Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain, Parts i and ii 9781407389295, 9781407389301, 9780860540649, 9781407323404

Table of contents :
Part I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Plates
List of Maps
List of Museums Consulted
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Chapter 1: The Ard and the Plough
Bone Shares
Wooden parts of Ards
Iron Shares
Plough Shares
Representations and Models
Literary Evidence
The Traction of Prehistoric and Romano-British Tillage Implements
Tillage Implements
The Techniques of Ploughing
Tables I-XI: Classification of Stone Shares
Catalogues
Chapter 2: Manual Cultivating Tools
1. Hoes and Mattocks
2. Spades and Shovels
3. Spuds
4. Turf Cutters
Table X: To Show Individual Features of Romano-British Iron Spade Shoes
Part II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Catalogue
Chapter 3: Harvesting Tools
1. Sickles, Hooks and Scythes
2. Mowers Anvils
3. Forks
4. Rakes
5. Threshing
Table XI: Chronological Range of Types of Reaping and Pruning Hooks
Table XII: Comparative Dimensions of Romano-British Scythes
Catalogu
Concluding Observations
Bibliography
Abbreviations
Notes to Catalogues and Distribution Maps

Citation preview

Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain Part i

Sian E. Rees

B A R British Series 69(i) 1 979

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road,

Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE �RAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B .Se., :\I. A., D. Phi l. D. R. Walker, :\I.A.

B.A.R. 69 (i), 1979: Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain, Part i © Sian E. Rees. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389295 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389301 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860540649 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407323404 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540649 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS Page Introduction

1

CHAPTER 1: The Ard and the Plough

6

Stone Shares

i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv

Introduction The Background of Research Method of Study Classification Manufacturing Techniques Effects of Wear Analysis of Characteristics Date and Distribution Comparative Material Ard Types in Prehistoric Europe The Stone Shares in Use Stone Shares: Alternative Interpretations Experimental Evidence Ard Traces Farming Economy

40

Bone Shares Wooden parts of Ards i The Milton Loch Ard-head and Stilt ii The Lochmaben Beam iii The Virdifield Ard-head and Stilts iv Irish Ard-head and Stilts The Walesland Shares V vi The Wooden Share from Usk vii The Abingdon Ard Share viii The Wooden Beam (?) from Glastonbury Iron Shares

7 8 12 12 15 18 22 25 31 32 35 37 38 38 39

i Types of Shares ii Socketed Shares iii Tanged Shares

Plough Coulters Representations and i ii iii Literary Evidence

42 42 43 43 44 45 45 46 · 48 49 50 57 59

Models The Piercebridge Model The Sussex Bronze Model The Brading Mosaic

61 61 63 64 65

Page The Traction of Prehistoric and Romano--British Tillage Implements i Ard Beams ii Yokes iii Ox Goads iv Literary Evidence

71 71 72 75 79

The Techniques of Ploughing

79

Tables I-IX: Classification of Stone Shares

185

Catalogues: Stone points Bone points Iron points Iron coulters Ox goads

195 268 269 287 294

CHAPTER 2: Manual Cultivating Tools 1. Hoes and Mattocks i Entrenching Tools ii The Adze-Type Hoe The Ascia-Rastrum iii iv The Bidens V Mattocks vi Antler hoes

2. Spades and Shovels i Stone Tools ii Bone Tools iii Wooden Tools iv Iron Spade Shoes V All-Iron Spades V..1. Spade Marks

304 306 307 308 309 311 312 313 318 318 319 320 322 326 329

3. Spuds

330

4. Turf Cutters

331

Table X: To Show Individual Features of Romano-British Iron Spade Shoes Catalogue:

Hoes Spades Spuds Turf Cutters

CHAPTER 3: Harvesting Tools 1. Sickles, Hooks and Scythes a. Flint Harvesting Tools b. Stone Reaping Hooks c. Bronze Sickles d. Iron Reaping Hooks and Pruning Hooks

398 401 414 431 435 438 438 439 441 442 450

Page i ii iii iv

Reaping Hooks Pruning Hooks Straight Bladed Pruning knives Large Pruning Hooks

e. Billhooks f. Pruning Saws g. Scythes

452 461 465 465 467 473 473

2. Mowers Anvils

480

3. Forks

482

4. Rakes

484

5. Threshing

485

Table XI: Chronological Range of Types of Reaping and Pruning Hooks

617

Table XII: Comparative Dimensions of Romano-British Scythes

618

Catalogue:

Bronze Sickles Iron Reaping Hooks Iron Pruning Hooks Straight Sided Knives Large Pruning Hooks Unclassified Tools Billhooks Scythes Mowers Anvils Pitchforks Rakes

619 628 669 696 698 703 707 719 729 734 737

Concluding Observations

741

Bibliography

744

Abbreviations

769

Notes to C atalogues and Distribution Maps

770

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure Reference points used in text

92

1

Stone Ard Point.

2

Classification of Stone Ard Points

3

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh 433

94

4

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh 247

95

5

Stone Ard Points.

6

Stone Ard P oint.

Leenow

97

7

Stone Ard Point.

Jarlshof

98

8

Stone Ard Point

&lmburgh

99

9

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

100

10

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

101

11

Stone Ard Point.

Brunthamarsland

102

12

Stone Ard Point.

Orkp.ey

103

13

Stone Ard Point.

Breiwick

104

14

Stone Ard Point.

Skaill

105

15

Stone Ard Point.

Safester

106

16

Stone Ard Point.

Shetland

107

17

Stone Ard Point.

Skaill

108

18

Stone Ard Point.

Unst

109

19

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

110

20

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

111

21

Stone Ard Point.

Skiurd Hills

112

22

Stone Ard Point.

Delting

113

23

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

114

24

Stone Ard Points.

(a) Sumburgh 134;

25

Stone Ard Points.

Sumburgh

26

Stone Ard Point.

Skaill

117

27

Stone Ard Point.

Sumburgh

118

93

(a) Skaill (b) Sandwick

(b) Sumburgh 26 5

96

115 116

Page

Figure (a) Skaill; (b) Triesta

119

28

Stone Ard Points.

29

Stone Ard Point. Sumburgh

120

30

Stone Ard P oint. Sumburgh

12 1

31

Stone Ard Point. Sumburgh

122

32

a. Reconstruction of a Crook Ard with Stone Share b. Cross Section through Beam Mortise of: (1) D,óstrup Ard; (2) Donnerupland Ard; (3) Hendriksmose Ard

125

33

Bow Ards. (a) Distrup Ard; (b) Donnerupland Ard; (e) Hendriksmose Ard

126

34

Possible Stone Share.

127

35

Types of Construction of Tillage Implements

128

36

To show depth of soil penetration using three lengths of wear and angles of penetration characteristically displayed by stone ard points

129

37

Wooden Ard-head. Virdifield

130

38

Wooden Ard-head. Virdifield

131

39

Tentative suggestions for reconstruction of stone ard points in bow ard. a. As the entire foreshare (i) on the ard-head (ii) same, with tightening wedges (iii) with separate main share. b. As the only share in various types of socket arrangements. c. As part of a composite foreshare

132

40

Bone share ? Foshigarry

141

41

Bone share? Foshigarry

142

42

Bone share? Foshigarry

143

43

Wooden Ard-heads. a. Virdifield; b. Milton Loch

145

44

a. Wear marks on a wooden bar share after 700 m ploughing b. The Lochmaben Ard Beam

146

45

To show comparative dimensions of ard-heads and stilts from Scotland and Ireland

147

46

Wooden Ard Share. Walesland Rath

148

47

a.

Ard share from Abingdon

150

47

b. Ard share from Abingdon

151

48

Sketch of possible unfinished beam from Glastonbury

152

49

Classification of Iron Shares (1) Socketed shares; (2) T anged share s

154

Maastricht

Page

Figure

155

50

!ron Shares. a. Hunsbury; b. Crayford

51

!ron Shares. a,b. Slonk Hill; c. Hunsbury

156

52

!ron Shares. a. Frillord; b. Bigbury

157

53

!ron Shares. a. Silchester; b. Caburn

158

54

!ron Shares. Bigbury

159

55

!ron Shares. a. Great Wakering; b,c. Coygan C amp

160

56

!ron Shares from Woodcuts

161

57

!ron Shares. a. Worthy Down; b. Holbrooks; c. Ipswich

162

58

Iron Share. Walthamstow

163

59

!ron Share. Bloxham

164

60

!ron Share. Blackburn Mill

165

61

!ron Share. Swordale

166

62

!ron Share. Bucklersbury House, London

167

63

!ron Share. Frindsbury

168

64

!ron Share. Folkestone

169

65

Iron Share. Chester

170

66

Tanged !ron tools, possibly shares? Hunsbury

171

67

- a-e. !ron Bar Shares from Silchester. d. Coulter from Frindsbury

172

68.

!ron Shares. a. Meols; b. Verulamium

173

69

!ron Coulters. a. Great Whitcombe; b. Stanton Low

175

70

Coulter Blade. Twyford Down

176

71

a. The Piercebridge Plough Group with casting strip removed. b. Bronze model of ard. From Sussex. e. Hypothetical Reconstruction of cross section through beam of Sussex model

177

Yokes from (a) Argyll (b) Dungannon (e) Shetland (d) Ireland (e) Meath (f) Ireland (g) Mayo (h) Ezinge (i) Finderup (j) Jordrup

178

!ron Ox Goads (a) Odstone (b) Kettering (bronze) (e) London (bronze) (d, e) Ham Hill (f) Stockton Earthworks (g) London (h, i) Hambledon (j, k) Bucklersbury House (l, m) Rockbourne (n) Newstead (o) Mumrills

179

Ox Goads: a,b, �- Glastonbury (bone); d. Alchester (iron); e, f. Traprain Law (iron); g. All Cannings Cross (bone); h. Croft Ambrey (bone)

180

72

73

74

/

F igure

Page

7 5

C ross s ec tions o f A rd t races .

S u mburgh

7 6

En trench ing T oo l .

N ews tead

3 33

7 7

En trench ing Too l .

B uck lersbury H ouse

3 34

7 8

En trench ing Too ls .

7 9

En trench ing Tool .

Wi lderspoo l

3 36

8 0

En trench ing Too l .

C ar l is le

3 37

8 1

I ron Hoes .

8 2

I ron Hoe .

C as t le H i l l

3 39

8 3

I ron H oe.

Bra mp ton

3 40

8 4

I ron H oes .

a . Thea lby M ine ; b . S i lches ter

3 41

8 5

I ron Hoes .

a . S ou th Har t ing ; b . Wroxe ter

3 42

8 6

I ron Hoes .

a . C aerwen t ; b . C aerwen t

3 43

8 7

I ron Hoes .

a . Rough C as t le ; b . Buck lersbury House ,

a . C orbr idge ; b . N ews tead

a . G las tonbury ; b . L oudon H i l l

L ondon 8 8

1 82

3 35

3 38

3 44

I ron Hoes .

a . C oygan Ca mp ; b . B uck lersbury House ,

L ondon

3 45

8 9

I ron H oe .

L ondon

3 46

9 0

I ron Hoe .

Rusha l l Down

3 47

9 1

I ron Ma t tocks .

a . L ondon ; b . B igbury

3 49

9 2

I ron Ma t tocks .

a . Lakenhea th ; b . E ck ford

3 50

9 3

I ron Ma t tocks .

a . Cadder ; b . S i lches ter

3 51

9 4

I ron Ma t tocks .

a . Caerwen t ; b . Wi lderspool

3 52

9 5

I ron Ma t tocks .

a . Woodcock Ha ll ; b . L ondon

3 53

9 6

I ron Ma t tocks.

Ranwor th

3 54

9 7

An tler H oe.

9 8

An t ler H oes .

9 9

An tler H oe.

Wroxeter

3 58

1 00

An t ler Hoe.

N ews tead

3 59

1 01

An t ler Hoes .

1 02

S tone Imp le men ts .

a . J ar lshof ;

1 03

S tone Imple men ts .

a . S ca l low a y ;b . J ar lshof

1 04

F e l twel l a . Daren th ; b . G ayton Thorpe

a . H arro ld ; b . S lea ford

b . J ar lsho f

S capu lae , p robably u sed a s s hove ls . b . Corbr idge ;

1 05

3 55

c . J ar lsho f

Wha lebone Imp le men t .

Fosh igarry

3 57

3 60 3 61 3 62

a . J ar lsho f ; 3 63 3 64

Page

Figure 106

Wooden Spade.

Chester

107

a. Wooden Spade. Silchester; b. Iron Spade Shoe fragment. Silchester

366

108

To Show Types of Romano-British Iron Spade Shoes

367

109

Iron Spade Shoe. Braughing

368

110

Iron Spade Shoes.

369

111

Iron Spade Shoe.

Tiddington

370

112

Iron Spade Shoe.

Caerwent

371

113

Iron Spade Shoes.

a. South Shields; b. Keltic Cavern

372

114

Iron Spade Shoes.

a. Chesters; b. Worlington

373

115

Iron Spade Shoe.

116

Iron Spade Shoe. Westbury

117

Iron Spade Shoe Fragments.

118

Iron Spade Shoes.

a. Spoonley; b. Corbridge

377

119

Iron Spade Shoes.

a. Stafford House; b. Silchester

378

120

Iron Spade Shoe.

Colchester

379

121

Iron Spade Shoe.

Colchester

380

122

Peat Spade.

123

Iron Spades.

124

Iron Spade.

Bigbury

384

125

Iron Spade. Bigbury

385

126

Iron Spade.

Brampton

386

127

Iron Spade.

Eckford

387

128

Iron Spades.

129

To Illustrate Different Blade Shapes of Romano-British Spuds

390

130

Iron Spuds.

a. London; b. Sibson; c. London

391

131

!ron Spuds.

a. Lakenheath; b. Wroxeter

392

132

Turf Cutters.

a. Housesteads; b. Great Chesterford

393

133

Turf Cutters.

a. Newstead; b. London

394

134

Turf Cutters.

a. Silchester; b. Housesteads

395

135

Turf Cutter.

136

Diagram to show classification of sickles by Childe

365

a. Runcton Holme; b. Minchin Role

Frocester Court

374 375

a. Owmby; b. Caistor

Blackburn Mill a. Wallingford; b. Blackburn Mill

a. Corbridge; b. Silchester

South Shields

376

382 383

388

396 487

p ag e

F igure 1 37

E ar ly Ba lanced S ick les .

a . F l in t t oo thed s ick le f ro m t he

t o mb o f H e maka , Egyp t ; b . S ugges ted h a f ting o f As ia t ic l ooped s ick les ;

c . I ron b a lanced s ick le f ro m La n ne ,

S witzer land 1 38

1 39 1 40

4 88

T ypes o f P ossib le F lin t S ick les f ro m Br i ta in .

a . C rescen t ic

f l in t s ick les ; b . N on-crescen t ic s ick les f l in ts

4 89

T ypes o f Dan ish F l in t S ick les

4 90

The Ha f t ing o f Harves ting T oo ls .

a . N on-crescen t ic s ick le

f l in ts ;

c .

b . C rescen t ic f l in t s ick le ;

o r ig ina l wooden h and le ;

S teni ld f l int s ick le i n

d , e . B ronze s ick les ;

C hes ter ford l ong h and led s cythes ;

f . G rea t

g . S hor t h and led s cythe

i n o r ig ina l wooden h and le f ro m La TNl e 1 41

a .

S tone R eap ing T oo l .

J ar lshof ; b . B ronze S ick le.

Tha mes n ear Wandswor th ; 1 42

4 91

c . B ronze S ick le.

T ypes o f European B ronze S ick les.

Thames?

S ch m id t 's c lassi f ica t ion

w i th S teensberg 's a dd i t iona l N o. V . 1 43

C har t o f Bronze S ocke ted S ick les . l a tera l ly ;

1 44

B ren t ford ; e . 1 45

1 46

G roup IS ick les s ocke ted

c . Thames ( London ) ;

d . Thames n ear Bren t ford ;

f . Tha mes a t S ion R each

d . Tha mes a t R ead ing

a . B rad ford?; b . S awdon ;

4 96

c . Bray;

d . Win terbourne Monk ton 1 47

B ronze S ick les .

4 97

a . Dores ; b . Pre mnay ;

c . L lyn Fawr ;

d . L lyn Fawr 1 48

4 98

B ronze S ick les .

a . Tha mes ; b . S trea tha m ;

c . Tha mes ;

d . Erro l 1 49

4 99

B ronze S ick les .

a . L ongy; b . E ly ;

c . E ly; d .

Prov .

u nknown 1 50

5 00

B ronze S ick les .

a . Tha mes a t Tap low ; b . I ck lingha m ;

c . Tha mes a t Barnes ; 1 51

B ronze S ick les . T opping ;

1 52 1 53

d . Prov . Unknown

5 01

a . Thames a t S ion R each ; b . R osebury

c ,e. Ea ton H oard ;

d . A lderbury ;

f ,g . ' I re land '

C har t o f Non-Socketed S ick les B ronze S ick les .

a . Dolbenmaen ; b . Thames a t Taplow ; 5 04

B ronze S ick les . d . Dar t ford ;

5 02 5 03

c . Ha l ton 1 54

4 95

a . Downham F en ; b . Prov . U nknown ;

Tha mes a t Windsor ;

B ronze S ick les ;

4 94

a . S ion Reach ( London ) ; b . Thames n ear

Tha mes n ear B ren t ford ;

B ronze S ick les . c .

4 93

G roup I S ick les s ocke ted v er t ica l ly

B ronze S ick les .

4 92

a ,b. E bbs f lee t , Thane t ;

e . E bbs f leet , Thanet ;

c . Minn is Bay ;

f ,g . Minn is Bay

5 05

Page

Figure 155

Bronze Sickles. a. Lakenheath; b. Ham Hill; e, d, e. Whitehall Farm, Hoo; f, Marden; g. Southchurch

506

156

Bronze Sickles. a. Colchester?; b. c. Grays Thurrock; d. All Hallows; e. Prittle Brook; f. Hayne Wood

507

157

Bronze Sickles.

508

158

Typological Classification of Reaping Hooks

510

159

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Rushall Down; b. Llyn Fawr; e. Caburn

511

160

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Barbury Castle; b. Hod Hill

512

161

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Stockton Earthworks; b. Codford St. Mary

513

162

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Irchester; b. Hammersmith; c. Barbury Castle; d. Prov. Unknown

514

163

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Colchester; b. Hod Hill; c. Hod Hill; d. Silchester

515

164

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Wroxeter; b. Carlisle; e. Hambledon Hill

516

165

Iron Reaping Hooks. a, b. Hod Hill; c. Hambledon villa; d. Prov. Unknown

517

166

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Maiden Castle; b. Swallowcliffe Down; c. Caerwent

518

167

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Bigbury; b. Yardley Hastings; c. Hod Hill

519

168

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Hunsbury; b. Prov. Unknown; c. Hod Hill; d. Hod Hill

520

169

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Wandsworth; b. Hod Hill; c. Dorchester

521

170

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Longbridge Deverill; b. Hod Hill

522

·171

Iron Reaping Hooks. a,b. Salmonsbury; c. Sutton Walls

523

172

Iron Reaping Hook. Rushall Down

524

173

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. London; b. Alchester; c. Folkestone

525

174

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Dinorben; b. Traprain Law; c. Bigbury

526

175

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Prov. Unknown; b. London; c. Hunsbury; d. Heathencote

527

176

Iron Reaping Hooks. a. Barbury Castle; b. Folkestone; c. Worlington

528

Edington Burtle

Page

F igure 1 77

I ron R eaping H ooks . C ross ;

a ,b. Ham H i l l ;

c . A l l Cann ing 's

d . Ha m H i ll

1 78

I ron R eaping H ooks .

1 79

5 29 a . S ibson ; b . Wi lderspoo l

5 30

I ron S ick les .

a . B lackburn M i l l ; b . L lyn C err ig Bach

5 31

1 80

I ron S ick les .

a . S ibson ; b . Ha m H i l l ;

5 32

1 81

I ron S ick les .

a . N ews tead ; b . L ondon ;

1 82

I ron S ick les .

a . Wroxeter ; b . C o lches ter?;

c . G rea t Ches ter ford c . L in ton

5 33

c . Bank o f

Eng land 1 83

5 34

I ron S ick les . Waker ing ;

1 84

a . R ockbourne ; b . R is ingha m ;

c . G rea t

d . C oygan C a mp

I ron S ick les .

5 35

a . C aerwen t ; b . S u t ton Wa l ls ;

c . C oygan

C a mp

5 36

1 85

I ron R eaping H ooks .

a . C hew S toke ; b . I rches ter

1 86

I ron Reaping H ooks.

a . B rakenha l l G reen ; b . Wi lsford

D own ; 1 87

5 37

c . Ha l ton C hes ters

I ron Reap ing H ooks.

5 38

a . S toborough ; b . G las tonbury;

c . Cas tor

5 39

1 88

I ron R eaping H ooks.

a . C owley; b . Bank o f Eng land

1 89

I ron R eaping H ooks . .

a . G rass ing ton ; b . Brun thwa i te ;

c . S i lches ter

5 40

5 41

1 90

I ron S ick les .

a . Ha m H i l l ; b . C orbr idge

5 42

1 91

Two f or ms o f t he G a l lo-Ro man Harves t ing mach ine. a . The P a l lad ian Mach ine , a s r econs truc ted b y Qu i mper ; b . The Mach ine a s d escr ibed b y P l iny , a s s hown b y t he B uzeno l a nd Ar lon Fragmen ts

5 44

1 92

T ypolog ica l C lass i f ica t ion o f Prun ing H ooks

5 45

1 93

I ron P run ing Hooks. d . K i msbury;

a ,b . Barbury Cas t le ;

e . B agwood ;

f . L ondon ;

c . Ha mbledon ;

g . Hucc lecote ;

h . Ha mb leden 1 94

I ron P run ing H ooks . d . Ke lvedon ; Wa l ls ;

1 95

e . N ea tha m ;

I ron P run ing H ooks.

f . R ockbourne ;

g . Durr ing ton 5 47

a . Caerwen t ; b . Prov . U nknown ;

d . L ondon ;

I ron Prun ing H ooks . H ouse , L ondon ;

1 97

a . F i f ie ld Bavan t ; b , c . Trund le ;

h . Har t l ip

c . P i tney ; 1 96

5 46

f . C aerwen t

a ,b . C ranbourne C hase ;

d . S tock ton Ear thworks ;

I ron P run ing H ooks. d ,e . I rches ter

e . Ho lbrooks ;

5 48

c . Buck lersbury

e . C aerwen t

a . G reetwel l ; b . C aerwen t ;

5 49

c . I pswich ; 5 50

F igure 1 98

P age I ron P run ing H ooks . b . S hakenoak ;

a . Tha mes a t Wandswor th ;

c . Bayford ;

d . Dog H o les Cave ;

e . P rov .

Unknown 1 99

5 51

I ron P run ing H ooks .

a -c . Daren th ;

e . N ews tead ; f . Prov . Unknown ; 2 00

I ron P run ing H ooks . c . Wyco mbe ;

2 01

2 02

I ron P run ing H ooks .

e . S ou th Har t ing

5 53

a . Rusha l l D own ; b . S i lches ter ;

d . Hod H i l l ;

I ron P run ing H ooks . c . B land ford ;

5 52

a . Veru la miu m ; b . H od H i ll ;

d . I ck l ingham ;

c . Ma iden C as t le ;

d . S a l monsbury ;

g . C issbury

e . C o lches ter

5 54

a . N ews tead ; b . Hunsbury ;

d . B landford

5 55

2 03

I ron P run ing H ooks .

a ,b , c .

2 04

I ron P run ing H ooks .

a . Hunsbury ; b . Caerwen t ;

d ,e . B land ford ; 2 05

d . A ldwick

5 57

a . C a me lon ; b . Prov . Unknown ;

d . C har l ton Down ;

e . H o lbrooks ;

f . Ba t t lesbury 2 06

5 56

c . L ondon ;

f . C aerwen t

I ron P run ing H ooks . c . Hod H i l l ;

C aerwen t ;

5 58

I ron P run ing H ooks .

a . S tock ton E ar thworks ;

b . Wa lbrook , L ondon ;

c . Win ter ton v i l la

5 59

2 07

I ron H ooks .

a . Wor l ing ton ; b . C ock lepi ts

5 62

2 08

I ron H ooks.

a . S hakenoak ; b . Hod H i l l

5 63

2 09

I ron H ook .

2 10

I ron H ooks.

a . C o lches ter ; b . Dorn

5 65

2 11

I ron H ooks .

a . L ondon ; b . Wa lbrook

5 66

2 12

I ron Kn ives .

B igbury

5 64

a . S pe t t isbury R ings ; b . Tra .pra in Law ;

c . S tokele igh C a mp ;

d . L ondon

5 67

2 13

I ron H ook .

Mi lbourne S t . Andrew

2 14

I ron H ooks .

2 15

I ron B i l lhooks .

2 16

I ron B i l lhook .

2 17

I ron B i llhooks .

a . Caerwen t ; b . H am H i l l

5 72

2 18

I ron B i l lhooks .

a . Meare ; b . G las tonbury

5 73

2 19

I ron B i l lhooks .

a . B igbury; b . G las tonbury

5 74

2 20

I ron B i l lhook .

2 21

I ron B i llhooks .

a . C aburn ; b . C o lches ter

5 76

2 22

I ron B i l lhooks .

a . Lakenhea th ; b . Thea lby Mine

5 77

a . C o lches ter ; b . C o ll i ton Park ;

5 68 c . L ondon

a . Meare ; b . Wookey H ole G las tonbury

B igbury

5 69 5 70 5 71

5 75

F igure

Page

2 23

I ron B i llhooks .

a . C o lches ter ; b . B igbury

5 78

2 24

I ron B i l l .

N ews tead

5 79

2 25

I ron B i l l .

R ockwood Far m

5 80

2 26

I ron B i ll .

U sk

5 81

2 27

I ron B i l ls .

a . Caerwen t ; b . Ox ted

5 82

2 28

I ron B i l ls .

a . C irences ter?; b . Ha m H i l l

5 83

2 29

I ron B i l ls .

a . N e t t leton S hrubs ;

5 84

2 30

I ron B i l l .

L ondon

5 85

2 31

I ron B i l l .

A lres ford

5 86

2 32

I ron B i l ls?

2 33

B ronze a nd I ron Age B i l lhooks f ro m Europe .

b . E ck ford

a . Wroxe ter ; b . B igbury

5 87 a . Win ter l ingen ,

Wu t te mberg ( bronze ); b . O tran to , I ta ly ( bronze ) ; F rancesco , B o logna ( bronze ) ;

c . S an

d . I dr i ja , Yukos lav ia ( i ron ) ;

e . S t . Audeber t , A isne ( i ron ) ; f . Tumu lus d e C e l les ( i ron )

5 89

2 34

I ron S aws .

a . Ba t t lesbury; b . Hunsbury ;

5 90

2 35

I ron S aws .

a . Bank o f Eng land ; b . Bank o f Eng land ;

c . L ondon

c . Hamb ledon H i l l 2 36

5 91

R o mano-Br i t ish L ong Hand led B a lanced S cythes . a . Grea t C hes ter ford ; b . A bing ton P igot ts ; d . Hardwick ;

e . N ews tead

2 37

I ron S cythes .

a . S ibson ; b . I rches ter ;

2 38

I ron S cythe .

2 39

I ron S cythe Fragmen ts .

c . F ar moor ; 5 92

c . S i lches ter

B ramp ton

5 93 5 94

a . Wi lderspoo l ; b . Dus ton ;

c . Bar H i l l

5 95

2 40

I ron S cythes .

a . C as t le D ykes ; b . Loudon H i l l

2 41

I ron S cythe Fragmen ts .

5 96

a . Ba ldock ; b . Folkes tone ;

c . Car lingwark L och

5 97

2 42

I ron S cythe.

5 98

2 43

a ,b. I ron S cythes f ro m Rusha l l Down ;

Far moor

T oo l? Ham H i l l ;

d . Manure K nife?

c . T anged S lash ing

B r ixwor th

5 99

2 44

I ron S lash ing T oo l .

B igbury

6 00

2 45

I ron S lash ing Too l .

B igbury

6 01

2 46

I ron S lash ing T oo l .

B ig i Dury

6 02

2 47

I ron S lash ing T oo l .

B igbury

6 03

2 48

I ron S cythes . S witzer land ;

a . S tradon ice , C zechos lovak ia ; b . La U ne , c . I l le mose , Denmark ;

d . I dr i ja , Yugos lav ia ;

e . News tead , S co t land ; f . G rea t C hes ter ford , Eng land

6 05

F igure

Page

2 49

Mowers Anv i l.

2 50

Mowers Anv i ls .

a . S a l ters ford ; b . G rea t Waker ing

6 07

2 51

I ron P i tch forks .

a . N ews tead ; b . S i lches ter ;

6 09

2 52

I ron P i tch forks .

a . R is ingham ; b . S i lches ter

6 10

2 53

I ron P i tch forks .

a . L ondon ; b . B ank o f Eng land

6 11

I ron P i tch forks .

a . Buck lersbury H ouse , L ondon ;

2 54

b . C hes ters ;

S i lches ter

c . Wa t t is f ield ;

2 55

Rake P rongs .

L ondon

2 56

Rake f ro m N ews tead

6 06

d . L ydney

c . B a ldock

6 12 6 14 6 15

L IST OF PLATES

P la te

Page

1

S tone a rd p oin ts f rom O rkney

1 33

2

a .

Top wear o n s tone a rd p o in t .

1 34

b .

S ide wear o n s tone a rd p o in t

3

Wear o n t ip o fb o t to m f ace o f s tone a rd p oin ts

4

S tone a rd p o in ts p ho tographed d ur ing e xcava tion .

1 35

5

S tone a rd p o in ts p ho tographed d ur ing e xcava tion .

6

S tone a rd p oin ts p ho tographed d ur ing e xcava t ion .

S kai l l, O rkney

1 36

S kai ll , O rkney

1 37

S ka i l l , O rkney . 7

1 38

a .

Pa thway l ead ing t o p i t .

b .

I n ter ior o f p i t c on ta in ing s tone a rd p o in ts.

S ka i l l , Orkney S kail l , O rkney

8

C ross s ect ions t hrough a rd t races.

9

B one Imp le men ts f ro m F osh igarry , N . U ist ( N MAS GNA

S kai l l , Orkney

1 39 1 40

2 02-205)

1 44

1 0

T he Wa lesland Ra th Ard S hare

1 49

1 1 1 2

A rd t races. Ard t races.

1 83 1 84

S ka i l l , Orkney S ka i l l , Orkney

L IST OF MAPS

Map

P age

1

D istr ibu t ion o fS tone Ard P o in ts i n S he t land

1 23

2

D istr ibu t ion o fS tone Ard P oin ts i n O rkney

1 24

3

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron S hares i n Br i ta in

1 53

4

D istr ibu t ion o f R o mano-Br i tish P lough C ou l ters i n B r i ta in

1 74

5

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron a nd Bronze O x G oads o f t he I ron A ge a nd Ro man p er iods i n Bri ta in

1 81

6

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron H oes i n I ron Age a nd Ro man Bri ta in

3 48

7

D istr ibu t ion o f An t ler H oes i n t he R o mano-Bri t ish P er iod

3 56

8 9

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron S pade S hoes a nd P ea t S pades i n t he Ro mano-Br i tish P er iod

3 81

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron S puds i n t he Romano-Bri tish Per iod

3 89

1 0

D istr ibu t ion o f Turf Cut ters i n t he R o mano-Bri tish P er iod

3 97

1 1 1 2

D istr ibu t ion o f Bronze S ick les i n Br i ta in D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Br i tish R eap ing H ooks

5 09 5 43

1 3

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age a nd R o mano-Bri tish Prun ing H ooks

5 60

1 4

D istr ibu t ion o f U nclassi f ied Harvest ing Tools a nd I n termedia te Too ls i n I ron Age a nd Ro man Br i ta in

5 61

1 5

D istr ibu tion o f I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Br i tish B i l lhook s

5 88

1 6

D istr ibu t ion o f Ro mano-Br i tish S cy thes

6 04

1 7

D istr ibu t ion o f Ro mano-Br i t ish Mowers Anvi ls

6 08

1 8

D istr ibu t ion o f Ro mano-Br i t ish I ron P i tchforks

6 13

1 9

D istr ibu t ion o f Ro mano-Br i t ish Rake P rongs

6 16

C lassi f ica tion o fS tone Ard P oin ts

1 85

To S how I ndividua l F ea tures o fS pade S hoes

3 98

Tab les I IX X X I X I I

Chrono log ica l Range o f Types o f I ron R eap ing a nd Prun ing Hooks617 To S how C o mpara tive D i mensions o f R o mano-Bri tish S cy thes

6 18

L IST OF MUSEU MS CONSULTED*

1 .

Grea t Bri ta in

G loucester G ran tha m

A berdeen A berdeen U n iv . An throp . Mus. A y lesbury

G uernsey H ast ings Hereford

B angor

H ousesteads

B a th —Ro man Mus.

H ugh town ( I . o f S ci l lies)

B edford

Hu l l

B irmingha m B radford B righ ton

I nverness I psw ich

B risto l

J ar lshof

B ux ton

J ersey

C aernarvon —Segon t iu m

K eigh ley

C a mbr idge Arch . E thn .

K enda l

C an terbury

K esw ick

C ardif f N .M . W.

K e t tering

Car lis le

K ings L ynn

C hedwor th

K irkwa l l

C he l tenham C hester—Grosvenor C hesters C hichester C hristchurch C irencester C o lchester C orbr idge

L ancaster L eeds L eicester L e tchwor th L erw ick L inco ln L ondon—Br i tish Museu m , G ui ldha l l L ondon

C oven try D evizes D orchester

Ma idstone Manchester

D u mfr ies

N ewark

D undee

N ewbury

E d inburgh—N .M . A. S. E xeter

N ewcast le-on-Tyne N or tha mp ton N orw ich

F arnham

N ot t ingha m C i ty

F ishbourne

N o t t ingha m U n iv . Arch . Dep t . Mus.

F o lkestone G lasgow—Hun terian G lastonbury

Oakha m O xford —As hmo lean P enzance

P er th

H aderslev

P e terborough

H err ing

P ly mou th

H je rr ing

P or ts mou th—Sou thsea Preston

H o ls tebro H orsens

R ead ing

O dense

R ichbo r ough R ochester S a in t A lbans —Veru la miu m Mus. S af fron Wa lden S a l isbury S carborough

Randers R ingkep ing R udkep ing S i lkeborg V iborg

S cun thrope S hef f ie ld S hrewsbury S k ip ton S ou tha mp ton S ou thend-on-Sea S t ir ling S tra tford

B .

G er many

B onn B re men C o logne E ssen

S troud

Ha mburg

Swansea

H annover

Sw indon Taun ton The tford Truro Warw ick We l ls Weston-super- Mare Wey mou th Wimbourne W inchester—Ci ty

O ldenburg S aa lburg S ch lesw ig Trier C .

H o l land

Amersfoor t Gron ingen

Winchester—Han ts. Mus. S ervice

L eeuwarden

Windsor

L eiden

Wor th ing Wroxe ter York

N i j megan Maas tr ich t Wagen ingen

2 .

C on t inen ta l Museu ms

A .

Den mark

Aa lborg Aarhus B ornho lm C openhagen E sb jerg

D .

B e lgiu m

An twerp Bruges Brusse ls Ghen t Hans sur- L es se

L iege Mons N a mur V ir ton E . L uxembourg L uxe mbourg F .

F rance

Am iens Angers A uxerre C har tres Metz N ancy O r leans Par is —St . Germa in Q ui mper R ennes R hei ms S trasbourg S oisson s T ours Troyes

* This i s al i st o f museu ms a t wh ich Is tud ied ma teria l , a nd t o whose c ura tors Iowe g ra tefu l t hanks. Many o ther museu ms were c onsu l ted o r v isi ted i n t he s earch f or ma teria l , a nd c ura tors o ft hese museu ms a lso of ten wen t t o g rea t t roub le t o c heck t heir c a ta logues o n my b eha lf , o r t o a ssist me i n o ther ways.

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

The r esearch work f or t his s tudy i nvo lved a l arge n u mber o f p eop le w i thou t whose h e lp t he work c ou ld n ever h ave b een c arried o u t .

F irst ly , I

must t hank Mr . P . S . G e l ling f or h i s p a tien t g uidance a nd g oodwi l l t hrougho u t t he y ears.

Ih ave b enef i t ted g rea t ly f ro m d iscussions w i th many p eop le ,

p ar t icu lar ly Mr . A . F en ton , P rofessor K . D . Wh i te , Dr . W . Mann ing , Mr . C . B owen , Mr . P . R eyno lds, Mr . R . B . K . S tevenson , Mr . J . v an d er Poe !, Mrs. G . L erche , Dr . G . Webster , who p rovided me w i th u npub lished d rawi ngs , Mr . A . J ewe l l a nd Mr . J . May .

The c ura tors o f t he museu ms l i s ted

o ver lea f p rov ided me w i th much a ss is tance , p lacing ma ter ia l a t my d isposa l o f ten a t g rea t i nconven ience t o t he mse lves .

Among t hese , s pec ia l men t ion

s hou ld b e g iven t o Dr . J . C lose-Brooks ( N .M .A.S .) , Dr . E . MacK ie ( Hun ter ian ) , a nd Mr . T . H enderson ( Lerwick ) .

My mos t h ear t fe l t t hanks g o t o my p aren ts

who e ncouraged me t o b eg in t h is work , who u n fa i l ing ly s uppor ted a nd e ncouraged me t hroughou t a nd t o who m t h is b ook i s d ed ica ted ;

t o my f r iends who u rged me

t o c on t inue w i th i t , t o lera t ing my l ong a bsences o r , worse, e nduring my l ong v isi ts w i th k ind ly f orbearance ;

a nd t o my c ol leagues i n t he D epar t men t o ft he

Environ men t a nd l a ter t he We lsh O f f ice , p ar t icu lar ly Mr . B . Mor ley a nd Dr . M . Ap ted , who f ina l ly o rdered me t o f i ni sh i t , a nd Mr . R . Aven t who h e lped me i n i nnu merab le ways t o d o s o .

AGR ICULTURAL I MPLE MENTS I N PREH ISTOR IC AND RO MAN BR ITA IN

I NTRODUCTION

I . A ims The i nspira t ion f or t hi s r esearch t opic c a me f ro m t wo s ources.

F irst ly ,

t he e xcava tions a t S kai l l , D eerness, i n Orkney ( Ge l l ing e xcava t ions c on tinuing ) h ad , i n 1 973, p roduced s evera l e xa mp les o f s tone o b jects wh ich , i t was g radu a l ly r ea l ised, b e longed t o t he c lass o f t oo ls wh ich were p robab ly t o b e i n terp re ted a s t he s hares o r work ing p oin ts o f a rds. d one o n t hese s hares ( Hensha l l 1 955-6 ;

S o me work h ad a lready b een

F en ton 1 962-3 , p p . 2 65-8 ) , b u t i t was

c lear t ha t t here s t i l l r e ma ined a h uge b ody o f ma teria l awai t ing e xamina tion . This l ed t o a n i n terest i n t he d eve lopmen t o f t he e ar ly p lough a nd t o a n awaren ess o ft he impor tance o f t he s tone s hares d ue t o t he n u merica l ly sma l l amoun t o f ma ter ia l a vai lab le f or t he s tudy o f t he p reh istor ic p lough i n B ri tain , t hough v arious s tudies o f t he p reh istor ic a nd R o mano-Br i tish p lough h ave b een u ndert aken u sing t he e vidence o ft he i ron a nd wooden r e mains ( Payne 1 947 ; 1 957 ;

A berg

Mann ing 1 964) .

The s econd s ource o f i nsp ira t ion was t he r esu l t o f av isi t t o Denmark i n 1 974.

D iscussions w i th p ersonne l i n t he Na t iona l Museu m a t C openhagen a nd

t he I n terna tiona l S ecre taria t f or Research o n t he H istory o f Agr icu l tura l I mp lemen ts, B rede, a nd t he s ubsequen t s tudy o f a gr icu ltura l ma teria l i n D an ish museu ms made me a pprecia te t he r e la t ive l ack o f p ub lished i n for ma t ion n o t o n ly a bou t Br i ti sh e ar ly a gr icu l tura l i mp le men ts i n g enera l , b u t a bou t h arvesti ng t oo ls i n p ar ticu lar .

A xe l S teensberg ' sb ook "Ancien t Harvest ing Imp le-

men ts" ( S teensberg 1 943) , was d ivided i n to t wo p ar ts, ( i ) ag enera l s ect ion o ut lin ing t he e vo lu t ion a nd d eve lopmen t o f t he t oo ls i n E urope , a nd ( i i ) ad et ai led s ec t ion d escr ibing a l l t he t oo ls t hen k nown i n Denmark f ro m p re-Christian p er iods . I ts eemed c lear t ha t f ur ther work o f t his d e tai led t ype f or e ach c oun try was n eeded s o t ha t t he p oin ts i n h is g enera l European s ect ion c ou ld b e c hecked a nd , i fn ecessary , e x tended o r a l tered . Aga in , s o me work h ad a lready b een d one o n e ar ly Bri tish h arvest ing t oo ls. C lark ( Clark 1 932 ) , a nd C urwen ( Curwen 1 936) h ad wri t ten o n t he f l in t s ick les i n Br i ta in ;

F ox ( Fox 1 939b a nd 1 941) o n

t he b ronze s ick les a nd t he work o f C urwen ( Curwen 1 948 ) a nd MacGregor a nd S i mpson ( 1 963) o n t he i ron s ick le h ad b een e xpanded b y Mann ing i n h is d octora l t hesis ( Manning 1 969 ) i n wh ich h e s ki lfu l ly i so la tes a nd d escr ibes t he ma in t ypes u sed .

F ro m p ublished e xcava t ion r epor ts a lone , h owever , i t was c lear t ha t a

l arge amoun t o f ma ter ia l r e ma ined f or s yste ma t ic s tudy a nd , a s was e xpected , t his p ub l ished r ecord was e nor mously i ncreased b y s ubsequen t s tudy o f ma teria l i n museums. Wi th t hese t wo l arge b od ies o f e vidence , t i l lage mach ines a nd h arvest ing t ools, i ts ee med s ens ib le t o r ev iew i n t he s ame way t he o ther a gr icu l tura l t oo ls 1

k nown t o h ave b een u sed i n p rehistor ic a nd R o man Bri ta in . Manua l t i l lage i mp le men ts o fv arious ma ter ia ls w ere k nown t o h ave b een u sed , a nd s tud ies o f s o me h ad b een u nder taken .

C order ' s work o n Ro mano-Bri t i sh s pade s hoes

( Corder 1 943 ) was e xpanded , a long w i th d iscussion o f v arious i ron h oe t ypes, b y Mann ing ( Mann ing 1 969 a nd 1 970 ) , a nd s hor t n o tes h ad b een w ri t ten o n i nd iv idua l f i nds o f a n t ler h oes o f t he Ro man p er iod ( Bagshawe 1 949 ; 1 950 ;

S tevenson

H o lmes 1 961 ; Sm i th 1 968 ) , b u t i t was e xpected t ha t s tudy o f u npub l ished

ma ter ia l i n museu ms wou ld e nab le me t o e n large o n t hese works a lso , n o t o n ly t o i nc lude o ther t ypes, ma ter ia ls o r i ndividua l e xa mp les o f t oo ls t o t hose p rev iously d escr ibed , b u t a lso t o r eview t he e vidence a s a who le a nd t o a t te mp t t o a ssess t he i mpor tance o f o ne t oo l t ype i n ag iven a rea i n r e la t ion t o a no ther . T he work o f C urwen o n a l l a spec ts o f e ar ly a gr icu l ture was s um med u p i nt he b ook "P lough a nd Pasture"

( Curwen 1 948 ) .

T his w ide-rang ing work , n ow i n-

e vi tab le s o mewha t d a ted , h as p roved t he b ackbone o f s ubsequen t work o n B r i tish e ar ly a gricu l tura l p ractice , a nd work o n e ach o f t he a spects o f a gr icu lt ure o u t lined i n h is b ook—f ields, e ar ly c rop t ypes, s oi l t ypes f avoured b y e ar ly a gr icu l tura lists, c lima tic v a t ia tions a nd t he ir e f fect o n a gricu l tura l p rac t ice , me thods o f g ra in s torage , e tc . —has b een u nder taken .

App lebau m ' sr ecen t

d ef in i t ive work o n a gricu l ture i n R o man Br i ta in ( App lebau m 1 972 ) g oes i n to c onsiderab le u sefu l d e ta i l a bou t a gr icu l tura l s i te t ypes, f ie ld s yste ms, a gricu l tura l b ui ld ings a nd p ossib le e ar ly f ar m manage men t s yste ms, b u t h i s c hap ter o n t he i mp le men ts i s , a s i t must b e i n s o w ide r ang ing a work , ag enera l o utl i ne o f most ly p reviously p ub lished work .

I t was t ime , If e l t , t ha t t he i mp le-

men ts were g iven t he s ame d e ta i led a na lysis a s a n e n t i ty i n t hemse lves a s t he o ther a spects o f a gr icu lture h ad r eceived a nd c on tinue t o r eceive . The i n forma tion wh ich c ou ld , h opefu l ly , b e g leaned f ro m t hi s s tudy o f t he ma ter ia l was, a s Is aw i t , t hree-fo ld .

F irst ly , i t was c lear t ha t i t wou ld

t hrow l i gh t o n t he t oo ls a nd t oo l t ypes t he mse lves, t heir d eve lopmen t i n f or m a nd ma ter ia ls i n d i f feren t ways i n d i f feren t a reas, s o t ha t s o me a ssess men t c ou ld b e made o f t heir e f f iciency a nd u se i n d i f feren t e nvironmen ts.

I tw as

o ver t his p er iod-the p rehistor ic a nd R o mano-Bri tish p eriod— tha t t he ma in d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu l tura l t oo ls t ook p lace .

B y t he e nd o ft he Ro man p eriod

t he mou ldboard p lough , t he b a lanced s ick le , t he l ong h and led b a lanced s cy the , a nd h oes, ma t tocks, s pades, b i l lhooks, p i tchforks, t urf-cut ters, weed ing t oo ls a nd r akes were u sed i n Bri tain i n f orms which s urvived u n ti l t he I ndust ria l R evo lu t ion i fn o t t o t he p resen t d ay .

I t was t his p eriod t ha t was c lear ly

t he most f or ma t ive i n t he e vo lu tion o f t he t oo ls .

The s tudy o ft hi s d eve lop men t

o f a gr icu ltura l t oo ls i n B r i ta in was c onsidered a v a luab le e xercise i n i t s own r igh t . S econd ly , t he s tudy o ft he t oo ls migh t , i t was h oped , h elp t o t hrow l i gh t o n t he t ypes o f e cono my f ound i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he c oun try a t d i f feren t p er iods. The r ea lisa t ion o f t his a i m of ten p roved d i ff icu l t a s i td epended t o s o me e x ten t o n a n a ssess men t o f at oo l t ype ' sg eographica l a nd c hronolog ica l d istr ibu t ion . The i n terpre ta t ion o f d istr ibu tion maps i s

a lways f raugh t w i th h azard ;

i th as

l on gb een a rgued t ha t t hey s how t he d istr ibu t ion o f e xcava ted s i tes r a ther t han a ny t rue d istr ibu t ion o f at oo l t ype .

I ti s n o t iceab le t ha t d istr ibu t ion maps

c on t inue t o b e u sed, h owever , a s t hey d o p er for m a u sefu l f unc t ion , i n s howing a t ag lance t he n u mbers o f i mp le men ts k nown t o a rchaeo logists , a nd t heir r ough g eograph ica l c oncen tra t ions.

I f many r e la ted d istr ibu t ion maps a re p rovided , 2

a s t hey a re h ere , i ti s a rguab le t ha t t his i s s o mewha t more u sefu l a n e xercise a s t he n u mber a nd d istr ibu tion o f t he i mp le men ts c an b e s hown r e la t ive t o o ne a no ther .

I n t his work where t oo l t ypes, of ten o fv ar ious ma ter ia ls, a re b e ing

s tudied, i ti s v i ta l t ha t i ti s a pprecia ted t ha t of ten t he s epara te maps a re r ea l ly o n ly s how ing a p ossib le o r r ough d istr ibu t ion w i thin t he a rea o ft he u se o f t ha t ma ter ia l —i .e . ad istr ibu t ion w i th in t he z one o f t he t oo l ma teria l , n o t o f t he t oo l i t se lf .

T o t ake p loughshares a s a n o bvious e xa mp le , Map 3wou ld , i fu sed w i th

t he Ca ta logue , i ndica te t ha t a gr icu l ture was p rac ti sed i n S ou th East Eng land a lone i n t he p rehistor ic a nd much o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish p er iod b ecause i t was o ver t his a rea t ha t i ron a ppears f irst t o h ave c o me i n to u se i n Bri tain .

A s i t

h appens, w e h ave o ther e v idence i n t he wooden a nd s tone r e ma ins o f a rds t o s uggest t ha t t he p lough was u sed t hroughou t B ri tain f ro m e ar ly i n t he p rehist or ic p er iod .

I t i s p robab ly when d ea l ing w i th a r tic les o f a rchaeo log ica l ly n on-

p er ishab le ma ter ia l r eadi ly a vai lab le i n t he r e levan t p er iod a nd f ound c o mmon ly o n s i tes which p referab ly t he mse lves a re s t i l l e xposed , t ha t d istr ibu tion maps, o ver sma l l a reas, a re most v a luab le .

The maps s how ing t he d istr ibu tion o f

s tone s hares i n Orkney a nd S he t land ( Maps 1 a nd 2 ) p robab ly s how a more r e lia b le d istr ibu t ion p a t tern t han many s uch maps ( bu t s ee t he c avea t o n p . 3 0 ) ; i ti s , p erhaps, w i th h e lp o f t his k ind t ha t we c an g a in i n for ma tion o n t he p ref erred e nv iron men t f or a gricu l ture —soi ls, h e igh t a bove s ea l eve l , e tc. —over a sma ll a rea .

A t t he c o m mence men t o f t his work , Ia t te mp ted t o p lo t t he s oi l

t ype o n wh ich e very t oo l s tud ied was f ound .

Th is p roved t o b e q ui te i mpossib le

o ver t he l arge s ca le o f t he who le c oun try a nd w i th t he l arge n u mber o f t oo ls i nvo lved , many o f wh ich , o f c ourse , were n o t , i n a ny c ase , p recise ly p rovena nced . I tp robab ly wou ld n o t h ave b een a v ery r e liab le s ource o f i n for ma t ion , a s t he maps wh ich Ih ad t o u se were t he O .S. G eo log ica l Maps o f Nor th a nd S ou th Br i ta in .

Wha t w ou ld r ea l ly b e n eeded f or t his t o b e au sefu l e xercise

wou ld b e ap lot t ing o f s oi l r a ther t han b ase r ock t ype , which wou ld r equire a p recise l oca l k now ledge o f e very s i te i nvo lved . The l ack o f a va i lab le e vidence o ver t he N or thern a rea o f Br i ta in men t ioned a bove h as l ed t o t he a rg u men t t ha t t he "H igh land Z one", a s F ox u sed t he t erm ( Fox 1 932 ) , was b asica l ly a p astora l a rea i n t he p rehi stor ic a nd e ven w i th in t he R o man p er iod , a nd t ha t a rab le f ar m ing t ook p lace ma in ly , i fn o t e xc lusive ly , i n t he "Low land Z one" — the S ou th East o f Br i ta in ( P iggo t t 1 958 ) . A s P iggot t a rgued, i ndeed t he n u mber o f p re-Ro man ' Ce l tic F ie ld ' s yste ms, s torage p i ts f or f or g rain a nd i ron p loughshares ( t hen ) k nown i n N or thern Br i ta in were f ew . B u t t his i sj ust s uch a n i nstance where d istr ibu tion maps a re a t t heir most d angerous . a nd

A s Mann ing s ta tes, s torage p i ts a re o n ly o ne way o f s toring g rain ,

C e l t ic f i e lds a re b y n o means a bsen t f ro m t he H igh land Z one ( Mann ing

1 975, p . 13 ) . Much r ecen t work h as b een d one o n t rac ing p rehi stor ic f i e lds a nd l and b oundar ies i n Nor thern a nd Western p ar ts o f Br i ta in ( R i tchie a nd R i tch ie 1 974 ;

Her i ty 1 971 ;

F eache m 1 973 ;

F le m ing 1 971 ;

F ow ler 1 971 , p .

1 68) , t hough i t i s of ten d i f f icu l t t o a ssess t heir p recise f unct ion a gr icu ltura ll y .

Now a rd marks, d ef in i te e vidence o f a gr icu lture , a re b e ing f ound i n t he

Nor th o f B r i ta in ( e .g . S hepherd 1 976 ;

L a mb f or thco ming ;

a t S kai l l c on t inuing , a nd s ee b e low , p p. 7 9-83 ) .

G e l l ing e xcava t ions

A lso , we h ave t he v ar ious

wooden a rd p ieces a nd l arge n u mbers o f s tone s hares ( see b e low , o n s i tes i n N or thern Br i ta in .

p . 7 )

f ound

Therefore , i tn ow s eems v ery p robab le t ha t

s ui tab le l and o ver t he who le o f Bri ta in c ou ld h ave b een u ti lised f or a rable a gr icu lture wherever i t was s ocia l ly o r e nviron men ta l ly p ossib le , t hese f actors, o f c ourse , b eing v ar iab le a t d i f feren t p er iods o f p rehistory, 3

There were o bvious d i f f icu l ties a t tached t o t he d a t ing o f t he a gr icu l tura l i mp le men ts a lso .

T he d a t ing o f a who le c a tegory o f a rchaeo log ical ma teria l

i s a lways a p rob lem a nd a gr icu l tura l t oo ls a re n o e xcep tion , wha t w i th t he d i ff i cu l t ies c aused b y s tray f i nds, t oo ls f ro m h oards, museu m s peci mens f ro m wh ich t he l abe ls h ad l ong s ince p ar ted c o mpany , e tc . Th is i s u nfor tuna te a s i tc asts d oub t o n a ny d escr ip t ion o ne w ishes t o g ive o ft he d a te o ft he f i rst a ppearance o f at ype o f t oo l , t he p robab le mode o f e n try i n to B r i tain , a nd a lso makes d if f icu lt a ny a ssess men to ft he i mpact t ha t t he a rr iva l o f an ew p eop le , i n t h is work p ar t icu lar ly t he R o mans, h ad o n t he a gricu ltura l l i fe o f t he n a t ive p opu la t ion . This a ssess men t i s , h owever , l i ke ly t o b e d iff icu l t i n a ny c ase b ecause , a ga in , o ft he u ncer ta in t ies i n i n terpre t ing c orrect ly t he ma ter ia l e vidence a va i lab le . Iam t o ta l ly i n a gree men t w i th Mann ing ' sa rgu men ts t ha t t he H igh land Z one was q u i te c apab le o f p roducing g ra in i n l arge q uan ti ties, a nd t ha t i ti s h igh ly p robab le t ha t t he l arge p ropor t ion o f t he s upp l ies n ecesary f or t he R oman a r my i n B r i ta in ( Davies 1 971, p . 1 23 ) was p roduced i n t he a rea l oca l t o t he f or ts, most o f wh ich were s i tua ted i nt he H igh land Z one ( Mann ing 1 975 , p . 16) . B u t h ave we n ecessar i ly t he r igh t t o s uppose t ha t t he p resence o ft he a r my h ad " a c onsiderab le e f fect o n l and u se w i th in t he H igh land Z one" ? Ig ran t t ha t t he s udden a rriva l a nd l ong-term p resence o f a n a rmy a s a ddi t iona l mou ths, b o th h u man a nd e qu ine , t o f eed , must h ave c aused s ome a gricu l tura l e xpansion i nt he l oca li ty , b u t Is uspect t ha t t hi s was o n ly a n e xpansion , a nd t ha t t he b asic a gr icu l tura l s yste m h ad a lready b een l ong e stab lished .

This i s ,

h owever , ah ard p o in t t o p rove . Ap ossib le t h ird f i e ld o f s tudy which migh t b e a ided b y t his work i s t he e x ten t t o which a gr icu l tura l s pecia lisa t ion was a ch ieved w i th in a reas o r i n s i te t ypes i n p reh istor ic a nd R o man B r i ta in . A ccord ing ly , a n a t temp t was made t o n o te t he t ype o f s i te o n which s pecif ic t ypes o f t oo ls were f ound .

T here were

o bvious p rob le ms c onnected w i th t his a lso . N o t o n ly d o t he l arge n u mbers o f u nprovenanced t oo ls o r t oo ls f ro m h oards make i td if f icu l t t o a t tach a ny t oo l t ype s peci f ica l ly t o as i te t ype , b u t t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he f unct ion o f t oo ls o n a ny p ar ticu lar t ype o f s i te was, a gain , u ncer ta in . Wha t , f or i nstance , d oes t he p resence o f a gr icu l tura l t oo ls o n Roman f or ts mean , p ar ticu lar ly o nf or ts f ro m wh ich t he f i nds a re n o t p recise ly p rovenanced a nd which h ad a n a t tached v icus ? Wha t f unct ion , a lso , a re we t o a t tach t o a gr icu ltura l f i nds made o n s i tes t hough t t o b e o f ar e l ig ious c haracter , s uch a s R o mano-Bri ti sh t e mp les? T he l a t ter l eads i nevi tab ly t o t he f ascina t ing a nd d angerous f i e ld o f r i tua l, a nd t o a n a ssess men t o f h ow i mpor tan t ap ar t s uperst i t ion c onnected w i th a gricu lture p layed i n r e lig ious l i fe . The l ast t wo q uest ions wh ich Ih ave s uggested migh t b e a ssisted b y t his work a re h uge q uestions wh ich o f c ourse r equ ire s tudy o f f ar more t han t he i mp le men ts t hemse lves. O ther e vidence s uch a s f i e ld s ystems, e vidence f or g ranar ies, t oo ls f or p lan t p rocessing w i th f i e ld e vidence f or a n imal h usbandry a nd t oo ls f or a n ima l p roducts p rocessing must a lso b e e xa m ined a long w i th p o l len a na lysis a s e vidence f or l and u se f or t he i nd ividua l e xcava ted s i te , o r , i ndeed , a s B rad ley a t te mp ts ( 1 978 F igs. 3 :3 a nd 3 :4 ) , o ver a l arger a rea . I .

Me thod o fS tudy a nd O rgan isa t ion o f T ex t

I t was d ecided t ha t o n ly p r i mary a gricu ltura l t oo ls, i .e. t hose d irect ly c onnected w i th c u l t iva t ion o f l and a nd g a ther ing o f c rops, s hou ld b e i nc luded 4

i nt his s tudy .

Id ecided n o t t o i nc lude q uerns a s t hey a re u sed a s p ar t o f a n-

o ther p rocess, t he p rocess o f p repara t ion o f f oodstuf f s, r a ther t han i nt he p r i mary p roduction o f f ood , a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f q uerns o n as i te c annot b e u sed a s a ny i nd ica t ion o ft he p ract ice o f a rab le f arming b y t he i nh abi tan ts o ft ha t s i te .

I t was h owever i mpossib le t o b e s tr ict ly l og ica l ; b i l l-

h ooks, u sua l ly d ef ined a s a gricu l tura l t oo ls, c an b e u sed t o d ea l w i th n onc u l t ivated a s we l l a s c u l tiva ted p lan ts, b u t t his t oo l i s i nc luded a s i t was f e l t t ha t i t s p r imary f unct ion was b asica l ly a gr icu l tura l ; a xes, o n t he o ther h and , t hough t hey c ou ld b e u sed a gricu l tura l ly , a re n o t i ncluded a s i t was f e l t t ha t t heir f unc t ion was t oo g enera l . T he g eograph ica l e x ten t o f t he work , c over ing E ng land , Wa les a nd S co t land , a nd e xclud ing a l l o f I re land , was n ecessi ta ted p ure ly b y l ack o ft ime a va i lab le .

T he p ub lished ma ter ia l f ro m I re land w ou ld

i ndica te t ha t t here i s a wea l th o f o ther e vidence i n I rish museu ms a wa i t ing f ur ther e xam ina t ion . The t hreefo ld d ivision o ft he t oo ls i n to t i l lage mach ines, manua l t i l lage i mp le men ts, a nd h arvesting t oo ls s ee med t he o bvious way t o d ivide t he work , w i th s ubd ivisions f or e ach t ool t ype , a nd f ur ther s ubdivi sions i n to d i f feren t ma teria ls u sed . A s many t ool t ypes a ppeared c on temporaneous ly i nd i f feren t ma teria ls, t his a pproach was t hough t t o b e p referab le t o as tr ict ly c hrono log ic a l a pproach which wou ld b eco me c onfused . Each t oo l s tud ied was d rawn , o f ten p ho tographed , a nd t hen e n tered i n to t he C a ta logues wh ich a re t o b e f ound a tt he e nd o f e ach c hap ter .

T he C a ta logues i nclude t he p rovenance ( new c oun-

t i es a re u sed t hroughou t ) , p resen t museu m p osi tion i fk nown , ab r ief d escr ip t ion , a nd a ny r e levan t p ub li shed r eference o f e ach t oo l . I n o rder t o a void b reak ing u p t he t ex t s o f requen t ly , i t was t hough t b et ter t o g ive t he r eference t o as pec i f ic t oo l o nce o n ly , i n t he C a ta logue .

The C a ta logues a nd Tab les i nevi tab ly

u se a bbrev ia tions a nd t echn ica l t erms, of ten i n q ui te a s peci f ic way .

Al i st

o ft hese w i l l b e f ound o n p p . 1 87 , 1 93 , 4 00 , 7 69-772 . The w ork f or t his b ook was o r igina l ly s ub mi t ted f or a d octora l t hesis, a nd Iam o n ly t oo aware o f t he f act t ha t i tr eads v ery much l i ke o ne .

T he museum

w ork was c arried o ut f ro m 1 971 t o 1 974, b u t Ih ave a t te mp ted t o i ncorpora te p ub lished ma teria l u p t o A ugust 1 978 . Throughou t t he work , Ih ave t r ied t o d escr ibe t oo ls a s o b ject ive ly a s p ossible , a t temp t ing t o k eep a t oo l ' sd escr ipt i on a nd my own s ub ject ive a nnlysis a s s epara te a s p ossib le .

H ence , t he

w ork i s v ery much o ne o f r aw ma ter ia l , a nd i ti s o f fered p ure ly a s t ha t , i nthe h ope t ha t i t may a ssist o ther s tuden ts i n t he f i e ld i n p ro mu lga t ing t heir o wn more r ef lect ive h ypotheses.

5

CHAPTER 1 THE ARD AND THE PLOUGH

I n troduction Th is c hap ter w i l l e xamine t he e vidence a vai lab le f or t he t ypes o f t i l lage i mp le men ts u sed i n B r i ta in i n p rehistor ic a nd R o man t imes;

a n a t te mp t w i l l

b e made t o t race t he d eve lop men t o f t he a rd f ro m t he e ar liest t ype f or wh ich we h ave e vidence t o t he e nd o f t he Ro man p er iod , b y which t ime a l most c ert a in ly , t he mou ld b oard p lough h ad b een i nven ted .

Throughou t t hi s p eriod ,

p lough ing was v ery p robab ly o n ly o ne p ar t o ft he p rocess o f p reparing t he s oi l f or t he r ecep t ion o f s eed , a nd t he r esu l ts o f e xperimen ts w i th r econstruc t ions o fp rehistor ic a rds a nd t he c o m men ts o ft he wr i ters o f Ro man a gricul tura l t ex tbooks s uggest t ha t manua l t i l lage was a n ecessary s upp le men t .

The manua l

i mp le men ts, s uch a s h oes a nd mat tocks, w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he s econd c hapt er .

Ih ave f o l lowed G lob i n t his d iscussion i n h is u se o f t he t er m

d escr ibe a mach ine w i th a mou ldboard t o t urn t he s od , a nd

p lough ' t o

a rd ' as i mp le

t i l lage i mp le men t w i thou t a mou ldboard ( G lob 1 951 , p . 1 09) . The e vidence a vai lab le f or t he s tudy o f a rds a nd p loughs i nu se i n p reh ist or ic a nd Ro man t imes i n Br i ta in c o mpri ses v ar ious ma teria ls a nd t ypes .

The

e ar liest b ody o f e vidence i s p robably t he s tone s hares f ro m Orkney a nd S he tl and .

A l arge n u mber o f t hese s hares s urvive , d iscovered b y e xcavation , b y

f i e ld wa lk ing a nd d ur ing p ea t c ut ting .

A s t hey s ee m t o b e u nique t o t he N or thern

I s les, t he a rea o f t he c oun try o ver which t hey a re f ound i s o bviously v ery l imi ted , a nd i ti s i mpossib le , t hrough l ack o f o ther e v idence , t o b e d ogma t ic a bou t h ow f ar t he c haracter ist ics o f t he s tone s hares a re c o m mon t o a rds u sed e lsewhere i n B r i ta in a t t he s a me d a te .

T heir d a te r ange , h owever , i s e x tensive, a nd i ti s

u n l ike ly t ha t o ver a l l o r a ny o ft ha t p eriod t hey r epresen t aq ui te s epara te t ype o f a rd ;

i ti s more l i ke ly t ha t t hey s how b asica l ly s i mi lar f ea tures t o a rds e lse-

where i n B r i ta in b u t i n a ma ter ia l wh ich i s , a rchaeologica l ly s peaking , more d urab le .

T here a re r are b one i mp le men ts which s how t races o f wear s o s imi-

l ar t o t he s tone s hares t ha t i ts ee ms u n like ly t ha t t heir f unction c ould h ave b een d if feren t .

Wooden p ar ts o f a rds, b o th o f t he b ody a nd o f t he work ing p ar t , a re

r are i n B r i ta in f ro m p rehistor ic a nd R o man t imes i n c o mpar ison w i th t he w ea lth o f ma ter ia l f ound i n S cand inavia a nd Nor th West E uropean c oun tr ies, b u t w ooden p ieces a re o ccasiona l ly f ound a nd a re o f p ar ticu lar h e lp i n i den t i fy ing t he p art i cu lar t ype o f a rd i n u se .

L ike t he s tone a nd b one s hares, most o f t he w ooden

ma ter ia l h as b een f ound i n S co t land , b u t s evera l r ecen t f i nds o f a rd-heads c o me f ro m t he S ou th o f B r i ta in a nd w i th t he i ncreas ing amoun t o f c arefu l e xcava t ion a nd g ood c onserva t ion , f ur ther e vidence w i l l p robably b e f or thco m ing . I n for ma t ion a bou t a rd a nd p lough t ypes i n t he l a ter p er iods b eco mes more r eadi ly a va i lab le a s i ron was u sed f or s hares a nd c ou l ters w i th i ncreasing s k i l l a nd f requency a nd s o me c onsiderab le n u mber o f t hese t oo ls s urvive f or s tudy .

6

T here a lso s urvive f ro m R omano-Br i tish c on tex ts v arious mode ls a nd r epresent a tions o f a rds a nd p loughs w hich g ive u s s o me i n forma t ion , t hough i nevi tably s che ma t ic , o f t he who le p lough s truc ture a nd o f t ract ion me thods . Wooden y okes , mode ls o fy okes, a nd i ron , b one a nd b ronze o x g oads a re f ur ther s ources o f i n for ma t ion f or t he t ypes o fp lough t ract ion emp loyed b y e ar ly f armers, a nd a rchaeo log ica l e xcava tion h as p roduced e xa mp les o f t he marks i nt he s oi l made b y t he t i l lage imp lemen t when i n u se .

L i terary e vidence f ro m a gr icul tura l

t ex t-books a nd manua ls o ft he C lassica l wor ld g ive u s s o me f ur ther i n for ma tion a bou t t he t ypes o f p lough i nu se a nd t he ways i n which t hey w ere u sed i n v arious p ar ts o ft he Ro man Emp ire , t hough t his e vidence i s i nevi tab ly b iased t owards t he Med i terranean .

F ina l ly , t he e xper imen ts o f p resen t-day s cho lars w i th r e-

c onstruct ions o f p r i mi tive a rds h e lp t o s how i n wha t f or m t he a rds w ere most e f fect ive , a nd t he t ype o f w ork t o wh ich t hey migh t h ave b een p u t a nd w i th wha t e f f icacy . I ts eemed p referab le t o d ea l w i th t he v arious s ources o f e vidence s epara te ly a s l i sted a bove , v iz, f i rst , t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l i n c a tegor ies d ependen t ; u pon t he ir f unction a nd t he ma ter ia l o f which t hey a re made , f o l lowed b y t he l i terary a nd e xper imen ta l e vidence , r a ther t han t o a t temp t c hrono logica l o r r egiona l a pproaches wh ich w ou ld b e h ope lessly i rregu lar b ecause o f t he u neven d istr ibu t ion , b o th g eograph ica l a nd c hrono logica l , o f t he ma ter ia l . T hus t he ma in s ec t ion o ft he c hap ter d escr ibes t he s ources o f e vidence i n t heir o bvious c a tegor ies ; t he l a t ter s ect ion a t te mp ts t o e xamine t he me thods o f p lough ing a nd t he e vidence f or t he p lough t ract ion a nd t o a ssess t he e f f iciency o f p rehist oric a nd R o mano-Br i tish a rds a nd p loughs. S TONE S HARES i . I n troduction The e ar liest p ar ts o f a rds t ha t h ave s o f ar b een r ecogn ised i n B ri ta in a re t he s andstone b ars which h ave b een f ound i n p rofusion a s c asua l f i nds a nd o n e xcava ted s i tes i n Orkney a nd S he t land , a nd which a ppear t o b e u n ique t o t hose i s lands .

I th as b een c onvinc ing ly a rgued t ha t t hese b ars a re t he s tone s hares,

o r , more a ccura te ly , p o in ts o f s hares f or a rds, t he ma in s tructure o f wh ich w ould h ave b een o f wood , a nd my e xam ina t ion o f l arge n u mbers o ft he b ars l eaves me v ir tua l ly c onv inced t ha t t his i s t heir c orrect i n terpre ta t ion . The ma jor i ty o f t hese b ars a re 2 5-40 cm l ong a nd 6 -8 cm w ide , o va l t o r ound i n c ross s ect ion , a l most i nvariably made o f s andstone , a nd of ten t hey a re p ecked o n t he ma in t runk o f t he b ar .

One e nd—a t l east o n c o mp le te s peci-

mens —is p o in ted , a nd o ccas iona l ly b oth e nds a re , a nd t hese p o in ted e nds o f ten b ear wear marks, t he c haracterist ic p a t tern o f which i s t he s trongest a rgu men t f or t heir i n terpre ta tion a s s hares. A s i ti so n ly r e la t ive ly r ecen t ly t ha t t hese s tone b ars h ave b een r ecognised a s a rd p o in ts, i ti s d if f icu l t t o i so la te t hem f ro m o ther s tone t oo ls men tioned i n o lder e xcava t ion r epor ts when a n a t te mp t i s made t o g a in s o me i mpression o ft he d istr ibu tion , d a te o r n u mbers o ft hese i mp le men ts f ound i n t he p ast . P ublished r epor ts i n t he 1 9 th a nd t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 2 0 th c en tury t end t o s peak o f l arge n u mbers o f " rude s tone i mp le men ts" e i ther i ndividua l ly p icked u p a s c asua l f i nds a nd i ncorpora ted i n a n tiquarians ' c o l lect ions, o r u ncovered e n masse 7

o n a n e xcava t ion . B ecause o f t hi s d i f f icu l ty , Ih ave h ad t o r e ly a l most c o mp le te ly o n t he museu m c o l lect ions o f s tone p oin ts b eing s uff icien t ly c o mpreh ensive t o g ive a g enera l p icture o f t he main t ypes a nd t heir d i str ibu tion ; where i t was p ossib le t o r e la te s pecimens w i th in museu m c o l lect ions t o t hose men t ioned i n r epor ts, s ome i dea o f t heir d a te c an b e g iven .

I ti s o n ly s ince

1 956 t ha t t he ir r ecogn i t ion a s a rd p oin ts h as l ed t o t heir e f fec t ive d escr ip t ion a nd e nu mera t ion i n e xcava t ion r epor ts.

I n s pi te o f t hese d rawbacks, a b r ief

l ook a t t he b ackground o f r esearch o n t he s tone t oo ls ( even b efore t he f i f t ies) i s h e lpfu l .

An tiquarian r epor ts d o c on ta in r eferences t o i mp lemen ts wh ich

were a l most c er ta in ly a rd p oin ts t o j udge f ro m t he d escrip tion g iven ;

w hen

ap o in t wh ich o rig ina l ly b e longed t o a n a n t iquar ian c o l lect ion n ow r esides i n a museum c o l lec t ion , i ti s o bv ious ly u se fu l t o h ave t he d escr ip t ion o f t he c irc u mstances o ft he f i nd a s as upp le men t t o t he t oo l i t se lf .

I t i s a lso i n terest ing

t o t race t he p rocess o f i den t if ica t ion o ft he t oo ls a s a rd p oin ts ;

a n i den ti f ica-

t i on which was, i n f act , t en ta t ive ly s uggested i n t he l a te 1 9th c en tury . i .

The B ackground o f Research

The s econd h a lf o f t he n ine teen th c en tury , wh ich s aw t he f ound ing o f s o many o f o ur n a tiona l a nd r egiona l a rchaeo log ical s ocie ties w i th t he ir j ourna ls, w as a lso t he p er iod o ft he g rea t a n t iquarian c o l lect ions.

I tb eca me t he p ract ice o f

g en t le men s cho lars i n terested i n t he p ast t o make c o l lections o f o b jects o f a n tiq uar ian i n terest , a nd t o t rave l i n p ursui t o f a dd i t iona l ma ter ia l .

Two s uch c o l-

l ect ions, t he M i tche l l a nd P e trie c o l lect ions, f or e xa mp le , c onsi sted l arge ly o f s tone t oo ls f ro m t he N or thern I s les; t heir c o l lections s ti l l c o mprise t he main b u lk o f t he c o l lection o f a rd p o in ts a t t he N a t iona l Museu m o f An tiqu i t ies o fS co t land ( hereaf ter r efcfred t o a s N .M .A .S . ) , a nd t heir p apers t o t he S ocie ty f or t he An t iquar ians o fS co t land i n t he 1 860s a re t he e ar liest c er tain r eferences t o t he s tone s hares. Dr . A . Mi tche l l 's t wo p apers ( Mi tche l l 1 867 ; o f r ude s tone i mp le men ts f ound i n S het land .

1 869 ) d escr ibe l arge n u mbers

H e l i sts 1 50 f ro m H ou land f ound

" near a b ui lding which w as u nderground", w hich was i t se lf n ear a c airn ;

h un-

d reds were f ound n ear o r i n a n u nderground s tructure a t S afes ter , S andst ing which was n ear wha t wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een a b urn t mound w i th s o me s or t o f i n terna l s tructure .

T he u nderground s tructure i t se lf , a pparen t ly 4 5 f tl ong ,

f th igh , b u i l t o f s tone w i th r oof l i n te ls, w as p resu mably a s outerra in . I n terest ing ly , M i tche l l c o m men ts t ha t most o f t he s tone i mp lemen ts were f ound o n t he s urface o f t he g round o r i n t he s oi l i m media te ly a bove t he s tructure . s tructure i t se lf was t he e st .

The

l east r ich" s ource , t he g round s urface b eing t he r ich-

Many o ther s tone t oo ls w ere f ound a t B raef ie ld , n ear C lu m l ie, Dunrossness

s cat tered o ver a n a rea o f l and which was b eing r eclaimed , a nd i n which t he f ounda t ions o f ab ui ld ing w ere e viden t .

