th a bso lut e ly a nd i n c o mpar ison w i th t he o ther a xes o f G roup V I I I , i t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he t wo l a rges t a xes , P emb . 4 2 a nd C ard . 3 4 , 3 may h ave b een p rodu ced a s p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i t ems .
T he o ther l a rge
a xes , P emb . 1 7 , C ard . 1 9 ( F ig . 9 .12a ) , C arm . 2 6 , a nd C arm . 8 , a l though v ary ing c on s i derab ly i ns i ze , p robab ly r epresen t t he more t yp ica l u t i l i tar ian p roduct s o ft h i s s ource . Among t he sma l ler a xes , v ar iab i l i ty i n s i ze , s hape , a nd f i n ish c an b e o bserved . T he t wo l a rger s pec imens , P emb . 4 1 a nd P emb . 4 5 , a re r a ther u neven i n s hape , a nd t hey
1O ne o f t hese , wh ich i s r epresen ted o n t he p l o t o f l eng th v s . t h ickness measure men t s , i sm iss ing f r om t he p l o t o f l e ng th v s . w id th measuremen t s , b ecause i t s max imum w id th i su nknown . T h is i sP emb . 4 1 , men t ioned a bove . 2A l though i ts eems u nusua l t ha t n o r oughou t s h ave b een f ound wh ich c orrespond i n s i ze w i th t he l a rge a xe t ha t i s2 20 mm i nl e ng th , t h is may b e d ue t o sma l l s amp le s i ze . 3N e i ther o f t hese i s i lus t ra ted h ere b ecause p e t ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n e a ch o ft he m .
2 19
e xh ib i t many r emnan t f l ake s cars , wh ich w ere n o t g round a way , o n t he i r s urfa ces .1 S u ch f ea tu res a re o f t en c hara c ter is t ic o f r e -worked i mp lemen t s , b u t f o r t h is g roup , t he l a rger , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a l so t end t ob e s o mewha t u neven i n o u t l ine a nd t o e xh ib i t n umerous r emnan t f l ake s cars . T he s e cond sma l les t a xe , C arm . 4 1 ( F ig . 9 .13a ) , i st he mos t f i ne ly -f in ished s pec imen i nt he n ear -sour ce s amp le . I ti sq u it e e ven i ns hape a nd a lmos t a l l o ft he f l ake s cars o n i t s f a ces h ave b een g round a way .
S u ch f ea tures m igh t i nd i cat e t ha t t he i mp lemen t was
o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced f r om ar oughou t a tt he s our ce . H owever , i ts eems more l i ke ly t ha ti ti s af i ne ly -f in ished r e -worked s pec imen .
I n c o mpar ison w i th a b ad ly d amaged a xe o f t h is
ma ter ia l f ound a t t he s ame s i te ( F ig . 9 .13b ) , i ti se asy t o s ee h ow a n a xe l i ke C arm . 4 1 c ou ld h ave b een p rodu ced t hrough r e -g r ind ing a n i mp lemen t l i ke C a rm . 4 0 ( F ig . 9 .13c ) . I n e i ther c ase , i ti sc l ea r f r om t he a symmet r ic s hape o f t he b lade i n f a ce v i ew t ha t t h is a xe h a s b een w orn t hrough u se . F ina l ly , t he sma l les t a xe i nt h is s amp le , P emb . 2 5 , i st he o n ly o ne t ha ti sc l ear ly r e w orked . I th as b een h eav i ly r e -f laked a tt he b u t t a nd a l ong o ne s i de e dge .2 I n s umma ry , w i th in 1 00 km o f t he G roup V I I I s ource , where r oughou t s h ave b een f ound a nd t he a xes w ere p roduced , G roup V I I I a xes o f aw ide v a r ie ty o fs i zes a re k nown . T hese r ange f r om v ery l a rge s pec imens t ha t may h ave b een p r ima r i ly c eremon ia l i t ems , t hrough l a rge a xes t ha t r epresen t t he more t yp ica l u t i l i tar ian p roduct s o f t he s ource , t o sma l l a xes t ha t a re p robab ly a l l r e -worked s pec imens . F or i n i t ia l c o mpar ison o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he G roup V I I I a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource w i th t he p a t t ern o f v ar iab i l i ty s een among t he a xes i nt he n ear -source s amp le , a l l o ft hese a xes c an b e s hown o n s ca t ter p l ot s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s ( F ig . 9 .14 ) .
O n t hese p l o t s i t
1N e i ther o f t hese i si lus t rat ed h ere ; t hese o bserva t ions a re b ased o n t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings . 2N ot i lust ra ted h ere ; t hese o bserva t ions a re b ased o n t he p et ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ing .
2 20
c an b e s een t ha t n o more v ery l a rge a xes , l i ke t hose i n t he n ear -source s amp le , h ave b een f ound a t l onger d i s tan ces f r om t he s our ce .
S evera l more l a rge a xes a re p resen t i n t h i s
s amp le , a nd many more sma l l a xes h ave b een f ound f urther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s our ce . Among t he l a t t er a re a n umber o f s pec imens t ha t a re s ma l ler t han a ny o f t hose i n t he n ear -source s amp le .
O n t he p l o t o f l eng th v s . w id th measurement s , s o me e v iden ce o f
c l uster ing s ugges t s t ha t t he s ame s i ze c l asses t ha t w ere i d en t if ied among t he a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le may b e p resen t among t he a xes i nt he w ider s amp le . H owever , o n t he p l o to fl eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s , s u ch c l ust er ing i sl e ss a ppa ren t . I n o rder t o d e term ine whe ther d i f f eren t s i zes o r s hapes o f a xes c an b e i d en t if ied among t he s pec imens i n t h is s amp le , t he a na ly t ica l t e chn iques wh ich w ere u sed i n t he i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f t he C orn ish g roups c an b e emp loyed . D is tr ibu t ions o f v a lues o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .15 f o r t he c o mp let e G roup V I I I a xes f o r wh ich t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le . I n t he h i s t og ram o f l eng th measu remen t s , t he t wo v ery l a rge a xes a nd a g roup o f l a rge a xes a re c l ear ly v i s ib le , a nd among t he l a rge g roup o f sma l ler a xes t here i s s o me e v iden ce o f b imoda l ity t ha t m igh t b e r e la ted t o d if eren t s i ze c l a sses .
T he h i st og ram o f w id th
measuremen t s i sb imoda l , a s i st he h i stog ram o fl e ng th /w id th r a t io v a lues . T hese d i s t r ibu t i ons a ppear t o r ef lec t t he v ar iab i l i ty i n w id th t ha t c an b e o bserved among t he s ma l ler a xes i n F ig . 9 .16a .
T he o ther h i s tog rams a re n o t a s o bv ious ly b imoda l a s t hese , b u t t hey
d o e xh ib i t p a t terns t ha t a re n o t s t r ic t ly n orma l a nd may b e r e la ted t o t he p resence o fd i f f e ren t s i zes o r s hapes o fa xes i nt h is s amp le . Ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup V I I I a xes f o r wh ich a l l o f t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le ( F ig . 9 .16 ) i nd ica t es s t rong r e lat ionsh ips among many o f t he v ar iab les .
I n p ar t icu lar , c or re la t ions g reat er t han
+ .9 c an b e
o bserved b e tween t he v ar iab les o f max imum w id th a nd c en t er w id th , b e tween t he v ar i a b les o f max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h i ckness , a nd b etween t he v ar iab les o f w id th /
2 21
t h ickness r a t io a nd c ross -sec t ion r a t io .
T hese c or re la t ions i nd i cat e t ha t t he v a r iab les i n
t hese p a irs a re e ssen t ia l ly r edundan t measures o f t he s ame a spect s o f a xe s i ze a nd s hape . B ecause o f t h is , t he v ar iab les o f c ent er w id th , c ent er t h i ckness , a nd c ross -sec t ion r a t io w ere e l im ina ted f r om f ur ther s tages o ft he a na lys is . N ex t , t he r e ma in ing s i x v ar iab les w ere s ub ject ed t o ap r in c ipa l c o mponent s a na lys is . T h is a na lys is ( Tab le 9 .3 ) y i e lded t hree s i gn if i can t c o mponen ts .
T he f i rs t o f t hese r ef lect s
v ar ia t ion among t he a xes i n l e ng th , t h i ckness , a nd s hape i n f ace v i ew , t he s econd r ef lect s v ar ia t ion i ns hape i n p rof i le v i ew a nd c ross -sec t iona l s hape , a nd t he t h ird r ef lect s v ar ia t ion i n max imum w id th a nd w idth i nr e la t ion t ot h i ckness b u tn o t i nr e la t ion t ol eng th . H is tog rams o f t he c omponen t s cores o f t he t hree s i gn if i can t p r in c ipa l c omponen t s a re p resen ted i n F ig . 9 .17 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f s cores o f t he f i rs t c o mponen t ( PC .1 ) i s c l ear ly mu l t i -moda l i n ap a t t ern t ha t i sv ery s im i lar t o t he d i st r ibu t ion o fl eng th measure men t s s hown i nF ig . 9 .15 . T he d i st r ibu t ion o f s cores o ft he t h ird c omponen t ( PC .3 ) i sa l so mu l t i -moda l .
S ince t h is c omponen t r ef lec t s v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes i n a bso lu te a nd
r e la t ive w id th , t h is d i s t r ibu t ion s ugges t s t ha t a xes o f d i f f eren t s hapes may b e p resen t i n t h is s amp le . I n o rder t o i d en t ify a ny s i ze a nd /or s hape c l asses t ha t may b e p resen t among t he G roup V I I I a xes , t he c omponen t s c ores o f t he t hree s i gn if i can t p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s w ere u sed a s t he d a ta i n ac l us ter a na lys is ( F ig . 9 .18 ) . A s p roved u sefu l i n t he c ase o fG roup I a xes ,
t he
m in imum
v ar ian ce
a lgor i thm
a nd
t he
E uc l idean d i s tance
measure
w ere
emp loyed , a nd t he t hree v ar iab les w ere w e igh ted a c cord ing t o t he ir e i genva lues i n t he p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is .
T he p a t t ern o f d i stan ces a t wh ich c l ust ers j o ined i n t h is
a na lys is s ugges t s t ha t u p t o s even s i gn if i can t c l ust ers o f G roup V I I I a xes c an b e d ef ined . T hese c l ust ers a re r epresen ted o n s ca t ter p l o t s o fl e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen t s i n F ig . 9 . 19 , a nd s ummary d escr ipt ions o f t he a xes i n e a ch c l uster a re p resen ted i n T ab le 9 .4 . A xes r epresen ta t ive o ff i ve o ft he s even c l usters a re i lus t ra ted i n F ig . 9 .12 .
2 22
Among t he s even c l usters r evea led b y t he c l ust er a na lys is , t he t wo v ery l a rg e a xes f ound n ear t he s ource s tand a l one ( c lus ter 7 ) , a nd ag roup o f sma l ler , b u t s t i l l l a rge a xes i s a l so p resen t ( c lust er 6 ) . Another c l ust er i n c ludes a xes wh ich c an b e d escr ibed a s med ium s i zed ( c luster 4 ) , wh i le t he r e ma in ing f our c l us ters ( c lust ers 1 , 2 , 3 , a nd 5 ) , o ne o f t hem c ons is t ing o fo n ly as i ng le s pec imen , i n c lude sma l l a xes . F o l low ing t he i n t erpreta t ion o f t he a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , i tc an b e s ug g est ed t ha t t he c l ust ers o f v ery l a rge , l a rge , a nd med ium -s ized a xes i n c lude s pec imens wh ich w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughou t s i n t he v i c in ity o f t he s ource , wh i le t he c l us ters o f s ma l l a xes i n c lude p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens .
T h is i n t erpre ta t ion i s
g enera l ly u phe ld b y morpho log ica l f ea tures o ft he a xes wh ich w ere n ot q uan t if ied . T he t wo v ery l a rg e a xes w ere d i scussed i n c onnec t ion w i th t he n ear -source s amp le , a nd t h is n eed n ot b e r epea ted h ere .
T he l a rge a xes a re g enera l ly e ven i n o u t l ine w i th f a ir ly s t ra igh t
s i des t ha t t aper g radua l ly t o an arrow b u t t . S ome , s u ch a s N orf . 3 0 ( F ig . 9 .12b ) , a re q u it e w e l l g round w i th f ew r e mnan tf l ake s cars , wh i le o thers , s uch a s C ard . 1 9 ( F ig . 9 .12a ) , a re l e ss w e l l g round a nd e xh ib i t more r e mnan t f l ake s cars . A lmost a l l o f t hese a xes e xh ib i t b lades t ha t h ave b een d amaged b y t he r emova l o fc h ips o r f l akes ( e .g . , C ard . 1 9 ) o r b lades t ha t a re a symme t r ic i ns hape i nf a ce v i ew ( e .g . , N orf . 3 0 ) . Most o ft he med ium -s ized a xes ( e .g . , Men. 1 2 , F ig .
9 .12c , N orf . 7 3 , F ig .
9 .12e ) e xh ib i t t he s ame c hara c ter is t ics o f
g enera l ly e ven s hape , f a ir ly s t ra igh t s i des t aper ing g radua l ly t o an arrow b u t t , more o r l e ss w e l l -g round s urfaces , a nd a w orn o r d amaged b lade .
T hese f ea tures t end t o i nd ica te
t ha t a l l o ft hese a xes w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced f r om r oughou t s i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s our ce a nd t ha t t hey f un c t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . Among t he med ium -s ized a xes , o ne s pec imen s tands o u t a s s o mewha t u nusua l i n f o rm . T h is i mp lemen t , W i l t s . 3 00 ( F ig . 9 .12d ) , i st he w ides t a xe i nt h is c l us ter , a nd i ta l so h as a n u nusua l ly b road b u t t . T hese f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t h is i mp lemen t may h ave b een r e -worked f r om a n e ven l a rger s pec imen .
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T he sma l ler a xes o f G roup V I I I a re q u it e v ar iab le i n s hape .
T he m os t n umerous
c l ust er o f t hem ( c lus ter 2 ) i n c ludes a xes t ha t a re r e la t ive ly n a rrow a nd t h in .
I n c om -
p ar ison w i th t he med ium -s ized a nd l a rge a xes , t hese s pec imens ( e .g . , D enb . 1 7 , F ig . 9 .12f ; B reck . 4 , F ig . 9 .12g ) t end t o b e more u neven i n o ut l ine a nd h ave more p o in ted b u t t s . T hese f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s h ave b een r e -worked f r om l a rger a xes , a nd u nequ ivoca l s i gns o fr e -work ing c an b e s een o n s ome o ft hem ( e .g . , B reck . 4 ) . I n c on t ras t , t hese f ea tures a re n o t s een o n t he l o nges t a xe i n t h i s c l us ter , S taf f s . 1 3 . T h is i mp lemen t i se ven i n s hape a nd w e l l -g round , l i ke many med ium -s ized a nd l a rge a xes , a nd i te xh ib i t s n o e v iden ce o f r e -work ing .'
T hus i ta ppears t o h ave b een p rodu ced f r om a r oughou t a t
t he s our ce r a ther t han t h rough r e -work ing a l a rger a xe .
I n c o mpar ison w i th o ther
o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes o f t h is mat er ia l , t h is i mp lemen t i s u nusua l ly n a rrow , a nd i t a ppea rs t o b e b e cause o f t h is c ha ra ct er ist ic t ha t t h is a xe was c l ust ered w i th sma l ler , p resumab ly r e -worked o nes . T he s i ng le s ma l l a xe t ha t s tands a l one a s a n i ndependen t c l us ter , H ere . 4 2 ,2 i s a v ery u nusua l s pe c imen .
I t i s t he t h innes t G roup V I I I i mp lemen t i n t h i s s amp le ( s ee
F ig . 9 .19b ) , a nd i ta ppears t o h ave b een p roduced b y r ough ly s hap ing t he e dges o f al a rge f l ake o ft h is mat er ia l . T he a symme t r i c s hape o f t h is i mp lemen t s ugges t s t ha t i t may h ave f unc t ioned a s a n a dze . Two o f t he i mp lemen t s i n t he c l us ter o f r e la t ive ly w ide a nd t h i ck s ma l l a xes , C arm . 4 1 ( F ig . 9 .13a ) a nd P emb . 2 5 , h ave a l ready b een d i scussed i n c onnec t ion w i th t he n ea r -sou rce s amp le .
Another s pec imen , G lam . 2 8 i s i lus t ra ted i n F ig . 9 . 12h , a nd t he
f our th , G lam . 9 2 , i ss im i lar i n s hape t o t he o ther t hree .3 I tc an b e s ugges t ed t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s w ere p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing a xes t ha t w ere b roken o r d amaged i n d i f -
1N o t i lus tra t ed h ere ; t hese o bservat ions a re b ased o n t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing a nd p hot og raph . 2N o t i lus t ra ted h ere ; t hese o bserva t ions a re b ased o n t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing a nd p hot og raph . 3N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; t h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2 24
f e ren t ways f r om t he o nes f r om wh i ch t he r e la t ive ly n arrow a nd t h in sma l l a xes w ere p roduced . F ina l ly , t he c l ust er o f v ery sma l l a xes i n c ludes s pec imens t ha t h ave p robab ly b een c ons iderab ly r e -worked .
T h is i s o bv ious ly t rue f o r t he f our s hort es t a xes , among t hem
G lam . 2 5 ( Savory 1 975 :243 , F ig . 3 ) a nd W i l t s . 4 3 ( F ig . 9 .12 i ) , wh ich h ave b een h eav i ly r e -f laked .
T he t wo
l a rger
a xes ,
Y orks . 8 87 1 a nd
L incs . 9 3
( Cumm ins
a nd Moore
1 973 :230 , F ig . 7 ,# 94 ) , a ppea r t ob e q u it e smoo th ly g round , a nd i ti so n ly t he ir s ma l l s i ze t ha t s ugges t s t ha t t hey w ere p roduced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes . I n s ummary , t h is i nvest iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I I a xes h as r evea led c l asses o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes .
T he d iv is ion b e tween t hese ma jor g roups o f a xes l i es a t al eng th o f a pprox ima te ly
1 30 mm .
Among t he l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes , t hree s i ze c l asses w ere i d ent if ied .
One o f t hese c l asses c ons ist s o f o n ly t wo v ery l a rge a xes wh ich may h ave b een p rodu ced a s p r imar i ly c ere mon ia l i t ems .
A xes i n t he o ther t wo c l asses a ppear t o h ave b een t he
more t yp ica l p roduc t s o f t he s our ce , a nd t hey u ndoubt ed ly f unc t ioned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . Among t he sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes , s evera l morpho log ica l c l asses w ere i d en t if ied . T he v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes t ha t i sr ef lect ed b y t hese c l asses a ppears t ob e l a rge ly t he r esu l t o f r e -work ing a xes d amaged o r b roken i nd if eren t ways o r , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o ft he s ma l lest s pec imens , r epea t ed r e -work ing o f a xes . T ha t t hese c l asses d o n o t r ef lect r e -work ing o f a xes i n d if eren t s pec if i c l o ca l a reas i si nd i ca ted b y t he f a c t t ha t a xes w i th in e a ch c l ass h ave b een f ound i n d if eren t a reas , wh i le a xes i n d if eren t c l asses h ave b een f ound i n t he s ame a reas ( F ig . 9 .20 ) . F or p urposes o ft h is i nvest iga t ion , t here s eems t ob e n o r eason t or e ta in t hese c l asses , s o t he sma l l , p r ima r i ly r e -worked a xes w i l l b e c ons idered a s as i ng le , g enera l ly -def ined g roup .
1N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
2 25
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D ist r ibu t ion
I n t he a na lys is o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I I I i t was b r ief ly n oted t ha t v ery l a rge a xes w ere n ot f ound o u ts ide t he n ear -source a rea , a l though a xes o fa l l o ther s i zes , i n c lud ing s pec imens sma l ler t han a ny o ft he t hose f ound i n t he n ear -source a rea , w ere f ound f urther a f ie ld . B ef ore i nvest iga t ing t h is p attern a nd c on s i der ing i t s i mp l icat ions i n t e rms o f d i str ibut ion p rocesses , p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among G roup V I I I a xes f r om s pec if i c c ontext s o fd epos it ion must b e d i scussed .
Axes f r om S pec if i c C on tex ts o fD epos it ion
On ly f our c o mp lete a xes o f G roup V I I I c an b e a t t r ibut ed t o s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos it ion ( Tab le 9 .5 ) .
T hree o f t hese w ere f ound i n a pparen t o c cupa t ion c ont ex t s , wh i le
t he f our th was r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
O ccupa t ion C on texts W ith in t he n ear -source a rea , as i ng le c o mp le te a xe a nd s evera l p ar ts a nd f ragmen ts o f a xes o f G roup V I I I w ere f ound i n E ar ly Neo l ith ic c ont ex t s a t t he s i te o f C oygan C amp , C armar thensh ire ( Wa inwr igh t 1 967 ) .
T hese a re t he s pec imens wh ich a re u sed t o d ate t he
b eg inn ing o f t he u se o f G roup V I I I mat er ia l f o r a xe manufacture ( Sm ith 1 979 :19 ) .
T he
c o mp le te a xe , C arm . 4 1 ( F ig . 9 .13a ) , h as a l ready b een d i scussed a s aw e l l -ground , sma l l i mp lement wh ich
was
p robab ly
p roduced
t hrough
c arefu l ly r e -work ing
a d amaged
s pec imen . T h is i mp lemen t i st he s econd sma l les t G roup V I I I a xe i nt he n ear -source a rea . A t a much g reater d i stance f r om t he s ource , av ery sma l l i mp lemen t o f G roup V I I I was r ecovered f r om t he d i t ch o f t he b e l l -barrow a t W indm i l l H i l l , W i ltsh ire ( Sm i th 1 965 :111 ) .
T h is i mp le ment , Wi l ts . 4 3 ( F ig . 9 .12 i ) , h as b een h eav i ly r e -f laked , b u t t he
f l ake s cars h ave b een l i gh t ly r e -g round ( i b id . ) .
T he s i ze a nd s hape o ft h is i mp le men t s ug -
g es t t ha t i t was p robab ly u sed a s a n a dze o r o ther w ood -work ing t o o l , r a ther t han a s a t r ee -f e l l ing a xe . I t was p robab ly l o st o r a bandoned d ur ing N eo l ith ic a ct iv ity a t t he s i te a nd
2 26
t hen f e l l i n t o t he b arrow d i t ch d ur ing a l a ter t ime p er iod .
N o o ther c o mp let e G roup V I I I
a xes h ave b een f ound i nt he s ame 5 0 km g r id s quare a s t h is o ne . F ina l ly , ac o mp le t e G roup V I I I a xe was r ecovered f r om a c on tex t d a t ing t ot he e ar l i er p ar t o f t he L a t e N eo l i th ic a t t he C ast le Meadow s i t e , D own ton , W i l t sh i re ( Sm i th 1 979 :19 ) . T h is a xe , W i l t s . 3 00 ( F ig . 9 .12d ) , i st he u nusua l ly w ide , b road -bu t t ed , med ium s i zed s pec imen wh i ch may h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a n e ven l a rger i mp le ment . No o ther c o mp le t e a xes o fG roup V I I I h ave b een f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare .
T he R iver T hames A s i ng le c o mp le te a xe o f G roup V I I I was r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames i n t he L ondon a rea .
T h is sma l l a xe , L ond . 4 2 ( Adk ins a nd J ackson 1 978 , # 235 ) , i sa symmet r i c
i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew , s ugges t ing t o me t ha t i t was p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a d amaged l a rger a xe .1 I ta pparen t ly s hows s l igh t s i gns o f u se w ear ( i b id . :42 ) .
N o c om -
p l e te a xes o fG roup V I I I ma ter ia l w ere r ecovered f r om l and c on tex t s i nt h is a rea .
S ummary Ana lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I I I f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion i s s evere ly l im i ted b y t he sma l l n umbers o f a xe s t ha t a re a va i lab le f r om e ach o ft hese c on t ext s a nd b y t he l a ck , i nt hree c ases o u t o ff ou r , o fs amp les o fs t ray a xes f r om t he s ame a reas w i th wh ich t he s i zes o ft he a xes f r om s pe c if i c c on tex t s c ou ld b e c o mpa red . I n t e rms o ft he q ues t ion o fd epos i t ion i n a nd r e covery f r om d i f f eren t c ont ex t s o fd i f f e ren t s i zes o fa xes , t he f a c t t ha t a l l o ft he G roup V I I I a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c on tex t s a re r e la t ive ly sma l l i ss ugges t ive o f t he p red icted p a t tern o f d epos i t ion i n a nd r e covery f r om s u ch c ont ex t s o f g enera l ly sma l l a xes .
I n p ar t icu la r , t he v ery sma l l i mp lemen t f ound a t
W indm i l l H i l l i sa n e xce l len t e xamp le o f t he s or t o f sma l l s pec imen t ha t i sl i ke ly t o h ave
1H owever , Adk in s a nd J a ckson ( 1978 :41 ) s ugges t t ha t t h is f o rm wa s d e l ibera te ly p roduced " perhaps w i th t he i n ten t ion o f p roduc ing a ng le -b lows a nd t hus w i th t he k now ledge o ft he g rea ter e ff i c ien cy o ft h is method ."
2 27
r ema ined l o s t , o r t o h ave b een a bandoned , i n a n a rea o fi n tens ive p reh ist or ic a ct iv i ty a nd t o h ave b een r e covered d ur ing i n tens ive a r chaeo log ica l c o l lect ing o r a c tua l e x cava t ion i n s u ch a reas . I n t e rms o fa xe s i ze p a t terns t ha t m igh t b e r e lat ed t op a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion , t hese s amp les o f G roup V I I I a xes f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion a re t o o sma l l f o r mean ing fu l a na lys is .
F or f ur ther i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n mor -
p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I I a xes t ha t may r ef lec t p a t t erns a nd p ro cesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion , t he t o ta l s amp le o fc o mp le te a xes o ft h is mat er ia l mus tb e c ons idered .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
T he o bserved d i s t r ibu t ion o f c omp le te G roup V I I I a xes , c ons is t ing o f c oncen t ra t ions o f a xes i n s ou thwes t Wa les a nd s ou theas t Wa les a nd s ca t ters o f a xes i n N or th Wa les , n or thern E ng land , a nd s ou thern E ng land , a l lows a c onven ien t d iv is ion o f t he d a ta i n t o s i x ma jor a reas f o r c ons idera t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty . T he l o ca t ions o f t he a xes i n t he d if eren t s i ze c l asses r e cogn ized a bove a re s hown i n t he d if eren t a rea s o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion i nF ig . 9 .21 . T he l e ng ths a nd s i ze c l asses o ft he a xes f ound i n t hese a rea s a re p resen ted i nT ab le 9 .6 a l ong w i th s ummary s ta t ist i cs t ha t i nd ica t e , f o r e a ch a rea , t he p er cen tage o f l a rger , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes , a s o pposed t o sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes , t he mean l e ng th o fa l l t he a xes , a nd t he mean l eng th o ft he sma l l a xes . I n F ig . 9 .21 a nd T ab le 9 .6 , i tc an b e s een t ha t a l though v ery l a rge a xes o f G roup V I I I h ave b een f ound o n ly i n t he n ear -source a rea , a xes o f t he o ther s i zes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced a tt he s our ce h ave b een f ound i na l l s i x ma jor a reas o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion , u p t o 4 77 km a way f r om t he s ource .
A l though t he r e la t ive p ercen tage o f l a rger a xes
v a r ies i n an on -d ire c t iona l manner a cross t he d if eren t a reas o f t he d i st r ibu t ion ,1 t he mean l e ng th s o f a l l o f t he a xes a nd o f t he s ma l ler a xes t end t o d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s our ce i nb o th ma jor t ra jec tor ies ( s ee T ab le 9 .6 ) .
' Th is i sp robab ly d ue t os ma l l s amp le s i ze .
2 28
T he o n ly a rea o f t he d i st r ibu t ion where t hese p a t t erns o f a xe s i ze d ecrease d o n o t a ppea r t o h o ld i sa t t he e ast ern -mos t e nd o ft he n or thern t ra jectory ( a rea N3 t oa rea N4 ) . H owever , t h is i sp robab ly d ue t ot he s ma l l s i ze o ft he s amp le f r om t he N orf o lk a rea , wh ich c ons is t s o fo n ly o n e l a rge a xe a nd o ne med ium -s ized a xe . I tc an b e s een i nT ab le 9 .6 t ha t t he l a rge a xe i ss hor t er t han t he l a rg e a xe f ound i n t he a rea a d ja cen t t o t h is o ne b u tc l oser t o t he s ource ( N3 ) , a nd t he med ium -s ized a xe f a l ls w i th in t he r ange o f s i zes o f med ium s i zed a xes i n t ha t a rea . T hus t he s i zes o ft he a xes f r om N orf o lk a re n o t e n t ire ly i n cons is t en t w i th t he p a t t erns o fa xe s i ze d e crea se t ha t w ere s een a cross t he o ther a rea s . T hese g enera l p a t terns o fa xe s i ze d ecrease w i th i n crea s ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource s ugges t t ha t a xes o fG roup V I I I w ere d i s t r ibut ed t hrough t he mechan ism o fg roup to -g roup r e c iproca l e xchange o u tward i n e ast er ly d i rect ions f r om t he s our ce a rea .
A l though v ery
l a rge , p erhaps c eremon ia l , a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l a ppear t o h ave b een r e ta ined e xc lus ive ly i nt he s our ce a rea a nd n o t t raded a way , t he o ther l a rge a xes f ound i n a reas a tl o ng d i stan c e s f r om t he s our ce i nd ica te t ha t g ood q ua l i ty , o r ig ina l ly -produced , u t i l i tar ian a xes w ere g i ven t ot rade p ar tners . C ompar ison o ft he p a t terns o fa xe s i ze t ha t c an b e o bserved w i th in t he n or thern a nd s ou thern t ra ject or ies o f t he d i st r ibu t ion r evea ls i n terest ing d if erences .
I n F ig . 9 .21 a nd
T ab le 9 .6 , i tc an b e s een t ha t l a rge a nd med ium -s ized a xes h ave b een f ound i n a l l a reas o f t he n or thern t ra jec tory . I n c on t ras t , o n ly med ium -s ized a nd s ma l l a xes h ave b een f ound i n e a ch a rea o ft he s ou thern t ra ject ory . F ur thermore , i nc ompar ing t he mean l e ng ths o fa xes f ound a t e qu iva len t d i s tances f r om t he s our ce i n t he t wo t ra je ct or ies ( Tab le 9 .6 ) , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he mean l e ng ths o f a l l t he a xes a nd t he mean l eng ths o f t he sma l ler a xes a re g rea ter i n e ach a rea o f t he n or thern t ra je ct ory t han i n t he c orrespond ing a rea o f t he s ou thern t ra jec tory . Ib e l ieve t ha t t hese d if eren ces i n a xe s i ze p a t tern ing b etween t he t wo t ra jec tor ies r ef lec t d if eren t ia l i n t ens i t ies o fp reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd a r chaeo log ica l c o l le ct ing i n t he d i f f e ren t a reas r a ther t han d if eren t ia l s i n e xchange . I th as a l ready b een n ot ed t ha t t he a rea
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o f s ou theast ern Wa les t ha t i s i n c luded i n t he s econd s tage o f t he s outhern t ra jec tory a ppears t o h ave b een a f o cus o ff a ir ly i n t ens ive N eo l i th ic a c t iv i ty . I ti sn o t s urpr is ing t ha t mos to ft he G roup V I I I a xes f ound i nt h i s a rea a re r e la t ive ly sma l l . Al a rge p ropor t ion o f t he l a rge a xes t ha t may h ave b een l o s t i nt h is a rea w ere p robab ly r ecovered a nd r e -used , l e av ing t o e nt er t he a rchaeo log i ca l r e cord a l a rger p ropor t ion o f sma l l a xes wh ich w ere e i ther n o t r ecovered t o b e r e -used i n s p i te o f t he h igh l e ve l o f a ct iv i ty o r wh ich w ere a c tua l ly d i scarded . I n c on t ras t , t he f ew G roup V I I I a xes i n t he s econd s tage o f t he n or th e rn t r a jec tory w ere f ound i na rea s wh ich d o n ot a ppea r t oh ave b een a s i n tens ive ly u t i l ized i n N eo l i th i c t imes .
T he l a rger p ropor t ion o f l a rge a xes i n t h is s amp le s eems l i ke ly t o
r ef l e c t l o ss o f a xes , wh ich w ere n o t r e covered , d ur ing r e la t ive ly l e ss i n tens ive a c t iv i ty i n , o r t r anspor t t hrough , t h is a rea .
I n a dd i t ion , i t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t more i n tens ive
a r chaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ing h as t aken p lace i n s outheas tern Wa les , where modern p opu la t ion i sd enser , t han i n t he a reas o f c en t ra l a nd n or thern Wa les where t he G roup V I I I a xes h ave b een f ound , a nd t ha t t h is t o o w ou ld r esu l t i n ag rea ter p roport ion o f sma l ler a xes h av ing b een r ecovered i nt he s ou thern a rea . C ompar ison o f t he s amp les o f a xes f ound i n t he n or thern a nd s ou thern t r a jec tor ies a t t he t h i rd s tage r evea ls t ha t a l l o f t he a xes f o r wh ich s i ze d a ta w ere a va i lab le i n t he n or thern a rea a re s t ray f i nds , wh i le t hree o u t o f t he f our a xes f o r wh i ch s i ze d a ta w ere a va i lab le i nt he s ou thern a rea h ave b een r e covered f r om s pec if i c c on t ex t s o fd epos i t ion , a nd o ft hese , t wo w ere f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions . T hus , d i rec t c o mpa r ison o ft he s i ze p a t terns o bserved among t he a xes i nt hese s amp les i sn o t r ea l ly v a l id . I n s ummary , t he r esu l t s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I I a xes i nd ica t e t ha t a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l w ere d i st r ibuted o u t ward f r om t he s our ce t hrough r ec iproca l g roup to -g roup e xchange ( F ig . 9 .22 ) . A l though i t i sn o t c l ea r f r om t he a xe s i ze p a t t ern ing , b ecause o ft he a pparen t e f ect s o fd if erent i n ten s i t ies o f p reh ist or i c a ct iv i ty a nd modern c o l lect ing i n d if eren t a reas o n s i ze p a t tern ing among a xes i n t hese sma l l s amp les , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he mos t i mpor tan t a spec t o f
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t he d i st r ibu t ion o fG roup V I I I a xes , i nt e rms o ft he n umbers o f a xes i nvo lved a nd i nt e rms o f c orrespond ing amoun t s o f i n tera c t ion b e tween p eop le i nvo lved , was t he m ovemen t o f a xes b e tween t he s ource a rea a nd s ou theast ern Wa les .1 I t i st h is a spec t o f t he d i spersa l o f t hese a xes t ha t i sr ef lected b y C umm ins 's map o f r e la t ive p ercen tages .
Movemen t o f
G roup V I I I a xes b eyond S ou th Wa les a ppears t o h ave b een mu ch l e ss i mpor tan t . A f ew a xes r eached t he Wessex a rea , p resumab ly t hrough c on tac t b etween p eop le i nt ha t r eg ion a nd p eop le i n s ou theastern Wa les . O ther a xes o f t h is g roup w ere moved f r om t he s ource a rea t o N or th Wa les .
T here t hey a ppear t o h ave j o ined a ma jor e xchange n e twork a l ong
wh ich l a rge n umbers o f a xes f r om t he G roup V I I s ource a t G ra ig Lwyd , C aerna rvonsh ire , w ere mov ing t oward t he a pparen t ly h eav i ly p opu lat ed a reas o fn or theas tern E ng land .
G roup V I I
Axes o f G roup V I I mat er ia l , o r ig ina t ing a t t he G ra ig Lwyd " axe f a c tory" i n C aer n arvonsh ire , a re t he t h ird most a bundan t g roup o f B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes .
T hey
a ccoun t f o r 1 2 .4% o ft he g rouped a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t a nd o ver 7 2% o ft he a xe s a t t r ibu ted t os ources i n Wa les . T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef erences a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .23 .2 F rom t h is map i ta ppears t ha t G roup V I I a xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted i n af an l ike p a t tern o u tward f r om t he s ource , o ver land t owa rd a reas o f e ast ern , s ou theas tern , a nd s ou thern E ng land . T h is g enera l p a t tern o fa xe d i spersa l i sa l so s uggest ed b y C umm ins 's r e la t ive p er cen tage d i st r ibu t ion map f o r t h is g roup ( Cumm ins 1 979 :10 , F ig . 6 a ) .
O f t he f i ve g roups o f a xes c ons idered b y H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 ,
1 982 ) , t h is i st he o ne f o r wh i ch t hey o b ta ined t he b est r esu lt s i nt e rms o fa xe s i ze d ecrease i n u n if orm d i stance b ands o u twa rd f r om t he s ource .
S uch a p a t tern w ou ld b e e xpec ted i f
li ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he a xes w ere t r anspor ted b e tween t hese t wo a reas a l ong c oas t a l wa terways . 2I n a dd i t ion , u nprovenanced c o mp le te a xes o f t h is g roup h ave b een r epor t ed f r om Y orksh ire a nd t he R iver T hames .
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t hese a xes w ere d i s tr ibut ed t hrough g roup -t o -g roup r e c iproca l e xchange o u tward f r om t he s ou r ce i na l l d i rec t ions . H ou lder ( 1956 ) h as a l so s uggest ed t ha t G roup V I I a xes w ere d i s t r ibut ed t hrough " hand to -hand b ar t er" , n o to n ly f r om t he s our ce a rea , b u t a l so f r om t wo o r t hree c en ters t o wh i ch t he a xes w ere t ranspor ted d i rec t ly i n b u lk .
H e s ugges t s t ha t t he S evern E s tuary
a nd t he B ournemou th a rea m igh t h ave b een i mpor tan t c en ters f o r d i spersa l o f G roup V I I a xes wh i ch w ou ld h ave r ea ched t hem t hrough t ranspor t a l ong c oasta l r outes .
T he p os -
s i b i l i ty o f d i re c t t ranspor t o f G roup V I I a xes t o s ou thern c oasta l l o ca l i t ies f o r s ubsequen t d i s t r ibu t ion i n land i s a l so s ugges ted b y C umm ins 's r e la t ive p ercen tage d i s t r ibu t ion map . O n t h is map , r e la t ive ly l a rge p ercen tages o fa xes o n t he s ou th We lsh c oas t a nd i nt he S u s s ex a rea may r ef lec t c oas ta l movemen t o f a xes t o t hese a reas i n a dd i t ion t o o ver land m ovemen t o u tward f r om t he s ource . W i th in t he g enera l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes s hown i n F ig . 9 .23 , c on cen t ra t ions o f a xes c an b e s een i n Y orksh ire , L in co lnsh ire , t he P eak D is t r i c t , E ast Ang l ia , a nd t he L ondon a rea . T hese a re a l l a reas o f g enera l ly d ense a xes a nd a pparent ly d ense N eo l i th ic p opu la t i on . C umm ins ( 1980 ) h as s uggest ed t ha t a xes o f G roup V I I moved t hrough a reas o fl ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty i n t o a reas o fh igher p opu la t ion d ens i ty . H e h a s s ugges ted f ur ther t ha t t here w ere d i rec t c on ta ct s b etween t he G roup V I I s our ce a rea a nd t he P eak D is t r i c t a t l e as t , a nd t ha tb u lk movemen t o fa xes t o ok p lace b etween t hese t wo a reas . T hus , av ar ie ty o fp a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een p roposed f o r t he a xes o f G roup V I I .
A ssess ing whe ther s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty
among t hese a xes c orresponds w i th a ny o f t hese h ypothes ized p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f d i spersa l w i l l b e ama jor c on cern o ft h is i nves t iga t ion .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
O bserva t ions i n t he l i tera tu re o n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes s ugges t t ha t t hey a re c ha rac ter ized b y ag enera l u n i f orm i ty i n s hape ( St one a nd Wa l l is
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1 951 :121 ; C umm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :229 ) . T hey a re t yp ica l ly b road , w i th w ide b u t t s a nd e l l ipt i ca l c ross -sec t ions , a nd t hey r ange i n l e ng th f r om 1 40-210 mm , a l though sma l ler , p resumab ly r e -worked s pec imens a re a l so s een ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :229 ) . I n h i s r epor t o n t he " axe f a ct ory" s i te , H ou lder ( 1956 :x lv ) d i scussed t he e f ec t s o f u s ing t abu lar p i eces v s . t h i cker b l ocks o fs c ree , b o th f ound t here , f o r a xe manu fa c ture . H e s uggest ed t ha t a xes made f r om t h i cker b lanks w ou ld b e t h i cker i np ropor t ion t ot he ir w id th t han a xes made f r om t abu la r p i eces , e ven i n t he c ase o f e xper t p re l im inary f l ak ing , a nd t ha t c l asses o fa xes p roduced i n t h is way w ou ld b e i d en t if iab le o n t he b as is o ft he ir w id th / t h ickness p ropor t ion e ven a t l o ng d i stances f r om t he s ource . I n a n a na lys is o fp a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes , t hese s uggest ions c an b e e va lua ted . F or i n it ia l i nvest iga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes , as amp le o f a xes f ound i nt he s ource a rea c an b e d ef ined o n t he b as i s o f ah i stog ram o ft he d i stances f r om t he s ou rce a t wh ich t hese a xes h ave b een f ound ( F ig . 9 .24 ) . T h is d i s t r ibu t ion i nd ica tes t ha t ag roup o f a xes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o f t he s ou rce c an s erve a s t h is s amp le . D ist r ibu t ions o f v a lues o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .25 f o r t he c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le f o r wh ich t hese mea su remen t s a re a va i lab le .
I n t he h i s tog ram o f l eng th measuremen t s t here i s c l ear i nd i ca t ion o f
b imoda l i ty , w i th a b reak a round 1 60 mm , wh ich may r ef lec t g roups o f l a rg e , o r ig ina l ly p roduced a xes a nd sma l ler , r e -worked a xes .
N one o f t he o ther h i s tog rams i s a s c l ear ly
b imoda l , a l though mos t e xh ib i t p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty t ha t a re n o t s t r ic t ly n orma l . I n p a r t i cu lar , t he h i st og rams o ft h i ckness , l e ng th / th i ckness r a t io , a nd w id th / th ickness r a t io s how t endenc ies t oward mu l t i -moda l i ty , s ugges t ing t ha t a bso lu te a nd r e la t ive t h ickness may b e ama jor s ource o fv ar iab i l i ty i nG roup V I I a xe morpho logy , a s s ugges ted b y H ou lder . R e la t ionsh ips among t he t hree ma jor s i ze v ar iab les f o r t he a xes i n t h is s amp le a re s hown o n s ca t ter p l o t s i nF ig . 9 .26 . On b o th o ft hese p l ot s , ab reak b e tween ma jor g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes c an b e s een .
On t he p l o t o f l e ng th v s . w id th measu remen t s ,
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l i t t le e v idence o f o ther c l ust er ing , f o r e xamp le , among t he l a rger o r sma l ler a xes , i s p resen t .
H owever , o n t he p l o t o f l e ng th v s . t h ickness measu remen t s , ab reak b etween
g roups o f t h icker a nd t h inner l a rg e a xes c an h e o bserved , a nd t h is b reak i s a l so v i s ib le among t he s ma l l a xes . I n a dd i t ion , ag roup o ff our med ium -s ized a xes a nd o ne sma l l a xe , wh i ch a re t h inner t han a ny o f t he o ther s pec imens i n t he s amp le , c an b e i d en t if ied .
T h is
p a t tern o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty i sr a ther d if eren t f r om t ha t o bserved among a xes o f o ther g roups .
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he ma jor g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes
r epresen t o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a nd p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes , r espec t ive ly , wh i le t he ma jor g roups o ft h i cker a nd t h inner a xes r epresen t t he r esu l t s o fu s ing b l ocks o fr aw ma t er ia l o f d if eren t moda l t h icknesses f o r a xe manufa c ture , a s s uggest ed b y H ou lder . F or f ur ther i n s igh t s i n t o t he s i zes a nd s hapes o f a xes p roduced a t t h is s our ce , p a t t e rns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I r oughou t s ( F ig . 9 .27 ) c an b e i nves t i ga ted . 1 On s ca t ter p l o t s o f l eng th v s . w idth a nd l eng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s o f t hese r oughou ts a nd t he a xes i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le ( F ig . 9 .28 ) , i tc an b e s een t ha t mos t o f t he r oughou t s a re l a rge , g enera l ly c orrespond ing i n s i ze w i th t he l a rger a xes .2 T h is s uppor t s t he i n t erpre ta t ion o ft hese a xes a s i mp lemen t s t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced a t t he s our ce
a nd i nd i ca tes t ha t t he sma l l a xes
a re p robab ly p r ima r i ly r e -worked
s pe c imens .
' A l l b u t o ne o f t he k nown r oughou t s o f G roup V I I ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound w i th in 1 00 km o f t he " axe f a ct ory" s i t e . T h is o ne , Y orks . 8 78 , was f ound a t ad i stance o f 1 57 km f r om t he s ource . I t a ppears , f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ing , t o h ave b een g round o n o ne f ace , b u t n o t o n t he o ther , a nd s hou ld , p erhaps , b e t hough t o f a s a n u nf in ished a xe . 2T he sma l lest r oughou t r epresent ed i n F ig . 9 .28 , C aer . 1 11 , a ppears , f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing , t o b e a smooth -faced p ebb le t ha t h as b een r ough ly f l aked a l ong t he s i de a nd b lade e dges t of o rm a sma l l t oo l . I tp robab ly s hou ld n o t b e t hough t o f a s ar oughou t i n tended f o r g r ind ing t op roduce a n a xe , l i ke t he l a rger o nes .
T he o ther t wo s ma l l r oughou t s p robab ly w ere i n t ended f o r g r ind ing t o p rodu ce a xes , a nd t hey d o i nd ica te p roduc t ion o f sma l l a xes f r om r aw ma ter ia l a va i lab le a t t he s ource . However , o n t he b as is o ft he r e la t ive n umbers o fl a rge a nd s ma l l r oughou t s i nt h is s amp le , i t i s a pparen t t ha t p rodu c t ion o f sma l l a xes was r e la t ive ly i n f requen t i n c om p ar ison w ith p roduct ion o fl a rge a xes .
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T h is i n t erpre ta t ion o ft he ma jor g roups o fl a rger a nd sma l ler a xes i sa l so u phe ld b y morpho log ica l f ea tures o f t he a xes wh i ch w ere n o t q uan t if ied .
T hus , mos t o f t he l a rger
a xes , f o r e xamp le , Ang l . 9( F ig . 9 .29b ) a nd C aer . 3( F ig . 9 .29c ) a re s ymme t r ica l i n s hape , w i th b road b lades a nd b u t t s , a nd smoo th ly g round .1 T hese f ea tures i nd ica te t ha t t hese a xes h ave n o t b een s i gn if i can t ly a l t ered s i n ce t hey w ere i n i t ia l ly p roduced .
I n c on t ras t ,
most o ft he sma l ler a xes , f o r e xamp le , D enb . 2( F ig . 9 .29e ) a nd F l in t s . 1 0 ( F ig . 9 .29 f ) , a re a symmet r ica l i n s hape , w i th more t aper ing b u t t s , a nd t hey o f t en e xh ib i t d eep f l ake s cars wh ich h ave n o t b een c omp le te ly g round away .
T hese f ea tures s ugges t t ha t t hese a xes
h ave b een r e -worked . Among t he l a rger r oughou t s r epresen ted i n F ig . 9 .28b , t he p resence o f t wo g roups d if er ing i n t h i ckness r e la t ive t o l e ng th a nd c orrespond ing w i th t he ma jor g roups o ft h icker a nd t h inner a xes i s s uggested .
T he p resen ce i n t h is s amp le o f t wo g roups o f l a rge
r oughou t s d if er ing i n r e lat ive t h ickness i s c onf i rmed b y a h i st og ram o f t he l e ng th / t h ickness r a t io v a lues o f t hese r oughou t s ( F ig . 9 .30 ) .
T h is d i st r ibu t ion i sc l ear ly b imoda l .
T he c orrespondence o f t hese t wo g roups o f r oughou t s w i th t he t wo g roups o f t h icker a nd t h inner l a rge a xes i si nd icat ed b y ac o mpar ison o ft he l e ng th / th ickness r a t io v a lues o f t he i mp lemen t s i n t hese f our g roups ( Tab le 9 .7 ) .
T hese f i nd ing s s uppor t t he i n t erpreta t ion o f
t he t h i cker a nd t h inner l a rge a xes a s r epresen t ing t he r esu l t s o f u se o f b l ocks o f r aw mat er ia l o f d if eren t f o rms f o r a xe manufa c ture .2 T he c or respond ing g roups o f t h icker a nd t h inner sma l l a xes , t hen , p robab ly r epresen t t he r esu l t s o f r e -work ing l a rger a xes o f e ach moda l t h ickness .
1T he o n ly e x cep t ions t o t h is p a t t ern a re a xes wh ich a re o bv ious ly d amaged , f o r e xamp le , C aer . 1 8 a nd C aer . 2 0 ( b oth measured a nd d rawn b y me b u t n o t i lus t ra ted h ere ) , o r u nf in ished , f o r e xamp le , F l in ts . 7( F ig . 9 .29a ) . 2E v idence o f t he u se o f t abu lar p i e ces o f r aw ma ter ia l f o r a xe manufa c tu re c an b e s een i n t he s hape o ft he c ross -sect ion o ft he u nf in ished t h in a xe , F l in t s . 7( F ig . 9 .29a ) a nd i n t he p resence o f t abu lar s urfa ces o n an umber o f r oughou t s ( i nf orma t ion f r om p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing s ) . T he o n ly c o mparab le e v idence f o r t he u se o ft h i cker p i eces o fs c ree f o r a xe manufa cture i so f an ega t ive n a ture , i . e . , t he p resen ce o ft h i cker r oughou t s w i thou t r e mnan t t abu la r s urfa ces .
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I nterpreta t ion o ft he g roup o ff our v ery t h in med ium -s ized i mp lement s a nd o ne v ery t h in sma l l s pec imen r epresen ted i n F ig . 9 .28b i s s o mewha t more d i ff i cu l t .
One o f t he
l a rger i mp lemen t s i n t h i s g roup , Ang l . 1( F ig . 9 .29d ) , e xh ib i t s t he c haract er is t i cs o f a n a symme tr i c p rof i le a nd c r oss -sec t ion wh i ch s uggest t ha ti t may h ave b een u sed ä s a n a dze . Two o f t he o ther l a rger i mp lemen t s , Men. 1 41 a nd C hes . " 104, 2 a re v ery s im i la r i n f o rm t o Ang l . 1 . I tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s may h ave b een p rodu ced a s f un c t iona l ly s pec ia l ized t o o ls .
T he r ema in ing l a rger s pe c imen i n t h is g roup , C aer . 1 9 ,3 i s
t h in l i ke t he o thers , b u t more u neven i no u t l ine , s ugges t ing t ha t i t may b e u nf in ished o r r e w orked .
T he s ma l l i mp lemen t i n t h is g roup , Men. 1 6 ,4 l o oks l i ke a n i mp lemen t s uch a s
Ang l . 1t ha th a s b een r e -f laked a l ong b oth s i de e dges . I n s ummary , w i th in 1 00 km o f t he G ra ig Lwyd " axe f a ct ory" s i te , where mos t o f t he r oughou t s o f G roup V I I h ave b een f ound , b o th l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes a nd sma l l , a pparen t ly r e -worked s pec imen s o ft h is ma ter ia l h ave b een i d en t if ied . Among t hese i mp lemen t s , ad i cho tomy b e tween ma jor g roups o f t h icker a nd t h inner a xes c an b e o bserved . T h is a ppears t ob e r e la ted t ot he u se o fb l o ck s o fr aw mat er ia l o fd if eren t f o rms f o r a xe manufa c ture .
A sma l l g roup o f i mp lemen t s wh i ch may h ave b een p rodu ced a s
f un c t iona l ly s pec ia l ized t o o ls h as a l so b een i d en t if ied . F or i n i t ia l c o mpar ison o fp a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he G roup V I I a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource w i th t he p a t tern o f v a r iab i l i ty s een among t he a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le , a l l o ft hese a xes c an b e s hown o n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s ( F ig . 9 .31 ) .
1N o t
On t hese p l o t s i t
i lust ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
2T h iß i sn o t a n o ff i c ia l i d en t if i ca t ion n umber o f t he CBA I mp lemen t P et ro logy C om m i t tee , b u t r a ther an umber Ih ave a ss igned f o r p urposes o fi d en t if i ca t ion i nt h is i nves t iga t i on . A t t he t ime when Ii n spect ed t he p e t ro logy r ecord s f o r C hesh ire , t h is i mp lemen th ad b een t h in -sect ioned , b u t n o t y e t g iven a c oun ty n umber . I t i s i n L iverpoo l Museum , # 64 .158. 3N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
4N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
2 36
c an b e s een t ha t among t he a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource a re s pec imens o f a l l l e ng ths s een i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le p lus a l a rge n umber o fa xes t ha t a re s hor t er t han a ny i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le .
T hese v ery sma l l i mp lemen t s u ndoub -
t ed ly r epresen t t he r esu l t s o fr e -work ing G roup V I I a xes a t l o ng d i stan ces f r om t he s our ce . Another i n t eres t ing f ea ture o ft hese p l o t s i st ha t among t he a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s our ce a re n o s pec imens a s t h in ( i n r e la t ion t o l eng th ) a s s o me o f t he o nes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le , b u t t here a re a n umber o f a xes t ha t a re t h i cker , b o th a bso lute ly a nd r e la t ive ly , t han mos t o f t he o nes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le .
T h is p a t tern
may i nd i ca te a p ref erence o f p eop le i n t he G roup V I I s our ce a rea f o r r e la t ive ly t h in a xes wh i le t h i cker o nes w ere d i s tr ibu ted t op eop le f ur ther a way who a l so t ended t or e -work a xes i n ways t ha t w ou ld ma in ta in t he ir t h ickness . Among t he t o ta l s amp le o f G roup V I I a xes r epresent ed i n F ig . 9 .31 , l i t t le e v iden ce o f c l ust er ing , l i ke t ha t s een among t he a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le , c an b e i d en t if i ed . I n p ar t i cu lar , t he b reak b e tween g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes wh i ch was c l ear ly o bserved among a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le i sh ard ly v i s ib le . I tw ou ld a ppear t ha t i n t he g enera l s amp le o f G roup V I I a xes , t he b reak i nl e ng th measuremen t s b etween g roups o f o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked a xes h as b een f i l led i n e i ther b y sma l ler o r ig ina l ly p roduced a xes t ha t w ere d i s tr ibu ted t o a rea s away f r om t he s ource , o r b y a xes t ha t h ave b een r e -sharpened o r r e -worked a nd r edu ced f r om t he ir o r ig ina l s i zes a td i f f eren t d i stances f r om t he s our ce , o r b y a xes i nb oth o ft hese c a tegor ies . I n F ig . 9 .31b t here i ss ome i nd ica t ion o f ab reak b e tween g roups o ft h icker a nd t h in n er l a rge a xes wh i ch c orresponds w i th t he d iv is ion b e tween g roups o ft h i cker a nd t h inner a xes t ha t wa s o bserved i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le .
T hus , t he d i chot omy b etween t h icker
a nd t h inner a xes t ha t was o bserved i n t he n ea r -sou r ce a rea a ppears t o b e ma in ta ined a t g rea ter d i stances f r om t he s our ce . I ft h i s d i cho t omy i sr e lat ed t o t he u se o fb l ocks o fr aw ma ter ia l o f d if eren t f o rms f o r a xe manufa c ture—and t h is s eems q u i te l i ke ly—then t he a ppearance o f t h i s p a t t ern among a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource t ends
2 37
t o s uppor t H ou lder 's s ugges t ion t ha t t he i nf luen ce . o n a xe t h i ckness o f u s ing b o th t abu la r p i eces o f r aw ma ter ia l a nd t h icker b l ocks o f s c ree f o r a xe manufac ture w ou ld b e r ecog n i zab le a t a l l d i stances f r om t he s our ce . I n o rder t o d et erm ine i ft he c l asses o f a xes t ha t w ere r ecogn ized i n tu i t ive ly among t he s pec imens i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le c an b e i d en t if ied among t he a xes i n t he e nt i re s amp le , a nd i n o rder t o d et erm ine whe ther a ny o ther morpho log ica l c l asses may b e p resen t , t he a na ly t i ca l t e chn iques wh ich w ere u sefu l i n t he i nves t iga t ions o f o ther g roups o fa xes c an b e emp loyed . D is t r ibu t ions o f v a lues o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .32 f o r t he c omp let e G roup V I I a xes i n t he e n t ire s amp le f o r wh ich t hese measuremen t s a re a va i lab le .
I n t he h i st og ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s , n o c l ear p a t tern o f b imoda l i ty , l i ke
t ha t o bserved among a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le , c an b e s een . T h is c orresponds w i th t he l a ck o f ac l ear cu t b reak b e tween g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes t ha t was o bserved o n t he s ca t t er p l o t s . I n c on t ras t , e v iden ce o f mu l t i -moda l i ty c an b e s een i nt he h i st og rams o f t h ickness measuremen t s a nd l e ng th / th ickness r a t io v a lues , wh i le t he h i st og rams o f c ent er w id th measuremen t s a nd c ross -sec t ion r a t io v a lues may b e b imoda 1 .1 T hese p a t t e rns s ugges t t he p resence o fd if eren t s i zes o r s hapes o fa xes i nt h is s amp le . Ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup V I I a xes f o r wh i ch
a l l
o f
t hese
measuremen t s
a re
a va i lab le
( F ig .
9 .33 )
i nd ica tes
s i gn if i can t
r e la t ionsh ips among a n umber o ft he v a r iab les . T he h ighes t c orre la t ions c an b e o bserved b e tween t he v ar iab les o f max imum w id th a nd c en ter w id th , max imum t h i ckness a nd c ent er t h i ckness , a nd w id th / th ickness r a t io a nd c r oss -sec t ion r a t io . T hese c orre la t ions i nd i c a t e t ha t t he v ar iab les i n t hese p a i rs a re e ssen t ia l ly r edundan t measures o f t he s ame a spec t s o f a xe s i ze a nd s hape .
B ecause o f t h is , t he " cen ter" v ar iab les w ere om i t t ed f r om
t he s u cceed ing s tages o ft he a na lys is .
1T he i mp lemen t w i th t he o u t ly ing , h ighes t l e ng th /w id th r a t io v a lue , a s w e l l a s t he l owes t w id th measu remen t a nd t he l owes tw id th / th ickness r a t io v a lue , i sY orks . 6 40 . T h is i mp lemen t h a s a l ready b een i d en t if ied i nC hap ter V I I a s ac h ise l .
2 38
A p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is was c arr ied o u t o n t he s i x r e ma in ing s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les ( Tab le 9 .8 ) .
T h is a na lys is y ie lded t hree s i gn if i can t c o mponen t s . T he f i rs t
o f t hese r ef lec t s v ar ia t ion among t he a xes i n a l l a spect s o f s i ze ( i . e . , l e ng th , w id th , a nd t h i ckness ) , t he s econd r ef lec t s v ar ia t ion i n r e lat ive , b u t n o t a bso lu t e , t h ickness , a nd t he t h i rd r ef lec t s v ar ia t ion i ns hape i nf a ce v i ew ( a s i nd icated b y t he w id th / th i ckness r a t io ) . H istog rams o f t he c o mponen t s c ores o f t he t hree s i gn if i can t p r in c ipa l c omponent s a re p resen ted i n F ig . 9 .34 . T he s cores o f t he f i rs t c o mponen t ( PC .1 ) a re e ssen t ia l ly n or ma l ly d i st r ibut ed . I n t h is h i s tog ram , t here i sl i t t le t o s ugges t t he p resence o fd if eren t s i ze c l asses among t he a xes i nt h is s amp le . I n c on t rast , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs cores o ft he s econd p r in c ipa l c o mponen t ( PC .2 ) i sc l ea r ly b imoda l .
T h is s uggest s t ha t t here may b e d if eren t
c l asses o f a xes t ha t v ary i n r e la t ive t h ickness .
F ina l ly , t he s cores o ft he t h i rd c omponen t
( PC .3 ) a re n orma l ly d i st r ibu ted , i nd ica t ing t ha t d if eren t c l asses o f a xes , v ary ing i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew a re p robab ly n o t p resen t i n t h is s amp le . H owever , i n t h is h i st og ram , an um b er o f o u t l iers c an b e s een wh ich r epresen t i mp lemen t s t ha t a re s o mewha t u nusua l i n s hape i nc o mpa r ison w i th t he ma jor i ty o fG roup V I I a xes . T he i mp lemen t w i th t he h ighes t s core i n t h is c o mponen t i sY orks . 6 40 .1 T h is sma l l s pec imen ( l eng th = 1 13 mm ) i st he n a rrowest o ft he G roup V I I a xes i n t h i s s amp le ( s ee F ig . 9 .31a ) , a nd i th a s n ear ly p ara l le l s i des i n c on t ras t t o t he f l ared s i des o f mos t a xes .
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t Y orks . 6 40
s erved a s ac h ise l o r o ther sma l l w ood -work ing t o o l . t hrough r e -work ing a l a rger G roup V I I a xe .
I t was a lmos t c er ta in ly p roduced
T he o ther f our i mp lemen t s w i th u nusua l ly
h igh s cores i n t he t h ird p r inc ipa l c o mponen t a re a l so r e la t ive ly n arrow i nr e la t ion t o t he i r l e ng th . I n o rder t o i nvest iga te f ur ther whether c l asses b ased o n d if erences i n s hape o r s i ze c ou ld b e i d en t if ied among t he a xes i n t h is s amp le , t he c o mponen t s c ores o f t he t h ree s i g n if i can t p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s w ere u sed a s t he d ata i n ac l us ter a na lys is ( F ig . 9 .35 ) . Aga in , t he m in imum v ar iance a lgor i thm a nd t he E uc l idean d i stance measure w ere u sed ,
1N o t
i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e tro logy r ecord c a rd d raw ing .
2 39
a nd t he t hree v ar iab les w ere w e ighted a ccord ing t o t he ir e i genva lues i n t he p r inc ipa l c om p onent s a na lys is . T he p a t tern o fi n creases i n t he d i stances a t wh ich c l ust ers j o ined i n t h is a na lys is s uggests t ha t a s many a s n ine o r t en c l usters o f t hese a xes c ou ld b e i d ent if ied . H owever , a c ons iderab le i n crease i n t he d i stances a t wh ich c l usters j o ined ( i . e . , f r om 6 5 .447 t o 1 56 .37 ) i nd i ca tes t ha t f our ma jor g roups o f a xes c an b e r ecogn ized .
T hese a re
s hown o n as ca t ter p l ot o f l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts i n F ig . 9 .36 ,1 a nd s um mary d escr ipt ions o ft he a xes i n e ach c l uster a re p resen ted i nT ab le 9 .9 . S pec imens f ound f u rther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource wh ich a re g enera l ly r epresenta t ive o f t he a xes i n e ach o ft he c l usters a re i lust rat ed i nF ig . 9 .37 . T he s ca t ter p l ot ( F ig . 9 .36 ) d e monstra tes t ha t t h is c l us ter a na lys is h as p roduced a p a tt ern o f c l us ters v i r tua l ly i d en t ica l t o t ha t r ecogn ized i n tu i t ive ly among t he a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , w i th g roups o fl a rger a nd sma l ler a nd t h icker a nd t h inner a xes h av ing b een i d en t if ied .
T he o n ly s i gn if i can t d if erence i st ha t t he t wo g roups o ft h icker a nd t h in -
n er sma l l a xes t ha t a ppeared t o c orrespond w i th t he g roups o f t h icker a nd t h inner l a rge a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le h ave b een i n c luded i n as i ng le ma jor g roup o f sma l l a xes i n t h is a na lys is . T hese c l us ters c an b e i n t erpre ted a l ong t he s ame g enera l l i nes a s t he c l usters t ha t w ere r ecogn ized among a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le .
T hus , t he t wo g roups o f l a rge
a xes ( c lus ters 1 a nd 3 ) p robab ly i n c lude p r imar i ly o r ig ina l ly -produced s pec imens .2
I t
s eems l i ke ly t ha t t he t h inner a xes i n c l us ter 1 ( e .g . , Norf . 7 4 , F ig . 9 .37b ) w ere p roduced f r om t abu lar p i eces o f r aw mater ia l , wh i le t he t h icker a xes i n c l us ter 3 ( e .g . , S hrop . 4 3 , F ig . 9 .37a ) w ere p roduced f r om t h icker b locks o f s c ree .
T he l a rge g roup o f sma l l a xes
' There i s s o much o ver lap i n w id th measure ments among t he a xes i n t he d iferen t c l ust ers t ha t i ti si mposs ib le t o s how t hem o n as ca t ter p l ot o fl eng th v s . w id th measure men t s s uch a s F ig . 9 .31a . I n a t temp t ing t o d o t h is , i tq u ick ly b ecomes a pparen t t ha t many o f t he n umbers o n t he p l ot wh ich i nd ica te mu lt ip le a xes r epresent a xes i n d if erent ma jor c l usters . 2H owever , af ew a xes t ha t a ppear t o h ave b een m in ima l ly r e -sharpened o r r e w orked c an b e i d ent if ied among t hem .
2 40
( c luster 4 ) p robab ly i n c ludes p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens ( e .g . , G los . 6 8 , F ig . 9 .37 f ) , a l though i ti sn ot i n conce ivab le t ha t s o me o ft he l a rger o nes may b e sma l l a xes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r oughou ts a t t he s ource ( e .g . , S hrop . 1 5 , F ig . 9 .37c ) .
W ith in t h is
g roup t here i s n o e v idence o f ad iv is ion b etween t h icker a nd t h inner a xes . 1 However , t h is g roup u ndoubted ly i n c ludes t he r esu l ts o f r e -work ing b oth t h icker a nd t h inner l a rge a xes .
T hus , i ti s a pparen t t ha t i n t he p rocess o f r e -work ing a xes i n d if eren t a reas a t
v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s ource , t he d i st inct ion b etween a xes p roduced f r om t he d i f f e rent f o rms o fr aw ma ter ia l a va i lab le a t t he s ource i sl o st . T he sma l l g roup o f med ium -s ized a nd sma l l i mp lemen ts ( c luster 2 ) i sp rob lema t i c . I n c o mpar ing F ig . 9 .36 w ith F ig . 9 .26b , i t c an b e s een t ha t n o more med ium -s ized s pec imens , l i ke t hose i nt he n ear -source s amp le , h ave b een f ound f ur ther away . However , s evera l more sma l ler s pec imens , i n c lud ing o ne v ery s hort o ne , h ave b een f ound i n a rea s away f r om t he s ource .
T he s i ng le v ery sma l l s pec imen i sG lam . 9 3 ( F ig . 9 .37g ) , a n a dze
o r c h ise l t hat a ppears t o h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a l a rger i mp lemen t . Among t he o ther sma l l s pec imens a re G lam . 8 1 ( F ig . 9 .37d ) , a l so a p robab le a dze ; Y orks . 6 40 , n o ted a bove a s ap robab le c h ise l ; C orn . 1 35 ,2 a n i mp lement w ith r e -f laked s i de e dges ; a nd t wo s pec imens , Monm . 2( F ig . 9 .37e ) a nd Y orks . 7 4 ,3 t ha t a re s haped more l i ke o rd inary a xes , b ut a re u nusua l ly t h in .
T hese sma l l i mp le ment s p robab ly
r epresent t he r esu l ts o f r e -work ing i mp lemen ts l i ke t he med ium -s ized o nes o r r e -work ing o ther d amaged o r b roken a xes t op roduce e spec ia l ly t h in t o o ls . I tc an b e s uggested t ha t a l o ft hese v ery t h in i mp lement s may h ave b een u sed p r imar i ly f o r sma l l -sca le w ood -work ing a c t iv it ies , r a ther t han f o restry a ct iv i t ies , f o r wh ich t he t h icker a xes w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een b et ter s u i ted .
' Such a d iv is ion i sn ot p resent e ven a t t he l e ve l o ft en s i gn if i can t c l us ters . 2N o t
i lus t rated h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
3N ot
i lus trated h ere ; i n f ormat ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2 41
I n s ummary , t h is i nvest iga t ion h a s r evea led a p a t t ern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes t ha t i sq u it e d if eren t f r om t he p a t t ern s o bserved among a xes o f o ther g roups d i s cussed s o f a r .
T he mos t u nusua l f ea ture o f t h is p a t t ern i s ad i chot omy
b e tween g roups o f r e la t ive ly t h ick a nd r e la t ive ly t h in a xes . T h is h as b een i n terpre ted a s t he r esu l t o fu se o fb l ocks o fr aw mat er ia l o f d if eren t f o rms f o r a xe manufa c ture .
T hus ,
H ou lder 's s ugges t ion t ha t c l asses o f a xes made f r om t he d if eren t f o rms o fr o ck a va i lab le a tt he s ource w ou ld b e i d en t if iab le n o t o n ly i nt he i mmed ia t e v i c in i ty o ft he s ource b u t a l so a tl o ng d i stances f r om i th as b een c onf i rmed . H owever , t h i s i so n ly t rue f o r t he l a rge a xes t ha t c an b e a ssumed t o h ave b een o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s ource , s i nce i th as a l so b een d emonst ra ted b y t h is a na lys is t ha t t he d i s t inc t ion b etween t h icker a nd t h inner a xes i sl o s t w hen t he i mp lemen t s a re r e -worked . Af ur ther c on t ras t b etween G roup V I I a nd o ther g roups o f a xes d i scussed s o f a r i s t ha t among t he G roup V I I a xes n o c l ea r cu t s i ze c l asses a re v i s ib le .
H owever , g enera l
g roups o f l a rger a nd sma l ler a xes , wh ich p robab ly i n c lude p r imar i ly o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked s pec imens , r espect ive ly , h ave b een i d en t if ied . A long w i th t he l a ck o fc l ear c u t s i ze c l asses , n o v ery l a rge i mp lemen t s , l i ke t hose wh ich h ave b een i n terpret ed a s p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i nf unct ion f o r o ther g roups o fa xes , a re f ound i nt h is s amp le .
Morpho log ica l V a r iab i l i ty a nd D ist r ibut ion
I n t e rms o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n t he morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes t ha t may b e r e lat ed t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f d i st r ibu t ion , i th as a l ready b een r evea led t ha t b o th l a rge a nd sma l l a xes a nd b o th t h icker a nd t h inner a xes h ave b een f ound n ea r t he s our ce a nd i na reas f ur ther away . I t was a l so n o ted t ha t an umber o f a xes f ound f u r ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource a re sma l ler t han a ny f ound n ea r t he s ource . B ef ore i nvest igat ing t hese g enera l p a t terns f ur ther a nd c ons ider ing t he ir i mp l i ca t ions i n t e rms o f d i s t r ibu t ion p rocesses , p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I I a xes f r om s pe c if i c c ont ex t s o fd epos i t ion mus tb e d i s cussed .
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A xes f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
N o s pec if i c c on t ex t o f d epos i t ion i sk nown f o r o ver 8 8% o f t he c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes i n t h is d ata s e t . H owever , af ew a xes a re k nown t o h ave b een f ound i n e a ch o f t he f our s pec if i c c on tex t s o f o c cupat ion s i tes , b ur ia ls , a sso c ia t ions o f a xes , a nd t he R iver T hames ( Tab le 9 .10 ) .
O ccupa t ion C ont ex t s On ly t hree c o mp le te G roup V I I a xes a re k nown t o h ave b een f ound i ng enera l a reas o f a pparen t ly i n tens ive p reh ist or ic o ccupa t ion , wh i le n one a t a l l a re k nown f r om a ctua l o ccupat ion s i tes .
A l l t hree o f t hese a xes a re sma l l , a nd t hey c an p robab ly b e i n terpre ted
a s r epea ted ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s wh ich may h ave b een s imp ly a bandoned a t t he e nd o f au sefu l l i f e . One o f t hese a xes , W i l t s . 2 14 ( F ig . 9 .38a ) i sf r om t he A vebury a rea , a n a rea t ha t i s w e l l k nown t o h ave b een t he f o cus o f i n tens ive N eo l i th i c o c cupa t ion a nd a c t iv i ty ( Sm i th 1 965 ; B ur l 1 979 ) .
T h is i mp lemen t i s v ery sma l l a nd h as o bv ious ly b een r ough ly r e -
w orked . T he o n ly o ther c o mp let e G roup V I I a xe f r om t h is g r id s quare i s al a rg e t h in a xe wh ich was p robab ly t raded t ot h is a rea b u t l o st b ef ore h av ing b een r edu ced i ns i ze t hrough d amage a nd r e -work ing . T he o ther t wo c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes f r om o c cupa t ion c ont ext s , S uf f . 1 41 a nd S uf f . 1 42 ,1 w ere b oth f ound a t West R ow F en , M i ldenha l l , a n a rea o f a ppa ren t ly i n ten s i ve p reh ist or ic o ccupa t ion a nd a c t iv i ty .2 b een f ound i n t he s ame g r id s qua re .
1N e i ther
S even o ther c o mp le te G roup V I I a xes h ave
A l l b u t o ne o f t hese a re l a rger t han t he t wo a xes
a xe i s i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw -
i ng s . 2I n t h is a rea , l a te N eo l i th i c a nd B eaker p o t tery h as b een f ound a l ong w i th f l in t s a nd n umerous s t one i mp lemen t s i n c lud ing a xe f ragmen ts o f G roup V I , a xes o f u ng rouped ma t er ia ls , a n a xe -hammer o f G roup XV I I I , a nd o ther o b jec t s . T h is i n f orma t ion i sf r om u npub l ished p e tro logy r ecords .
