Ritual, Rites and Religion in Prehistory, Volumes i and ii: IIIrd Deya International Conference of Prehistory 9781407387314, 9781407387321, 9780860547914, 9781407349169

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
DEDICACION
THE DEVIL'S ADVOCATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. THICK DESCRIPTION AND CONTEXTUAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE INTERPRETATION OF PREHISTORIC RITUAL: A CASE STUDY FROM SOUTHERN ITALY
2. GENDER, RITUAL, RITES AND RELIGION: AN OVERVIEW
3. THE ORIENTATIONS OF MEDITERRANEAN TOMBS AND SANCTUARIES
4. CLOTHED IN RITUAL, CEREMONY, DRESS AND DANCE IN FIJI:
MISSIONARY INFLUENCES
5. THE HUMAN IMAGE IN THE NATUFIAN AND ACERAMIC NEOLITHIC PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE EAST
6. R.I.P. IN GOZO
7. RELIGION IN THE 'PREHISTORIC PHASES' OF PHOENICIAN MALTA
8. FUNCION Y SIGNIFICADO DE LAS TAULAS: EL CASA DE TORRALBA D'EN SALORT
9. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF SANCTUARIES
IN EARLY BRONZE AGE SICILY
10. CONTEXTUAL SIGNIFICANCE OF RITUAL EVIDENCE IN MALTA
11. DEED OR MURDER MOST FOUL? RITUAL, RITE OR RELIGION? MALLORCAN INHUMATION IN QUICKLIME
12. RADIOCARBON DATING OF THE SON MATGE ROCK SHELTER
13. SOCIAL CONTROL OR 'OPIUM OF THE PEOPLE'? THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN THE NEOLITHIC OF THE TAVOLIERE
14. FUNERARY PRACTICES AND IBERIAN SOCIETY IN NORTH-EAST ANDALUSIA
15. TRANSFORMATIONS IN MORTUARY PRACTICE AND MEANING IN THE NEOLITHIC AND COPPER AGE OF LOWLAND AND EAST-CENTRAL ITALY
16. THE FUNCTION OF BALEARIC BELL BEAKER POTTERY AS A CEREMONIAL AND VOTIVE OBJECT
17. A CASE HISTORY: FUNCTION AND ORIGIN OF MALLORCAN CAST LEAD, VOTIVE FUNERARY JEWELRY
18. ESTUDIO DE COMPLEJOS FUNERARIOS:
RECONSTRUCCIÓN DE LOS PATRONES DE DIETA HUMANA Y DE LOS RITOS FUNERARIOS A TRAVES DE LOS ANÁLISIS PALEOETNOBOTÁNICOS Y FUNCIONALES DE LOS OBJETOS LÍTICOS
19. APROXEMACIÓN A LA SISTEMATIZACIÓN Y CRONOLOGÍA DE LAS ESTRUCTURAS FUNERARIAS
DE LA CULTURA TALAIÓTICA EN MALLORCA
20. "THAT'S HOW IT IS". AN ACCOUNT OF DEATH RITUALS IN SALÉ, CIRCA 1935
21. MEGALITHISM AND SOCIETY IN EASTERN LANGUEDOC DURING THE FINAL LATE PHASE OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD
22. FUNERARY RITUAL IN MALLORCA DURING THE PRE-TALAIOTIC PERIOD (Copper and Early Bronze Age)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
24. MORTUARY RITES IN THE CELTIBERIAN CEMETERY OF ARAGONCILLO
(GUADALAJARA, SPAIN)
25. RELIGIÓN, RITO Y RITUAL DURANTE LA PROTOHISTORIA PENINSULAR. EL FENÓMENO RELIGIOSO EN LA CULTURA IBÉRICA
26. LA ARQUITECTURA COMO RITUAL SOCIAL:
EL CASO DE LAS NURAGAS SARDAS
27. DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD AND DISPERSAL OF THE LIVING IN PRE-ARGARIC S.E. SPAIN. ABRIGO 2 DE EL MILANO AND A REVISION OF THE DYNAMICS OF CULTURAL CHANGE: "LITTLE BIG MEN" AND NO GROWTH IN POPULATION?
28. LES TINTINÀBULES: UN ESTAT DE LA QÜESTIÓ
29. TE MAS ATLANTICOS EN EL ARTE MEGALITICO DEL SUROESTE PENINSULAR
30. LA TAULA DE BINISSAFULLET
31. VALORACION Y SIGNIFICADO DE UN SÍMBOLO MEDITERRÁNEO:
LOS "CUERNOS DE LA CONSAGRACIÓN"
32. EL INFANTICIDlO EN LA ANTIGEÜEDAD
33. UBICACIÓ TOPOGRÀFICA DE LAS TAULES I SANTUARIS MENORQUINS EL SEU SIGNIFICAT ECONÒMICI SOCIAL.
34. UNA SOCIEDAD EN ESTADIO DE JEFATURA (CHIEFDOMS).
LA CULTURA TALAYOTICA BALEAR
35. 'ESISTENZA DI UNA COSCIENZA RELIGIOSA NELL'UOMO PREISTORICO DELLA "OLD EUROPE" E DEL MONDO MEDITERRANEO: TESTIMONIANZE ARCHEOLOGICHE

Citation preview

Ritual, Rites and Religion in Prehistory Illrd Deya International Conference of Prehistory Volume I edited by

W. H. Waldren, J. A. Ensenyat and R. C. Kennard

BAR International Series 611 1995

B.A.R. All titles available from: Hadrian Books Ltd, 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

BAR S611 (I)

Ritual, Rite and Religion in Prehistory: Il/rd Deya International Conference of Prehistory Volume I

© the individual authors 1995 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387314 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387321 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860547914 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407349169 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547914 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

DED ICAC ION

E s ta p ub l icac ión e s tá d ed icada al am emor ia d e lf a i l ic ido D r . Manue lF e rnande z -M i randa e ra , a !l av e z , u n q ue r ido ye s t imado a m igo , a s ic omo u n c o lega aq u ien t odos e chamos d e m enos . S u r epen t ino f a l lec im ien to c ons t i luye u na g ran p é rd ida p a ra l aA rqueo logIa e n E spaf la yp a ra l ad i sc ip l ina e ng ene ra l .

DED ICAT ION

T h i sp ub l ica t ion i sd ed ica ted t ot h e m emor y o ft h e l a te D r . Manue lF ernande z -M i randa . Mano lo w as ad ea ra nd e s teemed f r iend a s w e l la s c o l league w hom w e w i l la l l m i s s . H i s u n t ime ly d em i se i s as er iou sl o s st oS pan i sh a rchaeo logy a nd t ot h ed i sc ip l ine a s aw ho le .

THE DEV IL 'S ADVOCATE

Wha t make s u s t h ink t ha tf rom t h e c once i to fo ur d i sc ip l ine s , t h ec omf or to fo ur a rmcha ir sa nd t h e s o lace o fo u rb ook sw ec an i n te rp re tm ean ings , a c t ions , i n ne re mo t ion sa nd mo t iva t ions o fi nd iv idua l s w ho e xpe r ienced t h em m i l lenn ia a go? I nr egard t os ub jec t sl i ke r i tua l , r i te sa nd r e l ig ion, a s i no t her q ue s t ions c once rn ing t h ed i s tan tp a s t , w ea sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh i s tor ians h ave t ow ork a nd c on t e n t o u r se lve s w i th m inu scu le , v e s t ig ia lp iece so fe v idence t h a ts omehow m iracu lou s ly h ave e scaped t h e r avage s o ft i me . A s a rchaeo log i s t s , w ep r i se o u t t he se i nd iv idua lf ragmen t s o fe v idence f rom t h e e a r th , o ne b yo ne . A ss cho la rs a nd s c ien t i s t s w ee xam ine a nd a na ly se t h em i nt h el i gh to fo ur p resen t c on tex t sa nd a b i l i t ie s . T h i s i st h ew ay w et a ke o n , a sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh i s tor ians , t h eu ncer ta in a nd s pecu la t ive t a sk o fb reach ing t h eg ap b e tween t h ed i s tan t , u n recorded p a s ta nd t h ep resen t . H ow w et h ink w ec an manage t oe x t rac ts ome r e semb lance o fw ha tt ook p lace a nd b u i ld s ome l og ica l , c on v i nc ing , e ven h i s tor ica lp ic ture o fw ha tt o ok p lace b e tween t h e l i t e ra te p re sen ta nd a lmos tc omp le te ly i l i tera te p a s t , i sn o t much l e ss t han aq u ixo t ic q ue s to rc ha l lenge a nd a rr iv ing a ta ny t h ing , ab i t o f am i rac le . T h i sd oes n o td o much e i ther t oi mprove o u rc oncep t ion o ft h ep a s t ,s hor ten t h ed i s tance b e tween t wo w or ld so rf i l lt h eg ap o fw ha tc an o n ly b er ef er red t oa s ac ha sm o rh ia tu s . N e i the rd oe s i ta f o rd u st h el e as tb i to fr ea ls uccou rf rom t h ef ac tt ha tt h ef a r ther b ack i nt ime w eg o , t h em ore o b s cure i st h ee v idence a va i lab le t ot h ea rchaeo log i s ta nd p reh i s tor ian . T he re mu s tb es ome d eep -roo ted b e l ief i nt h ea b i l i ty o ft h eh uman m ind a nd s p ir i t t ot h ink t h a ts uch e v idence i ss omehow r e tr ievab le , o therw i se t h ere w ou ld b e n od e s i re o r l og ic i nt r y ing . A nd c er ta in ly , b ys o d o ing , t h e re i si n vo lved m uch n a ive ty a ndf ancf u l a l though p e rhap sd i v ine , n o t ion. ‚

A nonymou s 1 995 .

ABOGADO DEL D IABLO

Q

u én os h ace c reer q ue d e lo rgu l lo d e n ue s tros d i sc Ipu lo s , l ac omod idad d e n ue s tros s i l ione s ye i c onsue lo d en ue s t ros i b ros p odemo s i n terpre tar l a sa cc ione s , l a se moc ione s ym o t ivac ione s i n te rna s d e i nd iv iduo s q ue t u v ie ron d i chos s en h im ien tos h ace m i le sd ea ños? C on r e spec to at ema sd omo r i tu a l , r i tos y r e l ig ione s , a s Ic omo o t ra s c ue s l ione s q ue h acen r e f erenc ia a u npa sado l e jano , n oso tros , c omo a rqueó logos yp reh i s tor iadore s t e nemos q ue t r aba ja r yc onf ormarnos c on m in zscu los v e s t ig ios q ue d ef orma , m i lagrosa h an e scapado a l af ur ia d e l h i empo . C omo a rqueo logos , e x traemos u no a u no , e s lo sf ragmen tos d e e v idenc ia d e l i n te r ior d el al i er ra . C omo i n ve s t igadore s yc i en t if icos l o se x a m inamos ya na l i zamos d e sde l ap erspec t ivade n ue s t ro p re sen te yd e n ues tras h ab i l idades . D e e s ta r n anera e mp redemos , c omo a rqueo iogo s eh i s tor iadore s , l ai n c ier ta ye specu la t iva m is ión d e u n ir e i l e jano ei ndocumen tado p a sado c on e ip re sen be . E ip en sa rq ue p odemos e x traer a l go p a rec ido a l o q ue o cu rr ió yc on s tru ir a i guna i magen l ó g ica ,f eac ien te , i n c lu so h i s ió r ica d el oq ue p a so e n t re e ip re s en te d e scr i bo y u np a sado i nde term inado , e su n i n ten to q u i jo te sco , u n r e to . . . ye iq ue t e nga s en t ido , u npequeno m i lagro . E s to t ampoco a yudo am e jora rn ue s ira i d ea d e lp a sado , a cor ta r l ad i s tanc ia e n i r e d os m undos y r e l lena r u n h ueco q ue s o lo p uede s er c ons iderado c omo u n s ima , u n h ia to e n e i s i empo . T ampoco n os p rocura c on n i ngün t i po d e a s i s tenc ia c on r e f erenc ia a lh echo d e q ue c uan lo ma sa t rd sn os i n iernamos e ne iz i empo md so scuro s on l a se v id enc ia sq ue e la rqueó logo yp reh is tor ia d or p ueden o b tene r . D ebe d eh oher a lguna c reenc ia b á s ica e nl ah ab i l idade sd el am en te ye ie spf r i tu h umano q ue n osperm i zepen sa r q ue e s lo sv e s h ig iospuedan s e rr ecuperados d ea l gunaf orma c or rec L as i no , n o h abr ia e id e seo oe i mo t ivo e n i n ten tar io . Yd ef in i t ivamen te , e s te p roce so , i n c luye m ucha i n exper ienc ia yi n cre ib le sn oc ione s ,a igunas d ee l ia sd ec a rá ie rd i v ino .

Anon imo 1 994

ACKNO WLEDGEMENT * * * * * * **

CONSELLER IA DE CULT IJRA DEL GOVERN BALEAR CONSELLER IA DE CULTURA DEL CONSF JJ I NSULAR DE MALLORCA A JUNTA MENT DE DE IA A JUNTAMENT DE S OLLER A JUNTA MENT DE VALLDEMOSSA MUSEU DE SOLLER EARTH WATCF I AND CENTRE FOR F IELD RESEARCH DE JA ARCHAEOLOG ICAL MUSEUM AND RESEARCH CENTRE

PREFACE

I ti sb ecom ing i n c reas ing l yc l ear t h a ts ome o ft h ed i sc ip l ine sa nd a v enue so fi n ves t iga t ion u sed i nt h ei n terp re ta t i on o ft h ep r eh i s tor ic p a s th ave n o tb een a sp roduc t ive a s w e h ave e xpec ted a nd b een l e dt ob e l ieve . A nd a / t h ough t , t h ep hy s ica la nd o t he rs c ience sa r ep rov id ing u sw i th a ne ver g row ing t o o lk i tf or u se i nt h ei n te rpre ta t i on a nd a s se ssmen to ft h ed i s tan tp a s t , i ti ss t i l ln o ts uf i c ien t .I ti si mpera t ive t ha tw ec omb ine w ha tw ed ok now a nd h ave w i th s t i l lo the r t h ink ing . Wh i le e mp ir ica le v idence a nd s oph is t ica ted p hy s ica la na l y se s w i l la lway sb e a tt h er oo to ft h ed i sc ip l ines o fa rchaeo logy a nd p r eh i s tor yi np ar t icu lar , i ti si n c reas ing ly e v iden tt h a tw em us t a l so s eek o th er a l terna t ive a nd i n nova t ive a venues o fe nqu i ry . W e n eed t od eve lop a venues o fi n qu i ry t h a ta re m o re s u i ted t oo ur i n d iv idua lg eograph ica l a reas o fr e search a nd p er sona la pproache s , d eve lop ing o ur o wn t e chn ique sa nd m e thodo logy ,p rac t ica la nd a pp l icab l et ot h ei mmed ia te c on tex tua la rchaeo log ica lr e qu i r emen t s . I ti sa l so b ecom ing mo re a nd mo r ee v iden tt h a tw e mu s tc ons id er k i nd red d i sc ip l ine s , l i k ea n thropo logy , e t hno lo g ya nd o the ra l l ied n a tura l , h uman a nd s oc ia ls c ience sf o rm or ee f f ec t ive i n terpre t ive t o o l s .A tt h es ame t i me , w e m u s tu nder s tand t h a tt h e se m u l t if a r iou sd i s c ip l ines t h em s e lve sh ave l im i ta t ion sa nd d on o ta lway sr e cogn i se o r u se e ach o th e r ef i c ien t ly a nd t ot h eb e s to ft h e i ra b i l i t ie s , d e sp i te t h ef ac tt h a tt h ey d os hare t h ec ommon a im o f u nd er s tand ing h wnank ind , i t si n s t i tu t ions ,p rac t ices a nd i d io sy croc ie s , a nd t h e ref ore t h e se d i sc ip l ine ss hou ld i n a l lp rac t ica l i t yb eb rough tc l o se rt o ge ther . O therw i se , h ow a re w ee ver t od e term ine a sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p r eh i s tor ians , w ha to nce w ere r i tua l , r i te so rr e l i g ion? E spec ia l l ys i nce mo s t o ft h e r ea le v id ence o fp as ta c t iv i t ies , c u s tom sa nd g e s ture su nd e r ly ing t h es t ruc t u re a nd O rgan i sa t ion o fa nc ien td a i l yl i f ei sa tb e s tv e ry p oor ly p r eser ved , e v en o no cca s ion t o ta l l yo b l i te ra t ed i n r e spec tt oh a rd c o re e v idence . F ur the rmo r e , t h ef ar the rb ack i nt ü ne w ea t te mp t t o r each , t h em ore e v id en tt h ese f ac ts b ecom e . L i t t le t r ace o fp a s ts ub s i s tenc ea c t iv i ty a nd i t ss uppo r t ive e conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t ruc ture s ur v ives . L ik e t h eo n -s i te p hy s ica le v id ence w ha t l i t t le d oes s omehow m anage t os ur v ive i ss carce ly e ver w e l ld ef i ned o r e a s i ly p e rcep tab le a nd , t h e ref o re , a l lt h e mo re di f f i cu l tt o u nde r s tand . I fl i t t l ep hy s ica le v idence s ur v ive sr ega rd i n gs ecu lar m a t te r s , s t i l ll e s sr ema in so f as a cred o rs p i r i tua ln a ture b yw h i ch w em igh tp os s ib l yu nd er s tand b y g one r i tua lo rr e l ig ion , much l e s st h es ub t l e rp rac t ice sa nd m ean ings t h a tw e re b eh ind t h em . U nd er t h eb e s to fc i rcum s tance s w ha t w ea re c onf ron ted w i th a re t h eJ ew , mu te a rch i tec tura l , a r tef ac t sa nd a n ima lr ema in st h a tt h rough ac omb ina t ion o fb l ind c hance a nd g ood f o r tune h ave s omehow m anaged t os ur v ive t h er avages o ft i m e . N ever the l e s s , i ti so ur t a sk a sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh i s tor ian st ot r ya nd d e t e rm ine , a sb e s t w ec an , h ow t h es e cu lar a nd s ac r ed o pera t ed a nd w e re i n corpo ra ted i n to t h ee ve ryday l i ve so ft h ea nc ien tp eop le w eh ave c ho sen t os t udy . l ti se s sen t ia lt h a tw ed ot h i s , e ven i fm o s to ft h ee v idence t h a tw eh av e t ow o rk w i th i s t h ef ew , v er ys ma l lp hy s ica lv e s t ige so ft h e i rm a ter ia lw or ld , a nd e v en l e s sv i s ib le r ema in so ft h e i rs p i r i tua lo ne . O nt h el a t te ra spec t , w ha tr ema in sa nd w a sh e ld a ss acred o rs p ir i tua l l yi mpo r tan t i nt h em ind sa nd a c t iv i t ie so f t h ea nc ien t si si n d eed av e r i tab le e n igma a nd mo s t , i fn o ta l l , o ft h e i rc on sc iou sa nd u ncon sc iou sm o t ive sa nd a c t i on sp erhap sg one f or ever . U n l ik et h ea rchaeo log i s ta nd p r eh i s tor ian , t h ea n th ropo log i s ta nd h i s tor ian f a ir b e t te r , h av ing n oe nd o fw ea l th a nd d i rec ta cce s st ol i v ing p roo fa nd g ood e xamp le s , a long w i th o ther e v id en ce o fs ecu la ra nd r e l ig iou sb ehav i o ur a nd o rgan i sa t ion b o th i nt h ep re sen ta sw e l la si mmed ia te p a s t . T hey h ave t h ea d van tage o fp e r soan lo b ser v a t ion t h rough t r ave la nd c on ta c ta nd af und o fw r i t ten r e co rd w i th w h ich t o d raw c onc lu s ion s ; c onven ience s J ew o fw h ich a re s hared b ya r chaeo log is t sa nd p reh i s tor ian s , w here t h e i re v id ence i sg l eaned f rom c ompar i son , i n f e rence o rh ypo the s is . I np reh i s to ry , u nd e r s tand ing o fs acred a nd s p i r i tua lm a t ter s , a sw i th s e cu lar a c t iv i t ies , i s ama t ter o fs k e tchy , e ven p suedo -phy s ica le v id enc e . I nd eed , w eh ave ,f o rt h e mo s tp ar t , t e s t ed a nd u n te s t ed d e t a i l sp rov id ed b yo ur p ee r sa l ong w i th c ompara t ive e xa mp l es i ne t hno log i ca la nd a n thropo log ica lr e cord s . A l lo f t h i si so f ten m ixed w i th f ash ionab le h ypo the se sa nd mo re t h an ap lacebo o fi mag ina t ion , o b ser ved r e t ro spec t ive l y f r om an i ne teen th a nd t wen t ie th c en tury p o in to fv i ew . l ti si n d eed r ar e , a s a rchaeo log is t s a nd p reh i s to r ian s , w hen w e c ome u p w i th s t rong p hy s ica l e v id ence f or r e l iab l e s ecu lar a nd s acred a c t iv i ie s i nt h e p reh i s tor ic r e cord , e v id ence g i v ing u s r e l iab le c l ue s a nd d e ta i l s t o t h ep o s s ib le s equence a nd m anne r i nw h ich e v en t s t o ok p l ace .

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND REL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

O nr are o ccas ion s , w eh ave t h ew r i t ten r e cord o fe ar l yh i s to r ian s ,s uch a sH e rodo tu s , D iodoru s ,P l iny a nd S t ra b o , w ho i nt h ec on tex to ft h e ir p ar t icu lar c en tury h ave g i ven u ss ome i n s igh t sa nd e ven d e ta i l sr e gard ing t h e ' p r z ma t ive 'p eop le t h ey o bserved a nd c ame i n to c on tac tw i th d ur ing t h e i rt r av e l s t h roughou tt h e Med i ter ranean a nd t h e r e s t o fE urope . Mo s t o ft h e se a ccoun t s , w h i l e h i s tor ica l ly i n tere s t ing , c ur ious l y i n f orma t ive a nd c e r ta in ly w or th r ead ing , a re o b se rva t ion s mad eb y e a r ly h i s to r ian sa nd t r ave l er sf r om t h ep e r spec t ive o fw ha t mu s th ave b een c ons id e red a ne n l igh tened c i v i l ised v i ew o ft h eg rea tB arba r ian Wor ld . Aw o r ld t h a tw a si nr ea l i t yf ar o u t s i d et h e ir c ons truc t ive u nd e r s tand ing , e ven a so ur si ss epa ra ted f rom t h e i r s ,o ro ur sf rom w ha tw ea n thropo log i c a l l yc a l l mod e rn p r im i t ive s oc ie t i es . N om a t ter h ow c l o se ly w es t ud yt h em o rl i ve w i th t h em , w ew i l ln e ver s uc c eed i nb e ing t h em , o re ven b e ing l i k et h em ,o t he rt h an b yw ay o fe mpa thy a nd s ome f o rm o fr e cons t ruc t ion . We h ave l e aned h eav i ly a tt i me so n t h e se e a r ly h i s to r i ca lr e cord sa nd a ccoun t sf or e s sen t ia ld e scr ip t ion a nd u n d e r s tand ing o fa nc ien ts oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou sc ond i t ion sa nd p rac t i ce s . U nf o r tuna te ly ,s uch e ar ly h i s to r i c a lr e cord sh ave v e ry l i t t le r ea lv a lue i no ur u nd er s tand ing o fs t i l le ar l ie rp reh i s to r ic p er iod so u t s id et h er ea lm o ft h e se e ar ly t r ave l er s . F or t h i s , w es t i l lh ave t ot o ok f or e mp ir ica le v id ence w i th t h ep o ten t ia lo fb e ing a b le t o g i ve u sr ea sonab ly r e l iab le d a ta . A tt h es ame t i me , w e mu s ts e tu ps ome f o rm o fc r i t er ia f or d e te rm in ing w ha ti s t h e s ecu lar a nd s acred a nd w ha ta re t h e s i gns o fr i tua l i s t ic o r r e l ig iou sa c t iv i ty? F or e xamp le , w ha t o n s i te p hy s ica lo ro t he re v id ence d oe so rd oe sn o tc on s t i tu te ar i tua lo rr e l ig iou sa c t iv i ty h av ing t a k en p lace? O rw ha t c ons t i tu te so rd if e ren t ia te s ar e l igous s i te a rea f rom as e cu lar o ne f or t h a tm a t ter? A nd h ow c an w ea ch ieve a b e t ter a pprec ia t ion a nd u nd er s tand ing o fb o th t h e a c t iv i t y a nd t h e s i t e , a s w e l l a s t h e i nd iv idua l s w ho w e re p resen ta nd u sed t h es i te? I nc e r ta in r e spec ts , w en eed o n ly t oe xam ine t h et o p ic sa nd v a r ie ty o ft h ep aper sp re sen ted a nd t h ea pproache s u nd er taken i nt h ec ur ren tc onf erence f or a n i d ea o fs ome o ft h er equ i red c r i ter ia ,p o ten t ia la venue se xp lored , a s w e l la st h e l i m i ta t ion sa nd o t her s hor tcom ings w eh av et oa ccep ta nd w ork w i th . Among t h e se a re :( 1 ) t h em any k i nd s o fa rch i tec ture e noun t e red , ( a ) t h e ir g eograph ic s i tua t ion ( a l ignmen t , o r ien ta t ion , s pac ia ld i v is ion . e t c . ) . ( b ) t h ec harac ter i s t ic sa nd n a tu re o ft h e i rc on s truc t ion ( t echn ique su sed a nd k i nd o fm a t e r ia l s ,e t c . ) ;( 2 ) t h ea s so c i a ted a r tef ac t s , ( a ) t h e ir t y pe a nd/ unc t ion ( qua l i ty , q uan t i t y ,f r equency a nd m a ter ia lc ompo s i t ion , e t c . ) ;( 3 ) t h e a s soc ia t ed a n ima le v idence , ( a ) i n d ica t ing o f e r ings ,s ac r if i ce s , e ven c omme rc ia ln ego t ia t ion , ( b ) t h ea n ima lt y pe ( a ge a td ea th a nd s pec ies f r equency , e t c . ) ;( 4 ) t h es i te a c t iv i ty s equence s . ( a ) t h e ir o r ig in ( p recon s t ruc t ion , c on s t ruc t ion a nd p o s t c on s truc t ion p hase s ) a nd ( b ) t h e i rf unc t ion , c on t ex t s a nd a ssoc ia t ed ma ter ia l s a nd ( 5 ) t h e c ompar i son a nd c or re la t ion o ft h e d a ta a nd m a t er ia le v id ence b o th i nt empora la nd s pa t ia l t e rm s , b o th c l o se t o h ome a nd f a r ther a f ie ld . A l lo ft h ese i nd iv idua la pp roaches o ver lap , b o th d i sc ip l inar i ly a nd a r te f ac tua l ly , a nd a re c l o se l y i n te r re la ted . T he w ay s i nw h ich t h ey r e ly o n a nd r e la te t oo ne a no the rf orm t h e b a s is o ft h ec o l l ec t ive a nd p roduc t ive g u ide l i ne sa nd p roces se s w eh ave a dop ted f or t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o fa nc ien t r i tua la nd r e l ig iou sp rac t ice s , a nd/ or t h e a reas w here e ven t s t o ok p lace . T hey a re a l so h i gh l y i d eo sync ra t ic t ot h e r eg ion s i nw h ich t h ey o ccurr ed . I n s ho r t , t h ey a re t h ep rec iou sf ew v a luab le c l ue s i nd e te rm in ing t h ed e ta i l sa nd p a t t ern s o fa nc ien te v eryday e x i s t e nce . l ti st h ese t h a tw eh av eh ad t od raw o nf or o ur h ypo the se sa nd c oncep t sr e ga rd ing t h ec e leb ra t ions o ff e r t i l i ty , b i r th , r i tes o fp a s sage a nd a t t i tud e so fa nd r e spon se st od ea th . T h i sc onf e rence h a sb een mo t iva ted b y t h e e xp re s s n eed t oe xp lo re t h e se i n terpre t ive c r i ter ia mo r ef u l ly , a nd p o ss ib ly t oc on s ider n ew d i rec t ion sa nd a ve n ue so fe nqu i ry a sw e l la s ar e in terpre ta t ion a nd r e con s id era t ion o fw ha td oes c on s t i tu t ea nc ien ta nd mod e rn r i t u a l ,r i t e sa nd r e l ig ion . Wh i le t h es cope o ft h ec onf er ence h a sb een o rgan i sed t oi n c lud ep rac t ice sw h ich m ay o rm ay n o th ave b een s e c u l ar o rs acred b ef ore t h ew r i t t en r e co rd i na l lp a r t so ft h ew or ld , ag roup o fa n thropo log i s t sa nd h i s tor ians h ave a l so b een i n v i ted f or a n i n te rchange o fi d ea sa nd t or ound o fs ome o ft h ea n t iqua t ed , o veru s ed v i ew sa nd a rgu m en t sh e ld b ya l lt h ed i sc ip l ine s , e spec ia l ly t h es t ud yo fp reh i s to ry . T he p re sen tc on f erence , t h ough amod e s to ne c ons id er ing t h ee norm i ty o ft h e t h eme h as b een o rgan i sed i na na t temp tt oc ro s so ve rt h eb oundar ie so fi n d iv idu a ld i sc ip l ine st h a t , i fg i ven s uf i c ien tf o re though ts hou ld b ei ne ve ry r e spe c ti n te rd isc ip l ina ry .

w .h .w .

O x fo rd 1 994

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

VOLUL M ] 1 CONTENTS

R .

TH ICK DESCR IPT ION AND CONTEXTUAL ARCHAEOLOGY N THE I NTERPRETAT ION

OF P REH ISTOR IC R ITUAL : A CASE S TUDY F RO M SOUTHERN I TALY RUTH D . WH ITEHOUSE 2

GENDER : R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION : AN OVERV IE W

J ACQUEL INE D . WALDREN 3 .

1 31

3 2 -37

OR IENTAT ION OF MED ITERRANEAN TO MBS AND SANCTUAR IES

M ICHAEL HOSK IN a nd E L IZABETH ALLAN

3 8-67

4 . C LOTHES I NR ITUAL , CEREMONY , DRESS AND DANCE I NF IJ I: M ISS IONARY I NFLUENCES J ANETTE DAV IES .

THE HUMAN IMAGE N THE ACERAM IC NEOL ITH IC P ER IOD OF THE M IDDLE EAST

HANS D IETER B IENERT S .

6 8-74

7 5-103

R . I .P .I N GOZO

DAV ID TRU MP

1 04-113

7 . R EL IG ION I N THE PREH ISTOR IC ' P H ASES OF PHOEN IC IAN MALTA ANOTN TO F RENDO

14-121

S . TORRALBA D 'EN SALORT : FUNCT ION Y S IGN IF ICADO DE LAS TAULAS DE MENORCA MANUEL F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA , WILL IA M H . WALDREN , ED WARD 0 . S ANDERS

1 22-129

OBSERVAT IONS ON THE FOR M AND THE FUNCT ION OF SANCTUAR IES I N EARLY BRONZE AGE S IC ILY OWEN DOONAN H )

CONTEXTUAL S IGN IF ICANCE OF R ITUAL EV IDENCE N MALTA

ANTON IO BONANNO 1 1 .

1 30 -135

1 36 -145

DEED OR MURDER MOST FOUL?

R ITUAL ,R ITE OR REL IG ION? MALLORCAN I NHU MAT ION I N QU ICKL IME W ILL IA M H . W ALDREN a nd MARK VAN S TRYDONCK 1 2 .

RAD IOCARBON DAT ING OF THE S ON MATGE ROCK S HELTER

MARK VAN S TRYDONCK AND WILL IAM H . WALDREN 1 3 .

1 46 -163

1 64 -182

SOC IAL CONTROL OR ' OP IUM OF THE P EOPLE '?

THE ROLE OF REL IG ION I N THE NEOL ITH IC OF THE TAVO UERE KER l BRO WN

1 83 -193

\/ \

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

1 4 .

FUNERARY P RACT ICES AND I BER IAN SOC IETY I N EASTERN ANDALUS IA

TERESA CHAPA BRUNET 1 5 .

1 94 -2 10

THE TRANSFOR MAT ION OF TRAD IT ION : CHANGES I N MORTUARY PRACT ICE

AND MEAN ING DUR ING THE NEOL ITH IC AND COPPER AGE I N EAST -CENTRAL I TALY ROB IN SKEATES 1 6 .

2 11-237

THE FUNCT ION OF BALEAR IC B ELL BEAKER POTTERY

AS A CEREMON IAL AND VOT IVE OBJECT WILL IAM H . WALDREN 1 7 .

UNA T IPOLOG IA DE LOS S ANTUAR IOS P REH ISTOR ICOS MALLORQU INES

WILL IAM H . WALDREN AND CARMEN CUB I GR IMALT 1 8

2 38 -263

2 64 -280

E STUD IO DE CO MPLE JOS FUNERAR IOS : R ECONSTRUCC ION DE LOS PATRONES

DE D IETA HUMANA Y DE LOS R ITOS FUNERAR IOS A TRAVES DE LOS ANAL IS IS PALEOETNOBOTAN ICOS Y DE LAS DEFORMAC IONES M ICROSCOP ICAS DE OBJETOS L IT ICOS POR U SO ANTROP ICO EN E L MED ITERRANEO OCC IDENTAL MANUEL CALVO , ROSA MAR IA ALBERT , J ORD IJ UAN yXAV IER MANGADO 1 9 .

2 8 1-295

APROX IMAC ION A LA S ISTEMAT IZAC ION Y CRONOLOG IA DE LAS

E STRUCTURAS FUNERAR IAS DE LA CULTURA TALA IOT ICA EN MALLORCA J AU ME COLL -CONESA 2 0 .

THAT 'S HO W I T WAS !

2 96 -310 AN ACCOUNT OF DEATH I N SALE ,C IRCA 1 935

KENNETH BRO WN 2 1 .

MEGAL ITH IS ME E T SOC IETE EN LANGUEDOC OR IENTAL AU

NEOL ITH IQUE F INAL : LA PART DU SACRE J EAN MARC ROGER 2 2

3 11-314

3 15 -333

FUNERARY R ITUAL I N MALLORCA DUR ING THE PRETALAYOT IC P ER IOD

J OSEP F . ENSENYAT ALCOVER

3 34 -353

TH ICK DESCR IPT ION AND CONTEXTUAL ARCHAEOLOGY I N THE I NTERPREFAT ION OF P REH ISTOR IC R ITUAL : A CASE S TUDY FRO M S OUTHERN I TALY

RUTH D . WH ITEHO U SE

I n s t i tu t eo fA r cha eo logy U n ive r s i ty C o l leg eL ondon 3 1 -34 G o rdon S qua r e L o ndon WC 1H O PY E ng la nd I NTRODUCF ION

Th e r e h a s l ong b een at e n s ion i na rchaeo logy ,a si na n t h ropo logy a nd o the r s oc ia l s c ience s ,b e tween ac oncen t r a t ion o n t h e i n tr ica te d e ta i l o fi nd iv idua l s t ud ie s a nd t h e d e s ire t op roduce g ene ra l is ing s t a temen t s a bou t t h e h uman c ond i t ion . Wh i le t h e t e n s ion i sr e a l , i tw i l l n o t b e r e so lved b y o ne a pp roach p reva i l ing o ve r t h e o the r , s i nce i ti so bv iou s t h a t b o th a r e v i ta l t ot h e h ea l thy d e v e lopmen t o f t h e s ub jec t . A nd s i nce , a sf a r a s Ik now , t h e re i sn or u le t ha ta ni nd iv idua l s cho la rs hou ld c onf ine h e r se lf t o as i ng le a pp roach , Ii n tend t ok eep o ne f oo t f i rm ly i n e ach c amp . T he s ub jec t o f my l a s tp ape r o n p r eh i s to r ic r i tua l ( g iven a tt h e F i f th C onf e rence o fI t a l i a n A rchaeo logy , h e ld a t O xfo rd i n D ecembe r 1 992 ) w a s o f t h e g ene ra l is ing k ind , c once rned w i th t h e r e la t i on sh ip b e tween r e l ig iou s r i tua l a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion ( Wh i tehou se i np re ss a ) . I ts e em s a pp rop r ia te t h e re fo re t oo f f e r o n t h i s o cca s ion a na na ly s is o f t h e o t he rs o r t , a d e ta i led i n te rp re ta t ion o f as pec if ic a r chaeo log ica l s i tua t i on It a ke a s my g u ide l ine s t h e r e la ted c oncep t s o f t h e

a na n ima l s u spended i nw eb s o fs i gn if icance h e h im se lf h a s s pun , It a ke c u l tu re t ob e t ho se w eb s ,a nd t h ea na ly s i s o fi tn o ta ne xpe r imen ta l s c ience i ns e a rch o fl aw b u t a ni n te rp re t ive o ne i ns e a rch o f mean ing ' ( Gee r tz 1 973 : 5 ) , w h i le fodde r w r i te s o fh i s b el ie f' t ha t o t he r w o r ld s o f mean ing , o the r h i s to r ica l c on tex t s w i th t h e i r u n ique f r amewo rk s o f mean ing , c an b e u nde r s tood t h rough a n e xam ina t ion o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re ( fodde r 1 987 : 1 00 ) . H e re Ia pp ly t h e se i d ea s t ot h e a na lys is o f o ne s i te i n s ou the rn I t a ly . T h i s p ape rr e p roduce si nt h e ma in C hap t e r 5o f my r e cen tb ook ( Wh i tehou se 1 992 ) , w it h al i t t le r eo rgan isa t ion a nd s ome a dd i t iona l ma te r ia l . Im ake n o a po logy f o rr epub l i sh ing i th e re , s i nce t h e b ook i sl i ke ly t ob er e ad b yf ew p eop le n o tc once rned w i th I t a l ian p re h i s to ry , w h i le Ih ope t h a tt h ea na ly t ica l a pp roach a dop t e dh e r ew i l l b eo fw ide ri n t e re s t . THE CASE S TUDY T he G ro t ta d e i C e rv i a tP o r to B ad isco i ss i tua t ed o nt h e A dr ia t ic c oa s to ft h e S a len to p en in su la , t h e' h ee l ' o fI t a l y( F igu re 1 ) . T h is a r ea i sr i ch i nc aves wh ich w e re o c -

p ape r 's t i t le , o ne d e r ived f r om a n th ropo logy , t h e o the r

c up ied d ur ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic p e r iod , many o f t h em

s pec if ica l ly a r chaeo log ica l . C l if fo rd G ee r tz 's c oncep t o f' t h ick d e sc r ip t ion ' r e fe r s t ot h e p a l imp se s t o fs t ruc -

k nown f r om e a r ly t h is c en tu ry . T he G ro t ta d iP o r to B ad i sco i sd i f f e ren t , ac ave u n su i tab le f o ro ccupa t ion , d i s c ove red o n ly i n 1 970 ( Graz io s i 1 980 ) . A l though n o t u sed f o rh ab i ta t ion , t h ec ave w a s c e r ta in ly e xp lo i ted b y

t u re s o f i n fe rence a nd i mp l ica t ion t h a t t h e a n th ropo lo g i s t mu s td i sen tang le i nt h e t a sk o fd e sc r ib ing a nd i n te r p r e t ing t h e c u l tu ra l o the r ( Geer tz 1 973 ) . 1 l odde r 's c oncep t o f ' con tex tua l a r chaeo logy ' ( Hodde r 1 986 ; 1 987 ; 1 991) r ep re sen t s ar a the r s im i la r a pp roach f r om a na r chaeo log ica l p e r spec t ive , w i th a ne mpha s is o n ma t e r ia l c u l tu re r a the r t h an l a nguage o r b ehav iou r . T hey s ha re t wo i mpo r tan tf e a tu re s . F i r s t ly t h ey a r e b o th c on c e rned w i th p a r t icu la rd a ta r a the rt h an g ene ra l t h eo ry , o r mo re a ccu ra te ly w i th t h e v i ew t h a t t h eo ry s hou ld b e

p reh i s to r ic p eop le ,i nt h em a in d ur ing t h em idd le t ol a te r N eo l i th ic p e r iod , a l though t h e re a r e i nd ica t ion s o fb o th e a r l ie r a nd l a te r u se . I ti s ac omp lex c ave ( F igu re 2 ) , c on s is t ing o f an umbe r o f l ong , n a r row c o r r ido r s ; t h e t h ree m a in c o r r ido r s a l lc a r ry w a l l p a in t ing s . T oday t h e c ave c an b e e n te red t h rough t wo d i f fe ren t e n t rance s : a w e s te rn o ne , t h rough w h ich t h ec ave w a s d i scove red b y ag roup o f s pe leo log is t s i n 1 970 , a nd a n e a s te rn o ne ,

g rounded i nd a ta ( t end ing t of a vou ri nduc t ive o ve rh ype t h e t ico -deduc t ive r e a son ing ) . S econd ly , t h ey a r e b o th

o n ly d i scove red l a te r b y t h e a r chaeo log is t s e xcava t ing t h e c ave , b u t wh ich p rov ide s mo re r ap id a cce ss t o t h e

c omm i t ted t o as ymbo l ic o r s em io t ic v i ew o f c u l tu re . G ee r tz w r i te s : ' Be l iev ing , w i th Max Webe r , t h a tm an i s

p a in ted a r ea s . B o th e n t rance s c on ta ined d epo s i t s i nd i c a t ing h uman a c t iv i ty ,b u tf o rt h ep u rpo ses o ft h i sa na ly -

RUTH D . WH ITEHOUSE

s i si ti sa s sumed t h a tt h ee a s te rn e n t rance ,p rov id ing t h e mo s td i rec ta cce s s t ot h ep a in ted z one s ,w a s t h em a in o r o n ly e n t rance d u r ing p r eh is to ry . T he p a in t ing s i n t h is r i ch ly d eco ra ted c ave n umbe r n ea r ly 1 000 i nd iv idua l mo t if s ( a l low ing f o rt h ed i ff icu l t i e s o f d ec id ing wha t c on s t i tu te s a n i nd iv idua l mo t if ,

F IGURE 1 .

p a r t icu lar ly i n t h e c a se o f t h e

mo re a b s t rac tp a in t ing s ) ,c ove r ing l a rge a r ea s o ft h ew a l l s ,a nd o cca s i ona l ly a l so t h e r oo f , o f t h e t h ree c o r r ido r s . S ome o f t h e p a in t ing s a r e e xecu ted i nr ed o ch re , b u t b y f a r t h e l a rge s tn umbe ra r ei nb rown , f o rw h ich t h e a r t i s t s made u se o f at h ick d epo s i to fb a tg uano f ound i nz one v io f C or r ido r 2 . G raz io s i 's a na lys is d iv ide s t h e c o r r idor s i n to z one s : z one s ia nd i a r ei nC o r r ido r 1 ,z one s i i ix i n c lu s ive i nC o r r ido r 2a nd z one s x -x i ii n c lu s ive i nC o r r i do r 3( G raz io s i 1 980 : 3 1-6 ) . A s G raz io s i make s c l ea ri nh i se xemp la ry d e sc r ip t ion , t h ez one s a r en o ta r b i t ra ry d iv is ion s m ade f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f s t udy , b u t t r u ly d i s t inc t a r ea s , ma rked o f f o ne f r om a no the r i n a v a r ie ty o fw ay s .T he se d i v i s ion s i n c lude n a r row p a s sag -

e s , o f ten l ow a nd n ego t iab le o n ly o na l l f ou r s ; c hange s i n f l oo r o r c e i l ing l e ve ls , o r i n w id th o f t h e c o r r ido r ; s t a lagm i t ic f o rma t ion s ; r ock fa l l s ; a nd i n te rven ing a r ea s w i thou tp a in t ing s . T he t ype so fz one s epa ra t ion a r et a b u l a ted i nT ab le 1 . I n t h is d i scu s s ion i ti sa s sumed t h a ta l l t h e p a in t ing s

b e long t o ge the r i n as i ng le c omp lex a nd t h a t t h e re a r e n o ma jo rc h rono log ica l d i s t inc t ion s b e tween t h e p a in t i ng s i nd i f fe ren tp a r t s o ft h ec ave ( pace G raz io s i ( 1980 : 8 6 -7 ) w ho s ugges t s t h a t t h er ed f i gu re s i nz one i im ay b e e a r l ie ri nd a te t h an t h e r e s t ) . T h is i sn o t t os ay t h a t a l l t h e p a in t ing s w e re a c tua l ly e xecu ted a t t h e s ame t ime ;i nf a c ti ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h ep a in t ing o ft h e c ave w a s ac on t inuou sp roce ss wh ich may h ave t a ken ac on s ide r a b le p e r iod o ft ime t oc omp le te . Iam a r gu ing ,h owev e r , t h a t t h e re w e re n o ma jo r d i scon t inu i t ie s i nt h e p ro c e ss a nd t h a t t h e a r t i s to ra r t is t s who e xecu ted t h e l a te r p a in t ings w e re a wa re o f , a nd c once rned w i th , a l l t h e p rev iou s ly e x i s t ing p a in t ing s . C e r ta in ly t h e p a in t ings g i ve t h e i mp re s s ion o fa ni n teg ra ted c omp lex : a l though d i f fe ren t s t y le s a nd mo t if s a ppea r i nd i f f e ren t p ropo r -

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i on si nd i f f e ren tz one s ,n os t y le o r mo t if a ppea r si no ne

f i gu re s o n t h e l e f t wa l l o f t h e c ave , g o ing i nwa rd s , i n

z one a l one a nd many d i f fe ren tc omb ina t ion s o f mo t if s o ccu r .

t h ea r ea a d jacen t t ot h e d epo s i to fb a tg uano . B ecau se o ft h e t e rm s o ft h ep e rm i t , Iw a s u nab le t op ho tog raph o r d raw t h i s g roup o n t h e o cca s ion o f my v i s i t , o r t o p l an i t sp rec i se p o s i t ion . B ecau se o ft h is , Ih ave i n c lud -

I n my e xam ina t ion o ft h ep a in t ing s , Imake t h ree d i f f e ren tt ype s o fc ompa r ison : a )b e tween t h e t h ree c o r r i d o r s ; b ) b e tween i nd iv idua l z one s o fp a in t ing s ; a nd c ) b e tween s e r ie s o r p rog re ss ion s o f z one s . T he se c om p a r ison sa r e made w i th t h eh e lp o f as e r ies o fs chema t ic d i ag ram s o f t h e p a in ted z one s , p lo t t ing p ropo r t ion s o f d i f f e ren ts t y le s a nd mo t if s ( F igu res 9 -21 i nc lu s ive ) . I n e a ch c a se t h e se a r ep lo t ted i nt h eu ppe rd i ag ram a sp ro -

e d t h e se f i gu re so n ly i nt h eb road a na ly s is o ff i gu ra t ive v e r su s a bs t rac t mo t if s , b u t h ave e xc luded t h em f r om mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s ,s uch a st h a to fg ende r . Z one i i i sd i s t inc t ive b ecau se i ti st h e f i r s t i n t h e c ave , a n amp le a nd c ommod iou s c hamb e r w i th h igh r oo fa nd f l a tf l oo r ,e a sy t ow a lk a r ound i n u n l ike many -

p o r t ion s o f t h ep a in t ing s i ne ach z one a nd i nt h e l owe r

o the r p a r t s o ft h ec ave a nd b ecau se i tc on ta in s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly p a in t ing s o fr ep re sen ta t iona l t ype , s how ing -

d i ag r am a sp ropo r t ion s o ft h e t o ta l n umbe ro fp a in t ing s o f t h a t t ype . T h i s i s an ece ssa ry d i s t inc t ion , s i nce t h e n umbe r o f p a in t ing s v ar ie s g rea t ly f r om z one t o z one ( t he n umbe r s o fi nd iv idua l mo t if s i ne ach z one , c a lcu l a ted t ot h e b e s t o f my a b i l i ty f r om G raz io s i ' sd e sc r ip t i on a nd p ho tog raph s , a nd w i th u navo idab ly a rb i t ra ry

h un t ing a nd o the rs cene s ,e xecu ted i nr ed . I n my a na ly s i s i ti st r ea ted a s t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e s e r ie s o f z one s , n o to n ly i nC o r r ido r2 ,b u ta l so i nC o r r ido r s 1a nd 3 . I mu s t a dm i t t h a t t h is a s sump t ion may b e u nwa r ran ted , b o th i nt h ec a se o fC o r r ido r 1 ,w h ich may h ave b een e n t e red f r om t h e o the r e nd v i a t h e w e s te rn e n t rance , a nd i nt h ec a se o fC o r r ido r3 ,b ecau se i t s e n t rance i ss i tua t -

d ec i s ion s made a tv a r iou s p o in t s , i ss hown i n F igu re 3 b ) . My c l a s s if ica t ion o f mo t if s d epend s h eav i ly o n t h a t o f G raz io s i , a l though d ive rg ing f r om i ti np l ace s ;

e dj u s t b efo re t h e f i r s t g roup o fp a in t ing s i nz one i . T he refo re i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t oe n te r C o r r ido r 3d i r e c t ly f r om t h e e a s te rn e n t rance w i thou t s e e ing a ny o f t h e z one i ip a in t ing s a ta l l . However , t h e a s sump t ion

my o wn t ype s a r ei lu s t ra ted h e re , b u tf o re a se o fr e f e r e nce Ii n c lude c ro ss r e fe rence s t o G raz io s i ' sd raw ing s e r ie s . F o r t h e p u rpo se o f t h e d i scu ss ion , Imake u se ma in ly o f d raw ing s o f t h e w a l l p a in t ing s , r a the r t han p ho tog raph s ; t h is i nev i tab ly i n vo lve s ad eg ree o fs im -

made h e re i st h a t t h ep reh is to r ic v i s i to rw ou ld h ave e n t e red z one i if i r s ta nd t h en p roceed i no ne o ft h r ee p o s -

p l if ica t ion a nd r a t iona l isa t ion ; Id o n o tb e l ieve ,h owev e r , t h a t Ih ave d one v io lence t ot h er e co rd i nt h i s ma t te r .

s i b le d i rec t ion s : a )t oz one i v ,f u r the ri n s ide C o r r ido r2 ; b )t oz one ii nC o r r ido r 1 ;c )t oz one xi nC o r r ido r3 . Z one v i i i i sd i s t inc t ive i na no the r w ay . I ti s al a rge

I no rde r t om ake t h e d i scu s s ion t h a te n sue s e a s ie rt o f o l low , Is ha l l a n t ic ipa te my ma in c onc lu s ion s a nd e x p l a in t h a t my g ene ra l i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a t t h e o u te r z one sr e p re sen tt h e mo s ta cce ss ib le a nd l e a s ts a c red a r e a s o f t h e c ave a nd , c or respond ing ly , t h e i nne r z one s r e p r e sen t t h e l e a s t a cce ss ib le , mo s t s ac red a r ea s . T h i s

c hambe ro ccup ied a lmo s tc omp le t e ly b y ac one o fd e t r i t u s , t h e r e su l t o f ar ock -fa l l i n a n e a r l ie r p er iod ; t h is c one o fd e t r i tu sc ove r s t h ee n t i re f l oo ra r ea a nd e x tend s u pt ot h e r oo f . Al a rge n umbe ro fp a in t ing s ,a s w e l l a s s ome 1 00 h andp r in t s ( o f wh ich o n ly af ew o ccu ri no t h e r a r ea s ) a r e f ound o n t h e w a l ls a nd c e i l ing o f t h is c hambe r . T ho se o n t h e w a l ls f o l low t h e s l ope o f t h e

i sr ef lec ted i nt h e mo rpho logy o ft h e c ave i t se lf a nd i n t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep a in t ing s( t ob ed i scu s sed b e low ) . If u r the rs ugge s tt h a tt h is r ef lec t s as y s tem o fs t aged i n i t i a t ion si n to r e l ig iou sk now ledge : t h ec ave 's mo rpho lo g y m ap s s pa t ia l ly t h e p roce ss o f i n i t ia t ion i n to e ve r d eepe rl e ve l so fr e l ig iou s ( c o smo log ica l )k now ledge .

c one o fd e t r i tu s ,c l ea r ly i nd ica t ing t h a tt h ec o l lap se p r e d a te s t h ec u l tu se o ft h ec ave . T he d iv i s ion s made f o r p u rpo se s o fc ompa r ison a r e c l ea re nough ,a sf a ra s t h ec o r r ido r s t h em se lve s a nd t h e i nd iv idua l z one so fp a in t ing s a r ec once rned , s i nce t h e se u n i t s a r ed ef ined b y t h es t ruc tu re o ft h ec ave i t se lf . A s w e l l a s t h e se , Is ugges t t h a ti ti sp o ss ib le t or e cogn ise s e r ie s o ft wo o rt h ree z one s e ach , wh ich d emon s t ra te a

ARRANGEMENT AND ORGAN ISAT ION OF ZONES

c e r ta in p a ra l le l ism i n t h e ir d eco ra t ion .

S ome o ft h e z one s s t and o u t a sd i s t inc t ive i np a r t icu la r w ay s . Z one v ic on ta in s many s t a lagm i te s ,a sw e l l a sa p oo l o f s t and ing w a te r c ro ssed b y ar ow o f s t epp ing s t one s ,a nd t h ed epo s i to fb a tg uano wh ich p rov ided t h e

I fw e e x t rac t

Z one I la st h es t a r t ing p o in to ft h em a l l ,t h es e r ie s a r e : 1 ) ii ( Co r r ido r 1 ) 2 i v -v -v i ( Co r r ido r2 ,o u te r ) 3 ) 4 )

r aw m a te r ia l f o r t h e p a in t ing s . G raz io s i d e sc r ibe s t h i s z one a sh av ing n o p a in t ing s a ta l l ,b u t o n av i s i t t ot h e s i te m ade o n 2 4 th Augu s t 1 992 , Is aw as ma l l g roup o f

v i i -v i i i ix ( Co r r ido r2 ,i n ne r ) x -x i -x i i ( Co r r ido r3 )

T he a na ly s is t h a tf o l lows l ook sa t an umbe ro fd i f f e r e n tc ha rac ter i s t ic s .

3

R UT H

D . WH ITEH OUSE

b een u sed . I fw ec ompa re t h e s e r ie s o fz one s ,w eI r nd a

a ) b )

n umbe r so fp a in t ing s d eg ree o f' f igu ra t ivene ss ' /ab s t rac t ion

c ) d )

a b s t rac t mo t i f s i n teg r i ty o f i nd iv idua l mo t if s ( con t inu i ty /

d i s t inc t p a t te rn ing . T he l a s t z one o f e ach s e r ie s h a s o n ly a s ma l l n umbe r o f p a in t ing s : 1 4 i n z one i ,4 i n z one v i ,2 9i nz one i xa nd 2 1 i nz one x i i . B y c on t ra s t , t h e p enu l t ima te z one i ne ach s e r ie s h as al a rge n umbe r o fp a in t ing s : 8 1 i nz on ei ,2 12 i nz one v ,9 9i nz one v i i i ( 199 i ft h eh andp r in t s a r ei n c luded )a nd 1 21 i nz one x i . T he re i s , h oweve r , ad i ve rgence i n t h e p ropo r t ions o f p a in t ing s i nt h e f i r s t z one o fe ach s e r ie s : i nC or r ido r 1

d i scon t inu i ty o fp a in t ing s ) ccu r rence o fs cene s e ) o on ten to fs cene s 1 ) c ende r g ) g med ia to r ' f i gu res h ) '

t h ere i sn o z one b efo re z one i ;i nC o r r ido r 2t h e f i r s t a )

z one s h ave o n ly s ma l ln umbe r s o fp a in t ing s : 4 6i nz one

N umbe r so fp a in t ing s( F igu re 3 .b )

V II

Wes tern e n trance

I

4,m m4 14po , i t ion o i

I I V

4 0

I

I

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0

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3 ,

4 2

7 ,

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7 2

X I F IGURE 2 .

V II

g r p n donb d b y Gnz ao s i

7 4

7 6

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-X II

i va nd 3 9i nz one v i i ; w h i le i nC o r r ido r3 ,t h ef i r s tz one ( x ) h a s 1 65 , t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o fa l l t h e z one s i n t h e

C o r r ido r 1h a s r e la t ive ly f ew p a in t i ng s , f ewe r t h an 1 00 , wh i le C o r r ido r 2

c o r r ido r . Ic onc lude , t en ta t ive ly , t ha t t h e z ones w i th l a rge n umbe r so fp a in t ing s ( i ,v ,v i i i , xa nd x i )w e re a r ea s o f ma jo r c u l ta c t iv i ty , b u t t h a t t h ef i na l z one s o f s e r ie s ( i , v i , i xa nd x i i ) h e ld t h e mo s t s e c re ta nd s a c red i n fo rma -

( i nc lud ing z one i i ) h a s n ear ly 5 00 , i fo ne e xc lude s h andp r in t s ( n ea r ly 6 00 i ft h ey a r ei n c luded ) . C o r r ido r3 i sa l so r i ch ly d eco ra ted , h av ing r a the r mo re t h an 3 00 p a in t ings i ni t s t h ree z one s , a l though i n t h is c o r r ido ri t i sp a r t icu lar ly d i ff icu l tt od ec ide w he re t od raw t h el i ne

t i on , p e rhap s c on ta ined w i th in ar e s t r ic ted n umb er o f v e ry i mpo r tan ti mage s ; t h i s s eem s p ar t icu la r ly l i ke ly i n t h ec a se o fz one i x , wh ich h a s s ome o ft h e mo s tc a refu l -

b e tween o ne mo t if a nd t h en ex t( s ee s ec t ion d )b e low ) . T he n umbe r o f p a in t ing s v a r ie s c on s ide rab ly b e tween z one s a nd t h is i sn o t r e la ted t o t h e amoun t o f s pace a va i lab le f o r p a in t ing , s i nce t h e z ones w i th f ew p a in t -

l yd rawn a nd c ompe l l ing i mage s( F igu re 4 ) . I nz one i x t oo ,o ne g e t st h e i mp re ss ion ,f r om t h ec on tra s tb e tween

i ng s a l l h ave s u i tab le e mp ty s pace s wh ich c ou ld h ave

s ome v e ry f aded i mages a nd o the r s wh ich a r e v ery

4

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

b lack a nd s t rong ly ma rked , t ha t a t temp t s h ad b een

' ma tch -s t ick ' f i gu re s . He re Iu se t h e t e rm ' f igu ra t ive '

made t oe ra se s ome i mage s a nd r ep lace t h em w i th o th -

f o r mo t if s o ft h is s o r t , wh i le a l l o the r s a r e d e sc r ibed a s

e r s . T h is empha s i se s t h e s i gn i f icance o f t h e s urv iv ing i mage s .

' ab s t rac t ' .

/ E a s te rn

-p

e n t rance

8 1

1 4

T h is a na ly s is make s t h e f undamen ta l a s -

s u mp t ion t ha t t h ep e rcep t ion s o ft h e o r ig ina l p opu la t ion

We s te rn e n t rance C or r ido r 1

I

I

5 6

4 6

2 12

I I

I V

V

1 6 5

1 2 1

2 1

x

X I

X I I

4 V I

3 9

1 9 9

2 9

V I I

V I I I

I X

C or r ido r2

C or r i dor 3

F IGURE 3 .

wou ld h ave b een t h e s ame o rs im i la rt oo u ro wn i nt h is b ) F igu ra t ive a nd a b s t rac t mo t if s

r ega rd .

( F igu r e 9 )

T he re i sn o r ea l j u s t if ica t ion f o r t h is a s sump -

t i on , g iven wo rk b y a n th ropo log is t s a nd o the r s o n t h e

None o f t h e p a in t ings i n t h e P o r to B ad isco c ave

w ide ly v a ry ing a r t i s t ic p e rcep t ion s o fd i f fe ren t p eop le s ,

c ou ld b e d e sc r ibed a s n a tu ra l i s t ic o rr ea l is t ic , b u t s ome

b u tf o r a ny k ind o fc l a ss if ica t ion o ne h a s t os t a r t s ome -

a re i n s tan t ly r ecogn isab le a s h uman s , a n ima ls o r a r te -

whe re . I ti sp e rhap s l i ke ly t ha t t h e mo t if s h ere d c s c r ibed a sf i gu ra t ive a l so a ppea red s o t ot h e p reh is to r ic

f ac t s ( e .g . b ows a nd a r rows ) , o f t h e t ype o f ten l abe l led

5

R UTH D . WH ITEHOUSE

p opu la t ion , b u t t h a t s ome o f t h e mo t if s h e re d e sc r ibed a sa b s t rac tm ay h ave s eemed j u s ta sd i rec t ly r ep re sen ta -

r i e s

-

i ,i xa nd x i i

-

h ave t h el owe s tp e rcen tage s . I fo ne

p lo t so n ly C la s s 1h uman sa nd a n ima l s ( F igu re 1 0 ) ,t h e c oncen t ra t ion i nz one i ia nd t h er educ t ion t owa rd s t h e

t i ona l t ot h em . A s w e l l a s d i s t ingu ish ing f i gu ra t ive f r om a b s t rac t mo t if s , Ih ave f u r the r s ubd iv ided t h e f i gu ra t ive g roup

e nd o f t h e s e r ie s i se ven mo re a pparen t . F igu res l øa , ha a nd 1 2a ,p l o tC la s se s 1 ,2 a nd 3h uman sr e spec t ive -

i n to t h ree c l a sse s , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e a se w i th wh ich t h ey c an b ei d en t if ied a s h uman s ,a n ima ls o ra r te fac t s . T he re i sc l ea r ly a na rb it rary e l emen ti nt h ese d iv is ion s ,

l y , wh i le F igu re s l Ob , 1l ba nd 1 2b d ot h es ame f o ra n i ma ls . I nt h ec a se o ft h eh uman s ,C la ss 1o n ly i sp re sen t i nz one i i , w h i le t h is c l a s s o ccu r s i nr e la t ive ly o r v e ry

j u s ta st h e re i si nd i s t ingu ish ing t h e mo s ts chema t ic f i g u ra t ive mo t i f s f r om t h e a b s t rac t o nes . I n f a c t my o wn

s ma l l p ropo r t ion s i na l l o the rz one s , e xcep tx i i whe re i t i sa b sen t a l toge the r . ( The n ew g roup o b served i n my v i s i tt ot h e s i te , men t ioned a bove , wou ld s e em t om ake z one v i a noma lou s i n t h is r e spec t : i tc on s is t s o f f ou r

p ercep t ion s d i f f e r t o s ome e x ten t f r om G raz io s i 's o n t h is m a t te r . Ir ecogn i se t h ef o l low ing c l a sse s :

F IGURE 4 .

C la s s 1h uman s F igu re 5 ( Graz io s i 's T ab le si ,i a nd i n , 1 9 ) C la ss 2h uman s : F igu re 6 a ( G raz io s i 's T ab le s i i ,

1 0 -24 a nd i v ) C la s s 3h uman s : F igu re 6 b

C la ss 1h uman f i gu re s a nd , s i nce t h e re a r e n o o the r p a in t ing s i nt h ez one , 1 00% o ft h e p a in t ing s a r e o ft h i s t y pe . ) C la s s 2h uman s d on o t o ccu r i nz ones i io r v i , b u ta r ep re sen ti nf a i r ly o rv e ry s ma l lp ropo r t ion si na l o the rz one s e xcep tx i i . C la s s 3h uman s d on o to ccu ra t

( G raz io s i 's T ab le v )

C la ss 1a n ima ls : F igu re 7 ( G raz io s i 's T ab les x x i . x x i ia nd x x i i i ) C la ss 2 a n ima ls : F igu re 8 a ( G raz io s i 's T ab le s x x iv , 1 5a nd 9 17 a nd x xv , 1 6 ) C la ss 3 a n ima ls : F igu re 8 b ( G raz io s i 's T ab le x xv ,

a l l i n z one s i i ,i ,i ,i v , v i , i xo r x ;o n t h e o the r h and ,

7 14 ) A r te fac t s : F igu re 8 c

b e ing r a re i ni n t e r io rz one s ia nd i xa nd a b sen tf r om v i i i

t h ey a r e r e la t ive ly w e l l r ep re sen ted i nz one s v ,v i i , v i i i , x i a nd x i i ,a l l w e l li n s ide t h ec ave . T he p a t te rn w i th a n i ma l f i gu re s i ss omewha t d i f fe ren t . C la ss 1 a n ima ls t e nd t oc oncen t ra te t owa rd s t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c ave ,

( G raz io s i 's T ab le s x ix , 4 -14 ,

a nd x i i . C la s s 2a n ima ls a r e r e s t r ic ted i n o ccu r rence , a ppear ing o n ly i n z one s i , v , xa nd x i , a l l ' m idd le ' z one s i ns e r ie s ;n one o ccu ri nt h ei nne r s e r ie s o f z one s i n Ga l lery 2( v i i ,v i i i a nd i x ) . C la ss 3a n ima l s o ccu ri n as im i la rp a t te rn t oC la ss 2a n ima ls , b u tw i th a dd i t iona l o ccu r rence si nz one sf u r the ri n , ia nd v i i i .

1 6 -18 a nd x x , 1 5 ) ( t h is g roup c anno tu sefu l ly b ed i v id e di n to c l a s se s ) . I fa l l t h e f i gu ra t ive mo t if s o fa l l c l a sse s a r e c on s id e red t o ge the r , t h e f o l low ing p a t te rn e me rge s ( F igu re 9 a ) T he re i sa n o verwhe lm ing d om inance o f f i gu ra t ive mo t if s i nz one i i , s ma l le r p ropo r t ion s i n o the r z one s ; t h e i nne r s e r ie s o fC o r r ido r 2h a s f ewe rf i gu ra t ive mo t i f s t h an t h e o the r z one s e r ie s . I n t e rm s o ft h e t o ta l o f

Two p o in t s e me rge f r om t h i s a na ly s is . F i r s t ly , t h e re i s ag ene ra l t e ndency f o r f i gura t ive mo t if s t o c oncen t r a te a tt h eb eg inn ing o fs e r ie s w here t h ey d om ina te i n z one i i a nd t or educe i np ropo r t ion a so ne move sf u r t h e ri n to t h ec ave . I nk eep ing w i th t h i sp rog res s ion ,t h e -

-

p a in t ing s o f t h is t ype , t h e i nne rmo s t z one s o fe ach s e -

6

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p rov ide s ag ood s t a r t ing p o in tf o rf u r the rs t udy . T he ma in f o rm s i d en t if ied b y G raz ios i a r e a s f o l l ow s : C ruc ifo rm sa nd r e la ted f i gu re s ,t hough tt ob ed e r ived f r om i nd iv idua l a nd c o l lec t ive a n th ropomo rph ic r ep re s en ta t ion s ( F igu re 1 3 ; G raz io s i 's T ab le v i , 1 9 , T ab le v i i , 1 19 ) . C ymba l f i gu re s , w i th h o l low c en t re sa nd r a y s o rd o t s a round t h e p e r ime te r ( F igure 1 4 ; G raz ios i 's T ab le v i i i a nd T ab le i x , 1 7 ;p o s s ib ly t h ei r regu la rf i gu re so fT ab le v i i ,2 0 -23 s hou ld b e c on s ide red h e re ,t hough t h ey h ave n o tb een i n c luded i nt h en ume r ica la na ly s is ) . S ub -geome t r ic f i gu re s ( ova ls , l o zenge s , r e c tang le s ) , e i th e rh o l low o rf i l led w i th p a t te rn s( F igu re 1 5 ;G raz io S i 's T ab le i x ,8 -24 a nd T ab le x ;p o s s ib ly a l so t h ef i gu re s s hown i nT ab le x x iv , 6 -8 ,c l a ss if ied b y G raz io s i a s d e r i va t ive a n ima l f i gu re s , s hou ld b e c on s ide red h e re , t hough t h ey h ave n o t b een i n c luded i n t h e n umer ica l a na ly s i s ) . S t e l l ifo rm s( F igu re 1 6 ;G raz io s i 's T ab le x i ) . S f igu re s a nd r e la ted f o rm s ( F igure 1 7 ; G raz io s i 's T ab le sx i ia nd x i i i ) . D oub le s p i ra l sa nd r e la ted f o rm s( F igu re 1 8 ; G raz io s i 's t a b le x i v ) . C oncen t r ic c i rc le s a nd s imp le s p ira ls ( F igu re 1 9 ; G raz io s i 's T ab le x v ) . R o se t te s a nd r e la ted f o rm s ( F igu re 2 0 ; G raz io s i 's T ab le x v i ) . Z igz ag s , t r emo lo l i ne s a nd s e rpen t ifo rm s ( F igu re 2 1 ;G raz io s i 's T ab le sx v i ia nd x v i i i ) . Mo t if s n o t s o f a r c l a s s if ied i nc lude t h ree . c heque r b oa rd g r id s ( G raz io s i 's t a b le x i x , 1 3 ) a nd am ix tu re o f mo t if sd i f f icu l tt oc l a ss ify ( Graz io s i 's T ab le x i x , 1 5 , 1 9 , 2 0a nd 2 1 a nd T ab le x x ,6 18 ) . I n g ene ra l t h e d i f fe ren t t ype s o f mo t if a r e s p read q u i te w ide ly , b u t c e r ta in t ype s t e nd t o c oncen t ra te i n

F IGURE 5

mo re s chema t ic mo t if s t e nd t o o ccu r f u r the ri n to t h ec ave t h an t h e mo re e a s i l y r e cogn i sab le o ne s . T he s e cond p o in ti st h a t ,i ns p i te o f t h i s t e ndency , t h e re a r e n o a b so lu te d i s t inc t ion s : C la s s 1mo t if s o ccu re ven i nt h e i nne rmo s t z one s ( e x c ep tx i i ) , whe re t h ey a r ej ux tapo sed t oa b s t rac t mo t if s .

p a r t icu la r z one s e r ie s . A s f a r a s i nd iv idua l z one s a r e c once rned ,t h e re i s ag rea tc oncen t ra t ion o fc ymba l f i g u re s i nz one v ( n ea r ly 8 4% o fa l l t h e se f i gu re s ) , wh i le

T h is s uppo r t s my c on ten t ion t h a tt h e s t y l is t ic d if e renc e sb e tween z ones r ef lec tn o tc h rono log ica l , b u ts t ruc tu r a l d i f fe rence s . I fw e a s sume t h a t t h ef i gu ra t ive mo t if s

h andp r in t s ( F igu re 2 2 ;n o t s t r ic t ly a n a b s t rac t s ymbo l , b u t c on s ide red h ere f o rc onven ience ) a r e f ound a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly i n z one v i i i ( nea r ly 9 2% ) . O the r mo t if s c oncen t ra te i np a r t icu la rc o r r ido r s o rz one s e r ie s r a the r t h an i nd iv idua l z one s . C ruc ifo rm s a r e c oncen t ra ted i n C o r r ido r 2( 28 .6% i nt h e o u te r z one s e r ie s , 5 7% i n t h e

a r e t h e mo s t a cce ss ib le a nd l e a s t s ac red , t h en w e may r e ga rd t h e p a in t ings i ne ach z one a s r ep re sen t ing s uc c e ss ive t r an sfo rma t ion s o f t h e s ame t h eme s , p r e sen ted i n d ec rea s ing ly f i gu ra t ive a nd i nc rea s ing ly a b s t rac t m anne ra so ne p rog r e s se sf u r the ra l ong z one s e r ie s .

i nne r ) , wh i le t h ere a r e n one a ta l l i n Co r r ido r 3 . S . f i gu re s a re a l so c oncen t ra ted i n Co r r ido r 2( 74% ) , t hough s ome e xamp le s o ccu r i n b o th o the r g a l le r ie s .

c )A b s t rac ts ymbo ls ( F igu re s 1 3 -21 ) Is ha l l n o t d evo te much s pace t od i scu ss ion o f t h e l a rge n umbe ro fa b s t rac ts ymbo l s f ound i nt h ec ave ,n o t b ecau se t h ey a r e n o t i mpo r tan t ,b u tb ecau se Ih ave n o t p roceeded v e ry f a r w i th t h e i r a na ly s i s . Mo s to fw ha t I s a yi nt h is s ec t ion r ep re sen t s G raz io s i 's a na ly s i s ,w h ich

7

B y c on t ra s t t h e d oub le s p ira l s a nd r e la ted f i gu res a r e c oncen t ra ted i nC o r r ido r 3( n ea r ly 7 9% ) , wh i le t h eo th e rt wo g a l le r ie s h ave o n ly a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 .5% e ach . O the r f i gu re s s eem t ob e mo re e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted , a l t hough t h e re a r e i n equa l i t ie s o f l e ss ma rked k i nd t h an

RUTH D . WH ITEHOUSE

t h o se j u s td e sc r ibed . I n af i r s t move t owa rds i n te rp re t ing t h e se s ymbo l s ,a g ene ra lp o in t made b yG raz io s ii sc l ea r ly i mpo r tan t . H e a rgue s t ha t many o f t h e a b s t rac t s i gn s r ep re sen t ' de v o lved ' f orm so fa n th ropomo rph ic a nd z oomo rph ic mo t i f s . T h i s s eem s p l au s ib le o ng ene ra l g round s a nd a l so f i t s w i th my t h e s i s t h a tt h es ame t h eme s r e cu ri nd i f f e r e n t z one s o f t h e c ave , i ni nc rea s ing ly a b s t rac t f o rm a s o ne move s f u r the r i n to t h e c ave . P a r t icu lar ly s i gn if i c an t i sh i s v i ew t h a t many o f t h e a b s t rac t s i gn s r ep re s en t c o l lec t ive mo t if s ,i . e . mu lt ip le h , imnns o ra n ima ls . I ft h is i sa ccep ted ,a nd If i nd i tc onv inc ing my se lf , t h en t h e f i gu ra t ive /ab s t rac t c on t ra s t c an b e c ons ide red a l so a sa n i nd iv idua l /co l lec t ive c on t ra s t , w i th t h ei nd iv idua l v e r s ion s o ft h e mo t if s r ep re sen t ing t h e mo s ta cce ss ib le , t h ec o l lec t ive st h e mo re s ec re tv e r s ion s . I ts eem sl i ke ly t h a tt h e re i s aw ea l th o fa dd i t iona l i n f o rma t ion t ob er e t r ieved b y f u r the re xam ina t ion o ft h e p a t te rn ing o ft h ea b s t rac t mo t if s i nt h ec ave ,b u tt h is r e q u i re s much mo re w o rk . d )C on t inu i ty a nd d i scon t inu i ty o fp a in t ing Ano the rf e a ture w h ich d emon s t ra te s av ar iab le d i s t r i b u t ion p a t te rn i st h e d eg ree o f i n teg r i ty o f i nd iv idua l

a

mo t if s . I n s ome p ane ls e ach mo t if i sc l ea r ly d i s t inc t , wh i le i no the r s mo t if s t e nd t o me rge i n to ac on t inuou s

f

a nd o f ten c onfu s ing i n ter lock ing a r ea o f p a t tern . T h roughou tC o r r ido r s 1a nd 2t h e mo t if sa r ei nt h em a in d i sc re te ; t h is i sa s t r ue o ft h e a b s t rac t mo t if s a s o ft h e

4* 1 tk . ) � tao*

f i gu ra t ive o ne s . T he o n ly r e a l e xcep t ion t ot h i s p a t te rn i si n z one v i i i whe re t h e l a rge p ane ls o f h andp r in t s ( g roup s 4 3 a nd 4 5 ) s how much o ve r lapp ing ; g roup s 3 9 a nd 5 0i nt h es ame z one a r ea l so d i ff icu l tt od i v ide i n to i nd iv idua l mo t if s . I n Co r r ido r 3 , h oweve r , t h e re a re m any g roup so fp a in t ing s whe re t h e mo t if sr un i n to o ne

' A 4b F IGURE 6 .

a no the r a nd o ve r lap . I n z one x g roup s 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 3 , 6 4 , 6 6 a nd 6 8 a r e a l l o ft h is s o r t , w h i le g roup s 6 5 , 6 7 a nd

b e s een a s t h e a n t i thes i s o f o rde r : s i nc e s oc ie ty i sb a sed o no rde r ,d i so rde ri sb o th d ange r o u sa nd p owe r fu la nd i ss t rong ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s u -

6 0l owe ra l so p re sen td i f f icu l t ie s i nd i s t ingu ish ing i nd i v i dua l mo t if s . I nz one x i ,t h el e f t -hand s i de o fg roup 7 3 d emon s tra te s me rg ing a nd o ve r lapp ing , w h i le s ome c c -

p e rna tu ra l . T h is a na ly s is t h e re fo re s ugge s t s t h a ti nt h is r e spec tC o r r ido r 3i s mo re s ac red t h an C o r r ido r s 1a nd

c u r s a l so i ng roup s 7 1 ,7 0 ,74 a nd 7 6 . I nt h ef i na l z one x i i , b y c on tra s t , o n ly g roup 7 5 i so ft h is s o r t , t h e o the r s ma l lg roup s

-

7 7 ,79 ,80 a nd 8 1

-

AA

T J

2 .

b e ing made u po fd i s -

e ) O ccu r r ence o fs c ene s( F igure 2 3 ) S ome o ft h e mo t if so ff i gura t ive t y pe a r ea r ranged i n

c r e te mo t if s . Is ugge s t t h a t t h eb reakdown o fi n teg r i ty o ft h ei nd i v i dua l mo t if so r , t op u ti tt h eo the rw ay r ound ,t h er un -

g roup s wh ich g ive t h e c l ea r i mp ress ion o f f o rm ing s cene s , t h e m a jo r i ty o f wh ich a r e h un t ing s c ene s ( s ee s ec t ion I )b e low ) . O the r g roup s may a l so r ep resen t

n ing t o ge the ra nd o ve r lapp ing o f mo t if s t of o rm c on t in u ou s p a t tern s , r ep re sen t s a no the r f o rm o f i n crea s ing a b s t rac t ion . I n t h is c a se t h e ma in d i s t inc t ion i sn o tb e -

s cene s ,b u ta r en o ts oc l ea r ly o rgan ised t og i ve t h i s i m p re s s ion . T he f o l low ing a na ly s is c on s ide r s t h en umbe r o fs c ene si n az one ,t h en umbe ro ff i gu re si ne ach s c ene ( u sed a s ac rude i nd ica to r o f t h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e s cene ) , t h e d eg ree o f s chema t isa t ion a nd , f i na l ly , t h e

t ween s t age si nz one s e r ie s ,b u tb e tween c o r r ido r s : C o r r i do r 1d emon st ra te s mo s ti n teg r i ty o f mo t if s ,C o r r ido r 3t h el e a s t . T he c ro s s ing a nd b lu r r ing o fb ounda r ie sc an

8

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

p ropo r t ion o fa l l t h e mo t if si ne ach z one w h ich a r ec on s t i tuen t s o fs c ene s . Once a ga in ,t h e re i s ad eg ree o fa r b i t ra r ine ss i n mak ing t h e se d i s t inc t ion s , b u t Ib e l ieve

A s a l ready i nd ica ted , t h e d i s t r ibu t iona l p a t te rn o f s cene s r ef lec t s t h a t o ff i gura t ive mo t if s i ng ene ra l , b u t i nt h is c a se , a sw i th t h e c on t inu i ty /d iscon t inu i ty o f mo t i f s , t h e d i f fe rence s b e tween c o r r ido r s s eem s mo re s i g n i f ican t t h an t h ed i f fe rence s b e tween p o s i t ion s i nz one s e r ie s . Z one i i ,a tt h eh ead o fa l lt h es e r ie s ,c on s i s t se n t i re ly o f s cene s ; a f te r t h i s C o r r ido r 1h a s mo re s cene s a nd t h e se s e em t ob e mo re c omp lex a nd l e ss s chema t ic t h an i nC o r r ido r s 2o r3 . T he re i sa l so ad eve lopmen t

t h a tt h eg ene ra la na ly s is i sv a l id . S cene sa r ec oncen t ra t e d i nz one i , w he re a l l t h e mo t if s f o rm p a r t o fs e ven d i f fe ren ts cene s ,e ach made u po ff r om 4t o 1 3 s epa ra te f i gu re s . T he max imum p ropo r t ion o f f i gure s f o rm ing p a r t so fs cene si na ny o the rz one i sl e ss t h an h a lf o ft h i s ( 42 .8% i nz one i ) , wh i le i no the rz one s t h ep e rcen tage s

a l ong z one s e r ie s . S cene s a r em is s ing o rr a re i nt h ef i n a l z one s o f s e r ie s : v ia pparen t ly h a s o ne , b u t x i i h a s n one a nd i xh a s o n ly o ne v e ry s chema t ic s cene . E ven f i na l z one ii n C o r r ido r 1o n ly h a s as i ng le s cene , t hough t h is d oe s c on ta in 6 f i gu re s a nd c on s t i tu te s 4 2 .8% o f a l l t h e p a in t ing s i n t h a t z one . Apa r t f r om z one i ,i ts eem s a s t h ough s cene s a r er a re i nt h e i nne r mo s t , mo s t s ec re t z ones . Is ugge s t t h a te xp l ic i t s c ene s r ep re sen t t h el e a s ts e c re tv e r s ion so ft h es ac red t h eme s ; mo re s chema t ic s c ene s a nd a b s t rac t s ymbo ls r ep re sen t t h e mo re s ec re tt r an sfo rma t ion s . I nf a c tz one imay n o t h ave b een r ega rded a s at r u ly i nne rz one ,s i nce a l though i ti sf u r the ri nt h an z one ii ft h ec o r r ido ri se n te red f r om z one i i ,t h ee x is t ence o ft h ew e s te rn e n t rance a tt h eo t h e re nd o f t h e c o r r ido r may h ave c omp rom ised t h e ' i n n eme ss ' o fi t sp o s i t ion . 1 )C on ten to fs cene s( t ab le 2a nd F igu re s 2 4 -27 ) . A l low ing f o rt h eu sua lp rob lem o fa r b i tr a r ine s si nd e c i d ing wha t s hou ld c oun ta s as c ene , 3 3 s cene s c an b e i d en t if ied . O f t h e se , a tl e as t 2 4 c an b e i den t if ied a s h un t ing s cene s a nd s ome o f t h e o the r s a l so c on ta in s ome r e fe rence t ot h i s t h eme ( e .g .a na r che rf i gu re ,o ra w i ld a n ima l ) ( F igu re 2 4 ) . T he t y p ica l h un t ing s cene s F IGURE

7 .

r ange f ro m 0% t o 2 1% .

i nvo lve o ne o r mo re a r che r s o r , i n o ne c a se , a man e qu ipped w i th s ome s o r to ft h row ing w eapon ( ab o la s? )

Cor r idor 1 h as

mo re f igures i n s cenes t h an t h eo the rt wo

amo t if wh ich a l so a ppear s s epa ra te ly i n ad i f f e ren t s cene a nd v a r iou s a n ima ls . T he h un ted a n ima ls a r e s hown v ery s chema t ica l ly , b u t t h e re s eem t o b e t wo -

g a l le r ie s : 2 4 .2% o ve ra l l , wh i le C o r r ido r 2 , e xc lud ing

-

z one i h a s o n ly 5 . 1% ; C o r r ido r 3h a s 1 0 .4% . T he c omp lex i ty o f t h e s cene s i sa l so g rea te s t i n z one i i , w he re n o s cene h as f ewe r t han 4 f i gu r e s , t wo h ave 8 ,

t ype s . One f o rm i ss hown w i th b ranch ing a n t le r s , a nd i s mo s t p lau s ib ly i d en t if ied a s r ed d ee r ( e .g . F igu re 2 4a . T he o the rf o rm i ss hown w i th t wo h or n s o n ly a nd G raz io s i s ugge s t s t h a t t h ese may r ep re sen t w i ld g oa t s ( e .g . F igu re 2 4d ) . T h i s i sn o ti mpo s s ib le a nd t h e re i s s ome e v idence t h a ti b ex may h ave c on t inued t ob eh un t e d i n t h e N eo l i th ic p er iod ( i t w a s c e r ta in ly h un ted i n

o ne h a s 1 2a nd a no the r 1 3 . C o r r ido r 1a l so h a sr e la t ive l yc omp lex s c ene s i nb o th z one s ia nd i ,w i th g roup so f 4 , 6a nd 7 f i gu re s . E l sewhe re s c ene s o f 2o r 3f i gu re s a r e t h en o rm . I nt e rm s o fs chema t ism , t h es c ene s i nz one s v ,v i ,v u , i xa nd x ia r ep a r t icu la r ly s chema t ic ,o f ten c on s i s t ing o f 2 ,3 o r 4h uman sa nd a n ima ls ( o f ten o fC la s s 2o r3 )a r -

e a r l ie r p e r iod s ) . I n e a r l ie r a r t ic le s ( Wh i tehou se 1 990 ; 1 991a ) Ia ccep ted t h is i d en t if ica t ion , b u t t o me i tn ow

r anged i nw ay s t h a t s e em p ar t icu la r ly ' non rea l i s t ic ' t o

s eems mo re l i ke ly t h a t t h e a n ima ls s hown w i th t wo h o rn sa r e mean tt or ep re sen tr oe d ee r . T he r oe d ee ri sa mo re p r im i t ive f o rm o fd ee r t h an t h e r ed d ee r , s ma l le r a nd s qua t te r i n t h e b ody a nd w i th s ho r t a n t le r s w i th s ma l l p o in t s , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e s p lend id s p read ing

t h e modem v i ewe r , e . g . v e r t ica l ly o ne a bove t h eo t he r . I n a l l t h e z one s e xcep ti ,i a nd i i , t h e s c ene s a r e n o r ma l ly i n te rm ixed w i th a b s t rac t mo t if s a nd o n ly i nz one i ia r et h e re n oa b s trac t mo t if si n c luded .

9

R UTH D . WH ITEHOUSE

b r anched a n t le r s o ft h e l a rge r a n ima l . T he p a in te r s o f t h es chema t ic f o rm s i nt h eP o r to B ad isco c ave may w e l l h ave made u se o ft h e se d i f fe rence s i na n t le rf o rma t ion t od i s t ingu ish t h et wo t ype s o fd ee r . Mo reove r ,t h e re i s a bundan te v idence t h a tr oe d ee r w a s h un ted d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic a nd i ndeed i nl a te rp reh i s to r ic p e r iod s a l so ;i t w a s t h e mo s t c ommon ly h un ted a n ima l a f te r r ed d ee r a nd o n s ome s i te s i tw as e ven mo re c ommon ( e .g . t h e c u l t h ypogeum o fS an ta B a rba ra a tP o l ignano aMa re : C a s te l le t t i e ta l . 1 987 ) ) . A l though i ti si mpo s s ib le t ob e c e r ta in ,i nt h ee n su ing d i scu ss ion Is ha l la s sume t h a tt h e t wo a n ima ls s hown b e ing h un ted a r e r ed a nd r oe d ee r r e spec t ive ly . T he s cene s s ome t imes i nc lude o ne , o r mo re c ommon ly t wo , s ma l le r q uad ruped s w h ich s eem t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a rche r s r a the r t h an w i th t h e d ee r ( e .g . F igu re 5 .24a & b ) ;i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a tt h e se r ep resen t d og s . Many o f t h e s cene s a r e s chema t ic i n t h e e x t reme , c on ta in ing o n ly o ne o r t wo f i gu re s a nd i n s ome c a se s a r er e cogn isab le a sh un t ing s c ene s o n ly b y r e fe rence t ot h e mo re e l abo ra te s cene so fz one si ,i a nd i i . T ab le 2s umma r i se s t h ec on ten to ft h es c ene s . C omp lex s cene s ( F igure s 2 4 -26 ) . T he mo re c om p l ex s c ene s r equ i re i nd iv idua ld e sc r ip t ion . T hey a l l o c -

4 1 w*

c u r i n z one i i , e xcep t f o r t ho se i ng roup 8 o f z one i , wh ich a r e v e ry e l abo ra te ( F igu re 2 5 ) . S cene 8 a , mak i ng u p t h e r i gh t -hand p a r to fg roup 8 ,i n vo lve s t wo f i g u re s wh ich a r e e i the r h uman /an ima l c omb ina t ion s o r h uman sa s t r ide a n ima ls ( F igu re s 2 5a nd 2 8g & h ) . T he h uman c omponen t s o f b o th f i gure s a r e h ead le s s ; o ne h a s b o th a rm s i n t h e ' hand o n h ip ' p o s i t ion , wh i le t h e o the r h a s a rm s w av ing s i nuou s ly . B e tween t h e se t wo f i gu re s i s wha t may b e as chema t ic h uman : av a r ia t ion

4M r

o ft h ej f o rm ,w i th l e g sa pa r ta nd w i th b r anch ing a ppen d ice s o n e i the r s i de o f t h e ' head ' . T he ma in g roup i s c omp le ted b y as ma l l h o rned a n ima l a nd a no the rs ma l l f i gu re , p e rhaps a n th ropomo rph ic . T o t h e l e f t o f t h is g roup a r e t wo o t he rs ma l l f i gu re s : ah omed a n ima l a nd a man ( ve ry s chema t ic b u t w i th t he p ha l lu s c l ea r ly ma rked ) . T he se f i gu re s c ou ld b e long e i the r w i th t h i s

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REFERENCES ALLEN ,M . 1 967 . Ma le C u l t sa nd S ec re tI n i t ia t ions i n Me lane s ia Me lbou rne U n ive r s i ty P re s s , Me lbou rne . CASTELLE III ,L . , COSTANT IN T ,L . & TOZZ I ,C . 1 987 . C on s ide rañom s u l l 'econom ia el ' amb ien te d u ran t ei ln e o l i t ico i nI t a l ia . A t t i d e l la XXV IR iun ione S c ien t if i ca d e l l ' l s t i tu lo I z a l iano d iP re i s tor ia eP ro los tor ia :3 7 -55 . F i r enze . GEERTZ ,G . 1 973 . T h ick d e sc r ip t ion : t owa rd a ni n t e rp re t ive t h eo ry o fc u l ture . I nG eer tz ,C . , T he I n terp re ta t ion o f C u l ture s ;3 -30 . B a s ic B ook s ,N ew Y o rk . GRAZ IOS i , P . 1 980 . L e p i l lure p re is tor iche d e l la g ro t la d i P or to B ad isco . O r ig ines . I s t i tu to I t a l i a no d iP re is to r ia eP ro to s tona ,F i renze . HARR ISON , J . 1 903 . P ro legomena t o P re s s ,C amb r idge . HODDER , I . 1 986 ( 2nd e d i t ion 1 991) .

t he

S tudy

R ead ing

o f t he

G reek

R e l ig ion .

C ambr idge

Un iver s i ty

P as t . C ambr idge

Un iver s i ty

P ress ,

C am

b r idge . 1 987 . T he c on tex tua la na ly s is o fs ymbo l ic m ean ing . I n Hodde r ,I .( e d . ) , T he A rchaeo logy o fC on tex tua l Mean i n g s : 1 10 . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . ORTNER , S .B . 1 974 . I s f ema le t o ma le a s n a ture i s t o c u l ture? I n R osa ido , M .Z . & L amphe re , L .( e d s ) , Woman , C u l ture a nd S oc ie t y : 6 7 -87 . S t an fo rd Un ive r s i ty P r e s s ,S t an fo rd . TURNER ,V . 1 967 . T he F ore s to fS ymbo l s . A spec t so fN dembu R i tua l . C o rne l lU n ive r s i ty P re s s ,I t haca & L ondon . VAN GENNEP , A . 1 960 . T he R i tes o f P assage . Un iver s i ty o f C h icago P ress , C h icago ( f irs t p ub l i shed i nt h eo r ig ina l F rench i n1 909 ) . WH ITEHOUSE ,R . 1 990 . C ave sa nd C u l ti nN eo l i th ic S ou the rn I t a ly . A ccord ia R e search P ape r s , 1 :1 9 -37 . 1 99 1 . 9 8 .

T he s oc ia lf unc t ion o fr e l ig iou sr i tua l : t h ec a se o fN eo l i th ic s ou the rn I t a ly . O r ig in i , 1 4(1988 -1989 ) : 3 87 -

1 992 . U nde rground R e l ig ion . C u l ta nd c u l ture i np reh i s tor ic I t a ly . A cco rd ia R e sea rch C en t re ,L ondon . 1 993 . T oo ls t h e Manmake r : t h ec u l tu ra lc on s t ruc t ion o fg ende ri nI t a l ian p reh i s to ry . A ccord ia R e sea rch P ape r s , 3 :4 1 -53 . ( i np r e s sa ) . F rom s ec re ts oc ie ty t os t a te r e l ig ion : r i tua la nd s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion i np reh is to r ic a nd p ro toh i s to r ic I t a ly . P aper g i ven a tt h eF i f th C onf e rence o fI t a l ian A rchaeo logy ,h e ld i nO xfo rd D ecembe r 1 -13 , 1 992 . ( i np r e s sb ) . G ende rc on s t ruc t ion a nd g ende rr o le si np reh is to ry : ac a se s t udy f r om s ou the rn I t a ly . P ape rg i ven t o t h eS oc ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy ,5 7 th A nnua l Mee t ing ,P i t t sbu rgh , Ap r i l8 -12 , 1 992 .

3 1

GENDER ,R ITUAL ,R ITES AND RELIG ION : AN OVERV IEW

2

J ACQUEL INE WALDREN I n s t i tu te o f S oc ia l a nd C u l tu ra l An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fO xfo rd , O xfo rd , ENGLAND

t ot h e woman t oc ook , a nd g i ve h e r amo r se l o fi tf o r

I NTRODUCT ION

Iwas a sked t o c on t r ibu te s ome a n th ropo log ica l

h e r p a in s . S he s ha l l h ave n o o the r f ood a nd t h a t s ha l l make h e r my s l ave

p e r -

s pec t ive s o n t h e t h eme s o f t h i s c onfe rence . B a sed o n my p r ev iou sr e sea rch i n to women ' sr o le i np reh i s to ry I t hough t i tw ou ld b e u sefu l t or ev iew s ome o f t h e a p -

' How f a nc ifu l t h em ind so fm en !