This b ui ld ing was, a pparen t ly , t oo sma l l

t o b e ab roch a nd s howed "n o t endency t o ac ircu lar f or m" ,b u t Mi tche l l t e l ls u s t ha t a shes were f ound "i n c onsiderab le q uan t i ty" d ur ing t he d igging .

Al arge

c o l lec t ion o f worked s tones "o f ap recise ly s imi lar c haracter" h ad a lso b een g a thered f ro m t he d istr ict o pposi te Vai la , Wa l ls, a nd o thers h ad b een f ound i n U nst .

B y t he t ime t ha t Mi tche l l wro te h is s econd a r tic le i n 1 869 , o ther s tone

t oo ls h ad b een p icked u p a t Wa tsness i n Wa l ls , a nd B urraf ir th i n U nst , a nd h e f e l t i nc lined t o t hink t ha t " i t w i l l e ven tua l ly b e f ound t ha t t hey a re w ide ly a nd g enera l ly d istr ibu ted o ver t he c oun try" 8

He a lso q uo tes f ro m a l e t ter f ro m

Mr . Umphray , a n a n tiquarian f ro m S he t land , who was a lso i n terested i n s tone t oo ls a nd w ho r eferred t o t wo e xa mp les b eing e xcep tiona l i n t ha t t hey nw ere n o t f ound n ear u nderground b ui ld ings a s s uch i mp le men ts u sua l ly a re ' s. Mi tche l l t hen a t te mp ts t o d ivide t he i mp le men ts i n to g roups t ypo logica l ly , a nd h e i lustra tes s o me e xamp les.

H e c o m men ts t ha t t he b asic s hape o f t he

t oo ls i s g iven b y n ar ude s or t o f f l ak ing" b u t t ha t s o me s howed s igns o f p ecking a l so .

He c lassif ies t he t oo ls i n to a c lub-shaped t ype , al ong , n arrow

f l a t tish t ype , ab road , f l a t t ype wh ich was p oin ted a t o ne e nd , a nd a f our th t ype w hich w as wa ter worn , c y lindrica l , t aper ing a t t he e nd a nd h ad a p ecked s urf ace .

P eck ing was a lso f ound o n t he n arrower e nds o f s o me o f t he c lub-

s haped t ype .

Mi tche l l 's a cco mpany ing woodcu t ( M i tchel l 1 867 , F igs. 4 -6)

a nd t he s econd f i gure i n P etr ie ' sp aper o n t he O rcadian s tone t oo ls ( Pe tr ie 1 867 , F ig . 2 )— M i tche l l q uo tes P e tr ie ' sf i gure a s i l lustra ting h i s c y lindr ica l t ype —shows c lear ly t ha t a l l o ft hese f our c a tegor ies i nclude s tone a rd p o in ts; a l l f our a ppear a lso t o i nc lude o ther t oo ls l ess l i ke ly t o h ave b een p oin ts — e .g . Mi tche l l 's F ig . 6 :1 a nd 2 .

Mi tche l l t hen c on tinues t o d escr ibe o ther

c a tegor ies o f r ude s tone i mp le men ts —spadelike t oo ls, s tone b a l ls, e tc. — w hich a re i rre levan t t o s tone a rd p oin ts. Mi tche l l c anno t c onvince h imse lf t ha t a ny o ft he t oo ls h ad b een u sed .

H e

q uo tes Umphray a s h av ing p o in ted o u t t o h im t ha t many o f t he s tones i n h is f la tt i sh c a tegory "a ppear t o h ave b een r ubbed t i l l t hey a re more o r l ess smoo th o n o ne o r b o th a spects", ( M i tche l l 1 867 , p . 1 27 ) .

Mi tche ll , a nd l a ter Umphray ,

d escr ibes a f ew o f t he "l ong-shaped s tones" f ound n ear a n u nderground s truct ure a s s howing " use a t b o th e nds

s ome s how ing u se a t t he b road e nd a nd

s o me a t t he n arrow e nd" ( M i tche l l 1 869 , p . 6 6) .

Mi tche l l c o m men ts t ha t t he

u se t o w h ich Umphray r efers " i s t o b e s een a t o ne o r b o th e n c ib J ft hese i mp le men ts a si f t hey h ad b een r ubbed a ga inst s o me th ing", b u t h e was u nab le "t o s a ti sfy myse lf o r o thers t ha t i ti s o f a ny th ing l i ke r egu lar o ccurrence , o r t ha t when i td oes o ccur , i ti s n o t a cciden ta l"

H e n otes, h owever , t ha t many

o f t he t oo ls a re b roken , a nd t ha t t h is migh t b e r egarded a s e vidence o f t heir h av ing b een u sed .

H e a lso n o tes t ha t t he t oo ls were c er tain ly n o t u sed f or

s trik ing h ard o b jects a s t he r e la t ive s of tness o f t he s andstone w ou ld make marks d er ived f ro m s uch a u se i nevi table . Mi tche l l makes s evera l i n teresting c o mparisons b e tween t he S he t land s tone p o in ts a nd s tone t oo ls f ro m e lsewhere . o f s tone t oo ls f ound p revious ly i n S he t land .

F irst ly , h e c o m men ts o n f i nds H e q uo tes Ha l l , f or e xa mp le

( Ha l l 1 807 , p . 5 39) a s h aving f ound a l arge c o l lect ion o f weapons o f ah ard b lue s tone b e tween S andst ing a nd N est ing , a nd H ibber t ( H ibber t 1 822 , p . 2 49) a s h av ing f ound c ons iderable " asse mb lages o f s tone weapons" a t Wa l ls . D e l t ing a nd Uns t .

H e t hen c o mpares t he t oo ls f ro m S he t land w i th f l in t i m-

p le men ts f ound a t P ress igny l e G rand i n terpre ted b y B roca a nd G ira ldes a s p loughshares , a nd , r eferr ing t o t wo s tone i mp le men ts i n t he museum o f t he R oya l I r ish Acade my wh ich w ere l i s ted a s p loughshares , h e c om men ts t ha t i n t he c a ta logue o f t ha t museum i t s ta tes t ha t " even i n t he p resen t d ay e xamp les a re t o b e f ound b o th o f t he p lough a nd h arrows b e ing c o mpr ised i n p ar t o f s tone" ( W i lde 1 857 , p . 1 03 ) .

Mi tche l l a lso c o mpares t he t oo ls f ro m S he t land w i th

s tone i mp le men ts f ound i n t he 1 860s i n t he Madras a nd Arco t d istricts o f S ou thern I ndia i den ti f ied a s v ar ious t ypes o f weapons.

Mi tche l l d oes n o t c o m-

mi t h imse lf b y a t tr ibu ting a ny t ype o f f unction t o t he i mp le men ts a nd c onf ines 9

h imse lf t o men tion ing t he t heor ies o f o thers a s t o t heir u se ;

b u t i ti s i n terest ing

t ha t , whi le h e f ee ls t ha t t hey w ere u n like ly t o h ave b een u sed a s b a t t le a xes o r t hrown weapons, h e a ppears t o s pecu la te more e n thusiastica l ly a bou t t he ir p oss ib le u se a s p loughshares, o r a s r i tua l o b jects d eposi ted o n s acred g round o r i n g raves. A s hor t p aper b y P e tr ie ( Pe tr ie 1 867 ) d escr ibes s i mi lar s tone t oo ls f ro m O rkney .

H e d escr ibes t wo r ude s tone i mp le men ts f ound i n c i st g raves i n b ar-

r ows i n S t . Andrews, a nd t wo o thers, o ne f ro m a c i st g rave i nS andw ick , a nd a no ther f ro m a g rave c on ta in ing a h u man s ke le ton o n Whi teha l l F ar m, S tronsay . A l though h e r efers t o t hese o n ly a s r ude s tone i mp le men ts, i ti s a l most c er ta in t ha t h e i s d escr ibing s tone a rd p oin ts;

h is woodcu t i l lustra tes t wo s tone t oo ls,

N o . 2o f which i s c er ta in ly , a nd N o . 1p ossib ly , as tone a rd p o in t , a nd p oin ts f ro m a l l t hese p laces s t i l l e xist i n t he N . M .A .S . ( see c a ta logue ) .

He n o tes

t ha t t hose f ro m S t . Andrews a nd S andw ick a ppear t o h ave b een c arefu l ly p laced i n t he p osi tions i n which t hey were f ound —i .e . a t t he e nd o f c i st g raves i nb arr ows, a nd s uggests t ha t i ft hey w ere n o t weapons, t ha t t hey "were i n tended t o r epresen t t he m" ,s ubst i tu ted f or more v a luab le weapons b e long ing t o t he d ec eased . Af ter t h is master ly o pen ing t o t he d iscussion o f t he s tone t oo ls, n o f ur ther a dvances were made f or many y ears.

Trai l ' se xcava t ions a t t he Broch o f

B urrian , N . R ona ldsay i n 1 870-1 c er ta in ly p roduced o ne s hare ( Trai l 1 890 , MacGregor 1 974 , p . 9 3 ) b u t i t was n o t s peci f ica l ly r eferred t o i n h is e xcava t ion r epor t .

The a n t iquarian c o l lections were f or t he most p ar t p resen ted t o

museu ms where t hey s ti l l r e ma in , a nd a "B urgh c o l lect ion" w as s teadi ly b ui lt u p i n t he T own Ha l l a t L erw ick . p roduced a o me

C ur ie ' se xcava t ions a t J ar lshof i n t he 1 930s

c lublike weapons o r i mp le men ts"

( F ig . 2 2 :3 i n C ur ie 1 932-

3— migh t b e a n a rd p oin t ) b u t h e d oes n o t d iscuss t he m .

H is e xcava tions a t

Wi l trow ( Cur ie 1 935-6 ) p roduced o ver f if ty r ude s tone i mp le men ts, a nd a f ter s ta t ing t he p robabi l i ty o f t he i nhabi tan ts p rac ti sing a gricu lture , h e s ays " therefore s o me o ft hese s tone o b jects were u sed i n p rocesses o f a gr icu l ture , s uch a s o pening u p t he s oi l b y p loughing o r o therwise i n b reak ing d own c lods, a lso p robab ly af ter h arvest i n b ruising t he b ar ley". C . S . T . Ca lder e f fect ive ly r enewed i n terest i n t he s tone t oo ls w i th h is work o n p reh istoric s e t t le men ts i n S he t land .

H is e xcava t ion r epor t o n t he

C a lf o f Eday dwe l ling ( Ca lder 1 938-9 , p . 1 79 ) i ncludes a p erfec t d escr ip t ion o ft wo worn a rd p oin ts f ro m w i th in o ne o f t he b ui ldings;

h is r epor t o n t he

b ui ld ing a t S tanyda le ( Ca lder 1 949-50 , p . 1 85 ) men t ions 1 22 r ude s tone i mp lemen ts b e ing f ound , a nd i l lustra tes e igh t f ro m Wi l trow t o d e monstra te t he t ype ( Ca lder 1 949-50 —p l . x xi i :b i l lustra tes o ne a rd p oin t o n t he t op l ef t h and c orner , p l . x xi i i :b s hows 7t oo ls which a re p robably p ar ts o f s tone p oin ts) . H e g oes i n to n o d e ta i l i n e i ther r epor t n or s pecu la tes o n t he p ossible u ses o f t he i mp le men ts. T he r epor t o n e xcava t ions o f o va l h ouses a t S tanyda le a nd N ess o f Gru ting ( Ca lder 1 955-6) men t ions n umerous r ude s tone i mp le men ts b e ing f ound a t b o th s i tes, a nd Miss H ensha ll i n h er r epor t o n t he p o t tery a nd s tone t oo ls f ro m t he s i tes ( Hensha l l 1 955-6) d ivides t he r ude s tone imp le men ts i n to t ypes, i so la tes t he a rd p oin ts, d escr ibes t he m, a nd s uggests t ha t t hey were p loughshares " evo lved among p eop le u sed t o h eavy work i n s tone" a nd t ha t t he we igh t o f t he s tone migh t i t se lf h ave b een a n a dvan tage i n p lough ing" .

1 0

S he d escr ibes t he s i mi lari ty o ft he s tone p o in ts t o t he s o le o f t he c rook a rd , b u t s uggests t ha t t he f act t ha t t he b ars "a re a n e n ti ty , a nd t he way t ha t o ne s ide i s u nworn s uggests a c onstruc tion w i th a f oreshare more l ike t he Dan ish b ow a rds, t hough t he f or m o ft he s hare i n t hese c ases i s d i f feren t , b eing a rrow-shaped a nd a c t ing a s a mou ldboard" .

Af ew y ears p rev ious ly , a n e x tra-

o rd inar i ly l ong e xamp le , worn a t b o th e nds , h ad b een f ound o n t he S k iurd H i l ls , N or th maven ( Moar 1 951-2 ) a nd M iss H ensha l l q uo tes t h is a nd o ther e xa mp les f ound a t L ower G run iquoy ( N .M .A .S . AC 6 09 i s i l lus tra ted o n F ig . 2 0 .B o f h er r epor t )

a s p ara l le ls f or t he G ru t ing t oo ls .

I n t he c a ta logue o f o va l h ouse

s i tes s im i lar t o S tanyda le a nd G ru t ing , r ude s tone i mp le men ts a re men t ioned a s h av ing b een f ound o n Wha lsay a t I sb is ter , t he C rumble a nd T he P eer ie R oon ie :

i ti s n ot c lear whe ther o r n o t t hese i mp le men ts were a rd p o in ts.

T here a re n o p o in ts f ro m t hese h ouse s i tes i n t he N .M .A .S. S ubsequen t t o t he i n terpre ta t ion o ft he s tone t oo ls a s a rd p oin ts, v ar ious r epor ts o ft heir d iscovery h ave b een made —fro m t he h ouse s i te a t B unyie H oose , Wha lsay , e xcava ted i n 1 960 ( Ca lder 1 960-1) , a t P undswa ter C airn , N or th maven ( Ca lder 1 962-3 , p . 6 9 ) , I s lesburgh h ouse s i te , N or th maven ( Ca lder 1 962-3 , p .

7 1) a nd a t U nderhou l l , U nst ( Sma l l 1 965-6, p . 2 40) where

ah ouse s i te w i th o ccupa tion s o f I ron Age a nd V ik ing p er iods p roduced s tone p oin ts.

A n i mp le men t f ro m t he c airn a t Midhowe , Rovsay , Orkney , i s d e-

s cr ibed

i n Miss H ensha l l ' sb ook "The C ha mbered To mbs o f S co t land" Vo l .

I( Hensha l l 1 963 , p . 1 13) , a nd c asua l f i nd i s d escr ibed i n "Museu m Dona tions" a s h aving b een d iscovered w i th a n I ron Age s herd ( P.S. A .S . 1 01 1 968-9 , p . 2 93 ) f ro m Muirsk irk , F e t lar .

S tevenson* s ta ted h is s uppor t ( S tevenson 1 960 )

f or t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he s tone t oo ls a s s hares i n h is s ynops is o f e ar ly a gr icu l ture i n S co t land , b u t h ere s uggests t ha t t hey were h e ld c rook a rds, o r a n a rd "which h ad d eve loped j ust b eyond t he s i mp lest p lough wh ich h as n o f oreshare" ,wh ich were i ncapab le o f t urn ing t he s oi l, b u t wh ich j ust " scra tched o r h oed t he s oi l". I n 1 962 F en ton p ubl ished h is i mpor tan t p aper , "Pre-Industria l T i l lage I mp le men ts i n S co t land" ( Fen ton 1 962-3 ) .

H e d escr ibes t he s tone t oo ls a gree-

i ng t ha t t hey were u sed a s s hares, a nd h e c o mpares t he m , most i n terest ing ly , w i th t he i ron s ock b ars o ft he e ar ly 1 900s made b y S e l lars o f Hun t ly f or h orsed rawn p loughs.

These i ron b ars a re " r ibbed o r n o tched f or b e t ter g r ip , j ust

a s t he s tone b ars a re f l aked o r p ecked" . H e , w i th Miss H ensha l l, f ee ls

i t

most l ike ly t ha t t he s tone s hares were h e ld i n ab ow a rd i n t he s a me p osi t ion i nt he mor t ise o f t he a rd b eam a s t he wooden f oreshares o n t he S cand inavian p ea t-bog a rds, t o t ake t he b run t o f t he wear , a nd e i ther t o p ro tect a n u nderl y ing a rrow-shaped s hare o f wood o r more l i ke ly t o a ct a s t he s hare i t se lf . Two r ecen t e xcava t ions, o ne a t S kai l l , Deerness, Orkney ( Ge l ling e xcavat i ons c on t inu ing ) a nd t he o ther a t S u mburgh A irpor t , S he t land ( La mb f or thc o ming ) h ave p roduced a l arge n u mber o f a rd p oin ts.

I n o rder t ha t s o me s ys-

t e mat ic s tudy o f t ypes a nd me thods o f manufacture , a nd h opefu l ly o f d eve lop men t

* Miss H ensha l l h as t o ld me t ha t t he o r igina l s uggest ion t ha t t he t oo ls were s hares w as i n f act Mr . S tevenson ' s made v erba l ly t o h er . 1

t hrough t he p er iod c overed b y b o th e xcava t ions, a l l t he a rd p o in ts e xcava ted were r e ta ined f or s tudy r a ther t han t he i nev i tab ly a rbi trary s e lec tion u sua l ly r e turned f ro m e xcava t ions. T he n u mbers —and weigh t—of t he s tone a rd p oin ts f ro m e ach s i te were f ormidab le . i i .

Me thod o fS tudy

Dur ing my r esearches w i th t he s tone a rd p oin ts f ro m t he N or thern I s les, Ih ave e xa mined i ns o me d e ta i l 5 86 t oo ls, o f w h ich 4 52 were a ccep ted a s a rd p oin ts.

T he r emaining 1 34 were t hough t e i ther t o b e o ther t ypes o f t oo ls, o r

t o b e t oo b roken o r a t t oo e ar ly a s tage o f manufacture t o b e s ure ly i n terpret ed a s s hares, a nd t hese , t hough l i sted w i th Museu m o r s i te n umber a nd f i nd s po t a t t he b ack o ft he C a ta logue ( s ee b e low ) , d o n o t f i gure i n t he l i sts o f Tab les.

The t oo ls wh ich were , a f ter e xamina tion , a ccep ted a s a rd p o in ts

were a l l d rawn a nd s o me t i mes p ho tographed ( P la te 1 ) , were measured a nd e n tered i n t he C a ta logue w i th a b r ief d escr ip t ion . F ro m t he measure men ts t hus o b ta ined , Tab les I I I I ( see b e low ) c ou ld b e d rawn u p .

The T ab les a t-

t e mp t t o c lar ify t he i n terconnect ion b e tween t he d if feren t c haracterist ics o f t he p o in ts ; i ts ee med a dvisab le t o d raw u p e ach Tab le t w ice , o nce w i th a l l t oo ls a ccep ted a s a rd p oin ts o r r oughou ts f or t he m i ncluded , a nd o nce w i th o n ly worn a rd p oin ts i ncluded , a s i t was of ten d if f icu l t w i th s ome o f t he c ruder r oughou ts t o b e q ui te s ure t ha t t hey w ere i n tended t o b e a rd p oin ts. The a rd p o in ts a vai lab le f or s tudy were f ro m t he museu m c o l lections a t N .M .A .S. ,t he H un terian , S t ir l ing , A berdeen , K irkwa l l , L erw ick a nd J ar lshof Museu ms.

Al arge n u mber o f o ther museu ms i n S co t land a nd

Eng land were v isi ted , b u t d id n o t p roduce f ur ther s pec imens. Ih ave a lso b een f or tuna te i n b e ing a b le t o e xam ine a l l t he s tone t oo ls f ound a tt he e xcav a tions a t S u mburgh , S he t land a nd S kai l l , O rkney , a nd t hose f rom t he r ecen t e xcava t ions a t L idd le a nd B eauquoy b urn t mounds, a nd Q uoysco t t ie a nd K nowes o f C uean b uria l mounds.* Whi le i ti s c er ta in t ha t many a rd p oin ts were r e jected when o n ly r epresen ta t ive s amp les f ro m e xcava t ions were s en t t o museu ms, t ha t many o thers a re h e ld i n p r iva te c o l lections i nO rkney a nd S het land , a nd t ha t o thers may r eside i n sma l l museu ms which In eg lected t o v isi t , i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t he n u mbers a nd d istr ibu t ion , b o th c hronolog ica l a nd g eograph ica l o ft he t oo ls wh ich Iwas a b le t o s tudy a re s uf f icien t ly c omp rehensive t o a l low most o ft heir s igni f ican t c haracteristics t o emerge . i v .

C lassif ica tion

Various f actors c an b e t aken i n to a ccoun t when a n a t te mp t i s made t o g roup a rd p o in ts i n to s o me s or t o f s igni f ican t o rder , a nd most o f t hese f ac tors a re e n tered i n T ab les I I I I . T he p rovenance o ft he a rd p oin ts w as o ne o bv ious f actor—and a s t hey c ame s o le ly f ro m t he N or thern I s les, i t was e asy t o s ep ara te t hose f ro m O rkney f ro m t hose f ro m S he t land f or c o mpara t ive p urposes.

* S ince t he t ime o f wr i t ing , Ih ave s tud ied a f ur ther 1 09 t ools f ro m S kai l l a nd 2 6 f ro m T ougs, B urra I s le , S he t land ( excava t ions b y J . a nd M . H edges) . T hese t oo ls c onf irmed , o r r a ther , d id n o th ing t o c on trad ict t he s ta temen ts made b e low . 1 2

The a rd p oin ts a re a l most i nvar iab ly o f s andstones a nd mudstones s o t heir g eo logy c ou ld n o t b e u sed a s at ypologica l f actor , b u t i t was n o ticeab le t ha t t he s tone d id v ary c onsiderab ly i n h ardness.

A s i ts ee ms h igh ly p robable

t ha t t he s tone l oca l t o t he s i te o n wh ich e ach t oo l was f ound was u sed f or manu facture , t he c o mpara tive h ardness o f t he s tone wou ld b e e xpected t o t ie i n w i th t he p rovenance .

I t was f e l t t ha t t he h ardness o f t he s tone migh t h ave

a f fected t he s hape g iven t o t he t oo l o r t he amoun t o f work t o wh ich t he a rd p oin t c ou ld h ave b een p u t b efore d a mage o ccurred .

An a rbi trary d egree o f

h ardness o bviously h ad t o b e t aken , a nd a f ter v ar ious a t te mp ts, t he f o l low ing c r i ter ion w as a dop ted a s t he most s ui tab le .

I f as harp s tee l p oin t d rawn

a cross t he s urface o f t he s tone c ou ld p ene tra te t he s andstone which wou ld c ru mb le a long t he s ha l low g roove t hus made , t he s tone was l abe l led s of t .

I f

t he p o in ts was a b le o n ly t o c rea te a s l igh t s cra tch mark u nder 0 .3 m m i n t hickness, t he s tone was l abe l led h ard . The l eng th a nd w id th o f t he a rd p o in ts were h igh ly v ariab le f actors, w i th n o d ist inc t g roup ing d iscern ib le ;

a lso , s o many o ft he t oo ls were b roken t ha t

t hese f ac tors were c lear ly u nsui tab le a s mean s o f c lassi f ica t ion .

The s hape

o ft he c ross-sec t ion , a nd t ha t o f t he b ut t e nds o f t he t oo ls d id , h owever , s ee m t o f a l l i n to g roups r e levan t t o c lassif ica t ion .

The d i f ference i n c ross-sect ion

s hape h ad b een p reviously n o t iced b y F en ton ( Fen ton 1 962-3 , p . 2 65) ;

s o me

t ools c lear ly h ave a r ound c ross-section , o thers a w ide o r o va l s ection .

Aga in ,

t hough many o ft he a rd p o in ts were d ist inc t ly c lassi f iab le i n to o ne o f t hese t wo g roups, o thers h ad t o b e more a rbi trari ly d ivided , a nd t he f o l low ing c r i ter ion was a dop ted .

I ft he g rea test w id th o f t he t oo l —i .e . t he g rea test measure men t

f ro m s ide t o s ide —exceeded t he g rea test t h ickness —i .e . t he g rea test measuremen t f ro m t he t op t o t he b ot to m f ace ( see F ig . 1 )—by r nc-e t han 7 :5 , t he t oo l was l abe l led w ide ;

i fb y l ess t han t his, r ound .

V ir tua l ly a l l t he t ools, i nclud-

i ng most o f t he b roken o nes, c ou ld e asi ly b e f i t ted i n to o ne o r o ther o f t hese t wo c a tegor ies, a nd s o i t was d ecided t o a dop t t he c ross-sect ion s hape a s t he b asic c r i ter ion o f c lassi f ica t ion .

Too ls w i th a r ound c ross-section were t hus

c a l led T ype 1 , t hose w i th a w ide c ross-sect ion T ype 2 ( F ig . 2a nd P la te 1 ) . Types 1 a nd 2may t hen e ach b e s ubd ivided a ccord ing t o whe ther t hey h ave ap o in t a t e ach e nd o r as quared o r t ap red b u t t e nd ( Fig . 2 ) . Type A a rd p oin ts h ave a p o in t a t e ach e nd ; b o th p o in ted t ips a re of ten f ash ioned w i th e qua l c are , a nd a sma l l n u mber h ave b een f ound w i th wear o n e ach t ip .

An o bvious p ara l le l

i s t he w ooden f oreshare o ft he Donnerup land a rd which a lso s howed wear marks o n e ach e nd ( G lob 1 951 , p . 3 2 ) .

T ype A t oo ls a re u sua l ly s y m me tr ica l —in o ther

words, t he main t runk b egin s t o t aper t o ap oin t a t ar ough ly e qu iva len t d istance f ro m e ach e nd —and p resu mab lyeven t he l arge ma jor i ty o f t his t ype o f s hare which a re o n ly worn o n o ne p oin t , o r i ndeed n ot worn a t a ll , were p o ten t ia l ly r evers ib le , a nd were manufactured w i th t his p o ten t ia li ty i n mind .

Type B t oo ls

h ave a t apered b u t t e nd , a nd o ne c arefu l ly f ash ioned work ing t ip which i s q ui te d ist inc t f ro m t he b u t t e nd wh ich i s of ten o n ly r ough ly f i nished t o ab lun t r ounded o r s quared-off e nd .

These t oo ls a re n o t s y m me tr ica l , a nd o n many e xamp les

t he w idest p ar t o ft he t runk i s q u i te a s hor t d istance f ro m t he b ut t e nd .

Types

A a nd B a rd p oin ts a re u sua l ly t he l ongest , v ir tua l ly a l l t he a bnor ma l ly l ong t ools b e ing Type A . O ther e xa mp les o f Aa nd B a rd p oin ts a re , h owever , r e lat ive ly s hor t a nd , t heore t ica l ly a t l east , Type B t oo ls c ou ld , af ter e xcessive wear h ad b lun ted o ne e nd , h ave h ad t heir b ut t e nds r e-fash ioned t o make t he m i n to 1 3

s hor t r eversib le T ype A s hares.

T ype C a rd p o in ts h ave f l a t s quared o r v er-

t i ca l b u t t e nds, wh ich a re of ten r a ther d i f f icu l t t o d istinguish f rom t he b roken t i ps o f s tone a rd p o in ts which a re f ound i n p rofusion i n e xcava t ion a nd museum c o l lec t ions.

A t f i rst , Iwas i nc lined t o d oubt t he s epara te i den t i fy o f t he

s quared b u t t e nd t ype ;

i ti s c er ta in ly t rue t ha t t he t oo ls were b r i t t le a nd v u l-

n erab le , b eing p ar t icu lar ly i nc lined t o s nap a t t he p o in t where t hey emerged f ro m t he wooden s uppor t—this i s p resu mab ly why s uch a l arge p ropor tion o f b roken t ips a re o f r ough ly s imi lar l eng ths ( s ee b e low , p . 2 0 ). T he e x treme p ressure a t t his o ne p o in t o n t he a rd p o in t wou ld q ui te p robably c ause t he s tone t o s nap w i th a c lean v er tica l b reak a cross t he t oo l . However , o n c loser e xa m ina t ion o ft he a rd p oin ts wh ich Ih ad p rev iously a ssu med were b roken , Ir ea lised t ha t al arge n u mber o f t hose w i th s quared b u t t e nds w ere , f irst ly , s ubstan t ia l ly l onger t han t he n or ma l b roken t i p , a nd , s econd ly , o f ten s howed s igns o f f ash ion ing a t t he b ut t e nd e i ther b y a smoo th ing o r p eck ing o f t he s quared e nd i t se lf o r o ft he s ides o r f aces n ear t he b ut t e nd .

U n less t his was

a n i n i t ia l r e-fashion ing o fb roken a rd p o in ts t o make t he m i n to s ome o ther t ype o ft oo l , wh ich s eems u n l ike ly a s s o many s i mi lar t oo ls were f ound , p art i cu lar ly a t S kai l l , i ti s most p robable t ha t t hese were a d istinct t ype o f a rd p o in t which was u sua l ly a t i t s w idest a t i t s t o s uppor t t h is i n terpre ta tion .

s quared b u t t e nd .

O ther f acts t end

F irst ly , t hough s o many o f t hese T ype C t oo ls

were f ound w i th worn t ips, r e la tive ly f ew b roken t runks o ft ool p o in ts were f ound . Had t he Type C t oo ls b een b roken t ips o n ly , o ne wou ld e xpect t here t o b e many more b roken t runks f ound a lso . S econd ly , a ga in a t S k ala , s evera l o ft hese t oo ls h ad b een c arefu l ly g a thered a nd p laced i n ' hoards ', o f ten i n d epressions o r p i ts i n t he f l oor o f t he h ouses ( P la te 7 ) .

I ts eems u n l ike ly

t ha t s uch c are wou ld h ave b een t aken h ad t hese b een b roken t oo ls u n f i t f or f ur ther u se .

I tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he ir s hape was i dea l f or a s econdary

u se a s p inn ing s tones i n c orners o f wa l ls o r j ust a s s i mp le b ui ld ing s tones — af act t ha t i sb orne o u t b y t heir b e ing f requen t ly f ound i n s uch p laces ( see P la tes 4 -6)—and t ha t t he h oards i n p i ts c ou ld h ave b een a u sefu l me thod o f s torage u n ti l t hey were n eeded ;

o r a l terna tive ly , t ha t t hey were r egarded

a s f er ti li ty o b jects, o r t ha t t here was s o me t aboo a ga inst d iscard ing t he m ( see , f or e xamp le , C orcoran 1 959 a nd s ee b e low , p . 5 1 ) , b u t t he f a ct t ha t s o many g enuine ly b roken t i ps were f ound s trewn a round t he s i te o r i nc learance c a irns, s carce ly s uppor ts t his a rgu men t , a nd i ts eems a l most c er ta in t ha t T ype C a rd p oin ts a re i ndeed a d ist inct t ype . I t was of ten , h owever , e x treme ly d i f f icu l t t o d ist inguish b e tween b roken a nd Type C a rd p o in ts, a s may b e s een f ro m t he d escr ip t ions i n t he C a ta logue .

I f Iw as i n d oub t Ia ssumed f or t he

p urposes o f e n tr ies i n Tab les I I II t ha t t oo ls w ere b roken r a ther t han s quared b u t t e nds t ypes, b u t Ie n tered t he m i n t he C a ta logue a s p ossibly e i ther b roken o r T ype C . A s may b e s een f ro m Tab le I , Types 1a nd 2a rd p oin ts c an e ach b e o f a ny o ne o f s ub-Types A-C. T ype A t oo ls, t he l east c o mmon , a re v ir tua l ly e qua l ly d ivided b e twene Types 1a nd 2 . T ype B t oo ls, a l most t w ice a s c o mmon , a re more f requen t ly o fw ide-cross s ect ion , T ype 2 , t han T ype 1 .

Type

Ct oo ls a re b y f ar t he most f requen t ly e ncoun tered a nd a re c onsiderably more of ten o f T ype 2 . These p ropor t ions were r ough ly e qu iva len t t o t hose s hown i n Tab le l i b wh ich i nc ludes worn a rd p oin ts a lone , t hough t he c on trast b etween t he h igher p ropor tion o f T ype A t oo ls b eing r ound i n c ross-sect ion a nd Types Ba nd C b eing w ide i n c ross-sect ion s hows more c lear ly h ere . 1 4

Ano ther f air ly c o m mon c haracteristic o f t he s tone a rd p oin ts, a nd o ne wh ich c ou ld b e e ncoun tered o n a l l t ypes s o f ar d escr ibed , was t he f l aked o r p ecked wa isting o r c o l lar o n t he s ides o f t he t oo ls ( see Table I V ) .

U sua l ly

t h is wa ist ing c onsists o f ap a ir o f g rooves, o ne o n e i ther s ide o f t he t oo l , p ecked o r f l aked t o ad ep th o fu p t o 1 .5 cm i n to t he s ides, u sua l ly q ui te n ear t he b ut t e nd .

O ccasiona l ly , t he waisting c on t inues r ound t he t op a nd b o t to m

f aces a s w e l l, b u t u sua l ly i to ccurs o n ly o n t he s ides.

One s pecimen h as t wo

p a irs o fg rooves ( Lerw ick A rch 6 7116 —F ig . 1 3 ) , a nd o thers, u sua l ly r ough o r u nf ini shed s pecimens, h ave o n ly o ne g roove o n o ne s ide .

I t i s u nusua l f or

t hese wai s ts t o b e worn smoo th o r t o a ppear i n a ny way u sed . a ppear s trange ly r ough .

N orma l ly t hey

I ti st o b e s upposed t ha t t hese g rooves s erved t he

p urpose o ft he n o tches f ound o n s o me o f t he S candinavian wooden a rds —e .g . t he n otches o n t he a rrow-shaped s hare o f t he Donnerup land a rd ( F ig . 3 9 .b .i a nd F ig . 3 2 ) h eld t enons t o h o ld t he s hare more f i rm ly i n p osi t ion .

A s o n ly

j ust o ver 2 0 a rd p oin ts s howed a ny s igns o f waist ing , a nd t his f ea ture a ppeared r ando m ly t hrough t he t ypes a nd p rovenances d escr ibed a bove ( t hough T ype A s hares a re n ever waisted ) t here s ee med l i t t le r eason t o make t his c haracteri s t ic a f ea ture o f a no ther s ub-d ivision ; p o in t , Ih ave

h ence when waisting a ppears o n a n a rd

c o m men ted o n t his f act o n ly i n t he b rief d escr ip t ion i n t he

C a ta logue . v .

Manufactur ing T echn iques

As b o th t he e xcava tions a t S kai l l a nd a t S u mburgh p roduced a l arge n u mber o f s tone a rd p o in ts, a l l o f which were r eta ined f or s tudy , i t was p ossib le t o b u i ld u p af a ir ly c lear p ic ture o f t he p rocess o f manufacture o f t he s hares.

I t

s ee ms t ha t t he s hares were a ctua l ly manufactured a t t he h ouse s i tes, a nd t ha+ t he l oca l s andstone , f a ir ly r eady t o h and a t b o th s i tes, was u sed .

L arge

n u mbers o f r oughou ts a t v ar ious s tages o f manufacture were f ound a nd t he manufac tur ing p rocess c ou ld t hus b e u nderstood .

I n t he f o l low ing d escr ip tions

o ft he a rd p oin ts Ih ave a dop ted v arious t er ms t o r efer t o s peci f ic p ar ts o f t he s tone t oo ls .

These t er ms a re l i sted a nd e xp la ined o n F ig . 1 .

The f i rst s tage i n t he manufacturing p rocess was t he s e lect ion o f a n a pp ropria te l eng th o f s andstone wh ich was t hen f l aked r ough ly i n to a l ong b ar . T he t op a nd b ot to m f aces a nd t ip a nd b ut t e nd r eceive most a t ten t ion a t t his s tage,

a nd e xa mp les h ave b een f ound wh ich h ave c arefu l ly f l aked t op a nd

b o t to m f aces w i th s ides wh ich a re s t i l l c rude ly s quared o f f .

An i n terest ing

r oughou t a t ap ar t icu lar ly e ar ly s tage o f manufacture was f ound a t S u mburgh ( F ig . 3 ) .

T he s andstone b ar h as b een r ough ly f l aked i n to s hape ,

a nd t op a nd b ot to m f aces a re f ash ioned .

a nd t he t ip

I ts ee ms c lear t ha t t h is was i n tended

t o b e aT ype C a rd p o in t w i th a v er t ica l o r s quared b ut t e nd which i s i n t he p rocess o fb eing f ashioned , a s t he b ar i s t oo c urving f or manufacture i n to T ypes A o r B .

F ig . 5 b s hows a r oughou t o n which t he t ip , f aces a nd b ut t e nd

h ave b een f a shioned , a nd t he c rude ly s quared o f f s ides awai t f ur ther f ashioni ng , a nd

F ig . 6s hows a r oughou t o n which t he f ashion ing o f t he

p ar tia l ly c o mp le te .

s ides i s o n ly

I ti s a t t hi s s tage t ha t t he c orrect c ross-section i s

a ch ieved ; b o th F igs. 5 b a nd 6 s how t oo ls which were t o b e w ide i n c rosss ect ion , a nd F ig . 4s hows a r ound-sect ioned r oughou t a t a n e ar ly s tage o f manufac ture .

One p ar ticu lar ly i n terest ing f act emerged when r oughou ts a t

t h is e ar ly s tage o f manufacture were s tud ied . 1 5

The a sy m me try f ound t o b e

p resen t a t t he t ip o f many worn a rd p oin ts ( s ee , f or e xa mp le , F ig . 1 )w as, a t f i rst , a ssu med t o h ave b een c aused b y o ne-sided wear when t he a rd was h e ld t o o ne s ide i n t he g round ( see b e low , p .

8 4 ) .

A l arge n u mber o f p oin ts , h ow-

e ver , d isp layed a marked a sy m me try a t t he t i p e ven a t t he manufactur ing s tage ; t h is f ea ture a ppeared s o c o m mon ly t ha t If e l t

i tt o b e more t han p ure ly a cci-

d en ta l , a nd Ig radua l ly c a me t o t he c onc lusion t ha t t heir a sy mme try was p ar t o ft he manufacturing p rocess;

i n o ther words, t he d irection i nw hich s o me a rd

p oin ts were t o b e u sed was p rede termined.

F igs. 3 , 5 b , 6a nd 7a l l s how a rd

p o in ts a t a n e ar ly s tage o f manufacture wh ich s how c lear a symmetry a t t he t ips .

This a sy m me try , i ta ppears, c ou ld b e a ch ieved e i ther b y f l aking t he

t ip o n o ne s ide more s evere ly t han o n t he o ther , o n ab ar wh ich o therw ise h ad o n ly s ligh t ly t aper ing s ides, e .g . F ig . 6 , o r b y t he i n i tia l s e lec t ion o r s haping o f as andstone b ar wh ich c urved a nd 3 .

s ligh t ly t hroughou t t he l eng th—e .g . F igs. 7

The c arefu l f ashion ing o f t he t ip a t t his s tage a lso d e term ined wh ich

way u p t he a rd p o in t was t o b e .

T he b ot to m a ng le ( see F ig . 1 ) , i .e. t he c har-

a cter ist ic s lan t ing s hape o f t he b o t to m f ace a t t he t ip , was, a gain , i n i t ia l ly t o h ave b een c rea ted b y wear i n t he g round , b u t t hi s f ea ture was s een t o h ave a lso b een i ncorpora ted i n t he manufacture o f t he a rd p o in t .

T he s ide v iew

s hown i n F ig . 8c lear ly s hows t he b o t to m a ng le a nd h ence wh ich f ace w as wh ich . I ti s o n ly t he b o t to m a ng le which d ist ingu ishes t he t op f ace f rom t he b o t to m a t t his s tage . The n ex t main s tage o f manufacture was t he f iner s haping o f t he a rd p oin t w i th t he r oughen ing o f t he s urface o f t he t runk t o e nab le i tt o b e b et ter g r ipped b y t he wooden s uppor t o f t he a rd . a nd o n o thers b y af ine f l aking .

This was a ch ieved o n s o me t ools b y p eck ing ,

P eck ing s ee med p ar t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic

o ft oo ls manufac tured f rom h arder s tone whereas t he s of ter s tone s ee me r l more of ten t o b e f i ne ly f l aked ( see Tab le V I I ) , a l though t his i s b y n o means a h ard a nd f ast r u le .

P ecking , when i td oes o ccur , i s u sual ly o n t he b o t to m f ace , e spe-

c ia l ly d ense ly a t c . 6 -3 cm f ro m t he t ip o f t he b o t to m f ace, a nd o n t he s ides, p ar t icu lar ly o n Type 1a rd p oin ts where t he b order b e tween s ide a nd f ace i s l ess c lear ly d ef ined ;

p eck ing i s q ui te f requen t ly a bsen t f ro m t he n arrow s ides

o f T ype 2t oo ls, a nd i s u sua lly a bsen t f ro m t he t op f ace o f a l l t ypes.

I f , a s I

h ave s upposed , t he p eck ing was t o r oughen t he s urface o f t he a rd p oin t s o t ha t i t wou ld b e t ter g r ip t he s ides o f t he wooden mor t ise t o k eep t he s hare i n p osit ion , i ti s t o b e a ssu med t ha t t he way i n wh ich t he s hares were s e t i n t he a rd d id n o t r equ ire t he u pper f ace o f t he s hare t o b e g r ipped .

On a rd p oin ts w h ich

h ave b een r e-used , e i ther b y t urn ing b ack t o f ron t , o r u pside d own when t he f i rst t ip h ad b een b lun ted b y wear ( see b e low , p . 2 1 ) , f ur ther p eck ing was c arr ied o u t o n t he s ur faces which , t hough n o t r equ iring p eck ing b efore , n eeded t he r oughened s ur face i n t he ir n ew p osi t ion . F igs. 9 a nd 1 0 s how a rd p oin ts which h ave b een p ecked b ut a re a s y e t u nworn , t he f or mer s how ing t he p ecked s ide a nd u npecked t op s urface o f as hare , t he l a t ter s how ing a p oin t w i th p ecked s ides a nd b o t to m f ace .

F ig . 1 1 s hows t he c haracterist ic p a t tern o f p eck ing

o n a worn t oo l , w i th p eck ing p resen t o n t he b ot to m f ace a nd o n t he s ides t owards t he b o t to m , b u t a bsen t f ro m t he t op f ace , a nd F ig . 1 7 a n a rd p oin t o f s of ter s andstone o n which a r oughened s urface h as b een a chieved b y f l ak ing o n ly , w i th n o p eck ing .

S u mburgh 6 50 , t he a rd p o in t p ictured i n F ig . 2 3 ,

s hows t he c haracterist ic p at tern o f p eck ing a chieved when t he s hare h as b een r e-used ( see b e low , p . 2 1 ) , i n t his c ase t urned b ack t o f ron t a nd u pside d own .

1 6

A t t he c en tre b o t to m o f t he f i gure , t he t ip , n ow b roken , s hows wear marks o ver a p ecked s urface —i .e . t he o ld b o t to m f ace , o r ig ina l ly p ecked , i s n ow t he t op f ace a nd t hus h as o b ta ined t he l ongi tudina l wear marks c haracter ist ic o f t he t op f ace , whereas t he o ld t op f ace , o n t he b o t to m l ef t , h as h ad t o b e p ecked . T he t op o ft he f i gure s hows o n t he l ef t t he o ld t op f ace w i th w ear marks, a nd i nt he c en tre , t he o ld b ot to m f ace w i th p eck ing o n t he f ace a nd s ides.

A s t his

t i p i s n ow t he b u t t e nd , i th as o n ly b een r ough ly r e-shaped b y f l ak ing a nd p ecki ng .

One a rd p o in t was f ound , N o . 6 5287 i n L erw ick Museu m , wh ich h ad d eep ,

s hor t t oo l ing marks c ut o ver t he b ot to m f ace a nd s ides i nstead o f p eck ing , b u t t his was t he o n ly s pecimen If ound which emp loyed t hi s method o f r oughen ing t he s ur face . I t i s i mpossib le t o t e l l a t wha t s tage t he waists o r n o tches i n t he s ides o f a rd p o in ts were f ashioned , o r why s o me h ave t he waist ing a nd o thers d o n o t . I tc ould b e t ha t i n s o me c ases wai sts were c u t i n to t oo ls which a f ter u se h ad p roved d i f f icu lt t o h o ld f i rm ly i n p osi t ion .

Th is wou ld a ccoun t f or t he f act

t ha t , wh i le worn a rd p o in ts h ave waisting , t he wai st ing r are ly s hows a ny s igns o f smoo th ing f ro m wear o r f r ict ion .

I n o ther c ases, wai st ing was c er ta in ly

p ar t o f t he manufac tur ing p rocess, a s i to ccurs o n r oughou ts.

F ig . 5 a s hows

a n a rd p o in t f ro m S kai l l which h as waist ing f l aked i n to e i ther s ide , b u t which i su nworn .

F ig . 1 2 s hows at oo l f ro m O rkney , b roken a t t he waist , which i s

u nusua l i n h aving a v ery f i ne ly f ash ioned waist ing p ecked a l l r ound t he t runk a nd a t ac onsiderab le d istance f ro m t he t ip .

F ig . 1 3 s hows a n a rd p oin t which

a gain i s u nusua l i n h aving t wo p a irs o f g rooves p ecked i n to t he s ides, b u t i s more c haracteristic i n t he d istance b e tween t he t ip a nd t he g rooves a nd i n t he d ep th a nd w id th o f t he g rooves.

T he t oo l s hown i n F ig . 1 4 d isp lays p ronounced

w aist ing , o ver 1 cm i n d ep th , a t a n e quiva len t d istance f ro m t he t ip t o t he l ower p a ir o fgrooves o ft he p oin t s hown i n F ig . 1 3 , a nd i ti s a t t h is p oin t , r ough ly 1 8-22 cm f ro m t he t i p , t ha t most waist ings o ccur ( see Tab le I V) . The l ast s tage i n t he manufacture i s t he f i na l smooth ing o ver o f t he t op f ace e spec ia l ly n ear t he t ip .

S o me t oo ls were f ound wh ich b ore n o n or ma l

w ear marks, b u t which d id h ave a smoo th a ppearance a t t his p osi t ion .

The

smoo thness p roved , when e xa mined u nder magni f ica tion , t o h ave b een p rod uced b y ap o lish ing o r r ubb ing i n a l l d irect ions ; t he p at tern o f marks was q u i te d i st inct f ro m t he l ongi tud ina l s tria t ions which were c haracterist ic o f n or ma l w ear marks a nd were t herefore a ssu med t o b e p ar t o f t he manufact uring p rocess.

H owever , c are h ad t o b e t aken t o d ist ingu ish b e tween t his

smoo th ing a nd t he

g loss ' which H ansen n o ted f or med o n wooden f oreshares

f ur ther b ack f ro m t he t ip t han t he n orma l w ear , a nd wh ich was c aused b y f r iction f ro m t he e ar th d ur ing e xper imen ta l p lough ing w i th a r econstructed w ooden a rd ( Hansen 1 969 , p . 8 7 ) .

This g loss a lso f ormed o n t he s tone a rd

p o in ts b eh ind t he n or ma l wear marks, b u t , when v iewed t hrough a l ens, c ou ld b e s een t o b e f or med b y f a in ter a nd f i ner l ong i tudina l s tr ia tions o ft he n or ma l w ear t ype t hough s l igh t ly l ess o r thodox i n t heir a lign men t . C are h ad a lso t o b e t aken t o d istinguish t his smooth ing p rocess f ro m marks made o n t he t oo l p roduced e i ther b y as econdary u se , f or e xa mp le a s a whetstone , o r b ecause s o me o ft he o rig ina l wea thered " s k in" o ft he b ou lder f ro m wh ich t he t oo l h ad b een made r e ma ined u nre moved i n t he manufactur ing p rocess. S ubsequen t w ea ther ing o f ad iscarded t ool wh ich h as l a in o n af i e ld s urface f or d ecades, a nd e ven , t hough o f c ourse , r are ly , t he p rocess o f e xcava t ion i t se lf p roduces 1 7

a smoo thness i n t he c ase o ft he f or mer , a nd c hips a nd s cra tches i n t he c ase o ft he l a t ter , a nd t hese must a lso b e d istinguished f ro m wear o r p urposefu l d esign . v i .

E f fects o f Wear

The o ne g rea t a dvan tage t ha t t he s tone a rd p oin ts h ave f or t he a rchaeo log ist i s t ha t s tone i sf ar l ess a f fected b y a dverse e nviron men ta l c ondi t ions t han v ir tua l ly a ny o ther ma ter ia l f ro m wh ich s hares were made .

T hus, wh i le

me ta l t oo ls c orrode a nd l ose t heir s urface marks a nd wood , i fi ts urvives a t a l l f ro m a n a rchaeo logica l c on tex t , warps a nd s hr inks i fn o t i m media te ly c onserved , t he s tone t oo ls r e ta in t heir wear marks most

s a t isfactori ly , t hough

many a re c hipped a nd b roken , a nd s o me o f t he s pecimens made f ro m s of ter s andstone h ave wea thered .

There r e ma ins, t herefore , o n t he s urfaces o f t he

a rd p o in ts a c o mp le te r ecord o f t he way i n wh ich t he t oo ls were u ti lised .

F ew

o ft he i ron s hares wh ich s urvive f ro m I ron A ge o r Ro mano-Br i ti sh p er iods s how a ny wear marks a t a l l , whi le o n t he wooden s hares o r a rd-heads f ro m Br i ta in , t he wear marks, i ft hese d o e x ist , a re o f ten d is tor ted , a nd a re n ever c lear .

F or a c o mp le te p ara l le l t o t he wear p a t tern o n t he s tone a rd p oin ts

we must t urn t o t he modern p loughing e xper imen ts w i th a r econstruct ion o f t he H endr ikes mose a rd c arr ied o u t b y Hansen f ro m 1 962-8 , a nd h is d raw ings o ft he wooden b ar s hare a nd a rd-head a f ter u se ( Hansen 1 969 , F igs. 2 2 a nd 2 4 a nd my F ig . 4 4a ) . a .

Wear s tria t ions:

The e f fect o f wear o n s tone a rd p o in ts c an b e d ivided

i n to t wo t ypes: t he a ctua l wear s tria t ions, a nd t he wearing a way o f p ar t o f t he s tone s o t ha t t he s hape o f t he t oo l i s a l tered .

The s tone o f w h ich t he p o in ts a re

made i s g enera l ly q ui te c oarse g ra ined , a nd t he ma teria l t hrough which t hey h ave p assed r e la t ive ly h ard .

A ccord ing ly , t he s tr ia t ions a re c lear ly v i sib le

t o t he n aked e ye , a nd Iu sed , i fa ny , al ow magni f ica t ion t o a ssist me ( up t o x 10 a nd n or ma l ly o n ly x 2 o r x 5) . Therefore , t he p o in ts made b y Ode l l ( 1 976) a bou t microwear a na lysis a re n o t r ea l ly r e levan t , a l though h is g enera l p oin ts c oncern ing s tudy o f d i f feren t t ypes o f wear a nd p o lish a nd t he a ims o f t he who le e xercise Ih ope Ih ave t aken i n to a ccoun t .

T he t op f ace i s a lways t he most

p ro m inen t ly marked b y wear s tria tions ( P la te 2 a ) a nd i fa n a rd p oin t h as o n ly b een u sed t o as ligh t e x ten t i ti s u sua l ly a t t he t ip o n t he t op f ace t ha t w ear marks w i l l b e f ound .

The amoun t o f wear d i sp layed o n t he t op f ace o f a n a rd

p o in t o bviously d epends t o s o me e x ten t o n t he l eng th o ft ime t ha t t he s hare was u sed i n p lough ing .

S o me s pecimens o n ly s how C . 2 cm o fw ear a t t he a rea

most v u lnerab le t o wear , whi le o thers may b e worn f or u p t o 2 2 cm , a nd t hus i ti s d i f f icu l t t o a ssess t he d ep th o f p ene tra t ion o f t he s oi l b y t he s hares. Average l eng ths o f wear were c a lcu la ted f or a l l t he d i f feren t t ypes o f s tone a rd p o in ts, a s s hown i n T ab les I I I I , b u t i t must b e s tressed t ha t t hese e rr i nevi tab ly o n t he l ow s ide .

T he l owest a verage l eng th o f wear w as f or

O rcad ian t oo ls g rouped a s a who le ( Tab le B ib ) , 7 .4 cm ;

t he h ighest was f or

t oo ls f ro m S he t land , a nd Type A t oo ls ( Tab les MI D a nd l b) , 1 0 .4 cm, Wear o n t he t ip o f t he b ot to m f ace i s f ar more r estricted t han t ha t o n t he t op , a nd f or ms a c haracterist ic U -shape a round t he t ip a nd s ides n ear t he t ip ( P la te 3 ) .

Wear marks a t t he b ot to m a ng le a re u sua l ly r estr ic ted t o a n a rea

2 -5 cm f ro m t he t ip , a nd o ne s ide o ft he t ip i s u sua l ly worn more h eavi ly 1 8

t han t he o ther ( see b e low , p .

8 4 ) .

F ig . 1 1 s hows t he wear p a t tern t ypica l

o f s tone a rd p oin ts o n aT ype 1 B s hare f ro m S he t land . g ood e xamp les o ft oo ls w i th a sy m me trica l b ack wear .

F igs. 1 5 a nd 1 6 s how The s ides o f t he a rd

p oints ( F ig . 1 1) u sua l ly b ear wear marks a s f ar d own t he s hare a s t he t op f ace . The s ide wear o n t he a rd p oin ts i s o f ac haracterist ic s lan t ing t ype ( P la te 2 h ) f ormed when t he s ides o f t he s hare were f orced a t a n a ng le a ga inst t he h orizon ta l e ar th .

Measure men t o f t he a ng les s hown b y t he wear w i l l , t here-

f ore, r evea l r ough ly t he a ng le a t which t he a rd s hare was h e ld d ur ing p loughi ng .

The measuremen ts o ft hese a ng les o f ten v ar ied f ro m t he a ng le b e tween

t he b ot to m a ng le a nd t he p lane o f t he t oo l , a nd i t was a ssu med t ha t t his was b ecause t he b ot to m a ng le h ad b een p re-fashioned i n t he manufactur ing s tage a nd was t herefore n o t a n a ccura te measure men t o f t he a ng le a t wh ich t he s hare was h eld d ur ing p loughing .

I tc ou ld , h owever , p ossib ly b e c onnected

w i th a d i f ference b e tween t he a brasive p ower o ft he s ubsoi l a nd t ha t o f t he h u mus. Exam ina tion a nd measure men t o f wear marks o n e very worn t oo l was of ten e x tre me ly d i ff icu l t b ecause o f t he f ain tness o f s o me o f t he s tr ia t ions.

The

l eng th o fw ear o n t op a nd b o t to m f aces a nd o n e ach s ide was measured a nd e n tered a tt he e nd o f t he d escr ip t ion o f e very a rd p o in t , i n t he C a ta logue .

The

g rea tes t l eng th o f wear measurab le o n e ach t oo l was e n tered i n t he wear c o lu mn o ft he C a ta logue , a nd i ti s t hese measure men ts which were u sed i n c a lcu la t ing t he a verages e n tered i n T ab les I I I I .

O bviously , o n ly t he t oo ls wh ich were

c o mp le te , o r a t l east were b roken a cross t he t runk o r b ut t e nd t oo f ar f ro m t he t ip t o b e worn , p rovided t he f igures f or t he a verage l eng ths o f w ear . Measure men t o f t he a ng le o f t he s ide wear was more d i f f icu l t .

The a rd p o in t

was h e ld f i rm ly , s ide u ppermost , e i ther i n c la mps o r , i ft hese were n o t a vai la b le, i n ap lasticine b ase s o t ha t ar u ler , c lamped h orizon ta l , was e xact ly a l igned t o al ine r unn ing b etween t he t ip o ft he s hare a nd a p oin t midway b et ween t op a nd b o t to m f aces a t t he b u t t e nd o r a t t he p lace o fg rea test t hickness. T h is l i ne , t he p lane o f t he t oo l , was u sua l ly q ui te e asy t o s ee , a s t he t oo l was u sua l ly manufactured s o t ha t t he p lane r an a long t he n a tura l b edding o f t he s andstone .

The b edd ing p lanes were h owever more e asi ly d etectab le o n s o me

t oo ls t han o n o thers.

Hav ing a l igned t he p lane o ft he t oo l w i th a h orizon ta l ,

t he a ng le o f t he wear marks a gainst t his h or izon ta l c ou ld b e measured w i th a p rotrac tor .

A t l east f i ve measure men ts were t aken f ro m e ach s ide i n a n a t-

t e mp t t o r u le o u t e ccen tr ic i nd ividua l s cra tch marks.

The a verage o f t hese

measuremen ts was c a lcu la ted , a nd t h is f i gure was t hen e n tered i n t he a pprop riate c o lu mn o f t he Ca ta logue , a nd t hen t he p rocess was r epea ted o n t he o ther s ide o ft he t ool .

A s may b e s een f ro m Tab les I b , I l b a nd I Ib , t he a ng les o f

t he s ide w ear t o t he t oo l p lane v ar ied i n a verage f or t ype g roups f ro m 2 8 .3° f or Type C t oo ls measured a s a who le , t o 3 2 .3 0 o n Orcadian t oo ls measured a s a who le .

Asy mme tr ic wear o n t he t ools, v isible most o bviously o n t he t ip

o f t he b o t to m f ace , i s a lso of ten d e tectab le o n t he s ides, a s s tr ia tions o n o ne s ide w i l l b e d eeper o r l onger o r c on tinue f ur ther d own n one s ide t han t he o ther . A sy m me tr ic s ide wear was a lways n o ted , a nd t he l eng th o f wear d own e ach s ide o ft he a rd p oin t was a lways measured a nd n o ted i n t he d escr ip tion o f t he t oo l i n t he C a ta logue .

The w id th o ft he s ide wear measured v er t ica l ly b etween

t op a nd b ot to m f aces was a lso u sua l ly t aken a nd e n tered i n b rackets b eh ind 1 9

t he a ng le o f s ide wear .

U nfor tuna te ly , t hi s f i gure was n ot measured o n s o me

t oo ls, a s t he r e levance o ft hi s p ar t icu lar measuremen t , wh ich h elped t o a ssess t he d irection o ft i l t o ft he s hare ( s ee b e low , p . 2 5 ) h ad n ot b een a pprecia ted d ur ing t he e ar l iest work o n t he t oo ls. b .

A l tera t ion o f s hape c aused b y wear :

The s econd e f fec t o f wear o n

t he s tone a rd p oin ts was t he wear ing d own o f e specia l ly v u lnerab le a reas o f t he t oo ls, t he s hapes o f which were t hus a l tered . I ti st his more o bvious r es u l t o f wear t ha t i s of ten v isib le o n t he S cand inavian b og f inds o f a rds. T his s evere wear ing d own o ft he s urface may o f ten b e s een o n t he t i p o f t he s tone p oin ts, e specia l ly a t t he s ides a nd b ot to m , a l though , a s p rev iously s ta ted , s o me a t te mp ts a t p re-fashion ing t he a sy m me trica l s ides a nd t he b ot tom a ng le s eem t o h ave b een made i n t he i n i t ia l manu facture o f s o me t oo ls. The c rosss ect ion t hrough a rd p oin t n ear t he t i p o n e xcessive ly worn s pecimens c an b e q ui te a ngu lar .

A s t he t i p o f t he s hare i s f orced w i th t he f u l l w e igh t o f t he a rd

i n to t he g round , t he s hare w i l l i n t ime b ecome b lun ted ; t his w i l l i nevi tab ly l essen i t s a bi li ty t o c u t t hrough t he e ar th . O ne s ide a t t he t i p w i l l u sua l ly b e more worn t han t he o ther a s t he o ne s ide was t i l ted t owards t he g round ( see b e low , p . 8 4 ) a nd r eceived t he g rea ter w ear . F ig . 1 6 s hows a n a rd p o in t f ro m S he t land where e xcessive wear o n o ne s ide h as r endered t he c rosss ec t ion a t t he t i p t r iangu lar , a nd F ig . 1 7 a n O rcadian e xa mp le o n which w ear h as r endered t he s ides n ear t he t i p q ui te b lun t .

Ag ood p ara l le l t o t h is e f fect

o f wear i s t he s tone s hare i l lustra ted b y G lob ( Glob 1 951, F ig . 1 09a ) , a l though h ere t he s hare was o bviously f i xed i n to a c rook a rd r a ther t han ab ow a rd , a nd a s i t was h e ld h or izon ta l ly r a ther t han a t a n a ng le , t he who le o f o ne s ide i s worn d own a s t he a rd was f orced d own o n t o i t . Wear o f t he t i p o n t he b o t to m a ng le was o bviously v ery g rea t a s i t was h ere t ha t t he main f orce o f t he a rd was c oncen tra ted whi le p lough ing .

T he t i p o f t he a rd p oin t was o bviously a lso

t he most v u lnerab le t o d a mage , a nd i ndeed f ew worn s peci mens o f a rd p o in ts s urv ive w i th n o d a mage t o t he t ips. Damage a t t he t ips v aries f ro m t he t yp ica l s l igh t c hip a t t he t ip o n t he b ot to m f ace ( F ig . 1 8 ) t o t he b reak ing o f f o f as ubst an t ia l a rea o n o ne f ace ( F igs. 2 7 a nd 3 1) .

I ts hou ld , o f c ourse , b e made c lear

t ha t b reakage a nd c hipp ing o n s o me o f t he t oo ls c aused b y s ubsequen t a cciden ts t o t he d iscarded t oo l a re a lso f ound ; b u t t he c h ips d escr ibed a bove a re v ery f requen t ly me t w i th o n s tone p oin ts a nd may b e r egarded a s h av ing b een c aused b y t heir n or ma l u se . c . B reakage o n a rd p o in ts : T he p o in t w here t he s tone p o in ts e n tered t he mor t ise o r s ocke t o ft he a rd was i nevi tab ly t he v u lnerable p o in t o n t he s hare d ur ing p lough ing .

The f orce b etween t he p ressure o ft he g round p ush ing t he

s hare i n o ne d irect ion , a nd t he mor tise o ft he b ea m p ushing i nt he o ther , c oup led w i th t he b ri t t leness o ft he s tone , r esu lted i n many o ft he a rd p o in ts b e ing b roken o f f s hor t p resu mab ly a t t his p oin t . This must a lso h ave p roved ap rob lem w i th t he s of ter mediu m o f wood ; t he p lough ing e xper imen ts o f Hansen ( Hansen 1 969 ) a nd o f A berg a nd B owen ( Aberg a nd Bowen 1 960 ) s howed h ow e asi ly t he wooden s hares were s napped , e ven i f we t ake i n to a ccoun t t he i nevi tab le i nexper ience o ft he e xper imen ters i n d ea l ing w i th p reh i stor ic a rd t ypes.

L arge n u mbers o fb roken s tone t oo ls were e xamined a nd , a s may b e

s een f ro m Table I a , o ft he t o ta l o f4 52 t oo ls l ooked a t o n ly 2 75 w ere c lassi f ia b le i n to T ypes A , Bo r C ;

t he r emain ing 1 77 were b roken t ips .

2 0

e l e

d .

T urn ing o f worn a rd p o in ts: A s omewha t r arer wear p a t tern d isp layed

b y s o me a rd p o in ts, i s t ha t c rea ted when t he s hare h as b een t urned i n s ome way s o t ha t t he a rea r endered i nef fective f or p lough ing , e i ther b y i t s b e ing b lun ted t hrough e xcessive w ear o r b y b e ing d amaged , was r ep laced b y a nother . This was a chieved b y t urn ing t he s hare , e i ther u pside d own o r b ack t o f ron t . F igs. 1 9 a nd 2 0 s how a rd p o in ts w i th w ear p a t terns wh ich r evea l t ha t t hey h ave b een worn f i rst ly w i th o ne f ace a s t he b o t to m a nd t hen a s t he t op .

T he

u pper d raw ing o f F ig . 1 9 s hows t he f ace wh ich was f i rs t ly t he t op f ace o f t he s hare, w h ich was t hen p ecked o ver t he worn a rea a nd r e-used a s t he b ot to m f ace w i th t he s ubsequen t h eavier u se o ft he a rea n ear t he t ip . T he l ower d raw ing s hows t he f ace which was o r ig ina lly h eavi ly worn a t t he t i p o n ly when i t was u sed a s t he b ot to m f ace, a nd t hen was s ubsequen t ly u sed a s t he u pper f ace.

F ig . 2 0 s hows t he s ame s equence , w i th t he i nevi table c onfusion o f

s tria tions o n t he s ides o ft he a rd p o in t . F igs. 2 1, 2 2 a nd 2 3 s how t oo ls which h ave b een r eversed a nd worn o n t he s econd t i p . When s hares w ere r eversed , i ta ppears t ha t t hey w ere most ly t urned a s we l l s o t ha t t he t op f ace o ft he o ne t ip was t he b ot to m f ace , e .g . F igs. 2 1 a nd 2 3 , o r t he s ide , e .g . F ig . 2 2 , o f t he o ther . A sma l l n u mber o f a rd p o in ts were e xam ined which s eemed t o h ave b een r epecked o r r ef laked a f ter t hey h ad b een w orn .

B e tween t he d eep , f resh

p eck ing marks o n t heir s urfaces c ou ld b e s een wear s tria tions.

F ig . 2 4a

s hows a n e xamp le f ro m S u mburgh , t he t i p o f wh ich h as p ossibly b een r ef laked w i th a v iew t o s harpen ing t he b lun ted t oo l , a nd L erw ick B 72 2 -01 f ro m S u mburgh i s a n e xamp le o f a n a rd p oin t wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een r epecked o ver t he w orn s urface .

T hi s r esharpen ing o ft oo ls was f ound s o r are ly t ha t

i tc anno t h ave b een a n o rd inary p ract ice .

Presu mab ly t he b r it t leness o f t he

s tone mean t t ha t most a rd p oin ts wou ld h ave b een b roken b efore b eco m ing s uff icien t ly b lun ted t o r equ ire t urn ing o r r esharpen ing—the l arge n u mbers o f b roken t i ps w i th o n ly s l igh t w ear wou ld s uggest t his —and t urn ing t he b lun ted a rd p oin t s ee ms t o h ave b een more c o mmon t han r esharpen ing t he t i p . A l though t he s tone o f wh ich t he a rd p o in ts were made was u sua l ly l oca l t o t he s i te , a nd t hus p resu mab ly e asy t o p rocure , t he l abour i nvo lved i n t he manu facture o f t he t oo ls was p resu mab ly f a ir ly a rduous a nd t his i s p robably t he r eason w hy t he worn p o in t was c onsidered wor th t urn ing o r r efashion ing .

O ther

a rd p oin ts a ppeared t o h ave c on t inued i n u se a f ter t hey h ad b een c onsiderab ly d a maged .

F ig . 2 4b s hows a n e xamp le f ro m S u mburgh which h ad b eco me v ery

b roken o nt he t op f ace a nd y e t which h ad c on t inued i n u se , a s f a in ter t races o f wear were v isib le o n t he s carred a rea o f t he t op f ace .

L erw ick A 15 1 -06

f ro m S u mburgh i s a no ther e xamp le o f av ery d amaged a rd p o in t w i th wear marks w h ich c on tinue o ver t he d amaged a rea . T he p o in t was p resu mably a bandoned when i ts napped a cross t he t runk . The f act t ha t a rd p o in ts were f ound a t S kai l l g rouped t oge ther i n "h oards" i n p i ts i n t he g round a t t he h abit a tion s i tes s upports t he v iew t ha t , a l though t he n u mber o f t oo ls made a nd t he amoun t o fb reakage was g rea t , a rd p oin ts were u sed a nd r e-used f or a s l ong a s p ossib le .

2 1

v i i . a .

Ana lysis o f C haracterist ics G enera l p o in ts:

The f i rst p o in t wh ich s hou ld b e emphasised i n ag en-

e ra l a na lysis o f t he s tone a rd p oin ts, i s t he g rea t v ar ie ty o f s hapes a nd s izes e ncoun tered .

T o t ake , f i rst ly , t he s hape o f t he t ips o f t he a rd p oin ts, a c o m-

p ar ison b e tween t he s hapes o f t he t ips i l lustra ted i n F ig . 2 5 s hows t he e xt re mes i n b read th a nd s harpness f ound o n t he t oo ls.

Ard p oin ts v ary i n l eng th

f ro m 9 7 cm ( F ig . 2 1) t o u nder 1 0 cm ( e .g . L erw ick A 1 81 1 -05 f ro m S u mburgh ) , a nd i n w id th f ro m t he e x traord inari ly w ide g roup f ro m S kai l l w h ich a re u p t o 1 4 .4 cm ( e .g . S k . 7 5 4 1 —Fig . 2 6) t o 5 cm ( Lerw ick 6 6206 f rom S ca lloway ) . Ard p o in ts d i f fer g rea t ly i n t heir d egree o f f i n ish .

S o me —e .g . S u mburgh 9 34

( F ig . 2 7 )—are v ery f i ne ly e xecu ted wh i le o thers, a lready worn a nd t herefore o bviously f i n ished , a re v ery r ough ly f ashioned —e .g . t he t wo i lustra ted i n F ig . 2 8 .

These t wo t oo ls a lso s how t he d i f ference i n c ross-sec t ion which

s o me p oin ts d isp lay b e tween t he work ing t ip o f t he t oo l a nd t he l ess impor tan t t runk a nd b u t t e nd .

T his d i f ference i n c ross-sect ion , a lso i l lustra ted b y F ig .

2 9 , i s o bviously a ccen tua ted b y wear o n t he t ip , b u t h as b een f ashioned i n t he manufactur ing s tage , t o s o me e x ten t .

On o ther t oo ls, t his p urposefu l d ivision

i n to work ing a nd n on-work ing a reas i s l ack ing ( F ig . 3 0 ) .

The d i fferences

b e tween g enera l t runk c ross-sect ion—ex tre mes o f e ach t ype may b e s een i l lust ra ted i n F ig . 2 2 ( Type 1 ) a nd F ig . 2 6 ( Type 2 ) ;

d i f ferences i nb ut t e nd t ypes

—e .g . F ig . 1 5 ( Type A ) , F ig . 2 7 ( Type B ) a nd F ig . 2 6 ( Type C ) ;

d i fferences

i n manufactur ing t echn ique i nvo lv ing t he u se o f p eck ing o r f ine f l ak ing —e .g . F ig . 3 1 a nd F ig . 2 6 ;

a nd t he d i f ference i n t he d egree o f h ardness o f t he s tone

u sed , h ave a lready b een c o m men ted o n . b .

Ma in c haracteri st ics: a na lysis o f Tab les I I I I :

Tables I I II h ave b een

d rawn u p i n a n a t te mp t t o i n ter-re la te t he c haracteristics o f t he d i fferen t t ypes o f a rd p oin ts d escr ibed a bove , a nd a n e xa m ina tion o f t he Tab les s hou ld s how t he r e levance o f t he c lassi f ica t ion d ependen t u pon t hese c harac teristics.

T ables

I a a nd l b l i st t he n u mbers o f a rd p oin ts c lassi f iab le i n to Types A t o C , f i rst ly t ak ing i n to a ccoun t a l l t oo ls ( Tab le I a ) a nd s econd ly , worn s pec imens o n ly ( Tab le l b ) .

The a verage l eng th a nd w id th —and a verage l eng th o f wear a nd

a ng le o f s ide wear o n worn t oo ls —for e ach t ype i s g iven .

The t o ta l n u mber

o ft oo ls i n t he f i rst c o lu mn i n T ab les I a a nd l b c ou ld b e i ncluded i n t he c a lcu lat i on o ft hese a verages b ecause a ny a rd p oin t whose b asa l t ype c an b e a scert a ined w i l l b e c o mp le te , o r a l most s o .

T he n u mbers o f e ach t ype which c an b e

c lassif ied i n to c ross-sect ion t ype , p rovenance a nd h ardness o f s tone a ccord ing t o t he c r i ter ion d escr ibed a bove a re t hen s hown i n t he f o l low ing s even c o lu mns.

Tab les Ia a nd l b f o l low a s i mi lar me thod a nd d ivide t he s hares i n to

c ross-sect ion t ypes, a nd Tab les I l ia a nd I lb i n to p rovenance .

A s b oth c ross-

s ect ion a nd p rovenance c ou ld b e a scer tained o n b roken t oo ls a s w el l a s e n t ire t oo ls, t he n u mber o f s pecimens f ro m t he t o ta l c lassi f iab le wh ich were s uf f icie n t ly c o mp le te t o b e u sed t o a verage l eng th , w id th a nd wear were e n tered i n t he a ppropr ia te c o lu mn i n b racke ts.

The d e ta i ls o ft he f our th c lassi f ica t ion

c haracter ist ic m _en tioned a bove , t ha t o f t he r e la t ive h ardness o ft he s tone , may b e r ead o f f f ro m t he o ther t hree Tab les.

De tai ls o f a rd p o in ts s how ing t he

s ubsid iary c haracteristics —i .e . c haracter ist ics n o t u sed i n c lassi f ica tion , n a me ly , waisting ; t he t urn ing , r eversing o r r esharpen ing o f t oo ls t o e nab le r e-use ; t oo ls w i th e vidence o ft i l t ing d ur ing u se ;

a nd t oo ls w i th n o p eck ing

o n t heir s urfaces —have b een l i sted i n Tab les I V t o V I I . 2 2

O ft he 4 52 t oo ls a ccep ted a s s hares, 2 75 a re c lassif iab le i n to T ypes A , Bo r C ; 4 38 a re c lassif iab le i n to Types 1o r 2 ; a nd 4 40 h ave a p rovenance a t l east a s a ccura te a s t he ma in i s land g roup .

A s t he c lassi f ica t ion i n to Types

At o C i s d ependen t u pon t he b ut t o ft he t oo l b e ing p resen t , v ir tual ly a l l b roken t oo ls h ave t o b e e xcluded f ro m t he c lassi f ica t ion , whereas t his i s n o t n ecessary i n a ny o ther o f t he c lassi f ica t ions.

A s 1 77 t oo ls a re b roken—i .e . c . 3 9% o f t he

w ho le n umber —the t o ta l n u mber o f s hares c lassi f ied i n Tab le I a i s n ecessari ly o n ly a bou t 6 1% o ft he o ther t ab les ' t o ta ls.

A s i s t o b e e xpected , t he a verage

l eng th o ft he Type A a rd p o in ts, t hose which a re d oub le p o in ted , of ten worn o n b o th e nds, a nd t hus more l i ke ly t han t he o ther t ypes t o b e e n t ire f oreshares i n t he mse lves, was f ound t o b e g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he o ther t ypes a t 3 7 .3 cm ; T ype B p o in ts h ave a l esser a verage l eng th ; l eng th a t 1 9 .2 cm .

a nd Type C t he sma l lest a verage

The a verage w id ths o f a l l t hree t ypes a re , h owever , q ui te

c lose t oge ther , o n ly v ary ing f ro m 7 .3 t o 7 .9 cm . a re o f h ard s tone . s of t .

V ir tua l ly a l l Type A t oo ls

Type B a re a l most t w ice a s c o mmon i n h ard s tone t han i n

Type C t oo ls a re o n ly s l igh t ly c om moner i n h ard t han i n s of t s tone ,

e specia l ly when t he f i gures f or worn t oo ls o n ly i n Table l b a re e xam ined .

A

l arge p ropor tion ( 2.. 8 6% ) o f Type A s hares a re f ro m S he t land , a nd o n ly a bou t 1i n 7c o me f ro m O rkney .

T ype B t oo ls a re a lso more c o m mon ly f ro m S he t-

l and , a l though t he p ercen tages a re l ess e x tre me , a bou t 1i n 5c om ing f ro m O rkney .

Ah igher p ropor t ion , t hough s ti l l u nder 5 0% , o f Type C t ools c o me

f ro m Orkney .