2 43
f r om West R ow F en , a nd t he mean l e ng th o ft hese s even a xes i ss ta t is t i ca l ly g rea t er t han t he mean l e ng th o ft he Wes t R ow F en a xes ( Tab le 9 . 11a ) . F rom t hese l im it ed d a ta i ta ppears t ha t t he G roup V I I a xes f ound i no c cupa t ion c on t ex t s a re g enera l ly s ma l ler t han t he o nes f ound i n o ther c ont ex t s i nt he s ame a reas . T h is i s p robab ly d ue t o t he g enera l ly h igher i n tens i ty o f h uman a c t iv i ty i n o c cupa t ion a reas t han i n o ther a reas , t hrough wh ich g reat er p ropor t ions o f a cc iden ta l ly l o st a xes w ere r ecovered t ob e r eused , l e av ing o n ly sma l ler d i scarded o r n ear ly w orn -ou t a xes t oe n ter t he a rchaeo log i ca l r e cord . I n a dd i t ion , i nb o th o f t hese a reas , a rchaeo log i ca l a c t iv i ty h as b een f a ir ly i n t en s ive , a nd t h is c an a l so b e s een a s as i gn if i can t f a ct or l e ad ing t o r e covery o f sma l ler a xes t han h ave b een f ound i n o ther a reas . I n t e rms o f a ny r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he s i zes o fG roup V I I a xes a nd d i s tance f r om t he s our ce t ha t may b e r e la t ed t od i s t r ibu t i on p rocesses , t h is s amp le o f a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c on tex t s i st o o sma l l f o r mean ing fu l a na lys is .
B ur ia l C on tex t s On ly o ne c o mp le te G roup V I I a xe h as b een f ound i n ab u r ia l c on tex t .
D enb . 3
( F ig . 9 .38b ) was f ound i nR hosdd ig re C ave a l ong w i th h uman s ke le ta l r e ma ins , f r agmen t s o f N eo l i th ic p o t tery , a nd f l in t f l akes ( G lenn 1 935 :217 ) .
T h is a xe i sv ery sma l l a nd i s , i n
f a ct , t he sma l les t G roup V I I a xe k nown f r om t h is g r id s qua re . I t s l e ng th f a l ls w e l l o u ts ide o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 37 .13 ) o ft he mean l e ng th ( 162 .83 mm ) o ft he o the r s i x c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes f ound i nt h is s quare . T h is s i ng le i n s tan ce o f aG roup V I I a xe f r om a b ur ia l c on tex t i nd i ca tes t ha t t he i n c lus ion o fG roup V I I a xes i nb u r ia ls was a v ery u n common p ract i ce , a nd t ha t when i td id o c cur , t he a xe i nvo lved wa s p robab ly t he o ne i n p ossess ion o ft he d eceased a t t he t ime o f d ea th .
O bv ious ly n o i n f orma t ion a bou t s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty c an b e
o b ta ined f r om as amp le t ha tc ons is t s o f as i ng le s pec imen .
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A ssoc ia t ions o f Axes Among t he a xes i n t he t o ta l d a ta s e t a re f ou r a ssoc ia t ions wh ich i n c lude c o mp lete G roup V I I a xes .
Two o f t hese a ssoc ia t ions a ppa rent ly c ons is t o f o n ly G roup V I I a xes
wh i le i n t he o ther t wo , G roup V I I a xes a re a ssoc iat ed w i th G roup V I a xes . T he s i zes a nd t ypes o ft he G roup V I I a xes i n t hese a ssoc ia t ions w i l l b e c ons idered s tar t ing w i th t he o nes f ound c l oses t t ot he s ource . A t N e t ley Ha l l , D onn ing ton , S hropsh ire , a n a ssoc ia t ion wh ich a ppa ren t ly o r ig ina l ly i n c luded f our a xes wa s f ound . S hrop . 3 3 ( F ig . 9 .38c ) wa s o ne o ft he a xes i nt he g roup a nd S hrop . 3 4 ( F ig . 9 .38d ) wa s p robab ly o ne o f t he a xes i n t he g roup .' a re l a rge a nd t h ick .
B o th o f t hese a xes
T he o n ly o ther c o mp le te G roup V I I a xe k nown f r om t h is g r id s quare
i sa l so l a rge a nd t h ick a nd i s v ery s im i la r i n l e ng th t o t he s ma l ler o f t he t wo a xes f r om N e t ley Ha l l . Two more G roup V I I a xes w ere f ound t ogether a t H e igh ing t on , L inco lnsh ire ( Cum m ins a nd Moore 1 973 :255 ) . t h i ck .
B oth o f t hese a xes , L incs . 4 5 a nd L incs . 4 9 ,2 a re l a rge a nd
T he mean l e ng th o f t hese t wo a xes i s n o t s i gn if i can t ly d if eren t f r om t he mean
l eng th o f t he o ther t hree c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare ( Tab le 9 .11b ) . A t C o t t ingham C ommon , Y orksh ire , ac o mp le te G roup V I I a xe , ac omp le te b u t d amaged G roup V I a xe , a nd a no ther a xe w ere f ound t oge ther i n ag rave l p i t ( Manby 1 979 :81 ) .
T he G roup V I I a xe , Y orks . 2 53 ,3 i s s hor ter t han e i ther o f t he o ther t wo
G roup V I I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare , a nd i t s l e ng th f a l ls w e l l o u t s ide o ne s tand a rd d ev ia t ion ( 23 .33 ) o ft he mean l e ng th ( 146 .5 mm ) o ft hose t wo a xes .
1T h is
i n f orma t ion c o mes f r om u npub l ished p e t ro logy r ecords f o r t h is a rea .
2N e i ther
a xe i s i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw -
i ng s . 3N o t
i lust ra t ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing .
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F ina l ly , ac o mp let e a xe o fG roup V I I , ac o mp let e a xe o f G roup V I , a nd a n a xe f rag m en t o f G roup V I w ere f ound t oge ther a t Ha ck thorn , L inco lnsh ire ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :255 ) . T he G roup V I I a xe , L incs . 4 8 ,1i ss ma l l a nd r e la t ive ly t h in . I n f a c t , i ti st he s ma l lest G roup V I I a xe i n t h is g r id s quare , a nd i t s l eng th f a l ls o u t s ide t h ree s tandard d ev ia t ions o ft he mean l e ng th ( 161 .17 mm ) o ft he o ther s i x G roup V I I a xes i nt he s quare . I n s ummar iz ing t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween t he s i zes o f G roup V I I a xes f ound i n a ssoc ia t ions a nd t he s i zes o f G roup V I I a xes f ound i n o ther c on tex t s i n t he s ame a reas , t wo d if eren t p a t terns c an b e s een . I n b o th o ft he i n s tances i n wh ich t wo G roup V I I a xes w ere f ound t ogether , t he a xes a re r e la t ive ly l a rge , a nd t hey a re more o r l e ss t he s ame s i zes a s o ther G roup V I I a xes f ound i nt he s ame a reas . I n c on t ras t , i nb o th o ft he i n stan c es i n wh i ch a s i ng le G roup V I I a xe wa s f ound w i th a xes o fo ther ma ter ia ls , t he G roup V I I a xes a re v ery sma l l , a nd t hey a re c ons iderab ly sma l ler t han o ther G roup V I I a xes f ound i n t he s ame a reas .2 T he l a t t er p a t tern i s s im i la r t o t ha t o bserved among t he G roup V I I a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c ont ex t s , a nd i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t hese a ssoc ia t ions may s imp ly c ons is t o f a xes t ha t w ere l o s t o r d i sca rded a t t he s ame t ime r a ther t han i mp lemen t s c ached w i th t he i n t en t ion o fl a t er r e covery . T he l a t t er i n t erpre ta t ion s eems more l i ke ly f o r t he a xes i n t he o ther t wo a ssoc ia t ions , wh i ch c an p erhaps b e t hough t o f a s t rue h oards . T hese l a rge a xes a re p robab ly more r epresen ta t ive o f t he s i zes o f i mp lemen t s t ha t w ere u sed b y a nd e x changed among i nd iv idua ls i ne ach a rea t han a re t he v ery sma l l o nes . I n t e rms o f a xe s i ze p a t terns t ha t m igh t b e r e la ted t o d i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns a nd p rocesses , t he s i zes o f a xes i n t he D onn ing t on a nd H e igh ing ton h oards c an b e c om p ared .3 T he mean l e ng th o ft he t wo G roup V I I a xes i n t he D onn ing ton h oa rd , f ound a t a
' No ti lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing . 2T he G roup V I a xe i ne a ch o ft hese a ssoc ia t ions i sa l so v ery sma l l , a s w i l l b e s een i n t he n ex t c hapt er . 3T he G roup V I I a xes i n t he o ther a ssoc ia t ions a re n o t i n c luded i n t h is d i scuss ion b ecause i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hey r epresen t ad if eren t s or to f a ssoc ia t ion o fa xes t han t ha t r epresen ted b y t he N e t ley Ha l l a nd H e igh ing-t on h oards , a s s ugges ted a bove .
2 46
d i stance o f 1 05 km f r om t he s ource , i s1 70 .0 mm wh i le t he mean l eng th o ft he t wo a xes i n t he H e igh ing ton h oard , f ound a t ad i stance o f 2 33 km f r om t he s ource i s 1 51 .5 mm . A l though t hese t wo h oards w ere f ound i n q u i te d if erent d i rect ions f r om t he G roup V I I s ource , t he p at tern o f a xe s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource t ha t was p red ict ed t o r esu l t f r om d i s tr ibu t ion o f a xes o utward f r om t he s ource t hrough g roup -to g roup e xchange i ss uggested b y t hese d ata .
T he R iver T hames At o ta l o ft en c o mp let e G roup V I I a xes h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames . N ine o f t hese w ere f ound i n t he L ondon a rea , wh i le t he t en th was f ound f ur ther w est i n B erksh ire .
O ft hese a xes , t wo a re sma l l wh i le t he o ther e ight a re l a rge . Among t he l a rge
a xes , f our a re r e la t ive ly t h in a nd t hree a re r e lat ive ly t h ick .'
T he mean l e ng th o f a l l t en
c o mp le te G roup V I I a xes f r om t he R iver T hames i s1 63 .3 mm . N o o ther c o mp le te G roup V I I a xes , w i th wh ich t he s i zes a nd t ypes o f t he o nes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames c ou ld b e c o mpared , h ave b een f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quares .
However , t he p redom inance o f l a rge a xes among t he o nes r ecovered f r om t he
T hames s ugges t s t ha t t h is s amp le may b e more r epresenta t ive o f t he s i zes a nd t ypes o f a xes t ha t w ere c arr ied a nd e xchanged b y p eop le u s ing t he T hames a s at ranspor t r ou te t han w ou ld b e s amp les o fa xes f ound o n l and , s i nce t he l a t t er w ou ld b e more l i ke ly t o c on t a in l a rge p ropor t ions o f sma l l , d i scarded a xes . T h is s amp le o fT hames a xes c l ear ly d emons tra tes t ha t G roup V I I a xes o ft he l a rge s i zes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s ource r eached a n a rea o ver 3 00 km f r om t he s ource .
However , t he p at terns a nd p rocesses o f d i st r ibu t ion t hrough wh ich t hese a xes
r eached t h is a rea c annot b e d e term ined f r om t h is s amp le .
1T he
t h ickness o ft he e i gh th l a rge a xe i su nknown .
2 47
S ummary Ana lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I I f r om s pe c if i c c ont ex t s o f d epos i t ion h as y i e lded s o me i n t eres t ing r esu l ts b oth i n t e rms o f t he q ues t ion o f d epos i t ion o f d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c ont ex t s a nd i n t e rms o f a xe s i z e p a t tern ing i nr e la t ion t od i s t r ibut ion p a t t erns a nd p rocesses . I n t e rms o fd epos i t ion o fd i f f eren t s i zes o fa xes i nd if eren t c on tex t s , t hese d a ta t end t os uppor t t wo o ft he s ugges t ions made i n C hapter V I :
( 1 ) t ha t a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c on -
t ex t s w ou ld t end t o b e g enera l ly sma l l , b o th b ecause r e la t ive ly i n t ens ive p reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty i n s uch a rea s w ou ld r esu l t i n t he d epos i t ion o f p r imar i ly sma l l a xes a nd b ecause r e la t ive ly i n tens ive a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv i ty i nt he s ame a reas w ou ld r esu l t i n t he r e covery o fs ma l ler s pec imens t han m igh t b e r ecovered t hrough more c asua l c o l lect ing , a nd ( 2 ) t ha t a xes f r om t he R iver T hames w ou ld t end t o b e r e la t ive ly l a rge , b oth b ecause a xes l o s t i n t h i s b ody o f wa ter g enera l ly w ou ld n o t b e r e covered i n p reh ist or ic t imes a nd b ecause t he s amp le w ou ld n o t b e s kewed t oward t he g rea t n umbers o f d i scarded a xes t ha t m igh t b e e xpec ted i nl and c on tex t s . T he s i ng le a xe f r om ab ur ia l c ont ex t s ugges t s t ha t s pec if i c s i zes o f a xes w ere n o t s e lec ted f o r b ur ia l w i th t he d ead , b u t r a ther t ha t i fa n a xe was t o b e i n c luded i n ab ur ia l a s g rave g oods , t he d eceased i nd iv idua l 's o wn a xe w ou ld b e u sed , r egard less o f i t s s i ze o r c ond i t ion . F or t he a xes f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes , t wo p a t terns o f s i ze v ar iab i l i ty w ere s een .
One p a t tern s ugges t s t ha t t he a ssoc ia t ions w ere
t rue h oards o f a xes c a ched w i th t he i n ten t ion o f l a t er r e covery , wh i le t he o ther s uggest s t ha t t he a ssoc ia t ions s imp ly r epresen t a xes l o s to r a bandoned a t t he s ame t ime . I n t e rms o fa xe s i ze p a t t erns t ha t m igh t b e r e lat ed t o p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion , t he s amp les o f a xes f r om o c cupa t ion a nd b ur ia l c ont ex t s w ere t o o sma l l f o r a na lys is .
H owever , t he s ma l l s amp le o f a xes f ound i n t rue h oa rds s ugges ts a p a t tern o f
a xe s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i stan ce f r om t he s ource , wh i le t he s amp le o fa xes f r om t he R iver T hames i nd ica tes t ha t s o me o ft he l a rges t a xes p roduced a t t he s ource h ave b een f ound a t v ery l o ng d i stances f r om i t . F or f u r ther i nves t iga t ion o f t hese p a t terns , i ti s
2 48
n ecessary t o l o ok a t t he o ther 8 8% o f t he c o mp le te G roup V I I a xes f o r wh i ch n o s pec if i c c on tex t o fd epos it ion i sk nown .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
F or o ther g roups o f a xes , among wh ich t he ma jor d imens ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty h as b een g enera l s i ze , af a ir ly s t ra igh t f orward i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern i ng i n a xe l e ng th h as b een p ursued a t t h is p o in t .
H owever , among G roup V I I a xes , s i g -
n if i cant v ar iab i l ity i n t e rms o fr e la t ive t h ickness h as b een o bserved .
A l though i ti sl i ke ly
t ha t t he ma jor t h ickness c l asses o fG roup V I I a xes r ef lec t t he u se o fb l ocks o fr aw ma ter ia l o f d if eren t f o rms f o r a xe manufac ture , i ti s s t i l l p oss ib le t ha t a xes o f t hese t wo c l asses m igh t h ave b een d i str ibut ed d if eren t ly . F or e xamp le , t he d if eren t f o rms o fr aw ma ter ia l m igh t h ave b een u sed a td if eren t t ime p er iods , a nd d if erences i n t he d i str ibu t ions o fa xes made f r om t hose b l ocks m igh t r ef lec t c hanges i n p a t terns o fe xchange o ver t ime . A l terna t i ve ly , t he d if eren t f o rms o f r aw mater ia l m igh t h ave b een u sed a t t he s ame t ime , b u t a xes o f d if eren t t h i cknesses m igh t h ave b een d i s t r ibut ed t o d if eren t a reas i n r esponse t o p ref eren ces e xpressed b y e xchange p ar tners i n t hose a reas . I fd if eren ces i n t he d i s t r ibu t i ons o f a xes o f t he t wo ma jor t h ickness c l asses c an b e s een wh ich m igh t b e r e la ted t o e i ther o f t hese p oss ib i l i t ies , t hese d i s t r ibu t ions , a nd t he s i ze p a t t erns o f t he a xes i nvo lved i n e a ch , s hou ld b e a na lyzed s epara te ly a nd c o mpared .
H owever , i fs i gn if i cant ly d if eren t
d i s tr ibu t ions o f a xes o ft he t wo ma jor t h ickness c l asses c anno t b e s een , a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i ns i ze v ar iab i l ity f o r a l l t he a xes a s as i ng le g roup i sj us t if ied . F or i nvest iga t ing t he p oss ib i l i ty o f d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h icker a nd t h inner a xes o f G roup V I I , t he g roups o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes r evea led b y t he c l us ter a na lys is w i l l b e c ons idered . T he l o ca t ions o ft he l a rge t h ick a xes a nd t he l a rge t h in a xes i n t hese c l us ters a re s hown i n F ig . 9 .39 . 1 On t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t b o th t h ick a nd
' Both a xes f r om s pec if i c c ont ex ts o f d epos i t ion a nd a xes o f u nknown c ont ex t a re i n c luded h ere .
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t h in s pec imens a re f ound t hroughou t t he d i st r ibut ion a rea o f G roup V I I a xes .
Axes o f
t hese moda l t h icknesses a re f ound i n v i rtua l ly e qua l n umbers i n Eas t Ang l ia a nd t he L on d on a rea ( t he R iver T hames ) . H owever , t here i ss o me e v idence o fd if erent ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f t hese t ypes o f a xes i n o ther a reas .
T h ick a xes a ppear t o p redom inat e i n S outh Wa les
a nd i n ab and e xtend ing f r om Worces tersh ire a nd Warw icksh ire t hrough L e icestersh ire a nd No t t inghamsh ire , L inco lnsh ire , a nd s outh Y orksh ire , wh i le t h in a xes a ppear more p reva len t i na reas o fs ou thern E ng land a nd n or th Y orksh ire . A re t hese d i f f erences i n t he d i str ibut ions o f t h icker a nd t h inner G roup V I I a xes s ta t ist ica l ly s ign if i can t?
O f t he v ar ious t e sts a nd measures o f s pa t ia l a ssoc ia t ion o f
a r t ifact t ypes o u t l ined b y H odder a nd O rton ( 1976 :200-211 ) ,
P ie lou 's c oe f i c ien t o f
s eg rega t ion ( i b id . :205 ) s ee ms t o b e t he most r e levan t t o t h is s i tuat ion .
B ased o n n eares t
n e ighbor r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a r t ifa cts o f t he t ypes i n q uest ion ( Tab le 9 .12 ) , t h is c oeff i c i en t v ar ies f r om +1 when t he d i st r ibut ions a re c o mp lete ly s eg rega ted t o - 1 when t he t wo t ypes a re a ssoc ia ted i n p a irs o f o ne o f e a ch t ype , a nd i te qua ls z ero when t he t wo t ypes a re r ando m ly i n term ing led ( i b id . ) . F or t he d i str ibut ion o ft h icker a nd t h inner G roup V I I a xes s hown i n F ig . 9 .39 , P ie lou 's c oe f i c ien t o f s eg rega t ion e qua ls + .18644 .
T h is
r esu lt s uggests t ha t t here i sn o s i gn if i can t d if erence b etween t he d i str ibut ions o ft he t wo t ypes o fa xes .
T he i n s ign if i can t c h i -square s ta t ist ic f o r t he c ont ingency t ab le ( Tab le 9 .12 )
i sf urther e v idence o f t h is . T heref ore f o r i nves t iga t ion o f s pat ia l p a t t ern ing i n t he s i zes o f G roup V I I a xes , t he u se o ft he e n t ire s amp le i sj ust if ied . T he l eng ths o fa l l G roup V I I a xes f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c ontex t i sk nown a re s hown i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s ource i n F ig . 9 .40 .
On t h is p l ot a g enera l t endency
t oward d ecrease i n a xe l eng th w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource c an b e s een .
T he
mean l eng ths i n 5 0 km g r id s quares o f t he G roup V I I a xes i n t h is s amp le a re s hown i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s our ce i n F ig . 9 .41 .
T he t endency t oward d ecrease i n a xe
l eng th w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource i sa l so a ppa ren t o n t h is p l ot , a nd ac orre la t i on b e tween t he t wo v ar iab les o f .5216 , s i gn if i can t a t t he . 01 l e ve l , c onf i rms t h is
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r e la t ionsh ip . T h i s r esu l t c or responds w i th t he s i ze p a t tern o bserved b y H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 , 1 982 ) f o r t h is g roup o f a xes , a nd i ts uggest s t ha t t hey w ere p r ima r i ly d i s t r ibut ed t hrough t he p rocess o fr ec iproca l g roup to -g roup e xchange mov ing o u tward , o ver land f r om t he s ource . T h is i st he s ame i n t erpre ta t ion o ft he g enera l p a t tern o fG roup V I I a xe d i sper s a l t ha t was s uggested b y C umm ins 's ( 1979 :10 , F ig . 6 a ) r e la t ive f r equen cy d i st r ibu t ion map o ft hese a xes . B ef ore i nves t iga t ing f ur ther t h is g enera l p a t tern o fa xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty , t he p rob lem o f t he e f ec t s o f d if eren t i n tens i t ies o f p reh is tor i c a ct iv i ty a nd modern c o l lect ing o n t he s i zes o f a xes d epos i ted a nd r ecovered i n d if eren t a reas mus t b e c ons idered . I th as b een s uggested t ha t t he i nf luence o ft hese f a ct ors w i l l b e i nd ica ted b y as i gn if i can t n ega t ive c o r r e la t ion b etween t he mean l eng th o f t he a xes a nd t he c orrec ted t o ta l n umber o f a xes i n e ach g r id s quare . F or t he G roup V I I a xes , ac orre la t ion o f —. 2014 b etween t hese v ar i a b les was o b ta ined .
F or t he 2 5 g r id s quares i nvo lved ,1 t h is c orre la t ion i sn o t s i gn if i can t
a t e ven t he . 0 5 l e ve l .
T hus , f o r t h is g roup o f a xes , t he f a ct ors o f i n tens i ty o f p reh istor i c
a ct iv i ty a nd i n tens i ty o f modern c o l le ct ing d o n o t s eem t o h ave a s i gn if i can t g enera l i nf luence o n t he o bserved s i zes o f a xes i n t he g r id s quares .2 T heref ore , f o r f ur ther i nves t i ga t ion o f p a t terns o f G roup V I I a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty , t here s eems t o b e n o n eed t o c on t ro l f o r t hese f a ct ors b ef ore i n t erpre t ing t ha t v ar iab i l i ty i n t e rms o f d i s tr ibu t ion p a t terns a nd p rocesses . T he g enera l r e la t ionsh ip b etween G roup V I I a xe l e ng th a nd d i stance f r om t he s ou r ce t ha ti ss een i nF ig . 9 .41 c an b e i nvest iga ted f ur ther b y e va lua t ing t he w e l l -known d i s tan ce d ecay mode ls w i th a xe l e ng th a s t he d ependen t v ar iab le a nd d i stance a s t he i ndependen t v ar iab le . Ac ompa r ison o ft he r esu l t s o ft hese e va lua t ions i ss hown i nT ab le 9 .13 , where i t c an b e s een t ha t t he s imp le l i near mode l i st he b es t f i t t ing o f t he s i x .
A c cord ing ly , t he
' On ly g r id s quares c on ta in ing t wo o r more c o mp le te a xes o f G roup V I I w ere i n c luded . 2H owever , a pparen t e f ec t s o f t hese f a c tors i n s pec if i c l o ca l a reas c an b e o bserved ; s ee b e low .
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r es idua ls f r om t h is r eg ress ion mode l w ere s aved s o t ha t t he i r s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing m igh t b e i nvest iga t ed f o r e v idence o fp ref eren t ia l e x change o f a xes t o c er ta in a reas o r o ther d epa r t ures f r om t he p os tu lat ed g enera l p a t tern o f r e c iproca l e xchange o f a xes o u tward f r om t he s our ce . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f mean l eng ths o f G roup V I I a xes i n t he ir r espec t ive g r id s quares i s s hown i n F ig . 9 .42 .
On t h is map , t he g enera l t enden cy f o r mean a xe l eng ths t o b e
l a rger n ea r t he s ource a nd sma l ler f u r ther away c an b e s een , b u t o ther s pa t ia l p a t terns i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a re a l so a pparen t . T he mos t o bv ious o ft hese i st he b and o f g enera l ly l a rge mean l e ng ths e xt end ing f r om t he s our ce a rea i n N or th Wa les s ou theas tward t o t he Wes t M id lands a nd e as tward a cross c en t ra l E ng land t o Y orksh ire , L in co lnsh ire , a nd N or f o lk . T h is p a t tern s uggest s t ha t t h is was t he p r imary d i s t r ibu t ion a rea o ft hese a xes a nd t ha t w i th in i tg roups w ere r ece iv ing g enera l ly l a rge a xes e ven a t r e la t ive ly l ong d i s tan ces f r om t he s ource .
I n c on t ras t , i n g r id s quares s urround ing t h is c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea ,
sma l ler a xe l e ng ths a re s een . T h is s uggest s t ha tg roups i nt hese a reas w ere o n t he f r inges o f t he ma in n etworks o f G roup V I I a xe e xchange a nd t ha t t hey w ere r ece iv ing e i ther g enera l ly sma l ler a xes t han g roups w i th in t he ma in n etworks , o r r e la t ive ly sma l ler n um b ers o f a xes s o t ha t t hey w ere o b l iged t o u se t he o nes t hey d i d r ece ive u n t i l t hey b ecame g enera l ly s ma l ler , o r b o th . W i th in t he c en t ra l d i st r ibu t ion a rea , mean a xe l e ng ths c an b e s een i n t wo g r id s quares i nc en t ra l E ng land t ha t a re g rea ter t han t he mean l e ng ths o fG roup V I I a xes b o th i n s urround ing s quares a nd i n t he g r id s quare i n wh i ch t he s our ce i s l o ca ted .
T h is
a noma ly i n t he g enera l p a t tern o f a xe s i ze d ecrease w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ou rce c or responds w i th t he a xe s i ze p a t tern p red i c ted f o r d i re c t t ranspor t o f a xes t o ad i s t an tc ent er f o r s ubsequen t d i st r ibu t ion o nwa rd . H owever , ac l oser e xam ina t ion o ft he d a ta f r om t he t wo a noma lous g r id s quares a nd f r om t he s urround ing s quares s ugges t s t ha t t he h igh mean l e ng ths i n t he t wo s quares may r ef lec t al o ca l ized s amp l ing a noma ly r a ther t han a g enu ine d epar ture f r om t he p a t tern o f r ec iproca l g roup to -g roup e xchange o f a xes
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o u tward f r om t he s ource .
I t c an b e o bserved t ha t e a ch o f t he t wo a noma lous means
r ef lec ts t he l e ng ths o fo n ly t wo l a rge a xes wh i le e a ch o ft he means i nt he s u rround ing g r id s quares r ef lect s t he l eng ths o f s evera l a xes among wh ich g rea ter v ar iab i l i ty i n s i ze i s p resen t . T hese d i f f erences i nn umber s o f a xes a nd i n a xe l e ng th v ar iance s ugges tt ha tt he mean l e ng ths i nt he t wo a noma lous s quares may r ef lec to n ly t he l eng ths o fr e la t ive ly l a rge a xes l o s t i n t ranspor t t hrough s parse ly o ccup ied a reas , wh i le t he mean l e ng ths i n t he n e ighbor ing s quares r ef le c t t he l e ng ths o fa xes l o s t o r d i scarded d ur ing u se a s w e l l a s t he l eng ths o f a xes l o st i n t ranspor t .
T hus , t he d if erences i n mean a xe l e ng th b e tween t he
t wo a noma lous s quares a nd t he s urround ing s quares a ppear t o r epresen t l o ca l ized e f ec t s o f t he f a ct ors o f i n t ens i ty o f p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty , a nd p erhaps modern c o l lec t ing , r a ther t han p ref erent ia l move men t o fa xes . An a rea where i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he i n terp lay o ft hese f a ctors h as r esu l ted i n t he o ppos it e e f ec t—tha t o f l ower ing t he mean l e ng th o f a xes—can b e i d en t if ied .
T h is i st he
g r id s quare ( #107 ) t ha t c overs t he ma in c oncent ra t ion o f a xes i n t he P eak D is t r ict ( s ee F ig . 9 .23 ) .
An a rea o f a pparen t ly i n tens ive N eo l i th i c a c t iv i ty ,1 t h is h as a l so b een t he
f o cus o f i n tens ive modern c o l lect ing ( Moore 1 979 :82 ) .
I tc an b e s uggested t ha t t he r e la -
t i ve ly l ow mean l e ng th o f a xes o b ta ined f o r t h is a rea may r ef lec t t hese f act ors .2 B ecause o f t h is p oss ib i l i ty , t he q ues t ion o f whether G roup V I I a xes w ere t ranspor ted d i rect ly f r om t he s our ce a rea t ot he P eak D ist r i c tc anno tb e a ssessed w i th t hese d a ta . I n a dd i t ion t o t he ma jor p a t tern s een i n F ig . 9 .42 o f ac en t ra l d i st r ibu t ion a rea w i th r e la t ive ly l a rge mean a xe l e ng ths s urrounded b y a reas o f s econdary d i st r ibu t ion w i th sma l ler mean a xe l eng ths , r e lat ive ly h igh mean a xe l eng th s c an b e s een i nc oa sta l a reas o f S ou th Wa les ( g r id s quare # 48 ) a nd i n t he B ou rnemou th a rea ( g r id s qua re # 23 ) a l ong w i th
'More c o mp le te a xes o f G roup V I I h ave b een f ound i n t h is g r id s quare t han i n a ny o ther , i n c lud ing t he o ne i n wh ich t he s our ce i sl o ca ted . 2I n
f a c t , i f t he a xes f r om t h is g r id s quare a re c o mb ined w i th t hose f r om t he a noma lous s quare i mmed ia te ly s ou th o fi t , a mean l eng th o f 1 48 mm f o r t he t o ta l s amp le i so b ta ined . T h is i s much more l i ke t he mean l eng ths o fa xes t ha t h ave b een o bserved i n t he o ther c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea s qua res .
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s ome e v idence o f g enera l ly sma l ler a xe l e ng ths i n land f r om t hese a reas .
T hese p a t t erns
t end t o c onf i rm h ypo theses o f d i rec t c oas ta l movemen t o f G roup V I I a xes t o t hese a reas .'
Unf ortuna te ly ,
d ue t o a l a ck o f s i ze d a ta f o r a xes f r om t he c oun t ies o f
s ou theast ern E ng land , t he h ypo thes is o f c oa sta l movemen t o fG roup V I I a xes t ot he S u s s ex a rea c annot b e t e s ted .2 T he d i st r ibu t ion o f r es idua ls f r om t he b est -f i t d i s tan ce d e cay mode l i s s hown i n F ig . 9 .43 .
On t h is map , t he h ighes t p os i t ive v a lues c an b e s een i nt he t wo a noma lous g r id
s quares d i scussed a bove .
O ther r e la t ive ly h igh p os i t ive v a lues c an b e s een i n Ang lesey
( g r id s quare # 103 ) , i n L inco lnsh ire ( g r id s quares # 108 a nd # 109 ) a nd N orf o lk ( g r id s qua re # 96 ) , a nd i n t he B ournemou th a rea ( g r id s quare # 23 ) .
T hese v a lues i nd ica te t ha t g rea t er
m ean a xe l eng ths a re o bserved i n t hese a reas t han w ere p red ic ted b y t he d i s tance d e cay m ode l . T he h igh p os it ive r es idua l v a lue i nt he Ang lesey g r id s quare r ef lect s t he l a rge mean l e ng th s een i nt h is s qua re ( F ig . 9 .42 ) . B oth o ft hese v a lues s ugges t p ref eren t ia l movemen t o fl a rge a xes t o t he i s land .
T h is may h ave i nvo lved d i rec t c on ta c t b e tween i nhab i tan t s o f
A ng lesey a nd a xe -makers l i v ing n ear t he s our ce .
A l terna t ive ly , i nhab i tan t s o f Ang lesey
1 -I fa xes o f G roup V I I w ere b e ing moved d i rec t ly f r om t he N or th We lsh s ource a rea a l ong c oasta l wat erways t o s ou theast ern Wa les a nd t he B ournemou th a rea , i t s eems u nu sua l t ha t n o a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound i n s outhwes tern Wa les a nd t ha t o n ly o ne a xe h as b een f ound i n t he s ou thwes tern p en insu la o f E ng land . H owever , i n t he p rev ious c hapt er a nd t he p rev ious s ec t ions o f t h is c hap ter , i th as b een s een t ha t l a rge , g ood q ua l i ty a xes w ere a va i lab le l o ca l ly i n e a ch o f t hese a rea s . I ndeed , t he e v iden ce p resent ed e ar l ier i n t h is c hap ter i nd ica tes t ha t a xes o f G roup V I I I w ere moved t owa rd N or th Wa les a nd t ha t s o me o f t hem w ere d i s t r ibu ted f ur ther e as tward a l ong t he s ame e x change n e twork w i th in wh i ch t he G roup V I I a xes w ere mov ing . I tc an b e s uggest ed t ha t p eop le t r ave l l ing f r om N or th Wa les a l ong t he w es tern c oast s may h ave b een e x chang ing o the r p roduc ts , o f wh ich w e h ave n o r e cord , w i th p eop le i n a rea s where s t one a xes w ere l o ca l ly a va i lab le . A t a ny r a te , t he sma l l n umbers o f G roup V I I a xes t ha t d i d r ea ch t he S ou th We lsh c oas t a nd t he B ournemou th a rea i nd i ca te t ha t t h is c oas ta l movemen t w as r e la t ive ly i n f requen t a nd o f l e ss i mpor tance t han t he o ver land movemen t o f a xes t owa rd c en t ra l a nd e ast ern E ng land . 20 n t he b as is o f t he p a t terns o f a xe s i ze o bserved i n t he o ther c oas ta l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea s , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t i fG roup V I I a xes w ere moved a l ong c oasta l wa terways t o t he S ussex a rea , ap a t tern o f l a rger mean l e ng ths o n t he c oas t a nd sma l ler mean l e ng ths i n land w ou ld b e e xpec ted .
2 54
may h ave j ourneyed t o t he G roup V I I s ource a nd p roduced t he ir o wn a xes f r om t he r aw ma ter ia l a va i lab le t here . F or t he L inco lnsh ire a nd N orf o lk a rea , t he h igh p os i t ive r es idua l v a lues r ef lec t t he f ac t t ha t t he mean l eng ths o fG roup V I I a xes i n t h is a rea a re s im i lar t o t hose o bserved i n a reas c l oser t o t he s our ce ( F ig . 9 .42 ) a nd o n ly s l ight ly l ower t han t hose o bserved i n t he a rea i mmed iat e ly s urround ing t he s ource .
T hese v a lues a re c ons isten t
w i th p ref eren t ia l t rade o fa xes w i th in t he c en t ra l d i s tr ibu t ion a rea i nc on t ras t t os urround i ng a reas . F ina l ly , t he h igh p os i t ive r es idua l v a lue i n t he B ournemou th a rea s uppor t s t he i n terpreta t ion o f c oasta l movemen t o fG roup V I I a xes t o t h is a rea , a nd a p os i t ive , t hough s omewha t l ower , r es idua l v a lue o n t he c oast o fS ou th Wa les s uppor t s t he s ame i n t erpreta t i on o fa xe movemen t t ot h is a rea . N ega t ive r es idua l v a lues c an b e s een i n F ig . 9 .43 i n g r id s quares o n t he f r inges o f t he c en tra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea a nd i ng r id s quares g enera l ly i n land f r om t he c oa s ta l d i s t r ibu t i on c en ters . T hese v a lues i nd ica te t ha t t he m ean a xe l e ng ths o bserved i nt hese a reas a re sma l ler t han t hose p red ic ted b y t he d i stance d ecay mode l , a nd t hey s ugges t t ha t p eop le l i v ing i n t hese a reas w ere r e ce iv ing p oorer s upp l ies o fa xes , e i ther i nt e rms o fs i zes o fa xes o r n umbers o fa xes , t han w ere p eop le i n t he c en t ra l d i st r ibu t ion a rea a nd t he c oasta l d i s t r ibut ion l o ca l i t ies . I n s ummary , t he r esu l t s o ft h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty s ugges tt ha t a xes o fG roup V I I w ere d i s t r ibut ed p r imar i ly t hrough g roup to -g roup r ec ipro c a l e xchange mov ing o u t f r om t he s our ce , o ver land t oward a reas o fe as tern a nd s ou thern E ng land ( F ig . 9 .44 ) . W i th in t he o vera l l d i st r ibu t ion o f G roup V I I a xes , ac en t ra l d i s t r ibu t i on a rea i n wh ich g roups a t c ons iderab le d i s tan ces f r om t he s our ce r e ce ived r e la t ive ly g ood s upp l ies o f a xes was i d en t if ied a nd c on t ras ted w i th p er iphera l a reas i n wh ich r e la t i ve ly p oorer s upp l ies o fa xes w ere r e ce ived . I n a dd i t ion , l o ng d i stan ce t ranspor to f G roup V I I a xes a l ong c oas ta l wa terways t oS ou th Wa les a nd t he s ou th c oas to fE ng land was i nd i c a ted , b u t t h is a spec t o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion s eems t o h ave b een o f l e ss i mpor tan ce t han t he f o rmer .
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T he We lsh G roups : C ompara t ive S ummary
I n t h is c hapt er , p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een i nves t iga ted f o r t hree g roups o f a xes o r ig ina t ing a t s our ces i n Wa les .
When t he r esu l t s
a re c o mpared , g enera l s im i lar i t ies a nd s i gn if i can t d i f f erences among t hese g roups c an b e s een .
C oup led w i th t he a va i lab le i n f orma t ion o n t he c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ips among
t hese g roups , t hese r esu l t s y i e ld i n terest ing i n s igh t s i n to c hang ing p a t t erns o f e x change a nd h uman i n tera ct ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th i c p er iod i nB r i ta in . T he a na lyses o f g enera l p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f t he We lsh g roups h ave r evea led , f o r e a ch g roup , g enera l c l asses o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes .
F or G roups XX I I I a nd V I I I , c ons iderab le
v ar iab i l i ty i n g enera l s i ze was o bserved among t he o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes , a nd t he s ame moda l s i zes o f a xes a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced a t e a ch s our ce .
T h is i sn o t s urpr is ing
s i nce t hese s our ces a re l o ca ted i n t he s ame g enera l a rea a nd may h ave b een e xp lo it ed b y t he s ame g roup (s ) o f p eop le .
H owever , a ma jor d if eren ce b etween t hese t wo g roups o f
a xes c an b e s een i n t he r e la t ive n umbers o f a xes o f t he d if eren t s i zes .
V ery l a rge a xes ,
wh i ch h ave b een i n terpre ted a s p r imar i ly c e remon ia l i t ems , a ppear t o h ave b een t he more n umerous , t yp ica l p rodu c t s o f G roup XX I I I mat er ia l (s ) wh i le s ma l ler l a rge a nd med ium s i zed a xes , wh ich h ave b een i n t erpre ted a s p r imar i ly u t i l i tar ian t o o ls , a ppea r t oh ave b een t he more n umerous , t yp ica l p roduc t s o f G roup V I I I ma ter ia l .
T hus , i n s ou thwes tern
Wa les , d if eren t r aw ma ter ia ls w ere c l ear ly p ref erred f o r t he p roduc t ion o fd if eren t t ypes o fa xes . A l though t he d iv is ion b e tween c l asses o fl a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l ler , p r ima r i ly r e -worked a xes was v ery c l ear cu t f o r G roups XX I I I a nd V I I I , i t was n o t s o o bv ious f o r G roup V I I . F or t ha t g roup , r e la t ive t h i ckness was s een t ob e ama jor s our ce o f morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l i ty ,
a nd
c l asses
o f r e la t ive ly
t h i ck
a nd
r e la t ive ly t h in
a xes ,
a pparen t ly r ef le ct ing t he u se o f b l ocks o f r aw mat er ia l o f d if eren t moda l t h i cknesses f o r a xe manufa c ture , w ere i d en t if ied .
G roup V I I ma ter ia l a ppears t o h ave b een u sed
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e x c lus ive ly f o r t he p rodu ct ion o f u t i l i tar ian t o o l s , a s n o c l ass o f v ery l a rge , p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes was i d en t if ied among t he s pec imens i nt h is s amp le . T he a na lyses o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l ity among a xes o f t he We lsh g roups h ave s ugges ted t ha t a xes o fe ach g roup w ere d i s t r ibu ted p r imar i ly t hrough r e c ipro c a l g roup -t o -g roup e xchange .
H owever , t he s pa t ia l e x ten t o f t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f
e ach g roup was s een t o v ary c ons iderab ly . B ecause t hese g roups a l so a ppea r t oh ave h ad p er iods o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f d i f f eren t l e ng ths , s o me i n s igh t s i n t o c hang ing p a t t erns o f e xchange a nd h uman i n terac t ion i nt he N eo l i th ic p er iod c an b e o b ta ined f r om t hese d a ta . A l l t hree o f t he We lsh s our ces a ppear t o h ave b een f i rs t u t i l ized i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic . p er iod .
H owever , o n ly G roup XX I I I a ppears t o h ave b een l a rge ly l im i ted t o t h is t ime
A xes o f t h is ma ter ia l w ere e xchanged b e tween a xe -makers i n t he P embrokesh i re
s ource a rea a nd p eop le i n s ou theas tern Wa les a nd m id - Wa les .
On ly p ar t s a nd f r agmen t s
o f a xes a nd o ne mu ch r e -worked s pec imen h ave b een f ound o u t s ide Wa les .
T hus , t he
e v idence o f G roup XX I I I i nd icat es t ha t i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c , p eop le i n s ou thern Wa les w ere i nvo lved i n af a ir ly sma l l -sca le r eg iona l e xchange n e twork t ha t was n o t a r t icu la ted , t o a ny s i gn if i can t e xt en t , w i th e xchange n e tworks o u t s ide Wa les .
T he a va i lab le e v iden ce
i nd ica tes t ha t a xes o fG roup V I I I w ere a l so mov ing i nt h is e xchange n e twork a t t h is t ime . I n C hapter I , ap i c ture o f E ar ly N eo l i th i c B r i ta in was d eve loped i n wh ich sma l l , b as ica l ly e ga l i tar ian a nd l a rge ly i ndependen t l o ca l g roups ma in ta ined m in ima l c on ta c t s w i th n earby g roups .
T he e xchange o f a xes o f G roups XX I I I a nd V I I I i n t he E a r ly
N eo l i th i c u ndoubt ed ly s erved t o ma in ta in f r iend ly r e la t ions among p eop le i n t he d if eren t a reas o f s ou thern a nd c en tra l Wa les .
I n a dd i t ion , e xchange o f t he v ery l a rge , p erhaps
p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes o fG roup XX I I I may h ave s erved t of a c i l i ta te movemen t among t hese a reas o ft he s ma l ler , p r imar i ly u t i l i tar ian a xes o f G roup V I I I o r o ther g ood s o f wh i ch w e h ave n o r ecord . A l though w e c anno t s eparat e t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic c o mponen t o f t he G roup V I I a xe d i st r ibut ion f r om t he o vera l l d i st r ibu t ion , Sm i th ( 1979 :19 ) h as s uggested t ha t a xes o f
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G roup V I I w ere p rodu ced p r imar i ly f o r l o ca l u se d ur ing t h i s t ime . T hus , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t e x change n etworks i n n or thern Wa les w ere a l so r e la t ive ly l im i ted i n s ca le d ur ing t he E a r ly N eo l i th ic . A xes o f G roups V I I I a nd V I I c on t inued i n u se i n t o t he L a t er N eo l i th ic .
Axes o f
G roup V I I I a re more w ide ly d i s t r ibu t ed t han t hose o fG roup XX I I I , e x tend ing o u t o f Wa les i n t o t he Wessex a rea , i n to N or th Wa les , a nd a cross n or thern E ng land .
T h is d i st r ibu t ion
i nd i ca tes w ider c on ta c t s d ur ing t h is t ime b e tween S ou th Wa les a nd Wessex , b etween S ou th Wa les a nd N or th Wa les ,1 a nd b e tween N or th Wa les a nd o ther a reas o f n or thern E ng land .
T h is e xpans ion o f G roup V I I I a xe d i s t r ibu t ion i s c ons is ten t w i th a p i cture o f
L a ter N eo l i th ic B r i ta in i n wh ich s ys tem i c s t resses o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c w ere a l lev iat ed t hrough b roaden ing o f t he s ubs ist en ce b ase a nd s pread ing o f s et t lemen t i n t o p rev ious ly u nused a reas .
T hese c hanges w ere a pparen t ly a ccompan ied b y w ider c on ta c ts among
g roups a nd a n i n crease i n e xchange t h rough wh i ch p rodu ct s o f d if eren t e nv ironmen t s w ere d i s t r ibu ted .
Sm i th ( 1979 :19 ) s ugges t s t ha t w idespread d i spersa l o f G roup V I I a xes
b egan a t t h is t ime . T he c l ose c orrespondence b etween t he d i st r ibu t ion o f G roup V I I I a xes i n n or thern E ng land a nd t he c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea o f G roup V I I a xes i sc ons isten t w i th t h i s . A xes o ft hese t wo g roups may w e l l h ave c hanged h ands i nt he s ame e x change t rans a ct ions d ur ing t h is t ime . F ina l ly , o f t he t h ree We lsh g roups , o n ly G roup V I I a ppear s t o h ave b een u t i l ized t hroughou t t he L a tes t N eo l i th ic .
Axes o f G roup V I I a re n o t o n ly mu ch more a bundan t
t han a xes o f t he o ther t wo g roups , b u t t hey a re more w ide ly d i s t r ibuted , w i th a c on s i derab le n umber o fc omp let e s pec imens , i n c lud ing l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes , h av ing b een f ound f ur ther t han 3 00 km f r om t he s ource .
T hus , i ta ppea rs t ha t p rodu c t ion o f
G roup V I I a xes i n crea sed d ur ing t he L at es t N eo l i th i c ,
wh i le p a t terns o f d i spersa l
e stab l ished i n t he e a r l ier p er iod p robab ly c on t inued a nd may h ave b een e xpanded . T h is i s
' No te t ha t a xes o f G roup V I I I w ere n ever a bundan t i n t he G roup V I I s ou rce a rea n or w ere a xes o fG roup V I I f ound i ns ou thwes tern Wa les ( c f . F ig . 9 .6 a nd F ig . 9 .23 ) .
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c ons ist en t w i th a p i c ture o f L a tes t N eo l i th ic B r i ta in t ha t i s c hara cter ized b y r enewed e conom i c g row th , p opu la t ion g row th , a nd i n creas ing c o mpe t i t ion f o r l and a nd o ther r esour c es .
T hese d eve lopmen t s w ere p robab ly a ccompan ied b y i n creased d emand f o r g ood
q ua l i ty s t one a xes . I ncreased s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i nt he f a ce o ft hese s ys tem i c s t resses a nd i n teres t i n e x change a s a means o f a ch iev ing s ta tus w i th in l o ca l a nd s upra loca l g roups may h ave f a c i l i ta ted t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fG roup V I I a xes o ver b road a rea s . I n c on c lus ion , t h is i nvest iga t ion h as r evea led p a t t erns o fp rodu c t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion f o r t hree g roups o f a xes o r ig ina t ing a t s our ces i n Wa les wh i ch s eem t o i nd ica t e c hang ing p a t t erns o fe xchange a nd h uman i n t erac t ion i nt he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in t ha t a re c on s i s ten t w i th t he p a t t erns o fs oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange t ha t w ere o ut l ined a bove .
CHAPTER X
THE LAKE D ISTR ICT GROUPS
I n t h is c hapt er , p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty a nd p ro cesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e i nvest iga ted f o r g roups o fa xes t ha t a re a t t r ibu ted t o s ources i n t he L ake D is t r ic t . T hese a re G roups V I , X I , a nd XV ( s ee T ab le 1 . 1 a nd F ig . 1 . 1 ) . F or G roup V I , e xtens ive a xe f l ak ing s i tes a re k nown i n t he G rea t L angda le a nd S caf e l l P ike a rea ( Bunch a nd F e l l 1 949 ; P l in t 1 962 ; C lough 1 973 ; H ou lder 1 979 ) . F or G roup X I , n o s pec if i c a xe f l ak ing s i te h as b een i d en t if ied , b u t a s our ce i n t he s ame g enera l a rea i s a ssumed ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :218 ) .
F or G roup XV , as our ce i n C on ist on G r i t o u tcrops f ur ther s ou th h as b een
s ugges ted , b u t a ga in n o s pec if i c a xe p rodu ct ion s i t e h as b een i d en t if ied ( Shot t on 1 959 ) . Axes o f G roup V I a ppear t o h ave b een manufa c tured , d i s tr ibuted , a nd u sed o ver a l o ng p er iod o f t ime , s tar t ing i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic a nd c on t inu ing t hrough t he L a ter N eo l i th i c i n t o t he B eaker p er iod ( Sm ith 1 979 :18-19 ) . I n c ont ras t , more r es t r icted p er iods o f e xp lo i ta t ion c an b e s ugges ted f o r t he o ther t wo g roups .
T he o n ly e v idence f o r d a t ing
G roup X I ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :251 ) s ugges t s d i spersa l o fa xes o ft h is ma ter ia l i n t he e ar ly p hase o f t he L at e N eo l i th i c p er iod , wh i le t he p redom inan ce o f s haf tho le i mp lemen t s o f G roup XV ( Sm i th 1 979 :19 ; R oe 1 979 ) s ugges t s t ha t t he f ew a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l may h ave b een d i st r ibut ed p r imar i ly i nt he l a t er p hase o ft he L a te N eo l i th i c . Among t he L ake D is t r i ct g roups , a xes o f G roup V I a re mos t n umerous .
I ndeed
t hese a xes c o mpr ise t he mos t a bundan t g roup i n t he e n t ire d a ta s e t . I n c on t ras t , a xes o f t he o ther t wo g roups a re q u i te r are .
On ly t wo c o mp le te a xes o f G roup X I a re k nown .
O bv ious ly , a na lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i st r ibu t ion i sn o t p oss ib le f o r t h is g roup . T heref ore , o ft he L ake D is t r ic t g roups , o n ly G roups V I a nd XV w i l l b e c on -
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2 60
s i dered i n d eta i l . G roup V I , a s t he l a rger g roup , w i l l b e d i scussed f i rs t , f o l lowed b y G roup XV .
G roup V I
Axes o f G roup V I ma t er ia l , o r ig ina t ing a t o ut crops i n t he G rea t L angda le a nd S caf e l l P ike a rea o ft he L ake D ist r i ct , make u p t he mos t a bundan t s i ng le g roup o f B r i t ish N eo l ith i c s t one a xes . T here a re more t han t wo a nd o ne -ha lf t imes a s many c o mp le te a xes o ft h is g roup a s o f t he s econd mos t a bundan t g roup , a nd t hey a ccoun t f o r more t han 4 5% o ft he g rouped a xes i nt h is d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he c o mp let e G roup V I a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef eren ces a re s hown i n F ig . 1 0 .1 .1 F rom t h is map i t i s c l ear t ha t a xes o f t h is mat er ia l w ere d i s tr ibu ted o ver b road a rea s o f E ng land a nd Wa les .
T hey a ppea r t o b e
e spec ia l ly a bundan t i n a reas o f Y orksh ire a nd L in co lnsh ire wh ich may h ave b een q u it e d ense ly p opu lat ed d ur ing t he N eo l i th i c p er iod ( s ee C hap ter I ) . I n h i s a na lys is o f r e la t ive f r equency p a t t erns o f a xes o f v ar ious g roups , C umm ins n o ted t ha t a xes o f G roup V I a re mos t a bundan t n o t i n t he L ake D is t r ic t s ou rce a rea b u t a round t he Humber e stuary o n t he e ast c oas t a nd t ha t a xe a bundance d ecreases q u it e r egu lar ly o u tward f r om t h is a rea ( Cumm ins 1 979 :11 , F ig . 8 ) . H e i n terpre ted t h is p a t tern a s i nd ica t ing t ha t G roup V I a xes w ere t ranspor ted i nb u lk f r om t he s our ce t o t he Humber s i de a rea f r om wh ich t hey w ere s ubsequen t ly d i st r ibu ted i n land .
I n c on t ras t , r e su l t s o f
o ther a pproa ches t o mode l ing e xchange p rocesses ( Hodder 1 974 ; H odder a nd O r t on 1 976 ; E l l io t t , E l lman , a nd H odder 1 978 ) s ugges t t ha t G roup V I a xes may h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted o u tward f r om t he s ou rce t hrough v i l lage to -v i l lage e xchange .
A ssess ing whe ther s pa t ia l
p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes c orrespond s w i th e i ther o f
1A n a dd i t iona l t wen ty two p rovenanced .
G roup
V I a xes
i n t h is
s amp le
a re n ot p rec ise ly
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t hese h ypo thes ized p a t tern s o f a xe d i st r ibu t ion w i l l b e a ma jor c on cern o f t h is i nves t iga t i on .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
O bserva t ions i n t he l i t era ture o n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes s ugges t t ha t t hey a re c hara cter ized b y ag enera l s tandard iza t ion o f f o rm ( Manby 1 965 , 1 979 ; Moore 1 979 :83 ) . T he " Cumbr ian" t ype o f a xe i sg enera l ly r e cogn ized a s t he s tand a rd f i n ished p rodu c t o f G roup V I ma ter ia l ( Manby 1 979 :65 ) , a l though a xes o f t h is f o rm w ere made o f o ther L ake D is t r ict r ocks a s w e l l . C umbr ian a xes w ere made i n t wo s i zes :
F e l l ( 1964 :40 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t
" l arge" ( l ess t han 9 i n , o r a pprox ima te ly 2 29
mm , l o ng ) a nd " very l a rge" ( 9-17 i n , o r a pprox ima te ly 2 29-432 mm , l ong ) . Whe ther s u ch moda l s i ze c l asses a re p resen t among G roup V I a xes c an b e i nvest iga ted .
A t a ny r at e ,
G roup V I a xes a re k nown i n ag rea t r ange o f s i zes . I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t many o f t he
s ma l ler
o nes
may
r epresen t r e -worked
C umbr ian
a xes
( Cumm ins
a nd
Moore
1 973 :228 ) , a nd i ndeed many o bv ious ly r e -worked a xes o f G roup V I c an b e o bserved .
I n
a dd i t ion , o ther sma l l G roup V I a xes may h ave b een r e -sharpened o r r e -worked i n ways t ha t a re n o t s o o bv ious .
T he o ccurren ce o f f l akes o f G roup V I a xes t hroughou t B r i ta in
i nd ica tes t ha t r e -sharpen ing a nd r e -work ing o ft hese a xes t ook p lace v i r tua l ly e verywhere t hey a re f ound . O fp oss ib le s pec ia l ized f o rms o fG roup V I a xes , o n ly t wo e xamp les a re men t ioned i n t he l i t era ture .
One o f t hese i s L incs . 2 6 , al a rge , t h in , t eardrop -shaped s pe c imen t ha t i s
a ppa ren t ly u n ique among G roup V I a xes ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :227 , F ig . 5 , # 25 ; 2 29 ) . I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t h is a xe c l ose ly r esemb les c er ta in j ade a xes i n f o rm , a s t hough t he a xe maker t r ied t o c opy j ade a xes i n G roup V I s t one ( i b id . ) . Many o ft he j ade a xes f ound i nB r i ta in a re l a rge b u t v ery t h in ( Sm i th 1 963 , 1 965 , 1 972 ; J ones e t a l . 1 977 ; B ishop e t a l . 1 977 ; Woo l ley e ta l . 1 979 ) . T hese i mp lemen t s c an p robab ly b e i n t erpre ted a s n on -u t i l i ta r ian , v a luab le g oods .
I fL in cs . 2 6 w ere p rodu ced a s ac opy o f aj ade a xe , t hen
2 62
p erhaps i tc an b e i n t erpreted a s av a luab le o b jec t a s w e l l .
H owever , c h ips o f t he b lade
t ha t may b e t he r esu l t o f u se r a ise t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t h is i mp lemen t wa s n o t a n e x c lus ive ly n on -u t i l i tar ian i t em . T he o ther p oss ib le s pec ia l ized G roup V I i mp lemen t t ha t h as b een s pe c if i ca l ly men t i oned i n t he l i t era ture i sC orn . 3 55 ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 :240 ) . T h is i su ndoub t ed ly a n a dze ( F ig . 1 0 .2a ) , a nd w i th a l e ng th o f 2 36 mm , i ti s t he l a rges t o ne i n t he e n t ire d a ta s e t . S evera l f ea tures o f t h is i mp lemen t s ugges t t ha t i t wa s p robab ly r egarded a s av a luab le i t em . One o ft hese i so bv ious ly i t s s i ze . A no ther i si t s b la ck c o lor wh ich i sq u i t e d if eren t f r om t he d u l l g reens a nd g reys o f many s t one a xes a nd wh ich was e nhanced b y smooth p o l ish ing a t a nd a bove t he b lade . H owever , n umerous c h ips o ft he b lade i nd i ca te t ha tt h i s i mp lemen t was u sed a t s o me p o in t .
T h is s uggest s t ha t a l though i t may h ave b een
r egarded a s av a luab le o b jec t , i t was n o t a n e x c lus ive ly n on -u t i l i tar ian o ne . N one o ft he G roup V I a xes f o r wh i ch Ih ave o bta ined morpho log i ca l d a ta a ppea r t o h ave a n e xpanded b lade . I n o rder t oi nvest igat e g enera l p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes , t he i d ea l p rocedure w ou ld b e t oc ons ider i n i t ia l ly t he a xes f ound c l ose t o t he s our ce , a s h as b een d one f o r o ther g roups , o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t t hey w ou ld b e mos t l i ke ly t o r ef lec t t he r ange o fv ar iab i l i ty among a xe s p roduced a tt he s our ce a nd l e as t l i ke ly t or ef lec t v ar iab i l i ty c aused b y r e -work ing a xes i nd if eren t l o ca l a reas a t v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s ource . H owever , when Iwa s c ondu c t ing my f i e ldwork , i mp lemen t p e t ro logy l i s t s w ere n o t a va i lab le f o r t he c oun t ies i n c lud ing a nd i mmed ia te ly s ur round ing t he G roup V I s ource a rea ,' a nd t h is p rec luded c o l lec t ion o f morpho log ica l d a ta f o r a xes f r om t h is a rea . Among t he G roup V I a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t , o n ly s i x teen , o r 2 .5% o ft he t o ta l n umber , w ere f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he s ource , a nd o ft hese , t he c l oses to ne was f ound 3 5 km f r om t he s our ce ( F ig . 1 0 .3 ) .
I -T hese
8 3 ) .
T hus t he a va i lab le s amp le t ha t c an b e u sed f o r i nvest igat ion o f mor -
l i st s h ave o n ly r e cen t ly b een c o mp i led ( An thony Hard ing , p ers . c o mm . 4 /30 /
2 63
p ho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes p rodu ced a t a nd u sed n ear t he s our ce i si n com p l et e . N ever the less , a n i nvest iga t ion o fp a t t ern s o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t hese i mp lemen ts may p rov ide c l ues t o t ypes o r s i zes o f a xes wh i ch may b e s ough t among t he G roup V I s pec imens f ound f ur ther f r om t he s our ce . H is tog rams o f v a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r G roup V I a xes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he s ou r ce a re s hown i n F ig . 1 0 .4 . I n t he h i st og ram o fl e ng th measure men t s , t here i s c l ea r e v iden ce o f mu l t i -moda l i ty .
A ma jor b reak a round 2 15 mm 1
s epara tes a g roup o fv ery l a rge a xes f r om s ma l ler o nes . Among t he v ery l a rge a xes , t wo a dd i t iona l s i ze c l a sses a re s ugges ted b y t h is d i s t r ibu t ion . Among t he sma l ler a xes , ac on s i derab le r ange o fl e ng th measuremen t s i sr epresen ted , a nd c l asses o f l a rger a nd s ma l ler a xes may b e p resen t .
N one o f t he o ther d i s tr ibu t ions i sc l ear ly b imoda l , a l though sma l l
s amp le s i ze makes a ssessmen t o ft he ir s hapes d i ff i cu l t . H owever , most o ft hem d o e xh ib i t p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty t ha t a re n o t s t r i c t ly n orma l a nd may b e r e la ted t o t he p resen ce o f d if eren t s i zes o r s hapes o fa xes i nt h is s amp le . On s ca t t er p l o t s o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s .
t h ickness measu remen t s
( F ig . 1 0 .5 ) , t he g rea t r ange i n s i ze o f G roup V I a xes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o f t he s our ce c an b e s een . H owever , e v idence o fc l us ter ing o n t hese p l o t s s ugges t s t ha t t he a xes i n t h is s amp le f a l l i n to f ou r moda l s i ze c l asses . T hese a re t he c l asses t ha t w ere i nd ica ted b y t he h i s tog ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s .
T hey i n c lude t wo g roups o f v ery l a rge a xes ( w i th
l eng ths o f 2 31-235 mm a nd 2 60-287 mm , r espec t ive ly ) , ag roup o f sma l ler , b u t s t i l l r e la t i ve ly l a rge , a xes ( w i th l e ng ths o f 1 75-190 mm ) , a nd a g enera l g roup o f sma l l a xes ( w i th l eng ths o f 7 0-133 mm ) .2 B y a na logy w i th p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty o bserved among a xes o f g roups d i scussed i n p rev ious c hapt ers , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he t hree g roups o f l a rge
' In f ac t , t here a re n o a xes w i th l e ng th measuremen t s b e tween 1 91 mm a nd 2 30 mm i nt h is s amp le . 2N one o f t hese a xes a re i lust ra ted h ere b ecause p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n a l l o ft hem .
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a nd v ery l a rge a xes r epresen t c l asses o fa xes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced a t t he s our ce , wh i le t he g roup o f sma l l a xes i n c ludes p r imar i ly r e -worked s pe c imens . F or c onf i rma t ion o f t h is s or t o f i n t erpre ta t ion f o r a xes o f o ther ma ter ia ls , e v idence o f t he s i zes o f a xes p roduced a t t he s our ce was s ough t i n t he s i zes o f r oughou t s .
Unf or tuna t e ly , o n ly t wo
r oughou t s o f G roup V I a re i n c luded i n t h is d a ta s e t .1 B o th o f t hese a re o ver 2 00 mm i n l e ng th , t hus g enera l ly c orrespond ing i n s i ze w ith t he v ery l a rge a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le . F or f ur ther i nd i ca t ion o ft he s i zes o fa xes p roduced a t G roup V I a nd o ther L ake D is t r ic t s our ces , a nother d a ta s e tc an b e i n t rodu ced . T h is i st he C umbr ian a xe d ata p ub l ished b y Manby ( 1965 ) who i nves t igat ed a nd a t tempted t o l i s t a l l l a rge a xes a nd r oughout s o f C umbr ian t ype f ound i n n or thern E ng land .
A t t he t ime o f Manby 's p ub l i ca t ion , most o f
t hese i mp lemen ts h ad n o t b een e xam ined p e t ro log i ca l ly , b u t o ft he o nes t ha t h ad , a l l w ere e i ther o f G roup V I o r o f s im i la r ma ter ia ls .2 T hus , a l though t here may b e s o me a xes a nd r oughou t s i n Manby 's d a ta s e t t ha t a re n o t o f G roup V I , i ti sl i ke ly t ha t many a re a nd t ha t t he r es t a re o f ma ter ia l s f r om t he s ame g enera l a rea . T heref ore , t he u se o f Manby 's d a ta a s a n a i d i ni n terpret ing t he s i ze c l a sses o f G roup V I a xes i n t he ma in d a ta s e t i sj u s t i f ied . Manby
( 1965 :7 )
r epor t s
( approx ima te ly 1 52 mm ) l o ng . h ave b een mu ch sma l le r .
t ha t
a l l
C umbr ian
a xe
r oughou t s
a re
o ver
6 i n
F in ished a xes p rodu ced f r om s u ch r oughou t s w ou ld n o t
T heref ore , a xes t ha t a re s hor ter t han a bou t 1 50 mm a re l i ke ly
t oh ave b een r e -sharpened o r r e -worked f r om l a rger a xes .3 T h is s uppor t s t he i n t erpreta -
1T h is i s d ue t o t he p rob lem , e xp la ined a bove , o f u nava i lab i l i ty o f i mp lemen t p e tro l o gy l i s ts f o r t he c oun t ies i n c lud ing a nd i mmed ia te ly s urround ing t he G roup V I s our ce a rea wh i ch p rec luded c o l lec t ion o f d a ta f r om j us t t hose a reas where r oughou t s o f t h is mat er ia l w ou ld b e e xpected . 2S ome
o ft hese a xes c an b e i d en t if ied i n my ma in d a ta s e t .
3A dm i t t ed ly , Manby d oes n ot e t ha t smaler a xes w ere p rodu ced a t t he a xe q uarr ies i n t he L ake D ist r ic t a rea ( 1965 :9 ) . H owever , s i nce l a rger C umbr ian a xes s eem t o h ave b een t he ma jor p roduct s o ft hese q uarr ies , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t mos to ft he s ma l ler a xes a re r e -worked l a rger o nes r a ther t han o r ig ina l ly -produced sma l l o nes .
2 65
t i on o ft he c l ass o f sma l l G roup V I a xes i n t he n ear -sou rce s amp le a s p r imar i ly r e -worked s pe c imens .
Among t hese a xes , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he v ar iab i l i ty i n l eng th , w id th , a nd
t h ickness , t ha t c an b e o bserved o n t he s ca t ter p l ot s ( F ig . 1 0 .5 ) r esu l t s f r om r epea ted r e w ork ing o f a xes a nd /or r e -work ing o fd i f f eren t p ar t s o fb roken a xes o r a xes t ha t h ad b een d amaged i nd i f f eren t ways .1 F or i n terpreta t ion o ft he G roup V I a xes i nt he t h ree l a rger s i ze c l asses , t he l eng ths o f C umbr ian a xes a nd r oughou t s p ub l ished b y Manby ( 1965 :23-37 ) a re h e lpfu l .
H is -
t og rams o f l e ng th measuremen t s o f C umbr ian r oughou t s , C umbr ian a xes f ound i n t he L ake D is t r i c t c ount ies o f C umber land a nd Wes tmor land a nd t he F urness a rea o f L an c ash ire , a nd t he l a rge G roup V I a xes i nt he n ea r -source s amp le a re p resen ted i nF ig . 1 0 .6 . T he d i s t r ibu t ions o f l e ng th measuremen t s o f t he C umbr ian r oughou ts a nd a xes c l ear ly e xh ib i t t he s ame p a t tern o f mu l t i -moda l i ty t ha tc an b e o bserved among t he G roup V I a xes . T h i s c or respondence o f r oughou t a nd a xe s i zes s uppor t s t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he t hree c l asses o f l a rge G roup V I a xes a s moda l s i zes o f a xes t ha t w ere p roduced i n t he s ource a rea . I n t e rms o ff un ct ion a nd v a lue , t he l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes o f G roup V I c an b e i n t erpre ted a ccord ing t o t he mode l t ha t was d eve loped f r om e thnog raph ic d a ta a nd wh i ch h as b een a pp l ied t oo ther g roups o fa xes . T hus i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha tt he sma l les t o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes f unc t ioned p r imar i ly , i fn o t e x c lus ive ly , a s u t i l itar ian i t ems ; t ha t t he i n t ermed iat e -s ized l a rge a xes w ere r egarded a s more v a luab le a nd u sed more f o r c eremon ia l p urposes a nd l e ss a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls ; a nd t ha t t he l a rges t a xes w ere mos t h igh ly v a lued a nd w ere u sed p r imar i ly f o r c eremon ia l p urposes a nd p robab ly v ery l i t t le f o r u t i l i ta r ian t a sks . T o s ummar ize , t h is i nvest iga t ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o f t he s our ce h as r evea led t wo ma jor c l asses o f a xes : l a rge a xes o f t he s i zes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced f r om r oughou t s a t t he s ource a nd sma l l a xes t ha t
1S ee
d i scuss ion o ft hese p oss ib i l i t ies i nr ef erence t oa xes o fG roup Ii nC hapter V I I I .
2 66
w ere p roduced p r imar i ly t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes .
Among t he o r ig ina l ly -produced
a xes , t hree moda l s i ze c l a sses w ere r e cogn ized , a nd i th as b een s ugges t ed t ha tt he a xes i n t hem w ere r ega rded a s more o r l e ss v a luab le a ccord ing t o t he ir s i ze a nd t ha t t hey f un c t i oned a s u t i l i tar ian t o o ls o r c eremon ia l i t ems a ccord ing t o t he i r v a lue .
Among t he r e -
w orked a xes , c ons iderab le v ar iab i l i ty i ns i ze a nd s hape w as o bserved , a nd i t was s uggested t ha tt h is v ar iab i l i ty r ef lec t s t he r esu l ts o fr epea ted r e -work ing o f a xes a nd /or r e -work ing o f a xes t ha th ad b een d amaged o r b roken i nd if eren t ways . I n o rder t o c o mpa re p a t t ern s o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l ity among G roup V I a xes f ound f ur ther t han 1 00 km f r om t he s ource w i th t he p a t t ern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty o bserved among t he a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le , t he s i zes o f a l l o f t hese a xes a re s hown o n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts i n F ig . 1 0 .7 .
O n t hese p l o t s i tc an b e s een t ha t among t he a xes f ound f u r ther t han 1 00 km
f r om t he s ou r ce a re s pec imens f a l l ing w i th in t he e n t ire r ange o f s i zes r epresen ted b y i mp lemen t s i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .5 ) . l e ng th o f 4 35 mm i s n o t s hown o n t hese p l o t s .
I n a dd i t ion , as i ng le a xe w i th a
T h is i mp lemen t , L ancs . 1 0 ( s ee Manby
1 965 :6 , F ig . 2 , # 2 ) , i st he l a rges t a xe i n t he e n t ire d a ta s e t , a nd i t mus t c er ta in ly h ave b een p roduced a s an on -u t i l itar ian , c eremon ia l i t em . I n t he c onf igura t ions o f p o in t s s hown i n F ig . 1 0 .7 , t he moda l s i ze c l asses i d en t if ied among t he a xes i n t he n ea r -source s amp le a re b are ly r e cogn izab le .
I n o rder t od e term ine
i ft hese s i ze c l asses a re a s i gn if i can t f ea ture o f t he p a t t ern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes i nt he t o ta l s amp le a nd a l so t od e term ine whe ther a ny o ther morpho log ica l c l asses t ha t a re n o t a ppa ren t o n t he s ca t t er p l o t s c an b e i d en t if ied , t he a na ly t i ca l t e chn i q ues wh ich h ave p roven t o b e u sefu l i n t he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fo ther g roups c an b e emp loyed . H istog ram s o fv a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v a r iab les a re s hown i nF ig . 1 0 .8 f o r t he c omp le te G roup V I a xes i n t he e n t ire s amp le f o r wh i ch t hese measuremen t s a re a va i l -
2 67
a b le .1 I n t he h i st og ram o f l e ng th measure men ts ( F ig . 1 0 .8a ) ap a t t ern o f mu lt i -moda l i ty s im i la r t o t ha t s een i n t he d i st r ibu t ion o f l eng th measuremen t s o f a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le ( F ig . 1 0 .4 ) i s c l ear ly v i s ib le , i nd ica t ing t ha t d if eren t s i ze c l asses o f a xes a re p resen t i n t he t o ta l s amp le . T he h i s tog rams o f t he o ther s i ze v a r iab les ( max imum w id th , max imum t h ickness , c en t er w id th , c en ter t h ickness ) a l so e xh ib i t t endenc ies t oward mu l t i moda l i ty wh ich may b e r e la ted t o t he p resence o f d if eren t moda l s i zes o f a xes i n t he s amp le . T he h i stog rams o ft he s hape v a r iab les ( l eng th /w id th r a t io , l eng th / th ickness r a t io , w id th / th ickness r a t io , c r oss -sec t ion r a t io ) a re s kewed , i fn o t mu lt i -moda l , a nd i n e a ch o f t hem , o u t l iers c an b e o bserved wh ich r epresen t s pec imens o f u nusua l s hape i n r e la t ion t o t he r est o ft he a xes i nt he s amp le . T he r e la t ionsh ips o ft he o u t l ier s i n t he h i st og rams o ft he s hape v ar iab les t ot he r es t o ft he a xes c an b e s een more e as i ly o n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l eng th v s . e ach o f t he s hape v ar i a b les ( F ig . 1 0 .9 ) .
T he t wo a xes w i th u nusua l ly h igh l e ng th /w id th r a t io v a lues ( c f . F ig .
1 0 .8d a nd F ig . 1 0 .9a ) a re b o th v ery l a rge a xes o fC umbr ian t ype t ha t a re u nusua l ly n ar r ow f o r t he ir l e ng ths .
T hese i mp lemen t s , L an cs . 3 5 a nd Y orks . 4 92 , c an b e s een o n t he
s ca t t er p l o t o f l e ng th v s . w id th measuremen t s ( F ig . 1 0 .7a ) a s t he n arrowes t o f t he v ery l a rge a xes . T he t wo a xes w i th t he h ighes t l e ng th / th ickness r a t io v a lues ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .8e a nd F ig . 1 0 .9b ) a re a l so b o th l a rge a xes o f C umbr ian t ype , a nd t hey a re u nusua l ly t h in f o r t he ir l eng ths .
T he l a rger o f t hese t wo i mp lemen t s i sY orks . 3 89 , a nd i th as b een s een
b ef ore a s as pe c imen i n t he n ea r -sou rce s amp le .
