Enamel-working in Iron Age, Roman and Sub-Roman Britain: The Products and Techniques 9780860541448, 9781407323695

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
Preface
Introduction
Part I: The Products
Chapter 1: The Enamelwork of The Iron Age
Chapter 2: Enamelled Bow Brooches
Chapter 3: Enamelled Plate Brooches
Chapter 4: Enamelled Objects (Non-Brooch)
Chapter 5: Post-Roman Enamelwork
Part II: The Techniques
Introduction
Chapter 6: The Vitreous Substance
Chapter 7: The Metal Base
Chapter 8: The Process of Enamelling
Chapter 9: Manufacturing Sites
Conclusions
Notes
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Glossary
Bibliography
Figures

Citation preview

Enamel-working in Iron Age, Roman and Sub-Roman Britain The Products and Techniques

J. D. Bateson

BAR British Series 9 3 1981

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B .A .R. 93, 1981: Britain"

"Enamel-working in Iron Age, Roman and Sub-Roman

©J. D. Bateson, 1981 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541448 paperback ISBN 9781407323695 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541448 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS

P age

L ist o f f igures P reface I ntroduct ion P ART 1 T he P roducts C hapter 1 .

T he E name lwork o f t he I ron A ge

7

S urvey o f R omano-Br itish E name lwork -Introduction

1 9

C hapter 2 .

E name lled B ow B rooches

2 1

C hapter 3 .

E name lled P late B rooches

3 3

C hapter 4 .

E name lled O bjects ( Non-Brooch)

4 6

C hapter 5 .

P ost-Roman E name lwork

5 9

P ART 2 T he T echniques 6 6

I ntroduction aapter 6 .

T he V itreous S ubstance

6 7

C hapter 7 .

T he M eta l

B ase

7 8

C hapter 8 .

T he P rocess o f E name lling

8 6

C hapter 9 .

M anufactur ing S ites

9 9

C onclusions

1 08

N otes

1 21

A ppendix A .

T he E xper iments

1 33

A ppendix B .

ow ls L ist o f E name lled H anging B

1 35

A ppendix C .

T he M illef iori P atterns

1 37

G lossary

1 40

B ib liography

1 42

L IST

O F

F IGURES

1 .

C o lour C ode

2 .

A .

H ead S tud B rooches ( Group Q )

B .

G roup M B rooches

A .

T rumpet H ead B rooches ( Group R )

B .

G roup S B rooches

A .

D ragonesque B rooches

B .

D omed P late B rooches ( Small)

C .

O val a nd M edallion P late B rooches

3 .

4 .

5 .

D isc B rooches

6 .

A nimal P late B rooches

7 .

A .

B utton-and-Loop F asteners

B .

F lat C ircular S tud ' s

C .

S eal

A .

M iniature S tands O r S too ls

B .

F inger-R ings

C .

V esse ls

A .

B e lt-Buck le P lates

B .

M isce llaneous M ounts

C .

M iscellaneous O bjects

8 .

9 .

1 0 .

1.

1 2 .

B ox L ids

T echniques ( Iron A ge ) A .

U p lay E name ls

B .

I n lay E name ls

T echniques A .

S imple E name ls

B .

C omp lex E name ls

C .

M illef ior i E name ls

D .

F loating E name ls

T he M illef ior i P atterns T ype A - basic p attern o f n ine s quares T ype B - basic p attern o f t wenty-f ive s quares

1 3.

T he M illef ior i P atterns T ype C

- b asic p attern o f g round w ith f loweret

T ype D - m isce llaneous p atterns 1 4.

1 5.

A .

M odern r aw m aterials f or e name lling

B .

R eproductions o f s imp le e namels

A .

R eproductions o f c omp lex e name ls

B .

P rocess o f m ak ing a s traight m illef ior i e name l

1 1

P REFACE

E name lled o bjects a re r elat ive ly c ommon b oth a s s ite-f inds a nd d isp lay o bjects i n m any m useums. E name lwork i s a n a ncient t echnique w e ll k nown t o a rchaeo logists. T he B attersea s hie ld, d ragonesque b rooches, e name lled c ups o r h anging b ow l e scutcheons a t o nce s pring t o m ind. H owever w hen i t c omes t o t he q uestion o f w hat e xact ly t he e name l i s, h ow i t w as m ade a nd a pp lied, a nd t o w hich o bjects, w hen a nd w here, a nswers t end t o b e v ague a nd u ninformat ive . T he B e lgae, c hamp leve a nd t he V illa D 'Anthee t end t o f i ure l argely i n r ep lies y et t hey m ean l itt le o r h ave n ow b een d iscredited. T he o n ly m ajor w ork o n e ar ly B r it ish e name ls i s n ow o ver f orty y ears o ld ( Henry, 1 933, p p . 6 6146). B eyond t h is o n ly af ew b rief p aragraphs, m ainly o n p arts r ather t han t he w ho le, a nd m ore r ecent ly t wo g enera l a rticles ( Butcher, 1 976, p p . 4 2-5 1 a nd 1 977, p p . 4 1-69) c an b e f ound o n t he s ubject . E name lwork w ou ld t herefore s eem t o b e at opic w orth c onsiderat ion i n a s m any a spects a s p ossib le. I t i s h owever a w ide f ie ld. T h is s tudy c oncentrates o n t he e name lwork o f R oman B ritain b ut i n f act c overs t he p eriod f rom 2 00 B .C. t o A .D . 7 00 . I t w ould b e d iff icu lt t o p ick u p t he s tory i n A .D. 4 3 a nd t o d rop i t i n A .D . 4 10; i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t w hat w ent o n b efore a nd a fter t he R oman o ccupation. O ver t his r ather l ong t ime-span t he e namelled o bjects m ade i n B ritain a re c omprehensive ly s urveyed. Av isual e xam ination i s c omp lemented b y as urvey o f t he a vailab le s cientif ic a nalyses a nd t he r esu lts o f s ome e xper iments. T he t echnical a spects o f t he c raft a re d ealt w ith u nder t hree h eadings: t he v itreous s ubstance, t he m eta l b ase a nd t he m ethods o f j oining t he t wo t ogether; m illef iori e name ls r eceive p art icular a ttent ion . A n ew s cheme f or d escribing R omano-Br itish e name ls i s s uggested a nd p ossible m anufacturing s ites i n B ritain a re l isted . T he s tudy c oncludes w ith a p icture o f t he r epertoire a nd t echniques o f t he R oma io -Br itish e name l-working i ndustry , i ts p er iods a nd a reas o f m anufacture, t he e ffects o f i mports, i ts m arkets a nd s et-up . I n t he e nd o ne s hould b e a b le t o s ay m ore a bout a n e name lled o bject o ther t han c olour a nd a b land a ssertion t hat i t i s a c hamp leve e name l o f t he s econd c entury . O ne m ay s ay m ore p recise ly j ust w hat t he ' Barbar ians o f t he O cean ' w ere u p t o. T his r eport i s b ased o n at hesis p resented a t T he Q ueen 's U niversity o f B e lfast i n 1 977. Ia m g ratefu l t o m y s uperv isor P rofessor M artyn J ope f or s uggesting t he s ubject a nd f or h is g uidance a nd p ract ical a ssistance. M ore r ecent ly I h ave h ad m uch h e lp f rom D r. G race S impson o f O xford w ho i s c urrent ly e diting t he l ate M .R . H u ll's c orpus o f R oman b rooches f or a s ubsequent r eport i n t his s er ies; o ur c onversations o n t he b rooches h ave b een m ost u seful a nd t he m anuscript h as g enerously b een m ade a vailab le . Iw ould a lso l ike t o e xpress m y s incere g ratitude t o t he s taff o f t he m useums l isted i n n ote 4 . W ithout e xcept ion I r eceived t he f ullest c o-operation a nd h e lp a nd o nly w ith t his a ccess t o t he b asic m aterial c ou ld t he r esearch h ave b een c arr ied o ut . F inally m ention m ust b e m ade o f f riends a nd c o lleagues, t oo n umerous t o

l ist, w ho k ind ly b rought o bjects t o m y a ttention o r d iscussed v ar ious p oints w ith m e . T he s cale o n t he f igures i s 1 :1 e xcept w here o therw ise s tated o r w here a n o bject a s s uch i s n ot b e ing i l lustrated e .g . t he m illef ior i p atterns o f f igures 1 2 a nd 1 3 . F igure 1 i s ac o lour c ode u sed t hroughout t he r est o f t he f igures. T he i llustrat ions a re i ntended t o s how t ypes o r t echniques, o ften w ith t he e name l e ither o m itted o r s hown c omp lete, a nd s hou ld n ot b e t aken a s r epresenting s pecif ic o bjects.

i v

I NTRODUCTION

E name l i s g enerally d escr ibed a s av itreous s ubstance f used o n t o m etal. I t c an a lso b e a pp lied t o g lass a nd t hough t rue e name lled g lass d oes n ot o ccur i n R oman c ontexts, s ome o f t he g lass b eads a nd b angles w ith i nlaid s pirals o r b ands s uch a s w ere f ound a t T raprain L aw a re s ometimes d escr ibed a s b eing e namelled. 1 T he p resent w ork h owever a dheres t o t he s trict d ef inition w hich d eals o nly w ith a m eta l b ase. I t m ay a lso h e a s w e ll t o m ent ion t hat n iello i s n ot i ncluded. S urpr ising ly e ither t hrough i gnorance o r b ecause i t r esemb les e namel, n ie llo i s n ot a lways d ist inguished nd f rom e name l. H owever t he b asis o f t he f ormer i s m etallic 2 a c ou ld n ot b e i nc luded w ith a s ubstance, t he b asis o f w hich i s v itreous. T he t echnique i s l ooked a t o n ly i n B r itain a nd n ot i n I reland. T he h uge n umber o f e name lled o bjects o f t he R oman p er iod f ound i n B ritain a re a bsent f rom t he c orresponding p er iod i n I re land w hile t he l arge n umber o f e name lled o bjects b e longing t o t he E ar ly C hrist ian P eriod i n I reland a re n ot m atched i n p ost-Roman B r itain. I re land w ill n ot h owever b e e ntire ly i gnored s ince t he t wo m ajor w orkshops a t G arranes a nd L agore p rovide H seful c omparative m ateria l. A ll e namelled o bjects f ound i n B r itain a re d ealt w ith. T his m eans t hat t hose o f C ontinenta l o rigin a re i nc luded t o s ome e xtent T his h as m ade i t n ecessary t o l ook b r ief ly a t t he C ontinental b ackground s o a s t o b e a b le t o d ist inguish b etween t hose o bjects w hich a re o f B rit ish m anufacture a nd t hose w hich a re i mports f rom t he w orkshops o f G aul o r t he R hine land. O ne m ay t hen s ee m ore c lear ly j ust w hich a re B r it ish p roducts a nd h ow t hey w ere i nf luenced b y t he i mported m aterial. E qually o ne m ay g rasp s ome i dea o f e xports t o t he C ontinent . T he p rimary p urpose o f t he p roject i s t o e xam ine t he e name ls o f t he R omano-Br itish p er iod. H owever t he e name lwork o f t he I ron A ge a nd e arly p ost-Roman p er iods i s a lso c overed, t hough n ot s o f ully . T he t ime s pan i s t herefore a pproximate ly 2 00 B .C. t o A .D. 7 00 w ith g reatest e mphasis p laced o n t he f irst f our c enturies o f t he C hr istian e ra. T he R oman e namels c annot b e l ooked a t i n i so lation t hough t he g reat m ajority o f o bjects e xam ined d o b e long t o t he R oman p er iod. H owever t he R omans d id n ot b r ing e name lw orking t o B r itain. I t w as h ere w hen t hey a rr ived, i t c ontinued a fter t hey h ad d eparted. W hen t alking o f R omano-Br itish e name ls o ne m eans a B r it ish a te lier i n aR oman m ileau f or e name lwork w as a n ative c ontribut ion t o t he R oman w or ld. T here a ppears t o b e n o b reak b etween t he p re-Roman a nd R oman e name llers i n B ritain : p roducts m ay c hange b ut s eemingly n ot t he m akers. I t h as b een s uggested ( Henry, 1 933, p .146) t hat t here w as a b reak b etween t he R omano-Br itish i ndustry f inishing i n t he m id-third c entury a nd t he m akers o f t he e name lled e scutcheons o f t he h anging b ow ls o f t he e ar ly A nglo-Saxon p er iod. I t i s a rgued l ater t hat n o s uch b reak t ook p lace a nd t hat t he e name ls o f t he p ost-Roman e poch a re i n f act t he t ail e nd o f a n i ndustry g iving a l ast k ick i n t he r evived 1

n ative a tmosphere . T his i s n ot t o d eny t hat t he f lowering o f t he R omano-Br itish e namel-working i ndustry t ook p lace i n t he s econd c entury . I t i s p roposed t o l ook c lose ly a t t he m anufactur ing p rocess f rom s tart t o f in ish t hat i s f rom t he r aw m ater ials u sed f or t he e namel i tse lf t hrough t o t he f inal c leaning o f t he e nd p roduct . E mphasis i s p laced o n t he e name l, t he m etal b acking a nd t he v ar ious w ays o f m aking t he f ormer a dhere t o t he l atter . T his i s d one b y m eans o f a v isual e xam inat ion o f t he e name lled o bjects, b y c ompar ison w ith m odern e name lling t echniques, b y e xper iment a nd b y e xam ining t he a vailab le a nalyses o f e name ls a nd m eta ls. I t s hou ld b e p ointed o ut p erhaps t hat t he s tudy i s o f t echniques r ather t han a s cient if ic e xp lanation o f t he a ctual c hem ical p rocesses. T he b asis o f t his w ork i s t herefore a n e xam ination o f t he e name lled o bjects t hemse lves. T he m ajor ity o f t hose f ound i n B r itain a re l ooked a t w hether o r n ot t hey s till r etain t heir e name l. T here i s s uch a w ealth o f v ar iety i n t he t ypes o f o bjects e name lled t hat i t w ou ld b e a ttempting t oo m uch t o c arry o ut a d etailed s tudy o f e ach t ype o r t o p roduce a c omp lete c orpus o f a ll e name lwork e ver f ound. 3 T he e name lled b rooches o r e ven a p ortion o f t he b rooches w ould p robab ly s uff ice a s as tudy b ut t o d o t hat w ould b e t o l ook a t o n ly p art o f t he e name l-working s tory . T his h owever i s s omething w hich s hou ld b e d ealt w ith i n t oto .. T hus w hile d ealing w ith a t ype o f e name lled o bject n o c laim i s m ade t hat t he t ype i s c omp lete ly l ooked a t. N everthe less s ince m any o f t he t ypes a re l acking s uch a s tudy, t hat i ncluded h ere m ay b e o f s ome v alue b eyond t he e name l a spect a lone . O n t he o ther h and i t s hou ld b e p ointed o ut t hat i n t he s tudy o f o ther g roups t he u nename lled s pecimens a re n ot i nc luded e .g . o n ly t he e name lled h ead s tud b rooches o r t rumpet b rooches a re b eing d iscussed a nd t he i mp lications m ay n ot a pp ly t o t he n on-ename lled s pecimens. I n a ll a bout t wo t housand o bjects a re c overed . T hose o f t he R oman p eriod a re d ivided i nto t hree m ain g roups: b ow b rooches, p late b rooches a nd n on-brooch m ater ia l. T he o bjects o f t he I ron A ge m ainly c onsist o f p ieces o f h orse h arness w hile i n t he e ar ly S axon p er iod o ne i s m ainly c oncerned w ith t he e scutcheons o f h anging b ow ls t hough i n b oth c ases t his i s a n o ver-simp lif ication. T he s earch f or m ater ial h as b een f air ly c omprehensive. N o c laim i s m ade h owever t hat e very e namelled o bject f ound i n B ritain h as b een e xamined, n or i s t his n ecessary s ince o verall p atterns a re b eing d ea lt w ith a nd n ot o ne c lose ly d ef ined g roup o f o bjects. N everthe less t he m ajor ity o f t he m ateria l a vailab le h as b een l ooked a t . I n t hose f ew i nstances w here a l ist o f s pecif ic o bjects h as b een p ublished i t h as b een p ossib le t o c heck h ow c omp lete t he s earch h as b een. T hus o f t he g roup S ii b rooches ( R ichardson, 1 960, p p . 2 00-213) o r t he d ragonesque b rooches ( Feachem, 1 95 1, p p . 3 2-44 a nd 1 968, p p. 1 00102) e ighty p er c ent o f t he a vailab le m ater ia l h as b een e xam ined. E qua lly i n 1 954 ( Hildyard, 1 954, p . 7 3) f ifty-four g roup Q o r h ead-stud b rooches w ere c ited i ncluding fr o ty-one w ith e name l , h p . fr o te urpose o f t his s tudy o ver o ne h undred a nd f ifty w ere n oted. A gain n inety e namelled s pecimens o f t he t rumpet b rooch g roup a re n ow d ealt w ith a s a gainst t wenty-one i ncluded b y H ildyard ( op . c it.). T he m ajor n at iona l m useums i n L ondon, E dinburgh a nd C ardiff a long w ith t he m ore i mportant c o llections s uch a s t hose a t O xford, B risto l a nd Y ork h ave

2

a ll b een c hecked f or r e levant m ater ial w hich w as t hen c arefully s crutinised. L ikew ise t he m ore i mportant s ite c o llections s uch a s t hat f rom S ilchester, h oused a t R eading, a nd t hat f rom C aerwent, a t N ewport a nd t hose s till o n t he a ctual s ites a s C aer leon, C hesters a nd C orbridge w ere e xam ined. Af u ll l ist o f a ll m useums v isited i s g iven i n n ote 4 ; n o m ajor c o llection h as b een o m itted . A s r egards d istribution o f p rovenances, t ypes o f s ites a nd v ar iety o f o bject t here a ppears t o b e a dequate c overage. G eneral c o llections a re h oused a t t he B rit ish M useum a nd t he A shmo lean M useum ; t he l atter a lso h as a u sefu l n umber o f o bjects f rom t he C ontinent t hus p rov iding s ome n on-Br itish m ater ial w hich w as e xam ined c losely . T he N ational M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land p rovides a n e xce llent r ange o f m ater ial f rom S cot land w hether i t b e an ative s ite s uch a s T raprain L aw o r aR oman f ort s uch a s N ewstead . T he N ational M useum o f W a les i n C ardiff s imilar ly d eals w ith W ales. T he W all a rea h as y ie lded m any e name lled o bjects t o b e s een f rom C ar lisle t o N ewcast le-upon-Tyne a nd t he s ite m useums b etween t he t wo . C ivic c entres a re p rovided f or b y t he M useum o f L ondon a nd o thers s uch a s C o lchester, S aint A lbans a nd C irencester . O verall t here i s af air ly r epresentat ive s e lection o f o bjects a vailab le f or s tudy . Af air p roportion o f t hese r emain u npub lished. O n t he o ther h and m uch h as b een g leaned f rom p ub lications. T hose c hecked a re l isted i n n ote 5 . T he c omp lete r uns o f t he m ajor n ational j ournals h ave b een f u lly p erused w ith g ood r esults. L ikew ise t he r eports o f t he R esearch C omm ittee o f t he S ociety o f A ntiquaries o f L ondon h ave p roved t o b e o f g reat v alue. T hose b ooks w hich h ave p roduced m ater ia l q uoted w ill b e f ound i n t he B ibliography . M any w ere a lso c hecked w hich y ie lded n o e name lwork. A s r egards t he C ont inental e name lwork g reater r e liance h as h ad t o b e p laced o n t he w r itten w ork b ut f ortunate ly a l arge n umber o f o bjects a re l isted i n s uch w orks a s H enry ( 1933, p p. 6 6-146), E xner ( 1939, p p . 3 312 1) a nd S e llye ( 1939, p p . 1 -91). I t m ay b e a s w e ll t o m ention s ome c aveats a t t his s tage . I f a n e namel h as r etained i ts c o lour t here i s n o p rob lem b ut o nce d ecay h as s et i n d iff iculties a r ise a s t o w hat t he o r ig inal c o lour w as a nd h ere s ubjectivity c an p lay a g reat p art. W hen a n e name l d ecays i t g enera lly t urns a w hitish o r g reenish c o lour a nd f requent ly a n e name l w hich i s n ow i n s uch a s tate i s d escr ibed a s b eing ' red ' m eaning a d ecayed o r w eathered r ed t hough w r iters f requent ly o m it t he w ord ' decayed'. I n m any c ases t his m ay b e ac orrect d escription b ut i s n ot a lways s o. G reen a nd b lue c an g o t he s ame w ay; s everal s emi-decayed e xamp les e xist . O ften t oo w hat i s d escr ibed a s ' green ' i s i n f act a nother c o lour i n as tate o f d ecay . A part f rom d ecay i t i s n ot a lways p ossib le t o g ive a n e xact c o lour t o a n e name l. Y ellow m erges i nto o range w hich s omet imes m erges i nto r ed. G reens m erge w ith b lue a nd l ight o r w atery b lues m erge i nto w hite . D ark b lues m erge i nto b lack. I t i s s urpr ising h ow o ften t he d escript ion o f ac o lour g iven i n am useum r egister d iffers f rom t hat g iven i n t he p ub lished a ccount. T his r eport t r ies t o g ive o nly c ertain c o lours i n i ts d escr iptions; u ncertain o nes a re p receded b y b y aq uestion m ark a nd l ess c ertain o nes a re d escribed a s d ecayed . 3

O bjects f rom w hich e name l h as a pparent ly d isappeared a re i nc luded . I n s ome i nstances, p art icu lar ly w ith t he m ore u nusua l t ype o f o bject, i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he p iece n ever h e ld e name l a t a ll. E qually t he t heory t hat t he s ett ing i s i ntended f or a s tone c ou ld b e a dvanced . O n t he w ho le t hough w ith o bjects w hich n o l onger h ave e name l i t i s u sua l t hat t hey b e long t o t ypes w hich d o h ave i t . I n t hese c ases i t i s a lso p ossib le t o s ay w ith s ome c ertainty w hat t he a ctual c o lours w ould h ave b een . H owever i t c ou ld a lso b e t hat t he e mpty c e lls n ever c ontained e name l b ecause t he o bject w as n ever f inished f or s ome r eason . O ne c annot e ver b e r ea lly s ure i n s uch a c ase. T here a re s ome c lear e xamp les o f u nf inished p roducts w hich a re d ea lt w ith i n t he a ppropr iate p lace. O bjects w hich h ave l ost t heir e name ls a re u sefu l a s ap ointer t o t he r ate o f d ecay , p oor w orkmanship ( through t he i nab ility o f t he e name l t o a dhere ) a nd t he m ethod o f p re-treating t he c e lls . T his m akes u p f or t he m any e xamp les w here t he e name l i s c omp lete a nd o ne c annot b e s ure o f w hat t he p osit ion i s u nderneath . F ina lly t here a re t wo f urther d rawbacks i n r elat ion t o m useum m ater ia l. T he l esser i s t hat o n s ome o bjects w here t he e name l h as d isappeared i t h as b een ' restored ' u sually i n r ed w ax ( on t he w ho le t he c o lour a ppears t o b e c orrect ). T he o ther g reat p rob lem w ith t he m useum o bjects i s al ack o f as trat if ied p rovenance s uch a s w ith t he o ld f inds f rom Y ork o r m any o f t he s tray o bjects f rom L e icester . T his i s e ven t he c ase w ith s ome f inds f rom e xcavat ions, s ome o f t hem c arried o ut n ot a ll t hat l ong a go . W hile t he a ctua l o bject i s o f p r imary c oncern n everthe less m ore s tratif ied f inds w ou ld b e u sefu l. H owever t he p osit ion a ppears t o b e b etter t han i n P annonia w here t here a ppear t o b e o n ly t wo w e ll-dated p ieces o f e name lwork ( Se llye, 1 939, p . 3 4). S omething s hould n ow b e s aid a bout t erm ino logy . S uch w ords a s c hamp leve a nd c loisonne a re u sed f ar t oo o ften w ithout a p roper u nders tanding o f t he ir m ean ing. T hey a re w ords p roper ly a pp licab le t o t he e name lwork o f t he l ast f ew c entur ies . T here a re o ther l esser k nown t echniques u sed b y m odern e name llers, t he w ords f or w hich c ou ld b e a pp lied t o s ome R omano-Br it ish e name ls a nd t echniques u sed o n ly b y e ar lier e name llers f or w hich t here i s n o m odern e quiva lent . W hen l ater i t e merges t hat a ll R omano-Br it ish e name ls a re c hamp leve e name ls i t b ecomes o bv ious t hat t he w ord h as l itt le m eaning i n t his p eriod. H owever i t i s u sed w here r e levant s ince i t i s t oo w e ll-known a nd u seful t o b e d iscarded e nt ire ly . ' M illef iori' a nd ' mosaic ' a re b oth u sed i ndiscrim inate ly i n m any p ub licat ions t o d enote m illef ior i e name l a t erm w hich n eeds ( and r eceives) p roper d ef inition . T he w ord m osaic i s a lso u sed a t t imes t o d enote j ust d ifferent c o loured e name ls o n t he o ne o bject . F requent ly t he w ord c loisson i s u sed f or t he m etal w a lls o f c e lls e ven w here t he t echn ique u sed i s c hamp leve a nd n ot c loisonne . H ere i t i s h oped t o a mend s uch a busage a nd t o b e e xp licit i n t he u se o f t erms i n t he t ext . As hort g lossary i s a dded t o h e lp m ake t he m atter c learer . M ent ion s hou ld a lso b e m ade o f r eferences t o e name lwork i n a ncient w r itings . H owever i n c ompar ison t o g lass f or i nstance t his l ine o f e nquiry i s v ery u nrewarding. T he o n ly h e lpful r eference i s t he o ft q uoted s tatement o f P hilostratus c oncern ing t he e name lled h orse O ther t han t h is t rapp ings o f t he b arbar ians l iving b y t he O cean .6 t here a re o n ly a f ew a nd v ague r eferences n oted e lsewhere ( e .g . T hurnan, 1 871, p . 4 82). B efore t urning t o ad etailed s tudy o f t he o bjects i t m ay b e u seful t o s ee w hat m odern w r iters h ave t o s ay o n t he s ubject . 4

N o p revious s tudy o f e name lwork i s c omprehensive i n e ither c over ing t he w ho le p eriod d ef ined a bove o r e ven o ne o f t he p arts, t he I ron A ge o r p ost-Roman o r m ore p art icularily t he R omano-Br itish p eriod. T he b est p ieces o n I ron A ge e name lwork a re t he f ew p ages b y L eeds ( 1933, p. 3 9-48 a nd p assim) a nd S m ith ( 1928, p p . 1 0 1106). T hese a re n o m ore t han e xceedingly g eneral v iews o f t he s ubject . F ox ( 1958, p assim) l ists m any o f t he e name lled o bjects i n h is m agister ial w ork o n I ron A ge a rt b ut h as l itt le t o s ay o n e name l a s s uch. T he m ajor I ron A ge h oards -a v aluab le s ource o f i nformat ion -have o nly r ecent ly b egun t o r ece ive p roper a ttent ion t hough t he e name l d ecorat ion r emains p oor ly d escribed. T he r ecent w ork o n t he a ctual r ed g lass e name l ( Hughes, 1 972, p p . 9 8107) h owever s heds s ome l ight o n t he e name l i tse lf a lthough t he p aper r aises a s m any p rob lems a s i t s o lves. P art o f t he I ron A ge i n B r itain a nd E urope i s c overed b y F rancois H enry ( 1933) i n h er a rt ic le w h ich d eals m ost ly w ith R oman B r itain : h owever i t i s n ot c omprehensive; t he o bjects a re n ot w ell d escribed; i t e nds r ather s udden ly i n t he m id-third c entury a nd a rgues t hat n o m illef ior i e name l w as m ade i n B ritain -be liev ing m ost t o h ave b een m anufactured a t t he V illa D 'Anthee; t here i s v ery l ittle o n t he t echnical a spects o f t he s ubject; h owever a f air a mount o f E uropean e name lwork i s i ncluded. T he l atter o verall h as b een s omewhat b etter e xam ined t han t he B r it ish w ith E xner ( 1939) l ooking a t t he R hine land b rooches, S e llye ( 1939) d ealing w ith t he P annonian e name lled f inds a nd m ore r ecent ly D r . S p itaels e xamining t he B e lgian e name lled b rooches. 7 N o s uch w ork e xists f or B ritain t hough i ndiv idual t ypes a re t o S ome e xtent l ooked a t b ut w ithout s pecif ic r eference t o t he ir e name l d ecoration. A ll t he b rooches h ave b een a rranged b y C o llingwood ( Collingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p p . 2 86-303) t hough i n as imp le f ashion a nd w ithout r egard t o a ny e namel w hich m ay b e o n t hem . T he a rrangement h as p roved i ts u se o ver t he y ears a nd i s f o llowed h ere. H owever i t i s v ery s imp le i n p laces e .g. t he p late b rooches h ave h ad t o b e e xpanded. H u ll ( forthcom ing) p rov ides a f ull c orpus b ut c oncentrates o n t ypo logy a nd h as l itt le t o s ay o n t he e name l a s s uch. 8 D rogonesque b rooches ( Feachem, 1 951 a nd 1 968) a nd C ollingwood 's s ub-group S ill ( R ichardson, 1 960) h ave b een e xam ined a s g roups w hile a mong n on-brooch e namelwork o nly t he m assive a rm lets ( S impson, 1 968, p p . 2 33-254) a nd t he b utton-and-loop f asteners ( Wild, 1 970, p p . 1 37-155) c an b e s aid t o h ave b een e xam ined i n d epth. M ore r ecent ly M iss B utcher h as c ontr ibuted a v a luable a rticle o n R omano-Br it ish e namels ( Butcher, 1 976, p p . 4 2-5 1) a nd f o llowed t his u p w ith t he d etailed p ub licat ion o f ag roup o f e namelled o bjects r ecent ly r ecovered f rom v ar ious s ites i n B ritain ( Butcher, 1 977, p p. 4 1-69) w hile t he m iniature s too ls ( Green, 1 975, p p . 5 4-70) a nd e name lled c ups/paterae ( Moore, 1 978, p p . 3 19-326) h ave r eceived m ore c ursory a ttent ion. F rom t he p ost-Roman p eriod h anging b ow ls h ave o f c ourse h ad m ore w ritten a bout t hem t han e nough a nd y et a n e lementary c orpus i s s t ill l acking. O ne o f t he f ew a ngles t hey h ave n ot b een e xamined f rom i s t hat o f t he e name lwork . S ince e name lled h anging b ow l f ittings c onstitute a l arge p art o f t he p ost-Roman b ody o f e name lwork a n e xam inat ion o f t hem s eems d esirab le . O verall t hen a c omprehensive s tudy o f e name lled o bjects a nd t heir t echn iques i s s ad ly l acking. A n a ttempt i s m ade h ere t o r emedy t h is s ituat ion. T he w ork i s d ivided i nto t wo m ajor p arts: t he f irst d ealing w ith t he e name lled o bjects t hemse lves a nd t he s econd w ith t he p rocess o f e name l-working. T he f ormer t r ies t o a nswer t he q uestion, w hat o bjects w ere b eing

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e namelled i n B ritain d ur ing t he p eriod p rev iously d ef ined . T he m ajor p art o f t his d eals w ith t he e name lled o bjects o f R oman B ritain, t hat i s t o s ay t he b rooches f irst a nd t hen w hat m ay b e t ermed n on-brooch m aterial. B oth b ow b rooches a nd p late b rooches a re e xam ined a nd a n a ttempt i s m ade t o d ef ine a nd l ist t hese s omewhat b etter t han t hey h ave b een p revious ly . N on-brooch m ater ial c overs s eal-box l ids, m in iature s too ls, m ounts, b e lt-p lates, c ups a nd o ther o bjects m any o f w h ich r equire i nvestigation i n t heir o wn r ight . T he c hapters o n t he R omano-Br itish o bjects a re p receded b y o ne o n t he I ron A ge e name ls s ince t o al arge e xtent ' this i s w here i t a ll b egan '. L ikew ise a fter t he R omano-Br itish e namelwork t here i s ac hapter o n t he p ost-Roman e name lwork. O nce t he ' e vidence ' h as b een d ealt w ith w e m ove o n t o t he t echniques, w hich c onstitute t he s econd p art. U sing t he d ef in it ion o f a n e namel a s av itreous s ubstance a pp lied t o am eta l b ase a nd f used t o i t b y t he a pp lication o f h eat, t he t hree m ajor c hapters c over t he a ctual e name l ( the v itreous s ubstance), t he m etal b ase, a nd f inally t he m ethods o f a pp lying t he f ormer t o t he l atter . S ince w e a re l ooking a t as ubject o n w hich s o l itt le h as b een d one t here a re n ot m any s pecif ic q uestions w hich m ay b e a sked. F or t he m ost p art w e m ust s tick t o t he g eneral q uestion o f w hat i s i t a ll a bout? H ow d id t he R omano-Br it ish c raftsmen m ake t heir e name ls? W hat e xact ly i s t he e name l? W hat b ases a re u sed? H ow i s t he e name l a pp lied? T he e xam inat ion o f t he o bjects s hows t hat i n t he a pp licat ion o f t he e namel t o i ts b ase t hree t echniques a re u sed w hich m ay b e c alled s imp le, c omp lex a nd m illef iori e name ls. W ith t he l atter w e c an b e m ore s pecif ic i n o ur q uestions. I s t here s uch a t hing a s am illef ior i e name l? W hat e xact ly i s i t? W as i t e ver m ade i n B r itain? T he r emain ing c hapter ,9 ,looks c r itica lly a t c ertain s ites w here e name l-working i s a lleged t o h ave b een c arr ied o n a nd t hen t ries t o d raw u p a l ist o f s ites i n B ritain w here t he p rocess a ctually a ppears t o h ave o ccurred. F ina lly w e l ook a t t he o verall p icture t o s ee w hat c onclusions c an b e d rawn f rom t he p revious d iscussions. T hen i t i s h oped t hat a c learer p icture o f t he R omano-British e name l-working i ndustry w ill h ave e merged.

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P ART I

T HE P RODUCTS C HAPTER 1

T HE E NAMELWORK O F T HE I RON A GE

I ron A ge e name ls a re e xam ined f irst s ince R omano-British e namelwork c annot b e s tudied i n i so lation. T he a rt o f e name lling w as n ot c arried t o B ritain b y t he i nvaders i n A .D . 4 3 . W hen t he R omans a rrived t hey f ound a n a lready f lour ishing e name l-working i ndustry w hich c ont inued t o f unction n ot o nly d ur ing t heir o ccupat ion b ut l ong a fter t hey h ad l eft . T he R omano-Br itish i ndustry c annot t herefore b e e asily c ompartmentalised. T o e xamine i t p roper ly a nd t o u nderstand i t t he p receding I ron A ge e name ls m ust b e e xam ined t oo. I t i s e xceedingly d ifficult t o d raw t he l ine b etween t he t wo i ndustries. A s f ar a s o ne c an t e ll t he s ame n ative e name llers m ade t errets o r t he l ike f or t heir c hieftains a nd t hen p roduced q uite d ifferent o bjects f or t heir n ew p atrons. A gain t he t ransit ion f rom a n I ron A ge c ultural b ackground t o aR oman o ne d id n ot o ccur a ll a t o nce t hroughout B r itain n or i ndeed d id i t h appen p articular ly r apidly . I n t he f rontier o r m ilitary z ones t his w as m ore t he c ase. H ence a b asically I ron A ge t erret c ou ld h ave b een m ade w ell i nto t he R oman p er iod, a s l ate a s t he s econd c entury A .D . T hus a s r egards t he I ron A ge e namels t here a re i ncluded o bjects b asica lly I ron A ge i n s ty le a nd t ype b ut m anufactured i n t he p ost-Iron A ge p er iod . M ost f it i nto t heir c ategory q uite w e ll b ut s ome, s uch a s b utton-and-loop f asteners, p ose p rob lems. T hese a re n ot w hat o ne w ou ld c all a R oman t ype o f o bject t hough m ost w ere p robab ly m ade w e ll i nto t he R oman p er iod. H ere t he m ore o bvious I ron A ge e xamp les a re i ncluded i n t his c hapter w hile l eaving t he b u lk t o C hapter F our . R oman i s p erhaps a b ad t erm -Romano-Br itish i s b etter a nd p erhaps f or t his c hapter B ritish e name ls. O ne p rob lem s hou ld b e m entioned n ow . M any o f t hese o bjects a re w e ll k nown t hrough t heir i nc lusion i n b ooks a nd a rticles o n I ron A ge a rt. Y et g ood d escriptions o f t he a rtic les a nd m ore e specia lly o f t heir t echniques a re r e lat ive ly f ew . T his a pp lies a s m uch t o t he h oards a s t o m any o f t he i ndividual o bjects. H owever t his s tudy c oncentrates o n t he e namel a s w e ll a s t he b acking m ater ia l a nd t he m ethod o f a ttaching t he o ne t o t he o ther . T here a re a pprox imate ly t hree h undred o bjects w hich a re p roducts o f t he B r itish I ron A ge a nd w hich b ear e name l d ecoration. T hese c onsist o f j ust u nder t wo h undred i ndividual f inds many o f t hem t he f inest p ieces o f C e ltic a rt f rom t his c ountry -and a round o ne h undred p ieces w h ich c onst itute p arts o r a ll o f s even o f t he m ajor I ron A ge h oards v iz, t hose f rom M iddlebie, P o lden H ill, S aham T oney, S anton, S even S isters, S tanw ick a nd W esthall. T he o bjects ( w ith r eference t o t he h oard s pecimens w here a ppropriate) a re d ealt w ith b y t ypes a nd t hen t he h oards i ndividually . T here a re t hree b asic g roups: h arness/chariot e quipment, m ilitary e quipment, a nd m iscellaneous t ypes anging f rom f ibu lae t o m irrors.

7

H arness a nd c har iot e quipment T his i s b y f ar t he l argest g roup a nd w ithin i t t errets a re t he m ost n umerous. T here a re o ver e ighty e xamp les w ith e namel d ecoration a nd o f t hese a bout h alf w ere f ound i n t he h oards m entioned a bove . T he o nly t ypo logy o f t errets a vailab le i s o ver t hirty y ears o ld ( Leeds ,1 933, p p . 18-126) b ut i s s t ill u sefu l, a lthough s ome o f t he m ore r ecent f inds d o n ot e asily f it i nto i t .9 L eeds d ivided t he t errets i nto e ight g roups o f w h ich n umbers 1 , 7a nd 8 b ear n o e name l w hile t he r emaining f ive g roups i nc lude e name lled e xamp les. T hose o f g roup 2 a re i nvariab ly e name lled o n t heir b road f aces w ith e ither l arge c urving c e lls c ontaining r ed e name l o nly s uch a s t hat f rom R unnymede 1 0 o r r ed e name l w ith t he a ddit ion o f s eparate s pots o f b lue o r y e llow e name l a s f ound o n t he ' Suffo lk 'll a nd A uchendo lly 12 s pecimens r espect ive ly . E xamp les w ith t he e name l i n s maller, m ore O n ly s ome o f g roups 3 a nd 4 -both l ipped s imp le c e lls a lso o ccur . 13 t errets w ith t he l ips a t r ight a ng les t o t he r ing i n g roup 3 a nd p aralle l t o i t i n g roup 4 - a re e name lled . O n t hese t he e name l a lways r ed - i s f ound o n t he l ips 1 4 a nd o n t he s ides o f t he r ing. S everal e xamp les o f e ach g roup w ere f ound i n t he h oards f rom S tanw ick a nd P o lden H ill r espective ly ( see u nder H oards b e low ). G roups 5 a nd 6a re a gain b asically s im ilar w ith t hree k nobs s et o n t he e dge o f t he r ing . T hose o n g roup 5 a re r ound o r f lat-topped w ith a q uatrefoil d esign i n e name l w hile t hose o f g roup 6 h ave r ectangu lar o r o val k nobs. R ed, b lue a nd y e llow a re t he r ecurring c o lours o f t he e name l u sually o ne o f t he l atter t wo c ombined w ith r ed a s o n t he g roup 5 s pecimen f rom B rampton ( Green, 1 972, p . 3 46, f ig. 2 ) w ith r ed a nd b lue e name l i n s mall g eometr ic c e lls o r t he g roup 6 t erret f rom T raprain L aw 1 5 w ith s mall s quare c e lls o f r ed a nd y e llow . T he e xamp le f rom t he C ambr idgeshire F ens h as b lue, y e llow a nd a nother c o lour - n ow d ecayed b ut p robab ly r ed - o n i ts k nobs, a s w e ll a s t he s ides a nd f aces o f t he r ing .1 6 O n t he w ho le m ost o f t he e namelled t errets c an b e f itted i nto t hese f ive g roups. T here a re h owever t hree i nteresting a nd i mportant t errets w hich d o n ot q uite f it L eeds' s ystem . T hey a re w orth m ent ioning i n s ome d etail. A ll t hree a re s imilar w ith b road f aces a nd a n o pen s quare c entre t o t he b ar ( w ith a n i ron b ar i n t he c entre). E name l d ecoration i s f ound o n t he f aces o f t he r ing, w here t here i s a d esign o f h ooked s cro lls, a s w e ll a s o n t he f aces o f t he b ar c entre. T he f irst c omes f rom L ondon ( Borrajo, 1 908, p l.V, n o. 2 ) a nd s till b ears s light t races o f r ed e name l o n o ne o f t he f aces; t he b ar f aces h ere a re d ivided i nto c rude t riang les, n ow e mpty . T he o ther t wo c ome f rom a broad. O ne f rom E auze, i n t he s outh o f F rance h ad r ed e name l ( M ichon, 1 925, p p . 1 45-7), w hile t he o ther f rom t he F ayum i n E gypt h as b oth r ed a nd b lue e name l o n t he f aces o f t he r ing ( Sm ith 1 925, p . 8 7, f ig. 8 1). A lthough t hese b road e name lled f aces a re a f eature o f g roup 2 t errets t he t reatment o f t he b ar i s a kin t o t hat f ound i n g roup 8 . H owever i t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese t hree o bjects m ight h ave b een m anufactured o n t he C ont inent r ather t han i n B ritain ( Sprat ling, 1 980, p . 16). M eanwhile t here i s n ot m uch t hat c an b e s aid a bout t he n ext i tem o f h arness f urniture - t he c heek-p iece -of w hich f ourteen e name lled s pecimens a re k nown. A s aw ho le b ronze c heek-pieces a re n ot c ommon i n t he I ron A ge ( P iggott, 1 952, p . 2 1). E leven o f t he s pecimens a re o f n ormal t ype a nd s ix o f t hese c ome f rom t he P o lden H ill h oard . 8

S ome h ave o nly r ed e name l a s t hat f rom E ckford 1 7 w hile o thers h ave t wo c olours, t he s econd u sually d ecayed b ut o n t he B ower C halke s pecimen b lue ( Leeds, 1 933, p . 1 03). T he t hree o dd p ieces a re S -shaped a nd a re i ndeed p robab ly n ot c heek-pieces a t a ll. F ox ( 1958, p . 1 30) c alls t hem d o lphin-shaped a s t he t wo s pecimens f rom P o lden H ill w here m issing r ivets m ay o nce h ave h eld t wo s tuds o f e namel i n s ettings o n t he t aill 8 w hich o n t he C amerton p iece ( C ity M useum, B r isto l, r eg. n o . F6 84) h as b ecome a d uck 's h ead, t he e ye o f w hich c onsists o f as pot a nd r ing o f d ecayed e name l. B ridle-bits a s s uch h ave b een d ea lt w ith b y s everal a uthor it ies a nd o nly t he e name l d ecoration n eed b e l ooked a t ( see W ard P erkins, 1 939; C larke, 1 95 1; H awkes, 1 959; B arker a nd M egaw, 1 963). O n ly s even o f t he t wenty-six s pecimens w ith e name l w ere n ot f ound i n t he h oards. T hose f rom H engistbury H ead a nd L lyn C err ig B ach h ave a s ingle l arge s ett ing p resumab ly f or e name 11 9 . T he R ise ( Sm ith, 1 925, p . 1 03, p l. v iii, n o. 4 ), B irrenswark 2 0 a nd T hames ( Read, 1 9 10, p p . 1 59160) b its a re p robab ly t he b est k nown, a ll w ith s mall c e lls i n r ed a nd a s econd c o lour ( only r emaining i n t he b lue o n t he R ise s pecimen). T he p ieces i n t he S aham T oney h oard a nd a lso t hose f rom t he S even S isters h oard ( see b e low f or d etails) p robab ly p ossessed t hree c o lours t hough f or t he m ost p art t hese h ave n ow d ecayed o r d isappeared e ntire ly . T he b its i n t he P o lden H ill a nd S tanw ick h oards h ave r ed e name l o n ly, e ither i n s pots a lone o r o ccasionally i n s mall c urving c e lls. T hose p ieces o f h arness e quipment g enerally t ermed m ounts w ith t wo r ectangular l oops o n t he b ack fall r eadily i nto t hree g roups: t he q uatre lobe, t he c ruciform2 1 a nd a m isce llaneous g roup . T here a re s even q uatrelobe m ounts, f rom N orton, S uffo lk, ( Kemb le, 1 863, p . 1 95), L ondon ( ibid) a nd t he P o lden H ill h oard a nd t wo e ach f rom t he S anton a nd W esthall h oards. T he C anterbury m ount p robab ly s hould b e i ncluded i n t his g roup ( Leeds, 1 933, p . 5 2, p l. I n o . 3 ). O n t he w ho le t he m ain e name l, f ound i n t he c urving c e lls, i s r ed r e lieved b y s eparate s pots o f b lue o r y e llow . T here a re s ix s pecimens i n t he c ruciform g roup . T here i s o ne f rom H igh R ochester ( Henry, 1 933, p . 1 03), o ne f rom a n u nknown l ocat ion n ow i n t he B rit ish M useum ( Sm ith, 1 925, p l. V III, n o . 2 ) a nd a t hird i n t he U ff izi M useum i n F lorence ( Kemb le, 1 863, p . 1 95, p l. X IX, n .5) w h ile o ne i s i nc luded i n e ach o f t he h oards f rom M iddlebie, S aham T oney a nd S even S isters. A ll h ave s mall a ngu lar c e lls w ith r ed a nd a s econd o r e ven t hird c o lour o f b lue a nd/or y e llow . I n a ddit ion t o t hese t wo g roups t here a re v ar ious m ounts, s ome w ith s pots o nly o f e name l, f ound i n t he S tanwick h oard, o thers w ith s mall c e lls w ith t wo o r m ore c o lours. T here a re s ingle f inds f ro C ar lisle ( Museum a nd A rt G allery, r eg. n o . 2 0.1938), ' C he ltenham ' ', C hepstow ( Fox, 1 958, p . 1 29, p l. 7 0c), a nd S ilchester ( Museum a nd A rt G a llery, R eading). O f t he f our, o n ly t hat f rom ' Che ltenham ' h as r ed e namel o n i ts o wn. A mong t he i ron A ge h arness e quipment b e long s ome o f t he b utton-andloop f asteners -the m ajor ity o f w hich a re d ealt w ith u nder t he R oman m ater ia l. T hese o bjects a re l isted a nd d iscussed e lsewhere ( W ild, 1 970, p p. 1 37-155). U sing W ild 's c ategor ies t here a re t wo c lass I e xamp les f rom G lastonbury ( op .cit, p . 1 48, n o.4) a nd S ilchester ( Museum a nd A rt G allery, R eading ) a nd t wo ' atypical' s pecimens r ather s imilar t o e ach o ther, o ne f rom N ewstead ( op .cit . n o .159) a nd t he o ther f rom P erth 2 3 . N one o f t hese r etains i ts

9

e name l. O ne s uch o bject i s p art o f t he M iddlebie h oard a nd n o l ess t han n ine a re t o b e f ound i n t hat f rom S tanw ick . T he c lassic p aper o n l inch p ins i s s till t hat o f W ard P erkins ( 1940, p p . 3 58-367). T here a re t he t hree w e ll k nown f inds, f rom C o lchester ( Hawkes a nd H ull, 1 947, p p . 3 3 1-2) w ith r ed a nd b lue e name lled s cro lls, K ing 's L angley ( Br itish M useum, r eg. n o.1940 .2-3.1) w ith r ed a lone a nd t wo f rom C o lne F en ( Tebbutt, 1 961, p p . 2 35-238 ) t he f irst i n r ed o n ly, t he s econd i n r ed a nd b lue. B esides t hese t here a re t wo u nprovenanced s pecimens, o ne i n t he A shmo lean M I J eum a nd t he o ther i n t he M useum, S affron W alden ( Henry , 1 933, p . 8 8). S ix e xamp les o f e name lled l inch p ins a re k nown f rom t he S tanw ick H oard. T here a re a lso n ine m isce llaneous p ieces o f h arness o r c hariot e quipment w hich d o n ot f it i nto a ny o f t he p revious c ategories. O n m ost o f t hese t he e name l i s n ow m issing a s f rom t he m uch p ublished m ount w ith a t r iske le d esign n ow i n t he A shmo lean M useum ( reg. n o . N 6418) a nd t he s omewhat s im ilar o bject f rom D owalton L och ( Agnew , 1 88 1, p p . 1 54-5). O n ly o n t he C avenham m ount ( C larke, 1 939, p . 7 1) i s t he r ed e name l p reserved a s a lso o n t hat f rom F rem ington H agg 2 4 w here t he b lue i s o bvious b ut t he s econd e name l h as n ow d ecayed. 5 . T he r emaining p ieces d o n ot c a ll f or a ny c nmment 2 M ilitary E quipment A lthough n ot n umer ically l arge t he m ilitary e quipment d isp ly ing e namel c onstitutes a n i mportant p art o f t he I ron A ge f inds. M ost i s f ound o n s words o r s cabbards. T he B ugthorpe d iscs w ith t heir r ivetted t uds o f r ed e name l a re g enera lly d escribed a s s cabbard m ountings 6 . T he B ugthorpe s cabbard i tse lf ( Fox, 1 958, p p . 4 1-3, f i g . 2 6) m ay h ave h ad e name l o nce i n t he s pot a nd r ing o n t op o f e ach o f t he r ivets. B oth t he E mb leton s word ( on t he h ilt ) a nd s cabbard h ave s mall c e lls o f e name l i n r ed, b lue a nd y e llow t hough m uch o f t his i s n ow d ecayed 2 7 . T he T horpe s word h ilt h as e name l i n y ellow a nd 8 . F rom H od H ill b lue o n t he h eads o f s mall s tuds w hich a re a pp lied 2 c omes a nother h ilt ( Brailsford, 1 962, p .1 ,n o .A 1) w ith b oth a s imp le r ed i n lay a nd a lso, b ut n ow g one, e name l o f t wo o r t hree c o lours i n t iny c e lls a s o n t he b ands o f t he E mb leton s cabbard. Ah ilt g uard a lso f rom t his s ite ( ibid, n o.A2) h as r ed e name l o n ly . T he e name l h as n ow g one f rom t he R ichborough s cabbard t erm ina l ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 31) a s a lso f rom t he L itt le W ittenham c hape ( Harding, 1 972, p . 1 31) a nd t he G lencotho s cabbard ( P iggott, 1 950, p . 1 3). T he s cabbard f rom D ailly, o f w hich t here i s ar ep lica i n t he N ationa l M useum o f A nt iquit ies o f S cot land, h as r ed e name l. E name l i s f ound o n b oth e xamp les o f I ron A ge h e lmets d iscovered i n B ritain. T he h orned h elmet f ound i n t he T hames a t W ater loo B r idge ( now i n t he B rit ish M useum ) o riginally h ad s ix of w hich f ive n ow r emain -app lied s tuds w ith i ncised h eads o n s ome o f w hich a re s l ight t races o f r ed e name l ( Fox, 1 958, p . 4 9, p l. 2 7b x f ig. 3 6a,b). T he s econd h e lmet, o f l ater d ate a nd w ith a n eck g uard, i s a n u nprovenanced f ind, f ormer ly i n t he M yr ick c o llection, n ow i n t he B ritish M useum a nd c onsidered t o h ave c ome f rom t he N orth o f E ng land. O r igina lly i t h ad t hree a pp lied s tuds o n t he n eck g uard a nd t wo o n t he u pper p art o f e ach e ar-f lap . T hese t oo h ave i ncised h eads w hich w ere o nce c overed w ith r ed e name l, t races o f w hich c an s till b e s een o n s ome o f t he r emaining s tuds -two o n t he n eck a nd o ne o n e ach o f t he 1 0

e ar f laps ( ibid.

p . 19, p l. 6 2c).

O n t he B attersea s hie ld t here a re t wenty-seven a pp lied s tuds o f r ed e name l. W hether t his i s i n f act a n e name l o r n ot a nd t he e xact p rocess o f a pp ly ing t he s tuds i s d iscussed l ater . F or t he p resent M egaw 's d escr iption i s t he m ost a dequate ( Megaw , 1 970, p p. 1 50-1). I t i s p ossib le t hat t he m issing s tud, o f w hich t he r ivet o nly c an b e s een, i n t he c entre o f t he T al-Y-llyn s hie ld b oss w as o f r ed e name l ( Megaw, 1 970, p . 1 58) M isce llaneous t ypes M oving f rom t he m ilitary s phere t o m ore p eacefu l p ursuits w e m eet f our m irrors w hich h ave e name l. T hese a re f rom B ird lip ( Fox, 1 958, p . 8 9 a nd 9 9), O ld W arden ( Sprat ling, 1 970, p p . 9 -16), N ijmegen i n p H o lland ( Megaw , 1 970, p p. 1 56-7) a nd H o lcombe ( Fox a nd P o llard, 1 973, p . 2 2) a nd e ach i s i n laid w ith r ed e name1 2 9 . S evera l m ore t ankard h andles s eem t o h ave b een i ntended f or e namel t hough l itt le o f t his n ow s urvives. I n a ll c ases t he e name l o ccurs a s s tuds e ither w ith a r ivet t hrough t he c entre a s o n t he A y lesford s pecimen ( Corcoran, 1 952, p . 9 7) o r o n t he i ncised d omed h eads o f a pp lied r ivets a s o n o ne o f t he h andles f rom t he S even S isters h oard a nd j ust p ossibly i n l ike m anner o n t he r emaining f ive f rom t he s ame h oard, t he t wo e xamp les f rom H od H ill ( Henry, 1 933, p p . 8 1 &9 4) a nd t he i ncomp lete s pecimen f rom C aerwenf ( Simpson 1 972, p . 3 30 ). T he W elwyn t ankard h andle ( Hawkes, 1 935, p p . 3 51-354) s t ill r etains m ost o f t he r ed e namel s tuds w hich a ppear t o h ave n o r ivets a nd t o b e s o lid s tuds i nstead o f c over ing a n a pp lied m etal r ivet h ead. T here i s t oo a g roup o f e name lled b ucket o r b ow l m ounts. B oth t he f ish-head s pout f rom F e lmersham ( Watson, 1 949, p p . 4 1 &5 01) a nd t he t wo m ounts f rom L eg P iekarski ( Megaw, 1 963, p p . 2 7-37) b e long t o b ronze b ow ls a nd p ossess i n lays o f r ed e namel. T he b ull's h ead m ount f rom L ydney ( Whee ler, 1 932, p p . 7 5-6) e name lled i n r ed a nd b lue 3 ° a nd t he h uman f ace m ount f rom B oughton A luph ( Megaw, 1 970, p . 1 33) w ith i ts ' fr inge ' o f r ed e name l w ould a ppear t o h ave a cted a s b ucket m ounts. T he t wo b ucket m ounts i n t he s hape o f ar am 's h ead f rom H arpenden ( ibid., p p. 1 61-2) e ach h ave t wo c ircular s ettings a t t he n ostr ils a nd s ides o f t he m ouths ( therefore f our o n e ach) f or r ed e namel s tuds a s w ell a s h aving b lue e name l s ett ings f or t he e yes 3 1 . T he e name l o n t he G reat C hesterford b ucket ( Henry, 1 933, p p . 8 1-2) h owever i s s im ilar t o t hat o n t he W ater loo h e lmet ( q.v.) t hat i s t o s ay r ed o n t he i ncised h ead o f a n a pp lied s tud a nd w ith a r ivet t hrough t he c entre . I n t his g roup t oo s hou ld b e i nc luded t he L exden c up ( Fox, 1 948, p p. 1 35-6) t he h andle o f w hich h as a s ing le r ed e name l s tud s et i n ac ircu lar s ett ing a nd h eld i n p lace b y ar ivet t hrough t he c entre a nd t he e scutcheon o n t he h and le o f t he b ow l f rom S nowdon ( Savory, 1 976, p . 6 2, n o.32, f ig.38). E name l h owever i s n ot f ound v ery o ften o n p re-Roman f ibu lae f rom B r itain. T here a re t hree f ibulae o f I ron A ge t ype w ith t his k ind o f d ecorat ion, t wo b eing o f t he i nvo lute v ar iety a nd t he t hird b e ing o f L a T ene I f orm . T he l atter i s t he w e ll k nown s pecimen f ound a t M aiden C ast le ( Fox, 1 958, p p. 1 58 a nd 1 9-23) w hich p ossesses t hree s tuds o f r ed e namel ( one o n t he f oo a nd o ne a t e ither e nd o f t he s pr ing), o nce t hrought t o b e c ora1 3 . A r ed e namel s tud w ith r ivet 1

o ccurs o n t he i nvo lute f ibula f rom E astburn ( Stead, 1 965, p p. 4 7, 6 5 & 15) w hile a s mall p ort ion o f r ed e name l i nserted i nto t he f oot o f t he T revone f ibu la p resents a n u nusual t echnique ( Dudley a nd J ope, 1 964, p p . 1 9-23). A mong t he I ron A ge b eltlinks o n ly f our a re e name lled. T hey a re i nc luded h ere t hough p erhaps i t i s m ore l ike ly t hat t hey c onstitute m ilitary e quipment . T he i ncomp lete e xamp le f rom C o lchester ( Hawkes a nd H ull, 1 947, p . 3 29, n o.2) i s t he o dd o ne o ut c onsisting o f a n o penwork f igure-of-eight w ith s ide l oops, t he w ho le h aving s ix s pots f rom w hich t he e name l h as n ow g one. T he r emaining t hree a re m ore o r l ess s im ilar i n s hape b eing r ectangu lar w ith r ounded e nds i n w hich t here a re c ircu lar o penings p resumab ly f or a ttachment; i n f ront o f t hese a re t wo h a lf b osses a nd b etween i n t he c entre i s ad etachab le s quare e name lled p late. O n t he i ncomp lete s pec imen i n t he Y orkshire M useum ( Fox, 1 958, p . 19) t he p late i s n ow d etached. T he s urface o f t he p late i s c overed w ith r ows o f i nter locked t r iang les i n r ed a nd y e llow e name l. A n e xamp le o f u nknown p rovenance f rom t he W ay c o llection ( A llen, 1 904, p p . 1 69-70) h as b een s imilar ly t reated. T he r emaining e xamp le, f rom D rumashie ( Frazer-Tytler, 1 923, p p . 113), h as f our l arge c e lls w ith c urving s ides, a gain i n r ed a nd y e llow a lternate ly . O ne o f t he m ost i ntr iguing o f t he g roups o f I ron A ge e name lwork c onsists o f t he c ircu lar h o llow d omed b ronze s tuds w ith o penwork d ecoration ( in m ost c ase f l o n t he s urface f illed w ith r ed e name l. T here a re t wo p ossib le f unctions f or t hese o bjects. T wo o f t he h o llow a nd o ne o f t he s o lid t ypes o f s tud w ere f ound w ith t he L esser G arth t erret ( q .v .) a nd i n t his c ase a ppear t o f it i nto t he s aucer s haped s ettings o n t he e dge o f t he t erret 3 3 . O n t he o ther h and t he s tuds f ound a t H ert ford H eath ( twenty-one i n t ota l) a nd a lso L exden ( Laver, 1 926, p p . 2 41-254 - f our s pecimens, o ne s till w ith i ts b ack ing) w ould a ppear t o b e c asket m ounts. I t i s n oticeable t hat t he l atter a re l ighter t han t he f ormer s o t hat i t m ight b e p ossib le t o u se t his f actor a s ac r iter ion f or f unction . A t t he s ame t ime o ther p ossib ilities f or u se s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind e .g. p omme ls. T he s pecimen f rom B eck ley ( Leeds, 1 933, p . 4 4) i s ar ather c rude s o lid e xamp le w ith f our d eep s pots o f r ed e name l. T he t wenty-one s pec imens, a ll h ollow , f rom H ertford H eath a ppear t o f a ll i nto s ix t ypes t hough a ll h ave o n ly r ed e name l ( Br itish M useum, r eg . n os.1958 . 7 -4. 7 3 t o 9 3). C ompared w ith t hese t he s ingle f ind f rom H od H ill ( Br itish M useum r eg . n o.92.9-1.528 ) i s aw ell m ade h o llow s tud w here h owever t he r ed e name l h o lds t wo c ircu lar b lue g lass s pots i n p lace. As omewhat s im ilar s tud b ut w ith r ed e name l o nly w as d iscovered a t I xworth ( Ashmo lean M useum , r eg . n o.1927.875). T he L exden s tuds t oo a re e name lled i n r ed a lone a nd a re s im ilar t o s ome o f t hose f rom H ertford H eath. T he s olitary s tud f rom L ydney ( Whee ler, 1 932, p . 7 5, n o.11) i s s o lid w ith t hree c ells s unk i n t he s urface f or r ed e namel w h ile t he e xamp le f rom W ilton R oman v illa ( Savory, 1 966, p . 4 2) i s l ike t he s maller e xamp le f rom L esser G arth b ut h as n ow l ost m ost o f i ts r ed e namel. I ncluded w ith t he s tuds a re a f ew o f ad ifferent t ype, b etter k nown o n t he C ont inent ( Henry, 1 933, p . 7 9). T hese a re r ivets w ith a d omed h ead w hich i s i ncised t o r eceive a c over ing o f r ed e namel. T he e namel h as n ow g one f rom t hat f ound a t H engistbury H ead ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 15, p . 6 15) t hough t his m ay b e a n a ctual i mport . F our s uch s tuds, t hree l arge, o ne s mall, c ome f rom K nob 's C rook ( Fow ler, 1 965, p p. 3 6-7). O n t hese t he i ncisions a re s imp le g rooves a nd n ot c ross-hatching a nd 1 2

o n ly t races o f t he r ed 1 899, p . 3 65 -Nat iona l H TA44) c omes t he s he ll c ross-hatching v isib le

e name l r emain. F rom H yndford C rannog ( Munro M useum o f A nt iquities o f S cot land, r eg. n o. o nly o f t he r ed e name l w ith t he i mpr int o f o n t he i nner s urface.

Am uch b etter k nown c lass o f e namelled o bject i s t he g roup o f m assive b ronze a rm lets f rom S cot land. I n t he t erm inals o f t hese i s ac ircu lar o pening i nto w hich w as p laced a p late o f b ronze c ontaining e namel. F or t he m ost p art t hese e name lled p lates h ave n ow d isappeared a nd s uch i ncomp lete a rm lets a re n ot i nc luded h ere. T hey a re w e ll l isted e lsewhere ( S impson, 1 968, p p . 2 33-254). H owever f our d o s urvive w ith t he e namel i ntact . T hese a re a p air e ach f rom C ast le N ewe ( Rm ith, 1 88 1, p p. 3 30-333 ) a nd D rummond C ast le 3 4 . I n b oth c ases t here i s as imp le i n lay o f e namel i n t wo c o lours, r ed a nd y e llow . A s omewhat s im ilar b racelet b ut w ith z oomorphic t erm ina ls c omes f rom A ltyre 3 5 , i n e ach t erm ina l i s al arge c ircular s etting w hich p robab ly o nce c ontained e namel a nd a t e ach e nd t here a re f our s ma ll s pots o f b lue d escr ibed a s e name l b ut w hich c ould b e g lass. A nother a rm let w ith ( ?) r am 's h ead t ermina ls e ach w ith f our s ett ings -two e yes a nd t wo n ostr ils -containing t races o f r ed e name l w as f ound a t S nailwe ll ( Fox, 1 958, p . 8 1). Ag roup o f f our h inged b race lets w as u nearthed a t M ount B atten 3 6 each o f t hese c ontains s everal p airs o f s unken s pots i n s ome o f w hich t here a re t races o f r ed e name l. T o f inish t he b race lets i s t he g o ld s pecimen f rom R hayader ( Bate, 1 866, p p. 5 02-3 & A rchaeo logia C ambrensis,.1899, p p. 2 59-261) w ith i nlays o f e namel, n ow d ecayed, i n c urv ing c e lls o n t he t erm ina ls. T here i s o n ly o ne c ertain e xamp le o f ac ollar w ith e name l. T his i s o ne o f u nknown p rovenance i n t he B ritish M useum 3 7 p ossessing f our t r iang les o f i nlay o n e ither s ide o f t he c atch -in t hese a re r ed a nd ad ecayed e name l. T hese c o llars a s ag roup h ave b een p ub lished ( Megaw, 1 971, p p . 1 45156) a nd t hough o nly t his e xamp le h as s ure t races o f e name l a n o pen m ind s hould b e k ept o n t he o r iginal d ecorat ion o f s ome o f t he o thers. I n a ddition t here a re a bout a d ozen v ar ious o bjects w hich d o n ot f it a dequately i nto a ny o f t he p receding c ategor ies. S ome a re m ere f ragments s uch a s t he p ieces f rom H od H ill(R ichmond, 1 968, p . 14, n o.28) a nd K nob 's C rook ( Fow ler , 1 965, p . 3 7) b oth w ith r ed e name l, o thers a re s omewhat b etter k nown. A mong t he l atter i s t he E lmswe ll p ane l ( Corder a nd H awkes 1 940, p p . 3 38-356) w ith i ts n arrow b ands o f r ed a nd d ecayed e name l i n c urving c e lls, h ere h owever c onsist ing o f av ine s cro ll r ather t han t he m ore u sual I ron A ge m otifs. T he H oards M ov ing o n f rom t he i ndividual f inds t here a re s even h oards o f t he I ron A ge w hich c ontain v ary ing a mounts o f e name 1work 3 8 . I t i s o n ly i n r ecent t imes t hat t hese h oards h ave b egun t o r ece ive s erious a ttention ( Stanw ick, P olden H ill, S even S isters) b ut t he f our l esser f inds s till a wait d ef initive p ub licat ion . E ven i n t he r ecent a ccounts t he e name l d ecoration r are ly r eceives f u ll c onsiderat ion. A lthough t here a re b r ief m ent ions o f v arious o bjects f rom t he h oards i n t he p revious s ect ions i t i s p robab ly b est t o t reat e ach h oard s eparate ly b ecause o f t he a ssociat ions o f t he s pecimens i n i t . E ach h oard i s d ealt w ith i n a lphabetical o rder c oncentrating o n t he e namel a spects .

1 3

1 .

M iddlebie

T here d oes n ot a ppear t o b e m uch w r itten o n t he M iddlebie, D umfr iesshire, h oard o f h orse t rapp ings. C hilde ( 1935, p p . 28, 2 30, 2 54) b are ly m entions i t i n h is t ext b ut d oes p rovide a p late s how ing t he c omp lete f ind ( ib id, p l. X V). E leven o ut o f t he t wenty-seven o bjects n ow i n t he N at iona l M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land a re t errets. T hree o f t he o bjects a re e name lled ( reg . n os . 5 5, 5 8 a nd 5 9 r espectively) v iz , ac ruciform m ount w ith s ma ll c e lls t he c o lours o f w h ich a re n ot c lear; a t erret w ith f our k nobs o n t he e dge, e ach w ith a s pot a nd r ing o f b lue a nd r ed; a nd a b utton-andloop f astener o n w hich t he e namel i s r ather d ecayed ( W ild, o p . c it . n o . 9 ). 2 .

P o lden H ill

T his h oard w as f ound a t t he w estern e nd o f t he P o lden H ills i n S omerset . F irst n oted n ear ly t wo h undred y ears a go ( Harford, 1 803, P p . 9 0-93) i t h as o n ly r ecent ly r eceived f u ller a ttention ( Bra ilsford, 1 975, p p . 22-234). I t w as f ound b y c hance d ur ing p loughing a nd h ad s eemingly b een d eposited i n ah o le i n t he g round. O ver n inety p ieces o f b ronze ( and s ome o f i ron) c onsist f or t he m ost p art o f t errets, b r idle-bits, c heek-pieces, h arness m ounts a nd f ibulae. T he f ind i s c onsidered t o b e o ne o f t he l ate I ron A ge b ronze-founders ' h oards. M ost o f t he m ater ial i s i n t he B r it ish M useum ( reg . n os. 4 6.3-22.64 t o 1 48 a nd 8 7.9-6.77 t ö 7 9) e xcept f or o ne b r id le-bit i n t he B r isto l C ity M useum . T he n umber a fter a n o bject m ent ioned b e low i s t he f inal f igure o f t he r egistration n umber . A ltogether t here a re t hirty e name lled o bjects p lus t hree p ossib le o nes. H owever t he d ef init ive a ccount d oes n ot d iscuss t he e name l d ecorat ion a nd i ndeed u ses t hat w ord o nly o nce, a n u ndef ined ' i n lay ' a nd ' coloured g lass' o r ' red g lass' b e ing u sed t o d enote t he p resence o f s uch m ater ia l. W ith o ne e xception t hese e name lled o bjects a re p ieces o f h orse h arness: f our ' brooches' o r m ounts ( Fox, 1 958, P . 1 24), f ive c heek-pieces, t en t errets o f g roup f our, t en b rid le-bits a lso l ipped a nd a c hape. T he o n ly e name l a pp lied i s r ed w hich s urvives q uite c lear ly o n t he h arness m ounts ( 78 & 7 9) a nd c heek-p ieces ( 138 & 1 43). I n m any i nstances i t h as n ow d ecayed t o ac reamy-white c o lour a s s een o n t he j ointed h arness m ount ( 112/113) a nd t errets ( 96 t o 9 8), a nd i n s ome c ases h as m ore o r l ess d isappeared e nt ire ly wo b idle-bits ( F uggests ( . 1 26) e .g. t he t r 70 & 78 80). ox s 1958, P t he b ars o f t he l inks o f o ne b rid le b it ( 70 ) a re g rooved f or e name l b ut t his i s u nlike ly . I n af ew p laces, e .g. a c heek-piece ( 142 ), t he e name l i s b ubb ly b ut o therw ise i t s eems t o h ave b een l aid w ithout d efect . I t i s u ncertain w hat t he m ater ial o f t he r ivetted s tuds ( 107) i s. L eeds ( 1933, P . 4 3) t hinks i t t o b e t he l ast u se o f c oral b ut P iggott ( 1970, p . 1 0) s eems m ore c orrect i n t hinking i t t o b e c halk t hough B railsford ( 1975, p . 2 30)notes u ?c oral ". T he m issing 1 s tuds o f ( 11) m ay n ot t herefore h ave b een e namel. T he e namel i s as imp le i n lay i n o ne c o lour, r ed. T he c e lls r ange f rom s pots t o m uch l arger t rumpet a nd l obe s hapes. S pots a re f ound a lone o n t he h arness m ount ( 79) a nd s uch t errets a s ( 9 1) a nd b ridle-b its a s ( 77). T hey a lso o ccur i n c ombination w ith t riang les a nd s cro lls a s o n ( 78 & 7). T he s pots v ary f rom 4 t o 7m ms. a cross a nd 2 t o 1 m ms. d eep a nd a ppear t o h ave b een d r illed w ith a

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c entre-bit d r ill. T he e name ller w as a lso c apable o f a ttaching t he e namel t o m uch l arger c ells a s i n t he f lowing p atterns o n h arness b rooch ( 78) o r t he g eometr ic c ells o f t he j ointed h arness b rooch ( 12/113). 1 T he P o lden H ill h oard p rovides a n e xcellent s eries o f e name lled b ronzes i n r ed a lone f rom s pots t o s crolls. W hether t his i s t he w ork o f o ne a te lier o r ag roup o f o bjects g athered t ogether o ver t he y ears i s d iff icult t o s ay . T he d ate o f d eposit ion i s u sually a ssigned t o t he m idd le o f t he f irst c entury A .D . 3 .

S aham T oney

T he b est a ccount o f t he S aham T oney h oard i s t o b e f ound i n t he r eport o f i ts p resentat ion ( Grigson, 1 849, p p . 3 98-400) t o w hat i s n ow t he C ast le M useum, N orw ich . L ess t han a p age i s d evoted t o a d escript ion o f t he o bjects a nd t he b est p art o f t he ' article ' i s t he e ngraving w hich, h owever, h as b een d escribed a s d oing " hardly j ustice t o t he o bjects" ( V ictor ia C ounty H istory, 1 90 1, p . 2 73). T he f ind h ad b een m ade p r ior t o 1 847 a nd w hen g iven t o t he N orfo lk S ociety b y G r igson n o d etails w ere k nown. T he d iscovery y ie lded s even p ieces: aq uatre lobe h arness m ount ( no . 1 ), t he r ing a nd s hank o f ab r idle-bit ( no . 2 ) a nd f ive t urrets ( nos. 3 -7) a ll o f L eeds' t ype f ive ( 5-7) a nd s ix ( 3 &4 ) w ith k nobs o n t he e dge o f t he r ing. A ll s even o bjects b ear e name l. T his h as n ow a lmost e ntire ly g one f rom t he b r id le-bit ( 2 ) a nd o n m ost o f t he r emaining p ieces i s s uffer ing f rom d ecay o r c orrosion. R ed h as c ertain ly b een u sed ( 3 &4 ), b lue t oo ( 1 &6 ), y e llow ( 6 ) a nd j ust p ossib ly g reen a s w e ll ( 3 &4 ), t hough t he l atter c ou ld b e o ne o f t he o ther c o lours w hich h as n ow d ecayed t o ag reen h ue . T he b lue e name l f ound i n t his h oard i s am edium o paque n ot a l ight t ranslucent b lue ( as o n t he g lass i nsets o f e .g. t he H od H ill s tud q .v.) a nd a ppears t o b e at rue e name l r ather t han g lass. T here i s n o t race o f r ed e name l u nder i t . T he c e lls, w ith t he e xcept ion o f t he k nobs o n ( 5 , 6& 7 ) w hich a re p etal-shaped, a re m ost ly a ll g eometric b e ing t riangular, r ectangu lar a nd l ozenge-shaped . T here i s e ver o n ly o ne c o lour t o e ach c ell b ut o n t he o bjects i t o ccurs i n t he c omb inat ions b lue a nd r ed a nd r ed, b lue a nd y e llow . T he h oard h as b een a ssociated w ith t he B oudiccan r evo lt a nd a d ate o f d eposition i n t he t hird q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A .D . s eems l ike ly w ithout t ry ing t o b e s pecif ic a bout h istorical e vents. 4 .

S anton

T he S anton, N orfo lk, h oard i s b est d escribed b y S m ith ( 1909, p . 1 46-163) t hough F ox ( 1923, p p . 1 04-108) h as a u seful a ccount o f t he p f inds e specially t he f ibulae 3 9 . O ver f ifty p ieces w ere d iscovered i n ab eaten b ronze c au ldron b y al abourer w orking i n h is g arden . T hese c onsist m ost ly o f b ronze o bjects s eem ingly b e longing t o ac hariot a nd t o ac asket, s ome f ibulae a nd p ieces o f h arness. I t i s m ost ly t he l atter w hich p rov ide t he s mall a mount o f e name lwork i n t he h aord : t wo q uadr ilobe h arness m ounts, h a lf a b r idle-b it a nd a s tud ( ? o f ac asket-handle). O n t he f our o bjects t here i s o nly s imp le r ed e name l.

1 5

I t i s w e ll

p reserved o n t he h arness m ounts. O n m ount A t here a re a f ew s pots i n a ddit ion t o t he s cro lls w hich r ather s wamp t hem w hile o n m ount B t here a re o n ly s cro lls a nd o f am ore s imp le n ature. O n t he s tud a re m ere ly t wo s imp le s pots. T he s pots o n t he t wo l ips o f t he b r id le-bit a re e mpty . T wo o f t hese h ave h o les i n t he c entre b ut t his n eed n ot m ean t hat r ivets h e ld t he e name l i n p lace b ut r ather t hat t he c entre-bit d rill w ent t oo d eep . T he e name l d ecorat ion o f t he S anton p ieces i s t herefore s imp le s pots a nd s cro lls i n r ed o nly . T he d ate o f d eposit, s uggested b y t he f ibulae, i s c onsidered t o b e s omewhere b etween A .D . 4 0 a nd 6 0 . T he o bjects a re h oused i n t he U niversity M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, C ambridge . 5 .