A l l t ypes o ft oo ls may b e w ide o r r ound i n c ross-sect ion .

A l l

t ypes h ad s i mi lar a verage l eng th o f wear a nd a ng les o f s ide wear —rough ly 9-10 cm a nd 2 8 -r t o 2 9 -P r espect ive ly . Tab les Ia a nd I l b s how t he c haracter ist ics o ft he t oo ls d ivided a ccord ing t o c ross-sect ion .

There a re r ough ly t wo w ide c ross-sect ion t oo ls f or e very

o ne r ound c ross-sect ion t oo l , t hough t his p ropor t ion i s l ess e x tre me when t he n u mbers o f worn t oo ls o n ly i n Tab le I t h a re e xamined .

The a verage l eng ths

o f e ach t ype a re v ery s i mi lar , b u t , a s i s t o b e e xpected , t he a verage w id ths d i f fer , v ary ing f ro m t he 6 .6 cm o f t he Type 1 r ound s ect ion worn t oo ls t o t he 8 ,1 cm o f t he Type 2w ide s ect ion worn t oo ls.

Tab le Ia s hows t ha t T ype 2

s hares c an b e e i ther o f h ard o r s of t s tone , whereas t he v ast p ropor t ion ( approx ima te ly 8 6% ) o f Type 1t oo ls a re o f h ard s tone . t he f igures f or worn t oo ls a re s o mewha t d i f feren t .

Tab le I l b s hows t ha t

Type 1t oo ls a re a ga in

p redo m inan t ly o f h ard s tone , b u t ah igher p ropor t ion o f Type 2t oo ls a re o f s o f t s tone .

A s was d iscussed u nder T ab le I , T ypes A , Ba nd C t oo ls may

b e e i ther T ype 1o r Type 2 , t hough where Type A s hares a re s l igh t ly more l i ke ly t o b e r ound i n s ect ion , Types B a nd C a re more l ike ly t o b e w ide .

B o th

T ypes 1a nd 2 a re more f requen t ly f ound i n S he t land b u t , b ear ing i n mind t he f act t ha t a rd p o in ts f ro m S he t land a re t w ice a s c o m mon a s t hose f ro m O rkney , i t may b e s een f ro m Tab le I a t ha t t he d i f ference i n t he n u mbers o f T ype 2 p o in ts f ound i n Orkney a ndShe t land i s l ess t han 2 :1 , whereas o f Type 1s hares i ti s more .

This f act i s s uppor ted b y t he f i gures f or worn t oo ls.

AT ype 1

t oo l i s a pproxi ma te ly t hree t imes more c o m mon ly f ound f ro m S he t land t han f ro m Orkney .

A verage l eng ths o f wear a nd a ng les o f p ene tra t ion a re s i mi lar

f or b o th T ypes 1 a nd 2 a nd i tp robab ly i s o f l i t t le r ea l s igni f icance t ha t b o th a verage v a lues a re s l igh t ly h igher f or T ype 2 . Tab les Ma a nd I lb d ist inguish b e tween t oo ls f ro m O rkney a nd t hose f ro m S het land .

A rd p oin ts f ro m S he t land a re t w ice a s c o m mon a s f ro m O rkney , 2 3

b u t t h is d if ference i n p ropor tion i s l ess e x tre me ( reduced t o 2 : 3 ) when t he f i gures f or worn t oo ls o n ly a re e xa m ined .

A verage l eng ths a nd w idths a re

f air ly s im i lar , O rcad ian t oo ls t ending —presu mab ly b ecause o ft heir h igher p ropor t ion o f T ype 2t oo ls — to b e s o mewha t w ider t han t he a verage S he t land p oin t .

The d if ference i n t he n u mbers o f t oo ls made o f h ard s tone a nd t hose

o f s of t s tone f ro m t he t wo i s land g roups i s l arge e nough t o h o ld s o me p roba ble s igni f icance .

T oo ls f ro m S he t land a re o ver f our t imes a s l i ke ly t o b e o f

h ard s tone a s s of t . s tone a s h ard .

O rcadian t oo ls a re t hree t imes a s l ikely t o b e o f s of t

T his i s p resu mab ly mere ly a l oca l g eo log ica l p heno menon

b u t i s i n teresting i nsofar a s o ne c an i n terre la te t ype o f a rd p oin t w i th t ype o f s tone l oca l ly a va i lab le .

When d ivid ing t ypes o f p o in ts i n to p rovenance i t

i s a ga in u sefu l t o r e me mber t ha t t hose f rom S he t land a re t w ice a s c o m mon a s t hose f ro m O rkney .

Ard p oin ts o f Types A a nd B a re much more l i ke ly

t o c o me f ro m S he t land t han Orkney , whi le T ype C t oo ls h ave a l ess marked l i ke lihood .

A s b efore c o m men ted , T ype 1t oo ls a re more t han t wice a s l i ke ly

t o c o me f ro m S he t land , T ype 2 l ess s o . I fa n a t temp t i s made t o g enera lise f rom t he f acts d escr ibed a bove , t he f o l low ing c o mmon ly i n terre la ting g roups o f c haracteristics may b e s een t o emerge :

T ype A , 1 , h ardness o f s tone a nd a S he t land p rovenance ;

2 , h ardness o f s tone a nd a S he t land p rovenance ; o r s of tness o f s tone a nd e i ther p rovenance .

Type A ,

Type B , 1o r 2 , h ardness

I ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t t he h arder

s tone o fS he t land a nd T ypes A a nd B a nd a r ound c ross-section w ere i n s o me way i n terre la ted , whereas t he Orcadian s of ter s tone was l ess s pecia lised . Whe ther t his i s ac u l tura l p heno menon o r whe ther t he s tone t ype i t se lf was more e f f icien t ly u sed i n o ne f or m r a ther t han a no ther , i s d i f f icu l t t o s ay .

As

w i l l b e s hown b e low , i ti s i mprobab le t ha t c hrono logica l d eve lop men t a f fected t he t ype o f t oo l i n a ny way . c . L esser c haracterist ics: a na lysis o f Tables I V-VI I : T ab les I V-V II a t te mp t t o a na lyse l ess f unda men ta l f ea tures d isp layed b y a rd p o in ts. T ab le I V l i sts t he t oo ls wh ich s how wai st ing o n t he t runk .

The n u mber o f t oo ls which

a re wa isted ( 23 ) i s q ui te sma l l p ropor t iona l ly , a nd t his f ea ture w as o bviously n o t f unda men ta l t o t he e f f icien t p er for mance o f t he a rd p o in t .

I ts ee ms a f ea-

t ure more c o m mon o n O rcadian p oin ts t han o n p oin ts f ro m S he t land ( 15 :8 ) ; more c o m mon o n s of t s tone t han o n h ard ( 1 6 :7 ) ; t han T ype B t oo ls ( 20 :3 ) ;

a nd o n Type C o r b roken t oo ls

i ti s n o t p resen t o n T ype A s hares a t a l l.

Ha lf t he

t oo ls s hown o n t he l i st a re Type 2 a nd o f s of t s tone a nd e igh t o ft he 2 3 a re Type 2 , s of t , a nd c o me f ro m O rkney .

Al arge p ropor tion ( 10 :23) c o me f ro m o ne

s i te ( Skai l l) , wh ich may b e s igni f ican t .

Types o f waist ing a re q ui te v ar ied .

U sua l ly o ne p air o f n o tches was p ecked o r f l aked i n to t he s ide o f t he t runk o f t he a rd p oin t 1 0-15 cm f ro m t he t op .

O ne t oo l h as t wo p airs o f g rooves ( Lerwick

Arch . 6 7116 —F ig . 1 3 ) , a nd a no ther h as a g roove wh ich c on t inues a l l a round t he t runk ( N .M .A.S. AC648 , F ig . 1 2 ) , where t he t oo l i s b roken o f f .

Th is p ar-

t i cu lar t oo l i s u nusua l i n t he l eng th f ro m t he t ip ( . 3 0 cm) t o t he waist .

U sua l ly

t he waist i s u nder 2 0 cm f ro m t he t ip . T ab le V l i sts a rd p oin ts which h ave b een a l tered i n s o me w ay f or r e-use , e i ther b y r eversing ( 6t oo ls) , t urn ing ( 16 t oo ls) , o r r esharpen ing ( 6 t oo ls) .

The

r eversed a rd p oin ts a re o bviously a l l T ype A , a nd a re a l l o f h ard s tone a nd c o me f rom S he t land .

4a re Type 1 ; 2a re T ype 2 .

2 4

1 2 o f t he 1 6 t urned p o in ts

p o in ts a re f ro m S het land ; i n c ross-section .

1 a re o f h ard s tone a nd 1 2 a re T ype 2—i .e . w ide

T hey c an b e o fa ny Type , At o C .

R esharpened t oo ls c an

b e o f a ny p rovenance , t ype o r t ype o f s tone . The n u mbers o f a rd p o in ts s howing a h eavier amoun t o f wear o n o ne s ide o ft he t i p t han o n t he o ther ( see b e low , p . 8 4 )

a re s hown i n Table V I . R ough ly

e qua l n umbers were f ound t i l ted t o e i ther s ide -42 s howed e vidence f or a t i lt t o t he r igh t h and s ide , 4 4 t o t he l ef t .

T he f act t ha t ah igh p ropor tion o f t oo ls

o n which e vidence f or t i l t i sv isib le a re Type 2 i s p ar t ly b ecause t he w ide t ip c o m mon ly f ound o n T ype 2t oo ls s hows more c lear ly t he wear p a t tern o n t he b o t to m a ng le t han t he s harp t ips o f Type 1t oo ls. Tab le V I I s hows t he n u mbers o f a rd p oin ts which h ad n o p eck ing o n t heir s ur face .

I ti s i n teresting t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l s uch t oo ls were O rcadian a nd o f

s of t s tone .

Most a re T ype 2a nd t hey a re c o m mon ly T ype C .

Aga in whe ther

t h is i s p urely a c u l tura l d i f ference i n manufactur ing t echn ique o r whe ther t he d i f feren t t ype o f s tone i nvo lved d e manded a d i f feren t work ing t echn ique i s d if f icu l t t o s ay . d .

C hrono logica l d eve lop men t o f a rd p oin ts.

Tab les V I I I a nd I X :

Any

a t te mp t t o t race a d eve lop men t o f t ypes o r c haracteristics w i thin t he p er iod d uring w h ich s tone a rd p oin ts were manufactured i s a t p resen t i mpracticab le , b ecause o ft he l arge n u mber o f c asua l f i nds o f p oin ts t o which n o d a ta c ou ld b e p u t a nd b ecause o f t he l ack o f p recise d a t ing which c ou ld b e a t tached t o e ven t hose w h ich h ave b een f ound o n e xcava ted s i tes.

The n u mbers o f e ven r ough ly

d a tab le t oo ls f ro m t hese s i tes wh ich c ou ld t hen b e c lassi f ied i n to t ypes was u sua lly f ar t oo sma l l t o p roduce s ta tistica l ly r e levan t i nforma tion —see Tab le V II I .

A n a t te mp t was made t o a na lyse t he c haracter istics o f a rd p oin ts f ound

i n d i fferen t s tra t igraphica l h orizons a t S u mburgh , a s t hi s s i te s howed t hree d ist inc t p hases o f d eve lop men t , a nd a lso a l l t oo ls f ro m t he s i te h ad b een r et a ined f or s tudy .

E ven t h is a t te mp t —see Table I X —was i nconclusive .

B efore

t his i s e xp la ined i n more d e tai l , ad escr ip tion o f t he main s i te t ypes, w i th t heir d a te r ange , o n w hich a rd p o in ts h ave b een f ound s hou ld b e g iven . v i i i .

D ate a nd D istr ibu t ion o f S tone Ard Po in ts

O ft he 4 52 a rd p oin ts s tud ied , 4 40 c ou ld b e p rovenanced a t l east t o t he main i s land g roup , O rkney o r S he t land .

2 96 c a me f ro m S he t land , o f wh ich

a l l b u t 3 3 c ou ld b e p rovenanced t o a t l east t he p arish , a nd u sua l ly t o as pecif i c s i te ;

1 44 c a me f ro m O rkney , a l l b u t 3o f wh ich c ou ld b e p rovenanced a t

l east t o ap arish o r t o as peci f ic i s land .

S o me 2 26 o f t he 2 96 t ools f ro m

S het land c ou ld b e p rovenanced t o as peci f ic a rea o n which a p rehistoric s i te was k nown t o l i e , e ven i ft hey c ou ld n o t b e d irect ly a ssocia ted w i th t he s i te , a nd 2 08 c ou ld b e d irec t ly a ssocia ted w i th a p rehistoric s i te . a rd p o in ts .

1 2 a rchaeo logica l

1 19 o f t he 1 44 O rcadian t oo ls c ou ld b e p rovenanced t o a n a rea

w here t here was a k nown p rehistoric s i te , a nd 1 18 o f t hese c ou ld b e d irect ly a ssocia ted w i th t he s i te .

8O rcad ian a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a re d irect ly , 1p os-

s ibly , a ssocia ted w i th s tone a rd p oin ts.

These f i gures a re o b ta ined f ro m

museu m c a ta logues o r e xcava t ion r epor ts wh ich c o m men t o n t he a ctua l a rd p oin ts s tudied .

A f ur ther 7s i tes i n S he t land a re r epor ted a s h aving y ie lded

r ude s tone i mp le men ts, wh ich may h ave i nc luded a rd p oin ts ( see Table V I I I :I I I ) .

2 5

Table V I I I l i sts t he a rchaeo logica l s i tes wh ich a re e i ther d ef in i tely o r p ossib ly a ssocia ted w i th s tone a rd p oin ts, t he t ypes o ft oo ls a ssocia ted w i th e ach s i te , a nd t he t ype a nd p robable a pprox ima te d a te o f t he s i te .

Tab leV I II :

Il i sts t he s i tes i n S he t land , Tab le V I I I : I I t hose i n O rkney . a .

S he t land :

I ts ee ms c lear t ha t t he o va l h ouses o f t he 2 nd/ear ly i st

mi l lenn iu m B .C . i n S he t land a re q ui te of ten a ssocia ted w i th s tone a rd p oin ts. T he o va l h ouses o f B unyie loose , N ess o f G ru ting , S u mburgh , Wi ltrow , J ar lshof a nd C roos o f Voi l ( see a bove , p . 1 a nd C a ta logue ) p roduced s tone p oin ts;

c er ta in ly a l l

s evera l p o in ts n ow i n museu m c o l lect ions were f ound

a t B enston , C lu m lie , G ir lsta , L ingness, Q uenda le a nd I slesburgh , a nd a t a l l t hese p laces a re o va l h ouses, a ccord ing t o C a lder 's l i st o f "Neo li thic" h ouses ( Ca lder 1 955-6 a nd 1 962-3 ) .

The o va l h ouses a t Ward o f Hoor in , Peer ie

R oon ie , I sbister , a nd t he C ru mb le a re r epor ted a s h av ing y ie lded r ude s tone i mp le men ts which q u i te p ossib ly i ncluded s o me a rd p oin ts. t ioned b y M i tche l l ( see a bove , p .

T he t ools men-

8 ) a s c om ing f ro m Braef ie ld , C lu m lie f ro m

a n u nderground s tructure n on-circu lar a nd f u l l o f a shes, p ossib ly c a me f ro m t he o va l h ouse a t C lu m lie .

The " underground b ui ld ing" n ear a c airn a t H ouland

where a rd p oin ts were f ound c ou ld a lso h ave b een a n o va l h ouse ( see Tab le V II I :I I I ) .

A l toge ther p ossibly 1 2 o va l h ouses h ave p roduced s tone p oin ts a nd

t his i s t he l argest c a tegory o f s i tes a ssocia ted w i th a rd p o in ts i nS he t land . No a rd p oin ts a re d ef in i te ly a ssocia ted w i th b urn t mounds i nS het land , b u t t he s hares n ow i n museu m c o l lect ions ( s ee C a ta logue ) f ro m B enston , Bre t tabister , Q uenda le , Tresta , a nd West B urraf ir th migh t h ave b een a ssociat ed w i th t he b urn t mounds which a re k nown t o h ave e xisted a t t hese p laces ( Ca lder 1 962-3 , p p . 7 3-86) .

The b urn t mounds a t Whir lie a nd N estaness a re

r epor ted t o h ave p roduced r ude s tone i mp lemen ts which may h ave i nc luded a rd p o in ts ( see Tab le V I I I :I I I ) .

C a irns h ave o ccasiona l ly p roduced a rd p o in ts —

t he c ha mbered c airn a t B reiw ick , t he c a irn a t H ouster , t he c a irn a t West B urraf ir th a nd t he h ee l-shaped c ha mbered c airn a t I s lesburgh c ou ld b e t he s ource o f t he p oin ts f ro m t hese p laces, a nd t he h ee l-shaped c hambered c a irn a t Pundswa ter ( Ca lder 1 962-3 , p . 6 9 , F ig . 1 4 :9 ) c er ta in ly p roduced a rd p o in ts. The h ee l-shaped h ouses a t S u mburgh a nd S tanyda le p roduced o thers; h ouses a t S u mburgh a nd p ossib ly a t J ar lshof p roduced o thers.

t he r ound

T he u nderground

s tructure a t S afester was t hough t b y Mi tche l l , a nd c er tain ly a ppears f ro m h is i l lustra t ion , t o b e as ou terrain o r e ar th h ouse ( M i tche l l 1 867 , F ig . 1 ) . The I ron A ge s e t t le men t a t U nderhou l l , U nst p roduced s tone a rd p oin ts* ( Sma l l 1 965-6 ) . p roduced o thers.

Ab roch a t T res t c er ta in ly , a nd p oss ibly a no ther a t C lum l ie , The a rd p oin t f ro m Muirsk irk , i n F et lar , i s s aid t o h ave

b een f ound w i th a n I ron Age s herd ( Proc . S oc . An tiq . S cot . 1 968-9 , p . 2 93 ) .

* The a rd p o in ts f ro m U nderhou l l h ave b een s tud ied s ince t he t ime o f wr i t ing . F ive were f ound , t wo f ro m t he b roch p er iod , t hree u nstra ti f ied .

A l l were

q ui te n or ma l i n t ype , o f s o f t s ands tone , e i ther T ype C o r b roken , a nd w ide i n c ross s ec t ion . 2 6

b .

O rkney :

On ly 1 0 a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n O rkney a re d irect ly a ssocia-

t ed w i th s tone s hares ( Tab le V I I I :I I ) .

Two —L idd le a nd B eauquoy —are b urn t

mounds ; t wo a re h abi ta tion s i tes —one o f t he B ronze Age ( Skai l l ) a nd o ne o f t he I ron A ge ( Ca lf o f E day ) .

One b roch s i te h as p roduced a n a rd p o in t ( Burrian ) .

O ne s ta l led c airn ( M idhowe) , t wo c ist g raves a t S t . Andrews a nd o ne a t S andw ick , a nd o ne " grave" a t G ravea t , S tronsay , h ave p roduced o thers.

Ard

p o in ts w ere a lso f ound a t B rodgar a nd S tenness, b u t t here i s n o e vidence t o s how t ha t t hey were i n a ny w ay c onnected w i th t he h enge s i tes. Thus i nS het land , a rd p o in ts a re a ssocia ted most c o m mon ly w i th o va l s tone h ouses ; t hey a re a lso q ui te p oss ibly a ssocia ted w i th b urn t mounds, c er ta in ly w i th h ee l-shaped a nd r ound h ouses a nd w i th h ee l-shaped a nd o ther c airns, a nd p ossibly w i th e ar th h ouses a nd b rochs.

I n Orkney , a rd p oin ts a re a ssocia ted

w i th r ound h ouses, b urn t mounds, c a irns a nd b rochs. The a bove a t te mp t t o e va lua te t he r e la tive i mpor tance o f s tone a rd p o in ts o n d i f feren t t ypes o f s i tes must b e b ased o n t he n u mber o f s i tes o f e ach t ype k nown t o h ave p roduced t he m .

The n u mbers o f a rd p oin ts f ro m e ach s i te a s

s hown i n T ab le V I I I a re i rre levan tto t his e va lua t ion , a s t hese f i gures d epend o n t he n u mber o f t oo ls p reserved a nd g iven t o museu ms f ro m e ach s i te , t he t horoughness a nd e x ten t o f e ach e xcava t ion , e tc . e tc. c .

D a t ing o f a rd p oin ts :

may b e p recise ly d a ted .

F ew o f t he s i tes which h ave p roduced s tone p oin ts

One r ad io-carbon d a te e xi sts f or t he N ess o f G ru t ing

o va l h ouse o f 1 564 b .c . ±1 20 ( Radio-Carbon 1 971 Vol . 1 3 No . 2 , p . 1 77 ) c a lib ra ted t o 2 050-1950 B .C . a pprox ima te ly ( Hensha l l

i n R enfrew 1 974 , p . 1 64) .

T he r ound h ouses a t S kai l l were f ound t o h ave ( unca l ibra ted ) C 14 d a tes o f 1 50 a nd 1 70 b .c . ( Rad io-Carbon 1 974 Vo l . 1 6 No . 3p p . 2 97-8 ) .

The b urn t mound

a t L idd le p roduced t wo C 14 d a tes f ro m c on tex ts wh ich s hou ld s ligh t ly p ostda te t he o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te o f 187+ 1 59 - 1 61 , a nd 1 066 + 1 66 - 1 27 B .C. ( ca libra ted ) ( Hedges 1 974-5 p . 8 2 ) .

The e ar liest a rd t races f ound a t S u mburgh

s ee m t o b e c u t b y p i ts wh ich h ave g iven d a tes b y C 14 o f c . 1 600 b .c .

These

a re , a s f ar a s Ik now , t he o n ly C 14 d a tes o f r e levance t o t he s tone a rd p oin ts, a nd o therw i se we h ave a n ly t he n or ma l s i te a nd a r tefactua l t ypo logy t o p rovide ac hrono logy . Miss H ensha l l c o m men ts o n t he l i ke lihood o f ac onnect ion b e tween t he c ha mbered t o mbs o f S he t land , a l l p ar t o f t he Orkney-Cro mar ty g roup a nd t he e ar liest o f t he o va l s tone h ouses ( Hensha l l 1 963 , p . 1 51) .

S he b ases t his

a rgu men t o n t hree p oin ts: t he i nstances o f i sola ted s et t le men ts o f h ouses a nd f i e lds w i th a c airn i n t he i mmedia te v icin i ty , e .g . I slesburgh , B unyie Hoose a nd Y ox ie ;

t he s i mi lar i ty o f d esign a nd b ui ld ing t echn iques o ft he h ouses a nd t he

c a irns, a s imi lar i ty s een e specia l ly n o t iceab ly i n t he h ee l-shaped b ui ld ing a t S tanyda le ; a nd t he s i mi lar i ty o ft he f i nds made i n t he h ouses a nd i n t he c airns. T he p resence o f Neo li th ic i ncised ware a t t he e ar l ier h ouses, a q uar tz l eafs haped a rrow h ead f ro m S tanyda le h ouse , a nd b e l l b eaker s herds a t t he h ouse a nd " te mp le" s i tes a t S tanyda le s uggest a d a te r ange t hrough t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m . M iss Hensha l l makes t he p oin t t ha t t he o va l h ouse c ou ld h ave l asted a s at ype f or 1 ,000 y ears, f ro m t he e ar liest —e .g . G ru ting — to t he o va l h ouses a t J ar lshof i n which L a te Bronze Age t ype b ronzes were b eing c ast , a nd t ha t t he c a irns w ou ld o n ly b e c on te mporary w i th t he e ar lier h ouses —i .e . l a te 3 rd mi l lenn iu m t o e ar ly 2 nd mi l lenn iu m .

The o va l s tone h ouses were , t herefore , p resu mab ly 2 7

b ui l t f ro m t he e ar ly 2 nd mi l lenn iu m t o t he 7 th/6th c en tury B .C . ( Cun li f fe 1 974 , p . 5 7 ) when b ronzes were b e ing made a t J ar lshof a t wha t a re p robab ly t he l a test o va l h ouses wh ich were t hen r ep laced b y r ound h ouses i n t he L .B .A . Iv i l lage ( Hami l ton 1 956 , p p . 3 2-9 ) .

I ti s i n teresting t o n o te t ha t Ham i l ton s ta tes t ha t ,

o ft he r ound h ouses i n t he L .B .A . v i l lage I , " though a f ew s tone i mp le men ts were r ecovered i n t he f i rst p hase o f t his s e t t le men t , t hey e n t ire ly d isappear i n t he l a ter h istory o f t he v i l lage" ,whereas t he s tone i mp lemen ts were v ery c o m mon i n t he o va l h ouses o f L .B .A . I . B urn t mounds, v ery c o mmon a rchaeo logica l f ea tures o ft he Nor thern I sles, wou ld a ppear , j udg ing f ro m t he sma l l f i nds p roduced b y t he m , C 14 d a tes a nd t her mo-lu m iniscen t d a ting c arr ied o u t o n v arious b urn t mounds ( Hedges 1 974-5) t o d a te f ro m Midd le t o L a te Bronze A ge a nd t he p re-broch I ron A ge — e . 1 ,400-100 B .C.

R ound h ouses were p robab ly b eing b u i l t f ro m t he l a t ter

p ar t o f t he Bronze Age — they a ppear t o o ver lap w i th o va l a nd h ee l-shaped h ouses a t S u mburgh where t hey a re p resu mab ly l a te 2 nd-ear ly I st mi l lenn iu m . The s ta l led c airn a t Midhowe i s p robab ly a f a ir ly l a te e xa mp le —probab ly e ar ly 2 nd mi l lenn iu m ( Hensha l l 1 963 , p . 2 22 ) .

T he s i tes o f t he c ist g raves d escr ibed

b y P e tr ie i n Orkney c anno t b e l oca ted w i th c er ta in ty , b u t t he sma l l s lablined g raves w i th c re ma t ion b uria ls f air ly c o m mon ly f ound i n Orkney , a re p robably Bronze Age i n d a te ( Marw ick 1 952 , p . 2 5) .

Ear th h ouses f ro m t he Nor thern

I s les a re n o tor iously d i f f icu l t t o d a te a nd a ppear t o h ave b een b u i lt f ro m t he Neo l i thic ( Rowregar C ha mbered C a irn i n R ousay ) t hrough t he B ronze A ge ( Jar lshof ) a nd i n to t he I ron Age ( Underhou l l ) .

We c anno t e ven b es ure t ha t

t he u nderground s truc ture a t S afester wh ich p roduced a s tone a rd p oin t was a n e ar th h ouse , a nd we c anno t d a te t he s i te w i th a ny p recision i n a ny c ase . T he b ui ld ing o f b rochs may b e d a ted f ro m a pprox i ma te ly i s t c en tury B . C. t o 2 nd c en tury A .D .

The b roch a t B urr ian wh ich p roduced o ne a rd p oin t i s

o ft he s o lid-based v ar ie ty ( MacGregor 1 972-4 , p . 6 3 ) which w ou ld a ppear t o b e d a teab le t o t he l a te I st c en tury B . C. o r t he e ar ly I st c en tury A .D . ( Mack ie 1 971 , p . 6 8 ) .

Whe ther o r n o t t he a rd p o in t b e longs t o t he p r i mary p hase o f t he

b roch o r t o s econdary o ccupa t ion i s , o f c ourse , i mpossible t o t e l l —the e xcavat ions t ook p lace i n 1 870-1 ( Trai l 1 890 ) .

T he o ne a rd p o in t w h ich was f ound

i n t he l a te d ra in a t S u mburgh , b ui l t when t he h ouse s i tes h ad b een a bandoned , c ou ld b e a s l a te a s t he whee lhouse p eriod .

B rochs t he mse lves, a nd c er ta in ly

whee lhouses, s ee m t o h ave p roduced v ery f ew a rd p oin ts, t hough o ne o f t he s i tes a t S kai l l migh t b e c on te mporary w i th b rochs, a s i td id p roduce b roch p ot tery .

I ts ee ms u n like ly , h owever , t ha t s tone p oin ts were u sed l a ter t han

t he b roch p er iod a nd i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he ir u se was d y ing o u t w i th in t his p er iod .

T hey wou ld , t herefore , o n t he e vidence a bove , s eem t o h ave b een

u sed ma in ly f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m t o w i th in t he s econd h a lf o ft he f i rst mi l lenn iu m B .C. I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t ha t , whi le s tone a rd p oin ts a re f ound u ni form ly t hrough h abi ta t ion s i tes o ft he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m i nS he t la nd , t he t wo f a mous h abi ta tion

s i tes

i n O rkney , S kara Brae , a nd R inyo i n R ousay , d id n o t p roduce

a ny p o in ts a nd n ei ther d id a ny o ft he c a irns o ft he Maes H owe g roup i n O rkney. The b ui lders o f t hese c a irns a nd t he u sers o f t he g rooved ware f ound a t S kara Brae a nd R inyo h ave b een s upposed t o b e t he s a me p eop le b y M i ss Hensha l l ( Hensha l l 1 972 , p p . 2 85-6 ; Smi th i n R enfrew 1 974, p . 1 19) .

2 8

A n a rd p o in t

w as f ound , h owever , a t M idhowe Cairn , as ta l led c a irn wh ich was a pparen t ly ad eve lopmen t o ft he ma in O rkney-Cro mar ty g roup o f c a irns o f t he H ebrides, Ma in land n or th o f t he G rea t G len , Orkney a nd S he t land , ( Hensha l l i n R en frew 1 974 , F ig . 1 9) .

A rd p o in ts a re a lso f ound i n b urn t mounds i n O rkney f ro m

t he mid-1s t mi l lenn iu m a nd , a s Hedges c onv incing ly a rgues ( Hedges 1 974-5 p . 8 2 ) , b urn t mounds a re u sua l ly a ssocia ted w i th p er manen t dwe l ling p laces. I ti s a lso p ossib ly s igni f ican t t ha t , whereas t he s i tes wh ich h ave p roduced l arge q uan t i t ies o f a rd p o in ts i n S he t land c an d a te f ro m a s e ar ly a s 2 ,000 B .C . , t he o n ly t wo s i tes i n Orkney wh ich h ave p roduced a l arge q uan t i ty —Skai l l a nd , a pparen t ly , t he Ca lf o f E day —are b o th r e la t ive ly l a te . d .

D eve lop men t o f Ard p oin ts:

S tone a rd p oin ts wou ld a ppear , t herefore ,

t o h ave b een i n u se i n S he t land f or a t l east o ver 1 ,500 y ears, b u t i ti s v ery d i f f icu l t t o t race a ny d eve lop men t o f t he ir t ype d ur ing t his l eng th o f t ime .

I f

T able V I I I i s r e-exam ined , i tw i l l b e s een t ha t T ypes 1a nd 2 , A , Ba nd C a nd t he d if ference i n h ardness o f s tone o ccur r ando m ly t hrough t he p er iod .

Tab le

I X i s t he r esu lt o f a n a t te mp t t o a na lyse t he n u mbers a nd t ypes o f a rd p o in ts f ound a t t he d if feren t p er iods o f t he s i te a t S u mburgh , b u t t h is a lso was i nc onc lusive .

The s i te a t S u mburgh was i nhabi ted o ver a l ong p eriod o f t ime a nd

a t l east t hree d if feren t h ouse t ypes —an e ar ly o va l h ouse , ah ee l-shaped h ouse a nd r ound h ouses —were f ound .

T he s i te was d ivided f or t he p urpose o f Tab le

I X i n to 1 0 a reas, e xp la ined b e low t he t able , a nd t he n u mbers o f a rd p oin ts o f T ypes 1a nd 2 were e n tered i n to t he c o lu mn a ppropr ia te t o t he a rea i n which ß ey were f ound .

I tc an b e s een t ha t t he l arge ma jor i ty o f p oin ts c a me f ro m

t he l a test r ound h ouse , whereas o n ly t wo were f ound t o c o me f ro m t he e ar liest s tone h ouse o n t he s i te , t he o va l h ouse . T he c haracter ist ics o f t he a rd p oin ts a ppear t o o ccur r ando m ly t hroughou t t he a reas.

I ts hou ld b e

s tressed , h owever , t ha t t he n u mber o f p oin ts wh ich c an b e c a tegori sed f ro m e xcava ted s i tes i s s o sma l l a s t o b e h ard ly s ta tistica l ly s igni f ican t a nd t ha t s o many o ther f actors a re i nvolved t ha t n o c onc lusion c an b e d rawn f ro m t his f a i lure t o a pprecia te a t ypo log ica l d eve lopmen t .

I ti s q ui te p ossib le t ha t e ven

i f at ypo log ica l d eve lop men t h ad t aken p lace i t wou ld n o t s how u p i n s o sma l l an u mber o ft ools. e .

T he d istr ibu t ion :

T he d istr ibu t ion o f s töne a rd p oin ts i n S he t land a nd

O rkney i s s hown o n Maps 1a nd 2 .

C asua l f i nds, e xcava ted f i nds a nd mu l tip le

f i nds a re d istingu ished f ro m o ne a no ther .

The most s trik ing f act t o emerge

i s t he l ow land d istr ibu tion o f t he p oin ts —few a re f ound o n l and o ver 2 00 f t . T he s econd f act i s t ha t t he d istr ibu tion i n S he t land t ends t o b e o n t he a reas o f t he most f er ti le s o i ls.

D unrossness ( sandstone ) a nd T ing-wa l l a nd Wa l ls a re

l ow l ying ( l i mestone ) a reas wh ich h ave c oncen tra tions o f s tone p oin ts, I ti s s carce ly s urprising t ha t maps s how ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f c a irns, N eo li thic h ouses a nd b urn t mounds i nS he t land ( Ca lder 1 962-3 , F igs. 1 2 , 1 5 a nd 1 8 ) s hou ld s how s i mi lar c oncen tra t ions, t hough w i th s o me d i f ferences.

C airns

a ppear t o b e most h eavi ly c oncen tra ted i n Wa l ls a nd i n U n st a nd F e t lar , a nd D unrossness a nd T ingwa l l a re n o t e specia l ly h eavi ly c overed .

The c a irns

t end t o b e o n p ro m inen t h i l ls ( Hensha l l 1 963 , p . 1 38 ) . Ca lder ' s map s how ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f "Neo li thic" h ouses h as more s i mi lar i t ies— w i th c oncen trat i ons i n D unrossness a nd Wa l ls, t he s ou thern p ar t o f N or th maven , N esting a nd Wha lsay , a nd t he d istr ibu t ion map o f b urn t mounds r e inforces t hi s p at tern . 2 9

A ccording t o H edges ( Hedges 1 974-5 , p . 7 9 ) b urn t mounds b o th i n Orkney a nd S he t land t end t o b e s e t n ear wa ter a nd p ea t d eposi ts, a nd o n g ood , l ow l y ing a gr icu l tura l l and o n a reas c o mposed o f t he s of ter s edimen tary r ocks ( Hux table 1 976 , p p . 4 -11) . The d istr ibu tion o f a rd p oin ts i n O rkney c an a lso b e s een t o b e c oncen trat ed i n l ow l y ing l and , u sua l ly n ear a wa ter s upp ly , t hough , a s O rkney i sg eol og ica l ly s i mp ler , t he b edrock b eing a l most i nvariab ly midd le o ld r ed s andstone a nd more f er t i le a nd l ow l y ing t han S he t land , t he c on trast b e tween t erra in where p oin ts a re f ound a nd where t hey a re n o t i s l ess d ra ma t ic .

A s i s u sua l

when d istr ibu t ion maps a re u sed , a word o f w arn ing must b e g iven c oncern ing t heir r e liabi li ty .

The ma jori ty o f t he a rd p oin ts i n museu m c o l lect ions h ave

b een b rough t i n , i ndividua l ly , b yv ar ious f i nders a s c asua l f i nds, a nd t hus t heir d istr ibu t ion d epends t o s o me e x ten t o n t he e n thusias m o f f i e ld wa lkers, t he d istance f ro m t heir h o mes t o a museu m , a nd a lso o n t he l and t ype .

S tones

l y ing o n t he s urface o f l and t o b e c u l tiva ted w i l l o bviously b e f a ir ly r eadi ly f ound .

O ther a reas w i th a t hick d eposi t o f p ea t o ver lying p rehi stor ic g round

s urfaces a nd e xp loi ted b y p ea t c ut t ing f or f ue l w i l l a ga in y ie ld f i nds, w hereas s i mi lar p ea t a reas l ess d ense ly i nhabi ted a nd t herefore u nexp loi ted w i l l r e main b arren o f a rchaeo log ica l f inds. The d if ference i n n u mbers, b o th o f a rd p oin ts a nd o f s i tes o n which t hey a re f ound , b e tween O rkney a nd S he t land i s , h owever , t oo g rea t t o b e e xp la ined away mere ly b y t he u nre liabi li ty o f d istr ibu t ion maps ( see Tab les Ma a nd I Ib ) ; t he e xp lana t ion f or t he g rea ter f requency o f o ccurrences i n S he t land , a nd t heir a pparen t c o mp le te n on-appearance e lsewhere i n Br i ta in , e ven i nt he N or thern ma in land o fS co t land , must b e s ough t e lsewhere .

S tevenson s uggests t ha t t he

s carci ty o f h ardwood i n S he t land ( S tevenson 1 960 , p . 2 ) may a ccoun t f orthe u se o ft he l arge n u mber o f s tone i mp le men ts .

M iss H ensha l l s uggests t ha t t he

s tone s hare " evo lved among a p eop le who were u sed t o h eavy w ork i n s tone , a nd t he weigh t o ft he s tone migh t i t se lf h ave b een a n a dvan tage i n p lough ing" . ( Hensha l l i n Ca lder 1 955-6, p . 3 96) . The sma l l q uan t i ty o f wood e xcava ted o n e ar ly s i tes i n t he N or thern I s les h as u sua l ly b een s upposed t o b e d r if twood .

T he d oor p osts o f t he h ee l-shaped

b u i lding a t S tanyda le were made o f s pruce ( Ca lder 1 949-50, p . 1 91 ; P P . 1 51-3 ;

S co t t 1 951 ,

G raham 1 952 , p p . 1 33-7 ) a nd wou ld a ppear t o h ave c o me f ro m

Nor th Amer ica .

Wood f ound o n t he e xcava t ions a t S kara Brae was a lso f ound

t o b e d rif twood f ro m N or th Amer ica ( i nfor ma t ion f ro m Mr . P . B uck land ) . I f t here was a d if ference i n t he q uan t i ty o f f ores t c over , e specia l ly o f h ardwood , b e tween Orkney a nd S he t land , t his migh t e xp lain t he d i f ference i n q uan t i t ies o f s tone p o in ts, b u t t here i s , t o my k now ledge , n o e vidence f or t h is. I t may b e r e levan t t o p o in t o u t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f Orcad ian s tone p oin ts a ppear t o b e l a te i n d a te c o mpared w i th t he l onger d a te r ange o f t hose f ro m S he t land .

Th is f act may b e p ure ly b ecause o ft he d i f ference i n o ur k now ledge

o f e ar ly h abi ta t ion s i tes i n O rkney a nd S he t land .

We k now o f s o f ew h ab i ta t ion

s i tes o f e ar ly d a te i n Orkney a nd n one a t a l l w h ich may b e r e la ted t o t he O rkneyCro mar ty c ha mbered c a irn g roup i n Orkney , i n c on trast t o t he l arge n u mbers o f h ouse s i tes f ro m S he t land which Miss Hensha l l c onnects w i th t he S he t land c ha mbered c a irns.

3 0

i x .

C o mpara t ive Ma ter ia l

a .

O ther s hares:

A l though t he s tone a rd s hares f ro m Orkney a nd S he t land

a ppear t o b e u n ique i n Br i ta in i n t ha t t hey a re o f s tone , a nd i n t heir f or m t hey a re p ossib ly t o ta l ly u n ique , o ther s tone s hares a re k nown .

A f a ir ly l arge

n u mber o f s tone i mp le men ts , o f q ui te d i f feren t t ype a dmi t ted ly , b u t a l most c er ta in ly s hares p robab ly o f ac rook a rd c o me f ro m C en tra l a nd Nor thern E urope , e specia l ly f ro m Nor th G er many a nd D en mark .

Hor izon ta l ly p erfora-

t ed s tone o b jects worn more h eavi ly o n o ne f ace t han t he o ther , of ten w i th a s much a s 1cm o f s tone w orn away c o mp le te ly f ro m t he worn f ace , h ave l ong b een i n terpre ted a s s hares, a nd af ter much l earned d eba te ( Quen ta 1 914 ; S chu macher 1 918 ;

K unke l 1 934 ;

L eser 1 931, p p . 1 33-4 ;

Hö l tker 1 947 ) , i t

s ee ms t ha t t hey h ave f i na l ly b een a ccep ted a s s hares ( G lob 1 951 , p . 12 4 ; 1 939 , p . 5 5 ;

a nd Bren t jes 1 956) .

G lob p oin ts o u t t ha t t he t ype o f wear d isp layed b y

t he s hares i s v ery s i mi lar t o t he wear o n t he H vorslev a rd ;

Bren t jes, a f ter

e xa min ing i n d e tai l t he wear p a t tern o n t he t ips o f t he s tone s hares, s hows h ow t hi s p a t tern c ou ld n o t h ave b een p roduced b y u se a s a n a dze o r ma t tock , b u t i tc ou ld h ave b een p roduced b y wear a s as hare i n a n a rd .

T he f ew s peci-

mens o ft hese s hares wh ich Iwas a b le t o e xamine — there i s af i ne e xamp le i n R anders Museu m , Den mark—cer ta in ly b ore a wear p a t tern q ui te i nco mpa t ib le w i th u se a s a n a dze o r ma t tock , a nd Is ee n o r eason why t he t oo ls s hou ld n o t b e i n terpre ted a s s hares f rom a c rook a rd .

T he s hares a re c haracteristic o f

t he B andkera m ik c u l ture , o ne o ft he o ldest a gr icu l tura l c u l tures f ound i n E urope , a nd i ti s p resu mab ly t o t h is c u lture t ha t t h is i nven tion s hou ld b e c redi ted ( Wa terbo lk i n S truever 1 971 , p p . 3 48-54) .

T he s et t le men ts c onnected w i th

t his c u l ture , p robably 5 th m i l lenn iu m i n d a te , a re c oncen tra ted i n t he f er ti le a nd s tone less l oess s oi ls o f C en tra l Europe ;

t heir s pread i n to S ou thern

S candinav ia i s marked b y af ew s tone s hares b eing f ound i n Denmark a nd S ou thern Sweden , b u t G lob s uggests t ha t , t hough t he s hares were u sefu l o n t he s tone-free l oess s o i ls o f N . G ermany , t hey wou ld h ave b een d if f icu l t t o u se o n t he s ton ier D an ish s oi l .

T his, h e s uggests, i s why l ess a re f ound i n D en-

mark w here wooden s hares wou ld h ave b een p referred .

This i s a n i n terest ing

p o in t a s i ti s i n f act t he t o ta l r everse o ft he s i tua t ion i n t he Nor thern I s les where t he s tone s hares a re more c o m mon o n t he s ton ier s oi ls o fS he t land t han O rkney . a rd .

T he s tone s hares o f Europe a re a l most c er ta in ly t hose f ro m a c rook

B ren t jes s uggests p ossible r econstruct ions o ft he a rd i ncorpora ting a

s tone s hare ( Bren t jes 1 956) .

G lob 's r eco r is tn ia ion i s s hown i n my F ig . 3 2a .

S tone s hares h ave a lso b een p ostu la ted f ro m Egyp t ( Har t mann 1 923 , p . 7 9 ) a nd I nd ia ( Mackay 1 938 , p . 3 97 a nd P l . c vi ;

1 948 , p p . 7 , 1 22 a nd 1 32 ) b u t

t hese a re b o th r a ther d ubious i n terpre ta tions.

H ear t-shaped i mp le men ts o f

b asa l t o r l imestone f ro m S yr ia d a t ing f ro m t he B ronze Age were p robably u sed i n a n a rd w i th r ope t rac t ion i n t he s ame way a s t he wooden e xa mp le f ound o n as i te i nt he S a trup Moor b og i n S ch lesw ig-Ho lstein d a ted t o t ransi t iona l Meso li th ic-Neo li th ic ( S teensberg 1 964 ;

1 973 ) .

Ie xamined a s tone o b ject which

migh t b e i n terpre ted a s as tone a rd s hare wh ich h ad b een f ound n ear R i jkho l t i n 1 934 b u t w i th n o a rchaeo logica l d a ting e vidence , a nd wh ich i s n ow i n Maastr ich t Museu m ( F ig . 3 4) .

T he i mp le men t i s 3 4 .4 cm l ong , w i th a t ang 2 6 cm

l ong , 1 .8 cm w ide , r ectangu lar i ns ect ion ;

t he "b lade" ,4 cm w ide a t t he t ang

e nd n arrowed t o ab lun t p o in t a t t he o ther e nd .

3 1

The e nd h ad b een c onsiderab ly

worn o n o ne s ide o n ly , a nd If e l t t ha t t his w ear c ou ld h ave b een t he r esu l t o f t he u se o ft he i mp le men t a s a n a rd s hare i n ab ow a rd .

Co mp le te ly u nda ted

c asua l f inds o f s tone o b jects t en ta t ive ly i n terpre ted a s s hares a re s hown i n t he c a ta logue o ft he museu m o ft he R oya l I r ish A cade my ( Wi lde 1 857 , F ig . 4 5, 8 0 , 8 1 a nd p p , 1 03-4 ) .

G lob s ta tes t ha t s harp s tones f astened t o t he p oin t o f

t he a rd-head were a dvoca ted i n ar ecord f ro m S can ia a s b eing e f fective i n p reven t ing t he wooden p ar ts f ro m wear ing a way s o q uick ly ;

a l so a pparen t ly

a n a rd w i th d oub le s tone s hares was u sed i nt he l a te 1 9 th c en tury a s ap o ta to p lough a t Dah lenburg , H annover ( Ze i tsch . E thno l . XXV I I I ,

1 896 , p . 5 90 ) .

Doub t less o ther r eferences c ou ld b e f ound , b u t e nough h ave b een q uo ted t o s how t ha t t he u se o f s tone i n p lough ing was b y n o means u nknown o n p loughing i mp le men ts u n t i l c o mpara t ive ly r ecen t ly .

I t may b e wor th men t ion ing t ha t I

h ave e xam ined s evera l e xamp les o f t he d if feren t s tone a xe t ypes f ound i n Bri ta in , e specia l ly t he l arge p er fora ted s tone me-ha m mers, i n a n a t temp t t o d iscover wear marks o f at ype wh ich wou ld b e c o mpa t ib le w i th t heir u se i n a n a rd . b .

This a t te mp t was t o ta l ly u nsuccessfu l .

O ther c o mpara tive ma ter ia l :

N one o f t he s tone s hares d escr ibed

a bove a re c lose p ara l le ls t o t he s tone s hares f ro m t he Nor thern I s les a nd f or p ara l le ls i n f or m i ti s n ecessary t o t urn t o b ow a nd b ar s hares o f d if feren t ma ter ia ls.

The wooden b ar s hares o ft he a rds f ro m t he Dan i sh b og f i nds a re

t he most s i mi lar i n s hape a nd l eng th t o t he l onger s tone s hares .

F en ton a lso

c i tes a n i n terest ing 2 0 th c en tury p ara l le l i n t he i ron s ock b ars f or h orse d rawn p loughs p a ten ted i nthe e ar ly 1 900s b y t he p lough mak ing f irm o fS e llars o f Hun t ly ( Fen ton 1 962-3 , p . 2 67 ) .

They a lso were r ibbed o r n o tched f or ab e t ter

g rip o n t he f ra me i n which t hey l ay , a nd t he wear t ha t t hey e xh ib i t i s t he s a me a s o n t he s tone a rd p o in ts a nd o n t he i ron b ar s hares o f p robab ly 4 th c en tury d a te wh ich a re o ccasiona l ly f ound o n R o mano-Br i tish s i tes.

B o th t he R o mano-

Br i t ish b ar s hares a nd t he woodenScand inavian b ar s hares were c erta in ly u sed o n t he b ow a rd a nd i ti s most p robable t ha t t he s tone p oin ts were a lso u sed o n ab ow a rd .

x .

Ard Typesin Prehistor ic Europe

I n o rder t o c lari fy t he c on fusion o f p ar t ia l c lassif ica tion a nd v aried n o me nc la ture o f a rd t ypes, a c o mp lete c lassi f ica t ion s yste m o f p reindus tr ia l t i l lage i mp le men ts was d rawn u p b y S ach ( Sach 1 968 ) b ased o n t he c onstruct iona l t ype o ft he a rds o r p loughs w i th t he ma in c r i ter ion a s t he work ing p ar t o ft he c onstruction —i .e . t he p ar t wh ich c arr ies t he t i l ling wedge a nd wh ich t herefore c annot b e missing i n a ny i mp le men t .

He i l lustra tes t en b asic t ypes

o f c onstruct ion ( shown i n my F ig . 3 5) o f wh ich we w i l l h ave c ause t o c onsider t ype 2 ( t he " body a rd" o f Whi te — Wh i te 1 967 , p . 1 38 ) , t ypes 3 a nd 4 ( bo th v ar ian ts o f wha t G lob c a l ls t he " bow a rd") a nd t ype 8 ( t he "c rook a rd" o f G lob ) .

3 2

I n S ach ' st ype 2 ( F ig . 3 5:2 ) ao ne-p iece s ti l t a nd s o le i s p ierced b y a h or izon ta l b ea m .

This t ype was u sed p ar t icu lar ly i n t he N ear East a nd

Medi terranean a reas a nd w i l l b e c onsidered l a ter i n c onnect ion w i th t he R o man p lough .

T ypes 3 a nd 4 ( F ig . 3 5 :3 a nd 4 ) h ave a c urving b eam , t he

l ower p ar t o f wh ich i sp ierced e i ther b y al ong , t h in s ti lt a nd s hare s lan t ing t o t he e ar th a t a n a cu te a ng le ( t ype 3 ) o r b y ac urving s ti l t a nd s hare which p asses h or izon ta l ly a long t he g round ( t ype 4 ) .

B o th t hese t ypes a re k nown

f ro m wooden b og f i nds a nd r ock e ngrav ings o f p rehistor ic p eriods i n Nor thern E urope , a nd t hree wooden a rd-heads o ft ype 3 a nd a b ea m which c ou ld e i ther b e t ype 4 o r 3h ave b een f ound i n Br i ta in .

S ach ' st ype 8 , t he " c rook a rd" ,

i s o ne i n wh ich t he s ti l t a nd b ea m a re mor t ised i n to a h or izon ta l s o le ( G lob ' s " so le a rd" )o r an a tura l ly f ork ing b ranch i s u sed f or a b eam a nd h or izon ta l s o le i n to w h ich a s t i l t i s mor tised .

This t ype i s k nown w ide ly f ro m p reh istor ic

Med i terranean a nd European c on tex ts, f ro m p ea t b ogs i n Nor thern Europe a nd t here a re r ock e ngravings o f wha t a ppear t o b e c rook a rds i n Sweden . The o n ly wooden p ar ts o f a rds which a re d a tab le t o t he p rehistor ic p er iod i n Bri ta in w ou ld a ppear t o b e t hose o f t he b ow a rd t ype , S ach t st ype 3 /4.

T hree

a rrow-shaped a rd-heads, o ne f ro m Mi lton L och d a ted t o 4 00B .C . ±1 00, a nd t wo f ro m V irdi f ie ld , S he t land , u nda ted , a nd a wooden b eam f ro m L och maben d a ted t o 8 0 B . C. + 1 00 ( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 969 , p . 1 28 a nd 1 972 , p . 6 4) s how t ha t t he b ow a rd was c er ta in ly u sed i n Bri ta in i n t he p reh istor ic p eriod .

The

i ron s hares u sed i n t he I ron Age a re a ga in a l most c er ta in ly t ips o f b ar s hares ( Mann ing 1 964) , u sed o n b ow a rds.

The wear marks o n t he s tone s hares s how

t ha t t he s hares must h ave p ene tra ted t he e ar th a t c . 3 0° ( F ig . 3 6) a nd t he most o bvious t ype wh ich w i l l a l low a l ong s hare t o p ene tra te a t t his a ng le i s S ach l s t ype 3 .

T he e xper imen ts o f Hansen w i th r econstructions o f b ow a rds n o t o n ly

p roduced w ear o n t he wooden b ar s hare o f i den t ica l t ype t o t he wear o n t he s tone s hares ( Hansen 1 969, F ig . 2 4) , b u t a lso p roduced s i mi lar a rd t races i n t he g round t o t hose e xcava ted a t S u mburgh a nd S kai l l which were p resu mab ly c rea ted b y t he s tone a rd p o in ts.

A s y e t , t he o n ly e vidence t ha t we h ave f or

t he a rd i n B r i ta in i s f or t he b ow a rd , a l though ( s ee b e low ) a l terna t ive i n terpret a tions f or t he h ousing o f i ron p o in ts c an b e made . Th is i s n o t t o s ay t ha t t he c rook a rd o r e ar lier f or ms o f a rds l i ke t he D abergo tz p lough o f e ar ly medieva l d a te ( G lob 1 951 p . 1 6) d id n ot e xist i n Br i ta in , b u t we h ave a s y e t n o e vidence f or t he m .

Ir ecen t ly e xa m ined a wooden o b ject f ro m O de l l , B edfordshire wh ich

migh t p ossibly b e t he r ema ins o f ac rook a rd , t hough p ersona l ly , If ound i t u nconv incing .

I ti sp robable t ha t f u ture e xper imen ts w i th a rds a nd s tone a rd

p oin ts may s uggest t ha t d if feren t t ypes o f a rds were more l i ke ly t o h ave h oused t he s tone p o in ts t han o thers , b u t e ven t his c an , o f c our se , b e o n ly a s uggest ion . F or t he t ime b eing , t herefore , t he t e mp ta t ion t o t urn t he p ages o f L eser p icki ng o u t a rd b odies wh ich migh t h ave h e ld t he s tone p oin ts w i l l b e r esisted , a nd

3 3

t he a ctua l e vidence , s parce t hough i ti s w i l l b e u sed t o s uggest t ha t t he s tone p oin ts were h e ld i n at ype 3b ow a rd o ft he s or t f ound a t Donnerup land , DAtrup a nd H endr iks mose i n D enmark . G lob h as d escr ibed t he N . E uropean f i nds o fb ow a rds o r t ype 3 a rds k nown u p t o 1 950 ( G lob 1 951) a nd t en ta t ive ly p laces t he m i n o rder o f d eve lopmen t f ro m t he s i mp le S varvarbo t o t he s tructura l ly more c omp lex a nd e f f icien t D onnerupl and . This d eve lopmen t , h e s ays, i s n o t ac hrono logica l o ne . I ti s r easona ble t o s uppose t ha t t hese a rd f i nds were l a id i n t he p ea t b ogs f or s ome r i tua l p urpose , p ossib ly a s o f fer ings ;

i t may b e t ha t t he p a tched a ppearance o f s o me —

e .g . t he D0s trup a rd —and t he o ver s imp le c onstruct ion o f o thers, wh ich a ppear t o h ave h ard ly b een u sed a t a l l a nd wh ich w ere o f s o s i mp le a c onstruct ion t ha t t hey wou ld h ave b een most i nef f icien ti n u se , e .g . —Svarvarbo a nd Norre Smedeby —were d ue t o t hese a rds h aving a p ure ly r i tua l f unc t ion r a ther t han t o t he ir b eing o f a n e ar ly s tage i n t he d eve lopmen t o ft he a rd . most c o mp le te a rdsof t ype 3 c onstruct ion a re t he D 9 Hendr iks mose a rds.

A t a ny r a te , t he

; s t r a p ,D onnerup land a nd

The D q (strup a rd ( F ig . 3 3a ) f ound i n Nor th J u t land i n 1 884 c onsisted o f f i ve p ar ts (W i l ler 1 900 ;

L a Bau me 1 932 ;

G lob 1 945 a nd 1 951 ; S teensberg

1 936 , p p . 2 51-2 ) ; t he b ea m a nd t he h ook , t he s t i lt e nd ing i n amassive a rdh ead a nd f i t ted w i th a h and le , a nd a f oreshare .

The l ong wooden b ar s hare

was p o in ted a nd worn a tb o th e nds —i .e . i t was r eversible —and i n t he a rd i t was p osi t ioned o n t op o ft he a rd-head ( see F ig . 3 2b :1 f or c ross s ect ion t hrough t he b ea m) . T he a rd-head h ad a l ong s lo t o n i t s u pper s urface i n which t he b ar s hare r ested ( G lob 1 951 , F ig . 4 1) . When f ound , t he a rd h ad awedge ( G lob 1 951 , F ig . 3 6) wh ich was f ound i n s i tu w i th t he a rd a nd wh ich w as s hown o n t he o r ig ina l s ke tch made b y t he f i nder b u t which was s ubsequen t ly l ost . T h is wedge was f ound t o b e i ndispensab le t o t he f unct ion ing o f as i mi lar a rd b y e xper iment ing w i th a r econstruct ion .

The D r istrup a rd h as b een d a ted t o 6 10 b .c . ±1 00

( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 969 , p . 1 28 ) . The more r ecen t f i nd o ft he H endr iks mose a rd ( F ig . 3 3c ) d ur ing p ea t c ut t ings i n V iborg , J u t land i n 1 957 ( Hansen H .-0 . 1 969 , p . 6 9 ) i s s i mi lar t o t he D f dstrup a rd i n t ha t i td oes n o t h ave a n a rrow-shaped ma in s hare , b u t a b roadened a rd-head wh ich i s i n o ne p iece w i th t he s ti l t , a nd h as a b ar-shaped f oreshare p oin ted a nd worn a t o ne e nd , b u t r a ther t hick a nd b lun t a t t he o ther . An o tch h as b een c u t i n t he u pper s ide o f t he s ti l t n ear t he b ack o f t he mor tise , p resu mab ly f or a wedge o r t igh ten ing k ey n ow l ost , wh ich wou ld p reven t t he f oreshare f rom mov ing i n t he mor tise ( F ig . 3 2b :3 a nd F ig . 3 3 ) . b een d a ted t o 3 50 b .c . ±1 00 ( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 968 , p . 5 6) .

This a rd h as

T he D onnerup land a rd ( F ig . 3 3b a nd F ig . 3 2b , 2 ) f ound d ur ing p ea t c u t t ing o pera t ions i n C en tra l J u t land i n 1 944 was more c o mp lex ow ing t o t he a dd i tion o f a n a rrow-shaped ma inshare ( G lob 1 951 , F ig . 2 9 a nd 1 945 , F igs. 1 -3 ) . I t i s a n a rd o f f undamen ta l ly s imi lar d esign t o t he Djstrup , b u t t he Donnerup land a rd , i nstead o f h av ing a s t i l t which w idened t o a n a rd-head w h ich s erved t he f unct ion o f a ma in s hare , h ad t wo s epara te p ieces.

T he s ti l t t er mina ted i n a

sma l l a rd-head wh ich w idened j ust s uf f icien t ly t o p reven t t he s t i l t f ro m c om ing o ut o ft he mor tise , a nd t he s oi l t urn ing was p erformed b y as epara te a rrows haped s hare wh ich l ay b e tween t he b ar f oreshare a nd t he s hor ter a rd-head . T his s y tem r educed b o th t he weigh t o ft he a rd a nd t he f r iction w h ich must h ave 3 4

b een g rea t w i th t he l ow-sea ted u nw ie ldy a rd-head o ft he Djstrup mode l , b u t i nevi tab ly a l so r educed t he s tabi li ty o ft he s hare i n t he b ea m a s i th ad n o s o lid o ne-p iece a rd-head a nd s ti l t t o r est u pon . Th is i nstabi li ty was c oun tered i nt hree w ays : f irst ly , t he n o tch c u t o n t he l ower f ace o ft he a rrow-shaped s hare t ang c orresponded t o as i mi lar n o tch i n t he u nderside o ft he s ti l t , t o w h ich i tw as p resu mably s ecured b y l ash ing ; s econd ly , t he t wo s quare h o les o n t he t op f ace o ft he a rrow-shaped s hare o r ig ina l ly h e ld t enons t o k eep t he f oreshare i np osi t ion ( par t o fo ne o ft he t enons s t i l l s urvives) ;

a nd t h ird ly ,

an o tch o n t he u pper s ide o ft he t ang o ft he a rrow-shaped s hare o r ig ina l ly must h ave h e ld a wedge t o p reven t t he t wo s hares mov ing i n t he b ea m mor tise . A ga in , b o th e nds o ft he wooden f oreshare were worn , a nd t he a rrow-shaped s hare h ad t races o f wear o n t he p oin t , p ar t icu lar ly o n t he r igh t h and s ide , s how ing t ha t t he a rd h ad b een t i l ted t o t he r igh t d ur ing p lough ing . x i .

T he S tone S hares i n U se

I t i s d i f f icu l t t o k now whe ther t he s tone a rd p o in ts f unctioned a s p art o f t he o n ly s hare o n t he a rd o r whe ther t he a rd h ad a s epara te ma in s hare a s w e l l ;

i ti s , o f c ourse, q ui te p ossib le t ha t d ur ing t he l ong p er iod i n wh ich t he

s tone s hares were u sed, t he c onstruct ion o ft he a rd d eve loped c onsiderab ly . Two wooden a rrow-shaped a rd-heads f ound i nt he p ea t a t V irdi f ie ld , S he t land w ere n o ted b y F en ton ( Fen ton 1 968 , p . 1 51) t o h ave o n t he u pper f ace o ft he a rd-heads a r ounded g roove s e t l ong i tud ina l ly a long t he m . H e a rgues t ha t t h is g roove migh t h ave b een c rea ted b y t he p ressure o f o ne o ft he s tone b ar s hares o nt he ir s ur face d ur ing p lough ing .

As imi lar g roove was f ound o n t he

u pper s ur face o ft he lVstrup a rd-head a nd o n t he Mi l ton L och a rd-head ( see b e low , p .4 2 ) . .

T he g rooves, f a in t t hough t hey a re o n t he V irdi f ie ld a rd-heads

a re o f s uf f icien tw id th a nd c urva ture t o h o ld t he w ider t ype o f s tone s hare ( F igs. 3 7 a nd 3 8 ) . They c ou ld , o f c ourse , h ave b een p roduced b y t he p ressure o f ac onven t iona l wooden b ar s hare o n t he a rd-head —i t i s u n for tuna te t ha t t he f i nd d id n o t i nc lude a f oreshare o f e i ther ma teria l . The p lough ing e xper imen ts o f H ansen w i th a r econstruct ion o ft he H endriksmose a rd ( Hansen 1 969 , F igs . 1 2-14) s howed t ha t t he f oreshare must h ave b een p laced we l l f orward o ft he ma in s hare o r a rd-head t o e nab le t he a rd t o r e ta in a n e f fect ive ly s harp p oin t w i th which t o c u t i n to t he g round ( a s d rawn o n F ig . 3 3c) . I ft he a rds were u sed a s t hey a re u sua l ly d rawn—i .e . w i th t he e nd o f t he f oreshare a nd a rd-head b e ing a t t he s ame p osi t ion , t he d ep th o f f urrow was r educed , t he p rocess o f p lough ing was e x treme ly d if f icu l t , a nd t he t wo p o in ts q u ick ly b ecame t ang led w i th weeds a nd r oo ts. H e s howed t ha t ap osi tion c . 1 0 cm i n f ron t o ft he a rd-head was most s u i tab le f or t he p oin t o ft he b ar s hare. T he l eng th o f wear o nt he s tone s hares wou ld c er ta in ly s uppor t t he h ypo thesi s t ha t t he s hares j ut ted o u t s o me d istance b eyond t he a rd-head ( see F ig . 3 9) . How t he s tone s hares wou ld h ave b een h e ld i n p osi t ion i nt he a rd i s more d i f f icu l t t o s ay .

I ft he a rd p oin ts t he mse lves a re e xamined f or e vidence o n

t he way i nw h ich t hey were u sed, v ar ious f actors may b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . T he l eng th o ft he s tone p o in ts a verages a bou t 3 0 cm .

Type A p o in ts w i th wear

o n b o th e nds a re 2 7-45 cm i n l eng th i f we omi t t he e x traord inar i ly l ong 9 7 cm o ft he t oo l f ro m t he S k iurd H i l ls. T ype A t oo ls a l toge ther h ave a n a verage l eng th o fc . 3 7 cm , T ype B o fc . 2 8 cm a nd T ype C o f C . 1 9 cm . 3 5

The H endriks-

mose a rd h as a f oreshare o f c . 7 2 cm , t he D onnerup land o f 1 09 cm , b o th c onsiderab ly l onger t han a ny o ft he s tone p oin ts, s ave t he e ccen tric S k iurd H i l ls t oo l . S econd ly , t he a reas where t he a rd p o in ts a re p ecked c an p resu mab ly i n d ica te a reas wh ich i t was i mpor tan t t ha t t he s tone s hou ld g r ip , i f we may a ss u me t ha t t he p eck ing o ft he s urface was d one t o r ender a ma ter ia l wh ich wou ld n a tura l ly wear t o a smoo th , s l ippery s urface s uff icien t ly r ough t o g r ip t o , r a ther t han t o s l ide f rom , wha tever wa s h o ld ing i ti n p osi t ion . P eck ing o ccurs o n t he b o t to m f ace a nd s ides a nd , i fp resen t o n t he u pper f ace a t a l l , i s c onf ined t o a reas f ur ther d own t he t runk .

P eck ing c an s tar t a s n ear a s 3

cm f ro m t he t i p o n t he b o t tom f ace a nd s ides, a s s hown i n F ig . 1 1.

T h is would

i mp ly t ha t t he s tone f oreshare d id n o t j u t o u t f ro m t he a rd-head a s f ar a s Hansen s uggests t ha t t he wooden f oreshare o ft he Hendriks mose a rd d id . The p osi t ion o ft he p eck ing i mp les t ha tt he s hares were h e ld i n p osi t ion i n t he mort i se o ft he b eam w i th t h is b o t to m f ace h e ld o n t he t op f ace o ft he main s hare o r a rd-head , wh ich may h ave b een e quipped i n s o me way w i th c ombina tions o f g rooves, n o tches o r l ash ings t o s ecure t hem . Waist ing o n a rd p oin ts, t hough n o t c o mmon ly f ound , must h ave h ad s o me f unct ion , a nd i ti s p ossib le t ha t t he waists o n t he s idesof t he t oo ls were u sed t o h ouse t enons t o k eep t he p o in t i n p lace o n t he a rd-head a s u sed o n t he D onn erup land a rd . f rom t he t ip ;

Wa ists, when t hey o ccur , t end t o b e f ound f rom 1 0 t o 2 0 cm

o n ly o ne p o in t h as a wa ist e xcessive ly f ar f ro m t ha t measure-

men t ( N .M .A .S . AC 6 48 , O rkney , F ig . 1 2 ) , a t 3 0 cm f ro m t he t ip . I ti s s trange t ha t t here i s n ever a ny t race o f wear o n t hese wa ists a s t he f r ic t ion a t t h is p o in t wou ld p resumab ly h ave b een g rea t i ft hey were u sed t o f i t o n t o t enons o r l ash ings o f s ome s ort . S o me a rd p o in ts s how a s igni f ican t c hange i n c ross-sec t ion s o me way d own t he t runk . The p o in t f ro m Tr iesta , s hown i n F ig . 2 8b f or e xa mp le , a nd o ne f ro m S ka i l l ( F ig . 1 7 ) b o th a l ter i n s hape o f c ross-section a t 1 2-14 cm , a nd t h is c haracter ist ic, a nd a more c rude s hap ing o ft he t runk b e low c . 1 5 cm f rom t he t i p i s q ui te c o m mon o n p oin ts. S tone a rd p o in ts a verage 9 -1 1 5 cm o f wear o n t heir u pper s urfaces, b u t i ts hou ld b e r emembered t ha t t his i s c ert a in ly a l ow a verage ( see a bove , p . 1 8 ) a s o n ly s l igh t ly worn t oo ls wi l l h ave b een i nc luded i nthe a verage . Exper imen ts w i th r econstruc t ions o f a rds w i th wooden s hares c an t e l l u s l i t t le a bou t t he f easibi li ty o ft he r econstruc t ion w i th s tone a rd p oin ts, a s t he w eigh t d if feren t ia l b e tween a l ong s tone f oreshare a nd a s imi lar o b jec t o f w ood i sv ery g rea t . T he e ssen t ia l ma t ter o fb a lance wou ld b e a f fected c onside rab ly b y t he t ransla t ion o f o ne p ar t f ro m o ne ma teria l i n to a no ther . T en ta t ive s uggest ions f or t he r econstruct ion o f s tone a rd p o in ts w i th in t he a rd may b e s een i n F ig . 3 9 .

F ig . 3 9a s hows t he s hare u sed a s t he e n tire f ore-

s hare w i th o r w i thou t a ma in s hare . T he o b jection t o t his r econstruction i s o bvious ly t ha t f ew s tone s hares h ave b een f ound l ong e nough t o a l low t h is t o b e v a lid .

Probab ly o n ly t he 9 7 cm l ong s hare a nd N .M .A.S. AC 6 48, t he l ong

t oo l w i th a c o l lar ( F ig . 1 2 ) c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s s hown i n F ig . 3 0a i , w i th wedges d r iven i n to t he c o l lared a rea i n t he mor tise t o s ecure t he s hare— the s hare i s n ow b roken a cross t he c o l lar a nd i t s e n t ire l eng th i su nknown .

3 6

F ig . 3 9b s hows t he a rd p o in t r econstructed a s t he o n ly s hare s e t i n to a s ocke t , e i ther h o l lowed o u t ( bi )o r made o f t wo p ieces w i th a g roove c u t i n e ach a nd t hen b ound t oge ther a nd f ur ther s ecured w i th t enons o r wedges ( b i ) . F ig . 3 9b i i i s t he o n ly r econ struct ion which t akes i n to a ccoun t a l l t he p o in ts o ut lined a bove . T he a verage l eng th o f p oin ts —c . 3 0 cm—is a bou t t he l eng th f ro m t he t i p o ft he f oreshare t o t he e n try i n to t he mor t ise a s t he d raw ings o f , f or e xamp le , t he H endr iks mose a rd s hows. T he l eng th o f wear v is ib le o n t he t op s urface o f a rd p o in ts i s u sua l ly c . 1 0 cm — i .e . t his l eng th must b e l ef t e xposed ; t he c hange o f s hape o ft he c ross-sect ion o f a rd p o in ts, o r t he p o in t a t wh ich t hey a re waisted , i su sua l ly c . 1 4 cm f ro m t he t ip ; a nd t he s ides a nd b ot to m f ace a re p ecked 2 -5 cm f ro m t he t ip . I n t he c ase o f F ig . 3 9b i i , t he p o in t i s r est ing o n wood a long t he b ot to m a nd s ides u p t o 2 -5 cm f ro m t he t ip , i s e nc losed c o mp le te ly i n w ood f ro m c . 1 2 cm , a nd h as wedges d r iven i n a t c . 1 4 cm ;

i ti s s uggested t ha t t h is r econstruc tion migh t h ave b een t he o ne u sed

b y t he makers o ft he s tone a rd p o in ts.

F ig . 3 9c s hows t he s tone p o in t i ncor-

p ora ted a s p ar t o f ac o mposi te f oreshare w i th t he b ack p ar t o f t he s hare b e ing o f wood , wh ich i s a no ther p ossibi l i ty . I t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o e xper imen t w i th t hese r econstruct ions t o s ee i fa ny o ft hem were i n a ny way p racticab le . x i i .

S tone S hares :

A l terna t ive I n terpre ta t ions

Throughou t t he t ex t s o f ar , i th as b een a ssu med t ha t t he s tone t oo ls a re i ndeed s hares o r p ar ts o f s hares.

Hav ing n ow d escr ibed t he a rd p o in ts, t heir

wear marks, c haracter ist ics, d a te , d istr ibu tion a nd t heir p ossib le r econstruct ion i n a n a rd , we s hou ld l ook f urther i n to t he e vidence f or t heir b e ing s hares r a ther t han o ther t ypes o f i mp le men ts. Their s i mi lar i ty i n b asic s hape t o t he b ar s hares o f t he w ooden b ar a ids o f p reh istor ic b og f i nds i n S candinavia a nd t o t he i ron b ar s hares o f t he R o mano-Bri t ish p er iod h as a lready b een c o m ment ed o n , a s h as t he f act t ha t t heir p ecked s ur face i s p ara l le led b y t he n o tched s urfaces o ft he e ar ly 2 0 th c en tury i ron b ar s hares d escr ibed b y F en ton . T he ma in e vidence f or t heir b e ing i n terpre ted a s s hares must , h owever , b e t heir wear p a t tern . The e xper imen ts o f H ansen w i th a r econstruction o ft he Hendr iks mose a rd p roduced a p a t tern o f wear marks o n t he wooden f oreshare i den t ica l t o t he wear p at tern o n t he s tone t oo ls ( Ha n sen 1 969 , F igs. 2 2 a nd 2 4) w i th a l ong a rea o f p o lish o n t he u pper f ace , " the c haracter ist ic s lan t ing wear t ha t c o mes f ro m p lough ing i n s tone-free s oi l" ( F ig . 4 4a ) , t he s lan t ing b o tto m a ng le , a nd w ha t Hansen c a l ls t he ' fron t wear ' —i .e . t he f ray ing o f t he e dge a nd t he f or ma t ion o f ap erpend icu lar f l a t f ace c aused b y c on tact w i th s tones .

T he e quiva len t o ft he f ron t wear o n t he s tone t oo ls i s t he c h ipp ing s o

f requen t ly s een o n t heir t i ps.

I ts eems c er ta in t ha t t he w ear p a t tern o n t he

s tone t oo ls was c rea ted b y mov ing t he t oo ls f orward a t a n a ng le t hrough a f r ia ble ma ter ia l a nd a n i n terpre ta tion a s as hare s eems more l i ke ly t han a ny o ther . I ti s p ossib le t ha t t he s hor t p oin ts b e longed t o s ome o ther t ype o f e ar th c u l t iva t ing t oo l—for i nstance , ah arrow .

T hey c ou ld h ave b een f i xed

i n to a w ooden f rame a t a n a ng le s o t ha t , when t he f rame was d ragged f orward , t he wear marks p roduced o n t he s tone wou ld h ave b een t he s ame .*

T he s tone

* I ti s e ven c once ivab le t ha t t he s tone p oin t , moun ted i n a wooden h o lder o f s o me s or t was h and h e ld a s ac u l t iva t ing t ool , p ushed a t a n a ng le t hrough t he g round , a l though If i nd t his r a ther u n l ike ly . 3 7

t oo ls a re of ten f ound i n museu ms d escr ibed a s a xes, a dzes o r ma t tocks f ro m t he N or thern I s les.

I ti s q u i te c lear f ro m t he wear p a t tern t ha t t hey c ou ld n o t

p ossib ly h ave b een u sed i n t his way . The C a ta logue d oes d escr ibe a f ew t oo ls wh ich h ave b een r e-used a s o ther t ypes o f i mp lemen ts when t heir u se a s s hares h as t ermina ted—presu mab ly b ecause t hey h ave b roken . u se a s ah am merstone o r whe tstone c an b e p ostu la ted . x i i i .

Occasiona l ly, a r e-

Exper imen ta l E vidence

H ansen 's e xper imen ts g ave v ar ious o ther r esu l ts which may b e

a na logous

t o t he p erformance o ft he a rds wh ich u sed t he s tone p o in ts. H e f ound t ha t a n a ng le o fp ene tra tion o f 3 5-38 P was n ecessary t o make t he a rd f unction s a t isf actor i ly .

This i s as o mewha t g rea ter a ng le t han t he a verage a ng les f ound o n

t he s tone t oo ls. s een o n F ig . 3 6 .