WOMEN I N PREH ISTORY : My th sa nd f a c t s

‚

p roache s t h a t h ave c on t r ibu ted t o a rchaeo log ica l a nd a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch o n G ende r , R i tua l , R i te s a nd

F em in ine c on tr ibu t ion s t o p reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s w a sp r e s en ted a s a' s ing le d ome s t ic e conomy ' , w i th a l l o the r a ch ievemen t s a t t r ibu ted t o m en . Wh i le men h un ted , w omen r ema ined a tt h ec amp a nd t h et a sk so fd ome s t ic -

R e l ig ion a td i f fe ren t p e r iod s a nd i n d i f fe ren t c u l tu ra l c on t ex t s . Ih ad t h eo ppo r tun i ty t oa t tend as e r ie s o fs em ina r s o n C ro s s -Cu ltu ra lP e r spec t ive s o n Women a t Queen E l iza b e th H ouse , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty , i n 1 976 . T h is w a s t h e p e r iod o f' t he f em in is tr e vo lu t ion ' a nd s oc ia l s c ien t i s t s w e re a c t ive ly i n vo lved i ni n teg ra t ing women a ss ub jec t s

i t y a nd r ep roduc t ion w e re c on s ide red t ob e t h e ir ma in c on tr ibu t ion . Go rdon C h i lde a cknow ledged t h a t : Wh i le m en h un t e d w omen , w e mu s t s uppo se h ad c o l lec ted among o the re d ib le s t h es eeds o fw i ld f r u i t ' ( 1964 ) . L ee a nd D e -

-

Vo re , w ho s t ud ied t h ee conom ic l i fe o ft h eK ung B u sh men i n Bo tswana , d i scove red t ha t ' v ege tab le f ood s

i n to a cadem ic d i scou r se . T h is mean tr e -ana l i s ing s ome o ft h ei n te rp re ta t ion so ft h ep a s tp re sen ted b ya r chaeo lo g i s t sa nd o fl i v ing p eop le s s t ud ied b ya n th ropo log is t s . My e xpe r ience a i d ing i nt h e e xcava t ion o ff ou rc ave s i te s a nd ar ock s he l te r i n Ma l lo rca d u r ing t h e 1 960 s , l ed m e t ob e l ieve t h a t i tw ou ld b e mo s t i n te re s t ing t o

c omp r ised 6 0 -80% o f t h e t o ta l d i e t a nd c o l lec t ing i n v o lved t wo t o t h ree d ay s w o rk p e r w oman p e r w eek . A l though men ' s a nd women ' s wo rk i npu t w a s r ough ly e qu iva len ti nt e rm s o ft ime a nd e f fo r t , t h e w omen p ro v ided t wo t ot h ree t ime s a s much f ood i nw e igh ta st h e

p repa re ap ape ro n Women ' s R o le i nP reh is to ry ' d raw i ng o ns ome o ft h ese n ew p e r spec t ive s i n women ' ss t ud -

men f r om t h e ir h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s ' ( 1968 ) . T he w omen 's movemen te ncou raged t h i s q ue s t ion ing

i e s . Ii mag ined Iwou ld f i nd ac l ea ri nd ica t ion o f wom e n 's v a r iou s r o le s w i th in g roup s o f e a r ly p eop les i d en t if ied i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Is e ta bou t s t ud -

o f t h e p e rvad ing c oncep t s o f t h e d om ina te , a ggre s s ive ma le i mage o f e a r ly h uman s a nd h ypo the s ized o the r p o s s ib le i n te rp re ta t ion s . D ah lbe rg 's b ook , Woman t h e G a the re r w a sa na t temp tt od i spe lt h i s my th w h ich c on -

y ing t h ei n ven to r ie s a nd d e sc r ip t ion s o f fe red b ya r chae o log i s t s d ur ing t he f i r s t h a lf o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry

t i nued t o d om ina te a ny e f fo r t a td e sc r ip t ion o f e a r ly

a nd w a s q u i te d i smayed t od i scove r t h a t many o f t h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion s w e re b a sed o n m inu t iae a nd h igh ly c o l o ured b yt h ep a tr ia rcha l a t t i tude s o ft h e ir t ime . Women w e re s e ldom men t ioned a nd w hen t h ey w e re i tw a s i n

p opu la t ion s u n t i l t h e 1 970 s . Woman t h e G a therer o f f e r s an umbe r o f p o ss ib le s ugge s t ion s t owa rd u nder s t and ing t h e f o rm s a nd p a t te rn s o f l i fe o f t h e e a r l ie s t h om in id s b y d raw ing o nh uman f o rage r sf r om d i f f e ren t p a r t s o f t h e wo r ld : e g . A f r ica , Au s t ra l ia , No r th Ame r i -

t e rm s o f t h e ir d ome s t ic r o le s . G eo rge B e rna rd S haw c ap tu re s t h ep reva i l ing v i ews o fl i f ei np reh i s to r ic ' h un t i ng ' s oc ie t ie s a tt h e t u rn o ft h e c en tu ry i n t h e se l i ne s f r om h i sp l ay ' Man a nd S upe rman ' ( 1903 ) : ' Iw i l l h un t , Iw i l l f i gh ta nd s t r ive t ot h ev e ry b u r s t ing o f my s i new s . When Ih ave s l a in t h eb oa r ,a tr i sk o fl i fe , Iw i l l t h row i t

3 2

c a . T he s a l ien tf e a tu re so ft h e se s t ud ie s i st h a t' man t h e hu s te? a nd ' woman t h eg a the re r 'a r eb o th m is lead ing t i d e s f o rs t ud ies c once rned w i th p a s to rp re sen tf o rag ing a c t iv i t ie s . Howeve r , l ong a f t e rg a the r ing w a s s hown t o b ea ni mpo r tan tp a r to ft h ef o rag ing w ay o fl i fe t h ed e -

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N PREH IS TORY

v e lopmen to fi n te l l igence a nd c omp lex s oc ia l a nd p hy s i c a l s k i l ls c on t inued t ob e p h ra sed i n t e rm s o f t h e d e mand so fh un t ing . T h is b ook made c l ea rt h en eed f o ra v a r ie ty o f d a ta a nd t h eo re t ica l p e r spec t ive s t o a vo id g enera l iza t ion s f r om a f ew p a r t icu lar ly w e l l k nown s t ud ie s . T he s t ud ie s i nD ah lbe rg ' s b ook s how t h a t f ood s ha r i ng w a s s a l ien t t oh uman e vo lu t ion , f ood s har ing n eed n o ta s sume h un t ing a nd h uman n u t r i t iona ln eed sr equ ire p l an tf ood . E a r ly h uman s s u r e ly s ha red p l an t s ,n u t sa nd i n sec t sa s w e l l a sm ea t . B o th s ha r ing o ff ood a nd s ha r i ng o fi n fan t a nd c h i ld c a re a r ei n compa t ib le w i th r i g id d om in ance h ie ra rch ie s o re x t reme ly a gg re ss ive b ehav i o u r . S har ing r equ i re s p hy s ica l p rox im i ty a nd w ou ld b e e ncou raged b y s t ab i l i ty o fg roup m embe r sh ip . T he ' p e r iod o f t h e ' Neo l i th ic R evo lu t ion ' w a s d e -

s he c ha l lenge s t h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e Ma l te se ' P r ie s t F igu re 'a nd s hows h ow t h ee v idence c an b ee qua l ly p re s en ted a s aP r ie s te ss f i gure ' , a nd t h er e su l t ing i mp l ica t i on s o f s uch g ende r d i s t inc t ion s t o Ma l te se r e l ig iou s t h ough ta nd r i tua l ,a nd t ot h e Ma l te se l a t eT emp le S ce n a r io ( 1989 ) . ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY T he p ape r s w eh ave t h ep l ea su re o fs ha r ing i nt h is v o l ume r evea l amu l t ip l ic i ty o fi n te rp re ta t ion s b e ing c u r r en t ly emp loyed b y a r chaeo log i s t s i n t h e a na ly s is o f t h e ir d ive r se d a ta o n t h e t h eme s o f t h i s c on fe rence ' R i tua l , R i te s a nd R e l ig ion i nP reh i s to ry ' . D e sc r ip t ive t e rm s s uch a s : ' f ema le f i gu r ine s ' , ' p lank f i gu re s ' , ' v o t ive o rc u l t s t a tue s ' , u sed t od e sc r ibe t h ea n th ropomo rph ic a r te fac t s f ound a td i f f e ren ts i te s h ave r e p laced t h e s i n -

s c r ibed a s t h e c hang ing p o in t f o r women . T he o wne r s h ip o fp rope r ty made w omen i n to o b jec t s . A cco rd ing t oE nge l s : " I n a n a g r icu l tura l c ommun i ty , woman w a s c l o thed i n an ew r o le . I ns e t t l ing d own o n an ew t e r r i to r y man e s tab l i shed o wne r sh ip o f i t , a nd p rope r ty a p p ea red i n ac o l lec t iv ized f o rm . T h is p rope r ty r equ ired t h a t i t s p o s se s so r s p rov ide p o s te r i ty a nd m a te rn i ty b e c ame a s ac red f unc t ion . .T he t i e b e tween w omen a nd t h e l a nd w a s c l o se r t h an t h a t o f owne r sh ip a s p e rma n ence w a sa ccomp l i shed t h rough g ene ra t ion '( 1850 ) .

g u la r' Mo the r Godde s s ' o fe a r l ie ra na ly s i s a nd r ef lec t a mo re i n t eg ra ted a nd g ene ra l i sed v i ew o fl i fe i nt h ep a s t . Women p o r t rayed a sv e sse l sf o rs oc ia lr e p roduc t ion a nd l e f to u to f mo s ta na ly s i s h ave b een r e in teg ra ted i n to t h e s oc ia ld imen s ion w i th m en . A rchaeo log is t s t o day , h ave t h e b ene f i t o f e t hno g r aph ic r e sea rch o n many l i v ing p eop le sw ho se c u l tu re s s ugge s t t h a t s oc ia l e vo lu t ion t a ke s d i f f e ren t f o rms i n s im i la r c on tex t s a nd s oc ia l p o s i t ion s a nd s t a tu se s a r e p roduc t so f ac on t inuou s p roce s so fi n te rac t ion b e tween g ene ra t ion s a s w e l l a sd ive r se g roup s o fp eop le . T he re a r e a n i ndel ina te ly l a rge n umbe r o f a l terna t ive w ay s

Many a r chaeo log is t s a g reed t h a t s oc ie t ie s a dvanced f r om p r im i t ive ma t r i l ine s t oc i v l ised p a t r i l ine s . S imone d c B eauvo ir 's s ugge s t ion t h a t : ' t he r e l ig ion o f woman w a s b ound t ot h e r e ign o fa g r icu l tu re , t h e r e ign o fi r r i d uc ib le d u ra t ion , o fc on t ingency ,o fc hance a nd o fw a i t i ng . .a nd t h a t t h e r e ign o fh omo f abe rw a s t h er e ign o f t ime manageab le a s s pace , o fn ece ssary c on sequence s , o ft h ep ro jec t ,o fa c t ion a nd r e a son . T he m a le p r inc ip le o fc r ea t ive f o rce , o fl i gh t , o fi n te l l igence , o fo rde r b e c ame s ove re ign ' w a s e choed b y many w r i te r s t h rough -

t h a ta ny p a r t icu la rs oc ia ls y s tem m igh ta dap t t oe co log i c a la nd d emog raph ic s i tua t ion s . T ran s i t ion s i nt h el i fe c yc le a r e s ome t ime s a cknow l e dged b y p ub l ic c eremon ie s whe re r i tua ls a r e p er f o rmed o rt h ey may n o tb e ma rked b y a ny s pec ia l a c t s o r g ood s . A r tefac t s a r e s een t oh ave v a r ied v a lue a nd u se sw i th in e ach s oc ie ty a nd may b ep roduced f o r as i n g l eo cca s ion a nd t h en d i sca rded o rg ua rded c a refu l ly i n s pec ia l p l ace s o rb y e ach g ene ra t ion f o r t h e n ex t . T he

o u tt h ef o l low ing d ecade s . S uch c on s ide ra t ion s a r ed i f f i cu l t t oa s se ss f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s o f t h e t ime a nd n eed t ob e r ea l igned i nl i gh t o f t h e i n s igh t s

r i tua l o re ve ryday u se o ft h ing sd i f f e r sf r om o ne c on tex t t oa no the r . F o r s ome p eop le , r i tua l i st h e mo s t o bv iou s a nd s i g -

g a ined f r om o b se rv ing h uman i n t e rac t ion a nd s oc ia l e v o l u t ion i n av a r ie ty o f s oc ie t ie s . D raw ing o n E .O .Jame s ( 1959 ) , B acho fen ( t rans . 1 967 )a nd o the r s w ho p ropo sed p r eh is to r ic ma t r ia rch ie s a nd m o the r g odde s s c u l t s a s u n ive r sa l , s ome f em in is t

n i f ican tp a r to fr e l ig ion the d rama t ic a c to ft h e my s t ica l . T he w o rd r e l ig ion i t se lf c ome s f r om t h e l a t in r e l ig io m ean ing ab ond ,b ind ing p eop le t oo b l iga t ion s a nd e x -

i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e p a s t o ve r -empha s ised women ' s r o le s i ns oc ia l e vo lu t ion a nd w e re e ven mo re c on jec tu r a l t h an t ho se m en h ad o f fe red e a r l ie r ( i .e E la ine Mo r -

p re ss ing ar e la t ion sh ip . S oc ie t ie s p a s t a nd p re sen t e x h ib i t w ide v a r ia t ion s i nt h e mean ing a nd o ccu rence o f r i tua l .T os ome i ti s amundane r epe t i t ive a c ta nd t oo th -

g an , 1 972 who s ugge s ted t h a t women d e scended f r om w a te rs pec ies ) .

e r s as a c red , s t y l ized e xp re s s ion o fc omp lex c o smo log i c a lb e l ie f s .T he mo s tw ide ly d i s t r ibu ted r i tua l s ma rk b a s i c a nd i r reve r s ib le t u rn ing p o in t s i n l i fe c ommon t o

T h ei mpo r tance o fr e -a sse s s ing ' t r ad i t iona l ly h e ld a c a dem ic i n terp re ta t ion s ' i se v idenced i n t h e s t udy , The

p eop le e ve rywhe re . P eop le a r eb o rn , g row t o ma tu r i ty , m a r ry a nd e ven tua l ly d i e . S o i n mo s t s oc ie t ie s w e f i nd

P r ie s tess F igu re i n Ma l ta ' b y C h r is t ina B iagg i whe re

3

J . D . WALDREN

p e tua to r s o fr e l ig iou s l i fe o ft h e i rt own sa nd v i l lage s . T hey c a re f o rt h eg rave so ft h e i rd ecea sed r e la t ive s ,a nd make r egu la rc on t r ibu t ion s f o r t h er ememb rance o ft h e

b i r th a nd n am ing r i tua ls ,r i tua l s ma rk ing t h ea t ta in ing o f a du l thood , w edd ing s a nd f une ra ls . A s L ew is w r i te s : ' R i tua ls o i l t he whee ls o f l i fe a s i nd iv idua l s move t h rough t h eh uman l i fe c yc le f r om l i fe t od ea th '( 1976 ) .

d ead . T he b ea ta s , t h e t i t le g i ven t o t h e o lde r , d evou t w omen w ho a t tend n igh t ly ma s sa nd h o ld s t rong a t tach men t s t ot h e r i tua ls o fr e l ig iou s l i fe i nv a r iou s p ar t s o f S pa in ,c on t inue t ob et h e i rv i l lage r ep re sen ta t ives i nt h e t r ad i t iona l p rac t ice s t h a t mo s tp eop le h ave s e ta s ide .A s P a t Ho lden n o t e si nh e ri n t roduc t ion t oW omen a nd R e -

V an G ennup c h r is tened t h e se R i te s o fP a ssage . Many o ft h ea r te fac t sf ound b ya r chaeo log is t sa r ep araphe rna l i af r om t h e se r i te s . O b jec t s w h ich h e ld s i gn if icance f o r ap a r t icu la rp e r son a nd e ven t . S tud ie s t o day , mu s ts e ek t oc ha l lenge t h e a s sump t ion s o f t h e p a s tw h ich p u te x c e ss ive v a lue o ns ome a r te fac t s ,a nd o rde red t h es exua l d i v i s ion o fl a bou ra nd s oc ia l r o le s i n to b io log ica l , h i e r a r cha l ,e qua l /unequa l , h i s to r ica l ly c on s t i tu ted u n ive r sa l

l i g iou s E xpe r ience ( 1983 ) : The s oc ia l c on s t ruc t ion o f g ende r a nd f ema le b io logy mu s t b e s t ud ied a nd d e s c r ibed i ne ach c on tex ti no rde r t o c on s ide r t h e v ar ied a cce s so fw omen t ot h es ac red . I nh i s a r t ic le o n' Concep t ion s o f Women i nC las s ica l A then s ' ,R oge rJ u s tn o te s t h a t' a l l w ek now a bou tA the -

d i cho tom ie s . GENDER AND SOC IETY

n i an w omen c ome sf r om r ep re sen ta t ion sa nd o rd inance s o f men . Woman i sb o th ac u l tu ra l p roduc ta nd a ni d eo -

Ak ey s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion i na l l s oc ie t ie si st h a to fg ende r ( t he s oc ia l c on s t ruc t ion o f s exua l d i f f e rences ) . G ende r v a lue s a nd s ymbo l ism , b e l ief s , a nd i d ea s a bou t ma le -

l og ica lf o rma t ion ' . We f i nd a' mode l o fA then ian w om e n ' , as e t o f i d ea s wh ich t oge the r r ep re sen t women i n t h em ind so ft h o se w ho g ene ra ted t h e mode l . B y e xam -

n e s s a nd f ema lene s s a r ei n teg ra l t oa l l a spec t s o fs oc ia l

i n ing t h e r ange o fr o le s a nd b ehav iou r s d eemed c u l tu -

l i f e , a nd p rov ide t h e b a s is f o r t h e d ef in i t ion o fg ende r r o le s . T he t op ic i si nhe ren t ly c omp lex . ' Gende ri s ar e -

r a l ly a pp rop r ia te f o r women a nd m en t h roughou t t h e l i fe c yc le o ft h ei nd iv idua li nd i f fe ren ts o c ie t ie s w e may f i nd t h a tw omen a r ea b sen to ru n seen d u r ing r i tua l p e r -

l a t iona l t e rm ,i t s d ef in i t ion d e r iv ing f r om i t sp o s i t ion i n as y s tem o fd i f f e rence s . G ende rr o le s , v a lue s a nd p o s i t i on s c hange w i th a ge a nd t h rough t ime . We n eed t o l ook a t h ow d i f fe ren t s oc ie t ie s d e f ine d i f fe rence a nd h ow s oc ie t ie sr e cogn ize c l a im s a nd a l loca te r e spon s ib i l i t ie s a nd h ow t h e s oc ia l a nd s ymbo l ic p roce s se s b y

f o rmance s i ns ome p l aces wh i le i no t he ra r ea s t h ey f i g u re p rom inen t ly i nt r ad i t iona l r ep re sen ta t ion s . T he a s s i gnmen t o f t a sk s t of ema le s o r t o ma le s g oe s b eyond a ny th ing t h a tm igh t b e r equ ired b y t h e d i f fe ren t ia l i n v o lvemen to fw omen a nd men i nr ep roduc t ion . I nf a c t , many j ob sa r e ma scu l ine i no ne s oc ie ty a nd f em in ine i n

wh ich h uman a c t ion s i np a r t icu la r s oc ia l wo r ld s c ome t o h ave c on sequence s a nd mean ing s ' (Co l l ie r a nd Y a n ag isako 1 987 :35 ,39 ) . A s Gu l le s tad n o te s i nh e r a r t ic le , ' Home D eco ra t ion

a no the r . A l l w omen a r en o ta l ike ,n o ra r ea l l men ,e ven w i th in o ne c u l tu re a nd c ro s s -cu l tu ra l ly g ende rr o le sc o r r e spond t oc omp lex a nd v a r iou sc omb ina t ion so fh uman

a s P opu la r C u l tu re ' : ' Cu l tu ra l i d ea s o f ma scu l in i ty a nd f em in in i ty a r e mu tua l ly c on s t i tu ted . C on s t ruc t ion s o f

e xpe r ience c on t ingen t u pon t h ie ro wn p a r t icu lar s oc ia l

g ende ra r en e i the r' n a tu ra l 'n o r' s ta t ic ' . We h ave t os t udy c hange s o f c u l tu ra l c a tego r ies , s ymbo l ic e xp re ss ion s a nd a c t iv i t ie s t od e te rm ine h ow c on s t ruc t ion s o fg ende r

a nd p hy s ica le nv ironmen t . I n mo s ts oc ie t ie s , women a nd men h ave s pec i f ic r o le s i n mo r tua ry r i tua l s . ' F une ra ry r i tua ls d r ama t ica l ly t r an s -

i n te rac tw i th o the rk ind s o fs oc ia ld if e ren t ia t ion ' . My w o rk i n S pa in a nd r ead ing o fo the r s ou rce s h a s

f o rm t h ei mage o fl i fe a s ad i a lec t ic f l ux i n vo lv ing e x c hange a nd t r ansac t ion , ma r r iage a nd p roc rea t ion i n to a ni mage o f as t i l l t r an scenden ta lo rde ri nw h ich o ppo s i t i on s s uch a s s e lf a nd o the r , w ife g i ve ra nd w ife t a ke r , b i r th a nd t h e refo re d ea th h ave b een a bo l ished . T h i s

l e d me t ou nde r s tand t h a t a l though w omen a r e g i ven a p l ace o fn om ina li n f e r io r i ty i nb o th C h r i s t ian a nd I s lam i cr e l ig ion ,i nS pa in ,I t a ly ,P o r tuga la nd G reece t h ey a r e a c tua l ly f a r mo re i n vo lved i n r e l ig iou s l i fe t h an t h e

t r an s fo rma t ion o f ten i n vo lve s ag ene ra l d eva lua t ion o f b io logy a nd p a r t icu la r ly o f s exua l i ty w h ich i sc on t ra s t -

men ( s ee Wa ldren ,J .1 988 ; Dav is ,J .1 982 ;C o le ,S .1 991 ; H ir schon 1 981) . T he Med i te r ranean o f fe r s as t udy a r ea t h a t i n c lude s s im i la r i t ie s a nd c on t ra s t s . We s ha l l b e l ook ing a tr e l ig iou s p rac t ice s a nd i d eo log ie s i n aMed i -

e d w i th a mo re s p ir i tua l a nd c on t ro l led s ou rce o f l i f e ( s ee Ma tca if a nd Hun t ing ton ,1 991) . I n t h ec e leb ra t ion o fd ea th w es ee t h ep e rpe tua t ion o f

t e r ranean s e t t ing w he re a cce ss t oa nd p a r t ic ipa t ion i nr e l i g iou sa c t iv i t ie si s h i gh ly s t ruc tu red a nd g ende ro r ien t -

t h e memo ry o ft h e d ead , a nd a na cknow ledgemen tt h a t t h el i v ing a nd t h ed ead b e long t o as i ng le c ommun i ty a s

e d . I n many a r ea so ft h e med i ter ranean ,a l though women s eem t ob ei nt h eb ackg round , t h ey a r ea c tua l ly t h ep e r -

w e l la s ar eba lanc ing o ft h es oc ia lo rde ra f te rt h el o ss o f o ne o fi t s membe r s . B u r ia l r i tua ls i nt h e c ommun i ty I s t ud ied i n Ma l lo rca a r ec a r r ied o u tb yb u i lde r s o fo ne ' s

3 4

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

h ou se . One ' s p lace o n e a r th a nd i n t h e t omb i sc on s t ruc ted b y s k i l led w o rkmen . T h i s r e v iew o fr e l ig iou s l i fe i nv ar iou s c on tex t s a nd e spec ia l ly t h er o le o fw omen i nt h e p e r formance ,m a in t e nance , t e ach ing a nd e ve ryday p rac t ice o f t h e v a r iou s r i tua ls a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se d i f fe ren t r e l ig ion s w i l l h igh l igh t t h e d i ff icu l t ie s i n f o rm ing g ene ra l ised i n te r p re ta t ion s c oncern ing ma le /fema le , s ac red /p ro fane , p u re /po l lu t ing , e qua l i ty / inequa l i ty , p ub l ic /p r iva te , n a t u re /cu l tu re i na ny c on tempo ra ry o rp reh i s to r ic c on tex t . I n o rde r t o d e te rm ine w omen a nd men 's i n vo lve men ti nr e l ig iou s r i te s a nd r i tua l s a nd i ns hap ing s oc ia l

p eop le ' ah uman c ommun i ty a nd ag eog raph ic i d iom . I n c on t ra s t , ' c ommun i ty i n i ndu s t r ia l ised s oc ie t ie s i s

p roce s se s a ta ny t ime w e mu s tu nde r s tand t h a t ' g ende r r ep re sen ta t ion s a r e mu l t iface ted a nd mus t b e u nde r s t ood f i r s ti nt e rm s o ft h e c on tex ti nw h ich t h ey a ppea r a nd s econd i nt e rms o f t h e ir f i t w i th o the r r ep re sen ta t i on si no t he rc on tex t s ' ( Sanday 1 990 ) . L ' anne s oc io log ique a s se r t s ' t ha tt h es oc ia lr e la t ion so f men a nd w omen p rov ide t h e p ro to type f o r t h e l og ica l r e la t ion s b e tween t h ing s ' . A cco rd ing t o Ma ry Doug la s : The f i r s tl og ica l c a tego r ie s w e re s oc ia l c a tego r ie s ; t h e f i r s tc l a s se so ft h ing s w e re c l a s se s o fp eop le i n to wh ich t h e se t h ing s w e re i n teg ra ted . I tw a s b ecau se p eop le w e re g rouped a nd t hough to ft h em se lve s in t h ef o rm o f g roup s t h a t i n t h e ir i d ea s t h ey g rouped o the r t h ing s ' ( 1978 :12 ) . P eop le m ake s en se o f t h em se lve s b y s how ing t h em s e lve s t o t h em se lve s t h rough mu l t ip le f o rm s ; s t o r ie s , s ymbo ls t h a tr ef lec ts ha red mean ing s (eg . f l ag s , s t a tue s , i n s ign ia s , e t c ) ,d rama ,r i tua l , c o l lec t ive e nac tmen t s r e n d e r ing v i s ib le a c tua l a nd d es ired t r u th s a bou t t h em s e lve s . D an S pe rbe r s ugge st s t h a t s ymbo ls r ep re sen t k now ledge . S ymbo l ic k now ledge i sk now ledge n o t o f t h ing s o r o f wo rd s , b u t o f t h e memo ry o f t h ing s o r w o rd s ,o fc oncep tua lr ep re sen ta t ion s .I ti sa ni mp rov isa t i on wh ich r e s t s o n i mp l ic i t k now ledge a nd o bey s u n -

T he a n th ropo log i s th a s t oh un tf o ra nd u ncove rg round r u le s , t emp la te s , c ode s , s t ruc tu re s t h a t a r e i n forma t ion b ea r ing d ev ices b y w h ich w e s e ek t ou nde r s tand w ha t l o ca l s h ave i n terna l i sed t h rough s oc ia l i sa t ion a nd l e a rn -

l a rge ly ama t te ro fs en t imen ta nd c oncep tua l isa t ion ' . Mar i lyn S t a the rn s ugge s t s t h a t , ' The c oncep to fc u l t u re d ema rca te s t h ed i s t inc t ivene s so ft h ek ind o fi n fo r m a t ion n eeded t ob e amembe ro f ap a r t icu la rg roup ,e n c l ave o r i n s t i tu t ion . A l l c u l tu re s d o t h e s ame t h ing i n fo rm ing t h e membe r s o f e ach s oc ie ty wha t t h ey s hou ld d oa nd h ow t h ey s hou ld d oi tb u t an o t ion o fc u l t u re d oe s n o t f o rm p a r to ft h e t e chn ique o fk now ledge a l lp eop le h ave o ft h em se lve s o rt h e i rs oc ie ty ' . ' I ti sn o t n ece ssa ry t o e xp la in b e long ing t oo ne who b e long s ' .

i n go ve ry ea r s( 1987 :36 ) . Godf rey L ienha rd t s ugge s ted t h a t ' t he p rob lem o fd e s c r ib ing t oo the r s h ow membe r s o f a' r emo te t r ibe ' o r t ime t h ink b eg in st oa ppea rl a rge ly a so ne o ft r an s la t ion , o f mak ing t h e c ohe rence ' p r im i t ive t hough t ' h a s i nt h e l a nguage i tr e a l ly l i ve s i n , a s c l ea r a s p o ss ib le i n o u r o wn ' ( 1954 :97 ) T he s ame p rob lem so ccu r when w et r y t oe xp la in b e long ing f o rc omp lex s oc ie t ie s a nd b ecome e ven g r ea te r when t h e s ymbo l s w eh ave a r ea r te fac t so f ad i s tan tp a s t . I nh e r wo rk o nD evon , Ma ry B ouque tf ound t h a t ' One o ft h et a sk sf o ra na n th ropo log is tw o rk ing i nB r i ta in o r , t op u t i ts omewha t d i f fe ren t ly ' a t h ome ' , i st o d econ s t ruc t a nd i n te rp re t p opu la r i mage s ' ( e g . f a rm f am i ly a nd f am i ly f a rm ) . A f i r s t s t ep t owa rd s d econ s truc t ing t h e f am i ly f a rm i st od i s t ingu ish a na ly t ica l ly b e tween v a r iou s ,p a r t ia l ly o ve r lapp ing g roup s w h ich i tc omp r is e s . S he d i scove r s t h a t t h e ' f am i ly f a rm ' may w e l l n o t mean t h e s ame t h ing t o a l l i t s m embe r s a nd s he i s f o rced t ol ook t oh i s to ry a nd t h e t h eo r ie s o fe a r l ie ra n t h ropo log is t s t og a in s ome i n s igh ti n to t h e s oc ia l c om -

c on sc iou sr u le s ( 1975 ) . S o many o ft h e c a tego r ie s c ommon ly u sed t od e -

p l ex i t ie s s he o b serve s ' on t h e g round ' . S he c onc lude s t h a t ' a c to r s d o h ave d i f fe ren t i n te re s t s a t s t ake , e ven t h ough t h ey s e em t ob e long t ot h e s ame g roup . T he n o t i on o f ' f am i ly ' o r mo re s pec if ica l ly ' f a rm f am i ly ' , a p p ea r s a s as t i l l p o in ti n t h e t u rn ing w o r ld . Y e ti t s v ery f i x i ty ma sk s e l a s t ic i ty , v aguene s s e ven , wh ich a l low si t

s c r ib es o c ia l g roup ing s : e g . c ommun i ty ,c u l tu re ,a nd s o c i e ty a r e a b s t rac t s wh ich n eed d ef in ing i ne ach c on tex t . P i t t R ive r s i n fo rm s u s t h a t : ' the S pan ish p a t r ia c h ica , I t a l ian c ampan i l ismo , t h e G reek p o l is a r e a l l ' men ta l c on s t ruc t s ' i nt h em ind so ft h e i rm embe r s . .Membe r sh ip i sd e te rm ined b yb i r th ,m en a r e ' s on so ft h ep ueb lo ' a nd t h e mo ra l u n i ty o ft h e p ueb lo c an b e d i sce rned i n d i f -

t oh ou se s eve ra l , s ome t ime s c onf l ic t ing ,i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd mean ing s ' ( 1986 :37 ) .

f e rence s i ns peech , a ccen t , a nd v ocabu la ry , i nc e leb ra t i on s o ff e a s t s , i np roce s s ion s , c o s tume s , a nd i nv a r ia -

H is to ry i so fn ece ss i ty a r e con s t ruc t ion s o whe the r o u rs ou rce sa r e ma te r ia l c u l tu re ,w r i t ten o ro ra l t h ey d e -

t i on s i n s oc ia l a c t iv i t ies a nd ma te r ia l c u l tu re Un i ty a nd as en se o fb e long ing i sd e r ived f r om p hy s ica l a nd

mand t h e s ame a na ly t ica l a pp roach . H i s tory i sp a r t o f t h e c on sc iou s t r ad i t ion o f ap eop le a nd i so pe ra t ive i n t h e i rs oc ia ll i fe . T he i nd iv idua l s w ho c r ea te s oc ia lr e la t i o sh ip s a nd b ond s a r e t h emse lve s s oc ia l c r ea t ion s . I ti s t h e c o l lec t ive r ep re sen ta t ion o fe ven t s a s d i s t inc t f r om

.

mo ra l p rox im i ty , c ommon k now ledge a nd a ccep ted c ommon v a lue s . I n S pan ish ,i d en t i ty o fp l ace a nd c om mun i ty i sr e vea led i nl a nguage : e ip ueb lo m ean s ' t he

3 5

J .D . WALDREN

o wn g i f t ,o u to ft h ep roduce o ft h e i ro wn t o i l . O ne c an c hoo se t oc ommune o r n o t . Men a nd women t e l l u s t h ey s t i l l a b ide b y t h e c hu rche s t e ach ing s a nd s e e n o p rob lem b e tween t h e i ra c t ion s a si nd iv idua l s a nd t h e i r

e ven t s t h em se lve s . Wh i le t h e s oc ia l a n th ropo log is t m ake s ad i rec t s t udy o f s oc ia l l i fe a nd t h e h i s to r ian makes a n i nd i rec t s t udy o f i t t h rough d ocumen t s a nd o the r s u rv iv ing e v idence s t h e se a re t e chn ica l , n o t m e t hodo log ica l d i f fe rence s ' a nd t h e re i sr ea l ly n o f unda men ta l d i f fe rence i n a im o r me thod b e tween t h e t wo d i sc ip l ine s . B o th a r e e qua l ly s e lec t ive i n t h e i r u se o f

a ccep tence o ft h e ir f a i th . T oday ,w i th t h eC hu rch a nd C h r i s ta nd t h ep eop le b e i ng p e rce ived a s au n i ty ,c ommun ion w i th God i sp o s s i b l e w i thou t much mo re e f fo r t t h an a n o cca s iona l w a lk

m a te r ia l ( Cohen ,B .1 987 ) . T he p a s t s u rv ive s i n b u i ld ing s , d eco ra t ion , i mage s ,

u p t ot h e c hu rch a tt h e t op o f t h e v i l lage . Mo s t p eop le f e e l an ece s s i ty t op e r fo rm t h er i tua lo fg o ing t oC hu rch o n ly o nf ea s td ay s . B y a t tend ing ma s s a tt h e se t ime s

o b jec t s , a nd l a ndscape s o f t h e p re sen t d ay . B y r e ly ing o n t h e se e xp re s s ion s o ft h ep a s tt h ea rchaeo log is t s e ek s e v idence o fo rde ra nd t r ad i t ion a nd ar ec rea t ion o fv a l u e so ft h ep a s tt h a t may h ave n eve re x is ted .

t h ey f e e l t h ey a r ef u lf i l l ing t h e i rC h r is t ian d u ty a sw e l l a ss oo th ing t h e i rs ou ls . S oc ia ll i f eo nce a s soc ia ted w i th s a c red e ven t sh a sb e c ome mo re s e cu la r a nd n a tu ra l . E ve ry w eek -end i sa s oc ia l e ven tr a the r t h an t h e p e r iod ic i ty a s soc ia ted w i th c hu rch f e s t iva ls . Howeve r , mo re ' c hu rch ' f e s t iva ls a r e c e leb ra ted e ach y ear , r e l ig iou s a r te fac t s a r e ma s s p ro -

An th ropo logy h o ld s t h a t h uman s , i n o rde r t o s o lve l i fe 's p rob lem s , c r ea te v a r iou s s y s tem s o f t hough t a nd a c t ion w h ich w el abe l ' c u l tu re ' . A l lb ehav iou ri ss i gn if i c an t : We s t udy t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fc u l tu ra l c a tego r ie s a nd t h ep roce s so ft h a tc on s t ruc t ion . R i tua ls o f ten make c l ea r s oc ia l v a lue s a nd c once rn s a tp a r t icu la rt ime s . S ome e xamp le sf r om my f i e ld w o rk i n amoun ta in v i l lage o nt h ei s land o f Ma l lo rca ,B a lea r i cI s land s , S pa in s hou ld s e rve t oi lu s t ra te t h ec hang ing f ocu s o f r i tua l b ehav iou r i n t e rm s o f t h e v ar ied r e s ponse o f l oca l p eop le t o t h e c i rcum s tance s o f t h e i r l i ve s . I n t h is v i l lage o ne s ee s t ha t b eh ind t h e ' p e r fo r mance ' o fc hu rch a t tendence p e r sona l c ho ice sa r eb e ing

d uced a nd r e l ig ious f e s t iva ls h ave b ecome s oc ia l e n c oun te r s w he re l o ca lc ohe s ion i se xp re ssed . I nd iv idua l i n vo lvemen t i nr e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s h a s b ecome l e ss a n e xp re ss ion o fr e l ig iou s c onv ic t ion a nd mo re o ne o f ' l o c a l v i l lage i d en t i ty ' i nc on t ra s tt oi n c rea s ing n umbe r so f f o re ign v i s i to r s a nd r e s iden t s w i th w hom t h ey n ow s ha re t h e ir v i l lage . T he c onno ta t ion o fr eg iona l d re ss w i l l g i ve a ni n te r e s t ing e xamp le o f t he i n wh ich s ymbo l s e vo lve a nd

madeabou t r e l ig iou s i den t i ty , p a r t ic ipa t ion i n v i l lage l i fe a nd mo ra l i s sue s .The a f fec t o f c on t inued p ub l ic p er fo rmance o f r e l ig iou sr i tua l h a s b een t o r e an ima te ac o l lec t ive c on sc iou sne s s among t h ep eop le w ho s ha re

h o ld q u i te d i spe ra te mean ing s a td i f fe ren t p e r iod s i na g roup s a dap ta t ion t oc hang ing c i rcum s tance b o th f r om w i th in a nd w i thou t . T he Ma l lo rcan c o s tume , af i t ted t op w i th j ewe l led

t h is r e l ig iou s h e r i tage . T ho se who a t tend t h e se p ub l ic o cca s ion sa r ee xp re ss ing t h e i r membe r sh ip i n ac ommu n i ty o fk in w ho s ha re r e l ig iou sa nd s oc ia la ff in i t ie s . R e l ig iou sf e s t iva ls h ave b ecome s oc ia l e ncoun te r sf o r

b u t ton s a nd af u l l d urnde l s k i r tw a s s e en b yl o ca l sp r io r t ot h ec i v i l w a ra sa s soc ia ted w i th b u rden some a g r icu l t u ra l l i fe , w i th u na m i se r ia (am ise rab le p a s t ) : w o rk f r om s un u p t o s un d own , l i t t le p ay f o r h eavy l abou r

t h e p eop le w ho i den t ify a sD e iànenc s . T he s a c red h a s b ecome mo re s ecu la r a nd s oc ia l a nd i sa t t rac t ing t h e

a nd ap ea san tl i fe d evo id o fc o lou r . B y t h e 1 950 s t h e r eg iona l c o s tume w a s o n ly wo rn t op e r fo rm d ance s f o r t h e t o ur i s t s w ho w ere c om ing i nl a rge rn umbe r s t oe n -

y oung a sw e l l a sh o ld ing o n to t h eo ld . T he re i s ag rea td ea l o fe l a s t ic i ty b e tween b e l ie fa nd a c t ion . S ome women u sed t h ee xamp le o ft h e mu l t i tude

j oy t h e s ea a nd s un o f Ma l lo rca . A tt h i s t ime t h el o ca l s s a id t h ey f e l tl i ke monkey s d re s sed u pt op re tend t ot h e t o u r i s t s t h a tt h ey w e re b ackwa rd p ea san t s , a l be i te n te r -

o fv i rg in sa l o ve rS pa in a nd s a id , " you s ee t h e re i sr e a l l yo n ly o ne V irg in mo the rb u t many r ep re sen ta t ion sa r e n ece ssa ry t or ef lec ta l l t h e d i f fe ren t e xpe r ience s o ft h e

t a in ing p eop le . A f te r 1 975 , t h e d em i se o fF ranco a nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o fd emoc ra t ic g ove rnmen t ,t h ec o s tume b ecame as ymbo l o f t h e s t rugg le f o r r eg iona l i d en t i ty a nd v i l lage f e s t iva ls f ound l o ca l y oung men a nd w omen d raw ing o n r eg iona l l a nguage , f l ag s , mus ic a nd c o s -

w omen w ho b e l ieve i nh e r " . T he V irg in Mary s t i l l r ep r e sen t s t h ep e r fec ts t a te o fw omanhood b u tn oo ne i ma g i ne sa t ta in ing s uch as t a te . T he t r ad i t ion s o f t h e c hu rch h ave b een mod i f ied

t ume st oe xp re s st h e ir r enewed s en se o fl o ca l i ty a nd t r a -

w i th V a t ican I t oa dap tt ot h en eed s o f ac hang ing s oc i e t y . P e r sona l c onfe s s ion i sn o t ap re requ is i te o ft h e a c -

d i t ion . I n c onc lu s ion , It h ink t h e se r a the r d i ve r se e xamp le s c l ea r ly s ugge s t t h e i mpo r tance o fg round ing o u r i n te r p re ta t ion s i nt h es pec i f ic i ty o fl o ca l c i rcums tance s .T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fg ende r , o ft h e c omp lemen ta r i ty o f t h e

c ep tance o f t h e e uchar i s t . T he p r ies t a nd c ong rega t ion j o in t oge the ri na sk ing f o r f o rg ivene ss . T he s a c r if ic ia l g i f t ( body a nd b lood -b read a nd w ine ) i sp re sen ted i n s uch aw ay t h a te ach t ime i tg rows o u to fH is f o l lowe r s

3 6

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

b e l ie f sa nd r i tua lp rac t ice r evea lt h eo r ies o ft h eu n ive r se a sp e rce ived b y t ho se w e a r e s t udy ing . G ene ra l isa t ion s f r om o ne a r ea t oa no the r may b e mo re m i s lead ing t h an r e vea l ing a nd o n ly b y' r ead ing 'a l lo ft h ee v idence a va i l a b le i ne ach c on tex t , mak ing c on t ra s t sa nd c ompa r ison s w i th o the ra r ea sa nd t h en s ub jec t ing i tt ov a r ied a na ly s i s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s c an w ec on t inue t od raw r i che ri d e a so fp a s ts oc ia l p rac t ice s ,o rgan isa t ion ,r i te s , r i tua ls o r r e l ig ion .

s exe s , o r t h e p o ss ib le a symme tr ic b u t n o t n ece ssa r i ly h i e ra rch ica l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween m en a nd w omen i n s oc ie ty , t h e d i ve r se k now ledge s a nd r i tua l r o le s t h a t e ach h o ld s a r e a l l e s sen t ia l e l emen t s n eeded i nu nde r s t and ing t h ep a s ta sw e l la st h ep re sen t . I nt r y ing t ou n d e r s tand r e l ig iou s b e l ie f s a nd r i te s w e a re c on s ide r ing p a r t icu la rh uman s 'a pp rehen s ion so fu nde r ly ing o rde ri n t h e ir w o r ld s , w ays o fd i scove r ing a nd a nnounc ing t h a t o rde r ,a nd m eans o fa dap t ing t h em se lve st oi t .R e l ig iou s

B IB UOGRAPF IY

BACHOFEN ,J . , 1 861 ( t rans . 1 967 ) D a s Mu t te r rech t BOUQB IAGG I ,C . 1 989 . The P r ie s te s sF igu re i n Ma l ta ' ,i nH odde r ,I .( e d . )T he Mean ing o fT h ing s ,H a rpe rC o l l in s A cadem ic P re s s .UET ,M . , 1 986 CH ILDE ,V . G . , 1 951 . Man Make sH im se lf , Men to r : N ew Yo rk COHEN ,B . , 1 990 . A n An th ropo log is t Among t h eH i s to r ian sa nd O the r E s say s ,O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty P re s s . COLL IER AND YANAG ISAKO 1 987 . G ende ra nd K in sh ip ,S t anfo rd Un ive r s i ty P re s s . COLE ,S . , 1 991 . Women o ft h eP ra ia ,P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s . DAV IS ,J . ,( e d )1982 . R e l ig iou sO rgan iza t ion a nd R e l ig iou sE xpe r ience ,A cadem ic P re ss . DAHLBERG ,F .( ED . ) , 1 981 . Woman t h eG a the re r ,Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re s s . DE BEAUVO IR ,S . , 1 953 . T he S econd S ex DOUGLAS ,M . 1 978 . N a tu ra l S ymbo l s .B a r r ie a nd J enk in s ENGF J. S ,F . , 1 946 .T he O r ig in o ft h eF am i ly ,L ondon . GUL l. R STAD ,M . , 1 993 . ' Home d eco ra t ion a sp opu la rc u l tu re 'i nd e l V a l le ,T .( ed . )G ende red An th ropo logy ,R ou t l e dge . JA MES ,E .O . , 1 959 .T he C u l to ft h e Mo the r Godde s s J UST ,R . , 1 979 . ' Concep t ion so f Women i nC la ss ica lA then s ' ,J ASO H IRSCHON ,R . 1 981 . ' E ssen t ia lO b jec t sa nd t h eS ac red : I n te r io ra nd E x te r io rS pace I n An U rban G reek L oca l i ty 'i n A rdene r ,S .( ed . ) Women a nd S pace ,C room H e lm . HOLDEN ,P .( e d . )1983 . Women 's R e l ig iou sE xpe r ience ,C room H e lm ,B a rne sa nd Nob le . L EE AND DE yORE , 1 968 . LE W IS ,I .1 976 . S oc ia l An th ropo logy i nP e r spec t ive ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . L IENHARDT ,G . , 1 961 . D iv in i ty a nd E xpe r ience C la rendon P re s s : O xfo rd ,

METCALF P .&R . HUNT INGTON 1 991 C e leb ra t ion so fD ea th ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s MORGAN ,E LA INE 1 985 , T he D e scen to f Women ,S ouven i rP re s s . P I TT R IVERS , 1 959 . P eop le o ft h eS i e r ra , Wieden l ie ld a nd N ico l son . R ICH , ADR IENNE 1 976 . O f Woman B o rn SANDAY ,P .G . &R .G . GOODENOUGH 1 990 . B eyond t h eS econd S ex , ,U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P res s . SHA W , GEORGE BERNARD , 1 903 . Man a nd S upe rman . S PERBER ,D . , 1 975 . . R e th ink ing S ymbo l i sm ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s S TRATHERN ,M . , 1 987 . K in sh ip a tt h eC o re ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s VAN GENNEP , 1 960 . T he R i te so fP a s sage ,R ou t ledge a nd K eagan P au l , Lo ndon WALDREN ,J , . 1 988 . 1 lou se N ame sa s Me tapho r sf o rS oc ia lR e la t ion s ' , J ASO V o l .X IX , No .2 ,p p . 6 6 -169 ,1988 .

3 7

THE OR IENTAT IONS OF MED ITERRANEAN TO MBS AND S ANC I 'UAR IES

MICHAEL HOSK IN E LiZABETH AL LAN

3

C hu r chh i l lC o l lege C amb r idge , ENGLAND

h ama d e A lme r ia i ns ou the rn S pa in , a r e f r equen t ly l o c a ted o n t h e e dge o f ap l a teau w i th t h e e n t rance t ot h e

W hen p reh is tor ic p eop le s o f r eg ion s b o rde r ing t h e Med i ter ranean w e re s e lec t ing t h e d i rec t ion s i n w h ich t omb s a nd s anc tuar ie s w e re t of a ce ,i tmay w e l lb e t h a t t h e ir p r ime c on s ide ra t ion s w e re s ome t ime s r i tua l r a the r t h an p rac t ica l . Acco rd ing ly , M ichae l Ho sk in a nd c o l -

t omb l ook ing o u ta c ro s s t h e v a l ley . I n t h e l a te -M ino an c eme te ry a tA rmeno ii nn o r th -we s te rn C re te ,a nd i nt h e n ec ropo l is a t Mon te f r Io t ot h e w e s t o f G ranada , many o f t h e t omb s a r e c u ti n to t h e s l ope o f t h e h i l ls ide , a nd a ga in l ook o u ta c ro ss l owe rg round . We s ha l l t h e re fo re

l e ague s h ave f o r s ome y ear s b een i nve s t iga t ing t h e o r i e n ta t ions o f s uch s t ruc tu re s , f i r s ti n o rde r t oe s tab l ish t h ec u s tom ( i fa ny )t h a tp reva i led i nt h eg i ven c u l tu re a s i t man ife s ted i t se lf i n t h e g i ven r eg ion ; a nd s e cond , t o c on s ider ( w i th d ue c i rcum spec t ion ) wha t m igh t h ave b een t h e mo t ive u nde r ly ing t h e c u s tom . T he r e su l t s o f t h e s epa ra te i n ve s t iga t ion s h ave b een p ub l i shed i n as e -

a s sume i n wha t f o l lows t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion i sf r om t h e i n s ide l ook ing o u t . I ts hou ld b en o ted ,h oweve r , t h a ti f f o r ag i ven c u l tu re t h er eve r se w e re i nf a c t c o r rec t , t h is wou ld n o t a f fec t t h e q ue s t ion o f whe the r o r n o t t h e b u i lde r s o bserved a c u s tom o f o r ien ta t ion ; i tw ou ld me re ly t r an sfe rt h er ange o fd i rec t ion s a ccep t ab le t ot h e b u i lde r st ot h eo ppo s i te s e c to ro ft h es ky l ine .

r i e so fa r t ic le s .1 T h is p ape ri sa na t temp ta ta no ve rv iew o ft h er e su l t s t od a te . H oweve r , a s s ome a r chaeo log is t s a r eu nf am i l i a r w i th t h e t e chn ique s f o r mea sur ing o r ien ta t ion s , w e

When i nve s t iga t ing whe the r t h e b u r ia l c u s tom s o fa g iven c u l tu re a sm an if e s ted i n ap a r t icu la rr eg ion d id o r d id n o t i n c lude ac us tom o f t omb o r ien ta t ion , w e v i s i t

b eg in b y o u t l in ing h ow t h i si sd one .

a s many a sp o s s ib le o ft h et omb s . S ome may b ec l o sed , a nd s o w i thou t o r ien ta t ion . A t e ach t omb t h a t d oe s h ave a n o r ien ta t ion , w e p l ace o ne r ang ing p o le i nt h e c en t re o ft h ee n t rance a nd a no the ra tt h eo ppo s i te e nd o f

THE MEASUREMENT OF OR IENTAT IONS S anc tuar ie s a r er a re whe rea s t omb s a r ep l en t i fu l , s o w e w i l l a s sume o u rt a sk i st od e te rm ine t h eo r ien ta t ion o fa t omb . C lea r ly , n o t e ve ry Med i ter ranean t omb c an b e s a id t oh ave a no r ien ta t ion ,b u tt h e ma jo r i ty d oh ave a n

t h e l i ne o f s ymme t ry , u sua l ly t h e c en t re o f t h e b ack s t one ( o r ,i ft h e c hambe ri sc i rcu la r , a tt h ec en t re o ft h e c hambe r ) . We mu s t t h en mea su re t h e ' az imu th ' o ft h e l i ne d ef ined b y t h e se t wo p o le s . A z imu th s a r e a ng le s mea su red i n t h e h o r izon ta l c l ockw ise f r om t r ue n o r th ,

e n t rance a nd o f t h e se mo s t h ave a n a x is o f s ymme t ry t h a t p a sse s t h rough t h ee n t rance . I ti st h is a x i s t h a t w e m ea su re . T he a x is i s al i ne t h a t ,e x t ended , mee t s t h eh o r izon i n t wo d i ame t r ica l ly o ppo s i te p o in t s ; a nd i np r inc ip le t h e t omb m igh t b e t hough t o fa s ' f ac ing ' t owa rd s e i the r o f t h e se t wo p o in t s . I n o the r wo rd s , t h e d i rec t ion e nv is a ged b y t h e b u i lde r s m igh th ave b een f r om t h e o u t s ide l ook ing i n , o r f r om t h e i n s ide l ook ing o u t . We h ave f ound t ha t wheneve r w e c an c onf iden t ly c hoo se b e t ween t he se a l te rna t ive s ,o u rc onc lu s ion i st h a tt h et omb i s o r ien ted f r om t h e i n s ide l ook ing o u t . T hu s t h e B ronze Age t ombe d ig igan t i Ct omb so fg i an t s ' )i nS a r d in ia ,f o re xamp le ,a nd t h e mega l i th ic s epu lch re sa tA l -

3 8

s ot h a tn o r th i t se lf i s0 ° ,e a s ti s9 0 ° ,a nd s oon . T he re a r et wo c ommon w ay s o fm ea su r ing a z imu th s . T he mo re e xac t me thod i n vo lve st h eu se o f at h eodo l i te , a nd e xp lo i t st h ef a c tt h a to u rk now ledge o fc e le s t ia lm e c han ic s i se x trao rd inar i ly e xac t . B ecau se o f t h i s , f o r a ny g i ven momen t o f ag i ven d ay i n ag i ven y ear , a nd f r om as i te o fa ny g i ven l a t i tude ,t h ed i rec t ion o ft h es un c an b e c a lcu la ted w i th g rea t p rec i s ion . T he n ece ssa ry d a ta a r e c on ta ined i n p ub l ished t a b le s , wh ich w e c an c on su l ta l te rt h ef i e ldwo rk i sc omp le te . T he t ime mu s t o fc ou r se b e t r ue l oca l t ime f o r t h e s i te ( s o t h a tt h e s un i sd ue s ou th a tn oon ) , n o t t h a t o f G reenw ich o r s ome o the r a r t if ic ia l s t anda rd .

T o d e te rm ine t h is t ime w e

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

n eed t oh ave aw a tch a ccu ra t e t o as econd o r t wo a nd s e t t oG reenw ich ( o r ar e la ted ) t ime ; a nd w e n eed t o k now e xac t ly t h e l ong i tude o f t h e s i te , s o t h a t w e c an c a lcu la te t h e amoun t b y w h ich l o ca l t ime d i f fe r s f r om G reenw ich t ime . W i th t h is i n fo rma t ion t oh and , w e s e tu po u r t h eodo l i te s o t h a t i ti si n l i ne w i th t h e t wo p o le s . We t h en mea su re t h e h o r izon ta l r e ad ing i n t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e

t h e p o les t o t h e n ea re s t m inu te o f a r c? w ha ts ome i n ve s t iga to r sd oa l lt h et ime .

p o le s , a nd t h e h o r izon ta l r e ad ing i nt h ed i rec t ion o ft h e s un , n o t ing t h e t ime o ft h e l a t te ro b se rva t ion t ot h ee x a c t s e cond . T h i s d one , s imp le s ub t rac t ion g i ve s u s t h e

i n c ide s w i th t r ue n o r th i ne a s tern S a rd in ia , w h i le i nt h e I b e r ian p en in su la i ti sa ny th ing u pt o6 'o r mo re w e s to f t r ue n o r th ( and t h is a moun t mu s tb es ub t rac ted f r om t h e

d i f f e rence i na z imu th b e tween t h ed i rec t ion o ft h ep o le s a nd t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e s un a tt h a t momen t . S ince w e c an l a te r d e te rm ine w i th t h e a i d o f t h e t a b le s t h e a z i mu th o ft h e s un a tt h a t momen t ,t h e s imp le a dd i t ion ( o r s ub t rac t ion ) o ft h is d i f fe rence w i l l g i ve u s t h e a z imu th

c ompa ss r e ad ing t o g i ve t r ue n o r th ) . T h is ' magne t ic d ec l ina t ion ' n o t o n ly c hange s f r om p l ace t o p l ace b u t a l so f r om t ime t ot ime — in t h eI be r ian p en in su la , i ti s r e duc ing b ys ome th ing o ft h eo rde ro fo ne d eg ree e ve ry

o f t h e p o le s , a nd s o o f t h e d i rec t ion i n wh ich t h e t omb f ace s . I ff o r s ome r e a son w e h ad ap a r t icu la rn eed f o r t h e g rea te s t p o s s ib le a ccu racy , w e c ou ld p e r fo rm t h is o pe ra t ion s eve ra l t imes a nd t a ke a na ve rage ; t h i s wou ld a l so s a fegua rd u s f r om b e ing m is led b y a n e r ro ri nt h e t r an sc r ib ing o ft h ed a ta f r om as i ng le mea su remen t . T heodo l i te s a r e h eavy . When o u rc a r c an g on of u r t h e r , w e mu s th ump t h e t h eodo l i te a c ro s s c oun t ry , p o s s i b ly t ot h et op so f moun ta in s ,a nd t h is i so f ten i mp rac t i cab le . On a r r iva l a t t h e t omb , w e mu s t c on t r ive t o f i nd ap a tch o fg round t h a ti si nl i ne w i th t h ea x is o ft h e t omb a nd s u f f ic ien t ly c l ea r o fs t ones a nd b u she s f o ru s t o b e a b le t o e r ec t t h e i n s t rumen t , a f te r w h ich i tw i l l t a k e u s s eve ra l v a luab le m inu te s t os e tt h et h eodo l i t ei n p o s i t ion . Wo r s to fa l l , t h e me thod c anno tb eu sed o n a c loudy d ay Ho sk in o nce s pen t aw eek i nS i c i ly , i n -

t e nd ing t om ea su re t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f G reek t emp le s , b u t a ch ieved a lmo s t n o th ing a s t h e w ea the r w a s b ad t h roughou t . I ns ho r t ,o ne p ay s ah eavy p ena l ty f o ra t t emp t ing s uch p rec i se mea su remen t s , t hough t h ea t temp tm ay b e mo re t h an j u s t if ied i ft h e monumen th a sb een e r ec ted w i th t h e c r a f t sman sh ip o f aG reek t emp le ,o ri f ,a ss ome t ime si n B r i ta in , o ne i si nve s t iga t ing t h e e xac t d i rec t ion o f a ma rk o nt h eh o r izon many k i lome t re sa way . I nt h ec a se o f an eo l i th ic o rB ronze Age t omb o n ly av e ry f ew me t r e si nl e ng th ,r ough ly a s semb led a nd p o s s ib ly d i s tu rbed i n t h e i n te rven ing c en tu r ie s , t h e p o s i t ion s o f t h e t wo p o le s a r e i n ev i tab ly i l -def ined . T he re i st h e re fo re n o p o in ti nm ea su r ing w i th g r ea tp rec is ion t h el i ne j o in ing t h em . I ndeed ,i tmay w e l l b et h a ti f( a si sd e s irab le )w e r e v is i tt h es i te o na no the ro cca s ion i no rde rt oc heck t h e a ccu racy o f o u r p rocedu res , w e s ha l l l oca te t h e p o le s

-

y e t t h is i s

T he s econd me thod i n vo lve s t h e u se o f ac ompa s s , a much l e ss p rec ise i n s t rumen t b u t v e ry s u i tab le f o r t h e s t udy o fr ough ly c on s t ruc ted t omb s , a nd i nn o w ay d e p enden to nt h ew ea the r . T he c ompa s s mea su re s t h ed i r e c t ion o f t h e a x is o f t h e t omb r e la t ive t o m agne t ic n o r th . A t t h ep re sen tt ime , magne t ic n o r th r ough ly c o -

e i gh to rt e ny ea r s . I ti st h e re fo re n ece ssary t oe s tab l i sh t h e magne t ic d ec l ina t ion i nt h eg i ven l o ca l i ty a tt h ed a te o ft h e i nve s t iga t ion . ( The S pan ish C a r tog raf la M i l i ta r g i ve s t h e n ece s sary d a ta a round t h e b o rde r a nd o n t h e v e r so , t hough t h e se may n o tb ee a sy t oi n t erp re t a s t h e c oo rd ina te g r id i sa l igned i n y e ta no the rd i rec t ion ; t r ue n o r th i si nd ica ted b y as t a r , a nd magne t ic n o r th f o r t h e e poch o f t h e map b y af l ag w i th ' N M ' a nd t h e y ea r . ) -

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We mu s ta l so k now t h e' sy s tema t ic ' e r ro ro fo u r i n s t rumen t i t se lf . A l l measu r ing i n s t rumen t s a r e c on s t ruc ted w i th l e ss t h an P la ton ic p e r fec t ion ,b u tt h ee r ro r o f at h eodo l i te i s much t oo s ma l l t oi n te re s tu s . T he e r r o r i n t h e manu fac tu re o fo u r c ompa ss , h oweve r , may w e l l b e h a lf ad eg ree o r mo re , a nd t h is c o r rec t ion w e w i l l n eed t o make t oe ve ry r ead ing w e t a ke . T he re a r e v a r iou s w ay s o fd e te rm in ing t h is e r ro r ,t h es imp le s tb e i n g t oa sk t h eh e lp o f af r iend w ho h a s at h eodo l i te a nd w ho a l so k nows t h e l o ca l magne t ic d ec l ina t ion . Wi th t h et h eodo l i te h ec an d e te rm ine t r ue n o r th ,a nd t h e mag n e t ic d ec l ina t ion t h en g i ve s magne t ic n o r th , w h ich c an b ec ompa red w i th t h ec ompa ss n o r th . T he u se r w ho i s w i thou t s uch af r iend c an o b ser ve o ne o rdnance s u rvey p o in tf r om a no the rs uch p o in t .T he se l o ca t ion sa r es pec i f i ed t ot h en ea re s t me t r e ,a nd s oi ti sn o td if icu l tt oc a l c u la te t h et r ue b ea r ing o ft h el i ne j o in ing t h et wo s u rvey p o in t s . Ac heck o f t h e a c tua l r e ad ing o f t h e c ompa s s a ga in s t t h is c a lcu la ted b ear ing a d ju s ted f o r m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion , g i ve s u s o u r s ys tema t ic e r ro r . B u t i fa l l e l se f a i ls , a nd i f as e cond c ompa ss i sa va i lab le w ho se e r ro rh a s a l ready b een e s tab l i shed , t h en c ompa r ison o f r e ad ing s made w i th t h e t wo c ompa sse s w i l l g i ve s ome

r a the r d i f f e ren t ly , a nd o b ta in a n a z imu th a s much a s

i n d ica t ion o ft h ee r ro ro ft h ef i r s t . A mo re s e r iou sp rob lem i st h ep o ss ib i l i ty o f magne t ic a noma ly i nt h er ock o ft h er eg ion ,e spec ia l ly c ommon i f

t wo o r t h ree d eg ree s d i f fe ren t f r om o u r f i r s t r e ad ing . Why , t h en , mea su re t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e l i ne j o in ing

t h e r ock i si gneou s . On t h is o ne n eed s e xpe r t a dv ice f r om a g eo log is t . F o r tuna te ly , s e r iou s a noma l ie s a r e

3 9

M . HOSK IN AND E A LLAN

v e ry r a re , a nd i np a r t icu la r , many o f t h e r eg ion s w i th c ave s he l te r s t h a t a t t rac ted e a r ly s e t t lemen t a r e l ime s t one , w i th r ock f o rmed f r om u n to ld m i l l ion s o f s ea c r ea tu re s ; a nd t h en t h e re i sn od ange ro fa noma ly . O n t h e o the r h and , o n o ne moun ta in t op i nC re te . Hosk in a nd h i s c o l league f ound t h a t t h e l i ne j o in ing t wo p o le s h ad o ne v a lue i ft a ken i no ne d i rec t ion ,a nd av a lue t h a t

h a s n o th ing t od o w i th magne t ic d ec l ina t ion ) i st h e a n g l e i n t h e s ky b e tween t h e c i rc le t h a t i st h e c e le s t ia l e qua to r a nd t h e c i rcu la r p a th t r aced b y t h e h eaven ly b ody , a ng le s t ot h en o r th b e ing c oun ted a sp o s i t ive a nd a ng le s t ot h e s ou th a sn ega t ive . I ti sa na logou s t ol a t i t u de o n e a r th : as t a r o n t h e e qua to r i t se lf wou ld h ave d ec l ina t ion 0 ° a nd as t a r a tt h e No r th P o le wou ld h ave

d i f f e red b y 1 85 ° n o tt h ee xpec ted 1 80 ° i ft a ken i n t h eo ppo s i te d i rec t ion ; a nd i tt r an sp i red t h a ts t epp ing a s

d ec l ina t ion + 90 ° . T he s p r ing a nd a u tumn e qu inoxe sa r e d ef ined a st h e momen t s when t h es un c ro s se s t h ec e le s -

l i t t le a s o ne me t re f o rwa rd s o r b ackwa rd s a l te red t h e c ompa ss r ead ing p e rcep t ib ly . F o r tuna te ly a na s t ronom -

t i a le qua to r ,a nd t h es un t h en h a sd ec l ina t ion 0 ° .

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i c a lo b serva to ry o fk nown p o s i t ion w a sv i s ib le o n ad i s t a n t moun ta in t op , a nd t hey w e re a b le t ou se t h ec om p a s s t o o b ta in t h e d i f fe rence i n a z imu th b e tween t h e l i ne o fp o le s a nd t h ek nown d i rec t ion o ft h eo b se rva to r y , a nd h ence t h et r ue a z imu th o ft h el i ne o fp o le s . B u t i fo ne i ss o u n lucky a s t o b e w ork ing among i gneou s r ock o n as i te w i th r e s t r ic ted v i s ib i l i ty ,t h en t h ep rob lem h a sn oe a sy s o lu t ion s ho r to fu s ing at h eodo l i te .

A w e l l -known f o rmu la i n s phe r ica l t r igonome t ry g i ve s d ec l ina t ion w hen l a t i tude , a z imu th a nd a l t i tude a r e k nown . B u t i fo ne i sc onf ron ted w i th c ompu t ing d ec l ina t ion sf o rn ume rou st omb s ,o ne i sw e l la dv i sed t o s end ac ompu te rd i sk t oD rC l ive R ugg le so ft h e S choo l o fA rchaeo log ica l S tud ie s a tL e ice s te r Un ive r s i ty ( Le i c e s te r , LE I 7 RH , UK ) w i th ar eque s tf o r ac opy o fh i s c ompu te r p rog ram f o r t h e c onve r s ion . T h is p rog ram h a s t he a dd i t iona l me r i t o f a l low ing f o r t h e r e f rac t ion ( bend ing ) o f l i gh t a s i tp a sse s o b l ique ly t h rough t h e E a r th ' sa tmo sphe re .

EARTH AND SKY I ft h e re i sr e a son t os u spec tt h a tt h e mo t iva t ion u nder ly i ng t h e o r ien ta t ion s w a s a s t ronom ica l , t h en i na dd i t ion

THE S KY I N ANT IQU ITY

t o mea su r ing t h ea z imu th ,i ti se s sen t ia l t om ea su re t h e a ppa ren ta l t i tude o ft h e h o r izon t h a ti s , t h ea ng le b y wh ich t h e s ky l ine t h a tt h e t omb f a ce s i se l eva ted a bove

T ot e s t whe the rt h ep a t te rn i nt h ed ec l ina t ion s t h a tc o r r e spond t oo u rm ea su red a z imu th sa nd a l t i tude se ndo r s -

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t h e t r ue h o r izon ta l . T h is i sb ecau se a n a s t ronom ica l b ody move s s ou th a s i tr i se s ( and n o r th a s i ts e t s ) . I f t h e refo re t h e s un , f o r e xamp le , h a s t oc l imb b eh ind a h i l l a nd r each t h e t op b efo re t h e w a tche r s a tt h e t omb

e st h ev i ew t h a tt h eu nde r ly ing mo t iva t ion si nt h em ind s o ft h e t omb b u i lde r s may i ndeed h ave b een a s t ronom i c a l , w e n eed t ob e f am i l ia r w i th t h e s ky , n o t a s i ti s n ow , b u t a si tw a s i n An t iqu i ty . T oday a tm id summe r t h es un h a sd ec l ina t ion o fa bou t2 3_ ° ,a nd a tm idw in te r

s ee s un r ise , t h e s un w i l l f i r s tb e o b se rved b y t h em f u r t h e r s ou th ( t ha t i s , a t ag rea ter a z imu th ) t h an wou ld

— 23_ ° . I n An t iqu i ty t h e se v a lue sw e re r a the rh ighe r ,b e i ng c l o se t o± 24 °i n2 700BC . T he d i f f e rence t h i s make s

h ave b een t h ec a se i ft h eh i l lh ad n o tb een p re sen t . At h eodo l i te s upp l ie s t h is a l t i tude q u ick ly a nd a ccu -

i sn eg l ig ib le i n mo s tw e s te rn Med i ter r anean s i te s . T he r ange o ft h es ky l ine o ve r wh ich t h es un r o se a ta

r a te ly , whe rea s ac ompa ss i su se le s s f o r t h is p u rpo se . T he c ompa s s -u se r mu s tp u rcha se as e cond i n s t rumen t ,a c l inome te r , wh ich h ei st oh o ld v er t ica l ly . I n s ide t h ei n s t rumen t , ac i rcu la rg radua ted s ca le r o ta te sf r ee ly i nt h e v e r t ica l p l ane . I ti sw e igh ted , a nd h ang s s o t h a tt h ed i ame te ro ft h ec i r c le t h a tc on ta in s t h ez e ro o nt h es ca le i s

g i ven s i te p rove st ob eo fg rea ti n te re s ti no u ri nve s t iga -

a lway sh o r izon ta l . T he u se rs imp ly l ook s a tt h es ky l ine t h rough a s i gh t ing t ube , a nd r ead s i t s a l t i tude a ga in s t t h eg radua ted s ca le . T h is d one , t h ei n ve s t iga to rk now s t h ea z imu th o ft h e d i rec t ion f aced b y t h et omb , a nd t h ea l t i tude o ft h es ky l i ne i n t h a t d i rec t ion . H e mu s t a l so d e te rm ine t h e l a t i t ude o f t h e s i te , f o r t h e s ky l ook s v e ry d i f fe ren t a t d i f f e ren tl a t i tude s . T hen ,i no rde r t or e la te t h ea r chaeo l og ica l r ema in s t ow ha t w a s t o b e s e en i n t h e s ky , h e mu s t c onve r t t h e se q uan t i t ie s i n to t h e e qu iva len tc e le s t i a l c oo rd ina te o fd ec l ina t ion . T h is c oo rd ina te ( wh ich

4 0

t i on s . I ndeed ,i nt h e se l a t i tude s ( and u n l ike t h et r op ic s ) t h ed i rec t ion o fm idw in te rs un r ise i sl i ke ly t ob et h es i n g l e mo s ti mpo r tan ta z imu th f o ru s t oc on s ide r ; f o r u n l e ss t h e s un t h en r e ve r sed i t s s ou thwa rd movemen ta nd b egan t or e tu rn n o r th , d ea th w a s i n ev i tab le . Ou r o wn C h r is tma s i si t se lf a n a dap ta t ion o f t h e m idw in te r R o m an f e s t iva lo ft h eS o lI nv ic tu s ,t h eU nconque red S un . T he p o s i t ion o f s unr ise o n t h e h o r izon t a ke s h a lf a y ea rt o move f r om i t sn o r the r ly e x t reme ( a tt h e s umme r s o ls t ice ) t oi t s s ou the r ly ( a t t h e w in te r s o ls t ice ) . T he moon c ove r s as im i la rr ange i no n ly h a lf amon th . B u t w he rea s t h e r ange o f s unr ise i se f fec t ive ly u nchanged f r om o ne y ea r t o t h e n ex t , t h e r ange o f moon r ise e x p and sa nd c on t rac t so ve r ac yc le o f 1 8 .6 y ea r s . F o rh a lf t h i s p e r iod t h e mon th ly r ange o f moon r ise i sr a the rl e s s t hnan t h e a nnua l r ange o f s unr ise , a nd f o r h a lf i ti s

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s l igh t ly g rea te r . A t o ne s t age i n t h e 1 8 .6 y ea r s , t h e r ange o f moon r ise r e ache s a n a l l t ime max imum , a nd t h e moon t h en r i ses f u r the r n o r th , a nd f u r the r s ou th , t h an h a sb een s e en f o r ag ene ra t ion . B ya na logy w i th t h es o l s t ice s ,t h e moon i st h en s a id t o b e a t a' ma jo rl una rs t and s t i l l ' . I nd ec l ina t ion t h e moon i st h en f u r the rt h an t h es un f r om t h ec e le s t ia le qua to rb y s ome 5 ° , av a lue t h a t h a s r ema ined a lmo s t u na l te red o ve r t h em i l lenn ia ; a round 2 700 BC ,t h e re fo re ,w hen a t

whe re a t s un r i se a tt h e w in te r s o ls t ice t h e s un 's r ay s s h ine t h rough an a r row s l i t a tt h e e n trance , d own t h e w ho le l e ng th o f al ong p a s sageway i n to t h e c hambe ra t t h ef a re nd3 I ti ss ou n l ike ly t h a tt h i s wou ld h appen b y a cc iden t , t ha t o ne c an i n fe r w i th c onf idence t h a t t h e b u i ld e r so r ien ted t h e monumen tt owa rd sm idw in te rs un r i se .

t h e ma jo rs t and s t i l ls , t h e moon h ad d ec l ina t ion ± 29 ° ,a s c ompa red w i th ± 28_ ° t oday . Ap eop le f o r whom t h e moon h ad s pec ia l s i gn if icance may w e l l h ave n o ted

U sua l ly ,h oweve r , as i ng le monumen ti si n su f f ic ien t . F o r e xamp le , ar ecen t s t udy4 o fa n o va l shaped s a c red p oo l o f t h e f i r s t c en tu ry BC , a tB ib rach te i n c en tra l F rance , c onc lude s t h a t t h e s ho r t a x is o f t h e p oo l i s a l igned w i th t h em idw in te rs un r ise /m id summe r s un se t ;

t h e se e x t reme p o s i t ion s . A ' m ino r l una r s t and s t i l l ' , when t h e r ange o f moon r ise r eached a m in imum 9 . 3 y ea r s l a te r ( d ec l ina t ion ± 19 ° a round 2 700 BC ) , wou ld h ave b een much l e s s o bv iou s , b u t may h ave b een n o -

b u to ne n eed sc ompe l l ing c u l tu ra le v idence t os how t h a t t h is a l ignmen ti sn o ta cc iden ta l , ame re c o inc idence . T oi lu s t ra te t h e me thodo logy u nde r ly ing t h e se i n ve s t i ga t ion s ,c on s ide rt h ec ommuna l t omb s o ft h et a layo t ic

t i ced i ns pec ia lc i rcums tance s . C hange s i nt h e a ppea rance o ft h e h eaven s s i nce An t i qu i ty a r e mo s te v iden t a mong t h e s t a r s . T he s t a r s a r e o fc ou r se f r ee t o move i ns pace a si n d iv idua ls , b u tb e -

c u l tu re o f Meno rca k nown a sb u r ia ln ave ta s ( b ecau se o f t h e i rr e semb lance t oa nu p tu rned b oa t ,F igure 1 ) . S ome e i gh teen o ft h e se a r ek nown . One y ear , Hosk in mea s u red t h eo r ien ta t ion s o fs even o ft h e se , a nd f ound t h em

c au se o f t h e ir e no rmou s d i s tance s f r om e a r th , t h e se ' p rope r mo t ion s ' a r e t i ny a nd w i l lr a re ly t r oub le t h ea r c haeo log is t . Howeve r , t h e w ho le f r amewo rk o f t h e s t a r ry s k ie s a s s een t oday f r om , s ay , t h e B a lea r ic s i s v e ry d i f fe ren tf r om t h a ts een i np reh i s to r ic t ime s . T h i s i sb ecau se t h e e a r th i sn o t ap e r fec t s phe re , a nd s o t h e

a l l t o l i e , s u rp r is ing ly e nough , w i th in a q uad ran t ( a q ua r te ro f ac i rc le ) . Wh ich p a r t icu la rq uad ran ti tw a s i s n o t i mpo r tan t f o r o u rp re sen t p urpo se ; w ha t i si mpo r t a n t ,i st h a tt h is i n fo rma t ion made i tp o ss ib le f o rh im t o v i s i t e ach o ft h er ema in ing e l even t omb s t h ef o l low ing

p u l ls o ft h es un a nd moon c au se i t sa x is t o wobb le ,l i ke ac h i ld 's t op ,w i th ap e r iod o fs ome 2 6 ,000 y ea r s . Wha t w e mode rn s t e rm t h e P o le S ta r i sn ea r t h e c e le s t ia l n o r th p o le t oday , a nd w i l l b e s o a ga in f o r o u rd e scen d en t s i n2 6 ,000 y ea r s , b u ti tw a s a t ac on s ide rab le d i s t a nce f r om t h en o r th p o le i n An t iqu i ty . T he ' t a layo t ic ' c i v i l iza t ion o n t h eB a lea r ic s w a s a ti t s h e igh ta round 1 000 BC ,t h ree t hou sand y ea r s a go . T h i s i n te rva l m igh t s eem a s ma l l f r ac t ion o f 2 6 ,000 y ea r s , b u ti fw ec a lcu la te b ackwa rd s w ef i nd t h a tt h eS ou the rn C ro ss w a s t h en v i s ib le f r om t h e B a lea r ic s . F o r tuna te ly t h e p o s i t ion s i n An t iqu i ty o f a l l t h e b r igh t s t a r s h ave b een c ompu ted f o r u s ( w i th p rope r mo t ion s a l so t a ken i n to a ccoun t ) ,a nd a r er e ad i ly a va i lab le f o rc on su l ta t ion i na ny a s t ronom ica lI i b ra ry .2

y ea r w i th t h e e xp l ic i t q ue s t ion i nm ind : w i l l t h is n ex t t omb a l so f ace w i th in t h e q uad ran t? I ft h e t omb s w e r e o r ien ted a tr andom , t h en s i nce t h e re a re f ou rq uad ran t s i n ac i rc le , t h e c hance s w e re o n ly o ne i nf ou r t ha t t h e f i r s tt omb wou ld f a ce w i th in t h i sp a r t icu lar q uad ran t . I t d id . T he c hance s w e re o n ly o ne i nf ou rt h a tt h es econd wou ld l i kew i se f a ce w i th in t h eq uad ran t ,b u ti td id . T he c hance so fb o th t omb sf a c ing w i th in t h eq uad r an tb ya c c iden t w e re o ne in fou r mu l t ip l ied b y o ne in -fou r , t h a t i s , o ne i ns i x teen . T he t h i rd t omb a l so f a ced w i th in t h e q uad ran t o ne i ns i x ty -fou r . And t h ef ou r th o ne i n 2 56 . I nf a c t ,a l l e l even t omb sf a ced w i th in t h eq uad ran t ( F igu re 2 ) ,s ot h a ti ti sv i r tua l ly c e r ta in t h a tt h eq uad ran t -

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r ef lec ted t h ea c tua l c u s tom o ft h ec on s truc to r sa nd w a s n o t af i gmen to ft h ei nve s t iga to r ' si mag ina t ion .

CUSTO MS OF OR IENTAT ION AND THE IR MOT IVAT IONS

T h is much i su ncon t rove r s ia l . R eade r s who d oub t t h a t t h e n ave ta s o f Meno rca f ace w i th in t h is q uad ran t a r e i n v i ted t o v i s i t Meno rca w i th p o le s a nd c ompa s s a nd r epea tt h e mea su re s ; a nd i ft h ey d on o t u nde r s tand

S o much f o r t h e t e chn ica l p re l im ina r ie s ; n ow f o r t h e c u s tom s t h em se lve s . N o te f i r s t t h a t t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s

t h e d ec i s ive n a tu re o f t h e p robab i l i ty a rgumen t , t h ey s hou ld c on su l t ama thema t ica lf r iend . Howeve r ,w hen w ea sk w hy t h is s hou ld b es o ,c e r ta in -

w e make a r e o ft h e i r n a tu re s t a t is t ica l , a nd u sua l ly d e p end u pon t h e n umbe r o f monumen t s u nde ri n ve s t iga t i on b e ing s u f f ic ien t ly l a rge . O cca s iona l ly h oweve ro ne c an d raw c onc lus ion s f r om a s i ng le monumen t . T he g rea t e xamp le o f t h is i sN ewg range i nc en t ra l I r e land ,

t yv an ishe s . I t may b e t h a t t h e p reva i l ing w ind c ame f r om t h e o ppo s i te q uad ran t ; o r t h a t t h e t omb s f aced a l egenda ry h ome land , o r as ac red moun ta in , o r s ome s uch . O r i t may b e t ha t c e r ta in d i rec t ion s w e re f a v ou red f o ra s t ronom ica lr e a son s .

4 1

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

T he c e le s t ia l n o r th p o le r ound w h ich t h es t ar sj ou rney e ach n i gh t i s ad a tum o fn a tu re . V e r t ica l ly b e low i ti s

mo s to ft h e t omb s f ace o u t t os ea whe re t h e re i sn o s a -

t ween t h em a re e a s ta nd w e s t t hough ' m idway ' may a l ready i n vo lve c oncep t s ,s uch a st h eb i sec t ion o fa na n -

c r ed moun ta in o rh ome land . On t he o the rh and , a s t ro n om ica l mo t iva t ion s s ome t imes s eem i n e scapab le . F o r e xamp le ,t h ea z imu th s o ft h es i x s ca t te red t omb s w er e c en t ly e xam ined i n t h e s ou th o f t h e p rov ince o f S a la manca w e re c oncen t ra ted i n ar ange o fl e s s t h a t8 ° ,a nd

g l e ,t h a tp e rhap s w e re u nknown t ot h et omb b u i lde r s . S uppo se w es u spec tt h a tt h eb u i lde r so ft h et omb s w e

i ti sd i f f icu l t t o s ee h ow s uch u n ifo rm i ty c ou ld h ave b een o b ta ined a tw ide ly s epa ra ted s i te s w i thou t t h e i n -

a r e i n ve s t iga t ing i n tended t h e i r t omb s t o f ace o ne o f t h e se ' c a rd ina l 'd i rec t ion s ,f o re xamp le d ue s ou th . T hen w ew ou ld e xpec tt of i nd m any o ft h et omb sf a c ing c l o se t o s ou th , w i th t h ose f ac ing ( by e r ro r ) al i t t le e a s t o f

v o lvemen to fa s t ronomy . N eve r the le ss , e ven w hen w e a r e p r iva te ly c onv inced

t h e n o r th d i rec t ion o n t h e s ky l ine a s s een f r om o u r t omb . T he o ppo s i te d i rec t ion i ss ou th ,a nd m idway b e -

s ou th r ough ly e qua l l ing i nn umbe r t ho se f a c ing al i t t le w e s t . We wou ld a l so e xpec tt of i nd as ma l le r n umbe r o f t omb s f ac ing b y e r ro r r a the r f u r the r f r om s ou th , a ga in i nr ough ly e qua l n umb e r s t o e a s t a nd w e s t . I n o the rw o rd s ,i fw e made ag raph o ft h e' f requency d i s t r ibu t ion 'o ft h ea z imu th s , w ew ou ld e xpec ti tt oh ave a p eak a ts ou th ,a bou tw h ich t h e re wou ld b et h es ymme t r i c , b e l l -shaped c urve o f wha t ma thema t ic ian s t e rm a d i s tr ibu t ion . When o u rf i e ldwo rk i sc omp le te , a nd p rov ided t h e t omb s a r e b e r s , t e s t t h eh ypo the s i s b y s e e ing whe the rt h e n

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s t a r p ar t icu la r o rt h e t h e S un m idw in te r — then o u r t e r re s t r ia l a z imu th s t h e c e le s t ia l d ec l ina t ion . T h is d one , h ypo the s is s i ng le a s t ronom ica l b y i n gi ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion n o rma l t h ec o r re spond ing

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n

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t h a tw eu nde r s tand t h e mo t iva t ion u nde r ly ing ac u s tom o f o r ien ta t ion , i ti si mpo r tan t t ok eep i nm ind t h e d i s t i nc t ion b e tween t h e ma thema t ica l ly c ompe l l ing d em o n s t ra t ion t h a t t he b u i lde r s o b served t h i s c u s tom , a nd o u r a t temp t t oo f fe r ap l au s ib le e xp lana t ion o ft h e u n d e r ly ing mo t ive . I ndeed , t od e te rm ine t h e c u s tom i si t s e lf i mpo r tan t , e ven w i thou t c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e mo t i ve ; i n p a r t icu lar , i ft h e monumen t s a r e t omb s ( a s i s u sua l ly t h ec a se ) , w e h ave ab u r ia l c u s tom t ow h ich w e c an p u tn umbe r s . T hen i fa r chaeo log is t s w onde rw he th e ri n ap a r t icu la rr eg ion o ne c u l tu re e vo lved i n to a no th e r , o r whe the r t h e a r ea w i tne s sed t he a r r iva l o fo u t s id e r s , i t may b e i lum ina t ing t oc ompa re t h e c u s tom s o f o r ien ta t ion s ;a nd t h i s i se a s i ly d one s i nce w e a r em ea s u r ing a ng le sa nd t h e refo re o u re xp res s ion o f ac u s tom i s q uan t i ta t ive . P rov ided t h e mo t iva t ion w a si ndeed a s t ro n om ica l , t h e c u s tom c ou ld b e t r an sp lan ted w i th l i t t le c hange f r om o ne a r ea t oa no the r . I ft h er ange s o fa z i mu th s t u rn o u t t o b e s i gn if ican t ly d i f fe ren t , t h is s ug g e s t s t h e a r r iva l o fa n a l ien c u s tom . I ft h e r ange s a r e s im i la r , t h i s w i l lb ea na rgumen ti nf a vou ro fc on t inu i ty t hough n o t o f c ou r se ap roo f o fc on t inu i ty , s i nce a -

n ew ly -a r r ived c u l tu re may a l ready b eo b se rv ing as im i l a rc u s tom f o r t h e s ame a s t ronom ica l r e a son ( t omb s t o f a ce s un r ise ,f o re xamp le ) . C on s ide r , f o r e xamp le , t h e v i ew l ong f avou red b y s ome a r chaeo log is t s ,6 t h a tt h en uragh ic p eop le o fS a rd i n i a s a i led t o Meno rca a nd b egan b u i ld ing t a layo t s i n i m i ta t ion o f t h e t owe r s ( nu raghe ) o f t h e ir h ome land , a nd n ave ta si ni m i ta t ion o ft h e ir t omb so fg i an t s . H ow e ve r ,n ea r ly a l l t h et omb so fg i an t sf ace t h ee a s t e rn h a lf o ft h e s ky wh i le t h e n ave ta s f o r t h e mo s t p ar tf a ce t h e w e s te rn h a lf ,a nd s ot h ec u s tom so fo r ien ta t ion a r eu t te r l yd i f f e rent I tc ou ld b et h a to na r r iva l o n Meno rca ,t h e s e t t le r s s a id t ot h em se lve s , " Now we w i l ld o t h ing sd i f f e ren t ly ! ;b u ti ts e em so dd t ob u i ld n ave ta si ni m i t a t ion o ft omb s o fg i an t s , a nd t h en r e jec t t h e a s soc ia ted c u s "

t om o fo r ien ta t ion .

mi c al

o n vi n ci n g.

e xamp le , t h e d i rec t ion t h e p reva i l ing w ind d oe s e xp la in t h e c ho ice q uad ran t t h e a nd

MED ITERRANEAN CUSTO MS OF OR IENTAT ION

o f

o f

f or

n

a v et a s,

4 2

A f te rt h e se l e ng thy p re l im ina r ie s , w eb eg in o u rs u rvey

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

o ft h e r e su l t s t od a te o fa ni n ve s t iga t ion t h a th a s s o f a r i n vo lved t h e e xam ina t ion o f o ve r s even h und red n eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge t omb s ( and as ma l le rn umbe ro f

h ad b e en l e f t i n comp le te ) , w eh ave a cqu i red at r ea su ry o fo r ien ta t ion d a ta ( Tab le 1 )t h a ti sp robab ly u n ique o f i t s k ind , i n b o th q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty . T he t omb s a r e a l so e xcep t iona l ly c on s is t en ti nt h e i r o r ien ta t ion s ( F ig -

t emp le s a nd s anc tuar ie s ) , f r om t h e A t lan t ic c oa s t o f P o r tuga l i n t h e w e s t t oC yp ru s i n t h e e a s t . T he mo s t

u re 4 ) . Mo s t o the r s i te s i nc lude o ne o r t wo t ombs w ho se o r ien ta t ion s a r ea noma lou s , b u tn o ts oA rmeno i :

i mpo r tan td i scove ry i se a sy t os t a te : w i th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h e c rude t omb s k nown a ss c s i o nt h el i t t le I t a l ian i s l a nd o fP an te l le r ia , e ve ry g roup o f monumen t s i n ve s t i g a t ed h a s y i e lded u nque s t ionab le p roo fo ft h ee x i s tence

t h e e n t rance o f e ve ry s i ng le t omb f a ce s e a s te r ly , b e t ween n o r th -ea s ta nd s ou th -ea s t . D a ta o fs uch q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty p rov ide t h eo ppo r tun i -

o f al o ca lc u s tom o fo r ien ta t ion . T he re a re c u r iou s ly f ew f r ee -s tand ing t omb s t o b e

t yf o r a ne nqu i ry i n to t h e mo t iva t ion t h a tu nde r lay t h is c u s tom o fe a s te r ly o r ien ta t ion . T he re a r e s e ve ra l o bv i o u s p o ss ib i l i t ies , b o th t e r re s t r ia l a nd c e le s t ia l ; a nd d oub t le s so th er sl i eb eyond o u r modem i mag in ing .

f ound i nt he l and s o ft h e c en t ra l Med i te r ranean t h e p en in su la o fI t a ly , S ic i ly , a nd t h e Ma l te se i s land s . I n t h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean o u r i n ve s t iga t ion s a re s t i l l a t a ne a r ly s t age ,e xcep tf o rt h ee x t rao rd ina ry a nd v e ry i m -

Two t e r re s t r ia l mo t iva t ion s mu s tb ec on s ide red . One i st h e a vo idance o fp reva i l ing w ind s . O n Meno rca , f o r e xamp le , t h eb u she sa r e b en to ve rt owa rd s t h es ou th b y t h ew in te rg a le sf r om t h en o r th ,a nd o ne m igh tt h e re fo re

p o r tan t c e me tery a tA rmeno i o n C re te . I n t h e w e s te rn Med i te r ranean o u r i n ve s t iga t ion s a r e mo re a dvanced , a nd w e f i nd t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t omb s o n t h e B a l e a r ic I s land sa r eq u i te d i f fe ren tf r om t ho se i no the ra r e -

e xpec tt h e Meno rcan t omb s l i kew i se t of a ce s ou th . B u t n o th ing o ft h i s s o r th appen sa tA rmeno i . T he s e cond i n vo lve s Moun t V rys ina s , w h ich l i e s a f ew k i lome t re st ot h ee a s to ft h ec eme te ry . O ni t s s um m i t w a s o ne o ft h e mo s t i mpo r tan t o f t h e C re tan p eak s anc tua r ie s , a nd a l though t h is s anc tua ry a n teda ted t h e c eme te ry b ys eve ra lc en tu r ie s ,i ti s mo re t h an l i ke ly t h a t

a s w e h ave s t ud ied . We t h e re fo re d i scu s s f i r s t t h e c e m e te ry a t A rmeno i ; t h en S a rd in ia , C o r s ica a nd t h e I b e r ian p en in su la ;a nd f i na l ly t h eB a lea r ic I s land s . THE LATE -M INOAN CE METERY AT AR MENO I , CRETE

t h e moun ta in p re se rved i t s s ac red c ha rac te ri n to t h ep e r i od when t h ec eme te ry w a sb e ing b u i l t . T he e a r l ie s to f t h e t omb s s o f a r e xcava ted ( no . 2 00 ) f a ce s a lmo s t d i r ec t ly t owa rds t h e p eak , a nd a l l t h e t omb s f ace t h e moun ta in i n ag ene ra lw ay . H oweve r , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e p eak i t se lf w a s n o t t h e

T he c eme tery o fA rmeno i i nn o r th -we s tC re te l i e so n a l ow em inence s ome t e nk i iome t re s s ou th o ft h e mode rn p o r to fR he thymnon . I tb e long s t ot h eL a te M inoan I I l IB P e r iod ( 1450-1190 BC ) . T he f a c t t h a t , d e sp i te s e a rche s o ft h ea r ea ,i ti ss t i l ln o tk nown w he re t h ep eo -

' t a rge t ' f o rt h e t omb s i ng ene ra l . F i r s t , t h e mean ( a ve r a ge ) a z imu th i s9 6 ° .4 , mo re t h an 10 f u r the rn o r th t h an t h ed i rec t ion o ft h ep eak ,a nd t h em ed ian ( m idd le v a lue ) i s 97 .3 ;t h ea z imu th sa r et h e refo re b yn om ean se qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted a bou tt h ed i rec t ion o ft h ep eak . S econd , t h e t omb s i n t h e s ou the r ly r eg ion o f t h e s i te f a ce f u r ther s ou th t h an u sua l , w h i le t ho se i n t h e n or the r ly r eg ion

p l e b ur ied i n t h e c eme te ry h ad l i ved , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e b od ies may h ave b een b rough tf r om ad i s tance ,t o as i te w ho se l o ca t ion w a s o f s pec ia l s i gn if icance . E xcava t i on s a tt h e c eme te ry h ave b een i np rog re s s f o r t h el a s t q ua r te r -cen tury ,b u ta l though t h eR he thymnon a r chaeo l o g ica l mu seum c on ta in s many t r ea su re s f ound i n t h e t omb s , l i t t le h a s s o f a r b een p ub l ished o n t h e e xcava t i on s .

f a ce f u r the rn o r th t h an u sua l . T h is p a t te rn n od oub t d i c ta ted b yt h el i eo ft h el a nd a nd b y t h en eed t or educe t h el abou rr equ i red i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft omb s , wh i le -

T o t h e s t uden t o fc us tom s embod ied i nt h e o r ien ta t i on s o ft omb s , t h is c eme tery o f fe r s b e t te rp o ss ib i l i t ie s t h an a ny o the ri nt h e Med i te r ranean , f o r t wo r e a son s . F i r s t , e ach t omb w a s c u t i n to t h e b ed rock , b eg inn ing

s t i l l c on fo rm ing t ot h e c u s tom s i st h e v ery o ppo s i te o fw ha to ne wou ld e xpec t , w e re t h ep eak i t se lf t oh ave b een t h e ' t a rge t ' . T he s ky o f f e r s ar i che rv a r ie ty o ft a rge t s ,a nd t oa s se s s -

w i th a l ong d romo s ( pa ssage ) w i th s t ra igh t , p a ra l le l s i de s , who se c ond i t ion i st oday a s p e r f ec t a s when i t w a s f i r s t c on s t ruc ted ( F igu re 3 ) ; t h e i n ve s t iga to r i s t h e refo re a b le t od e te rm ine t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e t omb

t h e ir p l au s ib i l i ty w i l l i nvo lve a c l o se r a na ly s is o f t h e d a ta . T he c a rd ina lp o in t s n o r th a nd s ou th ,a nd t h e re -

f o re e a s t —a re g i ven u sb yn a tu re ,a nd o ne p o ss ib i l i ty i s t h a t t h e t omb s w e re s imp ly i n tended t of a ce e a s te r ly .

v e ry a ccura t e ly , t ob e t te rt h an o ne d eg ree . S econd , t h e t omb s a r e e xcep t iona l ly n ume rous : a tt h e t ime o fw r i t i n g ,n of ewe r t h an 2 24 t omb s h ave b een e xcava ted ,o u t

We wou ld t h en e xpec t t h e a z imu th s t oh ave an o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion a bou t 900; b u t , a s w e h ave j u s t s e en , t h e

o f at o ta l e s t ima ted a tt h ree h und red .7 B y mea sur ing t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f a l 2 24 t omb s ( ah and fu l o f wh ich

mean a z imu th i s o ve r 60 f u r the r s ou th , as i zeab le a moun tt h a te xceed st we lve s o la rd i ame te r s .

4 3

M . HOSK IN AND E AL LAN

d ay t od ay : s unr ise i sn o t iceab ly mo re n o r the r ly e ach s ucce s s ive d ay i ns p r ing , a nd mo re s ou the r ly e ach d ay

A l terna t ive ly , t h e t omb s may h ave b een i n tended t o f a ce w ha tw e m igh td e sc r ibe a s t h e t y p ica l d i rec t ion o f s unr ise mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e e qu inox s unr ise ( t hough t h e s uppo sed e qua l i ty o fn igh t a nd d ay a tt h e

i na u tumn . T he refo re , a tt h e se t ime s o f y ea r , s unr ise p a sse sr ap id ly t h rough a ny g i ven o r ien ta t ion ,a nd s o w e w ou ld e xpec tt of i nd r e la t ive ly f ew t omb sf ac ing i na ny

-

p a r t icu la r d i rec t ion t h a t i sc lo se t o e a s t . B y c on t ra s t , a round m id -w in te r a nd m id -summe r , t h e movemen t o f s un r i se a l ong t h eh o r izon s l ow s d own , s t op s , a nd t u rn s b ack , a nd s oe ach y ea r t h e s un r i se s c l o se t ot h ep o in t s

e qu inox i s amodem a b s t rac t ion f r om r e a l i ty ) . T he s un t h en h a s d ec l ina t ion 0°;b u tb ecau se o ft h ep re sence o f M t V ry s ina s , i tr i se s ,n o td ue e a s t ,b u tn ea r ly 6 'f u r the r s ou th ( a z imu th 9 5 ° .7 ) . On t h is e xp lana t ion , w e wou ld e xpec t t h e d ec l ina t ion s t oh ave a n o rma l d i s tr ibu t ion a bou t0 ' . I n f a c t , t h e mean o ft h e d ec l ina t ion s i s— 0 ' .7 ( a nd t h e med ian — l ' .2 ) ,v ery c l o se i ndeed t ot h ee xpec t

o fm idsumme ra nd o fm idw in te rs un r ise o n ar e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe ro fd ay s . A cco rd ing ly , i fc on s truc t ion o f t omb st of a ce s un r ise b egan a tr andom d a te s t h roughou t t h ey ea r ,w e wou ld e xpec tt of i nd r e la t ive ly l a rge n um b e r s o f t omb s f ac ing c l o se t o m id -w in ter a nd m id s umme r s un r i se ( r e spec t ive ly a z imu th s 6 2 °. 5 , a nd b e t ween 1 26 ' a nd 1 27 .5 ,d epend ing o nt h el o ca t ion ) ,a nd r e la t ive ly f ew f a c ing d i rec t ion s c lo se t oe a s t : t h a t i s , a

z e ro . T he c o r respond ing v a lue sf o r moon r ise a r ee ven c l o s e r , f o r when t h e moon h a s d ec l ina t ion 0 ' i tr i se s o n Moun t V ry s ina s w i th a z imu th 9 6 ° .3 , v i r tua l ly i d en t ica l w i th t h e mean a z imu th . Wha t w e h ave t e rmed ' t yp ica l ' s un r ise a nd ' t yp ica l ' moon r ise a r e t hu s p rom is ing t a rge t s .

d i s t r ibu t ion w i th t wo p eak s ,a te i the re x t reme . T h i s h oweve ri sn o tt h e c a se : F igu re 5s hows t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft omb a z imu th s h a s ah igh p la teau a bou t t h ec en t ra l v a lue ,a nd t a i l s o fs ha rp ly a te i the re x t r eme .

