Ceramic Ecology Revisited 1987, Parts i and ii: The Technology and Socioeconomics of Pottery 9780860545620, 9781407347196

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1. CLAY RESOURCE SPECIALIZATION IN ANCIENT TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CULTURAL PROCESS
CHAPTER 2. PREHISTORIC DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS OF DOMESTIC CERAMICS IN SORSOGON, PHILIPPINES: AN ARCHAEOMETRIC STUDY
CHAPTER 3. THE THREE-STORY KILN OF AGOST, SPAIN
CHAPTER 4. ELITE CERAMICS: DISHES FIT FOR A KING
CHAPTER 5. AN ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF MAYA DOMESTIC POTTERY PRODUCTION
CHAPTER 6. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS, KINSHIP, AND INNOVATION: THE ADOPTION OF THE TORNETE IN TICUL, YUCATAN
CHAPTER 7. LEAST-COST AND FUNCTION-OPTIMIZING INTERPRETATIONS OF CERAMIC PRODUCTION: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
CHAPTER 8. CERAMIC ECOLOGY AND THE CLAY/FUEL RATIO: MODELING FUEL CONSUMPTION IN TLAJINGA 33, TEOTIHUACAN, MEXICO
CHAPTER 9. CLASSIC TEOTIHUACAN GRANULAR WARES: CERAMIC ECOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS
CHAPTER 10. CLASSIC TEOTIHUACAN COPOID WARES: CERAMIC ECOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS
CHAPTER 11. CLASSIC TEOTIHUACAN CANDELEROS: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

Citation preview

Ceramic Ecology Revisited 1987 T he Technology and Socioeconomics of Pottery

edited by

Charles C. Kolb

Part i

BAR International Series 436(i)

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S436 (I), 1988: 'Ceramic Technolog y Revisited, 1987' Part I © The Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390017 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390024 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545620 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347196 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545620 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

TABLE OF CONTENTS Part i Chapter

Pages

Title and Author(s) Table of Contents: Parts i and ii

iii - iv v - xxiii

Preface (Charles C. Kolb)

1 -

31

Clay Resource Specialization in Ancient Tanzania: Implications for Cultural Process (S. Terry Childs)

33 -

56

2

Prehistoric Distribution Networks of Domestic Ceramics in Sorsogon, Philippines: An Archaeometric Study (E. Zubrow, J. Fountain, A. Pelcin, K. Allen, P. Bush, K. Bartoletta, and L. Hunt)

5'1 -

87

3

The Three-story Spain (Beal M. Marcia Selsor)

89 - 109

4

Elite Ceramics: Dishes Fit for a King (Louana M. Lackey)

111 - 142

5

An Ethnoarchaeological Approach to of the Maya Identification Domestic Production Pottery (Michael Deal)

145 - 164

6

Socioeconomic Status. Kinship, and Innovation: The Adoption of the Yucatan Ticul, Tornete in (Delores M. Ralph and Dean E. Arnold)

165 - 198

7

Least-cost and Function Optimizing Interpretations of Ceramic Pro­ An duction: Archaeological Perspective (Robert L. Rands)

199 - 226

8

Ceramic Ecology and the Clay /Fuel Ratio: Modeling Fuel Consumption Teotihuacan, Tlajinga in 33, Mexico (James J. Sheeh y)

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Kiln of Agost, Mossman, III and

P art

i i

P ages i ii 2 27

C hapter

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3 1 14

9

T itle

a nd

T able

o f

C lassic

Author C ontents:

T eotihuacan

P art

i i

G ranular

W ares:

C eramic E cological I nterpretat ions ( Charles C . K olb) 345

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4 1 49

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4 48

1 0

C lassic Teotihuacan C opoid Wares: C eramic E cological I nterpretat ions ( Charles C . K olb)

6 45

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C lassic T eotihuacan C andeleros: P reliminary A nalysis ( Charles Kolb)

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i v

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A C .

P REFACE Charles

C .

K olb

I ntroduction The e leven p apers comprising t his two-part volume reflect recently completed a nd/or ongoing s tudies of ceramic a rtifacts or p rocesses ranging f rom t he s elections of r aw materials, methods of manufacture a nd decoration, t o f iring t echniques, d istributions of the f inished p roducts, a nd c ultural i mplications. T hese contributions e ncompass the t echnical a nalyses of ceramic s pecialty p roducts s uch a s tuyeres ( blowpipes u sed i n i ron s melting) a nd c andeleros ( personal, p ortable i ncense burners), t o t he more t raditional e thnographic s tudies of p ottery vessel manufacture, t o t he i nnovation a nd d iffusion of t echnologies ( kiln t ypes a nd t he t ornete a f orming d evice), t o t he p hysiochemical a nalyses of materials ( clays, a plastics, a nd s herds), a nd t o t he f unctional a nd s ociocultural i nterpretations of the vessels a nd t he p eoples w ho made a nd u sed s uch i tems of material c ulture. A lthough ceramic containers a nd o ther c lay a rtifacts a re considered, the v arious a uthors h ave a ttempted s ome more t han others t o e xplore t he i nterrelationships of the t echnical a spects of p roduction a nd/or d istribution a nd a ssociated s ociocultural p arameters. -

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T he s ubjects of these s tudies may be c lay, p ottery or ceramics. T he f ollowing general definitions a re a pplicable a nd may be f ound i n W ebster' s N ew I nternational D ictionary of the E nglish L anguage Unabridged. C lays, f rom t he A nglo S axon c l ëg, s imply defined, a re a ny earthy materials, p lastic w hen moist but h ard w hen baked o r f ired. T echnically, c lays a re w idely distributed c olloidal l ustrous earthy s ubstances, p lastic w hen moist but p ermanently h ard w hen f ired, that a re composed p rimarily of decomposed i gneous a nd metamorphic r ocks r ich i n t he mineral f eldspar i n t he f orm o f crystalline grains < 0.002 mm i n d iameter, whose e ssential c onstituents a re k aolinite a nd o ther h ydrous a luminous minerals a nd f ine p articles, a nd t hat a re u sed w idely i n the manufacture of s uch a rticles as p orcelain, building b locks, t ile, a nd e arthenware. E arthenware or p ottery, the l atter f rom t he M iddle F rench p aten e ( Old F rench p otier, meaning p otter), i s a ny w are made f rom c lay, s haped a nd h ardened b y h eat; i n a narrower s ense, the coarser vessels s o m ade, ceramics o r c layware. E arthenware i s d istinguished o n t he one h and f rom p orcelain a nd s toneware, a nd o n t he other f rom b rick a nd t ile. C eramics, f rom t he F rench ceramique, u ltimately

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derived f rom t he G reek k eramikos a nd k eramos ( potter' s c lay, earthenware, or p ottery), i nclude a ny a rticles f ormed w holly o r p artly of c lay a nd b aked. T he t erm ceramics t echnically refers t o t he manufacture of a ny p roduct ( earthenware, p orcelain, t ile, b rick, a nd i n most comprehensive definitions g lass, v itreous e namels, cement, a nd p laster refactories) m ade e ssentially f rom a nonmetallic mineral b y f iring a t h igh temperatures. -

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C eramic

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E cology

I n a ddition t o t he orientation t o c lays, p ottery, or ceramics, the contributors t o t his volume whether t rained a s a rchaeologists, ethnographers, or p hysical s cientists h ave been i nfluenced by the w orks of A nna 0 . S hepard a nd F rederick R . M atson. S hepard' s C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist ( 1 95 1 4), the s tandard r eference work, i s a s emi-technical manual, reprinted s ix t imes, which combined t echnological a nd c ultural i nformation i n a c lear a nd l ogical manner. S he c ontended t hat t he "archaeologist a nd t echnologist c annot remain w ithin t he s hells of their respective s pecialties" ( 1 95 14 :iii) a nd must u nderstanc l t he p rinciples a nd l imitations of both t echnological a nd a rchaeological methods a nd t heir respective goals. -

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F rederick R . M atson, n ow P rofessor of A rchaeology Emeritus at T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, a ceramic e ngineer, a rchaeologist, ethnographer, a nd a rchaeometrician, t ook S hepard' s s tatement one s tep f urther ( Kolb 1 98 a). I n h is e dited b ook, C eramics a nd M an ( 1 965), M atson p ublished 20 contributions f rom a 1 961 symposium o f the s ame n ame s ponsored b y the W enner G ren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch. W ith " ceramics" a s the f ocal p oint f or d iscussion, M atson s ought a cross-fertilization w hereby p rocesses a nd s ocial f actors i nvolved i n ceramic s tudies w ould b e considered. I ndeed, as the book dust j acket s tated, the volume w as " a critical a nd c onstructive s urvey of ceramic contributions to a rcheological a nd e thnological r esearch." T he h istory of the conference a nd b ackground t o t he volume h ave been detailed e lsewhere ( Kolb 1 988c). Among

t he

contributors

t o

C eramics

a nd

M an

w ere

R obert W . E hrich ( 1 965), whose lead c hapter, " Ceramics a nd M an: A C ultural P erspective," r eflected a n a nthrop ological v iew of the s ubject of " ceramics." H e concluded ( Enrich 1 965:16): My thesis i s that, s ince t he w hole f ield o f ceramics i s a t rait complex i n t he material c ulture s ense of the e thnologist, the culture concept of the cultural a nthropologist s hould

p rovide t he most comprehensive means of approaching t he s ubject. W e may thus v iew ceramics f rom t he comparative s tandpoint of ethnology, f rom t he more p articular o ne of ethnography, f rom t he s equential a nd documented a ssociational o ne of h istory, f rom e lements of a ll t hree a s r eflected i n t he a rcheological e vidence of the p ast, f rom c ontemporary i nstitutionalized f orms a nd values of a esthetic p roduction a nd a pprec iation i n t he a rtistic s ense, a nd f rom v arying t ypes of s ocial s ignificance. T he s ignificance of s ociocultural i nterpretations of p ottery manufacture, d istribution, a nd u se w as s ummarized b y G eorge M . F oster ( 1 965), a nother contributor t o C eramics a nd M an. H e concluded ( Foster 1 965: 43): I n e xamining t he v oluminous e thnographical l iterature describing t he manufacture of p ottery, one n otes w ith s urprise h ow l ittle a ttention h as been p aid t o t he s ocial, cultural, a nd e conomic s ettings i n w hich the w ork w as done. M ost descriptions deal w ith t echniques a nd p rocesses of manufacture, a nd w ith design e lements. B ut beyond t elling w hich s ex makes p ots, most a ccounts reveal l ittle a bout s uch things a s the s tatus of the p otter i n h is or h er s ociety ( except, of course, i n I ndian c aste s tudies), h ow p otters look u pon t heir w ork a rtistically a nd e conomic ally, s tandards of w orkmanship a nd t he r ange of v ariation w ithin a community, a nd, a bove a ll, a bout the p rocesses that contribute t o s tabilit y i n a t radition, which make f or change, a nd w hich may be i nvolved i n t he dying-out of a s tyle. Y et, f rom t he s tandpoint of a rcheolog ical i nterrelation, these a nd o ther " sociol ogical" p oints a re j ust a s i mportant a s a re s tyle a nd c onstruction. I n k eeping w ith the " ceramics a nd man" t heme, M atson p roposed a methodological a nd t heoretical a pproach i n a n a ttempt t o i nterrelate " pottery a nd p eople" ( Kolb 1 988a, 1 988c). H is chapter, " Ceramic E cology: A n A pproach t o t he S tudy of the E arly C ultures of the N ear E ast" ( Matson 1 965a) ‚ a lthough o riented t o t he a rchaeological c ultures of S outhwest A sia, w as i ntended t o h ave a nd h as h ad w ider a pplicability. M atson s tated t hat " unless ceramic s tudies l ead t o a better u nderstanding o f t he c ultural c ontext i n w hich t hey [ ceramic a rtifacts] w ere made a nd u sed, t hey f orm a s terile record o f l imited w orth" -

( 1965a:202). one f acet of

H e o bserved t hat c ultural e cology,

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c eramic e cology w as but " that w hich a ttempts t o

relate t he r aw materials t o t he t echnology t hat a local p otter h as a vailable i n h is [ or h er] c ulture of the p roducts h e [ or s he] f ashions" ( 1 965a:203). S uch a n a pproach, M atson s uggested, s hould h ave t he goal a nd o rientation of combining "many i nterests h istorical, t echnological, a rtistic, a nd e cological, among o thers [ so] t hat t he p ottery c an be made t o s erve o ur o bjective t he better u nderstanding o f man t hrough the s tudy of I t the material r emains that h ave been left • . ( 1 965a:21 6). T herefore, ceramic e cology w as p roposed a s a contextural, multia nd i nterdisciplinary, a nalytical a pproach t o ceramic materials i n w hich the i nvestigator s eeks t o p lace p hysical s cientific d ata i nto both a n e cological a nd s ociocultural f rame of reference by relating t he t echnological p roperties of the r aw material r esources t o t he manufacture, d istribution, a nd u se of ceramic p roducts. T he concept of ceramic e cology, b est s tated i n C eramics a nd M an, w as i mplicit i n M atson' s a rticles "Some A spects of C eramic T echnology" ( 1 963, 1 969). -

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T he f inal c hapter i n C eramics a nd M an, e ntitled "Ceramic Q ueries" ( Matson 1 965b), consisted o f a t abulation of s pecific s tatements a nd q uestions a bout ceramics a nd t heir c ultural s ignificance. T hese "queries" w ere o rganized u nder 1 7 h eadings a nd derived f rom M atson' s a nalysis of the p ublished p apers a nd t he s tudy of o ver 4 6 nours of t ranscribed s ymposium d iscussions. H e c alled t hese s tatements "gleanings, s ome of the h arvest" o f i deas a nd q uestions ( Matson 1 9o5b:2 ' (7), but made n o a ttempt t o o rganize t hem i n a comprehensive f orm s uch as might be f ound i n N otes a nd Queries on A nthropology ( Royal A nthropological I nstitute 1 951: 276-279). T he l atter, under t he t opic o f " Pottery," considered s uch aspects as p ottery i mportation a nd e xp ort, who makes the ceramic a rticles, the r aw materials, p rocesses of manufacture, f inishing a nd decorating hapes a nd n ames, a nd vessels, f iring t echniques, vessel s t he u ses of broken p ottery. M atson' s ( 1 965b) 1 7 t opics i ncluded: G eneral, O rigins, C lay, P ottery P roduction, S hape, D ecoration, T echnology, E cology, T ime S pan, R itual, C ooking, M etals, S tatus, T rade a nd D iffusion, C ulture C hange, R esistance t o C hange, a nd E conomics. I am a ware only one a ttempt t o modify a nd r eorganize t hese "queries" a nd p lace ceramic e cology i n a more logical "cookbook" a pproach i n order t o s tudy a rchaeological o r contemporary p ottery ( Kolb 1 976, 1 988c). T he i mpact of ceramic e cology h as been m ixed, but h as especially a ttracted a rchaeologists a nd e thnoarchaeo logists, both A merican a nd E uropean ( Arnold 1 985, K olb 1 976 9 K ramer 1 985, L ackey 1 982 9 P ritchard a nd v an d er L eeuw 1 984, R ice 1 987). " Students" o f M atson, i ncluding A rnold, L ackey, K olb, R ice, a nd S heehy, h ave been

e specially i nfluenced. C arol K ramer, i n h er review a rticle " Ceramic E thnoarchaeology" ( 1985:78), c redited M atson w ith b eing a p rime mover i n h elping s hift the o rientation of c eramic s tudies away f rom " descriptive a ccounts of p ottery p roduction p er s e t oward more f ocused s tudies of p articular a spects of p ottery manufacture a nd u se i n t heir l arger s ocietal a nd e conomic contexts a nd t heir i mplications f or a rchaeology." T here i s n o doubt t hat M atson h as made u s r ealize t hat s ome a rchaeological a ssumptions a re t oo s implistic a nd t hat ceramic e cology p rovides a s alient methodology f or both a rchaeological a nd e thnographic s tudies of p ottery a nd c eramic a rtifact p roduction. A n umber o f i nvestigators h ave t aken t his methodology a s tep f urther ( Arnold 1 985:12-15, K olb 1 976: 45-47, L ackey 1 982: 3-5). R eviewers of A rnold' s ( 1985) C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( cf. D eBoer 1 988, K raus 1 987, S mith 1 987) a nd o f P rudence M . R ice' s ( 1987) P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook ( cf. K olb 1 988d, R ands 1 988) h ave e xplicitly o r i mplicitly n oted t he i nfluence of the concept of c ultural e cology i n t hese t wo e xcellent

w orks.

F urther e vidence of t he s ignificance of ceramic e cology c an be s een i n a s econd W enner G ren s ponsored s ymposium o n ceramics h eld i n 1 982. O rganized b y S ander van der L eeuw a nd A lison C . P ritchard, this " follow u p" c onference resulted i n t he p ublication of 1 7 p apers i n T he M any D imensions of P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology ( van der L eeuw a nd P ritchard 1 984). T he t heme of this s ymposium w as a n a ttempt t o a ssess t he s tatus of c eramic e cology s ome 2 0 y ears after t he concept h ad i nitially been i ntroduced ( Pritchard a nd v an der L eeuw 1 981: 3-4). I ndeed, the a uthors n oted t hat C eramics a nd M an " provided a major i mpetus i n ceramic s tudies during t he t wo decades a fter i ts p ublication, a nd i s p robably the volume most often c ited b y E nglish-speaking a rchaeologists w ith the p ossible e xception of A nna S hepard' s book [ Ceramics f or t he A rchaeologist] .. . " ( 1964: 24 ). M atson' s own c ontribution t o T he M any D imensions of P ottery, " Ceramics a nd M an R econsidered w ith S ome T houghts f or t he F uture" ( Matson 1 984), s ummarized c eramic s tudies u p t o 1 960, p rovided a critical u seful a ppraisal o f the 1 961 c onference, a nd a ssessed t he current s tatus o f ceramic i nvestigations t o 1 984. I n a s ection e ntitled " The F uture," M atson reemphasized t he n ecessity of coordinated r esearch a nd c ooperation between t he a rchaeologist, a rchaeometrician, a nd e thnoarchaeologist, a nd a nticipated t hat t he 1 982 c onference w ould " raise o ur ceramic consciousness o n a w orld b asis" ( Matson 1 984:43). A rnold ( 1988: 202), i n r eviewing t he v an der L eeuw a nd P ritchard volume, referred t o t he o riginal c oncept o f ceramic e cology a nd h ow i t h as been modified d uring t he

p ast two decades. H e concluded t hat T he M any D imensions of P ottery " is t ruly a volume t hat i s concerned w ith t he h uman d imensions of p ottery: I t i s ' Ceramics a nd M an' a nd ' Ceramic E cology' ( in a broadest s ense) a t t heir best" ( Arnold 1 988: 203). L ikewise, the i mpact of ceramic e cology a nd e thnoarchaeology may be s een i n t he volume, A Pot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ditors, 1 988; Kolb 1 988a, 1 988b, 1 988c), published i n h onor of F red M atson. T he p resent volume, C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd Socioeconomics of P ottery ( Kolb, e ditor 1 988), a lso owes much t o M atson' s concept.

B ackground

t o

C eramic

E cology

R evisited,

1 987

During t he 814 th A nnual M eeting o f the A merican A nthropological A ssociation h eld i n W ashington, D .C. i n D ecember 1 985, L ouana M . L ackey ( The A merican U niversity) a nd I became k eenly aware of the s erious l ack of p apers on a rchaeological o r e thnographic ceramic p roduction, distribution, a nd u se. L ackey ( a p rofessional p otter, ethnographer, a nd a rchaeologist) i s best k nown f or h er s tudy of a community of p otters i n E stado de P uebla, M exico, T he P ottery of A catlan ( 1 9d2), a nd i nvestigations of " Thin O range" c eramics. I ( an a rchaeologist s chooled i n cultural e cology, a nd w ith s trong b ackgrounds i n t he p hysical s ciences as w ell a s t he s ocial s ciences/ h umanities) , h ave conducted a number of s tudies o n a rchaeological c eramics f rom s ites i n M esoamerica, C entral A sia, E ast A frica, a nd E astern N orth A merica. B ecause both of u s l amented t he dearth of p apers on p ottery, we f elt w e s hould o rganize a s ymposium o n ceramic s tudies f or t he s ubsequent A merican A nthropological A ssociation M eeting. W e k new that a rchaeologists f requently p resented p apers on ceramic materials at t he A nnual M eetings of the S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology,-but w e believed t hat " Anthropology" ( writ l arge) must i nclude s tudies of p rehistoric a s w ell a s c ontemporary ceramics a nd t heir makers. S ince F rederick R . M atson w as i nfluential i n our a cademic t raining a nd h ad b een a v aluable member of our respective dissertation committees ( Lackey at T he A merican U niversity, K olb a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity) we believed t he t heme of ceramic e cology a s i nitially defined b y M atson ( 1 965a) w ould b e a n a ppropriate organizational c oncept f or t he s ymposium. F ifteen colleagues a nd f riends, whose d isciplinary t raining a nd f ield r esearch r anged f rom a rt h istory a nd p etrography t o t he more " traditional" e thnographic a nd a rchaeological a pproaches, p articipated i n t he s ymposium, "A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited," w nich w as h eld a t t he 8 5th A nnual M eeting o f the A merican

A nthropological A ssociation i n P hiladelphia on D ecember 69 1 986. T he contributions w ere organized i n t wo p arts: p apers concerned w ith " The P ast" ( six p apers on a rchaeological o r p rehistoric c eramics) a nd w ith " The P resent" ( six p apers on e thnographic p ottery s tudies, ethnoarchaeological c eramics, o r broad s yntheses). L ackey a nd I were t he co-organizers a nd c o-chairs of the s ymposium, a nd I p rovided a brief i ntroduction a s t o w hy we s ought t o develop this conference t heme. F rederick R . M atson a cted a s the u nofficial d iscussant, a nd w e dedicated t hese p apers t o h im a nd h is many contributions to t he s tudy of ceramic materials. T he o riginal p apers, or r eplacements f or w ithdrawn p resentations, a re p ublished i n A P ot f or A ll R easons ( Kolb a nd L ackey, e ditors, 1 988; K olb 1 988b) w ith the a ssistance of M uriel K irkpatrick of the D epartment of A nthropology L aboratory at T emple U niversity. S he i s the e ditor of the monograph s eries C eramica de C ultura M aya e t a l. a nd o ffered h er e xpertise a s t echnical e ditor. B ecause of the " success" o f the i nitial s ymposium, a nd a t t he u rging o f M atson, a s econd c onference w as organized b y L ackey a nd I f or t he 8 6th A nnual M eeting o f the A merican A nthropological A ssociation h eld i n C hicago o n N ovember 1 9, 1 987. T his s econd s ymposium, " Ceramic E cology R evisited: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics of P ottery," i ncluded s even p resenters f rom t he i naugural meeting i n P hiladelphia p lus f ive " new" p articipants. D ean E . A rnold, author o f the a cclaimed C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess ( 1 985) a nd a 1 986 p resenter, a cted a s the d iscussant f or t he s econd s ymposium. T hese 1 987 p apers w ere a gain d ivided i nto t hose dealing w ith " The P ast" ( six p apers) a nd a s econd group concerning " The P resent" ( six p apers). T he p apers, i n order of s cheduled p resentation w ere: P art

O ne:

" The

P ast."

J ames

J . S heehy ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity): "Tr ie C lay/Fuel R atio a nd F uel C onsumption i n a P ottery W orkshop i n T eotihuacan ."

M ichael L . D eal ( Memorial U niversity of N ewfoundl and): " The A rchaeological V isibility of P ottery-making H ouseholds i n t he M aya H ighlands . "

R obert L . R ands ( Southern I llinois U niversity, C arbondale): " Least-Cost versus F unctionOptimizing I nterpretations of C eramic P roduction: A rchaeological P erspectives . "

S .

T erry C hilds T echnology):

( Massachusetts " Clay S election

I nstitute of f or C eramic

M anufacture i n A ncient S uzanne D e A tley.) E zra

T anzania."

b y

Z ubrow, J ohn F ountain, A ndrew P elcin, P eter B ush, a nd K athleen A llen ( State U niversity of N ew Y ork a t B uffalo): " The A rchaeometric D etermination of P rehistoric C eramic T rade i n S orsogon, P hilippines," ( Read b y K athleen A llen.)

Charles C . K olb ( Mercyhurst P ottery T raditions f rom E thnoarchaeological S tudy." P art

( Read

T wo:

Suzanne

"The D e

C ollege): " Painted B aluchistan: A n

P resent."

A tley

( Past

a nd

F uture,

I nc.):

" The

C ontext of P roduction: T echnological C hanges i n T raditional P ottery M anufacture i n K aratsu, J apan . "

M ichael N . G raves ( University of " Ceramic E xchange A mong t he L uzon, the P hilippines." C arol

H awaii, H onolulu): K alinga, N orthern

K ramer ( City U niversity of N ew Y ork, H erbert L ehman C ollege): " Ceramic ' Catchments' R ajasthan .

H . i n

"

B eal

M .

M ossman

a nd

M arcia

L .

S elsor

C ollege): "The T echnology a nd I mplications of the T woW ood-fired K ilns of M arcia L . S elsor . .) Louana

M .

L ackey

(T he

P roblems i n M anufacture." M elissa

B .

H agstrum

A gost,

A merican

S panish ( Withdrawn.) a nd

B anks

L .

( Eastern

M ontana

t he S ocioeconomic a nd T hree-story

S pain."

( Read

U niversity): C olonial

L eonard

b y

S ome C eramic

( University

of C alifornia a t L os A ngeles): " The C omplementarity of S ubsistence E conomy T asks: Agricultural a nd C eramic P roduction i n t he M antaro V alley, P eru." ( Read b y M elissa B . H ag S trum.) B ecause of the death of h er h usband, L ouana L ackey d id n ot attend t his C hicago s ymposium a nd h er p aper w as n ot p resented. I a cted a s chair f or t he s ymposium a nd a gain p rovided a brief o verview of h ow a nd w hy w e h ad developed t he t heme f or t his organized s ession.

t his

T he s ymposium p apers or S ubstitutes volume ( Kolb, e ditor, 1 988). F or

a re p ublished i n various reasons,

the p resentations by D e A tley, G raves, H agstrum a nd L eonard, K olb, a nd L ackey w ere w ithdrawn f rom p ublication, while L ackey a nd I p rovided r eplacement p apers. I s hall c omment on a ll t he p apers i n t he current volume i n a s ubsequent s ection of this P reface. A gain, because of the level o f i nterest generated b y the s ymposia, w ith the e ncouragement of p revious a nd c urrent p articipants a nd members of the a udience, a nd due t o i nquiries f rom o ther s tudents of ceramics, L ackey a nd I decided t o co-organize a nd c o-chair a t hird o rganized s ymposium. T his c onference i s s cheduled f or t he 8 7th A nnual M eeting o f t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation t o be h eld i n P hoenix i n N ovember 1 988. " Ceramic E cology R evisited, 1 988: C urrent R esearch on C eramic M aterials" w ill i nclude n ine p apers f rom 1 4 authors ( nine f ormer a nd f ive " new" p articipants); the p apers, i n o rder o f p resentation, a re a s f ollows: Beal

M . M ossman C ollege): S pain."

a nd M arcia L . " Clay-mixing

S elsor ( Eastern T raditions of

M ontana A gost

M arilyn P . B eaudry ( University of C alifornia a t L os A ngeles), R onald L . B ishop ( Smithsonian I nstitution), J ohn H enderson ( Cornell U niversity) , a nd Kenneth H irth ( University of K entucky): " Determining C eramic P roduction: A V iew f rom H onduras." J ames

J . S heehy ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity): " Estimating Vessel U se-life f rom C eramic A ssemblages."

L ouana M . L ackey ( The M aryland I nstitute C ollege of A rt): " Some P roblems i n S panish C olonial C eramic M anufacture." C athy

L . C ostin ( Los A ngeles C ounty M useum o f N atural H istory): " Identifying F orm a nd C ausal F actors i n t he O rganization of C eramic P roduction: A n A rchaeological S tudy f rom t he A ndean H ighlands."

T homas P . M yers ( University of E ssential R ole of P ottery A merican C ivilization .

N ebraska): " The i n t he R ise of

"

Dean

K . A rnold ( Wheaton C ollege, I L): " A C atchment A rea f or C eramic R esources:

U niversal U pdate."

K athleen M . A llen a nd E zra Z ubrow ( State U niversity of N ew Y ork a t B uffalo): " Ceramic P roduction i n a S tressful E nvironment: T he I roquoian C ase."

C harles C . K olb (Mercyhurst C ollege): S asanian S torage J ars f rom C entral W arren R . C ollege),

" KushanoA sia."

D eBoer ( City U niversity of N ew Y ork Q ueens , a n a rchaeologist a nd e thnoarchaeolog i st

specializing k indly a greed

i n t o

S outh be our

A merican ceramic 1 988 d iscussant.

s tudies,

h as

I n 19 89, at t he 8 8th A nnual M eeting of the A merican A nthropological A ssociation, a f ourth s ymposium w ill b e s cheduled. A s of M ay 3 0, 1 988, 1 5 i ndividuals ( eleven f ormer a nd f our "new" a uthors) h ad I ndicated a W illingness t o p articipate. e a nticipate a nother s uccessful s ymposium a nd, a gain, h ope t o be a ble t o p ublish the p apers a nd f urther e ducate our colleagues e thnology a nd a rchaeology a bout the s ignificance P ottery a nd t he concept of ceramic e cology. C eramic Volume

E cology

R evisited:

1 987:

T he

P apers

i n

i n of

t his

To v arying d egrees, the e leven contributions w hich f ollow U tilize concepts of ceramic e cology ( Matson 1 965a), ceramic e thnoarchaeology ( Kramer 1 985), a nd/or relate ceramic t heory t o s ociocultural p henomena a nd p aradigms ( Arnold 1 985). T he t en p rimary authors reflect a v ariety of t raining o r r etraining, i ncluding t he a rts ( art a nd a rt h istory), the h umanities ( archival r esearch, a rchaeology , e thnohi s tory a nd h istory), the s ocial s ciences ( anthropology, P sychology a nd s ociology) ‚ a nd t he n atural s ciences mineralogy , p etrography s b tude utors nts, r ange b ut u nderstand

( chemistry, e cology, geology, a nd s tatistics). T he contri-

a f ll rom a re s enior colleagu p rof es ess i n ors our t oq ues u nde t rgra t o b du ette a t r e

c eramic

materials.

T he

a uthors

a nd

t heir

works demonstrate i nter- a nd multidisciplinary approaches to t he t opic o f ceramic materials a nd a rtifacts. I s hall b riefly s ummarize t he main p oints a nd o rientations f rom e ach of the p apers. T he i nitial c olleagues; a nd ceramic p roblems

t hree chapters ( Childs; Z ubrow a nd M ossman a nd S elsor) c oncern s pecific f rom t he O ld w orld, respectively f rom

T anzania, the P hilippines, a nd S pain. ( Lackey) h as a more w orldwide f ocus i n h er of t he t erm " elite" c eramics u sed i n

C hapter F our Consideration reference t o

I ndividuals of "high s tatus" w ho w ere a ble t o o btain l imited-production ceramics. T he s even chapters w hich f ollow h ave t he M esoamerican culture a rea a s their f ocus, w ith two con tr i b utions relating c ontemporary p otters ( Deal; R alph a nd A rnold), a nd o ne Concerned w ith the compromise between l east-cost a nd f unctional p erformance ( Rands) , w ith the f inal f our a rchaeological p roblems a nd s tudies

chapters detailing of materials f rom t he

a ncient T eotihuacan p olity i n three contributions by K olb). t ions" o f these i ndividual F igures

1 a nd

central M exico ( Sheehy a nd T he geographic " distribuc hapters may be s een i n

2 .

S . T erry C hilds' r esearch i n t he K agera region of n orthwestern T anzania, E ast A frica on E arly I ron A ge contexts relates the d ifferential s election of c lays by potters a nd b y the f abricators of f urnace brick a nd ceramic b lowpipes ( tuyeres) u sed i n i ron s melting. U sing p hysicochemical s tudies a nd a n e thnoarchaeological a pproach, s he concludes that t he c lays s elected w ere c learly d istinct a nd may relate t o d ifferential a ccess t o a nd/or control o ver resources. A model o f s pecialization related t o a model o f e volution of s ocial r anking a nd s tratification i s a lso considered. R eaders w ill a lso w ant t o r efer t o V an N oten a nd R aymaekers' ( 1 988) j usc . p ublished a rticle i n S cientific A merican. E zra Z ubrow a nd h is s ix c olleagues p resent a n a spect of " research i n p rogress" o n ceramics f rom t he B icol P eninsula a nd S orsogon P rovince, the P hilippines. T heir i nvestigation concentrates u pon p roblems of local c eramic p roduction a nd domestic e xchange networks, a nd e mphasizes the a nalysis of o bjects r ather t han t he cultural mechanisms of e xchange. T echnical s tudies of the geology, c lay s ources, a nd s herds s uggest a c lear discrimination between g roups a nd l ocations a nd i mply a p otential " spatial n etwork" w hicr i may r ange f rom o rganized t rade t o i nformal e xchange or r eciprocity. B eal M ossman a nd M arcia S elsor detail t he t hrees tory k iln f rom t he contemporary pottery-producing community of A gost, S pain. U sing e thnohistoric d ata, they n ote t he combination of R oman, M oorish, a nd I berian design e lements i n k iln construction. E ach of the t hree levels of the k iln s tructure a re delineated, as a re t he p rocesses of loading vessels f or f iring, the f iring method, a nd k iln c apacities. S ocioeconomic i mplications during t he 2 0th century i ncluded l arger p roduction q uotas a nd t he maximization of efficiency, which, i n t urn, necessitated masons w ho s pecialized i n building t hese i ntricate k ilns. L ouana M . L ackey s eeks t o develop a w orkable definition of "elite" t o describe a ceramic t radition or p articular w ares. S he u tilizes h istoric a nd e thnohistoric e xamples i n h er a nalysis of oriental p orcelains, t in-glazed e arthenware, a nd E uropean a nd A merican p orcelains. T he criteria f or "elite" c eramics s uggested b y other a uthors a re e xamined, a nd s he relates a n e volutionary model w hereby i nnovation a nd e mulation f orm a cyclical p attern. L ackey cautions u s a bout

- xv -

1 :

C eramic

E cology

R evisited,

1 987:

T he

( s ) l o q 1 f l y / 1 a d r n 4 D

u O f l D a C o i y

T t b

( Kolb) F igure P apers.

R evisited,

1 987:

T he

C

K I L O M E T E R S

E cology

1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0

( Kolb) F igure 2 : C eramic M esoamerican P apers.

assigning t he a rchaeological

t erm " elite" p henomena.

t o

both

ceramics

a nd

o ther

M ichael D eal c onsiders domestic p ottery p roduction i n t he contemporary T etzal M aya c ommunity of C hanal, C hiapas, M exico. H e f inds that modern H ighland M aya manufacture i s characterized b y r epetitive p roduction a nd s torage s trategies, a nd a d istinctive t oolkit. B y u nderstanding t he r aw materials ( clays a nd a plastics) t hrough e thnographic o bservations a nd macroa nd microscopic a nalyses, we h ave a better comprehension of the s tructuring o f contemporary p ottery manufacture a nd t he s patial p atterning o f f eatures a nd a ssociated a rtifacts w hich s ignificantly i mprove t he p otential o f recognizing p ottery-making h ouseholds i n t he a rchaeol ogical r ecord. D olores M . R alph a nd D ean E . A rnold r elate t he i nnovation of the t ornete a nd i ts effect 0n t he t raditional k abal a s a t urning d evice i n t he p roduction of domestic p ottery i n t he community of T icul, Y ucatan, M exico. U sing c eramic e cology a s a n a pproach, they relate v arious models of t echnological i nnovation a nd t he s ociocultural i mplications among t he p otters. T hey t est the h ypothesis that t he "wealthy" u se i nnovation t o maintain t heir d istinctiveness, while t he " poor" a nticipate t hat i nnovation w ill u ltimately p rovide i mproved s tatus. K inship t ies among t he p otters a nd t he desirability of the i nnovation a re a lso considered. R obert L . R ands' i nvestigation of l east-cost a nd f unction-optimizing p aradigms a re related t o decision-making b y p reindustrial p otters. A dvantages of e nhanced f unctional p erformance, s uch a s r esistance t o t hermal s hock, a re juxtaposed t o t he t ime a nd e nergy " costs" i n o btaining a nd p reparing r aw materials t o make t echnologically s uper ior v essels. T race e lemental a nd p etrographic a nalyses of a rchaeological c eramics f rom t he P alenque region, n ortheast C hiapas a nd a djacent T abasco, M exico a re p resented i n a ssessing t he model o f s ociocultural b ehaviors. J ames J . S heehy, e mploying c eramic e cology a nd e thnoarchaeological methods, c alculates " clay/fuel" r atios i n a p ottery w orkshop a t t he a rchaeological s ite of T lajinga 3 3, S an S ebastian, T eotihuacan, M exico. R atios a re constructed f rom t he w eight of ceramic v essels a nd f uels u sed i n 1 9 f irings i n a contemporary p ottery-making c ompound i n S an S ebastian. T hese ratios a re related t o t he p roduction of S an M artin O range w are a t t he a rchaeological s ite i n a n a ttempt t o e stimate minimal f uel c onsumption, a nd h e a lso considers the l abor

costs i nvolved f uelwood.

i n

t he

u se

of

tumpline-transported

P art i i of the volume contains three i nterrelated p apers on ceramic materials f rom a rchaeological s ites i n t he T eotihuacan V alley, M exico, by C harles C . K olb. T hese contributions concern t wo w ares a nd a category of ceramic a rtifact p roduced during t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod ( ca. A . D. 5 0-750) b y a rtisans at t he a ncient u rban center of T eotihuacan o r by p otters residing e lsewhere i n t he T eotihuacan p olity. T he research design combines ceramic e cology, e thnoarchaeology, a nd p hysicochemical a nd microscopic a nalyses. T he i nitial c ontribution on " Granular" c eramics a nd t he s econd o n " Copoid" w ares detail t he p hysical a nd c ultural c haracteristics of these materials a nd r elate t he ceramics t o other p ottery p roduced a t o r n ear T eotihuacan a nd t o " Thin O range" w ares made o utside t he B asin of M exico. I ntera nd i ntrasite d istribution a re reviewed w ith p articular reference t o s urveyed a rchaeological s ites i n t he T eotihuacan V alley a nd t he e xcavations at t he v illage of S anta M aria M aquixco e l B ajo. P otential c ontents a nd u ses of the ceramic vessels a re a lso considered. T he f inal p aper, a p reliminary a nalysis of c andeleros ( personal, p ortable i ncense burners), a lso details the p hysical a nd c ultural p arameters of these ceramic "containers , a nd c onsiders i ntera nd i ntrasite distributions. T he u se of copal, a n i ncense reputed t o be burned i n c andeleros, i s a lso r elated a nd q uestions raised a bout o ther p otential o rganic combustibles. A "

detailed, i nitial t ypology p hase-by-phase basis i s a lso

of these p resented.

a rtifacts

on

a

A cknowledgments The e ditor w ishes t o e xpress h is s incere gratitude t o e ach of the contributors w hose researches a re p resented i n t his volume. T he i ndividual a uthors a dhered t o t he p ublication deadlines a nd a s a result w e h ave a n e xcellent " turn a round" t ime f rom o ral p resentation t o p ublication. C hapter t exts a nd i llustrations w ere s ubmitted a s requested, e dited, a nd c omputer-input by mid-July 1 988. E ach s enior a uthor r eceived "fair" d raft copy of h is/her chapter f or f inal p roofreading a nd c orrections o r comments; e veryone responded p romptly t o n otify me of e rrors. C orrections w ere made i n l ate J uly a nd t he "final" c amera-ready copy of t ext a nd i llustrations p repared b y A ugust 5 th. I especially w ish t o a cknowledge D ean E . A rnold w ho, as d iscussant, p repared w ritten comments on t he p apers orally p resented a t t he s ymposium o n N ovember 1 9, 1 987. H is verbal a nd w ritten comments h elped many o f the

authors s trengthen t heir p apers, correct f aulty thinking, or consider a dditional p arameters i n t heir i nvestigat ions. We owe D ean a s incere debt of gratitude f or h is efforts " beyond t he c all o f duty" i n comparison t o w hat i s u sually e xpected f rom a s ymposium d iscussant. B oth the e ditor a nd J im S heehy a lso a cknowledge t he courtesy of R ene M illon ( Teotihuacan M apping P roject, U niversity of R ochester) w ho k indly p ermitted t he u se of h is map of a ncient T eotihuacan. L ouana L ackey a nd I a re grateful t o t he S mithsonian I nstitution f or p ermission t o p ublish the f igures i n h er chapter. A s pecial debt of gratitude i s owed t o D r. K enneth S chiff of the M ercyhurst C ollege E nglish D epartment w ho h elped r esolve s ome of the more d ifficult grammatical q uestions that a rose during t he e diting p hase o f the p roduction of t his volume. H e i s both a s cholar a nd a gentleman, a nd I thank h im f or h is t ime a nd e ffort. T he "fair" d raft a nd f inal c opy of the c amera-ready copy w ere w ord-processed a t M ercyhurst C ollege by M rs. M ary J eanne W eiser. I especially, a m g rateful f or h er s kills a nd c areful a ttention t o detail, a nd f or a dhering t o our p ublication deadlines. L astly, D r. A nthony R . H ands, G eneral E ditor of B ritish A rchaeological R eports, h as been most h elpful i n matters of f ormat a nd i llustration r eproduction, a nd p romptly responded t o my special i nquiries. I , of course, bear f inal r esponsibility f or p roduction p roblems a nd t ypographical e rrors. I ndividual a uthors a re responsible f or t he contents of own chapters.

M ercyhurst C ollege 2 18 O ld M ain 5 01 E ast 3 8th S treet E rie, P ennsylvania 1 65 14 6 U . S. A.

A ugust

6 ,

1 988

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C ITED

A rnold, D ean E . 1 985 C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess. C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge a nd N ew Y ork. 1 986

R eview o f T he M any D imensions of P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, e dited b y S . E . v an der L eeuw a nd A . C . P ritchard, 1 984. A merican A ntiquity 5 3(1): 202-203.

D eBoer, W arren R . 1 988 R eview of C eramic E . A rnold, 1 985.

T heory a nd C ultural P rocess, A merican S cientist 7 6(2): 209.

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E hricn, R obert 1 . 1 965 C eramics a nd M an: A C ultural P erspective. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson, p p. 1 -19. A ldine, C hicago. F oster, G eorge M . 1 965 T he s ociology of P ottery: Q uestions a nd H ypotheses A rising f rom C ontemporary M exican W ork. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson, p p. 14 3-01. A ldine, C hicago. K alb, 1 976

C harles C . 'The M ethodology of L atin A merican C eramic E cology. E l D orado: B ulletin of S outh A merican A rchaeology ( Reprinted w ith r evisions, M iscellaneous S eries 5 5. U niversity of N orthern C olorado, D epartment of A nthropology, G reeley, 1 9d4.

1 988a

P reface. I n A P ot F or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited, e dited b y C harles C . K olb a nd L ouana M . L ackey. O ccasional C ontributions 2 . L aboratory of A nthropology, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia. I n p ress.

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F rederick R . M atson: A P rofessional a nd P ersonal V iew. I n A P ot f or A ll R easons: C eramic E cology R evisited, e dited by C harles C . K olb a nd L ouana M . L ackey. O ccasional C ontributions 2 . L aboratory of A nthropology, T emple U niversity, P hiladelphia. I n p ress.

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e dited b y A ldine,

1 984

C eramics a nd M an R econsidered w ith S ome T houghts f or t he F uture. I n T he M any D imensions of P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthrop ology, e dited b y S . E . v an der L eeuw a nd A . C . P ritchard, pp. 2 5-54. U niversiteit v an A msterdam, A msterdam.

M atson, F rederick R . ( editor) 1 965 C eramics a nd M an. A ldine, C hicago. l ished a s V iking F und P ublications i n 4 1. 4 enner G ren F oundation R esearch, N ew Y ork.)

f or

( Also p ubA nthropology

A nthropological

P ritchard, A lison C . a nd S ander E . van der L eeuw 1 984 I ntroduction: T he M any D imensions of P ottery. I n T he M any D imensions of P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology, e dited b y S . E . v an der L eeuw a nd A . C . P ritchard, p p. 1 -23. U niversiteit v an A msterdam, A msterdam. R ands, 1 988

R ice, 1 98(

R obert R . R eview of P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook, R ice, 1 987. S cience 240(4853): 818-819. P rudence P ottery C r iicago

M . A nalysis: A S ourcebook. P ress, C hicago.

R oyal A nthropological I reland 1 951

I nstitute

of

P .

M .

U niversity

of

G reat

N otes a nd Q ueries o n A nthropology, R outledge a nd Kegan P aul, L ondon.

B ritain 6 th

e d.,

a nd rev.

S hepard, A nna 0 . 1 954 C eramics f or t he A rchaeologist. P ublication 6 09. C arnegie I nstitution of W ashington. W ashington, D .C. S mith,

M arion

1 987

R eview of C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess, D . E . A rnold, 1 985. A merican A nthropologist 89 0 ) : 1 93.

F .

v an der L eeuw, S ander E . a nd A lison C . P ritchard ( editors) 1 984 T he M any D imensions of P ottery: C eramics i n A rchaeology a nd A nthropology. U niversiteit v an A msterdam, A lbert E gges van G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie, A msterdam. V an N oten, F rancis a nd J an R aymaekers 1 988 E arly I ron S melting i n C entral American 2 58(6):104-111.

A frica.

S cientific

CHAPTER

1 C LAY RESOURCE SPECIALIZATION IN ANCIENT TANZANIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CUL TURAL PR OCESS

S. Terry Childs Massachusetts Institute of Technology Room 20D-108 Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 u.s.A.

The Technology and In Ceramic Ecology Revisited, 1987: by Charles C . Kolb Socioeconomics of Pottery, edited 1988 , Part i : 1-31 •

0

S. Terry Childs, 1988

- 1

-

I NTRODUCTION E arly I ron A ge f armers a nd f ishermen s ettled i n t he K agera region ( Figure 1 ) o f p resent-day T anzania o ver 2000 years a go. T heir s uccessful a daptation a long t he s hores of L ake V ictoria i s i ndicated b y a concentrated s ettlement p attern ( Schmidt 1 980, 1 982), a nd much of the s horeline i s n ow o ccupied b y the p resent-day H aya p eople. R ecent a rchaeology i n t he region h as f ocused u pon a ncient t echnological s ites because t hese a re l ess o bscured b y modern H aya s ettlement t han t he h abitation s ites. T wo i mportant E arly I ron A ge t echnologies a re i ron s melting a nd p ottery making, the e vidence f or w hich a re p resent at t he e arliest i ron s melting s ites e xcavated i n t he region ( Schmidt a nd A very 1 978, 1 983; Avery a nd S chmidt 1 979; S chmidt a nd C hilds 1 985; C hilds 1 986). I ron making, i nvolving b oth s melting a nd s mithing, was a n a ctive t echnology i n t he E arly I ron A ge ( 200 B .C. -A. D. 8 00). T his i s i ndicated b y the w idespread distribution of s pecial p urpose s ites f or i ron s melting o ver t he l andscape. I t w as a lso a complex t echnology that required a number of n atural r esources, coordination of p ersonnel, a nd c areful s equencing a nd c ontrol o ver many p rocedural s teps. A lthough the s uccess of this a ncient t echnology w ould n ot h ave required f ull-time s pecialists, i t w ould h ave demanded t he h ighly t uned s kills of at least one i ndividual w ho could c ommand a ll p rocedures of the p rocess. P ottery making, on t he o ther h and, was p erformed b y a ccomplished p otters w hose s cale of o rganization i s p resently u nknown. T hese p otters p roduced a v ariety of relatively low-fired, but carefully made vessels. S herds of this p ottery, called U rewe w are, a re f ound t hroughout the K agera region, a s w ell a s o ver the greater i nterlacustrine a rea ( Posnansky 1 961, P hillipson 1 977). B etween t hese t wo t echnologies, critical s ubsistence goods l ike h oes, knives, a xes, spears, cooking vessels a nd o ther containers w ere s upplied t o t he local i nhabitants. T he data a re currently i nsufficient t o k now i f e lite a nd p restige i tems w ere made concurrently. O ur k nowledge of these t echnologies i s out of balance w ith other a spects of the a ncient culture, s uch a s the s ociopolitical a nd e conomic s tructure. T his i s a challenge t o t houghtful r esearch. T echnologies, h owever, a re d irectly affected b y a nd s imultaneously affect t he cultural a nd e nvironmental s ystem i n w hich they develop ( Binford 1 965, A rnold 1 985, L echtman a nd S teinberg 1 979). T herefore, t echnological s tudies c an contribute t o u nderstanding s ome a spects of s ociocultural s tructure a nd a daptations, e specially i f the r ight q uestions a re a sked a nd a ppropriate methods u sed. T his means that

- 2 -

0 5 0

1 00

2 00

M iles

( Childs) T anzania

F igure 1 : L ocation o f t he K agera r egion ( from C hilds 1 986).

-3 -

i n

t echnologically oriented t esting t he u sual model A frica.

d ata c an o f E arly

be a u seful w ay f or I ron A ge s ociety i n

A uthorities on t he E arly I ron A ge characterize t his p eriod a s one of s edentary v illage l ife, a griculture, a nimal domestication, pottery manufacture, a nd i ron making ( Phillipson 1 977), b ased o n t he material r emains e xcavated f rom many s ites throughout s outhern A frica. T his e vidence h as been u sed t o b uild a model t hat s tresses v illage l ife organized a round a r anked ( in t he s ense of F ried 1 967) s ociopolitical s tructure a nd c lan membership, a long w ith recognized r eligious s pecialists a nd a v ariety of crafts ( Vansina 1 984, de M aret . 1 979). T he i ncorporation of s uch c ultural p rocesses a s ranking a nd s pecialization i nto t his model i s i nteresting s ince e vidence s upporting t heir development dates t o t he e nd o f the p eriod ( ca. A . D. 1 000) a nd c omes p rimarily f rom o ne a rea i n Z aire. M ore s pecifically, the b urial s ites i n t he U pemba D epression of s outheastern Z aire h ave y ielded c onsiderable material c ulture t hat h as been u sed t o i nfer d ifferences i n t he w ealth, s tatus, a nd p ossible o ccupation of i ndividuals by the e nd o f the E arly I ron A ge ( de M aret 1 977, 1 979, 1 985; Nenquin 1 963; H iernaux e t a l. 1 971). T he i nterred a re d istinguished b y v arious k inds a nd q uantities of o bjects, e specially those of i ron, copper a nd p ottery, as w ell a s by the q uality w ith w hich s ome o bjects w ere manufactured. D espite t his e vidence s uggesting t hat s ocioeconomic a nd p olitical d ifferention d id o ccur, we a re only beginning t o consider w hen, why a nd h ow these p rocesses may h ave developed during t he E arly I ron A ge a t l arge. T he p rimary goal o f my research i s t o c onstruct a more developmental p icture of a n E arly I ron A ge culture s ystem r ather t han t he u sual descriptive one. T his w ill b e a ttempted b y thinking a bout a nd u sing t echnological data f rom t he K agera region, p articularly that relating t o ceramic manufacture by both i ron w orkers a nd p otters, t o i nvestigate p rocesses of human a daption. I t i s of p rimary i nterest h ere t o s uggest s ome t entative p rocesses by w hich r anking may h ave developed i n a ncient A frican s ociety a long s ociopolitical a nd e conomic t rajectories.

EXTENDING THE

P REHISTORIC

MODEL

C onsideration of the A frican E arly I ron A ge h as, until r ecently, rarely gone beyond description f or s everal r easons. M uch of the research h as l acked s ubstantative p roblem d efinition. T heory of culture change h as n ot been a dequately o perational i zed f or

application t o a rchaeological d ata ( Haas 1 982). the data i s d ispersed, coming f rom p ockets of conducted a ll o ver s ub-Saharan A frica.

F inally, research

I n dealing w ith the development of r anking a nd s tatus differentiation i n a griculturally based groups, we must consider t he c ircumstances u nder w hich d ifferences might e volve. F ried s uggests that rank i s l inked t o t he concentration of leadership i n s uch domains as the p roductive e conomy a nd r eligion ( 1967:133_J 41). A s the p roduction or d istribution of s ubsistence goods requires greater o rganization, p erhaps due t o i ncreased p opulation or a more d ispersed s ettlement p attern, the leader of s uch a n e ffort m ight a chieve a h igher r ank than t he rest. T his does n ot, F ried b elieves, mean t hat t he leader w ill n ecessarily a chieve s ignificant p ower. When t hat p erson a lso r ank

c laims l inks i s reinforced.

t o

t he

s upernatural,

h is/her

h igher

H aas ( 1982) e xpands on t hese i deas by p roposing t hat rank a nd s tatus, i n f act, a re a ttained b y a chieving a nd manipulating p ower. H e defines p ower a s " the a bility of a n a ctor, A , t o get a nother a ctor(s), B , t o do s omething B would n ot o therwise do, through the a pplication, threat, o r p romise of s anctions" ( Haas 1 982:157). A lthough n ot d iscussed i n detail, i t i s apparent t hat H aas s ees the t ransitions between e galitarian-ranked a nd r anked-stratified s ocieties a s ones of a ccumulating p ower bases a nd t he means of e nforcing p ower. I mportant bases of p ower l ie i n t he e conomic ( including c ontrol o ver basic r esources) a nd i deological s ystems of a s ociety. S everal o f F ried's a nd H aas' i deas a re e mployed t o e xplain t he s ocioeconomic d ifferentiation of the p eople buried b y L ake K isale i n t he U pemba D epression ( Reefe 1 975, de M aret 1 979) p resented a bove. A n i ncrease i n p opulation a mong t hese a griculturalists a nd f ishermen, due t o t he h igh n utritional v alue of f ish, i s s peculated t o h ave led t o t he need t o organize l abor f or f ishing a nd f or c learing t he r iver a nd l ake s ystem. T he l atter goal might h ave h elped r egulate t he w atertable f or a gricultural p urposes, as w ell a s f or t ravel o n t he w aterways. T hose organizers may h ave been t he f irst t o a chieve a h igher r ank f rom t he general p opulation. U nfortunately, a rchaeological e vidence f or t he p roposed f ocus of organizational a ctivity i s l acking. O nly differential a ccess t o a nd a ccumulation of p restige i tems at burial, the p ossible results of s uch a ctivity, i s c lear. T he E arly I ron A ge p eople of the K agera region s imilarly p racticed a m ixed e conomy. T he density a nd distribution of s ites s uggests that t he a ncient p opulation may h ave i ncreased o ver t ime. A lthough i t i s

5

n ot y et p ossible t o p osit t he f ocus f or e conomic o rganization i n t his a rea, i t i s f easible t o i dentify candidates f or t hose r oles that resulted i n i ncreased r ank. I t i s p roposed h ere t hat t he leaders of the i ron w orking t echnology, w hose w ork w as i nstrumental t o t he continuation of the p roductive e conomy i nvolved i n a griculture, w ere s uch c andidates f or h igher r ank. S ocietal dependance on i ron p roducts may h ave i nitially led t o s ome e conomic a dvantage f or i ron w orkers. C apitalizing u pon s uch e conomic gains, i ndividuals o r s ocial g roups might h ave t hen a chieved a degree of l ocalized c ontrol o ver t he i ron w orking i ndustry. S ome control w ould h ave p rovided t hem w ith the f oundation f or a n e conomic b ase of p ower a nd a means t o h igher r ank than o ther members of the s ociety. F urthermore, the s tructure a nd r equirements of i ron working ( concentrating p rimarily on s melting) w ould h ave f acilitated w ays i n w hich i ron w orkers i n general a nd h ead s melters i n p articular could h ave d istinguished t hemselves. F inally, f ollowing F ried ( 1 967), the a chievement of i ncreased r ank may h ave l ed t o o r been a ssociated w ith control o ver t he d istribution of subsistence a nd f inished goods. T here a re a t least three w ays that t he s tructure a nd n eeds of the i ron w orking t echnology might h ave d irectly or i ndirectly p romoted t he p osition of s ome i ron w orkers w ithin t he s ocial, e conomic a nd p olitical s pheres of E arly I ron A ge culture. T hese w ays a re p otentially applicable outside of the K agera r egion a nd i nvolve t he organization of the t echnology, i ts i deological f oundation, a nd management of the c ritical r esources u pon w hich the t echnology depended. E vidence comes f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord o f both the K agera region a nd t he w ider i nterlacustrine a rea, as w ell a s the ethnographic record. F irst, i ron s melting i s h ierarchically organized a nd r equires leadership. T he complexity of the p rocess, i nvolving a number of i ndependent operations s uch as making c harcoal, mining o re, a nd b uilding t he f urnace, necessitates a h ead s melter w ho c oordinates a nd manages varying n umbers of a ssistants ( Cline 1 937; S chmidt 1 978, 1 980). T his i ron master i s t reated w ith deference due t o t he long a pprenticeship h e must u ndergo a nd t he vast k nowledge a nd e xperience h e a cquires. T hus, the s uccess of a s melt relies o n t he t echnical a nd managerial c apabilities of at l east one leader. I t i s w ell-known i n t he e thnographic l iterature t hat s uch h ead s melters w ere often considered c hiefs of both a craft g roup a nd t he village t hey s erved ( Mackenzie 1 975, W yckaert 1 91 4) a nd w ere 4rportant leaders of c lan or l ineage g roups ( Schmidt 1 978).

6

The size of the furnace pits excavated in the Kagera region at various sites (Schmidt and Childs 1985 ) ), whe n compared t o recent Haya ones, suggest s that 6-8 peop le may have been involved in pumping the bellows during an Early Iron Age smelt. Furthermore, it is clear that all the resources, such as ore, charcoal and clay f or the furnace, came from dif ferent source building locations. Some leadership was required to coordinate the selection and collection of these materials for the operation of each smelt. Second, iron smelting in Africa is fundamentally stru ctured by ideology whi ch distinguishes it from many other cultural activities. An iron smelt is a process during which ore (nature) is mysterious ly trans f ormed into metal (culture) through the control of heat (E liade 1962). In many ethnographically-known cultures, a furnace is considered to be a fertile woman and a smelt is likened to human birth (de Maret 1980, Schmidt 1983). Thus , the bounti ful production of iron as an economic pursuit is ideologically linked to fecundity in human reproduction. It is the head smelter wh o usually has sole knowledge of the rituals and magic that help insure the success of a smelt. He also organizes and executes these practices for the smelting group. In terms of the general public, these unknown rites and magic also create a mysti fying aura around the technology itself whi ch further raises the status of its practitioners in society (Schmidt 1983). The head smelter, then, controls speciai knowledge and gains power from it in relation to his cra ft group and the society at large. This power is known from ethnographic contexts when the iron master is believed to have magical abilities that can be used for social good or, occasionally, evil (Schmidt 1983, C line 1937). Excavations of iron smelting furnaces in the Kagera region and in the· wider interlacust rine area indicate strongly that ritual and ideology p layed a role in the Early Iron Age technology. Most significantly, ritual holes have been found in the center of many furnaces (Schmidt and Childs 1985 ). These holes occasionally contain objects, either as of ferings or as containers for of ferings (van Noten 1983). As well, the bricks which constituted the fur nace superstructure were decorated in precise ways (Schmidt and Childs 1985, C ollett 1985, van Grunderbeek et al. 1983). These decorations may have a symbolic function as is known for other Bantu cultures (de Maret 1980, Schmidt 1983). It may be suggested that prehist oric iron workers, as did Haya iron workers, controlled special knowledge that gave them some power in society at large.

- 7 -

T he f inal w ay that t he s tructure of i ron s melting may h ave p repared i ts leaders f or operating i n o ther s pheres of the c ulture i nvolves the management of v ital r esources. A mong t he essential r esources f or i ron s melting, p articularly r ich i ron ores, s low burning, h igh h eat-producing f uels or e xceptionally refractory c lays s ignificantly i ncrease t he p roductive p otential o f a n i ron s melt. A n i ndicator of managerial p rowess, especially i n t he f ace of competition f rom o ther groups, then, would b e s uccess at f inding a nd maintaining a ccess t o t he best r esources. A nother i ndicator f or control o ver resources might be t he u se of s pecialized materials f or s pecific f unctions. We w ould f urther e xpect t hat s ignificant resource s pecialization a nd c ontrol b y o ne craft group i s i ndicated w hen t he s ame k ind o f resource ( i.e., c lay, ore, wood) i s u sed b y more t han o ne t echnology, but each t echnological g roup chooses different t ypes o f that resource ( i.e. those w ith different p hysical p roperties). I n t his c ase, we w ould e xpect t o f ind t he h ighest q uality resources a t l imited s melting s ites a nd t he craft groups w ith less control o ver resources u sing p oorer q uality materials. T hus, i f a h ead s melter a nd h is w ork groups a re a ble t o f ind a nd manage s pecialized r esources, whether by using h is s pecial p osition a s leader of a n i ron p roducing group or by e xperimentation a nd s ecrecy, h e might n ot only gain e conomically, but gain a nother a venue t oward p ower t hat h elps i n a chieving h igher r ank. P reliminary e vidence f rom t he K agera region i ndicates that s pecialized r esources w ere u sed i n E arly I ron A ge i ron s melting a nd c ontrol o ver a ccess t o s pecific t ypes of resources may h ave a lso o ccurred. I t i s these data w hich f orm t he f ocus of the f ollowing d iscussion.

C LAY AS A CRITICAL RESOURCE C lay i s a n e ssential r esource f or i ron s melting, as it i s f or p ottery making. C lay-based r esources w ere u sed t o build f urnaces that h ad c lay-lined p its a nd s uperstructures of bricks. I n o rder t o s timulate combustion a nd c reate requisite h igh t emperatures f or s melting, c lay t uyeres or b low p ipes ( Figure 2 ) w ere a lso u sed. O ne e nd o f these p ipes w as p laced n ear t he f urnace center, while t he other e nd w as a rticulated w ith bellows at t he f urnace e xterior. T he p ipe e nd s ituated i n t he f urnace center w as s ubjected t o t he e xtreme h eat i t h elped c reate. P otters a nd i ron s melters of the E arly I ron A ge w ere p otential c ompetitors f or c lays w ith w hich t o make a variety of domestic p ottery vessels, i ndustrial c eramics. C ompetition c an a rise

8

as w ell o ver

a s

( Childs) F igure 2 : A n E arly I ron A ge t uyere f rom t he s ite. T he b roken e nd i s melted a nd c oated w ith s lag, g rey m idsection i s o xidized, a nd t he b lack e nd i s r educed.

9

K M3 t he

resources if they a re s carce a nd demand e xceeds a vailability. S carcity means that e ither a general k ind of material i s n ot w idely a vailable i n a n a rea or materials w ith s pecific p hysical p roperties needed f or certain f unctions a re n ot w idespread o r e asy t o f ind. A ny of these constrictions on a vailability a nd a ccessibility c an be due t o n atural o r p olitically manipulated l imitations. I n t he case a t h and, we can get a n i dea of the p otential level o f competition by considering w hat p hysical p roperties of c lay might be i n demand b y both groups a nd i f there a re p roperties that a re u niquely required b y one or both groups. I n t erms of the p ottery, suitable c lay must be both p lastic a nd r esistant t o t hermal s hock a nd s hrinkage. A s w e s hall s ee below, these s ame p roperties a re requisite i n i ron s melting c lays, but this l atter t echnology demands one other p roperty of the c lays r efractoriness. A refractory c lay i s a ble t o w ithstand very h igh t emperatures w ithout collapse by melting o r b loating. T he more resistant a c lay i s t o t hermal c ollapse, thereby p reventing a ir b lockage or minimizing l osses t o t he p ipe length, the greater t he p otential y ield o f i ron b loom. I f the most refractory c lays w ere relatively s carce or u nevenly d istributed o ver t he l andscape, especially i n r elation t o t he s melting s ites, s ome i ron w orkers might h ave been motivated t o c ontrol a ccess t o t hose c lays. T hose c raft groups w ith a ccess t o t he best a nd most s pecialized c lays could h ave gained e conomic a dvantage a nd a means t oward t he a ccumulation of p ower. U nder s uch conditions, competition may h ave o ccurred b etween t he t wo t echnologies or between d ifferent i ron-producing g roups. -

-

M ETHODOLOGY Three a nalytical s teps a re n ecessary t o t est the hypothesis that c lay resources w ere s pecialized a nd t heir a ccess controlled i n o rder t o s upport t he p roposal t hat these mechanisms may h ave contributed t o e conomic a dvantage, h igher r ank a nd f oundations of p ower f or s ome E arly I ron A ge h ead i ron s melters. F irst, p otential t ypes a nd s ources of u seable c lays must be i dentified a nd t heir d istribution a nd a vailability assessed. S econd, the a rtifacts must be e xamined t o determine w hich c lay types w ere u sed f or a designated f unction, how w ell t hey p erformed a nd h ow consistently they w ere chosen. F inally, we must e valuate w hether o ne t ype of c lay c an be u sed f or multiple f unctions. W ere t here s pecific c lay resources that p otters a nd i ron w orkers might f ind e qually u seful a nd t herefore compete o ver?

-

1 0

-

K abanga B ay

K EY

_ RW

r -

K M

K emondo 1 Q 13 S ite

K A N K W

K atwe N toma K ashwa

L K Y

L ugoba

R

K yaibumba

B C K K

R ub tunb a B uchwero K ikukwe

B B

B ukabuye

B K O R W

B ugabo K aisherokindo R wemondo S wamp

B ukoba

L ake V ictoria

K A K K H K emondo B ay S cale 1 :250,000 0 5 1 0 I

•

I

K ilometers

l C amachunE P lat.au

I

3

N gono R iver

L ake V ictoria

e

( Childs) K agera

F igure 3 :

region

(from

L ocation o f c lays Childs 1 986).

c ollected

0 B umb i re I slands

i n

t he

T he i dentification a nd l ocation of c lay types w as i nitiated b y a f ield s urvey i n t he K agera region ( Figure 3 ). P racticing o r r etired i ron w orkers, potters a nd b rick makers w ere f irst i nterviewed c oncerning t he location of their resources a nd t heir c riteria f or c lay s election. S amples of these c lays w ere collected f or e xamination a nd t esting i n t he l aboratory. T he other t wo s teps i nvolved s tudying a s ample of the p otsherds, t uyere s herds a nd b rick f ragments e xcavated f rom a rchaeological c ontexts. T hree t o f ive o bjects of each a rtifact t ype were s elected f rom t hose e xcavated a t f ifteen dated, i ron s melting f urnace p its a t s ix s ites. T hese s ites w ere p robably only u sed f or i ron s melting ( Figure 4 ). O nly one f urnace w as s ampled a t f our of the s ites ( KM, R M, B U a nd KAB), while s ix f urnaces w ere s ampled a t K M2 a nd f ive f urnaces at K M3. B inocular a nd p etrographic microscopy, p hysical t esting a nd c hemical a nalysis of the c lay f ractions by e lectron p robe microscopy w ere p erformed o n t hese o bjects ( Childs 1 986). T he a rtifacts, i n a t hird s tep, were t hen compared t o f ired b riquettes made f rom t he recently collected c lays u sing t he s ame a nalytical t echniques. E xperimental c onditions w ere s et u p t o r eplicate t he t ime-temperature s chedule of a p ottery f iring a nd a n i ron s melt. T emperature a nd a tmosphere w ere varied o ver a s eries of f irings t o o btain a f ull r ange of reactions f or e ach c lay ( Childs 1 986, 1 988). S tudy of the f orming a nd f iring p roperties of local c lays collected f rom k nown locations p rovide s tandards w ith w hich t o a ssess the t ypes o f p rehistoric c lays u sed a nd t heir p erformances. T he a nalytical r esults reached f rom t his methodology must be considered p reliminary f or s everal r easons. F irst, g iven t he s ize of the K agera region, i t w as impossible t o collect a n e xhaustive s ampling o f c lays. S econd, the s ample s ize of a nalyzed a rtifacts i s s mall, but i n many c ases, represents 5 0-100% of the a rtifact type f ound i n a p articular f urnace p it. F inally, the f unctional group called p ottery i s n ot e xactly comparable t o t hat called t uyere or brick. T his i s because t he different vessel t ypes may h ave p hysical d ifferences that relate t o f unction. T he p otsherds a re l umped h ere t o e xamine general a spects of resource s election f or p ottery making i n contrast t o i ronworking.

C LAY AVAILABILITY AND

D ISTRIBUTION

F ield s urvey revealed t hat c lay-based r esources a re w idely a vailable o ver t he h ill-valley t opography ( Childs 1 986) o f the K agera region. A lthough s pecific p ockets of c lay that e xisted i n p rehistory may h ave s ince e roded o r

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1 2

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B ukoba

L ake V ictoria

. fR M R M2

K emondo B ay S cale 1 :250,000

9

5

1 0

K ilometers

N Sono R iver

V B umb i re

L ake V ictoria

I slands

KAB A £ 3900

0 a p

( Childs) F igure 14 : L ocation o f E arly I ron A ge t he K agera r egion ( from C hilds 1 986).

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s ites i n

h ave been e xploited, f our general t ypes resources h ave been i dentified, a nd a re s imilar t o t hose p resent 2 000 years a go.

of modern c lay believed t o be

T he f irst type consists of s oils containing k aolinitic c lay a nd a bundant s and p articles. T hese materials cover t he h ills a nd t heir f lanks a nd a re mostly derived f rom t he mantle of a n a ncient p eneplain containing mixed detritus. T hey a re, then, coarse-grained a nd v ary considerably i n composition. T heir a lmost u nlimited q uantity a nd e asy a ccessibility t o a ll s ites make t hese resources e xcellent f or manufacturing h ouse bricks, as they a re currently u sed. T he s econd group a re more p lastic a nd may be r ich i n k aolinite, i llite or montmorillonite c lay minerals. T hey a re f ound a long s tream b eds a nd e roded gullies that i ntermittently descend t he h illsides i nto t he v alley swamps. T his type i s n ow u sed f or making b ricks a nd p ottery a nd w ould h ave been a ccessible t o many h abitation s ites located o n t he h illsides. T he t hird c lay type consists of the most p lastic c lays, currently u sed f or p ottery a nd t uyeres. T hese k aolinitic c lays a re f ound i n s wamps w here a ccess i s often l imited b y w ater depth a nd p eat build-up. T hese swamps a re i n t he v alleys between t he h ills w here most of the E arly I ron A ge h abitation s ites a re located a nd a re nearby t o many i ron s melting s ites f rom t he E arly t o t he L ate I ron A ge ( Schmidt 1 982). T he chemical p urity of these c lays, contributing t o t heir refractory q uality, depends on localized w eathering o f the s urrounding s oils a nd r ocks. T herefore, n ot a ll s wamp c lays a re e qually effective a gainst the h igh t emperatures t o w hich the t uyeres w ere s ubjected a nd c onsiderable t esting i s necessary t o f ind t he best s ources. T he l ast type, termite mound, i s a t ransformed p roduct of a ll t he a bove materials. I t i s f ound a lmost e verywhere a nd may be u sed f or building s melting f urnaces. T he mounds s upply a h ighly a ccessible a nd e xcellent resource s ince t he t ermites h omogenize s ub-surface c lay a nd s and g rains a nd then bring t he mixture a bove ground ( Hesse 1 955, C hilds 1 986).

C LAY SUITABILITY AND FUNCTION

I N

THE

E ARLY

I RON AGE

T he g lobular p ots a nd n ecked j ars ( see S chmidt 1 978, S oper 1 971) t hat p redominate a t t he i ron s melting s ites p resumably contained t he f ood a nd d rink that s ustained the w orkers during s melting. T hese a nd o ther vessel t ypes recovered w ere a ll made i n a s imilar w ay. F irst, the p otters a dded c rushed c eramic s herds t o t he c lays. T hey made t he p ots by coiling a nd, once d ried, b urnished

a nd decorated t hem b y i ncising. T he p ots w ere t hen q uickly f ired i n a n open a nd p redominantly o xidizing a tmosphere t o a pproximately 8 00 0 C . T he c lays f or p ottery, then, h ad t o be p lastic a nd w orkable, a ble t o w ithstand c racking d uring d rying, a nd e ndure t hermal s hock f rom b oth r apid f iring a nd t he h eating c ycles of cooking d uring u se. T hey d id n ot h ave t o w ithstand p articularly h igh t emperatures l ike t he ceramics f or i ron s melting. T hirty-five s herds f rom s ix E arly I ron A ge s ites w ere a nalyzed b y b inocular microscopy a nd p hysical t esting. S eventeen of these w ere a nalyzed p etrographically a nd f ourteen chemically. T he results i ndicate t hat a f airly consistent c lay type w as u sed f or p ottery making w hich c learly d iffered f rom most of the c lays u sed f or i ron s melting, specifically f or t uyere a nd f urnace brick making. T he p ottery c lays w ere relatively f ine-grained a nd p lastic, more s o t han t hose f or f urnace bricks a nd u sually less s o t han t hose u sed f or t uyeres. N onplastic i nclusions ( Figure 5 ) w ere e vidently needed t o make t he c lay less s ticky a nd more w orkable ( suggested b y w orkability t ests on t he collected c lays), as w ell a s t o i ncrease p orosity. T he l atter p roperty i ncreases the chances f or a p ot t o s urvive drying o r f iring w ithout cracking ( Shepard 1 965, R ye 1 981). F inally, the c lays u sed f or p ottery w ere d istinguished f rom t hose u sed f or i ron s melting b oth by their relatively h igh chemical c ontent of magnesia a nd b y certain natural i nclusions, p rincipally b iotite. N one of the modern c lays c losely match the a ncient p otsherds, s o i t i s n ot p ossible a t t his t ime t o i dentify the t ype of c lay u sed w ith a bsolute certainty. S ince t he p ottery c lays w ere q uite p lastic a nd f ine grained y et contained a bundant i mpurities, however, i t i s l ikely that t hey w ere t aken f rom s tream b eds or e rosion gullies on t he h illsides. O nly two c lays w ere collected i n t he f ield f rom t his type of context. S ince t hey contained s ome biotite a nd o ther minerals f ound i n t he s herds, they a re t he most l ikely candidates f or comparison. S uch gully s ources w ould h ave been a ccessible t o t he p otters' v illages s ince most o ccupation w as concentrated o n t he h illtops a nd f lanks. T urning t o i ron s melting, the p rehistoric t uyeres ( Figure 2 ) w ere made w ith f resh c lay t o w hich c rushed c eramic p ieces w ere a dded. T his mixture w as molded a round a dowel o f a s pecified l ength a nd d iameter. T he p ipe w as s lipped o ff the dowel a nd dried b efore s hrinking a nd c racking o ccurred. D uring a s melt, a t uyere w as s ubjected t o a v ariety of conditions. I ts t ip a nd w all i nterior w ere o xidized a s a ir p assed t hrough i t a nd o ut i nto t he b last z one. T he o xidized t ip e xperienced t he

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1 5

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( Childs) F igure 5 : i n a n E arly I ron magnification.

B roken s herd i nclusions ( see a rrow ) A ge p otsherd f rom t he K M s ite. 5 x

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1 6

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h ighest t emperatures of s melt, p ossibly e xceeding 16000 C ( Avery a nd S chmidt 1 979, C hilds 1 986). B ehind i ts t ip, the e xterior w all w as s ubjected t o t he p rimary reducing a tmosphere of the s melt a nd t o a t emperature r ange of 8 00-1400 1 C . T hus, the c lays u sed t o make t hese p ipes h ad t o be p lastic a nd w orkable, a ble t o w ithstand c racking d uring d rying a nd w ithstand t hermal s hock f rom f luctuating t hermal g radients during s melting. T hey a lso h ad t o be refractory i n o rder t o minimize melting a nd c ollapse of the t ip through w hich the p umped a ir w as s ent i nto t he b last z one. F orty-four t uyere s herds w ere s ampled f rom f ive i ron s melting s ites. O f these, 2 5 were e xamined p etrographically a nd 1 8 o f these by chemistry. T he results, when compared t o t he v ariety of modern t uyere c lays collected, s how the v ariation e xpected i f c lays of the s ame general t ype w ere e xploited f rom d ifferent locations. T he p ipes u sed a t t wo s ites, K M2 a nd KM3, were made o f f ine-grained, k aolinitic s wamp c lay of h igh q uality. N ot only a re t here t extural a nd c ompositional s imilarities between s ome of the modern a nd a ncient c lays t o h elp confirm t his, but the a ncient t uyeres often contain w hite l ayers ( Figure 6 ). T hese w ere i dentified i n t he f ield a s s mall, dense l umps of c lay that a re p resent i n s ome c lay l ayers i n s ome s wamps. T he p resence of these l umps i n t he t uyere s herds, then, supports the a ncient u se of swamp c lays a nd a lso p roves that t he t uyeres w ere made f rom f resh, wet c lay, n ot f rom d ried, crushed a nd r ewetted c lay. T he t uyeres a nalyzed f rom t he nearby K M s ite, approximately a k ilometer d istant f rom t he t wo other s ites ( KM2 a nd KM3), a re coarser g rained. T hey resemble p lastic c lays but contain i mpurities s uch as i ron o xides w hich f luxed t he c lay a t lower t emperatures than desirable f or s melting a nd r esulted i n b loating a nd melting ( Figure 7 ). T he refractory q uality a nd p erformance of these p ipes, then, w as p oorer t han t he neighbors' t uyeres. N otably, chemical a nd p etrographic a nalysis i ndicate t hat t his c lay i s s imilar t o t he p ottery c lay u sed a t t he s ite ( Childs 1 986). T o t he w est on t he central p lateau, the t uyere c lays u sed a t t he B uyozi a nd K abale s ites w ere a lso c oarser grained a nd c ontained h igh amounts of f luxes that lowered t heir refractory q uality. I n both cases, h owever, the t uyere c lays u sed w ere n ot l ike t he p ottery c lays. T he l ast a rtifact t ype u nder consideration h ere , a re t he bricks ( Figure 8 ) u sed t o build t he s uperstructure of the f urnaces. T hese bricks v aried s omewhat i n s ize a nd s hape, but w ere made i n a s tandard w ay. T he builders

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1 7

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1 9

( Childs) F igure 6 : T hin s ection o f d istinct l ayers, f rom t he K M2 s ite. i nclusions a re p otsherd f ragments a dded magnification.

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1 8

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a t uyere, w ith T he l arge, d ark t o t he c lay. 6 x

( Childs) F igure 7 : T hin s ection o f a t uyere f rom t he K M s ite. T he o ne e nd w ith b ubbles o f g lass a nd b loating a re f rom e xposure t o h eat. 5 x m agnification.

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1 9

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( Childs) p rofile.

F igure

8 :

A b rick

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2 0

f rom

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t he

K M3

s ite,

s een

i n

used u ntempered, s andy c lay a nd h and-formed i t i nto s egments that v aried i n length, but a veraged 5-7 c m t hick. E ach w et brick w as c arefully p ressed i nto i ts a djacent neighbors f or good b onding, p robably t o minimize h eat loss a nd o xygen p enetration. O nce t he f urnace w as dried a nd t he s melt h ad b egun, these bricks e ndured a variety of conditions. T he p rimary atmosphere of a s melt w as a reducing o ne s o t hat t he brick i nteriors w ere reduced, while t heir e xteriors w ere o xidized. D epending o n i ts location on t he w all, a brick' s i nterior s urface reached 6 00 0 C t o o ver 1 200 ° C, while i ts e xterior barely reached 200 0 C . T hus, the brick c lays needed t o be w orkable e nough that chunky s hapes could b e made w ithout crumbling, cracking o r e xcessive s hrinking d uring d rying, p orous e nough t o e ndure differential t hermal e xpansion t hrough the t hickness of the e nough t o w ithstand c ollapse d uring s melting.

bricks, a nd r efractory by melting o r b loating

A s ample of 5 2 b rick f ragments w ere s elected f rom f ive s ites. T hirty-one of these w ere e xamined p etrographically a nd f ifteen of these u nderwent chemical a nalysis. T he results s uggest that t he s andy c lays ( Figure 9 ) f ound o n t he h illsides w ere consistently u sed t o make t he bricks. B ecause of the a mount of raw material r equired t o build a f urnace, the i ron w orkers may h ave compromised o ptimal p roperties f or e asy a ccessibility. T wo p ieces of e vidence s uggest that t he materials u sed p robably came f rom t he s melting s ites themselves. F irst, chemical a nd p etrographic a nalysis c learly s how that t he c lay s elected d iffered f rom s ite t o s ite, s o t hat very local s ources w ere u tilized. A dditionally, when bricks f rom s everal different f urnaces at t he s ame s ite w ere e xamined ( e.g. at K M2 a nd KM3), the s ame c lay w as u sed. T his s uggests that t he s ource w as s o convenient t hat i t w as continually e xploited. S econdly, chemical a nalysis of a s oil s ample f rom t he K M3 s ite c losely matched t he a ncient bricks f rom that s ite ( Childs 1 986). O verall, the s andy t exture of the bricks s uggests that t hey w ere minimally p lastic a nd o nly w orkable e nough t o make s imple rectangular masses. T heir h igh content of i mpurities, such a s i ron o xides, meant that t hey w ere n ot p articularly refractory i n a reducing a tmosphere, but a cceptable i n a n o xidizing a tmosphere. T o compensate f or p otential p roblems, the bricks w ere made t hick e nough s o t hat i f the i nner t wo centimeters melted o r b loated, there w as e nough u nreacted b rick t o maintain a dequate s tructural s upport.

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2 1

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( Childs) F igure 9 : T hin s ection s ite, s howing i ts s andy t exture.

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o f a b rick f rom t he 5 x m agnification.

K M2

R ESOURCE

SPECIALIZATION AND CONTROL

The s andy c lays u sed t o build t he i ron s melting f urnaces w ould n ot h ave f unctioned w ell f or making e ither p ottery or t uyeres. T hey w ere u sually t oo coarse grained a nd i nsufficiently p lastic t o make t hin-walled vessels or t ubular s hapes. T he brick c lays w ere a lso n ot refractory e nough f or u se a s tuyeres due t o t heir h igh amounts of impurities. I t i s u nderstandable w hy these s andy c lays were consistently e xploited f or only one p urpose g iven the a ccessibility of a lmost l imitless, y et a cceptable materials ( if the o bjects w ere made t hick e nough) i n t he "backyard" o f the s melting s ites. E ither t he gully or r efractory swamp c lays, on t he other h and, would h ave made good q uality bricks due t o t heir w orkability, p lasticity, a nd a cceptable refractory q uality. T heir u se, h owever, would h ave required a dding a bundant n onpiastics t o p revent t hermal s hock a nd a ssure e ven d rying i n t hese denser c lays a nd t his w ould h ave meant more resources a nd l abor. T he natural p orosity of the b rick c lays meant t hat t his e xtra s tep w as n ot necessary. T he s wamp a nd gully c lays w ere a lso less a ccessible, h arder t o f ind, a nd h arder t o t ransport t o a s melting s ite, g iven t he l arge bulk of material n ecessary t o build a f urnace. T hus, there w as a bsolutely n o a dvantage t o u sing t uyere or p ottery c lays f or b rick making. T he p lastic, f ine-grained n ature of the s wamp c lays would h ave made t hem i deal f or p ottery making, especially w hen c rushed s herds w ere a dded a s n on-plastics. T he refractory q uality of the s wamp c lays, h owever, h as a p otentially negative i nfluence on p ottery making. T his i s because a p ot becomes s tronger, h arder a nd more durable w hen c lay . s inters a t t he relatively l ow temperatures a chieved i n a n open f iring. F or y ears, recent U aya p otters h ave s hared many swamp c lay s ources w ith H aya i ron w orkers s o t hat s trength a nd durability do n ot s eem t o h ave been a p roblem. When f iring t ests on the modern p ottery c lays w ere conducted i n t he laboratory, a t least one p roved t o be h ighly refractory ( Childs 1 986, 1 988). I t i s l ikely that p hysical p roperties s uch as p lasticity, workability, a nd minimal s hrinkage w ere more i mportant t o t he a ncient p otters, as they a re t o t he modern p otters, than s trength. M any swamp c lays h ave a ll t he f ormer p roperties, a lthough s ome h ave h igh s hrinkage rates. W hen t he chemistry a nd mineralogy of E arly I ron A ge p ottery c lays a re compared w ith most of the a ncient, as w ell a s modern t uyeres, i t i s c lear t hat t hey w ould n ot

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23

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h ave p erformed w ell i n a s melt. I n p articular, the appreciable a mounts of i ron a nd magnesia w ould h ave led t o b loating a nd p remature melting i n h igh t emperature contexts. A n e xample of this p roblem i s w hen p ottery sherd g rog w as a dded a s t emper t o t he t uyere c lay, i t reacted b efore t he s urrounding c lay ( Figure 1 0). T hus, the p urest, least contaminated s wamp c lays s urvived b est i n t he h ighest t emperature contexts of s melting. When t uyeres w ere made of these c lays, the s uccess of i ron s melting w as more i nsured. G iven t he p roperties of the c lays chosen f or t he p articular f unctions u nder i nvestigation, a ny competition t hat might h ave a risen w ould h ave been o ver s wamp c lays. P otters a nd i ron w orkers w ould b oth h ave h ad r eason t o e xploit t he p lastic c lays that a lso h appened t o be refractory. D ifferent groups of i ron w orkers, on t he other h and, may h ave competed o ver t he refractory c lays of the h ighest q uality. T he leaders of i ron s melting groups w ho s uccessfully maintained a ccess t o t hose materials w ould h ave been a t a d istinct e conomic a dvantage. T he data t o d ate s how that t he a ncient p otters rarely, if e ver, used h ighly refractory swamp c lays. N ot only i s this choice of c lays e vident a t t he K M2 a nd KM3 s ites a long t he s hore of L ake V ictoria, but i t i s t rue a t t he t wo s ites on t he i nland p lateau. T here, neither t he t uyeres or p ottery w ere of h ighly refractory c lay, but different c lays w ere u sed f or t he t wo f unctions. I t i s n ot p ossible t o s tate conclusively that t he i ron w orkers denied t he p otters a ccess t o t heir resources. S ome mechanism o perated, h owever, t o c ause the two c raft groups t o u se d ifferent t ypes of c lay. S ince t he a ncient i ron w orkers, who h ad a ccess t o t he most refractory c lays f or t uyeres, would b enefit t he most by n ot h aving t heir resources u sed u p by potters, i t w as t o t heir a dvantage t o g ain s ome s ort of controlling i nterest. T his might h ave p rovided a f ounding b asis f or p ower, at least i n relation t o other t echnological groups. A p ossible, though currently untested w ay that a n i ron master may h ave i nsured c ontrol o ver s pecial resources w as t o manipulate t he i deology, a nother basis f or p ower, that s urrounded a nd mystified i ron s melting. F urthermore, when a group of i ron w orkers d id n ot h ave a ccess t o optimal s wamp c lays their y ield o f i ron w as lessened. T his h as been documented during s everal r econstructions of H aya i ron s melting w hen d ifferent c lays w ere u sed. T he less refractory tuyeres melted a way to a much g reater degree w hich i nfluenced t he s maller y ields of i ron b loom ( Schmidt a nd C hilds 1 988). L aboratory e xperiments w ith the modern c lays a lso s how

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( Childs) F igure 1 0: T hin s ection o f a t uyere f rom t he K M2 s ite i n w hich t he p ottery i nclusions ( dark, p atches) h ave melted p rior t o t he more r efactory c lay o f t he t uyere b ody. 5 x m agnification.

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2 5

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that s ome s wamp c lays a re s ignificantly more refractory than others ( Childs 1 986). I n t erms of the a rchaeological d ata, the f act t hat t he i ron w orkers at the K M2 and KM3 s ites u sed h igh q uality swamp c lays f or t uyeres i n contrast t o t he p oorer q uality c lay u sed a t t he K M s ite i ndicates that t he f ormer c raftsmen h ad a t echnological a nd, u ltimately, a n e conomic a dvantage. B y l imiting a ccess t o t heir t uyere c lay or by k eeping the location s ecret, a h ead s melter h elped h is group t o p roduce more a nd p ossibly a better i ron t han h is neighbors. C ertainly these a chievements could e nhance h is r ank, p rove h is a bility t o s uccessfully o rganize behavior f or o ther s ocietal t asks, a nd p rovide i nitial b ases on w hich t o a ccumulate p ower.

S UMMARY The p urpose of this research i s t o i nvestigate s ociocultural p rocesses of a ncient A frican p eoples by u sing t he a bundant t echnological d ata t hat i s a vailable f rom t he a rchaeological r ecord i n T anzania. T he f ocus i s on t he development of e conomic a dvantage a nd s ociopolitical r ank o ver t he E arly I ron A ge p eriod because t here i s e vidence t hat r anking may h ave been i n p lace i n Z aire a t t he e nd o f that p eriod. D ue t o t he s imilarities i n s ubsistence e conomies a nd c rafts between these t wo a reas, y et d ifferences i n t he t ypes of data retrieved ( burials versus i ron s melting s ites), i t i s p ossible t o p ropose a more developmental v iew of the p rehistoric model t hat f ocuses on w ho might h ave a chieved r ank a nd w hy, a s w ell a s h ow w e might s ee t his i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. F ollowing F ried' s ( 1967) a nd H aas' ( 1 982) models or the e volution of r anking a nd s tratification i n r elation t o t he p roductive e conomy a nd r eligion, i t i s s uggested that t he leaders of h ighly s uccessful i ron s melting groups may h ave been a mong t hose w ho a chieved h igher ranking. H ead s melters o f the E arly I ron A ge h ad b egun t o control s pecial k nowledge a nd i mportant resources t o i nsure s uccess at i ron p roduction a nd t hese w ere p otential b ases of p ower. T he p resent d iscussion - h as concentrated o n s election a nd management of the c lay resources crucial t o t he construction of a n i ron s melting f urnace t o demonstrate t he degree of control s ome of these i ron w orkers a chieved. T his w as done i n contrast to t he needs a nd p ractices of l ocal p otters w ho w ere p otential c ompetitors f or t he s ame c lay resources, as well a s neighboring s melting g roups w ho w ere a lso p otential c ompetitors f or t he best c lays.

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U ndoubtedly i t i s p ossible t o offer o ther e xplanations f or t he a rchaeological e vidence w hich d iffer f rom t hat p roposed h ere. T he s election of the d ifferent c lays could h ave been merely motivated b y cultural p reference. T he p otters may h ave t aken t he c losest, minimally a cceptable c lays i f they d id n ot l ive or w ork near a s wamp. T he c are a nd e xpertise w ith w hich the p ottery w as made, h owever, h elps s upport t he i dea t hat more s pecialized c lays might h ave been desired i f they w ere a vailable. T he benefit of the model a nd a pproach offered h ere i s that i t can be reanalyzed u sing t he s ame p etrographic a nd c hemical t echniques on t he s ame or n ew s amples of the ceramic t ypes. O r, i t c an be t ested w ith i ndependent data. F or i nstance, the s pecialized u se a nd p ossible control o ver o ther resources, s uch a s the t ree s pecies u sed t o make charcoal f uel ( these c an vary greatly i n t erms of p hysical p roperties) a nd t he i ron ores, could b e i nvestigated. F inally, we might be a ble t o devise more w ays t o t est this model f rom o ther k inds of a rchaeological d ata. T his w ill r equire careful design of new research p rojects a nd f iguring o ut new w ays t o l ook at o ld d ata. I t i s h oped t hat t his p aper p rovides s ome i nsights on h ow that might be done.