C o m mon a ng les o fp ene tra t ion o ft he s tone a rd p o in ts c an b e H e f ound t ha t t he wooden b ar s hare was worn a t ac er ta in

r a te r esu l t ing i nb lun t ing o ft he s hare wh ich h ad t o b e r esharpened r egu lar ly . The f act t ha t s tone a rd p o in ts were r eversed , t urned o r r esharpened h as a lready b een c om men ted o n .

H e f ound t ha t t he a rd was n ot v ery s ui table f or

p lough ing i n at i l ted p osi t ion , a dop ted s o a s t o t urn more o f t he l oosened s oi l t o o ne s ide . T i lt ing t he a rd r esu l ted i nt he a rd s lipp ing o u t o ft he f urrow . This i s i n terest ing , a s al arge n u mber o f s tone p oin ts, t he wooden a rd-heads wh ich w i l l b e d escr ibed l a ter ( see b e low , p . 4 3 ) , a nd t he c ross-sections o f a rd t races ( F ig .7 5 a nd P l . 8 ) s how d ef in i te e v idence o fb e ing h e ld a t a n a ng le . The f urrow d ep th most c onven ien t ly a ch ieved was, o n a verage , 1 2 .6 cm . T his wou ld s eem t o b e r a ther g rea ter t han t he p ene tra tion a chieved b y t he s tone p o in ts ( see F ig . 3 6) wh ich was p robab ly b e tween 6 a nd 1 0 cm . A s many o ft hese p o in ts a re r e levan t t o a rds i n g enera l n o t o n ly t hose w i th s tone p oin ts, a f u l l d iscussion o ft he e f f iciency o ft he s hares w i l l b ed e ferred u n t i l a l l t ypes o f a rds a nd p loughs k nown t o h ave b een u sed i n t he p rehistoric a nd Ro man p er iods o f Br i ta in h ave b een d escr ibed . x iv .

Ard T races

Two s i tes o n w hich s tone a rd p o in ts were f ound a lso p roduced a rd marks ( P l . 1 a nd 1 2 ) , t he a ctua l t races t ha t t he a rd made i nt he g round d ur ing p lough ing .

Ard marks were s een a t s evera l l eve ls ( wherever t he s oi l c hanged

c o lour , u sua l ly b ecause o f as and b low ) a t S u mburgh , a nd i fi ti s a ssu med t ha t t he marks were made b y t he s tone s hares, t h is i s f ur ther e vidence t ha t t he a rd p o in ts were u sed t hroughou t t he h istory o ft he s i te . The f ac t t ha t b o th t he s i tes p roduced a rd marks o f ac riss-cross p a t tern s uggests t ha t t he s hares were u sed t o c ross p lough i n t he s ame way a s a rds s eem t o h ave b een u sed a t s i tes i nt he r est o f Br i ta in i n t he p rehistor ic p er iod ( Fow ler a nd E vans 1 967 ) . T he a rd marks a t S kai l l were f ound t o u nder l ie t he h ouse s i tes; t hus i ti s more d if f icu l t h ere t o r e la te t he d a ting o ft he h ouses w i th t he p lough ing . T he a rd p oin ts were f ound o n t he s i te i n l arge n umbers, of ten i ncorpora ted i n t he masonry o ft he h ouse wa l ls ( P l . 4 , 5a nd 6 ) , o r g a thered t oge ther i n p i ts o r h o l lows ( P l . 7 ) .

I ts ee ms r easonab le t o s uppose , t herefore , t ha t t he a rd p oin ts

c on t inued i n u se t hroughou t t he p eriod o f h ab i ta t ion o ft he s i te h owever e ar ly t he a ctua l a rd marks may b e .

3 8

x v .

F ar m ing E cono my

O ther s i tes a ssocia ted w i th s tone a rd p o in ts p rov ide f ur ther i n forma tion a bou t t he f ar ming e cono my o ft he p eop le . The work o f He lbaek o n g ra in i mp ressions o n p ot tery s herds ( He lbaek 1 952 , p . 1 94) s hows t ha t b ar ley was a lready c u l t iva ted i n Neo l i th ic t imes i n Orkney —a s herd f ro m t he c a irn a t t he C a lf o f E day h ad a n i mpression o fn aked b ar ley i n i t , a nd a n i mpression o f a g ra in o f h u l led b ar ley was f ound i n as herd f ro m Unston c a irn .

Ah eap o f

c ar bonised b ar ley was f ound b urn t i n to t he wa l l o f o ne o ft he o va l h ouses a t t he N ess o f G ru t ing , a nd h a lf ab roken d ish q uern was f ound b eside i t( Ca lder 1 955-6, p . 3 53) .

T he g ra in was f ound t o b e n aked a nd h u l led b ar ley i n p ropor t ions o f

3 : 1 . Gra ins o fb ar ley a re r epor ted a s b e ing f ound f ro m t he h ear th i n o ne o ft he L a te Bronze Age h ouses a t J ar lshof , a nd h ouses a t S kai l l h ave p roduced a c onsiderab le q uan ti ty o f c arbon ised c erea l g ra ins. S add le a nd t rough q uerns, o r f ragmen ts o ft hem, a nd g rain r ubbers a re f ound i n l arge n umbers o n t he e xcava ted h abi ta t ion s i tes d iscussed—Bunyie H oose a lone p roduced 3 4 . S kara B rae h as a l so p roduced a l arge q uan ti ty o fc arbon ised g ra in . Many o ft he o va l s tone h ouses e xcava ted o r s urveyed b y Ca lder h ave b een s een t o b e s urrounded b y r ema ins o f f i e ld d ykes a nd n u merous l ow h eaps o f s tones t ha t h ave b een i n terpre ted a s s tone c learance c a irns.

The f i e lds a re

u sua l ly c urvi linear i n o u t line a nd r ange f rom a s ing le e nc losure t o h a lf a d ozen .

I n s ize, t hey v ary f ro m 6 0 ' 260 ' a cross, a nd a re a bou t 2 -3 a cres

e ach . T hey a re u sua l ly b ounded b y d rystone wa l ls. The s tone c learance c a irns f ound b o th o u tside a nd , s trange ly , i nside t he e nclosures may b e a s l arge a s 2 0 ' a cross a nd 2 ' h igh .

I fw e a re t o a ssu me t ha t t he e nclosures a re f or a rab le

a nd t he wa l ls were b ui l t t o p ro tect t he c rops f ro m a n i ma ls g razing o u tside , i t i s c ur ious t ha t t he c a irns a re f ound i nside t he e nclosures a nd t ha t t hey a re p osi tioned i ns o s eeming ly r ando m a f ash ion .

They a re l i bera l ly s ca t tered a l l

o ver t he f i e ld e nc losures r a ther t han b e ing i n a ny s e mb lance o f r ows wh ich , i t w ou ld b e t hough t , wou ld f aci l i ta te p lough ing . I ndeed , Graham ( Graham 1 957 , p p . 7 -23) i nh is p aper o n c a irnf ie lds i n Moraysh ire c onc luded t ha t t he c a irns w ere n u merous e nough t o h ave p reven ted t he u se o f ap lough d rawn b y a n ima ls. T he d ykes a nd c a irns d o , h owever , s eem t o b e c on temporary w i th t he a d join ing o va l h ouses — they a re of ten f ound i n p ar ts o f moor land which a ppear t o h ave b een u n inhabi ted e ver s ince.

I ti s i n terest ing t ha t t he l a ter s i tes i n Orkney

a nd S he t land which h ave p roduced a rd p oin ts a re ma in ly s i tua ted a way f ro m moor land a nd a re l ower l y ing .

I tp ossib ly p o in ts t o t he f ac t t ha t i t was a t t his

p er iod t ha t t he d eposi t ion o fp ea t b egan t o r ender t he a rea u ncu l t ivab le , e i ther b ecause o f ad e ter iora tion i nt he c l ima te o r , a s D imbleby s uggests, p ar t ia l ly a t l east b ecause o ft he a gr icu ltura l t echn iques o ft he e ar ly f armers wh ich l ed t o ar apid d e ter iora t ion o ft he s oi l ( D imbleby 1 961 a nd 1 978 p p . 1 49-55) . T he f i e ld s ystems o ft he s i tes wh ich a re n earer s ea l eve l a re u sua l ly i mpossib le t o s ee o n t he g round s urface a s s and b low h as u sualy e ngu lfed t he s i tes. A t J ar lshof t races o ft he L a te B ronze A ge f i e ld s ystem w ere f ound b ounded b y wa l ls o f l oose ly b ui l t s tones s urviv ing t o ah e igh t o f 3 '6 " ,c overed b y w indb lown s ands, w i th t he l a ter I ron Age f i e ld s ystem e stabli shed o n t op ( Hami l ton 1 956 , p . 8 4 ) .

Ne i ther S kai l l n or S u mburgh h as r evea led s tone b ui l t f i e ld wa l ls,

b u t o n e ach s i te , a s h as b een s ta ted , c r iss-cross a rd marks were f ound t o r un u nder t he h ouses a nd a t S u mburgh , a t v ar ious l eve ls r ound t he h ouse wa l ls.

3 9

The a n ima l b ones f ound o n t he e xcava ted s i tes wh ich h ave p roduced a rd p o in ts g ive u s s ome i nd ica t ion o ft he t ype o f h usbandry p rac t ised b y t he f ar me rs, a l though t he a n i ma l b ones t end t o s urv ive o n ly f rag men tar i ly i n t he p red ominan t ly a cid s oi ls o fS he t land a t l east .

A sma l l b reed o fo x a nd p ossib ly

t wo t ypes o f s heep s eem t o b e t he d omestic a n ima ls most c ommon ly k ep t o n t he f arms ; h orse b ones were f ound a t S tanyda le a nd Gru t ing , a nd p ig b ones a t J ar lshof . The a n ima l b ones f ro m S kai l l h ave y e t t o b e a na lysed , t hough f ro m ap re l iminary o bserva t ion i ti s c lear t ha t s heep a nd o x a ga in p redo m ina te . A t S u mburgh , o n ly o x t ee th were s turdy e nough t o r esist t he a cidi ty o ft he s oi l . T he s i tes n ear t he s ea h ave p roduced s eabird a nd f i sh b ones a nd mo l lusc s he l ls — f i sh b ones, e specia l ly t hose o f c od , were f ound a t J ar lshof ; wha le b ones were f ound a t J ar lshof , U nderhou l l a nd S kai l l , s ea l a nd wa lrus a t J ar lshof , a nd a g rea t v ar ie ty o f s eabird b ones were f ound a t J ar lshof a nd S ka i l l . were f ound a t J ar lshof a nd S ka i ll — ma in ly l impe ts a nd w ink les .

S he l lf ish Egg s he l ls d o

n o t s urvive we l l i n a rchaeo logica l c on tex ts, b u t i ti s most p robable t ha t s eab ird e ggs were u sed f or f ood i n p reh istor ic t imes a s t hey were u n ti l q ui te r ecen t ly i n S he t land a nd Orkney . BONE SHARES I n t he Na t iona l Museu m a t Ed inburgh t here a re t hree b one i mp le men ts f ro m F oshigarry , N . U ist ( N .M .A.S . Nos. GNA 2 02 , 2 03, 2 04 : 4 2 a nd P l . 9 ) . w id th .

F igs. 4 0, 4 1,

T he smalest , GNA 2 04, i s3 2 cm l ong a nd 6 .7 maximum

My a t ten t ion was d rawn t o t he m a s t hey a ppeared t o b ear wear marks

o f av ery s i mi lar n a ture t o t hose o n t he s urface o f t he s tone a rd p oin ts .

A

c lose e xam ina t ion s uggested t o me t ha t t hey must i ndeed h ave b een u sed i n a s im i lar way t o t he s tone t oo ls —i .e . t hey must h ave b een d rawn t hrough s o me h ard ma ter ia l a t a n a ng le t o t ha t ma ter ia l .

T he t hree i mp lemen ts a re p ar t

o ft he Ersk ine B ever idge c o l lect ion o f ma ter ia l f ro m a g roup o f e ar th h ouses a t F osh igarry .

There a re 4 41 o b jec ts i n t h is c o l lection a nd t he c a ta logue l i st

i nc luded : "wha lebone r ubbers a nd h ammerheads" ,weaving c o mbs, whor ls, s pearheads, a w ls, h arpoons , n eed les, a f ragmen t o f a n i ron k n i fe , ar ingh eaded b ronze p in , f ragmen ts o f ab ronze p la te , ar ounded mass o f i ron a nd p o t tery .

T he e ar th h ouses a nd most o ft he sma l l f i nds a ppear t o d a te f ro m

t he I ron Age . T he wha lebone "r ubbers" men t ioned i n t he c a ta logue h ave b een d escr ibed b y C lark ( Clark 1 947 , p . 9 7 ) who i n terpre ts t hem a s b lubber ma t tocks, a s h e c o mpared t hem w i th s imi lar o b jects u sed a s s uch b y N or th C anadian E sk imos.

C rawford , h owever , i n h is p ub l ica t ion o f as i mi lar a r tic le

f rom B erneray , H arris, d raws a t ten t ion t o i t s s i mi lar i ty t o t he F osh igarry t oo ls b u t i n terpre ts t he m a s t he b lades o f p ea t s pades b ecause o f t he a sy m met r ic s hear o ft he b lade-edge ( Crawford 1 967 , p p . 9 8-9 ) . Ne i ther a r ticle , n or t ha t o f C larke ( Clarke 1 971, p p . 4 4-8 ) , who p o in ts o u t t he u se a nd t he d angers o f e thnograph ic p ara l le ls f or i den t ifying t he f unct ions o f p reh i storic t oo ls, a c tua l ly i l lustra tes t he t hree t oo ls i n q uestion h ere ; a l l t hree a r ticles a re more c oncerned w i th t he v ery s imi lar n o tched a nd a sym me tr ic b lades d escr ibed i n t he c a ta logue a s "r ubbers" ,a nd wh ich h ave a f ar w ider , f la t ter b lade , w i tho u t t he d ist inct ive s ide wear o rb ack a ng le d isp layed b y GNA 2 02-4 . O ne o f t hese t oo ls —GNA 2 05 —is s hown o n my P l . 9o n t he f ar l ef t . GNA 2 02-4 h ave , a s f ar a s Iam a ware , n ever h ad a s epara te f unct ion a scr ibed t o t he m a l though t hey a re c lear ly q ui te d ist inct f ro m t he o ther w ide f l a t t oo ls.

4 0

The t hree t oo ls h ave b een f ash ioned f ro m t he h ard o u ter c o mpact ( i vory) p ar t o ft he wha le b one , a nd c are h as b een t aken t o e nsure t ha t o n ly t he a reas w hich wou ld b e l east a f fected b y w ear — i .e . t he b ot to m f ace e lsewhere t han a t t he p oin t—were made f rom t he i nner c ance l lous ( i .e . t he f i brous o r s pongy ) b one .

I n o ther words, t he t op a nd s ides o ft he t oo ls were t aken d irect ly f ro m

t he o uter c urv ing c o mpac t b one a nd t he p o in t a nd n on-po in ted e nd were c ut a cross t he midd le o ft he b one . A t t he b ase , t he c ance l lous t i ssue was h o l lowed o u t , t hus g iv ing t he i mp le men t a s h o l low , s emi-circu lar c ross-sect ion . The s ides n ear t he n on-po in ted e nd h ave t hree p a irs, o r i nt he c ase o f GNA 2 04 t wo p a irs, o fn otches 1 -3 cm w ide a nd 0 .5-1 .5 cm d eep , p resu mab ly f or s o me s or t o f a t tach men t .

The n o tches h ave b een r ough ly c u t i n to t he b one a nd s how

r ough t oo l marks b u t c ur iously n o t race o f smoo th ing f ro m r ubb ing a ga inst a n a t tach men t d evice .

T oo l marks c an a lso b e s een o n t he n on-poin ted e nd where

t he b one h as b een c u t a cross. T he c ross-sect ion b eco mes s ha l lower t owards t he p oin t a s t he s ides a re c u t a way a nd b eco mes a s o lid , s ha l lower s emic ircle .

T he t ips o ft hese t ools a re v ery a sy mme tric ( e specia l ly o n GNA 2 02

a nd 2 03 ) , a s o ne s ide h as b een c onsiderab ly worn a way t hough t h is a sym me try was a l mos t c er ta in ly t o s o me e x ten t manufactured . L ongi tudina l wear marks o ft he s ame t ype a s o n t he s tone a rd p oin ts a re v isib le f or 1 2-14 cm f ro m t he t i p o n t he t op s urface .

A l l t hese a re more worn o n t he l ef t h and s ide t han o n

t he r igh t , a nd a l l t hree h ave t he d iagona l s ide wear f orm ing a n a ng le o f c . 2 8-32° t o t he h orizon ta l .

A t t he t ip , t he t oo ls ' c ross-sections a re a l mos t

t r iangu lar a s t he worn s ides b ecame b lun ted , a nd t he u nworn s ides r e ta ined t heir s harper e dge . The wear marks o n t hese i mp lemen ts a re v ery f i ne a nd e ven , a nd i ft hey a re c orrec t ly i n terpre ted a s s hares t he s oi l t ha t t hey p loughed mus t h ave b een v ery l i gh t a nd s tonefree . T he s i te o f F osh igarry i s o n al i gh t , s andy s o i l w h ich w ou ld p robab ly b e s u f f ic ien t ly manageable f or t hese r a ther f ra i l t oo ls .

A s i mi lar t ype o f moun t ing i n a n a rd c an b e s uggested a s f or t he

s tone a rd p o in ts.

T he b one t oo ls c ou ld b e moun ted a s s hown i n F ig . 3 9b i o r

bi i , w i th t wo o r t hree p egs i nser ted , a nd t he l ower p ar t o ft he s ocke t r idged i n stead o fg rooved t o c a ter f or t he s emi-circu lar c ross-sect ion o ft he b one t oo ls. A f ew i n stances o ft he u se o fb one f or s hares h ave c o me t o my n o t ice . G lob men t iones t ha t o n as i te a t B iskup in , P o land , t here were f ound t hree w ooden o b jects which were p ossib ly a s t i l t a nd s hares o f a n a rd a nd " a p iece o f a n t ler w h ich may h ave b een u sed a s as hare" d a ted t o t he mid Ist mi l lenn iu m B .C .

( G lob 1 951, p . 1 21) which

A lso f rom a much l a ter c on tex t , a

w ha lebone i mp le men t t en ta tive ly i n terpre ted a s as hare was f ound f ro m a 1 2 th c en tury r oundhu t a t t he c hape l s i te o n S t . H e lens, I s les o f S cil ly . I ti s n ow i nt he Museu m a t H ugh T own . I ti s made e n t ire ly o f t he s of t c ance l lous b one a nd i s t oo d a maged t o r e ta in a ny wear marks. I th as a n a sy m me tr ic s hape a nd o n t he b asis o f s hape a lone c ou ld b e i n terpre ted a s aw inged s hare ; i th as as quare h o le , p resu mably f or a t tachmen t , n ear t he e nd . I ti s c onceivab le t ha t t he t oo l was s trong e nough t o s tand u p t o t he l i gh t s oi l o ft he i s land b u t t he t oo l i ss o f eeb le i n c onstruct ion a nd n ow i s s o d a maged t ha t c onsiderab le d oub t must b e t hrown o n t he a ccuracy o ft his i n terpre ta tion .

4 1

WOODEN PARTS OF ARDS R e ma ins o ft he wooden s tructura l p ar ts o f a rds a nd p loughs f ro m t he p reh istor ic a nd R o mano-Br i tish p er iod i n B r i ta in a re r are .

D eposi ts i nb ogs,

u sua l ly i n terpre ted a s r i tua l o f fer ings, a re t he ma in s ource o f s urviv ing r ema ins o f p rehistor ic a rds i n N or th Europe a nd s uch d eposi ts a ppear t o b e l ess c o m mon i n Br i ta in .

I n S co t land , t hree p ossib ly r i tua l b ur ia ls o f a rds

h ave b een d iscovered : o ne f ro m L och maben , Annanda le , Dum fr ies a nd G a l loway ;

o ne f ro m Mi lton L och , K irkcudbr igh t Du mfries a nd G a l loway ;

o ne f ro m

V irdi f ie ld i n S he t land . I n a dd i t ion , a t l east s even wooden p ar ts h ave c ome f ro m b og f i nds i n I re land . O therw ise a f ew wooden a rd r e ma ins h ave b een u ncovered f ro m wha t were p resu mab ly n on-r i tua l c on tex ts a s i nt he c ase o f t he wooden s hare f ro m t he R o man f or t a t U sk , Gwen t f ound i nt he wa ter logged d eposi ts i n awe l l,

a nd a rd s hare f ro m t he Wa les land Ra th , D yfed , f ound i n

a wa ter logged d i tch , a nd a n a rd-head o r s hare f ro m A bingdon , Oxfordsh ire. S ome o ft hese f i nds h ave b een d a ted b y C 14—Loch maben a nd M i l ton L och ; o thers c an b e d a ted f ro m t he ir a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t —Usk , Wa lesland a nd A b ingdon ; a nd o ther r e ma in a s y e t u nda ted—Virdi f ie ld . i . The Mi l ton L och Ard-head a nd S ti l t The a rd-head a nd s t i l t f ro m Mi l ton L och , K irkcudbr igh t , D u mfries a nd G a l loway ( F ig . 4 3b) h as b een d a ted b y C 14 t o 4 00 b .c . ,r a ther e ar lier t han i t s f i ndspo t o r ig ina l ly s uggested ( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 969, p . 1 28 ) . Thi s f i nd i s i ndubi tab ly p ar t o f ab ow a rd ( Sach T ype 3 ) .

I t was f ound b e low t he h ouse

o f ac rannog s i te b ui l t o f wood a t t he s ide o f al ake ( P iggot t 1 952-3 ; I l lustra ted L ondon News 1 954) . The h ouse s i te p roduced sma l l f i nds wh ich i ncluded a n e name l led b ronze d ress f astener , r o tary q uern a nd s p ind le whor l, f inds which a t f i rst s uggested a d a te o f 2 nd-3rd c en tury A .D . a s t he ma in p er iod o f h abi ta t ion .

T he e xcava tor s uggested t ha t t he a rd-head a nd s t i l t h ad b een d e-

l i bera te ly b ur ied b e low t he h ouse i nt he f ounda tions a s ar i tua l d eposi t . I t s ee med c lear f ro m t he d iscrepancy i n t he d a tes t ha t e i ther t he C 14 d a t ing was i n e rror , o r t ha t t he R omano-Br i tish o ccupa t ion o ft he p la tform was a r eo ccupa t ion o f a much o lder s i te . A ccord ing ly p ar t o ft he o ak s tructura l p i le o f t he c rannog was a lso g iven a r ad iocarbon measuremen t b y t he C openhagen R ad iocarbon L abora tory .

Ad a te o f4 90 b .c . ±1 00 was o bta ined f or a s amp le

s how ing t ha t t he a rd-head a nd c rannog a re much o ft he s a me d a te, a nd t ha t t he s i te i s ag ood d ea l o lder t han was f i rst t hough t . The e xcava tor s uggests t ha t t he d ress f astener may h ave b een d ropped o n t he s i te b y , a s i t were, a c asua l p asser-by s o me 6 00 y ears a f ter t he ma in o ccupa t ion ( Guido 1 974 , p . 5 4) The a rd-head a nd s t i l t a re i n o ne p iece , o f o ak , w i th a t o ta l l eng th o f 1 24.03 cm . The e nd o ft he s t i l t i sb en t r ound t o f orm a h and le , n ow i nco mp le te . T he s t i l t i s s ub-rectangu lar i n c ross-sect ion , g radua l ly w iden ing a s i ta pproaches t he t r iangu lar b lade . T he b lade i s 2 9 .5 cm l ong a nd 1 3 .34 cm w ide ( Fen ton 1 968 , p . 1 52 ; Bren t jes 1 954) a nd o n t he u pper f ace h ad t wo r i dges w i th ad eep g roove b e twem t hem, n ow i nco mp le te , which c ou ld h ave h e ld ab ar-shaped f ore s hare i n p os i t ion . The b lade h ad b een worn o n t he r igh t h and s ide t o a g rea ter d egree t han o n t he l ef t ( see b e low , p . 8 4 ) , a nd wear h ad p roduced t he d ist inct ive a ng le a t t he t ip o n t he b o t to m f ace .

' Nis wear p a t tern a nd t he r idges

a nd g rooves o n t he u pper s urface d ist inguish t he o b ject f ro m t he h ear t-shaped

4 2

w ooden s hove ls wh ich s uper f icia l ly r ese mb le i ta nd which a re k nown t o d a te b ack a s at ype t o p reh istoric t imes i n Bri ta in ( Megaw e t a l . 1 961, p . 2 08 ) . T he Mi l ton L och i mp lemen t i sv ery s i mi lar t o t he a rd-head a nd s ti l t f ro m t he D f i strup a rd ( F ig . 3 3a )—excep t t ha t t he l at ter c urves more i n t he s ti l t—and a l so t o s evera l f ound i n I r ish b ogs. Excava ted i n t he e ar ly 1 950s, t h is f i nd p roved c onclusive ly t ha t t he b ow a rd was i n u se i n Br i ta in i n e ar ly t imes. i .

T he L och maben B eam

I n 1 870 , al ong wooden o b ject was f ound i n ap ea t b og n ear L och maben , Annanda le , D u mfr ies a nd G a l loway ( F ig . 4 4b) , a nd was s oon i den ti f ied a s a b eam f rom a n a rd ;

s o s i mi lar was i tt o t he b ea ms o f D an ish b og f i nds o f b ow

a rds t ha t i t was a ssu med t o h ave b een p ar t o f a n a rd o ft his t ype .

The b ea m

measures 2 48 .05 cm i n l eng th , a nd t he f orepar t o ft he b ea m i s p erfora ted b y ar ec tangu lar o pen ing 5 .8 x 2 .3 cm , p resumab ly f or a t tach men t t o ay oke ; t he r ear p ar t o ft he b eam h as a r ectangu lar mor t ise 0 .8 x 3 .06 cm a ng led t o h o ld s hares a t a n a ng le t o t he s oi l .

The who le b eam h as t w isted t hrough a n

a ng le o f a bou t 4 8° o n d ry ing o u t , a nd h as q ui te p ossib ly s hrunk a lso .

The

b eam i s s ub-rectangu lar i n c ross-sect ion , i ncreasing i n w id th t owards t he r ear e nd . I ti s made o f a lder —as was t he b ea m o ft he D e Atrup a rd . The b eams o f a rds a ppear t o h ave b een made o f as of ter wood t han t he work ing p ar ts o f a rds, w h ich were c o m mon ly made o fo ak . The L och maben b ea m h as b een d a ted b y C 14 t o 8 0 b .c . ± 1 00 ( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 972 , p . 6 4) . I n l eng th , t he L och maben b ea m l i es b e tween t he H endr iks mose b ea m ( c . 2m l ong ) a nd t he D 9 I strup ( 3m l ong ) a nd i s c onsiderab ly l onger t han t he Donnerup land b eam ( 1 .7 m l ong ) . L ike t he D onner ap land a rd b ea m i th as a s ing le h o le i n t he e nd f or a t tachmen t t o t he y oke a nd was l ess s oph ist ica ted t han t he H endr iks mose b eam wh ich h as t wo n o tches i n t he f ore p ar t wh ich g ive t wo p osi tions f or a d justmen t o ft he h e igh t o ft he b eam a t t he p o in t where i ti s a t tached t o t he y oke , w i th ac onsequen t e f fect o n t he d ep th o f p ene tra t ion ( Hansen 1 969 , p p . 6 8-70 ) . The L och maben b ea m i s a l most c er ta in ly l ong e nough t o h ave b een a t tached d irect ly t o t he y oke i i .

( Fen ton 1 968 ,

P .

1 50 ) .

T he V irdi f ie ld Ard-Head a nd S ti lts

Af i nd o ft wo wooden a rrow-shaped a rd-heads o n e i ther s ide o f as tra igh t w ooden s t ick ( Lerw ick 6 6122 ) was made more r ecen t ly d ur ing p ea t c u t t ing a t a d ep th o f 6f t . i n t he p ea t a t V irdi f ie ld , Dunrossness, S he t land ( Fen ton 1 968 , p . 1 51) . T he l eng th a nd s hape o ft he t wo a rd-heads a re s o s i mi lar t ha t t hey w ere p ossib ly u sed o n t he s ame , o r a t l east v ery s i mi lar , a rds. They h ave n o t b een d a ted a s y e t , b u t t he t wo a re s o c lose i n d esign t o t he Mi l ton L och a rd-head t ha t i ti s t e mp t ing t o s uppose t ha t t hey a l l b e long a t l east t o t he p reh istor ic p er iod . T he t wo a rd-heads ( Figs. 4 3a , 3 7 a nd 3 8 ) a re o f a l most i den tica l l eng th ( 1 24 a nd 1 25 .5 cm ; 2 3 a nd 2 1 cm b lade l eng th ; 1 2 a nd 1.6 cm max i mu m b lade w id th ) . Their s haf ts a re r ec tangu lar i n c ross-sect ion , n arrow ing f ro m t he j unct ion w i th t he b lade t owards t he r ear e nd where t hey t erm ina te i n f i ne ly smoo thed , r ounded h and les ; t he h and le o f o ne i s c urved a way f ro m t he p lane o ft he s haf t more t han t he o ther , wh ich i s s e t more o r l ess s tra igh t o n t he s haf t e nd . I n c on trast t o t he f i ne ly f i n ished h and les, t he s haf ts were l ef t r ough ly f i n ished , a nd t he t oo l marks a re s ti l l v isible o n t heir r ough ly h ewn s ides. The 4 3

a rrow-shaped h eads, u n l ike t ha t o ft he Mi l ton L och t oo l , h ave n o r idges b u t h ave a s i mi lar t hough s l igh ter g roove o n t he u pper s urface wh ich ( see a bove , P . 3 5 ) c ou ld h ave h e ld o ne o ft he s ha l low , w ide s tone s hares.

N o t oo l marks

c ou ld b e s een o n t he g rooves a nd i ti s d eba tab le whe ther t hey w ere t he r esu l t o f d e l ibera te f ashion ing o r mere ly o ft he d ownward p ressure o ft he f oreshare o n t he a rd-head d ur ing p lough ing . S i mi lar h o l lows were f ound o n t he P aars l e lyä a rd-head , a nd G lob s uggests t ha t t hese were c aused b y p ressure d ur ing p loughi ng ( G lob 1 951, p . 16) .

T he g rooves o n t he V irdi f ie ld a rd-heads a re o n ly

0 .2-0 .6 cm d eep a nd 5 -7 cm w ide a nd c anno t h ave b een v ery e f fect ive i n h o ldi ng t he s hares t i gh t ly i n p osi t ion . One o ft he a rd-heads ( F ig . 3 8 ) h as ab lade more a cu te ly s haped t han t he o ther ( Fig . 3 7 ) .

T he b lade o ft he f ormer i s 1 2 .5 cm a cross t he w idest p ar t

w i th t wo we l l-def ined w ings a nd a n arrow p o in t , a nd a ppears t o h ave b een s evere ly a sy m me tr ica l ly worn—though i ti s d i f f icu l t t o k now h ow much o f t he a sy m me try i s d ue t o wear , a nd h ow much t o d e l ibera te f ash ion ing . T he o ther a rd-head ( F ig . 3 7) h as a l ess a cu te ly a rrow-shaped b lade w i th s ides w h ich c urve g en t ly t owards ab roader p o in t .

T h is s hare h as a lso b een a symmetr ic-

a l ly worn . A ctua l wear marks a re v isib le o n t he t ips o ft he b lades o n t he b o t tom f aces . The a ng le c rea ted b y t he wear o n t h is p ar t o f t he b lade s uggests t ha t , l i ke t he s tone a rd p o in ts, t he a ng le a t wh ich t he b lade p ene tra ted t he s oi l was c . 3 00 . I ti s i n terest ing t ha t i ti s o n ly a t ap oin t c . 8 -10 cm f ro m t he t i p , b o th o n t he V ird if ie ld a rd-head a nd o n t he Mi lton L och a rd-head , t ha t t he w ings b eg in t o emerge f ro m t he s ides.

I ft his i s d ue t o t heir h av ing b een w orn away a tt he

t ip , t his wou ld g ive s o me i nd ica t ion o ft he d ep th o f p ene tra t ion o ft he a rdh ead —bu t i tmust b e r e me mbered t ha t t he f oreshare wou ld p resumab ly h ave j u t ted o u t s o me way i nf ron t o f t he a rd-head . The w ings must h ave b een a c onsiderab le a id i n t urn ing t he s oi l w hen t he a rd was h e ld a t a n a ng le i n t he g round ( see b e low , p . 8 4 ) ,

a nd p resumab ly

t he i dea o ft he e x tra w id th g iven b y a n a rrow-shaped a rd-head o r s hare l ed t o t he d eve lopmen t o f e ar thwrests a nd e ven tua l ly t he mou ld-board i t se lf ( s ee b e low , p .

6 5 ) .

T he t wo V irdi f ie ld a rd-heads a re s pec tacu lar ly we l l-preserved

a nd a ppear n o t t o h ave warped o r s hrunk a t a l l s ince t heir r emova l f rom t he b og . i v .

I r ish Ard-heads a nd S ti l ts

A t l east s even s i mi lar o ne-p iece a rd-heads a nd s t i l ts h ave b een f ound i n I re land ( Fen ton 1 968 , Tab le I ; J . R oy . S oc . An tiq . J r . 1 967 , p . 1 2 ; 1 964, p . 1 01 ;

Mus. C a t . R IA, p . 2 05, F ig . 1 41 :7 ) .

These , l ike t he Mi lton L och

a nd V irdi f ie ld s pecimens h ave s tra igh t s ti l ts a nd a rrow-shaped b lades ( Fig . 4 5) .

Two ( t hose f ro m Mayo a nd C o . C lare) a re e specia l ly s imi lar t o t he

S he t land p a ir i n t ha t t hey h ave t he d eep ly c hamfered e dges o n t he u nder s urface o ft he h ead .

N one o ft hese h ave , t o my k now ledge , b een d a ted .

I ti s d i f f icu l t

t o b e s ure t ha t s o me o ft he m a re n o t s pades, a s i ti s r ea l ly n ecessary t o h ave s ome i nd ica t ion o f wear marks a nd t ha t af oreshare w as u sed o n t op o ft he a rdh ead f or u s t o b e c er ta in t ha t t hey were u sed a s a rd-heads.

U n fortuna te ly I

h ave n o t b een a b le t o s tudy t he I r ish ma teria l t o make a n a ppropr ia te e xam inat i on o ft he m .

A l l , h owever , f i t i n to t he s ize r ange o f t he S cand inavian a rd-heads 4 4

a nd s ti l ts s ave o ne f ro m Mayo wh ich i s l arger a nd c a ta logued a s as pade . v .

T he Wa lesland S hares

Two w ooden i mp le men ts were f ound i n e xcava tions a t Wa lesland Ra th , D yfed ( Wa inwr igh t 1 971(2 ) . T hey were p reserved d ue t o t he wa ter logged c ondi tions i nt he d i tch where t he o b jects were f ound a nd t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t hey were b ur ied r i tua l ly . The r a th was f ound t o h ave h ad t hree ma in p hases o fo ccupa t ion , t wo i n t he I ron Age ( 3rdIst c en tur ies B .C.) a nd a 2 nd c en tury A .D . R o man b ui ld ing p hase . The wooden i mp lemen ts d a ted f ro m t he i s t c en tury B .C .

T hey a re o f o ak a nd o f r ough ly t he s ame l eng th .

The i mp le men t s hown o n F ig . 4 6 a nd P l . 1 0 i s 3 4 cm l ong a nd 6 .8 cm w ide a cross t he w idest p ar t o ft he b lade , a nd h as a f i re-hardened t ip .

I tw as

o r ig ina l ly i n terpre ted a s as pear t ip b u t i s n ow g enera l ly t hough t t o b e t he f oreshare o f ab ow a rd ( Mann ing 1 975, p . 14) . Rodwe l l f ee ls t ha t t he i mp lemen t c ou ld h ave b een a p oker ( Rodwe l l 1 976) b u t If i nd t h is i n terpre ta t ion t i nc onvincing d ue t o t he marks o f a sy m me trica l wear more c o mpa t ib le , i n my o p in ion , w i th i den t if ica t ion a s a n a rd s hare .

I t s c ondi t ion i s r a ther p oor , a nd

i ti s i n t wo p ieces, h aving s p li t a cross t he n arrow p ar t , a nd i s c racked a nd i rregu lar o n t he s urface o ft he f aces. Marks o f wear c an b e s een a nd t he s hare .was o bvious ly a sy mme tr ica l ly worn . I ti s a t i t s w ides t a bou t o neth ird o f i t s l eng th f ro m t he t ip . R earwards f ro m t his i tt apers t o at h in n eck ( 3 .5 cm w ide ) w here p resu mab ly i te n tered t he mort ise . I ti s r ectangu lar i n c rosss ec t ion w i th t he t yp ica l o b l ique s hape o n o ne s ide n ear t he t ip where wear h as r e moved s ome o ft he wood .

Wear s tria tions a re n o t v isib le a nd t h is makes i t

more d i f f icu l t t o u nderstand h ow i t was moun ted i n t he a rd . I ts eems most l i ke ly t ha t i tf ormed p ar t o f ab ow a rd, b u t i ti st oo i nco mp le te t o a l low i t s p rec ise f unc t ion t o b e u nderstood .

I t s s hape a nd w id th make i tp robab le t ha t i t

f unc t ioned a s t he f oreshare , b u t i ti s p ossib le t ha t i tf unct ioned a s t he a rd-head i t se lf . I tp rovides e v idence f or a n i n teresting a l terna t ive t o c app ing t he wooden s hare w i th i ron i n I ron Age t imes, i n ac o m mun i ty where i ron was p robably a f a ir ly s carce c o m modi ty . T he f i re-harden ing o f s hare t i ps t o r ender t hem l ess l i ab le t o w ear away was q ui te p ossib ly a c o mmon p rocedure i n p reIron Age a nd l ess w ea l thy I ron Age o r R o mano-Br i t ish c o m mun i ties. The o ther wooden i mp lemen t , s i mi lar i n g enera l s hape a nd s ize , b u t v ery i nco mp le te a nd d amaged , i s p robab ly a s econd s hare .

I ti s , h owever , t oo

f ragmen tary t o a l low u s t o b e s ure o f i t s f unc t ion . v i .

T he Wooden S hare f ro m U sk

A sma l l wooden s hare was f ound d ur ing e xcava tions a t t he R o man l egionary f or tress a t U sk , Gwen t , a ga in p reserved i n wa ter logged c ondi t ions a t t he b o tt om o f aw e l l . I ti s t he t ip o f a wooden s hare , n ow o n ly 1 2 .4 cm l ong a nd 6 cm w ide a t i t s w idest p o in t .

A t o ne e nd i tt apers d own t o ar ounded t i p where

t races o f a sy m me tr ic wear c an b e s een .

A t t he r ear e nd i ti s t aper ing t o a

n eck where i ti s b roken o f f . I td oes n o t a ppear t o b ear t races o f f i re-harden ing n or o f a n i ron s hea th ing . I ti sd a ted t o t he 2 nd c en tury A .D .

* Iam most g ra tefu l t o Dr . W . Mann ing f or a l low ing me t o e xam ine t h is s hare i n a dvance o f p ubl ica t ion . 4 5

v i i .

The A bingdon Ard S hare

R ecen t e xcava t ions a t A shvi l le , Ab ingdon , Oxfordshire h ave p roduced a wooden , a rrow-shaped a rd-share o f p robab ly 3 rd c en tury d a te ( Fig . 4 7a a nd b ) o f wh ich t he a rrow-shaped b lade a nd t he s tu mp o f t he t ang r ema in .

I t was

p reserved i n wa ter logged c ond i tions i n a we l l . I ti s c . 3 7 cm l ong , a l l b u t 3 .5 cm o f wh ich i s t he b lade , w i th 3 .5 cm r e ma in ing o ft he s haf t . T he max imu m r ema in ing w id th o ft he b lade , n ear t he j unc t ion w i th t he s haf t i s 8 .3 cm ; o ne s ide i s d a maged b u t i t was p robab ly o r ig ina l ly l i t t le more t han 8 .5 cm w ide . The b lade h as s l igh t ly t aper ing s ides b u t r e ta ins a w id th o f 8cm u p t o c . 1 7 .5 cm f ro m t he t ip . F ro m t h is p o in t , t he s ides t aper more q uick ly t o t erm ina te i n ab lun t t ip . T he r e ma ins o ft he s haf t a re t oo f ragmen tary t o a l low a ny r ec onstruct ion o ft he o r ig ina l c ross-sect ion , b u t t he c ross-sec t ion o f t he b lade c an b e s een t o b e s evere ly a sy m me tr ic . T he b lade i s u p 4 cm t h ick a t t he b ase o ft he b lade t aper ing t o c . 3 cm t h ick n ear t he t ip .

The c ross-sec t ions

a cross t he b lade o n F ig . 4 7a a nd t he l ongi tud ina l s ect ions o n F ig . 4 7 1 3 s how t ha t o ne f ace was c onvex b o th a cross t he b lade a nd l ongi tudina l ly , wh i le t he o ther was f l a t .

T he c ross-sect ions s how o ne s ide t o b e s lop ing g en t ly f ro m

t he c onvex f ace , whi le t he o ther s ide f a l ls s tra igh t f ro m t he f aces more o r l ess a t r igh t a ng les t o t he m . I ti s n o t c lear i ft his was d ue t o ab reakage a long t h is s ide , o r i ft h is i s a n o r ig ina l f ea ture .

T he s ect ion a cross t he t ip , wh ich

d oes n o t a ppear t o b e b roken , t hough i ti s s omewha t b a t tered p resu mab ly t hrough wear , i s r ectangu lar .

An i n terest ing f ea ture o n t he i mp le men t i st he

s quare c u t n o tches a t t he u nfor tuna te ly b roken b ase e nd o f t he b lade o n e i ther s ide o ft he s haf t . l ong .

The o ne who le n o tch i s c . 2 .5 cm a cross a nd a bou t 3cm

These n o tches a re c u t i n to t he f l a t ter f ace o ft he a rd-head .

On t he

o ther f ace , 4 cm f ro m t he t ip , t here i s a no ther s l igh t g roove wh ich s eems t o h ave b een p roduced b y wear r a ther t han b y d e l ibera te f ashion ing . I tn ins a cross t he b lade f ace a s s hown o n F ig . 4 7 1 3 . T he A b ingdon i mp lemen t , w i th a b lade c . 3 3 .5 cm l ong , 8 .3 cm w ide , i s l arger t han a ny o ther Br i t ish a rd-head ( M i l ton L och 2 9 .5 x 1 3 .3 ; V irdi f ie ld 2 3 x1 2 a nd 2 1 x 1.6) .

U n like t hese , i ts eems t o b ear n o t races o f a ny f ore-

s hare h aving b een p laced o n t he u pper f ace b u t , l i ke t he m , i ts eems t o h ave b een worn a sy m me tr ica l ly —i f i ndeed t he a symmetr ic c ross-sec t ion h as b een c aused b y wear r a ther t han b reakage . Ad e tai led d escr ip t ion o ft he i mp lemen t i sg iven b y F ow ler i n t he r epor t f or t he e xcava t ions a t A shvi l le , A b ingdon ( Fow ler 1 978 2) . H e i n terest ing ly s uggests t hree p ossib le i n terpreta tive r econstruct ions o f h ow t he i mp lemen t migh t h ave f unc t ioned i n t he a rd .

H is f i rst i n terpre ta t ion h as t he i mp le men t

f unct ion ing a s t he f oreshare s ea ted o n ap robably p o in ted a rd-head .

T h is

wou ld n ecessi ta te t he r ounded f ace o f t he t oo l b e ing u pper most , a nd h ence b e ing more worn , whi le t he f l a t ter s ide was l ower , p rotected f ro m wear b y t he a rd-head . T he s econd i n terpre ta t ion h as i ta ct ing a s t he a rrow-shaped main s hare , wh ich o ver lay a f oreshare , b o th b e ing s ea ted o n a sma l l a rd s hare , i .e . a s o n t he D onnerup land a rd . T h is wou ld mean t ha t t he w orn f ace was l owermost , t he u ppermost f ace b e ing t he f l a t f ace p ro tected b y w ear b y t he f oreshare . H is t h ird i n terpreta t ion i s f or i tt o f unct ion a s t he f oreshare o ver ma in s hare .

T h is wou ld r equ ire t he c onvex f ace t o b e u ppermost , a s i n i n ter-

p re ta t ion 1 .

If ee l t ha t F ow ler ' sp referred i n terpre ta t ion , i .e . h is s econd , 4 6

with it as the main share overlain by a foreshare, is the most likely. It would seem to me to be quite unnecessary to have an arrow-shaped foreshare on an ard-head which, to protect the lower face of the ard-head from wear as shown in in Fowler's Fig. 63d, and to have supported the share, must have been of considerable width itself; there would be no benefit in lateral stirring of the soil, and the only result would be to make the ard heavier. The same argu­ ment makes me reluctant to accept his third interpretation as likely. The share is quite different from the normal long thin foreshare, and again for this interpretation to be acceptable it is necessary to have two wide probably similarly shaped projections-in this case the foreshare and the mainshare on top of one another. Fowler's second interpretation seems to be quite acceptable, accounting as it does for all the features noted on the implement. Fowler also makes the interesting suggestion that the notch on one surface 4 cm from the tip noted above, was caused by placing an iron sheath on the tip to protect it. This would also account for the relative lack of wear on the tip. This, as he says, is the first wooden share to show signs of having been capped with metal. It would require a tip of width£_. 5.5 cm, which, as may be seen from the cata­ logue of iron tips, is wide, but not uncommonly so. However, there are other interpretations for the implement, which may be suggested. I see no reason why the implement should not have functioned as the ard-head itself, As stated above, it has a length and width somewhat greater than other ard-heads from Britain, but it is of almost identical length, though a somewhat smaller width, than the Ds6'strup ard-head. When we com­ pare the very similar appearance and almost identical dimensions of the blade of the arrow-shaped share of the Donnerupland ard and the ard-head of the Ds6'strup (33.5 x 14 cm and 33.5 x 13.5 cm), it is clear that it is hard to tell the difference when the shaft is missing. The shaft on the Abingdon share is really too broken to measure. I feel that Fowler' s measurements of 2.5 x 3 cm are probably rather on the slight side, taken as they presumably are from where the surface is notched, but they do admittedly accord more closely with the measurements of the shaft of the Donnerupland share (3 x 4 cm) rather than the Virdifield measurements (5.5 x 4. 8 cm). It is, however, worth bearing in mind that the implement might have functioned as the ard-head. The cuts on the flatter, presumably the upper face of the implement, near the shaft end, are interesting. Possibly they were for wedges to hold a fore­ share more firmly in place as the two entered the mortise of the beam. At least, there seems little doubt that the implement was used on a bow ard; there remains the possibility that the Abingdon tool was an arrow-shaped share as found on the Dabergotz ard, but this is unlikely. The Dabergotz ard (Fig. 35 :9) basically a crook ard, but with an arrow-shaped share wedged in position pier­ cing the beam, and with its pointed end resting against the end of the sole, has been dated to 733 a. d. t 80. Nothing like this plough has yet been found in Britain, but this should not close our minds to the possibility of it having exis­ ted, possibly in earlier contexts. The position at which the share would neces­ sarily have been held, however, makes it unlikely that the wear pattern shown on the Abingdon implement would have been created. But the blade of the Dabergotz share has measurements (23 cm long, 6 cm wide) not unlike the 47

A b ingdon i mp le men t , a nd t he n o tch o n t he t i p o ft he A bingdon t oo l c ou ld , o n t h is h ypo thesis, h ave b een c aused b y t he i mpression o ft he s o le a ga inst t he s hare , s o t h is p ossibi li ty may a ga in b e wor th b ear ing i n mind . v i i i .

The Wooden B ea m ( ?) f ro m G lastonbury

A t t he G lastonbury l ake v i l lage e xcava t ions, S o merset , aw ooden o b ject was f ound wh ich was d escr ibed b y t he e xcava tors ( Bu l leid a nd G ray 1 917 I , p . 3 48 a nd F ig . 1 31) a s a n i mp le men t o f o ak , p robab ly a gricu l tura l a nd p oss ibly a f oo t p lough n o t u n like a c aschro m . I ti s s o me 2 .51 m l ong a nd a t t he b ase h as a d iam ter o f 0 .10 m ( F ig . 4 8 ) . 9 .28 m .

A sma l l f oo t a t t he e nd measures

S teensberg ( S teensberg 1 936 , p . 2 50 ) r e jects t he a rgumen t t ha t t he

t oo l i s ac aschro m o n t he b asis o f i t s e xcessive s ize a nd i t s l ack o f af oo t p eg w i th wh ich a c aschro m i s f orced i n u nder t he s od .

H e s uggests t ha t t he i mp le-

men t migh t h ave b een u sed f or u near th ing l arge s tones i n t he f i e ld , a nd c ou ld h ave b een t he o r ig ina l f orm o ft he c aschro m , b u t c onc ludes t ha t we h ave n o th ing d ef in i te o n which t o s uppor t ag uess o f t his k ind .

Payne , o n t he o ther h and

( Payne 1 947 , p . 1 02 ) , s uggests t ha t i ti s as emi-f in ished a rd b eam .

I th as t he

u sua l c urv ing p rof i le a nd t he i ncrease i n w id th t oward t he c urved e nd .

I ft his

i s a n u n f in ished b ea m , i ti s u nusua l i n b eing o f o ak— though i t mus t b e r e me mb ered t ha t i n t he S ou th o f Eng land d eciduous wood wou ld h ave b een more e asi ly a ccessib le , a l though t he a rd wou ld p resu mab ly h ave b een made r a ther h eavy b y t he u se o f o ak .

A s Iwas q u i te u nab le t o fi nd t he o b ject t o s tudy i t myse lf

a nd p resu mab ly i ti s l ost , t he i n terpre ta tions must r e ma in r a ther t en ta tive . I RON SHARES Wi th t he d iscovery a nd p ract ice o ft he t echn ique o f i ron work ing i n B r i ta in , t he n eed f or a ma ter ia l s trong e nough t o w i thstand c onstan t p ressure a nd a t tr it i on f ro m t he s oi l y e t , a t t he s ame t ime , manoeuvrab le e nough s o t ha t i tc ou ld f i t f i rm ly i n to t he a rd w i thou t r ender ing t he s tructure u nw ie ldy , was me t . Thus, f ro m e ar ly i n t he I ron Age g radua l ly t he p ract ice o ft he u ti lisa t ion o f i ron f or c app ing wooden p loughshares g a ined mo men tu m a nd b ecame c o mmon b y R o man t imes a s i ron work ing b eca me more w ide ly k nown a nd more c ommon a n a d junct t o s e t t le men t . The s pread o f i ron work ing t echn iques d id n o t h appen o vern igh t . O ft he 1 00 p oss ib le* s hares l i sted i n t he C a ta logue , 3 9 a re p ossib ly I ron Age — b u t f i ve o ft hese c o me f ro m wha t was p robab ly a h oard a tB igbury h i l lfor t a nd a ppear , f ro m t he p resence among t he meta lwork o f as hack le a nd p ad lock o f Roman t ype , t o d a te , i n Mann ing ' sv iew ( Mann ing 1 972 , p . 2 30 ) " c lose t o A .D . 4 3 i fn o t a ctua l ly s l igh t ly l a ter".

The d istr ibu tion map , Map 3 , s hows t he

d istr ibu t ion o fI ron Age s hares, a s o ne wou ld e xpect , t o h ave a s trong c oncent ra t ion o n t he c ha lk d own lan .ds o f Wi l tsh ire , S ussex , D orset a nd K en t , whi le t he d istr ibu t ion i n R o man t imes h as a f ar g rea ter s pread o f a rea a nd o f s oi l t ype .

* No t a l l t he t oo ls l i sted i n t he C a ta logue a re i nd ispu tab ly i den t if iab le a s s hares.

T he t oo ls i n q uest ion a nd t he r eason f or t he

u ncer ta in ty o ft heir

i den t i f ica t ion s hou ld b e made c lear i n t he C a ta logue a nd t ex t . 4 8

Impor tan t s tudies o ft he i ron s hare f ro m Br i ta in h ave b een p ub l ished b y P ayne ( Payne 1 947 ) A berg ( 1 957 ) a nd Mann ing ( 1 964) .

Payne , i n h is d eba te

o n t he t ype o f p lough u sed i n e ar ly p er iods i n Br i ta in c a ta logues t hir ty o ft he i mp le men ts, d a t ing f ro m t he I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Bri t ish p eriods, a nd s ix teen c ou l ters. H is p aper i s i nevi tab ly u sed b y l a ter wr i ters a s ab asis f or t heir work , a nd t he n u mbers u sed i n h is c a ta logue a re i ncorpora ted i n to t he c a ta logue o ft his work .

A berg ' sp aper o f 1 957 a dds f ur ther e xamp les a nd

d raws p ar t icu lar a t ten t ion t o t he a sym me tr ic o r w inged s hares o ft he l a ter p ar t o ft he R o man p er iod , a s b eing f air ly c lear e vidence f or t he e x istence o f t he h eavy mou ldboard p lough b y t his p er iod .

Manning ' sp aper i n 1 964 , a nd

l a ter more s pecia lised p apers ( 1 966(2 ) , 1 971 ) s uggests t ha t t he b ow a rd was t he a rd t ype o n wh ich t he i ron s hares were u sed , a nd h is f i rst p aper i s p art i cu lar ly i mpor tan t i n n o t ing t he e xistence o ft he l ong b ar s hares f ro m Dorc hester ( Oxon .) , S i lchester a nd G rea t C hesterford , h i ther to u nrecogn ised f or wha t t hey w ere . H is p aper a lso p ub lishes f ur ther e xamp les o ft he sma l l i ron s hare t i ps, a nd a lso s uggests t ha t c er ta in w ide-b laded s ocke ted i ron t oo ls were a lso u sed a s s hares ( bu t s ee b e low ) .

A s we l l a s t he work d one o n t he

i ron s hares i n Br i ta in , t he B ri tish ma teria l i s a lso u sed f or c o mparison i n B a lassa ' sp aper o nt he p re-Ro man a nd Ro man p loughshares o f c en tra l E urope ( Ba lassa 1 975) w i th i n terest ing c o m men ts a s t o t heir f unction a nd me thod o f h ousing o nt he a rd . Throughou t t he l i tera ture o n t he t oo ls, whe ther o n t he e n t ire s hares ( such a s t he a l l i ronbar s hares f ro m S i lchester , o r t he h eavy Moorga te s y m me tr ica l f l anged s hare ) o r o n t he t i ps o f o therw ise wooden s hares, t he t oo ls a re n or ma l ly r eferred t o a s s hares.

Ih ave , t herefore ,

u sed t h is t erm t hroughou t t he t ex t t o r efer t o a l l t he i ron t oo ls, e n tire s hares o r o therw i se . i . T ypes o fS hares I ron A ge a nd R o mano-Br i tish s hares c an b e d ivided f i rst ly i n to t wo main g roups ( F ig . 4 9) , Type 1—socke ted s hares, a nd Type 2— tanged s hares.

I ti s

t hen p oss ib le t o s ubd ivide e ach o ft hese g roups i n to v ar ious t ypes. F irst ly , t here a re t he v ery c o mmon s hor t s ocke ted s hares o n which t he s ocke t i t se lf i st he w idest p ar t o f t he t oo l , a nd o n wh ich t he i ron t apers f ro m t he h ead o f t he s ocke t t o ar ounded p oin t ; w i thin t his s ubd ivision i t se lf , l a , al arge v arie ty o fs hapes o ccur : t he l eng th a nd w id th o f t he b lade „ f or e xamp le , c an v ary c onsiderab ly .

T ype l b i s l ess c o mmon av ar ie ty , where t he s hare

i s a n e n fo ld ing t ip o f i ron a nd t he s ocke t e dges c on t inue a l a round t he e dge o ft he s hare ' ss ides a nd p oin t , t hus p rovid ing p ro tec t ion f or t he u nderside o f t he p oin ts o ft he wooden f oreshare , which T ype l a s hares d o n ot .

Type i c

s hares h ave s tra igh t-sided f l anged s ocke ts f or a t tach men ts w i th a t aper ing b lade o f s imi lar f or m t o l a s hares f ro m which t ype , T ype l c s hares p robab ly d eve loped .

They t end t o b e massive i n w id th a nd i n t he q uan t i ty o f me ta l

u t i lised . T ype I d s hares p resu mab ly d eve loped f ro m l c . i d s hares a re t he f i rst me ta l a sy m me tr ica l t ype o f s hares t o b e d eve loped i n B ri ta in . They h ave a s ocke t o f s i mi lar s hape t o i c t ypes, b u t t he b lade i s s tra igh t-sided o n t he o ne b lun t s ide, a nd w inged o n t he c ut t ing s ide .

This a sy m me tr ic s hare ,

r are i n R o mano-Br i t ish t imes, p rovides u s w i th t he f i rst e v idence f or t he a sy m me tr ic h eavy p lough i nt he c oun try — i .e . ap lough which , c ut t ing t he s oi l a nd t urn ing i to n o ne s ide o n ly , p resu mab ly u t i l ised a c ou l ter a nd mou ldboard

4 9

a nd o pera ted i n o ne d irect ion o n ly .

Types l a a nd l b a re f ound b o th i n I ron

Age a nd Ro man c on tex t , T ypes l c a nd i d i n R o man c on tex ts o n ly. T anged s hares ( F ig . 4 9 :2 ) may b e d iv ided i n to t hree t ypes.

F irst ly , t here

a re t he b ar s hares o f i ron— long b ars o f ten o ctagona l i n c ross-section w i th a s o mewha t w idened e nd , w i th p o in ts b ea ten o u t o ft he b ot to m a nd s ides o ft he s hare me ta l o n ly t o a n a ngu lar , r a ther b lun t , c hise llike p o in t , t he u ndersides o f wh ich s o me times b ear t races o f wear .

These b ar s hares a ppear a l most

e xclusive ly i n 4 th c en tury c on tex ts a nd of ten o ccur i n h oards w i th i ron p lough c ou l ters, a s a t S i lchester , Grea t Chesterford , D orchester a nd Abing ton P iggo ts. T ype 2 b i s av ar ie ty w i th a t ang f ro m wh ich w ings h ave b een b ea ten t o g rasp t he wooden p ar t o ft he s hare more c lose ly . T ype 2 c i s at anged s hare w i th a w ider , s pa tu la te t ype o fb lade . Ag roup o f Type 2 c s hares c ome f ro m H unsbury h i l lfor t a nd whi le t hey a re p oss ibly s hares, t h is i n terpreta t ion i sb y n o means c er ta in .

They a re , a t a ny r a te , n o t a t a l l ac o mmon t ype o f s hare .

Ag roup o f s ocke ted imp lemen ts w i th w ide s p layed b lades i n terpre ted i n t he p ast a s p loughshares h ave more r ecen t ly b een i n terpre ted a s p ea t s pades ( Fen ton 1 962-3 , p . 2 69) .

It end t o f avour t his r ein terpreta t ion a nd a ccord ing ly

h ave l ef t t heir d escr ip t ion t o al a ter c hap ter wh ich d ea ls w i th s pades ( s ee b e low p . 3 26) . I n f act , t he s epara t ion o f a l l t he a bove t ype , t hough u sefu l when a n a t te mp t t o s how t he d eve lopmen t o ft he i ron s hare i sb e ing made, i s s omewha t a cade mic . Types l a a nd i b, a nd 2 a a nd 2 b a re a l l r ea l ly t he s ame t ype o f s hare — the b ar s haped f oreshare o f ab ow a rd —and mere ly r epresen t d i f feren t amoun t o f i ron u sed o nt he woodof t he f oreshare a nd d i f feren t me thods o f a t tach ing t he i ron t o t he wood ( Mann ing 1 964) . T ypes l a a nd l b a re i ron s hea ths which wou ld h ave b een a t tached t o t he wooden f oreshare t o p reven t e xcessive wear o n t he work ing e nd . T ype 2 a , o n t he o ther h and , i s at rans la tion o ft he e n tire f ores hare i n to i ron . i .

S ocke ted S hares

Type l a i s b y f ar t he l argest g roup n umer ica l ly , e specia l ly d ur ing t he I ron Age . O ft he 3 9 s hares i n t he c a ta logue wh ich a re p ossib ly I ron Age i n d a te , 2 9 a re Type l a , 9a re 2 c a nd o ne i s p ossib ly Type l b. I ron s hares o f T ype l a a ppear f i rst i n e ar ly I ron Age c on tex ts o n s i tes o f s ou th e astern Eng land .

( Al l i ron s hares a re i l lustra ted i nt he F igures, u n less o therw ise

s ta ted , b y t he f l anged s ide —i .e . t he l ower s ide .) A b roken , b u t p robab ly c orrect ly i den ti f ied s hare c a me f ro m t he d efended s et t le men t a t B udbury , Bradford o n A von ( Wa inwr igh t 1 970 , p . 1 40 ) , t he e ar ly s tage o f h abi ta t ion o f which p roduced c urved i ron k n ives, weaving c o mbs a nd p ot tery w i th p ara l le ls a t A l l Cann ings C ross. An i ron s hare o f T ype l a was f ound d a t ing f rom t he e ar l iest I ron Age p hase a t G ussage A l l S a in ts, D orse t ( Wainwr ight a nd Sw i tsur 1 976 , 3 6 ; Wa inwr igh t : e xcava t ion r epor t f or thco m ing ) p robab ly d a tab le t o b e tween t he 5 th a nd 3 rd c en tur ies B .C . F ro m s o mewha t l a ter i nt he I ron A ge , t wo i ron s hares, o ne o f Type l a ( F ig . 5 1b) t he o ther o f T ype l b ( F ig . 5 1a ) , f ro m t he s et t le men t a t S lonk H i l l, S ussex were f ound t oge ther i n ap i t w i th a f ragmen t o f s aucepan t ype p o t ( pers. c o mm . Mr . Har tr idge) a nd s hares f ro m G ussage A l l S a in ts s et t lemen t

5 0

w ere a lso f ound i n a ssocia tion w i th s aucepan p o t .* These wou ld a ppear t o b e d a tab le t o b etween t he 3 rd a nd I st c en turies B .C. An i ron s hare o f Type l a w as f ound a t t he b ase o ft he l argest p ostho le i nt he west r ow o f t he e ast a nd o f t he e nc losure a t F r i lford , B erks. ( F ig . 5 2a ) .

T he e xcava tors s uggested t ha t

ad ate o f 2 nd c en tury B .C . was p robab le f or t he s hare ( Bradford a nd G oodchi ld 1 939) a s w e l l a s c o m men t ing o n t he p robable r i tua l n a ture o ft he d eposi t ( a lso C orcoran 1 959) . T he s i te d eve loped i n to a R o mano-Ce lt ic t e mp le s i te , a nd q ui te p robab ly h ad r e lig ious c onnect ions i n t he I ron Age a lso . I ron s hares h ave a lso b een f ound o n h i l lfor t s i tes — the C aburn , S ussex , p roduced t wo Type l a s hares ( F ig . 5 3b ) ; Hod H i l l , Dorse t p roduced a l a t ype , p ossib ly I ron Age i n d a te ;

H unsbury , N or than ts p roduced s ix l a t ypes a nd s evera l Type 2 c s hares

( F igs. 5 0a , 5 1c a nd 6 6 ba nd c ) .

U n for tuna te ly n one o ft hese h i l lfor t s hares

i sv ery c lose ly d a tab le . T he H od H i l l s hare was a s tray f i nd f ro m t he h i l lfor t r a ther t han t he Ro man f or t a rea , b u t t he s hare c ou ld b e d a ted t o a ny p ar t o f t he I ron A ge o r e ven i n to t he i s t c en tury A .D. ( R ichmond 1 968 , p . 1 37) .

The

H unsbury s hares, p ossib ly f ro m a h oard ( Manning 1 972 , p . 2 30) c anno t b e more c lose ly d a ted , d ue t o t he e ar ly a nd r a ther c asua l n a ture o ft heir f i nd ing ( la ter a ssessed b y F e l l 1 936 ) , t han t he a ctua l h i l lfor t o ccupa tion o f4 /5th c en tury B .C. t o t he i st c en tury B .C.

The C aburn s hares ( F ig . 5 3b ) a re

e qua l ly d i f f icu lt t o d a te , e xcava ted a s o ne was i nt he l a te 1 9 th c en tury ( Lane F ox 1 881 , p . 4 67 ) , t he o ther i nt he 1 920s ( Curwen a nd C urwen 1 927 , p . 1 2 ) . H owever , a s f ar a s c an b e e stab lished f ro m t he r epor t , t he t wo s hares wou ld a ppear t o b e long t o t he p hase o f h i l lfor t a ct ivi ty d a t ing f ro m t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he I ron A ge , f ro m t he l ast t wo c en tur ies B .C . i n to t he i st c en tury A .D . The h i l lfor t a t B igbury , K en t p roduced a l arge amoun t o f me ta lwork , most ly d iscovered b y g rave l d igg ing i n t he l ast c en tury , a nd which p robably f or med t he c on ten ts o fo ne o r more h oards ( Mann ing 1 972 , p . 2 30) . The d a te o f t he meta lw ork i s , a s b efore s ta ted , f ro m n ear t he Ro man c onquest . The f i ve s hares o f l a t ype ( F igs. 5 2b a nd 5 4a a nd b ) a re e xcep t iona l i n t heir l eng th a nd g enera l w eigh t c ompared w i th t he I ron Age t oo ls d escr ibed a bove , t he l eng th b eing c on siderab ly g rea ter t han a ny I ron Age t oo l , s ave t he l a te e xa mp le f ro m G last onbury , p robably a s hare ( Bu lleid a nd G ray 1 917 , Vo l . I , p p . 3 95-99) . The d eve lop men t wh ich T ype l a s hares u ndergo d ur ing t he p er iod u p t o t he R o man o ccupa tion i s ma in ly o ne o f a n i ncrease i n s ize . T he e ar liest e xamp les t end , a s o ne wou ld e xpect w hen a p eop le a re e xper i men t ing w i th a n ew mediu m r a ther t oo c ost ly t o waste , t o b e v ery sma l l . The e ar liest s hare f ro m G ussage , f or e xamp le , i s 7 .2 cm l ong , 4 .1 cm w ide ; t he H unsbury t oo ls a verage 1 3 cm l ong ; t he S lonk H i l l a nd F ri lford t oo ls a re 1 8 a nd 1 9 cm l ong r espective ly . The t hree l ongest s hares f ro m B igbury , h owever , a re 3 1, 3 5 a nd 4 3 cm l ong a nd t he G lastonbury t oo l i s 5 4 cm i n l eng th . I n t hese l a t ter e xamp les, t he s ocke t f or ms a f ar sma l ler p ropor t ion o ft he who le t oo l a s t he work ing p ar t g radua l ly i ncreases i n l eng th .

The s ocke t o ft he G ussage s hare i s o ver h a lf t he e n tire

l eng th o ft he t oo l ; t he s ocke ts o ft he H unsbury t oo ls f orm b e tween o ne h a lf a nd o ne t h ird o ft he e n t ire l eng th , a nd t he B igbury s hares h ave s ocke ts which a re o ne q uar ter t o o ne f if th o ft he t o ta l t oo l l eng th . The s hor ter s hare f ro m

* I am e x tre me ly g ra tefu l t o D r . G . J . Wa inwr igh t f or a l low ing me t o s tudy G ussage ma teria l i n a dvance o f p ub lica t ion .

5 1

B igbury , h owever , i s 1 8 cm l ong w i th a s ocke t l eng th o f 8 cm . A l though t hese l a ter s hares a re s o much l onger , t he w id th o ft he s hares d o n o t , o f c ourse , i ncrease p ropor t iona l ly , a nd t h is measuremen t , a s i n t he s hor ter s hares, r e ma ins a t c . 3 -5 cm .

H owever , t his g radua l i ncrease i n s ize was b y n o

means c onsisten t o r u ni for m . A l though a h igher p ropor tion o f Ro mano-Bri tish s hares h ave a g rea ter l eng th t han t hose o ft he I ron Age , l ong s hares were a lso p roduced f a ir ly e ar ly i n t he I ron Age , a s i s i l lustra ted b y t he e xamp le f ro m G lastonbury .

I n f act , t he o n ly s hares t ha t c an b e d ef in i te ly d a ted e ar lier

t han t h is a re t hose f ro m G ussage a nd Budbury . The e xa mp les f ro m C rayford a nd F ri lford a nd t wo o thers f ro m G ussage a re a l most c er ta in ly a s l a te a s t he s hare f ro m G lastonbury , whi le t hose f ro m t he , Caburn , Hod H i l l a nd Hunsbury H i l lfor ts, whi le p ossib ly b e ing c onsiderab ly e ar lier c annot b e more c lose ly d a ted t han t o w i thin t he I ron Age . A lso , a sma l l n u mber o f R omano-Br i t ish s hares a re q ui te a s sma l l a s many o ft hose o ft he I ron Age —e .g . t he R oman p er iod t oo l f ro mSlonk H i l l , o n ly 9 cm i n l eng th . I t wou ld s ee m most l i ke ly t ha t t hese s hares were p laced o n t he t ips o f wooden b ar s hares t o p ro tect t heir u pper s urface f ro m wear i nt he s oi l ( Mann ing 1 964 , p . 5 8 ) , a nd t ha t , t herefore , t hey f i t ted o n t o b ow a rds o f t he D onn erup land t ype .

I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t , a s t he s urface o f t he s hares i s v ery

r are ly p reserved , wear marks a re v ery r are ly p reserved , a nd o n ly o n t he a l l i ron b ar s haresof t he l a ter Ro man p eriod a re t hey p reserved w e l l e nough f or s o me c onc lusion t o b e d rawn f ro m t he m a s t o t he a rd t ype o n to which t hey were f i t ted ( see b e low , p . 5 8 ). A f ew o ft he b et ter p reserved I ron Age s hares h ave a s l igh t wear ing away o ft he me ta l a t t he p o in t —e .g . t he H unsbury s hares 'i l lustra ted i n F igs. 5 0a a nd 5 1c, b u t i n t he ma in i ti s o n ly t ypo logica l ly t ha t we may i n terpre t i ron t oo ls a s s hares. a nd u ncer ta in ty .

Th i s i nev i tab ly l eads t o s o me c onfusion

Are we j ust if ied , f or e xamp le , i n c onsider ing t he e x tre mely

p o in ted t oo ls, o ne f ro m S i lchester ( F ig . 5 3a ) o ft he Ro man p er iod , a nd a s i mil ar t oo l f ro m t he I ron Age f ro m Caburn ( F ig . 5 3b) a s s hares? The Type 2 c s hares, a ga in , a re o n ly i n terpre ted a s s hares w i th s o me d i f f idence ( see P ayne 1 947 , p . 9 3) a nd t he a rgu men ts f or "c urrency b ars" b eing s hares ( Al len 1 967 ) o r t he w ide b laded i mp lemen ts h i ther to t hough t o f a s s hares b e ing p ea t s pades ( Fen ton 1 962-3 ) a re f ar f ro m c lear c u t .

A l though i ti s a ccep ted b y most

a u thor i t ies t ha t t he b ow a rd was t he a rd t ype o n wh ich t he i ron t i ps f unc t ioned , i ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t ha t Payne wri tes t ha t t he s hares o ft he D f dstrup a rd a re c o mp le te ly u n like t he i ron s hares i nt ype a nd ma teria l a nd t ha t Curwen 's h ypo thesis ( Curwen 1 938 ) t ha t t hey were u sed o n a n a rd o f t he D f istrup t ype s hou ld b e r egarded a s i mprobable .

Payne c onsidered i t more l i ke ly t ha t t he

i ron s hares were h oused o n h orizon ta l s hare b eams o ft he t ype s hown o n t he S he t land p lough h ç i l lustra tes ( Payne 1 947 p l . V I p p . 8 9-90 ) t hough , o f c ourse , c onsiderab ly n arrower , a nd s uggested t ha t t he s hare b ea m i t se lf wou ld h ave w idened b eh ind t he s hare s o t ha t t he l eng th o f f urrow o pen ing w ou ld b e i n creased . This wou ld n ecessi ta te a n a l most h or izon ta l e n try i n to t he e ar th t o p reven t t his n eck o n t he s hare b ea m f ro m s napp ing . I ti s i n terest ing , h owever , t ha t h e s uggests t ha t t he t an .ged t ype 2 c s hares f rom Hun sbury c ou ld h ave b een u sed o n a Djstrup t ype b ow a rd t hrough a mor tise i n t he b eam , t hus a dm i t t ing t he l i ke lihood o ft he b ow a rd i n B r i tain a t t he t ime . More r ecen t ly , h owever , Ba lassa , whi le c onsider ing t he v ery s i mi lar s ocke ted i ron p loughshares o f t he I ron Age i n c en tra l E urope ( Ba lassa 1 975 , p p . 2 43-4) , wh ich h e c ompares 5 2

w i th t he B r i t ish s pec imens, s upposes t ha t t he s hares were e i ther s e t o n t he e nd o f t he s hare b eam s o t ha t i tt i l led t he g round h or izon ta lly ( i .e . t he s a me v iew a s P ayne) o r t ha t t hey w ere f astened o n to t he e nd o f as hare s tre tch ing f ro m t he b ea m a nd r est ing o n t he e nd o ft he s o le , t hus f orm ing a n a cu te a ng le w i th t he g round ( i .e . a s o nt he D abergo tz p lough , i n af orm r e jected b y P ayne) . H e makes t he p o in t t ha t t hese s hares a re d istr ibu ted t hroughou t c en tra l Europe , i n Nor thern F rance , G ermany , B ene lux , A ustr ia , E astern E urope a nd t he S oviet U n ion , a nd a t tr ibu tes t heir i nven tion a nd d ispersa l t o t he C e l ts.

This

a rgues t ha t e i ther t he s hares c ou ld b e u sed o n av ar ie ty o f a rd t ypes, a nd t ha t , t herefore s hares c anno t b e u sed a t a l l f or e v idence a bou t a rd t ype , o r t ha t a s im ilar a rd was b eing u sed o ver a l l t h is r eg ion a t l eas t d ur ing t he I ron Age a nd t he R oman p er iod ( a s Mann ing b e l ieves— Mann ing 1 964 , p . 5 7) . S u f f ice i tt o s ay t ha t t he a rgumen t i s n o t c o mp le te ly c losed , t hough t he e v idence f ro m B r i ta in d oes , c o l lec t ive ly , s ugges t t ha t t he b ow a rd was t he n orma l a rd t ype i n u se , a nd t ha t t he i ron s hares were u sed o n t he t i ps o f wooden f oreshares . The i ncrease i n l eng th o f t he s hares f ro m t he e ar l ies t I ron Age o nwards must i mp ly t ha t t he u se o f i ron t o p rotect t he t ips o ft he wooden f oreshares was a s uccess a nd t ha t a n i ncreased l eng th o f p ro tect ion , o bviously d esirab le , b eca me p ract icab le a s t he t echn iques o f i ron work ing b eca me more w ide ly a va i lab le .

Mann ing p o in ts o u t ( Mann ing 1 964 , p . 5 8 ) t ha t , b y s uch l eng then ing ,

t he i ron p ar t o ft he s hare wou ld e x tend t hrough t he b eam mor t ise a nd t he w ooden r ema inder o ft he s hare wou ld s tre tch f ro m t he b ea m t o t he s ti lt . This w ou ld , o bv iously , g ive g rea ter s ecur i ty t o t he a rd s tructure . The w id th o f t hese b ar s hares r e ma ins c onstan t a t 3 .5 cm ( B igbury ) t o 5 .5 cm ( ano ther B igbury t oo l ) . The f i na l d eve lopmen t o ft his l eng then ing p rocess was c lear ly t o make t he who le s hare o f i ron .