G iven t h e h igh

q ua l i ty o ft h e d a ta , w e c an a sk ar e la ted b u t mo re p re c i se q ue s t ion : w a s e ach t omb d e s igned t of ace s un r ise , o rp e rhap s moon r ise , o n t h ed ay w hen c on s truc t ion b e -

T he refo re , w e may s uppo se t ha t t h e t omb s w e re l a id o u tt of a ce s un r ise o nt h ed ay c on s t ruc t ion b egan , o n ly i fw e make a n a dd i t iona l h ypo the s i s , t h a t c on s t ruc t ion

g an? F ac ing moon r ise i sl e ss p lau s ib le , i n t ha t t h e moon r ange s r ap id ly u p a nd d own t h e e a s te rn h o r izon i ni t s mon th ly c yc le , s o t ha t w i th in a m e re c oup le o f d ay s t h ep o s i t ion o f moon r ise c an c hange c on s ide rab ly ; b u tt h i so b jec t ion w ou ld d i sappea ri f( f o re xamp le )c on s t ruc t ion a lway sb egan a tt h ef u l l moon . T he r ange o fs un r i se o ve rt h ey ea rc o r re spond sw e l l t o

o f ten b egan i ns p r ing a nd /o ra u tumn ,b u tr a re ly i ns um m e ro rw in te r . T he re a r e s im i la r p rob lem s i nr e spec t o f moon r i se . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f moon r ise o ve r t h e 1 8 .6 -yea r c yc le h a s s im i la r ( bu t l e ss p ronounced ) t w in p eak s , a ga in q u i te u n l ike t h ee v idence d i sp layed i nF igu re 5 . T he s hape o fF igu re 5i sc ur iou s . I ndeed , ah i s tog ram

t h e r ange o f a z imu ths f a ced b y t h e t omb s : o f t h e 2 24 t omb s ,n of ewe r t h an 2 07 f a ced t h e r i s ing o ft h e s un a t s ome t ime d u r ing t h e y ea r , wh i le f ou r mo re l a y o n ly

o ft h ec o r re spond ing d ec l ina t ion s ,b u tw i th ' b in s ' o f 1 0 ° r a the r t h an 5 ° , wou ld s how a n a lmo s t f l a t d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween — 20 ° a nd + 20 ' ,w i th s ha rp f a l l -o f f s o u t s ide t h is

m a rg ina l ly o u t s ide t h e r ange . T he r ema in ing 1 3 t omb s f a ced e i the r af ew d eg ree s s ou th o fm idw in te r s un r ise ,

r a nge . We k now t h a tt h e Maya t hough to f' e a s t ' ,n o ta s

o r af ew d eg ree sn o r th o fm id summe rs unr ise . A s w eh ave s e en , t h er ange o f moon r i se o ve ri t s 1 8 .6 y ear c yc le i sr a the r g rea te r t h an t h a t o f s un r ise .

ap o in tb u ta s a' s ide ' ,a nd p e rhap s as im i la rc oncep ti s p r e sen th e re .8 T h i s h oweve r wou ld n o te xp la in t h e e x -

I ti s

c ep t iona l ma tch b e tween t h e r ange o f moon r ise a nd t h e

v e ry r ema rkab le t h a tt h er ange o f( l una r )d ec l ina t ion so f t h eA rmeno i t omb s ,f r om + 3l _ ' t o— 29 ° ,a lmo s te xac t ly

r ange o ft omb o r ien ta t ion s ,n o rt h e f a c tt h a t t h e e a r l ie s t t omb f a ced t h ep eak s anc tuary . T he re i ss ome r ea son t ob e l ieve t h a tt h es anc tua ry w a s d ed ica ted t o al una rg odde ss ;9 a nd i fs o ,t h en ( w i th t wo

c o inc ide s w i th t h e r ange o f moonr ise , f r om + 29 ' t o 2 9 ° . A l l b u t t wo o ft h e 2 24 a ts ome t ime f aced moon -

r i se ( t he r ema in ing p a ir f a c ing o n ly s ome 2 _ ' a nd 3 _ '

m ino r e xcep t ion s ) e very t omb f r om t ime t ot ime f aced t h e moon a s i tr o se b eh ind a moun ta in s ac red t o t h e

t o of a rn o r th r e spec t ive ly ) . T he r ange o fs unr i se t h e re fo re c o r re spond s w e l l , a nd t h er ange o f moon r i se v ery w e l l ,w i th t h er ange o ft omb o r ien ta t ion s .

moon . I f( a s a ppea r s l i ke ly ) t h e b od ie s w e re b rough t s ome d i s tance t oA rmeno if o rb u r ia l ,t h en i tmay b e t h a t t h e l oca t ion o f t h e c eme te ry w a s c ho sen p rec i se ly b e -

B u t i fw e f u r the r a s sume t h a t t omb c on -

s t ruc t ion b egan o n r andom d a te s t h roughou t t h e y ea r , a nd c ompa re t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eo r ien ta t ion sa nd t h a t o f t h e d i rec t ion s o f s unr ise ( o r moon r i se ) , w e q u ick ly f i nd t h is l a s ta s sump t ion c on t rad ic ted b yt h ee v idence .

c au se t h e moon r o se i nt h is w ay . I ndeed , f ou r o u t o f e very f i ve t omb s ( 178 o u to f2 24 )f a ced moon r ise e ve ry mon th , w ha teve rt h e s t age o f t h e moon ' s 1 8 .6 -yea r c y c l e . On b a lance , t h e refo re , i ts eem s r e a sonab le t os ug g e s tt h a tt h e t omb o r ien ta t ion s w e re i ndeed l i nked w i th

I n t h es p r ing a nd a u tumn , when t h es un r i se s c l o se t o e a s t , t h e p o s i t ion o fs un r i se c hange s s i gn i f ican t ly f r om

4 4

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

moon r i se .

S C . B u ti fw et a ke t h ep rov ince s o fA lme r ia ,G ranada , Má laga a s awho le , w ec an s a y t h a tn ea r ly a l t h e mega l i th ic s epu lch re sf a ced t h ee a s te rn h a il o ft h es ky ,a nd t o t h es ou th o fa z imu th 8 0 0 t h a ti s ,n ea r ly a l l a r e SR o r S C , w i th t h e SR d i rec t ion sa vo id ing s un r ise i nt h e s um m e r mon th s .

THE I BER IAN PEN INSULA , SARD IN IA AND CORS ICA

-

T he a r ea w e h ave mo s t i n ten s ive ly i nve s t iga ted c om p r ise s t h e A nda lu s ian p rov ince s o f A lmer ia , G ranada a nd Má laga .T he re w ef i nd t h ree t y pe so fo r ien ted t omb f r om t h en eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge . One ,w h ich i sv e ry r a re , c on s is ted o f ac ub ica l c hambe r w i th s i de s o f o r t h o s ta t s , a pp roached b y al eng thy p a ssage a l so l i ned

T he p rov ince o fA lme r ia i sn o ted f o rt h ep r e sence o fa s e cond t ype o f t omb , t h e t h o lo s , s o n amed b ecau se o f i t sr e semb lance t ot h ec i rcu la r ,b eeh ive -shap ed t omb so f t h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean . I ndeed ,b e fo re t h ea dven to f r ad ioca rbon d a t ing , i tw a s t h ough tt ha t t h e c u l tu re w a s b rough t t ot h eI be r ian p en in su la f r om t h ee a s t ; b u t i ti s

w i th o r tho s ta t s . An e xamp le e x i s ted a tE l P an tano d e L o sB e rme ja l e s ,m idway b e tween G ranada a nd Má laga ,

n ow c l ea r t h a t t h e A lme r ian monumen t s a n teda te t h e i r e a s te rn c oun te rpa r t sb ym any c en tu r ie s . B yf a rt h e mo s ti mpo r tan ts e t t lemen to ft h et h o lo sc u l t u re i sL o s M i l la re s , s ome 1 5km n o r th -we s to ft h ep o r t o fA lme r ia . T he s e t t lemen t , wh ich d a te s f r om t h e l a te f ou r th m i l lenn ium a nd t h et h i rd m i l lenn ium ,o ccup ie s a t r iangu la ra r ea h igh a bou tt h ec onf luence o ft wo r i ve r s .

b u ti th ad t ob er e scued f r om t h ew a te r s o ft h ed am a nd r e con s truc ted a t ah ighe r l e ve l , a nd s o i t s o r ien ta t ion c an n o l onge r b e mea su red . T he o the r e xamp le i st h e D o lmen d e V ie ra a t An teque ra t ot h en o r th o f Má laga . T h i s i so ne o ft h ree n e ighbou r ing t omb s ,e ach o fd i f fe r e n t t y pe a nd e xcep t iona l s i ze . T he Do lmen d e V ie ra f a c e s al i t t le s ou th o fd ue e a s t , a nd w e s ha l l s e e t h a ta l -

T he r ema in ing s i de o ft h et r iang le i sp ro tec ted b yw a l ls , a nd t h e re i s ar i ng o ff o r t si nt h es u r round ing h i l l s . T he

t h ough t h e t omb i so ft h is r a re f o rm o fc on s t ruc t ion ,i t s o r ien ta t ion i st y p ica lo ft h e who le r eg ion . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e t omb s o f t h is a r ea o f s ou thern S pa in a r e ' mega l i th ic s epu lch re s ' . S uch a s epu lch re c omp r ised ar e c tangu la r o rp o lygona l c hambe r f o rmed o fo r tho s ta t s ,a nd as ho r te n t rance p a s sage , t h ec hambe r a nd p a ssage h av ing ac ap s tone o r c ap s tone s a nd o f ten

t omb s ( ah andfu l o f wh ich a r e n o t o f t r ue t ho lo s c on s t ruc t ion a nd may p e rhap s b e a dap ta t ion s o f p re e x is t ing s t ruc tu re s ) a r e n ea r ly a l l l o ca ted o u t s ide t h e w a l l s . T hey a r el a rge ra nd o f much mo re s oph i s t ica ted c on s t ruc t ion t h an t h et yp ica l m ega l i th ic s epu lch re , h av i ng c a refu l ly -con s truc ted p a s sage s w i th p a ra l le l s i de s ; t h e se p a ssage s a r e f r equen t ly d i v ided i n to s egmen t s b y v e r t ica l s t one s p ie rced w i th r ound h o le s . Mo s t o f t h e t omb s a re i n p oo r , o f ten r u inou s c ond i t ion , a nd t h e mea su remen t o ft h e i ro r ien ta t ion s p re sen t s d i f f icu l t ie s , f o ri ti so f ten n ol onge rp o ss ib le t od e te rm ine t h ec en t re o ft h ec i rcu la rc hambe r . F o r tuna te ly o ne c an f r equen t ly

b e ing c ove red w i th at umu lu s ( F igu re 6 ) . T he l a rge s t g roup s a r e a t Mon te f r Io a nd i nt h eR io G o ra r ea o ft h e p rov ince o fG ranada , a nd a t At hama d e A lmer ia i nt h e p rov ince o fA lme r ia . We h ave a l so i n ve s t iga ted l e s se r g roup s o fs epu lch re s a tF one la sa nd n ea rE lP an tano d e L o s B e rme ja l e s , b o th i nG ranada , a nd s ca t te red t omb s i nt h e p rov ince o f Má laga ( i nc lud ing t h e mon s te r Do l m en d e Menga a t An teque ra ) . S u rpr is ing ly , t h e o r ien ta t ion c u s tom s o f t h e se s epu l -

i d en t ify s i de s tone s f r om t h e p a s sage a nd m ea su re t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s . When e ven t h is c anno tb e d one , a nd i ti s t h e re fo re i mpo ss ib le t od e r ive aq uan t i ta t ive o r ien ta t ion , t h er u in s o ft h ep a s sage c an u sua l ly b es e en a nd t hu s a n a pp rox ima te d i rec t ion o b ta ined .

c h re sf a l l i n to t wo r e la ted p a t te rn s . I ns ome s i te sn ea r ly a l l t h es epu lch re sf aced p o s i t ion s o nt h ee a s te rn h o r izon w he re t h e s un r o se a ts ome t ime d u r ing t h e a u tumn ,

A tL o s M i l la re s 4 8 t omb s h ave o r ien ta t ion s t h a tc an b eq uan t if ied ,a nd af u r the r 1 8c an b ea s s igned a pp rox i ma te d i rec t ion s . O f t h e 6 6 , t wo a d jacen t t omb s h ave who l ly a noma lou s o r ien ta t ion s ; t h ey f a ce w e l l w e s t o f

w in t e ro rs p r ing ( bu tn o td u r ing t h e s umme r ) ;f o rb r ev i t yw e t e rm s uch o r ien ta t ion s ' SR ' ( ' sun r i se ' ) . I n o the r s i te s , t h e c u s tom w a s l e s s s t r ic t : i n a dd i t ion t o SR t omb s , t h e re a r e many t h a t , wh i le s t i l l o r ien ted t o t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e h o r izon , f a ced t o t h e s ou th o f t h e m idw in te rs un r ise . S uch t omb sa lway sf a ced t h es un a f -

d ue s ou th ,w i th a z imu th s o f2 12 ° a nd 2 16 °r e spec t ive ly . O f t h e r ema in ing 6 4 , n o f ewe r t h an 5 8 h ave o r ien ta t i on si nt h el im i ted r ange b e tween 7 2 ° a nd 17 ° ( and s o f a ced s unr ise ) , wh i le t wo o t he r s a re o r ien ted f u r the r n o r th ( bu t s t i l l f a ced s un r ise ) . T he r ema in ing f ou r a r e S C , t h e mo s ts ou the r ly -fac ing h av ing a z imu th 1 50 ° . O f

t e ri th ad r i sen b u t when i tw a s c l imb ing i nt h es ky , a nd w e t e rm s uch o r ien ta t ion s ' SC ' ( ' sun c l imb ing ' ) . Mon t e f r Io ( F igu re 7 )i s ag ood e xamp le o fa n S Rs i te , whe re 3 8o u t o f4 1 m a jo r s epu lch re s a r e S R ( a nd t h er ema in i n g t h ree S C ) . A tA ihama d e A lme r ia , h oweve r ,a bou t

t h e6 6t omb s ,t h e re fo re , 2a r ea noma lou s ,6 0a r eS Ra nd 4a r e S C : t h e s i te i sc l ea r ly SR . I n te re s t ing ly , t h en ea r b y m ega l i th ic s epu lch re s a tA lban ia d e A lme r ia a r e b y c on t ra s tS R /SC ,a nd t h i sl e nd s s uppo r tt ot h o se w ho b e -

h a lf t h e s epu lch re s a r e SR a nd h a il S C , wh i le i nt h eR io G o r a r ea ( F igu re 8 ) t h e b a lance i sc l ea r ly i nf a vou r o f

4 5

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

l i eve t h a tt h e re w e re t wo i ndependen tc u l tu re s e x i s t ing i nc l o se p rox im i ty ,r a the r t h an as i ng le c u l tu re w i th s o c i a l ly -ba sed d i f f e rence si nt omb c on s t ruc t ion . T he o the rs i zeab le t h o lo s s i te i sa tB a r ranque te ,2 3km d ue e a s to fA lme i-l a , whe re e l even t omb s h ave b een e x c ava ted . A s a tL o s M i l la re s , t h e p a ssage s a r e u sua l ly d i v ided i n to s egmen t s b y v e r t ica l s t one s p i e rced w i th r ound h o le s . O ft h ee l even , o ne h ad n om ea su rab le o r i e n ta t ion w h i le a no the r w a s i l -def ined b u tw a s c e r ta in l yS C . O f t h e r ema in ing n ine , t h e re w e re f i ve w ho se c ond i t ion w ec l a ss if ied a s' exce l len t 'o r' v e ry g ood 'a nd w ho se o r ien ta t ion c ou ld b e r e l ied u pon . T he se f a ced w i th in t h er ange 1 04 °128 ° , t h el a t te rv a lue b e ing al i t t l e s ou th o fm idw in te rs un r ise ( a z imu th 1 20 0 i n Andal u c ia p rov ided t h eh o r izon i sf l a ti nt h e r e levan td i rec t i on ,b u tt y p ica l ly ad eg ree o rs o mo re a tt h i s s i te ) . T he f ou r t omb s i nl e ss g ood c ond i t ion p robab ly e x tend t h e r a nge al i t t le i nb o th d i rec t ion s ,a tt h es ou the r ly e nd p e r h ap s a sf a ra ss ou th -ea s t ( 135 ° ) . T he re i sn od oub tt h a t a l t h e t omb s a r e S R o r SC ,b u to n t h el im i ted e v idence a va i lab le i ts eem s t h a t t h e c u s tom w a s n o t i den t ica l w i th t h a ta tL o s M i l la re s , w he re ( a s w e h ave s een ) t h e o ve rwhe lm ing ma jo r i ty o ft omb sw e re S R . I ti sn o ti m p o ss ib le t h a ta tB a r ranque te i tw a sm idw in te rs un r ise i t -

We h ave mo re r e cen t ly b egun t os t udy n eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge t omb s i nt h en o r th a nd w e s to ft h eI b e r ian p en in su la . T he t omb s s o f a r i nve s t iga ted a re much mo re s ca t te red ; n owhe re d o w e f i nd c oncen t ra t ion s t o r i va l Mon tef r lo , L o s M i l la re s o r t h e R io G o r , a nd i n p hy s ica l c on s t ruc t ion t h e t omb s a r ev e ry v a r ied a nd b e l ong t od i f fe ren tc u l tu re s a nd p e r iod s . T h is make s t h e c on s i s tency o fo r ien ta t ion a l t h e mo re r ema rkab le . O u r f i e ldwo rk i sa t ap re l im ina ry s t age , b u t w e h ave s o f a r m ea su red t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f o ve r o ne h und red t omb s , i n P o r tuga l f r om t h e r eg ion s a round O ur ique , E vo ra / R eguengo s d e Monsa raz , P o r ta leg re a nd V i seu , a nd i n S pa in , a round V a lenc ia d eA lcán ta ra , S a lamanca ,B u r g o sa nd L agua rd ia a nd i nt h eB a sque c oun t ry . Wi th t h e e xcep t ion o f as i ng le t omb a tR uya les d e lP a ramo n o r th o f B u rgo s ( az imu th 2 15 ° ) , a l l f ace t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e h o r izon ( o r a lmo s t s o ) . T he g rea t ma jo r i ty f a ce s ou th o fa z imu th 8 0 ° ,a nd n one f a ce s n o r th o fm id sum me r s unr i se . T ha t i s , w i th t h e o ne e xcep t ion , a l l t h e t omb sa r ea ga in SR o rS C . T he re a r ei mpo r tan tl o ca ld i f fe rence s w i th in t h i s g en e r a lp a t te rn . F o re xamp le ,t h et omb sn ea rL agua rd ia a r e a l l S C ; t h a ti s ,w h i le l ook ing t owa rd s t h ee a s te rn h a lf o f

s e lf t h ep o in to fd i v is ion b e tween S Ra nd S C t h a t w a st h e( v e ry a pp rox ima te )t a rge to ft h eo r ien ta t ion s .

t h e h o r izon , t h ey f ace t oo f a r s ou th f o r t h e s un e ve r t o r i se i nt ho se d i rec t ion s . T h is i s ac u s tom w e h ave m e t n owhe re e l se i n t h e w e s te rn Med i te r ranean . Mo re r e -

We w e re a b le t o mea su re o ne o the r t h o lo s t omb i n A nda luc i a , t h e s o -ca l led Do lmen d e R ome ra l a t An te q ue ra . I t s ma in c hambe ri so ve r Sm i nd i ame te r a nd a

v ea l ing may b e t h e c u s toms w e s eem t o mee t a r ound E vo ra /Reguengo sd e Mon sa raz ,P o r ta leg re , V a lenc ia d e A lcán ta ra ,a nd V iseu . I nt h ese r eg ion s a l t h e t omb s s o

s ma l ler c hambe rl e ad sf r om i t . T he p a ssage ,w h ich w a s o r ig ina l ly s ome 3 0m i nl e ng th ,i sq u i te d i f fe ren ti nc on s t ruc t ion f r om t h a t o f t h e A lme r ian t ho lo i a s i ti sn o t s egmen ted . I th a s t h e u nu sua l a z imu th o f 1 99 ° a nd s o

f a r mea su red f aced t h e r i s ing s un ( o r n ea r ly s o ) ; b u t w he rea s n ea rV iseu t h e t omb s a l l f a ced s un r ise d ur ing t h e w in te r h a lf o f t h e y ea r , a round V a lenc ia d e Mcán ta ra t h ey f a ced s unr ise d ur ing s p r ing a nd a u tumn .

f a ce s w e l l t ot h e w e s t o fd ue s ou th . N eve r the le ss , w e c an s ay o f t h e t ho lo i wha t w e s a id o f t h e s epu lch re s :

T h i s i nv i te s u s t oe xp lo re t h eh ypo the s is t h a tt he t omb s w e re l a id o u tt of a ce s un r ise o nt h ed ay c on s t ruc t ion b e -

t h a t n ea r ly a l l t he t omb s f aced t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e

g an ,a nd t os e e whe the rt h ec on sequence so ft h eh ypo th -

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s ky ,s ou th o fa z imu th 8 0 ° t h a ti s ,n ea r ly a l la r e SR o r S C , w i th t h e SR d i rec t ion sa vo id ing s un r ise i nt h e s um -

m e r mon th s . We t h ink i tr ema rkab le t h a t t omb s o ft h ree t ype s ( i f t h e D o lmen d e V ie ra i st a ken i n to t h e r e ckon ing ) a nd s p read o ve r aw ide a r ea o f Anda luc ia ,s hou ld e xh ib i te i t h e ro ne o rt h eo the ro ft wo c u s tom so fo r ien ta t ion : w i th r a re e xcep t ion s t h ei nd iv idua l t omb s a r e S Ro rS C , a nd t h e s i tes p r edom inan t ly e i the r SR o r SR /SC . We f i nd i t t h e mo re s u rp r is ing t h a t Mon te f r Io w i th i t s m ega l i th ic s epu lch re s a nd L o s M i l la re s w i th i t s t ho lo i a r eb o th S R

e s is c onfo rm t o wha ti so therw i se k nown o ft h ea nnua l r hy thm o fl i f ei nt h e se a r ea s . We f i nd i ts t i l l mo re r ema rkab le t h a tt h ep a t te rn o fo r i e n ta t ion so ft h eS pan i sh a nd P o r tuge se d o lmen s ,m ega l i t h ic s epu lch re s a nd t h o lo i ,n ame ly ,t h a t " near ly a l l t h e t omb s f a ced t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e s ky , s ou th o f azimu th 8 0 °" ,i se qua l ly t ob ef ound i nt h e( p re sumab ly u n r e la ted ) N uragh ic c u l tu re o f S ard in ia . T he t omb s o f g i an t s o f t h is B ronze Age c u l tu re d a te t o t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC a nd t h e e a r ly c en tu r ie so ft h e f i r s tm i l l e nn ium , s o t h a t t h ey a r e t yp ica l ly y ounge r t han t h e

o fA lhama d e A lme r ia ( and p o s s ib ly t h et ho lo i o fB a r r anque te ) a r e S R /SC : w e m igh t h ave e xpec ted a l l t h e s epu lch re s t o f o l low o ne p a t te rn a nd a l l t h e t ho lo i a n -

S pan ish a nd P o r tuge se t omb sb yt wo m i l lenn ia o r mo re . A tt h eh ea r to fe ach t omb i s al ong ,n a r row r e c tangu la r c hambe r u p t o 2m i n w id th a nd f r om 3 _r n t o 1 4m o r mo re i nl e ng th ,c on s truc ted w i th ap rec i s ion t h a ta low s

o t he r .

u s

s i te s , whe rea s t h em ega l i th ic s epu lch re s o fR io Go ra nd

4 6

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i ft h e monumen ti si ng ood c ond i t ion ( F igu re 9 )

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

t o mea su re i t s o r ien ta t ion t oa n a ccu racy o f b e t te r t h an o ne d eg ree . T he o r ien ta t ion s o fo ve ro ne h und red o ft h e se t ombs o fg i an t s h ave s o f a r b een m ea sured b y H o sk in a nd b y o the r s , a nd m any mo re w i l l h ave b een m ea su red b yt h et ime t h is v o lume a ppea r s . Howeve r ,i t i sa l ready c l ea r t h a t t h e o ve rwhe lm ing ma jo r i ty c on f o rm t ot h e SR /SC c us tom , a s d o t h e f i ve k nown Nu r agh ic t emp le s( F igu re 1 0 ) . I ns ho r t ,N u ragh ic S ard in ia w a so ne v a s t SR /SC s i te . On n e ighbou r ing C o r s ica , t omb s w i th o r ien ta t ion s a r e v e ry much r a re r ,a nd t h e h andfu l t h a ts u rv ive a r e much -

e a r l ie r , b e ing d a ted t ot h e t h ird m i l lenn ium . F ou r s uch t omb s h ave s o f a r b een mea su red ; a nd a l l c onfo rm t o t h eS R /SC c u s tom . T o d a te w e h ave i nve s t iga ted s ome f i ve h und red

1 ) . T hey t h e reby c onf i rmed t h ew e s te r ly p a t te rn o fo r i e n ta t ion o ft h eB a lea r ic s epu lch re s a l ready k nown ,a nd e mpha s ised t h ec on t ra s tb e tween t h ei s land s a nd A nda l u c ia , whe re t h e d i scove ry o ft omb s w i th s uch o r ien ta t i on s wou ld h ave b een a noma lou si nt h ee x t reme . T he l a te rc en tu r ie s o ft h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BC s aw t h ed eve lopmen t o n Meno rca o ft h eB ronze A ge t a lay o t ic c u l tu re , n amed f r om t h e t owe r s o r t a layo t s t h a t w e re i t s mo s tp rom inen tf e a tu re . S im i la rb u i ld ing t e ch n i que s w e re emp loyed i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e b u r ia l n ave tas , i mp re s s ive s t ruc tu res o f ten d i v ided i n to t wo f l oo r s . We h ave m en t ioned t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s t h a t e s t a b l i shed t h a t a l l t h e n ave ta s f a ced w i th in aq uad ran t . T h is q uad ran t i si ndeed c u r iou s , e x tend ing a s i td oe s f r om s ou th -sou th -ea s tt ow e s t sou th -wes t .T he q uad ran t i sn e i the r who l ly i nt h ee a s te rn h a lf o ft h es ky ( a s w e re t h ep a t te rn so fo r ien ta t ion so ft h eA nda lu s ian t omb sd i s c u ssed e a r l ie r ) , n o r who l ly i n t h e w e s te rn h a lf ( whe re l a y t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e Meno rcan s epu lch re s ) , n o r s ymme t r ic a bou t s ou th ; a nd t h e re fo re i th a s n o s imp le a s t ronom ica l e xp lana t ion . Y e t a s t ronomy s e em s t ob e i n vo lved ,f o r( a s m en t ioned a bove ) t h e s i x n ave ta s t h a t a r e s ca t te red o ve r t h e w es t o f t h e i s land h ave o r ien ta t i on s w i th in ar ange o f ame re 2 8 ° , a nd i ti sd i ff icu l t t o

t omb s i n t h e I be r ian p en in su la , S a rd in ia a nd C o r s ica , a nd a l l b u t at i ny h and fu l f a ce t h e e a s te rn h o r izon , t o t h e s ou th o fm id summe r s unr ise . T ha ti s , v i r tua l ly a l l t h e se t omb s , b e long ing t o d i f f e ren t r eg ions , d i f fe ren t p e r iod s a nd d i f f e ren tc u l tu re s ,a r e S Ro rS C . I ns eve ra l o ft h e S Rr eg ion s ,m idw in te rs un r i se c o inc ide s i ns t r ik i n g f a sh ion w i th t h e s ou the r ly l im i t o ft h e r ange o fo r i e n ta t ion s , a nd i ti sd i ff icu l t t oa sc r ibe t h i s t oc hance . O u r p rov is iona l i fu nd rama t ic c onc lus ion , t h e re -

w e f ound t o f ace 2 25 ° a nd 2 45 ° r e spec t ive ly ( F igu re

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f o re , i st h a t t h e s un p layed a f undamen ta l r o le i n t h e c ho ice o ft h e se f i ve h und red t omb o r ien ta t ion s ,a nd t h a t i th a s y e t t ob e s hown t h a t a ny o the r c e les t ia l b od ie s w e re i n vo lved .

s e e h ow t h i s d eg ree o f u n ifo rm i ty c ou ld h ave b een a ch ieved o the rt h an b yo b se rva t ion so ft h eh eaven s . A l l e i gh teen n ave ta sf ace t h ew e s te rn h a lf o ft h e s ky , w i th o ne ma jo re xcep t ion ( a z imu th 1 59 ° )a nd t wo m ino r

T h i s i sw ha tm ake s t h e a r chaeoa s t ronomy o ft he B a l e a r ic I s land sv e ry r ema rkab le .

o ne s ( 174 ° a nd 1 78 ° ) . T of i nd a no cca s iona l a noma lou s o r ien ta t ion i s ac ommon e xpe r ience , s oi ti sn o ti mpo s -

OR IENTAT IONS OF BALEAR IC TOMBS AND SANCTUAR IES

s i b le t ha t t he u sua l c us tom w a s f o r n ave ta s t o f ace s omewha tt ot h e w e s to fd ue s ou th , b e tween s ou th a nd

U n t i l v e ry r ecen t ly ,j u s ts i x mega l i th ic s epu lch re s w e re k nown o n t h e B a lear ic a rch ipe lago : f ou r o n Meno rca ,

w e s t -sou th -wes t : w ha t w e m igh t t e rm SD ( ' sun d e s c end ing ' )o rS S ( ' sun s e t t ing ' ) . A l te rna t ive ly ,o u rp rob l em may b et h a tw ea r ed ea l ing w i th am ix tu re o fs ome w ha td i f f e ren tc u s tom s ,a nd c e r ta in ly t h en ave tas i nt h e

a nd o ne e ach o n Ma l lo rca a nd F o rmen te ra . I n s t r ik ing c on t ra s t t ot h e s epu lch re so n t h em a in land ,a l l s i xf a ced w e s te r ly : f i ve f a ced t h e s e t t ing s un a t s ome t ime o f y ea r , h av ing a z imu th s b e tween 2 42 ° a nd 2 78 ° d eg ree s , w h i le t h e s i x th ( and mo s t c omp le te ) f a ced 2 20 ° , s ome 1 8 ° s ou th o ft h em idw in te rs un se t . T he f ou r s epu lch re s o n Meno rca w e re a l l l o ca ted i n t h e s ou th -ea s t o f t h e i s land , a nd i tu sed t ob e t hough t t h a tl a te i nt h et h i rd m i l lenn ium BC t h e re h ad b een c on t r a s t ing b u r ia l c u s toms i n t h e e a s te rn a nd t h e w es te rn h a lve s o ft h ei s land ,t h ee a s te rne r sb u ry ing t h e i rd ead i n t h e se s epu lch re s a nd t h e w e s ter ne r s p re fe r r ing h ypo g aea . T h i s n ea ts cheme h a s n ow b een d i s tu rbed b y t h e d i scovery o f an umbe r o f p r im i t ive c i s t s i n t h e n o r th w e s to ft h ei s land ,a nd o ft wo a dd i t iona l mega l i th ic s ep u l ch re s n ea r t h e c en t ra l n o r th c oa s t . T he se s epu ich re s

4 7

w e s te rn h a lf o f t h ei s land f a ce much f u r the r w e s t t h an t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h en ave ta si nt h ee a s te rn h a l f . Wha tev e rt h ee xp lana t ion ,i th a s t oa ccommoda te t h et wo n ave t a s a tR a fa l R ub i ; t h e se a re t w in s t ruc tu re s i na d jacen t f i e ld sa nd i nc l ea rv i ew o fe ach o t he r ,y e tt h e i ra z imu th s w h i le c onfo rm ing t ot h eo ve ra l l p a t te rn d i f f e r b y -

-

n o l e ss t h an 5 3 ° . We c an h oweve r s ay t h a t o n t h eB a l e a r ic s , a l l t h e mega l i th ic s epu lch re s a nd n ea r ly a l l t h e n ave ta sf a ce t h ew e s te rn h a lf o ft h es ky ,b u tt h a tt h en a v e ta s f ace s uf f ic ien t ly f u r the r s ou th t o e mbody a c hange ,o r ac on s ide rab le e vo lu t ion ,o fc u s tom . Meno rca i sv ery r ema rkab le i np o sse ss ing f r om t h e t a layo t ic c u l tu re al e gacy o fo ve rt wo d ozen s t one -bu i l t s anc tua r ie s , ap r iv i lege ma tched i nt h e Med i te r ranean i n p r eh i s to r ic t ime so n ly b yt h eg r ea tt emp le so f Ma l ta .

M . HOSK IN AND R ALLAN

T he c en t ra l f e a tu re o f t h e s anc tua ry c on s is ted o f a t a l l , n ea r -rec tangu la r s t one s l ab s e t i n to t h e b edrock , w i th ac ap s tone , t h e p a ir o fs t one s r e semb l ing ac ap i ta l l e t te rT . A round t h is c en t ra l f e a tu re w a s ap r ec inc tw a l l i nt h e s hape o f ah o r se shoe , w i th a ne n t rance w i th l i n t e l . T he p rec inc tw a ss ymme t r ic ,a nd t h ec en t ra lf e a tu re l ooked o u t t h rough t h e e n t rance a l ong t h ea x is o fs ym me t ry , who se o r ien ta t ion w a s t h e re fo re w e l l d ef ined . I t s e ems t h a t as i zeab le s e t t lemen t wou ld n o rma l ly h ave h ad o ne o ft h ese t a u la si ni t sm id s t . Wi th o ne n o tab le e xcep t ion , t h e t a u la s k nown t o day f a ce s ou the r ly ,b e tween s ou th -ea s ta nd s ou th -we s t( F ig u re 1 2 ) . I n a dd i t ion a nd t h i s i s ai mpo r tan tc lue t o t h e ir p urpo se e ach t au la i sl o ca ted s o t h a t i th a s a v i ew o ft h e t r ue ( a s t ronom ica l )h o r izon : t h e t a u la l ook s e i the ro u tt os ea ,o rd own a c ro s s a ne x tended p l a in ,a nd

h ea l ing ) f a ced t owa rd s t h e c e le s t ia l c oun te rpa r t o f t h e t e ache ro ft h eg od o f med ic ine . T h is wou ld e xp la in t h e p re sence i nt h e t a u la o fT o r re d ' en G aun ie s o f aE gyp t i an b ronze s t a tue o f I mho tep w i th a n i n scr ip t ion i n h i e rog lyph ic s ,a nd i nt h et a u la o fT o r ra lba d en S a lo r to f t h ef e e to f ab ronze s t a tue o f ah o r se o r mo re c o r r ec t -

l y ,w es ugge s t ,o ft h eC en tau r . I ta l so e xp la in s t h el a ck o ft r ue t a u la s o n Ma l lo rca , w ho se moun ta inou s t e r ra in o f ten m ake s i ti mpo ss ib le t of i nd as i te w i th av i ew o f t h es ou the rn h o r izon . CONCLUS ION

-

-

n eve rt owa rd se l eva ted g round ( F igu re 1 3 ) . I ti se a sy t os how t h a t s uch l o ca t ion s c ou ld n o th ave a r isen b y c hance ; n ave ta s , f o r e xamp le , o f ten f ace t o w a rd s an ea rby h i l l . Wha tw a s t h e re , l ow i nt h e s ou th , t h a t t h e t au la s w e re c on s t ruc ted t of ace? T he re i sn o l a nd n ea re r t h an A f r ica , a nd t h e s ou thern s k ie s a r e t o d ay d evo id o fi n te re s t . B u ti fw e w ind b ack t h e a s t ro n om ica l c lock ,c a lcu la t ing t h ec on sequence o ft h e wob b l e o f t h e E ar th ' s a x is ( p rece ss ion ' ) r e su l t ing f r om t h e p u l l o f S un a nd Moon o n t h e i mpe r fec t ly -spher ica l E a r th ,w ef i nd t h a ti nt a layo t ic t ime st h eS ou the rn C ro s s w a s t o b e s e en l ow t ot h e s ou th . A s i tc l imbed a bove t h eh o r izon ,i tw a ss oon f o l lowed b yt h eb r igh ts t a rB e ta C en tau r i , a nd t hen b y A lpha C en taur i , t he s econd b r igh te s ts t a ri nt h ew ho le o ft h et a layo t ic s ky . T h is d a7z l ing d i sp lay i ss o s t r ik ing t h a ti ti sd ep ic ted o n t h en a t iona lf l ag so f Au s t ra l ia a nd N ew Z ea land ,a nd e ven t oday t h e S ou the rn C ro s s i sw ide ly u sed i na g r i c u l tu ra l c a lenda r s a nd i nn av iga t ion i nv a r iou s p a r t s o f t h e wo r ld . T he re i st h e refo re n op rob lem i ns uppo s ing t h i s s t a r g roup t oh ave b een o f s pec ia l s i gn if icance t o t h e t a layo t ic p eop le , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce w e k now f o r a f a c t t ha t i n c on tempo ra ry E gyp t v a r iou s c on s te l la t ion s w e re i d en t if ied w i th d i v in i t ie s ( O r ion w i th t h eg od O s i r i s ,t h es t a rS i r iu sw i th I s i s ,a nd s oo n ) . T h is t h eo ry a l lows u st oe xp la in s eve ra lp uzz l ing f a c t s o ft a layo t ic a r chaeo logy . A l though t h e S ou the rn C ro s s h a s g i ven i t sn ame t o ac on s te l la t ion i n mode rn a s t rono my ,i nc l a s s ica l An t iqu i ty t h eC ro s s w a sp ar to ft h ec on s t e l la t ion o fC en tau ru s , o r t h eC en tau r , who se n ame i n G reek my tho logy w a s C h i ron . C h iron w a s t h e t e ache r o f t h e g od o f med ic ine , A sc lep iu s , w ho se E gyp t ian c oun te rpar t wa s I mho tep . I f as im i la r my tho logy w a s a l ready c u r ren ti nt h e t a layo t ic c u l tu re ,t h en t a u la s anc t ua r ie s ( wh ich w e may s u spec t w e re a s soc ia ted w i th

4 9

We h ope t h a t w e h ave s a id e nough t o s how t h a t t h e s t udy o fo r ien ta t ion s i sn e i the r d i f f icu l t n o r u n rewa rd i ng ;a nd t h a t ,w hen s o much e mpha s is i sr i gh t ly l a id o n t h ei n ve s t iga t ion o fb u r ia lc u s tom s ,t h ec u s tom o fo r ien t a t ion s hou ld r ecogn ised a s o ne o f t h em , a nd n o t t h e l e a s ti ns i gn if icance . ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS T he a u tho r sa r eg ra te fu l t oD rC l ive R ugg le sf o rd i scus s i on sa st ot h ei mp l ica t ion s o ft h eA rmeno i d a ta , a nd t o D rR ugg le s a nd D rS ue H i l ls f o rt h e ir a na ly s is o ft h e se d a ta . C hu rch i l l C o l lege ,C amb r idge , a nd t h e Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge ,p rov ided f i nanc ia l s uppo r tf o rf i e ldwo rk d e sc r ibed i n t h is p ape r . D r Ma r ia P apa thana ss iou o f A then s Un ive r s i ty p l ayed ama jo rp ar ti nt h ei nve s t iga t i on s a tA rmeno i , wh i le F rau R ena te G ra lew sk i o fC o l ogne w a s i n vo lved i n mo s t o f t h e o the r i n ve s t iga t ion s d e sc r ibed i nt h i sp ape r . T ab le 1w a s c ompu ted w i th t h e a i do f ac ompu te rp rog ram s upp l ied b yD rR ugg le s .

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

REFERENCES 1 . On C re te : ' The l a te -M inoan c eme te ry a tA rmeno i , C re te " [ w i th Ma r ia P apa thana . s s iou a nd H e len P apado p ou lou ] , A rchaeoa s t ronomy ( h e reaf te r : AA ) , s upp lemen t t oJ ou rna l f o r t h e H is to ry o fA s t ronomy ( h e rea f te r : J HA ) ,n o . 1 7( 1992 ) ,4 3-55 ; " Addenda " , AA ,n o . 1 8( 1993 ) ,5 4 ; " Addenda 2 " , AA ,n o . 2 0( 1995 ) ,i np re s s . O n C o r fu : " O r ien ta t ion so ft h eG reek t emp le so nC o r fu " [ w i th Ma r ia P apa t lu ina ss iou ] ,J HA , x xv ( 1994 ) , 1114 . O nP an te l lena : ' The s e s i o fP an te l le r ia " [ w i th G io rg ia F .S e r io a nd S eba s t iano T u sa l , AA ,n o . 1 7 ( 1992 ) , 1 52 0 . O n Ma l ta : " The o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e t emp le s o f Ma l ta " [ w i th G io rg ia F . S e r io a nd F rank V en tu ra ] , J HA , x x i i i ( 1992 ) , 1 07-119 ; " Po s s ib le t a l ly s t one s a t Mna jd ra , Ma l ta " [ w i th G io rg ia F . S e r io a nd F rank V en tu ra ] , J HA ,x x i i i ( 1993 ) , 1 71183 . On S a rd in ia : " The T ombe d c i G igan t i a nd t emp le s o f Nu ragh ic S a rd in ia " [ w i th E l izabe th A l lan a nd R ena te G ra lewsk i ] , AA ,n o . 1 8( 1993 ) , 1 -26 . On C o r s ica : " O r ien ta t ion s o fC o r s ican d o l m en s " [ w i th E l izabe th A l lan a nd R ena te G ra lewsk i ] ,J HA ,x xv ( 1994 ) ,31317 . On t h eB a lea r ic I s lands : 'T h e t a layo t ic c u l tu re o f Meno rca " , AA ,n o . 9( 1985 ) , 1 33-51 ;T au la sa nd T a layo t s [ w i th Wi l l iam Wa ld ren ] ( Cam b r idge , 1 988 ; S pan ish t r an s la t ion i np repa ra t ion ) ; " The o r ien ta t ion so ft h et a u la so f Meno rca ( 1 ) : T he s ou the rn t a u la s" , AA , n o . 1 4 ( 1989 ) , 17-36 ; " The o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e t a u la s o f Meno rca ( 2 ) : T he r ema in ing t a u la s" [ w i th P e te r Hoch s iede ra nd D o r is Kno se l ] , AA , n o . 1 5 ( 1990 ) ,3 7 -48 ; " The o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e b u r ia l monu m en t s o f Meno rca " [ w i th J uan J o sé Mo ra le s N t ihez ] , AA , n o . 1 6 ( 1991) , 1 5-42 ; ' The o r ien ta t ion s o ft a u la s : A ddenda " , AA , n o . 1 6 ( 1991) , 8 9-90 ; " Ba lea re s : A rqueoa s t ronom Ia d c l ac u l tu ra t a layó t ica " , A rqueoa s t ro n om ia h i spana ,e d . b yJ .A . B e lmon te A . ( Mad r id , 1 994 ) , 1 59-81 . On t h eI be r ian P en in su la : " O r ien ta t ion s o f m ega l i th ic s epu lch re s i n S a lamanca , S pa in " , J HA , x x i i i ( 1992 ) , 5 7-60 ; " Anda luc ia : A s t ronom la y p rác t ica s f une r á r ia s e ne i med iod la i b énco " ,A rqueoa s t ronom Ia h i spana ,c d . b yJ .A .B e lmon te A . ( Madr id , 1 994 ) , 1 335 8 ; " S tud ie s i nI be r ian a r chaeoa s t ronomy : ( 1 ) O r ien ta t ion s o ft h e mega l i th ic s epu lch re s o fA lme r ia , G ranada a nd Ma laga " [ w i th E l izabe th A l lan a nd R ena te G ra lew sk i ] , AA ,n o . 1 9 ( 1994 ) , 5 5-82 ; " S tud ie si nI be r ian a r c haeoa s t ronomy : ( 2 ) O r ien ta t ion s o ft h e t h o lo st omb s o fA lmer ia " [ w i th E l izabe th A l lan a nd R ena te G ra lew s k i ] , AA , n o . 2 0 ( 1995 ) , i np r e s s ; " S tud ie s i nI be r ian a r chaeoa s t ronomy : ( 3 ) C u s tom s a nd mo t ive s i n Anda l u c ia " [ w i th E l izabe th A l lan a nd R ena te G ra lew sk i j , AA ,n o .2 0( 1995 ) ,i np re s s . 2 ." 5000 - a nd 1 0 ,000 -yea r S t a r C a ta log s" , b y G e ra ld S .H awk in s a nd S ho shana K . R o sen tha l ( Sm i th son ian C on t r ibu t ion st oA s t rophy s ic s ,v o l . 1 0 . ,n o . 2 ; Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . , 1 967 ) . 3 .M . J .O 'Ke l ly , N ewg r ange : A rchaeo logy ,A r ta nd L egend ( London , 1 982 ) ;J on P a t r ick , "M idw in te rs un r i se a tN ewg range " , Na tu re , cx l ix ( 1974 ) ,5 1719 . 4 .M . Ama ig ro -Go rbea a nd J .G ran -Ayme r ich ,E lE s tanque Monumen ta ld cB ib rach te ( Mad r id , 1 991) . S . ' One e nd o fe ve ry C hu rch d o th p o in t t os uch aP lace , w he re t h e S un d id r i se a tt h e t ime t h e F ounda t ion t h e reo fw a s l a id .; a nd b y t h e s t and ing o ft h e se C hu rche s ,i ti sk nown a t wha tt ime o ft h eY ea rt h eF ounda t i on so ft h em w e re l a id" ,S i rH enry C hauncy ,T he H i s to r ica lA n t iqu i t ie s o fH e r t fo rd sh ire ( London , 1 700 ) ,i ,8 8 . 6 . ' The a na logy b e tween t a layo t s-nu ragh i a nd n ave ta s . tombe d ig igan t i h a s c ome t ob e g ene ra l ly a ccep ted among a r chaeo log is ts [ who ]c onc lude t h a tt owa rd s 1 200 B .C . a ni n va s ion o fS a rd in ian s a r r ived o n Meno rca a nd c ove red t h e i s land w i th t a layo t s a nd n ave ta s" ,J uan C oma s , Apo r tac ione s a le s tud io d c l ap reh is to r ia d c Meno rca ( Mad r id , 1 936 ) ,2 1-22 . ...

7 .J ohn R . S o sa , " Co smo log ica l , s ynmbo l ic a nd c u l tura l c omp lex i ty among t h ec on tempo ra ry Maya o fY uca t a n " ,i n Wo r ld A rchaeoa s t ronomy ,c d . b yA .F .A ven i ( Camb r idge , 1 989 ) , 1 30-42 ,p . 1 32 . 8 .A cco rd ing t oP au l F au re ,B u l le t in d cc o r re spondance h e l lmn ique ,l xxx ix ( 1965 ) ,5 1 ,t h ed e i ty wo r sh ipped o n Moun tV ry s ina s w a sD ic tynna , " m is t re s so ft h e moun ta in s" ,i d en t if ied l a te rw i th A r tem is t h eh un t re s sa nd r e a re ro fc h i ld ren , who w a sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e moon i nt h ew e s to fC re te .

4 9

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

F IGURE 1 .T he n ave ta o fE sT udon s , t h eb e s t -p rese rved o ft h e Meno rcan b u r ia l n ave ta s .

5 0

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 2 . T he o r ien ta t ions o ft h eb u r ia l n ave ta so f Meno rca T he n ave ta si nt h ew e s to ft he i s land a r es hown w i th b roken l i ne s .

5 1

M . HOSK IN AND E . ALLAN

F IGURE 3 . T he d romo so fT omb 1 7a tA rmeno i . No te t h ee xce l len tc ond i t ion o ft h ep a ra l le l s i de s , wh ich makes p o ss ib le a na ccu ra te m ea su re o ft h e o r ien ta t ion .

5 2

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 4 . T he o r ien ta t ions o f2 24 t omb so ft h ec eme te ry a tA rmeno i . No te t h a t ah and fu l o ft omb s l i eb eyond t h er ange o fs un r ise , w h i le o n ly t wo t omb s l i e( ma rg ina l ly )o u t s ide t h er ange o f moon r ise .

5 3

M . HOSK IN AND E . ALLAN

3 0

8 0

9 0

1 20

1 50

1 80

A z i mu th ( degree )

F IGURE 5 . Ah i s tog ram o ft he o r ien ta t ions o ft he t omb sa tA rmeno i . No th ow r e la t ive ly u n ifo rm i st h e s ca t te ro ft omb s b e tween 8 0 0 a nd 1 20 0 .

5 4

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 6 . One o ft h e mega l i th ic s epu lch res a t Mon te f r Io ( no . 2 2 ) .

5 5

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

F IGURE 7 . T he o r ien ta t ions o ft h e mega l i th ic s epu lch res a t Mon te f r Io ,3 8o u to ft h e4 1 o f wh ich f ace s unr ise . A lso s hown ( w i th b roken l i ne s )a r et h eo r ien ta t ions o ft h ree o the rt omb s ,o f ad i f fe ren tt ype .

5 6

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 8 . O r ien ta t ions o ft h e3 4 mega l i th ic s epu lch re so n t h ep l a teau a bove t h eR io Go r . No te t h a t , u n l ike t h es epu lch re s a t Mon te f r Io , many f a ce w e l l s ou th o ft h ee x t reme s ou the r ly p o s i t ion o fs un r ise .

5 7

M . HOSK IN AND E . ALLAN

F IGURE 9 . One o f ap a ir o ft ombe d ig igan t i a th o i , i nw e s te rn S a rd in ia No te t h ep rec is ion o ft h es t onewo rk .

5 8

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 0 . O r ien ta t ion s o f7 8 t ombe d ig igan t i o f S a rd in ia ( ou te r l i ne s w i th in t h e c i rc le ) . T ho se t ha t a r e e x tens ions o f t omb s f r om e a r l ie r c u l tu re s , a nd who se o r ien ta t ion s w e re p re sumab ly d ic ta ted b y t h e c us toms o f t h e se e a r l ie r c u l tu re s , a re s hown w i th b roken l i ne s . A lso s hown ( i nne rl i ne s ) a re t h eo r ien ta t i ons o f t h e f i ve Nu ragh ic t emp les , wh ich o b se rved s im i la r c us toms t ot hose o f t he t ombe . No te h ow t h e se c us toms a re q u i te u n l ike t ho se o ft h e Meno rcan n ave ta s , d esp i te s upe r f ic ia l s im i la r i t ie s i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h et wo t ypes o f monumen t . t h e t ombe . No te h ow t h e se c u s toms a r eq u i te u n l ike t ho se o ft h e Meno rcan n ave ta s , d esp i te s uper f ic ia l s im i lar i t ie s i n t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e t wo t ype s o f monumen t .

5 9

M . HOSK IN AND E . ALLAN

F IGURE 1 . O r ien ta t ions o ft h e m ega l i th ic s epu lch res o n t h eB a lea r ic I s land s . No te t h e s ha rp c on t r a s tb e tween t h eB a lea r ic c us tom , w he reby s epu lch res f a ced w e s to rs ou th -we s t , a nd t h ec u s toms o n t h ep en insu la ( F igu res 7a nd 8 ) ,w he re t h e t ombs f a ced t h ee a s te rn h a lf o ft h e s ky l ine .

6 0

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

+

\ F IGURE 1 2 . T he o r ien ta t ion so ft h et a u la so fs ou the rn Meno rca . N o te t h a tw i th o ne e xcep t ion ,t h ey f a ce s ou the r ly , t owa rd st h er e g ion w he r et h eb r igh ts t a rA lpha C en tau r ia nd o t he ri mp re ss ive s t a r st h en r o se a nd s e t

6 1

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

F IGURE 1 3 . T he t a u la a tS aT o r re ta d eT ramun tana , i ne a s te rn Meno rca , s een t h rough t h ee n t rance , w i th at a layo t b eyond . T he t a u la , l i ke s o many , i so n e l eva ted g round ,a nd l ook s

6 2

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

TABLE 1 . OR IENTAT ION: TO MBS AT AR MENO I

S o la r De c .

A l t .

A z imu th

T omb

L una r D e c .

+ 3033 + 2957

1 . 5 1 . 7

5 2 .5 5 3 .5

0 39 0 38

+ 2823 + 28 0 4 + 2726

2 .2 2 . 3 2 . 5

5 6 .0 5 6 .5 5 7 .5

0 03 0 43 1 90

+ 3110 + 3033 M IS : 4 . 2 900 + 28 5 9 + 2840 + 280 1

+ 2726 + 2643 + 25 1 7 + 2434 S S :+ 23 5 1 + 2307 + 2245 + 2245

2 . 5 2 .6 2 . 8 2 .9

5 7 .5 5 8 .5 6 0 .5 6 1 .5

1 9 1 0 80 1 75 0 42

+ 280 1 + 27 1 9 + 2552 + 2509

3 . 1 3 . 15 3 . 15

6 3 .5 6 4 .0 6 4 .0

0 46 0 44 0 45

+ 234 1 + 23 1 9 + 2319

+ 25 I + 220 1 + 2 1 3 9 + 2011 + 2011

8 . 5 3 .25 3 . 3 3 .5 3 . 5

6 5 .0 6 5 .0 6 5 .5 6 7 .5 6 7 .5

2 06## 0 25 1 99 0 37 1 77

+ 2544 + 2235 + 22 1 3 + 2044 + 2044

+ 2011 + 1950 + 1930 + 1909 + 1849 + 1849

3 . 5 3 .6 3 . 7 3 .8 3 .9 3 . 9

6 7 .5 6 8 .0 6 8 .5 6 9 .0 6 9 .5 6 9 .5

1 98 1 82 0 66 1 79 1 80 1 8 1

+ 1808 + 1727 + 1727 + 1727 + 1706 + 1645 + 1645 + 1645 + 1604 + 1604 + 15 4 7 + 150 5 + 1505 + 1505 + 1444 + 1444 + 1423 + 1402 + 134 1

4 . 1 4 .3 4 .3 4 . 3 4 .4 4 . 5 4 .5 4 .5 4 .7 4 .7 4 . 9 5 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5

7 0 .5 7 1 .5 7 1 .5 7 1 .5 7 2 .0 7 2 .5 7 2 .5 7 2 .5 7 3 .5 7 3 .5 7 4 .0 7 5 .0 7 5 .0 7 5 .0 7 5 .5 7 5 .5 7 6 .0 7 6 .5 7 7 .0

1 68 0 33 0 76 0 77 1 60 0 47 1 6 1 1 72 0 32 0 79 0 36 0 48 0 95 1 63 0 78 1 73 0 30 0 26 1 74

4 2044 + 2024 + 2003 + 1943 + 1922 + 1922 + 1842 + 184 1 + 1800 + 1800 + 1800 + 1739 + 1718 + 1718 + 1718 + 1637 + 1637 1 ,1 6 1 9 + 1538 + 1538 + 1538 + 15 1 7 + 1517 + 1456 + 1435 + 1414

m I s :

6 3

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

+ 1323 + 1306 + 1249 + 1249 + 1249 + 11 29 + 11 29 + 11 29 + 11 29 + 11 1 + 1111 + 1057 + 1039 + 1039 + 1015 + 10 1 5 + 1015 + 1015 + 1015 + 0943 + 090 1 +090 1 + 090 1 +0854 + 08 1 3 + 074 1 +0652 +0635 + 0611 + 0611

5 . 66 5 . 9 6 . 1 6 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 3 7 . 5 7 . 5 8 . 5 8 .0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 5 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 5 8 .0 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0

7 7 .5 7 8 .0 7 8 .5 7 8 .5 7 8 .5 8 1 .0 8 1 .0 8 1 .0 8 1 .0 8 1 .5 8 1 .5 8 2 .5 8 2 .5 8 2 .5 8 3 .0 8 3 .0 8 3 .0 8 3 .0 8 3 .0 8 4 .0 8 4 .5 8 4 .5 8 4 .5 8 5 .0 8 5 .5 8 6 .5 8 7 .5 8 7 .5 8 8 .0 8 8 .0

1 85 0 31 0 40 1 62 1 76

+ 0539 +0539 +0522 +0522 +0 458 +0409 +0320 + 0320 +0320 + 03 1 4 +03 1 4 + 0256 +02 5 6 +02 5 6 +0256 +0232 +0232 +0232 +0232

8 . 5 8 . 5 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 .0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 .0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0 8 . 0

8 9 .0 8 9 .0 8 9 .0 8 9 .0 8 9 .5 9 0 .5 9 1 .5 9 1 .5 9 1 .5 9 2 .0 9 2 .0 9 2 .0 9 2 .0 9 2 .0 9 2 .0 9 2 .5 9 2 .5 9 2 .5 9 2 .5

2 0701 2 1000 0 84 1 70 0 68 0 69

-

0 27 0 65 1 7 1 0 0 1 0 7 1 2 0811 0 98 1 071 0 29 0 90 0 96 1 541 1 83 2 0911 0 4 1 1 92 1 96 2 0411 0 72 U I L## 2 05## 0 67 0 16 0 87

-

0 83 1 67 2 0200 L IV## 1 351 1 360 1 40 1 490 0 24 0 70 0 74 0 8 1

6 4

+ 1355 + 1339 + 132 1 + 132 1 + 132 1 + 1200 + 1200 + 1200 + 1200 + 11 43 + 11 43 + 11 28 41 1 + 11 1 + 1047 + 1047 + 1047 + 1047 + 1047 + 1015 +0933 +0933 +0933 +0926 +0845 +08 1 3 +0724 +07 0 7 +0643 +06 4 3 +06 1 +0611 +0554 + 0554 +0530 +044 1 +0353 +0353 +0353 + 0346 . 03 4 6 +0328 +0328 + 0328 +0328 +03 04 +03 04 +03 04 +0304

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

+ 02 3 2 + 0225 + 0208 + 020 8 + 0208 + 0 1 4 3 + 00 5 + 0055 +00 5 4 003 1 + 003 1 + 003 1 + 0017 + 0007 + 0007 00 1 7 00 1 7 00 4 2 0048 0048 0 1 06 0 1 1 2 0 1 3 0 0 130 0 1 3 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5 0 0214 02 1 5 0 2 3 5 02 3 5 0235 0235 03 1 8 03 1 5 03 3 9 0339 0336 0336 0336 0359 0359 0423 0423 04 1 6 04 4 3 0443 0443 . 04 3 6

8 . 0 8 . 5 8 .0 8 , 0 8 . 0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 . 0 8 . 5 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 .0 8 . 5 8 .0 8 .0 8 .0 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 76 8 . 2 8 . 2 8 . 2 8 .86 8 . 33 9 .06 8 .4 8 .4 9 . 16 9 . 16 9 . 16 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 . 5 9 . 36 8 .6 8 .6 8 .6 9 . 46

9 2 .5 9 3 .0 9 3 .0 9 3 .0 9 3 .0 9 3 .5 9 4 .5 9 4 .5 9 4 .5 9 5 .0 9 5 .0 9 5 .0 9 5 .5 9 5 .5 9 5 .5 9 6 .0 9 6 .0 9 6 .5 9 7 .0 9 7 .0 9 7 .0 9 7 .5 9 7 .5 9 7 .5 9 7 .5 9 8 .0 9 8 .0 9 8 .5 9 9 .0 9 9 .0 9 9 .0 9 9 .0 9 9 .5 1 00 .0 1 00 .5 1 00 .5 1 00 .5 1 0 1 .0 1 0 1 .0 1 0 1 .0 1 0 1 .0 1 0 1 .0 1 0 1 .5 1 0 1 .5 1 0 2 .0 1 02 .0 1 02 .0 1 02 .0 1 02 .5

6 5

0 89 2 03## 0 28 1 05% 1 87 0 35 -

-

0 9 1 -

0 82 1 86 1 08% 0 20 0 21 0 85 1 69 0 22 1 52% 1 53% 0 17 1 48f 0 14 0 19 0 34 0 02 0 50 1 39 1 26f 0 07 0 18 1 3 1 1 34f 0 88 1 30% 0 49 0 73 19f 1 28f 0 60% 0 06 0 75 -

L 1 46f 0 52 1 65 2 0 1# # 1 5 1f

+030 4 +0258 +0240 +0240 + 0240 + 02 1 6 +0 128 +0 1 2 8 +0 1 2 8 F O l 0 3 + 0 1 03 +0 1 0 3 + 0050 f0 039 +00 3 9 + 00 1 5 +0015 0009 0015 00 1 5 0033 0039 0057 0057 00 5 7 0 1 1 7 0 1 1 7 0 14 1 0 14 1 020 1 020 1 020 1 0202 02 4 5 02 4 2 0306 0306 0302 0302 0302 0326 0326 0 350 0350 03 4 2 0 4 1 0 0410 0410 0402

M . HOSK IN AND E ALLAN

0456 0525 0609 0625 0645 0705 0705 0705 07 4 4 0744 0804 08 1 7 0844 08 4 9 0849 0939 0939 100 1 1006 1052 1056 10 .56 1 1 4 9 II 4 9 l209 1209 1212 1235 12 3 9 12 3 9 1258 1258 1325 1325 1325 1325 1325 1351 1355 14 1 5 14 1 5 1442 1445 1508 1508 1600 1628 1627 1651

9 .56 8 . 76 9 .5 9 .06 9 . 16 9 .26 9 .26 9 .26 9 . 46 9 . 46 9 .56 9 .2 9 . 1 9 .6 9 .6 9 .5 9 . 5 8 . 9 9 .4 8 . 8 9 .3 9 .3 9 . 1 9 . 1 8 .6 8 .6 9 . 1 8 . 5 9 .0 9 .0 8 . 5 8 . 5 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 4 8 . 33 8 . 8 8 . 3 8 . 3 8 . 2 8 . 7 8 . 1 8 . 1 8 . 5 7 .8 8 . 4 7 .8

1 03 .0 1 03 .0 1 04 .5 1 04 .5 1 05 .0 1 05 .5 1 05 .5 1 05 .5 1 06 .5 1 06 .5 1 07 .0 1 07 .0 1 07 .5 1 08 .0 1 08 .0 1 09 .0 1 09 .0 1 09 .0 1 09 .5 10 .0 10 .5 10 .5 1 1 .5 1 1 .5 1 1 .5 11 .5 12 .0 12 .0 12 .5 12 .5 12 .5 12 .5 13 .0 13 .0 13 .0 13 .0 13 .0 13 .5 14 .0 14 .0 14 .0 14 .5 15 .0 15 .0 15 .0 16 .5 16 .5 17 .0 17 .0

6 6

1 500 0 04 1 220 0 13 0 5 1 0 57 2 1400 L I 1 93 2 0000 -

0 54W 1 020 0 23 1 4 1 0 11 1 89 160 0 53 1 060 0 94 L I I 0 86 2 1 100 0 6 10 120 1 59 1 030 1 64 0 12 10# 1 230 0 630 1 0 40 170 1 2 40 1 5 60 1 2 71 1 4 3 150 1 2 10 1 330 0 10 130 1 550 1 5 8 1 10 1 97 1 090

0422 0 451 0535 0551 0611 0630 0630 0630 4 710 07 1 0 07 2 9 0743 0810 08 1 4 08 1 4 0904 0904 09 2 7 0931 1017 102 1 102 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 33 1 1 33 1 1 37 1200 1204 12 04 1223 1223 1249 1249 1249 1249 1249 1315 13 1 9 13 3 9 +3 3 9 1405 14 09 1432 1432 1524 1552 15 50 1614

R ITUAL R ITES AND RELIG ION I N PREH ISTORY

1645 1652

8 . 5 8 . 33

17 .5 17 .5

2 1511 1 32

1609 1615

1717 17 1 7 1708 1744 1744 1744 1809 1809 1859 1859 1837

7 . 7 7 . 7 8 . 5 7 .6 7 .6 7 . 6 8 . 1 8 . 1 7 . 4 7 . 4 8 . 5

17 .5 17 .5 18 .0 18 .0 18 .0 18 .0 19 .0 19 .0 19 .5 19 .5 1 20 .0

0 621 1 471 2 2011 0 561 1 001 141 0 09 1 94 0 581 1 201 2 1211

2016 2016 2036 2036

7 . 7 7 . 7 7 . 2 7 . 2

1 2 1 .5 1 2 1 .5 1 2 1 .5 1 2 1 .5

0 55 0 15 1 291 1 381

1640 1640 163 1 1707 170 7 1707 173 1 173 1 1822 1822 1759 1842 1938 1938 1958 1958

7 . 7 7 . 1 7 . 1 7 . 45 7 . 35 6 .9 6 .9 7 .2 8 . 5

1 2 1 .5 1 22 .5 1 22 .5 1 2 3 .0 1 24 .0 1 24 .0 1 24 .0 1 25 .5 1 26 .5

1 57 0 641 1 251 0 93

6 .4 8 . 5 6 . 2 6 . 2 8 . 5 5 . 8 8 . 5 5 .9 8 . 5

1 26 .5 1 27 .5 1 27 .5 1 27 .5 1 29 .0 1 30 .0 1 32 .5 1 33 .0 1 35 .0

181 2 1311 0 591 1 451 2 1711 1 441 2 1811 0 08 2 1911

m I s :

2016 2 1 24 2 1 2 4 2 1 3 2 2220 2238 2238 23 3 1 23 1 9 WS :-23 5 1 2448 240 1 25 3 9 25 3 9 25 0 4 2743 2727 2943 2906 -

-

-

1 0 11 1 371 0 92 2 1611

1 78

-

1938 2046 2046 2054 2 1 4 1 2200 2200 2252 2239 2409 232 1 2500 2500 2424 2702 2646 2902 2824 MLS : 2900 -

m is : m ino r l u na rs t and s t i l l ML S : m a jo r l u na r s t and s t i l l S S : s umme r s o l s t ice WS : w in t e r s o l s t ice I : t omb i nZ one C # 1 : t omb o n l ow g round L a t i tude o fs i t e : 3 5 . 3 1N .

T omb s i nZ one C a r e t ot h e s ou th o ft h e s i te , a nd f r om t h e r e t h e s ky l ine i sd i sp laced s ome 4 b y c ompa r i son w i th t h e m o re n o r the r ly t omb s . T omb s o n ' l ow g round ' a l so f a ce a n ea rby r i dge w i th a l t i tude 8 t /i . T he l u na rd ec l ina t ion s t a ke i n t oa c coun tt h e f a c t t h a tt h e c eme t e ry i so n t h e s u r f a ce o ft h e E a r th a nd n o ta ti t s c en t re , a nd t h er a d iu so ft h e E a r th i sn on -neg l ig ib le i nc omp a r i son w it ht h e d i s tance E a r th-Moon . B y c on t r a s t , t h e r a d ius o ft h e E a r th i sn eg l ig ib le i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e d i s tance o ft h e S un ( a nd , o fc ou r se , o ft h e s t a r s ) .

6 7

CLOTHED I NR ITUAL , CERE MONY , DRESS AND DANCE I NF IJ I : M ISS IONARY I NFLUENCES

4

J ane t te D av ie s Quecen E l izabe th Hou se U n ive r s i ty o f Ox fo rd , O xfo rd ,E ng land

Du r i ng p re -co lon ia l t ime si nF i j ia nd b e fo re t h ea dven t o f C h r is t ian i ty t h e re w e re a pprop r ia te c e remon ie s f o r many e ven t s a nd l i fe w a s g overned b y d eep b e l ief . Good a nd e v i l w e re a sc r ibed t o t h e w i l l s o f g od s a nd s p ir i t s wh ich n eeded t ob e c on s tan t ly p rop i t ia ted w i th g i f t s , e spec ia l ly t h e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e b od ie s o f v ic t im s w h ich wou ld b er ed is t r ibu ted f o rc ook ing a nd e a t i ng . Ma jo re ven t s s uch a st h ei n s ta l la t ion o f ac h ie fw as p er formed o ve r ap i le o fb od ie s a nd t h ed ea th o fg rea t c h ie f s w a s ma rked w i th h uman s ac r if ice a s w e re t h e b u i ld ing o fw a rc anoe s , w he re t h e ir l a unch ing w a s c on d uc ted o ver l i ve b od ie s t i ed d own . A lso , l i ve men w ou ld b eb ur ied d u r ing t h e s e t t ing u po fp r inc ipa lp o s t s f o rt emp le s o rc h ief sh ou se w he re t h e men wou ld " ho ld t h em u p" ,( S ie r s 1 985 ) . P r ie s t s w e re a ni mpo r tan tl i nk b e tween t h eg od s a nd t h e p eop le b u t t h e g od s w e re c ap r ic iou s a nd e ven u pon p rope ro b se rvance o fc u s toma ry r i te s a nd t h ep re sen ta t i on o f s u i tab le g i f t s , t h e g od o r g od s c ou ld s t i l l w i th h o ld f a vou r . An i mpo r tan t f unc t ion o f t h e p r ie s t s wa s t h a t t h ey r e ce ived g i f t s o nb eha lf o ft h e g ods .T he p eo p l eb e l ieved i na na f te rl i f e a ni s land s omewhe re t ot h e w e s tf r om whe re t h eo r ig ina l m ig ra t ion s h ad c ome .T he -

p a th t a ken b y t h e s ou l w a s a lway s d i ff icu l ta nd d ange r o u s w he re e v i l s p ir i t s a wa i ted t h e t r ave l le r . G if t s w e re n eeded f o r s ome o ft h e s p i r i t s a l ong t h e w ay , whe rea s o the r s h ad t ob e f ough t s o t h a t t h e s ou l c ou ld c on t inue o n i t s p a th . T ho se who w e re u n succe ssfu l w e re e a ten . T he wo r ld o f F i j i wa s i n f luenced b y t h e s upe rna tura l a nd s o rce ry , whe re e ve ry a c t ion b rough t g a in o rh a rm . N o th ing c ou ld b e d one w i thou tc on sequence ; i lne s s o r d ea th b e ing a t t r ibu ted t os o rcery , t h e b reak ing o f at a b oo o rt h e d i sp lea su re o ft h e g od s . C h ief s h ad a b so lu te p owe ro ve rt h e i r s ub jec t s a nd c ou ld h ave t h em k i l led a t w i l l . S anda lwood s h ip s made t h e f i r s t t r ad ing c on tac t s w i th F i j i , mo s t ly t o t h e w e s t c oa s t o f V anua L evu . B eche d e Me r a s at r ade w a s o pe ra ted e xc lu s ive ly t h rough t h e c h ief s . A s f r equency o fs h ipp ing t ot h e i s -

l and s i n c rea sed , t h e a gen t s l e f t b eh ind b y t h e v i s i t ing s h ip s b egan t o t a ke u p p e rmanen t r e s idence , a l l men , who l i ved w i th F i j ian w omen i n n a t ive h ou se s . T ho se e a r ly s e t t le r s h ad " con fo rmed t o F i j ian w ay s b ecau se t h e i rl i ves d epended o n t h e ma in tenance o ff r iend ly r e l a t ion s w i th t h e ir h o s t s a nd t h et r ade r sh ad b een u nc r i t i c a l o f t h e ir c u s tome r s p r iva te l i ve s" ( F rance 1 969 ) . However t h e m iss ionar ies t o F i j i e ndeavou red t o c hange t h e c u s tom s o f t h e p eop le . I n a n e a r ly c a l l f o r m iss ionar ie s t h e F i j ian s w e re d esc r ib ed a s f o l lows , " t hey a r ei no ne w o rd ,t h ev ery d reg s o fm ank ind o rh u man n a tu re , d ead a nd b ur ied u nde r t h e p r imeva l c u r se a nd n o th ing o f t h em a l ive b u t t h e b ru ta l p a r t , y ea f a r wo r se t h an t h e b ru te s avage q u i te u n f i t t ol i ve , b u t f a r mo re u nf i t t od i e . . ." ( p29 F rance 1 969 , q uo t ing G un s on ' sE vange l ica lM is s iona r ie si nt h eS ou th S ea s 1 959 ) . S ee ing t h a t t h ef i r s tm is s ionary t h ru s tt ook p l ace i n t h eV ic to r ian e ra w i th e vo lu t ionary t h eo ry p redom inan t t h e " m iss iona r ie s w e re p red ispo sed o n t h eo log ic a l a nd mo ra l g round s t o al ow o p in ion o ft h eF i j ian mo ra l a nd s p ir i tua l c ond i t ion" , a nd " were c on f irmed i n t h is b y t h e ir f i r s t a cqua in tance w i th t h e p eop le o f F i j i" ( p30 F rance 1 969 ) . A s J ohn Hun t am iss iona ry a f te r s i x mon th s i n F i j i w ro te , " No p e r son c an f o rm a n i d ea o f t h e i rd ep rav i ty u n le ss h e a c tua l ly w i tne s se s i t ,a nd h a s a no ppo r tun i ty o fo b serv ing t h e ir a b so lu te i n sen s ib i l i ty t oe ve ry th ing t h a ti sg ood a nd t h e ir p lea su r e i na l l t h a t i sb ad " , ( F rance 1 969 ) .T h i si si n ma rked c on t ra s tt ot h e j ourna l o f as anda lwood t r ade r who s a id t h a t " i n w a r t h ey a r ef e a r le s sa nd s a vage t ot h eu tmo s td eg ree ,b u ti n p eace t h e ir d i spo s i t ion i sm i ld a nd g ene rou s t owa rd s t h e i r f r iend s a nd t h e a f fec t ion t h ey b ea r t owa rd s t h e i r r e la t ive s i sv ery s e ldom f ound among E u ropean s" , I m T hu rn ( 1982 ) . T or emedy t h e se c ond i t ion s , t h e m iss iona r ie s h ad t o c omb ine t he d e s truc t ive p o l icy o f d i sc red i t ing t h e p r ie s t s a nd d i scou rag ing i mmo ra l p rac t ice s w i th t h e c on s t ruc t ive e f fo r to fe n fo rc ing t h e Deca logue ( t he T en C ommandmen t s ) a nd t h e s oc ia l s t anda rd s o f t h e l owe r

6 8

J ANE 17E DAV IES

m idd le c l a s se si nV ic to r ian E ng land .T hey a imed t oc i v i l i ze a sw e l la st oc onve r ta nd t h el e s sa rden t ly e vange l i c a l b e l ieved i nt h e b en ign i nf luence s o fc i v i l ized p rac t i ce s a sa i d s t oc onve r s ion . T h i s t e ach ing a f fec ted b o th s p i r i tua l a nd s e cu la ra u tho r i t ie si nF i j ian s oc ie ty s i nce i t w a sa imed a tt h ed e s truc t ion o ft h e o ld r e l ig ion a nd t h e e ncou ragemen to ft h e c u s tom s a nd e ven tua l ly t h e l aw s o f We s te rn c i v i l iza t ion , ( F rance 1 969 ) . I n t h e i r a t tack o n t h e g od s t h e m i ss iona r ie s w e re a l so r educ ing t h e p owe r o f t h e c h ie f s i n t h a t t h ey d er ived t h e ir mana , t h e i r s p ir i tua l p owe r , f r om t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e i r a nce s t ra l g od s . T he re fo re t h ee f fec t o fd i sc red i t ing t h e b e l ief i na nce s t ra l g od s w a s t h a t t h e C h r i s t ian t e ach ing e f ec t ive ly r educed t h es p i r i tua lp owe rt h a tc ame f r om a c h ie f . Howeve re ven b e fo re C hr is t ian t ime s t h e c h ie f ' s p owe rh ad b een l im i ted b y t h ep r ie s t ss ot h a t am is s ion a r y o f fen s ive a ga in s t p r ie s t s p roved t ob e t h e b e s t w ay o f d i sempowe rmg t h e s p ir i tua l r o le o f t h e c h ief s . T he c h ie f s t h ough w e re g i ven e nhanced p owe ra ss e cu la ra u t h o r i t ie s w h ich made u pf o r t h e i rl o ss o f" s p ir i tua lp re s t i ge " ( p 30 F rance 1 969 ) . I nd e sc r ib ing t h ef i r s tm is s iona r ie s t ot h e S ou th A f r i c a , C oma ro f fa nd C oma rof f( 1992 ) s a id t h a t t h e se men " c ame f r om t h ei n te r st ice s o f ac l a s s s t ruc tu re u nde rgo i n gr e con s t ruc t ion ; many o ft h em w e re c augh tu nea s i ly b e tween ad i sp laced p ea san t ry ,a ne xpand ing p ro le ta r ia t a nd t h e l owe r r e ache s o f t h e r i s ing b ou rgeo is ie" . T he m i ss ion t h a t t h e C oma ro f f s w e re d i scu ss ing w a s t h e We s leyan Me thod is tM i s s ion S oc ie ty wh ich w a s t h es o c i e ty t h a t s en t t h e f i r s t m iss iona r ie s t oF i j i . S tock ing ( 1987 ) a l so c ommen ted o n t h e t y pe o fp e r son a t t rac ted t ob ecom ing am is s ionary s ay ing t h a t " be fo re L iv ing s t one made i tf a sh ionab le f o ru n ive r s i ty m en t ov en tu re o ve r sea s t oc onve r tt h eh ea then s a vage ,B r i t ish m is s ion a r ie s w e re o f ten s e lf -educa ted men o f a r t isan o r ig in s" w ho " t ook w i th t h em as t rong c omm i tmen t t ot h eP ro t e s tan t v i r tue s i mpu lse s a s c ongen ia l t ot h e ir o wn s o c i a l a st ot h e i rc onve r t s s p ir i tua lu p l ift . .. t ho se w ho s u r v i ved t h e d i ff icu l te a r ly d ay s o fm is s ion b u i ld ing o f ten c ame h ome t o e n joy a p o s i t ion o f t h eoc ra t ic p re s t ige t h ey m igh t n eve r h ave f ound a th ome , f r equen t ly e nd -

i n gt h e ir l i ve si nr e la t ive ly c om fo r tab le c o lon ia lc i rcum s t anc e s" . S tock ing s ays t h a t w hen t h ey m e ta nd t r ied t o w o rk w i th p eop le w ho se c u l tu ra l v a lue s s e emed f a rr e moved f r om t h e ir s t h en " t hey a s sumed t h a t b ecau se t h ey t h em se lve s h ad r i sen f r om i gno rance a nd l ow e s t a te b y t h e ir o wn e xe r t ion s a nd b y emb rac ing v i ta l C hr i s t ian i ty , t h e n a t ive s t o w hom t h ey o f fe red e duca t i on a nd t h e w o rd o f God w ou ld d o l i ke w ise . When t h e se e xpec ta t ion s w e re f r u s t ra ted t h ey w e re q u i te c apa -

e t hnocen t r ic w h ich h e c l a im s c omp rom ised t h e ir s p ir i t o fC h r is t ian l o ve ,( p87 -88 ) . T he We s leyan Me thod i s t M iss ion i n F i j i h ad made e a r l ie r e ndeavou r s i n T onga , whe re K ing G eo rge o f T onga a nd many o f h i s s ub jec t s w e re c onve r ted . B e c au se o f t r ad i t iona l T ongan t i e s w i th F i j i m iss ionar ie s w e re s en tt oL akemba i s le w h ich h ad aT ongan p opu la t i on ,b u ta f te rs eve ra l y ea r s w o rk t h e re w e re n o c onve r s i on s t h e re ( S tock ing 1 987 ) . T he Me thod is t s i nT onga t h en a ppea led t oB r i ta in f o r " Cann iba l F ee jee " w h ich r e su l ted i nT homa sW i l l iam s ac a rpen te rf r om L inco ln s h ire b e ing d e spa tched t oF i j i a l ong w i th h i s n ew b r ide . H er e co rded much e t hnograph ic ma te r ia l wh ich w a sl a t e rp ub l i shed i n ab ook a nd t h e re o ne g l imp se s w ha th e v a r iou s ly d e sc r ibed a s d readfu l , r evo l t ing a nd w i lde s t s avag ism . H es t o rmed i n to c e remon ie s , mo cked t h eF i j i an sf o rt h e i rs ac r i f ice s t og od sa nd t r i ed t op reven tt h e s t rang l ing o fw idows u pon t h ed ea th o fa no l dk ing . H e e ven tua l ly l e f t t h e i s land s i n v e ry p oo r h ea l th ( p91 S tock ing 1 987 ) . Howeve rF rance ( 1969 )p o in t s o u t t h a t i ns p read ing t h e m iss iona ry i nf luence i nF i j i t h e p o l icy w a s t op re s e rve t h ee x is t ing o rde ra nd h eg i ve sa sa n e xamp le t h e f ac t t h a t t h em iss iona r ie s e ncou raged t h e e x is t ing p ay men t o ft r ibu te t ot h e c h ie f s . T he m i s s iona r ie s w hen i n T onga h ad f a ced t h is i s sue a nd k new t h a tt h eo n ly w ay f o rwa rd w a s t os uppo r tt he a u tho r i ty o ft h et ime . I nF i j i t h en t h ey d id n o tc ondemn t h et r ibu te s y s tem ,b u t made u se o fi tb yi n c lud ing t h e c hu rch a so ne t ow h ich o f fe r i ng sc ou ld b e made wh ich h ad p rev ious ly b een p re sen t e d t o t h e o ld g ods , ( p31 F rance 1 969 ) . T hey a l so s howed g rea tr e spec tt ot h e l e ad ing F i j ian c h ief s a sf o r e xamp le t h e o b se rva t ion o f an ava l c ap ta in w ho n o ted t ha t when C a lve r t ( an e a r ly m is s iona ry ) a dd re ssed C h ief T hakambau h e a lway s u sed t h e t e rm " Saka " a sa p i ece o fc ou r te sy , c i ted i n F rance ( 1969 ) . F rance l a te r d e sc r ibe s t h em i ss iona ry a pp roach i nF i j i a s b e ing o ne t h a tc on so l ida ted a nd s uppo r ted t h ee x is t ing s t ruc t ure o f F i j ian a u tho r i ty . " The re w a s n o v io len t c l a sh when C h r is t ian i ty w a s f i r s ti n t roduce t oF i j i t h e m is s iona r i e s a dap ted many o ft h eh ea then p rac t ice s t ot h e i rf o rm o f wo r sh ip : t r ad i t iona l c han t s w ere u sed f o r C h r is t ian h ymn s ; t h ev ocabu la ry o ft h eh ea then r i tua l w a su sed i n t h ep raye rb ook c omp i led b yt h em is s ionar ie s ." H owev e rF rance s ugge s t s t h a t t h is d id n o th appen b ecau se o f t h e m is s iona ry w an t ing t op re serve wha t w a s g ood i n n a t ive s oc ie ty b u tb ecau se o ft h em i ss ionar ie s i s o la t ion a nd t h e ir " dependence o nt h eg oodw i l l o ft h ec h ie f sf o r t h ep re se rva t ion o ft h e i rl i ve sa sw e l l t h ep ropaga t ion o f t h e i rf a i th "( p341969 ) .

b l e o f p o r t ray ing f a l len s avage man i n r a the r b l eak

T he c ommande ro ft h e Un i ted S ta te s e xp lo r ing e xpe -

t e rm s " . S tock ing d e sc r ibed t h o se e a r ly m iss iona r ie s a s

d i t ion t h rough t h e S ou th P ac if ic i n t h e 1 830 ' s a nd

6 9

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

1 840 ' s men t ion s m iss ionar ie s o f ten i nh i s n ar ra t ive o n F i j i . H e d e sc r ibed w ha t h e f e l t w e re t h e h a rd sh ip s t h a t t h ey h ad t ou nde rgo e spec ia l ly t h ef a c t t h a t " t hey , t h e i r w ive sa nd c h i ld ren a r ea lmo s th ou r ly l i ab le t of a l lu nde r t h e d i sp lea su re o r c ap r ice o f t h e se me rc i le s s s avage s" ( p 358 , W i lkes 1 845 ) . H e o b served t h a t t h e F i j ian s d id s eem t ow an tt h em i ss iona r ie sp re sence ma in ly b ecau se t h ey f e l t t h a t wou ld h e lp w i th t h e ir d ea l ing s w i th t h e s upp ly s h ip s t ha t c a l led a nd a l so f o r t h e p ro tec t ion o f t h es p ir i to r God o ft h em is s iona r ie s . T h is w a sa l l t os ay t h a tW i lke sf e l tt h em i s s iona r ie sw e re a c tua l ly s a fe e ven t h ough t h ew ive se spec ia l ly f e l tv e ry v u lne rab le . Wi lke s w en t o n t ow r i te t h a t t h e re s eemed l i t t le p o ss ib i l i ty o f p rog re s s i nt h a tt h e " ch ie f s w e re a dve r se t ot h en ew r e l i g ion " r e fu s ing t o " a l low a ny o ne o ft h e n a t ive s u nde r t h e i rr u le t oj o in t h em is s ion o rr e ce ive i n s t ruc t ion " . H e s a id t h a t t h e re w a s ag ene ra l o p in ion t h a t whe re m i s s i ona r ie s l i ve t h en w a r sd on o to ccu ra nd t h a tt h e " com mon p eop le i fp erm i t ted wou ld r e ad i ly s eek t h ec hange t h a tw ou ld i n su re a ny th ing l i ke s ecu r i ty f r om t h et y ran n ica l c u s tom s t h ey a r e n ow s uf fe r ing u nde r " ( p358 , Wi lke s 1 845 ) . H e w en t o n t os ay t h a ti ft h e K ing c on v e r ted t oC h r is t ian i ty t h en i nf a c tt h e who le t r ibe w ou ld f o l low a nd o fc ou r se t h is i s wha t e ven tua l ly h appened i n1 854 w i th T hakombau r u l ing c h ief o ft h eg rea t Mbau c on fede racy who c onve r ted a f te r f i f teen y ea r s o f m i s s i ona ry e ndeavou r . S ah l in s ( 1985 ) i nd e sc r ib ing T ha k ambou ' s c onve r s ion ( who f o ry ea r s h ad a cknow ledged t h e " t ru th " o ft h ef o re igne r s g od ) s a id t h a tm any o ft h e F i j ian g od s " speak ing t h rough p r ie s t s" h ad a l so a c k now ledged t h is s up remacy o f J ehovah a nd f l ed o r s hown t h a t t hey w e re p repa red t ob ecome C h r is t ian s . C h ief T hakambou s ay ing t ha t e ve ry th ing t h a t c ame f r om t h e wh i te -man 's c oun t ry w a s t r ue s a id " mu ske t s a nd g unpowde ra r et r ue a nd y ou rr e l ig ion mu s tb et r ue " wh ich S ah l in s d e sc r ibe s a s a" to ta l ' s oc ia l f a c t , ' r e l ig i ou s ' a tt h e s ame t ime i tw a s ' p o l i t ica l ' a nd ' e conom ic ' , ( p 38 S ah l in s 1 985 ) .

l a nd , e spec ia l ly when t h ey mee t t o d i scu s s t r ad i t iona l o b l iga t ion s a nd t he g ene ra l g ood o f t h e s oc ie ty , ( To ra 1 986 ) . An e ve ryday t ype a f fa i r wou ld b e w he re af ew men g a the r t oge the r f o r ac ha t a round t h e t a noa , ( the k ava b ow l ) wherea s i ti sa lway s u sed f o r s uch l i fe e ven t sa sb i r th , mar r iage ,c i rcumc is ion a nd d ea th .T o ren ( 1990 )i n te re s t ing ly t r ie s t os how h ow y aqona i ne ve ry d ay l i fe a nd t h ew ay p eop le a r es i tua ted a r ound t h ek ava b ow l d u r ing y aqona c e remon ie s w i l l a l so s how h i e ra r c h ica l r e la t ion s , a nd p o in t s o u t t ha t i ti sn o t a lway s a s o lemn o cca s ion b u t o f ten o ne i nvo lv ing s t o ry te l l ing , l a ugh te ra nd s i ng ing . B e fo re B r i t ish r u le a nd t h ea r r iva l a nd i nf luence o fC h r is t ian i ty , t h e Ch ief sh ad a c tua l p o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic p owe r , wh ich i nc luded l i f e a nd d ea th p owe r so ve rt h e i rp eop le . Mana t h eC h ief s ' e f fec t i vene s s ' , i sd ependen tu pon h i s p rope r i n s ta l la t ion f o r t h is t ob ea cco rded h im . Mo s tF i j ian sw i l lt o day s ay t h a t ah igh c h ief s mana i s w eake r b ecau se a l l a re n ow C h r i s t ian s , t h e refo re t h e " powe r o f t h e a nce s to r g od s h a s d im in ished b ecau se ' n o o ne a t tend s t hem a ny mo re '" , ( p 102 T o ren 1 990 ) ,and a re s a id t ob e w eak b e c au se o ft h e s t reng th o ft h eC h r ist ian God . H is to r ica l ly mana w a s g iven b y t h e a nce s to r s o n i n s ta l la t ion a s c h ie f . T he a c to fs evu sevu r eque s t s t he f r eedom o f ap l ace t h a ta ny o ne w an t ing t ov i s i t av i l lage h a st op e r fo rm o n a r r iva l . E ven when o ne w an t s t oj o in p eop le a l ready g a the red a round , o ri fo ne w an t s af avou rd one s uch a s h e lp w i th b u i ld ing ah ou se ,t h en p redom inan t ly y aqona i sp re sen ted i ns evu sevu . When c a r ry ing o u tf i e ld wo rk o nv a r iou si s land s w er egu la r ly p re sen ted t h e se s evu se v u s t ot h ec h ie f s . T he c e remony u sua l ly t a ke s p l ace i n at r ad i t iona l F i j i an h ou se k nown a s ab u re . T he w ay s pace i su sed w i th in t h i sh ou se i sc en t ra l t ot h ec e remony .T he c h ie f s , t u raga a l ong w i th t h e i ro ra to r s ,t h e ma tan ivanu , mu s ta ! w ay s s i ti nt h eu ppe r p ar t o f t h e b u re , w h i le t h e l owe r p ar ti sf o rt ho se p repa r ing t h e y aqona . T he p a r t ic ipan t s mu s t s i t c ro ss legged o n p andanu s ma t s p l aced o n t h e

CEREMONY ( pho to s ) T he c h ief ly y aqona c e remony r equ i re s t h e c e remon ia l m ix ing a nd p a r tak ing o fl i qu id made b y s queez ing t h e j u ice f r om t h e r oo to ft h ep ipe rm e thy s t icum p l an t w i th w a te r . T he a c t o f d r ink ing y aqona i so f much s i gn i f i c ance i nt h ec ommun i ty l i fe o fF i j ian si nb o th u rban a nd r u ra l a r ea s . I ta lway s p l ayed as pec ia l r o le i nt h e i n te r a c t ion b e tween c h ief s a nd t r ad i t iona l p r ie s t s w ho w e re t h e o n ly p a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e r i tua l i n t h e p a s t . I n r e cen t t ime s , g ove rnmen t o f f ic ia ls , c hu rch l e ade r s a nd e ven f o re ign e m i ssa r ie s p a r t ic ipa te , b u ti ts t i l l p l ay s i t s mo s t i mpo r tan t r o le i n d ea l ing s b e tween t h e c h ie f s o f t h e

f l oo r . T he p a ramoun t c h ie f mu s t s i t d i rec t ly o ppo s i te t h e s au ,w h ich i s ac o rd made u po fs i x o re i gh tp l a i ted s t rands o fc oconu tf i b re a t tached t ot h et a noa o rw ooden y aqona b ow l . T he p l a i ted c o rd h a s al a rge c ow r ie s he l l t i ed t o t h e l oo se e nd . T he t a noa i ss een a s f ema le i n c ha rac te r ,a si ti st h eb ea re ro fw a te ra nd p l an tf r om t h e e a r th mo the r ,w h i le t h es au i ss e en t os ymbo l i se t h e um b i l ic a lc o rd s t re tched o u tt ot h e' s on o ft h el a nd ' ,t h ep a r amoun tc h ief , ( Fo ra 1 986 ) . A l l t h eo the rc h ief s s i t w i th i n as em i -c i rc le w i th t h ep a ramoun tc h ie ff a c ing t h e y a q ona b ow l . A te ach o ft h e i rs i de si sa no ra to r , ma tan iva a uw ho w i l ld r ink ac up o fy aqona k nown a st h er abe . D i rec t ly o ppo s i te a nd f a c ing t h ep a ramoun tc h ief ,b u t

7 0

J ANETTE D AV IES

b eh ind t h et a noa ,w i l l s i tt h el o se y aqona , ap e r son u su a ly d e scend ing f r om ac h ief ly f am i ly w ho m ixe s t h e y aqona . Two q a rav i y aqona , g uard s o f t h e y aqona s i t c l o se t ot h et a noa o ne ach s i de o ft h el o se y aqona ,w h i le t h ep e r son l ook ing a f te r t h ew a te rd u r ing t h ec e remony s i t sb eh ind t h el o se y aqona t ot h e l e f ta nd t h ep e r son i n c ha rge o ft h e s t ra ine rt ot h er i gh t . Ac up b ea re r , t h e t u y aqona i ss ea ted t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e t a noa b eh ind t h e g ua rd s wh i ls tf a c ing t h ec h ie f s ,( To ra 1 986 ) . A n i mpo r tan t f e a tu re o ft h e who le c e remony i st h e r e spec t fu l s i lence e xcep tf o rt h ec han t ing o ft h e " wa r n o r s" d ur ing t h ep repa ra t ion o ft h ey aqona . Wa r r io r sa l so s t and o u t s ide t h e b u re t oe n su re n o e n t ry f o r a nyone wh i le t h e c e remony i si n p roce ss . On ly t ho se p ar t ic i p an ts who h ave t ou t t e rt h e c l ea r ly s pec i f ied w o rd s t h a t a r ep a r to ft h er i tua l a r ea l lowed t os peak . When a l l p a r t i c ipan t s a r e s ea ted a nd s i len t t h e l o se y aqona o rm ixe r o f t h e y aqona c l u tche s t h e b o ( s t ra ine r ) c on ta in ing t h e w aka i nb o th h and s . At r ad i t iona l s t ra ine ri s made f r om t h eb a rk o ft h ev au t r ee ( h ib i scu s t i l icaeu s ) , t h eb a rk b e i n g p ee led o f ft h e b ranch , c l eaned a nd t h en d r ied . T he w aka a r e t ho se p i ece s o f r oo t f r om t h e p lan t s wh ich h ave b een p ounded . Wh i le h e h o ld s t h e b o ( s t ra ine r ) , t h e l o se y aqona s ay s " Sa q a i v akaru l o se t un a y aqona v aka tu raga " wh ich mean s , t h e c h ief ly y aqona i sr eady t ob e m ixed . T he ma tan ivanua o r o ra to r o f t h e p a ra moun t c h ief t h en a n swe r s l o se ( m ix ) . T he q a rav i w a ( wa te r )w i l l t h en move f o rwa rd o nh i sk n ee st o p o s i t ion h imse lf b e tween t h e y aqona m ixe r a nd o ne o f t h e g uard s a nd p our s w a te ri n to t h e t a noa e n su r ing h eo n ly p ou r se nough f o rt h e c h ie f s a nd o ra to r sp r e sen t ,a sa ny mo re i sr e . mo re . mo re . T oh ave t o much d r ink i nt h ei s t a boo . When t h eq a rav i w a( wa te r )r e tu rn s t oh i s s ea ted

E ven tua l ly , t h e l o se y aqona ( t he m ixe r ) e x tend s t h e s t ra ine ra round t h e t a noa c lu tch ing i tw i th b o th h and s a nd a nnounce s " Sa q a i l o se o t i t un a y aqona v aka tu ra g a " , ( t he c h ief ly c e remony i sn ow r eady ) . T he o ra to r i mmed ia te ly r ep ly s " Ta b" , mean ing p ou r w h ich i st h e s i gna l t h a t t h e d r ink b e s e rved . T he t u y aqona ( cup b ea re r ) s t and s , c a r ry s ab i b ( ac up f o rmed f r om c l ean i ng a nd p o l i sh ing h a lf ac oconu ts he l l )a nd move st ot h e t a noa b e tween t h e l o se y aqona ( m ixe r ) a nd t h e q a rav i y aqona ( gua rd s ) . H e t h en l owe r s t h e b ib i n to t h e t a noa a nd t h el o se y aqona ( m ixe r ) t a ke s t h e s t ra ine rf r om t h e l i qu id a nd s queeze s i ta bove t h e b i lo s o t h e y aqona f l ows s t ra igh ti n to t h e c up . T he c up b ea re r t h en move s t os t and e r ec tf a c ing t h ep a ramoun tc h ie fb u tt a ke sg rea t c a re n o t t oc ro s s o ve r t h e s au ( t he c o rd ) , p u l ls h i s o u t s t re tched a rm b ack w i th t h e b i b h e ;d c l o se to h i s c he s t a nd w a lk s t o t h e p a ramoun t c h ie f . Upon h and ing t h e c up o ve r , h e s t eps b ackwa rd s , s i t s u pon t h e ma t a nd c l ap sh i sh and s t h ree t ime sp roduc ing ah o l low c l ap . O n c omp le t ion o f d ra in ing t h e c up b y t h e c h ie f , t h e o the r p a r t ic ipan t s c l ap t h e i rh and s i n t h e s ame w ay s o a s t o s how r e spec t a nd r e ve rence . T he c up i st h en s e rved t o t h e ma tan ivanua ( o ra to r ) o f t h e p a ramoun tc h ie fi n t h e s ame w ay . E ach o f t h e t u raga ( ch ie f s ) i st h en s e rved a l ong w i th h i s ma tan ivanua ,u pon wh ich t h et uy aqona ( c up b ea re r )r e tu rn st oh i so r ig ina l s ea ted p o s i t ion .T hen t h e l o se y aqona ( m ixe r ) s p reads h i s h and s a nd a rm s a round t h et a noa a nd a nnounce s " Sa q a i maca t un ay a q ona v aka tu raga " , ( t he c h ief ly c e remony i sn ow o ve r ) , a nd i nr ep ly t h eo ra to rs ay s " Cobo !" wh ich p romp t s t h e c l app ing o f h and s . F ina l ly t h e l o se y aqona c l aps h i s h and s t h ree t ime s w h ich i st h e c lo se o f t h e c e remony ( fo ra 1 986 ) . D u r ing t h e k ava c e remon ie s whe re s peeche s , wh ich

p o s i t ion , t h e l o se y aqona ( m ixe r ) w i l l b eg in t om ix t h e y aqona b y t w is t ing a nd s queez ing t h e w aka ( pounded

a r eo f ten f u l lo fp rove rb s ,a nu nde r s tand ing o ft h eF i j ian p rove rb s i sd ependen t u pon k now ledge o fe l emen t s o f F i j ian c u l tu re .T he se p rove rb s a nd s ay ing sa l so h ave i n c o rpo ra ted C h r i s t ian e l emen ts a nd p rove rb si n to t h em . L ienha rd t( 1982 )w r i t ing a bou t t h eD inka o ft h e S u d an a nd C a tho l ic i sm s a id t h a t when f o re ign s y s tem s o f

r oo t s ) w i th in t h e s t ra ine r u nde r t h e w a te r ' s s u r face i n t h e t a noa . I tw i l l t a ke af ew m inu te st oe x t rac ts u f f ic ien t j u ice f r om t h e w aka . Ac e r ta in c o lou r o fb rown l i qu id i n d ica te s t ha tt h er i gh tm ix h a s b een a ch ieved . T hen h e h o ld s t h es t ra ine rt oh i s f a ce w i th b o th h and s a nd l ook s a tt h e o ra to r who w i l l n od a s i nd ica t ion o f h i s a g ree m en t t h a t t h e k ava o r g rog i sr e ady t ob e d runk . I ft h e

t hough tw e re i n t roduced v ia t h e C a tho l ic s t h ey d id n o t r ep lace t r ad i t iona l t h ink ing r a the r t h ey w e re s een a s a n a l te rna t ive , w ha th ed e sc r ibed a s a" l ingu i s t ic p a ra l lax" .

o r a to r d oes n o t a g ree t h en t h e t w i s t ing a nd s queez ing p roce ss c on t inue s . T he l o se y aqona move s t h e s t ra ine r i n ac e r ta in w ay s ot h a th ec an c o l lec tt h e d r eg s o fr oo t p i ece s f r om t h e t a noa . T hen h es queeze s t h e s t ra ine r t o g e t t h ej u ice o u ta nd h o ld s i tt oh i s s hou lde rf r om whe re t h e s en ib o ( who l ook s a f te r t h e s t ra ine r ) t a ke s i t , c l ean s i ta nd g i ve s i tb ack i nt h e s ame w ay i nw h ich i t w a sg i ven t oh im . I nt h i s w ay ,w i th much c a re ,e ve ry b i t i sc o l lec ted f r om t h e t a noa u n t i l t h e l i qu id i sf r ee f r om

D av i s ( 1982 ) ,i nh i si n t roduc t ion t ot h ev o lume c on ta in i ng L ienhard t ' s p ape rs ay s t h a t t h e d i scu ss ion o f p a ra l l a x w a s c ruc ia l i n t h e u nde r s tand ing o f c onve r s ion i n t h a ta su sed b yL ienha rd t ,i tr e fe r red " t ot h ew ay si mag e s s h if ti n mean ing s a st h e u se r s h if t s p o s i t ion " . I n F i j i C h r i s t ian i ty s e emed t oo f fe r ac o smo logy n o td i ss im i la r f r om t h et r ad i t iona lo ne . Wr igh t ( 1986 ) i n terv iew ing Ma r sha l l S ah l in s i nF i j i

a ny d r eg s .

a sked S ah l in sv i ews o nF i j ian r e l ig ion a nd h ow w e l l t h e

7 1

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c u l tu re h ad s urv ived t h ed e s truc t ion o fi t s o ld b e l ie f s i f i nf a c tt h ey h ad b een d e s t royed . " I fw el ook a te a r ly a c c oun t s o fc onve r s ion t oC h r is t ian i ty" S ah l in s s a id " we f i nd t h a ts ome p eop le t h ough tt h eo ld g od sh ad l e f tF i j i , b u to the r s b e l ieved t h a tt h eg od s t h em se lve s c onve r ted .

t h e F i j ian s t y le v ery w inn ing . T he F i j ians h ad r e spec t f o r a u tho r i ty , i mpeccab le manne r s , b u t a l so a f unda men ta l s en se o f d ign i ty t h ey w e re ' n a tu re 's g en t le -

T h is i si n te res t ing b ecau se i ft h e g od s c onve r ted , t h en t h ey ' re s t i l l a round a nd t h e re a r e s t i l l F i j ian g od s e ven t hough t h ey may b e g ood We s leyan s l i ke e ve ryone e l se T he m iss ionar ie s d e s t royed t h e t emp le s y s tem a nd p u t c hu rche s i ni t s p lace , b u tt h ef o lk r e l ig ion i s

DRESS

-

men '" ,( p 183 ) .