A CKNO WL EDGEMENTS T he f ield a nd l aboratory w ork f or t his p aper w as made p ossible by g rants f rom t he N ational S cience F oundation ( BNS75-19611 a nd B NS78-07855) a nd t he N ational E ndowment f or t he H umanities ( RO-10570-83) t o P . R . S chmidt. I gratefully a cknowledge t he continual s upport of P eter S chmidt i n t his w ork. T he l aboratory a nalyses w ere conducted i n t he l aboratory of the C enter f or M aterials R esearch i n A rchaeology a nd E thnology at M IT. I would l ike t o t hank D ean A rnold, S uzanne D e A tley, P eter S chmidt, M ary H opkins, G eorgeana L ittle, a nd B ill B arnett f or t heir h elpful s uggestions on e arlier d rafts of this p aper. I am s olely responsible, h owever, f or t he f inal p roduct.

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S chmidt, P . a nd S . T . C hilds 1 985 I nnovation a nd I ndustry i n E ast A frica: T he N orthwestern T anzania. Review 3 : 53 9 1 4. 1 988

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3 1

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o f

A frican

chretiens

a u

C HAPTER

2 P REHISTORIC D ISTRIBUTION N ETWORKS O F D OMESTIC CERAMICS SORSOGON, P HILIPPINES: AN ARCHAEOMETRIC S TUDY

I N

E . Z ubrow, J . F ountain, A . P elcin, K . A llen, P . B ush, K . B artolotta a nd L . H unt

at

t he

T he A rchaeometry R esearch G roup S tate U niversity of N ew Y ork at B uffalo D epartment

of

A nthropology

4 79 Spaulding B uffalo,

N ew Y ork U . S. A.

1 4261

I n C eramic E cology R evisited 1 987: Socioeconomics of P ottery, e dited ( 1988),

P art

T he T echnology a nd by C harles C . K olb

i :33-56.

E zra

B .

W .

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3 3

Z ubrow,

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1 988

I NTRODUCTION Although the e xistence of p rehistoric domestic e xchange i n t he P hilippines i s u nquestioned ( Hutterer 1 973, 1 977; H utterer a nd M acDonald 1 982), l ittle concerted r esearch h as been p ublished. M ost s tudies of P hilippine p rehistory u tilized o ccasional f inds a nd s urveys w ithout s ystematic r ecording, a nd s uch e xcavations that h ave been conducted c oncentrate o n cave s ites ( Fox 1 957, 1 970; G ridley 1 972; C outts a nd W esson 1 980; B ay-Peterson 1 982; H utterer a nd M acDonald 1 982: 9). T he a vailable d ata i s i nadequate f or determining e ither local p rehistoric e xchange s ystems or culture h istory. D omestic e xchange must h ave e xisted b ecause i n t he t ropical i sland e nvironment of the P hilippines, resources a re d ispersed a nd n ot e venly d istributed ( Hutterer 1 971 4). I n order t o o btain necessary s ubsistence, e ither P opulations or goods must move. T he i ntroduction of p rehistoric a griculture decreased t he mobility of p eople a nd i ncreased t he mobility of goods, leading t o i ntensified e xchange s ystems ( Hutterer 1 977: 92). M ost s tudies of the d istribution of ceramics i n t he region h ave f ocused o n t he long d istance t rade of s ophisticated a nd e xotic ceramics a nd o n t he r ole of C hina, J apan, a nd Korea i n t he development of i sland c ultures ( Janse 1 944, W u 1 959, B eyer 1 961, S olheim 1 96) 4, L iao 1 964, H utterer 1 973, Sa lmon 1 9 81 ). C learly, this i s only one component of the general development a nd s pread of neolithic cultures throughout S outheast A sia. A n u nderstanding o f cultural development i n t he region must t ake i nto a ccount n ot only the e ffect of i nternational t rade but a lso of local p roduction a nd domestic e xchange systems. T herefore, p roduction a nd the material

this s tudy concentrates on local domestic e xchange networks. We e mphasize o bjects u sed i n e xchange t hrough

d istributional a nd s ource i dentification s tudies r ather than on t he s ocial, p olitical, or e conomic mechanisms by w hich e xchange o ccurred. I n t he majority of p rehistoric s ites recorded i n t he P hilippines, ceramic a rtifacts, mostly domestic w are, a re t he major t ype of a rtifact recovered. T he p revalence of domestic ceramics makes them a n i deal o bject f or t he i nvestigation of p rehistoric e xchange networks. S ince s uch domestic w are generally l acks s ufficient s tylistic diversity w ith w hich t o d iscriminate between p roduction locations, we h ave concentrated o n t he characterization of s amples through p etrographic a nalysis.

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O ur characterization s cheme combines d ata on i nclusions ( mineralogy a nd t exture) a nd b ulk composition ( trace e lement f ingerprinting). I nclusions a re minerals p resent as l arge grains i n a s herd. U nlike t he c lay minerals w hich comprise t he matrix, they a re relatively u naffected b y the l ow f iring t emperatures u sed i n p roduction of domestic e arthenware. T he mineralogy of the i nclusions i s thus u nchanged f rom t hat of the c lay used i n p roduction. T his w ill b e i dentical t o t he mineralogy of the c lay deposit f rom w hich the c lay w as o btained i f n o s eparate t emper w as a dded. I f the p otter mixed c lays f rom d eposits, the i nclusions w ill r eflect t his mixture. T he mineralogy of the s pecific deposit reflects the mineralogy of the local b edrocks. T hus, if there i s s ufficient geologic d iversity i n a n a rea, ceramics p roduced i n other regions may be readily d istinguished f rom l ocally p roduced c eramics by the p etrographic a nalysis of mineral i nclusions. T here h ave been numerous s tudies w hich h ave u sed p etrographic a nalysis of i nclusions t o demonstrate t he geographic d ispersion of p ottery f rom s pecific s ources ( Shepard 1 942, 1 956; P eacock 1 969; W illiams 1 979). I n f act, i t i s a f ield t o i tself w hose development h as been reviewed by W illiams ( 1983), who c ites numerous s tudies. I n general s uch s tudies h ave been most s uccessful w hen i nclusion mineralogy w as d istinctive due t o r egional variation i n geology. T he a pplication of p etrographic a nalysis t o i dentification of p rehistoric domestic e xchange networks is e specially f easible i n t he P hilippines due t o i ts great geological d iversity. I n a ddition, there i s u nusually p lentiful p reservation of t raditional t echnology. T he e xistence of t raditional s ocieties s trengthens i nterpretations of the p rehistoric r ecord by a llowing f or more t ightly controlled e thnographic a nalogies.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND Hutterer h as been concerned w ith the p roblem o f p rehistoric t rade i n t he P hilippines a nd i ts relationship t o s ocial change ( Hutterer 1 973, 1 974, 1 977; H utterer a nd M acDonald 1 982). Working o n t he B asey r iver a rea of S outhern S amar, H utterer ( 1977) d emonstrated t hat t rade w ith M ainland A sia resulted i n t he development of coastal t rade centers i n t he P hilippines a nd a t rade i nfrastructure i nvolving i sland i nteriors. O f d irect s ignificance t o t his s tudy i s the e vidence of w idespread d istribution of s ome f orms of domestic p ottery n oted b y H utterer ( 1 977) a nd o thers ( Soiheim 1 964, F ox 1 970). T he s uggestion t hat t his d istribution i s a n i ndicator o f

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i nternal e xchange a nd domestic t rade M utterer a n i mpetus f or u ndertaking t his s tudy.

1 977)

w as

S uch v iews a re p artially b ased u pon t he n umerous s tudies of p ottery manufacture w hich h ave a long h istory i n t he P hilippines ( Chiong 1 975; S oiheim 1 952a, 1 952b, 1 954 9 1 965; S olheim a nd S chuler 1 959; S cheans 1 965). I n 1 973 a nd 1 971 4, G riffin a nd L ongacre began s eparate e thnoarchaeological r esearch p rojects. G riffin ( Griffin a nd E stiuko 1 978) s tudied t he s ystem o f s ubsistence a ctivities w hile L ongacre s tudied domestic p roduction of p ottery i n N orthern L uzon a nd s pecialist p roduction i n G ubat, S orsogon ( Longacre 1 974, 1 981, 1 985; Longacre, Kvamme a nd Kobayashi 1 987). L ongacre s tudied a spects of p ottery t echnology, s tyle a nd u se-life, s hedding l ight on manufacture a nd t rade w ithin a nd a cross communities. I n our research, we h ave f ocused o n t he B icol P eninsula a nd t he P rovince of S orsogon f or s everal r easons ( Figure 1 ). I t i s a delimited a rea w ith a l arge number of p rehistoric s ites w hich a re k nown t o h ave a bundant a vailable ceramic a rtifacts. S amples of ceramics f rom t hese s ites w ere a vailable f rom t he N ational M useum. T here a re a lso modern p otters i n t he region a nd o bserving t heir manufacture t echniques p rovides i nsight i nto p rehistoric p ractices. I n a ddition, the modern p otters w ere a ble t o p oint out their c lay s ources. A pproximately 1 25 s amples o f p rehistoric ceramics w ere collected b y a f ield p arty i ncluding E . Z ubrow a nd T . S teeg i nann ( SUNY B uffalo, D epartment of A nthropology), F rancisco D atar ( University of the P hilippines, D epartment of A nthropology), a nd L uis D ery ( University of the P hilippines, D epartment of H istory) f rom 1 5 s ites i n the S orsogon p rovince i n 1 986. T hese w ere o btained b y both s urface collecting a nd e xcavation t echniques, a nd f rom e xisting c ollections a t t he N ational M useum. S ites f rom w hich the ceramics w ere o btained a re s hown i n F igure 1 . T hese i nclude s ites on both t he w est a nd e ast coasts of S orsogon a s w ell a s on t he B ay of S orsogon. I n a ddition t o t he p rehistoric material, e thnographic ceramic t echniques w ere o bserved a nd e xamples p urchased. Two c lay s amples f rom d eposits u sed b y modern p otters i n S orsogon w ere a lso collected. I n 1 987, a dditional p rehistoric ceramic s amples w ere obtained f rom s everal p rehistoric s ites i n S orsogon a s w ell a s f rom a djacent locations of A lbay t o t he n orth, M asbate t o t he w est, a nd S amar t o t he s outh. N ine a dditional c lay s amples w ere collected a s w ell. T hese s amples i ncluded t hree f rom s ources u sed b y modern p otters a nd s ix f rom a djacent s treams. H unt s ampled

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( Zubrow e t a l.) F igure 1 : M ap o f t he s tudy a rea s howing t he l ocation o f k nown s ites. P lease n ote t hat t he s ites a re g rouped i nto s ix r egional c lusters f or e ase o f p resentation. T he c lusters a re: A . B . C . D . E . F .

K abigaan, C ontod G ubat, A nimal B reeding D eJesus, J uban, B atan, L ittle T igkiw. H ulabangbyebye, B ahia C omita. B acon, B ato C ave, S an J uan. J upi, J . P ajard. B ulan.

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S ite.

deposits i n t he s treams w hich h ad a n a ppearance a nd t exture s imilar t o t he c lays u sed b y the modern p otters. I n t his research w e e xamine t he methodology a nd results f rom t he a nalysis of the f irst s et of 1 25 s amples f rom t he 1 5 s ites. S everal o bservations c an be made on t he basis of a p reliminary v isual e xamination of the s herds. S everal s pecimens i n our s ample w ere c learly C hinese t rade p orcelain a nd w ere h ighly v itrified a nd glazed. S everal o thers w ere p ainted a nd i ncised. M ost of the s herds, h owever, h ad n o s tylistic a ny s ort a nd w ere coarse e arthenware T herefore, p etrographic a nalysis w as appropriate.

a ttributes of body s herds. p articularly

L ocal e xchange or contact between s ites i s i nferred w here p ottery f rom a s ingle s ource o ccurs at s everal s ites. C ommonality of s ource i s determined b y comparison of p etrologic characteristics between s herds ( i.e. s herds w ith s imilar p etrography c ame f rom t he s ame s ource). A fundamental a ssumption made a t t his p oint i n our s tudies i s that ceramics w ith d ifferent p etrologic characterist ics come f rom d ifferent s ources. U ltimately w e i ntend t o t est this through . the comparison of characteristics of ceramics t o t hose of c lay s ources. F or t his t echnique t o be e ffective t he f undamental r equirement i s that t here a re s ufficient d ifferences i n p ottery f rom n eighboring s ources t o e nable one t o d istinguish between t hem.

G EOLOGICAL Regional

BACKGROUND

G eology

One i mportant a dvantage of the S orsogon a rea f or t his s tudy i s the e xtreme degree of geological d iversity. T he differences i n 1 o al geology a re reflected i n t he s ediments s upplied t o t he s treams a nd h ence i n t he mineralogy of c lay deposits as w ell a s the p ottery p roduced f rom t hem. T he P hilippines w ere f ormed b y amalgamation of a number of d istinct t ectonic b locks w hich h ave been mechanically assembled b y l arge s cale t ectonic displacements ( Karig 1 983, M cCabe e t a l. 1 985, K arig e t a l. 1 986). T he bedrock geology changes a bruptly a cross the boundaries between t hese b locks, y ielding a mosaic o f u nrelated geologic t erranes ( Figure 2 ). T hese geological d ifferences w ill b e reflected i n s ignificant v ariation i n t he mineralogy of i nclusions i n c lay deposits. I n other w ords, d ifferent b locks h ave d ifferent i nclusions i n c lay depo:ibs •i 1 o . w i 1 b e i nc c orated i nto t he ceramics.

-

3 8

-

I 2 IE

I 23 E

I 25 E

( Zubrow e t a l.) F igure 2 : T erranes o f t he P hillipines ( From K arig e t a l. 1 986). T he P resent c onfiguration o f the P hillipines i s a r esult o f l arge s cale h orizontal motion a long s everal l arge f aults a nd s hear z ones. T he o ffsets a re a r esult o f t he c omplex p late t ectonics i n t he a rea ( inset). T he E ast L uzon T errane, w hich i ncludes t he p rovince o f S orsogon, i s b ounded o n t he w est b y t he P hilippine F ault a nd t he e ast b y t he P hilippine T rench.

-

3 9

-

S orsogon a nd t he rest of the B icol P eninsula comprise one of these d istinctive b locks, i solated f rom t he rest of L uzon a nd f rom t he i slands t o t he w est by the P hilippine f ault ( Figure 2 ). T he t erranes t o t he n orth a nd w est a re q uite d ifferent geologically f rom t he S orsogon-Bicol P eninsula t errane. I t i s p recisely i n s uch s ituations, where t here a re major geological differences between p otential s ource a reas, that p etrographic a nalysis of p ottery i s most u seful f or p rovenience s tudies ( Williams 1 979, 1 983: 303). G eology of 1 )

C lay

D eposits

M ineralogy

P hilippine c lay deposits a re f ormed a s s tream o r r iver deposits. A lthough a deposit may appear t o contain only c lay, s uch deposits generally i nclude a s ignificant component of l arger g rains ( silt a nd s and). N atural levee deposits, which f orm o n r iver banks, commonly contain a s l arge a p roportion of coarse material a s i s f ound i n t ypical p rehistoric P hilippine p ottery. C lay i s a p roduct of the w eathering o f most common s ilicate minerals. T he composition of the c lay p roduced during w eathering i s p rimarily a f unction of c limate rather t han r ock type, thus the mineralogy of the c lay f raction may be constant o ver l arge a reas e ven i f the bedrock geology i s h ighly v ariable. C lay compositions thus s eldom s how e nough v ariation t o d istinguish between s ources w ithin a restricted a rea. I n contrast, the mineralogy of the coarse f raction w ill r eflect a ny variations i n bedrock geology. T he coarser material i n c lay deposits i s p rimarily composed of i ndividual mineral g rains resulting f rom mechanical b reakdown of bedrock ( Figure 3 ). T he mineralogy of the coarse f raction t hus reflects bedrock mineralogy i n t he drainage a rea of the s tream w hich f orms a g iven deposit. T hus i nclusion mineralogy p rovides a method t o characterize c lays w ith a c apability of discrimination on a s cale e qual t o t hat of the s cale of geologic d iversity. P etrographic characterization i s p articularly s ensitive i n t he P hilippines due both t o t he regional geologic d iversity a nd t o t he n ature of the i nclusions themselves. T he m ineralogy of s ediments i n t he P hilippines d iffers f undamentally f rom t hat of typical c ontinental s ediments i n t heir relatively low a bundance of q uartz. I n mature continental s ediments, q uartz, the mineral w hich i s the most resistant of common minerals t o w eathering, i s the dominant coarse mineral. S ince q uartz

( Zubrow e t a l.) F igure 3 : T his i s a s econdary e lectron m icrograph o f t he c oarse-grained f raction s eparated f rom a c lay s ample f rom t he s ite o f C ontod G ubat, S orsogon. T he s ample i s f rom a c lay d eposit c urrently u sed a s a c lay s ource by l ocal p otters. T he a bundance, a ngularity, a nd s ize d istribution o f t he g rains c orrelate w ith t hat o bserved i n F igure 4 .

is the dominant mineral in all mature sands, petrographi c dif ferences bet ween such deposits are limited to minor phases (heavy minerals) . In the Philippines however, quartz is not the only major phase (indeed it is seldom the most abundant phase) and sediments dif fer in the relative amounts of their major phases. Additional sensitivity in petrographic characteri­ zation is provided by utilizing mineral compositions. The most abundant types of minerals found as inclusions i n Philippine clay deposits, p lagioclase and pyroxene, both occur with a wide range of chemical composition in nature. Plagioclase has a wide range in Na/Ca ratio and pyroxene varies in Fe/Mg/Ca. Plagioclase with a hi gh Na/Ca ratio occurs in rocks of hi gh silica content (rhyolites and granites), rocks of lower silica content ( andesi tes and basalts) have lower Na/Ca ratios. Pyroxene composition also correlates with rock composition, si licic rocks have hi gher Fe/Mg ratios. The Ca content of the pyroxenes also reflects the rock content in a slightly more complex manner. Mineral assemblages may thus be further subdivided on the basis of mineral chemistry. 2) T exture While the mineralogy of the coarse grained fraction of a deposit reflects local geology, the texture (size and shape of the grains) reflects transport processes. The size of grains in a deposit is a function of the maximum velocity of the current from whi ch they were deposited, thus significant variations in size distribution may occur over short distances in a single The degree of angularity of the coarse fraction stream. a function of relief and transport distance. is Particles are rapidly rounded as they are transported downstream. Thus t.he shape of coarse fragments in a deposit will also vary along a single stream. Utilization of these textural parameters in ceramic characterization in addition to mineralogy will allow dis crimination between clay sources in areas with similar local geology. Incorporation of textural parameters has allowed succes s ful extension of petrographic characterization in areas of more uniform geology (Peacock 1971, St reeten 1982, Darvill and Timby 1982). CHARACTERIZATIO N SYSTEM AND MET HODOLOGY assemblage (the We utilize the mineral minerals' present inclusions 8S and their

- 42 -

types of relative

p roportion), t exture a nd b ulk chemistry i n our characterization s ystem. M ineral a ssemblage reflects local geology, which i n t he P hilippines i s s eldom u niform o ver e ven a f ew t ens of k ilometers. T he t exture ( size a nd s hape of i nclusions) r eflects t ransport p rocesses a nd t hus v aries w ithin a s ingle d rainage. A ddition of t extural d ata i n t he characterization s cheme p rovides f iner-scale d iscrimination t han mineralogy a lone. M ineralogy i s determined f rom p etrographic t hin s ections; m ineral c omposition by e lectron microprobe. M ineral p roportions a nd t extures a re n ow determined v isually f rom t hin s ections b ut w ill s oon be done w ith a d igital i mage a nalyzer. T he s pecific p arameters determined a re s ummarized i n T able 1 . G rain

S ize

D istribution

Three p arameters related t o grain s ize a nd s hape a re determined f or e ach s ample; p roportion of coarse grains, p roportion of a ngular grains a nd grain-size d istribution. T he p roportion of coarse grains ( the a bundance of i nclusions) i s determined d irectly by p oint-counting o f a p etrographic t hin s ection. T he a bundance i s defined a s the p ercentage of i nclusions ( grains l arger t han 0 .062 mm) i n a s ample. I n general t he p roportion of i nclusions w ill b e constant f or a g iven c lay s ource. T he degree of r oundness a nd t he s ize d istribution of grains a re measured o n t hin s ections ( Darvill a nd T imby 1 982, S treeten 1 982, M iddleton 1 985, F reestone a nd L eese 1 985). S ize d istributions reflect s ubtle v ariations i n depositional e nvironment a nd may thus be e xpected t o s how s ignificant v ariation between deposits. E ach of t he t hree p arameters d iscussed: p ercentage of i nclusions, degree of r oundness a nd s ize d istribution i s readily a daptable t o digital i mage a nalysis. We a re i n t he p rocess of u tilizing i mage a nalysis t o a utomate t his p rocedure. T he mineralogy of the i nclusions i s determined b y two complimentary p rocedures; p etrographic a nalysis of thin-sections a nd c hemical a nalysis w ith a n e lectron microprobe. X -ray d iffraction w ill a lso be u tilized i n t he characterization of c lay minerals i n c lay deposits. B ulk

C hemistry

To more p recisely i dentify s ource locations or f uture p lans c all f or b ulk chemistry a nalysis. T he composition of p owdered s amples w ill b e determined b y X-Ray f luorescence ( XRF) a nd N eutron A ctivation A nalysis ( INAA). X RF a nalyses w ill b e done a t t he D epartment of G eology R eactor

S JY B uff lo, C nt r o f S UNY

a nd U AA B 1 , 1,f f&1 .

-

43

-

at

t he

W estern

N ew

Y ork

Table

1 :

C riteria

C riterion

f or

C lassification

P hysical

of

M easurement

S herds.

M ethod

I nclusion A bundance

P roportion of coarseg rained p hases

P oint counting i mage a nalysis

S ize-Distribution of I nclusions

F raction of i nclusions i n e ach s ize c ategory

P oint i mage

counting a nalysis

S hape of I nclusions

F raction of i nclusions i n e ach r oundness category

P oint i mage

counting a nalysis

I nclusion M ineralogy

T ype of mineral p resent a nd t heir p roportions

M icroprobe

P etrographic s tudy of thin s ections X-Ray D iffraction M ineral

C hemistry

C omposition of i nclusion minerals

B ulk T race C oncentration of E lement C hemistry e lements i n bulk

t race s ample

M icroprobe o n p olished s ections X-Ray F luorescence N eutron A ctivation A nalysis

R ESULTS O ur i nitial e xamination of the s amples determined t hat a ll s amples contain a bundant i nclusions, a nd t hat t he s amples d isplay a l imited n umber of mineral a ssemblages ( Table 2 ). T he minerals p resent i n t he i nclusions a re generally those p redicted f rom l ocal geology w hich i s consistent w ith a s ource f or most of the s amples w ithin t he S orsogon P rovince. T he i nclusions a re p redominantly p lagioclase, pyroxene ( augite a nd h ypersthene), s ar iidine a nd a s mall a mount of q uartz. T wo p yroxene a ndesites, which h ave h igh p lagioclase contents a nd n o q uartz, a re t he t ypical, l avas of the B icol P eninsula. S anidine i s the most voluminous c rystal p hase i n t he a sh e ruptions w hich a re a ssociated w ith the local c alderas. T he s amples may a lso be g rouped i nto d istinct t extural c ategories; a f ew s amples h ad a u nimodal d istribution of i nclusions, i .e. most i nclusions of approximately the s ame s ize ( Figure 1 4) w hile t he majority of s amples e xhibited a continuous range of g rain s izes ( Figure 5 ). S ome contained mostly a ngular i nclusions, others mostly r ounded i nclusions. B ased u pon t he s ize a nd s hape of the minerals w hich w ere determined b y v isual t echniques, we determined t hat t he s amples may be categorized i nto s even groups ( Table 2 ). T he v ariation i n mineral a ssemblage ( identity a nd r elative p roportion of mineral i nclusions) of these s ame s even groups w ere consistent w ith this categorization. E ach of the s amples i n a group h ad s imilar mineralogy a nd t exture, thus a ll s amples f rom a group apparently c ame f rom t he s ame c lay s ource, a nd e ach group w as f rom a d ifferent s ource. N ote t hat G roups 1 a nd 2 i n T able 2 a re h igh-fired c eramics that vary i n t he p ercentage of i nclusions. G roup 1 c onsisted o f C hinese p orcelain t radeware w hile G roup 2 c ontained h ighly-vitrified p ainted w are. T hese groups w ere a lso r eadily distinguished b y v isual e xamination a nd w ere n ot a nalyzed f urther s ince t hey w ere c learly of e xternal o rigin. D irect correlation of s herds t o c lay s ources can be done only i f t emper i s n ot a dded t o t he c lay w hen i t i s p rpared f or t he p roduction of vessels. M ineral i nclusions o ccur n aturally w ithin t he c lay s ource a nd a re deposited a long w ith the c lay minerals. A s s uch they s hould n ot be confused w ith t emper w hich f or t he p urpose of this p aper w e a re defining a s a dded by the p otter.

-

45

-

31 3KV

> ( 313

100OU

557

32687

UBE

( Zubrow e t a l.) F igure 4 ( upper) a nd 5 ( lower): T hese f igures a re b aokscattered e lectron m icrographs o f s ectioned s herds f rom t he s ite o f C ontod G ubat, S orsogon. F igure 4 s hows a more u nimodal s ize d istribution o f t he i nclusions, w hile F igure 5 s hows a more n early c ontinuous r ange o f s izes. I n t hese i mages, t he g ray l evel b ears a d irect r elatonship t o t he a verage a tomic n umber o f t he s pecimen. I t m ay b e s een t hat t he m ineral i nclusions d isplay a r ange o f g ray l evels. X -ray a nalysis o f t he g rains c onfirms t his r elationship a nd a t t he s ame t ime r eveals t he m ineral c hemistry o f t he i nclusions. T hus, i n F igure 4 , t he b rightest g rains a re p yroxenes, w ith a h igh p roportion o f i ron. -

4 6

-

T able 2 : C ategorization o f P ottery A ccording M ineralogy a nd I nclusion T exture.

G roup N umbe r A

H i g hf i r ed

B

L ow f i r ed

C

I n c lu s ion sa r eg r ea te r t ha i 1 0% o fs ar iØe

1

2

t o

3

4

5

6

7

L

L

L

L

M

H

H

H

M

H

I

M

M

L

M

L

H

I

L

L

I

M

M

U lne ri logy D

Q ua r t z

E

P a g ioda s e

F

O r t hodase

-

G

a in oP y r o x ene

-

H

F e r r oP y ro x ene

-

-

I

W o nO x id e s

-

-

-

-

L

-

M

G ra in S i ze

L

G rea te rt ha i5 0% o ( g ran sr o und ed U r im od s i z e d i s t r ib u t ion B in od s i ze d i s t i bu t io r ls

M

l ig rar e

N

2 9g r af t

J K

-

1 ..G rs i n sb e tw e en0 .5w i d1 . 0mm •G r a in sb e tw e en 0 . 25 a n d0 . 49 mm L- l o w •l e s st h a i1 0% o fl i c lu s i on s M.m edum- b e i w e n1 0% a n 430%0 1 lndu s i On s H- h i g h -g r ea t e rt h a n3 0% o fk i du s i on s

-

4 7

-

E thnographic s tudies of modern P hilippine s ocieties i ndicate t emper i s n ot a dded t o c lay i n t his region. A complete a nalysis of the H uman R elation A rea F iles f or t he central P hilippines a nd i nterviewing o f l ocal p otters on t he e ast a nd w est coasts of S orsogon by H unt, Z ubrow, a nd L ongacre h ave n ot revealed a s ingle i nstance of the a ddition of t emper t o c lays i n S orsogon P rovince, a lthough t he u se of t emper h as been reported i n o ther p rovinces ( Foster 1 956). A ll c eramic s amples e xamined ( n = 1 25) h ave a s ignificant f raction of i nclusions 015 ); o bviously e ither t he c lay s ources h ad a bundant i nclusions o r s ome of the coarse f raction w as a dded a s t emper. I n p rinciple, these t wo a lternatives c an be d istinguished t hrough u se of p article s ize d istributions. P article s ize a nalysis of the c lay s amples w as u ndertaken t o check f or e vidence of a ddition of t emper. T he relative p roportion of various grain s izes i n c lay-rich s ediments decreases w ith i ncreasing g rain s ize, that i s s ilt-sized p articles a re more a bundant t han f ine s and-sized p articles w hich a re more a bundant t han medium s and e tc. G rain-size f ractions a re generally log-normally d istributed ( Visher 1 969, F reidman 1 967, 1 979). A ddition of t emper w ould i ncrease t he p roportion of coarse f ractions a nd h ence s kew the d istribution. A lthough s light p ositive s kewness c an result f rom b imodal s ediment s ources ( Freidman 1 979) s ignificant a ddition of t emper s hould b e readily detectable. S ize a nalysis of 3 6 s herds h as been completed. S ince c lay s ized p articles a re l argely destroyed during f iring, s ize a nalysis w as done only on l arger p articles. typically, p articles l arger t han 0 .05 mm ( very f ine s and) retain s harp boundaries i ndicating n o r eactions h ave o ccurred during f iring. O f the 3 6 s amples a nalyzed, only two h ad p ositively skewed d istributions. T hese t wo h ad a l arger a bundance of coarse s and ( 0.5-1.0 mm) t han of medium o r f ine s and. T his d istribution s uggests a ddition of t emper t o t hese t wo s amples. T hus a lthough q uantitative p article s ize a nalysis i s s till i n p rogress, the w ork completed t o date s uggests that t emper h as n ot b een a dded t o t he great majority of s amples ( 34 of 3 6). We realize t he e vidence i s n ot conclusive but w e believe t he d ata i ndicates that p rehistoric p otters d id n ot, i n general, a dd t emper a nd t hus p etrographic comparisons of p ot a nd c lay s ource c an be made. comparison

T his a ssumption w ill t o n atural c lay s amples

-

4 8

-

a lso be checked f rom t he a rea.

b y

W e n ote h owever, that mixing o f c lays c annot be detected by this p rocedure. M ixing, which may be more common t han p reviously thought ( Bishop e t a l. 1 982), p oses major p roblems f or p rovenience s tudies. I f c lays w ere mixed o r t emper w as u sed i n p roduction of s ome of the ceramics, the validity of our correlations among s ites w ill n ot be a ffected. I nteraction may be i nferred i f p ots f rom t he s ame s ource a re f ound a t t wo s ites, whether or n ot t he s ource i s a p ure c lay or h ad t emper a dded. P rovenience s tudies, i n w hich the s herds must be correlated t o c lay s ources, a re more difficult h owever w hen t emper i s u sed a nd may n ot be p ossible i f c lays w ere mixed. I f a ddition of t emper i s o bvious, e .g. i f a b imodal s ize d istribution i ndicates a ddition of a coarse s and t o a c lay w ith l ittle coarse material, the i nclusions may be a voided i n t he characterization s cheme. O ne characteristic w hich i s n ot affected b y the a ddition of t emper ( but i s affected by mixing o f c lay s ources) i s the composition of the c lay matrix. U sing t he e lectron microprobe, which can be f ocused t o a void i nclusions, the composition of the matrix o f a s herd may be determined. T his may be compared t o t he composition of the c lay s ource s ince t he f iring p rocess i s e ssentially i sochemical ( Bishop et a l. 1 982). A lthough our a nalyses a re n ot complete, a nd t hus the results a re t entative, we h ave constructed a pparent s patial n etworks f rom t his data ( Figure 6 ). We u se t he t erm s patial n etwork rather t han t rade r outes because w e do n ot k now e xactly how the movement of the material t ook p lace. I t could h ave o ccurred b y t rade but w e c annot distinguish w hether t he p attern i s due t o t he movement of p ots or c lay. H owever, A rnold ( 1980: 149) n otes that t he p referred t erritory f or a cquiring c lay i s w ithin one k m. I n f act, 9 1% o f the documented c ommunities o btain c lay f rom l ess than 7 km d istance. When d istances a re greater t han 7 km, i t i s l ikely that p ots w ere being moved r ather t han c lay. H owever, i t may be d ifficult t o i dentify the mechanism r esponsible f or t his movement. I t r anges f rom o rganized t rade t o i nformal e xchange or r eciprocal e conomic r elationships. T he network w as f ormed b y locating t he s ites w here o ccurrences of e ach of the f ive g roups of domestic ceramic a re f ound. L inks w ere created b etween s ites w here t he s ame p etrographic g rouping o f ceramics o ccurred. T his p rocess w as continued u ntil a ll t he s ites w ith the s ame p etrographic t ype of ceramics w ere l inked. T his w as then repeated f or e ach of the f ive p etrographic g roups. T he i ndividual n etworks w ere t hen combined i nto a s ingle network f or e ase of p resentation. A ll t he t ypes o ccur a t one s ite on t he coast a nd t hen f an out i n a h alf s hell design t oward t he i nterior a nd t he other coast i n various g roupings. T he network makes geographic a nd

-

49

-

SO R SOG ON

( Zubrow e t a l.) F igure 6 : D istribution o f d omestic p ottery g roups o ccuring a t s ite a reas A , B , C , D , a nd E a s s hown i n F igure 1 . T he n umbers a re g roup n umbers o f T able 2 .

-

5 0

-

cultural s ense. T he e xistence of a coastal d istribution center w ith s maller e xchange n odes i n t he h interlands h ad b een w ell documented i n various c ultures a nd a t v arious t imes. T he coastal t rade center often originates as a n ode i n a n i nternational t rade network a nd t hen dominates local e xchange. O ccasionally, this p rocess i s reversed.

C ONCLUSIONS I n t his s tudy w e report on w ork i n p rogress. We h ave a pplied a s eries of i ncreasingly t echnologically s ophisticated t echniques t o a nalyze t he s herds a nd c lay s ources f rom S orsogon. A t this p oint w e h ave completed the p etrographic characterization of the ceramics by a ll t he v isual p rocesses i ncluding p oint counting a nd i mage a nalysis. T he results a re verified b y our s econd group of t ests f or i nclusion mineralogy u sing t hin s ections a nd the microprobe. T he s ame s even g roups h ave been verified. T he t hird s eries of t echniques, the mineral c hemistry, h as n ot y et been completed. H owever, results t o d ate a re c onsistent w ith the g roupings p roposed i n t his p aper. T he f ourth s eries of t echniques w hich refer t o t he bulk chemistry w ill b egin s oon. H owever, e ven t hough a ll o f the t echniques h ave n ot been completed, the t entative results s how c lear d iscrimination between groups a nd b y l ocation. When t hese p reliminary results a re l aid o ut o n t he real geographic s pace, the networks make both geographic a nd c ultural s ense.

-

5 1

-

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D .

E .

L ocalized E xchange: A n E thnoarchaeological P erspective. I n M odels a nd M ethods i n R egional Exchange, e dited b y R . E . F ry, p p. 1 47-150. S AA P aper 1 . S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, W ashington, D .C.

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R . B . The B ato C aves, S orsogon P rovince, P hilippines. A P reliminary R eport of a J ar B urial-Stone T ool A ssemblage. J ournal o f E ast A sian S tudies 60): 1 4 9_55 T he T abon C aves: P alawan I sland, M anila.

A rchaeological E xploration on P hilippines. N ational M useum,

F reestone, I . C . 1 982 Applications a nd P otential o f E lectron P robe M icro-Analysis. A nalysis i n T echnological a nd P rovenance I nvestigations of A ncient C eramics. A rchaeometry 24: 99-11 6. F reidman, G . M . 1 967 D ynamic P rocesses a nd S tatistical P arameters C ompared f or S ize F requency D istributions of B each a nd R iver S ands. J ournal o f S edimentary P etrology 3 7: 3 27-354. 1 979

D ifference i n S ize D istributions of P opulations of P articles A mong S ands of V arious O rigins. S edimentology 26: 3 -32.

G ridley, R . 1 972 The S ohotom C ave C eramic S tudies 6 (2): 61 -68.

M aterial.

G riffin, P . B . a nd A . A . E stiuko 1 978 E thnoarchaeology i n t he P hilippines.

L eyte-Samar

A rchaeology

3 1(6): 34-43. H utterer, K . 1 973 B asey A rchaeology: P rehistoric T rade a nd S ocial Evolution i n t he P hilippines. P h.D. d issertation, U niversity of H awaii, H onolulu. 1 974

T he E volution of M ankind 9 : 287-299.

P hilippine

L owland

S ocieties.

H utterer, K . ( editor) 1 977 E conomic E xchange a nd S ocial I nteraction i n Southeast A sia: P erspectives f rom P rehistory, H istory a nd E thnography. C enter f or S outh a nd S otheast A sian S tudies, U niversity of M ichigan, A nn A rbor. H utterer, K . a nd W . K . M acDonald 1 982 H ouses B uilt on S cattered P oles: P rehistory a nd E cology i n N egros O riental, P hilippines. U niversity of S an C arlos, C ebu C ity.

-

5 3

-

J anse, 1 944

K arig, 1 983

O lov

R .

T .

N otes on C hinese I nfluences i n t he P hilippins i n P re-Historic T imes. H arvard Journal o f A siatic Studies 8 : 36-42. D .

E .

A ccreted T erranes i n t he N orthern P art o f P hilippine A rchipelago. T ectonics 2 : 211 -236.

the

K arig, D . E ., D . R . S arewitz, a nd G . D . H aeck 1 986 R ole of S trike-slip F aulting i n t he E volution of A llochthor jous T erranes i n t he P hilippines. G eology 1 4: 852-855. L iao,

S hubert

1 964

C hinese E conomy.

L ongacre,

S . P articipation i n B ookman, M anila.

P hilippine

C ulture

a nd

W .

1 974

K alinga P ottery M aking: T he R esearch D esign. I n F rontiers e dited b y M . J . L eaf, p p. 5 1 -67. Y ork.

1 981

K alinga P ottery: A n E thnoarchaeologjcal S tudy. I n P atterns of the P ast: S tudies i n H onor of D avid C . C larke, e dited b y I . H odder, G . I saac, a nd N . H ammond, p p. 4 9-66. C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge a nd N ew Y ork.

1 985

P ottery U se-Life A mong t he K alinga, N orthern L uzon, the P hilippines. I n D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics, e dited by B . N elson, p p. 3 3) 4-3) 46. S outhern I llinois U niversity P ress, C arbondale.

L ongacre, 1 987

W .,

K .

K vamme,

a nd

M .

E volution of a of A nthropology, V an N ostrand, N ew

K obayashi

P ottery S tandardization: E thnoarchaeological S tudies f rom t he P hilippines. P aper p resented a t t he 5 2nd A nnual M eeting o f the S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology. T oronto, O ntario, C anada.

M cCabe, R ., J . 1 985 Terranes Analysis H owell, P etroleum

N . A lmusco, a nd G . Y umul of the C entral P hilippines. I n T errane of t he P acific B asin, e dited b y D . G . p p. 4 21 -435. A merican A ssociation of Geologists, T ulsa, OK.

M iddleton, A . P ., I . C . F reestone a nd M . N . L eese 1 985 T extural A nalysis of C eramic T hin S ections: E valuation of G rain S ampling P rocedures. A rchaeometry 27: 64-75.

-

5 4

-

P eacock, D . P . S . 1 969 A C ontribution t o f rom S outh-western 49:

1 971

t he S tudy E ngland.

of G lastonbury W are A ntiquaries J ournal

4 1 -6 1.

P etrography of C ertain C oarse P ottery. E xcavations at F ishbourne 2 L ondon. R eport of the R esearch C ommittee of the S ociety of A ntiquaries 27: 255-259.

S almon, C . 1 981 The C ontribution of the C hinese t o t he of S outheast A sia A N ew A ppraisal. Southeast A sian S tudies 1 2(1): 260-270. -

S cheans, D aniel J . 1 965 The P ottery I ndustry of J ournal o f E ast A siatic S hepard, A . 0 . 1 9 14 2 R io G rande the P lace

G lazed P aint of C eramic

S an N icholas, I locos S tudies 9 (1):1-28.

W are, A S tudy T echnological

A rchaeological R esearch. C ontribution 3 9 . C arnegie W ashington, W ashington, D .C. 1 956

C eramics C arnegie D .C.

1 952b O ceanic Asiatic

N orte.

I llustrating A nalysis i n

P ublication I nstitution

5 28, of

f or t he A rchaeologist. P ublication 6 09. I nstitution of W ashington, W ashington,

S oiheim, W . G . 1 952a P ottery M anufacturing B atan, P hilippines. Studies

D evelopment J ournal o f

i n

t he I slands J ournal o f

of M asbate a nd E ast A siatic

1 (1): 49-53. P ottery M anufacture. S tudies 1 :1-4O.

J ournal

o f

E ast

1 95 1 4

I bang Pottery M anufacture i n I sabela. E ast A siatic S tudies 3 (3): 305-307.

J ournal

o f

1 96 14

P ottery a nd t he M alayo-Polynesians. Anthropology 5 (5): 360, 3 76 -3 81 4.

1 965

The F unctions of P ottery i n S outheast A sia: F rom t he P resent t o t he P ast. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F . R . M atson, p p. 2 5 1 4_273. V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 14 1. N ew Y ork. ( Also A ldine, C hicago.)

C urrent

S olheim, W . G . I I a nd T . S chuler 1 959 F urther N otes on P hilippine P ottery M anufacture: Mountain P rovince a nd P anay. J ournal o f E ast A siut c S tudies 8 :1- 3.

-

5 5

-

S treeten, 1 982

V isher, 1 969

A .

D .

F .

T extural A nalysis: A n A pproach t o C haracterization of S and-Tempered C eramics. I n C urrent R esearch i n C eramics: T hin S ection S tudies, e dited b y I . F reestone, T . P otter, a nd C . J ohns, p p. 1 23-134. O ccasional P aper 3 2. B ritish M useum, L ondon. G .

S .

G rain S ize D istribution a nd E nvironmental R econstruction. Sedimentary P etrology 3 9:1074-11 06.

W illiams,

D .

D epositional J ournal o f

F .

1 979

P etrological A nalysis, I n S panish A rmada P ottery by C . M artin. I nternational Journal o f N autical Archaeology 8 : 298-299.

1 983

P etrology of C eramics. I n T he P etrology Archaeological A rtefacts, e dited b y D . K empe a nd H arvey, p p. 3 01 -329. C larendon P ress, O xford.

Wu, 1 959

of A .

C hing-hong A S tudy of R eferences t o t he P hilippines i n C hinese S ources f rom E arliest T imes t o t he M ing D ynasty. P hilippine S ocial S ciences a nd Human i ti es Rev iew 2) 4: 1 -182.

-

5 6

-

C HAPTER

3 THE

T HREE-STORY

Beal

M .

K ILN

O F

M oss rnan,

A GOST,

I II,

S PAIN

P h.D.

a nd M arcia

S elsor,

M . F. A.

E astern M ontana C ollege B illings, M ontana 591 01 -0298 U . S. A.

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioecnomics of P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1988), P art i :57-87.

B eal

M .

M ossman,

I II

-

5 7

a nd

-

M arcia

S elsor,

1 988

T HE

T HREE-STORY WOOD-FIRED

K ILNS

O F

A GOST,

S PAIN

I ntroduction The t raditional k ilns of A gost, S pain i ncorporate R oman, M oorish, a nd I berian design e lements. T he v aulted a rched c hambers a re s imilar t o R oman designs, w hile t he domed c hamber i s s imilar t o both M oorish a nd I berian configurations. T he f ire box i nfrastructure i s s imilar t o both R oman a nd I berian designs. T hese a rchitectural e lements s uggest the i nfluence of c ultural f actors w hich brought change t o t he ceramic t echnology. R ichter s tates "the a ppearance of a new t echnology does n ot by a ny means automatically e liminate t he o lder t echnologies that i t d isplaces ( but that i t often does n ot completely d isplace [ it])" ( 1 983:50). V an der L eeuw ( 1976) h as developed a deductive model through e thnographic r ecords. H owever, P . S . P eacock a dds that "much of the e vidence relates t o e cological z ones i n n o w ay s imilar t o t he a rea o ccupied b y the R oman e mpire a nd d ifferent f actors may h ave been operative. T hese p roblems can be reduced by concentrating o n modern p ottery making w ithin a restricted a rea of E urope a nd t he M editerranean" ( 1 982:5). T he k ilns of A gost a re a n e xample of a modern p ottery t echnology w ith deep c ultural r oots, a nd t he s tudy of these k ilns p rovides e vidence f or the i nfluence of a v ariety of cultural f actors. T he development of p ottery i n S pain by the R omans reflects the e cological c apacity a nd p roductivity of the M editerranean z ones. T he e xportation of I berian resources t o R ome i s documented b y J ose M aria B lasquez, who r eported " Tenney F rank c alculated t hat a t M t. T estacio i n R ome, where a mphoras w ere d iscarded a fter t heir contents w ere consumed, there a re s ome 40 m illion p ieces, the majority coming f rom S pain which s hipped o il a nd w ine" ( 1 975: 21 4). T he R omans w ere w ell e ntrenched i n t he region s urrounding A gost. ( Indeed, the name A gost may come f rom A gosto f or C aesar A ugustus.) Roman i nfluence may h ave been f elt i n t he p ottery i ndustry, f or t oday s everal o f the p ottery f amilies retain t he n ame " Roman." -

-

A gost k ilns w ere t wo-level s tructures through the 1 9th century, but w ere e xpanded t o t hree levels i n t he 2 0th century because of i ncreased market demand f or ceramic p roducts. O ver s everal c enturies l arge p roduction q uotas a nd t he p otters' d esire t o maximize efficiency a lso a llowed f amilies o f masons to s pecialize i n k iln building a nd t o p ass their s kills o n f or generations. T he o bservation by G eorge F oster ( 1962:143) t hat, " as a c lass p otters a re measurably more

-

58

-

conservative t han f armers o r f isherman," i s s upported b y the o bservations that t he k ilns of A gost, S pain h ave e lements that a re s imilar t o I berian, R oman, a nd M oorish k ilns built i n S pain o ver t he l ast 2 500 years. T he f ollowing d iscussion of the s tructure a nd f unction of A gost k ilns i ncludes a c onsideration of the design e lements derived f rom e ach of these t hree cultures. E lements

of

I berian

D esigns

The c lassification of the k ilns h as been s implified i n t he description of E mili S empere ( 1982). A n I berian k iln i n S empere' s c lassification i s r ound w ith a domed t op, a nd t hese k ilns v ary t remendously i n s ize. T he c lassic I berian k iln described b y S empere a s u sed c ommunally by w omen p otters i n M ota del C uervo ( Figure 1 ) r epresents the s mall s cale, while t he o ld a bandoned k ilns i n V illarrobledo a s described b y K opke ( 1985) ( Figure 2 ) d emonstrate t he l arge s cale f or a ccommodating t he g reat t inajas f or w ine p roduction. T he I berian dome w hich g rows f rom a s quare b ase i s s imilar t o t he dome on t he t op s tory of the A gost k ilns. B lanquez a nd de A lvaro ( 1983) p rovide a nother description of a n I berian k iln a nd p oint out the u se of the a rches i n t he i nfrastructure of the f ire box ( Figure 3 ). " The k iln w as dug i nto t he g round. F our a rches w ere f ormed b eneath t he f loor of the chamber w here t he vessels w ere a rranged. T he f ire p assed t o t he k iln chamber t hrough dug o ut channels that f ed t he e ntire w idth of the k iln" ( 1983:111). T his relationship between t he a rches a nd t he vent s ystem i s s imilar t o t hose i n t he A gost k ilns. T he a ccompanying map s hows the location of f unctioning I berian k ilns i n S pain ( Figure 1 4 ) • E lements

of the

R o m an

K ilns

As the R omans moved i nto v arious e cological z ones, i t i s f easible t hat t hey i ncorporated c ertain e xisting t echnologies i nto t heir own. T he p roduction of R oman bricks, f or e xample, c an be s een a s h aving b een p roduced i n a w ide r ange of k ilns i ncorporating l ocal design e lements ( Peacock 1 982). E nrique V asalo ( 1 985:personal c ommunication), w hose f amily h ave been k iln masons f or generations, d emonstrated t he construction of t he t hree-story k iln by building a c lay model. F rom t his model, the a uthors u nderstood t he i nfrastructure of a rches i n t he f irst a nd s econd l evels of the A gost k ilns a nd w ere a ble t o r ecognize t he s ame i nfrastructure of a rches i n r uins of two R oman k ilns i n D enia. T he a rches a re i nterspersed w ith the grid o f vents s upplying h eat t o t he f loor a bove ( Figure 5 ). T he nearby 1 4 m2 s ize s uggests that t hese k ilns w er p roducing o n a l arge s cale j ust as i n A gost t oday. T hese design s imilar t o I berian f irebox d esigns.

-

59

-

e lements

a re

a lso

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 1 : A fter d escription o f t he k iln a t M ota d el C uervo.

-

6 0

-

S empere 's

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 2 : of t he k iln a t V illarrobledo.

-

6 1

A fter

-

K opke's d escription

( Mos r r n d escribed

d Sisor) F ig e 3 : T he b y B lanquez a nd d e A lvaro.

-

6 2

-

I berian

f irebox

a s

I ber ian Kiln S ites

Mo ta

•Sgo rb e

• d e l C uervo

•

L a

a l l D 'u txo

V i l larrob ledo S C h iva

( Mossman a nd S elsor) I berian a rchitectural

F igure k : S ites w here k ilns e lements a re f unctioning.

-

6 3

-

w ith

( Mossman a nd S elsor) i n a g rid p attern on

F igure 5 : t he R oman

-

6 4

-

T he k iln

a rch r uins a t D enia.

w ith

vents

E lements

of

M oorish

K ilns

The f urther t echnological development of the R oman k iln design by t he M oors may be a result of the need t o control t he a tmosphere a nd e ven t he t emperature i n t he p roduction of t in-glazed c eramics. I n t he i llustration ( Figure 6 ) r edrawn f rom P iccolpasso' s 1 6th century s tudy of the p otters' a rt, the k iln depicted a nd u sed t o p roduce I talian t in-glazed c eramics i s s trikingly s imilar t o S pain' s " Moorish" k ilns a s described b y S empere because of the i nfrastructure of the a rches i n t he f irst level a nd t he v aulted a rch i n t he s econd l evel. T his a rchitectural c onstruction i s s imilar t o t he f irst level o f the R oman k iln i n D enja a nd t he f irst a nd s econd l evels of the k ilns i n A gost. T he a ccompanying map ( Figure 7 ) s hows w here M oorish k ilns of this type a re i n u se i n S pain t oday.

T HE T he

F irst The

S TRUCTURE

O F

T HE

T HREE-STORY

K ILN

L evel

f irst

l evel

o f

the

k iln

described

i n

t he

d iagram

i s constructed a t ground l evel w ith the f irebox b elow ground l evel. E nrique V asalo, the k iln mason, p oints out that t his design v aries at other p otteries i n A gost ( Figure 8 ). I n t his k iln both the f loor a nd t he ceiling i ncline t oward t he rear. T he chamber i s 2 .1 m i n h eight at t he f ront e nd a nd 3 m i n h eight at t he rear. T he f ront of the k iln chamber i s narrow, 2 .5 m w ide, a nd i t f ans out t 0 3 m i n t he rear. T he i nfrastructure consists of a s eries of s even a rches i nterspersed w ith the venting s ystem. T he vents a re more numerous t oward t he rear drawing t he h eat t o t he rear of the k iln. T he R oman k iln i n D enja h as a s imilar a rched i nfrastructure made of concrete a nd r ocks. T he vents a re on a n e ven g rid p attern. I n A gost e ach k iln h as i diosyncratic vent p atterns. T he p attern i s designed t o maximize a ir c irculation w ithin t he u nique requirements of e ach k iln. T he f irst level o f the t hree-story k iln h as i ntricate brick masonry w eaving t he t hin " Roman" b ricks i nto a d iagonal i nterlock a long t he center s eam u p t o t he f ront "fish h ead" f irebox ( Figure 9 ). T he f ire box i s 1 .5 m d eep a nd 1 .5 m i n length f rom t he back t o t he e ntrance, thus resembling t he h ead o f a f ish. O bscured f rom v iew i s a massive a rch beneath the f ront w all o f the s econd l evel. I t i s only v isible f rom t he f loor of the doorway t o t he s econd l evel c hamber. w eight of the f ront w all o f the

-

6 5

-

T his u pper

a rch s upports two levels.

the

( Mossman a nd S elsor) F igure 6 : P iccolpasso's d escription o f a n I talian k iln o f t he 1 6th c entury.

-

6 6

-

Moor ish K i ln S ites

Q uar t

(

M i rave t T ra igue ra

/

L 'A lco ra

A go s t S L a R amb la

H ues ca r

.

S L or ca .

G uad ix

( Moss r nan

a nd

where k ilns f unctioning.

S elsor) w ith

7 :

F igure

M oorish

-

6 7

M ap

i ndicating

a rchitectural

-

e lements

s ites a re

F IRST L EVEL O F K I LN F ISH H EAD

S IDE V IE W

z2f t 2 . 1 A $ IES

0

E NTRANCE

M38 IVt ARCH

1 .s*

i

0 1

2*

1 . 5*

I

7 EM

. ' ARY

P LANK ACROSS r i u DOX

F IRE a m

F OR L OAD I NG P OTS

TOP V IE W

2 .S t

3 . 8*

END V IE W

( Mosaman

. 7*

E NTRANCE

1 0,

4

a nd

S elsor)

F igure

8 :

T he

t hree-story k iln.

-

6 8

-

f irst

l evel

o f

t he

( Mossman f irebox.

a nd

S elsor)

F igure

-

6 9

9 :

-

" Fish

h ead"

r oof

o f

the

T he

S econd

L evel

The s econd l evel o f the t hree s tory k iln h as a s quare f loor 3 .3 m x 3 .3 m . T he e ntrance i s a bove t he chamber on t he f irst level a nd a ligned w ith the mouth of the f irebox. T he f loor i nclines s lightly because of the s hape of the a rches i n f irst level. T he ceiling i s a vaulted a rch w ith s even a rches i n t he i nfrastructure i nterspersed w ith the ceiling vents. T he r adius of this a rch begins a t t he h eight of 1 .4 m o n t he s ide w all i n the f ront of the chamber. T he h eight of the chamber a t t he f ront i n t he center i s 2 .4 m a nd i n t he rear i s 2 .2 m ( Figure 1 0). A long t he rear w all i n t he f loor i s a r ow of e ight vents, f ollowed by two r ows of s even v ents, one vent l ocated i n t he center t oward t he f ront, a nd a r ow of f ive vents i n t he f ront. T his p attern r eflects the t apered f orm o f the chamber below, a nd t he s econd c hamber i s s lightly w ider t han t he f irst chamber beneath i t. T he

T hird

L evel

This third l evel i s domed a nd t here a re n o c orner vents i n t he ceiling. O ther k ilns i n A gost h ave f ive vents i n t he dome w ith one i n t he center a nd o ne i n e ach of t he f our corners. S ome p otters a djust the f low of heat t o i mprove t he f unctioning o f t heir k ilns by plugging vents. T he t ransition of the s quare w alls ( 3.4 m x 3 .4 m ) i n t he t op chamber s tarts gradually i n t he corners a nd moves t oward t he center. T here i s n o c lear a rched i ntersection between t he dome a nd t he s quare a s i s e vident i n o ther k ilns. A t the h eight of 1 .5 m t he rectilinear w alls begin t o convert i nto t he r ound dome. T he dome i s c rowned by the s moke h ole w hich i s a l arge vent 5 0 c m i n diameter ( Figure 1 1). T he f loor vents a re s lightly s taggered f rom t hose below. T his chamber' s s quare w alls a re 1 0 c m w ider t han t he chamber below, a nd the h eat vents a re n ot d irectly a bove t hose i n t he lower chamber. B y s taggering t he p attern of the vents, h eat i s f orced t o c irculate t hroughout the chamber.

THE C leaning

t he

A sh

FIRING

CYCLE

P it

Approximately 1 .5 m 3 o f a shes f rom t he p revious f iring a re r emoved f rom t he f irebox b y t he p rofessional s toker/clay maker. T he p rofessional s toker d islikes this chore because of the h ealth p roblems manifest by h aving t o descend i nto t he p it t o r emove t he a shes. I n a ddition the a shes s till r etain s ome h eat u p t o t hree w eeks after the

c onclusion

of

the

p revious

f iring.

T he

a shes

the p revious f iring a re u seo t o s eal t he e ntrance f ire box a fter t he s ubsequent f iring i s begun.

-

7 0

-

f rom t o

t he

S ECOND L EVEL O F T HREE S TORY K ILN

S IDE V IEW

4

I I

& 3m

0 0

TOP

V IEW

Um

0

0

o

0

0 0

0

0 0

0

0

4

ENTRA*E

0

0

H EAT V ENTS

F RONT V IEW

t

T

t . 4M

E N T*A ?CE

( Mosaman a nd S elsor) t hree-story k iln.

F igure

-

71

1 0:

-

T he

s econd

l evel

o f

t he

T H IRD L EVEL O F T HREE S TORY K ILN S MOKE H O LE

F RONT V IEW

I i

E NTRANCE

S MOKE H OLE

T OP V IEW O F D OME

4

" T OP V IEW O FF LOOR

3 .4 ,'

0

0

0

0

C 3

0 0

0

o

0

0-

0

0

2

0

To 0

HVrVLNT$

0

1

a O

F igure

7 2

a

4 O

0

1:

-

O

0 0

a

O

-

0

0

0

( Mosaman a nd S elsor) t hree-story k iln.

0

D

T he

o U

L t

0

t hird

l evel

o f

the

L oading

t he

K iln

Two p otters c an p roduce e nough p ots i n f our w eeks t ime t o f ill a t hree-story k iln. A s more p ots a ccumulate i t b ecomes necessary t o l oad t he k iln because s torage s pace i n t he w orkshop a rea becomes a p roblem. A dditional l aborers, u sually l ocal " Gypsy" w omen, a re h ired a nd u p t o f ive e xtra h elpers a re needed s imply t o c arry the p ots t o t he k iln. I f e ach w oman c arried e ight l arge botijos p er t rip t o t he k iln ( Figure 1 2), a nd t he k iln h olds 7 ,000 l arge botijos, they w ould h ave t o make 1 75 t rips ( 5 women x 8 b otijos = 40 v essels p er s ingle t rip). S ince many other s izes a nd t ypes of p ots, i n a ddition t o t he l arge botijos, a re loaded i nto t he k iln f or a s ingle f iring, one may begin t o comprehend the magnitude of the manual c hore of loading t he k iln. L oading

F irst

L evel

The p ots a re c arried t o t he k iln r oom b y s everal p art-time w orkers. O ne i ndividual p asses the p ots t o a nother w orker i nside t he f irebox. T he p ottery i s loaded b y c rossing a p lank p laced a cross the f irebox t o t he rear of t he chamber ( Figure 1 3). T he w orker i nside t he k iln carries the p ots a cross the f ire p it on a p lank t o t he back of the chamber w here t he " stacker," i n most cases the due o ( owner o r master), i s w orking. T he s tacker carefully p repares the r ows of p ots by raising t hem o ff the f loor w ith bricks a nd s tabilizing t hem w ith s herds. S tacking i n " steps" a llows h eat c irculation during t he f iring p rocess. T he p ots a re s tacked f rom f loor t o ceiling i n descending r ows. O nce t he chamber i s loaded, a bagwall i s built t o s eparate t he d irect f lame f rom t he p ots. T his w all i s built f rom u nfired b ricks a nd i s i ntentionally s tacked l eaning a way f rom t he f irebox. I f i t w ere s tacked vertically, the h eat f rom t he f irebox w ould s hrink the h ot s ide of the w all i nto t he f irebox ( Figure 1 4). T he bricks a re p assed i nto t he k iln i n the s ame f ashion a s the p ots. A p erson f rom t he outside of the k iln p asses the b ricks t o a p erson w ho c rosses the p lank a nd g ives the b ricks t o t he p erson building t he bagwall. L oading

S econd

L evel

The p ots a re c arried f rom a s torage a rea w here t hey h ave been drying d irectly i nto t he k iln chamber. I n t he k iln, the c arriers must w ait f or e ach p ot t o be t aken f rom t hem a s the s tacker builds the r ows a nd c olumns. A gain, the p ots a re r aised o ff the f loor t o a llow f or circulation. T he columns a re a lso s tabilized b y u sing s herds f rom d iscarded h andles or p ot w alls. T he s pace i s

-

7 3

-

( Moasman b otijos.

a nd

S elsor)

F igure

-

7 4

1 2:

-

" Gypsy"

w oman

c arrying

( Mossman a nd S elsor) l evel c hamber.

F igure

-

1 3:

7 5

T he

-

p lank

t o

t he

f irst

( Moss r nan

a nd

S elsor)

F igure

-

1 4:

1 6

T he b agwall.

-

densely f illed b y k nowledgeably s tacking i nverted b otijos o n t op of botijos m adrile i os ( Figure 1 5). T he density best e conomizes the load a s w ell a s p rotects the columns f rom s hifting d uring t he f iring. T hese p ots w ithstand t he w eight of columns of p ots w ithout b reaking, a nd l arge n umbers of vessels c an be s tacked w ithout the benefit of k iln f urniture. L oading

T hird

L evel

The p ots a re s tacked a s i n t he s econd c hamber e xcept that t he h eight of the t hird c hamber n ecessitates the u se of a l adder t o l oad t he chamber t o f ull c apacity. T he l adder i s leaned a gainst the l oaded p ots as the s tacker a scends t o t he ceiling p ushing p ot after p ot i nto e very p ossible o pen s pace. T he f inal p ieces t o be p ut i n t he k iln a re s maller i n s ize a nd a re lowered f rom t he e xterior o f the dome i nto t he t op of the t hird c hamber. L ater i n t he f iring, s ome of these p ots w ill b e t aken out a s t est p ieces t o determine w hether o r n ot t he f iring s hould b e t erminated. S ealing

t he

D oors

The doors o n both t he s econd a nd t hird l evels a re bricked u p by the " stacker" u sing f ired b ricks a nd f illing t he gaps w ith s herd o r broken bricks. A mixture i s p repared b y the p rofessional f ire s toker/clay maker consisting o f the a shes, c lay s lurry, a nd s and. T he mixture i s s meared o ver t he b rick door. A s c racks develop during t he i nitial h ours of the f iring, they w ill b e p atched w ith this mixture. S tarting

t he

F ire,

" Poco

a P oco"

The f ire i s s tarted a t t he mouth of the f irebox a nd b urns only at t he mouth f or a d ay before being p ushed i nto t he f irebox w here i t continues t o " slow burn" f or a t otal o f 3 4 hours ( Figure 1 6). T his " slow burn" i s s toked s teadily, y et s lowly. M any of the p ots w ere n ot completely dry before being l oaded, s o t hat t he w ater remaining i n t he c lay needs t o be s lowly e xtracted f rom t hese vessels. D uring t he " slow burn," t he p rofessional s toker i s n ot i nvolved, a nd t he k iln i s a ttended i n s hifts only by the dueI o a nd a ssistants, often retired p otters ( Figure 1 7). T he s hifts a re s ix h ours on s ix h ours off. A t the p articular p ottery s tudied, the f irings begin on M ondays a t 3 : 00 p .m., a nd a fter a pproximately 3 1 4 hours of f iring, the p rofessional s tokers t ake o ver t he s ix-hour s hifts a nd t he s toking i s i ntensified.

-

7 7

-

( Mossman a nd S elsor) botijos m adrile os.

F igure

-

7 8

1 5:

-

T he

s econd

l evel

w ith

-

7 9

-

T e m p e r a t u r e

( Mossman

a nd

S elsor)

F igure

-

1 7:

8 0

-

F iring

" poco a p oco."

I ntensive

F iring

S tokers must c ooperate during t he f iring p rocess, s o t hat, f or e xample, the p rofessional s toker/clay maker f rom t his p ottery a nd t he p rofessional s toker/clay maker f rom a nother p ottery t ake a lternate s hifts. O ne p rofessional s toker may be e mployed f ull t ime a t t wo or t hree f actories a nd w ill a ssist w ith the f irings a t s everal o ther p otteries. B ecause of the e xperience of f iring i n s everal p otteries, e ach p rofessional s toker gets t o k now the variations of f iring a mong i ndividual k ilns. T he k iln described i n t his s tudy i s considered b y the s tokers t o be t he "easiest" t o f ire e ven t hough i t i s the l argest k iln i n t he v illage. A s the s toking i ntensifies a nd b undles of w ood a re a dded t o t he f ire, b lack s moke belches f rom t he mouth of the f irebox a nd t he dome ( Figure 1 8). A s the w ood b undles a re consumed, the b lack s moke t urns t o w hite s moke k nown a s "angel' s breath." T oward t he e nd o f the f iring, p ine bundles a re e mployed t o maximize a nd maintain t he h eat i n t his cycle, a nd during t he l ast 2 4 hours bundles of p ine boughs a re s toked e very 1 5 m inutes. T ime i s k ept by the q uarter h our bell f rom t he church of S an P edro. T he i ntensive f iring c ycle creates a reducing a tmosphere t urning t he c lay body w hite. P ots w ill f ire t o a w hiter color i f s alt i s a dded t o t he c lay during mixing, a s i n t he case of the botijos. When p ots a re glazed, n o s alt i s u sed, but the c lay body i s s till w hite t o l ight cream d ue t o t he reducing a tmosphere. I f the c lay i s n ot reduced t he resulting vessels a re o range t o buff i n color. A fter a pproximately 1 00 hours ( plus or minus 3 hours), the due o c limbs t o t he t op of the dome of the k iln a nd r emoves a t est p iece f rom t he t op of t he s tack. A fter breaking t he p ot a nd c hecking t he w all c olor, h e decides w hether o r n ot t o continue t he f iring. I f the p ot w all h as s ome p ink i nside, the f iring s hould c ontinue f or two h ours, at w hich t ime a nother p ot w ill b e t ested. T he t emperature reached i s approximately 1 000° C ( Figure

1 9).

C losing

T he

F irebox

When t he due o d etermines that t he f iring s hould b e t erminated, both h e a nd t he p rofessional s toker construct a c urved b rick w all a t t he mouth of the f irebox. T hen a nother w all i s constructed i n a concentric p attern a way f rom t he f irst w all. T he a sh f rom t he p revious f iring i s p oured i n between t he t wo w alls creating a n a irtight s eal s o a s t o p revent cool drafts f rom s hocking t he p ots. T he cracks on t he doors a re s ealed w ith the mixture of c lay, ash a nd s and, a nd t he k iln i s a llowed t o s lowly cool.

-

8 1

-

( Mossman a nd S elsor) d uring t he i ntensive

F igure 1 8: f iring.

-

8 2

-

T he

d ome b elching

s moke

p,

a s

0

I — ( 30

-

L A 0

N

Go

8 3

-

U,

0

' 0

s O

U )

-

U

0

• H o u r l y H i g h T e m

pe r a t u r

e

p a t e r n w i t h

U ,

U nloading

t he

K iln

After f ive d ays the k iln i s opened, w ith the door of the t hird c hamber t he f irst t o be u nbricked. T he p ots a re removed u sing t he s ame organized l abor f orce a s w as employed b y the dueR 'o i n loading t he k iln. T here i s a t emporary s top i n t he courtyard s o t hat e ach vessel may be dusted t o r emove f ly ash. E ach t ype of p ot i s then t aken t o a p redetermined s torage a rea.

T HE

P RODUCTION

CAPACITY AND THE K ILNS

P ERIODIC

FIRING OF

T HE

I n A gost, "medium-size t hree-chamber k ilns c an contain a ll t he p ottery made by a t hrower a nd h is assistant i n a p eriod o f 5 0 d ays. .. . I f w e a ssume t hat t he k ilns a re f ired b etween 8 a nd 1 0 t imes a y ear, we must estimate t he a nnual p roduction of a w orkshop t o be 40, 000 1 00, 000 v essels, a nd t he t otal a nnual p roduction of the 2 0 p ottery w orkshops t o be 8 00, 000 t o 2 , 000, 000 p ieces" ( Vossen 1 982: 354). T he p otters i ndicate t hat i n t he 1 940s a nd 1 950s the p otteries f ired t hree-story k ilns, w ith c apacities a veraging b etween 6 0 t o 7 0 m3, as f requently as twice p er month. A t p resent, s ome p otters h ave reverted t o t he s maller t wo-story k ilns. F ourteen of the t wenty-one p otteries h ave t woo r t hree-story functioning k ilns u sed f or t he p roduction of the p orous w hite p ottery. T en of the p otters n ow f ire t he k iln less than once p er month, while only f our p otteries f ire t heir k ilns once p er month or more f requently. T he capacity of the l arge t hree-story k iln i s as f ollows: # 1 Botijo, 6 ,800 b otijos p er k iln ( 70 m 3 x 9 0); # 2 B otijo, 7 , 000 b otijos p er k iln ( 70 m 3 x 1 00); # 3 Botijo, 8 , 400 b otijos p er k iln ( 70 m3 x 1 20); a nd # 4 Botijo, 1 1, 14 70 botijos p er k iln ( 70 m3 x 2 10) ( Mossman a nd S elsor 1 986: 9). -

S OCIOECONOMIC

FACTORS AND THE D EVELOPMENT K ILNS

O F

T HREE-STORY

V ossen ( 1 982: 3 76-377) c ontrasts " the s upra-regional t rade of the l arge s pecialized c enters" a nd " the local t rade of the s mall p ottery w orkshops." " Larger manuf acturing c enters a re connected w ith the central markets a nd t he u rban centers through a s ymbiotic g roup of middle men." A gost h as t raditionally been a manufacturing c enter f or t he A licante a nd M urcia regions of S pain. I lse S chutz, D irector of the P ottery M useum i n A gost, h as documented e vidence t hat A gost h as been a s ignificant p ottery manufacturing c enter s ince 1 821 when t en f amilies constructed a chapel dedicated t o J usta a nd R ufir ia, the p atron s aints of p ottery. T he p rimary p roducts i n A gost

-

8 4

-

were f unctional p ieces f or e veryday needs, a nd, charact eristically, these p ieces w ere of h igh q uality a nd l ow p rice. T he w hite botijos o f A gost w ere w idely k nown because of their reputed a bility t o cool t he w ater a nd g ive i t a good f lavor. I n t he middle of the 1 9th century the railroad o pened a ccess t o l arger markets i n S pain i ncluding t he h arbor of A licante, which p rovided a dditional a ccess t o markets i n N orth A frica a nd C uba. I n t he P ottery M useum i n A gost there a re f orty v arieties of botijos o n d isplay. S ome p articular f orms bear t he n ames f or d istinct destinations or r egional markets s uch a s botijo c uba, botijo s antander, botijo m adrile o, botella a fricana, botijo v alenciano, botijo o ca? 1a. T he p otters of A gost were a ble t o compete i n e xpanded markets because of their e fficiency i n p roduction w hich w as reflected i n t he low p rice. E ven w ith s hipping c osts a dded t o t he p rice, the t raditional s torage vessels w ere competitively p riced i n comparison w ith l ocally p roduced c eramic vessels. I n N orth A frican communities, the p roducts s erved t he s ame f unction i n t he s torage of w ater t hat t hey h ad s erved i n t he S panish communities. T hese markets reinforced a nd s trengthened t he p roduction of A gost by p roviding more outlets f or t he p roducts a nd r equiring more e fficient p roduction u sing t he t raditional t echniques. K ingery ( 1984:171) s tates that "within t he i nternal l imitations of the a vailable materials, the level o f ceramic t echnology r ises t o t he level f or w hich there i s a w ell-perceived demand w ithin s ociety. .. . T hat i s, the development of ceramic t echniques a nd materials i s a lways a consequence of s ocietal c hange rather t han a cause." T he development of the l arge t hree-story k ilns began a s the market demand grew, a ccording t o E varisto, master p otter ( 1986:personal c ommunication). U sing t raditional k iln a rchitecture, a n a dditional s tory w as a dded b etween t he f irst a nd s econd s tories of the two-story k iln t o i ncrease efficiency a nd p roduction. I n A gost, the development of the t hree-story k iln i s d irectly related t o t he requirements of the e xpanding markets a nd a t radition of k iln design i ncorporating e lements f rom I berian, R oman, a nd M oorish p ottery t raditions.

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8 5

-

R EFERENCES B lanquez, 1 983 L os F oster, 1 962

J uan a nd I beros.

G .

E nrique de A lvaro A rtegraf, M adrid.

M .

T raditional Technological

K ingery, 1 984

C ITED

W .

C ultures: a nd t he C hange. H arper a nd R ow,

I mpact N ew Y ork.

D .

I nteractions of C eramic T echnology w ith S ociety. I n P ots a nd P otters: C urrent A pproaches i n C eramic A rchaeology, e dited b y P . M . R ice, p p. U niversity of C alifornia P ress, B erkeley A ngeles.

K opke, 1 985

of

1 71 -1 98. a nd L os

W . T opferofen, Topfereien E ntwicklung.

D ie B rennanlagen S paniens A rten, D r. R udolf H abelt

der t raditionellen V erbreitung u nd G MBH, B onn.

M aria

B lazquez,

1 975

C iclos y t emas de l a H istoria de E spa a: L a Romanizacion. T alleres G raficos M ontan - a , M adrid.

M ossman, 1 986

a nd

D .

P .

L .

S elsor

S .

P ottery i n Approach.

P iccolpasso, 1 548

M .

F unctional S panish P ottery T radition a nd t he M odern K itchen. P aper p resented a t t he 8 5th A nnual M eeting o f the A merican A nthropological A ssociat ion. P hiladelphia, P A. M s.

P eacock, 1 982

B .

J ose

t he R oman W orld: A n E thnoarchaeological L ongman H ouse, E ssex.

C ipriano

I T re L ibri D ell' Arte D el of the P otters' Art, V ol.

V asaio: 2 . ( A

T he T hree B ooks f acsimile of the

manuscript i n t he V ictoria a nd A lbert L ondon t ranslated a nd i ntroduced b y L ightbown a nd A lan C aiger-Smith, 1 980.) P ress, I lkley, W est Y orkshire. R ichter, 1 983

S empere, 1 982

van 1 976

M aurice

N .,

T echnological U niversity of

J r. a nd S ocial N ew Y ork P ress,

C omplexity. A lbany.

S tate

E .

R utas a los B arcelona. de

M useum, R onald S colar

L eeuw, S tud es

S . i n

A lfares

E spai 'a-Portugal.

L es

P unxes,

E . t he

T echnology

-

8 6

-

of

A ncient

P ottery,

2

Vol s . U niversiteit t ation, A msterdam. V ossen, 1 984

v an

A msterdam,

P h.D.

d isser-

R .

T owards B uilding M odels of T raditional T rade i n C eramics: C ase S tudies i n S pain a nd M orocco. I n T he M any D imensions of P ottery, e dited b y S . E . v an der L eeuw a nd A . C . P ritchard, p p. 3 41 -406. U niversiteit van A msterdam, A msterdam.

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8 7

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C HAPTER

4 E LITE

CERAMICS:

D ISHES

Louana

T he

M .

FIT

FOR

A K ING

L ackey

D epartment of A rt H istory M aryland I nstitute, C ollege o f 1 300 Mount R oyal A venue B altimore, M aryland 2 1217 U . S . A .

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: Socioeconomics of P ottery, e dited ( 1988), P art i :89-109).

L ouana

M .

-

1

L ackey,

89

-

A rt

T he T echnology a nd b y C harles C . K olb

1 988

A BSTRACT T he material c ulture of the w ealthy a nd p owerful i s u sually described i n s uperlatives most e xpensive, largest or s mallest, newest o r o ldest, the r arest e xample, o r t he l argest collection o f e xamples. "Thinnest," "hardest," a nd " best decorated" a re a mong t he s uperlatives u sed b y a rchaeologists t o d ifferentiate t he ceramics they believe w ere "elite" f rom t he f unctional, e veryday w ares of the common p eople. T hese a nd o ther differences between w ares of the r ich, a nd t hose of the p oor a re e xamined i n a n a ttempt t o e stablish a w orkable definition of "elite," w hen u sed t o describe a ceramic t radition. -

-

9 0

-

-

I NTRODUCTION The w ealthy a nd p owerful h ave never l acked f or s ymbols a nnouncing t heir s tatus p recious metals, rare jewels, s umptuary l aws, l arger dwellings, etc. F rom v illage t o p alace, the p ossessions of the r ich a re u sually described i n s uperlatives m ost e xpensive, rarest, b iggest, s mallest, newest o r o ldest, l argest collection, or one of a k ind. M any of these a rtifacts a re n ot f ound o r r eflected i n a n a rchaeological c ontext, a nd a rchaeologists must often rely on ceramics as i ndicators of s ocial s tatus. -

-

-

-

M esoamerican a rchaeologists u se " Thin O range," P lumbate, a nd C holula P olychrome a s i ndicators of r ank a nd s tatus. S ong a nd M ing p eriod p orcelains f rom C hina, a nd N abeshima p orcelains f rom J apan a re e xamples of O riental e lite w ares. A rchaeologists w ho w ork i n t he Western t radition h ave a ssigned e lite s tatus t o n umerous ceramic t ypes s ince t he B ronze A ge; R ed-Figured G reek vases ( Figure 1 ) a nd R oman T erra S igillata a re t wo e xamples. M any of these w ares never lose t heir p restigous s tatus a nd, i ndeed, become i ncreasingly valuable, as w itness the D eath of S arpedon, the G reek R ed-Figured c alyx k rater f or w hich t he M etropolitan M useum p aid o ne million dollars. C ontemporary e lite w ares i nclude W edgwood, R oyal W orcester, M ikasa, L enox, a nd L imoges. A rchaeologists w orking i n N orth A merican h istoric s ites typically i dentify a residence a s belonging t o u pper c lass o ccupants by the p resence, depending o n t he p eriod, of D utch a nd E nglish delftwares a nd o ther majolicas; s alt-glazed w hitewares; a nd c ream-colored e ar t henwares q ueen' s w ares, p earl w ares, a nd t ransfer-printed w ares i n a ddition t o O riental a nd E uropean p orcelains. H owever, c aution i s a dvised i n a ssigning u pper c lass s tatus t o a s ite s olely o n t he basis of s uch a ceramic collection. -

-

-

-

R ice ( 1981: 222-223), i n e xamining t he e volution of craft s pecialization, makes s everal d istinctions between "elite" a nd " utilitarian" p ottery, referring t o t he f ormer a s "pottery that i s a l uxury, h igh-status, o r p restige commodity, w ith ceremonial o r s pecial f unction, h igh value, low consumption, a nd s ome k ind o f restricted d istribution." S he i ncludes a s other d istinguishing c haracteristics of e lite ceramics " a g reater v ariety of k inds a nd c omplexity of decoration, greater s kill i n e xecution, a nd p erhaps r are or e xotic materials." E lite w ares " should b e d iscernible t echnologically." T he "wares p roduced may be t raded o ut of the s ociety through networks

controlled

a nd

maintained

-

9 1

-

b y the

e lite."

O f

the

( Lackey) F igure 1 : A ttic G reek r ed-figure a mphora, S eated M an a t S ymposia. C ourtesy o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. 7 8-8830.

-

9 2

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s everal w ares mentioned, only p orcelain conforms t o a ll o f these c riteria. A brief review of their h istory may h elp t o c larify the s ocial d istinctions between p orcelain a nd t he o ther c ited w ares during t he A merican C olonial p eriod a nd l ater.

P ORCELAIN P orcelain w as, a nd i s, made f or a nd u sed b y e lites a nd t hose w ho h ave p retentions t o e lite s tatus. A t t imes s ince i ts i nvention, i ts p roduction a nd d istribution h ave been controlled b y e lites. I t i s h ard t o r ealize t hat p orcelain ownership w as once l imited t o r uling p rinces a nd t he n obility but, f rom i ts i nvention u ntil a bout the e nd o f the 1 8th century, p orcelain w as the e lite w are i n many p arts of the w orld. P orcelain w as i nvented i n C hina, a lthough the date i s n ot y et c lear a nd t he q uestion i s s till u nder a ctive d iscussion i n C hinese a cademic c ircles. S ome s cholars p lace i ts origin i n t he W ei a nd J in D ynasties after t he 3rd c entury A . D. w hile others think that t he E astern H an D ynasty ( A. D. 2 5-220) o r t he T hree K ingdoms P eriod ( A. D. 2 20-280) a re more a ppropriate p eriods ( Li a nd C heng 1 984: 23). T here a re f requent references i n t he l iterature t o t he e lite s tatus of p orcelain, both i n C hina a nd, l ater, i n o ther p arts of the w orld. G arnsey a nd A lley ( 1983: 8) c ite a s a n e arly e xample t he C hai k ilns i n H onan P rovince t hat p roduced a u nique p orcelain made e specially t o t he order of E mperor S hih T sung ( A. D. 9 5 ) 4_959). T his w are w as s aid t o be " as b lue a s the s ky, as bright a s a mirror, as thin a s p aper, a nd a s resonant as a musical s tone of j ade." D ing w ares, the w hite p orcelain manuf actured e xclusively f or t he i mperial c ourt during t he S ong D ynasty ( A. D. 9 60-1 279), a re a nother e xample. L i a nd C heng ( 1 984: 60) c ite D ing k iln s ites w here a rchaeologists f ound a l arge n umber of vessels decorated w ith dragon a nd p hoenix p atterns. T hese p atterns w ere s ymbols of the emperor a nd e mpress a nd w ere u sed o nly by these s upreme rulers. L i a nd C heng n ote f urther t hat by the f irst q uarter of the 1 2th century the government h ad e stablished p orcelain f actories i n t he c apital t o manufacture w ares e xclusively f or u se by the court, w ares that w ould b e collected a nd p reserved by i mperial c ourts of l ater dynasties, the Q ing D ynasty ( 1 6 1414 _191 2) " especially t aking g reat care t o c ollect s uch vessels." P orcelain collecting w as n ot l imited t o t he C hinese I mperial c ourts. P orcelain w as t o make a t remendous i mpact on t he w orld o utside of the O rient. T he W est h ad b een a ware of C hina s ince C lassic P eriod G reece, when t rade i n s ilk began. B y the beginning o f the C hristian

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e ra, there w as regular commerce between E ast a nd W est a long t he S ilk R oad, but there does n ot s eem t o h ave been a ny e xchange of p ottery u ntil l ate i n t he T ang D ynasty ( A. D. 6 18-906), w hen s uch t rade began between I slam a nd C hina. W ares w ere t ransported b oth e ast a nd w est, i nfluencing b oth t raditions. C aiger-Smith ( 1973: 23) e mphasized t hat w hite p ottery w as u nknown i n t he M iddle E ast a nd t he w hiteness a lone of this T 'ang p orcelain a nd s toneware w ould h ave made i t f amous. T he p orcelain w as e xquisitely thrown, a nd t he p earlywhite g laze w as e xtremely beautiful. I t w as t he w are t hat i nspired t he f irst t in-glaze e arthenware, which w as p robably made f or t he C aliph' s court i n B aghdad.

T IN-GLAZED

E ARTHENWARES

I slamic p otters t ried t o i mitate t hese e xotic w ares but, w ithout the materials a nd t echnology f or h igh-temperature p orcelain, their e xperiments r esulted i n a n e arthenware covered w ith a n opaque-white t in g laze. T hese t in-glazed e arthenwares, the f irst w hite g laze p ottery t o be made o utside t he F ar E ast, were t o h ave a lmost a s f ar-reaching a n i mpact on ceramic h istory as the p orcelains they attempted t o duplicate. I t i s n ot k nown e xactly w here a nd h ow t in-glaze f irst reached E urope; w hether S pain w ith the M oors, o r I taly w ith the C rusaders. M ost of the p ottery made i n M edieval E urope h ad b een lowfired, u tilitarian red-ware t hat w as g lazed, i f at a ll, w ith g reen or y ellow l ead g laze. T he opaque w hite a nd b right colors of the t in-glazed t radit ion s pread a cross E urope, a cquiring d ifferent p lacenames m ajolica, f aience, a nd delft ( Figure 2 ). I n t he s outh S pain a nd I taly t he t in-glazed t radition r ose d irectly f rom I slamic p rototypes, a t f irst i n i mitation of I slamic i mitations of C hinese o riginals. When M arco P olo b rought b ack s amples of p orcelain f rom h is t ravels t o C hina, there w ere o riginal models t o r eplicate, w ith many more t o f ollow after P ortugal e stablished t rade relations w ith C hina e arly i n t he 1 6th century. B y the t ime t in-glazed e arthenware h ad r eached n orthern E urope E ngland, H olland, F rance, a nd G ermany b oth H olland a nd E ngland h ad e ntered t he C hina t rade, p roviding t in-glaze p otters w ith both C hinese a nd J apanese p orcelains t o c opy. -

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E UROPEAN

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P ORCELAIN

P rceiajn t echnology ren ained a C hinese s ecret f or a t housand y ears u ntil E uropeans s ucceeded i n duplicating t he p rocess. J ust a s I taly h ad b een t he f irst E uropean country t o s ee p orcelain, i t w as the f irst t o meet w ith -

94

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( Lackey) F igure 2 : B lue D elft p late. H olland, c a. 1 700. 1 3 3 /4 i nches i n d iameter. C ourtesy o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. 7 7-12884.

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a ny s uccess i n manufacturing t he material. T he f irst k nown E uropean p orcelain body w as p roduced i n 1 575, the result of e xperiments at t he F rancisco d i M edici f actory near F lorence. T he body w as n ot a t rue or "hard p aste" p orcelain body l ike t hat u sed i n C hina but a " soft-paste" p orcelain w ith a body composed of w hite c lay a nd g lass. Wares w ere decorated w ith a n u nderglaze b lue a nd g lazed w ith a t ransparent lead-glaze i n i mitation of C hinese w ares. A lthough the d i M edici f actory d id n ot s urvive t he death of the G rand D uke, s everal o ther centers h ad b egun t o p roduce s oft-paste p orcelain by the e nd o f the 1 7th century, while t he s earch f or t rue p orcelain continued. I n E ngland J ohn D wight o f F ulham a lmost s ucceeded w ith the s alt-glazed w hite s tone-ware h e p atented i n 1 671. T he w are w as a lmost a s thin a s p orcelain a nd w as e ven s omewhat t ranslucent but, l ike t he s oft-pastes, D wight' s f ormula l acked t he essential i ngredient of t rue p orcelain. T his i ngredient, p etuntse, or " china-stone," i s a f orm o f f eldspar. D wight, a gentleman, h ad p aid f or h is own e xperiments. O n t he continent, h owever, k ings a nd n obles continued t o u nderwrite a nd e ncourage e xperiments i n p orcelain manufacture. A t the s ame t ime, the a ttempts of these k ings a nd n obles t o outbid e ach other f or e very s hipment of p orcelain f rom t he O rient amounted t o a f renzy c alled " Chinamania" by many w riters. A ugust the S trong o f S axony, one of the most a vid o f these collectors, e ven t raded a regiment of 7 82 s oldiers t o F rederick W illiam I , K ing o f P russia, f or 1 17 p ieces of C hinese p orcelain ( Axel a nd M cCready 1 981:182). P ossibly i n t he h ope t hat h e could p roduce t he gold h e needed f or more p orcelain, A ugust gave refuge t o J ohann F rederick B ottger, a f ugitive a lchemist. B ottger f ailed i n t his e xpectation, but h e d id d iscover t he s ecret of t rue p orcelain, a s erendipitous result o f h is s earch f or the s ecret of gold ( Figure 3 ). A ugust, n ot d ispleased w ith the d iscovery, established a f actory f or t he material' s p roduction a t M eissen, a c astle near D resden where, i t w as h oped, s ecurity could b e maintained. T his hope w as n ot realized. T he t echnology of p orcelain manufacture w as a s hort-lived M eissen s ecret. R affo ( 1982:85) a ttributes the " deterioration i n 3 ottger' s mental h ealth. H e t ook t o drink a nd b ad c ompanions, a nd may h ave g iven a way a f ew s ecrets i n h is drunken bouts." R affo c ites, i n a ddition, i ndustrial e spionage a s "one of the p roblems that M eissen h ad t o contend w ith f rom t he earliest days .„ T he s pies i ncluded " kings, p rinces, a nd r ich e ntrepreneurs w ho t hought n othing o f offering b ribes to ' arcanists,' o r t o p eople connected w ith the i ndustry who w ere t hought t o be a rcanists" ( Raffo 1 982: 85).

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( Lackey) F igure 3 : T eapot w ith l id. M eissen, c a. 1 735. 3 1 /4 i nches h igh. C ourtesy o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. 7 3-11476.

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T hese " arcanists," t he k ey p ersonnel w ho k new the a rcanum, or manufacturing s ecrets of t rue p orcelain, were lured t o n ew f actories that w ere being f ounded a ll o ver E urope w here, as i n C hina a nd J apan, both the p roduction a nd t he d istribution of the e xpensive w are w ere controlled b y the n obility. R awson ( 1971:64) c ites D uke C harles E ugene of W urtemberg w ho, i n t he middle of the 1 8th century, s tated t hat a p rocelain f actory w as "an i ndispensable a ccompaniment t o s plendour a nd magnificence." R awson f eels that i t "was n o a ccident t hat t he greatest E uropean p orcelain f actories w ere p atronized b y p owerful h ereditary p rinces a nd a ristocrats." I n a ddition t o A ugust the S trong, these p rinces a nd a ristocrats i ncluded " the E mpress M aria T heresa, who p atronized t he f actories at T ournai, D occia, a nd V ienna, a nd L ouis X V of F rance, who moved t he r oyal f actory f rom V incennes t o S evres i n 1 156. S ome consumed f ortunes i n r unning t heir p otteries, whose p roducts w ere s o e xpensive t hat f ew could a fford t hem" ( Rawson 1 971: 6 4).

E UROPEAN AND AMERICAN

P ORCELAIN

I n t he A merican colonies, there w ere n o p rinces or n obles t o s quander t heir p atrimony on p orcelain f actories. H ere, the u pper c lasses i ncluded t he w ealthy merchants a nd p lanters, the e ducated p hysicians a nd c lergy, a nd t he p owerful a ppointed o r e lected o fficials. T heir desire f or p orcelain may reflect a n e arly manifestation of the A merican y earning f or gentility, refinement, a nd c ulture. A t f irst, p orcelain ownership w as r are. D eetz ( 1 977: 60) f inds i ts p resence "quite u nusual i n a rchaeological s ites before 1 800. I t w as n ot u sually owned b y f amilies of modest estate, a nd i ts f irst appearance i n t he P lymouth i nventories i s i n 1 736, i n t he p arlor o f a merchant, a ccompanied b y delft." -

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B y the mid-18th century, only s mall a mounts of E nglish p orcelain h ad b een i mported i nto t he A merican colonies a nd, u ntil 1 784, when A merica e ntered t he C hina T rade ( Figure L I . ), C hinese p orcelain could b e i mported o nly through B ritain. E ngland h ad i mposed a s eries of i ncreasingly h igh p rotective t ariffs a gainst the i mportation of C hinese p orcelain, s o t hat by 1 799 t he duty rate w as o ver 1 00% ( Miller 1 980:1) 4), b ut there w ere n ot s uch restrictions on E uropean-made p orcelain. I ndeed, by the t hird q uarter of the 1 8th century, the market f or E uropean p orcelain h ad b een glutted. A xel a nd M cCready ( 1 981: 23) c ite a s cause t he l arge number of f actories p roducing t he w are. S ince t hese w ere "no longer i n t he p osition of s upplying t he r are t o t he e lite, f actories e 'tered a p eriod o f i ntense competition;

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( Lackey) F igure C hinese e xport p orcelain s ugar b owl. L ate 1 8th c entury. 4 i nches i n d iameter, 4 i nches h igh. C ourtesy o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. 8 3-3000B-1 3 A.