T h is was n o t a ch ieved u n ti l , p robab ly , t he e nd o f

t he Ro man p eriod , b u t t he l ong G lastonbury t ool s hows t ha t b y t he e nd o ft he I ron Age t he i ron p ar t o ft he s hare p robab ly e x tended b eyond t he mortise . A l len l i sts an u mber o ft oo ls wh ich h ad c onven t iona l ly b een k nown a s c urrency b ars ( A l len 1 967 , p p . 3 33-4) w i th o thers which h ad a lways b een r egarded a s p loughshares, a nd c o mmen ts t ha t t here i s l i t t le d i f ference

Jet we e n

t he m s ave

t ha t s o me o ft he "c urrency b ars" a re l onger t han t hose u sua l ly t hough t o f a s p loughshares. H is C 8 , 9 , 1 0 a nd D2 s hares f ro m B igbury , Wa l thamstow , B lox .ham a nd Woodcu ts h ave a lways b een c onsidered a s s hares.

H is D 1— the

s hare f rom G lastonbury , s o s i mi lar t o t he Woodcu ts s pecimen— is c lear ly a lso a s hare , a lthough d escr ibed p reviously a s ac urrency b ar . One s hare , h is A15 o r C 6, f ro m H un .sbury , i s a lso c lear ly a s hare t hough i ta ppears u sua l ly t o h ave b een c onsidered a c urrency b ar . Ie xamined t he b ar f ro m t he Thames a t Ma idenhead , A l len 's C l , a t R ead ing Museu m , a nd was u nab le t o c onvince myse lf t ha t t he b lun t , a l most c hise l s hape o ft he t ip c ou ld h ave b een a t a l l e f fective a s as hare , a nd i tc er ta in ly d id n o t a ppear t o h ave b een w orn d own t o t ha t s hape ; Iwas u nable t o f i nd t he s econd b ar f ro m t he s ame h oard . T he b ars f ro m L lyn C err ig , A l len ' sC 7 , a re v ery d amaged a nd I v iewed t he ir i n terpre ta t ion a s s hares w i th s o me s cep t ici sm . T he s pecimens f ro m t he T ha mes a t Mar low a ppear t o h ave b een l ost , a nd Iwas, u nfor tuna te ly , u nable t o e xa m ine t he r e main ing f our t oo ls i n A l len 's l i st —his C 2 , 4a nd 5 . A l len c on trasts t he s o lid i ty a nd r igidi ty o ft hese b ars t o t he more f ragi le s word-shaped o r s pi t-shaped b ars which a re t he more u sua l t ype o f c urrency 5 3

bar. The ploughshare type of bars also appear to be distinct in that they do not occur in regular hoards, although some have been found together in river beds or lake sites. There is little evidence of dating for most of the bars, the majority being found as unrelated casual finds. However, some of the smaller bars-Bigbury (Fig. 54), Bloxham (Fig. 59) and Walthamstow (Fig. 58)-and some of the longer-Hunsbury, Glastonbury and Woodcuts, have been found in some sort of datable contexts and this suggests that they were an Iron Age development which continued into the Roman period. Only one example of Type 1b shares is known from the Iron Age, that from Slonk Hill, and this must be rather dubiously interpreted as such because of the broken side of the tip (Fig. 51a) which makes proper identification rather difficult. The tool is 8 cm long, 3 cm wide, and the metal certainly appears to curl around the tip as well as the sides of the tool. During the Romano-British period, a greater variety of share types was introduced, and shares tended to become larger and to use more metal. The 1a type continued, but of the 17 of this type which might be dated to the Romano­ British period, only two, those from Coygan Camp, Dyfed (Fig. 55 b, c) are are at all closely datable (Wainwright 1967, p. 104). These are both from the late 3rd century A.D. , showing that, at least in less highly Romanised settle­ ments, the short type 1a continued in use until well into the Roman period. Four of the Romano-British 1a type shares are of the small size found on shares of the earliest Iron Age. One of the shares from Coygan Camp is 10 cm long, though somewhat broken, and 2. 7 cm wide, and the share from Great Wakering (Fig. 55a), probably of the 3rd or 4th century (V. C.H. Essex ID 1963, p. 194; J.R.S. 14 1924, p. 230), although again somewhat broken� can­ not have been much longer than its present length of 8 cm. A third share from Slonk Hill, found in a pit with Roman pottery and pieces of bone and shell (private communic'ltion from Mr. Hartridge), is again somewhat broken, but now nieasures 9 cm in length, 4 cm in width. The share from Reepham, Lines., found with Roman pottery and a quern, is 12.4 cm long, 4. 2 cm wide, and has a somewhat longer and broader blade than the other three. All have open sockets, except one Coygan Camp share which has a closed wrap-round socket. Shares of the same type, but longer, come from Hod Hill, Coygan Camp, Chichester, Southsea and Silchester with lengths £_. 15 cm and widths £. 3 cm. The three Type 1a tools from Woodcuts shown on Fig. 56b-d also fit into this general category. The tools from Coygan Camp (Fig. 55c ), Southsea and Silchester (Fig. 53a) are interesting in that they have sl}ort rearward extensions, and they may perhaps be regarded as an interim stage between Type 1a and 2b-shares which have a long rearward tang, often with an attaching rivet below the flanges. The Coygan Camp share is probably late 3rd century, but apart from this tool, this group of shares is not closely datable. The tool from South­ sea is not certainly a share. The pointed end has been damaged, but it appears to be slighter and thinner than other blades, and it might be in fact some other type of tool-a chisel, for example. An object from Verulamium, so corroded as to be virtually unidentifiable, may be a share of this type. A tool from the Romano-British site at Holbrooks (Fig. 57b), also very broken, is 14 cm long, 3 cm wide. Shares from Chesters, Gatcombe and Waltham.stow (Fig. 58) have the same general shape as the above but are longer-the Walthamstow share is 54

2 2 .6 cm i n l eng th , w i th t he u sua l s hare w id th o f4 -5 cm .

I n s o me e xa mp les,

e .g . Chesters, t he s hare b lade t apers e ven ly f ro m t he s ocke t t op t o t he p o in t , b u t o n o thers, e .g . Wa l tha mstow , t he b lade i s b roader , r e ma in ing t he s a me w id th a s t he s ocke t f or s o me way b efore s udden ly t aper ing .

The s hare f ro m

Wa ltha mstow i s d escr ibed b y A l len i n h is p aper o n c urrency b ars ( Al len 1 967 , h is C9) . The s hare f ro m B loxham i s a no ther o ft he l ong l a t ype s hares, 2 9 cm l ong , b u t w i th aw id th r e ma in ing s i mi lar t o t he s hares men tioned a bove —c. 3 cm ( F ig . 5 9 ) .

The s i te a t B loxha m a ppears t o h ave b een o ccup ied f ro m t he i st

t o t he 4 th c en turies A .D . ( Kn igh t 1 938 ) a nd t he s hare c anno t b e more c lose ly d a ted .

T he 5 6 cm l ong b ar f ro m Woodcu ts s ee ms a lso t o h ave b een a s hare ,

a nd i s p resu mab ly Ro mano-Bri tish i n d a te . XXVI I I , 9 ) .

( Pi t t R ivers 1 887 , p . 5 6 , P l .

I n Winchester C i ty Museu m i s ap iece o f i ron ( F ig . 5 7a ) which ,

t o j udge f rom t he wear marks a t t he t ip , must b e t he b roken e nd o f ab ar s hare ; i ti s n ow o n ly 1 2 cm l ong .

I tc a me t o t he Museu m f ro m t he Wor thy D own e x-

c ava tions ( Hooley 1 929) a nd w ou ld a ppear t o b e e ar ly I st c en tury i n d a te .

I t

was p robab ly o f l a t ype , i ft his d a te i s r e liab le , a s t he n on-socke ted b ar s hares a ppear t o b e much l a ter i n d a te. T h el ongest o ft he " currency b ars" wh ich migh t b e s hares —e.g . t ha t f ro m t he Tha mes a t Ma idenhead —Al len ' sC l— measures u p t o 7 9 cm , b u t t he l ongest o ft hose wh ich Ic onsider c an b e i ndub i tably r egarded a s s hares — Woodcu ts —is 5 6 cm , o n ly 2 cm l onger t han t he e ar lier s hare f ro m G lastonbury .

The l ongest o ft hese b ar s hares a re , t here-

f ore , c onsiderab ly s hor ter t han t he wooden b ar s hare o ft he Donnerup land a rd -109 cm —bu t s o me d o c o mpare i n l eng th w i th t he a l l i ron b ar s hares f ro m S i lchester , which v ary i n l eng th f ro m 4 4.5 cm t o 7 8 cm ( see b e low , p . 5 8 ). There a re t hree Type l b s hares wh ich d a te f ro m t he Ro mano-Br i tish p er iod . T hey a re v ast ly h eavier a nd more s o lid t han t heir p ossib le p redecessor i n t he I ron Age .

The B lackburn M i l l h oard p roduced o ne o f p robab le l a te-ist/ear ly-

2 nd c en tury d ate ( F ig . 6 0 ) ( Piggot t 1 952-3) , a n u nda ted e xamp le f ro m Sworda le ( F ig . 6 1) n ear Bonar Br idge h as b een t en ta tive ly d a ted t o t he Ro man p eriod o n i t s s i mi lar i ty t o o thers f ro m I rish c rannogs ( Fen ton 1 962-3 , F ig . 4 :9 , n o te 2 ) a nd a n e xamp le was f ound a t C hedwor th Ro man V i l la ( Goodburn 1 972 , P l . 1 4) p robably o f 3 rd-4th c en tury d a te.

T he measure men ts o ft hese r ange f ro m 1 0 cm

l ong , 7 .5 cm w ide ( Chedwor th ) t o 1 6 a nd 1 7 cm l ong a nd 1 0 a nd 1 2 cm w ide ( B lackburn Mi l l a nd Sworda le r espect ive ly ) .

The B lackburn M i l l s hare h as a

n a i l h ole o n t he l ef t h and s ide o ft he s hare c . 3 cm f ro m t he s ocke t mou th .

The

d iscrepancy i n s ize b e tween t he C hedwor th a nd S cot tish s pecimens i s i n terest ing , e specia l ly a s t he B lackburn M i l l t oo l a ppears t o b e o lder t han t he C hedwor th s hare . Type l c s hares p ossib ly d eve loped f ro m l a s hares i n to wha t must b e c lassed a s ad if feren t t ype — the s y mmetr ica l f l anged t ype .

On t hese s hares, t he b lade

i s s tou t a nd t riangu lar i n s hape w i th a l arge , f l a t , o va l , o pen s ocke t .

These

a re n o l onger mere t ips o ver wooden s hares, b u t a re s hares i n t he ir own r igh t . O ne s uch s hare, f ro m B uck lersbury House , i s d a ted t o t he i st o r 2 nd c en tury ( F ig . 6 2 ) ; as econd c o mes f ro m t he R o man s i te a t F r indsbury ( F ig . 6 3) ;

a nd

at hird , l e ss we l l d a ted b u t p resu mab ly Ro man s o s imi lar i s i tt o t he Buck lersb ury House s hare , f ro m Moorga te S tree t , L ondon . The t wo L ondon s hares h ave s qua t h eavy s ocke ts c . 8 cm l ong , 9 cm w ide a nd 4 cm t hick wh ich f or m a bou t

5 5

o ne q uar ter o ft he e n tire 3 0 cm l eng th o ft he t oo l .

The Moorga te s hare i s

t oo c orroded f or wear marks t o b e v isible , b u t t he Buck lersbury House s hare s hows v ir tua l ly s y m me tr ica l wear a long t he b ot to m o ft he p o in t .

The F r inds-

b ury s hare i s r a ther d if feren t i n t ha t t here i s n o s hou lder b e tween s ocke t a nd b lade a nd t he who le t oo l f or ms a t r iangu lar s hape w i th o n ly a s l igh t i n tensif ic a t ion o ft he t aper ing o ft he b lade p ar t a bove t he f langes.

T he s ocke t a lso

t akes u p al arger p ropor t ion o f t he t oo l —abou t o ne h a lf ( 16 cm o f t he t o ta l l eng th o f 3 2 .5 cm ) .

The s ocke t h owever h as r ough ly t he s ame w id th a s t he

L ondon s hares —c . 1 0 cm .

Ano ther d i f ference b etween t he F r indsbury a nd

L ondon s hares i s t ha t t he s ide v iew o ft he f ormer i s a lso t r iangu lar — i .e . t he s ocke t w id th c on t inues f ro m t he w id th o f t he b lade b ase , a nd t he j unct ion o f t he b lade a nd s ocke t i s marked b y as teep r ise i n t he i n terna l t hickness o n ly — f ro m 1 .4 cm me ta l t h ickness a t t he s ocke tb ack t o 3 cm t h ickness a t t he b lade . The L ondon s hares d o n o t h ave s o g rea t a me ta l t hickness —c . 1 -2 cm a t t he j unc t ion w i th t he s ocke t —and t he s ocke t f l anges a re t urned u p o ver t he p lane o ft he b lade .

The F r indsbury t oo l a lso a ppears t o h ave b een f ound w i th a n

i ron c ou l ter —a l though t here i s n o men t ion o ft he l a t ter i n t he b r ief r ecord o f t he f i nd ( Archaeo l . Can t iana XVI I I , p . 1 90 ) . This i s p ossib ly d ue t o t he f act t ha t i t s p urpose was n o t r ecogn ised .

The t wo i mp le men ts h ave a lways b een

a ssocia ted t oge ther a t Rochester Museu m , a nd b o th c er ta in ly c o me f ro m F r indsbury . c ou l ters.

This a dds t o t he p robabi li ty t ha t s uch s hares w ere u sed w i th

These s hares, l ike Type l b s hares o ft he Ro mano-Bri t ish p er iod ,

o bvious ly s hod a w ider wooden p ar t t han t he l a s hares.

Wh i le a l l Type l a

s hares h ad a r e la t ive ly s i mi lar w id th t hroughou t t heir d eve lopmen t -3 .5-5 .5 cm , t he L ondon a nd F r indsbury s hares wou ld h ave s hod a wooden s tructure 8cm w ide , a s wou ld t he B lackburn Mi l l s hare , t hough t he Sworda le t oo l i s s omewha t w ider -11 cm , a nd t he s hare f ro m Trapra in Law , p robably a lso l c i n t ype , wou ld h ave s hod a 7 cm w ide s truc ture . Presu mab ly s hares o fb o th l b a nd l c t ype were s e t o n t he s hare b ea m i t se lf , a s Manning s uggests ( Mann ing 1 964, p . 6 0 ) a nd a s Payne s uggests(Payne 1 947 , p p . 8 9-90 ) t he o rd inary s ocke ted b ar s hares o f Type l a were h e ld . One , o r p ossibly t wo , f ur ther s hares, s hou ld b e i ncluded i n t his g roup . One s hare f ro m Trapra in L aw , a nd t wo o ther i mp le men ts f ar t oo c orroded t o e nab le a ny c er tain i den ti f ica t ion t o b e made —one f ro m Trapra in Law a nd o ne f ro m Dr i more , S . U ist a lso h ave s tou t w ide s ocke ts w i th h eavy w ide b lades which a ppear o r ig ina l ly t o h ave t apered t o ap o in t .

They a re d iscussed i n

s o me d e ta i l b y F en ton ( Fen ton 1 962-3 , p p . 2 71-3) a nd Mann ing ( Manning i n Gai ley a nd F en ton 1 970 , p p . 2 4-6) .

The r easons f or i nclud ing t he m i n t h is

c a tegory w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter ( see b e low , p . 3 26 ).

These T ype l c s hares

c onform t o wha t Ba lassa c a l ls "s pade-shaped p loughshares" ( Ba lassa 1 975, p p . 2 50-2 ) .

H e makes t he p oin t t ha t t hese l arge , h eavy s y mme trica l s hares

s ee m t o a ppear i n Europe i nt he I st c en tury B .C . ,a nd a re f ound a longside t he s l igh ter p lough t ips s how ing t ha t t he t wo t ypes c oexisted i n E urope a s w e l l a s i n B r i ta in f or c en turies.

H e s uggests t ha t t he c oexistence o ft he t wo s uggests

ad if feren t f unct ion , t he p lough tips b eing u sed t o t i l l c leared a nd b urned f orestl and a nd c u l t iva te s oi l f u l l o fb ou lders a nd w eeds, whi le t he l arger s hares c ou ld b e u sed t o p lough s oi l t ha t h ad b een t i l led f or y ears b efore , a nd t o b reak u p g rass l and .

5 6

Four shares from Romano-British contexts, Type id, are asymmetric in form. The blades are roughly the shape of a right angled triangle with the blade edge as the hypotenuse. These, like Type 1c shares, are massive with large, heavy, open flanged sockets. They seem to be a logical development from 1c shares when the advantages of a fixed direction plough were apprecia­ ted. One comes from the Roman villa at Folkestone (Fig. 64) datable from any time between the end of the 1st and the middle of the 4th century (Winbolt 1925, p. 101); a second comes from the Roman villa at Brading, and this could be 3rd or 4th century (Cleere 1958, p. 67, Fig. 10); another comes from the North Welsh hillfort at Dinorben and probably dates from early 4th century (Willoughby Gardner and Savory 1964, p. 158 and Fig. 24:11); the fourth comes from a hoard at Hunter Street, Chester (Fig. 65), and was found in a hoard with a padlock and manacles, shoemaker's anvil, hammer and nails near coins ranging in date from Domitian to the Constantines, and samian pottery. The hoard was found during hurried excavations in the bar­ rack block area of the Roman fort, previous to building operations at the be­ ginning of this century. These four shares would appear to be late-3rd or 4th century. As Aberg states (Aberg 1957, p. 180), they are good evidence for the use of a mould­ board in the plough on which they were used as, since they would be cutting the earth only on one side, it is fairly clear that this was an attempt to turn the sod on one side only, hence the use of a fixed mouldboard on one side. The Folkestone and Brading shares have their wing on the right hand side, the Chester and Dinorben on the left. All four have stout flanged sockets ranging from one third to one half of the tools' length and triangular blades which curve slightly down to the wing in cross-section. The Dinorben and Folkestone shares are similar in length;-24 and 25 cm respectively-and the Brading share is 23 cm. The Chester share is a little longer-31. 3 cm. . iii. Tanged Shares Tanged shares are of three basic types (Fig. 49 :2). Type 2a are the bar shares all of iron; Type 2b are tools basically formed of a narrow strip of iron with flanges at some point along this bar; Type 2c, only rather uncertainly identified as shares, have long tangs and thin spatulate blades. The earliest all-iron tanged tools which have been identified as shares are the 2c type. Only nine such tools have actually been studied by my self and ac­ cordingly are entered in the catalogue; eight of these are from Hunsbury hillfort and the other one from Castle Dykes hillfort, both in Northamptonshire. Payne was the first to suggest that these tools were in fact shares (Payne 1947, p. 93 ), but Rodwell feels (1976) that they are better interpreted as pokers. He lists at least eight British sites which have produced examples and compares them with Continental examples. Rodwell may well be correct in his identification as one of his examples, illustrated in his Fig. 3 has a twisted shaft, a feature which would be difficult to explain as a share. Also, two others, those from Southcote and Sutton Walls terminate in loops, and again, it is difficult to ex­ plain how this feature would be housed on the ard structure. When I examined the tools myself, I felt that the long shafts and the spatulate nature of the blades with their thin cross section made them unconvincing candidates as shares, especially the example from Hunsbury with the rounded blade quite unlike the 57

s hape o f a ny c on te mporary s hare .

However , i ts hou ld b e s a id t ha t b o th Payne

a nd S teensberg f e l t t ha t t hese i mp le men ts w ere s hares, Mann ing f inds t h is i n terpre ta t ion q ui te p lausib le ( Mann ing 1 964 , p . 6 0) a nd Ba lassa a ccep ts t he m a s h is f i rst t ype o f s hare ( Ba lassa 1 975 , p p . 2 42-3 ) q uo t ing many e xa mp les f ro m Eastern Europe a s p ara l le ls.

I ndeed , h e s ta tes t ha t s uch s hares w ere

i n u se u n t i l q ui te r ecen t ly o ver aw ide a rea .

I ts ee ms l ike ly , h owever , t ha t

t he s i mi lar ly s haped H ungar ian t oo ls t ha t h e q uo tes, a nd t he more r ecen t t ools i l lustra ted b y L eser ( 1931 p p . 6 4 , 9 4 a nd 9 6) a l l h oused o n as lop ing s o le f or s uppor t , were r a ther more s tou t ly c onstruc ted t han t he Hun sbury t oo ls.

None

o ft hese a u thor i t ies d escr ibe t oo ls o ther t han t hose f ro m Hunsbury , h owever , a nd t hus n one e xp la in t he n on-share l i ke f ea tures f ound o n t he s i mi lar ly s haped t oo ls a s e xp la ined a bove .

A l l t he t oo ls h ave l ong t angs s quare o r r ound i n

c ross-sect ion , w i th t h in s pa tu la te b lades w i th o ne s urface f l a t , t he o ther v ery s l igh t ly c onvex . c orroded .

The n ine t oo ls t ha t Is tudied a re ma in ly v ery d a maged a nd

Most o ft he m h ave b roken t angs a nd p robab ly o n ly D 390 , 3 89 a nd 3 9

3 92 a re who le .

There wou ld a ppear t o b e t wo d i f feren t t ypes o fb lade :

al ong b lade w i th p ara l le l s ides o r r a ther l eaf-shaped w i th a b road t ip ;

F irst ly , s econd ly ,

ar ound-shaped b lade ( F ig . 6 6) . D 133 , 3 91 , 3 89 a nd 3 90 h ave l ong b lades; D 392 , 1 38 , t he B .M . t oo l a nd t he t oo l f ro m C ast le Dykes h ave r ounded b lades. O f a l l t hese t oo ls, o n ly f our h ave a ny p ar t o f t he b lade e dge r ema in ing , a nd o n ly t wo , D390 a nd 3 93 , h ave a s izeab le l eng th r e ma in ing .

T hese t wo d o

a ppear t o b e s l igh t ly a sym metr ica l ly worn a nd t h is f act w i th t he p lano-convex c ross-sect ion o ft he b lade , s o c o m mon a c haracter ist ic o f s hares, s uggests t ha t Payne ' si n terpre ta t ion i s n o t who l ly i mp lausib le . r a ther f ragi le ;

The b lades a re, h owever ,

e xact ly h ow t hey wou ld h ave b een s e t u p i n t he a rd s tructure

a nd h ow t hey wou ld s tand u p t o t he s tra in o fp lough ing r e ma in s u nclear . A t l east 1 8 Type 2 a b ar s hares a re k nown f ro m t he Ro mano-Bri tish p eriod . They a re l ong b ars o f i ron w i th a f la t c hise llike p oin t h a m mered o u t f ro m t he b o t to m a nd s ides o n ly o ft he i ron ( F ig . 6 7 ) . wear o n t heir p o in ts.

They o ccasiona l ly s how s ign s o f

One c o mes f ro m a h oard f ro m D orchester , f ive f ro m t he

Grea t C hesterford h oard ( Nevi l le 1 856) , t he 1 890 a nd 1 900 S i lchester h oards p roduced t wo a nd f our r espect ive ly , f i ve c ame f ro m t he Wor ling ton a nd o ne f rom t he A bing ton P iggot ts h oards ( a l l i n Cambr idge U n iversi ty Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd E thno logy ) .

I n e very c ase s ave t he Wor l ing ton s hares, t he

s hares were f ound w i th t he e qu iva len t n u mber o f c ou l ters.

I tw as t ha t f act ,

c oup led w i th t he wear o n t he p o in ts, t ha t l ed t o t heir i den ti f ica t ion a s s hares ( Mann ing 1 964, p . 6 0 ) .

They w ere p resu mab ly h e ld i n as i mi lar way t o t he

wooden f oreshares o ft he S cand inavian b ow a rds —wedged b etween r idges o n t he s hare b eam o r ma in s hare .

I ti s p ossib ly w or th n o ting t ha t t he c a ta logue

a t Wisbech Museu m r ecords t ha t a" ? T e ther ing S take" was f ound w i th t he c ou l ter f ro m Towcester wh ich i s i n t he Museu m ' sp ossession .

The ma teria l

o f which t he s take was made i sn o t r ecorded , b u t i ti s worth b ear ing i n mind t ha t i t migh t h ave b een a n i ron b ar s hare . T he e vidence i s c er ta in ly s uf f icien t , h owever , f orus t o a ssu me t ha t i ron b ar s hares were u sed w i th c ou lters . Wear marks, where t hey a re v isib le o n t hese s hares, a re c oncen tra ted o n t he b ot to m e dge o f t he p oin t , a nd a ppear t o b e q ui te s y m me tr ica l a long t he p o in t e dge a nd d own e ach s ide f or c . 6 cm i nt he c ase o f o ne o ft he b est w orn e xamp les ( 09026) i n R ead ing Museu m f ro m t he S i lchester 1 890 h oard) ( F ig . 6/ 9) .

O ther s hares wh ich d isp lay w ear a re 0 9027 a nd 1 9030 f rom S i lchester , 5 8

a nd t he t oo l f ro m D orchester , a nd t he l a t ter t wo wou ld b o th a ppear t o h ave a sy m me tr ica l wear o n t he t i ps. B o th o ft he t oo ls f ro m S i lchester a re p ar tic u lar ly l ong a nd t h in a nd s how t he wear o n t he t ips v ery we l l .

I ti s i n terest ing

t ha t t he l onger s hares f ro m S i lchester h ave a w id th o f c . 2 cm whi le t he sma ll er o nes, e specia l ly t he v ery s hor t 0 9030, a re 3 cm w ide .

One o ft he g roup

( S i lchester 0 9031 —F ig . 6 7a ) i s p oin ted a t b o th e nds, a nd t hus wou ld h ave b een r eversib le , a s was t he wooden D f ‘strup a rd f oreshare .

The S i lchester s hares

a s ag roup v ary c onsiderab ly i n s ize f ro m 4 4 .5 cm ( 09030 ) t o 7 . ' 8cm ( 09027 ) . T he Dorchester b ar s hare i s l onger t han t he S i lchester s hares , a t 9 3 cm , a nd t h is c o mpares q ui te we l l w i th t he wooden f oreshare o ft he Donnerup land a rd which was 1 09 cm l ong . A g roup o f t oo ls s urvives f ro m Ro mano-Br i t ish c on tex ts which c ou ld b e d escr ibed a s w inged b ar s hares —shares o n wh ich t he t ip i s i ron , w i th a p a ir o f f l anges a t s o me p oin t a long i t wh ich wou ld h o ld t he s hare i ron t o t he wooden b ar s hare p roper .

One s uch Type 2 b s hare c o mes f ro m Veru la m iu m ( Frere

1 972 , p . 1 68 ) ( Fig . 6 8b) , ag roup o f t hree o r p ossib ly f our f ro m t he v i l la a t B rading ( C leere 1 958 , F ig . 1 0c, f , ga nd e ) a nd o ne f ro m Meo ls ( Hu me 1 863) w hich may o r may n o t b e Roman ( F ig . 6 8a ) , a nd a no ther f ro m Woodcu ts i s p ossib ly a s hare , a l though t h is i s r a ther u n like ly b ecause o f i t s c hisel-shaped e nd ( F ig . 5 6a ) . am iu m ) .

Their l eng ths v ary f ro m 1 6 cm ( Brad ing ) t o 2 6 .3 cm ( Veru l-

T he Woodcu ts a nd Meo ls t oo ls h ave a n ai l h o le a t t he e nd , a nd t wo

o ft he Brad ing t oo ls h ave t wo —one t hrough t he e nd , a nd o ne a t t he b ase o f t he f l ange .

T he Meo ls t oo l a nd o ne o f t he Brad ing t oo ls h ave wood s ti l l s urviving

b e tween t he s ocke t f l anges .

The B rad ing t ools a re p robably 3 rd c en tury , a nd

t he o thers c anno t b e d a ted more c lose ly t han t o t he Roman p er iod . c orroded a nd i ti s n o t a t a l l c er ta in t ha t t hey a re a l l s hares.

A l l a re

The c u lm ina tion

o ft he d eve lop men t o ft h is t ype i n t he Roman p er iod i s s een i n t he s hare f ro m t he Ro man v i l la a t B ox wh ich , t hough o n ly a c asua l f ind i n t he a rea o ft he R o man v i l la , i sp robably R omano-Br i tish i n d a te . Th is e nor mous s hare i s 5 7 cm l ong w i th f l anges 1 5 cm l ong a nd a s haf t w id th o f 3x 2 .3 cm . Mann ing s ees t his s hare a s t he d eve lop men t i n t he f ace o f ap ar ticu lar r equire men t ( Mann ing 1 964, p . 6 0 ) a nd i t wou ld e qua te w i th t he b eaked t ype o f s hare ment i oned b y P l iny ( 'v o lgare r os tratu m u t i v ec tis ' )( see b e low , p . 6 6 ).

Mann ing

e qua tes t he i ron b ar t ip o f l at ype w i th t he " s piked t ype" men t ioned b y P liny ; h e s uggests t ha t t he "s pear t ype" o f s hare o f P l iny h as n o t b een

f ound i n

B r i ta in b u t t ha t t h is i s t he t ype s hown o n t he mode l p lough f ro m C o logne a nd p robably o n t he mode l p lough f ro m S ussex ( see b e low , p .

6 3 ) .

Mann ing s ug-

g ests t ha t t h is i s t he l ast t ype o f s hare men t ioned b y P l iny a s h av ing a b roader a nd s harper e nd wh ich c ou ld c u t t he r oo ts o f weeds, a nd s uggests t ha t t he s ocketed s hare f ro m S aa lburg migh t b e a n e xamp le o ft h is t ype .

F or a f u l ler

d iscussion o f P l iny ' sc o m men ts o n R o man s hares s ee b e low , p . 6 6. PLOUGH COULTERS P lough c oul ters o f i ron a re n o t u nco m mon f i nds f ro m Ro mano-Br i tish c on tex ts.

1 4 a re k nown f rom h oards o f Ro man i ronwork-5 f ro m G rea t C hes-

t erford , o ne f ro m A bing ton P iggo t ts, 6 f ro m S i lchester , o ne f ro m Dorchester , a nd o ne f ro m S ibson ;

7c o me f ro m e xcava ted s i tes where t hey were f ound

s ing ly r a ther t han i n h oards —Cirencester ( 2 ) , G rea t Whi tco mbe ( F ig . 6 9a ) ,

5 9

S tan ton L ow , F r indsbury ( F ig . 6 7d ) , F ish tof t , a nd p ossibly o ne f ro m H ockwo ldc u m- W i l ton ;

a no ther 5 a re s tray f i nds, f ro m Meer ing , Towcester , Twyford

D own ( F ig . 7 0 ) , S andy a nd p ossib ly o ne f rom Wimb l ing ton .

O ne i n t he B ri t ish

Museum i s u nprovenanced ( see C a ta logue l i sts f or p ub l ished r eference a nd f or museu m c o l lec tions which c on tain t hese c ou l ters) .

Al t he c ou l ters f ro m h oards

were a ssocia ted w i th i ron b ar s hares e xcep t t he S ibson c ou l ter .

The c ou l ter

f ro m F r indsbury was p robably a ssocia ted w i th a n o pen-f langed s y m me tr ic s hare ( Type l c —see F ig . 6 3 ) , a nd t he c ou l ter f ro m Wisbech m igh t a lso h ave b een a ssocia ted w i th ab ar s hare ( see b e low A l l t he c ou l ters a re s i mi lar i n s hape , w i th a l arge t riangu lar b lade a nd a l ong s haf t , which c ou ld b e o ctagona l o r r ec tangu lar i n s ect ion .

The c ross-

s ect ions o ft he b lade of ten s how t ha t t he b lade i s c urved s o t ha t o ne s ide i s s l igh t ly c oncave , t he o ther s l igh t ly c onvex ( s ee F ig . 6 9a ). Mann ing i s s cep t ica l o ft he v iew t ha t t he b lades o f R o man c ou l ters w ere ws e t, i .e . b ea ten o u t f ro m o ne s ide o n ly s o t ha t t he c urving b lade t hrew t he s od t o o ne s ide o n ly ( Mann ing 1 964 , p . 6 3 ) . The f rag men ts o f c ou l ters f ro m Twyford Down , F isht of t a nd H ockwo ld a re s l igh ter t han t he o thers, a nd a re n o t a t a l l c urved i n c ross-sect ion ( F ig . 7 0 ) .

B o th t hose f ro m F i sh tof t a nd Hockwo ld a re i nv ery

b ad c ond i t ion , a nd i ti s n o t c er ta in t ha t t hey a re i ndeed c ou l ter b lades. N ei ther h ave t heir s haf ts p reserved , a nd b o th a re much s l igh ter t han a ny o f t he o ther c ou l ters t ha t Ih ave e xamined . The b lades o f a l l t hree e xamp les a ppear t o b e e ar l ier t han t he o thers, wh ich may h ave s ome r e levance h ere . Da tab le c ou l ters a re f ro m t he G rea t C hesterford , S i lchester , S ibson a nd Dorchester h oards ( a l l l a te 4 th c en tury ) .

T he h oard a t S andy i s a lso l a te 4 th

c en tury , b u t t he c ou l ter was n o t n ecessari ly p ar t o ft his h oard ; t he c ircu mst ances o f i t s f i nd ing a re n o t r ecorded ( Mann ing 1 972 ) .

The c ou l ter f rom H ock-

wo ld wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een 3 rd c en tury i n d a te , a nd t ha t f ro m Wimb l ing ton ( Ih ave n o t s tud ied t his c ou l ter ;

i t s p resen t w hereabou ts a re u nknown ) w as

a pparen t ly f oand w i th c oins o f An ton inus P ius ( Phi l lips 1 970 , p . 2 19) .

T he

f rag men t o f c ou l ter f ro m F ish tof t c an p erhaps b e d a ted t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th c en tury ( Bu l livan t 1 970 ) .

The b lade f ro m Twyford D own s ee ms t o h ave b een d i scovered

w i th e ar ly Ro mano-Br i tish s herds, b u t a ny c onclusions b ased o n t his must r e ma in r a ther t en ta tive ( Payne 1 947 , p . 9 3 a nd Mann ing 1 964 , p . 6 3 ) . The c ou l ter c an p robably b e s een a s ar e la tive ly l a te i n troduct ion i n to B r i ta in , w i th n o c er ta in e xamp les b e ing f ound b efore t he 3 rd c en tury A .D . , a nd t he l arge ma jor i ty b eing l a te 4 th c en tury i nd a te . h owever , o ft oo f aci le a n i n terpre ta t ion .

We s hou ld b eware ,

A s Manning s ta tes, t he l arge q uan ti ty

o f i ron i n t he c ou l ters made t he m v a luab le a s s crap a nd t he ma jori ty o ft he s crap h oards n ow l ef t t o a rchaeo logists d a te t o t he 4 th c entury . The l eng ths o ft he c ou l ters r ange f ro m 5 5 t o 9 2 .5 cm , a nd t he l eng ths o f t he b lades v ary f ro m 1 8 .5 t o 3 6.4 cm ; b lade w id ths v ary f rom 6 . 8t o 1 .5 cm . S o f ew c ou l ters a re p recise ly d a ted , a nd t he d a te r ange i s i n a ny c ase s o l imit ed t ha t i ti s i mpossib le t o make a ny c o m men t u pon t heir d eve lop men t a s i mp le men ts i n R o man Br i ta in .

I ti s , p erhaps, w or th n o t ing t ha t a l l t he c ou l ters

which migh t b e e ar lier t han t he 4 th c en tury—Twyford Down , F r indsbury , Hockwo ld a nd F i sh tof t —have b lades o f we l l b e low a verage w id th ( see C a ta logue) . T he i ncrease i n b lade w id th may b e al a ter d eve lopmen t , b u t o ne o n ly h as t o l ook a t t he r ange o f d imensions o f c ou l ters i nt he t wo l arge h oards —Si lchester 6 0

a nd Grea t C hesterford — to r ea lise t he u ndesirabi li ty o fb asing f i rm c onc lusions a bou t t ypo log ica l d eve lop men t o n t he d i mens ions o f i nd iv idua l i mp le men ts . The f unction o ft he c ou l ter o n t he p lough i s t o c u t t he s od v er tical ly i n a dvance o ft he s hare wh ich c u ts h or izon ta l ly . We h ave n o s peci f ic e vidence a s t o h ow t he c ou l ter was h e ld o n t he p lough i n t he Ro mano-Bri t ish p eriod , b u t t he sma l l h ole i nt he b eam o ft he P iercebr idge p lough mode l i s a ssu med t o h ave h e ld o r igina l ly a d e tachab le c ou l ter ( Mann ing 1 971 , p . 1 33 a nd s ee b e low , p . 6 2 ) ;

h ence t he c ou l ter p assed v er t ica l ly i n to t he e ar th , w i th t he

u pper p ar t o ft he s haf t h e ld i np osi tion i n ah o le i n t he p lough b eam . Map 4 s hows t he d istr ibu tion o ft he Ro mano-Bri t ish c ou l ters k nown t o me . T he f indspo ts a re o f l i t t le h e lp i n t racing d istr ibu t ion a s s o many were f ound i n c ol lec ted h oards. I t may b e wor th n o t ing t ha t t hree v i l las, t hree t owns a nd a t l east t hree f a ir ly s ubstan t ia l Ro man c ivi l s e t t le men ts h ave p roduced c ou l ters, a nd i t may b e a ssumed t ha t a reas o f h igh R o man i nf luence a re more l i ke ly t o p roduce c ou l ters. REPRESENTATIONS AND MODE L S OF ARDS AND PLOUGHS There h ave b een f ound i n Br i ta in , d a t ing f ro m t he Roman p er iod , t hree r epresen ta t ions o f a rds o r p lough ing s cenes; t he P iercebr idge p lough mode l i nb ronze ; t he mode l o f a n a rd f ro m S ussex ; a nd a mosaic f ro m t he Brad ing R o man v i l la o n t he I s le o f Wigh t . O ft hese , t he f i rst t wo a re o f s o me c onside rab le a ssistance t o u s, p rovid ing e vidence n o t o n ly o ft he s tructure o ft he p lough i nt he Ro man p eriod , b u t a lso o f p lough ing me thod , means o ft raction , t he o x-team emp loyed , a nd s o o n . The mosaic s cene h owever s hou ld o n ly b e u sed w i th c au tion s ince , b ecause i ti s u sua l ly s ta ted t o b e Tr ip to le mus, t he mytho log ica l i nven tor o f t he p lough i ti s p robab ly a n a rcha ic s cene s howing a n a rd o f s imp ler c ons truc t ion t han t ha t wh ich was i n u se a t t he t ime , e ven i f t he a rd s t ruc ture i s n o t a s mytho log ica l a s t he p erson h o ld ing i t .

Th is p o in t

s hou ld a lso b e b orne i n mind when t he P iercebr idge p lough g roup i s e xam ined , a s Mann ing s uggests t ha t t he g roup p or trays a r e l ig ious r i te a nd p ossibly a lso t he S ussex mode l i s av o tive mode l r a ther t han a n a ccura te p or traya l o f t he c on temporary a rd . A l l t hree r epresen ta t ions a re n ecessari ly s che ma t ic a nd u sua l ly t he a rd i sn o t t he most i mpor tan t o b ject i n t he g roup ; of ten t herefore i ti s s hown a s b e ing t he sma l ler t han o ther o b jects o r p eop le a nd i s l ess c arefu l ly mode l led . A lso , a l though t hey a re f ound i n B ri ta in , t hey c ou ld a l q ui te e asi ly b e o f c on t inen ta l manufacture a nd t herefore i ti s u nwi se t o s tudy t he m i n i so la t ion f ro m s imi lar r epresen ta t ions o n t he C on t inen t . A s i ts eems q ui te p ossible t ha t t hroughou t t he p er iods c overed b y t his work t he a rd i n B ri tain was d i f fere n t i n s ome ways f ro m t he Med i terranean a rd , c au t ion i s n eeded whi le e xami n ing Roman p or traya ls o f a rds, o r o f c lassica l l i terary e vidence f or i n for ma t ion o n t he B r i t ish a rd , i . T he P iercebr idge Mode l The b ronze mode l o f ap lough man a nd h is t eam i n a ct ion s hown o n F ig . 7 1a w as f ound a tt he Roman f or t a t P iercebr idge i n C o . Durham e ar ly i n t he 1 9 th c en tury , a nd i s n ow i n t he B r i tish Museu m . T oynbee s uggests ( Toynbee 1 962 , 6 1

p . 1 49, N o. 5 4) a d a te i nt he 2 nd o r 3 rd c en tury f or t he manufac ture o ft he p iece , a nd Mann ing ( Mann ing 1 971 , p . 1 33 ) s ta tes t ha t t he s ty le o ft he s ta tue t te wou ld a ccord w i th i t s h aving b een made i n ap rov incia l w orkshop i n Bri ta in , Gau l o r G ermany ; h e s uggests t ha t a s i t was f ound i nB r i ta in , a Bri tish o r igin wou ld s ee m l i ke ly .

The o xtea m , t raction me thod a nd p lough-

man w i l l b e d iscussed i n t he s econd p ar t o ft h is c hap ter ( see b e low , p . 7 4 ) . Here we w i l l e xam ine t he a ctua l a rd s tructure s hown o n t he model . The e n t ire mode l i s o n ly 6 .9 cm l ong a nd 4 .5 cm h igh a nd , a s t he a rd i s ar e la t ive ly u n impor tan t p ar t o ft he g roup a nd may , a sb efore s uggested , h ave a rcha ic f ea tures, i ti s d if f icu l t b o th t o t e l l wha t t ype o f a rd i s p or trayed , a nd t o g enera l ise

f ro m i tt o t he R o mano-Bri t ish a rd .

The a rd a ppears t o b e

c o mposed o f ay oke b eam , a rd-head a nd s ti l t a nd a p a ir o f f orward-curv ing a r ms o n e i ther s ide o ft he j unct ion o f t he b eam a nd s ti l t . Mann ing v ery p lausi b ly s uggests ( Mann ing 1 971 , p p . 1 32-3 ) t ha t t hese a rms a re s uppor ts f or d et achab le e ar thboards, wh ich were b oards s hown o n t he S ussex mode l a nd d escr ibed b y v arious c lassica l a grono mists .

These b oards a re d escr ibed a s

b e ing u sed t o c over b roadcast s eed a nd t o c u t d i tches f or d ra inage o r f or c lodb reak ing af ter s ow ing ( Varro 1 .29 2 ; P liny N .H . 1 8 .180) .

T he j unction b e-

t ween b ea m a nd s ti l t a nd a rd-head i s a l l-impor tan t f or t he c lassi f ica tion o f a rds a ccord ing t o S ach t ss che me .

I ti s u nfor tuna te t ha t i ti s i mpossib le t o

t e l l o n t he mode l i ft he s t i l t p asses t hrough t he b eam o r v ice-versa , a s t h is s ect ion o ft he a rd i s p art icu lar ly s che ma t ica l ly e xecu ted . A l l w e h ave i st he g enera l o u t line o ft he t hree ma in f eatures o ft he a rd . The s ti l t i s u pr igh t , w i thou t a man icu la o r h andgr ip —possib ly omi t ted f or t he s ake o f s imp lici ty . The a rd wou ld b e v ery d i ff icu l t t o c on tro l w i th t he l ef t h and h o ld ing t he s ti l t a s s hown h ere .

The b eam i s s hown a s e x traord inari ly

t hick i n p ropor t ion t o t he o xen , p robab ly d ue t o t he d i f f icu lties i nc ast ing a t h in r od o f me ta l .

The b ea m h as a h o le mode l led i n i t which i si nt he r igh t

p osi t ion t o h o ld a ( probab ly d etachab le ) c ou l ter , a nd i ti s t his f ea ture, a nd t he s uppor t a r ms f or t he d e tachab le e ar thboards , wh ich a re t he most i n forma t ive p ar ts o ft he mode l . The p rof i le o ft he a rd , w i th t he r e la tive ly s tra igh t b ea m , u pr igh t s t i l t a nd h or izon ta l s o le , s ee ms s uggestive o ft he b ody a rd , a nd t his i s t he i n terpre ta tion which Whi te f avours ( Wh i te 1 967 , p . 1 35) .

I ft h is were s o , i tw ou ld b e t he o n ly

k nown R o mano-Bri tish e xamp le o f t h is t ype o f a rd o n wh ich t he b ea m i s mort i sed i n to t he o ne-p iece s ti l t a nd s o le , b u t a s t h is t ype o f a rd was we l l k nown i n t he Medi terranean wor ld , a nd t his mode l migh t b e as cene o fR o man r i tua l p lough ing , i ti s p ossib le t ha t i t was a Med i terranean t ype o f a rd w hich t he mode l ler was i mi ta t ing .

This i s h owever r a ther u n l ike ly , a s t he c loth ing o f

t he p lough man i s a pparen t ly more e xp licab le i n aN .W . E uropean c on tex t t han i n a Med i terranean o ne ( Wi ld 1 968 , p . 1 85) . Mann ing i n terpre ts t he a rd , c ert a in ly more s a t isfactori ly f ro m t he Ro mano-Br i tish c on tex t o f t he p iece , a s a modi f ied f orm o ft he b ow a rd ; t he a rched b eam a nd b ackward l ean ing s ti l t o f t he b ow a rd , a s s hown o n t he S candinavian b og f i nds, w ou ld b e u nnecessary i f af l anged s hare , s uch a s was f ound a t B uck lersbury H ouse ( F ig . 6 2 ) , were u sed , a nd t here was n o l ong b ar s hare t o b e h e ld a t t he c haracter i stica l ly a cu te a ng le .

I ft he t ype o f s hare were i ndica ted o n t he mode l a rd , t he p rob lem

wou ld b e a l levia ted , b u t n o i nd ica tion o ft he s hare , which p resumably was o f

6 2

i ron a nd f i t ted d irect ly o n to t he a rd-head , i s g iven . I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t n o w ooden r emains o f a n a rd ' ss uperstructure h ave b een f ound d a t ing f ro m t he R o mano-Br i tish p eriod , a s t h is wou ld g ive u s s o me i nd ica t ion o f h ow t he b ow a rd u sed i nt he p reh istor ic p er iod was modi f ied t o f i t t he a sy mme tr ica l f l anged s hare t ype .

I t i s d angerous t o a scr ibe a ny a rd t ype t oo s ure ly t o t he mode l ,

t hough Imyse lf p refer t o a ccep t Mann ing ' sv iew o ft he modi f ied b ow a rd . i .

T he S ussex B ronze Mode l

A g roup o f sma ll b ronze mode ls, s a id t o h ave b een f ound i n at u mu lus i n S ussex p robably i n t he 1 9 th c en tury a nd n ow i nt he B ri t ish Museu m ( Mann ing 1 9662 ) , i n c ludes t wo sma l l b ronze y okes ( s ee b e low , p . 7 4 ) a nd a n a rd . The g roup i s most e asi ly p ara l le led b y R hen ish g roups o fb ronze mode ls, a lways f ound i n g raves a nd d a ted b y a ssocia ted c o ins f ro m t he e nd o f t he a nd t o t he e nd o f t he 4 th c en tury . The mode l o ft he a rd ( F ig . 7 1b

s hows a s ide v iew w i th t he a rd h e ld h or i-

z on ta lly a nd , b e low , av iew f ro m t he t op o ft he a rd ) i s 8 .9 cm l ong , a nd , u nl i ke t he P iercebr idge mode l wh ich was p robably c ast b y t he c ire p erdue me thod , t his mode l was p robably c ast i n ap iece mou ld , a s t races o f mou ld j unct ions may s t i l l b e s een i n p laces o n t he s hare a nd s ti l t ( Mann ing 1 966 2 ,p . 5 5) . Aga in t he s omewha t s che ma tic mode l ling a nd t he d i f f icu l ty o f d ecid ing wh ich p ar t i s s upposed t o b e mor tised i n to wha t , make t oo c er ta in a c lassi f ica t ion d angerous, b u t we may b e f air ly s ure t ha t t h is mode l r epresen ts a b ow a rd , j udg ing f ro m t he a ng le a t which i t must h ave b een h e ld ( bo th Whi te ( 1967 , p . 1 43 ) a nd Mann ing ( Mann ing 1 9662 ) a ccep t i ta s s uch ) . T he s hare i s a rrow-shaped , a nd t he a rd h as a p a ir o fg round b oards ( s ee b e low , p . 6 5 ) which were p robab ly d e tachable a nd were p robab ly u sed f or c over ing s eed o r f or c rea t ing a r idge a nd f urrow e f fect f or d ra inage . These b oards a re n o t mode l led s epara te ly f ro m t he a rrows haped s hare , a nd t hey r un d irect ly i n to t he s hare . P resu mab ly , h owever , t he t anged s hare wou ld h ave b een mor tised t hrough t he b eam a nd t he g roundboards w ou ld h ave b een a t tached , p robab ly b y t he me thod s uggested b y t he P iercebridge g roup , o nt he o u tside o ft he b ea m .

I ft his i s s o , we may i n terpre t t he p iece o f

me ta l s hown b e low t he s t i l t n ex t t o t he b ase o f t he b eam a s t he a rms w i th wh ich t he e ar thboards were s uppor ted .

A t f i rst g lance t he mode l l ooks l i ke a c rook a rd ,

w i th i t s s traigh t b ea m a nd h orizon ta l method o f e n try i n to t he s o i l , b u t i ti s c lear u pon f ur ther e xam ina t ion t ha t t he b eam r i ses a t t oo h igh a n a ng le t o make t he h or izon ta l e ar th e n try v ery l i ke ly . I ft he mode l i st i l ted s o t ha t t he b ea m e nd i s l ower , o bviously t he s hare t hen e n ters t he e ar th a t t he a cu te a ng le u n likely i fi t were a c rook a rd . I ti st herefore p robable t ha t t he mode l r epresen ts a b ow a rd wh ich may h ave a n a ng led o r ah or izon ta l e n try . Any a t te mp t t o i den t i fy t he v ar ious p ieces o ft he mode l b e low t he e ar th b oards must b e r egarded w i th s o me s cep t icis m o n a mode l o n ly 8 .9 cm l ong b u t F ig . 7 1c s hows a h ypo the tica l c ross s ec t ion t hrough t he b eam s uggest ing a p ossib le r econstruction o f t he v arious p ar ts o ft he a rd .

T he l owest p ar t wou ld b e t he b ot to m e nd o ft he b eam ,

a nd t he me ta l s trip j ust b e low t he s hare a nd e ar thboards wou ld b e t he a rd-head c on tinu ing f ro m t he s ti l t , e i ther l arge a nd a rrow-shaped , o r , more l i ke ly , i n v iew o ft he a rrow-shaped s hare ,s ma l ler a s o n t he D onnerup land a rd .

B etween

t hese wou ld b e t he s uppor ts f or t he e ar thboards a t tached o n t he o u tside o f t he b ea m f rom wh ich t he b oards wou ld r ise g iving a d oub le c oncave s ided a pproach t o t he e ar th n o t u n like t ha t o f a modern r idger , which h as t wo mou ldboards 6 3

a t tached a t av ariab le d istance a par t o n ab ar t owed b y t he t ractor .

T hi s a lso

s uggests h ow t he e ar thboards may w el l b e t hough t o f a s t he R oman e qu iva len t , o r i ndeed , p recursor o ft he a t tached mouldboard , w i th t he i mpor tan t d i f fere nce t ha t t he modern mou ldboard i nver ts t he s od . The r e liabi li ty o ft h is s ugg ested r econstruct ion i s n o t a ided b y t he f act t ha t a l l t hese p ieces, s ave t he e ar thboards t hemse lves a re r epresen ted a s b eing a l l i n o ne p lane, b u t p erhaps s o me l i cense may b e g ran ted t he p resen t d ay a ra tro logist i nv iew o ft he e xt reme sma l lness o ft he p iece . The S ussex mode l a rd i s p ara l le led b y o ne i n ag roup f rom Rodenk irchen ( Bonner J ahrbucher 1 49 , 1 949 , p . 9 4) wh ich , l i ke t he S ussex g roup a nd many o ft he o ther Rhen ish g roups, a lso i ncludes v arious o ther a gr icu l tura l i mp lemen ts —such a s y okes, s pades, r akes, e tc . —and i th as b een s uggested ( Mann ing 1 9662 , p . 5 4 b u t a lso s ee Green 1 975 2 ,p . 6 0 ) t ha t t hey a re c onnected w i th t he c u l t o fS abazius, a Thraco-Phryg ian g od who a t ta ined s o me p opu lari ty u nder t he Roman Emp ire , a nd who was c on sidered t o h ave a s pecia l r egard f or a gr icu l ture ( Diodorus i i , 6 42 ) . Ano ther s i mi lar a rd mode l was f ound a t C ologne , n ow i n Ma inz Museu m , a nd s hows t he t anged a rrow-shaped s hare which was p resu mab ly t he t ype s hown l ess c lear ly o n t he S ussex mode l .

An

a ctua l e xamp le o ft h is t ype o f s hare , t hough s ocke ted i n t h is c ase, was f ound a t S aa lburg . Mann ing a t tr ibu tes t h is t ype o f s hare t o o ne o ft he t hree s pecia li sed t ypes men t ioned b y P l iny ( see b e low , p . 6 6 ) . o therw ise f ound i n B r i ta in . i i .

The t ype h as n o t b een

T he B rad ing Mosaic

An u mber o f mosaics o ft he R o man p eriod s how s cenes o f p lough ing .

One

o ft hese , f ro m B rad ing R o man v i l la a t Mor ton , I s le o f Wigh t , i s Bri t ish a nd migh t h ave b een made b y an a t ive c raf ts man , b u t i n f act t he a rcha ic n a ture o f t he s cene makes i tu n like ly t ha t t he a rd s hown was o f c on te mporary t ype , a nd t he t ype o f a rd wou ld a ppear t o b e a Med i terranean s o le a rd . The mosaic c an b e d a ted t o t he 4 th c en tury .

P ar t o f t he mosaic s hows a The y ou th i s v ast ly

n aked y ou th h o ld ing a s che ma t ic r ender ing o f a n a rd .

b igger t han t he a rd , a nd i s p ossib ly , t herefore , ad ei ty w i th h is s y mbo l . The y ou th h as b een p lausib ly i den ti f ied a s T rip to le mus, t he i nven tor o f t he p lough i n c lassica l my tho logy .

The a rd h ere i sv ery s che ma tic ;

t he j unction b e tween

b eam a nd s o le i s n o t s hown c lear ly , a nd o n ly t wo p ar ts o f t he a rd a re p ort rayed—the l ong b ea m a nd t he h orizon ta l s o le . The f act t ha t t he s o le p ro jects b ack i n ah ee l , u sed o n t he s o le a rd b y t he p lough man a s ap iece o f t he a rd n o n which t o e xer t d ownward p ressure w i th h is f oo t , a nd t ha t t he b ea m i s stra igh t a nd t he s o le h or izon ta l , s uggests t ha t t he a rd i s o f t he s ole a rd t ype ( Sach N o . 8—see F ig . 3 5) , a nd t hi s s uggests t ha t t he mosaici st ( or h is p a t tern b ook ) h ad a Medi terranean b ackground . T he s i mp lici ty a nd s che ma tic r ender ing o ft he a rd , h owever , makes i tv ir tua l ly v a lue less a s as ource o f i n forma t ion o n a rd t ype. The P iercebr idge a nd S ussex mode ls a re , t herefore , t he o n ly t wo mode ls o f a rds f ro m B r i ta in t o b e o f a ny u se t o t he a rchaeo logist . T hese mode ls, u nf or tuna te ly s che ma t ic , a re most i mpor tan t t o u s a s t hey s how t he o n ly e vidence f or t he p ossib le d eve lopmen t o ft he b ow a rd t o f i t l a ter s hare t ypes, a nd a lso r e ma in o ur o n ly e vidence f or t he u se o ft he g round b oards men t ioned i nc lassica l 6 4

l i tera ture . These c ou ld b e r egarded a s t he p recursors o ft he mou ld b oard , a s t hey c ou ld b e u sed t o make f urrows, a nd P liny r efers t o o n ly o ne b oard b e ing u sed ( P liny N .H . 1 8 .180) .

We may , a s Mann ing s uggests ( Mann ing 1 964 ,

p . 6 4) h ave h ere a h in t o ft he mou ld b oard p roper .

The u se o f a sy m metr ic

s hares b y t he 4 th c en tury makes i tf a ir ly c lear t ha t t he mou ld b oard was muse b y t his t ime . The S ussex mode l a lso p rovides u s w i th e vidence f or t he u se , p ossibly i n B ri ta in , o ft he t anged , a rrow-shaped s hare , o therw ise u nknown f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l e vidence f ro m Bri ta in . The P iercebridge mode l s hows h ow t he c ou l ter was p osi t ioned o n t he R o mano-Bri t ish a rd . There s ti l l e xists n o e vidence f or t he u se o f whee led p loughs i n Br i ta in i n t he R o man p er iod . T hey c er ta in ly s ee m t o h ave b een u sed i n E urope ( P l iny N .H . 1 8 .171-2 ) a nd p resu mab ly c ou ld h ave b een u sed i n B ri ta in a lso i nt he l a te R o man p eriod . L ITERARY EVIDENCE The c om men ts, d escr ip t ions a nd a dvice o f c lassica l wt i ters o n ma t ters r e la t ing t o t he a rd a nd p lough a nd t heir u se must b e u sed w i th c au tion , a s t hey u sua l ly a pp ly t o t he Med i terranean p lough ing i mp le men t i nt he Med i terranean e nvironmen t a nd t herefore t hey a re n o t n ecessari ly r e levan t t o B r i ta in e ven i nt he Roman p er iod . I ti s , h owever , i n terest ing t o n o te s o me p o in ts which h ave a v a lue f or c o mparison , a t l east , b e tween Med i terranean a rds a nd t heir R omano-Br i t ish c oun terpar ts, o r wh ich d escr ibe t o u s f eatures o r f unctions o ft he a rd w hich migh t h ave b een o therw ise o ver looked o r misunderstood . Professor Wh i te ' si mpor tan t b ook Agr icu l tura l Imp le men ts o ft he Ro man Wor ld ( Wh i te 1 967 ) g ives a n e xhaust ive l i st a nd a c o m men tary o n c lassica l wr i ters ' d escrip tions o f a gr icu ltura l t oo ls, a nd s uggests t he f orm a nd t ype o f t oo ls men t ioned b y c lassica l a grono mists. Ih ave r e l ied h eav i ly u pon h is b ook f or t his d escrip tion o ft he l i terary e vidence . F or l i terary i n for ma t ion a bou t t he p lough , Whi te u ses p r imar i ly s ix a u thors — C a to ( De A gr icu ltura— m id 2 nd c entury B .C.) , C o lu me l la ( De R e R ust ica a nd D e Arbor ibus —Ist c en tury A .D . ) , Varro ( De R e R ust ica a nd De L ingua L a t ina — mid I st c en tury B .C . ) , P liny ( Na tura l H istory —lst c en tury A .D .) , P a l lad ius ( Opus Agr icu lturae — la te 4 th c en tury A .D . ? ) a nd V ergi l ( Georgics —Ist c en tury B .C. ) , a nd t o al esser e x ten t t he E ty mo log iae o f I s idore , a6 th-7 th c entury w ork .

T he o n ly wr i ter t o g ive a d escrip tion o f t he e n t ire R o man p lough a nd i t s

p ar ts i s V ergi l, a nd t h is p oe t ic p assage h as b een t he c ause o f much misunders tand ing o n t he o ne h and , a nd l earned d eba te o n t he o ther , a s t he p assage i s

( j . )

p ar ticu lar ly d i f f icu l t t o i n terpre t . I s idore a nd Varro ( L . L .) a re p rimari ly l i sts o f i mp le men ts u sed f or a q ui te d i fferen t p urpose f ro m a gricu l tura l d iscuss ion , a nd h ence a re l i t t le h e lp i n a ssign ing f orm o r f unction t o t he t er ms g iven . P l iny , C o lu me l la , P a l lad ius, Ca to a nd Varro ( R .R . )g ive b r ief d escrip t ive p ass ages c oncerned w i th i nd ividua l p ar ts o ft he p lough s tructure o r t he p lough i n u se . We r e ly o n t he c lassica l a grono mists t o d escr ibe t he f unction o f g roundb oards o r " ears" which c an b e s een a t tached t o t he S ussex mode l o f a n a rd , b u t which h ave n ever b een f ound o n a ctua l s pecimens. Pa l lad ius ( 0.A. I . 4 3 .1) men tions e ared ( "a ur i ta" )p loughs b eing u sed t o c rea te a d eeper f urrow t o c oun terac t e xcessive wetness o ft he l and . Varro ( R .R . 1 . 2 9 . 2 )d escribes

6 5

a t tachab le b oards ( "t abe l lis" )u sed t o c over t he b roadcast s eed i n r idges a nd a t t he s a me t ime t o c u t d i tches f or d ra inage .

P liny ( N . H. 1 8 .180 ) men t ions

t he u se o f a n a t tachab le b oard ( "tabu la" )t o b reak c lods a f ter t he s eed h ad b een s own . Wh i te s ays t ha t t he e vidence s uggests t ha t t he b oards were o n ly u sed a f ter C a to ' sp er iod ( Wh i te 1 967 , p . 1 40 ) , p ossib ly a n i nven tion o ft he I st c en tury B .C . P l iny i n for ms u s t ha t whee ls h ad b een a t tached t o p loughs i n t he Rae t ic a rea o f G au l ( N .H . 1 8 .172 ) , af act which we wou ld n ot o therw ise h ave k nown a s n o whee ls o f p loughs h ave , t o my k now ledge a t l east , b een f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly . P l iny a lso c o m men ts o n t he n ecessi ty o f c lean ing t he p lough s hare w i th a s craper ( N .H . 1 8 .179 ) .

Varro a nd Verg i l b oth men t ion

t he b ea m o ft he a rd b u t i n r a ther d i f feren t w ays.

The b ea m d escr ibed b y

Varro ( L . L . 5 .134) wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een a o ne-piece b eam ;

Verg i l 's

d escr ip tion ( 2 . 1 . 1 70-1 ) wou ld a ppear t o b e o f at wo-p iece b ea m c o mpr ised o f a "r e mo" — the p iece wh ich i s a t tached t o t he s hare b ea m—and t he " buns" which i st he y oke b eam , o r p ar t which r eaches t o t he o xen . Ca to ( A .C . 1 35 .2 ) a dvoca tes t he u se o f d e tachable s hares ; t his i mp l ies, a s Wh i te c o m men ts ( Wh i te 1 967 , p p . 1 32-3 ) , t ha t f i xed s hares were i n u se i n h is t ime . N o wri ter h as a ny th ing s peci f ic t o s ay a bou t t he d esign o ft he s hares e xcep t P l iny ( N .H . 1 8 .172-2 ) who d escr ibes v ar ious t ypes o f s hare a nd t he u ses t o wh ich e ach s hou ld b e p u t . H is d escrip t ion o ft hese t ypes o f s hare o bviously b egs t o b e e qua ted w i th a rchaeo log ica l f inds, a nd b o th Whi te ( 1 967 , p . 1 32 ) a nd Mann ing ( 1 964 , p p . 6 0-2 ) a t temp t t o d o t h is. The f i rst men t ioned b y P l iny i s n o t r ea l ly a s hare a t a l l , a nd i s i n terpre ted b y Wh i te a s as i mp le g round-opener t o e ase t he s ubsequen t p lough ing o n v ery d ense o r c o mpacted s oi l . The s econd i s " the o rd inary t ype , c onsist ing o f ab ar s harpened t o a p oin t , l i ke ab eak" ( a l teru m g enus e st v olgare r ostra t i v ect i s) . Whi te s uggests t ha t t h is i s ah eavy s ocke ted s hare whereas Manning s uggests t ha t i ti s at anged s hare s uch a s t ha t f ro m B ox V i l la .

The n ex t t ype i su sed o n ly o n l igh t s oi ls

a nd d oes n o t e x tend a long t he who le l eng th o ft he s hare b eam , b u t h as "o n ly a sma l l s pike a t t he e x tre mi ty" ( t er tiu m i n s o lo f aci li n on t oto p orrectum d en ta li s ed e x igua c usp ide i n r ostro ) .

Whi te s uggests t ha t t his t ype i s at anged s pike ;

Mann ing s uggests t ha t i ti s ab ar s hare w i th i ron t ip . On t he f our th t ype , " the s p ike i s b roader a nd s harper , e nd ing i n ap o in t , a nd u sing t he s a me b lade t o b reak u p t he g round a nd w i th i t s s harp s ides t o c u t o f ft he r oo ts o ft he w eeds" ( l ae t ior h aec q uar to g ener i e t a cu tior i n mucrone m f ast iga ta e oderaque g lad io s cidens s o lu m e t a cie l a teru m r ad ices h erbaru m s ecnns) . Wh i te t hinks t ha t t his i s ad oub le e dged w inged s hare , whi le Mann ing s uggests t ha t t his was t he s pear-shaped s hare s hown o n t he C o logne mode l ( i l lustra ted i n Manning 1 964, p l . V I I I ) . T he d eba te b e tween Whi te o n t he o ne h and a nd A i tken a nd Manning o n t he o ther i s c oncerned w i th a more b asic p oin t t han t he i n terpre ta t ion o f P liny ' s d escr ip tion o f s hares. Mann ing a ccep ts A i tken ' sh ypo thesis ( A i tken 1 956) t ha t t he n or ma l R o man p lough was a b ow a rd , whereas Whi te c onsiders i tt o h ave b een a c rook o r s o le ' a rd . This i s ad i f f icu lt p o in t t o s e t t le s a tisfactori ly . I ti s c er ta in ly v ery p robable t ha t t he c o m mon a rd i n u se i n R oman Br i ta in was t he b ow a rd a s a l l t he e vidence a vai lab le —wh ich , i n c o mpari son w i th t ha t a vai la b le f or R o man I t a ly , i s s ubstan tia l —poin ts t o t h is c onclusion .

The e vidence

a vai lab le t o p rov ide u s w i th i n forma t ion f or t he t ype o f a rd i nu se i n I t a ly i n t he Ro man p eriod i s min ima l . A ccord ing t o Whi te ( Wh i te 1 967 , p . 2 16) o ne i ron

6 6

s hare, a s ocke ted s hare , s urvives f ro m P o mpeü f ro m t he who le R oman p eriod . O therw ise we h ave t he b ronze mode l o f a n a rd f ro m Arezzo a nd t he wooden mode l f rom Te la mon , E trur ia a nd a f ew mosa ics a nd c o ins wh ich r epresen t p lough ing s cenes b u t o n wh ich t he a ctua l s tructura l p ar ts o ft he a rd a re s che mat i c a nd d i f f icu l t t o s ee .

The o n ly d e tai led d escrip t ion o ft he a ctua l s tructura l

b ody o ft he a rd i s t he f a mous p assage f ro m Vergi l i sG eorg ics ( 1 . 1 69-74) which h as b een i n terpre ted i nv ar ious ways o ver many y ears. The d i f ference i n i nt erpreta t ion d oes h ave s ome b ear ing o n t he Ro mano-Bri t ish a rd a s, i fA i tk in 's v iew i s a ccep ted , " the p icture which h as n ow emerged i s o f at ype o f p lough ( t he b ow a rd ) which , w i th s l igh t c hrono log ica l a nd r egiona l v aria t ions was c o m mon b o th t o I ron Age S cand inavia a nd Vergi l ' sI t a ly" a nd wh ich was p roba bly "the n or ma l t ype o fp lough t hroughou t E urope a t t his t ime" ( Mann ing 1 964, p . 5 7 ) .

To s uppor t t h is s uggest ion , Mann ing c i tes t he S cand inavian a nd

B r i tish e xa mp les o fb ow a rd i ron s hares a nd wooden p ar ts, t he Du tch wooden a rd-heads wh ich b e long t o b ow a rds ( Poe l 1 966

p p . 6 -10 ) a nd t he C o logne

mode l a rd , a nd h is a ccep tance o f A i tken ' si n terpre ta t ion o ft he Vergi l ian p lough b e ing a b ow a rd " being p roved b eyond r easonable d oub t".

Wh i te , o n

t he o ther h and , c onsiders A i tken ' st heory t o b e "a n i ngen ious b u t u nproved h ypothesi s" ( Whi te 1 967 , p . 2 16) . He c onsiders t ha t a s o ft he R o mano-Br i tish s hares wh ich s urvive "many .. b e long t o t he b eam a rd" ( Whi te 1 967 , p . 1 35) t he n orma l Ro mano-Br i t ish a nd Med i terranean a rd o ft he Ro man p er iod were o f d ifferen t t ypes. To p rove t he e xc lusive u se o f o ne t ype o f a rd e i ther i n B ri ta in o r I t a ly i s , o f c ourse , i mpossib le . I ti sc er ta in ly t rue t ha t n o p osi t ive e vidence e xists f or t he u se o f t he c rook a rd i n B ri tain e i ther i nt he p rehistor ic o r Ro man e ras. B u t t his d oes n o t n ecessari ly mean t ha t t h is t ype o f a rd 4 id n o t e x ist .

I tc er-

t a in ly e xisted i n S candinavia a nd N or thern G ermany where p ea t b og f i nds a re c o m monest —e .g . t he Vebbestrup a nd Wa l le a rds ( G lob 1 951 , p p . 1 6-22 ) d a ted t o t he p reh istor ic p er iod—and i t may b e t ha t t he t wo t ypes o f a rd c o-existed u sed , p erhaps, f or d i f feren t p urposes.

I f , f or e xamp le , t he c rook a rd was

u sed , u n t ipped w i th i ron , p erhaps f or l i gh t work , we c ou ld n o t e xpect a ny e vidence o f i t s e xistence t o h ave s urvived .

T his p ossibi l i ty o f c oexistence o f

t ypes o bv iously e xists f or I t a ly a s we l l . The p lough s hare f ro m P o mpei i wh ich Wh i te f i gures ( Wh i te 1 967 , F ig . 10a ) i s o bviously v ery worn , a nd c an b e o f l i t t le h e lp i n d ecid ing t he a rd t ype t o wh ich i tb elonged . The f our i st c en tury Ro man c oins which G ow i l lustra tes ( Gow 1 914, p l . XVI I I 1 1-14) a s e xa mp les o ft he c rook a rd , A i tken a grees a re c rook a rds ( Ai tken 1 956, p . 1 00 ) e xcep t t he o ne o f T iberius G racchus wh ich h e t h inks s hows a n a rd o n which t he v er tica l h and le migh t e n ter t he b ea m r a ther t han t he o ther way r ound . The o ther t hree , a l though c o ins a re v ery d i f f icu l t t o u se a s t he s truc tura l p ar ts o ft he a rds a re s o sma ll a nd s che ma tic a nd of ten o bscured , d o a ppear t o s how t ha t t he c rook a rd was u sed a t l east i n t he l a t ter p ar t o ft he I st c en tury B . C. i n I t a ly , b u t e ven c oin e vidence i s s parse a f ter t his t ime . G ow men t ions a P to lema ic c o in i ssued u nder N ero , ac oin o f T yre i ssued u nder S ept ' im ius S everus, a nd a c oin o fA lexandria i ssued u nder An ton inus P ius, a l l o f which s how v ery s che ma t ica l ly d rawn p loughing s cenes a nd wh ich , a ccord ing t o Gow , s how c rook a rds . b ear ing o n t he R o man a rd .

N one o ft hese h owever c an b e s a id t o h ave much A mosaic f ro m C herche l , A lger ia , s hows p lough-

i ng s cenes ( Whi te 1 970 , p l . 1 9 ) a nd t he a rd o n t his mosaic i s i n terpre ted b y 6 7

Wh i te a s as o le a rd ( Whi te 1 967 , p p . 1 43-4 ) .

A i tken s uggests t ha t i tm igh t b e

a n e ar ly r epresen ta t ive o f h is B t ype — i .e . ab ow a rd w i th a v er tica l s t i l t a nd a n o b l ique b race ( Ai tken 1 956, p . 1 00) .

The a rd o n t he mosa ic i s b y n o means

c lear ly s hown—and t he s a me d iff icu l ty e xists i n i n terpre t ing t he a rd o n a mosaic f ro m O udna ( Wh i te 1 967 , p . 1 44) . B o th Whi te a nd G ow men tion t he Arezzo a nd T e la mon mode ls, a nd Whi te d escr ibes a t o mb r e lief f ro m T un is which s hows a n a rd . A l l t hree a re d escr ibed b y Wh i te a s v ar ian ts o ft he c rook a rd .

Apar t f ro m t he a bove p or traya ls, we h ave t he l i terary e vidence wh ich ,

i n e f fect , means t he p assage f ro m Verg i l ' sG eorgics.* To i l lustra te h is h ypo thesis t ha t t he a rd d escr ibed i n t he G eorgics w as ab ow a rd , A i tken t akes e ach p ar t o ft he a rd d escr ibed b y Vergi l a nd , c ommen t ing o n i t , a t te mp ts t o s how t ha t t he p iece was more l ike ly t o h ave f i t ted ab ow a rd t han a c rook a rd . Wi th a n e x treme ly u sefu l d istr ibu t ion map , h e s hows t he t ypes o f p loughs u sed i n v arious p ar ts o f E urope f rom t he 1 7 th c ent ury a nd p o in ts o u t t ha t t he b ow o r b eam a rd a lone was u sed i n Nor thern a nd C en tra l I t a ly , t he c rook a rd i n t he S ou th .

H e c onc ludes b y s uggest ing t ha t

"Vergi l was d raw ing o n e ar ly r ecol lect ions o f l i fe n or th o f t he Apenn ines where p loughs o ft he g enera l t ype t o wh ich h is p lough h as b een r eferred c ou ld b e f i gures i n 1 828 f or t he L o mbard p la in ." T o c oun ter t his a rgu men t , Whi te t ak t akes e ach p ar t o ft he a rd d escr ibed b y Vergi l , a nd a rgues t ha t i t was more l i ke ly t o h ave b een u sed o n ac rook a rd ; h e a lso f ee ls t ha t A i tken : " does n ot i mprove h is a rgu men t b y t he d e tai led d escr ip t ion o ft he p resen t d istr ibu t ion i n I t a ly a nd e lsewhere i n Europe o f t he v ar ious t ypes o f a rd ."

( Whi te 1 967 ,

p p . 2 15-6 .) H e c om men ts more f u l ly i n h is ma in t ex ts ( pp . 1 42-5) o n t he mode ls a nd r epresen ta t ions o f a rds t han d oes A i tken .

Brief ly , t he ma in a rgu-

men t may b e o ut lined t hus. A i tken a rgues t ha t t he b ea m ( 'b urls ' )i st he most i mpor tan t p ar t o ft he a rd i n V ergi l ' sd escr ip t ion , a nd t herefore t he a rd i s most l ikely t o h ave b een a b ow a rd a s t he b eam i st he ma in s tructura l p ar t i n to which a l l t he o ther p ar ts a re mor t ised o n t h is t ype o f a rd .

Whi te a rgues t ha t t he b ea m i s e qua l ly i m-

p or tan t o n t he c rook a rd . A i tken d iscusses V erg i l ' su se o f t he word 'a p tan tur ' which h e s ays i mp lies t ha t t he b eam i s t he p rom inen t p ar t t o w h ich a l l t he o thers were f i t ted ;

Whi te f ee ls t ha t t his

p recision i s s tretch ing Vergi l 's

l anguage t oo f ar . A i tken c o m men ts t ha t i fh is a rgu men t a bou t a p tan tur ' i s c orrect , t he h and le ( 's t ive ' )wou ld b e f i t ted i n t he s a me way . T hree h and le p osi t ions f or t he a rd a re s uggested b y A i tken f ro m c oins a nd modern p ara l le ls. Whi te , h owever , s ta tes t ha t t he r econstruct ion o f t he a rd s hown b y A i tken wou ld t end t o d ig i t se lf i n to t he g round d ur ing p lough ing .