-

s t i l l v e ry s t rong e spec ia l ly c u r ing a nd s o rce ry , t h ing s l i ke t h a t . Meke s a r e s t i l l c ompo sed b y a ni n sp ira t iona l -

p roce ss t he s ong s a r e ' g iven ' t o t h e c ompo se r i n a d ream o rv i s ion " , ( p 182 ) . -

DANCE T he wo rd meke w h ich i s c ommon ly u sed f o r F i j ian d ance a c tua l ly mean s d anc ing a nd c han t ing . Meke i sa n i n teg ra l a nd b a s ic p a r t o f t h e r i ch F i j ian c u l tu re whe re i mpo r tan t h i s to r ica l e ven t s a r e r e co rded a nd t r an sm i t t e d ,s t o r ie sa nd l e gend s t o ld a nd c e leb ra t ion sh e ld . V e ry o f ten t h e o r ig ina l c ompo se ri sn o tk nown b u tf o ra l lF i j i an meke i th a s b een k ep t b y t h e t r ad i t iona l memo ry k eepe r s a nd c ompo se r s c a l led t h e D aun ivucu w ho p a s s i to nf r om o ne g ene ra t ion t oa no the r .T he se a r et h ep eo p l e w i th t h el i nk s t ot h es p ir i t wo r ld a nd w hen i nc om mun ion w i th t h e s p ir i t s t h ey e n te r t r ance s a nd c han t a nd s way I n t h e meke t h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h ep e r fo rm e r s i sf i xed w i th much i mpo r tance a t tached t oi t .I n t h e

Howeve rw he re t h em i ss ionary h ad t h e mo s tn o t iceab le e f fec tw a so nt h ef o rm o fd re s s t h a tt h eF i j ian a ccep ted a nd u sed a sp a r to ft h ec onve r s ion p roce ss . P r io r t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o fE u ropean s t y le c l o th , t h e F i j ian s a l ong w i th o the rP ac if ic i s lande r s made ma s i o rt a pa c l o th . I t i s manu fac tu red f o rm t h e b a rk o f t h e p ape r mu lbe r ry t r ee a nd t a ke s i t s n ame mas i f r om t h e F i j ian n ame f o r t he p lan t . T he b a rk i ss t r ipped a nd s oaked , t h en l a id o ve r ac onvex s u r face a nd b ea ten . T he o r ig ina l b a rk may b e f ou r o r f i ve i nche s w ide b u t b y t h e t ime i ti s b ea ten o u ti tc an b e t wen ty i nche s w ide . One p i ece i s s imp ly o ve r lapped a nd t h en b ea ten w i th a no the rt of o rm al a s t ing j o in , t h et e x tu re o ft h ec l o th d epend ing o n t h e d eg ree o fb ea t ing , s upe r impo s i t ion a nd t h e t y pe o fb a rk u sed . T he n ex ts t ep i st h ed eco ra t ion ,c e r ta in a r ea sh av i ng t r ad i t iona ld e s ign s ,a nd a l though t h ec o lou r sr ed a nd b lack a r eu sed i ti sa l so o f ten l e f tw h i te . I ti ss t i l l a ni m p o r tan tg i f ti nF i j ian c e remony t o day a sw e l la st h ee ve r g row ing t o u r i s tt r ade ,b u tw a so r ig ina l ly u sed f o re ve ry d ay d re s s , mo squ i to n e ta nd b ed l i nen . I nl ook ing a tt h ec on tac tp e r iod , t h a ti s , t h ei n t roduc t i on o fC h r i s t ian i ty t oR ewa o nt h e ma in i s land o fF i j i , P a r ry ( 1987 )s ay s t h a t " t he R ewa c h ie f sa ccep ted C h r i s t i an i ty a t ar e la t ive ly e ar ly d a te a nd C h r is t ian c l o the s w e re s en t t h e re a nd d i s tr ibu ted t ot h e c h ie f s a nd t h e i r

s t r ic t ly t r ad i t iona l p e r fo rmance t h e d re ss i sv e ry i mpo r t a n tb ecau se l i ke t h e p o s i t ion ing , t h e p e r fo rme r s p lace i nt h ec ommun i ty i ss i gn if ied b yi t ,i nt h ec a se o fd re s s f o re xamp le af e a the ri nt h eh a ir o r at a pa a rm -band . An e s sen t ia l p ar t o f t h e meke i st h e l ah wh ich i st h e b a se

d ependen t s" . J ean Coma ro f f i n ap ap e r g i ven a t t h e C ommonwea l th h i s to ry s em ina rl a s ty ea ri nO xfo rd , e n t i t led "T h ee mpe ro r ' so ld c l o the s" s a id t h a to no ne o cca s i on when t h e Mof fa t t s r e tu rned f r om h ome l e ave t o

i n s t rumen t f o r a l l F i j ian mus ic wh ich i sb ea ten when t h ep ar t s i nt h e meke a r e n o ta ccompan ied b y c han t ing .

t h e ir m is s ion wo rk i nB echuana land t h ey t ook 5 0 t o n s o f o ld c l o the s w i th t h em f o r t h e A f r ican c onve r t s . C o -

T he meke v ar ie s i nd i f f e ren t d i s t r ic t s a nd a r ea s o f t h e c oun t ry , b u t a l l move s a r e s ymbo l ic a nd e ve ry g e s tu re a nd e xp re ss ion c onveys a mean ing t o t h e a ud ience , ( Be rw ick 1 990 ) . I n l ook ing a th ow s ome o f t h e t r ad i t ion s h ave s u r -

ma ro f fs a id t h a tt h ep reoccupa t ion o ft h ec i v i l iz ing m is s i on t h e re w a s w i th t h e " b lack b ody " a nd t h a t t h e m i s s i ona r ie s w e re o b se ssed w i th c lo th ing i t .S he s a id t h a t t h em is s iona r ie s w e re t h e " f oo t s o ld ie r s" o fc o lon ia l ism a long s ide wh ich l a y t h e p roce s s o f c ommod i t isa t ion .

v i ved t h ei nf luence o fc o lon ia l i sm a nd t h e m i ss ion a nd t h e refo re w e s te rn iza t ion ,o ne c an l ook a tt h e s t rong c u l -

S he s poke o f c lo th b e ing e xpor ted t h e re f r om B r i ta in a nd T swana m ig ran t ma le wo rke r s h av ing t h ree p i ece

t u ra lf a c to r s i nt h er e la t ion sh ip o ft h eB r i t ish a nd t h eF i j i an . I n t h e i n te rv iew r e co rded b y Wr igh t ( 1987 ) S ah -

s u i t s made o u t o fi t ,b u t o f h ow a n i nnova t ive a nd i n v en t ive c h ie fs t o le t h es how b yw ea r ing as u i t made o u t

l i n s n o ted t ha t b o th s oc ie t ie s " unde r s tood t h e mean ing o f c e remon ia l a nd h e red i ta ry r ank . T he B r i t ish c ame h e re w i th t h e i rk n igh t s a nd l o rd s a nd t h e i rg ove rno r s i n

o fl e opa rd s k in w hen mee t ing w i th t h em is s iona r ie s . C lamme r ( 1976 ) s ays t h a t t h e e a r ly m iss iona r ie s w e re t o le ran ta bou tn a t ive d re s s a nd q uo tes Wi l l iam s a m i ss iona ry m en t ioned a bove a ss ay ing t h a tf ew c l o the s

f ancy u n ifo rm s a nd t h eF i j ian s l o ved i t .T he F i j ian s r e s pec t ed c h ief ly s t y le t h es t ruc tu re w a sf am i l ia rt ot h em e ven i ft h e d e ta i ls w e re n o t . T he B r i t ish i n t u rn f ound -

w e re n eeded i n s uch ac l ima te a nd t h a t wha t t h ey d id

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w ea r w a s f o rr e a son so f mode s ty .T he men w o re ama s i o r s a sh o ft a pa ( b a rk c l o th ) w h ich w a s " pa s sed t h rough t h e l e g s a nd wound t wo o rt h ree t ime s r ound t h el o in s

k ava . T h is h a sa lway s b een d i f f icu l tf o rt h eF i j ian t od o a s k ava i sv ery much p a r t o f t h e s oc ia l f abr ic . F ou r y ea r s a go ,u nde rt h el e ade r sh ip a nd d ec is ion o ft h e S a l v a t ion A rmy i nN ew Z ea land i tw a s d ec ided t h a ta b s t i -

a nd f r on t a nd a l lowed t o f a l l o ve r t h e k nee s a nd t h e b ack l e f tt ot r a i l l i ke at a i l o n t h eg round o rf a s tened i n ab unch . Women w o re al i ku ( f r inged b and ) w h ich v a r -

n ence f r om k ava f o rS a lva t ion is tw a s n o tr equ i red . T he t im ing o ft h is w a s o fn o te i n t h a t t h e f i r s t c h ie f aR a tu w a s t ob e c omm iss ioned a s aS a lva t ion A rmy o ff ice r .

i e di nd ep th a cco rd ing t oh ow l ong t h ey h ad b een ma r r i ed " , ( p92 ) . C lamme r s ay s t h a tl ong s k i r t s c ame t or e p lace t h e ma s i a nd l i ku f o r b o th s exes a nd t ha t E u ropean c l o th ing b egan t ob e wo rn o nt h eu ppe rb ody , e spec ia l ly t h ose who a t tended s choo l r egu la r ly . S oon

A t t h e c e remony t h e t r ad i t iona l b r ing ing o f ma t s w a s p e r fo rmed b y a l l t he w omen ( r e la t ive s o f t h e R a tu ) s ymbo l i s ing al i f ee ven ts uch a sw hen t h ey a r ep r e sen t e d f o r b i r th , w edd ing o r f unera l . When t h e G ene ra l

w omen c onve r t sw o re d re s se st h a tc ove red t h e i rb r ea s t s . I n ap e r sona l c ommun ica t ion w i th G eo rge M i lne r h e s ay s t h a t many b a le so fc a l ico c l o th w e re s h ipped t oF i j i b y t h e m is s ion s a nd t h e Mo the r Hubba rd s t y le d re ss t h a t i ss o w idesp read t h roughou t t h e i s land s s t emmed f r om t h a te a r ly m i s s iona ry d e s ign .

l e ade ro ft h e wo r ldw ide S a lva t ion A rmy v i s i ted F i j i i n 1 990 t h eh ighe s tc e remon ia l w e lcome w a s a cco rded h e r a l ong w i th t h et r ad i t iona ly aqona c e remony r e se rved f o r w o r ld l e ade r s . S he e ndea red h e r se lf t ot h eF i j ian b ya c c ep t ing a nd d r ink ing k ava a tt h a tc e remony .

C lamme r( 1976 )s ay s t h a tt h em i s s iona r ie sn eve rr o se t o av e ry f u l lu nde r s tand ing o ft h eF i j ian r e l ig iou si d eo l o gy . I nt h e i rl e t te r s h ome t h e re w a s n o e v idence o fa n i n ten t t ol e a rn a bou t t h e n a t ive c u l tu re s f o r t h e ir o wn s akes a nd n a t ive c u s tom s s uch a st h e meke w e re a c t ive l yd i scou raged b y t h e m iss iona r ie s w ho " made n o a t t emp t t ov i ew t h em i nt h e ir f unc t iona l r o le " ( p30 ) . A c c o rd ing t oC lamme rt h is w a sa ni mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h e d i s in teg ra t ion o f many a spec t s o ft r ad i t iona lF i j ian l i fe .

CONCLUS IONS K ee s ing ( 1981 ) i n w r i t ing a bou t t h e i mpac t o f C hr is t i an i ty o n " sma l l sca le s oc ie t ie s" s ay s t ha ti ti si mpo r t a n t " no t t oc ondemn m i s s ionary e f fo r t r e t ro spec t ive ly b u tt ou nde r s tand i t sr oo t s a nd i mpac t " . H es a id t h a ta n t h ropo log ica l c r i t ique s o fm is s ionar ie s h ave o f ten b een b a sed " on ar oman t ic i d ea l ism a bou tt r iba l w ay s o fl i fe s u s ta ined b y ap h i losophy o f c u l tu ra l r e la t iv ism" ( p406 ) . H e p o in t s o u t t h a t t h is r e la t iv ism d oe s n o t s e e t h e o pp re ss ion o f t r iba l s oc ie t ie s o r t h e e f fec t s o fd i s e a se a nd w a ra nd s ay s t h a tm i s s iona r ie s i nt a k ing m ed i -

A s F rance ( 1969 ) h a s p o in ted o u t t hough , t h e c u l tu re t h a t t h e F i j ian s c ame t o s e e a s t h e i r o wn w a s r e a l ly a m ix tu re o ft h e t r ad i t iona l a nd i n ven ted . S o much s ot h a t w hen t h eS a lva t ion A rmy w a ss eek ing t oe s tab l i sh i t se lf t h e re t we lve y ear s a go , t h e d e s ign o f t h e S a lva t ion

c a l c a re a nd s choo l ing a l ong w i th p eace t o s uch c om mun i t ie s h ave o f ten a i ded d rama t ic i mp rovemen t i n t h e ir l i fe s ty le s . H ed oes a cknow ledge t h a tt h is m ay a l so

A rmy u n ifo rm i n co rpo ra ted wha t w a s l ooked u pon a s t r ad i t iona l F i j ian d re s s ,n ame ly t h es u lu lsk i r tf o r men t o b e wo rn w i th a S a lva t ion A rmy j acke t w i th i n s ign ia s a nd l ong d re ss f o r women w i th s u lu u nde rnea th ( s ee

h ave b een a tt h e e xpen se a nd e ro s ion o fl o ca l c u s tom s b u t s ay s t h a t i n many o f t h e c o lon ia l s i tua t ion s , m is s i on s o f ten p rov ided e duca t ion w he re t h e c o lon ia l g ov -

p ho to ) . C lamme r s ay s t h a tt h e a dop t ion o fC h r is t ian i ty " and t h e s omewha t e c lec t ic b o r row ing o f i dea s a nd t e chn ique sf r om t h ee u ropean sh ave t h emse lve sb ecome

e r nmen t d id n o ta nd t h a t many o ft h en ew l e ade r s p o s t

p a r t o f t h e t r ad i t ion ( p 194 C lamme r 1 976 ) . Wha t h e s ugge s t si nf a c ti st h ec o -ex i s tence o ft wo c u l tu ra l s ym b o l s y s tem s r e la t ing t oe ach o the r w i th in t h e w ide r s o c i a l s t ruc tu re . T om ake i t se lf a ccep tab le t h eC h r i s t ian i ty t h a t b rough t d e s i rab le e duca t iona l a nd e conom ic a d v ance s h ad a l so t op rov ide " ac on s is ten tp sycho log ica l

i ndependence n ew o rde rw e re a b le t ot a ke o nl e ade r sh ip b ecau se o ft h a te duca t ion . S t an ley ( 1990 )s ay t h a t" t he e a r l ie s ts i gn if ican te xam p l e i n modem t imes o fa n i nd igenou s s oc ie ty d eve lop i ng a n a r t icu la ted c a se a ga ins t C hr is t ian m iss ion i n t e rm s o ft h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t o We s te rn e xpan s ion i sp ro v ided b y C h ina i n t h e 1 860 ' s , g o ing o n to s ay t h a t t h e C ommun is tr evo lu t ion i nC h ina i n s is ted t h a t " Ch r i s t ian

' mode l ' wh ich w ou ld l eg i t im ise t h e p rog re ss ive a bo l i t i on o f t r ad i t ion a nd wou ld e n su re i t s r ep lacemen ta s a w o r ld v i ew b yC h r i s t ian b e l ie f "( p 194 ) .

m is s ion s w e re i ne s sence t h ei d eo log ica l a rm o fi mpe r i a la gg re s s ion " ( p 14 & 1 5 ) . S t an ley ' s a im i nh i s s t udy i s t oe ncou rage ab e t te ra nd mo re i n fo rmed " h is to r ica lu n -

I n t h e s ame w ay t h e S a lva t ion A rmy h a s r e cen t ly mod i f ied a s t r ic tr u l ing c oncern ing t h e u se o f a l coho l . A s t h e S a lva t ion A rmy i s at e e to ta l o rgan iza t ion , i ni t s e a r ly d ay s i nF i j ii tr equ i red i t sc onve r t s t oa b s ta in f r om

d e r s tand ing o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween P ro te s tan tm is s i on sa nd B r i t ish i mpe r ia l ism "p o in t ing o u tt h a tt h em is s i onar ies h ad " a h igh ly d eve loped c oncep t o f p rov idence wh ich s aw t h e h and o f God a t wo rk i nc u r r en te ven t s ,e spec ia l ly t h o se wh ich r e la ted t ot h ee x ten -

a l coho l wh ich t h ey s a id s hou ld i n c lude a b s t inence f r om

7 3

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s i on o f B r i t ish i mpe r ia l i nf luence o r c on t ro l" ( p 179 ) . T h i sp e rvaded much o ft h ee a r ly wo rk o ft h em is s iona ry i nF i j ia sw e l la so the rp ar t so ft h e wo r ld . T he m i ss iona r ies a r r ived i nF i j ii n ten to ne s tab l ish ing t h e o rde r o fC hr i s t ian i ty w h ich b y i t s v e ry n a tu re t op p led t h e o ld o rde ro ft h e p r ie s t s a nd c h ie f s . T he b onu s f o r t h e c ommone r w a s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fp eace a nd n o t w a r b e tween p eop le s a nd i nm any r e spec t s at r an sfo r ma t ion o f s oc ie ty a s t h ey h ad k nown i t . ( Jamme r i n b r ing ing h i s t h e s i s o n l i t e racy a nd s oc ia l c hange t o a c onc lu s ion s a id t h a tt h e " m is s iona ry e ndeavou r w a s o b l iged t o a dap t ive ly t r an sfo rm i t se lf f r om a l oose ly s t ruc tu red g roup who se i n i t ia l a ppea l w a s e s sen t ia l ly mo ra l , i n to a n i n s t i tu t ion . i f i th oped t o m ake a ny p rog re ss a ta l l . T he e s tab l i shmen t o fC hu rche s , e ngag .. .

c a l p owe r s , c r ea t ing amembe r sh ip g roup w i th r i te s d c p a ssage o n e n t ry , f ound ing a n e duca t ion s y s tem . .. a re a l l a spec t s o ft h e p roce s s o fi n s t i tu t iona l is ing wha t b e g an a s o r a ppea red t o b e s imp ly a n ew s e t o f i d ea s" (( Jamme r 1 976 ) . Many F i j ian s t o day a r e p roud o f t he i r Me thod is t h e r i t a ge a nd l ook u pon C h r is t ian i ty a sa ne x t ra d imen s ion t o t h e i rc u l tu re . T hey a r ec once rned t h a tm any Wes te rne r s a r e n o t C hu rchgoe r s a nymo re a s much o ft h e ir f am i ly a nd s oc ia l r e la t ion s a r e b ound u p w i th t h ea c t iv i t ie s o f C hu rch i t se lf . T he C hu rch a nd c u s toma ry b ehav iou r s uppo r t e ach o the r whe re a tn ea r ly e ve ry r i tua l p e r fo r mance p raye r sa r e s a id a nd w he re i t wou ld b eo u to fo r d e ri ft h ey w e re n ot

i ng i ne conom ic a c t iv i t ie s ,f o rg ing l i nk s w i th t h ep o l i t i -

B IBL IOGRAPHY BER W ICK S .1 990 . Who ' s Who i nF i j i . B e rw ick sP ub l ish ing Hou se . CLA MMER J .R . 1 976 .L i te racy a nd S oc ia lC hange . Ac a se s t udy o fF i j i .E . j .B r i l l . CO MAROFF J .a nd CO MAROFF J .1 992 .E thnog raphy a nd t h eH i s to r ica lI mag ina t ion . We s tv iew . FRANCE P . 1 969 .T he C ha r te ro ft h eL and .C u s tom a nd c o lon iza t ion i nF i j i .O xfo rd . DAV IS J .1 982 ( c d . )R e l ig iou sO rgan iza t ion a nd R e l ig iou sE xpe r ience .A SA monog raph 2 1 . IM THURN E . T he J ou rna l o f Wi l l iam L ocke rby . S anda lwood T rade ri n t h e F e jee I s lands , 1 808 -1809 . F i j i T ime s 1 982 . KEES ING R .M . 1 981 .C u l tu ra l An th ropo logy . Ac on tempo r a ry p e r spec t ive . Ho l tR ineha r tW in s ton . L IENHARDT G . 1 982 . T he D inka a nd C a tho l ic i sm . I n D av i s J .( Ed ) R e l ig iou s O rgan iza t ion a nd R e l ig iou s E xpe r i e nce . ASA monog raph 2 1 . PARRY J .T . 1 987 .T he S iga toka V a l ley

-

P a thway i n to p r eh i s to ry .B u l le t in o ft h eF i j i Mu seum n o .9

SA} {L INS M . 1 985 . I s land so fH is to ry .T av i s tock .S IERS J .1 985 . F i j iC e leb ra t ion .C a ine sJ ann if L td . S TANLEY B . 1 990 . T he B ib le a nd t h eF lag .P ro t e s tan tm i ss ion sa nd B r i t ish i mpe r ia l ism i nt h en ine t een th a nd t wen t i e t hc en tu r ie s . Apo l lo s . S TOCK ING G . 1 987 . V ic to r ian An th ropo logy .F r ee P re ss . TORA V . 1 986 . Y aqona i nF i j i . I n G . a nd B . D eve re l l , P ac if ic R i tua ls L iv ing o r Dy ing . I n s t i tu te o fP ac if ic S tud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o fS ou th P ac i f ic . TOREN C . 1 990 . Mak ing S en se o fH ie ra rchy . C ogn i t ion a ss oc ia lp roce s si nF i j i . A th lone . WILKES C . 1 845 . N a r ra t ive o ft h e Un i ted S ta te sE xp lo r ing E xped i t ion .F i j i Mu seum H is to r ic R ep r in t 1 985 . WR IGHT R . 1 986 . On F i j iI s land s . P engu in B ook s .

7 4

THE HUMAN IMAGE I N THE NATUHAN AND ACERA M IC NEOL ITH IC P ER IOD OF THE M IDDLE EAST

H ANSD IETER B IEWERT D ep a r tmen to fP r eh is to ry T ub ing en U n ive r s i ty S c h loß 7 400 T ub ing en 1 G e rmany

T h e

i m agei nt h e N a tuf ian a nd o ft h e M idd le F a s t s em s ,a t

s ub jec t o f t h e h uman

a ce ra imc n eo l i th ic p e r iod f i r s ts i gh t , t oh ave l i t t le i nc ommon w i th t h eq ue s t ion o f e a r ly r e l ig ion a nd r i tua l . Howeve r , i fw e t a ke as econd l o ok a tt h i s ma t te rw e w i l lr e a l ize t h a t t h e h uman i mage w a s a lway s a ni mpo r tan tp a r to ft h er e l ig iou s a nd r i tua l l i f eo ft h e se e a r ly s oc ie t ie s ;i ti se ven a s Iw ou ld l i ke t o -

a r gue o ne o ft h e mo s tp rom inen tp a r t si no u re f fo r t st o d e tec tt r ace s o fp a s tb e l ief s y s tem si nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . T he c oncep t s o f t h e "Mo the r -Godde ss" a nd t h e d i v ine f em in ine p r inc ip le may b er ega rded a st wo e xam p l e s . O fc our se , w e d o l a ck s ome o f t h e mo s t v a luab le s ou rce s f o r o u r d i scu ss ion , t h e se a r e t h e w r i t ten d ocu m en t s ;n o tt os peak a bou tt h e s poken l a nguage . Wha ti s

b one s a nd af e wa r t ifac t s , d i sm is sed a sd ome s t ic r e fu se , w h i le a no the ri ss e en a s ar i tua ld epo s i tw i th e v idence o f s a c r if ice? I n wha t c i rcum s tance s s ha l l w e r ega rd s ma l l t e r raco t ta r ep re sen ta t ion s o f a n ima ls a nd men a s f i gu r i ne s , i n tended a s o f fe r ing s t ot h ed e i ty , a nd w hen s ha l l w e v i ew t h em a s me re t o y s f o r t h e amu semen t o f c h i l d r en? " ( Renf rew 1 985 , 2 ) . And f u r the r o n h e a sks : " When d ea l ing i n ar e l ig iou s c on tex t , w i th r ep re sen ta -

-

l e f tf o ro u rr e sea rch i st h e ma te r ia l w h ich w eg a in b ya r c haeo log ica l e xcava t ion s . I th a s t ob et h eb a se o nw h ich w eb u i ld o u ri n te rp re ta t ion s a nd mode l so fp a s ts oc ie t ie s a nd b e l ief s y s tem s . Id o n o t wan t t os t ar t ad i scu s s ion a bou t t h e d e f in i t i on s o f t h e t e rm s " r e l ig iou s " a nd " r i tua l" , t h i s h a s a l r e ady b een d one e l sewhe re ( Bar re t t 1 991 ; B e rne r 1 992 ; Dobbe lae re & L auwe r s 1 97 3 /1974 ;D u rkhe im 1 981 ,74 ; G a rwood e ia l . 1 991 ; G ee r tz 1 973 , 9 0 ; Goody 1 961 , 6 62 -663 ; Hohe ise l 1 992 ; Ho r ton 1 960 , 2 11 ;K ing 1 987 ; Men sch ing 1 959 , 1 8 -19 ; Me r r i f ie ld 1 987 ;R év i l le 1 881 , 3 4 ; S choep s 1 961 , 1 3 -14 ; S o f fe r -Boby shev 1 988 ; S p iro 1 966 ,9 6 -98 ; Waa rdenbu rg 1 986 ,3 0 -36 ; Wa l lace 1 966 ; W ideng ren 1 969 , 3 ;R en f rew 1 985 , 1 2 ; Z ue sse 1 987 ) . N eve r the le s s ,b e fo re p r e sen t ing t h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r i a l Iw ou ld l i ke t op r em i se af ew r ema rk so nt h ek ind o f r e sea rch w e h ave t o u nde r take a nd t h e q ue s t ion s w e h ave t oc on f ron t . C ol in R en f rew ,i nt h ep ref ace t oh i sb ook o n ' The A r c haeo logy o f C u l t " , p o in t s t o o u r mo s t d i f f icu l t t a sk , w h ich i st h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a nd t h e f o l low ing q ue s t ion s : " How f o r i n s tance" , h e w r i te s , " doe s o ne r e cogn ise t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fr e l ig iou s b ehav iou r , o f c u l t p rac t ice , f o r w ha t i ti s ? O n w ha t g round s , f o r i n s tance , i so ne p i t , w i th a n ima l

t i on s o fm en , o f w omen o ro fa n ima l s ( whe the r r e a l o r s upe rna tu ra l ) , h ow a r e w e t o d ec ide whe the r w e a r e d ea l ing w i th f i gu ra t ion s o fd e i t ie s ,f a sh ioned i nt h e i rd i v i ne i mage , o rw i th o f fe r ing s wh ich , wh i le p robab ly i n t e nded f o r t h e s e rv ice o f t h e g od s , a r e n o t i n tended t o r e p re sen t t h em?" ( Renf rew 1 985 , 4 ) . T h is i si ndeed a d i ff icu l t m a t te r wh ich i sf a r t oo o f ten n eg lec ted i n t h e d i scu ss ion o fh uman i mage sa nd p a s tb e l ie fs y s tem s . S o , h ow a r e w e a b le t oi n te rp re t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , a s w e h ave n o d i rec t a cce s s t o t h e s oc ia l l i f e a nd c u l t p r ac t ice so ff o rme rt ime s? I ts hou ld b ed one ,t oq uo te R enf rew a ga in , " by ap ro c e ss o f i n ference , f r om t h e s t udy o f t h e ma ter ia l r e m a in s ." ( Ren f rew 1 985 , 1) . B u t b y a l l m ean s , t h e re i s t h en s t i l l al ong w ay t o g o t o f i na l ly i n te rp re t ing t h e d a ta . And t h e re i sa lway s t h e d ange r o f o ve re s t ima t ing t h e ma te r ia l , o r , a s R enf rew s a id , " r unn ing b efo re w e c an w a lk " ( Renf rew 1 985 , 1 ) . S o , w e t h en d epend o n e t hnog raph ic d a ta w h ich c ou ld b eu sed f o ra na log ie s , s o t h a t ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta m igh tb ep o ss ib le . O fc ou r se t h ese a na log ie s h ave t ob e d r awn v e ry c a refu l ly a nd c au t iou s ly . Ip o in t t ot h e s t i l l o n -go ing d i scu ss ion a bou tt h eu sefu lne s s a nd v a l id i ty o f e t hnoa rchaeo log ica la na logy ( e . g .U cko 1 969 ; Gou ld & Wa t son 1 982 ; F ische r 1 990 ; Smo l la 1 990 ; S chu lze T hu l in 1 991 ) . O u t o f t h e f ou r d i f f e ren t c l a s se s o f d a ta w h ich t h e c on tempo ra ry a n th ropo log is t w i l l h ave a th i s d i spo sa l , a cco rd ing t oR enf rew ( 1985 , 1 3 )o n ly t wo c a tego r ie sa r e a va i lab le t ot h e p reh is to r ic a r chaeo log is t . T he se a r e ( 1 ) d ep ic t ion s o fd e i t ie s , my th ica l e ven t s o r( 2 ) c u l tp rac t ic -

7 5

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

f o rm o fb u r ia lc u s tom s . I n t h is p ape r , Iw i l l c on s ider t h e h uman i mage , a sI h ave a l ready s t a ted a bove , i n t e rms o fb u r ia l c u s tom s a nd a r t o b jec t s i nt h e N a tuu ian a nd a ce ram ic n eo l i th ic p e r iod f r om s i te s i nT u rkey , S y r ia , J o rdan a nd I s rae l i P a le s t ine . Ac on s ide rab le n umbe ro fe xcava t ion s i nt h e

e s a nd t h e ma te r ia l r ema in s o fc u l tp rac t ice s , w h ich i n c l ude s t ruc tu re s a nd s ymbo l ic o b jec t s . We d on o tk now a ny th ing a bou t v e rba l o r w r i t ten t e st imon ie s w h ich r e l a ted t ot h e r e l ig iou s p rac t ice s . V e rba l t e s t imon ie s a nd t h e d i rec t o b se rva t ion o f c u l t p rac t ice s f o rm t h e o the r t wo c l a s ses ,d e sc r ibed b yR en f rew ( 1985 , 1 2 ) . I n t h e a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t , d ep ic t ion s o f d e i t ie s

M idd le E a s t h ave r evea led n ew a r chaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich w i l la l so b ei n co rpo ra ted . T he b u r ia l o f ac o rp se c an b e d one i nd i f fe ren tw ay s . E i the rt h e who le b ody o ft h ed eeP2 . sed i sb u r ied o ro n ly

a r e g ene ra l ly f ound a s s t one o r c l ay f i gur ine s o ro cca s i ona l ly a s w a l l p a in t ing s . S t i l l , q u i te f r equen t ly i t s eem s q u i te u n l ike ly t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween d i f fe ren t p o s s ib le f unc t ion so ff i gu r ine s . Vo ig t( 1991 ,35 )g roup s f i gu r ine s i nf ou r ma jo rc a tego r ies ,b a sed o n t h e ir p o ss i -

p a r t s o ft h eb ody e .g .t h e s ku l l o rl ongbones a r ei n t e r red , wh ich r equ ire s as pec ia l t r ea tmen to ft h ec o rp se . -

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a se ar ly a st h eN a tuf ian p e r iod ( 10 ,500 -8500 BC )o ft h e L evan t ( Cauv in 1 972 , 2 7 ; Me l laa r t 1 975 , 3 7 ; B e lf e r -

" 1 )c u l tf i gur e s ,o rr ep re sen ta t ion so fs upe rna tu ra lb e i ng su sed p r ima r i ly a ss ymbo ls o ro b jec t so fw o r sh ip ; 2 )v eh ic le s o f mag ic , o r f i gur ine s u sed i nr i tua ls i n -

C ohen 1 991a , 1 71) . I n t h e se c a se s t h eh ead o r s ku l l o f t h ed ecea sed h a s b een s epa ra ted f r om t h eb ody . I t mu s t b e empha s i sed t h a t ,o fc ou r se ,o n ly av e ry s ma l lp o r t ion o f t h e d ead h ave b een t r ea ted i n t h is w ay . We k now

t e nded t op roduce , p reven t o r r eve r se as pec if ic s i tua t i on o r s t a te ( i nc rea sed f e r t i l i ty , h ea l thy c h i ld ren , p ro -

n o th ing o r o n ly v e ry l i t t le a bou t t h e s e lec t ion c r i te r ia . We may a s sume t h a ti mpo r tan t p eop le s uch a s l e ade r s

t e c t ion o fp rope r ty o rc rop s ,h a rm t oo ne ' se nem ie s ; 3 ) t e ach ing f i gu r ines , i n c lud ing t h o se u sed i ni n i t ia t i on r i te s t ot e ach a do le scen t c h i ld ren t h e p rope r k ind s o fb ehav iou r ;a nd 4 ) t o ys o r f i gu r ine s u sed i n e n te r ta inmen t o r c h i l -

o r e lde r s h ad b een c ho sen f o r t h is t r ea tmen t . I ta l so p o in t s t ot h ei d ea t h a ta l ready i nt h eN a tu f ian p e r iod t h e h ead h ad b een r e ga rded a s as pec ia l p ar t o ft h e h uman b ody a s ar ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e w ho le p e r son a nd may t h e refo re h ave b een s e en a s pars pro 1 010 . T he c o l lec -

d ren ' sp l ay ." Apa r t f r om t h e f i gur ines t h e re i s as econd g roup wh ich c an r evea l k now ledge a bou t t h e h uman i mage ; t h is i st h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ead w h ich a ppea r s i n t h e

t i ve b ur ia l a tE rq e l -Ahma ri nc lude s a pa r t f r om a n a l mo s t c omp le te s ke le ton t h e c r an ia l r ema in s a nd man d ibu la r f r agmen t s o f s i x o the r i nd iv idua ls ( Neuv i l le 1 951 , 1 09 -110 , f i g . 4 . 0 , P l . 1 ; F iede l 1 979 , 1 34 , 1 48 ;

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R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

P e r ro t 1 988 , 8 0 -81) . Ad e tached s ku l l i sr epo r ted f r om ' A in Ma l laha i nn o r the rn I s rae l /Pa le s t ine . T he s ku l l h a s b een p l aced i n f r on t o f ah ea r th w i th in " Hab i ta t ion I " ( Ana t i 1 963 , 1 73 ; P e r ro t 1 966 , 4 45 , f i g s , 7 ,9 ;F iede l 1 979 , 1 24 -125 ) . A s t wo a t tached c erv ica l v e r teb rae b o re s i gn s o f mechan ica l c u t t ing , i ti sb e l ieved t h a t a d ecap i ta t ion h ad t a ken p l ace a nd t h eh ead a sp ar sp ro -

may h ad b een p a r t o f as a c r if ice o rr i tua l ( Pe r ro t 1 960 , 1 8 ; P er ro t 1 966 , 4 61 ; F iede l 1 979 , 1 43 ; P er ro t 1 988 ,43 , 9 3 ,p 1 . XV I I .2 ) .F u r the rs e conda ry b u r ia l sa r e k nown f r om H ayon im C ave i nn o r the rn P a le s t ine ( Ba r 1 0 10

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Y o se f & Go ren 1 973 , 5 3 , f i g . 3 ;F iede l 1 979 , 1 36 ;P e r r o t 1 988 , 7 8 -79 ) . N aha l O ren , a no the r s i te i nn o r the rn P a le s t ine w h ich w a s a l ready o ccup ied d u r ing t h e Na tu f i an p e r iod d id n o ty i e ld a ny i s o la ted s ku l ls ( Fe rembach 1 959 , 6 5 -73 ; F iede l 1 979 , 1 36 -137 ; Noy 1 989 , 5 6 , f i g . 1 ) . H oweve r , s eve ra l h ead le ss b u r ia ls w e re d i scove red a t t h i s s i te w h ich a l so p o in t s t o t h e p re se rva t ion o f s ku l ls ( F iede l 1 979 , 1 36 -137 ; Noy 1 989 , 5 6 ) a s t h e se h ead le ss b ur ia ls c ou ld p robab ly b e r ega rded a s t h e s ou rce o fs ku l l su sed f o rs econda ry d epo s i t ion . Ano the r t r ea tmen t o f t h e d ead i st h e d eco ra t ion o f s ke le ton s wh ich o ccu r a tt h e N a tuf ian c ave s i te o f e l Wad , n o r the rn I s rae l /Pa le s t ine . S ome o f t h e f o r ty -fou r e xcava ted s ke le ton sa te l - Wad w e re d eco ra ted w i th d en t a l ia s he l ls a nd b one p endan t s i nv a r iou s w ay s ,g ene ra l l yh ead -d re sse s ( f ig . 2 )o rp endan t s a tt h e h ead o rn eck a r ea ( Gar rod 1 940 ;G a r rod 1 957 ,221 ,p i s .4 ,6 -8 ;F ied e l 1 979 , 1 05 -106 , 1 46 -147 ,t a b2 . ; Noy & B r ime r 1 980 ,58 , 6 2 ;V a l la 1 988 ,5 78 ,f i g .3 ) . Howeve r ,t h e re a r ea l so e x a mp le s t h a t t h e p e lv is a s w e l l a s a rm s a nd l e g s w e re d eco ra ted ( Noy & B r ime r 1 980 , 6 1-62 ) . G a r rod s ug g e s ted t h a tt h e se i nd iv idua ls may h ave h ad as pec ia l p o s i t ion w i th in t h e c ommun i ty a te l - Wad ( Ga r rod 1 940 , 1 27 ) . T he r e sea rch wh ich h a s b een u nde r taken o n t h e s ke le ton s s howed t h a t t h e re w a s n o s i gn if ican t d i f fe r e nce i nt h ea do rnmen to f ma le s ,f ema le s a nd e ven c h i l d r en . E ach g roup s howed d eco ra t ion . S o t h e s ex o fa n i nd iv idua l c ou ld n o t h ave b een a p rom inen t s e lec t ion c r i te r ion ; a t l e a s t t h e re w a s t h e c hance f o r m a le s , f e ma le sa nd c h i ld ren t ob ed eco ra ted . Howeve r ,a so n ly a f ew s ke le ton sr ece ived a do rnmen tt h e re mu s th ave b een o t he rc r i te r ia . Aga in , w e may t h ink a bou t ap e r son who h a s h ad as pec ia l p o s i t ion w i th in t h e c ommun i ty o r t h e f am i ly . I ti s wo r th men t ion ing t h a t G a r rod h a s p o in ted o u tt h a ti n mu l t ip le b ur ia ls o n ly o ne s ke le ton b o re s i gn s o f d eco ra t ion ( Noy & B r ime r 1 980 , 6 3 ) . T h is f a c t w ou ld i mp ly t h a tt h i sp e r son m igh th ave b een t h ep rom i n en t f i gu re w i th in t h e " commun i ty" o f p eop le who h ave b een b u r ied i nt h i sg rave . A cco rd ing t ot h ea r chae o log ica l r eco rd , i ti s n o t p o ss ib le t o c l ea r ly d e f ine w he the ra l l t h e s ke le ton sh ad b een b u r ied s imu l taneou s -

l yo r w he the r t h ey w e re i n t er red o ve r ap e r iod o f t ime ( Noy & B r ime r 1 980 ,63 ) . O rnamen t so fs he l l a nd b one h ave a l so b een f ound a to the r s i tes o ft h e s ame p e r iod , e .g . a t H ayon im , ' A in Ma l laha ( f ig . 3 ) a nd E rq e l Ah ina r ( Gar rod 1 957 , 2 19 -220 , 2 23 ; Ana t i 1 963 , 1 72 1 75 ;F iede l 1 979 , 1 85 -192 ; Noy & B r ime r 1 980 ;B e lf e r -Cohen 1 991b , 5 80 -581) . O the rf e a tu re s o ft r ea tmen t o ft h ed ead o ft h eN a tuf ian p e r iod i n c lude c o l lec t ive b u r i a l s ( Sm i th 1 973 ; Me l laa r t 1 975 , 3 7 ; N oy 1 989 , 5 6 ; B e lfe r -Cohen 1 991a , 1 71 ) a s w e l l a s t h e c over ing o f s ke le ton sb ys t one s ( Noy 1 989 ,55 ) . F igu r ine s o f t h e N a tuf ian p e r iod made o f s t one o r b one i nc lude r ep re sen ta t ions o f a n ima l , h uman a nd mo re a b s t rac t f o rm s . T hey a r e k nown f r om d i f fe ren t s i te s i n P a le s t ine a s ' A in Ma l laha ( f ig s . 3 , 4 ) ( Ana t i 1 963 , 1 68 -169 ) , H ayon im C ave ( Be lIe r -Cohen 1 991b ) , N aha l O ren ( Ana t i 1 963 , 1 66 -167 ; Noy 1 991 ) , e l - Wad ( Gar rod 1 937 , 3 8 -39 , p 1 . 1 3 .3 -4 ) , Umm e z -Zue t ina ( Gar rod 1 957 , 2 18 -219 , p 1 . 2 ; Ana t i 1 963 , 1 64 , 1 68 ) ' A in S akh r i ( Ga r rod 1 957 ,2 19 , P l . 3 ;A na t i 1 963 , 1 60 1 61) a nd K eba ra C ave ( Va l la 1 988 , 5 78 , f i g . 2 ; Ana t i 1 963 , 1 60 , 1 64 , 1 65 -166 ) . Wh i le t h e ma jo r i ty o ff i gu r i ne s r ep re sen t a n ima ls t h e re a r e a l so t h e f i r s t h uman i mage s a pp ea r ing a sa b s t rac tf i gu r ine s ( Ana t i 1 63 , 1 69 ; Me l laa r t 1 975 ,f i g s . 8 ,1 0 ;C auv in 1 972 ,f i g . 5 . 1-3 ;N oy 1 991 , f i g . 4 .5 ) a s w e l l a s mo re e l abo ra te s t a tue t tes ( Ana t i 1 963 , 1 60 ; C auv in 1 972 , f i g . 5 . 4 -5 ) . T he mo s t s t r ik ing o ne i s t h e s t one f i gur ine f r om ' A in S akhr i s how ing t wo h uman s i n wha ti sd e sc r ibed a s ac opu la t i ng p o s tu re ( Ana t i 1 963 , 1 60 -161) . A l li na l l , t h eh uman f i gu r ine s o ft h eN a tu f ian p e r iod a r en o tc a rved i ng rea t d e ta i l . I n f a c t , t h ey c oncen t ra te o n s ome s i gn i f ican t p a r t s o f t h e h uman b ody , g ene ra l ly t h e h ead a nd t h e e ye s ( f ig s . 4 ,5 ) . No r e a l ly i nd iv idua l is ing s i gn s c an b e d e tec ted . Howeve r , t h en umbe ro ff i gu r ine s i ss o s ma l l t h a t h a rd ly a ny f u r the r i n terp re ta t ion s c an b e made w i thou t t oo much s p ecu la t ion . N eve r the le ss , t h e f i gu r i ne f r om ' A in S akhr i c ou ld a l so d raw t h e a t ten t ion t o s ome k ind o ff e r t i l i ty c u l tw h i le t h ef unc t ion o ft h eo th e rs t a tue t te s i sn o t y e t c l ea r . Apa r t f r om s ome k ind o f r i tua l f unc t ion t h ey a l so may h ave s e rved a sf i xed a nd v i s ib le r ep resen ta t ion s f o r d emon s t ra t ing o r t e ach ing e xe rc ise s . Wha t c an b e s a id , i st ha t w i th t h e N a tuf ian p e r iod m an s t a r ted t oc r ea t ei mage s o fh im se lf . T he d e c ea sed r e ce ived a tl e a s t p a r t ly as pec ia l a nd o f ten c a refu l t r ea tmen t wh ich i mp l ie s ar ef lec t ion a bou td ea th -

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a nd a w ha t s o e ve r d e s igned mode l o f a n a f te r l if e . B oyd ( 1992 , 2 9 -30 ) empha s ise s a no the r i n te res t ing p o in t i nr ega rd t oH ayon im . H e p o in t s t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e p eop le who s e t t led o n t h e t e r race i n f r on t o f t h e -

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c ave may h ave r ega rded t h e c ave , wh ich h ad a l ready b een u sed a s al i v ing a nd b u r ia l g round b e fo re t h ee x i s -

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HANS -D IETER B IENERT

t e nce o f a ny s e t t lemen t o n t h e t e r race , e xc lu s ive ly f o r b u ry ing t h e d ecea sed . H e w r i te s : " I td oe s n o t s e em u n r e a sonab le , t h e refo re , t os ugge s t t h a t t h e o ccupan t s o f t h e t e r race s e t t lemen t l ooked u pon t h e c ave a s al o ca t i on i n wh ich t o ( r e )bu ry s ome o f t h e ir d ead " ( Boyd

t owe ri ss t i l lu nde r much d i scu s s ion w he the ri th a s t ob e r e ga rded a s p a r t o f ad e fen se s ys tem , ar i tua l p lace o r e ven b o th . T he b u r ia l c u s tom s , a s w e l l a st h e f ew f i gu r i ne sf ound a td ife ren ts i tes ( eg .a tN e t iv H agdud ,B a r -

1 992 , 2 9 ) . He c on t inue s b y a rgu ing t h a t t h e p eop le o f t h et e r race s e t t lemen th ave b een f u l ly a wa re o ft h ee a r l i e rb u r ia ls ,w h ich m ay h ave l e dt h el a te ro ccupan t s t or e f l ec t ing a bou t t h e i r p redece sso r s a nd t h e refo re t o t h e " peop le 's a wa rene s s o f e a r l ie r e ven t s , e ven t s i n t h e ir p a s t" ( Boyd 1 992 , 2 9 ) w h ich may h ave f o rmed a " co l l e c t ive s oc ia l memo ry" ( Boyd 1 992 , 3 0 ) . S o , w e c an

n i f ican t d i f fe r ence i n t h e a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e h uman i mage . T he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd b ecome s much r i che r i n t h eP PNB c u l tu re ( 7600 -6000 BC ) . T he s e t t lemen t s a r e

r e cogn ise i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o ft h e N a tuf ian p e r iod t h e b eg inn ing " a c t s o fr emembe r ing" , a s B oyd ( 1992 ,29 )c a l led t h em , w h ich ,o fc ou r se , may h ave h ad t h e re o r ig in much e a r l ie r . I n t h e f o l low ing p e r iod , t h eP PNA ( 8500 -7500 BC ) ,

t h e L evan t a nd t h eM idd le E a s t . B e s ide s p r imary b u r i a l s i n av a r ie ty o ff o rm st h ep re serva t ion o fs ku l ls i so ne o f t h e c ha rac te r is t ic f e a tu re s o f t h i s p e r iod ( Cauv in 1 972 ,60 -64 ;C auv in 1 978 , 1 28 -132 ; Me l laa r t 1 975 ,616 2 ; N ar r 1 982 ;P econ ta l -Lambe r t 1 987 ) . A no the r , v ery

s ku l l b u r ia ls b ecome mo re f r equen t . T hey a r e c ommon a tT e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) ,P a le st ine , w he re t wo g roup s o f s ku l ls h ave b een d i scove red ( Kenyon & Ho l land 1 981 , 9 ,5 3 , 2 87 , P l . 3 6 ) . On t h e c ou r tya rd f l oo r o f a b u i ld ing i ns qua re E I K , K enyon d i scove red ag roup

i n te re s t ing a nd n ew f ea tu re o f t h e l a te r P PNB i st h e p la s te r ing o f s ku l l s . T he f i r s t p la s te red s ku l ls w e re f ound d u r ing t h ee xcava t ion sa tT e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) . K enyon w ho e xcava ted a bou t 1 0o ft h e se s ku l ls ( f ig s .6 -

Y o se fe ta l . 1 991 ,4 16 -417 ,f i g . 1 3 ) ,d on o ti mp ly as i g -

l a rge ra nd t h e s oc ia l a nd r i tua l l i fe s e em a cco rd ing t o t h ea r ch i tec tu r e , t h eb u r ia l c u s tom s a nd s ma l l f i nd s t o b e mo re c omp lex . S ku l l b u r ia ls c an b e f ound a l l o ve r -

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7 ) u nde r t h e f l oo r s o f h ou se s d e sc r ibed t h em a s " t he e a r l ie s tk nown p o r t ra i t si nt h ed i rec tl i ne o fa nce s t ry o f mode rn a r t " ( Kenyon 1 956 , 1 86 ) .T he c omp l ica ted s t ra t i g raphy o fT e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) made i td i ff icu l t t o i d en t ify t h e o r ig ina l l o ca t ion o f t h e d epo s i ted s ku l ls . Wr igh t , o ne o f t h e p ar t ic ipan t s i n t h e e xcava t ion s , r e c en t ly p o in ted o u t t h a ti ti sn o tc l ea r w he the rt he f i nd s h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o o ccupa t iona l l e ve ls o r w e re f r om i n te rmen t s (W r igh t 1 988 , 5 1) . K u r th a nd R öhre r -

o f s ku l ls , a r ranged i n ac i rc le , a l l f a c ing t owa rd s t h e c en t re ( Kenyon & Ho l land 1 981 , 2 87 ) . N ine o the r s ku l ls , a r ranged i nt h ree r ows o ft h ree , a l l f a c ing i nt h e s ame d i rec t ion w e re f ound i n s qua re D I( Kenyon & Ho l land 1 981 , 9 ,p 1 . 3 6 ) . F u r the rmo re , u nde r t h ef oun d a t ion o f ab u i ld ing , d e sc r ibed b y K enyon ( Kenyon & Ho l land 1 981 , 9 ) a s h av ing a " c e remon ia l c ha rac te r " , f i ve i n fan ts ku l l s , s ome s t i l l w i th t h e c e rv ica l v e r teb rae a t tached , h ave b een d i scove red a nd i n te rp re ted a s a " f ounda t ion s ac r if ice ( Kenyon & Ho l land 1 981 , 4 9 -51 , p 1 . 3 3b ) . S econda ry b ur ia ls wh ich a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h eP PNA o fT e l l e s -Su l tan a r er e po r ted f r om T e l l Mu reyba t i n S yr ia , where a l so a n th ropomo rph ic f i gu r i ne s h ave b een f ound ( Loon 1 966 , 2 13 ; L oon 1 968 ,

E r t l ( 1980 , 5 9 -60 )a rgue t h a tn oi nd iv idua ls b ur ied i na s econda ry c on tex t h ave a ny v i s ib le c onnec t ion t o a b u i ld ing ,w h i le a l l " s ku l ln e s t s" a r ei n ar e cogn isab le r e -

2 75 , p l s . S A , S B ; C auv in 1 978 , 1 27 -128 , f i g . 1 3 ) . I n t h ree i n s tances ,s ku l l s h ad b een p l aced n ea rt h ej unc t ion

s ku l ls t of l oo r si nr oom so fh ou se s . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f p la s te red s ku l ls , e xcava ted a t T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J er icho ) i s s t i l l u nce r ta in : K enyon ( 1959 , 5 ) , J ame s ( 1960 , 5 6 ) a nd S t rouha l ( 1973 , 2 31)

l a t ion t od we l l ing s .D e sc r ip t ion s g i ven b yF iede l ( 1979 , 2 39 -240 ) , b a sed o n K enyon ' s r epo r t s , s hou ld a l so b e c a refu l ly h and led a s h e a s s ign s mo s t o f t h e p la s te red

o ft h e w a l l a nd f l oo ro f ah ou se , a nd h ad b een c ove red w i th ah a rd l a ye ro fr ed c l ay . Ano the rs e conda ry b u r ia l , c on s is t ing o f as ku l l a nd l ong b one s , w a s f ound b e low t h eh ea r th o f ar ound b u i ld ing , w h ich h ad b een d eco ra t e d w i th ag eome t r ic w a l l p a in t ing ( Özbek 1 976 ) . I n a

r e fer t o at o ta lo f 1 0 s amp le s , wh i le K u r th a nd R öhre r E r t l ( 1980 , 6 0 ; 1 981 , 4 36 , 4 84 -485 , 4 92 ) p o in t t o 1 2 p la s tered s ku l ls , s ay ing t h a t a f te r 1 958 a no the r t wo p la s te red s ku l l s w e re f ound a t t h e n o r the rn e nd o f t h e T e l l . T he s ku l l s h ave o n ly b een p l a s te red o n t h ef r on ta l p ar t . I ne ach c a se t h e p la s te r wa s mode l led i n to ah u -

b ur ia l , w h ich w a sd i scove red i n 1 973 ,t h es ku l la nd t h e l ong b one s w e re a b sen t . S t i l l , t h e re a r e n o t many s i te s k nown i n t h e M idd le E a s t wh ich c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h i sp e r iod . T he d i f f e rence t ot h eN a tu f ian p e r iod i st h a t s ome o ft h e s i te s ,e .g .T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) w e re b e -

m an f a ce ( f ig s .6 -7 ) . D e sc r ip t ion o ft h ep l a s te r ing me th o da nd ac hem ica la na ly s is o fp la s te rs amp le sf r om J e r i c ho s ku l l s w e re u nder taken ( K inge ry e ia l . 1 988 ) a nd f u r the ra na ly s is w i l lc on t inue ( Go ren ,p e ts . c ommun ica t i on ) . Mo s to ft h es ku l l sh ad i n se te ye s o fb i va lve s he l l s o rc owr ie s he l l s .T he r ema in so fp a in ti ss ome t ime ss t i l l

c om ing s e t t lemen t s wh ich h ad b een o ccup ied a l l y ea r r ound . T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho )i sa l so as i te t h a ts howed s i gn s o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n b u i ld ing a nd b u r ia l p rac t ice s . T he mo s tw e l l -known s t ruc tu re ,t h es o -ca l led

7 8

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

v i s ib le o nt h ep la s te r .T he t o po ft h es ku l l may h ave h ad ac ove r made o u to f ad i f fe ren t ma te r ia l . O n ly o ne s ku l l s t i l l h ad t he m and ib le a t tached ( Ku r th & R öh re r -E r t l 1 980 , 6 0 , f i g . 1 9 13 ; Ku r th & R öh re r -E r t l 1 981 , 4 36 4 38 ) . F ive o ft h es ku l ls e xcava ted a tT e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r i c ho )h ave b een e xam ined b yS t rouha l ( 1973 ) . H ei d en t i f ie s a l l o ft h em a s m a le , w h i le K u r th a nd R öh re r -E r t l ( 1980 , 6 1 ; 1 981 , 4 36 -438 ) d e sc r ibe t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h e p l a s te red s ku l l s a sf ema le , o n ly t h ree a r e men t ioned a s ma le . T he p l a s te red s ku l ls a r e e i the r i n te rp re ted a s r ep re s en t ing i nd iv idua l s , o rt h ey l a ck p e r sona l isa t ion . How e ve r ,i t i sl i ke ly a l so f r om e n thnog raph ic a na log ie s t h a tt h ey a r es ymbo l is ing ,a sp a rs p ro 1 010 , t h ed ee sed -

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membe r s o f af am i ly o r c l an (Weme r t 1 948 , 5 3 -72 ; H en schen 1 966 , 2 3 -26 ; F iede l 1 979 , 2 66 -270 ; N a r r 1 982 ; Wr igh t 1 988 ; B iene r t 1 990a , 2 40 -246 ; B iene r t 1 99 1 ,2 0 ) . I nt h is c a se ,t h ey w ou ld s ymbo l ize l e ade r so f t h ec l an o ro the ri mpo r tan tf i gu re s w ho se p owe rs hou ld b e p r e se rved f o r t h e f u tu re a nd t h e w e l l -be ing o f t h e c l an o r v i l lage . K enyon f a vou r s as im i la r e xp lana t ion : " Ih ave p e r sona l ly l i t t le d oub tt h a tw es hou ld r ega rd t h e J e r icho h ead sa s t h o se o fv ene ra ted a nce s to r s" ( Kenyon 1 956 , 1 86 ) . Mo s t o f t h e a r chaeo log is t s who d ea l w i th t h is ma t te r s uppo r t t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion ( S t rouha l 1 973 , 2 44 ; C auv in 1 978 , 1 35 -136 ; N ar r 1 982 ; P econ ta l L ambe r t 1 987 ,2 2 ) . S eve ra la u tho r sa l so r e f e rt o ap o s s i b l ea s soc ia t ion b e tween a nce s to rw o r sh ip a nd l a nd o wn e r sh ip ( S mo l la 1 960 , 1 32 -133 ; C auv in 1 978 , 1 35 -136 ; N ar r 1 982 , 2 4 ; Y aka r&H e r shkov i tz 1 988 ,6 3 ) . P eop le who se s oc ia l s t ruc tu re i sb eg inn ing t od eve lop f r om a mob i le h un te r -ga the re rs oc ie ty t o as e t t led o ne ,b ecome mo re d ependen t o n t h e ir i mmed ia te e nv ironmen t . T he re fo re , i ts eem s l i ke ly t h a t t h e se p eop le w an ted t o p re se rve t h e s p ir i tua l p owe r s o ft h e i rd ecea sed l e ade r s . T he s ku l ls , a s p ar s p ro 1 010, c ou ld t h en b e a sked f o r t h e i r a dv ice a nd h e lp ( B iene r t 1 991 , 2 0 ) . Howeve r , f r om w ha ti sl e f to ft h ep l a s te red s ku l l si ti sn o tp o ss ib le t os ay whe the ra pa r tf r om t h e " pe r sona l" s ku l l t h ep la s t e r ,t o oh ad b een w o rked i n aw ay t oe mpha s i se t h ep e r s ona l s t ruc tu re o f t h e p e r son ' s f a ce t ow hom t h e s ku l l b e longed . We s t i l l w ou ld h ave t oa dd c e r ta in o the r ma t e r ia l ,s uch a sh a ir a nd p a in tw h ich m igh th ave c r ea ted a p e r sona l i mage . P la s te red s ku l ls h ave b een f ound ,a pa r tf r om T e l l e s S u l tan ( J er icho ) ,a ts e vera l o t he rs i te si nt h e L evan t : S o a t ' A in Ghaza l ( Ro l le f son & S immon s 1 985 , 4 7 -48 , f i g s . 8 ,9 ; Ro l lef son e ia t . 1 985 , 10 ; S immon s e ia l . 1 990 ) wh ich i sa no the r l a rge s e t t lemen t , s i tua ted j us t b eyond t h e r i ve rJ o rdan . E xcava t ion s a tt h e s i te s t a r ted i n e a r ly 1 982 , d i rec ted b y G . 0 . Ro l le f son f r om t h e Ame r ican C en te ro fO r ien ta lR e sea rch ( Ro l le f son 1 983 /

1 984 ,2 43 -244 ) .F ou ra du l ts ku l ls ,d epo s i ted t o ge the ri n as ha l low o u t -doo r p i t ( f ig . 1 3 ) w e re f ound d ur ing t h e s econd s ea son o f e xcava t ion s i n 1 983 ( Ro l lef son & S immon s 1 985 ,47 -48 ,f i g s . 8 ,9 ) . One o ft h es ku l l s ( f ig . 1 7 )b o re s ome p l a s te rw i th t r ace s o fb l ack p igmen to ni t i nt h er i gh te ye -socke t( Ro l le f son & S immon s 1 985 ,47 , f i g s . 8 ,9 ;R o l le f son e ia l . 1 985 , 10 ) . I n 1 987 a no the r p la s te red s ku l l ( f ig . 1 6 ) w a s f ound b enea th a h ou se f l oo r . T he s ku l lw h ich l a cked t h e mand ib le b e longed t o a na du l t ma le . R o l le f son ( 1990 , 1 08 )d e sc r ibe s t h es ku l l a sf o l lows : " The o cc ip i ta lb one e xh ib i t sf ou rd i s t inc tc u t m a rk s ,s ugge s t ive o fp os t -mor tem d ef le sh ing o ft h ec r a n ium . P os te r io rp a r t s o ft h e s ku l l may h ave b een p la s t e red : af r agmen t i ss t i l l a dhe r ing t ot h e o cc ip i ta l , a l t hough a l l o the rp o s te r io rb one s o ft h ec r an ia l v au l ta r e f r ee o fp l a s te r .T he e x tan tp la s te rf a c ia l f e a tu re si n c lude b o th e ye s , t h e n o se , t h e r i gh t c heek , a nd a n e a r . ( . .) . T here w a s n o i nd ica t ion t h a t t he s pec imen h ad b een p a in ted , n o r w a s t h e re e v idence o f b i tumen e ye l ine r , b o th c ommon f e a tu re s o n s ome o f t h e J er icho e xam p l e s ." B es ides t h ese p la s te red s ku l ls , l a rge f r agmen t s o f mo s t o f t he s ku l l o f o ne i nd iv idua l , l a ck ing t h e f ace , w e re f ound o n t h e f l oo r o f ah ou se ( Ro l lef son 1 985 , 4 7 ) . I n 1 984 a no the rc ache , c on ta in ing t wo a du l ts ku l ls a nd o ne c h i ld s ku l l ( f ig . 1 5 ) , wa s e xcava ted b enea th a h ou se f l oo r . None o ft h e se s ku l ls s howed a ny e v idenc e o ft r ea tmen t( Ro l le f son & S immon s 1 986 , 1 53 ,f i g . 1 2 ) . Ab ad ly d amaged c r an ium o f as even o re i gh t y ea r o l d w a sa l so f ound u nde rt h ef l oo ro ft h es ame h ou se . How e ve r ,i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t g ene ra l ly t h er ema in s o fi n f an t s h ad b een s imp ly " d iscarded " ,i nva r iab ly w i th t h e s ku l l s t i l l a t tached t ot h e b ody . O f ten c h i ld ren h ave b een f ound i n t r a sh d epo s i t s ( Ro l le f son e ia l .

1 992 ,

4 63 ) . Apa r tf r om t h ea ppea rance a s " f ounda t ion d epo s i t s" t h ey h ad n o t r e ce ived much a t ten t ion . T he mo s t c ommon b u r ia l f o rn on inf an t s i st h e s ubf boo ro rc ou r t y a rd a nd f l exed , w i th t h e s ku l l r emoved ( Ro l le f son e i a l . 1 992 ,4 61) . Abou to ne t h ird o ft h ea do le scen t /adu l t MPPNB b u r ia ls a t' Mn G haza l h a s b een f ound i nt r a sh d epo s i t sa lway sw i th t h ec omp le te s ku l lp re sen t( Ro l lef s on e ia l . 1 992 , 4 61 ) . R o l lef son e ia t . p re sume t h a t " t h is may s ugge s t ad i s t inc t ion i n r e spec t p a id a t t h e t ime o fd ea th ,a sw e l l a si nl i fe ,c onfo rm ing p e rhap s ,t o at wo t ie red ' p a t ron /c l ien t 'p opu la t ion ." B u r ia ls o fh ead l e s s a du l t s ( f ig . 1 4 ) w e re mo s t p robab ly t h e s ou rce o f t h es ku l ld epo s i t s . F u r the rp la s te red s ku l ls a r e r epo r ted f r om t h ree o the r s i te s i nt h e L evan t : A tB e isamoun t wo p la s te red s ku l l s ( f ig . 2 5 ) w e re f ound u nde r t h e s t one p aved f l oo r o f a b u i ld ing i n t h e u ppe rmo s t l e ve l ( Fe rembach & L eche v a l l ie r 1 973 , 2 24 , f i g . 3 ,p l s . 1 ,2 ;L echeva l l ie r e ia l .

7 9

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

1 978 , 1 50 , 1 79 -18 1 , f i g . 4 7 ,p l s . 1 3 .1-2 ) . T he s ku l l s l a y

Mo r r is 1 991 ,83 ) .T he s ku l lw h ich h ad b een c oa ted w i th

b e s ide o ne a no the r . One s ku l l( f ig . 2 5 ) w a s i nv e ry p oo r c ond i t ion w h i le t h e o the r s amp le w a s w e l l p re se rved . F e rembach a nd L echeva l l ie r ( 1973 , 2 25 ) i d en t ify t h e l a t te r a s a n a du l t f ema le . I n c on t ra s t t o mo s t o f t h e s ku l l s , f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) t h e mand ib le w a s s t i l l a t tached t o t h e s ku l l , b u t t h e t e e th h ad b een

p l a s t e ro ve rt h ef a c ia lp a r t s h ad t h ep l a s te rp a in ted w i th o ch re . Af u r the r s ku l l w a sf ound o u t s ide t he p r ev iou s ly k nown a r ea a nd t ime p e r iod . T h is s ku l l w a s f ound i na n eo l i th ic l a ye ra t Kö sk löyük , as i te i nc en t ra l A na to -

k nocked o u t b efo re t h e p la s te r w a s a pp l ied . As im i la r t r ea tmen t o f t h e t e e th i s a l so r epo r ted f r om T e l l e s S u l tan ( J e r icho ) ( S irouha l 1 973 , 2 34 ,240 ;F iede l 1 979 , 2 39 -240 ) . A s a tT e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) ,o n ly t h el owe r

p l a s te rt h en w i th o ch re ( S i l i s t re l i 1 988 ,6 2 ,P l . 7 ) . How e ve r , t h e c i rcum s tance s o ft h ed i scove ry a nd t h ew ho le s t ra t ig raphy o ft h es i te s eem t oc au se s ome d oub ta bou t

l i a .T he s amp le b e longed t o a1 6 -25 y ea r o ld f ema le a nd i sd e scr ibed a s b e ing c ove red a l l o ver , f i r s t w i th

t h e c hrono logc ia l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e f i nd . Howeve r , t h e p ub l ished d a ta i sv e ry f r agmen ta ry a nd f u r the rr e s ea rch wou ld b e n ece ssa ry t op rove v a l id i ty o f t h e a r -

p ar t o f t h e B e isamoun s ku l ls h ad b een p l a s te red . B e s i de s t h et wo p l a s te red s ku l ls , s e ve ra li s o la ted s ku l l s ,a s w e l l a s b ur ia ls o f h ead le ss a du l t s w e re d i scove red a t B e isamoun ( Fe rembach & L echeva l l ie r 1 973 , 2 24 ) . I t s eem s l i ke ly t h a t t h e se b ur ia ls w e re t h e s ou rce o f t h e

c haeo log ica lc on tex t . Ad i f f e ren t k ind o f t r ea tmen t o fi s o la ted s ku l l s w a s d e tec ted b yB a r -Yo se fd ur ing e xcava t ion s a tN aha lH e ma r , P a le s t ine . T h ree s ku l ls ( f ig . 3 0 ) h ad a n a spha l t c oa t ing o n t h e o cc ipu t wh ich i su npara l led a mong t h e p a ls te red ideco ra ted s ku l ls f ound i n t h e L evan t ( Ba r Yo se f 1 985 , 1 3 ;A ren sbu rg & H e r shkov i tz 1 988 ;Y aka r &H e r shkov i tz 1 988 ) . T he s ku l l s wh ich s howed d en ta l a vu ls ion ( A ren sbu rg & He r shkov i tz 1 988 ) h ad n o s i gn o fp l a s te r ing o n t h ef a c ia lp a r t . T h i s e i ther p o in t s t ot h e

s ku l ld epo s i t s . Ano the r P PNB s i te wh ich y i e lded p l a s te r s ku l ls i s T e l l R amad i n S yr ia ( Con ten son & L ie re 1 966 , 1 70 1 71 ;C on ten son 1 971 ,281 ;C on t en son 1 985 ,2 0 ,f i g s .5 8 ; F e rembach 1 969 ; C auv in 1 972 , 5 8 -61 ; C on ten son 1 992 , 1 88 ) . S eve ra l c ache s o fp l a s te red s ku l ls ( f ig s . 2 7 2 9 ) w e re b rough tt ol i gh t . Ap i t ,c on ta in ing an umbe ro f p l a s te red s ku l ls a nd f r agmen t so f as t a tue t te w h ich w e re a l lp acked t oge the ri n as o r to fp l a s te r ,w a sf ound i nl e v e lI .N o t f a r a way , b u ti n t h e l a te r l e ve l I , t h ree p l a s t e red a nd r ed o ch re p a in ted s ku l ls , t o ge the r w i th o the r

f a c t t h a t , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e a bove d e sc r ibed p la s te red s ku l l s ,e mpha s i sh ad b een p l aced o nc oa t ing t h eo cc ipu t o r t h a ta no the rk ind o f ma te r ia l h ad b een u sed f o rc ov e r ing t h e f a ce . S tone ma sk s ( f ig s . 3 1-32 ) wh ich h ave b een f ound a tt h e s i te may h ave s e rved a sa r t i f ic ia l f a c -

b one s , w e re e xcava ted n ea r t h e w a l lo f ah ou se . Ano th e rd epo s i to fp la s te red s ku l ls i n c lud ing ac l ay s t a tue t te c ome s f r om l e ve l Ia ga in . B ecau se o f t h e p oo rc ond i t i on o ft h es ku l ls , t h en umbe ro fd i f f e ren ti nd iv idua ls t o whom t h es ku l lf r agmen t s b e longed ,c ou ld n o tb ee a s i ly

e s ( Ba r -Yo se f 1 985 , 1 4 ; B iene r t 1 990b , 2 61 ) . O ne o f t h eN aha l H ema r ma sk s i so n ly r ep resen ted b yp a r t s o f t h el owe rj aw a nd t h ec h in ( Ba r -Yo se f & Mon 1 988 ,p 1 .

d e te rm ined . F e rembach ( 1969 ) c ou ld i d en t ify a tl e a s ta d ozen i nd iv idua ls i nc lud ing n ine mand ib le s . I na no va l p i ta pp rox ima te ly 9 0ma way f r om t h ea bove d e sc r ibed d epo s i t s , a tl e a s ta no the r d ozen p l a s te red a nd p a r t ia l ly o ch re -pa in ted s ku l ls w e re d i scove red .F ragmen t so ft wo h ead le ss c l ay s t a tue t te s w e re f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th

1 0 .2 ) . T he s e cond e xamp le ( f ig s . 3 1 -32 ) w a sa s semb led f r om t we lve f r agmen t s a nd i sn ea r ly c omp le te ( Ba r Yo se f 1 985 , 1 4 ,2 2 -23 ;B a r -Yo se f &A lon 1 988 , 2 3 -24 , f i g . 1 5 , p 1 . 1 0 ,la -c ) . T he ma sk s a r e made o f at ype o f l ime s tone w h ich i sf ound i nt h eJ udean H i l ls .T he b e t te r p re ser ved ma sk h ad a b ow l f o rm w i th a p o in ted o va l o u t l ine , a nd i sw e l l s moo thed o n b o th s u r face s . T he e ye s a r e r ep re sen ted b y r ound e ye -socke t s a nd t h e

t h e se s ku l l s .T he se h ead le s s s t a tue t te s wh ich s howed a n a bno rma l ly t h ick n eck m igh t h ave b een u sed a s ak ind o f s uppo r t f o r s ome o f t h e s ku l ls , ap rac t ice w h ich i s

mou th h a s f ou r t e e th i n t h e m ax i l la a s w e l l a s f ou r i n t h e m and ib le . Add i t iona l ly t h e ma sk s hows t r ace s o f p a in t a nd a l so s t a in s o fa spha l ta round t h er im . T he a s p ha l t may h ave b een u sed t of i xh a i r , a ss ome l ump s o f

w e l l k nown f r om e t hnog raph ic c on tex t s (We rne r t 1 948 , 5 4 ; B aa ren 1 968 ; S töh r 1 981 , f i g . 3 12 ; May 1 986 , 1 63 , P l . 4 8 ,B iene r t 1 990a , 2 40 -246 ) . A s i nJ e r icho a nd B e i s amoun t h e a n te r io r t e e th o f s ome o f t h e s ku l ls h ad

a spha l ts t i l lh ad h a i ra t tached ( Ba r -Yo se f & Mon 1 988 ,

b een k nocked o u t ( Fe rembach & L echeva l l ie r 1 973 , 2 24 -225 ) . Wh i le a lmo s ta l l t h e p l a s te red s ku l ls a tJ e r i c ho l a cked t h e mand ib le , t h es amp le s f r om T e l l R amad w e re p re served w i th mand ib le , wh ich m igh t i mp ly a d i f f e ren t me thod o ft r ea tmen to ft h ec o rp se . J u s tr e cen t ly a no the rp la s te red s ku l l h a s b een r epo r t e df r om t h es ma l lP PNB s i te o fK f a rH aho re sh ( Go r ing -

2 5 ) . T he f unc t ion o ft h e se h o le s i nt h er im o ft h e ma sk may a l so b e s een i n as im i la rl i gh t . Add it iona l a t tach men t s c ou ld h ave b een f i xed t o t h e ma sk u s ing t h e h o le s . T he s u r face o ft h e ma sk a l so b o re s i gn s o fp a in t a nd B a r -Yo se f e ven p ropo se s t h a t t h e ma sk h ad b een r epa in ted s e ve ra l t ime s B a r -Yo sef & Mon ( 1988 , 2 4 2 6 ) . F ou r f u r the r s t one -ma sk s ( f ig . 2 6 ) w i thou t a n a r c haeo log ica l c on tex t a r e s uppo sed t o c ome f r om t h e

8 0

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s ame r eg ion a nd may h ave o r ig ina ted i nt h eP PNB ,t oo ( Ba r -Yose f & A lon 1 988 , 2 6 -27 ; B iene r t 1 990b ) . R e c en t ly t h ef r agmen to fa no the r s t one ma sk w a s d i scov e r ed a tB a s ta , as i te i ns ou the rn J o rdan ( N issen e ta l . 1 987 , 1 09 , f i g . 1 6 .1) . B a r -Yo sef a nd A lon ( 1988 , 2 7 ) s ugge s t t h a t a l l t h e s t one ma sk s , b y " i nd ica t ing ar e g iona l f e a ture w i th in t h e g ene ra l ized P re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B c u l tu re s phe re " , may " d emon s t ra te a na dd i t iona l e xp re s s ion o f t h e ' a nce s to r c u l t ' , a l ready a l luded t oi n t h e d i scu s s ion o n mode l led ( =p la s te red ) s ku l l s" . How e ve r ,l i t t le c an b es a id a bou tt h ea c tua l f unc t ion o ft h e se ma sk s . I ti so pen t od oub t whe the rt h ey w e re e ye ra c tu a l ly w o rn , b u t B a r -Yo se f ( 1985 , 1 4 ) p o in t s o u t " t he a b i l i ty t oe ndu re p a in d u r ing r e l ig iou s c e remon ie s i ss o g r ea t ( .)t h a t w ea r ing ah eavy s t one ma sk d id n o tr e q u ire a n e xcep t iona l e f fo r t " . T he s ma l l s i ze o f t h e ma sk s s eem t o make i tu n l ike ly t ha t mo s t o f t h ese ma sk s w e re e ve r wor ni n ar e l ig iou s c e remony . A ren s b u rg a nd H e r shkov i tz ( 1988 , 5 4 ) s ugge s t , a tl e a s t f o r

g i v ing t h em s t ab i l i ty w hen s t and ing . T he r e ed b und le s e x tended t h rough t h e f e e t f o r a tl ea s t 1 8 c m b a sed o n e v idence i nt h e p i t f i l l ." T he d eco ra t ion o n t h e s t a tue s a nd b u s t si n c luded t h ea pp l ica t ion o fp a in t s , mo s tp rob a b ly o ch re a nd c a rbon b l ack . T he mo s te voca t ive p a r ti s t h ee ye r eg ion , wh ich i sd e sc r ib ed b yT ubb ( 1985 , 18 19 ) a s f o l lows : " The e yeba l ls a r e p robab ly made o f p la s te r , b u ti ti su nce r ta in w he the r t h e ir f u l l r oundne ss may h ave b een b u i l t u p b y a dd i t ion t ot h e m a in s t a tue o f ap u re r ,w h i te rp l a s te r . T h is i ss ugge s ted b ecau se t h e w h i te s o ft h ee ye s a r en o ti n f requen t ly s t ar t l ing i nt h e i r wh i tene s s . Ag roove w a s c u t a round t h e e yeba l l d e l in e a t ing t h e s hape o f t h e e ye , a nd a b i tum inou s p u t ty / ma s t ic w a s p r e ssed i n to t h e g roove ( . .)T he i r i s -pup i l s w e re a l so made o f ab i tum inous ma s t ic wo rked i n to d i sc s hape a nd t h en s imp ly s t uck o n t h e e yeba l l ." T he e a r s a r e o n ly p re sen t a s s ma l l p ro tube rance s a nd t h e mou th i si nd ica ted b y at h in h o r izon ta l s l i t( Tubb 1 985 , 1 23 ) . Noy ( 1988 ) c ompa re s t h e p a in t wh ich h a s b een f ound o n o ne o f t h e s t a tue s ' f ace s how ing ap a t te rn o f r ad ia ld eco ra t ion w i th s im i la rp a t te rn so nt h ef a ce o ft h e

t h e N aha l H ema r ma sk s , t h a t a s men t ioned a bove t h ey m ay h ave b een u sed a s as ub s t i tu te f o rt h ef a ce o n t h ed eco ra ted s ku l l s . I ti sa l so s t i l ld oub t fu l w he the r t h e -

-

J e r icho h ead a nd t h e s t one ma sk f r om N aha l H ema r . Noy t r i e s t or e la te t h is p a t te rn t ot h e " r ea lm o fn a tu re" ( Noy 1 988 , 10 )a nd a r gue s t h a t " i tm igh tb e s ugge s ted

ma sk f r om N aha l H ema rr ep re sen t s t h ei mage o f ama t u re o r e lder ly ma le f i gu re , a s B a r -Yosef a nd A lon ( 1988 , 2 8 ) wou ld l i ke t os ugge s t . T he ma sk i t se lf d oe s n o tb ea ra ny s i gn o fs exua l s i gn i f icance . Ap o s s ib ly r e la ted r i tua l a c t iv i ty i nvo lved t h ed epo s i -

t h a t t h i s v i go rou s p a t te rn w a s i n sp ired b y t h e s un a nd t h e s t a r s r a the r t h an b y p l an t s o r a n ima l s" ( Noy 1 988 , 10 ) . Ano the r i n te re s t ing p henomenon wh ich c an b e o b -

t i on o rb u r ia l o fh uman s t a tue s o rt h e ir r ema in s i np i t s a t f ou rs i te s ,a t 'A in G ha7a l ( f ig s . 1 8 -19 ) ,T e l le s -Su l tan ( f ig s . 8 12 ) ,T e l l R amad a nd N aha lH ema r . T he s t a tue s h ave b een f ound i np i t s a nd i no ne c a se , a tT e l lR amad

s e rved o n s t a tues f r om ' A in Ghaza l a s w e l l a s a tt h e f r agmen t o f o ne s t a tue f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) me r i t s a t ten t ion . A t ' A in G haza l , t h e f oo t o f ap l a s te r s t a tue s howed s i x t o e s a nd t h eh and o fa no the ro ne ( f ig . 1 8 ) s even f i nge r s ( Ro l lef son 1 983 , 3 7 , p 1 . I V .3 ; T ubb

( Con ten son 1 992 , 1 86 -188 ) ,d i rec t ly r e la ted t o ad epo s i t o fp l a s te red s ku l ls . T he f i r s to ft h e se s t a tue s ( f ig s . 8 -9 ) w e re a l ready f ound b y G a r s tang d u r ing h i s e xcava t ion s a tT e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) i n t h e 1 930 's . H e d e tec ted t h ree p i t s w i th r ema in s o f p l a s te r s t a tue s . O f t h e t wo w h ich h ave b een d e sc r ibed i n p ub l ica t ion s o n ly o ne

1 985 , 1 30 -1 31 ,f i g . 1 6 ) .T he f oo to f ap l a s te rs t a tue ( f ig . 9 )f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) d emon s t ra ted t h es ame p henomenon . T h is p ecu l ia r i ty h a s mo s t p robab ly n o t b een c au sed b y as imp le m i s take o ft h ea r t is t . Qu i te t h e

b o re f r agmen t s w h ich c ou ld b ep re se rved . T he mo s tf a mou s o ne i st h e h ead o f ap e r son w i th ap a in ted mou s -

T he p henomenon o fs i xf i nge r s o rt o e si si nf a c t ac om -

r e ve r se ! T he a r t is t o n ly c r ea ted wha th e s aw i nr e a l i ty .

t a che ( f ig . 8 ) . Ad amaged p l a s t e rb u s tw a sa l so e xcava t e d b y K enyon a t T e l l e s -Su l tan ( Kenyon & H o l land ( e d s . ) 1 981 ,2 90 ,P l . 7 2 ) . D u r ing t h ee xcava t ion s a t' Am G haza l , mo re t h an 3 0p l a s te rs t a tue s ( f ig . 1 8 ) a nd b u s t s ( f ig . 1 9 ) , f r om 3 5 -90 c m t a l l , h ave b een e xcava ted . T hey w e re f ound i nt wo c ache s as ma l le ra nd al a rge r o ne i n1 983 a nd 1 985 ,r e sp ec t ive ly . B o th t ypes , t h e p l a s te r s t a tue s a s w e l l a s t h e p l a s te r b u s t s ,h ad b een made o fl ime p l a s te r mode l led o n ar e ed c o re w h ich s e rved a s ak ind o f" s ke le ton " ( Tubb 1 985 , 17 ) . T he l a rge rf i gu re s h ad , a cco rd ing t oT ubb ( 1985 ,

mon a nd i nhe r i ted g ene t ic a bno rma l i ty , wh ich o ccu r s e spec ia l ly i nc l o se ly i n te rb red p opu la t ion s a nd i sc a l led p o lydac ty l ism ( Stern 1 968 , 3 12 -313 ; P oznansk i 1 974 ,197 -205 ) .T he f a c tt h a tp o lydac t i lsm s e em t oh ave b een p re sen ta tT e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r icho )a nd'A in G haza l c ou ld b e o ne i nd ica t ion f o r ag ene f l ow o fc ou r se n o t n ece s sar i ly b e tween t h i s t wo c ommun i t ie s . O ne c an o n ly s pecu la te a bou tt h ep o s s ib le r i tua lo rr e l igou sf unc t i on o fs uch a n a bno rma l i ty . Howeve r , o ne c an a l so a s s ume t h a t w e a r e h e re w i tne ss ing t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f i nd iv idua ls , w ho b o re t h e i r s i gn if ican t p e r sona l a t t r ib u t es .

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17 ) " ho le si nt h e i rf e e tt h rough w h ich t h er e ed b und le s p ro jec ted ,p rov id ing a na ncho rage f o r t h e f i gu r ine s a nd

An th ropomo rph ic a nd z oomo rph ic f i gu r ine sm ade o f

8 1

H ANS -D IETER B IENERT

c l ay a nd s ome t ime s o fs t one a r ea l so w ide sp read a nd o f ten as pec ia l e mpha s i si sp l aced o n t h es exua l c ha rac t e r is t ic so ft h eh uman f i gu r ine s ( Cauv in 1 972 ,f i g . 1 3 .1 ; -

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Noy 1 985 , 6 4 ; Ro l lef son 1 983 , 3 2 , p 1 . 2 . 3 ) . McAdam d e sc r ibe s t h ree " mo the r g odde ss f i gur ine s" ( f ig . 2 0 ) f r om ' A in Ghaza l (McAdam 1 985 , 8 4 ) . A l l o f t h em s howed e l abo ra te b rea s t s a nd ar ounded , w ide -h ipped o u t l ine . R o l lef son ( 1992 ,4 65 ) c a l l s t h em " f e r t i l i ty f i gu r i ne s" . T he f r agmen t o fa no the r c l ay f i gu r ine ( f ig . 2 1) p rov ide s a n d i f fe ren t i n d ica t ion f o r " f ema le f e r t i l i ty " . T h is o b jec t s eem s t o b e t h e a bdomen o f ap regnan t w oman w i th s uppo r t ing h and (McAdam 1 985 ,81 ) . An o the r mo t ive i sr ep resen ted i n as t y l ized h uman c l ay f i g u re ( f ig . 2 2 ) . N amed b y R o l le f son t h e " P ié ta " ( Ro l lef s on 1 986 ,47 ,P l . I .! ;R o l le f son & S immon s 1 988 ,410 , P l . 7 ) , t h ef i gu r ine s how s ah uman f i gure w i th t h eh ead r a ised a nd t h e l e f t a rm b e fo re t h e f ace , p robab ly a s a s i gn o fd eep s o r row . I ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t an um b er o fa n thropomo rph ic f i gur ine s a t' Mn Ghaza l w e re n eve rf ound w i th t h e ir h ead s a t tached . T h i s c ou ld i nd i c a te ad e l ibe ra te r emova l o f t h e h ead , ak ind o fr i tua l k i l l ing ( Ro l le f son e ia t . 1 985 ,8 7 ) wh ich a l so s e em s t o

wh ich a l so m igh t h ave h ad a p ub l ic f unc t ion a r e t h e " F lags tone -Bu i ld ing" , t h e " Bench -Bu i ld ing " a nd t h e " Te r razzo -Bu i ld ing " ( Sch i rme r 1 990 ,378 ,3 82 ,f i g s . 1 , 1 3 , 1 4 , p l s . 5 ,7 ) . A no the r s t one t a b le w a s d e tec ted i n t h e " Te r razzo -Bu i ld ing " . T he r e l ie fo f as chema t ic h u man f a ce ( f ig .3 4 )h a sb een f ound o no ne o ft h en ar row s i de s o ft h e s t one . T he t a b le i t se lf m igh th ave s e rved a s im i la rf unc t ion a s t h eo ne i nt h e " Sku l l B u i ld ing" , e s p ec ia l ly a st r ace so fh uman b lood h ave a l so b een d e tec t e dh e r e( Sch irme r 1 990 ,384 ) . B u i ld ing s a tt h e a ce ram ic s e t t lemen t o fN eva l i C o r i c on ta ined p i t s w i th i s o la ted s ku l ls a s w e l l a ss ku l ls a s s oc ia ted w i th l ong -bone s ( Haup tmann 1 987 , 2 07 ; Haup tmann 1 988 , 1 02 ; W i t twe r -Backo fen 1 987 , 1 91 1 93 ) . Ah uge s t ruc tu re o f 1 78 m2 i sd e sc r ibed b y t h e e xcava to r a s ac u l t b u i ld ing ( Haup tmann 1 992 , 1 23 1 24 , f i g . 4 ;H aup tmann 1 993a , 1 09 , f i g . 4 ) . T hree d i f f e ren tb u i ld ing s t age s c ou ld b ed i s t ingu i shed b y t h ee x c ava to r . I n t h e i n te r io ro ft h e l a te s tb u i ld ing t wo p i l la r s w e re f ound wh ich d ep ic ted a s t y l ized h uman f i gu re

b e v i s ib le o n t wo a n ima l f i gur ines f r om t h e s ame s i te

( Haup tmann 1 993b ,5 1 -53 ,f i g s .9 12 , 1 6 ) . I n to t h eb ack w a l l o f t h e n iche o ppo s i te t h e e n t rance w a s b u i l t a n o ve r l if e s ized l ime s tone h ead w ho se f ac ia l p a r th a s u n -

( Ro l le f son 1 986 , P l . 1 .4 ) . S tone f i gur ine s ( f ig s . 2 3 -24 ) h ave a l so b een f ound a tB e i samoun . An umbe ro ft h em

f o r tuna te ly b roken o f f( Haup tmann 1 993b , 5 7 ,f i g s . 1 2 , 1 9 ) . I ts how s ac l ean shaven h ead w i th e a r s s t i ck ing o u t ,

w e re e xcava ted o nt h es u r f ace w i thou t ad i rec ta r chaeo l og ica l c on tex t . Howeve r , i ti sb e l ieved t h a t t h ey r e la te t ot h eP PNB s e t t lemen t( Amnon A ssa f ,p e r s . c omm . ) .

a nd o nt h eb ack o ft h eh ead ac u r l ing s nake i sa pp l ied i n h igh r e l ie f . A n umbe r o f f u r ther h uman a nd a n ima l

A tl e a s tt wo a ce ranuc n eo l i th ic s i tes i ns ou th -ea s te rn Ana to l ia , h ave p rov ided e v idence f o r s t ruc tu re s wh ich h ad r i tua l f unc t ion s a nd c ou ld w e l l h ave b een c u l t b u i ld ing s . A b u i ld ing a t c ayonu ( f ig . 3 5 ) wh ich h a s b een n amed t h e " Sku l l B u i ld ing" ( Sch i rme r 1 983 ,4 64 , 4 69 -472 ,476 ;S ch irme r 1 990 ,378 ,381-382 ,f i g s . 1 ,1 2 , P l . 6 ) y i e lded t he r ema in s o f o ve r 4 00 i nd iv idua ls ( Özdogan , p e r s . c omm . ) . I n o ne r oom o f t h e n o r the rn p a r to ft h is b u i ld ing o n ly t h es ku l ls o fa bou t7 0i nd iv id u a ls h ave b een p l aced o nt h ef l oo r( f ig . 3 3 ) . A ta ne a r l i e r s t age o f t h e b u i ld ing t h e s ku l ls a nd l ongbone s o f a g rea t n umbe r o f i nd iv idua ls h ave b een c a refu l ly a r r anged i n ac ryp t l ike s t ruc tu re ( f ig . 3 6 ) w i th in t h e b u i ld ing . I ti sq u i te l i ke ly t h a t t h i s b u i ld ing h a s h ad a s pec ia l f unc t ion i n t h e d ea th r i te s o f t h e p eop le o f ç ayonu . We s t i l l c an o n ly s pecu la te wh ich k ind o fr i tu a l s m ay h ave t aken p lace i n t h is b u i ld ing ; h oweve r i t s e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s t h e p lace o f ad ea th c u l t . Al a rge s t one t a b le w a s a l so f ound i n t h e l a te s t s t age o f t h i s b u i ld ing , c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e s ku l l d e p o s i t s ( Sch irme r 1 990 ,3 82 ,f i g . 1 2c ) . On t h e s u r face o f t h es t one t a b le t r ace s o fh uman a nd b os b l ood c ou ld b e d e tec ted ( Loy & Wood 1 989 ) . T h is p o in t s t o ar i tua l f unc t ion o ft h e s t one t a b le . F ur the rb u i ld ing s a tc ayonu

s t one f i gu re sa sw e l l a s ah uge n umbe ro fc l ay f i gu r ine s h ave b een f ound a t t h e s i te , t oo ( Haup tmann 1 991 / 1 992 ;H aup tmann 1 993b ) . T hey a r e c u r ren t ly u nde rr e s ea rch . T he e v idence f r om t h e s i te s d e sc r ibed a bove s hows t h a tp a r t s o ft h e h uman i mage o ft h eN a tuf ian a nd a ce r am ic n eo l i th ic p e r iod c an b e d e tec ted i n t h e f o rm o f b u r ia l c u s tom s , t h e p l a s te r ing o f s ku l ls , f i gu r ine s a nd s t a tue s .T he a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t ,a tl e a s tf o rt h eN a t u l ian a nd P PNA , d emon s t ra te s l i t t le i nd iv idua l i sa t ion i n t h e b u r ia l c u s tom s a s i n t h e s hape o f t h e f i gur ine s . No rd o t h e f i gur ine s maybe a pa r t f r om t h e o ne f r om ' A in S akh r i a l low a ny i n te rp re ta t ion b eyond t h ed ep ic -

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t i on o fs imp le h uman b e ing s . Howeve r ,t h is m ay b ed ue t ot h e s t a te o fr e sea rch a nd t h e l im i ted m a te r ia l a va i la b l e . Wi th in t h e P PNB a nd e spec ia l ly i n t h e l a te r h a lf o f t h i sp e r iod t h eh uman i mage b ecome s b r igh te ri nf o rm s o fp l a s te red s ku l ls a nd p la s te r s t a tue s i nt h eL evan t ine a nd s t one s cu lp tu res a tN eva l i c on . Mo re e mpha s is i s p l aced o n v i s ib le s exua l d i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd e l abo ra te d eco ra t ion o f t h e o b jec t s t h em se lve s . T he p la s te red s ku l ls a sw e l l a s t h e s t a tue s may h ave b een p a r to f a n a nce s to r c u l t . H e re w e may d e tec t f o r t h e f i r s t t ime wha t c ou ld b e p a r t o fc ommuna l r i tua l a c t iv i ty wh ich

8 2

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a l so r equ ire s a n o rgan iza t ion b y t h e w ho le c ommun i ty . T he s t a tue s f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) a nd ' A m G ha -

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS

z a l p o in ta l so t ot h er ep re sen ta t ion o fi nd iv idua l s . N ev e r the le ss i ti sd oub t fu l whe the r w e c an a l ready p rove

Iwou ld l i ke t ot h ank S u san K ea te s ,R ob in S kea te s , S t . J ohn S imp son ( a l l f r om O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty ) a nd A nne Kur tenbach ( Tüb ingen Un ive r s i ty ) f o r t h e ir v a luab le

t h ee x i s tence o f " Mo the r -Godde s s " o r "de i t ie s" wh ich i ss ugge s ted f o rs ome o ft h ef i gu r ine s .A l l t h ep re sen ted

h e lp a nd c ommen t s . Ia l so w ish t oe xp re s s my g ra t i tude t o G a ry 0 . R o l le f son ( Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty ) , Mehme t

e v idence p o in t s t o much mo re e l abo ra te b e l ie fs y s tem s o f t h e se e ar ly h uman c ommun i t ie s t h an w e a l l may h ave a s sumed u n t i l n ow a nd may o pen t h e d oo r t of u t u re r e sea rch .

Ö zdogan ( I s tanbu l Un ive r s i ty ) ,P e te r Do r re l l ( Un ive r s i t y C o l lege L ondon ) , t h e P a le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion F und ( London ) , t h e N a t iona l Mu seum o fD ama scu s ( Sy r ia ) , Amnon A ssaf (Maayan B a ruch ,I s rae l ) a nd t h e C ou r te s y o f t h eI s rae l D epa r tmen to f An t iqu i t ie s ( J eru sa lem ) who p rov ided p ho tog raph s f o r t h e p ub l ica t ion . My t h ank s a r ea l so t o Wi l l iam Wa ld ren a nd J o sep E n senya t t h eo rgan ize r so ft h ec on fe rence f o rt h e i n te re s tt h ey h ave s hown i nt h i s s ub jec t .