S even S isters

T he S even S isters o r N eath ( par ish o f U pper D ulais, G lamorganshire) h oard h as a t l ast r eceived d ef init ive p ub lication ( Davis a nd S prat ling, 1 976, p p . 1 26147) t hough t he a ccount o f i ts d iscovery a nd d escr iption i s b etter t han m ost ( A llen, 1 905, p p . 1 27-145). I t i s h oused i n t he N ationa l M useum o f W ales n ow u nder t he r eg. n os. 0 4127 f f . a nd n umbers i n b rackets a fter a n o bject h ere r efer t o t his f ina l n umber 4 0 . A lthough f ound i n 1 875 t he h oard w as n ot r ecognised a s s uch u nt il 1 902. I t w as r etr ieved ( in t oto?) f rom a s tream a nd t he f inders, f arm c hildren, m ay h ave l ost s ome p ieces b efore t heir d iscovery c ame u nder a cadem ic s crutiny . T hirty-f ive o bjects a re k nown, m ost ly p ieces o f h orse h arness, t ankard h and les a nd a s m ith 's t rade m arks -bronze i ngots, b illets, c asting j ets, w e ight a nd s crap p ieces. N ine o f t he o bjects h ad b een e namelled; t wo t errets ( 127 & 1 28), t wo s ide l inks o f ab r id le-bit ( 125 & 1 26), t wo h arness m ounts ( 13 1 a nd t he B r itish M useum s pecimen), 2 V -shaped m ounts ( 137 &1 36) a nd at ankard h andle ( 141 - i t i s d iff icult t o k now w hether t he o ther f ive t ankard h and les w ere e ver e name lled). E xcept o n ( 137 & 1 38) w here i t i s r easonably w e ll p reserved t he e name l i s n ow d ecayed o r g one . A lthough t races o f r ed e name l a re s aid t o h ave b een v isib le o n t he c entre s tud o f t he h andle ( 14 1) ( Corcoran, 1 952, p . 1 00) t here i s n o l onger a ny t race o f i t . T he r ed e name l -used a lone on t he t erm inals o f t he t race h ooks ( 136 & 1 37) i s t he u sual o paque r ed. T he r ed o n t he o ther f ive o bjects i s q uite o bvious b ut t he s econd c o lour ( or c o lours) i s t oo d ecayed t o b e c ertain w hat i t w as; i t c ould h ave b een w hite, b lue o r y e llow i n t he p etals o f t he k nobs o f t he t wo t errets ( 127 & 1 28) a nd t hough b lue i s p ossib le, A llen ( 1905, p . 1 29) s uggests w hite a nd o n t he m odern r eproduction i n t he N at iona l M useum o f W ales i t i s s hown a s w hite a lso ( Davis a nd S prat ling, 1 976, p . 1 3 1 g ive w hite). T his c ou ld b e a nother c ase o f b lue t urning w hite a s o n t he W estha ll m ounts t hough t he p resent s tate o f t he ' white ' o n t he S even S isters p ieces i s n ot t he i vory w hite o f t he W estha ll e name l. T he s econd c o lour o f t he b rid le-bitand h arness m ount ( 125, 1 26, 1 3 1) i s g iven a s y e llow b y L eeds b ut f or ( 131) a t l east a s b luish w hite b y D avis a nd S prat ling ( 1975, p . 1 3 1). H owever o n ( 125) s ome o f t he e name l s eems b lue t hough t here i s n o r easonwhy r ed, y ellow a nd b lue s hould n ot o ccur t ogether a s o n t he S aham T oney p ieces. I t i s d iff icult t o b e s ure o f s ome o f t he s econd c o lours a nd L eeds' r econstructions o f p ieces ( 125 & 1 3 1) ( Leeds, 1 933, p l. I n os. 4 & 5 ) s hou ld b e t reated w ith c aution. 1 6

T he t echniques u sed a re q uite v aried . O n t he t ankard h andle ( 14 1) t he e name l o ccurs o n t he i ncised h ead o f t he s tud w hich i s s et i nto t he c ircular s etting p repared f or i t i n t he c asting w ith i ts r ivet t hrough t he r ivet-ho le i n t he c entre . F ive o f t hese w ere o nce o n t he h and le . T he s ett ings i n t he r emaining h and les a re d ifferent a nd a re h ard ly i ntended f or e namelled s tuds. O n t he t race h ooks ( 137 & 1 38) w e f ind t he u se o f as ingle c o lour -red -in s pots c ombined w ith c urved c e lls w hile o n t he r emaining p ieces t here a re s imp le g eometric c e lls w ith e name ls i n t wo o r t hree c o lours p robab ly r ed, b lue a nd y e llow . I t w ould s eem t hat h ere i s y et a nother b ronze-worker 's h oard w hich i s l ikely t o h ave b een d eposited b e tween A .D. 5 0-70 . 6 .

S tanw ick

T he S tanw ick h oard i s t he l argest o f t he I ron A ge m etalwork h oards c ontain ing e name l ( MacGregor, 1 962). I t i s i n t he B ritish M useum ( w ith a f ew e xceptions) u nder t he r egistration n umbers 4 7.2-8 -and 9 6.1-20 : t he n umber i n b rackets a fter a n o bject m ent ioned h ere c omp letes t he r egistration n umber b ut o nly ( 3) & ( 4) b e long t o t he l atter g roup . T he h oard w as d iscovered a bout 1 844 s eem ing ly o utside t he f amous f ortif ications a fter w hich i t i s n amed . O ver o ne h undred a nd f ifty p ieces o f b ronze, m ost ly h orse h arness e quipment, p lus s ome i ron a nd n on-meta llic o bjects w ere r ecovered . M any o f t hese a re f au lt ily c ast, d istorted o r b roken s uggesting a b ronze-founder 's h oard . F ifty-three o f t he b ronze o bjects r etain o r h ave p rovision f or e name l. W here t his r emains i t i s g enera lly a d ecayed b ubb ly s ubstance o f ag reenish c o lour ( ? a lso d ue t o f au lty m anufacture) b ut e nough r emains t o s how t hat i t w as a ll o nce r ed . I n t he m ajor ity o f c ases t he e name l i s c ontained i n c ircu lar s pots v ary ing b etween 1 a nd 6 m ms. i n d iameter a nd r anging i n n umber f rom o ne t o f ifty-two . T here a re t hree e xamp les o f c ircular s ett ings w ith r ivets o r r ivet-ho les t hough i n o ne c ase ( 34) w here t he e name l r emains i n s uch s ettings t here i s n o t race o f ar ivet h ead. T here i s a lso o ne e xamp le o f as pot a nd c irc le o f e name l ( 4) a nd o ne c ase o f t he c ells b e ing r ectang les ( fragment -no r eg. n o .). T he s pots s eem t o h ave b een d rilled i n t he m ode l b efore c asting, s ince o n o ne f aultypiece ( 75) t hey a re a lready p resent. T he e name lled p ieces c onsist o f t errets, b rid le-bits, l inch p ins, h arness m ounts a nd m isce llaneous o bjects. T he h oard i s s aid t o c ompr ise f our s ets o f h orse h arness n umbered A -D a nd b ur ied p ossibly a s l ate a s A .D . 7 0 ( MacGregor, o p .cit . p . 2 0-1 & 3 6) t hough m id-first c entury A .D. i s g enerally o ffered p a s t he d ate o f d eposit ion. W hile t he f ind i s a dequate ly d iscussed b y M acGregor ( ibid) l itt le m ention i s m ade o f t he e name l d ecorat ion. T hough i n t ruth n ot a g reat d eal c an b e s aid a bout e mpty s pots. T hese h owever h ard ly j ustify t he d escr ipt ion o f t he s et D a s " the c ontro lled u se o f e name l i n c omparative ly l arge e xpanses". I n t he c atalogue ( ibid. p. 3 7-5 1) e name l i s b arely m ent ioned e specially o n p age 3 8 w here o n ly o ne o f f ourteen e name lled o bjects i s a ctually s tated t o c ontain i t t hough t he i llustrations m itigate t his.

1 7

7 .

T he W esthall H oard

T he W esthall h oard w as f irst e xhibited t o t he S ociety o f A nt iquar ies i n 1 854 ( Harrod, 1 855, p p . 4 54-456) a nd t hough l isted t hen w as b etter d ealt w ith n early a c entury l ater ( C larke, 1 939 , p . 6 8-9). H owever t wo p ages c annot a dequately c over s uch a f ind. p T his i s i n t he B rit ish M useum ,reg. n os. 1 855.5-19 .1-35,and a gain r eference i s m ade t o t he f inal p art o f t his o ff icial n umber . T he o bjects w ere f ound b y a ccident d ur ing d rainage o perations w hich r evea led a h abitat ion a rea c overing a bout t wo a cres. T he h oard s eems t o h ave b een c ontained i n ab ronze v esse l. T he a ssociat ion w ith t he c oin o f F austina t he E lder a nd t he s herd o f S am ian w are i s n o l onger a ccepted. B esides t he e name lled o bjects t here a re s ix p lain l inch p in h eads, a l amp d ated t o t he t hird q uarter o f t he f irst c entury A .D . ( C larke, 1 939, p . 6 9), v ar ious f ragments o f b ronze a nd i ron, t hree p o lished f lint p ebb les a nd a d isc b rooch ( not c lose ly d atab le). T here a re t en e name lled o bjects c onsist ing o f e ight t errets o f L eeds ' c lass 3 ( broad f aces) a nd t wo q uatre lobe h arness m ounts. W hile t hese c an b e g enerally s aid t o b e long t o t he m id-f irst c entury A .D. t he d eposit ion o f t he h oard i s n ormally a ssociated w ith t he B oudiccan r evo lt. O n t he t errets t he e name l i s a ll r ed a nd q uite s imp le. Al ot o f i t h as d isappeared o r i s d ecayed n ow b ut i t w as o bviously a ll o nce r ed. T he s cro lled c ells o n ( 1-5) a re q uite l arge b ut c over a n e ven l arger a rea o n ( 6-8) w here t he b ronze p almettes t ake u p o nly t he c entre o f t he b road f ie ld l eaving l arge a reas f or e name l o n e ither s ide p articular ly s ee ( 6 ). E ven i n t he r emaining b ronze p arts t here a re s pots o f e name l, a gain a pparent ly r ed. T he t wo q uatre lobe h arness m ounts a re i nteresting ( 9 &1 0). T he m ain c e lls, ' three-side dvoids ', c ontain r ed e name l b ut t here a re a lso s eventeen s pots. T he c olour o f t hese i s e ven m ore i nterest ing . A t p resent t hey p resent t hree s hades v iz, b lue, b lue t inged w ith v ar ious a mounts o f w hite a nd w hite a lone . T he b lue i s m ed ium a nd t ranslucent w hile t he w hite i s o paque a nd i vorylike. T he s pots w ere t herefore g enerally d escr ibed a s b eing b lue a nd w hite ( Kemb le, 1 863, P . 1 95 ) u ntil i t w as p ointed o ut t hat s ome o f t he w hite p ieces c ontained b lue a nd t hat t he w hite w as i n f act o nce b lue w hich h ad b ecome d evitrif ied ( Leeds, 1 933, P . 4 1). Te h re ae r hw o ever o ccasiona l r e lapses ( Megaw, 1 970, p . 1 63). L eeds' e xp lanat ion i s t he m ost l ogical y et t he w hite i s q uite u n like a ny n ormally d ecayed e name l w hich o n t urning w h ite b ecomes d u ll a nd o ff-white t ending t owards c ream o r g reen. H ere i t i s q uite i vory-like b ut t h is m ay b e e xp lained b y t he f act t hat t he s pots a re d ecayed g lass i nsets n ot t rue e name ls. T hat i s, t he g lass s pots a re h e ld i n p lace b y r ed e namel a s o n t he S uffo lk t erret ( q .v.) o r H od H ill s tuds ( q .v.). O n t he W esthall p ieces t he g lass i nsets a re ag ood f it a nd n o r ed i s v isib le r ound t heir e dges b ut o n a na logy w ith o ther e xamp les o f t ranslucent b lue s pots t his w ould a ppear t o b e t he a nswer . W ith t his e xam ination o f t he W estha ll h oard t he s urvey o f t he p re-Roman e namelwork f rom B r itain i s c omp lete.

1 8

S URVEY O F R OMANO-BRITISH E NAMELWORK I NTRODUCTION

T he f o llow ing t hree c hapters d eal w ith t hose R omano-Br itish o bjects w hich a re e name lled o r a ppear t o h ave b een i ntended t o h o ld e name l d ecorat ion. O verall a pproximately e ighteen h undred w ere n oted a nd a re n ow d iscussed . T he p ieces a re d ealt w ith b y t ype . C hapter 2 c overs b ow b rooches, C hapter 3 p late b rooches a nd C hapter 4 n on-brooch m ater ial. W ithin t hese h eadings e ach i ndividual t ype o f o bject i s d escr ibed w ith p articular r eference t o t he e name l o n i t where t his o ccurs, w hat c olours a re u sed, w hat d esigns t he c e lls t ake a nd h ow t he e namel i s a ttached; b rief c omments a re a dded o n d ated e xamp les a nd d istribut ion p atterns. Y et i s i s u n like ly t hat a ll t he e name lwork f ound i n B ritain w as m ade h ere. T his i s n ot t he p lace t o a ttempt a s urvey o f C ontinental e namelwork b ut s ome b rief r eference d oes n eed t o b e m ade i n o rder t o d istinguish b etween t hose e namelled o bjects w hich w ere m ade i n B r itain a nd t hose i mported f rom t he e name l-working c entres o f G aul a nd t he R hine land . T he b est g enera l s urvey o f t he s ubject r emains t hat o f H enry ( 1933, p p . 6 6-146) w ho d iscusses a ll t ypes o f o bjects f rom w estern E urope a nd a n i dea o f t he a ctua l m ater ia l m ay b e g ained f rom t he d iverse b ut c omprehensive c ollection o f e name lled o bjects h oused i n t he A shmo lean M useum . T he p roducts o f t he R hine land a re w e ll k nown f rom E xner 's w ork o n t he b rooches ( Exner, 1 938, p p . 3 1121) a nd S e llye 's o n b oth t he b rooch a nd n on-brooch m ater ial f rom P anonia, g enera lly c onsidered t o h ave b een i mported f rom t he R hine land ( Se llye, 1 939, p p . 1 -9 1). L arge q uantities o f e name lled o bjects h ave b een r ecovered, e specially d uring t he n ineteenth c entury, i n t he N amur r egion o f B e lgic G aul a nd f orm t he b asis o f B equet 's s tudy o f t he ' jewe llery ' o f t he a rea ( Bequet, 1 937, p. 2 6 1-274); t he c o llection h oused i n t he N at iona l M useum i n B russe ls h as a lso b een d escr ibed ( De L oe, 1 937, p p . 2 6 1-271). F rom f urther s outh, f rom t he t erritory o f t he S equani, c omes t he g roup o f b rooches n ow i n t he m useum a t B esancon ( Lerat, 1 956) a nd a mong t he b rooches f rom i ndiv idual s ites a re t hose r ecovered a t A ugst ( Rhia, 1 979). F rom s omewhat f urther a f ie ld c omes t he s mall b ut i nteresting g roup o f e namelwork d iscovered a t D ura E uropos ( To ll, 1 949, p p . 3 5-43). A n e xamination o f t he b rooches d iscussed b y C o llingwood o n t he o ne h and a nd E xner a nd S ellye o n t he o ther i s e nough t o s how t wo q uite d ifferent s ets o f o bjects. T he R henish e name lled b rooches a re g enera lly m ore g eometr ic a nd f lamboyant t han t heir B ritish c ounterparts; t he f ormer a re s quare, r ectangular, l ozenge-shaped, r homboidal, w hee l-shaped a nd s o o n; t hey a re f requent ly " stepped"; a nd o ften p ossess a dditions i n t he f orm o f d ebased z oomorphic h eads ( especia lly o ver t he f oot a nd a s a rms), k nobs o r l ugs a round t he e dge o r s ome s ort o f s tud s tanding u pr ight i n t he c entre ( often m issing n ow ). A gain t he b ow a nd p late b rooches f rom N amur a re n ot t ypes g enera lly m et w ith f rom B r itain e xcept i n v ery s mall n umbers e .g. t hose w ith a 1 9

f lat t riangular b ow a nd n arrow z oomorphic f oot; t he p lates a re m ost ly l ozenge-shaped w ith p rojections a t t he a ng les o r l arge o pen d iscs, b est d escr ibed a s w hee l-brooches. H owever t here a re p lainer d isc b rooches a nd a nimal p late b rooches f rom G aul w hich a re m ore l ike t he B r itish f inds. T hese a s W hee ler h as r emarked f orm p art o f a w ide ly p roduced R oman g roup e qually a t h ome i n B r itain o r B e lgic C au l. T he p rob lem o f aw ide s ource o f o r igin a pp lies m ore e specia lly t o t he n on-brooch m aterial. T he s ea l b ox l ids, t he m isce llany o f m ounts a nd s tuds, t he b elt-p lates w ere a ll m ade s omewhere b ut w as i t B r itain, G au l o r t he R hine land? T he s uggest ion i s p ut f orward t hat s ome o f t hese w ere m ade i n B ritain a nd t hat a ll t hose f ound h ere d o n ot r epresent t he f looding o f t he n ew p rovince w ith e name lled o bjects f rom o ther p arts o f t he E mp ire . I t i s h owever s omething a bout w hich w e c annot b e d ogmat ic f or t here a re f ew o bvious d ifferences i n t he s ame w ay a s t here a re b etween t he b rooches. C ertain g roups h owever a ppear n ot t o b e B r itish s uch a s t he r ectangu lar m ounts w ith a k nob a t t he t op, t he v esse ls w ith a p olygonal d esign, s ome t ypes o f s eal b ox l id, p robab ly t he o pen r ectangular b elt-p lates a nd a f ew i ndividual p ieces. W hat i s c lear h owever i s t hat ( a) t here i s e nough m aterial w hich c an b e s atisfactorily r egarded a s R omano-Br it ish i n o r igin a nd w hich c an b e u sed t o s ay s omething m ore a bout t he c raft; a nd ( b) t he i mports a re u seful i n o rder t o m ake c ertain d educt ions a bout t he p ossib le i nf luence t hese p ieces h ad o n t he n at ive w orkers.

2 0

C HAPTER

2

E NAMELLED B OW B ROOCHES

T his c hapter c overs t he m ost c ommon a nd p erhaps t he m ost B rit ish t ype of e name lled o bject . T here a re t hree m ain g roups o f b ow a s o pposed t o p late - b rooches: t he h ead s tud, g roup M a nd t he t rumpet b rooch, s ub-divided i nto g roups R a nd S . T he m ajority o f t he a pproximately s ix h undred e name lled b ow b rooches e xam ined b e long t o t hese g roups, e ach r oughly e qua l i n s ize . B esides t hese t here a re s mall n umbers o f v arious o ther g roups w hich o n t he w ho le d o n ot b ear e namel d ecorat ion . T hese i nc lude h ead s tud v ar ients, d o lphin, k nee, t hist le a nd o ther m isce llaneous t ypes. F or t he m ost p art C o llingwood 's a rrangement o f t hese b rooches i s f o llowed s ince i t h as g enerally s tood t he t nd h o fr a n een rp e laced b est o f t ime a as s ot b y ay n thing bt e ter 4 1 I t s hould b e r emembered t hat o n ly e name lled s pecimens a re d iscussed h ere a nd t hat r emarks m ade m ay n ot a pp ly t o ag roup a s aw ho le . G roup Qthe h ead s tud b rooch ( F igure 2 A) T he h ead s tud b rooch c onstitütes C o llingwood's g roup Q , a lso s ometimes k nown a s t he L amberton M oor t ype . T he g roup i s a mong t he c ommonest o f R omano-Br itish b rooches a nd n ear ly o ne h undred a nd f ifty e namelled s pecimens h ave b een n oted . O ut o f f ifty-four Q b rooches c ited e lsewhere a bout t hree q uarters b ear e name l d ecoration a nd o f t he t hirteen u nenamelled s pecimens s even a re f rom T raprain L aw ( Hildyard, 1 954, p . 7 3). T he f eatures a re g iven i n t he c lassic a ccount o f t he t ype ( Collingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 96, n os. 3 9-45). T he b rooch i s d escribed a s b eing s tout a nd h eavy, w ith a n a lmost s em i-circular b ow, t he f oot o f w h ich e xpands i nto a m ou lded k nob w ith f lat f ace . A t t he h ead i s as tud d er ived f rom a r ivet w hich o r iginally h e lped h o ld t he s pr ing i n p osition; t he h ead l oop a nd s hack le ,of l oose w ire o r c ast s o lid, i s ac ommon f eature . T he t ype i s t hought t o b e o f n orthern m anufacture w ith s outhern e xamp les b e ing i mitat ions. E ar ly e xamp les a re n ow t hought t o h ave f irst a ppeared d ur ing t he t hird q uarter o f t he f irst c entury a nd t he t ype c ontinued t o b e m anufactured w e ll i nto t he s econd. R ecent ly a d etailed s tudy h as b een m ade o f t he t wenty-one g roup Q b rooches i n t he B r it ish M useum a nd i n s ome c ases t he e name ls w ere a nalysed ( Painter a nd S ax, 1 970, p p . 1 53-174). O n t he w ho le t he r esu lts t end t o c onf irm C o llingwood's c omments o n t he t echnical f eatures b ut i t i s h e ld t o b e t oo s mall a g roup and t oo v ar ied -to c onf irm h is o ther a ssumpt ions ( ibid. p . 1 73). T he c lassic e xamp le o f t he t ype m ay b e t a 4n t o b e t he p air f ound i n ah oard o n L amberton M oor, B erw ickshireq 2 . I n a ll o ver o ne h undred a nd f ifty h ead s tud b rooches h ave b een e ncountered w hich e ither a re s till e namelled o r o nce c ontained s ome f orm o f e name l d ecorat ion o n t hem ( f igure 2 A). T he m ost c ommon p lace f or t he e name l i s i n as tr ip r unning a long t he b ow f rom t he h ead s tud t o t he f oot . A bout o ne f ifth o f t he s pecimens h ave t he a rms

2 1

e name lled a nd o n am ere h alf d ozen t he s pring c overs o r c o llars a re l ikew ise t reated. T he h ead s tuds o n a pproximate ly t wo t hirds o f t he g roup a ppear t o h ave b een e name lled. A bout t hirty e xamp les h ave h ad e name l i n t he f ace o f t he f oot i nstead o f t his b eing p lain. I n s ome o f t he l ast t wo i nstances a ll t hat i s l eft i s am ere c ast c avity a t t he h ead o r i n t he f oot k nob w ith a r ivet h o le o bvious ly i ntended t o h o ld ar ivet, t he h ead o f w hich m ay h ave b een e namelled i n t he s ame w ay a s o n c ast e xamp les. H owever t here i s t he s pecimen f rom R ichborough w here t he h ead a nd f oot s tuds a re d escribed a s b eing e namelled i n y e llow w ith f our d ark s pots ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 14, n o. 3 4, p l. X XVIII). T he d ecoration i s i n f act n ot e name l a t a ll b ut a ' bead' o f b one o r s ome c ha lky ( ? ) s ubstance, n ow y e llow, s et i nto t he t wo c avit ies a nd h eld i n p lace b y ab ronze r ivet, t he b ronze h ead o f w hich i s d ished a nd h as f our b ronze s pots! T hus i t c annot b e c ertain t hat ac avity i mp lies t he u se o f e name l. J ust o ver t hirty e xamp les h ave p lain b ows w ith t he e name l c onf ined t o t he s tuds o r a rms -usua lly b oth s tuds b ut w here o nly o ne, o verwhe lm ingly t he h ead s tud. S ome s pecimens s uch a s o ne f rom R ichborough h ave e name l i n a ll t hese p laces -bow, a rms, s pring c over, h ead s tud a nd f ace o f f oot k nob ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 14, n o. 3 5). B lue a nd r ed a re t he m ost c ommon c olours, s urviving i n a lmost e qual n umbers 4 3 . Y e llow o ccurs l ess t han a d ozen t imes a nd o range, i f s o i ntended, o n ly o nce . W hite i s f ound o n h alf a d ozen e xamp les a nd o n s ome a t l east a ppears t o b e a n i ntentiona l c o lour t hough i n o thers c ould b e t he r esult o f d ecay . L ikew ise g reen i s f ound o n af ew s pecimens b ut h ere t he i ntention i s m ore d oubtfu l4 4 . O n a bout h a lf t he Q b rooches e xam ined t he e name l h as e ither d ecayed o r d isappeared e ntire ly roughly e qual n umbers i n e ach c ase . W here t wo c o lours s urvive t ogether t he m ost f requent c ombination i s r ed a nd b lue a nd l ess f requent ly b lue a nd y e llow w ith b lue t he d om inant c o lour i n e ach c ase . T he m ost c ommon d esign o n t he b ow s tr ip i s al att ice p attern m ade u p o f ar ow o f l ozenges o r d iamonds a long t he c entre w ith t r iang les d own e ach s ide. T he n umber, a nd h ence t he s ize o f t he c e lls, v ar ies g reat ly f rom ( for t he l ozenges) t wo u p t o e ighteen w ith s ome e xamp les o f a lmost e very n umber i n b etween b ut w ith a round a d ozen p erhaps s light ly m ore u sual. A s ag eneral r ule t he n umber o f t r iang les i s d oub le t hat o f t he l ozenges p lus t wo . T he m ain c o lour a ppears t o b e b lue f or t he l ozenges a nd r ed f or t he t r iangles. T he n ext m ost f requent d esign i s ar ow o f s quares o r r ectang les ( the t wo c annot a lways b e r eadily d istinguished) r anging i n n umber f rom f ive t o f ifteen. W hereas t he l attice p attern o ccurs o n o ver a t hird o f t he s pecimens n oted t he l atter i s f ound o n s light ly l ess t han h alf t hat n umber . O n ad ozen s pecimens t he c entre o f t he b ow i s t aken u p b y ar ow o f b ronze l ozenges t hus l eaving e ither a r ow o f t r iang les o n e ach s ide f or e name l o r e lse t wo l ong c e lls w ith t he u pper e dge o f e ach ' toothed'. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat o n t his t ype a r idge o ften r uns a long t he c rest o f t he b ow ( i .e . a long t he r ow o f l ozenges) a nd t hat s omet imes i n t he t ype w here t he l ozenges a re c e lls ( the l attice d esign) t he e name l t here i s s o r idged t oo t hough t here i s n o t echnical n ecessity f or i ts b eing s o . T he a rms w here e namelled u sually h ave s imp le c e lls i nvo lving l ozenges a nd t riang les f or t he m ost p art . I t i s s im ilar o n t he s pr ing c overs. T he e name l o n t he h ead s tuds a nd l ikew ise o n t he f aces o f t he • f oot k nobs i s c ontained i n as imp le s pot, a s pot a nd c ircle o r m ere ly ac ircle -less f requent ly t here i s am ore e laborate d esign o n t he

2

h ead s tud. T he e name l o n t he v ast m ajor ity o f h ead s tud b rooches i s f ound a s o ne c o lour t o ac e ll t hough g enera lly t wo c o lours o ccur o n t he o ne s pecimen. T here i s n o e xamp le w ith m ore t han t wo c o lours . O n l ess t han a d ozen o f t he t otal a m ore c omp lex e name l i s f ound, g enerally o n t he b ow w here t he s tr ip i s o ne l ong c e ll f illed w ith s quar ish p ieces o f e name l a lternate ly r ed a nd b l uew ith u sua lly a bout t en p ieces i n a ll w ithout a ny m eta l s eparat ing t he c olours. T his i s w e ll s een o n t wo s pecimens f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p. 3 23-324, p l. L XXXVI, n os. 2 1 a nd 2) t hough o n ac oup le o f o ther e xamp les t he e name l o n t he a rms c onsists o f ag round o r b ed o f o ne c o lour w ith a f ew s pots o f a s econd N o m illef ior i e name l w as m et w ith . S ince t he m ajor ity o f Qb rooches s eem t o h ave h ad s ome s ort o f e name l a pp lied w e a re p robab ly m ore j ust if ied i n t his i nstance i n l ooking a t C o llingwood's s tatement t hat t hey a re m ost ly o f n orthern m anufacture. I n f act o n ly a t hird c ome f rom s ites i n t he n orth t hough t his i n i tse lf m ay b e al arge e nough n umber t o c laim m anufacture t here a nd o f c ourse t he d ist inct ion m ust b e m ade b etween t he a rea o f m anufacture a nd t hat o f d eposit ion. Y et a bout t wo t hirds h ave b een f ound i n w hat m ight b e t ermed t he s outh w ith a f air ly e ven s pread t hroughout t his a rea. T he a rea o f m anufacture i s t herefore p erhaps m ore w ide ly s pread t han C o llingwood s uggests t hough i t w ou ld n eed a m uch d eeper a na lysis o f t he f ind -spots a nd o bjects t o b e c ertain. L ikew ise t he e ar liest o f t hese b rooches m ust n ow b e p ut f urther b ack t han C o llingwood s uggests. T hree h ave b een f ound a t t he L unt i n ap it d ated t o b efore A .D . 7 5 ( Hob ley, 1 973, p . 6 6) a nd i t m ight b e a dded t hat o ne o f t hese h as t he m ore c omp lex e name l m ent ioned a bove . A nother f rom R ichborough w as a lso f ound i n ap it, t he d ate o f w hich i s p laced b etween A .D . 7 5 a nd 9 0 ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 14, n o . 3 5) t hough e lsewhere o n t he s ite a s pec imen w as r ecovered f rom w hat a ppears t o b e av ery l ate t hird c entury c ontext ( ibid, n o . 3 8 ) a nd t he O ld W inter ingham e xamp le a lso s eems t o h ave b een l ost d ur ing t he c ourse o f t hat c entury ( Stead, 1 976, p . 1 98, n o . 1 2). H owever d ate o f m anufacture a nd d ate o f d eposition a re t wo d ifferent t hings w hich m ay n ot c lose ly c o inc ide . B etween t hese e xtremes a re a bout a f urther s core o f d ated e xamp les b e longing m ost ly t o t he s econd c entury s uch a s t he A ntonine o nes f rom N ewstead, p ossib ly t hose f ound i n t he l ower l eve ls o f T raprain L aw o r t he s pecimens f rom t he W albrook d ropped b efore A .D. 1 55 ( Merr ief ie ld, 1 962, p p . 3 6-52). A lso t o b e n ot iced i s t he v ar iety o f s ites f rom w hich t h is t ype o f b rooch h as c ome, f ort, m etropo lis a nd n at ive s ite . Q . V ar ient Av ar iety o f b rooch w hich s tands o ut i s p robab ly r e lated h owever t o t he Q g roup . I ts m ain f eatures w hich p lace i t a part a re a r ow o f s ma ll k nobs o r s p ikes a long e ach e dge o f t he m idd le o f t he b ow a nd a p rom inent c rest, o ften i n t he s hape o f ar ecumbent d og ( head a s h ead s tud). T here i s ag ood e xamp le o f t he t ype f rom t he L unt ( Hob ley, 1 973, p . 6 5). H u ll c a lls t his t he ' sawf ish t ype '. T we lve e xamp les h ave b een n oted . M ost h ave e name l o n t he b ow w here, l ike t he m a in Qg roup, t he d esign o f l ozenges a nd t r iang les p revails. M uch o f t he e name l i s d ecayed o r h as d isappeared b ut r ed a nd y e llow s eem c ertain . 2 3

A ll o f i t h as b een a pp lied s imp ly a s o ne c o lour t o ac e ll. N o s pecimen h as b een f ound i n t he n orth a nd i n f act m ost c ome f rom t he s outh e ast o f t he c ountry . S everal a re d ated . T wo f rom t he L unt a re d ated e ar lier t han A .D . 7 5 a nd a p ara lle l f rom B roxtowe, " an e qually e ar ly s ite", i s k nown ( Hob ley, o p .cit . p . 6 5, f ig. 1 9,1 a nd 4 ). O ne f rom S t . A lbans c omes f rom a v ery e ar ly s econd c entury d eposit ( Frere, 1 972, p . 16, n o . 1 2) a nd a nother f rom W roxeter a ppears t o b e F lavian ( Atkinson, 1 942, p . 2 03). As econd c entury s pecimen i s r ecorded f rom t he W albrook . G roup M ( F igure 2 B) E ven m ore n umerous t han t he h ead s tud v ar iety a re t hose b rooches o f C o llingwood 's g roup M , t o w hich n o b etter t erm h as b een a pp lied. J ust o ver t wo h undred e name lled s pec imens w ere e xam ined a nd m any p lain e xamp les w ere m et w ith . C o llingwood ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p p . 2 95-296 n os. 2 6-3 1) h as l itt le t o s ay a bout h is g roup M t hough i n t ruth t hey a re v ery s imp le . T he m ain f eature i s t he t aper ing b ow s tart ing r ather w ide a t t he h ead a nd n arrow ing t owards t he f oot . I t c an b e e ither h inged o r s prung, f requent ly h as a h ead l oop, a nd p ossesses e ither a b ent o r a ngu lar b ow g enerally b roken i n t he m idd le b y as udden w aist ing, as imp le p air o f w ings o r ap oor a ttempt a t a n a canthus. H e a dds l itt le o n t he e name l w hich c ou ld b e s ummed u p a s ' crude '. H u ll w hen d ea ling w ith t he N ornour e xamp les i gnores t he M t ypo logy b ut d oes n ot a dd a nything b etter i n i ts p lace ( Hu ll, 1 967, p p . 3 2-35). Ad etailed s tudy o f t he t ype, e name lled a nd p lain ( of w hich t here a re m ore t han C o llingwood s eems t o s uggest) i s n ecessary b ut i nappropr iate h ere . T he f ormer c an b e c lassif ied i nto f ive g roups d epending o n w hether t he b ow i s b ent o r a ngular ( f igure 2 B). S ubgroup ( a ) h as a r easonab ly p lain b ent b ow s omet imes w ith a r a ised ( pure ly d ecorat ive) h ead s tud a s w ith C o llingwood 's n o . 2 6 ( f igure 2 Ba); ( b ) ab ent b ow w ith a s udden w a ist ing i n t he m idd le a s n o . 2 8 ( ib id. ) ( f igure 2 Bb); ( c ) ab ent b ow w h ich e xpands t o ar ough ly l ozenge-shaped c entre ( not s pecif ically m ent ioned b y C o llingwood u nless h is w inged t ype b ut s ee H ull's N ornour t ype 1 2) ( f igure 2 Bc); ( d ) a n a ngular b ow w ith c rude d ecorat ion o n t he w ider u pper e nd o f t he b ow a s C o llingwood 's n o . 2 7 ( f igure 2 6d); ( e ) a n a ngu lar b ow w here t he u pper e nd c ontains o ne l ong r ectangular c e ll ( ibid. n o . 2 9 ) ( f igure 2 Be). T he e name l o n t he g roup M b rooches i s n ear ly a lways f ound o n t he u pper b ow a nd n owhere e lse e xcept i n t he c entre o f t he b ow o n t he s ubgroup ( c ) t ype . W here t here i s ar aised h ead s tud, a s o n s ubgroup ( a ), t his i s o ften e name lled. T he c e lls i nto w h ich t he e name l i s p laced a re o f t he s imp lest k ind, o f s mall s ize a nd g enera lly s ha llow t he l ast r eason p robab ly a ccount ing f or t he g reat l oss o f e name l f rom t he w ho le t ype . T he m ost f requent c e ll s hapes a re t riang les a nd l ozenges, s omet imes a lone b ut u sua lly i n c omb inat ion e specially o n s ubgroups ( b ) a nd ( c ); s mall s quares a nd r ectang les a lso o ccur . O n t ype ( e ) t he u pper b ow i s d ivided i nto l ozenges a nd t r iang les o r e lse i nto t wo r ectang les r unning l ongitud ina lly a nd s eparated b y as eptum . T here a re o dd e xcept ions t o t he n orma l d esigns . O ccas iona lly t he o n ly e name l i s i n al ozenge-shaped o r o val c e ll -if i t c an b e t hus c alled s ince i t i s 2 4

s o s mall on t he r aised h ead s tud b ut g enera lly i t i s s unk i nto t he s urface o f t he b ow . O n w e ll o ver h a lf t he s pecimens e xam ined t he e name l h as d ecayed o r i s e ntirely l ost . T he s urvival r ate i s p oor d ue p robab ly t o t he l ack o f a nything t o h o ld o n t o . R ed i s t he m ost f requent o f t he c o lours s till i n e vidence f ollowed c lose ly b y b lue a nd a t s ome r emove b y y e llow a nd/or o range ( s ince i t i s n ot a lways c lear w hich o f t he t wo i t i s). G reen i s p resent o n h alf a d ozen e xamp les t hough i n o n ly o ne o r t wo c ases d oes i t s eem t o b e i ntent ional r ather t han a d ecayed r emnant o f a nother c o lour a nd t he v ery f ew i nstances o f w hite a pparent ly a lso c onstitute a d ecayed c o lour . B lue a nd r ed i s t he c ombinat ion w here r are ly t wo c o lours s urvive o n t he s ame o bject t hough i nstances o f e ither o f t he se w ith o range/yellow h ave b een n oticed. I t w ould a ppear t hat o n ly t hree c o lours w ere c ertain ly a pp lied w ith p ossib ly g reen i n a f ew c ases. A ll t hree o ccur o n e xamp les o f e ach s ubgroup . W ith t he e xcept ion o f g roup ( e ) t he e name l i s a lways o ne c o lour t o ac e ll ( often t he c e ll) b ut t here a re a lso d ifferent c oloured e name ls o n t he s ame o bject i n s eparate c ells. T he e name l d ecorat ion o n t he g roup M b rooches i s v ery s imp le . O n ly o n g roup ( e), a nd t hen o n h alf t he n oted e xamp les, i s t here a m ore c omp lex t echnique w ith u p t o f ive t iny p ieces o f t wo d ifferent ly c o loured e name ls s har ing t he o ne l ong n arrow r ectang le w ithout a ny m eta l s epta k eeping t hem a part. V ery f ew o f t hese b rooches c an b e c lose ly d ated. T he t wo f rom t he C aer leon a mph itheatre a re d ated c . A .D . 1 25 a nd c . A .D . 1 30160 ( Wheeler, 1 928, p . 1 82). T hose f rom t he b aths a t C aerwent a re s aid t o b e A nton ine ( Nash-W illiams, 1 930, p . 2 40) w hile o ne f rom W roxeter i s d ated t o t he f irst h a lf o f t he s econd c entury . A nother e xamp le f rom S hakenoak c ame f rom a d eposit d ated t o A .D. 1 00+ -150 a nd a s econd w as d iscovered i n al eve l a ssigned t o s omewhere b etween A .D . 2 40 a nd 3 70 t hough w as c onsidered, p robab ly r ight ly, t o b e as tray f rom t he s econd c entury ( Brodr ibb e t a l. 1 968, p p . 8 2, 9 4-5). T he t hree f rom t he C hew V alley L ake e xcavations w ere f ound i n c ontexts a ssigned t o t he l ate f irst t o s econd, t he s econd a nd l ate t hird t o m id-fourth c entur ies r espect ive ly ( Rhatz a nd G reenf ie ld, 1 977, p p . 2 93-299, n os. 8 , 1 4 a nd 1 0). T hus m ost a re a ssignab le t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D . T here i s a s y et n one w hich c an b e s aid t o b e f irst-century t hough t he n umber o f d ated e xamp les i s s o s mall t hat t his s hou ld n ot b e r u led o ut . T he m ajority o f t he M b rooches w hich c ome f rom C harterhouse a nd N ornour a re u ndated -certain ly t hose f rom t he f ormer s ite a lthough t hose f rom t he l atter a re a ssigned b y H ull t o t he l ate f irst t o e ar ly s econd c entury. T he d istribut ion o f t he t ype i s i nteresting. T hey a re v ery o bvious ly c entred i n t he s outh ,and e specia lly n orth S omerset, w here C harterhouse a lone h as y ie lded s ixty-three e xamp les ( most ly i n t he C ity M useum, B risto l). T hey s pread i nto O xfordshire w here W oodeaton h as y ie lded e leven ( Tay lor, 1 9 17, p p . 1 07111, K irk, 1 949, p . 1), a s w ell a s a cross t he B r isto l C hanne l t o C aerwent a nd C aer leon w hich t ogether a ccount f or a nother d ozen s pecimens. O utside t his a rea T here a re f orty-one c ome f rom N ornour a lone a nd s even m ore f rom S ilchester . af ew s trays f rom t he M idlands a nd e ven l ess f rom f urther n orth . V ery f ew c ome f rom m ilitary s ites, f ew f rom t own s ites, r e ligious s ites ossib ly s uch a s W oodeaton p rovide s ome 4 5 a nd C harterhouse s o m any b ecause p t hey w ere m anufactured t here. 2 5

O vera ll g roup M s eems t o r epresent b rooches e name lled a t as omewhat l ow l eve l o f a b ility i n t he s outh-west d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury . I t i s ar em inder o f t he p ieces f rom t he P olden H ill a nd S even S isters h oards a nd p ossib ly r epresents t he f inal s tages o f e name l-working i n t he a rea. T rumpet b rooches group R

( F igure 3 A)

N ot q uite s o n umerous a s t he l ast t wo g roups i s t he t rumpet h ead v ariety, d esignated t he l etter R b y C o llingwood ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p p . 2 96-297, n os. 4 6-60). T h is i s s ub-divided i nto f our g roups a ccording t o t he s hape o f t he m oulding i n t he c entre o f t he b ow : ( i ) h as a p lain k nob t he w ho le w ay r ound; ( i i) h as a n a canthus t he w ho le w ay r ound; ( i ii) h as o n ly h alf a p lain k nob o n t he u pper h alf; ( iv) h as o n ly h a lf a n a canthus o n t he u pper h a lf . T here i s a v ar iety o f t he l ast ( op .cit . n o. 6 0) w ith a l arge p late b etween t he h ead ( now n arrow r ather t han a t rumpet) a nd h ead l oop . S ince t his g roup i s i mportant f rom t he p o int o f v iew o f t he e name l i t i s t ermed ( iva) h ere . O therw ise t he s tandard c lassif icat ion i s f o llowed. T here a re j ust o ver e ighty e name lled s pecimens o f g roup R b rooches. T here a ppear t o b e n o e xamp les o f s ubgroup ( i ii) a nd o n ly a f ew q uestionab le e xamp les o f s ubgroup ( i) b earing t his f orm o f d ecoration 4 6 . i S ubgroups ( i) a nd ( i v) a re h owever f requent ly e name lled ( f igure 3 A) i n r oughly e qual n umbers t hough w hat p roportion t hese a re i n t o p lain m embers o f t he g roup i s u nknown. T he s pecial s ubgroup ( iva) a lways s eems t o b ear e name l. T he d ecoration i s u sually f ound o n t he h ead a nd l ower b ow t ogether o n t he o ne s pecimen. S even e xamp les h ave b een n oted w ith t he s pring c over s o t reated a nd t here i s o ne o ccasion e ach w hen e name l i s t o b e s een o n t he c atch-p late a nd o n t he o utside o f t he f oot k nob . A bout h alf t he b rooches e xamined h ave p lain f aces t o t he f oot k nob. T he r emaining h a lf a ppear t o h ave o r h ave h ad e name l h ere a nd i n a bout h alf o f t hese o n ly h ere. A gain i n m any c ases t he f oot k nob i s a c avity w ith t he s tud/r ivet n ow m issing a nd i t i s n ot a lways s afe t o a ssume t hat t he h ead o f t his b ore e name l s ince o ne e xamp le o f aR (i) b rooch f rom W roxeter h as a c onelian s et i n t he f oot ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 13, p . 2 6, n o . 6 ). T he e name l h as d ecayed o r d isappeared f rom l ess t han h a lf t he s pecimens -a m uch b etter s urvival r ate t han o n t he g roup M b rooches a nd s uggestive o f b etter w orkmanship . W here i t s urvives i t i s g enerally a s aq uite r ecognisab le c o lour . R ed a nd b lue a re t he m ost c ommon o f t hese b ut y e llow ( sometimes a n o range-ye llow b ut n ot o range e nough t o j ustify c alling i t s o) i s n ot f ar b ehind. T he t hree f requent ly a ppear t ogether e specially o n t he t rumpet h ead. T here a re h owever s ome m ore c ertain c ases o f o range r ather t han y ellow o n t he v arient g roup ( iva). T here i s o ne a lleged e xamp le o f b lack o n ab rooch f rom W ilderspoo l ( May, 1 904, p . 8 1). T he w hite o n o ne f rom S ilchester ( Cotton, 1 947, p . 1 45, f ig . 8 ,3) m ay b e ad ecayed e name l a s t he b lue, n ow a lmost w hite, o n o ne f rom G reat C hesterford 4 7 . T he d esigns o f t he c ells a re r e lative ly s imp le. O n t he t rumpet h eads m ost o f t he u pper s urface i s e name lled e ither i n t he m ore f requent g eometric c e lls f ound o n t he R (iv) b rooches f or t he m ost p art o r a m ore C e ltic-like c urving o rnament w hich o ccurs l ess o ften a nd o n ly o n t he R (ii) v ariety a s o n t hat f rom S pynie ( Robertson, 1 970, p . 2 18, 1 0/4). T he m ost f requent g eometr ic d esign i s w here t he h ead i s d ivided i nto 2 6

t wo d own t he m iddle a nd i n t he g round o n e ach s ide i s af urther t riangular a nd s em i-circu lar c e ll. U sually t he g round i s r ed, t he t riangles y ellow a nd t he s emi-circles b lue a s o n o ne f rom T raprain L aw ( Cree a u le, 1 nd Cr 922, P . 2 50, f ig. 2 8, n o. 2 ). Oh t er go e metr ic c e lls c onsist o f s ma ll s pots a nd o vals. O n b oth s ubgroups t he b asic c e ll o n t he b ow i s t he t riang le u sually i n ar ow d own e ach s ide b ut o ften a r ow o f i nter locked t r iangles. S omet imes t he w ork i s v ery p oor a nd t here i s r eally o n ly o ne l ong c e ll e ach s ide o f t he b ow w ith t he u pper e dge z ig-zig o r t oothed i n e ach c ase. V ery r are ly a re t here a f ew s quares i nstead. T he d esign o n t he f ace o f t he f oot i s a lways a s pot, a r ing o r as pot a nd r ing. O n s ubgroup ( iva) t he h ead h as a l ong n arrow r ectang le d ivided l ongitudinally t o g ive t wo o r t hree c e lls. O n t he w hole g roup R c e lls a re d eeper t han t hose m et w ith b efore a nd t his m ay h elp e xp lain t he b etter s urvival o f t he e namel o n t his t ype . O n t he s pecimens o f R (ii) a nd ( iv) b rooches t he e namel i s a lways o f t he s imp le o ne c o lour t o ac ell t ype t hough u sually w ith t hree c o lours u sed o n t he o ne o bject . N either c omp lex n or m illef ior i e name ls o ccur . H owever s ubgroup ( iva) s tands a part i n t hat i t a lways s eems t o p ossess where i t s urvives -a m ore c omp lex v ar iety o f t wo c olours ( usually o range a nd e ither r ed o r b lue) u sed t ogether i n e acn l ong n arrow r ectangular c e ll o n t he h ead . T he p ieces o f e name l u sed a re e xceedingly s mall b ut t he e dges b etween t hem a re q uite c lear a nd t here i s n o t race o f am etal d ivide . O n a n e xamp le f rom W ilderspoo l e ven t he t wo m ajor s epta a re m issing t hus g iving t hree r ows o f e ight p ieces a lternate ly o range a nd a d ecayed c o lour i n t he o ne c e ll ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3)48. T his u se o f ac omp lex e name l i n l ong r ectangu lar c e lls o n t he h ead i s s o r em iniscent o f t hat o n s ubgroup ( e ) o f G roup M ( q .v .) t hat t here m ust b e s ome c onnect ion b etween t hese t wo v arieties. T hus f or t he t rumpet b rooch a s aw ho le s imp le e namels a re t he n orm w ith t his e xception o f ac omp lex t echnique u sed o n t he ( iva) v arient -and t here i s ac omp lete a bsence o f a ny m illef ior i d ecorat ion. T he d ated e xamp les a re f ew . N ewstead h as p rovided s ome r easonab ly d ated s pecimens o f R (ii). T wo a ppear t o b e f rom t he f irst c entury o ccupation o f t he s ite ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 22, p l. L XXXV, n os. 1 a nd 1 2) a nd t wo s eem t o b e A ntonine ( ib id . n os. 1 3 a nd 1 4). T he b aths a t M umr ills y ie lded a nother a ssociated w ith e ar ly A ntonine p ottery ( MacDonald a nd C ur le, 1 929, p p . 4 69, 5 54-5, f ig. 15,1). O ne f rom t he L unt c an h ard ly h ave b een d eposited a fter A .D . 7 5 ( Hob ley, 1 967, p p . 10-111). T he L ydney P ark s pecimen i s a ssigned t o t he p er iod A .D . 9 0150 ( Whee ler, 1 932, p p . 7 6-7, f ig. 1 2,17). T he r emaining e xamp les a re n ot f rom d ated c ontexts. H owever i t w ou ld a ppear t hat t he R (ii) t ype w as b eing m ade p erhaps a s e ar ly a s A .D . 5 0 a nd w as i n u se t o t he m id-second c entury a t l east 4 9 . M ost o f t he R (iv) s pecimens b elong t o t he e ar ly d ecades o f t he s econd c entury . O ne f rom t he C aer leon a mphitheatre w as f ound w ith p ottery d ated c . A .D . 1 00 ( Whee ler, 1 928, p p . 1 62-3, n o . 1 4) w hile a n e xamp le f rom R ichborough i s s aid t o b e A ntonine ( Cun liffe, 1 968, p . 8 2, n o . 3 1). S ilchester h as y ielded o ne d ated A .D . 1 20-170 ( Cotton, 1 947, p . 1 45, f ig. 8 ,2). T he s tratif ied s pecimen f rom W roxeter w as r ecovered f rom a f illing p laced b etween A .D. 1 00 a nd 1 30 ( Atkinson, 1 942, p . 2 06, n o . H 65). A gain t he r emainder a re l argely f rom c ontexts o f w hich t he d ates a re u nknown o r p oor ly w orked o ut . O n ly t wo o f t he s ubgroup R (iva) c ome f rom d ated l ayers, t hat i s t he s pecimen f rom S ilchester f rom a l eve l o pen b etween A .D . 1 00 a nd 1 20 ( Cotton, 1 947, p . 1 45, f ig. 8 ,3) a nd t he i ncomp lete e xamp le l ost a t B iglands m ilefort let i n t he 1 50s ( Potter,

2 7

1 977, P . 1 71, n o . 1 6). P ossib ly t herefore R (ii) ws a i n u se b efore R (iv) e specia lly i n v iew o f t he C e ltic-type d esigns o n s ome o f t he f ormer a s o pposed t o t he g eometric p atterns o f t he l atter . T he d istribut ion o f t he e name lled R b rooches c alls f or n ote . O ver e ighty p er c ent w ere f ound s outh o f al ine f rom t he H umber t o F ormby H ead. O f t hose f rom t he n orth o f t his l ine h alf c ome f rom N ewstead a nd T raprain L aw . T his i s r ather a t v ar ience w ith C o llingwood 's s tatement ( op .cit . p . 2 97) t hat t hey a re p art icular ly c ommon i n t he n orth w ith t heir n umbers d im inishing t owards t he s outh. H owever t here a ppears t o b e e vidence f or n orthern m anufacture a nd t his i s d ealt w ith l ater . S ubgroup ( iva) s tands o ut a s h aving a w ho lly s outhern d istr ibut ion a nd t his c omb ined w ith t he c omp lex e name l s im ilar t o t hat o n t he M s ubgroup ( e) m ight s uggest i t i s ap roduct o f t he s outh-west t hough o nly o ne h as b een f ound a t C harterhouse a nd n one a t N ornour . G roup S ( Figure 3 B) T he t rumpet h ead b rooch l acking t he a canthus m ou lding o r i ts e quivalent i s g iven t he l etter S b y C o llingwood ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p p . 2 97-8, n os. 6 1-8) 5 0 . T his i s s ubdivided i nto t hree g roups: ( i ) w ith a m ou lding i n t he c entre a nd a r ough ly i f an-tailed s haped f oot ( 6 1-3); ( i) w ith a f lat p late a s t he c entre o f t he b rooch - t his p late c an b e c ircu lar a s ( 64), s em i-circular i a s (65), p e n t he fr 67) 5 lta-shaped ( 66) ad n i om o f w ings ( 1 ; ( ii) h as ac ircu lar p late i n t he c entre o f t he b ow a nd a f an-tail s haped f oot ( 68) t hough h ere t he h ead i s n ot a lways t rumpet-shaped. T he o n ly w ork o n t he g roup s ince C o llingwood 's i s t hat o n t he s ubgroup S (ii) t ype a s ( 64) i .e . w ith a c ircu lar p late a nd t rumpet h ead ( R ichardson, 1 960, p p . 2 00-213). O ne s pecimen o f s ubgroup S (iii) f rom K ilpedher i s i mportant a nd i s d ealt w ith o n i ts o wn. T here a re a pprox imately e ightyename lled S b rooches. S ubgroup ( i) i s r are ly e name lled a nd o n ly f ive e xamp les w ere n oted. I n e ach c ase t he d ecoration i s t o b e f ound o n t he f an-ta il ( f igure 3 Ba). T he S (ii) s ubgroup i s t he m ost c ommon o ne w ith e name l. T he t ypes w ith t he c ircu lar p late ( 64) ( f igure 3 Bb) a nd t he ' w ings' ( 67) ( f igure 3 Be) r espective ly p ossess i t f ar m ore f requent ly t han t he v ariet ies w ith t he p e lta ( 65) ( f igure 3 Bd) a nd s em i-circu lar p late ( 66) ( f igure 3 Bc) w hich b etween t hem m uster l ess t han a d ozen e xamp les ( even t hen i t i s q uestionable i f s ome o f t he d ecoration i s e name l). I n a ll f our v ar ieties o f s ubgroup S (ii) t he e name l i s f ound o n t he p late o n t he b ow . T here a re o nly t wo o ccasions w hen t here m ay h ave b een e name l a t t he e nd o f t he f oot s uch a s o n t he o ne f rom R ichborough " set w ith a n e name l s tud" ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 15, n o. 4 0) t hough t his i s d iff icu lt t o b e s ure a bout . O n t he S (iii) s ubgroup ( f igure 3 Bf ) e namel i s f ound o n o ver a s core o f e xamp les, o n m ost o n b oth t he p late a nd t he f an-tail b ut i n af ew c ases o n o nly o ne o r t he o ther . T here a re a f ew i nstances o f e name l o n t he a rms a nd o nly o ne o n w h ich t he h ead b ears e name l. H owever o n t he S g roup a s aw ho le t he t rumpet h ead, u n like t hat o f t he g roup R b rooches, n ever h as e name l a pp lied t o i t . W hat d ecorat ion t here i s o n t he h ead i s g enerally n ie llo o r s ilver i nlay w hich h as s ometimes b een c onfused w ith e name l ( e .g . B ur ley, 1 955, p . 1 60, n o. 4 6). F or t he g roup a s aw ho le b lue a nd t hen r ed a re b y f ar t he m ost 2 8

f requent c o lours. T here a re a f ew e xamp les o f y e llow, w hite, o range a nd g reen. T he e namel f ound o n t he f ew S (i) s pecimens i s r ed a nd b lue w ith a d ecayed c o lour , p robab ly o r iginally e ither o f t hese . T hat o n s ubgroup S (ii) i s q uite w e ll p reserved only a q uarter p resent d ecayed o r a bsent c o lours. W here i t i s d ecayed t he e namel i s f requent ly a g reen c o lour b ut i n af ew c ases t he g reen d oes s eem t o b e t he o r iginal c o lour . O ver t w ice a s m uch b lue i s s till p resent a s t here i s r ed a nd y e llow o ccurs o nly t w ice . T he r ed a nd b lue a re g enera lly f ound t ogether . I n s ome c ases t he b lue i s ar ather w eak c o lour a nd h as a lmost t urned w hite d ue p erhaps t o d ecay a s m uch a s t o p oor c o lour ing t echnique . O n s ubgroup S (iii) a g reater p roport ion o f t he e name l h as d ecayed o r g one c omp lete ly b ut e nough s urv ives t o s how t hat r ed, b lue a nd y e llow w ere a pp lied a nd p ossib ly g reen t oo. A gain a c ombinat ion o f t wo o f t hese c o lours i s t he n orm . F or t he m ost p art t he d esigns o f t he e name lled c e lls o n t he S b rooches a re q uite s imp le. T he c ircu lar p lates o n S (ii) ( 64) a nd S (iii) ( 68) h ave e ither j ust a r ing o f e name l o r as pot a nd o ne o r t wo r ings. T he u sual p attern o n S (iii) i s as pot a nd o ne r ing w ith t riangles a nd/or l ozenges c ommon i n t he f an-tail. O n s ubgroup ( ii) ( 66) t he p elta-shaped p late i s d ivided i nto t wo c e lls w hile o n v ar iety ( 67) e ach ' w ing ' c onstitutes a c ell, n ormally f illed w ith b lue b ut r ed a nd o range w ere e ach n oted o nce a nd o ften t here i s at hird c e ll b etween t hem . W hile t here a re s ome e xcept ions t here i s n othing o ut o f t he o rdinary t hough t he t endency f or s ome c e lls, e .g. t he ' w ings' , t o b e l arger t han t hose p reviously m et w ith m ight b e n oted. I n t he g reat m ajor ity o f t hese b rooches t he e name l i s o ne c o lour t o as imp le c e ll t hough u sua lly w ith t wo c o lours t o t he o bject e xcept i n t he c ase o f t he s ubgroup ( ii) v arieties ( 66 & 6 7) w here t he c olour i s t he s ame i n b oth c ells. T here a re h owever t hree s pecimens w ith am ore c omp lex e name l. T he f irst i s o n aS (i) b rooch w hich a ppears t o h ave o ne n arrow r ectangle o n t he f an-tail c ontaining f ive s mall p ieces o f t wo t ypes o f e name l w ithout m etal d ivides ( = C o llingwood 's a ctual e xamp le n o. 6 3). T wo e xamp les o f S (ii) a lso h ave a c omp lex e name l: o ne f rom W roxeter a s v ariety ( 64) h as a l arge s pot i n t he c entre p late c ontaining e ight p ieces o f e name l n ow d ecayed b ut o bvious ly o nce t wo d ifferent c o lours ( Kenyon, 1 938, p . 2 24, n o. 3 ) w hile t he o ther f rom P entre ( Davies, 1 949, p . 1 26, n o. 1 3) h as o n i ts s emi-circular p late ( as 6 5) a g round o f o ne c o lour w ith t hree s pots o f a nother a dded t o i t . I n a ddition t here i s o ne c ase o f m illef ior i d ecoration o n as ubgroup ( iii) b rooch f rom K ilpedher . T he K ilpedher b rooch i s b oth e xceptional a nd i mportant ( Lethbr idge, 1 952, p p . 1 82184, f ig. 1 ,4). A ccording t o t he e xcavat ion r eport t he p e lta-shaped f an-tail c ontained a s lice o f m illef iori g lass 5 2 ,c onsisting o f r ows o f t r iang les a lternate ly y e llow a nd b lack, s et i n ar ed g round i .e. a b ed o f r ed e name l w as l aid f irst a nd t hen t he m illef ior i g lass w as s et o n t op a nd t he t wo f used. U nfortunate ly, w e a re t o ld, t he m illef iori f e ll a way j ust a fter t he b rooch h ad b een d rawn . E xaminat ion o f t he b rooch ( National M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land, r eg . n o. G S84 -1958.6 15) s hows t he f an-tail c e ll f illed w ith a d ecayed s ubstance, t he s urface o f w hich i s p itted w ith t r iangular h o llows -presumab ly t he i mpressions m ade f rom t he m illef iori w hich h as n ot s urvived. H owever t he i mportant t hing i s t hat h ere i s aB r itish t ype o f b rooch b ear ing m illef iori e name l ( i .e. w here t he m illef ior i g lass f loats o n al ayer

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o f r ed e name l) a nd f ound o n S outh U ist . I t w ould s eem r easonab le t o i nfer t hat t his i s aB r itish p roduct a nd t hat s uch e name lwork w as p roduced i n B r itain . T he o bject i s d ated t o t he s econd c entury 5 3 . i D ated e xamp les o f t he g roup a re m ost c ommon f rom s ubgroup ( i). O nly o ne S (i) s pecimen, f rom L ydney P ark, h as b een g iven a d ate a nd t hen o nly t entat ive ly i n t he t h ird c entury ( Whee ler, 1 932, p . 7, n o. 2 0). T here i s n o n eed t o r epeat t he e vidence r e lating t o s ubgroup S (ii) v ariety ( 64): i t a ppears t o h ave b een i n u se f rom b efore A .D . 1 50 u p t o t he e nd o f t hat c entury ( R ichardson, 1 960, p . 2 06). T he o nly d atab le e xamp le o f ( 65) c omes f rom t he J ewry W all s ite i n L eicester a nd i s d ated t o c . A .D . 1 80 ( Kenyon, 1 948, p . 2 51, n o . 1 ) w hile t he t wo d atab le s pecimens o f v ar iety ( 66) w ere r ecovered f rom t he W albrook s treambed, a nd i s t herefore p re-A . D . 1 55, a nd a n e ar ly s econd c entury c ontext a t N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p p . 3 24-325, p l . L XXXVII, n o. 2 6). T here i s o ne d ated e xamp le o f t he ' w inged ' S (ii) t ype ( 67), f rom a n i nteresting c ontext . I t i s a ssigned t o t he s econd c entury ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p . 5 3) t hough t he s o il w hence i t c ame h ad b een d eposited p ost-A .D . 3 15. ( ib id. p p . 4 6-48). T he d istr ibut ion o f t he g roup i s s im ilar t o t hat f or t he R b rooches. B oth f or t he g roup a s aw ho le a nd f or e ach s ubgroup i ndividually ( e .g. v ariety ( 64) s ee R ichardson, 1 960, f ig. 3 ) t here i s ap reponderence i n t he s outh r ather t han t he n orth . T here i s n o d irect e vidence f or a ny m anufacturing s ite. D olphin b rooches T he d o lphin o r C o llingwood 's g roup H ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 95, n os. 1 2-17) i s ac ommon B ritish b rooch, t he m ajor ity o f w hich a re u nename lled. T he b ow i s h umped f orward o ver t he j unction o f t he a rms. E name l i s h owever f ound o n s even e xamp les, i n a ll c ases o n t he b ow . B lue i s m ost c ommon w ith o ne i nstance e ach o f r ed a nd o range r espectively a nd s ome d ecayed e name l s till p resent . T here a re v ar ious c e ll s hapes b ut o n ly t wo a re n oteworthy. O n t he b rooch f ound o n L ambay I s land, o ff t he D ub lin c oast, ( Jope, 1 95 1, p . 6 0) t he u pper b ow h as a l arge c e ll ( 35 m ms. x 4 m ms.) w ith ab ronze w avy l ine r eserved a long t he c entre a nd i n w hich t here i s o paque m edium b lue e name l. A s omewhat s im ilar b rooch f rom C harterhouse h as t wo w avy l ines i n t he c e ll b ut h as n ow l ost i ts e name l. M ost h ave a s imp le o ne c o lour t o ac e ll e name l b ut o ne h as a s mall r ectangu lar c e ll i n t he u pper b ow i n w hich t here a re f ive s mall p ieces o f e name l n ow d ecayed/gone b ut o bviously o nce t wo c o lours. O nce more n one c omes f rom t he n orth a nd t he m ajor ity a re f rom c ontexts d atab le t o t he l ate f irst t o e ar ly s econd c enturies t hough t hat f or t he O ld W interingham s pecimen i s t h ird c entury ( Stead, 1 976, p . 1 98, n o . 1 8). K nee b rooches C o llingwood's g roup V o r ' knee b rooch' i s as mall b rooch i n w hich t he h ead o f t he b ow i s l ike a b ent k nee w ith t he l ower l eg f or a t ail. I t i s s aid t o h ave b een m ade i n B r itain i n l arge q uant it ies d ur ing t he t hird c entury ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 98, n os. 8 2-8). N ine s pecimens w ith e name l h ave b een e ncountered. F our o f t hese h ave e name l o n t he s em i-circu lar p late w hich a cts a s as pr ing-cover w hile t he r est p ossess i t o n t he b ow . B lue a nd y ellow a re u sed a s a lso

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t urquoise a nd w hite ( one i ntended, o ne d ecayed?) i n a ddition t o g reen ( but a lso p robab ly a d ecayed c olour ). T he m ain c ell s hape i s t riangu lar t hough o n t hree o f t he p lates t here i s b ut o ne s em i-circular c e ll. I n a ll c ases t he e name l i s o ne c o lour t o ac e ll t hough i n t he t riangles t wo c o lours a lternate . T wo b rooches c ome f rom t he n orth; t he r est f rom t he s outh o f t he c ountry . O ne w as f ound a t C ampsf ie ld d eposited i n t he f ourth c entury b ut s aid t o b e s econd ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p . 5 8) w hile a nother, i n t he V ictor ia a nd A lbert M useum, w as d iscovered n ear E den H all, C umber land, a long w ith c o ins o f H adr ian a nd A ntoninus P ius. T hist le b rooches C o llingwood's g roup W o r t hist le b rooch i s P -shaped i n p rof ile w ith a b road r ibbed b ow s eparated f rom a f lat t ail b y ar ound o r l ozenge-shaped p late. T here i s av ariety i n w hich t he b ow i s s uppressed a nd t he b rooch h as a f lat p late w ith a pp lied r osette, o ften e name lled. T he t ype i s c ommonly f ound o n C laudian s ites i n B ritain ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 93, n os. 8 9-90). T he o nly e name lled s pecimens n oted a re t hose f rom C o lchester w here t en a re s tated t o h ave b een f ound ( Hawkes a nd H ull, 1 947, p p . 3 15-316). M ost o f t hese a re s aid t o h ave s imp le r ed e name l i n t he g rooves o n t he b ow a nd f oot w hile a f ew a re s upposed t o h ave a s pot ( or s tud) o f r ed e name l i n t he r osette. A n e xam inat ion o f t he o bjects i n t he C o lchester a nd E ssex M useum s hows n o p ositive t races o f r ed e name l i n t hese g rooves. T here ' a re i nstances o f w hat a ppears t o b e d irt w hich c ou ld h ave b een m istaken f or d ecayed e name l b ut i t i s n ow s uggested t hat i t n ever w as e name l. T here i s h owever o ne e xamp le ( reg . n o . 31/3 1 ) o f a n a pp lied r osette w ith a h o llow c up a s t he h ead w hich i s f illed w ith r ed e name l. A ll t hese w ere f ound i n c ontexts w hich a re C laudian o r j ust a f ew y ears l ater . G roup X a s n o.

( 96)

G roup X b asica lly c onsists o f ab ow a nd f an-tail ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p p . 2 94-295, n os. 9 2-7) a nd f or t he m ost p art c ontains n o e name l. H owever o ne v ariety a s ( 96) w hich i s a P -shaped b rooch w ith a f an-tail h as p roduced n ine e xamp les m ade t o h o ld e name l. O n a ll t hese t he e name l i s f ound i n t he f an-tail b ut t here i s o ne o ccasion w hen i t a lso o ccurs o n t he b ow i n ar ow o f s mall s quares. T he f an-tail i s u sua lly t aken u p b y o ne c e ll i n w hich t here i s r eserved a b ronze p e lta-shaped d esign. F or t he m ost p art t he e name l i s n ow d ecayed o r e ntire ly m issing b ut r ed a nd b lue h ave b een n oted -both s imp le e name ls. O n ly o ne o f t hese e name lled b rooches c omes f rom t he n orth a nd n one i s c lose ly d ated t hough C ollingwood ( ib id.) p laces t he g roup i n t he s econd c entury a nd o ne h as b een f ound r ecently i n t he f illing o f af ourth-century g rave a t T hist leton ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 6 4, f ig. 1 0, n o. 2 9). M isce llaneous M ention s hould p erhaps b e m ade o f ag roup o f l ess t han t wenty b rooches w hich d o n ot r eadily f it i nto a ny o f C o lingwood 's g roups. S ome a t l east m ay b e i mports a nd t herefore n ot r elevant . I n a ny e vent n one i s i mportant o r u nusual e nough t o m er it b e ing n oted s eparately . T he e name l i s a ll o n t he b ow o n w hich t here i s a g reat v ariety o f c e lls, a ll g eometric, a s v ar ied i n s hape a s t he

3 1

b ows t hemselves. B lue i s t he m ost c ommon c o lour s urviving f o llowed b y r ed a nd y e llow; p ossib ly g reen o nce e xisted b ut t his m ay b e a nother d ecayed c o lour a s al ot o f t he e name l i s n ow i n t his s tate. A ll o f i t i s s imp le w ith t he e xcept ion o f t hree c ases o f ac omp lex t ype -there i s n o m illef ior i d ecorat ion. D ates a nd d istribut ion a re o f n o c onsequence h ere. T his n ow c ompletes t he s urvey o f b ow b rooches b earing e name l d ecoration . T he r emaining g roups l isted b y C o llingwood a ppear t o b e p lain .