T he sma l ler o f t he t wo i mp lemen ts i s
L in cs . 3 6 , a n a xe t ha t Manby ( 1965 :34 ) h as d escr ibed a s " th in a nd s l ender ." A l though a c ons iderab le r ange o f v ar iab i l i ty i n w id th a nd t h ickness measuremen t s c an b e o bserved among t he l a rge a xes o f G roup V I , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t i n t he p roduc t ion o f t hese u nusua l s pec imens , t he f ea tu res o f n arrowness o r t h inness w ere emphas ized i n o rder t o e nhance t he v i sua l d i st in c t iveness , a nd t hus t he v a lue , o ft he i mp lemen t s .
1T he s i ng le e normous a xe o ft h is mat er ia l i se xc luded f r om t hese f i gures a nd t he f o l l ow ing a na lys is b ecause t here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t i ti s au n ique s pec imen i n t e rms o f t he r es t o ft he s amp le .
2 68
On t he s catt er p l ot o f l eng th v s . l eng th / th ickness r at io v a lues ( F ig . 1 0 .9b ) , t wo a dd i t iona l i mp lemen t s w ith l eng th / th ickness r at ios t ha t a re u nusua l ly h igh f o r t he ir l eng ths a re r epresen ted .
B o th o f t hese a re r e la t ive ly sma l l s pec imens .
T he l a rger o f t he
t wo , Men. 1 3 ( F ig " . 1 0 .2b ) , e xh ib it s t he a symmet r ic s hape o fa n a dze , a nd i t s s i ze i nd icates t ha t i t was
p roduced
t hrough
r e -work ing
a l a rger
i mp lemen t .
T he
sma l ler
o ne ,
Y orks . 6 35 , a l so a ppears t o b e a much r e -worked s pec imen .1 B ecause b o th o f t hese i mp le ments a re v ery t h in , t hey a l so h ave u nusua l ly h igh w idth / th ickness r a t ios .
I n f a ct ,
t hey e xh ib i t t he s econd a nd t h ird h ighest w id th / th ickness r a t ios o f a l l t he G roup V I a xes ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .8f a nd F ig . 1 0 .9c ) , a nd Men. 1 3 a l so e xh ib it s t he h ighes t c ross -sect ion r a t io ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .8 i a nd F ig . 1 0 .9d ) .2 T he i mp lemen t w i th t he h ighes t w idth / th ickness r a t io a nd t he s econd h ighest c ross s ect ion r at io ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .8 i a nd F ig . 1 0 .9d ) i sC ambs . 9 9 ( F ig . 1 0 .2c ) .
T h is i s at i ny a xe
t ha t r ese mb les s o me sma l l j ade a xes s o c l ose ly i n s i ze , s hape , f i n ish , a nd e ven c o lor t ha t t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t i t was d e l iberate ly p roduced a s ac opy o f aj ade a xe .3 A s s uch , i t may h ave b een r egarded a s av a luab le o b ject a nd u sed f o r c eremon ia l p urposes . However , d amage t ot he b lade o ft h is i mp lemen tr a ises t he q uest ion o f whether i t may a l so h ave h ad a u t i l i tar ian f unct ion . R eturn ing t o more g enera l c ons idera t ions , ac orre la t ion ma tr ix o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r 3 92 c o mp le te G roup V I a xes f o r wh ich a l l o ft hese measuremen ts a re a va i lab le ( F ig . 1 0 .10 ) i nd ica tes s t rong r e la t ionsh ips among many o ft he v ar iab les . I n p ar t i cu lar , c orre lat ions g rea ter t han + .95 c an b e o bserved b etween max imum w idth a nd
' Th is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing . 2T he c ross -sect ion r at io o f Y orks . 6 35 c ou ld n o t b e c a lcu lated f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing . 3I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t h is a xe was p roduced b y r e -work ing a d amaged o r b roken l a rger a xe a nd t ha t t h is t ook p lace i n t he s ame g enera l a rea where t he i mp lemen t was f ound . T h is i s s ugges ted b y t he f a ct t ha t an umber o f v ery sma l l j ade a xes h ave b een f ound i n Eas t Ang l ia , b u t n one h ave b een f ound f ur ther n or th t oward t he G roup V I s ource a rea .
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c ent er w idth a nd b e tween max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h i ckness , i nd i ca t ing t ha t t he v ar iab les i n t hese p a irs a re e ssen t ia l ly r edundan t measures o f t he s ame a spect s o f a xe s i ze . I n a dd i t ion , ac orre la t ion o f + .86 c an b e s een b e tween t he w id th / th i ckness r a t io a nd t he c ross -sec t ion r a t io , i nd ica t ing a h igh d eg ree o f r edundancy b e tween t hese v ar iab les i n r ef lec t ing c ross -sec t iona l s hape o f t he a xes .
On t he b as is o f t hese s t rong c orre la t ions , t he
v ar iab les o f c en ter w id th , c ent er t h i ckness , a nd c ross -sec t ion r a t io w ere om i t t ed f r om s ub s equen t s tages o ft he a na lys is .' N ex t , ap r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is was p erf ormed o n t he s i x r e ma in ing s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les i n o rder t o i d en t ify t he ma jor d imens ions o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among t hese a xes .
T h is a na lys is ( Tab le 1 0 .1 ) y ie lded t wo s i gn if i can t c o mponen t s .
T he
f i rs t o ft hese r ef le c ts v ar iab i l i ty i n o vera l l s i ze a nd i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew , wh i le t he s econd r ef lec t s v ar iab i l i ty i n r e la t ive t h ickness . A h i stog ram o f t he c o mponen t s cores o f t he f i rs t p r inc ipa l c o mponen t ( F ig . 1 0 .11a ) i sv ery s im i lar t o t he h i s tog ram o fl e ng th measuremen t s ( c f . F ig . 1 0 .8a ) . I ti sc l ear ly mu lt i -moda l a nd i nd ica tes t he p resence o fs evera l s i ze c l asses among t he a xes i n t h is s amp le .
Ah i s tog ram o f t he c o mponen t s c ores o f t he s econd p r in -
c i pa l c o mponen t ( F ig . 1 0 .11b ) i s n o t o bv ious ly mu l t i -moda l .
A s ca t ter p l o t o f t he c om -
p onen t s cores o ft he t wo s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponent s ( F ig . 1 0 .12 ) g i ves n o c l ue t o c l as s es o fa xes t ha t may b e p resen t i nt h is s amp le . A l though i ti sb ecom ing i n creas ing ly c l ear t ha t t he ma jor d imens ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I i so ne o f g enera l s i ze a nd t ha t a xes o f s evera l moda l s i ze c l asses a re p resen t i n t h is s amp le , t he p oss ib i l i ty r e ma ins t ha t o ther morpho log i ca l c l asses o f a xes m igh t b e p resen t wh ich h ave n o t y e t b een r evea led i n t he h i s tog rams o r s ca t ter p l ot s . I n o rder t o i nves t iga t e t h is p oss ib i l i ty , ac l ust er a na lys is wa s c arr ied o u t o n
1B y om i t t ing t he " center" v a r iab les a nd r eta in ing t he "max imum" o nes , f o r ty -f our more a xes f o r wh ich o ne o r more o f t he " cent er" measuremen t s a re u nknown c ou ld b e i n c luded i nt he n ex t s tage o ft he a na lys is .
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ar andom s amp le o f o ne h undred G roup V I a xes ,' u s ing t he c o mponen t s cores o f t he t wo s i gn if i can t c o mponents a s t he d ata .
Aga in , t he m in imum v ar iance a lgor i thm a nd t he
E uc l idean d i stance measure w ere u sed , a nd t he t wo v ar iab les w ere w e ighted a ccord ing t o t he ir e i genva lues i nt he p r inc ipa l c o mponen ts a na lys is . T he d endrog ram p roduced i n t he c l uster a na lys is o f G roup V I a xes i sp resent ed i n F ig . 1 0 .13 .
T he f i rst ma jor i n crease i n t he d i stances a t wh ich l i nkages o ccurred i n t h is
a na lys is ( i . e . , f r om 2 2 .249 t o 6 0 .631 ) i nd icat es t ha t f i ve s i gn if i can t c l usters o f G roup V I a xes c an b e d ef ined .
T hese f i ve c l us ters a re r epresented o n s cat ter p l ots o f l e ng th v s .
w idth a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measurement s i n F ig . 1 0 .14 , a nd s ummary d escr ipt ions o f t he a xes i n e ach c l uster a re p resen ted i n T ab le 1 0 .2 .
Axes r epresenta t ive o f e ach o f t he
f i ve c l us ters a re i lustrated i n F ig . 1 0 .15 .2 Among t he f i ve c l usters r evea led b y t he c l uster a na lys is a re g enera l s i ze c l asses o f l a rge a nd v ery l a rge a xes ( c lus ters 4 a nd 5 , r espect ive ly ) a nd t hree g roups o f sma l l a xes ( c lus ters 1 ,2 ,a nd 3 ) . Among t he sma l l a xes , t hose i nc l uster 1a re o n a verage l a rger t han t hose i n c l ust ers 2 a nd 3 ( s ee T ab le 1 0 .2 ) .
T he a xes i n t he l a t ter t wo g roups a re v ery
s im i lar i n l eng th a nd w idth , b u t t he f ew s pec imens i n c l us ter 3 a re a bso lu te ly a nd r e la t i ve ly t h inner t han t he more a bundan t i mp lemen ts i n c l us ter 2 ( c f . T ab le 1 0 .2 a nd F ig . 1 0 .14b ) . T he p a t tern o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes i n g enera l t ha t h as b een r evea led b y t he c l us ter a na lys is o f as amp le o ft hose a xes i sv ery s im i lar t o t he p a t t e rn t ha t was o bserved among t he a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , a nd i n terpreta t ion o f t h is p a t tern c an f o l low t he s ame l i nes . T hus , t he l a rge a nd v ery l a rge a xes c an b e i n t er -
' Perf orm ing a c l uster a na lys is o n t he t o ta l n umber o f a xes t ha t w ere i n c luded i n t he p r inc ipa l c o mponen ts a na lys is was n ot f eas ib le d ue t o t he v ast amoun t o fc o mpu ta t ion t ha t w ou ld h ave b een i nvo lved . 2N one o f t he v ery l a rge a xes i n t h is s amp le ( c luster 5 ) c ou ld b e i lust ra ted b ecause p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n a l l o f t hem . H owever , av ery l a rge a xe t ha t was n ot i n c luded i nt he r ando m s amp le , b u t was measured a nd d rawn b y me , i si lust ra ted i nF ig . 1 0 .15 .
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p re t ed a s i mp lemen t s o f t he s i zes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced i n t he s ource a rea .1 T he l a rge a xes ( c lust er 4 ) c or respond w i th t he sma l les t o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes i n t he n ear s ou r ce s amp le a nd c an b e i n terpret ed a s p r imar i ly , i fn o t e x c lus ive ly , u t i l itar ian t o o ls . T he g roup o f v ery l a rge a xes ( c lus ter 5 ) i n c ludes a xes s im i lar i n s i ze t o s pec imens i n t he t wo g roups o f l a rger o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes i n t he n ear -sour ce s amp le .
T hese i mp lemen t s
s eem l i ke ly t o h ave b een r egarded a s more v a luab le t han t he sma l ler o nes a nd c onse q uent ly , u sed l e ss f o r u t i l i tar ian t asks a nd more f o r c eremon ia l p urposes . T he t h ree g roups o f sma l l a xes r evea led b y t he c l uster a na lys is c an b e i n terpre ted a s i n c lud ing p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens .
T he a symmet r i ca l s hapes o f many o f t hese
a xes a t tes tt ot h is . T he l a rger a xes i nc l us ter 1c an b e t hough t o fa s r epresen t ing a n i n t er med ia te s tage i n t he r e -work ing t ra jec tory o fG roup V I a xes , wh i le t he sma l ler s pe c imens i nc l usters 2a nd 3 p robab ly r ef lec t t he s i zes a t wh ich G roup V I a xes w ere r egarded a s n o l onger u sefu l a nd w ere d i scarded o r n ot s ough t i fl o st .
T he d iv i s ion o f t he sma l les t a xes
i n to g roups o f t h i cker a nd t h inner s pec imens p robab ly r ef lec ts t he r esu l t s o f r e -work ing a xes t ha t h ad b een d amaged o r b roken i n d if eren t ways .
T ha t t hese t wo g roups a re n o t
t he r esu l t o fr e -work ing a xes i nd if eren t l o ca l a reas i sd emon st ra ted b y t he f a c t t ha t a xes i ne a ch c l ass a re f ound i nt he s ame a rea s ( F ig . 1 0 .16 ) . F or t he r e ma inder o f t h is i nves t iga t ion i n t o morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s tr ibu t i on o f G roup V I a xes , t he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h ree g roups o f sma l l a xes i sn o t n ecessary . Wh i le t he r e cogn i t ion o f ag enera l c l ass o f p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes i s i mpor tan t , t he d eg ree o f r e -work ing o f i mp lemen t s w i th in t h is c l ass c an b e a ssessed o n t he b as is o f s i ze a l one .
I n a dd i t ion t o ag enera l c l ass o f sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes , t he c l asses o f
l a rg e , p r imar i ly u t i l itar ian , o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a xes a nd v ery l a rge , p erhaps p r ima r i ly c eremon ia l , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes w i l l p lay i mpor tan t r o les i n s ubsequen t s tages o ft h is e nqu iry .
1H owever , i nd iv idua l a xes w i th in t hese g roups may h ave b een r educed f r om t he ir o r ig ina l s i zes t hrough r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing .
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T he a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes t ha t h a s b een o u t l i ned a bove h as r evea led t ha t a xes o f t he t hree ma jor s i ze c l asses c an b e d i s t ingu ished l a rge ly o n t he b as is o f l e ng th .
I n t he c l uster a na lys is o f ar andom s amp le o f G roup V I
a xes , v ery l a rge a xes w ere a l l g rea ter t han 2 05 mm i n l eng th wh i le l a rge a xes w ere a l l l e ss t han 1 77 mm i n l e ng th .
R eturn ing t o t he h i st og ram o f l eng th measuremen t s o f a l l
G roup V I a xes ( F ig . 1 0 .8a ) , ac l ear b reak i n t he d i s tr ibu t ion c an b e s een a t 2 00 mm . T heref ore , f o r t he r e ma inder o f t h is i nvest igat ion , G roup V I a xes 2 00 mm i n l eng th o r l onger w i l l b e c l ass if ied a s v ery l a rge a xes . Ad iv is ion b e tween t he l a rge a nd sma l l a xes i sl e ss o bv ious . I n t he c l uster a na lys is , a l l l a rge a xes w ere 1 42 mm i n l eng th o r l onger , wh i le n o sma l l a xe was l o nger t han 1 32 mm . H owever , i n t he d i scuss ion o f a xes i n t he n ear -source s amp le , i t was s uggest ed t ha t most a xes l e ss t han a bou t 1 50 mm i n l eng th h ave p robab ly b een r e -sharpened o r r e w orked .
S ince t he a xes t ha t w ere i n c luded i n t he c l ust er a na lys is w ere d rawn f r om t he
e nt ire s amp le o fG roup V I a xes , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he sma l ler s pec imens t ha t a ppeared i n t he c l uster o f l a rge a xes may b e o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes t hat h ave b een m in ima l ly r e s harpened a t l onger d i stances f r om t he s ource .
T heref ore , f o r s tages o f t h is a na lys is i n
wh ich a d i st inct ion b etween c l asses o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd sma l l , r e s harpened o r r e -worked a xes must b e made , i tw i l l b e a ssumed t ha t a xes 1 50 mm i n l eng th o r l onger a re o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd a xes l e ss t han 1 50 mm i n l e ng th a re r e s harpened o r r e -worked .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D ist r ibu t ion
I n t he g enera l a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I , i t was o bserved t ha t a xes o f aw ide r ange o f s i zes w ere f ound b oth n ear t he s ource a nd i n a reas f urther away .
B ef ore i nvest iga t ing s pa t ia l p at tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a s i tr e la tes t o
p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i str ibut ion f o r t he g enera l s amp le o f G roup V I a xes , p at t erns o f
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morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om s pec if i c c ontex ts o f d epos it ion must b e c on s i dered .
Axes f r om S pec if i c C on texts o fD epos i t ion
Ac ons iderab le n umber o f a xes o f G roup V I c an b e a t tr ibuted t o s pec if i c c on texts o f d epos it ion ( Tab le 1 0 .3 ) .1 T hese a xes h ave b een f ound i n a l l o f t he s pec if i c c ontexts t ha t h ave b een i d ent if ied a s r e levan t t o t h is i nvest igat ion :
o ccupa t ion s i tes , b ur ia l /r i tua l s i tes ,
a ssoc ia t ions o fa xes , a nd t he R iver T hames .
O ccupa t ion C ontext s A t o ta l o f f i f teen c o mp let e G roup V I a xes c an b e a t t r ibuted t o o ccupat ion s i tes o r g enera l a reas o f a pparent ly i n tense p reh istor ic o ccupa t ion .
O f t he o nes f o r wh ich l e ng th
measurements a re a va i lab le , o n ly o ne i sl onger t han 2 00 mm a nd f a l ls i nt he c l ass o fv ery l a rge a xes .
T he o ther a xes a re a l l s hor ter t han 1 20 mm a nd s o mus t s ure ly b e r e -
s harpened o r r e -worked s pec imens .
R e la t ionsh ips o f t he s i zes o f G roup V I a xes f r om
o ccupa t ion c on texts t o t he s i zes o f o ther G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g enera l a reas w i l l b e c ons idered p roceed ing f r om t he G roup V I s ource a rea t o a reas f ur ther away . I n t h is d ata s et , t he G roup V I a xe f ound c l oses t t o t he s ource 2 i s L ancs . 1 .3 T h is v ery sma l l i mp lement was f ound d ur ing e xcavat ions a t t he S andh i 1 1 S i te o n Wa lney I s land . T he s i ze o f t h is a xe s uggest s t ha t i t may h ave b een u sed i n sma l l -sca le w oodwork i ng a ct iv it ies o n t he s i te , o r s imp ly d i scarded a t t he e nd o f au sefu l l i f e . T h is i st he o n ly c o mp le te G roup V I a xe f ound i n g r id s quare # 133 , a nd i ti st he sma l les t o f t he c o mp let e G roup V I a xes i n my s amp le t ha t w ere f ound w ith in 1 00 km o ft he s ource ( s ee F ig . 1 0 .5 ) .
•
However , i n t e rms o ft he t o ta l n umber o fc o mp let e G roup V I a xes i n t h is s amp le ( 628 ) , t he p ercentage o fa xes f r om s pec if i c c on texts o fd epos i t ion i sv ery sma l l ( 8 .1% ) . 1
20 ther a xes o f G rea t L angda le mater ia l h ave b een f ound a t t he s i te o f Ehens ide T arn , o n ly 2 7 km f r om t he G roup V I s ource a rea ( Darb ish ire 1 874 ; Manby 1 965 :27 ) . However , t h is s i te i so uts ide t he g eog raph ica l l im it s o ft h is i nvest iga t ion . 3N ot
i lustra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
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Another G roup V I a xe , D erby . 3 6 , was r ecovered d ur ing e xcava t ions a t t he F oxho le C ave s i t e i n t he P eak D istr ict ( Hawke -Sm i th 1 979 :114 ) .
I t was f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith
P eterborough p ot t ery a nd s t ra t if ied b enea th a r ubb le f l oor o n wh ich B eaker s herds w ere f ound ( i b id . ) .
Unf or tuna te ly , t h is a xe i s i n p r iva te h ands a nd a p etro logy r e cord c ard
d raw ing o fi t was n ot a va i lab le , s o i t s measurement s a re n ot i n c luded i nt h is d a ta s e t . I n L inco lnsh ire , f i ve c o mp le te G roup V I a xes w ere f ound a t B ag rnoor a nd R oxby c um -R isby , i n a n a rea t ha t s eems t o h ave b een t he f o cus o f f a ir ly i n tens ive N eo l ith ic o ccupa t ion a nd a ct iv i ty .
One o f t hese a xes i s v ery l a rge wh i le t he r est a re sma 1 1 .1 A
c o mpar ison o f t he mean l e ng th o f t hese f i ve a xes a nd t he mean l e ng th o ft he o ther G roup V I a xes i n t he s ame g r id s quare ( Tab le 1 0 .4a ) i nd icates t ha t t hey a re n o t s ta t ist ica l ly d i f f e ren t .
T h is r esu lt s uggests t ha t i n a reas o f g enera l ly i n tense p reh istor ic a c t iv i ty , s i g -
n if i cant v ar iab i l ity b etween s i zes o f a xes d epos i ted i n o n -s it e a nd o f f -s ite c on tex ts w i l l n ot b e s een . T he e xp lanat ion f o r t h is s eems l i ke ly t ob e t ha t i ns uch a reas t here w i l l b e n ear ly a s g rea t al i ke l ihood f o r a xes l o st o f s i tes t ob e r ecovered a nd r e -used , a s f o r a xes l o st o n s i tes , s o t he s i zes o fa xes t hat a re d i scarded o r r e ma in l o s t i nb oth c on text s w i l l b e s im i lar . F urther s outh i n L e ices tersh ire , t wo c o mp le te G roup V I a xes h ave b een c o l lected o n t he I r on Age h i l lf or t s i te o f B reedon -on -the -H i l l .2
Whether t h is was a l so t he s i te o f
Neo l ith ic o ccupa t ion i su nknown , a s o n ly l im i ted e xcava t ion o f t he d ef enses , a nd n one i n t he i n t er ior o f t he 2 3 a cre h i l lf or t , h as t aken p lace ( Wacher 1 964 ) .
However , i ti s w e l l
k nown t ha t I r on Age h i l lf orts w ere o f ten b u i l t o n s i tes o f Neo l ith ic o ccupa t ion ,3 s o i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t hese t wo a xes w ere l o st i n a Neo l ith ic o ccupat ion c ont ext .
T h is i sf ur ther
s ugges ted b y ac o mpar ison o ft he s i zes o ft hese a xes w i th t he s i zes o fo ther G roup V I a xes
1N one o f t hese a xes a re i lust rated h ere b ecause p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings were r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d ata o n a l l o ft hem . 2N e ither o f t hese a xes i s i lustrated h ere b ecause p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n b oth o ft hem . 3F am i l iar e xamp les i n c lude Ma iden C ast le a nd Hamb ledon H i l l , D orse t , a nd C r i ck l ey H i l l , G loucestersh i re .
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f ound i nt h is g r id s quare ( Tab le 1 0 .4b ) .
B ecause t he v ar iances o f t hese t wo g roups o fa xes
a re n o t e qua l , at e st o f e qua l ity o f t he means c annot b e made .
H owever , i tc an b e n oted
t ha t t he t wo a xes f r om B reedon -on the -H i l l a re t he sma l lest o nes f ound i n t he g r id s quare , a nd t he ir l eng ths l i e o u ts ide o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 62 .33 ) o ft he mean l eng th o ft he o ther a xes . Another G roup V I a xe was f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions a t A ldw inc le , n ear T hrapst on , N or thamptonsh ire , i n wha t a ppears t o h ave b een a r ectangu lar s t ructure o f E ar ly N eo l i th ic d ate ( Sm ith 1 974 :34 ) .
I ti su nc lear whether t h is s t ructure was o ccupat iona l o r
mor tuary i n c haracter , s o i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t h is a xe may h ave b een r ecovered f r om a b ur ia l /r itua l c on tex t r a ther t han a n o ccupat ion c ontex t .
Unf or tuna te ly , Iwas n ot a b le t o
o bta in morpho log ica l d a ta f o r t h is i mp lemen t wh ich i si np r ivat e p ossess ion . F ina l ly , f i ve c o mp lete G roup V I a xes a re k nown f r om t wo g enera l a reas o f f a ir ly i n tens ive p reh ist or ic o ccupat ion a nd a ct iv i ty i n E as t Ang l ia :
t he Hockwo ld -cum -W i lt on /
F e l twe l l a rea o f Norf o lk , a nd West R ow F en , n ear M i ldenha l l , S uf f o lk .
A l l o f t hese a xes
a re sma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s , a nd o ne o f t hem , N orf . 1 65 , i s t he s econd sma l lest G roup V I a xe i n t he e n t ire d a ta s e t .
L ike L ancs . 1 ,t h is i mp le ment w ou ld h ave
b een o fl i t t le u se i nf o restry a nd may i n s tead h ave b een u sed i n sma l ler -sca le w oodwork ing a c t iv i t ies . A c o mpar ison o f t he mean l eng th o f t hese f i ve a xes w i th t he mean l eng th o f o ther G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare ( Tab le 1 0 .4c ) i nd icates t ha t a l though t he mean l eng th o ft he a xes f r om t he o ccupa t ion a reas i s sma l ler t han t he mean l eng th o ft he o ther a xes , t he d if eren t i sn ot s ta t ist ica l ly s i gn if i can t .
T h is r esu l t i sr em in iscen t o f t ha t
o b ta ined f o r t he L inco lnsh ire a xes , a nd t he e xp lana t ion i su ndoubted ly t he s ame . I n s ummary , a l though t he s amp le o f c o mp le te G roup V I a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c on t exts i s sma l l , a nd s o me o ft hese c ases a re p rob lemat ic , ac oup le o fo bserva t ions r e lat ing t o t he q uest ion o fd epos it ion o fd if eren t s i zes o fa xes i n d if eren t c ontexts c an b e made . The f i rst o f t hese i st ha t , i n g enera l , G roup V I a xes l o s t o n o ccupat ion s i tes t end t o b e r e la -
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t i ve ly sma l l .'
T h is i sp robab ly b ecause l a rger a xes wh i ch w ere l o s t i n s uch c on tex t s w i l l
h ave b een r ecovered a nd r eused . T he s econd o bserva t ion i s t ha t i n c o mpar isons o f t he s i zes o f a xes f ound o n s i tes w i th t he s i zes o f a xes f ound i n o f -s i t e c ont ex t s i n t he s ame a reas , t wo g enera l p a t tern s c an b e s een .
I n a reas o f f a ir ly i n t ense p reh ist or ic o ccupa t ion a nd a ct iv i ty ,2 t he s i zes o f
a xes f ound o n a nd o f fs i t es , i fs u ch ad i s t inct ion i se ven v a l id , w i l l t end t ob e s im i la r . T h is i sp robab ly d ue o s im i la r p a t terns o f p reh istor ic r ecovery a nd r e -use o f a xes i nb oth c on t ex t s a nd p e l fh aps s im i lar p a t t ern s o f a rchaeo log ica l c o l lect ing i n a reas where a r t ifact s a re k nown t o b e a bundan t . O n t he o ther h and , i n a reas o fg enera l ly l e ss i n tens ive p reh ist or i c o ccupa t ion a nd a c t iv i ty ,3 t he s i zes o f a xes f ound o n s i tes w i l l t end t o b e sma l ler t han t hose f ound o fs i t es . T h is i sp robab ly d ue t o l e ss t horough r ecovery i n o f f -s i te c ont ex t s i n p reh ist or i c t imes a nd p erhaps l e ss i n t ens ive a r chaeo log ica l c o l lec t ing i n s uch a reas i n modern t imes . I n t e rms o f a xe s i ze p a t t erns t ha t m igh t b e r e lat ed t o d i s t r ibu t ion p a t t erns a nd p rocesses , t hese s amp les o f G roup V I a xes f r om o ccupa t ion c ont ex ts a re t o o f ew f o r mean i ng fu l a na lys is .
B ur ia l /R i tua l C ont ex t s W i th in t he t o ta l d a ta s e t , o n ly s i x c omp le te G roup V I a xes a re k nown t o h ave b een r e covered f r om b ur ia l o r r i tua l c on tex t s .
A l l o f t he o nes f o r wh ich s i ze d a ta a re a va i lab le
a re sma l l , p resumab ly r e -worked i mp lemen t s .
' The mean l e ng th o f a l l o f t hese a xes i so n ly 1 01 .8 mm ; i ft he s i ng le v ery l a rge a xe f r om B agmoor i se x c luded f r om t he c a lcu la t ions , t he mean l eng th o f t he r e ma in ing a xes d rops t o 9 2 .5 mm . I n c on t ras t , t he mean l eng th o f a l l G roup V I a xes f o r wh i ch n o s pec if i c c ont ex t o f d epos i t ion i s k nown i s 1 23 .96 mm i f t he s i ng le e normous a xe i s i n c luded , 1 23 .30 mm i fi ti se xc luded . 2H ere e xemp l if ied b y t he H ockwo ld -cum -W i l ton /Fe l twe l l / Wes t R ow F en a rea o f E a st Ang l ia a nd t he B agmoor /R oxby -cum -R isby a rea o fL inco lnsh ire . 3H ere e xemp l if ied b y t he a rea a round B reedon -on -the -H i l l a nd t he a rea o f n or thwestern E ng land w i th in 1 00 km o f t he G roup V I s our ce t ha t was i n c luded i n t h is a na lys is .
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A xes o fG roup V I a re k nown f r om b ur ia l c ontex ts i nY orksh ire a nd D erbysh ire . T he o ne f ound c l oses t t o t he s ource was r ecovered f r om b arrow #V I I a t Me lmerby , n ear Wa th , i n Y orksh ire .
I ti s a sma l l , o bv ious ly r e -f laked i mp le men t .'
a xe i n t he g r id s quare .
I ti st he sma l les t G roup V I
I t s l eng th f a l ls w e l l o u t s ide o ne s tandard d ev iat ion ( 57 .85 ) o ft he
mean l e ng th ( 161 .0 mm ) o ft he o ther s i x G roup V I a xes f ound i nt he s ame a rea . I n D erbysh ire , a n a xe o f G roup V I was f ound b enea th a c a irn o n R ams ley Moor ( Hawke -Sm i th 1 979 :113 ) .
I n s uch a p os i t ion i tw ou ld b e d a ted t o a pprox imat e ly t he m id -
s econd m i l lenn ium b c , wh ich w ou ld b e av ery l a te c on tex t f o r aG roup V I a xe ( i b id ) . H owever , i th as a l so b een s uggest ed t ha t t h is i mp lemen t m igh t b e a n e ar l ier l o ss i n cor p ora ted i n to t he c a irn ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :63 ) .
Measuremen t s f o r t h is i mp lemen t
w ere n o t a va i lab le t o me a nd a re n o t i n c luded i nt h is d a ta s e t . Another a xe f r om D erbysh ire , f ound a t G reensea t s , M idd le ton a nd Smer r i l l , h ad t he n o ta t ion " f ound i n ab arrow" o n i t s p e t ro logy r ecord c a rd .
T h is i mp lemen t i st he s econd
sma l les t G roup V I a xe i n t he g r id s quare , a nd i ti s sma l ler t han t he mean l eng th ( 112 .19 mm ) o f t he o ther s i x teen G roup V I a xes i n t he s quare f o r wh i ch n o s pec if i c c on tex t o f d epos i t ion i s k nown .
H owever , i td oes f a l l w i th in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 50 .40 ) o f t ha t
mean . F ina l ly , t wo G roup V I a xes w ere f ound a ccompany ing c r ema t ion s i n b arrows o n S eamer Moor , Y orksh ire ( Manby 1 979 :80 ) .
B oth o f t hese a xes a re v ery sma l l a nd t hey
a re e a ch s hor ter t han t he mean l e ng th ( 103 .27 mm ) o f t he o ther f i f ty -n ine G roup V I a xes i n t he g r id s quare .
T he l a rger o ft he t wo a xes f a l ls w i th in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 29 .66 )
o f t ha t mean wh i le t he sma l ler o f t he t wo f a l ls o u ts ide o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion o f t ha t mean . I n s ummar iz ing t he e v iden ce o ft hese f ew c ases o fc o mp let e G roup V I a xes i nb ur ia l c ont ex t s , t here i sc er ta in ly n o i nd ica t ion o fs e lec t ion o fp ar t icu lar ly l a rge a xes t ob e p la ced w i th t he d ead . I ndeed , e a ch o ft hese a xes s eems t o b e g enera l ly s ma l ler t han t he a xes l o s t
1T h is
o bserva t ion i sb ased o n t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
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o r d i scarded i fo f -s it e c on tex t s i n t he s ame a rea .
T hese a xes f ound i n b ur ia l c on tex t s
s eem l i ke ly t o h ave b een s imp ly t he p ersona l p ossess ions o f t he d eceased a t t he t ime o f d ea th . T h is f i t s w e l l w i th t he g enera l t enden cy f o r N eo l i th i c b ur ia l g oods t ob e s car ce a nd o f u nexcep t iona l q ua l i ty ( Ashbee 1 970 ) .
I n t e rms o f a xe s i ze p a t terns t ha t m igh t b e
r e lat ed t o d i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns a nd p rocesses , t h is s amp le o f G roup V I a xes f r om b ur ia l c ont ex t s i st o o s ma l l f o r mean ingfu l a na lys is . T he o n ly c omp le t e G roup V I a xe f r om a s pec if i ca l ly r i tua l , a s o pposed t o ab ur ia l , c ont ex ti sC aer . 9 6 . T h is i mp lemen t was f ound b ur ied b lade d ownward a t " the i nner t o e o f t he b ank" o f H enge A a t L landega i , N or th Wa les ( Hou lder 1 976 :218 ) . T h is a xe i ss hor ter t han t he mean l e ng th ( 150 mm ) o f t he o ther t wo G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare . A l though i t s l e ng th l i es b etween t he l e ng ths ( 191 mm a nd 1 09 mm ) o f t hose t wo v ery d if eren t a xes , i ti s much c l oser t o t he s ma l ler o ne i n s i ze .
T hus , i tw ou ld s eem t ha t
f o r t he r i tua l p urpose t o wh ich t h is a xe wa s p u t , t here was n o a t temp t t o s e lec t ap a r t i cu la r ly l a rge i mp lemen t .
A sso c ia t ions o fA xes Among t he a xes i n t he t o ta l d a ta s e t a re n ine a ssoc ia t ions wh ich i n c lude c omp le te G roup V I a xes . O ft hese o n ly t wo c o mpr ise more t han t wo a xes . O ft he t h ir teen c o mp le te G roup V I a xes k nown f r om t hese a ssoc ia t ions , o n ly t wo c an b e d escr ibed a s v ery l a rge , a f u r ther t wo a re l a rge , wh i le t he o ther n ine a re sma l l . T he o n ly a ssoc ia t ion t ha t i n c ludes v ery l a rge G roup V I a xes i s t he N e therf ie ld h oard , f r om t he R iver T ren t a t N o t t ingham . G roup V I .
T h is h oard c ons is t s o f t hree a xes , a l l o f
T he mean l eng th o f t hese a xes s eems c ons iderab ly g rea t er t han t he mean
l e ng th o ft he o ther G roup V I a xes i n t he g r id s qua re , b u t at e s t o fe qua l i ty o ft hese means ( Tab le 1 0 .5a ) i nd i cat es t ha t t he d if erence i s n o t s ta t is t i ca l ly s i gn if i can t .
H owever , t h is
r e su l t s eems l i ke ly t ob e af unc t ion o f sma l l s amp le s i ze . A t Har t ing t on N e ther Quart er , N ewhaven , D erbysh ire , a n a xe o fG roup V I a nd o ne o fG roup Iw ere f ound a t t he s ame t ime , a l though t here i sn o d ef in i te p roof t ha t t hey w ere
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a sso c iat ed ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :61 ) .
T he G roup V I a xe i s s hor ter t han t he mean
l e ng th o f t he o ther s i xt een G roup V I a xes i n t he g r id s quare ( 122 .19 mm ) , b u t i tl i es w e l l w i th in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 50 .40 ) o ft ha t mean . One o f t he t hree a xes f ound t oge ther i n a g rave l p i t a t C ot t ingham C ommon , Y orksh ire ,
i s o f G roup
a ppa ren t ly d amaged .
V I ma t er ia l ( Manby
1 979 :81 ) .1
T h is i s a sma l l a xe a nd
I t i s s hor ter t han t he mean l eng th ( 116 mm ) o f t he o ther e l even
G roup V I a xes i n t he s ame g r id s qua re , b u t i tl i es w ith in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 22 .56 ) o f t ha t mean . T he r ema in ing G roup V I a xes f r om a sso c ia t ions w ere a l l f ound i n L in co lnsh ire .
I n
g r id s quare # 108 , c over ing t he w es tern p ar t o fc en t ra l L inco lnsh ire , t hree c o mp let e G roup V I a xes ( L incs . 6 ,L incs . 1 67 , a nd L in cs . 7 7 ) w ere f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th , r espec t ive ly , aG roup V I I a xe , a n u ng rouped a xe , a nd p ar t o f aG roup XX a xe .
T he mean l e ng th o f
t hese t hree G roup V I a xes i sn o t s ta t is t ica l ly d if eren t f r om t he mean l e ng th o f t he o ther t wen ty -e igh t G roup V I a xes f r om t he g r id s quare ( Tab le 1 0 .5b ) , a nd t he l e ng th o fe a ch l i es w i th in o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 47 .22 ) o ft he mean l eng th o ft he o thers . I n t he a d jacen t a rea o f c en t ra l L inco lnsh ire ( g r id s quare # 109 ) , t hree c o mp le te G roup V I a xes a re k nown f r om t wo s eparat e a sso c ia t ions .
Two o f t hese a xes ( L in cs . 3 8
a nd L incs . 4 2 ) w ere f ound t ogether wh i le t he t h ird ( L incs . 2 26 ) was a ppa ren t ly f ound w ith a n a xe o f u ng rouped g reenstone ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :255 ) . T he mean l e ng th o ft he t wo a xes f ound t ogether i sl a rger t han t he mean l e ng th o ft he o ther G roup V I a xes i n t he s qua re , b u t t he d if eren ce i sn ot s ta t is t ica l ly s i gn if i can t ( Tab le 1 0 .5c ) .2 T he l e ng th o f t he o ther G roup V I a xe p resumab ly f ound i na n a ssoc ia t ion i s sma l ler t han t he mean l eng th o f
1Man by ( 1979 :81 ) g ives t he i mpress ion t ha t t wo o f t hese a xes a re o f G roup V I . H owever , t he s econd o f t hese , Y orks . 1 53 , was p ub l ished ( Keen a nd R ad ley 1 971 ) a s a G roup V I I a xe , a nd t h is i d en t if i ca t ion h as b een c onf i rmed b y P a t r ic ia P h i l l ips ( p ers . c o mm . 5 /29 /80 ) . Is uspec t t ha tt he t h ird a xe i nt he t r io i so ff l in t . 2A ga in
t h is may b e af unct ion o f sma l l s amp le s i ze .
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t he o ther G roup V I a xes i n t he s quare , b u t i tf a l ls w e l l w i th in o ne s tanda rd d ev ia t ion ( 48 .22 ) o ft ha t mean . F ina l ly , a t Ewerby a nd E vedon , t wo G roup V I a xes w ere f ound t oge the r . T hese a re b o th sma l l a nd t he ir mean l eng th i s sma l ler t han t he mean l eng th o ft he o ther G roup V I a xes i nt he s quare , a l though t he d if erence i sn o t s ta t ist i ca l ly s i gn if i can t ( Tab le 1 0 .5d ) . I n s ummary , c o mpar isons b e tween t he s i zes o f G roup V I a xes f ound i na ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes a nd t he s i zes o fG roup V I a xes f ound i no f -s it e c ont ex t s i nt he s ame a reas h ave r evea led n o s ta t is t i ca l ly s i gn if i can t d if erences .
T hus , t he a xes t ha t w ere d epos i ted
t oge ther i n t hese a ssoc ia t ions a re o fg enera l ly t he s ame s i zes a s o ther a xes u sed , l o s t , a nd n o t r ecovered i n e ach a rea . T h is s uggest s t ha t mos t o ft hese a ssoc ia t ions s hou ld b e i n t er p ret ed a s s imp ly g roups o f a xes t ha t w ere l o s t o r d i scarded a t t he s ame t ime .
T he o n ly
l i ke ly e xcep t ion t o t h is i st he N e therf ie ld h oa rd , wh ich i st he o n ly a ssoc ia t ion c on ta in ing v ery l a rge a xes a nd t he o n ly o ne f r om wh i ch t he a xes e ven a pproa ch b e ing s i gn if i can t ly l a rger t han t he r est o f t he a xes i n t he g r id s quare .
B ecause o f t hese t wo f e a tures , t h is
a ssoc ia t ion w ou ld s eem t ob e t he mos t l i ke ly c and ida te among t he n ine f o r ah oard o f a xes b e ing t ranspor ted b e tween g roups f o r p urposes o fe xchange . I n t e rms o f a xe s i ze p a t terns t ha t m igh tb e r e la ted t o p rocesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion , l i t t le c an b e d et erm ined f r om t h is s amp le o f a xes f r om a ssoc ia t ions .
A l though a c ons iderab le
n umber o fG roup V I a xes h ave b een f ound i na ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes , a l l o ft hese h ave b een f ound i n t he s ame g enera l a rea o f n or thern E ng land w i th in a 7 3 km w ide d i stance b and l y ing b etween 1 72 km a nd 2 45 km f r om t he s our ce a rea . T hus , t he re i sn o t r ea l ly a s uff i c ien t s pa t ia l s pread o ft hese a xes f o r a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p at tern ing i ns i ze v ar iab i l i ty .
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T he R iver T hames A t o ta l o f s even t een G roup V I a xes i n t h is d ata s e t h ave b een r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames .
O ft hese , t wo a re v ery l a rge , s i x a re l a rge , a nd n ine a re s ma 1 1 . 1 Most o f
t hese w ere f ound i n t he L ondon a rea ( g r id s quare # 53 ) , wh i le a f ew w ere f ound f ur ther w es t i n B erksh ire ( g r id s quares # 52 a nd # 65 ) , a nd a c oup le a re u nprovenan ced b u t a pparent ly f r om t he L ondon a rea . I n c ompa r ing t he s i zes o fG roup V I a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames w i th t he s i zes o f o ther G roup V I a xes f ound i n e a ch o f t he ma jor g r id s quares ( Tab le 1 0 .6a ,b ) , n o s ta t is t ica l ly s i gn if i can t d i f f eren ces c an b e s een .
T h is r esu l t s eems a ccep tab le f o r g r id
s quare # 52 . H owever , f o r g r id s qua re # 53 i ts eems l e ss s o , i nv i ew o ft he f a c t t ha t o ft he t en a xes r ecovered f r om t he T hames , s even a re l onger t han o ne s tandard d ev ia t ion ( 16 .97 ) away f r om t he mean l e ng th o ft he o ther G roup V I a xes f ound i nt he s quare . I n c o mpar ing t he s i zes o f t he T hames a xes b e tween t he t wo g r id s quares ( Tab le 1 0 .6c ) , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he v ar iances o f t he t wo s amp les a re q u i te d if eren t , s o t ha t e qua l i ty o f t he means c anno t b e t e s ted .
I n c on t ras t , t he v ar iances a nd means o f t he G roup V I a xes f ound o n
l and i nt hese t wo s quares a re n o t s ta t ist i ca l ly d if eren t ( Tab le 1 0 .6d ) . T hese r esu lt s s eem t o s ugges t t ha t a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames , p a r t i cu lar ly t hose r ecovered f r om t he L ondon a rea , s hou ld b e r egarded a s as amp le f r om a d i f f e ren t p opu lat ion t han t he a xes f ound o n l and i n t he s ame a rea s . A s s uch , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he s i zes o f a xes r ecovered f r om t he T hames more n ear ly a pprox ima te t he s i zes o f a xes c arr ied b y p eop le u s ing t he T hames a s at ranspor t r out e t han d o t he s i zes o f a xes f ound o n l and , s i n ce t he l and s amp les may c on ta in l a rge p ropor t ions o f s ma l l , d i s carded a xes . I n t e rms o f a ssess ing s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty a s ar ef lect ion o fd i s t r ibu t ion p a t terns a nd p rocesses , b ecause o ft he a pparen t ly u n ique n a tu re o ft he s amp le o f
' Many o f t hese a xes a re i lus t ra ted i n C e lor ia 1 974 , S tan ley 1 976 , o r A dk ins a nd J a ckson 1 978 . S ee T ab le 1 0 .3 f o r t he s pec if i c r ef erences .
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a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames , t here i sr ea l ly n o c o mparab le s amp le w i th wh ich t hey c an b e c o mpared .
T he o n ly p oss ib le e xcep t ion m igh t b e t he N e therf ie ld h oard wh ich
was a l so r ecovered f r om a r i ver ine c on tex t .
I n ac o mpar ison o f t he mean l e ng th o f t he
a xes i n t h is h oard , f ound a t ad i s tance o f2 15 km f r om t he s our ce , w i th t he mean l e ng th o f t he T hames a xes i n t he L ondon a rea , f ound a t a n a verage d i s tan ce o f 3 83 .5 km f r om t he s ource , t he o rder ing o f t he means i si n t he p red ict ed d i rec t ion , b u t t he d if erence i sn o t s ta t is t ica l ly s i gn if i can t ( Tab le
1 0 .6e ) .
Aga in t h i s may b e d ue t o sma l l s amp le s i ze .
H owever , a s h as b een s een i n p rev ious c hapt ers , d i f f erences b e tween mean l e ng ths o fa xes a t d i f f eren t d i stances f r om t he s ource may b e q u i te sma l l , s o t ha t p red ict ed o rder ing o ft he means may b e a l l t ha t c an b e e xpected .
S ummary Ana lys is o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion h as y ie lded s o me i n teres t ing r esu l t s i nt e rms o ft he q uest ion o fd epos it ion o fd if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c on tex t s . H owever , i n t e rms o f a na lys is o fa xe s i ze p at terns i nr e la t ion t o p a t t erns a nd p ro cesses o fd i s t r ibu t ion , sma l l s amp le s i ze a nd /or l im i ted g eog raph i ca l d i s tr ibu t ion o ft he s amp le h a s b een ama jor p rob lem . I n t e rms o f d epos i t ion o f d if eren t s i zes o f a xes i n d if eren t c on tex t s , t he p at terns o bserved i nt h is a na lys is a re v ery s im i lar t ot hose s een among a xes o fo ther g roups . T hus , G roup V I a xes f r om o c cupa t ion c on tex t s t end t o b e a lmos t e n t ire ly sma l l , r e -worked s pe c imens .
H ow t he s i zes o f t hese a xes c o mpare w i th t he s i zes o f o ther G roup V I a xes
f r om t he s ame g enera l a reas was s een t o d epend o n whe ther t he s pec if i c o ccupa t ion c on t ex t s w ere l o cat ed i na reas o fg enera l ly i n t ens ive p reh is tor i c o ccupa t ion o r i n a reas o fr e la t i ve ly u n in tens ive a c t iv i ty . Axes r ecovered f r om b ur ia l c on tex t s w ere a l so s ma l l , p robab ly s imp ly i mp lemen t s t he d eceased h ad o n h and a t t he t ime o fd ea th . Mu ch h as b een made o ft he s i gn if i can ce o f t he b ur ia l o f aG roup V I a xe a t t he L landega i h enge i n N or th Wa les i n t e rms o fe x change r e la t ionsh ips b e tween g roups i n t ha t a rea a nd i n t he G roup V I s ource a rea d ur ing t he
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L a ter N eo l i th ic ( e .g . , H ou lder 1 976 ) .
H owever , t he s i ze o f t h is a xe a nd t he s i zes o f t he
o ther G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g r id s quare ( s ee more b e low ) d o n o t p o in t t o a ny p ref eren t ia l movemen to fa xes o ft h is g roup t ot h is a rea . I n mos t c ases , G roup V I a xes f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th o ther a xes w ere s im i la r i n s i ze t o s i ng le G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he s ame g enera l a reas . T h is t ends t o i nd ica te t ha t mos to ft hese a ssoc ia t ions o fa xes s hou ld b e i n terpre ted a s s imp ly a xes t ha t w ere d epos i ted a t t he s ame t ime . I n c on t ras t , t he N etherf ie ld h oard c ons ist ing o ft wo v ery l a rge a xes a nd o ne sma l l a xe ( wh ich may , i n f a c t , b e a n o r ig ina l ly -produced a xe o f sma l ler s i ze ) may r epresen t a xes t ha t w ere b e ing t ranspor ted b e tween g roups f o r p urposes o f e xchange . A lthough t he d a ta w ere n o t a s c l ear cu t a s f o r o ther g roups , a xes r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames t ended t ob e l a rger t han a xes r e covered f r om l and c on tex t s i nt he s ame a reas . A s s amp les o fa xes l o s t i nr i ver ine c on tex t s , t he a xes f r om t he N e therf ie ld h oard a nd f r om t he R iver T hames w ere c o mpared i n t e rms o f mean l e ng th a nd t he p red i c ted p a t tern o f d ecrease i n a xe s i ze w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource was s een .
H owever , f o r
f ur ther i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup V I a xes i n r e la t ion t o p a t t erns a nd p rocesses o f d i s tr ibu t ion , i ti s n ecessary t o l o ok a t t he o ther 9 2% o ft he G roup V I a xes f o r wh i ch n o s pec if i c c on tex to fd epos i t ion i sk nown .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
I n t he a na lys is o fg enera l p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup V I , i t was n o ted t ha t a xes o f aw ide r ange o fs i zes w ere f ound b o th n ea r t he s ource a nd i n a rea s f ur ther away . T h is p a t t ern c an b e s een i n as ca t ter p l o t o ft he l e ng ths o fG roup V I a xes f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c on tex t o f d epos i t ion i sk nown a ga inst d i s tance f r om t he s ource ( F ig . 1 0 .17 ) .
F rom t h is p l o t , i ti sc l ear t ha t a xes o fv i r tua l ly a l l s i zes h ave b een f ound a t
a l l d i s tances f r om t he s our ce . I n a dd i t ion , t he b reak a round 2 00 mm b e tween v ery l a rge , p erhaps p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes a nd sma l ler , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes c an b e s een a t a l l d i stances f r om t he s ource . Among t he a xes l e ss t han 2 00 mm i nl eng th , t he b reak a round
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1 50 mm b e tween t he l a rger , o r ig ina l ly -produced a xes a nd t he sma l ler , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes i sd i scernab le , b u t i ti sl e ss o bv ious t han t he b reak b etween t he v ery l a rge a nd l a rge a xes . Among t he v ery l a rge a xes , ad ecrease i n max imum l eng th w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource i sc l ear ly v i s ib le o n t h is p l ot .
H owever , among t he sma l ler a xes , n o p a t -
t e rn o fa xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i nr e la t ion t od i stance f r om t he s ource i sa pparen t . B ecause p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes w i l l n ot b e s ub ject t o t he p rocesses o f u se , d amage , r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing ,
a nd r educt ion i n s i ze t o t he s ame e xten t a s
p r imar i ly u t i l itar ian a xes , d if erent p at terns o f a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i n r e la t ion t o d i s tance f r om t he s ource may b e e xpec ted f o r a xes o f t hese t wo g enera l t ypes .
T heref ore , f o r f u r -
t her i nves t iga t ion o f s i ze p a t tern ing among a xes o f G roup V I i n r e lat ion t o p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f e xchange , t he s i zes o f t he v ery l a rge a xes w i l l b e c ons idered s epara te ly f i rs t , f o l lowed b y t he s i zes o ft he sma l ler a xes . F ina l ly , ac o mpar ison o fp at terns o f d i str ibu t ion o ft hese t wo ma jor c l asses o fa xes w i l l b e p resen ted . T he mean l e ng ths i n 5 0 km g r id s quares o f G roup V I a xes o ver 2 00 mm i n l e ng th f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c ontex t o fd epos it ion i sk nown a re s hown i n r e lat ion t o d i stance f r om t he s ource i n F ig . 1 0 .18 . N o o bv ious d i rect iona l r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a xe s i ze a nd d i s tance f r om t he s ource c an b e s een o n t h is p l ot .
A c orre la t ion b etween t he t wo v ar iab les o f
—. 1170 i nd icat es a s l igh t b u t i n s ign if i can t t endency f o r mean l e ng th o ft he v ery l a rge a xes t o d ecrease w ith i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource .
T h is i se xa ct ly t he s ort o f p at t ern
t ha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o r esu l t f r om g roup -t o -g roup e xchange o f c eremon ia l a xes . B ecause s uch a xes a re n ot u sed , d amaged , a nd r epea ted ly r e -sharpened o r r e -worked l i ke more o rd inary u t i l i tar ian a xes , n o s i gn if i can t d ecrease i n mean l eng th w i th i n creas ing d i s t ance f r om t he s ource s hou ld b e s een among t hem . T he mean l e ng th i n 5 0 km g r id s quares o f G roup V I a xes l e ss t han 2 00 mm i n l eng th f o r wh ich n o s pec if i c c on tex t o fd epos i t ion i sk nown a re s hown i nr e la t ion t od i stance f r om t he s ource i n F ig . 1 0 .19 .
A t endency t oward g radua l d ecrease i n mean l eng th o f
t hese a xes w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource c an b e s een o n t h is p l ot , a nd ac orre la -
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t i on b e tween t he t wo v ar iab les o f — .3943 , s i gn if i can t a t t he . 05 l e ve l , c onf i rms t h is r e la t ionsh ip .
T h is i se xac t ly t he s or t o f p a t t ern t ha t i se xpect ed t o r esu l t f r om g roup -t o -
g roup e x change o fp r imar i ly u t i l i ta r ian a xes mov ing o u tward f r om t he s our ce . B ef ore t h is p a t t ern o fa xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty c an b e i nves t igat ed f ur ther , t he p rob lem o f t he e f f ect s o f d if eren t i n tens i t ies o f p reh i stor i c a c t iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lec t ing o n t he s i zes o f a xes d epos i ted a nd r e covered i n d if eren t a reas mus t b e c ons idered .
I n p rev ious
c hapt ers , as i gn if i can t n ega t ive c orre la t ion b e tween t he mean l e ng th o f a xes o f t he g roup i nq uest ion a nd t he c orrect ed t o ta l -number o f s t one a xes k nown f r om e a ch g r id s quare h as b een t aken a s a n i nd i ca tor o f t he i nf luence o f t hese f a c tors .
I n t h is c ase , ac o rre la t ion o f
—. 2607 c an b e s een b e tween t he mean l e ng ths o f G roup V I a xes l e ss t han 2 00 mm i n l e ng th a nd t he c o rrec ted t o ta l n umbers o fs t one a xes i n t he g r id s quares . T h is c orre la t ion i sn o t s i gn if i can t a t e ven t he . 05 l e ve l .
T hus , f o r t h is g roup o f a xes , a s was t he c ase f o r
G roup V I I , t he f a ct ors o f i n tens i ty o f p reh istor i c a ct iv i ty a nd i n t ens i ty o f a rchaeo log i ca l c o l lec t ing d o n o t s eem t oh ave a s i gn if i can t g enera l i nf luence o n t he o bserved s i zes o f a xes i n t he g r id s qua res . H owever , a s wa s a l so s een i n t he c ase o fG roup V I I , a pparen t e f ec t s o ft hese f a c tors c an b e o bserved i ns pec if i c l o ca l a rea s . T he g enera l p a t tern o fd ecrease i n mean l eng th o fG roup V I a xes l e ss t han 2 00 mm i n l e ng th w i th i n creas ing d i stance f r om t he s ource t ha t i ss een i n F ig . 1 0 .19 c an b e i nves t i ga ted f ur ther b y a t temp t ing t o f i t t he w e l l -known d i s tance d ecay mode ls t o t he d a ta , u s ing mean a xe l e ng th a s t he d ependen t v ar iab le a nd d i s tance f r om t he s our ce a s t he i ndependen tv ar iab le . T he r esu l t s o ft h is e xerc ise a re p resen t ed i nT ab le 1 0 .7 where i tc an b e s een t ha t t he d oub le log p a ret o mode l i st he b es t -f i t t ing o ft he s i x . T he r e s idua ls f r om t h is r eg ress ion w ere s aved s o t ha t t he i r s pa t ia l p a t tern ing c ou ld b e i nves t iga ted f o r e v idence o f p ref eren t ia l e xchange o f a xes t o c er ta in a reas o r o ther d epar tu res f r om t he p os tu la ted g enera l p a t tern o fg roup to -g roup e x change o fa xes o u tward f r om t he s ource . T he d i st r ibu t ion o f mean l e ng ths o f G roup V I a xes l e ss t han 2 00 mm i n l e ng th i n t he i r r espect ive g r id s qua res i ss hown i nF ig . 1 0 .20 . On t h is map t he g enera l t endency f o r
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mean a xe l e ng th t o b e g reater n ear t he s ource a nd sma l ler f ur ther away c an b e s een . H owever , an umber o f d epartures f r om t h is g enera l p a t tern a re a l so a pparent , a nd t hey a re e choed o n a map o fr es idua ls f r om t he b est -f i t t ing d i stance d ecay mode l ( F ig . 1 0 .21 ) b y u nusua l ly h igh p os it ive o r l ow n ega t ive v a lues . On t he maps p resented i nF ig . 1 0 .20 a nd F ig . 1 0 .21 , i tc an b e s een t ha tt he g rea test mean l eng th o f t he G roup V I a xes a nd t he h ighest p os i t ive r es idua l v a lue a re f ound i n N or th Wa les , i n t he s ame g r id s quare ( #104 ) i n wh ich t he s ource o f G roup V I I a xes i s l o cated . A t f i rst g lance , t h is e v idence m igh t b e i n terpre ted a s i nd icat ing p ref eren t ia l move men t o fG roup V I a xes f r om t he s ource a rea d own t he w est c oast o fn or thern E ng land t o N or th Wa les . H owever , t hese f i gures r ef lect t he l e ng ths o fo n ly t wo G roup V I a xes , ar e la t i ve ly l a rge o ne ( L = 1 91 mm ) a nd a v ery sma l l o ne ( L = 1 09 mm ) .
T h is i s a sma l ler
n umber o f G roup V I a xes t han h as b een f ound i n a ny o f t he g r id s quares t o t he e ast o r n or th .
F ur thermore , n o v ery l a rge a xes o f G roup V I h ave b een f ound i n t h is a rea ( s ee
b e low ) .
On t he b as is o ft he a va i lab le e v idence o fb oth s i ze a nd a bundance o ft he G roup V I
a xes i n t h is g r id s quare , Ib e l ieve t ha t t he r e la t ive ly h igh mean l eng th c an b es t b e i n ter p ret ed a s a n a noma ly r e lat ed t o sma l l s amp le s i ze , r a ther t han a r ef lect ion o fp ref eren t ia l movemen t o fG roup V I a xes t o North Wa les . T he s e cond h ighest mean l eng th o f t he G roup V I a xes ( F ig . 1 0 .20 ) a nd t he s econd h ighest p os i t ive r es idua l ( F ig . 1 0 .21 ) a re f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare i n c ent ra l E ng land ( #92 ) i n wh ich t he h ighes t mean l eng th o ft he G roup V I I a xes was o bserved ( c f . F ig . 9 .42 ) . F or t ha t g roup , i t was s ugges ted t ha t t he h igh mean l e ng th v a lue , r epresen t ing o n ly t wo a xes , r ef lected t he l eng ths o f r e la t ive ly l a rge a xes l o st i n t ranspor t t hrough a s parse ly o ccup ied a rea .
T he s ame i n terpreta t ion may b e v a l id f o r t he h igh mean l eng th o f t he
G roup V I a xes i n t h is a rea .
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t G roup V I a nd G roup V I I a xes
mov ing t oward a reas o f w estern a nd s outhwes tern Eng land may h ave b een t ranspor ted a l ong t he l ow land c orr idor t ha t l i nks t he n or th We lsh c oast w ith t he v a l ley o f t he R iver S evern .
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O ther r e la t ive ly h igh mean l e ng th s o f G roup V I a xes a nd h igh p os i t ive r es idua l v a lues c an b e s een i n t hree g r id s quares ( #95 , # 96 , # 97 ) c over ing s ou thern L in co lnsh ire a nd n or thern N orf o lk . Much o ft he a rea i n c luded i n t he L inco lnsh ire s quare ( #95 ) c ons ist s o f ma rsh o r f en land , wh ich was p robab ly s parse ly p opu la ted i n N eo l i th ic t imes ( c f . F ig . 7 . 6 ) .
T hus , l o ss o f r e la t ive ly l a rge a xes d ur ing movemen t t hrough a s pa rse ly p opu la ted
a rea s eems a r easonab le e xp lana t ion f o r t he r e la t ive ly h igh mean l e ng th o f a xes o bserved i nt h is a rea . S uch a n e xp lana t ion i sp robab ly n o t a pp l icab le t o t he mean l eng ths o f a xes i n t he t wo n e ighbor ing g r id s quares o fn or thern N orf o lk ( #96 a nd # 97 ) . A l though a pparen t ly n ot a s i n tens ive ly o ccup ied a s t he C ambr idge s quare ( #82 ) i mmed ia te ly t o t he s ou th ( c f . F ig . 7 . 6 ) , t h is a rea a ppears t oh ave s uppor ted amoderat e ly d ense N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion . I n t h is a rea , n umerous f l in t m ine s i tes h ave b een f ound 1 ( Hea ly 1 980 :141 ) , a nd f l in t a xes , many o f r e la t ive ly l a rge s i zes , a re a bundan t .2 I t c an b e s uggested t ha t i n t h is a rea i n wh i ch a xes , a l be i t mos t ly o ff l in t , w ere r ead i ly a va i lab le , l a rger s pec imens o fa l l ma ter ia ls may h ave b een d i scarded more o f ten i nf avor o fn ew o nes , o r n o t s ough t s o a ct ive ly i fl o s t , t han i n a reas where a xes w ere l e ss r ead i ly a va i lab le .
T h is w ou ld r esu l t i n t he h igher
mean l e ng ths o fa xes t ha t a re o bserved i nt hese g r id s qua res . T he r e la t ive ly h igh mean l e ng th o f G roup V I a xes a nd t he r e la t ive ly h igh r es idua l v a lue t ha t c an b e o bserved i ng r id s quare # 22 o n t he D orse t c oas t c an b e e xp la ined i n y e t a no ther way . l e c t ing .
T h is i s a n a rea o f r e la t ive ly i n t ens ive p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l -
I t c an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he a noma lous a xe s i ze v a lues r epresen t t he r esu l t s o f
c oasta l t ranspor t o fG roup V I a xes t ot h is a rea . T he a bundan ce o fG roup V I a xes i n E as t Ang l ia a nd t he L ondon a rea a nd t he a bsence o f t hem i n w es tern Wa les s ugges t t ha t t he
' The w e l l -known s i te o f G r imes G raves l i es , i n f a c t , i n t he n ortheas t c orner o f t he C ambr idge s quare ( #82 ) . 2T h is o bserva t ion i sb ased o n p ersona l i n spect ion o f a xe c o l lec t ions i n museums i n t he a rea .
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G roup V I a xes f ound i n D orse t a nd t he f ew f ound i n C ornwa l l may h ave c ome f r om t he e as tc oas t , mov ing i nt he o ppos ite d i rec t ion a l ong r ou tes t aken b y a xes o fG roup I . Mean l e ng ths o fG roup V I a xes t ha t a re sma l ler t han t hose i nn earby a reas a nd c o r r espond ing ly l ow n ega t ive r es idua l v a lues c an b e o bserved i n s evera l p ar t s o ft he c oun t ry . I n mos t o f t hese c ases , i . e . , t he Y ork sh ire c oa s t ( g r id s quare # 137 ) a nd t he g r id s quare i mmed ia te ly i n land f r om i t( #136 ) , t he P eak D is t r i c t ( g r id s qua re # 107 ) , a nd t he Wessex a rea ( g r id s quares # 51 a nd # 36 ) , t hese a noma l ies a re p robab ly t he r esu l t s o f l o ca l ized e f ec t s o f d i f f eren t ia l i n t ens i t ies o f p reh is tor i c a c t iv i ty a nd /or modern c o l lec t ing ( c f . F ig . 7 .6 ) .1 O ne a rea where a n u nusua l ly l ow mean l e ng th o ft he G roup V I a xes p robab ly i sa g enu ine r ef lect ion o f d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i s o n t he E ssex c oas t ( g r id s qua re # 69 ) . C lough a nd G reen ( 1972 :115 ) n ot e t ha t i mp lemen t s o f g roups f r om n or thern s ou rces a re r are e as t o ft he b ou lder c l ay u p lands t ha t s epa ra te t he C o lchest er / Ipsw ich a rea f r om a reas f ur ther w es t .
T he l ow mean l eng th o f t he G roup V I a xes f ound i n t he E ssex c oas t g r id
s qua re i sc ons is ten t w i th ar e la t ive ly p oor s upp ly o ft hese a xes t ot h is a rea . I n C hapt er I V i t was s ugges ted t ha t c eremon ia l g oods a nd u t i l i tar ian g oods , e ven i f p roduced f r om t he s ame r aw ma ter ia l a t t he s ame s ource , m igh t b e d if eren t ia l ly d i s t r ibu ted b ecause o f t he ir d if eren t f un c t ions b o th w i th in e xchange s yst ems i n p ar t icu lar a nd w i th in c u l tura l s ys tems i n g enera l . o f G roup V I .
T h is p ropos i t ion c an b e i nvest iga t ed f o r t he a xes
I n F ig . 1 0 .22 t he d i st r ibu t ion o f v ery l a rge a xes o f G roup V I i s s hown i n
r e la t ion t o t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes s ma l ler t han 2 00 mm i n l e ng th i n t he 5 0 km g r id s quares .
D isregard ing t he s i ng le v ery l a rge a xe t ha t was f ound i n C ornwa l l , t h is map
s hows t ha t p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes o fG roup V I w ere d i st r ibu ted i nt he s ame d i rec t ions a s sma l ler a xes , b u t i ng enera l , t hey d i d n o tg o a s f a r . I ndeed , o n t h is map i ti sp oss ib le t o
1F or g r id s quares # 36 a nd # 51 i n t he Wessex a rea , t he i n tens i t ies o f p reh ist or i c a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lec t ing a re p robab ly n o t a dequa te ly r ef lect ed b y t he t o ta l n umbers o f s t one a xes i n t he s qua res . I ft he n umbers o f f l in t a xes i n e a ch a rea w ere k nown , t he p i c tu re p resen ted i nF ig . 7 .6 w ou ld p robab ly c hange c ons iderab ly .
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i d en t ify a c en t ra l d i st r ibu t ion a rea e xt end ing f r om t he s ource a rea s ou theas twa rd t owa rd E a st Ang l ia a nd t he L ondon a rea i n wh i ch v ery l a rge a xes h ave b een f ound , a nd t o c on t r as t i tw i th p er iphera l a reas t o t he w est , s outh , a nd s ou theas t i n wh ich o n ly sma l ler , p resumab ly u t i l i tar ian a xes h ave b een f ound .
I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t w i th in t he c en t ra l
d i s tr ibu t ion a rea t here w ere more s oc ia l a nd c eremon ia l t i es among g roups , wh ich w ere a ff i rmed b y t he e xchange o fv a luab le , c eremon ia l a xes , t han w ere p resen t b e tween p eop le i nt h is a rea a nd t hose i nt he p er iphera l a rea s . N ever the less , t he mean l eng ths o ft he a xes i nt he p er iphera l a reas a re c o mparab le t ot he mean l e ng ths o ft he sma l ler a xes w i th in t he c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea .
T h is e v idence i nd i ca tes a w e l l -regu lat ed r eg iona l e xchange s ys -
t em i n wh ich t he q ua l i ty o fu t i l i tar ian s t one a xes d ecreases o n ly g radua l ly w i th i n creas ing d i s tan ce f r om t he s our ce . I n s ummary , t he r esu l t s o f t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup V I i nd ica te t ha t t hese a xes w ere d i st r ibut ed t hrough g roup -t o -g roup r ec iproca l e x change mov ing o u twa rd f r om t he s our ce a rea . B oth p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes a nd u t i l i ta r ian a xes w ere mov ing i n t he s ame g enera l d i rec t ions . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he f o rmer may i nd ica te a rea s w i th in wh ich g roups h ad more s oc ia l a nd c eremon ia l t i es w i th e ach o ther .
I n t he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n l e ng th o f t he
s ma l ler a xes , mean l eng ths w ere o bserved i ns o me a reas t ha t a ppeared t od epar tf r om t he g enera l p a t tern o fd ecrease i n mean l eng th w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ou rce t ha ti s e xpec ted t o r esu l t f r om g roup to -g roup e xchange .
H owever , e xp lana t ions f o r t hese w ere
p roposed o n t he b a s is o fo ther k nown a spec t s o ft he a rchaeo logy o f e ach a rea . S evera l o f t hese a noma l ies a re p robab ly r e lat ed t od if eren t ia l i n t ens i t ies o fp reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd /o r modern c o l lec t ing wh i le o thers may t ru ly r ef lect a spect s o fd if eren t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion . Among t hese d ata , h owever , t hese i sn o r ea l e v iden ce f o r b u lk movemen t o f G roup V I a xes f r om t he s ource a rea t o t he Humbers ide a rea , o r a ny o ther d i s tan t l o ca l i ty , f o r s ubsequen t d i s t r ibu t ion t o o ther p ar t s o fB r i ta in .
I ts eems more l i ke ly t ha t t he l a rge p opu la t ions i n t he
e as tern a reas o f B r ita in o b ta ined t he ir l a rge n umbers o fG roup V I a xes t hrough o rd inary
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c hanne ls o fr e c iproca l g roup -t o -g roup e xchange . I fa ny e v idence o fd i rec ted o r p ref eren t ia l movemen t o f G roup V I a xes c an b e s een , i tw ou ld s eem t o b e d own t he c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea t oward t he L ondon a rea .
G roup XV
Axes o f G roup XV ma ter ia l , a pparent ly o r ig ina t ing i n t he C on ist on G r i t f o rma t ions o f t he s ou thern L ake D ist r i c t ( Shot t on 1 959 :138 ; H ope -Sanderson 1 970 :96 ) , a re r a re i n c ompa r ison w ith a xes o f o ther ma ter ia ls .
T he s event een c o mp let e s pec imens t ha t h ave
b een i d en t if ied make u p o n ly 1 . 2% o ft he g rouped a xes i nt h is d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he c o mp let e G roup XV a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef erences a re s hown i n F ig . 1 0 .24 .1 O n t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t t he g rea tes t c oncen t ra t ion o f G roup XV a xes i si n t he P eak D is t r i c t . I n c on t ras t , t hey a re o n ly t h in ly s ca t tered e l sewhere .
T he a ppa ren t s car c ity o f G roup XV a xes i n a reas o f n or thwes t
E ng land c l oser t ot he p resumed s ource o ft he r aw ma ter ia l i s , h owever , af unc t ion o fs ma l l s amp le s i ze : t he f ew G roup XV a xes f ound i n t hese a rea s ( i . e . , C hesh ire /Lancash i re a nd w est ern Y orksh ire ) a ctua l ly c o mpr ise a l a rger p ropor t ion o ft he t o ta l n umber o f s t one a xes t han d o t he G roup XV a xes f ound i n t he P eak D is t r ic t . On t he o ther h and , t he s ca rc i ty o f G roup XV a xes i n e as tern Y orksh ire a nd t he ir c o mp lete a bsence f r om L in co lnsh ire s eem p ar t icu lar ly s i gn if i can ti nv i ew o ft he g enera l a bundan ce o fs t one a xes o fo ther ma ter ia ls i n t hese a reas . T hese p a t terns o f a bso lu te a nd r e la t ive a bundan ce o f G roup XV a xes s ugges t t ha t t hese i mp lemen t s w ere d i s t r ibu ted t hrough g roup -t o -g roup e xchange s ou thward f r om t he s ource a rea a l ong t he P enn ine c ha in t o t he P eak D is t r ic t , a nd t ha t e xchange a cross t he P enn ines t oY orksh ire a nd b eyond t he P eak D is t r ic t t os outhern E ng land wa s v ery l im it ed . I n t h is i nves t iga t ion , e v iden ce o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among
' In a dd i t ion , as i ng le a xe o ft h is mater ia l was r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames a t a n u nknown l o ca l i ty i nt he L ondon r eg ion .
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a xes o f G roup XV wh ich c orresponds w i th t h is h ypo thes ized p a t t ern a nd p rocess o f a xe d i s t r ibu t ion w i l l b e s ough t .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
B ecause o ft he r ar i ty o fa xes o f G roup XV , l i t t le h as b een s a id i n t he l i t era ture c on c ern ing morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among t hem .
T he o n ly s ubstan t ia l c o mmen t was made
b y Moore a nd C umm ins ( 1974 :65 ) who n ot ed t ha t t wo o f t he a xes f ound i n t he P eak D is t r ic t , D erby . 7 4 a nd D erby . 1 35 ,1 " a re p a r t icu lar ly d i s t in ct ive , h av ing p ara l le l s i des a nd a n a lmos t c i r cu la r c ross -sect ion , wh ich g ives t hem ac y l indr ica l a ppearance ." T he s ame d escr ipt ion c ou ld a l so b e g iven f o r S hrop . 3 7 ( F ig . 1 0 .25a ) , w i th t he a dd i t i on o f as l igh t ly e xpanded b lade . T h is i mp lemen t h as a l ready b een men t ioned i n C hap ter I X , where i t was n o ted a s b e ing v i r tua l ly i d en t i ca l i ns i ze a nd s hape t oC ard . 7( F ig . 9 .2f ) , a n a xe o fG roup XX I I I ma ter ia l . T he G roup XV a xe r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames ( Stan ley 1 976 :10 , # 79 ) a l so a ppears t o h ave a n e xpanded b lade . H owever , t he a symme t r ica l s hape o ft h is a xe a nd t he a pparen t r ough f i n ish a bove t he b lade a rea i nd ica te t ha ti t s e xpanded b lade i st he r esu l to f r e -work ing a l a rger i mp lemen t . I n f a c t , t he s qua t s hape o ft h is a xe a nd t he s quare s hape o fi t s b ut t s ugges t t o me t ha t i t may h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing t he b lade e nd o f as haf tho le i mp lemen t t ha t was b roken i nt he m idd le . F or f ur ther i nvest igat ion o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV , w e w ou ld l i ke t o b e a b le t o i d en t ify s i zes a nd s hapes o f i mp lement s p rodu ced a t t he s our ce t hrough e xam ina t ion o fs pec imens f ound i nt he i mmed ia t e v i c in ity o fi t . Unf or tuna te ly , f o r t h is g roup o fa xes , a s was t he c ase f o r G roup V I , t he p resumed s our ce o ft he r aw ma ter ia l l i es o u t s ide t he a rea f o r wh ich i mp lemen t p etro logy l i s t s w ere a va i lab le .