T h is p aper i sd ed ica ted t om y c o l league s i nS ara jewo a nd i na l l t he o t her c i t ie sa nd t own i nB osn ia a nd H e r z egov ina w h ich a re u nd er s i ege .

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REFERENCES ANAT I ,E . 1 963 : P a le s t ine b ef ore t h eH ebrew s .N ew Y o rk 1 963 . ARENSBURG ,B . ; HERSHKOV ITZ ,I .1 988 : N aha lH ema rC ave . N eo l i th ic h uman r ema in s . ' A t iqo t 1 8 , 1 988 ,50 5 8 . BAAREN ,T . P .v an 1 968 : Ko rwa r s a nd K o rwa r S ty le .A r ta nd A nce s tor Wor sh ip i nn or th -we s tN ew G u inea . P ar is &The Hague 1 968 . BAR -YOSEF ,0 . 1 985 : Ac ave i nt h ed e ser t :N aha lH ema r .J e ru sa lem 1 985 . BAR -YOSEF ,0 . ; ALON ,D . 1 988 : N aha lH ema rC ave .T he e xcava t ion s . ' A t iqo t 1 8 ,1988 , 1 30 . BAR -YOSEF ,0 . ; GOREN ,N . 1 973 : N a tuf ian r ema in si nF l ayon im c ave . P a léor ien s 1 ,197 3 ,49 -68 . BAR -YOSEF ,0 . ; GOPHER ,A . ; TC 1iERNOV ,E . ;K ISLEV ,M . E . 1 991 : N e t iv H agdud : An e a r ly n eo l i th ic v i l lage s i t ei nt h eJ o rdan V a l ley .J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 8 ,4 , 1 991 ,405 -424 . BARRETT ,J .C . 1 991 : T owa rd sa na r chaeo logy o fr i tua l . P .G a rwood ,D .J enn ing s ,R . S kea te s ,J .T oms ( ed s . ) : S a c r ed a nd P rof ane . P roceed ing so f ac on fe rence o na r chaeo logy ,r i tua la nd r e l ig ion ,O xfo rd , 1 989 . Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy , Monog raph 3 2 . Ox fo rd 1 99 1 , 1 9 . BELFER -COHEN ,A . 1 99 1a : T he N a tuf ian i nt h eL evan t .A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 2 0 , 1 991 , 1 67 -186 . 1 99 1b : A r ti t em sf r om l a ye rB ,H ayor nm c ave : Ac a se s t udy o fa r ti n aN a tu f ian c on tex t . 0 .B a r -Yo se f &F .R . V a l la ( e d s . ) : T he N a tuf ian c u l tu re i nt h eL evan t . A nn A rbo r 1 991 ,569 -588 . BERNER ,U . 1 992 : R e l ig ion . H . Wa ldenf e l s ( e d . ) : L ex ikon d er R e l ig ionen .F r e ibu rg ,B a se l &W ien 1 992 ,531 -532 . B IENERT , H . -D . 1 990a : S chäde lku l t i nS üdwes ta s ien u nd i nE uropa z w i schen 1 0 ,000 u nd 5 000 v .u .Z . Unpub l i shed M .A . t h e s i s . Mu r rhard t 1 990 . 1 990b : T he e rRam s t one ma sk a tt h eP a le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion F und ,L ondon . O xf ord J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 9 , 1 990 ,257 -26 1 . 1 991 : S ku l lc u l ti nt h ep r eh i s to r ic N ea rE a s t .J ou rna lo fP reh is tor ic R e l ig ion 5 ,1 991 ,9 -23 . BOYD ,B . 1 992 : T he t r an sfo rma t ion o fk now ledge : N a tuf ian mo r tua ry p rac t ice s a tH ayon im , w e s te rn G a l i lee . A r c haeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C amb r idge 1 , 1 992 , 1 9 -38 . CAUV IN ,J .1 972 : R e l ig ion sn eo l i th ique sd eS y ro Pa le s t ine .P a r is 1 972 . 1 978 : L e sp rem ie r s v i l lage sd eS y r ie -Pa le s t ine d uI X ème a u V l l eme m i l léna i re a van tJ .C .L yon 1 978 . CONTENSON ,H . d c 1 971 : T e l l R amad , av i l lage o fS y r ia o ft h e7 th a nd 6 th m i l lema B . C . A rchaeo logy 2 4 , 1 971 ,

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2 78 -285 . CONTENSON ,H . d e 1 985 : L ar eg ion d eD ama s a nn eo l i th ique . L es A nna l e sA rchéo log ique sA rche sS yr ienne s 3 5 , 1 985 ,9 -29 . 1 992 : L e sc ou tume sf und ra i re sd an sl en eo l i th ique s y r ien . B u l le t in d el aS oc ié lé P réh i s tor ique F ranca / se 8 9 , 1 992 ,184 -19 1 . CONTENSON ,H . d c ; L IERE , W . J .v an 1 966 : S econde c ampagne

aTell Ramad,

A nna le sA rcheo log ique sA rche sS yr ienne s 1 6 ,1966 ,167 -174 . DOBBELAERE ,J . ; LAU WERS ,J .1 973 /1974 : D ef in i t ion o fr e l ig ion

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1 965 . R appo r tp r é l im ina ire . L e s

as o c io log ica l c r i t ique . S oc ia lC ompa s s 2 0 ,

1 973 /1974 ,535 -55 1 . DURKHE IM ,E . 1 98 1 : D ie e l emen taren F ormen d e sr e l ig iö sen L eben s .F rank fu r t aM . 1 981 . F EREMBACH ,D . 1 959 : No te s u ru nc r ane b rachycépha le e td eux m and ibu le sd u me so l i th ique d ' l srae l . I s rae lE xp lo r a t ion J ourna l 9 ,1 959 ,6 5 -73 . 1 969 : E tude a n th ropo log ique d e so s semen t sh uma in sn éo l i th ique sd cT e l lR a inad ( Sync ) .L e sA nna le sA rché o lo g iques A rche sS y r ienne s 1 9 ,49 -70 . F EREMBACH , D . ; LEC I{EVALL IER , M . 1 973 : D écouver te d e d eux c r ane s s u rmode le s d an s w ie h ab i ta t ion d u

V l lème m i l lena ire a B e isan ioun ,I s ra e l . P a léor ien t 1 ,1 973 ,2 23 -230 . F IEDEL , S .J .1 979 : I n t ra - a nd i n te r -cu l tu ra l v a r iab i l i ty i nm e sol i th ic a nd n eo l i th ic mo r tuary p rac t ice s i nt h e N ea r Fac t .

A nn A rbo r 1 979 .

F ISCHER ,U . 1 990 : Ana log ie u nd U rge sch ich te . S aecu lum 4 1 , 1 990 ,318 -325 . GARROD ,D . A . E . 1 937 : T he s t one a ge o f Moun tC a rme l . E xcava t ion sa tt h ew ady e l - Mugha ra I .O x fo rd 1 937 . 1 940 : No te so ns ome d eco ra ted s ke le ton sf r om t h e me so l i th ic o fP a le s t in e . T he A nnua lo ft h eB r i t i sh S choo la t A thens 3 7 ,1940 ,123 -127 1 957 : T he N a tuf ian c u l tu re : T he l i fe a nd e conomy o f ame so l i th ic p eop le i nt h eN ea rE a s t . P roceed ing so ft h eB r i t i s hA cademy 4 3 ,1957 ,211 -227 . GAR WOOD ,P . ;J ENN INGS ,D . ; SKEATES ,R . ; TO MS ,J .1 991 : P re face .P .G a rwood ,D . J enn ing s ,R . S kea te s ,J . T om s ( e d s .) : S ac red a nd P rof ane . P roceed ing s o f ac on fe rence o na r chaeo logy ,r i tua l a nd r e l ig ion , O x fo rd , 1 989 . Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty C omm i t t ee f o rA rchaeo logy , Monog raph 3 2 . Ox fo rd 1 991 ,v -x . GEERTZ ,C . 1 973 : T he i n te rpre ta t ion o fc u l ture s . N ew Yo rk 1 973 . GOODY ,J .1 961 : R e l ig ion a nd r i tua l : T he d e f in i t iona lp rob lem . B r i t i sh J ou rna lo fS oc io logy 1 2 , 1 961 , 1 42 -164 . GOR ING - MORR IS , N . 1 991 : AP PNB s e t t lemen ta tK l a r I l aho re sh i nl owe r Ga l i lee : Ap re l im ina ry r epo r t o f t h e 1 99 1 s ea son .M i tekuf a t Haeven 2 4 , 1 991 ,7 7 -101 . GOULD ,R . A . ; WATSON ,P .J .1 982 : Ad i a logue o nt h e mean ing a nd u se o fa na logy i ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica lr e a son i n g . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 ,1 982 ,355 -381 . HAST INGS ,J .( ed .) 1 971 : E ncyc lopaed ia o fr e l ig ion a nd e t h ic s X .E d inbu rgh 1 971 . HAUPT MANN ,H . 1 987 :N eva l ic on .A na to l ian S tud ie s 3 7 , 1 987 ,206 -207 . 1 988 : N eva l i

C o r i : Architecture . A na to l ica

1 5 , 1 988 ,99 -110 .

1 990 : N eva l ic o n . American J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 9 4 , 1 990 , 1 27 1 99 1 /1992 : N eva l ic on .E ine S i ed lung d e s a ke ram ischen N eo l i th ikum sa mm i t t le ren E uph ra t . N ürnberge rB lä t ter z ur A rchäo log ie 8 ,1 991 /1992 , 1 5 -33 . 1 992 : N eva l iç o r i . Amer ican J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 9 6 ,1992 , 1 23 -124 . 1 993a : N eva l ic on . Amer ican J ou rna lo fA rchaeo logy 9 7 , 1 993 , 1 08 -109 1 993b : E in Ku i tgebäude i nN eva l i C o r i . M. F r ang ipane ,H . H aup tmann ,M .L ive ran i ,P . Ma t th iae ,M . Me l ink ( e d s . ) : B e tween t h er i ve r sa nd o ve rt h em oun ta ins .( Fe s t schr if tA lba P a lm ie r i ) . Rom 1 993 ,3 7 -69 . I IENSCF IEN ,F . 1 966 : D er m en sch l iche S chäde li nd e rK u l turge sch ich te . B e r l in , He ide lbe rg & N ew Y o rk 1 966 HOHE ISEL 1 992 : Ku l t . H . Wa lden fe ls ( cd . ) : L ex ikon d er R e l ig ionen . F re ibu rg , B a se l & Wien 1 992 , 3 59 2 61 .HORTON , R . 1 960 : Ad ef in i t ion o fr e l ig ion a nd i t s u se s . J ourna lo ft h eR oya lA n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu te 9 0 , 1 960 ,2 01 -226 . J A MES ,0 . 1 960 : T he a nc ien tg od s . L ondon 1 960 . KENYON ,K . M . 1 956 : J e r icho a nd i t ss e t t ing i nN ea rE a s te rn h i s to ry .A n t iqu i ty 3 0 , 1 956 , 1 84 -197 . 1 959 : E a r l ie s tJ e r icho .A n t iqu i ty 3 3 , 1 959 ,5 -9 .

8 4

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

KENYON ,K . M . ; HOLLAND ,T . A . ( e d s . ) 1 981 :E xcava t ion sa tJ e r icho I l l .J e ru sa lem & L ondon 1 981 . K ING ,W . L . 1 987 : R e l ig ion .M . E l iade ( e d) : T he e ncyc loped ia o fr e l ig ion 1 2 . N ew Y o rk & L ondon 1 987 ,2 82 -293 . K INGERY ,W .D . ; VAND IVER ,P .B . ; PR ICKE1T ,M . 1 988 :T he b eg inn ing so fp y ro techno logy ,p a r tI : P roduc t ion a nd u se o fl ime a nd g yp sum p l a s te ri nt h ep re -po t te ry N eo l i th ic N ea rE a s t .J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 5 , 1 988 , 2 19 -244 . KURTH , G . ; RÖHRER -ERTL ,0 . 1 980 : B e i t räge z u r An th ropo log ie u nd P opu la t ion sb io log ie d e s N ahen O s ten a u s d e rZ e i tv om Me so l i th ikum b i s z um C ha lko l i th ikum .B onne rH ef t ez ur V orge sch ich te 2 1 , 1 980 ,3 1-203 . 1 98 1 : On t h ea nt h ropo logy o ft h em e so l i th ic t oc ha lco l i th ic h uman r ema in sf r om t h eT e l le s -Su l tan i nJ e r icho ,J o r d an .K .M .K enyon & T .A . Ho l land ( e d s . ) : E xcava t ion sa tJ e r icho I I .J e ru sa lem & L ondon 1 981 . LECHEVALL IER , M . ; ARENSBURG ,B . ; SM ITH , P . ; YAKAR ,R . ; BALFET ,H . ; DAV IS , S . ; DUCOS , P . ; FAR RAND , W . R . ; F ERE MBACH , D . ; HESSE , A . ; LE BRUN , A . ; M IEN IS , H . K . ; P ERL MAN , I . ; YEL UN , J . ; SOL IVERES ,0 . 1 978 : A bou G osh e iB e i samoun .D eux g i semen t sd u V I le m i l léna i re a van tl ' ere c hré t ienne e nI s r ae l .P a r i s 1 978 . LOON ,M . v an 1 966 : F i r s tr e su l t so ft h e 1 965 e xcava t ion s a tT e l l Mu reyba tn ea r Me skene . L e sA nna le s A rchéo lo g ique sA rche sS yr ienne s 1 6 , 1 966 ,211-217 . 1 968 : T he O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te e xcava t ion sa t Mu reyb i t ,S y r ia : P r e l im ina ry r epo r to nt h e 1 965 c ampa ign .P a r tI :A r c h i tec tu re a nd g ene ra lf i nd s .J ou rna lo fN ear E as tern S tud ie s 2 7 , 1 968 ,265 -290 . LOY ,T .H . ; WOOD ,A . R . 1 989 : B lood r e s idue a na ly s is a tc ayonu T epe s i ,T u rkey . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 6 , 1 989 ,451 -460 . MCADA M ,A . 1 985 :T he f i gu r ine s .M i t te i lungen d er D eu t schen O r ien tGe se l l schaf tz uB er l in 17 ,1985 ,82 -88 . MAY ,F . 1 986 : L e ss épu i zure sp reh i s tor ique s . P a r i s 1 986 . M IELLAART ,J .1 975 : T he n eo l i th ic o ft h eN ea rE a s t .L ondon 1 975 . MENSCH ING ,G . 1 959 : D ie R e l ig ion . S t u t tga r t 1 959 . MERR IF IELD ,R . 1 987 : T he a rchaeo logy o fr i tua la nd mag ic .L ondon 1 987 . NARR ,K . J .1 982 : P o r trä to de r Ahnen schäde l? B orea s 5 ,1 982 , 1 6 -26 . NEUV ILLE ,R . 1 951 :L ep a iéo l i th ique e tl em é so l i th ique d ud e ser td uJ udé e . P a r i s 1 951 . NOY ,T . 1 985 : S ea ted c l ay f i gu r ine s f r om t h e n eo l i th ic p e r iod ,I s rae l . A . B onanno ( e d .) : A rchaeo logy a nd f e r t i l i ty c u l ti nt h ea nc ien t Med i te rranean . Am s te rdam 1 985 ,6 3 -67 . 1 988 : Ar a d ia ld eco ra t ion o nh uman f a ce i mage sf r om t h eP PNB p e r iod . T he I s rae l Mu seum J ourna l 7 ,1 988 , 1 09 -111 . 1 989 : S ome a spec t so fN a tuf ian mo r tua ry b ehav io ra tN aha lO ren .I .H e r shkov i tz ( e d . ) : P eop le a nd c u l ture i n c hange . BAR I S5 08 .1 .O xfo rd 1 989 ,53 -57 . 1 991 : A r ta nd d eco ra t ion o ft h eN a tuf i an a tN aha lO ren .0 .B a r -Yo se f &F .R . V a l la ( ed s . ) : T he N a tuf ian c u l tu re i nt h eL evan t . A nn A rbo r 1 991 ,557 -568 . NOY ,T . ; BR IMER ,B . ( 1980 ) : Ado rnmen to fe a r ly N a tuf ian b u r ia ls . T he I s rae l Mu seum N ew s 1 6 ,1980 ,55 -64 . ÖZBEK , M . 1 976 : E tude a nt h ropo log ique d ' o ssemen t s h uma in s n eo l i th ique d u V I I I . m i l lena ire a .c .p rovenan t d c Mu reybe t ,S y r ie .L e sA nna le sA rcheo log ique sA rabe sS y r ienne 2 6 , 1 976 , 1 61-180 . P ECONTAL -LA MBERT , A . 1 987 : A pp roche e t hno log ique d ' un a spec t d u c ompo r temen t " mag ico -re l ig ieux" d e s n do l i th ique sd uP roche O r ien t . P a ieob ios 3 ,1 987 , 1 5 -26 . P ERROT ,J .1 960 : E xcava t ion s a t' E ynan ( ' E in Ma l laha ) . P re l im inary r epor to nt h e 1 959 s e a son . I s rae lE xp lora t ion J ourna l 1 0 , 1 960 ,14 -22 . 1 966 : L eg i semen tN a tou l ien d e Ma l laha ( Eynan ) ,I s rae l .L 'An thropo log ie 7 0 , 1 966 ,437 -4 .83 . 1 988 : L es h omme sd e Ma l laha .P a r i s 1 988 . POZNANSK I ,A . K . 1 974 : T he h and i nr ad io log ic d iagnos i s . P h i lade lph ia ,L ondon ,T o ron to 1 974 . RENFRE W , 1 985 : T he a rchaeo logy o fc u l t . L ondon 1 985 . REV ILLE ,A . 1 881 : P ro legomenes d el ' h i s to i re d e sr e l ig ion s .P a r is 1 881 . ROLLEFSON ,G . 0 . 1 983 : R i tua la nd c e r emony a tn eo l i th ic Mn Ghaza l( J o rdan ) . P a . léor ien t9 , 1 983 ,29 -38 . 1 983 /1984 : ' Mn G haza l .A rch iv Ar O r ien tf o r schung 2 9 /30 , 1 983 /1984 ,2 43 -244 . 1 986 : N eo l i th ic ' Mn Ghaza l ( J o rdan ) : R i tua la nd c e remony ,I . P a léor ien t 1 2 , 1 986 ,45 -52 . 1 990 : Ap l a s te red h uman s ku l lf r om n eo l i th ic ' Mn Ghaza l ,J o rdan .J ou rna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo lgy 1 7 , 1 990 ,107 -

8 5

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

10 . ROLLEFSON ,G . 0 . ; S I M MONS ,A . H . 1 985 : T he e a r ly n eo l i th ic v i l lage o f 'A in Ghaza l ,J o rdan : P re l im ina ry r epo r t o nt h e 1 98 3 s e a son .B u l le t in o ft h e Amer ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sea rch .S upp lemen t 2 3 , 1 985 ,35 -52 . 1 986 : T he n eo l i th ic v i l lage o f' A in Ghaza l ,J o rdan : P re l im ina ry r epo r to nt h e 1 984 s ea son .B u l le t in o ft h e Amer i c an S choo l so fO r ien ta lR esea rch ,S upp lemen t 2 4 , 1 986 , 1 45 -164 . ROLLEFSON , G . 0 . ; S I MMONS ,A . H . 1 988 : T he n eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta t' A in Ghaza l A N G a r ra rd ,H . G . G ebe l ( e d s . ) : T he p reh i s tory o fJ ordan . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 96 . 1 . O xfo rd 1 988 ,393 -421 . ROLLEFSON , G . 0 . ; S I M MONS , A . H . ; DONALDSON , M . L . ; G ILLESP IE , W . ; KAFAF I , Z . ; KÖHLER ROLLEFSON ,I . ; McADA M ,E . ; ROLSTON ,S .L . ;T IJBB ,M . K . 1 985 : E xcava t ion a tt h ep r e -po t te ry n eo l i th ic B v i l lage o f' Mn Ghaza l ( J o rdan ) , 1 983 . M i t te i lungen d e rd eu t schen O r ien tge se l l schaf tz uB e r l in 17 , 1 985 ,69 -134 . ROLLEFSON ,G . 0 . ; S I MMONS ,A . H . ; KAFAF I ,Z . 1 992 : N eo l i th ic c u l tu re s a t' Mn Ghaza l . J ou rna lo fF ie ld A r c haeo logy 1 9 , 1 992 ,443 -470 . S CH IR MER ,W . 1 983 : D re i B au ten d e s c ayonu T epe s i . R . M . B oehme r ,H . Haup tmann ( ed s . ) : B e i t räge z u rA l t e r t um skunde K le ina s ien s .F e s t sch r if tf ü r Ku r tB i t te l . Ma inz 1 98 3 ,463 -476 . 1 990 : S ome a spec t so fb u i ld ing a tt h e' a ce ram ic -neo l i th ic 's e t t lemen to fc ayonu T epe s i . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 1 ,3 , 1 990 ,363 -387 . S CHOEPS ,H . -J . 1 961 : R e l ig ionen

-

W esen u nd G e sch ich te . Gü te r s loh 1 961 .

S CHULZE -THUL IN ,A . 1 991 : E r s te An sä tze z um e t hno log i sch -p räh is to r ischen V e rg le ich d em B e re ich d e rB ä renve reh rung . S aecu lum 1 991 ,42 ,44 -55 . S I USTRE U ,U . 1 988 : 1 987 Kö sk H öyÜk . K a z iS onuc la r iT op lan l i s i 1 0 , 1 988 ,61-66 .

-

m i te i nem B e isp ie l a u s

S I MMONS ,A .H . ; BOULTON ,A . ; BUTLER ,C . ; KAFAF I ,Z . ; ROLLEFSON ,G . 0 . 1 990 : Ap l a s te red h uman s ku l l f r om n eo l i th ic ' Mn Ghaza l ,J o rdan . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 7 , 1 990 , 1 07 -110 . SM ITH ,P . 1 973 . F am i ly b ur ia ls a tH ayon im . P a léor ien i 1 ,1 97 3 ,69 -71 . SMOLLA ,G . 1 960 : N eo l i th ische Ku l tu re r sche inungen .S t ud ien z ur F rage i h re rH erau sb i ldung .B onn 1 960 . 1 990 : A na log ien u nd i h re G renzen . S aecu lum 4 1 , 1 991 ,326 -331 . SOFH R -BOBYSI{EV , 0 . 1 988 : R i tua l . I .T a t te r sa l l ,E .D e l son ,J .V . C ouve r ing ( ed s . ) : E ncycoped ia o fh uman e vo l u t ion a nd p reh i s tory . N ew Y o rk & L ondon 1 988 ,497 -498 . S P IRO ,M . E . 1 966 : R e l ig ion : P rob lem so fd e f in i t ion a nd e xp lana t ion . M .B an ton ( ed . ) : A n th ropo log ica la pproache s t ot h es t udy o fr e l ig ion . L ondon 1 966 ,8 5 -126 . S TERN ,C . 1 968 : G rund lagen d e rH umangene z ik .J ena 1 968 . S TÖHR , 1 981 : Me lane s ien . S chwa r ze I n se ln d er S üd see .L ondon 1 981 . S TROUHAL .E . 1 97 3 : F ive p l a s te r ed s ku l l sf r om t h ep r e -po t te ry n eo l i th ic B J e r icho . An th ropo log ica ls t udy . P a léo r i e n t 1 ,1973 ,231 -247 . 1 1JBB 1 985 : P re l im ina ry r epo r to nt h e' A in G ha7a l s t a tue s . M i t te i lungen d e rD eu t schen O r ien tGe se l l schaf tz uB er l in 17 ,1985 ,117 -134 . UCKO , P . J .1 969 : E thnog raph ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o ff une ra ry r ema in s . Wor ld A rchaeo logy

1 ,

1 969 ,262 -280 . VALLA ,F .R . 1 988 : L e sp rem ie r ss é den ta ire sd eP a le s t ine . L aR eche rche 1 99 , 1 988 ,576 -584 . VO IGT 1 991 : T he g odde s sf r om Ana to l ia . An a r chaeo log ica lp e r spec t ive . O r ien ta lR ug R ev iew 1 , 1 991 ,32 -39 . WAARDENBURG ,J .1 986 : R e l ig ion u nd R e l ig ionen . B e r l in & N ew Yo rk 1 986 . WALLACE ,A . F .C . 1 966 : R e l ig ion

-

A na n thropo log ica lv i ew .N ew Yo rk 1 966 .

WERNERT ,P . 1 948 : L ec u l te d e s c r ane s

al ' epoque p a léo l i th ique .

H i s to i re G enE ra le d e sR e l ig ion sI .P a r is 1 948 ,5 3 -

7 2 . WIDENGREN ,G . 1 969 : R e l ig ion sphänomeno log ie .B e r l in 1 969 . WITT WER -BACKOFEN ,U . 1 987 : An th ropo log ica l s t udy o ft h e s ke le ton m a te r ia l f r om L ida r .A ra s t irma S onuc la r i T op lan t i s i 5 ,1 987 , 1 91 -20 1 . WR IGHT , G . R . H . 1 988 : T he s eve red h ead i nt h ee a r l ie s tn eo l i th ic t ime s . J ourna lo fP reh is tor ic R e l ig ion 2 , 1 988 , 5 1 -56 . YAKAR ,R . ; HERSHKOV ITZ ,I .1 988 : N aha ]H ema rc ave .T he mode l led s ku l ls . ' A t iqo t 1 8 ,1988 ,59 -63 . ZUESSE ,E .M . 1 987 : R i tua l . M . E l iade ( c d . ) : T he e ncyc loped ia o fr e l ig ion 1 2 . N ew Yo rk & L ondon 1 987 ,405 -422 .

8 6

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 2 . S ke le ton w i th h ead -d re s so fd en ta l ia s he l ls f r om e l - Wad , n o r the rn I s rae l /Pa le s t ine ( p ho tog raph k i nd ly p rov ided b yC ou r te sy o ft h eI s rae l D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s ,J e ru sa lem .

F IGURE 3 . Deco ra ted s ke le ton o f an ew b o rn c h i ld f r om ' A m Ma l laha , n o r the rn I s rae l /Pa les t ine ( pho tog raph b y t he a u tho r w i th k ind p erm iss ion o f Amnon Assaf , Maayan B a ruch , I s r a e l .

8 7

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 4 .

S tone f i gu r ine o f a n a b s t rac t h uman h ead f r om

' A in Ma l laha ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y t h e Cou r te sy o f t h eI s rae l D epa r tmen to f An t iqu i t ie s .J erusa lem ) .

F IGURE 5 . S tone f i gu r ine o fa na b s t rac t h uman h ead f r om ' A in Ma l laha ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y t h eC ou r te sy o f t h eI s rae l D epa r tmen to f An t iqu i t ie s ,J e rusa lem ) .

8 8

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 6 . P la s te r s ku l l f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( . J e r i -

c ho ) i n s i tu ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y P e te r Do r re l l , Un ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) .

F IGURE 7 . P la s te rs ku l l f r om T e l l e s S u l tan ( J e r i c ho ) i nt h eA rchaeo log ica l Museum o f Amman , J o r d on ( pho tog raph b yt h ea u tho rw i th k ind p e rm iss ion o ft h eA rchaeo log ica l Museum o f Amman ,J o rdon ) .

8 9

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 8 . L eg so f as t a tue f r om T e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r i c ho ) . T he f oo t b e low h a s s i x t o es ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y t h e Cou r tesy o f t h e I s rae l D epa r tmen t o f An t iqu i t ies ,J e ru sa lem ) .

F IGURE 9 . H ead o f as t a tue f r om T e l le s -Su l tan ( J e r i c ho ) ( p ho tog raph k i nd ly p rov ided b y t h e C ou r te sy o ft h eI s rae l D ep a r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s ,J e ru sa lem ) .

9 0

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 0 .

A d amaged b us t f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan

( J e r icho ) i ns i tu ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y P e t e r Do reee l l , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) .

F IGURE 1 . F ron t v i ew o ft h e h uman b us tf r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J e r icho ) a f te r b a s ic c i nve r sa t ion ( pho to g raph k ind ly p rov ided b y P e te r Do reee l l , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) .

9 1

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 1 2 . S ide -v iew o ft he h uman b u s t f r om T e l l e s -Su l tan ( J er icho )a f te rb a s ic c onve rsa t ion ( pho to g raph k ind ly p rov ided b y P e t te r Do r re l l , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) .

F IGURE 1 3 . Ad epos i to ff ou r s ku l ls a t 'A in G haza l ( pho tog raph k i nd ly p rov ided b y G a ry 0 . R o l le f son , H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty ) .

9 2

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 4 . Ab u r ia l a t 'A in Ghaza l w he re t he s ke le t on l a ck s t h e s ku l l b u t s t i l l h a s t he mand ib le a t tached ( pho to b y C . B la ir , p ho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y G a ry 0 . R o l le f son , H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty ) .

F IGURE 1 5 .

D epo s i t o f t h ree h uman s ku l ls a t' A m

Ghaza l , a l l f a c ing t h e wa l l i nt h es ou thea s tc or ne ro fa r oom ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b yP e te r Do reee l l , Un ive r s i ty C o l lege ,L ondon ) .

9 3

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 1 6 . F ron ta l v i ew o ft h ep l a s t e red s ku l l f r om A in Ghaza le xcava t e di n1 988 ( pho to b yH . Wada , p ho to g raph k ind ly p rov ided b y G a ry 0 . R o l lef son , Ha rva rd Un iver s i ty ) .

F IGURE 1 7 .

F ron ta l v i ew o f ap l a s -

t e red s ku l l f r om ' A in Ghaza l e xcava ted i n1 988 ( pho to b y H . Wada ,p ho to g r aph k ind ly p rov ided b yG a ry 0 . R o l l e f son , Harva rd Un ive r s ity ) .

9 4

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 8 . R e s to red f ema le p l a s te r

F IGURE 1 9 .

s t a tue f r om ' A in Ghaza l e xcava ted i n

R es to red b us t f r om ' A m

Ghaza l ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y

1 983 . T he l e f t h and o f t h e s t a tue s how s

P e te r Do r re l l , Un ive rs i ty Co l lege , L on -

s even f i nge r s ( Pho tog raph k ind ly p rov id -

d on ) .

e d b y P e te r Do r re l l , Un ive rs i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) .

9 5

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 2 0 . C lay f ema le f i gu r ine f r om ' A m G ha z a l ( d raw ing b yJ .L oynd C owhe r s ) .

F IGURE 2 1 . F ragmen t o f f ema le f i gu r ine s how ing ad i s tended a bdomen ( pho to b y R .H . C owhe rd , p ho tog raph k i nd ly p rov ided b y G a ry 0 . R o l le f son ,H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty ) .

1

2 cm

9 6

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

F IGURE 2 2 . C lay f i gu r ine f r om'A in G ha7l w i th h ead r a ised , l e f t h and a nd a rm b e fo re t he f a ce ( pho to b yC . B la ir ,p ho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y Ga ry 0 R o l le f son , H a rva rd Un ive rs i ty ) .

F IGURE 2 3 .

F IGURE 2 4 . F ema le s t one f i gu re f r om B e i -

S tone f i gur ine f r om B e isamoun ,

moun , n o r the rn I s rae l /Pa le s t ine ( pho tog raph b y

n o r the rn I s rae l /P a le s t ine , s how ing a n a b s t rac t h u man f a ce ( pho tog raph b y

t he a u tho r w i th k ind p e rm iss ion o f Amnon

t h e a u tho r w i th k ind

A s sa f , Maayan B a ruch , I s rae l ) .

p e rm is s ion o f Amnon A ssa f , Maayan B a ruch , I s r a e l ) .

9 7

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 2 5 . O ne o ft h et wo p l a s te rs ku l ls a t B e isamoun ,n o r the rn I s rae l /Pa le s t ine ,( p ho tog r aph b y t h es u tho rw i th k i nd p e rm i ss ion o f Amnon A s sa f , Maayan B a ruch , I s rae l ) .

F IGURE 2 6 . F ron t a lv i ew o ft h es t one m a sk f r om e rRam , P a les t ine ( pho tog raph k i nd ly p rov ided b y t h e P a le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion F und , L ondon ) .

9 8

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 2 7 .

F ron ta l v i ew o f ap l a s te red s ku l l

f r om T e l l R amad , S y r ia ( pho tog raph b y t h e a u tho r w i th k i nd p e rm iss ion o f t h e N a t iona l Museum o f D ama scu s , S yr ia ) .

F IGURE 2 8 .

F ron ta l v i ew o f ap la s te red s ku l l

f r om T e l l R amad , S yr ia ( p ho tog raph b y t h e a u t h or w i th k ind p e rm is s ion o f t h e Na t iona l Mu s eum o fD ama scus , S yr ia ) .

9 9

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 2 9 . S ide -v iew o f ap a l a s te red s ku l l f r om T e l l R amad , S y r ia ( pho tog raph b y t h e a u tho r w i th k ind p e rm iss ion o ft h e N a t i ona l Museum o f D ama scus , S y r ia ) .

F IGURE 3 0 . S ide -v iew o fo ne o ft h ed eco r a ted s ku l l sf r om N a h a l H ema r ( Bo t tom ) ( p ho to g r aph k i nd ly p rov ided b y t h e C ou r t sey o f t h e I s rae l D epa r t m en to fA n t iqu i t ie s ,J e ru sa lem ) .

1 00

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 3 1 .

F ron ta l v i ew o f t h e s t one

m ask f r om N aha l H ema r( pho tog raph k ind l y p rov ided b y t h e C ou r tesy o f t h e I s rae l D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ies ,J e ru sa lem ) .

F IGURE 3 2 . P os t la te ra l v i ew o ft h e s t one m ask f r om N aha l H ema r ( pho to g raph k ind ly p rov ided b y t h e Cour te sy o f t h e I s rae l D epa r tmen t o f An t iqu i t ie s , J e rusa lem )

1 01

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 3 3 . T he e a s te rn r oom o ft h e " Sku l l B u i ld -

F IGURE 3 4 . S tone t a b le w i th h uman f a ce ( pho -

i ng " a tç ayonu whe re a bou t7 0s ku l ls w e refound i n

t ograph k i nd ly p rov ided b y M . O zdogan , I s tanbu l

t h eu ppe rmo s t l a ye r ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y

Un ive r s i ty ) . ( pho tog raph k ind ly p rov ided b y M .

M . O zdogan , I s tanbu l U n ive r s i ty ) .

O zdogan , I s tanbu l Un ive r s i ty ) .

1 02

HANS -D IETER B IENERT

F IGURE 3 5 . T he " Sku l l B u i ld ing " a tç ayonu ( pho tog raph k ind ly p ro v ided b y M . O zdogan , I s tanbu l U n ive r s i ty ) .

F IGURE 3 6 . A ne a r ly s t age o ft h e " Sku l l B u i ld ing " w i th h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s i na c ryp t l ike s t ruc tu re ( pho tog raph k ind ly p ro v ided b y

M . O zdogan ,

I s tanbu l U n ive r s i ty ) .

1 03

R . I .P . I N GOZO

6

DAV ID T RU MP

8 7 D cF r e v i l le A venue C amb r idg eC 1 34 1 HP E ng land

The current r e sea rch e xcava t ion a tt h eB roch to r f fC i r . c l e , X agh ra , Gozo , f i g .1 ,i s d e s igned t o t h row l i gh tA . among s to t he rt h ing s ,o nt h ef unera ry r i tua ls o ft h e Ma l t e se t emp le p e r iod . F o r t h e c e remon ia l o f t h e t emp le s t h em se lve s , s ee B onanno ( t h is v o lume ) a nd S toddar t e t a l . ( 1993 ) . Two i mpo r tan t p o in t s n eed m ak ing b y w ay o fi n t ro d uc t ion . F i r s t ly ,a l though as i ng le a u tho ri sn amed h e re , h e i sr epo r t ing o n b eha lf o f at e am , a l l o f w hom h ave b een c on su l ted o ve r t h e t e x t , t h ough h e a ccep t s s o le r e s pon s ib i l i ty f o r a ny e r ro r s r ema in ing a nd f o r t h e i n te r p re ta t ion so f f e red h e re . T he Gozo P ro jec tw a sl a unched i n 1 986 a s aj o in t v en tu re o f t h e Un ive r s i t ie s o fC am b r idge a nd Ma l ta . T he e s sen t ia l c oope ra t ion o f Ma l ta Gove rnmen tw a si mmed ia te ly s ough ta nd o b ta ined f r om D r T . Goude r , D irec to r o f t h e Mu seum D epa r tmen t . T he t wo i n i t ia t ing u n ive r s i t ie s w e re t o b e r ep re sen ted r e spec t ive ly b y my se lf a nd P ro f . A . B onanno . A sF ie ld D irec to r s , D r S imon S todda r t ( t hen o f Magda lene C o l l e ge ,C amb r idge )a nd D rC a rol ine Ma lone ( t hen o fE ng -

e t c . , w i l l b ecome a va i lab le a s o u rb one e xpe r t s , D r C o r i nne D uh ig ,D rG eo rge Mann a nd M iss C r is t ina S ampe d ro ,c on t inue t h e i rs t ud ie s . I n t h el a te r 1 8 th c en tu ry t h e s i te c on s is ted o f ac i rc le o f s t and ing s t one s , a nd i nt h e 1 820 's J ohn O t to B aye r , c omm is s ione r f o r t he i s land , e xcava ted a ti t s c en t re . None o fh i sf i nd so ra ny r e co rd o fh i s wo rk s u rv ive s o t h e r t han t wo o f as e r ie s o f w a te rco lou r p a in t ings b y C ha r le sB roch to r f f ,d a ted 1 829 . I ti sf o rt h i sr ea son t h a t t h e s i te h a s c ome t ob e k nown a s t h e B roch to r f fC irc le , o rs ome t ime st h eX agh ra o r Gozo C i rc le . T he B roch to r f fp a in t ing s hows ar agged c av i ty i n t h e g round ,f r om t h eh uman s c a le f i gu re s s ome 3 .5m d eep . A wo rkman eme rge s f r om ac ave i no ne s i de a nd s eem s t o b e h o ld ing a s ku l l . O n t h e f l oo r o f t h e d ep re ss ion s t and s ac on s truc t ion o f w e l l shaped b lock s o f as t y le c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e Ma l te se s o -ca l led N eo l i th ic t emp le s . One o ft h e f i ne s t o f t h e se , t h e Ggan t i ja , a ppea r s i n t h e m idd le d i s tance . S oon a f te r ,t h ee xcava t ion w a sr e f i l led , t h ef i e ld r e tu rned t oc u l t iva t ion ,a nd t h ev e ry s i te f o rgo t -

l i sh H e r i tage ) w e re r e c ru i ted . T he o r ig ina l t i t le o f t h e C amb r idge Gozo P ro jec t h a s t e nded t od rop i n to a bey -

t e n T he f i r s t q ue s t ion s t ob e a sked w ere w he the r t h e r e -

a nce a so u rf i e ld d i rec to r s moved t ot e ach ing p o s t s ,f i r s t a t Yo rk U n ive r s i ty ,n ow a tB r is to l Un ive r s i ty . A l l t h e se b od ie s h ave c on t r ibu ted i nv ar iou s w ay s t ot h eP ro jec t 's

i den t if ica t ion o ft h es i te b yJ .A t ta rd i n1 965 ,400m w e s t o ft h e G gan t i ja , w as c o r rec t , a nd i fs o ,j u s t w ha ti tw a s

w o rk ,i na dd i t ion t om a jo rf und ing g r an t s f r om t h eB r i t i s h A cademy , S oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ie s o f L ondon , t h e B r i t ish S choo l a t R ome , t h e MacDona ld I n s t i tu te , t o g e the rw i th h e lp i no the rf o rm sf r om many o the ro rgan i s a t ion s . T he s e cond p o in t i st h a t t h e i nve s t iga t ion i ss t i l l i n p rog re ss a nd a tt h is s t age a ny r epo r t c an b e o n ly a n i n t e r im o ne . D e sp i te r e s tr ic t ing t h ea r ea w i th in t h es i te b e i ng e xcava ted ,i ti sn ow c l ea r t h a ta r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t s a r e c on t inu ing d own t o ac ons ide rab le d ep th b e low t h el e ve l y e tr e ached . Mo re i mpo r tan t ly , t h ea na ly s is o f t h e f i nd s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h em a ss ive s ke le ta l c o l lec t ion ,i s a t ac ompa ra t ive ly e a r ly s t age . Much f u r the r d e ta i l o f r i tua lp rac t ice s , a sw e l la sd emog raphy ,d i sea se p a t te rn s ,

B aye r h ad f ound b enea th i t . I t s s ub te r ranean p o s i t ion , t h e s uppo sed s ku l l , t h e monumen ta l f i t t ing s a bove a nd b e low g round ,a nd t h ev i c in i ty o ft h e Ggan t i ja c omb ined t os ugge s tt h a ti tm igh tb e ah ypogeum ,c ompa rab le w i th t h a to fH a l S af l iem , s e rv ing a s ac eme t e ry f o r t h e c om mun i ty w h ich b u i l ta nd w o r sh ipped i n t h e X agh ra t em p le s . I ft h a t w a s i ndeed t h e c a se , i th e ld o u t t h e h ope t h a t t h e s ho r tcom ing s o f t h e e xcava t ion o fH a l S af l iem i n 1 904 -10 , o ve r b o th t h e s t udy o fi t s s ke le ta l r ema in s a nd t h er e covery o f t h e a ccompany ing r i tua ls , m igh tb e made g ood b y t h e a pp l ica t ion o f moder nt e chn ique s o f e xcava t ion a nd a na ly s is . T he s i te w a sa l so t h rea tened b y t h ep rog re ss ive s ou thwa rd e xpan s ion o fX agh ra v i l lage . T he B roch to r f f C i rc le i n 1 986 c on s is ted o f an ea r c i rcu la rf i e ld o fs ome 4 5m d i ame te re nc lo sed b y ar e cen t

1 04

DAV ID T RUMP

f i e ld w a l l , f i g .2 . I n t h is , o n ly t h ree m ega l i th ic b lock s s u rv ive o f t h e t h ir ty o r s o s hown i n t h e e a r ly i lu st ra t i on s , o ne o f t h em b u i l t i n to a n a d jacen t f a rmhou se . C ave sb enea th t h ef a rm w e re b locked w i th r ubb le w a l ls , a nd f u r the r d efended b y a c t ive b eeh ive s . T he f i e ld w i th in t h e c i rc le h ad a s ca t ter o f t emp le -pe r iod ( t h is t e rm i sp re fe r red t oN eo l i th ic o rC opp e rA ge ) a nd l a te r p r eh is to r ic s he rd s , b u tn o o the r s i gn o fu nde r ly ing f ea t u re s . A tt h e t ime o fw r i t ing , o ne s ea son o fr e conna is s ance ,s i xo fe xcava t ion a nd o ne o fp roce ss ing a nd a na l -

s e ls o ft h e l a te r Ggan t i ja p ha se . T he se w e re p re suma b l y a s soc ia ted w i th a s i ng le a lmo s t i n tac t s ke le ton , c l ea r ly t h e l a te s t t ob e a dded . A t l e a s t 6 4o the r b od ie s w e re r ep re sen ted i nt h et wo c hambe r s , a nd t h i s a l ready t e l ls u s s ome th ing o f t h e f une ra ry r i tua l s , p a r t icu la r ly w hen i ti sn o ted w h ich p ar t so ft h es ke le ton ss u rv ive . T he s t a r t ing p o in t i st h a t t h e c ub ic c apac i ty o f t h e t wo c hambe r s t oge the ri sn owhe re n ea rs u ff ic ien tt oa c c ommoda te 6 5 c o rp se s . No r w e re a ny th ing l i ke a l l t h e b one s o f t ho se 6 5 s ke le ton s p re sen t i nt h e c hambe r s .

c ozo B rochtoiff C irc le

oga nt i ja

MEDITERRANEAN S EA

1 0

1 5 kms

F IGURE 1 .T he M a l t e se I s land sa nd t h eB roch to r f fC i r c le

y s i s h ave b een c omp le ted . Wh i le t h ep ub l ica t ion o ft h e u ppe rl e ve l s i sw e l l a dvanced ,a tl e a s to ne mo re s ea son o fd i gg ing a nd o ne o fp roce ss ing a r e p l anned b efo re a f i na l r e po r t w i l l b ep o s s ib le . C e r ta in r e su l t s r e levan t t o t h es ub jec t ma t te ro ft h eD e ja C on fe rence a r e ,h oweve r , a l ready a va i lab le ,a l be i ti ni n te r im f o rm . I tw ou ld b e a sw e l l t os t a r tw i th a na spec to ft h e s i te q u i te u nexpec ted a tt h e s t a r t , t hough c e r ta in ly r e la ted . T he f i r s tu se o ft h es i te f o rb u r ia l t o ok t h ef o rm o fa na r t i f ic ia l r ock -cu t t omb , w i th s haf t a nd t wo o va l c ham b e r s ,t owa rd s t h es ou th -ea s ts i de o ft h ec i rc le . T h is wa s c on s t ruc ted i n t h e Z ebbug p ha se . AMS r ad ioca rbon d a te so nt h eb one sp l ace t h i s s oon a f te r4 000 C a 1BC . When t h e s haf t w a s c l ea red a nd t h e b lock ing s t one s w e re moved a way , i tw a s f ound t h a to f t h e t wo c ham b e r s , t h ee a s te rn c on ta ined o n ly Z ebbug p ha se ma te r ia l , w he re t h e w e s te rn h ad i na dd i t ion s he rd s o ft h ree y e s -

T he f une ra ry p rac t ice , a s f ound c ommon ly whe reve r c o l lec t ive b ur ia l w a s t h e r u le , w a s t h a t ab ody w a s l a id i nt h et omb a nd a l lowed t od ecay . When a no the rd ea th o ccu r red , t he t omb w a s r eopened a nd t h e n ow l oo se b one s w e re s imp ly p u shed t ot h e b ack t o make s pace f o r t h e n ex t b ody . S oone r o r l a te r , e ven a s d ry b one s t h ey r e s t r ic ted t h ea va i lab le s pace . A tt h is p o in t , s ome o f t h e d epo s i t s wou ld b e r emoved , e i the r t o ac harne l p i to rs imp ly t ob e s ca t te red o nt h e s u r face . B od ie s r e t a ined t h e ir ' p e r sona l i ty ' , t h e ir a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e i r o r ig ina l o wne r s , o n ly s o l ong a s t h ef l e sh c on t inued t o c ove r t h e i r b one s , a f te r wh ich t h ey w e re me re d eb r is . S ince s ku l ls a nd l ong b one s w e re n o t o n ly t h e l a rge s t b u ta l so t h e mo re e a s i ly c o l lec ted , t h ey c ou ld b ee xpec t e d t o b e e x t rac ted p refe ren t ia l ly , u n le ss t h ere w e re s ome s oc ia lr u le t ot h ec on t rary ,s uch a ss pec ia l c a re f o r t h es ku l l s . T he r e co rded e v idence f o rm t h is t omb s uppo r ted t h is r e con s t ruc t ion c l o se ly .

1 05

A na ly s is s howed t h a t , t hough

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

many w e re p re sen t , t h e re w a s am a rked s ho r tage o f s ku l ls a nd l ong b one s r e la t ive t ot h e s ma l le rb one s l i ke t h ep ha lange s , w h ich wou ld h ave d ropped o f fa nd b een mo re d i f f icu l t t oc o l lec t u p . I ndeed , t h e s ke le ta l e l e men tw h ich p rov ided t h e MN I ( m in imum n umbe ro fi n d i v idua ls

-

s t i l l ,n o te ,n o tn ece ssa r i ly t h eo r ig ina l t o ta l )

F IGURE 2 .T he B roch to r f fC i r c le ,S i te P l an

w a s t h ep a te l la o rk n eecap . As im i la rs t o ry w a s t o ld b yt h ep o t te ry ,f i g .3 ,b o t tom . S ome s even ty Z ebbug p ha se v e sse ls , mo s t ly q u i te l a rge , h ad b een p l aced i nt h e t wo c hambe r s a s w e l l a s t h e t h ree G gan l i ja o ne s . I si tc o inc idence t h a t t h en um b e r i ss o c l o se t ot h a t f o r t h e s ke le ton s? I ti sa s sumed t h a t t h ey w e re d epo s i ted a s c omp le te v e sse ls , t hough t h ey a r e mo s tu n l ike ly a l l t oh ave b een i n tac ta tt h e o ne t ime , f o r t h e s ame r e a son s o f s pace . On ly t wo s ma l l c up s w e re f ound c omp le te ,s oi fs ma sh ing t h ep o t s w e re p a r t o ft h er i tua l , i tw a s n o tu n ive r sa l ly a pp l ied . None o f t h e o the r s h ad a l l i t s f r agmen t s p re sen t , a nd many

w e re r ep re sen ted b y o n ly o ne o r t wo s he rd s . T he r e s t , l i ke much o ft h es ke le ton s ,h ad b een r emoved ,p r e suma b l y i nt h e s ame w ay ,a nd a l so l i ke t h e s ke le ton s , i tw a s p robab ly t h e l a rge rf r agmen t s wh ich wou ld h ave b een t h rown o u tf i r s t . Sma l l p e rsona l p o sse ss ion s l i ke a mu le t s a nd b ead s

a r el i ke ly , f r om t h e i r s i ze , t oh ave s u rv ived p ropo r t ion a t e ly much b e t te ri nt h et omb ,f i g .3 ,t o pr i gh t . We may w e l l h ave v i r tua l ly a l l t ho se e ve r d epo s i ted i ni t ,3 88 f r om o ne c hambe r u n le ss s ome e scaped o u r c a re fu l s i ev ing . T o wha t e x ten t c an w e s peak o f r i tua l h e re , r a the r -

t h an j u s t s oc ia l p rac t ice? T he amu le t s , o ne i nt h e f o rm o f m in ia tu re s t one a xes , o the r s c arved f r om b one i n l obed , p robab ly a n th ropomorph ic f o rm ( t he d igge r s p romp t ly d ubbed t h em j e l Iy -bab ie s ' ) , mu s t h ave h ad a s ymbo l ic v a lue e ven i fw ec anno tn ow t e l l w ha ti tw a s . F unc t iona ls t one a xe s w e re v ery r a re i np reh is to r ic Ma l t a ,a nd much mo re o bv iou s ly h uman f i gu r ine s c ompa ra t i ve ly c ommon ,b o th b e fo re a nd a f te rt h eZ ebbug p ha se . S t ronge re v idence f o rr i tua l i sp rov ided b y as t y l ised

1 06

D AV ID T RUMP

h ead c a rved i n s t one f ound j u s t i n s ide t h e e n t rance o f t h ew e s tern c hambe r ,f i g .3 ,t op l e f t . I ti st a pe r ing c y l in d r ica l , w i th e ye s , n o se ( t wo p a ra l le l i n c is ion s a nd p i ts

s e em s an ea r -ce r ta in ty t h a tt h a tw a sa l so t h ec a se h e re . T he n ex tp a r to ft h e s t ory o ft h es i te i sf a rf r om c l ea r y e t , a nd t h is a ccoun t c an o n ly b e v ery t e n ta t ive . T he e v idence s o f a r s ugge s t s t h a t t h e ma in c ave s y s tem c ame i n to u se ,p e rhap s w a s o n ly d i scove red ,l a te ri nt h e Z ebbug p ha se . I ts e em s i mp robab le t h a t t h e t omb a l r e ady d e sc r ibed w a s l abo r iou s ly c u ti ft h e re w e re n a tu r a l c aves a cce ss ib le n ea rby . A l though p a r t s o f t h e

f or n o s t r i ls ) a nd mou th ( a s t range ly v e r t ica l l i ne ) b y w ay o ff e a tu re s . Ar ema rkab ly s im i la ro ne c ame f r om o ne o ft h et omb sa tt h et y pe s i te ,T a 'T rapna ,Z ebbug ,i n 1 947 . I ti sv e ry t emp t ing t os e ei nt h i s ag ua rd ian d e i ty , t hough w he the rt ok eep h o s t i le f o rce so u to rt h ed ange r -

F IGURE 3 . T h eZ ebbug t omb : f i gu r ine h e ad ( 1 6cm ) . a mu le t s( 5 cm .3 . 3cm ) ,b e ad s( 1 .7cm .0 . 8cm )a n dp o t te ry ( l a rg e s th e igh t2 0 cm )

u ppe r d epo s i t s i n t h e c ave s w e re s t a ined b rown b y i n w a shed s i l t , l owe rl e ve l s a r ed ead wh i te f r om t h en a tu r a l d ecay o ft h e s o f tl ime s tone o ft h e i rw a l ls ,o rt i nged

o u ss p i r i t so ft h ed ead i ni sd eba tab le . Among t h e f i nd s w a s a l so af i ne c onch s he l l . T h is c ou ld h ave b een ap r ized p e r sona l p o s se s s ion o fo ne o f t h ep eop le b ur ied i nt h e t omb ,b u ti ss u re ly mo re l i ke ly t oh ave b een u sed i nt h er i tua l s o ft h ec ommun i ty . R ed o chr e w a sp re sen ti na bundance ,b o th i nn odu le s a s soc ia ted w i th s t one b ow ls f o r g r ind ing a nd s p r ink led f r ee ly t h rough a l l t h e d epo s i t s . T he s ha f t f i l l t o o w a s ma rked ly r eddened , p re sumab ly b y s p i l l f r om t h e p a r t i a l c l ea rance o ft h e c hambe r s d u r ing l a te ri n te rmen t s . E ven i fu sed s o le ly c o sme t ica l ly o n t h e c o rp se s , t h is w a s s u re ly r i tua la c t iv i ty . I nv i ew o ft h ea lmo s t wo r ld w ide u se o f o ch re t o s ymbo l i se b lood , a nd s o l i fe , i t

1 07

af a in tp ink f r om i mpo r t ed r e do ch re . T h i si mp l ie s t h a t t h eh a rd s u r face c ru s to fc o ra l l ine l ime s tone w a s i n tac t u n t i l m en c u t t h rough i t ,p e rhap s i n o rde r t oe xcava te a no the r t omb l i ke t h e o ne w e h ave f ound . I ti sn o t y e t a ta l l c l ea rt o wha te x ten tt h el a by r in th ine c hambe r s w e h ave d i scovered a r en a tu ra l c av i t ie s , o rw e re a r t i f ic ia l ly c u t , o r s t a r ted a s n a tura l o ne s t ob e l a te r e n la rged a nd e l abo ra ted . A l though a l l d epo s i t s y e t s amp led h ave p roduced o ve rwhe lm ing ly T a rx ien p ha se p o t te ry ,t h e re i s as c a t te r o fl a rge a nd u nab raded s he rd s o ft h e Z ebbug , G gan t i ja a nd S a f l ien i p ha se s , i mp ly ing e a r l ie r u se , p re sumab ly a l so f o rb u r ia l . B u ta ny d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e r i tua l s mu s t a tt h is s t age c on f ine i t se lf t ot h e l a te s t ,T a rx ien , p ha se ,

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d a ted t owa rd sc . 2500 C a lBC . B y t h a t t ime , a n a ppa ren t ly amorphou s s e r ie s o f

d ecayed t h a ti th ad t ob er emoved f o rs a f e ty r ea son sb e f o re w e c ou ld e xcava te t oe i the r s i de o fi t . As qua red

c hambe r sw a sg i ven amonumen ta lf o rm ,f i g .2 . T he c i r c l e p robab ly d a tes t o t h is p ha se , a nd a mega l i th ic t h re sho ld s t ep w i th as ma l l s h r ine a to ne e nd ,p e rhap sa t b o th , c e r ta in ly d oes . B enea th t h e s t ep a nd i nf r on t o f

b lock p l aced t os uppo r ti t s c en t re s howed t h a t t h e d an g e rw a sa l ready a ppa r en tt h en . T he i mp re ss ion o f' c ompa r tmen t s ' ,a l ready s ugge s ted

t h e s hr ine , an a tu ra l h o le i n t h e r ock w a s p acked w i th s ke le ta l r ema in s , t h ec l ea re s to fs eve ra l ' b onep i t s ' t ob e d i scove red . Al i t t le b eyond , t h e re may h ave b een b u i l t

r a l ly b y t h e mega l i th ic w a l l s o r d oo r -way s , b y l ow w a l ls ,a si nt h en o r the rn h a lf o fH ,o rb ys ep ta o fn a tu ra l r ock l e f tb e tween d eepe rc av i t ie s . T he se l a s ta r ea ppa r -

s t ep s l e ad ing d own t ot h e c en t ra l c hambe r o f t h e s i te , t h ough t h e se s t ep s w e re l a rge ly r emoved b y t h e B aye r e xcava t ion a nd i t s a f te rma th ,i fn o tb e fo re . A tt h ef oo t

e n ta c ro ss t h ec en t re a nd a tt h en o r th e nd o fa r ea X , a nd may emerge e l sewhe re a s t h e e xcava t ion i sc a r r ied t o

o f t h e s t ep s s t ood t h e m ega l i th ic s t ruc tu re r e vea led b y B ayer , p a in ted b y B roch to r f f , b u t b roken u p a nd r e moved b yl o ca l f a rme r s b e fo re t h ey b ack f i l led t h es i te . T owa rd s t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h is l a rge o va l c hambe r , o u r a r ea X , w e re f u r the r o r tho s ta t -and l in te l c on s t ruc -

b y t h e s i de -cave s a nd n i che s , w a s empha s i sed s t ruc tu -

l owe rl e ve l s . Mov ing t o e v idence f o r r i tua l , i fw e u se t h e s ame t h ree h ead ing s o fs ke le ta l r ema in s ,p e r sona l o rnamen t s a nd c ommuna l a r t ifac t s , w e mu s t a ga in s t a r t w i th t h e b one s , b u t r e i te ra te t h a t t h e i r s t udy i sv ery much a ta

t i on s n eve re xpo sed b yB aye r .

p r e l im inary s t age . Human r ema in s w e re f a r f r om u n i f o rm ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e se a r ea s . T he i r d en s -

F rom t h is g rea tc hambe r , o the r s o pened o f fa sc ave s o rn i che s o na l l s i de s ,o f ten w i th f u r the rm ega l i th ic s i l l -

e s t c oncen t ra t ion l a y t o t h e n o r th o f t h e f oo t o f t h e s t ep s , a nd w ou ld h ave b een o n t h e i mmed ia te r i gh t o f

F IGURE 4 . Two f i gu r ine so n ab ed .

s t one s o rt r i l i thon d oo rway s s epa ra t ing t h em o f f . Mo s t o ft h ese ( s ee p l an ) w e h ave n o t a t temp t ed t oo pen u p . T he ma in e xcep t ion i st ot h e s ou th -ea s t , w he re a r ea H h ad s t a r ted a s an ea r -c i rcu la rc ave s ome 7m i nd i ame te r , a ga in g i v ing a cce s s t oo t he r s a nd w i th i t s o wn n i che s . T he r oo fo ft h i s c o l lap sed b e fo re t h ee nd o ft h eT a rx ien p ha se , a nd t h e re w e re f u r the r d epo s i t s a bove i t . A b r idge o fn a tu ra lr ock s u rv ived b e tween i ta nd X ,b u ts o

a nyone e n te r ing t h el owe rl e ve ls o ft h es i te , ag rue some w e lcome . T he se b one s w e re v i r tua l ly a l l c omp le te ly d i sa r t icu la ted a nd a du l t , av e r i tab le c harne l d epo s i t . O ne o r t wo b one s o f c a t t le w e re a s soc ia ted a nd s ome s ub s tan t ia lf r agmen t so fT a rx ien p o t s . B eyond a s ep tum o f n a tu ra l r ock , r e in forced b y a l a rge h or izon ta l ly p l aced g lob igenna b lock , h uman b one w a s p l en t ifu l b u tt o amuch l e ss d r ama t ic e x ten t . An i n tac t a du l t s ke le ton w a s f ound h e re , a nd s eve ra l p a r t ia l ly i n tac t ' d i s jo in ted 'm igh td e sc r ibe t h em b e t te r b u to therw i se t h eb one s w e re f r ee ly s ca t t er ed a nd o ve r -

1 08

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DAV ID T RUMP

whe lm ing ly j uven i le . Af ew a s soc ia ted a n ima l b one s w e re a l l o f s heep /goa t . I n t h e n ex t c ompa r tmen t t h e re w e re a ga in d i s jo in ted l imb s ,b u tt h i s d epo s i t ,a ppa ren t ly t h ee n t rance t o af u r the rc ave t ot h en o r th , w a s n o tp u r s ued . O nt h eo the rs i de o ft h ef oo to ft h e s t ep s ,b one s w e re a ga in v e ry f r equen t , b o th i n tac ts ke le ton s a nd s c a t te red e l emen t s , o nce mo re p redom inan t ly a du l t . T he re w a s a s t rong s ugge s t ion t h a t s ku l ls h ad b een s t acked i n t h e c en t re o f t h is a r ea . P o t she rd s w e re s c arce b u t s ma l l

1

b e low t h e t h re sho ld s t ep . T h is , s ome 1 . 5m i na ve rage d i ame te r a nd r a the r mo re d eep , h ad ah igh p ro -po r t ion o f h uman b one t h roughou t . A t t h e t o p w a s a no the r s t ack o fa du l ts ku l ls ,t h en ag ene ra lm ix tu re . A tt h eb o t t om w a s a n i n tac t a du l t s ke le ton . T h i s , n o te , r e ve r se s t h e p o s i t ion i n t h e Z ebbug t omb c hambe r , whe re t h e h i ghe s ta nd l a te s td epo s i t ion w a s t h ei n tac to ne . I ts eem s c l ea ra l ready t h a tb od ies i nv ery c on s ide ra b l e n umbe r s w e re b rough t d own i n to t h e se c hamber s , b u tt h eg rea tm a jo r i ty w e re s ub sequen t ly a nd d e l ibe ra te -

W i t

1

F IGURE S .S t one f i gu r ine sf r om " bund le " f i nd s much mo r ef r equen tt h an e l sewhe re . F ur the r t ot h es ou th -ea s t , b one s a nd s he rd s w e re f a r mo re s pa r se a nd d i spe r sed u n t i l t h en i che s w e re c l ea red , whe re t h e re w e re f u r the r c oncen t ra t ion s o fb o th , s ome s ke le ton s i n tac t . I nt h ei nne ra r ea s ,p i gw a s t h eo n ly a n i ma l r e p re sen ted . Wha tb eg in s t oe me rge f r om a l l t h is i st h a tt h e re w a s ama rked p a t te rn ing i nt h ed epo s i t ion o fb one , b o th h u man a nd a n ima l . I tw a s f a r f r om r andom . F u r the r a t t emp tt od e sc r ibe ,l e ta l one e xp la in ,w ou ld b ep rema tu re u n t i l t h eb one a na ly se s a r ec omp le ted . T he i mp res s ion , h oweve r , i ss t rong ly r e info rced b y t h e s epa ra te d epo s i t

2

3

4

5 c

l y moved a round . T h is w a s s t ar ted s oon a f te r t h e b od i e s b egan t of a l l a pa r t , a s t h e d i scove ry o f a r t icu la ted l imb s ,h and s ,f e e t ,o cca s iona l ly s ku l l p lu s mand ib le , o r r i b c age s how s . T he p roce ss c on t inued a f te r c omp le te d i s in teg ra t ion . H e re t oo t h i s h a s t ob e a tl e a s t i np a r t d e l ibe ra te ,i nv i ew o ft h e t wo c oncen t ra t ion s o fs ku l ls . T he h igh p ropo r t ion o fj uven i le s a tt h en o r th e dge o ft h e c l eared a r ea ,h oweve r ,p re sumab ly g oe sb ack t ot h e mo men t o fi n i t ia l d epo s it ion : i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een e asy t os o r t t h em o u t s ub sequen t ly . Wha t c e remon ie s a c c ompan ied b o th t h ef une ra ls a nd t h el a te rr e so r t ing c an o n ly b eg ue s sed a t . An o tab le l a ck i nt h e se d epo s i t s i st h e o ch re wh ich f i gu red p rom inen t ly in t h e t omb . H e re , t h e re w a s o n ly

1 09

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

B y c on t ra s t , t h e re i s ag rea ti n c rea se i ne v idence f o r r i tua l a c t iv i ty i nvo lv ing t h e c ommun i ty a s aw ho le . T h is c an b ec on s ide red i nf i ve c a tego r ie s . 1 . A rch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s . T he a bove -g round f e a t u re s , t h e mega l i th ic c i rc le a nd t h re sho ld ,h ave b een a l r e ady m en t ioned . T ho se a r eo fi mmed ia te ly l o ca lc o ra l l i ne l ime s tone . Mo s t o f t h e m ega l i th ic b lock s o n t h e l owe r l e ve l a r e o fg lob ige r ina l ime s tone , c ho sen f o ri t s s moo th , e a s i ly w orked t e x tu re . I to u tc rop s o n t h e s l ope s o ft h eX agh ra p l a teau ,f r om w h ich i tw ou ld h ave

as l igh t p i nken ing o ft h e d epo s i t s i n af ew p l ace s , a nd s ome o ft h e s haped b lock s w e re p a in ted i nr ed . I nf a c t , o chre s eem s t o h ave moved f r om t h e p e r sona l t o t h e c ommun i ty l e ve l b y t h i s t ime . Two o the r o b se rva t ion s s t rong ly s uppo r tt h i sa s ag ene ra lt e ndency . Con s ider ing t h e v e ry l a rge n umbe r o f i n te rmen t s c ompa red w i th t h et omb , t h e re i s ar ema rkab le d ea r th o f ' p e r sona l e f fec t s ' . B ead s r e cove red h e re c an b ec oun ted o nt h ef i nge r so fo ne h and ,a nd a xe a mu le t so nt wo . T o d a te , t h e re h a s b een as i ng le j e l ly b aby ' . T he s ca rc i ty

t o b e q ua r r ied , t r anspo r ted a t t h e v ery l e a s t l Om u p , F IGURE 6 . T e r raco t ta f i gu r ines , t h es oc a l led ' f a tl a d ie s ' .

2 00m a l ong a nd 5m d own i n to t h e c ave s y s tem . T he magn i tude o ft h i s e f fo r ti si ni t se lf s uf f ic ien t e v idence o f c ommuna l e n terp r ise . T h is i sr e in -fo rced b y t h e monumen ta l i ty o ft h er e su l t s . A pa r tf r om t h e s e t t ing i lu s t ra ted b y B roch to r f fa nd n o l onge r a va i l -ab le f o r s t udy , t h e ma in o ne y e t e x -

o fp o t te ry ,e ven i nf r agmen t s ,i sp re sumab ly a no the ra s p ec to ft h es ame t h ing . An o tab le a dd i t ion ,h oweve r ,i s aV -pe r fo ra ted b u t ton c a rved i nt h ef o rm o f as na i l .

10

DAVID TRUMP

posed, towards the south end of area X, consists of four neatly tooled uprights and a lintel, PI.la. Pitted decora­ tion and V-perforations confirm, if confirmation were needed, that this is firmly within the tradition of Mal­ tese temple architecture. Separating X from K was a trilithon doorway, and another gave access to the uno­ pened cave to the west of K. These clearly demarcate rather than close, implying ritual or symbolic rather than functional restrictions. A number of other squared blocks, upright, recum­ bent or fallen, were discovered in various parts of the site. That beside the central shrine seems to have been placed to support the natural arch between X and H, but the others have no obvious function. Their importance at the time remains evident from the effort required to shape them and place them where found. 2. Other large shaped stones. To the north of the shrine, clearly marking this as an area of importance, was set a large jar carved from a single block of stone, PI.la. It was found broken, though its fragments were still in position. It had a diameter of 1.25m, compara­ ble to the stone bowl found in the central temple at Tarxien. At the north-east comer of H stood a tapering cylin­ drical pillar or betyl standing over lm high. There are two good parallels for this at Hagar Qim. Oose beside this was a carved sphere, likewise of globigerina, maxi­ mum diameter 0.95m. This had apparently stood on the surface and fell here when the natural roof of this part of the site collapsed during the Tarxien phase. Consid­ ering its size, it would make no sense as a roller for moving megalithic blocks into position, so it too, like the betyl, must have had some symbolic purpose. This perhaps calls in question the interpretation as rollers of­ fered for the many smaller examples, averaging 2030cm diameter, from other sites. All three must be part of the ritual fittings of the site, and as such very difficult to interpret now. However, analysis of the interior surface of the jar for lipid pro­ tein residues might produce interesting results. If it did, perhaps the betyl and sphere should be tested also for traces of organic anointings. Thanks to this exciting new technique, ancient ceremonials are more capable of recovery now than they were a few years ago. 3. Trace analysis could also be usefully applied to the three flint knives found together on the west side of X, though here the result is more predictable. The evi­ dence from Tarxien itself strongly suggests that blood would be found, the result of animal sacrifice. Once more we are clearly looking at communal activity. 4. The most dramatic finds from the site so far have been a number of globigerina statuettes.

a. A standing corpulent figure, originally about 60cm high though only fragments were found, not in­ cluding the head. One piece showed part of an arm and midriff, a second a panelled and dot-decorated base with scars where the feet had broken away, the others various pieces of pleated or arcaded skirt. The work­ manship of the finely polished, lightly dotted, yellow­ ochre-washed surface is superb. The skirt can be matched closely from the so-called 'priest' figure in ter­ racotta from Tarxien, the pedestal and stance from the standing figure from Hagar Qim. This figure, a typical Maltese 'fat lady' and presuma­ bly, like the great statue at Tarxien, representing the deity of the time, must have dominated the central part of the site which it had overlooked. One cannot but wonder how it came to be broken and its pieces scat­ tered across the western half of area X. b. More intriguing is a smaller piece, 14cm long, found lying on its face just north of the stone jar on the east side of X. It represents two similarly skirted fig­ ures seated side by side on a couch or bed. One holds a smaller figure of the same form, the other a bowl or cup. It would be tempting to see these as a divine fami­ ly, but the two larger figures are anatomically indistin­ guishable, as is usual with the Maltese temple statuary. There is nothing here to contradict the view that these are both female, but equally nothing to prove it. Again the piece is beautifully carved and, unusually, preserves some traces of paint, black on the skirts and hair of the one head to survive, red on legs, feet and couch. Separately, head, upper body, skirt, legs and couch can all be matched in other figures from the tem­ ples. The whole, however, particularly the duplication, is unique, and a very welcome addition to the corpus of Maltese Temple Period sculpture. But what its signifi­ cance was to the people of the time is another question altogether. c. Even more problematical is a set of nine figures found just to the north of the 'two-in-a-bed' group so closely stacked together that they must have been de­ posited, or hanging on the wall above, in some contain­ er, PI.lb and fig.5. Six bear a strong family resem­ blance, and are best described as stick, plaque or plank figurines. The most detailed has a finely modelled head wearing a diadem, a plain trapezoidal chest with no in­ dication of arms or breasts, a waist girdle and a trape­ zoidal lower body with an arcaded skirt but no legs or feet. The others are of progressively simpler form, only, apparently, through being unfinished. The ap­ pearance of the face is more male than fe male. The skirt is the only detail which links these to the known series of female figures, apart from the globigerina of

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11 l

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

w h ich t h ey a r e made a nd t h ef i nd spoi T he o t he rt h ree a r eq u i te d i f f e ren t . O ne i s ah ead s e t o n al ong c y l ind r ica ln eck o n , i nt u rn , ac on ica l p ede s t a l . T he s econd i s as im i la rh ead p e rched o nt wo c y l in d r ica l , s t range ly f o re -and -af tl e g s . T he se h ead s , e spe c i a l ly t h e ir r i bbed h a ir s ty le , a r e c lose ly ma tched i n t emp le c on tex t s , i n c lud ing t h e ' t wo -on -a -bed ' g roup h e re . T he t h ird , h oweve r , whe re t h e h ead , o n as imp le s t a lk ,i st h a to f ap i gw i th c u rved t u sk s ,i su n ique . S ince p roof i si mpo ss ib le , s pecu la t ion mu s t b e i t s s ub st i tu te f o r i n te rp re t ing t h i s e n igma t ic g roup . I t w ou ld s eem t o b e t h e p rope r ty o f a n i nd iv idua l , who w a s i nt h ep roce ss o f manufac tu r ing t h e s e t . I ti sd i ff i c u l tt os e e wha th e( o rs he )m igh th ave w an ted t h em f o r i fn o t f o r s ome p ub l ic c e remony , g iven t h e ir r e s t ing p l ace a tt h ec en t re o f ah igh ly r i tua l is t ic s i te . T he o wn e rc an p robab ly b ea s sumed t ob e al e ade ri nt h e se c e re mon ie s , whe the r w e u se t h e w o rd p r ie s t , s haman o r w i tch -doc to r . T he f i gu re s a r e o f as i ze t o f i t i n t h e h and ,w h ich m igh te xp la in t h ea b sence o fa rm sb u td oe s n o t s qua re w e l l w i th t h e c l ea r ly i nd ica ted s k ir t . Any t h ing b eyond t h a tb ecome sp u re c on jec tu re . S . S ca t te red a c ro s s t h e s i te , b u t c oncen t ra ted ma rk e d ly i nt h e w e s te rn h a lf o fX , w e re f ound s ome t wen ty f i gu r ine s mode l led i nc l ay , p lu s o ne c a rved i nt h e s o f t s t one ,f i g .6 . A l though t h e re w e re s ome d i f f e rence s b e t ween t h em , n o tab ly i nt h e p o s i t ion o f t h e a rm s wh ich c ou ld b e f o lded a c ro s s t h e a bdomen , e x tended t o l i e a l ong t h et h igh s ,o ro ne o fe ach ,t h ey w e re o nt h e who le v e ry u n i fo rm . T he t o ta l h e igh to ft h eo ne c omp le te o ne w a s7 . 2cm a nd a l l w ou ld h ave b een w i th in af ew mm o f t h i s . T he s ub jec ta ppea r s t ob e t h e s ame i ne ve ry c a se , t h e Ma l te se ' f a t l a dy ' o r ' mo the r g odde ss ' , t h e i n ve r ted c omma s n ecessa ry b ecau se , a s u sua l , s exua l a t t r ibu te s a r e n o t u sua l ly s hown . One h a s ar a the r b e t te r d eve l op ed b u s t t h an t h e o t he r s a nd mu s t b e f ema le , b u t d i f f e r s i nn o o the r r e sp ec t . T he se a r e a ppea l ing f i gu re s ,

d oub le s p i ra l o fc l ay h ad av ery p ha l l ic look ing p ro jec t i ng k nob , b u t t h is h ad b een mode l led i n to as ma l l h u man h ead . S eve ra l d e tached h ead s ,a l l o fs ma l l s i ze ,i n t e r raco t ta o r s t one w e re f ound , o ne o f t h e l a t te r w i th b l ack p a in ted e ye p up i ls a nd wh i te ma rk s o nt h ec heek s s ugge s t ive o ft e a r s . T he s ma l le s to fa l l w e re t h ree a n i ma l p ha lange s b a re ly 7mm h igh , t h e d i s ta l k nobs o f wh ich h ad b een c arved w i th h uman f e a tu re s . A l though o fc on s ide rab le a r t is t ic i n te re s t , w e c an r e ad b ack l i t t le f r om t h e se o nr i tua lb e l ie f sa nd p rac t ice s . T o s um u p , t h e n ew i n ve s t iga t ion s i nt h e B roch to r f f C i rc le h ave y i e lded aw ea l th o f a dd it iona l i n fo rma t ion o n t h e p reh is to r ic Ma l te se , p ar t icu la r ly a sr ega rd s t h e b ur ia l r i te s . E spec ia l ly v a luab le i st h e o ppo r tun i ty t o c ompa re t ho se o f t wo s ucce ss ive p e r iod s , t h e Z ebbug t omb a tc . 4000 1 3C a nd t h eT a rx ien h ypogeum a t2 500 . I nt h is r e spec t ,t h ec hange i ne mpha s i sf r om t h ei nd iv id u a l t ot h ec ommun i ty i sp ar t icu la r ly s t r ik ing . Whe the r i n tac td epo s i t sr e p re sen t ing i n te rmed ia te p e r iod s t od oc umen t t h e c hange s u rv ive o n t he s i te r ema ins t o b e s e en . T he re i se ve ry r e a son t os uppo se t h a ti tc on t inued i nu se t h roughou tt h a tm i l lenn ium a nd ah a l f . A t t h e e a r l ie r d a te , t h e Z ebbug t omb l ook s l i ke a f am i ly v au l t , r e -opened a s r equ ired t o a ccommoda te s ucce s s ive membe r s w i th t h e ir p e r sona l p o sse ss ion s . E a r l ie r b u r ia ls w e re t r ea ted w i th s can t c ou r te sy , b e ing e i the rp u shed t ot h e b ack o re j ec ted a l toge the r ,o r b o th i n t u rn , t o make r oom f o r l a te r c or ne r s . T hough t h e re w e re i n a l l p robab i l i ty c ommun i ty r i tua ls i n vo lved i n t h e se f une ra ls ,t h ey h ave l e f tl i t t le ma rk o nt h ea r chaeo l og ica lr e co rd . B y t h e T a rx ien p er iod , t h e c ommun i ty i sp l ay ing a much l a rge rr o le ,a nd t h ei nd iv idua l a nd f am i ly ,o ne c an o n ly a s sume , c o r re spond ing ly s ma l le r o ne s . A monu m en ta lc eme tery n ow s e r ved ag rea t ly i n c rea sed p opu la t i on . T he b und le o f p lank f i gu re s s ugge s t s t h a t t h ere w a sn ow ar i tua l s pec ia l i s tt oo ff ic ia te . T he s t ruc tu re o f

b eau t ifu l ly made a nd f i red . T he s t one e xamp le men t ioned a bove w a s r a the r s ma l le ra nd l y ing w i th a ni n tac ts ke le ton , a nd a ppea red t ob e m ean ing fu l ly a s soc ia ted w i th i t . T he o the r s w e re

t h e s i te , i t s f i t t ing s , a nd t h ep a t te rn ing b eg inn ing t ob e c ome a ppa ren ti nt h eb one d i s tr ibu t ion , a l ld emon s t ra te

n o t s o a s soc ia ted , b u t s i nce t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o f t h e b on es i nt h i sa r ea w e re s c a t te red ,a no r ig ina la s soc ia t ion c anno t b e r u led o u t . I ndeed , t h e n umbe r a nd s c a le o f

l i g iou s b e l ie f s b eh ind t h e r i tua ls , b eyond w ha tH a l S a f l ien i h ad l ong a go d emon s t ra ted , n ame ly t h a t t h e u n -

t h e se f i gu re s make i tp robab le t h a t t h ey w e re i nd iv idu a l ly o wned a nd i n te r red a s p e r sona l p o sse s s ion s o f t h e

g rea td ea l i nc ommon . T he t emp le s , a sP ro f . B onanno d emon s t ra ted t ot h is c on f e rence ,a r ea tl e a s tr a the r mo re e n l igh ten ing .

d ecea sed . T hough r i tua l i ss t i l l u ndoub ted ly i n vo lved , i tw a so f ad i f fe ren to rde rt ot h a to ft h e c ommun i ty c e r e mon ie s i mp l ied b y t h e e a r l ie rc a tego r ie s o ff i nd s , a nd c o r re spond ing ly mo re d i ff icu l tt or e cove r . 6 . O the r s ma l l f i nd s c an o n ly b e l ump ed u nde r t h e g ene ra l h ead ing ' m isce l laneou s ' . A mo s t e x t rao rd ina ry

e l abo ra t ion o fc e remon ia l . A l l h oweve r ,n o t e xcep t ing t h e s t r ik ing f i gu r ine s ,f a i lt ot h row much l i gh to nt h er e -

d e r -g round c eme te r ies a nd a boveg round t emp le s h ad a

B u tt h e re i se ve ry r ea son t oh ope t h a tf u tu re wo rk o n t h e B roch to r f f C irc le , b o th e xcava t ion w i th in t he s i te a nd s ubsequen t s t udy o f t h e f i nd s , w i l l p rov ide much f r e sh i n fo rma t ion o n t h e e a r ly Ma l te se a nd t h e i r r i tua l p rac t ice s .

12

DAV ID T RUMP

REFERNCES BONANNO ,A . 1 994 . T h i s v o lume . MALONE ,C . , BONANNO ,A . , GOUDER ,T . , STODDART ,S .a nd TRU MP ,D . T he Dea th C u l t so f P reh is to r ic Ma l ta . S c ien t if ic Ame r ican Vo l . 2 69 ,n o . 6( Decembe r 1 993 ) ,p p . 7 6 -3 .

P LATE 1 . ( A ) B ro ch to r f fC i r c le ,t h es h r ine a r ea l o ok ing n o r th -ea s t ( B ) T he f i gu r ine ' b und le a sf o und .

13

REL IG ION I N THE ' PREH ISTOR IC PHASES ' OF PHOEN IC IAN MALTA

7

ANTHONY J . FREBDO D ep t . o fC l a s s ic sa nd A rcha eo logy

U n ive r s i ty o fM a l ta M s ida ,M a l ta

I ti s ac ommonp lace t h a t t h e a r chaeo logy o fr e l ig ion i s

P hoen ic ian p o t tery f r om Ma l ta c on ta ined i n i t . T h is d a te , n ame ly t h el a te e i gh th /ea r ly s even th c en tury B .C .

o ne o f t h e mo s td i ff icu l t b ranche s o fa r chaeo log ica lr e s e a rch . T he a r chaeo logy o fr e l ig ion i n t h e Ma l te se i s -

a l so h appen s t of i tw e l lw i th t h er e su l t so fv e ry r e cen tr e s e a rch wh ich i n d ica te st h a tt h eP ho en ic ian sh ad b een a c t i ve e l sewhe re i nt h e c en t ra l Med i te r ranean e a r l ie r t h an s cho la r s g ene ra l ly b e l ieved . T hu s , a tC a r thage ' t he e a r l i e s tP hoen ic ian o ccupa t ion c an n ow b ed a ted t ot h ef i r s t

l and s d ur ing wha t It e rm t h e ' p reh is to r ic p ha se s ' o f P hoen ic ian Ma l ta c e r ta in ly o f fe r s n o e xcep t ion t o t h e g ene ra lr u le . I ndeed ,t ot r ya nd f i gu re o u tt h e ma in c ha r a c te r is t ic s o fr e l ig ion i n t h e Ma l te se a r ch ipe lago d u r ing t h ea fo remen t ioned s pan o ft ime s e em s t ob e af r u s t ra t -

h a lf o ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry ( i fn o te a r l ie r ) a nd t h ee a r l ies t i mpo r ted p o t te ry ( s ee b e low ) n ow s eem s c l o se r t o t h e t r ad i t iona l f ounda t ion d a te o f 8 14 B .C . ' ( Fa lsone 1 990 :

i ng e xe rc ise . And y e t , ac l o se r l ook a t s ome o f t h e a va i lab le e v idence c an h e lp u s g a in ab e t te r p i c tu re o f

1 87 ) . E ven t h e e v idence f r om t h e s i te o ft a s -S i lg o ve r l ook ing t h eb ay o f Ma r sax lokk i nt h es ou th -ea s to f Ma l ta

r e l ig ion i n Ma l ta d u r ing t h is p e r iod . When t h e P hoen ic ian s e xac t ly c ame t o Ma l ta f o rt h e

i nd ica te s t h a t t h e P hoen ic ian s w e re i nt h e i s land i nt h e s even th a nd p e rhap s a l ready i n t h e e i gh th c en tury B .C . ( C iasca 1 970 : 9 5 ) . T hu s , a l l i na l l t h e e x tan t a va i lab le e v idence s hows

f i r s tt ime i s ama t te ro fd eba te . T he t omb o f Gha jn Q a j j e t i n t h e v i c in i ty o fR aba t c on ta ined t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic r e ds l ip b urn ished P hoen ic ian w a re ,a nd i th appen s t ob e o ne o f t h e t omb s c on ta in ing e a r ly P hoen ic ian ma te r ia l f r om Ma l ta ( Ba ldacch ino a nd Dunbab in 1 953 ) . T h is p o t te ry b e long s t ot h es e cond g roup o fr ed s l ipped P hoe n i c ian w a re ' whose f o rm s a r e w ide ly s ca t te red i n t h e c o lon ie s 'a nd who se d a te r ange sf r om 8 50 t oc .6 50 B .C . ( Cu l ican 1 982 : 6 8 ) . T he p a r t icu la rg roup o fr ed s l ip b u r n i shed p o t tery f r om Gha jn Q a j je t w a s t hu s i nn eed o fa c l o se r d a te . T he l a t te r w a s p rov ided b y ma te r ia l f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e a fo remen t ioned P hoen ic ian p o t t e ry ; y e t , t h is d a te i si nf a c to n ly a pp rox ima te . T hu s ,a b ronze t o rch h o lde r o f aC yp ro -Phoen ic ian o r ig in i nd i c a te s ap o s s ib le d a te i n t h e e a r ly s even th c en tu ry B .C . f o r t h e Gha jn Q a j je t t omb , whe rea s a Co r in th ian c up w ou ld d a te i ta nd t h ee a r ly P hoen ic ian ma te r ia l f ound i n i tt o t h e s econd h a lf o f t h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . o r t h e e a r ly s even th c en tu ry B .C . ( Ba ldaceh ino a nd D unbab in 9 53 : 3 7 , 4 0 ) . R ecen t ly , t h is C o r in th ian c up h a s b een d a ted b y s ome s cho la r s t ot h es econd h a lf o ft h es even th c en tu ry B .C . ( Bonanno 1 988 : 4 19 ,n o te 2a nd r e f e rence s t h e re in ) . Howeve r ,o the r s s t i l lp re f e rt h ee i gh th /seven th c en tu ry B .C . ( B ru sa sco 1 993 : 2 5 ,n o te 1 7 ) . On t h eb a s i so fa l lt h ef o rego ing p o in t sa nd i nv i ew o f t h e p i t fa l l s o f p o t te ry c h rono logy i n g ene ra l ( F rendo 1 992 : 3 33 ) i ts e em s t h a t t h e re i sn o r e a son t oa bandon t h e e a r l ie rd a te f o r t h e G ha jn Q a j je t t omb a nd t h e e a r ly

t h a t t h eP hoen ic ian s mu s th ave a l ready s e tf oo ti n Ma l ta b y t he e a r ly s even th c en tury B .C . a tt h e l a te s t . May r ( 1909 : 7 3 )h ad a l ready r e ached t h is c onc lu s ion ,a nd i ti s i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a th e a rgue s t h a tb y t h i s d a te t h e re mu s th ave a l ready b een P hoen ic ian s e t t lemen t si n Ma l ta wh ich w e re s t rong e nough t of ound t h e ir o wn c o lon ie s i nT un i s ia ( May r 1 909 : 7 3 -74 ) . Whe the rt h i s c onc lu s ion i s af a c to rn o t f r om t h e a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o fv i ew i s p e rhap s d eba tab le , b u t o ne s hou ld n o t l o se s i gh t o ft h e t r ad it ion r ef lec ted i nS t ephen o fB yzan t ium wh ich e xp l i c i t ly s how st h a ti na n t iqu i ty p eop le d id h o ld t h a tA cho l la ( wh ich l a te r c ame u nde r C a r thag in ian r u le ) i n T un is ia w a s f ounded b y t h e Ma l te se ( STEPHEN OF BYZAN T IUM 1 958 : 1 52 ; s ee a l so E nnab l i 1 976 : 6 ) wh ich i n t h is c on tex t p rac t ica l ly mean s b y t h e P hoen ic ian s f r om Ma l ta . Hence ,b yt h ed awn o ft h es even th c en tu ry B .C . a tt h e l a te s tt h eP hoen ic ian s h ad h ad af oo tho ld i nt h e Ma l te se a r ch ipe lago . And y e t t o d a te , t h e e a r l ie s t i n sc r ip t ion s w h ich t h ey l e f t b eh ind t h em o n t h e Ma l te se i s land s b e l ong t o t h e s i x th c en tu ry B .C . ( Amada s i Guzzo 1 967 : 1 5 - 42 ; Goude ra nd R occo 1 975 : 1 8 ) . Wha tt h is m ean s i nt e rm s o fh uman h i s to ry i st h a tt h e re i s as pan o fc i rca

14

ANTHONY J .F RENDO

o ne h und red y ear s w h ich b e long s t ot h e P hoen ic ian p e r i od o f Ma l te se h i s tory b u t w h ich h a s n o t y e t y i e lded a ny w r i t ten e v idence . T h is s pan o f t ime c an t hu s b e t e rmed ' p reh i s to r ic ' . R ecen tr e search i n to t h ee a r l ie s tp ha se s o ft h eP hoe n i c ian p e r iod i n Ma l ta a tt h e s i te o ft a s -S i lg h a s s hown t h a t t h e se p ha se s c an b e a r chaeo log ica l ly d i v ided i n to t wo . T hu s , w e h ave t h eA rcha ic P hoen ic ian P ha se d a t -

B o rg i n -Nadu r c u l tu re b a sed o n s t ra t igraph ic e v idence

i ng t ot h e e i gh th /seven th c en tu ry B .C . a nd t h e P hoen i c i an -Pun ic P ha se d a t ing t o t h e s even th /s ix th c en tu ry

P hoen ic ian s r eached Ma l ta t h ey f ound t he B ronze A ge p opu la t ion i nd ec l ine ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 6 ) . B e s ide s ,t h e

B .C . ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 6 ) . T hus , t h e r e l ig ion o f t h e ' p reh i s to r ic 'p ha se s o fP hoen ic ian Ma l ta t u rn s o u tt ob e t h e r e l ig ion o f t h e p eop le o f t h e Ma l te se i s land s f r om s ome t ime i nt h es econd p a r to ft h ee i gh th c en tu ry B .C . u pt ot h ee nd o ft h es e ven th c en tury B .C . T he i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h ea fo remen t ioned t o p ic i sb e s e tb y many d i f f icu l t ie s . I nt h ef i r s tp l ace , t h er e la t ion s h ip b e tween t h ea r chaeo log ica l r eco rd a nd i t s r e l ig iou s i n te rp re ta t ion i si ng ene ra l av e ry d e l ica te a nd d i f f icu l t a f f a ir ;i ndeed ,' t he p roduc t s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re , s e ldom a dm i t o f e xac t a nd i ncon te s tab le i n terp re ta t ion a s t o t h e i rb ea r ing u pon t h er e a lm o fr e l ig iou s b e l ie f s ' ( Ce rny 1 952 : 1 3 ) . S econd ly ,a sf a ra sP hoen ic ian Ma l ta i sc on c e rned i ts hou ld b e b o rne i nm ind t h a t mo s t o f t h e a r c haeo log ica l ma te r ia l c ome s f r om t omb s . We a r e a l l a wa re o ft h ed i ff icu l t ie s p o sed b y a r chaeo log ica l ma te r i a l c om ing f r om t omb s s uch a st h el a ck o fs t r ic ts t ra t i g raph ic c on t ro l w i th i t s n ega t ive e f fec t s o nc h rono log i c a l r e ckon ing . B e s ide s ,a sy e tt h e re a r en of i na lr epo r t s o n t h e i mpo r tan t mu l t i -pe r iod s i te o ft a s -S i lg ( 1 ) wh ich w a s a l so a v e ry i mpo r tan t P hoen ic ian -Pun ic c en t re ( Bru sa sco 1 993 ) . N o tw i th s tand ing t h ea fo remen t ioned d i ff icu l t ie s ,o ne c an s t i l lp robe i n to t h eg ene ra l n a tu re o fr e l ig ion i n Ma l t ad u r ing t h e' p reh i s to r ic 'p ha se so ft h eP hoen ic ian p e r i o d . Howeve r ,i no rde rt od ot h i s o ne s hou ld f i r s th ave a l ook a t t h e p rob lem o f t h e t r ans i t ion f r om t h e L a te B ronze Age t o t h e E a r ly P hoen ic ian P e r iod ; i ndeed , e ven s ome o f t h e e a r l ie r p r eh is to r ic p e r iod s o f Ma l ta w i l lh ave t ob ek ep ti ns i gh t . T he L a te B ronze A ge i n Ma l ta i sn amed a f te r t h e t ype s i te f o r t h e p er iod , n ame ly B o rg i n -Nadu r . T he p rev iou s B ronze A gepha se , n ame ly t h eT a rx ien C eme t e ry p ha se h a sr ad ioca rbon d a te s o f2 500 -1500 B .C . a nd t h e se r e su l t s ' mean t t h a t B o rg i n -Nadu r h ad t os t ar t i n 1 500 B .C . t o a vo id c r ea t ing a g ap i n t h e s equence '

h e lp su sa pp rec ia te t h ef a c tt h a tt h eL a t eB ronze A ge i n Ma l ta w a s v ar iega ted w i th d i f fe ren t g roup s o fp eop le a ppea r ing i nt h ei s land . T he t r an s i t ion f r om t h eL a te B ronze Age t ot h eE a r ly P hoen ic ian P er iod a tt h e s i te o ft a s -S i lg h a s b een d ea l t w i th b y B rusa sco ( 1993 ) . H is i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e a va i lab le d a ta l e ad s h im t oh ypo the s ize t h a t w hen t h e

n a tu re o ft h eB o rg i n -Nadu rP ha se s e t t lemen ta tt a s -S i lg i ss t i l l u nc lea r . A s h e s a ys : ' La r i occupaz ione d e l le p opo laz ion i d e l B ronzo F ina le a p re i nr e a l tà n on p och i p rob lem i al i ve l lo d ip re is to r ia , p o ichè n on s app iamo c on c e r tezza q ua le f o sse l av e ra n a tu ra d i t a le s t ab i l i men to : s i man tenne i lc a ra t te re r e l ig io so o i n vece f u u n 'occupaz ione d i s qua t ter s? ' ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 ) . B ru sa sco p re fe r st h el a t te rs o lu t ion ,b u tt h is i sh ypo the t i c a l( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 -15 )a nd t h er e l ig iou si n t e rp re ta t i on o ft h es e t t lemen tc anno tb ee xc luded . T he f o rego ing p rob lem i sc ruc ia l e spec ia l ly i nv i ew o f t h e f a c t t h a t a tt a s -S i lg t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r t h e T a rx ien C eme te ry P ha se ( 2500 -1500 B .C . ) . I ndeed , o ve r ly ing b ed rock w e f i nd e v idence f o r t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se ( 3000 -2500 B .C .) wh ich i sf o l lowed w i thou ta ny g ap i n o ccupa t ion - b y t h e Bo rg i n -Nadu r / -

B ah i i ja P ha se . T h i s i sn o tc on sonan t w i th t h e c u r ren t g ene ra l b e l ief t h a t t h e s equence o fc u l tu re s i n Ma l ta i s t h a t o ft h e T arx ien T emp le P ha se T arx ien C eme te ry P ha se B o rg i n -Nadu r /Bah r i ja P ha se s ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : -

-

1 4 , 2 5 , n o te 1 3 ) . T hu s , t h e e v idence f r om t h e s i te o f t a s -S i lg c r ea tes n ew p rob lems f o r t he g ene ra l ly a ccep ted c h rono logy f o r t h e p reh is to ry o f Ma l ta ( B ru s a sco 1 993 : 2 5 , n o te 1 3 a nd r e fe rence s t h e re in ) ; h ow e ve r ,i ta l so h appen s t ob eo ft h eu tmo s ti mpo r tance f o r t h ep rob lem u nde ri n ve s t iga t ion . T he f a c tt h a ta tt a s -S i lg t h e re i sn og ap i no ccupa t ion b e tween t h eT a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h eB o rg i nN a d u r /Bahr i ja P ha se s i st ob e c onnec ted w i th t h e c l a im s t h a tt h el a t te rp ha se s c on ta in a l so P hoen ic ian p o t tery o f t h ee a r l ie s t t ype i n Ma l ta ,n ame ly t h a tb e long ing t ot h e A rcha ic P hoen ic ian P ha se men t ioned a bove . C ia sca i s c onv inced o ft h ea s soc ia t ion b e tween t h et wo g roup so f p o t te ry j u s t men t ioned . S he e xp l ic i t ly s t a te s t h a t ' La c o inc idenza d i q ue s ta a s soc iaz ione d i c e ram ica d e l B ronzo e c e ram ica f en ic ia ê c o s ! c o s tan te aT a s -S i lg c he d i f f ic i lmen te p o t rebbe e s se re r i tenu ta o cca s iona le ' ( C ia sca 1 971 : 6 6 ) . B ru sa sco ' sa na ly t ica l wo rk c ha l leng e st h ee x ten t a nd t h e n a ture o f t h e a l leged a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h eB o rg i n -Nadu r /Bahr i ja p o t te ry a nd t h ee a r l yP hoen ic ian p o t tery a tt a s -S i lg . Two t h ing sn eed t ob e