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t o s urvive e conomically meant t hat new markets f or p orcelain h ad t o be f ound, s uch a s the r ising middle c lasses." B y the t ime t hese middle c lasses could a fford p orcelain, the f ashion a mong u pper c lass E uropeans a nd A mericans h ad s hifted t o o ther, newer, w ares, a decision t hat w as apparently i nfluenced b y neither p rice n or a vailability. T wo other f actors s eem t o be responsible f or t he drastic change: f irst, the new t echnology developed i n t he E nglish ceramic i ndustry i n t he l ate 1 8th century, a nd s econd, the i nnovative a nd p romotional genius of one man, J osiah W edgwood. T he p eriod s aw " the i ntroduction of t ransfer p rinting, c alcinated f lint, l iquid g lazes, C ornish c lays, c alcinated b one, canals f or t ransporting r aw materials a nd f inished p roducts i nto a nd o ut of the f actories, a nd s team p ower f or w orking c lay a nd p ottery" ( Miller 1 980:1). T he new w ares c ream w are, q ueen' s w are, a nd t ransfer-printed w are were cream-colored e arthenwares that e volved f rom t he s ame c lay body that h ad b een u sed f or s alt-glazed s toneware but that w ere f ired t o a l ower t emperature t han s toneware a nd g lazed w ith a c lear l ead glaze. i t w as W edgwood w ho h ad i mproved t he c lay body s o t hat i t w as l ighter, f iner-textured, a nd more durable t han both t in-glazed e arthenware, which w as p rone t o chip, a nd s alt-glazed s toneware, w hich w as more brittle ( Buten 1 980:19). B uten ( 1 980:19) w rites that i n 1 765, as s oon a s W edgwood h ad p erfected h is new p roduct, h e s ent s amples of i t t o Q ueen C harlotte a nd, a lthough these i s n o e xtant record o f w hat w as s ent, these -

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s amples e vidently met w ith great approval; Q ueen C harlotte h onored W edgwood b y naming h im " Potter t o H er M ajesty," a t itle t hat c arried c onsiderable p restige a nd i nfluence. A lthough i t i s n ot k nown e xactly w hen r oyal p atronage w as conferred o r w hen W edgwood o fficially a dopted t he t erm " Queen' s W are," t he n ame certainly w as beginning t o be u sed b y 1 767. A fter a s econd q ueen, C atherine t he G reat of R ussia, ordered a s et of "queen' s w are" f rom W edgwood, p orcelain w ent i nto a t emporary e clipse. M iller ( 1980:13) s tates that C atherine' s s et cost 3 ,500 6 8 t imes that of u ndecorated c reamware. M oore ( 1977: 34) t hinks that t his p rice w as q uite i nadequate f or t he a mount of w ork that w ent i nto t he s ervice but t hat, " it w as a magnificant a dvertisement a nd s pread t he f ame of W edgwood f ar a nd w ide." T he s et w as p laced o n d isplay i n L ondon f or t wo months i n J une of 1 774 before i t w as s hipped t o R ussia. M oore ( 1 977: 34) c ites the i mpressions of a M rs. D elaney -

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who "went w ith t he rest of the w orld t o s ee i t." M rs. D elaney a nd "the rest of the w orld" s oon f ollowed t he lead o f C harlotte a nd C atherine ( Figure 5 ). F or s everal y ears, " queen' s w ares" w ere t he reigning t ablewares a nd h ave never gone completely out of f ashion. C ream w ares, most p articularly q ueen' s w ares, were very popular i n t he colonies i n t he y ears j ust before t he R evolution. T eller ( 1968: 576) f inds that by 1 790 the i nventories of the w ell-to-do group s how cream-color w ares i n e ver-increasing a bundance a nd a decided decrease i n t he mention of s alt glaze, delft, or colored-glaze w ares. T he opening o f d irect t rade w ith C hina i n 1 785 b egins t o s how i ts effect i n t his decade w ith the f requent mention of l arge "Nankin" d inner s ets.

A MERICAN Once A merica e ntered domination of s eafaring

P ORCELAIN t he N ew

C hina T rade, u nder E ngland merchants,

t he " an

e normous q uantity of p orcelain made s pecifically f or t he A merican market w as brought i n t hrough B oston, S alem, a nd P rovidence" ( Spencer-Wood a nd T eller 1 984: 26). T his A merican market i ncluded G eorge W ashington a s a consumer. E arle ( 1982: 246) s tates that W ashington u sed b lue a nd w hite C anton china "on h is e veryday t able, j ust a s d id e very other good a nd w ealthy A merican c itizen of h is day a nd t ime." George a nd M artha W ashington owned s everal s ets of p orcelain, F rench a nd E nglish a s w ell a s O riental. E arle ( 1982: 29-248) i nventories their collection, as w ell a s the p orcelain owned by A merican p residents through C hester A rthur ( Earle 1 982: 2 ) 49-256). M ost of these p residential t able s ervices a re O riental o r E uropean p orcelain, w ith n o e xamples f rom t he new A merican p orcelain i ndustry l isted. R easons f or t his omission a re n ot d ifficult t o f ind. I n a d iscussion of C anton F amille R ose, one of the most p opular O riental p orcelains of the 1 9th century, F eller ( 1982:vi) r eminds u s that apart f rom t he meager a nd s hort-lived p orcelain output of B onnin a nd M orris p rior t o t he R evolution a nd o f W illiam E llis T ucker a nd h is associates between 1 826 a nd 1 838 b oth P hiladelphia e nterprises -- p orcelain d innerware w as s imply n ot manufactured i n t he U nited S tates during t he better p art of the 1 9th century. -

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( Lackey) F igure 5 : C reamware d inner p late decorated w ith t he " Husk" p attern f rom t he H usk S ervice m ade by W edgwood f or C atherine t he G reat. Q ueen' s W are, c a. 1 770. C ourtesy of t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. 7 2847 .

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a nd, a lthough W oodrow W ilson h ad a s et of q ueen' s w are ( Detweiler 1 975:76), a nd s ome other later p residents owned o ther a lternate t ablewares, p orcelain h as a lways been u sed f or s tate o ccasions. Q ueen' s w ares, as e lite w ares, were never more t han a t emporary a berration. E ven Q ueen C harlotte, f or w hom t he w are h ad b een named, w as apparently only a t emporary convert t o e arthenware. S pink ( 1981: 61) r elates that i n 1 788 K ing G eorge I II a nd Q ueen C harlotte became t he f irst r oyal v isitors t o t he Worcester P orcelain W orks, where t he k ing p laced a n order f or t he "Blue L ily" d esign a nd granted t he company the r ight t o u se t he s tyle "Manufacturer t o t heir M ajesties" a nd t he t itle " Royal." " Blue L ily," t he design s elected by the r oyal c ouple "was re-named " Royal L ily" a nd s ince t he granting o f that very f irst R oyal W arrant, R oyal Worcester h ave h eld R oyal W arrants f rom e very succeeding monarch-including H er M ajesty Q ueen E lizabeth I I ( Spink 1 981:61). F isher ( 1 970: 27-30) l ists a n umber of R oyal Worcester' s r oyal a nd n oble c lients, i ncluding G eorge I V, W illiam I V, P rincess C harlotte, a nd t he E mperor of R ussia. O ther p orcelain f irms a lso r eceived r oyal a ttention. T witchett a nd B ailey ( 1976: 55-58) l ist three p ages of n oble a nd r oyal p atrons of R oyal C rown D erby, which w as granted i ts R oyal W arrant by Q ueen V ictoria i n 1 890. Q ueen V ictoria a lso p atronized A ynsley, as d id Q ueen M ary, Q ueen E lizabeth the Q ueen M other, the l ate D uchess of K ent a nd t he l ate D uchess o f G loucester, a ccording t o S pink ( 1981:59), who f urther relates that w hen P rincess E lizabeth married P hilip s he chose A ynsley f or h er w edding c hina g ift f rom t he i ndustry a nd, i n 1 981, much t o t he company' s delight, h istory h as repeated i tself. F rom t he i mpressive a rray of designs s ubmitted t o B uckingham P alace by the n ation' s leading manufacturers, L ady D iana chose "Rosedale" a design of e xquisitely e xecuted s mall E nglish r oses p ortrayed i n e namel c olours a nd e mbellished w ith coin gold o n a h ighly p opular " Crocus" s hape. M iddle t o u pper c lass A merican w edding p lans a lso i nclude t he bride' s s election of china p attern. A n e arthenware s ervice f or t welve could b e p urchased f or t he p rices p aid f or t his bridal p orcelain f rom f ifty dollars u p f or a f ive-piece p lace-setting. R oyal C openhagen' s B lue F luted, w ith a n " open l ace border" a t t he O ld T own P ottery i n S an D iego, O ctober 3 1, 1 986, w as p riced a t $ 1 20 f or a s ingle p late, while t he f ive-piece p lace-setting c ost $ 420.00. A lthough n ot on display, a -

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s ame

p attern

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l isted

a t

D ISCUSSION The p attern f ollows the cycle described by M iller ( 1982: 89-90) a p rocess of e mulation by w hich a h ierarchical s ociety e xpresses i ts d ifferent s tatuses through s ymbolic e lements of material c ulture t hat, i n both f orm a nd s tyle, become a ssociated b y the members of the s ociety w ith a h igher o r lower r ank w ithin t he h ierarchy. M iller u ses ceramics t o i llustrate h is p oint. -

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S tage 1 : h ighest group a dopts a change i n conventional p ottery f orm. S tage 2 : s econd h ighest group a dopts i nnovation. S tage 3 : third h ighest group a dopts i nnovation. S tage 4 : lowest s tatus group a dopts i nnovation, but by this t ime h ighest s tatus group h as a dopted a nother change a nd t hereby maintained t he contrast. P orcelain i s n o longer t he e xclusive p ossession of the u pper c lasses, y et i t continues t o r etain t he mystique t hat made i t t he most desired c eramic w are e ver made. C ollectors eagerly b id o n e very a ntique p iece of O riental o r E uropean p orcelain t hat comes on t o t he market, w ith a n e xtensive l iterature t o h elp them i dentify the many counterfeits s ome of w hich a re a lso a ntiques. E ven p orcelain s herds h ave f ound a market s et i n s ilver a nd r eused a s jewelry. -

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A rtists as w ell a s connoisseurs h ave been a ttracted t o p orcelain. A xel a nd M cCready ( 1981: 45) c redit t his attraction t o t he material' s u nique q ualities i ts w hiteness, t ranslucency, f luidity, a nd s mooth s urface. A mong c eramists, p orcelain h as reigned a s the e lite ceramic body s ince t he l ast q uarter of the l ast century, when i t became f ashionable a mong l eisured w omen t o p aint china b lanks f rom M inton a nd o ther p orcelain f actories. T he a rt p ottery movement s aw new t echnological developments i ncluding f lambe a nd c rystalline g lazes a nd the e mergence of one-of-a-kind p ieces made by a rtists s uch a s A delaide A lsop R obineau ( Figure 6 ). M odern ceramists h ave n ot s topped e xperimenting w ith p orcelain. V ictor S pinski ‚ one of t oday' s most i nnovative ceramic a rtists, h as s pent t he l ast s everal y ears e volving a nd p erfecting a low-fire p orcelain body a nd i s n ow u sing t his new material i n e xperiments w ith l ife-sized c astings. A mong t he many contemporary a rtists w ho w ork i n p orcelain a re, among o thers, K en F ergusen a nd C oille H ooven i n t he U nited S tates, a nd G eoffrey S windell a nd G lenys B arton i n G reat B ritain. P rices f or w orks by -

-

( Lackey) F igure 6 : G reen m ottled p orcelain v ase w ith c arved l id. A delaide A lsop R obineau, c a. 1 916. H eight w ith l id 5 5 /8 i nches. C ourtesy o f t he S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashington, D .C. P -63271.

-

1 05

-

these a rtists make t hem a rchaeological r ecord.

u nlikely

t o

become

p art

T hus, while p orcelain meets a ll ( 1981: 222-223) c riteria f or e lite w are c ited

of

the

o f R ice' s e arlier, the

other w ares mentioned t he majolicas; s alt-glazed w hitewares; a nd t he c ream-colored w ares ( cream w ares, q ueen' s w ares, p earl w ares, a nd t ransfer-printed w ares) d o n ot. T hese w ares s hould b e c lassed w ith h er " new p astes i n s tandard e lite f ormal o r decorative s tyles" s tyles that " suggest i mitation w ares a nd/or competition a mong p roducers." F urther, " imitation e lite p ottery may overlap the d istribution of the e lite/ceremonial/highv alue w are." S ince before t he R evolutionary W ar, -

-

-

-

upwardly mobile A mericans h ave been f ollowing t he e xample of the B ritish a ristocracy i n most things f ashionable, i ncluding t ablewares. When p orcelain w as u nobtainable, or u naffordable, they s ettled f or i mitations. When t hey f inally w ere a ble t o a cquire real p orcelain, they t reated i t w ith the respect t hey f elt i t deserved. D ouglas a nd I sherwood c ribing A merican behavior that "each h ousehold i n

( 1978:115) must h ave been desw hen t hey asked u s t o i magine t his s imple, s table c ulture

e xpects t o own one s et of g lasses, cups, a nd p lates f or e very-day u se; a best s et i s k ept f or S undays, a nd a very best h eirloom s et i s s tored o n t he t op s helf w rapped i n t issue p aper f or a nnual d isplay at C hristmas o r N ew Y ear' s." T his h eirloom s et i s often G randmother' s w edding c hina, while t he couple' s own w edding c hina i s reserved f or S unday u se. A s the y ears p ass a nd t he s ets a re depleted, r emaining p ieces a re d ispersed a mong d escendants. B y the t ime f amily members h ave f orgotten t he original owners a nd t he p ieces h ave lost their s entimental value, they a re retained a s " antiques," momentos of the p ast u sed o nly as decorative d isplay i tems a n u nconscious c uration t hat s kews the a rchaeological r ecord. T hus, defining a s ite a s e lite s olely on t he basis of a s mall p ercentage of p orcelain, or defining t hat s ame s ite a s e lite on t he basis of reflected g lory, e .g., i mitation p orcelain, or s ubstitutes f or p orcelain, i s l ike t he v iew of the w orld s een by the dwellers i n P lato' s c ave. N either describes a n a ccurate p icture. -

-

W ith the e xception of h istorical a rchaeologists, f ew a nthropologists deal w ith p orcelain i n t heir w ork. P orcelain, a long w ith G reek vases, h as become a lmost the e xclusive p rovince of a nother e lite a rt h istorians, museum s pecialists, a nd c eramics h istorians s cholars w ho p lace " porcelain" a nd " pottery" i nto s eparate categ n 'ies. Y et, j ust a s a nthropologists s tudy a n E astern W ' 'odlands burial o fL ?ring, or a n I sleta bean p ot, -

-

-

-

1 06

-

-

n ot f or a ny i ntrinsic beauty but f or t he w ays the vessel reflects the culture of the p eople w ho made a nd u sed t he o bject, s o a lso s hould t hey s tudy a p orcelain p lace- s etting. A nthropologists s hould a sk a n umber of q uestions a bout p orcelain, a nd i ts p lace i n t he culture of the p eople w ho made a nd u sed w hich i s "how could p eople get s o of d ishes?"

i t, n ot e xcited

t he least of a bout a bunch

E NDNOTE 1 This p aper, " Elite C eramics: D ishes F it f or a K ing," w as originally p resented a t t he 8 5th A nnual M eeting o f the A merican A nthropological A ssociation h eld i n P hiladelphia, P ennsylvania, D ecember 3-7 , 1 986.

-

1 07

-

R EFERENCES Axel, 1 981

CITED

J an a nd K aren M cCready P orcelain: T raditions a nd Guptill,

N ew V isions.

Watson-

N ew Y ork.

B uten, D avid 1 980 1 8th C entury Wedgwood: A G uide f or C ollectors C onnoisseurs. M ain S treet P ress, N ew Y ork.

a nd

C aiger-Smith, A lan 1 973 T in-Glaze P ottery i n E urope a nd t he I slamic World: The T radition of 1 000 Years i n M aiolica, F aience & Delftware. F aber a nd F aber, L ondon. D eetz, J ames 1 977 I n S mall T hings F orgotten: T he A rchaeology of E arly A merican L ife. A nchor-Doubleday, G arden C ity,

N Y.

D etweiler, S usan G . 1 975 American P residential C hina. t ution, W ashington, D .C.

S mithsonian

I nsti-

D ouglas, M ary a nd B aron I sherwood 1 978 The W orld o f G oods: T owards a n A nthropology Consumption. P enguin B ooks, N ew Y ork. E arle, A lice M orse 1 982 C hina C ollecting i n A merica. C harles E . R utland, V T. ( Originally published 1 892.) F eller, J ohn Q uentin 1 982 The C anton F amille R ose of S alem, S alem, MA. F isher, S tanley W . 1 970 Worcester P orcelain.

P orcelains.

Ward

L ock,

of

T uttle,

P eabody M useum

L ondon.

G arnsey, W anda a nd R ewi A lley 1 983 China: Ancient K ilns a nd M odern C eramics, A G uide t o t he P otteries. A ustralian N ational U niversity P ress, L i,

C anberra.

Z hiyan a nd W en C heng Chinese P ottery a nd

1 98 14

P ress,

P orcelain.

F oreign

L anguages

B eijing.

M iller, D . 1 982 S tructures a nd S trategies: A n A spect of the R elationship between S ocial H ierarchy a nd C ultural C hange. I n S ymbolic a nd S tructural A rchaeology,

-

1 08

-

e dited b y I an U niversity P ress,

H odder, p p. C ambridge.

8 9-98.

C ambridge

M iller, G eorge L . 1 980 C lassification a nd E conomic S caling o f 1 9th C eramics. H istorical A rchaeology 1 4:1-40. M oore, N . H . 1 977 Wedgwood a nd A rbor, MI.

h is

I mitators.

A rs

C entury

C eramica,

R affo, P ietro 1 982 The D evelopment of E uropean P orcelain. I n H istory of P orcelain, e dited by P aul A tterbury, 7 9-125.

O rbis,

R awson, P hilip 1 971 C eramics: U niversity R ice, 1 981

T he p p.

L ondon.

T he A ppreciation P ress, L ondon.

P rudence M . E volution of T rial M odel.

A nn

of

the

A rts/6.

O xford

S pecialized P ottery P roduction: C urrent A nthropology 2 2: 219-240.

A

S pencer-Wood, S uzanne a nd B arbara G orely T eller 1 984 P roduction a nd D istribution of C eramics. I n U nearthing N ew E ngland' s P ast: T he C eramic Evidence, pp. 2 5-27. S cottish R ite M asonic M useum of O ur N ational H eritage, L exington, MA. S pink, K atherine 1 981 I nvitation B ooks, N ew T eller, B arbara 1 968 C eramics

t o a R oyal W edding. M alden, S urrey. G orely i n P rovidence,

C olour

1 750-1800.

L ibrary

A ntiques

9 4: 5 70 -5 77. T witchett, J ohn a nd B etty 1 976 R oyal C rown D erby.

B ailey C larkson

-

1 09

-

N .

P otter,

N ew Y ork

CHAPTER

5

AN ETHNOA RCHAEOLOGICAL APPR OACH TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF M AYA DOM ESTIC POTTERY PR ODUCTION Michael De al Archaeology Unit Department of Ant hropology Memorial University of Newfoundland St . John's , Newfoundland Can ada A1C 5S7

I n Cer amic Ecology Revisited, 1987: The Technology and Socioeconomcs of Pottery, edited by Charles C. Kolb (1 988 ) , Part i : 111 -1 42.

0 Michael De al,

- 111 -

1988

A BSTRACT T he recognition of a rchaeological p ottery-making h ouseholds i s n ot a n e asy t ask a nd i t i s s eldom d ealt w ith a dequately i n t he l iterature. M odern H ighland M aya p ottery p roduction i s characterized b y certain repetitive p roduction a nd s torage s trategies, a nd a d istinctive t oolkit. A better u nderstanding o f the s tructuring o f modern M aya p ottery making a ctivities a nd s patial p atterning o f associated a rtifacts a nd f eatures w ill greatly improve t he p ossibility of recognizing P recolumbian p ottery-making h ouseholds.

-

1 12

-

I NTRODUCTION I f a rchaeologists w ish t o a ddress i ssues related t o t he s ocial a nd e conomic conditions of p ottery p roduction, then t hey must l earn t o i dentify a ctual p roduction locations. T his i s s eldom a n e asy t ask ( e.g. B ecker 1 973: 3 99, K ent 1 981 ‚ H aury 1 976:194-1 97). I n Mesoamerica, a rchaeologists h ave t raditionally based t he i dentification of p roduction locations p rimarily upon t he p resence of p ottery-making r aw materials, t ools, a nd k iln-related a rtifacts a nd f eatures ( for a s ummary s ee S tark 1 985: Table 7 .1). S uch i dentifications h ave p roved more d ifficult i n t he M aya H ighlands, w here P recolumbian p otters a re believed t o h ave f ired t heir p ottery i n open bonfires r ather t han k ilns, i n much the s ame w ay a s modern M aya p otters ( Reina a nd H ill 1 978, R ice 1 985:117). T he p erceptible conservatism i n f iring t echniques, as well a s o ther a spects of p ottery p roduction, s uggests that a s tudy of modern M aya p ottery p roduction may p rov ide u seful c riteria f or t he recognition of p rehistoric p roduction ( also s ee L ange a nd R ydberg 1 972: 431, S tark 1 984). U nfortunately, most e thnoarchaeological r eports h ave dwelt u pon detailed descriptions of p ottery p roduction s equences i n various p arts of the w orld, a nd h ave f ailed t o s ignificantly i mprove our a bility t o i dentify the remnants of p rehistoric p ottery p roduction ( for o verviews s ee A rnold 1 984, K ramer 1 985). F urther, both a rchaeologists a nd e thnoarchaeologists h ave f ocused on s pecialist p roduction a nd h ave l argely i gnored t he p art-time domestic p otter. R ecently, h owever, s ome researchers h ave b egun t o i ncorporate s everal l ines of e vidence i n t heir i dentifications of the p roduction s ites of both domestic a nd s pecialist p otters ( e.g. A rnold 1 978, B ryant a nd B rody 1 986, D eal 1 983, S tark 1 985, a nd S purling 1 987). I n t he a bove context, the p resent s tudy a ddresses the p otential a rchaeological " visibility" o f domestic p roduction i n a modern M aya community a nd t he i mplications f or u sing e thnographic d ata f or t he i dentification of p rehistoric p ottery p roduction. A rchaeological v isibility refers t o t he a ctual a mount of p hysical r emains t hat t he a rchaeologist i s a ble t o p erceive ( after D eetz 1 977:94). I n t his s tudy, i t i ncludes n ot only p ottery-making t ools a nd r aw materials, but a lso t he a ctual l ocations of p roduction, f iring, a nd the s torage of t ools a nd r aw materials. F urther, suggestions a re offered c oncerning t he u se of microscopic t echniques t o a id i n t he i dentification of these remains i n a rchaeological s ituations.

-

1 13

-

S TUDY COMMUNITY Chanal i s a T zeltal M aya community s ituated i n t he H ighlands of C hiapas ( Figure 1 ; a lso s ee H ayden a nd C annon 1 984). C orn, beans a nd s quash a griculture f orm t he basic s ubsistence a ctivity f or t his community of approximately 41 0 00 p eople. T he h ousehold i s the organizational u nit of C hanal domestic, e conomic a nd r itual l ife. E ach h ousehold c onsists of a nuclear f amily or s mall e xtended f amily, s haring a f enced c ompound t hat i n a rea a verages 3 , 000 m2 . T he h ousehold c ompound generally consists of s eparate one-roomed h ouse a nd k itchen s tructures, a nd a s weatbath, a rranged a round a compacted e arth p atio. O ther p ermanent h ousehold f eatures i nclude a h ouse a ltar, a k itchen h earth, f ood-processing t ables, corn b ins, s torage s tructures, house gardens, orchards, wells, a nd a nimal p ens. F orty-six a ctive p otters w ere recorded i n 26 of the 5 3 surveyed h ouseholds i n C hanal ( Deal 1 983). A ll b ut two of these p otters w orked a t a domestic s cale of p roduction ( after B alfet 1 965). D omestic p roduction i n C hanal i s characterized b y a low f requency of p otterymaking e vents, the p roduction of s mall q uantities of a l imited n umber of u ndercorated vessel-forms a nd l ocal c onsumption of the f inished p roduct. C hanal g irls learned t o make p ottery through w atching o lder p otters a nd e xperimenting o n t heir own, rather t han t hrough f ormal t raining. F ifty p ercent of the p otters i nterviewed ( 23 o f 4 6 r esponses) c laimed t o h ave learned f rom t heir mothers. T he a ge a t w hich a g irl learned s eemed t o be d irectly related t o t he i ntensity of p roduction i n h er h ousehold ( Deal 1 983:51). E ach C hanal p otter w orked i ndividually ( Figure 2 ), a lthough one or t wo f riends or r elatives might o ccasiona lly w ork i n t he s ame location. F or e xample, two C hanal p otters s hared t emper p rocessing t ools w ith their mothers. P roduction w as l argely restricted t o t he dry s eason, between D ecember a nd M arch. V essels w ere madeusing a coiling t echnique a nd f ired o n a n open h earth. A ll C hanal p otters p roduced t he u biquitous w ide-mouthed c ooking j ar ( oxom), but only a f ew potters p roduced a w ider r ange of f ormal-functional t ypes.

V ISIBILITY O F

R AW

M ATERIALS

T he minimum material r equirements of C hanal p otters w ere c lay, c alcite cobbles ( or b ax) f or t emper, a nd f irewood. T hese materials w ere g athered i n varying q uantities, depending u pon t he s eason of the y ear, the distance t o, a nd t opography of the resource a rea, the number of p eople collecting a nd t he n umber of vessels t o

CAP ITAL

• CANCUC OSCHUC CHAMU IA • T UXILA GUT IERREZ

T ENEJAPA

Sc L AS CASAS . Z INACANTAN

•

PR INC IPAL TO WN

•

SMALL TO WN

A

ARCHAE OLOG ICAL S ITE POL IT ICAL BOUNDAR IES

< 10

-

L INGU IST IC BOUNDAR IES COLON I AL CA M INO RE AL

AGUACA T ENANGO -

CO M ITAN

MEX ICO 6 5 X: CONETA

CO 0

'

A l

C ' SAN MATEO

A LA

J

/

SANTA EULAL IA

MES ILLA

o

1

"

O

HUEHUETENANGO

COMC

. ............ S A LAM A •

•MALACATANC ITO oT AJUMULCO S AN F RANC ISCO E L A LTO

NA HUAL A COATEPEQUE

S AN F EL IPE I RE T ALHELEU I

( Deal) F igure 1 : M ap o f major l inguistic a reas a nd t ext.

-

C hiapas, M exico, i ndicating c ommunities mentioned i n t he

15

-

( Deal) m aking

F igure 2 : C hanal H ousehold # 3: J auna L opez G omez a c ooking v essel i n h er h ousehold p atio.

-

16

-

be p roduced. T he t wo t ypes of c lay, a nd t he oak a nd f or f uel w ere o btained w ithin a 1 km r adius of the community, while t he calcite cobbles w ere collected d istance of 2 to 8 km f rom t he community.

p ine a t a

A mong t he r aw materials, raw c lay, c alcite t emper i n both cobble a nd g round f orms, a nd t empered c lay represent p otential a rchaeological r esidues. A lthough only three of the a ctive p otters w ere i n p roduction during t he t ime of the s urvey, a ll b ut f ive h ad r aw materials on h and. E ighty p ercent h ad s upplies of c lay, while 7 2% h ad s upplies of c alcite t emper on h and. E ven h ouseholds w hich h ad c eased p roduction a nd h ouseholds w here p roduction h ad j ust begun retained s tores o f these materials. B y contrast, n o n on-pottery making h ousehold h ad

e ither

c lay or

t emper

on

h and.

G round c alcite a nd c lay w ere generally s tored i n reused p ottery vessels ( Figure 3 ). I n t he a ctive p ottery-making h ouseholds, 6 6 p ottery vessels w ere recorded a s being r eused f or the s torage of r aw materials f or p ottery p roduction. N ine a dditional vessels s erved s uch a f unction i n i nactive h ouseholds. I n f act, only 2 2% of the containers u sed f or t his f orm o f s torage w ere n ot made f rom c lay. T hese vessels, a long w ith loose calcite cobbles, were a lmost a lways s tored a long t he w alls of s tructures, a nd more often a long t he outside w alls ( Table 1 ; D eal 1 987). T he u se of p ottery vessels f or r aw material s torage h as i mportant i mplications f or the recognition of p rehistoric p ottery-making h ouseholds, s ince both the d amaged p ottery containers a nd t heir s tored c ontents a re l ikely t o be left u pon a bandonment of the

h ousehold.

V ISIBILITY O F

P OTTERY MAKING TOOLS

C ertain p ottery making t ools a lso h ave a h igh p otent ial f or a rchaeological v isibility, a nd e specially the h ammerstones a nd manos a nd metates u sed f or p reparing c alcite t emper, a nd t he p ebble s moothing s tones u sed f or modeling a nd b urnishing vessels. T he h ammerstones a nd manos u sed f or c alcite g rinding w ere s ometimes merely local r iver cobbles, while others w ere reused c orr , grinding manos ( Figure 2 4 ) • C orn g rinding metates w ere a lso r ecycled i n t his manner, a nd o ccasionally they w ere collected f rom p rehistoric s ites. T he p ractice of C hanal p otters t o a cquire reused o r r ecycled manos a nd metates w as o bvious w hen t he i nventories of p otters a nd n onpotters w ere compared. P otters a veraged 2 .1 metates ( s.d. . 8) p er h ousehold w hile n onpotters a veraged 1» 4

-

1 17

-

T able 1 : R aw M aterial P otting H ouseholds.

S torage

N umber

A long

i nside

A long

o utside

Around Toft

p atio

w alls w alls border

of

2 2

5 3

4 1

-

1 18

-

24

P ercentage

3 ) 4

1

Totals:

C ases

f or

1 4

4

a rea

L ocations

1 0 3

1 00

C hanal

( Deal) s tored

i ure 3 : i n a b roken

C hanal H ousehold c ooking j ar.

-

19

-

# 4:

P otting

c lay

( Deal) t ools:

F igure 4 : C hanal H ousehold # 2: c obble mano a nd r eused metate.

-

1 20

-

C alcite

g rinding

metates ( s.d. . 7). S imilarity, p otters t ended t o h ave a t least two manos o n h and ( Deal 1 983:105). G enerally, t emper p rocessing t ools w ere w ell w orn, recycled, i ncomplete or b adly damaged. A s i n t he c ase of r aw materials, they w ould very l ikely be left at t he s ite u pon a bandonment. P ebble s moothing s tones w ere only f ound i n t he h ouseholds of a ctive or r etired p otters ( Figure 5 ). T he s mall p ebbles u sed f or t his p urpose w ere u sually o btained l ocally a nd w ere a lways s tored w ithin t he h ouse o r k itchen between p roduction e vents. I t i s s ignificant t hat only 4 2% o f the p ottery-making h ouseholds w hich u sed t hem h ad t hese t ools on h and. T he majority of p otters c laimed t hat t heir s moothing s tones h ad e ither been lost or misplaced. T his loose curational b ehavior s uggests that a g iven p otter might contribute s everal o f these t ools t o t he a rchaeological r ecord d uring h er career. T he s mall s ize of t hese t ools a nd t heir i nconspicuousness i n n atural s ediments might reduce t heir a rchaeological visibility, but i f recognized, they w ould b e a good i ndicator of p ottery p roduction. I ndeed, the u se of s moothing s tones i s w idespread t hroughout the M aya H ighlands ( e.g. A rnold 1 978: 331, 3 42, 3 51; B ryant a nd B rody 1 986:79; R eina a nd H ill 1 978: 38, 1 14, 1 95), a nd t hey h ave been o ccasionally i dentified i n a rchaeological deposits ( e.g. B ryant a nd C lark 1 979, S heets 1 979: 40-41, S tone a nd T urnbull 1 941: 45, S wezey 1 973).

V ISIBILITY O F

P RODUCTION

AND FIRING L OCATIONS

P ottery p roduction a ctivities generally t ook p lace on t he h ousehold p atio ( as i n F igure 2 a bove). H owever, g rinding c alcite f or t emper a nd modeling o f vessels w ere n ot a lways done a t t he s ame t ime o r i n t he s ame location. C hanal p otters u sed t he p atio f or g rinding t emper i n 7 6% o f the s urveyed h ouseholds a nd f or modeling i n 8 6% of the h ouseholds ( Table 2 ). T he d iscrepancy i n location of c alcite p reparation c an be p artially attributed t o t he p ractice of s ome p otters of s haring g rinding e quipment a nd w orking t ogether a t t his a ctivity. B ecause of their w eight, grinding metates w ere often u sed i n t heir s torage locations ( Figure 6 ). I nterviewed p otters i ndicated o ne o r more s pecific f iring l ocations w hich they u sed r epeatedly. A mong t he 2 9 r ecorded c ases, n ine p otters f ired vessels only i nside s tructures, while 2 0 f ired o utside a s long a s the w eather p ermitted. A mong t he l atter, s ix f ired o n t heir p atio,

-

1 21

-

( Deal) F igure 5 : A guacatenango s moothing s tones w ith w orking l ighter g ray i n t he p hoto.

-

1 22

-

H ousehold # 35 : e dges a ppearing

P ebble a s a

T able 2 : L ocation of Chanal H ouseholds.

T emper I n

s tructures

P atio Toft

a rea a rea

Other

Totals

P roduction

P reparation

3 ( 1 0%) 2 2

( 76%)

A ctivities

F iring

2 4 ( 12 4%)

9 ( 31 %)

2 5

( 86%)

0 ( 0%)

0 ( 0%)

0 ( 0%)

( 1 00%)

-

1 23

29

-

29

M odeling

2 4 ( 12 4%)

2 9

f or

( 1 00%)

6 ( 21 %) 1 2

( 2 41 %)

2 ( 7%)

2 9

( 1 00%)

while 1 2 f ired i n t he h ousehold t oft a rea, a nd t wo f ired i n t he s treet outside t he compound ( also s ee T hompson 1 958:95). T he t oft i s that a rea a round t he p atio a nd main s tructures w here refuse i s l ikely t o a ccumulate ( Deal 1 983:198-1 99, 1 985: 262; H ayden a nd C annon 1 983). F iring h earth s ize a nd l ocation a re often related t o t he f requency of p roduction ( also s ee A rnold 1 978, S tark 1 985:165). M ost C hanal p otters f ired i n s mall b atches of f ive or s ix s mall vessels or two t o f our medium o r l arge vessels, a nd t herefore w ould n ot require l arge h earths ( Figure 7 ). T he a verage p roduction of p otters w ho u sed t heir k itchen h earths f or f iring w as less than 26 v essels p er y ear. H owever, p otters p roducing more often, t ended t o f ire i n l arger b atches a nd u se l arger h earths. A s e lsewhere, s uch h earths w ere p laced f urther f rom s tructures than other h earths t o a void h ouse f ires a nd p ollution i n t he l iving a rea ( e.g. D odd 1 987). T his i s s ignificant, s ince a rchaeological s ampling p rocedures do n ot a lways i nclude f ormer p atio a nd t oft a reas, a nd i n s uch c ases these f eatures a re l ikely t o be missed. O bviously, the more often a s ingle location i s u sed, the h igher t he l ikelihood t hat i t w ill leave recognizable t races f or t he a rchaeologist. I n C hanal, t races of f iring a ctivity w ould i nclude s ome f ire-reddening o f the s oil, charcoal a nd a sh deposits f rom t he f irewood, thermally f ractured r ock representing vessel p ropping s tones a nd w aster f ragments ( Figure 8 ; f or a d iscussion of n onkiln p otting h earths, s ee R ice 1 987:153-158). Wasters a re vessels broken during f iring ( Rye 1 981:110). S uch vessel loss during o pen f iring c an be considerable w hen l arge batches a re f ired a t one t ime ( e.g. T hompson 1 958: 97). L arge s herds f rom w asters, a long w ith s tone p rops, a re w idely u sed i n M esoamerica t o p rotect newly f ired vessels f rom d iscoloration f rom t he byproducts of burning f uels. W asters a re often s ought out i n a rchaeological s ituations as e vidence f or p ottery hearths, a lthough their i dentification i s often p roblematical s ince i t relies u pon t he distortion of s herds due t o o verfiring ( Spurling 1 987, a lso s ee B ordaz 1 964, R ye 1 981:111, S hepard 1 954: 214, S tark 1 985: 1 7 ' 4-175). F urther, i n domestic p roduction contexts, s uch as C hanal, n ot a ll p otters w ould u se w aster s herds f or f iring s ince t here i s l ittle concern f or d iscoloration of vessel w alls w hen t he vessels a re n ot p roduced f or s ale ( Figure 9 ; a lso s ee B ryant a nd B rody 1 985:79, R eina a nd H ill 1 978). S ince domestic p otters make a nd f ire f ewer vessels, there a re f ewer w asters p roduced a t a g iven h earth l ocation, a nd t hose t hat a re p roduced a re l ikely t o be s tored w ith

-

1 24

-

-

1 25

-

C a l c i t e g r i n d i n g

( Deal) F igure 7 : C ommunity of C hilil, 2 1 k m s outhwest C hanal: P otter f iring a s ingle l arge v essel.

-

1 26

-

o f

( Deal) F igure 8 : of p ottery-firing

C hanal h earth.

p araje

-

1 27

-

o f

S an

P edro:

R emnants

( Deal) F igure 9 : L arge c ooking v essel m ade i n C hanal: N ote t he b lackened a reas t hat b ecome d iscolored d uring t he

f iring. -

1 28

-

other ( Deal

broken 1 985).

vessels

f or

s ome

u ndetermined

f uture

reuse

F igure 1 0 i llustrates the s patial d istribution of p ottery-making a ctivities a nd s torage locations a round t he p atio of a C hanal h ousehold. T emper p reparation, modeling a nd f iring a ctivity a reas a re s eparate, a nd t he s torage locations of r aw materials a re c losely a ssociated w ith the outside w alls of s tructures. E ven t hough this p otter only p roduced 25 v essels p er y ear, a nd o nly f or h er own u se, s he h ad c onsiderable q uantities of c lay a nd t emper on h and. T his k ind o f s patial p atterning f or p ottery making f acilities a nd r aw material s torage i s typical f or C hanal p otting h ouseholds.

H OUSEHOLD

I NVENTORY

I n h is T ikal s tudy, B ecker ( 1 973: 399) p ostulated t he p resence of p ottery-making h ouseholds on t he b asis of h igh vessel f requencies a nd t ype d iversity relative t o other h ouseholds a nd h ouse g roups. O bservations i n C hanal s eem t o s upport t hese f indings. I nventories of p ottery-making h ouseholds a veraged 3 9 l ocally-made vessels compared t o 26 l ocal vessels i n n onpotting h ouseholds, a nd t hey a lso a veraged s even locally-made f ormal-functional t ypes compared t o f ive s uch t ypes f or n onpotting h ouseholds. F urther, C hanal p otters a veraged twice a s many reused vessels p er h ousehold c ompared t o n on-potters ( i.e. 1 6 v ersus 8 ). S ome of these vessels w ere o bviously s aved f or t he s torage of raw materials, y et i t i s a lso l ikely that p otters w ould p refer p ottery t o o ther k inds of containers a nd t end t o r euse s lightly damaged vessels r ather t han t o s ell t hem.

M ICROSCOPIC

T ECHNIQUES

Sophisticated microscopic t echniques h ave been u sed f or mineralogical s tudies of vessel p astes t o a id i n t he i dentification of p roduction centers ( e.g. A rnold 1 985, R ye 1 981, B ishop et a l. 1 982), y et t here a re other a pproaches requiring o nly a b inocular microscope t hat might e nhance our a bility t o r ecognize t he a rtifacts a nd a ctivity a reas of domestic p roduction. F or e xample, use-wear s tudies, combining macroscopic a nd microscopic a nalyses, a re often conducted o n chipped-stone a rtifacts ( e.g. B rink 1 978, D umont 1 982, H ayden 1 979, K eeley 1 980, O dell 1 981, V aughan 1 985). U nfortunately, f ew comparable s tudies a re a vailable f or ground s tone t ools ( exceptions i nclude A dams 1 986 9 G orman 1 979; s ee T reganza a nd Valdivia [ 1955: 27] c oncerning p roduction marks).

-

1 29

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H owever, B rian H ayden' s recent s tudy of M aya manos a nd metates i llustrates distinctive w ear p atterns on t ools u sed f or c alcite g rinding ( Hayden 1 987:197-202). F or e xample, c alcite g rinding metates a re characterized a s relatively l arge, minimally modified, t ough, local s tones w ith concave s urfaces resulting f rom u se ( Hayden 1 987:198). T he d istinctive u se-wear s triations o bserved o n p ottery s moothing s tones a lso n eed t o be s tudied i n detail ( Deal 1 983:75-76). S ome T zeltal p otters choose these s tones w ith g reat c are a nd u se d ifferent p arts of the s tones f or d ifferent f orming f unctions. A ccording t o one s pecialist p otter i n A matenango, s he u sed t he e nds of the s tones f or s moothing w hile t he s ides w ere u sed t o f orm t he i nside of the vessel r im. H odges ( 1964: 31) a lso n otes that burnishing ( smoothing) s tones a cquire a characteristic s hine. R esidue s tudies h ave f ocused p rimarily on o rganic residues on l ithics a nd c eramics ( e.g. A nderson 1 980, D eal 1 988, G urfinkel a nd F ranklin 1 988, H alley 1 983, H astorf a nd D eNiro 1 985, L oy 1 983), y et i norganic r esidues a re a lso common. F or e xample, the p itted s urfaces of many calcite p rocessing t ools, s uch as the h ammerstone i n F igure 1 1, p ermit t he i ncorporation of f ine g rains of g round c alcite i nto t he w ork s urfaces. S imilar residues a re commonly o bserved o n t he g rinding s urfaces of metates ( Figure 1 2). F urther, vessels u sed f or r aw material s torage s hould r etain residues of those materials on or e mbedded i nto t heir i nterior s urfaces, a nd p aste residues might a lso become lodged i n t he u tilization s cars a nd n atural f issures i n s moothing s tones. A ll o f these residues s hould b e v isible u nder relatively While

low magnification. u se-wear

a nd

r esidue

s tudies

can

p rovide

a dditional p roof of t ool f unction, a p ottery equivalent of microdebitage a nalysis ( Fladmark 1 982, H ull 1 987, V ance 1 987) m ay be h elpful f or i dentifying f iring a reas, and e specially w hen w asters a re n ot p resent. M cPherron ( 1967: 46) r efers t o s herds s maller t han a d ime a s "microsherds." I t i s p erhaps p referable t o r eserve t his term f or s herds u nder one-quarter c m s quare, that i s, t o a s ize a t w hich they a re n ot r outinely i dentifiable w ithout magnification ( Figure 1 3). D ue t o t he f riable nature of domestic w ares, microsherds f rom p roduction breakage s hould b e p resent i n w ell-used f iring h earths. S ince s oil s amples f rom h earth f eatures a re routinely collected a t most e xcavations, the p resence of s uch microsherds might f acilitate t he d istinction of p ottery

-

1 31

-

( Deal) F igure 1 1: M agnification o f t he w orking s urface of a q uartzite c obble h ammerstone u sed t o b reak u p a s ingle c alcite c obble f or t emper. F ine c alcite p owder f ills i n t he d epressions i n t he p itted s urface o f t he h ammerstone. T he d eeper depressions, o n t he l eft, w ould a lso b e f illed i f t he t ool c ontinued t o b e u sed f or t he s ame f unction. T he s cale a t t he t op o f t he f igure i s marked i n m illimeters.

-

1 32

-

( Deal) F igure 1 2: C hanal H ousehold # 30: H eavily p itted c alcite g rinding metate. N ote t hat t he w orking s urface a ppears w hite d ue t o a r esidue o f t he f ine c alcite p owder.

-

1 33

-

( Le T he miii i m.

N n .cro h t op

us

o

-

the

1 34

-

x rom a h earth f eature. f igure i s marked i n

making h earths f rom c ooking a nd r itual h earths. C learly, e xperimental s tudies a imed a t d istinguishing b etween d ifferent f unctional t ypes of h earths, l ike t hose s uggested b y the C hartkoff 's ( 1984: 32), a re long o verdue. D ebris modeling,

i s a lso p roduced during t emper p reparation a lthough i n much s maller q uantities.

a nd F or

e xample, s pillage o f f ine ground c alcite i s a common o ccurrence during b oth p rocessing a nd f orming e vents. A nother d istinctive f orm o f debris results f rom t he C hanal p ractice of t rimming c lay f rom t he e dges of vessel b ases ( Figure 1 ) 4). I n h ouseholds w here s uch a ctivities a re repeated many t imes a y ear i n one location, a gradual deposit of debris may leave a p ermanent record o f the a ctivity. T he location of p roduction a reas might therefore be i mproved t hrough microscopic e xamination of s oil s amples f rom h ouse f loors a nd p atio s urfaces.

C ONCLUSIONS E thnoarchaeological s tudies of p ottery p roduction c an give u s more t han bare descriptions of modern p roduction a ctivities. A s the a bove d iscussion i ndicates, the systematic r ecording o f the locations of d ifferent p roduction a ctivities a nd s torage locations w ill e nable u s t o p redict p rehistoric a ctivity a nd s torage locations, and t o a djust our s ampling t echniques a ccordingly ( see S chiffer 1 987: 355 f f.). F urther, a c loser e xamination of the t ools a nd b yproducts of modern p roduction w ill p rovide u s w ith c lues f or t he u se of both macroscopic a nd microscopic t echniques that could e nhance our a bility t o recognize s uch t ools a nd b yproducts i n a rchaeological h ouseholds. A CKNOWLEDGMENTS T he research p resented i n t his p aper i s based o n t he a uthor' s f ieldwork as a member of the C oxoh E thnoarchaeo logical P roject. T his p roject w as directed b y B rian H ayden, S imon F raser U niversity, a nd w as f unded b y the S ocial S ciences a nd H umanities R esearch C ouncil o f C anada, the C anada C ouncil, a nd t he B righam Young U niversity' s N ew W orld A rchaeological F oundation. T he a ssistance of n umerous M exican officials a nd a dministrat ive officials i n C hanal i s greatly appreciated. S pecial t hanks i s e xtended t o t hose i ndivjduls w ho w orked a s i nterpreters a nd t he many i ndividuals w ho r eceived u s i n their h omes.

-

1 35

-

( Deal) F igure 1 4: C hanal H ousehold # 14: E xcess c lay i s being t ri mm ed f rom t he b ases o f t hese n ewly-made c ooking v essels p rior t o f iring.

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1 36

-

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A merican

A ntiquity

S wezey, W . R . 1 973 Mound 9 1, L ambityeco, a D escription of a n A ncient K iln. M esa R edonda 1 2:179-1 84. S ociedad M exicana de A ntropologia, M exico. T hompson, R . H . 1 958 Modern Y ucatecan M aya P ottery M aking. M emoirs, S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, M enasha, WI.

1 5.

T reganza, A . E ., a nd L . L . V aldivia 1 955 The M anufacture of P ecked a nd G round S tone A rtif acts: A C ontrolled S tudy. P apers on C alifornia Archaeology 3 5, R eports of the U niversity of C alif ornia A rchaeological S urvey 3 2:19-29. B erkeley. V ance, E lizabeth, D . 1 987 M icrodebitage a nd A rchaeological A rchaeology 40(4): 58-59.

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A ctivity

A nalysis.

V aughan, P . C . 1 985 U se-wear A nalysis o f F laked U niversity o f A rizona P ress, T ucson.

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S tone

T ools.

C HAPTER

6 S OCIOECONOMIC S TATUS, K INSHIP, A ND I NNOVATION: T HE ADOPTION O F T HE T ORNETE I N T ICUL, Y UCATAN

D elores M .

R alph

a nd D ean

E .

A rnold

D epartment o f S ociology/Anthropology W heaton C ollege W heaton, I llinois 6 0187 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1988), P art i :1 14 5_ 164.

D elores M .

R alph a nd

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1 45

D ean

-

E .

A rnold,

1 988

I NTRODUCTION The ceramic e cological a pproach originally conceived by M atson ( 1965) e mphasizes the need t o r elate ceramics to h uman choices a nd c ultural p atterns ( "ceramics a nd man"). O ne of the f undamental q uestions i n r elating ceramics t o s ociocultural p atterns i nvolves the relationship of t echnological c hange t o t hese p atterns. H ow does ceramic change reflect s ocial a nd c ultural c hange? W hat s ocial a nd c ultural p rocesses a re responsible f or t he a doption of changes i n ceramic t echnology i nto a s ociety? I t i s o bvious that before changes o ccur i n t he e ntire s ociety, new i deas, p roducts a nd p ractices must f irst be i nvented, borrowed, d iffused, or a dopted a nd t hen i n s ome w ay p assed o n t o other members of the s ociety. A ctual c hange i n a s ociety then o ccurs only after t he i nnovations a re a ccepted b y the s ociety. T he q uestions relating c hange i n ceramic t echnology t o cultural p atterns a re p art of a l arger concern of how a nd w hy i nnovations i n general d efined a s i deas, p roducts a nd p ractices that did n ot p reviously e xist i n a s ociety g et i ntroduced a nd p assed o n t o other members of a s ocial s ystem. S ome of these changes t ake p lace u nintentionally, while others a re p lanned. I n a ny g iven s ociety, p re-existing c ircumstances may determine t he p ossibility of change by a ny combination of o ld i deas through a ny of s everal c hannels ( Richter 1 982). N ew i deas s upplant o ld o nes w hich, i f they a re p roductive, w ill l ikely result i n f urther i nnovation. T he p rocess of i nnovation i s therefore a p rocess w hich originates f rom i mmanent as w ell a s i nduced i deas a nd develops through both i nternal a nd e xternal c hange a gents. I n t his p aper w e e xplore t he f actors responsible f or i nnovation i n a s ociety a nd t est two h ypotheses ( socioeconomic s tatus a nd k in-relatedness) w hich may e xplain t he a doption of a new i nnovation i n f orming t echnology i n a community of p otters i n T icul, Y ucatan, M exico. -

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MODELS

O F

I NNOVATION

I n t he l iterature on i nnovation, researchers generall y e xplain s ocial c hange by constructing t heoretical mode ls w hich f ocus u pon d iffusion, the i nnovation-decision p rocess, a nd t he a daptability-of-innovation ( Rogers a nd S hoemaker 1 971). Whether a nthropological o r s ociological i n e mphasis, the models demonstrate t hat s ocial a s w ell a s p sychological f actors affect h ow a nd w hy s ocieties i nnovate.

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S tudies u sing d iffusion models emphasize t he s ocial p rocesses by w hich i nnovative i deas a re s pread t hroughout a s ocial s ystem ( Becker 1 970) a nd u tilize variables s uch as k in r elationship, s ocial r elationship, a nd i ntersocietal/extrasocietal c ontact. I n s tudies u tilizing t he i nnovation-decision or a daptability-ofi nnovation models, i nvestigators rely upon p sychological variables s uch as i ndividual decision making a nd i nnovators' p erceptions ( Rogers a nd B urge 1 972, H omans 1 961). T he e xtent t o w hich new i deas a re " invented" o r "adopted" f rom o ne s ociety t o t he next u sually i ncludes three research f oci: 1 ) t he characteristics of the a dopter/ i nnovator 2 ) t he r ole of the a dopter i n the i nnovation p rocess a nd 3 ) t he a ttributes of the i nnovation i tself ( Rogers a nd S hoemaker 1 971: 48-52). F ocus on t he a dopter i nvolves s tudying e arly vs. l ate k nowers, the a doption r ate, a nd t he s ocioeconomic s tatus of the i nnovator. F ocus on t he r ole o f the i nnovator i n t he i nnovation p rocess ( von H ippel 1 980) i nvolves s tudying t he effects of d ifferent communication channels u pon i nnovation ( Rogers a nd B urge 1 972). V ariables i nclude v arious channels of communication s uch as mass media ( radio a nd t elevision), i nformal s ources ( neighbors a nd f riends) ‚ commercial s ources ( personal c ontact w ith s alesmen, dealers, a nd demonstrations), a nd governmental a gency s ources ( bulletins a nd meetings). F ocus on t he a ttributes of i nnovations i nvolves s tudying t he a daptability of a n i nnovation t o t he s ociety' s motor h abit p atterns, a nd/or t he compatibility of the i nnovation w ith e xisting t echnological a dvances ( Arnold 1 987: 2 02-224). O f these t hree research f oci, this s tudy f ocuses on the characteristics of the a dopters as they affect t he d iffusion/acceptance of the i nnovation i n a s ociety. P revious research h as - s hown t hat t wo i mportant v ariables affect i nnovation: s ocioeconomic s tatus a nd p ersonal r elationships ( Homans 1 961, R ogers 1 962, S pier 1 970, O gionwo 1 978, S ilver 1 981). T his s tudy concentrates on t he degree t o w hich e ach of these variables affects the a cceptance of a n i nnovation. T he development a nd a cceptance of i nnovation i nvolves certain p erceived r isks f or t he i nnovator/adopter s uch as u nforeseen i mplications of a n i nnovation or n egative s anctions f rom o ne' s s ocial p eers. I f the i nnovation i nvolves s ubsistence or one' s o ccupation, a doption of a n i nnovation may a dversely affect s ubsistence s ecurity ( Arnold 1 987: 227-231). O ne c annot deal w ith i nnovations, then, w ithout dealing w ith p erceived r isk.

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U sing H omans' c riteria, S ilver p roposed a model i n w hich the h igh a nd l ow s ocioeconomic groups a re w illing t o t ake t he r isk i nvolved i n i nnovation ( Figure 1 ). I t p redicts that i ndividuals on t he e xtreme e nds of a s ocioeconomic continuum b ehave d ifferently f rom t hose i n t he middle ( Silver 1 981:108). Wealthier i ndividuals u se i nnovations t o maintain t heir d istinctiveness, while t he p oor h ope t hat i nnovation w ill p rovide i mproved s tatus: For r ational r easons, s ome s ocioeconomic categories p roduce more creative i nnovation than others; a nd, the resulting i nnovations a re t hemselves s tyled t o h elp s atisfy their creator' s own p ractical needs w ithin t his local s ocioeconomic milieu ( Silver 1 981:102). T hus, a c lear correspondence e xists between t he i nnovator' s s ocioeconomic s tatus a nd h is/her w illingness t o i nnovate ( Silver 1 981:106). S ilver ( 1 981) f ound t hat s tatus w as related t o i nnovation i n two w ays. F irst, i ndividuals w ho r ank h igh a ccording t o e conomic criteria a re h ighly respected i n t heir community. I n t he c ase of A shanti carvers s tudied by S ilver ( 1 981), these i ndividuals may be owners of s hops a nd/or r eceive outside e conomic i ncentive t o i nnovate. C onversely, the lowest s ocioeconomic g roup creates i nnovations that s eem r adical t o local o bservers because t hey a re e ither u nwilling t o compete w ith the q uality of the h igher s ocioeconomic group, or, u nable t o compete because t hey lack p roper materials. F amily i ntegration i s a s econd i mportant f actor a ffecting i nnovation. R ogers ( 1962) h ypothesized t hat t he degree of t echnologial c hange [ resulting f rom i nnovation] v aries i nversely w ith the degree of f amily i ntegration a nd the degree of cohesion t hat a n i ndividual h as w ith h is/her k inship g roup ( Rogers 1 962:L5- )4 7). D egrees of f amily i ntegration a nd c ohesion, however, a re vague q ualitative variables that a re d ifficult t o q uantify. O ne w ay of operational i zing R oger' s degree of f amily i ntegration i s t o define f amily i ntegration a nd c ohesion a s p ersons related b y s imple k inship bonds. I n order t o t est the s ignificance of k inship bonds u pon i nnovation, research must f ocus on t he n umber of i ndividuals w ho h ave a dopted a n i nnovation a nd determine i f s ubsequent i nnovators a re related. I f the t heory i s correct, then, once a n i nnovation h as been i ntroduced a nd a dopted b y one member i n a community, i t s preads t o others w ho a re related b y k inship.

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1 48

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H IGH

L OW M IDDLE

L OW

S ocioeconomic

H IGH

S tatus

( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 1 : T he r elationship o f i nnovation a nd s tatus i nequality. T he c urve o n t his g raph i ndicates t he g eneral t rend S ilver s uggested; that t he h igher a nd l ower s ocioeconomic g roups a ct d ifferently than do t hose i n t he m iddle.

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1 49

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I NNOVATION

I N

TICUL

Y UCATAN

This s tudy f ocuses on a p opulation of approximately 1 60 potters w hich l ive i n T icul, Y ucatan, M exico. T icul i s a s mall c ity located 6 0 km s outh s outhwest of M erida, the c apital o f the s tate of Y ucatan. T icul i s the most i mportant p roducer of p ottery i n Y ucatan t oday i n p art because of i ts h igh q uality a nd a bundant c eramic r esources w hich h ave been e xploited f or t he l ast 1 000 -

years

( Arnold

1 971,

A rnold

a nd

B ohor

1 977,

-

A rnold

1 987).

A rnold f irst s tudied p ottery p roduction i n T icul i n 1 965 a nd r eturned s ix t imes between 1 966 a nd 1 970. I n 1 984, he returned t o t he community t o a ssess the changes i n p ottery p roduction a nd i n t he community of p otters s ince t he 1 960s. A p reliminary report on t his research is a vailable e lsewhere ( Arnold 1 987), but this current s tudy i s a p art of the continuing p ublication of the results of this research. I n 1 98 11 . , A rnold n oted t wo major changes i n t he community i n comparison t o t he 1 960s. T he f irst concerned t he modernization of the community w ith a p roliferation of i tems of material c ulture f rom t he larger M exican s ociety. B etween 1 965 a nd 1 970 9 most p otters h ad e lectricity a nd w ardrobes, but r adios, television s ets, record p layers, a nd h ouses w ithout thatch r oofs w ere s till r elatively r are. P iped w ater w as beginning t o be i ntroduced i nto t he p otters' h ouseholds, but material i tems s uch a s gas s toves, refrigerators, a nd t rucks w ere u nknown a mong t he p otters. T he s econd c hange w as the a doption of a new device f or f orming t he p ottery w hich p otters c all t he t ornete o r t orneta. T he t ornete i s a t urntable device made of metal ( Figure 2 , A rnold 1 987:551). A p ipe of s lightly l arger d iameter i s w elded t o a c ircular metal p latform w hich i s p laced o ver t he ball b earing o n t he metal p ost a nd t he t urntable t urns on the metal p ost. A drop o r t wo of o il k eeps the device t urning s moothly a nd e asily. T here a re s everal v arieties of t ornetes ( Figure 3 ), but a ll i nvolve a h eavy base, p lus a movable metal t urntable o ver a b all b earing mechanism. T his i nnovation r eplaced t he t raditional k abal w hich i s a s impler t urntable device made of w ood that moves a round a nail ( Figure 11 . , F igure 5 ). T he t ornete i s u sed i n t he s ame w ay a s the k abal, but i t i s easier t o t urn because of the ball b earing ( compare F igure 6 with F igures 1 4 a nd 5 ). F urthermore, p otters do n ot h ave t o u se t heir f eet t o t urn i t w hen t heir h ands a re o ccupied ( Figure 7 ) a s w as necessary w ith the k abal ( Arnold 1 987:551). T hus, the motor h abit p atterns that a re n ecessary t o make p ottery u sing t he t ornete a re both

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1 50

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 2 : D etail o f a t ornete u sed b y a T icul p otter. T ornetes h ave m any v arieties. U sually t he b ases o f t hese n ew d evices a re h eavy t o p revent u ndesired movement o f t he e ntire d evice. I n t his c ase, t he b ase i s m ade o f h eavy metal, b ut m ay a lso b e a nchored i n a g allon c an o f c ement. A s quare p latform o f w ood o r c ement t ile i s p laced o n t op o f t he t ornete i n o rder t o f acilitate t he e asy r emoval o f t he v essel f rom t he d evice; i ndeed, v essel a nd a tform a re r emoved t ogether f or t he f irst s tages o f d rying.

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1 51

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 3 : D etail o f a v ariety o f t ornete u sed b y a T icul p otter s howing t he b all b earing movement o f t he d evice. I n t his c ase, t he t op p latform o f t he t ornete c an b e r emoved, b ut t his i s n ot a lways p ossible b ecause s ome d evices ( like t he o ne i llustrated i n F igure 3 ) d o n ot h ave a r emovable p latform.

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1 52

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 4 : D etail o f t he mechanism o f p arts a nd mechanism o f t he k abal. A s mall m etal p ost ( like a n ail) p laced i n a b oard s erves a s t he p oint of r otation f or t he w ooden p latform o n t he l eft ( see F igure 5 ). A s quare p iece o f s heet metal o ver t he n ail s erves a s t he s urface u pon w hich t he w ood p latform t urns. B lack s tains o n t he b ase o f t he p latform a nd o n t he l arge p iece o f w ood n ear t he metal p late a re s tains f rom o il u sed t o l ubricate t he p latform t o m ake i ts movement e asier.

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1 53

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 5 : A ssembled k abal s howing t he s quare w ooden p latform t hat s erves a s a t urntable o n t he f ixed metal b ase. T he l arge s ize o f t he b ase o f t he k abal h elps k eep t he d evice s tationary w hile t he u pper p latform moves.

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1 5

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 6 : T icul p otter u sing t he k abal i n 1 970. T he p otter i s s eated o n a l ow s tool ( k'an e he' ) a nd i s t urning t he k abal w ith h is f eet a s h e u ses h is h ands t o s crape a nd f inish t he i nside o f t he v essel.

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1 55

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( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 7 : T icul p otter u sing a t ornete i n 1 984. T he p otter i s s eated o n a l ow s tool ( k' a n e he') a nd i s a ble t o t urn t he v essel o n t he t ornete b y t he movements o f h is h ands i n s haping t he p ots b ecause of t he b all b earing m ovement of t he t ornete. A lthough s imilar motor h abit p atterns a re u sed i n f orming p ottery on t he k abal a nd t he t ornete, t he p latform o f t he t ornete i s h igher t han t he k abal l argely b ecause t he p ottery m ade i n 1 981 4 w as g enerally s maller t han t hat w hich w as made f rom 1 965 t o 1 970.

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f ewer, less complex, a nd r equire necessary t o u se t he k abal.

less

effort

t han

t hose

T he u nits of a nalysis a re a s eries of s tructured o bservations of 2 9 o ut of a t otal o f 5 1 4 households of p otters i n T icul. A rnold v isited 4 1 o f these h ouseholds a nd r ecorded t he p resence or a bsence of the t ornete a nd/or t he k abal a nd t he v arious a rticles of material c ulture. N ot a ll h ouseholds could b e u sed i n t he s tudy because of i ncomplete data, a nd 1 2 were d iscarded l eaving a s ample of 2 9 h ouseholds f or a nalysis. T he s ample a nalyzed i n t his s tudy w as thus 5 3.7% o f the t otal h ouseholds of p otters i n T icul. T his s tudy u ses two s ets of v ariables. T he dependent variable i s the a doption of the t ornete ( i.e. i ts p resence i n a h ousehold). T he i ndependent variables a re t he s ocioeconomic s tatus a nd r elatedness of the p otters based o n k inship. T o operationalize t he s ocioeconomic s tatus of the p otters, this s tudy employs material c ulture a s the i ndicator of relative w ealth. V arious i ndices e xist that measure e conomic s tatus i n t erms of i ncome or o ccupation, but a p roblem a rises i n cross-cultural a nalysis because t he a ccuracy of the i ndex d epends u pon culture-specific i nformation. F or t he p urposes of this s tudy, a new s cale w as created s pecific t o t he T icul p otters that u tilized t he number of i tems of material c ulture i n t he h ouseholds. T icul h as u ndergone great changes i n t he l ast 2 0 years a nd p otters w ith more i tems of modern material c ulture a re t hose w hich a re a ssumed t o h ave l arger i ncomes. T o determine t he s cale, both the n umber of certain i tems a t elevision s et, refrigerator, or f an a nd t he p resence or a bsence of modern ( vs. t raditional) h ousehold a dvances p iped w ater a nd e lectricity were n oted f or e ach h ousehold v isited a nd t hen t abulated a ccording t o a s coring s ystem. T he s coring w as done by s ubtracting t he a ctual n umber of i tems f ound i n t he h ouseholds f rom t he mean number of i tems f or a ll o f the h ouseholds. T hese s cores w ere t hen ranked f rom h ighest t o lowest a nd t hen compared t o t he data on t he h ousetype f or e ach h ousehold. T he s cores of h igher r ank correlated t o t hose h ouseholds w ith the cement/cement r oof h ousetype, while t hose of lower r ank correlated t o t hose h ouseholds w ith t raditional w attle a nd daub h ousetype. T he correlation w as based o n cross t abulations between t he i tems of material c ulture a nd t he t hree h ousetypes. T he t wo s cales h ad a correlation coefficient of . 58 a nd t his s cale w as u sed t o measure t he relative w ealth w ithin t he cultural c ontext of T icul. T hus, a f inal s cale ( Figure 8 ) w as drawn f rom t he p resence of modern ( cement/cement r oof) v s. t raditional h ousetype ( traditional c ement/thatch r oof or w attle a nd daub/thatch r oof or t ar i mpregnated p aper). -

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1 57

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M aterial

C ulture

H ousetype

S ES

ELECTRICITY R OPERO

( CLOSET)

i CEMENT/CEMENT

R OOF

H IGH

REFRIGERATOR R ADIO R ECORD G AS

P LAYER

N UMBER O F I TEMS V

T RADITIONAL C EMENT/ —* M IDDLE T HATCH R OOF

S TOVE

T ABLE

A ND C HAIR

F AN

WATTLE & D AUB/THATCH-O L OW R OOF O R C ARTON R OOF

T ELEVISION S ET P IPED WATER

( Ralph a nd A rnold) F igure 8 : S ocioeconomic s tatus a s i ndicated b y h ousetype. T he n umber o f i tems o f m aterial c ulture c orrelate w ith t he h ousetype f or e ach of t he s ocioeconomic g roups. H ouseholds w ith a h igher n umber o f i tems t ended t o c orrespond w ith t he c ement/cement r oof h ousetype, w hile h ouseholds w ith t he l ower n umber o f i tems t ended t o c orrespond t o t he w attle a nd d aub/thatch r oof o r c arton r oof h ousetype. T he s cale o f h ousetypes correlated w ith t he s cale o f t he n umber o f i tems o f material c ulture a t . 58 a t a s ignificance o f . 01.

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K inship d ata w as o btained f or e ach h ousehold b y comparing t he names i n t he h ouseholds w ith the genealogical c harts assembled f or t he e ntire community of p otters. T hese geneaological c harts i nclude 1 4 35 i ndividuals w ho h ave made p ottery a t s ome t ime o ver t he last f our or f ive generations, a s w ell a s thousands of i ndividuals i n t hese f amilies w ho h ave never learned t he craft.

STATEMENT

O F

H YPOTHESES

Applying S ilver' s theory t o t he T icul d ata, the h igher a nd l ower t he relative w ealth of the p otters, the more l ikely i t i s that t hey h ave a dopted t he t ornete. R oger' s theory, on t he other h and, s uggests that i f the p otters h ave a f amily member w ho u ses the t ornete, then they a re more l ikely t o a dopt the i nnovation. S tated a nother w ay, more p otters u se t he t ornete w hen t heir relatives u se t he t ornete t han p otters w hose relatives do n ot u se t he t ornete. S everal s tatistics w ere u tilized t o t est the hypotheses, but i nitially the s tatistic e mployed f or both variables w as C hi-square. I f the c alculated v alue i s l arger t han t he c ritical v alue of the C hi-square d istribution, then a s ignificant relationship e xists between t he i ndependent variable i n q uestion ( whether s ocioeconomic s tatus or k inship relationship) a nd t he dependent variable ( the u se of the t ornete) a t t hat s ignificance level. C hi-square s tatistics i ndicates that n o s ignificant relationship e xists between s ocioeconomic s tatus a nd a doption of the t ornete ( Table 1 ). A t the 0 . 05 s ignificance l evel w ith 2 d egrees of f reedom, the c alculated x2 was 1 . -9 679, a nd w as l ess than t he critical value 5 .991. A ccording t o S ilver' s theory, the e xpected r esults w ould h ave i ndicated a s ignificant relationship. T he C hi-square results comparing k inship a nd a doption of the i nnovation, however, were s ignificant ( Table 2 ). T he calculated x2 w as 1 2. 1 4327 a t 0 .05 s ignificance level w ith 1 d egree of f reedom w hile t he critical value w as 3 .81 41. T he f indings s upport t he t heory that k in relatedness affects the a cceptance of the i nnovation. I n order t o t est the s trength of association between t he v ariables, the C ontingency C oefficient C w as u tilized. T heoretically, s ignificance l ies between 0 a nd 1 , w ith 1 showing a s trong a ssociation a nd 0 s howing a w eak a ssociation between t he v ariables. R esults s howed a s trong a ssociation ( .5863) b etween t he k in r elatedness

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T able 1 : T or ne te

S ocioeconomic

S tatus

a nd

t he

A doption o f t he

S o c i o e c o n o m i c S t a t u e

A doption o f T ornete Y es

N o

H igh

8

1 2

M edium

3

1

4

L ow

3

2

5

T otal

1 4

T otal 2 0

1 5

2 9

C alculated C hi-square v alue, X2 = 1 .9679 C ritical C hi-square v alue = 5 .991 D egrees o f f reedom, d . f . = 2 S ignificance l evel, p = 0 .05 C ramer's V = . 2605 C ontingency C oefficient = . 2521

T able 2 : R elative U ses o f t he t he I nnovation.

T ornete

a nd

A dopting

A doption o f T ornete Y es

R e l a t i v e U s e s

0

Y es

1 2

N o

2

T otal

N o 2

1 4

T otal 1 4

1 3

1 5

1 5

2 9

C alculated C hi-square v alue, X2 = 1 2.43268 C ritical C hi-square v alue = 3 .841 D egrees o f f reedom, d . f . = 1 S ignificance l evel, p = 0 .05 P hi = . 72381 C ontingency C oefficient = . 58634

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o f

variable a nd t he a doption of the t ornette, whereas the a ssociation between s ocioeconomic s tatus a nd a doption of the t ornette w as w eak ( .2521). P hi w as a lso calculated f or t he t wo w ay contingency t able a nd C ramer' s V f or the t hree by two matrix. B oth s upported t he s trength of the a ssociations between t he variables s hown by the C ontingency C oefficient C .

D ISCUSSION I n a ddition t o t he variables discussed i n t his p aper, there i s a nother variable t hat may affect the a doption of a n i nnovation: the desirability of the i nnovation i tself. A rnold ( 1985: 202) s uggests that i nnovation of vessel f orming t echniques needs t o be v iewed a s i t related t o: 1 ) s peeding vessel f abrication t hus, i ncreasing p roduction, a nd 2 ) t he e xisting motor h abit p atterns of the p otters. T hus, the efficacy a nd l ogical "fit" o f the i nnovation, r ather t han t he p otter' s s ocioeconomic s tatus, i s l ikely a decisive f actor i n w illingness t o i nnovate. N evertheless, i n s pite of the a pparent a dvantages, n ot a ll p otters h ave a dopted t he i nnovation. -

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T he l ack of s ignificance of the s ocioeconomic variable p resents a n u nusual c onsideration. P erhaps the s ocioeconomic a nd k inship variables u tilized i n t his s tudy do n ot p resent a n e ither/or s ituation regarding i nnovation, but a both/and s ituation. S tatistics i ndicate t hat t he s ocioeconomic v ariable l acks s ignificance a t t his p oint i n t ime, but could h ave been a f actor w hy the i nitial i nnovators a dopted t he t ornete. I n other w ords, the p resent a nalysis does n ot s how that k in relatedness e xplains w hy p eople i nnovate w hereas s ocioeconomic s tatus does n ot. R ather s ocioeconomic s tatus may s till p redict early i nnovators, but s ubsequent a cceptance of i nnovation f ollows a long k inship l ines. T he data represent a s ynchronic a nalysis of the i nnovators w ithin t he community a nd t herefore do n ot reflect t he d ifferences through t ime between t he earlier vs. l ate a dopters. T he l ack of s ignificant results f or t he s ocioeconomic s tatus may i ndicate a methodological b ias. T he d ata a ccurately represent t he h ouseholds s urveyed. M ost of A rnold' s contact, h owever, o ccurred w ith one e xtended f amily s o t hat t he material c ulture i nventory w as more complete f rom t hese h ouseholds than others. T he result w as a n u nintended methodological b ias t oward o ne e xtended f amily. While t his b ias may h ave a ffected t he results of the s ocioeconomic variables, i t i s n ot c lear h ow e xcept p erhaps t o s ay that t he f amily i s n ot concentrated i n a ny

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of the s ocioeconomic groups on t he s cale, a nd may h ave biased t he s ample t owards the l ack of s ignificance. T hirty p ercent ( 29. 6% o r 1 6/54) o f the t otal h ouseholds of p otters i n T icul b elong t o t his f amily, but i n t his s tudy represents 4 1.2% of the h ouseholds i n t he s ample a nalyzed. T his e xtended f amily i s thus o ver-represented i n t he s ample. T he results a re n ot s urprising c onsidering t he organizational s tructure of the p otters' c ommunity. P ottery making i s a h ousehold c raft. P otters t end t o learn f rom t heir f athers a nd h ouseholds of a f amily t end t o c luster t ogether because of a t endency f or p atrilocal p ost-nuptial r esidence a nd p atrilineal i nheritance of houselots ( see A rnold 1 988). I f one h ousehold a dopts a n i nnovation, other h ouseholds i n t he f amily h ave f irsthand k nowledge a bout i ts efficacy. I n t his c ase, the t ornete d oes i ncrease e ase of p ottery p roduction a nd, i n t urn, potters can communicate t his t o f amily members outside of the p otter' s household w ho w ould t end t o a dopt i t. What a ccounts f or t he l ag i n i nnovation of the t ornete i n other h ouseholds? C ommunication research on i nnovation ( Rogers 1 960) i ndicates that a t ime l ag between a doption leaders a nd l ate a dopters may be responsible, a nd t he results of this s tudy could r eflect this l ag. K inship may thus be a s ignificant v ariable u pon t he w illingness t o i nnovate, but i t may be only one of the s everal c auses.

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS T he f ield p ortion of this research w as carried o ut by the j unior a uthor w ith the f unding o f a n A merican R epublics R esearch G rant a dministered u nder t he F uibright P rogram. T he a uthors w ish t o t hank L ic. J ose L uis S ierra V illarreal, D irector ' of the C entro R egional del S ureste del I nstituto N acional de A ntropologia e H istoria, P rofessor S alvador R odriguez, D irector of the E scuela de C iencias A ntropologicas, U niversidad de Y ucatan, a nd t he e ntire s taff of the C entro R egional del I NAH a nd t he E scuela de C iencias A ntropologicas f or t heir h ospitality, collaboration, a nd c ooperation i n f acilitating a nd s upporting t his research. T he h elp a nd c ooperation of the p otters i n T icul a re a lso g ratefully a cknowledged. D r. A lvaro N ieves p rovided h alp a nd a dvice on t he s tatistical p ortion of this p aper.

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R EFERENCES

CITED

A rnold, D . E . 1 971 E thnomineralogy of T icul, Y ucatan P otters: a nd E mics. A merican A ntiquity 3 6: 20 14 0.

E tics

1 985

C eramic T heory a nd C ultural P rocess. U niversity P ress, C ambridge a nd N ew Y ork.

1 987

Maya P ottery A fter 20 Years: A rchaeological I mplications. I n M aya C eramics, e dited b y P rudence M . R ice a nd R obert J . S harer, p p. 5 1 45_ 1 461. B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 3145(i). O xford, E ngland.

1 988

P atterns of L earning, R esidence a nd D escent among Potters i n T icul, Y ucatan, M exico. I n A rchaeological A pproaches t o C ultural I dentity, e dited by S tephen S hennan. G eorge A llen a nd U nwin, L ondon. I n p ress.

A rnold, D . E . a nd B . F . B ohor 1 977 A n A ncient C lay M ine a t American A ntiquity 4 2:575-82.

Y o'

C ambridge

K 'at,

Y ucatan.

B ecker, M . H . 1 970 Sociometric L ocation a nd I nnovativeness: R eformation a nd E xtension of the D iffusion M odel. American S ociological R eview 3 5: 267-282. 1 l omans, G . C . 1 961 Social B ehavior: B race, N ew Y ork.

I ts

E lementary

M atson, F . R . 1 965 C eramic E cology: A n A pproach t o E arly C ultures of the N ear E ast. M an, e dited by F . R . M atson, pp. C hicago. O gionwo, W . 1 978 I nnovative S chenkmar i,

B ehavior C ambridge,

a nd MA.

of

I nnovations.

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F ree

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H arcourt

t he S tudy of the I n C eramics a nd 2 02-17. A ldine,

P ersonal

R ichter, M . N ., J r. 1 982 Technology a nd S ocial C omplexity. of N ew Y ork P ress, A lbany. R ogers, E . M . 1 962 D iffusion

F orms.

A ttitudes.

S tate

P ress,

U niversity

N ew

Y ork.

R ogers, E . M . a nd R . 1 972 S ocial C hange t on, N ew Y ork.

J . i n

B urge R ural

S ocieties,

R ogers, E . a nd F . F . S hoemaker 1 971 C ommunication of I nnovations: Approach. F ree P ress, N ew Y ork.

2 nd

A

e d.

A pple-

C ross-Cultural

S ilver, H . R . 1 981 C alculating R isks: T he S ocioeconomic F oundations of A esthetic I nnovation i n a n A shanti C arving C ommunity. E thnology 20:101 -1 4. S pier, R . F . G . 1 970 F rom t he H and Technologies.

o f M an: P rimitive a nd P reindustrial H oughton M ifflin, B oston.

von H ippel, E . 1 980 The U ser' s R ole i n I ndustrial I nnovation. I n M anagement of R esearch a nd I nnovation, e dited b y B . V . D ean a nd J . L . G oldhar, p p. 5 3-65. N orthHolland, A msterdam.

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C HAPTER

1 L EAST-COST A ND F UNCTION-OPTIMIZING I NTERPRETATIONS O F C ERAMIC P RODUCTION : A N A RCHAEOLOGICAL P ERSPECTIVE

R obert L .

R ands

D epartment o f A nthropology S outhern I llinois U niversity, C arbondale C arbondale, I llinois 6 2901 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1988), P art i :165198.

(

R obert L .

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R ands,

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1 988

I NTRODUCTION M inimization of effort a nd maximization of f unctional p erformance a re p rinciples that, t o v arying d egrees, affect ceramic p roduction. M ediating t he t wo i s a t hird p rinciple, minimization of r isk. E nhanced f unctional p erformance may, i n p art, be v iewed a s a response t o t he minimization of r isk; thus, the a dditional w ork i nvolved i n c uring a nd t empering t he c lay p ays off. M oreover, a h igh l evel o f f unctional p erformance often s erves t o r educe t otal c osts i n t ime a nd e ffort; other f actors equal, the w ell-made p ot w ill n ot need t o be replaced a s s oon a s one of i nferior s trength. T he a bove p ropositions a re p resented s tarkly. M inimization of effort c an be t reated a s a n e ncompassing p rinciple, b alancing i mmediate costs a nd t hose a nticipated t o a ccrue i n t he f uture ( Zipf 1 949). F or t he p roblems considered h ere, h owever, i t i s necessary t o make a d istinction between d irectly d iscernible costs a nd those t echnological b enefits w hich, down t he r oad, h ave less o bvious or more d ifficult-to-achieve cost-reducing components. N o s uggestion i s i ntended t hat effort i s minimized i n s ome a bsolute w ay ( "less" c ost i s a more appropriate t erm t han " least" c ost). L ikewise, e ven w ithin t he constraints of a g iven t echnology, i mprovement i n f unctional p erformance n ormally f alls f ar s hort of optimization. A lthough these q ualifications s hould b e s elf e vident, important q uestions remain a bout the operation of the p rinciples, i n conjunction a nd w ithin a b roader s ociocultural c ontext. M eeting d emands of these f actors c osts, f unctional e nhancement, a nd o ther s ocietal concerns i s, p erhaps, s ometimes w orked o ut through mutually a dvantageous s olutions but i n o ther circumstances e ntails compromise p romoting o ne f actor a t the e xpense of others. -

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P otential c onflicts a re i nherent i n a rchaeological i nterpretations based o n minimizing e ffort or maximizing p erformance, a p oint a lluded t o by S teponaitis ( 1983: 34-35). I n d iscussing t he t endency f or u nburnished c ooking j ars a t M oundville t o be t empered w ith coarse s hell, as opposed t o t he f ine s hell t emper characteristic of bowls a nd b ottles, h e s uggests that many a rchaeologists w ould i mplicitly r egard t his a s being d ue t o minimization of effort; thus, w hen i t w as u nnecessary to meet h igher a esthetic s tandards, the p otters d id n ot grind t he s hell a s f inely. I nstead, S teponaitis a rgues, M oundville p otters deliberately s ought p aste compositions p romoting r esistance t o a nd t ensile s trength i n

t hermal s hock i n o ther ceramics.

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cooking I n t he

v essels p resent

study, I s uggest that various aspe ct s of the production process, including the procurement of basic ceramic resources, are 1 ikewi se subject to 1 east -cost or function-optimizing interpretations . These interpretations, in tur n, may lead to substantially different rec onstr uc tio ns of prehi st oric ceramic and social behavior. Least -cost principles in the procurement of ceramic resources are modeled by Ar nold (1985:32 -60). His "exploitable threshold" model of ceramic production is stated in terms of energy expenditure, per unit of time and distance, in the extraction and transportation of resources such as clay. Tw o thresholds are recog nized. The first is the preferred territory of exploitation, which, for both clay and temper, has a radius of one km or les s from the locus of productio·n. The second thresh old, the maximum range of exploitation, is 7 km for clay and 6-9 km for temper. Eight y -four percent of the sampled communities (n = 111) conform to the general model for clay proc urement, 33% adhering to the preferred territory of exploitation. In a smaller sample for temper procurement (n = 31), 97% of the communities obtain tempering materials within the maximum 9 km radius, 52 % within the preferred, one km range of exploitation. Beyond these distances, marginal exploitation is related to the exhaustion of local raw materials or to the use of moder n transportation. Ar nol.d concludes that pottery making communities les s than 12-18 km apart -- twice the radius of the maximum range of exploitation -- tend to have overlapping resource areas, within which ceramic dist ributions cannot be determined by paste analysis (Ar nold 1985:58). Fuels are an es sential resource in ceramic production but, in part due to their availabilit y as by-products of s ubsistence activities, do not have a prominent place in Ar nold's model. However, dif ferent fuels are sometimes utilized because of their special ef fects on firing, hence indirect effects on properties of the fired ceramics (Ar nold 1985:30-31). Selective usage of fuels may entail different procurement cost s, requiring that potters balance the latter against quality (Rice 1987:174-176). Having les s weight, other ceramic resources, such as slips and paints, are obtained over far greater distances, although marked falloff is reached at 30 km (Ar nold 1985:Figure 2.6). Approaches I refer to as function-optimizing interpretations of ceramic production have been of increasing concer n to archaeologist s . Tending to focus on tech niques for reducing the effects of thermal shock, investigations cover a wider range of phenomena, including mechanical st rength, principles of

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containment/access, vessel s tability, efficient h eat t ransfer i n t he cooking p rocess, a nd vessel s ize a s a n i ndex t o s ize of the consumer p opulation ( see, f or e xample, E ricson e t a l. 1 971; B raun 1983). C onsideration of many of these p henomena i n n onindustrial p ottery h as a n e xtended h istory ( e.g. L inton 1 9 14 4, M atson 1 965, S hepard 1 956) b ut, e xemplifying a w ider a rchaeological c oncern w ith a daptive s trategies, h as i ntensified o ver t he p ast decade. T hus, H ally ( 1986: 268) g eneralizes that n ative p otters maximize f unctional e fficiency by manufacturing d ifferent t ypes, e ach h aving a l imited variety of i ntended u ses a nd d istinct p erformance characteristics. A ccording t o R ye ( 1 981: 26), t raditional p otters u sually t ake t he option of u sing materials most appropriate f or a chieving a s ingle f unction, a lthough they recognize t hat vessels i ntended f or other p urposes w ill n ot h ave optimal p roperties. Y et s ometimes, R ye s tates, p otters u se different materials a nd f iring p rocedures f or e ach f unctional t ype. I n p articular, d istinct p aste compositions a re n oted b etween cooking a nd n oncooking vessels ( e.g. A rnold 1 971, D eBoer a nd L athrap 1 979, P log 1 980, R ye 1 976, T hompson 1 958). P erhaps more t han a ny other s ingle s tudy, R ye' s ( 1976) " Keeping Y our T emper U nder C ontrol" h as g iven direction t o current approaches. A ccording t o h is b asic a rgument, n onindustrial p otters, by t rial a nd e rror, a dapt their s trategies t o p rinciples of ceramic e ngineering a nd p hysical s cience. A ttributes of vessel s hape s erving t o r educe s tress p oints a re u tilized t o r educe t he effects of thermal s hock i n cooking v essels. A lso, f ollowing p rinciples of ceramic e ngineering, h e a rgues that i nclusions h aving c oefficients of thermal e xpansion s imilar t o t hat of the c lay matrix w ould t end t o be f avored, further reducing t hermal s tress. P resent i n certain c lay deposits or a dded a s t emper, s tress-reducing i nclusions i nclude z ircon, r utile, f eldspar, augite, hornblende, s alt-treated c alcite, burned s hell, a nd c rushed s herds. I n contrast, q uartz, t ransformed f rom i ts a lpha t o beta s tate i n t he t emperature range of n onindustrial f iring, i s regarded a s a n u nsatisfactory t empering material f or cooking p ots. A lthough s ubsequent i nvestigations directed t oward w ays of e nhancing f unctional p erformance do n ot represent a monolithic a pproach, a f requent characteristic i s t o draw on l aboratory research relating t o commercial c eramics, applying t hese p rinciples a nd t esting methods t o p roblems of p rehistoric p ottery p roduction a nd u se. ( See, e .g. B ronitsky 1 986, B ronitsky a nd H amer 1 986, B raun 1 983, K leptner a nd Johnson 1 986, S chiffer a nd S kibo 1 987, S timmel e t a l. 1 982).

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R ice ( 1 987:104-1 09) c autions a gainst u ncritical a pplications of commercial l aboratory f indings t o n onindustrial p ottery. S pecifically, s he w arns that open, n onkiln f iring d oes n ot p arallel e quilibrium c onditions f ound i n t he t esting l aboratory. B ecause f iring t ime, t emperature, a nd a tmosphere a re p oorly controlled, certain chemical a nd mineral a lterations affecing t hermal s hock may n ot be completed. I n contrast t o commercial c eramics, s pecially e ngineered c hemical c ompositions a re u nnecessary t o w ithstand t he t hermal s tresses t o w hich p ottery i s l ikely t o be e xposed. R ather, the a bility t o w ithstand r epeated h eating a nd c ooling i s because t he p ottery i s low-fired, coarsely t extured, a nd p orous c haracteristics common t o a w ide range of a rchaeological c eramics. F or t he most p art, s he concludes ( Rice 1 987: 301), vessel s ize a nd s hape a re generalized t o meet a number of needs a dequately r ather than being s pecialized t o optimize s pecific f unctions. -

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I n a s weeping c ritique, Woods ( 1986) t akes i ssue w ith the g rowing a cceptance t hat resistance t o t hermal s hock i s a c ritical f actor a ffecting t he composition a nd s hape of p rehistoric cooking p ots. G eneralizing o n data f rom B ritain, s he concludes that t he a vailability of raw materials ( i.e., minimization of effort) a nd t raditional a pproaches t o vessel s hape ( culture) a re more i mportant than s tress-reducing s trategies. T his i s one of the f ew cases i n w hich c eramic r esearch concerned w ith the optimization of f ucntional p erformance h as drawn l argely negative conclusions ( see a lso D oyel 1 976). D iffering a pproaches h ave been t aken i n a ssessing d esirable characteristics of a cooking p ot o r a ny other f unctional c lass. I n a ddition t o concern a bout ceramic e ngineering, approaches i nclude e thnographically or a rchaeologically documented p revalence of g iven a ttributes W ally 1 986, H enrickson a nd M cDonald 1 983, S mith 1 985). F indings a re n ot a lways mutually consistent, a s e xemplified by d iscussions of the relative desirability of c rushed s herds vs q uartz as t empering materials ( Rye 1 976, P log 1 980, W indes 1 977), thick a nd t hin vessel w alls ( Henrickson a nd M cDonald 1 983, B raun 1 983), a nd degrees of p orosity/ i mpermeability ( Rye 1 981, E ricson e t a l. 1 971). L ack of f ull a greement on t hese i ssues i s n o s urprise, n ot only because of the a nalysts' d iffering a pproaches ( cultural, material a nd e ngineering s cience) b ut because t he p otters' s trategies u ltimately i nvolve a s eries of compromises. M any f actors e nter i nto s uch compromises ( Rice 1 987, S chiffer a nd S kibo 1 987). A gain i n one a spect of f unctional p erformance may be a chieved a t t he e xpense of s ome o ther u seful p roperty. Weighing a s eries of desirable characteristics a gainst one a nother

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c an p rove a f ormidable, t ime-consuming t ask. on v arious s trategies that h ave w orked i n cultural t radition red uces th e r ange of

B y p assing t he p ast, p otentially

conflicting d ecisions that otherwise might consiciously be w eighed, thereby p romoting r apidity a nd e xpectability h ence a k ind o f s ocial e fficiency i n t he decision-making p rocess. -

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M oreover, costs a nd b enefits apply both t o p roducers a nd c onsumers. C onsumers may be represented e xclusively by members of the p otter' s i mmediate f amily o r by a n e nlarged c ircle, p erhaps of considerable s ocioeconomic complexity. A lthough i n a l iteral s ense p roduction s trategy i s vested i n t he p otters, they must t ake i nto a ccount benefits that a ccrue t o t he consumers. A rguably, this p resupposes: 1 ) a p reference f or t he more durable vessel, w hose s ize, s hape, a nd c omposition combine t o r educe t he s tresses of repeated u sage, a nd 2 ) a ttempts by pottery makers t o meet t his p reference. Y et, f rom a n e thnoarchaeological p erspective, i t c an be a rgued t hat t he consumers' d ietary p atterns a nd motor h abits p romote convervatism i n h andling a nd u sing p ottery ( Arnold 1 985:1 14 7_151, R ice 1 987: 462- 14 63). I n i solation, such f actors s hould r educe, r ather t han p romote, e xperimentation i n p ottery p roduction. T hus, a n a pparent conflict concerns conservatism i n vessel u se a nd a p reference f or g reater vessel durability. A mong many p ossible r amifications, t his may t end t o r esult i n p eriods of relative ceramic s tability punctuated b y e pisodes of more r apid i nnovation, the l atter being i nduced b y changing s ubsistence p atterns ( Braun 1 983, cf. S chiffer a nd S kibo 1 987) o r by i ntensified i nteraction of p ottery u sers h aving d iffering s ets of motor h abits. S uggesting a lternatives t o a n i deal " battleship curve" m odel o f s teady ceramic c hange, this s et of p ossibilities l ies outside t he i mmediate s cope of the p resent p aper. A lthough change t hrough t ime i s i nherent i n t he f ollowing d iscussion, the t empo a nd s pacing o f ceramic c hanges a re n ot regularly documented. L ack of specificity w hether decision making is conceptualized a s a n a daptive p rocess or a deliberate s trategy may result. I s ee both a s i nvolved, but my b ias i s that decisions, being made f or a v ariety of r easons often f ocusing o n s hort t erm p ersonal g ain, may l ead, s omewhat r andomly, t o greater or l esser t echnical e fficiency, often being a daptively neutral. A daptive p rocesses may then s elect f or more optimal s olutions. W ith t his s et of p erspectives a nd l imitations i n mind, I p ose s elected S cenarios f ocusing o n s ituations i n w hich decisions b ased o n least-cost a nd

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f unction-optimizing f actors come i nto p otential c ompetition. T hese a re n ot necessarily the most f requently e ncountered s ituations l ikely t o r equire compromises by n onindustrial p otters. R ather, I i dentify p ossible a lternatives i n behavioral s trategy that i ntroduce complexities i n a rchaeological i nterpretation, w ith s pecial r eference t o my own research on i ntraregional c eramic p roduction a nd e xchange f ocused o n t he major M aya center of P alenque, M exico. T he s cenarios a re s ketchy, p roviding a basis f or a sking q uestions. M y i ntention i s neither t o i mply the c ross-cultural dominance of o ne of these p rinciples w ithin t he context of a g iven s cenario n or t o s uggest that decisions a re made s olely w ith reference t o least-cost o r f unctiono ptimizing p rinciples. A lthough the s cenarios a re p hrased i n t erms of a f ormalist approach t o e conomic t heory, my p osition s hould b e c lear t hat assumptions a nd p references embedded i n t he culture a re i mportant p arts of the equation, decisions f requently being b ased o n combined s ocial a nd e conomic r ather t han p urely e conomic considerations ( cf. E arle 1 982, H odder 1 982 9 N icklin 1 979, R eina a nd H ill 1 978).