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C HAPTER

3

E NAMELLED P LATE B ROOCHES

T here i s a n a lmost e qual n umber o f p late b rooches f rom B r itain b ut w ith t hese c omes a g reater p rob lem a s t o w hether t hey a re o f R omano-Brit ish m anufacture o r n ot . T here i s n o d oubt w ith t he w e ll k nown d ragonesque b rooches a nd t he s ame m ay a pp ly t o w hat a re h ere t brmed d omed p late b rooches a s w e ll a s t he ' oval a nd m edallion ' v ar iety . A s r egards d isc b rooches ( s imp le f lat o nes) a nd a nima l p late b rooches t he p osition i s n ot s o c lear t hough m any o f t hese p robably w ere m anufactured i n B r itain. I n t his r espect o ne m ight q uote W heeler, " It m ay b e t hat t he s mall a nimal-brooches f ound i n d up licate n ear M a inz ( K leinw interheim) a nd i n L ondon ( q.v.) w ere m ade i n B ritain, t hough a c laim m ight b e u rged o n b ehalf o f t he e name l-workers o f B elgica ( p . 9 8). H ere, a s o ften, i n s pite o f t he r esurging i ndiv iduality o f t he B ritish c raftsman, i t i s d iff icu lt t o d raw a f ront ier l ine i n R oman t imes b etween t he c u ltures o f s outhern B r itain a nd n orth-eastern G au l" ( Whee ler, 1 946, p . 3 4). I n t he l ast r esort i t m ay b e d iff icult t o b e s ure w here t hese w ere m ade b ut t his a pp lies t o t he C ont inent a s m uch a s t o B r itain. M any o f t he m isce llaneous d isc b rooches, t he l ozenge-shaped p late b rooches a nd t he v ar ious m inor g roups ( 'm isce llaneous ' ) a re m ore l ikely t o b e C ont inenta l p roducts a nd a re t herefore t reated m ore s cantily . D rangonesque b rooches

F igure 4 A)

T he d ragonesque b rooch i s p erhaps t he m ost s tudied o f B r it ish b rooches. F irst l isted a lmost f orty y ears a go ( Bu lmer, 1 938, p . 1 46153) t hey w ere l ater r evised ( Feachem, 1 95 1, p p . 3 2-44) a nd p e ven m ore r ecently h ave b een b rought u p t o d ate ( Feachem, 1 968, p . 1 00102). C ollingwood h as m ore t o s ay o n t his t ype t han o n a ny p o ther p late b rooch ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 95, n os. W hile F eachem 's f irst a rt icle i s t he m ost u seful h e h as 11-114). l itt le t o s ay o n t he a ctual e name l t hough h e s ub-divides t he s pecimens o n t he b asis o f t he a rrangement o f t heir e name lled c e lls. T his i s r emedied t o s ome e xtent i n h is a ddendum w here a t l east t he e name l i s d escr ibed . C o llingwood m rerely n otes t hat s ome e xamp les a re e name lled. S ince F eachem d ea ls w ith a ll d ragonesque b rooches i t i s p ossib le f or o nce t o k now t he p roport ion o f e name lled s pecimens t o p lain o nes. B asically t he b rooch i s aS -shaped p late w ith t erm ina ls s o z oomorphic t hat i t t akes o n t he a ppearance o f as ea-horse o r d ragon . T he d ecoration i s a lways o n t he f ront o r t op . S eventy-four o f t hese d ragonesque b rooches a re l isted b y F eachem a nd o f t hese s ixty-two o r a bout e igh ty p er c ent a re e namelled 54 . I t m ight b e a sked, i n v iew o f t he f act t hat t he m ajority a re i ntended t o h o ld e name l, i f s ome o f t he p lain o nes a re n ot i n f act u n-f inished ( unenamelled), e specially o ne g roup i llustrated ( Feachem, 1 951, p . 4 3, f ig. 6 ) o f w hich t wo c ome f rom T raprain L aw a lone. A mong t he b est k now e xamp les o f t he d ragonesque t ype a re t he p air f rom F aversham i n K ent ( Feachem, 1 95 1,

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p . 3 9, n os. 4 a nd 5 , f ig. 3 ). T he e name l a lways o ccurs o n t he f atter m idd le p ortion o f t he b rooch a nd t he e name lled p ane l i s t herefore a r ather f at S -shape w ith a lmost n o c ur les. T his i s u sually d ivided i nto t hree z ones, t he m idd le p anel a nd t wo c urving V -shapes a t e ither e nd . A s n oted a bove F eachem d ivides t he e name lled b rooches i nto f our g roups o n t he b asis o f t he i s hapes o f t he c e ll, v iz. ( i ) t he c ircular m ot if; ( i) t he l ozenge i m otif; ( ii) t he p ane l o f s quares; a nd ( iv) t he r ow o f s quares ( f igure 4 A). W ith s ubgroup ( i) t he c entre p ane l i s c ircular, m ade u p o f as pot o r s pot a nd r ing o f e name l o r w ith t he c ircle b roken u p i nto s maller c e lls i n v arious o ther w ays; t he e nd c e lls a re d ivided i nto t wo o r m ore c ells, a lso c urved ( f igure 4 AI). I n i v ariety ( i) t he c entral p ane l i s r ectangular m ade u p o f d om inant l ozenge-shaped c e lls - v ary ing f rom t wo t o f ive i n n umber - w ith a ttendant t riangles; i n s ome c ases w here t here a re t hree r ows o f t iny l ozenges t he p ane l m ay h ave a s m any a s t wenty-three m inute e name lled c e lls; h ere t he s ide p ane ls a re g enerally m ore e laborate ly s p lit u p w ith t he s epta t aking o n am uch m ore ' ce lt ic-type ' a ppearance ( f igure 4 Aii). T he c entral p anel o f s ubgroup ( i ii) c onsists o f ag roup o f s imp le s quares, f our t o e ight i n n umber, a nd a ga in t he V -shaped p ane ls a t e ither e nd a re d ivided i nto t wo o r t hree s imp le c e lls ( f igure 4 Aiii). T he w hole p ane l ( centre p lus s ides) i n t ype ( i v) i s j ust a r ow o f s imp le s quares, u sually f ive , w ith t he e nd t wo s light ly c urved; s ometimes t he s quares a re f ewer i n n umber a nd r ather c rude ( f igure 4 Aiv). T he f i rst t wo s ubgroups a re m ore n umerous t han t he l ast t wo . E name l i s a lso g enerally f ound o n t he t erm inals o f a ll s ubgroups. T here i s o ften a s pot i n t he s nouts, a s pot o r s pot a nd r ing a s t he e ye a nd s ometimes a c e ll o n o ne o r b oth s ides o f t he c entral r idge i o f t he e ar . T he t erminal d ecoration i s b est s een o n s ubgroup ( i) a nd i s a lmost n on-existent o n s ubgroup ( iv). R ed a nd b lue a re t he c o lours m ost f requently m et w ith, b e ing c lear ly v isib le i n o ver t wenty i nstances e ach . Y e llow o ccurs c ommon ly, b eing p resent o n o ver a d ozen s pecimens. T here i s t he o ccasional c ase o f g reen a nd w hite t hough a ga in i t i s n ot c ertain t hat t hese a re a lways i ntentional a nd m ay m erely r epresent t he d ecayed r emnants o f o ne o f t he m ore u sual c o lours. F or e xamp le o n o n e o f t hedragonesque b rooches f rom T raprain L aw t he e name l i s d escribed a s " ?green" b ut s eems r ather t o h ave t he a ppearance o f f aded b lue ( Bur ley, 1 955, p . 1 59, n o. 3 3). T here a re o ver a s core o f s pecimens w here p art o r a ll o f t he e name l h as d ecayed b ut o n ly a f ew w here t he c e lls a re n ow e ntire ly e mpty . T here i s o ne i nteresting s pecimen o f s ubgroup ( iv) f rom C aernarvon o n w hich t he f ew p ieces o f d ecoration a re s aid t o b e a lternate ly r ed e name l a nd p ieces o f c halcedony ( Whee ler, 1 923, p p . 1 33-134, f ig . 5 6,3) 5 . R ed, b lue a nd y e llow a re c ommon ly f ound t ogether e specially o n s ubgroup ( i) i b ut a lso a ppear o n s ubgroups ( i) a nd ( iii). R ed a nd b lue h owever s eem t he m ore u sual c o lour c ombination o n t hese l atter t wo v ar ieties. S ome e xamp les o f r ed a nd b lue h ave b een n oted t oo o n s ubgroup ( i ) a nd a ppear t o b e u sua l f or t he f ourth g roup ( iv) t hough o n t he l atter r ed a nd g reen m ay a lso b e p resent . B lue o n i ts o wn w as n oted t w ice. O n a ll t he d ragonesque b rooches s imp le e namels o n ly w ere a pp lied. W hile t wo o r t hree c o lours u sually a ppear t ogether e ach i s a lways

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c onfined t o i ts o wn c e ll. W ith t his g roup t here i s l itt le d oubt t hat t he m ajor ity o f f inds a re c oncentrated i n t he n orthern p art o f B r itain b etween t he F orth a nd W roxeter . T he S ett le C aves, Y ork, C orbr idge a nd T raprain L aw b etween t hem a ccount f or a t hird o f t he k nown f inds. T he g roup i s a ssigned t o t he l atter h alf o f t he f irst c entury a nd m ost o f t he s econd . F eachem n otes t he W roxeter s pecimen f ound w ith c oins o f H adr ian ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 16, p . 2 4, n o . 9 ) a nd t he F lav ian e xamp le f rom C ar lisle ( Feachem, 1 968, p p . 1 0 1-102). T here i s a lso a n e ar ly s econd c entury f ind f rom C aernarvon ( Whee ler, 1 923, p p . 1 33134) a nd t he d ragonesque b rooch f rom t he b aths a t N ewstead ( Cur ie, 1 9 11, p p . 3 20, 3 32). T here i s t herefore n o r eal e vidence f or a d ate a fter A .D . 1 50 t hough t he d ated s pecimens a re s o f ew t hat t h is s hou ld n ot b e r uled o ut . D omed b rooches A mong t he d isc b rooches n oted b y C o llingwood ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 29) o ne s tands o ut a nd d eserves s pecia l a ttention s ince i t i s n ot o nly i nvariab ly e name lled b ut s eems t o b e w ithout d oubt a B r itish p roduct . T he b rooch ( ib id. n o . 1 02) c onsists o f ac ircular h o llow d ome w ith a p roject ion a t t he h ead ( usua lly a s ah ead l oop) a nd o ne a t t he c atch-p late a nd o ften t wo o r m ore s maller k nobs o n t he e dge b e tween ( F igure 4 B). T his m ay b e t ermed t he t rue d omed o r s maller d omed p late b rooch t o d ist inguish i t f rom al arger v ersion, o f t he s ame g eneral t ype b ut d ifferent i n t erms o f s ize a nd c e ll s hapes ( s light ly m ore v aried i n d esign) a s w e ll a s b eing n umerically s ma ller . N either s eems t o h ave b een d ealt w ith b efore a s at ype i n i ts o wn r ight . T he s ma ller d omed p late b rooch F i u re 4 B) i s w e ll e xemp lif ied b y t he t hree s pecimens f rom W oodeaton T ay lor, 1 9 17, p . 15, n os. 6 5, 6 6 &6 7, f ig . 1 3) 5 6 . I n a ll o ver f orty o f t hese b rooches h ave b een n oted . T he e name l i s f ound o n t he c onvex s urface o f t he d ome o n a ll e xamp les a nd i n af ew r are c ases a lso o n t he k nob o r p roject ion a t t he ' foot '. T he e name lled c e lls c onsist o f t wo r ows o r c irc les o f t r iangles a nd a s pot o r s pot a nd r ing o n t he t op o f t he d ome . T he t ria ig les p oint u pwards a nd t he b ronze l eft b etween t hem ( the s epta) a re t riang les p ointing d ownwards h ence s omet imes g iving r ise t o t he t erm ' z ig-zag e namel d ecoration '. T here a re u sua lly f ourteen t riangles i n e ach r ow t hough t hirteen a nd s ixteen h ave b een n oted a nd a f ew c ases o f t hree r ows o f n ineteen, s ixteen a nd e ight w ere m et w ith . W hen i t i s r emembered t hat t he a verage d iameter o f t he b ase o f t he d ome ( or t he e dge) i s a pproximate ly 2 c ms . i t w ill b e s een t hat t he s ize o f e ach c e ll s ide i s t herefore o n ly 1 -3 m ms . B lue i s b y f ar t he m ost c ommon c olour f ound o n t he s mall d omed p late b rooches o ccurr ing o n o ver t hirty e xamp les; t his s eems t o b e i ntentional a s m uch a s b eing d ue t o ab etter s urvival r ate . R ed o ccurs o n a bout h a lf t his n umber b ut m ore m ay h ave b een l ost d ue t o w eather ing o r d ecay . O n a pproximate ly a d ozen s pecimens b lue a nd r ed a ppear t ogether b ut t here a re c ases o f a ll t he c e lls c ontaining b lue . G reen a ppears o n af ew o f t hese b rooches f or e xamp le o n t hat f rom C ame lon w here i t i s f ound i n c ombinat ion w ith r ed ( Anderson, 1 900, p . 4 05). B lack h as b een n oted o nce a nd y e llow i s s aid t o h ave b een u sed o n t he e xamp le f ound a t Y ewden M anor ( Cooks, 1 921, p . 1 92); r ed a nd b lue a re a lso m entioned a s b e ing p resent . 3 5

O n a pprox imate ly a d ozen b rooches t he e name l i s t oo d ecayed t o b e a b le t o s ay w hat t he o r iginal c o lour w as b ut o n o n ly t hree h as a ll t he e name l d isappeared . E ach b rooch h as o n ly a s ing le c o lour e name l t o e ach c e ll b ut g enera lly t wo c o lours a ppear a lternate ly t hough s ometimes o n ly o ne i s u sed a nd t here i s t he s light p ossibility o f t hree . F or t his g roup t he t echnique i s a lways s imp le . T here a re h alf ac b zen d ated s pecimens. T hat r ecovered d uring t he e xcavations a t A lchester c omes f rom a l eve l p laced b etween A .D . 8 0 a nd 1 30 ( Hawkes, 1 927, p . 1 8 1, n o . 3 ). T he e xamp le f rom t he B urgüte S treet e xcavations i n C anterbury b e longs t o m id-second c entury l eve ls ( W illiams, 1 948, p . 2 0). W hat a ppears t o b e t his t ype o f b rooch i s s aid t o h ave b een f ound a ssociated w ith a c oin o f S eptim ius S everus a t I xworth i n S uffo lk ( Fox, 1 900, p . 1 5 1) w hile t wo c oins o f V espasian w ere f ound w ith t he s pecimen f rom W roxeter ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 13, p p . 2 6-27, n o . 9 ). T he c oins f ound a t t he W est P ark, R ockbourne, v illa, w hich a lso y ie lded a s mall d omed p late b rooch, r ange i n d ate f rom t he m id-third c entury t o t he t ime o f A rcadius ( Hew itt, 1 968, p p . 3 1, 3 6). T his t ype o f b rooch w ou ld t hus s eem t o h ave m ade i ts d ebut i n t he l ate f irst c entury a nd t o h ave s urvived t hroughout t he s econd a nd q uite p ossib ly i nto t he t hird. C o llingwood s uggests t he s econd t o t hird c enturies f or i ts m anufacture . F ew c an b e s aid t o c ome f rom t he n orth o f t he c ountry . T hirty c ome f rom w hat c an b e t ermed s outhern B r itain a nd h alf o f t hese c an c ertain ly b e s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n t he s outh-east . T he l arge d omed p late b rooch d iffers i n v ar ious w ays f rom t he p revious t ype: i t i s l arger w ith a d iameter v ary ing b etween 3 a nd 4 c ms; t he d ome w hile h aving a s ma ller b ase i s u sually h igher; t here i s ab rim o r l ip r unning a round t he b ase o f t he d ome; t here a re g enerally m ore k nobs o n t he e dge a nd s ometimes t his i s s ca lloped; o verall t he c e ll s hape c ontinues t o c onsist o f r ows o f t r iang les, f ound i nvariab ly o n t he d ome . T he t ype d oes n ot f igure i n C ollingwood . A pproximate ly t wenty b rooches b e long t o t his g roup w hich i s w e ll r epresented b y t hat f ound a t N ewstead ( Cur ie, 1 911, p . 3 31, n o . 6 , p l. L XXXIX, 2 0) a nd t he s pecimen f rom T hist leton ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 5 3, f ig. 6 , n o . 8 ). A gain i t i s e name lled o n t he d ome b ut a lso s ometimes o n t he b r im a nd o ccasionally o n t he ' foot ' k nob . T here i s ag reater v ar iety o f c ell s hapes t hough t riang les a re m ost c ommon, b ut l arger a nd f ewer i n n umber . O n t his g roup t he i nstances o f r ed a nd b lue a re a bout e qual a nd t his c o lour c ombinat ion i s t he m ost c ommon . T here a re a f ew c ases o f g reen i f t his i ndeed i s t he i ntended c o lour, a nd b lack i s s uggested a s t he s econd c o lour o n t he s pecimen f rom F frith ( Davies, 1 949, p . 2 47, n o. 7 ) b ut t his s hou ld p erhaps b e r egarded a s ' decayed '. A mong a ll t he e xamp les l ooked a t t here a re h a lf a d ozen i nstances w here t he e name l i s n ow d ecayed a nd a n e qual n umber f rom w hich i t h as g one e ntire ly . A s w ith t he p rev ious g roup a ll t he l arge d omed b rooches h ave s imp le e namels w ith o ne c o lour p er c e ll. G enerally h owever t wo

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c o lours a re u sed p er o bject a nd t he m ost f requent t wo a re r ed a nd b lue a s a lready n oted; r ed a nd g reen a lso a ppear a nd t here i s t he o dd c ase o f o n ly o ne c o lour, b lue, h aving b een a pp lied. T wo c ome f rom s econd c entury c ontexts a t R aveng lass a nd W atercock ( O livier, 1 979, p . 6 7, n o . 2 , f ig . 2 6,2 a nd p . 2 11, n o . 1 6, f ig . 8 4, 16). A s r egards d istr ibution f ew h ave n orthern f ind-spots w hile f urther s outh t he s outh-east h as y ielded s light ly m ore t han t he s outh-west . O val a nd m edallion b rooches ( F igure 4 C) T his g roup c onsists o f af lat o val p late w ith a s eparate s mall o val p laced i n t he c entre a nd r ising a f ew m illemetres a bove t he s urface o f t he f ormer ( f igures 4 C). T he t ype i s n ot l isted b y C o llingwood b ut w as b rief ly d iscussed w hen t he s pecimen f rom C ampsf ie ld w as p ub lished ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p . 6 0). T his e xamp le f rom C ampsfie ld i s t ypical o f t he t ype o f w hich t wenty-four h ave b een n oted . T he r aised o val ( equals t he ' medallion ') w hen i t i s p resent i s a lways e name lled w hile t he p late p roper h as o ne u ninterrupted b and o f e name l r unning a round t he b ase o f t he m edallion. T he p late i s u sually 2 .5-3 c ms. l ong a nd a bout 2 c ms. w ide w hile t he m eda llion i s j ust o ver 1 c m . l ong a nd j ust l ess t han 1 c m . w ide; t he w idth o f t he e name lled b and o n t he p late i s 3 -4 m ms. I n o n ly a f ew c ases d oes t he m edallion s t ill s urvive a long w ith t he m ain b ase p late a nd t here a ppears t o b e n o e xamp le w here t he m edallion a lone s urvives. T he e name ls i n t he b and o n t he p late a nd o n t he m eda llion a re r ather d ifferent . I n t he f ormer b lue a nd w hite a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon c o lours a nd u sually o ccur t ogether t hough t wo c ases o f b lue a lone w ere n oted ( e .g. B rassington, 1 980, p . 1 8, f ig. 8 ,d). R ed d oes n ot a ppear v ery o ften a nd t hen o nly w ith b lue e xcept i n o ne i nstance g reen 5 8 . T here i s as mall n umber o f b rooches w here t he t wo c o lours a re d ecayed o r e ven e nt ire ly g one . I n t he b and t he e name l i s f ound a s s eparate a lternate ly c o loured p ieces u sually s quar ish i n s hape . T we lve i s t he u sual n umber b ut e ight a re a lso k nown a nd t he e dges b etween t he p ieces a re q uite c lear, n ot b lurred, t hough n o m eta l s eparates t hem . T his p rovides a g ood e xamp le o f am ore c omp lex e name l-working t echnique . T he e name l i n t he m edallion i s as imp le o ne c o lour a ffair e ither r ed o r g reen ( the o r iginal c o lour i n s ome c ases a t l east) a nd u sua lly b ears a n i ntagliolike i mpression ( incuse) o f ah uman h ead a s o n t hose f rom S ilchester ( Read ing M useum r eg. n o . 0 329 1) o r W ickham B ushes ( University M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, C ambridge ) t hough t here i s t he p almette b ased d esign o n t he C ampsf ie ld s pecimen. ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p p . 5 9-60, f ig . 2 6,1). M ost o f t hese b rooches a re s tray o r u nstratif ied f inds b ut t he f ew d ated o nes a re i nterest ing. T hat f rom R ichborough i s s aid t o b e " probab ly t hird c entury" i n d ate ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 17, n o . 4 8). T he s pecimen f rom S ilchester i s a ssigned t o t he f ourth c entury ( Boon, 1 974, p . 1 34, f ig . 1 9,3) a nd t he e xcavator s uggests a f ourth c entury d ate a lso f or t hat f rom L owbury H ill ( Atkinson, 1 9 16, p . 3 5, n o . 3 4). W e h ave s een ( supra) t hat t he f inds f rom C ampsf ie ld c ome f rom a n e ar ly f ourth c entury d eposit . T here i s t hus n o c lear ly d ated e ar ly e xamp les a nd c ontexts w ou ld s uggest a t hird t o f ourth c entury d ate f or t hese b rooches. 3 7

T here i s o n ly o ne s pecimen f rom t he n orth ( Corbridge) a nd n one t hat c an r ea lly b e s aid t o b e f rom t he s outh-west . T heir d istr ibut ion l ies i n a n e xtended s outh-eastern a rea. W hile t here w ou ld s eem t o b e s ome C ont inental p aralle ls 5 9 ,w e a ppear t o b e d ea ling w ith a B r itish b rooch w hich s hows a c omp lex t echnique b eing m ade i n t he l atter h alf o f t he R oman o ccupation a nd w ith a r estricted d istr ibution . C hate laine b rooches A nother g roup o f p late b rooches w hich a ppear sto b e o f B r itish o r igin t akes t he f orm o f as hie ld w ith a b ar a cross t he e nd h eld b y nd h olding u p t o s even s mall t oilet i mp lements. T he t wo l ug:. a t ype r ates o nly a l ine i n C o llingwood ( Collingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 3 00, f ig. 1 06, n o . 1 07). Af ine e xamp le w as d iscovered i n t he R omano-Br it ish c emetery a t B aldock a nd i s n ow i n L etchworth M useum ( Weste ll, 1 93 1, p p . 2 6 1-262). E ight o f t hese b rooches h ave b een n oted t o w hich m ay b e a dded s pecimens f rom W anborough a nd G loucester ( Butcher, 1 977, p p . 5 1-52, f ig. 5 ,5). T he p lates a re i nvariab ly c overed w ith a l arge n umber o f s mall c ells: r ectang les, t riang les ( straight a nd c urved), c ircles, p etals ( ova ls) a nd s hie ld-shaped c e lls, a ll c ontaining e name l. T his i s a lways o ne c olour t o ac e ll a nd i s g enera lly b lue, y e llow , r ed o r g reen a nd h as a g ood s urviva l r ate . M ost o f t he f inds h ave b een m ade i n t he s outh e xcept f or o ne f rom t he M id lands a nd a nother f rom t he n orth . T hat f rom B aldock c omes f rom a l ate f irst c entury b urial w hile a nother w as r etr ieved f rom t he W albrook s treambed ( Guildhall M useum, 1 960, p . 4 , n o . 4 ). S imilar ly d ecorated, a nd t herefore s uggesting a c ommon o rigin p erhaps, a re t he s ma ll n umber o f p e lta- a nd c rescent-shaped b rooches s uch a s t hose f rom W oodeaton ( K irk, 1 949, p . 1 4, n o . 4 8, f ig. 3 ,5) a nd L ondon ( Whee ler, 1 946, p . 9 6, n os. 3 5 a nd 3 4, f ig. 2 9). T ype 1 8 o f t he d isc b rooches, d ealt w ith b e low b ut s ee a s econd s pecimen f rom R ichborough ( Cun liffe, 1 968, p . 8 8, n o . 6 , p l. X XXI, 6 6), b asica lly b e longs h ere t oo o n a ccount o f i ts d ecoration a nd i ndeed t he c entre o f t he p late i s s light ly d omed n ot f lat a s w ith t he m ajor ity o f t he d isc b rooches a s d ef ined . T he d ecoration o n t his g roup a nd o n t he c hate laine b rooches h as m ost r ecent ly b een d escr ibed a s ' sca le-patterned ' ( Butcher, 1 977, p p, 5 1-52). D isc b rooches ( F igure 5 . ) C o llingwood i nc ludes a g reat v ar iety o f p late b rooches u nder h is ' d isc ' t ype ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, n os. 1 0 1-5). T he d omed t ype ( no . 1 02) h as b een d ealt w ith a nd t hat w ith t he s tud i n t he c entre ( no . 1 03) i s d iscussed s hort ly T he v ar iety w ith a c onical s tone s et i n t he c entre ( no . 1 04)0U a nd t hat w ith a n a pp lied r epousse d isc ( no. 1 05) d o n ot b ear e name l. O nly h is ( no . 1 0 1) i s t reated a s at rue d isc b rooch h ere, t hat i s t o d ef ine t his t ype a s af lat c ircu lar p late w ith n othing e lse e xcept t he b rooch f itt ings ( hinge/spr ing a nd c atch-p late) o n t he u nder-side. T he e name l i s s unk i nto t he u pper s urface i n ag reat v ar iety o f c e lls. T he v ar ious t ypes i n f igure 5 a re b ased o n t he d esign o f t he s epta s eparating a nd d efining t he e name lled c e lls a nd a re d ea lt w ith i n t his o rder .

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I n v ar iety 1 t he c e lls a re c ircu lar w ith ( a ) o ne l arge c e ll c overing t he w ho le s urface; ( b) t wo c e lls; o r ( c ) as pot i n t he c entre a nd t wo c ircu lar c e lls a round i t . T here a re t hree e xamp les o f l a c omp lete ly f illed w ith m illef ior i e name l. T he s pecimen f rom R ichborough p rovides a g ood e xamp le ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 17, n o. 4 7, p l. XIX, 4 7). I t i s n ot a lways c lear i f t he t wo c e lls o f l b a re i ntended f or e name l a nd i f s o i n as imp le f ashion a s o n t he b rooch f rom B oxmoor w here t he e name l i s n ow r ather d ecayed ( Ashmo lean M useum, r eg. n o . 1 927.257). O ne f rom W roxeter h as a m ore c omp lex t echnique o f t wo e name ls ( one w ith a dditiona l s pots i n i t) w ith n o m inor s epta ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 13, p . 2 3, n o . 2 ). T he t hird v ar iety l c i s o ne o f t he l argest w ith o ver a s core o f e xamp les. T he l argish c entra l c e ll i s n ear ly a lways e mpty a nd m ay h ave h ad, i n s ome c ases, a s tone r ather t han e name l a s o n as pecimen f rom C arrawborough i n C hesters M useum ( reg . n o . 2 030). T he m ajor ity p ossess s imp le e name l i n t he m idd le c e ll, u sually r ed b ut a n i nstance o f g reen w as n oted, a s w e ll a s i n t he o uter c e ll w hich u sually c ontains b lue e name l. I n o ne o f t he b rooches f rom C orbridge ( site m useum ) t he b lue i s t ranslucent n ot o paque a s n ormal. T here a re s ome e xamp les w hich d o n ot r etain t heir d ecoration a t a ll. T here a re t wo c ases o f ac omp lex e name l h aving b een a pp lied a s w e ll a s t hree r ather p oor i nstances o f m illef ior i d ecorat ion. O n ly t he s pecimen f rom C aerwent i s w ell d ated b eing a ssociated w ith l ate t hird t o f ourth c entury c oins ( Nash-W illiams, 1 930, p . 2 79). A bout t w ice a s m any h ave b een f ound i n t he s outh a s i n t he n orth. V ar iety 2 i s s im ilar t o t he l ast ( lc) e xcept t hat i n t he m idd le c ell t here i s r eserved a c irc le o f s eventeen o r e ighteen b ronze s pots. O n t he h alf d ozen e xamp les k nown m ost o f t he e name l ( a ll s imp le) i s d ecayed o r g one. R ed, b lue a nd g reen w ere h owever n oted. T he l atter i s t o b e s een o n a n e xamp le f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 3 1, n o . 4 , p l. L XXXLX, n o . 6 ). T ype 3 d iffers f rom t he p revious g roup o n ly i n h aving a ' wavy ' e dge t o t he o uter c e ll. O n t he n ine n oted t he n orm s eems t o b e s imp le e name l w ith b lue i n t he o uter c e ll ( and s urviving m ore o ften) a nd r ed i n t he m iddle c e ll. S ee t he t wo e xamp les f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 31, n os. 3 & 4 ) a nd t he o ne f rom a l ate f ourth c entury c ontext a t R avenglass ( Olivier, 1 979, p . 6 7, n o . 5 , f ig. 2 6,5). V ariety 4 h as a c entre s pot a nd t hree m ore c ells, t he o utermost w ith r eserved b ronze s pots i n i t . O n t he f ew n oted m ost o f t he e name l h as d isappeared b ut g reen i s p resent i n t he o uter c e ll o f t hat f rom B rough ( Sm ith, 1 866, p l. 1 ,4). A bout a d ozen s pecimens o f v ar iety 5 a re k nown. T he s pecimen f rom W oodeaton ( K irk, 1 949, p . 1 2, n o . 2 5) i s t ypical; a l arge c entral c e ll a nd o ne w ide c ircle w ithin w hich a re s ix ( in o ther c ases e ight) r ings o f b ronze w ith a b ronze s pot i n t he c entre o f e ach . T he c entre s pot h as r ed e name l w here t his s urvives. T he g round o f t he o uter c e ll i s u sually b lue ( though r ather w eak a nd o ften t ending t owards g reen o r w hite) b ut i n af ew c ases a ctually g reen. T he s ma ll c ircles o f e name l a ppear t o b e r ed . Al ot o f t he e namel i s d ecayed b ut w hatever t he c o lour, i t i s a lways a pp lied s imp ly . N o e xamp le c omes f rom a d ated c ontext . A t hird a re f rom n orthern l ocations. 3 9

T here i s o n ly o ne e xamp le o f t ype 6 , f rom P akenham i n S uffo lk ( Ashmo lean M useum, r eg. n o . 1 927, 2 63). L ike g roup 1 i t h as o nly o ne l arge c e ll b ut h ere a re r eserved o ne c entral a nd s ix o ther b ronze s pots. T he e name l h as h owever g one e ntire ly . T he m ain s eptum i n t ype 7 i s s tar-shaped t hus g iving s uch a c ell i n t he c entre a nd s ix t r iangular o nes o n t he e dge w hich i s ' wavy ' a s o n te h B rough f ind i n te h Ah s mo lean M useum ( reg. n o . 1 927.302). N one o f t he s mall n umber o f s pecimens i s a like i n c o lour c omb inat ion b ut r ed, b lue a nd g reen a re p resent i n as imp le m anner . T here a ppears t o b e n o s tratif ied f ind . T here a re h alf a d ozen b rooches k nown w ith a z ig-zag s eptum c onstitut ing t ype 8 ( e .g. f rom L eicester i n t he J ewry W all M useum, r eg . n o . 541955). T here i s ar ing o f m eta l i n t he c entre a nd t he m idd le c e ll h as a r ow o f r eserved m eta l s pots. M ost o f t he e name l i s d ecayed o r m issing b ut s imp le b lue ( outer c e ll) a nd r ed ( inner c e ll - w ith c entre s pot a lways e mpty )as o n as pecimen i n t he A shmo lean M useum ( reg. n o . 1 927.249) s eem t o b e t he n ormal c omb ination. H owever t here a re t wo c ases o f b lue i n b oth c e lls a nd i n o ne i nstance i t i s t ranslucent n ot o paque . O n ly t hat f rom R ichborough i s d ated, s eem ingly t o t he l ate t hird o r e ar ly f ourth c entury ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 16, n o . 4 5). T he m ajority w ere f ound i n t he s outh. G roup 9 i s d enoted b y as ing le .t r iske le-shaped s eptum a s w ith a n e xamp le f rom L owbury H ill ( Atkinson, 1 9 16, p . 3 5, n o . 2 9, P l. I X, n o . 2 9). A gain o n ly a bout h alf a d ozen a re k nown u sua lly w ith r ed i n t he o uter c ell a nd b lue w ithin t he t r iske le b ut b lue a lso o ccurs i n t he f ormer a nd b oth g reen a nd o range i n t he l etter . I n a ll c ases a s imp le e name l w ith t wo c o lours i s u sed . M ost c ome f rom t he s outh, a ll f rom u ndated c ontexts. O ne o f t he m ost n umerous g roups i s n umber 1 0 ( inc luding 1) w ith a bout t wo d ozen e xamp les. A gain t here i s b ut o ne s eptum r ather ' scalloped ' w ith t he s callops j oining i n s ix p rom inent k nobs. B rettenham a gain p rovides a c lassic e xamp le o f t he g roup ( Ashmo lean M useum, r eg. n o. 1 927.252). T here i s a lways o n ly o ne c o lour t o a c e ll, t wo c o lours t o ab rooch, i n s eemingly s imp le f ashion . R ed i n t he o uter a nd b lue i n t he i nner c e ll i s c ommon b ut t his c an b e r eversed a nd t here a re i nstances o f g reen, y e llow a nd p ossib ly w hite . I n m any c ases t he e name l i s d ecayed o r m issing. O ne s ma ll g roup, 1 ,s tands o ut a s h aving b lack i n t he o uter c e ll a nd e ither b lue o r r ed w ithin t he s ca llops a s o n t hat f ound a t W ilderspoo l ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, F ig. 2 0, n o. 9 ). O n ly a s ma ll m inor ity h ave f ind-spots i n t he n orth a nd l ike t hose f rom f urther s outh a re u ndated . G roup 1 2 h as o n ly a s ingle e xamp le . H ere t he s ix k nobs o f t he s eptum a ppear a s t he ' c rests o f w aves '. T he o uter c e ll i s b lue a nd t he i nner r ed - t he v ery c entre i s e mpty n ow . T he b rooch w as r ecovered a t L owbury H ill ( Atk inson, 1 9 16, p . 3 5, n o . 3 0). O n t he s ix s pecimens o f g roup 1 3 t here a re f our s em i-circular s epta o n t he e dge t hus g iv ing a c ross-shaped c entral c e ll a nd f our s em i-circu lar o nes b etween t he ' arms ' a s s een o n t he L ombard S treet b rooch f rom L ondon ( Whee ler, 1 946, p . 9 6 , no . 3 6). T he e name l s eems 4 0

t o b e o f t wo c o lours, s imp ly a pp lied, p er b rooch: t here a re t hus t we lve i nstances o f e name l b ut n ine o f t hese c an o n ly b e d escr ibed a s d ecayed. T here a re t wo c ases o f r ed i n t he c ross a nd o ne o f b lue i n t he a rms. F ive c ome f rom L ondon o r n orth-east o f i t, o ne p ossib ly f rom C harterhouse . G roups 1 4 a nd 1 5 a re v ariations o f t he l ast t ype . T he f ormer h as t hree s em i-circles b ut n o s pecimen s till r etains i ts e name l w hile t he l atter h as s ix s em i-circles s eeming ly b lue, w ith t he m ain c e ll f illed w ith r ed. A ltogether t here a re f ew s pecimens o f t hese t wo t ypes. Af ew m isce llaneous b rooches m ake u p g roups 1 6, 1 7 a nd 1 8 o f w hich t he l atter w ith t hirteen s pecimens r ecorded i s n ot s tr ict ly a s d ef ined h ere s ince i t h as a s light ly d omed c entre a s s een o n t he u nstrat if ied e xamp le f rom R ichborough, o n w hich t he e name l h as d ecayed ( Bushe-Fox, 1 932, p . 7 8, n o . 1 4, p l. X , 1 4). T he e name l, a lways s imp ly a pp lied, h as f requent ly d isappeared. O verall t he d isc b rooch c onstitutes a l arge g roup c ontaining o ver o ne h undred s pecimens c oncentrated i n t he b asically s im ilar g roups 1 -5 a nd g roups 9 a nd 1 0 . R ed a nd b lue e name l a re t he m ost f requent b ut g reen c an b e s aid t o b e c ommon a nd t here a re s mall n umbers o f b lack, w hite, y ellow a nd o range . S imp le e name l ( usua lly w ith t wo c o lours) i s t he m ost f requent t echnique e mp loyed, b ut t here a re s ome c ases o f am ore c omp lex e name l a nd e ven m illef ior i d ecoration i s p resent . O nly a bout a f ifth o f t he g roup c omes f rom t he n orth a nd v ery f ew a re d ated. T he q uest ion a s t o w hether t hese b rooches a re o f B rit ish m anufacture o r n ot h as a lready b een t ouched u pon i n t he i ntroduction t o t his s ection. A nimal

p late b rooches ( F igure 6 )

T his g roup i s a s n umerous a nd a s v ar ied a s t he l ast . T he m ajor ity a re f lat t hough s ome a re i n t he r ound s uch a s t he c ock/hen b rooches. C o llingwood d eals i n t hree l ines, a nd w ithout r ea l d iscussion , w ith w hat h e t erms t he z oomorphic p late b rooch ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 3 00, n os. 1 06, 1 09 a nd 10). A gain e ach t ype i s d iscussed s eparate ly i n c onjunction w ith t he i llustrations p rovided i n F igure 6 ; t he o rder f o llows t he t ype o f a nima l r epresented i n a lphabet ical o rder . T he e name l i s a lways o n t he u pper s urface . S ome r epresentational f orms o ther t han a nimals a re i nc luded h ere s uch a s t he a xe, h orse a nd r ider a nd s anda l. T here a re v ery f ew e xamp les o f f orm 1 , a n a xe, b ut t hat f rom C amerton ( Somerset C ounty M useum, T aunton, r eg. n o . A1 0 1) h as a s imp le e name l i n b lue a nd a n ow d ecayed c o lour . U nder g roup 2 c omes a n umber o f m isce llaneous b ird s hapes w hich d o n ot r eadily f it i nto t he d ucks, e ag les a nd c ock/hens d ealt w ith b elow . T hey a re v ar iously d escribed a s d ucks, p igeons, d oves, p eacocks a nd p heasants a nd m ost a re p art ly i n t he r ound ( i .e. h ead o nly) a s t he ' p igeon a t r est ' f rom C hanevage, G loucestershire ( Ashmo lean M useum, r eg. n o. 1 927.38 1). T he s imp le e name l i s g enera lly f ound o n t he b ody a nd w ings a nd w here i t r emains c lear i s b lue a nd r ed.

4 1

T here a re a f ew b rooches i n t he s hape o f ab oar, t ype 3 , o ne w ith b lue e name l o n t he b ody h aving b een f ound i n al ate s econd-ear ly t hird c entury d eposit a t B rough ( Corder, 1 935, p p . 3 2-33). G roup 4 i s o ne o f t he l argest a nd b est k nown t ypes b e ing a s itting ( ?roosting) c ock o r h en i n t he r ound . O ver a d ozen ' a re k nown a mong t hem t he w e ll p ub lished s pecimens f rom B ow land ( Nat iona l M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land r eg . n o . F A87-1922 .521) a nd Y ork ( Yorkshire M useum, r eg. n o . H1 39A) b oth e name lled i n r ed a nd y e llow . T he e name l i s f ound i n s ma ll s imp le c e lls o n t he b ody a nd s omet imes t he h ead. M uch o f i t h as d ecayed o r i s m issing b ut s ome i s r ed, y e llow a nd b lue, u sually t wo o f t hese t ogether -red a nd y e llow, b lue a nd y e llow a s w e ll a s b lue a nd r ed . T he e name l i s s imp le b ut u sually w e ll e xecuted . T he m ajority o f t hese b rooches c omes f rom t he s outh a nd o n ly o ne i s d ated, t hat f rom W roxeter f ound i n a c ontext d ated b efore A .D . 1 50 ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 16, p . 2 5, n o . 1 3). As mall n umber i n t he s hape o f ad eer, g roup 5 , w as n oted . T hat f rom C aer leon ( s ite m useum ) h as o ne c e ll c over ing t he b ody t his h as a c omp lex e name l o f ab lue g round w ith t hree y ellow s pots i nserted w hile t he s pecimen f rom t he W e ll o f C onventina a t C arrawburgh ( Chester M useum, r eg. n o. 2 033A) h as a s imp le e name l i n r ed o nly . D ogs c onstitute g roup 6 a nd o f -the d ozen n oted t he m ost c ommon i s w hat i s p ossib ly a h ound r unning t o t he r ight -sometimes e rroneous ly c a lled a h are . T he m ain c ell c overs t he b ody b ut o ccasionally t he e ye i s e name lled a lso . S ome a re s imp ly d ecorated i n b lue w here t he e namel s urvives, o thers h ave a c omp lex d ecorat ion o f ab ed o f b lue i nto w hich s pots o f y e llow a re s et -red w ith w hite s pots i s a lso k nown. N one i s d ated a nd t he m ajor ity w ere f ound i n t he s outh . G roup 7 i s s mall. I t c onsists o f d o lphin-shaped b rooches s uch a s t he e xamp le f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11 ,p . 32, n o . 1 , p l. L XXX IX, n o . 3 ) w hich h as a s imp le e name l d ecoration i n b lue a nd a s econd c o lour n ow d ecayed. L inco ln p rovides a s pecimen o f t he g roup 8 ' sw imm ing d uck ' t ype ( Thompson, 1 954, p . 1 27, f ig. 4 ,8) w ith a f lat b ody a nd a h ead i n t he r ound. S imp le e name l i s f ound o n t he b ack a nd w ings; r are ly d o t he e yes h ave s ett ings. O f t he t wo c o lours u sed o ne i s u sua lly b lue, t he o ther, w here i t s urvives, r ed . M ost h ave b een f ound i n t he s outh o f t he c ountry . T he t wo f rom Y ork c ome f rom a g rave g roup c ontaining a c oin o f T rajan ( Roya l C ommission, 1 962, P . 9 1) w hile a nother c omes f rom t he W albrook a nd t he S aint A lbans s pecimen w as f ound i n am id-second c entury c ontext ( Frere, 1 972, P 17, n . o . 2 1) As mall n umber, g roup ( sometimes d escr ibed a s a d isappeared b ut t hat f rom t he d ate s uggested b y t he 1 933, p p . 3 83, 3 86).

9 , t ake t he f orm o f ap erched e agle c row ). M ost ly t he e name l h as d ecayed o r C ast le law r etains i ts r ed a nd b lack e name ls; e xcavator i s t he s econd c entury ( Childe,

F ish t oo a ppear i n t he z oomorphic r epertoire a s t ype 1 0 . J ust o ver h alf a d ozen, a ll f lat, a re k now isuch a s t he t wo f ound i n t he

4 2

W albrook s Whee ler, 1 946, P treambed ( . 9 8, n o . 4 0 ad n G uildhall M useum, 1 960, p . 4 , n o . 1 ). T he e name l, a lways s imp le, i s m ost ly d ecayed o r g one n ow a nd n o e xamp le c omes f rom t he n orthern p arts o f t he c ountry . G roups 1 ( f ly), 1 2 ( frog) a nd 1 3 ( h ippocamp ) h ave f ew r epresentatives. O n ly t he f irst h as s imp le e name l ,t he r emaining t wo p ossess a m ore c omp lex t echnique . T he f rog b rooch f rom L eicester ( Jewry W all M useum, r eg. n o . 16, 1 962/872) h as t wo c e lls o n i ts b ack, b oth w ith a d ecayed g round c ontaining f our w hite s pots w hile t he h ippocamp f rom S ilchester ( Reading M useum r eg. n o. 0 3282) h as a r ed g round . A nother n umerous t ype, 1 4, t akes t he s hape o f ah orse a nd r ider ( f lat a nd t o t he r ight). O n o ver a d ozen e xamp les t he e name l i s f ound o n t he b odies o f t he h orse a nd t he r ider -as o n t he p air f rom W oodeaton ( K irk, 1 949, p . 1 4, n o. 3 0). T he e name l s e ldom s urvives w e ll b ut b lue a nd r ed a ppear t o b e t he n ormal p air o f c o lours w ith t he f ormer s till p reserved m ore f requently . I t i s a lways a pp lied s imp ly . N o l ess t han s ix w ere r ecovered a t H ockwo ld, N orfo lk, f rom a p ossib le f ourth c entury c ontext a nd f our m ore h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite o f t he l ate t emp le o n L amyatt B eacon, S omerset ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 5 4). A lmost a s m any h orses a lone, g roup 1 5, h ave b een f ound t hough h ere t he v ar iety o f s hape i s g reater . O n ly o ne c omes f rom t he n orth n ame ly t he s pecimen f rom Y ork ( Yorkshire M useum, r eg. n o. H 1398). T he m ajority p ossess s imp le e name l, t he c o lour m ost ly n ot d ist inguishab le n ow b ut b lue a nd g reen w ere n oted . N one i s c lose ly d ated . Af ew o f t hese a nimal b rooches t ake t he f orm o f al eopard ( type 1 6) a nd a l ion ( type 1 7). T he e name lled s pots most ly e mpty n ow on t he e xamp le f rom H arw ich ( Br it ish M useum, r eg. n o. 8 1.9-9 .19) p robab ly d enote t he f ormer . A nother o f t he l arger g roups, 1 8, d enotes a h are o r r abbit s ometimes o bvious, s ometimes n ot c lear, w hich . S uch a c ase i s t he e ar ly t hird c entury b rooch f rom t he J ewry W all s ite i n L eicester ( Kenyon, 1 948, p . 2 5 1, n o. 5 ). A gain t he e name l i s m ost ly s imp le b ut u sua lly i n p oor c ondition t hough b lue a nd r ed h ave b een n oted. T he m ajority c ome f rom t he s outh w here W inchester y ie lded a s pecimen l ost a bout A .D . 6 0 ( Hu ll, 1 964, p . 9 0, n o. 5 , f ig. 2 4,5). E qually l arge i s g roup 1 9 i n t he s hape o f as andal a s f or e xamp le t hat f rom W ilderspoo l ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, f ig. 2 0,7). H ere h owever a c omp lex e name l i s a lways i n e vidence . T he o ne l arge c e ll i s f illed w ith a b lue ( except o range i n t wo c ases) g round i nto w hich a re p laced s pots o f b lack, w hite, y e llow o r r ed . O n ly a s mall p roportion h ave n orthern f ind-spots. T hat f rom S hakenoak c an b e d ated t o t he s econd c entury ( Brodr ibb e t . a l. 1 973, p . 1 08, n o. 1 79). F ina lly g roup 2 0 i s as tag s uch a s t hat f rom a l ate s econd c entury c ontext a t W roxeter ( Atkinson, 1 942, p . 2 08); t his e xamp le h as b lue a nd g reen e namel.

4 3

I f w e t ake t he a nimal p late b rooches a s ag roup t he m ain t echnique i s as imp le e name l u sually i n t wo c o lours b ut c omp lex e name ls d o o ccur n ot o n ly o n t he s andal b rooches b ut a lso o n s uch a s o n t he d og b rooches; m illef ior i d ecoration i s n ot m et w ith i n t his g roup . T here i s al arge n umber o f d ecayed e name ls a nd e ven e nt ire ly e mpty c e lls. A s r egards c o lour b lue s eems t o b e t he m ost f requent, a ppear ing o ver f ifty t imes a nd b eing t hree t imes a s f requent a s r ed. Y e llow, g reen, o range a nd b lack a re f ound i n s ma ller q uantities; w hite a ppears a s s pots i n s ome o f t he c omp lex e name ls. O ut o f o ver a h undred s pecimens l ess t han t wenty p er c ent c an b e s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n t he n orth. T oo f ew a re d ated c lose ly e nough t o a ttempt t o p lace t he w ho le g roup i n a ny s ubdivision o f t he R oman p er iod t hough g enerally s econd a nd t hird c entury c ontexts s eem m ost c ommon. M isce llaneous d isc b rooches T here a re a lmost s eventy b rooches o f v arious s hapes w hich c ome w ithin C o llingwood 's d isc b rooch t ype b ut n ot t hat l atter ly d ef ined. T hey a re b asically a c ircu lar p late b ut h ave a ddit ions s uch a s p rojections a nd/or h ead l oops o n t heir e dge a nd e specia lly s ome s ort o f a pp lied u pstanding d ecorat ive r ivet o r s tud i n t he c entre . H ere a B r itish o r igin i s l ess c ertain s o t he t ypes a re d iscussed o nly b rief ly . T here a re a bout a d ozen w ith n o u pstanding s tuds b ut w ith a h ead l oop a nd f rom f our t o t en c ircular p roject ions a round t he e dge . M ost h ave t he e name l i n s imp le c ircular c e lls t hough i t i s n ow i n a d ecayed o r w orse c ondition b ut r ed, b lue a nd g reen a re p resent . T here i s o ne e xamp le o f ac omp lex e name l i n o range a nd d ecayed s quare p ieces a nd a p oor b ut p ossib le m illef ior i s pecimen . O nly o ne w as f ound i n t he n orth. T he m ajor ity h ave h owever s ome s ort o f s eparate a pp lied r ivet i n t he c entre; m ost ly t his i s p lain b ut s ometimes i t c onsists o f a m etal c one a nd i n af ew c ases a z oomorph ic s hape i n t he r ound . T here a re n ine e xamp les w ith m illef ior i d ecoration s uch a s o ne f rom R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p p . 16117, n o . 4 6). O f t he r emainder j ust s light ly m ore h ave s imp le e name l: i n r ed, b lue, y e llow, b lack a nd w h ite t hough m uch c annot n ow b e d istinguished d ue t o d ecay . T here a re m any c omp lex e name ls i n t his g roup, t he m ajor ity c onsisting o f s eparate s quarish p ieces o f t wo d ifferent c oloured e name ls l aid s ide b y s ide: b lue w ith r ed, y e llow o r w h ite; g reen w ith r ed o r b lack, a nd r ed w ith y e llow w ere a ll n oted. M ost c e lls a re c ircular a nd n arrow t hough o f v ary ing w idths. V ery f ew o f t he f ind-spots a re i n t he n orth a nd o f t he r emainder t he g reater n umber o ccur i n t he s outh-east . S aint A lbans h as y ielded o ne t ype f rom a l ate f ourth c entury d eposit ( Kenyon, 1 934, p . 2 59, n o . 1 3), t wo m ore f rom a n e ar ly s econd c entury c ontext ( Whee ler, 1 936, p . 2 09, n os. 3 4 &3 7), a nd a f ourth a ssociated w ith a c o in o f D omit ian a s w e ll a s F lavian p otter y(ib id . n o . 3 6). T wo h ave b een r ecovered f rom t he W albrook , W roxeter h as a lso y ie lded t wo e ar ly s econd c entury e xamp les ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 16, p . 2 5, n os. 1 & 1 2). A l ate t hird c entury s pecimen c omes f rom R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 16117, n o . 4 6). T hus w hile t here a ppear t o b e l ate e xamp les p t he t rend i s t owards t he s econd c entury .

4 4

L oze ue p late b rooches H ere t he s hape i s b asica lly a l ozenge, u sually w ith p rojections a t t he a ng les b ut a lso w ith z oomorphic ( often d ebased) p roject ions a t t he ' head ' a nd ' foot ' o n a pproximate ly a t hird o f t he f orty o r s o s pecimens e xam ined . T he e name l i s n ormally f ound w ithin t he l ozenge i n s imp le c e lls. H alf t hese b rooches h ave s imp le e name l m ost ly d ecayed o r g one n ow b ut b lue, r ed, w hite a nd g reen h ave b een n oted. O ver a d ozen h ave a c omp lex e name l e ither p ieces o f b lue, b lack, w hite o r g reen o r e lse a g round o f w hite, b lue o r g reen w ith b lack o r w hite s pots. T wo s pecimens w ith m illef iori e name l w ere n oted one a r ather p lain l ozenge b rooch f rom B ardwe ll ( H ills, 1 871, p p. 2 58-259, p l. 1 2, 1). T he o ther z oomorphic l ozenge b rooch t ype i s e xemp lif ied b y ' me w ith s imp le e name l f rom R ichborough ( Cunliffe, 1 968, p . 8 9, n o. 6 7). T he l ozenge b rooch c omes o verwhe lmingly f rom t he s outh. O nly t wo p ossess d ated c ontexts h owever i .e. t he z oomorphic s pecimens f rom C olchester f rom a T rajanic l eve l(Hu ll, 1 958, p . 17) a nd S aint A lbans f rom a m id-second c entury l eve l ( Frere, 1 972, p .118, n o . 2 3). M isce llaneous p late b rooches I n a ddit ion t here a re o ver a h undred o ther e name lled p late b rooches f rom B ritain, s ome o f w hich a re h owever w e ll k nown ' foreign ' t ypes w ith z oomorphic t erm inals. O ther b rooch s hapes i nclude o va ls, s quares, r ectang les, o pen c irc les ( whee ls), t r iangles a nd v ar ious o ther s hapes, s ome f lat, o thers s tepped o r r aised, a nd s evera l w ith p rojections, o ften z oomorphic. M any h ave s imp le e name ls w ith b lue, r ed a nd y e llow v ery c ommon a nd o range a nd g reen l ess s o. Al arge n umber p ossess c omp lex e name ls m ade u p o f p ieces o f b lue, r ed, w hite, o range, b lack a nd y ellow o r e lse a g round w ith s pots i n v arious c ombinations o f t hese c o lours. O n ly t hree h ave m illef ior i d ecoration. O nce m ore t he m ajority c ome f rom t he s outh a nd t he f ew d ated l ie i n t he s econd c entury .

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C HAPTER

4

E NAMELLED O BJECTS ( NON-BROOCH)

E name lled o bjects o ther t han b rooches a re f air ly n umerous a nd m ake u p a bout o ne t hird o f a ll o bjects b earing t his t ype o f d ecoration f ound i n R oman c ontexts i n B r itain . S eal b oxes c onstitute b y f ar t he l argest g roup p roviding a lmost t wo h undred e name lled s pecimens. O ther t ypes f ound i n l arge n umbers i nclude b utton-and-loop f asteners, c ircular s tuds o r m ounts, m isce llaneous s tuds a nd m ounts, b e lt-p lates a nd v arious o ther m iscellaneous o bjects. K nown i n s maller q uantit ies a re v esse ls, m iniature s too ls o r s tands a nd f inger-r ings. O nly t he b utton-and-loop f asteners h ave b een p reviously e xam ined i n a ny d epth ( W ild, 1 970, p p . 1 37-155) t hough m uch d iscussion h as t aken p lace o n t he v essels ( see m ost r ecent ly M oore, 1 978, p p . 3 19-326) a nd t o al esser e xtent t he s too ls w hile v ar ious i ndividual i tems s uch a s t he T hames p laque h ave r eceived s ome a ttention ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 5 6). A s r egards w hat i s o f R omano-Brit ish m anufacture a nd w hat i s o f C ontinenta l o rigin, w hat t o i nc lude h ere, w hat t o o mit, m uch t he s ame p rob lems a rise a s w ith t he p late b rooches. S ome a re u ndoubted ly B r itish, s ome f oreign a nd m any b e long t o t ypes h aving a w ide d istribution a nd a h ome e qua lly p ossib le h ere o r a broad. I n t his r espect a t l east t he T hames p laque i n i ts d iscarded, u nf inished s tate i s c ertain ly a h ome p roduct a nd t he b utton-and-loop f asteners f ound i n t heir m ou lds a t T raprain L aw a re f urther e vidence o f aB r it ish o r igin f or t his g roup . T he m iniature s too ls a lso s eem t o b e a p roduct o f R oman B ritain a nd s ome a t l east o f t he f inger-rings, v esse ls a nd b e lt-p lates f all i nto t his c ategory t oo . T he s eal b oxes a re r ather a k in t o t he a nimal p late b rooches b ut a gain m any m ay h ave b een m ade b y t he R omano-Br itish e name l-working i ndustry . T he s tuds a nd/or m ounts a re a p rob lem b ut s hou ld n ot b e d ism issed a s b eing f ore ign. B utton-and-loop f asteners

F igure 7 A

T his i s t he o n ly c ategory c omprehensive ly d ealt w ith e lsewhere. T hese o bjects w ere f irst l isted a s d ress f asteners ( Gillam, 1 958, p . 7 9-85, 9 0) b ut m ore r ecent ly h ave b een a ssigned t o t he h orse p h arness rp W 970, p p e ertoire ( ild, 1 . 1 37-155) 6 1 . Te h t ype c onsists o f c ircular, r ectangu lar o r o ther s haped ' buttons', f rom t he c entre o f t he b acks o f w hi ch p roject a s hank w hich t hen t urns a t 9 00 t o l ie p aralle l t o t he h ead; t his s hank i s u sua lly l onger t han t he b utton a nd e nds i n al oop, o ften t r iangu lar . E ighty a ppear i n t he f irst l ist a nd o ne h undred a nd s ixty-f ive i n t he s econd. T he l atter h owever i ncludes a l arge n umber o f C ont inenta l f inds, s ome i n b one, a s w e ll a s t hose a lready d iscussed u nder t he I ron A ge e name lwork. T here a re a lmost s ixty e name lled s pecimens, q uite a f ew o f w hich a re n ot i n W ild's l istb 2 . A pproximately f ifty p er c ent o f t he g roup b ears e name l. T hose l isted ( op . c it .) f rom T raprain L aw p rovide a g ood s e lection o f b oth e name lled a nd p lain e xamp les.

4 6

I t i s p erhaps b est t o f o llow W ild's t ypo logy . O ut o f h is t en c lasses o n ly g roups II, V a nd V I a re o f i nterest h ere ( f igure 7 A) 6 3 . A lthough c lass II i s n umer ically t he l argest g roup o nly a s ma ll n umber b ear e name l d ecoration o n t heir t ear-drop o r p etal-shaped b uttons. I n t hree c ases t he c entral b oss b ears b lue e name l b ut i n t he o ther t hree t here a re t wo c o lours, g reen a nd r ed i n o ne i nstance b ut d ecayed o r m issing o therw ise. F asteners w ith c ircular b uttons, s omet imes c onvex, c onstitute g roup V : s ubgroups a , ca nd da re p lain b ut V b a lways h as e name l, f requent ly i n t he s hape o f a f lower . W ild l ists o n ly s even b ut o ver t wenty w ere n oted d uring r esearch f or t he p resent w ork. B lue a nd r ed a re t he m ost c ommon c o lours h ere w ith y e llow l ess s o a nd a f ew p ossib le i nstances o f w hite; n ow e mpty c e lls o r c e lls w ith d ecayed e name l a re f requent . W he re o n ly o ne c o lour i s a pp lied b lue s eems t o b e t he c hoice; w here t wo a re t o b e s een r ed a nd b lue a re m ost c ommon b ut b lue w ith w h ite a nd r ed w ith y e llow a lso o ccur; t here a re a f ew c ases o f t hree c olours v iz, b lue, r ed a nd y e llow . G roup V I i s c haracter ised b y f lat r ectangular b uttons - ( a ) b eing l arger a nd s quar ish, ( b ) p lain a nd ( c ) s mall a nd e longated. T he c e lls a re m ore g eometr ic t han i n g roup V . F or t his w ork s ix o f t he l arger a nd f our o f t he s ma ller w ere l isted. R ed, b lue, y e llow a nd p ossib ly g reen a nd w hite a re t he c o lours w hich a re a pp lied i n p airs -some h ave n ow d ecayed o r d isappeared e ntire ly . T here a re a s mall n umber o f e namelled b utton-and-loop f asteners w hich a re ' atypica l -the m ore n otewort hyare d ealt w ith i n t he c hapter o n I ron A ge e name ls. I n a ll c ases t he e name l i s a pp lied i n as imp le f ashion, o ne c o lour t o ac ell, o n t he u pper s urface o f t he b utton; n o c omp lex n or m illefior i e name l w as n oted. O n t he w hole t wo c o lours o ccur t ogether, m ost f requently r ed a nd b lue; o ne a nd t hree c o lours a lso a ppear, s mall n umbers o f y e llow, g reen a nd w hite o ccur; a f air p roport ion h as n ow w eathered. C e lls t end t o b e s mall, b eing m ore g eometr ic ( square, t r iangle, l ozenge) o n t he r ectangu lar g roup b ut m ore c urved ( petals e tc.) o n t he d isc-shaped b uttons. B y f ar t he g reat m ajority w ere f ound i n t he n orthern p arts o f t he c ountry e specially o n m ilitary s ites s uch a s C orbridge, N ewstead a nd Y ork . H owever i t m ust b e n oticed t hat t he o n ly e vidence f or m anufacture c omes f rom t he n ative s ett lement o n T raprain L aw . A s r egards d ate m ost a re u nstrat if ied o r u nassociated o r p ossess n o e xact d etails o f r ecovery s uch a s w ith t he s ix e xamp les i n C hesters M useum . W ild ( 1970, p . 1 46) d oes n ot b e lieve t hat t he t ype w as m anufactured l ater t han t he s econd c entury w hen t he m ajority w ere p robab ly m ade; h e r egards t he t wo f rom C aer leon ( ibid . n o . 6 1) a nd C ampsf ie ld ( ibid. n o. 6 2) b oth w ith l ate c ontexts t o b e s urviva ls. M iniature s too ls o r s tands ( L igu _r_ e el As ma ll g roup o f o bjects a bout w hich r e lative ly l itt le h as b een w ritten c omprises t he m iniature s too l o r s tand ( F igure 8 A). T his c onsists o f f our l egs, w hich w iden o ut a t t he t op t o f orm f our a ches o r f aces, s urmounted b y af lat t op . T he t op h as a c ircular o pening i n t he m idd le, a s mall k nob i n e ach c orner a nd s light ly i n f rom e ach k nob a h o le . F rom t he p airs f ound a ttached i t i s o bvious t hat t he s tools a re m eant t o j oin - t he f our l egs o f as maller o ne f itting i nto t he f our h oles a t t he c orners o n t he t op o f al arger

4 7

o ne . T he l egs o f t he c omp lete l ower o ne f rom C aerwent ( Newport M useum) s how i t t o b e ab asal s pecimen m easuring 4 .5 c ms. h igh a nd t he t op 4 c ms. s quare . T he e xamp le i n t he B r itiah M useum f rom a n u nknown l ocation ( reg . n o . 5 7.12-18 .1) w ithout t he f our h o les a nd w ith a f unne l o ccupy ing t he c entral o pening a ppears t o b e at op e xamp le; i t m easures 3 .6 c ms . i n h e ight w ith t op e dges 1 .6 c ms . l ong . I t s eems t hat a c omp lete s et w ould t hus c onsist o f t hree s tools d im inishing i n s ize f rom t he l owest t o h ighest . T heir p urpose i s u ncertain t hough t he b e lief t hat t hey h ave ' r itual s ignif icance ' i s p erhaps r einforced b y t he s pecimen f rom t he B r igstock s hr ine ( Greenf ie ld, 1 963, p . 2 43, f ig. 4 ,3 a nd T ay lor, 1 963, p . 2 68) a nd t he t hree f rom F ar ley H eath ( Jessup, 1 970, p . 1 95, f ig. 5 8)64. O ver t wenty o f t hese o bjects h ave c ome t o l ight a nd t hey c an b e e xemp lif ied b y t he t hree p airs s t ill a ttached v iz, t hose f rom C aerwent ( Newport M useum), S ilchester ( Reading M useum) a nd S outh S hie lds ( Green, 1 978, p . 7 2, p l. 1 28-9). E name l i s a lways f ound o n t he o uter f aces o f t he f our s ides o r a rches b etween t he u pper p arts o f t he l egs. Al arge a mount o f t his h as n ow w eathered o r i n s ome i nstances h as c omp lete ly d isappeared . H owever o n t he n ineteen w nere o ne o r m ore c o lour i s d iscernib le b lue i s p resent i n e ach c ase . I n s ome i nstances t his i s ar ather g reeny b lue a nd i n o thers i t i s d ecay ing i nto a w hite s ubstance . G reen s eems t o b e p resent a s a n i ntenti onal c o lour o n af ew o ccasions a s a lso i s y e llow . R ed o ccurs o n a bout a t hird o f t he g roup . j here m ay b e t he o dd c ase o f b lue a pp lied o n i ts o wn b ut r ed a nd b lue i s l ike ly t o h ave b een t he u sual c o lour c ombination. T here i s o ne i nstance o f r ed, b lue a nd g reen t ogether . F or t he m ost p art t he c e lls o n e ach f ace a re t hree i n n umber a nd t he m ain d esigns a re s hown i n f igure 8 A . I n a ll c ases t he t echnique u sed i s s imp le w ith o ne c olour t o ac e ll; c omp lex o r m illef iori e name l i s n ot p resent . T he t echnique o f n otching s ome o f t he c e ll e dges t o f acilitate t he h o lding o f t he e name l o n s ome o f t hese o bjects m ay b e n oted. O f t he e ighteen w ith k nown p rovenances s even c ome f rom t he n orth f our o f t hese f rom S outh S hie lds, t wo f rom C orbr idge a nd o ne f rom C hesters. T he r emaining f ind-spots a re r easonab ly w ell s pread o ver t he r est o f t he c ountry a nd i nc lude t hree e ach f rom C aerwent, S ilchester, L ondon ( Green, 1 975, p . 6 5) a nd F ar lay H eath ( Green, 1 976, p . 2 19). T he o n ly o ne c lear ly d ated i s t hat f rom t he s hrine a t B r igstock d ated b y t he c oins p ost-260 t o c .A.D . 3 80 ( Greenfie ld, 1 963, p . 2 43) t hough o ne f rom t he 1 908 e xcavations a t C aerwent m ay h ave a n a ssociat ion w ith a c oin o f C onstantine J un ior ( Ashby e t . a l. 1 9 10, p . 1 5). T here m ay t herefore b e al ate d ate f or t his i nteresting g roup o f e name lled o bjects . S ea l

B oxes ( F igure 7 C)

A lthough o ne o f t he m ost n umerous t ypes o f o bject f ound o n R omano-British s ites s eal b oxes r emain a n eglected s ubject . T he f unction i s i mp lied i n t he n ame a nd t he m ethod o f u se h as b een e xp lained o n af ew o ccasions ( e .g. B ushe-Fox, 1 916, p p . 2 8-29, p l. X VIII, 2 5; W hee ler, 1 946, p . 1 08, f ig. 3 3) 6 5 . E name l 6 a nd i ndeed d ecoration i s f requent ly f ound o n t he l ids o f s eal b oxes 6 i n m any c ases o n ly t he l id s urvives t hough t he s ame i s a lso t rue o f t he b ox p roper . I t w ould r equire t oo d eep a s earch t o d iscover w hat

4 8

p roportion b ear e name l b ut i t w as n oted t hat o n ly f our o ut o f t he t hirteen h oused a t t he t hen G uildha ll M useum h ad b een s o t reated . A lmost t wo h undred e name lled s eal b ox l ids h ave b een f ound i n B ritain . T here a re f ive b asic s hapes 6 7 o f s ea l b ox a nd t he e name l i s d iscussed a s i t o ccurs o n t hese ( F igure 7 C). S ince i t s urvives w holly o r p art ly o n a bout s ixty p er c ent o f t he l ids t here i s t hus a r easonab ly c lear p icture o f t he c o lours a nd t echniques e mp loyed . A pproximate ly aq uarter b e long t o g roup 1 w hich i s b asica lly t ear-, p etal- or p ear-shaped . T he m ajor ity h ave s imp le e name l i n t wo c o lours, u sua lly b lue a nd r ed t hough y e llow a nd g reen a ppear o n af ew , i n v ar ious c ombinations o f t hese f our c o lours -a l ot o f t he e name l i s n ow d ecayed. L ess t han a d ozen h ave m ore c omp lex e name ls e qually d ivided b etween p ieces o f b lue, r ed, y e llow a nd w hite a nd b eds o f b lue o r g reen w ith r ed, y e llow o r w hite s pots a nd s ometimes w ith a f urther r ing o f e name l a round t he s pots . N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 911, p . 3 30, n o . 2 ) p rovides a n e xamp le o f t he f ormer a s w e ll a s o ne o f t he c omp lex v ariety ( ib id . p p . 3 32-333, n o . 5 ). A lmost a s l arge i s g roup 2 w ith m ore o r l ess c ircular s hapes. A gain m ost a re s imp ly e name lled i n t wo c o lours o ut o f r ed, b lue, y e llow, g reen a nd o range w ith t he f irst t wo m ost c ommon a nd u sually t ogether . J ust o ver a d ozen p ossess c omp lex e namels u sually a g round ( b lue, g reen, y e llow ) w ith i nserted s pots ( white, o range, y e llow ) b ut l ess o ften p ieces i n a lternate c o lours o f b lue, r ed, y e llow, w hite a nd g reen. A s imp le e xamp le c omes f rom R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 24, n o . 7 8) a nd a c omp lex o ne f rom C ramond ( Rae, 1 974, p . 1 94, n o . 4 , f ig . 1 4,4) a lternate o range a nd b lue p ieces i n ac ircu lar c e ll. O ver t wo d ozen l ozenge-shaped s pecimens c onst itute g roup 3 . H alf o f t hese a re s im ilar i n h aving t he s urface o f t he l id c omp lete ly c overed w ith s mall l ozenge-shaped c e lls -twenty-f ive i n n umber g iving a l atticed e ffect . W here t he e name l h as n ot d ecayed i t i s n ormally b lue o r y ellow a nd t his m ay b e t he u sually i ntended s cheme t hough t here a re p ossib le c ases o f y e llow a lone a nd o ne c ase o f y e llow a nd g reen . C hesters M useum p ossesses a g ood s pecimen o f t his c lass f ound a t G reat C hesters ( reg . n o . 2 487; B udge, 1 907, p . 3 96, n o . 3 0 1). A ll o f t he l atter v ar iety h ave s imp le e name lwork a s h ave a ll b ut t hree o f t hose w ithout t he l att ice d esign. H ere t he s urviv ing e name l i s r ed a nd b lue a nd i n t he t hree c omp lex e xamp les t he c o lours f ound a re r ed, b lue, w hite a nd g reen. G roup 4 i s r ectangular a nd o ut o f t he s eventeen s pecimens k nown, e leven h ave a c e ltic-type d esign, i n as imp le e name l, o f r ed a nd b lue t hough t here a re r are o ccurrences o f y e llow a nd g reen a nd s everal c ases w here n o e name l h as s urvived a t a ll. E xamp les o f t his t ype h ave b een f ound a t C hester ( Chesters M useum, r eg. n o . 1 9 11) a nd L inco ln ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 7 8, n o . 1 0, f ig. 4 0). W here t he c e lls a re g eometr ic t hey c onsist o f s mall s quares i n r ows ( twe lve o r s ixteen s quares i n a ll) w ith t he e name l m ost ly g one n ow t hough o range a nd b lue w ere n oted. O ne w ith s ixteen s q uares c ontaining e name l, n ow l arge ly d ecayed, c ome s f rom B urgate S treet i n C anterbury ( Jenkins, 1 95 1 ,p . 3 3, f ig. 1 6,2 1). I t i s t o t he l ast v ar iety t hat t he t wo c ertain e xamp les o f m illef iori e name lwork b e long . N o i nstance o f ac omp lex e name l i s m et w ith i n g roup 4 . F inally t here i s as mall

g roup, 5 , g enera lly t ear-shaped w ith a n

4 9

a pp lied h ead ( horse o r c ow t hough t hese d escr iptions a re n ot a lways a ccepted) o n t he l id. T here i s u sua lly a s ma ll s etting i n t he s nout w hich h as a s pot o f r ed e name l i n t he f ew i nstances w here i t s urvives . S uch a l id w as r etrieved f rom t he b arracks a t N ewstead ( Cur ie, 1 9 11, p . 3 33, n o . 7 ). D istribut ion a s r egards t he i ndividual g roups a nd a s aw ho le l ies o ver t he w ho le c ountry w ith p erhaps t he s outh-east c laim ing a s light ly l arger n umber t han t he s outh-west o r n orth. T he m ajority h ave b een f ound o n t own s ites a nd m ilitary s ites. E xcavations a t C orbr idge p roduced f ifteen e name lled s pecimens ( now i n t he s ite m useum ) a nd C o lchester h as y ie lded n o l ess t han t wenty . Ag reater n umber t han u sua l c ome f rom d ated c ontexts . O ne f rom C aernarvon w as l ost n ot l ater t han c .230 ( Whee ler, 1 923, p . 1 4 1). T he s pecimen f rom C ramond, n oted a bove, w as p robab ly m ade d uring t he s econd c entury . C anterbury p rovides a n e ar ly e xamp le c .A .D . 7 5 ( Jenkins, 1 95 1, p . 3 3) a s d oes C o lchester c .A .D . 4 3-65 ( Hawkes a nd H u ll, 1 947, p . 33, n o . 7 ). A s pecimen f rom F ishbourne w as d ropped e ither i n t he s econd o r t hird c entury ( Cun liffe, 1 97 1, p . 18, n o . 1 29). T hree a nd p ossib ly a f ourth w ere r ecovered f rom t he W albrook s treambed. A n e xamp le f rom M axey w as f ound a ssociated w ith t hird 8 . O ne f rom N ottingham h as a f irm t o f ourth c entury p ottery 6 F lavian d ated ( Megaw, 1 971, p . 1 53). R ichborough y ie lded a nother f rom a c ontext e ar lier t han t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 24, n o. 7 5). A nother e ar ly s pecimen c omes f rom a l eve l d ated t o t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D. a t S aint A lbans ( Frere, 1 972, p . 1 22, n o . 6 7) w hile a s econd i s d ated t o t he m id-second c entury ( Whee ler, 1 936, p . 2 12, n o . 5 2) a nd a t hird c omes f rom t he f ill o f al ate t hird c entury p it ( ibid. n o . 5 3). T hree f rom W roxeter a ppear t o b e long t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 16, p . 2 8; A tkinson, 1 942, p . 2 1). 1 A s aw ho le s eal b oxes a ppear t o h ave b een d iscarded/lost a s e ar ly a s t he m id-f irst c entury A .D . a nd s eem ingly r ight t hrough t o t he f ourth a lthough t he s econd c entury s eems t o h ave s een t hem i n g reatest u se . B ushe-Fox ( 1949, p . 1 24) h as r emarked t hat " they d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een r ecorded f rom l ate t hird t o f ourth-century s ites". T he t echniques w hich a re u sed a re m ain ly s imp le t hough c omp lex o nes a ppear o n a bout f ifteen p er c ent a nd m illef ior i o n t wo s pecimens a t l east . T he e name l o n t he g roup 1 s pecimen f rom L eicester ( Jewry W all M useum, r eg. n o . 16. 1 962/729) i s n oteworthy i n t hat i t h as a g round o f y e llow s peck led r andom ly w ith b rown ' spots '. T his i s u nusual b ut i s m et w ith a gain. O ne m ight a lso n ote t he n otching o n t he c e ll e dges o n t he l id f rom C armerton ( Br isto l C ity M useum). V esse ls

F igure 8 C

S ome o f t he b est k nown i ndividua l e name lled o bjects b e long t o t his g roup . I t c ompr ises n ineteen c omp lete o r f ragmentary o bjects, f or t he m ost p art e ither p aterae o r w hat a re t ermed ' cups ' t hough s mall b ow ls m ay b e ab etter t erm . W hen o nly a f ragment o f t he b ody r emains i t i s d iff icu lt t o p lace i t i n t he c orrect c lass. T here h as b een n o d etailed s tudy o f t hese o bjects b ut a c ertain a mount o f d iscussion h as t aken p lace ( e .g. F ranks, 1 870, p p . 5 15-5 16; C ur le, 1 932, p . 3 06; H enry, 1 933, p p . 10-128 p assim; C owen a nd R ichmond, 1 935, p p . 3 10-342; B utcher, 1 977, p p . 4 5-49; M oore, 1 978, p. 3 19-326 ). 5 0

T he p aterae a re d ea lt w ith f irst, t hen t he c ups o r b ow ls a nd f inally t he m isce llaneous v esse ls . T he p aterae b ear e name l o n t he o utside o f t he b ow l a nd o n t he u pper s urface o f t he h andle; o ften t he l atter i s a ll t hat s urvives o f t he v esse l. T he m ost o utstanding c omp lete e xamp le i s t hat f rom a n u nknown l ocation i n W est L oth ian a nd n ow i n t he N ationa l M useum o f A ntiquities o f S cot land ( reg . n o . F R43). T he o utside o f t he b ow l i s e name lled i n as imp le t echnique i n f ive z ones w ith r ed, b lue a nd g reen . T he m ain z one h as a l arge r unning v ine-leaf p attern, a bove a nd b e low w hich i s an arrow b and w ith a w avy l ine o f b ronze r eserved i n t he m iddle; t he u pper a nd l ower z ones a re r espect ive ly a r ow o f d oub le l aure l l eaves r eserved a nd a r ow o f v andykes; t o b e n oted a re t he n otched o r t oothed e dges o f m uch o f t he d esign. T he h and le, a gain i n b lue, r ed a nd g reen, h as a b asic d esign o f t wo l eaves. T here i s n o d ef initive p ub lication o f t his o bject t hough i t h as o ften b een n oted a nd i s g enerally a ssigned, a s ap atera, t o t he s econd c entury ( Anderson, 1 884, p p . 4 4-45, p l. I ; C ur le, 1 932, p p . 3 02-306, 3 53, f ig. 1 4). As omewhat l ess p leasing e xamp le c omes f rom a c remation b ur ial i n t he c emetery a t B rougham ( Char lesworth, 1 968, p . 3 06, p l. L XXVIII b ) . T he h andle i s p lain a nd i s b e lieved t o b e al ater a ddition t o w hat w as p r imar ily a c up o r b ow l ( ibid.). A gain i t i s s imp ly e name lled i n b lue, g reen a nd r ed a nd h as m uch t oothing t o t he c e ll e dges. A h and le o nly s urvives f rom K irkby L athorpe, L inco lnshire, a s as tray f ind ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 4 5-46, f ig. 1 ). T he d esign i s v ery s im ilar t o t hat o n t he p W est L othian p atera h andle b ut h ere t he e name l h as m ost ly d ecayed t hough t races o f b lue r emain . H and les o n ly, w ith a s omewhat d ifferent d esign, h ave b een d iscovered a t B rough-on-Fosse, N ottinghamshire, a nd B urgh A pton, N orfo lk ( Moore, 1 978, p . 3 19, f ig. 1 a nd P . 3 22, f ig. 3 ). B oth p ossess b lue a nd g reen e name l w ith r ed a nd y e llow a s at hird c olour r espective ly; t he o uter e dges o f t he B urgh A pton h and le c e ll a re t oothed. A nother h and le, f rom D inorben, h as l ost i ts e name l ( Gardner a nd S avory, 1 964, p p . 1 48149, f ig . 1 7). M ention m ay b e m ade h ere o f t he p atera f ound a t A m iens w ith i ts c ranallated d esign o f n umerous s ma ll g eometric c e lls ( b lue, g reen, r ed) a nd t he n ames o f f orts o n H adr ian 's W all ( Heurgon, 1 95 1, p p . 2-24, f ig. 4 ). T he B raughing c up ( Franks, 1 870, p p . 5 14-516) h as a d esign s im ilar t o t he W est L othian p atera w ith a r unning v ine-scro ll, l aure l l eaves a nd v andykes; t he e name l i s o nly b lue a nd g reen h ere a nd a gain t oothing i s m uch i n e vidence o n t he c e ll e dges. T he d esign o n t he H arwood c up i s m uch m ore s imp le a nd r ather u nique a nd s eems o nly t o p ossess a s imp le b lue e name l ( Franks, o p .cit . p . 5 15). O ne o f t he b est k nown c ups i s t hat f rom R udge w ith t he Wall f ort n ames a nd c renallated d esign o f n umerous s mall c e lls, r ectangu lar a nd c rescent-shaped, i n r ed, b lue a nd g reen ( Cowen a nd R ichmond, 1 935, p p . 3 10-342)b 9 . T here i s af ragment o f ab ow l w ith a s omewhat s im ilar d esign b ut w ithout t he n ames; t his w as a cquired i n B arce lona, i s k nown a s t he H ildburgh f ragment a nd i s h oused i n t he V ictor ia a nd A lbert M useum ( Cowen a nd R ichmond, 1 935, p p . 3 32-334, f ig. 1 a nd p l. XVIII,2) - a l ot o f t he e name l i s g one b ut b lue a nd s eem ingly y e llow a nd g reen a re u sed . A nother f ragment w ith a b asically s imilar d esign o f s mall g eometr ic c e lls c omes f rom G reat C hesterford a nd h as o n ly s ome t races o f b lue a nd d ecayed e name l r emaining

5 1

( Un iversity M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thnology, C ambridge, r eg . n o . 4 8 .964). T he d esign o n t he f ragment f rom B rad ley H ill ( Wilson, 1 971, p . 2 76) i s b ased o n as er ies o f f ive-sida dpo lygons r unning r ound t he g reater p art o f t he b ody ; b lue o nly r emains f or c ertain b ut t here i s p ossib ly r ed a nd a t hird c o lour n ow d ecayed. Am ore o r l ess s im ilar d esign a ppears o n ac omp lete c up f rom C anterbury ( Henry, 1 933, p . 1 20, n o. 2 )7 0 . A nother f ragment o f a c up w ith i nscr ipt ion a nd s cro ll d esign i n b lue a nd g reen a nd w ith s ome n otching o f t he c e ll e dges h as r ecent ly b een r ecovered a t t he B eadham V illa i n Y orkshire ( Wr ight a nd H assa ll, 1 973, p . 34, f ig . 2 1). T wo s mall f ragments b ut w ith n o e name l r emaining h ave q uite d ifferent d esigns a nd w ere f ound a t H a lton C hesters ( Henry, 1 933, p . 1 42, n o. 2 ) w hile M oore ( 1978, p . 3 22) m entions t he f urther f ind o f t wo e name lled b ow l f -agments a t B ough-on-Fosse. T he f amous B ar low v ase t hough h aving a d ifferent f unction h as s im ilarit ies i n d esign w ith t he W est L othian a nd B raughing o bjects ( Gage, 1 836, p p . 3 03, 3 07, 3 11-3 14, p l. XXV). T he e name l w as b lue, g reen a nd r ed t hough o n t he o r igina l t his i s n ow a b listered m ass h aving b een i n af ire . D espite t he f act t hat t he c op ies h ave a h andle a ttached b y e scutcheons t o t he b ody t he e name l c ont inues u nbroken a round t he o r igina l b ody . B oth t he l atter a nd a c opy a re i n t he B r itish M useum . At wo-hand led v ase i n t he F itzw illiam M useum, C ambridge f rom a n u nknown l ocation i s d ifferent f rom t he p receding o bjects ( Da lton, 1 9 12, p . 1 00, n o. 4 4, p l. X II). I ts e name l i s r ed, g reen a nd o range. S eventeen o f t he n ineteen o bjects h ere m ay b e c lassed a s t he p atera/cup/bow l t ype s imp ly e name lled a ll o ver t he o utside o f t he b ody ( and u pper h and le w here a ppropr iate) i n r ed, b lue a nd g reen. T he t erm ' skillet ' i s n ow g enerally a pp lied t o t he p aterae a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c ups o r b ow ls a re i n f act s killets w hich h ave l ost t he ir p oor ly a pp lied h and les ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 4 9, a nd M oore, 1 978, p . 3 19). I f t he H arwood c up i s e xcepted t here a re t hree b asic d esigns ( see F igure 8 C); t hat w here a v ine-scro ll i s p rominent; s ma ll g eometric c e lls i n ac rena llated p attern; a nd t he p o lygonal t ype r ecent ly d esignated t he ' Vehner M oor t ype ' a fter E ggers ( Moor, 1 978, p . 3 21). T he q uestion o f o r igin i s d iff icult . T hree w orkshops a re p ossib le b ut t he u se o f n otching/toothing o n b oth t he f irst a nd s ome o f t he t hird t ype ( e .g. t hose f rom N amur a nd R ocheford H enry, 1 933, p . 1 20, n os. 1 & 3 ) i s i nterest ing. W ith t he e xception o f as pecimen f rom J ut land ( ibid. p . 12, n o . 4 ) a ll t he f irst g roup h ave B r itish p rovenances a nd w ere p robab ly m ade h ere . T he s econd g roup a re o bviously W all s ouvenirs a nd t hough s uch o bjects c ou ld h ave b een m anufactured a broad ( though t oo e ar ly f or H ong K ong) a R omano-Br itish o r igin i s p lausib le. O ne m ay s till s uspect a C ontinental o r igin f or t he t hird g roup s uch a s t hose f rom C anterbury a nd B rad lay H ill t hough t he t echnique f or h e lp ing t o h old t he e name l i s s imilar t o t hat o n t he f irst t ype. T his a grees w ith H enry 's v iews ( 1933, p p . 14, 1 22) t hough F ranks ( 1870, p. 5 15-5 16) p refers a w ho lly B r itish o rigin a nd C ur le ( 1932, p . 3 06) s uggests a C ontinenta l o ne. T he e xcavators b e lieve t he B rougham p atera ( Char lesworth, 1 968, p . 3 06) a nd t he D inorban h andle ( Gardner a nd S avory, 1 964, p. 1 48149) t o b e b oth o f l ocal m anufacture . I n h er d iscussion o f t he g roup o f e name lled o bjects B utcher ( 1977, p . 4 3) f o llows H enry i n s eeing a m ixed B ritish a nd C ontinental o r igin w hile M oore ( 1978, p p . 3 24-325)

a rgues s trong ly f or a w ho lly B r itish m anufacture. T his i s v ery a ttract ive a nd i ndeed q uite p ossib le b ut o ne s till w onders i f t he p olygonal o r V ehner M oor t ype c an b e a scribed t o aR omano-Br itish w orkshop . C ircu lar m ounts ( F ig ure 7 B) T his s ection d ea ls w ith m ounts o r s tuds c onsisting o f ac ircu lar p late w ith a s ingle r ivet o r s tud a t t he c entre o f t he b ack ( Figure 7 B). T he p late v ar ies i n d iameter b eing f air ly e ven ly s pread b etween 1 .5 c ms . a nd 5 .5 c ms; i t i s u sually a f ew m illemetres t hick w ith g enerally a s traight e dge t hough s ome w ith s l anting e dges a re s light ly ' ho llow '. T he o ne s tud i n t he c entre o f t he u nderside i s u sually i ncGmp lete n ow b ut w here i t s urvives i s t -shaped . A bout s eventy a re k nown a nd t he t ype i s w e ll i llustrated b y t he g roups f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p p . 3 3 1-332, p l. L XXXIX) a nd C hesters ( Budge, 1 907, p assim). T hey a ppear t o b e d ecorative m ounts i n s ome i nstances f or h orse h arness t hough o ther u ses a re p ossib le . T he u pper s urface o f t he p late g enerally c ontains e namel i n p lain c ircu lar c e lls. T he g reat m ajor ity p ossess e ither t wo o r t hree c e lls; a s mall n umber d isp lay f our c e lls o r a t t he o ther e xtreme o n ly o ne; o n ly h alf a d ozen d o n ot c onform t o t he n ormal p attern . T he w idth o f t he c e lls v ar ies c onsiderab ly . U nlike m ost o f t he g roups s o f ar f ew o f t hese m ounts h ave t he e name l a pp lied i n as imp le f ashion. T here a re a s mall n umber w here r ed, b lue, y e llow o r g reen i s t he o nly c o lour i n t he c e ll. O ne f rom M anchester h as t urquoise e name l w ithin a t riske le-shaped s eptum a nd ay e llow c o lour i n t he o uter c e ll ( Jones, 1 974, p . 1 23, n o. 2 0). A pproximate ly a t hird o f t he g roup h as a m ore c omp lex e name l a pp lied i n e qual n umbers a s p ieces o r a s ag round o f o ne c o lour w ith s pots o f a nother i nserted ( many o f t hese s pots h ave a y et d ifferent c c -! oured r ing a round t hem ). M any o f t he p ieces a re n ow w eathered b ut b lue, r ed, y e llow, g reen a nd o range a ppear i n v ar ious c ombinations o f t wo c olours i n s quar ish p ieces l aid s ide b y s ide . I n t he t ype w ith s pots b lue i s t he m ost c ommon c o lour f or t he g round t hough g reen a nd y e llow w ere n oted; t he c o lours o f t he s pots and r ings w here u sed -are b lue, w hite, y e llow, r ed a nd b lack white i s m ost f requent a nd b lack o ften o ccurs a s t he r ing . Ag ood e xamp le o f t his i s s een o n t he s tud f rom M umrills w hich i n t he o uter c e ll h as a l ight b lue g round w ith s pots a nd c irc les s urrounding t hem ( MacDona ld a nd C ur ie, 1 929, p . 55, f ig . 15, 9 ). O n ah alf d ozen t here i s ac ombination o f ac omp lex a nd m illefior i e name l -i.e . a lternate p lain p ieces a nd p ieces o f m illef iori. H owever m ost o f t he m illef ior i e name l i s f ound o n i ts o wn, o n o ver a t hird o f t he s pecimens k nown. T his i s o ne o f t he l argest g roups o f m illef iori e name l. I t m ight b e n oted t hat t his f orm o f d ecorat ion i s m ore f requent o n t he l arger m ounts ( 4-5 c ms.) w hich h ave n o o ther t echnique a pp lied. T he s pecimen f rom C hapstow i s ag ood e xamp le ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 5 6, n o. 6 , p l. X1 , 6 ). O ver f ifty p er c ent o f t his g roup w ere f ound i n t he n orth, t he r est a re e ven ly s pread o ver t he s outhern p arts o f t he c ountry . I t i s i nteresting t o n otice p erhaps t hat a lmost s eventy p er c ent h ave b een r ecovered f rom m ilitary s ites; t we lve f rom C hesters, e ight f rom C orbr idge, a nd s ix f rom N ewstead . D espite s uch a l arge n umber o n ly t hree p ossess d ated b ackgrounds. T hat f rom C hesterholm w as e xcavated 5 3

f rom a f ourth c entury d eposit ( Brailsford, 1 964, p. 5 6, n o . 5 ) w hile t wo c ome f rom m id-second c entury d eposits a t S aint A lbans ( Frere, 1 972, p . 1 26). U nfortunate ly t hose f rom C hesters a re a s g ood a s u nstratif ied b ut t he N ewstead e xamp les a ppear t o b e s econd c entury i n d ate . M isce llaneous s tuds o r m ounts ( Figure 9 B) I ncluded h ere a re s tuds o r m ounts o ther t han t hose s imp le c ircular o nes w ith o n ly o ne s tud j ust d iscussed ( F igure 9 B). S tuds usually t wo, s omet imes f our -are s till p resent o r a re r ep laced b y s ome s ort o f l oop . I n a ny e vent s ome f orm o f a ttachment i s s t ill p resent a s o pposed t o t hose m ounts u nder m isce llaneous e name lled o bjects b e low w hich h ave ' no v isib le m eans o f s upport '. O n t he w ho le s hapes a re e ither c ircu lar, o ften s light ly d omed, o r r ectangu lar . F unction i s p robab ly a s v aried a s t he t ype . O ver f ifty o bjects b e long t o t his g roup . T he e name l i s f ound o n t he u pper s urface i n as ma ll n umber o f c e lls w hich a re c ircu lar o r g eometr ic i n s hape . O ver h alf a re e name lled i n as imp le t echnique o f o ne c o lour t o t he c e ll. B lue a nd r ed a re t he c o lours m ost f requent ly m et u sually t ogether t hough b lue w ith g reen, y e llow a nd w hite r espective ly w ere n oted a s w e ll a s r ed w ith y e llow ; t here a re t wo c ases o f r ed, b lue a nd g reen. Af air ly l arge a mount o f t he e name l i s n ow m issing o r d ecayed a s o n ar ectangu lar m ount w ith t wo s tuds f rom B rough n ow i n t he B r itish M useum ( reg . n o . 7 4 .12-28 .38). F ew o f t his c lass h ave a c omp lex e name l a nd t hese a re e qually d iv ided b etween a lternately c o loured p ieces a nd g rounds w ith s pots i nserted A n e xamp le o f t he l atter w as f ound a t C hesters ( Budge, 1 907, p . 3 8 1, n o . 134). A gain a l arge n umber, e leven, h ave m illef ior i e name l a s o n t he t wo c ow-hide s haped m ounts f rom L eicester ( Jewry W a ll M useum, r eg. n o . 3 62_195 1/45) a nd n ear E den H all i n C umber land ( Victor ia a nd A lbert M useum, r eg . n o. 4 898190 1) 7 1 . T he m ajor ity o f t hese m ounts h ave b een d iscovered i n t he n orth o ften o n m ilitary s ites s uch a s C hesters o r C orbridge . T he r est o f t he c ountry i s e venly r epresented b y t he r emainder . F ew a re s atisfactorily d ated. T he m ount f rom E den H all ( q .v .) w as f ound w ith c oins r anging i n d ate f rom A .D . 1716 1. Ap air o f f lowers haped m ounts w ith u nusually l ong s tuds c o nes f rom a n e ar ly s econd c entury c ontext a t S aint A lbans ( Frere, 1 972, p . 1 26, n o. 9 8). I t i s u n like ly t hat a ll t he r est b e long t o t his c entury a lone . B e lt-p lates ( Figure 9 A) s f r B e lt o r b e lt-buck le p lates a re a n umerous c laso e lic f rom R oman B ritain. T here a re a lmost f orty k nown, m ak ing u p t hree g roups. T he f irst t wo a re r ough ly e qua l i n n umber a nd c onst itute t he b u lk o f t he t ype . G roup I ( f igure 9 Ai) c onsists o f an arrow r ectangular p late w ith t wo o r m ore s tuds o n t he u nderside a nd w ith a b uck le a t t he e nd a s o n t hat f ound a t C aer leon a nd i n t he s ite m useum t here . G enerally t hough o nly t he p late s urvives a nd i n a f ew c ases t he b uck le a lone . T he s econd g roup c onsists o f al ess n arrow o pen r ectang le u sually w ith p e lta-shaped o r w avy e nds a nd w ith a s eparate b ar i nserted a long t he m idd le o f t he c entre. Ac omp lete s pecimen c omes f rom S outh S hie lds ( Bruce, 1 885, p p . 2 6 1-262) b ut a gain t he b ar i s u sually m issing o r e lse i s f ound o n i ts o wn. T he t hird s mall g roup c onsists o f as o lid r ectang le . 5 4