( J ame s e ia l . 1 99 1 : 4 0 ) . H oweve r , t h is a l so m ean t t h a t t h eB o rg i n -Nadu rc u l tu re h ad av e ry l ong s pan o ft ime : f r om 1 500 B .C . u p t oa tl e a s t t h ea dven to ft h eP hoen i c i an s i n Ma l ta , n ame ly c .t h e s econd h a lf o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . L uck i ly ,D av id T rump h ad s ucceeded t o d i v ide t h e B org i n -Nadu r c u l tu re i n to t h ree p ha se s

u nde r sco red . T he f i r s ti st h a to n ly f ou rs ondage s a tt a s -

( T rump 1 961 : 2 58 -259 ) . T h is t r ipa r t i te d i v i s ion o ft h e

S i lg wh ich a r e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly r e l iab le y i e ld e v idence

15

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

o ft h ea s soc ia t ion b e tween t h eL a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry o f Ma l ta a nd t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian p o t te ry f ound i nt h e i s land ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 , 2 0 , 2 1) . T he s e cond i st h a t t h ea f o remen t ioned P hoen ic ian p o t te ry i si nf a c tp o t te ry b e long ing t o t h e P hoen ic ian -Pun ic P ha se o f t h e s ev e n th s ix th c en tury B .C : t h e re i sn o i ns i tu a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry o f Ma l ta a nd t h e P hoen ic ian p o t te ry o f t h e A rcha ic P hoen ic ian P hase d a t ing t o t h e e igh th /seven th c en tu ry B .C . ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 ,15 ,16 ) . Mo reove r , t h e o n ly f ou r s ondage s wh ich y i e lded e v idence o fa n o r ig ina l a s soc ia t ion b e t ween t h et wo t ype s o fp o t te ry i nq ue s t ion h appen t ob e l o ca ted i na rea s 1a nd 2 ( no r th ) ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 2 0 ) .

c o 1 993 : 9 ) . Howeve r , t h i s f a c td oe s n o t o fi t se lf p re c l ude t h e re h av ing o nce b een ar e a la s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e p o t tery o f t h e L a te B ronze Age p eop le o f Ma l ta a t t a s -S i lg a nd t h a to ft h eP hoen ic ian s who c ame t h e re . I n f a c t ,t h ea r ch i tec tu ra le v idence s hows t h a ts uch a na s so c i a t ion i sv e ry p robab le f o ri tw a s p rec ise ly i nt h e a r ea o f t h e a fo remen t ioned p reh is to r ic a pse t ha t t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian sa tt a s -S i lg b u i l tt h e i rs anc tua ry d ed ica ted t o t h eg odde ss A s tar te ( C ia sca 1 970 : 9 5 ) . T he a fo remen t ioned d i sturbed s t ra t if ica t ion c ou ld v e ry w e l l a ccoun tf o r t h ef a c t t h a t t h e re i sn oe v idence a ta l l a tt a s -S i lg f o ra no r ig ina l a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e t h e L a te B ronze Age p o t tery o f Ma l ta a nd t h e e a r l ie s t

T h i s m ean s t h a ti nf a c tt h e re i sn oe v idence o fa ny s uch a s soc ia t ion w h ich c ome s f r om a r ea 2( s ou th ) w he re t h e p reh i s to r ic t emp le o ft a s -S i lg i sl o ca ted ( Bru saco 1 993 :

P hoen ic ian p o t tery t h ere b e long ing t o t h e e igh th / s even th c en tury B .C . B u tt h is d oe s n o t mean t h a t s uch a n a s soc ia t ion c ou ld n o t i nr e a l i ty h ave e x is ted . I n t h e

9a nd r e fe rence s t h e re in , 1 9 , f i g . 1 ) . C ia sca h ad b e l i eved t h a ti th ad b een p r ec ise ly i nt h is s a c red s po tt h a t

a b sence o f d i rec t r e l iab le s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence , t h e l a ck o fs uch a n a s soc ia t ion f o r t h e e a r l ies tP hoen ic ian

t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian s w ho c ame t o t a s -S i lg b u i l t t h e i r s anc tua ry a nd t ha t t h e i r p o t tery w a s f ound m ixed w i th t h e L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry o f Ma l ta ( C ia sca 1 970 :

p e r iod a tt a s -S i lg c ou ld a l so a l te rna t ive ly b e e xp la ined a s ar ef lec t ion o ft h ef a c tt h a tt h e v e ry f i r s tP hoen ic ian s e t t le r sw ou ld n o th ave l e f te v idence f o rs uch a na s soc i -

9 5 ) . T hu s ,t h eu p sho ti st h ree fo ld : 1 )t h a tt h eo r ig ina la s soc ia t ion b e tween t h ee a r ly

a t ion i n t h e a rchaeo log ica l r eco rd . T he ir p resence w ou ld n o th ave y e tb een c on so l ida ted a nyway . Howev e r , t h e se v e ry f i r s t P hoen ic ian s e t t le r s d id l e ave t r ace s o ft h e i rp re sence a tt a s -S i lg whe re w ef i nd ' a lcun i ma t e r ia l i a n t ich i ed ' isp i raz ione o r ien ta le 'i n' s ca r ich i v o t i -

P hoen ic ian p o t tery a nd t h eL a te B ronze A ge p o t tery o f Ma l ta a tt a s -S i lg i so f av e ry r e s t r ic ted e x ten t . 2 )t h a tt h ee v idence f o rs uch a na s soc ia t ion d oe sn o t

v i t a rd i ( t e rzo s ec . a .C . ) ' a nd t h e ir r ed s l ipped w a re f ound ' r ido t ta i n m inu t is s im i f r ammen t i ei n q uan t i th n on t r oppo a bbondan te , n e l lo s paz io d e l l 'ab s ide p re i s -

s t em f r om t h ea r ea o ft h ep reh is to r ic s ac red p r ec inc to f t a s -S i lg . 3 )t h a tt h e re i sn oe v idence o ft h is o r ig ina l a s soc ia t i on b e tween t h e e a r l ie s tP hoen ic ian p o t tery ( t ha tb e l ong ing t ot h eA rcha ic P hoen ic ian P ha se o ft h ee i gh th ] s even th c en tu ry B .C . )a nd t h eL a te B ronze Age p o t te ry

t o r ica 2s ud en e l p r imo s c a r ico d e l le a r ee 3e4 '( Bru s a sco 1 993 : 1 5a nd r e fe rence st h e re in ) . T hu s , i nr ea l i ty i ts t i l l s e em s p robab le t h a t t h e f i r s t

o f Ma l ta T he f o rego ing a ff i rma t ion s a r ei mpo r tan t . Howeve r ,

P hoen ic ian s e t t le r s a tt a s -S i lg w e re a l so a c t ive i n t h e p reh is to r ic s ac red a r ea o f t h e s i te a nd t h a t t h ey i n te r m ing led p eace fu l ly w i th t h el o ca lL a te B ronze A ge p op -

t h ey n eed t o b e q ua l if ied a nd s e t i n aw ide r c on tex t . T he s t ra t if ica t ion a tt a s -S i lg i se x t reme ly d i s tu rbed a nd

u la t ion . A l though t h e s t ra t ig raph ica l ly r e l iab le e v i d ence o f t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e p o t te ry o f t h e se

t h is c ou ld v ery w e l l b e t h e r ea son f o r C ia sca ' s c l a im s m en t ioned a bove t h a t t h e re i sw ide sp read e v idence f o r a n a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e Ma l tese L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry a nd e a r ly P hoen ic ian p o t tery ( Bru sa sco 1 993 :3 ,

t wo g roup s o fp eop le i sn o t t h a t v a s t , i td oe s e x i s t . A s s hown a bove , e ven B rua sa sco ' s m in ima l a pp roach r e g a rd ing t h is ma t te r a l lows o ne t oc onc lude t h a t a tt a s S i lg t h e re i se v idence o fa n i ns i tu a s soc ia t ion b e tween

2 4n o te 6 ) . Y e t , t h ef ou ra r ea s o fe xcava t ion men t ioned a bove wh ich y i e lded e v idence f o r a n o r ig ina l a s soc ia -

t h e p o t tery o f t h e L a te B ronze Age p eop le a nd t h a to f t h e P hoen ic ian n ewcome r s . I n t h e l a s t a na lys is , t h i s c onc lu s ion i sn o t t h a td i f f e ren tf r om C ia sca ' s o wn p o s i t i on . S he t oo a dm i t s t h a tt h e s t ra t igraphy a tt a s -S i lg i s o f ten d i s turbed , a nd y e ts he s ay s t h a t s ome o ft h ef r ag m en t so ft h ee a r ly P hoen ic ian -Pun ic p o t te ry w e re f ound i ns i tu a nd t h a t t h ese w e re f ound ' ne l la p a r te a l ta d e l lo

t i on b e tween t h ea fo remen t ioned t ype s o fp o t te ry s how t h a ts uch a n a s soc ia t ion d i di nf ac te x is ta nd t h a tt h e re f o re w en eed n o t ap r io r i a t t r ibu te t h is a s soc ia t ion ma in l yt ot h ed i s tu rbed n a tu re o ft h es t ra t ig raphy . T he f a c t t h a t t h e s t ra t ig raphy i n t h e s ac red p rec inc t o f t a s -S i lg ( a rea 2 ( s ou th ) ) i sv e ry d i s tu rbed d oe s n o t

s t ra to p r e is to r ico , s t i l q ua le l es t ru t tu re d e l s a n tua r io d i

w a r ran t t h e s econd c onc lu s ion men t ioned a bove . I n d eed , t h e s t ra t igraphy i n t h e a r ea w he re t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se a p se l i e si sv i r tua l ly i ns hamb le s ( Bru sa s -

e poca s t o r ica s ono f onda t e '( C ia sca 1 971 : 6 5 ) . T he o r ig ina l a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e l o ca l L a te B ronze A ge a nd t he e a r ly P hoen ic ian p o t te ry a s e v i -

16

ANTHONY J .F RENDO

d enced a tt a s -S i lg p rov ide s as o l id f r amewo rk f o ri n te r -

i d ea o f ac on t inu i ty b e tween t h eT arx ien T emp le P ha se

p re t ing s i gn s f r om e l sewhere i n Ma l ta w h ich i nd ica te t h a t t h e L a te B ronze A ge p opu la t ion c on t inued t op ro d uce i t s o wn a r te fac t s i nt h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian p e r iod . A tQ o rm ii nt h et a l -Ham in ie r id i s t r ic t ,7 . mm i tf ound a n e a r ly P hoen ic ian t omb w h ich h ad b een r i f led . Howev e r ,i ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t' on s t r ic te xam ina t ion i n t e re s t ing p o t she rd s w e re r e cove red o f at h ick w a re w i th

a nd t h e B ronze Age p ha se s o f Ma l ta (Wa rd -Perk in s 1 942 : 3 3 ) . I ndeed , ' t he s ugges t ion t h a t t h e o lde r r a ce

ar e d s l ip , re semb l ing p o t te ry o ft h eB ronze Age p e r iod ' ( Zamm i t 1 927 : v i i ) . I ndeed , t h e Ma l te se L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry s e em st ol i nge ro nr i gh ti n to t h eP un ic p e r i o d f o r a t Q a l l i l i ja ( no r th -we s t o f t h e I m tar fa H i l l ) a t r ench e xcava ted b yZ amm i ty i e lded e v idence o fB ahn j a p o t te ry a nd s ome P un ic w a re ( 7 .amm i t 1 913 : 1 01) . T he s ame p a t te rn a ppea r s a tM ta r fa f o r a n e a r ly P un ic l amp w a sf ound t o ge the rw i th t h el a te s tt yp eo fB o rg i n N adu rp o t tery i n ar o ck -cu tp i t( J ame s e ta l . 1 991 : 3 50 , n o te 4 8 a nd r e fe rence s t h e re in , s ee a l so E van s 1 971 : 1 07 ) . T he i mp re ss ion o ne g e t s i st h a tw hen t h eP hoen i c i an sf i r s t c ame t o Ma l ta t h ey i n te rm ing led w i th t h e l o c a l L a te B ronze A ge p opu la t ion w ho c on t inued t op ro d uce ( a lbe i to n as ma l l s ca le )t h e i ro wn p o t te ry . I ndeed , t h i s p o t tery t r ad i t ion s eem s t o h ave e ven i n f luenced s ome o f t h e P hoen ic ian r ed s l ipped w a re f ound a tt a s S i lg b ecau se a tt ime s t h el a t te rt ype o fp o t te ry i nd ica te s t h a ti t sp a s te , manu f ac tu r ing t e chn ique s ,a nd d eco ra t ion h ave t h e ir o r ig in s i n t h e p o t te ry t r ad i t ion s o f L a te B ronze Age Ma l ta ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 2a nd r e fe rences t h e re in ) . I tw a s a l ready p o in ted o u t a bove t h a t t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se a tt a s -S i lg i sf o l lowed b y t h e B o rg i n N adu rp ha se a nd t h a tt h e re i sn o g ap i no ccupa t ion b e t ween t h e se t wo p ha se s . Now a si th a sj u s tb een s hown , a tt a s -S i lg t h e re i se v idence o fa n o ve r lap b e tween t h e B o rg i n -Nadu r a nd t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian p ha se . T h is m ean s t h a ta ny s i gn s o fc on t inu i ty b e tween t h eT a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h e B o rg i n -Nadu r P ha se w i l l b e e qua l ly v a l id f o r ac on t inu i ty b e tween t h ef o rme rp ha se a nd t h ee a r ly P hoen ic ian p ha se . I ndeed ,t h ee v idence a t t a s -S i lg s eem st op o in ti nt h i sd i rec t ion . F i r s t o f a l l , a s f a r a s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h e B o rg i n -Nadu r P ha se g oes , i ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t h a ta tt a s -S i lg t h e B o rg i n -Nadu rp eop le r e -u sed mega l i th ic b lock sf r om t h ef o r m e rp ha se ; t h ee v idence f o rt h e se b lock sl i e si na r ea s3 , 4 , a nd 2 ( s ou th ) ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 a nd r e fe rences t h e re in ) , a nd t hu s t h e p r eh is to r ic f oca l s a c red a rea o f t a s -S i lg i si nc luded . B e s ide s ,t h ey a l so made u se o ft h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se c u l t ic m a te r ia l l i ke b e ty ls ,a l ta r s , a nd b a s in s ( Bru sa sco 1 993 : 2 5 ,n o te 2 4 ) . B e fo re t h e a fo remen t ioned e v idence f r om t a s -S i lg w a s a va i lab le , Wa rd -Pe rk in sh ad a l ready b e l ieved i nt h e

w a s d ead a nd i t s c u l tu re ama t te r o n ly f o ra r chaeo logy b efo re e ve rt h ef i r s tB ronze Age s e t t le rs e tf oo ti n Ma l t a , i sb a sed s o le ly o n t h e e v idence o f Ha l T arx ien ' ( Wa rd -Pe rk in s 1 942 : 3 3 ) . I ts hou ld b e b orne i n m ind t h a t a tH a l T a rx ien i t se lf t h e r u in s o ft h e t emp le s mu s t h ave r e ta ined t h e ir s anc t i ty s i nce t h ey w e re c ho sen a sa b u r ia l p lace b y t h e T a rx ien C eme te ry p eop le . We s hou ld n o t f o rge t t h a t t h e l a t te r g roup o f p eop le a l so b u i l t an ew s h r ine ' sma l le r a nd c rude r , b u t s t i l l o n t h e s ame s t ruc tu ra ll i ne s a si t s p redece sso r s ' ( Ward -Pe rk in s 1 942 : 3 3 ) . A t Mga r r aB ronze Age t emp le w a s a dded t oo rr ep laced t h e e x is t ing N eo l i th ic o ne , whe rea s H a g a rQ im , Mna jd ra , a nd t h e mega l i th ic c omp lex o fB o rg i n -Nadu r' have a l l y i e lded ac op iou s s e r ie s o ff i nd s o f b o th p e r iod s [ t he S tone Age a nd t h eB ronze Age w i th o u t at r ace o fa ny d i s loca t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu ra l d eve lop men t '( Wa rd -Pe rk in s 1 942 : 3 3 ) . Mo reove r ,t h er u in s o f t h e t owe r o f S an ta V e rna l ook l i ke t ho se o f aB ronze A ge d we l l ing p l ace b u i l to ve rt h er ema in s o f aN eo l i th i c mega l i th ic s t ruc tu re , w h i ls t aN eo l i th ic d ome s t ic s i te a ti x -Xagh ra t a Ko rd in w a s o ccup ied c on t inuou s ly i n to t h e B ronze Age . I n f ac t , a wh i te e ncru s ted ' cu t -ou t ' w a re ' occu r red o n ly i n t h e l a te r , b u i ld ing s ' (Wa rd P e rk in s 1 942 : 3 3 ) . H ence ,t a s -S i lg i sn o ta ni s o la ted i n s tance . I ta ppea r s t h a ti n Ma l ta t h e re w a s ac e r ta in amoun t o f c on t inu i ty b e tween t h eT a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h eB ronze Age p ha se s . I ti s ac ommonp lace t h a t d ur ing t h e B ronze A ge v a r iou sg roup so fp eop le c ame t o Ma l ta a nd t h ee v i d ence f r om t a s -S i lg s eem s t ou nde r sco re t h e f a c t t h a t t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se c an i nf ac t b e f o l lowed b y t h e B ronze Age p ha se s w i thou t a ny g ap i no ccupa t ion o r a ny i n te rmed ia te p ha se , s uch a s t h eT arx ien C eme t e ry P ha se . T he c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h eB ronze Age p ha se s o f Ma l ta s e em st os p i l lo ve r i n to t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ian p ha se . T hu s , a tt a s -S i lg t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se s anc tua ry l a s ted i n to t h eP hoen i c i an p ha se a nd t h e P hoen ic ian s t h em se lves h a rd ly a l t e red i ta ta l l u p t ot h ef i f th c en tu ry B .C . ( C ia sca 1 970 : %) . A no the r p o in t o fc on t inu i ty b e tween t h eT a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h e P hoen ic ian p ha se s a tt a s -S i lg i s p rov ided b y aP hoen ic ian r ec tangu la r t h re sho ld a l ta r w h ich w a s s i ted p rec ise ly o n t h e s po t whe re t h e re h ad b een ap reh is to r ic s ac r if ic ia l s t one ( C ia sca 1 970 : 9 6 9 7 ) . B e s ide s ,a tt a s -S i lg am ega l i th ic b a s in r ound i sh i n s hape ,a nd ab e ty la d jacen tt oi tb o th b e long t ot h eT a rx i e nT emp le P ha se ; t h ey w e re b o th r eu sed b y t h eP hoe n i c ian sp robab ly r i gh tf r om t h ef i r s tp ha se o ft h e i rp re s -

17

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e nce a t Ma r sax lokk ( C ia sca 1 970 : 9 7 ) . T he a fo remen t ioned b e ty l d e se rve s ac l o se r l ook . I t w a su nea r thed i nt h ec u l t ic a r ea 3 8a tt a s -S i lg d u r ing t h e 1 968 s e a son o fe xcava t ion a nd i tc on s i s t s o f ab lock o f s t one s haped i n to ap a ra l le lep iped c .1 . 30 me t re s h igh . I ts t ood n ex t t o ab a s in ( o r ig ina l ly m ade o f as i ng le

T emp le P ha se r i gh t i n to t h e P hoen ic ian p ha se s . I n d eed ,be ty l 1w a s s t i l l s t and ing i n t h e f i na l c en tur ie s o f t h eH e l len is t ic a ge ( Cag iano d eA zevedo 1 973a : 1 02 ) .

b lock ) h av ing amax imum d i ame te r o f 5 me t re s a nd i t w a sl o ca ted t ot h el e f to ft h et emp le f a cade ( Cag iano d e

t h e re h av ing b een n og ap i no ccupa t ion b e tween t h ef o r me r p ha se a nd t h e i n te rven ing B ronze Age p ha se s wh ich i nt u rn p rov ide e v idence o f a n a s soc ia t ion w i th

A zevedo 1 969 : 17 , 18 , 19 ; B u su t t i l e ta l 1 969 : p l s . 2 -3 ) . T he s anc tua ry a tt a s -S i lg w a s r e -a r ranged i nt h e

A t t a s -S i lg , t h e g ene ra l t yp e o fc on t inu i ty i nt h e r e l i g iou s s phe re b e tween t h e T a rx ien T emp le P ha se a nd t h e A rcha ic P hoen ic ian P ha se t o ge the rw i th t h e f a c to f

t h ee a r ly P hoen ic ian s( s e ea bove ) ,s hows t h a ti ti sl i ke ly

l a te P un ic p e r iod , n ame ly t h e t h ird c en tu ry B .C . ,b u ti t i si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a ta r ea 3 8' wa s a b so rbed i n to t h e n ew c omp lex , b u t k ep t u na l te red a sr egard s i t s l e ve l s , e v iden t ly f o rt h e s ake o fp re ser v ing w ha t w a s i n s ide i t , t h a t i s , t h e r ema in s d i scove red t h i s y ea r ' ( Cag iano d e

t ho se o fb o th t h eT a rx ien T emp le p eop le a nd t h eP hoe n ic ian s . I nt r u th , a sf a ra st h e Ma l te se i s land s a r e c on c er ned , ' o f t h e i n te rven ing B ronze A ge r i te s w e k now

Azevedo 1 969 : 17 -118 ) . T he r ema in s i n q ue s t ion , n ame ly t h e a fo remen t ioned b e ty l a nd b a s in w e re c l o se l yc onnec ted w i th t h ep reh i s to r ic t emp le a tt a s -S i lg b o th

a l l t oo l i t t le ' (Wa rd -Pe rk in s 1 942 : 3 4 ) . Howeve r , t h e B o rg i n -Nadu rp eop le ' occup ied mo s to ft h es i te [ o ft a s S i lg , a l though d i s tu rbance a nd s h if t ing o f o ccupa t ion

i n at opog raph ica l a nd r e l ig iou s s en se ; i ndeed , t h ey w e re c .3 0m e t r e sa way f r om t h ep r eh i s to r ic a l ta r wh ich

d eb r is h ave t ob er e ckoned w i th a ts e ve ra l p o in t s ' ( Ma l h a 1 966 : 5 1 )a nd a ss hown a bove , t h ey l e f t many c u l t ic

h ad b een u nea r thed i nt h ep rev iou s s ea son ( Cag iano d e A zevedo 1 969 : 18 ) . Ab e ty l c an r ep re sen te i the r ama le o r af ema le d e i ty , b u ti nt h ec a se o f Ma l ta i ti st ob ei d en t if ied w i th ama le g od ' s ince i ti ss i tua ted i n ap o s i t ion wh ich i sa lmo s t

i t em s a nd s t ruc tu re s i n s i tu r i gh t t o t h e a dven t o f t h e P hoen ic ian s . B e s ide s , i ts hou ld a l so b e b o rne i nm ind t h a t e t ac l o se a na ly s i s o ft h ea va i lab le e v idence s hows

c omp lemen ta ry t o t h e t emp le o f t h e G rea t Godde ss ' ( Cag iano d eA zevedo 1 969 : 18 ;s e ea l so F a lsone 1 993 : 2 45 -246 , 2 6 1 : n o te 6 ) . T he c on t inu i ty i nt h e r e l ig iou s s phe re b e tween t h eP hoen ic ian a nd t h ep r eh is to r ic p ha s e sa tt a s -S i lg i sa l so b o rne o u tb yt h ef a c tt h a tt h eP hoe n i c ian sh ad l e f t i ns i tu e ven t h e' s tone s phe re w h ich w a s u sed t os e t i n to p lace t h e b ae ty lu s when t h e s anc tua ry w a sf i r s tb u i l t '( Cag iano d e Azevedo 1 969 : 18 ) . Mo re o ve r , t h e f r agmen t s o f c y l indr ica l ly s haped v o t ive b e t y ls f ound i na r ea 3 8 a nd t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f ab e ty l o n t h ef r on ton o fa na ed icu la i n d ica te t h a tt h eb e ty l w a s i ndeed ac u l t ic o b jec t( Cag iano d eA zevedo 1 969 : 19 ) . A no the ri mpo r tan tb e ty l a tt a s -S i lg i sb e ty l I wh ich w a sf ound s t i l l i ns i tu d u r ing t h e 1 970 s e a son o fe xcava t i on ( Cag iano d e Azevedo e ta l . 1 973b : P l . 4 1 : 1 2 ) . I t w a s c onnec ted t o as t ruc ture t h e p av ing o f wh ich b e l onged t ot h ep reh is to r ic p ha se s o ft a s -S i lg s i nce i tw a s c ove red w i th w a s te d epo s i t s c on ta in ing ma te r ia l o ft h e e igh th c en tury B .C . T h is b e ty l l i e s t ot h e s ou th o f t h e o ne men t ioned a bove a nd i nf a c ti ts e em s t ob ei t st w in . I ndeed ,' i t wou ld b et h es econd a s soc ia ted [ b e ty l ]o ft h e g odde ss . T he a ccen tua ted d i ssymme t ry o f t h e f a cade , w h ich r e su l t s f r om t h is ,f i nd s many c ompa r ison s a nd a t t h e s a me t ime c on f irma t ion s i nt h e v ar ious mega l i th ic t emp le s i n Ma l ta ( Cag iano d c A zevedo 1 973a : 1 02 ; C ap r ino 1 973 : 5 5 ) . T h is b e ty l t oo s hows t h e r e l ig iou s c on t inu i ty t h a t t h ere w a s a tt a s -S i lg f r om t h e T arx ien

t h a t t h e B ronze Age p eop le h ad a t y pe o fr e l ig ion t h e g ene ra l c ha rac te r is t ics o f wh ich w e re a na logou s t o

t h a t t h e r e l ig iou s n a ture o f t h e s i te i nt h e B ronze A ge s t i l l c anno tb e p rec luded ( B ru sa sco 1 993 : 1 4 ) . H ence , t h e ' l i t t le o rn oi n te re s ti nt h e r e l ig iou s f unc t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing s ' ( Evan s 1 971 : 1 4 ) wh ich t h e Bo rg i n -Nadu r p eop le s howed a t t h e s i te wh ich b ea r s t he ir n ame s hou ld n o t b e i nd isc r im ina te ly a pp l ied t o a l l s i te s i n Ma l ta T hu s , i ts e em s t h a t when t h e P hoen ic ian s c ame t o Ma l ta t h ey f ound ap opu la t ion who se c u l t w a s c en te red a round amo the r g odde ss ( Cag iano d c A zevedo e ta l . 1 965 : P l . 3 0 ) . Now i ti s ac ommonp lace t h a tt h eP hoe n ic ians t oo h ad a f ema le g odde s s o f f e r t i l i ty , n ame ly A s ta r te ,a s af oca lp o in to fv ene ra t ion a nd t ha tt h ey h ad t emp le sd ed ica ted t oh e ri n many o ft h e i r Med i te r ranean o u tpo s t s a s a tt a s -S i lg i t se lf . I n t h i s s en se , t h er e l ig ion o f t h e e a r ly P hoen ic ians i n Ma l ta w ou ld h ave b een i n e s sence s im i la r t ot h a t o ft h e l o ca l p opu la t ion t h ey e n c oun te red a nd t h ey wou ld h ave i d en t if ied t h e l o ca l mo the rg odde ss w i th t h e i ro wn A s ta r te . I ndeed , Ama d a s i Guzzo h a sr e cen t ly s hown t h a tt h e re i s av e ry i n te r e s t ing p a t tern c ommon t o t a s -S i lg i n Ma l ta , E ryx i n n ea rby S ic i ly , a nd P apho s i n C yp ru s . I n t h e se t h ree P hoen ic ian c en t re s , t h e P hoen ic ian g odde ss o ff e r t i l i ty A s ta r te i sc a l led r e spec t ive ly : A s ta r ie o f' NN t h a ti st o s ay A s ta r te o f Ma l ta , A s ta r te o f ' RK t h a t i st os ay A s t a r te o fE ryx , a nd A s tar te o f PP t h a ti st os ay A s ta r te o f P apho s ( Amada s i Guzzo 1 993 : 2 08 ) . A s f a ra s Ma l ta i s c once rned , t h ep h ra se A s ta r te o f' NN i st ob e f ound o n a ni n sc r ip t ion f r om t a s -S i lg a nd a l though t h er e ad ing o f

18

ANTHONY J .F RENDO

t h e s c r ip ti sn o tt h a tc e r ta in , Amada s i Guzzo 's r ende r ing o fA s ta r te o f' NN s e em sp lau s ib le . T h is i sa l l t h e mo re s oi nt h el i gh to ft h ep a ra l le li n sc r ip t ion sf r om E ryx a nd P apho s . Mo reove r , b e s ide s r e fer r ing t o Ma l ta , ' NN c ou ld a l so s t and f o r t h e p r inc ipa l c en t re o fP hoen ic ian Ma l ta i nt h ea r ea o fR aba t( Amada s i Guzzo 1 993 : 2 09 2 10 ) . T he s im i la r i ty i nt h ec on t inu i ty b e tween t h e r e l ig ion o fp r eh i s to r ic Ma l ta a nd E ryx a nd t h a to ft h er e l ig ion i n

f r om t h e mu l t i -pe r iod s i te o ft a s -S i lg i nd ica te s t h a tt h e re s e em s t oh ave b een ag ene ra l t ype o fc on t inu i ty i n t h e r e l ig iou s b e l ief o f t h e p eop le r i gh t f r om t h e T arx ien T emp le P hoen ic ian s . A l l t h is w i thou ta ny g ap i no ccu p a t ion wha t soeve r . On t h e c on t rary , t h e re a r e e ven s i gn s o fa no ve r lap b e tween t h eL a te B ronze Age p ha s e sa nd t h eA rcha ic P hoen ic ian P ha se a tt a s -S i lg .

t h e se c en t re si nh i s to r ica l t ime si sa s tound ing . A tE ryx , t h eP hoen ic ian s i d en t if ied t h e ir f ema le d e i ty o ff e r t i l i ty , n ame ly A s ta r te ( who w a s l a te r wo r sh ipped u nde r t h e n ame o fV enu s ) w i th al o ca l p reh is to r ic g odde ss ; i na s im i la rm anne r , a tt a s -S i lg i n Ma l ta t h ey i d en t i f ied A s t a r te ( who w a s l a te r wo r sh ipped u nde r t h e n ame o f J uno ) w i th t h e l o ca l p reh is to r ic f ema le d i v in i ty . T h i s s ame b a s ic p a t te rn i sf ound i no the rP hoen ic ian c en t re s o f t h e Med i te r ranean ; i ndeed , a s t h e P hoen ic ian s e x p anded t h e n e two rk o f t h e i r o u tpo s t s i nt h e Med i te r ra n ean ' p ii id iu na d i v in it hf emm in i le l o ca le ès t a ta i d en t i f i ca ta c on A s ta r te , c he p ub a ve r a s sun to o m eno c ome e p i te to i ln ome d e l l uogo d i c u l to ' ( Amada s i Guzzo 1 993 : 2 08 ) . T he l o ca l p reh i s to r ic g odde s sa tE ryx mu s th ave b een v ene ra ted b y t h e E lym ian s . A l l a nc ien t s ou rce s a g ree

t r ed a round af ema le g odde ss o ff e r t i l i ty . T he ma le e l e m en ti sn o tp rec luded a se v idenced b yt h ev ene ra t ion o f b e ty l s s i tua ted c l o se t ot h ee n t rance o ft h et emp le a tt a s S i lg wh ich w as d ed ica ted t oA s ta r te a s w e k now f r om l a te r i n sc r ip t ion s f r om t h e s ame s anc tua ry . T he e a r ly P hoen ic ian s mu s th ave a l so p rac t ised s ome t ype o fc e re mon ia l w a sh ing a s i nd ica ted b y t h e p reh i s to r ic m ega -

R e l ig ion i n Ma l ta d u r ing t h e ' p reh is to r ic p ha se s ' o f t h e P hoen ic ian p e r iod w ou ld h ave t h e re fo re b een c en -

l i th ic b a s in w h ich t h ey r e -u sed . Du r ing t h e ' p reh is to r ic p ha se s ' o fP hoen ic ian Ma l ta p eop le mu s th ave a l so b e l ieved i na na f te r l if e . T he re i s o ne e a r ly P hoen ic ian t omb f r om t a l -Ho r r wh ich p ro v i de s i n te re s t ing e v idence r ega rd ing t h is ma t te r . I ti sa r ock -cu t t omb w i th t wo c hambe r s h av ing a c ommon s haf tl e ad ing t ot h em ; l u ck i ly i tw a s u n r i f led . I no ne o f t h ec hambe r s t h e re w e re ' t h e c r umb led r ema in s o f af e ma le a du l t s ke le ton ' , w he r ea s i nt h e o the r t h e' decayed r ema in s o fa no ld man ' w e re f ound . I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t ha tt h e se c hamb e r s t e ach u s ' wh ich w a s t h em in i mum f uner a lf u rn i tu re d epo s i ted w i th e ach b ody a tt h a t t ime , v iz : t wo p l a te s , o ne j a r , o ne a mpho ra a nd o ne

t h a t ' E ryx w a s f ounded b y t h e E lym ian s o fW S i c i ly w ho w e re c en te red a tS ege s ta ' ( Fu sa 1 976 : 3 18 ) . T he i r p l ace o fo r ig in i s ama t te ro fd eba te : t h ey c ou ld h ave e i the r c ome f r om T roy a l te ri tf e l l , o rt h ey c ou ld h ave h a i led f r om I t a ly i t se lf ,n ame ly f r om L igu r ia ( L i 1 950 :

l amp . I tw a s q uee rt h a tn ol amp w a sl a id w i th t h eb ody o ft h e woman who h ad ,h oweve r ,b ead sb u r ied w i th h e r ' ( Zamm i t 1 924 : I V ) . Ad ead p e r son w a s t hu s e qu ipped w i th t h eb a s ic v e sse l s wh ich d u r ing h i s l i fe wou ld h ave h e ld f ood a nd d r ink f o r h im a nd wh ich h e lped s how h im l i gh t when s u r rounded b y d a rkne ss . T he a ccen t s e em s t ol i e o nl i f e w h ich s omehow o ro t he r mu s th ave t h eu ppe rh and e ven w hen o ne e xpe r ience sd ea th .

8 07 ) . B e t h a t a s i t may , i ti sv e ry i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t a l l E lym ian s e t t lemen t s i n S ic i ly a r e l o ca ted o n h i gh p l ace s ( Tu sa 1 988 : 2 85 -286 ) . N ow i ts oh appen s t h a t t h eL a te B ronze A ge o f Ma l ta i sl a rge ly c ha rac te r i z ed b y d e fen s ive s e t t lemen t s s i tua ted o nh i gh g round . T hu s ,i ts e em st h a t when t h eP hoen ic ian sc ame t o Ma l ta a nd E ryx t h ey f ound ag roup o fp eop le who p re fer red t h e s ame t ype o f t opog raphy f o r t h e ir s e t t lemen t s . B e s i de s ,a si nd ica ted a bove , t h eP hoen ic ian s f ound al o ca l mo the r g odde s s b o th a tE ryx a nd i n Ma l ta , a nd i nb o th c a se s t h ey i d en t if ied t h e ir f e r t i l i ty g odde s s A s ta r te w i th h e r . C ou ld i tb et h a tt h eB o rg i n -Nadu rp eop le w e re r e -

T hus , when t h e P hoen ic ian s r eached t h e Ma l te se i s l a nd s t h ey c ame w i th as t rong b e l ie fi nl i f e wh ich t h ey e xp re ssed b yi den t i fy ing A s ta r te ,t h e ir g odde ss o ff e r t i l i t y , w i th t h el oca l mo the r g oddess a nd b y e qu ipp ing a d ead p e r son w i th t ho se c e ram ic v e sse ls b y means o f

l a ted t ot h eE lym ian s? Wha teve rt h ea n swe rt ot h ef o re g o ing q ue s t ion may e ve r t u rn o u t t ob e , t h ef a c ti st h a t a t t a s -S i lg t h e p h ra se A s tar ie o f ' NN s hows t h a t t h e P hoen ic ian si n Ma l ta i d en t if ied A s ta r te w i th al o ca lp re e x is t ing f ema le d e i ty ( s ee a bove ) .

w h ich h e p rocu red f ood a nd d r ink d u r ing h i s l i fe a nd wh ich n ow s ymbo l ized t h e f a c t t h a t s omehow o r o the r h ew a s t o eme rge v i c to r iou sf r om h i sd ue l w i th d ea th .

When o ne p iece s t o ge the r mo s t o f t h e p o in t s men t i oned i n t h is s t udy , o ne c an c onc lude t h a t i n t h e ' p reh i s to r ic p ha se s 'o fP hoen ic ian Ma l ta r e l ig ion s e em s

No te : T he re w e re e i gh t s ea son s o f e xcava t ion a tt a s -S i lg ( 1963 -1970 ) t he p re l im ina ry r epo r t s o f w h ich c an b e f ound i nt h ef o l low ing : B one l lo e ta l . 1 964 ,C ag iano d e

i ne s sence t oh ave b een l a rge ly s im i la rt o wha ti th ad a l w ay s b een f o r av e ry l ong t ime . I ndeed , t h e e v idence

A zevedo e ia l . 1 965 , 1 966 , 1 967 , 1 972 , 1 97 3b ,B ozz ie i a l . 1 968 ,B u su t t i l e ta l . 1 969 .

19

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

R ENVES AMADAS I GUZZO , MAR IA G IUL IA . 1 967 . L ei s c r i z ion iF en ic ie P un iche d e l le C o lon ie i nO cc iden te ,R oma : I s t i t u to d iS tud id e lV ic ino O r ien te , Un ive r s i tà 1 993 . D iv in it hF emc ie aT a s -S i lg , Ma l ta Id al iE p ig raf ic i , J ourna lo f Med i te r ranean S tud ie s , 3 :2 05 -214 BALDACCH INO ,J .G . ,a nd DUNBAB IN ,T . J . 1 953 . R ock T omb a tG ha jn Q a j je t ,n ea rR aba t , Ma l ta , P aper so ft h e B r i t i sh S choo la tR ome , 2 1 : 3 2 -41 ,P i s .X I I -X IV BONANNO , ANTHONY . 1 988 . E v idence o fG reek , C a r thag in ian a nd E t ru scan Ma r i t ime C omme rce s ou th o ft h e T yr rhen ian : t h e Ma l te se C a se ,i n ,T . H acken s ,c d . , N av ie sa nd C omme rce o ft h eG reek s , t h eC a r thag in ian sa nd t h e E tru scans i nt h e T yrrhen ian S ea : A c t s o ft h e E uropean S ympos ium h e ld a tR ave l lo , J anuary 1 987 , R ixen sa r t : PACT ,4 17 -428 BONELLO , V INCENZO e ia l .

1 964 . M i s s ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana a Ma l ta : R appor to P re l im ina re d e l la C am -

p agna 1 963 ,R oma : I s t i tu to d iS tud id e lV ic ino O r ien te , Un ive r s i tä B077 1 , CLARA e ia t . 1 968 . M i ss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta : R appor to P re l im inare d e l la C ampagna 1 967 , R oma : I s t i tu to d iS tud id e lV ic ino O r ien te ,U n ive r s i t BRUSASCO , PAOLO . 1 993 . D a l L evan te a ! Med i te r raneo C en t r a le : L aP u ma F a se F en ic ia aT a s -S i lg , Ma l ta , J ou r n a lo f Med i te r ranean S tud ie s ,3 : 1 -29 BUSUTT IL ,G IUSEPPE e ia l . 1 969 . M i ss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta : R appor to P re l im inare d e l la C ampag n a1 968 ,R oma C on s ig l io N az iona le d ele R ice rche CAG IANO DE AZEVEDO , M ICHELANGELO e i a l . 1 965 . M i ss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana a Ma l ta : R appor to P re l im ina re d e l la C ampagna 1 964 ,R oma : I s t i tu to d iS t ud id e lV ic ino O r ien te , Un iv e r s i tä e ta l . 1 966 . M i ss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta : R appor to P re l im inare d e l la C ampagna 1 965 ,R oma : I s t i tu t od iS tud i d e lV ic ino O r ien te , Umve r s i th e ta l . 1 967 . Mss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta : R appor to P re l im inare d e l la C ampagna 1 966 ,R oma : I s t i tu t o d iS tud id e l V ic ino O r ien te ,U n ive r s i tà 1 969 . T he 1 968 C ampa ign ,t r an s la t ion b yF .M .F a le s ,i n ,B u su t l i l ,G iu seppe e ia l . 1 969 , 17 -124 e ia l . 1 972 . M i ss ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta : R appor to P re l im ina re d e l la C ampagna 1 969 ,R oma : C on s i g l io N az iona le d e l le R ice rche 1 973a . T he 1 970 C ampa ig n ,t r an s la t ion b yF rance sP .P innock ,i n ,C ag iano d cA zevedo ,M iche lange lo e ia l .1 973b , 1 01-4 0 4 e ta l . 1 973b . M i s s ione A rcheo log ica I t a l iana aMa l ta :R appor to P re l im ina re d e l la C ampagna 1 970 ,R oma : C on s i g l io N az iona le d e l le R iche rche CAPR INO , CATER INA . 1 97 3 . L oS cavo d e l l 'A rea S ud ,i n ,C ag iano d cA zevedo ,M iche lange lo e ia l . 1 973b ,4 3 -57 CERNY ,J AROSLAV . 1 952 . A nc ien tE gyp t ian R e l ig ion ,L ondon : Hu tch in son ' s Un ive r s i ty L ib ra ry C IASCA , ANTON IA . 1 970 . R ice rche P un iche aMa l ta ,i n ,F .B a r reca e ta l . , R icerche P un iche n e l Med i ter raneo C en t r a le : R e la z ion id e lC o l loqu io i nR oma , 5 -7 magg io 1 969 ,R oma : C on s ig l io N az iona le d e l le R ice rche ,9 1 -109 ,P l s . xxu I -xx 1x 1 971 . Ma l ta ,i n ,F .B a r reca e ia l . ,L 'E spans ione F en ic ia n e l Med i te r raneo : R e la z ion i d e l C o l loqu io i nR oma 4 -5 m agg io 1 970 ,R oma : C on s ig l io N az iona le d e l le R ice rche ,6 3 -75 CUL ICAN , WILL IA M . 1 982 . T he R epe r to i re o fP hoen ic ian P o t te ry ,i n , H an s G . N iemeye r , c d . ,P hön i z ie ri m W e s t e n , Ma inz : P h i l ipp v on Z abe rn ,4 5 -82 ,P l s .4 -8 ENNABL I ,A . 1 976 . Acho l la ,i n ,S t i lwe l l ,R ichard ,c d . , 1 976 ,6 -7 EVANS ,J .D . 1 959 . Ma l ta ,L ondon : T hame sa nd Hud son 1 971 . T he P reh i s tor ic A n t iqu i t ie so ft h e Ma l te se I s land s : aS urvey ,L ondon : A th lone P re ss FALSONE , G IOACCH INO . 1 990 . H igh l igh t s o f t h e 1 991 T un is C onfe rence o n P hoen ic ian a nd P un ic S tud ie s : T h ird I n te rna t iona l Cong re s s ,B e ry tu s ,3 8 : 1 85 -190 1 993 . An o vo id B e ty l f r om t h eT ophe ta t Mo tya a nd t h e P hoen ic ian T rad i t ion o fr ound c u l t ic S tone s , J ourna lo f Med i ter ranean S t ud ies ,3 :2 45 -285 F RENDO , ANTHONY J . 1 992 . R ev iew o fS a rep ta I : t h eL a te B ronze a nd I r on Age P e r iod s o fA rea I , Xb yI s sam A . Kha l if eh ,B ey rou th : P ub l ica t ion sd cl ' Un ive r s i td L ibana ise , 1 988 ,ü r ien tc u ia ,6 1 : 3 29 -334 GOUDER , TANCRED I C . ,a nd ROCCO , BENEDE 1 0 . 1 975 . Un T a l i smano B ronzeo d a Ma l ta c on tenen te u nN a s t r od iP ap iro c on I s cnz ione F en ic ia ,S tud i Magreb in i ,7 : 1 18

1 20

A NTHONY . 1 .F RENDO

J AMES ,P ETER e ia l . ( f o rewo rd b yC o hn R en f rew ) . C en tur ie so f Da rkne s s : aC ha l lenge t ot h ec onven t iona lC hro n o logy o fO ld Wor ld A rchaeo logy ,L ondon : J ona than C ape L I ,G . 1 950 . E l im i ,i n , Domen ico B a r to l in i ( d i re t to re g ene ra le ) ,E nc ic loped ia I t a l iana ,v o l .X I I I ,R oma : I s t i tu to d e l la E nc ic loped ia I t a l iana ,8 07 MALL IA , FRANC IS S . 1 966 . T he P reh i s to r ic Ma te r ia l ,i n ,C ag iano d eA zevedo ,M iche lange lo e ia l . 1 966 ,49 -5 1 MAYR , ALBERT . 1 909 . D ie I n se l Ma l ta i mA l ter tum , München : C .H .B eck ' she V e r lag sbuchhand lung S TEPHEN OF BYZANT IUM . 1 958 . E thn ika : S t ephan iB y zan t i iE thn icorum q uae s uper sun te xR ecens ione A gu s t i M e inek i i ,G raz : Akadem ische D ruck -U . V e r lag san s ta l t( f ac s im i le e dn . o ft h e 1 849 e dn . p ub l i shed b yG . R e ime ri n B e r l in ) S T ILWELL ,R ICHARD , e d . 1 976 . T he P r ince ton E ncyc loped ia o fC la ss ica lS i te s ,P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s TRU MP , DAV ID H . 1 961 . T he L a te rP reh i s to ry o f Ma l ta , P roceed ing so ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty , 2 7 : 2 53 -262 TUSA ,V . 1 976 . E ryx ,i n ,S t i lwe l l ,R icha rd ,e d . , 1 976 ,317 -318 1 988 . L aC o lon izza z ione F emc ia el eC u l tu re A ne l len iche d iS i c i l ia ,i n ,E n r ico A cquam e ta l ,e d . , Momen t iP reco l o n ia l in e l Med i ter raneo A n t ico : Q ue s t ion id i Me todo A ree d indag ine E v idenze ac onf ron to ,R oma : C on s ig l io N az iona le d e l le R ice rche ,2 77 -289 W ARD -PERK INS ,J .B . 1 942 . P rob lem so f Ma l te se P reh is to ry , A n t iqu i ty , 1 6 : 1 9 -35 ZA MM IT ,T . 1 913 . F ou rn ew N eo l i th ic S ta t ion si n Ma l ta : P ape rr e ad b yD rT 7 . amm i to nt h e9 th J une 1 913 ,A rch i v i um Me l i tense ,I (no s . 1 3 -16 ) : 1 01-103 1 924 . R epo r to nt h e Wo rk ing o ft h e Mu seum D epa r tmen tf o rt h ey ea r 1 923 -24 , Ma l ta G ove rnmen t Ga ze t t e ;s upp le m en tn o . LXXV I I I : I -X I 1 927 . R epor to nt h e Work ing o ft h e Mu seum D epa r tmen tf or 1 926 -27 , Ma l ta : G ove rnmen tP r in t ing Of f i ce ,I -XV -

1 2 1

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FUNC ION Y S IGN IF ICADO DE LAS TAULAS : E L CASO DE TORRALBA DEN SALORT

MANUEL F ERNÁND EZ -M IRANDA F unda c ión J o sé O r tega y G a s s e t F o r tuny 5 3 M ad r id ,E sp af i a

La st a u la s s on i m monumen to s i ngu la rd e Meno rca ye i má s c a rac ter I s t ico s i n d uda e n é poca p reh is tó r ica . E sa p ecu l ia r idad h a h echo q ue e s tud io so s ya f ic ionado s s e f i jaran e ne l ia s d esde h ace mucho t i empo . E nl al i t e ra tu r aa rqueo ióg ica s eh aa l ud ido ae s ta s c on s trucc ione si n t e rp re tándo la s d em ane ra sb i en d i s t in ta s , c onfo rme al o s p ecu l ia re s p re supue s to s q ue c ada a u to r h a m ane jado . Mucho s l a s c on s ide ra ron u na me sa d c s ac r il ic io s yp a ra a i guno s n o s on s i no e ip i la rc en t ra l d c m ig ran e d if ic io . Adm i t ido e n l o s d i t imo s a f io s s u s i gn if icado r e l ig io so , e n c on junc ión c on e ir ec in to q ue l a s r odea , h ay a u to re s q ue s ug ie ren i n c lu so q ue s uf i gu ra s e ae ir e su i tado d e l a e squema t izac ión d c u na c abeza d e t o ro , m ien t ra s o t ro s l a s c on s ide ran e i emen to s d e c u l to e n s ii n isma s , e n l a t r ad ic ión o r ien ta l d c l a s p i ed ra s -be t i lo y o t ra s r ep re sen t a c ione sa n icómca sp róxuna s . L o sp nme ro st r aba jo sc i en t I f ico sr e lac ionado sc on e s t a s c on s t rucc ione s l o sl evö ac abo Ma rga re t Mu r ray d u r an te l o s a ño s t r e in ta . E xcavó l o s r ec in to s d cT repucó y S aT o r re ta d cT ramun tana ,a i nbo se ne it é rm ino mun ic i p a l d c Mao , yd io a c onoce r e n v ar ia s p ub l icac ione s

W ILL IAM H . W ALDREN EDWARD 0 .S ANDERS D e ja A r ch ea log ic a lM u seum a nd R e se a r ch C en t r e D e ja ,M a l lo r ca ,E spana

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c i On yo b tuvo e l ocucn tc s t e s t imomo s r c lac ionado s c on s uu so yc rono log la , a dcmá s d c r ecupe r a r u na b e l la e s c u l tu ra e n b ronce d e l d io s I mho tcp q ue , as u v a lo r i n t r in scco c omo p i eza s i ngu la r , w ie u na s e r ie d c s uge r cnc ia s ap ropO s i to d c s u p re senc ia e n e i monumen to . An te s ,e nl o s s e sen ta ,e ip ro f e so rP e r ico t ,a lf r en te d c mi e qu ipo d c a rqueo logo s ya rqu i tec to s , l evó ac abo u na c ampaf i a d c p l an ime tr Ia , d ocumcn tac ión y s ondeo s e n d i s t in to s y ac im ien to s mcno rqu incs c on f i nanc iac ión d c l aF undac iOn J uan Ma rch . F uc i mt r aba jo muy d c l ad po c a , s i n o t ra f i na l idad q ue r c cupe rar i n fo rmac ión d i vc r sa s ob re l ap rch i s to r ia d cl ai s la at r avé s d cu na s e r ie d c s i t i o sc on s idc rado ss i ngu la rc sp o rs u s c a rac t er i s t ica se x te r n a s op o rn o t ic ia sp rev ia s .D en t ro d ce se p rog rama h c te r o génco s e o b tuv ie ron a lguno s d a to s t i t i le s s ob re l a s t a u la sd cT one T rencada yT one Ua fuda , e nc lt é rm ino mun ic ipa ld cC iu tade l la ( Pc i ico t , 1 958y S e r ra , 1 965 ) . B a jo p l an team ien to s d i ve r so s ,p e ro e nt o do c a so má s a co rde sc on l a sa c tua le sp e r spec t iva s d cl ai n ve s t igac iOn a rqueo lOg ica , s e h an e xcavado e n l o s ü l t imo s t i empo s c ua t ro r e c in to sd ct a u la má s . Do s d cc l io s ,b a jo l at h ree -

( Mu r ray , 1 932 ,1934 y 1 938 )l o sr e su l tado s d cs u si n ve s -

c i On d cL iu i sP l an ta lamo r , s ee ncuen t ran e ne iy ac im ien -

t i gac ione s . I n i lu lda p o rc o men te s t e ó r ica s d i fu s ion is ta s p a r t ida r ia s d c c oncc ta r s i n mayo rc s p rob lema s n ia rgu m en to sl o sd i ve r so st e r r i tono sd e l Med i tc r r neo ,l a Mu r r ay p ropu so e xp l icac ione s a co rde s c on t a l p un to d c v i s t a , p e ro t amb ién mo s t ró c on muy b ucn t i no p a ra s u é poca l o s o b je to s q ue h ab Ia c ncon irado e n s u s c xcava -

p i eza d c ma leza d e l y ac im ien to p ara s uc on se rvac iOn y

c i onc s yr e cog ió b a s tan te s d a to s c omp lcmcn ta r io s q ue a yudan a ho ra al ai n te rp re tac ión r a zonab ic d c c s to s l u g a rc s . E nl o s a f io s c uaren ta F iaque re xcavó c a s i l at o ta l idad d e l r e c in to d c t a u la d e l p ob lado d cT o r re d ' cn G aumé s , t é rm ino d c A la io r , u no d c l o s y ac im ien tos t a layo t ico s m á s m te re san te s yme jo rc on se rvado sd c Meno rca . D e s g rac iadamcn te e so s t r aba jo s f uc ron s o lo o b jc to d c d o s b reve sn o ta s ( F laquc r , 1 952 ay 1 9552 b ) ,l oq ue d i f icu l t ae i c onoc im icn to d c l o s r c su l tado s o b tcn ido s . Año s má s t a rdc , R o s sc l lO B o rdoy ( 1984 ) c onc luyO l ac xcava -

t od c S o N aC a çana , A la io r , e it i n ico c a so s egu ro p o re i momen to d c i m p ob lado c on má s d c i m monumen to d c c s te t i po ( P ian ta lamo r , 1 991 ) . O t ro p e r ten ece a lp equeüo p ob lado d cB in isa fule t Nou ,S an tL lu i s ,d onde s ed e scu b r iO u na t a u la ys ur ec in to d cm anc ra c a sua l ,t r a s l al im v i s i ta ( Gua l C e rdO , 1 991) . E l c ua r to c a so e sT o r ra lba d en S a lo r t ,o t ro d cl o sg rande sp ob lado sd c Meno rca ,e n e it é rm ino mun ic ipa l d cA la io r . Aqu Is ec xcava ron v a r i o s e d if ic io s , e n t re e l lo s u no d c l o s mayo re s r e c in to s d c t a u la d cl ai s la e nc uyo i n te r io rs ec on se rva c l monumen t o d c e s ta c l a se má s r e levan te d c c uan to s h an l i egado h a s ta n ue s t ro s d ia s . L a b ib l iog ra f Ia d c c a rác te r g ene ra l e x is ten te s ob re l a s t a u la s

( Ma sca rO , 1 968 ) ,e v i ta h ace r

a qu I u na r cpe t ic iOn s ob re l a s c a rac tc r I s t ica s mo r f o lög ica s d c t a u la s yr e c in to s ,e j cmp ia re sc on se rvado s y o t ro sd a to sa rqu i tec tOn ico s ye s truc tu ra lc s ,b i cn e n tend i -

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MANUEL F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ,W ILL IAM H . WALDREN yE DWARD 0 . SANDERS

d o q ue l o s i n ve s t igado re s a ün n o s ep onen t o ta lmen te d c a cue rdo s ob re l af unc ión , c rono log la yo t ra s c a rac t e r I s t ica s r e lac ionab le s c on s u d e ta l lada i n te rpre tac ión c u l tu ra l . P e se ae s ta ü l t ima c i rcun s tanc ia , n o v amo s a e n t ra r a ho ra e n t a le s d i scu s ione s , s ob re l a s q ue e spe ra mo s o f rece rn ue s t ro p un to d e v i s ta e nL am emo r ia d ef i m t iva c on l o sr e su l tado sd el a s e xcavac ione se ne iy ac i m ien to d eT o r ra lba d ' en S a lo r t . A qu Io f recemo sa l guna s h ipó te s is y c on je tu ra s ap ropo s i to d c l ai n te rp re tac ión p a ra l a s t a u la s ys u sr e cm to s ,d e sde l ai n fo rmac ión p ro p o rc ionada p o r l ae xcavac ión d c e se y ac im ien to y l o s c on t ra s te s q ue s e p ueden e s tab lece r c on d a to s p roce d en te sd co t ro s s i t io s . L a e xcavac ión d eT o r ra lba d en S a lo r to f rec ió i n lo r mac ion d c muy d i s t in to c a rác te r . C ie r to s d ecubr im ien t o s n op a rece q ue t e ngan y ad i scu s iOn ,c omo p o re j em p lo s uc a rác te rd el uga rd onde s ee j ecu taban r i tua le s d c v a r iado t i po , l ae x is tenc ia d e a r ea s p ro tagon izada s p o r e if ucgo ,l ac ompa r t imcn tac ión d e li n t e r io rd e l r e c in to o l ai n co rpo rac iOn d eb anco sa do sado s al a sp a rede si n te r n a s d e l r e c in to , c on L ac l a ra f i na l idad d c s e rv ir d c s o p or te a d i s t in ta s o f renda s e n b a s tan te s c a so s r e c ip i c n te sc on h ue so s t r oceado sd c a n ima te s . E n u n p un to d c s tacado d e l monumen to , al ai z qu ic rda d c l at a u la y ‚

d i sc re tamen te d e t rá sd ce l la ,e ncon iramo sa demá st i na l t a r yu na f i gu r i l la t a ur ina h echa e n b ronce , l oq ue c on f i rma e ic a rác te r s ac ro d e l c spac io . C ie r tamen te e ir e c i n to d c t a u la e s tuvo e n u so d u r an te v a r io s s i g lo s yl a d i s t r ibuc ión d cl o so b je to s yu so d cl a se s t ruc tu ra sc am b io al ol a rgo d e l t i empo , p e ro e n i m nea s g ene ra le s s e p uede a f i rma r q ue , d e sde u n momen to a vanzado d c l a t i l t ima f a se d c L ac u l tu ra t a layO t ica f i jab ie h ac ia c ls i g lo I V a .C . h a s ta p l ena r oman izac iOn ,e ne ir e c in to d ct a u la d cT o r ra lba d ' en S a lo r ts ep rac t ica ron n tua lc s c on c l a ra i n tcnc ión mág ico r eig io sa . Nuc s t ra h ipó te s is d cp a r t ida e s ,e nc on secuenc ia , q ue l at a u la ys ur e c in to f o rman e i a r ea s ac ra d c l o s p ob lados t a layO t ico s meno rqu ine s y c on s t i tuyen p o rl a n to , e ic en t ro d c a c t iv idad d c c uan t o se l emen to s i n te rv iencn e nl ac on l igu rac ion d c im s i s t ema s oc ia l r e lac ionab le c on c r eenc ia s y d emá s f e nOmcno st r a scenden te s . ‚

L ae s t ra t ig ra f la d e l r ec into d c t a u la n or e su l ta h omo g énea d eb ido ad ive r sa s c ausa s , u na s r e lac ionada s c on l ad epo s ic ion o ng ina r ia ,t oq ue as uv ez i nd ica v a r iab i l i d ad e ne iu so d cc se c spac io , yo t ra s c onec tada sc on a c c i onc s a n t rop ica s e n d i fe ren te s é poca s h i s tO r ica s . No o b s tan te s e p uedc h ab la r , g ro sso modo , d c c ua t ro mo m cn to s d i fe renc iab ic s ap a r t ir d c l ae xcavac ión , d c l o s c ua le s l o s d o s má s a n t iguo s s on t a layó t ico yr epub l ica -

i e va l . L a i n fo rmac iOn q ue s e m ane ja e n e s te a r t Icu lo p rocede d c l o s d o s n ive le s i n fe r io re s d e l y ac im ien to y , a unque e x is ten d i fc rcnc ia s d c d e ta l ic e n t re ambo s , s e c on s idc ran c on jun tamen t e , p uc s l a s i e vc s d i sc repanc ia s n o a f ec tan as u i n tc rp rc tac ión u n i tana . C uando s a iga a L al u z l ap ub l icac iOn d ef in i t iva d c e s te monumen to e i a na l is is s ee f ec tua rá d c mane ra p o rmeno r izada ; e nc on s e cucnc ia ,e ic on ten ido d ce s te a r t Icu lo d ebc s e rc on s id c r ado c omo m ia vance e nl ai n te rp re tac ión d c l o s r e su i t a do sd cn ue s t ro c s tud io . E l r ec in to p r e sen ta u na s e r ie d c c spac io s c ompa r t i mcn tado s d c d i s t in ta t i po log Ia , d imen s ione s yf unc ión . E nu no sc a so s s ec i e r ran c ub Icu io sr e lac ionado s c on l a s l i gc ra s e xed ra s q ue ma rca c l p a ramcn to i n te rno d e l mu ro d c c i cr rc , l im i tada s p o r p i la re s mono l I t ico s d c b uen t amaf lo O t ra s v cce s f o rman s em ic I rcu lo s a do sa d o s au na p a red oaL ap rop ia c a ra d e lan te ra d c L at a u la . H ay t amb ién a l g t in c i rcu lo c omp le to q ue l im i ta a r ea sd c c onccn t rac iOn d c o f renda s od c c r emac iOn i n ten sa , a s I c omo mu rc te s q ue c i c r ran e spac io s d c f o rma t r iangu la r a p rox imada . N oe x is te c on s tan tc f o rma l a i guna , p e ro 5 1 t i n mdudab le d e sco d cf r agmen ta rc ie spac io i n temo ,l o q ue i nv i ta ac on s idc ra r q ue n o t odo e is eu t i i izO d c l a m i sma manc ra . Un e l emen to muy s i ngu la re sc lf ucgo . AL ad c recha d cl ae n t rada a lr e c in to , ye ni mp i ano l i ge ramen tc a van z ado r e spec to d e l q ue s ea i za l at a u la , d e s taca im e spa c i o l im i tado p o r p iedra s q ue f o rmaban e n o ngen u n c l rcu lo d e s t inado a a lbe rga r u na g r an h oguc ra q ue , a j uzga rp o rl af u e r te c ompac idad d c c a rbone s yc emza s , d eb iO a rde re nb a s tan te s o ca s ione s yq u izä s i emp re c on i n ten s idad . Mczc iada e n t re l o s r e s to s d c L ac ombu s t ion a pa rece c e rá in ica muy f r agmen tada y d c d i s t in ta t i po i o g Ia ,c omo s is eh ub ie ra a r ro jado t r a ss e rt r oc i 'ada . J im t o ap roducc ione s t a layO t ica s s er e cog ie ron f r agmen to s d cá nfo ra s d cd i f e ren t e s t i po s ,C ampan icn se A d cL am b og l ia , p icza s i b é r ica s , g r ise s d c t i po ampu r i tano , i b i c enca s . . . ,e sd cc i ru na amp l ia mue s t ra b a s tan te i nd ica t i v ad cl a sr e lac ione se x te rna sd c Meno rca e nl af a se f i na l d c s uc u i tu ra t a iayó t ica y t amb ién t a l v ez d c l ai mpo r t a nc ia q ue r e ve s t Ia e il uga r aj uzga rp o rl as e iecc ión d c o b je to s . E n c in i ve l I V s O lo e i5 0 % d c l a s c e rám ica s s on i nd Igena s , p o rcen ta je q ue d i sm inuye a t2 1% e n e i I I ,d onde p o re ic on t ra r io l o s f r agmen to s d cá nfo ra s u p e ran e i6 0% d e l t o ta l . E i n ive l i n f e r io r s ef e cha p o r l a p re senc ia d c c e rám ica s g r iega s ap a r t ir d e l s i g lo I V y h a s ta 2 30 a .C . , e n d a tac ión C -14 s i n c a i ib ra r ( CS IC 1 42 ) ;e ls i gu ien tc t i ene s uf i na lh ac ia med iado sd e l s i g lo

n o r e spec t ivamcn te , m ien t ra s q ue c lt e rce ro p e r tenece y a au na f a se p l enamen tc r oman izada ye ic ua r to d e f ine

Ia .C . , e sd ec i rc on Meno rca c onqu i s tada y ap o rl o s r o mano s p e ro v e ro s im i lmen te n o r oman izada t odav Ia e n g r ado i n ten so . E n o t ro s p un to s d e l r e c in to s ec ncon t ra -

e ia bandono a n t iguo d e l r e c in to ys uu so e né poca med -

r on t amb ién r e s to sd cf uego d cc a rac te re f Ime ro ye na t -

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

g uno s c a so sl o sf r agmen to sd ef auna r e cupe rado s mue s i r an h ue l la s d e h abe r e s tado e n c on tac to c on p roce so s d c c r emac ión . C onv iene s ef ia la r ae s te r e spec to q ue h ue so s t r oceado s d ed i f e ren te s a n ima le s , al o s q ue ms

t a inb ién e ss i gn if ica t iva l af r ecuenc ia d cc erám ica si m p o r tada s ,c on t i po s v a r iado sq ue a ñaden al o s y ac i tado s o tm s c omo v a so sd ep a rede sf i na sd cé poca r epub l icana ol u ce rna sr omana s .T amb ién s eh a l la ron a l guna s mone -

F IGURA 1 .F o to A e r ea d el aT au la d cT o r r a lba d ' en S a lo n: P un ta sb l an ca ss i gn i f ican e is i t io sd cf e cha sd ec a rbon 1 4 a de lan te s ea l ud irá e n d e ta l le , a pa recen e spa rc ido s p o r t o do e ir e c in to ,p e ro e na l guno sc a so sp re sen tan c oncen t r ac ione s e v iden te s , p a r t icu la rmen te e n l a z ona c or n p rend ida e n t ra l at a u la ye i mu ro p r inc ipa l of a chada d e l monumen to . O t ro d a to r e levan te e se it i po d c o b je to s r e cupe rado s e ne id epó s i to a r queo log ico d cc s to sd o s n i ve le s . E lp re d om jn io d e l ma ter ia l a n fó r ico r e su l ta e v iden te , p e ro

/

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d a s r epub l icana s d c l a s e r ie d c p roa d c n ave . C ie r to s h alazgo s s o rp renden p o r s ue spec if ic idad . A s I ,c on s ta t amo s u na c on s ide rab le p resenc ia d c f r agmen to s t a l a yó t ico s c o r re spond ien t es av a so s d cp equef i a sd ir nen s i one s ob a s tan te s r ec ip ien te s c on h ue so s t r oceado s d c a n ima le s e n s ui n te r io r . Muy e l ocucn te r e su l ta , af l ue s t r oj u ic io ,l aa bundanc ia d ct a pade ra sd cá nlo ra ol ar eu t i l izac ión d cf ondo sr eco r tado sd cé s to sr e c ip ien te sp a ra

MANUEL F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ,W ILL IAM H . WALDREN yE DWARD 0 .S ANDERS

c on tene r i gua lmen te h ue so s s ecc ionado s , h echo q ue s e r ep i te e n l o s v a so s d e p a rede s f ma s . R e su l ta a p rec iab le

r e s tnng ido s ,y aq ue l a se xcavac iouc sr e c ien te s e s tán t o d av Ia s i n p ub l ica r c on e xcepc iOn d c l ai l evada ac abo

c omp roba ra demá s q ue e s ta sp rác t ica s s ec oncen t ran e n

p a rR os se l lO e n T o r re d ' en Gau iné s . E n l a s e f ec tuada s p a rl a Mur ray e nT repucó yS aT o r re ta d cT ramun tana s ec ncon t ra ron t amb ién mucha s c e rám ica s r o ta s yh ue SOS t r oceado s . E spec ia l i n tc ré s t i ene L ar c fc renc ia , t r a s m i t ida p a rl ai n ve s t igado ra b r i tán ica , a lh a l lazgo d c z o n a s q uemada s , c emza s yo t ro s i nd ic ios d c c a lc inac ión , l oq ue d emue s t ra q ue t amb ién e n e s to s d o s r c c in to s s e l evO ac abo i m r i tua l d c f uego . Huc so s t r oceado s e n c on t ró t amb ién H c rnández S anz e n S on C a t la r , C iu ta d e l la ,e ni ms ondeo ( ? )r c a l izado a l l Ip a rl o sa ño s v e in te ( le rn ndez Mo ra , 1 948) . R o s sc l lO B o rdoy h ab la d c a bundan te sr e s to sd cf a una mezc lada c on L ac e rám ica e n T on e d ' en G aumé s , d ondc s ec on s ta ta t amb ién l ac x i s t e nc ia d ch ue l la s s ob re l ar oca d cb ida s al aa cc ión d e l f uego . C en iza s ,a unque l an o t ic ia s ea a l go c on fu sa , p a r c ce q ue s ee ncon t ra ron i gua lmcn tc e nc lr e c in to d c t a u l ad eTa la t Ide Da l t . L o s s ondeo s c f ec tuado s e nT one T rencada p a rP e nc o t ys u c qu ipo l o ca l iza ron u na g ran b o lsa d c cn iza s d e lan te yaL ad e recha d cl at a u la , e sd cc ir e ne i mis mo l uga r e n q ue a rd iO e if uego p r inc ipa l d c T o r ra lba d ' en

d e te rm inado s l uga re s d e l r e c in to ,m ien t ra s p o re ie spa do r e s tan te s ed i s t r ibuyen s i no rden a pa ren te p a rede sd c á nfo ra ymá sh ue so sd ca n ima le s . D e sde e i p un to d c v i s ta r i tua l t i ene i n te ré s t r a ta r , a unque s ea b revemen te , u na d el a s d i fc rcnc ia s p e rc ib i d a s e n t re l o s mve le s I V yI Id eL ae xcavac iön .E nc o in c i denc ia c on e s te t i l t imo ,q ue e np ar te s ef e cha e nt i em p os y a p os ter io res a l a c onqu is ta r omana , s e c on s t ruye ron u no s p oye te s a do sado s aL ac a ra i n terna d e l mu ro d e lr e c in to e nd i s t in to sp un to s ;c s tán f o rmado s p o rb l oque s d c p i ed ra , n on i ia lmen te b i en c o r tado s , q ue d e scan san s ob re e ir e l leno d e l n i ve l I V . E so s b anco s s e u san p a ra c o loca re nc ima d e te rm inada sp i eza s ,c omo l u c e rna s r omana s , t a pade ra s d c á nfo ra s ov a so s d c p a r ede s f i na s yf ondo s r e co r tado s d c á nfo ra s c on h ue so s e n s u i n te r io r . Da l a s en sac ión d c q ue , a l meno s e n a l g i ln momen to ,s ep re t end ió d i s t ingu ir e iv a lo rd ca l gu n a so f renda s ,e nc on ira s te al a sh echa se ne ir e s to d e lr e c i n to . E i c ua r to r a sgo ad e s taca re nr e lac ión c on c lu so d e l e spac io c or re spondc a l a l ta r . E s tA f ab r icado e n u n b loque mono l I t ico , c on c ua t ro c a ra s q ue s e e n sanchan l i gc ramen tc amcd ida q ue p rog re sa h ac ia s up a r t ec ime -

S a lo r t . I d én t ico d a to yc on l am isma p a s ic iOn p uedc y e -

r al i ana ,m ien t ras q ue p o rl ai n fe r io rs ee nca ja e ni mo n f i c io a b ie r to e nc ls ue lo e nc lq ue s ec a lzó med ian te p i e d ra s d c p equef lo t a inaho . No c abe d uda d c q ue s e c on s t ruyó e n c l momen to i mc ia l d c u so d e l r e c in to y q ue s u f ma l idad f ue s o s tcne ru na e s ta tu u l ia d cb ronce , q u izá u s t o ro ou nd qu ido d e l q ue s o lo S ec on se rvaron t r c s p a ta s cmbu t ida s e n u no s o r if ic io s t a l lado s e n L a m e sa d e la l ta r yf i jada s c on p lomo . Aunque p ob re ,c l n i ve l a rqueo lOg ico d c b a se r e lac ionado c on e ia l ta r s e f e cha p e r fcc tamcn te p o r u s f r agmen to d c s kyfo á t ico p e r tenec ien te al o sa f io sc en t ra lc sd e ls i g lo I Va .C .E nc l n i ve l I I , e n i m momen to d a tab le e n t re l o s s i g lo s I yI l o s t i po s a n fO r ico s r e cupe rado s , s ec ncon t rO u na e s ta tu i l ia d c t o ro f und ida e ni mb ronce t c rna r io C u -Sn P b ,c on v a lo re s a p rox imado s p a ra l o s d o s ( i l t imo s m e t a l e s d c 2 0 y1 5 %r e spec t ivamen tc . L ae s ta tu li la e s taba s eg( in

nf ica r se e n l a s t r c s e xcavac ionc s r c a l izada s e n e s to s t i l t imo s a f io s ,L ad c B in isa fu l ie t Nou y l o s d o s r c c in to s d c S oN aC a çana ,d onde s ea p rec ian p e r fec tamen tc l a s c on sccuenc ia s d e l f uego e n l ar oca . E n l o s t i c s c a so s a bunda l ac e rám ica t a layO t ica f r agmen tada , l o sp roduc t o s i mpo r tado s a l ma rgen d c f e cha s c onc rc ta s yl o s h ue so s d c a n ima ic s t r oceado s . E n v a r io s d c e so s y ac i m ien to s c x is tcn b anco s a do sado s aL ac ara i n tema d e l mu ro d e l r ec in to ,q ue ag randc s r a sgo sr ep i te a s im i smo L af o rma ye s t ruc tu ra e n t reco r tada p a rp i la re sq ue m arca L ad i s t r ibuc ión d c l o s c ub ucu lo s d i f e renc iado s , a unque v a r len l a s t é cn ica sc on s t ruc t iva s oc lt amaf lo d cl o s c d i f i c io s . -

-

A lguna sc o sas r e su i tan e v iden tes e ne s ta r áp ida c or n p arac ión e n t re d a to s o b temdo s s ob re d i s t in to s r e c in to s d ct a u la . C abe s upone rq ue e nt o do ss ep rodu jo u sr i tua l d cf u ego e n mi p un to p r inc ipa l s i tuado s i er np rc d c ian tc y al ad e recha d c L at a u la , a demá s q u izá d c o t ro s d c c a rác te r s ecundar io . T ampoco p a rece d i scu t ib ic u na

c a lda j un to ad o s p ebe te ro s t i po T an i t ya l guna s p i eza s s i ngu larc s má s . P a rece r e f le ja rm i momen to d cc amb io s q ue b i en p odr Ia c o inc id i rc on l ac onqu is ta r omana d cL a i s la . L a p i eza , d c muy b uena c onccpc ión e s t i l I s t ica y a cep tab le f und ic iOn , c on s t i tuye u no d c l o s c j emp la rc s m á s i n te rc san te s d c l at o ret i t ica p rch is to r ica m cno rqu i n a . L a i n formac iOn p roceden te d c T o r ra lba d ' en S a lo r t p uede c on t ra s ta r se c on l ad i spon ib le p a ra o t ra st a u la s ,s i b i en s et r a ta e n mucho s c a so s d c d a to s a n t iguo s omuy

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c i e n ta n o rma e nl oq ue r c spec ta a lt i po d ch a l lazgo s , s o b re t o do e nc uan to a t af ic al aa bundanc ia d ch ue so s t r o c eado s yf r agr ncn to s c e rám ico s d cibe rada incn tc p ar t i d o s . L o m ismo c abe d ec i r d c l ae x is tcnc ia d c b anco s a do sado s , v i s ib le s i n c lu so e n r c c in to s t o dav Ia n o c xca v ado s . N od e ja d cs e rs uge ren te r e co rda rl as im i la rt op o g ra f Ia p a ra c lh a l lazgo d e l I mho tcp d cT one d ' en G au mé s yL a p o s ic iOn d e l a l ta r yt o ro d c T or ra lba d ' en S a lo r t .

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

N o e s e s ta l ao ca s ión a decuada p a ra a na l iza r e n d et a ue l ae s t ruc tu ra a r qu i tec tómca d el o sr e c in to sd et a u la ol af o rma yc a rac te r I s t ica s d e lp rop io monumen to p r in c i pa l . D igamo s s imp lemen te d e p a sada q ue t o do s e l io s r ep i ten , má s omeno s ,l am isma f o rma ,c on u na f a chada r e c ta ol i ge ramen te c óncava e nc uyo c en t ro a p rox imado s e s i t i ia l ap ue r ta d ei ng reso , yp a red p o s ter io ra b s ida l , c on l o sl ado s i z qu ie rdo yd e recho má s om eno sr e c to so c u rvados . D en t ro , h ac ia e ic en t ro p e ro n unca e xac ta men te e ne i ,s el e van ta l at a u la f r eu te al ap ue r ta , c omo e l emen to p r inc ipa l i nd iscu t ib le . No e x is te n o rma l iza c i ón p a ra e i t amaf lo d cl o sr e c in to s od el a s t a u la s , n i t ampoco h ay r e lac ión e n t re l o s p r ime ro s y la s s egun d a s . C ada c a so e s d i s t in to al o s d emá s e nl o q ue s er ef i e re amed ida s , p e ro n oe nl ac oncepc ión f undamen ta l d e l monumen to . C on l ae xcepc ión d e S o Na C açana , h a s ta a ho ra s o lo s e c onoce u na t a u la p o r p ob lado , a unque n oe nt odo sl o sp ob lado ss ec on s tr nyó t a l monu m en to . E s i n te re san te a s im i smo r epa sa r l ap o s ic ión d c l a s t a u la s d en t ro d cc ada p ob lado . E nl a mayo r Ia d cl o s C a SOS c onoc ido ss es i t s ian e nm il u ga rc en t ra l od om inan te , muy c e rca d c i m t a la io t yo t ro s e d if ic io s d c u t i l izac ión p üb l ica o c o lec t iva . C uando n o e s a s I , p o r e j emp lo e n a l guno s p ob lado s d e l n o r te d c L ai s la c omo A lga ia ren s , l oq ue n op i e rden e ss uc a rác tc rd e s tacado ,c on s t i tuyen d o u na i n equ Ivoca r c f c renc ia v i sua l p a ra m l t e r r i to r io r e la t ivamen te amp i io . T amb ién r e su l ta e l ocuen te q ue t odo s l o s p ob lado s c on s ide rado s p r inc ipa le s p o r s u t amaho e n t re l o s m á s p rOx imo s p o sean t au la , s ib ien e s ta t amb ien e s tá p re sen te e no t ro s d c meno rr ango e s p ac ia l . L a r e lac ión e n t re t a u la s yp ob lado s p r inc ipa ie s e se v iden te , a unque n oe xc luyen te ,d cl am isma m ane ra q ue n oh ay t a u las e na s en tam ien to sd cp equef i a sd ir nen s i one s p e ro s ie n p ob lado s d c t amaf lo i n te rmed io . E l a ná l is is d cl ad i s t r ibuc iOn d e lp ob lan i ien to e n é poca t a l a yO t ica a vanzada i nv i ta a p en sar e n u na o rgan iac iOn b a sada e n r e lac ione s e n t re im p ob lado p r inc ipa l , a l gu n o s s e cundar io s ye s tab icc im ien to s m eno re s d cc a rác te r r u ra l oe s t ra tég ico ; l a s t a u la s s i emp re a pa recen e n l o s

l on p ropo rc iona u na i n lo rmac ión muy i n te re san te s ob re t a lp rác t ica . L o sa n ima le s d omé s t ico sq ue s ee ncon t r aron e ne ir e c i n to s on o v icap r ido s , c e rdo s yb Ov ido s , c on u n c l a ro p redom imo d c l o s p r imeros e n l o q ue s e r e f ie re a l r n imc ro d ci nd iv iduo s d epo s i tado s , y aq ue o ve ja s yC a b ra s s uponcn e n t o rno a l 7 0% d e l t o ta l i d en t if icado . C omo a qu ín os et r a ta ,e np r inc ip io ,d cv e r if ica rc la p ro v ccham ien to d c L ac a me c omo f a c to r a l imcn ta r io s i no l a sf r ecuenc ia se nL ad epo s ic iOn d cr e s to s ,p uede a scgu r a i se q ue c ab ra s yo ve ja s c on s t i tuycn e ie j ep r inc ipa le n l ac e leb rac ión d e l r i tua l d c o f renda s , l oq ue t a l v ez r c f l e je a s u v ez c ld om imo c uan t i ta t ivo d c c sa s c spec ic s s ob re l a sr c s tan te s e nl ag anade r ia d omé st ica t a layO t ica . H ay q ue h ace rn o ta r , n o o b s tan t c , q ue t a n to e n c lc a so d cl o s o v icap r ido sc omo e nl a sd ems e spec ie sn os ed c p o s i ta L at o ta l idad d c su nr e s to s s i no p ane s d cb a jo r en d im ien to c ome s t ib le . E s te d a to p uede l i eva rno s al a c onc lu s iOn d cq ue l o sa n ima le se r an s ac r il icado s ei nge n do s e n L a s p rop ia s v i v ienda s ys o lo a i guna s d c s u s p ane s s ed e s t inaban al ao f renda ,m ien t ra s c lr e s to s ea r r o ja r la aL ab a sura c or n i in , ad onde i r l an ap ar a rl o sh ue s o sd cl a s z ona s c on mayo rr end im ien to a l imcn t ic io . S c c on s ta ta a demá s q ue l o s h ue so s i n fer iore s d c l a s e x t r em idadc ss er e cob ra ron c omp Le to se nu nb uen n i ime ro d c c a so s , m ien t ra s q ue l o s c o r re spond ien te s al a pa n e s upe r io ra pa recen muy t r ocedao s ei n f r a r rep re sen tado s n umér icamen te . C abe n o o b s tan te p en sa r q ue c l d c s cua r t iza in icn to d c a l guno s a n ima le s s er ea i izara e n c l i n t e r io rd e l r e c in to oe n s u s p rox im idade s yq ue e nu no uo t ro l uga rs ei l eva ran ac abo c om ida sn tua ic s : mucha s e p If is is d c h ue so s a pa rec ie ron c hamu scada s oc l a ra men te q ucmada s . Ademá s l oq ue s eo f r enda s on p o rl o g ene ra lp o rc ione sd cl a sp ar te st r a se r a s yr a ra v ez c o s t i l l a s oe x t rem idade s d e ian tc ra s , l o q ue t amb ién r e su l ta s i gn if ica t ivo . D c l ad i s tnbuc iOn d c l o s h a l iazgo s c abe d educ ir a s im i smo q ue c i e r to s h ue so s t u v ie ran m i e spe c i a l v a lo r , ob i en q ue e sa r e levanc ia s ea dqu ir ie ra p o rs u c o iocac ión e ni md e tenn inado l u ga rd e l r e c in to : c l2 5% d c l o s a s t rága io s d c o ve ja o c ab ra a pa rec ie ron c o Loca -

p r ime ro s ye s muy p robab le q ue e x is tan e n l o s s egun d o s , p ero e s ta e s u na c ue s t iOn q ue c scapa p o r e i mo m en to al ai n tenc ión d ce s ta sl i nea s .

d o sj u s to d c lan tc d cl at a u la , ye sc onoc ido c ip ape L q ue c so s h ue so s r ep re sen ta ron e n c l mundo a n t iguo c omo e l emen to s d c a d iv inac iOn e n mano s d c s ace rdo te s y o rácu lo s . O t ro d a to s i gn i f ica t ivo e sL ae dad d cl o s a n ima le s e n

V o lvamo s a ho ra au no d c l o s d a to s m ane jado s má s a t rá s ,a quc l q ue h ace a l u s iOn al ac on s tan te p rc senc ia d c r e s to s d cf auna t r oceada r epa r t ido sp o re ii n te r io rd ct o d o s l o s r ec in tos d c t a u la . Nue s t ra o p in iOn e s q ue e so s h ue so s s on c lt e s t imomo d c o f renda s aL a d i v in idad , c on s is ten te s e n e is ac r i f ic io d c d e te rm inado s a n ima le s

c i momen to d c s ac r if ic io . E l 3 0% d cl o so v icapndo s s e i n ino la ron a n te s d c c ump l ir i m a f lo y o t ro 4 5% e n t re u no y t r c s a f io s . E l 7 5% d c l o s c e rdo s s e ma tó e n s u p r ime ra f lo d cv i da ye i6 0% d cl o sb óv ido se ne is egun -

d omé s t ico s yl ad epo s ic ion d c s u s r e s to s , od cp ar te d c do s ,e ne ie spac io s a c ro . E i e s tud io d e ten ido d cl af au n ae ncon t rada e ne ir e c in to d ct a u la d cT o r ra lba d ' en S a -

d o . E s o bv io q ue e x is tc u na c l a ra p red i lecc ión p o r c i s ac r if ic io d c a n ima le s t i e rno s o muy j Ovcnc s , e n c on t r a s tc c on l a s p au ta s d c f i na l idad a l imen ta r ia q ue s e

1 26

MANUEL F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ,W ILL IAM H . WALDREN yE DWARD 0 .S ANDERS

c on s ide ran n o rma le s e n t re p ueb lo s d onde L ag anade r ia c on s t i tuye u n e l emen to r e levan te d el at h e ta c o t id iana . E l c a rác ter r i tua l d e L a ma tanza , yp o s ib lemen te l aC e i e b rac ión d e l b anque te , p redom inan s ob re l a s n o rma s e conóm ica s q ue e s tab lecen l ar e iac ión e n t re r end im ien t oa l imen ta i jo ye dad d cs a c r i f ic io d el a sr e se s . R e su l ta i gua lmen te muy a t rac t ivo v a lo ra rL aé poca e n

a bundanc ia . E sp o s ib le q ue e ic u i t ivo d cl av i df ue ra i n -

q ue p a rece q ue s eI l eva ron ac abo l a mayo r ia d e e s to s

i mpo r tac ione sd cv ino s d c p rocedcnc ia c a ta lana , q ue s e

s acnf ic io s . H emo s e s tud iado e i c a so a p ar t i r d e l o s o v icápndo s yl o sr e su l tado sp e rm i ten s uge r ir l ae x is ten c i a d c u n r i tua l c i c L ico o ,a l meno s , e lp redom in io d e c i e r to momen to d e l a no p a ra l ac oncen t rac ión d e e s ta s p rác t ica se nl o sr e c in to sd ct a u la . N os eh an e ncon t rado p rac t icamen te r e s to s q ue p uedan s e ra s ignado s af e cha s e n t re e in acün ien to d cl o s a n ima le s ys u s s e i s p r ime ro s

a t c s t igua e nt a n to sy ac im ien to s meno rqu ine s ,n od e ja d c s e rt amb ién i n te re san te c lh a l lazgo d c mucha s t a pade ra s d cá nfo ra e nc lr e c in to d cL at a u la ,e no ca s ione s d i spue s t a s c u idado samcn te s ob re l o s b anco s r i tua le s oa g rupa -

t r oducc ión r omana . E l t c x to d c D iodo ro S Icu io , q ue c omo C ss ab ido r ep roduce aT imeo ,r e f lc jar Ia ,en c on sc c uenc ia , c l momen to f i na l d c L ac u L tu ra t a layO t ica . P o r c ic on t r ar io , P l in io , e n H i s to r ia N a tu ra l , X IV , 7 1 , n o s ó lo c i ta e iv i no d cl a sB a lea re s , s i no q ue d i ce d cd lq ue e sc ompa rab le aL o s mc jo re s d cI t a l ia . E n t omo ae s ta s

d a s e n o t ro s p un to s . P odr Ian i n te rp re ta r se c omo i m d c s eo e xp i lc i to d c o f renda r e i e l emen to q ue p erm i te i n ic ia r L ab eb ida : l at a pade ra s ec on se rva u n tac ta c omo p rueba d e l v a lo r d e l c on ten ido q ue s e l ia , m icn t ra s q ue c lc on tencdo r s er ompe p o ri nt i t i i u na v ez f i na l izada L a l i bac ion .

me se s d c v i da yt ampoco e n t re i ms i lo yd i cc iocho me s e s . E n t re l o s d c mayo re dad m ia l to p o rcen ta je s e ma t a nj u s to a n te sd ec ump l i rt r e ss i lo s yo t ro sn ada m á . cs o b repa sa r l o s c ua ren ta y d o s me se s . S i s e c on s ide ra c l c i c lo n a tura l d c r ep roducc ión d c o ve ja s yc ab ra s , c on n ac im ien to s L o ca l izado s h ac ia e i me s d c n ov iemb re , s e o b t iene q ue l o s s a c r if ic io s s e e j ecu taban ap ar t i rd cju mo ya n te s d cn ov iemb rc .T a le sl Im i tc se nl a sf e cha s s u g i e ren l ap o s ib i l idad d c u nr i to d c v c rano , u na v cz c e r r ado c lc i c lo a nua l a g r Ico la . L ac onc lu s ion p rov i s iona l n o p ucdc s e r má s a t rac t iva , p e ro e sc l a ro q ue d ebemo s c spe ra r s u c on t ra s tac iOn c on o t ro s c a so s , d ado e i c arác te r s i ngu la r h a s ta c l momen to d c e s te e s tud io f a un I s t ico .

O t ro h a l lazgo q ue p e rm i te e s tab Lecc r a L guna s c on jc t u ra s s ob re e is i gn if icado mág ico d cl o sr i tua le s e j ecu ta d o se nl a st a u La s , yp o rt a n to s ob re l ai d en t idad r e L ig io sa d cl o s p r im i t ivo s meno rqu ine s , e s L ae s ta tuf i La d c t o ro . L ae x is tenc ia d cr i tua le s t a u ro lá t r ico s p o rt odo e i Mcd i t e r ránco d e sde é poca s a r ca ica s e s a i go a cep tado p o rl a p rác t ica t o ta l idad d c L o s i nve s t igado re s ei nve s t igado r a s , a unque e nn op oca s o ca s ionc s s eo l v ide b u scar e x p L icac ione s d c c a rác te r l o ca l q ue s on s u s t i tu Ida s p o r o t ra s g cnC r ica s yp a r t an to d c meno r p rec is iOn . E n e i c a so d c Ma l lo rca yMeno rca s on b a s tan tc sL o sh a l lazgo s q ue p oncn s ob re L ap i s ta d ct a lc u l to ,c on f r ecuenc ia r e a l izado s e ne ii n te r io rd ce spac io s al o s q ue s ei c s c on c ede m i s i gn if icado r eig io so . P o rd e sg rac ia mucha s d c e sa sp i cza s c arecen d c c on tex to on o s eo b tuv ie ron c on l a sd eb idas g a ran t Ia sc i en t I f ica s . B a s te r e co rda rl a s má s f a rno sa s d ct o da s , l o s t o ro s d c C o s t i tx , s ob re c uya y i n -

L ah ipO te s i sd e lb anquc te r i tua l ,q ue t i ene n ume ro so s p a ra le l i smo s al ol a rgo ya ncho d e l Med i te r ráneo y as e a v incu lado a c e remon ia s f une rar ia s o ac e ieb rac ione s f e s t iva s ,e ncuen ira o t ro a poyo a rqueo iOg ico i n d i r ec to e n l o s a bundan te sr e s to sa nfO r ico sq ue a pa recen r o to s ye s p a rc ido s p o r e ii n ter io r d e l r e c in to . N o c abc d uda d c q ue l a s á n fo ra s f uc ron p a r t icu larmen te u t i l izada s al a h o ra d cp rac t ica ro f renda s yq ue s ef r agmen taban i n ten -

c u Lac iOn c on i ms an tua r io t a layó t ico ma l io rqu mn n oc x i s tc d uda a lguna ( Fe rnández -M iranda , 1 983 ) . T amb ién s on f r ecuen te s l o s h a l lazgo s d c c uemo s d c b óv idos , l o

c i onadamcn te e nc i momen to d cs ud epo s ic iOn . L at i po l og Ia e s v anada , p e ro e n mucho s c a so s p ud ie ron c on t u ne r v ino , l oq ue s c r Ia m ib uen c omp lemen to p a ra l a s c e lcb rac ione s a l ud ida s . L a a f ic iOn a l v ino p o rp a r te d c l o s h ab i tan te s d c Ma l lo rca yMeno rca e s tá r e cog ida e n D iodo ro S I cu lo , V ,17 , d onde s e a segu ra q ue n o l o p roduc Ian a unque " e s taban d e sme su rádamen te i n cina d o s ae i " . Ta l s upuc s to d e seo p od r Ia muy b i cn r e l a c iona r se c on L an cce s idad d cd i spone r d c v i no p a ra s u s c e remon ia s r i tua le s ,a unque D iodo ro p re f ie re v i i i c u la r la a l c a rác te rd e r rochado rd c l o s h onde ro s m e r c ena r io s , q ue " comp raban mu jc re s yv i no c on L a s o l d ada " . N oe x is ten t c s t imon io sa rqueo lóg ico s ,e ne f ec to ,

q ue p od r Ia i n te rp re ta r se c omo u na s u s t i tuc ión d e l t o do p a rL ap ar te ,t a n to e ny ac im ien to s c u i tua le sc omo f une r a r io s . E n Meno rca s e c onocen o t ro s h a l lazgo s q ue p od r ian p ara le l iza r se e n u na m isma l i nca a rgumen ta l , p e ro p a rd e sg rac ia n inguno d ce l lo sp rocede d ce xcava c i one sc i en t if ica s . E n t re l o s má s e spec tacu la rcs c abe c i t a rl o s d o s g r ande s c uerno s f und ido s e n b ronce p roce d en te sd cL aC ova d e l sC o iom s ,e nE sM ig jom G ran . E l t o ro e n l a m i to Log Ia c i á s ica a dm i te i n tc rp re ta c ione s d c s i gno d ive r so , a unque L a mayo r Ia d c e l ia s g ua rden c i e r ta c onex iOn e n t re s i ,a l mcno se ns u s u t i l iz a c ione s má s p r inc ipa le s ye x tend ida s . A s I ,c lt o ro e sc l s Imbo lo d cL af uer za q ue l om i smo v ence al o sh omb r e s , c omo I cs ucede aAnd rogeo e ih i jo d cM ino i nvcnc ib le

d c L ap roducc iOn d c v ino e n l a s i s la s , p e ro s id c L ai m p o r tac iOn d cá nfo ra sd e sde C a ta lui la ,d onde s ec naba e n

1 27

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

TAULA S ANCTUARY OFTORRALBA DEN SALORT A layo r , Meno rca , B a lea re s , S pa in

wa te rc i s te rn

E

LOCAT ION OF RAD IOCARBON DATES

CAL IBRATED RAD IOCARBON DATES L ab . No .

Quad ran t

Da te BP

D a te BC

1 .

K IK30 / W 'C 1263

TT -NT -CG

3 465 BP

1 516 BC

2 .

QL 1 433

TT -CO

3 259 BP

1 310 BC

3 .

HAR 1 876

TT -EX

3 233 BP

1 284 BC

4

HAR 2 908

TT -EX

3 187 BP

1 238 BC

5 .

BM 1 697

‚ IT -CO

6 .

QL1089

TT IN

2 970 BP

1 021 BC

7 .

QL1164

TT IN

2 952 BP

1 003 BC

2 947 BP

9 98 BC

QL1165 9 . 1 0 .

CS IC 1 42 BM 2 297

' V F -VF TT IN

1 .

CS IC 1 44

TT IN

1 2 .

BM 2 003

TT -A IV

1 3 .

BM 2 004R

TT INT -PT

1 4 .

BM2004

' I T -M IV -PT

i s .

BM2005

‚ V f -M I l l

F IGURA 2 .

1 28

2 792 BP

8 43 BC

2 190 BP

2 72 BC

2 135 BP

1 86 BC

2 080 BP

1 29 BC

2 059 BP

1 10 BC

1 9Y 7 BP 1 837 BP 1 510 AD

1 3 AD 13 A 1 564A J)

MANUEL F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ,W ILL IAM H . WALDREN yE DWARD 0 .S ANDERS

e n l o sj uego s e n t re mo r ta le s , q ue e s d e r ro tado p o r l o s h e roe s , c uando A rgo l i be ra al aA rcad ia d e la n ima l q ue l aa so laba . E s t amb ién s imbo lo d e i mno r ta l idad , c on f o rme r e cue rda p o te j emp lo e im i to d eS Opa lro ,p e ro e s , s ob re t odo , e i p ro tagoms ta p o r e xce ienc ia d e l o s g rande sm i to s g anade ro s yd el o s c u l to s d cf e cund idad ; p a ra l ap nme ra d e e s ta s d o s i n terp re tac ione s b a s ta r e c o rda r al o sb ueye sd eG e noa .

E n e ic a so q ue n o s o cupa , ys i n d e secha r c onno ta c i one s v i ncu lada s at o da s l a s d emá s e xp l icac ione s , n o p a rece q ue s ea d e scabe l iado p en sa r e n l a s r ep re sen ta c i one s t a u r ina s d el ac u l tu ra t a layOuca c omo s Imbo io d e c u l to s d cf e cund idad ,l oq ue c onec ta b i en c on l a s d educ c i one s e x t ra ib ie s d e l a ná l i s is f aun I s t ico d e l r e c in to d c t a u la d c T o r ra lba d ' en S a lo r t yt a inb ién c on e ip o s ib le p redom imo d c l ag anader la e n l ae s t ra teg ia a l imen ta r ia .