S CENARIOS T he f irst s cenario f ocuses on t he p rocurement of raw materials p rior t o p ottery manufacture ( see A rnold 1 971, 1 985, N icklin 1 979, R ice 1 977, S hepard 1 956). S uperior c lays, t empering materials, or f uels ( superior, that i s, f or a chieving a g iven e nd) a re located a t a g reater d istance f rom t he p roduction center t han a re r aw materials that w ill do a minimally a cceptable j ob. I n s uch a case, i s i t w orth the e xtra effort t o p rocure t he "better" c eramic r esources, whether d irectly ( by the p otter or a member of the p otter' s f amily or w ork group) o r i ndirectly? T here i s, of course, n o s ingle a nswer. F or e xample, the a vailability of w ater t ransport w ould p rovide a n opportunity t o p rocure l arge q uantities of heavy, bulky goods w ithout s ignificant cost i n t ime a nd e nergy, as compared t o t he man h ours a nd s weat needed i f the r aw materials a re c arried o n t he h uman back. H owever, i f t ruly s uperior f unctional p erformance i s t o be o btained b y w alking t he e xtra mile, this could w ell b e a s mall p rice t o p ay. I f other p erceived n eeds w ere met by t raveling t o t he general location, t otal c osts might be reduced. A s econd, related s cenario i ncludes the p ossibility of ceramic e xchange ( see B ishop, R ands a nd H olley 1 982; Fry 1 980; P log 1 980; R ice 1 987). C onsumers l ive i n a p lace w here f uels, c lays, or t emper s uperior f or a chieving f unctionally desirable ceramic p roperties a re locally u navailable a nd c an be o btained o nly by

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p rocurement at a greater d istance. C osts f or t ransporting t he bulky r aw materials c an be w eighed a gainst costs of o btaining p ottery, h aving t he desired c haracteristics, f rom o ne or more p roduction centers c lose t o, a nd e xploiting, the s uperior r esources. C osts a nd b enefits must a lso be w eighed a gainst those of u sing p ottery, manufactured f rom t he l ocally a vailable resources, that w ould b e less s atisfactory f or t he t ask or t asks e xpected t o be p erformed. T he t hird s cenario n arrows the f ocus of e xchange ( see S hepard 1 963). C eramics, r ather t han r aw materials, a re t raded. E xchange could b e p romoted b y f actors d iscussed i n p revious s cenarios y et need n ot i mply great d ifferences i n ceramic r esources. T hus, might p otters, l iving c lose t o r esources that a re j ust a l ittle better, t end, o ver t ime, t o e xploit t hese minor d ifferences, working o ut a daptive recipes of c lay p reparation, vessel contstruction, a nd f iring, a nd s o e volve i nto s pecialists f or p roducing p ottery s erving a s pecific ceramic f unction? ( See K idder [ 1925] f or a contrasting v iew a bout the r apidity w ith w hich newly d iscovered c eramic resources might s timulate i nnovation.) Also, the p ottery could b e f unctionally a dapted t o r educe t ransportation costs a nd r isks. F or e xample, breakage, weight, a nd c arrying s pace could b e lessened, p erhaps by the p roduction of vessels w ith s trong, l ight w alls ( Bronitsky 1 986) a nd s hapes conducive t o n estability ( Whittlesey , 1 974, R athje e t a l. 1 978). T o w hat e xtent does p ottery h aving t hese characteristics correlate w ith i ntensive o r n onintensive t rade? P ottery-making d ecisions that p ay off f or s pecialists w hose p roduction i s d irected t o a distant market may s eem i nappropriate t o t hose p roducing f or a more generalized group consisting o f both local a nd n onlocal c onsumers. T he p receding s cenarios d irect attention t o decisions affecting t he movement of r aw materials a nd f inished vessels, as w ell a s t o d ifferential p otentials of t emper, c lays, a nd f uels. P erhaps options o f c lay p reparation ( e.g. choice, s ize, a nd a mount of t empering materials) o ffer generally s atisfactory s olutions, but d ifferential e ffects of certain c lays a nd f uels cannot be d ismissed. B asically, choices a re made by the p otter a bout h ow h is or h er l abor i s e xpended. T o w hat e xtent a nd u nder w hat c ircumstances do s trategies e mphasize o btaining d urability of the ceramics? How i mportant i s i t t o t he p roducer ( and c onsumer) t hat p ots, f unctioning efficiently, h ave long l ife s pan? T o t he e xtent t hat t he p ots' l ongevity h as p ositive v alue, least-cost a nd f unction-optimizing s trategies appear t o converge. Y et, as s uggested i n t he s cenarios, s ituations may o ccur i n w ihch p rocurement costs run counter t o s olutions that p romote durability, a nd s olutions may d iffer f rom o ne

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c lass of ceramics p roduction.

t o

a nother

o r

a ccording

t o

s cale

of

I mplicitly, the s cenarios consider resource e xploitation a nd c eramic e xchange i n a r elatively restricted geographic context. C osts i ncrease markedly w ith d istance, a p henomenon r elated t o, but lying o utside, the s pecific p roblem o rientation of the p resent p aper. ( For v arying p erspectives, s ee D rennan 1 984, 1 985, R eyman a nd D irks 1 985, T ourtellot a nd S abloff 1 972.) The s cenarios l ack p lausability t o t he e xtent t hat R ice' s generalization c ited a bove h as c ross-cultural a pplicability i .e. e xperimentation i s minimal i n t raditional s ocieties, p ottery being generalized t o meet a w ide r ange of f unctions. H owever, a s s he a lso n otes, the i nternal s ocial a nd e thnic d istinctions characteristic o f complex s ocieties may result i n a greater n umber of vessel f orms h aving d iscrete f unctions a nd a ssociated a ctivities ( Rice 1 987: 301). A dditionally, relating t he s cenarios t o a rchaeological d ata h as p ractical l imitations. T hus, a p articular a lternative i n t he p roduction a nd d istribution p rocess i s assumed i n t he s cenarios but c an only be i nferred, w ith varying d egrees of p lausability, f rom t he d ata. A lthough c ritical p roblems a re u nresolved, the s cenarios h ighlight p roblem a reas meriting f urther consideration. -

-

A RCHAEOLOGICAL G eneral

CORRELATES

C onsiderations

I h ave t hought a bout this s et of p roblems i n my long-term a ttempt t o u nderstand t he n ature of ceramic p roduction a nd e xchange i n t he P alenque region of n ortheastern C hiapas a nd a djacent T abasco ( see, e .g., R ands 1 974, 1 987; R ands a nd B ishop 1 980). T he s cale i s i ntraregional ( Figure 1 ), p ossible manufacturing s ites often lying w ithin t he o verlapping d istances i ndicated b y A rnold' s model o f maximum-range resource e xploitation. A s n oted a bove, he h olds that ceramic d istribution cannot be determined b y p aste a nalysis i f p ottery-making c ommunities o ccur less than 1 2-18 km a part ( Arnold 1 985:58). N evertheless, p aste composition -- a s assessed by e xtensive N euton A ctivation A nalysis, p etrography, a nd r efiring h as been e mployed i n t he P alenque region a s one means of i nvestigating p roblems of local p roduction a nd u se versus e xchange. C omplexities i n i nferring p roduction on t he basis of p aste characterization p robably relate less t o s traight-line ( geodesic) d istances s eparating s ites than t o p hysiographic considerations affecting p heric d istance ( see A rnold -

-

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1 73

-

( Rands) F igure 1 : M acrozones a nd P alenque R egion. C ontour i ntervals n ot g iven e xcept f or P alenque.

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1 74

-

T opography o f t he 1 00 m . S ite n ames

1 985: 37). T his i s only p artly because t opography i nfluences t ime/energy e xpenditures i n t ravel a nd t ransport. A dditionally, i t affects the a ccessibility of d istinct p arent materials t o p rocesses of w eathering i n c lay f ormation a s w ell a s affecting t he deposition of s econdary c lays. T he P alenque region i ncludes a brupt t opographic contrasts, d istinct p hysiographic z ones of varying s ize s ometimes o ccurring i n c lose j uxtaposition. A t a location n ear a z onal b oundary, costs i n o btaining c lay or t empering material f rom a n a djacent z one w ould b e greatly reduced r elative t o costs f or e xploitation a cross boundaries a ccruing i n n onadjacent p ortions of the z one. Y et costs w ould a ppear s ignificantly t o e xceed t hose of local, w ithin-zone p rocurement on t he general s cale of A rnold' s p referred t erritory of e xploitation. I n a ccordance w ith the f irst s cenario, costs a nd b enefits w ould n eed t o be w eighed i f s uperior ceramic r esources could b e o btained i n t he a djacent z one. O n t he other h and, costs might more s atisfactorily be met by o btaining p ots f rom t he neighboring z one t han by p rocuring t he f unction-enhancing r aw materials ( scenario 2 ). A lso, d ifferential r esources may h ave p romoted s pecialization i n p roduction a nd e xchange mechanisms, a lthough the a pparent s cale w ould b e s imply i ntraregional ( scenario 3 ). I f n ot meeting a ll o f i ts basic ceramic n eeds locally, the p opulation of P alenque may h ave constituted a consumer g roup of s ufficient s ize t o j ustify s uch s pecialization on t he p art of neighboring p roducers. I n a ny c ase, costs w ere p robably only one of the f actors leading t o s pecific s olutions, a nd, s urely, these s olutions u nderwent change t hrough t ime. S ee T able 1 f or a n outline of P alenque ceramic complexes a nd c hronology.

T he

P alenque

D ata

B ase

The P alenque region comprises three major morphogenic s ystems, each e xtending b eyond t he l imits of the s tudy a rea. S outh t o n orth, these a re t he h eavily f olded C hiapas-Tabasco f oothills; P leistocene f luvial t erraces w ith h ighly w eathered, i nfertile s oils; a nd R ecent, comparatively f ertile f luvial deposits, e specially a long the U sumacinta R iver ( Murray 1 961, W est e t a l. 1 969). I n F igure if these a re designated, respectively, L ow S ierras, I ntermediate P lains, a nd U sumacinta F loodplain. Within t he s tudy a rea, ceramic p atterns s how s ubstantial a greement w ith these macrozones, reflecting d ifferences i n o ccupational h istory a nd s tyle, as w ell a s i n a spects of t echnology h aving p otential r elevance t o t he s cenarios.

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T able

1 :

M ajor

P eriods

TIME

a nd

C eramic

MAJOR P ERIODS

C omplexes.

P ALE NQUE CERAMIC COMPLEXES

A . D . 1 100-900

E arly

P ostclassic

9 00-800

Terminal

8 00-600

L ate

C lassic

C lassic

( Silho

H orizon)

H uipale B alunte M urc i elagos O tolum

6 00-500

M iddle

5 00-200

E arly

C lassic

C ascada

C lassic

M otiepa P icota

2 00 A . D. B .C. 3 00 300-800

-

L ate

P reclassic

M iddle

( Late

P reclassic

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1 76

-

W axy

M isoiha ( Pre-Waxy

H orizon)

H orizon)

T he d iscussion h as a n arrow geographic f ocus, centering o n t he s ite of P alenque, which i s located o n t he n orthern e dge of the L ow S ierras, a nd o n n earby p ortions of the I ntermediate P lains. P roximity of the p lains t o P alenque v aries i n a ccordance w ith complex p hysiographic f actors reflecting t he t ectonic h istory of the a rea. T hus, t he n arrow v alley of the M ichol R iver p arallels the f oot of the s ierras, low gradients p romoting p lainslike conditions of w eathering a nd c lay f ormation. A pparently, c lay s ediments a re p artially derived f rom p ortions of the p lains lying f arther t o t he n orth ( Figure 1 ). T hese f actors a re relevant t o z onal b oundaries a nd a ssociated c lay characteristics. i t s hould a lso be n oted, i n v iew of the r ole of c anoe t ransportation i n reducing c osts of o btaining c eramic r esources, that t he M ichol i s n ot n avigable c lose t o P alenque. T he ceramic p aste g roups employed i n t he p resent d iscussion represent d ifferent levels of a nalytical r efinement. T hese g roups, or p aste compositional r eference u nits ( Bishop, R ands a nd H olley 1 982), reflect a s ynthesis of chemical a nd p etrographic d ata. I n ceramics s ampled f rom t he P alenque region, s tatistically "optimal" d ivisions of the e lemental d ata s et p rovide a major criterion of g roup membership; covariation w ith p etrographic variables i s, however, a lso s ought. F urther p artitioning o f e ach e lemental d ivision a nd more e xacting l evels of p etrographic a greement y ield more refined u nits of a nalysis. A dmittedly, i t i s d ifficult t o i nterpret t he differing a nalytical levels i n t erms of ceramic behavior. A lthough q ualifications a re necessary, i t appears that t he " global" l evel o f a nalysis reflects major e nvironmental d ifferences, e .g., the e xploitation of resources characterizing t he L ow S ierras a nd I ntermediate P lains as contrastive p hysiographic macrozones ( Rands a nd B ishop 1 980). I deally, more refined l evels ( Bishop, R ands a nd H arbottle 1 982) s hould i ndicate e xploitation of those resources characterizing more h omogeneous z ones or microzones. R elative a bundance of the p aste compositional reference u nits h as been e mployed a s one criterion i n a ssessing p roduction loci. I n conformity t o least-cost p rinciples u nderlying d istance-decay models ( Hodder a nd O rton 1 976 9 R enfrew 1 977), the s ite or z one of greatest concentration i s a ssumed t o r epresent t he p lace of manufacture, f alloff t aking p lace a way f rom t his location ( Bishop, R ands a nd H olley 1 982: 301). A mong o ther q ualifications, i t i s c lear t hat s ampling p rocedures f or p aste characterization a nd s ample s ize a re i mportant i n

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the s uccessful a pplication of the c riterion. A mong t he various p aste compositional u nits that a re represented, three a re d iscussed b elow, memberships being greater t han 260 c ases f or G roup 1 , 1 70 c ases f or G roup 2 , a nd 30 c ases f or G roup 3 . C ertain combinations of p roperties h elping t o characterize a g iven reference u nit h ave been s ought by less refined p rocedures. T hese i nclude t hin s ection e xamination c arried o ut i ndependently of chemical a nalysis, e xamination w ith the b inocular microscope, a nd r efiring p ottery u nder s tandardized c onditions. A lthough levels of a nalytical r efinement a re lower, d istinctions a re p rovided b etween contrastive u nits. T he resulting s ample i s greatly e nlarged, p roviding a u seful p erspective f or a ssessing s patial a nd t emporal t rends. O n a macrozonal b asis, the c riterion of a bundance a pplies t o p ottery f rom t he I ntermediate P lains. W ith p ossible e xceptions, ceramic s ampling t o determine refined p aste compositional r eference u nits i s i nsufficient t o p inpoint i ndividual s ites a s p roduction centers w ithin t his s izable a rea. H owever, on a g lobal level o f a nalysis, one of the compositional u nits ( Group 1 ) c onsistently h as i ts greatest relative f requency at s ites l ocated w ithin t he I ntermediate P lains. T hus, approximately 5 0 o f the chemically a nd p etrographically s ampled C lassic p eriod c eramics f rom s ites i n t his r nacrozone h as G roup 1 membership, a f requency f ar e xceeding t hat of a ny o ther p aste g roup. I n conjunction w ith e vidence relating t o t he nature a nd d istribution of c lays w ithin t he P alenque region ( Bishop 1 980), this i ndicates that t he p lains represents the major z one i n w hich ceramic r esources w ere e xploited f or t he p roduction of G roup 1 pottery. I f p arent materials a re n ot t oo dissimilar, conditions of c lay w eathering s imilar t o those of the I ntermediate P lains might a lso p romote membership i n t his generalized group. T he group h as been referred t o p reviously as the " Plains" c ompositional u nit ( Rands a nd B ishop 1 980), a t erm, i n s ome w ays appropriate, that nevertheless leads t o confusion between "plains" a s a p aste u nit a nd a s geographic a nd e nvironmental c oncepts. A w ide r ange o f s hapes i s represented i n G roup 1 , n otably j ars ( Figure 2 a-c), bowls ( Figure 3 ), and b asins but e xtending t o f iner " serving" p ottery. O n a microzonal level, the criterion of a bundance h as s pecial r elevance t o P alenque. C eramics f rom t his major center h ave been s ubject t o e xtensive compositional a nalysis, s ample s ize p ermitting i nferences o n a localized s cale. G roup 2 pottery, a lso r eferred t o a s M acro-Palenque ( Rands a nd B ishop 1 980), i s concentrated

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-

1

9

1

b

C

7

1

f

0

1 5 cm

( Rands) F igure 2 : J ars 1 ; d -f P aste G roup 3 . C lassic.

f rom P alenque. a -c a -d L ate C lassic;

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1 79

-

P aste e -f,

G roup E arly

I

1

1

• 1

b

d

C

9 e

1 5 cm

( Rands) F igure 3 : U tilitarian P aste G roup 1 . L ate C lassic.

-

1 80

B owls f rom P alenque.

-

a -f,

a t t he s ite ( as s ampled, ca. 5 0% o f the p ottery at P alenque h as G roup 2 membership). T hroughout the C lassic s equence, this i s the most a bundantly represented p aste compositional u nit, others w axing a nd w aning i n f requency. P ronounced f alloff o ccurs, G roup 2 d ropping t o a pproximately 1 0% a t a d istance of 5 -10 km f rom P alenque. T he g roup i s apparently i ndigenous t o a microzone a t a nd a djacent t o P alenque. Well r epresented a re d ishes, i ncense burners, f igurines, a nd b asins, mostly s erving a nd r itual r ather t han "utilitarian" f orms. G roup 2 is a s ubdivision of a g lobal c ompositional g roup broadly ascribable t o the L ow S ierras ( Rands a nd B ishop 1 980). I n s pite of the s mall c hemical a nd p etrographic s ample f or G roup 3 , c losely s imilar p ottery i s a bundant at P alenque; only a s ingle s hape, the jar, i s characteristic ( Figure 2 d-f). I n s ummary, resource z ones f or c lay a nd t emper can be i ndicated w ith varying d egrees of p robability. G roup 1 pottery apparently h as s everal b ei i n t he relatively l arge a rea comprising t he I ntermediate P lains. A L ow S ierras locus, i n t he i mmediate v icinity of P alenque a nd/or a t t he s ite, i s i ndicated f or G roup 2 . C onclusions a re more e quivocal f or G roup 3 , although the criterion of a bundance i ndicates a locus at P alenque a nd p aste characteristics s uggest a s ource a rea or a reas c lose t o, i f n ot w ithin, the L ow S ierras. A n e ssentially localized P alenque p roduct, h aving p aste characteristics distinct f rom Group 2 , may be i ndicated.

A pplications Cooking

Pots

a nd

T hermal

S hock

R esistance

S imply s tated, I h ave been i mpressed by the e xtreme rarity of j ars i n p ottery of G roup 2 ( Macro-Palenque) p aste composition. D uring t he E arly a nd M iddle C lassic p eriods a t P alenque, j ars w ere mostly represented i n p aste G roup 3 , with G roup 1 ( Plains) a s a less f requent a lternative. T his w as reversed i n t he L ate C lassic, especially t oward t he e nd o f the s equence, when G roup 3 was i n marked decline a nd j ars w ere p redominantly of G roup 1 p aste. M any f actors might h elp t o a ccount f or the rarity of the j ar i n t he a pparently i ndigenous G roup 2 ceramics. A mong t hese, I h ave considered t he p ossibilities that at least s ome of the j ars s erved a s cooking p ots a nd t hat G roups 1 a nd 3 p astes w ere more resistant

t o

t hermal

s hock than

G roup

2 .

U nfortunately, i n-depth s tudies of u se a re rare f or M ayan a rchaeological c eramics ( Lischka 1 978, R obertson 1 983). A dams ( 1971), D emarest ( 1986), a nd S harer ( 1978),

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1 81

-

among o thers, h ave more generalized t reatments, a nd T hompson ( 1 958) d iscusses p roblems i n a rchaeological/ e thnological i nference. U nslipped g lobular j ars, often s triated, h ave been i dentified a s cooking vessels; w alls a re t hin, s houlders w ell developed, a nd n ecks low w ith s light constriction ( Brainerd 1 958:79 -8 01 S mith 1 971:103-1 04). O pen-mouth c auldrons w ith u ntextured s urface, s imilar t o cooking vessels n ow w idespread i n Y ucatan, a re considered a l ate p rehistoric i ntroduction, p artially replacing t he s ustained t radition of u sing t he low-neck j ar f or cooking ( Brainerd 1 958: 80). L ending c redence t o my p roposed i nterpretation of j ar u se f or cooking a t P alenque, the j ars h ave coarse, "utilitarian" s urfaces, a nd e xterior s ooting o ccurs on s ome of them b ut n ot regularly on other vessel f orms at P alenque. ( The burning o f i ncensario w alls i s readily d istinguishable a nd p enetrates outward f rom t he vessel i nterior.) Although a one-to-one relationship between t he j ar c lass as a w hole a nd a cooking o r boiling f unction a ppears u nlikely, the e vidence t hat j ars w ere s ometimes u sed i n t his w ay i s s ufficient t o e xplore p ossible f unctional e nhancement t hrough s electivity i n choices of s hape, surface t reatment, a nd p aste. L ow-to vague-neck j ars a re characteristic a t P alenque ( Figure 2 ). D uring much of the C lassic o ccupation, walls s lant s lightly f rom moderately w ide orifices t o w eakly developed s houlders, p ermitting r elative e ase of a ccess t o vessel c ontents f or s tirring a nd l adling ( paste G roups 3 and s ometimes 1 ). L ater i n t he s equence, G roup 1 j ars, i n p articular, curve t o w ider s houlders ( Figure 2 a, b ). A lthough this restriction t oward t he orifice w ould r etard h eat loss, a ccessibility i s drastically reduced. S hapes of the E arly a nd M iddle C lassic j ars, which a re p redominantly of G roup 3 paste, appear t o be more e fficient i n cooking a nd f ood r emoval. F unctional c hanges w ithin t he j ar c lass may h ave t aken p lace. I n p art p aralleling B rainerd' s reconstruction of Y ucatecan developments, as d iscussed a bove, the best p ossibility f or a n a lternative or s upplemental f orm f or cooking a ppears t o be bowls belonging t o t he generalized s hape c lass s hown i n F igure 3 . A lmost vertical w alls a nd w ide mouths, a lthough p ermitting r apid e vaporation f rom b oiling, e liminate t he d isadvantages of e xtreme restriction t oward t he neck a nd o rifice. L argely a bsent f rom t he E arly C lassic a nd b eginning L ate C lassic, this s hape may h ave a ssumed i mportance i n cooking a s j ar s hapes became i ncreasingly a dapted t o s torage i nstead o f meeting a v ariety of p urposes that i ncluded c ooking. O ther i nterpretations could b e a dvanced. O f i mportance h ere, bowl membership, l ike t hat of the contemporaneous j ars, i s p redominantly i n G roup 1 ; v essels u sed f or

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cooking s till i n t he local,

do n ot s eem t o G roup 2 p aste.

h ave been

regularly p roduced

T he j ars a nd b owls considered h ere a re u nslipped. E xterior s urfaces of j ars a re r ough. A lthough s triation i s l acking, dragging o f t emper p articles i s p ronounced. E xterior s urfaces of bowls a re s omewhat s moother but, i n comparison t o G roup 2 pottery, a lso f all i n a coarse, u tilitarian category. T he c laim t hat r ough, u nslipped s urfaces contribute t o i mproved h eat conductivity i s u nder debate ( Flog 1 986:321 -322). I n a ny c ase, s hould u se-blackening o ccur, manufacturing c osts of s lipping o r p ainting w ill h ave been a voided. O ther f eatures of these j ars a nd b owls could p rovide resistance t o t hermal s tress. R ounded s hapes a re p resent i n basal p ortions that w ould b e e specially e xposed t o h eat i n cooking, a nd vessel w alls a re generally thin. T he f ormer f eature e liminates s harp a ngles as s tress p oints. P romoting t hermal c onductivity, the l atter w ould be e fficient i n h eating t he vessel c ontents, i n a ddition t o r educing s tresses resulting f rom t emperature differences on t he e xterior a nd i nterior of vessel w alls. S pecialization i n vessel s hape t o a chieve h igh f unctional p erformance i s n ot c lear-cut, h owever. A lthough G roup 1 bowls f requently thin t oward b asal a reas, l ikely t o be e xposed t o cooking f ires, the change i n w all t hickness i s s ometimes a brupt ( Figure 3c), creating s tress p oints. M oreover, decreasing w all thickness t oward t he base i s w idespread i n ceramics of the P alenque region, a lso o ccurring i n p ottery not believed t o h ave been u sed i n cooking. T hin w alls a nd globular t o h emispherical s hapes a re more characteristic of G roup 1 pottery as a w hole t han of G roup 2 v essels, perhaps reflecting t he p resence of s tylistic mini-traditions r ather t han f orm-specific a daptations t o cooking. C ertain f eatures of s hape t hat could e nhance f unctional p erformance a s cooking vessels a re r are t o a bsent i n t he P alenque j ars a nd b owls. H andles, u seful i n moving a h ot container or f or s uspension a bove a f ire, a re a lmost u nknown i n a ny P alenque ceramics e xcept f or k nob-handle l ids. E ssential a bsence of h andles e xemplifies the f ailure t o optimize p erformance ( if, i ndeed, the j ars a nd b owls w ere u sed i n cooking o r moving a h eated c ontainer). E fficient p ortability i s a f actor t o be reckoned w ith i n e xchange, a lthough i deally i ts i mportance s hould h ave a n i nverse relationship t o d istance. A t . P alenque, the jars of G roup 1 , i n p articular, a re constricted t oward neck a nd o rifice, l argely e liminating t he p ossibility of

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nestability i n t ransport. T his need n ot r ule out e xchange: w itness the w idespread d istribution i n s outhwestern G uatemala of C hinautla w ater j ars, i n w hich n onnesting vessels a re l ashed t o t umpline-supported c arrying f rames ( Mcßryde 1 945; R eina a nd H ill 1 978: 41 9 F igs. 2 0, 2 1, M ap 9 , P late 382). Y et, i n combination, function-enhancing a nd l east-cost i nterpretations s uggest the j ar i s n ot a n i deal s hape f or e xchange, especially w hen, as at P alenque, i t i s among o ne of the largest of the f orm c lasses. A rchaeological i dentifications of t emper, as opposed t o n atural i nclusions i n t he c lay, a re s ometimes s uspect, granulometry offering o nly a p artial s olution. A t P alenque, p aste G roups 1 a nd 2 a re characterized b y q uartz i nclusions i n t he general s ize range of t empered c eramics. I n G roup 1 , h owever, the range i s much more p ronounced; j ars t end t o be coarsely t extured, the p osited c ooking b owls h aving medium t o coarse t exture a nd s erving f orms considerably f iner p astes. A lthough G roup 1 is defined o n a g lobal level o f a nalysis that may o bscure microzonal d ifferences i n resources, the covariation between vessel f orm a nd grain s ize s uggests deliberate manipulation, s uch a s the a ddition of different but f airly s tandardized a mounts of q uartz s and. C arbonate a nd q uartz i nclusions a re of varying a bundance i n G roup 3 j ars, a nd t hese mixtures may be natural o r t he result of c lay p reparation. I n t he a rchaeological l iterature, at least i nferentially, s uch differences w ould o ften be a scribed t o t he u se of e ither q uartz or calcite t emper. A ccording t o R ye ( 1976, 1 981) a nd o thers ( e.g. K leptner a nd Johnson 1 985, 1 986; S timmel e t a l. 1 982), the u se of s alt as a n a dditive by p rehistoric p otters may h ave s erved t o p romote resistance t o t hermal s hock by i nhibiting d ecomposition of calcium c arbonate t empering materials during i nitial f iring. B ecause t he t hermal e xpansion of calcite i s s imilar t o t hat of f ired c lays, this mineral i s regarded a s s uperior t o q uartz as a t emper f or cooking p ots, once i ts decomposition a t n ormal f iring r anges h as been o vercome. T hus, a ccording t o f unction-optimizing i nterpretat ions of ceramic p roduction, G roup 3 pottery at P alenque could h ave p otential s uperiority as cooking vessels. I f this p otential w as, i n f act, a chieved, i t w as n ot retained a s p art of the ceramic t echnology. A s n oted, G roup 3 j ars declined i n f requency after t he M iddle C lassic p eriod, a nd q uartz i nclusions w ere dominant i n the ceramics that replaced t hem. I t i s u nknown i f the t echnique o f adding s alt t o a c arbonaceous c lay w as u tilized i n t he P alenque region. A lthough the a mount of s alt needed t o r educe t hermal s tress i s s mall 0 %, -

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ace ording to Rye (1976 : 1 3 3 ) using sa 1 t in pottery making would, to some extent, have added to production cost s. In the intertwined processes of resource procurment and clay preparation, other potentials of ceramic paste could have in f l uenced production st rategies for cooking vessels. According to function-optimizing interpreta­ tions, minerals such as feldspar having coef ficients of thermal expansion similar to the clay matrix sh ould be favored because of their resistance to thermal shock (Rye 1976:117). Felds pars, however, are more ab undant in Group 2 than in 1 and 3, contrary to f unction-optimizing expectations. Partial data are s ummarized elsewhere (Rands and Bishop 1980:F igure 7). A paste of relatively coarse text ure, p romoting high porosi ty, is commonly regarded as advantageous in reducing crack propagation due to thermal st ress. Although text ure is us ually coarser in Groups 1 -and-3 jars an d bow ls than in Group 2 ceramics, porosity seems, in general, to be lower. Rapi dity in attaining elevated temperat ures and the nature and s pacing of cooling intervals are critical in the consi deration of thermal shock. Although a life-and-usage cycle closely comparable to that of cooking pots is not probable, receptacles for b urning incense are subjected to significan t ly higher temperat ures. It may be relevant, therefore, that in our samp ling, f unctional incensarios at Palenque, like the ornate ceramic stands sometimes used for holding them, are predominantly of Group 2 (Macro-Palenque) paste (Rands et al. 1979, Bishop, Rands and Harbottle 1982 ). In this case, the tradition of producing rit ual items may have outweighed any advantage Group 1 ceramic resources or recipes of clay p reparation may have had in reducing the ef fects of thermal st ress. Ceramic Longevity H ow important is it to producers and cons umers that pots be durable, thereby having long li fe spans (David 1972, DeBoer 1974)? Specific sociocult ural conte xts of ceramic prod uction and use (DeBoer and Lathrap 1979 ) may lead to varying answers. A combination of mechanical st rength and thin, light walls is advantageous i f pottery is prod uced for trade. Cost s of breakage and weight should be red uced during trans portation, the vessels also having greater durability during subsequent use. If post depositional deterioration has not skewed our observations, Group 1 (P lains) ceramics tend to be st ronger than those having

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Group 2 paste, in addition to being thinner walled. Group 1, which includes a variety of forms and functions in addition to those identi fied as cooking pots, are present in the Intermediate Plains and at Palenque. In strength and weight, Group 1 seems the better adapted of t hese paste classes for exchange. Nevertheless, wall thinness is frequently extreme (Figure 4 ). In both paste groups and other regional ceramics, walls often narrow to the point of promoting breakage. Intuitively, an impression is conveyed that these Late Classic potters, playing with the clay, sometimes sensed a lesser challenge in attaining durability of the finished pot than in seeing how thin walled a vessel could be made without breakage during manufacture. Sue h impressions aside, serving vessels sue h as the dish -plate are susceptible to extensive breakage through accidents in repeated handling (Foster 1960). In a function-enhancing strategy, one might expect shapes conducive to easy handling, access and stability. Strength, reflecting various factors, should include minimization of stress points. Dishes, including plates having a smaller height -to-diameter ratio, are an important class of serving vessels whose usages can, in part, be inferred from scenes painted on Classic Maya ceramics. At Palenque, the dishes characteristic of the Late Classic Otolum phase, predominantly represented in Group 2, have exceptionally wide, abrupt ly everted rims (Figure 5a-d). In conjunction with tripod supports, the rims promote ease in lifting, but vessel walls, including the place of juncture with the rim, are thin. As indicated by breakage patterns in potsherds (Figure 5c, d), this is a point of marked structural weakness. Surely, other considerations out�eighed a concern for maximizing durability in Otolum dishes. The Otolum dishes reflect a broader pattern. In other Palenque ceramics, the attachment of heavy rims to thin walls results in stress points and substantial breakage (Figures 4a, 5e). Everted rims, on dishes and other form classes, are frequent throughout the Palenque sequence, being differentially elaborated in size and shape. At times, some of these elaborations appear dys functional from the perspective of ceramic durability. The archaeological investigation of functional safely ignore the importance of performance cannot traditional treatments which, as they oscillated through time, may sometimes have overridden cost-benefi t considerations faced by prehistoric potters and consumers.

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• 1

a

b 0

1 5

cm

C

( Rands) F igure I : T hin-walled V essels f rom P alenque. a -b, M iscellaneous P aste G roups; c , P aste G roup 1 , b -c, F ine P aste. c , B lack. a -c, L ate C lassic.

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a

1

b

IM C

1

0

e

1 5

cm

( Rands) F igure 5 : L ate C lassic p ottery f rom P alenque. a -d, O tolum p hase e verted-rim d ishes, a , p aste G roup 2 ; b -e, c ompositionally s imilar t o G roup 2 . c , d , c haracteristic b reakage p attern o f O tolum d ishes a t r im-wall j uncture.

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D ISCUSSION A lthough p resented i n a p roblem o rientation t hat p osits compromises between costs a nd f unctional e nhancement, c onsideration of the P alenque data h as o ccasionally i ntroduced t he v ariable of cultural t radition. M y p osition h as two t hrusts. O ne i s general, a nd t he s econd r elates t o varying i mplications that might be derived f rom t he P alenque data depending o n t he f undamental a ssumptions being made. A great deal o f s cholarly effort h as been devoted t o s eeking c ost minimization a nd f unctional a daptation i n a rchaeological d ata. S ometimes, h owever, the p roblem o rientation i s s o s pecific t hat t he reciprocal i mplications of the two p rocesses a re n ot considered i n depth. S uch approaches a re l ikely t o downplay the effects of cultural t radition, just as f ollowers of a c ulture-historical a pproach a re l ikely t o i gnore p rocessual c oncerns. H olding o ther f actors constant h as a necessary r ole i n our d iscipline but does s o a t t he r isk of f orgetting a bout those f actors. I n a ccordance w ith the s cenarios, a ssessment of the P alenque data i s d irected t oward t hree general p ossibilities: 1 ) l ocal r esource e xploitation, manufacture a nd c onsumption; 2 ) s pecialized r esource e xploitation f ollowed by local manufacture a nd u se; 3 ) c eramic e xchange. T he f irst two a re s ubsumed o n many levels of a rchaeological a nalysis, p osing a n a lternative t o e xchange. H owever, the dynamics of ceramic behavior d iffer, a nd t he s cale of this d ifference i s s ignificant i n a n i ntraregional i nvestigation t hat attempts t o i dentify e xchange. I f least-cost p rinciples a re i gnored t o t he e xtent t hat n onlocal r esources a re regularly e xploited, the e vidence o f e xchange, as based o n p aste compositional a nalysis, becomes b lurred. C ovariation of p aste a nd f ormal d ifferences that a re n ot f unctionally l inked i s critical. F unction-optimizing i nterpretations of ceramic p roduction s uggest f actors that may lead t o a bias between u se, vessel s hape, a nd p aste composition. S uch f actors might o verride least-cost p rinciples, p roviding b enefits that w ould r ationalize e xploitation of ceramic r esources located i n a more d istant z one. Y et s uch benefits might a lso be realized b y t rading f or p ottery h aving t he desired p roperties. When r esource e xploitation a cross z onal b oundaries i s at i ssue, assessments a re complicated b y the p ossibility that t erritories of c lay a nd t emper p rocurement did n ot coincide. F urther confounding t he p roblem a re

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d ifficulties i n determining w hether i nclusions i n t he p ottery w ere n atural t o t he c lay deposits or w ere a dded a s t emper. R elevant data, derived f rom p etrography a nd N eutron A ctivation A nalysis, a re t oo complex a nd e xtensive t o be considered i n t he p resent p aper. Y et, without making t his determination, one may h old details of resource e xploitation i n a beyance a nd a sk i f p aste variability, i n conjunction w ith s urface characteristics a nd s hape, i s p atterned i n s uch a w ay as markedly t o p romote efficiency. T aken a s a w hole, do t hese v ariables s upport t he i mplicit h ypothesis that f unction-enhancing p roperties, s pecific t o a g iven u se c lass or p romoting vessel durability, w ere s trongly a nd e ffectively manipulated i n t he ceramic t echnology of the P alenque region? T he a pproach t aken s ummarize certain data

i n t he bearing

p receding s ection i s o n t his hypothesis.

t o A s

discussed e arlier, compromises a re necessary i n o btaining i ncreased c eramic p erformance. T hus, f or a n i nterpretation of f unctional e nhancement t o h ave u tility, I would n ot i nsist that relevant v ariables cohere on a h igh s tatistical level. P erhaps, f or e xample, general a greement between relative s trength a nd w eight reduction due t o t hin, l ight w alls p romoting e xchange of G roup s cale.

d id make a difference i n 1 v essels on a n e xtensive

Y et f indings a re t oo f requently mixed. D ysfunctional f eatures, i ncluding o verly thin w alls a nd major s tress p oints, a re often i ndicated. P roperties p erhaps e nhancing p erformance i n a u se c lass a re u sually n ot restricted t o t hat c lass. D evelopmental t rends t end n ot t o s uggest i ncreasing o verall a daptation t o f unctional n eeds; i n s ome c ases, the reverse may h old. C learly, this o verview does n ot e liminate vessel p erformance a s a concern of p otters i n t he P alenque region but f ails t o s upport options

f unction-optimizing i nterpretations t aken i n ceramic p roduction.

of

major

I n conjunction w ith a dditional d ata, a u seful p erspective i s o btained. A dvances that might e nhance s pecific ceramic p erformance a re s potty, p robably representing i nternal c ompromises as w ell a s a djustments t o o ther p erceived w ants a nd n eeds. T his p erspective does l ittle or n othing t o s upport t he p ossibility that p otters regularly f ollowed a p roduction s trategy i n w hich e xploitation of relatively d istant but i n s ome w ay superior r esources w as of s ufficient i mportance t o override t he a ttendant costs. A lthough p rocuring r esources a cross z onal b oundaries i s n ot automatically ruled o ut, a s earch f or e xplanatory f actors g ives i ncreased c redence t o other k inds of p henomena. S uch a n e xample

might

p osit

s ociocultural

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c leavages

w ithin

P alenque, i n w hich p otters of d ifferent s ocial o r e thnic affiliation h ad a ccess t o d istinct resource z ones, s ome lying a t a considerable d istance f rom t he s ite. T he movement of p ottery a cross z onal b oundaries i s a n a lternative h ypothesis. L arge q uantities of u tilitarian a nd o ther ceramics a t P alenque h ave p aste compositions a nd s tylistic f eatures characteristic o f the I ntermediate P lains. I f the h ypothesis i s correct, i t f ollows that e xchange, f ar f rom b eing c asual a nd s poradic, was on a n e xtensive s cale, at least l ate i n t he C lassic p eriod. A ttaining f unctional p erformance beyond general levels of suitability a gain a ppears n ot t o h ave been t he major consideration. A s n oted, relatively s trong, l ight, thin-walled p ottery may h ave reduced b reakage costs i n t ransportation, but i n a ny e vent t hese costs w ere p robably small c ompared t o moving b ulky c lays a nd t emper o ver comparable d istances. M oreover, a s ocial o r e conomic benefit i s t o be e xpected f rom t he e xchange t ransaction. I n t he a bsence of s trong, contrary e vidence, e xchange by minimizing t otal r elative costs a ppears the most p arsimonious of the a lternatives p resented i n t he t hree s cenarios. -

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-

D ifferent r econstructions of M aya s ociety i n a nd a round P alenque emerge, depending o n w hich of the s cenarios i s f ollowed a nd h ow i t i s e laborated. T he s uggestions I f avor s ubstitute s ocial o r o ther e conomic Considerations f or e nhanced c eramic p erformance a s f actors that might h ave i nfluenced t he d istribution of ceramic p aste c lasses i n w ays r unning c ounter t o least-cost p rinciples. S ome combination of f actors i s p robable, a nd s orting t hese out requires " best f its" between u nderlying a ssumptions a nd t he a vailable d ata. T he i nferential r oute i s c ircuitous, but this i s often u navoidable w hen, as s tudents of p rehistory, we grapple w ith complex i ssues.

A CKNOWLEDGMENTS T his material i s, i n p art, b ased o n w ork s upported by the N ational S cience F oundation u nder grants G S-25 J 4, G S-1 455X, a nd B NS 7 6-03397 . N eutron A ctivation A nalyses of p ottery a nd c lays w ere carried N ational L aboratory, U nited S tates

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o ut at t he B rookhaven D epartment of E nergy.

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T echnology a nd t he P rimitive P otter: M ississippian P ottery D evelopment S een T hrough the E yes of a C eramic E ngineer. I n T echnology a nd S tyle, e dited b y W . D . K ingery, p p. 2 51 -271. C eramics a nd C ivilization, V ol. 2 . A merican C eramic S ociety, C olumbus, O H. R . N orth A merican 9 : 369: 380.

L ischka, 1 978

J .,

An A nalytical A pproach t o t he T echnological D evelopment of M ississippian P ottery. I n A ncient Technology t o M odern S cience, e dited b y W . D . K ingery, p p. 1 01 -11 2. C eramics a nd C ivilization,

L inton, 1 9 1 44

O rton

V .

V ol. 1 986

C .

I ntroduction. I n P ueblo P ottery M aking: A S tudy of the V illage of S an I ldefonso, C . E . G uthe. Y ale U niversity, N ew H aven.

K leptner, 1 985

a nd

S patial A nalysis i n A rchaeology. C ambridge U niversity P ress, C ambridge a nd N ew Y ork.

J .

C ooking

Pots.

A merican

A ntiquity

J .

A Functional A nalysis of M iddle C lassic C eramics at K aminaljuyu. I n T he C eramics of K aminaljuyu,

-

1 94

-

G uatemala, e dited by R . Wetherington, pp. 2 23-278. P ennsylvania S tate U niversity P ress, U niversity P ark. M cBryde, 1 945

F .

W .

C ultural a nd H istorical G eography of S outhwest Guatemala. I nstitute of S ocial A nthropology P ublication 4 • S mithsonian I nstitution, W ashingt on, D .C.

M atson, F . R . 1 965 C eramic Q ueries. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F . R . M atson, p p. 2 77-287. V iking F und P ublications i n A nthropology 4 1. A ldine, C hicago. M urray, G . E . 1 961 Geology of the A tlantic a nd G ulf C oastal P rovince of N orth A i nerca. H arper' s G eoscience S eries, N ew Y ork. N icklin, 1 979

F log,

K .

The L ocation 1 4: 436-458.

of

P ottery

M anufacture.

M an

S .

1 980

S tylistic V ariation Design A nalysis i n C ambridge U niversity Y ork.

i n P rehistoric C eramics: t he A merican S outhwest. P ress, C ambridge a nd N ew

1 986

U nderstanding C ultural C hange i n t he N orthern S outhwest. I n S patial O rganization a nd E xchange, Archaeological S urvey o n N orthern B lack M esa, e dited b y S . F log, p p. 3 1 0-336. S outhern I llinois U niversity P ress, C arbondale.

R ands,

R .

1 974

The C eramic Sequence a t M esoamerican A rchaeology: by N . H ammond, p p. 5 1 -75.

L .

1 987

C eramic P atterns a nd T raditions i n t he P alenque A rea. I n M aya C eramics: P apers f rom t he 1 985 M aya C eramics C onference, e dited b y P . M . R ice a nd R . J . S harer, p p. 2 03-238. B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries 314 5(1). O xford, E ngland. L .,

a nd

R .

L .

P alenque, C hiapas. I n N ew A pproaches, e dited D uckworth, L ondon.

R ands,

R .

1 980

R esource P rocurement Z ones a nd P atterns of C eramic E xchange i n t he P alenque R egion, M exico. I n M odels a nd M ethods i n R egional E xchange, e dited b y F L E . F ry, p p. 1 9-46. S AA P apers 1 . S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology, W ashington, D .C.

B ishop

-

1 95

-

R ands,

H .

1 979

T hematic a nd C ompositional V ariation i n P alenqueRegion I ncensarios. I n T ercera M esa M esa R edonda de P alenque I V, e dited b y M . G . R obertson a nd D . C . J effers, p p. 1 9-30. H erald P rinters, M onterey, C A.

L .,

R .

L .

B ishop,

a nd

G .

H arbottle

R athje, W . L ., D . A . G regory, a nd F . M . W iseman 1 978 T rade M odels a nd A rchaeological P roblems: C lassic M aya E xamples. I n M esoamerican C ommunication R outes a nd C ultural C ontacts, e dited by T . A . L ee a nd C . N avarrete, p p. 1 47-175. T he N ew W orld A rchaeological F oundation P apers 4 0. B righam Young U niversity, P rovo, U T. R eina,

H .

1 978

The T raditional P ottery of T exas P ress, A ustin.

E .

R enfrew, 1 977

R .

M .

H ill,

I I of

G uatemala.

U niversity

C .

A lternative M odels f or E xchange a nd S patial D istribution. I n E xchange S ystems i n P rehistory, e dited by T . K . E arle a nd J . E . E ricson, p p. 7 1 -90. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork.

R eyman, 1 985

R ice,

a nd

J .

E .,

a nd

R .

D irks

C omments on D rennan' s " Long-Distance C osts i n P re-Hispanic M esoamerica." Anthropologist 8 7:889-891. P .

T ransport A merican

M .

1 977

Whiteware P ottery P roduction i n t he V alley of G uatemala: S pecialization a nd R esource U tilizat ion. J ournal o f F ield A rchaeology 4 : 221 -233.

1 987

P ottery C hicago

R obertson, 1 983

R ye, 1 976

A nalysis: A S ourcebook. P ress, C hicago.

U niversity

of

R .

F unctional A nalysis a nd S ocial P rocess i n C eramics: T he P ottery f rom C erros, B elize. I n C ivilization i n t he A ncient A mericas: E ssays i n Honor of G ordon R . W illey, e dited b y R . M . L eventhal a nd A . L . K olata, p p. 1 05-1 42. U niversity of N ew M exico P ress a nd P eabody M useum of H arvard U niversity, C ambridge, MA. 0 .

S . Keeping Y our T emper U nder C ontrol: M aterials a nd t he M anufacture of P apuan P ottery. A rchaeology a nd P hysical A nthropology i n O ceania 1 1:106-137.

-

1 96

-

1 981

P ottery

T echnology:

t ion. M anuals W ashington, D .C. S chiffer, M . B ., a nd 1 987 Theory a nd T echnological 28: 595-622. S harer, 1 978

R .

on

P rinciples

a nd

A rcheology

4•

R econstrucT ar a xa cu m

i n t he C urrent

S tudy of A nthropology

J . M . S kibo E xperiment C hange.

J .

The P rehistory of C haichuapa, E l S alvador, V ol. U niversity of P ennsylvania P ress, P hiladelphia.

S hepard,

A .

3 .

0 .

1 956

C eramics C arnegie D .C.

1 963

Beginnings of C eramic I ndustrialization: An Example f rom t he O axaca V alley. N otes f rom a C eramic L aboratory N o. 2 . C arnegie I nstitution of W ashington, W ashington, D .C.

S mith, 1 985

M . F ., J r. Toward a n E conomic I nterpretation of C eramics: R elating Vessel S ize a nd S hape t o U se. I n D ecoding P rehistoric C eramics, e dited by B . A . N elson, p p. 2 54-309. S outhern I llinois U niversity . P ress, C arbondale.

S mith,

R . E . The P ottery of M ayapan. A rchaeology a nd E thnology U niversity, C ambridge, MA.

19 71

f or t he A rchaeologist. P ublication 6 09. I nstitution of W ashington, W ashington,

S teponaitis, V . P . 1 983 C eramics, C hronology, Archaeological S tudy P ress, N ew Y ork.

a nd at

P eabody M useum o f P apers 6 6. H arvard

C ommunity P atterns: An M oundville. A cademic

S timmell, C ., R . B . H eimann, a nd R . G . V . H ancock 1 982 I ndian P ottery f rom t he M ississippi V alley: Coping w ith B ad R aw M aterials. I n A rchaeological Ceramics, e dited by J . S . O lin a nd A . D . F ranklin, pp. 2 19-228. S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, Washington, D .C. T hompson, R . H . 1 958 Modern Y ucatecan S ociety

f or

M aya

A mrican

P ottery

T ourtellot, G ., a nd J . A . S abloff 1 972 E xchange S ystems A mong t he Antiquity 3 7: 1 26-135.

-

M aking.

A rchaeology,

1 97

-

M emoir

W ashington,

A ncient

M aya.

1 5.

D . C.

A merican

West, 1 969

R . C ., N . P . P suty, a nd B . G . T hom T he T abasco L owlands of S outheastern M exico. C oastal S tudies S eries 2 7. L ouisiana S tate U niversity, B aton R ouge.

Whittlesey, 1 974

Windes, 1 977

S .

M .

I dentification of F unctional A nalysis 40:101 -11 2. T .

I mported C eramics T hrough of A ttributes. T he K iva

C .

Typology a nd T echnology of A nasazi C eramics. I n S ettlement a nd S ubsistence A long t he L ower C haco R iver: T he C GP S urvey, e dited by C . A . R eher, pp. 2 79-370. U niversity of N ew M exico P ress, A lbuquerque.

Woods,

A .

1 986

F orm, F abric, a nd F unction: S ome O bservations on t he C ooking P ot i n A ntiquity. I n T echnology a nd S tyle, e dited by W . D . K ingery, p p. 1 57-172. C eramics a nd C ivilization, V ol. 2 . A merican C eramic S ociety, C olumbus, O H.

Z ipf, 1 949

G .

J .

K .

H uman B ehavior a nd t he P rinciple A ddison-Wesley, C ambridge, M A.

-

1 98

-

of

L east

E ffort.

C HAPTER

8 C ERAMIC E COLOGY A ND T HE C LAY/FUEL R ATIO: M ODELING F UEL C ONSUMPTION I N T LAJINGA 3 3 , T EOTIHUACAN, M EXICO

J ames

J .

S heehy

D epartment o f A nthropology T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity U niversity P ark, P ennsylvania 1 6802 U .S.A.

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1988), P art i :199-226

J ames

J .

-

S heehy,

1 99

-

1 988

I NTRODUCTION I n t he celebrated C eramics a nd M an v olume, F rederick R . M atson p roposed c eramic e cology as a n complementary approach t o t raditional c eramic a nalysis ( Matson 1 965, e ditor;1965). I n a dvancing t his new s trategy, M atson, i n e ffect, challenged a rchaeologists t o go beyond t he s imple c lassification a nd c hronological o rdering o f ceramics. H e u rged t hem t o a sk q uestions concerning t he relationship between ceramic t echnology, human behavior, a nd t he e nvironment i n w hich they i nterface. T hese

t hree

e lements

f orm

t he

basic

r esearch

f ocus

of

ceramic e cology a nd a re conjoined t hrough the p roduction p rocess. T hat i s a s eries of s tages, i ncluding t he p rocurement of c lay, i ts p reparation, the f ormation a nd f inishing of i ndividual vessels, their f iring, a nd t he d istribution of the f inal p roduct. T he i ndividual s tages can be i dentified t hrough a v ariety o f technological i ndicators p eculiar t o e ach s tage. S ince a ll c eramic vessels p ass through these s tages, they s hould c ontain p otential t races of the s pecific r aw materials, f orming t echniques, s tep i n t he

a nd manufacturing p rocedures p roduction p rocess.

u tilized

a t each

F or e xample, the q ualitative i dentification of minerals a nd t he q uantitative determination o f t race-element concentrations w ithin a c lay may p rovide a k ey t o t he location of the r aw c lay s ource. P reparation of the c lay p rior t o t he a ctual f orming o f the vessel i s reflected i n t he a ddition of organic a nd i norganic t emper ( Arnold 1 974, R ice 1 987), a nd t he p resence or a bsence of voids resulting f rom i nadequate o r i mproper k neading o f the c lay. T he orientation of voids a nd i nclusions a lso convey i nformation concerning t he w ay i ndividual vessels w ere f ormed, that i s w hether coiling, s lab, or o ther f orming t echniques w ere u sed ( Rye 1 977, 1 981). T races of mold marks, broken coils, a nd s piral l ines on t he base of vessels f urnish a dditional i nformation t hat h elp i dentify the f orming p rocesses u sed t o manufacture a vessel. K nowledge of the f iring t echnology employed b y the p otters i s o btained b y o bserving c hanges i n t he p hysical p roperties of s herds t heir color, p orosity, h ardness, a nd l inear s hrinkage p ercent ( Rice 1 987). -

-

F inally, the marketing s ystem r esponsible f or t he d istribution o f ceramics may be i nferred f rom r egional s tudies that e mploy s tatistical models t o determine t he s ignificance of the d ifferent f requencies of o ccurrence of ceramic t ypes at a rchaeological s ites. P etrographic a nalysis, N eutron A ctivation A nalysis ( NAA), a nd o ther i nstrumental t echniques augment t he regional s tudies by

-

200

-

p ermitting a rchaeologists t o d istinguish a nd n onlocal c eramic p roducts.

b etween

l ocal

M any a rchaeologists h ave u sed t he a bove i ndicators t o d eal w ith t he r elationships b etween t he i ndividual p roduction s tages a nd t he a rchaeological r ecord a nd, i n s o d oing, p rovide i mportant i nsights o n t he r elationship b etween c eramic t echnology a nd h uman b ehavior ( cf. A rnold 1 971, 1 974, 1 975, 1 978, 1 985; H odder 1 97 1 4 a, 1 974b; M atson 1 965, 1 971, 1 972, 1 975; N icklin 1 979; R ice 1 976, 1 978; R ye 1 976, 1 977, 1 981; S teponaitis 1 983; v an d er L eeuw 1 976, 1 981). F or i nstance, s tudies o f t he f iring t echnology u tilized b y p otters i n t he p ast h ave b een c arried o ut by n umerous i ndividuals, i n p articular M atson ( 1971, 1 975) a nd R ice ( 1976, 1 978). T he p rimary a im o f t hese s tudies w as t o u nderstand t he s ignificance, i n t erms o f t he t echnological k nowledge o f t he p otter, o f changes i n p hysical p roperties of c lays a nd p ottery vessels. T hat i s the t ype of f iring a tmosphere, a nd the t emperature t hat a ncient p otters w ere a ble t o a chieve i n t heir f iring a ctivities. F rom s uch i nformation M atson ( 1971 9 1 975) w as a ble t o i nfer t he t ype of f iring

f acilities a nd

f uels u sed

b y t he

p otters.

I n t his s tudy, I s hall c ontinue t his l ine o f i nquiry a nd p robe o ther s econdary o r t ertiary b ehavioral l inks a ssociated w ith t he f iring s tage o f p roduction. S pecifically,

I

a rgue

t hat

a rchaeologists

can

p rovide

i mportant i nsights i nto t he e conomic a ctivities a nd t he o rganization o f l abor a ssociated w ith t he u se o f f uel t o f ire c eramics. T o d emonstrate t his p oint, I w ill c oncentrate o n t wo r esources c lay a nd f uel, a nd i llustrate h ow o ne c an u tilize e thnoarchaeological d ata r elating t o f iring t echnology t o model t he b ehavioral c haracteristics a ssociated w ith t he f iring s tage o f c eramic p roduction i n a c eramic w orkshop i n t he a ncient c ity o f T eotihuacan, M exico ( Figure 1 ). -

C RITICAL

-

RESOURCES

C lay a nd f uel a re t wo r esources that a re i nevitably l inked i n a s ocioeconomic r elationship. C eramic vessels could n ot be f ormed w ithout c lay. H owever, p ots w ould q uickly crumble i f n o f uel w ere a vailable t o f ire t he c lay, effectively p recluding a rchaeologists f rom u sing o ne of their f avorite a nalytical t ools. C lay a nd f uel r esources vary i n t ype, l ocation, a nd a vailability. S ince t he p otter must a cquire t hese materials t o p ractice h is c raft, each i nfluences the

p roduction

s chedule.

p reparation, d istribution

a nd s ubsequent s tages of manufacture a re p art of a chain of a ctivities, or

T he

-

201

p rocurement,

-

t ransport, a nd

21 a

a

-

1 1 1 I

( Sheehy) F igure 1 : T eotihuacan, M exico R ené M illon).

*

1

1 i

1 J

m1

ih lll

h i

P ;

M ap o f t he a ncient c ity ( reproduced w ith p ermission

-

2 02

-

o f o f

behaviors, that require various i nputs i n t he f orm of l abor o rganization, e nergetic i nvestment, a nd t echnol ogical k nowledge. T hese behavioral i nputs result i n i mportant s ocioeconomic r epercussions w ithin t he p otting i ndustry. P rocurement of c lay a nd f uel b y p otters f its a t hreshold model i n w hich these resources a re p rocured f rom l ocations relatively c lose t o t he p otting c oncern. F or e xample, i n more t han 8 4% o f the c ases ( n = 1 11) s tudied b y A rnold ( 1 985), c lay i s o btained f rom w ithin a range of 7 km. T he s ame i s t rue of f uel r esources, o btained b y p otters i n many w ays: c utting w ood f rom t he f orest, g athering o f twigs, u se of crop residue, e xcreta f rom d omesticated a nimals, or f rom f ossil f uels mined f rom t he g round. T hose w ho h ave dealt w ith the p roblem o f f uel p rocurement ( for e xample, N icklin 1 979, a nd A rnold 1 985: 53) p oint out that i t s eldom p resents a p roblem w hen p opulation density i s low, a lthough there a re e xceptions, as H owry ( 1 978) s hows f or t he M aya t own of C hamula i n C hiapas, M exico. M ost c ases c ited i n t he l iterature deal w ith p otters l ocated i n s mall s ettlements, who a re n ot necessarily s ubject t o g reat resource s tress ( Arnold 1 985). A n i ncreased demand f or f uel o ccurs, h owever, when p opulation densities i ncrease d ramatically, or w hen p otters operate w ithin t he confines of a l arge u rban center a nd modern f ossil f uel r esources a re n ot a vailable. U nder s uch conditions p otters vary their p roduction t echniques by changing t he means of p rocurement, e mploying d ifferent c ategories of f uel, a nd u sing a lternative f iring s trategies ( Papousek 1 981). T oday, there i s a g rowing c oncern i n t hird w orld c ountries w hich centers on t he a vailability of f uels f or domestic a nd i ndustrial a ctivities. M any u rban centers i n various p arts of A frica, f or i nstance, a re confronting p roblems of i ncreasing d eforestation due t o t he i ncreased demand f or f uel w ood f or cooking, h eating, construction, craft p roduction a nd ot h er a c t i v it ies ( Mnzava 1 971). T hese f actors w ould l ikely apply a s w ell t o P recolumbian p opulations i n t he A mericas. I ndeed, the p ressures on f uel r esources might h ave been considerably h eightened u nder P rehispanic conditions, where t ransport t echnology w as l imited t o t umpline bearers, as i n M exico, a nd a lternative f uel r esources w ere g reatly l imited. F or e xample, a t T eotihuacan, M exico, ( Figure 1 ), a c ity w ith a p opulation on t he o rder of 1 25, 000 d uring t he X olalpan p hase, c a. A . D. 4 50-650 ( Millon 1 973), the f uel p roblem must h ave been e xceptionally a cute. I n a ddition t o p rocuring f uel f or cooking p urposes f or a c ity of this

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203

-

magnitude t here i s the a dditional b urden of h eating dwellings during t he cold s easons of the y ear. F uel w as a lso n ecessary f or c alcining l ime. A nyone w ho h as v isited T eotihuacan can i magine t he f uel n eeded t o s upply the l ime required t o p laster a nd r eplaster a rchitectural c omponents i n a c ity of o ver 2 , 000 c ompounds w ithin a n a rea of approximately 2 2 km 2 ( Millon 1 973). T he u se of l arge w ooden beams f or a rchitectural s upport i n t he l arge masonry a nd c oncrete buildings i n t he c ity, as w ell a s f uel f or o ther i ndustries s uch a s ceramics, maguey ( Agave s p.) p rocessing, c loth dying, a nd o ther c raft s pecialties could o nly h ave i ncreased t he demand f or w ood. A ll c ontributed t o a s ignificant u rban demand, that could depend o nly on s mall t ree branches, crop residues, dried maguey p encas, wood b rought i n f rom t he mountains, a nd p ossibly coal ( Sanders et a l. 1 982). I n t his s tudy I s hall c oncentrate on one ceramic w orkshop i n T eotihuacan T iajinga 3 3 ( Figure 2 ). T o u nderstand t he f uel r equirements of ceramic p roduction i n T iajinga 3 3 , one must f irst estimate t he q uantity of f uel needed a t t he f iring s tage of ceramic p roduction. E thnographic a ccounts p rovide only general i mpressions of the t ypes a nd q uantities of f uel u tilized b y ceramic craftsmen. D escriptions of contemporary p otters ( Colton 1 951, L ackey 1 982, L isse a nd L ouis 1 956, F rederick R . M atson 1 987:personal c ommunication) o ccasionally refer t o t he number a nd s ize of donkey loads of w ood, s traw, o live p ressings, or c art loads of dung, required t o f ire a k iln load. S uch descriptions a re i nadequate t o q uantify the a ctual c onsumption of f uel f or a s et amount of p ottery, because one k nows neither h ow much of a g iven load w as consumed i n a ny s pecific f iring, n or h ow f requently p otters f ired c eramics, a nd i n w hat q uantity. -

-

T o a ddress the q uestion of f uel c onsumption i n t he p ast demands a methodology that u tilizes the v ast q uantity of broken ceramics l ittering t he s urface of a rchaeological s ites. T hese u biquitous a rtifacts h ave p assed t hrough the f iring s tage a nd c ontain c lues t o t he t emperatures they w ere s ubjected t o during f iring. F ragmentary ceramics a lso contain a n a dditional b it of i nformation t hat i s f requently i gnored i n ceramic s tudies weight. T o u tilize i nformation s uch as f iring t emperature a nd t he w eight of broken ceramics requires a q uantitative u nderstanding o f the relationship between t he q uantities of c lay a nd f uel u sed t o p roduce a g iven batch of ceramic vessels. -

-

S uch a p rocedure s hould b e a w elcomed a ddition t o t he a nalytical r epertoire of the a rchaeologist. A side f rom s imply f urnishing a n e stimate of the f uel r equired b y a n i ndustry, or e valuating t he i mpact t hat t he demand f or

-

204

-

F iring

Pt

T LAJI N GA

3 3

m

a m

( Sheehy) F igure 2 : E xcavated p lan o f T iajinga 3 3, T eotihuacan, M exico. T he e xcavated C ompound i s l ocated i n t he s outhwest c orner o f g rid S quare S 3 1 o f t he c ity m ap.

-

2 05

-

f uel h ad o n t he e nvironment, the method might a lso contribute new s ocioeconomic p erspectives relating t o t he organization of l abor a nd t he e nergetic i nput of p otters i nvolved i n t he p rocurement of the f uel. D ifferent f uels h ave d ifferent h eating q ualities, geographical d istributions, t ransport costs, a nd r equire d ifferent p rocurement s trategies.

THE

CLAY/FUEL R ATIO

Over a decade a go, O wen R ye a nd C lifford E vans ( 1976:165) s uggested a n a pproach w hich may benefit a rchaeologists dealing w ith the consumption of f uel b y potters. T hey u rged a rchaeologists t o develop a C lay/Fuel r atio, that i s the a mount of c lay f ired w ith a given q uantity of f uel. B ased o n i nformation recorded i n i nterviews of P akistani p otters, t hey c alculated various C lay/Fuel r atios a nd demonstrated a good deal o f variation i n t he values, attributed t o s uch f actors a s the i nsulation a nd f ire control c apability of k ilns. T here a re, i n t he main, f our p roblems w ith the C lay/Fuel r atios calculated by R ye a nd E vans. F irst, the ratios they published w ere n ot b ased o n i ndividual measurements of c lay a nd f uel. T he local p otters p rovided e ducated guesses based o n p ast e xperience, e xcept w here c lay a nd f uel w ere p urchased by w eight. T he estimates w ere g iven i n M aunds, a P akistani u nit of weight that varies f rom r egion t o r egion. R ye a nd E vans ( 1976:165, 1 97) w ere c learly aware of this p roblem a nd s tate t hat t here w as a n e rror f actor p resent i n t heir calculations of at least +/-1 0%. S econd, i t i s n ot c lear w hether t he w eight recorded by R ye a nd E vans represents the d ry or w et w eight of the c lay. S ince c lay i s o btained by p otters i n a dry condition, e specially if they purchase i t f rom i ndividuals w ho s ell by the donkey load, i t i s l ikely that t he w eight q uoted b y the p otters refers t o t he dry weight ( Frederick R . M atson 1 987: p ersonal c ommunicat ion). I f the w eight refers t o t hat of the vessels immediately before f iring, when t he c lay i s w et, then t he w eight w ould b e a rtificially i ncreased b y the p resence of p ore a nd a dsorbed s tructural w ater. T he w ater i s l ost during t he f iring p rocess a nd t he resulting p roduct c eramic vessels w ill w eigh l ess, a nd t he C lay/Fuel r atio s hould b e lower. -

-

-

-

T hird, they d id n ot record t he f iring s chedules of the v arious k ilns u sed b y t he P akistani p otters; therefore, they w ere n ot a ble t o determine t o w hat e xtent the C lay/Fuel r atio v aried w ith t emperature. S ince

-

206

-

d ifferent heating p roduce h eating

f uels

p ossess

d ifferent

h eating

f uels might require l arger t he s ame t emperatures a s

q ualities,

l ow

a mounts of f uel t o f uels w ith h igher

c haracteristics.

F ourth, the s ize of the i ndividual k ilns u sed i n t he s tudy i n u nknown. I t i s p ossible t hat t he C lay/Fuel r atio may vary depending o n t he s ize, volume, a nd t hickness of the w alls of the k iln.

THE

P RESENT

STUDY

To e valuate t he a bility of the C lay/Fuel r atio t o e stimate f uel c onsumption, I c arried o ut a s eries of s tudies i n a p otting c ompound i n S an S ebastian X olalpan ( Teotihuacan) ‚ M exico ( the modern compound grid S 1E2 i n F igure 1 ). T he p otters i n currently p roduce a d iversity of ceramic 3 ), i ncluding c azuelas, o llas, p i'atas, o ther s pecial w ares; these a re s old i n t he i n S an J uan T eotihuacan, or by s pecial i ndividuals i n S an J uan, S an S ebastian, customers. T he p otters f ire t heir w ares i n of three d ifferent s izes ( Figures 1 4 , 5 , a nd a variety of

i s located i n S an S ebastian w ares ( Figure c ajetes, a nd w eekly market c ontracts t o a nd t o o ther u pdraft k ilns 6 ), u tilizing

f uels.

I f ollowed t he p otters' p roduction s chedule f or f our months. D uring t his p eriod, I weighed a ll c eramic vessels w hile t hey w ere drying i n t he s un, before t hey w ere p laced i n t he k iln, a nd r e-weighed a fter t he f iring. I a lso w eighed a ll t he f uel u sed t o f ire t he vessels i n 1 9 s eparate f irings. T he before a nd a fter w eights of the ceramic vessels a llow me t o compensate f or t he s hrinkage i n p ottery due t o f iring, a nd r esolve t he p roblem o f u sing o nly w et w eight f or t he measure of c lay. I monitored a lso ' t he t emperature a t t wo p oints w ithin t he k ilns, u sing a O mega D igital T hermometer w ith T ype K Chromel-Alumel t hermocouples. I n e ach f iring, a t hermocouple w as p laced i n t he s etting c hamber a bove t he mouth of the f ire box a nd a s econd i n t he t op center of the s etting c hamber, u nderneath the broken p otsherds u sed t o cover t he open t op of the k iln. D uring t he course of the p resent s tudy, I a lso measured t he s ize of the i ndividual k ilns. T he data o btained f rom t his s tudy e nable me t o e xamine v ariation i n t he C lay/Fuel r atios f or d ifferent t emperatures, d ifferent k iln s izes, a nd different

f uels.

-

207

-

( Sheehy) F igure 3 : 0 11as ( foreground), c azuelas ( middle), a nd p i atas ( background) d rying i n t he c entral p atio o f t he p otters c ompound i n S an S ebastian X olalpan, M exico, a f ew h ours before b eing s et i n a k iln f or a b isque f iring.

-

2 08

-

( Sheehy) F igure 4 : L arge k iln i n S an S ebastian X olalpan, M exico. T he h eight o f t he k iln i s 1 .76 m , w hile t he v olume o f t he s etting c hamber i s 1 . 86 m3. T he p otter i s f eeding d ried g rass i nto t he mouth o f t he f irebox, d uring t he i nitial s tages o f a b isque f iring e vent.

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2 09

-

( Sheehy) F igure 5 : M edium k iln i n S an S ebastian X olalpan, M exico. T he h eight o f t he k iln i s 1 .25 m . T he v olume o f t he s etting c hamber i s 0 .52 m3. T he f uel b eing u sed i n t his b isque f iring e vent i s a c ane-like g rass c alled g igaton ( right f oreground). I t i s o btained l ocally by t he p otters. S tacks o f p ine u sed i n t he g lost f iring a re v isible j ust t o t he l eft of t he p otter.

-

2 10

-

S heehy) F igure 6 : S mall k iln i n S an S ebastian X olalpan, M exico. T his k iln i s u sed t o f ire s pecial p olychrome p ottery ( foreground). T he h eight o f t he k iln i s 0 .63 m a nd t he s etting c hamber h as a v olume o f 0 .21 m 3. T he s mall b ranches a nd p aper p roducts i mmediately t o t he l eft of t he k iln a re t he f uel t ypes u sed f or t his b isque f iring e vent.

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2 11

-

C LAY SHRINKAGE T he s ame vessels w ere w eighed b efore a nd a fter f iring t o o btain a n e stimate of s hrinkage, that i s after t he p ore w ater h ad b een driven off during f iring. A regression a nd c orrelation a nalysis w as then r un o n t he green a nd f ired w eights of the c lay vessels. T he s ample consisted of 6 1 c ases, 3 0 of these o bservations w ere f rom g rouped d ata. T hat i s a group of vessels f or e xample, cazuelas o f 1 kg s ize were w eighed b efore f iring t o e stimate a n a verage w eight, a nd r e-weighed a fter being f ired t o o btain a n a fter-fire a verage. T he s ame p rocedure w as f ollowed f or t he o ther vessel t ypes. I n -

-

-

-

many c ases, i t w as i mpossible t o w eight e very s ingle vessel b oth before a nd a fter f iring, as a result, I w as f orced t o u se t he grouped a verage. V essels s elected f or a n e xperimental b reakage s tudy w ere i ndividually measured b efore a nd a fter f iring, p roviding a s econd s ample of 3 1 i ndividual vessels. T he weight of the vessels measured, i ncluding b oth g rouped a nd i ndividual measurements, r anged b etween 200 g m f or s mall vessels t o p ots i n e xcess of 5 kgs. A P earson P roduct M oment C orrelation C oefficient ( r = 0 .9996; P

C l )

O

( . • C 0 0 . 0 0 4 1 0

4 1 0 3

4 1 0 C

d a r k

1 2:

R e s i s t C o l o r

T able

4 1 0 >

Mesoamerica. I n Teotihuacan a rchitectural t erminology, s tucco r efers t o the a pplication o f a l ime a nd a ggegate ( crushed v olcanic s coria o r t ezontli) m ixture u sed a s a s ort o f c oncrete o r mortar i n c onstruction ( Sanders 1 965:111). A fter t he p laster c oatings o n t he pottery h ave d ried, e laborate d esigns g eometric ( rectilinear a nd c urvilinear), a nthropomorphic a nd z oomorphic were " outlined" i n b lack p igment w ith a v ery f ine b rush o r s tylus. O nce t he e laborate d esigns were o utlined, a w ide r ange o f c olors were u sed ( brilliant r ed, p ink, a zure g reen, b lue-green, y ellow, b rown, b lack, e tc.). There i s s ome r esemblance t o t he " paint b y n umbers" a rt work a vailable i n o ur o wn c ulture. The s pecific d ecorations f requently i nclude h umans ( priests a nd l aymen), i n v arious r itualistic o r c eremonial p oses, a s well a s d eities ( including T ialocs o r R ain Gods, F eathered S erpents, e tc.) f rom t he C lassic Teotihuacan p antheon. These " fresco" p aintings a re s imilar i n s ome r espects t o t he w all m ural p aintings f ound i n h igh s tatus r esidences ( Atetelco, T etitla, Y ayahuala, a nd Z acuala), e specially i n t erms o f s urface p reparation p rior t o p ainting, d esign o utline, a nd p igments u sed. A lthough " specular" h ematite r ed i s c ommon o n w all murals, I k now o f n o i nstances where t his " specular" p igment h as been u sed o n t he " fresco" p aintings o n C ylindrical V ases, O utflaring R im Bowls o r o ther c eramics f rom C lassic Teotihuacan. N o a ttempt h as been made t o a nalyze t he f rescoed C opoid v ase s herds o r c omplete v essels. A r eport o n " fresco" p ottery -

-

-

would

r equire

a s eparate,

d etailed

-

s tudy.

I n s ummary, t here a re s even d ecorative t echniques that m ay b e f ound o n C opoid c eramics, b ut t he p lain o r undecorated p ottery c learly w as m ore c ommon i n b oth u rban a nd r ural T eotihuacan s ites. C opas e xhibited a ll s even t echniques, while Deep C ups h ad o nly o ne, a nd C ylindrical V ases h ad a t l east f ive. C ylindrical V ase H andled C overs h ad t hree t echniques r epresented, a nd T apered V ases were t he o nly f orm n ot k nown t o h ave e laboration. The d istribution o f t echniques a ppears i n T able 1 3.

C ONTEXTS, C opoid

v essels,

A SSOCIATIONS, l ike

" Thin

A ND

F UNCTIONS

O range"

c eramics

a nd

G ranular w are amphorae ( Kolb 1 962; 1 965; 1 973:337; 1 982:196-197; 1 98 )4 :213-217; 1 986:46-47, 5 4-59; 1 988a), were d esigned f or s pecific p urposes. The C opoid c eramics a nd A lpha " Thin O range" p ottery were m anufactured f or s pecialized u ses a nd, p robably, f or h igh s tatus i ndividuals r esiding i n t he u rban c enter o f T eotihuacan a nd i n t he m ore a ffluent r ural c ommunities. T he t erm " high

s tatus"

s eems

p referable

t o

" elite"

b ecause

we

d o

n ot y et f ully c omprehend t he C lassic Teotii ' ivacan s ocial s ystem, a though l ineages, c lans a nd/or r amages a re

-

4 05

-

Table

1 3:

Copoid

Ware

Decorative

C opas S ample S ize

9 15

P lain/Undecorated

C

Techniques.

D eep

C ylin.

H andled

T apered

C ups

V ases

C overs

V ases

4 58

3 5

9 3 C

C

P

P

P

R

P

R R R R

P P

P P R

4 9 C'

D ecorative T echnique: S imple I ncision R I ncipient P lano R elief R elief P lano R elief S tamping R esist o r B atik P ainting ( Red) 2

7

R

C

X

" Fresco" P ainting

K ey t o F requencies:

C P R X -

= = = = =

1 1 00% o f

X

R elative o ccurrences i n t he s pecimens e xamined.

C ommon P resent

U p t o 5 0% o f t he s ample. 1 0 2 5% o f t he s ample.

R are O ccurs U nreported

1 9 % o f t he s ample. K nown b ut n ot q uantified. N ot s een i n t he s pecimens.

t he s ample

-

-

( n

=

4 9).

2 R ed p ainting o ccurs o n t he i nteriors o f C opas a nd v ery r arely o n t he e xteriors, w hile r ed p ainting i s r arely f ound o n t he i nteriors o f C ylindrical V ases, a nd, i n a f ew e xamples, a s g eometric d esigns o n C ylindrical V ase e xteriors.

-

4 06

-

a ssumed, a nd o vertones.

t he

C learly,

s ociopolitical

C opas

( the

s ystem

" standard"

o r

h as

t heocratic

u nelaborated

a nd

t he h andled a nd s pouted v ariants) a nd Deep C ups w ere p roduced f or u se a s c ontainers t o hold s ome k ind(s) o f l iquid(s), t o j udge f rom f orm-function a nalyses u ltimately b ased u pon e thnographic a nalogy a nd o bservation ( Shepard 1 968:224_248). T apered V ases a nd C ylindrical V ases c ould h ave h eld e ither l iquids o r s olids, p robably t he f ormer i n t he c ase o f t he T apered V ases. N o C opoid s herds o r c omplete s pecimens i n a ny c ollections o r f rom a ny e xcavations c ontained o bservable r esidues o r o ther m aterials t hat, u pon a nalysis, m ight h ave p rovided c lues a s t o t he v essels' c ontents a nd u se. E thnographic

a nalogy,

e thnohistoric

o bservations

a nd

t he e xamination o f c odices c an s uggest p ossible u ses a nd c ontents, b ut t his t ype o f s tudy c an l ead t o c onjecture a nd e rroneous s upposition ( Kolb 1 979:36-37). A lthough " fraught w ith d anger" b ecause c omparisons a re m ade f rom h istoric t imes, p ost-A.D.1500, b ack a t l east 8 00 t o 1 200 y ears ( ca. A .D. 3 50-750), s ome g eneral a ssumptions c an b e m ade. S even p otential u ses, l ikely c ontents a nd a ssociated v essel f orms i nclude: 1 ) 2 )

3 ) ) 4 ) 5 )

6 ) 7 )

D rinking W ater: C opas a nd D eep C ups. B everages p ulque, c hocolate, m iel ( honey mead), e tc.: C opas a nd D eep C ups. Foods a lgae o r l ake " scum;" p orridge m ade f rom amaranth, m aize o r o ther g rains, s auces, o ils, e tc.: C opas, D eep C ups a nd C ylindrical V ases. C ondiments s alt a nd o ther s pices: C ylindrical V ases a nd T apered V ases. M edicinals p uique, m iel, h erbal r emedies, e tc.: C opas, D eep C ups, C ylindrical V ases a nd T apered V ases. -

-

-

-

P ersonal C are P roducts p erfumes, e tc.: C ylindrical V ases a nd Tapered V ases. C eremonial a nd/or R itual F unctions r ite d e p assage e vents ( birth, p uberty, m arriage, d eath -7 7 a nd, e specially, a s " grave g oods" o r mortuary o fferings; C opas a nd C ylindrical V ases. -

-

T his i s, however, a n onexhaustive t abulation. A lthough t hese s uppositions a re, i n t he m ain, r elated t o c ulinary a ctivities, C opoid v essels were d efinitely u sed i n r itual a nd c eremonial a ctivities. B oth C opas a nd C ylindrical V ases w ere r eported i n m ortuary c ontexts a t t he T lamimilolpa u rban r esidence ( Linn 1 91 12:37_ 1 13), a nd p ossibly a t 1 93 )4 :68-70).

t he A t

Xolalpan a partment c omplex t he T etitla a nd Y ayahuala

-

4 07

-

( Linn s ites,

S ejourne postulated " ritual" f unctions b ecause m any t he v essels h ad " never b een u sed" ( 1966:21, 5 8, 8 5).

o f

The L a Ventilla P alacio e xcavations c onducted b y J uan V idarte d e L inares ( INAH) i n 1 964, p roduced o ver t wo d ozen b urials ( Kolb 1 964, R attray a nd R uiz 1 980:107). B urial 1 9, a c remation, d ated t o t he L ate Xolalpan p hase ( ca. A .D. 5 00-650), i ncluded C opoid c eramics. M ost n otable w as a c opa w ith r esist d ecoration ( ovoid c ircles a nd dots) i n a ssociation w ith t welve Xolalpan " portrait head" f igurines. I n a ddition, a L ate X olalpan C opoid C ylindrical V ase w ith s olid, s lab t ripod s upports a nd h ourglass b ody w as r ecovered. T he v ase h ad a b asal decoration a nd r esist d ecoration w ith s imple i ncision. The c remation a lso c ontained f ragments o f t extiles a nd wood, t he l atter p robably u sed t o c remate t he a dult h uman i nterment i n s itu. T herefore, i t i s c lear t hat s ome C opoid c eramics were u ltimately d estined t o b e " grave goods." There w as n o e vidence o f c harred g rains o r o ther f oodstuffs i n t he C opoid v essels o r a ny a ccompanying c eramics, n or w as a ny s uch m aterial f ound w ithin t he b urial p it which h ad b een s ealed b eneath a n a partment r oom f loor. The r ather s mall c apacity o f C opoid v essels d oes s uggest t hat t he C opas a nd D eep C ups w ere u sed a s p ersonal b everage c ontainers, while T apered V ases were designed t o s tore s mall q uantities o f a l iquid o r a s olid b everage, c ondiment, medicinal, e tc. C ylindrical V ases h ave been u sed t o hold s olid o r p owdered f oods, c ondiments, m edicinals, e tc. R eligious r itual a nd c ivil c eremonial a ctivities a s well a s c ulinary p ractices a re l ikely " functions" o f C opas a nd C ylindrical V ases. N o v essels e ven r emotely s imilar t o t he C opoid f orms a re r eported i n the l iterature o r m ay b e f ound i n c ollections o f a rtifacts d ated t o t he T oltec p eriod. A q uite d ifferent c opa f orm d ates t o A ztec t imes a nd i s d epicted i n c odices, b ut n o C lassic T eotinuacan C opoid f orms s urvived i nto t he P ost C lassic T oltec a nd A ztec p eriods. A ssigning p articular f unctions t o t he C opoid f orms a nd v ariants r emains c onjectural, h owever, a rchaeological c ontexts do e nlighten t he s ituation. -

-

T olstoy ( 1958), i n h is s urface s urvey o f 1 11 s ites, f ound o nly f ive C opoid s herds a ll i n t he u rban c eremonial c enter a t T eotihuacan. L ikewise, t he r ural s ite s urveys o f t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject, w hich l ocated, m apped a nd s ampled 1 34 C lassic s ites i n t hat v alley, y ielded o nly 2 7 f ragments o f C opoid c eramics ( 23 -

-

r ims a nd 4 bodies/bases). B ecause C opoid c eramics a re t hin-walled a nd s ubject t o b reakage d uring u se, a nd b ecome f urther f ragmented o n t he s urface b ecause o f c ontemporary a gricultural p ractices, C opoid s herds a re u sually s mall a nd weathered. I n a ddition, I s uspect a

-

4 08

-

p otential c ollecting b ias o n t he p art o f T eotihuacan V alley P roject p ersonnel ( including t his a uthor). T he 9 70 s urface c ollections f rom s ites T C-1 t hrough T C-134 t ended t o i nclude, i n m ost c ases, l arger, d ecorated a nd more r eadily i dentified " marker" s herds. R im a nd b ody f ragments o f C opoid p ottery were, i n t he main, l ess t han 1 1 .0 cm 2 i n s ize. Those s herds r ecovered d uring s urface r econnaissance, i n t he m ain, were s mall a nd weathered, a nd s ubject t o b reakage b ecause v essel w alls were e xtremely t hin ( 0.3-0.5 cm), c omparable t o t he v essel wall t hickness f ound i n A lpha " Thin O range." S herds r ecovered f rom e xcavations were m uch l arger, a veraging 1 0.0 c m2 , a nd p edestal b ases a nd v ase s upports w ere b etter p reserved i n t he e xcavated s amples i n c omparison t o s herds c ollected d uring s urveys. U nfortunately, I w as u nable t o r elate t he n umbers o f s herds t o p otential n umber o f v essels, e xcept i n f our c ases o f e xcavated s pecimens f rom t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) s ite, which w ill b e s ubsequently d etailed. M atson ( 1987:personal communication) pointed o ut t hat t he t hinner t he v essel walls, t he g reater n umber o f s herds, a s tatement t rue o f b oth C opoid c eramics a nd A lpha " Thin O range." T able 1 1 p rovides c omparative d ata o n u rban a nd r ural e xcavations a nd r ural s urveys. I n t he e xcavations o f u rban r esidences a t T eotihuacan e specially Tetitla, Y ayahuala, a nd Z acuala ( Sejourne 1 959, 1 966), C opoid c eramics were more a bundant t han i n s urface s urveys a nd most r ural s ite e xcavations. C opoid w ares a ccounted f or < 2.0% o f t he C lassic s herd c ollections e xcavated a t t he t hree u rban r esidences ( range f rom 0 .0026-0.0177% o f t otal s herds). R ural s ite e xcavations p roduced s ome c opoid s herds, b ut r ecovery d epended u pon t he t ype o f e xcavation c onducted. T est t renches a t Venta d e C arpio ( TC-10:2), a r ural l ake-side s ite i n t he T eotihuacan V alley D elta e cological z one, y ielded o nly o ne b ody s herd ( 0.000 14 % o f a ll e xcavated s herds), while t renches a t Tenango ( TC-49:1), a r ural s ite i n t he C erro Gordo N orth S lope z one, p roduced o nly t hree b ody s herds ( 0.0013%) o f a ll e xcavated s herds). E xtensive t esting a t T latenco ( TC_ 14 6:1_2), a l arge r ural h ouse mound i n a s ite l ocated i n t he C erro Gordo N orth S lope z one, r esulted i n t he r ecovery o f 2 9 C opoid s herds 1 r ims a nd 1 8 b odies ( 0.0095% o f a ll e xcavated s herds). I n t his l atter i nstance, m ost i f n ot a ll o f t hese s herds were f rom o ne C opoid C ylindrical V ase w ith a s ingle a ppliqued b asal -

-

-

-

molding, l ocated a t t he b ase a nd w all j uncture. Appliqued b asal m oldings whether s ingle, l ocated a t t he b ase a nd w all j uncture, o r t he d ouble b asal m oldings w ith a ppliqued o rnaments ( adornos) a ttached b etween t hese moldings, were n ormally p olished. I n a ddition, t his

-

4 09

-

T able

1 4:

C opoid

W are

F requencies.

T otal

T otal C opoid S herds

C opoid S herds

8 45 1 ,611 6 ,164 1 19

0 .0026 0 .0118 0 .0177 0 .0051

D ata S ources

S ites

S hards

U rban E xcavations: Sjourn 1 966 S eJourn4 1 966 Sgj ourn4 1 966 Sgj ourn4 1 959 R ural E xcavations:

T etitla ( 1:N2W2) Y ayahuala E ast M idden ( 1:N3W2) Y ayahuala N orth M jdden ( 1:N3W2) Z acuala P alace ( 3:N2W2)

3 27,500 1 36,448 3 47,986 2 3,538

K olb 1 965,

1 979

S anta M arIa M aquixco e i B ajo: T C-8:1-2,

K olb 1 965, K olb 1 965,

1 979 1 979

K olb 1 965,

1 979

3 ,

4 ,

V enta d a C arpio:

P yramid

1 45,000+ ( 15,432) 2 ,351

T C-10.B

T iatenco d a S anta M arra M aquisco e l A lto: T C-46:1-2 T enango d e S anta M arfa M aquisco e l A lto: T C-49:1

1

3 ,035

4 89

0 .0034

( 489) 1

0 .3162 0 .0004

2 9

2 ,291

3

0 .0095 0 .0013

S urface S urveys: T olstoy 1 958

N orthern B asin o f M exico

( ill

S ites) K olb 1 979

T eotihuac n V alley

( 13,446)

5 ( 5)

0 .00010 0 .00037

2 7 ( 27)

0 .00045 0 .00056

( 134 s ites,

9 70 c ollections)

T otal S herds T otal D iscrete C lassic S herds 1

1

6 0,000+ ( 48,270) 1

6 53,906 9 ,293 ( 71,379) 1 ( 549)

0 .001L 0 .0077

Z

v essel w as u nusual b ecause 1 5 b ody s herds s howed s ome e vidence of c hanneled d ecoration, a t reatment n ot o therwise r eported. S ee T able 1 4 a nd A ppendix A f or f urther d etails. The S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) s ite e xcavations p rovide r ather g ood c ontextural d ata o n C opoid c eramics. This s ite w as s urveyed a nd p artially e xcavated by p ersonnel o f t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject f rom 1 961-1963, a nd h as b een d etailed b y s everal a uthors, m ost r ecently b y K olb ( 1962; 1 979:378-386, 5 56, 5 60; 1 983:49-51), S anders ( 1965, 1 966), a nd S anders e t a l. ( 1979:334-355). B riefly, T C-8 i s a r ural v illage s ite l ocated w est o f u rban T eotihuacan a nd i mmediately n orth of a n e xtension o f t he W estern A venue, a nd i s s ituated i n t he L ower Teotihuacan V alley E cological Z one. T he s ite c overs a n a rea o f 3 6.0 h a w ith a C lassic p eriod n ucleated " core" a rea o f 1 0.5 h a. Of t he 7 3 mounds ( t .iateles), 5 3 d ated t o t he C lassic Teotihuacan p eriod. F our s tructures were p artially o r c ompletely e xcavated. The T C-8:Pyramid ( 380 m2 m aximum a rea) was t renched a nd c onstruction p hases d etermined. S everal r esidences, T C-8:1-2 ( 2,730 m2 m aximum a rea) a nd T C-8:3 ( 3,650 m2 m aximum a rea) were p artially excavated, while o ne a partment c omplex, T C-8:4 ( 529 m2 a rchitectural a rea) was c ompletely e xcavated ( Kolb 1 979:378-386, 5 56). F igure 1 7 i llustrates t he a rchitectural c omponents o f T C-8:1-2, 3 a nd 1 4 a nd F igure 1 3 t he d istribution o f C opoid c eramics. There w as a u niform l ack o f p recise d ata a s t o t he s pecific l ocations o r c ontexts i n w hich C opoid c eramics were f ound i n u rban T eotihuacan r esidences s uch a s T iamimiloipa, X olalpan, Y ayahuala, a nd Z acuala, e xcept t hat s pecimens were r eported a s r ecovered f rom m iddens a nd/or o ccurred a s g rave g oods. U nfortunately, t he m iddens a nd b urials were n ot f urther e laborated. H owever, t he M aquixco e xcavations p rovided 4 89 C opoid s herds ( 0.0034% o f a ll e xcavated s herds a nd 0 .3162% o f t he e xcavated C lassic s herds) i n k nown c ontexts. B ecause o f t he h igh q uality o f t he M aquixco d ata, I p lotted t he d istribution o f C opoid s herds a nd v essels a t T C-8 o n l arge-scale a rchitectural p lans, a nd h ave s ummarized t he f indings i n T ables 1 5 a nd 1 6 a nd i n A ppendices B a nd C . D uring t he i nitial e xcavations, s ix r estorable o r c omplete v essels were r ecovered ( one C opa, o ne D eep C up, t hree C ylindrical V ases, a nd o ne T apered V ase), b ut f our a dditional C opas were l ater d iscerned i n l aboratory s tudies a nd s herd p lots. I n a ddition t o m iddens, C opoid ware s herds w ere a ssociated w ith s even o f e ight a rchitectural c omponents. T hese c omponents a re b riefly defined a nd C opoid o ccurrences n oted.