O n t he l ong n arrow t ype - g roup 1 -ename l i s f ound o n m ost o f t he u pper s urf ace. I t i s s imp ly a pp lied a nd i s g enerally r ed a nd b lue w here i t s urvives o r h as n ot d ecayed . T here i s t he r are u se o f y e llow a nd p ossib ly g reen. T he d esign o f t he c e lls c onsists o f e ither s mall g eometr ic s hapes ( tr iangles, l ozenges, c rescents) e name lled i n r ed a nd b lue a s o n o ne i n t he s ite m useum a t C orbr idge o r e lse t here a re t hree l ong c ells o f l aure l l eaves i n t he c entre a nd v andykes i n t he s ide c e lls a s o n a nother p late i n t he C aer leon s ite m useum . W here t he b uck le p iece s urvives i t o ften h as t r iangles f illed w ith e name l o n t he u pper s urface . T he s econd t ype - g roup 2 - h as e name l o n t he f our s ides o f t he o pen r ectang le ( f igure 9 Aii). W here t his s urvives i t i s u sua lly a m illef iori e name l a s o n t hree s pecimens i n t he C orbridge s ite m useum o r e lse ( e .g . o nce a t C orbridge a gain o r o n o ne f rom C aerwent i n t he M useum a nd A rt G allery, N ewport) t here i s ay e llow e name l g round s prink led w ith b rown f lecks a r are t echnique p revious ly s een o n o ne o f t he s ea l b oxes. W here t he e nds o f t he p lates a re e xtant t hey g enerally s how s imp le e name l i n r ed a nd b lue . T he b ars n ormally c onsist o f as er ies o f t hree o r f our o vals each a s eparate c e ll a ll b lue o r e lse b lue a nd r ed. T he b est e xamp le o f g roup 3 w as r ecovered f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p p . 3 29-330, 3 32, p l. L XXXIX, 2 5) ( F igure 9 Aiii); t his p late i s e ntire ly c overed o n i ts u pper s urface w ith e name l i n b oth m illef iori a nd t he b rown s peck led y e llow t ype j ust m entioned . O ne f rom C aer leon a lso h as b oth t echniques u sed t ogether w hile a t hird f rom t he s ame s ite ( both i n s ite m useum ) h as m illef iori u sed a lone. O verall t he m ajority c ome f rom s ites i n t he n orth a nd s outh-west o f t he c ountry a nd n ot s urpr ising ly a lmost a lways m ilitary s ites a s t he f our f rom S outh S hie lds, t he f ive f rom B rough, e ight f rom C aer leon a nd e ight m ore f rom C orbr idge. T here i s n o o bvious d ist inction b etween t he t hree c lasses i n t his r espect . A s s o o ften n ot m any a re s atisfactor ily d ated . Ag roup 2 s pecimen c omes f rom a m id-fourth c entury f loor i n t he c ommandant 's h ouse a t C aernarvon ( Whee ler, 1 928, P . 1 39, f ig . 6 1,10) a nd a nother f rom t he f ort a t R aveng lass w as f ound i n al ate f ourth c entury c ontext ( Potter , 1 979, p . 6 9, n o . 1 3, f ig . 2 6, 13). T hree o f t he g roup 1 t ype f rom C aer leon a re d ated t o t he s econd c entury . T he s uperb g roup 3 p late f rom N ewstead ( q .v .) i s p robab ly A ntonine w hile t he l ong r ectangu lar o ne f rom R ichborough s eems t o h ave b een f ound i n at hird c entury c ontext ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 23, n o. 7 3). O ne o f t he g roup 2 t ype f rom W roxeter i s i nc luded i n al ist o f o bjects a ssociated w ith t he m id-f irst c entury m ilitary p hase ( Webster, 1 958, p . 9 6, n o . 2 58, f ig. 8 ). W e t herefore h ave a v ery e ar ly a nd a v ery l ate g roup 2 a nd s everal s econd c entury s pecimens o f g roups 1 a nd 3 . N ot a g reat d eal i s s aid o n t he o r igin o f t hese o bjects t hough t he c onsensus w ould a ppear t o s uggest a B ritish m anufacture f or g roup 1 a nd a C ont inental o ne f or g roup 2 . F inger-r in u ( F igure 8 B _ ) _ F inger-r ings c onstitute s uch a l arge a nd v aried c lass o f o bject t hat i t i s n ot p roposed t o t ry t o d eal w ith t he e name lled e xamp les i n a ny d etail b ut r ather t o n ote t hat t his t ype o f d ecorat ion i s 5

o ccasiona llyfound o n t his c lass o f j ewe llery ( Figure 8 B). I t i s b est t o n ote o n ly t hose w hich h ave t he e name l p reserved o r e lse w here i t i s r easonab ly c ertain t o h ave e xisted s ince e mpty s ettings o n f inger-rings a re m uch m ore l ike ly t o h ave c ontained s tones o r i ntaglios a nd w here a pastelike s ubstance r emains i t i s a s l ike ly t o b e t he p aste o r g lue t o h o ld t he l atter i n p lace a s t o b e ad ecayed o r w eathered e name l. T he n umber o f e name lled f inger-r ings m ay t herefore b e m uch g reater t han a ppears. O ver t hirty f inger-r ings d ecorated w ith e name l w ere n oted . F our o f t hese f orm a g roup o f t he ir o wn a nd a re d ealt w ith a t t he e nd. I n a ll c ases t he e name l i s f ound i n t he b eze l a nd o nly r are ly o n t he s houlders a s w e ll. T here i s g reat v ariety i n t he s ize o f t he b eze ls w hich a re m ost ly c ircular, t hough s ome a re o va l i n s hape. F or t he m ost p art t here i s o nly o ne c e ll. B lue s eems t o b e t he m ost c ommon c o lour b ut r ed, g reen a nd w hite a re a lso a pp lied, i n t he m ajority o f c ases a s as imp le e name l. Ag ood e xamp le o f t his s imp le e name l i n b lue i s f ound o n t he r ing f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 33). T here a re a bout h alf a d ozen s pecimens w ith a m ore c omp lex e name l, t he m ost c ommon b eing a b lue g round w ith a f ew w hite s pots i nserted a s o n o ne o f t hose f rom T raprain L aw ( Cree, 1 923, p . 2 10, f ig. 2 0,2). A bout a t h ird o f t hese f inger-r ings p ossess n orthern f ind-spots w hile t he r est h ave w hat m ight b e t ermed a n e xpanded s outh-eastern d istr ibution s ince f ew c an r eally b e s aid t o h ave b een r ecovered i n t he s outh-west. D ates a ppear t o b e r ather e ar ly o r r ather l ate . O ne f rom B rough-on-Humber w as f ound i n al ayer d ated c .A .D . 1 25 ( Wacher, 1 969, p . 8 7, n o . 7 ) w hile o n t he o ther h and a n e xamp le f rom R ichborough i s p robab ly l ate t hird c entury i n d ate ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 28, n o. 1 04) a nd a s econd f rom S aint A lbans w as f ound i n al ate f ourth c entury d eposit ( Kenyon, 1 934, p . 2 59, n o . 7 ) F rom S cot land t here i s as ma ll g roup o f l arge f inger-r ings w hich a re d iscussed t ogether ( Simpson, 1 970, p p . 1 05-108). T he m ost r ecent f ind f rom T arnaverie h as r ed, y e llow a nd a m issing c olour blue i s s uggested - i n s eparate c e lls f orming a t r iquetra l p attern ( ib id. p . 1 05, f ig . l a ( Figure 8 Bc). A nother f rom L airg h as a m ore s imp le t r iske le d esign b ut t he e name l i s m issing ( ib id. p . 1 06, f ig . 1 c)/ 2 . At hird f rom T entsmuir h as a s omewhat s imp ler d esign i n y e llow a nd a n ow d ecayed g reenish c o lour ( Scott, 1 922, p . 1 09, f ig. 1 ). P ossib ly a lso b elonging t o t his g roup i s o ne f rom t he C u lb in S ands w hich h owever s eems t o h ave s uffered i n af ire ( Callander, 1 933 p p . 3 2-33, f ig. 8 ,1). S impson ( op .cit.) s uggests a n e ar ly d ate f or m anufacture, p robab ly i n S cot land. . C ) M iscellaneous ( Figure 9

T here a re o ver s eventy o bjects w hich d o n ot f it a ny o f t he p revious g roups. S ome c onstitute s mall g roups o f t heir o wn s uch a s t he c asket-handles w hile o thers a re m ore i ndividual s uch a s s ome o f t he m ounts. M any a re u nimportant, o thers a re w e ll k nown s uch a s t he T hames p laque. A s f ar a s p ossib le t hey a re d ealt w ith i n g roups. T here i s as mall n umber o f a nimals i n t he r ound, m ost ly c ocks o r h ens. S ome h ave a f ew s ett ings w h ich m ay n ot n ecessar ily h ave c ontained e name l b ut o n t he e xamp le f rom C orbr idge ( site m useum) t here i s s imp le e name l i n r ed a nd b lue o n t he c rest, e yes a nd i n s quares

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o n w hat r emains o f t he b reast. s ome o f t hese p ieces.

Ar e ligious f unct ion m ay e xp lain

T wo e name lled b race lets a re k nown, t he m ore f amous o ne f rom S outhacre ( Mottram , 1 966, p p. 2 59-262) w ith s imp le r ed a nd b lue a nd as econd w ith g reen e name l f rom B a ldock f rom a m id-second c entury b ur ial ( Weste ll ,1 931, p . 2 63) 7 3 . W hat a ppears t o b e ac and lest ick w as f ound a t B art low ( University M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, C ambridge, r eg. n o. 4 8.1165) a nd i s e name lled s eemingly i n r ed a nd b lue . A nother w as f ound a t C orbridge ( s ite m useum, r eg . n o. P 325) a nd i s e name lled a lso i n r ed a nd b lue a nd d isp lays t he l aure l l eaves, v andykes a nd t oothing s een o n s ome o f t he v essels. At hird i n t he V ictor ia a nd A lbert M useum ( reg. n o . 3 931872) h as m ore g eometric c e lls i n r ed, b lue a nd y e llow 7 4 . T here e xists a s mall g r oup o f c asket-hand les ( f igure 9 Ciii) s uch a s t hat f rom C hesters w ith a c omp lex e name l o f ab lue g round w ith y e llow s pots i n a ddition t o s imp le r ed ( Budge, 1 907, p . 3 85, n o . 1 397). T he L ydney P ark s pecimen c omes f rom a l ayer y ie lding l ate t hird t o f ourth c entury c oins ( Whee ler, 1 932, p . 8 6, n o. 9 6, f ig . 2 0) w hile t wo c ome f rom t he W albrook ( Guildhall M useum, 1 960, p . 8 , n os. 1 & 2 ). T here a re t hree s hort t ubes w ith a b and o f l ozenges o n t he o uter s urfaces e name lled i n o ne c ase i n r ed a nd b lue ( F igure 9 Cii). T his c omes f rom K irkby T hore ( Budge, 1 907, p . 4 06, n o . 1 34) w hile t he o ther t wo w ere f ound a t S ilchester ( Reading M useum) a nd t he W est P ark, R ockbourne , v illa ( Hew itt, 1 968, p p . 3 0, 3 6 p l. X b). T hey s eem t o b e k nife o r s tr ige l h and les. A nother s light ly d ifferent h and le w ith g reen a nd b lue e name lled l ozenges w as f ound i n a n A ntonine p it i n C hichester ( Down a nd R u le, 1 971, p . 4 5, n o. 8 , f ig . 3 :16,8). A p ossib le k nife h andle f rom F ar ley H eath h as o ne p ane l o f m illef ior i e name l ( Br it ish M useum, r eg. n o. 5 3.4-19 .121). A nother g roup c onsists o f t wenty-f ive v ar ious s haped m ounts m any o f w hich d o n ot c a ll f or a ny p articu lar n otice . T here i s h owever o ne t ype w ith n ine s pecimens c onsist ing o f al ong n arrow r ectangle, w ith s light s ides t urned d own m aking i t t hus s omewhat ' ho llow '; o n t he u pper s urface o f t his i s o ne l ong c ell w ith a d esign o f l inked h earts ( F igure 9 Ci). M uch o f t he e name l i s d ecayed o r g one b ut t he g round s eems t o h ave b een b lue a nd w ithin t he h earts e ither r ed o r g reen. T hese a re e name lled i n as imp le t echnique. Ag ood e xamp le c omes f rom W roxeter ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 16, p . 2 6, n o. 1 7, p l. X VI) a nd a nother f rom R ichborough c omes f rom a l ayer d ated t o c .A .D . 8 5 ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 33, n o. 1 52, p l. X L). T he r est a re u ndated a nd d istr ibut ion l ies f air ly e ven ly o ver t he c ountry . M ent ion m ay b e m ade o f t wo s omewhat s im ilar m ounts e xcept t hat t hese h ave a k nob a t o ne e nd a nd p ossess g ood C ontinenta l p aralle ls ( Figure 9 Ciii). O ne c omes f rom C ampsf ie ld ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p . 6 1, n o . 1 6, f ig. 2 6,12) a nd t he o ther f rom S hakenoak ( Brodr ibb e t .a l. 1 968, p . 8 6, n o . 1, f ig. 2 9). B oth h ave m illef ior i e name l a s d o f ive o ther m isce llaneous m ounts. F inally t here a re a bout a d ozen m isce llaneous o bjects s ome o f w hich c all f or c omment . T he b ronze—T laque f rom t he T hames i s p erhaps t he b est k nown a nd i mportant b ecause i t i s u nf inished i .e .

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t he e dges a re u ntr immed a nd p ossib ly t he e name l w as n ever c omp leted ( Franks, 1 870, p . 5 16; B railsford, 1 964, p . 5 6, n o. 3 , p l. XI). I n t he R eading M useum, f rom S ilchester, a re t wo l ids b oth s imp ly e name lled i n b lue, g reen a nd r ed a nd w ith s ome s igns o f t ooth ing t o t he e dges. T he l atter i s s een t oo o n a n i ncomp lete p laque a lso f rom S ilchester a nd b elieved t o b e p art o f ac omposite h exagonal v esse l ( Jope, 1 955, p . 4 3, f ig . 6 ).

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C HAPTER 5

P OST-ROMAN E NAMELWORK

T he p urpose o f t his c hapter i s t o e xam ine b rief ly t he e name lwork f rom B r itain i n t he f ew c entur ies a fter t he d eparture o f t he R omans. T hat i s t o s ay u p t o a bout A .D . 7 00. T here a re f ew e name lled o bjects f rom l ater A ng lo-Saxon t imes a nd t hese a re n ot r e levant t o t he p resent s tudy 7 5 . I t i s i ntended t o s how w hat e name ls t here a re f rom t his p eriod, w hat t echniques a re u sed a nd w hat c ontinuity, i f a ny, e x ists w ith t he R omano-Br it ish i ndustry . N o d etailed a ccount i s t o b e a ttempted a ndd iscussion o f t he t ypes i s a voided . I t i s b est t o a void s uch c ontroversial a reas a s t he h anging b ow l p rob lem, t he t ypo logy o f p enannular b rooches a nd I r ish e name l-working. T hese q uest ions c annot f orm p art o f t he p resent s tudy t hough i ndeed s o lut ions t o t hem w ou ld b e u seful. C ompared w ith p rev ious c hapters t he a mount o f m aterial t o b e d ealt w ith i s n ot l arge . T here a re j ust o ver o ne h undred o bjects o f r ather v aried t ypes t hough a pproximate ly t wo t hirds a re p arts o f h anging b ow ls. I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat m uch o f t he d iscussion o n m etalwork o f t his p er iod and h ere m uch m ore h as b een w r itten o n s ome o f t he t ypes t han o n t hose o f t he p receding e ra -includes I rish f inds, e .g. t he p enannular b rooches ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 937, p p . 3 79-455), o r b r ings I r ish m anufacture i nto t he p icture ( e .g. H enry, 1 936, p. 2 09-246). T his c hapter i s r estricted t o o bjects f ound i n B r itain a nd r efrains f rom s ay ing a nything o n t he t horny p rob lem o f t he o rigin o f t he h anging b ow ls. I t d eals w ith t he s maller g roups o f o bjects f irst i .e . t he b rooches, p ins, t he N orr ies L aw a nd S aint N inian 's I s le f inds, t he n eck laces, t he S utton H oo e name lwork a nd t he m isce llaneous p ieces. T hey a re t reated i n m uch t he s ame w ay a s t he p revious R omano-British o bjects. W e m ay b egin w ith t he f ew m ore A ng lo-Saxon o bjects a s o pposed t o t he n at ive B ritish o nes . T hose b ear ing e name l i nclude s ome c ruciform, l arge s quare-headed a nd s aucer b rooches. I n a ll t here i s h ard ly a d ozen s pecimens. F rom I xworth c omes a p air o f c ruciform b rooches w ith a s pot a nd c irc le o n t he h ead a nd u pper e nd o f t he f oot; i n t he f ormer t here i s n o e name l r emaining a nd i n t he l atter o nly t races o f d ecayed e name l. B oth b rooches a re i n t he B r it ish M useum ( H ills, 1 871, p . 2 99). I t i s s uggested t hat t he t wo c ircu lar d epressions o n al ate c ruciform b rooch f rom t he L itt le W ilbraham c emete ryare i ntended f or e name l ( Fox, 1 923, p . 2 62) a nd t races o f r ed e namel a re s aid t o b e p resent i n as pot o n t he b ow a nd i n t wo o val c ells o n t he f oot o f a nother s pecimen f ound a t L akenheath ( Jessup, 1 950, p . 1 05). S everal l arge g ilt s quare-headed b rooches f rom g raves 2 1, 3 2 a nd 3 9 o f t he c emetery d iscovered a t L inton " bore r ed o r y e llow p laques o f e name l o r p aste" ( Fox, 1 923, p . 2 60 ) a nd t wo s imilar f inds a gain f rom t he L itt le W ilbraham c emetery " nave s mall p laques o f b lue o r r ed e name l" ( ibid .p . 6 2). T hese b rooches a re h owever d escribed e lsewhere a s h aving o nly r ed e name l ( Leeds, 1 949, p p. 5 7, 6 0, 6 9-70). P ossib ly t he e name ls a re i n f act d ecayed .

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T here a ppears t o b e o ne e xamp le o f a n a pp lied s aucer b rooch w ith a s pot o f r ed e name l i n t he c entre i nstead o f t he m ore u sua l a mber, g lass o r g arnet . T his w as f ound a t F aversham a nd i s n ow i n t he B r itish M useum ( Jessup, 1 950, p . 6 2; B ritish M useum , 1 923, p. 3 5, 4 8). T here a re t hen o n as mall n umber o f A nglo-Saxon b rooches, m ain ly o f t he s ixth c entury, a f ew r ather s imp le a nd s mall c e lls c ontaining e name l. S ome h as d ecayed b ut r ed s eems t he m ost c ommon c olour w ith p ossib ly s ome y ellow a nd b lue a s w e ll. T he t echn ique i s a lways s imp le . D esp ite t he l arge n umber o f p enannular b rooches w ith e name l d ecoration f ew o f t hese c ome f rom B r itain ( K ilbr ide-Jones, 1 937, p . 3 79-455; F ow ler, 1 963, p p . 9 9120, l ists p p . 1 35-150) 7 p 6 . ype F l e xamp le f rom t he u ppermost l eve l a t T raprain L aw; T here 4s a t i t p ossesses a l ozenge-shaped c e ll w ith y e llow e namel o n e ach t erm ina l ( Bur ley, 1 955, p . 1 64, n o . 8 9). At ype H /F w ith e name l, a s a lways w ith p enannu lar b rooches o n t he t erm inals, w as f ound o n t he S c illy I s les ( Fow ler, o p . c it . p . 1 43) a nd f rom W alls o n S het land, c omes at ype H 3 w ith r ounded t erm inals b earing s pots o f r ed e name l ( ib id . p . 1 44). I t i s i nteresting t hat o n t his t he e name l c an b e s een f rom e ither s ide i .e. t here i s n o b ase f or i t . F ina lly t here i s al ead t erminal o f aF 2 t ype p ennannular b rooch f rom D inas P owys ( A lcock, 1 963, p p . 1 20-2). T here a re s omewhat o ver a d ozen p ins w hich a ppear t o b e i ntended f or e name l d ecoration . T he t ypes a re d iscussed b y F ow ler ( 1963, p p . 1 20132) w here r eference t o e ar lier w ork i s m ade . T wo t ypes a re o f i nterest t o t he p resent s tudy , t he t ype E p in a nd t he h and p in ( including p roto-hand p ins) 7 / . O n t he f ormer t he e name l i s f ound o n t he t hickened h ead o f t he o bject . T he p in f rom C assington h as a p e lta b ased c e ll w ith d ecayed e name l w hile a d ifferent m ore e laborate d esign o ccup ies t he h ead a nd u pper s tem o f t he s pecimen f rom C irencester - h ere t he d ot a nd c irc le c ontain r ed e name l a s w ell a s t he m ajor ity o f t he t r iang les, w hich o therw ise a re n ow e mpty ( Brown, 1 976, p . 2 1). I t i s c laimed t hat t he h o llow i n t he h ead o f t he s omewhat e ar lier t ype E p in f rom N ewstead h as r ed e name l a nd s uggested t hat t hree o thers a lso w ith a h o llow o r d imp le i n t he h ead w ere l ikew ise t reated ( Fow ler, o p . c it . p . 1 2 1); t his m ay h ave b een s o . T he h and p in h as a r e lative ly l arge h ead c onsisting o f af lat p rojecting s emi-circ le a long t he t op o f w hich p roject i n t urn t hree t o s ix ' f ingers '. T he f ront o f t he h ead b ears e name l a s w e ll a s ( in m ost c ases) t he f ingers . T here i s u sually s ome s ort o f s cro ll o r s p ira l d esign l eft r eserved i n t he c e ll o n t he h ead . A bout a d ozen a re k nown f rom B ritain, m ost w ith p rovenances i n t he n orth. B oth s ilver a nd b ronze s pecimens h ave b een f ound . O ne o f t he ' bronze p roto-hand p ins ( m inus t he f ingers a nd w ith a c omp lete c ircle a s t he h ead) h as r ed e name l o n t he l o ver p ortion o f t he h ead . T his w as f ound a t H alton C hesters i n al ate f ourth c entury c ontext ( ibid . p p . 1 23, 1 26). A s econd p roto-hand p in, b ut i n s ilver, w ith as imp le r ed e name l, f orms p art o f ah oard f rom O ldcroft ( par ish o f L ydney, G loucestershire) d eposited o n t he c oin e vidence b etween 3 54 a nd 3 59 ( Johns, 1 974, p p . 2 95-7) 7 8 . A mong t he b est k nown o f t he b ronze h and p ins f rom S cot land i s t he e xamp le d iscovered a t U rquhart w ith r ed e namel i n t he h ead b ut w ith e mpty s ettings i n t he f ingers ( Morr ison, 1 873, p . 3 57). O thers h ave b een r ecorded f rom 6 0

P abbay, t he C u lbin S ands, B irsay a nd K irbister ( Proceedings S oc iety 7 . 17 , p . 1 3). A nt iquar ies S cot land, 1 90 1 ,p . 2 78 a nd 1 908, p p . - 64 763- 1 1 F rom G auicross c omes a s ilver h and p in w ith n ow d ecayed e name l i n t he h ead ( Nationa l M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land, r eg . n o . L 1962, 1 28 ) w h ile o n a nother o f t he s ame m eta l f ound o n F resw ick L inks t here i s b lue a nd r ed e name l the l atter d ecay ing t o g reen i n p laces ( Proceedings S ociety A nt i u ar ies S cot land, 1 947, p . 1 96). N o l ess t han t hree s i v er a n p ins w ith t races o f o n ly r ed e name l i n t he h eads a nd f ingers w ere r ecovered w ith t he N orr ies L aw t reasure ( see b e low ). T hus t here a re s evera l e xamp les f rom S cot land o f b ronze a nd s ilver h and p ins w ith s imp le e name l, u sua lly r ed o n ly, o n t he h eads a nd f ingers 7 9 . T he c ontrast m ay b e m ade w ith t he l arger n umber o f h and p ins f rom I re land w here t he s pecimens a re o f b ronze a nd o ften i nclude m illef ior i d ecorat ion. T wo h oards f rom S cot land c ontain e name lled m ater ia l r e levant h ere . T he f irst w as d iscovered a t N orr ies L aw a bout 1 8 17 ( for t he b est a ccount s ee A nderson, 1 88 1, p p . 3 4-7). I t i s h oused i n t he N at ional M useum o f A nt iquit ies o f S cot land a nd i nc ludes f ive e name lled s i lver o bjects, t he t hree h and p ins a nd t wo l eaf-shaped p laques ( reg. n os. F C30-34 r espect ive ly; D urham , 1 864, p . 8 , p l. I ). T wo o f t he f ormer a re l arge ( 16+ c ms.) a nd t he t hird i ncomp lete o ne s mall b y c ompar ison -all h ave t hree f ingers. M uch o f t he e name l i s d ecayed o r m issing b ut t here a re t races o f r ed w h ich w ou ld a ppear t o b e t he o n ly c o lour a pp lied . O n t he p laques t he c e lls t ake t he f orm o f ' P ict ish s ymbo ls ' ( Thomas, 1 963, p . 4 5) a nd n ow h ave 0 . T he d ate o f t heir p robab le l ost e name l r ep laced w ith r ed w ax 8 d eposition o f t his h oard i s d isputed b etween t he s ixth a nd s eventh c entury ( Fow ler, 1 963, p p . 1 27-128). T here i s o ne i nstance o f e name l i n t he S aint N inian 's I s le t reasure ( Small e t a l. 1 973, p . 5 4-55). T he s ilver b ow l ,n umber 6 , h as a n i nterna l m ount w ith p at r iangu lar c e ll o f r ed e name l t hough t here i s t he s uggestion t hat t he m ount m ight n ot b e o r igina l. T he h oard i tse lf i s b e lieved t o h ave b een d eposited i n t he e ight c entury ( W ilson, 1 964, p . 6 0 ). M ent ion m ay a lso b e m ade o f as ma ll b ut w e ll k nown g roup o f m assive s ilver n eck laces ( chains) a lso f rom S cot land a nd c onnected w ith t he P icts . T he t erm inals d o n ot a lways s urvive b ut i n t wo c ases w here t hey d o t he e name l c e lls a gain t ake t he f orm o f P ict ish s ymbo ls. O n t he e xamp le f rom P arkhill t he e name l i s m issing ( Nationa l M useum o f A nt iquit ies o f S cot land, r eg . n o . F C 147) a nd o n as econd f ound a t W hitec laugh ( ibid . r eg . n o . F C 150) t he r ed w ax i n t he t erm ina ls r ep laces t he l ost r ed e name l. I t s eems l ike ly t hat r ed w as t he o r igina l c o lour . L eaving S cot land f or t he p resent t here a re r e levant p ieces i n t he 1 . T he m ost s pectacular e name lwork i s t o b e f ound S utton H oo f ind 8 o n t he l arge h anging b ow l w hich b ears t his t ype o f d ecoration o n t he t hree c ircu lar e scutcheons, t hree s quare p laques s et b etween t hese, t he i nter ior p r int f rom w hich t here s tands u p af ish i n t he r ound a nd a n e xter ior p r int ( Bruce-M itford, 1 966, p l. 1 0 a nd 1 979, p p . 4 0-4 1, f ig . 2 6 ). O n t he e scutcheons t he o uter c e ll w ith t he r eserved s cro lls c ontains r ed a lone t hough i n p laces t his h as d ecayed t o ag reen c o lour; t he n arrow m idd le c e ll c ontains t rans lucent b lue e name l w ith s mall s quares o f m illef ior i g lass f loat ing i n i t; t he c entre c e ll i s a gain r ed w ith v ar ious p ieces o f m illef ior i

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f loat ing c rowded ly w ithin i t ( ibid . p l. 4 ). T he o uter c e ll o f t he s quare p laques a gain h as r ed e name l b ut i n e ach c orner i s as eparate l eaf-shaped c e ll c ontain ing g reen e name l w hich a ppears t o h ave h ad s ma ll p ieces o f a nother c o lour ( ?red) i nserted i nto t he s urface; t he s quare c entre c e ll a gain h as m any p ieces o f m illef ior i f loating i n a r ed g round ( ibid. f ig. 2 8). T he i nterior p rint b ears p lain r ed e name l i n t he o uter n arrow b and w hile t he i nner b and c ontains b lue e name l w ith m illefior i o nce m ore f loating i n i t . T he b ody o f t he f ish i s c overed w ith n ow e mpty s pots, 2 m ms . i n d iameter, o nce p ossib ly h o lding e name l. T he o uter c e ll o f t he e xterior p rint o nce a gain h as r ed e name l i n as cro ll p attern b ut p ossesses o n ly o ne c e ll w ithin h aving a r ed g round, a m edium t rans lucent b lue p e lta-shaped p attern a nd v arious p ieces o f m illef ior i f loating a round t he l atter . T he d etails o f t he o ther t wo h anging b ow ls a re l ess c lear . O nly t he i nterior a nd e xter ior p r ints o f h anging b ow l n o . 2b ear e namel ( ibid. f ig . 6 2). T he s ty le i s d ifferent f rom t he d esigns o n t he l arge h anging b ow l. I t c onsists o f ar ather h eavy D urrow t ype a nima l w ith f our h eads e merging f rom a c entral s pot -a " zoomorphic s wastika d esign". T here i s n ot m uch r oom l eft f or t he e name l c e lls w h ich s eem t o b e s imp ly f illed w ith r ed e name l. H anging b ow l n o . 3h as t hree e scutcheons w ith f our t hin p e ltae o nly r eserved ( ibid. f ig. 6 3 ). T he s imp le e name l i s r ed b ut e ach e scutcheon p ossesses a c entral m illef ior i i nset ( Bruce-M itford, 1 975, p . 4 4 1, n os. 11 a nd 12). S ome o f t he p ieces a mong t he g o ld j ewe llery f rom S utton H oo a re a lso o f i nterest, n ame ly t he p urselid a nd t he p airs o f s hou lder-clasps a nd p yram ids. T hese a ll b ear m illef ior i i nsets . D etailed e xam inat ion o f t his i n lay s hows t hat i t c onsists o f s lices o f m illef iori g lass t reated i n t he s ame w ay a s t he g arnet i nlay ( Bruce-M itford, 1 978, p . 5 82-597). T his d oes n ot t herefore c ome w ithin t he s cope o f p e name lwork b ut i s w orth n oting a s t he u se o f m illef iori g lass i n a s omewhat u nusual t echnique . T here i s n o n eed h ere t o d iscuss t he d ating a nd b ackground o f t he d eposition o f t he S utton H oo o bjects. R ecent w ork o n t he c oins s uggests 6 25 a s t he m ost l ike ly d ate f or t heir a ssemb ly t hough c are n eeds t o b e t aken i n t he i nterpretation o f t his ( Bruce-M itford, 1 979, p p . 8 29 4). I n c omb ination w ith t he w ear o n t he h anging b ow ls, p art icular ly s hown i n t he p atching o f t he l arge b ow l ( ib id. p . 4 1, f ig. 2 9), t his p uts t he d ate o f m anufacture a nd e name lling o f t hese t hree b ow ls b ack t o t he p revious c entury . B efore m oving o n t o t he h anging b ow ls a s ag roup t here a re a f ew m ore m isce llaneous e name lled o bjects f rom t his p eriod w orth n oting. Ab ronze f inger r ing w ith f our t r iangular c ells, a lternate ly r ed a nd y e llow, o n t he b aze l w as f ound d uring t he e xcavations o f t he m onastic s ite a t W hitby ( Peers a nd R adford, 1 943, p . 5 8, n o . 4 9) a nd a s econd o ne a lso p ossib ly s et w ith b lue e name l ( or ' paste '?) c omes f rom g rave 1 00 a t t he L ong W ittenham c emetery ( Akerman, 1 860, p p . 3 46, 3 52). A lthough t he m ount f rom L iddington h as b een l isted a s b e longing t o a h anging b ow l ( Fow ler, 1 968, p . 3 08) t his i s h ard ly t he c ase a nd i t s hould p erhaps m ere ly b e t ermed a ' mount '. T he e namelled p attern i s b asically a p elta t hough t he e name l i s n ow d ecayed . Am ount f rom C o lchester w ith s ome s ort o f a nimal p attern o n i t w as s aid t o b ear t races o f e name l b ut t he o bject i s n ow l ost ( Hu ll, 1 958, p . 9 2). F rom

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t he s ite o f a n A ng lo-Saxon c emetery a t F etcham a s ma ll c ircular m ount b earing r ed e name l i n as imple p attern o f p etals a nd c urved t r iang les w as r ecovered i n t he 1 930 's ( Cotton, 1 933, p p . 4 8-49). M ention m ight b e m ade t oo o f af ew e xamp les o f R omano-Br itish e name lwork w hich s urvived i nto t his l ater p eriod. A mong t hese a re t he h ead s tud b rooch f ound i n g rave 2 o f t he A nglo-Saxon c emetery i n t he g rounds o f G irton C o llege, C ambr idge ( Fox, 1 923, p . 2 47), t he m ount w ith m illef ior i e name l f rom S arre ( Jessup, 1 950, p . 19) a nd t he c ow-hide s haped m ount, a lso w ith m illef iori e name l ,f rom Y ork ( q .v .). T his l eaves t he h anging b ow ls. I t i s p roposed o nly t o l ook a t t he e name l a spect o f t his g roup o f o bjects. S o m uch h as b een w ritten a bout t he c ontexts, t ypo logy, o r igins, f unctions a nd d ates o f h anging b ow ls y et t he b asic r equirement o f ac orpus i s s till s ad ly l acking. H enry ( 1936, p p . 2 09-246) i s p robab ly s till t he m ost u sefu l f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he a ctual o bjects t hough a m ore u p-to-date l ist w ith u sefu l c omments h as b een c ontr ibuted b y F ow ler ( 1968, p p . 2 87-3 10) w here r eference w ill b e f ound t o o ther w orks 8 2 . A l ist o f t hose h anging b ow ls b ear ing e name l, n ot ing o n ly t he p resent c o lour o r s tate o f t he e namel a nd t he t echnique e mp loyed, i s g iven i n A ppendix B . T o d ate o ver s ixty h anging b ow ls b ear ing e name l d ecoration h ave b een r ecorded. T hese a re r epresented e ither b y f inds o f s ing le e scutcheons o r c omp lete b ow ls b earing e scutcheons a nd o ther m ounts . T he a pp lied e scutcheons, n ormally t hree i n n umber, a re t he u sual p laces t o f ind t he e name l b ut e name lled d iscs, k nown a s p r ints, a lso o ccur i n t he c entre o f t he b ase, b oth i nternally a nd e xternally . I n a ddition, o n s ome b ow ls t here a re a pp lied, o n t he e xter ior s urface, p laques, s omet imes i n t he s hape o f a nima ls, a nd b ands a lso, b ear ing e name l. Ag ood e xamp le o f t he s urvival o f as ing le e scutcheon i s t hat f rom C halton ( Addyman a nd L eigh, 1 973, p p . 1 9-20) w hile L owbury H ill y ie lded a n e xamp le o f ab ow l w ith i ts t hree e scutcheons a nd t wo p r ints s till a ttached ( Atkinson, 1 9 16, p p . 2 1-22). T he a ddit ion o f s quare p laques i s t o b e s een o n t he l arge h anging b ow l f rom S utton H oo ( where n ote a lso t he f ree-standing f ish; B ruce-M itford, 1 966, p l. 1 0) a nd b ands a s w e ll a s z oomorphic p laques a re a pp lied t o t he H ildersham, ( Lethbridge ,1952, p p . 4 4-47) a nd L u llingstone b ow ls ( Kendr ick, 1 932, p p . 1 71-173). M ention m ay a lso b e m ade o f af ew m ore r ecent f inds. T he C halton e scutcheon ( q .v .) i s o ne o f t hese; i ts e name l h as n ow d ecayed t o ag reenish c o lour a nd t he d esign i s b ased o n t he D urrow s p ira l p attern ( Fow ler, 1 968, g roup I V). A nother e name lled e scutcheon w ith a b ird-headed t r iske le p attern i s r ecorded f rom W ilm ington, S ussex, ( W ilson, 1 969, p . 2 4 1) a nd a nother e scutcheon o r p r int, a gain e name lled a nd s aid t o b e s im ilar t o t he C halton s pecimen, w as f ound d ur ing t he e xcavation o f t he A nglo-Saxon c emetery a t B evis 's G rave, B edhampton, H ampshire ( Webster, 1 976, p . 1 6 1) 8 3 . A lso t here i s t he l ead m ode l f or a n e scutcheon, o f a n e name l-bear ing t ype, f rom t he B rough o f B irsay ( Cur le, 1 974, p p . 3 0 1-307) 8 4 . R ed, y e llow a nd b lue a re t he c o lours o f t he e name ls u sed o n t he h anging b ow ls. H owever t he c o lours g iven i n p ub lications m ay n ot a lways b e c orrect u nless d ecay h as o ccurred s ince t he o r iginal p ub licat ion. F or i nstance o n o ne g roup o f e scutcheons i llustrated ( Leeds, 1 933, p l. II) t he f o llow ing i s f ound: n o . 4f rom B arr ington ( B ) s hown a s a ll y ellow ,ought r eally t o b e d escribed n ow a s d ecayed, a nd l ikew ise 6 3

n o . 5f rom G reenw ich s hown a s b eing a ll r ed. A gain o ne w ou ld b e i nc lined t o d escribe t he e name l o n t he B enty G range e scutcheons a s decayed r ather t han y ellow ( Bruce-M itford, 1 974, P . 2 50 ) t hough t his i s p referab le t o y e llow o n ar ed g round ( Henry, 1 936, p . 2 36). I t i s o bvious c are m ust b e t aken i n d escr ibing e namels a nd t hough L eeds ' a ssumptions f or i nstance m ay b e c orrect i t s eems p referab le t o e rr o n t he s ide o f c aution a nd l ist s uch c ases a s ' decayed '. G reen d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a c o lour i ntentionally u sed ( except i n t he o ne c ase o f t he c orner c e lls o f t he s quare p laques o n t he l arge h anging b ow l f rom S utton H oo, q .v .) a nd n ow g reenish c olours a re t he r esu lt o f d ecay a s s een o n t he C halton e scutcheon. R ed i s t he m ost c ommon c o lour f ound, o n o ver a t hird o f t he f inds, b oth o n i ts o wn a s o n t he L u llingstone b ow l o r i n c omb inat ion w ith y e llow o r b lue . R ed a nd y e llow a re t o b e s een o n m ore t han h alf a d ozen s pecimens s uch a s o n t he H itchin e scutcheon ( V ictoria a nd A lbert M useum, r eg . n o . 1 63, 1 923). Y e llow a lone i s p robab le o n t he C amerton e scutcheons ( Leeds, 1 933, p p . 1 50-15 1) a s w e ll a s t he B arrington B e scutcheon a nd t he B enty G range e scutcheons ( both q .v .) T here i s a lso t he c ombination o f r ed, y e llow a nd b lue o n t he e scutcheon f rom ' near O xford ' ( Leeds, 1 933, p l. II, 7 ) b ut o therw ise b lue d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een f requent ly u sed ( except s ee t he h anging b ow l f rom S utton H oo a bove). A bout a q uarter o f t he e name ls e xamined o n t hese o bjects w ould n eed t o b e d escr ibed a s ' decayed ' b ut i n o n ly a f ew c ases i s i t g one e nt ire ly e .g. t hat f rom E astry ( Henry, 1 936, p . 2 28, p l. 2 5,3). S o r ed e name l i s b y f ar t he m ost f requent ly u sed f ollowed b y y e llow a nd o ften w ith t he t wo c ombined . O therw ise o n ly b lue i s u sed b ut r are ly a nd g reen i n o ne m inor i nstance . T he o verwhe lm ing m ajor ity o f t hese e namels a re s imp le w ith o ne c o lour t o ac ell a nd o ften t wo c o lours t o a n o bject e xcept f or o ne c ase o f t hree c o lours. T here a re r are c ases o f w hat m ight b e d escr ibed a s c omp lex e name ls i n s o f ar a s o n t he ' H itchin ' a nd ' near O xford ' e scutcheons t he r ed a nd y e llow e name ls m eet i n p laces w ithout a s eptum b etween t hem ; t he p oint i s w e ll i llustrated b y L eeds ( 1933, p l. II, 6 & 7 ). I n a ddition m illef ior i o ccurs i n f ive c ases. T hese a re t he B ar laston e scutcheons ( Kendrick, 1 932, p p . 1 73-174, f ig . 5& p l. 5 ), t he N orthumber land e scutcheons ( Sm ith, 1 908, p . 7 3, f ig. 2 & 3 ), t he S cunthorpe e scutcheon ( Kendr ick, 14 1 , p p . 2 36-238, p ls. L II & L III) ,t he e scutcheons, p rints a nd p laques o n t he l arge h anging b ow l f rom S utton H oo ( q .v.) a nd t he l ost h anging b ow l f rom t he R iver W itham ( Kendr ick, 1 94 1, p p . 1 61-162). O n m ost o f t hese t he m illef ior i i s c lear ly f loating i n ag round o f r ed e namel. T here i s t he s uggestion ( Henry , 1 936, p . 2 37), w hich s hou ld p erhaps n ot b e e nt irely d isregarded, t hat t he s pots o n t he ' near O xford ' e scutcheon ( q .v .) c onsisted o f m illef ior i t oo 8 5 . T he g reater n umber o f t he e scutcheons a re o f b ronze a nd t hey a re f requent ly t inned ( see A ppendix B ). O n ly t he p r int o f t he S aint N inian 's I s le b ow l i s s ilver a nd s ince t he l ost R iver W itham b ow l w as a lso o f t hat m etal s o p robab ly w ere t he e scutcheons. M ost o f t he e scutcheons a nd p r ints a re c ircu lar, g enerally b eing a bout 4c ms. i n d iameter t hough t here i s as mall n umber o f a bout h a lf t he s ize; o therw ise t hey a re h eater- or b ird-shaped, s quare o r z oomorph ic.

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F or t he m ost p art t he e name l c ells a re d e lineated b y t he d esigns o r p atterns, m ost ly b ased o n s cro lls a nd s pira ls. T hese c an b e g auged f rom t he v ar ious d iscussions ( e .g. F ow ler, 1 968, t ab le 1 , p p . 2 962 97; L ong ley, 1 975, f igs. p assim, p p. 1 5-30). H ere i s n ot t he p lace t o e xam ine t hem y et a gain n or i ndeed t o t ry t o d ate t hem . D ates o f d epos ition c an b e a ssigned t o s uch f inds a s t hose f rom S utton H oo o r W hitby M onastery, t hough a ge w hen b uried i s a n i mportant f actor . Y et f ew a re l ike ly t o h ave b een m ade a fter t he s eventh c entury a nd s ome m ust b e a s e ar ly a s t he f ifth. F ind-spots a re m ostly s outh-eastern i n A ng lo-Saxon c ontexts a nd o n o rigin s uff ice t o s ay t hat f ew w ould n ow p robab ly a gree w ith H enry 's c ontent ion t hat t hey a re a ll I r ish. S urveyed a s aw ho le, t here i s n ot r ea lly v ery m uch e name lwork i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod a nd i t b ecomes v ery s crappy w ithout t he h anging b ow ls. E ven w ith t he l atter m ost o f t he e name l i s s imp le i n o ne o r t wo b asic c o lours; t he m illef ior i e name ls a re i n f act f ew a nd h ard ly o f t he q ua lity o f t he p receding p er iod. I t i s g enerally r ecognised n owadays t hat i n t he f ield o f m etal-working ( e .g . C larke, 1 95 1, p . 1 99) t here w as c ontinuity b efore a nd a fter t he R oman d eparture a nd i f, a s a ppears s o, t here w ere l ate R omano-Br itish e name ls b eing m anufactured t hen t he p ost-Roman e xamp les c an b e s een a s t he f ina l s tage o f t his i ndustry . T he p rob lem o f a s udden r e-b irth o f e name l-working i n t he e ar ly A ng lo-Saxon p er iod i n f act d oes n ot e xist e ither i n v o lume o r l ack o f i mmediate p redecessors .

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P ART 2

T HE T ECHNIQUES

I NTRODUCTION

N ow t hat t he a vailab le e vidence h as b een s urveyed w hat c an b e s aid a bout i t? T he m ost i mportant p art o f t he c omp lete o bject i s o f c ourse t he a ctual e namel o r v itreous s ubstance w hich i s d ealt w ith i n C hapter 6 . T here t he c o lours a pp lied a re d iscussed a nd t he ir a nalyzes e xamined . S uch a spects a s r aw m ater ials a nd d ecay a re i ncluded. C hapter 7 c overs t he s econd i mportant p art o f e name lwork, t he m eta l b ase . T his l ooks a t w hich m eta ls a re s uitab le f or e name lling a nd e xam ines e ach i n t urn a s r egards i ts u se i n t he p er iod u nder r eview . A nalyses o f t he m eta ls o f v ar ious o bjects a re e xamined -as w e ll a s t he c e lls, t heir s ize, s hape, m ode o f p roduct ion a nd t he v ar ious m eans e mp loyed t o h e lp k eep t he e namel i n p lace . T he f o llow ing c hapter ( 8 ) l ooks a t t he p rocess o f j oining t he v itreous s ubstance t o t he m etal b ase. T he a ctua l p rob lem i s d iscussed f o llowed b y as urvey o f t he t oo ls n eeded t o c arry t his o ut a nd a b rief l ook a t w hat c an g o w rong . T hen f o llows a s uggested a rrangement f or g rouping t hese e ar ly e name ls o n t he m ode o f a pp lication : s imp le, c omp lex a nd m illef iori r ather t han t he a ll-embracing c hamp leve M illef ior i e name l i s e xam ined i n s ome d epth. I n C hapter 9 c omes t he p rob lem o f a ctua l s ites w here t he w ork w as c arr ied o ut . T he w ell k nown s ites o f t he C ontinent a nd I re land a re f irst d iscussed a nd f rom t hese t he t ypes o f e vidence a vailable a re l isted a nd t he c r iteria t hen a pp lied t o al ist o f s ites i n B ritain w hich a re d ivided i nto p robab le, p ossible a nd d oubtfu l m anufactur ing l ocations.

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C HAPTER 6 T HE V ITREOUS S UBSTANCE

T he a ctual e name l o r v itreous s ubstance i s e xam ined f irst . W e l ook a t w hat c o lours a re u sed, w hich a ppear o n o bjects o f e ach p eriod, t he t ype o f o bject t hey a dorn, i n w hich c ombinations t hey a re e mp loyed a nd w hether t hey a re o paque o r t ranslucent. I t s hou ld b e n oted h owever t hat h ere w e a re d ealing s tr ict ly w ith t he e name l a nd t hat t he m illef ior i g lass, i n w hatever t echnique i t a ppears, i s d iscussed i n c hapter 8 . A n a ttempt i s m ade t o d iscover j ust w hat t he a ctual e name l i s m ade o f b y e xam ining t he v ar ious a nalyses o f t he s ubstance a vailab le i n p r int. F rom t hese i t i s h oped t o d ef ine t h ebasic v itreous s ubstance, t he c o lourants a dded, t he q uest ion o f o pacity a nd t o c ompare t hese w ith t he g lass o f t he p eriod. R aw m aterials a re b r ief ly e xam ined a nd t he p rob lem o f w eather ing m entioned. T he e nd r esu lt s hou ld b e am ore c omprehensive a nd u sefu l s tudy o f t he b asic m ater ial c onstituting a n e name lled o bject o f t he p eriod u nder r ev iew . B efore l ooking a t t he c o lours u sed i t s hou ld b e s aid t hat e ach i ndividual c olour s hows a w ide r ange o f s hades . S ome i ndication o f t hese i s g iven w here a ppropr iate b ut n o a ttempt i s m ade t o d escribe e ach c o lour r igidly o r t o g ive i t ac ode a ccording t o c olour s chemes s uch a s t he M unsell C o lour C hart o r t he c hart p ub lished b y t he B r itish H ort icu ltural S ociety f or f lower s hades. O n t he w ho le t his w ould n ot a ppear t o s erve a ny u sefu l f unction a nd i n a ny e vent i s l iab le t o s ubjective o bservation a s w e ll a s t he d ecay o f t ime. U n less i t i s r easonab ly o bvious w hat t he c o lour i s, i t i s d escribed a s b eing d ecayed i .e. i f i t i s s aid t hat s ix b lue e name ls w ere n oted t his m eans t here w ere s ix b lue e name ls a nd n ot, a s h as o ften h appened i n t he p ast, t hree o f b lue a nd t hree o f a d ecayed c o lour w hich m ight o nce h ave b een b lue . O ccasionally t here a re b order-line c ases a s b etween b lue a nd g reen a nd o range a nd y e llow, a nd d iff icu lties a rise t oo w ith w eathered e namels n ow s eem ing ly g reen o r w hite, a nd i n t he e nd t hese h ave t o b e s ubjective ly a ssigned t o ag roup . A s a lready s een a n o paque r ed ( often d escr ibed a s ' sea ling w ax r ed ') e name l i s t he m ost c ommon o n t he I ron A ge o bjects w here m ost f requent ly i t i s f ound a lone a s i n t he S tanw ick a nd S anton h oards. Y ellow a nd b lue o ccur i n m uch f ewer i nstances a nd t hen o nly a s s pots o r i n s mall a ngu lar c e lls. N either i s u sed o n i ts o wn a nd i t i s d iscussed l ater w hether t he b lue i s a n e namel a t a ll o r m ere ly a g lass i nset . R ed a nd b lue, a s o n t he t wo m ounts f rom W estha ll, i s ac ombination s light ly m ore c ommon t han r ed a nd y e llow, e xemp lif ied b y t he m assive a rm lets f rom S cot land. Y e llow a nd b lue o n ly a re u nusual t ogether b ut t here a re s everal c ases o f t he t hree c o lours, r ed, y e llow a nd b lue, c ombined e .g. o n t he t wo t errets f rom S aham T oney . H owever t hese t hree c o lours a re t he o nly o nes t hat c an b e s aid t o h ave b een a pp lied t o I ron A ge o bjects a nd s hades o f g reen o r w hite s hould b e r egarded a s e xamp les o f d ecay

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T he e namelwork o f t he R omano-Br itish p er iod i s m arked b y ag reater v ariety i n t he e name l c o lours. I n a dd ition t o r ed, b lue a nd y e llow t here i s n ow g reen, o range, b lack a nd w hite. S urpr ising ly b lue b ecomes t he m ost c ommon c o lour, h aving b een r ecorded o n o ver f ive h undred o bjects . T here i s m uch v ariat ion i n t he i ntensity o f t his s hade r anging f rom a d ark o r d eep b lue t hrough m edium a nd l ight b lue t o ar ather w atery b lue w hich a lmost v erges o n w hite a t t imes o r o n o ther o ccasions i s n ear a l ight g reen o r t urquoise. R ed s urvives a s ac ertain c olour o n s omewhat l ess t han f our h undred o bjects. O n t he w ho le i t i s n ot s uch a b r illiant r ed a s t hat o f t he I ron A ge a nd h as f ewer d egrees o f s hade t hough i t s omet imes m erges w ith o range. P ossib ly i f t he o r ig ina l c o lours o f t he d ecayed e name ls w ere k nown t his i mbalance i n n umbers b etween r ed a nd b lue m ight b e a djusted -though t here i s n o i ndication t hat t his w ould n ecessar ily b e s o. Y ellow c omes a l ong w ay b ehind i n p opular ity a dorn ing a bout a h undred p ieces a nd r anging f rom a p ale y e llow t o a d eeper s u lphur c o lour; a gain i t c omes c lose t o o range a t t imes. T here i s a n a lmost e qual n umber o f g reen e namels, t hat i s t o s ay w hat a ppear t o b e i ntentional g reens a s o pposed t o o ther e name ls w hich h ave d ecayed t o ag reenish h ue; t he g enuine g reen t ends t o b e l ight o r m edium, v ery r are ly d ark . O range d oes s eem t o b e p resent o n a f ew d ozen s pecimens i n i ts o wn r ight r ather t han a s ay e llow o r r ed w h ich h as n ot t urned o ut t o b e t he c orrect s hade. B lack i s u sed i n as mall n umber o f c ases e specia lly a s s pots o r c irc les i n t he c omp lex t echnique . W hite t oo i s f ound, o ften a r ather i vory w hite, a gain f requent ly a s s pots; i n m any c ases i t i s d iff icult t o b e s ure w hether t his c o lour i s a n i ntentiona l w hite o r aw hite p roduced b y t he d ecay o f a nother c o lour, b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat t here a re i nstances o f t he f ormer . T here i s t he o dd c ase o f g enu ine b rown b u t m ore o ften i t m ight b e t hat s uch a c olour i s r eally ad ecayed r ed . T his a pp lies m ore o ften t o d escr iptions i n o lder p ub licat ions a nd d ecay t oo m ay a ccount f or a ny ' grey ' l isted . I t s eems r easonab le t o a ccept t hat t here a re s even c o lour f ound o n R omano-Br itish e name lwork a nd t hat b lue a nd r ed a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon . T hough t here a re c ases o f o n ly o ne c olour b eing f ound o n t hese o bjects i t i s m uch m ore u sual t o h ave t wo c o lour s a nd e ven t hree d ur ing t he R omano-Br itish p eriod . B lue a nd r ed i s b y f ar t he m ost c ommon c ombinat ion b eing f ound f or i nstance o n f our t imes a s m any o bjects a s t he n ext m ost p opu lar p air b lue a nd y ellow . R ed a lso o ccurs w ith y e llow a s w e ll a s g reen, b lack, w hite a nd o range . O ther t han r ed, b lue i s c ombined w ith g reen a nd o range . R ed, b lue a nd y e llow a nd r ed, b lue a nd w hite a re t he m ain t r ip le c ombinations t hough o ccasiona lly o ther g roupings o f t he v ar ious c o lours a re e mp loyed b y t he c raftsman . T his a pp lies t o t hose s imp le e namels w here o n ly o ne c o lour i s a pp lied t o ac e ll. W ith t he m ore c omp lex e name ls t here a ppears t o b e ag reater v ar iety o f c o lour s chemes. W here t here a re t wo d ifferent c o lours i n t he o ne c e ll r ed a nd b lue a nd r ed a nd w hite a re o ften f ound a s w e ll a s b lue w ith w h ite o r l ess o ften w ith y e llow , g reen o r o range. I n a s im ilar f ashion r ed, b lue a nd y e llow o r b lue , w hite a nd g reen o r r ed, b lue a nd w hite h ave b een n oted. I n t hose c ases w here t he c omp lex e name l c onsists o f ab ackground c o lour w ith s pots o f as econd i nserted t he f ormer i s m ost c ommon ly f ound t o b e b lue o r r ed, l ess o ften o range, y e llow o r g reen w h ile t he s pots a re o ne o f r ed, y ellow, b lack, w hite o r b lue .

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B lue a nd r ed a re t he m ost f requent c o lours o n t he h ead s tud ( group Q ) a nd t rumpet h eaded ( group R ) b rooches w ith y e llow a ppear ing l ess o ften . T he g roup S b rooches t oo h ave m ain ly b lue a nd r ed b ut h ere t he t hird c o lour u sed i s g reen . O n t he d ragonesque v ar iety y e llow i s a lmost a s c ommon a s b lue a nd r ed. O n ly t he l atter t wo a re e mp loyed o n t he d omed p late b rooches . B lue o ccurs o n t he g reater n umber o f f lat d isc b rooches f o llowed c lose ly b y r ed a nd o n al esser n umber g reen, w ith s mall a mounts o f b lack ( see e specially t ype 1), y e llow a nd w hite. T he s andal s haped ( animal) p late b rooches p rovide a g ood e xamp le o f c omp lex c olours w ith g enerally a b lue g round w ith w hite o r y e llow s pots . T he v esse ls a re o ften d ecorated w ith ac omb ination o f r ed, b lue a nd g reen w h ile o n t he s eal b oxes, m iniature s too ls a nd b utton-andloop f asteners t he u sual c o lours a re b lue, r ed a nd y e llow i n t hat o rder . A s n oted i n c hapter 5 t he n umber o f c o lours u sed i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod d rops t o t hree . T hen r ed i s b y f ar t he m ost u sual ,f o llowed b y y e llow a nd i n af ew c ases b lue . A lthough w e d eal l ater w ith t he q uestion o f w hat c auses o pacity s ince i t o ften a r ises i n r e lat ion t o e name lwork i t s hould p erhaps b e n oted n ow t hat t his i nterest i n o pacif iers i s d ue t o t he f act t hat t he o verwhe lm ing m ajor ity o f t he e name ls e xamined f or t his s tudy a re o paque . D espite t he f act t hat n owadays t ranslucent e name ls a re a s c ommon a s o paque o nes, v ery f ew o f t he f ormer o ccur i n t he p eriods u nder r eview . T he s mall n umber o f t ranslucent b lue s pots f rom t he I ron A ge a re r easonab ly w e ll k nown t hough t hese a re g lass r ather t han e name l ( see b e low). O therw ise t here a re o n ly a bout a d ozen e xamp les o f t rans lucency o n R omano-Br it ish e name lled o bjects. T hese t rans lucent e name ls a re g enera lly b lue s uch a s o n ag roup M b rooch f rom C aerwent ( Newport M useum ), t helozenge-shaped s eal b ox l id f ound a t C orbr idge ( site m useum ) a nd t he f lat d isc b rooches r ecovered a lso a t C orbr idge ( type 1 -site m useum) a nd R ichborough ( type 8 -Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 16, n o . 4 5). I t i s p ossib le t hat t hese a re n ot i ntent ionally t rans lucent a nd c ould b e d ue t o l ack o f c ontro l o ver t he c onstituents o f t hese p articu lar e name ls. B efore l ook ing a t w hat t he e name ls a re a ctually m ade o f i t i s n ecessary t o m ention t he p ossibility o f t he u se o f s crap g lass o r c ullet, p articu lar ly a s c olour ing m atter . T he s econdary u se o f s uch m ater ia l h as f or e xamp le b een s hown i n t he b angle f rom T raprain L aw m ade f rom a R oman p illar-mou lded b ow l ( Newton, 1 971, p . 1 3). W e b egin b y l ooking a t t he I ron A ge e name ls i n d etail, e specially t he r ed e name l. V ar ious a nalyses o f t his r ed e name l h ave a ppeared s ince t he n ineteenth c entury b ut t he o n ly c omp lete o nes a re s till t hose o f t he s tray l ump f rom T ara ( Ball a nd S tokes, 1 892, p . 2 80) a nd o f v ar ious p ieces f rom B ibracte ( Bulliot, 1 899, p . 1 46 a nd p . 3 5) t hough s ee b e low . Af ew l ater a nalyses d ea l o n ly w ith t he c o lourant f or e xamp le t he T revone b rooch ( Dudley a nd J ope, 1 965, p p . 1 8-23) o r t he b rooch f rom E astham ( Stead, 1 965, p . 6 5). M ore r ecent ly a g roup o f t hirty-three o bjects o f t he I ron A ge b ear ing t his o paque r ed e name l, o r ' g lass' a s H ughes p refers t o t erm i t, w as a nalysed t o i ncrease t he a mount o f i nformation ( Hughes, 1 972, p p . 9 8-107). T he b ase g lass w as f ound t o b e o f t he a lkali-lead-silica v ar iety t hough o nly q ualitative n ot q uant itative a nalyses w ere c arr ied o ut ( ibid. p . 9 9). T he c o lour, a s w as p revious ly k nown, i s d ue t o n umerous f eathery c rysta ls o f c uprous o xide f loating i n t he g lass m atrix a nd t his f orm o f c opper 6 9

i s o nly o btained b y h eating i n r educing c onditions. T he p resence o f l ead i s h e ld t o i ncrease t he s o lubility o f c opper a nd t herefore b ecause o f t he ir i mportance, t he l ead a nd c opper c ontents w ere q uant it ive ly d eterm ined . T he a verage c omposition p roved t o b e 7p er c ent c uprous o xide a nd 2 5 p er c ent l ead o xide w ith t here b e ing m ore v ariat ion i n t he a mount o f t he l atter p resent i n t he r ed e name l ( ibid. t ab le 1, p . 1 02-103). T he m ake-up o f t his m ater ial i s t herefore r easonab ly p w e ll k nown a nd i t w as f or t his r eason t hat o nly o ne I ron A ge o bject, t he t erret f rom ' Suffolk ',was i nc luded i n t he a nalyses c arr ied o ut f or t he p resent s urvey ( Bateson a nd H edges, 1 975). L ead o xide h ere a mounts t o 1 7 p er c ent a nd c uprous o xide t o 6 .4 p er c ent, b oth l eve ls f itting i n q uite w e ll w ith H ughes' r anges. H owever i t w as m ain ly o n a ccount o f t he s econd c olour, b lue, t hat t his ' Suffolk ' t erret w as i nc luded. M uch h as b een s aid o n t he b lue s pots o f t he I ron A ge b eing i n f act t rans lucent b lue g lass i nsets h e ld i n p lace b y r ed e name l b ut n one h ad b een c lose ly e xamined b efore . W hen l ooked a t t hrough t he m icroscope r ed w as c lear ly s een b eneath t he t ranslucent b lue s pots w hich w ere t hen a na lysed . I n c ontrast t o t he t rue e name ls l ead w as f ound t o b e a bsent a nd t he b lue c o lour , r ather w eak h ere, m ay b e d ue t o t he t race o f c obalt r ather t han t he s ma ll a mount o f c opper p resent ( op .cit . p p . 1 78, 1 80 a nd 1 84). S im ilar t ranslucent b lue g lass s pots o ccur o n t he B apchild t erret ( Leeds, 1 933, p p . 4 0-4 1, 1 04) a nd t he t erret f rom R ichborough ( Bushe-Fox, 1 949, p . 1 06): l ight a gain i n t he f ormer b ut d ark b lue i n t he l atter . T he w e ll k nown p a ir o f g lass s pots o n t he H od H ill s tud ar e at rans lucent m ed ium b lue a nd p rovide a n e xcellent e xamp le o f t his t echnique o f i nsetting ( Brailsford, 1 962, p . 1 6). T his m ight s uggest b lue e name l, a s o pposed t o b lue g lass i nsets, d oes n ot e xist b ut s uch i s n ot t he c ase. T here a re i nstances w here t he p osition i s n ot c lear a s w ith t he t ranslucent b lue s quares o n o ne o f t he t errets f rom C o lchester ( Co lchester & E ssex M useum, r eg. n o . 5 233 .26), t he o paque s pots o n t he M idd lebie t erret o r t he o paque p etals a dorning t he R ise b it ( Sm ith, 1 925, p . 1 03, p l. V III). H owever L eeds ( 1933, p . 1 04) t hought t hat t he l ight b lue o n t he S aham T oney t erret w as e name l a s a lso t he b lue o n o ne o f t he q uatrefoil h arness m ounts ( ib id. p . 12). L ikew ise t he b lue i n t he h eart-shaped c ells o n t he E lmswe ll p anel ( Corder a nd H awkes, 1 940, p p . 3 38-356) a nd t he l ight o paque b lue o n t he F ayum t erret ( Sm ith, 1 925, p . 8 7, f ig . 8 1) b oth a ppear t o b e e name ls . T here a re t hen s everal i nstances o f t he u se o f al ight b lue o paque e name l a s w e ll a s s pots o f t ranslucent l ight t o d ark b lue g lass h eld i n p lace b y r ed e namel. N one o f t he f ormer h as h owever b een a nalysed. U nfortunate ly t here i s al ack o f k now ledge c oncerning t he m ake-up o f t he y e llow e name l o f t he I ron A ge . M oving o n t o t he R oman p eriod t here w ere u nt il r ecent ly e ven f ewer a nalyses a vailab le a nd i n n o c ase a f ully q uantitative o ne. O nly a bout ad ozen v aried o bjects h ad h ad t heir e name l a nalysed w ith n o o vera ll p lan a nd i n a ll i nstances o nly q ualitative ly, m ain ly a s r egards c o louring m atter o r o pacify ing a gent. T he m ain g roup o f a nalyses a vailable w as t hat c arr ied o ut o n s ome o f t he B r it ish M useum 's h ead s tud b rooches, t hough o n t hese t he e name l i s o ften w eathered ( Painter a nd S ax, 1 970, p p . 1 53174). T he r eds w ere f ound t o b e d ue t o c opper a nd i n t wo i nstances t he o pacif iers f or n ow w eathered e name ls p roved t o b e s odium a ntimonate a nd c a lcium a ntimonate r espective ly . A s omewhat e ar lier e xam ination o f t he e name ls a pp lied t o t he B art low v ase s howed c opper t o b e r esponsib le f or t he r ed a nd g reen c o lours b ut t he b lue r esults f rom t he u se o f c obalt ( Gage, 1 836, p . 3 07).