B IB UOGRAF IA F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,M . , 1 983 . Y ac im ien to s t a iayO t ico sp a ra c lc s tu cl io d cl ar omar nzac ión e nl ai s la d c Ma l lo r c a P o l l en t ia yl ar oman i zac ión d el a sI s las B a lea re s ,A icud ia ,p ig s .9 3 a1 21 . F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA , M . , BUENO , P . , P INON , F . y RODERO , A . , 1 980 . T o r ra lba d ' en S a lo r t ( A lay o r ,Meno rca ) .L aS a la H ipd s t i la . N o t ic ia r io A rqueo log ico H ispd .n ico 1 0 ,p ág s . 1 37 a1 82 . F LAQ IJER ,J . , 1 952a .T one d ' en G aumé s .E xcavac ione sd c 1 942 . N o t ic ia r io A rqueo lóg ico H ispán ico ,I .p ág s .9 9 ys . F LAQUER ,J . , 1 952b . T one d ' en G aumé s . E xcavac ione s d c 1 943 . N o t ic iar io A rqueo lOg ico H ispan ico ,I ,p ág s . 11 y s . GUAL CERDO ,J .M . , 1 991 .E ip ob la tt a la iO t ic d cB imsafui le t Nou ( Saa tL lu i s ) . Me lou s sa ,2 ,p ig s . 1 73 a 1 79 . HERNANDEZ MORA ,J . , 1 948 . Meno rca p reh i s tó n ica . No ta sd c sc r ip t iva s . R e v i s ta d e Meno rca ,p ág s . 2 41 ys . MASCARO PASAR IUS ,J . , 1 968 .L a sT au la s . R ev i s ta d e Menorca ,m ime ro e x t rao rd ina n io ,p ág s . 2 15 a3 30 . MURRAY ,M .A . , 1 9 32 . T rapucó ( I ) . C amb r idge E xcava t ion si nM ino rca .L ond re s . MURRAY ,M .A . , 1 934 . S aT or re ta . C amb r idge E xcava t ion si nM ino rca . L ond re s MURRAY ,M .A . , 1 938 . T rapucó ( I I ) . C amb r idge E xcava t ion si nM ino rca .L ond r e s P ER ICOT GARC IA ,L . , 1 958 .P reh i s tor ia d el a sI s la sB a lea re s . I n fo rme m er .anog raf iado e nl ab i b i io teca d cl aF unda c i ón J uan Ma rch , Mad r id . P LANTALA MOR ,L . , 1 991 .L 'a rqu i tec tura p reh i s tôr ica ip ro toh i s lôr ica d e Menorca .e is eu ma rc c u l tura l , Mao . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . , 1 984 . E xcavac ione s a r queo lóg icas e nT one d en G aumO s ( A layo r , Meno rca ) . N o t ic ia r io A rqueo lóg ico H i spán ico , 1 9 ,p ág s . 1 03 ys . S ERRA ,M .L . , 1 966 . C on t n ibuc iOn a le s tud io d cl a s t au la s . T a ia t Id cD a l t yT one L la fuda . I XC ongre so N ac iona ld e A rqueo log Ia .Z a r agoza ,p ág s . 1 79y s .

1 29

OBSERVAT IONS ON THE FORM AND FUNCT ION OF SANCTUAR IES I N EARLY BRONZE AGE S IC ILY

9

OWEN DOONAN F a cu l ty o fH uman i t ie sa n dL e t t e r s D ep t .o fA r cha eo logy a nd H i s to ry o fA r t B i lk en tU n ive r s i ty B i lk en t ,A nka r a T u rk ey I NTRODUC TION

men t d i s t r ibu t ion s . F i r s t , o ur c h rono log ica l c on t ro l f o r t h ep e r iod i sw eak a tb e s t5 . S econd , t h e i s land s u f f e r s f r om av e ry u neven d i s t r ibu t ion o fe xcava t ion s . P ao lo O r s ie xcava ted p r ima r i ly i nt h e S ou th -ea s te rn a r ea s ,a nd t h e A eo l ian I s land s h ave b een t ho rough ly e xp lo red b y

M onte San Giuliano near Caltanissetta s t ood a l one f o r n ea r ly t wo d ecade sa st h eo n ly k nown E a r ly B ronze A ge ( h encefo r th EBA ) s anc tua ry i nS ic i ly . S ince 1 980 s ev e r a l EBA s i te s e xcava ted i nS ic i ly h ave b een i n terp re t -

B e rna b o B rea a nd C ava l ie r . A rchaeo log is t s h ave b een s l ow i nc ove r ing t h er e s to fS ic i ly w i th t h et h o roughne ss

e d , w i th v ary ing d eg ree s o fc on f idence , a ss anc tuar ie s . T he se h ave o n ly b een u ncove red r e cen t ly , s o t h ey h ave

o ft h ese g rea ts cho la r s . T he e f fo r t so fC a s te l lana , Ho l lo w ay , a nd McConne l l a mong o the r s a r ee n l igh ten ing t h e

y e t t ob e s t ud ied a s ac ohe ren tg roup , s har ing s im i la r i t i e s i n a rch itec tu re a nd ma te r ia l a s semb lages . T h is p ape r w i l l e xam ine t h em t oge the r i nt h e i n te re s t o fd e t e rm in ing t h ek ind so f ma te r ia lr ema in sl e f tb y s anc tua r -

a rea a l ong t h e S ou th c oa s t , a nd S .T u sa h a s b een q u i te a c t ive i nt h ew e s t ,e spec ia l ly n ea rT rapan i . Many o ft h e s upe r in tendenc ie s a round t h e i s land a r e a l so a c t ive ly p u r su ing p reh i s to r ic r e sea rch , a l though t h o rough p ub l i c a t ion o fr e su l t sc an b ea gon iz ing ly s l ow . D esp i te t h e se p ro spec t sf o rt h ef u tu r e ,t h ep i c tu re i ss t i l lf a rf r om c l ea r . T he g ene r a l p a t tern o fl a nd u se s ugge s t s t h ee x i s tence o f al im i ted n umbe r o f " ancho r s" i n t h e l a nd scape , i n

i e s . A f te r e s tab l ish ing t h e se b a s ic f e a tu re s , w e c an b e g in ap re l im ina ry d i scu ss ion a bou t t h e f unc t ion , f o rm a nd u se o f s anc tua r ie s i nt h e EBA S i c i l ian s oc ia l l and s c ape . S i c i l ian s e t t lemen t s y s tem s s how ama rked d ive r s i ty i nt e rm s o fd u ra t ion o fo ccupa t ion ,c ommun i ty s i ze a nd s e t t lemen td e s ign d u r ing t h e EBA ( Doon an , 1 993 :ch .4 ) . T he s e t t lemen t t ype s r ange f r om l a rge , f o r t if ied t own s l i ke Mu r s ia , P an te l le r ia a nd T i mpa D ie r i , Me l i l l i t o s ma l l c amp s o r t empo ra ry f a rm ing i n s ta l la t ion s l i ke Man f r ia n ea r Ge la . T he n umbe r o f s i tes d i s tr ibu ted a round t h ei s land i sd i sp ropo r t iona t e ly h i gh i nt h e EBA ,

f r om r eg ion t or eg ion . I ti sw i th in t h is s oc ia l l a nd scape t h a t Iw ou ld l i ke t od i scu ss t h es anc tuar ie s o ft h ep e r iod ,

s ugges t ing e i the r al a rge , mob i le o r d i spe r sed p opu la t i on .2

p a r t icu la rc eme te r ie s a nd c er ta in s ub s tan t ia l s i te s6 . A t t h es ame t ime s ma l le rs i te s a ppea rt oh ave h ou sed much o f t h e p opu la t ion . Membe r s o f t h e se g roup s p robab ly moved f r om o ne g ene ra t ion t ot h en ex tw i th in t h el im i t e d r ange s r ef lec ted i n t h e d i f fe rence s i nc e ram ic s t y le

f unc t ion ing a s y e t a no the r g roup o f s t ab le p o in t s i n a s em i -mob i le s e t t lemen ts y s tem .

T he f o rm s o fa r ch i tec tu re e mp loyed b y t h e EBA

S i c i l ian s d on o tr ef lec tt h ek ind o fe xp l ic i t d e f in i t ion o f s pac e t yp ica l o f c rowded , l ong t e rm s e t t lemen t s ( Doo -

EV IDENCE FOR S ANCTUAR IES I NE BA S IC ILY

n an , 1 993 ) .3 T he l a rge s e t t lemen t s w i th f e a tu re s wh ich m igh t s ugge s t ah ighe rl e ve l o fs oc ia l c omp lex i ty h ave

Two EBA S ic i l ian s i te s h ave r e cen t ly j o ined Mon te

t e nded t o y i e ld l i t t le i n fo rma t ion , s ome b ecau se t h ey w e re e xcava ted l ong a go , a nd o the r s b ecau se e ro s ion

S an G iu l iano a sc e r ta in e xamp le s o fs anc tua r ie s : L a Mu c u lu fa ( Ho l loway e ta l . , 1 990 ) a nd Mon te G rande ( Ca s -

h a s e l im ina ted much o f t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea w i th in t h e i r

t e l lana , 1 990 ) . P o s s ib le c u l ta c t iv i ty h a sb een s p ecu la ted

b o rd e r s4 .

o na tt wo o the rs i te s ,V a l savo ia ( Sp igo , 1 984 )a nd T om c e l la ( F ra sca , 1 975 ; 1 976 ;e ta l . , 1 975 ) ,b u tt h e se p ropo s a ls h ave b een d eve loped n of u r the r . O ft h e se f ou rs i te s

L a rge c eme te r ie s l i ke t h e o ne a tt h e t ype s i te o fC a s t e l lucc io n ea r No to t e s t ify t o as t ab le s y s tem o fl a nd u s a ge b ased o np o in t s o ff ocu ssed i n te re s t ,e ven i ft h es e t -

t h ree ( La Mucu lu fa , Mon te G rande a nd T o r r ice l la ) b e l ong t ot h eC a s te l lucc ian c u l tu re , w h i le o ne ( Va lsavo ia )

t l emen t s t hemse lve s a r e d i spe r sed . Two ma jo r p rob lem s s t i l l c onf ron t u s when w e s t udy E BA s e t t le -

h a st u rned u pR od i -T inda r i -Vale lunga m a te r ia l .

1 30

O WEN DOONAN

Mon te S an G iu l iano ( Or land in i , 1 966 ; 1 968 ; P anv in i ,

Mon te G rande i s ah i l l top s i te n ea rt h es ou the rn c oa s t o fS ic i ly a tt h eb o rde rb e tween t h e moder nt own s Ag r i g en to a nd P a lma d i Mon tech ia ro . E xcava t ion h e re w a s u nde r taken b y ( ' -s te 1 lana i n 1 986 , a nd s oon r evea led

1 990 ) . Mon te S an G iu l iano i s as ub s tan t ia l r i se o ve r look ing C a l tan isse t ta i nc en t ra l S i c i ly . I n 1 963 t h ree a n th ropo mo rph ic f i gu r ine s w e re f ound s t rewn a t op t h is h i l l ( O r -

o ccupa t ion d a t ing f r om t h e N eo l i th ic t h rough t h e Cas t e l lucc ian p e r iod . T he mo s ts i gn i f ican tr ema in s u ncov e r ed c on s is ted o f as e r ie s o f C a s te l lucc ian e nc losu re w a l ls , a nd a r e la ted s e r ie s o f p oo r ly p reserved s t ruc t u re s .T he e nc lo su re s a r eb u i l to fd ry s t one ma sonry ,i r r egu la r i n o u t l ine a nd a bou t t wo me te r s i n t h ickne s s , a nd u p t o3 8 me te r s i nd i ame te r . T he r e la ted s t ruc tu re s

l a nd in i , 1 966 ) . S ix y ea r sl a te rO r land in io pened as ma l l t r ench i nt h e a r ea w h ich y i e lded af u r the r 2 2 e xamp le s ( O r land in i , 1 968 ) . A l though t h is i st h e r i che s t d epo s i t o f EBA f i gu r ine st ob ef ound i nS i c i ly t od a te ,t h el im i t e d s i ze o fO r land in i ' s t r ench m ade i ti mpo ss ib le t ou n d e r s tand t h e i r p l acemen t i n aw ide r a c t iv i ty a r ea o r t o

AEOLIAN I SLANDS

7

1

C an t icag l ione

2

C as te l lucc io

3

Manf r ia

4

Mon te G rande

5 6

M on t e S an G iu l iano L a Mu cu lu f a

7 8

N a ro

9 1 0

T impa D ied T o r r ice l la

1

T rapan i

1 2

V a lsavo ia

Mur s ia

F IGURE 1 .P l ace n ame sm en t ioned i nt e x t .

a r e a l so b u i l t i n ad ry ma sonry t e chn ique , i r regu la r i n s hape b u tr ough ly t h e s i ze o f t h e h u t s k nown f r om t h e

p l ace t h e se i n to a n a r ch i tec tu ra l c on tex t . P anv in i h a s r e cen t ly r e -op ened e xcava t ion s a t t h e s i te ( Panv in i , 1 990 ) , b u t t h e re a r e s t i l l n o p ub l i shed a r ch i tec tura l r e m a in s wh ich c an b el i nked t ot h eE BA s anc tua ry .

p e r iod ( Doonan , 1 993 ) . A l though n o ty e tf u l ly p ub l ished ,t h e ma te r ia l a s sem b l age so nt h e s i te a r eq u i te u nu sua li nc ompo s i t ion ,f e a -

Mon te G rande ( Ca s te l lana , 1 990 ) .

f i gu r ine sa nd au n ique p i ece ,i n te rp re ted a s amode lo fa

t u r ing f i ne q ua l i ty C a s te l lucc ian p o t te ry , ah eavy c on c en t ra t ion o f a n ima l b one s , s t one h a tche t s , t e r raco t ta

1 31

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t emp le o r ah u tb yt h ee xcava to r . T he r ema rkab le a r ch i -

e nc lo su re s w e re u ncove red h e re , d e f ined b y t h ick w a l ls

t e c ture a nd ma te r ia l a s semb lage f ound h e re l e d C a s te ! l ana t oi n te rp re t Mon te G rande a s a n EBA s anc tua ry . H e s aw t h e e nc lo su re s , w h ich a r e b y n o means t yp ica l o fd ome s t ic s e t t ing s ,a sd ef in ing ak ind o f " t emeno s" a no pen s ac r ed a r ea o fu nc lea rf unc t ion .

o fd ry s t one ma son ry8 . One s t ruc tu re , a s soc ia ted w i th an umbe ro fi r r egu la rs t ruc tu re s i nt h e s ou the rn a r ea o f

L a Mucu luf a( Ho l loway e ta l . , 1 990 ; McConne l l , 1 992 )

s how ah igh p ropo r t ion o fd eco ra ted w a re s , l i ke t h o se f r om L a Mucu lufa a nd Mon te G rande . I n a dd i t ion t o f i ne p o t te ry , a tl ea s t o ne f i gu r ine h a s b een f ound h e re , a n i t em n o tf ound o n a ny o the r d ome s t ic s i te s ( S luga -

-

-

L a Mucu lufa l oom s a bove t h e S a lso v a l ley i ns ou th e rn S ic i ly , a bou t 1 5 km u p land o f t h e p o in t whe re t h e S a lso r i ve ri s sue s i n to t h e Med i te r ranean . E xcava t ion s u nde r taken a tt h es i te u nde rt h ed i rec t ion o fR .R . Ho l lo -

e xcava t ion a ppear s t oh ave b een ah u t ,g i ven i t s r egu la r f o rm a nd r e la t ive ly c a refu l c on s t ruc t ion ( F ra sca , 1 975 ) .9 T he c e ram ic s f r om t h e l owe r l e ve l s a t T o r r ice l la

Me s s ina , 1 971) . B u tt h e ma te r ia lf r om t h eu ppe rl e ve l s ,

way ( 1982 -87 ) a nd B . McConne l l ( 1988 t o d a te ) r e v ea led t r ace s o f as e t t lemen t a nd as anc tua ry , i na dd i t i on t o a n a l ready k nown c oncen t ra t ion o f c hambe r

whe re t h ea r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s a r er epo r ted ,a ppea r st o b e d ome s t ic . T he e a r l ie r d epo s i t s may s ugges t t h a t s ome k ind o fc u l t a c t iv i ty may h ave b een t a k ing p l ace

t ombs c u t i n to t h e l ime s tone o u tc rop a bove ( McCon n e l l , 1 992 ;H o l loway e ta ! , 1 990 ;P a rke r , 1 985 ) .

d u r ing t h ee a r l ie rp ha se sa tT o r r ice l la a sw e l l . O n ly f u r t h e re xcava t ion c an e n l igh ten t h is q ue s t ion .

T he s anc tua ry a tL a Mucu lufa s t and s i n t h e s hadow o ft h e e x t reme n o r th -ea s te rn e dge o ft h el ime s tone o u t c rop . I tw a s s e to n ab u i l tt e r race c on s i s t ing o f af i l l ing a l . ,

V a l savo ia ( Sp igo , 1 984 -85 ) V a l savo ia i sa l so w e l l i n land f r om t h e e a s te rn s ho re o fS ic i ly ,s e to n ag en t le s l ope f l anked b yl ime s tone o u t -

1 990 ) . At h ick d epo s i to fb one ,a sh a nd p o t t e ry w a sd e t e c ted a l ong t h eb o t tom o ft h e t e r race w a l l . As e r ie so f 1 4C s amp le s r emoved f r om t h is d epo s i t y i e lded d a te s

c rop s wh ich h ave b een s c a r red b yc hambe rt omb s . T h i s a r ea i sd om ina ted b yC a s te l lucc ian ma te r ia l ,b u t V a l sa v o ia i t se lf h a s t u rned u p R od I -T inda r i -Vai le lunga p o t -

wh ich c l u s te red a round 2 110 ± 2 00 BC . T he c e ram ic f r om t h is f i l l w a s C a s te l lucc ian i ns t y le , a nd e x t reme ly

t e ry . T he a r ch i tec tu re o n t h es i te c on s is t s o f as e r ie s o f l a rge e nc lo su re s , wh ich t h e e xcava to r t hough t t o b e

f i ne i ni t sf o rm s a nd d eco ra t ion ( Luke sh i nH o l loway e t a l . , 1 990 ) . Ana ly s is o f t h e f auna l r ema in s s howed a p reponde rance o fc ap r ine s ,k i l led a t ay oung a ge ( unde r

c ompound w a l l s , s ur round ing h u t s m ade o f p e r ishab le ma te r ia ls . A f ew d en se d epo s i t s o f c e ram ic s w e re f ound i n s ide t h e se e nc lo su re s , wh ich may r ef lec tt h ep o -

2 4 mon th s )a nd l a ck ing t h e i rl owe rl e gb one s . T h i s w a s i n te rp re ted a sr ef lec t ing b u tchery e l sewhe re a nd u se o f o n ly t h e mea ty p a r t s a t t h is s po t , p re sumab ly t h e r e -

s i t ion s o fh u t s w h ich h ave l e f t n o o the r t r ace s . S p igo h a s s ugge s ted t h a t V a lsavo ia m igh t h ave b een a c u l t c en te r , b a sed o n a n u nu sua l ly h eavy c oncen t ra t ion o f d ippe r s i n as t ruc tu re t o t h e n o r thwe s t o f t h e o the r s w h ich may h ave b een av ery l a rge h u t . T he c omb ined

o f e a r th b eh ind ama s s ive s t one w a l l ( Ho l loway

e t

ma ins o f c oun t le s s f e a s t s ( C ruz -U r ibe , i nH o l loway e t a l . , 1 990 ) . T he s e t t lemen t c on s is t s o f as e r ie s o ft yp ica l C a s te l l ucc ian h u t s , o va l i nf o rm , w i th w a t t le a nd d aub w a l ls

e v idence o ff e a s t ing a nd e nc lo su re w a l ls a ppea r st os up p o r tt h i sh ypo the s is .

s uppo r t ing ap i tched r oo fo ft h a tch (McConne l l , 1 992 ) . T he c e ram ic s f ound i n t h e s e t t lemen t a r e l e s s r e f ined t han t h e ir c oun te rpa r t s i nt h e s anc tua ry , a nd s ha re f ew

S umma r iz ing t h e f i nd ing s a bove , t h ese f i ve s i te s s ha re ac e r t a in n umbe ro ft r a i t s w i th o ne a no the r w h ich

s im i la r i t ie s i ns t y le a nd e xecu t ion . T he f auna l s amp le a ppea r s q u i te d i f fe ren t , s how ing ah ighe rp ropo r t ion o f c a t t le a nd p ig s t h an i nt h es anc tua ry d epo s i t . A l li nd ica -

1 )F igu r ine s : S an G iu l iano , Mon te Gr ande ,T o r r ice l la 2 ) F ine o r h i gh % o f d eco ra ted c e ram ic s : a l l f i ve

t i on sp o in tt o an o rma l C a s te l lucc ian d ome s t ic e conomy i n t h e v i l lage , w i th t h e s anc tua ry r e se rved f o rf e a s t ing , b y n on -re s iden t s o f t h e v i l lage a nd p o ss ib ly i t s r e s i -

3 ) E nc lo su re w a l ls / d ef ined c e remon ia l a r ea :1 M . G r unde ,L a Mucu lufa ,V a lsavo ia 4 ) E v idence o ff e a s t ing : Mon te G rande ,L a Mucu lu -

d en t s7 .

f a ,V a lsavo ia 5 ) A sso c ia ted n ec ropo l is : L a Mucu lufa , T o r r ice l la ,

a r en o tt yp ica lo fc on tempo ra ry d ome s t ic s e t t ing s :1 0

s i te s

T or r ice l la ( F ra sca , 1 975 ; 1 976 ;e ta l . , 1 975 ) T o r r ice l la i s ah i l l top w e l l i n land f r om t h e e a s te rn c oa s t o f S ic i ly , b acked u p a ga in s t as t eep r ocky c l if f wh ich i sp ockma rked b y c hambe r t omb s ( Tu sa , 1 983 : 2 95 ) . L ike a t Mon te G rande , as e r ie s o fl a rge i r regu la r

V a l savo ia Wi th s uch as ma l l s amp le s i ze , i ti sd i ff icu l t t od i s c e rn c l ea rp a t te rn s i nt h ed a ta . T he mo s tc ommon f e a t u re s among t h e se s i te sa ppea rt ob et h eu se o f ad i sp ro p o r t iona te a moun t o f f i ne c e ram ic s , f ea s t ing a nd a n

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a r ch i tec tu ra l ly d e f ined c e remon ia l a r ea . F igu r ine s a p p ea r t ob e a s soc ia ted w i th t h o se s i te s w h ich a r e n o tl o c a ted b y an ec ropo l is ( w i th t h ee xcep t ion o fT o r r ice l la ) . One p o ss ib le e xp lana t ion f o r s uch ap a t te rn m igh t b e t h a t t h e C a s te l lucc ian s h ad t wo p r ima ry s anc tuary t ype s : o ne w h ich w a s u sed p r ima r i ly f o rf une ra ry p u r -

d e ta i led p i ece s , s how ing ar e l ig iou s e mpha s is o nr ep ro d uc t ive f e r t i l i ty . Howeve r t h e g en i ta ls a nd b rea s t s o f t h e se f i gu r ine s a r e n o t e xagge ra ted i n aw ay wh ich w ou ld d emand a ni n terp re ta t ion a sf e r t i l i ty f i gu re s : t h ey may o n ly r ep re sen ti nd iv idua ls ,i nc lud ing as ke tchy i n d ica t ion o f g ende r i n t h e a n th ropomo rph ic v o t ive s o f f e red a t ag iven s anc tua ry . T u sa ( 1991) h a s r ema rked o n t h e i mpo r tance o ff e r t i l i ty s ymbo l s i n EBA S ic i l ian mag ico re l ig iou s i c onog raphy . T he se a r e e spec ia l ly p rom inen t i n t h e d eco ra t ion o f t omb s , s uch a s t h e f a -

p ose s a nd f o r m a in ta in ing a n a pp rop r ia te r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h ed ecea sed ;a nd as e cond w h ich s e rved t h en eed s o ft h ec ommun i ty o ft h el i v ing . SANCTUAR IES I N THE EBA S OC IAL LANSCAPE : FOR M AND FUNCTION

mou ss t one s l ab sf r om t h eC a s te l lucc io c eme te ry . F e r t i l i ty a nd f une rea l r i tua l s s eem t o c ond i t ion t h e f o rm o f s anc tua r ie s . T he a s soc ia t ion o f many o f t h e s anc tua r ie s w i th c eme te r ie s may p o in tt ot h eu se o fc e r t a in a r ea s f o rr i tua ls wh ich c e leb ra te t h e r e cen t ly d ead ,

T he c ommon f ea tu re s o f t h e se s anc tua r ie s c an b eu sed t oh e lp u su nde r s tand t h ek ind s o fa c t iv i t ie s wh ich w e re t yp ica l o ft h em ,a nd h e lp u s t op ropo se h ypo the se sc on c ern ing t h e ir r o le i n t h e d e f in i t ion o f t h e EBA s oc ia l

a nd p e rhap s t h e a nce s to r s a sw e l l ( La Mucu lu fa ,T om c e l la a nd V a lsavo ia ) .1 2 T he c e leb ran t s n eed n o t l i ve i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o t h e s anc tua ry , b u t may h ave

l a nd scape . T he mo s tp e r s is t en tt r a i t s a mong t h e se s i te s a ppea r t o c en te r o n f ea s t ing i n a n a r ch i tec tu ra l ly d e f i n ed s pace . E v idence f o rf e a s t ing i n c lude s t h eu nu sua l f auna l a s semb lages f r om Mon te G rande a nd L a Mucu lufa , a nd t h e u nu sua l u n i fo rm i ty o f t he c e ram ic r epe r to ire i nt h el a rge " hu t "a tV a l savo ia . T he s t ruc tu re sf ound a ta l lo ft h e se s i te sa r ea l so r a th -

t r ave l led c on s ide rab le d i s tance s t or e turn t oi t . O n t h e o the rh and , s ome s anc tua r ie s a r en o tc lo se ly a s soc ia ted w i th c eme te r ie sa nd may b er e se rved f o rd i f fe ren tk ind s o fr i tua l , e mpha s iz ing p roc rea t ive a nd a g r icu l tu ra l f e r t i l i ty . G iven t h ew e l lk nown d i s t r ibu t ion o fd i sc re te r eg ion a ls t y le si nC a s te l lucc ian p o t te ry ( Fa irbank , 1 977 ) ,i ta p p ea r s t h a t c eme te r ie s a nd s anc tua r ie s w e re t h e f oca l p o in t s i n ar eg iona l s e t t lemen t s y s tem wh ich , a l though

e r u nu sua l : t h e se a r e n o t t yp ica l o f C a s te l lucc ian d o me s t ic s i te s , a nd may r ep re sen t t h e i n c rea s ing i mpo r t a nce o f" p r iva cy" d ef in i t ion w hen g roup sg a the rw h ich d on o tn o rma l ly r e s ide t oge the r . S ome o ft h e se e nc lo s u res m ay h ave f unc t ioned a sa n ima lp en s , wh ich c ou ld m in im ize t h e r i sk o f d i spu te s o ve r l i ve s tock . T he e x -

d i spe r sed a nd s omewha t f l u id , wa s w e l l d ef ined a nd s t ab le o ve r t h eg ene ra t ion s . T he r o le o f mo re s ub s tan t i a l s e t t lemen t s i n t h i s s y s tem i sd i ff icu l t t o a s se ss a t p resen t , g iven t h e l a ck o f w e l l p re se rved s i te s a nd

c ep t iona l q ua l i ty o ft h e p o t te ry f ound a ts ome o ft h e se s i tes m ay a l so r ef lec t t h e g a the r ing o f r e s iden t s f r om d i f fe ren t c ommun i t ie s , s pu r r ing o n c ompe t i t ion b e t ween p a r t ic ipan t s . T he f i gur ine s f ound a tt h e se s anc tua r ie s h ave b een

c h rono log ica l c on t ro l . I t may b e t e n ta t ive ly s ugge s ted t h a t d u r ing t h e EBA t h e re i s as h if t i n s e t t lemen t p a t t e rn s t owa rd s amo re n uc lea ted s y s tem . T he l ong t e rm s t ab i l i ty o fr i tua l s i te s p rov ided t h e s eed s o fs uch ad e v e lopmen t . F u r the rr e sea rch w i l l c e r ta in ly c l a r ify t h e se i s sue s , b u th ope fu l ly t h i s d i scu ss ion c an s t i mu la te n ew

d i scu s sed r ecen t ly i n a n a r t ic le b y E . P roce l l i ( 1991) , who h a sa rgued t h a tt h ey a r er ep re sen ta t ive o f ak i nd o f f e r t i l i ty c u l t . H eb a se sh i sa s se r t ion o nt h ef a c tt h a ts ex u a l a t t r ibu te s a r e ma rked o nt h e se o the rw i se m in ima l ly

t h ink ing o nt h es t ruc tu re o ft h es oc ia ll and scape o f EBA S i c i ly .

J IE S 1 . Iw ou ld l i ke t oa cknow ledge t h e C en te r f o r O ld Wo r ld A rchaeo logy a nd A r t ( T rave l l ing f e l lowsh ip , s umme r 1 991) , t h eJ oukowsky F am i ly f ounda t ion ( D isse r ta t ion F e l lowsh ip , 1 991 -92 ) a nd t h e HAT f ounda t ion ( T rave l l ing F e l low sh ip , 1 992 -93 ) f o rf und ing p o r t ion s o ft h i s r e sea rch . Iwou ld a l so l i ke t ot h ank R .R . Ho l loway ,B . McConne l l a nd L . McConne l l - Man isca lco f o r t h e i rc ommen t s o n d raf t s o ft h i s p ape ra nd T ony T uck f o rp rov id ing o f fp r in t s o f c e r ta in a r t ic le su nava i lab le i nA nka ra . 2 . T u sa ( 1983 ) : 2 64 -65 r e co rd s 14 E a r ly B ronze A ge s i te s o n S i c i ly a s o ppo sed t o4 0 s i te s i nt h e s eem ing ly mo re " u rban" M idd le B ronze A ge ( p .3 86 -87 ) .

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3 . T h i s i sn o t n ece ssa r i ly t oc l a im s e a sona l t r an shumance w a s t y p ica l o f EBA S ic i ly , a sB a rker ( 1981 ) h a s d one i n m a in land I t a ly . B u t mo s t EBA s i te sd on o tg i ve a ni mp re ss ion o fc on t inuou su se o ve r many y ear s ,a st h et own so ft h e MBA d o . F o r ad i scu ss ion o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween s e t t lemen ts t ab i l i ty a nd a r ch i tec tu ra ld e s ign ,s e eK en ta nd V ier e ich , 1 989 . 4 . F o re xamp le ,B ranco G rande a nd Me l lh i . Ia mp u rpo se fu l ly e xc lud ing Mur s ia f r om t h i sd i scu ss ion e ven t h ough i t s c e ram ic r ema in s b e long t ot h e R od i -T inda r i -Va l le lunga t y pe , s i nce i tl i e s w e l l o f ft h e c oa s t o f S ic i ly , i sd i f f icu l t t o p l ace w i th in t h es equence o fs i te si n EBA S i c i ly ,a nd o n ly as ma l lp ropo r t ion i se xcava ted . 5 . T he s i te w i th t h e mo s tr e l iab le c hronome t r ic d a t ing s of a ri sL a Mucu lu la , c on s ide red t os t and t owa rd s t h e e a r l ie r p a r to f t h e C a s te l lucc ian p er iod ( Ho l loway e ia ! , 1 990 ) . Ar e l iab le r a d ioca rbon s equence mu s t b eb u i l tu p f o r EBA S i c i ly b e fo re w ec an t a ck le f undamen ta l p rob lem s l i ke t h ed eve lopmen to fC a s te l lucc ian p o t te ry o rs e t t lemen tt ype s . E ven t h ec h rono log ica l r e la t ion o fC a s te l lucc ian c u l tu re t oi t s mo re u rban MBA s ucce s so r( Thap so sc u l tu r e )i su nc lea r a tp r e sen t . 6 .I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t mo s to ft h e l a rge rs e t t lemen t s a r el a te ri nd a te ,r ef lec t ing t h e f i r s t s t age s o ft h e t r an s i t ion t o t h e mo r en uc lea ted s e t t lemen ts y s tem t y p ica lo ft h eM idd le B ronze A ge . 7 . O fc ou r se ,t h e re i sn o tn ece ssa r i ly a ny r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eu se o ft h es e t t lemen ta nd t h a to ft h es anc tuary . T he t wo 1 4€ s amp le s f r om t h es e t t lemen ti nd ica te g ene ra l ly t h e s ame d a te ,a l though t h es amp le s w e re q u i te s ma l l a nd t h e e r ro rl a rge ( Ho l loway , 1 992 ) . I n t h ef a ce o fs uch i n conc lu s ive e v idence i ts eem s b e s t t ol e ave t h e q ue s t ion o f ar e la t i on sh ip b e tween t h et wo o pen . A s f o rn on re s iden t su s ing t h es anc tua ry ,L uke sh h a s s hown t h a ts ome p o t te ry d epo s i t ed i nt h e s anc tua ry h a s c l o se a ff in i t ie s w i th t h e u npub l ished ma te r ia l f r om C an t icag l ione , a bou t 1 5 k m t ot h e s ou th a nd p e rhap sN a ro ,s ome 2 0 km t ot h e No r th -we s t( Luke sh ,i n Ho l loway e ia l . , 1 990 : 3 6 -37 ) . 8 . Ad a rk s t ra tum f i l led w i th o rgan ic d epo s i t s w a sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e se s t ruc tu re s ,w h ich may w e l l h ave b een t h er e ma in so fa n ima lk eep ing w i th in t h e se p en s . 9 . Two h u tp avemen t s w e re a l so f ound i nt h e s ou the rn t r enche s ,b u tt h ew a l ls a s soc ia ted w i th t h em h ad b een r emoved b yp lough ing . 1 0 . Ia mr e fe r r ing t ot h el owe rl e ve ls o fT o r r ice l la h e re ,a l though i ti sn o ta ta l l c e r ta in t h a ti ts hou ld b ei n te rp re ted a s as anc tua ry . 1 . R eca l l t h a tn o te nough o f Mon te S an G iu l iano h a sb een e xcava ted t oy i e ld e v idence o fa r ch i tec tu re ,a nd l owe rl e v e l so fa r ch i tec tu re may r ema in t ob ef ound a tT omce l la . 1 2 . O r s i ( 1892 :22 ) n o ted e v idenc e o ff e a s t ing a tC a s te l lucc io , i na dd i t ion t ot h ec eme te ry a nd s e t t lemen t

-

-

t h is may

i n d ica te t h ee x i s tence o f as im i la ra r rangemen t ,t y ing t o ge the r ac eme te ry a nd a na c t iv i ty a r ea d ed ica ted t ot h e m emo r i a l iza t ion o ft h ed ead t h rough r i tua lf e a s t ing . REFERENCES CASTE !. 1ANA ,G . 1 990 . "Mon t eG rande , "i n AAVV , U nd ecenn io d ir i cerche p re i s lor iche ep ro tos ior iche n e ll e rnt o r io d iA gr igen lo : 3 3 -38 . DOONAN ,0 . 1 993 . " Dome s t ic A rch i tec tu re o ft h eS ic i l ian B ronze A ge : AS tudy o fA rch i tec tu ra lI nnova t ion a nd S o c i a lT ran sfo rma t ion ," P h .D . d i s s . ,B rown U n ive r s i ty . FA JRBANK , J .1 977 . ' The C a s te l lucc ian C u l tu re : AR ea sse ssmen t o f i t s O r ig in s a nd R eg iona l G roup ing s ," P hD . d i s s . , Un iv .o fL ondon . FRASCA ,M . 1 975 . " I lv i l lagg io p re is to r ico p re s so R amacca , " S i c i l ia A rchaeo log ica 2 7 :4 1f . 1 976 . ' To mce l la ( R amacca )" K oka lo s XXH -XX I I I( 1976 -77 ) : 6 19 f .

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FRASCA ,M . e ia l . 1 975 . " Ramacca ( Ca tan ia ) : S agg id is c avo n e l v i lagg io p re is to r ico i nc on t rada T on ice l la , " N o t iz ie d eg l iS cav i , 1 975 : 5 57 -85 . HOLLO WAY ,R .R .e ta l . 1 990 . " La Mucu lufa :T he E a r ly B ronze A ge S anc tua ry : T he E a r ly B ronze A ge V i l lage , "R e v ArchH L s iAr t ,L ouva in XX I I I : 1 -67 . McCONNELL ,B . 1 992a . 'T h eE a r ly B ronze A ge V i l lage o fL a Mucu lufa a nd P reh is to r ic Hu tA rch i tec tu re i nS i c i ly , " A JA 9 6 :23 -44 . 1 992b . " Fede ra l S anc tua r ie s o f t h eT y r rhen ian ," p ape rp re sen ted a tA lA Annua l mee t ing ( New O r lean s , 2 9 D ec . 1 992 a b s t rac tA JA 9 7 :3 19 ) . ORLAND IN I ,P . 1 966 " Mon te S an G iu l iano "K oka lo s XI :34 f . 1 968 " S ta tue t te p re i s to r iche d e l l 'e tà d e l b ronzo d aC a l tan ise t ta , " B d 'A UI I : 5 5 -59 . ORS I ,P .1 892 . " La n ec ropo l is i cu la d iC a s te l lucc io ( S iracu sa ) ," B P I 1 9 :1 -34 . 1 893 . " Scar ich id e lv i l lagg io d iC a s te l lucc io , "Bo l le t ino P a !e ino log ia l t c i iana X IX : 3 0 -5 1 . PARKER ,G . 1 985 'T h eE a r ly B ronze A ge C hambe rT omb sa tL a Mucu luf a ," R evArchH i s tAr t ,L ouva in XV I I I : 9 33 . P roce l l i ,E . 1 991 . " A spet hr e l ig io s i ea ppo r t it r a sma r im n e l la c u l tu ra d iC a s te l lucc io , " JM edS i 1( 1991) :252 -66 . S LUGA -MESS INA ,G . 1 973 . " Su u ni do le t to c a s te l lucc iano d aR amacca ," S i cArch 2 1 -22 :4 5 -49 . S P IGO ,U . 1 984 -85 . " Len t in i -Va l savo ia : V i l lagg io d e l la p r ima e t ad e lb ronzo ," K oka los XXX -XXX I : 8 69 -75 . TUSA ,S .1 983 . L aS i c i l ia n e l la p re i s to r ia . 1 99 1 . 'T h e Mega l i th b u i lde r s a nd S i c i ly , " JM S 1 :2 67 -85 .

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CONTEXTUAL S IGNIF ICANCE OF R ITUAL EV IDENCE I N MALTA

0

AWrHoNYBoNANNo

D ep a r tmen to fC l a s s ic s &A rcha eo logy F a cu l ty o fA r t s U n ive r s i ty o fM a l ta M s id a ,M a l ta

I NTRODUCT ION

Ar chaeo logy h a s n o t y e t p rov ided u s w i th t h e p rope r

t h eo t he rh and ,o ne o ft h e mo s te f fec t ive u se so fc on tex t u a l a na ly s is i nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ep r eh i s to r ic f i gu r a t ive r eper to i re t h a t Ik now o f , w a s made b y P e te r

t o o l s a nd t h e r i gh t mean s f o r r e ad ing t h e m ind s o f o u r p reh i s to r ic a nce s to r s f r om t h e ma te r ia l e v idence t h ey l e f tu s . When a nd i fs uch mean s a r e e ve r made a va i la -

U cko , a s e a r ly a s 1 968 ( Ucko 1 968 ) . C on tex tua l a na ly s i s , b o th i n t h is n a r row s en se a nd i n t h e b roade r s en se ( i . e . s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l ) , h a s b een mo s t e f fec t ive ly p ro -

b l e , w e may r e s ta s su red t h ey w i l lb et h ep roduc to fs c i e nce a nd t e chno logy r a the r t h an o f a r chaeo logy i t se lf . T i l lt h en s uch as c ena r io i sb ound t or ema in i nt h er e a lm o f w i shfu l t h ink ing a nd s c ience f i c t ion . W i th o u r f e e t

mo ted o n t h e t h eo re t ica l l e ve l b y I an H odde r ( 1986 ;

p l an ted f i rm ly i n t h e g round t h e mo s t w e c an h ope t o d o , i nt h e mean t ime , i nt h e f i e ld o fr e l ig iou s t h ough t ,i s

c on tex t t owa rd s amo re r e a l i s t ic a nd l e ss f anc ifu l i n te r p re ta t ion o f c e r ta in r i tua l is t ic o b jec t s , i np a r t icu la r t h e

t ot r y t or econ s truc t , b y u s ing t h a t s ame ma te r ia l e v i d ence , t he r i tua l s t h rough w h ich o u r a nce s to r s m igh t h ave e xp re s sed t h e i rb e l ie f si nt h es upe rna tu ra l .

f i gu ra t ive o ne s ,i nt h e Ma l te se p reh i s to r ic c on tex t . I ns o d o ing , Is ha l l l im i t myse lf t o t h e f i r s t t wo p er iod s o f Ma l te se p reh is to ry t h eN eo l i th ic a nd t h eT emp le P e r i -

T ry ing t op romo te t h e u se o fc on tex tua l e v idence i n t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l d a ta i sl i ke c a r ry ing c oa l t oN ewca s t le f o rt ho se who a r el e s s f am i l ia rw i th t h eA ng lo sa . xon w o r ld o ri d iom , t h is i s mo re l i ke e xpo r t i n g s and t oS aud i A rab ia ,a ni mp robab le v en tu re w h ich , Ia m t o ld , h a s a c tua l ly t aken p lace . I n t h is c a se , i t

o d a s t h e se d o n o t s e em t ob e s ub s tan t ia l ly s epa ra ted f r om e ach o ther , c u l tu ra l ly a nd p o ss ib ly e t hn ica l ly , w h i le t h e re i s mo re t h an a mp le e v idence f o rs uch as ep a r a t ion b e tween t h e T emp le P e r iod a nd t h e f o l low ing

a moun t s t os t a t ing t h e o bv iou s , o r s peak ing t ot h e c on -

t h e N eo l i th ic ( c . 5 0004000 B .C .) , h a s s o f a r r evea led o n ly r i tua l e v idence c onnec ted w i th t h e t h eme o f l i fe , p o ss ib ly t h a t o ff e r t i l i ty . T he e v idence c ome s f r om t h e

1 987 ) . I nt h ef o l low ing p age s Is ha l l e ndeavou r t oa s se s s t h e p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l ( o rp hy s ica l )

-

-

v e r ted , t hough f r om t h ep rec i rcu la ted a b s t rac t s o fs ome p ape r s t ob ep re sen ted i nt h is mee t ing , t h i s m igh tn o tb e t h e c a se a ta l l ( Skea te s 1 993 , t hough h e i st a k ing t h e " c on tex tua l a pp roach " i nt h e mean ing g i ven i tb y H od d e r 1 987 ) . Neve r the le s s , Ic on s ide rt h e p hy s ica l c on tex t i n wh ich a n a r chaeo log ica l o b jec t i sd i scove red a s a

-

B ronze A ge ( Bonanno 1 993 ) . T he e a r l ie s td ocumen ted p e r iod o f Ma l t e se p reh i s to ry ,

mo s t p owe r fu l t oo l , p e rhap s t h e mo s tp owe r fu l o ne , i n t h ea t temp ted i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h a t o b jec ta nd o fw ha ti t

N eo l i th ic o pen s e t t lemen to f S ko rba , e xcava ted b y D a v i dT rump i n t h e e a r ly s i x t ie s ( Trump 1 966 ) . Wha t a r e g ene ra l ly c on s ide red t ob e r i tua l o b jec t s w e re f ound t o g e the ri no ne h u t( t he s o -ca l led No r th R oom o ft h eS ko r b aS h r ine ) t ha th ad s i gn i f ican t ly l a rge rd imen s ion s t h an t h eo t he rh u t ss u r round ing i t ,d eno t ing t h e reby a nu nu su -

s t and sf o r . Ap owe r fu lt oo l w h ich , If i nd ,t e nd st ob eu n d e ru t i l ised , s ome t ime s n o tu t i l i sed a ta l l . T he mo s tg l a r -

a l , a tl e a s t ad i f fe ren t p urpo se . T he se o b jec t s c on s is ted o f s e ve ra l f r agmen t s o f s ma l l , s t one ( 1 ) a nd t e r raco t ta

i n g e xamp le o fs uch as i no f om i ss ion i st h e c a se o ft h e t r ad i t iona l a pp roach i n t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f f i gu ra t ive

( 4 ) s t a tue t te s r ep re sen t ing a h uman f i gu re w i th p ro n ounced f ema le s exua la t t r ibu te s , af ew g oa ts ku l l s c om -

o b jec t s . T he se t e nd t ob ec l u s te red t oge the ri n ama ss o f s im i la r , o r r emo te ly r e semb l ing , o b jec t s o r ig ina t ing f r om t h e mo s t d i spa ra te a nd d i s tan t c on tex t s ( bo th i n s pace a nd t ime ) a nd g iven f anc ifu l mean ing s w i thou t a ny r e fe rence t oe ach i t em ' s a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t . On

p l e te w i th h o rn s b u t w i th t h e i r f ac ia l b one s k nocked a way , a nd s eve ra l c ow t a r sa l b one s w i th t h e l owe rf a ce s moo thed a way t oa l low t h em t os t and o n e nd ( F ig . 1 ) . A l though o ne n eed s t or e f ra in f r om p roduc ing c i rcu la r a r gumen t sb yt r y ing t oc onf i rm t h er i tua l i s t ic mean ing o f

1 36

ANTHONY B ONANNO

t h e se o b jec t sf r om t h ea r ch i tec tu r a l c on tex ta f te rh av ing c onc luded t ha t t h e l a t te r w a s a' s h r ine ' o n t h e b a s is o f t h e n on secu la r s ymbo l i sm o ft h e c on ten t s , i nt h i s p a r t i cu la rc a se t h ec i rcum s tan t ia l e v idence w i th in t h i s p a r t i cu la rh u t , wh ich i sn o tr epea ted i na ny o ft h eo the r' d o me s t ic ' h u t s , i s s u f f ic ien t ly s t rong t o s ugge s t an on -

v aga r ie so fa r chaeo logy , a nd o ne i sc on f iden t t h a t s uch e v idence d oe ss u rv ive a nd a wa i t sd i scove ry . TE MPLE P ER IOD ( OR LATE NEOL ITH IC ) T he T emp le P e r iod i st h a tp e r iod i n Ma l te se p reh is to ry wh ich f o l lows i ni mmed ia te s ucce ss ion t h e N eo l i th ic P e r iod a nd w h ich i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h ew o r ld f amou s

s ecu la r ,i fn o tn ece ssa r i ly r e l ig iou s , s i gn if icance . R igh t l ye nough , t h e e xcava to r p ruden t ly s ugge s ted t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re w a s " s ome s o r t o fs h r ine f o r v o t ive o f f e r ing s

mega l i th ic b u i ld ing s k nown a s t emp le s . I tc o r re spond s

r a the r t h an at emp le f o rp ub l ic w o r sh ip " ( Frump 1 966 : 1 4 ) .

t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic a nd C oppe rA ge i nS i c i ly a nd o t h e r c en t ra l Med i t e r ranean c oun tr ie s , s pann ing f r om c .

F IGURE 1 .F ragmen t s o fs t a tue t te s . A l le xcep t( B )a nd ( C ) ,f r om t h e No r th R oom o ft h eR ed S ko rba S h r ine . ( a f te rT rump 1 966 ) . T he h uman f i gu re , a l though r a the r s t rong ly s t y l ized , h a s v e ry p ronounced f ema le s exua l a t t r ibu te s .T he r ep e t i t ion o f t he i conog raphy a nd i t s a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e o the r s eem ing ly r i tua l is t ic o b jec t s , a s w e l l a s t h e a b s ence o fd ome s t ic o rf une ra ry f ea tu re s o rg ood s w i th in t h e c i rcumsc r ibed s pace i n wh ich i tw a s f ound a tt h e t ime o fd i scove ry , l e ave v e ry l i t t le d oub t t h a t t h ef i gu r i ne s h ad ar i tua l i s t ic m ean ing . I n t h i s c a se Iwou ld n o t m ind g o ing s of a ra ss ugge s t , a sh a sa l ready b een d one , t h a t t h e se h uman r ep re sen ta t ion s w e re c onnec ted w i th s ome f e r t i l i ty r i tua l , e spec ia l ly i nv i ew o ft h e i ra s soc ia t i on w i th t h e s t and ing t a r sa l b one s , a nd t h a t t h ey may b e r e fe r r ing t o ab e l ie f i n s ome f o rm o f Mo the r God d e s s , c onnec ted w i th t h e f e r t i l i ty o ft h e l a nd a nd /o r o f t h eh uman s pec ie s . T he r i te so fd ea th f o rt h e w ho le o ft h eN eo l i th ic p e r i o d ( 5000 4 000 B .C . )a r eu nfo r tuna te ly n o td ocumen t e d ;s ot h e re i sn o th ing much o ne c an s ay a bou ti te xcep t t h a t , s i nce N eo l i th ic m an d i dd i e a nd d id d i spo se o fh i s d ead s omehow , t h is s i tua t ion i so n ly t h e r e su l t o f t h e -

1 37

4 000 t oc .2 500 B .C .i nc a l ib ra ted t e rm s . F o rt h is p e r iod w ep o s se s sa ne x t reme ly r i ch d ocumen ta t ion o fb o th t h e r i te o fl i f ea nd t h er i t eo fd ea th . As ha rp d i cho tomy b e tween t h e t wo t h eme s , t h a t o f l i f e a nd t h a t o fd ea th , i ss ugge s ted b y t h e b u i ld ing s i n wh ich t h e r e la ted r i tua ls t ook p lace : i mp re s s ive a r ch i t e c tura l c on s t ruc t ion s a bove g round f o rt h er i te s o fl i f e ; u nderg round , s ome t ime s e qua l ly i mp re s s ive , s t ruc tu re s ( na tura l , man -made o r ac omb ina t ion o fb o th ) f o r mo r t u a ry r i tua l s . T he se a r e v e ry d i s t inc t f r om e ach o the r b o th i n s pace a nd t y po logy , a l though w e k now o f a t l e a s tt wo c a se s w he re a cce ss t ot h eu nde rg round c eme t e ry w a s v i a amonumen ta l mega l i th ic s t ruc tu re a bove g round ( t he H a l S af l ien i Hypogeum a nd t h eB roch to r f f C i rc le )a nd t wo s i tua t ion sf o r wh ich o ne c ou ld s peak o f s ome s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t emp le a nd u nde r g round c eme te ry ( t he T a rx ien t emp le s w i th t h eH a l S a f l ien i Hypogeum a nd t h e Ggan t i ja t emp le s w i th t h e B roch to r f fC i rc le )( F ig . 2 ) .B e s ide s ,s ome s t ruc tu ra lf e a t u re s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e t emp le a r ch i tec tu re , s uch a s

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i l i th ic d oorway s a nd n i che s , a r e a l so f ound u nde r g round , w h i le t h ec urv i l inea r ,l o bed s pace s w i th i nwa rd p ro jec t ing , o ve r sa i l ing w a l ls o ft h e t emp le s a r e t hough t t ob e u l t ima te ly i n sp ired b ys im i la rp rope r t ie so fu nde r -

B rochtorr r C irc Ie ögant i ja

e r ,a l be i ts e conda ry p u rpo se s ,s uch a st h a to fr ed is t r ibu t i on o fa g r icu l tu ra l p roduce s ugge s ted b y t h e p re sence o f c e r ta in a r t ifac t s l i ke s t one g r inde r s a nd l a rge s t one b ow ls ( Bonanno 1 986 ) . S uch af unc t ion wou ld c omp le men tt h a to ft h ec en t ra l wo r sh ip a nd b o th wou ld b ev e ry c onduc ive t o s oc ia l c ohe s ion ( Bonanno 1 991) . No r wou ld t h i s e xc lude t h ep o ss ib le p rac t ice o fs im i la rr i tu a l s w i th in t h ed ome s t ic e nv ironmen t ;b u t ,a ga in ,a r chae o log ica l d i scover ie s o f Ma l te se c on tempo ra ry s e t t le men t s a r e l im i ted t ot h e e x t reme , c on s i s t ing o n ly o f a c oup le o f p a r t ia l ly s u rv iv ing h u t s b e long ing t o t h e G gan t 4 ja p ha se e xcava ted i n 1 987 ( Ma lone e ta l .1 988 ) . No r i tua l a r t i fac t s w e re f ound t h e re e xcep tf o r ac one s haped o b jec tb u r ied u nde rp a r to ft h e h u tc on s t ruc t ion a nd ,t h e refo re , p o ss i b ly c onnec ted w i th t h ef ounda t ion r i te so ft h eh u ti t se lf ( F ig .3 ) . T he se r i tua l s o fl i f e a re a bundan t ly d ocumen ted p a r t i cu la r ly f o rt h el a s tp ha se o ft h eT emp le a ge ,t h e T arx i e n p ha se . T he r e a son f o r t h is i st wo fo ld . F i r s t ly ,p rac t i -

2 .T he M a l te se I s l and s ,s h ow ing t h es p a t ia lr e la t i on sh ip b e tween B roch to r f fC i r c le ,a n db e tween H a l S a f l ien i a nd T a rx ien . ( a f t e rS t odda r te ta l .1 9 93 ) . F I G U RE

g round t omb s . Much l e s s p ronounced i st h e s epara t ion b e tween t h e t wo k i nd s o f monumen t s i nt e rm s o f ma te r i a l c u l tu re a nd r i tua l a r t ifac t s , i n p ar t icu la r h uman r ep re sen ta t ion s s i nce s im i la r s pec imen s a re f ound i n b o th c on tex t s . S o much s o t h a tf o rt h eH a l S a f l iem H y p ogeum t wo p u rpo se s h ave b een p ropo sed ,t h a to f ab u r i a l a sw e l l a st h a to fw o r sh ip ; av i ew t h a tm igh th ave t o b e r e v ised i nt h el i gh to ff i nd ing s c u r ren t ly b e ing made a ti t s a na logou s c oun te rpar ti nX agh ra , Gozo . T ha to b j ec t so f ma te r ia l c u l ture ,i np a r t icu la rp re s t ige i t em s ,a r e f ound i n b ur ia l c on tex t a s w e l l a s d ome s t ic a nd r e l ig i ou s o ne si sn os u rp r ise : s uch o b jec t sw e re mean tt oa c c ompany t h ep o sse sso rb o th i nt h is l i fe a nd b eyond . B u t t ha t h uman r ep re sen ta t ion s w i th o ver t s ymbo l ism o f l i fe ,p ro spe r i ty a nd a bundance ,s uch a sf i gure so ft h ef a m i l ia r o be se t y pe a nd p ha l l ic s ymbo ls , s hou ld o ccu ri n f une ra ry c on tex t s a lmo s t t ot h e s ame e x ten ta si nt ho se o f wo r sh ip , i s mo re t h an o ne e xpec t s a nd t h ep henome n on n eed s ad eepe rs t udy t h an h i the r to ( Bonanno 1 992 ) . R ITUALS OF L IFE T he r i tua l s o fl i f ep rac t ised b y t h eT emp le p eop le s e em t o h ave b een c onduc ted i nb u i ld ing s c on s t ruc ted s pe c i a l ly f o rt h a tp u rpo se . F o rt h a tr e a son t h ey a r e u n ive r s a l ly d e s igna ted a st emp le s . T h i s d oe sn o te xc lude o th -

1 38

c a l ly a l l t emp le s e ven t ho se t h a t w e re c on s t ruc ted i n e a r l ie r p ha se s r ema ined i n u se i nt h e l a s t p ha se b efo re a bandonmen t , w i th t h e i ro r ig ina l f u rn i tu re b e ing g radu a l ly r ep laced b y t h a ti n c ur ren tu se . -O ne n o tab le e x c ep t ion i st h e s ma l l , 5 -ap sed t emp le a tT a rx ien , w h ich p roduced v e ry l i t t le a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l a nd s e em s t oh ave b een s ub jec ted t o s ome s t ruc tu ra l c hange s b e f o re i tw a s p a r t ia l ly d es t royed . -S econd ly , a lmo s t a l l t h e ma jo rt emp le s i te s t ha t w e re c on s t ruc ted i ne a r l ie r p ha se s w ere c l ea red o ft h e i rd epo s i t s i nt h ef i r s th a lf o f t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ,l e av ing v e ry l i t t le , o rn or e co rd o ft h e f i nd spo t s o f r i tua l a r t ifac t s f r om t h em . T h is s i tua t ion p e rm i t s ar econ s t ruc t ion o ft h e e vo lu t ion o ft h e s pa t ia l c on tex t( t he t emp le ) b u tn o t ,u n fo r tuna te ly , o ft h er i tua l c on ten t s t h em se lve s . T he r ange o f s u rv iv ing t emp le s s ugge s t s ag radua l , b u t o n t h e who le l i nea r e vo lu t ion f r om t h es imp le t ot h ee l abo ra te a nd s oph is t ica ted ,f r om t h e mode s t t ot h e monumen ta l ,b o th i nt e rm s o fs i ze o f p lan a nd b u i ld ing ma ter ia l . F rom as imp le t r efo i l u n i t , c on s is t ing o f s ymme t r ica l ly d i spo sed l obed c hambe r s e nc lo sed b y as em ic ircu la ro u te rw a l l a nd b u i l to fr e la t i ve ly s ma l l s t one b lock s , t h e t emp le p l an d eve loped i n s t age si n to t h es i x -ap sed u n i tw i th as ha l low n i che a tt h e i nne re nd , ma in ta in ing t he i n i t ia l s ymme t ry , a nd b e ing b u i l to fi n c rea s ing ly l a rge rb lock s ( Evan s 1 959 ;T rump 1 990 ) . A s ap rac t ica l i lu s t ra t ion o ft h ec on tex tua l a pp roach Iam p romo t ing f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e r i tua l e v i d ence Ia m r e p roduc ing ap lan d raw ing o f t h e T a rx ien t emp le s t h a ta ppea red i na na r t ic le o fv ery r e cen tp ub l i c a t ion u nde r t h e n ame o f a l l t h ej o in t d i rec to r s o f t h e c u r ren t e xcava t ion p ro jec t o n Gozo ( S todda r t e ia l . 1 993 : f i g . 2 ) . T he d raw ing i sb y t h e p ro jec ts d raugh t -

ANTHONY BONA

s man , S t ephen A sh ley , b a sed o ni n fo rma t ion c omp i led b y D av id T rump . T h i si lu s t ra t ion p rov ide sa ne xce l len t t o o l f o r aq u ick v i sua l isa t ion o ft h ei mmed ia te a r chaeo l o g ica lc on tex to fd i f fe ren tc l a sse so fr i tua l o b jec t s . I ni t t h e mo re o rl e ss p rec i se f i nd spo t s o fr i tua l a r t ifac t s a r e i nd ica ted ( F ig . 4 ) . No te ven w hen t h eT a rx ien c omp lex w a s e xcava ted , v e ry e a r ly i nt h i s c en tu ry , w e re p rope r , d e ta i led r e co rd s k ep to ff md spo t s o fi mpo r tan ta r chaeo l og ica l ma t e r ia l . A s t h e l i s t o f a r t ifac t s i sl ong , Il im i t myse lf t o t h e f i gu ra t ive o ne s . Is t a r t w i th t h e l a rge r p i ece s o fs t a tua ry a nd w o rk my w ay d own t ot h e s ma l l e s ts pec imen s .

O

a lmo s tt h ree me t re sh i gh a nd w a s t h ef oca lp o in to ft h is e x t reme ly e l abo ra ted s ec to r o f t h e t emp le . E ven i ft h e o rd ina ry wor sh ippe r s w e re a l lowed o n ly a f l ee t ing g l imp se o f t h i s s y s tem o f t wo a p se s s epa ra ted b y t h e w ide c en t ra l p a ssage , t h ey wou ld c e r ta in ly h ave b een i mp re ssed b y i t s e l abo ra te s cu lp tu ra l d eco ra t ion , c on s i s t ing mo s t ly o f as e r ie s o fr e l ief s d ep ic t ing v ar ia t ion s o n t h e s p i ra l mo t if , d om ina ted b y t h e c o lo s sa l s ea ted o be se s t a tue . Two l ong a nd n a r row f r ieze s s how ing a n i m a l p roce s s ion s i nl ow r e l ie fa nd l y ing o n t h e f l oo r i n t h ei n ne rp a r to ft h el e f ta p se ( Room 3 )a r et a ken t or ep r e sen t s ac r i f ic ia l v i c t im s . T he r e a l v i c t im s m igh t h ave b een t empo ra r i ly k ep ti nt h is e nc lo su re ,a ss ugge s ted b y s ome r ope h o les o n t h e f l oo r a nd o n s ome s t and ing b lock s . T he a c tua l s ac r if ice s a r e t hough t t oh ave t a ken

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F IGURE 3A . C one s haped s t one o b jec tf ound u nde rp i l la r .

( a f t e rM a lone e ta l . 1 988 ) F IGURE 3 .P l an o fh u tr ema in sa tC l a jn s ie lem ,G ozo ,e xc ava t e d i n1 987 .

T he l a rge s t s t a tue e ve r t ob e d i scove red i na ny p re h i s to r ic c on tex t a nd t h i s r e co rd d oe s n o ta pp ly o n ly t o Ma l ta i st h ec o lo s sa l s t a tue o ft h et y p ica lT arx ien t ype f ound i n s i tu , t hough i n af r agmen ted s t a te , i n s ide t h e f i r s t a p se ( Room 2 )o n t h e r i gh tb eyond t h e monumen t a l d oo rway o ft h eT a rx ien c omp lex . O r ig ina l ly i ts t ood -

-

1 39

p l ace o nt h ed eco ra ted a l ta ri nt h eo ppo s i te a p se . I n s ide ap lugged h o le o nt h es cu lp tu red f a ce o ft h i sa l ta rs e ve r a lg oa t s h o rn s w e re f ound a ccompan ied b y al ong f l in t k n if e . L a rge q uan t i t ie s o ft h e i rb one s w e re a l so e ncoun t e red i nv a r iou sr e ce s se so ft h et emp le s . I ft h e re i sa n a n thropomo rph ic r ep re sen ta t ion , t h a t h a s a l l t h e p re requ is i te s t oq ua l ify a s a ni mage o f ad i v i n i ty i ti st h is o ne . I t s c o lo ssa l s i ze , i t s m a ter ia l , a nd

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

t he t r e mendous a moun to fa r ta nd c a re e xpended i nt h e e l abo ra t ion o fi t si mmed ia te c on tex tl e ave l i t t le d oub ta s t o t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e e n t i ty i tp o r t rayed . I ti sa l so

l i ke ly t h a t t h e s a c r if ice s p e r fo rmed o nt h ea l ta rc l o se t o i tw e re i n wo r sh ip o ft h ed i v in i ty i tr e p re sen ted . I f ,t h en , w ea ccep ted t h a ti t sp ro spe rou sb ody w a s m ean tt oc on v ey ame ssage o fa bundance a nd p ro spe r i ty i tw ou ld b e h a rd t od eny t h e s ugge s ted c onnec t ion w i th t h e t h eme o fl i fe a nd f e r t i l i ty . Two s ma l le r s t one s t a tues o ft h e s ame f a tp e r sonage w e re d i scove red a tT a rx ien , w h ich a r e i mpor tan t f o r t h e ir u nu sua l i c onog raphy s i nce t h ey b ea r as e r ie s o f

men t s i n t h e s econd l e f t a p se o f t h e M idd le t emp le ( Room 1 5 ) . T hey a r e q u i te d i f fe ren ti nt h e i r i conog ra p hy a nd s t y le f r om e i the rt h e s t y l ized o be se t ype o rt h e r e a l is t ic n ude f ema le f i gu re s . T he ir h i e ra t ic p o se a nd p o r tra i t l ike f a c ia l f e a tu re s h ave e a rned t h em t h ed e s ig n a t ion o fp r ie s t s . One o f t h em h a s b een r e s to red f r om v ar iou s p i ece s a nd i se xh ib i ted i n t h i s w ay i n t h e N a t i ona l A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum . I ti st r ue t h a t t h e c he s t s e c t ion m igh tn o tb e long t oi ta nd ar e con s t ruc t ion o fi t a s ap r ie s te s sw i th t h eb rea s to ft h e " Venu s" f r om H aga r Q im h a s b een p ropo sed ( B iagg i 1 990 ) . Whe the rp r ie s t s o r p r ie s te sses , t h e i den t i f ica t ion o f t h e se s t a tue t tes

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F IGURE 4 . P l an o fT a rx ien T emp le s ,s h ow ing t h ef i nd spo t so fv a r iou sc l a s se so fo b jec t s . ( a l te rS t odda r te ta l .1 993 w i th a dd i t ion s m in ia tu re f i gu re so ft h es ame o be se t yp ec a rved o nt h e ir s k ir t o ro n t h e s t oo l b e low t h em . U nfo r tuna te ly , o ne o f

t h e t wo a ppea r st oh ave b een o u to fc on tex ta si tw a sr e t r ieved t o t h e w e s t o f w es te rn t emp le u n i t i n 1 929 ( Evan s 1 971 : 1 43 ,P l . 4 8 ,4 -5 ) .T he f md spo to ft h eo t he r i sn o t g i ven b y E van s ( 1971 : 1 43 , p 1 .4 .8 , 1 3 ) . Z amm i t ( 1920 , 1 97 -8 ,

P l .

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among t he d eb r i s" d u r ing h i s 1 917 -8 e xcava t ion c am -

p a ign s wh ich c ove red n o t o n ly t h e e a s t t emp le a nd t h e a r ea t ot h es ou thea s to fi t ,b u ta l so an umbe r of o the r a r e a s o u t s ide t h e t emp le s a nd s ome f e a ture s i n s ide t h e t emp le s . Ac l a ss o nt h e i ro wn a r ea tl e a s tt h ree h o l low t e r r ssa c o t ta s t a tue t te s ( s ome 6 0 cm s h igh ) r e t r ieved i nf r ag-

1 40

s hou ld b e s uppo r ted b y t h e c on tex ti n wh ich t h ey w e re f ound . I ndeed ,w he rea s t h ef i r s ts e to fa p se s o ft h eM id d l e t emp le w a s a cce ss ib le d i rec t ly f r om t h e o u t s ide f r om ad oo rway o nt h e e a s ta p se , t h er e s to ft h e t emp le w a s s ec luded b y t h e i n se r t ion , p robab ly a s a n a f te r t hough t , o f as t one b lock d eco ra t ed w i th t wo s p ira l s i n r e l ief w h ich b a r red a cce ss t ot h ei nne rt emp le . B e s ide s , e ach o ft h et wo a p se s w a s s c reened o f fb y ah igh l ime s t one b lock d eco ra ted w i th s p ira l si nr e l ie f .T he r e s t r ic t e da cce ss t ot h is a r ea a dd s s uppo r tt ot h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h e se f i gu re s a sp r ie s t sa nd ,u n t i l ab e t te re xp lana t ion i sp ropo sed , w e a r e f a ir ly j u s t if ied t oc on t inue c a l l ing t h em s o . A f ragmen t o f as t a tue o ft h es ea ted t ype w i th c a lve s

ANTHONY B ONANNO

t u cked u p t oo ne s i de c ome s f r om t h e f i r s tl e f t a p se o f t h em idd le t emp le ( Room 1 0 )w he re i tw a sf ound i nt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e l a rge s t one b ow l n o t f a rf r om as t range a r t ifac tw i th ah uman h ead c a rved o n as ma l l s t a lac t i t ic l ump o f s t one . T he s i ze o ft h e s t a tue t te ( 29 cm s w ide ) a ga in s ugge s t s ac u l t ic p urpo se . S o d oe s t h e ma ter ia l , i . e . s t one . I t s a ppa ren tn ud i ty m ay b e t a ken t or e fe r t o

F IGURE 5 .N aked f ema le c l ay f i gu r ine f r om T a rx ien ,h e igh t 3 0 cm ( a f te rZ amm i ta n dS i nge r1 9 24 ) .

wh ich h a sb een i d en t if ied a ss uch o nt h es t reng th o ft h e n on -secu la rn a tu re o ft h ec on ten t s . S im i la r ly , Is ugge s t t h a tt h es pace o f ten r e fe r red t oa s " O rac le R oom "a tt h e T a rx ien c omp lex , b e tween t h e i nne r r i gh t a p se o f t h e e a s te rn t emp le a nd t h e o u te r w a l l , c an b e b e t te r i n te r p re ted f r om i t s c on ten t s . A s many a s s even amu le t s w e re f ound i n s ide t h is a r ea a l ong w i th ap ha l l ic s ymbo l

a nd a m in ia tu re f i gu r ine r ep re sen t ing a s ea ted n aked women w i th k nee s r a ised a ga in s t t h e c he s t ( 56 ) (Zam -

s ome s ex re la ted r i te ( B iagg i 1 986 ) . A s many a s s even s t a tue t te s o ft h is t ype w e re f ound , a ppa ren t ly i n as im i l a r ly p o s i t ioned r oom ,i nH aga rQ im .B u tI ' l lc ome b ack t oH aga rQ im l a te r . T he s ma l le r , m in ia tu re f i gu r ine s , o n t h e o the rh and , c ou ld v e ry w e l l h ave b een v o t ive o f fe r ing s , e spec ia l ly t hose i n c l ay . One s uch f i gu re w a s f ound i n t h e f i r s t r i gh t a p se o f t h e m idd le t emp le , wh i le a no the r o ne o f s t one w a sf ound i n " cour t4 ,n ea rc o r r ido rt oI ,o nw e s t s i de" ,n o tf a rf r om t h eh ead o f al a rg ish t e r raco t ta f i gu r i ne w h ich w a s , h oweve r , e ncoun te red " a t af a ir ly h igh l e ve l? " ( Evan s 1 971 : 1 43 ,p 1 . 4 9 ,1 -2 ) . Y e ta no the rf i gu r i ne , d ep ic t ing an aked wom an ( f ig . 5 )c ome s f r om t h e i nne r f i l l b e tween t h e e x te rna l w a l l a nd t h e s o -ca l led o racu la r r oom . C lo se t o i t ap ha l lu s w a s f ound . Two p ha l l ic r ep re sen ta t ion s ( F ig . 6 ) f ound i nt h e i nne rmo s t c hambe r o f t h e w e s te rn t emp le s eem t ob e c onnec ted w i th e so te r ic r i te s o f i n i t ia t ion , g i ven t h e s e c lu s ion o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s pace i n w h ich t h ey w e re f ound ( Bo n anno ,f o r thcom ing ) . I ndeed ,t h is s pace i sn o to n ly s ep a ra ted f r om t h e r e s t b y ar i ch ly d eco ra ted s t one b lock b u tt h ef l oo rl e ve li sa l so r a ised t ot h a to ft h eu ppe rs u r f a ce o ft h eb l ock . T he c on tex tua l a pp roach w o rk s a l so t h e o ppo s i te w ay . Ob jec t s f ound i nc on tex tc ou ld l e ad t ot h e p rop e r i n terp re ta t ion o f t ha t s pa t ia l c on tex t . Men t ion h a s a l r e ady b een made o f t h e R ed S ko rba S hr ine a tS ko rba

1 41

F IGURE 6 . Ag r oup o ft h r e el i me s tone p ha l i i o n ab a se f r om T a rx ien ,h e igh t7 8c m . m i t 1 920 : 1 96 ) . S uch f i nd s a r e mo re i n d ica t ive , i n my v i ew , o f ad epo s i t o f v o t ive o f fe r ings . T h is s eem s t o f i nd c on f irma t ion f r om t h e t ype o f f o rma l d oo rway l e ad ing t oi t , ap o r t -ho le e n t rance w i th r ope h o le s f o r d oo r -po s t so nt h eo u t s ide ,r a the rt h an o nt h ei n s ide a s o ne wou ld e xpec ti ft h e s pace w e re f o r as e c re t ive a c t i v i ty ,l i ke t h a to fo rac le d e l ive ry . -

A l though t h et emp le c omp lex o fH aga rQ im h a sp ro -

ANTHONY BONANNO

Gozo ( Bonanno e ia l . 1 990 ) . T he d a ta f o r t h e T a rx ien p ha se c ome sf r om t h ew e l l -known u nde rg round l a by r in t h ine c eme te ry a tH a l S a l l ien i i n Ma l ta , e s t i ma ted t o h ave r e ce ived a bou t7 000 b u r ia l s ,a nd a no the ro ne ,c on s i s t ing o f as y s tem o fn a tu ra l c ave s ,c u r ren t ly u nde re x c ava t ion i nX agh ra ,G ozo ( S todda r t1 3e ta iD 1 993 ) .T he c l u s te r o f s ma l l l obe shaped t omb s a tX emx i ja b e long

w h ich w a s b roken a tt h eb o t tom , t h u s s ugge s t ing t h a ti t w a s p a r to f af u l le r s t a tue ( F ig . 9 ) . T he s chema t i sa t ion o ft h e h uman f orm s howed s ome s im i lar i ty t ot h e s t a t u e -menh i r s o ft h ec on tempo rary p reh isto r ic c u l tu re s o f s ou the rn F rance a nd S a rd in ia a nd C o r s ica , a nd i th a s b een k nown a s t h e " Zebbug s t a tue -menh i r " e ve r s i nce i t s d i scove ry . T he p rec ise f i nd spo ti sn o t r e co rded ; a l l w ek now i st h a ti tc ame f r om t omb 5( Evan s 1 971 : 1 68 , P l . 6 1 ,7 -8 ) . T he c on tex t o bv iou s ly i mp l ie s amo r tua ry r i tua l f o r t h e a r t ifac t b u t , s i nce t h e h ead " wa s a l ready b roken w hen i te n te red t h ed epo s i t " ( Evan s 1 971 : 1 68 ) , o ne c ou ld n o tt e l l whe the ri tw a so r ig ina l ly i n tended f o r s ome o t he rp u rpo se b e fo re b e ing d epo s i ted i nt h eg r ave . T he d i scove ry o f as e cond h ead w i th i d en t ica l f e a tu re s i no ne o ft h e Z ebbug t omb s r ecen t ly e xp lo red a tX agh r a , G ozo h a s ,h oweve r , c on f irmed t h e i n t ima te c onnec t i on o f t h e a r t ifac t w i th d ea th a nd mo r tua ry r i tua l ( Trump 1 994 ) . T hu s , i f ad iv in i ty i s r ep re sen ted , i t s hou ld b e o ne c onnec ted w i th d ea th . F ur the rmo re , t h e e xcava to r s t h is t ime h ave n o ted i t s e xac tf i nd spo t , t h a t i s , i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h e s ea l ing s l ab o f t h e t omb c hambe r , a s i fi n tended t os t and g uard o n t h e i n te r red h um an r ema in s ,o ro nt h e ir s p i r i t s .

F IGURE 8 . S t and ing l i me s tone s t a tue o nb a se f r om u nde rt h e t h r e sho ld t oR oom 1 0a tH ag a rQ im ,h e igh t4 86 c m . t ot h ei n t e rven ing p ha se s( Evan s 1 971 : 12 -116 ) . A l le xamp le s men t ioned a r e ,i ndeed ,o ft h ec o l lec t ive b ur ia l t y pe w i th t h ei n se r t ion o fn ew d epo s i t ion sr equ i r i n g t h e p u sh ing a s ide o ft h e r ema in s o f p rev iou s o ne s t o ge the rw i th t h e ir a ccompany ing mo r tua ry g ood s .T h i s p roce ss i n ev i tab ly r e su l ted i n a n a r chaeo log ica l s i tua t i on w h ich c ry s ta l l i sed i t se lf o n ly o nt h eo cca s ion o ft h e l a s tu se o ft h et omb ,t ob er e vea led t a le q ua le t ot h ea r c haeo log is t a tt h e t ime o f d i scovery . S uch as i tua t ion o bv iou s ly p reven t s p rac t ica l ly a ny d i s t inc t ion b e tween o ne b ur ia l a nd a no the r . H uman r ema in s a r e t hu s h a rd ly e ve r f ound i n a r t icu la t ion a nd i ti sq u i te i mpo ss ib le t o c onnec t mo r tua ry o b jec t s w i th a ny o ne b u r ia l . An a t -

O dd ly e nough t h eg roup o ft omb se xp lo red a tX emx i j a i n 1 955 , wh ich b e long t ot h e n ex t t wo p ha se s , d i d n o t c on ta in a ny f i gura t ive ma te r ia l ( Evan s 1 971 : 12 6 ) ; a nd s i nce t h is p ape r i sc once rned ma in ly w i th t h e l a t te r , t h ey a r e n o t o f much i n te re s t t o u s a tt h is s t age e xcep tf o r t h e ir n ega t ive e v idence , n ame ly , t h a tb u r ia l s w e r ei nf a c tc onduc ted w i thou tf i gu ra t ive a r te fac t s . T he mo s ti mp re ss ive b u r ia lp lace t ob ed i scove red s o f a rf o r t h e who le o f t h e T emp le p e r iod i su ndoub ted ly t h eH a l S af l iem Hypogeum , ac omp lex s y s t em o f mo s t l ym an -made c hambe r sa nd h a l ls h ewn o u to ft h el i v ing r ock o n t h ree l eve ls . U n fo r tuna te ly , i tw a s c l ea red o f t h e a bundan ts ke le ta l r ema in s a nd o the ra r t ifac t s i nt h e mo s tu n sc ien t i f ic w ay a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s c en tu ry , a nd p rac t ica l ly n or e co rd s o ft h e e xac tf i nd spo t s o ft h e f i gu ra t ive o b jec t s h ave b een t r aced . We d oh ave ,h ow e ve r , a n i nd ica t ion a s t ow h ich r oom s s ome o f t h e a n t h ropomo rph ic i t em s w e re f ound i n . We h ave a l ready s ugge s ted a tt h e b eg inn ing t h a tt h e s epa ra t ion b e tween t emp le s a nd t omb s i sb r idged b y

t emp th a s b een made t oi d en t ify a l l t h ei nd iv idua ls b u r i e d i nt h e X emx i ja t omb s a s b e long ing t o ap r iv i leged c l a ss f r om as t udy o f t h e b one s t h em se lve s , b u tn o s o c i a l s t ra t i f ica t ion c ou ld b e made o u t w i th in e ach t omb ( Pace 1 972 ) . T he o n ly a n th ropomo rph ic r ep re sen ta t ion r e t r ieved

r ep re sen ta t ion s o f t h e o be se f i gu re . One e xamp le , i n l ime s tone a nd o f r ough ly t h e s ame s i ze a s t h e H aga r Q im o ne s ( c . 4 0 cm s h igh ) s hows as t and ing h ead le ss f i gu re t h a t i sa lmo s t i d en t ica l t o t h e s l igh t ly l a rge r , s t and ing , a nd s im i la r ly h ead le s s s t a tue t te f r om u nde r n ea th t h e t h re sho ld o fr oom 1 0 a tH aga rQ im ( F ig . 8 ) . . I tw a sf ound i np i t( a )i nr oom 1a l ong w i th s ome s h e rd s o f w ha t Z amm i t c a l led " t yp ica l Neo l ith ic p o t te ry"

f r om t h eT a ' T rapna t ombs c on s is ted o f as t y l ised h ead

( Zamm i t 1 925 : 4 0 ) . F rom t h e s ame p i t t wo l ime s tone

1 42

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

h ead s w e re r e t r ieved , o ne o fw h ich ( S /S .39 )f i t s e xac t ly i n to t h e n eck c av i ty o f t h e s t a tue t te . T h is p i t i sv e ry c l o se t o t h e o r ig ina l e n t rance o n t h e s u r face l e ve l a nd c ou ld , t h e re fo re , b e mo re a pp rop r ia te ly a s soc ia ted w i th

t h e i r f md spo t , b ur ied i n ap i t , s ugges t s o nc e mo re t h a t t h ey w ere d i sca rded a nd d i sposed o f , a l ter h av ing s e rved t h e i rp u rpo se . T he t wo s ma l l t e r raco t ta f i gur ine s p o r t ray ing s l eep i n gw omen a r et r ad i t iona l ly t h ough tt oh ave b een f ound i n o ne o f t h e s ma l l c ub ic le s a d jacen t t o t h e " Orac le R oom" , w i th t h e c on sequen t i n fe rence s o n i n cuba t ion r i te s h e ld i n t h is a r ea ( F ig . 1 0 ) Z amm i t a nd S inger ( 1924 : 9 0 ) t h ough t t h a t t h ey h ad b een d i scove red t o g e ther i n 1 905 i n a" deep p i t o f o ne o f t h e p a in ted r oom s" . E van s t a ke s t h is t or e fe rr a the rt ot h e d eep p i t i n t h e l a rge p a in ted h a l l ( 22 ) a nd t end s t o a ccep t t h e s ugge s t ion t h a t t h ey " may r ep re sen t p r ie s te sse s i n t h e a c t o f i ncuba t ion " ( 1971 : 5 9 ) . A s E van s r i gh t ly o b s e rves , t h ey h ave n o p a ra l le ls i n t h e t emp les , b u t I w ou ld p ref er t o s ee i n t h em me re ly p e r sona l g rave g ood s , a t mo s t p e r son i f ica t ion s o f c ompan ion s i n t h e

F IGURE 9 .H ead o fa n th ropomo rph ic s t one s t e te f r om t h eT a ' T r apna t omb s ,n e a rZ ebbug ,h e igh t1 95 c m s( a f te rE van s 1 97 1 )

l i f e b eyond . T he s ame a pp l ie s t ot h e o the r s ma l l s ized f i gu r ine s a nd f r agmen t s t h e reof w hose p rec i se p rove n ance i sn o t k nown a nd wh ich a r e f i nd ing p a ra l le l s i n a r te fac ts b e ing d i scove red i ns im i la r c on tex t s i nX agh r a ,G ozo . CONCLUS ION

t h a ts t ruc tu re t h an w i th t h eu nde rg round c eme te ry i t se lf . T h i sc ou ld l e ad o ne t os ugge s tt h a tt h eb u i l ts t ruc tu re o n t h e s u r face c onnec ted t h e mo r tua ry r i tua l u nde rg round w i th t h a t o f t h e t emp le s a bove g round . F u r thermo re , F IGURE 1 0 . C lay f ema le f i gu r ine l y ing o nb e df r om H a l S af l i c n iH ypogeum ,l e ng t h 1 2 2cm .

1 43

S ince 1 987 a no the ru nde rg round c eme te ry i sb e ing s y s t ema t ica l ly e xcava ted b y aj o in tr e sea rch t e am f r om t h e Un ive r s i t ie s o fB r is to l , C amb r idge a nd Ma l ta , a nd t h e Mu seum s D epa r tmen to f Ma l ta . T h i s c on s i s t s mo s t ly o f n a tu ra l u nde rg round c aves o r ig ina l ly e nc irc led b y a monumen ta l w a l l o fs t and ing mega l i th s . My c o l league

ANTHONY BONANNO

D av id T rump , a no the r membe r o f t h a tj o in t r e sea rch t e am ,d we l ls i nd e ta i lo nt h er i tua lo b jec t sa nd t h e ir c on -

p re se rva t ion i n o ne o f t h e i nne r a p se s o f t h e T a rx ien t emp le s . An umbe r o fi nhe ren t c ha rac te r is t ic s s ugge s t

t e x t s f r om t h is s i te . It h e refore r e f e r t h e r eade r t oh i s

t h a t t h ey m igh t r epre sen tp r ie s t s ( o rp r ie s te s se s , e ven ) . Aga in , s o f a r t h is t ype o f h uman r ep re sen ta t ion h ave b een f ound o n ly i no ne t emp le c on tex t ,a tT a rx ien . I n ap ape rr ead a tt h e 1 985 c onf e rence h e ld i n Ma l ta o nt h et h eme " Archaeo logy a nd F e r t i l i ty C u l ti nt h eA n c i en t Med i te r ranean " , B r ian Hayden p ropounded h i s

c on t r ibu t ion ( T rump 1 994 ) . A t ype o f f i gu re t h a t h a s o ccu r red o n ly i n u nde r g round c o l lec t ive t omb si st h a to ft h ep l ank f i gu re sc on s i s t ing o f ab l ank ,e l onga ted t r apezo ida lb ody s urmoun t e d b y ah uman h ead . As e t o f s i x o f t h e se i nd i f fe ren t

v i ew o fp reh is to r ic r e l ig iou s t hough ta sb a sed o n c om p l emen ta ry o ppo s i t ion b e tween t h e t wo s exe s ( Hayden

s t a te o fc omp le t ion h ave b een f ound i n ab und le t oge th e rw i th ah uman h ead o n ac y l ind r ica l p i l la r ,a no the ro n t wo s t ump s , a nd a p ig ' s h ead o n ap i l la r . T he se a r e

1 986 ) . T h is s eem s t ob e t h e c a se i np reh is to r ic Ma l ta , c e r ta in ly b efo re t h eo n se to ft h e B ronze Age . F rom t h e

t h ough t t oh ave c on s t i tu ted t h ek i to f as haman f o ru se i nt h e mo r tua ry r i tua l t a k ing p l ace i nt h e l owe r c eme t e ry l e ve ls a t t h e B roch tor f f C i rc le ( S toddar t e ia l .

p re sence o f b o th c l ea r ly f ema le r ep re sen ta t ion s a nd ma le s exua l s ymbo l i sm i nb o th t emp les a bove g round a nd i nu nde rg round c eme te r ie s , o ne may c onc lude t h a t f or t h e Ma l te se T emp le c u l ture t h e t h eme o f l i fe ( whe the r c en t red o nf ema le f e r t i l i ty o ro n c omp lemen -

1 993 ) . No s im i la ra r t is t ic e xp re ss ion s h ave o ccu r red i n t h e t emp le s , a nd u n t i l t h ey d o s o t h ey m ay b e c on s id e r ed t ob es pec if ic t o mo r tua ry p rac t ice . T he r eve r se i st h e c a se o fs eve ra l t e r raco t ta f i gu re s , o f s ub s tan t ia l s i ze , d i scove red i n v a r iou s d eg ree s o f

t a ry o ppo s i t ion b e tween t h e ma le a nd f ema le p r inc ip le s ) i sp ro jec ted t ot h el i fe b eyond t h eg rave .

REFERENCES F RADK IN ANAT I ,A . & ANAT I .E . 1 988 . M i s s ione aMa l ta ,M i lan ,J aca B ook .B IAGG I ,C . 1 986 .T he s i gn if icance o ft h en ud i ty ,o be s i ty a nd s exua l i ty o ft h e Ma l tese g odde ss f i gu re s ,i n BONANNO 1 986a : 1 31 -40 . B IAGG I ,C . 1 990 .T he p r ie s te ss f i gu re o f Ma l ta ,i n HODDER ,I .( ed . ) , T he Mean ing o fT h ing s ,L ondon . BONANNO ,A . , 1 986 . As oc io -econom ic a pp roach t o Ma l te se p reh i s to ry : t h eT emp le B u i lde r s , Ma l ta :S t ud ie so fi t s H e r i tage a nd H i s tory , Ma l ta ,M id - Med B ank : 1 7 -45 . 1 986a . A rchaeo logy a nd F e r t i l i ty C u l ti nt h eA nc ien t Med i te rranean , Am s te rdam ,B .G .G r i ine r . 1 991 .I n t roduc t ion , J ou rna lo f Med i te r ranean S tud ie s 1 , 2 : 1 63 -169 . 1 992 . Ma l te se m ega l i th ic a r t . F e r t i l i ty c u l to rs exua lr e p resen tat ion ,i nE l lu l -M ica l le f ,R . &F io r in i ,S . , C o l lec ted P aper s , Ma l ta , Un ive r s i ty o f Ma l ta : 7 5 -91 . 1 993 . T a rx ien a nd T a rx ien c eme te ry .B reak o rc on t inu i ty b e tween T emp le P e r iod a nd B ronze Age i n Ma l ta? , A cl a sd o /C ongre s so Med i ter rdn ico d eE tno log ia H i s tó r ica

-

Ai den t i tad e Med i ter rán ica , Med i ter ráneo 2 :3 5 -47

( Fo r thcom ing ) T he r i se a nd f a l lo f mega l i th i sm i n Ma l ta ,i nC ompa ra t ive S tud ie so fm ega l i th s .P rogre s sR epor t s a nd E thnoa rchaeo log ica lA pp roache s ,I n terna t iona le sS ympo s ium , Mannhe im 1 4 Ok tobe r 1 992 . BONANNO ,A . , GOUDER ,T . , MALONE ,C . &S TODDART ,S .1 990 . Monumen t si na ni s land s oc ie ty : t h e Ma l t e se c on tex t , Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 2 2 .2 : 1 90 D 'AGOST INO ,B . 1 985 . S oc ie tA d e iv i v i ,c omun i tà d e l mo r t i : i mr a ppo r to d i ff ic i le , D ia lArch 3 :47 -58 . EVANS ,J .D . 1 959 . Ma l ta ,L ondon ,T hame s & Hud son . 1 971 . T he P reh i s tor ic A n t iqu i t ie so ft h e Ma l te se I s land s : aS urvey ,L ondon ,A th lone P re ss . HAYDEN ,B . 1 986 . O ld E u rope : s a c red ma t r ia rchy o rc omp lemen ta ry o ppo s i t ion? ,i n BONANNO 1 986 : 1 7 -30 . HODDER ,I .1 986 .R ead ing t h eP a s t ,C amb r idge ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . 1 987 .T he c on tex tua la na ly s i so fs ymbo l ic mean ing . I n HODDER ,I .( ed ) , T he A rchaeo logy o fC on tex tua l Mean i n g s : 1 10 . C amb r idge ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . MALONE ,C . ,S TODDART ,S .a nd TRU MP ,D . , Ah ou se f o rt h et emp le b u i lde r s : r e cen ti nves t iga t ion so n Gozo , Ma l ta ,A n t iqu i t y 6 2( 1988 )2 97 -30 1 .

1 44

R ITUAL ,R ITES A ND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

PACE ,J .L . 1 972 . T he A na tom ica lF ea tu re so fP reh is tor ic Man i n Ma l ta , Ma l ta ,c yc lo s ty led e d i t ion . S KEATES R . 1 99 3 .T he t r an sfo rma t ion o ft r ad i t ion : c hange si n mo r tua ry p r ac t ice a nd mean ing d ur ing t h eN eo l i th ic a nd C oppe rA ge i ne a s t -cen t ra lI t a ly ,I l lD e ja I n terna t iona lC onf erence o fP reh i s tory , Confe rence R e sume s ,n o . 2 6 . S TODDART ,S . , BONANNO ,A . , GOUDER ,T . , MALONE ,C .a nd TRUMP ,D . 1 993 . Cu l ti na ni s land s oc ie ty : p r e h i s to r ic Ma l ta i nt h eT a rx ien p e r iod , C amb r idge A rchaeo log ica lJ ou rna l3 . 1 : 3 19 . TR INKAUS ,K .M . 1 984 . Mo r tua ry r i tua la nd mo r tua ry r ema in s ,C ur rAn th r2 5 : 6 74 -679 . TRU MP ,D .H . 1 966 . S ko rba E xcava t ion sC a rr ied o u to nB eha lf o ft h eN a t iona l Mu seum o f Ma l ta , 1 962 -4 ,L ondon . -

1 990 .T he Ma l te se t emp le s : f unc t ion ,d eve lopmen ta nd s o c ia li mp l ica t ion s , B o l le t t ino d e lC en t ro C amuno d iS t ud i P re i s tor ic i 2 5 -6 ( 1990 ) 1 61 -6 . UCKO ,P . J . 1 968 . A n thropomorph ic F igu r ine so fP redynas t ic E gyp ta nd N eo l i th ic C re te ,S u r rey , AS z .m id ia . ZA MM IT ,T . 1 920 . T h i rd r epo r to nt h eH a lT arx ien e xcava t ion s , A rchaeo log ia 7 0 : 1 79 -200 . 1 925 . T he Ha lS af l ien iH ypogeum ,C a sa lP au la , Ma l ta , Ma l ta . 1 930 . P reh i s tor ic Ma l ta :t h eT a rx ien t emp le s ,O x fo rd . ZA MM IT ,T .a nd S INGER ,C . 1 924 . N eo l i th ic r ep re sen ta t ion so ft h eh uman f o rm f r om t h ei s land so f Ma l ta a nd Gozo , J ourna lo ft h eR oya lA n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu te 5 4 : 6 7 -100 .