I t wou ld h ave t o b e l if ted ,

which i st he o pposi te o ft he a ct ion d escr ibed b y t he c lassica l w r i ters —" d epress o a va to" ( Vergi l ) ; "s t ivae i nn i ti" ( Co lu me l la ) . The c rook a rd wou ld , o n t he o ther h and , r equ ire t h is d ownward f orce f rom t he p loughman , h ence t he b ackward e x tension o ft he s o le o n t he c rook a rd a s af oo t r est . A i tken t hen s uggests t ha t t he "d up lici d en ta lia d orso"

i n V ergi l ' sd escr ip t ion i s b est i n-

t erpre ted a s ar idged s hare b ea m which h o lds a b ar o r t anged s hare a nd w hich n eeds a b ow a rd c onstruct ion . H e s uppor ts t ha t b y a dd ing t ha t , a l though n o

* S ee p . 7 0

f or Vergi l ' sd escr ip tion . 6 8

t anged s bare h as b een f ound i nI t a ly s ou th o f Emi l ia , P l iny ' sa s hare t ype " vo r ne r um v u lgare r ostra t iv ect is" was u ndoubted ly t anged ; t ha t a l though t he word v o mer i n modern R o mance l anguages a pp lies t o s ocke ted t oo ls o n ly , i n P l iny a nd V ergi l t he word i s ag ener ic t erm f or a l l s hares; t ha t ar idged s hare b ea m i s o n ly o ne me thod o f s ecur ing a t anged s hare a nd i s n o t w ide ly d istr ibu ted , b u t t ha t n o s hoes e xist f ro m I t a ly , a nd t he r idged me thod o f s ecur ing t anged s hares i s c o mmon i n N or thern E urope .

H e f ur ther s uggests

t ha t t he " binae a ures" a re e ar thboards, which i mp ly ab ow a rd , a s af orked s hare b ea m wou ld h ave t he s a me e f fect a s e ar thboards. The f orks o n t he s hare b ea m p u t f orward b y S ervius o n t he a l terna t ive e xp lana tion o f "d up lici d orso" , a nd f ound i n modern p lough t ypes i n I t a ly , a re u sua lly n a me less. To wha t t hen wou ld " b inae a ures" r efer? Whi te , t ak ing t hese p oin ts i n t urn , c o mmen ts t ha t P l iny ' s" vo meru m v u lgare " c ou ld i n f ac t b e as ocke ted t oo l , s ta tes t ha t as ocke ted s hare d oes s urvive f ro m P o mpei i , a nd s ugges ts t ha t t he "b inae a ures" a re p ossib ly t he p in e ars f ound i n Med i terranean p loughs n ow . T hough a ware o ft he d angers o f s i t t ing o n t he f ence , If ee l t ha t i ti s q ui te i mpossib le t o s ta te c onc lusive ly t o wh ich t ype o f a rd Vergi l i s r eferr ing , a nd t ha t t o s uggest t ha t t he s i tua t ion h as d ef in i tely b een r eso lved i s misleading ; h owever Id o p ersona l ly f avour t he A i tken t heory t ha t i ti s ab ow a rd . Verg i l d oes a ppear t o s tress t he i mportance o ft he b eam wh ich i s s o i mpor tan t a s truc tura l p ar t o ft he b ow a rd .

S econd ly , If i nd A i tken ' se xp lana tion o f t he

"d en ta lia d up lici d orso" a nd " binae a ures" more c onvincing . I t must b e s tressed , h owever , t ha t t he c rook a rd a l most c er ta in ly r e ma ined i n u se i n I t a ly a t l east t o t he i st c en tury B .C .

A lso , a s Wh i te s ta tes, Vergi l was wr i t ing

p oe try , n o t n ecessari ly a f actua l d escr ip tion , a nd e ven i ft he d escr ip tion were a ccura te , i tc ou ld , a s A i tken h i mse lf s ays, a pp ly t o N or thern I t a ly o n ly , o r t o o n ly o ne t ypeof a rd i n u se among s evera l .

6 9

Vergi l ! s Descr ip t ion o ft he Ard : G eorgics 1 1 69-175 c on t inuo i n s i lv is magna v i f l exa d o ma tur i nb ur im e t c urvi f ormam a cc ip i t u l mus a ra tr i . h u ic a s t irpe p edes t emo p ro ten tus i n o c to , b inae a ures , d up l ic iap tan tur d en ta l ia d orso . c aed i tur e t t i l ia a n te i ugo l ev is a l taque f agus s t ivaque , q uae c urrus a t ergo t orquea t i mos , e t s uspensa f oc is e xp lora t r obora f u mus . Trans la t ion ( Sh ipha m F . P .) F rom t he v ery f i rst i nt he woods t he e lm , b en t w i th g rea t f orce , i st ra ined i n to t he s hape o f ab eam a nd r ece ives t he f orm o f t he c urved p lough . To t h is a re f i t ted a t t he e nd o ft he p o le p ro ject ing e igh t f ee t , t he t wo e ar th-boards, t he s hare-bea m w i th d oub le r idge a nd t he h and le which f ro m b eh ind may t urn t he c ar b e low .

Al i gh t l ime , t oo , i s c u t b e t imes f or t he y oke , a nd a t a l l b eech ;

a nd t he smoke s earches t he b ea ms s uspended o ver t he h ear th . Transla t ion ( Mann ing W . 1 964 , p . 5 6) F or thw i th , i n t he woods, a n e lm , b en t b y main f orce , i s s haped i n to a b eam a nd r eceives t he f or m o ft he c rooked p lough . T o t he s tem o f t his a re f i t ted ap o le e igh t f ee t i n l eng th , t wo e ars a nd a s hare b eam w i th d oub le b ack . A l i gh t l i nden , t oo , i s f e l led b eforehand f or t he y oke , a nd a t a l l b eech f or t he h and le t o t urn t he c arriage b e low f ro m t he r ear , a nd t he wood i s h ung a bove t he h ear th f or t he smoke t o s eason .

7 0

T he Tract ion o f Prehistor ic a nd Ro mano-Bri t ish T i l lage Imp le men ts E vidence f or t he t ract ion me thods emp loyed w i th t he t i l lage i mp le men ts d escr ibed a bove c an b e d ivided i n to v arious t ypes.

F irst ly t here a re t he r e-

ma ins o fp ar ts u sed i n t rac t ion—ard b ea ms wh ich s o me t i mes i ndica te t he me thod o ft raction emp loyed , wooden y okes, a nd me ta l a nd b one o xgoads. T hen t here a re p or traya ls o fp lough ing s cenes o n r ock e ngravings, c oins a nd mosaics, mode ls b o th o fp lough g roups —Piercebridge—and o fy okes — the S ussex g roup . E xper i men ts w i th r econstruc tions o f a rds c an t e l l u s s o me th ing o ft he e f f iciency w i th which v ar ious t ract ion me thods may h ave b een u sed .

F ina l ly

t he c lassica l a grono mists a dv ise a nd c o m men t o n t ract ion me thods u sed w i th a rds i n t he Medi terranean . i . Ard B ea ms The b og f inds o f N or th E urope p rov ide s evera l a rd b eams f rom wh ich s ome i nforma tion a bou t t ract ion may b e g leaned . The t hree me tre l ong b ea m o ft he D 5 i strup a rd h ad a t i t s f ore e nd a h o le i n to which a t i e h ook was mor t ised , w i th wh ich t he b ea m c ou ld b e a t tached t o ay oke ( F ig . 3 3a ) .

The Donnerup-

l and a rd h ad a b ea m 1 .7 m l ong wh ich , 8cm f ro m i t s f ore e nd , h ad a s quare h or izon ta l ly p ierced h o le 3 cm x 3 cm which h ad h e ld a wooden a t tach men t ( F ig . 3 3b ) . The b eam o ft he H endriks mose a rd ( F ig . 3 3c ) h ad t wo n otches c u t i n to t he f ore e nd , a nd t he f ore most o ft hese was e n larged af ter t he o r ig ina l p erfora t ion . They g ive t wo p osi t ions f or a d justmen t o f t he h e igh t o ft he b ea m a t t he p o in t t o which i t was a t tached t o t he y oke w i th a c onsequen t e f fect o n t he d ep th o f p ene tra tion . This mechan is m f or a l ter ing t he d ep th o ft he f urrows c an a lso b e s een o n t he V ebbes trup a rd—a c rook a rd —da ted t o 9 104 -100 B .C ., a s t he f i nder ' so r ig ina l s ke tch s hows t hree h o les h or izon ta l ly b ored i n t he f ron t o ft he b eam t hough o n ly t he r ear o ne s ti ll e xists.

The c opsoi l wou ld b e b ound

w i th a r ope t o o ne o ft he h o les, a nd t ne d ep th o f f urrow c ould b e r egu la ted b y mov ing t he r ope . The b eam o ft he V ebbes trup a rd was o n ly 1 .3 m l ong a nd t herefore G lob s uggests t ha t t he t raction may h ave b een a s ing le h orse a s s hown o n ar ock e ngraving f ro m B ohus li tn .

O therw ise t he c rook a rds d escr ibed b y

G lob h ave 3m l ong b ea ms wh ich were p resu mab ly a t tached d irect ly t o t he y oke . T he b ea ms o ft he D q (strup a nd H endr iks mose a rds were p resu mab ly l ong e nough t o b e a t tached d irect ly t o t he y oke .

H ansen ' sr econstruct ion o f t he H endr iks-

mose a rd w as u sed w i th a r ep lica o ft he De jb je rg y oke w i th n eck t i es a nd f ast en ings f or t he h orns o f t he o xen a nd a ppeared t o work s a t is fac tor i ly ( Hansen 1 969 , F ig . 6 ) . The Donnerup land a rd b ea m i s , h owever , o n ly 1 .7 m . A berg a nd B owen ' se xper i men ts w i th a r econstructed Donnerup land a rd u sed a s ing le h orse h arnessed b y means o f as w ing le tree , t he h ooks o f wh ich were a t tached t o ap eg f i t ted t hrough t he h o le i n t he f ron t o ft he b ea m ( Aberg a nd B owen 1 957 , p . 1 44) . The o n ly c er ta in ly i den ti f ied b eam wh ich we h ave f ro m B r i ta in d a ting f ro m t he p reh istor ic p er iod i s t ha t f ro m L och maben , d a t ing f ro m 8 0 B .C. ± 1 00. T his b eam ( Fig . 4 4b ) , l i ke t ha t o f t he l 3 i4strup a nd Donnerup land a rds, h ad o ne h o le o n ly a t i t s f ore e nd , a nd o f fered o n ly o ne p osi t ion f ro m whichthe y oke c ou ld b e a t tached .

The e n t ire b ea m was 2 .5 m l ong , wh ich i s q ui te l ong e nough

t o h o ld o ne p air o f o xen w i th a y oke , which t he S cand inavian a nd N or th I t a lian r ock e ngrav ings s uggest a s t he most c o mmon t ea m f or p lough t raction .

7 1

i .

Yokes

F inds o fy okes f ro m p ea tb ogs a re b y n o means u nco mmon i n Nor thern E urope , a nd f i f teen h ave b een f ound t o my k now ledge i n S co t land a nd I re land ( F ig . 7 2 ) .

Yokes may b e b road ly d ivided i n to t wo ma in t ypes —head o r h orn

y okes where t he y oke was p laced i n f ron t o f o r j ust b eh ind t he h orns o ft he o xen , a nd w i thers y okes, t he o n ly t ype wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een u sed i n B ri ta in f ro m t he Med ieva l p er iod u n t i l t he 1 9 th c en tury when y okes wen to u t o fu se . a nima ls.

Th is t ype l ay a round t he n eck a nd a ga inst t he s hou lders o f t he d raugh t The f act t ha t s even o ft he B ri tish y okes a re h ead y okes s uggests

t ha t t hese a re o f e ar ly d a te ,b u t n one o ft he B r i t ish y okes h ave , t o my k nowl edge , b een c arbon d a ted , a nd , a s t hey a re most ly i so la ted f i nds f ro m p ea t b ogs, h ave n o r e la ted f i nds wh ich c an h e lp t o d a te t he m . F en ton h as s u mmari sed a l l t he i nfor ma t ion a bou t t hese y okes i n h is p aper "Ear ly Yoke Types i n B r i ta in" ( Fen ton 1 972 ) a nd t he f o l low ing d escr ip t ion h as r e lied h eavi ly u pon t h is p aper . H ead y okes a ppear n o t t o h ave b een u sed a f ter t he Medieva l p er iod i n Br i ta in ( Fen ton 1 972 , p . 6 9 ) a nd a h ead y oke f ro m V inetz i n Sw i tzer land ( Gander t 1 964 , p p . 3 7-8 ) f ro m a L ake Dwe l l ing s i te i s , a ccording t o Gander t , d a tab le t o 2 000 B .C .

I ti s l i ke ly t herefore , a s F en ton c o m men ts, t ha t t his

t ype o fy oke was " among t he e ar liest a uxi l iary d evices u sed t o a dap t a n ima ls f or d raugh t p ur p oses".

I ta ppears t ha t w i thers y okes were u sed s o mewha t

l a ter , b u t t here a re S ou th R ussian w i thers y okes f ro m waggon g raves d a tab le t o t he 1 4th a nd 1 3 th c en tur ies B .C . ,a nd p o l len a na lysis h as b een u sed t o t ent a tive ly d a te t he w i thers y oke f ro m O ldenberg t o 2 000-1700 B .C. ( Gander t 1 964 , p p . 3 8-42 ) . The wooden y oke f ro m L und Ardshede i n D en mark was c arbon d a ted t o 3 30 b .c . ( Too ls a nd T i l lage 1 968 , p . 5 9) , a nd t here a re s evera l e xa mp les f ro m Ha l lstat t a nd L a Tene c on tex ts f ro m E ast European s i tes ( Fi l ip 1 962 , p . 3 1 ,

P iggo t t 1 965, p l . 2 00 ( I1 1 ) .

B o th t ypes c an b e s een , t here-

f ore , t o h ave a c onsiderab le a n t iqui ty . U n t i l t he Br i tish y okes h ave b een d a ted , o r o thers h ave b een f ound i n d a tab le c on tex ts i n B ri ta in , i tc anno t b e k nown i n which p er iod o f o ur p reh istory y okes were f i rst i n troduced , b u t i ft he e ar lier d a tes f or t he C on t inen ta l y okes a re a ccep ted , i t wou ld a ppear t ha t y okes h ave b een i nu se f ro m t he Bronze Age a t l east ; t he r ock e ngravings f ro m S cand inavia , p ossib ly B ronze A ge i n d a te , s uppor t t ha t h ypo thesis. S even h ead y okes ( F ig . 7 2a , b , c , e ) f ound i nt he Bri tish I s les ( Fen ton 1 972 , F ig . 7 0) , t wo f ro m S co t land a nd f i ve f ro m I re land , a re d ouble y okes f or t wo a n ima ls, a nd h ave t he o n ly l i gh t ly c urved n eck p ieces a ssocia ted w i th t h is t ype o fy oke .* They h ave h or izon ta l c en tra l o pen ings f or t he t hongs wh ich f astened t he m t o t he h orns o ft he a n ima ls.

T hey v ary f ro m 1 40 cm t o 8 6 cm

l ong , which s uggests t ha t t he d raugh t a n i ma ls u sed were n o t v ery b ig .

T he

p ara l le l C on t inen ta l y okes —e .g . t ha t f ro m t he D u tch I ron Age t erp s i te a t E z inge , a nd s evera l f ro m D enmark—are l arger .

The r a ther c urious y oke

* Two o ft he I r ish h ead y okes f ro m a b og a t G len U pper , n r . Moun tf ie ld , C o . T yrone , n ow i n Ar magh Museu m h ave b een b rough t t o my a t ten t ion b y Ms. H e len Mac lagan , Warw ick Museu m , t o who m Iam most g ra tefu l . 7 2

f ro m Dungannon ( F ig . 7 2b) i s d if feren t i n t ha t t he b road n eckp ieces p ro trude t o t he f ron t a nd b ack a nd F en ton s uggests t ha t t h is may h ave b een a y oke f or h orses. S even o ft he r e main ing e igh t y okes, a l l o f which a re w i thers y okes, a re f rom I re land ; o n ly o ne i s f ro m S co t land ( F ig . 7 2 , d , f , g ) . L ike t he h ead y okes, t hey h ave a c en tra l c rest w i th o ne o r t wo c en tra l h or izon ta l o pen ings t o h old l ash ings f or a b eam o r p o le , b u t u sual ly h ave v er t ica l ly b ored h o les a t e ach s ide o ft he n eck p iece f or t hongs which e ncirc led t he a n ima ls ' n ecks, a nd h ave t he d eep ly c urved s ide p ieces f or t he n ecks o ft he o xen .

The t hree

y okes f rom " Ire land ", F ermanagh a nd E nn iski l len a re s hor t -80-90 cm l ong ; o thers, e .g . t wo f ro m "I re land" ,o ne f ro m Mea th a nd o ne f ro m S co t land , a re l ong a nd h eavy -110 t o 1 20 cm l ong . The S cot t ish y oke f ro m t h is g roup h as n o o pen ings a nd t h is i s o bviously u n f in ished . Three o ft he I r ish y okes h ave t he u sua l c en tra l p erfora t ions f or t he p o le l ash ings, a nd p airs o f h o les f or t he t hongs t o e ncircle t he a n ima ls ' n ecks, b u t a lso h ave a h o le a t t he t op o f e ach n eck p iece p ossib ly f or a dd i tiona l t hongs g o ing a round t he o xens ' h orns ( F ig . 7 2 , da nd f ) . The f i na l y oke , o ne f ro m Mayo i n I re land ( F ig . 7 2 :g ) i s e x traord inary i n t ha t i ti s , a t 2 13 cm l ong , t wice a s l ong a s t he o ther e ar ly Br i tish y okes s o f ar d iscussed .

F en ton e xp la ins t he l eng th o ft his y oke b y d raw ing a t ten t ion t o

t he p rac t ice o f p lough ing i n t he N or thern I s les b efore t he 1 8 th c en tury , b y y ok ing f our a ni ma ls s ide b y s ide .

The i nner p air were l i nked b y as hor t y oke ,

a nd wa lked h a lf a me tre b eh ind t he o u ter p a ir wh ich were l i nked b y al onger y oke .

T he mid p o in ts o ft he t wo y okes were j oined b y al eng th o f r ope t o which

t he d raugh t r ope was a t tached . F en ton a lso q uo tes t he o ld We lsh L aws wh ich d iscuss y oke l eng ths wh ich were n orma l , p resu mab ly , i n t he 1 0 th c en tury i n Wa les. T he s econd l argest s ize h ere men t ioned i s o ne o f 2 44 cm which p ara ll e ls t he Mayo y oke q u i te we l l . There i s as ub-group o ft he w i thers y oke wh ich F en ton c a l ls t he t hree-ridge t ype . T he y okes f ro m Enn isk i l len a nd Mayo b o th h ave t wo l a tera l V-shaped h o l lows a bove t he n eck p ieces ( F ig . 7 2 :g ) , t he r esu l t b eing t he c rea tion o ft hree r idges.

P ara l le ls f or t his t ype o fn eck p iece c an b e s een i n y okes f ro m

H a l lsta t t a nd L a Tene c on tex ts ( Flip 1 962 , p p . 3 1-2 ) . Tha t t h is f eature i s p resen t o nt he Mayo y oke i s p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing , a s i ts uggests t ha ta n e ar ly d a te i s f easib le f or t he l ong a nd s hor t y oke method o f t raction . There i s , t herefore , c onsiderab le v ariety t o b e s een i n e ar ly y oke t ypes. I ti s u n for tuna te ly s ti l l o n ly a mat ter o f c on jecture which y oke t ype was u sed i n p reh i storic Bri ta in i f , i ndeed , b o th t ypes w ere n o t u sed c on te mporaneously i nt he p rehistor ic p er iod .

As tudy o ft he S cand inav ian a nd t he Nor th I t a l ian

r ock e ngravings which , a par t f ro m t he u nda ted y okes t he mse lves, a re t he o n ly e vidence a vai lab le f or y oke t ypes o ft he p rehistor ic p eriod , r evea ls l i t t le . I t s hou ld b e s tressed t ha t t he d a t ing o f i ndividua l g roups o f r ock e ngrav ings i s n o means c erta in a l though t he S cand inavian e ngravings a t l east a s a who le may b e a scr ibed t o t he B ronze Age ma in ly o n t he e vidence o f weapon t ypes p or trayed ( Ge l ling a nd D -v idson 1 972 , p . 4 ) . The e ngravings t end t o b e s o mewha t s che ma tic b ut i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f c arv ings o f p loughi ng s cenes s how t he y oke s e t t oo f ar f orward t o b e w i thers y okes; p ossib ly i t migh t b e t en ta t ive ly s uggested t ha t t hey s howed t he h ead y oke i n u se . The 7 3

c arv ings a t Va l la Ö stergArd , F inn torp Ia nd I a nd A speberg ( G lob 1 951 , F igs. 5 1a , 2 6 , 6 6 a nd 5 0 ) s how t he y oke p osi tioned j ust b eh ind t he h orns o ft he d raugh t o xen . The i den ti f ica t ion o ft he a rd t ypes emp loyed i s t en ta t ive a lso , b u t G lob f ee ls t ha t t he F inn torp Ie ngrav ing s hows a c rook a rd , a nd t he o ther t hree b ow a rds. I t may b e , t herefore , t ha t t he h ead y oke was t he u sua l me thod o f h arness ing d raugh t a n ima ls w i th b o th t he c rook a nd b ow a rds i n Bronze Age S cand ina via a t l east . The c arving a t T egneby s hows a r a ther d i f feren t s cene .

T he a rd b ea m

h ere s eems t o b e d irect ly t i ed o n to t he t ai l o ft he d raugh t a n ima l which i nt his c ase i s ah orse ( G lon 1 951 , F ig . 6 3 ) .

Whe ther o r n o t t h is w as a n o rd inary

o r ar i tua l me thod o ft ract ion i s i mpossib le t o s ay ( Ge l ling a nd Davidson 1 972 , p . 7 9) b u t t h is t ract ion me thod was a pparen t ly p ract ised i n I re land u n t i l t he 1 8 th c en tury a nd was c onsidered h igh ly p ract ica l ;

ah orse wh ich p ul led a

p lough a t tached t o i t s t a i l wou ld b e s ure t o s top i ft he p lough h i t a ga inst a n o bstac le . Tha t wou ld p reven t t he s hare f ro m b e ing b roken . T he f act t ha tthis i s t he o n ly e ngrav ing wh ich p or trays t h is me thod o ft raction a nd a h orse u sed a s ad raugh t a n i ma l s uggests t ha t b o th p ractices were u nco mmon .

I ti s wor th

n o t ing , h owever , t ha t C o lu me l la c o m men ts t ha t o xen a re d ecided ly p referab le t o h orses a s d raugh t a n i ma ls a s t hey a re l ess l i ke ly t o s tra in a gainst a n o bst ac le a nd t hus b reak a s hare ( Co lu me l la R .R . 6 ) . The ma jor i ty o ft he r ock e ngrav ings s how o ne p air o f o xen y oked t ogether a s t he c om monest me thod o f t ract ion , b u t t eams o f f our o xen a re s hown i nt he p robab ly B ronze Age r ock e ngrav ings o ft he I t a lian Mari ti me A lps ( Bickne l l 1 902 ;

Payne 1 947 , p l . V ;

Ana ti 1 960 , p . 15 ) .

They s how f our o xen g rouped

i nt wo p a irs o ne b eh ind t he o ther , o r y oked i n aw ide l i ne , t wo o n e i ther s ide o ft he p lough u s ing wha t a ppears t o b e o ne l ong y oke . I n o ne g roup , t hree o xen a re u sed , o ne p a ir i n f ron t a nd o ne o x b eh ind . A s y okes, p o les, l egs e tc . a re a l l r epresen ted b y as ing le l i ne , i ti s i mpossib le t o t e l l h ow t he s ing le o x i s y oked t o t he p lough o r t o t he p a ir i n f ron t .

Most o ft he r ock e ngravings s how

j ust o ne p erson , t he p lough man i n t he p lough ing s cenes, b u t o thers , e .g . F inn torp Ia nd I ( G lob 1 951 , F igs. 2 6 a nd 6 6) s how a s econd p erson o r t wo o thers who a re p resu mab ly u rg ing t he o xen o nward . The P ierceb r idge p lough g roup d a ted t o 2 nd-3rd c entury A .D . ( Mann ing 1 971 ) s hows a p lough man a nd h is t wo o x t eam , b u t a s t he y oke i s ar e la t ive ly u n impor tan t p ar t o ft he g roup , i ti s l ess d e tai led i n i t s mode l l ing t han , f or e xa mp le , t he p lough man h imse lf ( F ig . 7 1a ) . H owever i t wou ld c er tain ly a pp ear t o b e aw i thers y oke t hough o n t he mode l i tl ooks more l i ke a c o l lar t han ay oke .

Presu mab ly i t wou ld h ave b een a w i thers t ype w i th s l igh t ly p ro ject ing

s ides t hrough wh ich p assed t he t hongs which wen t a round t he a n ima ls ' n ecks. A s i ti s , h owever , t he y oke a nd b ands a re s hown a s o ne c on t inuous s tr ip . The mode l g ives n o i n for ma t ion a bou t t he me thod o f a t tach men t o f p o le t o y oke , o r o fb ands t o y oke e nds. Mann ing i n fers f ro m t he s ty le o f t he s ta tuet te t ha t i t was p robab ly made i n ap rov incia l workshop i n B ri ta in , Gau l o r G er many a nd a s i t was f ound i n Br i ta in was q u i te p robab ly made i n t his c oun try . The g roup o fb ronze mode ls f ro m S ussex i nc ludes t wo mode ls o f wha t h ave b een i n terpre ted a s mode ls o fy okes f or p a ired o xen ( Behrens 1 939 , p . 5 6) . The g roup a lso i nc ludes a mode l o f a n a rd ( see a bove , p . 6 3 ). O ther g roups o fb ronze mode ls f ro m G er many i nc lude y okes, a nd t he g roup f rom 7 4

R odenk irchen i so f mode l o xen , y okes a nd c ar ts, h e lp ing t o s uppor t B ehrens ' i n terpreta t ion o f t he S ussex mode ls a s y okes. c om monest o ft he mode l y oke t ypes.

T he S ussex models a re t he

They a re 4 6 mm a nd 4 7 mm l ong ( Man-

n ing 1 9662 F ig . 2 : f a nd g ) , a nd a re p erhaps s upposed t o r epresen t w i thers y okes. Each h as a p a ir o f c urved s hou lder p ieces which p ro ject o n o ne s ide o n ly , ac en tra l p erfora tion a nd t wo s ide p erfora t ions a nd f our w ide g rooves. B o th mode ls h ave n icks f i led o u t o ft he t op o ft he y oke . O n o ne mode l t hese a re o n t he s a me s ide a s t he p ro ject ion o f t he s hou lder p ieces, a nd o n t he o ther t hey a re o n t he o pposi te s ide . They a re d a ted t o t he 2 nd-4th c en tury A .D . a nd p robably a re o f G er man manufacture . The P iercebr idge mode l a lso p rov ides u s, i n t heory a nyway , w i th i n forma tion a bou t t he t raction t eams.

Two a n ima ls a re y oked s ide b y s ide , b ut i t

i s i n terest ing t ha t o ne a ppears t o b e ma le , t he o ther f e ma le . This wou ld p res u mab ly h ave b rough t a bou t u neven p lough ing b ecause o ft he d if ference i n s treng th b e tween t he t wo b ea sts.

Mann ing s uggests, b ecause o ft h is, t ha t t he

mode l i s p robably a r epresen ta t ion o f ar i tua l p lough ing w i th t wo b easts o f o pposi te s ex ;

ac o mb ina t ion which we k now t o h ave b een r equired i n t he c ere-

mony o ft he p o mer iu m , o r t he p lough ing o ft he f urrow wh ich was t o mark o u t t he l ine t o b e f o l lowed b y t he wa l ls o f ac i ty ( P lu tarch :

R egu lus 1 1 ; Varro

L . L . 5 .143 ) a nd was q ui te p ossib ly r equired f or o ther c ere mon ies a bou t wh ich w e k now n o th ing . O ther mode ls f ro m t he c on t inen t s how y oke t ypes i n g rea ter d e ta i l ( Behrens 1 939) , p ar t icu lar ly t he p lough mode l f ro m A rezzo ( Gow 1 914 , p l . XV I I I ) , a nd c on t inen ta l mosa ics o f ten a lso p or tray p lough ing s cenes w i th t he y oke c lear ly s hown —e .g . t he P iazza A rmen ia mosa ic ( Pace 1 955 , p l . 1 9 ) . T hese s how n or ma l w i thers y okes , a nd s ugges t t ha t ap a ir o f o xen y oked t ogether was t he c o m mones t d raugh t t eam , t hough t eams o f f our o r s ix w ere k nown . C o lumel la a dvises o n s treng ths o f t ypes o f p lough t eams , a nd i ti s c lear t ha t s evera l v ar ieties o T y oke t ypes a nd b eam l eng ths mus t h ave b een a va i lab le b y t h is t ime t o c a ter f or t he d i f ferences i n t eam s ize . O x Goads I n t he words o f Payne , t he o x g oad was " use less t o t he p astora list a l most i nd ispensab le t o t he a gr icu ltura list . N o t q ui te i nd ispensab le , h owever , f or t he g ei lwad , t he b ackward wa lk ing o x-dr iver , p u l ling w i th b o th h ands o n t he y oke , of ten managed w i thou t i t .

I tf o l lows t ha t , wh i le t he a bsence o f g ood

t i ps o n as i te n eed n o t mean t he a bsence o f t he t ract ion p lough , t heir p resence i s a n i nd ica t ion o f i t "

( Payne 1 947 , p . 9 9 ) .

H ence , a n e xamina t ion o f o x g oads,

t heir d a te , t ype a nd d istr ibu tion w i l l g ive u s f ur ther i n forma t ion o n e ar ly p lough ing me thods. I ti s , t herefore , u nfor tuna te t ha t a l l t ha t i s r ea l ly n eeded f or g oad ing i s ap o in ted s t ick , o r ap iece o fb one s harpened t o ap o in t a nd f astened t o t he e nd o f al ong wooden r od . I t was u ndoub ted ly w i th s uch u nspec ia lised t ools t ha t t he o xen were g oaded i n e ar lier p rehistoric t imes. I ti s o n ly i n I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i tish p er iods t ha t a more s pecia li sed i mp lemen t w as d eve loped s peci f ica l ly f or t he p urpose , a nd t hus i ti s o n ly f ro m t h is t ime t ha t t he t oo l b eco mes r ecogn isab le t o t he a rchaeo logist . The f i rst a rchaeo log ist t o my k now ledge t o i n terpre t t hese more s pecia li sed i ron p o in ts a s o x g oads was P i t t R ivers, who f ound s evera l o f t he s p ira l 7 5

t ype o n h is e xcava tions a t Cranbourne Chase , a nd who d escr ibed t he o ne f ound a t h is e xcava t ions a t Woodcuts a s " perhaps a n o x g oad" . S ince t hen , t he s pira l t ype h as b een g enera l ly a ccep ted a s a n o x g oad , a l though t hey a re r egu lar ly t o b e f ound i n museu ms o r e xcava tion r epor ts o f e ven f air ly r ecen t d a te d es cr ibed a s n a i ls, s pr ings, f asteners o r e ven c ock f i gh t ing s purs.

Ox g oads

c an b e made o fb one o r a n t ler , b ronze a nd , most c o m mon ly , i ron , a nd were made i n t wo o r t hree ma in t ypes. The c o m monest t ype o fo x g oad—Type I —is t he s p ira l t ype , f ound o n ly made o f i ron .

I tc ons ists o f a n i ron r od o f u sua l ly r ound c ross s ect ion , c oi led

i n to u p t o f our s p ira ls, t er m ina t ing i n a n u pward p o in t ing s harp p oin t— (F ig . 7 3 di a nd n ) . I ti s u sua l ly c o mposed o f a bou t t wo c ircles. T he i ron s p ira ls c an e i ther b e j o ined t o t he o ne a bove i t( Fig . 7 3 da nd e ) o r s epara ted ( F ig . 7 3g ) . The s p ira ls c an e i ther f or m a n u pr igh t s haf t w i th p ara l le l s ides ( F ig . 7 3d ) o r ac on ica l s haped s haf t , sma l ler i n d iame ter a t t he p o in ted e nd t han a t t he b o t to m e nd ( F ig . 7 3h ) . The Type Ig oads a re of ten f ound w i th t he s p ikes missing , wh ich means t ha t t hey a re of ten i n terpreted a s s pr ings o r r ings. T ype I o x g oads a re o f ab asica l ly s imi lar d esign , b ut c onsist o f o ne r ing o f me ta l o r b one , w i th a s p ike o n o ne s ide ( F ig . 7 3a , b , c , j , k , 1 , m , o ) .

The

r ing c an e i ther h ave t he s eam c losed ( F ig . 7 3k ) , o ver lapp ing ( F ig . 7 3o ) o r o pen ( F ig . 7 3a-c) . b and .

T he me ta l s tr ip i s u sua l ly a f l a t p iece r a ther t han a r ound

This t ype a ppears t o b e e ar lier t han t he Type Ig oads ;

i n I ron Age c on tex ts i n i ron o r i n b one a nd a n t ler .

i t of ten o ccurs

I th as a lso b een f ound i n

b ronze , p ossib ly f ro m R o mano-Bri tish c on tex ts ( F ig . 7 3b a nd c ) . T ype I I g oads a re l ess s pecia lised , a nd c onsist o n ly o f ac onica l f erru le o f i ron , b one o r a n t ler w i th s o me me thod , u sua l ly i ndica ted b y o ne o r ap a ir o f r ive t h o les a t t he b ase o ft he c one , o f a t tach men t . This t ype i s r ea l ly o n ly ac ap f or a wooden r od ( F ig . 7 4aL 1 , ga nd h ) a nd e xamp les a re f ound f rom t he I ron Age t o Med ieva l p er iods; t heir i den ti f ica tion i n e very c ase a s o x g oads i s f ar f ro m c er ta in .

S uch o b jects were i den ti f ied a s p rotect ive s hea ths f or

p i tchforks a t D inas P owys ( A lcock 1 963 , p . 16) , b u t a t A l l C ann ings C ross, B ra ich-y-d inas, Trapra in L aw a nd Woodcu ts, a s o x g oads ( s ee Ca ta logue ) . S o me t imes, h orn c ores were u sed w i thou t f ur ther f ash ion ing , a s s uggested was t he c ase a t B re men ium a nd i ti s r ea l ly i mpossib le t o a t tr ibu te t oo p recise af unct ion t o t hese o b jects. ( Bruce 1 855, p . 8 5.) A l l t hree t ypes h ave a d iame ter wh ich v aries f ro m 1 t o 3 cm , b u t 1 .5-2 cm i s t he c ommones t s i ze ( s ee C a ta logue ) . The e n t ire l eng th o ft he g oads i s r are ly more t han 4 .5 cm . The d istr ibu t ion Map 5 a nd C a ta logue u sed i n c on junction s uggest t he f o ll ow ing p o in ts. T ype I g oads a re t he c om monest t ype w i th a f a ir ly u ni form d istr ibu t ion o ver B r i ta in w i th t he i nevi tab le c oncen tra t ion i n t he s outh c aused p ossib ly a s much b y ad i f feren tia l i n modern e xcava tion p at tern a s b y p rehist or ic a nd R o man p lough ing p a t terns.

T ype I i s l ess c o m mon , b ut i s s ti l l f ound

a l l r ound B r i tain w i th a s i mi lar c oncen tra t ion i nt he s ou th . T ype I I wou ld a ppear , s uperf icia l ly , t o h ave a n e ccen tric d istr ibu t ion i n h i l lfor t s i tes i n Wa les, b u t i s a lso f ound o n v arious s i tes i n t he s ou th . A s at ype i t i s s omewha t l ess we l l d ef ined , a nd t he p resence o f ac irc le o n t he map r ather d epends o n h ow t he e xcava tor i n terpre ted t he f i nd , o r i fh e men tions i ta t a l l. T he d istr ibu t ion a nd n u mbers f ound o f T ype I I must , t herefore, b e v iewed w i th p ar t icu lar c au t ion .

7 6

No o x g oads h ave b een c er ta in ly i den ti f ied f ro m e xcava ted s i tes p revious t o t he I ron A ge .

N e i ther t he r ock e ngrav ings f ro m S cand inavia n or t hose f ro m

t he I ta lian Mar i ti me A lps s how e xa mp les o f o x g oads — though a s t he g oad was r e la tive ly u n i mpor tan t a n o b ject a esthet ica l ly t h is i s s carce ly s urprising . N on-iron o x g oads a re n o t c om mon , b u t s o me e xa mp les d o e xist .

Three b one

g oads w i th r ive t h o les were f ound a t G lastonbury ( F ig . 7 4a-c) , a nd s o me a t Meare, t hough t hese a re Type I I a nd t herefore n ot c er ta in ly i den t if ied .

A

s i mi lar o b ject was f ound a t A l l Cann ings Cross ( F ig . 7 4g ) ; t wo Type I ' goads ' w ere f ound a t Crof t Ambrey ( F ig . 7 4h ) ( S tanford 1 974 , F ig . 7 6 :3 a nd 4 ) which d a te p robab ly f ro m t he i st c en tury B .C.

The s econd G lastonbury e xa mp le

a nd t he t wo b one e xamp les f ro m A l l Cann in gs Cross s how c haracteristics o f t he Type I r ing v ar ie ty , a s t he b one a t t he t op h as b een c arved away o n o ne s ide t o f orm t he p o in t i n t he s a me way a s Type I g oads ( e .g . F ig . 7 4g ) .

A

s im i lar e xamp le o ft h is i n termed ia te t ype o f b one g oad c an b e s een i n t he G ui ldh a l l

Museu m Ca ta logue ( 1908 p l . i i , 1 5) w i th n o d a ted c on tex t .

Ano ther c o mes

f ro m t he T rund le h i l lfor t . One o ft he e ar l iest Type Ii ron o x g oads s o f ar f ound i s f ro m t he o pp idu m a t Bagendon ( Cli f ford 1 961 , p l . XLVI I I : I ) a nd a s " ox g oads"

a re men t ioned i n

t he r epor t ( p . 1 51) p resu mab ly s evera l were f ound . T o j udge f ro m t he o ccupat i on ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te , t hey c ou ld n o t b e l a ter t han 5 0 A .D . AT ype I i ron g oad was f ound a t t he f or ti f ied s et t le men t a t Mynydd B ychan , L lysworney , where t he c on tex t wou ld s uggest a d a te n o t l a ter t han t he e nd o ft he i st c en tury B . C. ( Savory 1 955 , p . 4 3 ) .

Ano ther e xamp le h as r ecen t ly b een f oun .d d a t ing

f ro m t he t h ird p hase o f I ron Age o ccupa t ion a t G ussage A l l S ain ts, D orset . O therw i se Type Io x g oads h ave b een g found o n I ron Age s i tes o n ly where s ubs equen t R o mano-bri tish o ccupa t ion t ook p lace —e .g . C o ld K i tchen H i l l —and where a R o mano-Br i tish d a te i s most l i ke ly .

Thus we may a ssume t ha t Type

Io x g oads were a l a te I ron Age i nnova t ion i n B r i ta in , b u t w i th t he l arge maj ori ty o f s peci mens d a t ing f ro m t he Ro man p er iod . Types I a nd I I b one o r h orn g oads were n orma l ly s imp le h orn c ones o r f ashioned p ieces o f b one w i th a r ive t h o le f or f asten ing t o t he r od .

H owever ,

o ne b one o b ject f ro m G lastonbury i s o ft he s ame s hape a s aT ype I g oad e xc ep t t ha t i th as a n e x tra s ec tion o f b one o n o ne s ide ( Fig . 7 4c; Gray 1 917 , I p . 4 66) .

B u l leid a nd

T he o b ject i s b eau ti fu l ly c arved a nd d ecora ted w i th a

g eo me tr ic d esign o f d o ts .

T he o n ly p ara l le l f or t his o b ject t o my k now ledge

i s o ne f ro m Wookey H o le ; t his i s w ider a nd s quat ter b u t o ft he s a me s hape a nd d ecora ted w i th c ircles a nd d o ts.

B a lch d escr ibes i ta s a n o b ject o f u nknown

u se , b u t t en ta tive ly s uggests t ha t i t migh t b e as hut t le o f s o me s or t ( Ba lch 1 914, F ig . 1 9 , p . 2 00 ) .

I ft hese t wo o b jects a re o x g oads, t hey a re t he o n ly

e xa mp les o f d ecora ted g oads k nown t o me . An e x traord inary b one o x g oad , af i ne ly f i nished T ype I g oad , was f ound a t L ydney Park , G loucester ( Whee ler 1 932 , F ig . 8 :6) .

I t was f ound w i th p re-

h istor ic p ot tery b e low t he R o man r oad a d jo in ing t he s ou th p recinct wa l l o f t he s i te, a nd i s p robably d a tab le t o t he 2 nd o r i st c en tury B .C.

I ti s t he o n ly b one

g oad w h ich i s p recise ly s im i lar i n d es ign t o t he i ron t oo ls o f T ype I—excep t t ha t i t s r ing s ocke t i s n o t s p l i t , a nd i ti s r a ther l arger t han t he i ron s pec imens w i th ad ia meter o f C . 2 .5 cm a nd a l eng th o f 8 .5 cm .

7 7

I ti s f ro m R o man s i tes t ha t t he ma jori ty o f o x g oads a re f ound .

Ih ave

b een a b le t o f i nd p ubl ished r eferences o r museum s peci mens o f 6 6 Type I g oads, 2 6 Type I a nd a f ew Type I I i ron g oads f ro m Ro mano-Bri tish c on tex ts . Presu mab ly t here a re many more f ro m u npub l ished e xcava t ions a nd o thers i n p r iva te c o l lect ions. S evera l e xcava t ion r epor ts men tion o x g oads b e ing f ound b u t h ave n o i l lustra tion o fd escrip t ion s o t ha t t he t ype c anno tb e k nown . The n u mbers i nvo lved d o s uggest t ha t Type Ig oads b ecame t he most c o mmon ly u sed t ype .

The l i st o f p rovenances i n t he Cata logue s uggests t ha t t he p ure ly R o man

T ype Ig oads a re most c o m mon ly f ound o n h igh ly Ro man ised s i tes s uch a s f or ts, v i l las a nd t owns, wh i le T ype I I g oads a re more c o mmon ly f ound o n n a t ive f arms a nd h i l lfor ts. Type Ia nd I g oads a re h owever , a lso f ound i n n a t ive c on tex ts t o s o me e x ten t .

Al arge r ange o ft ypes o f s i tes h ave p roduced g oads.

T he o bviously a gr icu ltura l s i tes s uch a s v i l las a nd n a t ive f armsteads p roduce many , b u t t hey a re a lso f ound o n h ilfor ts , t owns, f orts a nd e ven c ave s i tes a nd t e mp le s i tes.

G oads were f ound a t N ewstead a nd Mu mri l ls Ro man f or ts,

f or e xa mp le , a nd t he t e mp le s i tes a t H ar low a nd L ydney , where t hey m igh t p ossib ly b e i n terpre ted a s v o t ive , b u t p ossib ly a s e vidence t ha t ad egree o f a gricu l tura l s e lf-suf f iciency was r equ ired o n s i tes o f as pecia lised n ona gr icu l tura l n a ture . Type Ig oads wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een u sed t hroughout t he Ro man o ccupa t ion ; T ypes I a nd I I a re c o mmoner i n t he i s t a nd 2 nd c ent ur ies t han i n t he s ubsequen t c en tur ies. Bronze s ee ms t o h ave b een o ccasiona l ly u sed f or mak ing o x g oads, p roba b ly i n t he Ro mano-Br i t ish p er iod . One b ronze g oad o f Type I i s i n K et tering Museu m , u nprovenanced ;

i ti s e x tre me ly f ragi le w i th a d iame ter o f o n ly 1 -2

cm a nd a n ow b en t , t h in p o in t ( F ig . 7 3b ) .

An o x g oad , p ubl ished a s b e ing

c o mposed o f ab ronze f erru le w i th a n i rou s p ike w i th t races o f wood s t i l l i n t he f erru le , c o mes f ro m Reynard ' sc ave , D erbyshire , a ssocia ted w i th R -B p o t tery a nd f i bu lae . T his i s n o t i l lustra ted i n t he r epor t , h owever , a nd n ow a ppears t obe l ost ( Ke l ly 1 960 , p . 1 22 ) . B ronze i s o bviously a n u nsui tab le ma teria l f or o x g oads, a s, b e ing s of t , i tw ould b e v u lnerable i nu se a nd l i ab le t o b reak o r b end .

I ti s p ossib le t ha t ar i tua l a ssocia t ion may b e f ound f or t hese,

a nd t he d ecora ted b one g oads o r t hose g oads f ound a t t e mp le s i tes. O ther e vidence f or t he me thod o f u sage o ft he g oad b y p lough man o r d r iver d ur ing p lough ing i s r a ther s can ty . N o e vidence e x ists f or p er iods p revious t o t he I ron Age , a s g oads a re n ever s hown o n r ock e ngrav ings. I ti s l ike ly t hat ap o in ted s t ick was u sed , t hough P ayne q uo tes t he 1 0th c en tury L aws o f H ywe l D da i n t heir men t ion o f ac a l ler , r a ther t han a d river , who s tood i n f ron t o f t he o x t ea m .

C o mpara t ive ly modern p lough ing p ract ices p rovide e xa mp les o f

t he g ei lwad o r c a l ler , wa lk ing b ackwards i nf ron t o ft he t ea m p u l ling t he y oke w i th b o th h ands a nd c han t ing t o e ncourage t he o xen .

I n t his c ase n o g oad w ou ld

b e n eeded ( Payne 1 947 , p p . 8 5 a nd 9 9) . The S cand inavian a nd I t a lian r ock e ngrav ings o f ten p or tray a s econd man o ther t han t he p loughman s tanding w i th a r ms o u tstre tched i n f ron t o ft he o xen , a l though h e wou ld n o t a ppear t o b e a ctua l ly p u l l ing o n t he y oke . There a re f requen t p or traya ls o f p lough ing s cenes b e long ing t o t he R oman p er iod w i th t he p lough man o r d river h o ld ing ag oad —a l though i t was b y n o means a lways a ccep ted t ha t ag oad was a g ood me thod o f e ncourage men t ( Co lu me lla R .R . 6 .2.11) . Many c on t inen ta l mosaics —e .g . t ha t f ro m S t .

7 8

R o main-en-ga l ( Whi te 1 970 , p l . 6 4) s how p loughing s cenes w i th t he p loughman u sing a g oad .

A lso t he P iercebridge mode l s hows t he r igh t h and o ft he

p loughman t hrust f orward , a nd Mann ing i n terpre ts t he p iece o f me ta l which p ro jects b ack f ro m t he p a lm a s t he r e ma ins o f al ong o x g oad , n ow main ly missing , w i th wh ich h e was o r igina l ly u rg ing t he b easts f orward ( Manning 1 971 , p . 1 26) .

Many med ieva l manuscr ip ts s how e i ther t he p lough man o r t he

d r iver w i th a g oad wh ich of ten a ppears t o b e j ust a p o in ted s t ick—e .g . o n t he medieva l r e lief f ro m Ar lon ( Gow 1 914, F ig . 9 ) .

Norma l ly , R o mano-Bri tish

p or traya ls s how o n ly t he p lough man w i th t he g oad . i v .

L i terary E vidence

C lassica l a grono mists c o m men t i n s o me d etai l o n t raction t echniques u sed i n p loughing i n I t a ly i n t he R o man p er iod .

A s Wh i te s ta tes , i ts ee ms t ha t

t he n orma l motive p ower was s upp lied b y ap a ir o f o xen ( Whi te 1 970 , p . 1 77 ) , b ut b arren c ows a nd d onkeys a ppear t o h ave b een u sed f or l i gh ter work ( Varro R .R . I . 2 0 .4; Co lu me l la R .R . 6 . 2 2 .1) . C o lu me l la g oes i n to s o me d e ta i l a bou t t he c orrect a nd g radua l t ra ining o f o xen f or t he p lough ( Co lu mel la R .R . 6 . 2 ) . H e r eco m mends f irs t ly t y ing t he m i n a way t o r es tr ic t t he ir move men ts t o a min imu m t o b reak a ggression , t hen t ra in ing t he m t o wa lk a t as teady p ace . A f ter t hree d ays, t hey s hou ld h ave a y oke p u t o n t he m, a nd af ter t ra in ing w i th a wagon , t hey c ou ld b e p u t t o ap lough , f i rst ly d raw ing i to ver t i l led g round , l a ter u np loughed g round .

H e a dvises s trong ly a gainst t he u se o ft he g oad t o

s ecure o bedience " for t hi s makes h im i rri tab le a nd i nc lined t o k ick" ( Co lu me l la R .R . 6 .2 .11) ;

h e a lso g ives a dvice o n h ow t o t ra in a p ar t icu lar ly o bst ina te

-

a ni ma l— if t he u nwi l l ing o x i s p u t i n to a t r ip le y oke b etween a p air o f t ra ined o xen , h e w i l l b e f orced t o a ct a s t hey d o .

B o th Co lu me lla a nd Ca to c o m men t

o n t he d ie t a ppropr ia te t o t he working o xen ( Ca to A .C . 3 0 a nd 5 4 .1-2 ; R .R . 6 .3 .3) .

C o lu me l la

P liny c o m men ts t ha t o xen s hou ld b e muzzled when p loughing

among t rees t o p reven t t he m n ibb l ing t he s hoo ts ( P l iny H .N .

1 8 .177 ) a nd Ca to

warns a ga inst p ut t ing o xen t o g rass e xcep t i n w in ter when t hey a re n o t p lough ing a s "when t hey h ave o nce e a ten g reen f odder , t hey a re a lways e xpecting i t , a nd t hey h ave t o b e muzz led when p loughing t o k eep t he m f ro m g o ing f or t he g rass ( Ca to A .C. 5 4 .4 ) .

C o lu me l la l i sts b reeds o f c a t t le a nd c o m men ts o n t heir

v ir tues a nd s ui tabi li ty f or t raction i n c u l tiva t ion ( Co lu me l la R .R . 6 .1 1 -2 ) . B o th Co lu me l la ( R .R . 2 .2 . 2 2-4) a nd P liny ( N .H . 8 .70 .179 a nd 1 8 .49 .177 ) a dvoca te t he u se o f w i thers a nd c rue l .

y okes a nd c onde mn t he h ead y oke a s i nef f icien t

Co lu me l la c o mmen ts t ha t t he w i thers y oke s hou ld f i t c lose ly s o t ha t

t he o xen h o ldtheir h eads h igh wh ich p reven ts t heir n ecks b eco m ing c hafed . He s ta tes t ha t t he method o f f asten ing t he y okes t o t he h orns, s t i l l u sed i n s o me p rovinces, i s i nef f icien t a s t he o xen a re s o u nco mfor tab le w i th t heir h eads p u l led b ack t ha t o n ly l i gh t p lough ing c an b e d one .

P l iny a grees w i th C o lu me l la ,

b u t c om men ts ( N .H . 8 .70 .179 ) t ha t t he A lp ine c ows wh ich a re t he sma l lest i n s ize , d o t he most work a nd g ive t he most mi lk " a l though t hey a re y oked b y t he h ead a nd n ot t he n eck ." The T echn iques o f P lough ing T he e vidence a vai lab le f or p lough ing t echn iques , o r t he w ay i n wh ich t he a rd w as u sed i n t he p reh istor ic a nd R o man p er iods i n Bri ta in , i s s o mewha t 7 9

s can ty .

The t races made b y t he p lough i nt he s o i l d uring p lough ing , when

t hese a re f ound a nd r ecogn ised i n e xcava t ion o f p rehistoric a nd Ro manoB r i tish s i tes, c an p rovide i nforma t ion , s uch a s s uggesting t he d ep th o fp enet ra tion o ft he s oi l , t he d egree o ft i lt ing o ft he s hare i n t he g round t o a id s oi l t urn ing , t he d istance a par t o f f urrows; t hey p rovide u s w i th e v idence f or c ross p lough ing , a nd a lso a bou t t he s o i l t ypesin wh ich a rds w ere e f fect ive . F ie ld s hape a nd s ize a nd t heir n u mber i n r e la tion t o t he a ssocia ted h abi ta t ion g ive u s f ur ther i n for ma tion a bou t c u l tiva tion t echniques, a nd t he c o m men ts o f t he c lassica l a grono mists s uggest wha t w ere n or ma l a nd r ecom mended t echn iques a t l east i n t he Medi terranean .

S o me u sefu l i n for ma t ion h as b een g a ined

f ro m p ract ica l e xper imen ts w i th r ep licas o f a rds. There a re t wo ma in t ypes o f p reh istor ic a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish a rd t races wh ich h ave b een r ecognised o n e xcava t ion .

F irst ly , t here a re c r iss-cross

a rd t races —square g r ids o ft races —and s econd ly , o ne way p ara l lel a rd t races. I th as b een a ssu med t ha t c r iss-cross a rd t races were c rea ted b y c ross p loughi ng w i th a rds t o a chieve a p u lverising o f t he s oi l w i th a n imp lemen t which was n o t e quipped w i th a mou ldboard a nd t hus c ould n o t h ave v ery e f fective ly c hurned t he s oi l i fu sed i n o ne d irect ion o n ly .

One-way p lough t races were

p ossib ly c rea ted b y ap lough o f h eavier d esign which d id n ot n eed t o c ross p lough t o a chieve a t horough l oosen ing o f t he s oi l .

T he t races w ere c rea ted

when t he p oin t o ft he s hare p ene tra ted t he s ubsoi l c aus ing a g roove t o b e made i n t he s ubsoi l i n to which t he t op s oi l f e l l .

When t he s ubsoi l i s o f a marked ly

d if feren t c o lour f ro m t he p lough s oi l —e .g . d ark b rown p lough s oi l o n y el low s and — the t races s how u p v ery c lear ly . Cri ss-cross a rd marks h ad b een d escr ibed o n s evera l p reh istoric s i tes i n Ho l land , N or th G ermany a nd D enmark b efore t hey w ere d iscovered o n s i tes i n B r i ta in .

Or ig ina l ly , t hey were f ound u nder b arrows , when t he b arrows

t he mse lves were b eing e xcava ted ;

s o many b arrows s ee m t o h ave b een e rected

o n as ur face p reviously p loughed , t ha t at heory was a dvanced t ha t t he p loughi ng o f ab arrow s i te was a r i tua l n ecessary b efore t he a ctua l e rect ion o f t he b arrow mound ( Pa tzo ld 1 960 ) .

C riss-cross a rd t races h ave n ow b een f ound

i n an u mber o f s i tes i n B r i ta in where p lough ing c ou ld b e o rd inari ly e xpected— o n f i e lds n ear p rehistor ic h abi ta t ion s i tes, a nd u nder p rehistor ic a nd Ro man h ouses where t he h ouse was p resu mab ly b ui l t o n a n o ld f i e ld .

N ow t ha t t hey

a re b eco m ing g enera l ly r ecogn ised a s af ea ture t o b e e xpected o n p rehistor ic s i tes, d oub t less a f ar l arger n u mber o f t races w i l l b e r epor ted i nt he f uture . I n B ri ta in t hey h ave b een f ound b e low l ong a nd r ound b arrows, w i thin a p reh istor ic f i e ld s yste m , u nder s et t le men t s i tes r anging i n d a te f ro m t he l a te N eo l i th ic t o t he R o man p er iod a nd r ang ing i n d istribu t ion f ro m S .E . Eng land t o S he t land , a nd o n av ar ie ty o f s oi l t ypes.

T he a rd t races a nd t heir s ign i f i-

c ance o n many o f t he a bove s i tes were s u m marised b y F ow ler a nd Evans i n 1 967 i n t heir p aper "P lough- marks, L ynche ts a nd Ear ly F ie lds" ( Fow ler a nd Evans 1 967 ) , a nd o ther i nfor ma tion h as b een l i sted i n t he r ecen t v o lu me T IE ar ly L and A l lo t men t"

( Bowen a nd F ow ler 1 978 ) .

The a rd t races u nder S ou th S tree t l ong b arrow r e ma in , t o my k now ledge , t he e ar l iest s ecure ly d a ted s o f ar i n Bri ta in .

A n a rea o f C . 2 00 s q . m o f

t races were f ound , a nd were u nusua l i n t heir d ep th — the g rooves p enetra ted t he s ubso i l t o ad ep th o fu p t o 1 5 cm a nd were a s much a s 3 0 cm b e low t he s urface o ft he b ur ied s oi l .

A l a ter s eries was f ound o u tside t he s ou thern d i tch 8 0

a nd were d a ted t o t he B eaker p er iod ( Fow ler a nd Evans 1 967 , p . 2 90 ) .

The

C e lt ic f i e ld s yste m a t O ver ton Down when e xcava ted , p roduced t races which a ppeared t o b e c lose ly r e la ted t o t he l ynchets a s t hey l ay p ara l le l a nd a t r igh t a ng les t o t he m .

The t races h ere c ou ld h ave b een p re-Ro man I ron Age o r i st/

2 nd c en tury A .D . a s t hese t wo main p hases were i ndica ted b y t he s tra ti f ied p ot tery i n t he l ynche t .

These t races a re i n terest ing a s t hey r evea led " a

f rag men tary p a limpsest p robably o f f i ve s epara te p lough ings" E vans 1 967 , p . 2 91) .

( Fow ler a nd

C r iss-cross t races were f ound b e low a r ound b arrow

a t Ear l ' sF ar m D own , Amesbury ( Christ ie 1 964 a nd 1 967 ) .

They h ave r ecen t ly

b een f ound i n ab eaker o r p re-beaker c on tex t a t R osin ish , U ist ( Shepherd 1 976 p . 2 14) .

A n e x tensive s yste m o f c r iss-cross t races were f ound d a ting f ro m

E ar ly- M idd le Bronze Age a t Gw i thian , C ornwa l l ( Megaw e t a l . 1 961) .

They

h ave b een f ound u nder a nd a longside p rehistor ic s et t le men ts a t S kai l l , i n O rkney ( Ge l ling e xcava t ions c on t inuing ) , a t S u mburgh , S he t land ( La mb f or thc om ing ) a nd a t ab urn t mound a t L idd le , O rkney

( pers. c or n . J . H edges) .

F ro m a l a ter p er iod , p ossib ly e ar ly R o man , c r iss-cross t races h ave b een f ound u nder b ui ld ings b e long ing t o t he Win ter ton v i l la c o mp lex ( S tead 1 976,

p . 7 2 , 8 0 , F ig . 4 1) a nd a t S loden Enc losure , H an ts., ( Fow ler a nd Evans 1 967 , p . 2 95) w here t hey a ppeared t o b e p ost mid-4th c en tury .

Possib le c r iss-cross

t races o n c lay s i tes, p re-Hadr ian ic i n d a te , h ave b een f ound a t S to t t ,s House ( Jobey 1 965) , Carrawburgh ( Breeze 1 974) a nd R udchester ( Gi l la m e t a l . 1 972 ) . E xcava t ions a t L odge F arm , A lveston , A von , w i th in a p re- Medieva l f i e ld s yste m p roduced a rd mark s wh ich a re , a pparen t ly c er ta in ly p re-Ro man a nd which c ou ld b el a te N eo li th ic ( Ever ton a nd F ow ler i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 ) . I th as b een p oin ted o u t t ha t t he s hapes o f t he t races i n t he g round a re s ub ject t o a ltera tion f ro m f rost a ction ( Fou r ier a nd Evans 1 967 , p . 2 90) o r f ro m wa ter e rosion ( Chr ist ie 1 964 a nd 1 967 ) .

The f act t ha t t he s hare c rea tes

a "d ragg ing z one", p resu mab ly o f p ar tic les wh ich a dhere t o t he s hare d ur ing p lough ing , was n o ted b y H ansen ( Hansen 1 969 , p p . 8 0-1) d ur ing p lough ing e xp er i men ts when h e a t te mp ted t o c rea te a rd t races i n t he s and b e low t he p loughs oi l .

T hi s "d ragg ing z one" o bviously a l ters t he s hape o ft he t race i n t he s oi l ,

a nd h ence t he s hape o ft he t race c an r ea l ly p resen t l i t t le c lue t o t he t ype o f s hare u sed .

The e x ten t o ft he " dragg ing z one" wou ld a ppear t o b e a f fected

c onsiderab ly b y t he s oi l t ype a nd moisture c on ten t .

N ever the less, Hansen ' s

e xper imen ts s howed t ha t s o me d i f ference i n t race s hape c ou ld b e e xpected when p lough ing w i th d i f feren t s haped s hares ( co mpare h is F igures 1 8 a nd 1 9 which s how c ross-sect ions o ft races c rea ted b y a n a rrow-shaped s hare a nd ab ar s hare) .

T he t races made b y a n a rrow-shaped s hare h ad o ccasiona l ly

ad ist inc t V-shape , whereas t hose made b y ab ar s hare were g enera l ly n arr ower a nd more r ounded a t t he b ot to m .

H ansen s uggests t ha t t o g a in a n i dea

o f t he t ype o f a rd u sed , al arge n umber o f c riss-sect ions o f as ui tab le t race s hou ld b e made .

H e c a lcu la ted t ha t "o ne c ross-section o u t o f c . 2 0-50 w i l l

c harac ter ise t he p rof i le o ft he a rd , whereas t he o thers, whi le r e tain ing t he s a me g enera l s hape , w i l l b e l ess w e l l d ef ined , more d isturbed" . N ie lsen f o l lows t h is p o in t when e xcava t ing I ron Age a rd t races a t S tore V i ld mose ( Nie lsen 1 970 ) .

Ag rea t d i f f icu l ty , a s h e p oin ts o u t , i s t ha t i ti s n o t of ten p os-

s ible t o f o l low t he s a me a rd t race o ver a n e x tended s tretch , a nd h e c o m men ts t hat t he b read th o f at race i s d ependen t u pon o ther f actors b esides t he f or m o f p lough s hare —for e xa mp le , t he d egree o f t i lt w i th which t he p lough was h e ld ,

8 1

a nd h ow d eep t he p lough wen t i n to t he s ubsoi l ;

a lso t he i n term ix ture o f s ub-

s oi l i n t he t races g ives r i se t o c onsiderab le v aria t ions w i th in smal l i n terva ls i n t he s a me t rack . H e f e l t a b le, h owever , t en ta t ive ly t o s uggest t ha t t here was o ne t ype w i th n a b read th o f a bou t 3 cm r ough ly c orrespond ing t o t he b read th o ft he b ar s hare o f t he D0strup a rd , a nd a s econd t ype ( wi th ) ab igger b read th o f u p t o 6 .5 cm which i s a pproxima te ly t he b read th o f s evera l o ft he a rrow-shaped s hares wh ich were u sed a lso o n b ow a rdsv 1 57 ) .

( N ie lsen 1 970 , p .

He s uggests, t herefore , t he u se o ft wo t ypes o f s hare a t S tore V i ld mose —

o ne b road ly U - o r V-shaped w i th a s ect iona l a ng le o f 6 00 o r more, a nd a no ther , p oin ted o r s o mewha t r ounded , r e markab ly n arrow i n p ropor t ion t o t he h e igh t a nd w i th a c orrespond ing ly sma l l a ng le .

T hese wou ld a ppear t o b e r ough ly

s imi lar t o Hansen ' st wo t ypes o f t races. An i ncreasing n u mber o f e xcava t ion r epor ts s how c ross-sections o f a rd t races f ro m B r i ta in .

Those f ro m Gwi th ian ( Megaw e t a l . 1 961 , p l . 1 )w ere

V-shaped i n s ection , b u t e x tre me ly s lan t ing .

The c ross-sec t ions t aken o f a rd

t races f ro m S u mburgh were c er ta in ly V-shaped a nd o b l ique , t hough l ess s o t han t hose i l lustra ted f ro m Gw i th in , a nd wou ld a ppear t o b e r ough ly s i mi lar t o t hose s hown a s b e ing c rea ted b y ab ar s hare o n Han sen ' se xperi men ts ( F ig . 7 5 ;

a nd H ansen 1 969 , F ig . 2 0 ) .

The a verage w id th o ft he S umburgh t races

a ppeared t o l i e b e tween 2 a nd 7cm a nd t he d ep th f ro m 2 -5 cm , which s ee m t o a ccord w i th t he d i mensions o f t hose s hown i n Hansen ' sF ig . 2 0 c rea ted b y ab ar s hare r a ther t han t hose i n h is F ig . 1 8 c rea ted b y a n a rrow-shaped s hare .

The l a t ter a re more a cu te ly V-shaped , a nd a re b o th w ider ( g _ . 8 -13

cm ) a nd d eeper ( up t o 1 1 cm) .

Iwou ld b e l oa th t o d educe a ny th ing v ery p osi tive

f ro m t his, h owever , a s t oo f ew c ross-sections a long s ing le t races c ou ld b e t aken b ecause o f t he i n terrup ted n a ture o f t he t races.

Ever ton a nd F ow ler

s ect ioned a n u mber o f a rd t races f ro m L odge F ar m ( i n B owen a nd Fow ler 1 978 , p . 1 81 , F ig . 2 8 :4) .

The p rof i les were b road ly V- a nd U -shaped .

F ow ler a nd E vans c a lcu la te t ha t t he u sua l d istance b e tween a rd t races i s c . 3 0 cm ± 7cm r egard less o f d a te , g eo logy o r s i tua t ion ( Fow ler a nd E vans 1 967 , p . 2 94) .

N ie lsen a grees, c o m men t ing t ha t 2 5-30 cm was t he u sua l d is-

t ance b e tween t races a t S tore V i ld mose ( N ie lsen 1 970 , p . 1 59) , a nd t he e xcav a t ions a t S ka i l l a nd S u mburgh r evea led t races c . 3 0 cm a par t .

F ow ler a nd

Evans s ta te t ha t f urrows s o f ar a par t wou ld s carce ly s ee m a dequa te f or p lant ing t o t ake p lace w i thou t f ur ther p repara t ion , a nd t ha t t he g rooves c anno t r epresen t s eed d r i l ls a s i t wou ld b e wastefu l t o p lan t s o f ar a par t .

They

s uggest t ha t t he t races r epresen t o ne s tage o n ly o f t he p rocess o f p repara t ion o ft he s eed b ed .

P ossib ly t he d eep t races a t S ou th S tree t r epresen t t he i n i tia l

b reak ing o ft he g round .

E vans amp li f ies t his p o in t l a ter ( Evans 1 975, p . 18 )

when h e s uggests t ha t t he t races a t S ou th S tree t were p ar t o f t he i n i tia l b reaki ng u p o ft he s oi l s hor t ly af ter t he c learance o f t rees f ro m t he s i te , r a ther t han t he u sua l me thod o f t i l lage which , h e s ugges ts , wou ld h ave b een c arr ied o u t w i th s pades o r h oes.

Apparen t ly t he s tra t i f ied c harac ter o f t he s oi l w i th

a l terna te s tony a nd s tone-free l ayers, a nd t he i rregu lar h u m mocks a nd h o l lows o f s oi l wh ich o ver lay t he a rd t races wou ld h ave b een d estroyed w i th r egu lar c ross p lough ing .

On t he o ther h and , a s F ow ler a nd Evans t he mse lves c o mmen t ,

t he s uccessive p a t terns o f c ross a rd t races s hown a t Gwi thian a nd O ver ton Down , a nd n ow a t S u mburgh a nd S kai l l , p resumab ly r epresen t ap a limpsest o f s evera l y ears ' p lough ing g r ids.

A t Gw i th ian a nd S u mburgh , a rd t races 8 2

w ere v isib le a t s evera l l ayers t hrough t he p lough s oi l wherever a d i f ference i n s oi l c o lour , c aused , f or e xa mp le , b y as and b low , e nab led t he marks t o b e s een .

B o th t hese f acts t end t o a rgue a ga inst t he e xp lana t ion o f i n i t ia l c lear-

a nce a nd s uggest t ha t s paced g rooves i ndica te t he n or ma l me thod o f p lough ing . H ansen ' se xper i men ts s howed t ha t i t was d if f icu l t t o p lough p ara l le l f urrows v ery c lose t ogether ( Hansen 1 969 , p . 8 4) .

Apparen t ly t he i n terven ing b au lk

b roke d own i f ac er ta in min imu m d i stance was n o t o bserved a nd t he s hare moved i n to t he f urrow wh ich h ad j ust b een p loughed .

N ie lsen c o mmen ts t ha t

t he r ectangu lar o r s quare s haped a reas o f u ndisturbed s ubso i l b e tween t he marks n eed n ot mean t ha t t here were c orrespond ing ly u n touched a reas i n t he h igher s oi l , a s t he b reak ing a ct ion o f t he p lough w i l l u sua l ly w iden u pwards i n af unne l-shaped s pread . The e xper i men ts o f Aberg a nd B owen a nd o f Hansen s howed t ha t t he a rd was n ot a t a l l e f f icien t a t b reak ing u p f a l low o r e ven h ard , d ry s oi l u nder s tubb le .

T he a rd s lid o r j u mped r epea ted ly o n t he h ard g round , a nd n o t oler-

a b le p lough ing c ou ld b e o b ta ined .

Many r eferences a re f ound i n t he c lassica l

wri t ings t o t he v ar ie ty o f i mp le men ts wh ich s hou ld b e u sed i n t he p repara tion o ft he s eed b ed — ma t tocks, h oes, a rds a nd h arrows a l l p lay t heir p ar t ( Co lu me l la D .A . 1 2 . 1 -2 ;

5 .3 ;

R .R . 2 . 1.1) , b u t t here c er ta in ly s ee ms a n i mp l ica-

t i on t ha t a n a rd was u sed f or b reak ing a t l east f a ir ly y oung f al low ( Co lu me l la R .R . 2 .4 1 -3 ; Varro R .R . 1 .29 .2 ) . Varro d oes c o m men t o n t he v ar iabi li ty o f l and a nd t he e ase w i th wh ich i t may b e p loughed . S o me l and , h e s ays, i s s o h ard t ha t t he o xen c anno t b reak i tu n less t hey a re u nusua l ly p owerfu l , a nd t hey f requen t ly l eave t he f i e ld w i th a b roken b ea m ( Varro R .R . 1 .19 .2 ) .

I t

must b e b orne i n mind t ha t ah ard f a l low i n Medi terranean s oi l a nd o ne i n N or th E uropean s oi l a re v ery d i f feren t t hings.

Added t o t his i s t he f act t ha t we a re

b y n o means s ure o f t he t ype o f a rd t o which C o lu me l la o r Varro a re r eferr ing S evera l o f t he c lassica l a grono mi sts a dvise f requen t p lough ing t o o b ta in ag ood t i l th .

Varro ( R .R . 1 .29 .2 ) d escri bes a p rocess o f t hree p loughings —

t he f irs t t o b reak u p t he s oi l , t he s econd t o p u lverise i t , a nd t he t h ird t o c over t he b roadcast s eed .

Co lu me i la c o m men ts t ha t f a l low l and s hou ld b e s o p u lver-

i sed b y p lough ing a nd r ep lough ing t ha t i ts hou ld n eed l i t t le o r n o h arrow ing a f ter t he s eed h as b een s own .

N ie lsen s uggests t ha t s evera l p lough ings may

h ave t aken p lace i n o ne p rocess o f s oi l p repara t ion , a nd t herefore a g rea t n u mber o f p lough marks n eed n o t i ndica te many y ears o f p lough ing ( N ie lsen 1 970 , p . 1 64) .

A f ew s i tes, e .g . Gw i thian a t t he t op o f L ayer 5 ( Megaw e t a l .

1 961 , p p . 2 06-7 ) , h ave p roduced a reas o f c ross p lough ing which s ee m t o r e-p resen t as ing le c r iss-cross g rid i n terpre ted a s o ne p lough ing ; u sua l ly t he p a t tern i s af ar more c o mp lex i n terrup ted s er ies o f s uper imposed g r ids ( Pl . 1 1 a nd 1 2 ) , a nd i ti s i mpossib le t o c a lcu la te o ver h ow l ong a p er iod t hey were c rea ted .

I th as e ven b een s uggested t ha t wha t w e u sua l ly i n terpre t a s a rd

t races, e specia l ly t hose b e low h ouse s i tes, may r epresen t an on-agricul tura l u se o ft he a rd —a p re lim inary l eve l ling o f t he s i te

I t i s c er ta in ly t rue t ha t

t he a rd must h ave b een o ne o f t he more e f f icien t l eve l ling mach ines k nown t o p rehi stor ic man .

I ti s p ossib le t ha t we s hou ld b e e x tre me ly c arefu l i n a ssign-

i ng a p ure ly a gr icu l tura l r o le t o t he a rd .

I t i s i n terest ing t ha t F asha m a nd

Hanwor th ( i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p . 1 75) s uggest t ha t o ne i n terpre tat ion o f t he o ne-way a rd t races o n at errace b y aR o man r oad o n t he r iver Dever i s t ha t t hey r epresen t t he u se o f ap lough a s a n e ng ineer ing t oo l u sed t o c rea te a t errace s ui tab le f or r oad c onstruction . 8 3

The d ep th o f p ene tra tion o f t he s oi l b y t he a rd s hare i sd i ff icu l t t o c a lc u la te f ro m a rd t races which o n ly r epresen t t he p ene tra tion i n to t he s ubsoi l . The d ep th o f p loughsoi l c an n ever b e c a lcu la ted w i th c er ta in ty a s t he d ep th o f s oi l c an i ncrease d ra ma t ica l ly af ter c u l t iva tion b y s oi l w ash d ownh i l l , o r b y manur ing .

N ie lsen s ta tes t ha t t he a rd t races a t S tore V i ld mose p ene tra-

t ed u p t o 6 cm i n to t he s ubsoi l , u sua l ly l ess ( N ie lsen 1 970 , p . 1 57 ) . S tree t , t he t races p ene tra ted t he s ubsoi l u p t o 1 5 cm .

A t S ou th

The t races a t S u mburgh

s ee med u sua l ly t o p ene tra te t he s ubsoi l 2 -5 cm ( F ig . 7 5) .

T he d i2gram o n

F ig . 3 6 s uggested a n a verage d ep th o f t o ta l p ene trat ion f rom 5 .1 t o 1 0 .4 cm b eing c o m mon f or s tone a rd s hares.

These a verage measuremen ts, a s e x-

p la ined a bove ( p . 1 8) p robab ly e rr o n t he l ow s ide .

I n o rder t o o btain v isible

a rd t races i n t he s ubsoi l , Hansen h ad t o p lough w i th a d ep th o ft opsoi l o fu nder 5 -7 cm ( Hansen 1 969 , p . 7 9 ) .

G iven a p loughsoi l o f 5 cm w i th t he 2 -5 cm

d ep th o f a rd t race i n t he s ubsoi l , t his i mp lies t ha t t he a rd p ene tra ted 7 -10 cm i n to t he g round , wh ich i s r ough ly e quiva len t t o t he d ep th o f p enetra t ion c a lcu lat ed f or t he l eng th a nd a ng les o f wear s hown o n t he s tone s hares. Ano ther s ource o f e vidence f or t he n or ma l d ep th o f s oi l p ene tra t ion i s t he d ep th o ft he d eve lop men t o f a n i ron p an b e low t he g round s ur face o n p resen td ay moor land . p lough ing .

D imb leby s uggests t ha t t h is marks t he d ep th o f p rehistor ic

H e h as s uggested ( D i mb leby 1 96 1a nd 1 962 ) ap rocess b y w h ich

Bronze Age man i n i t ia ted t he d eve lop men t o f p odso lised s oi ls i n N . E . York s h ire .