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S imilar c o lourants a re u sed f or t he r ed a nd p ale b lue e name ls o n t he S outhacre b race let a nd t he o pacif ier o f t he l atter i s a gain c a lcium a ntimonate ( Mottram, 1 968, p . 2 59). T he b lue/green e name l o n t he W a ll b rooch w as a lso f ound t o b e d ue t o c opper w hile m anganese s eems t o b e t he c o lourant f or t he b rown e name l; i n b oth c ases l ead i s p resent ( Werner a nd O rgan, 1 964, p p . 4 6-47). L ead, c opper a nd s ilica w ere f ound t o b e p resent i n t he r ed e name l o n t he C ar lung ie b rooch w hile t he c o lourant f or t he y e llow w as s hown t o b e l ead a ntimonate a nd t he b lue w as d escr ibed m ere ly a s ' g lass ' ( Wainwr ight, 1 953, p . 6 8). T he r ed o n t he d agger s heath f rom H od H ill i s t he n ormal t we c onsist ing o f c uprous o xide i n al ead g lass m atr ix ( Brailsford, 1 962, p . 5 ) w hile t he o pacif ier o f t he y ellow e name l o n t he s econd d agger s heath f rom H od H ill w as s hown t o b e a lso t he r esu lt o f c alcium a ntimonate ( R ichmond, 1 962, p p . 1 37138) 8 6 . I t w ould a ppear f rom t hese r esu lts t hat c opper w as u sed e xtensive ly t o c o lour r ed, g reen a nd b lue t hough i n t wo c ases b lue w as p roduced b y c oba lt . O therw ise a ntimony w as e mp loyed t o p roduce y e llow a nd m anganese f or b rown. S odium a nt imonate a nd c a lcium a ntimonate w ere b oth u sed a s o pacif iers. F ina lly l ead w as d iscovered t o b e p resent i n s evera l c ases t hough i n t he r emaining e xamp les i t w as n ot n ecessar ily s ought . T here i s t herefore a c ertain a mount o f i nformation t o b e o btained f rom t hese a nalyses t hough t hey a re r ather h aphazard a nd i ncomp lete. I t w as t hus d ecided t o u ndertake a m ore c omprehensive s cient if ic s tudy o f as pecially s e lected g roup o f e name lled o bjects t o s ee w hat e xact ly t he e name l5 c onsist o f a nd t o t ry t o d iscover a ny h istor ical o r g eographical p atterns a nd t o e xam ine a ny r e lat ionships t o c ontemporary g lass. T hirty e name ls, o n t wenty-five b rooches, w ere a nalysed f or t his p urpose . T hese e name ls f orm a r epresentative s e lect ion o f t he c olours i n u se d uring t he R oman p eriod w hile t he b rooches i nclude b oth e arly a nd l ate e xamp les o f t ypes m anufactured e ither i n B r itain o r i mported h ither f rom t he C ontinent . T he e name ls s amp led w ere c hosen f or t heir s trong c o lour a nd l ack o f w eather ing o r d ecay 8 7 . T he c onstituents o f t he b asic g lass m atr ix ( silica, s oda, p otassium, m agnesium, c alcium a nd a lum inium ) s how a c onsistency i n c ontrast t o t he r est o f t he d ata. T he s ilica c ontent w as g enerally n ot m easured d irect ly b ut e stimated b y d ifference . W here m ore c omp lete a nalysis a llowed i t w as s hown t o a verage 5 p er c ent, t hough r anging b etween 3 5 a nd 7 0 p er c ent a nd t herefore d isp lay ing a l ower a verage a mount t han t hat i n c ontemporary R oman g lass w here i t f alls i nto a s maller r ange o f 6 0-68 p er c ent ( Caley, 1 962, p p . 6 4-65; F orbes, 1 957, p p . 21-228). I n t he c ase o f t he f lux, h ere s odium o xide, t he e stimated a ver age c ontent i s 1 3 p er c ent w h ile t he o ther a lkali o xide p resent, p otassium, o ccurs i n a mounts g enerally l ess t han . 5 p er c ent a nd r are ly r ising t o 1p er c ent . T his i s c onsistent w ith s oda r ather t han p otash b e ing t he f lux a t t his p er iod a nd s uggests t hat t he p resence o f p otassium i s a ccidental. T he c alcium o xide c ontent i s m uch a s m ight b e e xpected, n ever e xceeding 1 5 p er c ent n or d ropp ing b e low 6 p er c ent a nd o n a verage 9 p er c ent. O n ly s e lected s pecimens w ere e xam ined f or a lum inium a nd m agnesium . T he a mount o f t he f ormer o xide v ar ies b etween 1 .6 p er c ent a nd 3 .6 p er c ent w hile t he m agnesium o n t he w ho le i s l ess t han 5 p er c ent. I n b oth c ases t he i nc lusion d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een i ntentional a nd c ou ld a r ise f rom i mpur ities i n t he r aw m ater ia ls. A nother m ajor i ngredient i s l ead. 7 1

L ead o xide a verages 9 p er c ent

a nd t hough t here i s m uch v ar iation, r anges f rom 0 p er c ent u p t o 3 5 p er c ent i n t he s amp les a nalysed . O n ly t he b lue g lass s pots o n t he ' Suffolk t erret ( q .v.) c ontain n o l ead. I n c ontrast l ead o ccurs r are ly, a nd e ven t hen u sua lly o nly a s at race e lement, i n R oman g lass ( Caley, 1 962, p p . 9 3-104) s o t hat a m ajor d ifference i s e stab lished b etween g lass a nd e name l o f t h is p er iod. S uch a d istinct ion m ight b e u sefu l i n d eciding w hether a p iece o f r aw m ater ia l o r w aste i s t o b e a ssociated w ith g lass-working o r e name lling. H ughes h as s hown t hat l ead o xide i s p resent i n t he I ron A ge r ed e name ls w here t he t ypical l eve l i s 2 5 p er c ent . T he R oman r ed e name ls a re t herefore c hem ically s imilar t o t he I ron A ge o nes b ut d isp lay g reater v ariation i n t he l ead c ontent, m ore a kin t o t he o ther c o loured e name ls. L ead m ay b e a dded f or v arious r easons. I t c reates a s ofter , m ore b r illiant, s ubstance t hough o ne m ore p rone t o d ecay . M ore i mp ortant ly i t c an l ower t he m e lting t emperature o r a ffect t he c oeff icient o f e xpansion o r t he h igh t emperature s o lubility o f c opper o r t in. I t a lso p lays i ts p art a s ac o lourant o r o pacif ier . I ron o xide i s t o b e f ound i n a ll e xamp les v ary ing b etween . / p er c ent a nd 1 4 p er c ent . H owever i n o n ly t wo s pecimens i s i t f ound i n s ignif icant q uantities v iz. 1 0 a nd 1 4 p er c ent i n t he b lack e namel o n t wo b rooches ( op .cit . n os. 1 a nd 2 2). O therw ise i ron c onstitutes l ess t han 3 p er c ent o f t he i ngredients a nd i s l owest i n t he p aler c o lours . I n s uch c ases i t i s m ost l ike ly p resent a s a n i mpurity i n t he s and a s m ost s ands d o c ontain i ron o xide . I ron a s a n i mpurity a nd i n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther c o lour ing a gent w ou ld p roduce ad irty g reen o r b rownish o r e ven p ale b lue g lass ( Harden, 1 956, p . 3 12-3 14). I t i s t herefore l ike ly t o h ave b een a d e liberate p a ddit ion t o p roduce b lack . C obalt w as d iscovered i n o n ly n ine o f t he s amp les a nalysed a nd i n e ach c ase t his i s i n ab lue e namel. A ll t he b lue e name ls a na lysed c ontain c obalt o xide . T he a mount h owever i s s mall b eing o n ly a t race i n n umber ( 24)88, . 1 p er c ent i n n umber ( 20 ) a nd c onsistent ly . 2 p er c ent i n t he r emaining s even s pecimens. N everthe less c obalt i s a s trong c o lour ing m atter a nd t hese a mounts w ould b e s uff icient t o p roduce a s trong c olour a nd i n f act i n a ll t hese c ases t he s hade i s a d eep b lue ( Tay lor, 1 977, p . 4 ). I n t he o ne e xamp le, ( 24), w hich h as o n ly a t race o f c obalt t he c o lour i s w eak, w atery a nd t ranslucent . S ince t he c ommon r aw m ateria ls o f g lass d o n ot c ontain c obalt i ts p resence c an h ard ly b e a ccidental. C opper o ccurs i n a ll t he e name ls t hough i n n o c ase d oes i t e xceed 9p er c ent. I t c an b e r esponsib le f or v ary ing s hades o f b lue, r ed a nd g reen ( Harden, o p .cit . p . 2 14). T hese h owever d epend o n i ts o xidisation s tate a nd c o-ordination . I n t he n ine e xamp les o f b lue a nalysed t he a mount o f c opper p resent n owhere e xceeds . 8 p er c ent a nd t herefore d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a dded s pecif ically a s t he c o lourant, e specia lly i n v iew o f t he p resence o f c obalt . I t w ould s eem t hat c opper i s r esponsib le f or t he t hree g reens e xamined a s i t i s p resent ( as C uO) i n a mounts o f 1 .9 p er c ent, 4 .6 p er c ent a nd 5 p er c ent r espective ly. R ed c uprous o xide ( Cu2O) i s t he c olourant o f n umbers ( 17) a nd ( 24) w here t he p ercentages o f 3 .6 a nd 6 .4 a re n ear e nough t o H ughes' I ron A ge a verage . T he a mount i n n umbe rs ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) -1.4 p er c ent -fits l ess w ell b ut m icroscop ic e xam ination a gain s howed a t hick c loud o f c uprous o xide c rystals. C opper i s a lso p resent

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( Cu2O) i n q uite h igh a mounts i n t wo o range e namels w here i t a ccounts f or 5 .5 p er c ent o f ( 12) a nd 9 p er c ent o f ( 23). I t m ay b e n oted t hat t here i s s ignif icant ly l ess c opper i n t he w hite e namels w here i t m ight c ause d isco louration. I f t his i s n ot d e liberate, i ts p resence m ay b e e xp lained a s a n i mpur ity i n t he r aw m ateria l o r p ossib ly at ransfer o f c orrosion p roducts f rom t he m etal b ase . T in o xide w as f ound i n m ost s pecimens r anging f rom a t race u p t o 5 .5 p er c ent b ut o n t he w ho le i s 2p er c ent o r l ess. A ntimony i s a lso p resent i n m ost s amp les a ccounting f or a s m uch a s 1 2 p er c ent o f n umber ( 5) a nd o verall b eing m ore a bundant t han t in. I t a ppears f rom v ar ious p ub lished r esu lts t hat l ead a ntimonate a nd c alcium a nt imonate a re c ommon o pacif iers a nd t hese m ay a lso b e t he c o lourants o f t he y e llow a nd w hite e name ls. T in l ead o xide a nd t in o xide c ou ld h owever p erform t he s ame f unctions . H arden ( ibid.) s uggests a s uspension o f t in o xide a s p roducing a n o paque w hite i n R oman g lass b ut i n F orbes ' ( 1957, p p . 2 2 1-228) a nalyses t in o n ly o ccurs o nce i n ag reen m osaic c ube ( ibid. p . 2 24). T he r esults f or t he w hite e name ls s howed l itt le l ead o r t in b ut m uch a nt imony a nd s uggest c a lcium a nt imonate w as u sed t o p roduce t hem; a n X -ray d iffractinn s tudy s howed t his t o b e t he c ase w ith n umber ( 10) a nd t he s ame m ethod i ndicated t hat l ead a ntimonate i s r esponsib le f or t he y ellows o f n umbers ( 3 ) a nd ( 18). A s t he t in c ontent i s l ow i n t hese s amp les c alcium a nt imonate c ou ld b e t he m ain o pacify ing a gent . A nt imony i s o n ly a bsent i n t he t ranslucent b lue o f ( 24) a nd i s l ow i n t he r eds w hich d erive t heir o pacity f rom t he c uprous o xide c rystals. T here i s m uch a ntimony i n t he b lue e name ls a nd c a lcium a ntimonate w as s uggested a s t he o pacif ier i n t he b lue o f t he S outhacre b race let ( Mottram, 1 968, p . 2 59). T his l eaves m anganese a nd z inc. T he f ormer, w ith f ew e xcept ions, i s l ess t han 1 p er c ent a nd w ou ld a ppear t o b e a n i mpur ity i n a ll c ases e ither f rom t he s and w here i t i s c ommon o r e ven c u llet w here i t m ay h ave b een a dded a s ad e-co lourant . T here i s h owever t he c ase o f t he W all b rooch ( q .v .) o n w hich t he b rown w as a ttributed t o m anganese t hough t he l eve l w as n ot r ecorded . Z inc i s p resent i n af ew s amp les b ut a s t he r ange i s o nly b etwe 2 p er c ent a nd . 8 p er c ent en . i t p robab ly r epresents a n u nintentional a ddit ion, p ossib ly i ntroduced a long w ith t he c opper . O verall t hen t he m atr ix o f t he R oman e namels e xamined c onsists o f a n a lkali-lead-silica b ase, c ontaining s ome n ot u nexpected i mpur ities, t o w hich v ar ious c o lourants a nd o pacif iers h ave b een a dded. T he a mounts o f t he b asic i ngredients d o n ot d iffer m uch f rom t hose o f c ontemporary g lass e xcept f or t he p resence o f l ead w hich i s n ot a c onst ituent o f t he l atter . H owever t here i s m uch m ore v ar iation i n t he a mounts o f l ead, t in a nd a nt imony p ossib ly s uggesting t hese a long w ith t he c olourants w ere a dded t o ab asic g lass f r it . S uch a t wo-stage p rocess w as f ound t o h ave b een c arr ied o ut a t W adi e l-Natrum, t he c entre o f o ne o f R ome 's m ain g lassworks ( Saleh, e t .a l. 1 972, p p . 1 43-146). A lthough t here i s s ome v ar iation, t he r ed e name ls m ay b e t aken a s ac ontinuation o f t he I ron A ge o paque r ed e name l. A s econd g roup o f a nalyses h as n ow b een c arr ied o ut o n t he e name ls o n as election o f b rooches f rom t he R omano-Br itish s ite o f N ornour ( Biek e t .a l. 1 980, p p. 5 0-75). T he f orty-f ive e name ls e xam ined 7 3

o ccur o n av ar iety o f b ow a nd p late b rooches m ade b oth i n B r itain a nd o n t he C ontinent a nd d ating m ain ly f rom A .D. 5 0 t o 2 50. E leven e xamp les o f r ed w ere a nalysed a nd f ound t o c ontain l ess c opper t han t he r eds i ncluded i n t he e ar lier s tud ies: ad istinction i s s uggested b etween t he b righter s ealing-wax r ed, a d uller r ed a nd a b rick r ed i n w hich c opper i n t he c o lloidal s tate p roduces t hat c o lour a nd a ntimony t he o pacity . C uprous o xide e merged a s t he c o lourant f or t he s ix o range e name ls i n w hich a v ar iat ion i n p article s ize m ay a ccount f or t he o range r ather t hen r ed c o lour . N o g reen o r y e llow e name ls w ere i ncluded i n t he s tudy . T he r esults c onfirm t hat c alcium a ntimonate i s t he c o lour ing a gent i n t he t en w hite e name ls t hough i t i s n ot c lear w hat p roduced t he b lack c o lours. A ll e leven b lue e name ls, w hich a re l ess i ntense i n c o lour t han t hose e xam ined b y B ateson a nd H edges, w ere f ound t o o we t heir c olour t o c upr ic o xide a nd t heir o pacity t o c alcium a ntimonate. C o lourants a re p erhaps o ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f e name l o r i ndeed g lass s tudies. W hile m odern t ext b ooks s peak i n t erms o f a dding . 1 -3p er c ent o f t he c o lour ing a gent ( Shaw, 1 972, p . 1 55) i t i s s urpr ising t o f ind u p t o a s m uch a s 1 0 p er c ent p resent i n, f or e xamp le, t he b lack o f t he R oman e name ls. M ost o f t he e name l c o lourants a re s im ilar t o t hose u sed i n e ar ly g lass ( Lucas, 1 948, p . 2 19). S ealing-wax r ed e name l w as p roduced b y c uprous o xide w ith t he a ssistance o f l ead . H ughes h as p ointed o ut h ow d iff icu lt i t i s t o p roduce a r ed e namel i n t he n ecessary r educing c onditions i n s itu a nd h as s uggested i t w as e mp laced, p reformed, i n as light ly m o lten s tate r ather t han a s af r it o r p owder . Y et i t w ill b e s een b e low t hat t he e name llers d isp layed m uch s kill i n t he u se o f m illef ior i a nd t his a bility a long w ith t he c ommon u se o f r ed e name l o n R omano-Br itish e name lwork m ay s uggest t hey h ad o vercome t he p rob lem . R educing c ondit ions c an b e a chieved b y f using a f r it u nder c harcoa1 8 9 . T here a re m oreover l ess b r illiant r eds a nd i n s ome o f t hese t he c o lour m ay b e d ue t o c opper i n t he c o lloidal s tate. T here i s t hus s ome v ar iety i n t he c o lour ing m ethod o f t he r ed e name ls. C uprous o xide, p ossib ly b ecause o f ad ifferent p art icle s ize, i s a lso r esponsib le f or s ome o f t he o range c olours t hough o ther o ranges a ppear t o b e d ue t o am ixture o f r ed a nd y e llow w here t he y e llow o wes i ts c olour t o l ead t in o xide . T his m ixture m ay h ave b een o f t wo e name ls o r m ere ly o f t he t wo c o lourants a dded t o ab asic f r it . L ead t in o xide y e llow s eems t o o ccur o n ly i n o range e namels. P lain y e llow e namels a ppear t o o we t heir c olour t o l ead a ntimonate . R ed a nd g reen e name ls h ave a s im ilar c omposit ion w ith t he c o lour i n t he l atter p roduced b y c opper i n t he o xidised s tate ( cupr ic o xide). F urthermore t he f unction o f t he l ead h ere i s t o p rovide t he n ecessary c o-ordinating e nvironment f or t he c opper t o p roduce t he g reen c o lour, o therw ise a b lue w ould r esu lt. I t i s p ossib le t hat t he s low o xidisation o f ar ed e name l ( cuprous o xide) m ight p roduce a g reen c o lour . H owever n o b order line c ase w as o bserved a nd t he c o lours o f e ach a re r ich a nd h omogeneous. B lack s eems t o h ave b een p roduced m ore s imp ly t hrough t he a ddition o f l arge a mounts o f i ron a nd w hite h as c onsistent ly b een o bserved t o b e d ue t o c a lcium a nt imonate, n ot t in

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P erhaps t he m ost u nexpected c olourant i s t hat f or t he d eep b lue w here i n a ll c ases a nalysed i t p roved t o b e c obalt . H arden ( 1956, p . 3 14) l isted c opper o r i ron f or t his p urpose i n g lass s ince c obalt h ad " not s o f ar b een d iscovered i n g lass t hroughout o ur p er iod i n t he W est". T his a bsence o f c obalt i n b lue g lass i s a lso s hown i n t he a na lyses o f F orbes ( 1957, p . 1 26) a lthough C a ley ( 1962, p . 1 02 ) a nd G unther ( 19 12, p . 1 08) g ive t hree i nstances. T he b lue o n t he S outhacre b race let w as a ttributed t o c obalt t hough c opper a ppears t o h ave c aused t he W a ll b rooch b lue . A ll t he b lues a nalysed b y B ateson a nd H edges a re q uite i ntense ( except n o . 2 4) a nd t herefore u n like ly t o b e d ue t o c opper w hich w ou ld r esult i n g reenish b lue b ecause o f t he p resence o f l ead. C opper w as h owever f ound t o a ccount f or t he m any p aler b lues e ncountered i n t he s tudy o f t he N ornour e name ls. A b lue c o lour t herefore i s, d epending o n i ts i ntensity, d ue t o e ither c oba lt o r c opper . S omething s hould p erhaps b e s aid o n t he s ources o f t hese v ar ious e lements . L itt le w ork h as b een c arried o ut o n t his a spect o f e name ls t hough c omments h ave b een m ade r e lating t o t he b asically s imilar p rocess o f g lass-making. T he m ain i ngred ient, s ilica, i s p erhaps t he e asiest r aw m ater ial t o o btain s ince i t c onst itutes t he b ulk o f s and. H owever s and i s r are ly j ust p ure s ilica, a lthough c o lour c an g ive s ome g uidance o n t he l eve l o f i mpur ity, e .g . t he f ine w hite s and o btainab le l ocally w as p robab ly u sed a t t he R omano-Br itish g lassworks a t W ilderspoo l a nd i s m uch p referab le t o ad arker o ne c ontain ing m ore i mpur ities . I ron i s u sually t he c hief o f t hese a nd t his i s w hat g ives t he b asic g lass i ts n orma l g reenish o r b rownish c olour . F lint, s andstone, q uartz ( seem ingly u sed a s W adi E l-Natrum s ee S a leh, e t .al. 1 972, p . 1 44) a nd q uartzite, a ll c rushed, a re o ther s ources o f s ilica w hich m ay h ave b een u sed, e specia lly t he f irst . S oda p rovides t he f lux a nd w hile n ot u sually p resent ( as i n E gypt ) i n i ts n atural s tate a s n atron i s n everthe less r eadily o btainab le f rom o ther s ources. C alcium i s f ound i n l imestone a nd c halk b ut i t h as b een a rgued t hat l ime w as n ot n ecessar ily a s eparate a ddit ive t o a ncient g lass s ince t he s ands u sed i n i ts m anufacture c ould c ontain s uff icient c alcium o xide t o a ccount f or t he l eve ls f ound ( Sayre, 1 965, p . 1 46). S he lls a re t hought t o b e t he s ource o f t his. I t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat g lasses w ith a h igher m agnesium c ontent m ay h ave b een m ade w ith d o lom itic r ather t han c alcitic l imestone ( ibid .), b ut n ot e nough a na lyses h ave b een c arr ied o ut t o s ay w hether t his w as a n i ntentional s e lection o f a vailab le l imestones b y t he g lass-makers o f t his p eriod ( Forbes, 1 957, p . 15). I t w as o nly i n t he m edieval p er iod t hat t he s odalime g lass g ave w ay t o t he p otashlime g lass a nd t his e xp lains t he n eg ligib le a mounts G, p otassium f ound a nd w hich r epresent i mpur it ies. L ikew ise t he s mall a mounts o f a luminium a re p robab ly i mpur it ies d er ived f rom t he s and u sed . A nother p robab le i mpur ity i n t he e name ls ( except b rown) i s m anganese . L ead, t in, c opper a nd i ron w here t hese a re i ntentiona l, w ould b e n o g reat p rob lem t o o btain f rom s crap m etal o r t he a ctual r aw m ater ials f or m etal-working i f t his w as c arr ied o n l oca lly . C obalt o re w ou ld h ave t o p rovide t he b lue c o lourant w hen n eeded s ince i t i s w i likely t o o ccur a ccidentally i n a ny o f t he o ther i ngredients 9 u . A ntimony c an b e s imp ly m ade b y s melt ing s t ibnite w ith c harcoa l ( Forbes, 1 956, p . 4 7) a nd i t s eems l ike ly t hat t h is w as a dded a s as eparate c omponent ( Sayre, 1 965, p . 1 47). S ayre ( ibid. p . 1 48) a lso s uggests t hat a n o xidisation p roduct o f b ronze

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m ay h ave b een u sed a s ac olourant . I t i s u nclear w hether t he w e ll k nown b a lls o f b lue f r it f ound o n s everal R omano-Br it ish s ites h ave a ny r e levance a s ac o lour ing a gent i n e name l o r e ven g lass. S uch au se h as h owever b een s uggested f or t hose f ound a t E xeter ( Fox, 1 952, p . 8 ) a nd L ondon ( Marsden, 1 980, p . 7 4). I n a ny e vent i t i s c lear t hat t he r aw m ater ia ls f or e name l w ou ld h ave b een r easonab ly e asy f or t he R oman-Br itish e name ller t o p rocure. I t s hou ld a gain b e n oted t hat g lass c ould b e u sed a s c u llet f or t he b asic m ix o r s pecif ica lly a s ac o lourant ( see e specia lly F orbes, 1 957, p . 1 79). L itt le w ork h as b een c arr ied o ut o n t he q uestion o f d ecay o r w eather ing o f e name l b ut i n m any r espects t he s ame i nternal a nd e xternal d estruct ive p rocesses w hich c ause t he b reak-down o f g lass c an a lso a ttack e name l. T hese p rocesses a re d escribed e lsewhere ( e .g. F lower, 1 880, p p . 6 5165; H arden, 1 956, p p . 3 33-334; F orbes, 1 957, p . 12). I n a ddition, o f c ourse, a t oo l arge o r t oo s hallow c e ll, t he l ack o f a ny h o lding d evice ( see n ext c hapter) o r p oor a pp lication w ould n ot f acilitate t he r etention o f t he e namel. F ew d ecayed e name ls h ave b een s cientif ically c hecked . T hese a ll f orm p art o f t he s tudy o n t he B r itish M useum 's h ead s tud b rooches ( Painter a nd S ax, o p .cit). I n f our c ases ( ibid. n os . 1 -4, p p . 1 55-159) t he s econd t ota lly w eathered e namel w as f ound t o h ave b een o pacif ied w ith a nt imony w hich w as s aid t o s uggest t hat t he o r iginal c o lour w as n ot y e llow ( s ince l ead a ntimonate i s as tab le c ompound a nd w ould n ot b e e xpected t o b reak d own) t hough i t c ould h ave b een w hite, b lue o r g reen . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote i n n o . 1 8 ( ibid . p . 1 67) t hat o f t he s ix c e lls s till c ontaining e name l t wo a ppeared t o h o ld a g reen e name l a nd f our a r ed e name l b ut a na lyses s howed t hat i n f act o n ly c uprous o xide w as p resent i n a ll s ix a nd t hat t herefore t he o n ly i ntentiona l c o lour w as r ed. L ikew ise t he c o lour o f n o . 1 9 ( ibid. p p . 1 67168) w as n ot a pparent b ut a nalysis s howed i t t o b e aw eathered r ed. B oth t he e name ls o n n o . 4 ( q .v .) h ad b een s tained g reen w ith c opper c orrosion p roducts b ut a gain a nalysis s howed t hese h ad o r iginally b een r ed a nd a nother c o lour . T his a nalysis i s u seful o n w eathered e name ls a nd s hows t he c aution n ecessary i n d ealing w ith a ' greed e name l. H owever v isual e xam inat ion c an b e u sefu l i n g iving s ome i dea o f t he a mount o f d ecay o r l oss. O ver t he w ho le r ange o f a lmost t wo t housand p ieces o f e name lwork e xam ined t here a re a pproximate ly f our h undred c ases o f d ecayed/weathered e namels a nd t hree h undred a nd f ifty w here t he e name l i s n o l onger i n e vidence. T hese f igures r efer t o i nstances o f o ne c o lour r ather t han t o o bjects ( which m ight a lso h ave s urviving a p erfect ly r ecognisib le c o lour ). I t m ay b e s tressed a gain t hat d ecayed o r w eathered e namels g enerally t urn a g reen, w hite o r c reamy c o lour a nd c are m ust b e t aken w ith e name ls o f t hese c o lours a s aw ho le . B lue i s f ound w ith a d ecayed/m issing e namel t w ice a s o ften a s r ed i s a nd s ince b lue a nd r ed a re b y f ar t he m ost f requent c ombination t his m ay s uggest r ed w as p rone t o b reak d own m ore r ap idly t han b lue . H igher r ates o f d ecay w ere n oticed e specially o n t he g roup M b rooches a nd t he h ead s tud ( Q) b rooches w hile l ow r ates o r b etter p reservation w ere n oted w ith d ragonesque b rooches, a nima l p late b rooches a nd s eal b ox l ids. S ome i nstances o f p oor w orkmanship m ay b e p ointed o ut . An umber o f e name ls c ontain af ew b urst a ir b ubb les a nd o thers h ave a r ather b ubb ly a ppearance, b oth d ue p erhaps t o t he p aste n ot h aving b een a llowed t o d ry o ut

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p roper ly b efore f ir ing o r t oo m uch h eat h av ing b een a pp lied . T his c an b e s een o n t he s eal b ox l id f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11 , p. 3 32-333, n o . 5 ) a nd t he b utton-and-loop f astener f ound a t T raprain p L aw ( Bur ley, 1 955, p . 1 80, n o . 2 34). O n s ome t he s urface i s c overed w ith t i nycracks, t he r esu lt o f p oor c oo ling, a s w ith t he w hite e name l o n t he o val a nd m edallion p late b rooch f rom W ickham B ushes ( Un iversity M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, C ambr idge). T he m isce llaneous m ount r ecovered a t T raprain L aw ( National M useum o f A nt iquities o f S cot land, r eg. n o . G VM344) p rovides a g ood e xamp le o f o ne c o lour o verf low ing i ts c e ll e dges i nto t he n ext . T here i s o f c ourse t he p rob lem a s t o w hether s uch p ieces r epresent u nf inished a nd d iscarded o bjects o r n ot ( and h ence i ndicate l oca l m anufacture?). M eanwhile t he m etal b ase t o w hich t he v itreous s ubstance i s a pp lied i s e xam ined n ext .

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C HAPTER 7 T HE M ETAL B ASE B oth t he t ype o f m etal c hosen f or t he b ase a nd i ts s ubsequent t reatment p lay a n i mportant p art i n e name l m anufacture . T his c hapter e xamines t he v ar ious m etals s uitab le f or e name lling a nd w hich o f t hem l w ere a ctualy u sed d ur ing t he p er iod u nder d iscussion . V ar ious a nalyses c arried o ut o n R omano-Br itish b ronzes a re d iscussed. W e l ook t oo a t t he a ctua l c e lls c reated t o t ake t he e name l a s w e ll a s t he v ar ious d evices e mp loyed t o h e lp k eep i t i n p lace . T he p reparation o f t he m etal a nd t reatment s uch a s t inning a re i nc luded. Ag reat v ariety o f m eta ls a re s uitab le f or e name lwork a nd i ndeed h ave b een s o u t ilised ( Shaw, 1 972, p p . 3 1-39). T he c rucia l a nd o bv ious p oint i s t hat t he m etal m ust h ave a m e lt ing t emperature h igher t han t hat o f t he e namel b eing a pp lied t o i t . S ince t he a ctual e name l n eeds a t emperature o f m ore t han 6 50°C t o m elt t hen t hose m etals w ith a m e lt ing p oint o f l ess t han t his a re n ot s uitab le . T hus p ure l ead ( 327°C) o r t in ( e cn o sidered. 9 232°C) c ould n ot b 1 Hw o ever t he mr oe d esirab le m etals s uch a s g o ld ( 10630C) , s ilver ( 960 0C ), i ron ( 1535°C), c opper ( 1083 0C ) a nd i ts v ar ious a lloys s uch a s b ronze a re s uitab le a nd h ave b een u sed a t o ne t ime o r a nother , d uring t he h istory o f e name l-working. E ach i s n ow e xamined i n r elation t o R omano-Br itish e name ls t hough b y f ar t he m ost i s s aid o n t he l ast, c opper a nd i ts a lloys. G o ld O ne o f t he e ar liest k nown e xamp les o f e name lwork i s t o b e f ound o n ag roup o f s ix g old r ings d iscovered i n al ate M ycenean t omb o n C yprus a nd s ince t hen t he q ualities o f t his m etal a s am edium f or e name l h ave b een f requent ly u sed . P erhaps i ts g reatest d rawback i s i ts r elative s carcity a nd i mp lications o f h igh v alue . T here i s n o e xamp le o f i ts u se f rom t he I ron A ge a nd o n ly o nce d oes i t o ccur a mong o bjects f rom t he R omano-Br it ish p er iod . E name l i s t o b e s een o n t he t erminals o f t he g o ld b race let f rom R hayader n ow i n t he B rit ish M useum ( Brailsford 1 964, p . 1 4, n o. 9 , p l. II). D espite t he f requent u se o f g o ld d ur ing t he A ng lo-Saxon p er iod t hose p ieces b ear ing e name l, e .g. t he D owgate H ill b rooch ( Jessup, 1 950, p p . 1 25-126) o r t he M inster L ove ll a nd A lfred j ewe ls ( H inton, 1 974, p p . 2 7-48), t end t o b e b eyond t he t erm inus o f t his p resent s tudy . C ertainly m illef iori i nsets a re f ound o n t he g o ld p urselid , s hou lder c lasps a nd p yram ids f rom S utton H oo ( q .v.) t hough t hese a re n ot s trict ly r e levant . S ilver T his t oo i s a n e asy a nd p opu lar m ater ial t o e name l a nd i s u sua lly m ore a vailab le a nd c heaper t han g o ld. I ts u se i s n on-existent i n t he R omano-British e name l-working i ndustry . O n ly t he b rooch f ound w ith t he m ore f amous B irdlip m irror m ay p rovide a n e ar ly u se o f e name l o n t his m etal. T he ' eyes ' a t t he t op o f t he b ow " seem a t o ne t ime t o h ave b een c oncealed b y ad ecorat ive i nlay " ( Green, 1 949, p . 1 89) w hich o n ly m ight h ave b een e name l. F or a g reater u se o f s ilver i t

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i s n ecessary t o l ook t o S cot land t o t he p ost-Roman p er iod w hen s ma ll n umbers o f s uch o bjects b ear e name l d ecoration. T he h and p ins a nd p laques f rom N orr ies L aw i mmediate ly s pr ing t o m ind ( Durham, 1 864, p . 8 ) b ut t here a re o ther s ilver h and p ins s uch a s t hat f rom G aulcross ( q .v .) a nd t he P ictish n ecklace t erm inals f rom P arkhill a nd W hitec leugh ( q .v .). A lso t here i s t he m ount o n o ne o f t he b ow ls f rom t he S aint N inian 's I s le t reasure ( Small e t .al. 1 973, p p . 5 4-55). I t m ay b e n oted t hat i n a ll t hese c ases t he e name l a ppears t o b e r ed o n ly . I ron E qually s uitab le f or e name l i s i ron. I ron s eems t o h ave b een m ore c ommonly u sed a s a n e name l b ase o n t he C ont inent d uring t he I ron A ge ( Deche lette, 1 927, p p . 1 053-1063, p assim ) t han i n B r itain w here i t i s r are ly f ound. O ne m ay i nstance t he T revone b rooch ( Dud ley a nd J ope, 1 965, p p . 1 8-23), t he b ronze-coated i ron A ldborough t erret ( Megaw, 1 970, p . 1 57) o r as mall d omed s tud f rom L ochend D unbar s aid t o b e i ron a nd e name lled, t hough n ow i n v ery p oor c ondition ( Longworth, 1 965, p p . 1 80-18 1). T here i s t oo t he E astburn b rooch ( Stead, 1 965, p . 15) a nd t he i ron f rames o n t he B ugthorpe d iscs ( q .v .). F rom R oman B r itain h ave s urvived o n ly t he p air o f i ron p lates, f rom d agger s heaths, f ound a t H od H ill ( Richmond, 1 968, p . 1 37-138, n o . 1 &B railsford, 1 962, p . 5 , n o . 5 ) b ut s eem ingly p i mported b y t he f irst w ave o f l egionary i nvaders. O therw ise t here a ppears t o b e n o e name lled i ron l ater t han t his f rom B r itain. T here i s o n ly t he e xcept ional i ron m ount w ith r ed a nd y e llow e name l f ound i n a n u nknown c ontext a t L agore C rannog i n I re land a nd h ard ly e ar lier t han t he s ixth c entury A .D . ( Hencken, 1 95 1, p . 1 21). C opper a nd C opper A lloys F rom a p ure ly v isual e xamination, t he o ver-whe lming n umber o f R omano-British a nd r e lated e name ls a re a pp lied o n c opper o r o ne o f i ts a lloys. I t m ay b e p ermissib le t o n ote n ow t hat, s ince n one o f t he a nalyses d iscussed b e low s howed a p ure c opper t o h ave b een u sed i t i s i n f act c opper a lloys w e a re d ealing w ith . M ost o f t he m odern l iterature o n e name l-working e mphasises t he i mportance o f t he b ase m etal. C opper i s t he c ommon o ne u sed n owadays o n a ccount o f i ts b eing p lentifu l a nd c heap a s w e ll a s b eing r e lative ly e asy t o c ut a nd s hape -though i ts t endency t o o xidise i s ad rawback ( Theilade, 1 972, p . 1 ). C opper w as u sed i n t he e xper iments c arried o ut f or t his r eport a nd w as f ound t o b e s atisfactory i n a ll w ays. G ilding-meta l o r t ombac i s h igh ly r ecommended a nd h as a n a dvantage o ver c opper i n s o f ar a s i t s uffers f rom a lmost n o o xidisat ion ( ibid.). A lso i t g ives a m ore a ttract ive h ue t o t ransparent e namels t hough i t d oes h ave t he d rawback t hat i f f ired m ore t han t w ice t he z inc b urns o ut c ausing d isco louration ( Wenger, 1 967, p . 7 ). V ar ious f igures h ave b een n oted f or t he a mount o f z inc r equired t o m ake t he a lloy g ilding-meta l b ut i t a ppears t o r ange f rom 5 p er c ent u p t o a bout 2 0 p er c ent, t he l atter r are ly b eing e xceeded ( Ty lecote, 1 962, p . 5 3) 92 . H igher a mounts w ould s eem t o c lassify t he m eta l a s ab rass w hich i n o ne i nstance a t l east h as b een s aid n ot t o b e a b le n ormally t o t ake e name l ( Bates, 1 95 1, p . 1 69) 9 3 . T he l atter h owever m ay o n ly a pp ly t o t he m ore i ndustrial b rasses ( of t he l ast t wo h undred y ears) w ith 7 9

3 0-40 p er c ent a nd i ndeed s ome b rasses a re s aid t o c ontain a s l itt le a s 1 0 p er c ent z inc ( Ty lecote, 1 962, p . 5 3). Ac lear d istinct ion d oes n ot a lways a ppear t o b e m ade b etween w hat i s g ilding-meta l a nd b rass. O nly r ecent ly h as m uch b een w r itten o n t he m ake-up o f R omanoB r itish m etals o r t o b e m ore p recise ' bronzes'. F or a l ong t ime t he o n ly g roup o f a nalyses a vailab le w as t hat c arr ied o ut b y S mythe ( 1937, p p . 3 82-405) o n t wenty-seven s mall o bjects f rom t he n orth, m ost ly f rom s ites a long H adrian 's W a ll ,e specia lly C orbr idge . T he r esu lts s howed b oth b ronze a nd ' brass ' ( except i n o ne o dd c ase, t he z inc a veraged 1 2 p er c ent a nd t herefore c onst ituted g ilding-meta l r ather t han b rass) t o b e i n u se a nd a m ore i mportant d istinction m ade w as t he u se o f l ead f or c ast b ronzes a nd i ts a bsence f rom t he w rought b ronzes a nd ' brasses '. T y lecote ( 1962, p p . 5 1-57) n 9tes t he a lmost c omp lete l ack o f a na lytical m ater ial f or I ron A ge 9 4 a nd p ost-Roman m etal f inds a nd b ases m ost o f h is d iscussion o f t he R omano-Br itish m eta llurgy o n S mythe's w ork . H e s uggests t he w idespread i ntroduct ion o f z inc i nto c opper i n t his p er iod; n ot o nly d oes i t l ower t he m e lting p o int o f c opper f rom 1 083 °C t o 1 000 0C b ut i t g ives t he m etal a m ore a ttract ive y ellow c o lour . Z inc i tse lf i s 5 . O therw ise v ery l ittle h ad b een h owever d iff icult t o p roduce 9 s aid o n t he s ubject a nd i t m ight b e a dded a lmost n othing o n o bjects b earing e name 1 9b . I t w as f or t his r eason t hat a s er ies o f a n a lyses w as c arr ied o ut o n t he m etal o f t hose o bjects, t he e name ls o f w h ich w ere b e ing e xam ined f or t he p urpose o f t his s tudy ( Bateson a nd H e dges, 1 975, p p . 1 87188). S ince t hen a v ery w ide r ange o f R oman ' bronzes ' h as b een a nalysed a nd i n as hort n ote i t w as c laimed t o s how t hat s mall b ronzes a re i n f act b rasses c orresponding t o m odern g ild ingm etal ( Craddock ,1 974a, p . 2 54). T his r aised a c ertain a mount o f d ebate ( Current A rchaeo logy , 1 974, p p . 3 49-350) w here C raddock m aintained t hat t he o verwhe lm ing m ajor ity o f s ma ll R oman b ronzes a re b rasses. H owever t he w ork i s n ot y et p ub lished a nd a gain n o e name lled o bjects w ere s eem ingly i ncluded. O ne p oint m ade a nd w orth n ot ing i s t he v ar iat ion i n t he a mounts o f t he c onstituents d ue i n m any c ases t o t he r e-use o f s crap m etal. F or t his r eport t he m etal o f t hirty-f ive o bjects, a ll e name lled, w as e xam ined t o c heck w hat i t i s m ade o f a nd t o s ee i f t he f act t hat t he p ieces b ear e name l m eans t hey a re d ifferent f rom n on-ename lled m eta ls. T he o bjects h ave a w ide v ariety o f d ates a nd p rovenances a s a lready n oted. T he r esults f or t he a mount o f l ead, t in, z inc a nd c opper a re t o b e f ound i n t he l ast f our c o lumns o f t ab le 3 o f t he p aper c ited . I f w e l ook a t t he a mounts o f z inc l isted i t w ill b e s een t hat i n m any o f t he s pecimens i t i s, i n f act, n ot p resent . W here i t i s, t he a mount v ar ies b etween 8 a nd 2 0 p er c ent w ith a n a verage o f a bout 7 .5 p er c ent a nd t he g reat m ajority o f o bjects h ave l ess t han 1 0 p er c ent. W e t herefore a ppear t o b e d ealing w ith a g ilding-metal r ather t han a b rass f or t he z inc-containing s pec imens. T he l arge n umber o f b ronzes f ound t o e xist w ou ld m ake i t s eem t hat t he i ntroduction o f z inc t o t he c opper a lloy w as n ot s o w idespread a s T y lecote ( op .cit .) a lleged a nd i s a t v ar iance w ith C raddock 's ( op .cit .) c ontention t hat t he m ajority o f R omano-Br itish s ma ll b ronzes a re b rasses 9 7 . L ead i s p resent i n a lmost a ll t he e xamp les a na lysed a nd i s o n a verage 3 p er c ent b ut r anges f rom 0 t o 7p er c ent . T his s uggests, a s d oes a v isua l e xam ination, t hat a ll t hese o bjects w ere c ast . I t i s u n like ly t hat t he o ne o bject ( a t rumpet h ead b ro och o f 8 0

t ype S 1 -no . 5 ) w ith n o l ead f a lls i nto S mythe 's w rought c ategory . T he p resence o f l ead f acilitates c asting . O n t he w ho le t he g ildingm etal a ppears t o h ave s light ly m ore l ead t han d o t he b ronzes. T he a mount o f t in p resent v aries f rom 0 t o 1 5 p er c ent w ith a n a verage o f 7p er c ent . H owever t he b ronzes h ave a h igher a verage, 9 .5, t han t he 5 p er c ent o f t he g ilding-metal. Am ajor p rogramme o f m etal a nalyses i s n ow u nder w ay a t t he A ncient M onuments L aboratory i n L ondon o n t he b rooches f rom R ichborcugh . O ver h alf o f t hese, m ain ly o f t he f irst c entury A .D ., p rove t o b e b rasses w ith u p t o 2 0 p er c ent z inc w hile t he r est a re b ronzes w ith a h igh l ead c ontent ( Musty a nd B utcher, 1 976, p . 2 42). M ore r ecent d etailed r esults s uggest t hat i n t he f irst c ategory t he g reeter n umber o f b rooches w ere m ade w ith b rass t hough a longside a ' s ign if icent ' n umber i n b ronze b ut t hat a fterwards b ronze b ecame t he m etal u sed f or t he m anufacture o f t he m ajority o f b rooches. O ver t hirty o f t he b rooches a nalysed b e long t o e name lled t ypes a nd t he c omposition o f t hese s hows m uch v ariat ion i n t he a mount o f z inc p resent ( .5-20 p er c ent). T he a verage m oreover i s d oub le t hat f or t he n on-ename lled t ypes a nd i n o ver a q uarter o f t hese e name lled b rooches t he z inc c ontent e xceeds 1 0 p er c ent ( Bay ley e t .a l. 1 980, p . 2 46). G enerally t hen i n t he R oman p eriod, t wo t ypes o f m etal w ere u sed f or e name lwork v iz, b ronze a nd g ilding-metal, t he l atter u sua lly r eferred t o a s b rass. T he l atter h as t he a dvantage o f n ot o xidising s o m uch a nd p ossib ly r endering t he h ue m ore a ttractive. P ure c opper d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een u sed a t a l1 9 8 . N o g roup ings a re a s y et o bservab le e ither i n t ime o r s pace w ith t he o bjects a nalysed t hough t he n umber s o f ar m ay b e t oo s ma ll t o a llow f or t his. T he C e lls W e c an n ow m ove o n t o t he a ctual c e lls ( sometimes c alled r ecesses o r c avities) w hich r eceive t he e name l. E name lwork i s g enera lly d istinguished o n t he g rounds o f h ow t he c e ll i s m ade, t wo t ypes p redom inat ing v iz. c hamp leve a nd c loisonne . T hese a re r ecent t erms w hich h ave c ome t o b e a pp lied t o a ncient e name ls a s w e ll. * Champ leve e name l i s w here t he c e lls a re p ositioned b eneath t he s urface o f t he m etal a nd l iterally h ave b een l ifted o ut . C loisonne o n t he o ther h and h as t he c e lls a bove t he s urface o f t he m eta l i .e . t he c e ll w a lls a re t hin s tr ips o f m eta l s o ldered o n t o t he s urface o f t he o bject . T his s urvey o f t he e name lwork h as s hown t hat a ll R omano-Br itish e name lwork i s o f t he c hamp leve v ar iety . W hile s ome t echniques o f t he I ron A ge d o n ot f it e ither c ategory ,9 9 t he m ajor ity a lso a re c hamp leve a s a re t hose o f t he e ar ly A nglo-Saxon p er iod d esp ite t he g reat a mount o f g arnet c lo isonne w ork . I t t herefore s eems s omewhat m eaningless t o s ay a R omano-Br itish e name lled o bject i s ac hamp leve e namel t hough t his i s p referab le t o t he e rroneous u se o f t he w ord c loisonne ( e .g. F ox, 1 894, p . 4 70; M egaw, 1 970, p p. 1 73-174) o r m ore p articu lar ly c loissons i n r eferr ing t o c e ll w alls ( e .g. L eeds, 1 933, p . 2 4; M ottram, 1 968, p . 2 59). Y et t here i s aw ide v ar iety o f t ypes w ithin t he e name ls u nder d iscussion a nd t hese m ust b e d ist inguished. I t i s p roposed t o d o t his o n t he b asis o f t he a ctual e namel a nd i ts m ode o f b eing m ade t o a dhere t o t he b ase 1 00 .

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T o r eturn t o t he q uestion o f t he c e lls w hich a re a ll c onstructed o ut o f t he m etal b ase o f t he o bject, a re t hey l itera lly ' champ leve ', c ut o r g ouged o ut, o r a re t hey s tamped o r c ast? L itt le w ork h as b een c arr ied o ut o n t his a spect o f t he s ubject a nd i ndeed w ould r equire a g reater e xam inat ion o f e ach o bject t han t ime a llowed . H owever a g eneral v isual e xam ination g ives t he i mpression t hat t he m ajority o f t he c e lls o f R omano-Br itish e namelled o bjects w ere m ade a s p art o f t he c asting w hich a s s een a bove a ppears t o h ave b een t he m ethod o f m anufacture f or s uch s mall ' bronzes '. T he a ddition o f l ead w ou ld h ave b een o f a dditional v alue h ere a nd t he ' roundness ' o f m any c e lls d oes n ot s uggest t he u se o f t oo ls. C ast ing s eems b oth t he s imp lest a nd e asiest m ethod o f m ak ing t he c e lls i n a ny c ase t hough t his p erhaps u nderestimates t he s kill o f t he b ronze-worker w ith t he g ouge 1 0 1 . J ope ( 1955, p . 4 3) a ppears t o a ccept t hat t he R omanoB r itish w orkshops u sed " the t echnique o f p repar ing i n t he i nitial c asting t he p attern o f r ecessed a reas t o r eceive e name l i nstead o f t oo ling t hem o ut o f t he s o lid b ronze". A s cientif ic e xamination o f t he e name lled b rooch f rom W all s howed t hat b oth t he b rooch a nd t he c ell f or t he e name l w ere c ast ( Werner a nd O rgan, 1 964, p . 4 6) a nd t he s ame w as f ound t o b e t he c ase w ith t he S outhacre b race let ( Mottram, 1 968, p . 2 59). O n t he o ther h and F araday ( Gage, 1 836, p . 3 07) b e lieved t hat t he c e lls o n t he B art low v ase h ad c ertain ly b een f inished w ith a ' chise l' b ut w as n ot s ure w hether t his w as m ere ly s econdary f inishing o r a ltogether t he r esu lt o f t oo ling. T he f ormer s eems p referab le t hough h ere c ertain ly i s o ne p rob lem . D o t oo l m arks o r s harp e dges i ndicate t ota l u se o f at oo l o r o n ly s econdary w ork t o c omp lete t he c ast ing? T oo l m arks o f s ome s ort o r a nother h ave b een n oted o n s everal o f t he o bjects, i n t ota l b etween 5a nd 1 0 p er c ent a t ar ough e st imate . I t m ay b e w orth n ot ing a f ew o f t hese. S evera l h ead s tud b rooches ( group Q ) s how s uch s igns a s f or e xamp le t hose f rom C aer leon ( s ite m useum ) a nd R edhouse ( Museum o f A ntiquities, N ewcast le, r eg . n o . 1 961, 1 9 .10) w here t he b ases o f t he c e lls o f t he b ow h ave a f ew g ouge m arks. S im ilar s igns c an b e s een o n t he d ragonesque b rooch f rom C harterhouse ( Feachem, 1 951, p . 4 0), t he g roup R IV b rooch f rom C aerwent ( Museum a nd A rt G allery, N ewport) a nd t he S ll b rooch f rom B arr ington ( University M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy, C ambr idge, r eg. n o . 2 7 .630). M any o f t he s ma ll s imp le c e lls o n t he g roup M b rooches a ppear t o h ave b een g ouged e .g. o ne f rom M endip ( Somerset C ounty M useum, r eg . n o. 1 083) a nd a nother f rom W oodeaton ( Tay lor, 1 9 17, p . 1 08, A shmo lean M useum, r eg. n o . R 4 1). L ikew ise w ith t he n on-brooch m ater ia l t here i s e vidence o f t oo ling a s o n s ome o f t he s ea l b ox l ids a nd m iniature s too ls. P erhaps a s g ood a n e xamp le a s a ny i s t he p laque f rom t he T hames ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 5 6) t hough h ere p erhaps o ne s hou ld c onsider t otal t oo ling o f t he c ells. H owever o n t he w ho le t he e name l c e lls o f t he R omano-Br itish o bjects s eem t o h ave b een c ast a nd i n s ome i nstances f inished o ff w ith s ome s ort o f g raving t oo l. F or t he I ron A ge t he u sually a ccepted t heory o f t he c e lls b eing g ouged a fter c asting ( Leeds, 1 933, p . 2 4 o r F ox, 1 958, p . 1 25) s eems t rue f rom a v isua l e xam ination o f t hese m ore ' arty ' o bjects o f a l ess m ass-product ion i ndustry . T o g ive b ut o ne e xamp le t he c e lls t he e dges o f w hich s how p lenty o f t oo l m arks -of t he L akenheath t erret ( former ly t he ' Suffo lk ' t erret, q .v .) a ppear t o h ave b een

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c ut a fter t he o bject w as m ade. I t s hou ld b e m ent ioned h owever 2 . I t t hat a s ma ll n umber d o a ppear t o h ave b een w ho lly c ast 10 m ight a lso b e n oted t hat i n m any o f t he s pots d ecorat ing I ron A ge o bjects ( e .g . t he t erret f rom C o lchester, r eg . n o . 5 96P .03 i n t he C o lchester a nd E ssex M useum ) t here i s as ma ll c entral d epression i n t he b ase i nd icat ing t he u se o f af lat-bottomed b it w ith a s mall 03 . D r illing m ay t herefore c entral p roject ion ( May, 1 97 1, p . 2 55 )1 b e a dded t o c ast ing a nd t oo ling a s am ethod u sed t o m anufacture t he a ctual c e lls i ntended f or t he e name l. T here i s n ot m uch t hat c an b e s aid o n t he s hapes a nd s izes o f t he c e lls. I t i s d iff icu lt t o d ef ine t he c urv ing c e lT s o n m any o f t he I ron A ge o bjects a nd a lmost i mpossib le t o m easure t he ir a rea, i n s ome c ases q uite c onsiderab le . S pots, w ith d iameters o f u sua lly 3 -5 m ms . a re f requent a nd l ater c ome t r iang les, s quares a nd p eta ls, o ften l arger t han t he o nes o n R omano-Br it ish o bjects . I n t his l atter p er iod t r iang les a re m ost c ommon f o llowed b y l ozenges a nd o n al arge n umber o f o bjects a c ombinat ion o f t he t wo . O ne m ay m ent ion t he l arge n umber o f t r iangu lar c e lls, w ith s ides 1 -3 m ms . l ong, o n t he d omed p late b rooches o r t he l ozenges o n m any o f t he g roup M b rooches . Ac omb ination o f t he l ozenge a nd t r iang le i s p erhaps m ost f reqHent o n t he b ows o f t he h ead s tud ( Q) b rooches. S mall s quares a nd r ectang les w ith s ides v ary ing b etween 2 a nd 4 m m s. o ccur i n s ome n umbers o n b oth t he h ead s tud a nd, t o al esser e xtent, o n t he Mt ype b rooches . O vals o r p etals, c urved t r iangles, c rescents a nd t ongues a re f ound i n s maller n umbers . S ma ll s pots a s w e ll a s s pots a nd c irc les f orm t he e yes o f t he d ragonesque a nd a n imal p late b rooches. T here a re t oo t he c ircu lar c e lls o n t he f lat r ound s tuds o r m ounts a nd s ome o f t he d isc b rooches; t hese v ary i n s ize a ccording t o t he s ize o f t he o bject a s w e ll a s t he n umber o f c e lls o n i t, f or e xamp le o n t he c ircu lar s tud f rom C hepstow ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 5 6, n o . 6 ) iameter o f 2 . 1 c ms . w hile t he o ther t he l arge c entre c e ll h as a d n arrow c ircu lar c e lls a re 3 m ms . ,2 .5 m ms. a nd 3 .5 m ms. r espect ive ly i n w idth . I n a ddition o ne f inds a g reat n umber o f o dd ly s haped c e lls s uch a s t hose f o llow ing t he f orm o f p art icu lar t ypes o f a nimal p late b rooches i . e . o n t he s anda l s haped b rooches w here t he c e ll i s q uite l arge o r t hose f ormed b y, f or i nstance, t he t r iske le-shaped s eptum o n s ome d isc b rooches . I t i s o ften d iff icu lt t o m easure t he d epth o f c e lls b ut t hey a ppear t o v ary f rom b eing a s light d epression t o b eing u p t o 2m ms . d eep . I ron A ge c e lls t end t o b e d eeper t han R omano-Br it ish o nes w hich h ave a m ost c ommon d epth o f a bout 1 m m . S omething m ust b e s aid o n w hat a re t ermed h ere h o ld ing d evices. T his i nc ludes t he o ver-used w ord ' key ing ' a nd d ea ls w ith t hose m ethods e mp loyed b y t he e name ller t o h e lp h o ld t he e name l i n p lace . T his i s ap rob lem s ince s ome e name l a pp lied t o af lat p iece o f c opper w ill o n ly c ont inue t o a dhere a fter f ir ing i f t reated g ent ly a nd i n f act w ill o ften ' pop o ff ' a s t he m etal c ontracts o n c oo ling. Af ew p o ints n eed t o b e m ade f irst h owever . I f t he h o lding d ev ice h as b een a pp lied t o t he b ase o f t he c e ll where ' key ing ' i s g enerally a ssumed t o b e we c an o n ly b e a ware o f i ts p resence w hen t he e name l h as b een l ost . W here i n f act t he d evice h as f ailed t o f u lf il i ts f unction . I t m ay b e a dded t hat t here a re e nough c ases o f m issing e name l t o m ake v a lid c omments o n t hese t echniques. S econd ly w e h ave j ust s een t hat m any o f t he c e lls a re s o s mall t hat t hey d o n ot

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r eally n eed a h o lding d evice i n a ddit ion t o t he c e ll w alls w hich s o a ct . T hird ly ' key ing ' i n i ts n orma lly a ccepted s ense o f s coring o r c ross-hatching o n t he b ase o f t he c e ll i s n ot a m ethod e mp loyed o n R omano-Brit ish e name ls d esp ite a f eeling c urrent i n t he l iterature t hat i t i s. E ven i n t he I ron A ge i t w as n ot c ommon ly u sed. A mong t he b est e xamp les o f ' key ing a re t he h eads o f t he s tuds o n t he T hames ( Water loo B r idge) a nd ' North o f E ng land ' h e lmets ( Sm ith, 1 925, p . 1 02). H ere d eep c ross-cross i ncisions w ere m ade t o h e lp h o ld t he e name l i n p lace . H owever t here a re n ot m any m ore i nstances o f t his t hat c an b e q uoted a nd n o e xamp le o f i ts p resence o n t he b ase o f ac e ll. T he n earest t o t his a re t he r ows o f t iny c hise l m arks o n p art o f t he c e ll b ase o f t he c ircu lar o penwork m ount w ith t r iske le d esign f ound a t D owalton L och ( Agnew , 1 881, p p . 1 54-155) b ut t his i s a n e xception 1 04 . T hese a re b ut t wo e xamp les f rom t he R omano-British p er iod: b oth d isc b rooches w ith k nobs o n t he e dge a nd i n b oth c ases w ith i ncisions o n t he b ase o f t he o uter c e ll. O ne i s f rom I xworth ( Ashmo lean M useum, r eg. n o. 1 927.296) a nd t he o ther f rom C orbr idge ( s ite m useum ). M ent ion m ight p erhaps b e m ade o f t hose o f t he g roup M b rooches w hich h ave a n i ncised l ozenge(s) o n t he u pper b ow t hough n o t race o f e name l s urvives o n a ny a nd t he p robab ility i s t hat t hese a re p ure ly d ecorat ive . I n t he p ost-Roman p eriod t he e xterior p rint o f t he L oveden H ill h anging b ow l ( Fow ler, 1 968, p . 3 06) a nd t he c orresponding p rint o n t he b ow l f rom S cunthorpe ( Kendrick, 1 94 1a, p p . 2 36-238) s eem t o b e s omewhat s imilar ly t reated . O therw ise o ne h as t o l ook t o t he I r ish p enannu lar b rooches f or t he u se o f t his d evice ( K ilbr idge-Jones, 1 937, p p . 4 33-435, n o . 6 0 b ut p assim a lso). W e h ave a lready m entioned t he s mall p roportion o f o bjects ( e .g. t he Q b rooch f rom R edhouse) w ith t oo l m arks o r r ough b ases ( the M id lothian p atera) b ut c are m ust b e t aken h ere n ot t o c onfuse t he r esult o f t oo ling, p r imary o r s econdary, w ith a d e liberate i ntention t o c reate k eying. T h is i s n ot a lways t he r ight w ord f or i t e ven i f i t i s d e liberate . Am ore o bvious h o lding d evice h as a lready b een m et w ith d uring t he s urvey o f R omano-Br itish o bjects i .e. t he t oothed o r s errated o r n otched e dge t o c e ll w a lls. T his w as f ound t o o ccur o n s ome o f t he m iniature s too ls, t he p aterae, a f ew s eal b ox l ids a nd a s mall n umber o f m isce llaneous o bjects. I t c an b e q uite r ef ined o r r ather c rude a nd i s n ot a lways o n e very p ossib le e dge . I t i s f ound o n f ive o f t he m iniature s tools s uch a s t hat f rom C hesters ( Budge , 1 907, p . 3 76, n o . 6 55) a nd o n m ost o f t he p aterae, s uch a s t he h and le f rom K irkby L angthorpe ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 4 5, f ig. 1 ), a s w e ll a s t wo o f t he c ups. T he s eal b ox l ids f rom C amerton ( C ity M useum, B r isto l) a nd W inchester ( City M useum ) w e ll d isp lay t he t echnique . A mong t he m isce llaneous o bjects s o t reated a re t he ' p late ' f rom S ilchester ( Jope, 1 955, p . 4 3) a nd a b ronze p laque f rom S aint A lbans ( Frere, 1 972, p . 1 38, n o . 1 50). O ther s uch t echniques, w e ll d isp layed o n t he M idlothian p atera ( q .v.) a re t he u se o f v andykes, r eserved l aure l l eaves a nd a r eserved z ig-zag l ine i n an arrow c hanne l. A f ine e xamp le o f t he l atter i s s een o n t he R omanaBr itish d o lphin b rooch w ith b lue e namel f rom L ambay I s land ( Bateson, 1 973, p . 6 8) t hough t he s ame d evice s eems p ure ly d ecorative o n t he n on-ename lled b rooch f rom S aint A lbans

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ichardson, 1 ( R 944, P . 9 1 ,n o . 1 ). T he ue s o f t he z ig-zag h as b een b r ief ly d iscussed e lsewhere ( Jope, 1 95 1, p p . 6 0-62). I t m ay b e a dded t hat s ome o f t he m ore d ecorat ive d esigns p rovide a u sefu l ,i f n ot n ecessarily i ntentional, h o lding d evice i .e . t he c urves a nd s cro lls o f t he I ron A ge, t he t endr ils o n s ome o f t he s eal b ox l ids o r t he t r iske le o r w avy s epta o f t he d isc b rooches a nd t he s pira ls o n t he h anging b ow l e scutcheons. I n s ome c ases t he d evices s eem t o h ave w orked w e ll b ut i n o thers, e ven w ith t heir p resence, t he e name l h as t ota lly g one . F inally m ention m ay b e m ade o f t he s ilver ing o r t inning o f a s mall p art o f t he e name lwork c orpus . I t i s g enerally a ccepted n owadays t hat i t i s t inning ( e .g. C raddock, 1 974b, p p . 3 49-350) r ather t han s ilvering - a nd t in w ith i ts v ery l ow m e lting t emperature w ould b e t he o bvious c hoice t o a dd t o t he e name lled o bject . I t w ou ld h ave t o b e a pp lied a fter t he e name l s ince o therw ise t he t in w ould b urn o ff d uring t he e name lling p rocess. T wo e xamp les m ay s uffice: t he h ead s tud b rooch f rom B roxtowe ( Cast le M useum, N ottingham) a nd t he a nimal p late b rooch i n t he s hape o f ar abbit f rom C aerwent ( Museum a nd A rt G a llery, N ewport) b ut t here a re m any m ore m ain ly a mong t he b rooches a nd i ndeed t he h anging b ow l e scutcheons. W here a dded t his p rocess w ould c omp lete t he w ork o n t he e name lled o bject .

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C HAPTER 8

T HE P ROCESS O F E NAMELLING

N ow c omes t he a ctua l j oining t ogether o f t he t wo m ajor p arts o f e name lwork e xam ined i n t he p revious t wo c hapters . H ere a re e xam ined v ar ious a spects o f t he p rocess o f m ak ing t he v itreous s ubstance a dhere ( by t he u se o f h eat) t o t he m etal b ase t hereby c reating t he t rue e name l. T he t echnical v iewpo int i s e xp lored f irst a nd t hen t he T nen a l p rocess o f a pp licat ion, i nc luding t he s ources o f h eat a nd t he t oo ls u sed . T his i s f ollowed b y as tudy o f t he t echniques e mp inye c i b y t he I ron A ge e name lworkers a nd t hen t hose e mp loyed b y t heir R omano-Br itish s uccessors -the a rrangement o f t he l atter c onstitutes as uggested t ypo logy o f t he e name lwork o f t he p er iod . M illef ior i e name lwork i s l ooked a t i n d epth . L et u s f irst e xamine t he t echnicalit ies i nvo lved i n m ak ing a n 05 . I t i s d esirab le f or t he v itreous s ubstance t o f orm a e name 1 1 p ermanent b ond w ith t he m eta l b ase . T he f ormer w ith i ts l ower m e lt ing t emperature m ust ' wet ' t he m eta l a nd f orm a b ond w ith i t ( Shaw, 1 972, p p . 1 56157). I t h as b een e stab lished t hat t he I ron A ge Sm ith, 1 925, p . 1 01) a nd w hile t he r ed e name l m e lts a t a bout 6 86 0C ( m e lt ing t emperatures o f o n ly R om an g lasses h ave b een s cient if ica lly nd 8 00 0C ) t he e name ls o f e xam ined ( and f ound t o l ie b etween 7 00 0C a t he p er iod w ith t heir l arger a mounts o f f luxes s hould m e lt w ithin t he we ll b e low t he m e lt ing t emperatures o f t he r ange 6 50 t o 7 50 0C m etals u sed . A lthough t he p resence o f l ead c ould m ake t he e name l m ore f usib le i t i s m ore l ike ly t hat t he l ead h e lps r educe t he s urface t ension a nd v iscosity o f t he e name l t hus m aking i t ' wet ' t he m eta l m ore e ffect ive ly . A t h igh t emperatures c hem ica l b onding t akes p lace b etween t he m etal a nd t he e name l a nd i t i s d esirab le t o h ave t he f ormat ion o f c uprous o xide a t t he i nterface w hen t he m atr ix i s c opper b ased ( Shaw, 1 972, p . 1 57). T his p oint i s n ote-worthy a nd i s r eferred t o a gain l ater i n t he c hapter . T he p resence o f c opper p robab ly h e lps i n t his b ut i t i s u n like ly t o h ave b een a dded d e liberate ly t o t he e name l f or t his p urpose . I n t he l ast c hapter i t w as s een t hat t oo m uch z inc i n t he b ase m etal a cts a gainst a g ood b ond t ak ing p lace b ecause o f o xide d eve lopment a t l ow t emperatures t hough s ome r ecent a nalyses ( q .v .) i nd icate q u ite l arge a mounts o f z inc i n t he m eta l o f s ome e name lled b rooches. T here s hou ld a lso b e a s c lose a c oeff icient o f t hermal e xpansion a s p ossib le f or t he e name l a nd m etal s o t hat t he b ond i s n ot t hen b roken w hen t he o bject c oo ls. T he d ifference i n e xpansion i n f act c auses t he e name l t o b ecome c ompressed a nd s ince t he m ajor ity o f t he c e lls o n t he o bjects u nder r ev iew a re r e lat ive ly s ma ll t his m ay w e ll h e lp t he e name l t o s tay i n p lace . L oss o f e name l i s m ore c ommon f rom t he l arger c e lls . B efore m oving o n t o t he a ctua l p rocess i t m ay b e a s w e ll t o l ook a t t he t oo ls o r i mp lements n ecessary t o c arry t his o ut o nce t he c raftsman i s p rov ided w ith t he e name l a nd t he m etal o bject . T he m ost i mportant t oo l t o t he m odern e name ller i s t he k iln . W e d o n ot k now e xact ly w hat h is R omano-Br itish c ounterpart u sed i n t his r espect b ut 8 6

a n o ven w ou ld n ot h ave b een a m ajor p rob lem b ear ing i n m ind t he u se o f f urnaces f or p ottery-making a nd m ore r e levant p erhaps, g lass-mak ing . A n e name lling o ven c omp lete w ith i ron d oor i s s aid t o h ave b een f ound a t B ibracte a nd i s d escr ibed e lsewhere ( Bu lliot, 1 899, p . 2 0 ) a nd i f t he s uggest ion t hat s ome o f t he f urnaces a t W ilderspoo l w ere f or e name lling i s c orrect t hen e xamp les c an b e s ought n earer h ome ( May, 1 904, p . 7 3 a nd p lan II). E ven i f n ot, t he l atter w ere p robab ly u sed f or t he m anufacture o f g lass a nd p ossib ly c ou ld h ave b een u sed a lso f or t he p roduct ion o f e name lwork . A n e name lling k i ln i s i n a ny e vent q uite s imp le t o c onstruct e ven w ithout t he b enef it o f b unsen b urners . T h is a ssumes o f c ourse t hat a k i ln o f s ome s ort w as u sed b ut t his w as n ot n ecessar ily s o ( Maryon, 1 954, p p . 1 72173). E xper iments h ave s hown ( Ty lecote, 1 962, p p . 2 5-26) t hat a n o pen w ood -700 0C b ut b e llows o r e ven f ire c an g enerate a t emperature o f 6 00 0C ac harcoa l f ire e xposed t o an atural M arch w ind ( g iving a n o xidising e ffect ) c ould r aise t he t emperature t o 8 00°C t hough n ot c onsistent ly . T his a s n oted a bove w ou ld b e e nough t o f ire e name ls. T he e xper iments j ust m entioned w ere i n f act a n a ttempt t o s me lt m a lachite; t his w as a lso p laced o n af lat p ottery d ish w ith a n u pr ight p orous p ot o ver i t w hich t hus r educed t he o xidising e ffect o f t he w ind; b ut i n a ny e vent h ere w as a p r im it ive s ort o f k i ln w hich w ou ld j ust b e a s e ffective f or e name l. I t h as b een s uggested t hat i n I re land o bjects t o b e e name lled w ere p laced o n s ma ll c ircu lar p ottery d ishes ( about 3 c ms . d iameter x 1 c m. h igh ) , w hich w ere p laced o n af ire a nd w ith t he a id o f ap air o f b e llows h ad a fame p layed o n t o t he his s eems a s urface o f t he o bject t o e ffect t he a dhesion 1u6 . T p erfect ly f eas ib le m ethod. I t i s s omew hat s im ilar t o o ne p ut f orward f or m e lt ing t he m etal f or c oin b lanks i n t he h o llows o f t he s o-called ' coin-mou lds ' o f t he I ron A ge ( C lifford, 1 96 1, p . 1 46147). H ere t he h eat c omes f rom a s tock o f c harcoal f lamed p gain s uch a m ethod c ou ld b e u sed f or e name l-working. b y b e llows 1U7 . A T hus w hile a k iln i s p erfect ly p ossib le f or e name l p roduct ion i n t his p er iod o ther m ethods m ay h ave b een u sed . O therw ise t he t oo ls n eeded a re r e lat ive ly s imp le . W hile m odern e name ls ( see F igure 1 4A) c an b e p rocured i n p owdered f orm t hey a lso c ome i n l umps a nd f or t hese a m ortar a nd p est le a re e ssentia l. I t i s h ard ly l ike ly t hat p re-powdered e name ls w ere a vailab le i n t he p er iod o f i nterest . H ughes ( 1972, p . 1 05) h as s aid t hat t he r ed e name l o f t he I ron A ge c ircu lated i n l arge l umps a nd s ticks o r r ods o f e name l h ave b een f ound a t t he V illa D 'Anthee ( Henry, 1 933, p . 6 8) a nd L agore C rannog i n I re land ( Hencken, 1 95 1, p . 1 32). H owever m ortars a nd r ubb ing s tones a re c ommon f inds f rom R omano-Br it ish s ites a nd w h ile i t i s n ot b e ing s uggested t hat t his w as a p r imary f unct ion, e ven f or a s ma ll n umber, n everthe less t hey w ere r eadily a vailab le f or t he u se o f t he e name l c raftsman . S ome s ort o f s patu la i s n eeded t o h e lp f ix t he e name l p owder o r p aste i n t he c e lls b ut a gain a s ma ll k nife b lade o r o ther s uch c ommon i mp lement i s p erfect ly s uitab le f or t he j ob . .A p air o f t ongs i s n ecessary f or p lacing a nd r emov ing t he e name lled o bject i n a nd f rom t he k iln b ut o nce m ore t ongs ( iron) a re a c ommonp lace f ind o f t he p eriod ( e .g . t hose f rom T raprain L aw ; C ur ie, 1 9 15, p . 1 66, f ig . 3 5,4) a nd e ven a p air o f g reen w ith ies i s ap ossib le s ubst itute ( Ty lecote, 1 962, p . 1 36). F ina lly p o lishing a nd g rinding a re a gain r e lative ly s imp le a nd n eed n o e xp lanation . F or t he p urposes o f t he e name ls m ade f or t his s tudy a c arborundum s t ick a nd a n ' abrasive p o lishing s ponge ' w ere u sed .

8 7

T he o ne p o int s tressed b y a ll m odern e name lling h andbooks i s c lean liness, b oth a s r egards t he e name l p owder a nd t he o bject d estined t o r eceive i t . O nce t he p owder h as b een g round d own f rom t he s ticks a nd l umps e laborate p recautions a re s uggested t o k eep o ut d ust a nd d irt . L ikew ise e ven f inger-pr ints a re t o b e s trenuous ly a vo ided o n t he m eta l b ase . I t i s c ertainly a greed t hat t hese c an c ause f laws i n t he f ir ing s tages w hich c ou ld m ar a n o bject b ut I d id n ot t ake s uch p recaut ions d ur ing m y e xper iments a nd d o n ot f ee l t hat t his h ampered t he e nd r esu lt . L ikew ise i t i s p robab le t hat t he e name l-workers o f R oman B r itain d id n ot g o t o a ny g reat l engths i n t his r espect . I n a ny e vent t he e name l i s a pp lied e ither d irect ly t o t he c e lls i n t he f orm o f p owder o r m ixed w ith a l itt le w ater t o f orm a p aste a nd t hen s o a pp lied. T he l atter s eems t he p referab le m ethod e specially i n f illing t he a ng les o f t he c e lls m ore e asily . I t i s o f c ourse n ecessary t o l et t he p aste d ry o ut o therw ise t he w ater w ill b o il o ff w hen p laced i n t he h eat . P owder o r p aste i s a pp lied w ith a s patu la. I f t he e name l i s i n t he f orm o f s o lid s lices ( see b e low u nder c omp lex a nd m illedior i e name ls) t hen t his i s s o m uch s imp ler a nd m ere ly r equires c areful a ttent ion t o p ositioning a nd c are t hat t he a rrangement i s n ot d isturbed w hen p lacing t he o bject i n t he o ven . N owadays a g um, w hich b urns o ff w ithout t race, i s u sed e ven t o h o ld p owder i n p lace b efore f iring b ut t his i s r ea lly u nnecessary a nd w as h ard ly u sed i n t he p er iod u nder r eview . A ssum ing a k iln i s u sed a nd t hat i t i s a t t he c orrect t emperature t he o bject p lus e name l i s l ifted b y t he t ongs a nd p laced i n t he o ven f or a f ew m inutes. As py-ho le p erm its t he e name ller t o s ee t he e name l t urning ' l iquid ' a nd o nce t his i s c omp lete i t c an b e r emoved a nd a llowed t o c oo l. T he c opper ( used i n t he e xper iments) o xid ises a nd b ecomes c overed w ith f ire-sca le b ut t his m ost ly f lakes o ff a nd t he m eta l e dges a nd b ase c an b e p o lished a nd t he e namel g round d own i f n ecessary . As hort r eturn t o t he h eat r estores t he s urface c ondit ion . I f t wo o r m ore c o lour s a re b eing f ired t hey s hou ld, a ccording t o t he t ext b ooks, b e f ired i n o rder s tart ing w ith t he o ne w ith t he h ighest f usion p o int b ut i n f act I f ound t hat v arious c o lours c ould b e f ired a ll a t o nce w ithout a ny i ll e ffects u n less i n t he l ong-term . I f t he c e ll i s d eep a s econd a pp licat ion o f p owder/paste m ay b e r equired. T his m ay a lso b e n ecessary t o f ill t he c orners . S omet imes a l ayered e ffect c an b e s een o n a ncient e name ls a nd t his m ay b e d ue t o t he p oint j ust m ade . T he f ir ing p rocess i s t herefore a s s imp le a s t he t oo ls n eeded t o c arry i t o ut . I t i s u sually o n t he g ro unds o fa pp licat ion t hat e name lwork i s c lassif ied s uch a s t he m odern o nes o n t he g rounds o f t heir b e ing c hamp leve, c loisonne e tc . B efore a ttempt ing t his o n R omano-Br it ish e name ls i t i s n ecessary t o e xam ine t hose o f t he I ron A ge s eparate ly s ince m any o f t hese d o n ot f it t he s uggested s cheme . I t h as b een s aid b y L eeds t hat t his w as a p er iod o f e xper iment, h ence t he g reater v ar iety . T herefore t he I ron A ge t echniques a re t reated s eparate ly . T here a re t wo b asic t ypes o f e name l i n t he I ron A ge b est d escr ibed b y t erms b orrowed f rom J acobsthal ( 1944, p . 1 33) a s u p lay a nd i n lay . I n t he f ormer m ode t he e name l i s a pp lied a bove t he l eve l o f t he b asal m eta l w h ile i n t he l atter i t i s f ound b e low t he s urface o f t he m etal . T here a re v ar ious s ub-div isions w ithin e ach g roup . F or t he u p lay g roup t here a re v arious m ethods o f a ff ixing t he e name l b ut f or t he i n lay g roup t he v ar iations o ccur i n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he c e lls 8 8

a nd t he c olours u sed i n t hese . U p lax ename ls o f t he I ron A ge ( Figure_ 10A ) 1 . a s tud o f r ed e name l h e ld i n p lace b y ar ivet t hrough t he c entre - o nly a r ivet h o le i n t he m eta l, n o f orm o f s etting ( f igure 1 0A, 1 ). T he b est e xamp le o f t his m ethod i s t o b e s een o n t he B ugthorpe d iscs. I t i s a lso u sed o n t he E astburn f ibu la a nd w as t oo t he m ode o f h o lding t he s tuds, p resumab ly o f e name l, o n t he L lyn C errig B ach p laque a nd t he n ow l ost s hie ld b osses f rom t he P o lden H ill h oard . 2 . a s tud o f r ed e namel h e ld i n p lace b y ar ivet t hrough t he c entre a nd s itting i n ac ircular d epression o r s etting ( f igure 1 0A, 2 ). T he s tud o n t he h andle o f t he L exden c up a nd t he m issing s tuds o n t he P erth a nd N ewstead b utton-and-loop f asteners b e long t o t his v ariety . I n m any e xamp les e name l a nd r ivet a re n ow g one a nd i t s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind t hat w here t here i s n ow a n e mpty s etting w ith ar ivet h old t his m ay h ave b een i ntended f or a r ivet w ith a n i ncised d omed h ead ( type 3 ) a s o n t he t ankard h andle f rom t he S even S isters h oard . 3 . a n a pp lied r ivet w ith l arge d omed h ead w hich i s i ncised t o r eceive r ed e name l -s et i nto a c ircu lar d epression ( f igure 1 0A, 3 ). T he s tuds o n t he N orth o f E ng land h e lmet a nd t he t ankard h andle f rom t he S even S isters h oard j ust m entioned h ave b een a pp lied i n t his w ay . T he s tuds o n t he W ater loo h e lmet a re s light ly d ifferent i n t hat t he e name l h as b een a pp lied t o ad isc, w ith i ncised h ead, w hich h as b een s et i nto a d epression a nd h eld i n p lace b y ar ivet t hrough t he c entre - t he h ead o f t he r ivet b eing a bove t he e name l. R ivets o nly h ave b een f ound a t H engistbury H ead a nd K nob 's C rook w hile t he e name l s he ll o n ly, o nce c overing t he r ivet h ead, w as d iscovered a t H yndford C rannog. 4 . s tuds o f e name l s et i n c ircular s etting -no r ivet a nd e name l a bove m etal s urface ( f igures 1 0A, 4 ). P robab ly b est s een i n t he r emaining s tuds o n t he H arpenden m ounts a nd a s f ar a s c an b e a scertained o n t he M aiden C ast le f ibu la. T his m ethod w as p robab ly a lso u sed o n t he S nailwe ll a rm let, t he F e lmersham s pout ( eyes o n ly) a nd t he C o lchester t refoil p endant . W here t he e name l h as g one a nd o n ly t he s etting r emains i t i s s ometimes d iff icult t o k now w hether t he e name l w as o f t his t ype o r o f t ype 7 w here t he e namel i s f lush w ith t he m etal s urface a nd t herefore i nlay . 5 . f ramework e name l -h ere t he e name l i s f ound i nside a h o llow o penwork s tud w hich a cts a s af ramework t o h o ld t he e name l -the s tuds a re i n t urn h e ld i n p lace o n t he o bject e ither b y s older o r ar ivet t hrough t he c entre ( f igure 1 0A, 5 ). S everal e xamp les o f t his t ype a re k nown o n t he B attersea s hield a nd t he r emains o f t he H ertford H eath a nd L exden ( ?) c askets. T he e xamp le f rom H od H ill i s o f t his t ype b ut s hows a v ariat ion i n t hat t he e name l i s u sed t o h o ld t wo b lue g lass d iscs i n p lace. 6 . a pp lied r ivets w ith r ing a nd d ot o f e name l s unk o n t he t op ( f igure 1 0A, 6 ). N ot s tr ict ly s peaking a n u p lay b ut r at t ler a n i nlay -however a s i t o ccurs a bove t he s urface o f t he o bject i t i s i ncluded h ere .

8 9

I t i s f ound o n t he E mb leton s cabbard w here t he e name l i s p reserved ( red a nd ? b lue ) a nd p ossib ly o n t he B ugthorpe s cabbard t oo t hough t here i s n ow n o e name l a nd p erhaps t here n ever w as . I n lay e name ls o f t he I ron A ge ( F igure 1 0B ) 7 . s imp le s pots o f r ed e name l ( f igure 1 0B, 7 ). R ed s pots o n t heir o wn a re o ne o f t he s imp lest t ypes o f e name l a nd o ccur o n a w ide r ange o f o bjects. T hey a re t o b e f ound o n t he B ird lip m irror, t he C awston, R ick ingha ll, S nett isham a nd S tanton t errets a nd a ccount f or a bout 9 9 p er c ent o f t he e name lwork i n t he S tanw ick h oard. O ccasiona lly o ne f inds o ther s hapes i n r ed a lone, a s t he s ing le s ma ll t r iang le o n t he b utton-andloop f astener i n t he M idd leb ie b oard o r t he r ow o f t r iang les o n t he R att lesden t erret . T hese m ay b e i nc luded w ithin t his g roup . 8 . r e lative ly l arge c e lls w ith c urving w a lls -generally i n r ed ( f igure 1 0b, 8 ). H ere t he s ize o f t he c e lls i s t he m ain f actor . T he t erm ' ce lls w ith c urving w alls ' i s u sed h ere t o c over t he C e lt ic s cro lls, l obes a nd t rumpet p atterns a dorning m uch o f t he I ron A ge m eta lwork . Ag ood e xamp le o f t h is t ype o f e name lwork o ccurs o n o ne o f t he q uatre lobe h arness m ounts f rom S anton b ut i t i s a lso t o b e s een o n t he f aces o f t he L esser G arth t erret, t he F e lmersham a nd L eg P iekarski b ow l f itt ings, t he L ydney P ark s tud a nd t he H od H i ll s word h ilts. O ccasiona lly a s econd c o lour blue -is f ound a lso i n l argish c e lls b ut a longside t he r ed, a s o n t he C o lchester l inch p in a nd F ayum a nd E auze t errets . 9 . r e lat ive ly l arge c e lls w ith c urv ing w a lls i n c onjunction w ith s pots - f ormer a lways r ed ( f igure 1 0B, 9 ): ( a)

c lose ly a kin t o t ype 8 ; r ed i s t he o n ly c o lour u sed. Ag ood e xamp le, w ith p art icu lar ly l arge c e lls i s t he s econd q uatre lobe h arness m ount f rom S anton . I t i s a lso t o b e s een o n s uch o bjects o n t he E ckford c heek-p iece,theA lfr iston a nd R unneymede t errets a nd t he t race h ooks i n t he S even S isters h oard . I t o ccurs i n c onjunction w ith s mall t r iangles also r ed - o n t he q uatre lobe h arness m ount f rom P olden H ill.

( b)

h ere t he s pots a re b lue whether g lass o r e name l h as a lready b een d iscussed - e xce llent e xamp les a re t he B apchild, L akenheath a nd R ichborough t errets.

( c )

t here a re s ome e xamp les w ith y e llow s pots. T hree s uch e xamp les m ay b e g iven, t he A uchendally t erret a nd t he L ondon a nd N orton q uatre lobe h arness m ounts .