A s ar esu l t , t he
1N e i ther o f t hese a xes i s i lus t ra ted h ere b ecause p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing s w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log i ca l d a ta o n e a ch o f t hem . D erby . 1 35 i s i lust ra ted i n Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :75 , F ig . 7 ,D b 1 35 .
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a va i lab le s amp le t ha t c an b e u sed f o r i nvest iga t ion o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV a xes p roduced a t a nd u sed n ear t he s ource i si n comp lete . I n F ig . 1 0 .26 i tc an b e s een t ha t o n ly t wo o f t he c o mp let e G roup XV a xes i n t h is s amp le w ere f ound w ith in 1 00 km o f t he s ource .
One o f t hese , Y orks . 3 79 ,1 i s av ery
l a rge i mp le men t , w ith a measurab le l eng th j ust u nder 2 00 mm .
However , i ta ppears t o
h ave b een d amaged a t b oth t he b lade a nd t he b ut t a nd s o was p robab ly o r ig ina l ly more t han 2 00 m m i n l e ng th .
T he o ther G roup XV a xe f ound w ith in 1 00 km o f t he s our ce i s
f r om H igh t ,own , L ancash ire .2 I ti s n ear ly a s b road a s Y orks . 3 79 b u t o n ly h a lf a s l o ng . I ti s e asy t o i mag ine t ha t t h is a xe c ou ld h ave b een p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing a l a rge s pec imen l i ke Y orks . 3 79 t hat h ad b een b roken .
T hus , w ith in 1 00 km o f t he s ource o f
G roup XV , s pec imens h ave b een f ound wh ich a ppear t or epresen t b oth o r ig ina l ly -produced a nd r e -worked a xes .
Unf ortunat e ly , n o r oughout s o ft h is ma ter ia l a re k nown wh ich c ou ld
b e u sed t oc l ar ify t h is p i cture . Morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he G roup XV a xes i n t he t o ta l s amp le i sr ef lect ed i n h i stog rams o f t he s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les ( F ig . 1 0 .27 ) .3 T he d i str ibu t ion o f l e ng th measure ment s i sc l ear ly b imoda l , w ith a sma l l g roup o f l a rge a xes a nd a l a rge g roup o f sma l ler a xes .
T h is h i st og ram a l so d emonstrates t ha t n o v ery l a rge a xes n or a ny v ery
sma l l o nes , l i ke t hose o f o ther g roups ( c f . G roup V I , F ig . 1 0 .8a ) , h ave b een f ound .
T he
o ther s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les a re a l l mu lt i -moda l , i nd ica t ing c ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among t hese a xes .
' Not i lus tra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing . 2A t t he t ime when t he p etro logy l i sts f o r t h is a rea w ere e xam ined , t h is i mp lemen t h ad n ot y et b een g iven a c ounty d es igna t ion . I ti si n L iverpoo l Museum , # 1975 .340 . I ti s n ot i lustra ted h ere b ecause t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing was r e l ied u pon f o r mor p ho log ica l d a ta o n i t . 3M orpho log ica l d a ta w ere n o t a va i lab le f o r s evera l o f t he a xes f ound i n t he P eak D ist r ict n or f o r t he o ne f ound i n Nor thamptonsh ire . P etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ings h ad t o b e r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d ata o n most o ft he o thers . On t hese d raw ings , s evera l o f t he i mp le men t s a ppear t o b e d amaged i n o ne o r more d imens ions . T he af ected measure men ts a re n ot i n c luded i nt he h i s tog rams n or t he s cat t er p l ots t of o l low .
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A l l o f t he G roup XV a xes f o r wh ich t he r e levan t measuremen t s w ere a va i lab le a re s hown o n s ca t t er p l o t s o fl eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h i ckness i nF ig . 1 0 .28 . O n t he p l o t o fl e ng th v s . w id th measuremen t s , a ma jor d i chot omy b e tween r e la t ive ly n arrow a nd w ider a xes i sa pparen t , a nd w i th in e ach o ft hese g roups , l a rger a nd s ma l ler s pec imens c an b e i d en t if ied . Among t he r e la t ive ly n arrow a xes i st he c i gar -shaped s pec imen w i th a n e xpanded b lade , S hrop . 3 7 , a l ong w i th t he t wo a xes f r om D erbysh ire t ha t Moore a nd C umm ins d es cr ibed a s c y l indr i ca l i na ppea ran ce . T hese t hree a xes a re t he l a rge o nes o f t h is s hape , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced f r om r aw ma t er ia l a va i lab le a t t he s ou rce .
T o t h is g roup c ou ld b e a dded S taf f s . 2 1 , 1 as im i lar ly -shaped a xe t ha t a ppea rs t o
h ave b een h eav i ly d amaged a tt he b lade a nd b u t t e nds a s w e l l a s b y s urfa ce s pa l l ing . T he sma l ler a xes i n t h is g roup o f r e la t ive ly n a rrow s pe c imens a re s im i la r i n g enera l s hape t o t he l a rger o nes a nd may h ave b een p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes . T o t he t wo t ha t a re s hown h ere ( b o th f ound i nY orksh ire ) c ou ld b e a dded C ambs . 1 9 ( F ig . 1 0 .25b ) , a n i mp lemen t t ha t h as c l ea r ly b een h eav i ly d amaged a t t he b lade a nd p erhaps a l so a t t he b u t t , b u t i sa l so o fc y l ind r i ca l s hape . Among t he w ider a xes a re b oth o ft he o nes f ound w i th in 1 00 km o ft he s ource , a l ong w i th s im i la r ly -shaped s pec imens f ound f ur ther away .
B ecause t hese a xes a re b roader ,
e spe c ia l ly a t t he b lade , t he ir c ross -sec t ions a re more o va l i n s hape t han t hose o f t he n ar r ow a xes .
T o t he sma l ler s pec imens o f t h i s s hape c ou ld p erhaps b e a dded a n i mp lemen t
f r om C hesh ire t ha t , f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing , a ppears t o h ave a v ery b lun t , r ounded b lade .
I t i s u n c lear whether t h is i s a n u nf in ished a xe o r o ne t ha t h as b een
d amaged , s o i t was n o t s hown o n t he s ca t ter p l o t .
A lso among t he sma l ler a xes i s t he
r a ther u nusua l ly -shaped s pec imen t ha t was r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
1N ot i lus t ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing a nd p hot og raph .
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O n t he s ca t t er p l o t o f l e ng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen ts ( F ig . 1 0 .28b ) , ad if eren t p a t t ern o f v a r iab i l i ty c an b e s een .
A l l t hree o ft he l a rges t a xes a re v ery s im i lar i n t h i ck -
n ess , 1 wh i le c ons iderab le v ar iab i l i ty i n t h is d imens ion c an b e s eem among t he sma l ler s pe c imens .
A l though a d i chot omy b e tween t h icker a nd t h inner s ma l l a xes i sa ppa ren t o n
t h is p l o t , t h i s may b e a t t r ibut ed t o s ma l l s amp le s i ze :
t wo o f t he i mp lemen t s wh ich c ou ld
n o t b e i n c luded o n t h is p l o t b ecause i t was j udged t ha t t he ir t h icknesses c ou ld n o t b e a ccura te ly d et erm ined f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing s a ppea r t o h ave t h icknesses t ha t w ou ld f a l l i n t he g ap b e tween t he t h icker a nd t h inner s pe c imens . I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he v ar iab i l i ty i n t h ickness t ha t c an b e o bserved among t he sma l ler a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l r esu l t s f r om r e -sharpen ing o r r e -work ing a xes i n d if eren t ways .
I ndeed , t he p e t ro logy
r ecord c ard d raw ing o ft he t h innes t a xe s hown o n t h is p l o t , Y orks . 4 63 , s ugges t s t ha t t h is i mp lemen t h as b een r e -worked o n b o th f a ces a t a nd a bove t he b lade . I n s ummary , t h is i nves t iga t ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV h as b een h ampered b y t he sma l l s amp le o f a xes f o r wh i ch c o mp let e d a ta w ere a va i l a b le . N ever the less , t wo ma jor s hapes o fa xes h ave b een i d en t if ied . O ne s hape i sr e la t ive ly n arrow w i th g enera l ly p a ra l le l s i des i nf a ce v i ew a nd ar ound c ross -se c t ion , wh i le t he o ther i sw ider w i th t aper ing s i des a nd a more f l a t tened , o va l c r oss -sec t ion .
T he l a t t er s hape i s
s im i lar t ot he s hapes o fa xes made o fo ther ma ter ia ls o r ig ina t ing i nt he L ake D is t r ic t , s uch a s G roup V I , wh i le t he f o rmer s hape i sq u i te d if eren t . A t t h is p o in t i ti s w e l l t o r e member t ha t t he g rea ter p ropor t ion o f s pec imens o f G roup XV ma ter ia l a re n o t a xes b u t s haf tho le i mp lemen ts .
T h is i nd icat es t ha t t he mos t
i n t ens ive e xp lo ita t ion o ft h is s our ce t o ok p la ce i nt he L a tes t N eo l i th ic a nd t he E ar ly B ronze Age . H owever , i t may a l so h ave b een v i s i ted s porad ica l ly e ar l ier i n t he N eo l i th i c p er iod . W i th t h is i n m ind , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he t wo s hapes o f a xes o f t h is mater ia l r epresen t d if eren t c hrono log i ca l s ty les .
T he b roader s pe c imens ( w i th t he e x cep t ion o ft he
1T he e xac t t h ickness o f D erby . 7 4 , t he a xe n ex t i n s i ze t o t he t h ree l a rges t o nes , c anno t b e a ccura te ly d eterm ined f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing , b u t i ta ppears t o b e s im i lar i nt h ickness t ot he l a rges t a xes .
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u nusua l o ne r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames ) a re s im i lar t o many a xes o f G roup V I a nd may b e long e n t ire ly t o t he N eo l i th i c p er iod , wh i le t he n arrower , r ounder s pec imens , wh ich i n c lude a n e xamp le w i th a n e xpanded b lade , may h ave b een p roduced a t t he e nd o f t he L a t es t N eo l i th i c a nd i n t o t he E ar ly B ronze Age .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D ist r ibu t ion
F or o ther g roups o f a xes , a n e xam ina t ion o f p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s pec imens f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s o f d epos i t ion h as b een made b ef ore a n i nvest iga t i on o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty i n g enera l was u nder taken . G roup XV , o n ly o ne a xe c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o as pec if i c c ont ex t o f d epos it ion . s pe c imen r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames .
F or
T h is i s t he
A s n o ted a bove , i ti s ar e lat ive ly sma l l a xe ,
a pparen t ly r e -worked f r om a l a rger i mp lemen t . N o o ther a xes o ft h is mat er ia l w ith wh ich t he s i ze o ft h is o ne c ou ld b e c ompared , h ave b een f ound i nt he s ame a rea .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
S ince t wo s ty l ist ic t ypes o fG roup XV a xes w ere i d en t if ied i nt he a na lys is o fg enera l p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty , t hese t wo t ypes s hou ld b e c ons idered s epara te ly i n a n a na lys is o fs pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty . T he l o ca t ions o ft he a xes o f e ach t ype a re s hown i nF ig . 1 0 .29 . O n t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha tb o th w ide a nd n arrow a xes h ave b een f ound i n a reas o f n or thern E ng land a nd t he P eak D is t r i ct . A s i ng le w ide a xe was f ound i n C ambr idgesh i re wh i le t he o ne r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames ( no t s hown o n t h is map ) i sw ide b u t may h ave b een r e -worked f r om a s haf tho le i mp lemen t . Unf or tuna te ly , morpho log ica l d a ta o n t h ree o ft he a xes f r om t he L ake D ist r ic t a nd t he o ne f r om N or thamp tonsh ire w ere n o t a va i lab le , s o t hese i mp lemen t s c anno tb e c l ass if ied i nt h is s cheme .
F rom t he l im i ted d a ta t ha t a re a va i lab le , t here i sn o c onv inc ing e v iden ce o f d i f -
f e ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he w ider a nd n a rrower a xes .
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F or a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty , t he d i st r ibut ion o f G roup XV a xes c an b e d iv ided i n to s evera l b road g eograph ica l ly -def ined s amp les . T hese s amp les i n c lude :
1a xe f ound n ear S et t le , Y orksh ire , i nt he n or thern P enn ines , 3a xes f ound e as t o f
t he P enn ine c ha in i n Y orksh ire , 2a xes f ound i n t he c oasta l l ow lands o f C hesh ire a nd L an c ash ire , a nd 6 a xes f ound i n t he P eak D istr ict ( 5 i n D erbysh ire , 1i n s ou thern Y orksh ire ) . T he l a t ter g roup c ou ld a l so b e e xt ended t o t he s ou thwest t o i n c lude t he a xes f r om S taf f o rdsh ire a nd S hropsh ire .
I n a dd it ion t o t hese c l us ters o f a xes a re t he t hree d i stan t
s pec imens . T he d i st r ibut ion o f l a rge a nd sma l l a xes o f G roup XV i n t he d if eren t a reas i s p resented i n F ig . 1 0 .30 .
Here i tc an b e s een t ha t l a rge a xes o f t h is mater ia l h ave b een
f ound i n t he P enn ines a nd i n t he P eak D istr ic t a nd i t s e xt ens ion t ot he s outhwest . I n c on t ras t , o n ly sma l l a xes h ave b een f ound w est , e as t , a nd s ou th o f t h is a rea .
T h is p at tern
s uggests p ref eren t ia l movemen t o f G roup XV a xes f r om t he s ource a l ong t he P enn ines t o t he P eak D is tr ic t . T he mean l eng ths o ft he G roup XV a xes , o fe ach s hape s epara te ly a nd a l together , i n e ach o f t he g eog raph ica l ly -def ined s amp les a re p resented i n T ab le 1 0 .8 a l ong w ith t he n umber o fa xes i ne ach s amp le a nd t he mean d i stance o ft he a xes f r om t he s ource . Here i t c an b e s een t ha t t he a xes f ound i nt he P eak D istr ic t ( o r i n t he more b road ly d ef ined a rea o f c ent ra l E ng land wh ich i n c ludes t he P eak D istr ict ) a re o n a verage l a rger , f o r e ach o f t he s hapes a nd a l t ogether , t han t hose f ound i n a ny o ther a rea e xcept t he n or thern P enn ines . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly i n t erest ing i n l i gh t o f t he f act t ha t a xes o f o ther g roups ( e .g . , G roup V I I a nd G roup V I ) h ave b een o bserved t o b e r e la t ive ly sma l l i n t h is a rea ( e ssent ia l ly g r id s quare # 107 ) .
A lthough t h is p a t tern m ight i nd ica te d i rec t t ranspor t o f a xes f r om t he
s ource t o t he P eak D ist r ict , a ga in smal s amp le s i ze , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he l e ss d ense ly o ccup ied a reas c l oser t ot he s ource , must b e c ons idered . T he d i str ibut ion p a t tern o ft he r e lat ive ly r are G roup XV a xes c an b e c o mpared w i th t ha t o f t he more a bundan t G roup XV a xe -hammers ( Roe 1 979 :29 , F ig . 6 ) , at ype o f s haf -
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t ho le i mp lemen t t ha t was p robab ly b e ing d i s t r ibut ed a t t he s ame t ime a s many o ft he a xes ( La t es t N eo l i th i c /Ea r ly B ronze Age ) .
On R oe 's map , i tc an b e s een t ha t G roup XV a xe -
h ammers , l i ke t he a xes , a re mos t a bundan t i nt he P eak D is t r ic t . H owever , at h inner s ca t t e r o ft hem e x tend s b e tween t ha t a rea a nd t he s ource a rea . O n t he b as is o ft h is e v iden ce , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t t he a pparen t s carc i ty o fG roup XV a xes b e tween t he s ou rce a nd t he P eak D is t r i c t i s af unc t ion o f sma l l s amp le s i ze . W i th t h is i n m ind , p ref eren t ia l movemen t o f G roup XV a xes t oward t he P eak D is t r ic t t hrough c hanne ls o f g roup -to -g roup e x change ( F ig . 1 0 .31 ) s eems a more a ppropr ia te mechan ism o f d i s t r ibu t ion f o r t hese i mp lement s t han d i rec t t ranspor t .
A t a ny r a te , i ti s
c l ea r t ha t movemen t o f G roup XV a xes e as t o f t he P enn ines o r b eyond t he P eak D ist r ic t was ar are o ccurrence .
T he L ake D ist r ic t G roups : C ompara t ive S ummary
I n t h is c hap ter , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een i nves t iga ted f o r t wo g roups o f a xes o r ig ina t ing a t s ources i n t he L ake D is t r i ct . When t he r esu l t s a re c o mpa red , b o th s im i lar i t ies a nd d if erences b e tween t hese g roups c an b e s een . C oup led w i th t he a va i lab le i n f orma t ion o n t he c hrono logy o f t hese g roups , t hese r esu l t s y i e ld i n terest ing i n s igh t s i n to c hang ing p a t terns o fe xchange a nd h uman i n tera ct ion a t t he e nd o ft he N eo l i th i c p er iod i nB r i ta in . T he a na lyses o f g enera l p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f t he L ake D is t r ic t g roups h ave r evea led , f o r e a ch g roup , g enera l c l asses o f l a rge , o r ig ina l ly p rodu ced a xes a nd sma l l , p r imar i ly r e -worked a xes .
Among t he s pec imens o f G roup V I ,
a n a dd i t iona l c l a ss o f v ery l a rge a xes wa s i d en t if ied , a nd t hese w ere i n t erpret ed a s p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i t ems .
A lthough s o me u nusua l s pec imens o f G roup V I w ere i d en -
t i f ied , f o r t he mos t p ar t , t he a xes o f t h is mat er ia l a re s im i la r i n g enera l s hape .
I n c on -
t rast , n o v ery l a rge a xes wh ich c ou ld b e i n t erpreted a s s pec if i ca l ly c eremon ia l i t ems w ere i d ent if ied among t he s pec imen s o f G roup XV ma ter ia l .
H owever , t wo d if eren t s hapes o f
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t hese a xes c ou ld b e s een . I t was s uggest ed t ha t t hese may b e c hrono log ica l ly -based s ty l is t i c t ypes , s pann ing t he t rans i t ion f r om t he L at e N eo l ith ic t ot he E ar ly B ronze Age . T he a na lyses o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f t he L ake D is t r ic t g roups h ave s uggest ed t ha t a xes o f e ach g roup w ere d i str ibu ted p r imar i ly t hrough r ec iproca l g roup -t o -g roup e xchange .
B ecause a xes o f G roup V I w ere a ppa ren t ly
u sed t hroughou t t he N eo l i th i c p er iod a nd t here i sn o way o f s epara t ing t he t o ta l s amp le i n to t i ght er c hrono log ica l g roups , t he p i c ture mus t b e v i ewed a s ac o mpos it e o ne . F or t h is g roup , ac en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea wa s i d en t if ied i n wh i ch v ery l a rg e , p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes h ave b een f ound .
T h is was c ont ra s ted w ith p er iphera l a reas i n wh i ch o n ly s ma l ler
a xes h ave b een f ound . I t was s ugges ted t ha t g roups i nt he c en t ra l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea w ere a r t icu la ted b y ma jor e x change n e tworks i n wh ich a xes o fG roup V I w ere mov ing a nd t hus , t hey r e ce ived t he b es t s upp l ies o f t hese a xes .
I n c on t ras t , g roups i n t he p er iphera l a reas
w ere o u ts ide t he ma in e xchange n e tworks a nd r ece ived p oorer s upp l ies o f t hese a xes . A l though s o me a xes o f G roup V I moved s ou thward f r om t he s ource t oward a reas o f w est ern a nd s ou thern E ng land , t he g rea tes t n umbers o ft hem a ppear t o h ave c rossed t he P enn ines t ot he h eav i ly p opu la ted a reas o fY orksh ire a nd L in co lnsh ire . H owever , t here i s n o e v idence o fd i rec t t ranspor t o fa xes t o t hese a reas . I ns tead , t he a va i lab le e v idence i nd i c a tes t ha tt he a xes r ea ched t hese a reas t hrough c hanne ls o fg roup -t o -g roup e xchange . I n c ont rast t oa xes o fG roup V I , f ew a xes o f G roup XV w ere f ound e ast o ft he P en n ines o r s ou th o ft he P eak D ist r ict . I nst ead , t he p a t terns o f a bundance a nd morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty s ugges t p ref eren t ia l e xchange s ou thward f r om t he s ou r ce a rea a l ong t he P en n ine c ha in t o t he P eak D is t r i c t , a n a rea a pprox imat e ly 1 60 km away .
I f i t c an b e
a ssumed t ha t t he a xes o fG roup XV w ere p roduced a nd u sed l a t er i nt ime t han a t l e a st t he ma jor i ty o f t he G roup V I s pec imens , t h is e v iden ce s ugges t s ac on t rac t ing o f n e tworks o f e x change a nd i n tera ct ion a t t he e nd o ft he N eo l i th i c a nd i n t o t he E a r ly B ronze Age .
CHAPTER X I
OTHER GROUPS
I n a dd i t ion t o t he s ou rces k nown o r p resumed t o h ave b een l o ca ted i n C ornwa l l , S ou th Wa les , N or th Wa les , a nd t he L ake D is tr i c t a re a n umber o f s ources k nown o r p resumed t o h ave b een l o ca ted i n o ther , w ide ly s eparat ed , a reas .
T hese i n c lude G roups
I X , X , X I I , X IV , XV I I I , XX , XX I I , XX IV , XXV , a nd XXV I ( s ee T ab le 1 . 1 a nd F ig . 1 . 1 ) . O f t hese , G roup X I I ma ter ia l , f r om a s our ce p resumed t o h ave b een l o ca t ed n ear Hyss ing ton , o n
t he S hropsh ire /Mon tgomerysh ire b order
( Shot ton e t a l .
1 951 ) ,
was
a pparen t ly u sed e x c lus ive ly f o r t he p roduc t ion o f s ha f tho le i mp lement s a nd s o i s o f n o i n t eres t i n t h is i nves t iga t ion .
Imp lemen t s o f G roup XX I I , f r om a n " axe f a ct ory" s i te i n
S he t land ( R it ch ie 1 968 ) , a nd G roup XXV , f r om a s our ce i n t he I s le o f Man ( C lough a nd C umm ins 1 979 ) , a re a s y e t u nknown o u ts ide t he i r r espec t ive s ource a reas , wh ich a re o u t s i de t he g eog raph ica l l im i t s o ft h is s tudy . G roup
XXV I ,
a pparen t ly
o r ig ina t ing
i n L ower J urass ic
f o rma t ions o f N or th
Y orksh ire ( Cumm ins 1 983 ) , was j us t b e ing i d en t if ied a nd d escr ibed a s t he f i e ldwork o n wh i ch t h is i nves t iga t ion i s b ased was b e ing c arr ied o u t , a nd a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l w ere b eg inn ing t o a ppea r q u i te f r equent ly o n u npub l i shed p e t ro logy l i s t s f r om Y orksh i re . H owever , s i nce t he p e t ro logy l i sts f o r o ther a reas w ere p repared b ef ore t he i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h i s g roup , a ny a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l w ou ld h ave b een c harac ter ized a s o f u ngrouped ma t er ia l o n t hose l i s t s . B ecause o ft h is , i ts eemed u n l ike ly t ha t a n a ccura te p i c ture o ft he
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3 00
d i str ibut ion o fa xes o fG roup XXV I c ou ld b e d rawn f r om t he a va i lab le d a ta , s o t hey w ere n ot i n c luded i nt h is d a ta s e t .1 G roup X , o r ig ina t ing a t " axe f a ct or ies" n ea r S e led in , B r i t tany ( LeRoux 1 971 , 1 979 ) , G roup X IV , p res t imed t oh ave b een o b ta ined f r om a s ource n ear Nuneat on , Warw i cksh ire ( Sho t t on 1 959 ) , a nd G roup XX IV , o r ig ina t ing a t a n " axe f a ct ory" s i te l o ca ted n ear K i l l in , P er thsh ire ( R i t ch ie 1 968 ) , a re r epresen t ed i n t h is d a ta s e t b y o n ly 3 a xes , 2a xes , a nd 1 a xe , r espec t ive ly ( Tab le 7 . 2 ) .
O bv ious ly , l i t t le w ou ld b e l e arned b y c ons ider ing t hese
g roups f ur ther . W i th a l l o f t hese g roups e l im inat ed f r om c ons idera t ion , o n ly t hree r ema in : I X , G roup XV I I I , a nd G roup XX .
G roup
F or e a ch o f t hese g roups , af a ir n umber o f c omp let e
a xes a re i n c luded i nt h i s d a ta s e t ( s ee T ab le 7 .2 ) . I n t h is c hap ter , p a t t erns o f morpho log i c a l v ar iab i l i ty a nd p ro cesses o fd i s tr ibu t ion w i l l b e i nves t iga ted f o r t hese t hree g roups . F or G roup I X , n o t o ne b u t t wo q uarry s i tes where r aw ma ter ia l was o b ta ined a nd p roduc t ion o f a xe r oughou t s t o ok p lace h ave b een i d en t if ied i n N or thern I r e land ( J ope 1 952 ) .
One o f t hese i sl o ca ted n ea r B rock ley a t t he w es tern e nd o f R a th l in I s land , wh i le
t he o ther i sf ound o n t he s l opes o f T ievebu l l iagh , n ear C ushenda l l o n t he e as t c oas t o f C oun ty Ant r im ( i b id . :31 , 3 7 ) . s i tes h ave b een i d en t if ied .
I n c on t rast , f o r G roups XV I I I a nd XX , n o " axe f a c tory"
T he r aw ma ter ia l o f t he i mp lemen t s i n G roup XX h as b een
c l ose ly ma t ched b y r o ck s pec imens f r om t he C harnwood F ores t o fL e i ces tersh ire ( Shot ton 1 959 :142-43 ) , a nd S ho t ton b e l ieves t ha t t he G roup XX s ource mus t h ave b een l o ca ted i n t ha t a rea .
T he r o ck ma ter ia l t ha t h as b een i d en t if ied a s G roup XV I I I o r ig ina tes i n t he
Wh in S i l l f o rma t ion o fn or thern E ng land , a nd i th as b een s uggest ed t ha t t he a ctua l s our ce o f t he r aw ma ter ia l u sed f o r t he p rodu c t ion o f i mp lemen t s was t he Wh in S i l l o u t crop o f Upper T eesda le i n t he e x t reme n or thwes t o fY orksh ire ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 :224 ) . A l though e xp lora t ion i n t h is a rea f a i led t o l o cat e a ny " axe f a ctory" s i t es , p i eces o f s c ree o f s i zes
1F ur thermore , t here was s o me q ues t ion a t t ha t t ime ( m id -1980 ) o f whe ther t h is g roup r epresen ted t he w ork o f amodern f aker ( P . P h i l l ips , p ers . c o rn . ) .
3 01
s u itab le f o r i mp lemen t p roduct ion w ere r ead i ly a va i lab le ( Keen a nd R aa ley 1 971 :26 ) . T hus , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t he r aw ma ter ia l o f wh ich G roup XV I I I i mp lemen t s w ere made was o b ta ined i nt h is a rea . H owever , a s was n oted i n C hap ter I I , Wh in S i l l b ou lders h ave b een f ound i n g lac ia l d epos i t s o n t he b ea ches a nd i n t he c l if s o f e as tern Y orksh ire , s o i t may b e t ha t i mp lemen t s o fG roup XV I I I w ere p roduced i n t h is a rea r a ther t han o r a s w e l l a s i nt he a rea o ft he a ctua l o ut crop . T he e v idence f o r d a t ing t he p roduc t ion a nd u se o fi mp lemen t s o f G roups I X , XV I I I , a nd XX h as b een r ev iewed b y Sm i th ( 1979 ) .
A l though n one o f t he G roup I X a xes f r om
E ng land w ere f ound i nd a tab le c on tex t s , d a tes a ssoc ia ted w i th a xes f r om I r e land a nd S co t l and i nd ica t e t ha t t h is ma ter ia l was u t i l ized f r om t he e ar ly y ears o f t h e t h ird m i l len ium b . c . t h roughou t t he N eo l i th ic p er iod u n t i l o rj us t b eyond t he t rans i t ion t o t he E ar ly B ronze A ge ( i b id . :20 ) .
I n c on t rast , t he o ther mat er ia ls a ppear t o h ave b een u t i l ized o ver much
s hor ter p er iods . T he f ew a xes o fG roup XX t ha t h ave c o me f r om r ecogn ized N eo l ith ic c on t ex t s ( i b id . ) a l ong w i th t he e x is ten ce o f s evera l ma ceheads , b u t n o o ther s haf tho le i mp le men t s , o ft h is g roup ( Roe 1 979 ) s ugges t t ha t u t i l iza t ion o ft h is ma ter ia l wa s l a rge ly l im i ted t o t he L at es t N eo l i th i c . O f G roup XV I I I , s haf tho le i mp lemen t s , e spec ia l ly b a t t le -axes a nd a xe -hammers , a re more n umerous t han a xes .
I n t he a bsen ce o f a ny more s ubs tan t ia l
d a t ing e v idence ( Sm i th 1 979 :20 ) , t h is i nd ica tes t ha t t he a xes o f G roup XV I I I w ere p roduced t oward t he e nd o ft he N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd p erhaps i n to t he E ar ly B ronze Age . B ecause a xes o f G roup I X a ppear t o h ave b een p roduced e ar l ier t han t hose o f t he o ther t wo g roups , p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty a nd p rocesses o fd i st r ibu t ion w i l l b e i nvest iga ted f o r t h is g roup f i rs t .
T hen G roup XX , wh ich may h ave b een l im i ted t o t he
L a test N eo l i th ic , w i l l b e c ons idered , f o l lowed b y G roup XV I I I , wh i ch c on t inued i n u se i n t he E a r ly B ronze Age f o r s ha f tho le i mp lement s i fn o t f o r a xes .
3 02
G roup I X
A xes o f G roup I X p or ce l lan i te , o r ig ina t ing a t " axe f a ct or ies" i n N or thern I r e land ( J ope 1 952 ) , a ppear t ob e q u i t e a bundan t n ear t he s our ce ( i b id . :36 , F ig . 2 ) , a nd t hey h ave a l so b een r e corded i n q uan t i ty i n S co t land ( R it ch ie 1 968 :123-26 ) .
I n c on tras t , t hey a re
r e la t ive ly r are i n E ng land a nd Wa les , a c coun t ing f o r o n ly 3 % o f t he g rouped a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he c o mp le te G roup I X a xes wh i ch c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef erences a re s hown i n F ig .
1 1 .1 .1 T h is d i s t r ibu t ion i s u nusua l i n t ha t t here
a ppear t ob e l a rger n umbers o ft hese a xes i n a reas f ur ther f r om t he s our ce t han i n a reas c l oser t o i t . T h is p a t tern s uggest s t ha t many o ft he G roup I X a xes f ound i n E ng land a nd Wa les may h ave b een t ransport ed a l ong c oas ta l wat er r out es t o t he S evern e s tuary o r e ven t he L ondon a rea f o r s ubsequen t d i s t r ibu t ion i n land .
A ssess ing whe ther s pa t ia l p a t -
t e rn ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup I X a xes f ound i nE ng land a nd Wa les c or r esponds w i th s uch ap a t tern o fa xe d i spersa l w i l l b e ama jor f o cus o ft h is i nvest iga t ion .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Va r iab i l i ty
T he q ues t ion o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup I X a xes f ound i n E ng land a nd Wa les h as n o t b een a ddressed i n t he l i t era ture .
H owever , J ope ( 1952 ) c ons idered
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among i mp lemen t s o f G roup I X f ound i n a nd a round t he s our ce a rea i n h i s d ef in i t ive s tudy o ft he s ource a nd i t s p roduc t s . A l though a xes f ound i n I r e land a re t e chn ica l ly o u ts ide t he s cope o ft h is s tudy , i ti sw or th r ev iew ing J ope 's o bserva t ions s o t ha t r e la t ionsh ips b e tween G roup I X a xes f ound a t l o ng d i s tances f r om t he s our ce i n E ng land a nd Wa les a nd t hose f ound r e la t ive ly c l ose t ot he s ource c an b e a ssessed .
1I n a dd it ion , u nprovenanced a xes o f t h is ma t er ia l h ave b een r epor ted f r om t he c oun t ies o fD orse t , W i l t sh ire , G loucest ersh ire , C ard igan sh ire , a nd Y orksh ire a nd f r om t he R iver T hames .
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A ccord ing t o J ope ( 1952 :41 ) , mos t o f t he k nown i mp lemen t s o f G roup I X a re a xes , a l though s o me a dzes a nd e ven c h ise ls h ave a l so b een i d en t if ied . J ope ( i b id . ) g oes o n t os ug g es t t ha t , " Compa ra t ive ly l i t t le v ar iety may b e s een among s hapes o f t hese a xeheads ." A l though many o f t hem d o h ave a n o va l c ross -sec t ion a nd s i des t ha t t aper g radua l ly t o a p o int ed b u t t , v ar iab i l i ty i n o ther a spec t s o f s hape ( e .g . , c onvex i ty / concav i ty o f s i des , l o ca t i on o f max imum w id th ) i sc er ta in ly p resen t ( i b id . :43 , F ig . 5 ) . I n p a r t i cu lar , many o ft hese i mp lemen t s a re a symme t r i ca l i n f o rm i n f a ce a nd /or p rof i le v i ew ( i b id . :41 ) .
I n a dd i t ion ,
t hese a xes v a ry c ons iderab ly i n s i ze , r ang ing f r om s ma l l s pec imens l e ss t han 3i n ( c . 7 6 mm ) l ong t h rough " norma l" h eav ier o nes 6 -7 i n ( c . 1 52-178 mm ) l o ng t o v ery l a rge o nes u p t o 1 2 i n ( c . 3 05 mm ) l o ng ( i b id . :41 ) . Axes o ft he l a rges t s i ze s eem t ob e r e la t ive ly r are , e ven i n t he s our ce a rea , wh i le a xes o ft he med ium a nd sma l l s i zes s eem t o b e mos t a bundan t . B y a na logy w i th p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty t ha t h ave b een o bserved among a xes o f o ther g roups , i tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he v ery l a rge G roup I X a xes may h ave b een p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i mp lemen t s , wh i le t he m ed ium -s ized o nes r epresen t t he more t yp ica l u t i l i ta r ian p roduct s o ft he s ource , a nd t he sma l l o nes a re mos t ly r e -sharpened a nd r e -worked s pec imens . S in ce t he G roup I X s ource a rea l i es w e l l o u t s ide t he g eog raph ica l l im i t s o ft h is i nves t i ga t ion , t here i s n o n ear -sour ce s amp le a va i lab le f o r i n i t ia l i nves t iga t ion o f p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l ( s ee F ig . 1 1 .2 ) . T heref ore , t he e n t i re s amp le o fa xes f r om E ng land a nd Wa les w i l l b e c ons idered a t t he o u t se t . H is tograms o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v a r iab les f o r t he G roup I X a xes i n t h is s amp le a re p resen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .3 . I n t he h i s tog ram o f l e ng th measuremen t s , i tc an b e s een t ha t o n ly t wo o f t he G roup I X a xes f o r wh i ch s i ze d a ta w ere o b ta ined f a l l i n t o t he r ange o f " norma l" s i zed a xes o bserved b y J ope .
T he r es t a re sma l ler , a nd a n umber o f
t hese c l ust er a t t he sma l l e nd o ft he r ange J ope d ef ined . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t he t wo l a rger a xes r epresen t t he s or t s o fi mp lemen t s t ha t w ere p rodu ced a t t he s ource , wh i le t he r es t a re r e -sharpened o r r e -worked s pec imens .
I n t he h i st og rams o f t he o ther s i ze a nd
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s hape v ar iab les , c ons iderab le v ar iab i l i ty , i n c lud ing t endenc ies t oward mu lt i -moda l i ty , c an b e s een .
I ts eems l i ke ly t ha t most o f t h is v ar iab i l i ty r epresen t s t he r esu lts o f r e -work ing
a xes t ha t h ad b een d amaged i nd if eren t ways a nd /or r e -work ing a xes i nd if eren t a reas a t v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s ource . On s ca t ter p l o ts o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts o f t he G roup I X a xes ( F ig . 1 1 .4 ) , t he t wo l a rges t a xes c l ear ly s tand a par t f r om t he o thers .
T he
l a rger o f t he t wo , S uf f o lk 6 8 ,1 h as b een d amaged a t b oth e nds a nd s o must h ave o r ig ina l ly b een e ven l a rger .
T he o ther o ne , Y orks . 8 59 ,2 i s more u n if orm i n s hape a nd
d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een d amaged . T hese i mp lements p robab ly r epresen t t he s or ts o f a xes t ha t w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he G roup I X s ource . T he f a ct t ha t most o f t he G roup I X a xes f r om Eng land a nd Wa les a re r e la t ive ly sma l l i s c l ear ly a pparen t f r om t he s cat ter p l o ts .
I ndeed , t hese p l ots a re v ery s im i lar t o
t hose o f o ther g roups o f a xes b u t w i thout t he l a rger i mp lemen ts .
T he d i str ibu t ions o f
p o in ts o n t hese p l ot s i nd ica te t ha t c ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity i sp resen t among t he sma l l G roup I X a xes .
I n p ar t icu lar , t here i se v idence o n t he p l ot o f l eng th v s . t h ick -
n ess measurement s ( F ig . 1 1 .4b ) t ha t c l asses o f t h icker a nd t h inner a xes may b e i d en t if i a b le . I n o rder t o i nves t iga te f ur ther p att erns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he sma l ler G roup I X a xes , t he t e chn iques wh ich p roved u sefu l i n t he a na lys is o fa xes o fo ther g roups c an b e a pp l ied .
Ac orre la t ion ma tr ix o f t he s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he sma l l
G roup I X a xes ( F ig . 1 1 .5 ) i nd ica tes s i gn if i can t r e la t ionsh ips among a n umber o f t he v ar i a b les . A s w e h ave c o me t o e xpect , t he s t rongest c orre la t ions a re b etween max imum w id th a nd c enter w idth , b etween max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h ickness , a nd b etween t he w idth / th ickness r a t io a nd t he c ross -sect ion r a t io . S ince t hese v ar iab les a ppea r t ob e r edun -
1N o t
i lustra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
2N o t
i lustrated h ere ; i n f ormat ion f r om t he p etro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
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d an t measures o ft he s ame a spect s o fa xe s i ze a nd s hape , t he " cent er" o nes w ere e x c luded f r om s ubsequen t s tages o ft he a na lys is . A p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is o f t he s i x r e ma in ing s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he sma l l G roup I X a xes ( Tab le 1 1 .1 ) y ie lded t hree s i gn if i can t c o mponen t s .
T he f i rs t o f
t hese h as h igh n ega t ive l o ad ing s f o r t h i ckness , w id th , a nd l e ng th b u t n o v ery h igh p os i t ive l o ad ings . T he s econd s i gn if i can t c o mponen t a ppears t o r ef lec t v a r iab i l i ty i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew ( l eng th /w id th r a t io ) a nd t o al e sser e x ten t i n l eng th .
T he t h ird c o mponen t s eems t o
r ef lec t v ar iab i l i ty i nc r oss -sec t iona l s hape a nd i ns hape i np rof i le v i ew . D ist r ibu t ions o f t he s c ores p resen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .6 .
o f t he
t hree
s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l
c o mponen ts
a re
T he f i rs t o f t hese i sc l ear ly b imoda l , a nd p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty
t ha t a re n ot s t r ic t ly n orma l c an b e o bserved i n t he o thers .
T hese p a t terns s ugges t t ha t
d if eren t morpho log ica l c l asses o fa xes may b e i d ent if iab le among t hese s pec imens . T he s cores o f t he t h ree s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s w ere u sed a s t he v ar iab les i n ac l uster a na lys is o f t hese a xes ( F ig . 1 1 .7 ) .
I n t h is , t he m in imum v ar ian ce a lgor i thm
a nd t he E uc l idean d i s tance mea sure w ere u sed , a nd t he v ar iab les w ere w e igh ted a ccord ing t o t he ir e i genva lues i nt he p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . A ma jor i n crease i n t he d i stan c es a t wh ich c l ust ers j o ined i nt h is a na lys is i nd icates t ha tf ou r ma jor c l asses o fa xes c an b e i d en t if ied .
T hese a re s hown o n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness
measuremen t s i nF ig . 1 1 .8 , d escr ip t ions o ft he a xes i nt he c l us ters a re g iven i nT ab le 1 1 .2 , a nd a xes r epresen ta t ive o fe a ch g roup a re s hown i nF ig . 1 1 .9 . On t he s ca t t er p l o t s ( F ig . 1 1 .8 ) a nd i n T ab le 1 1 .2 , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he c l us ter a na lys is h as p roduced t hree g roups o fl a rger a xes a nd o ne g roup o fv ery sma l l a xes . T he v ery sma l l a xes ( c lus ter 3 )p robab ly r epresen t t he u l t ima te s tage i n r e -work ing G roup I X i mp le ments , b ef ore t hey w ere d i scarded a s b e ing t o o sma l l .
B ecause o f t he ir s i ze ( e .g . ,
C ambs . 1 03 , F ig . 1 1 .9c ) , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t hese i mp lemen ts w ere u sed f o r sma l l -sca le w ood -work ing a c t iv i t ies , r a the r t han l a rge -sca le f o res t ry w ork .
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Among t he t hree c l usters o fl a rger sma l l a xes a re o ne g roup o f i mp lemen t s t ha t a re b oth w ide a nd t h ick ( c luster 1 ) , o ne g roup o fi mp lemen t s t ha t a re w ide b u t t h in ( c lus ter 2 ) , a nd o ne g roup o fi mp lemen ts t hat a re b oth n arrow a nd t h in ( c luster 4 ) . T h is v ar iab i l i ty i n a xe s hape p robab ly r esu lts f r om r e -work ing a xes i n d if eren t ways a t v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s ource . H owever , t he i mp lements i n t he d if eren t g roups may h ave b een r ecog n i zed a s b ett er s u ited f o r d if eren t t asks a nd u sed a ccord ing ly .
T hus , t he b roader a nd
t h icker a xes o f c l us ter 1 ( e .g . , D orset 2 3 , F ig . 1 1 .9a ) may h ave b een u sed more f o r t r ee f e l l ing a ct iv it ies wh i le t he t h inner i mp lements o f c l usters 2 a nd 4 ( e .g . , G los . 3 a nd W i lt s . 2 19 , F ig . 1 1 .9b , c ) may h ave b een b et ter s u i ted f o r o ther w ood -work ing a ct iv i t ies . I ndeed , s o me o f t he l a t ter e xh ib it a n a symmet r ic p rof i le a nd /or a n a symme t r ic c ross s ec t ion i nd ica t ing t he ir u se a s a dzes . I n s ummary , t h is a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I X i n E ng land a nd Wa les h as r evea led t ha t a lmost a l l o ft he s pec imens f o r wh ich morpho log ica l d a ta a re a va i lab le a re sma l l i mp lement s t ha t h ave p robab ly b een r e -sharpened o r r e w orked .
Among t hese sma l l a xes , g enera l s i ze c l asses w ere i d ent if ied wh ich p robab ly
r epresen t s tages i n ar e -work ing t ra ject ory . f e ren t s hapes o f a xes w ere i d ent if ied .
Among a xes o f t he s ame g enera l s i ze , d i f -
I t was s uggested t ha t t hese d if eren t s hapes may
h ave b een r ecogn ized a s b et ter s u ited f o r d if eren tt asks a nd u sed a ccord ing ly .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D is tr ibu t ion
I n t he i nvest iga t ion o f g enera l p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I X i n E ng land a nd Wa les , t he sma l l s i ze o f most o f t hese i mp le men ts was n o ted . S uch a p a t tern i s n ot u nexpected among i mp lemen t s f ound a t s uch l ong d i stances f r om t he ir s ource .
B ef ore i nvest iga t ing s pat ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l ity among t hese a xes
i n more d eta i l , morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among s pec imens f r om s pec if i c c on tex ts o fd epos i t i on must b e c ons idered .
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A xes f r om S pec if i c C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
A l though a xes o f G roup I X h ave b een f ound o n o ccupa t ion s i t es , i n h oards , a nd i n b ur ia l a nd r i tua l c on t ex t s i n I r e land ( J ope 1 952 :33 , 4 1 , 4 5 ) , n o c o mp lete a xes o f t h is ma t er ia l i n t h is d a ta s e t a re k nown t o h ave c ome f r om s uch c on tex t s . T hese i s as ugges t i on t ha t s o me o r a l l o ft he s i x a xes i nt he h oa rd f ound a t B ook i lber , n ea r L ong P rest on , i n t he Wes t R id ing o f Y orksh ire a re o f G roup I X mat er ia l ( Manby 1 979 :81 , Append ix C # 3 ) . H owever , t h is was b ased o n ma croscop i c e xam ina t ion o n ly , a nd t hese a xes a re n o t i n c luded i nt h is d a ta s e t .
T he R iver T hames At o ta l o f f our G roup I X a xes h ave b een r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames ( Tab le 1 .3 ) .
T hree o f t hese w ere f ound i n t he L ondon a rea a nd t he f our th was f ound f ur ther
w es t i n B erksh ire .
A l l o f t hese a xes a re sma l l , a nd i tc an b e s een t ha t t he ir l e ng ths a re
n ot s i gn if i can t ly d if eren t f r om t he l eng ths o fo ther G roup I X a xes f ound i n u nknown c on t ex t s i nt he s ame a reas ( Tab le 1 1 .4 ) .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
T he l e ng ths o f t he G roup I X a xes f o r wh ich a s pec if i c p rovenan ce i s k nown a re s hown i n r e la t ion t o d i stance f r om t he s our ce i n F ig . 1 1 .10 . On t h is p l o t n o e v idence o f a s i gn if i can t r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a xe l e ng th a nd d i stance f r om t he s our ce c an b e s een . O n a map o f t he l e ng ths o f G roup I X a xes i n 5 0 km g r id s quares ( F ig . 1 1 .11 ) , t he o bservab le s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i na xe s i ze s ugges t s e n try o fG roup I X a xes i n to E ng land a nd Wa les a t an umber o fc oas ta l l o ca l i t ies f r om wh ich f ur ther movemen t i n land p robab ly t o ok p la ce t h rough t he mechan ism o f g roup to -g roup e x change .
T he mos t i n teres t ing a spe c t o f
t h i s i s t he p a t tern o f r e la t ive ly l a rge a xes i n a reas a round t he S evern e stuary w i th i n creas ing ly sma l ler a xes s een i n a reas f u r ther n or th a nd e as t .
T h is s uggest s t ha t t he
S evern e stua ry was a ma jor p or t o f e nt ry o f G roup I X a xes i n to E ng land a nd t ha t a xes
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moved f r om t h is a rea u p t he S evern R iver i n t o c ent ra l E ng land a nd a cross n or thern W i l t sh ire a nd B erksh i re t oward t he L ondon a rea . F rom t he L ondon a rea , a xes o fG roup I X a ppea r t oh ave b een e x changed o ver land i n an or theast er ly d i rec t ion t owa rd E a st Ang l ia .
T he h igh mean l eng th o f t he a xes i n t he
C ambr idge g r id s quare s ugges t s d i rec t movemen to ft he a xes t ot h is a rea , b u t ac l oser l o ok a t t he d a ta r evea ls t ha t t h is mean r ef lec t s t he l e ng th o fo ne l a rge G roup I X a xe ( a c tua l ly t he l o nges t o ne i n t h is d a ta s e t ) a nd o ne sma l l a xe t ha t i sn o t v ery d i f f eren t i nl e ng th f r om t he o ther G roup I X a xes i n t he a rea .
T hus , s amp l ing b ias d ue t o sma l l s amp le s i ze may
b e t he e xp lana t ion f o r t he h igh mean l e ng th o ft he G roup I X a xes i n t h is a rea r a ther t han ar ea l d epar tu re f r om t he g enera l p a t t ern o f r e c iproca l e xchange o f a xes o ver land a f ter e n t ry a tt he c oasta l l o ca l i t ies . O ther p a t terns i n G roup I X a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty s ugges t e ntry o f t hese a xes o n t he c oas t s o f t he L ake D ist r i c t w i th s ubsequen t movemen t i n land t oward Y orksh i re a nd L in c o lnsh ire , e n t ry o f a xes o n t he We lsh c oas t , a nd p oss ib ly e n try o f a xes o n t he s ou thern c oa s to fE ng land . I n c on c lus ion , t h is a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup I X h as b een l im it ed b y t he s ma l l s amp les t ha t a re a va i lab le f o r mos t a reas . H owever , t he p a t tern ing t ha t c an b e o bserved t ends t o i nd icat e t ha t t hese a xes w ere t ranspor ted f r om t he s our ce a l ong c oasta l wa terways t o d if eren t a reas o f E ng land a nd Wa les where t hey w ere l anded a t al im ited n umber o fl o ca l i t ies f o r s ubsequen t d i s t r ibu t ion i n land . O ne o f t he p r imary p or t s o fe n t ry s eems t o h ave b een t he S evern e s tuary .
F rom
t h is a rea a xes a ppea r t o h ave b een t ransport ed t hroughou t much o f c en t ra l a nd s ou thern E ng land , a l be i ti nr e la t ive ly sma l l n umbers .
G roup XX
Axes o fG roup XX mat er ia l , wh ich s eems l i ke ly t oh ave o r ig ina ted i nt he C harnwood F ores t a rea o f L e ices tersh ire ( Sho t t on 1 959 :141-43 ) , c o mpr ise t he f i f th mos t a bundan t
3 09
g roup o f B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes .
E ven s o , t hey a re r e la t ive ly r are , a ccoun t ing f o r
o n ly 4 .4% o ft he g rouped a xes i nt h is d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o fa l l o ft he c o mp let e G roup XX a xes wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r e f erences a re s hown i n F ig . 1 1 .13 . 1 On t h is map i tc an b e s een t ha t a xes o f G roup XX h ave b een f ound i na reas i na l l d i rect ions a round t he s our ce , a l though t hey h ave n o t b een f ound a s f a r f r om t he s ource n or i n e qua l n umbers i n e very d i rec t ion .
T he
g rea t es t n umbers o f t hese a xes h ave b een f ound i n t he P eak D ist r ic t t o t he n or th o f t he s our ce a nd i n t he C ambr idge a rea t ot he s ou theas t . B oth o ft hese a reas h ave b een r ecog n i zed p rev ious ly a s a reas o fr e la t ive ly d ense N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion a nd c orrespond ing ly h igh c onsumpt ion o f s t one a xes .
I n c on t ras t , f ewer G roup XX a xes h ave b een f ound i n t he
Wes t M id lands a nd t he S ou theas t M id lands , a reas wh ich a ppear t oh ave w i tnessed much l e ss i n t ens ive N eo l i th ic a c t iv i ty . T hese p a t t erns o f a bso lu te a bundance s ugges t t ha t G roup XX a xes w ere d i s t r ibu ted t h rough t he mechan ism o fv i l lage -to -v i l lage e xchange i na l l d i rec t i ons o u tward f r om t he s our ce w ith g rea ter n umbers o ft hem h av ing b een l o s to r d i scarded i na reas o fd enser N eo l i th i c p opu la t ion t han i na reas o fl e ss i n tens ive a c t iv i ty . H owever , C umm ins 's map ( 1979 :9 , F ig . 5 a ) s how ing r e la t ive a bundance o f G roup XX a xes s ugges ts p ref eren t ia l movemen t o f t hese i mp lemen t s t o a reas n or th a nd w es t o f t he s ource a nd p erhaps d i rec t t ranspor to fa xes f r om t he s ource t ot he C ambr idge a nd N or f o lk a reas .
S u ch p a t terns o f d if eren t ia l d i s tr ibut ion , p erhaps e ven i nvo lv ing d if eren t
mechan isms o f a xe d i spersa l i nd if eren t d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce , m igh t a ccoun t f o r t he r e la t ive ly p oor r esu l ts o bta ined b y H odder a nd L ane ( 1980 , 1 982 ) i nt he ir a t t emp t t o i d en t i fy s i ze p a t terns among G roup XX a xes i n u n if orm d i stan ce b ands a round t he s ource . I n t h is i nves t iga t ion , i d en t if i ca t ion a nd c o mpar ison o f p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XX a xes i n d if eren t d i re ct ions , a s w e l l a s a t d if eren t d i stances , f r om t he s our ce s hou ld a l low c l a r if i ca t ion o fp a t terns a nd mechan isms o fd i spersa l o ft hese a xes .
lI n a dd i t ion , u nprovenanced a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l a re k nown f r om t he c oun t ies o f D erbysh ire a nd C ambr idgesh ire .
3 10
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
G enera l o bservat ions i n t he l i t erature o n t he morpho logy o f G roup XX i mp lement s s uggest t ha t t he s tandard p roduct o f t h is s ource was a smooth ly g round , r a ther b u lbous f o rm o f a xe w i th a n e l l ipt ica l c ross -sect ion 1 979 :85 ) .
( Cumm ins a nd Moore
1 973 :238 ;
Moore
Among t he G roup XX a xes f ound i nE as t Ang l ia , C lough a nd G reen ( 1972 :123 )
r ecogn ize a v ery p rec ise ly made a nd w e l l -f ormed t ype , wh ich h as v i rtua l ly s t ra ight b u t n o t p ara l le l s i des , af a t t ish s ec t ion , ac arefu l ly s haped b u t t a nd a n e ven ly c urved c ut t ing e dge . T hey f urther s uggest t ha t among t he a xes o ft h is t ype , t wo moda l s i zes c an b e s een , w ith l eng ths o ft he l a rger a xes r ang ing f r om 1 9-23 cm a nd l e ng ths o ft he sma l ler o nes r ang ing f r om 1 1-13 cm ( i b id . :123 , 1 38 , F ig . 1 2 , N 1 52 , N 1 51 , S1 01 ) .
I n a dd it ion , t hey n ote
( i b id . :123 ) t ha t , A sma l ler n umber o f a xes h ave s l ight ly c urved s i des , al e ss c l ear ly d ef ined b ut t a nd ac ut t ing e dge wh ich i sw ider i n r e lat ion t o t he ir l eng th r ather t han t hose o f [ t he f o rmer t ype ] . F rom t he
i lus trat ions p ub l ished b y C lough a nd G reen ( i b id . :138 , F ig . 1 2 , CA M 6 5 ,
CAM 6 3 ) , a xes o f t h is t ype a ppear t o c o mpare i n l e ng th w ith t he sma l ler a xes o f t he f o rmer t ype .
I n ag enera l a na lys is o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among a xes o fG roup XX ,
q uest ions o f whether t he d if eren t s i zes a nd f o rms o f a xes r ecogn ized among t he s amp le f r om E ast Ang l ia c an t ru ly b e d if erent iated a nd whether t hey c an b e i d en t if i ed among a xes o ft h is mater ia l f r om o ther a reas w i l l b e a ddressed . B es ides t he c harac ter is t ic b u lbous f o rm o f a xe ( and i t s p oss ib le s ubtypes ) , a nother t ype o f G roup XX i mp lemen t h as b een d escr ibed i n t he l i t era ture .
T h is i s a n a dze w ith
s i de f a cets a nd a r ectangu lar c ross -sect ion ( C lough a nd G reen 1 972 :123 ; C umm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :238 ; Moore 1 979 :85 ) . On ly t wo G roup XX i mp le ments o ft h is t ype h ave b een men t ioned i np r in t , a l though at h ird i mp lement w i th t hese f ea tures c an b e i d en t if i ed among t he a xes i nt h is d ata s et . T hese i mp lemen ts a re L incs . 7 9 ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :238 , F ig . 1 2 , # 80 ) , N orf . 8 1 ( F ig . 1 1 .14a ) , a nd E ssex 3 7 ( F ig . 1 1 .14b ) . A l l t hree o ft hese a dzes
3 11
a re r e la t ive ly sma l l w i th l e ng ths o f 1 36 mm , 1 12 mm , a nd 9 7 mm , r espec t ive ly .
T hese
s i zes p lus t he r a ther c rude ly f i n ished a ppearances o f t he i mp lemen t s s ugges t t ha t t hey may h ave b een r e -worked f r om l a rger a xes . T o i nves t iga t e p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f v a r ious g roups , t he s tandard p rocedure h as b een t o c ons ider i n i t ia l ly a s amp le o f a xes f ound c l ose t o t he s our ce o f t he r aw ma ter ia l .
F or G roup XX , d ef in ing s uch a s amp le i s p rob lema t i c .
I n
F ig . 1 1 .13 a nd F ig . 1 1 .15 , i tc an b e s een t ha t t wo a xes h ave b een f ound i nt he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft he p resumed s ource l o ca l i ty . Unf or tunat e ly , morpho log i ca l d a ta w ere n ot a va i l a b le f o r t hese i mp lemen ts .
B eyond t he i mmed ia te s ource a rea , a n a dd i t iona l f i ve a xes
w ere f ound w i th in 4 5 km o f t he s ource .
Morpho log ica l d a ta w ere a va i lab le f o r t hree o f
t hese . T hey v ary c ons iderab ly i ns i ze , h av ing l e ng ths o f 1 67 mm , 1 45 mm , a nd 9 5 mm . I n F ig . 1 1 .15 a f ur ther b reak i n t he d i stances f r om t he s our ce a t wh i ch c o mp let e a xes o fG roup XX h ave b een f ound c an b e s een a t a pprox ima te ly 7 6 km .1 O n t h is b as is , ab roader n ea r -sou rce s amp le c ou ld b e d ef ined a s i n c lud ing t he a xes f ound w i th in 7 6 km f r om t he s ource . T h is w ou ld i n c lude a l l o f t he a xes f r om t he P eak D is t r ic t .
Whether t he
a xes f r om t h is a rea s hou ld b e i n c luded i n t he n ea r -sour ce s amp le c an b e q ues t ioned i fi n s u ch a s amp le w e a re t ry ing t o i s o la t e i mp lemen t s p roduced b y p eop le who o b ta ined t he i r r aw mat er ia l d i rec t ly f r om t he s our ce .
B ecause o f t he p rob lems i nvo lved i n d ef in ing a
n ear -sour ce s amp le o fG roup XX a xes , f o r a n i n -depth a na lys is o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among i mp lemen t s o ft h is mat er ia l , t he e n t ire s amp le w i l l b e c ons idered a t t he o u tse t . H is tog rams o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup XX a xes i n t h is s amp le a re p resen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .16 .
I n t he h i s tog ram o f l e ng th mea suremen t s , s evera l
v ery l a rge a xes a re i nd icat ed i n a dd i t ion t o al a rg e g roup o f sma l ler o nes . Among t he l a t t e r t here i se v idence o f b imoda l i ty i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f l e ng th measuremen t s wh i ch may i nd ica t e t he p resence o fc l asses o f med ium -s ized a nd sma l l a xes . T he o ther s i ze a nd s hape
lI n
f ac t , n o c o mp le te a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound b e tween 7 2 km a nd 8 1 km f r om t he p resumed s our ce a rea .
3 12
v ar iab les a re a l l b imoda l o r mu lt i -moda l , i nd ica t ing t hat d if erent s hapes a s w e l l a s d i f f e ren t s i zes o fa xes may b e p resent i n t h is s amp le . T he v ar iab i l i ty i nv a lues o ft he l e ng th w id th r a t io i s p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing i n t h is r egard , s i nce i tr eca l ls C lough a nd G reen 's a sser t ion t hat s o me o f t he G roup XX a xes f ound i n E ast Ang l ia a re w ider i n r e la t ion t o t he ir l e ng th t han o thers . On s ca t ter p l ot s o f l e ng th v s .
w idth a nd l e ng th v s .
t h ickness measurement s
( F ig . 1 1 .17 ) , i n terest ing p at terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity among G roup XX a xes a re i nd ica ted .
On b oth p l o ts , ag roup o f f our v ery l a rge a xes c an b e s een .
On t he p l ot o f
l e ng th v s . w idth measuremen ts , t hree med ium -s ized a xes t ha t a re u nusua l ly w ide f o r t he ir l e ng th c l ear ly s tand o u t . I n a dd it ion , o n b oth p lot s , t here i se v idence o fg roups o f med ium s i zed a nd sma l l a xes s epara ted s o mewhere a round 1 30 mm i n l eng th . B ecause t hese i n i t i a l i nd ica tors o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XX s eem t or ef lect a c om p l ex p at tern o fd if eren t s i zes a nd s hapes o f a xes i n t h is s amp le , w e t urn t ot he more c om p l ex a na lyt ica l t e chn iques t ha t h ave b een u sed s o s uccessfu l ly b ef ore . Ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he c o mp le te G roup XX a xes i n t h is s amp le f o r wh ich a l l o f t hese measurements a re a va i lab le ( F ig . 1 1 .18 ) i nd i c a tes s i gn if i can t r e la t ionsh ips among many o ft he v ar iab les . A s w e h ave s een f o r s o many g roups o f a xes , t he s t ronges t c orre lat ions a re b etween max imum w idth a nd c en ter w id th , max imum t h ickness a nd c en ter t h ickness , a nd w id th / th ickness r a t io a nd c ross -sect ion r at io .
S ince t he v ar iab les i n t hese p a irs a ppear t o b e r edundan t r ef lec t ions o f t he s ame
a spect s o f a xe s i ze a nd s hape , t he " center" v ar iab les w ere om it ted f r om s ubsequen t s tages o ft he a na lys is . A p r inc ipa l c o mponen ts a na lys is o f t he s i x r e ma in ing s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup XX a xes ( Tab le 1 1 .5 ) y ie lded t hree s i gn if i cant c o mponents .
T he f i rs t o f t hese
r ef lects v ar iab i l i ty among t hese a xes i n l eng th , t h ickness , a nd s hape i n f a ce v i ew .
T he
s econd c o mponen t r ef lects v ar iab i l i ty i n c ross -sect iona l s hape a nd t o al e sser e x ten t i n
3 13
w idth a nd i n s hape i n p rof i le v i ew .
F ina l ly , t he t h ird c o mponen t r ef lec t s v ar iab i l i ty i n
w id th a nd t h ickness b ut n o t i ns hape i np rof i le o r f a ce v i ews . D ist r ibu t ions
o f t he
p resen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .19 .
s cores
o f t he
t hree
s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c o mponen ts a re
T he s econd a nd t h ird o f t hese h i s tog rams a re c l ea r ly b imoda l .
T he f i rs t i ss kewed a nd h as t wo o u t l iers w i th u nusua l ly h igh s cores .
T hese p a t t erns o f
v ar iab i l i ty c l ea r ly i nd icat e t ha t d if eren t morpho log i ca l c l asses o f a xes may b e p resen t i n t h is s amp le . I n a n a t temp t t o i d en t ify d if eren t morpho log ica l c l asses among t he G roup XX a xes , ac l uster a na lys is was p er f ormed b ased o n t he s cores o ft he t hree s i gn if i can t p r inc ipa l c om p onen t s ( F ig . 1 1 .20 ) . I n t h is , t he m in imum v ar ian ce a l gor i thm a nd t he E uc l idean d i s tance mea sure w ere u sed , a nd t he v ar iab les w ere w e igh ted a c cord ing t ot he ir e i genva lues i n t he p r in c ipa l c omponen ts a na lys is . A ma jor i n crease i n t he d i s tan ces a t wh ich c l us ters j o ined i n t h is a na lys is i nd icates t ha t f i ve c l asses o f a xe s c an b e i d ent if ied .
T hese a re s hown o n
s ca t ter p l o t s o f l e ng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s i n F ig . 1 1 .21 , d escr ip t ion s o ft he a xes i nt he c l us ters a re g iven i nT ab le 1 1 .6 , a nd a xes r epresen ta t ive o f t hese g roups a re s hown i nF ig . 1 1 .14 a nd F ig . 1 1 .22 . On t he s ca t ter p l o t s ( F ig . 1 1 .21 ) a nd i n T ab le 1 1 .6 , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he c l us ter a na lys is h as p roduced a g roup o fv ery l a rge a xes ( c luste r 5 ) , ag roup o f med ium -s ized a xes t ha t a re u nusua l ly w ide i n r e la t ion t o t he i r l eng th ( c lus ter 4 ) , ag roup o f med ium -s ized a xes o f more " norma l" w id ths ( c lust er 3 ) , a nd t wo g roups o f sma l l a xes , t he i mp lemen t s i n o ne ( c lus ter 2 ) b e ing o n a verage a bso lu te ly a nd r e la t ive ly t h icker t han t he i mp lemen t s i n t he o ther ( c lus ter 1 ) . T he l a rge a xes i nc l ust er 5 ( e .g . , F ig . 1 1 .22a ,b ) a ppea r t o c orrespond w i th t he l a rger s i ze o f C lough a nd G reen 's ( 1972 :123 ) " very p rec i se ly made a nd w e l l -f ormed t ype" w i th " v ir tua l ly s t ra igh t b u t n o t p a ra l le l s i des ."
T he f ou r i mp lemen t s i n t h is g roup , a l though
v ary ing i n s i ze , a re a l l s ymmet r ica l i n s hape . T hey a re a l so smooth ly g round a nd e xh ib i t v ery l i t t le e v iden ce o f u se w ear .
T here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t hese a re o r ig ina l ly -
3 14
p roduced a xes .
I n a dd i t ion , i tc an b e s uggested t ha t t hey may h ave b een r egarded , a nd
i ndeed , s pec if i ca l ly p roduced , a s v a luab le , c eremon ia l i t ems . T he u nusua l ly w ide a xes i n c l ust er
4 a re v ery s im i lar i n s i ze b u t a re l e ss
h o mogeneous i n s hape a nd o ther f ea tures .
T he most f i ne ly f o rmed o f t he g roup i s
C ambs . 6 5 ( F ig . 1 1 .22d ) .
T h is i so ne o ft he a xes C lough a nd G reen i d ent if ied a s r e la t ive ly
w ide . T h is i mp lemen t i s smooth ly g round f r om t he b lade t o a bou t t he m idd le o f t he b ody a nd a ga in a t t he b u t t . h af ted , i ti s r ougher .
I n b e tween , i n t he a rea where t he i mp lemen t m ight h ave b een
T he b lade i s s harp w ith n o o bv ious s i gns o f u se .
I n a dd it ion , t he
c o lor o f t h is a xe i s ar i ch med ium g reen , l i ke t ha t o f s o me j ade a xes . I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t h is , t o o , may h ave b een r egarded a s av a luab le i t em . Another o f t he u nusua l ly w ide a xes , C ambs . 1 26 ( F ig . 1 1 .22c ) h as b een d amaged c ons iderab ly .
Much o f t he s urface h as b een e roded away , t here a re many g ouges o n t he
f a ces , a nd t he b ut t h as b een f l aked . t hrough u se .
I n a dd i t ion , t he b lade i sq u i te h eav i ly w orn , p erhaps
F ina l ly , t he t h ird u nusua l ly a xe , Norf . 2 40 , a ppears , f r om t he p etro logy
r ecord c ard d raw ing t ha t h ad t o b e r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d ata , t o b e w orn a l ong t he e nt ire l eng th o f t he b lade .
T he s i zes o f t hese a xes s uggest t ha t t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly
p roduced f r om r aw ma ter ia l a t t he s ource , a l though i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b een r e -worked f r om l a rger a xes s uch a s t hose i nc l us ter 5 . T he a xes i n c l us ter 3 g enera l ly c orrespond w i th t he sma l ler s i ze o f C lough a nd G reen 's ma in t ype o fG roup XX a xes . I nc luded i n t h is c l uster i so ne o ft he s pec imens t hey i lustrated ( Norf . 1 51 ) . t i ve ly w ide .
A lso i n c luded , h owever , i so ne o f t he a xes t hey c l ass if ied a s r e la -
T h is i mp lemen t , C ambs . 6 3 ( F ig . 1 1 .220 , i ss ymmetr ica l i n s hape , a l though
s l ight ly d amaged a t t he b u t t .
T he b lade i s s harp w i th n o e v idence o f u se w ear .
I n c on -
t ras t , o ther a xes i n t h is g roup d o e xh ib i t w ear a l ong t he b lade , a nd o ne e xamp le ( Shrop . 6 , F ig . 1 1 .22e ) h as b een h eav i ly f l aked a t b oth c orners o ft he b lade . Mos t o ft he i mp lemen ts i n t h is g roup a re q u i te s ymmet r ica l i n s hape , e xcep t where d amaged . I tc an b e s uggested t ha t many o f t hem w ere o r ig ina l ly p roduced f r om r aw mater ia l a t t he s ource a nd
3 15
r epresen t t yp ica l u t i l itar ian i mp lemen t s o f t h is ma t er ia l .
A s urpr is ing i n c lus ion i n t h is
g roup i sL in cs . 7 9 ,1o ne o ft he s quare -s ided a dzes . I ti so ne o f t he sma l ler i mp lemen ts i n t h is c l us ter a nd may h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a l a rger o ne . T he sma l ler i mp lemen t s i n c l us ters 1 a nd 2 may b e l a rge ly r e -worked s pec imens . A l though s o me o ft hem a re q u i te s ymme t r ica l i ns hape ( e .g . , S uf f . 1 01 , F ig . 1 1 .22g ) , mos t a re n o t ( e .g . , N or f . 8 1 , F ig . 1 1 .14a ) , a nd s o me h ave c l ear ly b een r epea ted ly w orn a nd r e s harpened o r r e -worked ( e .g . , N or f . 1 60 , F ig . 1 1 .22h ) . T he i mp lemen ts i nc l us ter 1a re o n a verage t h inner t han t hose i nc l u s ter 2 . A s h as b een s uggested f o r o ther g roups o f a xes , t h is s o r t o f v ar iab i l i ty among sma l ler a xes i s p robab ly l a rge ly t he r esu l t o f r e -work ing i mp lemen t s t ha t h ave b een d amaged o r b roken i n d if eren t ways .
H owever , i ti s a l so
l i ke ly t ha t s uch d i f f eren t ly s haped i mp lemen t s , o nce p rodu ced , w ere s e lect ed f o r t ask s f o r wh ich t hey w ere b es t s u i ted . I n s ummary , s evera l morpho log i ca l c l asses o fG roup XX a xes h ave b een i d en t if ied i n t h i s a na lys is .
T hese i n c lude a g roup o f v ery l a rge a xes t ha t may h ave b een p roduced
s pec if i ca l ly a s v a luab le i t ems , ag roup o f u nusua l ly w ide a xes t ha t may i n c lude b oth o r ig ina l ly -produ ced a nd r e -worked s pec imens , ag roup o f med ium -s ized a xes o f more " nor ma l" w idths t ha t may r epresen t t he o rd inary u t i l itar ian p roduc t s o f t h is s ource , a nd t wo g roups o f sma l l a xes t ha t a ppea r t o i n c lude p r imar i ly r e -worked s pec imens .
S evera l o f
t hese c l asses o f a xes c orrespond b road ly w i th t he s i zes a nd s hapes o f a xes i d en t if ied b y C lough a nd G reen among s pe c imens f ound i n E as t Ang l ia .
H owever , s o me o ft he s pec if i c
a xes men t ioned b y C lough a nd G reen f e l l i n t o d if eren t c l asses i nt h is a na lys is . B ecause o f t he i n c lus ion o f a xes f r om o ther a rea s , t he d ef in i t ions o f t he moda l t ypes o f a xes h ave s h if ted s o mewha t , a nd s pec if i c a xes f r om E as t Ang l ia w ere s een t o b e more l i ke s o me o f t he a xes f r om t he o ther a reas t han l i ke e a ch o ther .
1N o t
i lus t ra t ed h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p e t ro logy r e cord c a rd d raw ing .
3 16
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D istr ibut ion
B ef ore t urn ing t o ag enera l i nvest iga t ion o f s pat ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup XX , morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he f ew a xes o ft h is ma ter ia l f r om s pec if i c c ontex ts o fd epos i t ion must b e c ons idered .
Axes f r om S pec if i c C ont exts o fD epos i t ion
On ly f i ve c o mp lete G roup XX a xes a re r eported t oh ave b een r ecovered f r om s pec if i c c on text s o f d epos it ion :
t wo f r om o ccupat ion s i tes a nd o ne e ach f r om b ur ia l c ontex ts ,
a ssoc iat ions o fa xes , a nd t he R iver T hames ( Tab le 1 1 .7 ) .
O ccupa t ion S i tes T he sma l lest c o mp lete G roup XX a xe i n t h is d ata s et was f ound i n F e l twe l l p ar ish , N orf o lk , a n a rea wh ich h as b een n o ted s evera l t imes b ef ore a s c harac ter ized b y a pparen t ly i n t ens ive N eo l i th ic o ccupat ion
a nd
a c t iv ity .
T he
s i ze o f t h is i mp lemen t ,
Norf . 1 60
( F ig . 1 1 .22h ) , i nd ica tes t ha t i th ad b een r e -sharpened a nd /or r e -worked many t imes .