-

4 11

-

( Kolb) F igure ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , 4 )

S ANTA M ARIA MAQUIXCO E L B AJO

1 7: S anta E xcavations:

( 7C-8:1-2,

3 ,

4 )

M aria M aquixco e i A rchitectural U nits.

E XCAVATIONS:

B ajo

A RChITECTURAL U NITS

T C-8;3 E xcavation A

•

B

-

B ench

P a

-

P atio

P P 0

• •

P latform A ltar P orch

B S

-

A lley

R oom S tairway

2

T C-8:4

E arth P laza

( unpaved)

0

T C-8:1-2

E xcavation

D atum

E xcavations

S Udden 2

1 0

0

M ETERS

B 6 B ()

: R

2

A 1

2 5

M idder ,

. R

1 1

-

4 12

-

2

1 5

( Kolb) F igure 1 8: C opoid C eramics M aquixco e i B aja ( TC-8) S ite.

S ANTA N AR C A M AQCLXCO

T C-8:3

E L

d AJO

( TC-8: 1 -2,

3 ,

4 )

E XCAVATIONS:

a t

t he

C OPOLD C ERAMIC

S anta

M aria

D ISTRIBUTIONS

E xcavation N umbers

I ndicate Q uantities

E lite S cript

-

I to I tc S cript

= B ody S hards

R im S herds

C ops D eep C up C ylindrical V ase T apered V ase

T C-8 :4 E xcavation

E arth P laza

( unpaved)

D atum

T C-8:1-2

E xcavations

1 0

0

METERS

-

4 13

-

1 5

T able

1 5:

t ions:

S anta

C opoid

A rchitectural U nit T C-8:1-2 R oom R oom R oom R oom 4 R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom

M aria

Ware

e i

D istributions

C opoid W are S herds 0 2 2 5 3 ( 2)

5 6 7 8 9

M aquixco

B ajo by

( TC -8 )

A rchitectural

A rchitectural U nit T C-8:3 R oom l R oom

S tairway 1 S tairway 2 A lley 1 B ench 1 B ench 2

0 0 5 1 2 0 0 0 0 0

R oom 1 0

1

A ltar P latform

R oom 1 1 R oom 1 2 R oom 1 3

6 1 8

C entral C ourtyard.. H iddens ( External). U nknown

R oom 1 4 R oom 1 5

1 0

R oom R oom R oom R oom

1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

4 1 2 0 4

R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom

2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

0 0 8 3 0

P orch P orch P atio P atio

1 2 1 2

P atio 3

2 1 5 1 4 2

T otal A rchitectural U nit

5 0 C opoid W are

U nit T C-8:4 R oom 1 R oom 2

S herds

R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom

3 4 5 6 7

0 2 4 0 0 3 2

1 9 ( 1) 6 9 5 1 ( 1)

R oom 8 P orch 1 P orch 2 P orch 3

1 1 1 2

1 0

P orch 4

2

P atio 4 S tairway 1

0 0

P orch 5 P orch 6

0 0

S tairway 2 S tairway 3

0 4 ( 1)

S tairway 1 S tairway 2

0 6 ( 1)

S tairway 4 S tairway 5 S tairway 6

2 0 7 ( 1)

S tairway 3 S tairway 4 S tairway 5

0 1 3 ( 1)

S tairway 7 S tairway 8

1 2

S tairway 6 A ltar P latform

3 5

S tairway 9 A lley 1 A lley 2

4 5 6 4

C entral C ourtyard.. M iddens ( External). T otal

0 6 4 2

A lley 3

0

A rchitectural

C opoid W are

A lley 4 B enches 1

2 0

U nit T C-8:Pyramid

S herds

-

1 0

A ltar P latform 1 C entral C ourtyard.. 3 5 M iddens ( External) 1 4 U nknown 7 T otal 3 80 ( n)

N umbers t ion o f

U nknown

U nit.

C opoid W are S herds

R oom P orch 1 ( edge)

4 ( 1) 1 ( 1) 3 6 0

E xcava-

1

i n p arentheses i ndicate n umbers o f r estored v essels o r c oncentras herds f rom o ne v essel.

T able 1 6: S anta M aria M aquixco e i B a , jo t ions: C opoid d are S herd D istributions:

( TC-8) E xcavaS ummary.

C I r-

C l )

C 0

l

1 i

U , 44

0

c

. 1- cc

o

IZ

rn

cc

Z r

00

0 1 4

CD

C N C ' 1

4 1 C O

1 i

4 1

1 1

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

I 0

H

—

1 4

0

L t

C ' 4

I C

C

C

' Z r C '

C

' . . i-

L [ 1

C4

(N

( 3 )

U ) 4 3 )

1 4 C I) C ' 1

I

CO

6

0 . 4 3 )

( 3 ) 1 C t 1

1 4

0

0

C )

cc

I N

c

C

Lr

C

Z r r . .

CO

C

4

C ' 1 L t4

H

4 3 )

a )

H

C )

6 0

a )

1 4 4 4

4 4

r 4 •

A r c h i t e c t u r a l

A r c h i t e c t u r a l

' . 4

Q

-

4 15

-

A lleys a re u nroofed a ccess c orridors l eading f rom c entral c ourtyards t o a partments, e tc. a nd a re 0 .6-1.5 m wide. B oth T C-8:1-2 a nd T C-8:3 h ad a lleys, b ut o nly t he f ormer r esidence h ad C opoid s herds a ssociated ( n = 6 2). A ltar P latforms, f ound i n a ll t hree r esidences, a re r aised p latforms w ith p robable t alud a nd t ablero c onstruction, a nd were l ocated i n c entral c ourtyards. I t i s a ssumed t hat t hese s tructures s erved a s f ocal p oints f or s ocial a nd/or r eligious c eremonies p racticed b y t he i nhabitants of t he a partment c omplexes o r r esidences. O nly e ight s herds were a ssociated w ith t he a ltars. Benches a re l ow, r aised p latforms u sed f or s itting o r s leeping, a nd a re l ocated a long t he i nterior w alls o f r ooms o r t he c entral c ourtyards. O nly T C-8:1-2 a nd T C -8 :3 h ad benches, b ut t here were n o C opoid s herd a ssociations. C entral C ourtyards, f ound a t a ll t hree r esidences, a re l arge o pen-air r ectilinear a reas l ocated a t l evels b elow t hat o f t he p orches a nd r ooms. The c ourtyards were p aved a nd h ad c oatings o f l ime p laster. The r ooms a nd/or porches a rranged a round a c ourtyard f ormed l arge multi-family a partments. S cattered s herds o nly i n t he T C-8:1-2 a nd TC-8:3 c ourtyards ( n

were f ound 6 0).

=

P atios a re u nroofed, p aved o r u npaved i nternal o pen s paces w ithin a h ouse o r a partment, o r s erved o ne apartment c omplex. S uch a reas p ermitted l ight t o e nter a nd a ir t o c irculate, a nd i t i s a ssumed t hese a reas were workplaces a nd u sed f or s ocial g atherings. O nly T C-8:1-2 h ad p atios, t hree o f t he f our o f t hese h ad C opoid s herds ( n = 8 7) a nd o ne C opoid C ylindrical V ase. P orches a re r oofed, w ide a nd s hallow r ectangular s paces o pen t o o ne s ide a nd l ocated i n f ront o f o ne o r more r ooms, t hereby p roviding a ccess t o t he h ouse o r a partment. A ll t hree M aquixco r esidences h ad a t l east o ne porch, b ut o nl -y t he p orches a t T C-8:1-2 a nd T C-8:3 h ad C opoid s herds ( n = 4 3). O ne C opoid C ylindrical V ase was r ecovered f rom P orch 1 a t T C-8:1-2. R ooms a re a rchitectural u nits w ith f our w alls a nd a t least o ne e ntryway. O ne o r more r ooms, n early a lways t he l atter, f orm a n a partment which i s e ntered t hrough a porch. I n t erms o f t otal s pace, r ooms were t he m ost d ominant c omponent, f ollowed b y c entral c ourtyards. A t otal o f 1 36 s herds w ere r ecovered f rom r ooms: T C-8:1-2 w ith 2 4 r ooms ( 119 s herds); T C-8:3 w ith 3 r ooms ( 5 s herds); a nd T C-8:4 w ith 8 r ooms ( 12 s herds). T he r ooms a t T C-8:1-2 a lso h ad t hree c omplete v essels a nd o ne " recovered" f rom d ata a nalysis. T hese i ncluded: t wo

-

4 16

-

C opas ( one " recovered"), o ne C ylindrical V ase a nd o ne T apered V ase. A f urther d iscussion w ill b e f ound i n a s ubsequent s ection o f t his r eport. S tairways o f t wo t o e ight s teps p rovided a ccess f rom c entral c ourtyards t o p orches, a lleys o r r ooms, o r f rom a lleys t o r ooms. M ost s tairways were b alustraded a nd b uilt o f f lat s tones ( lajas), c oncrete / stucco, a nd l ime p laster. S tairways w ere f ound i n a ll r esidences a nd w ere a l ocus o f C opoid s herds: T C-8:1-2 w ith 9 s tairways ( 20 s herds); T C-8:3 w ith 3 s tairways ( no s herds); a nd T C-8:4 w ith 6 s tairways ( 13 s herds). O ne D eep C up a nd o ne C opa were f ound o n s tairs i n T C-8:1-2, a nd t wo C opas were a ssociated w ith s tairs i n T C-8: 1 4 . A ll t hree C opas were d iscerned f rom l aboratory a nalyses a nd d ata p lots. The l ocations o f t he t en v essels d escribed i n Appendix C a re p lotted i n F igure 1 8. T he T C-8:1-2 r esidence h ad e ight o f t hese C opoid v essels; f our w ithin Apartment B a nd t wo w ithin A partment C , a nd t wo o thers o n s tairs ( Stairways 3 a nd 6 ) l eading t o t he C entral C ourtyard. A partment B ( composed o f P atio 1 , P orch 1 a nd R ooms 4 a nd 5 ) h ad a r oofed a rea o f a bout 6 6 m2 , a nd w as e ntered t hrough S tairway 2 . O ne C opoid C ylindrical V ase ( simple i ncised d ecoration) was f ound o n t he f loor n ear t he s outh e dge o f P orch 1‚ b ut w as n ot a ssociated w ith a ny o ther notable a rtifacts. A s econd C opoid C ylindrical V ase ( undecorated) was r ecovered f rom t he f loor o f R oom 1 4 , a " kitchen" w ith a " hearth" ( Feature 1 0) a djacent t o t he s outh w all o f t hat r oom. A pproximately 2 .1 4 c n t o t he n orth i n R oom 4 a nd t oward t he e ast s ide a nd o n t he f loor, t here w as a C opa w ith e longated p ouring s pout a nd h andle. N ine o ther v essels were r ecovered o n t he f loor o f R oom 1 1 , i ncluding: t wo R ed-on-Buff J ars, f our P olished T an J ars, t wo P olished T an B asal B reak ( Outcurved R im) B owls, a nd o ne S an M artin O range B asin ( Cooking P ot). I n a ddition, t here were t wo g round s tone r ectangular k nives, t hree " plastering t ools" ( two p yramidal-shaped, o ne " steam-iron" s haped), a nd n ine mano a nd m etate f ragments. T hese e leven c eramic v essels, a ssociated a rtifacts, a nd f aunal r emains i ndicate t hat R oom 1 4 w as a " kitchen." A n a dditional C opa w ithout a ppendages w as f ound o n t he f loor i n t he n orthwest c orner o f R oom 5 o f Apartment B . R oom 5 w as a ssumed t o b e s leeping q uarters. A partment C ( composed o f P atio 2 , P orch 2 a nd R ooms 6 , 7 a nd 8 ) i n T C-8:1-2 w as a djacent t o A partment B a nd was e ntered t hrough P atio 3 a nd A lley 1 O ne C opoid C ylindrical V ase ( resisc . d ecoration) was o n t he f loor o f P atio 2 , b ut a bove F eature 3 , a poorly p reserved f etal b urial i nterred i n a f lexed p osition 1 .02 m b elow a n u nsealed f loor. A ssociated w ith t he b urial w ere f ragments o f a L ate Xolalpan c enser, b ut t he s herds s eem .

-

4 17

-

t o h ave b een p art o f t he f ill r ather t han a s pecific offering. A nalysis o f t he b urial s uggests t he p resence o f two i mmature/fetal i ndividuals ( . Bilharz a nd K olb 1 972) represented b y t en c ranial f ragments, s even " long" b ones, f ragments of a p elvis a nd n umerous r ib f ragments. A lthough t he C ylindrical V ase w as n ot d irectly a ssociated, i t w as i nteresting t o n ote t hat i t w as o n t he u npaved f loor d irectly a bove t he b urial p it, a nd p ossibly c onstituted a n o ffering ( ofrenda). A T apered V ase w as f ound o n t he f loor o f t he d oorway c onnecting R ooms 6 -7 i n Apartment C , b ut t here were n o o ther s ignificant a rtifacts a ssociated w ith t his v essel. A D eep C up w as f ound o n t he u pper s teps o f S tairway 7 which l ed t o t he C entral C ourtyard, a nd a C opa ( "standard" f orm) c ame f rom t he u pper s teps o f S tairway 3 . T his l atter s tairway f aced t he T C-8:1-2 A ltar P latform i n t he C entral C ourtyard, a nd t he s teps c onnected t he C ourtyard w ith Apartment D ( Rooms 9 a nd 1 0). At T C_8: 11 , t wo " standard" C opas were f ound a ssociated w ith s teps l eading t o t he C entral C ourtyard. O ne C opa was n ear t he t op s teps o f S tairway 2 , which l ed f rom t he C ourtyard t o Apartment B ( composed o f P orch 2 a nd R ooms 2 a nd 3 ), while the s econd C opa was n ear t he b ottom s teps o f S tairway 5 , which l ed f rom t he C ourtyard t o A partment F ( composed o f P orch 5 a nd R oom ) 4 ) • I n s ummary, C opoid W ares were u sed i n c ulinary, c eremonial a nd r itual a ctivities i n urban a nd r ural r esidences, a nd, when b roken, were d iscarded i n h ouse m iddens. U nelaborated C opas a nd s pouted f orms w ere u sed a s " grave g oods" b ut w ere u sually f ound i n k itchens a nd, s ometimes, i n r ooms which h ave b een i nterpreted a s s leeping q uarters. I n a ddition, C opas were a ssociated w ith c eremonial a ctivities c onducted i n t he C entral C ourtyards, a nd were l eft o r b roken ( intentionally o r u nintentionally?) o n o r n ear s tairways l eading f rom t he C ourtyard t o a djacent p orches a nd r ooms. N o C opas were a ssociated w ith A ltar P latforms o r B enches. O ne D eep C up was a lso f ound o n s teps l eading t o t he C entral C ourtyard, a nd we may a ssume i t w as l ikewise a ssociated w ith s ome c eremonial a ctivity c onducted i n t his C ourtyard. C ylindrical V ases ( plain a nd d ecorated) w ere u sed a s " grave g oods" a nd were f ound i n t he k itchens o f apartments, s o t hat c ulinary u ses a re s uggested. The s ingle T apered V ase w as l ocated a djacent t o t he d oorway b etween t wo r ooms a nd, t herefore, m ay h ave h ad c ulinary, c eremonial, o r more p recisely

r itual s ignificance(s) which c annot d etermined f rom t he c ontext i n which

was r ecovered. a ssociated w ith

I t a ppears t hat C opoid ceramics were n ot r ituals c onducted a t t he T C-8:Pyramid.

-

4 18

-

b e i t

C OPOID

W ARE

C HRONOLOGY

The f ollowing s ummary d etails t he a ssociation o f t he f ive C opoid f orms a nd v ariants w ith d ecorative t echniques a nd c hronological o ccurrences by p hase w ithin t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod s equence. E arly

T lamimilolpa

P hase:

A .D.

2 50-375

R attray (19 73:183-185) c ontended t hat C opoid ceramic p roduction b egan d uring t he L ate T lamimilolpa p hase r ather t han E arly T lamimilolpa, a v iew e arlier h eld b y M uller ( 1966:35), B ennyhoff ( 1966:25, 2 8) a nd K olb ( 1965:22). More r ecent, d etailed a nalyses s uggests t o me t hat t he C opa m ade i ts i nitial a ppearance v ery l ate i n t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hase, c a. A .D. 3 50. 1 )

C opa

( the

o nly

P aste C olor: f orms t end t exture.

f orm

p roduced)

B rown, t o b e

( Kolb

1 965:22)

R eddish B rown a nd d arker i n c olor);

F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere c omparison t o l ater p hases).

( less

R ed f ine

( early p aste

well-fired

i n

Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building, potentially t he d ragging method c ould h ave b een u sed. C onstruction i n t wo s tages ( body, pedestal b ase). S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n body w alls. V essel S hapes a nd R im f orms: p ilsner o r h our-glass c onfiguration, p arabolic i n c ross s ection. T he " standard" f orm p redominates b ut t here m ay b e a f ew s pecimens w ith e longated p ouring s pouts b ut n o h andles. R ims a re d irect r ounded o r d irect t apered, a nd t here i s a p ronounced c onical p rojection o n t he p edestal i nterior. T hin v essel walls a re c haracteri stic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common), b ut s ome e xamples o f r esist w ith s imple g eometric p atterns ( circles, d ots, l ines). F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re, i n t he main, f rom s urface c ollections, b ut a re e xceedingly r are. C ontexts: m iddens a nd r ooms. 2 )

D eep

3 )

C ylindrical

1 4 )

T apered

L ate

were

C up

( unknown)

V ase

V ase

a nd

H andled

C over

( unknown)

( unknown)

T lamimilolpa

P hase:

A .D.

3 75- 14 50

C opas, C ylindrical V ases, a nd p robably H andled C overs p roduced t hroughout t he p hase. T he c eramics w ere

-

4 19

-

l ess

well-executed

t han

i n

t he

s ubsequent

X olalpan

phases. 1 )

C opa

( Kolb

1 965:31)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, R eddish B rown, L ight B rown a nd B rown ( a t endency f or L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere b ut w ith d ark c ores i n c ross s ection. Methods of Manufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building, b ut s ome a pparent d ragging t echnique s urvives f rom E arly T lamimilolpa. C onstruction i n t wo s tages ( body, p edestal b ase). S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n b ody w alls, horizontal o n p edestals. Vessel S hapes a nd R im F orms: p ilsner g lass o r h our-glass c onfiguration, p arabolic i n c ross s ection. The " standard" f orm p redominates b ut s ingle a nd d ouble l oop h andles ( plain, s ome t wisted) a re f ound a long w ith c opas w ith e longated p ouring s pouts w ith a nd w ithout h andles ( plain). S pouted v ariants a re t he r arest. R ims a re d irect t apered w ith a s light e version o r a re d irect t apered. T here i s a l ess p ronounced c onical p rojection o n t he p edestal i nterior i n c omparison t o E arly T iamimilolpa v essels. Thin v essel w alls a re c haracteristic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common), s imple i ncision ( rare), i ncipient p lano r elief ( rare), p lano r elief ( a f ew e xamples), s pecular h ematite r ed p ainted i nteriors ( common t o r are), r esist i n s imple g eometric p atterns ( circles, d ots, l ines, s crolls) ( common t o r are). F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re r elatively c ommon i n e xcavated s amples, l ess s o i n s urface c ollections. C ontexts: r ooms, a lleys, p atios, porches a nd m iddens. 2 )

D eep

C up

( unknown)

3 )

C ylindrical

V ase . (Kolb

1 965:31)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, R eddish B rown, L ight B rown a nd B rown ( a t endency f or L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere b ut w ith d ark c ores i n c ross s ection. Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building. C onstrution i n t hree s tages ( base, w alls, s upports). B ases a nd s upports a re s lab-built, walls a re c oiled. S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n v essel w alls, horizontal o r c ircular o n b ase i nteriors. The u ndersides o f b ases a re matte o r l ow p olished ( common), b ut s ome e xamples a re h ighly

polished. S upports a re g enerally l eft i n a m atte c ondition. Vessel S hapes a nd R im F orms: a c ylindrical c onfiguration w ith d irect/straight w alls l ess c ommon t han a s light hour-glass s hape. R im f orms i nclude d irect t apered ( common), d irect r ounded, e verted t apered a nd e verted r ounded ( the l atter t hree a re a ll r are). T here a re no h andles o r s pouts. T ripod s upport f orms i nclude: s olid m old-made t alud a nd t ablero ( by f ar t he most c ommon), b ut t hese a re more c rudely a pplied i n c omparison t o t he X olalpan v essels; h ollow c ylindrical t ubular; a nd n ubbins ( conical f orm i nset f rom t he v essel b ase-wall j uncture). S mall b asal r idges a re c haracteristic o n t he hour-glass f orms. S ome s pecimens h ave a ppliqued b asal moldings w ith a dornos ( coffee-bean, d iscoid, e tc. r ather t han z oomorphic o r a nthropomorphic). Thin v essel walls a re c haracteristic. T his i s t he s ame ware a s C opas a nd p robably manufactured b y t he s ame a rtisans. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common); s imple i ncision i n c loud, s croll, d iagonal s cale motifs ( common); i ncipient p lano r elief ( rare); p lano r elief w ith a rchitectural e lements ( ?) ( rare), r esist w ith s imple g eometric p atterns o f c ircles, d ots, l ines, s crolls ( rare); s pecular h ematite r ed p ainted i nteriors ( rare); s pecular h ematite r ed p ainted d iagonal d esign o n e xterior ( two e xamples, e xceedingly r are); f ull-round r eed p unctat. i n 2 -3 r ows a t t he b ase ( four e xamples, e xceedingly r are); heavy g rooving o n v ase w alls ( three e xamples, e xceedingly r are). F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re r elatively c ommon i n e xcavated s amples, l ess s o i n s urface c ollections. C ontexts: r ooms, p atios, p orches, m iddens a nd i n b urials a s m ortuary o fferings. 1 4 )

C ylindrical

V ase

H andled

C over

( ?)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, R eddish B rown a nd B rown ( a t endency f or a L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere b ut w ith d ark c ores i n c ross s ection. Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling t echnique w ith a ppliqued k nob. C onstructed i n t wo s tages ( cover, h andle). S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished e xterior a nd i nterior, v ertical p lane. Vessel Shapes a nd R im Forms: d irect r ounded r im w ith e rect w all which t apers t o t he a pex a nd t he a ppliqued k nob. Thin walls a re c haracteristic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated

-

4 21

-

( rare), s imple r elief ( rare). known.

i ncision N o r esist

( rare), i ncipient p iano o r p ainted s pecimens a re

F requency i n C ollections: f ragments k now o nly f rom e xcavations, t he f orm i s e xceedingly r are. C ontexts: m iddens a nd i n b urials a s m ortuary offerings. 5 )

T apered

E arly

V ase

X olalpan

( unknown) Phase:

A .D.

4 50-550

C opas, D eep C ups, C ylindrical V ases a nd C ylindrical V ase H andled C overs were p roduced; o nly t he T apered V ase i s a bsent. T hese c eramics a re b etter-executed t han t hose of L ate T iamimilolpa t imes a nd a re v ery s imilar i n g eneral c haracteristics t o t hose m anufactured d uring t he L ate Xolalpan p hase. 1 )

C opa

( Kolb

1 965:37-38)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, R eddish B rown, L ight B rownish Y ellow a nd B rownish Y ellow ( a t endency f or L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere b ut w ith d ark c ores i n c ross s ection, h owever, l ess d ark c oring t han i n t he L ate T iamir nilolpa s pecimens. Met .nods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building. C onstruction i n t wo s tages ( body, pedestal b ase). Surface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n b ody w alls, h orizontal o n pedestal ( better t han i n T lamimilolpa s pecimens). Vessel S hapes a nd R im F orms: p ilsner g lass o r hour-glass c onfiguration, p arabolic i n c ross s ection b ut w ith a s lightly f lattened i nterior b ase. T he " standard" f orm p redominates b ut s ingle a nd d ouble l oop h andles ( plain, r arely twisted t ypes) a re f ound, a s a re copas with e longated p ouring s pouts w ithout h andles, which a re more f requent t han c opas w ith l oop h andles ( plain) a nd t he e longated p ouring s pout. R ims a re d irect t apered w ith n o o r s light e version. The c onical p rojection o n t he pedestal a re a bsent. T hin w alls c ontinue c haracteristic.

b ase a s

i nteriors a b asic

S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common), s imple i ncision ( rare), i ncipient p lano r elief ( rare), p lano r elief ( a f ew e xamples), s pecular h ematite r ed o r b rilliant r ed p ainted i nteriors o ccur ( but a re l ess f requent t han i n L ate Xolalpan s pecimens), r esist i n s imple a nd c omplex g eometric p atterns ( circles, d ots, l ines, s crolls, waves, c louds ( ?) a nd o ther c urvilinear f orms/motifs) h ave b ecome c ommon. R esist i s t he d ominant decorative t echnique.

-

4 22

-

F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re c ommon i n e xcavated s amples, l ess s o i n s urface c ollections, a p lain/undecorated A lpha " Thin O range" c opa o r g oblet with a d eep c up a nd a nnular b ase s omewhat a pproximates a h ybrid b etween t he " standard" C opa a nd t he D eep C up ( Kolb 1 973:368). C ontexts: rooms, p orches, p atios, m iddens, a nd i n b urials a s m ortuary o fferings. S pecimens a re a lso f ound i n C entral C ourtyards a t T C-8:1-2 a nd 3 , a nd o n s tairs l eading t o t he C ourtyard. 2 )

D eep

C up

P aste

C olor:

L ight

R eddish

p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing

B rown

a tmosphere

a nd

b ut

L ight

w ith

B rown;

f ine

a l ighter

d ark

c ore t han C opas. Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building. C onstruction i s i n t wo s tages ( body, a nnular b ase), s imilar t o C opa p roduction. S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n b ody w alls, h orizontal p lane o n t he b ase; a gain s imilar to C opas. V essel Shapes a nd R im Forms: a s quat v ariant o f t he " standard" C opa, n early h emispherical i n b ody c onfiguration b ut w ith more e rect w alls. The a nnular b ase i s f lat w ith m inimal p rojection o n t he u nderside a nd i s c urved o n t he v essel i nterior. R ims a re n ormally d irect t apered b ut s ome a re d irect r ounded. There a re n o h andles, p ouring s pouts o r o ther a ppendages. V essel w alls a re s lightly t hicker t han C opas. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( predominates), b ut a f ew e xamples h ave a w ide b rilliant r ed s tripe p ainted o n t he e xterior m idway b etween r im a nd a nnular b ase. N o o ther d ecoration i s known. F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re known o nly f rom e xcavated s amples. Small b ody s herds c ould e asily b e c onfused w ith C opas, e specially i n s urface c ollections. A v ery r are f orm o f C opoid c eramics. C ontexts: p atios a nd s tairways a djacent t o t he C entral C ourtyard a t T C-8:1-2, a nd p ossibly i n m iddens.

3 )

C ylindrical P aste

C olor:

V ase

( Kolb

L ight

R eddish

B rownish Yellow a nd L ight R eddish B rown p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing c ross s ection, c ompletely Methods o f

1 965:37) B rown.

R eddish

B rown,

L ight

B rownish Y ellow ( a t endency f or a nd L ight B rownish Y ellow); f ine

a tmosphere a lthough

o xidized. M anufacture:

-

b ut w ith d ark c ores i n s ome s pecimens were

c oiling

4 23

-

a nd

s lab-building.

C onstruction i s s upports). B ases a re c oiled.

i n a nd

t hree s tages ( base, w alls, s upports a re s lab-built, w alls

S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n v essel w alls, h orizontal o r c ircular o n b ase i nteriors. The u ndersides o f b ases a re l ow p olished o r h ighly p olished, w ith a t endency t oward t he l atter. S upports a re n ormally l eft i n a m atte c ondition a lthough s ome a re l ow polished. V essel S hapes a nd R im F orms: a c ylindrical c onfiguration w ith a s light h our-glass s hape; d irect/straight w all f orms a re a bsent. R im f orms i nclude d irect t apered ( most c ommon) d irect r ounded, e verted t apered a nd d irect f lat/square. T he l atter m ay b e a ssociated w ith t he H andled C overs. T here a re no h andles o r s pouts. T ripod s upport f orms i nclude: s olid m old-made t alud a nd t ablero ( common), well-applied t o t he v essel; h ollow r ectangular w ith " cut-out" s egments; h ollow c ylindrical t ubular; h ollow " rattle" ( rare); a nd n ubbin, c onical f orm i nset o r a t t he e dge o f t he v essel b ase-wall j uncture ( rare). S mall b asal r idges a re c haracteristic. S ome s pecimens h ave a ppliqued b asal m oldings ( double r idge) w ith a ppliqued a dornos ( coffee-bean, d iscoid, s lit d iscoid, o val, a nd o ccasional z oo r norphic c onf igurations). T hin v essel w alls a re c haracteristic. Surface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorted ( less c ommon t han i n L ate T lamimilolpa); s imple i ncision i n c loud, s croll, w ave, a nd l inear p atterns ( a s mall s croll s eries a t t he r im i s a " marker"); i ncipient P lano r elief i n g eometric p atterns ( rare); p lano r elief w ith a rchitectural ( ?) a nd o ther g eometric c onfigurations ( rare); r esist w ith s imple a nd c omplex g eometric p atterns o f c ircles, d ots, l ines, s crolls, waves a nd g lyphs ( common); s pecular h ematite r ed p ainted i nteriors ( rare). D ecorations s eem l ess v ariable i n c omparison t o L ate T lamimilolpa a nd, p erhaps h ave b ecome s tandardized. F resco ( e.g. s tucco) p ainted e xamples were n ot s tudied. F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens c ommon i n e xcavated s amples, l ess c ollections. C ontexts: r ooms, p atios, p orches, b urials a s m ortuary o fferings. 1 4 )

C ylindrical

V ase

H andled

a re s o

r elatively i n s urface

m iddens

a nd

i n

C over

P aste C over: L ight R eddish B rown, R eddish B rown a nd B rownish Y ellow ( a t endency f or L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: s treak

o xidizing a tmosphere i n c ross s ection.

b ut

w ith

s ome

l ight

Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling t echnique w ith appliqued h andle. C onstructed i n t wo s tages ( cover,

h andle). S urface T reatment: h ighly i nterior, v ertical p lane.

p olished

e xterior

a nd

Vessel S hapes a nd R im F orms: d irect r ounded, d irect t apered o r d irect f lat/square r im ( the f ormer p redominates). T he r im h as a d irect w all which t apers t o t he a pex a nd a ppliqued knob o r m old-made z oomorphic f igure. T hin w alls a re c haracteristic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( rare, p ossibly a bsent), s imple i ncision ( rare t o a bsent), i ncipient p iano r elief ( rare). R esist decoration w ith c omplex g eometric p atterns m ay e xist. There a re n o e xamples o f p ainted d ecoration, b ut t here a re f resco ( stucco) p ainted s pecimens t hat were n ot s tudied. F requency i n C ollections: k nown o nly f rom e xcavations, t he f orm i s e xceedingly r are. C ontexts: m iddens a nd i n b urials a s m ortuary offerings. 5 )

T apered

L ate

V ase

X olalpan

( unknown)

Phase:

A .D.

5 50 -6 50

A ll f ive C opoid f orms C opas ( and a ll v ariants), D eep C ups, C ylindrical V ases, C ylindrical V ase H andled C overs a nd ( for t he f irst t ime) T apered V ases were manufactured. A s i n E arly Xolalpan t imes, t hese v essels were well-executed, i ndicative o f t echnical c ompetency i n c omparison t o t he p receeding T lamimilolpa p hases a nd t he Metepec p hase w hich f ollows L ate Xolalpan. T he L ate Xolalpan p hase i s s ometimes c alled M aquixco a fter t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B aja s ite ( TC-8). I t w as d uring t he L ate X olalpan p hase t hat C lassic T eotihuacan c ivilization r eached i ts z enith. -

1 )

C opa P aste

( Kolb

1 965:42,

C olor:

L ight

-

4 J4)

R eddish

B rown a nd B rownish Y ellow l ighter c olors i n c omparison p aste t exture.

B rown, ( a t o

L ight

Y ellowish

t endency t oward E arly Xolalpan);

t he f ine

F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith m inimal d ark c oring i n c ross s ection which m ay b e i ndicative o f c hanges i n t he f iring t echnology o r p rocedures. Methods of M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building, b ut t he f ormer m ay p redominate. s tages ( body, pedestal b ase).

C onstruction

i n

t wo

Surface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n t he b ody a nd h orizontal o n t he p edestal ( very well-executed). V essel S hapes a nd R im F orms: p ilsner g lass o r hourg lass o nfiguration, p arabolic i ncross s ection w ith s lightly f lattened i nterior b ase a nd n o e vidence o f

-

4 25

-

a a

c onical p rojection o n t he p edestal i nterior. T he " standard" f orm i s n early a s c ommon a s t he h andled v ariants ( single o r d ouble p lain l oop h andles). Spouted v ariants w ith s ingle p lain l oop h andle a nd t hose w ith t he e longated s pout a nd n o h andles s eemed more c ommon t han i n t he E arly X olalpan p hase. R ims a re d irect t apered w ith s light e versions. The v essel walls a re c haracteristically t hin. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common), s imple i ncision ( rare t o a bsent), i ncipient P lano r elief ( absent), p iano r elief ( absent), s pecular h ematite r ed o r b rilliant r ed p ainted i nteriors ( rare t o a bsent). The o verwhelming d ecorative t echnique i s r esist i n s imple a nd c omplex geometric p atterns ( circles, d ots, l ines, s crolls, waves a nd o ther c urvilinear f orms/motifs), b ut t he depictions a re i dentical t o t hose of t he E arly Xolalpan p hase. F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens w ere c ommon i n e xcavated s amples a nd r are t o a bsent i n s urface s urvey c ollections. A p lain/undecorated A lpha " Thin O range" c opa o r g oblet w ith a d eep c up a nd a nnular b ase a pproximates a h ybrid b etween t he " standard" C opa a nd t he D eep C up ( Kolb 1 973:370), a nd m ay b e a c opy of a C opoid f orm. T he " Thin O range" s pecimens h ave s lightly f laring/outcurved s ides, m ore s o t han t he E arly Xolalpan f orm o f t he C opa o r D eep C up, a nd certainly m ore t han t he L ate X olalpan e xamples. C ontexts: r ooms, p orches, p atios, a lleys, s tairways, m iddens a nd i n b urials a s m ortuary o fferings. Specimens a re a lso f ound i n t he C entral C ourtyards a t T C-8:1-2 a nd 3 , a nd o n s tairs l eading t o t he C ourtyard i n T C-8:1-2. 2 )

D eep

C up

P aste C olor: L ight p aste t exture.

R eddish

B rown

F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere c ores t han i n C opas.

a nd

b ut

L ight

w ith

Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd C onstruction i s i n t wo s tages ( body, s imilar t o C opa p roduction. Surface T reatment: h ighly p olished, t he walls, h orizontal p lane o n s imilar t o C opas.

B rown;

l ighter

f ine d ark

s lab-building. a nnular b ase),

v ertical p lane o n t he b ase; a gain

Vessel Shapes a nd R im F orms: a s quat v ariant o f t he " standard" C opa, n early h emispherical i n b ody c onfiguration b ut w ith e rect w alls. The a nnular b ase i s f lat o n t he u nderside b ut r etains a c urve o n t he i nside o f t he c up b ody. R ims a re d irect t apered. There a re n o h andles, p ouring s pouts o r o ther a ppendages. Vessel w alls a re s lightly t hicker t han C opas.

-

4 26

-

S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( predominates), b ut t wo e xamples h ave a w ide b rilliant r ed s tripe p ainted o n t he e xterior m idway b etween t he r im a nd a nnular b ase. N o o ther d ecoration o ccurs. F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re k nown o nly f rom e xcavations. S mall b ody s herds c ould e asily b e c onfused w ith C opas, e specially i n s urface c ollections. A n e xtremely r are c opoid f orm which i s more f requent i n E arly Xolalpan c ontexts. C ontexts: p atios a nd s tairways a djacent t o t he C entral C ourtyard

3 )

C ylindrical

a t

T C-8:1-2.

V ase

( Kolb

1 965:43)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, L ight Y ellowish B rown a nd B rownish Y ellow ( a t endency t oward l ight r eddish b rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith m inimal d ark c oring i n c ross s ection, which m ay b e i ndicative o f c hanges i n t he f iring t echnology o r p rocedures. Methods o f M anufacture: coiling a nd s lab-building. C onstruction i s i n t hree s tages ( base, walls, s upports). B ases a nd s upports a re s lab-built, walls a re c oiled. S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n vessel walls, h orizontal p lane o r c ircular o n b ase i nteriors ( the l atter p redominates). The u ndersides of b ases a re l ow p olished o r h ighly p olished. S upports a re n ormally l eft i n a m atte c ondition a lthough s ome a re l ow p olished. Vessel S hapes a nd R im F orms: a c ylindrical c onfiguration w ith a s light h our-glass s hape i s c haracteristic. R im f orms i nclude d irect t apered ( common), d irect r ounded, e verted r ounded a nd e verted t apered. T here a re n o h andles o r s pouts, o r o ther appendages. T ripod s upport f orms i nclude: s olid mold-made t alud a nd t ablero ( common), well-applied t o the v essel; h ollow m old-made t alud a nd t ablero ( rare); hollow r ectangular w ith " cut-out" s egments; hollow c ylindrical t ubular ( rare t o a bsent); a nd h ollow " rattle" ( rare). N ubbin s upports a re a bsent. Small b asal r idges, c haracteristic d uring t he E arly Xolalpan p hase, a re n ow r are t o a bsent, a nd a ppliqued a dornos w ithin b asal modlings a re r are t o a bsent. Thin v essel w alls c ontinue a s a b asic c haracteristic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common); s imple i ncision ( rare); i ncipient p iano relief ( rare); p iano r elief ( rare); c henneiing ( rare); r esist w ith s imple o r c omplex g eometric motifs c onsisting o f c ircles, d ots, l ines, s crolls a nd c urvilinear e lements ( less c ommon t han i n E arly Xolalpan t imes); s pecular h ematite r ed p ainting o n v ase i nteriors h as become more c ommon, a s h as b anding

-

4 27

-

o n v ase e xteriors. B rilliant r ed p ainted i nteriors a nd n arrow, h orizontal e xterior b ands ( 2-3) a re o ccasionally f ound. I ncised l inear s crolls a t v ase r ims a nd p ainting o f t he v ase i nterior a re c haracteri stics o f t he L ate p ainted s pecimens s tudied.

X olalpan p hase. d ating t o t his

F resco ( stucco) p hase were n ot

F requency i n C ollections: s pecimens a re l ess c ommon t han C ylindrical V ases o f t he e arly X olalpan p hase, b ut L ate X olalpan s herds o ccur i n b oth e xcavation a nd s urvey c ollections. C omplete v essels a re k nown f rom e xcavations a nd museum c ollections. C ontexts: r ooms, p atios, p orches, m iddens a nd ( less f requently) i n b urials a s m ortuary o fferings. 2 4 )

C ylindrical

V ase

H andled

C over

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown Yellow; f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith i n c ross s ection.

a nd

L ight

m inimal

B rownish

d ark

c oring

Method o f M anufacture: c oiling t echnique a ppliqued m old-made h andles. C onstructed i n s tages ( cover, h andle). Surface T reatment: i nterior, v ertical polished o r m atte.

h ighly p lane.

p olished I nteriors

e xterior s ometimes

w ith two a nd l ow

Vessel Shapes a nd R im F orms: d irect r ounded o r d irect t apered r ims l eading t o d irect o r s lightly o utfiaring walls which t aper t o t he a pex a nd t he a ppliqued mold-made z oomorphic ( or a nthropomorphic ? ) f igure. Owls a nd e agles a re t he m ost c ommon h andle f orms. Thin w alls r emain a c haracteristic. S urface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( rare, p ossibly a bsent), s imple i ncision ( rare), i ncipient P lano r elief a nd P lano r elief ( rare). There a re n o e xamples o f r esist d ecoration, n or a re p ainted s pecimens i dentifiable w ith L ate X olalpan c ontexts. F resco ( stucco) p ainted s pecimens w ere n ot s tudied. F requency i n C ollections: k nown o nly f rom e xcavations i n t he u rban c enter, t his f orm i s e xceedingly r are. C ontexts: b urials a s m ortuary o fferings a nd, r arely, i n m iddens. 5 )

T apered

V ase

( Kolb

1 965:2 43)

P aste C olor: L ight Yellowish B rown, B rownish Y ellow a nd L ight R eddish B rown ( a t endency t oward t he L ight Yellowish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith a l ight c ore. Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling e xclusively. C onstruction i n t wo s tages ( neck-rim, b ody-base). S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, h orizontal p lane

-

4 28

-

o n t he r im, i mmediate r im i nterior, a nd l ip e xterior. Vertical p olish o n t he e xterior v ase w alls, w ith t he v ase i nteriors l eft i n a m atte c ondition. B ases were l ow p olished i n a h orizontal p lane. Vessel Shapes a nd R im Forms: v essels t ypically h ave a wide o rifice, r estricted n eck, p ronounced s houlder, t apered b ody, a nd r ounded o r f lat b ase. R ims a re e verted r ounded o r ( rarely) e verted t apered. R im p ouring l ips, e longated p ouring s pouts o r p inched l ips were n ot a ssociated w ith t he f orm. T he v essel wall s ometimes h ad s cars i ndicating t he a ttachment o f small, v ertical l oop h andles o pposite o ne a nother l ocated i mmediately b elow t he v essel s houlder. T he l oop h andles were t hicker t han t hose o n t he C opa v ariants b ut were n ot well-attached t o t he v ase b ody. The j oint o f t he n eck-rim a nd b ody-base ( e.g. t he s houlder o f t he v ase) t ended t o b e t hicker t han o ther p ortions of t he v essel w alls. Surface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated s pecimens a re t he o nly o nes s een i n c ollections. P otentially o ther d ecorative t echniques were u sed. F requency i n C ollectionsL: k nown f rom e xcavations, t his C opoid f orm w as e xceedingly C ontexts: r ooms a nd m iddens. Metepec

P hase:

A .D.

r are.

6 50-750

T he Metepec p hase m arked t he d ecline i n q uality c eramic p roduction i n a ll w ares, i ncluding " Thin O range," P olished B rown a nd P olished B lack c eramics, a nd i n C opoid c eramics. O nly C opas a re k nown f or t his t erminal p hase of t he C lassic T eotihuacan s equence; C ylindrical V ases may c ontinue b ut c annot b e d istinguished f rom L ate Xolalpan f orms. 1 )

C opa ( Kolb 1 965: 14 8) P aste C olor: L ight Y ellowish B rown a nd B rownish Yellow; f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith m inimal d ark c oring i n c ross s ection. Methods o f M anufacture: c oiling a nd s lab-building. C onstruction i s i n t wo s tages ( body, p edestal b ase). S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n t he b ody a nd h orizontal o n t he p edestal ( less well-executed i n c omparison t o L ate Xolalpan s pecimens). V essel S hapes a nd R im F orms: p ilsner g lass o r h our-glass c onfiguration, p arabolic i n c ross s ection w ith a f lattened i nterior b ase a nd n o c onical p rojection o n t he p edestal i nterior. O nly t he " standard" f orm i s r ecognized, s o t hat h andled a nd s pouted v ariants m ay b e a bsent. H owever, t he s ample s ize i s s mall. R ims a re d irect t apered. V essel walls t end t o b e s lightly t hicker i n c omparison

-

4 29

-

C opas f rom e arlier T eotihuacan p hases, a nd v essel heights a ppear t o b e l ess t han i n e arlier e xamples. A m ore s quat a ppearance i s s uggested, b ut n ot t o t he degree e xhibited i n D eep C ups. S urface F inish a nd Decoration: p lain/undecorated o nly. P otentially o ther d ecorative t echniques were u sed. F requency i n C ollections: e xceedingly r are i n e xcavated s amples a nd a bsent i n t he s urface c ollections e xamined. C ontexts: r ooms a nd m iddens. 2 )

D eep

C ups

( unknown)

3 )

C ylindrical

V ase

( Kolb

1 965:48)

P aste C olor: L ight R eddish B rown, L ight Y ellowish B rown a nd B rownish Y ellow ( a t endency t oward L ight R eddish B rown); f ine p aste t exture. F iring: o xidizing a tmosphere w ith m inimal d ark c oring i n c ross s ection. Methods o f M anufacture: coiling a nd s lab-building. C onstruction i s i n t hree s tages ( base, w alls, s upports). B ases a nd s upports a re s lab-built, w alls a re c oiled. S urface T reatment: h ighly p olished, v ertical p lane o n v essel walls, horozontal p lane o r c ircular o n b ase i nteriors ( the l atter p redominates). The u ndersides of b ases a re l ow p olished. S upports a re n ormally left i n a m atte c ondition a lthough s ome a re l ow polished. V essel S hapes a nd R im F orms: a c ylindrical c onfigration w ith a s light h our-glass s hape i s characteristic. R im f orms i nclude d irect t apered, d irect r ounded, e verted r ounded, a nd e verted t apered. There a re n o h andles o r s pouts. T ripod s upport f orms i nclude: s olid mold-made t alud a nd t ablero ( common), h ollow r ectangular w ith " cut-out" s egments; h ollow cylindrical t ubular ( rare). B asal r idges a nd a ppliqued a dornos w ithin b asal m oldings a re a bsent i n the s tudy c ollections. T hin v essel w alls continue a s a b asic c haracteristic. Surface F inish a nd D ecoration: p lain/undecorated ( common ? )‚ s imple i ncision ( rare), i ncipient p lano r elief ( rare t o a bsent), p lano r elief ( rare t o a bsent), r esist ( rare t o a bsent). P ainting o n v essel wall i nteriors m ay b e i n s pecular h ematite r ed o r i n b rilliant r ed. F resco ( stucco) p ainted s pecimens a re not k nown s pecifically f or M etepec p hase. F requency i n C ollections: r are i n e xcavations a nd s urvey c ollections. K nown p rimarily f rom m useum s pecimens. M etepec p hase C ylindrical V ases c annot b e d istinguished f rom L ate X olalpan s pecimens i n v essel s hape, s upport t ypes, o r s urface f inish a nd decoration.

-

4 30

-

C ontexts: m iddens Teotihuacan. 4 )

C ylindrical

5 )

T apered

V ase

V ase

a nd

H andled

C over

i n

t he

u rban

c enter

a t

( unknown)

( unknown)

S UMMARY G eneral

o fferings

A ND

C ONCLUSIONS

R emarks

T he u nderlying t heme o f my r esearch o n C opoid c eramics f ollows F rederick R . i4atson's c oncept o f ceramic e cology ( 1965:203). The q uantification o f t he p hysical a ttributes o f a c eramic w are i s u seful i n p roviding e vidence o f c ultural p ractices s uch a s t he a cquisition a nd s election o f c lays a nd a plastics, t he p articular m ethods u sed b y t he a rtisan i n f orming a nd d ecorating c eramic v essels a nd o ther p ottery p roducts, a nd t he t echniques u sed i n f iring t he p roduct. I n a ddition, s uch a nalyses c an h elp d etermine i f a p articular w are w as m anufactured l ocally a nd w as " domestic" o r a n " import." M y r esearch, l ike t hat o f M atson, c ombines a n umber o f p hysical s ciences ( chemistry, p hysics, g eology, p etrography, b iology, e cology, a nd s tatistics, among o thers) w ith t he s ocial s ciences a nd h umanities ( history, e thnograpny, e thnohistory, a rchaeology, a rt, a nd a rt h istory, t o c ite s ome e xamples) i n a m ultia nd i nterdisciplinary r esearch o rientation. T his t ype o f r esearch i s a t t he c ore o f c ultural e cology a nd a l arge s egment o f g eneral a nthropology. M atson ( 1965:216) c oncluded h is t reatise o n c eramic e cology b y a gain h ighlighting t he o rientation a nd g oals: " It i s t hrough a c ombination o f m any i nterests h istorical, t echnological, a rtistic a nd e cological, a mong o thers t hat p ottery c an b e m ade t o s erve o ur o bjective t he b etter u nderstanding o f m an t hrough t he s tudy o f t he m aterial r emains t hat h ave b een l eft f or u s t o e xcavate." -

-

-

-

-

-

Copoid p ottery c onstitutes a r are b ut d iagnostic " marker" c eramic f or f ive p hases o f t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod i n t he B asin o f M exico, a nd e specially t he Teotihuacan V alley which w as t he l ocus o f t he major u rban c enter o f T eotihuacan a nd t he p robable T eotihuacan " Empire" ( Kolb 1 986:171-175). This d istinctive pottery n ever a ccounted f or more t han 0 .32% o f t he s herds a t a ny C lassic p eriod s ite, a nd o f 7 1,379 C lassic s herds f rom s urveys a nd e xcavations, o nly 5 2 49 ( 0.0077%) were C opoid c eramics ( see T able 1 3). T he p roduction o f C opas, t he m ost c ommon f orm, b egan t oward t he e nd o f t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hase, c a. A .D. 3 50, a nd t erminated b y t he e nd o f t he M etepec p hase, c a. A .D. 7 50, i n t he Teotihuacan V alley f or a t otal l ifespan o f l ess t han 14 00

-

4 31

-

y ears. O ther C opoid v essel f orm D eep C ups, C ylindrical V ases, C ylindrical V ase H andled C overs a nd T apered V ases h ad more r estricted c hronologies. The D eep C up m inimally d ated t o E arly a nd L ate X olalpan p hases ( A.D. 4 50-550 a nd 5 50-650), while t he T apered V ase was a pparently c onfined t o t he L ate Xolalpan p hase ( A.D. 5 50-650). C ylindrical V ases were p roduced f rom t he L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases ( A.D. 3 75_ 1 450, 1 4 50_550 a nd 5 50-650, r espectively), a nd p ossibly i nto t he f inal C lassic p hase, M etepec ( A.D. 6 50-750). P eak p roduction was d ated t o t he E arly a nd L ate X olalpan -

-

-

-

p hases. The p ublished l iterature o n C opoid pottery w as r ather s canty, b ut a pparently d ates t o Betancourt's ( 1922) g eneral s ummary o f T eotihuacan V alley c eramics a nd t o L inn 's ( 193 14 ) X olalpan s ite r eport. The f irst d efinite a ccount o n c opas a ppeared i n L inn4"s ( 19 14 2) monograph o n t he T iamimilolpa a partment c omplex a nd l ater i n T olstoy's ( 1958) s urface s urvey r eport. Q uantities o f t he w are were r ecorded a t t he T etitla, Y ayahuala, a nd Z acuala e xcavations ( S journe ' 1 959, 1 966), a nd f rom L a Ventilla ( Kolb 1 964, R attray a nd R uiz 1 980). T he i nitial p ublished s ynthesis b y M uller ( 1966) was t he l ast m ajor r eport o n C opoid c eramics. F rom a p reliminary a nalysis ( Kolb 1 965), I i dentified f our f orms o f C opoid w ares: C opa, D eep C up, C ylindrical V ase a nd T apered V ase. A t otal o f 1‚ 423 C opoid s herds a nd 1 27 c omplete o r r estored v essels were s tudied a nd a n a dditional c a. 8 00 s herds e xamined by m e f or t his s tudy. T hese c eramics c ame f rom t he e xcavated a nd s urface s urvey c ollections o f t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject, T eotihuacan M apping P roject, P royecto T eotihuac an ( Instituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria), a nd t he American M useum o f N atural H istory. B ecause o f t he a vailability o f d ata, t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8:1-2, 3 a nd 1 4) e xcavations p rovided i mportant s pecimens a nd i nformation o n c eramic c ontexts (11 89 s herds a nd t en v essels). A ll

f ive

f orms

a nd

v ariants

o f

C opoid

p ottery

w ere

e xceedingly s imilar i n P hysical P roperties. P aste c olor ( Munsell 1 954) was n ormally a L ight R eddish B rown, a lthough B rown a nd R eddish B rown were a lso f ound. A rtisans a pparently d esired a " tan" c olored c eramic t hat, a fter f iring, was r elatively h ard ( 6- 7 o n M ohs' s cale o f h ardness). A f inely w ashed, l evigated?, s ilty c lay w as u sed, a nd t he f inished p roducts h ighly p olished t o r educe n ascent p orosity a nd i mpart a l uster t o i nternal a nd e xternal s urfaces. T emper o r a plastics were c onsistent w ith T eotihuacan V alley s edimentary g eology, a nd t he w are was s imilar t o t he T eotihuacan " Domestic" W are R eference G roup w hich i ncludes o nly c eramics m anufactured a t o r n ear u rL 'an T eotihuacan. T he C opoid c eramics a nd

-

4 32

-

r eference pottery a ll c ontained s ignificant p ercentages of o rthoclase f eldspar, q uartz, a xinit .e, a patite a nd chloritic s chists. F inished v essels w ere done i n oxidizing a tmospheres a nd r eached t emperatures approximating 8 00_900 0 C . Nearly 8 3% of the sherds had dark c ores i n c ross-section p robably i ndicating i ncomplete c ombustion o f t he n aturally o ccurring c arbonaceous m atter. F ine v egetable f iber may h ave been p urposefully added a s a n a plastic. No " firing a ccidents" were d iscerned. A rtisans u sed t he c oiling a nd s lab-building methods a nd a r otated s upport ( molde o r t ournette). C opas, D eep C ups a nd T apered V ases w ere built i n two d istinctive c onstruction s tages, while Cylindrical V ases were m ade i n t hree d iscrete s tages. A ll e xterior a nd i nterior v essel s urfaces, e xcept t he i nterior b ases o f C opa p edestals, D eep Cup a nnular b ases a nd s ome undersides o f C ylindrical V ases, were h ighly polished. The i nteriors of Tapered V ases were n ot polished. C opas F ive C opa v ariants were n oted: " standard" o r unelaborated ( no a ppendages), " standard" w ith t wo s mall l oop h andles, " standard" w ith o ne small l oop h andle, " standard" w ith o ne s mall l oop h andle a nd e longated pouring s pout, a nd " standard" w ith e longated p ouring s pout a nd no h andles. C opas were t he most c ommon f orm of C opoid c eramics a nd h ad a " pilsner" g lass o r hour-glass c onfiguration. V essel walls were v ery t hin s imilar t o A lpha " Thin O range" W are, while v essel h eights a veraged 1 1.5 c m, w ith r im a nd pedestal b ase d iameters a t 5 .0 cm. D irect t apered r ims p redominated a nd C opas a veraged 3 80 ml/cc c apacities. I n a ddition t o p lain/undecorated, C opas c ould b e d ecorated b y s imple i ncision ( mostly postfired), i ncipient p lano r elief, p lano r elief, s tamping ( prefired), i nterior r ed p ainting ( brilliant a nd s pecular h ematite r ed), o r r esist ( so-called " negative p ainting"). When p resent, small l oop h andles ( usually p lain b ut s ometimes t wisted) were a ttached i mmediately below t he C opa r im. S pecimens w ith p ronounced p ouring s pouts a re r eminiscent o f Medieval E nglish c hemist's b eakers. C opas ( "standard" a nd h andled v ariants) were used f or b everages a nd a re f ound i n k itchens, s leeping q uarters a nd t he s tairways of c entral c ourtyards, s uggesting a c eremonial u se. I n a ddition, s uch C opas a re placed i n b urials a s " grave g oods," a s a re t he s pouted v arieties, which were a lso a ssociated w ith k itchens. Copa p roduction s pans t he period f rom l ate/terminal E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases, ca. A .D. 3 50-750.

-

43 3

-

D eep

C ups

These v essels were t hin-wailed, s quat v ariants o f t he " standard" C opa, b ut h ad a nnular b ases. Vessel h eights a nd r im d iameters were n early e quivalent a t c a. 1 0.0 c m, while v essel c apacity a veraged 3 90 m l/cc. N o a ppendages a re k nown, a nd t he o nly d ecoration c onsisted o f a w ide b rilliant r ed b and p ainted o n the e xterior m idway b etween r im a nd b ase. T his f orm w as e xceedingly r are i n c ollections b ut, l ike t he " standard" C opa, w as u sed f or b everages. S pecimens a re f ound i n p otential c eremonial c ontexts o n c entral c ourtyard s tairways f acing p latform a ltars. D eep C ups were a pparently r estricted t o t he E arly a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases, c a. A .D. 4 50-650. Cylindrical

V ases

After C opas, C ylindrical V ases were t he most c ommon C opoid v essels i n c ollections a nd b urials. T he cylindrical bodies a veraged 114 .1 i n h eight a nd 1.5 cm i n d iameter, u sually w ith d irect t apered r ims a nd e ither s traight o r s light h our-glass c ylinder c onfiguration. Most v essels h eld 1 ,150 m l/cc, w ith a r ange f rom 6 80 1 ,350 m l/ccO ther r im f orms i ncluded d irect f lat, d irect r ounded a nd s everal e verted f orms ( all m inor types). S ix t ripod s upport t ypes were i dentified: 1 ) s olid m old-made t alud a nd t ablero c onfiguration ( the m ost c ommon f orm); 2 ) h ollow m old-made t alud a nd t ablero w ith " cut-outs" ( excised s egments e xposing t he i nterior); 3 ) h ollow r ectilinear w ith " cut-outs"; 2 4 ) h ollow t ubular; 5 ) h ollow " rattle" ( rare); a nd 6 ) n ubbin. D ecoration c onsisted o f g eometric a nd g lyphic i ncision, i ncipient p iano r elief, r esist i n g eometric p atterns, a nd f resco, i n a ddition t o p lain/undecorated. C ylindrical V ases m ay h ave h eld f oods o r c ondiments a nd a re a ssociated w ith k itchens, a nd p atios a nd p orches w hich a re a lternative f ood p reparation a reas i n h ouses. T hese v essels a lso appear i n mortuary o fferings w ith o r w ithout t he a ccompanying C ylindrical V ase H andled C overs, a nd p robably a lso were u sed i n c eremonial a ctivities. -

C ylindrical T lamimilolpa 3 75-650, a nd

V ases were m anufactured f rom t he t hrough L ate X olalpan p hases, c a. p robably i nto t he Metepec p hase, c a.

L ate A .D. A .D.

6 50-750. C ylindrical T hese

V ase

H andled

" peaked"

C overs

c overs,

t erminating

i n

k nob

o r

z oomorphic h andles, w ere d esigned f or t he C ylindrical V ases b ut were e xceedingly r are i n a ll c ollections a nd a re k nown p rimarily f rom m useum s pecimens. T he c overs c ame o nly f rom t he u rban c eremonial c enter a t Teotihuacan. D ecorative t echniques were t he s ame a s t he

C ylindrical V ases: g eometric a nd g lyphic i ncision, i ncipient p iano r elief, p iano r elief, r esist a nd f resco. T he z oomorphic h andles w ere mold-made a nd a ttached t o t he t apered c over a pices. T he c hronology i s a ssumed t o b e t he s ame a s C ylindrical V ases, n amely f rom L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases, c a. A .D. 3 75-650, b ut n o M etepec p hase s pecimens a re n oted. T apered

V ases

S uch v essels were a lso e xceedingly r are i n c ollections. T apered V ases t ypically h ad a w ide o rifice, r estricted n eck, p ronounced s houlder, t apered b ody a nd f lat o r r ounded b ase. V essel h eight w as 1 5.0 cm, w ith a 5 .3 cm r im d iameter a nd 5 .5 c m b asal d iameter. These c ontainers h eld 3 60 3 80 m l/cc a nd h ad e verted r ounded r ims a nd t wo p lain o ffset l oop h andles, o ne a ttached a t e ither s ide i n v ertical p ositions. O nly p lain/undecora ted s pecimens a re k nown. B ody s herds a re n ot e asily c onfused w ith o ther C opoid v essels b ecause T apered V ase i nteriors were n ot p olished. These v ases w ere a ssociated w ith r ooms i n a partment c omplexes a nd m ight h ave b een u sed f or c ondiments, m edicinals, p ersonal c are p roducts ( perfumes, e tc.), o r s erved o ther f unctions. T apered V ases a pparently d ate o nly t o t he L ate Xolalpan phase, c a. A .D. 5 50-650. -

C onclusions C opoid e specially

c eramics t hose d efi

n e

t ypically o ccurred d as k it c hens, p atios,

i n a nd

r ooms, porches

( alternative f ood p reparation a reas), b ut a lso were r ecovered f rom a lleys a nd were f ound o n s tairways a ssociated w ith c entral c ourtyards. C opas were e specially p revalent o n s tairs, i n a lleys, a nd i n r ooms. t J nspouted C opas a nd Deep C ups were a ssumed t o b e p ersonal b everage c ontainers, possibly u sed f or p uique, c hocolate, m iel ( honey mead), o r s ome o ther r efreshment, s pouted f orms m ay h ave h eld s auces, o ils, o r l iquid c ondiments. C opoid C ylindrical V ases, l ike C opas, a ppeared i n mortuary c ontexts a nd i n a reas o f c ulinary a ctivity a nd f ood c onsumption, e specially k itchens a nd a djacent porches, a nd p atios. W ith H andled C overs, t hese Cylindrical V ases m ay h ave b een small t ureens d esigned t o keep f oods w arm. C ylindrical V ases c ould h ave h eld a s olid, powdered, o r v iscous f oodstuff, a nd a lso b een u sed t o s tore s mall q uantities o f s pecial f oods o r c ondiments. L ikewise, t hese v ases m ay h ave b een p ersonal c ontainers f or a p orridge o r o ther c ooked g rain ( amaranth, m aize, e tc.). T apered V ases c ould h ave h eld s alt o r o ther s pices, h erbal r emedies, o r p ersonal c are p roducts. Two d istinctive m anufacturing " traditions" m ay b e d iscerned w ithin C opoid w are p roduction. T he f irst a nd

-

435

-

e arliest b egan c a. A .D. 3 50 w ith t he manufacture o f t he " standard" C opa ( without h andles o r s pout) which, i n t urn, p rovided a model f or t he v ariants w ith r i andles o r h andle a nd s pout. T he v ariants, i n t he m ain, d ated A .D. 3 75-650. " Standard" C opas c ontinued t o b e made i nto t he Metepec p hase b ut p roduction c eased well b efore A .D. 7 50. Derivative f orms c oming f rom t he " standard" C opa were t he D eep C up, m ade A .D. 1 4 50-640, a nd t he T apered V ase, A .D. 5 50-650. T he s econd t radition i ncluded t he C opoid C ylindrical V ase ( with t ripod s upports) a nd t he C ylindrical V ase H andled C over. T hese v ases w ere p roduced a s e arly a s A .D. 3 75 a nd a ppear t o t erminate e arly i n t he t i etepec p hase, c ertainly b y c a. A .D. 7 00. H andled C overs p ossibly a ppeared b y A .D. 3 75, b ut m anufacture i s certain f or t he p eriod A .D. 4 50-650. A ll C opoid f orms were p roduced f rom t he s ame b asic c lays u sing t he s ame b asic m anufacturing t echniques a nd d ecorations, e specially r esist a nd r ed p ainting o f v essel i nteriors. Because o f t he h omogeneity , i n P hysical a nd C ultural P roperties i n C opoid p ottery m anufacture, I b elieve t he " same" a rtisans were r esponsible f or t he p roduction o f a ll f orms C opas a nd v ariants, D eep C up, C ylindrical V ase a nd H andled C over, a nd T apered V ase. -

-

However, t he a rtisans who c rafted t he C ylindrical V ases a nd H andles C overs were i nfluenced b y a nother d istinctive C lassic Teotihuacan c eramic t radition, t ermed t he P olished M onochrome. The c raftspersons who m ade P olished B lack a nd P olished B rown ( Outcurved R im) B asal B reak B owls ( ca. A .D. 1 00 6 50/750) a nd t he p olished B rown a nd P olished T an ( and B lack-Brown) C ylindrical V ases a nd a ccompanying H andled C overs ( ca. A .D. 2 50-650) p rovided models o f v essel s hape a nd s upport t ypes t o t he C opoid p roducers. Therefore, C opoid C ylindrical V ase a nd H andled C over m anufacturers w ere i nfluenced b y t he a rtisans who e arlier c reated t he P olished B owls a nd C ylindrical V ases. I n a ddition, r esist d ecoration which b egan o n P olished E verted R im B owls a nd C ylindrical V ases d uring E arly T lamimilolPa t imes, c a. A .D. 2 50, p rovided a d istinctive d ecorative t echnique w hich w as a lso a dopted by a rtisans who made t he C opoid C ylindrical V ases, which f requently h ave r esist d ecoration, a nd C opas, which e xhibit t he t echnique l ess f requently. The " tan" p aste c olor o f t he l arge, t raditional P olished B rown a nd P olished T an C ylindrical V ases a nd t he d iminutive C opoid C ylindrical V ases l ends i tself t o t he u se o f r esist -

decoration. The s ame r aw c lays a nd t emper o r a plastics w ere b eing u sed b y C opoid a rtisans a nd b y t he p roducers o f t he Teotihuacan P olished M onochrome c eramics. G eological a nd p etrographic d ata f rom t he T eotihuacan V alley ( Mooser 1 968, S otomayor 1 968), a nd s tudies o f s herd " reference g roups" ( Kolb 1 988a) c onfirmed t hat t he a rtisans were

-

4 36

-

e xploiting t he s ame o r v ery s imilar c lays f or t heir p roducts. T he d istinctions were m atters o f d egree r ather t han o f k ind. S tudies o f c ontemporary p otters w orking a t o r n ear m odern S an J uan T eotihuacan l eads t o t he possibility t hat t he s outhern s ectors o f t he a ncient c ity e specially S an S ebastian a nd T iajinga were l ikely a reas f or t he p roduction o f b oth t he C lassic p eriod P olished M onochrome a nd C opoid c eramics, e specially t he c ylindrical v ase f orms. These manufacturing l ocalities were s ituated o nly 1 .0-3.0 km f rom t he m ajor T eotihuacan market, t he G reat M arket o r " Gran Mercado," w hich i s l ocated i mmediately w est o f t he C iudadela. The e xact r elationships between t he P olished M onochrome a nd C opoid wares a rtisans r emains s peculative t hey m ay h ave b een the s ame c raftspersons o r r esiding i n t he s ame o r n earby r esidential c raft c ompounds o r b arrios, o r o therwise a ssociated, p erhaps i n a c raft g uild o r union ( sindicato) which c ould h ave e stablished p roduction s tandards a nd been r esponsible f or t he t raining o f n ovice a rtisans. These p otential r elationships a re b eyond t he s cope o f t he -

-

-

-

p resent

-

-

r esearch.

E NDNOTES 1 A n a bridged v ersion o f t his r esearch w as p resented a s a p aper, " Classic T eotihuacan P eriod C opoid W ares," a t the A nnual Meeting o f t he S ociety f or American A rchaeology i n Toronto, O ntario, C anada o n M ay 8 , 1 987. An a bbreviated v ersion ( Kolb 1 988b) o f t he i nvestigation reported i n t his c hapter w as p ublished i n C eramic E cology R evisited: A P ot f or A ll R easons ( Charles C . K olb a nd Louana M . L ackey, e ditors), a v olume d edicated t o o ur mentor, F rederick R . M atson. T he l onger, d etailed v ersion o f my r esearch w as t o h ave b een i ssued a s a whole n umber o f C eramica d e C ultura M aya e t a l. ( Laboratory o f Anthropology, Temple U niversity) b ut h as b een d elayed i n p roduction. I n a greement w ith M uriel K irkpatrick, General E ditor o f C eramica, t he m anuscript w as w ithdrawn a nd h as b een p ublished a s t he p resent c hapter, " Classic Teotihuacan C opoid W ares: C eramic E cological I nterpretations." O therwise, t his i nvestigation w ould n ot b e i ssued f or a t l east t wo more y ears. F ollowing my i nitial, p reliminary s tudy o f C opoid c eramics ( Kolb 1 965), I i ntermittently c ontinued my i nvestigations i n t he A rchaeology L aboratory a nd t he C eramic Technology L aboratory a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity ( 1965-1969), t he A rchaeology L aboratory a nd

-

43 7

-

G eology Department L aboratory a t B ryn M awr C ollege ( 1969-1973), t he Department o f G eoscienceS L aboratory a t The B ehrend C ollege o f The Pennsylvania S tate U niversity i n E rie ( 1973-198 1 ) , a nd, m ost r ecently, i n t he Department o f G eology a t M ercyhurst C ollege i n E rie 1 985-1987). The t echnical a ssistance o f W illiam C rawford ( Geology, B ryn M awr), E va T ucker ( Geosciences, Behrend), a nd D avid Thomas a nd R ay B uyce ( Geology, Mercyhurst) i s g ratefully a cknowledged. D r. F rederick R . Matson, n ow P rofessor o f A rchaeology E meritus a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, p rovided my i nitial t raining a nd e ncouragement. E ach o f t hese i ndividuals g ave w illingly o f t heir t ime a nd a dvice, a nd p rovided s ome o f t he e quipment u sed i n d etermining v arious p hysical p arameters o f C opoid pottery. M y t hanks a lso t o P rofessor M atson who r ead t he 1 987 manuscript a nd o ffered h elpful c omments a nd h elped c larify s ome " fuzzy" t hinking. L astly, I e xtend my a ppreciation t o N ancy G . K olb who a ssisted i n t he s herd t abulatons a nd p lots f or t he S anta M aria Maquixco e i B ajo s ite. E rrors i n f act a nd i nterpretation a re m ine

a lone.

2 A ccess t o t he c ollections o f t he Teotihuacan V alley P roject ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity) was p rovided by w illiam T . S anders, while J ames A . Bennyhoff a nd R ene M illon a llowed me t o s tudy t he c ollections o f t he Teotihuacan M apping P roject ( University o f R ochester) a t t he S an J uan T eotihuacan L aboratory. F lorencia J acobs Muller i s, l ikewise, t o be t hanked f or g iving me p ermission t o s tudy t he c eramic c ollections o f P royecto T eotihuacár i ( Instituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria) i n t he I NAH B odega d e C er mica. J uan V idarte de L inares, a n a ssociate o f P royecto T eotihuacan, p rovided a ccess to i n-progress e xcavations a t L a V entilla a nd a llowed me t o e xamine h is c ollections a nd f ield n otes. The l ate G ordon E kholm ( American M useum o f N atural H istory) p ermitted me t o s tudy t he c eramic c ollections m ade b y G eorge C . V aillant i n t he 1 930s, a nd to r eview the e arly f ield r eports a nd notes.

-

4 38

-

.t=

\.0

w

5

Teotihuacan Valley (presumably)

Private Collections, San Juan Teotihuacan, Mexico and Mexico, D. F.; New York, New York 127

10

13

56

Teotihuacan Valley (excavations and surface surveys)

Teotihuacan Zona de Arqueologia (exca­ vations)

Proyecto Teotihuacan, Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Laboratorio and Bodega de Ceramica, Teotihuacan, Mexico

46

Teotihuacan Valley Project, The Pennsylvania State University, Laboratory, San Juan Teotihuacan and University Park, Pennsylvania

Teotihuacan Valley (excavations and surface surveys)

lnstituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Laboratorio and Bodega de Ceramica, Mexico, D. F.

2

Teotihuacan Urban Center (excavations and surface surveys)

Basin of Mexico (excavations)

American Museum of Natural History, Department of Anthropology, Vaillant Collections, New York, New York

Vessels Analyzed

Teotihuacan Mapping Project, University of Rochester, Laboratory, San Juan Teotihuacan, Mexico

Provenience

Source/Location

1,423

0

549C

207

332

800 (est.)

0

0

0

700 (est.)

100 (est.)

0

42 293

Sherds Examined

Sherds Analyzed

�

z

rrJ (/) (/) rrJ r'


a ) N . ‚ 4 . 0

a ) ' 4 ‚ 4 C 4 1 ) 0 ,

--4

0

4 1)

0 .

4 0 4 4 ' 0

2 -a -

N.

a ) 0 1 > 4 0

4 4

0 ' . 0 0 0 . ) > 1

O '

' I C

0.

1 4

>1 c o

0 .

C -C D

4 - C ' . 4 a ) C O O ‚ 4 1 C l ) ''

4 1

-

0

0 C ' 1 4 4

1 • C ,. 0 > . ' a ) 4 1 ,

-

3 0

' 4 .1

0

4)

0 0 N . N . I I ‚ 0 0 N.

B 0 0 > 0 0 )' .0

‚ 1)

.

4 )4

. ' 0 4 ) H ' . 0

0 > 1 0 0 . D 0

O > 0 ) . D

N . 1 0 N .

C I ) 0 0 0 N . N . . 4 I . 0 0 -I

C l ) N . . 0 I 0 -t N.

4)

I a -

-a -

P r o v e n i e n c e

N .

C 4 . 4

0 0 ) 8 1 4 ' 0 4 C a )

a ) N . > 1 0 0 ‚ . l' .0

--

C O O 2 0 0 8 0 1 4 0 0 4 a )

' 4 ' 4

O D

4 a ) 0 .


'

a )

Z,

0 0 04 1

C O 0

1 4

C a ) 0 0 .

a )

0 0 < 0

. 0

C

‚ 4

U )

1 4

C

-o

o

o M . O D

2

( TC-8)

' 0 0 4 0 0 . a )

1 4 0 0 a )

i -C

-C

4 4 U

.'C C I 2 0 4 -

‚ 0 D I 4 0 0 . a ) i

0 a )

' C 0 1

0 " 0 . 0 0 C D -. 4 C a ) . 4

0 0 . a ) H

0

0 )

I 4 0 0 0 O C ' 4 0

C 0

. . C 2 0

a ) 4 -

0 4

• 2 0

--

4 . 4

-

--

4 . '

-_

• .. 4

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4.4 4 -

a ) 4 -

8 4 . 4 . 4 • . 4 a ) 0 0

U

0 0 0 4 a ) . 4 0 0

0 0 O 0 0 . 8 0

0

C O

O

4 C

O

H 'C C

0 )

4 -

0 o ‚ 4 0 ) 0 . 0 H

0 1

4 - 4 0 0 0 . 0

' 4

U

E

2

0

0

0 0

4 . 4

-. 4

-. 4

1 4

0

a ) 0

0

0 0

1

4 -

0 ) . 0 0 i C

0

0 0 C 0

"

. 4

4 -

4

4 -

0 0

0 C C ' 4 0

U

0 ) 4 -

-

' 0 D I I

i 4 0

C . )

8

0

-_

' 4

8

0

0

a ) 0

0

0

-

4 . 4

4 -

0

0

L I ' a ) 0 ) >

a ) I

C O

U

0 ) 0 ) > . 40 0 ) > 4

Q . 1 0 0 1 0 0 )100

-

C al

a ) U

>

0 0 > . a ) 0 >

0 0 . 0 F C

C O

4

Q J Cl

0 ) 1

C 0 0 O D

o l

C 0

-

N.

0

a ) 4 -

N . 0

N . 0

N . 0

4 /)

4)

4 . 4

4 11

4 ))

4 1)

. 0

0 N . N .

0 0 ) U

0

0

0

0 0

0 0 . )

0 0

0 0 4 0

. 0

0 ) a ) 0

N.

0

4 ) I

R 4 2 0 5 0 2 2

K 4 1 7 0 5 0 2 3 1

N I

-a -

R e s t o r e d

-a -

. 0 4

a ) 4 0

4 4 C O

0 0

0 0

4 4 ))

. 0 ' . 0 4

I

D e s i g n a t i o n

' C 0 )

0 . 0 0 ) 0 1 a ) a ) a ) 0 4 a ) 0 ..3 0 0 ' 0 )

0 4 0 0 . )

0

‚ 0

0 ) 0 0

N . 0 0 0 . 4 I )

N.

N .

N.

' 4

I

I

O D

C o I

H

H

4

-

N.

N .

-

0 0

0 0 4 C

0 0

.

C O

N. ‚ . r

,

4

I

a ) 0

a ) ! 0 0 )

C 0

a ) 4 -

0

0

4 -

0

. 0

0

0

U

N .

0 0 )

0 0

0 0 ) . 0 : 0 4 1 )

-a -

N.

. 0

I

-a -

0 a ) 4 C 0

0 ) 0

0 0

4 ))

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R 4 1 7 0 5 0 2 0

-

C a ) C I

0

. 0

C l)

a ) . 0

N . ' . 0

N.

C l)

N.

-4

-I

-a -

-7

m I

C o I

C o I

. 0 I

O D I

O D

1 '

F '

H

H

H

r -

-

S h e r d C o n c e n t r a t i o n

C o O

4 . 4

R EFERENCES

C ITED

B ennyhoff, J ames 1 966 C hronology a nd P eriodization: C ontinuity a nd C hange i n t he T eotihuacan C eramic T radition. I n O nceava Mesa R edonda: T eotihuacan, , p p. 1 9-29. S ociedad Mexicana d e A ntropologia, Mexico, D .F. B etancourt, C arlos I . 1 922 C erá 'mica. I n L a p oblaci 6n d el V alle d e T eotih uac n, T omo 1 (1): L a p oblaci6n p rehisp nica, Manuel G amio, p p. 2 00-209. D irectid 'n d e T alleres G raficos D ependiente d e l a S ecretaria d e E ducaci 6n P ublica, M ëxico, D .F. B ilharz, J oy A . a nd C harles C . 1 972 P aleopathology i n R ural s ented a t t he S ociety A nnual

M eeting,

B al

K olb Teotihuacan. f or American

H arbour,

P aper p reA rchaeology

FL.

C arta 1 960

Geoldgica C arta g eoio 'gica D .F.

C aso, 1 938

A lfonso E xploraciones e n O axaca, q uinta y s exta t emporadas, 1 936-37. P ubiicacidn 3 1 4. I nstituto P anamericano de Geografia e H istoria, Tacubaya, Mexico, D .F.

d e

l a

R epublica

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Mexicana.

H olmes, W . H . 1 888 A ncient A rt o f t he P rovince o f Chiriqui, C olombia. I n B ureau o f American E thnology A nnual R eport f or 1 888, p p. 1 3-187. U nited S tates i ng Office, Washington, D .C.

Government

P rint-

K idder, A lfred V ., J esse D . J ennings, a nd E dwin M . S hook 1 91 16 E xcavations a t K aminaljuyu, Guatemala. P ublicat ion 5 61. C arnegie I nstitution o f Washington, Washington, D .C. K olb, 1 962

C harles C . F ield N otes: S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo E xcavation, Mound 3 ( TC-8:3), 1 962 S eason. M s. o n f ile, D epartment o f A nthropology, T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, U niversity P ark.

1 964

F ield N otes o n t he L a Vent .illa E xcavations a nd S alvage O perations. M s. o n f ile, Teotihuacan Mapping P roject, S an J uan Teotihuacan, Mexico.

1 965

A Tentative C eramics C lassification Teotihuacan Valley ( Patlachique t hrough

f or t he A ztec V

P hases). M s. o n f ile, D epartment The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity,

o f A nthropology, U niversity P ark.

1 973

a t T eotihuacan. I n Thin O range P ottery A nthropology, e dited b y M iscellaneous P apers i n O ccasional P apers i n W illiam T . S anders. T he P ennsylvania S tate Anthropology 8 :309-377. nthropology, U niversity U niversity, D epartment o f A P ark.

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T echnological O range" Ware.

1 979

C lassic T eotihuacan Period S ettlement P atterns i n t he T eotihuacan V alley, M exico, 2 vols. The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, P h.D. d issertation, U niversity P ark.

1 982

C eramic T echnology a nd P roblems a nd P rospects o f P rovenience i n S pecific C eramics f rom M exico a nd Afghanistan. I n A rchaeological C eramics, e dited b y J acqueline S . O lin a nd A lan D . F ranklin, p p. 1 93-208. S mithsonian I nstitution P ress, W ashingt on, D .C.

1 983

C lassic Teotihuacan G ranular W ares: C eramic Technological a nd C ultural I nterpretations. M s. o n f ile, D epartment o f A nthropology, T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, U niversity P ark. O riginally p resented a s a p aper a t t he A merican A nthropological A ssociation A nnual M eeting, Chicago, I L, N ovember 1 983.

1 984

T echnological a nd C ultural A spects o f T eotihuacan Period " Thin O range" W are. I n P ots a nd P otters: C urrent Approaches t o C eramic A rchaeology, e dited b y P rudence M . R ice. M onograph 2 4:209-226. U niversity of C alifornia a t L os Angeles I nstitute of A rchaeology P ress, L os A ngeles.

1 986

C ommerical A spects o f C lassic T eotihuacan P eriod " Thin O range" W ares. I n R esearch i n E conomic Anthropology, S upplement 2 , e dited b y B arry L . I saac,

p p.

I nvestigations o f Mesoamerican " Thin C urrent A nthropology 1 8:534-536.

1 55-205.

J AI

P ress,

G reenwich,

C T.

1 988a

C lassic T eotihuacan G ranular W ares: C eramic E cological I nterpretations. I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he T echnology a nd S ocioeconomics of P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb. B ritish A rchaeological R eports I nternational S eries ( this volume). O xford, E ngland.

1 988b

The C ultural E cology o f C lassic C eramics. I n A P ot f or A ll

-

4 44

-

T eotihuacan C opoid R easons: C eramic

E cology R evisited, e dited by C harles C . K olb a nd Louana M . L ackey. O ccasional C ontribution 2 . L aboratory o f A nthropology, Temple U niversity, P hiladelphia. I n p ress. K rotser, P aula H . 1 981 L evels o f S pecialization Among Teotihuacan P otters. P aper p resented a t t he U niversidad N acional Autonoma d e M é 'xico, Mexico, D .F., " Seminar o n Teotihua c an • " K rotser, P aula H . a nd E velyn C . R attray 1 980 M anufactura y d istribucion d e t res g rupos c era 'micos de T eotihuacan. A nales d c A ntropologia 1 7:91-104. K ubler, G eorge 1 967 T he I conography o f t he A rt o f Teotihuacan. S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 1 4• D umbarton O aks, W ashington, D .C. L inné ' , S igvald 1 93 1 4 A rchaeological R esearches a t T eotihuacan, M exico. n .s. P ublication 1 . E thnographical M useum o f Sweden, S tockholm. 1 91 42

M exican H ighland C ultures: A rchaeological R esearches a t T eotihuacan, C alpulalpan, a nd C haichicomula i n 1 934/35. n .s. P ublication 7 . E thnographical M useum o f S weden, S tockholm.

Matson, F rederick R . 1 965 C eramic E cology: A n A pproach t o the S tudy o f E arly C ultures o f t he N ear E ast. I n C eramics a nd M an, e dited b y F rederick R . M atson, p p. 2 02-217. A ldine, C hicago. M iller, A rthur G . 1 973 T he M ural P ainting Washington, D .C. M illon, R end ' 1 973 U rbanization a t Teotihuacan M ap, P ress, A ustin. 1 981

o f

2

T eotihuacan.

D umbarton

T eotihuacan, V ol. p arts. U niversity

1 : o f

O aks,

T he Texas

T eotihuacan: C ity, S tate a nd C ivilization. I n S upplement t o t he H andbook o f M iddle American I ndians, V ol. 1 : A rchaeology, e dited by J eremy A . S abioff, p p. 1 98-21 43. U niversity o f T exas P ress, Austin.

M ooser, Federico 1 968 G eologia, n aturaleza y d esarrollo Teotihuacan. I n M ateriales p ara l a

d el V alle a rqueologia

d e d c

Teotihuac 'n, e dited b y J osé L uis L orenzo. S erie I nvestigaciof leS 1 7:29-37. I nstituto N acional d e Antropologia e H istoria, Mexico, D .F. Muller, F lorencia 1 966 S ecuencia c er 'mica d e Teotihuac n. I n O nceava M esa R edonda: T eotihuacan, p _ p. 3 1 1 4 4. S ociedad Mexicana d e A ntropologia, Mexico, D .F. 1 978

L a c era 'mica d el c entro I nstituto N acional d e Mex ico, D .F.

Munsell C olor 1 951 1 Munsell

C ompany S oil C olor

c eremonial d e A ntropologia

C harts.

M unsell

T eotihuac n e H istoria

C olor

C ompany,

B altimore. N oguera, E duardo 1 965 L a c eramica a rqueologica d e M esoam rica. de I r ivestigaciones H istoricas, P rimera Serie A ntropologica 8 . U niversidad Autor i6ma

d e

M é 'xico,

M xico,

I nstituto S erie 8 6, N acional

D .F.

P asztory, E sther 1 97 1 4 The I conography o f t he T eotihuacan T laloc. S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 1 5. D umbarton O aks, Washington, D .C. R attray, E velyn C hilds 1 973 The T eotihuacan C eramic C hronology: E arly T zac ualli t o E arly T iamimilolpa P hases. U niversity o f M issouri, P h.D. d issertation, C olumbia, M O. R attray, E velyn C . a nd M aria E lena R uiz A . 1 980 I nterpretaciof leS c ulturales d e Teotihuacán. A nales d e A ntropologia

L a V entilla, 1 7:105-111 1.

R ice, 1 987

U niversity

R ye, 1 981

P rudence M . P ottery A nalysis: A S ourcebook. Chicago P ress, C hicago. Owen S . P ottery t ion.

T echnology: M anuals o n

Washington,

P rinciples A rcheology

a nd 1 4 .

o f

R econstrucT araxacum,

D .C.

S anders, W illiam T . 1 965 The C ultural E cology o f t he T eotihuacan V alley. Department o f S ociology a nd A nthropology, The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, U niversity P ark. 1 966

L ife i n R edonda: Mexicana

a C lassic V illage. I n O nceava M esa T eotihuacan, p p. 1 23 1 14 8. S ociedad d e A ntropologia, Mexico, D .F.

S anders, W illiam T ., J effrey S antley 1 979 T he B asin o f M exico: C ivilization. A cademic

H .

P arsons,

a nd

R obert

T he C ultural E cology P ress, N ew Y ork.

o f

S . a

S antley, R obert S ., P onciano O rtiz C eballos, T homas W . K illion, P hilip J . A rnold, a nd J anet M . Kerley 1 984 F inal F ield R eport o f t he M atacapan A rchaeological P roject: T he 1 982 S eason. R esearch P aper S eries 1 5. U niversity o f N ew M exico, L atin A merican I nstitute, A lbuquerque. S antley, R obert S ., P onciano O rtiz C eballos, P hilip J . A rnold, R onald R . K neebone, M ichael P . S myth, a nd J anet M . K erley. 1 984 F inal F ield R eport: M atacapan P roject: 1 983 S eason. U niversity o f N ew Mexico, A lbuquerque. 9 journ4,

L aurette

1 956

B urning Mexico.

W ater: T hought a nd R eligion V anguard P ress, N ew Y ork.

1 959

U n p alacio e n l a c iudad d e l os d ioses: E xploracio nes e n T eotihuac n, 1 955-1958. I nstituto i ' I acion al d e A ntropologia, Mex ico, D .F.

1 964

L a s imbolica 1 35(4) : 149-178.

1 966

A rqueologia d e Teotihuacgn: L a C ultura E con6mica, Mex ico, D .F.

d e

f uego.

i n

C uadernos

c era 'mica.

A ncient

A mericanos

F ondo

d e

S hepard, A nna 0 . 1 946 T echnological F eatures o f T hin O range W are. I n E xcavations a t K aminaljuyu, G uatemala, A lfred V . K idder, J esse D . J ennings, a nd E dwin M . S hook. P ublication 5 61:198-201, 2 61-277. C arnegie I nstit ution o f W ashington, Washington, D .C. 1 952

T echnological A nalyses. I n L a Venta, T abasco: A S tudy o f O lmec C eramics a nd A rt, P hilip D rucker. B ulletin 1 53:234-238. S mithsonian I nstitution, B ureau o f A merican E thnology, Washington, D .C.

1 968

C eramics C arnegie D .C.

f or t he A rchaeologist. P ublication 6 09. I nstitution o f Wasr iington, W ashington,

S otomayor C asta eda, A lfredo 1 968 E studio p etrogr'fico d el a rea d e S an J uan Teotihuac n, E stado d e Mexico. I n M ateriales p ara l a a rqueologia d e T eotihuac'n, e dited b y J ose L uis L orenzo. S erie I nvestigaciones 1 7:39-50.

-

4 47

-

I nstituto Mexico, T ite, 1 969

N acional

d e

A ntropologia

e

H istoria,

D .F.

M . S . D etermination o f t he F iring Temperature o f A ncient C eramics b y M easurement o f T hermal E xpansion. N at ure

2 22:81.

T olstoy, P aul 1 958 S urface S urvey o f t he N orthern V alley o f M exico: T r ie C lassic a nd P ost-Classic Periods. T ransact ions 4 8(5). A merican P hilosophical S ociety, P hiladelphia. v on W inning, H asso 1 947 A S ymbol f or C ulture.

E l

Wentworth, C . K . 1 933 F undamental S cience. W est, 1 964

D ripping Mexico

L imits

W ater

A ntiguo

t o

t he

i n

t he

T eotihuacan

6 (9-12):333-341.

S izes

o f

C lastic

G rains.

7 7:633-63 4 .

R obert C . S urface C onfiguration a nd A ssociated Geology o f M iddle A merica. I n H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, V ol. 1 : N atural E nvironment a nd E arly C ultures, e dited b y R obert C . West, p p. 3 3-83. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin.

W idmer, R andolph 1 983 C raft S pecialization a t T lajinga 3 3. P aper p resented a t t r ie S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology A nnual

Meeting,

P ittsburgh,

PA.

W illiams, S amuel R . 1 942 H ardness a nd H ardness M easurement. S ociety f or M etals, C leveland.

-

4 48

-

A merican

CHAPTER

1 C LASSIC

T EOTIHUACAN

C ANDELEROS:

C harles

C .

A P RELIMINARY

A NALYSIS

1

K olb

Mercyhurst C ollege 2 18 O ld M ain 5 01 E ast 3 8th S treet E rie, P ennsylvania 1 6516 U. S.A.

I n C eramic E cology R evisited, 1 987: T he Technology a nd S ocioeconomics o f P ottery, e dited b y C harles C . K olb ( 1988),

P art

i i:) 449 6 11 5

C harles

C .

K olb,

1 988

ABSTRACT C eramic c andeleros, l iterally, b ut i ncorrectly t ranslated a s " candelabras" ( Phillips 1 883), " candlesticks" ( Pe f afiel 1 900) o r " lighters" ( Seler 1 915), w ere m anufactured i n s eemingly i nfinite v ariety d uring most o f t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod ( ca. A .D. 5 0-750) i n t he M esoamerican M eseta C entral, a nd e specially a t o r n ear t he a ncient u rban c enter o f T eotihuacan. A s a c hronological " marker" o f C lassic Teotihuacan c ulture a nd i nfluence, t hese p ortable, " personal" i ncense b urners were a ssumed t o h ave b een u sed t o b urn c opal o r o ther f ragrant i ncense, p resumably d uring r ituals o r c eremonies. F ound i n s urface c ollections a nd e xcavations i n b oth u rban a nd r ural C lassic p eriod s ites, c andeleros h ave n ever b een a dequately r eported. T he c urrent i nvestigation i ncludes a s earch o f t he l iterature a nd a n e valuation o f t hese s ources, a d escriptive s ummary o f t he p hysical a nd c ultural c haracteristics o f t hese c eramic a rtifacts, c onsideration o f t he p otential s ources o f m anufacture, a nd a n a nalysis o f t he a ssumed c ultural f unctions. I nter- a nd i ntrasite d istributions a re c onsidered w ith s pecial r eference t o t he S anta M aria M aquixco e l B aja ( TC-8) s ite i n t he T eotihuacan V alley. A p reliminary, yet e laborate, p hase-by-phase c hronology f or c andelero types a nd v ariants i s p resented. T his s tudy, u ndertaken w ithin t he m ethodological a nd t heoretical p aradigm o f " ceramic e cology" ( Matson 1 965), t herefore, r eviews t he s tatus o f c ar idelero d ata a nd s uggests p ossibilities f or f uture r esearch.