1 0 . s ma ll c e lls, w hich a re a ngu lar, i n r ed, b lue a nd y e llow ( two o r t hree o f t hese) ( f igure 1 0B, 1 0). T he c e lls a re n o l onger l arge c urving a reas o f r ed b ut h ave d w ind led i n s ize t o m uch s maller t r iang les, s quares, r ectang les, l ozenges, p etals, r ing a nd d ot a nd v ar ious o ther s hapes -angu lar f or t he m ost p art f illed w ith a m uch g reater v ar iety o f e name l t han b efore . T he g roup i s q uite l arge b ut s hould p erhaps b e s ubd iv ided. G roup ( a) w ou ld c onsist o f e name ls i n a ll t hree c o lours, r ed, b lue a nd y e llow, m ost ly i n al arge n umber o f s quare t o r ectangu lar c e lls a s o n t he E mb leton s cabbard o r t he t errets f rom S aham T oney . H owever w here t he 9 0

e name l h as d ecayed i t i s n ot c lear w hether t hree o r o n ly t wo c o lour s h ave b een a pp lied, f or e xample a s s een o n t he t wo t errets a nd t wo b r id le-b it f ragments f rom S even S isters. O n t he o ther h and i n s ome i nstances w here a l l t hree c o lour s a re p resent see t he S ilchester m ount o r c ruciform m ount n ow i n F lorence the c e lls t ake o n a d ifferent s hape a nd b etter p attern t han a r ow o f s imp le s quares . T here i s n ot t herefore a g reat u n iform ity w ith in t his g roup . G roup ( b ) i nc ludes o bjects w ith t wo c o lours i n t he c omb ination o f r ed a nd b lue a nd r ed a nd y e llow ( these m ight f orm t he b asis f or a s ub-div ision a s L eeds p o inted o ut b ut h is v iew t hat r ed w ith y e llow i s n orthern a nd r ed w ith b lue, s outhern,does n ot q uite h o ld g ood) f ound g enerally i n as maller n umber o f c e lls t hough t hese h ave a g reat v ariety o f s hape . G ood e xamp les o f t his g roup a re t he r ed a nd b lue e name l o n t he R ise b r id le-b it a nd t he r ed a nd y e llow o n t he t erret f rom T raprain L aw . R ed a nd y e llow c an b e s een i n m uch g reater q uant ity a s i n t he r ows o f i nter -l ock ing t r iang les o n t he b e lt p late i n t he Y orkshire M useum . T he c ombinat ion o f y e llow a nd b lue i s r are b ut d oes a ppear o n t he T horpe s word h i lt . L eav ing a side t he I ron A ge m ater ia l w e w ill n ow d ea l w ith t he e name lwork o f t he R oman ( and p ost-Roman) p er iod a nd t ry t o s imp lify i t i nto s ome s ort o f o rder . P resent d ay t erms a re u sua lly a pp lied t o o lder e name ls b ut a s m ent ioned e ar lier s uch a s ystem a pp lied t o R omano-Br itish e name lwork w ould m ake i t a ll c hamp leve . I t i s r easonab le t o s ay t hat a R omano-Br it ish e name l i s p er s e c hamp leve . Y et t here i s aw ide v ariety o f t ypes w hich n eed a rFi r-1 6 7 1 g . T his c an b e e asily a nd s at isfactor ily d one o n t he w ay t he e name l i s a pp lied a nd h as t o al arge e xtent b een h inted a t a lready i n t he t ext . T hat i s t o s ay i t i s p roposed t o l abe l a n e name l a s ( a ) s imp le, ( b )comp lex o r ( c) m illef ior i. ( a ) S imp le E name ls ( F igure 1A ) A s t he n ame s uggests t hese a re s imp le a nd s traightforward t o p roduce . T here i s o n ly o ne c o lour o f e name l t o e ach c e ll o n t he o bject . T his h as b een a pp lied a s ap owder o r p aste . H owever t here m ay b e m ore t han o ne c o lour, u sua lly t wo o r e ven t hree, o n t he s ame o bject b ut a s l ong a s t hese a re c onf ined t o t he ir r espect ive c e lls t he o bject s tays w ithin t he g roup . W e c an t hen d esignate s uch e namels a s Sx1 ,2 o r 3d epend ing o n t he n umber o f c o lours . F igure 1A s hows w hat i s m eant a nd f igure 1 4B d isp lays s ome m odern e xamp les m ade i n t he e xper iments. E xamp l s o f t his t echnique a re t o b e s een o n t hree f inds f rom N ewstead : a ) ab utton-and-loop f astener S x1 =b lue; b ) ad isc b rooch S x2=b lue + r ed; c ) ad ragonesque b rooch S x 3=r ed + b lue + y e llow ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p p . 33, 3 30 a nd 3 20 r espect ive ly, p l . L XXXIX n os. 2, 1 3 a nd 8 r espective ly ). T he s mall a nd l arge d omed p late b rooches a lways h ave t his v ar iety, u sually i n t he t wo c o lours, r ed a nd b lue e ach c onf ined t o t he ir s mall t r iangular c e lls . D ragonesque b rooches, t oo, h ave e xc lusive ly s imp le e name ls, b eing f ound w ith o ne, t wo o r t hree c o lours f rom r ed, b lue a nd y e llow a nd s o a lso d o t he t rumpet h ead b rooches ( group R ) . T he g reat m ajor ity o f t he h ead s tud ( group Q ) a nd g roup M b rooches a s w e ll a s a ll t he m in iature s too ls a nd v esse ls a long w ith m ost o f t he s ea l b ox l ids b e long t o t h is c ategory .

9 1

_ 0 1

C omp lex E name ls ( F igure 11 31

H ere t wo o r m ore c o lours o f e name l a re f ound i n t he s ame c e ll w ithout t heir b eing s eparated b y am eta l d ivide ( septum ). I t i s t hus a m ore c omp lex a rrangement t han t hat o f t he s imp le e name ls . T his t ype i s o ften c alled ' mosaic e name l b ut a s t he t erm h as a lso b een a pp lied i ndiscr im inately t o m illef ior i e name ls i t i s b est p erhaps t o s crap t he w ord a ltogether a nd h ave t wo n ew o nes t o d escribe t h e se t wo d ifferent t ypes. T here a re v ar ious c lasses o f c omp lex e name ls. ( i) I n t he f irst g roup p ieces ( 'squar ish ') o f t wo o r t hree d ifferent c o lours a re l aid a lternate ly s ide b y s ide i n al ong n arrow c e ll o r i n an arrow c ircu lar o r o va l c e ll. T he g reat m ajor ity o f t he o va l a nd m edallion p late b rooches d isp lay t his, p ossessing o ne o val c e ll a round t he b ase o f t he r aised c entra l p ortion; i n t his o val c e ll ( c . 8m ms . w ide) a re e ight o r t we lve p ieces a lternate ly b lue a nd w h ite . T he p ieces t hemselves a re a pproximate ly 9 s q . m ms . S uch i s t o b e s een o n t he s pecimen f rom L owbury H ill(Atk inson, 1 9 16, p . 3 5, n o . 3 4, p l. I X,34)and, i n r ed a nd b lue, o n t he e xamp le f rom C ampsf ied ( Hunter a nd K irk, 1 952, p .59-60, f ig . 2 6,1). A long t he b ows o f ap air o f h ead s tud p b rooches f rom N ewstead a re t en a nd n ine p ieces r espective ly , a lternat ing b etween r ed a nd b lue ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 24, p l. L XXXVI, n os . 2 1 a nd 2). M uch s ma ller p ieces o f t h is t ype o f e name l a re t o b e s een o n t he t wo o r t hree l ong n arrow c e lls o n t he u pper b ow o f t he s mall s ub-group o f Mb rooches ( group M (e) -see a bove) s uch a s t he o ne f oun d a t W ilderspoo l ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, f ig. 2 0, n o . 4 ). A gain t he i dea i s s hown i n f igure 1Bi a s w e ll a s o n am odern r eproduct ion i n f igure 1 5A, 1 & 2 . W hat h as b een i nvar iab ly n ot iced ( see f igure 1 5A, 1 a nd 2 ) i s t hat t he e dges b etween t wo s uch c o lours a re i rregu lar b ut v ery w e ll d ef ined. T his s uggests t hat s o lid p ieces o r p laques ( ?cut f rom s ticks o r r ods) r ather t han t wo p astes o r p owders h ad b een u sed t o c reate t he p attern . T he l atter i n a ny e vent w ou ld h ave b een v ery d iff icu lt t o a pp ly i n t his f ashion a nd w ould h ave r esu lted i n ab lurred e dge. C ompare t he c r isp e dges b etween t he c o lours i n f igure 1 5A, 1 w ith t he b lurred e dge b etween t he r ed a nd w hite ( from p astes) i n f igure 1 5A, 3 a nd t he p oint s hou ld b e c lear a nd a cceptab le . T o m ake t he f ormer I u sed s quar ish p laques o f c o loured e name l p urchased i n t his f orm b ut e quivalent t o p ieces c ut o ff r ods ( see f igure 1 4, l ower m idd le). I ndeed t he o n ly c ase o f s uch a b lurred e dgenoted o n t he a ncient e name lwork i s t hat b etween t he r ed a nd y e llow o n t he e scutcheons f rom H itchin a nd ' near O xford ' ( Leeds, 1 933, p l. II). ( i) T he o ther m ajor t ype o f c omp lex e name l i s w here a r e lat ive ly i l arge c e ll i s f illed w ith a b ackground c o lour i nto w hich s pots o f a nother a re i nserted . l h is i s w e ll e xemp lif ied b y t he s andal ( 'anima l') p late b rooches w ith t heir f requent b lue g rounds a nd w hite o r y e llow s pots e .g. t hose f rom L ondon ( Guildhall M useum, 1 960, p . 4 , n o . 5 , p l. 5 , n o . 5 ) a nd W ilderspoo l ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, f ig. 2 0, n o . 7 ). S ee f igure 1B ii a nd f igure 1 5A, 4 . Is uspect t hat t he g round w as f irst l aid a s ap aste o r p owder a nd t hat t he s o lid s pots ( p ieces f rom s ma ll r ods) o f t he s econd c o lour

9 2

w ere t hen p laced i n t his a nd t he t wo f ired t ogether . T his s eems t o b e t he m ost s imp le m ethod a nd t his w as h ow I m ade t he m odern r eproduct ions - f igure 1 5A, 4 - w here t he r ed s pots a re s o lid s lices . H owever i t i s s aid t hat t he s pots i n t he b lue e name l g round o n t he W a ll b rooch w ere i nserted w hile t he b lue w as ' still v iscous b ut c oo ling ' a nd t hat t hey w ere s tuck t o s ome s upport i n t he r equired f ormation f or t his p urpose ( Werner a nd O rgan, 1 964, p . 4 6). T his s eems ar ather d iff icu lt ( unnecessar ily s o) m ethod a nd i n a ny e vent s ure ly t he e name l w ould s olidify t oo r apid ly f or i t t o b e e ffective. O n t he o ther h and t he a ppearance o f t he w hite g round o n ab rooch f rom W oodeaton i n t he A shmo lean M useum ( reg. n o . R 76) s uggests t hat t he s pots h ad b een p ushed i n w hile t he w hite w as s t ill s oft . S uch a t echnique i s a lso s uggested f or t he f ive p late b rooches w ith w hite g rounds a nd b lack s pots i ncluded i n t he g roup o f b rooches f rom N ornour r ecent ly e xam ined a t t he D epartment o f t he E nvironment ( Bick e t .al. 1 980, p . 5 7). T here i s t hus a p rob lem h ere a s t o h ow t he s pots w ere a ttached, b ut I s till b e lieve p lacing t hem ' co ld ' i s t he m ost s ensib le m ethod a nd o ne w hich w as p robab ly m ost o ften u sed. ( iii) I n a ddition t o t he l ast t wo b asic t ypes t here a re e ven m ore c omp lex o nes u sually c onsist ing o f o ne o r m ore c irc les o f d ifferent c o lours a round s pots e ither a s p laques a s B i o r i n g rounds a s B ii. S ee f igure 1Biii. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat t he f ormer w ould b e m illef ior i b ut i t i s n ot r ea lly s o a nd d oes n ot a ppear a s p art o f t he R omano-Br it ish m illef iori p attern r epertoire . F inds w ith t his t echnique a re n ot c ommon f rom B r itain. A mong t hese i s t he c asket h and le f rom t he W albrook s treambed ( Guildhall M useum, 1 960, p . 8 ,no . 1 ) w ith t wo s quares o f aw hite g round w ith d ecayed s pot a nd c ircle a lternating w ith p ieces o f ab lue g round w ith a w hite s pot . As tud f rom C ame lon ( National M useum o f A nt iquities o f S cot land, r eg . n o . F X339) h as i n o ne c e ll p ieces o f p lain ( ? ) y e llow a nd p ieces o f b lue e ach w ith a w hite c ircle a nd r ed s pot . T he c entre o f ab rooch f rom F ar ley H eath ( Br itish M useum, r eg. n o. 5 3 .4 -1 9 .56) h as o ne c e ll w ith a b lue g round i n w hich a re e ight r ed s pots, f our w ith w hite r ings. ( iv) F inally t here i s as mall g roup o f o bjects b earing a t ype o f e namel w hich i s b est i ncluded i n t he c omp lex g roup . T his c onsists o f a s ulphur y e llow g round s peck led o r s pr ink led i rregu ler ly w ith t iny p ieces ( sometimes s quare, o ften i rregu lar) o f b rown l° 8 . T his t echnique i s i llustrated i n f igure 1 B iv a nd b y a n a ctual e xamp le f rom N ewste a d ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 3 29, p l. L XXXIX, n o . 2 5). T he l atter p rovides a n e xce llent s pecimen o f t he t ype h aving f our l arge c e lls o f s uch e name l a round t wo c entral p ane ls c ontaining m illef ior i d ecoration . I t i s as olid r ectangular b e lt-p late a nd i s a n u nstrat if ied f ind f rom n ear t he w est g ate o f t he f ort . I ndeed t his t echnique o ccurs a lmost e xclusive ly o n b e lt-p lates s uch a s t he t wo f rom C aer leon ( S ite M useum) a nd t hose f rom C aerwent ( Newport M useum ) a nd S outh S hields ( Bruce, 1 885, p p . 2 6 1-262). B esides t hese p ieces m entioned i ts a ppearance h as b een n oted o n at ear-shaped s eal b ox f rom L eicester . H ere t here i s n o q uestion o f t he b rown n ot f loating i n t he y e llow . P robab ly i t w as e asier t o s pr ink le t he b rown o n t he t he u nf ired p owder o r p aste o f t he g round r ather t han d o t his w hen t he y e llow a lone w as c oo ling. C ur le ( ibid.) c alls t his a m illef ior i e name l b ut o n o ne o f t hose f rom C aer leon t he b rown h as l arge ly

9 3

d isappeared l eav ing t iny, s ha llow , i rregu lar h o les w ith t he y e llow g round v isib le b eneath - s uch d oes n ot c onst itute a m illef ior i i n lay . . ( c)

M illef ior i E name ls ( F igure 1C)

A mong s ome o f t he m ost o utstanding s ma ll r e lics o f R oman B r itain a re t hose b earing m illef ior i d ecorat ion. H owever t his i s ap oor ly u nderstood p rocess a nd i ndeed m any d o n ot e ven t h ink o f i t a s b e ing p art o f t he e name lwork r epertoire . Y et i t u ndoubted ly i s, i n s o f ar a s av itreous s ubstance - h ere t hin s lices o f m illef ior i g lass - i s m ade t o a dhere t o am eta l b ase b y t he u se o f h eat . T he p rob lem l ies i n t he m ethod o f a pp licat ion. T here a re t wo p ossib le m ethods ( f igure 1c). E ither t he s lices h ave b een u sed a s i n lay i n t hat t hey l ie o n ab ed o f r ed e name l w hich a cts a s a n a dhesive t o h o ld t hem i n p lace o r t hey h ave b een p laced d irect ly o n t he m eta l a nd f ired i n t he s ame w ay a s a n e name l, b e ing g iven e nough h eat t o m ake t hem a dhere b ut n ot e nough t o d istort t he p attern . T he a rguments a gainst t he l atter a re t hat t he m illef ior i g lass w ou ld h ave h ad t oo h igh a m e lting t emperature t o b e t reated a s a n e name l a nd s econd ly t he c oeff icients o f e xpansion o f t he g lass a nd m etal d iffer t oo m uch t o e ffect a dhesion . R ed e name l h as a m e lt ing Sm ith, 1 925, p . 1 0 1) a nd w ou ld a ct a s a n t emperature o f a bout 6 86 0C ( e xce llent f luxing a gent . I t w as h owever s een a bove t hat t he R omano-Br it ish e name ls w ou ld p robab ly m e lt b etween 7 00°C a nd 7 50 0C a nd t hat t he m e lt ing t emperature o f m uch R oman g lass l ies b etween t hese f igures a lso . T hus t he f irst d iff icu lty i s n ot r ea lly s o g reat a nd t he p rob lem o f e xpansion/contract ion i s u n like ly t o b e r e levant . I t t herefore s eemed t hat t he n ext s tage w as t o t ry t o m ake a n a ctual s traight m illef ior i e name l. T he e xper iments t urned o ut r emarkab ly w e ll a nd q uite r espectab le, s traight ( w ithout r ed e name l u nder ) m illef ior i e name ls w ere m ade w ithout d iff icu lty . T he c omp lete p rocess i s s hown i n f igure 1 5B . N umber ( 1 ) s hows s ix s eparate p ieces o f m illef ior i g lass s et d irect ly o n t o t he m etal o bject . T he n ext, ( 2 ), s how s t hese b eginning t o j oin a fter a f ew m inutes i n t he k i ln a nd ( 3 ) i s t he p osit ion w hen t hey h ave c oa lesed a nd c overed t he w ho le c e ll. H ere t hey a re p erhaps t oo d istorted a nd t h is i s ac rucia l p oint i n t he e xcer ise, i .e . t o r emove t hem f rom t he h eat a t j ust t he m oment w hen t hey h ave f illed t he c e ll f u lly b ut b efore t he p attern i s l ost . A n e xce llent e xamp le o f t his i s t o b e s een o n t he r ounda l o f t he . 2 97, p l. L XX 1 ,n o . 4 ) h ead-stall f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, P w here t he m illef ior i p attern i n t he o uter c irc le i s s o d istorted t hat i t h as c lever ly b een c overed w ith a t h in s tr ip o f e mbossed b ronze w hich h owever h as p art ly c ome a way t o r eveal t he c raftsman 's c over-up . T o r eturn t o t he e xper iment, n umber ( 4) s hows t he f inished e name l h alf g round d own a nd ( 5) c omp lete ly g round. A fter as hort r eturn t o t he k iln t he g lossy s urface i s r enewed a nd a c omp lete s traight m illef ior i e name l i s s hown i n n umber ( 6). I t m ight b e a dded t hat i t c ou ld b e s aid t hat t he p attern h ere l ooks a s i f t here a re f lowerets f loat ing i n ab lue e name l b ed b ut s uch i s o bviously n ot t he c ase . I n a ny e vent i t i s e asy t o m ake s uch 9 4

a n e name l a nd i t s hould b e r emembered t hat t he e xperiment w as h indered i n h aving o nly c ircular p ieces -there w ou ld b e f ewer g aps b etween s quare p ieces a nd t hus t he c e ll w ou ld b e f illed t hat m uch q uicker b efore d istortion b ecame a p rob lem. A lso t he p ieces w ere r ather t hick a nd n eeded a l ot o f g r inding . I ndeed Ic annot s ee t he n eed f or a b ed o f r ed e name l t o h o ld t he m illef ior i i n p lace . T he o n ly d ifference f rom o rdinary e name l-work ing i s t hat t his t echnique t akes t wo t o t hree t imes a s l ong ( though s till o n ly a m atter o f m inutes). H owever e ven i f t his m ethod i s p ossib le w as i t u sed o n t he m any s pecimens o f R oman e name lwork f rom B r itain b ear ing m illef iori d ecoration o r a re t he p ieces f loating i n ab ed o f r ed e name l? H enry ( 1933, p p . 6 7-69) a rgued t hat b oth m ethods w ere u sed t hough w ithout p roviding a ny p roof . J ope f avoured t he l atter w here t he m illef iori i s h e ld i n p lace w ith a f lux o f r ed e name l ( Wainwr ight, 1 953, p . 6 8) a nd i ndeed t his i s t he v iew t hat g enerally h o lds s way . I t w as t o t ry t o s olve t his p rob lem t hat a g roup o f t we lve o bjects b ear ing m illef ior i d ecoration w as c hosen f or s pecia l e xam ination ( Bateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p . 1 85). T hese a re n umbered a s i n t he w ork c ited - ( a ) t o ( j). I deally w hat o ne w ou ld l ike t o d o i s t o o btain a s ect ion a cross a n o bject w ith m illef iori d ecoration, p o lish t his u p a nd e xam ine i t u nder t he m icroscope : f or o bvious r easons t his i s n ot p ossib le . T he t en o bjects e xam ined a re f air ly r epresentat ive o f t he p atterns i n u se d ur ing t he R oman p er iod a nd t he d ecoration r emains i n v ary ing d egrees o f q uality a nd q uantity . I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat i n s ome c ases r ed f orms p art o f t he i ntentional m illef iori p attern - u sually a s ab order ( e .g. A ppendix C - p attern n o . A 7) a nd t his m ust b e d istinguished f rom a b ed o f r ed e name l i nto w hich t he m illef iori p ieces m ay h ave b een l aid, i f s uch i s t he m ethod u sed. I n g enera l an umber o f e xamp les w ere o bserved f or w hich t here i s c lear ly n o r ed e name l m atrix . F or e xamp le c lean m etal c ou ld b e s een t hrough a v ery t hin n on-red e name l l ayer i n ( b ), ( h ) a nd ( i ). S everal c ases w ere f ound w here i t a ppeared h ighly p robab le t hat r ed e name l w as n ot u sed a s am atrix ( c), ( d) a nd ( j )). T hin t races o f r ed w ere f ound u nder t he m illef ior i o f ( a), ( d) a nd ( e ) a nd o ne p laque o f ( f ). E ven h ere i t i s c onceivab le t hat r eact ion w ith t he b ronze b ase c ou ld p roduce a t hin i nterfacial l ayer o f r ed C U 20 ( see a bove). I t a ppears h owever f or ( a) a nd ( e ) t hat t he g reen p ieces a re s et i n r ed e name l. T hus i t s eems t hat t he t wo t echniques w ere i ndeed p ract ised. A ga in i t m ay b e n oted t hat t he p art ia l c omposit ion o f t he m illef ior i g lass, i n p articu lar t he l ead c ontent, ( see b elow ) i s n ot s o d ifferent f rom t he m ore s traightforward e name ls. U nfortunately i t i s s e ldom t hat a c ertain a nswer c an b e g iven t o t he q uestion o f t he u se o f ar ed e name l f lux s ince a d estructive e xamination i s n eeded . S ince w e c an n ow i nclude m illef ior i e name lled o bjects a nd k now e xact ly w hat t o l ook f or, i t m ight b e a ppropr iate t o m ent ion t he n umber a nd t ypes o f s uch o bjects w hich h ave b een f ound i n B r itain . T hose n oted ( as f ar a s t he s earch w ent -see n otes 4 a nd 5 ), a nd t here a re u ndoubted ly m ore, t otal o ne h undred a nd s even o bjects ( including t hree f rom F rance) a s w e ll a s t he f ive i nstances o f A ng lo-Saxon h anging b ow ls w h ich a lso b ear t his t ype o f d ecoration.

9 5

T he v ast m ajor ity c onsist o f f lat c ircu lar s tuds, v ar ious m ounts, d isc b rooches, g enerally o f t he t ype w ith a s tud s tanding u p i n t he c entre, b e lt-p lates a nd a f ew s eal b oxes. Av isual e xamination o f t hese h e lps f urther w ith t he a pp licat ion p rob lem . T here a re c ertain r ather c lear c ases o f m illef ior i f loating i n ag round o f r ed e namel. O ne m ight m ention h ere t he v ery i mportant g roup S iii b rooch f rom K ilpedher w hich n ow r etains i n i ts f antail o nly t he b ed o f r ed e name l b ut w hich, w hen f ound, w as c overed b y m illef ior i w hich t hen d isintegrated ( q .v .). H ere t hen i s a n e xce llent e xamp le o f m illefiori e name l f loat ing a nd w here t he r ed b ed w ould n ot h ave b een o bv ious. S omewhat c learer e xamp les o f t his t echnique a re t o b e s een o n t he e scutcheons a nd p laques o f t he l arge h anging-bow l f rom S utton H oo ( q .v.). As tud f rom N ewstead ( Cur le, 1 9 11, p . 32, n o . 4 , p l. L XXXIX, 1 7) h as a n i nteresting c entral c e ll o f w hite ( or iginal o r d ecayed r ed?) w ith j ust o ne p iece o f m illef ior i f loat ing i n i t . L ess c lear e xamp les o f f loating a re t o b e s een o n s tuds f rom C aer leon, C orbridge a nd D itch ley . R ather t han p oint o ut r eferences f or w hat a re g ood s traight m illef iori e name ls i t m ight b e b etter p erhaps t o g ive a d etailed d escr iption o f o ne s uch o bject v iz, t he s tud f rom C hepstow ( B railsford ,1 964, p . 5 6, n o . 6 , p l. X X 1, n o. 6 ). A t f irst g lance i t w ou ld a ppear t hat i n t he c entre a re s mall p laques c onsisting o f e ither n ine o r t wenty-f ive w hite a nd b lue c hequers f loating i n as ea o f r ed e name l. T his i s n ot s o. I n f act t here a re t wo t ypes o f p laques, ( 1) c onsisting o f n ine w hite a nd b lue s quare r ods w ith a r ed b order a nd ( 2) t wenty-f ive w hite a nd b lue s quare r ods w ith a b lue b order, l aid s ide b y s ide d irect ly a nd s o f used. B ecause t he r ed i s t he s tronger c o lour i t p redom inates a nd c atches t he e ye b ut t he e dges o f t he t wo t ypes a re q uite c lear; w here s ome i s m issing t here i s n o r ed l ayer u nderneath; t here i s v ery l itt le r ed a round t he c e ll e dge w here o ne w ou ld e xpect t o f ind i t i f i t c onstituted a b ed f or t he m illef ior i. T he n ext c e ll i s n ot a s eries o f w hite f lowerets f loating i n b lue b ut a s er ies o f m illef iori s quares c onsisting o f ap attern o f ab lue g round w ith w hite p eta ls. G enerally t he b lue h as c oalesed b ut i n p laces t he e dge b etween t wo i ndividua l p laques i s s t ill v isib le. T here i s c ertainly n o r ed a t a ll i n t his c e ll. A lthough t here i s r ed i n t he n ext c e ll t he s ame i dea i s e vident i .e. s quares o f w hite a nd b lue w ith a n i ntegral r ed b order l aid s ide b y s ide a nd f ired. W here t he w hite o r b lue h as g one t here i s n o r ed b eneath. A gain i n t he o utermost c e ll n o r ed i s a t a ll v isib le a nd t he p ieces a re o ne o f ab lue g round c ontaining a w hite w hir l. S uch t hen i s a s traight e name l o f m illef iori. A s r egards t he m illef iori i tself, i t i s p robab ly w ell k nown t hat i t i s r ather l ike s ea-side r ock w ith t he p attern r unning r ight t hrough . I t i s m ade b y a rranging l arge c o loured g lass r ods t ogether i n t he d esired p attern, f using t hese t ogether a nd t hen r o lling o r d raw ing t hem o ut ( while s till h ot) i nto o ne l ong t hin r od w hich h owever p reserves t he p attern i ntact . S lices ( or p laques) c an t hen b e c ut o ff t he e nd. T here i s aw ide v ariety o f p atterns a pp lied t o R oman o bjects a nd t hese a re l isted i n A ppendix C ( see f igures 1 2 a nd 1 3). T hese c an h owever b e r educed t o f our b asic t ypes: 9 6

A .

c onsist ing b asically o f n ine s quares

B .

c onsist ing b asica lly o f t wenty-f ive s quares

C .

c onsist ing o f af loweret

D .

m isce llaneous s uch a s t he w hir l o r f ern p atterns

P atterns A 7, 1 3 a nd CU a re b y f ar t he m ost c ommon . T he n umber o f o ccasions a p attern a ppears i s i nc luded i n t he l ist . S ome a re f ound o n ly o n t he h anging-bow ls . B lue a nd w hite f o llowed c lose ly b y r ed a re t he m ost c ommon c o lours; g reen, y e llow a nd b lack a re f requent , p ink w as n oted a lso; t here i s m uch v ar iat ion i n t he s hading, e specia lly o f t he b lue . A gain o paque r ods a re t he n orm b ut t rans lucent o nes a re m ore f requent t han i n t he s traight e name ls. G enerally t he p ieces a re s quare b ut c ircu lar o nes w ere u sed, a gain i n t he A ng lo-Saxon p er iod . T he u sual s ize o f e ach p iece v ar ies b etween 2 -4 m ms . a long t he s ides a nd . 5-1 m m . t hick . O ften t he c e lls t o w hich t hey h ave b een a pp lied a re q uite l arge s uch a s t hat a t t he c entre o f t he C hepstow s tud ( q .v .) w hich i s 2 .1 c ms. i n d iameter a nd c ontains n o l ess t han s ixty-four p ieces o f m illef ior i g lass. T he t hree p lain d isc b rooches ( type 1 ) h aving o n ly o ne c e ll a re 2 .5 c ms. i n d iameter, c ontaining s eventy-e ight s quares ( from C ampsf ie ld), 3 .1 c ms. ( Corbridge) a nd 2 .5 c ms. a gain ( Richborough). O n o ne o f t he n arrow c ircu lar c e lls o f t he m ount f rom L ondon t here a re n ineteen p ieces t he e dges o f w hich a re q uite c lear . O n t he b rooch f rom S aint A lbans t he n arrow c ircu lar c e lls a re 3 m ms. a nd 3 .5 m ms. r espect ive ly . T he b e lt-p late f rom C orbridge c ontains f our c e lls, t wo e ach 3 c ms . a nd 1 .8 c ms. l ong b y 3 .5 m ms. w ide a nd 1 m m . d eep . L itt le w ork h as b een d one o n t he a ctua l r ods m aking u p t he p atterns . O ne a na lysis i s o f ap iece o f m illef ior i g lass, w hich w as i n f act p art o f av esse l ( Br ill a nd M o 11,1963, p . 1 46 + t ab le 3 ). P art ia l a na lysis o f t he m illef ior i e name ls e xam ined s uggests t hat e specially i n t he l ead c ontent, t hese a re n ot a ll t hat d ifferent f rom t he m ake u p o f t he t rue e name ls ( Bateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p . 1 85). W e c an s ay t hen t here w ere t wo t ypes o f m illef ior i e name l a pp lied d ur ing t he R oman p er iod v iz , s traight m illef ior i e name ls ( C i) a nd f loating m illef ior i e name ls ( Cii). T his g roup a s aw ho le h as b een r ather n eg lected i n t he p ast a nd c onsequent ly o ften m isunderstood . I t i s h oped t hat t his h as c leared u p t he s ubject t o s ome e xtent . S imp le e name ls o r g lass f loating i n R ed E name l(?)

( F igure 1D)

T here i s o ne f urther p ossib le t echnique o f a pp licat ion w hich m ust b e c onsidered . I t h as b een s uggested t hat s ome o f t he b lue e name ls a re i n f act m ere ly a t hin s urface l ayer o f e name l o r g lass f loat ing o n t op o f ab ed o f r ed e name l ( f igure 1Da). T his m ay a pp ly t o s ome b lack e name ls a s w e ll. T he i dea f irst s eems t o h ave b een p ut f orward b y F ranco is H enry n ot a s o ne o f t he m ain t echniques l isted ( Henry, 1 933, p p . 6 6-69) b ut s lipped i n s omewhat l ater ( Ib id. p . 9 0) a s af o llow-on f rom t he f loat ing b lue g lass s pots o f t he I ron A ge ( q .v .). J ope b e lieved t his m ethod t o h ave b een u sed o n t he b lue p etals o f t he C ar lungie b rooch ( Wainwr ight, 1 953, p . 6 8 ) 9 7

a nd t o h ave b een w idespread. I t m ust b e s aid a s r egards s uch a b lue t hat n o c lear e xamp le w as m et w ith w here r ed c ould b e s een u nder t he b lue e ither w here t he l atter h as c ome a way a s o ne m ight o ccasiona lly e xpect o r a t t he e dges o f t he c e ll. T here c ou ld b e o nly t wo r easons f or s uch a t hing - t echnical n ecessity o r s carcity o f b lue e name l. T he f ormer s eems u n like ly a nd t he f act t hat b lue i s t he m ost c ommon s urviving c olour o n R omano-Br it ish e name lwork r ather d im inishes t he l ike lihood o f t he l atter e xp lanat ion. Y et a s im ilar t echnique w as u sed w ith m illef ior i e namel ( technique C ii). T here i s m oreover t he c ase o f t he b lack e namels. T hese a re f ound o n t he t ype 1 p lain f lat d isc b rooch ( w ith t he o ne w avy s ix-knobbed s eptum ) s uch h s t hat f rom W ilderspool w ith b lack i n t he o uter c e ll a nd r ed i n t he c entre c e ll ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, f ig . 2 0, n o . 9 ). T here a re a lso e xamp les k nown w ith a b lue o uter c e ll. W here t his o uter e namel h as d ecayed o r g one i t c ou ld t hus h ave b een e ither b lack o r b lue . O ne o f t hese w as i ncluded i n t he g roup s e lected f or a nalysis ( Bateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p . 1 84, n o . 1) a nd u nder t he m icroscope a t hin s tr ip o f r ed ( 50-100 m icrons) w as v isib le a round t he e dge o f t he b lack. U nless t his i s d ue t o t i. Edesired f ormation o f C u2O b etween t he e name l a nd t he m etal ( see a bove) t hen i ndeed i t w ou ld a ppear t hat t he b lack i s f loating . B ecause o f t he s hape o f t he o uter c ell i t i s u n like ly t hat t he b lack i s g lass. I t w ou ld h ave b een d iff icult t o c ut g lass t o t hat s hape b ut t he b lack m ight b e s maller p ieces o f g lass w hich h ave c oalesed t hough m ore l ike ly i t i s af rit. T he n ear a bsence o f l ead i s t o b e n oted h ere . I f t he b lack i s f loat ing t hen t he f act t hat t his v ariety o f b rooch a lso o ccurs w ith b lue i n t he o uter c e ll ( e .g . C orbridge - S ite M useum, r eg. n o . P . 2 32) m ay b e s ignif icant t o o ur p rob lem . T he s tudy o f t he N ornour b rooches n ow a ppears t o a dd s ome e vidence i n f avour o f t he a rgument f or t his t echnique ( B ick e t .a l. 1 980 , p p . 6 0-6 1). F or t he p resent a nswers r emain u nsatisfactory. I t i s p erhaps w iser n ot t o d ismiss s uch a t echnique a s u n like ly t hough m ore e vidence f or i ts u se i s d esirab le. H owever i t w ou ld b e s trange i f t he R omano-Brit ish e name llers h ad r esorted t o s uch a t echnique w hen, a s w e h ave s een, t he ir o ther m ethods w ere p erfect ly s ensib le .

9'

C HAPTER 9 M ANUFACTURING S ITES

I t i s p erhaps u nw ise, b ear ing i n m ind t he V illa D 'Anthee, t o a ttempt a c hapter o n e name l-working s ites, y et i t i s ap erennial 09 . q uestion a s t o w here t he e name lled o bjects w ere a ctua lly m ade 1 F or t he m ost p art n on-Br itish s ites s pring t o m ind s uch a s B ibracte ( Mont B euvray ), t he V illa D 'Anthee o r L agore C rannog a nd i t w ill p erhaps b e u seful t o h ave a b r ief l ook a t t hese f irst. W e w ill t hen d iscuss t he v ar ious t ypes o f e vidence a vailab le t o s uggest t he p resence o f t his p articular c raft o n as ite. T his i s u sed t o s uggest a l ist o f s ites i n B r itain w here e name lwork w as p robab ly o r p ossib ly m ade a nd i ndeed t o d e lete s ome a lleged s ites. P erhaps t he b est k nown e name l-working s ite i s o n t he h illfort o f t he A edui o n M ont B euvray, m ore c ommonly k nown a s B ibracte. I t i s s ituated a bout t wenty-f ive k ilometres f rom A utun ( Saone-et-Loire) a nd w as e xtensive ly e xcavated d uring t he l atter h a lf o f t he n ineteenth c entury b y M onsieur B u lliot . A n i mpression o f t he f inds m ay b e g ained f rom B u lliot 's o wn d escr ipt ion o f t he e name lling a rea, " Too ls l ay a ll a round; t he f urnaces w ere s t ill f ull o f c harcoal; b esides f inished a rticles, w ere o thers h ard ly s tarted a nd y et o thers i n t he m idd le o f m anufacture, o ne w as s till c overed w ith b aked c lay; a ll a round w ere f ragments o f r aw e name l, c lay c rucib les, s andstone p o lishers, a c onsiderab le q uantity o f w asters, b listers, r efuse f rom t he t r imm ings, v itreous s he lls w hich r etained t he i mpr int o f t he b ronze d esigns..." ( Bu lliot, 1 899, p . 5 ). T here i s t hus t he c omp lete r ange o f e vidence -ename l, o bjects a nd t ools available f rom B ibracte ( ibid. p p . 6 -42). P erhaps t he m ost i nteresting i s t he a ctual r ed e name l i n i ts v arious s tates a s ar aw m ater ia l, d iscarded a s w aste o r f laws a nd a s t he f inished p roduct . I t m ay b e n oted t hat B ulliot b e lieved t hat t he e name l w as m anufactured o n t he s ite ( ibid. p p . 3 6-37) a nd t he f ragments o f q uartz f ound i n h ut 1 8 ( ibid. p . 2 0) c ou ld h ave b een t he s ource o f t he s ilica; n o l arge b locks o r l umps o f r ed e name l, a s m ight h ave b een i mported, w ere a pparent ly d iscovered o n t he s ite . A lso o f n ote i s t he f act t hat t he o bjects t o b e e name lled w ere m ade a t B ibracte a s w e ll a nd w ere f ound i n t he v ar ious s tages o f m anufacture a s b ronzes a s w e ll a s o bjects i n t he p rocess o f b eing e name lled ( ibid . p. 1 8 a nd 1 27). S o t he t hree s tages o f e namelwork -the Ma-J f , v itreous s ubstance a nd t he a pp lication o f t he t wo -are c lear ly s een h ere . T he t oo ls o f t he t rade a re w e ll r epresented. T he m ajor i tem i s o f c ourse t he f urnace a nd h ere o ne c an b e r easonab ly s ure t hat i ts f unction w as f or e name l-working. O ne i n h ut 1 8 w as c ircular, o ne m etre i n d iameter, s unk h alf a m etre i nto t he g round a nd w as f illed w ith a m ass o f b aked c lay p resumab ly f rom t he c ollapsed d ome; a long w ith t his w as f ound t he i ron d oor, a t hin s quare o f 1 5 c ms . w ith e vidence o f h inges ( ibid . p . 2 0); o ther f urnaces w ere u nearthed i n h uts 2 0 a nd 2 3 . I n t he l atter w ere a lso f ound t wo b roken c lay t uyeres, a n i ron p oker a nd a s mall t hin i ron

9 9

s hovel ( perhaps f or l ifting o bjects i n a nd o ut o f t he o ven) a long w ith t he u sual m etal a nd e name l d ebr is. T ongs a lso w ere r ecovered 'as w e ll a s a n i ron t r ipod, c hise ls, f iles a nd h ummers. I n a ddit ion t o as ma ll q uern-stone w ere m any c rucib les -some w ith a r ed v itreous s kin o n t he e xterior . T he m ost c urious t oo ls w ere p ieces o f af ine-grained s andstone w ith h o llows c orresponding t o t he v ar ious s izes o f t he e namelled s tuds a nd p resumed t o b e u sed i n t he p o lishing p rocess. B ulliot ( 1899, p . 2 9) t hought t he g rain s ize t oo r ough f or c omp lete p o lishing a nd s uggested t hat t he s ma ll p erforated w heels o f v ery f ine b aked c lay s omehow f inished o ff t his p rocess. F or a l ong t ime t he s tar e name l-working s ite o f t he R oman w or ld w as t he V illa D 'Anthee . T he V illa D 'Anthee i s s ituated i n t he p rovince o f N amur i n B e lgium a nd a gain w as e xcavated i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury b y M onsieur G rosjean a nd w as p ub lished a fter h is d eath i n t he A nnales d e l a S ociete A rchaeo logique d e N amur b y M onsieur M armo l b etween 1 877 a nd 1 88 1. H owever i t w as n ot u nt il t he t urn o f t he c entury t hat t he d escr iption o f a n e name l w orkshop w as f orcib ly p ut f orward ( Bequet, 1 902, p p . 2 48-256). T he i dea w as q uickly a ccepted ( e .g . M ay, 1 904, p . 7) a nd H enry ( 1933, p p . 1 23-128) n ot o n ly r epeated t he ' evidence ' b ut a ssigned a " product ion d 'une e xtreme v ar iete" t o t he w orkshop . I t i s o n ly w ithin t he l ast f ew y ears t hat d oubt h as b een c ast o n t he w ho le i dea o f e name l p roduction a t t he V illa D 'Anthee ( Sp itae ls, 1 970, p p . 2 09-24 1). T h is i s b ased o n ac omp lete l ack o f s uch a n i dea i n t he m anuscript n otes o f G rosjean o r t he p ub lications o f M armo l a s w e ll a s ah ypothesis o f B equet o f 1 893 b ecom ing f act b y 1 902. I n a ddition t here i s t he g rave l ack o f a rchaeo logical e vidence a mong t he f inds n ow h oused i n t he m useum a t N amur e specially t he f ragments o f c rucib les w ith t races o f as ubstance s till a dher ing ( Bequet, 1 902, p p . 2 52-253) b ut w hich a nalysis p roved n ot t o b e e name l ( Spitae ls, 1 970, p p . 24-225). T he p endulum o f o pinion h as n ow s wung i n t he o pposite d irect ion a nd t he s ite i s n o l onger i ncluded a s ac entre o f e name l p roduction . T his i s t o t he g ood i n s o f ar a s t he p rob lem o f o rig in c an n o l onger b e s o lved b y a t oo f ascile a ssigning t o t he V illa D 'Anthee y et i t s eems t o i gnore t he e vidence f or e name l-work ing i n s ome d egree e ven i f t he s ite c an n o l onger b e r egarded a s t he m ain s upp lier t o t he E mp ire . T here a re a t l east t he f our r ods o f g lass ( Henry, 1 933, p . 6 8, p l. 1 ) a s w ell a s t he g reenish v itreous p owder a nd b rown e name l w hich w ere a nalysed a nd d iscussed a s r aw e name l ( Sp itae ls, 1 970, p p . 2 40-241); a gain o ne s hould n ote t he b lue f r it . G rented t hat t here a re f ew e name lled o bjects f rom t he s ite ( presumab ly f inished?) a nd t hat t he t weezers, c ompass a nd p unches ( or s ty li?) l ike t he r est o f B equet 's e v idence a re q uestionable n everthe less t he V illa D 'Anthee s hould n ot p erhaps b e d ismissed e ntire ly f rom a l ist o f e name lling s ites. T he m ain l esson t o b e l earned i s t hat e vidence f or m anufacture n eeds t o b e c arefu lly e xamined f or e ach p ossib le s ite . W e m ight n ext l ook b rief ly a t t wo p ost-Roman s ites i n I re land o f i nterest t o t he q uestion o f m anufacture. T he f irst i s L agore C rannog i n C ounty M eath e xcavated 1 934-6 ( Hencken, 1 95 1, p p . 1 -247). H ere t here i s e vidence f or b ronze-working, g lass a nd e name l p roduction . T he e vidence f or b ronze-working i nc ludes p ieces o f c opper o re, m ou lds, c rucib les, t uyeres, s crap a nd w aste m etal a nd b one t rial p ieces ( ib id. 1 00

p p . 8 , 1 26-127, 1 70, 2 34-240). M ou lds f or g lass s tuds, o ne a ctually w ith t he s tud s till i n i t, a nd f ragments o f g lass, s uggested t o b e i mports f or u se a s c u llet, w ere a lso d iscovered ( ibid. p p . 2 , 1 27-129). H owever p erhaps t he m ost i mportant d iscovery w as t he r od o f m illef ior i g lass a nd t he t wo r ods o f o paque b lue g lass w hich i t w as h inted m ight h ave b een i ntended f or m aking u p a nother r od o f m illef ior i g lass ( ibid. p . 1 32). V arious e name lled o bjects, s ome w ith m illef iori, w ere f ound o n t he s ite, t he b e lt-p late o f i ron p rev iously n oted b eing o f s pecial i nterest . T he s econd s ite i s al arge r ath a t G arranes i n C ounty C ork . H ere t he e xcavations a gain p roduced e videncc f or a m etal, g lass a nd e name l w orkshop ( O 'R iordain, 1 942, p p .77-150). M ou lds, c rucib les, u nf inished p enannular b rooches a nd p ins, a c asting j et a nd i ngots p o int t o b ronze-working ( ibid. p p . 9 3-100, 1 07-110, 1 2 1-139). M ortars a nd t ongs w ere a lso f ound . M ore i mportant p erhaps a re t he f ragments o f m illef ior i g lass a nd e name l. T hree p ieces o f m illef ior i g lass w ere f ound, o ne b eing o n ly a f ew m illimetres l ong b ut s aid t o b e p ossib ly t he v ery e nd o f ar od, a s omewhat l arger p iece o f as quare r od w ith a s imp le p attern i n r ed, b lue a nd y e llow ( the r ed f orming a b order) a nd m ost e xciting o f a ll a c ircular p iece o f r od s till f itted i nto t he e nd o f ab ronze t ube o bvious ly m eant t o h o ld i t w hile s lices w ere b eing c ut o ff ( ibid . p p . 18120). A gain v arious f ragments o f g lass w ere r ecovered ( ? c u llet) a s w e ll a s t hree g lass r ods a nd s everal s mall p ieces o f r ed a nd g reen e name l -some o f t hese f ound f used t o ac lay c rucib le ( ibid. p p . 1 2012 1). B efore p roceeding m ention m ust b e m ade o f t he R omano-Br itish s ite a t N ornour w hich f or a t ime a ppeared t o b e a bout t o b ecome a B r itish V illa D 'Anthee 10 . T he s ite, o n t he S cil Usles, w as e xcavated b etween 1 962 a nd 1 966 w hen t he m ost s pectacu lar f ind w as t he l arge g roup o f b rooches, m ost o f w hich a re e name lled. T he h ypothesis w as a dvanced t hat t he m ajority w ere a ctually m anufactured o n t he i s land ( Dud ley, 1 967, p p . 2 8-64). H owever i nvest igation b oth i n t he f ie ld a nd t he l aboratory b y M iss B utcher a nd h er c o lleagues h as l ed t o t he c onc lusion t hat t he s ite i s n ot a f actory b ut r ather a s hr ine a t w hich t he b rooches w ere d eposited a s v otive o ffer ings ( Butcher, 1 977, p . 4 4 a nd B iek e t .al. 1 980, p . 5 1). U sefu l a s i t w ou ld b e t o h ave t he l ocation o f a m ajor e name l -working ' factory ' i n B r itain, N ornour i s n ot s uch a s ite. S ince w e w ill n ot b e f ortunate e nough t o e xam ine a s ite i n B r itain w ith s o m uch e vidence a s B ibracte i t m ay b e a ppropr iate t o e xam ine t he v ar ious k inds o f e vidence t o l ook f or i n t ry ing t o e stab lish t he p resence o f e name l-working o n a ny p articu lar s ite . R aw o r s crap e name l i s p erhaps t he b est i ndicator o f e name l p roduction o n as ite a nd o ne s hould i nclude r ods o f m illef ior i g lass a nd o paque g lass/ename l a s w e ll p erhaps. I t m ay n ot a lways b e p ossib le t o r ecogn ise c ullet, i .e . s crap g lass, a s o pposed t o d iscarded b roken f ragments ( refuse) a nd i n a ny e vent t he c ullet c ou ld b e f or g lass-making a s m uch a s e name lling . T he s ame a pp lies t o r aw m aterials s uch a s f lint o r q uartz. B ronze-working o n as ite d oes n ot o f c ourse i mp ly e name lw orking b ut i f t he o bjects b eing m ade a re t ypes n ormally b earing e name l t hen t he e xam ination o f t he f ore ign s ites w ou ld t end t o s uggest t hat t he a pp lication o f t he e namel t ook p lace i n t he s ame w orkshop; t he t ypes o f o bject b eing m ade m ay b e g leaned f rom t he r emains o f m ou lds, l ead m ode ls a nd u nf inished o r f lawed c astings. U nf inished o r p oor ly m ade ( and t herefore d iscarded) e name lwork w ou ld a lso p oint t o m anufacture a t i ts f ind-spot . T oo ls -i.e . f urnaces, c rucib les,

1 0 1

m ortars, i spatu lael, t ongs, c hise ls o r p o lishing s tones -on t heir o wn c annot r eally b e p ointers s ince s uch a re c ommon t o b ronze-and g lass-working b ut i n c onjunct ion w ith f or i nstance a n u nf inished o bject w ould a dd c omp lementary e vidence . S ince r ed o r g reen v itreous c oat ings h ave s ometimes b een s aid t o i ndicate e name lling i t m ight b e a s w e ll t o s ay t hese c an r esult f rom m eta l-work ing o r e ven j ust c ontact o f ac rucib le w ith h eat ( Ty lecote, 1 962, p . 1 37; A lcock, 1 963, p . 1 40)1 11 . S o o n i ts o wn t his c annot b e ar e liab le g uide t hough s uch r ed c oatings w ere n oted o n s ome o f t he B ibracte c rucib le f ragments. M ention s hould a lso b e m ade o f ' b lue f r it '. I t i s n ot a lways c lear w hether t his i s ab lue v itreous s ubstance g iven t he g eneral t erm ' fr it ' i nstead o f e name l o r g lass o r w hether i t i s t he b alls o f ab lue g rangu lar c ha lky s ubstance o ften f ound o n R omano-Br itish s ites. T he l atter i s s omet imes s tated t o b e c o louring m atter f or e name l b ut i s m ore g enera lly c onsidered t o b e ap aint p igment ( see A tkins, 1 971, p p . 5 6-58 f or r eferences a nd d iscussion). F inally t here i s t he q uestion o f l arge n umbers o f e name lled o bjects f rom t he o ne s ite s uggesting m anufacture t here b ut a s w ith N ornour e xtreme c aut ion m ust b e e xercised w ith t his a rgument . O ne m ust b e c areful n ot t o s uggest m anufacture o n as ingle i ndicator o n ly u n less a c arefu l e xam ination w arrants s uch a n a ssumpt ion. T here i s n ot s uch a l ack o f e v idence f or e name l-working i n B r itain a s m ight b e e xpected . C ertainly t here i s n o s ite o f t he c alibre o f B ibracte n or i ndeed m any . s ites w here t he e vidence i s p articular ly s trong. Y es i t i s p ossib le t o p o int t o s ome w here o ne c an b e r easonab ly s ure t hat t he c raft w as c arr ied o n i n s ome d egree . T here a re o thers w here i t h as b een c laimed t hat e name lling w as p resent b ut w here t he e vidence d oes n ot r eally b ear o ut s uch a c ontention . A gain t here e xist c ertain s ites w here i t i s p ossib le s uch a ct ivity t ook p lace . W e w ill l ook a t e ach o f t hese c ategor ies i n t urn l isting s uch s ites w hich, w hile m ainly o f t he R oman p er iod, d o c over t he c omp lete s pan o f y ears u nder e xaminat ion 12 . P robab le m anufacturing s ites 1 .

C o lchester

T he e xcavators t hought i t p robab le t hat e name lling w as c arr ied o n a t C o lchester o n t he b asis o f f inds o f p ieces o f b lue a nd r ed f r it ( Hawkes a nd H u ll ,1 947, p p . 3 45-346). Ac rucib le f rom B utt S treet i s s aid t o b ear ' d istinct t races o f r ed e name l a dher ing t o t he s ides ' ( Bulle id a nd G ray, 1 9 11, p . 3 03) b ut t his a long w ith o ther c rucible f ragments m ay m ere ly i ndicate b ronze-work ing. 2 .

L ondon

L ondon t oo i s o ften q uoted a s ac entre o f e name l-working ( Merr ief ie ld, 1 965, p . 8 7) a nd h ere a n u nf inished o bject p rovides t he b est e vidence f or t his. T he p iece i s t he u nf inished p laque r ecovered f rom t he T hames a nd a lready d iscussed i n c hapter 4 ( Brailsford, 1 964, p . 5 6). ' Crude l umps o f g reen e name l' a re s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n N icho las L ane ( Whee ler, 1 946, p . 3 2). F inds o f b alls o f b lue f rit " used i n e name lling" h ave b een m ade i n C heapside, L ombard S treet a nd A ldermanbury ( Marsden, 1 980, p . 7 4). A lthough t hese m ay n ot a ll b e v alid e vidence t here a re s ome p ointers t o t he p rocess h aving b een c arr ied o n i n t he

1 02

c apita l. 3 .

T raprain L aw

P erhaps t he b est p iece o f e vidence f or e name lling o n t his s ite i s t he s quare b ronze o rnament d ivided i nto f our t r iang les, t wo w ith y e llow a nd t wo w ith b lue e name l. O ne o f t he c e lls c ontaining y e llow e name l h as n ot b een c omp lete ly f illed; t he e name l h as o verf lowed f rom t he c e lls; t he e name l a ppears b ubb ly a nd u npo lished . T he p iece h as r ight ly b een r egarded a s af ailure b y t he e xcavators ( Cur le a nd C ree, l 1 92 1, p p . 1 87188, f ig. 2 1, 1 3 -g ood i lustration) a nd o thers ( Bur ley, 1 955, p . 1 94) w ho c onsidered i t a s a n i ndicat ion o f e name lling o n t he h ill. B ur ley ( ibid. p . 1 35) t hought t he t hin-wa lled t r iangu lar c rucib les, s ome b ear ing s light t races o f m o lten g lass i n t he b ottoms, p art o f t he e name llers' e qu ipment b ut a s s he n otes i n r e lat ion t o t he i ron t ongs t hese c ou ld h ave b een u sed f or g lasswork ( beads a nd b ang les) a s w e ll a s e name lwork . P erhaps a s u sefu l a re t he m ou lds p art icular ly t hose f or b utton-and-loop f asteners ( ib id . p p . 2 19-22 1, e specia lly n os. G VM 56 & 7 ) t hough n one o f t hose f ound i s f or a n o bject b earing e name l u n less t he f asteners w ere m eant t o h ave t he c e lls g ouged o ut s ubsequent t o c ast ing. S uch o bjects a s t he n umerous s ma ll t oo ls o f i ron a nd b ronze a nd t he s tone r ubbers a nd p o lishers c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed b y t he e name llers a s w e ll. 4 .

W ilderspoo l

M ay ( 1904) w ent s o f ar a s t o i nc lude ' Ename llers ' W orkshop ' i n t he s ubtit le o f h is w ork W arr ington 's R oman R emains. T he s o-called ' jewe llers ' w orkshops ' p rov ided e vidence f or b ronze-and e name lw orking t hough t he f ormer s eems m ore c ertain t han t he l atter . T he f inds i nclude ' co loured e name l p aste o r f r it ' ,' three a morphous l umps o f c o loured e name l o r f r it ' a nd ' a s ma ll a ngu lar f ragment o f b lack, g lassy, u na ltered e name l o r f r it ' ( May, 1 904, p p . 7 3-75). E qually i nterest ing i s t he l ead m ode l f or a t rumpet b rooch ( group R ii) t hough t he b ow a nd h ead a re p lain ( ibid . p . 7 5). N everthe less i t s uggests t he m anufacture o f at ype o f o bject w hich o ften b ears e name l. O n t he o ther h and t here d o n ot a ppear t o b e a ny m ou lds o r f lawed c ast ings f rom t he s ite t hough t here i s a n u nf inished b ronze r ing ( ib id . p . 7 4). O therw ise w hile t here a re t he f urnaces a nd t uyeres, c rucib les ( some w ith v itreous c oatings) r aw m ater ials s uch a s s and, f lint a nd c ha lk, t oo ls, c u llet, s lag a nd w aste p roducts, t hese c ou ld b e c onnected s o le ly w ith b ronze a nd m ore e spec ia lly g lass m anufacture w hich w ere u ndoubted ly c arr ied o n t o ag reat e xtent . T hompson ( 1965, p. 6 7-87) i n h is r e-assessment o f t he s ite s tarts b y d eclar ing " there i s e vidence f or ... . the e name lling o f m eta l o bjects" ( ibid. p . 7 2 ) b ut " this c annot b e r egarded a s c ertain" ( ib id . p . 7 6) t hough h e t hen g oes o n t o s uggest t hat t he p resence o f e name lled b rooches i ndicates t his a ctivity ( ibid . p. 8 3 &8 6). A lthough c aut ion i s n ecessary i t d oes s eem l ike ly t hat e name lled o bjects w ere m ade a t W ilderspoo l. 5 .

B rough o f B irsay

T he m ost i nteresting f ind f rom h ere, a mong t he s crap g lass ( ?cu llet), c rucib les a nd m ou lds, i s t he l ead m ode l f or a h anging b ow l e scutcheon o f t he t ype w ith t he t rumpet s p ira l d ecorat ion, u sually b ear ing e name l ( Cur le, 1 974, p p . 3 0 1-307). 1 03

6 .

C raig P adr ig

O ne h a lf o f am ould f or a h anging b ow l e scutcheon, w ith e name lled p aralle ls, h as b een f ound h ere r ecently ( Stevenson, 1 972, p p . 4 9-5 1). 7 .

D inas P owys

S crap g lass, s crap a nd w aste b ronze, p art o f t he l ead m ode l f or a p enannular b rooch, r ubb ing s tones, p o lishers a nd v ar ious r ods o f g lass i nc luding m illef ior i p oint t o b ronze-, g lass- and e name l-work ing o n t his p ost-Roman s ite o f t he f ifth t o s ixth c entur ies o nwards ( A lcock, 1 963, p p . 5 3, 1 04, 1 20-122, 1 40, 1 60, 1 62, 1 87). T he e xcavato r w as l ater s omewhat m ore c ertain o f t he p resence o f e name lling h ere a nd n oted t he s crap g lass f or r e-use a s b eads, b angles a nd " as a m ajor c onstituent o f t he e name l i n lays f or f ine b rooches" ( A lcock, 1 97 1, p p . 2 33-235 ). P ossib le m anufacturing s ites 8 .

B rough-under-Stainmore

A l arge n umber o f s mall b ronzes, i ncluding m any f lawed a nd u nf inished s pecimens, a re s aid t o h ave b een f ound h ere a nd i t i s u sually a ccepted t hat t hey w ere c ast i n s itu ( Bir ley, 1 958, p . 4 2). " F lawed c ast ings o f t rumpet b rooches a re f air ly c ommon a t B rough-under-Stainmore b ut t hough Q b rooches w ere m ade t here I h ave n ever s een a f lawed c ast ing o f o ne" ( Co llingwood, 1 930, p . 5 6). T he b ow o f ab uckle a nd a s eal b ox l id, b oth e name lled, a re s aid t o b e u nf in ished ( Co llingwood, 1 93 1c, p . 8 3-84). M ore r ecent ly t his e vidence h as b een r egarded a s ' h igh ly p d ef icient ' a nd a l ead m ode l f or a n u nspecif ied t ype o f b rooch g iven a s t he b est i ndicator f or m anufacture ( Boon a nd S avory, 1 975, p . 4 3). 9 .

C aer leon

R ods o f o paque b lue g lass a s w e ll a s ab a ll o f b lue f rit h ave b een r ecovered h ere a nd a re i n t he s ite m useum . 1 0 .

C aerwent

E xcavat ions i n 1 908 i n h ouse X IX N p roduced p ieces o f l ight b lue f r it " for u se o n e name lled m etalwork" a nd s im ilar f r it f ound p reviously " seems t o i ndicate t hat t he b eaut ifu lly e name lled o bjects f ound o n t he s ite w ere p robab ly m ade t here" ( Ashby e t . a l. 1 9 10, p . 1 2). T his f rit c ou ld r efer t o b alls o f b lue f r it n ot n ecessar ily i ntended f or e name l. 1.

C anterbury

E xcavations i n S aint M argaret 's S treet h ave " produced e vidence o f ap ossib le e name ller 's o r b ronze-smith 's w orkshop"; t his i ncludes c rucib les c ontaining ' ename l' ( Goodburn, 1 979, p . 3 36). 1 2 .

C harterhouse

C harterhouse i s i ncluded i n t h is l ist o n a ccount o f t he l arge n umber o f e name lled g roup M b rooches ( especia lly t he v ar iety w ith t he l ozenge-shaped e xpansion i n t he m idd le o f t he b ow ) f ound h ere. W hile N ornour p rov ides

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a n a rgument a gainst t his f orm o f e vidence n everthe less t he g reat v ariety o f t ypes f rom t here c ontrasts s trong ly w ith t he b asica lly s ingle t ype f rom C harterhouse, p robab ly m anufactured a nd e name lled i n s itu . C rucib les h ave b een f ound h ere ( Bu lleid a nd G ray, 1 9 11, p . 3 03). 1 3.

C hichester

E xaminat ion o f v itreous d eposits o n v ar ious c rucib les f ound i n C hape l S treet s uggest t hey w ere f or t he m anufacture o r u se o f s ealing-wax r ed g lass o r e name l; a s trong s igna l w as g iven f or l ead a nd c uprous o xide a ppears t o b e t he c olourant ( Bay ley, 1 978, p . 2 54; a nd a lso s ee B utcher, 1 977, p .68, n ote 3 ) 1 4.

K irkby T hore

C o llingwood s ays t hat t races o f t he m anufacture o f t rumpet b rooches w ere f ound h ere b ut h e n otes t he s ame f or T raprain L aw ( Co llingwood a nd R ichmond, 1 969, p . 2 97). A gain t he e vidence h as b een q uer ied r ecent ly ( Boon a nd S avory , 1 975, p . 4 3). 1 5.

M ote o f M ark

M uch e vidence f or t he m anufacture o f b ronzes, i ncluding p enannualar b rooches, h as b een f ound h ere i n t he f orm o f m oulds a nd c rucib les ( Cur le, 1 9 14, p p . 1 40-147). F ragments o f g lass a re g enerally r egarded a s b eing c u llet f or u se i n t he p roduction o f e namel o r o ther v itreous i n lays ( Laing, 1 975, p p . 1 0 1-102; L ong ley, 1 980, p . 4 ). 1 6.

S hakenoak

A s mall a mount o f av itreous s ubstance f ound h ere h as b een d escr ibed a s e name l b earing a c lose r esemb lence t o t he l ump o f s ealing-wax r ed g lass e name l f rom T ara ( Brodr ibb e t . a l. 1 978, p . 9 4). I f t his i s s o i t m ay i ndicate e name lling o n t he s ite. 1 7.

S outh S hie lds

W hat a ppears t o b e a n u nf inished c asting o f at rumpet b rooch o f g roup R ii t ype m ay p oint t o t he m anufacture o f e name lled t ypes o f b rooches a t S outh S hie lds ( Museum o f A nt iquities, U niversity o f N ewcast le, r eg. n o. 1 925.35 f or a g roup ). 1 8 .

S tanw ix

C hance f inds o f o ver a d ozen f lawed c ast ings, u nf inished c astings a nd s craps o f w aste m etal h ave c ome f rom h ere a nd o ther e vidence o f a m etal-worker 's s hop i nc ludes a s quare-headed b utton-and-loop f astener -"an u nf inished c ast ing n ever t ouched b y at oo l -intended f or e name l b ut n ot b egun" ( Co llingwood, 1 93 1a, p . 4 1 a nd 1 931b, p . 7 3). D oubt h as h owever b een c ast o n t he w orkshop t heory ( Bir ley, 1 93 1, p . 6 2). 1 9 .

W oodeaton

" It i s c lear t hat t he s ite w as a c entre f or t he p roduction o f f ibulae a nd o ther b ronzes" ( Tay lor , 1 9 17, p . 9 9). I f t his i s s o t hen p erhaps s ome o f t he e name lled o bjects f rom W oodeaton w ere a ctua lly m ade t here .

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H owever t he e vidence " may p oint t o at emp le o r s hr ine b ut p ossib ly m anufacture o r af air" ( K irk, 1 949, p . 6 ). C ertain ly t here i s s ome e v idence f or b ronze-working ( ibid . 2 8). 2 0 .

W roxeter

O ne o f t he r ooms o f t he b aths i nsula w as f ormer ly i nterpreted a s a n e name ller 's w orkshop t hough t here i s n o h ard e vidence f or t his ( Webster, 1 975, p . 6 ). A b all o f b lue f r it h as a lso b een f ound h ere ( Bushe-Fox, 1 9 13, p . 1 0). A mong t he e xtensive e vidence f or g lassm aking i n W roxeter ( e .g. W ilson, 1 973, p . 2 87) t here m ay l urk i nd icators f or e name lling a nd t he s ite s hould n ot p erhaps b e t oo r eadily d ism issed. D oubtfu l m anufacturing s ites 2 1.

E xeter

I t h as b een s aid t hat " the n at ive c raft o f e name lling w as c arr ied o n" i n E xeter ( Fox, 1 952, p . 1 6) b ut t he e vidence r ests o n ly o n t he b a lls o f b lue f rit " which h ad b een u sed p robab ly f or e name lling" ( ibid. p . 6 ) a nd f ragments o f c rucib les w ith a v itreous c oating c o nta in ing l ead a nd m ore l ike ly d ue t o t he m elting o f t hat m etal t han e name l ( ib id . p . 6 4). 2.

H eronbridge

T he s uggestion h as b een m ade t hat s ome o f t he f urnaces w ere " perhaps f or p reparing e name ls" ( Hart ley, 1 954, p . 3 ) b ut t he v itreous g laze o n t he c rucib les a ppears t o b e d ue t o b ronze a nd t he m ou lds a re f or o bjects w hich d o n ot n orma lly b ear e name l. ( ibid. p p . 5 -6). 2 3 .

M eare a nd G lastonbury

T he f inds f rom t hese I ron A ge s ites a re s aid t o i nclude " the w orkshop d ebris o f b ronze-sm iths a nd e name llers" ( Frere, 1 974, p . 6 9) b ut a s tudy o f t he e xcavation r eports d oes n ot s upport t he l atter . " The a bsence o f o bjects o rnamented w ith e name l" h as b een n oted a t G lastonbury ( Bu lleid a nd G ray, 1 9 11, p . 3 1) a nd t he r ed g laze o n t he c rucib les f rom M eare s eems t o h ave r esulted f rom m eta llurgical u se ( Gray a nd B u lleid, 1 953, p . 2 55). G lass b eads d o h owever s eem t o h ave b een m anufactured a t M eare ( Guido, 1 978, p . 1 6; H enderson, 1 980, p p . 6 0-6 1). 2 4.

N ornour

I t h as a lready b een s aid t hat N ornour i s u n like ly t o h ave e ver b een a m anufacturing s ite ( see s upra; B utcher, 1 977, p . 4 4). 2 5 .

R ichborough

I t w as s aid t hat a b ronze b rooch " straight f rom t he m ould a nd u nf inished" m ight s uggest m anufacture o f s uch o bjects ( Bushe-Fox, 1 926, p . 4 3, n o . 5 ) t hough c orrosion p revented i ts b e ing d eclared e namelled o r n ot . C onservation w ork h as n ow s hown i t t o b e i ndeed e name lled b ut a lso t o b e q uite f inished ( Musty a nd B utcher, 1 976, p . 2 42). O ther e vidence f or b ronze-working a nd b alls o f b lue f r it w ere a lso f ound .

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2 6 .

S a ltersford

P reston ( 19 16, p p . 4 8-49) s uggested e name l-working h ere o n t he r ather m eagre g rounds o f w aste b ronze a nd a c hisel. 2 7 .

V ictor ia C ave

L ikew ise K ing ( 1971, p . 4 14) s eems t o s uggest t hat o bjects f ound h ere w ere e name lling t oo ls b ut i t s eems u n like ly t hat t he c raft w as c arr ied o n h ere . T here a re t herefore m any s ites w hich c an b e a t l east d iscussed a s m anufactuc ing s ites f or e name lwork . N one i s o utstanding b ut s everal p rovide r easonab le e v idence f or t he c raft h av ing b een c arr ied o n i n R oman a nd p ost-Roman t imes. O thers h ave b een p ut f orward a s s uch s ites b ut l ike N ornour t he e vidence d oes n ot s tand u p t o c lose s crutiny . S everal m ore s ites p rovide p ointers t owards t he p ossib ility o f s uch a ctivity . U nfortunate ly t he e vidence r equired i s o f an ature t hat c an o nly s uggest e name lling a s o ne o f t hree p ossible c rafts ( bronze a nd g lass b eing t he o ther t wo p roducts) a nd u n less r aw e name l o r b etter s till a n u nf inished e name lled o bject h as b een f ound and r ecogn ised w e m ust b e s at isf ied w ith m uch l ess t han B ibractian c onditions. O n m ost o f t he s ites m ent ioned e namelled o bjects h ave b een f ound, s ometimes i n l arge n umbers, a nd t hese i n c onjunction w ith o ther e vidence l end w eight t o t he h ypothesis o f m anufacture. U n less t here i s s ome i dea o f w hat w as b eing m ade b ronze-working s ites a s s uch h ave n ot b een i ncluded a nd l ikew ise t he p resence o f g lass-working, w hile i t w ould f acilitate e name lling, d oes n ot i n a ny w ay i mply t he l atter .