I t s
b lade i s d u l l , c h ipped i n s evera l p laces , a nd u neven ly worn t o a n a symmet r ica l s hape . S tr ia t ions r unn ing b ack f r om t he b lade a t test t o t he d i rect ion i n wh ich t h is i mp lement was u sed . T h is a xe was p robab ly d i scarded a t t he e nd o f al ong u se l i f e , when i t s b lade b ecame d u l l a nd d amaged a nd i t was r egarded a s n o l onger w or th r e -sharpen ing . A l a rger G roup XX a xe was f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions a t t he M idd le B ronze Age e nc losure o n R ams H i l l , B erksh ire ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 :87 ) . T h is i s av ery l a te c on t ex tf o r as t one a xe . However , r a ther t han i nd icat ing t ha t s t one a xes w ere r egu lar ly made a nd u sed d ur ing t h is p er iod , Sm i th ( 1979 :20 ) s uggest s t ha t t h is i mp lemen t ( Berks . 7 0 , B rad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 :85 , F ig . 3 .1 , # 15 ) s hou ld p robab ly b e i n t erpre ted a s ac hance
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f i nd t ha t was u sed ' a nd t hen d epos i ted b y t he i nhab i tan t s o f t he s i t e .
N o o ther c o mp le te
G roup XX a xes h ave b een f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare a s t h is o ne .
B ur ia l C ont ex t s A s i ng le G roup XX a xe was a pparent ly f ound i n ab arrow a t C ross P la t t s P lan ta t i on , M idd let on a nd Smerr i l l , i n t he P eak D is tr i c t , b y t he e ar ly c o l lec tor B a teman ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :66 ) .
W i th a l e ng th o f 1 21 mm , D erby . 9 02 i s ar e la t ive ly sma l l a xe .
T he a symme t r ica l s hape o f i t s b lade a t t est s t o i t s h av ing b een w orn t hrough u se .
O f t he
o ther f i ve G roup XX a xes i n t he s ame g r id s quare f o r wh i ch morpho log ica l d a ta a re a va i l a b le , t hree a re l a rger t han t h is o ne a nd t wo a re sma l ler . I ft h is a xe was , i ndeed , p la ced w i th a b u r ia l , i t c an p robab ly b es t b e i n terpret ed a s t he u t i l i tar ian a xe h e ld b y t he d eceased a t t he t ime o fd ea th .
A ssoc ia t ions o f Axes Ano ther G roup XX a xe was r eport ed ly f ound w i th a n a xe o f u ng rouped t uf a t S pr ing B arrow L odge , B o lt on , L e ices tersh ire , o n ly 2 km f r om t he p resumed s ource o f t he G roup XX ma ter ia l ( Moore a nd C umm ins 1 974 :67 ) .
Unf or tuna t e ly , n o s i ze d a ta w ere
a va i lab le f o r e i ther o ft hese a xes .
T he R iver T hames A s i ng le G roup XX a xe was r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
W i th a l eng th o f
1 29 mm , t h is i mp lemen t c ou ld b e c l ass if ied a s med ium -s ized o r sma 1 1 .3 H owever , i ti s q u it e s ymme t r i ca l i n s hape ( s ee S tan ley 1 976 :11 , # 82 ) wh ich i nd i ca tes t ha t i t may h ave b een o r ig ina l ly p roduced a t t he s our ce . A s s uch , i tw ou ld b e b e t ter c l ass if ied a s amed ium -
11 n o ne s ec t ion o f t he p a l isade t r ench , t o o l mark s f r om a s t one a xe o f t h is t ype w ere o bserved ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 :87 ) . 2N o t 31 t
i lust ra ted h ere ; i n f orma t ion f r om t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing .
was n ot i n c luded i nt he c l us ter a na lys is b ecause i t s t h ickness i su nknown .
3 18
s i zed a xe . N o o ther c omp let e G roup XX a xes w i th wh ich t he s i ze o ft h is o ne c ou ld b e c o rn p a red h ave b een f ound i nt he s ame g r id s quare .
S ummary A l l o f t he G roup XX a xes r ecovered f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s o f d epos i t ion a re r e la t i ve ly sma l l i mp lemen ts .
Unf or tuna t e ly , d ue t o t he sma l l n umber o f a xes f r om e a ch o f
t hese c ont ex ts , n o c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn f r om t h is s amp le a bou t t he s i zes o f a xes r e covered f r om d i f f eren t c on tex t s n or a bou t p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion .
F o r
i n s igh t s i n t o t he l a t t er , w e mus t t urn t o ac ons idera t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n mor p ho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XX a xes f r om u nknown c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
F or f ur ther i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup XX , t he t o ta l d i s tr ibut ion o ft hese i mp lement s c an b e d i v ided i n to f i ve ma jor g eog raph ica l s ec tors , a s i nd i ca ted i n F ig . 1 1 .23 .
I n a dd i t ion , c i rc les w i th r ad i i o f 4 5 km
( e nc los ing t he n ear -sour ce s amp le ) a nd 1 10 km c an b e u sed t od iv ide e a ch ma jor s e ctor i n to t hree b road d i s tance b ands .
T he l o ca t ions i n e ach o f t hese a reas o f a xes i n e a ch o f t he
c l us ters p roduced b y t he c l us ter a na lys is a re s hown i nF ig . 1 1 .24 . I n F ig . 1 1 .24 i tc an b e s een t ha t med ium -s ized a nd s ma l l a xes o fc l ust er s 1 ,2 ,a nd 3 a re s pread t hroughou t t he t o ta l d i str ibut ion o fG roup XX a xes . I n c on t rast , i ti sc l ear t ha t t he v ery l a rge a xes o fc l uster 5 a nd t he u nusua l ly w ide a xes o fc l us ter 4a re f ound a lmos t e x c lus ive ly i n E as t Ang l ia .'
T he s o le e x cept ion t o t h is i s av ery l a rge a xe f ound i n L in -
c o lnsh ire .2 H owever , i tc an b e n ot ed t ha t t h is i s t he sma l les t o f t he v ery l a rge a xes . T hus , t he t o ta l s amp le o f G roup XX a xes f ound i n E as t Ang l ia i n c ludes b oth a xes o f t he " ord inary" t ypes f ound i n o ther a reas p lus a xes o f u nusua l f o rms n o t g enera l ly f ound i n
" The t h i rd u nusua l ly w ide a xe , n o t s hown i n F ig . 1 1 .24 , i s a n u nprovenanced s pec imen f r om C ambr idgesh ire . 2L in cs .
1 01 ; C umm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :238 , F ig . 1 2 , # 102 .
3 19
o ther a reas .
T hese u nusua l i mp lemen t s c onst i tut e o ver o ne -th ird o f t he G roup XX a xes
f ound i nE ast Ang l ia . Wha t d oes t h is d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f o rd inary a nd u nusua l a xes s i gn ify i n t e rms o f p at t erns a nd p rocesses o f a xe e xchange? I t was s ugges ted a bove t ha t t he v ery l a rge a xes a nd s ome , a t l e as t , o f t he v ery w ide o nes may h ave b een r ega rded , a nd e ven s pec if i ca l ly p roduced , a s v a luab le g oods . I fi tc an b e a ssumed t ha t a l l G roup XX a xes w ere p rodu ced i n t he i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o f t he s ource , t hen i t w ou ld a ppea r t ha t t he a xe p roducers w ere e x chang ing o n ly o rd inary a xes w i th g roups i n most d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce b u t b o th o rd inary a nd v a luab le a xes w i th g roups i n E as t Ang l ia .
A p oss ib le
e xp lana t ion f o r t h is p ref erent ia l movemen t o fv a luab le a xes t oE as t Ang l ia i sa s f o l lows . A s tudy o f t he c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ips among v ar ious a xe g roups h as r evea led t ha t t he G roup XX s ource was e xp lo i ted i n t he L ates t N eo l i th i c , at ime when t he f l in t m ines o f Eas t Ang l ia ( e .g . , G r imes G raves a nd o thers ; H ea ly 1 980 :144 ) a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een i n f u l l p rodu c t ion .
T hus , a t t h is t ime p eop le i n E as t Ang l ia s eem l i ke ly t o h ave h ad
i mmed ia te a ccess t oa bundan t s upp l ies o ff l in t a xes . I n t h is c ase , o rd inary u t i l i tar ian s t one a xes f r om d i s tan t s our ces may n o t h ave b een a s a t t rac t ive t o t hem a s g oods t o r ece ive i n e xchange t ransa c t ions a s t hey m igh t h ave b een t og roups i no ther a reas where a l terna t ive s upp l ies o f r aw ma ter ia l f o r a xe p roduc t ion w ere n o t s o r ead i ly a va i lab le . I tc an b e s ug g es ted t ha t p eop le i n E as t Ang l ia w ou ld h ave p ref erred t o r e ce ive a xes o f u nusua l s i zes , s hapes , a nd /or c o lors wh i ch c ou ld b e r egarded a s v a luab le g oods a nd u sed a s c eremon ia l o b jec t s .
I n r esponse t o t h is , i t may b e t ha t t he p eop le l i v ing n ea r t he G roup XX s our ce ,
a nd p resumab ly c on t ro l l ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f t h is mat er ia l , c hanne led t he l a rges t a nd w ides t a xes made a t t he s ource t owa rd E as t Ang l ia i n o rder t o ma inta in e x change r e la t ionsh ips w i th p eop le t here .
I n f a c t , i ti sn o t i n conce ivab le t ha t t hese u nusua l a xes
w ere p roduced s pec if i ca l ly f o r t h is p urpose .
I n c on t ras t , p eop le i n t he G roup XX s our ce
a rea may h ave e x changed more o rd inary u t i l i tar ian a xes w i th p eop le i n o ther d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce who w ere p robab ly q u i te g ra tefu l t or ece ive a ny s t one a xes .
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F or e v idence o ft he p rocesses t hrough wh ich G roup XX a xes w ere d i spersed i n a rea s o ther t han E as t Ang l ia , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v a r iab i l i ty c an b e i nvest igat ed . F or t he s outhern s ec tor o ft he d i s t r ibu t ion , u nf or tuna t e ly , t o o f ew d a ta w ere a va i lab le f o r mean ing f u l a na lys is , b u t f o r t he a xes i n t he w estern , n or thwes tern , a nd n or theas t ern s ec tor s , a s ummary o ft he r e levan t d a ta i sg iven i nT ab le 1 1 .8 . I n e a ch o ft hese t hree s ec tors , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he mean l e ng th o ft he G roup XX a xes d ecreases , a l be i t s l igh t ly , w i th i n crea s i ng d i stan ce f r om t he s ource . T hese p a t terns o fs i ze v ar iab i l i ty i nd ica te t ha tt he G roup XX a xes f ound i n t hese a reas w ere d i s t r ibu ted t hrough t he mechan ism o fr ec iproca l e x change b e tween g roups l i v ing c l oser t ot he s our ce a nd g roups l i v ing f u r ther away . I n s ummary , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XX s uggest s t ha t t hese a xes w ere g enera l ly d i s t r ibu t ed o u tward f r om t he s ou rce t hrough p rocesses o f r ec iproca l g roup -t o -g roup e xchange ( F ig . 1 1 .25 ) . a reas t o t he w es t , n or thwes t ,
T h is i s mos t a pparen t f o r
a nd n or theas t o f t he s our ce where o n ly g enera l ized
u t i l i tar ian a xes o ft h is mat er ia l h ave b een f ound . F or E as t Ang l ia , t he s i tua t ion wa s s een t o b e s omewha t d if eren t .
P erhaps i n r esponse t o e xpressed p ref erences o f e x change
p ar tners , a xes o f u nusua l s i zes a nd s hapes , wh i ch may h ave b een r egarded a s v a luab le g oods , w ere b e ing e x changed i nt h is d i re ct ion a l ong w i th more o rd inary u t i l i tar ian a xes . I t s eems l i ke ly t ha t t he mechan ism f o r t h is was a l so g roup to -g roup r ec iproca l e x chang e . T he a bsence o f G roup XX a xes b e tween t he s our ce a nd t he c oun t ies o f E ast Ang l ia s ug g est s t ha t t here may h ave b een more l ong d i s tan ce t rave l ( t hrough s pa rse ly o c cup ied a reas ) i nvo lved i n t he movemen t o fa xes i n t h is d i rec t ion t han i n t he o ther d i rect ion s f r om t he s ource .
G roup XV I I I
Axes o f G roup XV I I I ma ter ia l make u p t he f our th mos t a bundan t g roup o f B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xes .
H owever , t hey a re r are i n c o mpar ison w i th a xes o f t he t wo mos t
a bundan tg roups ( V I a nd I ) , a nd t here a re f ewer t han h a lf a s many o ft hem a s o ft he t h i rd
3 21
mos t a bundan t g roup ( V I I ) .
A l toge ther , a xes o f G roup XV I I I a nd a xes o f ma ter ia ls
d escr ibed a s " near" G roup XV I I I' a ccoun t f o r o n ly 5% o f t he g rouped a xes i n t h is d a ta s e t . T he l o ca t ions o f a l l o f t he c o mp lete a xes o f G roup XV II I wh ich c ou ld b e a ss igned Na t iona l G r id r ef eren ces a re s hown i n F ig . 1 1 .26 . F rom t h is map , i ti sc l ear t ha t mos t o f t he k nown a xes o f t h is g roup w ere u sed a nd d epos i ted i n t he c oasta l a rea o f e as tern Y orksh ire a nd i n t he i mmed ia t e ly i n land Y orksh ire Wo lds . 2 Sma l ler n umbers o f t hese a xes a re s een i n w es tern Y orksh ire , L inco lnsh ire , t he P eak D ist r ic t , a nd E as t Ang l ia , wh i le af ew h ave b een f ound a s f a r away a s L ondon a nd t he Wessex a rea . T he q uar tz d o ler i te o f wh i ch G roup XV I I I i mp lemen t s a re made o u t crops o ver a w ide a rea o f n or thern E ng land i n t he Wh in S i l l f o rma t ion ( Keen a nd R ad ley 1 971 :17 , F ig . 1 ) , a nd b l ocks o fr o ck s u itab le i n s i ze f o r a xe p roduct ion h ave b een o bserved i n many Wh in S i l l s c rees ( i b id . ) .
H oweve r , a t temp t s t o l o ca te i mp lemen t " fac tory" s i tes i n o ut crop
a reas t hrough i d en t if i ca t ion o f c haract er is t i c r efuse , s u ch a s i ss een a t t he a xe " f a ct or ies" o f G roups V I a nd V I I , h ave n o t b een s u ccessfu l , n or i s t here s uff i c ien t v ar ia t ion i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he Wh in S i l l ma ter ia l t o a l low i d en t if i ca t ion o fp robab le " fa ct ory" l o ca t ions i n t h is way ( i b id . :26 ) .
I n s hor t , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t r aw ma ter ia l f o r a xe p rodu c t ion c ou ld
h ave b een o b ta ined a t an umber o f l o ca l i t ies a l ong t he c ourse o f t he Wh in S i l l f o rma t ion , b u t i th as n o t b een d emonst ra ted t ha t i t was o b ta ined a t a ny s u ch l o ca l i ty . F ur thermore , b ou lders o f Wh in S i l l ma ter ia l a re c o mmon i n t he g la c ia l d epos i t s o f t he Y orksh ire c oas t , wh i le o thers h ave b een o bserved f ur ther i n land i n t he Va le o fY ork , a nd i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t h is ma ter ia l m igh t a l so h ave b een p resen t i n t he g lac ia l d epos i t s o fL in co lnsh ire a nd E as t Ang l ia . S uch e rra t ics c ou ld w e l l h ave b een u sed f o r a xe p roduc t ion . T hu s , f o r t h is g roup i t
' For t he r e ma inder o f t h is i nvest iga t ion , a xes o f ma ter ia ls d escr ibed a s " near" G roup XV I I I w i l l b e c ons idered a l ong w i th t hose o fG roup XV I I I ma ter ia l p roper . 2I n a dd i t ion t ot he i mp lemen ts r epresen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .26 , a t l e as t f i ve G roup XV I I I a xes a re r epu ted t o h ave b een f ound i n t he Wo lds a rea , b u t t hey a re n o t p rec ise ly p rovenanced .
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c anno t b e a ssumed t ha t a l l o ft he a xes w ere made i n a nd d i s t r ibuted f r om a s i ng le s our ce a rea , s o t he l o c i o fp roduct ion o ft he a xes , a s w e l l a s t he mechan isms o fd i sper sa l , a re s ub j e ct s f o r i nves t iga t ion . T he p r imary c oncen t ra t ion o fG roup XV I I I a xes i ne as tern Y orksh ire t ha t i ss een i n F ig . 1 1 .26 i sa l so i nd icat ed o n C umm ins 's ( 1979 :8 , F ig . 4 a ) r e la t ive f r equen cy d i st r ibu t ion map , a l though t he a xes f ound f ur ther a f ie ld a re n o t r epresen ted .
T hese p a t t erns o f
a bso lut e a nd r e la t ive a bundan ce o fG roup XV I I I a xes s ugges t t wo p oss ib le i n t erpre ta t ions i n t e rms o f l o c i o f a xe p roduc t ion a nd p a t t erns o f a xe d i spersa l .
T hus , a xes o f G roup
XV I I I may n ave b een p roduced p r imar i ly i nt he Y orksh ire c oast a nd Wo lds a rea f r om g la c i a l e rra t ics a nd /or f r om b l ocks o f r aw ma t er ia l o bta ined t hrough p urposefu l j ourneys t o Wh in S i l l o ut crops , a nd t hen e xchanged o ver land f r om g roup t o g roup t o i n land a reas o f Y orksh ire a nd L inco lnsh ire a nd d i rec t ly b y c oasta l wa terway t o n or thern N orf o lk a nd a reas f ur ther s ou th .
A lterna t ive ly , a xes o f G roup XV I I I may h ave b een p roduced f r om
g la c ia l e rra t ics i nb o th t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea a nd i nt he N orf o lk c oas ta l a rea , a nd t hen d i st r ibu ted i n land f r om e a ch o f t hese a reas t hrough o ver land g roup -t o -g roup e xchange . I n t h is i nvest iga t ion , a na lys i s o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV I I I may a l low i d en t if i ca t ion o ft he l o c i o fp roduc t ion a nd c l ar if i ca t i on o ft he p a t terns o fd i spersa l o ft hese a xes .
Ana lys is o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty
L i t t le h as b een s a id i n t he l i t era ture c on cern ing morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV I I I .
I n t he p ub l ished r epor t o fp e t ro logy r esu l t s f o r t he c oun t ies o fL in -
c o lnsh ire , N o t t inghamsh ire , a nd R u t land ( Cumm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :236 ) , i t wa s n o ted t ha t G roup XV I I I a xes f ound i nt ha t a rea r ange i ns i ze f r om v ery l a rge o nes t os ma l l o nes o f t he B r id l ing ton t ype .
T he B r id l ing t on t ype o f a xe h a s b een c hara c ter ized a s g enera l ly
" c iga r -shaped" ( i b id . ) , o r more p rec ise ly , " broad ly o va l o r a lmos t c i r cu la r i n s e ct ion a nd g radua l ly t aper ing f r om a n a lmos t r ounded c u t t ing e dge t o ap o in t ed b u t t " ( Sheppard
3 23
1 920 :50 ) . I n a n a na lys i s o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among G roup XV I I I a xes , i tc an b e i nves t igat ed whether a ny o f t he s pe c imens c onf orm t o t h i s t ype , a nd i fs o , whe ther t hey r epresen t ad i s t inc t morpho log ica l c l a ss o fa xe . O ft he a xes o f G roup XV I I I f o r wh i ch morpho log ica l d a ta w ere a va i lab le , n one h a s a n e xpanded b lade a nd o n ly o ne e xh ib i t s t he a dze l ike c ha rac ter is t i cs o f a n a symmet r ica l p rof i le a nd c ross -se ct ion .
T h is i mp lemen t ( York s . 7 28 ) i so ne o f t he t wo men t ioned b y
Manby ( 1979 :73-74 ) t ha t a ppea r t o b e s imp ly r ough e rra t i c p ebb les o f G roup XV I I I mat er ia l o nt o wh ich c u t t ing e dges h ave b een w orked . I n a ssess ing morpho log ica l v ar iab il i ty among a xes o f v ar ious g roups , t he g enera l p rocedure h as b een t o c ons ider i n i t ia l ly a s amp le o f a xes f ound c l ose t o t he k nown a xe " fac t ory" s i te o r t he o u t crop f r om wh ich t he r aw ma ter ia l i sp resumed t o h ave o r ig ina ted . B ecause n o s i ng le s our ce o f t he r aw ma ter ia l u sed f o r a xes o f G roup XV I I I c an b e i d en t i f ied o r a ssumed , t he d ef in i t ion o f as amp le o f a xes f o r i n i t ia l morpho log ica l a na lys is c an n o t b e b ased o n s imp le d i s tan ce f r om a s ource .
H owever , s i n ce i ti sk nown t ha t G roup
XV I I I ma ter ia l was a va i lab le i n t he g la c ia l d epos i t s o f t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd s i nce a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l a re mos t a bundan t n ea r t he c oas t a nd i n t he a d jacen t Y orksh ire Wo lds a rea , i ts eems l o g i ca l t o u se t he a xes f r om t h is g enera l a rea a s t he s amp le f o r i n it ia l mor p ho log ica l
a na lys is .
S ubsequen t
a na lys is
c an
t hen
d e term ine
h ow
morpho log ica l
v ar iab i l i ty among G roup XV I I I a xes f ound i n o ther a reas r e la tes t o t ha t s een among t he a xes i nt he s amp le . H ist og rams o fv a lues o ft he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup XV I I I a xes f ound n ear t he Y orksh i re c oas t a nd i nt he i mmed ia te ly i n land Wo lds a rea a re p resen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .27 .
O f t hese , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fl eng th v a lues i sc l ea r ly t r i -moda l . T h is i nd i ca tes
t ha t t h is g roup o f a xes , l i ke mos t o f t he o thers , c an b e s eparated i n to c l a sses b ased o n g enera l s i ze .
Most o f t he o ther v ar iab les a re a l so mu l t i -moda l , i nd i ca t ing t he p resence o f
d i f f eren t s i zes a nd /or s hapes o fi mp lemen t s i n t h is s amp le . I n a dd i t ion , u nusua l ly h igh o r l ow o u t l ier v a lues a re s een o n many o f t he h i st og rams .
T hese p o in t t o t he p resence o f a
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f ew a xes o fs i zes o r s hapes t ha t a re q u it e d i f f erent f r om t he r es t o ft he i mp lemen ts i n t he s amp le . S cat ter p l ots o f l e ng th v s . w idth a nd l eng th v s . t h ickness measuremen ts f o r t he G roup XV I I I a xes i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds s amp le a re p resent ed i n F ig . 1 1 .28 . On b oth o f t hese p l ots , t he l a rges t a xe , Y orks . 2 8 , s tands a part f r om t he r est o f t he s pec imens . I n a dd it ion t ob e ing t he l o nges t i mp lement i nt h is s amp le , i ti sa l so t he t h ickes t a nd h as t he g reates t c enter t h ickness a s w e l l a s t he sma l lest w id th / th ickness r at io a nd c ross -sect ion r a t io v a lues ( s ee h i st og rams i n F ig . 1 1 .27 ) .
F rom t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard
d raw ing t ha t h ad t o b e r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n t h is a xe , i ta ppears t o b e a h ef ty i mp lemen t , s ymmet r ica l i n s hape , w ith n o o bv ious d amage . On t he s ca t ter p l o t o f l eng th v s . w id th measuremen t s ( F ig . 1 1 .28a ) , t wo a dd it iona l i mp lement s c an b e s een t o s tand a par t f r om t he ma jor i ty o f t he G roup XV I I I a xes .
B oth
o ft hese a re r e la t ive ly n arrow . T he sma l ler o f t he t wo , Y orks . 1 37 , i st he n arrowes t a xe i n t h is s amp le , wh i le t he l a rger o ne , Y orks . 1 29 , h as t he l a rges t l e ng th /w idth r a t io v a lue ( s ee h i s tog rams i n F ig . 1 1 .27 ) .
F rom t he p et ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing s o f t hese i mp le -
ments , b oth a ppear t o b e a symmet r ica l i n s hape .
T he l a rger o ne a ppears t o h ave b een
e i ther d amaged o r o n ly r ough ly s haped i n t he f i rst p lace , wh i le t he sma l ler o ne may h ave b een r e -worked f r om a l a rger i mp lemen t . T ogether t hese t hree u nusua l i mp lemen ts a ccoun t f o r most o f t he o u t l ier v a lues i n t he h i s tograms o ft he s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les .
Among t he o ther i mp lement s r epresented
o n t he s cat ter p l ot s , t here i ss o me e v idence o f c l us ter ing t ha t may b e r e la ted t o d i f f eren t s i ze c l asses o fa xes a l though t hese c anno tb e c l ear ly d ef ined o n t he b as is o ft he p l ot s a l one . F or f ur ther i nvest iga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among t he G roup XVI I I a xes f r om t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds , t he a na ly t ica l t e chn iques wh ich h ave b een u sed w i th o ther g roups o f a xes c an b e emp loyed . a bove h ave b een e xc luded .
I n t h is , t he t hree u nusua l a xes d escr ibed
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I n ac orre la t ion ma t r ix o f t he n ine s i ze a nd s hape v ar iab les f o r t he G roup XV I I I a xes f r om t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds ( F ig . 1 1 .29 ) , s t rong c orre la t ions among many o f t he v ar iab les c an b e s een .
S evera l o f t he h ighes t p os i t ive c o rre la t ions a re b e tween t he
max imum w id th a nd t he c en ter w id th , t he max imum t h ickness a nd t he c ent er t h ickness , a nd t he w idth / th ickness r a t io a nd t he c ross -sect ion r a t io , ap a t tern t ha t h a s b een s een f o r many o ther g roups o f a xes .
H ere a ga in , t he d ec is ion was made t o e xc lude t he " center"
v ar iab les f r om s ubsequen t s tages o ft he a na lys is .' Ap r inc ipa l c omponen t s a na lys is o f t he s i x ma jor s i ze a nd s hape v a r iab les f o r t he G roup XV I I I a xes i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds s amp le ( Tab le 1 1 .9 ) y i e lded t wo s i g n if i can t c o mponen t s .
T he f i rs t o f t hese r ef lec t s v ar iab i l i ty among t he a xes i n o vera l l s i ze
a nd i n s hape i n f a ce v i ew . T he s econd r ef lec t s v ar iab i l i ty i n s hape i n p rof i le v i ew a nd i n c r oss -sec t iona l s hape .
H is t og rams o f t he s cores o f t he a xes i n e a ch o f t he t wo s i gn if i can t
p r inc ipa l c o mponen t s ( F ig . 1 1 .30 ) a re b oth mu l t i -moda l , s ugges t ing t ha t d i f f eren t s i ze a nd ! o r s hape c l asses may b e i d en t if iab le among t hese i mp lemen t s . T he p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s cores w ere u sed a s t he d a ta i n ac l us ter a na lys is o f t hese a xes ( F ig . 1 1 .31 ) . A s b ef ore , t he m in imum v ar iance a lgor i thm a nd t he E u c l idean d i stance measure w ere u sed , a nd t he v ar iab les w ere w e ighted a ccord ing t o t he i r e i genva lues i n t he p r in c ipa l c o mponen t s a na lys is . A ma jor i n crease i n t he d i stances a t wh ich c l us ters j o ined i n t h is a na lys is i nd ica t es t ha t f i ve c l ust ers o f t hese a xes c an b e i d en t if ied .
T hese a re
s hown o n s ca t ter p l o t s o f l eng th v s . w id th a nd l e ng th v s . t h ickness measu remen ts i n F ig . 1 .32 , a nd d escr ip t ions o ft he a xes i nt he c l ust ers a re g iven i nT ab le 1 1 .10 .2 I n t he s ca t t er p l o t s a nd i n T ab le 1 1 .10 , i tc an b e s een t ha t t he c l us ter a na lys is h as p rodu ced a g roup o f l a rge a xes ( c lust er 1 ) , ag roup o f med ium -s ized a xes ( c lus ter 2 ) , a nd t hree g roups o fs ma l l a xes ( c lu s ters 3 -5 ) . S evera l o ft he l a rge a nd med ium -s ized a xes a re
11 3 y s o d o ing , t h ir teen more i mp lemen t s f o r wh ich o ne o r more o f t he " cen ter" mea sures a re u nknown c ou ld b e i n c luded i nt he a na lys is . 2A xes r epresen ta t ive o f t hese c l usters a re n o t i lus t ra ted b ecause p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing s w ere r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n a l l o ft he o nes i nt h is s amp le .
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q u i te s ymme t r i ca l i n s hape a nd e xh ib i t n o e v iden ce o f d amage o r r e -work ing . T hese a xes a re g enera l ly w ides t a t o r i mmed iat e ly a bove t he b lade a nd h ave g en t ly c urved s i des t ha t t aper g radua l ly t o ab road ly p o int ed b u t t . A s s u ch , t hese i mp lemen t s g enera l ly c orrespond t o t he B r id l ing t on t ype o f a xe a s d escr ibed b y S heppa rd , a l though t hey a re b y n o means c i ga r -shaped . I n c l ust er 1i so ne o ft he i mp lemen t s t ha t Manby ( 1979 :73-74 ) d escr ibes a s h av ing b een made b y g r ind ing a b lade e dge o n to a n e rra t i c Wh in S i l l p ebb le .1 I n b o th c l us ters a re i mp lemen t s t ha t a ppear t o b e d amaged , a nd i n c l us ter 2 a re s pec imen s t ha t may h ave b een r e -worked f r om l a rger a xes . Mos t o f t he s ma l l a xes i n c l us ters 3 , 4 ,a nd 5 a re a symmet r i ca l i n s hape a nd s o me o ft hem a re u nusua l ly t h ick a t t he b ut t e nd .
T hese c hara c ter is t i cs i nd ica te t ha t many o f
t hese i mp lemen t s a re r e -worked s pec imens .
S ome o f t he u nusua l ly t h in i mp lemen t s i n
c l ust er 4may h ave b een p roduced t hrough r e -work ing a xes t ha t w ere d amaged i nd if eren t ways f r om t he o nes i n c l us ters 3 a nd 5 .
O ther i mp lemen t s i ne ach o ft hese g roups may
h ave b een p rodu ced b y w ork ing sma l l e r ra t ic p ebb les o fG roup XV I I I mat er ia l . One o ft he s pec imen s i n c l us ter 4 i st he o ther i mp lemen t i n terpre ted b y Manby ( 1979 :73-74 ) i n t h is way .2 T hu s , among t he G roup XV I I I a xes f ound i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea , t he c l ust er a na lys is h a s p roduced s evera l s i ze c l asses t ha tc an b e s een t or epresen t g enera l s tages i n t he p rodu c t ion a nd r e -work ing t ra jec tory o f a xes o f t h is mat er ia l .
Among t he
sma l ler a xes , a dd i t iona l v ar iab i l i ty i n r e la t ive t h ickness c an b e i n terpre ted a s t he r esu l to f r e -work ing a xes t ha t h ave b een d amaged i n d if eren t ways o r p roduc ing a xes f r om s ma l l p ebb les o fd if eren t s hapes . I n o rder t o c ompare p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f ound i n o ther a reas w i th t ha t o bserved among t he a xes i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds s amp le , a l l o f
1T h is i sY orks . 6 08 ( Br id l ing t on Museum , A 31 ) . I ti sn o t i lus t ra ted h ere b e cause t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing was r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n i t . 2T h is i sY orks . 7 28 ( Hu l l Museum , 3 00 .42 .245 ) . I ti sn o t i lus t ra ted h ere b ecause t he p e t ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing was r e l ied u pon f o r morpho log ica l d a ta o n i t .
3 27
t hese a xes c an b e r epresen t ed o n s ca t t er p l o t s o fl eng th v s . w id th a nd l eng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s ( F ig . 1 1 .33 ) .
On t hese p l o t s , i tc an b e s een t ha t an umber o f t he a xes
f ound o u ts ide t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea f a l l w i th in t he ma in g roup o f c oas t / Wo lds a xes . H owever , among t hese a xes a re a l so an umber o fs pec imens t ha t a re a s n ar r ow a s t he t wo u nusua l ly n arrow a xes i n t he c oas t / Wo lds s amp le a s w e l l a s an umber o f s pe c imens t ha t a re t h i cke r t han mos t o f t he c oas t / Wo lds a xes .
I n o rder t o c l ar ify t hese
p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty , t he a xes f r om t hree ma jor g eog raph i c a reas o u ts ide t he Y orksh ire c oa s t a nd Wo ids a rea—wes tern Y orksh ire , L inco lnsh ire , a nd N orf o lk—can b e s hown w i th t he a xes f r om t he c oa s t / Wo lds a rea o n s epa ra te s ca t ter p l o t s ( F igs . 1 1 .34-11 .36 ) . F rom F ig . 1 1 .34 , i ti sc l ear t ha t mos t o f t he a xes f r om w es tern Y orksh ire f a l l w e l l w i th in t he r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty o f t he c oast / Wo lds a xes .
O ne l a rge a xe f r om w es tern
Y orksh ire i sr e la t ive ly n arrow f o r i t s l e ng th , l i ke o ne o ft he c oas t / Wo lds a xes , b u t , l i ke t ha t o ne , i ti sa l so o f moderat e t h i ckness . One a xe f r om t he L in co lnsh ire a rea l i s l a rger t han a ny o f t he o nes f ound i n Y orksh ire ( F ig .
1 1 .35 ) , b u t i t i s v ery s im i la r t o t hem i n s hape .2
T hree o ther L in -
c o lnsh ire a xes f a l l w i th in t he r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty o f t he ma in g roup o f Y orksh ire a xes .3 T he r e ma in ing t h ree L in co lnsh ire a xes a re n arrow l i ke t he u nu sua l ly n a rrow Y orksh ire a xe s .
O f t hese , t he l a rges t o ne , Y orks . 2 52 , a nd t he sma l les t o ne , L incs . 7 5 ,4 a re o f
lI nc luded i n t h is s amp le i s o ne a xe f r om Y orksh ire wh ich was f ound n earer t he L in co lnsh ire a xes t han t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a xes ( s ee F ig . 1 1 .26 ) . 2T h is i mp lemen t , L in cs . 1 26 , i s n o t s hown o n t he p l o t o f l eng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s b ecause i t s t h i ckness c ou ld n o t b e d et erm ined a ccu rat e ly f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing t ha t h ad t o b e r e l ied u pon f o r i n f orma t ion o n i t . However , i ta ppears t ob e o f modera te t h ickness , a nd i t s c ross -sec t ion i sf l a t ly o va l i ns hape . 3Tw o o f t hese a re L incs . 5 6 a nd L incs . 1 56 ( Cumm in s a nd Moore 1 973 :237 , F ig . 1 1 , # 55 a nd # 158 , r espect ive ly ) . L in cs . 5 6 i s n o t s hown o n t he p l ot o f l e ng th v s . t h i ckness measuremen t s b ecause i t s t h ickness c ou ld n o tb e d e term ined a ccura te ly f r om t he p e t ro logy r ecord c ard d raw ing t ha t h ad t ob e r e l ied u pon f o r i n f orma t ion o n i t . However , i t a ppea rs t ob e o f moderat e t h ickness a nd i t s c ross -sect ion i sf l a t ly o va l i n s hape . 4T he t h ickness mea suremen t s o ft h is i mp lemen t c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined a ccura t e ly f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ings , s o i ti s n ot r epresen ted i n F ig . 1 1 .35b . I t i s i lu s t ra ted i nC umm ins a nd Moore 1 973 :237 , F ig . 1 1 , # 76 .
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modera te t h ickness a nd a re s haped l i ke many o ft he o ther L in co lnsh ire a nd Y orksh ire a xes w i th f l a t ly o va l c r oss -sec t ions .
I n c on t ras t , t he o ther n arrow a xe , L incs . 1 40 ,1 a ppears
t o h ave a c ross -se c t ion t ha t i sa lmos t r ound . t he m idd le o f t he o b je c t t han t he b lade .
T he w ides t p ar t o f t h is i mp lemen t i sn earer
I tc an t ru ly b e d escr ibed a s " c iga r -shaped" .
A s
s uch , i ti sq u it e d if eren t i n s hape f r om t he G roup XVL I I a xes t ha t h ave b een d escr ibed s o f a r . I n c on t ras t t ot he a xes f r om Y orksh ire a nd mos t o f t he o nes f r om L in co lnsh ire , t he a xes f ound i n N orf o lk e xh ib i t ad if eren t p a t t ern o f v ar iab i l i ty ( F ig . 1 1 .36 ) .
O n ly o ne o f
t hese i mp lemen t s , t he sma l les t o ne , N orf . 1 62 ( F ig . 1 1 .37c ) , f a l ls w i th in t he r ange o f v ar iab i l i ty o ft he ma jor i ty o ft he Y orksh i re a xes . T he o ther f i ve a xes a re l a rg e o r med ium s i zed .
F or t he ir r e spe c t ive l eng ths , t hey a re b o th n arrower a nd t h icker t han mos t o f t he
Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a xes . T h is d i f f erence i se ven more s t r ik ing i n v i ew o f t he f a ct t ha t t he p ar t icu lar ly n arrow Y orksh ire a xes a re o f modera te t h i ckness wh i le t he p ar t i cu la r ly t h ick Y orksh ire a xes a re o f modera te w id th . T he t wo l a rges t a xes f ound i nN or f o lk a re i lus t ra ted i n F ig . 1 1 .37a & b . W ith t he ir n arrow s hapes i nf a ce v i ew i n wh ich t he max imum w id th i sn earer t he m idd le o ft he o b jec t t han t he b lade , a nd t he i r n ear ly r ound c r oss -sect ions , t hese a xes c an b e d es cr ibed a s c i ga r s haped . c o lnsh ire .
A s s u ch t hey a re s im i la r i n s hape t o t he o ne u nusua l ly -shaped a xe f r om L in T he med ium -s ized a xes f r om N or f o lk a re v ery s im i la r i n s hape t o t he l a rger
o nes , a l though t hey a re l e ss s ymme t r i ca l .
I tc an b e s ugges ted t ha t t hey may h ave b een
p rodu ced t hrough r e -work ing l a rger a xes . Unf or tuna t e ly , morpho log ica l d a ta w ere n o t a va i lab le f o r t he f ew G roup XV I I I a xes f ound i n t he P eak D is t r ic t , n or f o r o ne o f t he o nes f r om Hampsh ire .
T he o the r a xe f r om
Hampsh ire i s as ma l l s pe c imen t ha t f a l ls w i th in t he r ange o f v a r iab i l i ty o f t he sma l ler
1T he t h ickness measuremen t s o ft h is i mp lemen t c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined a ccura te ly f r om t he p et ro logy r e cord c ard d raw ing s , s o i ti sn o t r epresen ted i nF ig . 1 1 .35b .
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a xes f r om Y orksh ire .
On ly t he l e ng th i sk nown o f t he s i ng le G roup XV II I a xe r ecovered
f r om t he R iver T hames i nt he L ondon a rea . I n s ummary , when t he G roup XV II I a xes f ound o u ts ide t he Y orksh i re c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea a re c o mpared w i th t he o nes f ound i n t ha t a rea , t wo d if eren t p a t terns o f v ar iab i l i ty c an b e o bserved . T he a xes f r om w estern Y orksh ire a nd mos t o ft h e o nes f r om L in co lnsh ire a re v ery s im i la r i n s hape t o t he o nes f r om t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea .
T he l a rge a nd med ium -s ized a xes f r om N orf o lk a nd o ne o f t he o nes f r om L in -
c o lnsh ire , o n t he o ther h and , a re q u i te d if eren t . Two p oss ib le e xp lana t ions f o r t he d i f f erences i n f o rm b etween t he c i ga r -shaped a xes o f N orf o lk a nd L inco lnsh ire a nd t he r es t o f t he G roup XV II I a xes c an b e s ugges ted . One o ft hese i sb road ly f unc t iona l , t he o ther s ty l is t ic . I tc an b e s uggested t ha tt he c i gar -shaped a xes may h ave b een p roduced a s ad if eren t f unc t iona l t ype o fi mp lemen t f r om t he r es t o f t he G roup XVI I I a xes . U se w ea r i sv i s ib le o n t he b lades o ft he t wo l a rge N or f o lk a xes a nd t he b lade o ft he L in co lnsh ire a xe h as b een d amaged , i nd ica t ing t ha t t hese w ere n ot s pec ia l i z ed n on -u t i l i ta r ian a xes . Un f or tuna te ly , t o o l i t t le i sk nown a bou t d if eren t u ses t o wh ich s t one a xes w ere p u t o r a bou t t he t ypes o fw ea r d if eren t u ses w ou ld p roduce t o d e term ine whether t hese a xes h ad d if eren t u t i l i tar ian f unct ions f r om t he r es t o f t he G roup XV I I I a xes . An a l t erna t ive e xp lana t ion f o r t he t wo d if eren t f o rms o f G roup XV I I I a xes i st ha t t hey r epresen t d if eren t s ty l ist ic t ypes .
T he o bv ious c oro l la ry t o t h is i st ha t t hese t ypes
w ere p rodu ced i nd if eren t a reas . T h is p oss ib i l i ty w il b e d i scussed f ur ther b e low .
Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty a nd D ist r ibut ion
B ef ore t urn ing t o a g enera l i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup XV I I I , morpho log i ca l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes f r om s pec if i c c ont ex t s o fd epos i t ion mus t b e c ons idered .
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Axes f r om S pec if i c C ontext s o fD epos it ion
O n ly f our a xes o f G roup XV II I h ave b een r e covered f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o fd epos i t i on . T hree o ft hese w ere f ound i n a reas o f a pparen t ly i n t ens ive N eo l i th i c o ccupa t ion a nd a c t iv i ty wh i le t he o ther was r ecovered f r om t he R iver T hames .
O c cupa t ion C ont ex t s Two a xes o f n ear G roup XV I I I ma ter ia l h ave b een f ound i n a pparen t o ccupa t ion c on tex t s i n L inco lnsh ire .
T he o ne f ound a t C rosby Warren i s t he sma l les t o f t he G roup
XV I I I a xes f ound i n t h is c oun ty . s pec imen f r om t h is a rea .
T he o ne f ound a t B agmoor i s t he o ne c i ga r -shaped
A l though d amaged a t b o th t he b lade a nd t he b u t t , i ti ss t i l l a
f a ir ly l a rge i mp lemen t . A s i ng le G roup XV I I I a xe was f ound i n t he N eo l i th i c o c cupa t ion a rea o f F e l twe l l , N orf o lk . T h is i st he sma l les t G roup XV I I I a xe f ound i nt h is c oun ty .
T he R iver T hames A s i ng le G roup XV I I I a xe h as b een r e covered f r om t he R iver T hames .
W i th a
l e ng th o f 1 30 mm , t h is i s amed ium -s ized i mp lemen t .
S ummary Aga in sma l l s amp le s i ze r enders i td i ff i cu l t t od raw c onc lu s ions a bou t t he s i zes a nd / o r t ypes o f G roup XVI I I a xes t ha t w ere d epos i ted i n a nd r e covered f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion .
T he o n ly t endency t ha t c an b e s een h ere i s o ne t ha t h a s b een o bserved
among a xes o fo ther g roups : t ha t a xes r ecovered f r om a pparen t o ccupa t ion c on tex t s t end t ob e sma l ler t han a xes r ecovered f r om u nknown c on tex t s i nt he s ame g enera l a rea s .
G enera l C ons idera t ions
I n t he a na lys is o fg enera l p a t t erns o f morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o fG roup XV I I I , t wo q u it e d if eren t s hapes o f a xes w ere i d en t if ied , a nd t hese w ere f ound t ob e d i f -
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f e ren t ia l ly d i st r ibut ed . T hus , a l l o ft he a xes f ound i n Y orksh ire a re o f t he more a bundan t w ider / th inner t ype w i th a n o va l c ross -se ct ion . W i th t he e x cep t ion o f as i ng le sma l l a xe , a l l o ft he s pec imens f ound i n N orf o lk a re o ft he n arrower , t h i cker , c i gar -shaped t ype w i th a n a lmos t r ound c ross -sec t ion .
I n t he L inco lnsh ire a rea , mos t o f t he a xes a re o f t he w ider /
t h inner t ype a l though o ne d amaged s pec imen o ft he o ther t ype h as b een i d en t if ied . T h is s pa t ia l p a t tern o fG roup XV I I I a xes s ugges ts t ha t mos to ft he s pec imens o ft h i s mat er ia l w ere made i n af a ir ly s tanda rd s hape i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea . F rom t here , t hey may h ave b een e xchanged t o w estern Y orksh ire , L inco lnsh ire , a nd a reas f ur ther i n land ( bu t s ee b e low ) . T he f ew r ound -bod ied a xes f ound i nN orf o lk may w e l l h ave b een made t here f r om g la c ia l e rra t i cs .
T he s i ng le r ound -bod ied s pec imen f ound i n L in -
c o lnsh ire may h ave r ea ched t ha t a rea t hrough e x change w i th p eop le i n N orf o lk , wh i le t he s i ng le sma l l G roup XV I I I a xe f ound i n N orf o lk may h ave a rr ived t here a s ar esu l t o f e xchange w i th p eop le f r om t he n or th . F or f ur ther e v idence o f t he l o c i o f p roduc t ion a nd t he mechan isms o f d i spersa l o f a xes o fG roup XV I I I , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty c an b e i nves t igat ed . T he mean l e ng ths o f t he s pec imens i n e a ch o f t he ma jor g eog raph i c a reas i n wh i ch a xes o f t h is mat er ia l h ave b een f ound a re p resen ted i nT ab le 1 1 .12 . H ere i tc an b e s een t ha t t he mean l e ng th o f t he a xes f ound i n t he Y orksh ire c oast / Wo lds a rea i s sma l ler t han t he mean l e ng th o f t he a xes i n a ny o ft he o ther a reas .
T h is i st he e xa c t o ppos i te o f wha t w ou ld b e
e xpect ed i ft hese i mp lemen t s w ere p rodu ced i nt h is a rea a nd d i st r ibu ted o u tward . Ap robab le e xp lana t ion f o r t h is u nexpec ted r esu l t l i es i nt he d i f f eren t ia l i n t ens i t ies o f p reh istor i c a c t iv i ty a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l c o l lec t ing i n t he d if eren t a reas a s i nd ica ted b y t he o vera l l d ens i t ies o f s t one a xes .
l th as a l ready b een n o ted t ha t t he h ighes t d ens ity o f
s t one a xes i n t he e nt ire s tudy a rea i sf ound i n t he g r id s qua re t ha t c overs t he Y orksh i re c oas t ( #137 ) , a nd o ne o f t he h igher d ens i t ies o f s t one a xes i sf ound i n t he a d jacen t g r id s quare t ha t i n c ludes t he Wo lds a rea ( #136 ) . I n c on t ra st , l e sser d ens i t ies o fa xes h ave b een o bserved i ne ach o ft he o ther a reas i n wh ich a xes o fG roup XV I I I a re c oncen t ra ted . T hus ,
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i tc an b e s uggested t ha t t he l ower mean l e ng th o fG roup XV I I I a xes i nt he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea may b e , a t l e as t i n p ar t , ar ef lec t ion o f more i n t ens ive p reh i s tor i c a c t iv i ty a nd modern c o l lect ing i nt h is a rea . W ith in t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea , i t may b e s i gn if i can t t ha t t he mean l eng th o f t he c oas t a xes i s g reat er t han t he mean l e ng th o f t he Wo lds a xes ( s ee T ab le 1 1 .12 ) , i n s p it e o f t he f a ct t ha t t he c oas ta l a rea a ppears t o h ave b een mo re i n tens ive ly o ccup ied a nd /or c o l lec ted .
T h is i s t he p a t tern t ha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted i ft he a xes w ere
p roduced i n t he c oas ta l a rea a nd p eop le i n t he Wo lds a rea h ad more l im i ted a ccess t o t hem . F rom t he a va i lab le d a ta , i t c anno t b e d e term ined h ow t he p eop le i n w est ern Y orksh ire a nd i n L inco lnsh ire a cqu ired t he ir G roup XV I I I a xes .
I t c anno t b e r u led o u t
t ha t t hey r e ce ived t hem i n e x change f r om p eop le i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea . A l terna t ive ly , g roups i nw es tern Y orksh ire c ou ld h ave o b ta ined r aw ma ter ia l d i rec t ly f r om Wh in S i l l o u t crops , a nd g roups i n L inco lnsh ire c ou ld h ave f ound g l ac ia l e r ra t ics o f t h is ma ter ia l i n t he ir o wn a rea .
L oca l p rodu c t ion f r om g la c ia l e rra t i cs s eems t he most l i ke ly
e xp lana t ion f o r t he u nusua l ly -shaped a xes o fN orf o lk . I n s ummary , f o r t h is g roup o f a xes , l o c i o fp rodu c t ion a nd mechan ism s o fd i spersa l c anno t b e c l ear ly d emons t ra ted o n t he b as is o f t he morpho log ica l d a ta . H owever , i td oes s eem l i ke ly t ha t p roduc t ion f r om r aw ma ter ia l o bta ined l o ca l ly p layed a g rea t er r o le i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l t han was t he c ase f o r a ny o ther g roup t ha t h as b een c ons idered .
O ther G roups : C ompara t ive S ummary
I n t h is c hapt er , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i str ibu t ion h ave b een i nvest iga ted f o r t hree g roups o f a xes o f ma ter ia ls o r ig ina t ing i n w ide ly s epa ra ted a reas . F or G roup I X , " axe f a c t ory" s i tes i n N or thern I r e land a re w e l l k nown . F or G roup XX , n o " axe f a ct ory" s i tes h ave b een i d en t if ied , b u t t he r aw ma ter ia l i s p resumed t o h ave
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o r ig ina ted i n af a ir ly w e l l -def ined a rea o ft he C harnwood F ores t i nL e ices tersh ire .
I n c on -
t ras t , f o r G roup XV I I I , i tc anno te ven b e a ssumed t ha t a l l o ft he r aw ma ter ia l u sed f o r a xe p rodu ct ion wa s o b ta ined i n t he s ame l o ca l i ty . I nstead , i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t g la c ia l e rra t ics f ound i nd i f f eren t a rea s w ere u t i l ized . T he i nvest iga t ions o u t l ined i n t h is c hapt er h ave r evea led v ery d if eren t p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i st r ibu t ion f o r t hese t hree g roups o f a xes .
T hus , v i r tua l ly
a l l o f t he G roup I X a xes f ound i n t he s tudy a rea w ere r e la t ive ly sma l l , a pparen t ly r e w orked s pec imen s .
T h is i s n o t s urpr is ing f o r as amp le o f a xes a l l o f wh i ch w ere f ound
o ver 2 50 km f r om t he s ource . C ons iderab le morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty was o bserved among t hese sma l l a xes , u ndoub ted ly t he r esu l to fr e -work ing a xes b roken o r d amaged i nd if eren t ways a nd /or r e -work ing a xes i nd if eren t a reas a t v ary ing d i s tances f r om t he s ource . I n c on t rast , g reat er n umbers o f l a rger a xes w ere i d en t if ied f o r e a ch o f t he o ther g roups .
F ur thermore , among t he a xes o f t hese t wo g roups , q u i te d i f f eren t p a t terns o f
morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty w ere o bserved . F or G roup XX , c l us ters o fv ery l a rge , med ium -s ized , a nd s ma l l a xes , s uch a s h ave b een o bserved among s pec imens o f o ther g roups , w ere i d en t if ied . u nusua l ly w ide a xes o f med ium l e ng th w ere s een .
I n a dd i t ion , t hree
I t wa s s ugges ted t ha t t he v ery l a rge
a xes a nd t he u nusua l ly w ide o nes may h ave b een r egarded a s more v a luab le t han t he o ther a xes wh ich p robab ly f un ct ioned a s o rd inary u t i l i tar ian t o o ls . Among t he a xes o f G roup XV I I I , c l us ters o f l a rge , med ium -s ized , a nd sma l l s pec imen s w ere i d en t if ied i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds s amp le . T he i mp lemen t s f r om mos t o ther a reas w ere s een t o f a l l w i th in o r v ery c l ose t o t he r ange o f v a r iab il i ty o f t he c oas t / Wo lds a xes . I n c on t rast , a l l b u t t he sma l les t o ft he s pec imens f ound i nN orf o lk w ere b oth n arrower a nd t h i cker t han mos t o ft he c oast / Wo lds a xes . I t was c onc luded t ha t t hese a xes w ere p robab ly made i nt h is a rea f r om g lac ia l e rra t i cs o b ta ined l o ca l ly . I n t e rms o f d i s t r ibu t ion , a xes o f G roup I X w ere f ound w ide ly , b u t t h in ly , s ca t tered f r om n or thern t o s ou thern E ng land .
S pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n s i ze v ar iab i l i ty among t hese
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i mp lemen t s s ugges t s t ha t t hey e n tered E ng land a nd Wa les a t a n umber o f c oasta l l o ca l i t ies a nd w ere moved f ur ther i n land t hrough t he me chan ism o f g roup to -g roup e x change . T he a va i lab le e v idence i nd icat es t ha t a xes o f G roup XX w ere a l so d i s t r ibu ted t hrough g roup to -g roup e xchange o utward f r om t he s ource a rea . H owever , i ta ppears t ha t o n ly o rd inary , u t i l itar ian a xes w ere mov ing i n most d i rec t ions f r om t he s our ce wh i le b o th o rd ina ry a xes a nd v a luab le a xes w ere mov ing t oward E as t Ang l ia . A s a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h is d if eren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a xes , i t was s ugges ted t ha t d ur ing t he L a tes t N eo l i th i c when a xes o f G roup XX w ere b e ing p roduced , g roups i n E as t Ang l ia h ad a ccess t o a bun d an t s upp l ies o f g ood q ua l i ty f l in t a xes f r om l o ca l f l in t m ines .
I n t h is c ont ex t , t hey may
h ave b een l e ss w i l l ing t o a ccep t o rd inary s t one a xes i n e xchange t ransac t ions t han w ere g roups i n o ther a reas who d i d n o t h ave a ccess t o f l in t s ources a nd more l i ke ly t o d emand l a rger , more f i ne ly made a xes f r om t he i r e xchange p ar tners . I n c on t rast t ob o th G roup I X a nd G roup XX , a nd i ndeed a l l o ft he o ther g roups w e h ave i nves t igated , f o r G roup XV I I I , w e h ave n ot b een a b le t o d emonst ra te c onc lus ive ly mechan isms o f a xe d i spersa l o n t he b as is o fs pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty . T he Y orksh ire c oas t a nd Wo lds a rea a ppears t o h ave b een a ma jor r eg ion i n wh i ch a xes o f G roup XV I I I w ere p roduced , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t ha t t he r aw mat er ia l was o b ta ined l o ca l ly a s g la c ia l e rra t ics .
T he a xes f ound i n w estern Y orksh ire a nd t hose f ound i n L inco lnsh i re
may h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted t hrough e x change w i th g roups i n t he Y orksh ire c oas t / Wo lds a rea . A l terna t ive ly , t hey may h ave b een made l o ca l ly f r om r aw ma ter ia l o bta ined , i n t he f o rmer c ase , d i rec t ly f r om Wh in S i l l o u t crops o r , i n t he l a t t er c ase , a s g lac ia l e r ra t i cs . L oca l p rodu ct ion f r om g la c ia l e rra t i cs s eems t he b es t e xp lana t ion f o r t he u nusua l f o rm o f mos t o f t he G roup XV I I I a xes f ound i n N orf o lk . T he f ew a xes o fG roup XV I I I t ha t w ere f ound i n c en t ra l a nd s outhern E ng land mus t h ave r eached t hese a reas t hrough e xchang e , b u t i th as n o tb een p oss ib le t od emons t ra te t h is w i th t he a va i lab le d a ta .
CHAPTER X I I
CONCLUS IONS
I n t h is i nves t iga t ion , Ih ave a t t emp ted t o a ddress t he p rob lem o f d i str ibu t ion o f g oods i n t r iba l s oc ie t ies b y e xam in ing a s pec if i c c ase : t he d i s tr ibut ion o f s t one a xeheads i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in .
I n t h is c ase , t he q uest ion o f p rocesses o f s t one a xe d i spersa l h as b een
a dd ressed many t imes b ef ore i n t e rm s o f p a t t erns o f a bundance , b oth a bso lut e a nd r e la t i ve , o f t hese i mp lemen t s .
H owever , p rob lems i nheren t i n t he u se o f p a t t erns o f a bun -
d an ce f o r i d en t ify ing p rocesses o f d i s t r ibu t ion h ave b een i d en t if ied , b oth i n g enera l a nd i n s pec if i c r ef erence t ot he B r it ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes . I n r ea c t ion t o t h is , a no ther a pproach was p roposed .
I n t h is a pproa ch , s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among
a xes i su sed a s a n i nd ica t or o fp a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i spersa l . A l though o ne p rev ious i nvest iga t ion o f t he B r i t ish N eo l i th ic s t one a xe d a ta h ad u t i l ized t h is a pproa ch , ad eta i led c r i t ique o f t ha t s tudy s uggest ed t ha t f ur ther e nqu iry a l ong t hese l i nes m igh t b e i n f orma t i ve . T ha ti st he a pproa ch t ha t was t aken i nt h is s tudy . T he t heore t ica l f r amework f o r t h is i nvest iga t ion h ad t wo ma jor p ar t s .
F irs t , ad i s -
c uss ion o fp rocesses t hrough wh i ch g oods a re d i s t r ibu ted i n t r iba l s oc ie t ies was p resent ed , a nd f r om t h is , p a t terns o f a xe d i spersa l t ha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted i n t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c c ase w ere o u t l ined . T hen , ac o mprehens ive f ramework f o r t he i nvest iga t ion o fg enera l p a t t e rns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty a nd s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes wa s d eve loped , b ased o n e thnoar chaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ions o f s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i nN ew Gu inea . I n t h is s tudy , p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w ere i nves t i ga ted f o r t we lve s ource -spec if i c g roups o f B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes .
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T h is i s t he f i rs t
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a t temp t , o f wh ich Iam a ware , t od escr ibe a nd e xp la in p a t terns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes o n ac oun t ry -w ide s ca le .
A s ar esu l t o f t he a na lyses t ha t w ere p er -
f o rmed , an umber o f i n t eres t ing p a t t erns o f morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among s t one a xes w ere r evea led , a nd p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fs t one a xe d i spersa l w ere i d en t if ied .
P a t t erns o f Morpho log ica l Var iab i l i ty Among B r i t ish N eo l i th ic S tone Axes
F or v i r tua l ly e very g roup o f s t one a xes t ha t was i nves t igat ed , i t wa s p oss ib le t od i s t i ngu ish o r ig ina l ly p roduced ( and n o t s ubs tan t ia l ly a l tered ) a xes f r om a xes t ha t h ad b een more e xt ens ive ly r e -sharpened o r r e -worked . I ti si n t erest ing t ha t f o r e ach g roup o fa xes , t he b reak b e tween c l asses o fo r ig ina l ly p roduced a nd r e -worked s pe c imens l i es i nt he r ange o f 1 30 mm -150 mm .
T hus , t h is r ange r ef lec t s t he m in imum s i ze a t wh ich a xes w ere
p roduced f r om r oughou t s a t s ources , a nd t h is n orm s ee ms t o h ave b een h e ld b y a xe makers t hroughou t t he s tudy a rea . F or many g roups , t he a xes v ary p r imar i ly i n s i ze , f o rm ing a c on t inuum f r om l a rge s pec imens t o sma l l o nes .
T h is p a t t ern o f v ar iab i l i ty i nd ica tes p roduc t ion o f as i ng le
g enera l ized t ype o fa xe a t t he s our ce a nd r educ t ion i n s i ze o ft hese i mp lemen t s t hrough r e s harpen ing o r r e -work ing . F or many g roups , v ar iab i l ity i n s hape was g rea ter among t he sma l ler a xes t han among t he l a rger o nes , t he r esu l t o fr e -work ing a xes d amaged o r b roken i nd if eren t ways a nd /or r e -work ing a xes b y d if eren t g roups o fp eop le i nd if eren t a reas a t v ary ing d i stances f r om t he s our ce . F o r s o me g roups o f a xes , o ther p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty i ns i z e w ere s een . F or s evera l g roups , as i ng le e normous a xe was i d en t if ied a nd i n terpre ted a s as t r i c t ly n on -u t i l i tar ian , c eremon ia l i t em , a na logous t o t he h uge b r ide -pr ice a xes o f N ew Gu inea .
F or s evera l
g roups , o ther c l asses o f a xes g rea ter t han a bou t 2 00 mm i n l eng th w ere i d ent if ied ( e .g . , G roup V I ) .
T hese i mp lemen t s w ere i n t erpret ed a s v a luab le , p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes .
F or mos t g roups , t hese i mp lemen t s w ere f ewer i n n umber t han sma l ler ,
p r imar i ly
u t i l i tar ian a xes , ap a t tern t ha t w ou ld b e e xpec ted t o r esu l t f r om p rocesses o f d epos i t ion .
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H owever , f o r o ne g roup ( Group XX I I I ) , t hese l a rge a xes , r a ther t han sma l ler u t i l i tar ian o nes , s eem t oh ave b een t he t yp ica l p roduct s o ft he s our ce . Among a xes o f o ther g roups , s i gn if i can t p a t t erns o f v ar iab i l i ty i n s hape w ere o bserved .
F or a xes o f G roup I V , s pec imens f ound w est o f t he s ource i n C ornwa l l w ere
b o th w ider a nd t h icker t han t hose f ound e as t o f t he s our ce i n D evon .
T h is p a t t ern o f
v a r iab i l i ty was i n t erpre ted a s t he r esu l t o f p eop le f r om t he d if eren t a reas mak ing t he ir o wn a xes f r om t h is ma t er ia l .
Among a xes o f G roup I ,t hose w i th e xpanded b lades w ere
d i s t ingu ished f r om t hose w i thou te xpanded b lades a t t he o u tset , a nd t h is f ea ture was i n ter p reted a s as ty l ist i c o ne . F or G roup V I I , c l asses o fa xes v ary ing i nr e la t ive t h i ckness w ere i d en t if ied .
T hese w ere i n terpre ted a s t he r esu l t o f u se o f b l o cks o f r aw ma t er ia l o f d i f -
f e ren t f o rms f o r a xe p roduc t ion . F or G roup XV , c l asses o fw ider a nd n arrower a xes w ere s een . I t was s ugges ted t ha t t hese m igh t r epresen t d if eren t c hrono log ica l t ypes , b u t t h is i s e s sen t ia l ly o n ly a g uess .
Among a xes o f G roup XX , ac l ass o f l a rge a xes a nd a c l ass o f
m ed ium -s ized , b u t u nusua l ly w ide , a xes w ere s een . T he i mp lemen t s o ft hese c l asses w ere d if eren t ia l ly d i s tr ibu ted r e la t ive t o t he more t yp ica l a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l , a nd t hey w ere i n t erpre ted a s v a luab le i mp lemen t s .
F ina l ly , a much more c o mp lex p a t tern o f v ar iab i l i ty
was s een among a xes o f G roup XV I I I .
I t was s ugges ted t ha t t h is was t he r esu l t o f
p roduc t ion o fa xes f r om g lac ia l e rra t ics i nd if eren t l o ca l a reas . T hus , among t he B r i t ish N eo l i th i c s t one a xes , i th as b een p oss ib le t o i d en t ify p a t t e rns o f v ar iab i l i ty r e lat ed t o e ach o f t he ma jor d e term inan t s o f morpho logy :
p hys ica l
c ha ra ct er is t ics o ft he r aw ma ter ia l , f unct ion , s ty le , a nd r e -work ing . T he b road s im i la r i t ies i n s i ze c l a sses i d en t if ied among a xes o f v ar ious g roups c an b e s een t o b e r e la ted t o t he f un c t iona l r equ iremen t s o f t h is t ype o f t o o l .
T yp i ca l u t i l i ta r ian a xes w ere p roduced i n a
f a ir ly w e l l -def ined r ang e o f s i zes ( i . e . , f r om a bou t 1 50 mm t o a bou t 2 00 mm i n l eng th ) . T hese a xes w ere r e -sharpened o r r e -worked t o p roduce sma l ler s pec imens .
L arger ,
v i sua l ly more i mpress ive a xes may h ave f unc t ioned p r ima r i ly a s c eremon ia l i t ems , a l though t hey c ou ld h ave b een u sed i fn ecessary , wh i le t he f ew e normous s pec imens mus t
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c er ta in ly h ave f un ct ioned a s s t r i c t ly n on -u t i l itar ian , v a luab le g oods .
S ome o f t he more
u nusua l p a t tern s o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f d if eren t g roups w ere i n t er p ret ed i n t e rms o f p hys ica l c hara c ter ist ics o f t he a va i lab le r aw ma ter ia l o r s ty l ist i c v ar iab i l i ty r esu l t ing f r om p rodu c t ion o f a xes o f as i ng le ma ter ia l b y d if eren t g roups o f p eop le .
S pa t ia l P a t tern ing i n Morpho log ica l V ar iab i l i ty a nd P rocesses o fA xe D ist r ibu t ion
T he a na lys is o f s pa t ia l p a t t ern ing i n morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes o f e ach g roup was d iv ided i n to t wo ma jor p ar t s , t r ea t ing s epa ra te ly a xes f r om s pec if i c c on tex t s o f d epos i t ion a nd a xes f r om u nknown c on tex t s .
A xes f r om S pec if i c C ont ex t s o fD epos i t ion
I nvest iga t ion o f p a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om s pe c if i c c on t ex t s o fd epos i t ion was g enera l ly l im i ted b y sma l l s amp le s i ze . H owever , f r om t he c ases i n wh ich s uff i c ien t n umbers o fa xes w ere a va i lab le t oc o mpare s i zes o f a xes f r om s pec if i c c on t ex t s w i th s i zes o f a xes f r om u nknown c ont ex ts i n t he s ame a reas c omes e v iden ce f o r v a r iab i l i ty i n p a t terns o f a xe s i ze t ha t a re s im i lar t o t hose wh i ch w ere p red i c ted t o r esu l t f r om d epos i t ion o fa xes i nd if eren t c on tex t s . A xes r ecovered f r om o ccupa t ion c ont ex t s t ended t ob e p r imar i ly s ma l l , r e -sharpened o r r e -worked i mp lemen ts .
H ow t he s i zes o f t hese c o mpared w i th t he s i zes o f a xes f r om
u nknown c ontex ts i n t he s ame a reas s eemed , i n s o me c a ses , t o d epend o n whe ther t he o c cupa t ion c on text s w ere i na reas o fl e ss o r more i n tens ive p reh is tor i c a c t iv i ty . I n a reas o f l e ss i n tens ive a ct iv i ty , a xes f r om o c cupa t ion c on tex t s t ended t ob e s ma l le r t han t hose f r om u nknown c on tex t s wh i le i n a reas o f more i n tens ive a ct iv ity , a xes f r om b o th c on tex t s w ere g enera l ly s ma l l . N o o bv ious p a t t ern o f s i ze i n r e la t ion t o a xes f r om u nknown c on tex ts was s een among a xes f r om b ur ia l c on tex t s . C er ta in ly t here i sn o e v idence f o r p la c ing l a rge , v a luab le
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a xes w i th t he d ead .
I f a ny th ing , t hese a xes t end t o b e s ma l ler t han t hose f ound i n
u nknown c ont ex t s i n t he s ame a reas .
T he a xes d epos it ed i nb ur ia l c on tex t s s eem t oh ave
b een s imp ly t he o nes o wned b y t he d eceased a t t he t ime o fd ea th . Among a xes ' f ound t oge ther w i th o the r a xes , wh ich h ave b een c ons idered u nder t he h ead ing " Assoc ia t ions o f A xes" , t hree p a t t erns o f s i ze v a r iab i l i ty i n r e la t ion t o a xes f r om u nknown c ont ex t s w ere i d ent if ied .
I n s o me c ases , t he a xes f ound w i th o ther a xes a re o f
t he s ame s i zes a s a xes f ound i nu nknown c on tex t s i nt he s ame a reas . I n o ther c ases , t he a ssoc iated a xes a re a c tua l ly sma l ler t han t he a xes f r om u nknown c on tex t s . I tc an b e s ug g est ed t ha t t he a ssoc ia ted a xes i nb oth o ft hese c ases s imp ly r epresen t a xes t ha t w ere l o s t o r d i scarded a t t he s ame t ime .
I n y e t o ther c ases , t he a sso c ia ted a xes a re s i gn if i can t ly
l a rger t han o ther a xes f ound i n t he s ame g enera l a rea . T hese a re more l i ke ly t or epresen t g roups o f a xes b e ing t ranspor ted b e tween d if eren t a reas f o r p urposes o fe x change , a nd a s s uch , c an p erhaps b e d escr ibed a s t rue h oa rds . F ina l ly , a xes f r om t he R iver T hames t end , o n a verage , t ob e l a rger t han a xes f r om u nknown c on tex t s i n t he s ame a rea .
A s s uch , t he s i zes o f t hese i mp lemen t s p robab ly
r ef lec tb e t t er t he s i zes o fa xes g enera l ly c arr ied b y p eop le u s ing t he T hames a s at ranspor t r ou t e t han d o t he s i zes o f a xes f ound o n l and , s i nce s amp les o f t he l a t ter t end t o i n c lude l a rge p ropor t ions o f sma l l , d i sca rded a xes .
Axes f r om Unknown C on tex t s o fD epos i t ion
S pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty among a xes f r om u nknown c ont ex t s o fd epos i t ion r evea led a v ar iety o f d if eren t p a t terns a nd p rocesses o f d i spersa l f o r i mp le men t s f r om d if eren t s our ces .
T he mos t c o mmon ly o bserved s pa t ia l p a t tern i n a xe s i ze
v ar iab i l i ty was t he g enera l d ecrease i n mean l eng th o f a xes w i th i n creas ing d i s tance f r om t he s ource t ha t was p red ic ted t or esu l t f r om g roup to -g roup e x change . I n a dd i t ion t o , o r i n s o me c ases , i n s tead o ft h is p a t tern , o ther p a t terns o fv ar iab i l i ty w ere o bserved wh ich s ug g est ed o ther p a t terns a nd p rocesses o fd i spersa l .
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Among t he C orn ish g roups , G roups I Va a nd I V a ppea r t o h ave b een d i s t r ibu t ed p r imar i ly t hrough d i rec t a cqu is i t ion f r om t he s our ce . G roup I V i st he o n ly g roup f o r wh i ch w e h ave e v iden ce i nt e rms o fa xe morpho logy f o r d if eren tg roups l o ca ted i nd if eren t d i re c t i ons f r om a s ource g o ing t o i tt o o b ta in r aw ma t er ia l f o r a xe p roduc t ion .
A xes o f G roup
XV I w ere c l ea r ly p roduced i n t he s our ce a rea a nd d i s tr ibu ted o u tward t h rough g roup to g roup e xchange .
F or G roup I , av ery d if eren t s pa t ia l p a t t ern o f a xe s i ze v ar iab i l i ty i nd i -
c a tes t ha t a xes o f t h is mat er ia l w ere w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted b y c oas ta l a nd r i ver ine t ranspor t f o l lowed b y g roup -to -g roup e xchange t oi n land a reas . T hus , t h is i nves t iga t ion h as r evea led t ha t a xes f r om s our ces l o ca ted i nt he s ame g enera l a rea may h ave b een d i s t r ibut ed i nv ery d if eren t ways , a nd i ndeed , t ha t a xes f r om a s i ng le s ource may h ave b een d i s t r ibu t ed i n d if eren t ways i nd if eren t p ar t s o ft he ir t o ta l d i s t r ibu t ion a rea . A l l t hree o f t he We lsh g roups t ha t w ere c ons idered i n t h is s tudy a ppear t o h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted p r imar i ly t hrough o ver land g roup to -g roup e xchange , a l though c oas ta l t ranspor t may h ave p layed a m inor r o le i n t he d i spersa l o fa xes o fG roup V I I . H owever , t hese g roups v ary c ons iderab ly i n t he e x ten t o f t he i r d i s t r ibu t ion .
T hus , a xes o f G roup
XX I I I , wh i ch h ave b een i n terpre ted a s p r imar i ly c eremon ia l i n f unc t ion , w ere d i s t r ibu ted a lmos te xc lus ive ly i ns ou th a nd m id - Wa les . Axes o fG roup V I I I w ere d i s t r ibut ed f a r ther i n t wo t ra jec tor ies , o ne t oward t he Wessex a rea a nd t he o ther t owa rd N or th Wa les where t hey a ppea r t o h ave e n tered e x change n e tworks t ha t d i st r ibuted a xes o f G roup V I I a cross n or thern E ng land .
A xes o f G roup V I I w ere d i s t r ibu ted w ide ly t hroughou t E ng land a nd
N or th Wa les , a nd c en t ra l a nd p er iphera l a reas c an b e i d en t if ied i n t h is d i s t r ibu t ion . I ti s p ar t icu lar ly s t r ik ing t ha t t hey a re n o t f ound i n s ou thwes t Wa les .
T h is i s ac l ea r e xamp le
o ft he ef ec t s o fa l terna t ive s our ces i n ar eg iona l e xchange s yst em . B oth o f t he L ake D is t r ic t g roups a ppear t o h ave b een d i st r ibu ted p r imar i ly t h rough g roup to -g roup e x change . Axes o f G roup V I w ere d i s t r ibut ed o ver a w ide a rea a nd o ver a l ong t ime p er iod . F or t hese a xes a c en t ra l d i st r ibu t ion a rea i n wh i ch t he l a rger , p r imar i ly c eremon ia l a xes h ave b een f ound was i d en t if ied ( c f . " S ix L and" o f C umm ins 1 980 ) a nd
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c on t ras ted w i th p er iphera l a reas t ha t s eem t o h ave r e ce ived p oorer s upp l ies o ft hese a xes . A l though t he e v idence f o r d i spersa l o fG roup XV a xes i sl im i ted , i ts ugges t s t ha t t hey w ere e xchanged f r om t he s our ce a rea p r imar i ly t owa rd t he P eak D ist r ic t , b ut t o al e sser e x ten t t oo ther a rea s o fn or thern a nd e ast ern E ng land . Axes f r om t he o ther s ources , l o cated i n v ery d if eren t a reas , a ppea r , a s m igh t b e e xpec ted , t o h ave b een d i s t r ibut ed i n v ery d i f f eren t ways . T hus , a xes f r om t he G roup I X s ou r ces i n N orthern I r e land a ppea r t o h ave e n tered E ng land a nd Wa les a t an umber o f c oa sta l l o ca l i t ies f r om where t hey w ere d i s tr ibu ted f ar ther i n land t hrough g roup -t o -g roup e xchange .