-

4 50

-

T ABLE

O F

C ONTENTS

P age 1 1 50

4 51 1 4 53 1 4 55 1 4 57 4 63 4 64 1 4 64 1 4 80 1 4 8 14 4 85

A bstract T able o f C ontents L ist o f F igures L ist o f T ables I ntroduction P urpose o f t he S tudy R eports i n the L iterature T he B asin o f Mexico O utside t he B asin o f Mexico C andeleros a s P aint P ots o r R itual O bjects P hysical a nd C ultural C haracteristics

4 85 1 87 4 87

C andeleros The S tudy S ample P hysical A ttributes 1 P aste C olor .

1 4 87 4 90 4 91 4 91 4 93 4 96 4 96 5 01 5 12

2 . H ardness 3 . T exture 1 4• P orosity 5 . T emper a nd Other A plastic I nclusions 6 . F iring V ariations C ultural A ttributes 1 . Methods o f M anufacture 2 . F orms a nd S hapes 3 . S urface F inish a nd Decorative T echniques 5 14 1 4 D imensions 5 14 P otential S ources o f Manufacture 5 2j I nter- a nd I ntrasite D istributions of C andeleros 5 23 D istributions i n U rban R esidences a nd O ther S tructures 5 23 D istributions a t t he S anta M aria M aquixco e l B ajo ( TC-8) S ite 5 36 D istributions a t O ther R ural S ites i n t he Teotihuacan V alley 5 1 42 The R elationships o f C andeleros t o C eramic a nd Other A rtifacts 5 43 P ostulated F unctions: C andeleros a nd C opalli 5 1 43 C andeleros a s I ncense B urners a nd C opal 5 50 5 53

A ssociations C opal D uring t he C lassic Teotihuacan

5 53 5 57 5 59 5 62 5 66 5 69 6 02

I ntroduction E arly T iamimilolpa Phase: A .D. 2 50-375 L ate T lamimilolpa Phase: A .D. 3 75-450 E arly Xolalpan P hase: A .D. 1 4 50-550 L ate Xolalpan P hase: A .D. 5 50-650 M etepec P hase: A .D. 6 50-750 S ummary a nd C onclusions

6 07

E ndnote

C lassic Teotihuacan P eriod Period C andelero C hronology

-

4 51

-

o f

6 09 6 26 6 32

A ppendix A : C lassic T eotihuacan Period C andeleroS: C haracteristics f C opal, A ppendix B : G enera a nd S pecies o a nd U ses Their S ynonyms, D istribution R eferences

C ited

-

4 52

-

L IST P age 4 58

F igure

1 45 9

1 2

4 60

3

4 61

1 4

1 1 66

5

3 72

6

4 98 5 03

7 3

5 05

9

5 07

1 0

5 25

1

5 34

1 2

5 72 5 76 5 78 5 80 5 82

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8

5 84

1 9

5 86

2 0

5 88

2 1

5 90

2 2

5 92

2 3

5 91 4

2 4

5 96

2 5

5714

OF

F IGURES

D escription T he T he

B asin o f M exico T eotihuacan V alley: C lassic P eriod O ccupations U rban T eotihuacan D uring t he Xolalpan P hase ( ca. A .D. 6 00) C hronological C oncordances f or t he B asin o f M exico E arliest D epiction o f a C andelero ( redrawn f rom P e i i 'afiei 1 900: P late 1 4 ) " Fish" E ffigy C andelero f rom R oom 3 8 S ubfloor, T iamimilolpa, T eotihuacan ( redrawn f rom L inn ' 1 9 14 2:Fig. 1 95) C andelero N omenclature C andelero w ith C ompletely H ollow I nterior C andelero T ype C onfigurations: S ingle-Chamber C andelero Type C onfigurations: M ultiple C hambers S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , 11 ) E xcavations: A rchitectural U nits C andelero D istributions a t S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) M iniature C andeleros S ingle-chamber C andeleros S ingle-chamber C andeleros D ouble-chamber C andeleros D ouble- a nd T riple-chamber C andeleros D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith D -shaped C hambers D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith R ectilinear C onfigurations D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith T alud a nd T ablero o r H exagonal C onfigurations D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith I ncision a s D ecoration D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith I ncision a s D ecoration D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith I ncision a nd P unctation a s D ecoration D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith R oulette o r G rooved Decoration D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith F ingertip I mpressed/Flanged, I ncision, a nd P unc t at i on Decoration

-

4

53

-

5 98 6 00

2 6 2 7

D ouble-chamber D ouble-chamber

E ffigy E ffigy

C ar ideleros C andeleros

L IST P age

T able

1 47 0

1

1 472 4 1 475

2 3

1 473

1 4

4 81

5

1 4 83 1 4 86

6 7

4 88 4 88

8 9

4 89

1 0

1 4 89

1

4 90 4 94 1 4 96 4 99 5 00 5 02

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8

5 13

1 9

5 15 5 16

2 0 2 1

5 17

2 2

5 18

2 3

5 19

2 1 4

5 21 5 26

2 5 2 6

5 28

2 7

5 31

2 8

1 4 91

O F

T ABLES

D escription C andelero D istributions a t t he Xolalpan a nd T iamimilolpa S ites C ollections o f C andeleros S tudied C omparative D ata o n B asin o f Mexico Surveys a nd E xcavations: S herds a nd C andeleros D istribution o f C andeleros f rom S urveyed a nd E xcavated S ites i n t he B asin o f Mexico D istribution o f C andeleros f rom S urveyed a nd E xcavated S ites E xternal t o t he B asin o f Mexico C ande . Leros f rom K aminaljuyu, G uatemala S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) E xcavations: S ite a nd C andelero D ata C andelero P aste C olor Determination C oarse M atte C andelero P aste C olor D eterminations F ine M atte C andelero P aste C olor Determinations P olished M onochrome C andelero P aste Color D eterminations P aste H ardness D eterminations T exture D eterminations T emper a nd O ther Aplastic I nclusions F iring V ariations C andelero V ent T ypes a nd C onfigurations C andelero V ent Type F requencies C andelero L ip a nd S eptum C onfigurations F requencies D ecorative Techniques U sed o n C andeleros S ingle-chamber C andelero D imensions S ingle-chamber C andelero D imensons by C onfiguration D ouble-chamber C andeleros: L argest a nd Smallest i n t he S tudy S ample C hamber D iameters i n S ingle- a nd D oublec hamber C andeleros D ouble-chamber ( Round Chamber) C andeleros: D imensions i n t he S tudy S ample o f 3 02 C omplete S pecimens C andelero C hamber D epths C andeleros f rom Teotihuacan V alley C lassic P eriod S ites S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) E xcavations: C andelero D istributions by A rchitectural U nit S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8)

-

4 55

-

5 32

2 9

5 33

3 0

5 1 41 4

5 45

3 1 3 2

5 1 49 5 51

3 4

5 54

3 5

5 55

3 6

3 3

E xcavations: C andelero D istributions by A rchitectural U nit T ypes S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) E xcavations: C andelero D istribution S ummary S ingle-chamber C andeleros f rom t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) S ite U se o f C opal R esin, B ark, a nd S moke C opal Synonymy, B iological N omenclature, a nd Geographic D istributions S ignificant E laphrium S pecies D istribution o f E laphrium S pecies a s C opal I ncense S ources S igns, S ymbols a nd D epictions O bserved o n C andelero S pecimens S tudied S igns, S ymbols a nd D epictions N ot O bserved o n C andelero S pecimens S tudied

-

4 56

-

I NTRODUCTION D uring t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod ( ca. A .D. 5 0-750) i n t he M esoamerican Meseta C entral ( Central P lateau), a rtisans p roduced a n umber o f h ighly d iagnostic c eramic w ares a nd c lay f igurines. T he c ity o f T eotihuacan, l ocated i n t he V alley o f t he s ame n ame, a n ortheastern s ection o f t he B asin o f M exico, w as t he d ominant p olity d uring t his e ra. T hese l ocations a re detailed i n F igures 1 -3. A mong t he s ignificant p ottery were A lpha a nd B eta " Thin O range" w ares ( Kolb 1 973a, 1 977, 1 982, 1 984, 1 986; L ackey 1 986, 1 988), " Granular wares ( Kolb 1 983, 1 988b), C opoid c eramics ( Kalb 1 987, 1 988a), a nd " San M artin O range" ( Krotser 1 979, S heehy 1 988). I n a ddition t o t heir s ignificances a nd t echnological a ttributes, t hese c eramics a nd t wo d istinctive v essel f orms i n Polished M onochrome s erve a s c hronological " markers" f or v arious p hases w ithin t he T eotihuacan s equence ( Kolb 1 965; B ennyhoff 1 966; M uller 1 966; S e 'journe ' 1 963, 1 966a; R attray 1 9 73). T hese f orms i nclude t he P olished B lack a nd P olished B rown Outcurved R im ( so-called " Basal-Break") Bowls, a nd t he P olished B rown, B lack-Brown, a nd T an C ylindrical V ases which h ave a v ariety o f t ripod s upports. T he V ases a re s ometimes a ccompanied b y H andled C overs. L ikewise, c ertain mold-made f igurines, e specially t he r etrato o r " portrait-head" a nd " princess" f orms, a mong more t han thirty h uman o r p riest-deity t ypes, a lso s erve a s m arkers o f C lassic T eotihuacan c ulture i n Mesoamerica ( Sejourn 1 966b, K olb 1 973b, H odik 1 974, B arbour 1 976). F ollowing c eramic v essels a nd s econd o nly t o t he c lay f igurines i n f requency i n C lassic s ite s urveys a nd e xcavations i n t he Meseta C entral a nd a djacent r egions which h ad T eotihuacan s ocioeconomic o r c ommercial l inkages a re y et a nother d iagnostic c eramic a rtifact which i s t he s ubject o f t he p reliminary i nvestigations p resented h ere. C eramic c andeleros, l iterally, b ut -

-

-

-

i ncorrectly t ranslated a s " candlesticks" ( Pe f iafiel 1 900:52), o r L euchter " lighters" ( Seler 1 915:496), were m anufactured i n infinite variety during most of the C lassic Teotir ivacan s equence, e specially f rom t he E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases ( Figure 1 4 )• A n umber of a uthors h ave c ommented u pon t he i nappropriate t ranslation o f c andeleros a s " candlesticks" ( Ceballos N ovelo 1 922:212, M illon 1 973:14 9 M uller a nd H opkins 1 971 4:27). -

-

I n r eality, t hese c eramic a rtifacts w ere s mall, p ersonal, p ortable i ncense b urners which were p robably a ssociated w ith a n i ndividual's, o r p ossibly r esidential g roup's, s ocioreligious a ctivities. c andelero persists i n t he l iterature,

-

4 57

-

A lthough t he t hese o bjects

n ame

( Kolb)

F igure

1 :

The

B asin

o f

Mexico.

H IDALGO

P UEBLA B ASIN r ro x tac c ihua t1

e rro o ‚

5 I

1 0 1 5

P opoca t epe t1

2 0

I

K ilometers I mpressionistic C ontour L ines

T eotihuacan V alley E cological Z ones

T eotihuacan S ites ( TC) 8 S ta. M aria M aquixco

D = D elta L V = L ower V alley M V M iddle V alley

e i B ajo 1 0 = V ents d e C arpio 4 6 = T iatenco 4 9 T enango

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4 58

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s hould r ightly b e c alled p ortable i ncense b urners ( incensarios p ortatiles o r i ncensarios d el m ano) o r portable c ensers. T hey m ust n ot b e c onfused w ith t he Aztec l ong-handled c ensers ( braseros d e m ano) which r esembled C olonial American b edwarmers, n or s hould t hey b e c onfounded w ith t he l arge C lassic T eotihuacan c omposite, m ulti-bodied r itual c enser o r i ncensario g rande which w as a lso u sed t o b urn i ncense i n r itual o r c eremonial a ctivities ( Tozzer 1 921:43_44, 5 0, P late 1 4; G a r nio 1 922:196-200, Lam s. 1 08-117; L inne ' 1 934:110-113, F igs. 1 49-150, 1 942:171-175, F igs, 3 16-317; S ejourne 1 959:115-128, 1 964:161-178, 1 966a:30-32; K olb 1 965:19, 2 6, 3 4, 4 0, 4 5; M illon 1 973:14). S ome o f t he m ore e laborate r itual c ensers h ad o penwork a nd/or were h ighly o rnamented w ith m asks a nd a dornos ( ornaments) t he " theater" o r t eatro c enser t ype. L ikewise, t he Three-pronged B urner o r b rasier ( brasero), p robably a portable " stove" ( estufa) u sed i n i ndirect c ooking a nd f ueled b y c harcoal, i s y et a nother d istinctive C lassic Teotihuacan w are a nd m arker ( Seler 1 915: 14 91-196, F igs. 1 33-135; T ozzer 1 921:50, P late 1 59; L inné 1 934:111-115, F igs. 1 65-166, 1 942:166, F ig s . 3 05-306; S é ' i journe -

-

1 959:115-128, 1 964:161-178, 1 966a:30-32; K olb 1 965:20, 2 6, 3 4, 4 0, 4 5). C ensers, b rasiers, a nd c andeleros b elong t o S e 'journé's " Barro T ipo 2 " c lassification, a lthough s everal c andelero t ypes w ould n ot " fit" h er typology. The s tudy o f s o-called " minor" c eramic a rtifacts s uch a s f igurines a nd s pindle w horls ( malacates) h as o ften p rovided i mportant i nformation o n Mesoamerican c ultures a nd r elated s ocioeconomic, p olitical, a nd r eligious phenomena. F or t he C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod, f or e xample, B arbour ( 1976:7, 1 23-126, T ables 1 -10, A ppendix I ) r i as a nalyzed 4 21 c eramic f igurine s pecimens f rom t he u rban c enter a t T eotihuacan. H e d etermined t hat f igurines were n ot n ormally p laced i n m ortuary c ontexts b ut d id f requently o ccur i n c onstruction f ill, a nd, t hat a t T eotihuacan, t re d istribution o f ceramic w orkshops d id n ot c oincide w ith c eramic f igurine m anufacturing l oci b ased o n t he p resence a nd a bsence o f c eramic m olds f or t he mold-made f igurines. K olb ( 1970, 1 971, 1 973b), i n s tudying t he d istribution o f h and-made a nd m old-made f igurines i n r ural C lassic T eotihuacan s ites, d erived 1 99 s pecific t ypes b ased o n 4 ,262 s pecimens o btained f rom s ite s urface s urveys a nd e xcavations. I n r esidential s ites, s uch a s t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8:1-2, 3 a nd 4 ) e xcavated s ite, f igurines f requently were f ound o n f loors a djacent t o t he w alls o f i nterior rooms a nd p orches i n t he a partment u nits, b ut were a lso n otable n ear w alls a nd b enches i n c entral c ourtyards, a n a ssumed l ocale f or s ocial-ceremonial a ctivities o f t he r esidential g roup ( Kolb 1 970). I t w as l ikely t hat

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4 62

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c eramic f igurines m ay h ave o riginally b een l ocated i n wall n iches i n t he r ooms a nd p orches, a lthough a n umber were a lso f ound i n c onstruction f ill. H odik ( 1974:119) U tilized 2 ,150 of t hese 4 ,262 f igurine s pecimens i n h er a rt-historical a nalysis. P ostclassjc A ztec s pindle whorls ( malacates) f rom T eotihuacan V alley s ites ( 228 s pecimens) a nd t he T excoco R egion ( 2 ) 45 s pecimens) were s tudied b y M ary H rones P arsons (19 72:45-80), f ollowing P arker's ( 1952) m ethod o f a nalyzing S pindle w horl p anel d ivisions a nd d esign z ones. T he l arger a rtifacts w ere u sed i n t he s pinning o f m aguey ( Agave g enera) f iber, while s maller whorls w ere p robably e mployed i n S pinning c otton f iber.

P URPOSE

O F

T HE

S TUDY

T his c urrent i nvestigation h as f ive p rimary g oals: 1 ) D elineate c andelero t ypes, s ubtypes, a nd v ariants a s r eported i n t he M esoamerican l iterature. 2 ) D escript ively s ummarize t he P hysical A ttributes ( paste, h ardn ess, t exture, p orosity, a plastic c haracteristics, a nd f iring v ariants) a nd C ultural A ttributes ( methods o f m anufacture, s hapes a nd f orms, d imensions, S urface t reatments, a nd s urface f inishes). T hese a ttributes, a nd e specially t he a plastic c onstituents, w ill b e r elated t o o ther T eotihuacan c eramics. 3 ) Consider t he p otential s ources of c andelero m anufacture a t T eotihuacan a nd o ther C lassic s ites. 4 ) I nvestigate t he p ostulated c ultural f unctions of c andeleros a s r elated t o t heir d istributions i n u rban a nd r ural s ites, a nd d etermine p recise contextual l oci w ithin e xcavated r esidences. 5 ) P resent a P reliminary c andelero c hronology r elating c ultural a ttributes a nd t ypes o n a p hase-by-phase b asis. T his presentation i s a ccompanied by a n a ppendix i n which m ore detailed i nformation i s p resented o n t he major v ariables: s tandard v s. m iniature f orms, c hamber t ypes a nd num ber, l ateral v ent t yp es a nd n umbers, l ip o r s eptum c onfiguration, g eneral c onfiguration, s urface t reatments, decoration l ocations a nd t ypes, c ombustion e vidence a nd residues. The b asic t heme o f t his r esearch f ollows F rederick R . M atson's s tatement i n C eramics a nd M an t hat " unless c eramic s tudies l ead t o a b etter u nderstanding o f t he c ultural c ontext i n w hich t hey were m ade a nd u sed, t hey f orm a s terile r ecord o f l imited w orth" ( Matson 1 965:202). M atson's ( 1965) c oncept o f " ceramic e cology," t he a pproach i u sed i n modified a nd e laborated f orm ( Kolb 1 976), i s, a s h e s tated, " one f acet o f c ultural e cology, t hat w hich a ttempts t o r elate t he r aw m aterials a nd t echnologies t hat a l ocal p otter h as a vailable t o t he f unctions i n h is [ or h er] c ulture o f t he p roducts h e [ or s he] f ashions." T his h olistic a pproach s tresses t he

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4 63

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i nteractions o f h umankind w ith t he p hysical a nd b iological e nvironments, a nd t he t echnologies d eveloped t o r esolve t he b asic p roblems o f a cquiring f ood, c lothing, a nd s helter, a nd a ssociated s ociocultural ( social, p olitical, r eligious, a nd e conomic) p henomena h umankind u tilizes i n a n a ttempt t o deal w ith d aily, s easonal, a nnual, a nd u nexpected o r u nanticipated p roblems.

R EPORTS T he

B asin

o f

I N

T HE

L ITERATURE

Mexico

I n p resent-day r ural M exican S panish, t he t erm c andelero r efers t o a ny l ong-legged m arsh b ird s imilar t o a h eron o r s tork ( Islas E scarcega 1 961:1 49), 50 t hat t he c onnotation o f p ortable i ncense b urner h as b een l ost. H owever, M esoamerican a rchaeologists a nd i ndigenous B asin of M exico f ield a nd l aboratory workers s till u se t he w ord t o c onnote t he c lass o f c eramic a rtifacts c onsidered i n t his s tudy. T he e arly C olonial M exican r eferences t o A ztec c eramic l adled i ncense b urners ( tlemaitl) a ppeared i n t he w ritings o f F ray B ernardino d e S ahagun i n t he F lorentine C odex, B ook 2 , T he C eremonies ( 1981:89, 1 91 4), w ritten c a. 1 550-1560. I n t he 1 579 v olume o f t he P apeles de N ueva E spa a ( Paso y T roncoso 1 906:203), s uch h andled c ensers were s tated t o h ave b een u sed i n A ztec t imes t o • . b urn c opal i n h onor o f t he d eities" [ translation m ine]. T he N ahuatl w ord t lemaitl c omes f rom t letl meaning f i r e ( f u e g o) , a nd m aitl f or " hand" ( r nano). T lema, a s mall c eramic " burner" u sed t o i gnite c opal i n "

"

r itual c eremonies, d erives f rom t lemaitl ( Islas E searcega 1 961:256), while t he t erm t lec xitl ( tletl f or " fire" a nd c xitl f or " cazuela," a n e arthenware c ooking p an) i s a g eneric t erm f or c enser o r i ncensario ( Ceballos N ovelo 1 922:207). T he p ublished l iterature o n c andeleros a s a s pecific t erm w as r ather meager, b ut a r eference t o f unction d ated t o a p assage i n H istória d e l os M exicanos p or s us P inturas ( Garcia I cazbalceta 1 891:2 14 2, H ist6ria 1 882:2 14 27 ) i n w hich t he p opulation o f a t own c alled A tlitlalaquia [ Atlytlalacyan], l ocated n ear T ula [ emphasis m ine], m ade offerings a t t he T emple o f U chilogos [ Huitzilopochtli], ". . . h icieron l os c andeleros q ue a hora u san, d o p usieron c opal y o tras c osas d e o lores .. . " " tney p laced b efore i t [ the t emple] t he c andeleros t hat a re n ow i n u se, i n which t hey p ut c opal a nd o ther f ragrant t hings .. . " [ translation m ine]. P hillips ( 1883:627), u sing t he C odex R amirez v ersion o f H ist6ria, t ranslated c andeleros a s " candelabras." These w ould b e t he f irst c lear u ses o f t he w ord c andelero t o d escribe o r s ignify a n i ncense b urner. -

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Serna ( 1892:Paragraph 2 39, 1 953:176), d escribing t he f estival a ssociated w ith t he d eity Q uetzalcoatl, n oted t hat t hose i ndividuals who r endered homage t o t his g od i n A ztec t imes s ent " small s alt c ellars" ( peque'os s aleros) t o the t emple. These c eramic v essels ( vasos d e b arro) c ontained e ight t o t en d rops of b lood, a bsorbed b y means of small s trips o f p aper which were s ubsequently b urned w ith c opal g um o n t he t emple a ltars ( 1953:171 4_176). N uttall ( 1901 4:13) c ommented t hat " the a llusion t o t iny e arthen v essels i n c onnection w ith s imilar b lood-offerings n aturally s uggests a n e xplanation f or the p urpose o f t he s mall t erra-cotta d ishes a nd p articularly of t he e nigmatical r ecepticles w ith two d eep h oles which a re f ound a t T eotihuacan i n g reat n umbers" [ emphasis m ine]. T here a ppears t o b e n o doubt t hat N uttail was r eferring t o c andeleros, a nd a ttempted t o m ake a r itualistic c onnection between C lassic Teotihuacan a nd L ate Postclassic A ztec a rtifacts a nd c opal u se ( see a lso L eon 1 905, R adin 1 920). The A ntonio

r ecent m isuse P eF i 'afiel's

o f t he t erm t rilingual

c andelero d ates p resentations

t o i n

T eotihuacan: E studio h istorico y a rqueologico ( 1900:52, P late 1 4 ), i n which h is E nglish t ranslator, L ic. C arlos Fernandez G alan, u sed t he word " candlesticks" a s a synonym f or c andeleros. I n t he F rench-language t ranslation by A uguste Genin, c andeleros were r endered a s " chandeliers" ( 1900:52), i n a n a pparent E nglish-to-French s ubstitution f or " candlesticks." The E nglish t ranslation was a s f ollows: C andlesticks

-

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p ieces of e arthen ware o f f ive c entimeters h igh and w ide a nd e ight i n t ransverse d irection, w ith t wo h oles a s i f m ade b y r unning a f inger through t he c lay, a nd t wo perforations f rom t he f ront t o t he b ack. The o utside i s r ough a nd p uckered t hough s ome a re smooth. N othing i s known o f t he u se t hey were p ut t o. I t i s known t hat t he a ztecs [ sic.] knew n o c andles a nd t hat t heir l ights were r ossinous [ sic.] p ines. The " rough a nd p uckered" f orm d escribed was t hat o f a two-chamber c andelero d ecorated w ith three h orizontal r ows o f f ingertip i mpressions ( 1900:52, P late 1 4) • The s pecimen, r edrawn f rom t he o riginal p late, i s r eproduced a s F igure 5 . E dward S eler ( 1915:1 496_1 497, T afel L ), i n h is German-language t reatise o n Teotivacan [ sic.] c ulture i n t he M exican h ighlands, t ermed t hese a rtifacts L euchter o r " lighters," n oting t hat t hese a rtifacts were " a v ery f amiliar c lass o f T eotihuacan a ntiquities" ( 1915:1 496).

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4 65

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( Kolb) F igure 5 : The ( redrawn f rom P e afiel S cale

E arliest D epiction 1 900:Plate 1 4 )

1 :1.

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4 66

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of

a

C andelero

H is s pecimens, e xclusively f rom u rban T eotihuacan a nd C lassic Teotihuacan p eriod s ites n ear A zcapotzalco o n western s hore o f L ake T excoco, i ncluded b oth s ingled ouble-chambered e xamples a s well a s e ffigy f orms. r eported ( 1915:1 496_497) [ translation m ine]:

t wo t he a nd H e

These a re t hick w alled r ude l ittle d ouble v essels m ade o f c lay. I n v ery m any c ases a n i ndented e xterior h as b een p roduced b y s ticking t he f inger o r a l ittle s tick i n t he s oft c lay, a nd f requently, b ut n ot a lways, t here a re l arge p erforations i n o ne o r two p laces i n the w all. I h ave n ot t he l east doubt t hat t hese l ittle v essels were i ncense b urners. I n s ome o f t hem t here a re i n f act t races o f copal. Those I o btained f rom t he r egion o f A zcapotzalco ( Pl. L , R ows 5 a nd 6 ) a re d istinguished f or s ize a nd w eight. H ere q uite o ften were a lso f ound s ingle ( not double) v essels of c ylindrical_concial s hape. I n T eotihuacan t here a re a lso s mooth-walled, s harp c ornered s pecimens ( Pl. L , R ow 2 ) o r t hose d ecorated w ith i ncised l ines o r d ots [ punctuation] ( Pl. L , R ows 11 4). A lso v essels o cc r t here q uite o ften, which d isp lay a f ace o n o ne s ide ( always v ery c rude). I t m ay b e t hat t hese s pecimens b elonged t o a l ater p eriod. I t i s s triking t hat t here i s a d ouble v ertical s ecant o ver e ach e ye i n t he majority o f t hese f aces. O ne o f t hese s ecants o ccurs o n o ne h ead o f my T eotihuacan c ollection ( Pl. XVIII, R ow 1 , N o. 3 ). A s pecimen f rom A zcapotzalco h as o n i ts n arrow s ide a well-executed a pe's [ monkey's] head ( P1. L , R ow 5 , [ No. 3 ]). T he a ccompanying T afel L ( Plate 5 0) i llustrated 1 9 s pecimens f rom Teotihuacan a nd t en o btained f rom t he s ites o f S an M iguel Amantla a nd S antiago A huizotla, b oth i n t he v icinity o f A zcapotzalco. P rofessor R oque C eballos N ovelo o f t he D irecci6n d e A ntropologia, writing i n M anuel G amio's L a p oblaci6n d el V alle d e T eotihuac n 1 (1): L a p oblaci n p rehisp nica ( Ceballos N ovelo 1 922:205-212, F igs. 6 1-90), p repared what h as r emained t he o nly d efinitive r eport o n c andeleros. H e a ssociated c andeleros f rom b oth T eotihuacan a nd A zcapotzalco w ith t he T eotihuacan " culture," c onsidered t heir u ses a nd " primitive n ame," a nd e laborated t he t ypes o f d ecorations f ound o n t he s pecimens f rom T eotihuacan. Twenty-nine c andeleros ( 27 d ouble-chamber a nd t wo s ingle-chamber) were i llustrated. H e c ommented t hat t he t erm c andelero, t ranslated a s

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4 67

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" candle h older," w as a n u nfortunate m isnomer b ecause c andles h ad b een i ntroduced t o t he " Mexican i ndians" b y t he S panish a nd t hat t hese w ere n ot c andle h olders o r s imilar l ighting d evices ( 1922:205-206). P e afiel's ( 1900) work w as n ot r eferenced, b ut S eler's ( 1915) s tudy was mentioned i n a f ootnote. C eballos N ovelo a lso r ejected p ossible i nterpretations o f c andeleros a s c rucibles ( crisoles) o r melting p ots u sed t o melt g old, s ilver, o r c opper, a nd a lso d iscounted t he p ossibility t hat s uch c eramic a rtifacts were s upports f or o ther pottery v essels ( 1922:206). L ikewise, h e f elt t hat t here was n o e vidence f or t heir u se a s i llumination d evices u sing p ine s livers, b ut, f ollowing t he r eport i n H istc S 'ria de l os M exicar ios p or s us P inturas ( Histo 'ria 1 882:242), b elieved t hem t o b e p ersonal i ncense b urners i n w hich c opal o r o ther " fragrant t hings" were b urned ( 1922:206-209, 2 11-212). C hemical a nalysis, r eferenced i n a s ubsequent s ection of t his r eport, c onfirmed t he u se o f c opal a s a r esin b urned i n c andeleros o r s ahumadores t eotihuacanos " Teotihuacan c ensers" ( 1922:208). D uring t he 1 918-1919 e xcavations a t l a C iudadela ( the C iudadela o r C itadel), t he major s ocioreligious/sociopolitical c ompound i n u rban Teotihuacan ( measuring c a. 5 00 x 5 00 m ), M anuel G amio r ecovered s everal c andeleros c ontaining c opal r esidues. These s pecimens c ame f rom s epulchers ( tumbas) l ocated i n t he u pper p latform o f t he c entral m ound ( Marquina 1 922:158-161, F ig. 3 4, C eballos N ovelo 1 922:207). -

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T o my k nowledge, s ubsequent r eports i n t he Mesoamerican a rchaeological l iterature h ave d epended u pon t he t hree s tudies c ited a bove P e afiel ( 1900), S eler -

-

( 1915), a nd C e ba llos N ovelo ( 1922). The l atter a rticle was f requently s tated a s h aving b een a uthored b y M anuel G amio ( see L inne ' 1 934:113, K idder e t a l. 1 946:216, S éjourn 1 959:194). J . E ric T hompson ( 1930:105) w rote t hat " traces o f beeswax h ave b een f ound i n s ome o f t he o dd v essels t ypical o f t he T eotihuacan c ulture, w hich a re g enerally k nown a s c andeleros." S igvald L inne ', t he Swedish e xcavator o f t he X olalpan residence i n u rban T eotir ivacan, r ecovered 2 02 c andeleros 1 66 d ouble-chamber a nd 3 6 s ingle-chamber ( 193 )4 :113 11 14 , F igs. 1 51-16) 4). H e o bserved t hat t hese " clay o bjects c haracteristic o f T eotihuacan" were g enerally c alled c andeleros o f " candlesticks." L inn€ f urther s tated t hat " what p urpose t hey a ctually s erved i s unknown" ( 1934:113), a lthough h e c ited t he o ccurrences o f t races o f c opal a nd b eeswax i n s uch a rtifacts ( referencing S eler, G amio, a nd Thompson ' s p ublications), a nd n oted S erna's r eference t o " small s alt c ellars" -

-

( Serna 1 892:Paragraph I n g eneral t erms,

2 39, 1 953:175; N uttall 1 901 1:13). L inn c onsidered d ecorative

-

4 68

-

e laborations o n t he Xolalpan s pecimens: s mooth, p unctation, i ncision, a nd ( fingertip) i mpressed. I n s pite o f h is c aution a s t o a rtifact f unction, L inne ( 193 14 :11 14 ) o bserved t hat t he s ingle-chambered c andeleros " intact, o r f ragmentary were mostly f ound i n G raves 1 _1 1." H owever, i n r eality, h e r eported o nly 1 6 o f 3 6 -

s pecimens f rom s uch a s m ay b e s een i n n ote t hat e ight o f

-

c ontexts ( 193 14 :59_60, 6 2-63, 6 7, 6 8), m y t abulation ( Table 1 ). L inne d id t he 4 8 specimens r ecovered f rom t he

L as P almas s ite h ad b een p rimitive wall" ( 1934:111 4).

" placed

i n

a

r ow

n ext

t o

a

I n L inne"s s ubsequent e xcavations a t t he T lamimilolpa u rban r esidence a t T eotihuacan a nd a t t he C lassic s ite o f C halohicomula i n P uebla, " many h undreds" o f c andelero s pecimens were r ecovered ( 1942:38). H e c ontinued t o r etain h is c aution a s t o f unction ( Linne ' 1 942:38): " What p urpose t hese o bjects s erved r emains a n u nsolved p roblem, b ut i n T eotihuacan t hey a re p articularly n umerous o ccurring." C opal a nd beeswax were, h owever, n oted a s r esidues i n c andelero c hambers ( 1942:11 47). A n u nusual " fish" e ffigy c andelero ( 19 14 2:121, F ig. 1 95) h ad b een l aid i n a bed o f c lay i n t he s ubfloor o f R oom 3 8 a t T lamimilolpa, a nd m ay h ave been a c ommemorative o ffering a ssociated w ith t he c onstruction o f t he s uperior f loor ( see F igure 6 ). B urial 1 , a c remation i n R oom 1 6 a t T lamimilolpa, c ontained t wo c andeleros o ne e ach o f t he s ingle- a nd d ouble-chamber f orms i n a ddition t o o ver 1 ,200 o ther a rtifacts ( 1942:125-132, F igs. 2 19, 2 23). S ee T able 1 f or a c ompilation o f c andelero a ssociations a t T lamimilolpa. U nfortunately, L inne d id n ot f urther c onsider c andelero f orms, t ypes, d ecoration, o r p rovenience i n h is r eport ( Linn 1 942). -

-

-

-

E xcavations a t t he s ite o f A tetelco i n u rban T eotihuacan b y L aurette S éjourn ( 1956-1957a) p roduced 2 5,304 cer amic s pecimens. I n h er i nitial c eramic t ypology f or t his r esidential c omplex, S journ characterized " Grupo 2 : C eramica c rema s in b a o y s in p ulir," w ith 2 ,444 s pecimens ( 1956-1957a:20). I ncluded w ithin t his c lassification w ere i ncensarios a nd t heir o rnaments ( adornos), T hree-pronged B urners o r b raziers ( estufas), a nd, a pparently, c andeleros. T here w as n o f urther s ubdivision o f t his t abulation. S éjourne"s ( 1959:194, 1 96-197, F igs, 1 64-165; 1 966a:1 43) e xcavation a t t he n earby " high s tatus" u rban r esidence o f Z acuala a t T eotihuacan, y ielded 5 51 c andelero s pecimens i n t he e scombro ( debris o r r ubbish). S he r eferenced t he e arlier c andelero s tudies o f S eler, G amio, a nd T hompson, a nd t he Z elia N uttal [ sic.] ( Nuttall 1 904) f unctional h ypothesis, c oncluding t hat c andeleros were i ncensarios d el m ano ( portable i ncense b urners). F igures 1 64 a nd 1 65 i llustrated 4 8 s pecimens:

3 3

d ouble-chamber

a nd

s ix

-

s ingle-chamber

1 4 69

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e xamples,

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( Kolb) F igure 6 : " Fish" Effigy C andelero f rom R oom 3 8 S ubfloor, T iamimilolpa, T eotihuacan ( redrawn f rom L inne 1 9 11 2:Fig. 1 95) S cale

1 :1.

-

4 72

-

a s w ell a s f our d ouble-cnamber " miniature" c andeleros. T his w as t he i nitial r eport i n t he l iterature o n t he d iminutive f orm ( Se 'journe 1959:Fig. 1 6, R ow 4 , N os. 2 -5), b ut, e xcept f or t hese i llustrations, t here w as n o d iscussion o f t he m iniature s pecimens i n h er r eport. I n t he e arly 1 960s, S journ 's e xcavation a t t he T etitla s ite, a " high s tatus" u rban T eotihuacan r esidence l ocated n ear t he Z acuala s ite, p roduced a t otal o f 5 ,579 c andeleros ( S journ4 1 964:175-178, F igs. 2 4-26; 1 966a:43). M oore ' s ( 1966) e xcavation o f a s ealed s ubfioor b urial o ffering a t T etitla y ielded n o c andeleros. A nother u rban T eotihuacan r esidence, Y ayanuala, l ocated n ear Z acuala a nd Tetitla, w as a lso e xcavated b y S ejourne i n t he 1 960s, a nd g enerated 3 ,700 c andeleros, o r a s s he n ow c alled t hem, i ncensarios p ortatiles, " portable c ensers" ( S journ ' 1 966a:32, 4 3, 4 4, F igs. 1 7-20). A t otal o f 8 1 s pecimens f rom t he t hree S4journe e xcavations were i llustrated, a nd i ncluded 5 4 d ouble-chamber, 2 0 s ingle-chamber, a nd s even " miniature" c andeleros ( 3 d oublea nd 4 s ingle-chamber f orms). S b 'journé f urther o bserved t hat t he s ingle- a nd d oublechamber " large" c andeleros h ad c arbonized i nteriors, i ndicative o f c ombustion, a nd t hat " certain s pecimens" c ontained c opal r esidues ( 1966a:32). T he 9,830 c andelero s pecimens f rom t he t hree e xcavations r emains t he l argest e xcavated s ample ( see T able 2 a nd 3 ). T he l ate 1 950s a nd e arly 1 960s a lso m arked t he p eriod o f e xtensive s ite s urvey a nd t r ie t esting a nd e xcavation o f o ther C lassic Teotihuacan p eriod s ites i n t he B asin o f Mexico. A s urface s urvey o f 1 11 a rchaeological s ites i n t he n orthern B asin o f M exico b y P aul Tolstoy ( 1958:17, 3 5, 5 8, 6 0), r ecorded o nly 1 2 c andelero s pecimens, a ll f ragmentary. T olstoy c onsidered t hese v essels a s " Plainware," w hich i n p art r esembled h is S an M artin G rey P lain p ottery, a nd n oted t hat " its d istribution i n t ime s eems t o c enter i n T eotihuacan I II a nd I V" [ Early a nd L ate X olalpan a nd Metepec p hases] ( Tolstoy 1958:35), c a. A .D. 4 50-750. B y u sing b oth s ite a nd c eramic s eriation, T olstoy w as t he f irst i nvestigator t o s pecifically " phase" c andeleros w ithin t he C lassic T eotihuacan s equence, r estricting t heir o ccurrences t o t he l ast h alf o f t ne t otal s equence. S ee T able 3 f or c omparative d ata. The T eotihuacan V alley P roject, 1 960-1965 ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, W illiam T . S anders, d irector) h ad a s i ts g oal t he s urvey o f a ll a rchaeological s ites i n t hat v alley, a n ortheastern s ection o f t he B asin o f M exico ( Sanders 1 965, K olb 1 979a). A n i ntensive a nd e xtensive s ettlement p attern s urvey r esulted i n t he m apping a nd s ampling o f 1 34 m ulticomponent C lassic p eriod s ites w r iich h ad 5 85

-

4 73

-

T able

2 :

C ollections

C C -

. . -4

4 0

-

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-

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c omponent p hases r epresented ( Kolb 1 986:157-158, T able 1 ). O ver 6 0,000 s herds i n 9 70 c ollections c ame f rom t hese s urveyed s ites. I n a ddition, e xcavations, r anging f rom t ests i n s ingle r ural r esidential mounds ( tlateles) i n s ites c lassified a s H amlets t o t he f ull-scale e xcavation o f a pyramid a nd t he p artial e xcavation o f t hree l arge r esidences i n a L arge N ucleated V illage, were c onducted. T hese l atter e xcavations were a t t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo s ite ( TC-8:Pyramid, a nd M ounds 1 -2, 3 , and 1 4 ) ( Kolb 1 979a). I w as r esponsible f or t he p rocessing a nd a nalysis o f a ll C lassic p eriod a rtifacts f rom a ll T eotihuacan V alley s urveys a nd e xcavations. C andeleros were f ound i n s ome o f t he s urface s urveyed s ites a nd i n s even o f t he e ight e xcavated s ites ( see T able 3 ). S ince 1 962, t he C lassic u rban c enter o f T eotihuacan h as been t he s ubject o f t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject ( The U niversity o f R ochester, R ena M illon, d irector), whose personnel h ave i dentified 5 ,01 47 " sites" w ithin t his metropolis ( Millon 1 973, 1 981:199-202). O ver 2 00 " domestic" c eramic workshops, n early 1 4 00 o bsidian-working s ites, a nd l esser n umbers o f ceramic f igurine, s hell, a nd l apidary workshops were d iscerned. C eramic workshops were s ituaced i n a ll p arts o f the a ncient c ity, b ut were c oncentrated n ear m ajor c lay r esources ( Krotser 1 976a, 1 976b, 1 979; M illon 1 981:225; S heehy 1 988). O ver t hirty workshops s pecialized i n d omestic k itchen w are, S an M artin O range ( basins, c raters, a nd j ars) ware, a nd were c lustered i n s everal b arrios ( districts o r w ards) i n S quares S 3W1 a nd S 1 4W1-I2. A c oncentration o f p ottery workshops i n t he T lajinga b arrio o f t he o ld c ity l ed t o e xcavations b y S anders a nd h is c olleagues a t s ite 3 3:S3W1, c ommonly known a s " Tlajinga 3 3" ( Storey a nd W idmer 1 982, S heehy 1 988). P ottery p roduction a t t his s ite d ated t o t he L ate Xolalpan a nd e arly M etepec p hases ( 1982:66-68). T he T lajinga a rea w as a lso a l ikely a rea f or the p roduction o f T eotihuacan C opoid c eramics, b ased upon a n a nalysis o f r aw c lays a nd f inished p roducts ( Kolb 1 988a). M illon's c olleagues, e specially E velyn R attray ( 1973), e xcavated a n umber o f t est p its a nd t renches i n v arious s tructures t hroughout t he u rban c enter i n o rder t o r esolve s pecific p roblems o f c eramic s eriation a nd a rchitectural c onstruction s equences. I h ad t he o pportunity t o s tudy m any o f t he c eramic a nd c andelero c ollections f rom t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject s urveys a nd e xcavations d uring t he y ears 1 962_196 11 t hrough t he c ourtesy o f J ames B ennyhoff ( see T ables 21 4). C oncurrent w ith t he S anders a nd M illon i nvestig ations, t he M exican g overnment's I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria ( INAH) c onducted a n e xtensive p rogram o f excavation a long t he c ity's m ain n orth-south a venue, t he M iccaotli o r s o-called " Street o f t he D ead."

-

477

-

D istribution o f C andeleros F rom S ites i n the B asin o f Mexico.

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0 ' 0 ' -I N .

0 4 . 4

0

-

. 4 • • F 1 0 N . 04 '

0

0

0 00 1 0 4 N . 1 4 4 0 ' . 4

N . . 0 )

1 1 0 . 4

C . 4

0 C

' . 7 I ( ' 4 7 . . 1 V 1 0 1 0 0 ' . . 4

0 0 0 a ) a ) a ) 0 ) 10 10 a ) a ) a ) 0 . 0 .

0 4 10 1 4 4 0 4 0 ' 4 4

17

C O . 7

N .

r ' 4 I . 4

C O P 4

0 0 ‚ 7

C

0 ' N . I f , I n

0 .

1 1

I

N

I

+

+

0 ' 0 P 4

+

+

a ) 0 0 O ( 1 . 4 0 )

-

4 0 ) 0 ) 1 4 . : 0 1 ( 1 0 0 .

0 4 0

0 1 0 00 0 4 0

( 1 0 ( 4 0

0 0

0 ) 4 . 4

t o( IO U 0

0 0 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) ( 1 ( 1 ( 4 1) 1 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 0 0 . 0 .0 .0 . 0

0 0 CV 1 V U I) 0 1 V 10 U a ) a ) 1 0 .0 .0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N , . D . 4 .4 a ) . 0 4 0 4 .44 4 0 0 < 0 0 0 1 0 1 V 1 0 . 4 0 ) 0 ) ( l O t o t o 0 1

0 0 0 40 4 0 1 V LO 'E 4 0 ) 1 0 1 V' 0 . 1 . 4 4 . 4 ' 4 0 ) 4 . 1 4 . 1 0 ) 0 ) 0 )

4 4 4 . 4 4. 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) I ' I -1 I . f -4

-

4 78

-

1 V 0 . ‚ ‚ 4 0 ) 0 ) 1 0

0 1 V 1 ) 1 0 0 . 0 . 4 4 4 0 0 ) E .

1 . a ) . 0 E C O . 0 .U C I N . 0 ) 1 O N . 0 ' 4 ' C

0 0 . 4 1 4 . -. 10 C ) 1 0 0 4 '

‚ 0 0 ) 4 . 4 C O I 4 . 4 O D a ) 4' a ) . 4 0 1 4 a ) 0 ) 0 1 4 4 C O 'a ) t o C C ' • 0 . 0 a ) ( 1 4 . 4 4 C O . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) -a ) ( I D 0 4. 4 I - a ) 4 0 ) 0 4 •0 1 4 0 (t C O ( 1 C ) Q ) C 4 . 4 P 4 -' C O c l ) 0 ' U

4

I I

0 a ) ( 0 a )

* •( ' 4 I T . 7 0 ' C O . 4 1 0

( ' 1

I I

I

N . C J D I w o N . . 4 N .

. . 4 ( ' 4 . 4 0 0 10 1 4 1 0 4 4 a ) %0 'Q J ' G 4 a ) a ) I 0 1 0 0 14 4 0 0 0 -7 -‚ a ' o a ' o - o 4 ‚ 4 4 . 4 ' w 'Q ) U 3

N . N .

a ' P 4 4 V )

Surveyed

N . • . 4 O D N . • 0 0 0 ' 0 ) . 4 • 4 ( 0 0 0 1 . I 0 0 . 1 0 4 0 . •0 4 0 4 .

. 4 N . I . 4 N . 1 4 4 N . . 4 N . •‚ 4 ‚ 1 0 . - 0 0 0 ( ‚ 4 . 4 N N . 1 0 0 . - r I . 0 4 • . • . 1 0 4 .r ' J •.7 1 0 1 ' 1 I 0 ' m

0 ‚ I . 4

0

1 V 0 4 ' -

4.

1 1 0 '

. 4

7 1 0 4 0 1 1 0 . 0 0 ' • . ' 4 -7 . 4

Z

1 0 0 0 ‚ . 4 1 4 c

K

( ' 4

. v 4 . -, " --

o 0 0 1 0 4 0 1 V ( 1 0

I

1 0 N 4 . 4 0 0 . C O -' U u) N

1 V 4 --4 4

• 1 1 0 N . • . 1 0 0 ' . 1 0 I D 0 ' N . 4 • . 1 0 ‚ 4

T e o t i h u a c a n

V )

o i o

" C o y o t l a t e l c o "

C a n d e l r o s w

o

( 1 D

4 -'

I

4 0 4 N . 0 . 4 a ) •

0

C

I

C

• C O

0

.

4

a ) 0 C

C ' -

C

•0 .

0 : 0

. N .

V J 0 0 ' 0 0 14 o r i o o 0 ) ' 0 ) 4 0 . 2 :

I

I

. 1 0

C O 0 ' 1 4 a ) 0 0 ø 0 C O Z L )

I

C U

0 N .

1 4 ( ' 4 I 0 . N . D C O O ' a ) C • . . 7 1 0 0 4 1 0 ' • . 0 0 4 4 0 a ) 1 44 Z . 0 ' 0 a ' Ir , 4 ' C 0 ) 0 4 0 C 0 I . ' 4 I f ) 4 Q J 4 4 I_I a ) 1 01 4 . 4 a ) 1 0 4 . 0 o C O 0 4 M a ) a ) 1 0 Z 0 . M I _ f O L D >

I _ 0 .

• 0 0 ) 4 . 4 4 4 0

S i t e N a m e

0 . 4 ' N .

• . C ' 00

n 1 1 0 I D 0 4 0 4

I n T o l s t o y 1 9 5 8 : 8 6 -

. 0 )

N . . C N . 1 1 0 I P 4 • C - N . 0 . • -

1 1 0

I 1 1 0

I

T able 1 4 : Excavated

' ' 0 )

0 0 1 0

0 )

1 V

1 0

0

0

0 )

1 V

0 0 0 ) 10 ( 1 1 ) 1 V 1 V 0 0 . 0 .0

0 1 0 1 ) 1 V 0 . 0 1 4 4 . 4 0 0 ) I'

4 . 4 4 . 1 0 0 0 ) 0 ) l E4 '

0 ) 0 ) 4 4 4 ( 1 . _ I a ) 1 4 0 0 . C l ) t o 4 a ) 1 V . 0 U 0 ) 4. 4 ( ' D a ) . 0 -a ) 0 0 ) 14 0 C U 0 ) 1 4 4 a ) 0 ) 4 0 1 V C O

O

O D 0 "

E

0 - 4 C O . 4 •0 4 . 1 0 4 t o 4 . 4 a ) . 0 ' 4 a ) -.0 c C O ( 1 . 0 I O U 0 1 . 0 0 4 . 4 0

K

4 . 4

a nd

F rom 1 960-196 ) 4, t he I NAH P royecto T eotihuac an , d irected b y I gnacio B ernal, e xcavated i ncredible amounts o f c eramic a nd o ther a rtifactual m aterials. T hanks t o F lorencia J acobs M uller, J uan V idarte d e L inares, a nd R obert C hadwick, I w as a ble t o s tudy n umerous a rtifact c ollections, i ncluding t he c andelero s pecimens, d uring 1 963-1961 ( Kolb 1 96) 4). F rom August t o O ctober 1 963 a nd f rom J une t hrough J uly 1 964, a s eries o f s eminars o n Teotihuacan V alley c eramics ( Preclassic t hrough P ostclassic) were h eld a t v arious a rchaeological l aboratories a t T eotihuacan, w ith p ersonnel f rom a ll t hree p rojects p articipating ( Kolb 1 965, Bennyhoff 1 966, M uller 1 966). Bennyhoff ( 1966:25) n oted t hat c andeleros, Three-pronged B urners, a nd C opoid c eramics i nitially o ccurred d uring t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hase ( ca. A .D. 2 50-375), a nd were p art o f t he " fully f ormed Teotihuacan t radition." M uller ( 1966:35-36, 3 7, 3 8, 3 9) p resented s ome b asic i nformation o n c andelero types ( singlea nd d ouble-chamber) which were p resent d uring f our T eotihuacan p hases s panning t he t ime f rom A .D. 2 50-650: T eotihuacan I la o r E arly T lamimilolpa, Teotihuacan I la-Ill o r L ate T lamimilolpa, T eotihuacan I II o r E arly Xolalpan, a nd Teotihuacan I ll-a o r L ate X olalpan p hases. I n my p reliminary s tudy o f T eotihuacan c eramics ( Kolb 1 965:19, 2 6, 3 4, 40, ) 4 5), c andelero f orms a nd t ypes, a nd m ajor k inds o f d ecoration were d elineated f or t he E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases, c a. A .D. 2 50-750. E duardo N oguera ( 1959:414; 1 965:90, 9 7) b riefly mentioned c andeleros a s a p art o f t he C lassic Teotihuacan c eramic c omplex. S ince c andeleros d ated o nly f rom t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hase, n o e xamples were f ound among t he a rtifacts f rom t he e arth f ill w ithin t he P yramid o f t he S un ( Millon e t a l. 1 965, S mith 1 987). A lthough R attray's ( 1973) r esearch o n T eotihuacan c eramics s panned t he t imes f rom E arly T zacualli t hrough t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hases, c a. B .C./A.D.-300 A .D., c andeleros were n ot c onsidered. T hese a rtifacts s hould h ave a ppeared a long w ith t he Three-pronged B urners ( estufas) a nd c ensers ( incensarios) i n R attray's " Coarse M atte Ware" c ategory ( 1973:79-81, 1 09-111, 1 4 2 4 11 45, 1 68 - 1 71). There w as n o e xplanation a s t o why c andeleros were n ot s pecified, a nd I c an o nly s urmise t hat s he m ay h ave c ategorized c andeleros a long w ith c eramic f igurines a s m inor a rtifacts a nd e xcluded t hem f rom her a nalysis. O n t he o ther h and, s he m ay hold t he o pinion t hat c andeleros i nitially o ccurred i n t he L ate r ather t han E arly T lamimilolpa p hase, t herefore e xcluding a d iscussion a bout t hem o n t he b asis o f c hronology s ince h er i mportant c eramic s tudy c overed o nly t he pottery a ssociated w ith t he p hases t hrough E arly T lamimilolpa. The l ong-awaited,

-

4 79

-

d efinitive C lassic Teotihuacan c eramic a nalysis b eing p repared b y R attray a nd M illon w ill u ndoubtedly a dd t o o ur k nowledge o f t he c eramic t ypology a nd p hasing. O utside

t he

B asin

o f

Mexico

T able 5 i s a c ompilation o f r eports o n c andeleros f rom s ites o utside t he B asin of Mexico. O ften c andeleros were s imply r ecorded a s " present" a t a p articular s ite, a nd l ess f requently i llustrations a ccompanied t he authors' d isussions o f t hese c eramic a rtifacts. I n thirty r eferences, t he q uantities o f c andeleros were s tipulated i n13 i nstances, while i n t he r emainder o nly " presence" w as n oted. Twelve r eports were a ccompanied b y i llustrations. L ee P arsons ( 1980:Fig. 14 2) d epicted " two c andeleros" f rom t he S aint L ouis A rt M useum c ollections, b oth o f which h ad been o riginally c ollected b y G eorge P epper a nd were a cquired by t he M useum a s g ifts. The t wo a rtifacts were d escribed a s f rom " Mexico, C entral H ighlands ( Las Bocas), O lmec s tyle, M iddle P reclassic, 1 000-500 B .C." These were small ( 7.0 x 3.5 x 2 .5 c m a nd 7 .2 x 3 .8 x 2 .5 cm) t wo-chambered r ectangular b oxes which f unctioned a s " incense, p aint, o r s acrifical b lood c ontainers." The f ormer, i n b lack c eramic, w as d ecorated w ith d eeply g rooved U -shaped motifs f illed w ith r ed p aint, while t he s econd a rtifact, i n white c eramic, h ad i ncised s croll p anels a nd d iagonally h atched s ections, w ith r ed p igment i n a lternate z ones. N either o f t hese o bjects were Teotihuacan style c andeleros, a nd i t i s u nfortunate t hat t he t erm was u sed t o d escribe t hese r ectilinear c ompartmented b oxes. L inn ( 19 14 2) r eported e xamples o f T eotihuacan-style c andeleros f rom t hree C lassic T eotihuacan s ite e xcavations i n E stado d e P uebla a nd o ne i n E stado d e T laxcala. T he p urchased t wo-chamber s pecimen f rom A ijojuca, P uebla w as " crude" a nd u ndecorated, a nd was p robably " locally m ade" ( Linné ' 1 9 1 42:1 41, 5 5, F ig. 6 9). C andeleros f rom Chalchicomula a nd S an J ose Z oquiapan, both P ueblan s ites, were i nsufficiently d etailed a s w ere t he t wo s pecimens f rom t he s ite o f L as C olinas, C alpulalpan, T laxcala. A ngulo a nd H irth ( 1981:92-93) r eported f inding m any d ifferent t ypes o f C lassic Teotihuacan c andeleros f rom n umerous s ites i n t he E stado de M orelos. T hree s ites f rom West M exico, L a C osta G rande, C oyuca d e Benitez, a nd S an Geronimo, a ll i n Guerrero a nd n ot f ar f rom A capulco, r eputedly h ad c andeleros o f t he " Teotihuacan t ype" ( Lister 1 971:627). Further s outh, f rom t he m ajor s ite o f M onte A lb n, C aso ( 1938) a nd C aso e t a l. ( 1967:360, F igs. 2 97a-c) d escribed two o ne-chamber a nd o ne-two c hamber T eotihuacan s tyle c andeleros, t he l atter s pecimen a f ingertip i mpressed

-

1 4 80

-

T able 5 : E xcavated

D istribution o f C andeleros f rom S urveyed S ites E xternal t o t he B asin o f Mexico.

S ite N ame

C andeleros R eported ( Present

E xcavated S urveyed

S ite

( F : )

=

S ite

( S)

-

C andeleros

I llustrated

C hambers

l i mb —

T otal

C hambers

M inia- T otal

O ne

t urm

( n)

O ne

t urms

Two

T wo

R eferences

(0)

E stado d c P uebla a s B ocas ( F : ) A ljojocs ( S) C haichicomula

2 !

I .

P arsons

I 1on6

( F :)

S on J ose Z oquiapar t

a nd

( E)

1 980 :F1g.

4 2

1 947:41,

5 5,

F ig.

4 1,

5 5

0

l ine , '

1 942:38.

0

i inne

1 942:74

0

L ion,

1 942:69

0

A og : rlo a nd

0 0 0

W eItl oer W citianer W ei t laner

6 9

E stado d c T laxcala L .a C olts.,, C alpulalpan E stado d c M ord es N umerou,

s ite.

( S.

( S)

F : )

l irth

1 981:92-93

E stado d c G uerrero L a C osta G rande

( S,

K )

C o ya ca d c Ben itez ( S. S an G eronimo ( S. F : )

-

E )

-

-

1 948:80-81 1 948:80-81 1 948:8!, L lster

1 971:627

E stado d c O axaca M onte A lb.. ( S, E ) E stado d c V eracruz M etacapan

( S,

-

K )

-

I re, Z apotem

( Upper)

T ees Z apotes

( S.

( S,

K )

-

E )

E stado d e C hiapas Y sxchilan ( S, E )

R are

R are

-

-

-

-

3

C aso e t

0

S antley e t a l.

a l.

1 967:360,

F igs.

I I

D rucker 1 943:88, 16, 1 21, P l. 4 7v W elant 1 943:81-82, 1 28 F ig. S Oc

0

L ongyear

1 984:19,

2 97a-c

7 7;

1 985:3

1 952:102

Guatemala C hacula

( 5,

F : )

+

A ltar d c t arn ! t rio,

( S.

E )

+

-

K amin a ljuyu

( 1,

F : )

K sminaljuyu

( S,

E )

K . aminaljuyu K asinaljuyu

( E ) ( F : )

( 10 e xcavations).

+

-

1 7

-

-

L ancetilla

5 0 4

-

9

( E)

4

-

P iedras N egras

( E)

+

-

+

-

-

+

-

+

-

-

7

-

4

-

+

-

1 5

-

5 0 +

-

-

1

-

I 7

-

-

( 3-chamber)

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0

B urkitt

I

A dam,

1 924:144

1 971:104-106, 1 930 :Fig.

( E)

1

-

l acualpa ( E) I h neum o f t he A merican I ndian],,

I 1

-

-

1

-

-

I I

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

F ig.

1 04c

S aville

I 5

K idder e t a l. 1 946:204-205. F igs. 9 3, 1 99

0 0

M ichels a nd S anders 1 973:106-481 L ischka 1 978:248, 2 70, 2 71

0 0

P openoe a nd F openoe 1 931 i n L ongyear 1 952:102 S atterthwaite p ersonal c ommunication

I

K idder

I 0

L c 'tl ,rop I 936:Fig. L inne ' 1 934:100

3 9

L ongyear

2 9,

i n L ongyear R io C oyolate

1 39,

I

3 5a 2 16 217,

1 952:102

1 943,90 ,

F ig.

H onduras C opan

( F : ,

5 )

1 26

3 ( 17

U lua V alley

( S.

F : )

1

I J iva V alley

( 5,

F : )

+

E l

1 46

-

1 3

1

t hree-chamber) -

1

-

4

( 2

7

1

+

-

-

1 6

t hree-chamber) -

-

-

-

8 1,

1 952:27,

T ables

I

S trong e t

0

l ongymar

1 01-102,

F ig.

1 2-13

a l.

1 938:Fig.

7 j

1 952:102

S alvador

T azumal

( S.

E )

" almost u nknown"

( Unknown S ite)

1

-

-

4

-

-

-

1

0

B oggs

i n L ongyear

I

W eber

I 922:Flg.

1 944:Appendix

C

3 8

1 T hese t wo s pecimens a re d ouble-chambered r ectangular b oxes, n ot i ncense c andeleros, d ated t o t he M iddle P reclassic, 1 000 5 00 B .C., f rom t he S aint L ouis A rt M useum c ollections ( Parsons I 980 :Fig. 4 2), -

2

T here a re " several

3

T he s e

s p e c i me n s

h undred"

s pecimens r eported

j , k ), b ut f our a re o , ,e-chamber c andeleros; C andelero r eferences a re s cattered t hroughout 1 06-481). T h es e

s p ec i me n s

( Linn ( ; 1 942:38).

a re"sinia t o, e v essels," r ather

a re m ore

l ikely " paint

—

t han c andeleros

( Kidder e t a l.

1 946:204-205,

F ig.

1 99e,

I : ,

t he r emainder a re " paint p ots" o r " symbolic v essels ." t he t en e xcavation d escriptions ( Michels a nd S anders 1 973:

p ots" r ather

4 81

—

t han c andeleros „ sed

to

b urn

i ncense

I ,

d ecorated e xample, a T eotihuacan h allmark. N o s pecimens were r eported f rom Tehuacan V alley s ites ( MacNeish e t a l. 1 970). S antley e t a l. ( 198 11 :19, 7 7) s peculated t hat T eotihuacan s tyle c andeleros a t M atacapan, E stado d e V eracruz were " Teotihuacan i nspired o r d erived," a nd t hat t hey h ad b een m ade f rom l ocal c lays. F urther s pecifics were n ot r eported. T he C lassic p eriod c omponent a t T res Z apotes p roduced " a f ew" t wo-chamber c andeleros, u sually t he m atte, u ndecorated, r ectangular f orm ( Drucker 1 91 13:88, 1 21, F ig. 4 7y; 4 eiant 1 943:81-82, F ig. 5 0e). Specimens f rom t he E stado d e C hiapas were s aid t o b e " rare" ( Longyear 1 952:102), a nd n one w ere d epicted f rom Y ucatecan s ites s tudied b y B rainerd ( 1958). C andeleros were r eported a t C lassic p eriod s ites i n G uatemala, e specially t hose which h ad T eotihuacan e conomic/commercial a nd s ocioreligious l inkages. A r ectangular two-chamber s pecimen ( lacking s ide v ents) was r eported by K idder e t a l. ( 19 1 46:216, F ig. 9 3) f rom t he C arnegie I nstitution o f W ashington e xcavations a t K aminaljuyu. T his " locally m ade" c andelero c ame f rom T omb X , a nd h ad b een d ecorated o nly w ith a w hite s lip. Seven " miniature v essels" f rom K aminaljuyu ( 191 16:201 1-205, F ig. 1 99) a ppeared t o i nclude f our s ingle-chamber c andeleros. Two " jar s haped" s pecimens ( one e ach f rom AIl, 1 1 a nd f rom Mound B ) h ad s ide v ents a nd were c overed w ith a " thick white p aint." T r ie t wo o ther " barrel s haped" c andeleros, o ne u ndecorated a nd w ithout a wall v ent, a nd a nother d ecorated w ith v ertical i ncisions a nd w ith a v ent, were r ecovered f rom A -111, 5 4, a nd AIl, 8 , r espectively. T he more r ecent e xcavations a t K aminaljuyu b y T he Pennsylvania S tate U niversity ( Sanders a nd i 1 iche1s 1 973), y ielded 5 0 c andeleros of t he Teotihuacan t ype ( see T able 6 ). L ischka ( 1978:2 14 8, 2 70, 2 71) d escribed t he K aminaljuyu s pecimens a s " small t hick w alled, c rudely m ade C oarse B rown w are v essels." S ite-Unit 1 4 6 23 0 14 2, a r esidence n ear t he A cropolis a nd P alangana, h ad c andeleros " present n ot i n h igh n umbers," while S ite-Unit 1 4 6 32 133, a " high s tatus" r esidence, h ad " candeleros p resent i n r elatively h igh f requency." F rom t he C lassic s ite o f C opan, H onduras, which, l ike K aminaljuyu, a lso h ad T eotihuacan i nfluence a nd c ommercial t ies, L ongyear ( 1952:27, 2 9, 1 01-102, F ig. 8 1, T ables 1 2-13) r ecorded 1 1 46 s pecimens 1 26 o ne-chamber, 3 t wo-chamber, a nd 1 7 t hree-chamber f rom S tratigraphic T rench 1 -1 46. H e a lso s tated t hat " literally h undreds o f -

-

-

-

t hese s mall, c rude, c lay c ontainers t urned u p i n t he c ourse o f e xcavations .. . " ( 1952:101). S ix s hapes w ere c lassified: b ottle ( n z 6 4), g lobe ( n = 2 9), c ylindrical ( n = 1 7), " 3-lobed" ( n = 1 6), 2 -hole ( n = 3 ), 3 -hole

-

4 82

-

T able

6 :

C andeleros

M ound

Designation

f rom

K aminaljuyu,

C andeleros

B -II-2 B -III-5 B -P /i B -V-4 B -V-6 B -V-8 B -V-li C -V-12 D -111-1 F -VI-3

G uatemala.

( n)

1 1 4 1 1 3 2 4 2 1 2 1 2 5 0 ( range

o f

1 -21)

After S anders a nd M ichels ( 1973:106, 1 66, 2 4 03, 1 4 72, 1 4 75, 4 78, 4 80, 2 4 81); c andelero a re

s cattered,

a nd

t here

-

i s

n o

-

1

t abulation.

2 22, 2 60, r eferences

( n = 1 7). " Grooving o r g ouging i n s imple geometric designs" o r o verall p unctation o ccurred i n a bout h alf of h is s pecimens. R elatively f ew o f t hese a rtifacts h ad s ide v ents. S ixteen s pecimens were i llustrated, b ut o nly two o f t hese r esembled the Teotihuacan s tyle o ne-chamber candeleros, a nd i t i s more l ikely t hat t he C opan a rtifacts were not u sed to b urn i ncense. C andeleros were noted f rom s ites i n t he U lua Valley a nd a t t wo s ites i n E l S alvador. I n c omparison w ith t he c andelero s pecimens f rom t he Basin o f M exico a nd n earby a reas s uch a s t he C lassic p eriod s ites i n P uebla, T laxcala, M orelos, a nd a t Monte A lban, t he s pecimens f rom West Mexico a nd the Gulf C oast were s imple, l acked t he e laborate d ecorations f ound o n Teotihuacan c andeleros, a nd were n ot a dequately r eported. The s pecimens f rom K aminaljuyu a ppear t o be t rue Teotihuacan s tyle c andeleros, b ut a gain l acked t he decorative e laborations, a nd m ay h ave b een l ocally manufactured. I t i s l ikely t hat t he " candeleros" f rom Matacapan, T res Z apotes, K aminaljuyu, a nd t he West Mexican s ites were made f rom l ocal c lays, a nd, a s S antley e t a l. ( 198) 4:19, 7 7) s tated, were " Teotihuacan i nspired o r d erived." Other ceramic a rtifacts c lassified a s " candeleros" may h ave s erved o ther p urposes. C andeleros

a s

P aint

Pots

o r

R itual

Objects

While t he s mall, c hambered i ncense b urners f rom Teotihuacan-affiliated a reas a ppear to b e t rue c andeleros, s ome s pecimens f rom K aminaljuyu, a nd a ll o f those f rom o ther Guatemalan s ites ( Lancetilla, P iedras Negras, a nd Z acualpa), a nd t hose e xamples f rom the U lua V alley o f H onduras a nd s ites i n E l S alvador, were n ot t he t raditional, personal i ncense b urners. O nly s ome o f t he s o-called " candeleros" f rom C opan, H onduras were t rue i ncense b urners, while t he v ast m ajority o f s uch a rtifacts were more l ikely " paint pots" o r r itual o bjects n ot a ssociated w ith t he b urning o f i ncense. S ince t rue c andeleros a re q uite e asy t o m ake, a nd t he p hysics o f i ncense b urning r eadily apparent, w ith c hamber s ide v ents s ignificantly a iding i n c ombustion, i t s eems t hat most o f these " candeleros" s erved o ther f unctions. I n a ddition, " true" c andeleros a nd c andelero-like c ontainers f rom s ites i n Guatemala, Honduras, a nd E l S alvador l acked t he decorative e laborateness of s pecimens f rom C lassic Teotihuacan s ites i n t he Basin of Mexico and environs. A lthough t he s ample s ize i s m inimal, i t m ay b e t hat t he two-chamber, r ectangular, m atte-finished f orm ( made f rom l ocal c lays a t T res Z apotes, K aminaljuyu, a nd p ossibly Matacapan, a ccording t o t he a uthors c ited a bove) was a c andelero type d esigned f or e xport. F urther a nalyses a re n ecessary t o t est t his h ypothesis.

PHYSICAL The

S tudy

A ND

C ULTURAL

C HARACTERISTICS

O F

C ANDELEROS

S ample

I e xamined 1 ,4O8 c omplete o r f ragmentary s pecimens which c onstitute t he a nalytical b asis f or t he c urrent p resentation o n c eramic c andelero c haracteristics a nd a ttributes. T he s pecifics o n t he c ollections s tudied appear i n T able 2 . C andeleros i n t he e xcavation a nd s urface s urvey c ollections o f t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject, t he c ollections i n t he D epartment o f A nthropology o f t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory, a nd t wo p rivate c ollections were s tudied i n d etail, while s pecimens f rom t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject a nd P royecto T eotihuacan were e xamined i n l ess r igorous f ashion. B ecause o f t he a vailability o f d etailed i nformation, t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , L, a nd P yramid) e xcavations p rovided s ignificant c ontextual a nd s tylistic d ata o n 2 28 c andeleros ( see T able 7 ). S pecimens f rom t he T eotihuacan Valley P roject ( n = 3 14), t he A merican Museum o f N atural H istory ( n = 8 9), a nd a p rivate c ollection ( n = 2 6) were p articularly a nalyzed f or P hysical A ttributes, a t otal o f 4 29 s pecimens. T en t hin s ections were p repared f rom c andelero f ragments i n t he f ormer c ollection. The f ollowing a ttributes w ill be c onsidered i n s ubsequent s ections: P hysical A ttributes: p aste, h ardness, t exture, p orosity, t emper a nd o ther a plastic i nclusions, a nd f iring v ariations; a nd C ultural Attributes: m ethods o f m anufacture, f orms a nd s hapes, s urface f inishes, a nd d ecorations, a nd d imensions. T he s pecific m ethodologies u sed h ave b een e xplicated e lsewhere ( Kolb 1 973a, 1 977, 1 988a, 1 988b) b ut, i n t he main, f ollow t hose s pecified b y A nna S hepard ( 1968, 1 971), O wen R ye ( 1981), a nd P rudence R ice ( 1987), modified b y s uggestions made b y F rederick R . M atson ( 1963-1966:personal

c ommunications).

Three d istinctive c andelero m anufacturing t raditions were d iscerned b ased upon a n i nitial a nalysis o f c eramic p aste o r f abric d one i n t he e arly 1 960s ( Kolb 1 965). N early a ll c andeleros b elonged t o o ne o f t wo t raditions. The f irst, t he C oarse M atte ( in t he main w ith " sandy" o r " sandy" a nd v egetable f iber a plastics), which i ncluded s ome o f t he p reviously m entioned c ensers ( incensarios) a nd t heir o rnaments ( adornos), a s well a s t he Three-pronged B urner o r b razier ( brasero o r e stufa). The v ast m ajority o f t he c andeleros w ith f ingertip i mpressed decorations were C oarse M atte. T he s econd t radition, F ine M atte ( with v egetable f iber a plastics), which e ncompasses a v ariety o f s aucers, d ishes, a nd s imple bowls, a lso i ncluded s ome b raziers a nd c ensers, e specially the multibodied " theater" ( teatro) t ypes a nd

-

4 85

-

T able 7 : E xcavations:

S anta M aria M aquixco S ite a nd C andelero D ata.

e i

B aja

C o

• 0a )( N

c o V

c a

C C 0

c c

C

C '

4ñ -

N ‚ r

a ) E I ,-0 (0

--

X 1 4

4 4

4 .

t w o c h a m b e r

C C o

0

. 0

c a a , I ,

c C u . 0 ,0 0

0

rn

Q ) E C

‚

0

-

-

m

N-

‚ . 4

4 ( 0 0 . 0 a J

0

N-

' C a ) 8 0 4 0

0

a ) C

0 . 0 I

4 'a )

N -

N-

C

+ -4

>

m

c a 4 ,

0 I ' 0 a )

-4

a ) • 0 0 c a L )

-

c a

a ) C a ) C C E c a P . 0 0 . ) 4 ,

c a

4 0 . 0

4 0 U

0

0

c o ca 0 ) 0 .

C

0 0 / )

m

-4

a )

E x c a v a t i o n

C

N -

N-

-

S

C

O

>

o 0 ) C l ) C . ) 8 0 0 4

" -4

0 v ( V c , . ,

0 )

0

1 4 ( 0 0 / ) 0 4

( 1

0 0

( N

C

m

-4

N --

0 )

0

E

a )

0

‚

0

a ) 0 ' ' C

r ,

N -

0

m

I .

4 1

C

0

0

0 E 4

4 ( 00 1 0 a ) C c

0 ) 0 a )

4 , . ,

a ) 0

4 ( d

U

E

a )

‚ 4

C . a )

. 0 4

' C ' 0

. 4

N4 ,-c

N. Co ir ,

Co 4r c m

N

--

C o

‚

-4

0

• r 4 (N

a ) u 8 0 0

C 0

T C 8 : P y r a m i d

N I . 4 I

1 . 4

m I

.

I

O V )

Q —. Z Z . 4 ' 0

1 0

—

0

0 4 ' I

4

4 86

—

‚

C

4 4

0 . 0 O D a ) " 4 0 . ( 0 0 ( 0

C

4 0 ) E 0 a )

4

+ ( ' 1

a ) 4

N - 0 . 4 1 0 ' ' 0 I

N-

0 0 80 0 4 . 0 0 a ) 4 4 0 4 4 0 ) 0 4 -, 4 0 0 1 4 0 4 0 0 .

>

10

0 ) 0

0 0

4 . 4

4 ‚

C

0 )4 . ) > 0 1 4 0 a ) 0 ) 0 ) 0

0 ) )

( TC-8)

m ost o f t he a dorno v ariants. The F ine M atte c ensers were chronologically m ore r ecent i n t ime t han t he C oarse M atte s pecimens, a nd t he s ame h eld t rue i n a n a nalysis o f t he c andeleros a ssociated w ith t hese t raditions. A r are, t hird c andelero t radition, r epresented b y o nly f our s pecimens ( Teotihuacan M apping P roject = 2 , A merican M useum o f N atural H istory = 1, a nd p rivate c ollection = 1 ), w as c losely r elated t o t he T eotihuacan P olished Monocirome c eramics. These o ften h ad a f ine v egetable f iber t emper. P olished M onochrome c eramics i nclude t he P olished B lack a nd P olished B rown Outcurved R im ( Basal B reak) B owls; the P olished C ylindrical V ases, s ometimes w ith a ccompanying H andled C overs, i n B rown, B lack-Brown, o r T an v ariants; a nd t he f ive C opoid Ware v essel f orms C opas, D eep C ups, C opoid C ylindrical V ases ( sometimes w ith H andled C overs t o m atch), a nd T apered V ases ( Kolb 1 988a). T he c eramics w ithin t he P olished M onochrome t radition a re C lassic T eotihuacan h allmarks a nd chronological m arkers. -

P hysical 1.

-

A ttributes

P aste

C olor

C olor d eterminations were m ade b y u sing " natural l ight" a nd a s et o f M unsell S oil C olor C harts ( 1954), w ith p rocedures s pecified by Shepard ( 1968:102-113), R ye ( 1981:119-120), a nd R ice ( 1987:331-316). O ne s ignificant a nalytical p roblem w as t hat c andeleros w ithin t he C oarse Matte c ategory f requently h ad t heir o riginal c olors " masked" b ecause o f a c oating o f f ine s oil a nd/or m ud a cquired f rom t he a rchaeological c ontexts i n which t hey were d eposited. S uch m asking t ended t o g ive " false" c olor d eterminations a nd m ay a ccount f or t he p erpor iderance o f " gray" c asts t o t he v essels. R eadings were t aken o n t he c leaned b asal s urfaces o r o n f resh b reaks. The r esult o f a d etaled a nalysis o f c andelero p aste c olors i s p resented i n T ables 8 -11. A s m ay b e s een, " grays" d ominated t he s amples o f b oth C oarse M atte a nd F ine Matte c andeleros, while " browns" a nd " reds" w ere much l ess f requent. "Browns" were c haracteristic o f t he f our P olished Monochrome s pecimens. I t s hould b e n oted, h owever, t hat a lthough " grays" w ere d ominant, t he v ast m ajority o f t hese h ad a r eddish o r p inkish c ast. 2 .

H ardness

T he d egree o f p aste h ardness i s e xpressed i n t erms o f Mohs' S cale ( Williams 1 942), t he s implest a nd m ost e conomical m ethod ( Shepard 1 968:113-117; Kolb 1 973a:317; R ye 1 981:121; R ice 1 987:35 1 4_357, 1 4 77, 1 4 79, 1 1 81). S uch t ests h ave a l imited v alue because o f t he u nevenness o f s cale a nd r ange. T he r esults o f h ardness t ests o n 4 28

-

4 87

-

Table

8 :

C andelero

P aste

M unsell C olor D esignations

R eddish G ray R eddish G ray P ale R ed

C olor

( 1954)

( 5R 6 /1) ( 5R 5 /1)

( 7.5R 6 /2)

W eak R ed ( 7.5R 5 /2) R eddish G ray ( b R 6 /1) R eddish G ray ( b R 5 /1) R eddish B rown ( 2.5YR 5 /4) W eak R ed ( 2.5YR 5 /2)

Determinations.

C oarse M atte

F ine M atte

( n

( n

=

2 22)

=

4 2

2 1

3

8

2 1 1 1 9

6 5 1 2

0 2

0 3

P inkish G ray ( 5YR 6 /2) L ight R eddish B rown ( 5YR 6 /3)

8 5 1 2

P inkish G ray P inkish G ray

1 3 9

7 4

B rown ( 7.5YR 5 /2) L ight G ray ( 10YR 7 /1)

7 1 8

2 6 9

L ight B rownish G ray

1 9

2 3

G ray

( 7.5YR 7 /2) ( 7.5YR 6 /2)

( 10YR 6 /2)

( lOYR 6 /1)

1 6

Matte

M unsell C olor D esi& nations

-

2 -

-

1

8 4

Paste

Q uantities

P ercent

P inkish G ray

1 07

4 8.2

R eddish G ray

3 6

1 6.2

L ight B rownish G ray

1 9

8 .6

L ight G ray G ray

1 8 1 6

8 .1 7 .2

L ight R eddish B rown B rown

1 2 7

5 .4 3 .2

7 2 22

3 .2 1 00.1

1 96 1 9

8 8.3 8 .6

O thers

( 3)

" Grays" " Browns" " Reds"

7

2 2

-

4 88

-

=

1

2 03

C andelero

( 1954)

( n

-

8 3 6

2 22

Table 9 : Coarse Determinations.

2 03)

P olished M onochrome

3 .2

i o o: .

C olor

4 )

Table 1 0: Determinations.

F ine

Matte

M unsell C olor D esi nations

C andelero

( 1954)

Q uantities

Paste

P ercent

P inkish G ray

9 4

4 6.3

B rown L ight B rownish G ray R eddish G ray

2 6 2 3 2 0

1 2.8 1 1.4 9 .9

L ight G ray

9

44

G ray

8

3 .9

P ale R ed

8

3 .9

O thers

( 4)

1 5

7 .4

2 03

1 00.1

1 54

7 5.9

" Browns"

3 2

1 5.8

" Reds"

1 7

8 .4

2 03

1 00.1

" Grays"

Table 1 1: Polished Determinations.

Monochrome

M unsell C olor D esignations

( 1954)

L ight R eddish B rown

Candelero

Q uantities 2

Paste

P ercent 5 0.0

R eddish B rown

1

2 5.0

B rown

1

2 5.0

4

1 00.0

4

1 00.0

" Browns"

-

4 89

-

C olor

Color

s pecimens a re r eported i n T able 1 2. Most c andeleros i n the C oarse Matte a nd F ine Matte c ategories a nd a ll f our s pecimens i n t he Polished M onochrome t radition were i n t he r ange o f 5 t o 6 , s imilar i n h ardness t o G ra u1ar wares a nd " Thin O range" ( Kolb 1 973a:317, 1 977:535, 1 988b), while C opoid c eramics were 6 t o 7 ( Kolb 1 988a). I n t he m ain, h ardness t ests a re o f m inimal v alue i n pottery a nd c eramic a rtifact a nalyses.

T able

R ange

3

-

1 2:

P aste

H ardness

( Williams 1 942)

4

Determinations.

C oarse M atte ( n = 2 22)

F ine M atte ( n = 2 03)

0

4- 5 5 6 6- 7 U nrecorded

3

1 3 5 .9% 2 08 9 3.7% 1 0 .5% 0 2 22 1 00.1%

-

P olished M onochrome ( n = 4 )

1 .5%

0

5 2 .5% 1 93 9 5.1% 1 0 .5% 1 0 .5% 2 03 1 00.1%

0 4 0 0 4

1

1 00 .0%

1 00.0%

1U nderfired s pecimen.

3 .

Texture

P aste t exture was s tudied i n t erms of Wentworth's S ize C lassification ( 1933), r ecommended by s edimentary p etrologists ( Shepard 1 968:117-121, R ye 1 981:147, R ice 1 987:483). I t a ppeared t hat a f inely w ashed r aw c lay w as desired f or the p roduction o f the F ine M atte a nd Polished Monochrome c andeleros, a nd a ll s pecimens e xamined were f ree f rom notable impurities a nd i nclusions. I n t he c ase of t he C oarse Matte e xamples, a more " sandy" c lay w as p urposefully s elected by t he a rtisans. I t was n ot possible to d etermine i f t he f ine q uartz " sand" w as a c ultural a dditive o r was n aturally o ccurring i n t he r aw c lays. I s uspect that " sandy" c lays w ere s elected by t he potters t o p revent c racking o r o ther f iring a ccidents a nd these n aturally t empered c lays often contained f ine vegetable f ibers a s a dditional a plastics. T he q uartz i nclusions i n the s pecimens s tudied were r ounded r ather than a ngular, which s uggests t hat n o c ulturally a dded c rushed o r p repared m ineral t empers were i ncluded b y t he potters. N onetheless, t exture i s a j udgmental e valuation ( see

T able

1 3).

-

4 90

-

T able R ange

1 3:

T exture

Determinations.

( Wentworth 1 933) C oarse M atte ( n

S ilt V ery F ine F ine

=

0 2 01 2 1

F ine M atte

2 22)

( n

1 99 4 0

9 0.5% 9 .5%

2 22 1 00.0%

4 .

=

2 03)

P olished M onochrome ( n = 4 )

9 8.0% 2 .0%

4 0 0

1 00.0%

2 03 1 00.0%

4

1 00.0%

P orosity

N o s pecific p orosity t ests were c onducted, b ut t he C oarse Matte s pecimens were more porous, while t he F ine Matte c andeleros were m uch l ess porous because of t he c lays s elected a nd more c areful c raftsmanship i n forming a nd d ecorating t he i ncense b urners. This e valuation i s b ased upon t he r esults o f a s imple water a bsorption t est d one o n t he s ides o r p rofile s urfaces o f c andelero s pecmens. The l east porous, a s e xpected, were t he P olished M onochrome c andeleros, where a w ater d rop would momentarily " bead Up " o n t he s urface p rior to a bsorption. Again, a s a nticipated, t otal a bsorption w as s lowest i n t he P olished M onochromes, while F ine M atte w as i ntermediate, a nd t he C oarse M atte s pecimens t he f astest i n t otal a bsorption. N o s pecific q uantifiable d ata w as c ollected, a s permeability, m icrostructural, a nd porosity d ata a re q uite d ifficult t o q uantify ( Shepard 1 968:125-130;

4 84).

5 .

Temper

Rye

a nd

1 981:120-122;

O ther

Aplastic

R ice

1 987:472,

4 78-480,

I nclusions

" Temper" o r " grog" i s a n a plastic c ulturally added t o r ay c lays i n o rder t o r educe t he c hances o f f iring a ccidents s uch a s d eformation, c racking, o r c razing ( Shepard 1 968:91-93, 1 56-168; Rye 1 981:13-14, 3 1-37; R ice 1 987:406-413). S ome c lays a re s aid to be " self-tempered" because they r equire no a dditives a nd c an be u sed by t he a rtisans " as i s. , The t ypes a nd amounts o f a plastics employed by c andelero manufacture were v ariable. C oarse M atte s pecimens h ad a " sandy" t exture, a nd t he c lays s elected were most l ikely s elf-tempered, s o t hat f ine q uartz p articles were n ot c ulturally a dded. However, s ome f ine v egetable f iber, perhaps c haff ( up t o 3 .0 mm i n a ccidents.

l ength), M o s eed,

w as a dded t o s traw o r o ther

-

4 91

-

h elp p revent f iring i mpressions ( such a s

t extile) were n oted o n t he s urfaces o f a ny o f t he s pecimens s tudied, n or w ere a ny v egetable m aterial impressions n oted i n t he w alls o f b roken c andeleros. T he F ine M atte c andeleros were m ade f rom a s ilty, p ossibly l evigated c lay, a nd s ometimes h ad a v ery f ine v egetable f iber, p ossibly c haff ( up t o 1 .0 mm i n l ength) a nd/or c attail " fuzz" a dded t o r educe p lasticity a nd e nhance t he decorative workability. S uch f ibrous m aterial w ould a lso i nhibit f iring a ccidents. M ary H opkins ( 1988:personal c ommunication), c autions t hat we s hould n ot a ssume t hat t he r aw c lays were l evigated o r " washed" b ecause, s he n otes, m any o f t he c urrently a vailable c lays a t Teotihuacan a re v ery f ine a nd c an b e u sed " as i s." T he P olished M onochrome s pecimens ( n = L) were v ery s imilar t o t he F ine M atte e xamples i n t erms o f a plastics a nd v aried o nly i n c lay c ompactness d ue t o t he polishing o f t he s urfaces. S hepard ( 1968:139 141) a nd R ice ( 1987:207_2 14 3, 3 71_) 40 14 ) h ave d efined t he methodologies t o b e u sed i n c eramic p aste a nd a plastic a nalyses. T hese were p reviously employed i n my s tudies o f " Thin O range ( Kolb 1 973a:321, 1 977:535-536), G ranular ( Kolb 1 988b), a nd C opoid c eramics ( Kolb 1 988a), a nd a re n ot r epeated h ere. The s tudy u tilized b inocular m icroscopy ( 60x magnification) a nd t he a nalysis o f t en t hin s ections w ith t he u se o f a p etrographic m icroscope a nd p olarized monochromatic l ighting ( Kalb 1 988b). A ll s pecimens s tudied c onformed w ithin a cceptable l imits t o t he T eotihuacan " Domestic" W ares R eference G roup ( n = 1 00), a n a nalytical s ample w hich i ncluded s even d efined w ares a nd e leven v essel f orms/types d ating t o t he L ate T iamimilolpa a nd E arly X olalpan P hases ( Kalb 1 988b). This r eference c ollection i ncluded o nly p ottery l ocally p roduced a t T eotihuacan. A mong t he s even w ares were C opoid c eramics, F ine M atte w are, a nd C oarse M atte ware. T he f ormer s et, i ncluding C opas ( cups) a nd C opoid Cylindrical V ase s pecimens, c onformed t o t he P olished Monochrome c andeleros a nd w as l ikewise v ery s imilar t o t he P olished B rawn ' a nd P olished T an C ylindrical V ase e xamples. F ine M atte c andeleros c orresponded t o t he F ine Matte W are f lareros ( flower v ases), s imple b awls, h andled c overs, a nd m iniatures. S imilarly, C oarse M atte W are Three-pronged B urners o r b raziers ( braseros o r e stufas) c orrelated w ith t he C oarse M atte c andeleros, b ath h aving a " sandy" t exture. I t s hould b e n oted t hat s ome Three-pronged B urners b elong t o t he F ine M atte t radition, b ut

t hese

were

n ot

i ncluded

i n

my

a nalysis.

T he c andeleros f rom t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject c ollections, s pecimens f rom t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory, a nd b ath p rivate c ollections were most l ikely m anufactured f rom c lays l ocally a vailable a t

-

4 92

-

T eotihuacan.

T he

b inocular

a nd

p etrographic

m icroscope

s tudies o f c andelero s pecimens d emonstrated m inimal v ariation i n c omparison t o t he p ottery i n t he T eotihuacan " Domestic" W ares R eference G roup. T he most c ommon c omponents, a ll n aturally o ccurring i n Teotihuacan c lays, a re r eported i n T able 1 1. T he v arious i nclusions a re c onsistent w ith M eseta C entral g eology, a nd e specially t he g eology o f t he Teotihuacan V alley s ector o f t he u rban c enter which i ncluded t he T lajinga b arrio ( ward o r d istrict), a p ottery-making a rea i n a ntiquity a nd c ontinues t o b e a r esidential a rea f or c eramic a rtisans ( Storey and W idmer 1 982, S heehy 1 988). G arman H arbottle ( Department o f C hemistry, B rookhaven N ational L aboratory, who h eard t he i ntitial o ral p resent ation o f my r esearch, r eported t hat 1 0-15 years a go h e h ad c onducted N eutron A ctivation Analysis ( NAA) o n s everal c andelero s pecimens f rom u rban Teotihuacan. H e s tated t hat t he c lays u sed b y t he a rtisans " definitely were T eotihuacan c lays" a nd t hat t hese a rtifacts were made f rom r aw c lay r esources which a pproximated t hose u sed i n t he p roduction o f S an M artin O range b asins a nd c raters ( Harbottle 1 988:personal c ommunication).

t he

The C oarse M atte c andeleros were n early i dentical t o C oarse M atte w are c eramic s pecimens, w r iile t he F ine

Matte a nd P olished M onochrome c andeleros a nd t he F ine Matte w are a nd P olished M onochrome c eramic s pecimens v aried o nly i n m inor p ercentages o f c hioritic s chists a nd b iotite mica. These d iscrepancies were i nsignificant a nd c ould b e a ccounted f or b y m inor v ariations i n t he c lay s ources. T en m ineral c omponents, n aturally o ccurring i n t he c lays f rom t he s outhern a rea o f t he a ncient u rban c enter, a nd a lso f ound i n t he C lassic Teotihuacan s herds a nd c andeleros, i ncluded: Q uartz ( rounded), o rthoclase, e pidote, b asaltic h ornblende, a patite, p umice, s phene, a xinite, a nd o hloritic s chists, a nd b iotite m ica ( the l atter t wo v arying i n p ercentages i n t he s herds v s. c andeleros) 6 .

F iring

V ariations

T he t erm " firing" r efers t o t he a pparent h eat o f f iring a s r evealed b y t he c eramic s pecimens a nd i s n ot related t o a bsolute t emperatures ( Kolb 1 973a:325). Shepard ( 1968:7 1493, 2 13-22 ) 4), R ye ( 1981:2 ) 4 -28, 9 6-122), R ice ( 1987:63-72, 8 0-110, 1 58-163, 4 77-) 478) h ave d etailed t r ie c eramic d rying p rocesses, t ypes o f f iring, s chedules,

-

4 93

-

T able

1 4:

T emper

.