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C ONCLUSIONS

T he m ajor a spects o f t he R omano-Brit ish e namel-working i ndustry h ave n ow b een l ooked a t t o ag reater o r l esser d egree . T he p roducts h ave b een e xam ined i n s ome d epth a s w e ll a s t hose o bjects w hich w ere m anufactured i n t he p eriods b efore a nd a fter, a nd i ndeed f orm p art o f t he o ne s tory . T hen c ame t he t echniques o f a ctua lly m aking t he o bjects: t he v itreous s ubstance o r e name l i tse lf, t he b ase t o w hich i t w as a pp lied a nd f inally t he m ethods a nd w ays o f m aking t he t wo a dhere . A n a ttempt w as m ade t o l ist t hose s ites w here s uch a ctivity m ay h ave t aken p lace . T hese a nd o ther p o ints s oon t o b e c overed h elp b uild u p ac omposite p icture o f t he a ctivit ies o f t he R omano-British e name ller . W e a re n ow i n ab etter p osition t o d ef ine j ust w hat p roducts c ame o ut o f t he a ncient B r itish e name lling w orkshops. T he I ron A ge p rovides a v ar ied b ut n ot n umerous r ange o f m ater ia l a ssociated m ost ly , a s h as o ften b een p ointed o ut, w ith t he w eaponry a nd h orse o r c har iot f ittings o f c hieftains a nd w arr iors. S word a nd s cabbard m ounts, h e lmets, s hields a nd b e lt-plate s h ave b een f ound a long w ith t errets, b r idle-bits, c heck-pieces a nd a ssorted m ounts i n m uch g reater n umbers t han b rooches, m irrors o r s tuds w hich b ear e name l. T he c orpus i s g reat ly e nhanced b y t he e name lwork i ncluded i n t he s ix m ajor h oards a lready d iscussed. Y et i f l ess e laborate, t he e name ls o f t he R omano-Brit ish p er iod s how a g reat i ncrease i n n umbers a nd a q uite d ifferent r ange o f m ateria l b ear ing t he d ecoration . B rooches b ecome t he c hief m edium f or t he c raftsmen w ho a pp lied t heir a rt e qually t o b ow a nd p late b rooch . A mong t he f ormer t he h ead s tud ( group Q ), t he t rumpet ( group R II a nd I V a nd I Va), t he g roup M a nd t he g roup S t ypes p rovide t he m ajor ity o f e name lled s pecimens. Af ew d o lphin, k nee a nd t h ist le b rooches a re s im ilar ly t reated . T he d ragonesque g roup i s p robab ly a mong t he b est k nown o f t he p late b rooches b earing e name l b ut w hat h as b een t ermed t he d omed p late b rooch i s af requent f ind. L ikew ise t he o va l a nd m edallion b rooch p rovides a s ma ll c lass o f R omano-British e name lwork . T he t erm d isc b rooch h as b een r estr icted t o p lain f lat c ircular p late b rooches o f w hich t he e name lled e xamp les h ave b een d iv ided i nto s ub-types b ased o n t he d esign o f t he e name l c e lls. M any m ore o f t hese w ere p robably m ade i n B r itain t han h as h itherto b een a ccepted t hough i ndeed t he g roup h as b een p oor ly e xam ined i n t he p ast . L ikew ise s ome o rder h as b een g iven t o t he a nima l p late b rooches a nd a gain t here s eems l itt le r eason t o l ook a cross t he C hanne l s o r eadily f or t heir s ource. T here i s n o r eason w hy t he c ocks, h ares, d ogs, s andals a nd h orse a nd r ider b rooches s hould n ot h ave b een m anufactured a nd e name lled i n B ritain r ather t han G au l. L eaving a side t he b rooches, t he o ther m aterial p roves t o b e n umerous a s w ell a s c overing a n i nterest ing r ange o f s mall o bjects. B uttona ndloop f asteners a re p erhaps t he b est k nown t ype t o h ave e manated

10 8

f rom t he w orkshops i n B ritain a lthough o nly a f ew s ub-groups a ctually b ear e name l. I n a ddition t he e name lled p aterae a nd c ups i nclude t hat i nterest ing g roup o f W all s ouvenirs. N oteworthy t oo a re t he m iniature s too ls a nd b e lt-buck le p lates o f l ong n arrow r ectangu lar f orm. S tuds a nd m ounts c ome i n am ultitude o f s hapes a nd s izes, m any o f w hich m ay h ave b een m ade i n B ritain . T he s ame m ay b e t he c ase f or o ne o f t he l argest g roups o f n on-brooch e name lwork v iz, t he s eal b ox l ids. I t i s u n like ly t hat a ll t hese r epresent a ncient i mports . L ikew ise s ome f inger-rings a nd s uch e xotic p ieces a s t he T hames p laque m ay b e r egarded a s R omano-Br itish . T here i s ad ramatic d rop i n t he a mount o f e name lwork w hich h as s urvived f rom t he p ost-Roman p eriod . T his i ncludes a v ery s ma ll n umber o f b rooches, p ins a nd m iscellaneous o bjects s till d isp lay ing e name l d ecoration b ut t he b ulk i s f ound o n t he h anging b ow l m ounts, e specia lly t he e scutcheons. T hereafter t he a ncient e name ls f ound i n B r itain a re f ew a nd o f a d ifferent t echnique t hus s pe lling a n e nd t o a n i ndustry w hich p roduced aw ealth o f p roducts f or o ver s even h undred y ears. F rom a v isual e xam ination o f t his m ater ial, i n c onjunction w ith t he p ub lished a nalyses, w e a re n ow i n am uch b etter p osition o f k now ing h ow t he e name llers w ent a bout t heir b usiness. W e c an b reak l oose f rom b lithe ly t alking a bout ' champ leve e name l' a nd s ee t hat s uch a p hrase c overs t hree q uite s pecif ic a spects: t he a ctual e name l, t he b ase t o w h ich i t i s a pp lied a nd t he m ethod o f a pp lication. I n d iscussing t he l ast o f t hese a n ew s ystem f or d escribing e name lwork m ore f u lly a nd a ccurately h as b een p ut f orward. T he o paque r ed e name l o f t he I ron A ge i s n ow w ell k nown f o llow ing t he r ecent w ork o f H ughes. W e s till h ave t o r e ly o n t he n ineteenthc entury a nalyses f or a c omp lete b reak-down ( the b asic g lass i s o f t he a lkali-lead-silica t ype) b ut H ughes h as s hown t hat t he p resence o f l ead a cting o n t he c opper i n r educing c onditions r esults i n f eathery r ed c rystals o f c uprous o x ide w hich g ive t he e name l i ts b rilliant s ealing-wax r ed c o lour . T his r ed i s b y f ar t he m ost c ommon c olour o n I ron A ge o bjects, g enerally f ound a lone u nt il g radually i t i s a ccompan ied b y b lue a nd/or y e llow i n s pots o r s ma ll g eometric c ells. T he b lue i n s ome o r a ll o f t he s pots i s a g lass, l acking, i n t he c ase o f t he L akenheath t erret a t l east, l ead a nd o w ing i ts c o lour t o c obalt o r c opper b ut w here t he b lue i s at rue e name l w e a re a s y et i gnorant o f i ts m ake-up . T he s ame i s u nfortunate ly t rue o f t he y e llow . T he a mount o f i nformation a vailable o n R omano-Br itish e name ls h as b een r ecent ly g reat ly e xtended . N ot o n ly h as a m uch g reater a mount o f e name l b een s ubjected t o a nalysis b ut i t h as b een l ooked a t i n m ore d etail t han p reviously . T he b asic e name l w as f ound t o b e s im ilar t o n ormal R oman s odalime g lass b ut h as, l ike t he o paque r ed I ron A ge e name l, t he i nteresting a ddition o f l ead i n a ll c ases t hough t his v ar ies f rom l ess t han 1 p er c ent u p t o 3 5 p er c ent . T he m ost l ike ly e xp lanation f or t h is i s t hat t he l ead h elps r educe t he t ension a nd v iscosity o f t he e name l a nd t hus ' w ets' t he m etal a nd h e lps m ake t he b ond m ore e asy a nd s ecure . H owever i t i s u sually t he c olour ing m atter w hich a rouses p opu lar i nterest . " What c auses t he c o lour?" i s t he q uestion m ost f requent ly a sked. L ike t he I ron A ge, b righter r ed e name l o f t his p er iod c ont inues t o b e d ue t o c opper i n i ts r educed s tate a s c uprous o xide b ut c opper

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i n t he c olloida l s tate p roduces a d u ller r ed. G reen t oo i s c aused b y c opper b ut i n i ts o x idised s tate o f c upr ic o xide . A lthough c opper a lso c auses b lue i t w as f ound t hat t he d eeper b lues a nalysed a re t he r esu lt o f t he u se o f c obalt . Y e llow i s s eem ing ly c aused b y a ntimony i n t he f orm o f l ead a ntimonate w h ile c alcium a ntimonate p roduces w h ite. B lack a s w as e xpected c omes f rom i ron . O range a ppears t o b e e ither am ixture o f r ed a nd y e llow, w hich w ould e xp lain t he v ary ing s hades n oted b etween t hese t wo c o lours, o r e lse t he r esult o f c uprous o x ide w ith a d ifferent p article s ize f rom t hat i n t he r ed e name ls. I t i s s urpr ising t o f ind t hat b lue i s t he m ost c ommon c o lour t o s urvive f o llowed c lose ly b y r ed. A pp lied l ess f requent ly w ere y e llow a nd g reen a nd o n s ome f ew d ozen o ccasions o n ly, o range, b lack a nd w hite . T here p roves t o b e m uch v ariation i n s hade b oth w ithin o ne c o lour a nd b etween c lose n eighbours a s f or i nstance b lue, g reen a nd w hite . A gain i t n eeds t o b e s tated t hat m uch c are i s n ecessary i n d escr ib ing d ecayed e name ls. T he q uestion o f o pacifiers i s n ot a s s at isfactory a s o ne w ou ld w ish. T he c rystalline c uprous o xide o f t he r eds r enders t hem o paque a nd l ikew ise t he c alcium a ntimonate a nd l ead a ntimonate a ct a s b oth c o lourant a nd o pacifier i n t he w hite a nd y e llow e name ls r espect ively . T he m ost l ike ly o pacif ier f or e name l o f t his p eriod h owever r emains c alcium a ntimonate. V ar ious o ther e lements a re p resent i n t he e name ls t ested . W here a n e lement d oes n ot p erform a s pecif ic f unct ion i t i s u sua lly p resent i n s mall a mounts a nd m ay b e r egarded a s a n i mpur ity e .g. z inc. T he m ost l ike ly s ource o f t hese i mpur ities i s t he s and w hich c ontains m uch m ore t han t he d esired s i lica, b ut v arious e lements c ould a lso h ave b een i ntroduced b y t he u se o f c ullet o r f rom t he c rucib les o r e ven i nteraction w ith t he m etal b ase . I t i s a pparent t hat t he m ost u sual b ase i s ac opper a lloy . D espite s ome u se o f i ron o n t he C ontinent d uring t he I ron A ge t his m etal w as n ot a m edium e mp loyed b y t he e name llers o f B ritain. G o ld a ppears o n ly o nce a nd s ilver o n r are o ccasions, g enera lly i n t he p ost-Roman p eriod . W hat i s g enerally t ermed ' bronze ' i s, t hen, u n iversal a s t he b ase t o w hich t he e name l h as b een a pp lied. T y lecote h ad p revious ly n oted t he u se o f l ead i n c ast b ronzes a nd t he w idespread i ntroduction o f z inc i n t he R om ano-Br itish p er iod. M ore r ecent ly C raddock h as p ronounced s mall ' bronzes ' t o b e i n f act ' brasses ' b ecause o f t he z inc c ontent . B rass h owever i s s aid n ot t o b e t otally d esirab le f or e name lling s ince t oo g reat a n a mount o f z inc w ill b urn o ff t hus a ffecting t he c o lour . N ear ly a ll t he e name lled b rooches a nalysed p rove t o b e l eaded b ronzes q uite s uitab le f or c ast ing, t he e xpected m ethod. Z inc h owever i s a bsent f rom a n umber o f t he o bjects s ubjected t o a nalysis a nd o n t hese o ccasions t he t in c ontent i s g enerally h igh a t a bout 1 0 p er c ent . W here z inc i s p resent i t a verages 7 .5 p er c ent a nd r are ly e xceeds 1 0 p er c ent t hus g iving a n a lloy w hich i s b est t ermed g ilding m etal r ather t han b rass; n everthe less a n umber d o h ave o ver 1 0 p er c ent o f z inc; g ilding m etal i s i nteresting ly h igh ly r ecommended f or e name l-working b y m odern t ext b ooks . A nother e ffect o f t he z inc m ight h ave b een t o p roduce a m ore g o lden a ppearance i n t he f inished a rticle . T he m ain m etal b ase u sed f or e name lling i n t he R omano-British p er iod d oes n ot t herefore a ppear t o f o llow t he n ormal p attern f or s mall

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b ronzes a nd w hile d isp lay ing m uch v ariation s hows n o m ean k now ledge o n t he p art o f t he c raftsmen . T he n ext p rob lem f or t he e name ller w as t o m ake t hese t wo s eparate p arts, t he v itreous s ubstance a nd t he m etal b ase, c ome t ogether a nd a dhere . H eat i s b y d efinition t he i nstrument f or t his. T he h eat c ame e ither f rom a p roper o r m ake-shift f urnace o r w as p layed d irect ly o n t o t he o bject . Al arge p roportion o f t he I ron A ge r ed e name l i s i n t he f orm o f s tuds p robab ly s haped a nd s et i n p lace a fter h av ing b een s oftened a nd i n s ome c ases f urther h e ld b y a n a dhesive; b ut t he s uggestion b y H ughes t hat t he s imp le i n lays o f t he I ron A ge w ere a lso e mp laced w hile i n t he s oft s tate n eeds t o b e q uest ioned. H e b e lieved t hat t he d iff iculty o f p roducing r ed o nly i n r educing c ondit ions n ecessitated s uch a m ethod b ut t his i s p erhaps t o u nderestimate t he s kill o f t he e name llers. T here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat R omano-Br itish s imp le e name ls w ere i n laid e ither i n t he f orm o f p owder o r p aste . H owever t he s traight e dges c lear ly v isib le b etween t he d ifferent c olours o f t he c omp lex e name ls s hows t hat t hese -except w here t hey a ct a s ag round o r b ed were s et i n p osition i n t he f orm o f p laques o r s lices c ut f rom s mall r ods o r c anes o f e name l. T he m illefior i t oo h as b een a pp lied a s s lices t aken f rom r ods. T here i s ag reat v ariety o f m ethods o f p lacing t he e name l o n i ron A ge o bjects. T hese a re b est d escribed a s u p lay a nd i n lay . W ith t he f ormer, s tuds o f r ed e name l h ave b een s et, g enerally i n c ircu lar d epressions, w ith o r w ithout t he a id o f c entra l r ivets o r e lse i n h o llow s tuds o r f rames. O therw ise i t h as b een p laced i n c e lls g ouged o ut o f t he o bject 's u pper s urface i n w hat i s n ow c ommonly k nown a s t he c hamp leve t echnique. I n s pots, c urving c e lls a nd g eometr ic c e lls t here a re f rom o ne t o t hree c o lours. D espite t he g reat v ariety o f t he e name lwork o f t he R omano-Br itish e ra a ll o f i t i s s tr ict ly s peaking i n t he c hamp leve t echnique. Y et t his t erm i s p atent ly i nadequate t o d ea l w ith a s ing le c oloured p lain e name l o n t he o ne h and a nd a m illef iori e name l o n t he o ther . Ad etailed e xam ination o f t he l atter m aterial h as s hown t hat s uch d oes i ndeed c onst itute a n e name l. A n ew s ystem h as t herefore b een d evised t o d eal w ith t he e name ls b ased o n t he m anner i n w hich t he e name l h as b een p laced i n t he c e ll. T he b asic t ype h as b een t ermed a s imp le e name l w hereby o nly o ne c o lour o f e namel h as b een a pp lied t o ac e ll: t he o ne o bject c an h ave o ne, t wo o r t hree d ifferent c o lours a pp lied s imp ly . T here a re h owever o ther c ases w here t wo o r m ore c o loured e namels a ppear i n t he o ne c e ll w ithout a ny m etal d ivide . T hese a re n ow c alled c omp lex e name ls. C omp lex e name ls c an t ake t he f orm o f d ifferent c o loured p laques l aid s ide b y s ide o r e lse a g round o f o ne c o lour i nto w hich a re l aid s pots ( sometimes w ith a f urther r ing o r r ings) o f a nother c o lour . A s ub-group w ithin t he c omp lex v ariety i s f ound c onsisting o f as ulphur y e llow g round, t he s urface o f w hich i s l iberally s prink led w ith s ma ll i rregular p ieces o f b rown e name l. T he t hird m ajor g roup c onsists o f m illef iori e name ls . T hese a re o f t wo k inds: s traight m illef iori e name ls w hereby t he p laques o f m illef iori g lass h ave b een l aid d irect ly o n t o t he b ase o f t he c e ll a nd f ired a s a n e name l a nd f loating m illefior i e name ls i n w hich a b ed o f r ed ( very r are ly b lue ) -e name l h a —b eT t ir —j i ut d own f irst a nd o n t op o f t his h ave b een l aid t he m illef ior i s lices on h eating t he r ed e name l h as b ecome i n e ffect a n a dhesive f or t he m illef iori. G enerally s peaking o n t he R oman-age o bjects t he m illef iori c omp lete ly f ills t he c e ll a nd t he r ed b eneath i s n ot v isib le . I n t he p ost-Roman p er iod t he m illef ior i i s u sually

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c lear ly f loating i n a ' sea' o f r ed e name l. O ften i n t he p ast b orders o f r ed t o t he m illef iori s quare ( i .e. f orm ing p art o f t he p attern) h ave b een c onfused w ith b eds o f r ed e name l a nd c are n eeds t o b e t aken o ver t his. F inally t here i s p ossib ly a nother g roup w herein a l ayer o f b lue ( g lass o r e name l) b ut a lso o ccasionally b lack f loats a s at hin l ayer o n t op o f ab ed o f r ed e name l. T his b asic t echnique h as b een u sed w ith t he b lue g lass s pots o f t he I ron A ge a nd m ay h ave c ontinued i n u se i n t he R oman p eriod. T he b est e vidence f or t he m ethod i s t he b lack o n t he s ub-group 1 o f t he d isc b rooches w here m icroscop ic e xamination h as r evealed a t hin r ed l ine a round t he e dge. Y et i t c ould b e a rgued t hat t hough t his i s r ed c uprous e xide i t i s n ot i n f act ad eliberate ly l aid b ed b ut t he h igh ly d esired f ormation o f c uprous o xide a t t he i nterface b etween t he e name l a nd t he m etal ( Bateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p . 1 86). T here i s h owever n o c lear c ase o f t his a nd w ith b lue h aving b een u sed f ar m ore t han h as h itherto b een a ppreciated i t s eems s ensib le t o a ccept t he m ajor ity a s b e ing w ho lly b lue e name ls. T he i dea o f c ontinually s hap ing b lue g lass a nd u sing a r ed e name l a dhesive r ea lly s eems t o b e c reat ing a n u nnecessary d iff icu lty t hough i t w ould p erhaps b e u nw ise t o s ay s uch a m ethod w as n ot u sed i n s ome c ases a t l east . T he m ajority o f p ost-Roman e name ls a re s imp le o nes w ith a s mall p roportion o f f loating m illefior i. D espite t he e xistence o f g arnet c loisonne w ork c loisonne e name ls a re u nknown f rom t he p eriod c overed. T hese t ypes o f e name lwork a ll s urvive f rom R oman B ritain b ut i t i s n ecessary t o c onsider i f t hey w ere i n f act p roduced b y t he R omanoB r itish e name ller . S imp le e namels a re f ound i n a bundance o n s uch f amiliar R omano-Br itish o bjects a s t he g roup R a nd S b rooches, d ragonesque b rooches, b utton-andloop f asteners a nd t he m iniature s too ls. C o lours r ange f orm o ne t o t hree, r are ly m ore; m ost f requent ly t wo a s r ed a nd b lue. C omp lex e name ls o ccur l ess o ften o n B rit ish p roducts b ut w ere o bviously i n u se . T here a re s ome h ead s tud b rooches s o t reated a nd t he s ub-type e o f t he g roup M b rooches a s w e ll a s t he R IVa b rooches a re d ecorated i n t he c omp lex f ashion. T he o val a nd m eda llion p late b rooches, t hough f ew i n n umber, a re a n i mportant R omano-Brit ish t ype d isp laying t his t echnique . T hese l atter g roups b e long t o t he f irst v ariety o f c omp lex e name ls w ith d ifferent c o loured e name ls l aid s ide b y s ide a s p laques o r s quar ish s lices. F or e xamp les o f t he s econd v ar iety w ith a b asic g round o f o ne c o lour i nto w hich h ave b een i nserted s pots o f o ne o r m ore o ther c o lours w e h ave t o t urn t o t hose t ypes o f a nimal p late b rooch s uch a s t he d og, h are, r abbit a nd s andal o r t he s eal b ox l ids o r f ingerr ings a nd o ther ' m isce llaneous o bjects a nd b rooches. I t h as b een s uggested t hat m ore o f t hese h ave a B r itish o rigin t han i s n ormally a ccepted b ut i t m ust a lso b e s aid f or c omp lex e name ls t hat t he b est e xamp les o f t his t echnique a re t o b e s een o n o bjects o f C ontinenta l o rigin, p articular ly t he R hineland b rooches a nd e xports o f t hese f ound i n P annonia. I t m ay b e s aid t hat t he R omano-Br itish e name llers d id p roduce c omp lex e name ls b ut m ore o ften o f t he f irst v ar iety t hen t he s econd. S ignif icent ly t he b est e xamp les o f t he t echnique a re t o b e f ound o n t he C ont inent . T here i s t oo t he s ma ll g roup o f c omp lex e name ls c onsisting o f as u lphur y e llow g round w ith b rown f lecks a nd f or t hese i t i s p robab ly b est t o s eek a n o r igin o utside B ritain, p robab ly t he R hine land; t he o bjects a re t oo f ew a nd n ot

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s uff icient ly B r it ish t o s ay o therw ise . H owever p erhaps t he m ost i nteresting q uestion i s d id t he R omano-British e name l-workers p roduce m illef ior i e name ls? T here a re o ver o ne h undred o bjects b earing m illef iori e name l s urviving f rom R oman B ritain. T hese m ainly c onsist o f c ircular s tuds, m ounts, b e lt-buck le p lates, b rooches u sually o f d isc t ype o ften w ith u pstanding s tuds a nd l ugs o n t he e dge a nd a s mall n umber o f m iscellaneous p ieces s uch a s t he o ccasional s eal b ox l id i n a ddition t o a s mall n umber o f t he h anging-bow l e scutcheons. M ore o f t hese a re o bviously o f C ontinental o rigin ( e .g. t he d isc b rooches j ust n oted) t han B ritish t hough t he m ajor ity a re o f t ypes w hich c ould h ave ac ommon o rigin . Y et t here c an b e n o s uch d oubt w ith t he K ilpheder b rooch w hich i s t hus s trong e vidence f or t he m anufacture o f m illef ior i e name l i n B ritain i tself - a nd a s econd s uch b rooch h as r ecent ly c ome t o l ight, a gain i n S cot land. T hese t wo o bjects p rovide t he c ruc ial e vidence r equired . D ue t o t he m illef ior i h aving d isintegrated o n t he K ilpheder b rooch w e h ave t he b enef it o f s eeing t he r eal t echnique u sed, t hat i s t o s ay t he m illefior i h e ld i n p lace b y ah idden l ayer o f r ed e name l. W e h ave a lready c oncluded t hat s uch a m ethod w as u sed a nd i n v iew o f t he v ery s imilar w ay o f h o lding t he I ron A ge b lue g lass s pots i n p lace c ou ld b e t aken a s f urther e vidence o f ac ontinuation o f t he p loy i nto t he R omano-Br itish p eriod . I n a ddition e xamp les o f f loating m illef ior i a re r are f rom t he C ont inent t hough t here i s t he p iece i n t he V at ican M useum a s w e ll a s ab rooch f rom B e lgium ( Amand, 1 972, p late X II). F loating m illef ior i i s m ore c ommon o n t he h anging-bow l e scutcheons a nd i s m ore c rude ( or l ess p rof icient) t han t he R oman-age e xamp les. T here i s t oo i ncreasing e vidence t hat s ome o f t he h anging b ow ls w ere m ade i n B r itain ( e .g . t he C raig P hadr ic m ould f or a n e scutcheon). T here i s l itt le d oubt t hat t he r ectangu lar m ounts w ith a k nob o n t op, t he b e lt b uck le p lates o f g roups 2 a nd 3 a nd t he l ugged b rooches a re i mports i nto B r itain ( see S e llye, 1 939, p lates X VI, X IV a nd V r espective ly ). Y et w e s hould n ot o ver-estimate t he e xtent o f s uch i mports t o t he p rovince. C ertain o bjects a re c ommon t o b oth s uch a s t he l arge c ircular s tuds a nd i ndeed o ne m ight a rgue a re m ore c ommon i n B r itain; n ot m any c ome f rom G au l o r P annonia. T he p lain d isc b rooches ( sub-group 1 ) w ith o n ly o ne c e ll c omp lete ly f illed w ith m illef ior i c ou ld h ave b een m anufactured e qually i n B ritain o r G au l. I t s eems p ossib le t hat m any m ay h ave b een p roduced i n t he f ormer . A lso t here a re t he c ow-hide s haped m ounts f rom L eicester, E den H a ll a nd Y ork a nd c ertain s eal b ox l ids w ith m illef iori w hich a ppear t o b e a bsent o utside B r itain . I t t herefore s eems f easib le t o a rgue s trong ly f or t he m anufacture o f m illef ior i e name lwork i n B ritain. H owever i t s hou ld b e c lear t hat n ot t oo m uch i s b eing c laimed i n t his f or t he a mount p roduced m ust h ave b een v ery s ma ll a nd c onst itutes o nly a t iny p roportion o f R omano-Br itish e namelwork . A gain t he t echnique i s m ore c ommon o n t he C ont inent i n b oth B e lgium a nd t he R hine land. O ne m ight w onder i f f loat ing m illef ior i i s aB r itish a daptation o f t he s traight m illef ior i t echnique o f t he C ontinent b ut t here i s l itt le t o p ush t his b eyond s pecu lation a nd t o d o s o m ay b e a n i njustice t o t he s kill o f t he R omano-Br it ish e name l-worker . T his m ay b e a n a ppropr iate p oint t o c onsider w hether t he r aw m aterial

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( the v itreous s ubstance) w as m anufactured i n B r itain o r n ot. H ughes ( 1972, p p . 1 02-105) h as a rgued t hat t he I ron A ge r ed e name l w as m ade i n af ew c entres i n t he M editerranean a nd t hen e xported t o B ritain i n ' cakes ' o r s labs w here i t w as b roken u p a nd a pp lied t o t he o bjects b y t he e name llers. Y et t he o n ly ' c ake' f ound i n w estern E urope i s t he u nstratif ied, u ndated a nd a morphous s tray l ump f rom T ara. I t i s c ertainly n o c ake i n t he M editerranean a ncient g lass t radition ( Char leston, 1 963, p assim ). T he a bsence o f c akes m ay b e n oted f rom B ibracte a nd t he ' b ig c hunk ' o f p urp le g lass f rom M anching r emains a n o pen q uestion a s t o o rig in ( Kramer, 1 960, p . 1 67) 13 . T he v ariat ion i n i ngredients ( w ithin t he b asic f ormula) h as b een p ointed o ut b y H ughes a nd i n p articular t he F ayum t erret e name l i s q uite o ff t he n orm . T here i s n ot r eally e nough e vidence a vailab le t o b e s ure o f aM editerranean o rigin f or s uch m ater ia 1 14 . T his i s n ot t o s ay t he r ed e name l w as n ot m anufactured i n s pecialised c entres a s N ewton ( 1971) a s a rgued r e g lass b ut t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t hese s hou ld b e s ought o utside B ritain. T he u se o f c ullet h owever i s a n u nknown f actor a nd t he T raprain L aw b ang le m ade f rom t he g lass o f t he R oman p illar-moulded b ow l i s ag ood e xamp le o f i ts u se i n a r e lated c raft. C ertain ly I ron A ge B ritain c ould h ave p roduced t he b asic g lass a nd t he y e llow, b lue a nd w hite f ound o n g lass b eads a nd b ang les w ere p robab ly m anufactured h ere a s w e ll, e ven i f i n af ew c entres. T wo p oints a re n oteworthy i n t his r espect: t he p aucity o f r ed i n s uch a rt icles a nd t he u se a nd a vailability o f b lue a nd y e llow 15 . I t i s t hus q uite f easib le f or t he e name ls o f R oman B ritain t o h ave b een m ade i n t he p rovince . O n ly b lack i s an ew c olour a nd t h is i s r are ly f ound. T he g lassworks a t C aistor-by-Norw ich, W roxeter a nd W ilderspoo l s how t hat t he a bility w as p resent t hough t his d oes n ot n ecessar ily m ean t hat a c onnection w ith e name l-working e xists. A s r egards t he m illef iori g lass t here i s r ea lly n o e vidence t hat t his w as m ade i n B ritain a nd i t p robab ly d oes h ave a f ore ign o rigin. H owever t he a dvent o f g lass-b low ing i n t he f irst c entury d ealt a b low t o m illef ior i g lass v esse ls a nd o ne w onders a bout t he c ont inuity o f i ts m anufacture. I t m ay o f c ourse h ave d ropped t o a s mall s cale, e xported a s ar aw m aterial. L et u s n ow m ove o n t o a n a ttempt t o d ate t he v ar ious t echniques. I t s eems t hat r ed e name l w as i n u se b y t he e ar ly y ears o f t he s econd c entury B .C. T here i s t he s mall m odule o n t he T revone b rooch a nd t he s tuds o f t he M aiden C ast le b rooch. T hese h owever r epresent u se o n a s mall s cale a nd i t i s o nly i n t he f irst c entury t hat m ore o bjects a ppear w ith e name l s uch a s t he B ugthorpe d iscs, t he T hames h e lmet o r i nvo lute b rooches . I t i s p robab ly o n ly l ate i n t he f irst c entury B .C. a nd e ar ly i n t he f irst c entury A .D . t hat t here i s t he g reat u psurge i n e name lwork a nd p robab ly n ot u nt il t he l atter b efore b lue a nd r ed t ogether b egin t o a ppear . I t i s e xceedingly d iff icu lt t o d ate t hese o bjects e ither o bjective ly o r f rom e xpert o pinion. H owever w e s hould b eware o f at oo e asy e quating o f t echnical a dvance w ith c hrono logical p rogress. C ertainly s tuds o f e name l h e ld i n p lace b y r ivets s uch a s o n t he B ugthorpe m ounts a re e ar ly b ut t he i ncised r ivet h eads o n t he N orth o f E ng land h elmet a re o n a n o bject g enerally d ated t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D . a nd t he f ramework s tuds f rom H ertford H eath c ome f rom a b ur ial a ssigned t o a bout A .D . 4 0, t hough i n b oth c ases t he o bjects c ould b e e ar lier . T here i s t he r ecurring p rob lem o f d ist inguishing b etween t he d ates o f m anufacture a nd d eposition. F or t he r ise o f c hampleve o r s imp le e name l i n s pots o r l arger c e lls w e p robab ly d o n ot n eed t o g o

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v ery f ar b ack i nto t he f irst c entury B .C. a nd t he l arge n umber o f h oards s eeming ly d eposited i n t he p er iod A .D . 5 0-70 s how t hat r ed, b lue a nd y ellow i n s mall g eometric c e lls h ad b een i n u se f or s ome d ecades a t l east . I ron A ge t ypes p ersist, e specia lly i n t he n orth, w ell i nto t he s econd c entury A .D . T urning t o t he R omano-British o bjects t here i s l itt le d oubt t hat s ome o f t hese w ere b eing m ade i n t he l atter h a lf o f t he f irst c entury t hough m ainly t hose w ith s imp le e name ls w hich i nc lude r ed, b lue, y e llow a nd p ossib ly g reen. T here a re t he o bjects f rom t he L unt, t he g roup R b rooches f rom N ijmegen, t he d ragonesque b rooch i n r ed, b lue a nd y ellow f rom a F lavian l ayer i n C ar lisle, t he d omed p late b rooch r ecovered a t W roxeter w ith t wo c oins o f V espasian a nd t he m ount f rom I nchtuthill. T here i s a h ead s tud b rooch f rom L ondon a ssociated w ith a c o in o f N erva a nd e name lled i n ac omp lex f ashion. M ore i mportant p erhaps i s t he b rooch w ith m illef iori e namel, p robab ly a n i mport, f ound i n S aint A lbans w ith a c oin o f D om itian a nd F lav ian p ottery . I t i s h owever i n t he s econd c entury t hat t here i s ad ramatic r ise i n t he a mount o f e name lwork t hough t he n umber o f c lose ly d ated o bjects i s n ot s o g reat a s m any w ou ld m ake o ut -the ' second c entury ' a ppears a t t imes t o t ake o n t he g arb o f ' re ligious s ign if icance ' t oo r eadily . S imp le e name ls c ontinue t o b e m ade i n t he p opular c o lour s b ut w e c an b e m ore c ertain a bout t he u se o f w hite, b lack a nd o range . C omp lex e name ls o f b oth k inds a re n ow q uite c ommon . B lue a nd w hite p ieces a re f ound o n t he g roup R IVa b rooch f rom S ilchester d eposited n o l ater t han 1 20 a nd t here a re a lso t he s maller c omp lex p ieces o n t he s ub-group e o f t he M b rooches o f t his t ime . A n a nimal p late b rooch i n t he s hape o f ad og w ith a b lue g round a nd r ed s pots c omes f rom t he W albrook s treambed a s d oes a c asket h and le a lso b ear ing a c omp lex e name l. W hile t he m ajority o f e namels f rom T raprain L aw a re p robab ly o f t his p eriod t hey a ll c ontain o nly s imp le e name l. N ewstead h owever y ielded t he c omp lete r ange o f t echn iques o n av ariety o f o bjects t hough f ewer o f t hese a re l ikely t o b e o f B ritish m anufacture . M illefior i e name l i s f ound o n t wo d isc b rooches, t he f irst f rom t he W albrook s treambed a nd t he o ther f rom a l ayer d ated b efore 1 50 a t W roxeter . T he m illef iori c ow-hide s haped m ount f rom E den H all w as f ound w ith c oins d ated n o l ater t han 1 6 1. R oman B r itain w as t herefore f am iliar w ith, a nd p robab ly p roducing, a ll t he t echniques e xamined b y t he m idd le o f t he s econd c entury . A ll t oo o ften t hough w e a re l ed t o b e lieve t hat s uch a ctivity c eased s oon a fter 16 . Y et i n e xamining t he v ar ious o bjects i n t he e ar ly c hapters w e h ave s een t hat t here a re r easons f or b e lieving s ome o f t hese t o b e l ater . E ven a llow ing f or l oss s ometime a fter m anufacture i t i s h ard t o a ccept t hese a s ' survivals '. W e m ust t ry t oo, t o f orget t he w ide ly h e ld v iew t hat t he V illa D 'Anthee s upp lied m uch o f t he e name lwork f ound i n B ritain a nd t hat e name lwork b ecame s carce a fter t he v illa h ad b een d estroyed i n t he m idd le o f t he t hird c entury . T hird c entury f inds f rom B r itain a re l ess f requent b ut o ne c an c ite t he h are-shaped b rooch f rom t he J ewry W all s ite i n L eicester, t he d isc b rooch f rom a l ate t hird c entury l ayer a t M argidunu r l i o r t he e qually l ate l ayer a t R ichborough w hich y ie lded a m illef ior i d isc b rooch, a nd t he s ame s ite h as y ie lded a n o val a nd m edallion p late b rooch. W e h ave a lready s een t hat t his t ype o f b rooch i s l ate. F ourth-century f inds h ave b een m ade a t L owbury H ill a nd S ilchester f or s imilar b rooches a nd t here i s t he l ate d ate f or t he h orse a nd r ider b rooches t oo, e .g. t hose f rom H ockwo ld. O ne c annot b ut n otice t he c lose s im ilarity b etween t he h eads o f t he r iders a nd t he h eads o f t he

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m edallions s uggest ing c ontemporanity a nd a c ommon s ource . B rigstock h as p rovided a l ate m iniature s too l. T here a re t oo t he m illef ior i s tud , the b e lt-buck le p late a nd d isc b rooch a ll f rom f ourth-century c ontexts a t C hesterho lm, C aernarvon a nd C aerwent r espective ly . W hile s ome o f t he m aterial f rom H ockwold a nd C ampsf ie ld i s u ndoubted ly e ar lier, o ne w onders i f m ore i s n ot l ater, e specia lly t he d isc b rooches . I t h as b een a rgued ( Hogg, 1 95 1, p . 2 08) t hat t here w as a c hange i n b rooch s ty le i n B r itain a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury b ut t his s hould n ot b e e quated w ith t he e nd o f b rooch p roduction a nd C larke ( 195 1, p . 1 99) h as s uccessfu lly s hown t hat b ronze-working c ontinued b eyond t his t ime. I t s eems c lear t hat e name l-working d id s o a lso . W her t 2 a nd w hence d id t hese t echniques o r iginate, a re t hey i ndigenous i nvent ions o r i mports f rom a broad? T here s eems l itt le d oubt t hat t he i dea o f r ed e name l w as i ntroduced f rom t he C ontinent a bout 2 00 B .C. W hatever t he c onnection w ith c ora1 17 , ename l w as k nown l ong b efore t h is o n s uch o bjects a s t he B asse-Yutz f lagons a nd A mfreville h elmet a nd d uring t he t hird c entury o n as er ies o f t orcs f rom S outh G ermany a nd S w itzer land. S omewhere t hen i n w estern E urope l ies t he o rigin o f e ar ly B r itish e name ls. H owever t hese a re s poradic u ntil t he f lower ing o f t he ' Opus B r itannicum ' l ate i n t he f irst c entury B .C. T his h as o ften b een a ttr ibuted t o t he B e lgic i nvasions ( e .g. F ox, 1 958, p . 1 42) y et t he C ontinental b ackground d oes n ot s eem a ppropriate f or s uch a w ealth o f m ater ia l s ince t he m ain p roducts t here a re t he r ivets w ith i ncised h eads ( Deche lette, 1 927, p . 4 76, f igure 4 04) o r av ery s mall n umber o f s uch p ieces a s t he N anterre t erret ( Henry, 1 933, p . 7 5). S econd ly i t h appens t oo l ate t o c oincide w ith t he B e lgic i nvasions a nd t h ird ly o ne o f t he m ost p ro lific a reas o f t he c raft n orth o f t he T hames l ies i n C aesar 's ' Interior P ars' i nhabited b y n ative s tock a s o pposed t o B elgic p eop les ( Harding, 1 974, p . 2 24) a lthough t he B e lgae m ay h ave h ad a g reater s ay i n t he p roduction c entred o n t he S evern . P robab ly a lso a n i ndigenous i dea i s, t he s ubstitution o f r ed a lone w ith a c ombinat ion o f r ed, b lue a nd y ellow . N ot o nly i s p rogression f rom r ed, t o r ed p lus y e llow a nd b lue s pots t o f inally g eometr ic c ells o f t hese t hree c olours d iscernib le i n B r itain b ut s imp le e name ls i n m ore t han o ne c o lour a re r are o n t he C ontinent, e .g . o n t he B uisonnet t erret ( Henry, 1 933, p . 1 06). L eeds ( 1933, p . 1 03) t hought t hese c o loured e name ls o wed t heir o rigin t o R oman b rooches b ut w e h ave s een t he t echnique f irm ly e stab lished b efore A .D . 6 0 a t w hich t ime t he i mported R oman b rooches w ere a lmost w ho lly u nename lled. O ne m ight a lso p oint t o t he b lue a nd y e llow u sed o n B ritish g lass b eads a nd b ang les a nd s uggest i t i s b ut a s hort s tep t o a pp lying t hese c o lours t o e name lwork. T he m ore i mmediate i mpact o f t he R oman i nvasion i s t o b e s een i n t he o bjects p roduced a nd t heir s ty le r ather t han t echnique . T he g eometr ic s ty le o f c e ll o n b rooches r ep laces t he c urving c e lls o f t he t errets a nd o ther p araphernalia o f t he c hieftain. S tanw ick h owever r em inds u s t hat t his w as n ot a q uick p rocess a nd s uch o bjects c ontinued t o b e m ade i n t he n orth w e ll i nto t he s econd c entury a s t he M idd lebie h oard s hows. I mports o f e name lwork a re r eally w hat o ne w ants t o s ee w hen t a lking a bout i nf luences y et i t m ust b e e mphasised t hat t hese d o n ot a ppear t o o ccur i n s uff icient n umbers f or s ome t ime . W e c an c ertain ly p oint t o s ome i mported f irst c entury e name ls: t he p air o f d agger s heaths f rom H od H ill, t he l ugged d isc b rooch f rom F ishbourne ( pre-75 d eposit), t he d isc b rooch w ith s tud a nd m illef ior i f rom R ichborough, t he m id-f irst

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c entury s eal b ox l id f rom S aint A lbans a nd a nother f rom a F lavian c ontext a t N ott ingham, b ut t here a re f ew o thers. Y et t here a re o ver s ixty f inds o f d isc b rooches w ith v ar ious l ugs e tc., w hich f or t he m ajority b etray a f oreign o r igin . I n a ddition t here a re n umerous l ozenge-shaped b rooches o f o ne s ort o r a nother a nd o ver o ne h undred p late b rooches o f m isce llaneous n on-British s hapes -Nornour p rovides s ome e xce llent e xamp les. H ere w e c an p oint t o p ossib le p rototypes y et t he m ajor ity, l ike o ur o wn R omano-Br itish b rooches, d ate t o t he s econd c entury . H owever i t i s l ike ly f rom s uch o bjects a s t hese t hat t he R omano-British e name ller l earnt a bout c omplex a nd m illef ior i e name ls a nd a dded t hese t echniques t o h is r epertoire . H ere t oo b lack, w hite a nd o range e name ls w ere s een a nd c opied. A lso i n t his c entury t he r epertoire o f t ypes w as e xtended a fter s eeing s uch R oman o bjects a s s eal b ox l ids, m ounts, b e lt-buck le p lates a nd p aterae. T he n ew m arket o f s oldiers a nd t he p rosper ity e ngendered b y t he i nvasion w ere n o d oubt r esponsib le f or t he m uch g reater o utput o f t he e name l-working i ndustry w hich m ight n ow b e s o-ca lled r ather t han a c raft . Y et i f t he B ritish e name llers g ained m uch f rom o utside i nf luences i t i s p erhaps n ecessary t o n ote t hat o bjects a nd p ossib ly i deas w ere n ot a ll o ne w ay . B r itish a nd R omano-Br itish e name lled p roducts d id r each t he C ont inent . I n t he I ron A ge o ne c an p oint t o t he L eg P iekarsk i b ow l, t he N ijmegen m irror a nd t he F ayum a nd E auze t errets. L ater a s W ild, F eacham a nd H ull h ave s hown b utton-andloop f asteners, d ragonesque b rooches a nd t rumpet b rooches w ere c arried a broad . W e h ave n oted t he A m iens p atera a nd t he f ragment f rom S pain n ow i n t he V ictoria a nd A lbert M useum . T here a re t oo t he t rumpet b rooches f ound i n G ermany ( Co llingwood, 1 930b, p . 5 0) 18 . A d o lphin b rooch ( Lambay I s land) a nd a g roup M b rooch ( near B antry ) r eached I re land . H owever t he p art p layed b y s oldiers b eing t ransferred t o o ther p arts o f t he E mpire o r i ndeed B r itish c onscr ip ts o r v o lunteers s erving o verseas c ould a ccount f or m any o f t hese f inds a nd e name lwork c an h ardly b e c laimed a s h aving b een a s ignificant e xport. N ow i s p erhaps t he t ime t o t ry a nd d ef ine w hich a reas o f B ritain w ere p roducing e name lwork . I t i s n ot r eally u ntil t he f irst c entury A .D . t hat w e h ave e nough o bjects t o t ry t o d etermine w here t hey w ere m ade . T o a l arge e xtent t he m ain a reas w here t he f inds h ave b een r etr ieved p oint t o a reas o f m anufacture b ut t his o bviously i s g eneralised a nd c are m ust b e t aken w ith t he i nternal t rade i n s uch o bjects. W e h ave a lready e xam ined t he p ossib le s ites o f m anufacture. N ornour h as b een d iscarded a nd n o s ite o f t he s tature o f B ibracte i s k nown f or t he I ron A ge o r R oman p er iod i n B r itain. Y et i t i s f air ly c ertain t hat t his a ctivity t ook p lace o n ad ozen s ites s uch a s T raprain L aw, C o lchester, W ilderspoo l a nd C harterhouse . I ron A ge o bjects, p articular ly t he h oards, s how t hat m uch e name lling t ook p lace i n t he s outh-east p robab ly c entred i n N orfo lk a nd S uffo lk o n t he I ceni b ut e xtending s outh t o t he T hames a nd i ts e stuary . A s econd a rea c an b e l ocated i n t he s outh-west c overing n orth S omerset a nd G loucestershire a nd S outh W ales a cross t he S evern e stuary . T his m ight b e o ne a rea o r t wo a nd B e lgic i nf luence m ay b e s trong i n t he f ormer . F inally w e h ave t he n orth -rea lly a d iff icult a rea t o d ef ine b ut i nc luding n orthern E ng land a nd S cot land. T he f irst t wo w ere p roducing s imp le e name ls i n r ed, b lue a nd y e llow b ut t o j udge b y S tanw ick t he n orth w as a t t his t ime s omewhat r etarded t hough i t c ontinued l ater i n al ess

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r estricted a tmosphere. T he g roup M b rooches a nd t he g roup R IVa ( c lose ly r e lated t o s ubt ype e o f g roup M ) s how t hat t he s outh-west c ont inued m aking e name lwork i n t he R oman p er iod i nto t he s econd c entury a nd, a lthough t he t echniques h ere i ncluded c omp lex e name ls, t he w ork i s a t a g enerally p oor l eve l w ith s ma ll p lain c e lls m any o f w hich h ave l ost t he ir e name l. C harterhouse m ay h ave b een a p roduct ion c entre a nd i t w ould a ppear t hat t he c raft d ied o ut i n t he s econd c entury . T he l ead m ode l o f ap enannu lar b rooch f rom D inas P owys h ard ly p roves s urvival a nd m ay s how l ater I r ish c onnections. T he s outh-east, d esp ite t he u pheava l o f t he B oudiccan r evo lt, s eems t o h ave f lour ished or r egained m omentum -in t he s econd c entury a nd t hroughout t he t hird a nd f ourth. T he r ange o f o bjects i s e xtensive : o ne s uspects t he m anufacture h ere o f s ome a t l east o f t he d isc a nd a nima l p late b rooches, t he d omed p late b rooches, m ounts, v esse ls, m iniature s too ls a nd o val a nd m edallion p late b rooches. T he l atter t wo a long w ith t he h orse a nd r ider b rooches s how l ate p roduction. T echniques c ertainly i nclude s imp le a nd c omp lex e name ls a nd p robab ly m illef ior i a s w e ll. W hile r ed a nd b lue a re f requent h ere o ne f inds t he w ider r ange o f c o lours i ntroduced b y t he R omans. N o s ites a re a las k nown i n I cenian t err itory b ut t he g lassworks a t C aistor-by-Norw ich m ay h ave s ome s ign if icance. I n t he n orth e name lwork h as s udden ly a dvanced f rom t he r ather s imp le r ed o f S tanw ick i n t he f irst c entury t o t he b rooches a nd o ther o bjects o f t he s econd . I s t his d ue t o m ovement f rom t he s outh-west ( where e name lling c ertain ly d ec lines) o r t he s outh-east ( whence a n I cenian m ight h ave b een g lad t o e scape t he h eavy h and o f R ome ) o r i s i t m ere ly c opy ing o bjects u sed a t R oman f orts? I n a ny e vent R , Sa nd Q b rooches, b utton-and-loop f asteners, a rm lets a nd b elt m ounts m ake t heir a ppearance . C omp lex e name ls a ppear o n ly i n t he h ead s tud b rooches a nd t here i s t he m illef ior i o n t he g roup S b rooch f rom K ilpheder . L eeds h as p o inted o ut t he l ove o f r ed a nd y e llow i n t he n orth a s s een o n t he t erm inals o f t he m assive a rm lets o r t he Y ork b elt-p late b ut t here i s a lso b lue a s o n t he u nf inished m ount f rom T raprain . T raprain L aw i s a n o bvious m anufacturing s ite a nd t here m ay b e o thers . I t i s d iff icult t o k now h ow l ate t h is a rea m ade e namel o r r ather t o p oint t o o bjects s uch a s t he C hesterho lm m illef ior i s tud -which b ridge t he g ap w ith t he p ost-Roman o bjects w hich s eem t o h ave b een m ade i n S cot land s uch a s t he P ictish p ieces o r s ome o f t he e scutchesons f or w hich C raig P hadric p rov ides e v idence . H owever w e m ust b e c areful i n o ur d esire t o c reate s choo ls a nd a reas n ot t o o ver-simp lify m atters. W ilderspoo l d oes n ot r eadily f it i nto t hese t hree a reas a nd a nother N ornour c ou ld u nexpectedly d isturb t he p atterns. A nother a spect w hich w e m ight d eal b rief ly w ith i s t he s et-up o f t he i ndustry t hough t his i s m isty g round . W as t he R omano-Br it ish e name ller e stab lished o n a n i ndustria l b asis s uch a s a t B ibracte o r w as h e w orking a lone o n am uch s ma ller s ca le? 19 . W ilderspoo l w as a n i ndustr ial s et -u p b ut M ay w as p erhaps o ver e nthusiast ic i n a scr ibing t oo m uch t o t he e namel-working s ide o f t he m anufactor ies t here . Y et t he l arge n umber o f h ead s tud, g roup R a nd S b rooches o r t he v esse ls s uggest i ndustr ialisation o n s ome s cale. T he ' W a ll s ouvenirs ' a re h ard ly t he p roducts o f p ersona l e nterpr ise . O n t he

18

o ther h and t he T raprain L aw w orkshop p robab ly n ever f unctioned o n al arge s cale a nd t he e name l o n t he g roup M b rooches d oes n ot s uggest a nything o ther t han w ork a t al ow l eve l. I ndeed m ost o f t he s ites l isted a s p ossib le m anufactories s eem t o i mp ly w orkshops o f l im ited s cope . W hile n o c raftsmen o f t he c alibre o f s ome o f t he e name llers o f t he I ron A ge s eem t o h ave s urvived, t he e xper iments h ave s hown t hat t he e namelwork o f t he R oman p eriod i s n ot t o b e d esp ised. W hat a lso n eeds c onsideration i s w hether t he e name ller w as s o le ly s uch o r w hether h e w as a b ronze-worker w ho a lso a pp lied e name l d ecorat ion t o h is p roducts o r p erhaps a g lass-worker w ho t urned h is c raft t o t he d ecoration o f b ronzes. W e h ave s een t hat t he m ajor ity o f t he c e lls o f t he R oman p er iod a re c ast a s p art o f t he o bjecL, n ot g ouged s eparate ly a s i n t he I ron A ge. T his c ould m ean e ither t he b ronze-worker m ade t he o bjects t o o rder o r c omp leted t he e name lling h imse lf . E qually i t i s f easib le f or a s mall s cale g lass-worker t o b e a n e name ller t oo, f or t he m ater ials a re v ery s im ilar . W e h ave s een t here i s s ophisticat ion i nvo lved i n t he p roduct ion o f b oth t he m etal b ase a nd t he a ctual e name l b ut w e s hould n ever u nderest imate t he c raftsmen a nd t he u se o f c ullet o r s crap, s o a b ly p roved t o h ave b een u sed a t T raprain L aw, i s a n u nknown f actor i n t he e quation. I L i s w orth n oting t hat t he l ead m odel o f ab rooch a t W ilderspoo l s hows b ronze-working s ide b y s ide w ith g lass-work ing a nd e namelling. L ikew ise i n o ne o f t he a reas m ost p ro lif ic i n e name lwork w e f ind t he C aistor-byN orw ich g lassworks. T raprain L aw t oo s hows s igns o f m etallurgy a s w e ll a s g lass a nd e name l-making. O n t he w ho le t he c raft w as p robab ly c arr ied o ut o n as mall s cale b y w orkers s killed i n o r i n c lose c ontact w ith g lass a nd m etal m anufacture. H owever W ilderspoo l o r i ndeed t he s ize o f p roduction a nd s pread o f s ome o f t he g roups o f f inds w arns a gainst t his b eing t he w ho le p icture. W e h ave s een t here w as a d ramatic c hange o f m arket f rom I ron A ge c hieftains w anting s mall n umbers o f s pecia lised o bjects t o am uch l arger m arket d om inated f or a l ong p er iod b y t he g arr isons. H owever a n i nteresting f eature i s t he r e ligious s ide o f f ind-sites. I t n ow s eems t hat N ornour i s s uch a nd i n a ddit ion o ne c an p oint t o W oodeaton, B r igstock, H ookwo ld a nd F ar ley H eath w here n umerous e name lled o bjects a re a ssociated w ith r eligious s ites. I t i s p erhaps n ow t ime t o s ee i f w e c an c onstruct t he s tory o f e namel-working i n R oman B r itain. T his i s as tory w hich h ad i ts o r igins o ver t wo h undred y ears b efore t he i nvasion o f C laudius; t hese e ar ly a nd i nfrequent r ed e name ls d eve loped i nto a f lour ishing c raft f or w h ich I ron A ge B ritain w as w e ll k nown a nd h ad r eached i ts z enith b efore t he R omans a rr ived f or t heir p ermanent s tay . T he r ed e name l w as a pp lied i n ag reat a nd i ngen ious v ar iety o f u p lay m ethods b ut c hamp leve , o r p referably s imp le i n lay e name l, c ame t o h o ld s way . I t w as a pp lied t o h arness p ieces a nd w eaponry, a t f irst i n r ed, t hen w ith b lue a nd y e llow, a t f irst i n t he w ild w hir ls o f t he C elt ic s ty le, t hen i n m ore s ober s quares a nd t riangles. T he p art p layed b y t he B a lgae i n t his s eems l ess t han h as h itherto b een c onsidered. B y t he m idd le o f t he f irst c entury t hree a reas s eem t o b e p roducing t he b ulk o f t he m ater ial: t he S o uth-east a nd S outh-west ( both a s d ef ined) a nd t he N orth . T he i mmed iate i mpact o f t he i nvasion w as t o a ffect t he m arket o r p atronage o f t he c hieftains a nd t he ir w arriors f or s uch o bjects b ut t his w as r ep laced b y t he m uch l arger m arket o f t he a rmy, d emanding h owever a d ifferent

19

s ort o f o bject 1 20 . T he i dea t hat i n t he f irst c entury B r itain w as f looded b y m u lti-co loured R oman e namels w hich g reat ly i nf luenced l rs d t he n at ive e namele oes n ot h o ld g ood. M any o f t he R omano-Br itish t ypes w ere b e ing m ade i n t he f irst c entury s uch a s t he h ead s tud b rooches, g roup R a nd d ragonesque b rooches. B y t he s econd c entury g roup S a nd M b rooches, d isc b rooches, a nima l p late b rooches, v esse ls, b utton-and-loop f asteners, s eal b ox l ids a nd a w ho le r ange o f o ther a rticles w ere b eing m anufactured . H owever n ot o n ly d id t he R omans a ffect t he t ype a nd n umber o f o bjects p roduced b ut t hey i ntroduced a g reater r ange o f c o lours ( not w idely u sed t hough) a nd t he m ore s ophist icated t echniques o f c omp lex a nd m illefiori e name lling i nto B r itain . T hese h owever n ever a ttained t he p roportion o f o utput t hat s imp le e name ls p ossessed a nd r emained l ess p opular t hen o n t he C ontinent . T hese t hree t echniques o f s imp le, c omp lex a nd m illef ior i e name ls a dequately c over t he m ethods f ound a nd p rovide a b etter s cheme f or p roper ly d escr ibing R omano-Br it ish e name ls t han m ere ' champ leve '. W e h ave s een t hat t he e name l o r v itreous s ubstance i tse lf i s s imilar t o b asic c ontemporary g lass b ut h as t he a ddition o f l ead; b lue w hich i s f ound o n m ore o bjects t han a ny o ther s hade i s e xtensive ly c o loured b y c oba lt, a ntimony p lays a l arge p art i n o pacity . T he m eta l i s a lmost a lways a c opper a lloy b ut i s d ivided b etween a l eaded b ronze a nd a g ilding m eta l w hich h as z inc, u n like n on-ename lled b ronzes w hich r ecent s tudies h ave s hown t o b e m ain ly ' brasses '. T he s o-called u se o f ' key ing ' i n t he f orm o f c ross-hatching i s s urpr isingly a lmost n on-existant b ut i n f act i s u nnecessary i n t he m ajority o f s mall c e lls; h owever s everal o bjects d o d isp lay t oothed o r s errated c e ll e dges f or t his p urpose. A reas o f p roduction i n t he s econd c entury c ontinue a s b efore b ut t hen t he s outh-west s eems t o f ade f rom t he p icture. T he n orth e xtended i ts r epertoire g reat ly i n t he l ate f irst c entury a nd t his m ay h ave b een d ue t o m ovement f rom t he l atter a rea o r t he s outh-east w hich h ad a s trong t radition o f e name l-working. Q uite a l arge n umber o f s ites c an b e e armarked a s p ossib le p laces o f m anufacture e .g . T raprain L aw . I t h as b een s hown t hat e name lling d id n ot c ome t o ah a lt i n t he t hird c entury b ut s eems t o h ave c ontinued r ight u p t o t he e nd o f R oman B r itain a s e xemp lif ied b y t he o va l a nd m eda llion p late b rooches. T his p rovides t he m issing l ink w ith p ost-Roman e name lling b ut t he p roducts o f t he l atter a re i n f act m uch f ewer i n n umber t han i s o ften i mp lied a nd s how m uch l ess v ar iety i n t echnique . T hey i ndeed p rovide t he t ail e nd o f o ur s tory u p t o a bout A .D . 7 00 a nd d o n ot r epresent ap hoenix-like r ising o f C eltic t radit ions.

1 20

N OTES

1 .

F or e xamp le " from s ection Q c ame a f ragment o f a n a rm let ( f ig. 1 3, n o . 1 7) r ichly d ecorated a nd c omp lete ly c overed w ith e name l e xcept o n t he u nder s ide" ( Cree, 1 923, p . 2 0 1).

2 .

T he c omposit ion o f n ie llo i s s aid t o v ary c onsiderab ly b ut " was n ormally p repared b y f using s u lphur w ith s ilver a nd c opper, d lthough l ead a nd a ntimony m ight a lso b e a dded" ( Hodges, 1 964, p . 7 9). N ie llo c an o ccasionally b e m istaken f or e name l e specially w hen i t i s i n ad ecayed s tate .

3 .

l T here s eems l itt le p oint i n l ist ing a nd i lustrating e very e namelled b rooch s ince t hese a ll f orm p art o f t he l ate M .R . f orthcom ing c orpus o f b rooches f rom R oman B ritain.

4 .

H ull's

T he s earch f or m aterial w as d irected t wo w ays, t owards t he m useums o n t he o ne h and a nd t he p ub lished s ources o n t he o ther . A part f rom p ersonal k now ledge a nd t he a dvice o f m y s upervisor, t he t wo m ajor l ists o f B ritish m useums w ere c onsulted t o s ee w hat m useums e xist a nd w hat t ypes o f c o llections t hey h ouse . T hese w ere T he M useums C alendar ( inc luding a D irectory o f M useums a nd A rt G a lleries o f t he B ritish I s les) p ub lished b y t he M useums A ssociation ( London, 1 972 e dit ion) a nd M useums & A rt G alleries i n G reat B r itain a nd I re land 1 972/73 ( ABC T rave l G uide, L ondd r i ). T here f o llows a n a lphabetical l ist, b y l ocation, o f t he m useums v isited a nd w here a ll r e levant e namelled o bjects w ere e xam ined p ersonally : A lnw ick, A lnw ick C ast le; B ath, T he R oman B aths a nd M useum; B r isto l, t he C ity M useum; C aer leon, T he L egionary M useum; C ambridge, T he F itzw illiam M useum a nd T he U niversity M useum o f A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy; C anterbury, T he R oya l M useum; C ardiff , T he N ationa l M useum o f W ales; C ar lisle, T he M useum a nd A rt G allery, T ullie H ouse; C hester, T he G rosvenor M useum; C hesters, R oman F ort a nd M useum; C irencester, C or inium R oman M useum; C olchester, T he C o lchester a nd E ssex M useum, T he C ast le; C orbridge, C orstopitum R oman S ite a nd M useum; E dinburgh, T he N ational M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land; L eicester, T he J ewry W all M useum; L ondon, T he B r itish M useum ( Departments o f P rehistor ic a nd R omano-Br itish A ntiquit ies a nd M edieval a nd L ater A ntiquities), T he G uildhall a nd L ondon M useums n ow a ma lgamated t o f orm T he M useum o f L ondon ,and T he V ictor ia a nd A lbert M useum; N ewcast le-Upon-Tyne, T he U niversity, M useum o f A ntiquit ies; N ewport ( Mon.) ,M useum a nd A rt G allery; N orw ich, T he C ast le M useum; N ott ingham, C ity A rt G allery a nd M useum , T he C ast le; O xford, T he A shmo lean M useum; R eading, T he M useum a nd A rt G allery; R ichborough, R ichborough C ast le; S aint A lbans, V erulam ium M useum a nd H ypocaust; T amworth, T he C ast le M useum; T aunton, S omerset C ounty M useum; W inchester, T he C ity M useum; Y ork, T he Y orkshire M useum . T he h e lp r eceived a t t hese m useums i s g ratefu lly a cknow ledged . F or a n umber o f o ther m useums t ime o r c ircumstances p erm itted o n ly a n e xam ination o f t he m ater ial o n d isp lay .

1 2 1

5 .

T he s earch o f p ub lished s ources c oncentrated o n t he j ournals a nd p roduced a w ealth o f m ater ial. T here f o llows a l ist o f t hose j ournals w hich w ere s ystematica lly c hecked f rom t he ir f irst i ssue t hrough t o t hat f or 1 980 w here t his w as a vailab le a t t he t ime o f w r iting: A ntiq uar ies J ournal, A rchaeo logia, A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, B ritannia, M edieval A rchaeo logy, P roceedings S ociety A nt iquar ies S cot land, A ntiq uity, P roceedings P rehistoric S ociety .

6 .

T here i s n ot m uch t o b e s aid o n t he l iterary a spects o f e name l-working. W hile n o s earch w as m ade o f t he c lassica l w r iters i t s eems r easonab le t o c onclude f rom w hat h as b een w r itten o n t he s ubject i n m odern t imes t hat s uch a s earch w ou ld p rove f ruit less. T his n ote t herefore c oncentrates o n t he w e ll k nown a nd f requent ly q uoted s tatement o f P hilostratus. L itt le i s u sually s aid b eyond g iving t he r eference a nd t he a uthor 's b irthp lace . U se h as b een m ade h ere o f t he L oeb C lassical L ibrary e dition o f P hilostratus I magines w ith a n E ng lish t ranslation b y A rthur F airbanks ( London, 1 960, H eineman). T he P hilostratus i n q uest ion i s c ommon ly k nown a s ' Philostratus t he E lder ' w ho p robab ly w rote t he I magines e ar ly i n t he t hird c entury A .D . T hese I magines a re t o b e d ist inguished f rom t hose w ritten a bout A .D . 3 00 b y h is g randson ' Philostratus t he Y ounger '. T he f ormer d escr ibe a s er ies o f p aintings t hough h ow r eal t hese a re i s u nknown . T he p articular p assage o f i nterest i s t o b e f ound i n B ook I . n umber 2 8 e ntit led ' H unters' a nd m ay b e t ranslated a s f ollows : ' They s ay t hat t he B arbar ians b y O ceanus p our ( these p igments) o nto r ed h ot b ronze a nd t he c o lours j oin t ogether a nd h arden a nd p reserve w hat h as b een p ainted '. T here i s n ot a g reat d eal t hat c an b e s aid o n t his. I t s eems r easonab le t hat ' Oceanus ' r efers t o t he A t lant ic. H enry ( 1933, p . 6 6) h ad n o d oubt t hat t he B arbarians w ere w estern a nd n ot e astern , t hat i t w as t he A t lantic O cean a nd n ot t he B lack S ea. T he B arbar ians a re l ike ly t o b e t he C e lts o f B r itain a nd/or G aul. P hilostratus a ppears t o h ave r ea lised t hat e name lling w as a n ative t hing a nd n ot p ure ly R oman . I t i s i nteresting t herefore t hat i t s hould a ppear i n ap ure ly R oman c ontext f ar r emoved f rom t he c entre o f p roduction o r i f s o le ly o n i maginary p aintings i n t he p oet 's m ind t hat h e k new o f i ts e xistence . T he u se o f e name l o n b ronze a ccords w ith w hat i s k nown o f t he e name lled o bjects a nd t he u se o f t he w ord p robab ly d oes n ot h ave a ny s ign if icance.

7 .

U npub lished d octoral

t hesis.

8 .

P rofessor J ope h as l et m e s ee a c opy o f w hat H ull e name l: i t i s s hort a nd o f l itt le h e lp .

9 .

O ne e xample o f t his i s t he t erret f ound a t L esser G arth, G lamorganshire ( Savory, 1 966, p p . 2 8-33).

1 0 .

B ritish M useum r eg. n o . 1 909 .5-3.1; f or a l ist o f t ype 2 t errets. 1 22

h as t o s ay o n

s ee M oore ( 1973, p . 1 58)

1.

T h is i s g enera lly k nown a s t he ' Suffo lk T erret ' ( Leeds, 1 933, . 2 1) h as p ointed o ut t hat p robab ly i t P . 4 0 ) b ut P iggott ( 1952, P i s t o b e i dent if ied w ith t hat l isted f rom L akenheath ( C larke, 1 939, p . 7 0 ). T he p iece i s i n t he A shmo lean M useum, r eg. n o . 1 927.46 15 .

1 2 .

S ee M axwe ll ( 1886, p p . 3 96-398, p late V III, n o . 2 ) -Nat iona l M useum o f A nt iquit ies o f S cot land, r eg . n o. F A 4 0 .

1 3.

S uch a s t hat f rom C awston ( C larke, 1 939, p . 7 0 a nd f ig . 1 2, n o . 3 ). T he p ub lished d raw ing o f t his o bject s hows i t w ith t he m issing e name l p art ly r estored a nd w ith a s ma ll h o le i n t he c entre o f t he m idd le c ircu lar ( spot) c e ll g iv ing t he i mpression o f ar ivet h o le t hough s uch i s u n like ly .

1 4 .

T he e xamp le f rom C o lchester ( Co lchester a nd E ssex M useum ) w ith t he r ed e name l r estored u nder t he l ips s eems t o b e a n i ncorrect r estoration r ather t han a n e xcept ion. T he o bject w as f ound i n C auston R oad i n t hree p ieces a nd m ay r epresent t wo t errets r ather t han o ne .

1 5 .

C ur ie a nd C ree ( 1922, p . 2 58, f ig . 2 4).

1 6.

B r itish M useum r eg . n o . 8 0 .1214 .11.

1 7.

S ee C ur ie ( 1932 , p . 3 65, f ig . 4 9).

1 8 .

B railsford ( 1975, p . 2 30) s uggests c ora l o r g lass a nd m ere ly l ists t he t wo p ieces a s ' do lphin-shaped o bjects ' b ut q uotes F ox ( 1958, p . 2 30) w ho d escr ibes t hem a s o rnamenta l h arness m ounts. S im ilar s ett ings o ccur o n t he t race h ooks f rom P o lden H ill a nd t he s urv iv ing s tuds o n t hese a re n ot e name l b ut m ay b e c ora l ( Brailsford, 1 975, p . 2 30, p l. X XIIIb ). B railsford ( 1975, p . 2 30 ) i ndeed r efers t o t he n ormal c heek-p ieces f rom P o lden H ill a s ' togg les '.

1 9 .

W ard P erk ins ( 1939, p . 1 9 1) s uggests a ' coral o r e name l' s tud f or t he H eng istbury H ead s ett ing w hile B arker a nd M egaw ( 1963, p . 2 13) s ay " coral". T he s im ilar s ett ing o n t he L lyn C err ig B ach b it w as b e lieved t o h ave b een " (red?) e name l" ( Fox, 1 946, p . 2 8). W hile c oral i s ap ossib ility e name l s eems m ore l ike ly .

2 0 .

T h is b it i s i n t he N ational M useum o f A nt iquit ies o f S cot land r eg . n o . F A29 . S mith ( 1925, p . 1 03) m ent ions o n ly r ed e name l w h ile L eeds t hinks " ye llow, n ot m ere ly r ed a s u sua lly s tated" ( Leeds 1 933, p . 16). A t p resent t he e name l h as m ost ly d isappeared b ut t here d o a ppear t o b e s ome t races o f r ed s t ill. H owever L eeds i s p robab ly r ight i n b e lieving t he f ormer e x istence o f as econd c o lour . S ee a lso W ard P erk ins ( 1939, p . 1 83).

2 1.

Q uatre lobe i s t he m ost c ommon t erm f or t he f irst g roup t hough o ften a pp lied i ndiscr im inate ly t o t he c ruciform g roup w hich i s q uite d ifferent e ven i f r e lated. T he t erms a re f rom H enry ( 1933, p assim ). C ruciform i s at erm n ot u sed m uch o utside t he l atter w ork .

1 23

2.

S ee F ox ( 1958, P . 1 27, 5 2d) w ho g ives t he p rovenance a s ' near C heltenham '; t his s ame o bject i s n oted i n t he A nt iquar ies J ournal ( 1938, p p . 7 5-76) a s c oming f rom ' ? n ear S ude ley C ast le ' a nd i s n ow h oused i n t he B ritish M useum . T he c orrect p rovenance i s t he S ude ley C ast le E state.

2 3.

S ee W ild ( 1970, p . 1 55, n o. 1 62); t he o r iginal o f t his o bject i s i n t he A rt G allery a nd M useum, P erth.

2 4.

T his o bject i n t he Y orkshire M useum ( reg . n o. H 14 1. 1 30 ( K30 )) i s s upposed t o b e f rom F rem ington H agg b ut d oubt h as b een c ast o n t his ( Webster, 1 971, p . 1 20).

2 5.

T hese a re m ounts f rom B rough ( Museum a nd A rt G a llery, C ar lis le, r eg . n o . R F230); t wo f rom C o lchester ( Hawkes a nd H ull, 1 947, p . 3 34, n o . 3 7 &p . 3 39, n o . 2 1); I werne ( Hawkes, 1 947, p p . 5 1-52, f ig. 8 , n o. 3 , w here t he d escription a s ab e ltlink d oes n ot s eem a s g ood a s ap iece o f h arness e quipment -Bulleid a nd G ray , 1 9 11. p . 2 28) ;a nd o ne f rom L ondon ( Leeds, 1 933, p . 5 4).

2 6.

S tead ( 1979, p p . 5 8-59) d escribes t hese a s s hie ld m ounts b ut m ore i mportant ly g ives t hem t he d etailed d escription t hey h ave s o l ong m er ited . H owever t his i s n ot a bso lute ly c lear i n r e lation t o t he d ecorative s tuds a nd s hould p erhaps b e t reated w ith s ome c aut ion.

2 7.

T his w ell k nown o bject(s) ( Brit ish M useum r eg. n o . 7 0.1013 .5 ) h as n ever b een a dequately p ub lished . T he e name l d ecorat ion o n i t ( see F ox, 1 958, p . 18, f ig . 7 3, 2 ) i s a s f o llows: S cabbard: O n t he f ront a re a ttached f ive n arrow b ands four o f s im ilar s ize, o ne s maller with e ight a nd s even s mall r ectangu lar c e lls r espective ly; m ost o f t his e namel i s d ecayed b ut r ed, y e llow a nd p ossib ly b lue a re c lear; s ome o f i t i s n ow a g reen c o lour b ut t his i s t he r esult o f d ecay r ather t han b e ing d e liberate . A lso a ttached t o t he f ront a re t wo r ivets -and p ossib ly o nce t hree m ore -the h eads o f w hich a re f lat a nd h ave a s pot a nd r ing o f e name l, n ow d ecayed b ut p ossib ly b lue a nd r ed . C hape : o n t he f ront, a bove t he l ips, a re t wo c ast ( not t he h eads o f r ivetted s tuds) s pot a nd r ing o rnaments o f y e llow a nd r ed e name l. S word h ilt: b ottom -row o f t we lve s mall c e lls a lternate ly r ed a nd a g reenish c o lour w hich m ay b e d ecayed b lue; a bove t his a re f ive c ast s pot a nd r ing o rnaments o f y e llow a nd r ed; t hen t here i s ac entral b and w ith c e lls o f r ed a nd d ecayed e name l a lternating; a t t he t op i s ab and o f ? sixteen s ma ll c ells a lternate ly r ed a nd ad ecayed c olour , n ow w hite .

2 8.

T his i s i n t he Y orkshire M useum a nd i s u sually d escribed a s b e ing f rom e ither T horpe o r R udston(e) -this s hould b e T horpe, n ear R udston. T here a re s even ( p lus o ne n ow m issing) a pp lied s tuds, t he h eads o f w hich a re i nlaid w ith e name l. T his i s s imp le i n lay a nd t he u se o f t he w ord f ramework b y L eeds ( 1933, p . 4 4) s hou ld n ot b e e quated w ith t he u se o f t his t erm i n t he p resent w ork . S ee a lso S tead ( 1979, p p . 6 2-63, f ig. 2 1,6 a nd p l. 9 ).

1 24

2 9 .

S imp le i n lay o n t he B ird lip, O ld W arden a nd N ijmegen m irrors b ut a lso o n t he l ast a nd o n t hat f rom H o lcombe s imp le s tuds o f r ed e name l w ithout r ivets.

3 0 .

T he s econd c o lour i s d escribed b y t he W hee lers a s g reen b ut L eeds ( 1933, p . 9 3) t hinks i t r ather t o b e l ight b lue w ith a g reen t inge w h ich w ou ld s eem t o b e t he m ore l ike ly c olour .

3 1.

F ox ( 1958, p . 7 7) s ays t here a re t races o f b lue r emaining -he a lso s uggests t here m ight o nce h ave b een w hite p up ils. F ox ( 9 12. , _cit .) f urther s trong ly s uggests t hat t he h eads o f t he r ivets o r n ails d riven t hrough t he p lain l oops a t t he b acks o f t he h eads ( to h o ld t hem s teady ) c arried b osses o f r ed e name l t hough t here i s n o e vidence f or t his.

3 2 .

I nformat ion f rom P rofessor J ope .

3 3.

S avory ( 1966, p . 3 1) s uggests t he p ossibility t hat t he t wo h o llow s tuds m ay n ot g o w ith t he s o lid o ne w hich i s l arger a nd t hat t wo t errets m ay t herefore b e r epresented.

3 4.

T his p air w ere f ound a t P itke lloney, n ear D rummond C ast le b ut e ither p lace i s g iven a s t heir p rovenance; b oth p airs a re i n t he B ritish M useum ( reg . n os. 1 946.4-2.2 a nd 3 8 .07-14.3).

3 5.

S ee E llis ( 1829, p p . 2 85-296). T his o bject w as f ound i n t he C ulbin S ands n ear A ltyre, M orayshire .

3 6.

S tamford H ill i s s ometimes u sed i nstead o f M ount B attan; F ox ( 1958, p . 1 4).

3 7.

R eg . n o . 1 963.4-7.1 -possib ly f rom D orset a nd s ometimes k nown a s t he ' Port land T w in '.

3 8.

T he l esser G arth h oard i s n ot i ncluded s ince i t c ontains o n ly t he e name lled s tuds ( for a t erret) w hich a re d ealt w ith u nder t he t errets.

3 9 .

S prat ling ( 1975, p . 2 06) f or f ind-spot a nd p rom ised p ub lication.

4 0 .

T here i s a lso o ne h arness m ount o r s trap u nion i n t he B rit ish M useum ( Davis a nd S prat ling, 1 975, p p . 1 23 a nd 1 31 ,n o . 1 8).

4 1.

H u ll's f orthcom ing c orpus w ith i ts m uch g reater n umber o f t ypes d ea lt w ith i n d etail w ill r adica lly a lter t his s ituat ion .

4 2 .

S ee A nderson ( 1905, p p. 3 74-376); t he t wo b rooches a re i n t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land, r eg. n os. F A6 1 a nd 6 2.

4 3.

E ach f ound s t ill o n a pproximat ley f orty s pecimens, s ometimes t ogether .

4 4.

T he g reen a reas o n t he b rooch f rom F aversham ( Br itish M useum, r eg . n o . 1 078-70) w hen a nalysed w ere d iscovered t o b e d ecayed

1 25

s ee

r ed ( n S , 1 970, Painter ad ax A

P .

1 67).

w ou ld b e i ncluded h ere t hough s ee c hapter 9 o n ' s ites ' f or d etails.

4 6.

T here w ere e ight e xamp les o f R (i) b rooches n oted b ut n o e name l i s t o b e s een o n a ny o f t hem -however i t i s p ossible t hat t here o nce w as o n t he h eads o r b ows . O n t he b rooch f rom W ilderspool ( May, 1 90 4, p . 8 1) t here w as s aid t o b e " traces o f b lack e name l o n t he f ront" b ut t his s eems u n like ly .

4 7.

T his i s i n t he F itzw illiam M useum, C ambr idge, r eg. n o . G R3.1822; t here a re o n ly a f ew t races o f t he b lue l eft i n t he n ow w hite s ubstance o n t he t rumpet b ut e nough t o s how t hat t he w ho le w as p robab ly o nce b lue .

4 8 .

T he s ize o f t his c e ll i s 1 5 m ms. x 6 m ms. a nd t he i ndiv idua l p ieces 4 s q. m ms. a pproximate ly . T he c o lours a re d escr ibed a s o range a nd r ed ( Thompson, 1 965, p . 8 3, f ig . 2 0, 3 ) b ut d ecayed a nd o range s eem s afer . T he o bject i s i n t he M un icipal M useum a nd A rt G allery, W arr ington .

4 9 .

S ee B oon a nd S avory ( 1975, p p . 5 0-57) f or t he d eve lopment a nd d ating o f R (i) a nd R (ii) b rooches i n r e lation t o t he t rumpet b rooch f ound a t C armarthen . •

5 0 .

T hroughout t his s ect ion r eference w ill b e m ade t o t hese n umbers 6 1-68 a s ( 6 1) e tc., a nd s ee p articular ly C o llingwood's d raw ings o f t he S g roup v ariety s im ilar ly n umbered ( op. c it . f ig . 103).

5 1 .

T his t ype i s r ather l ike a f ly o r o ther i nsect a nd i s s omet imes d escribed a s s uch.

5 2 .

T his i s u n like ly t o h ave b een o ne c omp lete s lice b ut r ather a n umber o f s maller s lices p laced t ogether t o f ill t he c e ll a nd t hen f used t ogether b y t he h eat t o f orm o ne o verall p attern .

5 3.

A s econd s im ilar, b ut l arger, ' K ilpedher t ype ' b rooch h as r ecent ly b een r ecovered d ur ing t he e xcavat ions o f t he b roch a t L eckie, S tirlingshire . O n t his s pecimen t he m illef ior i i s s till p resent b oth i n t he d isc o n t he b ow a s w e ll a s i n t he f antail. I ts d ate o f l oss i s p robab ly e ar ly s econd c entury A .D . Ia m g rateful t o D r . E uan M acK ie, t he e xcavator, f or t his i nformation . S eparate p ub licat ion o f t his i mportant f ind i s p lanned .

5 4.

T his n umber i ncludes t hose f ound o n t he C ontinent . T here m ay n ow b e a dded: 1 ) p ort ion o f at ype 1 s pecimen f rom C hesters ( Budge, 1 907, P . 3 87); 2 ) oe n f ound n ear W hittington H all, G loucestershire ( Dawkins, 1 874, p . 9 8 ); 3 ) as pecimen r ecovered f rom t he E ast v icus a t W atercock ( O livier, 1 979, p p . 2 10-2 11, n o . 1 4, f ig. 8 4, 1 4).

5.

A lthough n ot e xamined, t he c halcedony m ay i n f act b e ad ecayed e name l w hich h as t aken o n t he a ppearance o f c ha lcedony we h ave a lready s een e xamp les w here t he e name l h as w eathered t o t he

1 26

m ost m is leading o f a ppearances. I n t his c ase b lue m ay h ave b een t he o riginal c olour, i f e namel i t i s . 5 6.

A ll t hree a re n ow i n t he A shmo lean M useum, r eg . a nd 7 1 r espective ly .

5 7.

T here i s n ow a b rooch o f w hat a ppears t o b e t he l arge r ather t han t he s ma ll v ar iety f rom t he W interton R oman V illa w hich w as f ound i n af ourth c entury c ontext b ut c an p robably b e r egarded a s a s urvival t o, r ather t han, a p roduct o f, t hat p eriod ( Stead, 1 976, p . 2 0 1, n o . 3 2, f ig . 1 01, 3 2).

5 8.

T he s econd c olour o n t he S ilchester b rooch a ppears t o b e a d ark g reen t hough H unter a nd K irk ( 1952, p . 6 0) d escr ibe i t a s b eing b lack; h owever t hey a lso s ay t he c entre o f t he m edallion b ears " an i ndecipherab le d esign " t hough t his i s c lear ly a h uman b ust f acing l eft .

5 9 .

A part f rom t hose f rom P funz ( Bushe-Fox , 1 949, p . 17) t he L owbury H ill s pecimen h as a p arallel f rom G e lb o n t he R hine ( Atkinson, 1 9 16, p . 3 5).

6 0.

T his l ate t ype u sually r ound, s ometimes o val, a nd m ost ly g ilded h as a d ark-coloured s tone s etting i n t he c entre b ut n o e name l; s ome o ther p late b rooches w ith e name l h owever a lso h ave a ( ? ) s tone s et i n t he c entre where t his h as v an ished ( and t his a lso a pp lies t o t he t ype w ith t he m etal c one i n t he c entre n oted u nder m isce llaneous d isc b rooches) t he b rooch t hen r esemb les t he p lain d isc b rooch u nder d iscussion w ith, i t c ould b e m istaken ly s aid, e name l g one f rom t he c entre .

6 1.

T hese h ave l ate ly b een d iscussed a s d ress f asteners a gain a nd a t t he s ame t ime W ild 's a rrangement h as b een c r it icised ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980b, p p . 1 59-169).

6 2.

T his l ist w as c omp iled p r incipally f rom p ub lished s ources a nd i ncludes s evera l C ontinenta l e xamp les ( Wild, 1 970, p . 1 37). T here a re f or i nstance f our e name lled o bjects o f t his t ype i n t he s ite m useum a t C orbridge n ot i nc luded .

6 3.

C lasses I a nd I a re b asically I ron A ge i n t ype a nd a re d ealt w ith i n c hapter 1 . A lthough c lass V IIIb i s s aid t o b e s ometimes e name lled ( W ild, 1 970, p . 1 43) o nly t wo f rom B ritain ( Hod H ill) a re l isted ( ibid. p . 1 54, n os. 1 28 & 1 29) a nd n either b ears e name l.

6 4.

O ther s uggested f unctions i nclude s tands t o h o ld u nguent b ott les ( Franks, 1 854, p . 2 7), a ltars ( Whee ler, 1 946, p . 11) a nd e ven d o ll's h ouse f urniture ( Barnett, 1 969, p . 2 3): m ore r ecent d iscussion t ends t o c onfirm t heir r e ligious f unct ion ( Green, 1 975, p p . 5 7-59 a nd B utcher, 1 977, p . 5 1).

6 5.

T hese a re n ot a lways r ecogn ised a s s uch, e .g. t he ' perfume b ox ' ( Tro llope, 1 857, p . 7 5), e specia lly w hen o nly t he l id s urvives s ince i t r esemb les a n o rnament o r m ount o f s ome s ort . T he g roup f ound a t D ura E uropos i s d escr ibed a s b eing l ockets f or s ome

1 27

n os. R 68, 6 7

m edicinal o r m agical

p reparation ( To ll, 1 949,

P .

3 7).

6 6.

A lways o n t he u pper o utside s urface; s o lid o r s light ly ' ho llow '.

6 7.

S omet imes t here a re s mall k nobs o r p roject ions b ut t he s hapes g enerally c onform t o t he t ypes l isted.

6 8.

I nformation g ratefu lly r ece ived f rom t he e xcavator, M r . G av in S impson .

6 9 .

T he o r iginal i s i n t he m useum a t A lnw ick C ast le ( Bruce, 1 880, p p . 1 39141 , no . 7 46); a n e lectrotype c opy i s i n t he B ritish M useum .

7 0 .

H enry s ays t his i s i n t he C anterbury M useum b ut t here i s n o t race o f s uch a n o bject i n t he R oyal M useum a t C anterbury .

7 1.

At hird o ne h as b een f ound d uring t he 1 975 e xcavations i n Y ork i n ap ost-Roman p it o f t he s eventh c entury; t his a ppears t o b e as tray s urviva l; I a m g ratefu l t o M r . R . H all f or t his i nformation .

7 2 .

A n e lectrotype c opy o n ly i s i n t he N at ional M useum o f A nt iquities o f S cot land, r eg. n o . F A 10 -197 1.55; t he o rigina l i s i n t he m useum a t D unrobin C ast le.

7 3.

T he e name lled b raceletfrom R hayader i s d ealt w ith i n c hapter 1 , a nd B utcher ( 1977, p . 6 8 ,n ote 5 ) m entions a f ourth-century e name lled b race let f rom F rocester .

7 4 .

O n ly t he b ase s urvives a nd i t i s t reated h ere a s b elonging t o ac andlest ick . Af ourth i n t he F itzw illiam M useum, C ambr idge ( Dalton, 1 9 12, p . 1 00, n o . 4 5) i s h ardly R omano-Br itish.

7 5 .

T he b est k nown a re t he A lfred a nd M inster L ove ll j ewe ls o n w hich t he e name l d ecoration i s q uite d ifferent f rom a nything m et w ith i n t he p resent w ork ( see W ilson, 1 964, p assim a nd H inton, 1 974, p assim).

7 6 .

N ow s ee K ilbr ide-Jones 's d etailed s tudy o f t he z oomorphic p enannular b rooches, p articu lar ly a s r egards d ates a nd a ttribution ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980a). N ote t oo t he s pecimen f rom A bingdon, O xfordshire, w ith r ed e name l i n t he t erm inals; t his b rooch h as a c lose p aralle l i n o ne f rom C ounty A rmagh ( ibid . p . 9 3, n o. 2 5).

7.

I t i s d iff icult t o k now w hether t o i nc lude t he i bex-headed p ins h ere o r n ot . F irst o r f ourth c entury d ates a re t he m ost c ommon ly a ccepted b ut F ow ler ( 1963, p p . 1 23-125)seems t o s uggest a s ub-Roman d ate a s d oes B rown ( 1976, p . 2 0) i n r elation t o t he s pecimen f rom C irencester . T he e name l d ecoration o n t his l atter e xamp le i s v ery s im ilar t o t hat f ound o n t he i bex-headed p in f rom t he D undrum S andhills. T he o n ly o ther e name lled s pecimens f rom B ritain a re t hose f rom N ewham, C ambridgeshire, a nd f rom g rave 4 23 a t t he D uston A ng lo-Saxon c emetery, t hough

1 28

t he l ids a re e ither

t he l atter p robab ly p re-dates i ts s ixth c entury d eposition ler, 1 963, P ( Fow . 1 23, f ig. 7 ,3 a nd p . 1 55). Te h se a ll p ossess o n ly v ery s imp le r ed o r d ecayed e name l. K ilbr ide-Jones ( 1980b, p . 2 48) f o llows S tevenson i n s uggesting a S cottish o r igin i n t he f ourth c entury . 7 8.

I t i s n ow c laimed t hat t his p in i s o f I r ish m anufacture, n o l ater t han t he m idd le o f t he t hird c entury ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980a, p . 2 2 a nd 1 980b, p p . 2 12-213).

7 9 .

T here i s a n u nprovenanced s pecimen, w ith t hree f ingers a nd m illefior i e name l ( float ing) o n t he h ead, i n A lnw ick C ast le . H owever m uch o f t he m ater ia l i n t his c o llection i s f rom I re land a nd t his h andpin m ay t herefore p ossess a n I r ish f ind-spot ( Bruce, 1 880, p . 9 1, n o. 5 05).

8 0 .

A gain s ee K i lbride-Jones 's c omments o n t hese o bjects a nd t he h andpin f rom G aulcross ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980b, p . 1 52).

8 1.

C onservat ion w ork b e ing c arr ied o ut a t t he t ime r esearch w as b eing c onducted f or t he p resent w ork p recluded c lose e xam ination o f t he S utton H oo m aterial. T he d iscussion o n t his i s t herefore m ainly b ased o n t he p ub lished s ources.

8 2.

S ee t oo K ilbride-Jones o n t he s ubject o f h anging b ow ls ( K ilbr ideJ ones, 1 980b, p p . 2 36-257).

8 3.