A xes o f G roup XX w ere d i st r ibut ed o u tward f r om t he s ou rce a rea t hrough
g roup -t o -g roup e x change , b u t t he f ac t t ha t s ome a xes o f t h is ma ter ia l t ha t a re f ound i n E a s t Ang l ia a re l a rger a nd /or w ider t han t hose i n o ther a reas i nd ica tes p ref eren t ia l move men t o f more v a luab le a xes t o a n a rea t ha t a l ready h ad a n a bundan t s upp ly o ff l in t a xes . F ina l ly , t he s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log ica l v a r iab i l i ty among a xes o f G roup XV I I I i nd i ca tes t ha t a xes o ft h i s ma t er ia l may h ave b een made f r om g lac ia l e rra t ics i n Y orksh ire a nd E as t Ang l ia a nd p erhaps o ther a reas a s w e l l . A l though i nves t iga t ion o f s pa t ia l p a t tern ing i n morpho log i ca l v ar iab i l i ty h a s p roven t o b e au sefu l t o o l i n t he i nves t iga t ion o f p a t tern s a nd p rocesses o f a xe d i spersa l i n N eo l i th ic B r i ta in , t wo p rob lems i n t he p ra ct i ca l a pp l i ca t ion o f t h is a pproa ch h ave b een i d en t if ied a nd t he ir e f ec t s mus tb e c ons idered . T he p rob lem t ha t h as b een r epea ted ly s t ressed t hroughou t t h is i nves t iga t ion i st ha t o ft he e f ec t s o f t he i n terre la ted f a c tors o f i n tens i ty o f p reh ist or ic a c t iv i ty a nd i n t ens i ty o f modern c o l le ct ing o n s i zes o f a xes i n a rchaeo log ica l c olect ions t ha t h ave b een r e covered f r om u nknown c on tex t s o fd epos i t ion . No t ru ly s a t isfa ct ory way t o measu re t he e f ect s o f t hese f a c tors was d eve loped a l though s uggest ions o fp oss ib le i nd ica t ors w ere g iven . U s ing t he b es t i nd i ca tor t ha t was a va i lab le t o me ( t he r e la t ive d ens i t ies i n 5 0 km g r id s quares o f s t one a xes t ha t h ave b een e xam ined p et ro log ica l ly ) , s i gn if i can t g enera l e f ec t s o ft hese f a c t o rs c ou ld n o t b e d emons t ra ted f o r t he t hree l a rges t g roups o f a xes .
H owever , o n a
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sma l ler s ca le , s pec if i c a reas where t hese f a c tors s eem l i ke ly t oh ave h ad s i gn if i can t e f ec t s o n a xe s i ze w ere i d en t if ied a nd d i scussed . T he o ther ma jo r p rob lem t ha t mus t b e c ons idered i n a ny i nves t iga t ion o f s t one a xe d i spersa l i nN eo l i th ic B r ita in ( i nc lud ing t hose b ased s o le ly o n a xe a bundance ) i sc hrono logy . B ecause s pec if i c a xes c anno t , i n mos t c ases , b e a ss igned t o s pec if i c c hrono log ica l p er iods , f o r g roups o fa xes t ha t a re k nown t oh ave b een u t i l ized t hroughou tt he p er iod , t he r esu l to f a ny a na lys is o f a xe d i spersa l i s ac o mpos i te p i c ture .
T hus , t he p i c ture o f a xe d i spersa l
t ha t h as b een d rawn f o r a xes o fG roup V I , f o r e xamp le , i s ac o mpos it e o ne a nd a s s uch , i s l e ss r evea l ing a bou t p rocesses o fa xe d i spersa l a nd p a t terns o fh uman i n tera ct ion t han a re t he p i ctures o fa xe d i spersa l t ha t c an b e d rawn f o r g roups wh ich c an b e a ssumed t oh ave b een d i spersed p r imar i ly d ur ing o ne ma jor t ime p er iod . F or tunat e ly , e nough o ft he g roups e xam ined i n d eta i l i n t h is s tudy c an b e a ssumed t o h ave b een d i spersed p r ima r i ly d ur ing o ne o r t wo o ft he t hree ma jor d iv is ions o ft he N eo l i th ic p er iod s o t ha t p a t t erns a nd p roces s es o f d i spersa l r evea led b y t hem c an b e p la ced i n t he c ont ex t o ft he c hang ing p a t t erns o f e conom i c a nd s oc iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion t ha t w ere o u t l ined i n C hapt er I f o r t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in .
S tone A xe D ispersa l a nd P a t t ern s o f Human I n teract ion i nN eo l i th i c B r i ta in
T he p i cture o f E ar ly N eo l i th i c B r i ta in t ha t wa s p resen t ed i n C hap ter I wa s o ne i n wh ich , a t t he o u t set , sma l l , b as ica l ly e ga l i tar ian a nd l a rge ly i ndependen t l o ca l g roups ma in ta ined m in ima l c on ta c ts w i th n earby g roups .
T he r es t r i c ted d i s t r ibu t ion s o f a xes o f
t he e ar l iest g roups ( Group I Va i n C ornwa l l a nd G roup XX I I I i n Wa les ) r ef lec t t he l im i ted c onta ct s o f t he e ar ly p a r t o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c .
T he l a ter y ea rs o f, t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c
s eem t o h ave b een c ha ra c ter ized b y i n creas ing p opu la t ion , i n tens ive a g r icu l tu ra l e xp lo i ta t i on , a nd i n creas ing s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion among g roups i n s ou thern E ng land a t l e as t . T he more w idespread d i s t r ibu t ions o f t he o ther E ar ly N eo l i th ic g roups ( Group XV I f r om C ornwa l l a nd G roup V I I I f r om S ou th Wa les ) s eem t o b e c ons ist en t w i th a n i n creased
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d emand f o r s t one a xes a nd i n creas ing c on ta c t s among g roups .
I n o ther a reas o f B r i ta in ,
e . g . , N or th Wa les a nd t he L ake D is t r i ct , a xes o f G roups V I I a nd V I , r espec t ive ly , may h ave b een u t i l ized i n al im it ed a rea a round t he ir s ources a l though t h is a spec t o f t he ir d i s p ersa l c anno t b e s epara ted f r om t he c o mpos it e p i c ture . A xes o f G roup I X w ere a l so b e ing p rodu ced i n N or thern I r e land a t t h is t ime a nd t hey may h ave b een e nt er ing E ng land a nd Wa les a l though t here i sh o c l ea r e v idence f o r t h is . A t t he e nd o ft he E a r ly N eo l i th i c a nd i n t o t he L a ter N eo l i th ic , t he s ys tem i c s t resses o ft he e ar l ier p er iod w ere a pparen t ly a l lev iated b y as h if t i nt he s ubs isten ce e conomy a way f r om i n tens ive a g r i cu ltu ra l e xp lo i ta t ion t oward g rea ter r e l iance o n o ther a nd more v ar ied r esour ces f r om a w ider v ar ie ty o fe nv ironmen t s . I n t he Wessex a rea o f s ou thern E ng land t h is a ppears t o h ave t aken t he f o rm o f as h if t i n l and u se f r om a rab le t o p a s ture a nd a n i n creased r e l ian ce o n h erd ing . I n t h is c on tex t , t here may h ave b een l e ss d emand f o r s t one a xes t han i n t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c , a nd i ndeed , t here i sn o ma jor C orn ish s ou rce wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t h is t ime .
I n o ther a reas , p eop le may h ave b een e n ter ing p rev ious ly u nused
e nv ironmen t s . I n t h is s i tua t ion , t here may h ave b een i n creased d emand f o r s t one a xes i n t hese a reas . I th as b een a rgued t ha t d ur ing t h is t ime , s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n creased i n a reas o f B r i ta in where i th ad b een o fl e sser i mpor tan ce e ar l ier a nd s erved t of a c i l i tat e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he v ar ied r esources f r om t he n ew e nv ironmen t s .
I t was i n t h is c ont ex t o f
i n creased d emand f o r s t one a xes a nd i n creas ing s upra loca l i n teg ra t ion i n n ew a reas t ha t t he ma jor f o c i o fa xe p roduc t ion a nd d i st r ibu t ion s h if ted t o N or th Wa les a nd t he L ake D is t r i c t a nd t he w idespread d i spersa l o fa xes o fG roups V I I a nd V I b egan t ot ake p la ce . T he L a tes t N eo l i th i c a ppears t o h ave b een c hara c ter ized b y r enewed p opu la t ion g row th a nd a g r i cu l tura l i n t ens if i ca t ion , i n creas ing c o mpe t i t ion f o r l and a nd o ther r esour c es , a nd i n creas ing s upra loca l i n t eg ra t ion i n many a rea s .
I th as b een a rgued t hat t hese
d eve lopmen t s w ere a ccompan ied b y ar enewed d emand f o r g ood q ua l i ty s t one a xes i n t he Wessex a rea a nd i n creased i n t eres t i n c on t ro l l ing t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t hese i t ems a s a means o f a ch iev ing s ta tus w i th in l o ca l a nd s upra loca l g roups . I t was i n t h is c on tex t t ha t
3 44
w idespread d i spersa l o f a xes o f G roup I ,i nvo lv ing a pparen t c on tac ts among p eop le l i v ing i n w ide ly s eparated a reas t o ok p lace .
T he l o nger c oasta lj ourneys t ha t a re i mp l ied b y t he
d i st r ibu t ion o ft hese a xes may h ave b een u nder taken b y men s t r iv ing t o g a in p res t ige a nd s ta tus t hrough s uch a dventures . A t t he s ame t ime , d i str ibut ion o fa xes o fG roups V I I a nd V I was p robab ly c ont inu i ng . I n a dd it ion , n ew s ources w ere b e ing e xp lo i ted , b oth f o r a xes a nd f o r t he n ew t ypes o f s haf tho le i mp lement s . T hese s ources i n c lude G roups XV , XX , a nd XV II I . D istr ibut ions o f a xes o f G roups XV a nd XV I I I a re c l ear ly more l im ited t han d i str ibu t ions o f a xes o f t he g roups t ha t a re k nown t o h ave b een u t i l ized e ar l ier ( i . e . , G roups V I I a nd V I ) . I ndeed , i ti s p robab le t ha t many a xes o f G roup XV I I I w ere made i n t he a reas where t hey w ere f ound . T hese p a tterns o f d i spersa l s eem t o s uggest a c on t rac t ing o f n etworks o f e xchange a nd i n t eract ion a t t he e nd o ft he N eo l i th ic p er iod a nd i n to t he E ar ly B ronze Age . A t t he c onc lus ion o fa n i nves t iga t ion s uch a s t h is , o ne i ss t ruck n ot o n ly b y wha t o ne h as l e arned , b u t b y h ow much i ss t i l l u nknown . C lear ly , t h is s tudy d oes n ot r epresen t t he l a s t w ord o n e xchange i n Neo l ith ic B r ita in n or e ven o n s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i str ibu t i on .
F or a more c o mprehens ive p i cture o f s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i s tr ibu t ion i n
Neo l ith ic B r i ta in , t he a na lyses p resent ed i nt h is i nvest iga t ion s hou ld b e e x tended t oi n c lude t he c ount ies o fN or thern E ng land a nd S cot land . T h is w ou ld u ndoubt ed ly y i e ld amore c om p le te p i cture o f p at t erns a nd p rocesses o f d i spersa l o f t he g roups h av ing s ources i n t h is a rea , i . e . , G roups V I , XV , a nd XV I I I . I n a dd i t ion , i tw ou ld b e i n terest ing t o d et erm ine i f t he c oasta l t rad ing s ys tem o fa xes o fG roup Ie xtended f ur ther n orth i n to t hese a reas . I t was i nd icated i n Chap ter V I I t ha t f o r at ru ly c o mp lete p i cture o f s t one a xe d i s t r ibut ion i n N eo l i th i c B r ita in , a xes o f f l in t mus t b e c ons idered a l ong w ith t hose o f o ther s t one ma ter ia ls . N ot o n ly w ou ld t h is a l low q uest ions o fo vera l l a xe d ens i ty a nd o fp at terns o f i n tens i ty o f p reh istor ic a ct iv ity a nd modern c o l lect ing t o b e a ddressed more e f f ec t ive ly , b u t i nvest iga t ion o fp a t terns o f morpho log ica l v ar iab i l ity a nd p rocesses o fd i spersa l o ff l in t
3 45
a xes w ou ld u ndoubt ed ly a dd t oo ur u nders tand ing o fp a t terns o f h uman i n t erac t ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nB r i ta in . F ina l ly , e thnog raph i c e v iden ce h as t augh t u s t ha t e xchange s ys tem s i n t r iba l s o c ie t ies u sua l ly i nvo lve a w ide v ar ie ty o f d if eren t t ypes o f g oods .
F or t he B r i t ish
N eo l i th ic , w e h ave o n ly h in t s o ft he o ther t ypes o fg oods t ha t w ere b e ing e xchanged . P o t t e ry may h ave b een e x changed t hroughou t t he p er iod , s tar t ing w i th t he H embury Ware o f t he E ar ly N eo l i th i c .
I t s eem s r easonab le t o h ypo thes ize t ha t G rooved Wa re a nd /or
B eakers w ere e xchanged i n t he L a tes t N eo l i th ic , a nd i n C hapter I a n umber o f o ther t ypes o f i t em s w ere men t ioned t ha t s een l i ke ly t o h ave b een d i st r ibuted t hrough e x change d ur ing t h is t ime . C lea r ly , f o r ac o mprehens ive p i c ture o fe xchange a nd p a t t erns o fh uman i n teract ion i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in , i d en t if i ca t ion o fo ther e x changed g oods a nd i nvest iga t ion o f t he p rocesses t hrough wh i ch t hey w ere d i s t r ibut ed i sn ecessary .
I n c on c lus ion , t h is s tudy o f s t one a xe morpho logy a nd d i st r ibu t ion i n N eo l i th i c B r i ta in h as d emonst ra ted t ha t t he i nves t iga t ion o f s t one a xe morpho logy c an y i e ld u sefu l i n f orma t ion a bou t s t one a xe d i s t r ibu t ion t ha t i sd if eren t f r om a nd c o mp lemen tary t o t ha t wh ich c an b e o bta ined f r om s tud ies b ased o n a bundance a l one .
B ecause s t one a xes h ave
b een f ound i n p reh is tor ic c ont ex ts i n many p art s o f t he w or ld i n wh ich p eop le p ract iced a gr icu lture o r h or t icu l ture i n af o res ted e nv ironmen t , t he me thodo logy u t i l ized i nt h is s tudy i sp o ten t ia l ly u sefu l f o r i nvest iga t ing s im i lar p rob lems i no ther a reas .
B IBL IOGRAPHY
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3 47
B IBL IOGRAPHY
A dk ins , R . , a nd R . J ackson 1 978 N eo l i th ic S tone a nd F l int Axes f r om t he R iver T hames . O cca s iona l P aper N o . 1 . D epar tment o f P reh istor ic a nd R o mano -Br it ish Ant iqu i t ies , B r i t ish Museum , L ondon . A shbee , P . 1 966 T he F usse l l 's L odge L ong B arrow E xcavat ions 1 957 . A rchaeo log ia 1 00 :1-80 . 1 970 T he E arthen L ong B arrow i nB r i ta in . D en t , L ondon . A tk inson , R . J . C . 1 968 O ld Mor ta l ity : S ome A spects o f B ur ia l a nd P opu la t ion i n Neo l ith ic E ng land . I n S tud ies i n Anc ien t E urope , e d ited b y J . M . C o les a nd D . D . A . S i mpson , p p . 8 39 3 . Human it ies P ress , N ew Y ork . 1 979
S tonehenge . R ev ised . P engu in B ooks , Harmondsworth . 1 956 , Ham ish Ham i lt on , L ondon .
O r ig ina l ly p ub l ished
B amf ord , H . 1 980 B r iar H i l l . C urren t A rchaeo logy 6 :358-363 . B ishop , A . C . , A . R . Woo l ley , I .A . K innes , a nd R . J . Harr ison 1 977 J ade ite Axes i n E urope a nd t he B r i t ish I s les : An I nter im S tudy . A t lant ica 2 :1-8 . B owers , A . W . 1 951 Mandan S oc ia l a nd C eremon ia l O rgan izat ion . C h icago . 1 965
A r chaeo log ica
Un ivers i ty o f C h icago P ress ,
H idat sa S oc ia l a nd C eremon ia l O rgan iza t ion . Bu l let in 1 94 . E thno logy , Sm i thson ian I nst itu t ion , Wash ing ton .
B ureau o f Amer ican
B rad ley , R . 1 978a C o lon iza t ion a nd L and U se i n t he L a te Neo l ith ic a nd Ear ly B ronze Age . I n T he E f f ec t o f Man o n t he L andscape : T he L ow land Z one , e d ited b y S . L imbrey a nd J . G . E vans , p p . 9 5-103 . CBA R esearch R epor t No . 2 1 . C ounc i l f o r B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . 1 978b T he P reh istor ic S et t lemen t o fB r ita in . R ou t ledge a nd Kegan P au l , L ondon . 1 984 T he S oc ia l F ounda t ions o fP reh istor ic B r i ta in . L ongman , L ondon . B rad ley , R . , a nd A . E l l ison 1 975 R ams H i l l : A B ronze Age D ef ended Enc losure a nd i t s L andscape . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eport s , Oxf ord .
BAR N o . 1 9 .
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B rad ley , R . , a nd I .H odder 1 979 B r i t ish P reh istory : An I ntegra ted V iew . Man ( N .S . ) 1 4 :93-104 . B r iggs , C . S . 1 976 N o tes o n t he D istr ibut ion o fS ome Raw Ma ter ia ls i nL a ter P reh ist or ic B r ita in . I n S et t le men t a nd E conomy i n t he T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia B .C . , e d ited b y C . Burgess a nd R . M iket , p p . 2 67-282 . BAR No . 3 2 . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord . 1 977 S t one Axe ' Trade ' o r G lac ia l E rra t ics? C urrent A rchaeo logy 5 :303 . B u lmer , S . 1 977 Wa is ted B lades a nd Axes : A F unct iona l I n terpreta t ion o f S ome E ar ly S tone T oo ls f r om P apua New Gu inea . I n S tone T oo ls a s C u ltura l Markers : C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex ity , e d i ted b y R . V . Wr igh t , p p . 4 0-59 . Austra l ian I nst i tute o fA bor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra . B unch , B . , a nd C . I .F e l l 1 949 A S tone Axe F actory a t P ike o f S t ick le , G rea t L angda le , Westmor land . i ngs o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 1 5 :1-20 . B urgess , C . 1 974 T he B ronze Age . I n B r it ish P reh istory : p p . 1 65-232 . Duckwor th , L ondon .
P roceed -
A N ew Out l ine , e d i ted b y C . R enf rew ,
1 980a T he Age o fS tonehenge . D en t , L ondon . 1 980b T he B ronze Age i n Wa les . I n C u lture a nd E nv ironmen t i n P reh ist or ic Wa les , e d ited b y J . A . T ay lor , p p . 2 43-286 . BAR B r it ish S er ies N o . 7 6 . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , Oxf ord . B urgess , C . , a nd S . S hennan 1 976 T he B eaker P henomenon : S ome S ugges t ions . I n S et t lemen t a nd E conomy i n t he T h ird a nd S econd M i l lenn ia B .C . , e d ited b y C . Burgess a nd R . M ike t , p p . 3 093 31 . BAR N o . 3 2 . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord . Bur l , H . A . W . 1 969 Henges : 2 8 .
I n terna l F eatures a nd R eg iona l G roups .
A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l 1 26 :1-
1 976 T he S tone C irc les o ft he B r it ish I s les . Ya le Un ivers ity P ress , N ew Haven . 1 979 P reh is tor ic Avebury . Ya le Un ivers ity P ress , New Haven . C ase , H . 1 977 T he B eaker C u lture i n B r i ta in a nd I r e land . I n B eakers i n B r i ta in a nd Europe , e d i ted b y R . Mercer , p p . 7 1-101 . BAR S upp lementary S er ies N o . 2 6 . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R eport s , Oxf ord . C e lor ia , F . 1 974 P re l im inary L ist o f N eo l ith ic Axes f r om t he L ondon R eg ion w ith P e t rog raph ic Data . L ondon S tud ies 1 :87-92 .
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C happe l l , J . M . A . 1 966 S t one Axe F act or ies i n t he H igh lands o f E ast New Gu inea . P reh istor ic S oc ie ty 3 2 :96-121 .
P roceed ings o f t he
C happe l l , S .J . i n A lterna t ive S ources i nR eg iona l E xchange S ystems : AG rav ity Mode l A pproach . p ress P roceed ing s o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 5 2 . C lark , J . R . 1 979 Mode l l ing T rade i n N on -L it erat e A rchaeo log ica l Anthropo log ica l R esearch 3 5 :170-190 . C larke , D . L . 1 970 B eaker P ot t ery o f G rea t B r ita in a nd I r e land . P ress , C ambr idge .
2v o ls .
C on tex ts .
J ourna l
o f
C ambr idge Un ivers i ty
C lough , T . H . McK . 1 973 E xcava t ions o n aL angda le Axe C h ipp ing S i te i n 1 969 a nd 1 970 . T ransac t ions o f t he C umber land a nd Westmor land Ant iquar ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety 7 3 :25-46 . C lough , T . H . McK . , a nd W . A . Cumm ins 1 979 A T ab le o fB r i t ish I mp lemen t P et ro logy G roups . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d ited b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p . 1 27 . CBA R esearch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . C lough , T . H . McK . , a nd B . G reen 1 972 T he P et ro log ica l I den t if i cat ion o f S tone Imp lements f r om E ast Ang l ia . i ngs o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 3 8 :108-155 .
P roceed -
C oope , G . R . 1 979 T he I nf luence o f G eo logy o n t he Manufacture o f Neo l ith ic a nd B ronze Age S tone I mp lement s i n t he B r it ish I s les . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d i ted b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 9 8-101 . CBA R esearch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C oun c i l f o r B r i t ish A r chaeo logy , L ondon . C umm ins , W . A . 1 974 T he Neo l i th i c S t one Axe T rade i n B r ita in . Ant iqu ity 4 8 :201-205 . 1 978 S tone Axe T rade o r G lac ia l E rrat ics? C urren t A rchaeo logy 6 :42-43 . 1 979
Neo l i th i c S tone Axes : D istr ibut ion a nd T rade i n E ng land a nd Wa les . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d ited b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 5 -12 . CBA R esear ch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon .
1 980
S t one Axes a s a Gu ide t o Neo l ith i c C ommun icat ions a nd B oundar ies i n E ng land a nd Wa les . P roceed ings o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 4 6 :45-60 .
1 983 P etro logy o fS t one Axes a nd T oo ls . I n T he P et ro logy o fA rchaeo log ica l A rtefacts , e d ited b y D . R . C . K empe a nd A . P . Harvey , p p . 1 71-226 . C larendon P ress , Oxf ord .
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C u mm ins , W . A . , a nd C . N . Moore 1 973 P etro log ica l I dent if i ca t ion o f S tone I mp lements f r om L inco lnsh ire , No t t ingham s h ire a nd R u t land . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 9 :219-255 . Dan ie l , G . 1 950 T he P reh istor ic C hamber T o mbs o f Eng land a nd Wa les . P ress , C ambr idge .
C ambr idge Un ivers i ty
Darb ish ire , R . D . 1 874 N otes o n D iscover ies i nE hens ide T arn , C umber land . A rchaeo log ia 4 4 :273-292 . D ickson , F . P . 1 981 Aust ra l ian S tone Hat chets : A S tudy i n D es ign a nd Dynam ics . A cadem ic P ress , S ydney . E l l iot t , K . , D . E l lman , a nd I . Hodder 1 978 T he S imu la t ion o f Neo l ith ic Axe D ispersa l i n B r i ta in . I n S imu la t ion S tud ies i n A rchaeo logy , e d ited b y I . Hodder , p p . 7 9-87 . C ambr idge Un ivers ity P ress , C ambr idge . E r icson , J .E . 1 977 E ga l itar ian E xchange S ystems i n C a l if orn ia : AP re l im inary V iew . I n E xchange S yst ems i n P reh istory , e d i ted b y T . K . E ar le a nd J . E . E r icson , p p . 1 09-126 . A cadem i c P ress , New Y ork . E vens , E . D . , L . V . G r inse l l , S . P iggo t t , a nd F . S . Wa l l is 1 962 F our th R epor t o f t he S ub -Comm it tee o f t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A r t Ga l ler ies o n t he P etro log ica l I dent if i ca t ion o fS tone Axes . P roceed ing s o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 2 8 :209-266 . E vens , E . D . , I .F . Sm ith , a nd F . S . Wa l l is 1 972 T he P etro log ica l I dent if i ca t ion o fS tone I mp lement s f r om S outh - Wes tern Eng land . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 8 :235-275 . F e l l , C . I . 1 964 T he C umbr ian T ype o f P o l ished S tone Axe a nd i t s D istr ibut ion i n B r ita in . P roceed ings o ft he P reh ist or ic S oc iety 3 0 :39-55 . F enton , M . B . 1 984 T he Na ture o ft he S ource a nd t he Manufacture o f S co t t ish B at t le -Axes a nd Axe Hammers . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 5 0 :217-243 . F lannery , K . V . 1 972 S ummary C omments : E vo lut ionary T rends i n S oc ia l E xchange a nd I n terac t ion . I n S oc ia l E xchange a nd I nteract ion , e d ited b y E . N . W i lmsen , p p . 1 29-135 . An thropo log ica l P apers N o . 4 6 . Museum o f An thropo logy , Un ivers ity o f M ich igan , Ann A rbor . F ord , R . I . 1 972 B art er , G if t , o r V io lence : An Ana lys is o f T ewa I nt er tr iba l E xchange . I n S oc ia l E xchange a nd I nteract ion , e d i ted b y E . N . W i lmsen , p p . 2 1-45 . Anthropo log ica l P apers N o . 4 6 . Museum o f An thropo logy , Un ivers ity o fM ich igan , Ann A rbor .
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G lenn , T . A . 1 935 D istr ibut ion o f t he G ra ig Lwyd Axe a nd i t s A ssoc iat ed C u ltures . C ambrens is 9 0 :189-218 . G reen , H . S . 1 980 T he F l int A rrowheads o f t he B r i t ish I s les . A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord .
A rchaeo log ica
BAR B r it ish S er ies N o . 7 5 .
B r it ish
G r imes , W . F . 1 951 T he P reh ist ory o f Wa les . Nat iona l Museum o f Wa les , C ard if f . 1 979 T he H istory o fI mp lement P etro logy i n B r ita in . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d ited b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 1 -4 . CBA R esearch R epor tN o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . Hard ing , T . G . 1 967 V oyagers o ft he V i t iaz S t ra i t . Un ivers i ty o f Wash ing ton P ress , S ea t t le . Harr ison , R . J . 1 980 T he B eaker F o lk . T hames a nd Hudson , L ondon . Hawke -S m ith , C . F . 1 979 Man -Land R e la t ions i n P reh istor ic B r ita in : T he D ove -Derwen t I nt erf luve , D er b ysh ire . BAR B r i t ish S er ies No . 6 4 . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s , Oxf ord . Hea ly , F . M . A . 1 980 T he Neo l ith ic i n Norf o lk . Unpub l ished P h .D . d i sser ta t ion , Un ivers i ty o fL ondon . H odder , I . 1 974 R eg ress ion Ana lys is o fS ome T rade a nd Market ing P a t terns . 6 :172-189 .
Wor ld A rchaeo logy
H odder , I . , a nd P . L ane 1 980 Exchange a nd R educt ion : An E xam ina t ion o f Neo l i th ic Axe D is tr ibu t ion i n B r ita in . P aper p resen ted a t t he F or ty -F if th Annua l Meet ing o f t he S oc iety f o r Amer ican A rchaeo logy , P h i lade lph ia . 1 982
A C on textua l E xam ina t ion o f Neo l ith ic Axe D ist r ibut ion i n B r ita in . I n C on tex ts f o r P reh ist or ic E xchange , e d i ted b y J . E . E r icson a nd T . K . Ear le , p p . 2 13-235 . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork .
Hodder , I . , a nd C . O r ton 1 976 S pa t ia l Ana lys is i nA rchaeo logy . C ambr idge Un ivers ity P ress , C ambr idge . Hope -Sanderson , H . A . 1 970 A P etro log ica l R ev iew o f S ome T h in S ect ions o f S t one Axes . G eo log ica l S urvey o fG rea t B r ita in 3 3 :85-100 .
B u l let in o f t he
Hou lder , C . H . 1 956 The G ra ig Lwyd G roup o f Axe F actor ies . I n An I nventory o f t he Anc ien t Monu men ts i n C aernarvonsh ire , v o l . I ,p p . x l i lv i i . T he R oya l C o mm iss ion o n An c ien t a nd H istor ica l Monumen t s i n Wa les a nd Monmouthsh ire , H er Ma jesty 's S tat ionery O ff i ce , L ondon .
3 52
1 961
T he E xcava t ion o f a Neo l ith ic S tone Imp lemen t F actory o n Mynydd R h iw i n C aernarvonsh ire . P roceed ing s o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 2 7 :108-143 .
1 976
S tone Axes a nd H enge - Monumen ts . I n We lsh Ant iqu ity , e d ited b y G . C . B oon a nd J . M . L ew is , p p . 5 5-62 . Nat iona l Museum o f Wa les , C ard if f .
1 979 T he L angda le a nd S caf e l l P ike Axe F act ory S i tes : AF ie ld S urvey . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d i ted b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C um m ins , p p . 8 7-89 . CBA R esearch R epor t No . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . Hughes , I . 1 977 New Gu inea S tone Age T rade . T erra Austra l is 3 . D epar tmen t o f P reh is tory , R esearch S choo l o fP ac if i c S tud ies , Austra l ian Nat iona l Un ivers i ty , C anberra . J ab low , J . 1 951 T he C heyenne i n P la ins I nd ian T rade R e lat ions 1 795-1840 . Monog raphs o f t he Amer ican E thno log ica l S oc iety X IX , J .J . Augus t in , N ew Y ork . J ones , V . , A . C . B ishop , a nd A . R . Woo l ley 1 977 T h ird S upp lemen t o f t he C ata logue o f J ade Axes f r om S i tes i n t he B r it ish I s les . P roceed ings o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc iety 4 3 :287-293 . J ope , E . M . 1 952 P orce l lan ite Axes F rom F actor ies i n North -East I r e land : T ievebu l l iagh a nd R a th l i n . U ls ter J ourna l o fA rchaeo logy 1 5 :31-55 . K een , L . , a nd J . R ad ley 1 971 R eport o n t he P e t ro log ica l I den t if i cat ion o f S tone Axes f r om Y orksh ire . i ng s o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 7 :16-37 .
P roceed -
K e i l ler , A . , S . P iggot t , a nd F . S . Wa l l is 1 941 F irs t R epor t o ft he S ub -Comm i t tee o f t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A r t Ga l ler ies o n t he P et ro log ica l I dent if i cat ion o fS tone Axes . P roceed ings o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 7 :50-72 . L ant ing , J . N . , a nd J . D . v an d er Waa ls 1 972 B r it ish B eakers a s S een F rom t he C ont inen t . He l in ium 1 2 :20-46 . L ederman , R . 1 984 S ometh ing f o r E veryone? : G ender a nd E xchange i n H igh land P apua . L ecture , An thropo log ica l C o l loqu ium , A pr i l 1 3 , 1 984 , Un ivers i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbor . L eRoux , C . -T . 1 971 A S t one -Axe F ac tory i nB r i t tany . Ant iqu i ty 4 5 :283-288 . 1 979 S tone Axes o fB r i t tany a nd t he Marches . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d i ted b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . Cumm ins , p p . 4 9-56 . CBA R esea rch R epor t No . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . Manby , T . G . 1 965 T he D ist r ibu t ion o fR ough -Ou t , " Cumbr ian" a nd R e la ted S tone Axes o fL ake D is t r ic t O r ig in i n Nor thern E ng land . T ransact ions o f t he C u mber land a nd Westmor land An t iquar ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 6 5 :1-37 .
3 53
1 979
T ypo logy , Mat er ia ls , a nd D istr ibu t ion o f F l in t a nd S t one Axes i n Y orksh ire . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d it ed b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 6 58 1 . CBA R esearch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A r chaeo logy , L ondon .
May , J . 1 976 P reh istor ic L in co lnsh ire . C o mm it tee , L inco ln .
H istory o f L inco lnsh ire V o l . I . H ist ory o f L inco lnsh ire
Megaw , J . V . S . , a nd D . D . A . S impson ( e d itors ) 1 979 I ntroduct ion t oB r it ish P reh istory . L e icester Un ivers ity P ress , L e ices ter . Mercer , R . J . 1 975 S et t lemen t , F arm ing a nd E nv ironmen t i n S ou th West E ng land t oc . 1 000 BC . I n R ecent Work i n R ura l A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y P . J . F ow ler , p p . 2 7-43 . Moon r aker P ress , B radf ord -on -Avon . Moore , C . N . 1 979 S tone Axes f r om t he E ast M id lands . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d ited b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 8 2-86 . CBA R esearch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A r chaeo logy , L ondon . Moore , C . N . , a nd W . A . C umm ins 1 974 P etro log ica l I den t if i ca t ion o f S t one Imp lemen t s f r om D erbysh ire L e icestersh ire . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc ie ty 4 0 :59-78 .
a nd
P a lmer , R . 1 976 I n terrupted D it ch S ystems i n B r i ta in : T he U se o f A er ia l P ho tog raphy f o r C om p ara t ive S tud ies . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc ie ty 4 2 :161-186 . P earce , S . 1 979 D evon i nP reh ist ory . E xeter C i ty Museums , E xe ter . P eacock , D . P . S . 1 969 Neo l ith ic P ot tery P roduct ion i n C ornwa l l . Ant iqu i ty 4 3 :145-149 . P eeb les , C . S . , a nd S . M . Kus 1 977 S o me A rchaeo log ica l C orre la tes o fR anked S oc iet ies . Amer ican An t iqu ity 4 2 :4214 48 . P ierpo in t , S . 1 980 S oc ia l P a t terns i n Y orksh ire P reh istory 3 500-750 B .C . . N o . 7 4 . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord . P iggot t , S . 1 954 T he Neo l i th i c C u l tures C ambr idge . 1 962
o f t he
B r i t ish I s les .
C ambr idge
BAR B r it ish S er ies
Un ivers i ty P ress ,
T he West K ennet t L ong B arrow E xcava t ions 1 955-6 . M in istry o f Works A rchaeo log ica l R epor t N o . 4 .H er Ma jesty 's S ta t ionery O ff i ce , L ondon .
P l int , R . G . 1 962 S t one Axe F ac tory S i tes i n t he C umbr ian F e l ls . T ransact ions o ft he C u mber land a nd Westmor land An t iquar ian a nd A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety 6 2 :1-26 .
3 54
R adf ord , A . J . , a nd R . R adf ord 1 980 S ome S ources o fS tone Axe /Adze H eads i n t he E astern H igh lands o f New Gu inea a nd t he T rade R outes A long Wh ich T hey T rave l led . Mank ind 1 2 :241-246 . R appaport , R . A . 1 968 P igs f o r t he Ancestors . Ya le Un ivers ity P ress , New Haven . R enf rew , C . 1 972 T he Emergence o fC iv i l iza t ion : T he C yc lades a nd t he A egean i nt he Th ird M i l len n ium BC . Methuen , L ondon . 1 973
Monuments , Mob i l iza t ion a nd S oc ia l O rgan iza t ion i n N eo l i th ic Wessex . I n T he E xp lana t ion o f C u l ture C hange , e d ited b y C . R enf rew , p p . 5 39-558 . Duckwor th , L ondon .
1 975 T rade a s A ct ion a t aD istance : Quest ions o fI nteg rat ion a nd C ommun ica t ion . I n Anc ien t C iv i l iza t ion a nd T rade , e d i ted b y J . A . S ab lof f a nd C . C . L amberg Kar lovsky , p p . 3 -59 . Un ivers ity o f New Mex ico P ress , A lbuquerque . 1 977 A l terna t ive Mode ls f o r E xchange a nd S pa t ia l D istr ibut ion . I n E xchange S yst ems i n P reh istory , e d i ted b y T . K . E ar le a nd J . E . E r icson , p p . 7 1-90 . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork . 1 983
T he S oc ia l A rchaeo logy 2 49 (5 ) :152-163 .
o f
Mega l i th ic
Monument s .
S c ient if i c
Amer ican
R enf rew , C . , J . E . D ixon , a nd J .R . C ann 1 966 Obs id ian a nd E ar ly C u lture C ontac t i n t he N ear E ast . P roceed ings o ft he P reh is t o r ic S oc ie ty 3 2 :30-72 . 1 968
F ur ther Ana lys is o f N ear E astern O bs id ians . S oc iety 3 4 :319-331 .
P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic
R it ch ie , P . R . 1 968 T he S tone I mp lemen t T rade i n T h ird -M i l lenn ium S cot land . I n S tud ies i n Anc ient Europe , e d ited b y J . M . C o les a nd D . D . A . S i mpson , p p . 1 17-136 . Human it ies P ress , New Y ork . R oe , F . E . S . 1 968 S tone Mace -heads a nd t he L a test Neo l ith ic C u ltures o f t he B r it ish I s les . I n S tud ies i n Anc ient E urope , e d i ted b y J . M . C o les a nd D . D . A . S i mpson , p p . 1 451 72 . Human i t ies P ress , N ew Y ork . 1 979 Typo logy o f S tone I mp lemen ts w i th S haf tho les . I n S t one Axe S tud ies , e d i ted b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 2 3-48 . CBA R esearch R epor t No . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon . Rube l , P . G . , a nd A . R osman 1 978 Y our Own P ig s , Y ou May N ot E a t : A C omparat ive S tudy o f New Gu inea S oc iet ies . Un ivers i ty o fC h icago P ress , C h icago . S ah l ins , M . D . 1 972 S tone Age E conom ics . A ld ine , C h icago .
3 55
S avory , H . N . 1 980 T he N eo l ith ic i n Wa les . I n C u lture a nd E nv ironmen t i n P reh istor ic Wa les , e d i ted b y J . A . T ay lor , p p . 2 07-232 . BAR B r it ish S er ies No . 7 6 . B r it ish A rchaeo log i c a l R eports , O xf ord . S e lk irk , A . 1 981 Hamb ledon . C urrent A rchaeo logy 7 6 :147-149 . 1 985 New P lans f o r Ma iden C ast le . C urren t A rchaeo logy 9 6 :4 . S hanks , M . , a nd C . T i l ley 1 982 I deo logy , S ymbo l i c P ower a nd R i tua l C ommun icat ion : A R e interpreta t ion o f Neo l ith i c Mor tuary P ract ices . I n S ymbo l ic a nd S tructura l A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y I . Hodder , p p . 1 29-154 . C ambr idge Un ivers ity P ress , C ambr idge . S hennan , S . 1 982 I deo logy , C hange a nd t he E uropean E ar ly B ronze Age . I n S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc t ura l A rchaeo logy , e d i ted b y I . H odder , p p . 1 55-161 . C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress , C ambr idge . S heppard , T . 1 920 T he O r ig ins o f t he Ma ter ia l U sed i n t he Manufacture o f P reh istor i c S tone Weapons i n E as t Y orksh ire . T ransact ions o f t he E ast R id ing Ant iquar ian S oc iety 2 3 :34-54 . S ho t t ,on , F . W . 1 959 New P etro log ica l G roups B ased o n Axes f r om t he West M id lands . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 2 5 :135-143 . 1 972
T he L arge S tone Axes A scr ibed t o N or th - Wes t P e mbrokesh ire . I n P reh is tor ic Man i n Wa les a nd t he West , e d it ed b y F . L ynch a nd C . Burgess , p p . 8 5-91 . Adams & Dar t , B a th .
S ho t t ,on , F . W . , L . F . C h i t ty , a nd W . A . S eaby 1 951 A New C ent re o f S tone Axe D ispersa l o n t he We lsh B order . P reh ist or ic S oc iety 1 7 :159-167 .
P roceed ing s o f t he
S i l l it oe , P . 1 978 C eremon ia l E xchange a nd T rade : Two C on tex ts i n Wh ich O b jects C hange Hands i n t he H igh lands o fP apua New Gu ines . I n T rade a nd E xchange i n O cean ia a nd Aust ra l ia , e d i ted b y J . S pech t a nd J . P . Wh it e , p p . 2 65-275 . Mank ind 1 1 (3 ) . S ydney Un ivers i ty P ress , S ydney . Sm i th , I .F . 1 965 Windm i l l H i l l a nd Avebury . C larendon P ress , Oxf ord . 1 971
C ausewayed E nc losures . I n E conomy a nd S et t lemen t i n Neo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age B r ita in a nd Europe , e d ited b y D . D . A . S i mpson , p p . 8 9-112 . L e icest er Un ivers i ty P ress , L e icester .
1 974
The Neo l ith i c . I n B r it ish P reh istory : p p . 1 00-136 . Duckwor th , L ondon .
A N ew Out l ine , e d i ted b y C . R enf rew ,
3 56
1 979
T he C hrono logy o f B r i t ish S tone Imp lements . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d it ed b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . C umm ins , p p . 1 3-22 . CBA R esear ch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r i t ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon .
Sm ith , R . A . 1 921 Hoards o fN eo l i th ic C e l t s . A rchaeo log ia 7 1 :113-124 . Sm ith , W . C . 1 963 J ade Axes f r om S i tes i n t he B r it ish I s les . 2 9 :133-172 . 1 965
P roceed ing s o f t he P reh ist or ic S oc iety
T he D istr ibut ion o f J ade Axes i n Europe w i th a S upp le ment t o t he C a ta logue o f T hose f r om t he B r it ish I s les . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 1 :25-33 .
1 972 S econd S upp lemen t t o t he C a ta logue o fJ ade Axes f r om S i tes i n t he B r i t ish I s les . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 8 :408-411 . S tan ley , J . W . 1 976 A P re l im inary D escr ipt ion o f T h in S ect ions o f S ome Neo l ith ic S tone A xes f r om t he L ondon R eg ion . S c ience a nd A rchaeo logy 1 8 :3-11 . S tart in , B . , a nd R . B rad ley 1 981 S ome No tes o n Work O rgan isat ion a nd S oc iety i n P reh is tor ic Wessex . I n A stronomy a nd S oc iety i n B r i ta in Dur ing t he P er iod 4 000-1500 B .C . , e d it ed b y C . L . N . R ugg les a nd A . W . R . Wh it t le , p p . 2 89-296 . BAR B r i t ish S er ies N o . 8 8 . B r it ish A r chaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord . S teensberg , A . 1 980 New Gu inea Gardens . A cadem ic P ress , L ondon . S tone , J . F . S . , a nd F . S . Wa l l is 1 947 S econd R epor t o f t he S ub -Comm ittee o f t he S ou th - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A rt Ga l ler ies o n t he P et ro log ica l I den t if i cat ion o fS tone Axes . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 1 3 :47-55 . 1 951
T h ird R epor t o ft he S ub -Comm it tee o ft he S outh - Wes tern G roup o f Museums a nd A r t Ga l ler ies o n t he P etro log ica l I dent if i cat ion o fS tone Axes . P roceed ings o ft he P reh ist or ic S oc iety 1 7 :99-158 .
S t rathern , M . 1 965 Axe T ypes a nd Quarr ies : A No te o n t he C lass if i ca t ion o f S tone Axe B lades f r om t he Hagen A rea , N ew Gu inea . J ourna l o ft he P o lynes ian S oc ie ty 7 4 :182-191 . 1 966
V I I . N o te o n L ingu ist ic B oundar ies a nd t he Axe Quarr ies . I n S t one Axe F ac t o r ies i nt he H igh lands o fE ast New Gu inea , b y J . M . A . C happe l l , p p . 1 17-120 . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 2 :96-121 .
1 969
S tone Axes a nd F lake T oo ls : E va luat ions f r om Two N ew Gu inea H igh lands S oc iet ies . P roceed ings o ft he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 5 :311-329 .
V ia l , L . G . 1 940 S tone Axes o f Mount Hagen , New Gu inea . O cean ia 1 1 :158-163 .
3 57
Wacher , J . S . 1 964 E xcavat ions a t B reedon -on -the -H i l l , L e icestersh ire , 1 957 . n a l XL IV :122-142 .
T he Ant iquar ies J our -
Wa inwr igh t , G . J . 1 969 A R ev iew o f Henge Monumen ts i n t he L ight o fR ecen t R esearch . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 5 :112-133 . Wa inwr ight , G . J . , a nd I .H . L ongwor th 1 971 Durr ingt on Wa l ls : E xcavat ions 1 966-1968 . R epor ts o f t he R esearch C omm it tee N o . XX IX . T he S oc iety o f Ant iquar ies , L ondon . War ren , S . H . , S . P iggot t , J . G . D . C lark , M . C . Burk it t , H . G odw in , a nd M . E . G odw in 1 936 A rchaeo logy o f t he S ubmerged L and -Surface o f t he E ssex C oast . P roceed ings o f t he P reh ist or ic S oc ie ty 2 :178-210 . Wh it e , J .P . , a nd N . Mod jeska 1 978a A cqu irers , U sers , F inders , L osers : T he U se Axe B lades Make o f t he Duna . I n T rade a nd E xchange i n O cean ia a nd Austra l ia , e d i ted b y J . S pecht a nd J . P . Wh i te , p p . 2 76-287 . Mank ind 1 1 (3 ) . S ydney Un ivers i ty P ress , S ydney . 1 978b Where D o A l l t he S tone T oo ls G o? S ome E xamp les a nd P rob lems i n T he ir S oc ia l a nd S pat ia l D istr ibut ion i n t he P apua New Gu inea H igh lands . I n S pat ia l O rgan isat ion o fC u lture , e d i ted b y I . Hodder , p p . 2 5-38 . Duckwor th , L ondon . Wh i t t le , A . W . R . 1 977 T he E ar l ier N eo l ith ic o f S outhern Eng land a nd I t s C on t inen ta l B ackg round . S upp le men tary S er ies N o . 3 5 . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor ts , Oxf ord .
BAR
1 978 R esources a nd P opu la t ion i nt he B r i t ish Neo l ith i c . Ant iqu ity 5 2 :34-42 . 1 980a Two Neo l ith ics? Curren t A rchaeo logy 6 :329-334 . 1 980b Two Neo l ith ics? P ar t Two . C urren t A rchaeo logy 6 :371-373 . 1 981
L at er N eo l i th ic S oc iety i n B r ita in : A R ea l ignment . I n A stronomy a nd S oc iety i n B r ita in Dur ing t he P er iod 4 000-1500 B .C . , e d ited b y C . L . N . R ugg les a nd A . W . R . Wh it t le , p p . 2 97-342 . BAR B r it ish S er ies No . 8 8 . B r i t ish A rchaeo log i c a l R eport s , Oxf ord .
W iessner , P . 1 983 S ty le a nd S oc ia l I nf orma t ion i n Ka lahar i S an P ro ject i le P o in ts . Amer ican Ant iq u i ty 4 8 :253-276 . W i lson , D . R . 1 975 " Causewayed C amps" a nd " In terrup ted D it ch S ystems" . An t iqu i ty 4 9 :178-186 . Woo l ley , A . R . , A . C . B ishop , R . J . Harr ison , a nd I .A . K innes 1 979 E uropean Neo l ith ic J ade Imp lements : A P re l im inary M inero log ica l a nd T ypo log i c a l S tudy . I n S tone Axe S tud ies , e d ited b y T . H . McK . C lough a nd W . A . Cum m ins , p p . 9 0-96 . CBA R esearch R epor t N o . 2 3 . C ounc i l f o r B r it ish A rchaeo logy , L ondon .
3 58
Wr igh t , H . T . 1 972 A C ons iderat ion o f I nterreg iona l . E xchange i n G reater Mesopotam ia : 4 0003 000 B . C . I n S oc ia l E xchange a nd I n terac t ion , e d ited b y E . N . Wi lmsen , p p . 9 5-105 . Anthropo log ica l P apers N o . 4 6 . Museum o f Anthropo logy , Un iver s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbor . Wr igh t , H . T . , a nd M . A . Z eder 1 977 T he S imu lat ion o f aL inear E xchange S yst em Under E qu i l ibr ium C ond it ions . I n E xchange S ystems i n P reh is tory , e d it ed b y T . K . Ear le a nd J . E . E r icson , p p . 2 33-253 . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork .
Stone Axe Morphology and Distribution in Neolithic Britain
Sylvia Chappell
Part ii
BAR British Series 177(ii) 1987
B.A.R.
5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR 177 (II),1987 : 'Stone Axe Morphology and Distribution in Neolithic Britain'. Part II
©
Sylvia Jean Chappell
1986
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389776 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389783 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860544890 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407317939 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544890
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
APPENDIX
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4'
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0 1 0 _
cal c-silicate
a ) C N 0 • • 4, t ß c
0 1 a
s
" 0
n
. 1 ) L M O O D / L " 0 a )
w >
a
. 0 C •
C
(
•
.4
0 4 -,
e
•
c a )
L L 0 1
or
o
0
4 -,
(
" 0
epi diorite
Rock
Type
• -
greenstone
4,
L 0
i ntermediate
t uff
0
1 4
1I
>
>
>
e i l 0
11
N 0 S
N 0 S
L i ) 0 t r ) ( , )
2 0
2 0
Z
. > o ,
. > o ,
4,
4,
c
0 L I ) N c n
0 c n
e 0 )
N C O ` , J > —
0 1 C O ( D C I
S 0 ) S N
0 ' 7 I f ) L P
r ) L O ( • ) 0 )
>
o
Z
L I
C D
3
3
Z
v )
v )
v )
v )
v )
C O N C O C l )
S ( t ) C O 0
>
v )
x
Z
v )
-0
Ct
C
C
C
C o
« 5
« 5
C
_ C 0 1 a l -
, —
0 L — . 0
' O C t —
> , W u ) E M
0 L
> , 0 W L U ).0 E E « I
( l L I )
E O
W L — r
( / )
co .
c e c t
4 4 -
4 - a 4 - D
-0
« 5
W L . — .
C L . 0 C t ) 0 . 1 _ C > 4 -,
L OLC C > ( f l L W E 0 0 1 L c 3 C W O C 2
4 -, c a
• , • 0
L
Z
—
3 0
3
0
— W u ) L
c l
L
0
Lake D istrict southern
0 -0
L 0 L 1 3 _ C L ( 1 ) 0
o f
0 -0
1 3 C c ) —
Warwickshire
D istrict
C l )
Coniston Grit
L
. 0
Nuneaton,
L
4,
near
, -
Pembrokeshire
0
a )
L ake
0
o f
C
area
C
L angdal e
C
P lussulien,
C c a — v ) . .
near
L ocation
o f
o
BRITISH
I MPLEMENT
P ETROLOGY
GROUPS
County
Antrim,
National Reference'
3 61
I A
V )
L
c a
C —
C
3
4 -,
, -4
F 4 F I
>
II
I 1
I -1
1 -4
>
>
>
>
1 4
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I I
.1 >
>
greywacke
.4
m icaceous
, -4
c o II 4 -4
dol erite quartz
greenstone or epidiorite
greenstone or epidiorite
sub-greywacke
or dol erite
dol erite
. . ,
camptonite
0
44
spotted
a
D 0 L
D 0 I ' L
f ine
3 4 -,
porcellanite
Rock
Type
preselite
0
.
X
X
3 62
) L t f )
0
a )
c ‘ l
( y )
I V I
3 I
C 0 0 U ) 0 ( l )
c ‘ l ( y )
0 0 W D C
2
0 0
( / )
a U ) U
a sa l3 -. 0 4 '
« 0 a i W 0 1 u ) W. W D _ > W C
0
, . Y
L ( 0 C D C
4 -
Z
0 . ) . U l • •
0 C 0
CC
E
o
0 N 0 ) . -
L
_ c
U . . _ _ _
M I 0 W L M • C Z u l 0 1 C a l. 1 ' W L L W
0 a .
0
C
C
0
0
0
U )
C • • E E 3 0
Z 0 1 D 0 U
• • I 1 X X
. -
. • . . X X
> . 4 X X
mudstone
d iorite quartz > X X
• • > X X
0 . _ 0 C I 0 C O . c y ) C O C O
Cummins
+ 0 ) 0 L 0 ) C C L 0 L ' 0
carbonate
t o" 0
a ltered
X E 4 ' X 0 • • • L L 4 - 0
hornfels
0 . X . 0 C O X L 4 4
.• • . ( 0
0 L
Sou
X X
I I X X
( . )
cal c-silicate
shal e baked
epidotized
a
D 0 L 0
r iebeckite
felsite
grit
C
ashy
Type
Q ) C O C D W X L 0
4 0
on
, 0 M a t C 0 _ 0 L D 0 •4 ' L U 1 0 3 0 ) 0 ) a Z C C — E L 0
t f ) W D
o
, -
3 C O L . 1 ) L W C Z 0 ) 3 C -U l O . C A a 0 _ W 3 0 4 -, 0 L - L U ( / ) 0 ) 4 ' D > L 0 L W L Z t r ) « 1 4, Y 0 ( . )
0-
0
K nz
n
and
c oL n
W 1 0 L C. . • M . 0 0 ( 1 ) 0 ) . - _ y - 0 - L 1 .0 E W C l .
L L W 3
assumed
were obtained
Y parish, Northmaven
Caernarvonshire
Leicestershire Forest,
Source' o f L ocation
Charnwood
7 3 7 3 > C >
4 0 -0 C E C C O C D.L . 4 -, 0 0 W Z
C . -
, -
4 '
4 -, • • a ) L O W
' 0 C C
Rock
GROUPS P ETROLOGY I MPLEMENT
3 . , _ Z I X
• 4 -,
o
C C O 2
4 -
W 0
C
M W > 3
L W E Z 4 0 3 L 4 U
Scotland.
( f )
0 ) C J
ob
L 0
o
( I ) L . - Z M 4 -, C D W 4 , L W U 0 3 R I L A - 4 ' 0 . 0 > • • • 1 0 U ) X ( 1 ) ( . ) X • • - • • 4 - 4 , 1 3 , - C I ) C 4 ., • • • C O C L W W 1 3 4 • . • • U . . 4 5 X C L . X W a 3 W Z -D O . , X W . X > a l c 0 ( . ) -_ C • • • X C D -0 -W . X ( . ) 0 • • M L - 4 ' -a w • . . a W / 4.Y ' C I > 0 4 - M 0 0 E 4 -, / . W 0 ) > U ) ( ) L +1 C M U ) D W a 0 -0 u ) D C C 4 -, 0 0 1 0 C L D a W 0 0 U ) E L 0 0 L L.0 W L a L L X O E a ) • •
D 0 1 L E W -W V ) W C E 0 W 4 0 3 0 Z 0 0 1 ) 4 •( / ) U ) 0 0 a t r ) " 0 M c n -- E 0 . ) . - L 0 E 4 ' > 0 . - W . - L . - > C O 4 M L C U 3 0 C 0 V ) 0 4 -, ( U a l 4 -, W U Z C O U C . L R I 0 D C C I 0 ' 0 L u ) L Q )
n
Reference'
4 0
" 0 W E D ( f ) 0 ) L
L E 0 L W 4 - C 4 ' U )
C C C B 7 0
a C4 - L OO C L -
t r ) 0 4 ' • • U ) > L L C O 3 C T C
C
L
O C
D • • L 0
4 -,
a l C E L 0 4 -, W « 0
f - 1 : 3 a l ( l ) a +1 C O 4, E 0 C X 0 U ) L - Q . a ) a 4 ' M M -0 E 0 1 ) C l / 4 ' C O X C 3 0 U 0 0 O ..- C O . C M U ) • . - U ) W . . L M a l C • • • - . 4 -, L . ( 1 ) 0 . 0 1 ) 4 -, 4 -, L M M E t x W C X C I - I I 0 a •D u ) 0 4 -, L L 0 O a 4 W O L 0 / 0 0 W L Z D U ) 0 • • - i n . . 0 D a + '
0 U L D 0 ( 1 W 4 -, ” C M • • a ) 0 L 0
3 63
V III V Illa X III XXIII
?
50 .
F ig . 1 . 1 .
1 50
200 .
KM
XVII l a
1 00
I I l i la
Quarry S ites and Outcrop Petro logy Groups
A reas
o f
B r itish
Imple ment
3 64
TABLE
2 .1
CHRONOLOGICAL D IVISIONS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD I N BRITAIN
C hronological D ivision
Approximate Dates
E arly Neolithic
3 500
- 2 500
b c
L ate Neolithic L ater Neolithic L atest Neolithic
2 500 2 150
- 2 150 - 1 750
b c b c
3 65
TABLE
3 .1
MATERIAL GROUPS REPRESENTED BY STONE AXE SPECIMENS' FROM W ILTSHIRE AND SURROUNDING COUNTIES
A t T ime o f 1 951 Report
County
W iltshire Dorset Somerset G loucestershire B erkshire Hampshire
S ources:
1 6 1 1 5 5 2 1 3
Through 1 980
Number Added
1 6 1 4 1 0 8 7 1 6
0 3 5 3 5 3
S tone a nd Wallis 1 951; Evens e t a l. 1 962; Evens e t a l. 1 972; a nd unpublished petrology l ists c ourtesy o f Dr. I . F . Smith a nd T . S chadla-Hall.
' Included a re c omplete a xes but n ot f lakes o f a xes.
a nd parts
a nd f ragments
o f
a xes
3 66
L ENGTH 3 50.00 +
+
2 90.00
+ C 4 .
C
C C
C
C
2 30.00 +
*
* +
* * *
1 70.00 +
+
*
*
*
1 10.00
+
*
*
*
*
+ * 5 0.000
+
3 0.000
7 0.000 5 0.000
F ig.
5 .1.
1 10.00 9 0.000
Axes f rom Abiamp S ource: S catter P lot o f L ength v s. W idth M easurements ( both i n mm) C = c eremonial a xe,
* = work a xe
W IDTH 1 30.00
3 67
L ENGTH 3 50.00 +
2 90.00
+
2 30.00 +
*
*
*
1 70.00 +
1 10.00
+
5 0.000
+
1 .7000
4 .2200 2 .9600
F ig.
5 .2.
5 .4800
Axes f rom G anz-Tsenga S ources: L ength Measurements ( in mm) v s. R atio Values C = c eremonial a xe,
* = w ork a xe
6 .7400 WTHRATIO 8 .0000
S catter P lot o f W idth-Thickness
0 . .
Z e t »
0 0
Z
70.
E —
C . . .
E . 0 0 0 x < . -
c t l
C I N . « .
0
0
%
A k
C . )
7 0 0
E o , . . . 0 U C e a . . 0 — C I
ver s pace d istr ibutions o
U hm
C l ) . — Wm/
C I
4 ) N
( . n
< + + + + + + + + + + + + e
— 0 0 —
• -
F OR
c v
n i
( c ) c r )
x x x x x x X x x x x x x x x + + + + + + + + + + + + W
•- e
0
r )
0
O .-
0
c v
0 S L S ) 0 3 + - e N
O N
e • • 0 ) W
( 9 C O 0 r - O N e w c o • - - - - NC V N N N
• •e • N
N
r- 0 )
0 ) ( N L( ) 0 r ) 0 C O L f ) ( N 0 e
J
< I o
C C L J
I Z
M IDPOINT
M IDPOINT
I • • 4
L n c o c v o n c r ) N 0 e O D v- I n • ( c ) c v ) u p O r ) r r - 0 e
e L f ) L C ) L T ) W S C O r - C T ) ( 1 1 ( 7 ) • • r ) L f ) ( • • • • • • • • • • • • • N N N N N r )
_ J < 0
a ) XVI
+
W IDTH=
+
• • 0
COUNT
F OR COUNT
+ 0
LWRATIO
N 1 ) 0 ' ) N I t ) C O N i n C O N . e • L O 1 ) W ( S ) r r - a )
•
0
+
•• •
Group
( N L f ) r - 0 c 0 L C ) N 0
c v
N
+
• • • •
Compl ete
0 r ) L f ) C O e W O e 0 ) ( 9 r ) 0 O N L I 1 c 0 O r ) W
r )
L n e N
e i n
+
( INTERVAL
c V 0
L I D r ) 0 c 0
+
( N j
( INTERVAL
FOR 3 .2727)
F OR COUNT
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x + + + + + + + + + + + +
L ENGTH
M IDPOINT
COUNT
0
+
W IDTH=
( ) L t )
+
( INTERVAL
( 1 ) ( 7 ) N e e e
X
W e
M IDPOINT
W C T ) N L T ) c 0 N N e
+ 0
c o X
L THRATIO
e N
+
c ‘ i
x x x x x x x x
F OR
( N 0 0 ) S
W IDTH=
e
COUNT
•••••.•.•.•• c 0
M IDPOINT
c r ) N i n e ( N I 0 N a ) 0 C V e 00 0 L c ) — 0
0
( INTERVAL
F OR
THICK 0 c o c o 0
x x +
( . 0
W IDTH
M IDPOINT
COUNT
X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + 4 + + + + + + + +
4 0
0
a ) 0
c o.
c o 0 X X X + + +
X X X X X X + + + +
X X +
+
c o 0
) < > < + + +
W IDTH= C O h
N
N
t C O • N
_ I • c t I 0
N
C V H
+
+
+
+
« H 0
0
0
H
W C I C Y ) L C ) N CO I S ) H h e 0 0 r ) I - 0 c r c 0 0 1 0 ) N 0 W N a ) L n — c o e O h L 90 • • • • • • • • • • • • c o I n c o 0 r ) L o o , O
O
N N
N
r ) C y ) C I
e
e
e
e
( 9
_ J
< 0
FOR
CWIDTH
M IDPOINT
X X X X X X X X + + + + +
2 . 6364)
FOR
X X X + +
COUNT
X +
Z
3
X X +
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + + + + + +
N
O C4
, -
N
H
H
N CI cn
c n
0 C . )
0 C Y )
C V
I I I 0
MIDPOINT
_ J 0 C 7 ) C O h W O L I D e N 0 0 0 H C V c n e i n h c o a ) 0 0 0 ) C O h M N , 0 0 0 1 H e
e e
h e
r ) C O N L f ) t r ) L S ) t r ) W
L S ) C O W (D h
J • e t
0
C C L I H Z
Axes
h
XVI
e
Group
e e 1 1
Compl ete
N
h c o c o o ) 0 -
( INTERVAL
H N 0 ) 0 C O h e • i n
W IDTH=
0 C O 0 e
( INTERVAL
0 ' ) ( 9 N •
CTH1CK
M IDPOINT
COUNT
FOR
CSRATIO
3 92
C D CD C D C D r I
c D
CD CD CD CD
a) e l t . D e l
r 1
I
c z .
C
•
r 1
r n
1 ) • C V
CSRATIO
3 93
U t t
E i
U
E i t t
L C )
CO •
r 1 VD 0 1 C V
c z
C 71 CD S CV
VD CO S S
L I ) e l CD L I )
co
•
S
c z .
r f
C D CD C D C D
cp CD CD 0 •
a) r 1 r f l CO •
et L C ) CO C N I •
L . r ) S C V I s " . -
C D C D C D C D
01 rn e l CO •
CO t 1 CV L C )
l . C t VD el L I ) •
O CO r 1 S •
C V c o S S
e l 01 L C )
O ‘ , . o CD CO
lL C ) S CD
01 ‘ . o 01
Z E 4 0
Z
1 4
0 1 C D a) a ) .
L C ) e V D c o .
CO C s / S cn .
0 e — t
Z
g El
El
I L2 1
i — I
z E .
A
l . 1 0 CD C
r i
t r )
N
CO
S
CD
I CZ
CD C = 2 .
•
c p
3 . 1
CD
LTHRATIO
VARIABLE
CD C D CD CD
CV CO •
•
r I
Variables
0
C 7 1
r e )
c D .
• r 1
C D CD
I S ) VD L C )
CD C T1 1 .0 r i
L C ) e l r e ) co
CO CO e l co
A
1 1
0 E4
c r ) c p
z r 4
Correlation
CD CD CD
LTHRATIO WTHRATIO
0 1
3 94
r I C D • r 4 C ) r - e i • • 0 1 0 C O •r I
C O C V L . 0 V D C O C D l O L . 0 S L U L U c v r - L . 0 r 1 N r r ) L I D r e ) N C o C ) V ) C D S C V e i L C ) L O e l C O C O • • • • • • •
r I
0
0 1 C 3 1 e i • " • " e i Q C Y " ) 0 1 •
C h e l L C ) e l s L O C V a l S d i C O r I N L O r I O C V V D C O r i L C ) r i D O N L . 0 c o m m.:m a: tr .1 r f • • • • • • •
^
r e ) e i L C ) C C ` r ) • s • • • Ch M
r I
c n r\ J lC V L C ) C D L . 0 L . 0 r I •
N C V C O CO S 0 L C ) c oc ipt .n cn co co S C V C D L O CO S C D c o U DC : 11 d, c o ( N J r e ) r.) r e-)c \ i t r. )e 4 • • • • • • •
N
(Y ) I
1 .1
I
4. 1 C)
eq
E • •
L C ) t d ) L . 0 • C D 0 1
0
D
N O •
C N U , V ) L I D r r ) C D
c " ‘ r I
•
C N r O D c i f S 0 1 C V r " ) r e " ) C r ) C T 0 1 C O r f L D r I L c " L O C L O N D L . r ) e f ( N I r r s . ) L c ) r • • • • • • •
I
I
4 . . 1 -1 Z
C
1 . 1 W
• • C D C D
L . 0 r I , . . . • : ) , S r e ) r • " •• " O D t . 0 C V 0 1 •
L . 0 O lC D 0 1 0 r c ) • C D L . 0 • L O
0 C T C 7 1 C I N C ' s ' ) C s o p t o. c • a . i % . c ) c ) r - r L r ) ( N i r e ) o p c p rIr 4 r I S d i % . 0 S C V L . 0 r IL .O r r l e i ri CV a l • • • • • • • II I
L c )
r - r - t . $ ) l c v O L r ) C V e l r • i rn r i r e ) c n 0 r I S C V e l 0 1 C O e i d i d i C Y ) C V 4r I C V C V r e ) • • • • • • •
C D
S TATISTIC
( N 1
C ) u D c • ) r • r f N •a l
I
C r ) C f ) C D e l r q ri
C D I 1 4 1 El U < Z -1 r x . 1 4 1
0 1 S . 0 1 1 , ri CD • , - CO r f 'VD
. e .
4 1 U
4 1 E 4
Z I Z
1
C 1 4 C) 4 1 1 4
C D < f l > X o 0 9 C . )
Q
D
z o l § I r z l
I r I I
6
E 8
C D c ) C D e
r I C D C O 0 1 • •
z
C l )
( N I • L O O D
-4
C N C D O D r q • e l U l • ri c p
4 3 0 Z 4 1 Z 4 1 ( 24 4 1
r - r -
n e S O D C N r - c y e l e l . .
O D O D V ) r e ) c e .
r qc n
r q U l V ) e l .
r f C D C D n e .
r s ) C N r g r I r I .
O D V ) U l O D
r .
II
0 0
4 4
1 4 Z C D
z CIC f ) i 1
C D E 1 L. )g 4 i r : g 4 Z C I 1 4 t : Z Z I Z r z l 1-1 3 E 1 E . G O . 1 3 E 1 L)
3 95
M IDPOINT 2.6342 1.9511 1.2681 .58501 . 09805 . 78111 1 .4642 2 .1472 2 .8303 3 .5133 4 .1964 4 .8795 TOTAL
COUNT FOR PC.1 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 6
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
F ig.
8 .11.
+ X + XXX + XXXX + X + X + XX + X + X + X + + + X
M IDPOINT 2.2840 1.7456 1.2071 .66869 .13025 . 40820 . 94664 1 .4851 2 .0235 2 .5620 3 .1004 3 .6388 TOTAL
. 68306)
D istributions f or G roup XVI
COUNT FOR PC.2 2 1 0 3 3 3 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 6
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
o f P rincipal Axes
+ XX + X + + XXX + XXX + XXX + X +XX + + + + X
C omponent
. 53844)
S cores
3 96
PC.' 4 .8795
+
3 .3767
+
* D evon 1 6
* L ond.
" 123"
Devon 1 .8740
+
. 37127
+
+ *
1.1315
C ambs.
5 3
*
1 08
+
**
**
2.6342
+
* S omer.
1 0
2.2840
. 08513 1.0994
F ig.
8 .12.
2 .4543 1 .2697
S catter P lot o f P rincipal C omponent f or G roup XVI Axes
S cores
PC.2 3 .6388
3 97
•
M
N CO 4 .
W 01 4 - 14 - 4 0. 1 M C Z , M E E (O nj ( / ) r 4
0 >1
4 ) s a , a ) U
u
SPECIFIC CONTEXTS
t o o 4 )L e ) •r I
E
A
0
EE E E E C V C) CO VJ r 1 r I C N I r 1 r 1 r I r 1
E
E
N c o
c r ) s
r e )
r e )
> 4 U 2
4 1
o
a ) r d s 1
•r I
a )
4 . 0
el L f 1
CN ( N ) C V VD
I M I In
O T 4 1 ) a )
U )
•
U rd
O •4 . 1
( 1 )
C O
4 1
Z
e l
c u c
i n in co c t ) L o o CN 1 . C ) L C ) C V r lD X U )
X
X X C I D C I )
C 2 .44 4 E 0
X
4 ) u r a
e•4-1 c )
1 ) Cn
Location
0 .Z E4
C D
C N I L C ) ri L C ) C O
C 0 ( 1 ) ( Z
C 0
C 0
X ( 1 ) u ) u )
C Z A W
4 )
Battersea
N a i
THE R IVER THAMES
COMPLETE
N C D •
4 '
0
0 r e 0 ‘ 1 4 1 -D
0 U l
I
▪ rd G4 C
U r -I 0 9 ( 0 t -D
4. 0
Ec cD
•
E O
C n
•e I •r -4 •r -4
•4 I
•v 4
4 . )
4 . ) •r i
4 ) c i
i t ) U
014 )
•
0
rC i
• O 4 -1
0
4 -61
°I
u ) Q )
( 1 )
i n
( t ,
I
V )
0 $ 4
C 4
4 i f ö
4 1 )
4 3
• -
t f . " ) N r C j C 7 1 r ( : , ( 7 1 r I • r I r I
•r i
0
r c i
> 1
ll
0
4 i
t 3 )r 4
4 -) •
U )
( 1 ) * #
• 0 C O O
0
0
$ 4 O rd i z t, 41
ro
r . f )
C •
U )
( 1 )
• 0 O
en CV CV CV r , r 4 VJ
LO
V ) U V )
W
( N
E Z —I
c r. ,
U 2 C U
U ) N N C > e 0 10 0 •4 -, C n C D W en 4 ) ( • i 4 )
i n
C
CO •4 4
( 1 )
1 : 3 1
C D
• co r -c r , r I
, 1 •4 4
• • •
• a)
t o
r 1 4 ) 01 4 ) r e 4 r I • 4 4 4 1 CO 1 4 4 0 0 N 0
• c r ,r e ) r e )
r e ) C N 1 Vj ( N J
4 ) u ( 0
n i
• • V E
4 4 • rd W. .1 E
r e )
01 CT
r I r 1
•
U 2
0 . )
C D
( 1 ) 1 4 C O
>1
r I
a nd J ackson
C D
L C ) CO CI CO r I r I r 1 r CN r1
r x 4
C D r . I C V I I n c r , r 1
1
DEPOSITION
04
L C , 1 4
f t , S 1 4 )
a i r-I C D S 4 C C 4 ) Cn
• rt i
•
0
O U
4 -2
CP-C 1 U 2 -Q U 2 U ) > 1 $ 1 Q ) < A . 1, 0 . n 0 .
0 4
0
3 98
F ig.
8 .13.
D istribution o f S ize C lasses
G roup X VI
Axes
S ize C lasses: 1 = huge ( length 2 = v ery l arge ( length 2 33-244 l arge ( length 1 95-210 mm); 4 = 1 53-176 mm); s = small ( length o = s ize d ata n ot a vailable; @
i n D ifferent
= 3 10 mm); mm); 3 = v ery l arge ( length < 1 50 mm); = s ource
3 99
•
r e )
C D r I
C n 0 ( . 7 0
• 4 2
-
w
, 4 0 a ) c o r u.) e e w s c )
0 CO
H 0
W IDTH=
C O C O L f ) C " . . L f ) ( 1 )
N
F OR
CSRATIO H
X
COUNT
c ) 0
+
C v ) C • • O C y) ( f ) 0 C O W
M ( ' ) W H
H
0 O •
C O W L f ) • Z t N 0 ' 7 L ) h - C O C D H
0 )
< 0
w e s N N H i n ▪ e i n r - c o r - a ) — r c r ) v.) e e e e
0 0 0 0 •
CTHICK
X
X
+ +
c v 0 - 0 0c \ I N
e CO
F OR
X
J < H 0
COUNT
C V O
X
x x + + + + + + +
X
( INTERVAL
X + +
X X + + +
•
X
• L 1 )
X
+ +
0 —
c o
I
3
M IDPOINT
N
+
8 .8333)
+
W IDTH=
C V
X X X X
( INTERVAL
0 0 0
X +
M IDPOINT
•
X
X +
W IDTH=
X +
( INTERVAL
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
W IDTH
W IDTH
N N
< H
I .