The i ron p an n ear t he p rehistor ic f i e ld b oundary a t t he B lack C rof t ,

Argy l l ( R i tch ie a nd R i tch ie 1 974) d eve loped a t ad ep th o f 1 0 cm b elow t he s urf ace . F ro m t he c ross-sect ions o f a rd t races we may g a in s o me i mpression o f t he d egree o ft i l t a t which t he a rd was h e ld ( P l . 8 ) .

The e xcava tors a t Gw i thian

s uggested t ha t t he o b l ique s ect ion o ft he t races c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y t he t i l t ing o f t he a rd t o t hrow a f urrow ( Megaw e t a l . 1 961 , p . 2 07 ) .

N ie lsen c a l ls t his

t he a ng le o ft i l t wh ich h e c a lcu la tes b y measuring t he a ng le b e tween t he b is ect ion o ft he t race a nd t he v er t ica l a xis ( N ie lsen 1 970 , F ig . 5 ) .

A t S tore V i ld-

mose t i l ted p osi t ions were s een g rouped a t a ng les c .3 ° 50 a nd 1 50 20 0 a nd were t o t he r igh t o r l ef t .

Ang les o f t i l t i n t he a rd t races a t S u mburgh s ee med

t o a verage 1 0° 15 ° . Hansen f ound i n h is e xper i ments e x treme d i f f icu l ty i n t i l t ing t he H endr iks mose a rd r ep lica i n l oose s oi l ( Hansen 1 969 , p . 8 5) a s h e f ound t ha t t he a rd s lipped s ideways b u t t his , o f c ourse , c ou ld b e d ue t o t he i nexper ience o ft he e xper i men ters i n d ea ling w i th a rds.

I fw e a re c orrec t i n

i n terpre t ing C o lu me l la ' sa dvice ( R .R . 2 .2 .25) i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t o t i l t t he a rd was a n or ma l me thod o f p lough ing , a l though o f c ourse i ti sn ot c lear t o which t ype o f a rd C o lu me l la wou ld b e r eferring .

Th is method o f p lough ing was

p erhaps e asier w i th a c rook a rd ( S teensberg 1 95 7 -8 , p p . 1 57 -62 ) . o ft i l t i nevi tab ly v aried

The a ng le

ag rea t d ea l e ven a long o ne a rd t race a s d i f ferences

i n s oi l t exture a nd i n p ressure f ro m t he p lough man a nd o xen , a nd o bstac les i n t he s hare ' sp a th wou ld a l l t hrow t he s hare t o o ne s ide .

The e xcava ted e vidence

wou ld , h owever , s uggest t ha t t he t i l t ing o f t he b ow a rd d ur ing p lough ing w as n or ma l p rac t ice , a nd t he a sy m me tr ic w ear o n s tone s hares wou ld s trong ly s upp or t t h is . E ver ton a nd F ow ler c a lcu la ted t he a ng les o f t i l t f or t he a rd t races a t L odge F arm ; t hose f or a g roup o f marks w i th ma in ly U -shaped p ro f i les were b e tween 0 ° a nd 60 . T hose f or t he f i ve marks w i th a V p ro f i le were b et ween 6 ° a nd 4 4° , s ugges t ing , a s h e s ays , t ha t t he a rd was d e l ibera te ly t i l ted a t t imes d ur ing p lough ing ( i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p . 1 81) . 8 4

The d ragging a ction o ft he s hare o n e ach s ide o ft he f urrow d uring p loughi ng e nab les u s t o c a lcu la te i n wh ich d irection t he a rd was t rave l ling when o ne t race c rosses a no ther .

An a rrow-shaped s car o f s ubsoi l i s d ragged a cross t he

t he d ark s o i l o f t he e ar lier t race .

One c an , t herefore c a lcu la te t he d irect ion

t o which t he s hare was b eing t i l ted ( F ig . 7 5) . One c an a lso a t te mp t t o r econst ruct t he me thod o f p lough ing t he f i e ld . A t Gwi th ian , t he e xcava tors s uggested t he s ect ion s howed , o n o ccasion , a n a l terna t ion o ft he f urrows, o ne s lop ing o ne way , t he n ex t t he o ther .

I f t his was n o t t he c hance r esu lt o f d i f feren t

y ears ! p lough ing , t he f urrows may h ave b een p loughed t wice , o nce i n e ach d irect ion i n o rder t o t hrow t he s oi l t o e ach s ide ( Megaw e t a l . 1 961, p . 2 07 ) . N ie lsen n o t iced a t S tore V i ld mose t ha t p ara l le l marks, p resu mab ly f ro m o ne p loughing r an a l terna te ly i n o pposi te d irect ions.

P lough ing was t herefore , i n

t hese c ases, c arr ied o u t f ro m o ne e nd o ft he f i e ld a nd t hen b ack b eside t he f i rst f urrow .

I t was f ound t o b e i mpossib le a t S u mburgh t o f ind s uf f icien t ly

c o mp le te a g rid t o e nsure t ha t p ara l le l a rd t races o f p robab ly t he s a me p loughi ng were c ross-sectioned when a n a t te mp t was made t o e stab lish t he p lough ing me thod h ere emp loyed .

The me thod s uggested b y t he Gwi thian t races wou ld

make s en se a s i ti s a ssu med t ha t t he s hares were u sed a lways t i l ted i n o ne d irec tion . N ie lsen s uggests t ha t t he e dges o ft he f i e lds a t S tore V i ld mose were u sua l ly p loughed o ver t o t idy t he f urrow e nds a nd r educe t he weed i nfested u ncu l tiva ted p ar ts.

( Cf . t he i n terpre ta t ion a t Gwi thian where p loughed a reas were d ug

b y t he s pade —see b e low p . 3 29 .)

Thi s p ractice i s s uggested b y t he b unched

s e t o f marks which l ay p ara l le l t o t he f i e ld e dge ( Nie lsen 1 970 , p p . 1 62-3) . P loughmarks wh ich r an u p t o b oundar ies u sua l ly s topped s hor t c . 2m f ro m t he b oundary , al eng th s uf f icien t f or t he t eam t o t urn w i th in t he f i e ld l imi t .

I t was

i n terest ing t o n o te t ha t a t S u mburgh , s ou th o ft he S ou thern h ouse , a rd t races were v i sib le r unn ing a longside a s ection o f t he wa l l , p ara l le l t o i t , b u t i n o ne d irect ion o n ly . P resu mab ly t his was b ecause t he wa l l , e ven i fa t t ha t p eriod t he h ouse was a bandoned , was a s ubstan tia l o bstac le a nd t he o xen , h av ing t o t urn n ear t he wa l l , were u nab le t o b r ing t he a rd r igh t u p t o i ti n t he o ther d irect ion a nd t hus t his s trip was n o t c ross p loughed b u t p l r )ughed o n ly i n o ne d irect ion . Two e f fects o f p lough ing o n t he s oi l w ere n o ted a t S tore V i ld mose .

F irst ly ,

t he s o i l l ayer i n t he f i e lds was t hinner t han t ha t p ro tected u nder f i e ld b oundari es; t h is was i n terpre ted a s b eing d ue t o w ind e rosion af ter t he b reak ing u p o ft he v ege ta tion c over .

S econd ly , i t was n o t iced t ha t t here h ad b een a h o l low-

i ng o u t o ft he s ubsoi l i n f i e lds d ue t o r epea ted p lough ing . I n o ne a rea , t here was a d i f ference o fu p t o 8 cm b e tween t he h e igh t o f t he s ubsoi l w i thin t he b oundar ies a nd t ha t o ft he f i e ld o u tside , ( N ie lsen 1 970 , p . 1 52 ) .

N ie lsen a lso

n o ticed t ha t t he a rd t race o f ten d oes n o t t urn a side a t a n o bstacle s uch a s a l arge e ar thfast s tone . S o me s tones were s o l arge t ha t as pecia l e f for t must h ave b een made t o g e t t he t ea m o ver i t . c a te t ha t t he p lough tea m was l ed .

Thi s, N ie lsen s uggests, migh t i nd i-

F ow ler a nd E vans were a b le t o s how t ha t c ross p loughing h ad b een f ound i n Br i ta in o n av ariety o f s oi l t ypes —sand , c ha lk , b ou lder c lay , C o mbe R ock a nd B rack lesha m B eds —and t hey c o m men t t ha t w they c an r easonab ly b e e xpected o n most s ubsoi ls, g iven t he r igh t c ondi tions" ( Fow ler a nd Evans 1 967 , p . 2 94) . S and i s , p erhaps, o ne o ft he b est s oi ls f or p reserving a rd t races. 8 5

Examp les

t ha t Ih ave s een i n c ha lk a re much more d i f f icu l t t o p lan b ecause l u mps o f c ha lk a re t orn u p o n e i ther s ide o ft he s hare , g iving t he t race a n i rregu lar s hape .

One a ssu mes t ha t c ha lk must h ave b een more d iff icu l t t o p lough f or

t ha t r eason .

Heavier s oi ls, l i ke c lay , must h ave p resen ted f ur ther p rob le ms,

b u t t he a rd wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een a b le t o c ope . I ti s o f c ourse of ten d i f f icu l t where o n ly a sma l l a rea o f a rd t races a re u ncovered t o b e s ure t ha t t hey a re t he r esu l t o f c ross p lough ing .

The e xcava-

t ion o f Rudchester f or t ( Gi l la m e t a l . 1 972 , p p . 8 4-5) f ound a rd t races o n t hree d if feren t a lign men ts o n ac lay s ubsoi l , r unn ing a pprox ima te ly E . -W ., N .-S . a nd E .N .E. -W .S . W.

O ft hese , t he E .- W . marks were t he most

n u merous a nd t he c learest .

Immedia te ly a bove t he c lay s ubsoi l was t he

p loughsoi l , t he u pper s urface o f wh ich f or med a s eries o f u ndu la t ions i n terp re ted a s r ig-and-furrow , r unn ing E . -W .

Th is r ig-and-furrow was a ssu med

t o h ave b een made b y t he l a test E . -W . p lough ing which a lso f ormed t he p lough marks.

Th is e x istence o f r igs r u les o u t t he p ractice o f c ross p lough ing h ere ,

t hough t he t hree d i f feren t d irect ions o ft he marks a lso s uggests t ha t t he r igs were s hor t l i ved , l ast ing f or o ne o r af ew y ears o n ly .

The a b i li ty o f t h is

p lough t o r aise a r ig s uggests t ha t i t was o f h eavier c onstruc t ion e quipped w i th a mou ld b oard .

The e xcava tors s uggested t ha t t he s a me i n terpre ta t ion migh t

b e v a lid f or t he marks o n t he c lay a t Carrawburgh , o r ig ina l ly i n terpre ted a s c ross p lough ing ( Breeze 1 974 , p . 1 89) , a nd p erhaps f or t hose a t S tot ts H ouse ( Jobey 1 965) a nd Ha l ton Chesters, where t oo sma l l aq uan ti ty o f c ross t races was f ound t o a l low t he i n terpre ta t ion o f c ross p lough ing t o b e a ccep ted a s i nd ubi tab le .

These a rd t races a re a l l f ro m c lay s i tes i n Nor thu mber land a nd

a ppear t o b e p re-Hadr ian ic.

The s uggest ion o f ap lough w i th a mou ld b oard

e xist ing a t s o e ar ly a d a te i s i n teresting b u t a s y e t i s u nsuppor ted b y f ur ther e vidence a nd s hou ld b e t rea ted w i th s o me c au t ion .

Apar t f ro m t his o ne i nstance ,

a l though i ti s c lear t ha t t he p lough b y t he e nd o ft he Ro man p er iod was e quipped t o c rea te a r idge a nd f urrow , n o e xamp les o f t h is h ave b een f ound wh ich a re c lear ly d a tab le t o t he Ro man p er iod a nd "t o l eave p ermanen t r idges r equ ires ad ef in i te p o licy wh ich i s c haracteristica l ly Med ieva l a nd l a ter" ( Bowen 1 961 , p . 4 9) . Criss-cross a rd t races were f ound b e low b ui ldings o f t he W in ter ton V i l la c o mp lex ( S tead 1 976 , F ig . 4 1) t hough t heir d a t ing i s u nknown .

O ne way a rd

t races h ave b een f ound wh ich a re e ar ly R o man a t t he l a test a s t hey u nder lay R o man h or izons a t L a timer V i l la , B ucks. ( Bran igan 1 971, F ig . 1 4) , a t N ewh aven v i l la , S ussex ( Be l l 1 976) a t S lonk H i l l , S ussex ( pers. c om . Mr . H ar tr idge ) a nd b e low a R o man r oad i n Ha mpsh ire ( Fasha m a nd Hanwor th i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p . 1 75) .

O ne way p lough marks h ave a lso b een f ound d a t ing

f ro m t he p rehistor ic p er iods a t t he mu l ti p er iod s i te a t B ishopstone , S ussex ( Be l l 1 977 , p . 2 65) a nd a l though t he e xcava tor s uggests t ha t s o me o f t he l a ter t races d o s uggest c ross p lough ing , h e s ta tes, q uo ting t he e vidence f ro m S lonk H i l l a nd N ewhaven , t ha t o ne s hou ld n ot a u to ma t ica l ly a ssu me t ha t c ross p loughi ng was t he i nevi tab le p ract ice i n p rehistory .

L a te R o man o r l a ter o ne way

marks a re q ui te c o m mon o n e xcava ted s i tes —e .g . a t S hearp lace H i l l , D orse t ( Rah tz a nd ApSimon 1 962 ) a nd Barho lm , L incs. ( W i lson 1 966, p . 2 03) .

T he

e vidence a t S loden Enclosure , H an ts., h owever , may s uggest t ha t c ross p lough ing was c on t inued i n s o me a reas i n to t he l a ter R o man p er iod ( Fow ler a nd E vans 1 967 , p . 2 95) .

A s a rd t races a re d i f f icu l t t o p lan a nd a re n o toriously 8 6

u neven a nd i rregu lar , t he d ist inct ion b etween c ross p lough ing a nd p ara l le l p lough ing i s of ten d if f icu l t t o a pprecia te .

Much more e xcava tion i s n eeded

b efore we may b e s ure o ft he p eriod o f o ver lap b e tween t he t wo p ractices. A lso , i ti sw or th n o t ing a t t hi s s tage t he d i f f icu l t ies o f a ssocia t ing c er ta in ly a n imp lemen t w i th a f urrow s hape , p ar t icu lar ly w i th o ne way t races. A f u l ler d escrip t ion o f t his p oin t w i l l b e f ound b e low ( p . 3 29) b u t i ti s wor th c onsiderat i on whe ther o r n o t t he " r ig-and-furrow *f ound a t R udchester c ou ld b e a s pade r a ther t han a p lough f urrow . The r e la tionsh ip b etween p lough ing p ractice a nd f i e ld s hape i s o bvious a nd i t may b e wor thwh i le t o c o m men t b r ief ly o n t he f i e ld t ypes wh ich w ere i n u se i n t he p reh istoric a nd R oman p eriods i n B ri ta in . The s o-ca l led C e lt ic f i e lds a re f a ir ly c lear ly a ssocia ted w i th t he p rac tice o f c ross p loughing —a t O ver ton D own , c ri ss-cross a rd t races were f ound w i th in t he l ynche ts o f a C e ltic f i e ld s ystem ( Fow ler 1 967 ) . Traces o f t hese s quare o r r ectangu lar f i e lds h ave b een k nown t o s urvive a long t he s ou th o f B r i ta in f ro m e ast K en t t o Dorse t a nd i n ab and s tre tch ing e ast n or th f ro m Dorse t t hrough H a mpsh ire a nd Wi l tsh ire t o O xfordshire , w i th o ther a reas t o t he n or th s uch a s n or th D erbysh ire a nd L incolnsh ire ( Bowen 1 961 ) , a nd r ecen t s urveys a re l ead ing t o f ur ther d iscover ies.

T he f i e lds a ppear t o h ave b een s yste ma tica l ly l aid

o u t , p resumab ly a s ap ermanen t r egu larised c u l tiva tion p at tern . Methods o f d ivid ing f i e lds h ave b een s hown t o b e b anks w i th o r w i thou t d i tches, l i nes o f s tones o r d rystone wa l ls, f ences a nd h edges.

Aga inst t hese b orders, l ynchets

i nevi tab ly f or med o n a ny s lop ing f i e ld , a nd i ti sb y t he e xistence o ft hese l ynche ts t ha t we c an s ee t he o r ig ina l s hape o ft he f i e lds. B owen d ivides t hese f i e lds i n to t wo b asic t ypes —s ma l l s quare f i e lds o f c . a cre , a nd l ong r ectangu lar f i e lds w i th p ropor tions u sual ly a bou t 4o r 5 :1, a nd u pt o 1 1 a cres i n s ize .

T he l onger f i e lds, i n p laces, s eem t o h ave r e-

p laced t he sma l l s quare f i e lds —e .g . a t Mar t in D own , Han ts. ( Bowen 1 961 , p . 2 4) , w here t he t wo ma in p er iods o f o ccupa t ion i nt he a rea a re L a te B ronze Age a nd R o mano-Bri tish . B owen s uggests t ha t t he l ong r ectangu lar f i e ld may b e d ue t ot he i n troduction o f ah eavy p lough wh ich d id n o t n eed t o c ross p lough a nd wh ich wou ld b e more d i f f icu l t t o t urn .

C e l tic f i e ld s yste ms a re of ten

a rranged i n as er ies o f r ough ly p ara l le l l i nes e i ther u p a nd d own t he s lope , o r f o l low ing t he c on tour , o r d iagona l t o t he s lope .

E lsewhere

t hey c an b e q ui te

i rregu lar , p resu mab ly where p iecemea l e xpansion t ook p lace i nstead o f a p lanned s yste m b e ing i mposed a t o ne t ime . I ti sd iff icu l t t o t e l l f rom wh ich p er iod t he e ar liest C e l tic f i e lds d a te . I t i s k nown t ha t p loughing was c er ta in ly p ractised i n B ri ta in i n N eo l i thic t imes, b ut t he l ayou t o fp er manen t f i e lds i mp lies t ha t f ar mers h ad c o me t o s o me u nderstand ing o f s oi l p roper ties a nd h ad worked o u t s o me p ol icy f or s oi l r egene ra t ion—presu mab ly b y l eaving f a l low , b y manur ing a nd g radua l ly b y l earn ing t echn iques o f c rop r o ta tion .

T he r e la tionship b e tween C e l tic f i e lds a nd r ound

b arrows —e .g . a t t he Deverel b arrows, Mi lbourne , Dorse t ( Bowen 1 961 , p . 3 0 )— s uggest t ha t s o me s uch f i e lds may b e Midd le B ronze Age o r e ar l ier . T he d ep th o f p lough s oi l a nd d i fference i n l eve ls o f a rd t races a t Gw i th ian a nd S u mburgh s uggest t ha t t hese marks w ere t he r esu l t o f y ears o f p lough ing a nd t herefore t he mse lves i nd ica te a s e t t led me thod o f a gricu l ture f ro m L a te N eoli th ic o r Ear ly B ronze A ge o nwards .

8 7

I th as b eco me i ncreasing ly o bvious, h owever , t ha t t he l ack o f r ecogn isable C e l t ic f i e lds i n ag iven a rea b y n o means i mp lies a l ack o f a gr icu lture i n t he p rehistoric p eriods i n t he l ow land z one .

Work i n t he Bristo l r egion ( Fow ler

i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p . 3 0) , t he C o tswo lds ( RCA M 1 976 Barnsley 2 ) a nd t he g rave ls o ft he Tha mes Va l ley ( M i les i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 p . 8 1) make t h is c lear . The e vidence f or p rehistor ic a gr icu l ture i n t he u p land a reas o f B r i ta in was d iscussed b y F eache m i n h is p aper " Ancien t Agricu l ture i nt he H igh land o f B r i ta in" t ypes.

( Feache m 1 973 ) .

He d ivides t he e vidence f or f ie ld s yste ms i n to t hree

F irst ly , t here a re e nc losures u sua l ly a ssocia ted w i th c learance c airns

a nd h u t c irc les f ound i n S . W . Eng land , Wa les, N . Eng land a nd S he t land

u sua l ly

d a ted t o t he 3 rd o r 2 nd mi l lenn iu m b .c . ;s econd ly , t here a re s yste ms o f sma l l , i rregu lar p lo ts f or med b y l ynche ts a nd b anks, a gain w i th c learance c a irns a nd h abi ta tions d a ted f ro m t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn iu m b .c . t o a bou t t he midd le o ft he i st ; t h ird ly , t here a re t he more r egu lar f ie lds which may h ave b een f or med l a te i n t he f i rst mi l lenn iu m b .c . a nd c on tinued i n to t he R o man p er iod .

He s uggests t ha t t here was a g ap i n t he p rac t ice o f p reh istoric

a gricu l ture i n t he B r i tish h igh lands i n t he s econd h alf o f t he i s t mi l lenn iu m b .c . a nd t ha t t he d e ter iora t ion i n t he c lima te migh t h ave r esu l ted i n a rab le f arming i n h igh land a reas b e ing a bandoned o r r educed e xcep t i nS . W. E ng land where a rable a gr icu l ture s ee ms t o h ave c on t inued u naba ted .

H e t hen s ugges ts

t ha t when f i e lds were a ga in e stablished a t t he e nd o ft he i st mi l lenn iu m b .c . t he a vai labi li ty o f a gricu l tura l t echn iques more e f f icien t t han t hose c o m manded b y e ar lier p eop le a l lowed a r esurgence o f c rop c u l t iva tion a t s i tes away f ro m t he h ighest g round".

F eache m s ta tes t ha t t hi s i s v ery s pecu la t ive a nd s o i t

must b e a s t he 4 00 o r 5 00 y ear g ap i n t he h igh land a rea 's a gr icu l ture c a l ls f or af i ner d a t ing o f h abi ta t ion a nd f i e ld s i tes t han we r ea l ly p ossess.

I t wou ld c er-

t a in ly a ppear t rue t ha t a reas o f u p land o nce c u lt iva ted were a bandoned s o me t ime i n t he e ar ly i st mi l lenn iu m , w i th a s pread o f wa ter logged b og a reas c o mmenc ing i n I re land ( Her i ty 1 971 a nd Cau lf ie ld i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p p . 1 37-143) a nd S co t land ( R i tch ie a nd R i tch ie 1 974) d ue e i ther t o man ! sp lough ing p ract ices o r b ecause o f ad e ter iora tion o ft he c lima te , o r am ix ture o fb o th ( Evans 1 975 , p . 1 49 ) . Whe ther o r n o t t he c urvi linear e nc losures o f u p land z ones w ere a l l u sed f or a rab le c u l t iva tion i s , o f c ourse , d eba tab le . i l ynche ts '

B owen s uggests t ha t " their

may b e d ue t o t he t reading o f s tock b u t , i fa rable , s ee m much more

l ike ly t o b e c onnected w i th t he u se o f ap oin ted d igging s tick t han a p lough" . The i den t i f ica t ion o f t he s tone a rd p oin ts f ro m S het land s uggests t ha t t he c urvil i near e nc losures c onnected w i th s et t le men t h ere a t l east were c onnected w i th c u l t iva t ion w i th t he a rd . e ver .

D i f f icu l t ies o f i n terpre ta tion e ven h ere r e ma in h ow-

Why t he p lo ts s hou ld b e c urvi linear , when a r ec tangu lar s hape f or

c ross p loughing wou ld s ee m s ensib le , i s a s y e t u nknown , a l though a s most o f t he a rd t races f ound o n O rkney a nd S he t land w ere mu l tidirect iona l , a nd s carce ly s tr ict ly d ef inab le a s t wo way c ross p loughing , t he c urvi linear e nc los ures migh t h ave b een l ess u nsui tab le i n p ract ice .

A lso i t i s s trange t ha t t he

sma l l c urvi l inear p lo ts s hou ld b e s o l i bera l ly s ca t tered w i th c learance c a irns b o th i nside a nd o u tside t he p lo ts ' b oundar ies i n q ui te a r ando m f ashion , s o t ha t i tc ou ld h ave b een e x tre me ly d i f f icu l t t o p lough w i thin t hem ( Graha m 1 957 ) . Mercer ( i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978 , p . 1 68 ) f ee ls t ha t t he sma l ler p lo ts 8 8

e xcava ted a t S tannon Down , C ornwa l l was t oo c onf ined f or a ny e cono m ic u se o ft he p lough , a nd s uggests t ha t t he s pade wou ld b e a more l ike ly i mp le men t o f c u ltiva t ion o n t he s i te . Evans s u m marises t he e v idence f or t he a rgu men t f or a nd a ga inst t he c u lt i va t ion o f h igh p ar ts o ft he N or th York moors ( Evans 1 975, p p . 1 30 4) . D imbleby ' s work i n t he a rea , a t B ur ton Howes ( Dimb leby 1 961) s uggests t ha t t he h igh moors were c leared o f f orest f or p asture a s n o c erea l p o l len g ra in i mpressions i n p ot tery , s torage p i ts, a rd t races o r p lan ta in p o l len f ro m s oi l s amp les t aken f ro m t he s i te w ere f ound .

F le ming h owever ( F le m ing 1 971)

s uggests t ha t t he e vidence o ft he c airn f ie lds, g roups o f sma l l s tone c airns o f ten a ssocia ted w i th s tone wa l ls o r l ow t erraces e nc los ing sma l l p lots o f l and a nd of ten o n S ., S .W . a nd S .E . f acing s lopes b et ter s ui ted f or c u l tiva tion , a rgues t ha t t he moors were c leared f or c erea l c ultiva t ion .

E vans c o m men ts

t ha t , a s t he c airnf ie lds l i e s o mewha t l ower t han B ur ton H owes , i t migh t b e s ugg ested t ha t t he c airnf ie lds a re a l a ter r esponse t o s oi l d egrada t ion o n t he h igh moors ; o n t he o ther h and , i ti sp ossib le t ha t s o me o ft he c a irnf ie lds a re c on te mporary w i th t he h igh moor land c learances a nd a re p ar t o ft he s a me mixed a gr icu l tura l s yste m — the c learances b e ing t he p asture , t he c airn f ie lds, t he c erea l p lo ts.

N ow t ha t i ti s k nown t ha t a rd t races c an r easonab ly b e e x-

p ected t o s urvive o n s i tes f rom t he N or thern I s les, i t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o c arry o u t e xcava t ion o n s o me o f t he c urvi linear p lo ts i n N or thern Bri ta in t o s ee i ft he p lo ts may b e d irec t ly a ssocia ted w i th a rd t races. New w ork o n f i e ld s ystems i n t he u p land z one o f B ri ta in ( su m mari sed i n B owen a nd F ow ler 1 978) i s g rea t ly e x tending t he a rea o f p rehistor ic u p land a gr icu lture k nown t o u s.

C au lf ie ld ' s work o n t he n or th c oast o f Mayo a nd

T ho mas 's work i n t he S ci l lies a re t wo p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing e xa mp les. To e st imate a reas o f c u lt iva tion u nder p lough a t o ne t ime b e long ing t o i ndividua l s et t le men ts, i s v ir tua l ly i mpossib le d ue t o t he n a ture o f t he e vidence . T races o f C e ltic f i e lds a re s l igh t e lsewhere t han o n s lopes where l ynche ts b ui l t u p , a nd modern p lough d a mage r enders u s l ess a nd l ess a b le t o s tudy a b lock a l toge ther . t a t ion s i te .

I ti s v ery d i f f icu l t t o t e l l wh ich f i e lds b e long t o wh ich h abi-

Bowen s uggests t ha t f arm b oundaries o f Ce l t ic f i e lds may of ten

h ave b een marked b y l i near d i tches, o r b y as traigh t r un o f l ynche ts wh ich s how n o a ccess p oin ts t o t he f i e lds o n t he o ther s ide , e .g . K ingston , C orfe C ast le ( Bowen 1 961, P l . I I ) . n ow , marked f arm b oundaries.

I ti s p robable t ha t n a tura l f eatures t hen , a s Dr . Bran igan c er ta in ly t hough t s o when h e

a t te mp ted t o c a lcu la te t he p roduct ivi ty o f t he R o man v i l la a t L a timer , B ucks. H e s uggested t ha t t he f arm ' sa rea , marked b y o bvious n a tura l b oundaries s urround ing t he v i l la , migh t b e 5 50-600 a cres.

B ersu a t te mp ted t o c a lcu la te

t he a rea w hich wou ld b e n eeded t o b e c u l t iva ted t o f eed t he e s t ima ted p opu la t ion o f t he s e t t le men t a t L i t t le Woodbury , a nd h e s uggested t ha t 5 -7 a cres wou ld b e n eeded ; t his c a lcu la t ion i s , h owever , b ased o n s o many a ssu mp tions t ha t i ti s n ecessari ly l im i ted i n u se ( Bersu 1 940 ) .

L ady F ox , i n h er s tud ies o f

f i e lds o n Dar t moor , i so la ted t wo ma in t ypes o f f i e ld e nclosure —one sma l l , e .g . R ippon Tor , where t he t hree e nclosures a d join ing t he s e t t le men t t o ta l led 1 .06 a cres, a nd o ne l arger t ype —e .g . K estor where a l arge n u mber o f f i e lds c oexisted , p robab ly i n as er ies o f sma l lho ldings ( Fox

1 954 ) . C a lder p lanned

s o me o ft he s i tes i n S he t land ( Ca lder 1 963 ) a nd s howed t ha t t he 2 nd mi l lenn iu m moor land s i tes a ppeared t o v ary c onsiderab ly i n s ize w i th f i e lds r ang ing f ro m 8 9

6 0-260 f ee t l ong , a nd f ro m o ne t o s ix i n n u mber a d jacen t t o o ne s e t t le men t . R ecen t work i n I re land ( Her i ty 1 971) h as s hown t ha t l arge n umbers o f f i e ld wa l ls r e ma in u nder t he p ea t , a nd e nc losures o r f i e lds 3 -4 a cres i n e x ten t , l aid u sua l ly o n s lop ing g round a re g radua l ly b e ing u ncovered .

Her i ty s uggests

t ha t t hese l arger f i e lds migh t b e f or p asture , whereas t he sma l l e nc losures, 2- a cre

o r l ess i n e x ten t , c ou ld b e t he t i l lage p ar ts o f t he s yste m .

L ong s tre tch-

e s o f wa l l migh t , h e s uggests, r epresen t t he d ivisions b etween f am i ly h o ldings . The c lassica l a grono mists h ave a lready b een q uoted i n t heir c o mmen ts o n p lough ing o f f a l low a nd t heir a dvocacy o ft he u se o f av arie ty o f imp lemen ts f or t he c u l tiva t ion o ft he s eed b ed ( see a bove , p . 1 07 ) .

As o f ten b efore c o m-

men ted , i ti s d angerous t o u se e x tensive ly t he ir c o m men ts o n p lough ing t echn iques a s t he a rd t ha t t hey were d escr ib ing was q ui te p ossib ly o f d i f feren t t ype t o t ha t u sed i n B ri ta in , a nd t he e nviron men t was c er ta in ly q u i te d i f feren t .

I t

i s p erhaps u sefu l t o n o te b rief ly o ne o r t wo more g enera l c o m men ts made a s t hese migh t h ave s o me b ear ing o n t echn iques u sed i n Bri ta in . C o lu me l la i n p ar t icu lar s tresses t he i mpor tance o f l ook ing af ter i mp lemen ts a nd o xen p roper ly s o t ha t t he b est r esu l ts may b e a ch ieved when p loughi ng , ( R .R . 1 . 56 ;

1 .6 . 7 ;

1 .8 . 8 ; 2 .3 . 1 -2 ) .

S evera l a grono mists c o m men t

o n t he s ui tabi li ty o f d i f feren t s oi ls a nd t erra in f or d i f feren t c rops a nd t echn iques. C o lu me l la s ta tes t ha t c are s hou ldbe t aken a lways t o r un t he f urrow c rosswise t o t he s lope t o l essen t he work l oad o n man a nd b east , b ut t ha t when t he s oi l was r e-worked " the f urrow s hou ld b e r un s o mewha t o blique ly n ow u ph il , n ow d ownh i l l , s o t ha t we may t ear u p t he g round i nb o th d irections a nd n o t w ork i t i n t he s ame t rack"

( R .R . 2 .4 . 1 0-11 ) .

H e a dvises t he f armer t o p lough a s

d eep ly a s p ossib le ( R .R . 2 .2 . 2 3 ) a s t hen "when p lough lands a re d eep ly f urr owed , t he f rui ts o f c rops a nd t rees swe l l w i th g rea ter i ncrease ."

H e s ta tes

t ha t t he p lough man "must wa lk u pon t he b roken g round , a nd i n e very o ther f urrow , must h o ld h is p lough s lan tw ise , r unn ing a l terna te f urrows w i th t he p lough u pr igh t a nd a t i t s f u l l d ep th , b u t i n s uch a way a s n o t t o l eave a nywhere a ny s o lid a nd u nbroken g round"

( R .R . 2 .2 . 2 5) .

The p loughman s hou ld n o t

s top i n t he midd le o f af urrow , b u t s hou ld a l low a r est a t t he e nd o f t he f urrow ( R .R . 2 .2 . 2 7 ) .

Ma t tocks s hould b e u sed b y t he p lough man t o d ig o u t a l l t he

b roken s tu mps a nd r oo ts i n t he f i e ld ( R .R . 2 .2 . 2 8 ) .

A f i e ld s hou ld r ea l ly r e-

q uire n o h arrow ing af ter b e ing p loughed , a nd t he f ar mer s hou ld e xa mine a f i e ld t o s ee i fi th as b een p roper ly p loughed .

I f ap o le i s p ushed i n to t he f urrows

c rossw ise a nd g oes i n to t he g round w i thou t s tr ik ing a ny thing , t he g round h as o bviously b een s t irred p roper ly .

I f ah arder s po t o bs tructs i t s e n trance , i t

s hows t ha t t here i s u nbroken f a l low ( R .R . 2 .3 . 3 ) .

C o lu me l la a lso a dvi sed

a ga inst p lough ing i n ad rough t o r i n t oo we t c ond i tions ( R .R . 2 .4 . 6 ) , a s s uch p lough ing w i l l b e b ound t o b e o f p oor q ua l i ty .

H e c o mmen ts t ha t ai ugeru m o f

l and ( . 3 /5 a cre ) i s p repared w i th f our d ays ' l abour .

I t i s b roken e asi ly i n

t wo d ays, r ep loughed i n o ne , p loughed a t hird t ime i n 3 /4 o f ad ay a nd i s f ormed i n to r idges a nd s own i n 1 /4 a d ay ( R .R . 2 .4 . 8 ) . Hansen s ta tes i nt he s u mmary o f r esu l ts o fh is e xperimen ts t ha t t he wa lk ing s peed o ft he o xen d uring p lough ing i s b e tween 3 .6 a nd 4 .6 km a n h our ( Hansen 1 969 , p . 8 9 ) . A long w i th t he awareness o f t he d i f feren t c ond i tions imposed o n t i l lage t echn iques b y d i f feren t s oi ls, t erra in a nd wea ther , t he e f fect t ha t c u l t iva tion c an h ave o n t he l and was a pprecia ted .

A l l t he a grono mists c o m men t o n t he n ecessi ty

9 0

o f manur ing ( Varro R .R . 1 .38 ; f a l low .

Co lu me l la R .R . 2 .5. 1 -2 ) a nd o f l eaving l and

Manuring was, a s b efore s ta ted , v ery p robably p ractised f ro m t he

t ime when p er manen t f i e ld s yste ms were l a id d own .

E vans c o mmen ts t ha t

a t l east f ro m t he I ron Age p er iod , d o mestic r efuse , main ly p o tsherds a nd a n i ma l b ones, i s f ound s ca t tered o n f i e lds, p resu mably a s ar esu l t o f s preadi ng manure ( Evans 1 975, p . 1 53) .

L ast ly t he a grono mists s ta te t ha t w i th

e f for t a nd e n terprise a sma l l f ar m o f 7i ugera ( i .e . C . 4a cres) c an r eward t he f armer w i th g rea ter r e turn t han a n e x tensive f arm b ad ly r un ( Co lu mel la R .R . 1 .3 . 1 0 ) .

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Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain Part ii

Sian E. Rees

B A R British Series 69(ii) 1 979

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE :NERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, E.Se., :\I.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, :\I.A.

B.A.R. 69 (ii), 1979: Agricultural Implements in Prehistoric and Roman Britain. Part ii © Sian E. Rees.

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389295 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389301 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860540649 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407323404 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540649 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

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En trench ing Too ls

CHAPTER 2 - CATALOGUE

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Curle 1931-2, p. 389 Fig. 3

Manning 1970, p. 28

Entrenching tool, 38. 6 cm long with square blade 20 x 15 cm corroded away in centre and along one side. Central rib ex­ tends down blade .2_. 5 cm. Oval hafting perforation 3. 7 x 2. 8 cm. Pick blade is 14. 2 cm long rectangular in section and blunt ended.

Entrenching tool, 40. 5 cm long, with spade shaped blade 16. 5 cm wide, with central rib; the blade is now corroded at the shoulder. The long straight pick blade is rectangular in section.

Entrenching tool, 35. 5 cm long with triangular blade 16 x 15. 5 cm with a central rib which extends all down the blade. Round hafting perforation 3. 6 cm wide dia. Pick blade, blunt ended, rectangular in section is 15. 5 cm long.

Entrenching tool, 21. 6 cm long with squat triangular blade 11 x 17. 5 cm, wider than long, and broken at tip on one side. Round hafting perforation 3. 2 dia. Short pick blade, rectan­ gular in section, blunt ended, is 6. 6 cm long.

Entrenching tool, .2_. 33 cm long, in four fragments with spade­ shaped blade 16 x 13 cm, very corroded at sides. A strong central rib extends all down the blade, Pick blade rectangular in section, blunt ended, is 12. 5 cm.

Guildhall 19283

Hunterian F 1954 24

NMAS FRA 294

NMAS FRA 295

Newcastle

London: Bucklersbury House (Fig. 77)

Loudon Hill Strathclyde

Newstead Borders (Fig. 76)

Newstead Borders (Fig. 78b)

Risingham Northumb.

tool, 30. 7 cm long with triangular shaped blade corroded at sides. A central rib extends all way Round hafting perforation 3. 7 cm dia. Pick blade, rectangular in section, is 11.4 cm long.

Entrenching 15 x 13 cm, down blade. blunt ended,

Corbridge

Published ReL

Corbridge Northumb. (Fig. 78a)

Description

Museum

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Adze or hoe, 15. 7 cm long with flaring blade 12 x 5 cm, very corroded. Hafting perforation has corroded over.

Adze or hoe 13.4 cm long with thin blade 9 cm long, very corroded. Round hafting perforation 2.5 cm dia. Hammer­ like extension on back of head. Remains of wooden shaft in hafting perforation.

Adze or hoe, 17.2 cm long with trapezoidal shaped blade 11.9 cm long, 4.3 cm wide. Oval hafting perforation 3.1 x 2. 7 cm. Hammer-like extension on back of head.

Adze or hoe, 14.5 cm long with flared blade 11 x 5 cm. Round hafting perforation 2. 5 x 2.7 cm. Hammer-like extension l.2 cm long on back ofhead.

Adze or hoe, 14 cm long with flared blade 10 x 3. 7 cm. Round hafting perforation 3 cm dia.

Glastonbury l.93

Glastonbury

Gloucester A 3647

Taunton A 1116

Taunton A 1515

Glastonbury Som.

Glastonbury Som. (Fig. 81a)

Gloucester Glos.

Ham Hill Som.

HamHill Som.

Bulleid & Grey 1917 II, p. 373

Ward 1902 p. 86 Fig. 17

Hoe, 21.3 cm long with blade trapezoidal in shape 5.7 cm wide at the end. Set at an angle of 2_. 450 to the bladc is a socket 2.3 cm dia., 7 cm long.-

Gelligaer Mid Glam.

Grimes 1949, p. 25-31

Adze or hoe 16 cm long with flaring blade 1 O x 3.6 cm, thin neck and wide oval hafting perforation 5 x 3.2 cm. Hammer­ like extension 2 cm long on back of head.

Northampton ]940

Draughton Nor_thants

Pub lished Ref.

Hoe, 29.5 cm long with long flaring blade 23 x 6 cm. Round hafting perforation 6 cm dia. From a multi-period site; not certainly Romano-British.

Description

Rochester

Museum

Darenth Kent

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Provenance

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Fell 1936 p. 57-100

Fell 1936 p. 57-100

Hoe or adze, 12.9 cm long with flaring blade 7.3 x 3 cm, very corroded at blade end. Oval hafting perforation 4 x l.4 cm. Hammer-like extension at back of head. Hoe or adze, 19 cm long with flaring blade 12.1 x 5 cm. Oval hafting perforation 4. 3 x 2.5 cm. Hammer-like extension on back of head. Adze or hoe, 17.5 cm long w th flaring blade 11.2 x 2.5 cm. Oval hafting perforation 1 x 2.5 cm. Hammer-like extension on back of head. Fragment of adze or hoe 12.2 cm long with flaring blade 10.5 x 4.9 cm. Broken across hafting perforation.

Hoe, 24.7 cm long with flaring blade 19.6 cm long, 5.5 cm wide, Guildhall Mus. Cat. of metal up to l. 3 cm thick. Oval hafting perforation 4.3 x 1908, p. 36 3.8 cm. Not certainly Romano-British. Adze or hoe, 15.8 cm long with triangular-shaped blade 11 x 5.6 cm. Oval hafting perforation 4.5 x 3.2 cm. Hoe, 25.5 cm long with wide convex sided blade 24 x 16. 5 cm, corroded at blade end. Oval hafting perforation 4.5 x 3. 3 cm.

Northampton D 322 1956-7

Northampton D 319 1956-7

Northampton 137 1957-8

Northampton

Guildhall 214

Hunterian F 1952 72

Lydney

Hunsbury Northants

Hunsbury Northants

Hunsbury Northants

Hunsbury Northants

London Wall

Loudon Hill Strathclyde (Fig. 81b)

Lydney Glos.

Bathurst 1879, p. 65, Pl. xxix:i

Fell 1936 p. 57-100

Fell 1936 p. 57-100

Pub lished Ref.

Hoe or adze, 17.7 cm long with flaring blade 12.5 x 4.6 cm. Oval hafting perforation 3.1 x 2.8 cm. Hammer-like exten­ sion on back of read.

Description

Northampton D 320 1956-7

Museum

Hunsbury Northants

Provenance

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C irences ter

I RON SPUDS

Descr ip t ion

o f u nknown

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Payne 1 897 p . 6 0

Mus . 1 907 p .

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c o

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A ' 4 37

CHAPTER 3 HARVEST ING TOOLS

1 .

S ick les* , H ooks a nd S cythes

The r eaping h ook , o r a ngu lar s ick le , i s o ne o f t he o ldes t t oo ls k nown t o man ; a ngu lar s ick les o f c lay o ccur w i th e ar ly U ba id p o t tery a t E r idu ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 34 , F ig . 4 7 ) , a nd c o mpos i te a ng led f l in t s ick les d a te f ro m t he Twe l f th D ynas ty i n Egyp t ( Pe tr ie 1 917 , P l . LV :7-9 ) .

Wood s ee ms

t o h ave b een t he n or ma l me thod o f h a f t ing f l in t s ick les i n t he e ar ly N ear E as t , t hough i t s ee ms t ha t b one a nd h orn were a lso o ccas iona l ly u sed .

I n B r i ta in ,

f l in t , a nd l a ter , b ronze a nd i ron were u sed i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iods i n t he manufacture o f h arves t ing t oo ls , a nd t here i s n o e v idence f or a ny h a f t ing ma ter ia l o ther t han wood .

There i s a lso n o d e f in i te e v idence f or t he e x is tence

o f c o mpos i te s ick les a s y e t , b u t i ti s h igh ly l i ke ly t ha t f u ture r esearch o n wear p a t terns o n f l in t w i l l s how t hese t o h ave e x is ted . S teensberg , i n h is i mpor tan t work " Ancien t H arves t ing I mp le men ts" , r e fers t o e ar ly h arves t ing t oo ls i n t hree d i f feren t ways :

t he s tra igh t r eap ing

k n i fe , t he a ngu lar s ick le o n wh ich t he a ng le b e tween b lade a nd h and le i s a cu te , a nd t he b a lanced s ick le o n wh ich t he b lade i s b en t r earward f ro m t he h and le t o p rov ide a more b a lanced a nd c onven ien t imp le men t ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 26 , 1 33 a nd 2 09 ) .

These a re , i ndeed t he d is t inc t c a tegor ies i n to wh ich a l l r eap ing

imp le men ts mus t f a l l t hough Ch i lde , f or p urposes o f p os tu la t ing a t heoret ica l d eve lop men t o f s ick le t ypes , s ubd iv ides S teensberg 's " angu lar s ick le" i n to t wo , " angu lar" a nd " tangen t ia l" d ependen t u pon t he d egree o f a cu teness o f t he a ng le b e tween b lade a nd h and le ( Ch i lde 1 951 , p . 4 0 ;

a nd my F ig . 1 36) .

R eaping k n ives , c ons is t ing o f as tra igh t wooden t oo l h and led a t o ne e nd a nd g rooved a t t he o ther f or t he r ecep t ion o f s erra ted b lades o f f l in t , were f ound f ro m v ery e ar ly a gr icu l tura l s i tes i n t he N ear E as t , s uch a s a t F ayyu m , Egyp t ( S teensberg 1 943 , F ig . 4 5 ) , a nd i n e ar ly N eo l i th ic s i tes i n S ou thern E urope , s uch a s a t Karanovo , B u lgar ia a nd V ine tz , S w i tzer land .

Though t here a re

p ub l ished r e ferences t o sma l l , i rregu lar ly-shaped " s ick le f l in ts" f ro m p reh is tor ic B r i t ish s i tes ( see b e low , p . 4 40 ) , t he e v idence f or t he ir b e ing u sed a s s ick les i s n ever c o mp lete ly p roven , a nd t here i s a s y e t n o d e f in i te p roo f

I t was t e mp t ing a t t he c o m mence men t o f t h is work t o t er m t he n on-ba lanced o r a ngu lar t oo ls " reap ing h ooks" a s o pposed t o " s ick les" , at er m wh ich i s mos t c orrec t ly a pp l ied o n ly t o t he b a lanced s ick le .

H owever , t he t er m

" s ick le" h as f or s o l ong b een u sed t o d escr ibe b o th f l in t a nd b ronze h arv es t ing t oo ls t ha t t here s ee med l i t t le p o in t i n c on fus ing t he s i tua t ion b y i ns is t ing u pon t he l ess c o m mon ly u sed t er m .

Ih ave , h owever , u sed t he

t er m " reap ing h ook" f or i ron t oo ls t o d is t ingu ish t he n on-ba lanced f ro m t he b a lanced s ick le . 4 38

t ha t t he c o mpos i te r eap ing k n i fe was u sed i n Br i ta in .

I ndeed , i t s ee ms q u i te

u nco mmon a t oo l i n N or thern E uropean p reh is tor ic s i tes g enera l ly ( S teensberg 1 943 ,

P .

1 29-31 ).

The o ne-p iece f l in t b lades c rude ly c rescen t ic i n s hape

wh ich d o s urv ive f ro m N eo l i th ic s i tes i n Br i ta in were p robably h and h e ld a nd t hus may b e c lassed a s r eap ing k n ives .

The l arge ma jor i ty o f r eap ing

imp le men ts f ound o n p reh is tor ic a nd , i ndeed , R o man s i tes i n B r i ta in mus t b e c lassed , h owever , a s a ngu lar s ick les .

A l l t he b ronze a nd i ron r eap ing

h ooks t o b e d escr ibed b e low , e xcep t t he i ron r eaping h ooks T ypes I b a nd I d , a re a ngu lar s ick les a ccord ing t o S teensberg 's c lass i f ica t ion . The a ngu lar s ick le s ee ms t o a ppear f irs t i n N eo l i th ic I raq a nd Egyp t i n c lay a nd f l in t .

C o mpos i te a ngu lar s ick les w i th f l in t t ee th h a f ted i n a wooden

h and le h ave b een f ound i n Med i terranean E urope , whereas o ne-p iece c rescen t ic f l in t b lades w i th c oncave c u t t ing e dges , c lear ly h a f ted a round t he c onvex b lun ted b ack i n t he manner o f a n a ngu lar s ick le , a re c o m mon i n N or th Wes t Europe , p ar t icu lar ly S cand inav ia , t hough t h is p ure c rescen t ic f or m d oes n o t s ee m t o o ccur i n B r i ta in .

T he f i ve t ypes o f b ronze s ick les o f t he E uropean

B ronze Age a re c lear ly a l l a ngu lar s ick les , a nd c er ta in t ypes s ee m t o h ave l ed t o t he d eve lop men t o f t he i ron a ngu lar s ick le.

T hese c urv ing i ron t oo ls ,

u sua l ly w i th a n o u ts ide t ang o r , l ess o f ten , as p ike t ang o r s ocke t , a re c o mmon ly f ound o n s i tes o f t he E uropean I ron Age a nd a l l t he d i f feren t t ypes o f i ron a ngu lar s ick les f ound i n Br i ta in may b e p ara l le led b y E uropean e xa mp les . I n h is p aper " The B a lanced S ick le" , C h i lde ( Ch i lde 1 951 ) a rgues t he e ar ly d eve lop men t i n t he a nc ien t N ear E as t o f t he b a lanced s ick le ( Fig . 1 37) .

H e

c o m men ts t ha t t h is b end ing b ack o f t he b lade i s f ound o n f our wooden s ick les f ound w i th t heir f l in t t ee th i n t he t o mb o f H e maka o f t he F irs t D ynas ty i n Egyp t , a nd t ha t t he b a lanced s ick le i s p or trayed i n s evera l t o mb p a in t ings o f t he O ld K ingdo m ( Ch i lde 1 951 , p . 4 1 a nd P l . l b ) .

The f or m was n ever t rans-

l a ted i n to me ta l i n Eg yp t a nd a pparen t ly wen t o u t o f u se a f ter t he O ld K ingdo m . H owever , Ch i lde s ugges ts t ha t t he f irs t meta l b a lanced s ick les a re t hose t ha t h e c a l ls t he " looped s ick les" o f t he A s ia t ic 2 nd m i l lenn ium .

T he i n terpre ta t ion

o f t hese A s ia t ic t ools ( F ig . 1 37b ) a s b a lanced i s q u i te d ependen t u pon h ow o ne imag ines t ha t t hey were h a f ted .

A s C h i lde , s ta tes , i ft hese A s ia t ic t oo ls were

r ea l ly b a lanced , a nd i fb a lanced s ick les were r ea l ly s o much e as ier t o u se , i t s ee ms s trange t ha t t he ir u se d id n o t d eve lop a t t h is e ar ly s tage more w ide ly . The b a lanced f or m o f t he s ick les was c er ta in ly n ever t rans la ted i n to b ronze a nd t he f irs t t race o f t he b a lanced s ick le i n Europe was i n t he La T ene p er iod a t Ardea l i n Transy lvan ia ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 2 10 ) .

Ba lanced s ick les o ccur

i n t he La T ene f ind ( Vouga 1 923 , P l . XXV , a nd my F ig . 1 37c ) a nd f ro m a L a T ene c on tex t a t Fur fooze i n B e lg iu m ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 2 10 ) . They a ppe a r f irs t i n B r i ta m ni n t he l a ter p ar t o f t he E ar ly I ron Age , f or e xa mp le a t L lyn C err ig B ach a nd G las tonbury ( see b e low , p . 4 58 ) .

The b a lanced s ick le b e-

c o mes i ncreas ing ly c o m mon b o th i n Europe a nd B r i ta in i n t he R o man p er iod . ( a ) F l in t H arves t ing T oo ls The e ar l ies t h arves t ing t oo ls t o h ave b een f ound i n Br i ta in a re o f f l in t a nd a l arge n u mber h ave b een f ound d a t ing p robab ly f ro m t he N eo l i th ic a nd Bronze Age . ( Fig . 1 38 ) .

They a re o f t wo d is t inc t t ypes - c rescen t ic a nd n on-crescen t ic The o ne-piece c rescen t ic f l in t s ick les a re d iscussed b y G raha m

C lark i n h is p aper

" The c urved f l in t s ick le b lades o f B r i ta in" ( C lark 1 932-4 ) . 4 39

H e d escr ibes f i f ty t wo s peci mens a nd c onc ludes t ha t t hey were a t ype o f s ick le i n troduced i n to B r i ta in w i th t he P e terborough ware o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod , a nd t ha t t here i s l i t t le p os i t ive e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t t hey c on t inued i n u se i n to t he Bronze Age .

I t s hou ld b e s tressed h owever t ha t o n ly n ine o f t he

b lades , f ro m s ix s i tes , were f ound w i th a ny a rchaeo log ica l a ssoc ia t ion a t a l l , a nd o n ly t wo s i tes - A bingdon a nd G rovehurs t -p roduced s ick les w i th a ny d a t ing e v idence .

The d iscovery o f o ne c rescen t ic s ick le a t ab arrow a t

Hang ing G r i ms tone , E as t R id ing b y Mor t i mer ( Mor t i mer 1 905 , p . 1 07 , P l . XXX I I , F ig . 2 54 ) , t hough p os i t ive a ssocia t ion w i th t he a c tua l b arrow was miss ing , migh t s ugges t t ha t t he s ick le t ype p ers is ted i n to t he Ear ly B ronze Age . F our n on-crescen t ic s ick le f l in ts f ro m S ussex were d escr ibed b y C urwen ( Curwen 1 936) , a nd w ere i den t i f ied a s s ick le b lades b y t he l us tre o nb o th f aces a d jacen t t o o ne o r more e dges r a ther t han a ny i nd ica t ion o f t he ir u se f ro m t he ir s hape .

T he f l in ts , f ro m S e l mes ton , S a lv ing ton , L anc ing a nd

P lu mp ton P la in , were u da ted , t he f irs t t hree b e ing c asua l f inds a nd t he f our th , t hough f ound o n t he L a te B ronze Age s e t t le men t o n P lu mp ton P la in , was " no t n ecessar i ly o f L a te B ronze Age d a te" ( Curwen 1 936 , p . 8 9 ) .

C urwen f o l lowed

u p t h is work i n h is p aper " The E ar ly D eve lop men t o f Agr icu l ture i n Br i ta in" ( Curwen 1 938 , p . 3 2-5 ) .

H e c lassi f ied t he B r i t ish f l in t s ick les i n to t wo

g roups ,t he l arge s ing le-p iece s ick les d escr ibed b y C lark , wh ich h e s ubd iv ided i n to t hree ( t he c rescen t ic , sma l ler s ub-crescen t ic a nd l ea fshaped ) , a nd t he sma l l s ick le f l in ts s uch a s t hose h e h ad d escr ibed i n h is e ar l ier p aper . H e s ugges ts t ha t t hese b lades , g rouped t oge ther b y n o s im i lar i ty o f f or m b u t p urely b y t he p resence o f g loss o n t he ir s ur faces , were s ing le-p iece b lades f or o ne-b lade , n o t c o mpos i te s ick les , a nd l i s ts t h ir teen e xa mp les f ro m S ussex , S urrey , Wi l tsh ire a nd Ox ford r ecogn ised b y 1 938 . S ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f t hese works , wh ich t ox lme e x ten t f o l lowed a nd amp li f ied E vans ' e ar l ier work i n " Anc ien t S tone I mp le men ts o f G rea t B r i ta in" ( Evans 1 872 , p . 3 58 ) , f ur ther s pec i mens o f b o th t ypes o f f l in t s ick les h ave b een f ound . C rescen t ic f l in t s ick les a re r epor ted a s b e ing f ound , f or e xa mp le , a t E as t Knoyle , Wi l tsh ire ( Sma l lco mbe 1 937 , p . 1 58 ) F e lixs towe ( Su f fo lk I ns t . Arch . P rocs . 1 967 , 3 1. p . 7 6 , F ig . 1 0 ) a nd H ook N or ton ( Woods tock Museum ) , a nd r epor ts o f f inds o f n on-crescen t ic s ick le f l in ts a re c o m mon ( see , f or e xamp le , K ei l ler 1 965 , p p . 9 1-2 f ro m Windm i l l H i l l ; f ro m A vebury ; Barrow ;

K e i l ler 1 965 , p . 2 42

F owler a nd E vans 1 967 , p p . 2 89-90 f ro m S ou th S tree t L ong

D yer 1 971, p . 1 4 a nd F ig . 5 :31 f ro m S andy L odge ;

L ow ther 1 945

p . 7 1 , F ig . 1 1:1 f ro m C arsha l ton , R ad ley a nd C ooper f ro m E l ton , D erbysh ire ( 1968 p . 4 1 , f ig . 3 :17 a nd 1 8 ) a nd Rad ley a nd P lan t ( 1967 p . 4 1 ) f ro m , Tadd ingt on , D erbysh ire ).

H owever , t here h as b een t o my k now ledge n o f ur ther work

o n s peci f ica l ly B r i tish f l in t s ick le t ypes . S teensberg ( S teensberg 1 943 , F ig . 1 9 ) c lass i f ies Dan ish f l in t s ick les i n to t hree ma in t ypes : s tra igh t-s ided f l in t f lake k n ives , c rescen t ic f l in t b lades p robably h a f ted r ound t he b ack , a nd o ne-p iece f l in t s ick les w i th o ne t h ick b u t t e nd a nd o ne p o in ted e nd wh ich were p robably h and h e ld ( F ig . 1 39 ). H e d oes n o t a gree w i th C urwen 's c lass i f ica t ion ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 30 ) , c o m men t ing t ha t C urwen 's s econd t ype - t he sma l l s ick le f l in ts , wh ich o f ten h ave a d is t inc t ly c onvex e dge a nd a re a l mos t o va l i n s hape - a re u n l ike ly t o

4 40

h ave b een u sed a s s ick les s o i nconven ien t i s t he ir s hape f or s uch a f unc t ion , a nd s ta tes t ha t g loss c an b e c aused b y s crap ing o r smoo th ing ma ter ia ls o ther t han s i l ica .

I t s ee ms t ha t s o me o f C urwen 's sma l l s ick le f l in ts a re p robab ly

c lass i f iable a s S teensberg 's T ype I , a nd t ha t t he B r i t ish c rescen t ic f l in ts a re p robably a l l o f h is T ype I I , w i th t he t h ick h and le k nob a t t he b ack .

The

l a t ter a re , t here fore , p robably t o b e d escr ibed a s r eap ing k n ives , t he f or mer a s a ngu lar s ick les . If ee l s trong ly t ha t t he o n ly p oss ib le a ccura te me thod f or f ur ther r esearch i n to t hese , p ar t icu lar ly t he n on-crescen t ic a nd t ypo log ica l ly l ess u n i for m f l in ts , i s b y micro-wear a na lys is o f t he s ur face g loss .

G loss c an a ppear o n

f l in t a f ter b eing u sed t o c u t av ar iety o f ma ter ia ls ( W i t tho f t 1 967) a nd microwear a na lys is i s t he o n ly me thod wh ich c an a ccura te ly d e ter m ine whe ther o r n o t t he f l in t h as b een u sed t o c u t c orn . s t i l l i n i t s i n fancy ;

T h is me thod i s av ery c o mp lex o ne ,

av as t amoun t o f work h as t o d one o n s ick le f l in ts b efore

we c an h ave a ny i dea o f t he r ange o f n on- me ta l l ic h arves t ing t oo ls a va i lab le t o p reh is tor ic man .

B o th C urwen ( Curwen 1 938 , p . 3 6) a nd F ox ( Fox 1 941 , p .

1 56) s ugges t t ha t f l in t s ick les c on t inued t o b e t he ma in t ype o f r eap ing imp lemen t u n t i l t he I ron Age a s t he d is tr ibu t ion o f b ronze s ick les i s s o c oncen tra ted i n af ew a reas o f B r i ta in . S teensberg c arr ied o u t as er ies o f e xper i men ts i n 1 938 a nd 1 939 i n Denmark ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 0-26) t o t es t d i f feren t t ypes o f h a f t ing a nd t he e f f iciency o f d i f feren t t ypes o f h arves t ing i mp le men ts .

The f l in t t oo ls wh ich

h e u sed i n h is e xper i men ts were c rescen t ic f l in t s ick les ( h is T ype 2 ) , o ne o f wh ich h ad a s tra igh t , t oo thed c u t t ing e dge ; s ick les ( Type 1 ) ; h e ld .

s tra igh t-s ided o ne-p iece f l in t

a nd c urved o ne-p iece f l in t s ick les ( Type 3 ) wh ich were h and

H e h af ted t he c rescen t ic f l in t s ick les i n c urv ing wooden h and les , t he

t op c urv ing p ar t o f wh ich c overed t he b ack e dge o f t he f l in t c o mp le te ly b y b edd ing i ti n ag roove i n t he wood .

The c urved T ype 3 s ick le was u sed u nha f ted ;

t he l ong , s tra igh t-s ided o ne-p iece s ick le f l in ts ( Type 1 ) were h a f ted i n modern c op ies o f t he o r ig ina l wooden h and le wh ich h a f ted t he s im i lar s ick le f l in t f ound a t S te in ld ( B l inkenberg 1 898 a nd S teensberg 1 943 p . 7 3-4 ) .

I n t he s er ies o f

e xper i men ts t he c rescen t ic s ick les p er for med v ery we l l , t hough t he o ne u sed a pparen t ly h ad a n u nsua l ly f resh a nd we l l f ormed e dge .

T he t oo thed c rescen t ic

imp le men t was f ound t o b e i ne f f ic ien t , a s t he s traws s l ipped i n b e tween t he c oarse t ee th mak ing t he f r ic t ion v ery u neven .

The s tra igh t-s ided S ten i ldtype

s ick les were a lso f ound t o b e u nsu i tab le f or c u t t ing c orn , b u t were e xce l len t f or c u t t ing t h is t les , wh ich a dded f ur ther c red ib i l i ty t o S teensberg 's e ar l ier s ugges t ions t ha t t he S ten i ld " s ick le" was a weed ing h ook ( S teensberg 1 939 , p . 2 31 ) .

I n g enera l , t he c rescen t ic a nd o ne-p iece s ick les were a s f as t t o u se

a s b ronze s ick les b u t t ended t o u proo t s l igh t ly more g ra in .

S teensberg c o m-

men ts t ha t h ad a n t ique g ra in , wh ich p robably h ad f irmer s ta lks , b een u sed , t he t oo ls migh t w e l l h ave g iven b e t ter r esu l ts , b u t t he r e la t ive r esu l ts wou ld p robab ly h ave r e ma ined t he s a me ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 24 ) ( Fig . 1 40 ).

( b )

S tone R eap ing H ooks

T he La te B ronze Age v i l lage a t J ar lsho f i n S het land ( Cur le 1 931-2 , p . 1 27;

1 932-3 , p . 1 18 ) h as p roduced s evera l c urved b lades o f s la te wh ich

were i den t i f ied b y t he e xcava tor a s g ra in s ick les .

One o f t hese t oo ls , n ow

i n t he N .M .A .S ., i s s im i lar i n s hape t o t he b ronze s ick les wh ich were more 4 41

o r l ess c on te mporary , b u t wh ich h ave o n ly b een f ound s o f ar f ur ther s ou th ( Map 1 1 ) .

The s la te b lade , s hown o n F ig . 1 41a , i s 1 5 cm l ong a nd 4 cm

w ide , a nd h as t wo n o tches c u t c . 3 .5 cm f ro m t he b lun t e nd p resu mably f or a t tach men t t o ah and le .

C er ta in ly n o wear marks c on t inue f ur ther b ack t o-

wards t he b ack o f t he b lade t han t hese n o tches .

T he o ther e nd o f t he b lade

i s p o in ted , a nd t he i ns ide o f t he s l igh t ly c urv ing b lade i s f ash ioned t o a n e dge . A long t he e dge may b e s een d iagona l wear marks ;

t he t oo l was c lear ly h e ld

i n o ne h and , a nd was u sed t o c u t w i th a s troke a t a n a ng le t oward t he h o lder i n t he way t ha t as ick le i s u sed .

These s la te b lades a re t o my k now ledge

u n ique . H eavy s tone c leavers , s im i lar i n s hape t o t he h and led t oo l f ro m J ar lsho f , b u t much h eav ier a nd w i th n o s harp e dge o n t he b lade , were f ound a t S u mburgh , S he t land , b u t n o t oo ls wh ich c ou ld c once ivab ly b e i den ti f ied a s s ick les were f ound . I ts ee ms c lear , t here fore , t ha t f l in t a nd o ccas iona l ly s tone were u sed f or s ick le b lades i n a t l eas t t he l a ter p er iod o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd p robably t hroughou t t he Bronze Age i n B r i ta in . T he d is tr ibu t ion o f f l in t s ick les i n B r i ta in c er ta in ly s ee ms t o h ave a h eavy S ou th E as tern emphas is .

H ow r eap ing

was c arr ied o u t i n n onf l in t a reas , o r i n f l in t a reas o ther t han t hose i n t he S ou th Eas t , r e ma ins u nknown , a l though o f c ourse t h is emphas is o f d is tr ibu t ion h as n o d oub t b een a ccen tua ted b y a rchaeo log ica l a cc iden t .

S teensberg a rgues

( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 22-6) t ha t u proo t ing was u n l ike ly t o h ave b een p rac t ised w ide ly i n p reh is tor ic t imes a s t he f ar more e f f ic ien t r eap ing k ni fe a nd a ngu lar s ick le a re a s o ld a s a gr icu l ture i t sel f .

H owever , where n o r aw ma ter ia ls

f or t he manu fac ture o f r eap ing t oo ls e x is ted , u proo t ing , p luck ing o r s tr ipp ing t he e ars m igh t h ave b een t he me thod emp loyed . ( c )

B ronze S ick les

B ronze s ick les , w i th t heir w ide d is tr ibu t ion i n t he European , Med i terranean a nd N ear Eas tern B ronze Ages , h ave b een t he s ub jec t o f e ar ly t ypo log ica l c lassi f ica t ions . C han tre i n 1 875 f irs t d iv ided b ronze s ick les i n to f ive t ypes , b u t ton , t a loned , t ongued , r ive ted , a nd t hose w i th t ransversa l ly a t tached t angs ( Chan tre 1 875 , p . 6 6) .

S ch m id t r ev ised t h is f irs t a t te mp t a t c lass i f ica t ion ,

a nd h is f our t ypes h ave b een t he b as is o f c lass i f ica t ion e ver s ince ( Sch m id t 1 904 , p . 4 16 ) . v er t ica l ly , ( l b ) ; t ang ;

H is f irs t t ype h as a l ong t ang s e t e i ther o bl ique ly , ( I a ) , o r s econd i s t he k nobbed s ick le ;

t he f our th t ype i s s ocke ted ( F ig . 1 42 ) .

t he t h ird t ype h as a h ookl ike S ch m id t s ta ted t ha t t he k nobbed

s ick le was t he Wes t E uropean t ype , t he h ook t anged s ick le t he S ou th E as t E uropean t ype , a nd t he s ocke ted t ype was f ound p r i mar i ly i n B r i ta in b u t a lso i n I ta ly a nd S w i tzer land .

S teensberg l a ter a dded a f i f th t ype t o S ch m id t 's

s er ies - t he c rescen t ic s erra ted b ronze s ick le u n ique t o S cand inav ia ' ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 6 9 ) . The e ar l ies t b ronze s ick les a re f ound o n s i tes o f t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium i n Mesopo tam ia ;

t hey a re wha t S teensberg c a l ls t he r ive t-ha f ted b ronze s ick le ,

f ro m wh ich t he S ou th E uropean T ype I c a nd b s ick les s ee m t o h ave e vo lved . The s ick le w i th t he b en t o ver t ang a ppears i n Mesopo ta m ia s o mewha t l a ter , a nd i ti s t h is s ick le f or m wh ich S teensberg s ugges ts l ed t o t he h ook s ick le , t he k nob s ick le , a nd , l ess c onv incing ly , p oss ibly t he s ocke ted s ick le a lso . I t s ee ms l ike ly , h owever , t ha t t h is s ick le t ype h ad a s epara te e vo lu t ion .

4 42

I n B r i ta in , o n ly b ronze s ick les o f S ch m id t 's T ype l b , Ia nd I V a re f ound , a nd t hese were t he s ub jec t o f t wo impor tan t p apers b y F ox ( Fox 1 939b a nd 1 941 ) wh ich d escr ibed a l l t he t hen k nown b ronze s ick les o f G rea t B r i ta in a nd I re land , a nd a dvanced a p roposed d eve lop men t a lready h in ted a t i n h is p ub l ica t ion o f t he L lyn Fawr c au ldron h oard ( Fox a nd H yde 1 939a ).

F ox 's t heore t ica l d eve l-

o p men t o f t he s ick le t ypes i n B r i ta in h as n o t b een s uperseded , a l though t he n u mber o f k nown s pec i mens h as o bv ious ly i ncreased . i .

C lass i f ica t ion a nd C hrono logy o f B ronze S ick les :

F ox f or t he p urposes

o f h is p apers d iv ided b ronze s ick les f ound i n B r i ta in i n to t wo t ypes - s ocketed a nd n on-socke ted .

The s ocke ted t ype i s p r i mar i ly a B r i t ish t ype , a nd F ox

s ugges ts t ha t i t was i nven ted a nd manu fac tured i n B r i ta in a nd t ha t t hose f ound a broad , ma in ly i n N or thern F rance , were e xpor ts .

There a re n ow k nown t o

b e s o me t h ir ty s ix e xa mp les f ound i n Eng land , S co t land a nd Wa les , t wo o f wh ich a re u nprovenanced , a nd a l l b u t n ine o f wh ich were men t ioned b y F ox .

U s ing

t he f ew a ssocia ted t oo ls w i th wh ich b ronze s ick les h ave b een f ound - i n

t he

h oards f ro m D ownha m F en , R osebury T opp ing , L lyn Fawr , E ly , A lderbury , L ongy ,

( and n ow E a ton , N orw ich a nd Wa l l ing ford , Oxon ) -F ox p roposed t he

f ol low ing c hrono log ica l d eve lop men t f or b ron ze s ocke ted s ick les , wh ich h e f irs t ly d iv ided i n to t wo t ypes - 1 . a nd 2 .

t hose w i th s ocke ts l a tera l t o t he b lade ,

t hose w i th s ocke ts v er t ica l t o t he b lade ( F ig . 1 43 ) .

A ccord ing t o F ox 's h ypo the t ica l d eve lop men t , G roup 1 , o r l a tera l ly s ocke ted , s ick l es d eve lop f ro m t hose w i th a c yl indr ica l s ocke t o pen a t b o th e nds , s uch a s t he D ownha m F en s ick le d a ted b y t he h oard i n wh ich i t was f ound t o t he P enard p hase ( Burgess 1 968 , p . 5a nd 1 969 , p . 3 ) o f t he e nd o f t he midd le Bronze Age where t he s ocke ted s ick le i s aq u i te n ew e le men t . Th is s ick le i s t he e ar lies t d a tab le s ocke ted s ick le y e t f ound i n B r i ta in a nd t he mat t p r im i t ive i n F ox 's t ypo log ica l c lass i f ica t ion ( Fig . 1 45a ) . The n ex t d eve lop men t i s f or t he s ocke t t o b eco me c on ica l , w i th t he u pper h o le b eco m ing sma l ler a nd t he b lade r is ing t owards t he t op o f t he s ocket wh ich b eco mes more o va l i n s ec t ion .

T he s ocke t 's u pper h o le t hen b eco mes c overed

o ver - e .g . t he s ick le f ro m W in terbourne Monk ton ( F ig . 1 46d ) -a nd l a ter t he b lade e dge c on t inues o ver t he t op o f t he s ocke t e .g . E ly ( F ig . 1 49c ) .

The

l a tes t d eve lop men t i s f or t he mou ld ing o r d ecora t ion o n t he b lade a lso t o c on t inue o ver t he s ocke t t op - e .g . o n t he s ick le f ro m N or fo lk ( and F ig . 1 50d ) . The f ew t oo ls wh ich were f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th o ther me ta lwork d o t end t o s uppor t F ox 's h ypo the t ica l d eve lop men t .

The D ownha m F en t oo l was

a ssoc ia ted w i th a r ap ier a nd p a ls tave wh ich d a te i tt o w i th in t he P enard p hase o f t he M idd le B ronze Age .

H owever t he s tou t r ing s ocke ted s ick les f ro m t he

La te B ronze Age f ounders h oard f ro m I s leha m , C a mbs s ugges t t ha t t h is " ear ly" t ype d id i n f act c on t inue s o me way i n to t he L a te B ronze Age . Two a t l eas t o f t he f our f ragmen tary s ick les i n t h is h oard h ave s trong r ibs o n t he t op a nd t he b o t to m o f t he s ocke ts a nd a re s o mewha t s tou ter i n a ppearance t han o ther r ing s ocke ted s ick les .

I n t he h oard were a lso t we lve p a ls taves a nd f ive

s ocke ted a xes . The t oo l f ro m E ly h as ab lade e dge wh ich c on t inues o ver t he t op o f t he s ocke t wh ich , h owever , i s s t i l l s epara ted f ro m t he b lade : t he E ly h oard c on ta ined s ocke ted a xes , c h ise ls , r azors e tc .

The L lyn Fawr t oo ls ,

wh ich mus t b e l a te b ecause o f t he i ron t oo ls a lso c on ta ined i n t he h oard , h ave s ocke ts wh ich a re i n tegra ted w i th t he b lade , t he b lade f ea tures c on t inu ing o ver t he s ocke t t ops . 4 43

Al arge n u mber o f s ocke ted b ronze s ick les a c tua l ly c o me f ro m I re land . I t s hou ld b e made c lear a t t h is p o in t t ha t Ih ave n o t s tud ied a ny o f t he I r ish ma ter ia l myse l f , a nd am d ependen t u pon F ox f or my i n for ma t ion .

I t may b e

t ha t r ecen t f inds o f b ronze s ick les f ro m I re land w i l l i nva l ida te t he g enera l p o in ts h ere made a bou t t he I r ish t oo ls .

F ox t akes t he v iew t ha t t he i n i t ia l

d eve lop men t o f t he s ocke ted t oo ls t ook p lace i n l ow land B r i ta in , u p t o ap o in t a t wh ich t he s ocke t h ad b eco me c on ica l a nd c losed a t t he t op .

H e b ases t h is

h ypo thes is o n t he f ac t t ha t t he s ick les w i th f ea tures t ypo log ica l ly p rev ious t o t ha t p o in t a re b es t r epresen ted a t a l l s tages o f d eve lop men t b y e xa mp les i n s ou th e as t B r i ta in .

H owever , h e s ugges ts t ha t a f ter t h is , t he o ther d eve lop-

men ts - i .e . t he g radua l b r ing ing o f t he b lade t op o ver t he t op o f t he s ocke t , a nd t he i n tegra t ion o f b lade a nd s ocke t w ere I r ish d eve lop men ts , a s t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f a l l s ick les w i th t hese f ea tures c o me f ro m I re land .

The d ecora ted

N orw ich t oo l a nd t he u nprovenanced t oo l i n t he H un ter ian t hus m igh t we l l h ave c o me f ro m I re land o r ig ina l ly.

T he e xcep t ion t o t h is , i s t he s tyl is t ica l ly

d eve loped " Tha mes s er ies" o f t oo ls , wh ich , l a te i n s equence , a l l c o me f ro m s ou th e as t B r i ta in , e xcep t o ne u nprec ise ly p rovenanced t oo l f ro m " Ire land" ( Fox 's N o . 5 5 , 1 939 , F ig . 4 ) . These a rgu men ts o f where wha t t ype was made a re b ased o n ly o n t he n umbers o f t oo ls f ound i n t he d i f feren t p laces .

There a re , f or e xa mp le ,

e ar ly G roup Is ick les f ro m I re land , l a ter G roup Is ick les a re f ound i n S ou th Eas t Eng land , a nd o ne " Tha mes s er ies" t oo l c o mes f ro m I re land .