T here i s i n t he A lnw ick C ast le c o llection a d isc, f rom a b ur ial o n C oquet I s land, w hich c ould b e a n e scutcheon. I t b ears a s mall c ross i n t he c entre a nd h as a n o uter c irc le o f s hie ld-or t ongue-shaped c e lls a lternate ly f illed w ith b lue a nd y e llow e name l ( Bruce, 1 880, p . 7 4, n o . 2 85, f igure). A nother p ossib le e scutcheon, w ith m illef iori, i s r ecorded f rom a c ist b urial o n H a llowhill, S aint A ndrews, F ife ( Webster, 1 977, p . 2 17). T here i s t oo h alf o f w hat a ppears t o b e a n e scutcheon f rom A berdour C ast le, F ife, n ow i n t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquit ies o f S cot land ( reg. n o . F C298); i t i s i n p oor c ondit ion b ut a ppears t o h ave y e llow a nd a nother d ecayed c o lour , p ossib ly r ed.

8 4 .

T here i s a lso t he c lay m ould f ound a t C raig P hadr ig, I nverness-shire ( Stevenson, 1 972, p p . 4 9-51).

8 5.

T here a lso a ppears t o b e m illef iori o n t he e scutcheon f rom B aginton ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980b, p . 2 40, f ig. 7,5).

8 6.

N ote m ight a lso b e m ade o f af ew a nalyses c arr ied o ut o n t he m ateria l f rom t he V illa D 'Anthee w here t he c o lourants u sed f ora b lue a nd a b rown r od w ere f ound t o b e c opper a nd m anganese r espect ive ly; c opper t oo i s u sed t o c o lour t he b lue p owder i n w hich l ead a gain p roves t o b e p resent ( Spitae ls, 1 970, p p . 2 402 4 1). C opper s ilicate i s s aid t o h ave c o loured t he b lue f r it r ecovered i n C o lchester ( Hawkes a nd H ull, 1 947, p . 3 45).

8 7.

S ee B ateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p p . 1 77-190 e specia lly p p . 1 7718 1 f or a l ist o f t he o bjects, r easons f or t heir s e lection, m ethods u sed a nd t ab les o f r esu lts.

1 29

8 8 .

T he n umbers i n b rackets u sed h ere a nd s ubsequent ly r efer t o t he o bjects s o n umbered i n t he p aper o n t he a nalyses ( Bateson a nd H edges, o p . c it .).

8 9 .

F or a n e xamp le o f s uch a p rocess s ee B ay ley, 1 978, p . 2 54.

9 0 .

J ope m akes a n i nteresting s uggest ion i n t his r espect ( Jope a nd W ilson, 1 957, p . 8 3). S ee a lso a n a rt ic le e ntit led, " Where i s t he T in?" ( Char les, 1 975, p p . 1 9-24).

9 1.

T hese f igures a re f or f ine g o ld, s ilver e tc. a nd a re t aken f rom M aryon ( 1954, p . 3 0 1).

9 2.

T heilade g ives 5 p er c ent, S mythe 1 3 p er c ent, M aryon c .16 p er c ent, a nd T y lecote u p t o 2 0 p er c ent; a ll r eferences t o w orks c ited .

9 3.

S haw t oo s ays t hat b rass c annot b e e ffect ively e name lled a nd e ven i ncludes b ronze i n t his c ategory ( Shaw, 1 972, p . 3 1) b ut h e m odif ies t h is v iew i n s uggesting t hat a c opper/zinc a lloy w ith 9 -10 p er c ent z inc y ie lds g ood e ffects w hen h andled s killfu lly ( ib id . p . 3 9) a nd w ith 5 p er c ent z inc g ives e xce llent r esults ( ibid. p . 3 6).

9 4.

S ee h owever t he a nalyses c arr ied o ut o n s ome o f t he G ussage A ll S aints m ater ial ( Wainwr i . jht a nd S prat ling, 1 973, p . 1 27, a nd S prat ling e t . a l. 1 980, p . 2 80).

9 5.

T his i s b ecause z inc m e lts a t 4 28 0C a nd b oils a t 9 50°C. T he d iff icu lty w as o vercome b y m ixing c a lamine o re ( ZNC03) w ith c opper i n r educing c ondit ions i n o rder t o p roduce g ilding-meta l/ b rass .

9 6 .

T he o nly e name lled o bjects w hose m etals h ave b een p revious ly a nalysed a re : o ne o f t he B r itish M useum 's h ead s tud b rooches ( Painter a nd S ax, 1 970, p p . 1 64-165, n o . 1 3) w here t he b ody o f t he b rooch i s " a t ype o f b rass", t he s tud o n t he b ow e ssentially c opper a nd t he r ivet f astening i t at rue b ronze n o a ctual a mounts a re g iven h owever; t he S outhacre b race let w as f ound t o b e b ronze t hough a gain n o d ata i s s upp lied ( Mottram, 1 968, p . 2 59).

9 7.

" Thus o ut o f t he 8 0 t rapp ings, f ibu lae a nd b rooches t hat I h ave a nalysed, o n ly f ive w ere n ot o f b rass...." ( Craddock, 1 974b, p . 3 49).

9 8 .

T his m ay h ave b een d ue t o as carcity o f c opper o r t o ad esire f or t he g reater s trength o f a n a lloy .

9 9 .

F or i nstance t he u se o f r ivets t o h o ld s tuds o f e name l i n p lace o r t he u se o f af ramework w ith s ome o f t he s tuds; t hese a re d iscussed i n t he n ext c hapter o n t echniques.

1 00 .

A s uggested t ypo logy o f e namelwork i s s et o ut i n t he n ext c hapter .

1 0 1.

F or a d iscussion o f s uch t oo ls a nd t he ir u se s ee L owry e t . a l. p. 1 1 971 ,p 67-182. 1 30

1 02.

T he m oulds f ound a t G ussage A ll S aints a re f or o bjects t oo e ar ly t o h ave b een e name lled b ut i t i s w orth n oting t hat t he r elief d ecoration a ppears t o h ave b een m ade o n t he p atterns b efore c asting ( Wainwr ight a nd S prat ling, 1 973, p . 1 22).

1 03.

S ome o f t he R omano-Br it ish flat c ircu lar s tuds o r m ounts h ave ad epression i n t he c entrewhich m ight h ave r esu lted f rom t he u se o f ad rill o r l athe .

1 04 .

A n u nusual m ethod o f k eying ( in t hat s mall s pikes o f m eta l w ere p unched o r p ecked u p b y ap ointed t oo l) i s t o b e s een o n a b ronze f errule f rom t he R iver B ann ( Jope, 1 95 1, p . 5 7).

1 05 .

S ee B ateson a nd H edges, 1 975, p p .

1 06.

I nformat ion f rom D s . J . R aftery .

1 07.

S ee a lso J ones e t. a l.

1 08 .

T hese s pecks a re s omet imes d escr ibed a s b eing b lack b ut i t i s d oubtful i f b oth b lack a nd b rown w ere a pp lied a nd b rown s eems t o b e t he c orrect d escription. W hat a ppears t o b e b lack i s o ften i n r eality b rown, d ark g reen o r e ven p urp le ( Harding, 1 960, p . 1 27; G uido, 1 978, p . 1 5; B utcher, 1 978, p . 2 18).

1 09.

T he q uestion o f m anufacturing sites i s b rief ly d iscussed b y B utcher ( 1977, p p . 4 2-44).

10.

I t h as u nfortunately n ow a ppeared i n the l iterature a s am ajor e name l-working s ite ( K ilbride-Jones, 1 980a, p p . 1 6, 7 5and 1 980b, p . 3 6).

11.

S ee a lso B iek, 1 977, p . 7 0 .

. 12

N ot i ncluded i n t his l ist i s am ould ' from t he f ront ier a rea' s aid t o b e f or t he m anuf acture o f e name lled s tuds ( Miket, 1 974, p . 1 62). A nother m ou ld ( un less i t h appens t o b e t he s ame o ne) i n s tone h as c ome f rom G ateshead a nd i t i s s uggested t hat t his m ay h ave b een i ntended t o p roduce m iniature w hee ls o r w hee l-brooches ( Green, 1 978, p . 6 0, p l. 4 9). W hen e xamined i t d id n ot a ppear t o b e r e levant t o t he p resent s tudy .

1 85-186.

1 976, p . 2 40 .

N ote m ight a lso b e m ade o f t he o n ly r od o f m illef iori g lass t o h ave b een f ound i n S cot land f rom L uce B ay ( Cramp, 1 970, p . 33) t hough i t m ay n ever h ave b een i ntended f or e name lwork . T he s ame c an b e s aid f or t he s tump o f ar od o f d istorted m illef ior i g lass r ecovered d uring t he e xcavations a t J arrow ( Cramp, 1 970, p . 3 30 ). 13.

T he f ragments o f p urp le g lass f ound a t H engistbury H ead a re g enera lly i nterpreted a s h aving b een i mported f rom a bro ad f or t he m anufacture o f b angles o n t he s ite ( Cun liffe, 1 978, p p . 4 2-44).

14.

S ee S prat ling (1980, p . 14) w ho q uotes M egaw o n as imilar c onclusion.

. 15

S ee G uido, 1 978, p p .

1 618.

1 31

16 .

H enry, 1 933,

17.

S ee C hamp ion, 1 976, p p . 2 9-40 e specia lly p age 3 5 w here i t i s s aid t hat i t c an b e n o l onger a ccepted t hat e name l w as d eve loped a s as ubst itute f or c ora l.

18 .

S ee a lso A . v on B ohme i n " Eng lishe F ibe ln A us D en K aste llen S aa lburg U nd Z ugmante l", S aalburg J ahrbuch, 3 1, 1 974, p p . 5 -20 .

19 .

A n i nterest ing c ompar ison m ay b e m ade w ith t hat p art o f t he m odern e name l-work ing i ndustry w hich d ea ls w ith t he e name lling o f s ma ll o bjects s uch a s b adges. A lthough q uite e xt ensive a nd c oncentrated i n B irm ingham t he i ndustry t here c onsists o f m any s ma ll w orkshops ( owned b y i ndiv idua l f irms), e ach g enera lly e mp loy ing f ewer t han f ive w orkers ( Sm ith, 1 976, p p . 3 4-34 ).

1 20 .

S ee a lso W ebster, 1 978, p p . 4 90-49 1.

P .

1 23 a nd K i lbr ide-Jones, 1 980b, p . 1 6 .

1 32

A PPENDIX A S OME E XPER IMENTS S omething s hould p erhaps b e s aid a bout t he e xperiments c arr ied o ut t o a id t he s tudy; a nd t he t oo ls a nd r aw m aterials u sed f or t hese . T he p urpose o f t he e xercise w as t o g ain s ome p ractica l e xperience i n t he c raft, t o s ee h ow e asy o r d iff icu lt t he p rocess i s a nd t o a nswer s ome q uest ions s uch a s h ow a ncient m illef ior i e name l w as c reated . A ll t he e qu ipment a nd m ater ia ls w ere p urchased f rom a L ondon f irm, ' Crafts U n lim ited '. T he k i ln u sed i s c a lled a H obby 1 w ith a f ir ing c hamber 1 60 x 1 75 x 10 m ms . a nd a m aximum t emperature o f 1 200°C. O therw ise t he a ctua l t oo ls n eeded a re s urpr ising ly f ew a nd s imp le m any c ou ld b e i mprovised. T hese i nclude a m ortar a nd p est le ( not e ssential w hen p owdered e name ls a re b ought ), a s patu la f or p lacing t he e name l i n t he c e lls, a f ork a nd t ongs f or p lacing t he o bject i n t he k i ln, a sbestos g loves w h ich a re u sefu l b ut n ot e ssential, a w ire m esh f ir ing s upport a nd a n a brasive p o lishing s ponge a s w e ll a s a c arborundum s tone; a n a sbestos p ad i s a lso v ery u seful. T he o bjects t o b e e name lled a re d escr ibed a s ' c opper ' a nd h ave t he c e lls a lready c ast the b ases o f t hese a re r ough. I ma in ly u sed s imp le r ectangular b lanks w ith o n ly o ne c e ll b ut a lso o ccasiona lly b lanks w ith m ore e laborate d esigns. T he e name l c omes i n t he f orm o f p owder o r l umps a nd t he r ange a vailab le i s v ery e xtensive a s r egards c o lour a nd o pacity . T he m e lt ing t emperature i s a bout 8 00 0C . I a lso p urchased t he e name l i n s ma ll s quar ish p laques a nd s pots t o t ry t o m ake c omp lex e name ls . T he m ost u seful p roduct o f a ll i s t he m illef ior i w hich i n f act h as o n ly b ecome a vailab le t o h obby ists w ithin t he l ast f ew y ears . T his c omes i n t he f orm o f s lices 2 -4 m ms. t hick c ut f rom a c ircular r od o f u p t o 8m ms . d iameter . I t i s i nterest ing t hat t he m ajor ity o f t hese g oods a re i mported f rom G ermany . S ome a re s hown i n f igure 1 4A . O ne 's f irst r eact ion t o t he p rocess i s h ow e asy i t r ea lly i s a nd d esp ite w arnings f rom t extbooks a bout c lean liness a nd c are o ver t im ing e tc. t here i s m uch m ore l eeway h ere t han e xpected . I n a ny e vent o ne s uspects t he a ncient e name llers i n r ather p oorer c ircumstances n ot t o h ave p aid t oo m uch a ttention t o s uch t hings . T he k i ln h eats u p t o i ts m ax imum t emperature i n a bout a n h our . I t c annot b e r egu lated t o a n e xact t emperature a nd I g enera lly k ept i t o n f ull h eat d uring u se t o c ompensate f or h eat l oss w hen o pen ing t he d oor t o p lace o r r emove t he o bject . T his l oss i s a ppreciab le . T he e name ls t herefore n eed m uch l ess t ime t o b e f ired t hough t his d oes n ot n oticab ly a ffect t he r esu lt . A bout a m inute i s a mp le t ime f or a s imp le e name l a nd t wo t o f our m inutes t o r each t he d esired s tage w ith am illef ior i o ne. N o e xper iments w ere a ttempted w ith b low-p ipes o r o pen h earths . A s r egards p utting t he e name ls i nto t he c e lls i t p roved m uch m ore c onven ient t o u se a p aste r ather t han a p owder . T he l atter t ends t o 1 33

s pread o n t o t he c e ll w alls o r w here t wo c o lours a re u sed t o m erge u neven ly m ore e asily t han w ith a p aste . Af ew d rops o f w ater a re s ufficient t o c reate a p aste w hich i s m ore e asy t o c ontrol -here as patula i s q uite e ssential. I t i s i mportant t o l et p astes d ry o ut t horoughly b efore f ir ing o therw ise t hey t end t o ' exp lode ' a s t he h eat r apidly d rives o ff t he m o isture . O nce r emoved f rom t he h eat t hey c ool r easonably r apidly i n n orma l r oom c ondit ions; n othing r emarkab le e merged a s r egards c oo ling. G enera lly a t t his s tage t he e namel c ontracts q uite a l ot a nd n o l onger f ills t he c e ll c omp letely . A s econd f iring, a nd e ven a t hird s ometimes, i s r equired t o f in ish t he p rocess e ntire ly . O ne i s s upposed t o f ire d ifferent c o loured e namels i n o rder, s tart ing w ith t hat h aving t he h ighest m e lting t emperature. H owever I f ired d ifferent c olours a t t he s ame t ime w ithout n oticeab le a dverse a ffect . I ndeed o therw ise o ne w ou ld n eed ag reat k now ledge o f e xact f iring t emperatures a nd a v ery r efined c ontro l o ver t he k iln . I t p roved q uite e asy t o m ake c omp lex e name ls. T he s quar ish s o lid p laques ( see f igure I 4A middle o f b ottom r ow ) a re a ssuredly s im ilar t o w hat a R omano-British e name ller c ut o ff t he e nd o f h is r ods o f e name l. O nce p laced i n t he c e ll c areful h andling k eeps t hem i n p lace a nd t hey f ire j ust l ike a n o rdinary e name l. A l itt le l onger t ime i s n ecessary f or t he m odern p laques t o f ill t he c e ll f ully b ut p resumab ly t he a ncient e name ller h ad m ore c ontro l o ver t he s ize o f h is c e lls a nd r ods. I t w ould p robab ly b e m ore h andy t o u se a g um t o k eep t he p laques i n p lace. ' Enamelf ix ' o r g um t ragacanth a re u sed n owadays; t hese f ire o ut e asily w ithout d isco louring o r a ffecting t he e name l. T o m ake t he s econd t ype o f c omp lex e name l If irst p ut d own al ayer o f r ed e name l i n p owder o r p aste f orm a nd t hen s et t he s o lid s pots ( s imilar t o t he s quares a bove b ut f rom s ma ller r ods) i nto t his a nd f ired t he t wo t ogether . T his w orks a dm irab ly a nd s eems t he e asiest a nd m ost s ensib le m ethod o f m aking t his k ind o f e name l. T he e xperiments w ith t he m illef ior i w orked e xceeding ly w e ll d espite b eing h andicapped b y h aving o n ly c ircular p ieces w hich w ere t oo t h ick. H owever i t w as p roved t hat s uch a m aterial c an b e t reated s imp ly a s a n e name l. I n f act u sing a b ed o f r ed e name l t o h old i t i n p lace i s am ore t edious j ob w hich s eems l ess p leasing i n t he e nd r esult. Ih ave a lready d iscussed t he a ctua l p rocess i n d etail i n c hapter 8 a nd w ill n ot r epeat i t h ere . H owever I f ind i t m uch e asier t o m ake t he p rocess w ork w hen t he k iln i s h ot t hough w hen c oo ler i t i s m ere ly aq uestion o f a llow ing m uch m ore t ime . O nce t he p ieces h ave b egun t o s pread i t i s e ssential t o k eep a v ery c lose w atch o n t he o bject, f or a m atter o f f ive t o t en s econds c an r esu lt i n t he l oss o f t he p atterns a ltogether . U sua lly h owever i t i s t he o uter c o lour o r b and w hich s preads f irst a nd q uickest t hough i ndeed t his i s w hat o ne w ants t o f ill t he c e ll a nd c reate o ne o verall p attern . O n t he w ho le t he e xperiments w ere w ell w orthwhile. T hey n ot o nly a nswered s uch q uestions a s t he p ossibility o f m illef ior i e name l v ery s atisfactor ily b ut t hey p rovided a v aluab le i nsight i nto t he w ork ings o f t he c raft a nd e nab led o ne t o l ook a t t he R oman-age e name ls w ith g reater a ppreciation.

1 34

A PPENDIX B L IST O F E NAMELLED H ANGING B OWLS T hese a re l isted i n a lphabetical o rder b y s ite w ith t he c ounty a dded. A n umber a fter a s ite i ndicates t he p resence o f m ore t han o ne b ow l. T he f irst c o lumn i ndicates w hat h as b een e name lled i .e . e scutcheon ( E), p rint ( P ), b ands ( B), p laques ( pq .); t he n umber b efore t he f irst t wo d enotes t he n umber k nown; a n a ster isk a fter i ndicates t he p resence o f t inning. T he n ext c o lumn d eals w ith e name l: r ed ( R ), b lue ( B), y e llow ( Y ), g reen ( g ), d ecayed ( D) o r g one e ntire ly ( G ). T he t hird c o lumn g ives t he t echnique e mp loyed w hether s imp le ( Sx l, 2 o r 3 ), c omp lex o r m illef ior i. A berdour C astle, F ife B ag inton, W arw ickshire R iver B ann, C o . L ondonderry B arlaston, S taff s. B arrington A , C ambs. B arrington B , C ambs.

1 E*

Y +D

Sx 2

4 E &1 P

R

Sx 1

l E

G

S

2 E &1 P

R

S&M

l E

G

S

D

Sx 1

D

S

. 1 E*

B asingstoke, H ants.

3 E

B edhampton, H ampshire

l E o r 1 P

B enniworth, L incs .

l E

B enty G range, D erbyshire

2 E*

B ekesbourne,

K ent

2 E & 1 P*

-

S

-

S

D (Y)

Sx1

R

Sx1

C amerton, S omerset

3 E

Y

Sx 1

C halton, H ampsh ire

1 E*

D

S

R

S

C hesterton-on-Fossway , W arw icks.4E & 1 P C oquet I s land ( ? )

l E

D over, K ent ( 3 )

5 E &2 P &B

F aversham, K ent ( 4 )

3 E

B +Y -

Sx2&C S

D /G

Sx1

3 E &B *

D

S

l E &1 P

D

Sx1

2 P*

D

Sx 1

G reenw ich, K ent

3 E*

D

Sx 1

G rind low, D erbysh ire

2 E

-

H ildersham, C ambs .

3 E & B &p q

H itchin, H erts

2 E*

K eythorpe C ommon, L e ics.

3 E

-

D

S

R +Y

C

-

S

K ingston D own, K ent ( 2 )

3 E &1 P

R

Sx 1

L oveden H ill, L incs.

3 E &2 P

D

S

( 3)

1 35

3 E

D

S

2 E

D

S

L owbury H ill, B erks.

3 E &2 P*

R

Sx1

L ul 1in gstone , K ent

4 E & B &p q .R

Sx 1

M arket R asen, L in cs.

2 E

R

Sx 1

M iddleton M oor, D erbyshire

l E

R +Y

Sx 2

M i 1d enhal 1, S uffo lk

3 E &1 P & B

R

S

D

S

N eedham M arket, S uffo lk

2 E &1 P& B ?

S

U nknown, N orthumber land

3 E &1 P

M orden, S urrey

l E

-

M

O vi n g ,B ucks .

l E

R +Y

Sx2

n ear O xford

l E

R +B+Y

S x3& C

S aint N inian 's I s le

1 P

S cunthorpe, L in cs.

2 E &2 P

S toke G o lding, L eics .

( 2 )

S utton H oo, S uffo lk ( 3)

2 E

R

Sx1

R

S&M

R

S

3 E &2 P &p q . R + B

M

2 P

R

Sx 1

E 3.

R

Sx1 ( +M )

T hornham, N orfo lk

l E

D

T ottenhoe , B eds .

l E

R +Y

Sx2

3 E &2 P*

R

Sx1

U nknown, W estmor land

1 P*

D

S

W hite H orse H ill, O xon .

l E

R +Y

Sx 2

2 E &1 P &B R +D

Sx 2

W inchester, H ants.

W hitby,

Y orkshire

( 3 )

S

W i 1l mington , S ussex

l E

D

Sx 1

W illoughton ,L incs.

l E

R

Sx1

3 E*+ 1P

R

Sx1

( River) W itham, L in cs.

4 E

-

U nknown ( V ictoria & A lbert)

l E

D

Sx 2

U nknown ( British M useum )

l E

D

S

W inchester, H ants .

1 36

M

A PPENDIX C T HE M ILLEFIORI P ATTERNS

T his a ppend ix c ontains a l ist o f t he p atterns o f t he s lices o f m illef ior i g lass u sed i n t he e name lwork u nder e xam inat ion . T he f irst c o lumn g ives t he p attern n umber a nd t he s econd a d escr ipt ion o f i t . T he t h ird c o lumn g ives t he n umber o f t imes t he p attern h as b een n oted . T ype A - b asic p attern o f n ine s quares

f igure 1 2)

A l

f ive w h ite a nd f our b lue

3

A 2

f ive w hite a nd f o ur r ed

4

A 3

f ive r ed a nd f our y e llow

5

A 4

f ive b lue a nd f our w hite

1

A 5

f ive y e llow a nd f our r ed

1

A 6

f our b lue a nd f our y e llow w ith r ed c entres

1

A 7

f ive w hite a nd f our b lue p lus r ed b order

A 8

f ive b lue a nd f o ur y e llow p lus r ed b order

1

A 9

f ive b lue a nd f our w hite p lus r ed b order

6

A 10

f ive b lue a nd f our w h ite p lus b lue b order

1

A ll

f ive w hite a nd f our b lue p lus b lue b order

3

A l2

f ive w hite a nd f our r ed p lus b lue b order

1

A 13

f our b lue a nd f our w hite w ith r ed c entre p lus b lue b order

2

A l4

2 1

f our w hite a nd f our b lue w ith r ed c entre p lus w hite, p lus b lue b order

1

T ype B - bas ic p attern o f t wenty-f ive s q uares ( f igure 1 2 ) B 1

t hirteen w hite a nd t we lve b lue

B 2

t h irteen w hite a nd t we lve r ed

1

B 3

t hirteen b lue a nd t we lve w hite

1

B 4

t hirteen r ed a nd t w leve b lue

1

6 5

g reen a nd w hite

5

B 6

p ink a nd w hite

2

B 7

t hirteen w hite a nd t we lve b lue p lus b lue b order

B 8

t hirteen b lue a nd t we lve w hite p lus b lue b order

4

6 9

t hirteen w hite a nd t we lve r ed p lus b lue b order

1

1 37

1 2

1 0

B 10

t hirteen b lue a nd t we lve w hite p lus r ed b order

4

B 11

t hirteen w hite a nd t we lve b lue p lus r ed b order

1

B 12

t hirteen w hite a nd t we lve r ed p lus r ed b order

2

B 13

t we lve b lue a nd n ine w h ite a nd f our r ed p lus r ed b order

2

t we lve b lue a nd n ine w hite a nd f our r ed p lus b lue b order

1

B 14

T ype C

- round w ith f loweret o r r osette

f igure 1 3)

C l

b lue g round p lus f our w hite h earts

6

C 2

w hite g round p lus f our b lue h earts

3

C 3

w hite g round p lus f ive b lue p eta ls

1

C 4

b lue g round p lus s ix w hite p eta ls

1

C 5

w h ite g round p lus s ix b lue p eta ls p lus r ed c irc le

3

C 6

b lue g round p lus s ix w hite p eta ls p lus b lue c irc le a nd w h ite s pot

1

C 7

b lack g round p lus s ix y e llow p etals p lus r ed c ircle 1 a nd w hite s pot

C 8

b lue g round p lus s even w hite p etals p lus w hite s pot 1

C 9

w hite g round p lus s even b lue p etals p lus b lue c irc le

2

y e llow g round p lus s even? r ed p eta ls p lus r ed c irc le

2

C 10 C ll

b lue g round p lus e ight w hite p etals p lus w h ite s pot

1 5

C 12

b lue g lus e ight w hite p eta ls p lus w h ite round p c irc le p lus r ed s pot

1

C 13

round p lus e ight w hite p etals . p lus r ed b lue g c irc le p lus w hite s pot

1

C 14

b lue g round p lus e ight d ark b lue p eta ls p lus w hite c ircle p lus r ed s pot

1

C 15

w hite g round p lus e ight b lue p etals p lus r ed c irc le

3

C 16

r ed g round p lus e ight b lue p etals p lus b lue s pot

1

C 17

w hite g round p lus e ight b lue p eta ls p lus r ed s pot

1

C 18

w hite g round p lus e ight b lue p eta ls p lus b lue c irc le

2

C 19

w hite g round p lus e ight b lue p eta ls

1

1 38

T ype D - m isce llaneous p atterns ( f igure 1 3) D 1

b lue g round w ith o ne w hite w hir l t o r ight

5

D 2

w hite g round w ith b lack f ern ( s ix p airs o f a rms)

2

D 3

w hite g round w ith b lack f ern ( f ive p airs o f a rms)

1

D 4

w hite g round w ith b lue f ern ( s ix p airs o f a rms)

2

D 5

w hite g round w ith b lue f ern ( f ive p airs o f a rms)

2

D 6

b lack g round w ith w hite c ross

1

D 7

a lternate ( ?5 ) b lue a nd w h ite b ars

1

D 8

a lternate w hite ( 3 ) a nd r ed ( 2 ) b ars

2

D 9

a lternate g reen ( 3 ) a nd r ed ( 2 ) b ars

1

D 1Q

a lternate y e llow ( 2 ) a nd b lack b ars

1

D ll

a lternate t r iang les o f y e llow a nd b lack

1

D 12

s ixteen s quares b lue a nd w hite p lus d arker b lue b order

1

D 13

b lue g round w ith s ixteen w hite x x a lternate ly

1

D 14

w hite r ing p lus b lue r ing p lus w hite c rown ( twe lve p oints) p lus r ed r ing a nd y e llow c entre s pot

4

D 15

r ed s pot w ith t en c urved t riangles a lternate ly r ed a nd y e llow f ann ing f rom i t

1

D 16

b lack g round w ith r ed s quare i n c entre a nd f our w hite h earts

2

D 17

w hite c entre s pot p lus r ed c ircle p lus s ix p eta ls a lternate ly b lue a nd w hite p lus r ed c irc le

1

D 18

c ircle o f a ltern ate r ed a nd y e llow r ays ( 8 o r 1 6?)

1

D 19

f our s quares o f f o ur b lue ( 2 ) a nd w hite ( 2 ) t r iang les w ith a p ices j oined 4

D 20

d itto b ut g reen a nd b lue t r iang les

1 39

2

G LOSSARY

B ase

t he m eta l base t o w h ich t he e name l a pp lied .

B ed

al ayer o f e name l o f t he o ne c o lour .

C e ll

t he r ecess g ougedout ( or c ast) t o t ake t he e name l.

C hamp le ve

g o uged o ut -denotes t hat t ype o f e name lwork w here t he c e lls a re b e low t he s urface o f t he m etal ( gouged o r c ast); t he t erm i s a vo ided h ere a s m uch a s p ossib le; a ll R omano-Br it ish e name ls a re c hampleve e name ls.

C hequered

r efers t o m illef ior i g lass/ename l w here t he p attern i s m ade u p o f t iny a lternate c o loured s quares .

C loisonne

d enotes e name lwork w here t he c e lls a re a bove o r o n t op o f t he m eta l s urface; t hese a re c reated b y s o lder ing t hin s tr ips o f m eta l o n t o t he s urface .

C loisson

t he c e ll w a ll i n c lo isonne e name lwork b ut o ften w rong ly a pp lied t o c hamp leve e name lwork; t he t erm i s n ot u sed h ere i f p ossib le .

C omp lex ( ename ls)

w here t wo o r m ore d ifferent c o loured e name ls a re a pp lied t o o ne c e ll w ithout m eta l d iv ides .

D ecayed

w here t he o r ig ina l co lour o f a n e name l is n o l onger d iscern ib le t hrough i nternal o r e xterna l f actors .

E name l

t he a ctua l v itreous s ubstance w hether r aw l umps, p owdered o r i n t he f orm o f s lices; o r s lices o f m illef iori g lass t reated i n t his w ay .

E name lwork

t he e nd product c onsist ing o f e name l a nd m etal.

F ie ld

t he p redom ina lt c o lour u sua lly i n t he l arger, o uter c e ll o n s imp le e name lwork a nd o n c omp lex e namelwork t he b ed o r g round i nto w h ich a re l aid s pots o f a nother c o lour .

F lux

a n e name l u sed a s a n a dhesive for, i n p art icu lar, s lices o f m illef ior i g lass .

1 40

i s

F r it

g enera lly m eans r aw e name l e specially p owdered, s ometimes u sed t o d enote r aw g lass o ften a fter t he f irst m e lt w hen t he c o lour ing m ater ia l h as n ot y et b een a dded t o t he b asic i ngredients .

' B lue F r it '

b alls o f ab lue c ha lky s ubstance, p robab ly c olour ing m atter b ut p ossib ly u nconnected w ith e name ls .

G round

t he m a in l ayer o r b ed o f e name l i nto w hich s pots o f a nother c o lour h as b een l aid i n t he c omp lex t echnique .

I n lay

g eneral t erm u sed t o d escr ibe t he c hamp leve o r s imp le e name ls o f t he I ron A ge .

M illef ior i

( g lass)

g lass i n t he f orm o f ar od w ith m inute p atterns o f s quares o r f lowerets e tc . r unn ing r ight t he w ay t hrough i t i n t he m anner o f s ea-side r ock .

M illef ior i

( ename l)

w here s lices o f m illef ior i g lass a re u sed t o d ecorate s ma ll o bjects a nd a pp lied e ither d irect ly b y h eat o r f loated o n ab ed o f e name l.

M osaic

at erm t o b e a vo ided s ince i t h as b een a pp lied e qually t o w hat I t erm c omp lex a nd m illef ior i e name ls.

P aste

m ixture o f ap owdered e name l o f o ne c o lour a nd w ater, p laced c o ld i n t he c e ll f or f ir ing a s as imp le e name l o r a s t he g round f or s o lid s pots o f as econd c o lour i n c omplex e name ls .

S eptum

t he m eta l d iv ision b etween t wo c e lls i n c hamp leve e name lwork .

S etting

s ma ll c ircu lar c e ll f ound o n I ron A ge e name lwork .

S imp le ( ename ls)

w here o n ly o ne c o lour o f e name l t o t he c e ll.

U p lay

g eneral t erm u sed t o d escr ibe t he r ed s tuds o n I ron A ge e name lwork .

W eathered

s ee ' decayed '; c an a lso m ean w here p art o r a ll o f t he e name l i s m issing o r l ost .

1 41

i s a pp lied

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F irst R ek ort o n t he E xcavation o f t he R oman F ort a t R ichborough, K ent, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o . V I, O xford, 1 926

B ushe-Fox, J .P.

( 1949)

F ourth R eport o n t he E xcavation o f t he R oman F ort a t R ichborough, K ent, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A nt iquar ies L ondon n o . X V I, O xford, 1 949

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( 1976)

p.42-5 1 o f " Ename lling" c hapter 3 , p S trong & B rown e ds. ( 1976)

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( 1977)

" Ename ls F rom R oman B r itain", p p .4 1-70 o f A pted e t a l. ( 1977)

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" The B rooches" p p .2 16-220 o f J ackson & A mbrose ( 1978)

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S o ldier a nd C ivilian i n R oman Y orkshire, L eicester, 1 971 A nalyses O f A ncient G lass 1 7901957, N ew Y ork ‚T962 " A C o llection o f P rehistor ic R e lics F rom t he S tevenson S ands, A yrshire, A nd O ther O bjects i n t he N ationa l M useum", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L XVII , 1 932-3, p p .26-34 " Cora l i n E urope: C ommerse a nd C e lt ic O rnament", p p .29-40 o f D uva l &H awkes e ds. ( 1976) " Where i s t he T in ? ", A ntiquity, X LIX, 1 975, p p .19-24 " G lass ' Cakes ' A s R aw M ater ia l A nd A rt icles O f C ommerse", J ournal O f G lass S tudies, 5 , 1 963, p p .54-67

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N ote o n ' Objects f rom t he R oman F orts a t H ardknott, C umber land, a nd B rougham, W estmor land ', A ntiquar ies J ournal, X LVIII, 1 968, p .306

C hilde, V .G .

( 1933)

" Excavat ions a t C ast le law F ort, M id lothian", P roc. S ociety A nt iquaries S cot land, L XVII, 1 932-3, p p .362-388

C hilde, V .G .

( 1935)

T he P rehistory O f S cot land, L ondon, 1 935

C larke, R .R.

( 1939)

" The I ron A ge i n N orfo lk a nd S uffo lk", A rchaeo logical J ournal, x cv i, 1 939, p p .1-113

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( 1951)

" A H oard o f M etalwork o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge f rom R ingstead, N orfo lk", P roc . P rehistor ic S ociety, X VII, 1 951 71 5p .2 14-225

C lifford, E .M . C ocks, A .H.

( 1961)

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C o les, J .M . &S impson, D .D .A . e ds. ( 1968)

B agendon : AB e lgic O pp idum, C ambr idge, 1 96 1 " A R omano-Br it ish H omestead i n t he H amb leden V alley, B ucks.", A rchaeo logia, 7 1, 1 921 , p .148-198 p S tud ies i n A ncient E urope, L eicester, 1 968

1 47

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" Romano-Ce lt ic A rt I n N orthumber land ", A rchaeolog ia, 8 0, 1 930 , p p .37-58

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( 1930 )

T he A rchaeo logy O f R oman B r itain, L ondon, 1 930

C ollingwood, R .G .

( 1931a)

" Roman O bjects f rom S tan ix a nd T hat cham ", A nt iquar ies J o urna l, X I, 1 931, p p .37-45

C o llingwood, R .G .

( 1931b)

" Roman O bjects f rom S tanix", T rans. C umber land a nd W estmor land A . &A . S ociety, n ew s er . 3 1, 1 93 1, p p .69-80

C o llingwood, R .G .

( 193 1c)

" Objects f rom B rough-under-Stainmore i n t he C raven M useum , S k ipton", T rans. C umber land a nd W esrmor land A . &A . S ociety, n ew s er . 3 1, 7 93 1, p p .8 1-86

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" Tankards a nd T ankard H and les o f t he B r it ish E ar ly I ron A ge", P roc. P rehistor ic S ociety, -0 -2 X VIII, 1 952, p.8-51 1

C order, P . ( 1935)

E xcavations A t T he R oman F ort A t B rough, E ast Y orkshire, H u ll M useum P ub licat ions n o . 1 85, H ull, 1 935

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f C e lt ic O rnament f rom E lmswe ll, " A P anel o E ast Y orkshire", A nt iquaries J ourna l, X, 1 940, p p .338-356 X

C otton, A .R .

( 1933)

" Saxon D iscover ies a t F etcham" , A rchaeo logica l J ournal, x iii, 1 933, p.48-5 1

C otton, M .A .

( 1947)

" Excavations a t S ilchester 1 938-9", A rchaeo logia, 9 2, 1 947, p p .123167

C owen, J .D . &R ichmond, I .A . ( 1935)

" The R udge C up", A rchaeo logia A e liana, 4 th s er . X II, 1 935, p p .3 10-342

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" Roman B ronzes", C urrent A rchaeo logy , i v, 1 973-4, p .254

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C ree, J .E .

" Account o f t he E xcavat ions o n T raprain L aw D ur ing t he S ummer o f 1 922", P roc . S ociety A nt iquar ies S cot land, L VII, 1 922-3, p p .180-226

( 1923)

1 48

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C ur ie, A .O .

" Account o f t he E xcavations o n T raprain L aw D uring t he S ummer o f 1 921", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L VI, 1 921-2, p p .189-259

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R oman B ath, R eport R esearch C ommittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o . X XIV, O xford, 1 969

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E xcavations A t F ishbourne 1 96 1-9 V o l. I T he F inds, R eport R esearch C om r iittee S ociety A ntiquaries L ondon n o . X XVIII, L eeds, 1 971

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H engistbury H ead, L ondon, 1 978

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( 19 14)

" Report o n t he E xcavation,in S eptember 1 9 13, o f aV itr if ied F ort a t R ockcliffe, D albeattie, k nown a s t he M ote o f M ark", P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, X LVIII, 1 9 1314, p .1 25-168 p

C ur ie, A .O .

( 19 15)

" Account o f E xcavations o n T raprain L aw i n t he P ar ish o f P restonkirk, C ounty o f H addington, i n 1 9 14", P roc. S ociety A nt iquaries S cot land, X LIX, 1 9 14-15, 5 07739-202

C ur ie, A.O . &C ree, J .E. ( 19 16)

" Account o f t he E xcavat ions o n T raprain L aw i n t he P ar ish o f P restonkirk, C ounty o f H addington, i n 1 9 15", P roc. S ociety A nt iquar ies S cot land, L , 1 9 15-16, p p .64-144

C ur ie, A.O . &C ree, J .E . ( 1921)

" Account o f t he E xcavat ions o n T raprain L aw D ur ing t he S ummer o f 1 920", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L V, 1 920-21 , p .153-206 p

C ur ie, C .L.

" An E ngraved L ead D isc F rom T he B rough O f B irsay, O rkney", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, C V, 1 972-4, p p .30 1-307

( 1974)

C ur ie, J .

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( 1932)

" An I nventory o f O bjects o f R oman a nd P rovincial R oman O r igin F ound o n S ites i n S cot land N ot D ef inite ly A ssociated w ith

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R oman C onstruct ions", P roc. S ociety A nt iquar ies S cot land, L XVI, 1 93 1-2, p.277-397

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C orrespondence r e R oman B ronzes, C urrent A rchaeo logy , i v, 1 973-4, p p .349-350

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D avis, J .L . &S prat ling, M . " The S even S isters H oard: a c entenary ( 1976) s tudy ", p p .12 1147 o f B oon & L ew is e ds .(1976 ) D awkins, W . B oyd ( 1874)

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M anue l D 'Archeo logie v o l. i v S econd A ge D u F er D u E poque D e L a T ene, P ar is, 1 927

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" Excavat ions o n N or N our i n t he I s les o f S cilly, 1 962-6", A rchaeo logical J ourna l, c xxiv, 1 967, p.1-64

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" An I ron A ge C ist-Bur ia l w ith T wo B rooches f rom T revone, N orth C ornwall", C ornish A rchaeo logy, 4 , 1 965, p.18-23

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D onat ion b y, o f c o llect ion o f s ilver o rnaments f rom N orr ies ' L aw, P roc. S ociety A nt iquar ies S cot land, V I, 1 864-6, p .7-11

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C e lt ic A rt I n A ncient E urope F ive P i -otohistorTE C entur ies, t ondo1 7 ,-7976

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" Observat ions u pon a n a ncient B race let o f b ronze, f ound u pon t he s andhills n ear A ltyre, o n t he c oast o f M urrayshire", A rchaeo logia, 2, 1 829, p p .285-296

E xner, K . V on ( 1939)

" D ie P rovinz ia lrom ischen E mailf ib len d er R hein lande", B er icht D er R om isch-Germanischen K omm ission, 2 9, 1 939, p p .3 112 1

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" Dragonesque F ibulae", A ntiquaries J ournal, 95 1, p p .32-44 XXI, 1

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" Dragonesque F ibu lae", A ntiquar ies J ournal, X LVIII, 1 968, p p .10 1-102

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C e ltic C ivilisation a nd i ts H er itage, P rague, 1 960 " On t he P rocess o f D ecay i n G lass", A rchaeo logia, 4 6, 1 880, p p .65-162 S tudies i n A ncient T echno logy, " G lass", TTT p p .110-23 1, L eiden, 1 957

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" Ce ltic M etalwork o f t he F ifth a nd S ixth C entur ies A .D .", A rchaeological J ourna l, c xx, 1 963, p p .98160

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" Hanging B ow ls", p p .287-3 10 o f C o les & S impson e ds. ( 1968)

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F ox, A .

( 1965)

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" A R oman B arrow a t K nob 's C rook, W ood lands, D orset" ,A nt iquar ies J ourna l, X LV, 1 965, p p .22-52 R oman E xeter, M anchester, 1 952

F ox, A . &P o llard, S . ( 1973)

" A D ecorated B ronze M irror F rom A n I ron A ge S ett lement a t H o lcombe, N ear U p lyme, D evon", A ntiquar ies J ournal, L III, 1 973, p p .16-41

F ox, C .

( 1923)

T he A rchaeo logy O f T he C ambr idge R egion, C ambridge, 1 923

F ox, C .

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" A L a T ene W eight f rom W inchester", A nt iquar ies J ourna l, X , 1 930, p p .25 1-253

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AF ind O f T he E ar ly I ron A ge F rom L lyn r errig B ach, A ng lesey, N ationa l M useum o f " g ales, C ardiff , 1 946

F ox, C .

( 1948)

" The I ncised O rnament O n T he C e lt ic M irror F rom C o lchester, E ssex", A nt iq j l ar ies J ourna l, X XVIII, 1 948, p p .123-137

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P attern a nd P urpose, N ational M useum o f W ales, C ardiff, 1 958

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" Excavat ion o n t he s ite o f t he R oman C ity o f S ilchester, H ants., i n 1 894", A rchaeo logia, 5 6, 1 894, p p.439-494

F ox, G .E.

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" Roman S uffo lk", A rchaeo logical J ournal, l vii, 1 900, p p .89165

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( 1854)

" The A dditions t o t he C o llections o f N ationa l A ntiquities i n t he B r it ish M useum", A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, x i, 1 854, p.23-32

F ranks, A .W .

( 1870 )

" Note o n R oman E name lled C up f rom B raughing a nd o thers o f t his t ype", P roc . S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon, 2 nd s er . i v ,18 67-70, p p .5 14-516

F razer-Tyt ler, N .

( 1923)

E xhibition b y, o f e name lled b e lt-p late a nd d ress-fastener f rom D rumashie, P roc . S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L VIII, 1 923-4, p p .1113

F rere, S .S .

( 1972)

V erulam ium E xcavations V o l. I , R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o . X XVIII, O xford, 1 972

F rere, S .S.

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G age, J .

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" A L etter f rom J ohn G age, E sq. F .R .S . , D irector, t o H udson G urney, E sq., F .R .S., V ice-President, c ommunicating t he r ecent d iscovery o f R oman s epu lchra l r e lics i n o ne o f t he g reater B arrows a t B art low, i n t he p ar ish o f A shdon, i n E ssex", A rchaeo logia, 2 6, 1 836, p p .300-3 17

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" Roman a nd N ative, A .D . 1 22-197", c hapter II, p p .60-90 o f R ichmond ( 1958)

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" Roman B r itain i n 1 978 1 . S ites E xp lored", B r itannia, X , 1 979, p p .268-338 I,

G ray, H . S t . G eorge & B u lleid, A . ( 1953)

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" Three I ron A ge T errets F rom N orfo lk", A ntiquar ies J ourna l, L II, 1 972, p .346

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( 1949)

" The B ird lip E ar ly I ron A ge B ur ia ls: aR eview ", P roc. P rehistoric S ociety, X V, 1 949, p p .188-190

G reen, M .J.

( 1975)

" Romano-Br it ish N on-Ceram ic M odel O bjects i n S outh-east B r itain", A rchaeo logical J ournal ,c xxxii, 1 975, p p .54-70

G reen, M .J.

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AC orpus O f R e ligious M ater ial F rom T he C ivil ian A reas O f R oman B r itain, B .A .R . 2 4, O xford, 1 976

G reen, M .J.

( 1978)

AC orpus O f S mall

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" The R omano-Br itish S hr ines A t B r igstock, N orthants .", A nt iquar ies J ourna l, X LIII, 1 963, p.228-263

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P resentat ion b y, o f t he S aham T oney h oard, N orfo lk A rchaeo logy , i, 1 849, p p .398-400

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G uildha ll M useum ( 1960 )

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" A M ura l G lass M osaic f rom t he I mper ia l V illa, n ear N ap les", A rchaeo log ia, 6 3, 1 9 12, p p .99105

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H arden, D .B .

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" G lass a nd G lazes", c hapter 9 , p p .3 11-346 o f S inger e t a l. ( 1956) " Ancient G lass, I : P re-Roman", A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, c xxv, 1 968, p p .46-72

H arden, D .B . ( 1969)

" Ancient G lass, I : R oman", A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, c xxvi, 1 969, p p .44-77

H arden, D .B .

" Ancient G lass, II: P ost-Roman", A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, c xxviii, 1 97 1, p .78117 p

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H arding, 0 . 1 4 .

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" Two F rank ish B eads f rom t he C oast o f T angany ika", M edieval A rchaeo logy , 4 , 1 960, p p .126-127

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" An A ccount o f A nt iquit ies f ound i n S omersetshire", A rchaeo logia, 1 4, 1 803, p.90-93

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" Bronze-worker 's H earth", J ournal C hester a nd N orth W a les A rchitectural, A rchaeo logica l a nd H istor ical S ociety, 4 1, 1 954, p p .114

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" Fragments o f aH anging-Bow l f rom B ekesbourne, K ent, a nd S ome O rnamental P roblems", M edieval A rchaeo logy, 2 , 1 958, p p .72103

( 1927)

" Excavations a t A lchester, 1 926", A ntiquar ies J ournal, V II, 1 927, p p .147-184

H awkes, C .F.C.

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" A L a T ene b ronze h andle f rom W e lwyn", A ntiquar ies J ournal, X V, 1 935, p p .35 1-354

H awkes, C .F .C.

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" Br itons, R omans a nd S axons R ound S alisbury A nd I n C ranborne C hase", A rchaeo logica l J ourna l, c iv, 1 947, p p .27-8 1

H awkes, C .F .C. & H ull, M .R . ( 1947)

C amulodunum, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o .XIV, O xford, 1 947

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" Bronze workers, C auldrons, a nd B ucket-anima ls i n I ron A ge a nd R oman B r itain", p p .192-199 o f G r imes ( 1951)

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H enderson, J .

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A ng lo-Saxon S tudies i n A rchaeo logy a nd H istory I , B .A .R . 7 2, O xford, 1 979 " Lagore C rannog : a n I r ish r oyal r esidence o f t he 7 th-10th c entur ies A .D .", P roc. R oyal I r ish A cademy, 5 3, c , 1 950-51, p p .1-247 " Some n ew e vidence f or i ron a ge g lass-working i n B r itain", A ntiquity, L TV, 1 980, p.60-6 1

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" Emailleurs D 'Occident", P rehistoire, j i, 1 933, p p .66146

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" Hanging B ow ls", J ournal R oyal S ociety A ntiquar ies I re land, l xvi, 1 936, p p .209-246

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( 1956)

" Ir ish E name ls o f t he D ark A ges a nd t heir R e lat ion t o t he C loisonne T echnique", p .71-90 o f D ark A ge B r itain, e d. D .B . p H arden, L ondon, 1 956

H eslop, R .B . &R obinson, P .L . ( 1963)

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( 1968)

H ildyard, E .J.W .

H ills, G .M .

( 1954)

( 187 1)

H inton, D .A .

( 1974)

" The A m iens P atera", J ournal x li, 195 1, p p .22-24

R oman S tudies,

R oman V illa, W est P ark, R ockbourne, N r . F ord ingbr idge, H ants . ,I llustrated R eport, p r ivate ly, 1 968 " The R udston Fibulae", A ntiquar ies J ournal, XXIV, 1 954, p p .73-75 X D escription b y, o f t hree a ncient b rooches, J ournal B r itish A rchaeo logical A ssociation, 2 7, 1 871, p p .258-259 C ata logue O f T he A ng lo-Saxon O rnamenta l M eta lwork 7 00-1100 I n T he D epartment O f 74 A nt iquities A shmo lean M useum,Oxford, 1-g

H ob ley, B .

( 1969)

" A N eronian-Vespasianic M ilitary S ite A t ' The L unt ', B aginton, W arw ickshire", B irm ingham A rchaeo logical S ociety T rans. & P roc., 8 3, 1 966-7, p p .65-129

H ob ley , B .

( 1973)

" Excavat ions A t ' The L unt ' R oman M ilitary S ite, B aginton, W arw ickshire, 1 968-71. S econd I nter im R eport", B irmingham A nd W arw ickshire A rchaeo logical S ociety T rans., 8 5, 1 971-3, p p .7-92

H odges, H .

( 1964 )

A rtefacts, L ondon, 1 964

H ogg, A .H.A .

( 1951)

" The V otadini", p p .200-220 o f G r imes ( 195 1)

H ughes, M .J.

( 1972)

" A t echnical s tudy o f o paque r ed g lass o f t he I ron A ge i n B r itain", P roc. P rehistor ic S ociety , X XXVIII, 1 972, p p .98107

H ull, M .R .

( 1958)

R oman C o lchester, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o . X X, O xford, 1 958

H u ll, M .R .

( 1964)

" Brooches", p p .88-90 o f C un liffe ( 1964)

H u ll ,M .R .

( 1967)

" The N or N our Brooches", p p .28-64 o f D ud ley ( 1967)

H unter, A .G .& J .R . ( 1952) J ackson, D .A .& T .M . ( 1978) J acobstha l, P . J enkins, F .

K irk,

A mbrose ,

( 1944)

( 1951)

" Excavations a t C ampsf ield, K id lington, O xon ., 1 949", O xoniensia, x vii, 1 952, p p .36-62 " Excavations a t W aker ly, N orthants, 1972-75", B r itannia, I X, 1 978, p p .115-242 E ar ly C e ltic A rt, O xford, 1 944 R oman C anterbury N o . 5 . A n A ccount o f t he E xcavations i n B urgate i n 1 946-8, L ondon, 1 951

1 55

J essup, R .

( 1950)

A ng lo-Saxon J ewe llery, L ondon, 1 950

J essup, R .

( 1970)

S outh-East E ng land, L ondon, 1 970

J ohns, C .

( 1974)

" A R oman s ilver p in f rom O ldcroft, G loucestershire", A ntiquaries J ourna l , L IV, 1 974, p p .295-297

J ones, G .D .B .

( 1974)

J ones, M .U . e t a l.

( 1976)

R oman M anchester, M anchester, 1 974 " Ce ltic c oin-mou lds f rom O ld S leaford, L inco lnshire", A ntiquar ies J ournal, L VI, 1 976, p p .238-24 1

J ope, E .M .

( 1951)

" A B ronze B utt O r F erru le F rom T he R iver B ann", B e lfast M unicipal M useum a nd A rt G allery B ullet in, i , 1 95 1, p p .57-65

J ope, E .M .

( 1955)

" Chariotry a nd P aired-Draught i n I re land d ur ing t he E ar ly I ron A ge: T he E v idence o f s ome H orse-Br idle-Bits", U lster J ourna l A rchaeo logy, 3 rd s er . 1 8, 1 955, p p .37-44

J ope, E .M .

( 197 1)

" The W itham S h ie ld", p p .61-69 o f S ieveking ( 197 1)

J ope, E .M . &W ilson, B .C.S . ( 1957)

.D. " A B ur ial G roup o f t he F irst C entury A own", f rom ' Loughey ', n ear D onaghadee, C o . D U lster J ournal A rchaeo logy, 3 rd s er . 2 0, 1 957, p p .73-94

K emb le, J .M .

H orae F erales, L ondon, 1 863

( 1863)

K endrick, T .D .

( 1932)

" Br itish H anging-Bow ls" , A nt iquity , v i, 1 932, p p .16 1-184

K endrick, T .D .

( 1941)

" A L ate S axon H anging-bow l", A ntiquar ies J ournal, X XI, 1 941, p p .161-162

K endrick, T .D .

( 194 1a)

" The S cunthorpe B ow l", A ntiquar ies J ournal, XI, 1 94 1, p p .236-238 X

K enyon, K .

( 1934)

" The R oman T heatre a t V erulam ium, S t . A lbans", A rchaeo logia, 8 4, 1 934, p .2 13-261 p

K enyon, K .M .

( 1938)

" Excavations a t V iroconium, 1 936-7" A rchaeologia, 8 8, 1 938, p p .213-288

K enyon, K .M .

( 1948)

E xcavations a t t he J ewry W all S ite, L eicester, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o. X V, O xford, 1 948

K ilbr ide-Jones, H .E. ( 1937)

" The E vo lut ion O f P enannu lar B rooches W ith Z oomorph ic T erm inals I n G reat B ritain

1 56

K ilbr ide-Jones, H .E. ( 1937) c ont .

A nd I re land", P roc. R oyal I r ish A cademy, 37 9 -4 55 4 3, 1 935-7, p7

K i1bride-Jones, H .E . ( 1980a)

Z oomorphic P enannu lar B rooches, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A nt iquar ies L ondon n o . X XXIX, L ondon, 1 980

K ilbr ide-Jones, H .E . ( 1980b )

C e lt ic C raftsmanship I n B ronze, L ondon, 1 980

K ing, A .(1971)

" Romano-Br it ish M etalwork F rom T he S ett le D istr ict O f W est Y orksh ire ", Y orkshire A rchaeo logica l J ournal, x lii, 1 971, 10-4 17 p.4

K irk, J .R .

" Bronzes f rom W oodeaton, O xon .,", O xon iensia, x iv, 1 949, p p .1-45

( 1949)

K ramer, W . ( 1960)

" The O pp idum o f M anching", A nt iquity, xx iv, 1 960, p p .1-20 x

L aing, L . ( 1975 )

" The M ote o f M ark a nd t he o r igins o f C e lt ic i nter lace", A ntiquity, x lix, 1 975, p p .98-108

L aver, P .G .

( 1926 )

" The -E xcavation o f aT umu lus a t L exden, C o lchester ", A rchaeo logia, 7 8, 1 927, p.241-254

L eeds, E .T .

( 1933 )

C e lt ic O rnament, O xford, 1 933

L eeds, E .T .

( 1949 )

E ar ly A ng lo-Saxon G reat S quare-Headed B rooches, O xford,

L erat, L . ( 1956)

1 9 4 9

C ata logue D es C o llect ions A rcheo logiques D e B esancon I L es F ibu les G allo-Romaines, B esancon, 1 956

L ethbr idge, T .C .

( 1952)

" Excavat ions a t K i lpedher, S outh U ist, a nd t he p rob lem o f B rochs a nd W hee l-houses", P roc. P reh istoric S ociety, X VIII, 1 952, f i l 57 7 7 6 -1 93

L ethbridge, T .C .

( 1952)

" Bronze B ow l o f t he D ark A ges f rom H ildersham, C ambs.", P roc. C ambr idge A nt iquar ian S ociety, — C F /7 > 1 952, p.44-47

L oe, L e B aron d e ( 1937)

B e lgique A ncienne: C ata logue D escr ipt if E t R aisonne, II L a P er iode R omaine, B russe ls, 1 937

L ondon M useum ( 1962)

R oman L ondon, L ondon, 1 962 ( comp iled b y H .W . Y oung)

L ongley, D . ( 1975)

T he A ng lo-Saxon C onnect ion, B .A .R . 2,

W ord, 1 975

1 57

L ong ley, D .

( 1980)

T he M ote O f M ark : aD ark A ge H illfort i n s outh-west S cot land ( 1979 e xcavations: i nterim r eport ), S t. A ndrews, 1 980 ( hand-out)

L ongworth, I . ( 1965)

" A M assive C ist w ith M u ltip le B ur ia ls o f I ron A ge D ate a t L ochend ‚ D unbar" P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, X CVIII, 1 964-6, p p . 1 73183

L owry, P .R . e t a l.

" Scr iber, G raver , S corer, T racer; n otes o n E xper iments i n B ronze-working T echn ique", P roc. P rehistor ic S ociety, X XXVIII, 1 97 1, p .167-182 p

L ucas, A .

( 1971)

( 1948)

A ncient E gyptian M ater ia ls a nd I ndustr ies, L ondon, 1 948

M acDonald, G . &C ur ie, J .O . ( 1929)

" The R oman F ort A t M umr ills N ear F a lk irk", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L XIII, 1 928-9, p.396-575

M acGregor, G .

" The E ar ly I ron A ge M etalwork H oard F rom S tanw ick, N .R . Y orks.", P roc. P rehistor ic S ociety, X XVIII, 1 962, p p .17-57

( 1962)

M cWhirr, A . e d.

M arsden, P .

( 1976)

( 1980)

S tudies i n t he A rchaeo logy a nd H istory o f C irencester, B .A .R . 3 0, O xford, 1 976 R oman L ondon, L ondon, 1 980

M aryon, H .

( 1954)

M eta lwork a nd E name lling, L ondon, 1 954

M aryon, H .

( 1956)

" Fine M etal-Work", c hapter 1 3 o f S inger e t a l. ( 1956)

M axwe ll ,H .E .

( 1886)

" Not ice o f a n E name lled B ronze H arness O rnament f rom A uchendo lly, S tewartry o f K ilcudbr ightshire", P roc. S ociety A nt iquaries S cotland, X, 1 885-6, p p .396.3US—

M ay, T .

( 1904)

W arr ington 's R oman R emains, W arrington, 1 904

M ay, J .

( 1971)

" An I ron A ge S pout F rom K irmington, L incolnshire", A ntiquar ies J ournal , L I, 1 97 1 ,p p .252-259

M egaw, J .V .S .

( 1963)

" A B ritish B ronze B ow l O f T he B e lgic I ron A ge F rom P o land", A ntiquaries J ourna l, X LIII, 1 963, p p .27-37

M egaw, J .V .S.

( 1970)

A rt O f T he E uropean I ron A ge, B ath, 1 970

1 58

M egaw, J .V.S.

( 1971)

" A G roup O f L ater I ron A ge C o llars O r N eck-Rings F rom W estern B ritain", p .145-156 o f S ieveking ( 1971) p

M egaw, J .V.S.

( 1971)

" The F e lmersham F ish-Head S pout", A ntiquar ies J ournal, L I, 1 971, p p .299-300

M errief ield, R . ( 1962)

" Coins F rom T he B ed O f T he W albrook, A nd T heir S ignif icance", A ntiquar ies J ournal , X LII, 1 962, p p .38-52

M errief ie ld, R . ( 1965)

T he R oman C ity O f L ondon, L ondon, 1 965

M ichon, E .

" Anneau e maille t rouve a E auze ( Gers)", A ntiquaries J ournal, V , 1 925, p p.145-147

M iket, R .

( 1925)

( 1974)

" Metalwork" p p .159162 o f B reeze ( 1974)

M oore ,C .N .

( 1973)

" Two E xamp les o f L ate C e ltic a nd E ar ly R oman M etalwork f rom S outh L inco lnshire", B r itannia, I V, 1 973, p p .153-159

M oore, C .N.

( 1978)

" An e name lled S killet-hand le f rom B rough-on-Fosse", B r itannia, I X, 1 978, p .319-326 p

M orr ison, J .

M ottram, A .S.

M unro, R .

( 1873)

( 1968)

( 1899 )

D onat ion b y, o f p in w ith e name lled h ead f rom U rquhart, P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, X , 1 872-4, p .357 " An E name lled B ronze A rm let F rom S outhacre", N orfo lk A rchaeo logy , 3 4, 1 968, p p .259-262 " Notes o n aC rannog a t H yndford, n ear L anark, r ecent ly d iscovered a nd e xcavated b y A ndrew S mith", P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, X XXIII, 1 898-9, p p .373-387

M usty, J . &B utcher, S . ( 1976)

" A r eassessment o f R oman ' bronzes'from R ichborough R oman F ort, K ent", A ntiquar ies J ournal, L XVI, 1 976, p p .24 1-242

N ash-W illiams, V .E. ( 1930)

" Further E xcavations a t C aerwent, M onmouthshire, 1 923-5", A rchaeo logia, 8 0, 1 930, p p .229-288

N eal ,D .S.

T he E xcavation o f t he R oman V illa i n G adebr idge P ark, H eme l H empstead, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A nt iquar ies L ondon n o. X XXI, L ondon, 1 974

( 1974)

N ewton, R .G .

( 1971)

" A P reliminary E xam inat ion O f AS uggest ion T hat P ieces O f S trongly C o loured G lass W ere A rticles O f T rade I n I ron A ge B r itain", A rchaeometry, 1 3, 1 971, p p .1116

1 59

O livier, A .C .H.

( 1979)

O 'R iordain, S .P.

( 1942)

P ainter, K . &S ax, M . ( 1970)

" Brooches" p p.65-69 ( Raveng lass) a nd 2 062 12 ( Watercock ) o f P otter ( 1979) " The E xcavation O f A L arge E arthen R ing-Fort A t G arranes, C o . C ork", P roc. R oya l I r ish A cademy, 4 7, 1 94 1, p p .77150 " The B r itish M useum c o llection o f R oman h ead-stud b rooches", B r itish M useum Q uarter ly, x xx iv, 1 970, p p ,153174

P eers, C . &R adford, C .A .R . " The S axon M onastery o f W hitby", ( 1943) A rchaeo logia, 8 9, 1 943, p p.27-88 P iggott, S .

( 1950)

" Excavations i n t he B roch a nd H ill-Fort O f T orwood lee, S e lkirkshire, 1 950", P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, L XXi V, 1 9501, p p .92137

P iggott, S .

( 1952)

" Three M etalwork H oards O f T he R oman P eriod F rom S outhern S cot land", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L XXXVI, 1 952-3, p .1-50 p

P iggott, S .

( 1970)

E ar ly C e lt ic A rt, E dinburgh, 1 970

P itt R ivers, A .

( 1887)

E xcavations I n C ranborne C hase V o l. p rivate ly, 1 887

I ,

P itt R ivers, A .

( 1888)

E xcavations I n C ranborne C hase V o l. p r ivate ly, 1 888

I,

P itt R ivers, A .

( 1892)

E xcavations I n B oker ly a nd W ansdyke, D orset a nd W ilts . 1 888-T8-9 1V o l. II, p r ivate ly, 1 892

P itt R ivers, A .

( 1898)

E xcavations I n C ranborne C hase V o l. I V, p rivate ly, 1 898

P itts, L .F.

( 1979)

R oman B ronze F igur ines f rom t he C iv itates o f t he C atuve llaun i a nd T rinovantes, B .A .R . 6 0, O xford, 1 979

P otter, T .

( 1977)

" The B ig lands M ilefort let a nd t he C umber land C oast D efenses", B ritannia, V III, 1 977, p p .1 49-183

P otter, T .

( 1979)

R omans I n N orth-West E ng land, K enda l, 1 979

P r ice, J .E .

( 1873)

R oman A ntiquit ies R ecent ly D iscovered O n T he S ite O f T he N ationa l S afe D eposit C ompany 's P rem ises, M ansion H ouse, L ondon, L ondon, 1 873

1 60

P reston, H .

( 19 16)

" Roman B r itish R emains A t S altersford, n ear G rantham ", L inco lnshire N otes a nd Q uer ies, x iv, 1 9 16-7, p p .35-50

P .S.A .S .

( 190 1)

P urchase o f e name lled b ronze p in f rom P abbay, P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, X XXV, 1 900-0 1, p .278

P .S.A .S.

( 1908)

P urchase o f e name lled p in f rom B irsay, P roc. S ociety _ A nt iquaries S cot land, X LIII, 1 908-9, p p .8-9

P .S.A .S.

( 1930 )

P urchase o f e name lled h and p in, P roc. S ociety A nt iquaries S cot lan L XV, 1 930-31 ,p .13

P .S.A .S .

( 1947)

P urchase o f e name lled s ilver p in f rom F resw ick L inks, P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, L XXXI, 1 946-7, p .196

R ae, A . &V .

R ead, C .H.

( 1974)

( 19 10 )

" The R oman F ort a t C ramond, E dinburgh: E xcavations 1 954-1966", B ritannia, V , 1 974, p p .163-224 E xhib ition o f b r id le-bit f rom T hames, n ow i n 1 .M ., P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies, 2 nd s er . x xiii, 1 909-11, p p .156-159

R hatz, P .A . &G reenf ie ld, E . ( 1977)

E xcavations A t C hew V alley L ake, L ondon, 1 977

R ichardson, K .M .

( 1944)

" Report o n E xcavations a t V erulam ium: I nsu la X VII, 1 938" ,A rchaeo logia, 9 0, 1 944, p p .8 1126

R ichardson, K .M .

( 1960)

" A R oman B rooch f rom t he O uter H ebrides w ith N otes o n O thers o f i ts T ype", A nt iquar ies J ourna l, X L, 1 960, p p .200-213

R ichardson, K .M .

( 1969)

" A B rooch F rom T he P ump R oom H ote l", p p .64-65 o f C unliffe ( 1969)

R ichmond,

I .A .

( 1958)

R oman A nd N ative I n N orth B ritain, E dinburgh, 1 958

R ichmond, I .A .

( 1968)

H od H ill V o l. 2 E xcavations C arried O ut B etween 1 951 a nd 1 956, L ondon, 1 968

R iha, E .

( 1979)

R obertson, A .S.

D ie R omischen F ibe ln A us A ugst U nd K aiseraugst, A ugst, 1 979 ( 1970)

R oyal C omm ission ( 1962)

" Roman F inds F rom N on-Roman S ites I n S cot land", B ritannia, I , 1 970, p p .198-226 E buracum, v o l. I , L ondon, R oyal C omm ission H istor ic M onuments E ngland, 1 962

1 6 1

S a leh, S .A .

.( 1972 )

" Study o f g lass a nd g lass-mak ing p rocesses a t W adi E l-Natrum, E gypt, i n t he R oman p eriod 3 0 B .C. t o A .D . 3 59 . P art I F r itting c rucib les t heir t echnica l f eatures a nd t emperature e mp loyed", S tudies I n C onservation, 1 7, 1 972 , p p .143-172

S avory, H .N.

( 1966)

" A F ind O f E ar ly I ron A ge M eta lwork F rom F rom T he L esser G arth, P entyrch ( G lam.)", A rchaeo logia C ambrensis, c xv, 1 966, p.27-44

S avory, H .N.

( 1976)

G uide C atalogue o f t he E ar ly I ron A ge C o llections, C ardiff , N ational M useum o f W ales, 1 976

S ayre, E .V.

S cott, J .

( 1965)

" Summary o f A na lysis o f A pp lication o f W orks o f

t he B rookhaven P rogram o f A ncient G lass", p p .145154 o f o f S cience i n t he E xam inat ion A rt, B oston, 1 965

D onation t o N ational M useum o f A ntiquities b y, o f c o llect ion f rom T rentsmuir, S t . A ndrews, F ife., P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, L VII, 1 922-3, p .109

( 1922)

S e llye, I . ( 1939)

" Les B i sonze E mailles d e l a P annon ie R omaine" , D essertationes P annonicae, s er . 2 , f asc. 8 , 1 939, p p .1-9 1

S haw, K . ( 1972)

S cience f or C raft P otters a nd E name llers, N ewton A bbot, 1 972

S impson, G .

( 1964)

B r itons a nd T he R oman A rmy, L ondon, 1 964

S impson, M .

( 1968)

" Massive A rm lets i n t he N orth B ritish I ron A ge ", p p .233-254 o f C o les &S impson ( 1968)

S impson, M .

( 1970)

" Some R oman-Iron A ge F inger R ings", P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, C II, 1 964-70, p .1 05-108 p

S impson, M .

( 1972)

" An I ron A ge T ankard F ragment F rom C aerwent", A ntiquar ies J ournal, L II, 1 972, p p.330-33 1

S impson, W .D .

( 1954)

S inger, C . e t a l.

( 1958)

D undarg C ast le, E dinburgh, 1 954 AH istory o f T echno logy, v o l. xford, 1 956 1

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S later, E .A . &T ait, J .0 . ( 1980)

P roceedings O f T he 1 6th I nternational S ymposium O n A rchaeometry A nd A rchaeo lol ical P rospection E dinburgh 1 976, E dinburgh, 1 980

S mall, A . &C ottam, M .B . ( 1972)

C raig P hadr ig, D undee, 1 972

1 62

S mall, A . e t a l.

( 1973)

S t. N inian 's I s le A nd I ts T reasure, D 7ford, 1 973

S m ith, D .L.

( 1976)

" Survey o f B adge E name lling i n B irm ingham", M edical S cience L aw, 1 6, 1 976, p p .33-36

S mith, H .E .

( 1866)

" Some I nterest ing F eatures O f AN eg lected R oman S tation, B rough-Under-Stainmore", T rans. H istor ical S ociety L ancashire & C heshire, n ew s er . v i, 1 865-6, p p .137-152

S m ith, J .A .

( 188 1)

" Notice O f AM assive B ronze ' Late-Ce ltic' A rm let A nd T wo S mall O bjects O f B ronze ( Horse-Harness) F ound W ith A R oman B ronze P ate lla, A t S tanhope, P eeb lesshire, I n 1 876; W ith A n A ccount O f O ther B ronze O r B rass A rm lets F ound I n S cot land", P roc. S ociety A ntiquar ies S cot land, X V, 1 880-1, p p.3 16-363

S m ith, J .

( 19 19 )

" Excavat ion O f T he F orts O f C ast lehill, A itnock, a nd C oalhill, A yrshire ", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, L III, 9 18-9, p p .123134 1

S mith, R .A .

( 1908)

" Note o n aR omano-Br itish h oard o f b ronze o bjects f ound o n L amberton M oor, B erw ickshire", P roc. S ociety A ntiquaries S cot land, X XII, 1 907-9, p p .5 1-62

S m ith, R .A .

( 1908)

" Note a nd L ist o f H anging B ow ls", P roc. S ociety A nt iquaries L ondon, 2 nd s er . x xii, 1 907-9, p p .66-86

S m ith, R .A .

( 1909)

" A H oard o f M etal F ound a t S anton D ownham, S uffo lk", P roc. C ambr idge A ntiquar ian Tif; 1 908-9, p p .146163 S ociety, k

S m ith, R .A .

( 1925)

G uide T o E ar ly I ron A ge A nt iquit ies, L ondon, B r itish M useum, 1 925

S mythe, J .A .

( 1937)

" Roman O bjects O f C opper A nd I ron F rom T he N orth O f E ng land", P roc . U niversity D urham P hilosophical S ociety, i x, 1 93 1-7, p p .382-405

S pitae ls, P .

( 1970)

" La V illa G allo-Romaine D 'Anthee", H e lenium, x , 1 970, p p .209-24 1

S prat ling, M .

( 1970)

" The L ate P re-Roman I ron A ge B ronze M irror F rom O ld W arden", B edfordshire A rchaeo logica l J ournal, v , 1 970, p p .516

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( 1975)

" Fragments o f al or ica s egmentata i n t he h oard f rom S anton, N orfo lk", B r itannia, V I, 1 975, p p .206-207

1 63

S prat ling, M .

( 1979)

" The D ebr is o f M ata l W orking" c hapter I X, p .125149 o f W ainwr ight ( 1979) p

S prat ling, M .

( 1980)

" Observations o n t he A na lysis o f t he C omposition o f t he O paque R ed G lass ( 'Red E name l') o f t he B r itish P re-Roman I ron A ge", p .113-118 o f S later & T ait e ds. ( 1980 ) p

S prat ling, M .

( 1980)

" An I ron A ge B ronze F oundry A t G ussage A ll S aints, D orset : P re liminary A ssessment O f T echno logy", p.268-292 o f S later & T ait e ds. ( 1980)

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( 1965)

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S tead, I .M .

( 1967)

" A L a T ene II B ur ial a t W e lwyn G arden C ity", A rchaeo logia, 1 0 1, 1 967, p p .1-62

S tead,

I .M .

( 1971)

" Yorkshire b efore t he R omans:some r ecent d iscoveries", p.1-43 o f B ut ler ( 1971)

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( 1976)

E xcavations A t W interton R oman V illa, L ondon, 1 976

S tead, I .M .

( 1979)

T he A r as C u lture, Y ork, 1 979

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( 1972)

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( 1977)

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( 19 17)

" Woodeaton", J ournal R oman S tudies, v ii, 1 9 17, p p.98-119

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( 1963)

" Statuettes O f H orsemen A nd H orses A nd O ther V otive O bjects F rom B r igstock, N orthants .", A nt iquar ies J ournal, X LIII, 1 963, p p .264-268

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( 1959)

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( 1972)

" Ce ltic L inch-pin H eads f rom C o lne F en, H untingdonshire" ‚ Antiquaries J ournal, X LI, 1 961, p p .253-258 A n E conomic S urvey O f A ncient R ome, 59 5v o ls ., P aterson, N ew J ersey, -1-9 C rafts U n lim ited C atalogue, 1 972

1 64

T homas, C .

( 1963)

T he I nterpretation o f t he P ictish S ymbo ls", A rchaeo logical J ournal ,c xx, 1 963, p p .31-97

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" The R oman A quaduct A t L inco ln", A rchaeo logical J ourna l, c xi, 1 954, p p .106128

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R oman C heshire, C hester, 1 965

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T o ll, N .P.

( 1965)

( 1871)

" On A ncient B rit ish B arrows, e specially t hose o f W iltshire a nd t he a djoining c ount ies", A rchaeo logia, 4 3, 1 871, p p .285-544

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" Ename lled B ronzes" p p .35-43 o f P art I V, T he B ronze O bjects ( by T .G . F inch & N .P. T o ll), o f t he F inal R eport o f T he E xcavations A t D ura E uropos ( eE—b y M .I. R ostovzeff e t a l.), N ew H aven, 1 949

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( 1962)

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,

V ictoria C ounty H istory ( 190 1)

T he V ictoria H istory O f T he C ounty O f N orfo lk, v o l. I , L ondon, —T 9-0 1

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( 1969)

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( 1953)

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( 1939)

" Iron A ge M etal H orse B its o f t he B r it ish I s les", P roc . P rehistor ic S ociety, V , 1 939, p p .173-192

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( 1940)

" Two E ar ly L inch P ins f rom K ing 's L ang ley, H erts., a nd f rom T iddington, S tratford-onA von A ntiquar ies J ournal, X X, 1 940, p p .358-387

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" Be lgic B ronzes A nd P ottery F ound A t F elmersham-On-Ouse, B edfordshire", A ntiquaries J ourna l, X XIX, 1 949, p p .37-61

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( 1958)

" The R oman M ilitary A dvance u nder O stor ius S capu la", A rchaeological J ourna l, c xv . 1 958, p p . 4 9-58

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( 1971)

" A h oard o f R oman m ilitary e quipment f rom F remington H agg", p p . 1 07-126 o f B ut ler ( 1971)

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( 1975)

T he C ornovii, L ondon, 1 975

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( 1978)

U eview o f E ar ly C e lt ic A rt i n N orth B ritain, B r itannia, I X, 1 978, p p . 4 90-49 1

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( 1976)

" Medieval B r itain i n 1 975. P art I P re-Conquest", M edieval A rchaeology , 2 0, 1 976, p. 1 58-176

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( 1977)

" Medieval B r itain i n 1 976. P art 1 P re-Conquest", M edieva l A rchaeo logy , 2 1, 1 977, p. 2 04-222

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( 1967)

W enger M eta l E name lling H andbook, S toke-on-Trent, 1 957

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( 1931)

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( 1923)

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W hee ler, R .E .M . & F .V.

( 1928) " The R oman A mphitheatre a t C aer lson, M onmouthshire ", A rchaeo logia, 7 8, 1 928, p p . 11-2 18

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( 1936 ) V erulam ium, A B e lgic a nd T wo R oman C ities, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o. X I, L ondon, 1 936

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( 1943)

M aiden C ast le, D orset, R eport R esearch C omm ittee S ociety A ntiquar ies L ondon n o . X II, O xford, 1 943

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W ild, J .P.

( 1946)

( 1970)

L ondon I n R oman T imes, L ondon M useum C atalogues N o. 3 , L ondon, 1 946 " Button-and-Loop F asteners i n t he R oman P rovinces", B r itannia, I , 1 970, p . 1 37-155 p

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( 1948)

R oman C anterbury N o. 3 A n A ccount o f t he E xcavations c arried o ut d uring 1 945, M edici S ociety, L ondon, 1 948

W ilson, D .M .

( 1964)

A ng lo-Saxon O rnamental M etalwork 7 00-1100 I n T he B r itish M useum, L ondon, B r itish M useum, 1 964

W ilson, D .M .

( 1969)

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( 197 1)

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W ilson, D .R .

( 1973)

" Roman B r itain i n 1 972 . I . S ites E xp lored", B r itannia, I V, 1 973, p . 2 71-323 p

W r ight, R .P . a nd H assall, M .W .C . ( 1973)

" Roman B r itain I n 1 972 . I. I nscript ions", B r itannia, I V, 1 973, p p . 3 24-337

Y orkshire M useum ,

H andbook o f A ntiquities, Y ork, 1 892

( 1892)

1 67

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