X X
L r )
( INTERVAL
0 r 0 r - C . 1 0 0 ( D r ) 0 U ) r n 0
c o
X +
M IDPOINT
C N I m r - • -
X
W IDTH=
0
COUNT
•
1 )
X X X ▪
( INTERVAL
F OR
x x x x + + + + + + +
M IDPOINT
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
THICK
WTHRATIO
4 03
r - c y ) r - c o 0 0 W r ) 0 w • ▪ N
C r )
N
W
H
W
X
X
C O
O
H ( . 0 N e I S )
< H 0 H
c e L U Z
0 r ) s r - 0 0 W 0 c r ) W 0 • • • • • • • e — c o ( c r ) 0 c o 0 c Y ) u ) c o e w
O D
< H 0
I
C e w Z
c v
c v — N
O
C Y ) e c r ) c f ) L r ) c o c o c o c o 0 ) a ) 0 ) c o O cN e w co 0 •
c o
e N
"- N
N
N
N
NC • )
« 1 0
7 . 8333)
F OR
X X X X X X + + + + + + + C V
O
N
N
H
H
H
W IDTH=
H
X
• r s 0 0 r ) ( D 0 c f ) W 0 0 c o w L f ) C r ) — — c o u ) e e e W
0 c o c 0 c o
0 H
( INTERVAL
H
COUNT
N
M IDPOINT
O
0
W IDTH=
O
X X X X X X X + + + + + + + X
( INTERVAL
N
COUNT
N
M IDPOINT
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
F OR
CWIDTH
0
4 04
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
C
+ D 2 04.40
+
+
1 45.60
+ D C + D
8 6.800
C
+
+
2 8.000
+ 5 5.200
2 0.000
F ig.
8 .18.
a .
S catter P lots o f S ample
9 0.400 7 2.800
3 7.600
Group
I V Axes
W IDTH 1 08.00
i n Near-Source
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( C = a xe f ound i n Cornwall, D = a xe Devon)
f ound
i n
4 05
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
C
+
+
2 04.40
D C
+
+
1 45.60
+ D C + D
8 6.800
C
+
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
8 .18
( cont.).
b .
5 4.200
THICK 6 6.000
4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup Near-Source Sample
I V Axes
i n
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( C = a xe f ound i n C ornwall, D = a xe f ound i n D evon) Note: A l arge a xe f or which t he t hickness i s u nknown i s n ot s hown o n t his p lot.
4 06
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
C
+ * +
2 04.40
D
+ *
+ 1 45.60
*
+ D * *
+ D 8 6.800
C
C
+
+
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
8 .19. a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
S catter P lots o f A ll G roup
W IDTH 1 08.00
I V A xes
L ength v s. w idth m easurements ( C = a xe f ound i n C ornwall, D = a xe f ound i n D evon, * = a xe f ound e lsewhere)
4 07
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
C *
+ D 2 04.40
+
C *
+
1 45.60
*
+ D * *
+ D 8 6.800
C
C
+
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
8 .19
( cont.). b .
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots o f A ll
G roup
THICK 6 6.000
I V Axes
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( C = a xe f ound i n C ornwall, D = a xe f ound i n D evon, * = a xe f ound e lsewhere) Note: A l arge a xe f or which t he t hickness i s u nknown i s n ot s hown on t his p lot.
CD 0 C ) C D •
C D CD C D C )
L C ) C : 7 1 e l S •
r I
I
r I r ' l r I 0 1
S C V C l )
1
r I
CD CD CD CD •
C ) CD CD 0
•
L C ) LO L I D L C ) •
e
01 LO C V C O
r I LD Cl ) al •
e I
I
I
L C ) d i S i I
a l C 7 1 L C )
r e ) C . ' )
OD C 7 1
r i •
i — ▪t
Cl
CD C \ I r I S •
r 1 OD 01 VD •
C D L C 1 0 1 S •
c l i L C )
•
•
U i i Z E 4 U
Variables
r I
LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH
C ) C D C D CD •
CSRATIO
4 08
0 1 0 1 L C ) L C ) •
, . 1
C D C : ) C ) C)
01 L I 3 L f D S •
I
L O 01 r I r I •
CD L I D CD C 7 1
I
01 rn 0 al •
L r ) i 1 c r. s m
al C • 4 CO
u )
.
LO ( N C l ) C \ I .
OD L O
e + N 1
I
r I
C ) C) CD C D •
C V l f ) C Y ) cc •
1 ! ) •
Z E — I C I
d i . 11
C) C Y )
L C , .
C 7 1 .
5
d i 01 g e, 0 1 •
E 4 ( 7 Z t i l
e i
s
I
r I
CD al lD cc •
C D LD C \ J c t i •
U r , z E 4
d i CO al LD •
z a
I
0 LO S L C 1 • I CD C) L I ) CD •
0 — ) K Z C) r I
Correlation
CD CD CD CD •
LWRATIO
✓ I
Z E 4
U
U
U
n 3
. x E l
CSRATIO
WTHRATIO
LTHRATIO
U b • 1 Z E f
LWRATIO
VARIABLE
I
t z . 4 A C N I r I I Z
• t : 71 • i i
C e )
1
al 0 . , C V 0 LD 0 • • . L C ) 0 CO 0 •r I
CO d i V D r I L I " I ' s COL -0 01 (V M M ( N C Y ) L C ) C N C . , C ' ) C O e i r I CD r i 0 L C ) r z t, r I V) C V C V • • • • • • I
CO 01 • " , VJ al L C ) r 1 • ' - CO c n C V al
I
I
r I C V d i C ▪ O L C ) C N L C ) C V N - L C ) , i m m e l LD VJ d i V D C V r r )
I
Ol L . 0 LD r I
I
C V
1
L o d i C V r i
• • • • VD 01 • e l r e ) •
— L I ) c r ,
4 0
VD al
C 7 1 C N L . O • : 1, C Y 1 L I D al
c o
• , 1
r e ) •
O M 0 1 N - C > OD C \ / C V ( Y ) C O L . 0 L O r I C V C D C N 0 01 t . o r I L C ) VD a l CO r . 1 e l i n CN CN L C ) • • • • • • I
E i
I r i
1
0 C v 1 C e ) CO r e ) I n • • • C V CT
I
L . r ) a )
Z
1 4 b i Z ( . D 4 ,
•
C> CD CD CD • •
c n
c )
r x .
i n. 4
STATISTIC
C I
01 C " -
. - c o o
C V • 14 • • ' C V e I
•c r )
r I
L . 0 LD • : t4 N •r i
C V i n • • • • • I n C N i 1 r I • • • C V CD •! . .
•
•
L C D
•
C V C N L C ) C O r I 0 r I N - C O N C D L n C D a l 0 L . D L C ) C O c t I V ) L C ) r I C V c o 1 1 V J r I L C ) l i D d i • • • • • I I r I r I I I
r i I I
c o
C > L C-) C ' ) C Y) OD CO r " ) VD C v )
e l
r I a l 0 CD CD CD •
% J o
C V • C V N -
VD S L C ) O D M
OD L C ) al OD CO N L C ) L . 0 r • • C V C f l tN e, r I N
•
•
•
r I r e ) a l M OD
•
CD 01 r 1 e l c t,
•
•
c n•e l c : .
N , 1 u p L n c r ) c o
r 1 r I CD r1 0 • CD
N - O D C I CD N CD t I e l r I d i VD LD OD CV N CY 1 V J OD
c r ,
•
al
e l e l e l e i r ir n •
•
•
.
•
•
r I r • •
Z 0 I — I t il
EI
U
.
Axes w ithout Expanded B lades < 2> Axes w ith Expanded B lades
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR N
< 1> 1 30.85 9 19.84 1 76
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR N
MEAN VAR N
MEAN VAR N
< 2> 7 2.600 8 6.489 1 0
TEST S TATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-3.7427 1 79 . 0002* F = 1 .1170 9 ,170 . 3533 PROB(1ST MEAN 3 9.692 2 2.897 1 3
TEST S TATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-2.5428 1 65 . 0119* F = 1 .4279 1 53,12 . 2506 PROB(1ST MEAN 2 .1276 . 15561 1 71
VARIABLE:
TEST S TATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-3.1276 1 87 . 0020* F = 1 .3985 1 2,175 . 1703 PROB(1ST MEAN 3 5.539 3 2.695 1 54
VARIABLE:
< 2> 1 58.46 1 286.4 1 3
W IDTH
< 1> 6 1.854 7 7.431 1 71
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR N
L ENGTH
< 2> 2 .2281 . 15553 1 0
TEST S TATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-.78331 1 79 . 4345 F = 1 .0005 1 70,9 . 5576 PROB(1ST MEAN 3 .6533 . 24629 1 53
< 2> 3 .9629 . 30543 1 3
TEST S TATISTIC D F S IGNIF T =-2.1402 1 64 . 0338* F = 1 .2401 1 2,152 . 2607 PROB(1ST MEAN Axes w ithout Expanded B lades < 2> Axes w ith Expanded B lades
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR
< 1> 1 .7636 . 70272-1 1 49
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR
MEAN VAR
TEST STATISTIC DF T =-.20313 1 57 F = 4 .1675 1 48,9 PROB(1ST MEAN 5 4.692 6 0.397 1 3
TEST STATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-.52618 1 70 . 5994 F = 1 .0408 1 58,12 . 5114 PROB(1ST MEAN 3 5.421 3 1.080 1 40
VARIABLE:
< 2> 1 .7808 . 16862-1 1 0
CENTER W IDTH
< 1> 5 3.491 6 2.859 1 59
VARIABLE:
MEAN VAR
W IDTH/THICKNESS RATIO
< 2> 3 9.308 2 3.731 1 3
TEST STATISTIC DF S IGNIF T =-2.4272 1 51 . 0164* F = 1 .3097 1 39,12 . 3132 PROB(1ST MEAN 1 .5395 . 73006-1 1 38
< 2> 1 .3913 . 12950-1 1 3
TEST STATISTIC DF S IGNIF T = 1 .9565 1 49 . 0523 F = 5 .6376 1 37,12 . 0009 PROB(1ST MEAN>2ND I DATA)= . 9994*
< H 0
CSRATIO
• - 0
H
C . )
• - 0 ) C O t - c o e t s ) • e • - 0 c o s c \ J e
H
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C O ( . 0 . z t- N 0 • • • • • • C O C O C D O H N • L O C O 0 N ▪ e- •- ( , 1
_ J < O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ( o cv co e 0
1
< >< X X X X >< x >< X
X
,• • •
W IDTH=
,-
X X X X +
X X x >< >< X X x X X X X X x >< >< X X
X
9 +XXXXXXXXX
X X X X X + +
+XXXXXX
X
( INTERVAL
M IDPOINT
COUNT
FOR
CWIDTH
X
of
NC ' ) O N M O h m o h m w m O w M O w m 0 w m - m 1 . 0 C O O - m n wc o . . . e n ( y m e n O r - C O O -r N N C N N N M m m m m m
X +
0
W N •
M IDPOINT
X X X X X X X X X X X X +
1 2 +XXXXXXXXXXXX 9 +XXXXXXXXX 1 2 +XXXXXXXXXXXX +XXXXXXXXXXX
N
X X X +
X X X X X X +
X X X X X X +
4 - 4 .
•••••.••••.•••.•••
6 +XXXXXX 5 +XXXXX
X X X X X + +
X X X X X X X + +
0
m e N e NtN e t c4 0 0 0 - 0 0
N
F OR COUNT
N
I
X X X X X
Compl ete Group
X
W IDTH=
X X X X X X
( INTERVAL
X X X X X X
W IDTH=
X X X X
x x x x x x>< x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
F OR COUNT
X X X X X X
CTHICK
M IDPOINT
X X X X X X X X
( INTERVAL
C5RATIO
4 45
0
C>
r I
c ) c )
e t r )
CSRATIO
46
E 4 U
0 L D
CD
C ) c )
C T ) S d i
r )
r 4
CD
c >
•
L t ) d i L f )
c \ )
e
C N J L t ) OD L f )
c o c o c n
GL I
r I
I
N
t . D O
r t
•
0
CD O CD
E 4 A
C Y ,
e
I 1 •
4 1
Variables
•
c p c p a t
LTHRATIO WTHRATIO
c p c D . C )
c a c a C I )
ZI 4
CD
OD
e n
C Y )
c ) t s )
L f )
C ) •
E r ) •
O D C V
OD CD
r 1
L U
L . r ) •
•
d i L I D
r ) •
r 1
CD CD • C>
LO CD C N I L U
N L C ) L f ) CD •
L C ) C • 1 N L C )
C Y ) O e l
C Y ) OD CT
L f ) C • J CD L C )
LWRATIO
c a
c a
a ) C I ) 4 4 0 X
r I
C> CD C D C D
O r e ) O D I n
S CD OD N •
S N L f ) C>
01 L f 1 N N
OD C C N J
S S C 7 1
I n CD S N
OD 01 L C ) O •
VO VD OD CV
r S r e )
r . • )
( 10
o D
S 01 L . D S
OD C D r e ) •
0
. 2
x E . n 5
U
U 1 4
Z E 1 U
CSRATIO
VARIABLE
r 1
Correlation
C>
S VO L C )
WTHRATIO
C D
LTHRATIO
1 .4
4 47
r I
r - CD
C T 1 C D C) c . 1 r I G O r CO C V OD a l CO • z e d , 01 CO C D L C ) C : 7 1 e i W V) r Ln C r l • • • • • • I I
VD L C ) • • C Y ) CD e l CD •f 1
L U r n • • • • 0 O L U r1 • N
C O
C D
• z t, V : ) CO C D G O L C " ) al 0 h L C ) N c0 e 4 % JD L n enrt oD r1 C ) VD • z i l r 1 CV • • • • • •
O)
•
r 1 L n c0 e t VD • - VD CN r 1 Cn •
r 1
N C Y 1 C ' ) • OD
C N C D L U C D
r n L C ) O lC V 0 C V D (N M GO V Z, c e , C r \ OD C 7l t .0 r-) C Y ) i n L J D i n i n rn •c 1 L C ) r e ) 1 4 / . c p • • • • • • I I
I
: = D
C D G O
01 C * 1 • • • L C , L C ) r e ) L f ) • ` • C V al • 01
t I
1 4
CD 0 0 C D •
LD N L f ) CV L C ) CD L C ) V) 1r 1 0 C V C T 01 rn 0 I n r • • L C , t s LO L C ' ) CD C V r e ) L I 3 t . D CV • • • • • •
r 1
C J O
• • CD CD
r x ,
L 1 1 di
STATISTIC
L C " l f ) VD e e l • LD
r n rq N
• CV
a p u l r I L U
I
I
CN r I i n C n
VD CD VD VD ry rn • • N OD •r -
r 1 CN • L J D OD rl r 1 CD
r - u3 r l CN c t, 00
rl L J D - ON vD r • • • • • CN CN •e l CV
CD c r • e l CD vD r 4 CD
( N J r - CN rq rl r - r V J L J D r L n
•
•
LO OD c e ( N J Cn L J D CN 0D rn OD L f l rn r q VJ • • • • • I I
•
•
00 VD rq r rn CN VD r q e l c a l C V •
Z 0 L T 1 U
E t
c n r m l E t
E l l
E'
0
i -4
U
Z 4 . 1
n z W
a , c . 1
r x i t 1
z 0
Z A r . / ) e d
zc zi -,t xx x
4 1 t t 3 EIE t 6 - 3 E i 1 1 . - 3
4 - 4 - O
N C D r )
4 - a )
N
> < X >< X X X X >
< X X X X X
X x >< x > < X > < X X X X X +
( INTERVAL
I Z 3 0 ( . )
> < X > < X X X X X X X X > < > < X X X > < X X X + + + + +
> < X
•
c o X X X X X X X X X + + + + +
+
+
+
+
+
0 •- 0
0
0
0
, -
C D 0 0 0 ) e 0 C O W e c ! ) I S ) a ) c o O D N C D O W
( 9 N c o 0 )
C O L s ) c o e
0 ) r ) c o C O
L o
n
L n cv
•
e
e
c o
< I C I -
W IDTH=
r x o u _
X x X >< x x > < X X X X > < X X > < > < > < > < X > < > < > < X X > < > < X X X X X )< X X X X X X + +
x x x > < > < > < > < > < X X X +
( INTERVAL
C I • o o _
c a a .
c v
O e C O ' 1 ' C O • C f ) 1 ) S r ) 0 ) L O 4 - S •
r )
( ' ) N
C O e C O r )
• • L S ) c o 0 ) C Y ) ( 1 ) 4 - 4 -
X
a _
X
4 0
X
X x X X X X X X > < X X X X X X X > < > < > < > < > < > < X X +
X
2 +XXXXXXXXXXXX
+
9 +XXXXXXXXX
X +
X X X X X X X + + +
x x > < X X > < > < X X > < > < > < X +
> < X X X > < > < > < > < > < X X X X X X X X +
X > < > < > < > < X X X X +
X > < > < > < X +
> < > < > < X
X X > < > < > < X X +
c o c r ) e
0 ) r - 0 e N C r ) 1 ) N O D 4 e 4 - C O ( 7 ) N L O W N 0 0 •
•
•
•
( . 0
-
h 4 - O D ' 1 O D W O • e • ' r t C O N W
•4 4 -
X X X X X X > < > < > < > < X + + + + + +
N
N
-
N C O e N 0 4: 1 ' C ' )
+ -
L C ) 4 0 C O
N C O O D 4 -
C O • : 1S L O
l r ) • • C O ( 7 ) • : 1 '
C O C ,
_ J < I 0
0 3 .0
L a
c o
c o
( IN
MIDPOINT
Z 3 0 o
X X +
7 +XXXXXXX
xx xx xx >
4 , a ) . 0 • e • • 4 . . C 1 L L ”- ,- L O •P E C C > , -- t n E - .- L 0 0 0 - 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 - w r a - -- C D c o Z J 3 > - 0 Z(n 2.I C I 3 w 0 3 3 0
e
u ) •t o . Y . 4 L
L
L
0 0 0 › Z ›-
= C I C T ) h 0 0 ( 0 c v e e C D C ) c 0 * - 0 ) - ( N , - • • • ( 0 ( 0 r • • , . " • • • • • •i n i n ( f l c o •E n u ) C 4 .. .Y U M •. y . 0 4- L L L C C L Z I L x 3 0 0. 1 ) - 0 0 (0 0 O v )> - >- c0. . . i -J >IX >
• . - C O e v l C ) u l e- C N I ' . - e - ( s ) c o r - . 0 ) W • u ) U 3 0 • •( 1 ) I A . x c r ) 4- a ) 4 ' L L L 4- L 4.L 0 0 0 3 a 1 0 0 >
> C 3 V I Z
Z
>
.
.
.
.
.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t I 1
I A xes A nalysis o f G roup C luster
.
( continued o n n ext p age)
4 51
I I
1 .
1 I I I I I I I 1 1 1 I 1 I I I
.
.
.
I I 1 1 I I I
.
I i I I t I 1 I I I 1 I 1 I I I
I
.
1 1 t 1 1 I 1 I I 1
I
I
II
I
I I
I 1
1
1
1
1
_ I F
.4
.
.
.
I I 1 I I I 1 I 1 I
I I I I I I I
I
I
I I
I
I
I.
I I
I
I
I
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L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
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S catter P lots A nalysis
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3 7.600
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I A xes
W IDTH 1 08.00
i n C luster
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters) Note: Not e very a xe i n t he c luster a nalysis i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
4 54
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
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7
7
1 45.60
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8 6.800
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7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
8 .45
( cont.).
b .
6
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup A nalysis
IA xes
THICK 6 6.000
i n C luster
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters) N ote: Not e very a xe i n t he c luster a nalysis i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
4 55
TABLE DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP
* **** VARIABLE
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 0 2 0 2 0
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 6 1 6 1 6
MAXIMUM
9 8.000 6 0.000 3 1.000 1 .4000 2 .5789 1 .5789 4 6.000 3 3.000 1 .2105
1 41.00 7 8.000 4 0.000 1 .8841 3 .7105 2 .1714 7 2.000 4 0.000 2 .0000
C luster
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 4 1 5 1 4
MEAN 1 16.52 6 7.524 3 6.476 1 .7278 3 .2041 1 .8558 5 9.350 3 6.300 1 .6383
STD DEV 9 .8011 5 .0162 2 .1822 . 10691 . 31041 . 15591 6 .6434 2 .2734 . 18266
2 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 06.00 5 3.000 2 6.000 1 .5309 3 .6552 1 .8276 4 4.000 2 6.000 1 .4286
1 37.00 8 1.000 3 5.000 2 .1094 4 .7692 3 .1154 7 0.000 3 5.000 2 .6923
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
1 * ****
M INIMUM
*****
VARIABLE
I AXES
C luster
* **** VARIABLE
8 .9
MEAN 1 21.94 6 3.176 2 9.647 1 .9418 4 .1302 2 .1478 5 4.125 2 9.375 1 .8649
STD DEV 8 .7783 6 .9753 2 .6912 . 14672 . 31940 . 32785 7 .0510 2 .9637 . 34862
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
6 3.000 4 9.000 2 3.000 1 .0500 1 .9688 1 .6129 4 3.000 2 3.000 1 .3871
1 05.00 7 4.000 3 5.000 1 .7931 3 .7826 2 .6522 6 6.000 3 5.000 2 .2174
MEAN 9 0.333 5 7.667 2 9.933 1 .5767 3 .0414 1 .9439 5 1.714 2 9.667 1 .7613
STD DEV 1 1.506 5 .8635 3 .0814 . 21975 . 43744 . 27055 6 .3298 3 .1547 . 26479
4 56
TABLE
8 .9
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP
* **** VARIABLE
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
9 9 9 9 9 9 6 6 6
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK CSRATIO
5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 4 5 4 5 4 5
8 7.000 3 2.000 2 3.000 1 .9333 3 .2581 1 .1034 3 8.000 2 4.000 1 .2258
1 09.00 5 2.000 3 1.000 3 .0000 4 .2500 2 .1667 4 6.000 3 1.000 1 .9167
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 5 2 5 2 5
C luster
MAXIMUM
1 11.00 4 9.000 3 0.000 1 .9091 3 .1053 1 .3514 4 1.000 3 1.000 1 .1538
1 48.00 7 1.000 4 1.000 2 .5714 4 .3529 1 .8684 6 5.000 4 1.000 1 .6667
C luster
MEAN 9 9.556 4 5.556 2 7.444 2 .2178 3 .6543 1 .6808 4 0.000 2 7.667 1 .4699
STD DEV 6 .3070 5 .8760 2 .9627 . 31855 . 34183 . 30308 3 .1623 3 .0111 . 27774
5 * ****
M INIMUM
*
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
MAXIMUM
*
VARIABLE
C luster
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
I AXES
MEAN 1 28.04 5 8.849 3 5.792 2 .1882 3 .5867 1 .6452 5 0.644 3 5.822 1 .4139
STD DEV 9 .4155 5 .7826 2 .7058 . 18965 . 25720 . 11472 5 .5602 2 .4336 . 12121
6 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 46.00 5 4.000 3 7.000 1 .9625 3 .3922 1 .3171 4 5.000 3 6.000 1 .0714
1 77.00 8 0.000 5 1.000 2 .9138 4 .4324 1 .9500 7 8.000 5 1.000 1 .9211
MEAN 1 61.38 6 8.269 4 1.769 2 .3838 3 .8807 1 .6439 5 7.320 4 0.920 1 .4058
STD DEV 8 .8094 6 .6906 3 .6256 . 24595 . 26892 . 19597 7 .7175 3 .3655 . 19395
4 57
TABLE
8 .9
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP
* **** VARIABLE L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO W THRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
N 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
( cont.) I AXES
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
7 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 88.00 6 2.000 3 8.000 2 .2697 4 .1224 1 .3778 5 2.000 3 8.000 1 .1556
2 17.00 8 9.000 4 9.000 3 .0645 4 .9474 1 .8163 7 5.000 4 9.000 1 .6429
MEAN 2 01.14 7 4.286 4 4.000 2 .7314 4 .5871 1 .6885 6 3.429 4 3.429 1 .4648
STD DEV 1 1.611 9 .0317 3 .6056 . 25049 . 30035 . 14608 7 .4130 3 .5989 . 16567
4 58
b
a
d
C 0
F ig. 8 .46.
3
G roup I A xes R epresentative o f C lusters a . S uff . 5 , b . D enb . 8 , c . G los. 4 2, d . D evon 3 7
4 59
0
3 C M
F ig. 8 .46 ( cont .).
G roup I A xes R epresentat ive o f C lusters e . C ambs. 1 01, f . N orf . 1 68, g . W ilts. 3 06
4 60
0
1 00 km
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1 1 5 5 54 5 2 4 3 255 1 *5 1 2 5 5 2 2 3 3 3 5 1
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F ig.
8 .47.
D istribution o f G roup I A xes i n C lusters 1 -5 ( numbers i ndicate c lusters, * = a xes o f m ore t han o ne c luster, a s f ollows: Y orkshire C oast: c lusters 1 , 4 , 5 ; Cambridge a rea: c lusters 1 , 2 , 5 ; E ssex C oast: c lusters 2 , 3 , 5 ; L ondon a rea: c lusters 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 ) N ote: N ot e very a xe i n e ach c luster i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
4 61
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rd
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ro
t i l
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( T i
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i nvestigation;
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• -
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E U • M c . 1 r c 5
Cr c i
C
4 1
( T i
i nvestigation;
C
rd
0
C
ri
i nvestigation;
)
5c o c o c o
a )
>
•
C O S r- s • - - at at . 41 ei 0 r c i cn c )-) cn al et s r- s r- 4 -4 E n
c w
c o
U M
r- r - C 4# 4# -r i
c c i -4 -I
• Q
r 1
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r I .• 1
C I , t n
U
$ 4
r 4
ri
1 : 31 01 . --1 ri
1 V I •1 '4 Cn
0
i nvestigation;
O U
0
i nvestigation;
•i 4
4 4
CO CO
u c o
• C :n C I )
Erm.
4 1
i nvestigation;
4 ) ". 4
4 -4
O lS S 1 I al cn
. -
4 )
S
4 -4
CO CO r `. -S
C 0
•
•
4 -4
i nvestigation;
CONTEXTS
4 )
FROM
0
U ) • a ) • • di U 2 0 . ) • a )
• ••• • •
• 4 )
i
except
•
c o
4 4
u nnumbered
as
OF DEPOSITION
4 ) 0
4 4
-
.
6 4
.
M
W q
. "
.
Q ) • , 1
A
1 4 C
r e , 4 tr 0 0
ASSOCIATIONS OF AXES
Location
COMPLETE AXES OF GROUP XXIII
TABLE
9 .1
4 75
r l j
0) 0 . ) I / 1
( N I ( e ) C r l N N L ( )
• • • 4 ) 4 ) E • t o O 04 X X C D
4 76
0
1 00 km
L
VV
V
VLM
F ig.
9 .4.
D istribution o f G roup XXIII S ize C lasses
Axes
i n D ifferent
S ize C lasses: H = h uge ( length 3 70 mm); V = v ery l arge ( length 2 30-294 mm); L = l arge ( length 1 88-208 mm); M = m edium-sized ( length 1 50 mm); s = s mall ( length 9 4 mm); x = a xe w ith e xpanded b lade; @ = s ource
2 56
5/ 251'
4 77
P l
U ) c t 2
C D W 01 $ . 4 ( 1 ,
r-i r1 1
1
W W C / 2
( D a ) ( 1 ) t : 71
0 1 )
r t , r1
t 4 W W Cu >
C D c 1
E
1 0 ) t . 1 $ . 4 e r i 0 )( W
E
L O
d i d i CO CO C J 1 VD L C ) C) C N I ( • , 1
C D
r 1
oo a )aa 0 ,a )a ) •0 r c iorci
O D CD
r - c o L c ) r y
U )
• E
X r c i 4 4 4 4 • • r i 0 0 W 41 U ) c i 2 C O W 4 ) C T ( 1 :.0 C D C D W
re
4 -4
E4 ) 4 ) 4 )
W
0
r t i
C n C 0 0 0 W O O
0 C ID
n
41
L . r )
( N .
C N . 1 .
e i r e )
e t e l ri
c o e t r 1
.
• c r l C t , W C U X X 0 ,4
$ 4 0
Southeast
E • 0
•r 4
Northeast
n j
Near-Source
I N S IZE VARIABILITY
0 •r I
( 1 1 •J 1 •
•
SPATIAL PATTERNS
TABLE
9 .2
• 0 ( 1 )
N
r -
4 78
F ig.
9 .5.
P attern o f D ispersal o f G roup XXIII A xes ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
479
0 I
km
100 I
•:·.. ··... ...... . ·· ..
•. ·····
* * *
*
*
*
*
*
* 2
* *
*
*
* *
* *
Fig. 9.6.
Distribution of Complete Axes of Group VIII (numbers = multiple axes; @ = source)
4 80
M IDPOINT
COUNT FOR D ISTANCE
1 5.000 4 8.000 8 1.000 1 14.00 1 47.00 1 80.00 2 13.00 2 46.00 2 79.00 3 12.00 3 45.00 3 78.00 4 11.00 4 44.00 4 77.00
5 2 4 0 1 2 3 1 3 3 1 3 2 0 1 1
M ISSING TOTAL
1 4 2
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
F ig.
9 .7.
+ XXXXX + XX + XXXX + + XXXXXXXXXXXX + XXX + X + XXX + XXX + X + XXX + XX + + X + X
3 3.000)
D istances f rom t he o f G roup V III H ave
S ource a t Which C omplete Axes B een F ound
C O M C O e L c ) ( c ) w
0 H
• • h e
•e C O N
N
0
, -
O
N
r • • c ) 0 • • c o i n C V 0
• • C O e C O i f ) l f ) N 0 C y ) L C ) C O N C V N
0
i
. 1 < I 0
C Y I Z
CSRATIO
O cy c s ic s 4
0
+
> < +
0
—
_ I < 0
0
+
0
• H >
0 0
0
c , 4
0 r ) ( . 0 N L f ) C O 0 0 ) C O t • • l f ) C O M 0 ) L C ) r • ( 3 ) • • • N e L f ) 1 . 0
< 0
FOR
X x x x X X X X + + + + +
+
+
X +
N
0
0
—
N
O
-
e
•
a )
Near-Source
Sampl e
• N N N C O c n C O C O ( . 0 l f ) M N 0 0 ) U(O N 0 ) a ) 0 0 • • • • • • • • N C V N
L t ) c o 0
W IDTH=
N
x x + + +
( INTERVAL
FOR COUNT M IDPOINT
x + +
i n
N
+
0 C I W e N 0 0 e C O N r ( r ) 0 0 e h c o 0 • • • • • • • • ( 0 0 e c o c v W 0 i n N ( Y ) e e
I a H 0 H
c c w Z
0 _
CWIDTH FOR
X X X X X > < >< > < + + + + + + + + • • N 0
C f ) W N l f ) 0 h • e N C 7 ) N • • ( o 0 e f • • e C O .. N N
0
C O e ( 9 e ( f ) 0 l f ) l f ) C O . • • C y ) M
0 )
< I 0 H
W IDTH=
, -
x x +
CTHICK • •
0 ( " 3
COUNT
FOR
x x x x x x x + + + + + +
( INTERVAL
• H (1)
0 0
FOR
x x x x x > < ) < + + + + + + +
COUNT
x +
M IDPOINT
FOR COUNT M IDPOINT
0
LWRATIO
C J ) i n 0 w h c o a )
C V C . ) e L I-) t • - C O e N O CO (D e N 0 C O W e 0 ' ) N 1 ) ( ) r - C O ( 3 ) ( 3 ) 0 • H • N N N
L U
0
4 — X
X X X X + + + + +
+
+
•
0
0
• • t f ) 0
+
0 0 ) I -• e • • 0 ° N U ) C O • H e N 0 0 e C O N t- • • l f ) 0 e
e ( 3 ) l f ) 0 L f ) W
( 0 r • • t • • C O C O
L U 0 )
I
C
I
0 CD 0 • r I
O r f C V S .
01 e l 01 S •
r r ) L C ) L C ) r f .
r I Co S .
l r e )CO e l CO S .
o )
C\ I r r ) r I e f
L C ) i I L O C 1 I .
a ) .
I
I
( N LO I " r I •
L C ) L C ) r f 0 •
C V L C D S 01
S LO S L C )
r e ) I n LO C V .
C O 1 . 0 C O S .
L o I n .
WTHRATIO
LTHRATIO
LWRATIO
VARIABLE
l f ; ) CO
LO
I
U e i Z E 4
t r ) .
r f S 0 1 r e ) .
C > C v l e l C \ J
I
C>
• o .
L C ) 4 Z ) c j
I
i
CD
d i ( r ) r 1 01 •
r i o p .
1 ) * 2 +
c o o. ) .
0 4 4
Cl CO r I L C ) I
I I 0 0 L C ) 0
r I CO 0 1 S
L C ) . 41 LD r 1 . I
CSRATIO
0 0 CD 0
0 1 L C ) CO C D •
E 0 U
0 r e )
Correlation
CD 0 0 CD •
I
a ) . 4 ) a ) r i Q .
Variables
r I
1 ' 1 0 L I D CD •
LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH
L O r e ) 0 C O •
LWRATIO
C D C D 0 O •
I i r . L . A CN
I
Z
C n , 1
r x .
C D 0 • 0 1 C D VJ r ) • C V C D e4 •i r l
C 3 1 01 0 - 0 1 L C) r i V J N 0 0 ' ) N VO C D N O1 01 VD ( N r ( N r 1 e l C V 0 1 VO V C) C V • • • • • •
N Cn L C) V O • C T) C T) V D 01 •
N 1 m e r f C O U1 V D L C) L C) ( N V O C) 0 CD V D ( X ) C V C V ( N I VO L C) C0 0.1rf 01 C V • • • • • •
C 1 )
1 4 i 4
C O 0
« e t
r Z
• GL I
f L i 0
C D
OD C D • U l On r i •
ON C V VO 0 1 Cn C O C V VD n e • •
r y-) c r ) f L 1
C V CV 0 1 CN r r - r - CN CD CN CN U1 CO r q CN VO CV C D CD r - VD e t OD N L C ) V D r f • • • • • •
r f
r f
C D e l
C r 1
r -IV ID C D 1 1 01 0 • ^ " " r - O •O
01 I D If ) I C) • r 1 r i
( V C V ( N 0 1 • • • • L C ) r i
O
r I
C V
L C) r l m e 0 •
r i O VD V D L C) c o 0 i n 0 1 a l 0-) CD (N I C D L t.) C Y ) 0 - V O C V VD r i m e 0 1 1 1 • • • • • • I I
1 4
▪ ( J )
STATISTIC
r x 4
• . C D 0
• z e
•c o
r I r I
0 1
r -
• • 0 1 e l O D rn • r 1
W U
Z 0 1 . 1 E "4
C X X X + + + +
VD
X X X +
X x X +
X X X +
• : 1 4
X X X + + + + + +
I
C D r l L U r - u n rn r n rn r n CD CD C D CD , I
MIDPOINT
0
C N VJ r I LO C D CD r - c Y CD r - rl C D c v e ry L c ) cn r- l r 1 OD VD . : 14 C Y ) r e c n e r - O r u n r n e t a) r e ) r n r - r y r n o c ) i z n o c n 4o r / 1 1 u-)CD el CN • • •C r l LU ( t it- • • • • • • • C N r i r I • • • • •r 1 C N ( r ) ( e ) ( v )
Component
0 O 1 4
X X X X X +
•
o c4
0
11 1 1 1 1
E 4 Z b — i
r q
r • • r - N
0
l
OD va
X X X X X X X X X + +
X X + +
L o
r 1
r n r - rn
d e 0 1 r I C N V ) 0 V )
r y u n X X X X + +
X +
r y r y r
t r ) s C ) L r ) u ) c o c ) c n
r I
+ 0
+
+
C D 0
+ ( N
•
•
•
•
( N rg
e r n
* 41 r 1 C O
D 1N c n L C ) r - C D C N L C ) e l 0 1 e l I 1 C T ) r r ) L C ) r r s C N r - C N c o ma° • • •( 7) LI D • • • • • • • •
r g
I
c n r e ) e l e t
E 4 0 E 4
E 4 C Z
Distributions
X X +
X X X X +
X X X X X X X X X + +
( INTERVAL
MIDPOINT
COUNT
FOR PC.1
4 ,
r I
4 98
C Y ) U 0 4 . C V •
1 4
1 1
i 4
F 1
1 -4
1 I
1 1
I 1
1 1
1 .4
1 4
1 4
1 1
1 1
I I 1
1 1
F 1
1 4
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 I
1 1
1 I
I 1
1 4
I 1
I 1
1 1
1 4
1 4
I 4
1 1
1 1
I 1
1 4
F 4
I . -4
1 .I
1 1
1 1 I 1
I 1
1 4
U 0 4 . ✓ I •
1 4
1 1
F 1
I 1
1 1
1 4
U 0 4
1 1
1 4
1 -4
1 1
I e 4
1 1
1 1
1 1
I 1
1 I
1 4
I 1
1 1
F 4
1 1
1 1
1 1
e 1 1 1 1 4
1 1
4 1 I
1 4
i I I I II 1 1 1 4 I I I I I I ++ + +4 + + + + + ++ + +4 + ++ + + + + ++ + +
S e l 0 e l a ) s r I C D C V C D I n 0 1 C O C V r 1 d i c t i L ( ) C V C Y ) C D C Y ) C Y ) C V r I C V L O C O r I C V d i 0 1 r I • : } , •e l % . 0 r • • • ( Y ) a ) r i e r CN N ( N i • • • • • r n • •r I r I
CASEWISE
C ) C O
•
r n„ .
• • ri l ri j •> . . „ . . • • .4. 4 •r i ) •L i ) • • • • • • • • r z 1 .4 ) o 5 E t . ) -2 O E ,C 2 4 W1 ) E4 ) E 4 •E • H E 5, . Q E C O r-I C D C ( 0 1 i C 4 3 . )C O 5 C O $ -4r i c o4 ) 1 1 r C S 1 4 • $ 4 0, 11 0 0 o ) r i 0 a )4 ) a ) -4,1 0 0 0 r a MO R S , I 0• i U 3r i Z ZL ‚b 3 >I 6 1 At c l U Xtl y 2 Z 3 O Z Z ZrZ U Z ULDE 1 4 0
( continued
I
4 99
C V L C ) II
1 4
I 1
1 I
I 1
I1
1 . I
r -
•c n ( N I
i n CV
• 01 0
e t c )
•c o L . r ) , 1
C V L ( )
•a e
C V
C Y ) l . 0
r I r " -
•L C ) CO l e,
r I L ( )
•r - L C ) r e )
r i r 1
• CO r I
L r )
• .4 1 r - c > c n
•r - L ö r-)c )
c o
•c o , i • z i, . 4,
L C )
•C e ) C V r I 0
e i
• 01 r i C V e i
e I
•C V e i r • - co
rn
•01 0 1 CO VZ 0
C V
•t . D
( " N
•L 0 c o u :, t — i
, i
•r - L f ) C V C)
r I
•l 0 0
r I
•d i 01 r • • CO
r ,
•C Y ) CO
r 1
•C V co r e ) c z )
c n . 4 1 r -
C N C \ . 1
ML . ()
• co C 7 1 r i
CO
•C -- L O C V 01 L ( ) • VD 0
CO r i C -
•e l
s l . 0 L C ) d i
•d i
L . r ) c o L I ) l ( )
•e i r e ' ) ri C 7 1 L C ) •d i C V 0
0 1
a l
•c e ) h C : ) C D C * 1
Cluster
• CO V) CV d i r I •( N I C V
•CV r I CO r - C : ) •r 1 r 1 LO
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
• 0 1
. 0 1
. 1
s c r r )
r N s CV 0
d i C V r I C V C D r I C r ) r e ) e i r I • • • • t n • • •
T s E • .Q ui + -0. 0 ,Q . .l i E cs , E r i ( t , c d W r 4 0 r c i W
D ISTANCES
4 -1 C 0 U
c o r i
L . r ) e l r -
a l c v )
5 00
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
7 7 2 63.20
+
6 2 04.40
+ 6
1 45.60
8 6.800
+
4 4 4 4 4
2 2 34 2 2 2 2 12 1 1 11
+
6 6 6
6
4
4
5 5 5 5
1
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
9 .19.
a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
S catter P lots o f G roup V III Axes A nalysis L ength v s. w idth measurememts ( numbers i ndicate c lusters)
W IDTH 1 08.00
i n C luster
5 01
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+ 7 7 2 63.20
+
+ 6 2 04.40
+ 6
6 6
+
4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 3 2 4 2 2 2 5 5 1 2 1 5 1 1 1 1
1 45.60 +
+
8 6.800
6
6
+
5
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
9 .19
( cont.).
b .
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup V III Axes C luster Analysis L ength v s. t hickness m easurememts ( numbers i ndicate c lusters)
THICK 6 6.000
i n
5 02
TABLE
9 .4
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V III
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
MAXIMUM
7 9.000 3 8.000 2 1.000 1 .6923 3 .2593 1 .5833 3 6.000 2 1.000 1 .6364
1 03.00 5 5.000 2 7.000 2 .0789 4 .6818 2 .4762 4 7.000 2 6.000 2 .1905
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
N 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 6
MAXIMUM
1 07.00 4 5.000 2 6.000 1 .9455 3 .5667 1 .4516 4 3.000 2 5.000 1 .3871
1 34.00 5 8.000 3 1.000 2 .9778 4 .8077 2 .2308 5 0.000 3 4.000 1 .9231
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
N 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C luster
MEAN 9 1.167 4 9.000 2 4.167 1 .8707 3 .8075 2 .0464 4 4.000 2 3.333 1 .8927
S TD DEV 8 .6120 5 .8652 2 .3166 . 14748 . 56933 . 34175 4 .3359 2 .2509 . 19050
2 * ****
M INIMUM
*****
VARIABLE
C luster
I N C LUSTERS
1 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
C luster
AXES
MEAN 1 18.71 5 3.571 2 8.571 2 .2381 4 .1748 1 .8905 4 7.833 2 8.429 1 .6677
S TD DEV 8 .8264 4 .7208 2 .0702 . 34153 . 43953 . 27551 2 .6394 3 .3094 . 21899
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 23.00 6 1.000 2 0.000 2 .0164 6 .1500 3 .0500 5 3.000 1 6.000 3 .3125
1 23.00 6 1.000 2 0.000 2 .0164 6 .1500 3 .0500 5 3.000 1 6.000 3 .3125
MEAN 1 23.00 6 1.000 2 0.000 2 .0164 6 .1500 3 .0500 5 3.000 1 6.000 3 .3125
S TD DEV
5 03
TABLE
9 .4
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V III
* **** VARIABLE LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
C luster
MAXIMUM
1 30.00 6 2.000 3 0.000 1 .8961 3 .6842 1 .7632 5 4.000 2 8.000 1 .5882
1 60.00 7 7.000 3 8.000 2 .3881 5 .0000 2 .2000 7 2.000 3 7.000 2 .1786
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
C luster
MAXIMUM
9 8.000 6 9.000 3 3.000 1 .4203 2 .8000 1 .7143 5 9.000 3 2.000 1 .5122
1 20.00 7 7.000 4 2.000 1 .6667 3 .5294 2 .2647 6 4.000 4 1.000 1 .9063
VARIABLE LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK CSRATIO
N 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
C luster
MEAN 1 43.88 6 8.000 3 4.750 2 .1227 4 .1668 1 .9639 6 0.500 3 3.750 1 .8036
S TD DEV 9 .9058 4 .5981 2 .8158 . 18709 . 47620 . 15183 5 .3452 3 .1510 . 20252
5 * ****
M INIMUM
*****
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
AXES
MEAN 1 12.75 7 2.000 3 6.000 1 .5649 3 .1527 2 .0179 6 1.500 3 5.250 1 .7590
S TD DEV 1 0.372 3 .5590 4 .0825 . 10606 . 37745 . 23518 2 .0817 3 .9476 . 18108
6 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 79.00 6 3.000 3 2.000 2 .4024 4 .1556 1 .4000 5 8.000 2 9.000 1 .2889
2 20.00 8 2.000 4 5.000 3 .0556 6 .0938 2 .0938 7 6.000 4 5.000 2 .0690
MEAN 1 94.50 6 9.500 3 8.333 2 .8117 5 .1420 1 .8365 6 3.667 3 7.500 1 .7284
S TD DEV 1 4.025 6 .8337 5 .3914 . 23048 . 66081 . 24721 7 .0899 6 .4109 . 25947
5 04
TABLE
9 .4
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V III
* **** VARIABLE LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
C luster
AXES
I N CLUSTERS
7 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
2 72.00 7 4.000 4 1.000 2 .8333 4 .7719 1 .6842 8 7.000 5 5.000 1 .5818
2 85.00 9 6.000 5 7.000 3 .8514 6 .9512 1 .8049 8 7.000 5 5.000 1 .5818
MEAN 2 78.50 8 5.000 4 9.000 3 .3424 5 .8616 1 .7446 8 7.000 5 5.000 1 .5818
S TD DEV 9 .1924 1 5.556 1 1.314 . 71988 1 .5410 . 08534
5 05
0 1 km
•
•R p.
1 00 1
••
1 1 2 2 2
3
@ , 25
F ig.
9 .20.
5
2 11 1 5 2 5
1
2
D istribution o f G roup V III A xes i n C lusters 1 , 2 , 3 , a nd 5 ( numbers i ndicate c lusters; @ = s ource)
5 06
1 — I r i d E ( t )
a ) g : 2 4 › , E i
V a ) 4 ) 0
r I
r I
5 . .
CONTEXTS
r r e ) e n
a )r 4 ) . 4 ) • • , 4 c y ,
FROM SPECIFIC
1 E 1 . 0 uaa))
. t, t r -
V D L C ) C Y )
C Y) L C )
› . 4 c n c n O -
r I U ) O ( 1 ) I ) C ,
V III
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GROUP
A dkins a nd J ackson
OF DEPOSITION
r n c n . 0 r i r - • 31
1 1
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Location
COMPLETE
AXES
OF
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SM
S SMS
D istribution o f S ize C lasses
G roup V III
Axes
i n D ifferent
S ize C lasses: V = v ery l arge ( length > 2 70 mm); L = l arge ( length 1 79-220 mm); M = m edium-sized ( length 1 30-160 mm); S = small ( length < 1 30 mm); o = s ize data n ot a vailable; @ = s ource
6 3.6%3/70%4
THE SOURCE AREA
VARIABILITY AMONG AXES
5 08
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F OR
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P rincipal
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N
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X + +
+
A xes
X > < X X X. X X X >< > < > < > < >< X X X X X >< >< X X X X x X x X >< X X >< >< X X X + + + + +
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
X X > < X >< X X
• - eu ) — a ) r- O h —
COUNT M IDPOINT
X > < >< X X X >
< X +
> < > < > < > < X X x >< X X > < X X X X X X >< >
< > < X X + +
P C.2
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
P C.3
X
5 32
4-
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.
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G roup V II o f Analysis C luster 4 -, C 0 0 . . .. ,
1
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1 1 1
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V II
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of Anal ysis C luster
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5 36
.
II
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1
C luster A nalysis o f G roup V II
A xes
i
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D ISTANCES
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5 37
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
+ 3 2 04.40
+
+
1 45.60
+
+
8 6.800
+
1 3 1 3 33 1 1111 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 11111 3 3 2 1 1 1 11 4 3 3 33 2 2 1 4 4 3 4 4 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 2 222 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2
3 3 3
3
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
9 .36.
S catter P lot Analysis
5 4.200 4 2.400
o f
G roup V II
Axes
i n C luster
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( numbers i ndicate d ifferent c lusters; numbers r epresent more t han o ne a xe)
s ome
THICK 6 6.000
5 38
TABLE
9 .9
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V II
* **** VARIABLE
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK CSRATIO
3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 9 2 9 2 9
MAXIMUM
1 41.00 5 5.000 2 7.000 1 .8553 4 .5143 1 .7188 4 8.000 2 7.000 1 .5484
2 17.00 8 2.000 3 8.000 2 .9455 7 .0000 2 .6129 7 4.000 3 8.000 2 .5517
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK CSRATIO
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
C luster
VARIABLE
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK CSRATIO
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2
MEAN 1 73.97 7 2.161 3 3.194 2 .4215 5 .2575 2 .1827 6 5.241 3 2.414 2 .0229
STD DEV 1 7.760 6 .7087 2 .5874 . 24338 . 55710 . 22888 6 .2316 2 .8973 . 22229
2 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
8 0.000 2 9.000 2 0.000 1 .9153 4 .0000 1 .2083 2 7.000 1 5.000 1 .5000
1 58.00 6 7.000 2 5.000 3 .8966 6 .7273 2 .9500 5 8.000 2 4.000 2 .7619
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
1 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
C luster
AXES
MEAN 1 25.73 5 0.182 2 2.182 2 .5958 5 .6508 2 .2656 4 5.100 2 0.700 2 .1817
S TD DEV 2 2.830 1 2.319 1 .6624 . 55213 . 83539 . 54205 9 .6431 2 .6268 . 40397
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 37.00 6 6.000 3 9.000 1 .8767 3 .2619 1 .5172 5 9.000 3 7.000 1 .4130
2 26.00 1 00.00 5 8.000 2 .7500 5 .1463 2 .0976 8 3.000 5 7.000 2 .0000
MEAN 1 75.00 7 8.061 4 3.030 2 .2425 4 .0716 1 .8204 7 0.063 4 2.125 1 .6708
STD DEV 2 3.734 6 .7959 4 .0038 . 24065 . 46179 . 14868 6 .0798 4 .2331 . 14763
5 39
TABLE
9 .9
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V II
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 3 6 3 6 3 6
C luster
AXES
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
8 3.000 4 2.000 2 0.000 1 .3594 2 .4167 1 .3125 3 5.000 2 0.000 1 .2000
1 51.00 8 1.000 3 9.000 2 .4528 4 .4231 2 .5769 7 6.000 3 8.000 2 .2800
MEAN 1 18.95 6 2.650 3 2.150 1 .9098 3 .7110 1 .9652 5 5.111 3 1.111 1 .7752
STD DEV 1 8.609 8 .7955 4 .0608 . 24677 . 42682 . 27838 9 .2883 3 .7855 . 24038
5 40
C
a
0
3
LI M MM . 1 1 1 iM NI M M IM MI Cm
d
e b F ig.
9 .37.
R epresentative A xes o f G roup V II F ound F urther T han 1 00 k m F rom t he S ource a . S hrop. 4 3, b . N orf . 7 4, c . S hrop . 1 5, d . M onm . 2 , e . G los. 6 8
5 41
I )
E 4
r4 r4 c a c r i
S
C O
C O C ) .
•
0 3
E c n
. 11
C O
r I r f r e )
r I L . c ) CO
OD
Rhosddigre a )
ASSOCIATIONS OF AXES
•
BURIAL/RITUAL CONTEXTS
1 1
OCCUPATION CONTEXTS
C: )
C L ) U 2 X W X • C L ) 1 : ) < 3 3
r 1 c e ) r 1
L C )
E t
• r 1 r 1 , .Q 4 -1 • r 1 4 )
•
•
4 ) 4 )
• t 1 ,C
r 1 r 1
• •( C ) t i
e
Cn r I
C r l r 1 r 1
r 1 co r i
0 L r ) r 1
Cl e f N r e ) LO CD C D r 1 ri r 1 r I
E
CO ▪ r 1 C N I CO
n c l ) E '
4 )
0 0 • r 1• . 4
C r l r 1
Ee
Location
COMPLETE AXES OF GROUP V II
FROM SPECIFIC CONTEXTS OF DEPOSITION
EE c / 2
r c a
U • C
E
E
L C ) CD i -I
I f ) 0 r I
C Y ) ( ) r 1 r I C Y ) 0 . 1 e l L C ) C V C V C \ 1
-
Gl
C 7 1 01 r e ) CO CD C D C V C D r I r I r 1
r I CD VD e l
r I CD VD d i
d i . 44 c) c) r - r t • • r • z t, e l CD C D
01 e i c ) m cx ) r L C ) r • • C) C T )
t D C l )
t -D C l )
r Z 1 r X 1 E 4
( f )
C Y ) r Y )
e f ( Y )
r e ) L C ) ON L C ) CO • : t1 ‘ z 11 N
• 0 C l )
• 0 1 . 4
Y
• • • • V : U 2 c n U U U C — 4 0 4 4
N m I f ) l f )
THE R IVER THAMES
( . ) • r 1 C
5 42
U
1 -) 4-)
•
( 0
•
•
E 4
a s r f
•
• C O
riL C ) V D C Y ) r -
E
55 - E 5 E r - C D 0 1 C N C N r f C V C D C D r I
I
C l ) r e ) C l ) C l ) C l )
‘ 1 1 C V C V
C l ) C l )
cc o c o
• . 11 W • h 4) 0• 1
U ) U
C l ) C l ) C l ) r n r e )
C u
rj
C D U
0 •
• 4 i 1 . 4 1 1
L n i n
N - C o 4 1 r I r 1 L I D r • • N -
r -
r iC D C D r I
IC V C V
C O I A C l ) C l )
4 ) ( . 9 C O 4 4 Z ( 1 )
0
C 4
IC l ) C l )
IL C ) l f )
N -
0 0 0
E fE E
C >
E
EE -
r 1
t h
L . )
0
N C r ‘
r I
> I r f r 4 C O
> 4 r 4 4 C u
4 ) U C u
4 ) U C O
0
U ) 0 U U
C OC u C u •r f
E n
rt
0 C e r e • b 1
4 )
r l
•
( " 9 N
0 c 0 t —
L n • c n
0 • • 0
— O • • • c ° 0 r e ( . 0 0 ) C V l f ) C O • - e - N N N N e
a l — 0
M IDPOINT
COUNT
X
X
X
X X X X X X X X
X
• • • - • • N
N
X
X X
X
r. )c e
—
5 .7778)
F OR
CWIDTH
M IDPOINT
X X +
+ + + + + + + + + +
0 0 0
C O ( 1 ) ( ' ) • r- e r • • l f ) • - C O I D r - I l l • • C O t )
C 9 C O ' I " 0 t D c e i f ) I S 1 ( 1 )
W IDTH=
, -
C Y
( INTERVAL
C 9 e
X X + +
W IDTH=
X +
( INTERVAL
+
( . 0
C N I 0 N 0 N 0
J
L c )
L O
r 1 r h
0
0
1 4
E 4 n
x E .
r 1
% . 0 L C > r i . I
2
i . S U
u , .
E . -
Z E i U
L i ) U
g
r e ) 4
( N I ( r )
4 )
Correlation
C ) C D L C ) •
5 77
• C O O O t f ) r e ) L C ) C T ) L C ) 0) L C ) r I r e ) e l C V C O C T ) e l r I r e )
• ( N C D l r ) 0 • • L C ) C D L C ) C D •
•
r i
-
•
r 1
C V 0 1 C D C O
L C ) CD
•
•
r I
•
r i
r I L C ) l L ) C O C O r e ) L i ) C T ) C O C T r 4 C V O L U c r ' ) r e ) c o o " ) v h a C V e l C f ) L . C ) r e ) ▪ • , : rr e " ) • • . • • •
•
O
r i0 )
GROUP V I
•
C O V D r I C V
r i
•
S ( e ) • C V C T ) •
C T ) C V I t ) r ) • a l C V
0 0 c ) C D •
L C ) O D 0 V D 0 ) C T ) L C ) C Y ) e l 0 % J D L C ) S S O e l r I e l C V l f ) C N C V L C ) L C ) r 1 c n • • • • • • r I
C Y ) L C ) S r e ) r e ) c r ) • • N 0 1 C O C T ) •
C O L C ) i z n • C D I n r i
•
CD
r e ) r r e ) L t )
L U r i n C V
e l
r e ) r r 1 r r e ) r L U v ) C O ( zn C D V D
e s VD r I • •
1 r 1 LU • • • I I
r I
STATISTIC
L C ) e i r I
r - a ) S ( N 0 1 • • L C ) e l •CO e I
r e ) c r. ) • C D C Y )
C ) t . C : ) r e ) c p r I C O • • -• . 41 c o •L C ) ( Y )
r 1 4 •r I
( N C Y ) V D . 24 C D t .0 r e ) i n r e ) c r ) r e ) L . r )
r 1
01 . 2, e e l
C N I
( Y )
•
0
i n r i e l
I NDEPENDENCE
• • C D C D
• C D
L C ) e l ( V L i ) L C ) S L C ) ( Y ) C V 0 1 C O e l, C O I n C V C D 0 1 C O L . r ) L C ) V D h cn 1 1 ( e ) C V % . 0 L C ) • • • • • •
LO
C V C V V D e l S C V i n e s e i e l C V C V • • • • •
0
t z i 1 . • 4
r x 4
r n
E 4 Z C : 1 6 1
1 0 4
0 0 ) 4 E 4 E 1 < ( 2
C 4 E4
5 78
M IDPOINT 4.0522 3.7582 3.4642 3.1701 2.8761 2.5821 2.2881 1.9940 1.7000 1.4060 1.1119 .81791 .52389 .22986 . 06417 . 35820 . 65223 . 94626 1 .2403 1 .5343 1 .8283 2 .1224 2 .4164 2 .7104 3 .0045 3 .2985 3 .5925 3 .8865 4 .1806 4 .4746 4 .7686 5 .0627 5 .3567 5 .6507 5 .9447 6 .2388 6 .5328 6 .8268 7 .1208 7 .4149
1 0 0 0 4 3 1 2 1 7 2 7 3 3 4 9 4 9 3 6 3 9 3 1 2 0 1 6 1 0 1 3 1 2 1 0 7 3 3 1 3 6 9 3 3 1 5 1 3 3 1 0 0 1 1
TOTAL
F ig.
COUNT F OR PC.1
4 36
1 0.11.
a .
( EACH X = 2 ;
EACH x = 1 )
+ x + + + + XX + Xx + XXXXXX +XXXXXXXXx +XXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXX + XXXXX + XXXXXXx + XXXXXX +XXXXX + XXXx + Xx + Xx + x + Xx +XXX +XXXXX + Xx + Xx + x + XXx + x + Xx +Xx + x + + + x + x ( INTERVAL W IDTH=
. 29403)
D istribution o f P rincipal f or Group V I Axes F irst p rincipal
c omponent
Component S cores
5 79
M IDPOINT 2.8601 2.6461 2.4320 2.2179 2.0038 1.7897 1.5757 1.3616 1.1475 .93342 .71934 .50526 .29119 .07710 . 13697 . 35105 . 56513 . 77921 . 99329 1 .2074 1 .4215 1 .6355 1 .8496 2 .0637 2 .2778 2 .4919 2 .7059 2 .9200 3 .1341 3 .3482 3 .5623 3 .7763 3 .9904 4 .2045 4 .4186 4 .6326 4 .8467 5 .0608 5 .2749 5 .4890 TOTAL
F ig.
1 0.11
COUNT F OR PC.2 2 0 1 2 4 1 0 1 0 2 3 2 6 3 1 4 3 4 2 3 3 2 6 3 4 2 5 2 3 1 8 1 1 1 7 9 8 5 5 8 1 4 2 2 3 2 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 3
( EACH X = 2 ;
EACH x = 1 )
+ X + + x + X + XX + XXXXX + XXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX + XXXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXXXXx + XXXXXXXXX + XXXXXx + XXXXXXXXx + XXXXx + XXXX + XXx + XXx + XXXX + x + XX + X + X + Xx + X + + x + + x + x + + + + Xx
4 36
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
( cont.).
b .
. 21408)
D istribution o f P rincipal C omponent S cores f or G roup V I Axes S econd p rincipal
c omponent
5 80
P C.1 7 .4149 +
*
*
+
5 .1215 +
*
* * *
* * * * * * * 2
* +
2 .8280
+ * +
. 53462
1.7588
4.0522
* 2 * * * **
* *
* *
* ** * *
* *
*
* * * ** 2 2*2
* * * * **2
* *
* *
2 2 * * 2** * * * * * *2 * 3 * 2*332* 2 * * * 2 26243 2 3***3** * * 2 2 55633*5*3 * 32 2 * * 3 24523*6622*44* 2 2 * * + * * *222533463334*62 * 3** 2 ** * 3 3 352*74433 2 2 * 2 * 2 * 3 632223* * 2 * 2 * + * * * 2 2 * * 4 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * + +
+
* . 47950
2.8601 1.1903
F ig.
*
*
2 **** * * * * * * * * * 2 * *** * * 2
*
1 0.12.
3 .8191 2 .1493
P C.2 5 .4890
S catter P lot o f P rincipal C omponent S cores f or G roup V I A xes ( numbers = multiple a xes)
P4
1 -4
1 -4
.4
.1
.4
1 -4
. 1
.4
.4
.1
1 . . 1
.1
1 4
4 4
F .4
1 I
.4
F 4
1 4
4 4
.4
1 -I
4 1)
C S )
o
0 3 .4
1 -4
1 . -4
.4
.4
.4
0
( "4
I r-
xt
•-
t o
I -4
.4
i I 1
- ( 1 )
.-
CD
-4 44
N 0
.
.4
1 4
F 4
1 -4
1 -4
1 -4
4
4 44
( continued on
D ISTANCE=EUCLIDEAN
1 4
1 -4
I
N . N N
I I I
N C n
i
i
N V '
4 4 I
4 4
N 1 1 N W
A LGORITHM=MINIMUM V ARIANCE
I I .4
I 1 4 I
,-
I I
I I
II
.1
V D m t C e I S ) C ` ) ( D C O h e • • . z t l a U ) N
.4
F .4
I
I
I 4
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1 4
1 4
I.
1 -4
.4
4 4
+1
+1
+I
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+1
+1
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+1
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.4
I I I I i I i 1 I I I i I I 4 I I 4 I I i I I I I I i I I 4 I I ; I I4 4 4 4 I
I
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1 F 4
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I I
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I i 4 1 I 4 4 I i I I I i 4 I I I
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I I I I I i 4 I 4 I I I I I 1 1 .4 I 1 4 a . 1 I a I 4
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0
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CASEWISE
1 Z
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41
page)
9-
n ext
V ARIABLES:
c l-
o w I c n
• f I
+
+I
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W C N I N e C O L C ) • . c 9 1 ' . - 0 ) N
•
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1 1
FA
FA
FA
FA
FA
1 -4
FA
1 -4
FA
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1 -4
FA
F4
FA
FA
FA
1 -4
FA
F4
FA
FA
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F4
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next
1
( continued on
1
page)
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1 1
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1 1
S ample o f
1
R andom o f Analysis C luster C 0 0 . . . .
C ' ) • 0 — • 0 1 — L i _
1
1
1
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1
1
1
1
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D ISTANCES
1 00 G roup V I
Axes
1 -4
1
L P C . ) N
5 84
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+ 55 5 2 63.20
5
+ 5
+
5 5
2 04.40
+
5
4
4 4
4 1 45.60
+
4
+
+
2 8.000
4
4 4 4 4
2
+
2 0.000
5 5.200
1 0.14.
a .
S catter P lots Analysis
9 0.400 7 2.800
3 7.600
F ig.
4 4 4
4 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 11 1 11 1 2 1 2 1 322 3 2 22222 2 2 2 2332122 2 232 2 3 2 2
+
8 6.800
5
o f
G roup V I
A xes
W IDTH 1 08.00
i n C luster
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters) Note: Not e very a xe i n t he c luster a nalysis i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
5 85
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
5 5 55
+
5 5 5 2 04.40
+
5 5
4
1 45.60
+
4
4 4 4 4
4 4
4 4
4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1111 1 3 221122 1 3 3 3 2 2222222 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 222 2 2 2 3 3
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 0.14
( cont.).
b .
5 4.200
THICK 6 6.000
4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup V I Axes C luster Analysis
i n
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters) Note: N ot e very a xe i n t he c luster a nalysis i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
5 86
TABLE
1 0.2
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V I
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 2 0
C luster
MAXIMUM
1 03.00 4 8.000 2 6.000 1 .7042 3 .0294 1 .5000 4 2.000 2 3.000 1 .1053
1 32.00 7 1.000 3 6.000 2 .4792 4 .8846 2 .5000 5 8.000 3 8.000 2 .2308
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 4 0 4 0
MAXIMUM
5 4.000 3 4.000 2 0.000 1 .4468 2 .5714 1 .6190 3 2.000 1 9.000 1 .5238
1 10.00 6 6.000 3 1.000 2 .1200 4 .4167 2 .4800 5 9.000 3 0.000 2 .1852
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 9 9 9
C luster
MEAN 1 17.77 5 7.909 2 9.545 2 .0480 4 .0171 1 .9746 5 1.350 2 9.100 1 .7905
STD DEV 7 .2107 5 .4938 2 .7899 . 20152 . 41407 . 24601 4 .1584 3 .7683 . 24500
2 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
1 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
AXES
MEAN 9 2.250 5 1.455 2 4.977 1 .7986 3 .7062 2 .0652 4 4.750 2 4.400 1 .8382
STD DEV 1 1.242 6 .2187 2 .7576 . 16264 . 39633 . 18575 5 .7768 2 .8084 . 16447
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
8 0.000 4 2.000 1 3.000 1 .3793 4 .0000 2 .2000 3 7.000 1 4.000 1 .7083
1 24.00 6 0.000 2 3.000 2 .5682 7 .1538 3 .5385 5 6.000 2 4.000 2 .8947
MEAN 9 6.167 5 0.917 1 8.917 1 .9028 5 .1503 2 .7169 4 4.111 1 8.444 2 .4226
STD DEV 1 4.490 6 .8018 2 .7784 . 27692 . 86955 . 33137 7 .2877 2 .9627 . 39629
5 87
TABLE
1 0.2
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP V I
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 2
MAXIMUM
1 42.00 4 8.000 2 5.000 1 .9189 3 .7368 1 .7333 4 0.000 2 4.000 1 .5455
1 76.00 7 7.000 4 1.000 3 .0208 7 .0400 2 .7200 7 4.000 3 7.000 2 .4800
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
N 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
C luster
AXES
MEAN 1 57.31 6 5.000 3 1.615 2 .4549 5 .1023 2 .0828 5 8.462 3 1.000 1 .9523
STD DEV 1 1.063 8 .8506 5 .3157 . 31196 . 90011 . 29900 1 0.179 4 .5925 . 27459
5 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
2 06.00 6 3.000 3 5.000 2 .5287 4 .3137 1 .6250 5 9.000 3 4.000 1 .4565
2 83.00 8 8.000 5 2.000 3 .5897 6 .0000 1 .9429 8 4.000 4 9.000 1 .9091
MEAN 2 46.67 7 8.889 4 5.778 3 .1399 5 .4250 1 .7305 7 1.778 4 3.222 1 .6684
S TD DEV 3 2.008 8 .7670 5 .8689 . 35747 . 62623 . 11675 8 .5114 5 .4493 . 14170
5 88
a
0
3 r 1
F ig.
1 0 .15.
G roup V I A xes R epresentat ive o f C lusters a . N orf . 1 6, b . C ambs. 11, c . S uff . 7 5, d . C ambs. 4 6, e . C orn. 4 04
5 89
1 00 KM
. " * * „ , , ‘ 2 3
3
2 *2
2 3 222 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2 2 232
2
2 2
F ig.
1 0.16.
D istribution o f G roup V I A xes i n C lusters 2 -3 ( numbers = c lusters; * = a xes o f b oth c lusters 2 a nd 3 ) N ote: Not e very a xe i n e ach c luster i s r epresented o n t his p lot; r ather, t he g eneral d istribution o f t he c lusters i s i ndicated.
5 90
a )
0 4
r 1 r 1
I
c o
I
E t n
E4
FROM SPECIFIC CONTEXTS OF DEPOSITION
( 0
(Y )
CD r 1
0 1 r I v 4 r 1
I M
a i
( 7 2 .
1
C O C V S OD
c o
n i
c i l
M I
c T 3
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M
U /
V /
v 1 CD CD CD r ri
LD i n
EE
V D
EE
E
l N N N C D LO N LO co co c0 cO en ri r 1 OD 4r - r 1 ri r i C N CN C N
I f ) (N CV tn
LD N CN ( ' e ) ( e )
( r )
C N C N C N M C V CN CN C V CN O
C N CV OD CO
( N CN OD OD
C N OD
( 21 CO
M
( N r 1 D r 1 L O CO S S 0 CD CD (N CD 0 01 OD 01 01 01 al e t e l O
( i )
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OCCUPATION CONTEXTS
, -
0
0
0
0
I
0 E
0 E
0 E
0
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( a
0
0
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E
r c 1
1 . 1
r c s C•r, s a . ) 4 4
e
0 . 1 4 U rn C Q
r e
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Z
ASSOCIATIONS OF AXES
OF GROUP V I COMPLETE AXES
LO
v D
1 . 7 ) CD r I CN r -
r 4 r f t 1
E L I )
, 1
e
E
r r C c ,
E E 5 U l t l
CD co
E
r f r 4 r 4 M a / C O
•
4 ) 0
Z
. e -
4 . ) 0
Z
5 92
C y ) r 1
eE 5 mu ) U l
r 4 r 1
mE E E E
• >
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E
r 1
( 1 )
r 1 t : 1 1r1 c o
• r c ir o E > v )
• • C V
C D C D L 1 7 ) C D r 1 r 1 m l r 1 m 1
C h C D O D r 1 O r 1 m 1 m l r 1 C V
r f e i r e ) L o r 1 . 1 1 . 1 % J D e l m f C V r 1 r 1
E
EE E
EE E E E E
EE E E E
co o ' N en Lo rn e-
r 1 r4 ( 3 1 1 r1 MI 4 a l
eC O E
L U
( ) L I " ) C D r 1 e 1 m 1
cv
EE E -
L C )
0 1 L c ) L C )
▪
en
C N
e l C T
C N C N C N
C T L C ) L C ) 0 0 1 C T r 1
•
E 4 EI
-
-
n l r f ) O D S e 4 e C N e f L C ) L . 0 S C Y ) en cn c n cn rn
cn cn rn en en
O D r i O Dc o C O O D S C O O D
L o r C V C O C T ) C O
L C ) C N
rn cn en en rl
en en en
O S r 1 1 1 C O ot - N r - L C ) N co rn L C ) L U r 1 r 1 m i r 1
S C h c o S N C D C N C N
V) L s ' ) t r )
C N 1 ) L C ) L C )
L C )
C N
C D e i N C V C Y ) N
ASSOCIATIONS OF AXES
COMPLETE AXES OF GROUP V I
FROM SPECIFIC CONTEXTS OF DEPOSITION
>
r 1 r 1 r 1 m 1 r I r t 3 n 3 ( 0
r 1 C r % f 1 L . C )
S O \ . C ) ‘ . 0
C N O S N O C D I a l C D
L C ) L C ) L n i n L C )
cn en en
L C ) L C ) L C )
r 4 r 1
4 . 0 i f )
c p OF DEPOSITION
C O C \ J C Z Z I r 1 4 4 r I
L U V )
4 ) 0
r 4 c o co co oD 03 c 7 ) O n O N U r i r I r I 4 1 ( 0
C I ) . Y r " S C o
FROM SPECIFIC CONTEXTS COMPLETE AXES OF GROUP V I
r C i C V
I I I I
I I
C C C C C • 0 0 0 0 0 E n C f l C I ) ( 1 U ) 0
•
• sS e
• •• • b e• •. •• . 4
c ur 4 )
a sc oa ic oo z sc o
C D
r o i I I n
X 0 )
•
o
C O ( N r c p c z ) c p 0 E l
1 I
I I
C O
S r 1 . 4
L r t U 4
r 4 4 4 ( 0
r I ( T i
4 . 3 U I t ,
C O
0
0
C
0
( 0 . 4 U )
1 1 ( 0
4 _ ) 0
1 4 ( 0
• C ( . )
( 0
C I I 0 1 I I
( 0
x
• r i• r 1• r 1• • 1• f 4 . . _ , . . _ . • -
z f l
r er e r er d r d '
4 > 4 > 4 > , > 4 a l u ( N ) u ( - U v ) A A ( 1 ) C , Q A A A A U 4 1 • ,4 C O, IS 1 4C C . • 11 C O 4 4 C V 4 4 C V 4 4 • 41 41 C 0 — 04 v 2 C C C C C 4 1 4 #. r 1 1 #• , 14 # . 4 . • 0 ) 0 ) • r " ,4 ) a ) c l i 0 3 ) C L ) a ) a )4 4 ) 4 . ) 4 ) 4 ) V > > 4 )e x > > > > > 4 . i r c i T s r d C O < * I -1 • ' ' 0 3 L ) ( 1 : 5. 4 4 , 4. 4 . 4 4 4 C C 1 ) C a ) C 0 ) C C C C 0 c rc ra lc na l a )c oy ( ay a lV 1 4 T
c n r 1 4 _ , r e • r 1 . 1 • • 1 0 C CC C C . ,1 / 4 0 W U ) 0 C U • 4 ) V > 4 > 1 a ) 4 . ). C • L O 0
0 : 4
• r 1• r 1 . -. r or o
U ) U 2 W O W C C C C C C • ' '
O ' r 1 Z n c l ) 5 . 4 0 3
• e t g
. 4 r d i r o r t i V V 4 ) c C C C c u l e itt rö tt l (O a )
U
O s • , 4 3 C l ) C 1 4
L 4 4 0
0 0 0 0 04 )
4 ) • ' ' ' 01 5 4 5 r x , ( 1 ) ( I ) > 4 V ) 0 1
4 4 0
unnumbered
5 93
,-
l
. 1 - • •0 C C
W % . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r - > 4r- > i s > 4r- • e4 — 4 — 4 v 2 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 4 — 1 > 40 ) 5 4a ) a ) • ( 3 ) W 4 ) 4 0 ) ( 0 r i 0 1 r I ( 0 r i r i 0 ( 1 2 a , c o r ac or a( U ( 0 1 4 t • 4 • 4 # C C > 4 C C C C C 1 4 > 14 ) > 44 ) > 44 ) > 1 0 ) d ) 4 -3 C n O n 0 1 C n 0 14 ) W 4 4 a )4 a ) —4 0 ) • 1 .• r i •r • 1 •r 1• . 1 A r . 1 A 4 4 u ) U l U 2 I 1 E n ( 1 2 v 2 W u ) A C 1 4 C 1 4 C 4 C — 4 W ( 1 ) 0( 1 ) W Q ) a ) a )1 4 (0 < (0 < (0 < ca < r I A
. . , 4 . i n e r - c o i o , W -.