N ew f inds ,

t here fore , may we l l make t he h ypo thes is i ncreas ing ly q ues t ionab le . The s ick les w i th a v er t ica l s ocke t s ee m t o b e d er ived f ro m t he l a te B ronze Age s ocke ted k n i fe .

T h is t ype o f s ick le ( F ig . 1 51a-c ) i s r arer , w i th t he

s ocke t q u i te s epara te s truc tura l ly f ro m t he b lade , af ac t wh ich b e trays i t s o r ig in , a nd d is t ingu ishes i tf ro m t he s im i lar ly s haped T ha mes s er ies o f s ick les ( Fig . 1 50a a nd c ) o n wh ich t he b lade a nd s ocke t a re a l l i n o ne - i .e. a l a te d eve lop men t f ro m t he l a tera l ly s ocke ted s ick les . F ox t races t he d eve lop men t o f t hese v er t ica l ly s ocke ted s ick les b as ica l ly o n t he amoun t o f c urva ture i n t he b lade - wh ich p u ts R osebury T opp ing a nd E a ton e ar ly i n t he s er ies , S ion R each l a ter , a nd t he s er ies o f I r ish s ick les l a tes t ( Figs . 1 51b , c , fa nd g ) . O f t he s ick les o f t h is t ype , o n ly t hose f ro m R osebury T opp ing a nd Ea ton h ave a ssoc ia ted meta lwork , a nd t hese a ssoc ia t ions i nd ica te t ha t t hese s ick les , e ar ly i n F ox 's d eve lop men t s er ies a re we l l w i th in t he La te B ronze Age .

The

mos t i n teres t ing a nd , t ypo log ica l ly a t l eas t , t he mos t d eve loped o f t h is t oo l t ype c o me f ro m I re land .

F ive o f t he t o ta l n u mber o fn ine t oo ls o f G roup I

c o me f ro m I re land a nd t hree s how a g rea ter c urve o fb lade t han t he Eng l ish s pec i mens ;

t wo , h owever ( Fox 's n os . 4 2 a nd 4 3 f ro m " Ire land" ) d o s how a n

u nusua l wa is t ing o n t he s ocke ts wh ich a re s hor t a nd o va l i n s ec tion , a nd a lso d isp lay a c urv ing o f t he b lade e dge b ack t oward t he h and le ( F ig . 1 51 fa nd g ) . F ox d escr ibes t h is a s e i ther a n a t te mp t t o i m i ta te i nb ronze t he i ron t anged s ick les wh ich h e imp l ies a re c on te mporary , o r t he f ina l e xpress ion o f a modern is ing s equence i n t h is t oo l t ype . T he t oo ls a re i ndeed e x traord inar i ly d eve loped i n f orm , b u t p erhaps o ne m igh t men t ion t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t h is b lade s hape h as b een p roduced a r ti f ic ia l ly b y s evere wear - t he b lades o f b o th t oo ls a re v ery s lender - r a ther t han b y i n i t ia l d es ign . N on-socke ted s ick les a re d iv ided i n to t wo o bv ious t ypes - k nobbed a nd v er t ica l ly t anged - b o th o f wh ich a re p r i mar i ly C on t inen ta l t ypes . 4 44

F ox s ees

t he u sua l ly s y mme tr ica l o va l s ect ion o f t he b lades o f t he s ocke ted t oo ls a b as ica l ly B r i t ish f or m , a nd t he c as t p la te f or m o f t he n on s ocke ted t oo ls a C on t inen ta l f or m .

H e t hus s ees n on-socke ted t oo ls wh ich h ave a s y m metr ica l

b lade a s B r i t ish made d er iva t ive f or ms o f t he C on t inen ta l p ro to type .

There

a re f i f ty o ne n on-socketed s ick les , t hree o f wh ich a re u nprovenanced , b u t s ix teen o f wh ich were d escr ibed b y F ox ) , f ound i n B r i ta in .

( a l l

T he v er t ica l ly

t anged s ick les F ox 's G roup I , p rov ide a r ec tangu lar t ang w i th r ibs o n e i ther s ide o f t he t ang c on t inued d own f ro m t he b lade o f t he s ick le ( Fig . 1 52 ). The h and le i s f ur ther s ecured b y ar ive t t hrough a r ivet h o le g enera l ly o ne-ha l f t o o neth ird o f t he way u p t he t ang , o r b y an o tch i n t he b ase o f t he t ang . S o me C on t inen ta l t oo ls h ave a " ta lon" o r p ro jec t ion f ro m t he b ack o f t he t ang . F ox 's T ype A h as a s i mp le u nbroken c urve ( e .g . f ro m t he Tha mes a t B ren t ford -F ig . 1 44e ) w i th a n u nr ibbed t h icker f or m b e ing d er iva t ive - p robab ly a n a t ive c opy . F ox s ees t he Do lbenmaen a nd I s le o f Man s ick le ( F ig . 1 53a ) , b o th t h ick , v ery c urved a nd w i th n o tches a t t he u pper p ar t o f t he t ang , a s b eing d er ived f ro m t hese , e spec ia l ly a s t he t ang o f t he Do lbenmaen s ick le was c as t p la te wh i le t he b lade was s y m me tr ica l ly c onvex ( Burgess 1 969

P .

I s le o f Man s ick le was more " advanced" i nb e ing a l l s y m me tr ica l .

4 1 ) .

The

F ox 's

T ype B , t he t a loned s ick le , t hough p robably n o t p resen t i t se l f among Br i t ish s ick les ( however , s ee t he u nprovenanced s ick le n ow i n Oakha m Museu m , F ig . 1 56a ) , h as v ar ious d er iva t ives .

At oo l f ro m t he T ha mes a t B ren t ford

h as a k nob i n t he p os i t ion o f t he c law o n C on t inen ta l t oo ls ( F ig . 1 44d ) a nd t he L lan tw i t t oo l a lso h as ab u lge , b u t a t t he j unc t ion b etween b lade a nd t ang . The o n ly s ick le o f t h is t ype t o h ave a ny a ssoc ia ted me ta lwork i s t ha t f ro m L lan tw i t Ma jor , wh ich was i n ah oard w i th s ocke ted a xes , p a ls taves a nd r ive ted s pearheads .

H owever , t h is t oo l i s s o u nusua l , a nd t he g roup a s a

who le a s r epresen ted i n B r i ta in d oes n o t l end i t se l f t o a ny h ypo the t ica l s equence o f d eve lop men t , t ha t t hese a ssoc ia t ions a re n o t p ar t icu lar ly h e lp fu l . F ox 's G roup I - k nobbed s ick les - i s g rea ter i n n u mber t han t he t anged g roup .

S ick les w i th o ne k nob o n ly a re c lassi f ied a s Ia .

Two s ick les f ro m

" L inco ln" , t hough n o t v ery d e f ina te ly p rovenanced , o ne a s ing le c urve , t he o ther w i th a r ecurved t ip , a re o f t h is t ype .

B o th a re c as t p la te a nd s trong ly

r ibbed . The G rays Thurrock s er ies o f s ick les , a re a ga in c as t p la te a nd s ing le-knobbed ( F ig . 1 56 b a nd c ) b u t v ery s tra igh t a nd w i th n o r ibb ing . A s ick le f ro m t he Tha mes i s s im i lar i n mos t a spec ts s ave f or i t s g rea ter c urve a nd s y m me tr ica l b lade. S ick les o f t he s ing le-knobbed t ype a re o f ten f ound i n h oards - e .g . G ray 's Thurrock , L i t t le Baddow , Pr i t t le B rook - t he a ssoc ia ted me ta lwork o f wh ich i nc luded c arps t ongue s word f ragmen ts , w inged a xes a nd o ther work i nd ica t ive o f al a te d a te i n t he La te B ronze Age . F ox 's G roup I l b i s o ne i n wh ich t he me mber s ick les h ave e longa ted k nobs . There a re f our e xa mp les o f t h is t ype ( e .g . F ig . 1 57c ) f ro m E d ing tön Bur t le a nd Monkswood h oards i n S o merse t . k nobs .

S ick les o f F ox 's G roup I c h ave p a ired

T hese a re a lso a l l f ro m t he S o merse t r eg ion .

They v ary i n c urva ture

a nd a re a l l f ro m h oards - E d ing ton Bur t le ( F ig . 1 57 a , b , d ) , S park ford H i l l a nd Taun ton Un ion Workhouse .

A l l f our h oards were d a ted b y F ox t o t he l a ter

p ar t o f t he L a te B ronze Age , b u t l a ter , Sm i th p o in ted o u t t ha t t hey b e longed t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t he M idd le Bronze Age a s t hey c on ta ined B r i t ish b ronzes o f t ha t p er iod a long w i th e xo t ic o rna men ts o f at ype b es t p ara l le ld b y N or thern European b ronzes o f t he s ame p er iod . I ts ee ms , t here fore , t ha t t hese s ick les a re among t he e ar l ies t b ronze s ick les f ound i n B r i ta in , p reda t ing t he e ar l ies t 4 45

s ocke ted s ick le , t he t oo l f ro m D ownha m F en a nd a l l t he v er t ica l ly t anged s ick les o f B r i ta in ( Sm i th 1 959

1 50-1 a nd 1 84 ) .

P .

N on-socke ted t oo ls f ound s ince F ox 's p aper a re e as i ly c lass i f iab le w i th in h is t ypo logy .

The t oo l f ro m Marden i s av ery worn s ing le-knobbed a nd p ro-

b ably c as t p la te t oo l o f h is G roup Ha .

Th is t oo l was f ound i n aL a te B ronze

Age h oard w i th s ocke ted a xes , p ins , r ings a nd b race le ts , a nd ,

i nc iden ta l ly ,

i s t he o n ly t oo l Ie xa m ined wh ich s ee med t o h ave b een s evere ly worn . I ti s j us t p oss ib le t ha t i ts e dge h ad b een s erra ted o r ig ina l ly , t hough i t was t oo d a maged t o a l low t h is t o b e more t han a p oss ibi l i ty.

The t hree s ec t ions o f

s ick les f ro m Wh i teha l l F ar m h oard , K en t a re u nr ibbed s ing le k nobbed f ragmen ts o f F ox 's ha c lass .

The h oard f ro m M inn is B ay , K en t , i nc luded t wo

c o mple te c as t p la te s ing le k nobbed s tra igh t s ided s ick les o ne o f wh ich h as a s l igh t r ibbing o n o ne f ace , t he o ther o f wh ich i s u nr ibbed ( F ig . 1 54 f , g ) , a nd o ne r ibbed f rag men t .

The f ragmen t o f s ick le f ro m Dar t ford was a ga in

u nr ibbed , s ing le k nobbed a nd p robab ly c as t p la te a nd a ga in q u i te s tra igh t i n b lade s hape(F ig . 1 54d ) .

Af ragmen t f ro m a h oard f ro m A l l H a l lows , H oo ,

K en t , i s p robably a f ragmen t o f a1 1a s ick le , f rom Lakenhea th , S u f fo lk ( F ig . 1 55a ) a nd t he s im i lar f rag men t f ro m H am H i l l ( F ig . 1 55b ) a re a ga in F ox 's 1 1a , a nd b e long t o h is p ure C on t inen ta l t ype e xe mp li f ied b y t he t wo t ools f ro m L inco ln .

T he t hree s ick les f ro m Manches ter Museum , t wo o f wh ich c o me

f ro m Faversha m , K en t , a nd o ne u nprovenanced a re o f F ox 's l a ( cas t p la te , w i th s trong c urve , r ibbed w i th a r ive t h o le f ro m Faversha m ) , 1 1a ( cas t p la te , c urv ing a nd r ibbed w i th a s ing le k nob ) f ro m F aversha m ) a nd t he u nprovenanced t oo l b e longs t o l a .

T he l a t ter t oo l i s p ar t icu lar ly i n teres t ing i n t ha t i t r e-

s e mb les i n s hape t he Ha l ton " s ick le" ( F ig . 1 53c ) , o r t anged k n i fe , b u t i tl acks t he r ibb ing o f t he Ha l ton t oo l .

T hese t wo t oo ls a re r ea l ly q u i te u n l ike t he

r ema inder o f h is v er t ica l ly s ocke ted G roup 2 , e .g . R osebury T opping . T he t ool t oo l f ro m L lanuwch l lyn , Gwynedd , wou ld a ppear t o b e o ne o f F ox 's T ype l a t oo ls , s im i lar i n f or m t o t he d ebased Do lbenmaen u nr ibbed t oo l . i . D is tr ibu t ion o f B ronze S ick les : a ) S ocke ted S ick les : The s tudy o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f b ronze s ick les i n g enera l , b u t s ocke ted t oo ls i np ar t icu lar i s s o mewha t p roble ma t ica l. S o many o f t he t oo ls a re s tray f inds o r f ro m h oards t ha t t he ir modern f indspo t may h ave l i t t le t o d o w i th a rea o f t he ir p reh is tor ic u se , n ever mind t he ir p reh is tor ic manu facture .

These p o in ts s hou ld b e b orne i n mind d ur ing t he

f o l lowing g enera l d escr ip t ion o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he s ick les . B ronze s ick les o f a l l t ypes ( Map 1 1) a re g enera l ly more c o m mon i n S ou th Eas t Eng land , I re land a nd Wa les t han e lsewhere .

As F ox s ta tes , t he e ar l ier G roup 1 s ocke ted

t oo ls t end t o b e b es t r epresen ted a t t he v ar ious s tages o f d eve lop men t b y e xamp les f ro m S ou th E as t Eng land . L a ter t oo ls a re more g enera l ly , d is tr ib u ted , w i th e xamp les i n S ou th Eas t Wa les , a long t he e as t c oas t o f Eng land a nd t he e as t c oast o f S co t land a nd w i th a l arge n u mber c om ing f ro m I re land . The d eve loped " Tha mes s er ies" o f s ick les , t ypi f ied b y i n tegra ted b lade a nd s ocke t , t he t wo b eing smoo th ly j o ined w i th n o i n terrup t ion o f c on tour ( e .g . F ig . 1 50a ) s ee ms t o h ave a ma in ly S ou th E as t Eng l ish d is tr ibu t ion , w i th o n ly o ne e xa mp le c om ing f ro m I re land . B r i t ish d is tr ibu t ion .

S ocke ted b ronze s ick les h ave a p r i mar i ly

Af ew h ave b een f ound o n t he C on t inen t , p r i mar i ly i n

N or thern France ( Br iard 1 964 ) .

F ox i l lus tra tes o ne f ro m t he S eine a t P ar is

4 46

( Fox 1 939 p l . XX I I 0 ) , a nd a nother i s h oused a t t he Museu m a t Am iens .

A

f ew o thers h ave b een f ound i n I ta ly a nd P or tuga l ( Br iard 1 964 , S avory 1 958 ). G roup I v er t ica l ly s ocke ted t oo ls s ee m e xc lus ive ly B r i t ish a nd I r ish , t hose e ar ly i n t he h ypo the t ica l s er ies c om ing f ro m S ou th Eas t Eng land , t hose l a ter f ro m I re land . i b )

N on-Socke ted S ick les :

N on-socketed s ick les o f b o th t he t anged

a nd t he k nobbed t ype a re C on t inen ta l f or ms e x tre me ly c o m mon i n N or thern European h oards , where a g rea t v ar ie ty o f f or ms a nd s izes , a nd a h igh i nc id ence o f d ecora ted t oo ls a re f ound .

G roup 1 , a re c on-

The t anged t ools ,

f ined t o q u i te a sma l l a rea i n Eng land a round t he Tha mes , w i th t he o u t liers f ro m C ronk y n H owe , I s le o f Man , D o lben maen a nd L lanuwch l lyn i n Gwynedd b e ing b ebased , p robably im i ta t ive f orms .

The t oo l f ro m Faversha m o f T ype

l a c an b e a dded t o t h is l i s t t o e x tend t he a rea s o mewha t ; t o t he e as t , a nd t here i s a lso t he u nusua l t ool f ro m L lan tw i t Ma jor , S . G la morgan . G roup 1 1 , t he k nobbed s ick les , a re more w ide ly s pread i n B r i ta in .

The

s ing le k nobbed t ype h as a ma in ly S ou th E as t Eng l ish d is tr ibu t ion , w i th e xa mp les c om ing f ro m E ssex , K en t a nd M idd lesex ;

o thers , r a ther l ess c er ta in ly

p rovenanced c o me f ro m L incoln , S uf fo lk a nd S o merse t .

I ti s i n teres t ing t o

n o te t ha t t he c as t p la te , r ibbed , s ick les , i .e. t he mos t p urely C on t inen ta l i n a ppearance , a re t he o u t l iers - t hose f ro m H am H i l l , Lakenhea th a nd L inco lnsh ire , w i th a f ew f ragmen tary e xamp les i n t he K en t h oards .

There

i s ad is t inc t s im i lar i ty among t he S .E . t oo ls w i th t he ir l ong s tra igh t s ided b lades , smoothed 2u nr ibbed , o r o n ly i nd is t inc t ly r ibbed b lades a nd s ing le k nob , a nd o ne i s t e mp ted t o g roup t hese - t he t oo ls f ro m G rays Thurrock , Minn is Bay , P r i t t le Brook , Wh i teha l l Far m , Marden a nd A l l H a l lows , K en t , t he Tha mes b e tween Wandswor th a nd Tw ickenha m a nd p oss ib ly t he t ools f ro m L i t t le Baddow , E bbs f leet a nd H ayne 's Wood , -t ogether .

F ox g rouped t hese

t oge ther a lso , b u t p o in ted o u t t ha t t he L i t t le B addow t oo l, t wo o f t he t hree f ragmen ts f ro m P r i t t le B rook , af ragmen t f ro m M ins ter a nd t he H ayne 's Wood f ragmen t a re c urved r ibbed a nd c as t p la te , a nd s ugges ted t ha t , t herefore t he who le g roup was p ure ly C on t inen ta l .

O pposed t o t h is v iew i s t he s y m me tr ica l

c harac ter o f t he b lade o f o ne o f t he t oo ls f ro m G rays Thurrock a nd t he Tha mes t oo l , a s h e h i mse l f p o in t o u t , a nd t he r a ther f eeble n a ture o f t he r ibbing o n t he t oo l f ro m L i t t le B addow.

N ow , s ince h e wro te , t he t oo ls f ro m Wh i teha l l

Far m , Marden , M inn is Bay , Dar t ford a nd A l l H a l lows h ave c o me t o l igh t . A l l o f t hese h ave t he l ong s traigh t b lades , u nr ibbed s ave f or o ne o f t he Minn is Bay t oo ls wh ich i s b u t f eeb ly r ibbed ;

t he A l l H a l lows a nd Dar t ford t oo ls

c er ta in ly h ave s y m me tr ica l b lades , a nd t h is , c o mbined , a s f ar a s Iam a ware w i th a l ack o f c on t inen ta l p ara l lels l eads o ne t o s uppose t ha t t h is g roup may we l l b e aB r i t ish f or m o f t he c on t inen ta l s ing le k nobbed s ick le , w i th t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he f ragmen ts f ro m P r i t t le B rook ( two o f t he t hree ) , Haynes Wood a nd E bbs f lee t ( one o f t he f ragmen ts ).

T he l a t ter t ools a l l c o me f ro m

f ounders h oards , a nd d esp i te F ox 's d escr ip t ion o f t he m a s h av ing " f la t b acks" , Iwou ld c ons ider i t q u i te f eas ible t ha t a ny o f t he m c ou ld c o me q u i te e as i ly f ro m t he p urely c on t inen ta l t ype e xe mp li f ied b y t he L inco ln p a ir . F ox 's G roups l ib a nd c ( socke ted s ick les w i th e longa ted o r w i th d oub le k nobs ) a re e xc lus ive ly c on f ined t o t he e xo t ic h oards o f S o merse t , a nd t hese c an b e d a ted t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t he M idd le B ronze Age .

4 47

i i .

Func t ion o f B ronze S ick les :

I t s ee ms c lear t ha t t he d is tr ibu t ion

o f t he b ronze s ick les i n B r i ta in h as o n ly a f a ir ly min i ma l u se i n t erms o f o ur u nders tand ing o f Bronze Age a gr icu l tura l p rac t ice .

F or o ne t h ing , c asua l

f inds a nd h oard f inds a re l i t t le i nd ica t ion o f o r ig ina l p lace o f u se , a nd e ven i fi t were )t he f unc t ion o f t he t oo ls c an b e f ar f ro m c er ta in . F ox s ugges ts t ha t t he s ick les were r a ther g enera l i n u se u sed i n t ha tch ing , f or i ns tance , o r c ere mon ia l u se , a s w e l l , a s , o r e ven r a ther t han f or r eap ing c orn .

There

c an b e l i t t le d oubt , It h ink , t ha t t he b ronze s ick le was n o t t he main t oo l u sed f or r eap ing i n t he Bronze Age , e ven i n t he s ou th o f Eng land . I ti s f ar more l ike ly t ha t c o mpos i te f l in t s ick les were u sed a s n or ma l r eap ing t oo ls t hrougho u t t h is p er iod , a nd i t may we l l b e t ha t f u ture r esearch o n micro-wear a na lys is o n f l in t w i l l d iscover t ypes o f t oo ls a va i lab le .

Many o f t he b ronze s ick les

a re t oo f l i msy t o h ave b een p rac t ica l f or h ard e very d ay u se a s r eaping h ooks , a nd i ti s c er ta in ly u nusua l t o t he modern m ind , a t l eas t , t o b o ther t o d ecora te f ine ly a workaday t oo l a s t he l a ter s ick les s o met i mes a re .

A lso t he d is tr i-

b u t ion o f t he s ick les i s v ery i rregu lar , a nd t he ir n umbers f ew e ven b ear ing i n mind t he c avea ts men t ioned a bove a s t o t he ir d is tr ibu t ion p a t tern .

A l though

t he n umbers o f s ick les s urv iv ing f or s tudy mus t b e d ras t ica l ly a f fec ted b y t he f ac t t ha t t hey were made o f a me ta l p r ized e nough t o make r euse b y sm i ths t he n orm , t he n u mbers o f s ick les f ound i n h oards i s i ns ign i f ican t c o mpared w i th o ther e ssen t ia l work ing t ools - s ocke ted a xes , f or i ns tance . Exper i men ts h ave s hown , h owever , t ha t b ronze s ick les c ou ld h ave b een u sed r easonab ly e f fec t ive ly a s r eap ing h ooks .

S teensberg i n h is e xper i men ts,

w i th a k nobbed ( Schm id t T ype I ) a nd a s erra ted c rescen t ic Dan ish s ick le ( Type V ) u sed a r econs truc t ion o f t he S ten i ld s ick le h and le f or t he f or mer a nd ac urved wooden h and le , s uch a s h e u sed f or t he c rescen t ic f l in t s ick les , f or t he l a t ter .

The r econs truc t ion o f t he S ten i ld s ick le was a dapa ted b y c u t t ing

ag roove i n t he u pper p ar t t o f i t t he b ronze s ick le b ack a nd a d epress ion i n t he b ack o f t he h and le-head was c u t f or t he k nob.

Th is h a f t ing , w i th a wedge

i nser ted a long t he u pper s ide o f t he b u t t e nd , worked e xce l len t ly i n p rac t ice ( S teensberg 1 943 , F ig . 5 6).

The e xper i men ts , s howed t ha t t he b ronze s ick les

t ook a s im i lar t ime t o c u t c orn a s t he c rescen t ic f l in t s ick les , b u t were s l igh t ly more a ccura te , u proo t ing f ewer p lan ts ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 2 2-6) .

S teensberg

a lso makes t he i nc iden ta l p o in t t ha t t he b ronze s ick le b lades were s harpened o n a n a nv i l w i th t he a id o f as tone o r sma l l h a m mer , t races o f wh ich p rocess a re o f ten s t i l l v is ible o nb ronze b lade e dges ( S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 60 ) . The s erra ted c rescen t ic t ype u n ique t o D enmark was o bv ious ly n o t h a m mered b u t r a ther f i led t o make t he t ee th s harp .

Fox 's p o in t a bou t t he s ick les b e ing

g enera l t oo ls may we l l b e ac orrec t i n terpre ta t ion .

The s ick les h ave a g rea t

r ange o f c urva ture o f b lade , r ang ing f ro m s tra igh t u pr igh t b lades s uch a s o n t he t oo l f ro m R osebury T opping , Ea ton a nd H a l ton , t o s trong ly c urv ing b lades s uch a s o n t he t ools f ro m t he Tha mes a t S ion R each ( Fig . 1 51a ) t he Thames a t Tap low ( Fig . 1 53b) a nd D o lbenmaen ( Fig . 1 53a ) , t o s tra igh t a l mos t h or iz on ta l b lades s uch a s o n t he t oo ls f ro m M inn is Bay ( Fig . 1 54 fa nd g ) a nd I ck l ingha m ( F ig . 1 50b ) .

I ti s i nev i tab le t ha t t he v er t ica l ly s ocke ted t oo ls a nd

t he v er t ica l ly t anged t oo ls t end t o h ave t he mos t u pr igh t a nd c urved b lades a nd t ha t t he l a tera l ly s ocke ted a nd k nobbed s ick les h ave t he s tra igh ter h or izon ta l b lades .

I ti s n o t iceab le t ha t t he l a tera l ly s ocketed t ools , wh i le

d eve lop ing i n s hape a ccord ing t o F ox 's c lassi f ica t ion s ee m t o d eve lop v ery l i t t le a s f ar a s t he c urva ture o f t he c u t t ing e dge i s c oncerned . 4 48

The e ar l ier

t oo ls , e .g t ha t f ro m Downha m F en ( F ig . 1 45a ) d o n o t h ave n o t iceably s tra igh ter b lades t han t he l a tes t -e .g . L lyn Fawr ( F ig . 1 47c ) , b u t wha t h as h appened i s t ha t t he t i p o f t he b lades t end t o t er m ina te f ur ther d own t oward t he h and le . The t oo ls ' b lades c er ta in ly d o n ot g et a ny l onger .

The D ownha m F en a nd o ne

o f t he t oo ls f ro m L lyn Fawr h ave b lades o f s im i lar l eng th ( 2.. 1 2 cm ) , t hough s o me l a ter t oo ls s how a n i ncrease i n w id th o f b lade ( 9 _ . 3 cm i ns tead o f t he 2 cm n or ma l o n e ar l ier t oo ls ) .

The mos t d eve loped o f t hese a re s tr ik ing ly

s im i lar i n f or m t o t he i ron T ype l a r eap ing h ooks ( Fig . 1 59) .

Th is i s at oo l

t ype wh ich Ih ave a ssu med h as a q u i te s epara te i den t i ty a nd , p resu mab ly , f unc t ion , a s i tc on t inued t o b e made v ir tua l ly u nchanged u n t i l a t l eas t t he s tar t o f t he R o man p er iod . Th is s im i lar i ty i n s hape s ugges ts t ha t s ocke ted G roup 1 s ick les were q u i te s epara te a t oo l w i th a s epara te f unc t ion f ro m t he G roup I t oo ls .

The r e ma ins o f o ne o f t he wooden h and les o f t he L lyn Fawr b ronze

s ick les h as r ecen t ly b een a na lysed a nd f ound t o b e o f a sh ( Green 1 978 ) . G roup I , v er t ica l ly s ocke ted s ick les , wh ich , a s F ox s ugges ts ,do s ee m t o h ave h ad a q u i te s epara te p redecessor i n t he s ocke ted b ronze k n i fe , h ave more u pr igh t b lades .

The g roup i s v ery d i f f icu l t t o d a te o n a ny th ing o ther t han

t ypo log ica l g rounds a s o n ly t he t wo e ar l ies t i n t ype h ave a ny a ssoc ia t ions . H owever , i fF ox i s c orrec t , i n s ee ing t he u pr igh t b lade a s e ar ly i n t he d evelopmen t o f t h is t ype , a nd t he more s trong ly c urv ing b lade a s l a ter , we c er ta in ly h ave h ere a t oo l wh ich more c lose ly c orresponds w i th wha t Ih ave a ssu med were r eap ing h ooks p roper i n t he l a ter i ron t oo ls , a nd t he b ackward t hrus t c u t t ing e dge o f t he l a ter I r ish t oo ls h as a lready b een d iscussed . The w id th o f t he b lades s ee m t o r e ma in q u i te s tandard ( . 2..2 .5-3 cm ) t hroughou t i t s d eve lopmen t .

I ti s wor th n o t ing t ha t af ea ture t ha t b o th t ypes o f s ocke ted t oo ls h ave

i n c o mmon i s t he d oub le e dged b lade wh ich i s s y m me tr ica l i n s ec t ion . o r n o t t he o u ter e dge h ad a ny f unc t ion i s d i f f icu l t t o s ay.

Whether

A l l t anged t ools a re ,

h owever , s ing le e dged o n ly . The d i f ference b e tween t he t wo g roups o f s ocke ted t oo ls i s t o s o me e x ten t e choed b y t he t wo t ypes o f n on-socke ted t oo ls .

The v er t ica l ly t anged t oo ls

were p resu mab ly h af ted o n t he s a me p lane a s t he t ang i t sel f , a nd t he b lades a re g enera l ly s trong ly c urved , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he u pr igh t b lades o f t he t oo ls f ro m Ha l ton , a nd t he Tha mes n ear B ren t ford , a nd t he u nprovenanced t oo l f ro m Manches ter Museu m .

The s ing le k nobbed s ick les t end t o h ave f ar

s tra igh ter b lades , e spec ia l ly t he g roup f ro m S .E . Eng land , t hough t he t oo ls w i th e longa ted a nd d oub le k nobbed s ick les c an h ave f a ir ly c urving b lades . I ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e s ure h ow t he k nobbed s ick les were h af ted .

S teensberg

( 1943 F ig . 5 6 , a nd s ee b elow p . 4 91 ) d ur ing h is e xper i men ts , h a f ted t he m a t r igh t a ng les t o t he p lane o f t he b lade , b u t t hey c ou ld a lso e as i ly h ave b een h a f ted w i th a s hor t wooden h and le i n t he s a me p lane a s t he k nobbed p ar t o f t he s ick le .

I ft he l a t ter was t he s tandard method o f h a f t ing t he t oo ls , Mos t k nobbed

s ick les f ro m B r i ta in w i th t he ir r a ther s tra igh t b lades wou ld h ave b een v ery u pr igh t t oo ls w i th a f unc t ion p erhaps more a s l opping k n ives r a ther t han r eap ing h ooks . I fo n t he o ther h and t hey were h a f ted a t r igh t a ng les t o t he b lade , S teensberg 's e xper i men ts s how t he m t o h ave b een r easonably e f f ic ien t a s r eaping h ooks . The k nobbed s ick les v ary c ons iderab ly i n s ize . Many o f t he K en t g roup a re f ragmen ts o n ly , b u t t he t oo ls f ro m M inn is B ay a re a bou t 1 6.5 cm i n l eng th , wh i le t ha t f ro m Marden i s C . 1 0 .8 cm i n l eng th , a nd t he Tha mes t oo l i s 1 5 .8 cm .

The l esser c urved t oo l f ro m E d ing ton Bur t le ( 1 1b) i s c . 1 3 .2

4 49

cm l ong .

The w id th o f t he n on-socke ted k nobbed t oo ls ' b lades t ends t o b e

a bou t 2 .5-3 cm , b u t many a re t oo d amaged f or t h is g enera l measure men t t o b e more t han a n a pprox i ma t ion . d .

I ron R eap ing H ooks a nd Prun ing H ooks

Al arge n u mber o f sma l l i ron t oo ls w i th c urv ing b lades w i th a c oncave c u t t ing e dge o n t he i ns ide o f t he b lades ' c urve h ave b een f ound o n I ron Age a nd R o man s i tes .

They a re n or ma l ly d escr ibed a s s ick les , r eap ing h ooks o r

p run ing h ooks w i th l i t t le i nd ica t ion why o ne t er m h as b een p referred o ver a no ther f or t he t oo l i n q ues t ion . The r eason f or t h is i s t he l arge v ar ie ty o f f or ms wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een u sed i n t he I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish p er iods a nd a l though t he ma ter ia l i s c lass i f iable i n to s o me s or t o f o rder , i t t ends t o merge f ro m o ne f or m t o a no ther .

I nev i tably , t herefore , w i th s o me

e xcep t ions , t he t ypes d escr ibed b e low t end t o b e r a ther d i f fuse i n n a ture , s o me t ypes , e .g . Type T b a nd I a a nd b c on ta in ing a l arge v ar ie ty o f s hapes a nd s izes , wh i le o ther g roups , e .g . T ype l a a re q u i te t igh t ly k n i t .

The

c lassi f ica t ion p roposed b e low i s , Ih ope , o f s o me a ss is tance i n d ef in ing t he r ange o f t ypes u sed a nd t heir r e la t ionsh ip t o o ne a no ther , wh i le n o t b e ing s o d eta i led t ha t we h ave t o h ave a n e nor mous n u mber o f c a tegor ies t o i nc lude s a t is fac tor i ly a l l t he ma ter ia l . Ih ave t r ied t o g roup t he ma ter ia l i n to t wo a gr icu l tura l ly v a l id g roups t he r eap ing h ook a nd t he p run ing h ook , a nd t h is f irs t , mos t g enera l c lass i f ic a t ion i s o f ten t he mos t d i f f icu l t t o make .

As Ih ave s a id , t he ma ter ia l t ends

t o merge f ro m o ne f or m t o a no ther , a nd Ih ave made a s o mewha t a rb i trary d iv is ion i n s o me c ases p r i mar i ly b ased o n s ize.

'

The s hape o f r eaping h ooks

T ype l b a nd ha a re v ery s im i lar t o t he s hape o f p run ing h ook l a a nd 1 1a , t hough t he s ize o f t he t oo ls i n t he l a t ter t wo c a tegor ies i s c ons iderably sma l ler . On t he o ther h and t he t oo ls o f s im i lar l eng th t o r eap ing h ook t ypes l b a nd ha ( e .g . t oo ls i n r eap ing h ook T ype 1 1b ) a re n o t c o mp le men ted b y s im i lar ly s haped t oo ls i n t he p run ing h ook b racke t , a nd e qua l ly , t he s hapes o f t oo ls i n t he p run ing h ook t ypes l b a nd 1 1b , l c a nd 1 1c , i d a nd l id a re n o t f ound i n l arger s izes i n t he r eap ing h ook g roup , wh ich t o s o me e x ten t s uppor ts t he d iv is ion i n to t hese g roups . Wh i le i ti s t rue t ha t t hese t wo g roups a re c er ta in ly a gr icu l tura l ly v a l id , Id o n o t mean t o s ugges t t ha t a l l t he g roups o f t oo ls i n my t wo c lasses were c er ta in ly u sed f or r eap ing c orn o r p run ing b ushes a nd t rees .

Th is wou ld I

t h ink , d e mand a f ar g rea ter u nders tand ing o f t he f unc t ion o f e ar ly t oo l t ypes t han we p ossess .

I ti s l ike ly t ha t f u ture e xper i men ts w i th s uch t oo ls w i l l

s ugges t f unc t ions f or t he d i f feren t t ypes o f t oo ls , b u t e ven s o , t hese c an b e n o more t han s ugges t ions .

C er ta in ly , t he r ange o f work t ha t wou ld b g r equ ired

o f c urved i ron t oo ls o n a n e ar ly f ar m s i te i s p rod ig ious , -t he g a ther ing o f r oo f ing a nd f loor ing a nd o ther b u i ld ing ma ter ia ls , a nd ma ter ia ls f or b aske twork ing a re e xamp les o f n on-agr icu l tura l f unc t ions a s we l l a s t he , more s pec if ica l ly a gr icu l tura l f unc t ions o f weed c learance a nd f odder g a ther ing a l l p rov ide a l terna t ive p oss ib le f unc t ions f or t oo ls wh ich we migh t g l ib ly a ssu me were e v idence f or a rab le a gr icu l ture . E ven s o , a l l i s n o t g loo m .

The t wo g roups o f p run ing h ooks a nd r eap ing

h ooks a re a gr icu l tura l ly d is t inc t , d espi te t he d i f f icu l t ies a t tached t o a t tr ibu t ing

4 50

f unc t ions t o as peci f ic t oo l .

As t he f unc t ions o f t he t wo g roups a re s epara te ,

i t s hou ld b e p oss ib le t o make s o me s ta te men ts a bou t t he g roups i n g enera l. At ool o f r eap ing h ook l b was f ound a t L ongbr idge Dever i l l i n a n I ron Age p i t w i th g ra in , wh ich i s s ugges t ive e ven t o t he mos t o b jec t ive o f c r i t ics .

A lso ,

B rad ley h as s hown t ha t t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he f our p os t s truc tures i n terpre ted among o ther t h ings a s g ranar ies c on for ms f a ir ly c lose ly w i th t he d is tr ibu t ion o f I ron Age " s ick les" ( 1978 F ig . 3 :2 ) , a l though a dm i t ted ly , t he b r ing ing t oge ther o f t wo a r t i facts t he f unc t ion o f b o th o f wh ich i s o pen t o i n terpre ta t ion , c an a ga in b e n o more t han s ugges t ive . I n c onc lus ion , Iwou ld s ugges t t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he t oo ls i n r eap ing h ooks T ype l b a nd ha a nd b were u sed f or h arves t ing , wh i le r eap ing h ook T ype l a d escended p robably f ro m t he b ronze l a tera l ly s ocke ted s ick le may h ave a s epa ra te f unc t ion s uch a s weed c u t t ing o r f odder g a ther ing ( see a bove , p . 4 49 ) . Prun ing h ooks a re u sed f or work o n sma l l t rees , b ushes , s hrubs , v ines , e tc ., a nd t hus g enera l ly p ossess b lades wh ich a re s tra igh t a t t he h and le s ect i on , a nd s trong ly c urved t oward t he t i p ; l arger b i l lhooks .

t hey h ave a s im i lar f unc t ion t o t he

R eap ing h ooks , u sed f or c u t t ing g ra in , n eed a l arger , more

b road ly c urv ing b lade t o c u t a cross h eads o f g ra in .

The ma jor i ty o f r eap ing

h ooks f ound i n p reh is tor ic a nd R o man B r i ta in a re a ngu lar s ick les ( accord ing t o S teensberg 's c lass i f ica t ion - S teensberg 1 943 , p . 1 13 ) , o r t angen t ia l a nd a ngu lar s ick les ( accord ing t o Ch i lde 's c lass i f ica t ion - Ch i lde 1 951 , p . 4 0 a nd my f lg . 1 36 ) .

These were t he p recursors o f t he b a lanced s ick le wh ich f irs t

a ppeared i n B r i ta in a t t he e nd o f t he I ron Age , b u t t hey s ee m t o h ave c oe x is ted w i th t he b a lanced s ick le t hroughou t t he l a ter I ron Age a nd t he Ro man p er iod i n B r i ta in . i n mind .

There i s a no ther p o in t c oncern ing f unc t ion wor th b ear ing

I f , f or e xa mp le , o ne were t o s ugges t t ha t av ar ian t o f t he me thod o f

g ra in r eaping p rac t ised i n p reh is tor ic a nd R o man Br i ta in was t he f irs t me thod d escr ibed b y Varro

( R .R . 1 .50 . 1 ) ( i .e. t ha t t he s traw was f irs t c u t w i th

as ick le c lose t o t he g round a nd t he h eads r e moved a s as ubsequen t o perat ion -p oss ibly , i ndeed , n o t a l l a t o nce b u t al i t t le a t at ime p erhaps t o f eed a q uern ) , i t migh t b e a rgued t ha t t he sma l l c urved t oo ls Ih ave c lass i f ied a s p run ing h ooks were i n f ac t t oo ls f or t he r e mova l o f t he g ra in h ead , a nd t he t oo ls Ih ave c lass i f ied a s r eap ing h ooks were t he t oo ls f or c u t t ing t he s traw . The t wo d i f feren t c lasses , p run ing a nd r eap ing h ooks ,c erta in ly e x is ted i n t he R o man Med i terranean , a s s evera l a grono m is ts men t ion t he d i f feren t f unc t ions o f t he t wo t oo l t ypes . C a to ( A .C. 1 1.4 ) , Varro ( R .R . 1 .22 . 5 ) a nd Pa l lad ius ( 0 .A . 1 .43 . 1 -2 ) d is t ingu ish b e tween d i f feren t t ypes o f ' f a lces ' ag ener ic t er m f or h ooks o f ten s upp l ied w i th a n a d jec t ive t o e xp la in f unc t ion -a nd men t ion d i f feren t h ooks u sed f or c u t t ing g ra in , g rapes , r eeds , t rees , b roo m , f o l iage a nd b racken .

A l toge ther t we lve a pparen t ly d is t inc t 't ypes o f

f a lx a re men t ioned b y R o man a u thor i t ies i n s even l is ts ( Wh i te 1 967 , p . 7 2-103 ) b u t t hey a re r are ly d escr ibed i n a ny d e ta i l a nd t he t er m i s u sua l ly v ery d i f f ic u l t , i fn o t imposs ib le , t o f i t t o as urv iv ing i ron t oo l t ype w i th a ny c er ta in ty. S evera l o f t he f a lx t ypes men t ioned b y a grono m is ts a s b eing u sed f or c u t t ing t rees , b ra mbles , e tc ., a re p robably t he d is t inc t t oo l t ypes c lassed a s b i l lhooks i n t h is work ( see b e low p . 4 67) .

B i l lhooks c er ta in ly a lso e x is ted i n Br i ta in

i n t he l a ter p ar t o f t he E ar ly I ron Age ;

t he d if ferences b e tween p run ing a nd

r eap ing h ooks i n t he I ron Age , a s f ar a s t he f unc t ion we c an o f ten a scr ibe t o i nd iv idua l t oo ls g oes , i s o f ten s o mewha t h ypo thet ica l , a nd i ti s p oss ible t ha t s o me t i mes t he o ne t ool f u l f i l led t he t wo d i f feren t f unct ions . 4 51

i .

R eap ing H ooks :

There a re o ne h undred a nd f i f ty n ine r eap ing h ooks

k nown t o me , s urv iv ing f ro m t he p reh is tor ic a nd R o man p er iods i n Br i ta in . The c harac ter is t ics o f t hese h ooks wh ich may b e t aken i n to a ccoun t a s a b as is o f c lass i f ica t ion a re a s f o l lows : h a f t ing method , b lade s hape , a nd t he s hape a nd e x ten t o f t he c u t t ing e dge . Ih ave u sed t he f o l low ing c lass i f ica t ion wh ich t akes a l l t hese f ac tors i n to a ccoun t a nd i s s u f f ic ien t ly d e ta i led t o b e o f s o me a ss is tance i n d is t ingu ish ing t ypes a nd f unc t ions , b u t y e t g enera l e nough t o i nc lude a l l t he h ooks k nown t o me w i thou t i nvo lv ing a v as t n u mber o f d i f feren t c a tegor ies . The mos t o bv ious g roup ing o f t he h ooks i s d ependen t o n t he ir h af t ing me thod , i .e . whe ther t he t oo ls a re t anged o r s ocke ted .

Th is d i f ference ,

f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f t he f unc t ion o f t he t oo l , i s t he l eas t r e levan t o f t he t hree c lassi f ica t ion c r i ter ia . H owever , i ti s a n o bv ious b as ic c r i ter ion t o i nc lude i n t he c lass i f ica t ion i n v iew o f i t s p oss ib le r e levance t o d i f feren t manu fac tur ing t echn iques , a nd p oss ib ly t o t he s ubsequen t d evelop men t o f t he t oo l t ype .

S ocke ted r eap ing h ooks a re t here fore c lassed a s T ype I , t anged

a s T ype I .

The s hape o f t he b lade o f t he h ooks , t he s econd o f t he c lass i f i-

c a t ion c r i ter ia , i s c lear ly impor tan t t o t he f unc t ion o f t he t oo ls . S ocke ted r eap ing h ooks may b e mos t e as i ly d iv ided i n to t hree b asic b lade s hapes .

F irs t ly , t here a re t hose b lades w i th ab lade a nd c u t t ing e dge a t r igh t-

a ng les t o t he s ocke t ( I a ) , as uccessor t o t he Bronze Age b ronze s ick les o f F ox 's T ype I a wh ich h ave t h is a ngu lar s hape . S econd ly , t here a re s peci mens w i th ab road ly c urv ing b lade a nd i ti s t h is , t he mos t c o m mon t ype , wh ich a ppears o ccas iona l ly t o v erge o n ab a lanc ing o f t he t oo l ( l b ) .

F ina l ly , t here

a re t hose w i th l ong , t h in b lades , r a ther d ubious ly d a ted t o I ron Age t imes , wh ich a lso h ave t he ir b lades s et a t r igh t-ang les t o t he s ocke t , b u t o f s o d i f fere n t a n a ppearance t o T ype I d t oo ls t ha t i t wou ld b e imposs ible t o g roup t he m t oge ther .

There a re n o t rue b a lanced s ick les wh ich a re s ocketed , t hough

s o me l b s ick les d o d isp lay a s l igh t b ackward s e t t ing o f t he b lade .

N one ,

h owever , a ch ieves t he t rue b a lanced b ackward s e t o f t he s ick le p roper . T anged r eap ing h ooks may b e d iv ided i n to f our c a tegor ies .

T ype H a t oo ls

h ave t he g en t ly c urv ing b lade s im i lar t o t oo ls o f T ype l b , a nd T ype I n a t oo ls h ave a s im i lar b lade s hape , b u t b a lanced .

T ype I c c a tegor ises t oo ls wh ich

p ossess l ong , s lender b lades wh ich a re s e t a t C . 9 0° t o t he h and le .

T ype a l

t oo ls h ave t he s a me t ype o f b lade b u t b a lanced: Th is c lass i f ica t ion , d epend en t u pon b lade s hape , i s s hown o n F ig . 1 58 .

Each o f t hese g roups c an t hen

b e s ubd iv ided b y t he d i f feren t s hape o f t he ir c u t t ing e dge , o bv ious ly a lso imp or tan t f or d e ter m in ing t he f unc t ion o f t he t oo l ;

t he c u t t ing e dge c an b e l ong ,

c urv ing a nd t wo-d irec t iona l , o r s hor t a nd o ne-d irec t iona l .

The d o t ted l i nes

s hown o n t he i l lus tra t ions o n F ig . 1 58 i nd ica te t he c hord l eng th o f t he c u t t ing e dge .

Th is i s n o t a lways e asy t o e s tab l ish o n c orroded s pec i mens o n wh ich

t he p os i t ion o f t he c o m mence men t o f t he s harp c u t t ing e dge h as b een c oncea led b y d a mage o r c orrosion . S ocke ted R eap ing H ooks : T ype I ab lades a re n o t c o m mon - t here a re o n ly s even* d e f in i te me mbers ( Fig -1 59-61 ) . They a re t he s uccessors o f * The t oo l r ecen t ly p ubl ished f ro m G a te ombe v i l la ( Bran igan 1 977) i s p rob ab ly a n e igh th e xa mp le o f t h is t ype , b u t h as n o t b een e xa m ined b y me .

4 52

t he a ngu lar , l a te B ronze Age t oo ls , a nd t h is i s c lear ly s hown b y t he I ron c opy o f t he l a te B ronze Age t ype o f s ocke ted r eap ing h ook i n t he L lyn Fawr h oard ( F ig . 1 59b ) , d a ted t o t he v ery e nd o f t he l a te B ronze Age . The r eaping h ook i s o ne o f t he f ew i ron p ieces i n t he h oard , a nd i s u sua l ly e xp la ined a s al a te Bronze Age sm i th e xper imen t ing w i th a n ew ma ter ia l , mak ing i ti n to t he f or m o f a n i mp le men t wh ich h ad h i ther to o n ly e x is ted i nb ronze .

The i ron r eap ing

h ook i s , i n f ac t , l arger t han t he t wo b ronze o nes i n t he s a me h oard , b u t h as t he s a me o va l s ocke t w i th r ibs a t t he b ase a nd o ne p a ir o f r ive t h o les , t he s ocke t i s c losed a t t he t op , w i th a w ide b lade w i th a c en tra l s treng then ing r ib , a nd w i th a c u t t ing e dge o n b o th s ides .

The b lade i s s et a t r igh t-ang les t o t he

s ocke t , a nd t urns d ownward a t t he t i p .

The l eng th o f t he s ocke t i s 7 cm ,

a nd t he c hord measure men t b e tween b lade t i p a nd j unc t ion w i th t he s ocket i s 1 0 cm - e x traord inar i ly s im i lar t o t he C od ford S t . Mary t oo l ( Fig . 1 61b ) where t he s ame measure men ts a re 7 .7 a nd 1 1.5 cm r espec tive ly , b u t wh ich i s c ons iderably l a ter i n d a te. The S tock ton Ear thworks ( Fig . 1 61a ) , H od H i l l ( Fig . 1 60b ) , C od ford S t . Mary , R usha l l D own a nd C aburn ( F igs . 1 61b , 1 59a , c ) r eap ing h ooks a re s im i lar i nb as ic s hape t o t h is l a te Bronze Age/Ear ly I ron Age t rans i t ion s pec i men f ro m L lyn Fawr , b u t a re more d eve loped i n f or m .

The s ocke ts

o f a l l f our a re o pen , a nd t he s ing le-edged b lade r ises a bove t he h eigh t o f t he s ocke t t op a s t he c u t t ing e dge i s more s trong ly c urved w i th t he b lade t ip g ene ra l ly j us t s l igh t ly l ower t han t he l eve l o f t he s ocke t t op , whereas t he L lyn Fawr b lade c urves d own f ro m t he l eve l o f t he s ocke t t op , s o t ha t t he p oin t o f t he b lade i s a t t he s a me l eve l a s t he s ocke t mou th .

B lade w id ths a re s im i-

l ar a lso - L lyn F awr max imu m 3 cm , t he o thers 2 .8-4.2 cm max i mu m w id ths - t hough t hese t oo ls h ave n o s treng then ing c en tra l r ib , a nd a re a l l s ing le-edged .

The B arbury C as t le s pec i men ( Fig . 1 60a ) h as t he f langed-tang

t ype o f c ons truc t ion , a nd t he c u tt ing e dge c on t inues d own t o t he s ocke t t op wh ich i s a n a bnorma l ly l ong l eng th b e low t he a ng le o f t he b lade .

Th is t oo l ,

t herefore , i s r a ther d i f feren t f ro m t he o thers i n t ha t i ts c u t t ing e dge i s a l mos t t wo-d irec t iona l w i th a s harp a ng le b e tween t he t wo .

The method o f a t tach men t

i s o therw ise a lways a s tou t , o pen s ocke t , o va l i n s ec t ion , e i ther w i th b ack r ive t ( Caburn a nd S tock ton E ar thworks ) , c ross r ive t ( Hod H i l l ) , b ack t ang ( Barbury ) , o r n one o f t hese a dd i t ions ( Cod ford a nd Rusha l l Down ) .

The I a

t oo ls a re l onger i n c u t t ing e dge t han t hey a re i n s ocke t l eng th , a nd a re , t heref ore , w ider t han t hey a re l ong o n o vera l l measure men ts , s ave t ha t f ro m Barbury C as t le .

F our o f t he s even a re Ear ly I ron Age , t wo a re s tray f inds

a nd o n ly o ne - C od ford -b e longs t o t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he R o man p er iod ( Table X I ). T h ir ty t wo s i tes i n Br i ta in h ave p roduced s o me f or ty s ix r eap ing h ooks o f T ype l b k nown t o me* ( F ig . 1 58 ) .

Th is t ype u sua l ly h as a s hor t , o pen

s ocke t , a nd a w ide b lade wh ich c urves d irec t ly f ro m t he s ocket t op , o r r are ly , a s i n t he c ase o f t he t oo l f ro m C ha lk a nd o ne o f t he t oo ls f ro m Caerwen t , a s o l id s ha f t , r ec tangu lar i n s ec tion , wh ich d iv ides s ocket t op f ro m b lade b ase . G enera l ly , t he c u t t ing e dge c o m mences where t he b lade b eg ins t o c urve o u t s

Ih ave r ecen t ly b een made a ware o f a nother t oo l o f t h is t ype f ro m S a l mons•

b ury h i l l for t ( Dunn ing i n Hard ing 1 976 F ig . 2 4 :2 ) , a nd a s econd f ro m M ins ter L ove l l , Ox fordsh ire , I ron Age o r R o man i n d a te ( Woods tock Museu m n o . 7 6.423 .1 ) . 4 53

f ro m t he s ocke t t op ( Fig 1 58 ) , b u t i n s o me e xa mp les ( t oo ls f r om Dorches ter Museu m , Ma iden C as t le , B ren t ford , Yard ley Has t ings , B igbury , H od H i l l , S i lches ter , Barbury C as t le , H a mbledon a nd L ongbr idge Dever i l l ( Figs . 1 65d , 1 66a , 1 67a-c , 1 63d , 1 62c ) a more s ubs tan t ia l p ar t o f t he b lade i s o n t he s a me p lane a s t he s ocke t , a nd t h is g roup o f t en , w i th t he ir s tou t s ocke ts a nd w ide b lades , a re among t he l arges t r eap ing h ooks o f t he Type l b .

The ir o vera l l

measure men ts r ange f ro m 1 7.2 ( S i lches ter ) a nd 1 7.5 ( Longbr idge Dever i l l ) t o 1 0 .6 ( Ha mb ledon ) a nd t he ir b lade w id ths v ary f ro m 4 .2 cm ( Barbury Cas t le ) t o 2 .6 cm ( Hambledon ).

The b lades c urve a round , t apering i n w id th u sua l ly

t o ap oin t— the B igbury , Ma iden C as t le a nd B arbury C as t le e xamp les a re b roken s o t ha t t his c anno t b e a scer ta ined o n t hese s peci mens .

I ndeed t he

Barbury Cas t le h ook h as ab roken p o in t s o t ha t t he b read th a nd g en t le c urve o f t he b lade make i tq u i te b i l ll ike i n a ppearance , a nd i t may we l l b e t ha t i ft he b lade d id n o t o r ig ina l ly c urve more t han t he p ar t t ha t n ow r e ma ins , t h is t oo l i s a sma l l b i l l r a ther t han a r eaping h ook . ar are f ea ture i n T ype l b t oo ls ;

Th is t oo l i s a lso d oub le-edged —

a l l t he o thers o f T b a re s ing le-edged .

I ti s

a lso d i f f icu l t t o b e s ure t ha t S i lches ter 0 9065 i s c orrec t ly g rouped i n t h is sma l l g roup o f t en a s , a l though i t s ee ms t he s a me a s t he o thers i n s hape , t he a c tua l c u t t ing e dge d oes n ot a ppear t o s tar t u n t i l t he b lade b eg ins t o c urve , a l though t he t oo l i s s o mewha t c orroded a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t t o b e c er ta in a bou t t h is .

Two o f t he s ocke ts o f t h is s ub-group h ave s ing le r ive t h o les , o ne h as

ac ross r ive t , f ive a re s i mp le a nd t wo h ave t he f langedtang t ype o f a t tachmen t . The t ype c an b e I ron Age —Longbr idge Dever i l l , Hambledon , Barbury Cas t le , Ma iden C as t le , B igbury , o r R o man—S i lches ter , Yard ley Has t ings , H od H i l l?, a nd p oss ibly t he t oo ls f ro m Dorches ter a nd B ren t ford . The o ther t h ir ty s ix o f Type l b a re sma l ler -12-13 cm o vera l l l eng th i s a verage — though s o me ( e .g . t he Hunsbury a nd S wa l lowc li f fe Down t oo ls ) a re sma l ler —c. 9 cm .

The b lades a re n arrower a nd more c urv ing .

Mos t h ave

o pen s ocke ts t hough t he Ma iden C as t le , C ha lk , Wi lderspoo l , p robab ly t he Wroxe ter a nd H od H i l l t oo ls a nd t he u nprovenanced t oo l f ro m K et ter ing Museu m h ave c losed s ocke ts .

S ix h ave a s ing le b ack r ive t .

Two ( Wor l ing ton a nd H od

H i l l —B . M. 1 960 4 -5 9 38 ) h ave t he f l angedtang t ype o f a t tach men t .

There

a re p oss ib ly t wen ty o ne I ron Age a nd n ineteen R o mano-Br i t ish T ype l b r eaping h ooks a nd s ix a re u ncer ta in ly d a ted ( Tab le X E ) . The f or ms o f t he h ooks d o n o t v ary much t hrough t he p er iod t hough more t oo ls s ee m t o h ave c losed s ocke ts i n t he R o man p er iod t han i n t he I ron Age .

The f langedtype o f a t tach men t w i th

at aper ing t ang u p turned a t t he e nd s ee ms t o b e c o m moner i n t he I ron Age ( Fig . 1 64c ) . The I ron Age T ype l b r eap ing h ooks a re ma in ly f ro m h i l l for ts ( 18 :21 ) , o thers a re f ro m o pen a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men ts .

The R o mano-Br i t ish r eaping

h ooks a re ma in ly f ro m sma l l s e t t le men ts o r t owns ( 10 :19 ) , o r v i l las ( 2 :19 ) ; t wo a re f ro m f or ts a nd o thers a re f ro m h oards o r a re s tray f inds ( see C a tal ogue ).

F ew I ron Age o r R o mano-Br i t ish t oo ls c an b e p recise ly d a ted , b u t

a l l t he I ron Age t oo ls wou ld a ppear t o b e r e la t ive ly l a te i n d a te —Swa l lowc l i f fe Down , f or e xa mp le b e ing among t he e ar l ies t . The I ron Age t oo ls a re o ccas iona l ly f ound i n i n teres t ing p os i t ions , e .g . C aburn , o r L ongbr idge Dever i l l , where t he r eaping h ook was f ound i n ap i t w i th a c ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f c arb on ised g ra in . The R o mano-Br i t ish t oo ls a re g enera l ly l ess p rec ise ly d a table b u t b o th e ar ly s i tes , e .g . R ichborough , C o lches ter a nd Wi lderspool , a nd l a te c on tex ts , e .g . Wor l ing ton a nd S i lches ter 4 th c en tury h oards , a re s hown i n t he 4 54

C a ta logue l i s t .

The d is tr ibu t ion i n R o mano-Br i t ish t imes i s w ider t han i n

t he I ron Age , when t he d is tr ibu t ion i s r es tr ic ted t o s ou thern Eng land ( Map 1 2 ). N one o f t he T ype I b r eaping h ooks c an b e s a id t o b e b a lanced b u t i t may b e s een o n af ew e xa mp les , e .g . C ar l is le , Wroxe ter , H od H i l l a nd S u t ton Wa l ls ( Figs . 1 64b , a , 1 63b ) , t ha t t here i s a n a t te mp t a t p os i t ion ing s o me o f t he b lade we igh t b ackwards o ver t he h and le , i .e. t he b ack s hou lder o f ten p resen t o n r eap ing h ooks o f t h is t ype ( e .g . Barbury Cas t le a nd Ma iden Cas t le , F ig . 1 62c ) h as b eco me more p ronounced , a nd o n t he C ar l is le t oo l ( Fig . 1 64b ) f or e xa mp le , i tj u ts o u t u p t o 1 .8 cm b ack o ver t he s ocke t b ack .

A l l f our

t oo ls w i th t h is c harac ter is t ic a re R o man ( t he H od H i l l t oo l i s p oss ib ly I ron Age ) a nd i tc ou ld b e t ha t t h is was a n a t te mp t t o a d jus t s l igh t ly t he b a lance o f s ocke ted t oo ls i n a way f ound t o b e u se fu l i n t anged t oo ls .

The s ocke ted t oo l

f ro m D orches ter h as t he o pen s ocke t a t as lan t s o t ha t , a ga in , t here i s ac ert a in c oun terpoise t o t he we igh t o f t he b lade.

The h ook f ro m C ha lk a lso s hows

as l igh t b a lanced t i lt o f t he b lade , a s d oes t he Wi lderspoo l t ool t hough , a s t h is t oo l i s l os t , we a re d ependen t o n ad raw ing i n Warr ing ton Museu m a nd we s hou ld n o t r e ly t oo h eav i ly u pon t he f or m i ta ppears t o s how. The o n ly me mber o f T ype I c i s ar a ther d ubious ly d a ted t oo l f ro m Rusha l l Down ( Fig . 1 72 ) n ow i n t he B r i t ish Museum ( 1904 1 0-17 1 1 ).

I t s ou ld a ppear

t o b e more c lose ly r e la ted t o Type I a t han l b , w i th t he l ong , c urv ing b lade more o r l ess a t r igh t a ng les t o t he s ocke t .

I th as a s hor t , o pen s ocke t w i th

b ack r ive t , a nd a s hor t s ha f t , r ec tangu lar i n s ec t ion , c onnec t ing t he s ocket t o t he b lade . The c u t t ing e dge b eg ins a s t he b lade t urns s harp ly a way f ro m t he s ha f t .

The b lade i s l ong-45 cm c hord measure men t a nd o n ly 1 .6 cm w ide.

Tanged R eap ing H ooks :

F or ty o f t he t o ta l o f o ne h undred a nd f ive

t anged r eap ing h ooks a re o f T ype Ha ( Fig . 1 58 ) , s ix teen o f wh ich a re I ron Age , t wen ty t wo R o mano-Br i t ish a nd t he r e ma inder c ou ld b e e i ther a s t heir c ont ex t i s imper fec t ly k nown ( see Table X I ).* They h ave s hor t , b road ly c urv ing b lades , w i th t he c u t t ing e dge g enera l ly c o m menc ing o n t he i ns ide c urve where t he c urve o f t he b lade b eg ins .

G enera l ly t here i s as l igh t b ack o r f ron t s hou l-

d er t o s epara te t ang f ro m b lade , b u t i n s even teen c ases —e.g . S ibson , London ( Gu i ldha l l R1 1188 , 1 1920 ) , A lches ter , H ea thenco te ( Figs . 1 78a , 1 73b , 1 75d ) n o s hou lder e x is ts . I n t he l a t ter c ases , t he t ang i s u sua l ly w ide , at h in r ect angu lar i n s ec t ion , e i ther s l igh t ly t aper ing ( e .g . A lches ter a nd S ibson ) o r s tra igh t s ided ( e .g . A l l Ca rm ings C ross - F ig . 1 77c ).

I n t he c ase o f t he

s hou ldered t oo ls , t he t ang i s u sua l ly t h inner , t aper ing o f ten t o ap o in t ( e .g . Wi lderspoo l , F ig . 1 78b ) .

N ine t oo ls , b o th I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Br i t ish ,

h ave o ne ( e .g . S ibson ) , t wo ( e .g . A l l C anning 's C ross ) , o r t hree ( e .g . L ondon ) r ive ts a s e x tra a t tach men t .

Th is e x tra a t tach men t i s o bv ious ly e Specia l ly

n ecessary where t here i s n o s hou lder b e tween b lade a nd t ang .

Two t oo ls h ave

f erru les — fro m C aerwen t a nd Wor l ing ton— to e ncirc le t he wooden h and le . The f erru le o n t he t oo l f ro m C aerwen t e nc irc led t he wooden h and le w i th n o a dd iS ince t he t ime o f wr i t ing , a no ther t oo l o f T ype Ha h as b een f ound i n a n I ron Age c on tex t a t t he mu l t i-per iod s i te a t Ab ingdon ( Parr ing ton 1 978 f ig . 5 8 :7 ).

The u nshou ldered t anged t oo l h as o ne r ive t a nd t he r e ma ins

o f t he h and le o f f ie ld map le s t i l l a dher ing . 4 55

t iona l s uppor t , whereas t he Wor l ing ton f erru le i s f ixed b y ar ive t.

I n t he

ma jor i ty o f t oo ls , t he b lades ' c u t t ing e dges a re a l l c urved p roceed ing d irec t ly f ro m t he t op o f t he t ang .

On s o me t oo ls , h owever , t he l ower p ar t o f t he b lade

c on t inues u p s o me way f ro m t he t ang t op i n t he s a me p lane a s t he t ang ( Fig . 1 58 ) .

Th is a pp lies t o t he S a l monsbury p a ir ( Fig . 1 71a , b ) , t he H ea thenco te

( F ig . 1 75d ) , t wo H am H i l l a nd a Wi lderspoo l t oo l ( Fig . 1 78b ) .

The b lades o f

t hese s ix t end t o b e b roader t han t he o thers a nd a re r em in iscen t o f b i l lhook b lades , b u t t heir b lades a re more c urv ing t han b i l ls .

The l arger S a l monsbury

t oo l i s i n f ac t a bnor ma l ly w ide i n t he b lade , e specia l ly f or a n I ron Age t oo l , a nd i tc ou ld b e t ha t t h is i s a sma l l , c urv ing b i l l r a ther t han a r eap ing h ook . One o f t he G las tonbury t oo ls h as a n e x traord inary me thod o f a t tach men t ;

t he

t ang i s d oub le , t he t wo p ar ts b e ing a t tached a t t op a nd b o t to m w i th a p ro ject ing r ive t .

The wooden h and le wou ld h ave p resumab ly r es ted a ga ins t t he b ack

p iece a nd b een p ierced b y t he i nner p iece o f i ron . Th is me thod o f a t tach men t i s u n ique i n my k now ledge , a t l eas t i n t he I ron Age . The a c tua l t oo ls a ppears t o b e l os t , b u t t he d rawing i s mos t e xp l ic i t ( Bu l leid a nd G ray 1 917 I , p . 3 84 F ig . LX I ) .

One o f t he t oo ls f ro m F o lkes tone h as a t ang wh ich , p o in t ing d own

i n t he n or ma l way , t urns t hrough 1 80 t o p o in t u pward t oward t he b lade .

P ar t

o f t he t ang h as b een b ea ten o u t t o f or m a w ide p la te , a nd a r ive t a t taches t he u p turned t ang t o t h is p la te ( Fig . 1 76b ) .

At oo l f ro m C aerwen t h as a s im i lar

p la te a nd t urned u p t ang , b u t t h is i s n o t r ive ted ( F ig . 1 84a ) ;

t h is t ool

a lso

h as a p o in ted b lade e nd , t urned o ver t o f orm a l oop , af ea ture a lso f ound o n t he u nprovenanced t oo l n ow i n C a mbr idge Un ivers i ty Museu m ( Fig . 1 75a ) ; i t was p resu mably f or s uspens ion when t he t oo l was n o t i n u se . The e ar l ies t ha t oo l Iam a ware o f i s t he A l l C ann ing 's C ross c urved r eaping h ook ( Fig . 1 77c ) .

I th as a s hor t t ang w i th t wo r ive ts a nd a s hor t

c urved b lade r unn ing d irec t ly f ro m t he t op o f t he t ang .

The b read th o f t he

b lade , t he way i n wh ich t he b lade r uns d irec t ly f ro m t he t ang , a nd i ts mi ld c urve i s r em in iscen t o f t he g enera l s hape o f t he l a te Bronze Age t anged k n ives a nd s ick les ;

t he ma in d i f ference i s t he u pward l i f t ing o f t he b lade a nd t he

g rea ter c urve , a s was s een b e fore i n t he e ar ly d eve lop men t o f Type I a r eap ing h ooks .

The t oo ls f ro m t he l a ter I ron Age s i tes —Bredon H i l l , B igbury ( F ig .

1 74c ) , Hunsbury ( F ig . 1 75c ) , S a l monsbury ( Fig . 1 71a , b ) , S ou th C adbury , H ea thenco te ( Fig . 1 75d ) , Barbury Cas t le ( F ig . 1 76a ) a nd Ma iden C as t le — g enera l ly s hare t hese c haracter is t ics ;

o n ly t hree — the Barbury Cas t le a nd t he

t wo S ou th Cadbury t oo ls —have s hou lders b e tween t ang a nd b lade , a nd a l l h ave t he r a ther u pr igh t , b road ly c urv ing b lade .

The Bredon H i l l t oo l i s v ery s im i lar

i n s hape , w i th t he w ide t ang h av ing a r ive t h o le ;

t he H ea thenco te a nd sma l ler

S a l monsbury t oo ls a lso h ave a r ive t h o le o r r ive t .

One o f t he G las tonbury

t oo ls h as t he u n ique a t tach men t method b e fore d escr ibed .

The ma jor i ty o f

t hese e ar ly t oo ls h ave w ide t angs s im i lar t o t he A l l Cann ing 's C ross t oo l . F ew ( e .g . t he t wo f ro m S ou th C adbury a nd t ha t f ro m Barbury C as t le ) h ave n arrow s p ike t angs . The A l l C ann ing 's C ross a nd B redon H i l l t oo ls a re v ery s im i lar i n l eng th —7.8 cm a nd 7 .4 cm r espect ively —bu t o n t he who le t he s ize i ncreases l a ter i n t he I ron Age. The H ea thenco te t oo l i s 1 2.7 cm l ong , o ne o f t he Hunsbury t oo ls i s 1 1.9 cm , t he S ou th C adbury t oo l 1 8 .8 cm , o ne G las tonbury t oo ls ( now b roken ) 1 5 .7 cm , t he o ther 1 7.6 cm l ong .

The S ou th Cadbury t ools h ave

c ons iderable f ron t a nd b ack s hou lders , a nd , o n o ne e spec ia l ly , as l igh t b ackward

4 56

t hrus t o f t he b lade b ack i s t end ing t oward ab a lancing o f t he b lade.

I ti s a bou t

t his t ime —is t c en tury B .C .— tha t , a s may b e s een f ro m It h t ype r eaping h ooks , t he b a lanced s ick le b eco mes a n i ndependen t t ype i n B r i ta in .

The u pr igh t

r eaping h ook c on t inues , h owever , t o t he e nd o f t he R o man p er iod .

I ti s p os-

s ib le t ha t t hey were u sed f or a d i f feren t f unc t ion f ro m t he g ra in c u tt ing b a la nced s ick le , o r i tm igh t b e t ha t , a s i s e xpected w i th a n ew d eve lop men t , i t was s o me t ime b e fore i t s pread t o a l l p ar ts . The f ive r eaping h ooks o f T ype Ia f ro m H am H i l l ( F ig . 1 77a , b , d ) c ou ld b e I ron Age o r R o man . A l l a re r a ther f rag men tary , b u t a l l w ou ld a ppear t o h ave a n u pr igh t b lade w i th a s hor t , t h ick t ang s epara ted b y af ron t a nd b ack s hou lder w i th a s l igh t t hrus t ing b ack o f t he b lade o n a t l eas t o ne e xamp le.

The t hree mos t c o mple te t oo ls measure

c . 1 6 cm i n l eng th . The R o mano-Br i t ish T ype I la r eap ing h ooks a re q u i te v ar ied i n s tyle. S o me —e .g . t he t hree f ro m T rapra in , t he D inorben ( Fig . 1 74a ) , a nd L ondon —are q u i te s l igh t w i th s hor t , c urving b lades a nd s l igh t t aper ing t angs .

O thers

—e .g . t he S ibson ( Fig . 1 78a ) , A lches ter ( F ig . 1 73b ) , L ondon a nd Wi lderspoo l ( Fig . 1 78b ) t oo ls —are l arger w i th w ide c urv ing b lades u p t o 2 4.7 cm o vera l l l eng th ( S ibson a nd Wi lderspool ) a nd h ave b lade w id ths o f o ver 3 cm .

O thers —

e .g . t wo f ro m Trapra in ( F ig . 1 74b ) —have w ider a nd l onger b lades , s tre tching 1 4 cm ( chord measure men t o f GV M 4 83 ) .

O f ten t hey a re q u i te u pr igh t ( e .g .

S ibson , A lches ter , Wi lderspoo l a nd t wo f ro m L ondon ) b u t o ccas iona l ly t here i s ah in t o f b a lanc ing , a s i n t he Trapra in t ool ( No . GV M 4 82 ) a nd L ondon t oo l ( B .M . 5 6 7 -1 1 130 ).

The p resence o f a n u pr igh t , b road ly c urv ing b lade i n

t he Wor l ing ton a nd S ibson h oards —bo th p robab ly 4 th c en tury —shows t ha t t he u pr igh t r eaping h ook c on t inued i n u se , t hough l ess c o m mon ly , t oward t he e nd o f t he R o man p er iod .

I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t n one o ccur o n Ro man v i l las .

Many o f t he Ro mano-Br i t ish Ia r eap ing h ooks a re f ro m n a t ive s i tes , f our a re f ro m R o man t owns a nd t hree f ro m f or ts . Th ir ty f ive I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish t oo ls h ave s o me c la im t o b e c a l led b a lanced s ick les — in o ther words t he b lade o f t hese t oo ls i s s e t b ackwards o ver t he h and le t o e f fec t ab a lancing when t he s ick le i s i n u se.

I n t h is g roup

s o me t oo ls h ave b een i nc luded wh ich a re o n t he b order line b e tween Types Ia ; a nd I l b , e .g . t he C oygan C a mp t oo ls ( Fig . 1 83d ) .

O thers h ave t he c haracter-

i s t ic b ackward s weep o f t he b lade wh ich i s , i n t h is t ype , s t i l l q u i te u pward i n emphas is .

Ba lanced s ick les t end t o b e more c urving t han o ther r eap ing h ooks

a nd o f ten a ssu me a s em i-circu lar c u t t ing e dge —e .g . o n t he L lyn C err ig Bach ( Fig . 1 79b ) t oo l .

Mos t h ave s tra igh t , t h in s p ike t angs wh ich t aper t o ap oin t

w i th , o bv ious ly , as hou lder b e tween t ang a nd b lade . e dged .

B lades a re a lways s ing le-

O ccas iona l ly , t angs h ave t urned u p p oin ts —e .g . o n a n u nprovenanced

t oo l a t C ambr idge Museu m o f Archaeo logy a nd E thno logy , S ibson ( Fig . 1 80a ) a nd Muck ing . ( F ig . 1 82c ).

O thers h ave t angs wh ich e nd i n ak nob —e .g . Bank o f E ng land B lade s hapes o n t hese t oo ls v ary s o mewha t , f ro m b as ica l ly

u pr igh t , e .g . o n t he C oygan C amp ( Fig . 1 83d ) , a nd H eng is tbury H ead , t o v ery c urved , e .g . o n t he S ibson ( F ig . 1 80a ) a nd L lyn C err ig B ach t oo ls ( F ig . 1 79b ) .

4 57

A few balanced sickles appear to be Iron Age in date-e. g. Glastonbury (two), Credenhill, Croft Ambrey and Llyn Cerrig Bach. These all probably date from the later part of the Iron Age. A stray find tool from the predom­ ipantly Iron Age site at Linton, Cambs. (Fig. 181c) is probably Iron Age, and t .js small tool has a pronounced backward tilt of 3. 3 cm. This tool still has ifs antler handle. The entire length of this tool is only 17.7 cm, and it is the smallest in this group. One of the two tools from Glastonbury is the largest complete tool in the group and is £· 29 cm in length. Another Glastonbury tool, very fragmentary, would appear to have been a modern-looking, highly balanced sickle if we are right in the identification of this tool. It retains the original ash handle some 29. 5 cm long. This must have been an extremely large tool when complete. Thus it would appear that by the end of the Iron Age the balanced sickle had a quite developed form in Britain though it was by no means a common­ place tool at this time. The form has also been found in early Roman contexts -e. g. on Walbrook sites, Bartlow tumulus, Blackburn Mill (Fig. 179a), Newstead (Fig. 181a) and Carlingwark Loch hoards; and on later Roman sites -e. g. Sibson and Great Wakering (Fig. 183c). The distribution of Type IIb sickles in the Iron Age shows the usual division between hillforts (four tools) and other, agricultural, settlements (four tools). The Romano-British Type lib sickles have been found on villas, forts, native settlements, Roman town or smaller settlements, or hoards. There are ten tools of Type IIc known to me on which the tang is at right­ angles to the long blade, and the tools show no sign of balancing (Figs. 185187). Two of these ten are uncertainly members of this group, as they are

a:

fragments of blades only. Of the rest, six have blades which commence with cutting edge at the curvature of the blade. Two others, Corbridge and Wils­ f