Other

Aplastic

.

IT

0

a nd

+

N

N

N

N

N

I I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 A L f

I nclusions.

L I

U

U )

oI

) w i . -

I i . 11

P o l i s h e d M o n c h r o m e

0 ) N

0 ) 4 0 ) c u C l )

I

C D

N

N

I

+

N

I

N

I

N

N

I

N

I

I

C I A

N

I

N

II

Lñ Lr

N

I

N

I

N

I

N

I

N

C a n d e l r o s

n

U

L t1 LfI Ltl

I

-4

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N N N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

+

L r

F i n e M a t e

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

N

N

N

N

N

N

I

I

I

I

9 0 9 5 % 9 0 9 5 %

4

I

Ln Lr Lr

0 -

C o a r s e M a t e

I

I

N

N

I

N

II

N

I

N

N

II

N

I

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M a t e C a n d e l e r o s

L r

C I A

9 0 9 5 % 9 0 9 5 %

N

.

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. i E W I I 0 0 4 i 0 )

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I n

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C ) C 1

a nd f iring a ccidents. B ecause m ost c andeleros were c omplete, u nbroken s pecimens ( 52.7%) i t w as n ot a lways p ossible t o e xamine t he v essel c ross s ections t o determine t he t ype o f f iring. U ndoubtedly, t he a rtisans a llowed t he f inished a nd d ecorated c andeleros t o d ry t o a " leather-hard" o r " bone-dry" c ondition, p robably t he l atter, p rior t o f iring. M ost l ikely, a n " open g round," n on-kiln f iring w as d one ( Kolb 1 973a:326, 1 988b), a nd wood, b rush, m aguey p encas, o r o ther c ombustible v egetable materials were u sed a s f uel. The r esults o f my e xamination r evealed t hat n early a ll s pecimens s howed i ncomplete o xidation f iring, a nd r elatively f ew c andeleros were c ompletely o xidized. N o r eduction o r c ombination f irings were n oted i n t he s ample ( n = 2 26), s ee T able 1 5. I ncomplete o xidation i s a ffected b y t he l ength o f f iring, t ypes o f f uel, m ethod o r t echnique o f f ueling t he f ire, ambient t emperature, a nd f uel t emperature p otential ( Shepard 1 968:82-86), a s well a s t he t hickiness o f t he o bject b eing f ired. A s imple w ood f ire c an y ield t emperatures u p t o 9 62 1 C . A lterations i n t he a plastics a lso g ive c lues t o f iring t emperatures ( Tite 1 969:81). The e vidence s uggests t hat f iring t emperatures o f 6 50-800 ' C were c ommon t o t he C oarse M atte c andeleros, a nd m any o f t hem h ad t hick, d ark c arbon c ores i ndicative o f i ncomplete c ombustion i n t he f iring p rocess. F ine M atte a nd P olished M onochrome c andeleros were f ired a t t emperatures e stimated a t 8 00-900 0 C , a nd h ad t hinner, l ighter c arbon c ores, which, i n s ome c ases were b arely v isible. I n e xamining t he c andelero s pecimens, I n oted t hat t he c ombustion o f t he i ncense i n t he c hamber o r c hambers h ad a m inimal c arbonizing e ffect o n t he c eramic b ody a nd l eft a d istinctly d ifferent c arbon d eposition a nd d id n ot " refire" t he c andelero. Thickness o f t he v essel w alls w as p robably r elated t o t he f act t hat t hese p ersonal i ncense b urners were d esigned t o b e c arried i n t he h uman h and, a nd t he t hickness kept t he u ser f rom being b urned b y t he i ndirect h eat p roduced by t he materials being i gnited a nd b urned i n t he c hamber(s). I n a s ense, t hickness g ave a n " R-value" a nd i nsulated t he u ser f rom s erious b urns. B y c omparison, T hin O range p ottery w as f ired a t approximately 7 50-800+0 C , G ranular ware a t 7 50-800 0 C , a nd C opoid c eramics a nd S an M artin O range ware a t 8 00-900 C ( Kolb 1 973a:326, 1 988a, 1 988b; S heehy 1 988). U nfortun ately, i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he o riginal c olors o f t he c lays u sed t o m anufacture c andeleros a nd t he c eramics n oted a bove ( see S hepard 1 968:16-17, T able 1 ; T ite 1 969:81; R ice 1 987:333 33 1 4; Kolb 1 988a).

-

4 95

-

0

T able

1 5:

F iring

V ariations. C oarse M atte ( n = 1 09)

T ype o f F iring

C omplete O xidation I ncomplete O xidation R eduction C ombination ( OxidationR eduction)

F iring " Accidents"

C ultural

3 1 06 0

3 .0% 9 7.0%

F ine M atte ( n = 1 16) 1 5.5% 8 4.5%

1 0 0

U 1 16 1 00.0%

0 1

1 8 9 8 0

0 1 09 1 00.0% 0

P olished M onochrome ( n = 1 )

0

1 00 .0%

1 00.0%

0

Attributes

1. Methods

of

Manufacture

Most of t he t echniques u sed i n t he p roduction o f c eramic v essels were n ot a pplicable t o the manufacture o f c andeleros ( Shepard 1 968:54-65, 1 83-186; R ye 1 981:58-95, 1 31-137; R ice 1 987:124-152). C andeleros were f ashioned f rom l umps o f p repared, kneaded c lay c ontaining t he appropriate amounts o f v egetable f iber a plastics, a nd were s haped b y t he d irect f reehand method ( Shepard 1 968:55-57, 6 0-63; R ice 1 987:12 )4 -125). T he a rtisans required a well-kneaded o r wedged c lay i n o rder t o r educe a ir p ockets which would be p resent i n unprepared c lays a nd would b e a major source of c racking a nd c ould e ven result i n the vessel e xploding during t he f iring p rocess. The f orming p rocess f or most o f the C oarse M atte specimens, e specially t he f ingertip i mpressed d ecorated t ypes, i nvolved l ess t han a m inute o f production t ime, a nd c ould e asily b e a ccomplished a s a " cottage i ndustry" i n a p roduction l ine. Those c andeleros with mattesmoothed, polished, i ncised, g rooved, f luted, a ppliqued, rouletted, o r p unctation-decorated s urfaces r equired a dditional p roduction s teps a nd i ncreased m anufacturing t ime. F ine Matte s pecimens r equired perhaps a m inute o r two i n b asic p roduction, p lus a dditional t ime f or decoration. P olished Monochrome c andeleros r equired t r ie most t otal p roduction t ime s ince p olishing w as a ccomplished a fter t he a rtifact was i n a " leather hard" o r " bone-dry" c ondition. O nce t he s hape d esired

a rtisan h ad c ompleted t he b asic f rom a l ump of c lay, t he c hambers

-

4 96

-

c andelero were made

b y o ne o f t wo b asic m ethods. The f irst, a nd t he o ne p redominating i n t he s ample, was t o i nsert a f inger i nto the p lastic c lay, a nd t hen t urn t he c andelero o r f inger t o c omplete t he " hole." The p rocess was c ontinued t o produce t he r equisite n umber of c hambers. The s econd method w as t o i nsert a wooden c ylinder o r s olid " dowel" i nto t he p lastic c lay a nd p roceed a s i n t he f inger i nsertion method. The c hamber o r c hambers ( varying f rom o ne t o u p t o s ix i n s ome c andeleros) were l ocated i n a position perpendicular t o t he c andelero b ase, a lthough s ome " paint p ot" s pecimens f rom G uatemala a nd Honduras h ad c hambers i n positions a t a cute o r o btuse a ngles r elative t o t he b ases. N ormally, t he i nterior b ase o f t he c andelero c hambers were c oncave ( as i n t he c ase o f the f inger i nsertion, b ut, m uch l ess f requently, the b ase was s lightly c onvex o r c oncave when a n o bject s uch a s a d owel was u sed ( see F igure 7 ). While most c andeleros h ave r ound c hambers, s ome e xamples of s quare c hambers a nd D-shaped c hambers were n oted i n t he l iterature a nd i n t he s tudy s ample. I n 3 21 measured s pecimens, 3 17 h ad r ound chambers ( 15 o ne-chamber a nd 3 02 two-chamber c andeleros), while o nly f our s quare-chamber, a nd t hree D -shaped chamber c andeleros ( all s even t wo-chamber s pecimens .) were recorded. The mean f or o ne-chamber r ound c hamber c andeleros was 2 .1 cm a nd t he median 2 .0 cm, while among the t wo-chamber r ound c hamber s pecimens t he mean was 2 .0 c m a nd t he median 1. 9 cm. After t he c andeleros h ad d ried t o a " leather-hard" condition most h ad t he s ide o r p rofile walls p ierced t o c reate a ir v ents o r v entilation holes. S even v ent t ypes h ave been i dentified ( see F igure 6 a nd Tables 1 6 a nd 1 7). Such p erforations would p rovide a d raft f or t he c ombustion of t he s ubstance being b urned i n t he c andelero chamber(s). This m anufacturing p rocedure w as l ess f requent i n o ne-chamber s pecimens ( 8 of 1 5 c andeleros), but i n t hose w ith t wo o r more c hambers s uch p erforations were noted i n 1 ,192 ( 97.1%) of t he 1 ,228 s pecimens s tudied; 1 ,178 c andeleros h ad s ide perforations while 1 4 h ad v ents i n t he e nds ( nine were e ffigy c andeleros). Normally e ach c andelero c hamber h ad t wo v ents ( one e ach i n t he " front" a nd " rear" w alls), b ut i n f our c ases a mong t he t wo-chamber round c hamber c andeleros, t here were three r ather t han f our v ents p resent. S eemingly t he a rtisan s imply n eglected t o c omplete t he t ask. F lashing o ccasionally r emained o n t he i nterior walls o f t he chambers a s t he r esult o f c reating t he d raft v ents, b ut i t w as n ormally c ompletely r emoved during a f inal s tep o f t he manufacturing o perations. The t otal n umber o f v ents v aried f rom n one i n n early h alf o f t he o ne-chamber c andeleros, while o nly s ix s pecimens o f t he t wo-chamber f orm had no v ents. Three-chamber s pecimens c onsistently h ad s ix v ents. C ylindrical a nd c onical v ents were c ommon t o o ne-chamber c andeleros t hat h ad s uch p erforations,

-

4 97

-

F igure

7 :

C andelero

N omenclature.

0

0

' 4

0 1 a E

0

I

4 . ,

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I 9 2.

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( Kolb)

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—

4 98

-

C andelero

V ent

Types

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C onfigurations.

C u

t u

E x t e r i o r S u r f a c e

1 6:

P e r f o r a t i o n :

T able

a )

1 a ) i 1 C u 0 a ) b C-H 4 i a ) a ) H > 4 4

E -

T able

1 7:

C andelero

Vent

Type

F requencies.

C ' 4

4

C

C

C

0

0

0

N

N

0

0

0

0

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c a 0 0 Z

4

while a ll s even t ypes were n oted i n the t wo-chamber c andeleros, b ut t he s calene a nd equilateral t riangular types a nd v ariants were r epresented i nfrequently i n t he s tudy

s ample,

s ee

Table

1 7.

The l ips of o ne-chamber c andeleros h ad t hree possible c onfigurations: f lat ( the most c ommon, 9 of 1 5), a cute ( 3 of 1 5), a nd o blique ( 3 of 1 5). The s eptum ( a n asal a nalogy) b etween t wo o r more c hambers h ad f our p otential c onfigurations: f lat ( common), s lightly d epressed ( common), heavily d epressed ( present), o r r aised ( rare) ( see T able 1 8 a nd F igure 7 ). O ne d ouble-chamber ( round c hamber) c andelero with a h ighly polished s urface ( all e xcept t he m atte b ase), which c ame f rom a p rivate c ollection, was most u nusual. This s pecimen h ad a c ompletely hollow i nterior, the d ividing e lement between the two chambers h aving b een c arved o ut d uring t he manufacturing p rocess. I nstead o f t he u sual f our a ir vents t here were o nly t wo, o ne e ach c entrally l ocated o n t he p rofile o r s ide w alls o pposite o ne a nother. There was no e vidence t o s uggest t hat the s pecimen h ad been m ade i n t wo h alves a nd been j oined. F igure 8 i llustrates t his c andelero which s howed no e vidence o f c ombustion i n t he

c ombined

c hamber.

I n c omparison t o t he manufacture o f ceramic v essels s uch a s a nnular bowls, c raters, b asins, j ars, e tc., c andeleros c ould be e asily m ade by l ess t han s killed a rtisans. The g eneral c andelero s hape, c reation o f t he requisite number o f c hambers, a nd p lacement o f t he a ir vents c an be a ccomplished i n m inimal t ime, b ut t he more e laborate forms a nd d ecorative t echniques employed o n t he " leather hard" v essels would r equire more s killful e fforts. I h ave no d oubt t hat c andeleros were m ass p roduced o n p roduction l ines, s o that l iterally thousands c ould be made by o ne o r two workers i n l ess t han a week. B esides t he d ecorative e laborations, t he f iring p rocedures would b e t ime-consuming a nd r equire s pecialized knowledge i n t erms o f p lacement f or f iring, t he f iring methods, f uel s election, e tc. I n

s ummary,

t he

c andelero

m anufacturing

m ethods

f ollowed t hese s teps: 1 ) b asic s haping f rom a l ump o f c lay, 2 ) c reation o f t he c hamber(s), 3 ) c reation o f t he a ir v ents, L) r emoval o f v ent f lashing f rom t he c hamber i nteriors, 5 ) s urface f inish 2 .

F orms

f inishing o f t he a nd d ecoration ( as

a nd

l ip o r s eptum, r equired).

a nd

6 )

Shapes

L inn' ( 19 14 2:37) Teotihuacan p ottery

o ffered a s alient " to a nyone who h as

-

5 01

-

c omment o n p reviously

C lassic worked

F T reque able ncies 1 8: .

C andelero

-

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a nd

I

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C n

C onfiguratio n

( Kolb) F igure I nterior.

S cale

8 :

C andelero

w ith

C ompletely

1 :1.

I -

-

0 V

-

5 03

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I

H ollow

a t T eotihuacan, t he [ ceramic] m aterial a ccount o f i ts m ultiplicity o f t ypes." s aid f or c andelero s hapes a nd f orms, s urface t reatments.

i s c onfusing o n The s ame m ay b e a nd a ssociated

I n t he main, t here a re t wo c ommon c andelero f orms, the s ingle-chamber a nd t he d ouble-chamber; l ess f requently f ound w ere t hose c andeleros w ith f rom t hree t o s ix c hambers. T he s hapes o r c onfigurations were l imited only b y t he i maginations o f t he a rtisans, a nd r ange f rom s imple " amorphous" l umps t o a w ide v ariety o f s olid g eometric s hapes, a s well a s z oomorphic a nd a nthropomorphic " effigy" c onfigurations. E laborateness appears t o r elate t o T eotihuacan c hronology, s o t hat t he n umbers o f s hape t ypes a nd d ecorative t echniques u sed i ncreased d uring t he m iddle a nd l ater p hases. T he one-chamber f orm b egan d uring t he E arly T lamimilolpa phase ( ca. A .D. 2 50-375) when t here were r ather s imple d ecorations, a nd c ontinued t hrough i n t o M etepec p hase ( ca. A .D. 6 50-750), a m aximum s pan o f f ive h undred y ears. Two-chambered c andeleros were p roduced b eginning d uring t he l ater p art o f t he E arly T lamimilolpa phase ( ca. A .D. 3 00-375) t hrough t he M etepec p hase ( ca. A . D. 6 50-750), o r a bout 4 50 y ears, while t he t hree-chamber f orm w as, i n t he main, p rimarily c onfined t o t he t wo X olalpan p hases ( ca. A .D. 4 50 550 a nd 5 50-650). S ixty-five c andelero b ody c onfigurations h ave b een i dentified ( see F igures 9 -10 a nd Appendix A ), a nd a re c hronologically c onsidered i n a s ubsequent s ection. The v ariety o f d ecorative t echniques p eaked d uring t he Xolalpan p hases a nd d ropped p recipitously d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he Metepec p hase. H owever, t he s imply made, m ass-produced t wo-chamber f ingertip i mpressed d ecorated c andeleros, which b egan i n L ate T lamimilolpa t imes a ppear t o d ramatically i ncrease t hrough t he Xolalpan p hases a nd c ontinues i nto Metepec, a lthough a pparently t he " quality" o r c are i n m anufacturing b egan t o d ecline d uring t he l ast h alf o f t he L ate Xolalpan phase a nd c ontinued i nto t he t erminal M etepec p hase. This i ncrease i n " simple" c andelero p roduction i n t he L ate Xolalpan p hase a nd e arly p art o f t he M etepec p hase p robably r eflected m ajor s ocioeconomic t urmoil i n Teotihuacan s ociety p erhaps o r a l essening d ependence o n t he e stablished p riesthood ( Millon 1 973:62). This possibly w as t he r esult o f s ubsistence p roduction d ecline b rought a bout b y a d ecrease i n a nnual r ainfall a nd t he maximization o f c arrying c apacity o n a vailable p olity l ands, a nd/or a s lowdown i n t he e xport o f o bsidian, a r esource c ontrolled b y t he T eotihuacan s tate ( Kolb 1 986:181-186, 1 95).

( Kolb)

F igure

9 :

C andelero

Type

C onfigurations:

S ingle-chamber.

4

' 4

r 4

1 4

4

‚ I

1 4

1 4

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c i )

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C y l i n d r i c a l

C y l i n d r i c a l

C y l i n d r i c a l

C y l i n d r i c a l

C y l i n d r i c a l

U ,

0

a )

0 )

T r u n c a t e d

P e a r s h a p e

t u U ,

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U ,

4 ROGNI O N

S

0

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P r o f i l e

i l u s t r a t i o n s

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I

-

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u r a t i o n s

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( continued)

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O v o i d ! l o a f

G e n e r a l G e o m e t r i c C o n f i

( 1 )

C y l i n d r i c a l

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9 :

C y l i n d r i c a l

F igure

C y l i n d r i c a l

( Kolb)

I C4

-

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I

I

W

0

( Kolb) F igure 1 0: Multiple C hambers.

C andelero

T ype

C onfigurations:

4 1 4

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1V a

0

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c ' ,

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( n

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m

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3 .

S urface

F inish

a nd

Decorative

T echniques

Shepard ( 1968:65-59, 1 86-193), R ye ( 1981: 0-4 , 8 9-90), a nd R ice ( 1987:136-15 2 , 3 68-369) h ave e laborated t he f ollowing s urface t reatments: s moothing, b rushing, polishing, s lipping, s e l f-slipping, a nd t he a pplication of a w ash. C andeleros were s ometimes l eft i n a m atte ( unpolished o r u nburnished) c ondition, b ut c omplete o r z one p olishing was a lso d one, e specially o n t he m ore c omplex g eometric s hapes. A s p reviously noted, s pecimens f rom K ar ninaljUyU h ad a white s lip o r t hick white p aint ( Kidder e t a l. 1 91 46:204-205, 2 16), b ut p ainted s pecimens a re n ot known f rom c ollections I h ave s tudied f rom B asin of M exico s ites. L ikewise, s elf-slipping a nd t he u se o f washes were n ot o bserved o r r eported f rom a ny M esoamerican c andelero c ollections. R esist d ecoration a nd s tucco o r f resco p ainting ( polychromes o n a white l ime p laster s urface a dded t o t he v essel's e xterior s urface) were u nknown. O ne s mall c andelero f ragment ( Specimen 7 508) h ad p articles o f s pecular r ed h emative a dhering t o t he c hamber i nterior. This s pecimen o f a " true" c andelero s eems t o b e t he o nly i nstance i n t he c ollect ions s tudied i n which a c andelero a lso d oubled a s a " paint p ot." The a rtifact c ame f rom a n e xcavated r esidential mound a t S anta M aria M aquixco e l B ajo ( TC-8: ), a nd was f ound i n Level 1 , 0 -27 c m i n S quare 2 0-22E/21 45, l ocated a bove a c entral c ourtyard a t t hat s ite. s pecimen w as o ccupation o f

p latform a ltar I t i s p ossible

r eused d uring t he P ost t he mound a nd d oes n ot d ate

i n t hat

t he t he

C lassic A ztec t o t he C lassic

p eriod. The d ecorative t echniques u sed o n c andelerOS h ave b een c lassified i nto f our m ajor g roups, s ee T able 1 9. The d efinitions f or e ach o f t he t echniques f ollows Shepard ( 1968:69-72, 1 93-213), R ye ( 1981:89-91), a nd R ice ( 1987:1 0-152) a nd w ill n ot b e r epeated h ere. I n a ddition t o m atte, u naltered s urfaces, s ingle-chamber c andelerOS were d ecorated b y i ncision, p unctation, r oulette, f ingertip i mpressions, f ingernail impressions, a nd a pplique ( the l atter f or e ffigy f orms). P unctation a nd t he f ingertip t echnique p redominated i n a ll c ollections e xamined, a nd s ome s pecimens e xhibited t he c ombined t echniques o f r ouletting a nd i ncising. T he t wo-chamber c andeleros were c ommonly d ecorated w ith i ncision, p unctation, r ouletting, f ingertip i mpressions, f ingernail i mpressions, a nd a pplique, b ut e xamples o f t his f orm a lso h ad f luting, g rooving, a nd c ombinations o f t echniques: g rooving a nd p unctation, p unctation a nd in c i s i o n,

s hapes, a re

a nd r ouletting a nd a nd s urface f inishes

i nterrelated

i n

A ppendix

-

C andelero f orms, d ecorative t echniques

in c i s i o n.

a nd

A .

5 12

-

T able

1 9:

Decorative

Techniques

U sed

S inglec hamber

D oublec hamber

3 -6 c hambers

M atte/Unfinished M atte-Smoothed P olished ( overall)

X X X

X X X

+ + +

P olished

X

X

+

D ecorative C ategory

( Zone) + M atte

S urface P enetration B rushing C arving C ombing D rilling E xcising

-

-

-

P erforating P iercing

2

-

-

X

X

-

-

X

+ X

X

-

-

-

-

-

-

X

X

X

-

-

-

S graffito S having

3

S triating T rimming C ombination

3

A pplique

+

-

P iano R elief P unctation S craping

R ouletting S prigging S tamping F ingernail I mpressing F ingertip I mpressing F luting/Grooving G adrooning S urface A ddition

-

+

-

2

R ouletting + I ncising S urface D isplacement I mpressing R ocker S tamping

C andeleros.

-

I ncising

G rooving + P unctation. P unctation + I ncising.

o n

+

-

-

X

+

X

X X

-

X

+

-

+

-

+

X

+

-

-

-

-

+ X

+

-

+

x

+

-

+

-

-

-

-

+

X

+

1 D ecorative C ategories a s d efined b y S hepard ( 1968:65-69, 1 86-193), R ye ( 1981:40-44, 8 9-90), a nd R ice ( 1987:136-152, 3 68-369): s ubjective a nalysis: X C o on T echnique, + = P resent T echnique, T echnique N ot O bserved. -

2 P erforating a nd P iercing i n a ddition t o t he c reating o f v ents S having a nd T rimmi ng n oted o nly o n c andelero b ases.

-

5 13

-

( none).

1 4 .

D imensions

A s ample o f c omplete, unbroken c andeleros, 1 5 o ne-chamber a nd 3 02 t wo-chamber, were measured t o d etermine l engths, w idths, a nd h eights, s o a s t o determine s ize r anges, m eans, a nd medians. T he measurements t aken were t he m aximal o nes o n t he i ndividual s pecimens. These d ata a re s ummarized i n s ix t ables ( Tables 2 0-25) : S ingle-chamber C andelero D imensions, S ingle-chamber C andelero D imensions b y C onfiguration, D ouble-chamber C andeleros: L argest a nd Smallest i n S tudy S ample, C hamber D iameters o n S inglea nd D ouble-chamber C andeleros, D ouble-chamber ( Round Chamber) C andeleros: D imensions i n S tudy S ample o f 3 02 C omplete

S pecimens,

a nd

C andelero

C hamber

Depths.

S ingle-chamber c andeleros c ame i n a v ariety of s hapes o r c onfigurations, " rectilinear" ( nearly c ubic o r r ectanguloid), " cylindrical," " barrel" ( with b ulging s ides), " pear" ( constricted n eck, o r " jar" s haped w ith a g lobular b ody), a nd " truncated c one." See F igure 9 . O f t he 1 5 s pecimens, s even were " cylindrical," a s hape t hat a lso s eems c ommon i n the o ne-chamber c andeleros i llustrated i n t he l iterature ( Tables 2 0-21). R ound chamber d iameters i n t he o ne-chamber s pecimens w ere s lightly l arger that t he t wo-chamber f orm, b ut t he r anges o f d iameters were n early t he s ame: o ne-chamber ( round chamber) 1 .3 2 .6 cm, 2 .0 c m median a nd 2 .1 cm m ean; two- chamber ( round c hamber) 1 .1 4 2 .6 c m, 1 .9 cm median, -

-

2 .0

cm mean.

The d ouble-chamber c andeleros w ith r ound c hambers h ad the f ollowing c haracteristics: L ength, 1 4 .5 9 .7 cm r ange ( mean 6 .58 cm, median 6 .7 cm); W idth, 2 .8 6 .2 cm r ange ( mean 1 41 45 c m, m edian 1 4•1 4 c m), a nd H eight, 2 .8 6 .2 cm r ange ( 1 4.1 41 c m mean, 1 4. 5 c m m edian). These d ata d iffered s ignificantly f rom t he 5 .0 c m height a nd 5 .0 c m length d imensions r eported b y P e afiel ( 1900:52), a nd t he s tatistics o f 8 .0 c m l ength, 5 .0 c m w idth, a nd 5 .0 c m height c ited by C eballoS N ovelo ( 1922:208) i n h is s tudy of 7 53 s pecimens. The l atter a uthor a lso r ecorded t he a verage d iameter o f c hambers a s 2 .5 cm a nd t he c hamber depth a s 3 .0 cm ( 1922:208). T he d ata o n c hamber d epths -

-

-

a re

r eported

i n

Table

POTENTIAL A s

h as

b een

2 5.

S OURCES

p reviously

OF

MANUFACTURE

n oted,

t he

c urrent

e vidence

s uggests t hat c andeleros were v ery l ikely l ocally manufactured f rom r aw c lays a vailable i n t he u rban c enter, p robably a t o r n ear t he " traditional" p otting a reas w here C opoid c eramics a nd S an M artin O range ware

-

5 14

-

T able

20:

S ingle-Chamber

T ype ( Figure 9 )

Candelero

L ength ( cm)

W idth ( cm)

D imensions.

D iameter H eight ( cm) ( cm)

A A A

S quare S quare S quare

E

B arrel

5 .7

4 .0 3 .7 4 .4 6 .2

G F B

P ear-shape T runcated C one C ylindrical

5 .4 5 .3 5 .1

5 .2 5 .0 4 .6

B E

C ylindrical B arrel

5 .1

4 .0

4 .6

4 .5

B

C ylindrical

B E B

C ylindrical B arrel C ylindrical

4 .4 4 .3 4 .3 4 .2

3 .7 4 .9 4 .5 4 .4

B B

C ylindrical C ylindrical

4 .1 4 .0

4 .5 4 .2

4 .6

4 .3

4 .3 4 .2

4 .2 4 .0

-

5 15

-

-

-

-

Table 2 1: S ingle-Chamber Configuration. 1

C and e lero

L ength G eneral C onfiguration 2 ( cm) A

E

H eight ( cm)

by

M eans ( cm)

S quare

4 .6

4 .4

4 .4

L ength

4 .37

( n

4 .3

4 .2

2 .0

W idth

4 .17

4 .2

4 .0

3 .7

H eight

4 .03

=

3 )

G eneral C onfiguration' B

W idth ( cm)

D imensions

D iameter H eight ( cm) ( cm)

M eans ( cm)

.

C ylindrical

5 .1

4 .9

D iameter 4 .46

( n

5 .1 4 .4

4 .6 4 .5

H eight

4 .3 4 .2 4 .1 4 .0

4 .4 4 .2 4 .0 3 .7

=

7 )

4 .33

B arrel

5 .7

6 .2

D iameter 4 .87

( n

4 .6

4 .5

H eight

4 .3

4 .5

=

3 )

F

T runcated C one.... ( n = 1 )

6 .3

5 .0

G

P ear-shape ( n = 1 )

5 .4

5 .2

D imensions r eordered f rom l argest t o s mallest. G eneral C onfiguration b ased o n F igure 9 .

-

5 16

-

5 .07

T able 22: Smallest i n

D ouble-chamber Study Sample.

C andeleros:

L ength ( cm)

W idth

4 .5 9 .7

5 .1 6 .0

( shortest) ( longest)

( cm)

Largest

H eight

( cm)

4 .6 5 .8

5 .3 8 .8

2 .8 6 .2

4 .6

2 .9

2 .8

8 .0

4 .0

67 0 ( tallest)

-

( narrowest) ( widest)

5 17

-

3 .8 5 .2 ( shortest)

and

T able 23: C hamber chamber C andeleros.

D iameters

i n

S ingle-

a nd

Double-

a )

0

1 0

Q

E D

C n

I I

0

H

v o

( i n c l u d e s 4 e f i g y c a n d e l e r o s )

E iC q

c

I —4

r ' j

r s j Ci

-

N-

c -I . — i

. — i

' -'

‚ -S

-c i

0

5 11 - 1 4

Q ) -a

D'— s

C tf

a )

0

c i j

u j

E D

0

I I

r4

-i i

'-

i C ' i ' -1 I -1 c S i

-

T

:

I

— 1

I

c

-

t r

N- cc

C

(D ' 1

c -

-

-

•

L r

1 . 0

5 18

D i a m e t e r ( c m )

D i a m e t r ( c m )

V e r t i c a l ( c m )

0 ''

-

c 1 c'4 CI ) 1; C4

c i

T able 2 4: D imensions

D ouble-chamber ( Round C hamber) C andeleros: i n S tudy S ample o f 3 02 C omplete S pecimens.

D imens ions

L ength

W idth

H eight

( cm)

( cm)

( cm)

( cm)

3 3 0

-

-

3 .0

-

-

-

3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 3 .8

-

-

-

-

3 .9

-

4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4

4 .6 4 .7 4 .8 4 .9

-

-

-

-

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 1

3 2

7 6

3 2

8 6 8 7

2 1 5 1 0

3 6

7

-

4 .0

0

7 7

-

3 .3 3 .4

4 .5

1 4

-

3 .1 3 .2

- 1 1 0

1 2

1 3

1 2 1 0 1 5 2 4

2 2 2 1 2 4 2 5

7 3

1

2 2

2 8

2 4 2 9 1 6 1 1

2 1 1 5 2 6 1 0

5 .0 5 .1

6 2

5 .2 5 .3 5 .4

2 0 0

5 .5 5 .6 5 .7 5 .8 5 .9

0 3 3 6 6

1 02

9 1 3 1 0

3 7

2 3 2 0 0

6 .0

1 1

1

6 .1 6 .2 6 .3 6 .4

1 9 1 4 1 9 2 0

1 1

8 3

-

5 19

1 05

1 00

1 4 1 6

6 7 2

1 8

2 3

5

0 0 0 0

1

1 0

7

1 5 5 7 4 0 1 2 2 1 -

3

-

-

-

-

-

-

5 7

5

T able

2 4:

( continued)

D imens ions ( cm)

L ength ( cm)

6 .5 6 .6 6 .7 6 .8 6 .9

1 7 1 2 1 9 2 0 1 0

7 8

7 .0 7 .1 7 .2 7 .3 7 .4

2 7 2 4 1 5 6 7

7 9

7 .5 7 .6 7 .7 7 .8 7 .9

6 2 6 6 2

2 2

8 .0 8 .1 8 .2 8 .3 8 .4

2 2 1 1 0

6

8 .5 8 .6 8 .7 8 .8 8 .9

2 1 0 1 0

4

9 .0 9 .1 9 .2 9 .3 9 .4

0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0 1

W idth ( cm)

H eight ( cm)

1

T otal...

3 02

3 02

3 02

M edian.. M ean....

6 .7 c m 6 .58 c m

4 .4 c m 4 .45 c m

4 .5 c m 4 .41 c m

-

5 20

-

T able

2 5:

C andelero

D ir nens ions ( cm)

C hamber

O ne-chamber T wo-chamber T wo-chamber T wo-chamber R ound R ound S quare D -shaped ( cm) ( cm) ( cm) ( c m )

2 .5 2 .6 2 .7 2 .8

2 7 5 2 2

2 .9 3 .0 3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4

1

3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 3 .8 3 .9

2

6

1 2 1

9

2 1 2 7 3 3 2 8 5 3 3 0 1 5 1 2

5 1 1 4 2 2

4 .5 4 .6 4 .7 4 .8 4 .9

6 1

a

5 .0 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4

3 1 2 0 0

5 .8 5 .9 T otal... M edian .. M ean.

1 62

1 1

7 1

3 1 1

4 .0 4 .1 4 .2 4 .3 4 .4

5 .5 5 .6 5 .7

Depths.

2 4

0 1 0 2 1 0

1 1 0

1

1

-

1

1

1 0

1 2

-

6

0 2

-

-

-

2

-

-

1 5

3 02

4

3 .4 c m 3 .48 c m

-

5 21

-

2

3

were m ade ( Kolb 1 988a, 1 988b; K rotser 1 976a, 1 976b, 1 979; K rotser a nd R attray 1 980; S heehy 1 988; S torey a nd W idmer 1 982). I n t he t wo p receeding p apers i n t his v olume, t he f irst o n Granular ware a nd t he s econd o n C opoid c eramics, I h ave d escribed i n d etail t he r egional g eology f or t he u rban c enter a nd t he m ineralogie c onstituents o f c lays f rom v arious s ectors o f t he a ncient c ity. T his i nformation w ill n ot b e r epeated h ere. My f indings f rom t he a nalysis o f t he Teotihuacan "Domestic" r eference c ollection were c onsistent w ith t he r esults o f t he s tudy of t he C oarse M atte, F ine M atte, a nd P olished M onochrome c eramics a nd a ssociated c andeleros, a nd c onfirmed 1 l arbottle's N eutron A ctivation Analysis o f Teotihuacan c andelero s pecimens ( Harbottle 1 988:personal c ommunication). P resent-day p ottery m anufacture a t Teotihuacan i s c entered i n o r n ear t he b arrios o f S an S ebastian a nd S an Martin, a s well a s t he a reas c alled G alicia a nd T iajinga. L ikewise, t hese were t he s ites o f pottery m anufacture d uring t he T eotihuacan C lassic p eriod. U nfortunately, n o " accidents" o f c andelero m anufacture o r f iring, "wasters," o r o ther r ejected m aterial f rom c andelero production h ave b een f ound i n t he s urface c ollections o r l imited e xcavations a t t he u rban c enter. T he b est-known a nd e xcavated a rchaeological ceramic m anufacturing a rea i s T iajinga 3 3 ( Storey a nd W idmer 1 982, S heehy 1 988). W idmer ( 1988:personal c ommunication) t old me t hat t here were " incredible n umbers" o f C oarse M atte a nd F ine M atte c andeleros r ecovered f rom t he T iajinga 3 3 excavation. The pottery a nd c andelero c ollections r emain i n s torage i n Mexico, a nd t he c andeleros h ave n ot b een s tudied. B ased o n t his l imited e vidence f rom the a rchaeological r ecord, T iajinga 3 3 i s c ertainly a p rime c andidate a s o ne l ocale of c andelero production. H owever, g iven t he q uantities o f s pecimens r ecovered f rom s urface s urveys a nd e xcavations. c anderelos were u ndoubtedly m anufactured a t a n umber o f s ites i n t he s outhern a nd s outhwestern s ectors o f a ncient urban Teotihuacan. There i s n o e vidence s uggesting t hat c andeleros were manufactured a t a ny o f t he r ural s ites i n t he T eotihuacan V alley ( Kolb 1 979a), b ut t his r emains a possibility. Q uantities o f c andeleros f rom the M atacapan, V eracruz s ite, d ating t o t he m iddle p hases o f t he C lassic p eriod s equence, a re s aid t o b e l ocally p roduced f rom a rea r aw c lays ( Santley e t a l. 1 981:19, 7 7). These " Teotihuacan i nspired o r d erived" s pecimens h ave n ot b een a nalyzed i n t erms o f p aste, a plastics, o r o ther p hysicochemical p arameters ( Santley 1 988:personal c ommunication). L ikewise, t he o ne t wo-chamber c andelero f rom Tomb X a t K aminaljuyu, G uatemala ( Kidder e t a l. 1 946:216), a nd t he 5 0 s pecimens f rom K aminaljuyu r esidences ( Sanders a nd

-

5 22

-

M ichels 1 973; L ischka 1 978:2 11 8, 2 70, 2 71) were p robably manufactured a t t hat s ite f rom l ocally a vailable c lays. N o t echnical a nalyses h ave beer , d one o n t he c andeleros f rom t he m ore r ecent P enn S tate e xcavations, a nd t he s pecimens a re i n s torage i n Guatemala C ity. I n s ummary, i t a ppears q uite l ikely t hat T eotihuacan-style c andeleros were l ocally made f rom a vailable c lays a t t he Matacapan a nd K aminaljuyu s ites, b oth o f which e xperienced s ignificant e conomic i ntercourse w ith T eotihuacan d uring the C lassic p eriod, e specially d uring t he L ate T iamimilolpa a nd t he E arly a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases ( ca. A .D. 3 00-650).

I NTER-

AND

D istributions Structures

I NTRP LSITE i n

D ISTRIBUTIONS

U rban

C enter

O F

C ANDELEROS

R esidences

a nd

O ther

A ccording t o L inn ( 1931 1:111 1), t he o ne-chamber c andeleros r ecovered f rom the Xolalpan u rban r esidence a t Teotihuacan c ame f rom G raves 1 -1 1, however, o nly 1 6 of 3 6 s pecimens c ame f rom t hese c ontexts ( see T able 1 ). L ikewise, L inne ( 1931 1:111 1) noted t hat e ight o f 4 8 c andeleros f rom t he L as P almas s ite a t T eotihuacan were f ound i n a " row n ext t o a w all." Sejourne ( 1959:191 1) reported t hat n early a ll o f t r ie c andeleros f rom t he Z acuala r esidence c ame f rom t he e scombro ( debris o r r ubbish). S pecimens c ame f rom s epulchers ( tumbas) i n t he upper p latform o f t he C iudadela c entral mound b ut were not f urther d elineated. A t Kaminaljuyu, G uatemala, t he one c andelero found by K idder e t a l. ( 1946:216) c ame f rom Tomb X . These f ive n otations i n t he l iterature c onstitute t he o nly p ublished r eferences a s t o c andelero i ntrasite d istributions. D istributions S ite

a t

t he

S anta

Maria

M aquixco

e i

B ajo

( TC-8)

A s w ith c eramics a nd c lay f igurines, t he S anta M aria Maquixco e i B ajo s ite e xcavations ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , 4 , Pyramid) p rovided r ather g ood d ata f or a rtifact contextual i nterpretations ( Kolb 1 973a, 1 986, 1 987, 1 988a, 1 988b). T his r ural s ite, l ocated west o f u rban Teotihuacan a nd n orth o f a n e xtension o f t he Western Avenue, w as s urveyed, m apped, a nd p artially e xcavated by p ersonnel f rom the T eotihuacan V alley P roject ( William T . S anders, d irector) f rom 1961-1963. A n umber o f a uthors h ave d etailed t he s ite l ocation, e cological s etting, a nd t he f our e xcavations ( Sanders 1 966; S anders e t a l. 1 979:334-355; Kolb 1 979a:378-386, 5 56, 5 60). L ocated i n the L ower T eotihuacan V alley E cological Z one, t his multicomponent s ite c overed 3 6.0 h a b ut h ad a C lassic Teotihuacan p eriod c ore a rea o f 1 0.5 h a, w ith 5 3 o f t he

-

5 23

-

7 3 mounds ( tiateles) h aving C lassic o ccupation. The s ite was a L arge N ucleated V illage a nd h ad a p opulation e stimated a t 7 33 during X olalpan t imes ( Kolb 1 979a). Residential mounds T C-8:1-2 a nd T C-8:3 were p artially e xcavated, while t he T C 8:1 4 r esidence ( or a u nit t hereof) was c ompletely e xcavated, a nd t he T C-8:Pyramid t renched a nd s ectioned. F igure 1 1 i llustrates t he a rea of t he residences which were e xcavated; a rchitectual u nit f unctions ( room, porch, p atio, e tc.) a re d esignated b ased upon a rchitectural, a rtifactual, a nd e thnographic evidence a nd a nalogy. T he a rchitectural u nits a re defined b elow. O ne r oom o f T C-8:3 s erved a s a s toreroom ( bodega) f or P acific C oast o yster ( Spondylus) s hells, a nd t he r esidents o f t his dwelling were e ntrepreneureal m iddlemen i n t he i mportation o f t his r aw m aterial which was s ubsequently d istributed t o a rtisans i n t he u rban c enter ( Koib 1 987:57-8 14 ). I n a ddition t o t he " Thin O range," G ranular, a nd C opoid c eramics a t M aquixco, q uantities o f c andeleros were a lso r ecovered d uring t he e xcavations a nd o ther s pecimens f ound d uring s urface s urvey a nd mapping ( see T able 2 6). M ost o f t he c andeleros were f ound w ith t he residences a nd c ould be a ssociated w ith t he a rchitectural units a nd o ther f eatures. F igure 1 2 s chematically i llustrates t he d istribution o f o ne-chamber c andeleros, a nd t he f ingertip i mpressed, e ffigy, a nd o ther t wochamber s pecimens. T able 2 7 i s a c ompilation o f c andelero d ata f rom e ach a rchitectural unit f or T C-8:1-2, TC-8:3, T C-8:1 4 9 a nd t he T C-8:Pyramid, w hile T able 2 8 s ummarizes t hese d ata b y a rchitectural unit type f or e ach of t he r esidences. A f inal s ummary o f c andelero d istribution, T able 2 9 c ontains d ata o n c andelero types by a rchitectural unit types. I nformation chamber c andeleros f rom t he M aquixco s ite

o n i s

t he s ingled etailed i n

T able 3 0. I n c omparing t he d ata o n c ontexts a nd c andelero types a nd f requencies, a c learer p icture of t he u se o f t hese personal i ncense b urners b y r esidents o f this v illage emerges. A total o f recovered f rom

2 10 t he

c andeleros w ith k nown p rovenience were t hree r esidential e xcavations a t S anta

Maria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , 1 4), while t hree a dditional s pecimens c ame f rom t he T C-8:Pyramia t renching o peration ( see T ables 27-29 a nd F igure 1 2). C andeleros were a ssociated w ith a ll e ight t ypes o f a rchitectural units. T hese c omponents a re b riefly d efined a nd c andelero a ssociations n oted. A lleys a re u nroofed a ccess c orridors which l ead f rom c entral c ourtyards t o a partments o r o ther a rchitectural units, a nd a re 0 .6-1.5 m i n w idth. O nly t wo r esidences, T C-8:1-2 a nd T C-8:3 h ad a lleys. T here w ere o nly e ight c andeleros

a ssociated

( four

-

f ingertip

5 24

-

i mpressed

a nd

f our

( Kolb) F igure ( TC-8:1-2, 3 , 4 )

1 1: S anta E xcavations:

S ANTA M ARIA M A UIXCO E L B A .M

T C-8: 1 -2,

3 ,

4 )

M aria M aquixco e i A rchitectural U nits.

E XCAVATIONS:

B ajo

A RChITECTURAL U NITS

T C-8:3 E xcavation A

-

B

-

P a P P o R S

-

A lley B ench P atio P latform A ltar P orch R oom S tairway

T C-8:4 E xcavation

E arth P laza

( unpaved)

0

D atum

T C-8: 1 -2 E xcavations

M idden 2

0

5

M ETERS

-

5 25

-

1 0

1 5

T able 2 6: C andeleros P eriod S ites.

4

N

Teotihuacan

0 0

0

-

0 0 0 c r c c 1 C o e i c r c 0 ' c c r - . 0 c 4 c N

V % 0

m

4 I D . 4

. 0

0

U ) v i m

>

0 ' ( 7 ' I D 0 -

-

Z

Z

Z

I X C o

a )

4 . a )

Q S C o N

+ c r c 0 ' N 0 C o ( )

0 ' c r c cr c c r c

I

L o

o

I Z

O

Z .

.

Z

Z

O L )

= Cl ) Cl ) I

u a )

- c ) 0 ' 4 -

-

a )

-

0

0

N 1 C . ) -

0

e l )

0

0

0

m

-

-

0

-

0

' I

N

0

0 '

0 .

0

0

N

. 4 -

N -

0

0

0

.-

4

0 N

a

0

N . r - N - I n

0

c c 0

0

0 0

c c 4

I n

-

N

0

N

-

0

O N

N

0

N .

40 ' -

c i

c

4

‚ '

e c i m e n s ( n )

C o

a ) 0 6 C o

C l

C c N C . )

c a 0 W

E x c a v t i o n

a ) Q )

N N

+ N 0

0 0 N N

a ) a )

o

+ N - I n N

c m N

0

M ' -

Valley

N N N a ) E E E

c r c c r c 0 C o 0 -

F rom

0 c 0

c c C . ( 14 c c 0

-

I

c c

0 N

-

I

c c c c a )

N

I I

‚ 1 0 c

I

N

II

. -

. 4 N

1 0 cC c l

C o 1 0 0 '

I l

l

I N -NN N

C O

a ) a )

0 c0 N

a ) 0 0 ) 0 ca

o B

4 c

0

. 4 0

I

O a )

N a ) N • 0 — 4

I

I I U O

I

I

N U

0 10 4 I

—

c c 0 0 N C I N C C a ) a ) a ) a ) I I I I I I I OC . -

5 26

—

C c C I N - 0 0 N 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' N 4 4 II I I I I I L ) C) L ) L ) L ) L )

4 4 1

C lassic

T able

2 6:

( continued)

0 .0 0 4. 4 0

0

4 I 0

1 . 4 0 0 . 0 .

E c o l o g i c a l D i v i s i o n s ( K o l b 1 9 7 9 a : 5 6 0 5 6 3 )

0 4 I I

f r o m T C 8 : 1 2

L a k e T e x c o c o

. 0 . 4 0 4 J V 0 4 0 0 0 4 4 0 L ) 0 F. 4

0 '

a ,

4 1 0

0 • . 4

4

O 0 0 ( 4 3 4 4 . ' 0 0 . 4 0 U W 4 ( 4

4 ) 0 Ø C Ø ( 0 ( 4

4 . C ) . ( 4

C e n t e r B a r i o

1 9 7 9 a : 5 6 0 5 6 3 )

4 0 0 0 4

O U U 0 ‚ 4 0 0 U Z Z 0 4 . 4 I W .I O J 0 ‚ 4 0 0.4 .4 . 4 ( 4 ( 4 0 . 0 1 4 14 0 1 C O 9 1 . t O Z

4 0 ' . 4 U 4 ) 0 . t O . 0

-

> 1 . 4 1 4 0 O a.

‚ 1 4 ) 4 . 1 0 0 N 4 3 41 C4 '-"

4 . 1 W -4

1 3

S e t l e m e n t T y p e s ( K o l b

0 0 ‚ 0 -4 1 4 3 4 J ' 0 ' 0 O W 4 J 4 . 3 4 . 4 0 0 0

O

W

.

C r 3

0 0 . 4

x 4 )

0 ( 4

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5 27

C o U (

0 4 • 0 0 m 4 3 0 4 ) 0 ' W -' 0 . 4 4 W 0 U 4 J 4 . I . 4 Q J .O U 0 . 4. 4 4 ) ' 0 W O 4 ) : 4 W 0

U

O ( 4 . 4 4. 3 Q 4 . I 0 X 0 4 3 r 4 3 .0 0 4 ) 4. 3 4 3 Q ) 1 3 0 4 . C ' 4 U 4 . 0 4 7 0 U 0 F - 4 ) 4 3 4 0 .'0 0- 0 4 3 0 0 4 4 ) 10 0 > 0 1 4 , I 4. 4 0 4 3 0 ' . 4 4 U 10 0 0 . 4 3 4 ) 4 3 1 4 C o U 0 4 3 W O 0 0 . 0 0 4 4J c0 4 .1 W

1 4 > " 0 1 4 . 4

• ( 4 U 0 4 E 0' . 0 0 v X U U X IO 'D 0 0 4 .4 0 w 4 0 ' 1. 0 . 0 10 ­ f

4 3

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-

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I r 3

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4

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• W 4 3 4 I . 4 4 3 0 4 .1 . 4 0

0 0 ' 7 4 0 4 . 4 0 > 4 ( 4 U 4 J . 4 4 ) _ Z

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0 4.

*

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.-

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•

-

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. 0 U

T able 2 7: E xcavations: U nit.

S anta M aria M aquixco C andelero D istributions

A rchitectural

F inger

U nit

I mpressed T ypes

E ffigy T ypes

e i b y

B ajo ( TC-8) A rchitectural

O ther

T otal

D ecorated T ypes

C andeleros

T C-8: 1 -2 R oom R oom

-

-

-

1

0

2

0 3

5 0

0 0

1 1

6 1

-

-

-

1

0

4

-

-

-

3

0

1

-

-

-

-

-

-

R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom 1 0 R oom i l R oom 1 2

-

R oom 1 3 R oom 1 4

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 5 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

R oom 1 5 R oom 1 6 R oom 1 7

-

-

-

0 0

0 0

1 2

0 1 2

R oom 1 8

0

0

2

2

R oom 1 9 R oom 2 0 R oom 2 1

0 1

0 Q

3 1

3 2 0

-

-

-

R oom 2 2

3

0

0

3

R oom 2 3 R oom 2 4

0

0

1

1 0

-

-

-

R oom 2 5 P orch

0 1

0 0

2 0

2 1

P orch P atio 1 P atio 2

2 1 7

0 1 1

0 2 7

2 4 1 5

P atio 3 P atio S tairway 1

0 5 3

0 0 1

1 7 0

1 1 2 4

-

-

-

0

0

2

0 2

0 3 3 4

1 0 0 0

0 6 0 0

1 9 3 4

1

3 0

S tairway 2 S tairway 3 S tairway S tairway S tairway S tairway

4 5 6 7

S tairway 8 S tairway 9 A lley A lley A lley A lley A l e y B ench B e n c h B ench B ench

1

1

-

-

-

2

0

1

-

-

-

0 0 1

0 0 0

1 2 0

-

-

0 0

1 0

-

-

-

0 3 -

-

5 28

-

3 0 1 2 1 0 1 3 0

T able

A rchitectural U nit T C-8:1-2 B ench B ench B ench

2 7:

F inger I mpressed T ypes

( continued)

E ffigy T ypes

O ther D ecorated T ypes

T otal C andeleros

( cont.) -

0 3 0

-

-

3

0

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

0

0

1

-

-

-

1 6

0 0

2 1 0*

M idden l M idden 2

3 2 6 5

0 0 5

2 1 6 8

5 3 1 38

S urvey

1 6 6

0 5

1 6 9

2 1 40

B e n c h B ench B ench 1 0 A ltar P latform C entral C ourtyard

( 1961)

T C-8:3 R oom R oom R oom R oom P orch S tairway 1 S tairway 2 A lley B ench B ench A ltar P latform C entral C ourtyard M idden 1 M idden 2 M idden 3 B ackdirt

T C-8: 4 R oom R oom 2 R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom R oom P orch P orch P orch P orch P orch P orch S tairway 1 S tairway S tairway 3

0 1 0 3 1 6

0 0 0 0

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

4 0

0 0

0 2 *

-

-

-

1

0

0

0

0

1

-

-

4

0

5

0

0

3

-

-

-

4 2 0 1 1 0 9 3 0 6 5

4 1 1 4 3 1 7

0 0 0 0 0

2 4 * 1 7 0 1 7

0 0

0 0

3 1

-

-

0 0

0 1

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 0

0 0

2 1

-

-

-

0

0

1

-

-

-

0 0

0 0

2 1

-

-

-

1

0

0

0 1 0 2 1 0 1

0

0

1

1

1 0

-

5 29

-

3 1

3 3 4

3 1 0 1 1 0 0 2 1

T able

A rchitectural U nit

2 7:

F inger I mpressed T ypes

T C-8:4 ( cont.) S tairway 4 S tairway S S tairway A ltar P latform C entral C ourtyard M idden l M idden 2 M idden 3

T C-8:Pyramid

*

( continued)

E ffigy T ypes

T otal C andeleros

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

0 0 1

0 0 0

1 7 * 0

3 1 1 8

0 0 0 0

4 5 3 3 3

7 6 4 4 1

0 0

0 0

3 3

3 3

I ncludes o ne s ingle-chamber c andelero.

-

O ther D ecorated T ypes

5 30

-

0 1 7 1

T able 28: E xcavations: U nit Types.

S anta M aria M aquixco C andelero D istribution

I

J e I N

-4

C O

0

e i

0

‚C

l e i I

N

0

I

0

‚C

c 1

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0

1 '41

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0

0

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c r c

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C . t

B ajo ( TC-8) A rchitectural

-4

I

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m l

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e i b y

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T C 8 : 1 -

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P l a t f o r m s

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B e n c h e s ( 1 2 ) . .

C O 0 0 C

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-

T o t a l S p e c i m e n s

I

4 • 1

T able 2 9: E xcavations:

S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo C andelero D istribution S ummary.

el C ' 4 r i

­ 1

0 o

D c . . J c

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A r c h i t e c t u r a l

1 I

( .

-

5 32

-

( TC-8)

T able 3 0: S ingle-chamber M aquixco e i B a , jo ( TC-8).

C andeleros

f rom the

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u r a t i o n / D e c o r a t i o n

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S anta

M aria

( Kolb) F igure 1 2: C andelero M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8).

S ANTA M ARIA M AQULXCO E L

B AJO

( TC-8:1-2,

3 ,

4

D istributions

) EXCAVATIONS:

a t

S anta

D ISTRIBUTION O F C ANDELEROS

T C-8:3 E xcavation

•

O ne-chambered -

F inger I mpressed E ffigy T ype

-

O ther T ypes

-

T C-8:4

E arth P laza

( unpaved)

0

T C-8: 1 -2

E xcavation

D atum

E xcavations

M ETERS

-

5 34

-

M aria

o ther d ecorated f orms). There w as o ne s ingle-chamber c andelero a ssociated w ith A lley 1 i n T C-8:1-2, a nd t here were n o e ffigy f orms f ound i n a ny a lleys. A ltar P latforms, f ound i n a ll t hree residences, c onsist o f r aised p latforms w ith p robable t alud a nd t ablero c onstruction, a nd were s ituated i n c entral c ourtyards. I t i s a ssumed t hat t hese s tructures s erved a s b ei o f s ocial a nd/or r eligious c eremonies p racticed b y t he i nhabitants o f t he c ompound a partments. N ineteen s pecimens were f ound o n o r n ear t hese p latforms ( five: f ingertip i mpressed a nd 1 4 o ther d ecorated f orms); t here were n o e ffigy t ypes a ssociated, a nd r esidence T C-8:4 h ad a o ne-chamber c andelero o n a p latform a pron. Benches a re l ow, r aised p latforms l ikely u sed f or s itting a nd/or s leeping, a nd a te f ound a long the i nterior walls of r ooms o r walls o f t he c entral c ourtyards. O nly T C-8:1-2 a nd TC-8:3 h ad b enches. O f t he n ine s pecimens, s ix were f ingertip impressed a nd t hree were o ther d ecorated f orms. N o e ffigies o r o ne-chamber c andeleros were a ffiliated. C entral C ourtyards, f ound i n e ach r esidence, a re l arge r ectilinear o pen-air s paces l ocated a t l evels below t hat o f t he porches a nd r ooms. C ourtyards were p aved with c oncrete a nd s tucco, a nd h ad c oatings o f white l ime p laster. The r ooms a nd/or p orches a rranged a round t he c ourtyard s orr ned l arge multi-family a partments. Twenty c andeleros ( seven f ingertip i mpressed a nd 1 3 others) were a ssociated b ut t here were no e ffigy f orms. B oth t he T C-8:1-2 a nd TC-8:3 c ourtyards e ach h ad o ne s inglec hamber c andelero. P atios a re u nroofed, p aved o r u npaved ( normally t he f ormer) i nternal o pen s paces s ituated w ith h ouses o r apartments, o r s erved a n a partment c omplex. T hese o pen-air s paces p ermitted l ight t o e nter a nd a ir t o c irculate, a nd s erved a s l oci f or s ocial g atherings a nd a s work a reas. O nly T C-8:1-2 h ad p atios ( n = 3 ), a nd i t w as i n t hese a reas t hat 3 2 c andeleros were f ound ( 13 f ingertip i mpressed, 1 7 o ther d ecorated f orms, a nd two e ffigy t ypes). P orches a re r oofed a reas, w ide a nd s hallow i n c onfiguration, a nd o pen t o o ne s ide. They a re s ituated i n f ront o f o ne o r more r ooms a nd p rovide a ccess t o a h ouse o r a partment. E ach o f t he t hree T C-8 r esidences h ad a t l east o ne p orch, b ut o nly 1 2 s pecimens were a ssociated ( seven f ingertip i mpressed a nd f ive o ther decorated f orms). N o e ffigy t ypes o r o ne-chamber c andeleros were a ssociated w ith p orches.

-

5 35

-

R ooms a re a rchitectural u nits w ith f our w alls a nd a t least a s ingle e ntryway. O ne o r more r ooms ( usually t he latter) f orm a n a partment which i s e ntered v ia a p orch. R ooms were t he d ominant a rchitectural c omponent i n t erms of s pace, c losely f ollowed by t he c ourtyards. The r ooms a t T C-8 y ielded a t otal o f 4 3 c andeleros ( 15 f ingertip impressed a nd 2 8 o ther d ecorated f orms), a nd t here w ere n o e ffigy t ypes o r s ingle-chamber c andeleros a ssociated. S tairways o f f rom two t o e ight s teps p rovided a ccess f rom c ourtyards t o p orches, a lleys a nd r ooms, o r f rom a lleys t o r ooms. M ost o f t he s tairways a t M aquixco were b alustraded a nd h ad b een c onstructed o f f lat s tones ( lajas), c oncrete a nd s tucco, a nd c oated w ith white l ime plaster. A ll r esidences h ad a t l east t wo s tairways. Thirty-one c andeleros ( 15 f ingertip i mpressed a nd 1 3 other d ecorated f orms, a s well a s t hree e ffigy t ypes) were a ssociated, b ut n o s ingle-chamber s pecimens were a ffiliated. The m iddens a t T C-8 y ielded 3 6 c andeleros, m ostly f ragments which h ad b een d iscarded w ith o ther r ubbish a nd b roken c eramics a nd s tone t ool f ragments. T here w ere 1 5 f ingertip i mpressed a nd 2 1 o ther d ecorated f orms. I n s ummary, c andeleros were most f requently f ound i n rooms a t t he M aquixco s ite. M iddens, p atios, a nd s tairways a lso h ad n umerous s pecimens a ssociated, w hile c ourtyards a nd a ltar p latforms l ess f requently h ad c andeleros i n s itu. I n a ntiquity, t he c leaning o r sweeping o f c ourtyards a nd t he p latforms l ocated w ithin t hem p robably h as r educed s uch a ssociations. P orches, b enches, a nd a lleys were l east l ikely t o b e t he l ocations of c andeleros. N o c andeleros were a ssociated a s m ortuary offerings a t M aquixco, u nlike t he b urials a t L a V entilla, where c andeleros were s ometimes f ound i n mortuary p its a s offerings ( ofrendas) w ith q uantities o f c eramic a rtifacts b owls, v ases, a nd f igurines ( Kolb 1 962, 1 964). B ased upon t hese a ssociations, a nd t hose n oted a t t he X olalpan -

-

a nd T iamimilolpa r esidences ( Linne 1 934, 1 942) a nd t he residences l ocated w est o f t he C iudadela ( Se 'journe ' 1 959, 1 966a, 1 966b), c andeleros were n ot n ormally u tilized a s f uneral f urniture. I ndeed, t hey were t o b e " used" b y t he l iving a nd d iscarded i n m iddens w hen t hey b ecame b roken o r d amaged. D istributions V alley

a t

O ther

R ural

S ites

i n

t he

T eotihuacan

C omplete o r f ragmented c andeleros ( n = 3 1 14 ) were f ound i n o nly 2 0 o f 134 ( 14.9%) o f t he " rural" s ites i n the T eotihuacan V alley s urveyed b y S anders a nd h is c olleagues d uring t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject f rom 1 961-1865 ( see T able 2 6 a nd F igure 2 ). H owever, f our o f

-

5 36

-

t hese s ites T C-11, T C-12, T C_1 14 , a nd T C-30 were b arrios o f a ncient T eotihuacan, t he S upra-Regional C enter ( Kolb 1 979a), b ut y ielded o nly 1 7 s pecimens. The m ajority o f t he c andeleros ( 228 of 3 11 4), o r 7 2.6 ) c ame f rom t he e xcavations a nd s urface c ollections a t t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-8) s ite, a L arge N ucleated v illage l ocated i n t he L ower Valley E cological Z one. I nformation o n T C-8 h as been p resented i n t he p receeding s ection. N o o ther s ite h ad more t han 1 1 s pecimens i n t he s urvey a nd e xcavation c ollections, a nd o nly s ix s ites h ad s ix o r m ore c andeleros. These s ites i ncluded TC-5 ( n 1 1), a S mall N ucleated V illage i n t he L ower V alley E cological Z one; T C-73, ( n = 1 1), a P rovincial C enter l ocated i n t he C erro Gordo N orth S lope Z one; T C-30 ( n 9 ), a Supra-Regional Center B arrio i n t he M iddle Valley; T C-97 ( n = 7 ), a Small Nucleated V illage i n t he U pper V alley E cological Z one; T C-98 ( n = 7 ), a nother Small N ucleated V illage s ituated i n t he U pper Valley; a nd T C-87 ( n = 6 ), a L arge N ucleated V illage a lso l ocated i n t he U pper V alley ( Kolb 1 979a). G eneral d ata o n c andeleros f rom t he T eotihuacan V alley s ites a re r elated below ( see T able 2 6). -

-

-

-

S ite T C-5, C erro M ixcuyo d e S antiago Z agualuca, a Small N ucleated V illage i n t he L ower V alley, h ad a m aximal e xtent o f 14 .6 h a a nd a potential X olalpan p hase p opulation o f 3 39 ( Kolb 1 979a:374-375, 5 56, 5 60). There were weak P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases), a nd h eavy A ztec c omponents a t t he s ite, which h ad b een c onverted i nto a h acienda p lantation f or m aguey a nd n opal c ultivation d uring t he C olonial p eriod. O ne c andelero ( Specimen 1 0,01 48) was f ound d uring t he e xcavations o f t est p its i n T C-5:1) a nd t en o thers d uring a rchaeological s urvey. Among t hese were t he f ollowing d ecorated t ypes: F ingertip I mpressed ( n = 1 4 ), P lain ( n = 2 ), O ther D ecorated ( n = 5 ). O ne s ingle-chamber s pecimen w as r ecovered ( Fingertip I mpressed), a nd a ll o thers were two-chamber c andeleros. S ite T C-10, V enta d c C arpio, s ituated i n t he D elta E cological Z one, was a S mall N ucleated V illage 5 .4 h a i n m aximal e xtent, a nd h ad a Xolalpan p hase p opulation o f 3 98 ( Kolb 1 979a:387-389, 5 56, 5 60). T here were h eavy P reclassic, moderate C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough L ate X olalpan p hases), weak T oltec, a nd h eavy A ztec c omponents a t t he s ite, w hich h as ( since 1 961 4) been s eriously d isturbed by m odern h ighway a nd h ouse c onstruction. O nly o ne c andelero f ragment ( Specimen 1 0,742), a two-chamber s pecimen, was r ecovered. S ite C olorado, t he L ower

T C-11, known a s S an J uan E vangelista-Cerro w as a S upra-Regional C enter B arrio, l ocated i n V alley, a nd c overed 1.5 h a a nd h ad a p otential

X olalpan

p hase

p opulation

-

o f

5 37

8 46

-

( Kolb

1 9 ' 79a:389-391,

5 56, 5 60). P reclassic, C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough Metepec p hases), a nd P ost C lassic T oltec a nd A ztec c omponents were a ll h eavily r epresented i n t he c ollections. T here were s ix C lassic p eriod m ounds ( tlateles), b ut o nly T C-11:4 y ielded t wo c andelero s pecimens, both t he t wo-chamber v ariety, o ne o f which w as F ingertip I mpressed a nd t he o ther w ith I ncised D ecoration. T he s ite h ad p reviously b een s urveyed by t he p ersonnel o f t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject, which m ay a ccount f or t he l ack o f c andeleros, f igurines, a nd d iagnostic p ottery i n t he s urvey c ollections o f t he Teotihuacan V alley P roject. S ite T C-12, S an J uan E vangelista T laylotlacan, a nother S upra-Regional C enter B arrio, w as l ocated i n t he Lower V alley E cological Z one a nd c overed 1 6.0 h a ( Kalb 1 979a:391-39 14 , 5 56, 5 60). T here were h eavy P reclassic, heavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough M etepec p hases), a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents a t t he s ite. D uring t he Xolalpan p hase t he p robable population w as 1 ,178. F our two-chamber c andeleros ( two e ach f rom T C-12:2 a nd T C-12:5 mounds) were f ound: o ne F ingertip I mpressed, a nd t hree Other D ecorated. T his s ite h ad a lso p reviously b een s urveyed by p ersonnel o f t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject. S ite T C 14, B arranca d e P atlachique o r H acienda T lajinga-Tepanco d e S an L uis, a S upra-Regional C enter B arrio, w as s ituated i n t he M iddle V alley a nd c overed 1 6.3 h a a nd h ad a p ossible Xolalpan phase p opulation e stimated a t 1 ,119 ( Kolb 1 979a:396-399, 5 56, 5 60). T here were w eak P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough Metepec p hases), a nd h eavy P ost C lassic c omponents r epresented i n t he s urvey c ollections. F ourteen C lassic p eriod mounds were d elineated, b ut o nly t wo two-chamber c andeleros ( one e ach f rom TC-14:1 a nd T C-11 4:3) were r ecovered. O ne w as P lain a nd t he o ther F ingertip I mpressed. S ite T C-23, S anta A na o r E l M ogote, a S mall Nucleated V illage c overing 4 .0 h a a nd l ocated i n t he N orth T ributary V alley E cological Z one, h ad 1 5 C lassic p eriod mounds a nd a Xolalpan p hase d emography e stimated a t 2 94, a lthough S anders e stimated 2 75-450 ( Kalb 1 979a:409-410, 5 56, 5 60). O ne o ne-chamber c andelero, a F ingertip I mpressed t ype, c ame f rom T C-23:15, a p yramid. T he P reclassic c omponent w as weakly r epresented, t he C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases) w as h eavy, a nd t he P ost C lassic c ollections m oderate. S ite T C-30, T echachal d e S an M artin d e l as P iramides E ste, w as a nother S upra-Regional C enter B arrio a nd was l ocated i n t he M iddle V alley E cological Z one. This s ite c overed m aximally 9 .5 h a a nd h ad 1 5 C lassic p eriod m ounds w ith a p opulation e stimated f or Xolalpan t imes a t 6 69

-

5 38

-

( Kolb 1 979a:418_421, 5 56, 5 60). There were h eavy P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough M etepec phases), a nd h eavy P ost C lassic c omponents i n t he s urvey c ollections. S ix m ounds h ad t wo-chamber c andeleros: TC_30: 14 ( n = 1 ), T C-30:7 ( n = 2 ), T C-30:8 ( n = 2 ), T C-30:12 ( n = 1 ), T C-30:13 ( n = 1 ), a nd TC-30:19 ( n 2 ). The n ine s pecimens i ncluded o ne F ingertip I mpressed, t hree P lain, a nd f ive O ther D ecorated. S ite T C_40, c alled T lacatele d e S an J uan T eacalco, was a P rovincial C enter i n t he C erro Gordo N orth S lope E cological Z one a nd w as 1 9.5 h a i n a rea ( Kolb 1 979a:435- 14 38, 5 57, 5 61). N ine o f 2 2 mounds h ad m ajor C lassic p eriod o ccupation, a nd t he Xolalpan p hase population was e stimated a t 1 ,435. O nly o ne t wo-chamber c andelero ( Plain) c ame f rom T C-40:9. There were w eak P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough M etepec phases), a nd s ome P ost C lassic c omponents a t t his s ite. S ite T C-42, S an C ayetano d e S an J uan T eacalco, a Small Nucleated V illage i n t he C erro G rodo N orth S lope Z one, c overed 6 .3-6.5 h a a nd h ad a Xolalpan p hase population o f 46 4 ( Kolb 1 979a:440_442, 5 57, 5 61). There were h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough L ate Xolalpan phases) a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents. Two t wochamber s pecimens ( one E ffigy a nd o ne O ther D ecorated) c ame f rom T C-42:11. S ite T C-43, a H amlet w ith a S pecial A ctivity L ocus, was s ituated i n t he C erro Gordo N orth S lope Z one. C alled C erro T iquimil d e S anta Maria M aquisco e l A lto I , t he s ite w as o nly 0 .7 h a i n e xtent a nd h ad a p robable maximal population o f 5 2 i n E arly X olalpan t imes ( Kolb 1 979a:4 J 42_413, 5 57, 5 61). There w ere h eavy P reclassic, heavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough E arly X olalpan p hases) a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents. D uring t he M iddle a nd L ate C lassic p hases, t he s ite w as a t ezontli ( volcanic s coria) q uarry which p rovided c onstruction materials m ost l ikely f or l ocal s ites. O ne s ingle-chamber ( Incised) c andelero was r ecovered f rom T C- 1 4 3:3. S ite T C-46, a L arge N ucleated V illage i n t he C erro G ordo N orth S lope Z one, c overed 2 2.5 h a a nd h ad a population e stimated f or Xolalpan t imes a t 1 ,656 ( Kolb 1 979a: 1111 6-450, 5 57, 5 61). This v illage, c alled l ocally T iatenco d e S anta M aria M aquisco e i A lto, h ad 35 C lassic period mounds ( Miccaotli t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases). There were weak P reclassic a nd P ost C lassic c omponents r epresented a s well. O nly o ne t wo-chamber c andelero ( Plain) was f ound. S ite T C-49, a nother L arge N ucleated i n t he C erro G rodo N orth S lope Z one, e xpanse a nd i ncluded 2 9 C lassic p eriod

-

5 39

-

V illage l ocated w as 9 .2+ h a i n mounds. C alled

T enango d e S anta M aria M aquisco e i A lto, t he s ite h ad a m aximum Xolalpan p hase p opulation o f 1 ,200 a ccording t o S anders, a lthough I c alculated o nly 6 67 ( Kolb 1 979a:453- 11 56, 5 57, 5 61). E xcavations were c onducted i n T C-49:1 a nd y ielded f ive d ouble-chamber s pecimens, while two o ther t wo-chamber c andeleros c ame f rom t he s urface s urvey c ollections. A mong t hese were F ingertip I mpressed ( n = 3 ) a nd Other D ecorated ( n = 1 4 ) S ite T C-58, a L arge N ucleated V illage w hich i ncluded T C-57, i s a lso f ound i n t he C erro G ordo North S lope Z one. This s ite, T enango T latel d e S anta M aria M aquisco e i A lto, c overed 8 .2+ h a a nd h ad a p opulation o f 6 03 i n E arly Xolalpan t imes ( Kolb 1 979a:457, 5 57, 5 61). T here were h eavy P reclassic, m oderate C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough E arly X olalpan p hases), a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents. O ne t wo-chamber c andelero ( Other Decorated) w as r ecovered.

o r

S ite TC-73, L os C uecillos d e S an C ristobal L os Mogotes d e B uena V ista, was a P rovincial

C olhuacan C enter o f

2 1.0 h a i n t he C erro G ordo N orth S lope Z one. The s ite h ad w eak P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough L ate Xolalpan phases), a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents r epresented i n t he a rtifact c ollections ( Kolb 1 979a:1 481-1 488, 1 45 7, 1 4 61). This m ajor s ite w as c omposed of 1 01 C lassic p eriod m ounds a nd h ad a potential X olalpan p hase p opulation o f 1 ,546. E leven c andeleros were f ound d uring a rchaeological r econnaissance a t t he s ite: T C-73:7 ( n = 1 ), T C-73:11 ( n = 1 ), T C-73:13 ( n = 2 , i ncluding a o ne-chamber f orm), T C-73:25 ( n = 1 ), T C-73:27 ( n = 1 ), T C-73:30 ( n = 1 ), T C-73:1 4 1 4 ( n = 2 ), T C_73: 14 6 ( n = 1 , a o ne-chamber s pecimen), a nd T C-73:52 ( n = 1 ). A mong t hese were t hree F ingertip I mpressed, o ne P lain, a nd s even O ther Decorated c andeleros. S ite T C-83, a nother P rovincial C enter c alled E l T . Latel d e R ancho T la 'lan, w as l ocated i n t he U pper V alley E cological Z one. T his 3 0.5 h a s ite w ith 2 0 C lassic mounds h ad a m aximal 1 979a:1 498-501, 5 58, 5 61). h eavy C lassic ( Mi ccaot l i

p opulation o f 2 ,2 14 5 ( Kalb There w ere h eavy P reclassic, t h rough Metepec p hases), a nd

heavy P ast C lassic c omponents. O nly f our t wo-chamber c andeleros were f ound: T C-83:1 ( n = 1 ), T C-83:15 ( n 1 ), a nd T C-83:18 ( n = 2 ). A mong t hese w ere o ne E ffigy, o ne F ingertip I mpressed, a nd t wo O ther D ecorated s pecimens. S ite T C-87, p art o f t he T C-87/89 c omplex, w as a L arge N ucleated V illage c alled S an N icolas T iatilhuacan o r S an B onifacio N onoalco, s ituated i n t he U pper V alley ( Kalb 1 979a:504-506, 5 59, 5 62). The s ite c overed 8 .9+ h a a nd i ncluded e ight C lassic p eriod m ounds; t he e stimated X olalpan p hase d emography w as 6 55. T here w ere m oderate

-

5 40

-

P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough M etepec phases), a nd m oderate P ost C lassic c omponents. S ix c andeleros were f ound d uring t he a rchaeological s urveys: T C-87:1 ( n = 1 ), T C-87:2 ( n = 2 , i ncluding o ne s inglechamber), a nd T C-87:3 ( n = 3 , i ncluding t wo s inglec hamber s pecimens). F ingertip I mpressed d ecoration ( n = 2 ) a nd O ther Decorated ( n = 1 4) , e specially i ncised t ypes, were n oted. S ite T C-90, B arrio S an J osé d e S an M artin O tumba, a H amlet o f 1 .2 h a, w as l ocated i n t he U pper V alley E cological Z one ( Kolb 1 979a:507-508, 5 59, 5 62). T his s ite h ad t hree C lassic p eriod mounds a nd a p otential population o f 8 8. T here were w eak P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough Metepec p hases), a nd weak P ost C lassic c omponents r epresented i n t he c ollections. O nly o ne s pecimen ( Other Decorated) o f a t wo-chamber c andelero w as r ecovered. S ite T C-91, a p art o f t he T C-91/93 s ite c omplex, w as a S mall N ucleated V illage i n t he U pper V alley a nd l ocally c alled S an M arcos Ahuatepec P anteon. There w ere t hree C lassic p eriod m ounds i n a s ite a rea o f 5 .9 h a, a nd a demographic e stimate f or Xolalpan t imes o f 4 31 4 ( Kolb 1 979a:508-509. 5 59. 5 62). There were h eavy P reclassic, heavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough Metepec p hases), a nd moderate P ost C lassic c omponents. S even c andeleros were f ound: T C-91:1 ( n = 4 ), T C-91:2 ( n = 1 ), a nd T C-91:6 ( n 2 ); o ne w as F ingertip I mpressed, two P lain, a nd f our O ther Decorated. S ite T C-98, S an M iguel X olco-Belem, a S mall N ucleated V illage i n t he P atlachique R ange, c overed 5 .5 h a a nd h as a p opulation o n Xolalpan t imes e stimated a t 2 4 05 ( Kolb 1 979a:512-514, 5 59, 5 62). There w ere 1 2 C lassic p eriod m ounds. M oderate P reclassic, h eavy C lassic ( Miccaotli t hrough Metepec phases), a nd w eak P ost C lassic c omponents c omprised t he a rtifact c ollections. S even t wo-chamber c andeleros were r ecovered: T C-98:7 ( n = 1 ), a nd T C-98:General C ollection ( n = 6 ). F our w ere F ingertip I mpressed a nd t he r emaining t hree O ther Decorated. I n s ummary, c andeleros were n ot w ell-represented i n t he c ollections o f r ural Teotihuacan V alley s ites i n c omparson t o t he s pecimens o f c eramic f igurines, l ithic t ools, a nd d ecorated c eramics. C andeleros were n ot e specially a ssociated w ith t hose t iateles which c ould b e i nterpreted a s " high s tatus" r esidences, n or w as t here a ny p articular a ssociation w ith p yramids o r s hrines. E ffigy f orms were r are a nd, i n t he m ain, t he s pecimens were n ot e specially e laborate i n t erms of d ecoration.

-

5 41

-

The R elationships A rtifacts

of

C andeleros

C andeleros were most a nd m iddens a ssociated dwellings t hought t o be were a lso f ound i n t he

t o

C eramic

a nd

Other

f requently r ecovered f rom r ooms w ith u rban c enter e xcavated " high s tatus" r esidences, b ut r ooms, m iddens, a nd p atios o f

r ural r esidences ( Santa M aria M aquixco e l B ajo) i nterpreted a s h aving b een o ccupied b y s ocial g roups o f i ntermediate s tatus. S uch p ortable i ncense b urners w ere r arely r eported a s a ssociated w ith h uman i nterments ( La Ventilla b eing t he e xception), a nd were not f ound i n t he f ew a nimal b urials especially d ogs f ound i n t he a ncient c ity. L ikewise, c andeleros i n u rban a nd r ural s ites were not e specially f requent i n " sacred" o r " religious" c ontexts s uch a s s hrines a nd t emple-pyramids, o r i n o fferings ( ofrendas). This f act may b e i ndicative of a d ecline i n t he s ignificance o f s tate-organized r eligious a ctivity d uring t he L ate C lassic, e specially after A .D. 6 00. There w as n o c orrelation o f c andeleros w ith l ithic implements s uch a s c ulinary e quipment ( ground s tone m anos, m etates, mortars, pestles, e tc.) o r woodworking e quipment ( ground s tone a xes, a dzes, c elts, g ouges, e tc.). N o s ignificant n umbers of percussion a nd/or p ressure f laked o bsidian t ools, i ncluding p rismatic b lades, were a ssociated w ith c andeleros. B ased o n d ata f rom the M aquixco s ite ( Kolb 1 970, 1 971, 1 973b), h and-made a nd mold-made c eramic f igurines t ended t o b e f ound o n f loors n ear . t he w alls o f i nterior r ooms, o n porches i n a partment u nits, a nd near walls a nd b enches i n c entral c ourtyards. I n t ne main, i t a ppears t hat t here may b e s ome c orrelation of l ocations o f c andeleros a nd h and-made f igurines f ound i n r ooms a t t his s ite, b ut f urther a nalysis i s n eeded. The f igurines m ay h ave o riginally b een s ituated i n wall n iches, b ut, l ike c andeleros, c lay f igurines a lso were c ommonly f ound i n -

-

-

h ouse m iddens a long w ith a v ariety o f b roken a rtifacts a nd g eneral r ubbish.

-

o ther

d iscarded

a nd

Turning t o s pecific ceramic t ypes a nd wares, t here again were n o s pecial a ssociations w ith c andeleros, b ut I s hould c aution t hat n ot a ll w ares h ave b een a dequately s cudied. B ased o n a vailable d istributional d ata f or t he S anta Maria M aquixco e l B ajo e xcavations, t here a ppeared t o be n o l ocational c orrelations between c andeleros a nd C oarse Matte w are Three-pronged B urners o r C oarse M atte c ensers ( complete o r f ragmentary) e xcept t hat d iscarded s c ierds of t hese c eramics a nd c andelero f ragments o ccurred i n m iddens. There were no a pparent a ssociations w ith c omales, T lajinga S mooth b owls, o r S an M artin O range v essels o f a ny v ariety, n or were t here a ny r elationships b etieen t hese c ulinary wares a nd c andeleros a nd " serving" v essels s uch a s C opoid c eramics ( Copas, D eep C ups, C opoid

-

5 42

-

C ylindrical V ases, C opoid C ylindrical V ase 1 l andeled C overs, o r T apered V ases). B owls o f t he P olished Monochrome wares t radition h ave n ot b een s tudied. L ikewise, G ranular w are amphorae s pecimens a nd s herds h ave n o d istributional r elationships t o c andeleros. A lpha " Thin O range" v essels ( basin/craters, s ix b owl f orms, c ylindrical v ases, c ylindrical v ase h andled c overs, c opas/goblets, s aucers/dishes/plates, t ecomates [ neckless j ars], l ow a nd h igh n eck j ars, m iniatures, effigy f orms, a nd r ectangular b ox w ith l id) r ecovered f rom u rban a nd r ural s ites were n ot e specially a ssociated w ith c andeleros, a lthough s herds t he " Thin O range" Hemispherical B owl f orm w ith a nnular b ase ( the m ost common) were f requently f ound i n u rban m iddens ( Kolb 1 973a). L ikewise, t here w as n o p articular a ssociation w ith Beta " Thin O range" amphorae a t a ny e xcavated u rban o r r ural s ite.

P OSTULATED C andeleros

a s

F UNCTIONS:

I ncense

C ANDELEROS

B urners

a nd

C opal

AND

C OPALLI

A ssociations

A s noted, a n umber o f a uthors h ave a ssociated c andeleros w ith t he b urning of c opal a nd o ther f ragrant i ncense ( Hist6ria 1 882:242; G arcia I cazbalceta 1 891:2 14 2; Serna 1 892, 1 953:89, 9 2-93; N uttall 1 901 4:13; S eler 1 915:1 496-1 497; C eballos N ovelo 1 922:206-208; T hompson 1 930:105; L inn4 1 93 14 :113, 1 942:147; K idder e t a l. 1 91 46:216). I s hall now e xamine t he s pecific e vidence f or the c ombustion o f c opal i n c andelero c hambers' a nd t he u ses a nd d istributions o f c opal i n t he Mesoamerican botanical a nd e thnographic l iterature. C opal o r c opalli ( a N ahuatl w ord) i s t oday a g eneric t erm f or a ny t ree o r s hrub r esin which w as u sed a s a f ragrant i ncense i n c eremonial a ctivities ( Standley 1 920 1926:5 1 43; M artinez 1959:177-178; West 1 961 4:377, 3 78; K ubler 1 967:10; K olb 1 980:12; L ackey 1 986:213 21 14 ). I slas E scarcega i n h is D iccionario r ural d e M éxico ( 1961:68) s tated t hat c opal i s t he " resin p roduced b y v arious t rees o f t he B urceraceas [ sic. F amily B urseraceae], which t he a ncient Mexicans u sed t o b urn a s i ncense i n their t emples. A ctually i t i s employed t o c ombat s ome b ronchial i nfermities, i n t he p reparation o f v arnishes, a nd i n o ther i ndustrial u ses" [ translation m ine]. L ikewise, S tandley ( 1920-1926:5) 42-552, 1 668) reported t en p rimary u ses o f t he B urseraceae r esins ( see Appendix B ), i ncluding medicinal p roperties. A s a " domestic m edicine," c opal r esin, b ark, o r s moke w as u sed t o c ombat a v ariety o f a ilments a nd w as a lso u sed a s a c ement o r g lue ( see T able 3 1). S erna ( 1953:21 49, 2 54, 2 73, 2 81, 2 82, 2 93) r ecorded t he u se o f c opal i n medicinal t reatments t o c ombat c hild i llnesses, " illicit

-

5 43

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C h a r c o a l f o r s t o v e s

r

Smoke.

U ) a ) ' C ) I

c i i ( 3 ) . • I U ) 4 ( 1 ) 4 i 1 4 . 4 ' a ) j a )

• ‚ 4 i C O - a ) a ) 1 4

e c i f i c U s e s

a nd

i

• 1 4

C , )

B ark,

0 )

4 4 i a ) . 4 bO

0

Resin,

m a k e s w a t e r t i g h t s e a l )

o

C opal

" M o d e r n " i n d u s t r i a l u s e s

Q )

U ) O )

N u m e r o u s u s e s

c i i 0 4 J U Q ) 0 .

o f

W r i t i n g f l u i d

1 i

U ses

R i t u a l a n d c e r e m o n i a l u s e s

3 1:

" M o d e r n " i n d u s t r i a l u s e s

T able

M e d i c i n e "

C o 0

H a ) U a ) • I C) ' a ) a ) a ) ._ 4 U ' 1 C O 0 )

C u l t u r a l U s e s

a ) 1 4 t i C

a ) H U ) a )

a ) I i z 4 I 1 4

-

_

a ) O

8 EU ) 0

a ) > ‚ 4 4 1 c a ; > I i

p 0

a )

4i

U ) U ) ca a ) -H 0 )

a )

8 a ) C )

a )

'

-'

I i C O >

'

-'

U ) a ) 1 4 0 .

Ö 0

-

s

a )

"

‚

4 ,-

1 4 ( 1 U ) -H a ) Ii

I V O 0 4 4

'

'

C )

‚ r

.‚ -

a )

j-

H U ) a )

'

'

,

'

0 0

a i

a )

-H -

'

C ) 0 0 -

Q ) 9

i

-'

C O H

c o

U )

a ) P i

-0

0 o •

'

-'

'

_

a ) 0 ) -H U ) cn a ) a )

_

q

c o a ) I b

W

o a ) I I

a ) r

- .-'

a ) 4 4

4

l ove," i llnesses o f t he e yes, p ain i n t he e ars, a nd f or c ertain s kin p roblems. S ellers o f copal ( copaleros) were t o b e f ound i n t he m arketplaces ( Serna 1953:69). C opal s ynonymy, b iological n omenclature a nd g eographic d istributions a re d elineated i n T able 3 2. The p rimary A ztec s ource, F ray B ernardino d e S ahagun's F lorentine C odex ( 1959-1981), r eferred t o t he u se o f c opal a s a n o ffering t o t he d eities ( Book 1 :59; B ook 2 :29, 1 95, 1 99; B ook 9 :1 4, 5 , 1 1, 1 5-16, 3 7), as an i ncense b urned i n c ensers ( Book 2:199, 2 10), a nd n oted t hat i t w as s old i n t he m arkets ( Book 1 0:17). The A ztec l ong-handled c ensers ( braseros d el m ano) were a lso r eported ( Book 2 :89, 1 94, 214 6). S ahagun s tated t hat " white c opal" w as o ffered by m erchants before s etting o ut o n t rading e xpeditions ( Book 9 :11), " this w as t he t orchwood c opal, t he l egitimate; p ungent, o doriferous, v ery c lean, w ith n o r ubbish n or d irt." He a lso r eported t hat " priests p roceeded t he v anguard merchants a nd c arried c opal a nd a romatic h erbs a nd b lew s hell t rumpets" ( Book 9:24). I n metallurgy, beeswax w as m ixed w ith " white c opal" a nd a dded t o c harcoal t o f orm t he c ore i n t he c asting o f m etals s uch a s g old a nd s ilver ( Book 9 :7 2 4, 7 7). I n t he F lorentine C odex, B ook 1 1: E arthly Things ( Sahagun 1963:187), c opal o r c ocopaltic, was d escribed: I t c omes f rom a t ree n amed t epecopalquauitl. I t i ssues, i t e xudes o nly d uring t he d ry s eason. B ut w hen i t i s s ummer i t c annot s et; i t i s o nly d issolved. I ts l iquid i s l ike m ilk. [ It b ecomes] h ard l ike g um f or i nk. I n t his m anner i s o ne c ured. I f i t i s t o be g round, j ust a l ittle, a s much a s a s mall f ingernail, i s t o b e g round. I t i s p laced i n w ater; t here i t i s c rumbled w ith t he f ingers. I t i s n ot t hick. A nd i t i s d runk o nly o nce a d ay. O ne who h as d iarrhea d rinks i t d uring f asting, m ixed w ith t epid w ater; o r when h e h as e aten, m ixed w ith l amp-black. A nd h e who p asses f rom h is r ectum, o r who s pits b lood, i s c ured b y i t; i t i s n ot t o be m ixed w ith l amp-black. A nd [ to t reat] o ne whose b ody s wells, perhaps o f a h igh f ever, [ the g um] i s p laced t hereon; i t i s p laced [ on t op of t he swellings], i n o rder f or them t o q uickly b reak o pen. I t g rows i n t he hot l ands, t oward Temetztla. I n 1 570, F rancisco H ernandez, physician o f K ing P hilip I I o f S pain, w as n amed P rotomedico o f t he I ndies by t he monarch, a nd w as c harged t o p repare a n a ccount o f t he n atural h istory, a ntiquities, a nd p olitical

-

5 45

-

T able 3 2: Geographic

C opal Synonymy, B iological D istributions. 1

N ative L anguage T erm C opal

Nomenclature,

B iological D esignation ( Genus a nd s pecies)

G eographic D istributions ( Mexican S tates, O ther N ations)

E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium

G uerrero, O axaca; G uatemala M orelos B aja C alifornia S inaloa

e xcelsum j orullense m icrophyilum p enciilatu in

E laphrium r hoifolium I cia g enera

B aja C alifornia V eracruz, Y ucatan

C opal a margo

E laphrium b ipinnatum

M ichoacan

C opal a margoso

E laphrium b ipinnatum

G uerrero

C opal b lanco

E laphrium j orullense

M orelos

C opal c hino

E laphrium b ipinnatum

M orelos, M ichoacan

C opal S anto

E laphrium j orullense

M orelos

C opal d c i s V irgin

E laphrium b ipinnatum

S inaloa

C opal d c p enca

E laphrium j orullense

M orelos

C opalli

E laphrium j orullense

" Mexico"

( Nueva P armacopea M exicans),

M orelos, C opaiquahuiti ( Nahuatl)

P uebla,

O axaca

E laphrium g enera, a pplied " Mexico," e specially M orelos t o a v ariety o d s pecies, m ostly E . j orullense

C opalquin

E laphrium e xcelsum

D urango

C opaixochiti

E laphrium g enera

C olima, V eracruz

C opon

E laphrium s imaruba

H onduras

I ncienso d el p ais

E laphrium b ipinnatum

M orelos

L inaloe o r L inalue

E laphrium a loexylon

O axaca,

M ulato

E laphrium s imaruba

S inaloa

P alo c hino

E laphrium s imaruba

G uatemala, H onduras

P alo c opal

E laphrium b ipinnatum

S inaloa

P alo j iote

E laphrium s imaruba

V eracruz,

P uebla

E laphrium g randifolium

O axaca

P alo m ulato

E laphrium s imaruba

T abasco, O axaca

-

5 46

-

( southern)

C hiapas;

H onduras, P alo m ulato

a nd

G uatemala,

E l S alvador

C hiapas, V eracruz,

T able

N ative L anguage T erm

3 2:

( continued)

B iological D esignation ( Genus a nd s pecies)

G eographic D istributions ( Mexican S tates, O ther N ations)

S ochicopal

E laphrium g enera, E . l orullense

p robably C olima, V eracruz

S uchicopal

E laphrium g enera, E . l orullense

p robably C olima,

X ochicopal

E laphrium g enera,

p robably O axaca

E .

A fter S tandley

J alisco,

a loexylon

( 1920-1926:542-552,

-

1 668)

54 7

a nd M artfnez

-

( 1959).