C l )
. C i ) -.
C l )
r . . r i
5 94
TABLE
1 0.4
COMPARISONS OF MEAN L ENGTH OF GROUP V I AXES FROM OCCUPATION CONTEXTS W ITH GROUP V I AXES FROM UNKNOWN CONTEXTS FOUND I N THE SAME AREAS Two-Sample T -Tests < 1> Axes f rom O ccupation Contexts < 2> Axes f rom Unknown Contexts
( a)
G rid Square 1 22 O ccupation s ite
MEAN VAR N
( b)
< 2> 1 22.79 2 266.2 2 4
f rom B agmoor a nd Roxby-cum-Risby TEST STATISTIC T = . 12750 F = 1 .1121
G rid Square 9 3 Possible o ccupation s ite a xes
MEAN VAR N
( c)
< 1> 1 25.80 2 520.2 5
a xes
< 1> 8 0.000 8 .0000 2
< 2> 1 45.40 3 884.8 5
DF 2 7 4 ,23
S IGNIF . 8995 . 3749
f rom B reedon-on-the-Hill
TEST STATISTIC T =-1.4018 F = 4 85.60
DF 5 4 ,1
S IGNIF . 2199 . 0340*
G rid Square 8 2 O ccupation s ite a xes f rom Hockwold-cum-Wilton, F eltwell, a nd West Row F en
MEAN VAR N
< 1> 9 3.000 4 81.00 5
< 2> 1 11.31 5 47.40 3 5
TEST STATISTIC T =-1.6479 F = 1 .1380
DF 3 8 3 4,4
S IGNIF . 1076 . 5131
5 95
TABLE 1 0.5 COMPARISONS OF MEAN LENGTH OF GROUP V I AXES FROM ASSOCIATIONS W ITH GROUP V I AXES FROM UNKNOWN CONTEXTS F OUND I N THE SAME AREAS Two-Sample T-Tests < 1> Axes f rom Associations < 2> A xes f rom Unknown Contexts
( a)
G rid Square A ssociation < 12 02.00 2 548.0 3
MEAN VAR
( b)
G rid Square A ssociation
MEAN VAR N
( d)
< 1> 1 25.00 1 393.0 3
< 1> 1 54.00 7 2.000 2
G rid Square A ssociation
MEAN VAR N
f rom Netherfield hoard
< 2> 1 34.63 3 225.0 1 9
G rid Square 1 08 A ssociation a xes S kellingthorpe
MEAN VAR N
( c)
9 4 a xes
f rom S axby C liff,
< 2> 1 27.89 2 230.0 2 8
1 09 a xes
DF 2 0 1 8,2
Hackthorn,
TEST STATISTIC T =-.10217 F = 1 .6009
S IGNIF . 0679 . 5311
a nd
DF 2 9 2 7,2
S IGNIF . 9193 . 4570
DF 3 9 3 8,1
S IGNIF . 4414 . 1388
DF
S IGNIF
f rom B ishop Norton
< 2> 1 27.15 2 324.9 3 9
9 5 a xes
TEST STATISTIC T = 1 .9298 F = 1 .2657
TEST STATISTIC T = . 77768 F = 3 2.290
f rom Ewerby a nd Evedon
< 1>
< 2>
TEST STATISTIC
1 12.50 1 2.500 2
1 28.80 1 809.2 5
T =-.51165 F = 1 44.74
5 4 ,1
. 6307 . 0623
5 96
TABLE
1 0.6
COMPARISONS OF MEAN LENGTH OF GROUP V I AXES FROM THE R IVER THAMES W ITH GROUP V I AXES FROM OTHER SAMPLES Two-Sample
( a)
G rid Square 5 2 < 1> Thames a xes
MEAN VAR N
( b)
MEAN VAR
< 2> 1 10.00 2 88.00 2
< 1> 1 00.00 2 14.67 4
l and
f rom
l and
< 2> Gridsquare
< 2› 1 59.70 2 162.2 1 0
< 1> 1 09.83 5 22.57 6
< 2> 1 10.00 2 88.00 2
< 2> 1 59.70 2 162.2 1 0
DF 8 5 ,3
S IGNIF . 4719 . 2473
c ontexts DF 1 0 9 ,1
S IGNIF . 1794 . 2764
DF 1 2 9 ,3
S IGNIF . 0297 . 0416*
DF 6 5 ,1
S IGNIF . 9929 . 5088
5 3
TEST STATISTIC T=-2.4654 F = 1 0.073
5 3
TEST STATISTIC T =-.92834 2 F = 1 .8145
Axes f rom r iverine contexts < 1> Netherfield hoard < 2> London < 1> 2 02.00 2 548.0 3
contexts
TEST STATISTIC T = 1 .4438 F = 7 .5078
Axes f rom l and c ontexts only < 1> Gridsquare 5 2 < 2> Gridsquare
MEAN VAR N
( e)
< 1> 1 59.70 2 162.2 1 0
f rom
TEST STATISTIC T =-.75501 F = 2 .4343
< 2> Axes
Thames axes only < 1> Gridsquare 5 2
MEAN VAR N
( d)
< 2> 1 09.83 5 22.57 6
Grid Square 5 3 < 1> Thames a xes
MEAN VAR N
( c)
< 1> 1 00.00 2 14.67 4
< 2> Axes
T -Tests
a rea Thames
TEST STATISTIC T = 1 .3600 F = 1 .1784
DF 1 1 2 ,9
a xes S IGNIF . 2010 . 3511
5 97
3 • • . . 0 U ) > 1 / ) 0 X 0 _ E 0 3 3 0 O L W L 4 - • • O a
c o
P l ot
4 O
( ) C 0 3 4 -, i n —
0
, -
. 1 -' , 3 E I
Scatter
I D 4, L t o c u C 1 3 , - E I 0 3 C I ) C < • • '
4 ' 3
C 0
w U Z + < I i I ( / )
C 0 ) 3 X 0 0 3 . 0 i n 0 ) . - . 1 -, ( 3 ) 0 C C • , i n c o —
a )
. 0 1 -
*
E E
I n r ) W n r 4 -' 0 4Z 0
*
*
*
*
*
L i -
*
* *
* *
*
0 1
*
*
* *
*
*
* *
*
* * C D
C I *
*
N N
* *
* * *
* *
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
* ( N * * C V
*
*
*
*
z 0 , 0 0 • z0 W 1 1 J C I
*
*
*
*
* *
*
N N * * *
*
*
r s i
*
C O N * * * c y *
+
8 0 c r i
I n e l
0 .
P I 0 , 1 m r
*
N
* * * V ' N * N e e i I t ) *
*
+ I I I i
r ) * * ( N i r ,
* *
*
*
r ) *
r ) C T ) . 0 » W
c n , c t- r - r - o p
L t ) * * *
* *
*
Ir )
I e t + • t I . N 1 + i 1 I I + I I I I + 1 1 1
* *
*
+
+
+
+
0 0
0 0
0 r i
L i ' ) . -
6
d
+
+
+
+
0 0
0 0 0
0
0 L c )
6
h 1 . 0 ( N
I *
* p p ( 9 0 1 C i r ) * r ) * * ( N * * * * E N *
e t
+
*
( N r ) e e l W C O * ( N C 9 * V ) * * r ) *
*
*
*
c o N C I '
N II1 ' I ( , ) I +
V ) * * * N N ( 4 * (N *
r ) * *
*
*
i i
*
N i l l
i 1 ( D i 0 0 + •
*
* * N
* *
*
* N * . ( 2 ) e C N I lt *
* c ncv
*
*
*
*
0 0
6
N *
*
*
+
* *
( N *
*
+
*
*
*
+
N
*
*
*
n t N N * * c . , 1 * ( N M L S , a ) r ) * C N I * C s 1
*
* *
0
I ( 0 i + 1 I I I + I I I I +
* *
O , • -
•
0 0
1—
*
N
+
1 + I I I I + i
0 0
+
+
• m t t i n c o
4 .
6
0
5 98
MEAN L ENGTH 3 50.00 +
2 80.00
+
2 10.00
+
1 40.00
+
7 0.000
+
2 00.00
0 . 1 00.00
F ig.
1 0.18.
4 00.00 3 00.00
D IST 5 00.00
S catter P lot o f Mean L ength o f Very L arge G roup V I Axes i n 5 0 k m G rid S quares A gainst D istance f rom S ource Mean l engths a re shown only f or g rid s quares which c ontain t wo o r more c omplete G roup V I a xes o f t he s pecified s ize.
5 99
MEAN L ENGTH 3 50.00 +
+
2 80.00
+
+
2 10.00
+
+ * 1 40.00
+
* *
* ** *
+
7 0.000
* * * * 2 * * ** *
* * * * 3
*
*
*
2 * * * 2 * * *
* * *
+
+
+
0 . 0 .
2 00.00 1 00.00
F ig.
1 0.19.
4 00.00 3 00.00
D IST 5 00.00
S catter P lot o f Mean L ength o f G roup V I Axes L ess t han 2 00 mm i n L ength i n 5 0 k m G rid S quares Against D istance f rom S ource Mean l engths a re s hown only f or g rid squares which c ontain two o r more c omplete G roup V I a xes o f t he s pecified s ize.
6 00
I
m e 1
CT CD C O T C D C • I 0 01 L C ) 01 • • I
: e 7 Z
c r ,
$ • 4 • 0
7 3 1 4
C D OD CD T I • • • T i Cg
( N UD al L C ) ( \ I . r e .
•
C N . I CO Q L( ) i n VJ • I
r - r 1
0
t 7 1 • . • 1
0
0 CI 0
•
CO • I
r m e r l
T i
N O CD L ( ) ‘ 1, O D . 4 1 C J 1 01 C O • • I
I
r y c y
m e 0 1 0 1 OD r • • m y m e
aD C9 % . 0 CD VD OD C 7 1
LO C D C Y ) C : ) U.) V D 01 01
•
L C ) i n 01 0 CD T I CD 0
•
0
•
CN LO rq r m A a n VD rn rn
'0 r CN CN 01
r1 Cq 01 LO 01
H
C g I
I
OD C g m e CD N I CD • • u n u n
r 1 r 1 r 1 rI
•
COMPAR ISON
a . z 0
4 . ) G O W I
I
rn VD I I
•
•
CD T I 1 " -C D 0 CD C ) •
•
D C N CD 1 4 3 e i c P
H
. p • I U )
c o
4 ) c . 7
r c s
1 . 4
a) r 1
(T i
(T i
c z •ri
e Q 4L o
0
0
a ) C in co 4r I
6 01
0
1 00
1 KM
/
. . .. . .
. \
1 27
1 28
1 06
1 01
1 19
1 12
1 15
( 1 16
1 09
1 00
1 15
1 17
1 25
1 41
1 18
1 10
1 29
1 24
1 05
1 09
1 15
1 11
1 13
1 11
1 12
1 01
1 22
1 01
1 07
1 11
9 3
1 10
1 2
1 10
9 4
1 29
F ig.
1 0.20.
M ean L ength o f G roup V I A xes L ess i n L ength i n 5 0 k m G rid Squares
t han 2 00 mm
M ean l engths a re s hown o nly f or g rid s quares w hich c ontain t wo o r m ore c omplete G roup V I a xes o f t he s pecified s ize.
6 02
0
1 00 1 KM
2
3
+ 5
10
14
+ e2 c
- 6
- 8
- 1
+
+ 23N-,+ 4
- 9
16
- 7
+ 3
+ 7
+ 20
+ 3
- 3
+ 13
+ 11
- 8
- 5
+ 2
- 1
+ 2
+ 1
- 1
- 9
+ 9
- 9
- 2
17
F ig.
1 0.21.
0
+ 14
10
+ 1
R esiduals f rom B est-Fit R egression M odel o f G roup V I A xe L ength i n 5 0 k m G rid S quares Note: The a ctual r esidual v alues h ave b een multiplied b y 1 00 a nd r ounded t o t he n earest i nteger f or c larity o f p resentation.
6 03
1 00
1
KM
.
X
o
o
X o
•••• . *....
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
X o
o
X o
X o
o
X
X o
o
X o
X
F ig.
1 0.22.
D istribution o f V ery L arge a nd Smaller A xes o f G roup V I i n 5 0 k m G rid S quares ( X = o ne o r more a xes 2 00 mm i n l ength o r l onger; o = o ne o r m ore a xes l ess t han 2 00 mm i n l ength)
6 04
32 * 2 * 2*533 c ,** * 2*6 * 2 32* * * 2 * * * 7246 3 2 2 32*4**246 4 232 * * * 6 * 5 2 5 * ** * 2 5 33* 2 2 3 642** * * * 2 * 3 * 2 * * * 2 * \* 2 ** 2 * 2 * 2 * *** * * ** * 4 * **
2
F ig.
1 0.23.
P attern o f D ispersal o f G roup V I A xes ( numbers = multiple a xes; X = 1 0 o r m ore a xes; @ = s ource)
6 05
F ig.
1 0.24.
D istribution o f C omplete A xes o f G roup XV ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
6 06
. C t
C O
6 07
M IDPOINT 7 3.000 8 9.143 1 05.29 1 21.43 1 37.57 1 53.71 1 69.86 1 86.00 2 02.14 2 18.29 2 34.43 2 50.57 2 66.71 2 82.86 2 99.00 M ISSING TOTAL
COUNT F OR D ISTANCE 1 1 0 2 0 3 5 2 0 0 0
1 0.26.
+ XX + + XXX + XXXXX + XX + + +
0 1 + X 1 + X 1 1 7
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
F ig.
+ X + X
1 6.143)
D istances f rom t he S ource a t Which C omplete Axes o f G roup XV Have B een F ound
N
N
+
+
X X + +
N n- n- n -• 0
0
, -
N
c v n t r - C 0 c 0 0 C N n t w c o • • N O • • • • • • ( 0 U l n t C I N n- 0 c n c n • C D n t ( 0 V - 0 0 O D C O 0
9 .2222)
F OR COUNT M IDPOINT
X X X X X X X X X + + + + + +
N
1 C D
0 C Y n t r - c n n t C O O D nN c o n t w r9 c n — c o • n t r - c ) U l V - C ) C I U l n c e U l ( ! ) V - C O C ) n- C Y • • • • • • • • • • N C N 1 N
1 h0 1 -
W IDTH= ( INTERVAL
F OR W THRATIO M IDPOINT
r -
0
0 —
n t ( P C O ( 0
0 N C D c n ( 0 N O D n- n t
• N
—
+
+
0
0 —
+
0 3 r • n t 0 ( 0 C D N n t r - 0 C O n t r - v r ) 0 C O C D N n t I - 0 • • • • V 3 V 3 V I V 3 n t n t L O
1 . 4 o h -
XV A xes
+
—
Complete G roup
+
X X X X X X + + + + +
o f
• c t t • • c ) h -
+
. • • •••
( " N I
x x + +
+
+
+
x x > < x + + + +
+
—N 0 0 0r ec N o oc s i
o
C D " V 3 U , 9 - r -c o c n U l ( 0 U l n r n r U l r . . . .
3 s % F 0
n - n -
( 0 V - O D C ) n- r - c o C ) n t C I V 3 C O L O V - c n . . .
nU D N V 3 .
C Y V I V 2
F -
D imensions
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . . . . . . . . C O C D n t O D N ( 0 0 n t o o c v n r U , U l ( . 0 ( 0 V - r -t - O D
+
C D 0
W IDTH=
0
O -
( INTERVAL
• •
O
W IDTH=
N 0 0 • - N
C N
x x x + + + +
( INTERVAL
4 . 0000)
F OR C OUNT
•
X X X X + + + + +
L ENGTH
M IDPOINT
X• X X + + + + +
+
L THRATIO
0 F -
+
F OR
‹ z
C OUNT
O w -- t - cv a o rn o n t 0 0 0 • - w c y r - r 5 O D n t C ) O C ' NC 0 • • • • • • • • • • r c n ( 9 • t r - 0 N N C D V 3 C D C D
c o
M IDPOINT
N
x +
+
L WRATIO
-
F OR
0 -
h 2 T D 0
COUNT
0 cY
X X + +
M IDPOINT
0
2 .5556)
X +
W IDTH=
X +
( INTERVAL
+
W IDTH=
4
( INTERVAL
0
X +
W IDTH
M IDPOINT
+
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
X +
COUNT
F OR THICK
6 08
CSRATIO
6 09
+
+
+
+
C V
X +
0 w c v c o e L C ) e h 0 0 N
e C I C Y ) C Y ) ( 9 N e ( f )
w C,1
e N N • • L O C O • • e c 0 -
• • • • • • • • • • N
N
W IDTH=
c v — ca 0 - 0 - 0 0 -
. J
0
F -
X +
+
+
X +
2 .8889)
+
X X X X X X + + + +
—1 < l — 0
M IDPOINT
0 c a N N r — 0 0 c m w 0 r ) w 0 r ) t o 0 c e ( 0 0 r ) ( 0 0 r ) ( 0 0 . . . e
( C ) 0 ) C I ( 0 r ) ( 0 0 ) C I e e 1 ) 1 ) ( . 0 ( . 0 ( . 0 C -
_ . i < 0
D imensions
3 . 3333) N
W IDTH=
X X X X X X X X > < ) < + + + + + + + + +
4,
( INTERVAL
X +
COUNT
FOR
CWIDTH
o f
0 c 7 ) c o r - c . 0 . z r c • I — 0 0 w m e n ( N I 0 0 C O N w in e ra cv - 0 • • • • • • • • • • e W ( 7 ) ( Ntr ) c o — N 0 N N e s e •
W IDTH=
— 0 - 0 0 — cv — c v -
( INTERVAL
F OR COUNT M IDPOINT
X +
Axes
+
XV
+
CTHICK
M IDPOINT
3 0
X X X X + + +
Compl ete Group
x F Z
( INTERVAL
FOR
0
C J
0
0
6 10
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
4
1 45.60
+
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
1 0.28. a .
S catter P lots
9 0.400 7 2.800
o f
C omplete G roup XV Axes
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( N = a xe i n n ear-source sample; x = a xe w ith e xpanded b lade; T = a xe f rom R iver T hames)
W IDTH 1 08.00
6 11
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+ N 2
1 45.60
+
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 0.28
( cont.). b .
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots
o f
THICK 6 6.000
C omplete G roup XV A xes
L ength vs. t hickness measurements ( numbers = multiple a xes; N = a xe i n n ear-source s ample; x = a xe w ith e xpanded b lade)
6 12
0 t
I
1 00 1
KM
•
• ...
, . . . .
.••••••
W W N
0
W
* *
WN
N * N X W *
F ig.
1 0.29.
D istribution o f G roup XV Axes o f E ach S hape ( w = w ide a xes; N = n arrow a xes; X = a xe w ith e xpanded b lade; * = a xe o f u nknown s hape)
6 13
1 00
8
F ig.
1 0.30.
KM
D istribution o f G roup XV A xes o f E ach S ize ( L = l arge a xes, > = 1 45 mm; S = small a xes, < = 1 37 mm; * = a xe o f u nknown s ize)
6 14
TABLE
1 0.8
SPATIAL PATTERNS I N S IZE VARIABILITY AMONG AXES OF GROUP XV
Shape
Number o f Axes
Mean Length o f Axes
Mean D istance o f Axes f rom S ource
THE NORTHERN PENNINES
W ide
1
1 97
mm
7 3
k m
1 28
mm
1 04
k m
1 32 mm 1 29 mm 1 30 mm
1 17 1 65 1 49
k m k m k m
1 54 1 64 1 61
k m k m k m
1 54 1 72 1 68
k m k m k m
CHESHIRE/LANCASHIRE
W ide
2
CENTRAL/EASTERN YORKSHIRE
W ide Narrow All
1 2 3
THE PEAK D ISTRICT
W ide Narrow All
1 2 3
CENTRAL ENGLAND
W ide Narrow All
( strictly defined)
1 99 mm 1 77 mm 1 84 mm
( broadly defined)
1 4 5
1 99 mm 1 63 mm 1 70 mm
2
1 22
D ISTANT
W ide
1
mm
' The Cambridgeshire a xe was found nearly source; t he d istance o f t he R iver Thames
3 00 a xe
km f rom t he i s unknown.
6 15
F ig.
1 0.31.
P attern o f D ispersal o f G roup X V A xes ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
6 16
1 00 KM
2
**
F ig.
1 1.1.
D istribution o f C omplete Axes o f G roup i n E ngland a nd W ales ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
I X
6 17
M IDPOINT 2 66.00 2 93.14 3 20.29 3 47.43 3 74.57 4 01.71 4 28.86 4 56.00 4 83.14 5 10.29 5 37.43 5 64.57 5 91.71 6 18.86 6 46.00 M ISSING TOTAL
COUNT F OR D ISTANCE 2 0 2 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 4 8 1 1 2
+ XX + XX + X + XXX + XX + XX + XXX + X + XXXX + XXXX + XXXXXXXX + X + X + XX
6 4 2
( INTERVAL W IDTH= 2 7.143)
F ig.
1 1.2.
D istances f rom t he S ource a t W hich Complete Axes o f G roup I X Have B een F ound i n E ngland a nd Wales
O N m O N m O N m 0 0 W m 0 W m O w m 0 0 W m O w m 0 W M O 0
0 0 °
, -
W W C9 , C O N e N C • + - C O ( 0 e C V N U / • •
-
N
0 O
. 1
•
.0 N m mt- m o w m 0 - N m e n N w h o
0
•- T- N T- W
M T- O
X X X X X X X X X + + + N
N
O N O N O N w M «
e h M - m w w 0 e w m - m n N O e w co m n N O Nin co N n w -in • • • • • N m m m e e e m o
X X
X X
N
N
+ +
C J
W
c J
0
X X X X X X X X X + + + + + +
m e n w ro D O — N m h e ,. . co mcN O N eiN e
< 0
E ngland and Wal es
X X X X + +
W
W IDTH=
F OR W THRATIO COUNT
e e m M e m m o
X +
M IDPOINT
X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + +
F OR
x x
W IDTH=
X X X X X X X X X + + +
( INTERVAL
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
x x
N
M O co o m , c o N C ' ) C O e 0 W 0 N r - 0 M L O C O C O C ) 0 • • • • • • • • • • • , T- N N N N N N
X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + +
L WRATIO
- w N co m mtn O W N m m e etnt i l w N N 0 3
M
i n
N
, -
N M
Complete G roup
X +
T - T-
O
o f
e« .- 0
M
N
w o m N ,. - O w N w W M O N e W N M . . . . . . .
< 0
D imensions
M
Z
W O
h I n W
N
( INTERVAL
M
0
O O
, -
W IDTH=
M
N
c m w
N
( INTERVAL
W
N
< 1
a l C Y ) u-) c v , i c o s z n c z : . ( N W oe ( Y ) 8 1 1 /0 4
•
•
I
•
•
I
/0 C 4 1 V S S C O C D Cn 01 C D C n • z t, S r N C Y ) l D r 1 c o i n M a l S C V s e C : 7 1 C n i n r i 1 40 ( / N c o • • • • • • I I I r 1 I
C D CD C D CD • • C D
STATISTIC
0
I
C O m c o ( N i n
L O e t I I, 4
, -
• : 14 ( N • • • • • ( N 1 1 40 / C o , C V • - e- cr •( 3-1 r i
r i i n CD /0 4 1 t . o . CO
d i C n ( 1 1 r 1 •
I 1 r I . • 1 /0 01 4 C V S • • • • • 01 CD •S f I
C N 0 1 CD • C V r i CV C>
S L O * r e c o v p c N 0 1 e l l S 0 1 L I ) C O a l i n a l , 1 r • • i n S r . 1 i n ( e ) r - e l C N Cn ( N 1 1 41 / D i n 1 40 / • • • • • • 1 I
C n C V L C ) 0 1 C D 1 40 / al 1 41 / ) L O S C D i n ( N L O 0 1 0 1 ( N ( N S C V e l 1 40 a / l S e s r . 1 r i 1 40 C / n C I • • • • • •
I
i
r I I
0 1 r I L t> r I •• e i C ` n • /0 L 4 1 O ( N r -
N a ) - a ) c m
r I S • , - C V S • en C V
e : 14 d i . i r 1 • C V e i C V C D
0 1 CD e n 1 40 ( / N i n r I a l C D C V C D 1 40 / 0 1 CT 1 C0 0 0 1,1 C V CO C D r I ( N i n • z r i n U D C V C V d i • • • • • • II I
Z 0 F I r i •I U
e
X 0 a ) Z
U
0
U
Z W A
z 1 4
t a 4 W
Z
C D
w e .
Z 0
Z A C / )
6 4
E
l
U
I — I
0 I 1
e — I El
E
Z
E .
i v< , , r t . 3 r i a a ) cc ut . ) u C Oa ) u ) ›, > 4 0
•
• • • . 2 r t ' 2 r d r d r i l
W 0 0 0
>
( 7 3 r-I •
r I 4 4
0
0 4 )
c n
•r 4 .
a l
c 0 C 01- 0
r n •H 01 •4 4 4 0 . ) 4 ) r I 4 ) >1 CZ a l C O
W > 1
. . 4 ) C r l 0 0 1 • 1t i )• . 4 ; • . 4
( . 1)
0 0 W
V ) . 1 4
C U
r c l
i nvestigation;
0 . ) 0 ) 0 o
N
i nvestigation;
C D C Y ) r f r I
L ocation
FROM SPECIFIC CONTEXTS OF DEPOSITION I X OF GROUP COMPLETE AXES
TABLE
1 1.3
M U 2 M
W
0
CO 4 4 CO
r - 0
C i r l U. )r I a ) U ) C 0 0
C T \ U ) r I a ) V ) C 0 0
a
al
1 • 4
t i) . •
( 1 ) . •
L ) U a o z i a ( t ) ) 7 t -D
1 . . 0
: , . ,
r d 0V C O c o
C O
W & la ) u ) > C >
•r i •r I •r I •r I CM . 0) . -
r c i r d c< c< 0 o , c. , 4 c . 4 . ) •r ^ 4 . 0 •r 4
( 0 C O 0s ) 04 ) 1 0• • i 0 • , 1
• m i 4 . ) •. 4 . ) •. C ‘ . 0 C l . , D
a )s w s
ZS 01 V C T ) r i •,4 r I
. r t
>4 >1 >4 >4 s a l 1 4 W ( 0 , - " I ( 0r i
S I
1 -4
4 ) ( 04 ) ( 0 ., 4. ), 1 . 0 c O U ) A U 2
6 32
TABLE
1 1.4
COMPARISONS OF MEAN LENGTH OF GROUP I X AXES FROM THE R IVER THAMES W ITH GROUP I X AXES FROM UNKNOWN CONTEXTS FOUND I N THE SAME AREAS Two-Sample T-Tests < 1> Axes f rom Unknown Contexts < 2> Axes f rom t he R iver Thames
( a)
G rid Square
MEAN VAR N
( b)
< 1> 1 01.50 2 244.5 2
Grid Squares
MEAN VAR N
< 1> 1 02.67 1 126.3 3
5 3
( the
L ondon
< 2> 9 4.667 1 102.3 3
5 2
a nd
< 2> 9 6.750 7 52.25 4
5 3
a rea)
TEST STATISTIC T = . 19438 F = 2 .0361
DF 3 1 ,2
( the
and
London
a rea
TEST STATISTIC T= . 25795 F = 1 .4973
DF 5 2 ,3
S IGNIF . 8583 . 2897
B erkshire) S IGNIF . 8067 . 3540
6 33
L ENGTH 3 50.00 +
4 -
2 80.00
+
+
2 10.00
+ *
+ * 1 40.00
*
+
*
*
*
7 0.000
**
*
+
+
*
*
* * * *
*
*
2 * * * *
* 2
+
+
0 . 0 .
2 40.00 1 20.00
F ig.
1 1.10.
4 80.00 3 60.00
S catter P lot o f G roup I X A xe L ength A gainst D istance f rom S ource ( numbers = multiple a xes)
D IST 6 00.00
6 34
KM
.1 13
1 54
( 80)
8 0
1 07
7 9
1 06
1 05
( 90)
6 5
1 11
8 4
( 95)
1 15
8 1
1 32
1 28
1 05
1 02
1 36
.
( 98)
F ig.
1 1.11.
L engths o f G roup
I X A xes
i n
5 0
k m G rid S quares
L engths s hown a re t hose o f s ingle a xes o r o r m ean l engths o f multiple a xes; ( ) i ndicates l ength o f a xe p rovenanced o nly t o c ounty.
6 35
F ig.
1 1.12.
P attern o f D ispersal o f G roup I X Axes i n E ngland a nd W ales ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
6 36
F ig.
1 1.13.
D istribution o f C omplete A xes o f G roup XX ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
6 37
g' z _ : _ _ 2 " _ •_ _ _ —I b—— —
.
6 38
M IDPOINT 2 .0000 1 1.250 2 0.500 2 9.750 3 9.000 4 8.250 5 7.500 6 6.750 7 6.000 8 5.250 9 4.500 1 03.75 1 13.00 1 22.25 1 31.50 1 40.75 1 50.00 1 59.25 1 68.50 1 77.75 1 87.00 1 96.25 2 05.50 2 14.75 2 24.00 M ISSING TOTAL
COUNT FOR D ISTANCE 2 0 0 2 3 2 5 5 2 4 3 2 2 6 9 0 1 2 3 3 0 0 2 0 1 2 6 1
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
F ig.
1 1.15.
+ XX + + + XX + XXX + XX + XXXXX + XXXXX + XX + XXXX + XXX + XX + XX + XXXXXX + XXXXXXXXX + + X + XX + XXX + XXX + + + XX + + X
9 .2500)
D istances f rom t he S ource a t W hich C omplete Axes o f Group XX Have B een F ound
W IDTH= ( INTERVAL
X X X +
X X X X X +
X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + + +
0
( 0 r n 0 r - n t n- C n V P V 9 0 r - c y 0 3 n r 0 u l r - c Y 0 0 ,r C D
• •n r e u n • r , C ) O D C 9
r - r - c o o o C n C n C D + 1 11 ( 0 V - O D C n C ) V Y C 9 C V C V C V
I C D h -
( INTERVAL
O 0 r -
XX Group Compl ete D imensions
of
h C D h -
Axes
2 .5000) — 1 c r
W IDTH=
X X X X X + +
C N I
W IDTH=
( N .- • •
( INTERVAL
5 +XXXXX
F OR COUNT M IDPOINT L ENGTH FOR COUNT M IDPOINT
n r c Y cn u p 0
( f ) V - C ) C V I D V - C D C V U l r - 0 c y u p r - C D ,r e 1 1 C V L O r - r - r - r - O D
X X X X X X X +
— I k C D h -
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + + + +
C D C D C D C D C D C ) C D C D C D C D C D C D C ) C ) C ) C D C D C ) C D C D C ) C D C D C D C D C ) C D C D C D C D C D L n C D u l C D u l C D u ) C D u ) C ) u ) c ) 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
X X X X X +
1 7
L f
e r - C n C ) + - r l e r - C n 0 r - n r O D U l C V C D V - e • • 0 2 U l C V C D 0 L C ) r - c y c o e L c ) r - c y c o e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • , r c o c ) r p t o u p O D c n c y e ( J D c V c V c V C V C 9 C 9 V D r p r n r p n r ,t e n r
X X X X X X X +
e t
X X X X X X ) < > c X X X X X X X X + f + + + + + + + + +
X
C )
W IDTH
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
9 +XXXXXXXXX
THICK
6 39
41
TOTAL
34
TOTAL
+X + +X +XXXX +XXXX +XXX +XXXXX +XX +XXXX +XXXX +XXX +X +X + +X
( INTERVAL WIDTH= .18112)
5.3189 5.5000
5. 1378
1 0 1 4 4 3 5 2 4 4 3 1 1 0 1
COUNT FOR LTHRATIO
2.9643 3.1454 3.3265 3.5077 3.6888 3 8699 4.0510 4.2321 4.4133 4.5944 4 7755 4 9566
MIDPOINT
Dimensions of Complete Group XX Axes
.09863)
+X +XXX +X +XXX +XXXXX +XXXXXXXX +XXX +XXXX +X +X +XXXXX +XX + +XX +XX
Fig. 11.16 (cont. ) .
( INTERVAL WIDTH=
5 2 0 2 2
1 1
1 3 1 3 5 8 3 4
COUNT FOR LWRATIO
1.5370 1.6357 1.7343 1.8329 1.9315 2.0302 2.1288 2.2274 2.3260 2.4247 2.5233 2 6219 2.7206 2.8192 2.9178
MIDPOINT
2.3059
35
7 5 4 2 2 2 1 0 0 1 .. XXXO')(
+XXXXX ·XXXX +XX +XX +XX +X + + +X
2 +XX 1 +X 5 +XXXXX 1 +X
COUNT FOR WTHRATIO
( INTERVAL WIDTH= .07009)
TOTAL
2.3760 2.4460 2.5161
1.5349 1.6050 1. 6751 1.7452 1.8152 1 8853 1.9554 2.0255 2.0956 2. 1657 2.2358
MIDPOINT
41
1
2 0 1
;
2 1 2 9 3 5 3 .3 4 4
+XX +X +XX +XXXXXXXXX +XXX +XXXXX +XXX +XXX +XXXX +XX:' 0 C > . r I
e l g e t e l, / 4 1 0 •
e n S C Y ) r I •
r I C V L O C D .
e l S C V W • I
( Y ) S S O D •
e t, e f l C O C D •
C T 0 1 e t, C V .
0 1 C I " C r l C D .
S C > L O r I •
40 / 1
e n c o 0 1 r I .
i c t i c p e n L C ) •
C i l C Y ) S e l
X X g : 1 4 0 $ . 4 ( . 7 a ) 4 ) a ) . 1 C 1 4 5 0 U 0 4 -
C I i n C I r .
i n C > ‘ . 0 • I
I
LWRATIO
r — I
0 c ) C D c ) • r I
i n W X 0 : 4
Variables
C D C D C D C D • r i
C D C D C D 0 • r I
LTHRATIO
C D C D C > C > • r I
CS RATIO
6 44
c T j
c a
a ) 0 4 c o . 0 U ) r C i c a a ) N
•r 4
0 C D 0 0 r I
L O V D L O L O •
0 1 r I e t, r I •
S L O C D / 4 1 0 • I
C ) C D C O S •
C Y " C O e t, 0 1
e l c r , r i I l • I
U) 41 0 X •r A $ 4
VARIABLE
I I
40 / 1
r . 1 a ) r I •
V D / 4 1 0 r n C V •
C V / 4 1 0 / 4 1 1 D 0 .
0 1 C > S 0 1 •
r " C V r I S •
C O V D eI a )
C V C V r I a ) .
C I S r n t m .
S C V . 1 e s .
40 / 1
V D e t, S
U f . i E 4
C N . 1 c z , s .
nj
X
C D C O C O s
0 e 4
Z E4
C V L C ) C V e n .
n t I
U
El
U
U
E i
C I ] U
3
t _ , , 4 _ 5 :
Correlation
40 / 1
WTHRATIO
C D C D C D C D
C D C D C D C D • r I
LTHRATIO
4 -)
C N
L C ) CD CD CD L C ) r e ) • C • 4 ' ) r N •
N r e ) C O 01 L C ) c S r e l L C ) C N r f LO rn LO VD . 11 S C D M r ' LO 4 c : t d • • • • • •
( N
c n
r 1
VD
CO V) Cq VD O D CN CN VD CD r l C D r VD r - ( N J r H u n C V on r - on ( N I on LO OD L O on c q on • • • • • •
c n u l L o •
C l )
•
r 1
•
CN u n CN •
I C N
t i 4
r I
CD S L O CO n e e • • C D O N O •
0 c . D 0
r I r 1 . 1 . l V D • . 14
r \ I CO 01 CD •
OD 4 14 CD LO •
0 1 OD OD CD
r e ) C N CD C D
•
•
r e ) CN LO 01 •
. 1 0 L I D L C ) CO l f ) S CO •
•
TABLE
1 1. 5
r I
• • CD CD
STATISTIC
L C ' ) • : t4 r I
1 1 CD CN OD • • CN r -
r e ) n e n e
u n un VD r on OD • • CN • al r 1
r - u n ( N J VD O D on P I • • OD
CN e l r - r 1 on C 1 . 1 r - CD on • ( N J on n e el el VD el CD r 4 on O D Cq L 1 n e 1 1 • • • • • • I I
e lCO • "-•r O C N i n • ( N J c r % •N r I
e l 0 1 N • . 14 ( N • r e ) CD
e l . 11 r e l r e ) C N 01 OD L C ) co ( z ) L r n c r. )r C N 4 14 e 4 e i r e ) e l a I r 4 r 1 N • • • • • • I I
( N I r I r i e l • L I 1 01 •1 4 /
C q U l • C • I VD 0 1
01
• N
c l
r -
CD OD o n CN r r - L 1 3 C q 01 VD L i / r 4 L i / 01 e l e l 0 1
CD
•
•
•
•
0
e i r i l E l U
X C D c e U
r i l ( . . )
Z
c l
( .7
Z
Z W
i l
G 4
i 1 Z C D
W A r x 4 Z A L O 4 1 -4
E1
U
0 r i
4 4
E-4
0
.4C
C 4 C 4
E l
-
tE 4 E . E I4 1 4 1 3
r i l 1 4 Z
4 . 1
•
0
Z
W
•
L 1 3 VD C q CN r q
6 46
X X X
+
+
N
O 4 - N
7
M IDPOINT M IDPOINT
Z 3 0
+
+
+ +
C O e
N
•
•
•
•
c o r ) e
• . -
0
l f )
W
• e-
r ) > C O e
W N C O r ) N C O r ) e 0 > l f ) 0 . 7 0 ) e ( . 0 • • • • • • • • • .- 4 - N N N r )
0( r ) co O e O
( 1 ) e • •W N • -• .• • 1 1 1 I
X X x x X x x x x x + + + N
N
x x x x x +
x x X x +
x x X x +
N
1 < 0 F -
x x x x x x x x x + + + + + + C N 1
( c ) ( 1) c 0 1 ) 0 e N U ) > N > ( O N O ) > e 4 C O 4 - e 0 e N C O L C ) N 0 1 I f ) • • N N
e
C O 4 - L f )
W IDTH=
+ +
X x x x x
(I NTERVAL
N
U -
+
X X X X X X
F Z 3
C k o
+
l f ) N
I 7 I
o
o
+
• • , -
x x x x x x
u _
+
C O C O 0 C Y ) l f ) e r ) C . ) ( > r ) C O r ) c o c o 0 ) h ( s ) ( r ) c o o ) N e C O r ) 0 l f ) l f ) 4 - C O e 0 U) N O ) C
C . )
a .
+ +
W IDTH=
M IDPOINT
Z 3 0
X x
0 c o
x x x x x x x x x
• 4-
•
• ( . C . )
e
< I -
(I NTERVAL
0
x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
W IDTH=
a .
(I NTERVAL
•
o
6 47
N
• • • •
t r ) • •
1
C . )
0 ) t f )
1
c r ) c 9 r -
1
1 .4
u 0 . .
( 0
( . ) a I
r -
()
• r- r y
e - t e )
4-
i n
c o 0
r -
-
e
r -
1
1
1
I
I
1
i i
I
I
I
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
I
I
1 1 -4
1 .4
11
I I I 1
1
1
1
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
1
1
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
1
I
.1
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
I
1
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 I
I
I
1
1
I I
1
I 1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1 I
I I1
e - 0 )
I
ii
N
0
: . 1
1
C N J
.-
1
1
1
1
1
1
N
ii 11
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
1
. 1, : 1
1
1
I I 1 i i i I 1
1
1 1 1 1 1.
o f
XX Group
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
7 1 1
I
I
1
I
I
1
1.
1
I 1
1 1 I I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
I I I I
I 1I
I
11
1
I I I I I I
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
I
1 1
II
1 I
11
1 1
1 1
1 I
1.
1 1
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
I
I
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 I I
I I 1
I 1 1
1
1 1 I
1
I I I I I I
I
1
1 I
I 1 111
1.
1
1
1
1
1 1I
I I 1 1 1.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
I
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
I
I
1
I
I
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1
I
1
I
1
I
1
'
1
I I
I i
II i 1
1 I
II I I 1 I 1 1
1 1 I I
I I
. I
F.
i I
I
1 I I I 1
1 1 1 I I
11
:
1 1 I
I
1.
II I I 1 1 I I II I I I I
I I 1 1
1.
1
I
1
1 1 I I
1 I 1 I 1,1 ,. I I I I II I I
:
I . 4 l 4 i 1 I 1 1 1 1 II I I 1
II . i
11
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .4 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 4 . 1 1 1 1 1 + + + + I + +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
I
I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
. 1 1 1 1 1 +
c r )
( D or f )
N
C O
L f )
I1I -4 1. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 11 1 .
1
1 1
1 1 11 11 1 1 11 1 1 11 1
U i I . 1 / )
0 t - • • C O
0 I D C O r • • C O C O W C V C O C O 0 1 -- c . ) e C O • 0 N r • - c o c o r • C D C O C . 0 • - C 7 t s - r - 0 C D ( 1 1 C 9
N
•r - c r )
N
•
N
•1 ' O D • -
N
•
U ) • t oi nc t ii n
•X U l
•
•t i )
t i ) U ) U )
•C 2 C O
e
W c r " )
C O t s -
•r -
• • N
C O W
• -
•C O
O C O
C O N
n t
c 7 )
•i n e
1 . 0
•c . ) t - ( N
r )
•c n L f ) O
N e t
•C 9 0
• -
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
•N
t • L f )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
•N
s z t
•
C O 1 . 0 N
1 1
•
r -
1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 +
.
11 1 1 1 +
• >0 4L O C D
> L 0
W U )
L E C C D C O
•C O L O
• • 0 • -
•U )
L E E L C 0 R S C O 0
1 1 1 +
N L O L I ) • - C 9 •
•
r -
•c o 0 i n c v
1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C O • ( . 0 c n • • L O N 0 C y ) C O 0 ) c o r • • • N
t A L L L C4 + L L U I L L L L E C E E 4- L L L • 1 C D 0 0 0 0 O N O 0 0 0 M I C t i D r O M C O Z Z > • • W > - Z > J C . ) C . ) C A > -
W t 0
Ot t) r -
1 1 1 1 1
•W
•C O t • . • - r - 1 3 )
1 1 1 1
1
C . )
L t ' ) 1 . 0
1 1 1 1
1
•I s - m r
•0
•
L L 40 0
( n> . -c ic . )_ J Z oc . ) ZJ Z Zt r i
D ISTANCES
0
W
C I
C l uster
I I I I I I
I
I
I
I I I II I 11 1 . 1
I D
• •
I 1
I 1
e 0
r • • 1 . 0
.1
1
I.
1
1 I
1.
1 1
1
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1 1 1 +
1.
1.
1 1
11
1
1
1 1
•N
1
1
1 . .
11
1 1 1 I I I
I . I
1 I
I I I I 1
1
Anal ysis
.
1 I I
( 1 1
I
1
1 -4
-
1 1
i i
1
I I 1 1
1 1
1
1
i I 1 i
-
I
1
1 1 1 i
( . 0
I 1 4 I
1
1 1 I
N
c n r- c o
( N I c o
I
1 e - 0 3
e , 0
1
, - 0
< IX
1
I I
1 1 1 1
1
I !
0 )
I . L . 1
_ J C O
, i 1 i 1
L t )
.
11
r - c r )
1 . 0
L C )
0 )
6 48
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
+
5 5
2 04.40
+ 5 +
1 45.60
5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 22 2 2
+
+
8 6.800
+
4 44
+
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
1 1.21.
a .
S catter P lots o f Analysis
9 0.400 7 2.800
G roup XX Axes
i n C luster
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters; s ome r epresent more t han o ne a xe)
numbers
W IDTH 1 08.00
6 49
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
5 5 2 04.40
+ 5 5 3
1 45.60
+
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
4 3 1 1 13 1 2 2 1 2 22 2 2 2 2
7 .0000
1 1.21
3
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
3 4 4 3 3
( cont.).
b .
5 4.200
THICK 6 6.000
4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup XX Axes C luster Analysis
i n
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters; s ome numbers r epresent more t han one a xe)
6 50
TABLE
1 1.6
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP XX AXES
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
C luster
VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
MAXIMUM
1 06.00 4 5.000 2 4.000 1 .8209 4 .0667 1 .8750 4 4.000 2 4.000 1 .8333
1 30.00 6 7.000 3 0.000 2 .5490 5 .2000 2 .2917 6 2.000 3 0.000 2 .0833
N
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 9 9 9
C luster
MAXIMUM
8 3.000 5 3.000 2 6.000 1 .5370 2 .9643 1 .8929 4 9.000 2 6.000 1 .2895
1 18.00 5 8.000 3 0.000 2 .0714 4 .1429 2 .1923 5 7.000 3 8.000 2 .0385
*
C luster
MEAN 1 19.00 5 4.500 2 5.833 2 .2124 4 .6258 2 .1031 5 0.667 2 5.667 1 .9694
STD DEV 9 .3595 8 .2885 2 .5626 . 27082 . 38308 . 15802 7 .1181 2 .6583 . 11076
2 * ****
M INIMUM
**
VARIABLE
1 * ****
M INIMUM
* ****
I N CLUSTERS
MEAN 1 02.36 5 5.545 2 8.091 1 .8434 3 .6427 1 .9796 5 1.900 2 9.818 1 .8113
STD DEV 1 0.481 1 .5076 1 .0445 . 18794 . 33191 . 08727 2 .2828 4 .2619 . 21324
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 27.00 5 1.000 3 1.000 2 .0000 3 .5263 1 .6452 4 7.000 3 0.000 1 .5667
1 67.00 6 8.000 4 0.000 2 .7931 4 .9118 1 .9118 6 4.000 3 9.000 1 .8529
MEAN 1 47.20 6 1.900 3 5.100 2 .3902 4 .2146 1 .7645 5 7.556 3 4.333 1 .6760
STD DEV 1 3.871 5 .5468 2 .8848 . 25686 . 48357 . 09539 5 .9605 3 .0822 . 08701
6 51
TABLE DESCRIPTIONS
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
C luster
MAXIMUM
1 44.00 7 5.000 3 1.000 1 .8462 4 .0833 2 .1111 6 7.000 3 0.000 2 .0303
1 49.00 7 8.000 3 6.000 1 .9867 4 .6452 2 .5161 7 4.000 3 3.000 2 .4667
LENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
( cont.)
OF GROUP XX AXES
* **** VARIABLE
1 1.6
MEAN 1 46.67 7 6.333 3 3.667 1 .9223 4 .3703 2 .2777 6 9.667 3 2.000 2 .1859
S TD DEV 2 .5166 1 .5275 2 .5166 . 07100 . 28111 . 21185 3 .7859 1 .7321 . 24366
**** 5 *
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
1 74.00 6 6.000 4 2.000 2 .6364 4 .0465 1 .5349 6 1.000 4 2.000 1 .4000
2 31.00 8 0.000 4 6.000 2 .9178 5 .5000 1 .9048 7 2.000 4 6.000 1 .7143
MEAN 2 02.25 7 1.750 4 3.750 2 .8126 4 .6295 1 .6430 6 5.500 4 4.000 1 .4919
S TD DEV 2 4.945 6 .2383 1 .7078 . 12616 . 62741 . 17594 4 .7958 1 .8257 . 14892
6 52
• • •
a
F ig.
1.22.
0
3 cm
R epresentat ive A xes o f G roup X a . S uff . 3 6, b . N orf . 5 6, c . C ambs.
1 26, d . C ambs.
6 5
6 53
F ig.
1.22 ( cont .).
R epresentative A xes o f G roup X X e . S hrop . 6 , f . C ambs. 6 3, g . S uff . h . N orf . 1 60
1 01,
6 54
C \ . 1
I t
c .
4 )
r I r I r 1 r I t o
DEPOSITION
E E c f )
i nvestigation;
$ 3 )
r t i
i
r e ) c ) C O r e )
U $ • 4
SPECIFIC CONTEXTS
t t
0
E 0 4 4 0 r e ) c r )
s 4
C Y) L C )
-U ) ( A 1 4 0 W 4 C0 E
14 1
CO
r t i C 0
1 9356380
c r )
C
5 • 4 ) c . 7 a ) c o Z C 4
rs•
C I , E
Z i t 0 3
b— I
o ' CC
( i )
E4
0 0
f r i n u
' 44
, 4
re
c r i
r f 2 U l
( 2 )
C / 2
>4. . Q
U
c ( 0 ASSOCIATIONS OF AXES
BURIAL/RITUAL CONTEXTS
r
•f 4
o
r d
c
1 0 4 r . n >4 C I )
>1 1 4
4 -) .X
G . )
4 )
$ 4 4-) •
U l . C2
U
r x . 0 .
N
r
rI Q
:4 14
4 ) 0 C • . r C r l > 1 r- 4 C
( T i 4-) U2 48
6 55
F ig.
1 1.23.
M ajor A reas o f G roup X X A xe D istribution ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource; r adii a re l ocated a t 4 5 k m a nd 1 10 k m f rom t he s ource)
6 56
1 00
1 KM
es * . •
3 2 2
NORTHEAST
* 3
NORTHWEST
*1 1
1 2 5
3 3* 3 5 4 3
3 2
WEST
5
2
2 * 4 32 2
EAST 2
1
S OUTH
F ig.
1 1.24.
D istribution o f G roup XX Axes i n C lusters ( numbers i ndicate d ifferent c lusters; * = a xe n ot i n c luster a nalysis; s ome numbers a nd * s r epresent more t han o ne a xe; @ = s ource)
1 5
i D t s a n c e
1 a xe/no data
NORTHEAST
6 57
/ d 1 t a n a e o x
4 1 N •
NORTHWEST
VARIABILITY
CO
ri
CN
Or 1 4 4
t j )
c n
•
EE .
C N I •
• I C " ) t 1 . ) r e " ) 4 1 CN (N r- 1 4 1 4 1
c a
•
c ,g E
0 • CO 4 . 4 . • CD e l C a 1 1 ) CV 4 ) r I ri I I
U ) 4 1 4 4 C a LO C N c a
i
C N
. C
e n. c )
e n1 40 /
> 4 • c al i co
> 4 ( 1 :
r 1
r I
re 4 )
c d
E o z , a ) a ) 1 5 r 1 Z 5
c a
c a . I
• • C 0 0
0 1 e n e n 0 : 1 0 0
E
c a
t c o n e x .
a ) X c a
u )L c ' ) . 2 a )• ;
C l )
PATTERNS
TABLE
1 1.8
p c
I I i f )
a ) c a
6 58
1 00 KM
*
*
F ig.
1 1.25.
*
P attern o f D ispersal o f G roup XX A xes ( numbers = multiple a xes; @ = s ource)
6 59
0 1
100 1
KM
** 3
*
F ig.
1 1.26.
*
D istribution o f C omplete Axes o f G roup XVIII ( numbers = multiple a xes; X = 1 0 o r more a xes; @ = H igh F orce, Upper T eesdale, a p ossible s ource a rea o f G roup XVIII material)
) < X X +
X X ) < X X X X X X X + + +
t o . x L o > .
x
X X X X X +
X X X X X X +
X X X X X X x + + + + + + + +
2 .7143)
x
X X X X X X +
C D C " )
O • h C O O , C V 0 h e , - C O L O C V O h e . . . . • e h O N I D N N N N C O C " ) C " ) e e e
1 < I 0 I -
t o . x L o
( INTERVAL
e L f ) h C O O , - C O I D N 0 • C O 0 C y ) W 0 ) e l f , 1 1 I D I f )
W IDTH=
" 7 C I N L C ) W I D r • - ( I ) , - , - , - 0 0 0 , -
X X X X X +
X X X X X X X X + + + +
" - 0 0 0 h C V WC ' ) L C ) C D C D C I N c . 1 , -
1
• • • • • • C V I D C O , - e h 0 N I D C O , - " 7 t " - 0 e " 7 e n t t r , t i l I D I D W W I D h I s - h C O
I 0 i -
6
x x x
X X X X X X X + + +
X X X X X X +
X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + +
x x
c n _ y L 0 >
X x X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + +
, - , - I D 0 ) C D N , - C I L C ) N N C " ) • " - 0 , -
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 LO OLD O LD 01 .0 0
8 .5000)
C O W C n 0 N C O e 0
r -
N e
W IDTH=
0 h W C I O h e 0 l f , • " - h N C O e 0 C D , -
N e
W IDTH=
X X X X X +
( INTERVAL
X X X X X +
2 . 8571)
x
X X X X > X X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + + +
( INTERVAL
M IDPOINT
COUNT
FOR
L ENGTH
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
W IDTH
M IDPOINT
COUNT
F OR
THICK
6 60
J
0L c )0 t o0 •••••••••• a • • • • •h W e CI , - 0 C O r - I D e I l t ) C I C V 0 0 ) 0 • • N CI e I D I D W h C O W r - c o c n o )
0
I —
N N N N , 0 m N e Ln w
N M cor,- w O e m co r win e w N co m 0 -
O N
M
0 0 0 m N - 0 m cv ,- 0 N m et i l
0 1 N N
( N I N
0 ) C I
. J a i 0 I -
X X X X +
X X X X X X X + + + +
-
e
0
e
m
m ip
w
-
W
m
N
- -
O m w m N o M N o w - e h O m 0 0 0 0 - - - N N C N I r ) ( 9 C . ) e e 0 c9 W M N Ln W - e r- O m w m N n w h c° 0 - N e W W c o M 0 - m • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • N
N
N
m
m
m
m
m
m
m m
e
e
e
_ 1 a 1 0 e-
C h
X X X X X X X +
X X X +
N
W
M
w • x L 0 > -
x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + + O
W
N
0
, -
+ +
+
• - 0 0
0
c - c o
, -
C T ) 0 ) 0 ) C D C O 0 0 C O C O O N . 7 C D C O O N N C 9 e lf ) ( D C O 0 ) N
N
N
N
N
N
-
+
0 ) 0 N
0 m m
x
° mo or- w o e m c v — O mco N w O I f ) I . D 0 0 0 N C 9 • r t W
... .
N
N e
. I < I 0 I -
W IDTH=
x
X X X X X X X X X X + + +
( INTERVAL
M IDPOINT
C Y -
D imensions
of
N
W IDTH=
-
C . ) 0 C . )
Group
X X X X X X X + + +
Compl ete
X X X X +
( INTERVAL
x
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + + +
XVIII
Axes
f rom
N
N
Wol ds
N
and
, -
Coast
m
X X +
Yorkshire
N m e m
W
X X X X X X + + + +
W IDTH=
N e n N
- e
X +
c o m c o c o 0
x
( INTERVAL
0 -
5 +XXXXX
COUNT M IDPOINT L THRATIO F OR COUNT M IDPOINT
-
8 +XXXXXXXX
C O N
F OR
WTHRATIO
61
0
0
+
+
9- L O n t
W IDTH=
Z 3
c n 0
x
P - C D 0
( . 0 O D ( 0 n t N C D C D C D c nC P C I n t
c n
O D c n C D L C ) I . - C O 0 N 0 C O r -i r )r e c n c oc o C T ) C O C O C O C O O D I s - P - r U ) C - C O C 4 0 9- N C I
c )
C )
0 0
V I m t
c nr er r -e
L O ( ) 9- N
+
+
X +
C ) C )
( )
t o0 e c nr e r -
n t C V
( . 0 ( ) t - C O 0
J
,t r -c ) N 0 CO C ) V I ( 0 c n C n C I V I n t n t n t n t 0 0 0 ( 1 1
C D h -
r "
— c ou p c v0
Axes XVIII
+
f - O D ( ) 9- C V n t
o pu nc v c n
X + +
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X X X
X
X X
X
X
M IDPOINT
c v
0
1 -( ) n t c nc o P - 9- ( 0 C ) LO P . - O D ( ) 9n t P . - O D 0 o p N ( ) C - n t 9- O D ( 1 1 N 0
— I < I
L O ( 0 O D C ) 9 C I t O r -0 0 C D N V I P s C D n t n t m t ( 1 1 0 U I U l ( 0 ( 0 ( 0 ( I ) ( J D ( 0
C D h -
0
0r -e .
.
.
W IDTH=
X X
( INTERVAL
X
COUNT
FOR
CWIDTH
D imensions
of
9- C D ( I ) N C V N
0 › -
Group
C I ( )
X X X X X + + +
Complete
X • +
X X X X X X X X X X X X + + + + +
2 .7143)
t n
W IDTH=
F OR COUNT M IDPOINT
_ J h -
f rom
—N N N N N
CTHICK
M IDPOINT
C )
and Wol ds
X
Coast
C O
X
xx x x x x xx x + ++ + ++ + + + + + +
Yorkshire
C O
X X X
( INTERVAL
X X X X X X X X
( INTERVAL
F OR
CSRATIO
6 62
4, 0
6 63
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+ * Y orks.
1 29
*
*
+ *
*
* * * * 8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
Y orks. 1 37
2 0.000
1 1.28.
a .
2 * * 2 2
* 2
2 * * * *
* * *
*
*
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
2 8
* *
1 45.60
Y orks.
9 0.400 7 2.800
S catter P lots o f G roup X VIII A xes f rom Y orkshire C oast a nd W olds L ength v s. w idth m easurements ( numbers = multiple a xes)
W IDTH 1 08.00
6 64
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
Y orks. 2 8 1 45.60
+
8 6.800
+
**
3
2 8.000
+ + ----+ 7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 1.28
5 4.200 4 2.400
( cont.).
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII A xes f rom Yorkshire Coast a nd Wolds
b .
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( numbers = multiple a xes)
THICK 6 6.000
C D
r 1
0 1 r i
CSRATIO
6 65
U
CO
C M I f )
r 1
0 C D r 4
c p C D C D
VARIABLE
• r 1
r I C N I S •
V D S C O •
. 4 0 ▪
e i
C O e i
S •
C ' f ) •
C D
C D r I •
0 F I
E i
r e ) ▪ •
I I • C \ I •
r I O D
C O S •
C D C M
C I • e
S C 7 1 S L c )
C D S
e l C N
O E i 0 : 4 C 4 • •
t . o L c ) c N L r ) I C D c p r i
•r I C 0 )
N 4 ) r I
L 1 S
S 0 1 3
0 1 % . 0 L c )
E 4
E t
r i C N
r 1 4 1
e xcluded. a )
n a s haped a xes
C D
L C) C D
C D r e ) r e ) r 1 •
0
. 0500=
C D CA
r I I f ) l ( ) r e l
•
R @
C D 0 C D o •
e l
V ariables
C D C D C D . • r 1
U
LTHRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH
•
( N
r ) CD C V CD VD
r n
V O C D . 14 VJ V D C V e r U D O D C N e e e VD r n r n CD C T ) ( N V O T 1 ( N e l C V C V r - r n r n
•
r 4 C D •r t
• • • • •
( N
1 . 1 OD — e c n
W X
U l T 1 • O D CN r l CN •
4 . 1 c
-
1 1 , 1
I . O X
U p C l . A D4 1 O 0 3 C D A
. . 1 1 •
i 1 T 1
1 4 M I
4 0 4 1 C . )
4 a l
C . ) ( 2 4 f t .
I r 1
$ . 1
r n E 4 C A Z 4 1 0 Z 0
I
, 1 f I II
. , r -
vD r e ,
C f ) E 4
2
II
r 1 I
r - u p • T 1 c P C V V D • — Ul VD
•C O , 1
C N ( r )
c )
a )
a )
r - r q
rl CN CN • 4 d4
C N VD V J OD r i CN CN C V C V CN U " ) CN C V c n i I CN r e ) C V
VO C N e l c n OD O D e l l U l
S e t • • • • . • II
a )
ro ( 1 1
( . ) Z ri t Z a .
STA
C n
U l , 1 r l CD U l C V 00 V J U . ) C D r I 1 . 0 VO r l U 3 CD e l V D CN C V VJ e l C V L o OD eV f 1 U l C V • • • • • •
r -
e xcluded.
G O
s e v I C V C D • • C O r O D r -
r 1 e i e l r i • r i C D • c l i C D
r I g e, C O I n e s L C ) C T ) C D ( N L I ) C f ) C O C V ( e ) V ) I nge C D r iC T S e l c c l t , L I ) M. : P e i , I ( Y ) • • • • • •
0 4 c f 2 r I
1
• z M , 1
4 1 ( . ) Z 4 1
0 ) 4 E i g 4 4 . 1 4 1
4 1 C . ) E iZ
CZ
(Z
Z
Z t Z 4 1 C ) E 1 U 0 W E .
s z t, C N • . L C ) . 4 1 . 1 C V • • ' V ) C D •L O C Y )
C 1 D Z C Y FH p r l
gC
4 1 f 1 Z C : 0 K C
X
C ) e e C )
0 0 0 , 1
W C . ) Z
E A Z
CZ
Z 4 1
1 2 4
Z
b 1 Z
C Z 4 r 4 Z C Z c n 4 .
CI
E 4 g 4 g 4 . 1
Z
4 1 3 E 4 4 1 4 1 3
a ) a ) E 4
a )
6 67
M IDPOINT
COUNT FOR P C.1
2.9479 2.3442 1.7405 1.1369 .53319 . 07048 . 67416 1 .2778 1 .8815 2 .4852 3 .0889 3 .6925 TOTAL
3 4 1 5 4 6 1 4 2 2 2 2
+ XXX + XXXX + X + XXXXX + XXXX + XXXXXX + X + XXXX + XX + XX + XX + XX
3 6
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
F ig.
1 1.30.
M IDPOINT 2.1244 1.7231 1.3219 .92071 .51950 .11828 . 28294 . 68415 1 .0854 1 .4866 1 .8878 2 .2890 TOTAL
. 60367)
COUNT FOR PC.2 1 2 4 5 5 4 4 1 3 1 5 1
+ X + XX + XXXX + XXXXX + XXXXX + XXXX + XXXX + X + XXX + X + XXXXX + X
3 6
( INTERVAL W IDTH=
. 40122)
D istributions o f Principal Component S cores f or G roup XVIII Axes f rom Yorkshire Coast a nd Wolds
6 68
C luster Analysis o f
VARIABLES=PC.1,PC
1 1
1 1
I 1
1 1
1 -4
1 1
1 1
I 1
I I
6 1
6 1
1 4
6 4
F I
I I
1 -4
I 1
11
4 1
11
1 1
1 4
I 1
I I 4
— a ) 0 ) c u C l i 4 . ) x a ) c
I1
1 1
I1
c 0 I -4
1 4 1 1
F 1
1 1
6 4
1 4
1 1
1 4
I1
4 4
e -i
I I I I I
r n c ) 0 1 C \ I r ' l CN I 0 0 L C ) O D r i t . o c a.) ( N i r e ) 8 1 VJ e i4 r I i I r ' s r I 1 40 r / I C O r f S e i r I V J
U l rf l U l U I U J U It i l U J U I V J U J U I V I M M
< 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
( continued
G roup XVIII
Axes
t 4 1
1 1
D ISTANCE=EUCLIDEAN
E 0
ALGORITHM=MINIMUM VARIANCE
Yorkshire
4 ) t n c o 0 U
CASEWISE N=36
a nd Wolds
C N J
Yorkshire
6 69
4 4
4 4
4 -1
41
0 4 -
1 4
/ 4
I 4
11
11
11
1 -4
11
14
1 4
1 4
1 1
1 1
11
F1
11
11
11
11
11
11
1 -4
1 -1
1 -4
C V e l f a l 1 1
14
1 -4
a )
1 4 1 4
1 4 14
41
F 4
1 4
1 4
4 4
1 1
11
•r i
L C ) C O
•r i d i L C )
e t i ( V
•Nrl
C V e l
•d i e t, C V
C T )
•t . / 0 r -
c o
•r - L f ) t . 0 V J
t . o
U D
•C V r iC O ( 7 1
( Y )
•a l S
C Y )
•C V C O C D C O
C V
•C ) C T ) C Y ) ( 7 1
e l
•0 1 a l C O L O r 1
0
•% . 0 C O 0 1 C 9 •r I C D
r f t 44 4 4
0
1 4
•C D C O 1 . ( 1 O D
•0 1 a l ( N C V C O
11
•S e l, C O r i •
C l )
•V D e l r ) e i c r )
r j
c s3 < $ .
1 1
11
•L C ) C Y ) 0 1 r - c o
11 F 4
1 4
41
•e l
1 4 11
1 1
r - C V
•C Y ) V D 0 1
1 4
•C V
. 4 ) 4 )
V D e l C Y )
•r 1 d i i n C V L O
U ) U 2
( 0
•C )
S ( V ( V
•C : ) C Y ) S . C O e t c p + + + + +
e 4 r - r s . r 4 L C ) L C ) C V ( . ' ) e 4 C O L I ) L C ) S C ) L I ) C O ( V L C ) C V e f c n ( N C Y ) e l 1r 1 ( V S t r ) L I ) C D S ( Y ) C V ) C V C O e I C V S e l C V I S ) V ) C V ( N ) r - r • • L C ) C Y ) S IL I ) r I e l e l L C ) U ) •
C r i r 1
44
U l
U ) U l U ) U )
U ) ( / ) U ) U ]
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D ISTANCES
0
•
6 70
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20 +
2 04.40
+
1 11 1 1 1 2 * 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 * 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 44 3 3
1 45.60 +
8 6.800 +
2 8.000 + 2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
1 1.32.
a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
S catter P lots o f G roup X VIII Axes A nalysis
W IDTH 1 08.00
i n C luster
L ength v s. w idth m easurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters; s ome numbers r epresent m ore t han o ne a xe; * = a xe n ot i n c luster a nalysis)
6 71
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
4
2 04.40
1 1 45.60
+
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
1 1 1 2 2 2 2 222 2 2 5 55 3 5 555 5 4 *3 3 335 4 3 3 3
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 1.32
1
( cont.).
b .
1
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII i n C luster Analysis
THICK 6 6.000
Axes
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( numbers i ndicate c lusters; s ome n umbers r epresent more t han o ne a xe; * = a xe n ot i n c luster a nalysis)
6 72
TABLE
1 1.10
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP XVIII
* **** VARIABLE
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
6 6 6 6 6 6 4 4 4
MAXIMUM
1 43.00 6 6.000 3 7.000 1 .9861 3 .2766 1 .6170 5 3.000 3 7.000 1 .4324
1 62.00 7 6.000 4 7.000 2 .3529 4 .3243 1 .8462 6 8.000 4 6.000 1 .5476
N
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO W THRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
9 9 9 9 9 9 5 5 5
MAXIMUM
1 07.00 5 7.000 3 0.000 1 .6154 3 .3333 1 .7143 4 7.000 3 0.000 1 .4688
1 32.00 7 8.000 3 9.000 2 .2414 4 .1935 2 .2667 6 2.000 3 8.000 2 .0667
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH C THICK C SRATIO
N 8 8 8 8 8 8 4 4 4
C luster
MEAN 1 54.50 7 1.167 4 1.333 2 .1753 3 .7624 1 .7288 6 3.000 4 2.500 1 .4812
STD DEv 7 .3417 3 .7103 4 .0332 . 14186 . 35015 . 09675 6 .7823 4 .0415 . 04834
2 * ****
M INIMUM
*****
VARIABLE
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
1 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
C luster
AXES
MEAN 1 24.67 6 5.444 3 4.222 1 .9175 3 .6626 1 .9207 5 5.600 3 3.800 1 .6532
STD DEV 7 .8102 6 .5596 3 .3830 . 18245 . 29858 . 19382 7 .0214 3 .1937 . 24445
3 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
6 5.000 5 0.000 2 5.000 1 .2500 2 .5000 1 .9286 4 6.000 2 6.000 1 .7037
9 7.000 6 6.000 3 1.000 1 .8000 3 .6000 2 .3704 6 2.000 3 0.000 2 .1923
MEAN 8 4.000 5 7.250 2 7.750 1 .4742 3 .0289 2 .0624 5 4.500 2 8.250 1 .9323
S TD DEV 1 0.406 6 .4973 2 .3755 . 17805 . 31058 . 14695 6 .7577 2 .0616 . 23477
6 73
TABLE
1 1.10
( cont.)
DESCRIPTIONS OF GROUP XVIII
* **** VARIABLE L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3
C luster
MAXIMUM
8 0.000 5 0.000 2 1.000 1 .5577 3 .8095 2 .3810 4 5.000 2 1.000 2 .1429
8 8.000 5 5.000 2 2.000 1 .6000 4 .0000 2 .5000 5 2.000 2 1.000 2 .4762
L ENGTH W IDTH THICK LWRATIO L THRATIO WTHRATIO CWIDTH CTHICK C SRATIO
N 9 9 9 9 9 9 7 7 7
C luster
I N CLUSTERS
4 * ****
M INIMUM
* **** VARIABLE
AXES
MEAN 8 2.500 5 2.250 2 1.250 1 .5788 3 .8810 2 .4583 4 8.000 2 1.000 2 .2857
STD
D by '
3 .6968 2 .0616 . 50000 . 02443 . 08248 . 05279 3 .6056 . 17169
5 * ****
M INIMUM
MAXIMUM
9 0.000 5 0.000 3 1.000 1 .3143 2 .6316 1 .5526 5 3.000 3 2.000 1 .5000
1 02.00 7 0.000 3 8.000 1 .8000 3 .0000 2 .1212 6 0.000 3 6.000 1 .8750
MEAN 9 6.667 6 1.333 3 4.222 1 .5870 2 .8285 1 .7958 5 5.429 3 4.000 1 .6350
S TD DEV 4 .8990 6 .0828 2 .1082 . 13820 . 12096 . 18927 2 .5728 1 .6330 . 13412
6 74
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
+ 0 2 04.40
+ 0 0
+
*
0 0 * 0
1 45.60
+
+
8 6.800
* 0 * * * 00 * B 2 * * 0 * * * B * 0 * 2 * * * 2 B * O B* 2 2 * *
*
0
+
*
*
+
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
1 1.33. a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
W IDTH 1 08.00
S catter P lots o f A ll G roup XVIII Axes L ength v s. w idth m easurements ( * = a xe f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; 0 = a xe f rom o ther a rea; B = a xes f rom b oth Y orkshire c oast/Wolds a nd o ther a rea)
6 75
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
1 45.60
+
* *0 * * * *B*
0 0
* 0 * B* * *B * * * 8 6.800
+
* B* OB*2 3 * *
2 8.000
+ + ----+7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 1.33
( cont.). b .
S catter P lots
4 2.400
5 4.200
THICK 6 6.000
o f
Axes
A ll G roup XVIII
L ength v s. t hickness m easurements ( * = a xe f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; 0 = a xe f rom o ther a rea; B = a xes f rom b oth Yorkshire c oast/ W olds a nd o ther a reas)
6 76
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
* * 1 45.60
+
*y *
* *
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
2 *
* * * B * Y * 2 * * * 2 B * B * 2 2
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
* *
1 1.34.
a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
W IDTH 1 08.00
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII A xes f rom Y orkshire C oast/Wolds a nd W estern Y orkshire L ength v s. w idth measurements ( * = a xe f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; Y = a xe f rom western Y orkshire; B = a xes f rom b oth a reas)
6 77
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
1 45.60
+
** y *
*
*y
**** ***
* * B** 8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
* B* Y **2 3 * *
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 1.34
( cont.).
b .
5 4.200 4 2.400
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII Axes Yorkshire Coast/Wolds a nd W estern Yorkshire
THICK 6 6.000
f rom
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( * = a xe f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; Y = a xe f rom western Yorkshire; B = a xes f rom both a reas)
6 78
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
4
2 04.40
+
L * 1 45.60
L * L * * *
+ *
* B * * * 2 8 6.800
2 * *
+
*
2 *
* * * * * * * *
2 2
2 8.000
+
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
1 1.35.
a .
9 0.400 7 2.800
W IDTH 1 08.00
S catter P lots o f Group XVIII Axes f rom Yorkshire C oast/Wolds a nd L incolnshire A rea L ength v s. w idth measurements ( * = a xe f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers multiple a xes f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; L = a xe f rom L incolnshire a rea; B = a xes f rom b oth a reas)
6 79
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
+
2 63.20
+
+
2 04.40
+ * + L
1 45.60
* * L * * * * * * * * * *B* * * * ** * * *** * * ** * *2 3 * * *
+
+
8 6.800
+
+
2 8.000
+
7 .0000
3 0.600 1 8.800
F ig.
1 1.35
5 4.200 4 2.400
THICK 6 6.000
( cont.).
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII Axes f rom Yorkshire C oast/Wolds a nd L incolnshire Area
b .
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( * = a xe f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; L = a xe f rom L incolnshire a rea; B = a xes f rom b oth a reas)
6 80
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
* * 1 45.60
+ * * * *
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+
* * * * 2 *
* *
* * *
* 2 * * * 2 * * N ** 2 2
2 0.000
5 5.200 3 7.600
F ig.
*
9 0.400 7 2.800
1 1.36.
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII A xes f rom Y orkshire C oast/Wolds a nd Norfolk
a .
L ength v s. w idth measurements ( * = a xe f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Y orkshire c oast/Wolds; N = a xe f rom Norfolk)
W IDTH 1 08.00
6 81
L ENGTH 3 22.00 +
2 63.20
+
2 04.40
+
1 45.60
+
* * * * * *** * ** *
8 6.800
+
2 8.000
+ 3 0.600 1 8.800
1 1.36
*
B *2
7 .0000
F ig.
** * *
5 4.200 4 2.400
THICK 6 6.000
( cont.).
S catter P lots o f G roup XVIII Axes f rom Yorkshire C oast/Wolds a nd Norfolk
b .
L ength v s. t hickness measurements ( * = a xe f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; numbers = multiple a xes f rom Yorkshire c oast/Wolds; N = a xe f rom Norfolk; B = a xes f rom both a reas)
6 82
C . )
. 1 2
C\ J t .0 . 4 4S . 1Z 0 r - Z 0 4• S . - U 0 Z ^ l f )
C • . I 0r-I E
5 . 414 14
• 40 =
›. >