V eracruz

c onditions o f N ueva E spa a. S ixteen f olio v olumes ( six t ext a nd t en o f i llustrations) were c ompleted i n 1 575 a s t he r esult o f H erná 'ndez's f irst-hand f ieldwork a nd o bservations, b ut t he a uthor d ied i n 1 578 b efore t he results c ould b e p ublished. T he K ing c ommissioned a nother o f h is p hysicians, D r. N ardo A ntonio R ecchi, a Neopolitan, t o p repare t he m aterials f or p ublication, b ut he, t oo, d ied b efore t he t ask w as c ompleted. P rince Federico C esi p urchased t he f olios a nd R ecchi's e dited manuscript a nd t urned t hem o ver t o t he A ccademia d ei Lyncei i n R ome, whose members p repared t he m anuscript which w as e ventually p ublished i n 1 651 . H ence, t he Hern an dez v olume i s a n e xtract c omprising o nly 9 50 p ages a nd 9 0 i llustrations, a nd h ad e xperienced a s eries o f e ditorships b efore b eing p ublished a s t he H ernandez Thesarus ( Hernandez 1 651), 7 6 y ears a fter t he d ata h ad b een c ompiled. The f inal c ompilation o n medicinal p lants i ncluded t hree c hapters o n c opal a nd i ts u ses. S tandley ( 1920-1926:549, 5 51-552) h as d etermined t hree s pecies o f t he c opal g enus E laphrium were d etailed b y H ern an dez. The s pecific a ssociations w ere: T hesarus 4 5 ( 1651), " De C opalli Quahuitl, s eu A rborae G um inifera C opallifers I " [ referring t o E laphrium a loexylon]; Thesarus 4 6 ( 1651), "De C opalliquahuit] . P atlahoac s eu A rbore C opalli l atifolia" [ referring t o E laphrium j orullense]; a nd Thesarus 4 8 ( 1651), "De C uitlacopalli s eu S terecore C opallis, C opallifera V I" [ referring t o E laphrium o doratum]

o f

S erna ( 1892:Paragraph 2 39, 1 953:174-176) a nd N uttall ( 1904:12-13) n oted t he u se o f s mall c eramic v essels w ith copal i ncense. D uring t he j oint f estival o f C hicome Xochitl ( Seven F lower), t he p atron o f p ainters, weavers, a nd embroiderers, a nd t hat o f Xochiquetzal, t he s upposed i nventress o f weaving, b lood o fferings were i i ade. B lood was d rawn f rom t he f ingers o r e yelids u sing m aguey ( Agave genera) s pines o r s mall o bsidian b lades. A s a p art o f t he " Third M ovable Festival," a ll m arried p eople m ade b lood o fferings ( Serna 1 953:174, N uttall 1 904:13). I n t his i nstance, b lood w as d rawn f rom t he e yelids o r l eft b reast, a nd t he d rops were c aught o n s mall s trips o f p aper, p laced i n " earthen j ars" ( vasos d e b arro) a nd b urned i n f ront o f t he t emple i dols. L astly, d uring t he " Sixth M ovable Festival," a ssociated with Q uetzalcoatl ( Serna 1 953:175), small e arthen v essels ( pequer 'os s aleros) s erved a s c ontainers f or d rops o f b lood, a bsorbec i b y s trips o f p aper, which were burn t w ith c opal i n t he t emples. N uttall ( 1904:13) a lluded a s p robable i ncense r eceptacles f or a ctivities. S tandley s ource f or

( 1920-1926:32, 5 42-552, 1 668), M exican t rees a nd s hrubs,

-

5 48

-

t o c andeleros s uch r itual

t he p rimary b otanically

c haracterizes c opal a s f ollows: S ubkingdom S permatophyta, C lass A ngiospermae, S ubclass D icotytedones, S eries 2 : P olypetalae, F amily B urseracae ( Torchwood F amily). The F amily i ncludes o nly t wo g enera, I cica ( with o nly o ne s pecies, I . c opal) a nd E laphrium ( with 4 2 s pecies), s ee Appendix B . M ore r ecent b otanical n omenclature ( Martinez 1959) u ses t he n ame B ursera a s t he g enus d esignation r eplacing o r s ynonymous w ith E laphrium. A mong t he 4 2 E laphrium s pecies i dentified b y S tandley, s even a re s ignificant i n t erms o f c ultural u ses a nd g eographic d istributions. These i nclude:

T able

3 3:

E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium E laphrium

S ignificant

E laphrium

S pecies.

s imaruba = B ursera s imaruba ( Wagner 1 96) 4:231) b ipinnatum m icrophyllum o doratum = B usera o doratum ( Hernandez 1 651:) 48) p encillatum j orullense = B ursera j orullense ( Martinez 1 959:

1 78, L ackey 1 986:211, Hern ndez 1 651:) 46) E laphrium a loexylon = B ursera a loexylon ( Lackey Hern an dez 1 651 :45)

The r esin, b ark, a nd wood p urposes ( see T able 3 1).

f rom

E laphrium

1 986:211,

s erve

m any

E laphrium ( or B ursera) s imaruba, which h as t he w idest d istribution o f a ll g enera a nd s pecies, i s f ound i n r ain f orests f rom S inaloa i n northwest Mexico s outh t hrough Chiapas a nd t he c ountries o f C entral A merica i nto n orthern S outh A merica. This s pecies i s p articularly a bundant i n Veracruz, T abasco, a nd t he Y ucatan a s well a s t ne i slands o f t he W est I ndies. The r esin i s u sed i n f olk medical p ractices t o t reat a w ide v ariety o f a fflictions, a nd i s employed a s a g lue o r c ement, a s well a s a wood p reservative. The wood i s e specially r esistant t o worm a ctivity a nd r ot, h ence, i s v alued a s a r aw material f or d ugout c anoes a nd f or f enceposts. O nly o ne s ource r eported e vidence f or t he u se o f E . s imaruba a s a s ource o f c opal i ncense ( Wagner 1 96 ) 4:231). E laphrium b ipinnatum h as a r estricted g eographic d istribution f rom S inaloa a nd s outhern C hihuahua i n t he n orth t hrough G uerrero a nd M orelos, a nd i ts r esin i s u sed i n f olk m edicine t o t reat wounds. H owever, E . m icrophyl. l um, c onfined t o d ry p lains h illsides i n s outhern A rizona, a nd S onora, Z acatecas, a nd B aja C alifornia, i s a lso f ound i n s imilar l ocations i n M orelos a nd

-

5 49

-

P uebla i mmediately s outh a nd e ast o f t he B asin o f Mexico. I n a ddition t o t he r eputed v alue o f t he r esin i n t he t reatment o f v enereal d iseases, i ts wood i s u sed p redominantly i n t he m anufacture o f b asketry, while t he b ark i s a s ource o f d yestuffs a nd t annin f or t he p reparation o f h ides. E laphrium p encillatum i s r estricted t o s outhern C hihuahua, S inaloa, a nd J alisco, while i ts c ultural u ses were n ot r eported i n t he l iterature. N either E . b ipinnatum n or E . m icrophyllum h ave b een r ecorded a s a c opal i ncense s ource i n t he e thnohistoric o r e thnographic l iterature. E laphrium ( or B ursera) o doratum i s d iscontinuously d istributed f rom Sonora a nd B aja C alifornia i n t he n orth through t he Meseta C entral t o M orelos a nd P uebla. I n a ddition t o the u se o f t he b ark f or t anning, t he r esin i s v alued f or i ts medicinal p roperties a nd a s a g lue o r c ement, a nd a s a s ource f or c opal i ncense. E laphrium ( or Bursera) j orullense i s f ound f rom D urango s outh t o P uebla a nd Guerrero, b ut n ot w ithin t he E stado d e M exico o r t he B asin o f Mexico. T oday i ts r esin i s a s ource f or v arnish manufacture, w hile i t h as a lso been u sed i n f olk m edicine t o t reat u terine d iseases a nd a s a n o intment o r s alve ( probably f or t reating b urns, c uts, a nd wounds, a lthough the s pecifics a re not s tated). The smoke f rom t he i gnited r esin of E . j orullense' i s u sed t o r elieve headaches, a nd t he r esin a lso u sed a s i ncense. E laphrium ( or B ursera) a loexylon, g eographically r estricted t o Morelos, P uebla, a nd Oaxaca, w as a s ource f or o ils, p erfumes, a nd i ncense. I n

s ummary,

c opal o r s ource

t he f or

4 2

a lthough

i n

s pecies c opal

o f E laphrium c ould h ave been a ( Miranda 1 947:111, M artinez

a ntiquity

a ny

r esin

f rom

I cia

1 959:177-178, W agner 1 964:231, L ackey 1 986:211-21) 4), f our s pecies E . a loexylon ( linaloe), E . j orullense ( copalli), E . 6doratum ( copalli), a nd E . s imaruba were t he most lTkely p rimary s ources. The d istributions o f t hese f our a re d etailed i n T able 3 1 1. -

-

-

C opal

During

the

C lassic

Teotihuacan

-

P eriod

The f irst d irect s tatement t hat c opal was b urned a s a n i ncense i n c andeleros was made b y S eler ( 1915:1 196), who o bserved t hat " in s ome o f t hem t here a re i n f act t races of c opal." H owever, t here w as n o s cientific evidence p resented t o c orroborate h is d eclaration. R oque C eballos N ovelo ( 1922:206-207) r eported f inding a " soft, yellow m aterial" i n s ome c andelero c hambers i n s pecimens f rom Teotihuacan. H e s ubmitted t hese s ubstances f or a nalysis t o P rofessor M iguel d e M . y C ampos, who was a ffiliated w ith t he L aboratorio d e Qui 'mica d e l a D irecció 'n d e E studios B iol «gicos. C ampos d etermined t hat

-

5 50

-

T able 3 4: D istribution I ncense S ources. 1

o f

G eographic R egion

G enus s pecies

E stado d e H idalgo

N one r eported

E stado d e M exico ( Basin o f M exico)

E .

E stado d e T laxcala

N one r eported

E stado d e P uebla

E stado d e M orelos

E stado d e G uerrero

E .

E laphrium

R are; s mall s hrub o r t ree, e nvironment

C opal

a loexylon

S mall s hrub o r

t ree,

a rid

a rid e nvironment

E . j orullense

S hrub o r t ree u p t o 7 .5

E .

o doratum

e nvironment S mall s hrub o r

t ree,

a rid e nvironment

E .

a loexylon

S mall s hrub o r t ree,

a rid e nvironment

E .

o doratum

S mall s hrub o r t ree, a rid e nvironment ( especially d ry h illsides n ear r ivers)

E . j orullense

S hrub o r t ree u p e nvironment c ourses)

E stado d e O axaca

a s

N ote

( ? )

o doratum

S pecies

t o 7 .5

i n,

i n,

a rid

a rid

( especially n ear w ater

E .

s emiruba

T ree u p t o 2 5.0 i n ( usually s maller), r ain f orest e nvironment

E .

a loexylon

S mall s hrub o r t ree,

E .

s emiruba

T ree u p t o 2 5.0 i n ( usually s maller). r ain f orest e nvironment

-

5 51

-

a rid e nvironment

t he

s pecimens

were

c opal

( Ceballos

N ovelo

1 922:207)

[ my

t ranslation]: a p roduct v ery m uch u sed b y t he i ndigen ous p eoples i n t hese p laces [ Teotihuacan] i n t heir r eligious ceremonies. T he o rigin of t hese [ substances] i s d ifficult t o l ocate, but i t i s n early c ertain t hat t hey p ertain t o t he s pecies known i n M exico s ince t hose t imes, c alled c opal d e p enca [ cactus l eaf], Pharmacopia i s E laphrium

which, a ccording t o the E laphryum j orullense [ sic.

j orullense]

C andeleroS r ecovered f rom the e xcavations a t L a C iudadela ( the C iudadela o r C itadel) i n t he u rban Teotihuacan c enter, a ppeared t o c ontain a m ixture o f c arbon a nd a s ubstance r eputed t o b e c opal. A n a nalysis o f t hese s pecimens w as c onducted by a c hemist, G onzalo R amirez, i n c ollaboration w ith a n a gronomist-engineer, G abriel G6mez , , a t t he L aboratoriO d e Q u mica I ndustrial d e l a D ireccion de A gricultura i n Mexico ( Ceballos N ovelo 1 922: 20 7 ). S crapings f rom t hese c andeleros, which h ad n o v isible r esidues, were a nalyzed. Beeswax a nd " resinous e lements" ( whose o rigins c ould not b e d etermined) were d iscerned. Thompson ( 1930:105) r eported t races o f beeswax i n c andelero c hambers, b ut d id n ot c ite a ny s cientific o r chemical a nalysis. Two c andeleros f rom t he Xolalpan s ite ( Linn 1 934:113) c ontained " traces o f s ome o rganic s ubstance, which h owever a re t oo i nsignificant t o m ake a nalyses p ossible." I n h is T iamimilolPa s ite r e po rt, L inne' ( 1942:147) n oted t hat c opal o r b eeswax w as s aid t o be f ound i n s ome c andelero s pecimens, b ut r eferenced o nly t he s tatements o f o ther i nvestigators ( Phillips 1 883:627; S erna 1 892 :P aragraphS 2 32 a nd 2 39, 1 953:174-176; Nuttall 1 90 1 4:13; L eon 1 905:188; S eler 1 915:1 496; R adin 1 920:58; Thompson 1 930:105). A pparently, L inne ' d id n ot s ubmit a ny o f t he T iamimilolpa s pecimens f or c hemical a nalysis. Longyear ( 1952:102), i n h is a nalysis o f c andeleros f rom C opan, H onduras, r efers t o t he s tudies o f S eler ( 1915:1 496) a nd C eballos N ovelo ( 1922:206), b ut d id n ot h ave a ny c hemical s tudies c onducted o n t he C opan s pecimens. L ikewise, S ejourne ( 1959:19 4 , 1 966a:32) n oted t he p resence o f v estiges o f r esin i n s pecimens f rom Z acuala, a nd a ssumed t his r esin t o b e c opal w ithout a ny s cientific a nalysis. A ngulo a nd H irth ( 1981:93) s imply s tated

t hat

c andeleros

were

u sed

t o

b urn

c opal.

I n s ummary, t he a ctual e vidence f or t he u se o f c opal a nd b eeswax i n c andeleros r ests w ith t he c hemical a nalyses o f C ampos a nd R amirez a nd G6mez n oted b y C eballos

N ovelo

( 1922:206-207).

-

5 52

The

-

s pecific

m ethods

o f

a nalysis w ere n ot s tated. O ther a uthors a ssumed t hat a ny r esinous s ubstances f ound chambers were c opal.

C LASSIC

T EOTIHUACAN

P ERIOD

C ANDELERO

h ave s imply i n c andelero

C HRONOLOGY

I ntroduction T he f ollowing s ummary i s b ased o n d ata e laborated i n Appendix A . E xamples o f c andelero s pecimens a re i llustrated i n F igures 1 3-27 f ound a t t he e nd o f t his s ection. The p hase-by-phase p resentation f rom i nitial c andelero appearances d uring t he E arly T lamimilolpa p hase ( ca. A .D. 2 50-375) t hrough t he t erminal M etepec p hase ( ca. A .D. 6 50-750) ( see T able 4 ) t akes t he f ollowing f ormat: 1 ) G eneral C omments, 2 ) C andelero S izes ( "standard" o r l arge f orms v s. m iniature f orms), 3 ) C hambers ( numbers o f c hambers, c onfigurations o f chamber o penings, c onfigurations o f c hamber i nternal b ases, s eparate v s. c onjoined i nteriors, e tc., [ see F igure 7 ]), 1 4 ) L ateral V ents ( numbers o f v ents, t ypes o f v ents, l ocations, e tc., [ see T able 1 6 a nd F igure 7 ]), 5 ) L ip/Septum ( configuration, e laboration, e tc., [ see T able 1 8 a nd F igure 7 ]), 6 ) C andelero B ody C onfiguration ( gross s hapes/forms a s s een i n p rofile, e nd, a nd t op/superior v iews, e tc., [ see F igures 9 -10]), 7 ) S urface T reatments ( slips, p aints, w ashes, l ack o f t reatment, e tc.), 8 ) D ecoration(s) ( location o f d ecoration(s), t ypes o f decoration r anging f rom m atte t hrough m ultiple e laborations [ see T able 1 9]), 9 ) C ombustion E vidence ( presence, a bsence, i nformation o n r esidues), 1 0) F requencies ( general s tatements b ased u pon c ollections s tudied), 1) C ontexts ( information a s t o a rchitectural a ssociations i n e xcavated s ites), a nd 1 2) I llustrative E xamples ( references t o F igures 1 3-27). -

-

R elated c losely t o F ormat C ategory 8 ) D ecoration, a re d ata o n s igns, s ymbols, a nd o ther d epictions. J udgments a s t o s uch e laborations were d erived f rom a s tudy o f t he s pecimens a nd a c omparison w ith known, i dentified s igns a nd s ymbols f ound i n t he l iterature o n c andeleros a nd c eramics. T able 35 i s a c ompilation o f t hose d epictions ( n = 1 2) which h ave been f ound o n c andelero s pecimens, while T able 3 6 i s a l ist o f s uch p henomena ( n = 8 7) n ot f ound b ut w hich w ere l ooked f or d uring t he a nalyses. N o p articular c hronological a ssociations were f ound i n t erms o f P hysical A ttributes ( paste c olor, h ardness, t exture, p orosity, t emper a nd o ther a plastic i nclusions, a nd f iring v ariations) o r C ultural A ttributes ( methods o f m anufacture a nd d imensions). T he C ultural A ttributes s uch a s f orms a nd s hapes, a nd s urface f inish a nd

-

5 53

-

T able 3 5: S igns, C andelero S pecimens

S ign,

S ymbol,

S ymbols S tudied.

D epiction

a nd

D epictions

O bserved

o n

S ource(s)

C hevron B and

K ubler 1 976:Table 1 :83

C uarto p etalo/Four-petal M otif

C ovarrubias 1 957:138,

F ig.

5 7,

K ubler 1 967:

T able 1 :28 E l D ios d el F uego ( huehueteotl, V iejo o A ntiguo, O ld M an/God)

E l D ios C aso 1 966:267-269;

K ubler 1 967:Table 1 :4;

1 964:154, 1 56, 1 57-172, S ejourne 1 966:105, F ig. E l D ios G ordo o M ofetudo E hecati

( Fat M ale)

( Wind D eity)

H ombre b arbado

( Bearded M ale)

C aso 1 966:265,

2 72;

K ubler 1 967:Table 1 :5

C aso 1 966:265;

S ejourne 1 960:72,

K ubler 1 967:Table 1 :10;

M ontana t riple/Trimountain G lyph o r S ign

S ejourne

F igs. 3 -20, F otos 1 -4; 1 6; S erna 1 953:138

1 37,

1 71, F ig.

S ejourne 1 964:154, F ig.

5 0 3

K ubler 1 967:9, T able 1 :64-65, F igs. 3 0, 4 4; v on W inning 1 949:131, F ig. 1 ; v on W inning 1 961 :140-141, F ig.

1u -x

( pointed a nd r ounded m ountain p eaks)

Q uatrefoil o r C ruciform R osette

F urst 1 974:201

R homboides c on d iscos/Rhomboides w ith D iscs..

K ubler 1 967:Table 1 :50;

S ejourne 1 960:105,

v on W inning 1 961:140-141,

F ig.

F ig.

1 7;

2 3;

1 d d

S imbolos d e f uego/Fire S ymbols

K ubler 1 967:Table 1 :79;

S ejourne 1 960 :110, F ig.

T iempo,

S ejourne 1 960 :113,

1 38,

c iclo d e/Time C ycle

3 0,

5 1;

1 17,

S ejourne 1 962b:48,

P 1. F ig.

7 f acing 1 9, F igs. 4 5

T rastes/Frets/Stepped F rets

C ovarrubias 1 957:138, F ig. 5 7; K ubler 1 967:Table 1 : 4 6; S ejourne 1 960 :103, F ig. 1 6

X ipe/Flayed I ndividual

B ennyhoff 1 963:personal c ommunication; 2 69-270

-

5 54

-

C aso 1 966:

T able

3 6:

C andelero

S ign,

S igns,

S ymbols

S pecimens

S ymbol, D epiction:

a nd

Depictions

N ot

O bserved

S tudied.

N ot O bserved

S ource(s)

A guila/Eagle A guila/Eagle w ith Q uetzalcoatl C ross

C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967 S ejourne 1 960

A guila S olar/Solar E agle A lacran/Scorpion

S ejourne 1 960 R ands 1 955

A steriscos/Asterisks A tlatl/Spearthrower o r T hrowing B oard B ar-dot N umerals

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967

B isnaga/Cactus B ivalve o r P ecten

K ubler 1 967 C ovarrubias 1 957, S ejourne 1 966b

B urning W ater C alamar/Squid C haichihuitlicue/Water G oddess

S ejourne 1 960 F ubler 1 967 F urst 1 974, K ubler 1 967, R ands 1 955

C left H ead h uman F igure C omb-and-Bar S ign o r M otif

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967, v on W inning 1 961

C oncha/Conch

C ovarrubias 1 957, K olb 1 987, K ubler 1 967, R ands 1 955, v on W inning 1 949

C oncha/Conch w ith G otas/Drops C oncha/Conch , C ut, a s " Half S tar"

K olb 1 987, K olb 1 987,

C ondor/Vulture C oyote C ross o f Q uetzalcoatl

K ubler 1 967 C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 K ubler 1 967

C rucero/Crossroads

K ubler 1 967, R ands 1 955,

S ejourne 1 960 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 S erna 1 953

D iadema/Diadem D iagonal S callops ( series) D ios d el S ol/Sun o r S olar D eity E lementos t renzados/Intertwined

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 P asztory 1 978

E lements E scudillo/ S hield E strella d el m ar/Starfish E strella d el c ielo/Star

C aso 1 958-1959, K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 C ovarrubias 1 957, S ejourne 1 960

C aso 1 960 F aisan/Pheasant D ios d el F uego c on c ruz d e Q uetzalubler 1 967, c oatl/Fire G od w ith Q uetzalcoatl C ross K D ios d el F uego c on Q unicunx/Fire K ubler 1 967, G od w ith Q uincunx

S ejourne 1 960 S ejourne 1 960

F lecha s /Arrows F lor/Flower ( non-four-petal) F our-element G roup ( Fire/Lightning!

K ubler 1 967

R ain/Water) G otas/Drops ( water a nd/or b lood)

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967;

G otas/Drops,

K ubler 1 967, P asztory 1 978, H ands 1 955; v on W inning 1 947

K ubler 1 967

1 947,

T rilobal

S ejourne 1 960; v on W inning

1 961

H alo c on p lumas/Feathered H alo

K ubler 1 967, v on W inning 1 961

H uella d ivina/Divine F ootprint J ade J aguar/Ocelot

K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 S ejourne 1 960 C ovarrubias 1 957, K ubler 1 967, 1 978, R ands 1 955

J aguar/Ocelot, F eathered/Plumed J aguar ( Muzzle) a nd S erpent ( Eye)

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967

J aguar-Bird-Serpent ( Tiger E ar, F eathers, S erpent T ongue L echuza/Owl

K ubler 1 967; S ejourne 1 960, 1 962b C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967, P asztory 1 978,

P asztory

B ird

R ands 1 955

-

5 55

-

o n

T able

S ign,

S ymbol,

D epiction:

3 6:

( continued)

N ot O bserved

S ource(s)

M aguey

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 F ranco 1 961; C aso 1 966; S ejourne 1 960 , 1 962a C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967 S ejourne 1 960

M aize/Corn M ano a islado/Isolated H and M ariposa/Butterfly M ono/Monkey N aollin N ose-pendant B utterfly N ose-pendant R ain G od U i0 /Eye ( hieroglyph) O jo d e r eptil/Reptile E ye

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 962a C aso 1 958-1959; K ubler 1 967; v on W inning 1 949, 1 961 S ejourne 1 962a, 1 962b

( RE g lyph)

O jos s olares/Solar E yes O jos s imbolica d e l a m ariposa/ B utterfly E yes O las/Waves 0 11in ( movement s ymbol)

S ejourne 1 962a C ovarrubias 1 957,

S ejourne

1 960

K ubler 1 967; P asztory 1 978; S ejourne 1 960, 1 962a K ubler 1 967 C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967, P asztory 1 978, S ejourne 1 962b K ubler 1 967 P asztory 1 978, S erna 1 953 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 C aso 1 966 C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967, P asztory 1 978 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960 K ubler 1 967, H ands 1 955 K ubler 1 967 C aso 1 966, K ubler 1 967, H ands 1 955

P aired B rackets P erro/Dog P isote E l P lanets V enus/Planet V enus P luma p elotas/Feathered B alls P uma Q uetzal Q uetzalcoatl/Feathered S erpent Q uincunx ( five p oints o n a c ross) R ana / F rog R aya d e t rapecio/Trepeze-ray S erpiente/Serpent o r R eptile S erpiente c on c abeza d el c oyote/ S erpent w ith C oyoye's h ead S erpiente c on c abeza d e a guila/ S erpent w ith E agle's H ead S erpiente, c uerpo, c on l echuza o a guila/Serpent-bodied O wl o r E agle. S keletal F igure ( human) T alud a nd T ablero ( as d epiction) T emplo/Temple E l T igre/Tiger

K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 C aso 1 958-1959, 1 966; S ejourne 1 962b; S erna 1 953 C aso 1 966; C ovarrubias 1 957; K ubler 1 967; L inne 1 941; P asztory 1 978; H ands 1 955;

T laloc/Rain G od

T ortuga/Turtle T r -shingle V enus S ymbol, " Half S tar" V oluta/Volute/Scroll V oluta t riple/Treble S croll W arrior o r H unter X ochipilli/El S ol J oven/Solsr F ertility X oc hique tz a1

-

K ubler 1 967;

S ejourne 1 960, 1 962s K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967, S ejourne 1 960, v on W inning 1 961 C ovarrubias 1 957, K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 K ubler 1 967 P asztory 1 978, S erna 1 953

5 56

-

R ands 1 955,

S ejourne 1 962a

d ecorative t echniques a re c onsidered t he p hase-by-phase p resentations.

E arly

T ia r nimilolpa

1 )

G eneral

Phase:

A .D.

w ithin

t he

f ormat

o f

2 50-375

C omments:

At a bout A .D. 2 50-275, s ingle-chamber c andeleros m ade t heir i nitial a ppearance i n the E arly T iamimilolpa p hase, while t he double-chamber s pecimens b egan s lightly m ore r ecently, c a. A .D. 3 00. A f ew t hree-chamber e xamples were a ssociated w ith t erminal E arly T lamimilolpa. The o ne-chamber c andeleros d ominated t he t otal c hronological s ample. The n umber o f b ody c onfigurations a nd d ecorative t echniques u sed were l imited i n c omparison w ith l ater p hases. b oth t he o ne- a nd t wo-chamber f orms o ccurred i n C oarse M atte a nd i n F ine M atte, w ith t he f ormer p redominant, while t hree-chamber f orms w ere a ll C oarse M atte. O ne-chamber c andeleros h ad e ight b ody c onfigurations a nd n ine m ajor t ypes o f d ecoration, t he d ouble-chamber f orm h ad s ix b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 4 p rimary d ecoration t ypes, a nd t he f ew t hree-chamber e xamples h ad o nly t hree c onfigurations a nd f our m ajor types o f d ecoration. The E arly T iamimilolpa p hase w as a pparently a t ime o f e xperimentation which p receeded t he e xtreme e laborations, b oth i n b ody c onfigurations a nd decorations, f ound i n s ubsequent p hases. T he " fire" deity a nd a f layed o r X ipe-like f igure a ppeared o n e ffigy f orms o f b oth o nea nd t wo-chamber s pecimens ( Caso 1 966:269-270). 2 )

C andelero

S izes:

The s ingle-, d ouble-, a nd t riple-chamber c andeleros were a ll t he " standard" o r l arge s ize, a s m iniature s pecimens were t otally a bsent o r r epresented b y o nly a f ew q uestionable e xamples f rom t he u rban T eotihuacan r esidential

3 )

e xcavations.

C hambers:

The o ne- a nd t wo-chamber c andeleros a s well a s t he t riple-chamber f orms c onsistently h ad r ound c hambers. N o s quare o r D-shaped c hambered s pecimens were a ssociated i n E arly T iamimilolpa c ontexts. I nternal c hamber b ases were a lways c oncave, a nd n o m ulti-chamber s pecimens h ad c onjoined 4 )

a ir

i nteriors.

L ateral

V ents:

S ingle-chamber s pecimens n early a lways were w ithout v ents, a lthough a f ew c andeleros ( n = 5 ) h ad t wo

-

5 57

-

cylindrical vents (Vent Type 1) located approximately midway between the lip and base in the profile wall and The two-chamber candeleros had opposite one another. four cylindrical vents, two per chamber ( Vent Type 1), but a few examples had conical vents (Vent Type 2), two per chamber. These vents were located in the middle 1/3 or, slightly less frequently, in the upper 1/3 of tne profile wall opposite each another. Effigy specimens rarely had vents in upper or lower 1/3, as vents were normally either absent or situated midway between lip and base in the chamber profile walls. 5) Lip/Septum: In single-chamber specimens, the lips were usually flat, but there were also some acute and oblique examples. The two- and three-chamber candeleros normally had flat septa, while acute and oblique forms were less frequent, and a few septa were slightly depressed. Lips and septa were almost always undecorated, although a few candeleros had burnishing or light incision or full-reed punctation. 6) Candelero Body Configurations: The single-chamber candeleros had the following configurations (see Figure 9): Common (Types A and B), Present (Types E and F), Rare (Types G, L, R, and S). Types R and S were effigy forms. Two-chamber candeleros had fewer con figurations (see Figure 10): Common (Type VV, the double-body form), Present (Type AA), Rare (Types CC, HH, II, and RR). The few examples of three-chamber included Types JJJ, candeleros (see Figure 10), all Rare, -KKK, and LLL. 7) Surface Treatments: washes, or other similar No slips, self-slips, among the noted specimens were treatments surf ace studied, but most of the candeleros were fragmentary and/or weathered. 8) Decoration(s):

(see Table 19 and A ppendix A)

One-chamber specimens had the following decorati ve elaborations: Common (overall unfinished/matte,) Present (overall matte-smoothed, overall polished), Present-to­ Rare (applique), Rare (matte-smoothed with zone polish, fingertip impressed, fingernail impressed, incised, punctation). Two-chamber candeleros had the following: Common (overall unfinished/matte, overall matte-smoothed, polished, fingertip impressed), Present overal 1 (punctation, applique), Rare (matte-smoothed with zone polish, fingernail impressed, grooved, grooved with

- 558 -

p unctation, f luted, i ncised, r ocker s tamped), V ery R are ( rouletted). The t hree-chamber e xamples h ad: C ommon ( overall u nfinished/matte, o verall m atte-smoothed), R are ( matte smoothed w ith z one p olish, overall p olish). 9 )

C ombustion

E vidence:

N early a ll s pecimens o f a ll c hambered f orms h ad e vidence o f u se b ut n o c andeleros h ad r esidues a dhering t o c hamber i nteriors. The l ack o f r esidues w as most l ikely d ue t o z ealous c leaning by s tudents a nd/or workmen d uring e xcavation o r i nitial l aboratory p rocessing. 1 0)

F requencies:

The o ne-chamber c andeleros were t ypical o f t he E arly T lamimilolpa phase, w ith t he t wo-chamber f orm l ess c ommon a nd t he t hree-chamber s pecimens q uite r are. 1 1)

C ontexts:

S ome o ne-chamber c andeleros were f ound i n m ortuary c ontexts a nd m iddens i n u rban r esidences, a lthough m ost s pecimens w ere l ocated n ear o r o n a ltar p latforms, i n r ooms, o r i n p atios o r c ourtyards. T he t wo-chamber s pecimens f requently were a ssociated w ith m iddens, r ooms, c ourtyards, p atios, a nd s tairways l eading t o c ourtyards. N early a ll t hree-chamber s pecimens were f rom museum c ollections, a s were s ubstantial n umbers o f o ne- a nd twochamber f orms. S ingle-chamber s pecimens w ere r arely f ound i n s urface s urvey c ollections. 1 2)

I llustrative

E xamples:

The f ollowing i llustrations o f c andeleros r epresent f orms, b ody c onfigurations, a nd d ecorations a ssociated w ith t he E arly T iamimilolpa p hase: F igures 1 3a, f ; 121 a, e , g , h , k ; 1 5a-d, f , k , 1 ; 1 6d, h , k , n ; 1 7e-g; 2 3c, e , g ; 2 5f, h ; 2 6a, 2 7a-b. L ate

T lamimilolpa 1 )

G eneral

P hase:

A .D.

3 75_450

C omments:

D uring t he L ate T iamimilolpa p hase, m iniature c andeleros m ade t heir i nitial a ppearance. This p hase i s a lso c haracterized b y e laborations i n c andelero f orms a nd d ecoration, b ut t he t wo-chamber f orm o vershadowed t he s ingle-chamber f orm i n s heer n umbers. F our-chamber c andeleros s eem t o m ake t heir i nitial a ppearance t oward t he e nd o f t he p hase. S ingle-chamber s pecimens h ad 1 9 b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 2 m ajor d ecoration t ypes, two-chamber c andeleros h ad 3 0 b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 6 major t ypes o f d ecoration, while t hree-chamber f orms h ad

-

5 59

-

f our b ody c onfigurations a nd f ive m ajor d ecoration t ypes. A ll c hamber f orms o cccurred i n C oarse Matte a nd i n F ine Matte, w ith t he f ormer p redominating. E ffigy f orms o f the " fire" a nd " fat" d eities o ccurred more f requently. 2 )

C andelero

S izes:

" Standard" o r l arge s ize c andeleros o ccurred i n f orms h aving f rom o ne t o f our c hambers. M iniature s pecimens developed d uring t he p hase, a nd o ne-chamber s pecimens were a bout e qual i n n umbers t o the t wo-chamber f orms. N o miniatures h ad more than two c hambers.

3 )

C hambers:

R ound

c hambers

c haracterized

a ll

c andelero

f orms

( "standard" a nd m iniature) n o m atter how m any c hambers were r epresented. A ll c hamber b ase i nteriors were concave, a nd t here were no c onjoined i nteriors i n multi-chamber 1 4 )

L ateral

s pecimens. Vents:

One-chamber f requently t han

c andeleros o ften before, h ad two

h ad no v ents o r, m ore c ylindrical a ir v ents

( Vent Type 1 ) s ituated i n t he m iddle o r u pper 1 /3 o f t he profile w all a nd o pposite o ne a nother. D ouble-chamber s pecimens h ad f our a ir v ents, e ither c ylindrical o r c onical i n f orm ( Vent Types 1 a nd 2 ), t wo per c hamber. These v ents were normally i n t he m iddle 1 /3 o f t he chamber p rofile w alls, b ut many s pecimens h ad v ents i n the u pper o r l ower 1 /3 i nstead. A f ew two-chamber e xamples h ad n o v ents whatsoever. S calene t riangular vents ( Vent T ypes 3 a nd 1 4 ) were s ometimes a ssociated w ith the d ouble-chamber f orm. The f ew f our-chamber c andeleros h ad c ylindrical v ents ( Vent Type 1 ) l ocated m idway between t he l ip a nd b ase i n the p rofile wall. 5 )

L ip/Septum:

O ne-chamber c andeleros u sually h ad f lat l ips a lthough there were s pecimens w ith a cute o r o blique l ips. The two-chamber s pecimens h ad f lat s epta a s well a s s epta with s light o r major d epressions b etween t he c hambers. Less f requently f ound among t he d ouble-chamber f orms were r aised a nd o blique s epta. The l ips a nd s epta o f t he o nea nd t wo-chamber f orms were n ormally u ndecorated a lthough s ome s pecimens h ad b urnishing o r p olishing a ssociated with b ody d ecoration, a nd o ther s pecimens h ad i ncision, o r i ncision w ith p unctation, c orresponding t o t he b ody decoration.

-

5 60

-

6 )

C andelero

B ody

C onfigurations:

S ingle-chamber f orms h ad t he f ollowing c onfigurations ( see F igure 9 ): C ommon ( Types A , B , a nd E ), P resent ( Types F a nd G ), R are ( Types C , D , H , I , J , K , L , N , 0 , F , Q , H , S , a nd T ). D ouble-chamber c andeleros a lso h ad v ariable c onfigurations ( see F igure 1 0): C ommon ( Types AA a nd I I), P resent ( Types BB, D D, H H, N N, 0 0, R H, a nd V V, R are ( Types C C, E E, F F, G G, J J, K K, L L, P P, Q Q, S S, T T, W W, X X, Z Z, A AA, B BB, E EE, F FF, H HH, a nd I II). The t riple-chamber e xamples i ncluded t he f ollowing c onfigurations ( see F igure 1 0): R are ( Types J JJ, K KK, P PP,

a nd

7 )

Q QQ).

S urface

T reatments:

N o s pecimens were o bserved t o s elf-slips, washes, o r s imilar s urface 8 )

D ecoration(s):

( see

T able

1 9

h ave h ad s lips, e laborations.

a nd

Appendix

S ingle-chamber c andeleros h ad t he decorative e laborations: C ommon ( overall m atte, o verall m atte-smoothed, f ingertip

A )

f ollowing u nfinished/ i mpressed),

P resent ( matte-smoothed w ith z one p olish, o verall p olished, p unctation, a pplique), R are ( fingernail i mpressed, g rooved, g rooved w ith p unctation, f luted, i ncised). The t wo-chamber f orms were e laborated a s f ollows: C ommon ( overall u nfinished/matte, o verall m atte-smoothed, o verall p olished, f ingertip i mpressed, i ncised, p unctation), P resent ( matte-smoothed w ith z one p olish, g rooved, f luted, a pplique), R are ( fingernail i mpressed, g rooved w ith p unctation, p unctation w ith i ncision, p unctation w ith g rooving, r ouletted, r ocker s tamped). T hree-chamber s pecimens were e laborated a s f ollows: C ommon ( overall u nfinished/matte, o verall m atte-smoothed), R are ( matte-smoothed w ith z one polish, o verall p olished, a pplique). T he " fire" a nd " fat" deities o ccured o n t wo-chamber e ffigies. 9 )

C ombustion

E vidence:

A lmost a ll s pecimens o f a ll c hambered f orms s howed e vidence o f c ombustion o r b urning a lthough n o c andeleros were s een t o h ave r esidues a dhering t o c hamber i nteriors. 1 0)

F requencies:

Two-chamber c andeleros s eemed t o b e d isplacing t he o ne-chamber f orm, a nd t here were m ore s pecimens o f t hree-chamber c andeleros i n L ate T lamimilolpa c ontexts.

-

5 61

-

1 1)

C ontexts:

The majority of s ingle-cham b er c andeleros c ame f rom h uman i nterments a nd m iddens i n u rban a nd r ural r esidences. M any s pecimens were l ocated i n r ooms, p atios, o r c ourtyards. T he d ouble-chamber s pecimens w ere most f requently f ound i n r ooms, p atios, porches, m iddens c ourtyards, s t a irways , l eading t o c ourtyards, a nd i n o fferings ( ofrendas). T hree-chamber f orms c ame f rom m iddens b ut t he s tudy s ample w as P redominantly f rom museum o r l aboratory c ollections. F ew o ne-chamber o r t hree-chamber c andeleros were n oted i n s urface s urvey c ollections. 1 2)

I llustrative

E xamples:

L ate T lamimilolpa c andelero s pecimens a re r epresented i n t he f ollowing i llustrations a nd e xemplify f orms, b ody c onfigurations, a nd a ssociated d ecorations: F igures 1 3a-g, 1 -a; 1 a-e, gi, k ; 1 5a i; 1 6a-b, d , h , ji, n -o; 1 7e-j; 1 9a-g, i ; 2 1a-n; 2 2a-d; 2 3a-c; 2 4a-f; 2 5a, fi; 2 6a-b; 2 7a-b, j . E arly 1 )

Xolalpan G eneral

Phase:

A .D.

4 50-550

C omments:

The E arly Xolalpan p hase w as c haracterized by e ven more e laborations i n c andelero f orms, b ody c onfigurations, a nd t ypes o f d ecoration. A t t he s ame t ime i t a ppears t hat t he n umbers o f s uch a rtifacts i ncreased d ramatically i n b oth u rban a nd r ural s ites a nd i n s ites e xternal t o t he B asin o f M exico, P articularly M atacapan a nd K aminaljuyu. C andelero a rtisans p roduced t heir p roducts i n C oarse M atte, F ine M atte, a nd, f or t he f irst t ime, P olished M onochrome, a lthough, f or t he l atter, t he q uantities, b ody c onfigurations, a nd decorations were e xtremely r estricted. P olished Monochrome c andeleros m ay h ave b een m anfactured b y t he a rtisans who m ade t he P olished M onochrome a nd/or C opoid ware ( Kalb 1 988b). C andeleros o ccurred i n f orms h aving f rom o ne t hrough s ix c hambers, a lthough t he d oublechamber f orm o verwhelmed E arly Xolalpan s amples a nd t he o ne-chamber c andelero was s till s ignificant b ut f ound i n l esser q uantities a nd v arieties i n c omparison w ith p rior phases. M iniature c andeleros p roliferated, a nd " standard" f orms w ith f rom t hree t o s ix c hambers were more c ommon t han b efore. S ingle-chamber f orms h ad 1 b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 0 m ajor d ecorative t ypes a ssociated, while t he t wo-chamber f orm h ad 3 3 b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 9 m ajor d ecorative t ypes. T he t riple-chamber s pecimens were r epresented b y 1 5 b ody c onfigurations a nd e ight d ecorative t ypes, f our-chamber

-

5 62

-

e xamples by two b ody c onfigurations a nd e ight d ecoration types, f ive-chamber c andeleros by a t l east o ne body c onfiguration a nd e ight major d ecoration t ypes, a nd t he s ix-chamber s pecimens b y a t l east t wo b ody c onfiguration a nd e ight m ajor d ecoration t ypes. Among t he e ffigy f orms, t he " fire," " fat," a nd "wind" d eitites c an be i dentified. 2 )

C andelero

S izes:

" Standard" o r l arge c andeleros o ccurred i n f orms h aving f rom o ne t o s ix c hambers. M iniature s pecimens were made i n a b ewildering v ariety often r eplicating t he l arger v ersions, b ut h ad o nly o ne o r t wo c hambers, were f ound o nly i n h igh s tatus u rban r esidences.

3 )

a nd

C hambers:

R ound m iniature D-shaped

c hambers c haracterized a ll " standard" a nd f orms, b ut, f or t he f irst t ime, s quare a nd c hamber c onfigurations were n oted o n s ome

b etter-executed o r more e laborate c andeleros. The i nterior o f c hamber b ases were o verwhelmingly c oncave, a lthough b oth c onvex a nd f lat c hamber b ases a ppeared i n E arly Xolalpan s pecimens. N early a ll o f t he multi-chambered c andeleros h ad s eparate s ome two-chamber s pecimens i n Polished c onjoined which l acked i nteriors t he s eparating t he c hambers. 1 4 )

L ateral

i nteriors b ut M onochrome h ad i nternal w all

V ents:

S ingle-chamber s pecimens h ad t wo l ateral a ir v ents o pposite o ne a nother. There v ents were e ither cylindrical o r c onical ( Vent Types 1 a nd 2 ) a nd l ocated i n t he u pper o r m iddle 1 /3 of t he p rofile w all. N o unvented s ingle-chamber c andeleros were a ssociated w ith t he E arly Xolalpan p hase. Two-chamber f orms u sually h ad cylindrical o r c onical v ents ( Vent T ypes 1 a nd 2 ), b ut s calene t riangular v ents ( Vent Type 3 ) o ccurred i n s ome q uantity, a nd a ll o ther v ent t ypes s calene a nd -

-

equilateral t riangular ( Vent Types 1 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 ) were a lso n oted among t he E arly X olalpan s pecimens. C andeleros o f t he t wo-chamber f orm, i n t he m ain, h ad v ents l ocated i n t he l ower o r m iddle 1 /3 of t he p rofile walls, b ut o ther l ocations were s een, e specially i n effigy c andeleros. Those c andeleros with f rom three t o s ix c hambers n ormally h ad t wo v ents p er c hamber, a nd t hese

5 ) by

were

a lmost

a lways

Vent

Types

1 o r

2 .

L ip/Septum:

F lat a cute

l ips c haracterized t he s ingle-chamber a nd o blique c onfigurations were a lso

-

5 63

-

s pecimens r ecorded.

Two-chamber c andeleros h ad a v ariety o f s epta: f lat, f lat ( with c onjoined c hamber i nteriors), s lightly depressed, h eavily d epressed, r aised, a nd u ndulating o r uneven. The f lat a nd d epressed s hapes were more c ommon. Specimens w ith t hree o r more c hambers u sually n ad f lat o r s lightly d epressed s epta. L ips a nd s epta were m ore f requently e laborated by p olishing o r b urnishing o r b y i ncision o r p unctation which c orresponded w ith t he b ody decoration. 6 )

C andelero

The chamber

B ody

f ollowing c ande . Leros

C onfigurations:

c onfigurations were n oted o n s ingle( see F igure 9 ): C ommon ( Types A , B ,

a nd E ), P resent ( Types F a nd G ), R are, ( Types D . H . I , K , M , P , T , U , a nd V ). Two-chamber c andeleros c ame i n n umerous c onfigurations ( see F igure 1 0): C ommon ( Types AA, HH, I I, N N, a nd R R), P resent ( Types BB, D D, K K, L L, 00, A AA, a nd E EE), R are ( Types C C, E E, F F, G O, J J, MM, P P, Q Q, S S, T T, U U, V V, WW, XX, Y Y, B BB, C CC, D DD, FFF, GGG, a nd HUH). The t hree-chamber s pecimens a lso h ad a n umber o f n ew f orms a dded t o t hose p reviously d eveloped ( see F igure 1 0): R are ( Types A A, B B, C C, D D, E E, L L, Y Y, J JJ, K KK, L LL, MMM, N UN, 0 00, P PP, a nd QQQ). Four-chambered e xamples were T ypes AA a nd QQQ, while f ive- a nd s ix-chamber s pecimens ( all r are) were Type QQQ. 7 )

S urface

Specimens

T reatments: f rom

s ites

i n

t he

B asin

o f

Mexico

a nd

t c ie

Meseta C entral s howed n o e vidence o f s lips, s elf-slips, washes, o r o ther e laborations. C andeleros f rom Kaminaljuyu ( Kidder e t a l. 1 946:216) a nd o ther s ites l ocated s ome d istance f rom Teotihuacan were r eported b y v arious a uthors t o h ave h ad w hite s lips a pplied t o m atte e xterior 8 )

s urfaces.

D ecoration( s):

( see

T able

O ne-chamber c andeleros h ad decorations a ssociated: C ommon

1 9

a nd

A ppendix

A )

t he f ollowing m ajor ( fingertip i mpressed),

P resent ( incision, p unctation), R are ( overall unfinished/ matte, o verall m atte-smoothed, m atte-smoothed w ith z one Polish, o verall p olished, f ingernail i mpressed, p unctation w ith i ncision, a pplique). D ouble-chamber f orms were d ecorated a s f ollows: C ommon ( overall unfinished/matte, o verall m atte-smoothed, o verall polisned, f ingertip i mpressed, i ncised, p unctation), P resent ( matte-smoothed w ith z one p olish, g rooved, g rooved w ith p unctation, f luted, p unctation w ith i ncision, a pplique), R are ( fingernail i mpressed, p unctation w ith g rooving, e xcision, i ncised w ith rouletting i ncised w ith p unctation, P lano r elief, rouletted). The c andeleros with t hree o r m ore c hambers

-

5 64

-

c ould b e e laborated b y e ight m ajor d ecorative t ypes: P resent ( overall u nfinished/matte), R are ( overall m atte-s m oothed, m atte-smoothed w ith z one polish, o verall p olished, i ncised, p unctation, r ouletting, a pplique). 9 )

C ombustion

E vidence:

Nearly a ll s pecimens s howed e vidence o f b urning i n t he c andelero c hambers a nd o ccasionally o n t he l ip o r s eptum. S pecimens i n t he c ollections o f t he Teotihuacan Mapping P roject a nd t he I nstituto N acional d e A ntropol ogia e H istoria'a P royecto T eotihuacan s ometimes h ad r esidues a dhering t o t he c hamber i nterior b ases. I k now o f

n o

a ttempts

1 0)

t o

a nalyze

t hese

o rganic

r esidues.

F requencies:

Two-chamber

c andeleros

were

by

f ar

t he

most

c ommon

f orm. S ingle-chamber s pecimens s eemed t o d ecline s ignificantly i n r elative f requency, a nd while t he multichambered ( more t han t wo) c andelero f orms a nd a ssociated decoration d ramatically i ncreased, t he o verall numbers o f multi-chambered s pecimens d id n ot v ary s ignificantly f rom t he p rior L ate T iamimilolpa p hase. The d ouble-chamber f ingertip i mpressed E arly X olalpan p hase c andeleros s howed a n i ncrease i n n umbers o ver the p rior p hase, which was t o b e p recursor o f t he L ate X olalpan p hase when s uch c andeleros were p roduced i n o verwhelming q uantities. 1 1)

C ontexts:

S ingle-chamber c andeleros were f ound i n b urials, r ooms, m iddens, p atios, a nd c ourtyards o f u rban a nd s ome r ural r esidences. T he t wo-chamber s pecimens c ame p redominantly f rom c ourtyards, m iddens, p atios, a nd p orches, b ut w ere f ound i n a ll a rchitectural c ontexts, a lthough r arely a ssociated w ith benches u sed f or s itting o r s leeping. C andeleros with t hree o r more c hambers c ame p redominantly f rom m useum c ollections. The t wo-chamber c andeleros w ere o ften f ound i n s urface s urvey c ollections, b ut t he f orms w ith o ne o r t hree o r m ore chambers were u nlikely t o be f ound i n u rban o r r ural s ite r econnaissance c ollections. 1 2)

I llustrative

E xamples:

The f ollowing c andelero i llustrations r epresent f orms, b ody c onfigurations, a nd d ecorations f ound i n s pecimens d ated t o t he E arly X olalpan p hase: F igures 1 3a-e, g -w, y -z; 1 4a, e -j, n -r; 1 5c, e -f, h-g; 1 6a-j, m-o; 1 7a-1; 1 8a-h; 1 9a-o; 2 0a-k; 2 1a-n; 2 2a-g; 2 3a-h; 2 4e-f;

2 5c-e,

g -l;

2 6a-d,

g-n;

-

5 65

2 7c-g,

-

hi.

L ate

Xolalpan 1 )

P hase:

G eneral

A .D.

5 50-650

C omments:

During t he L ate Xolalpan o r M aquixco p hase, c andeleros were m ass p roduced, p erhaps i n r esponse t o e nvironmental a nd s ocioeconomic p roblems which w ill b e c onsidered i n a s ubsequent s ection o f t his r eport. The v ast a rray o f b ody c onfigurations s een i n E arly Xolalpan was much r educed, a nd t here a ppeared t o be a n o rientation t oward t he p roduction o f " easily" m anufactured f ingertip i mpressed c andeleros. A rtisans p roduced t hese i ncense b urners i n C oarse M atte a nd F ine M atte, a lthough P olished Monochrome c andeleros were i nfrequently m ade a nd p roduction a pparently c eased d uring t his p hase. C andeleros were p roduced i n f orms h aving f rom o ne t o s ix chambers, b ut t he t wo-chamber f orm w as t he most c ommon. B oth t he " standard" a nd m iniature s izes were m ade, b ut t he n umber o f m iniature b ody c onfigurations d ecreased i n c omparison t o t he p revious phase. O ne-chamber " standard" f orms h ad f ive b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 0 m ajor decorations a ssociated, w hile t he d ouble-chamber s pecimens o ccurred i n 2 2 b ody c onfigurations a nd 1 9 m ajor decorative t ypes. S pecimens w ith t hree o r more c hambers h ad t wo b ody c onfigurations a nd t hree a ssociated m ajor decorative t ypes. " Fire," " fat" a nd " wind" d eities were i dentified among t he e ffigy t ypes d uring t he L ate Xolalpan p hase. 2 )

C andelero

S izes:

" Standard" o r l arge c andeleros o ccurred i n f orms i aving f rom o ne t o s ix c hambers, a lthough t he t wo-chamber f orm a ccounted f or more t han 9 0% of t he s pecimens i n a ny L ate Xolalpan c ollection. S ingle-chamber c andeleros a nd t hose w ith f rom t hree t o s ix c hambers w ere l ess f requent t han i n a ny p revious p hase. M iniature s pecimens ( only o nea nd t wochamber f orms) a ppeared i n v arieties s imilar t o t hose o f t r ie p receeding E arly Xolalpan p hase, a nd were a ssociated w ith h igh s tatus u rban r esidences r ather t han r ural s ites.

3 )

C hambers:

R ound c hambers were c haracteristic o f t he " standard" a nd m iniature c andeleros. A f ew s pecimens d ated t o t he L ate Xolalpan p hase h ad s quare o r r homboidal-shaped chambers, e specially o n m ore e laborate s pecimens f ound i n h igh s tatus u rban r esidences. C oncave i nterior c hamber b ases a ccounted f or o ver 81 4 % o f t his a ttribute, b ut n early 1 0% o f t he 3 46 s pecimens h ad " irregular" b asal i nteriors. C onvex, f lat, a nd " pointed" i nteriors a ccounted f or t he r emainder. A ll c andeleros w ith t wo o r

-

5 66

-

more c hambers h ad s eparate ( non-conjoined) i nteriors a lthough P olished M onochrome c andeleros were s till being manufactured. 4 )

L ateral

V ents:

The o ne-chamber c andeleros n early a lways h ad t wo c onical o r c ylindrical a ir v ents ( Vent T ypes 2 a nd 1 ) o pposite o ne a nother m idway b etween t he l ip a nd b ase i n t he c hamber p rofile w all. S ingle c hamber u nvented f orms were n early a bsent. Two-chamber s pecimens h ad cylindrical o r c onical v ents ( Vent T ypes 1 a nd 2 ), while Vent T ypes 3 a nd 7 , b oth t riangular v ariants, r arely appeared i n L ate X olalpan c ollections. V ents i n t he d ouble-chamber c andeleros were l ocated m ost o ften i n t he l ower o r m iddle 1 /3 a nd were u sually i n t he p rofile walls e xcept i n e ffigy o r v ery e laborate f orms w hen v ents were n ormally i n t he l ower o r m iddle 1 /3 o f a n e nd o r e nds. C andeleros w ith t hree t o s ix c hambers h ad t wo v ents p er chamber. These v ents were e ither Type 1 o r Type 2 b ut v aried i n p rofile a nd e nd w all l ocation, w ith s pecimens h aving v ents i n t he u pper, m iddle, o r l ower 1 /3. 5 )

L ip/Septum:

The f ew e xamples of o ne-chamber c andeleros h ad o blique, a cute, o r f lat l ips. D ouble-chamber s pecimens usually h ad s epta t hat were s lightly o r h eavily depressed, o r r aised. A pparent m ass p roduction r esulted i n t he c reation o f c andeleros w ith u ndulating s epta which d id n ot " fit" t he c ategories p reviously d efined. L ip a nd s eptum d ecoration o ccurred l ess f requently t han i n t he E arly Xolalpan p hase, b ut p olishing a nd i ncision w ere more c ommon t han b urnishing a nd p unctation. 6 )

C andelero

B ody

C onfigurations:

S ingle-chamber c andeleros h ad t he f ollowing c onfigurations ( see F igure 9 ): C ommon ( Type B ), P resent ( Type A ), R are ( Types E , F , a nd G ). The t wo-chamber f orm h ad f ewer b ody c onfigurations t han t he p revious p hase ( see F igure 1 0): C ommon ( Types A A, H H, I I, L L, N N, a nd R R), P resent ( Types B B, K K, 0 0, a nd E EE), R are ( Types F F, J J, M M, P P, U U, W W, A AA, B BB, C CC, F FF, G GG, a nd H HH). Three-chamber s pecimens were T ypes MMM o r QQQ.

7 )

S urface

T reatments:

A lmost a ll s pecimens o f a ll c hamber f orms h ad n o evidence o f s lips, s elf-slips, washes, o r o ther s imilar e laborations. Three e xamples o f t wo-chamber c andeleros had b rilliant r ed p aint " splotches" o n t he e xteriors. I t i s l ikely t hat t hese h ad b een r eused a s " paint p ots" r ather than o riginally h aving h ad p ainted e xteriors.

-

5 67

-

8 )

D ecoration(s):

S ingle-chamber

( see

T able

c andeleros

1 9

h ad

a nd t he

Appendix

A )

f ollowing

m ajor

decorations a ssociated: C ommon ( punctation), P resent ( incision, p unctation w ith i ncision), R are ( overall unfinished / matte, o verall matte-smoothed, m atte-smoothed with z one polish, o verall p olished, f ingertip i mpressed, f ingernail i mpressed, a pplique). The t wo-chamber specimens h ad t he f ollowing m ajor d ecorations: C ommon ( overall u nfinished/matte, o verall m atte-smoothed, o verall polished, f ingertip i mpressed), P resent-to-Common ( incised), P resent ( matte-smoothed w ith z one p olish, applique), R are ( fingernail impressed, g rooved, g rooved with p unctation, f luted, i ncised w ith r ouletting, i ncised with p unctation, p unctation, p unctation w ith i ncision, e xcision, p lano r elief, r ouletted). C andeleros with t hree o r more c hambers were e laborated b y t hree major decorative t ypes: P resent ( applique), R are ( overall unfinished/matte, m atte-smoothed w ith z one polish).

9 )

C ombustion

E vidence:

Nearly a ll s pecimens e xhibited e vidence of combustion i n t he chambers, a nd s ome two-chamber c andeleros f rom P royecto T eotihuac'n a nd Teotihuacan M apping P roject excavations 1 0)

a nd

h ad

c hamber

r esidues.

F requencies:

Again, t he t wo-chamber c andeleros were t he p redomi nant f orm. The s ingle-chamber s pecimens a nd t hose w ith three o r more c hambers were l ess f requent i n c ollections. The d ouble-chamber f ingertip i mpressed L ate Xolalpan c andeleros were m ass p roduced i n g reat q uantities a nd a ccounted 1 1)

f or

o ver

6 5% of the total collection.

C ontexts:

O ne-chamber s pecimens c ame f rom c entral c ourtyards. The t wo-chamber nearly a ll i maginable c ontexts:

m iddens, r ooms, a nd c andeleros c mae f rom r ooms, c ourtyards,

p atios, porches, a lleys, s tairways, a nd n ear ( but not o n) b enches. I n a ddition, m any d ouble-chamber s pecimens, usually i n f ragmentary c ondition, were r ecovered f rom i n iddens i n r ural a nd u rban s ites. Two-chamber c andeleros were a lso r ecovered i n s urface s urvey c ollections f rom the a ncient u rban c enter a nd, l ess f requently, i n r ural s ite s urveys. Forms w ith t hree o r m ore c hambers c ame f rom

u rban 1 2)

e xcavations

I llustrative

The f ollowing c andeleros h elp

o r

museum

c ollections.

E xamples: i llustrations o f t o c haracterize

-

5 68

-

L ate X olalpan f orms, b ody

c onfiguations, a nd m ajor d ecorative t ypes: F igures 1 3c-k, n -p, x ; 111 a, f , j , n-r; 1 5a-f, h-m; 1 6a-d, m , 0; 1 7a-l; 1 9a-r n; 2 0a-k; 2 1a, h , k -n; 2 2b, d-g; 23d-h; 2 4e, g ; 2 5b-e; 2 6b-m; 2 7c-d, g . Metepec 1 )

P hase:

A .D.

6 50-750

G eneral

C omments:

Before t he e nd o f t he Metepec o r T erminal Teotihuacan p hase, c andelero p roduction r adically d eclined a nd c ame t o a c lose. B oth " standard" a nd m iniature f orms were m ade b ut t he d ominant s pecimen f orm w as t he t wo-chamber f ingertip i mpressed c andelero. L ikewise, p roduction i n b oth C oarse Matte a nd i n F ine M atte c ontinued, b ut t he f ormer s eems t o h ave b een g radually r eplacing t he l atter, e specially i n t he m ass p roduced f ingertip-decorated v arieties. P olished M onochrome c andeleros were n o l onger b eing m anufactured. S pecimens w ith f rom o ne t hrough f our chambers h ave b een i dentified i n M etepec c ontexts, a nd i t would a ppear t hat t he f ive a nd s ix-chamber f orms were n ot being m ade. The f ew s ingle-chamber c andeleros o ccurred i n t hree b ody c onfigurations a nd h ad t wo m ajor d ecoration types a ssociated. The d ouble-chamber f orm a ppeared i n e ight b ody c onfigurations a nd e ight m ajor d ecorative types. 2 )

C andelero

S izes:

" Standard" o r l arge c andeleros h ad f our c hambers while m iniatures h ad f rom chambers.

3 )

f rom o ne t hrough o ne t hrough t hree

C hambers:

A ll s pecimens e xa m ined h ad r ound c hambers. C oncave i nternal c hamber b ases p redominated, b ut " irregular" a nd " pointed" f orms were a lso n oted. A ll c hambers i n t he multi-chamber f orms h ad s eparate ( non-conjoined) chambers. L)

L ateral

V ents:

The o ne-chamber c andeleros h ad t wo a ir v ents o f t he cylindrical o r c onical t ypes ( Vent T ypes 1 a nd 2 ) l ocated i n t he m iddle o r l ower 1 /3 o f t he c hamber p rofile w all o pposite e ach o ther. I n t he d ouble-chamber f orm, t he v ent w as n early a lways c ylindrical ( Vent T ype 1 ), a lthough s ome s pecimens h ad c onical v ents ( Vent T ype 2 ). The v ents were i n v ariable l ocations i n t he c hamber p rofile w alls a nd s ome s pecimens l acked v ents a ltogether.

-

5 69

-

5 )

L ip/Septum:

Both

t he

s ingle-

a nd

d ouble-chamber

c andeleros

a nd

l ip o r s eptum c onfigurations t hat were f lat, b ut t he l atter f orm a lso h ad s epta t hat were s lightly o r h eavily depressed, a nd t here were s ome s pecimens w ith r aised s epta. L ips a nd s epta were n ot u sually d ecorated e ven i f t he b ody w as e laborated. 6 )

C andelero

B ody

C onfigurations:

One-chamber c andeleros h ad t he f ollowing c onfigurations ( see F igure 9 ): R are ( Types A , B , a nd E ). D ouble-chamber f orms h ad e ight c onfigurations ( see F igure 1 0): P resent ( Types H H, I I, a nd R R), R are ( Types A A, £ N, 00, AAA, a nd F FF). 7 )

S urface

T reatments:

Surface t reatments s uch a s s lips, s elf-slipping, o r t he a pplication o f w ashes were n ot s een o n M etepec p hase s pecimens. 8 )

Decoration(s):

( see

T able

1 9

a nd

Appendix

A )

The s ingle-chamber c andeleros h ad t he f ollowing m ajor decorative t ypes a ssociated: R are ( overall u nfinished/ matte, f ingertip i mpressed, i ncised, p unctation). Double-chamber c andeleros were a lso r estricted i n t erms of a ssociated m ajor d ecorative t ypes: C ommon ( fingertip impressed), P resent ( overall u nfinished/matte, o verall polished, i ncised, p unctation), R are ( overall m attesmoothed, m atte-smoothed w ith z one p olish, a pplique).

9 )

C ombustion

Over

9 5%

c ombustion residues. 1 0)

i n

of t he

E vidence: t he

s pecimens

chambers

s tudied

b ut

t here

h ad

were

e vidence

n o

o f

o bservable

F requencies:

There was a marked d ecline i n c andelero p roduction, but t he d ouble-chamber f ingertip i mpressed Metepec f orm a ccounted f or o ver 6 0% of a ll s pecimens. This would appear t o be a g eneral d ecorated f orm c ontinued s ince E arly Xolalpan t imes b ut b y t he Metepec p hase i s more c rudely m ade. 1 1)

C ontexts:

Most s ingle-chamber s pecimens r ooms, while t he d ouble-chamber

-

5 70

-

c ame f rom c andeleros

m iddens o r c ame f rom

r ooms, p atios, C ourtyards, porches, a nd ( l ess frequen tly ) f rom a lleys a nd m iddens. M etepec c andeleros were r are i n t he s urface c ollections a t r ural s ites b ut o ccurred i n urban e xcavation c ollections e specially i n t he M iccaotli ( north-south a venue) a rea o f t he ceremonial c enter. 1 2)

I llustrative

E xamples:

The f ollowing i llustrations characterize t he f orms, b ody decorations a ssociated w ith t his 1 4a; 1 5f, 1 < ; 1 6a, d ; 2 1n.

-

5 71

-

of M etepec c andeleros c onfigurations, a nd p hase: F igures 1 3n-o;

( Kolb) a b c d e f g h i

F igure

1 3:

M iniature

C andeleros.

E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd Early Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa, L ate T lamimilolpa, a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases.

1 < 1 m n o

L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec phases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases.

p q r s t u v

E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly

w x y z

E arly Xolalpan p hase. L ate Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase.

j

Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hase. Xolalpan phase. Xolalpan p hase. Xolalpan phase. Xolalpan p hase. Xolalpan p hase.

-

Xolalpan

5 72

-

p hases.

( Kalb)

F igure

1 3:

M iniature

C andeleros.

0

-

5 73

-

( Kalb)

F igure

i L l .:

S ingle-chamber

C andeleros.

a b c d

E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate T lamimilolpa phase. L ate T lamimilolpa phase. L ate T lamimilolpa phase.

e f g h i

j

E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan phases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. E arly Xolalpan p hase.

k 1 m

E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate L ate T lamimilolpa p hase.

n o p q r

L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan phases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan phases.

-

5 74

Metepec

phases.

T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa

-

phases. phases.

( Kolb)

F igure

S ingle-chamber

1 4:

C andeleros.

C . )

0

-

5 75

-

( Kolb) a b c d e f g h i

j k 1 m n o p q

F igure

1 5:

S ingle-chamber

E arly T lamimilolpa, X olalpan p hases.

L ate

C andeleros.

T lamimilolpa,

a nd

L ate

E arly T lamimilolpa, L ate T lamimilolpa, a nd L ate X olalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate T lamimilolpa phases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate x olalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa p hase. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan t hrough Metepec p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan phases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase.

-

5 76

-

( Kolb)

F igure

1 5:

S ingle-chamber

-

5 77

-

C andeleros.

( Kolb) a b c d e f g h i j k 1 m r i o

F igure

1 6:

D ouble-chamber

C andeleros.

L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough Metepec p hases. E arly X olalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly X olalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate T lamimilolpa p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa phase. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases.

-

5 78

-

( Kalb)

F igure

1 6:

D ouble-chamber

U

-

5 79

-

C andeleros.

( Kolb)

F igure

1 7:

D ouble-

E arly E arly

Xolalpan Xolalpan

C d e f g

E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly

Xolalpan a nd Xolalpan a nd T lamimilolpa T iamimilolpa T iamimilolpa

h i

j

L ate T iamir nilolpa through Late Xolalpan E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases Late T iamimilolpa t hrough Late X olalpan

k 1

E arly E arly

a nd a nd

Late L ate

Triple-chamber

a b

Xolalpan Xolalpan

a nd a nd

a nd

Xolalpan Xolalpan

phases. p hases.

L ate Xolalpan p hases. L ate Xolalpan p hases. t hrough L ate Xolalpan t hrough Late Xolalpan t hrough L ate Xolalpan

Late L ate

-

Xolalpan Xolalpan

5 80

-

C andeleros.

p hases. p hases.

p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases.

( Kolb)

F igure

1 7:

D ouble-

a nd

T riple-chamber

‚ 4

L )

0 0

f a

0 )

—

5 81

—

C andeleros.

( Kolb) F igure 1 8: D -shaped C hambers. a b c d e f g h

E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly

Xolalpan X olalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan

D ouble-chamber

p hase. p hase. p hase. p hase. p hase. p hase. phase. p hase.

-

5 82

-

C andeleros

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 1 8: D -shaped C hambers.

D ouble-chamber

-

5 83

-

C andeleros

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 1 9: D ouble-chamber Rectilinear C onfigurations. a b C

d e f g h 1

3 k 1 M n 0

C andeleros

lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X L ate T olalpan lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X L ate T olalpan hrough L ate X L ate T lamimilolpa t olalpan L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate X olalpan E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase.

-

5 84

-

p hases p hases p hases phases p hases p hases p hases p hases

w ith

( Kalb) F igure 1 9: D ouble-chamber R ectilinear C onfigurations.

C andeleros

w ith

0

t o

4 4

-

5 85

-

( Kalb) F igure 2 0: D ouble-chamber C andeleros a nd T ablero o r Hexagonal C onfigurations. a b C

d e f g h 1

1

k

E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly

Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan

a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd a nd

L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate Late Late Late Late L ate

-

Xolalpan X olalpan Xolalpan X olalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan

5 86

-

p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases.

w ith

T alud

( Kolb) F igure 20: D ouble-chamber C andeleros a nd T ablero o r Hexagonal C onfigurations.

t o

W

-

5 87

-

w ith

T alud

( Kolb) F igure 2 1: I ncision a s D ecoration. a b C d e f g h i

L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate

j

L ate L ate L ate L ate L ate

k 1 m n

T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa T lamimilolpa

D ouble-chamber

C andeleros

t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan Phases. t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases. through L ate Xolalpan p hases. t hrough L ate Xolalpan phases. t hrough Metepec p hases.

-

5 88

-

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 2 1: I ncision a s D ecoration.

D ouble-chamber

CO

C O

-

5 89

-

C andeleros

w ith

( Kalb) F igure 2 2: I ncision a s Decoration. a b o d e f g

L ate T iamimilolpa L ate T iamimilolpa L ate T iamimilolpa L ate T iamimilolpa E arly Xolalpan a nd E arly Xolalpan a nd E arly Xolalpan a nd

D ouble-chamber

C andeleros

a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases. t hrough L ate Xolalpan phases. a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. through L ate Xolalpan phases. L ate Xolalpan phases. Late Xolalpan phases. Late Xolalpan phases.

-

5 90

-

w ith

(Kolb) Figure 22: Double-chamber Incision as Decoration.

Candeleros

-0

u

....

- 591 -

with

(Kolb) Figure Double-chamber 23: Incision and Punctation as Decoration. a b c d e f g h

Candeleros

with

Late Tlamimilolpa and Early Xolalpan phases. Late Tlamimilolpa and Early Xolalpan phases. Early Tlamimilolpa through Early Xolalpan phases Early Xolalpan and Late Xolalpan phases. Early Tlamimilolpa, Early Xolalpan, and Late Xolalpan phases. Early Xolalpan and Late Xolalpan phases. Early Tlamimilolpa, Early Xolalpan, and Late Xolalpan phases. Early Xolalpan and Late Xolalpan phases.

- 592 -

( Kolb) F igure 2 3: D ouble-chamber I ncision a nd P unctation a s D ecoration.

C andeleros

bO

C )

44

C O

-

5 93

-

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 24: D ouble-chamber R oulette o r Grooved Decoration. a b c d

L ate T lamimilolpa L ate T lamimilolpa L ate T lamimilolpa L ate T lamimilolpa

e f g

L ate L ate L ate

C andeleros

phase. phase. phase. phase.

T lamimilolpa through T lamimilolpa t hrough Xolalpan p hase.

-

5 94

L ate Xolalpan phases. E arly Xolalpan p hases.

-

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 2 4: D ouble-chamber R oulette o r G rooved Decoration.

C )

C o

—

5 95

—

C andeleros

w ith

( Kolb) F igure 2 5: D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith F ingertip I mpressed/Flanged, I ncision, o r P unctation Decoration. a b c d e f g h I

j

k 1

L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hase. L ate Xolalpan p hase. E arly X olalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate X olalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate T lamimilolpa p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa phase. E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan phases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan phases. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly X olalpan p hases.

-

5 96

-

( Kolb) F igure 2 5: D ouble-chamber C andeleros w ith F ingertip I mpressed/Flanged, I ncision, o r P unctation Decoration.

0 0

C a

-

5 97

-

( Kolb)

F igure

2 6:

Double-chamber

Effigy

C andeleros.

a b

E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough E arly Xolalpan p hases. Late T iamimilolpa through L ate Xolalpan phases.

c d

E arly E arly

Xolalpan Xolalpan

a nd a nd

Late L ate

Xolalpan Xolalpan

p hases. phases.

e f g h i

E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly E arly

Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan

a nd L ate a nd Late a nd Late a nd Late a nd Late a nd Late a nd Late a nd L ate a nd Late phase.

Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan Xolalpan

p hases. phases. p hases. phases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases. p hases.

j

k 1 m n

-

5 98

-

( Kolb)

F igure

2 6:

D ouble-chamber

-

5 99

-

E ffigy

C andeleros.

( Kolb) a b c d e f g h i

j

F igure

2 7:

D ouble-chamber

E ffigy

C andeleros.

E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate T lamimilolpa phases. E arly T lamimilolpa a nd L ate T lamimilolpa phases. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan a nd L ate Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan a nd Late Xolalpan p hases. E arly Xolalpan p hase. E arly Xolalpan p hase. Late T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan phases.

( Kolb)

F igure

2 7:

D ouble-chamber

C o

-

6 01

-

E ffigy

C andeleros.

S UMMARY C an eleros,

a

A ND

C ONCLUSIONS

s ignificant

c ategory

o f

c eramic

a rtifacts m ade i n i nfinite v arieties d uring m ost o f t he C lassic Teotihuacan s equence ( ca. A .D. 2 50-750), w ere small, p ersonal, p ortable i ncense b urners ( incensarios d el m ano o r i ncensarios portatiles) u sed i n r itual a ctivities i n Teotihuacan c ulture. M isidentifications i n t he e arly l iterature were r eviewed a nd r eports o n c andeleros a nd s imilar a rtifacts f rom B asin o f M exico s ites a nd o ther Mesoamerican s ites a nd r egions w ere s ummarized. O ver 1 ,400 c omplete o r f ragmentary s pecimens w ere s tudied by me f or t he c urrent r eport, a nd 4 29 of t hese were a nalyzed i n d etail i n o rder t o d etermine Physical a nd C ultural Attributes. Three manufacturing t raditions were i dentified C oarse M atte, F ine M atte, a nd P olished Monochrome a nd r elated t o o ther C lassic T eotihuacan p eriod c eramics o r w ares. P aste c olors ( Munsell 1 952 4) were s ometimes d ifficult t o i dentify, e specially i n C oarse M atte s pecimens, b ecause t he c andeleros h ad h eavy -

-

-

-

c oatings o f f ine s oil o r m ud which t ended t o g ive a " false" g ray c ast. C andeleros o f t he C oarse a nd F ine M atte t raditions were, i n t he main, " Pinkish G ray," while t he Polished M onochromes were i n v ariants o f " Brown." Most c andeleros h ad a h ardness o f 5 -6 o n M ohs' s cale. C oarse M atte s pecimens h ad a " sandy" t exture a nd w ere m ade f rom v ery f ine r aw c lays, b ut t he F ine M atte a nd P olishea Monochrome e xamples were m ade f rom s ilty c lays. Aplastic c ontents f or a ll t hree were c onsistent w ith l ocal Teotihuacan c lays, e specially t hose g eologically f rom t he s outhern a nd s outhwestern s ections o f t he a ncient u rban c enter a reas which were, a nd c ontinue t o b e, l oci o f p ottery m anufacture. T he p rimary a plastics i ncluded q uartz ( rounded), o rthoclase, e pidote, b asaltic h ornblende, a patite, p umice, s phene, a xinite, c hloritic s chists, a nd b iobite m ica. -

-

C oarse M atte c andeleros were f ired a t t emperacures o f 6 50_800 0 C while t he F ine M a l. be a nd P olished M onochrome e xamples were f ired a t s lightly h igher t emperatures, 8 00-900 ° C . C andeleros were m anufactured i n s ix s teps u sing t he d irect f reehand s naping method: B asic s haping, c reation o f t he c hamber(s), p erforations f or t he a ir v ents, r emoval o f v ent f lashing f rom c hamber i nteriors, f inishing t he l ip o r s eptum, a nd f inal s urface f inish a nd d ecoration ( as r equired). A ttribute a nalysis r evealed f our c namber c onfigurations, s ix l ip o r s eptum f orms, s even t ypes o f v ents, a nd f our c hamber b ase i nterior v ariants. Twenty-two s ing l e-cha inber, 3 5 double-chamber, a nd 1 7 t riple-chamber b ody c onfigurations were d efined, while 2 3 major d ecorative t ypes a nd a t otal o f 1 97

-

6 02

-

d ecorative a ttributes were s tudied ( see Appendix A ). General measurements l engths, w idths, heights, c hamber d iameters, a nd c hamber d epths were a lso r ecorded f or a s ubsample o f c andeleros. -

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I nter- a nd i ntrasite d istributions of c andeleros were a lso n oted, p articularly f or s ites i n t he T eotihuacan V alley. S ingle- a nd double-chamber f orms were a ssociated w ith m iddens, r ooms, s tairways, p orches, a lleys, p atios, c ourtyards, a nd a ltar p latforms, b ut r arely were u sed a s morc .uary o fferings. S pecimens were i nfrequently f ound during t he s urface s urvey o f r ural Teotihuacan V alley s ites. O ne-chamber c andeleros were s ometimes f ound a s grave g oods i n Xolaipan p hase b urials a t t he a ncient u rban c enter. C opal ( copalli) was c onsidered a s a probable i ncense t urned i n t hese a rtifacts. The c urrent u ses, s ynonymy, b iological n omenclature, g eographic d istribution o f c opal s pecies ( Appendix B ), a nd e vidence of u se d uring t he C lassic p eriod were d elineated. A phase-byphase c hronology f rom E arly T lamimilolpa through Metepec p hases w as a lso p resented f or c andelero t ypes, v ariants, a nd a ttributes. Among t he characteristics considered i n t his p reliminary s tudy were s izes, c hambers, v ents, l ips a nd s epta, b ody c onfigurations, s urface t reatments, a nd d ecorations. C omments were a lso m ade a s t o c ombustion e vidence, a rtifact f requencies, a nd c ontexts ( Appendix A ). M illon ( 1973:62, 1 981 : 235-238) h as c ommented o n t he " collapse" o f t he a ncient c ity o f T eotihuacan d uring t he Late C lassic p eriod, e specially s een i n t he a rchaeologic al r ecord a fter c a. A . D. 6 50. B efore t he " fall" o f t he c ity, the T eotihuacan polity a ppears t o h ave been c ont racting f or s ome t ime, p ossibly because o f a n e arly o verexpansion o f p olitical a nd e conomic c ontrol. T he r ise a nd f all o f Teotihuacan c ommercial r outes h as recently been e laborated e lsewhere ( Kolb 1 986:175-184, 1 987:125-126) a nd n eed o nly b e s ummarized h ere. C onflicts w ith l ocal p olities chiefdoms a nd i ncipient s tates p articularly i n T enanyecac a nd C holula t erritories t o the e ast o f t he B asin o f Mexico, but a lso i n M orelos t o t he s outh, a nd p robably i n I v est Mexico, r esulted i n c ommercial i nstability a s c rucial t rade/ e xchange r outes were d isrupted. K urtz ( 1987:335) h as n oted, " undoubtedly m uch o f t he f low o f r eal a nd potential wealth i nto T eotihuacan w as g eared t o t he e lites, b ut t he s ignificance o f c ommoners a s p roducers a nd c onsumers o f a v ariety o f g oods o ught n ot t o be d iscounted." F rom c a. A . D. 2 00-500, T eotihuacan e xercised c ontrol o ver a r esource z one which e xtended f rom c oast t o c oast a nd f rom Z acatecas i n t he n orth t o the Guatemalan H ighlands t o t he s outh. P olitical a nd e conomic r elations w ith M atacapan, K aminaljuyu, T ikal, a nd t o a l ess e xtent C opan, r esulted i n t he -

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6 03

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-

i mportation o f a v ariety o f r aw m aterials a nd f inished p roducts ( cacao, c opal, c hicle, s alt, b asalt, l ime, hematite, j ade, m arine s hells, t ropical b ird f eathers, a nimal s kins, c otton c loth, e tc.). I n T èotihuacan workshops, c raft s pecialists c onverted t hese r aw materials i nto a rtifacts f or h igh s tatus p ersonages. T eotihuacan s ociety a t t he u rban c enter h ad p rofessional e lites, s pecialists, l aborers, a nd p ublic s ervice p ersonnel, many o f w hom w ere i nvolved i n s pecialized manufacture o r s ervices. The c ommercial deterioration w as c oupled w ith i ncreasingly s evere e cological p roblems, e specially s oil e rosion a nd p roblems o f w ater s upply f or i rrigation d ue t o a d ecline i n a nnu a l ra in fa l l . T he Teotihuacan V ailey h ad l ong a go r eached i ts c arrying c apacity, a nd while a djacent r egions i n t he B asin o f M exico were c alled u pon t o p rovide e nvirons,

a dditional f oodstuffs f or t he d emand e xceeded s upply.

u rban c enter T herefore,

a nd t he

i mportation o f b asic f oodstuffs b ecame a n e ver-increasing c ommercial a nd p olitical f actor. C holula c o t he e ast, X ochicalco t o t he s outh, a nd T ula t o t he n orth w ere a ble t o i nterrupt t he f low o f g oods a nd f oodstuffs f rom t he major f ood p roduction r egions. A pparently t here w as a n a ccompanying d ecline i n t he e xport o f T eotihuacan o bsidian t o t hese o utlying a reas. M illon ( 1973:62) r eported t hat " in s um, t he e vidence [ in 1 9731 s u g g e s t s p rosperity, c ontinuing a rtistic a nd t echnical m astery, a nd p ossibly e ven a n e xpansion o f e conomic a ctivity, a t t ne s ame t ime i t s uggests t he e xistence o f p roblems a nd t roubles i n v arious s pheres, s ocial a nd e conomic, a nd a d rop i n population" ( during t he M etepec p hase, c a. A .D. 6 50 -7 50). I n o rder t o " resolve" s ome o f t hese p roblems, T eotihuacan s ociety r esorted t o m ilitary t actics t o r estore t he c ommercial r outes ( Kolb 1 986:181_18 14 ), a nd m ilitary t hemes b ecame e vident i n t he a rt s tyle. A s M illon ( 1981:236) s tated, t he m ilitary " may b e b oth a sy r npcom o f d ifficulty a nd a c ause o f i t." A lso m anifest d uring t he Metepec p hase w as a s low s hift t o a more p ersonalized a nd d ecentralized r itual e xpansion a s r eligious p ractitioners were u nable t o r esolve t he p roblems o f d eclining r ainfall a nd l ower f ood p roduction. M illon ( 1973:62) s ees a n " enormous p roliferation i n t he m anufacture a nd d istribution o f t he o bjects c alled c andeleros" a nd s peculated t hat t hese m ay b e e vide nce o f a l essening d ependence o n t he o rganized p riesthoods, c entral r itual, a nd Teotihuacan s ymbols. I t i s d uring t he L ate C lassic t hat t he q uantities o f c anueleros d ramatically i ncrease w hile t he n umber o f types g radually s tabilize a nd a ctually P recipitously decline a fter A .D. 6 50. D uring t he l ate M iddle C lassic a nd L ate C lassic t he c andeleros d ecora ed

p roliferation o f w ith a v ariety

-

6 04

-

d ouble-chamber o f f ingertip

i mpressions m ay r elate t o t he r itual s uggested by M illon.

personalized,

d ecentralized

C ase ( 1966:269) n oted t hat c andeleros were e specially a ssociated w ith t he g od o r g ods o f " fire." S ome e ffigy c andeleros were d ecorated w ith the f aces o f t he " fire" g od, c alled t he " old, o ld g od" o r Huehueteoti i n t he Post C lassic A ztec p eriod p antheon. S uch f aces w ere c haracteristically wrinkled a nd bearded ( see F igures 2 6a, c ; 2 7a-b, i , j ) , and spanned the Classic Teotihuacan p eriod c hronology f rom E arly T lamimilolpa t r irough a t l east t he L ate Xolalpan p hases. C ase's c onjecture a ppeared p articularly c orrect i n t hat t he f requencies o f s uch s pecimens i ncreased t hrough t ime, peaking d uring t he L ate Xolalpan p hase. I t s hould be n oted t hat " fire" g od depictions a lso o ccurred o n c eramic f igurines a nd o n b asalt c ensers. These, t oo, s eem t o b e c onfined t o t he E arly T lamimilolpa t hrough L ate Xolalpan p hases i n Teotihuacan C lassic p eriod s ites i n t he T eotihuacan V alley. C andeleros o f t he s ingleo r d ouble-chamber f orms were n ot p articularly a ssociated w ith a ny o f t he s ix m ajor i mage c lusters i n M iddle a nd L ate C lassic Teotihuacan a rt s tyle d efined by P asztory ( 1978:130-132). This a rt s tyle d id n ot e xist d uring t he L ate P reclassic o r E arly C lassic. S uch i mage c lusters w hich d eveloped a nd became e laborated d uring t he M iddle C lassic ( e.g. L ate T lamimilolpa a nd E arly Xolalpan p hases) i n t he B asin o f Mexico a nd o ther Mesoamerican r egions. The m ost w idespread a nd a ncient i mage c luster w as " agricultural f ertility," a s tate c ult a ssociated w ith t he d eities o f e arth, r ain, w ater, c rops, s un, a nd moon. R ain g ods ( crocodile T laloc a nd j aguar T laloc), e arth g oddesses ( symbolized by b irds owls a nd t he q uetzal), a nd s un gods ( netted j aguars a nd t he o llin [ movement] g lyph) were e specially n oted. T he " warfare" c ult, d ated c a. A . D. 4 O0-700, h ad t he s un a nd p lanet Venus a s s ymbols. The t hird c ult, t hat o f t he " ball g ame," w as i mportant i n s outhern Mesoamerica a nd o verlapped w ith t he agricultural f ertility c ult i n t hat t he s un, m oon, a nd p lanet Venus were a ssociated. T he c ult o f t he " dynastic r uler," s ignificant i n t he M aya L owlands a nd Oaxaca, i ncorporated t he s un d eity. T he a rt o f t his c ult o ften d epicted s cenes o f a ccession, c onquest, marriage, r itual, a nd f uneral r ites. The f ifth c ult, a " burial" o r m ortuary r itual, d eveloped i n t he e arly M iddle C lassic a nd p aralleled t he a gricultural f ertility c ult while emphasizing d eath a nd f ertility d eities a nd s ymbols. The f inal c ult i dentified by P asztory, t hat o f " patron deities," a lso began d uring the M iddle C lassic a nd f eature t he s un d eity, a s well a s s ymbols a nd g ods o f f ertility L nd w arfare. -

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6 05

-

N one o f t hese s ix c lusters h ad p articular a ffinities with s ymbols a nd e ffigies w hich a ppeared o n c andeleros, s uggesting t hat c andeleros may, i ndeed, h ave been more a p art o f p ersonal r eligious o bligations r ather t han a ssociated w ith a s tate c ult o r r eligion. I t i s possible t hat c andeleros were a p art o f s ocial ceremonies a nd/or religious r ituals c onnected w ith r ite d e p assage e vents ( birth, p uberty, m arriage, a nd p erhaps t o a l esser e xtent d eath) p racticed b y i ndividuals, t heir f amilies, a nd c lose k in. C andeleros were i nfrequently found a s mortuary a rtifacts i n C lassic period g raves. -

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A lthough a g ood d eal o f i nformation o n C lassic Teotihuacan p eriod c andeleros h as been p resented, I regard t his r esearch a s a p reliminary s tatement i n n eed of r efinement. I n p articular, t he c andeleros o btained f rom Teotihuacan Mapping P roject t est e xcavations a nd s urveys, a nd t hose f rom B asin o f Mexico s urveys c onducted by S anders a nd h is c olleagues a s a p art o f t he o verall B asin p roject ( Sanders e t a l. 1 979) s hould b e s tudied i n detail. The s pecimens f rom t he T iajinga 3 3 s ite ( Widmer 1 988:personal c ommunication) must a lso b e a nalyzed. L ikewise, t he c andeleros f rom s ites i n t he s tates o f Morelos a nd H idalgo, a nd t he western p ortion of E stado d e Mexico s hould be r eported. M useum s pecimens, while s till important f or a ttribute a nalysis, p rovide l ess c ontextural d ata b ut must a lso b e e xamined. For e xample, R ichard D iehl ( 1988:personal c ommunication) r eported t hat a s ubstantial q uantity o f c andeleros donated b y a n amateur c ollector i s i n s torage i n t he D epartment of A nthropology a t t he U niversity o f A labama. F inally, t he p roblem r emains a s t o what materials were b urned i n c andeleros. B ecause o ver 6 0 y ears h ave p assed s ince t he c hemical s tudies r eported b y C eballos N ovelo ( 1922:206-207) were c onducted, s ophisticated physicochemical i nvestigations m ust b e u ndertaken o n c andeiero c hamber r esidues. I t i s q uite p ossible t hat b eeswax c ontaining c opal, c opal a lone, o r o ther f ragrant i ncenses were t he o nly s ubstances b urned. H owever, s pecimens s hould b e e xamined t o d etermine i f h uman b lood o r o ther t issues, p aper, o r o ther materials w ere a t l east o n o ccasion b urned i n t he c andeleros. Muc i i work r emains t o b e d one, b ut i t i s h oped t hat t his c urrent i nvestigation w ill p rovide a b aseline f or f uture s tudies.

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6 06

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E NDNOTE 1 An

a bbreviated

v ersion

o f

t his

s tudy

w as

p resented

a s a p aper b earing t he s ame t itle a t t he A nnual Meeting of t he S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology i n Phoenix, A rizona o n A pril 2 9, 1 988. My i nterest i n c andeleros b egan i n 1 962 when I w as a n u ndergraduate s tudent o n t he Teotinuacan V alley P roject ( The P ennsylvania S tate U niversity), d irected b y 4 illiam T . S anders. D uring t he s ummer o f 1 962, I a ssisted i n t he e xcavations a t t he S anta M aria M aquixco e i B ajo ( TC-3) s ite, a nd w as r esponsible f or t he p rocessing o f a ll a rtifactual materials f rom t he t hree r esidences e xcavated d uring a ll f ield s easons. I n s ubsequent y ears I c ontinued t he a nalysis o f a ll M aquixco a rtifacts a s well a s t hose C lassic s ite a rtifacts o btained d uring a n e xtensive a nd i ntensive s urface s urveys i n t he T eotihuacan V alley ( 1963-1965). A lthough my p rimary i nterest w as i n t he a nalysis o f pottery ( Kolb 1 965), e specially " Thin O range," G ranular, a nd C opoid c eramics ( Kolb 1 973a, 1 986, 1 988a, 1 988o), I a lso s tudied t he C lassic p eriod c eramic f igurines ( 1973b). D uring t he period 1 962-1969, while a ffiliated w ith t he T eotihuacan V alley P roject a nd b riefly w itr i t he T eotihuacan M apping P roject ( University of R ochester, R end M illon, d irector), a nd d uring r esearch a t t he A merican M useum o f N atural H istory i n New Y ork C ity, I c ontinued t o c ompile q uantititative d ata o n c anaeiero t ypes a nd v arieties. A nalyses o f t he p hysical c haracteristics o f c andeleros began a t P enn S tate's C eramic T echnology L aboratory ( 1965-1969) a nd c ontinued i n t he A rchaeology L aboratory and Geology D epartment L aboratory a t B ryn M awr C oilege ( 1969-1973), The a ssistance o f W illiam C rawford ( Geology, B ryn M awr) a nd t he g uidance o f D r. F rederick R . M atson, n ow P rofessor o f A rchaeology E meritus a t T he P ennsylvania S tate U niversity, a re a c


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