1 45

DEED OR MURDER MOST FOUL? R ITUAL ,R ITE OR REL IG ION? MALLORCAN I NHU MAT ION I N QU ICKL IME

W ILL IAM H . WALDREN R e s ea r ch A s so c ia t e , D ona ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R e sea r ch C en t r e U n ive r s i ty o fO x fo rd ,O x fo rd 0X2 6 PN E NGLAND ‚

Th i s p ape r e xam ine s

MARK V AN . S TRYDONCK K on ink l i jk I n s t i tuu tv oo rh e t K un s tpa t r imon ium , J ub e lpa rk 1 B 1040 B ru s se l s ,B ELG IUM

au n ique p reh is to r ic p rac t ice i n

t h e t r ea tmen t a nd d i spo sa l o ft h e d ead

i nhuma t ion i n

q u ick l ime . Wi th t h ee xcep t ion o ft h eB a lear ic I s land s o f Ma l lo rca a nd Meno rca , t h e u se o f e spec ia l ly p repared q u ick l ime o rc a lc ium o x ide ( CaO ) a s amed ium f o r t h e b u r ia lo ft h ed ead i su nknown i nt h ep r eh is to r ic a r chaeo l og ica l r e cord . I n t h is r e spec t , i tc an b e c on s ide red a s t r ic t ly B a lear ic p henomenon . O n t h e s ame b a s is , t h e s t udy o ft h ep henomenon i sa ne x t reme ly i n te res t ing a nd c ha l leng ing o ne , t h er ef lec t ion a nd m ix tu r e o fp reh is to r i cp h syco log ica l ,r i tua l a nd p r ac t ica l mo t ive s . I t su se i nh i s to r ica l t ime s t og e tr i do fu nwan ted b od i e s i sh oweve rw e l l d ocumen ted a nd t h e mo t ive sb eh ind i t su se mo re u nde r s tandab le . Q u ick l ime w a su sed d u r ing t h e M idd le Age s t od i spo se o fv i c t im s o ft h eP lague . I t w a s u sed i nB r i ta in i nV ic to r ian p r i son s , a nd e ven l a te r i n s ome p laces t o d ea l w i th t h e u nc la imed b od ie s o f p r isone r s w i thou tf am i ly , w ho w e re e xecu ted o rd i ed o f o the r c au se s wh i le e ncarce ra ted . I th a s a l so b een u sed b y a n a s sor tmen t o f c r im ina ls b en t o n a nd e ngaged i n d eed s o r mu rde r mo s tf ou l ( F igure 1 ) . I n mo re mode rn t ime s ,i tw a s u sed b y t h e N az is t od i spo se o ft h eb od ie s o fv i c t im s o fc oncen t ra t ion c amp s a nd s umma ry e xecu t i on s . I ti ss t i l l u sed b y modem d ay f a rme r s o no cca s ion t og e tr i do fd ead l i ve s tock . A t l e a s t e igh t b ur ia l me thod s o r t e chn ique s i n t h e t r ea tmen to ft h ed ead w e re u sed i nt h ec ou r se o fp reh is t o ry in t h e B a lea r ic I s land s . T h i s i n c luded p r ima ry a nd s e conda ry e ar th b ur ia ls i nc ave sa nd r ock s he l te r s ,i n te r men t i n a r ch i tec tu ra l ly c on s t ruc ted t omb s , c i s t g rave s a nd i nw ood a nd s t one s a rcophag i , a sw e l l a sc r ema t ion b u r ia ls a nd i nhuma t ion i nq u ick l ime . Wh i le i nhuma t ion i n q u ick l ime f ound i n c ave s a nd r o ck s he l te r s i st h e mo s t d i s t inc t ive o f t h e se m e thod s , i tw a s a l so , d ur ing mo s to ft h el o ca lP o s tT a layo t ic I r on A ge ,p rac t iced c on t emporaneou s ly w i th s eve ra l o the r b u r ia l t e chn ique s . T he n umbe ro fd ife ren tb u r ia lc u s toms a nd t h ec on tem p o raneou sne ss o r o ve r lap o f s e ve ra l o f t h e se p rac t ice s l a rge ly c omp l ica te s a ny s t udy o ff une ra ry r i tua l i n t h e

1 46

B a lea re s ,e i the rf r om t h e i rc h rono log ica l o rc u l tura l a s p ec t s o r , f o rt h a t ma t te r , e i the rf r om as oc ia l , e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou s p e r spec t ive . I n o t he rr e spec t s h oweve r , i t f ac i l i ta te s s t udy o nt h eb a se s o ft h ec l ea rc on t ra s t ing d i f f e rence s i n t h e me thod s e mp loyed a nd t h e s equence i n wh ich t h ey o ccu r red o r s ome t ime s o ver lapped . I ta l so h e lp st os uppo r tt h ei d ea t h a to ne o ft h e s ounde s ti nd ica t i on s o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion , e i the ri n t h e B a le a r ic s o r e l sewhe re , i s ad i f fe rence i n b ur ia l c u s tom s a nd t e ch n ique s . J u s ta si th a sb een f r equen t ly a rgued t h a td i f f e r e nce s i nb u r ia l me thod s a r e a l so r ep re sen ta t ive o fc u l tu r a l c hange i t se lf . Wh i le i ti sb y n o mean s t h ei n ten t ion i nt h is p ape rt o e xam ine t h e d i f fe ren t me thod s f o r t r ea t ing t h e d ead i n a ny g rea t d e ta i l , s ome r e f e rence i s made t op a r t icu la r me thod s f o r c ompa r ison a nd a s ama t te r o f c on t inu i ty a nd p o s s ib le c hrono log ica l o rde ro fo ccu r rence . T h i s i s e spec ia l ly t r ue i nr e fe rence t ot h ef o rme rc r ema t ion b u r i a l s o ft h eT a layo t ic B ronze A ge d e sc r ibed h e re ,t os how t h ek i nd so fr ad ica lc on t ra s ti nt e chn ique s . D is t inc t ion i s made i n t h is p ape r b e tween t h e t e rm ' b u r ia l 'a nd ' i n te rmen t 'a st h e re i si n' b u r ia l ' a nd ' i nhuma t i on ' ( e .g . i nt h e c a se o fP o s tT a layo t ic I r on Age q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s a nd T a layo t ic B ronze Age c r ema t ion b u r ia ls ) . A s u sed , t h e t e rm ' b u r ia l ' i nd ica te s an o rma l c on s ignmen t t o t h e e a r th a nd ' i n termen t ' t h e c on s ign men to ft h ed ead w i th in a ne nc lo sed a r ch i tec tura lo ro t h e rf o rm o f s t ruc tu re , a l though i ng ene ra l d i scu s s ion t h e t e rm s may b e i n te rchangeab le a s i nb u r ia l a nd i n huma t i on . T he m e thod o fi nhuma t ion i nq u ick l ime h a s b een s e l e c ted f r om t h e o the r b u r ia l p rocedur es , n o t o n ly , b e c au se o fi t s u n iquene s si nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b u t , a l so ,b ecau se o fi t sp o s s ib le s e cu la ra nd s a c red r i tua l s i g n if icance . T h is a l so i n c lude s i t s l i ke ly c u l tu ra l o r ig in ( s ) a nd r ad ica l c on t ra s t w i th f o rme r b u r ia l p rac t ice s o n e i t h e rs i de o fi nhuma t ion i nq u ick l ime . T he w ide r a nge o f p o s s ib le mo t iva t ion s a nd e x t reme c on t ra s t s b e tween t h e v a r iou s me thod s o fd i spo s ing o ft h e d ead e xemp l ify t h e

W .H . WALDREN a nd M . VAN S TRYDONCK

B a lea r ic f une rary q ue s t ion , e ven a s t h ey e qu ivoca l ly s ugge s ta nd s uppo r te v idence o fc hange i nc u l tu re ,e ven p h syco log ica l a t t i tude s , g e s tu ra l e xp re ss ion a nd r e l ig i o u sd oc t r ine s . T h i sp ape ri sd i v ided i n to s e ve ra ld i f f e ren ts e c t ion st o

ad ep th o f 2 me te r s i n p l ace s , b u t a ve rag ing 1me te r d eep i n mos t s ec to r s (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . B a sed o n t h e a moun to fq u ick l ime u sed f o rt h eI r on Age p rac t ice , t h e

d emon s t ra te t h e v a r iou s a pp roache s t o i n te rp re ta t ion

p e rmanen tb a s i s ( c ommuna lb u r ia l s )o ve r ac on s ide rb ie p e r iod . B o th p lague a nd ma ssac re h ave b een r u led o u t

e s t ima ted n umbe ro fb ur ia ls a nd c h rono log ica l s u rvey s , t h e Ma tge c eme te ry mu s t h ave b een ma in ta ined o n a

a nd a na ly s is o f t h e se c u r iou s f une rary d epo s i t s . I tb e g in s w i th a n o ve rv iew o f t h e b ur ia l me thod o f q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion , s ugge s t ing p o s s ib le r e a son s a nd o r i g in (s ) f o r i t . I t a l so p resen t s as ho r t s t a t is ica l a nd p opu la t ion s t udy b a sed o n t h e h uman r ema in s f r om a c eme te ry u sed f o r o ve r 1 400 y ea r s , c ove r ing mo s t o f t h e l oca l B ronze a nd I r on Age s , a nd w h ich d emon s t ra te s c ommuna la t t i tude so fb u r ia l . F ina l ly ,i n as ub se q uen tp ape r( Sec t ion 1 2 ) ,i ta t temp t st op l ace t h ei nd ige n ou s p rac t ice o fq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion w i th in s pec i f ic c h ronome t r ic p a rame te r s ,r epo r t ing i nd e ta i l o n ar ad io c a rbon s urvey f r om t h e Ma tge r ock s he l te r ( Van S t ry d onck a nd Wa ld ren ) . I ta l so i nc lude s d a t ing s u rveys

o n t h e b a s is o f t h e e v idence , f r equency a nd e x ten s ive u se o ft h e me thod b o th i n Meno rca a sw e l la s Ma l lo rca . We n ow k now f r om r ad ioca rbon a na ly se s t h a t t h e Ma tge l ime c ong lome ra te c ove red ap e r iod i nt h er eg ion o f 8 00 -700 y ea r s f r om c i rca 8 00 c a l BC t o 8 0 AD ( S tu ive r a nd Wa ld ren 1 974 ; Wa ld ren 1 982 ; V an S t ry d onck a nd Wa ldren 1 989 ; V an S t rydonck a nd Wa ldren 1 992 ) . I ti sp ropo sed t h a to nt h eb a s i s o ft h e se f i gu re so f c h rono log ica l d u ra t ion ,n umbe ro fi nd iv idua l s a nd t ype o fb u r ia l , w ec an wo rk o u ta ve rage b ur ia l s t a t is t ic s , d e -

No o the r s i ng le e ven t , a pa r t f r om t h e a ppea rance a nd

p end ing o na rb i t ra ry l ongev i ty r a te s .T he se , w ec an e s t ima te b y u s ing a rb i t r a ry l ongev i ty c ha r t s , s t a t is t ic s o f b e tween 4 .5 d ea th sp e ra nnum i nT a layo t ic t i me s t o5 _2 d ea th s ay ea rd ur ing t h eP o s tT a layo t ic f o r ap opu la t ion a ta ny o ne t ime o f1 47 t o1 82 ,r e spec t ive ly ( s ee t e x t ) . Wha ti sp a r t icu la r ly i n te res t ing a bou ti n huma t ion s i n q u ick l ime , a pa r tf r om t h eu n iquene ss o f t h e p r ac t ice , i s t h e m anner i n wh ich t h e b od ies a nd a ccompany ing g r ave g ood s w e re t r ea ted p r io r t ob u r ia l . T he re i ss ome

c ommon u se o fi r on ,b e t te rt y p if ie s t h el o ca lP o s tT a lay o t ic I r on Age s t h an q u ick l ime b u r ia l s . I ti s amo r tua ry c u s tom wh ich a cco rd ing t ot h el a te s ti n ve s t iga t ion sw a s i np rac t ice f o r mo s to ft h ep e r iod . One o ft h eo t he rp u r p o se so ft h is p ape r , a pa r tf r om t h ep o ss ib le s e cu la ra nd s a c red r i tua l s a s soc ia ted w i th q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s ,i s

i nd ica t ion i n t h e c ong lome ra ted b one r ema in s t h a t t h e b od ie s w e re d i smembe red o r c u t u pb efo re b u r ia l . T h is c an b e s e en f r om a r t icu la ted l imb a nd p ha lange a s sem b l age s a nd s p ina l s e c t ion sf ound among t h eg r ea td i sa r r ay o fs epa ra ted b one c omponen t s t h a ta r e s o l id if ied i n t h el ime c ong lome ra te . H ad t h eb od ie s b een s e conda ry

t o d emon s t ra te t h e r e su l t s o f e x ten s ive c h rono log ica l a nd o the rr e sea rch d one o n t h e s ub jec t d u r ing t h e l a s t

d epo s i t s , t h a t i st os ay l e f ti n s ome a r ea e xpo sed f o r a c e r ta in p e r iod , whe re s c avenge r s a nd o the rn a tu ra l e l e men t s c ou ld r i d t h e b one s o f f l e sh b efo re f i na l i n te r men t , s uch a r t icu la t ion s w ou ld n o t h ave o ccur red a nd

f r om a tl e a s t o ne o t he r l o ca l s i te , t h e R ock S he l te r o f Mue r to -Ga l la rd , w he re s im i la r p reh is to r ic b u r ia l s t ook p l ace ,b u tl e s se x ten s ive s t udy h a sb een m ade . QU ICKL I ME I NHU MAT ION

t wo d ecade s , whe re i th a s b een t h e a im t oe s tab l ish i t s t r ue d u ra t ion o fu se a nd n o t ar e la t ive o ne . T he re i sa n a t temp t made t ol i nk i tw i th s oc io -po l i t ica la nd r e l ig iou s d eve lopmen t s d ur ing t h a t p e r iod , u s ing d emograph ic s t a t i s t ic s , l ongev i ty , mo r ta l i ty r a te s a nd l a nd u se , a l ong w i th t h ea b so lu te d a t ing . F o r t h is t wo a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a r e u sed , ( 1 ) t h e R ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge a nd ( 2 ) t h eR ock S he l te ro f Mue r to s Ga l lard , b o th o f wh ich a r e l o ca ted i n t he N o r the rn J ura s s ic S i er ra s o ft h e I s land o f Ma l lo rca . I n b o th s i tes , e x ten s ive q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion c eme te r ie s a r e i n vo lved . T he R ock S he l te r o f S on Ma tge , f o r e x a mp le , c on ta ined f r om 6 000 t o 8 000 b u r ia ls , a pp rox i ma te ly h a lf o f w h ich w e re i nhuma t ion s i n q u ick l ime a nd t h e o t he rh a lf t h o se o fc r ema t ion .T he i nhuma t ion s w e re made u po ft o4 80 c ub ic me te r s o fl ime c ong lom e r a te d epo s i t ( P la te 1 ) ; c ove r ing a n a r ea o f t h e s he l te r f l oo r4 8 me te r s l ong b y 1 0 m e te r s w ide a nd r unn ing t o

1 47

t h e b one c omponen t s wou ld h ave b een c omp le te ly d e v o id o f a r t icu la t ion . S econda ry b ur ia ls t h a t o ccur red b o th p r io rt oa nd d u r ing t h el o ca lI r on Age a r eq u i te d i f f e ren ti nt h e ir o rgan isa t ion a nd p re se rva t ion . T he g en e r a l t r ea tmen t o f t h e b od ie s a nd d epo s i t ion ( a r range men ta nd d i s t r ibu t ion ) o ff une ra ry g ood s i nt h e g rave s h ave ac omp le te ly d i f f e ren tf l avou rt h an t h a to fp r ima ry b u r ia ls . I no ther i n s tance s , a c tua l c r ema t ion , ac u l tura l c on t inua t ion f r om f o rme r B ronze A ge b u r ia ls , o ccu r s a nd i nt h e se t h e re i so nce a ga in ac omp le t ly d i f fe ren ta t t i tude i n b o th t r ea tmen t o f t h e c o rp se s a nd t h e p lace m en to fg r ave g ood s ,w h ich b ea r sl i t t le s im i la r i ty t of o r m e ro rl a te rb u r ia l s . T he f a c t n o c omp le te s ke le ton s w e re f ound , a pa r t f r om as ma l l amoun to fa r t icu la ted s e c t ion sd eep d own , s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t h eb od ie s w e re c on s igned t ot h e

R ITUA L R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

q u ick l ime w h i le f l e sh w a s s t i l l o n t h e b one s . T h is a nd t h ef a c tt h a t t h ec ond i t ion o ft h eb one s a nd s ome o ft h e a r t icu la ted s ec t ion s s how s i gn s o f p remed i ta ted d i s-

P AGE 2 0 DA ILY M IRROR ,

W ed i i e s ct h y .

W i th t h e e xcep t ion o fw ho le b one c omponen t s a nd o c c a s iona l s ma l l a r t icu la t ion s , t h e u ppe ra nd m idd le s ec t o r s o f t h e l ime c ong lome ra te ma ss c on s i s t ma in ly o f s ma l l c h ip s o f b one , w he re t h e b od ies a nd r e su l t ing b one r ema in s r e ce ived t h e f u l l c au s t ic d e s t ruc t ivene ss

Decembe r 1 5 , 1 976

L IVE L e t t e r s

o ft h e q u ick l ime .

Conduc ted b yt he O ld Codgers

S ECULAR MOT IVE?

MURDER MOST FOUL ! N o t eS i gned

t h e ir g ene ra l ly p oo r p re serva t ion ; h ence i ti sn o t c l ea r w ha t b one s b e long t ow ha ti nd iv idua l ( Wa ld ren 1 982 ) .

T he re may h ave b een as t rong , s econdary , s ecu la r mo t i ve ( ap rac t ica l o ne ) f o r t h e p urpo se fu l d i smember ing o f t h e b od ie s a nd t h i s r e s t s i n t h e e f f ec t ivene s s o f t h e q u ick l ime i t se lf . T he a c t iva t ion o f q u ick l ime r equ i re s

" S QUARE EYES" f ro m B as i ldon , E ssex

mo is tu re o r w a te r f o r i t s s l ak ing a c t ion t ot a ke p l ace . A dequa te w a te r wou ld h ave b een p re sen ti nt h eb od ie s t h em se lve s a nd d i smembe r ing t h e b od ie s wou ld h ave

F o ry e a r s Ih a v eb e l ieved t ha tt h eb od ies o f m urde r sw e re b oded i n w i t h o u tt r a c e . i na

q u ick l ime t od i spo se o ft h em B u t , r e cen te p isod e o f t h e BBC TV s e r ies " Th e E xp e rt" amu rde r v i c t im b u r ied i n q u ick l ime b y s ome g an g st e r sw a sl a te re xhumed a nd f ound t oh ave b een p r e se rved i na ni d en t i f iab le c ond i t ion . S oon a f t e r , h oweve r ,i na ne p isod ei f H awa i i F i ve -O" am u rd e rv i c t i m w as s upposed t oh ave b een d i spo s ed o fi nl ime s ot h a to n ly t h e t e e th a r a ljewe l le ty r ema ined S on ow Ia mh i gh ly cn o f ta ied ! Wh ich T Vs e r ie si sc o r r ec t ,p l ea se?

q u ick ly a nd e f fec t ive ly r e lea sed i t , g r ea t ly a id ing a nd s peed ing u p t h ep roce s s . I tw o u ld h ave a l so d one a way w i th t h en eed t ot r an spo r t wa te rt ot h e s i te f o r t h e a c t i v a t ion o ft h eq u ick l ime . T h is a ppa ren t ly w i l lfu l d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e c adave r s d u r ing t h eP o s tT a layo t ic h on Age i nc on t ra s tt ot h eo r -

O B o th f r iend b u t w e ' l l h ave t og ive y ou s ome th ing o f ac hem is t ry l e sson t o e xp la in w hy ! T he c hem ica l n ame f o r q u ick l ime i sc a lc ium o x ide w h ich i sh ygroscop ic , t ha ti s . i ta bsorbs w a ter . S oi fa b ody i sb ur ied i nq u ick l ime a lone , t he q u ick l ime a bsorbs t h e w a t er c on ten to ft he b ody a nd v i r tua l ly b akes , o r mumnuf ies i t . B u t i f t he b ody i sb ur ied i nq u ick l ime a nd s o i lw h ich c on ta in s s od i um a nd i fw a ter s eep s t hr ough t he s o i li n to t h e l ime , t hen t he l ime b ecomes s od ium h yd rox ide , w h ich i sh igh ly c o rros ive a nd w ou ld d i s s o lve t he b ody a lmo s tw i thou tt r ace .

d e r ly p l acemen to ft h eb od ie sf ound i nf o rme rT a layo t ic c r ema t ion b u r ia l s a l so f a l ls t r ue f o rt h et r ea tmen to ft h e g rave f u rn i sh ing s .T he se w e re k i l led i nq u ick l ime i nhu ma t ion s . T ha t i st o s ay me ta l o b jec t s w e re c ru shed o r b en t c omp le te ly o u t o f s hape , r ende r ing t h em u se le s s f o rf u tu re u se ,a nd p o t te ry , when i td id a ppea r , s ma shed b e fo re i tw a s p laced w i th t h eb od ies . O f ten t h is d i s t ruc -

F IGURE 1 .

m embe r ing wou ld s ugges t t h a t i t p robab ly t ook p l ace i n s i tu . T he re a r e a l so s i gn s t h a t o the r d amage t o

t h e b od ie s w a s c au sed b y t h e s eve re c au s t ic a c t ion o f t h e q u ick l ime , a l ong w i th s t i l l o the rd amage c au sed b y f r equen ti n t rus ive b u r ia ls d ug i n to f o rme ro ne sa nd p e r i o d ic r e cyc l ing o ft h e s l aked , d eac t iva ted l ime b y wood f i re s , t h e t r aces o f wh ich a ppea r a s c ha rcoa l l en se s t h roughou tt h es t r t ig raphy . T he a r t icu la ted b one s e c t ion sa l ong w i th t h eb e s tp re s e rved b one c omponen t s o ccu ro n ly i nt h el owe rl a ye r s o f t h e l ime c ong lome ra te whe re t h e l ime w a s l e s s d e s t ruc t ive ( where i tc ome s i nc on tac tw i th t h ee a r th c on t a in ing t h e e a r l ie rT a layo t ic B ronze A ge c r ema t ion b u r i a ls o f t he d epo s i t . O therw ise , t h e a c t ion o f t h e q u ick l ime g ene ra l ly c rack s a nd s eve re ly w a rp s t h e

t i on o f g rave g ood s a ppea r s t o h ave b een d one w i th c on s ide rab le f o rce ,d e te rm ina t ion a nd s e em ing ly a lmo s t r e l ish , c omp le te ly d i s to r t ing t he p iece s , o r r educ ing t h em t of r agmen t s a si nt h ec a se o fp o t te ry . I no the re x a mp le s , s uch a s i n t h e c a se o f i r on k n ive s a nd o the r m e ta l i mp lemen t s , t h ey a ppea r t o h ave b een s ma shed w i th r ock s o r o the r h andy o b jec t s . L ead p ec to ra l o rna men t s w e re b en t a nd c omp le te ly c ru shed b y h and , d ue t ot h es o f tne s s o ft h em e ta l . Wha ti se qua l ly i n te re s t ing i st h e f a c t t h a t t h e p rac t i ce i si n t o ta l c on t ra s t t o o the r c on tempo rary b ur ia ls e l sewhe re d u r ing t h i s v e ry s ame p e r iod . I nt h e se , b u r i a l s w e re c a r r ied o u t i na no rde r ly a nd mo re t r ad i t iona l

b one , w hen i ti sp re served a ta l l , t e rm ina t ing i na n a l -

m anne r( i . e .T omb s o ft h eN ec ropo l is o fS on R ea l ;T a r r a de l l 1 964 ) . I nt h a ts i te ,t h e re a r ei nd iv idua la nd f am i ly t omb s , a nd t h e s ugge s t ion o f s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n t h ef o rm o fa ne l i te ) . S uch ar ad ica lc hange a nd c on t ra s t b e tween t wo o r mo re c on tempo ra ry b u r ia l c u s toms

mo s t c e ram ic l ike o r p la s te r l ike p roduc t . A l l o ft h e se d e s truc t ive a genc ie s a ccoun tf o r ac omp le te d i sa r ray o f t h e b one s i n t he c ong lome ra ted l ime ma s s , a s w e l l a s

a nd e ven t h e a r r iva l o f a no the r c u l tu ra l g roup ( s ) , a s w e l l m a rk ing s t rong s oc ia l d i f fe renc ia t ion . T ha t i st o

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w ou ld c e r ta in ly s t rong ly i nd ica te c u l tu ra l d i f f e rence s

W .H . WALDREN a n dM . VAN S TRYDONCK

s ay , c ommun i t ie s w i th t o ta l ly d i f fe ren t i d ea s a nd c u s t om sf o rt h et r ea tmen to ft h ed ead . T he e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s a nd s t udy o f t h e q u ick l ime c eme te ry i nt h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge h a sl e d c on sequen t ly t ot h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fl o ca l p opu la t ion e s t i ma t ion s a nd o ther d emog raph ic s t ud ie s ( Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . P e r t inen t d a ta f r om t h i s r e sea rch a ppea r s i nt h e f i na l s ec t ion o ft h i s p ape r w he re i ti s c ompa red t of o r m e rc r ema t ion b u r ia l s a nd whe re t h e c u s tom o fq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion i sd ea l tw i th i ne conom ic , s oc io log ica l a nd r e l ig iou s t e rm s . Q u ick l ime b ur ia ls d or equ ire ,i ns ome r e spec t s ,c on s i de rab ly mo re e f fo r t a nd p repa ra t ion t h an e a r th b u r ia l a nd i ns ome c a se s o f mound c on s t ruc t ion a nd c e r ta in ly mo r et han f o rc r ema t ion . T he l a t te r ,i nc ompa r i son ,n e c e s s i ta te s al a bou r iou s c o l lec t ion o f wood . Q u ick l ime p repara t ion r equ ire s n o to n ly t h e c o l lec t ion o ff ue l b u t a l so s t one , al e ng thy o ve r see ing o ft h ep roce s so fp rep a r a t ion o ft h eq u ick l ime a nd i ns ome c a se s t r an spo r t ion o ft h ep roduc tt ot h eb u r ia l s i te ,w hen n o tc a r r ied o u to n s i te . Qu ick l ime , a pa r t f r om i t s l e ng thy manu fac tu r ing p ro ce ss , c anno t b e e a s i ly s t o red f o r e ven tua l u se ( a l t h ough i ti sr e la t ive ly e a s i ly r e cyc led o nce s l aked ) .T h i s

p rac t ica l a pp roache s a r e , w e b e l ieve , p a ramoun t a nd c lo se ly i n te rwoven w i th t h es a c red . SACRED MOT IVE? T h e e n t ire p roce ss o f q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion i so ne o f d e l ibe ra t ion a nd l ong p repa ra t ion a nd g ive s o ve r a nd o ve ra ga in as t rong i mp re s s ion o fh av ing h ad r i tua l s i g n if icance a sw e l l a ss e cu la ru se ,b o th i nt h ep repa ra t ion a nd f i na l c on s ignmen to ft h e d ead . T he d eepe ro r mo re r e l ig iou s ly r oo ted mo t ive sf o rs uch ac omp l ica ted m e th o do fd i spo s ing o ft h ed ead c an ,a s mo s ti n te rp re ta t ion s o fh uman a c t ion s i np reh is to ry , o n ly b e c on temp la ted f o r t h e momen t . T he p roce ss w ou ld b y a nd l a rge s ug g e s t t h a t ag enu ine f e a r o f t h e d ead may h ave b een p re sen t . One i n wh ich t h eb od ie s a nd t h e ir w o r ld ly p o s s e ss ion s h ad t ob e d i spo sed o fi n ad ef in i t ive , p e rhaps p u rpo se fu lr i tua l is t ic a nd t r ad i t iona l manne r ,s o t h a tt h e s p i r i to ft h ed ead w a sf i na l ly a nd f o ra l l t ime p u tt or e s t . Adm i t ted ly s uch a c oncep t i sa lmos t ' v amp ins t ic ' o r e ven ' v oodoo is t ic 'i ni n te rp ra t ion a nd w ou ld s ugge s t s a f e a ro ft h ew a lk ing d ead . T h is a ppa ren t d e s i re t od e s t roy t h e d ead 's p o sse s -

w ou ld i nd ica te t h a t i tw a s e spec ia l ly p repa red f o r t h e o cca s ion , p e rhap s e ven i nvo lv ing r i tua l i ni t s p repa ra -

s i on s b ecau se o fs ome p owe rs t i l l c onnec ted t ot h e d e f unc t 's p o s se s s ion sa nd c apab le o fc on tac t ing a nd i n f lu -

t i on ( t he e l emen t s o fl i re , s t one a nd w a te rb e ing u sed i n a na l chem is t ic p rocedu re , n o tu n l ike p o t te ry m ak ing o r m e ta l lu rg ica l e x t rac t ion t e chn ique s t h em se lve s ) . E ven

e nc ing t h e l i v ing , f u r the r empha s ise s t h is f ea r o f t h e h uman s p i r i t , e ven a f te r d ea th , i fo n ly o n s ome h a lf e a r thbound l e ve l . T h is I r on A ge b e l ie fo r e l emen t w a s c e r ta in ly l a ck ing i n B ronze Age c rema t ion b ur ia ls whe re mo re r e spec tf o rt h ed ead w a s s hown a nd p rov i s i on s f o ra na f te r l if e made , a ss hown b y t h eo rgan i sed , a lmos t c on temp la t ive b u r ia l s , a s w e l l w e l l p re se rved

t h er e cyc l ing o fs l aked l ime d epo s i t s ( a s t h e re i ss t rong i nd ica t ion o ft h is h av ing b een d one p er iod ica l ly )w ou ld h ave a l so b een l a bou r i n ten s if ied , i nt h a t w ood wou ld h ave h ad t oh ave b een c o l lec ted a nd b rough tt ot h e s i te f o r t h e b u rn ing o ft h e s l ake l in ie d epo s i t s , s imp ly i no r d e r t or e ac t iva te i t .T h is i sp a r t icu la ry t r ue , i fw e a l so c on s ide r t h e t ime i tt ook t od i smembe r t h e b od ie s a nd p repa ra t ion o ft h ec ommuna lb u r ia l s pace w i th w ha tev e ra dd i t iona lr i tua lw a sp e r fo rmed d u r ing t h ef i na li nhu m a t ion sa nd p e rhap se ven a f te rt h em . T hep repa ra t ion s a nd o the r p rocedu re s i n vo lved i n q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion ,a l ong w i th t h e w ay i nw h ich t h e q u ick l ime f i na l ly a f fec t s t h e b od ie s , w e l l d emon s t ra te s t h e a t t itude s p re sen t a nd t h e s pec ia l r e la t ion sh ip s b e t ween t h el i v ing a nd t h ed ead d u r ing t h el o ca lI r on A ge , a s w e l l a s s ome i d ea o f t ho se r e la t ion sh ip s d u r ing t h e f o rme rB ronz e Age . A s w e s ha l l s e ei ta l so c ou ld h ave h ad s ome b ea r ing o nt h er e a sonab ly l o ng s u rv iva l o ft h e t r ad i t ion a sw e l l a sg i v ing u s s ome i nd ica t ion o ft h ec u s t om ' so r ig in ( s )a s aw ho le . J u s th ow s ecu la r t h i s u n ique c u s tom f o r t h ed i spo sa l o rt r ea tmen to ft h ed ead i si n deed s pecu la t ive ,a l though p r ac t ica l c on s ide ra t ion s mu s tb e i n c luded i na ny i n te r p re ta t ion o f t h e me thods u se t ob u ry t h e d ead . T he se

1 49

g rave g ood s . Wh i le b o th c r ema t ion a nd i nhuma t ion s i nq u ick l ime s e rve t h e s ame p u rpo se a nd a r e p rac t ica l w ays o fd i s p o s ing o fr o t t ing c o rp se s ,t h eu se o fq u ick l ime d oe sa p p ea rt oh ave o t he rs i gn if icance t h an t h a to fc onven t iona l c rema t ion s , w h ich a r e mo re i nt h e w ay o fc l ean s ing o f t h eb one s o fd ecay ing f l e sh a nd a r r ive a tc l ean sed b ody c omponen t s , w he re t h e b od ie s i n t h e p rocess r ema in who le , a nd t h e p lacemen t o f g rave g ood s c a re fu l ly t r ea ted . I n t h e q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s , t h e re h a s b een a s eem ing d e l ibe ra te m is t rea tmen t o f t h e b od ie s a nd g rave g ood sa nd t h e re i sn ov i s ib le c on s ide ra t ion f o rt h e i nd iv idua l p repa ra t ion ,a r rangemen to fi nd iv idua l g rave s pace ,p o s i t ion ing o ro r ien ta t ion o ft h eb od ie sn o ro ft h e g rave f u rn ish ing s t h em se lve s . I nt h eq u ick l ime i nhuma t i on s , b o th b od ie s a nd g rave g ood s a r e l oo se ly a nd i n d i sc r im ina te ly p l aced i n wha tc an o n ly b e d e sc r ibed a s ac ommon b u r ia l p i t a nd a ppa ren t ly n o i nd iv idua l r e c l in ing s pace h a s b een a s s igned t ot h e c o rp se . T he re i s o n ly ac ommuna l ly s ha red a r ea v o id o fi nd iv idua l i d en -

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

t i f ica t ion o r i n teg ra l mean ing . T he who le a t t i tude a nd p roce s s i sp a radox ica l i nt h a ti ti sc o l lec t ive , ac ommon p rac t ice a nd l i nked w i th ad e l ibe ra te i n ten t t os epa ra te d ef in i t ive ly t h ed ead f r om t h el i v ing , a l though p o ss ib ly w i th d eeper r oo ted r e l ig iou s b e l ief s a l so . T oo , t h e re may h ave b een mo re o rde red o r r i tua l is t ica l ly o r ien ted p rocedu re s c onnec ted t ot h ed i f f e ren ti n te rmed ia te s t ag e s o ft h eq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion p roce s s ;p rocedu res o f wh ich a l le v idence h a sp e rhap sd i sappea red f o r eve r . T he manne r i n wh ich t h e g rave g ood s w e re t r ea ted , e spec ia l ly t h e me ta ls ,w h ich mu s th ave r ep re sen ted c on -

s i de rab le p e r sona l w ea l th d u r ing l i f e ( con s ide r ing t h e r e la t ive r a renes s o f o re r e sou rce s o n t h e i s land s ) , s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h e a b i l i ty a s w e l l t h epu rpo se fu l d e s i re t od i spo se o f o the rw i se v a luab le r e cyc lab le m e ta l o b jec t s . T h is wou ld i mp ly v e ry s t rong mo t ive s i ndeed f o r w ha ta moun t s t o ac omp le te s ac r if ice o ft h eo b jec t . T ha ti tmay h ave a l so b een b yt h es ame t oken a no f f e r i ng s uch a si n' p o t la tch 'f a sh ion may e qua l ly h ave b een t h e c a se . T he f unera ry p o t te ry w hen i ti sp re sen t i n q u ick l ime b u r ia ls i s v e ry s carce c ompa red t o o ther i t em s a nd h i gh ly f r agmen ta ry l i ke t h e me ta la nd h uman b one s t h em se lve s . When i ti se ncoun te red i na ny s t a te o fg ood p re se rva t ion i ti sf ound o nt h ep er iphe ry o ft h e q u ick l ime b ur ia l a rea , whe re i th a s b een e ncoun te red d e l ibe ra te ly s ma shed i nt h a tp a r t icu la r ly c ho sen p l ace . I t s p re sence i n t h is c ond i t ion s how s t h a t s ome r i tua l w a s c a r r ied o u t e i the r b efo re , d ur ing o ra f te r t h ei nhu ma t ion i nq u ick l ime . T h is r e info rce s t h e f e e l ing o f a d e l ibe ra t ion a nd n ece ss i ty f o r af i na l d i spo sa l o f b o th t h e p e r son a nd h i s p osse ss ion s , a s w e l l a s t h e f u lf i l l men t o fa ny o b l iga t ions t ot h e d ead , t oa s su re t h a t s h e o rh ew e re t o ken ly ,s a fe ly s en to f fe qu ipped w i th a mp le r i te s o f p a s sage f o r t h e n ex t l i fe o r w ha t e ve r l a y b e y ond t h e wo r ld i n w h ich t h ey h ad o ne t ime w a lked . T h i s a ppea r sh oweve rt oh ave b een c a r r ied o u tw i th t h e i d ea o ft a k ing n oc hance s w i th w ha teve rp owe ro rr em i n an t so ft h es p ir i to ft h ei nd iv idua ll e f tb eh ind Whe re g r ea ts t o re so fp o t te ry a nd me ta lo b jec t so ccu r i nc eme te r ie s ( a l l o f wh ich a r ec omp le te ( u nk i l led )) , t h ey a r ef ound i nT a layo t ic B ronze A ge c r ema t ion b u r i a l sa nd h ence h igh ly d i agno s t icand e xce l len tc h rono log i c a ld i v ide r sb e tween p e r iod s .T he c on t ra s tt h eP o s tT a l a yo t ic q u ick l ime b ur ia ls h ave w i th t h e se e a r l ie r c r ema t ion b u r ia ls i sc l ea r ly d ef ined i n e ve ry w ay . A t t h es ame t ime , i nb o th t ype so fb u r ia l ,t h e re a ppea r s s o f a rt ob eo n ly o ne c ommon s im i la r i ty . T he re i s ac om p l e te l a ck o fa n ima l b one s a s soc ia ted w i th b o th f o rm s o fb u r ia l . Wh i le t h is i se x t reme ly c u r iou s a nd p e rhap s e ven r e l ig iou s ly o re conom ica l ly s i gn if ican t ,i ts t rong ly s ugge s t s , t h a tt h e re w a s ag rea te ri mpo r tance p l aced o n l i ve s tock t h an o the r wo r ld ly p e r sona l p o s se ss ion s . I t f u r the rs ugge s t s t h a tl i ve s tock a sl i ba t ion a nd o f f e r ing s , e spec ia l ly i nt h e f o rm o f mea t p rov i s ion s f o r t h e d ead w e re n o t r i tua l r equ is i te s i nb u r ia ls , a s t h ey a ppea r t o h ave b een i no the rc u l tu re s . T he l a ck o fa n ima l r ema in s a s p a r t o f t h e f une ra ry o f fe r ings a l so s ugge s t s , t h a t i f t h e re w a s a ny u se o f a n ima l s f o r r i tua l is t ic p u rpo se s , s uch p rocedu re s w e re c ar r ied o u t e l sewhe re . We n ow k now t h a t t h is d oes a ppea rt ob et h ec a se a nd t h a tt h e re

PLATE 1 .A c l o se -up o f ap i e ce o fl i me c ong lome r a t ef r om t h e Rock S he l te ro f S on Ma tge s how ing t h et w is ted r ema ins o fa h uman mand ib le .

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w a s av e ry g ene rou s u se o f a n ima ls , i nc lud ing ah i gh p e rcen tage o fy oung a n ima l s ( s heep ,g oa t ,p i ga nd s ma l l c a t t le )a ss a c r i f ice a nd o f f e r ing e l sewhe re i ns anc tua r ie s

W .H . WALDREN a nd M . VAN S TRYDONCK

PLATE 2 .

S i te o ft h eC eme te ry o ft h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge . T he P o s tT a layo t ic I r on

Age q u ick l ime i nhuma t ions a nd t h eT a layo t ic B ronze Age c rema t ion b u r ia ls h ave b een e xca v a ted . T he p ho tog raph s how s t h ee a s te rn ,c en t ra l a nd wes te rn z one so ft h e s he l te r wh ich c on t a ined a n e s t ima ted 6 000 t o8 000 b u r ia ls , d a t ing f r om c i rca 1 300 BC t oc i rca 1 00AD . T he re w a sa ne s t ima ted 4 80 m3 o fl ime c ong lome ra te i n wh ich t he h uman r ema ins w e re i n co rpo ra ted

a l ong w i th t h ea r tea f c te v idence .

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PLATE 3 . T he C eme te ry o ft h e Mue r to sG a l la rd r o ck s he l te rf o und s ome 1 2k i lome te r sf r om t h e Ma tge s i te . A l though f a rs ma l le rt h an Ma tge a nd w i th f a rl e s sh uman r ema in s ,t h es i te c on t a ined c on tempo r a ry b u r ia ls a l ong w i th o t he rc h rono log ica l s t ra t ig raphy .

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W .H . WALDREN a nd M . VAN S TRYDONCK

t h a t c h rono log ica l ly o ve r lap w i th t h e c eme te r ie s . T he r i t es a nd r i tua ls a st h ey a ppea rc a r r ied o u ti nt h es anc tu a r ie s w e re b y s ome i nd ica t ion ( See Wa ld ren , V an S t ry d onck a nd C ub i ,t h i s p ub l ica t ion )d i rec t ly i n vo lved w i th t h ec eme te r ie s

t ime o ft h e b urn ing , ( 3 ) t h e p rec i se c ompo s i t ion o f t h e p a ren t c a rbona te r ock a nd ( 4 ) t h e d eg ree o f t h e c om p ac tne s s o f t h e r ock . T he p re sence o f s and s a nd c l ay s w i l l a f f ec t p rope r t ie s o f t h e manufac tu re o f t h e l ime . F o r i n s tance , q u ick l ime p roduced f r om Ma l lo rca ' s J u r a ss ic moun ta in l ime s tone wou ld b e d i f fe ren t t h an

THE QU ICKL I ME MANUFACTUR ING PROCESS

q u ick l ime made f r om t h e a r enaceou s l ime s tone ( s and s t one ) o f t h e Ma l lo rcan p l a in s . L oca l i nhab i tan t s w ho

A st ot h eo r ig in o ft h eu se o fq u ick l ime a s amed ium f o r t h eb u r ia l o ft h ed ead ,t h e re a ppea r s t ob eo n ly t wo s e r i -

h ave b een i n vo lved i nt h ep roce s so fl ime m ak ing h ave p o in ted o u tt h en ece s s i ty o ft h e c ho ice o ft h er i gh t t y pe o fs t one f o rt h eq u ick l ime . T he t empe ra tu re n ece ssa ry f o rl ime s tone c onve r s ion

o u s o p t ion s a s t o whe re t h e c u s tom o r ig ina ted . L ime mak ing f o r mo r ta r w a s k nown i nt h e N ea r -ea s t among t h eP hoen ic ian s whe re i tw a su sed t ol i ne w a te rc i s te rn s ( S tu ive ra nd Wa ld ren 1 974 ) . T he u se a nd m anufac tu re l ime a nd t h e b urn ing o f l ime s tone may h ave b een b rough t t o t h e i s land s b y me rcena ry s o ld ie r s w ho o b s e rved t h e p rocess d ur ing ap er iod o fm i l i ta ry s e rv ice a b road ( e .g . P un ic Wa r s ) . Howeve r , i n v i ew o f t h e many i r on a r te fac t s f ound i nt h e l ime c ong lome ra te a nd t h e i rt y po log ica l s im i la r i ty t ot h o se o fC e l t ic o r ig in , a n o r ig in o f i n f luence f rom t h is d i rec t ion i s mo re l i ke ly . B es ide s t h eC e l t s w e re , a l so c apab le o fq u ick l ime m an u fac tu re , p robab ly a s ar e su l to fi r on s me l t ing a nd t h e r e co rded f a c t t h a t t h ey w e re k nown t oe n te rb a t t le h av i ng w h i tewa shed t h em se lve s . Wh i tewa sh i s ar e su l t ing p roduc to ft h es l ak ing o fq u ick l ime . l ti sa l so c u r iou st o n o te t h a t q u ick l ime manufac tu re u n t i l t h e r e cen ti n t ro d uc t ion o fi mpo r ted p o r t land c emen t sw a s ama jo rl o ca l i ndu s t ry . Q u ick l ime ( CaO ) i so b ta ined b y b urn ing l ime s tone , t h ep r inc ipa lc on s t i tuen to fw h ich i sc a lc ium C a rbona te ( CaCO3 ) . Unde r mode rn c ond i t ion s , h ea t i ss upp l ied b y r a p id c ombu s t ion o fg a se s ,l i qu id s a nd s o l id f ue l si n s oph is t ica ted o ven s . I na nc ien tt ime ,t h ef ue ls ou rce w a s w ood b urned o f fi nc rude ly c on s t ruc ted s t one l i ned p i t k i ln s . I n f a c t , l i te ra l ly h und red s o fs uch k i ln s w e re s t i l l u sed f o r manufac tu r ing l ime o n t h e i s land s u n t i l a bou t 1 0 y ea r s a go . Qu ick l ime manufac tu re w a s u n t i l t ha t t ime a n i mpor tan t l oca l i ndu s try , p roduc ing l oca l c e m en t s ,p l a s te r s , mo r ta r sa nd w h i te w a sh .S o ,t h ep roce s s o f b u rn ing l ime s tone i sw e l l k nown o n Ma l lo rca a nd Meno rca b y t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion f o r c on s t ruc t ion p u r p o se s . I t s p reh i s to r ic a pp l ica t ion ,s t r ic t ly f o rb u r ia lp u r p o se s a nd n o tf o rc on s t ruc t ion c an b e s een a se a r ly a s t h e 8 th o r7 th c en tur ie s BC , d i scu s sed s ub sequen t ly i n s ome d e ta i l . T he s u rv iva l o ft h e me thod i n to t h e 2 0 th c en tu ry may w e l l h ave b een o ne o fv e s t ig ia l a nd t e ch n o log ica l k now ledge f r om a nc ien t t ime s , e ven t hough t h eu se o ft h ee nd p roduc th a sc hanged t h roughou tt ime a nd s pace . T he f a c to r s a f fec t ing t h eq ua l i ty o fq u ick l ime a r e ( 1 ) t h e t empe ra tu re r eached d ur ing i t s f o rma t ion , ( 2 ) t he

1 53

v a r ie sf r om 6 50 d eg ree s t o8 98 d eg ree sc en t ig rade .T h i s r ange i se a s i ly o b ta inab le w i th w ood f ue li n ar ud imen t a ry k i ln d e s igned f o rt h ep u rpo se . T he r e su l t ing q u ick l ime r e ac t s v igo rou s ly w hen i ti s a c t iva ted w i th w a te r . T h is i st h e s l ak ing p roce s s wh ich f i na l ly p roduce s s l ake l ime ( wh i te wa sh ) , d ur ing w h ich t ime i n te rna l t empera tu re s o f 4 50 d eg ree s c en t ig rade a r eo b ta ined d u r ing t h ei n ten se p e r iod o fs l ak ing . FORMULA :

C a lc ium o x ide p lu s d ihyd rogen o x ide= c a lc ium H y d rox ide ( CaO+ 120= C a( OH )2 ) R eve r sa l o ft h ep roce s s i sp o s s ib le w i th t h er e su l t ing C a lc ium H yd rox ide , ( Ca (01 12 ) ,b yr ehea t ing t h e s l ake l ime t o at empe ra ture o f4 50 d eg ree s c en t igrade , a f te r w h ich t h eq u ick l ime i so nce a ga in r eady f o rr e app l ica t i on . T h is r e ac t iva t ion may w e l l h ave p l ayed a ni mpo r t a n tr o le a nd may h ave f ac i l i ta ted t h e p roce s s o fi nhu ma t ion . When s l ake l ime p roduced f r om a c t iva ted q u ick l ime i sl e f t o ve r al ong p er iod o f t ime ,i ti sf u r the ra c ted o n b y t h ec a rbon d iox ide o ft h ea i ra nd r a inwa te r , a nd i ti s c apab le o fb ecom ing a sh a rd a sc a lc ium c a rbona te i t se lf ( t h is i so ne o ft h e ma in d i f f icu l t ie s when i tc ome st oe x c ava t ing s uch d epo s i t s ) .E xamp le so ft h is h a rden ing a nd c r ys ta l l isa t ion h a s b een n o ted t oo ccu ri ns ome o ld R o m an p avemen t sa nd Med ieva l mo r tar s ,w he re q u ick l ime a s mo r ta rh a sb een u sed ( Van S t rydonck e ta l1 983 ) . A tf i r s tg l ance t h eg ene ra la ppe arance o fa l lP o s tT a l a yo t ic q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion si ss upe r f ic ia l ly s im i la r . I t i s av e ry d en se , wh i te p opco rn o rc inde r l ik , e ven p l a s t e r l ike c ong lome ra te wh ich o nce s een , c an n eve r b e f o rgo t ten . I nf a c t , i ti st h e se v e ry c ha rac te r is t ic s wh ich f a c i l i ta te t h ed i scove ry o fs uch s i te s ,a nd w he re v e ry l i t t l e v ege ta t ion w i l l g row o ve r t h e s u r face o f t h e s l ake l ime o ft h e se c eme te r ie s , t h u s l e av ing t h e w h i te w ea th e r ed s u r face e a sy t od e tec ta nd i d en t ify .

R ITUAL .R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

S UM MARY

o f d ea l ing w i th d ecay ing b od ie s . A l though h e re w e c ou ld a sk why t h e u se o f c omsuma t ing e l emen t s s uch a s f i re a nd q u ick l ime r a the r t h an e ar th b u r ia l o r t omb b u i ld ing? T he c u l tu ra l d i f fe rence s o f t h e p opu la t ion s a r et h e mo s ta pparen te l emen tw eh ave f o rt h e momen t , i nw h ich w ec an c on t emp la te a s ar e a sonab le c e r ta in ty .

An e mpha s is o nt h er ad ica ld i f fe rence sb e tween t h ec r e ma t ion b ur ia ls o f t h e T a layo t ic B ronze Age , 1 300 c a l BC t o8 00 c a l BC a nd t h eq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion so ft h e P o s t T a layo t ic I r on Age , 8 00 c a l BC t o 1 00 AD , a r e ma jo r c on s ide ra t ion s i n t h is p ape r . I ti si ndeed r a re w hen t wo s uch c on t ra s t ing f une ra ry p rac t ice sa r ef ound s i de -by s ide i nt h es ame c eme te ry . T hey o f f e ru s a ne x c e l len t b a s is o f c ompar ison o f wha t a r e c l ear ly t wo q u i te d i f fe ren t a pp roache s a nd b e l ief s a s t ot h e r o le o f

POPULAT ION E ST IMATES US ING TALAYOT IC CRE MAT ION AND POST TALAYOT IC I NHU MATION I N QU ICK LI ME BUR IALS .

t h ed ead i nl i fe ,a nh ence c u l tu ra ld i f fe rence s . Wh i le i ti sa rgued t h a t b o th me thod s o n t h e s ecu lar

I NTRODUCT ION

l e ve l a r e p rac t ica l me thod s i nt h e d i spo sa l o ft h ed ead , a tt h e s ame t ime , t h ey a r e s ac red a t t i tude s t h a t c l ea r ly d i sp lay t h e r i tua l t r ea tmen t g i ven b o th t h e b od ie s a nd

F rom t h e d i scu ss ion a nd d e sc r ip t ion c oncern ing t h e c ond i t ion sp re sen ti nq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s , men t ioned

g rave g ood s a ccompany ing t h em . I ti sf u r the r a rgued t h a tt h e se c on t ra s t ing f une r a ry p rac t ice sa r es u re ly i nd i c a t ion s o f s t rong c u l tu ra l a nd r e l ig iou s d i f fe ren t ia t ion a nd o r ig in s . ( 1 ) Du r ing t h e T a layo t ic B ronze A ge , ar everence f or t h ed ead i sd i sp layed ( a ) i nt h e t r ea tmen to ft h eb od ie s a nd t h ea i lo ted b ur ia ls pace g i ven t ot h em ,( b )i nt h eO r g an i sa t ion a nd t r ea tmen t o ft h e g rave g ood s , b o th o f w h ich s how ar espec ta nd v i ta lt op repa ra t ion f or a na f t e r l if e . I ta l so s h t rong ly s ugges t s ar e spec tf or a nce s t r a l l i nk s a nd ap ac if ic a ccep tance o ft h e i n ev i tab le . F i re , a par tf rom s ecu la r s an i ta t ion , a l so a ppear s a s a p o ss ib le s ac red p ur if ica t ion r i te i np repa ra t ion f or t h e e n t rance t o a no ther w or ld , w here i n tac t p osse ss ion s a nd m or ta lr ema ins a re o fg rea ti mpor tance t ob o th t h e d ead a nd l i v ing .H ere w or ld ly p osse ss ion a re w or thy o f f e r ings a nd w i l l ing s acr if ice s o fb o th m ean ing t ol i v ing a nd t h ed ead . ( 2 ) Dur ing t h e P os t T a layo t ic I r on A ge , t h e r ever e nce i ft h ere w a s a ny a ta l li sf ounded o nf ea ra nd t e r r or o ft h e d ead ( ha lf d ead ) a nd t h e ir p o sse s s ion s , b o th o fw h ich mu s t b ek i l led , t or emove a l l t r ace s o f mor ta l c onnec t ion .E ve ry th ing mu s tb ed e s t royed a nd made i m m ob i le a nd c omp le te ly r e leased f rom t h el a nd o ft h el i v i n g . T h i sc ou ld a l so s ugge s ts pec if ic p e r sona l r e la t ion s h ip , n o t o n ly b e tween i nd iv idua l s b u t w o th in s oc ie ty i t se lf. H ere , t h e w or ld ly p o sse ss ion s o ft h e d e sea sed a re w i l lf u l ly a nd d e te rm ined ly d e s t royed , of e red u po u t o fa ppea semen t r a the r t h an a w i l l ingne s s t os acr if ice . T ha t r e source w ea l th w a s a b le t ob e t r ea ted a s i tw a s , t a ken o u to fr ec lyc l ing c i rcu la t ion , d ur ing b o th p er iod s h a s o n t h es urf ace s im i la r c on i la l ions , t h a t t h e se w ere d i sposab le s . Wha t dWeres i st h e m o t ive f or d o ing s o . T he se s u re ly d if e rb e tween t h et wo p er iod . S im i lar i ty b e tween t h e t wo r e s ts , a pa r t f r om t ho se o u t l ined a bove , m a in ly i nt h e c ommon a nd c ommuna l u se o f p rede scr ibed a r ea s a s c eme te r ie s , i n t h e se i n -

e a r l ie r o n i nt h is p ape r , , o ne wou ld b e l e d t oa s sume t h a t t h e q u ick l ime c ong lome ra te s a re n o t s u i tab le f o r p opu la t ion s t ud ie s , s imp ly b ecau se o ft h e s eve re c o r ro s i ve e f fec t s o f t h e q u ick l ime o n t h e b u r ia ls a nd t h e ir a r tefac t s , o n wh ich w e c ou ld b a se s t a t i s t ic s . I ti st r ue t h a tt h ey a r en o ta si d ea lf o rs uch s t udy a s wou ld b ed e s i red ,b u tt h ea u tho rb e l ieve s t h a tw i th c a re fu l s t udy a nd e xam ina t ion ,i ts hou ld b ep o s s ib le t o make af a i ra s se s s men to fp opu la t ion s t a t i s t ic s o fa na r ea s uch a s Ma tge , b a sed o n t h ea va i lab le d a ta , s uch a sg ood c h ronome t r ic d a t ing a nd a va i lab le o s teo log ica l e v idence . I ti so f c ou r se i mpo r tan t t od o s o , n o t a s s ome e xerc i se i na r c haeo log ica l me thod ,b u tb ecau se t h i s i s ap r ime s ou rce o fd emog raph ic i n fo rma t ion w h ich c anno ta f fo rd t ob e i gno red , i fw e a r e t or e ach a ny v a l id u nde r s tand ing o f t h el a te rs t age so fB a lea r ic p reh i s to ry ,a sw e l l a st h ei n t e rp re ta t ion o f t h e p a r t icu la r a r ea i n t e rm s o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd e conomy . D e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s ke le ta l c omponen t s o f t h e q u ick l ime c ong lome ra te s a re b ad ly b roken a nd d i s to r t e d ,t h ey a r en o tc omp le te ly d e s t royed o rw ho l ly u n su i t a b le f o rs uch s t ud ie s . A tl e a s t2 5% o ft h eo r ig ina lb one r ema in s i nt h ec ong lome ra te c an b eu sed i na t temp t ing t o e s t ima te t he n umbe r o f p er son s i nhumed i n t h e q u ick l ime . A sh a sb een m en t ioned w eh ave av e ry g ood i d ea o ft h ec hrono log ica ld u ra t ion o ft h eu se o ft h e Ma t g ec eme te ry d u r ing T a layo t ic a nd P o s tT a layo t ic t ime s , a nd e spec ia l ly t h ed u ra t ion o ft h eP o s tT a layo t ic q u ick l ime i n huma t ion s . On t h i s b a s is , t h e a u thor b e l ieve s t h a t aw o r thwh i le e s t ima te o f p opu la t ion o f t h e a r ea s hou ld b e p o ss ib le . S ome i nd ica t ion o f t h e s i ze o f t h e l o ca l s e t t lemen t wou ld b ev a luab le t og i ve u s s ome i d ea o f t h e u se o f t h e v a l ley a rea i n B a lea r ic p reh is to r ic t ime s , a nd m igh t a l so g i ve u s ac l ue t ot h e s i ze o f t h e d ome s t ic s i te o rs i te s w ea r e d ea l ing w i th a nd y e tt ob e f ound . An e s t ima te p opu la t ion w i l l t h e refor e b e a t t emp ted ,b a sed o nt h ee s t ima ted n umbe ro fd ead a nd t h e

s t ance s r ock s he l te r s , a nd p rac t ica l a nd e ff ic ien t w ay s

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W .H . W ALDREN

a n d M. VAN STRYDONCK

c hrono log ica l d u ra t ion o ft h ec eme t e ry ,j o ined b yo the r s t a t i s t ic s s uch a s i n fo rma t ion o n t h e r a te o fa ccumu la t i on o ft h ed epo s i t . I ti sg ran ted t h a tt h e re a r ea lway sl im i ta t ion s p r e sen t i n a ny f o rm o f p opu la t ion s u rvey o r e s t ima te , l a rge ly d ue t ot h el a ck o fs ome v i ta l s t a t is t ic o ra no the r . T h i s o f ten d e te r s t h e a r chaeo log is t f r om a t temp t ing e s t i ma te s ,b u tt h a ts eem s t ot h ea u tho ra nu nnece s sa r i ly d e f e a t i s ta t t i tude . B e s ide s s ome u se fu lp opu la t ion s t ud ie s h ave b een b a sed o nl e s s i n fo rma t ion t h an t h a ta va i lab le

t oc i rca 7 00 b e , when t h es i te w a s aT a layo t ic BA b u r ia l a r ea a nd a no the r a pp rox ima te ly 6 00 y ea r p e r iod , c i rca 7 00 b yt o8 0 AD , when i tw a su sed i nP o s tT a layo t ic I A t ime s a s aq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion c eme te ry . T h is l a t te r p e r iod ,c i rca 7 00 b e t oc i rca 8 0 AD h a sb een e x t r eme ly w e l l d a ted b yb o th c onven t iona lr ad iocarbon d a t ing a nd

a t Ma tge . F o r e xamp le , a tt h e S wa r t R u in s , C o sg rove a nd C o sg rove ( 1932 ) e s t ima ted p opu la t ion s i ze b a sed o n t h en umbe ro fr oom s i n as e t t lemen ta nd t h e i rp o ss i b l e c o r re la t ion w i th f am i ly u n i t s , c omb ined w i th c om -

s ho r t ly . Apa r t f r om o u r k now ing t h e a ge a nd d u ra t ion o ft h ec eme te ry 's u se ,i ti si mpo r tan tt or e ra l lt h a ts t udy

p ar i son o f e s t ima ted a nd k nown d ea th r a te s . H ack ( 1942 ) i n h i s s t udy o f t h e H op i I nd ians o f A r izona b a sed h i s e s t ima te s o fp opu la t ion o n a rb i t ra ry u n i t s t o f a c to r s o f s i te s i ze , n umbe ro fh ou se s a nd s he rd a r ea s .

b y 1 4C c a rbona te d a t ing ( S tu ive r a nd Wa ld ren 1 974 : V an S t rydonck a nd Wa ld ren 1 992 ) . Howeve r , f o rp op u l a t ion e s t ima te s , t h e o ve ra l l p e r iod o f 1 300 y ea r s w i l l b e u sed i n t h e c a lcu la t ion s f o r r ea son t ob e d i scu ssed

o ft h e s u rv iv ing s ke le ta l r ema in s , s hows t h a tt h ec eme t e ry w a su sed f o rb u r ia l o fa l lt h ed ead o ft h ec ommun i t y ,r ega rd le s s o fs ex ,a ge o ri nd iv idua l s t a tu s w i th in t h e c ommun i ty : t h e refo re w e a r e g e t t ing ap rope r p i c tu re o ft h ep opu la t ion f r om t h a ta spec ta nd n o t ab i a sed o ne . T he n umber o f f emur h ead s ( d is ta l p roce sse s ) ‚

TABLE 1 .

CE METERY 'S USE I N YEARS

NO . OF BUR IALS

y e a r s

DEATH RATE PER ANNU M PER 1 00 POPULAT ION

TOTAL

1 300

TALAYOT IC

7 00

y e a r s

4 .5

POST TALAY GF IC

6 00 y e a r s

5 .2

I nb o th i n s tance s ,l e s ss t a t i s t ica li n fo rma t ion w a sa va i la b l et h an i sp re sen ti nt h e Ma tge c eme te ry f o rs uch p opu l a t ion e s t ima te s .

4 .9

p re sen ti nt h ec ong lome ra te s w a s u sed f o rt h es t a t is t ica l c oun t o fi nd iv idua ls b ur ied i nt h e c eme tery . T h i s p a r t i cu la r s ke le ta l e l emen t w a s u sed f o r c oun t ing b ecau se o f t wo m a in r ea son s : ( 1 ) I ti s ab one wh ich s t and s u p w e l l t op re serva t ion b es t i nt h e q u ick l ime a nd ( 2 ) i ti s

THE METHODS U SED I N THE CALCULAT ION OF P OPULAT ION AND S ON MATGE

t h e e a s ie s t b one t o r ecogn i se am id t h e ma ss o f o the r b one ,e ven w hen i n af r agmen ta ry c ond i t ion . T he n um b e r o ff emu rh ead s c o l lec ted f r om a l l l e ve ls w a s 3 160 o ra pp rox ima te ly 1 580 i nd iv idua l s o fa l l a ge sa nd s exe s

T he a ge a nd d ura t ion o ft h e u s eo ft h e Ma tge c eme te ry h a s b een w e l l d ocumen ted i nt e x tf ound i nt h ea u tho r 's O x fo rd d oc to ra l t h e s i s (Wa ld r en 1 982 ) . We c an s e et h a t t h er a d ioca rbon d a t ing h ave e s tab l ished ap e r iod o fu se o f a pp rox ima te ly 1 300 y ea r s f r om c i rca 1 200 b e t o8 0 AD i nu nca l ib ra ted 1 4C t e rm s ,c ove r ing b o th t h eT a lay o t icBronze A ge a nd P o s t T a layo t ic I r on Age p e r iod s . T h i s s pan o ft ime c an b eb roken d own i n to t wo s ho r te r p e r iod s ,o ne o fa pp rox ima te ly 7 00 y ea r s , c i rca 1 200 b e

1 55

( two f emu rh ead sp e rp e r son ) . No a t temp t w a s m ade t o p a ir t h e se o rt om ake i nd iv idua l c oun t s o fl e f t o rr i gh t , a so ne c ou ld wou ld a lway s b es u re i nt h is r e spec ti nt h e p re serva t ion o ft h ep i ece . T h is n umbe r o ff emu r h ead s i st hough t t or ep re sen t a bou t 1 / 4 o f t h e t o ta l e s t ima ted n umbe r o fi nd iv idua ls b u r ied a t Ma tge d u r ing a pp rox ima te ly 1 300 y ea r s , wh ich w ou ld t h e re fo re b e a round 6 320 p eop le . A s c an b es e en i nt h ev e r t ica ls ec t ion s( F igure 5 )o n ly t h el ow -

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e r 1 / 4o ft h e l e ve ls h ad w e l l p re se rved b one s . T he r e -

p re sen t -day p opu la t ion .

m a in ing 3 /4 o ft h el ime c ong lome ra te o nt h i sr e ckon ing c on ta ined a n e s t ima te 4740 b ur ia ls . T h is n umbe r may s e em v e ry g ene rou s a s a n e s t ima te o ft h e u ppe r3 /4 o f t h e l ime c ong lome ra te , b u t b a sed o n t h e c oncen t ra t ion o fa bou t 1 580 k nown b u r ia ls i nt h eb e t te rp r e se rved l e v e l s w h ich e x is ted c on s i s ten t ly a l lo ve rt h eb o t tom q uar -

GEOGRAPH IC A SPECTS CONCERN ING POPULAT ION OF THE MATGE AREA I N TALAYOT IC AND POST TALAYOT IC A S WELL AS PRESENT T I MES .

t e r o ft h e4 80 s qua re me te ra r ea ,i td oe s n o ta ppea rt oo h i gh , a nd t h e re may w e l l h ave b een mo re . A s w i l l b e s e en , t h e re a r e o the r f ac to r s wh ich wou ld s uppo r te sf i -

O ne o f t h e m a in f ea tu re s o f t h e Ma tge -Va l ldemo s sa a r ea d i scu s sed e a r l ie ri st h ec l o sed g eog r aph ic e nv i ron men t o f t h e a r ea , i n w h ich i ti sv i r tua l ly s ea led o f fb y

TABLE 2 . SUGGESTED POPULAT ION

ARB ITRARY L IFE EXPECTANCY

DEATH RATE P ER ANNU M P ER 1 00 POPULAT ION

OVERALL E ST I MATE FOR 1 300 YEARS

2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0

1 20 1 44 1 68 1 92

ma te s o f 6 320 b u r ia ls a t Ma tge f r om c i rca 1 200 BC t o c i rca 8 0 AD . T he t o ta l n umbe ro f 1 300 y ear sh a sb een u sed f o rt h e d u ra t ion o f t h e Ma tge c eme tery b ecau se w i thou t a d oub t t h e re h a s b een am ix ing o ft h eT a layo t ic c r ema t i on b u r ia l s w i th P o s tT a layo t ic q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s i nt h e c on tac t z one s , a nd whe rea s t h e o sseou s r ema in s o f t h e T a layo t ic a r e d i s t ingu ishab le f r om t ho se o f t h e P o s t T a layo t ic l ime c ong lome ra te r ema in s w hen t h ey o ccu r a t t h e b a se o f t h e c ong lome ra te , t h e re i sg ood c hance t h a t many o f t h e r ema in s w i th in t h e l ime c on g l ome ra te may a c tua l ly b e i n t ru s ive T a layo t ic b one s , d r agged u pi n to P o s tT a layo t ic l e ve ls d ue t od i s tu rbance c au sed d u r ing t h eq u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s . H oweve r ,b e fo re w eb eg in a ny c a lcu la t ion o fp opu la t i on s t a t is t ic s t h a t i n c lude e s t ima te s o fd ea th r a te s , l i fe

4 .9 4 .9 4 .9 4 .9

t h en a r row E s t re tP a s s ,e ven i nt h is p re sen td ay ( F igu re 4 ) . H e re , t h e a va i lab le l a nd e xp lo i tab le t oa gr icu l tu ra l a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie si nt h e V ai ldemo ssa V a l ley a tt h e p r e sen tt ime ,a sw e l l a sd u r ing t h e o the r p r eh is to r ic p e r i od s ,h a sa lways d e te rm ined t h ep o ten t ia lu se a nd p op u l a t ion o ft h e a r ea T he c u r ren tp opu la t ion o ft h e a r ea i sa bou t 1 650 p eop le , mo s to f whom d on o tr e ly o na g r i cu l tu ra l e conomy a tp re sen t b u t o n t h e t ou r is t t r ade a nd b u s in e ss a c t iv i t ie si nt h ec ap i ta lo fn ea rby P a lma . I n t h e i mmed ia te a rea b e tween t h e E s t re t P a ss a nd t h e t own o fV a l ldemo ssa t h e re a r e o n ly a bou t 8f am i ly e s ‚

t a te s ( f inca s ) t h a tu n t i lr e cen t ly d epended o na g r icu l tu r a l a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s f o r s ub s is tence i nt h i s s ou th e r ne nd o ft h e v a l ley . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e v a l ley h a s c hanged c on s ide rab ly s i nce p reh is to r ic t ime s d ue t ot h e e x ten s ive t e r rac ing o f t h e h i l l l and s s i nce Moo r ish

e xpec tancy ,n umbe ro fg ene ra t ion sa nd p o ss ib le p opu la -

t ime s ,s ot h a tt h e v a l ley 's a g r icu l tura lp o ten t ia l h a s c e r -

t i on t a bu la t ion s f o r as e t t lemen ti nt h e Ma tge a r ea , t h e a u tho r f e e l s t h a t i ti sn ece ssa ry t or e v iew a nd d i scu ss t h eg eog raph ic a spec t so ft h ei mmed ia te a r ea a r ound t h e Ma tge s i te , a nd t o r ema rk o n c e r ta in g eog raph ic f ea t u re s , s uch a sa va i lab le a rab le l a nd o pen t oa g r icu l tu ra l a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ies , wh ich m igh t h ave b een i nf luen -

t a in ly i n c r ea sed f o rm w ha ti tw a si nt h el a s tM i l lenn ium BC . Howeve r , t h e a u tho rb e l ieves t h a t s ome u sefu l a s s e ssmen t s c an s t i l l b e made c once rn ing t h e c ond i t ion s

t i a l f a c to r s i n p opu la t ion o f t h e a r ea i n p reh is to r ic t ime s , a si ts eem s t oc on t ro l a nd h ave g rea t b ea r ing o n

1 56

i np r eh i s to r ic t ime sa nd t h e i ru se i nc on s ide r ing p opu la t i on e s t ima te sf o rs ome o ft h ep reh i s to r ic p e r iod s . T he a va i lab le l and a rea o pen t o a g r icu l tu ra l a nd t r an shumance u se f o r t h e v a l ley o fV a l ldemo ssa i nt h i s s ou the rn e nd i s 1 3 .5km2 , w h ich i nc lude t h e a r ea t h a t

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

B gbm

BA LEARKS

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.

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1 MUERTOS GALLARD -MARRO IG

ARC O FI MMED IATE I NFLUENCE

R. d

F IGURE 2 .I s land a nd ma in land p rox im i ty

: sO

VAU D

c sA

N tA

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FERRANDELL -OLEZA

MATGE

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r no

F IGURE 4 .C oa s ta l s i te l o ca t ion s

F IGURE 3 . I s land s i te l o ca t ions

1 57

W .H . WALDREN a nd M . VAN S TRYDONCK

F IGURE 6 .

1 58

W .H . WALDREN a nd M . VAN S TRYDONCK

h a s b een c hanged b y p re sen t -day t e r rac ing (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . T h is c an b e d iv ided i n to f l a tl and ( 1 .0km2 ) , h i l l

mo ssa a rea , w e f i nd t h e a rea t oday o n ly c on ta in s a bou t 8f am i ly e s ta te s ( f arm s : S on Ma tge , S on S a lva t , S on

TABLE 3 .

S UGGESTED P OPULAT ION

D EATH R ATE P ER ANNUM P ER 1 00 P OPULAT ION

ARB ITRARY L IFE E XPEC TANCY

E ST IMATES F OR S EPARATE P ER IODS T ALAYOT IC P ER IOD 4 . 5 4 . 5

2 5

1 0 5 1 2 6 1 4 7 1 6 8

3 0 3 5

4 .5

4 . 5

4 0

P OST T ALAYOT IC P ER IOD 5 .2 5 .2

2 5

1 3 0 1 6 0 1 8 2 2 08

3 0 3 5 4 0

5 . 2

5 .2

l and ( 5 .5km2 ) a nd t h e s u r round ing moun ta in s ( 7km2 ) ,

M irabo , S on V er i , S on Mo ro , S on B auze a nd S on

t h el a t t e ro f wh ich i sp a r t ly a cce s s ib le a nd u sab le f o ra n-

C oma .

ma l g raz ing . Much o f t he h i l l l and h a s b een i mp roved

( moun ta inou s l and i nc luded ) 1 30 ,000m2 o r 1 3 .6km2 ,

b y r ecen t a nd mode rn t e r rac ing , a nd t h is n a tu ra l ly i n -

t h en t h e p opu la t ion d en s i ty i so n ly 1 2 p eop le p e r km2 ,

c r ea se s t h e mode rn a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l , s o t ha t s ome

o r 3f am i l ie sp e rs qua re k i lome te r .

O f c ou r se , i f we i nc lude t he t o ta l l and a rea

s i gn if ican t p opu la t ion i nc rea se c ou ld a l so b e e xpec ted

S ome c ompa rab le d a ta i sa va i lab le f r om p reh is tor ic

t oh ave t a ken p lace s i nce p reh is to r ic t ime s . A s p o in ted

s e t t lemen t s f ound e l sewhe re , a nd t h i s p opu la t ion d en s i -

o u t b y t wo i nve s t iga to r s i n a s se ssmen t o f p opu la t ion

t yi si nr ea sonab le a cco rd w i th s i te sl i ke n eo l i th ic J a rmo

( Bra idwood a nd R eed 1 957 ) ,t h e re mu s tb ea no p t imum

( I raq )a nd a l so w i th mode m a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie si n

r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t he s i ze o f av i l lage a nd t h el o ca l

t ha t r eg ion , whe re v i l lage p opu la t ion s a re i nt h e n e igh -

a va i lab le f a rm land i na ny t opog raph ica l o re nv i ronmen -

b o rhood o f 1 50 p e r v i l lage ( Bra idwood a nd R eed

t a l s i tua t ion . T h is r e la t ion sh ip s o f a r s t ud ied o n ly i ni n -

1 957 ) . The Co sg rove s e s t ima te s o f t h e Swa r t Ru in s o f

d iv idua l c a se s , wou ld d i f fe rf o rs e t t lemen ti nt h ep l a in s ,

t h e M imb re V a l ley a re 3 5 f am i l ie s o r 7 5 p eop le ( Co s -

f oo th i l l so r moun ta in r ange s .

g rove a nd Co sg rove 1 932 ) .

F amou s S ta r C a r r ( C la rk

I f we c on s ide rt h e t o ta l a rea o ff l a tl and a nd f oo th i l l s

1 954 ) h a s h ad s eve ra l e s t ima te s b u i l ta round i t ,i nc lud -

s hown i nF igu re 6 ,w e s ee t h a t 6 .5km2 i sa va i lab le f o r

i ng o ne 5 f am i ly g roup o r 2 5 p e r son s p e r 2 00 s qua re

a g r icu l tu ra l a nd p a s to ra l e xp lo i ta t ion , t h is wou ld a l lo t 6 5 ,000m2 o fl and o pen t ou se b y 1 64 p e r son s ( p rov id -

m i le s a nd p ro jec ted s t i l l f a r the ra s a n e s t i ma te t o7 538

i ng w e a ccep t t he e s t i ma te o f 1 64 p opu la t ion f o r t h e Ma tge a r ea i n p reh is to r ic t ime s ; t h is f i gu re b e ing a r -

T he se e s t ima te s w e re c a r r ied o u tp r inc ipa l ly o n aw ide

p e r son s i na na r ea a bou tt he s i ze o fE ng land a nd Wa le s . r ange o fa n ima la nd p lan tr ema in s .

r i ved a ti nt h ef o l low ing p age s a nd s ec t ion s ) , o ra ne s t i -

I ti sa l so i n te re s t ing t o n o te t ha t t he c en t re o f t h e

ma te o f2 9p eop le p e r km2 w i th a n i dea l f am i ly u n i to f

V ai ldemo s sa v a l ley i sb o rde red b y t h eS on P u ig T a layo -

4p e r son s ( 5 p e r son s p e r f am i ly u n i t i sp roposed b y

i cs e t t lemen t s i te o nt he s ou th , ad i s tance o fa bou t 5k i -

Co sg rove a nd Co sg rove , a nd c on s ide red b y t h en a sa n

l ome ter s a way a nd t h e P reh is to r ic S e t t lemen t Comp lex

u nde re s t ima t ion b ecau se o fh igh i n fan t mo r ta l i ty r a te s ) .

o f F e r rande l l -O leza a l so a bou t 5k i lome te r s t o t he

T he p re sen t a u tho r u se s 4a s af am i ly u n i t b ecau se h e

n o r thwes t ( t he l a t t e r s i te i sc u r ren t ly u nde r e xcava t ion

b e l ieve st h a tt h ei n f an t mo r ta l i ty r a te w a s p robab ly v e ry

b y t h e a u tho r ) . Bo th t he se s e t t lemen t s wou ld h ave b een

h igh , a nd h ence , a n e s t ima te o f 7f am i l ie s p e r km2 . I n

a c t ive a tt h e s ame t ime a s t h e Ma tge s e t t lemen t . I ti s

c on su l t ing t h e o rd inance map ( F igu re 7 ) o f t he V a i lde -

a l so i n te re s t ing t on o te t ha tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e se p re -

1 59

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

h i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s o ccu r sa t 5k i lome te rd i s tance s ,a nd t h a t t h e se d i s tance s a l so c o r re spond w i th t h eJ a rmo s i te w he re p r esen t -day v i l lage sa r ea na ve rage o f2 . 38 m i le s a pa r t ( abou t 5 .3km s ) ( B ra idwood a nd R eed 1 957 ) ; t h ough s uch s i te s r ep re sen t as omewha td i f f e ren te nv i r onmen t , a nd a v e ry d i f f e ren t t ime p e r iod . Howeve r w hen c on su l t ing t h e s t a t is t ics o ft h e se s i te s i nr ega rd t o p opu la t ion s i ze a nd c on s ider ing t h eg eog raph ica ll o ca le

CALCULAT ION OF DEATH RATE , L IFE EXPECFANCY , NU MBER OF GENERAT IONS AND POSS IBLE POPULAT IONS FRO M THE MATGE CEMETERY B a sed o nt h ee s t ima te o f6 320 b u r ia ls i nt h e Ma tge f o r t h e a pp rox ima te 1 300 y ea r s , c i rca 1 200 b c t o c i rca

TABLE 4 . EXA MP JP S OF L I ME CONGLOMERATE S AMP IR SF ROM MATGE VOLUMES AND WE IGHTS S AMPLE NO .

D IMENS IONS I N CMS

1 .

4 7x29x12 j jx3gx 1 3

4 . 5 .

3 3x22x12 2 4x 1 6x6

VOLUME

1 6 ,356cm3 2 3 ,940cm3 9 , 100 c m3 8 , 7 12cm3 3 04cm .3

a nd l a nd s ub s is tence p o ten t ia l , i ti sq u i te s t r ik ing h ow w e l l Ma tge s t a t is t ic s c ompa re t o t ho se o f J a rmo a nd e ven S ume r whe re l a t te r p opu la t ion d en s i ty h a sp roven t ob e 4 9 .83 p eop le p e r s quare m i le , o r3 1 .4 p eop le p e r s qua re k i lome te r( Br a idwood a nd R eed 1 957 ) . I ns ho r t , t h ea u tho rb e l ieve s t h a tt h ep opu la t ion d en s i ty a r r ived a t Ma tge i s ap o ss ib le e s t ima t ion o fp opu la t ion b a sed o n t h ec eme te ry c on ten t s a nd k nown c h rono logy a sw el a s

WE IGHT

1 3 .0 k g 2 0 .0 k g 7 . 5 k g 7 . 2 k g 1 . 9 k g

GR JC 2 v3

0 . 79 0 . 83 0 . 82 0 . 83 0 . 82

8 0AD , i ti sp o s s ib le t o s ugge s t al i ke ly d ea th r a te p er a nnum p e r 1 00 p e r son p opu la t ion . A t t h e s ame t ime , i t i sp o ss ib le t oe s t ima te as epa ra te d ea th r a te p e r a nnum p e r 1 00 p e r son p opu la t ion f o rt h e t wo p a r t s o ft h e 1 300 y ea rp e r iod f r om c i rca 1 200 BC t oc i rca 7 00 b ef o rt h e T a layo t ic b u r ia l sa t Ma tge ,a nd f r om c i rca 7 00 b et oc i r -

o n a va i lab le a rab le l a nd a nd o the r s ub s is tence p o ten t i a ls . H oweve r , t h e r e ade rs hou ld t a ke i n to a ccoun tt h e s ho r tcom ing sp re sen ti na ny s uch e s t ima t ion o fp opu la -

c a 8 0AD f r om t h e P o s t T a layo t ic q u ick l ime i nhuma t i on s . F o rt h i s p u rpo se , w ec an s imp ly a t t r ibu te h a lf t h e e s t ima ted b u r ia ls ( 3160 t oe ach o ft h ep e r iod s a s sum i ng t h a t t h ep opu la t ion s d u r ing b o th t h e se p e r iods w a s a bou t t h e s ame ,a nd o fc ou r se t h i s t a ke sn oa ccoun to f

t i on ,b u ta tt h e s ame t ime t h ea va i lab le i n fo rma t ion a nd

p o ss ib le v a r ia t ion s i nt e rm s o fi nc rea se o rd ec rea se b y

‚

‚

TABLE 5 . S U MMARY E XA MPLES OF L IME CONGLOMERATE SF ROM MATGE VOLUMES AND WE IGHTS NO . S AMPLES

5

D IMENS IONSVOLU ME I N CMS 1 64x131x6 8 ,4 12cm3

WE IGHT

GR JCM3

4 9 .6 k g

8 . 2

TOTAL WE IGHT MATGE CONGLOMERATE 4 00 m 3 3 28 ,000 k g 3 160 BUR IALS AVERAGE QU ICKUME P ER I NHUMAT ION 1 03 k g d a ta c om ing f r om Ma tge a nd i t s v i c in i ty a r ew e l l s u i ted f o r t h e p resen th ypo the s is . O the r s t a t is t ica l a rgumen t s a r ep o s s ib le ,a l so r e la ted t op opu la t ion s t udy .

s uch e ven t s a s n a tura l c a ta st rophe . P a r t icu la r a t ten t ion h a sb een g i ven d ur ing e xcava t ion f o ra ny s i gn so fc a ta s t r oph ic e ven t s ( ma ss b u r ia ls d ue t o s uch t h ing s a s f a m ine ,d i sea se o rw a r ) w h ich m igh th ave l e f t ar e co rd i n t h ed epo s it b u tn os i gn so fs uch e ven t sw e re p re sen t .

1 60

W .H . WALDREN a nd M . V AN S TRYDONCK

T he se c a lcu la t ion s a r ea dm i t ted ly b a sed o nb road a s s ump t ion sa sr e ga rd t od i v id ing t h en umbe ro fb u r ia l sa t Ma tge i n h a lf , a nd a t t r ibu t ing e qua l p a r t s t ob o th t h e

b l e 2a nd t h e a rb i t rary r a te s o f3 5 y ea r s , f o r e xamp le , w i th d ea th r a te s p e r a nnum o f 1 00 p opu la t ion o f 4 .9 , 4 . 5a nd 5 . 2 ,o ur p opu la t ion r ange a ta ny o ne t i me w ou ld

T a layo t ic a nd P o s tT a layo t ic P e r iods ; t h u sn o ta l low ing f o r a ny n a tu ra l i nc rea se i n p opu la t ion d u r ing t h e P o s t T a layo t ic P e r iod , w h ich o ne m igh t e xpec t . Howeve ri n t h ea u tho r 's m ind ,t h e re i sf o rt h e momen tn ow ay t oe s t ima te t h i sp o s s ib le i n c rea se i np opu la t ion f ac to rd u r ing t h eB ronze a nd I r on Age s ,a pa r tf r om m e rcena ry s o ld ie r i n vo lvemen tt owa rd t h eM idd le I r on A ge su n t i lR oman

b e f r om 1 47 p e r son s ( 36 f am i l ie s ) t o 1 68 p e r son s ( 42 f am i l ie s ) ; a nd f o r t h e n umbe r o f g ene ra t ion s w i th t h e a ve rage l i fe e xpec tancy o f3 5y ea r s f o rt h ea pp rox ima te 1 300 y ea r s , at o ta l o f3 8 g ene ra t ion s w ou ld b e r ep re s en ted i nt h e Ma tge c eme te ry . I f3 8g ene ra t ion s r ep re s en t6 320 p eop le b ur ied , a n a ve rage o f a bou t 1 64 p eo p l e( 42 -4 p e r son f am i l ie s )c an b e s ugge s t ed f o r t h ea r ea i np reh i s to r ic t ime s .

t ime s , wh ich i sn o t c a lcu lab le , o the r t h an s uch n a tu ra l i n c rea se o ve rt h eB ronze Age p opu la t ion may w e l l h ave b een o fs e tb yt h e se l a te rI r on Age l o sse sa f te r4 00 1 3C . I ti s am a t te ro fc l a ss ica l r eco rd t h a tc on s ide rab le n um b e r so fB a lea r ic me rcen a r ie s w e re r e c ru i ted b yt h eC a r t h ag in ian a sw e l l al a te rb yt h eR oman s( one e a r ly h i s to r i an ,f o re xamp le , r e co rd s t h a ti n4 06 BC f i ve t hou sand B a lear ic m e rc enar ie s w e re u sed b y H ann iba l i nh i s S i c i l ian C ampa ign a ga in s t S y racu se ) . S o t h e a u tho r b e l i eve s t h a ta t tr ibu t ing a ne ven d i v is ion i nt h e Ma tge b u r i a l si sa ccep tab le . F rom t h e r ough c a lcu la t ion s s o f a r , e s t ima te s o f d ea th r a te s p e r a nnum p e r 1 00 p opu la t ion c an b e a r r i ved a tb y d i v id ing t h e n umbe r o f e s t ima ted b u r ia ls ( 6 320 b yt h e n umb e ro fk nown y ea r s o ft h e c eme te ry 's u se ( 1 300 y ear s ) . T he s ame c an b ed one f o rt h et o ta l o f 7 00 y ea r s f o rt h e3 160 b u r ia l s d u r ing t h eT a layo t ic P e r i od ,a nd i nt u rn , t h e t o ta l o f6 00 y ea r s f o rt h e3 160 i n h uma t ion s d u r ing t h e P o s t T a layo t ic P e r iod . T he f o l l ow ing a r et h er e su l t s f o rt h ed ea th r a te sp er a nnum p e r

OTHER POSSIBLE CALCULAT IONS OF THE NU MBER OF BUR IALS AND ACCUMULAT ION I N THE MATGE QU ICKL I ME I NHUMAT IONS Ano the r mean s o fe s t ima t ing t h en umbe ro fi nd iv idua l s b u r ied a nd t h e a ccumu la t ion r a te i nt h e P o s tT a layo t ic q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s c an p e rhap s b e d rawn f r om t h e l ime c ong lome ra te i t se lf . C e r ta in w e igh t s a nd mea s u r e s , d ea l ing w i th t h e t o ta l a ccumu la t ion o fs l a l ce l i ine c ong lome ra te h ave s ome g ene ra l b ear ing i n t h e e s t i ma te s g i ven a bove . F o r s ome o f t h e r e su l t s a r r ived a t b e low , n o c ompa ra t ive d a ta i sy e t a va i lab le , a nd t hu s t h e i r mean ing i sn o ta sy e tc l ea r ;h oweve r , s ome c l a r if i c a t ion may b ef o r thcom ing f r om c on t ro l led p rac t ica le x p e r imen t s r e cen t ly b egun b y t h e a u tho r , a nd wh ich a r e p rov ing a nu se fu l s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion . I n t h e f o l low ing c a lcu la t ion , t h e a u tho r h a s t r i ed t o a r r ive a ta n e s t ima te o f t h e t o ta l a moun t o fq u ick l ime t h a tw a s u sed f o rt h eP o s tT a layo t ic q u ick l ime i nhuma -

1 00 p opu la t ion ,b a sed o nt h e se c a lcu la t ion s . We c an p ro jec t ac ha r t o fe s t ima ted l i f e e xpec tancy

t i on s ,b a sed o nt h ep re sen tc ond i t ion o ft h ec ong lome r a t e . Wh i le t h e se e xpe r imen ta l e s t ima te s ,l i ke a ny o the r s may b ea f fec ted b ya sy e tu npe rce ived e r ro r s ,t h ea u tho r f e e l s t h a tt h ey u se fu l ly p repa re t h e w ay f o rf u ture s t ud -

r a te s ,u s ing 2 5 , 3 0 ,3 5 , a nd 4 0 y ea r s t of o rm ac ha r tt o e s t ima te v a r iou sp o s s ib le p opu la t ion f i gu re sr ep re sen ted i n t h e Ma tge b ur ia ls w i th t h e v a r iou s l i fe e xpec tancy r a te s l i s ted b e low . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h er eade r s hou ld a l so b ea ri nm ind t h a tn oc a lcu la t ion h a sb een made f o r s uch p rob lem s a s t h e r a te o fi n fan t mo r ta l i ty , a l though t h is w ou ld b e a b so rbed u s ing a rb i t ra ry l i fe e xpec tancy

i e su s ing mo re c omp le te c o l lec ted d a ta . Meanwh i le , t h e f o l low ing s t a t is t ic s p e rm i t u s t ov i ew o t he r a spec t s o f t h e a ccumu la t ion r a te a ts uch s i te s a nd e ven , p e rhap s , a fo rd s ome c l ue t ot h ea c tua ln umbe ro fd ead , wh ich i n

r a te so f2 5 ,3 0 ,35 y ea r se t c . T he se e s t ima te s f o r t h ep reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion i nt h e v i c in i ty o f Ma tge s eem s t o t h e a u tho r r e a sonab le a nd

t u rn w e may u se f o r c ompa r ison w i th c ur ren t e f fo r t s a nd t h e i rr e su l t s .T he t a b le a bove ( Tab le 4 )g i ve s t h er e s u l t so fw e igh t sa nd mea su remen t so fs amp le p i ece s o f c ong lome ra te f r om q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion sa t Ma tge .

n o t i ne xce ss . A s sum ing t h e g ene ra l a ccu racy o f t h e se e s t ima te s ,w ec an f u r the rs ugge s t t h en umbe ro ff am i ly u n i t s ,b a sed o n4 . 4p e r son u n i t( s ome i n ve s t iga to r s u se au n i to f 5p e rf am i ly ) ; t h ea u tho ru sed t h i sc on se rva t ive n umbe ra sb e ing t h e i d ea l n umbe r s o ff am i ly membe r s . T he n umbe r o ff am i l ie s r ange f r om 3 0 t o5 2 f am i l ie s , d epend ing o n t h e l i f e e xpec tancy r a te s o f t h e a rb i t ra ry a ge s o f2 5 ,3 0 ,3 5 ,a nd 4 0 y ea r s .T he se e s t ima te s o ft h e n umbe ro ff am i l ie s s e em r e a sonab le w hen c on s ide r ing t h et o ta ll a nd a r ea o f 1 3 .5km2 . I nt u rn ,i fw eu t i l ise T a -

B ys e lec t ing an umbe ro fb lock s amp le s o fc ong lom e r a te a nd mea su r ing a nd w e igh ing t h em , c e r ta in s t a t i s t i c s eme rge wh ich a r e l i s ted i nt h e t a b le a bove . I n r e c o rd ing t h e se w e igh t s a nd mea su remen t s s ome i d ea o f t h eg ro s sw e igh to ft h e Ma tge l ime c ong lome ra te c an b e a r r ived a t ; i n t h e c a se o f Ma tge t h a t g ro ss w e igh t i s 3 28 ,000 k g s . T he t wo mo s ti mpo r tan t s t a t i s t ic s a r e ( a ) t h e w e igh t o f t h e c ong lome ra te s amp le s i n g ram s p e r c ub ic c en t ime te r( a ve rage o f t h e mea su red a nd w e igh t

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s amp le s ,0 .82g rm s /m3 ) a nd ( b ) t h er e su l t ing e s t ima te o f c ong lome ra te w e igh t p e r b u r ied p e r son , b a sed o n t h e

b ly w e igh ta bou t 1 0 k i lo s f o r af u l l g rown a du l t , wh i le t h eq u ick l ime d oe sn o tl o se v o lume d u r ing t h ep roce ss . B a sed o nt h is c a lcu la t ion o f8 0% o ft h eb one l ime c on -

e s t ima tes o f 3 160 b ur ia ls ( a verage o f 1 03kg /pe r son . N a tu ra l ly , t h e se s t a t is t ic s d on o t g i ve ac l ea rp i c tu re o f t h e a c tua l q uan t i ty o fc a lc ium o x ide u sed i n t h e i n i t ia l

g lome ra t e b e ing q u ick l ime o r ig ina l ly , w e c an e s t ima te t ha t t h e t o ta l q u ick l ime u sed w a s i n t h e r eg ion o f 2 62 ,400kg s . We c anno ta tp re sen ta d ju s tt h is f i gu re t o a l low f o rt h ef a c tt h a ta l b u r ia ls w e r ea du l t s , b u ti tc an s e rve meanwh i le t oi n d ica te t h eo rde r o f magn i tude o f t h eq u ick l ime p roduc t ion .

i nhuma t ion s ,b u tt h ey d og ive a ni nd ica t ion o fw ha tv o l ume o fc ong lome ra te c on s is t ing o fb one a nd s l ake l ime ma ss c an b ee xpec ted t or e su l tf r om t h ep rac t ica l e xpe r i men t s wh ich t h e a u tho r h a s c onduc ted s o f a r w i th q u ick l ime a nd a n ima l b one a nd s po i led m ea t f r om t h e l o ca l ma rke t . S uch e xper imen t s d o g i ve a n i d ea o f t h e o r ig ina l q uan t i t ie s u sed i n t h e a nc ien t q u ick l ime i nhu -

SUMMARY OBSERVAT IONS AND CONCLUS IONS

m a t ion s ,a nd t h e refo re e nab le u s t os e e whe the rt h ee s t i ma ted f i gure s s e em n ea r t h e ma rk a nd h ence whe the r t h e e s t ima ted t o ta l n umbe r o fb u r ia l s i sl i ke t ob e c o r r e c t ,a l ong w i th t h ep opu la t ion e s t ima te s t h a td epend o n T he c ong lome ra te s amp le s u sed i n t h e e xpe r imen t s w e re s e lec ted a sb e ing e n t ire ly t yp ica l o ft h ev a r iou sa r e a s o f t h e who le ma ss . Wo rk o n t h e s amp le s i sn ow c on t inu ing b eyond mea su remen t ; e ach p i ece h a s b een m anua l ly c l eaned t or e cove ri t s i nd iv idua lb one c ompo -

T he a u tho rh a st a ken a no p t im is t ic a nd p o s i t ive v i ew o f t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fp opu la t ion d en s i ty e s t ima te s , a nd h a s a l so p o s tu la ted l i f e e xpec tancy , n um b e ro fg ene ra t i on s e t c . I ns ho r t ,h eh a s t a ken t h eo ppo s i te o ft h ed e f e a t is t 's a t t i tude o ft h e se p rob lems . H oweve r ,o ne mu s t a l so l ook a ts ome o ft h el im i ta t ion si ni n te rp re t ing t h e se f a c to r s , a nd a tt h e s ame t ime , g i ve s ome s pace t od i s c u s ing p o ss ib le s t umb l ing b lock a sw e l l a ss t re s s ing t h e a r ea si nw h ich c l a r i ty i ss omewha tl a ck ing ,a tp re sen t .

n en t s t os ee i fi nt h a tw ay ac oun to fp e r son s p re sen ti n t h e c ub ic me te r o f c ong lome ra te c an b e a r r ived a tt o

I n e xam in ing t h e l im i ta t ion s i n i n te rp re t ing q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s , t h e mo s ti mpo r tan to ne i st h e s eve re

h e lp e s t ima te t h eb u r ia l c on ten t so ft h et o ta l ma ss . T h i s w ou ld o f fe r t h e mean s o fc heck ing t h e a ccu racy o ft h e

d amage o f t h e q u ick l ime t o t h e b one c omponen t s a nd a r te fac t sa l ike ,a sw e l la st h ea dd i t iona ld amage d one b y

p opu la t ion s t a t is t ic s ' e s t ima te s s ugge s ted b y t h e f emu r h ead c oun t s . Un t i lt h e se f i gu re sa nd t h ep rac t ica le xpe r i men ta t ion r e su l t s a r ea va i lab le , t h em ean ing o ft h is s e t o fs t a t is t ic s r ema in s r a the ro b scu re , a nd t h ef i gu re s a r e i n c luded h e re t og i ve t h e r e ade ra ni d ea o f t h e s t age a t wh ich t h e r e sea rch i n t h e s t udy o f t h e P o s t T a layo t ic I r on A ge q u ick l i me i nhuma t ion sh a s t h u sf a ra r r ived . However b y mea su r ing a nd w e igh ing s amp le s o ft h e l ime c ong lome ra te , w e c an a tl e a s t a t ta in s ome i d ea o f

p e r iod ica l d i s tu rbance o ft h e l ime c ong lome ra te ,d ue t o s ucce ss ive i nhuma t ion s . We c an a l so a dd t o t h i s t h e

l t .

p roce ss o f k i l l ing t h e o b jec t s p l aced w i th t h e d ead b y b reak ing a nd d i s to r t ing t h e se g rave g ood s . T hu s ,a dm i t t e d ly ,t h ew eake s tl i nk i nt h ea u tho r 's a rgumen ti sb a sed o nh i se s t ima t ion o ft h en umbe ro fi n d iv idua l sb u r ied i n t h eq u ick l ime . Whe re t h en umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s ( 1580 ) i se a s i ly d e te rm ined f r om t h ef emu rh ead s f ound i nt h e l owe r 1 / 4o ft h el ime c ong lome ra te ,l o ca ted a tt h e b o t -

t h e w e igh tp e rg ram o ft h e c ong lome ra te , a nd s o , make as t a temen t c once rn ing t h e t o ta l w e igh t o f t h e e n t ire 4 00 c ub ic me te ra r ea o ft h el ime c ong lome ra te a t Ma t -

t om o ft h e s ec t ion p ro f i le s , i ti sn o te a sy t oa ccep t t h e n umbe r o f t ho se i nhumed i n t h e u ppe r 3 /4 o ft h e l ime c ong lome ra te w he re t h ee v idence i sl im i ted t ot h ef r ag -

g e . I n T ab le 4 a n a ve rage w e igh t o f 0 .82g r /cm3 h a s b een a r r ived a t t h rough mea su r ing a nd w e igh ing t h e s amp le b lock s o fl ime c ong lome ra te ,a r r iv ing a t at o ta l

men t s o f b one a nd a v e ry f ew who le o ne s . Howeve r , t h e re i sn or e a son t od oub tt h a ta to ne t ime t h eu ppe r3 / 4p o r t ion a l so c on ta ined s im i la rq uan t i t ie so fb one ,e ven t hough t h e p re se rva t ion i s b ad . E xam ina t ion o f t h e u pp e r3 /4 p o r t ion s hows t h a ti tw a sd en se ly p acked w i th b one ,s im i la rt ot h el owe r 1 / 4p o r t ion o ft h ec ong lome r -

d epo s i t w e igh t o f3 28 ,000kgs a nd d i v id ing t h a t f i gu re b y t h e e s t ima ted n umbe r o f i nhuma t ion s i n t h e l ime c ong lome ra te ( 3 160 ) g i v ing at o ta l o f 1 03kg /pe r son , a s t h e v o lume o f b one l ime c ong lome ra te r e su l t ing f r om e ach b u r ia l . T h is f i gu re o f 1 03kg /p e r son d oe s n o tt a ke i n to a ccoun t t h ef a c t t h a t much o ft h e w e igh to ft h er e -

a t e , b u t t h a t t h er e cyc l ing o f t h e l ime c ong lome ra te i n t h e u ppe r 3 /4 p o r t ion a nd i t s f r equen t d i s tu rbance i n mak ing w ay f o r n ew b u r ia ls h a s w rough t g rea t h avoc o n t h e r ema in s . P a tche s o f b e t te r p re served b one i n

s u l t ing l ime c ong lome ra te c on s is t s o f b one a nd b one f r agmen t s a nd s ome u ncombu s ted s t one s . N eve r the le s s ,

t h e se u ppe r r eg ion s o f t h e s t ra t ig raphy d o o ccu r o f ten e nough t oe s tab l ish t h ef ac tt ha tn ume rou si nhuma t ion s e x is ted i nt h e u pp e r l e ve ls . B y c on t ra s t , t h e re a r e w e l l p re se rved b one s i ne ve ry a r ea o ft h el owe rl e ve ls o ft h e

t h e amoun t o f q u ick l ime u se mu s t h ave b een a round 8 0% o f t h a t w e igh t , a s t h e b one s t h em se lve s - o nce t h e f l e sh h ad b een r emoved b yt h eq u ick l ime - w ou ld p roba -

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l ime c ong lome ra te . A s t empe ra tu res o f 4 00 d egree s c en t ig rade c an b e r eco rded i n m ea su r ing t h e i n te rna l h ea t g ene ra ted b y t h e s l ak ing a c t ion o f t h e l ime , t h i s

mo re e f f ec t ive a nd d e s t ruc t ive . F ac to r s l i ke t h e se h ave n o tb een a lowed f o ri nt h ea bove c a lcu la t ion s o ro b se r v a t ion s ,a nd as t udy o ft h e se c ond i t ion sa r en ece s sa ry in

h ea t wou ld n a tu ra l ly b e p a r t ly a b so rbed i n t h e a r ea s w he re t h eb one s w e re c l o se s t t ot h eg round f l oo ro ft h e

t h e a u tho r 's m ind - t h rough f i r s th and e xpe r ience i ne x p e r imen ta t ion w i th a n ima l r ema in s , s im i la r t o t ho se men t ioned a bove , i fr ea l ly p rec ise r e su l t s a r e t o b e a ch ieved . Wh i le t h ef i r s ta nd mo s ti mpo r tan tl im i ta t ion r e s t si n t h es eve re d amage o ft h eq u ick l ime ,i ti sa l so f a i rt oa dd

s he l te r ; a sh appen s a tt h eb o t tom o ft h el ime c ong lom e r a te i n a l l t h e r e co rded p ro f i le s ec t ion s , w he rea s t h e 4 00 d eg ree h ea t w ou ld b e a ti tm ax imum i nt h e c en t re p a r to ft h ec ong lome ra te m a ss ,s oc au s ing d e s t ruc t ion t o ah ighe rd eg ree i nt h i s a r ea t h an a tt h eb o t tom ' c on tac t ' z one s . T he a u tho r t h e refo re b e l ieve s t h a t i ti sw i th in r ea son t oa s sume a n e qua l d i s t r ibu t ion o fb one s o r ig i n a l ly t h roughou tt h el ime c ong lome ra te s e c t ion p rof i le s a ta l l l e ve ls ; h ence t h ee s t ima te s made b y u s ing t h ef e mu rh ead c oun t s f o rt h en umbe ro fd ead i nt h el owe r 1 / 4o ft h ed epo s i tc an a l so b ea pp l ied t ot h eu ppe rp o r t ion o ft h el ime c ong lome ra te . Ano ther l im i ta t ion c once rn s t h e q uan t i ty o f t h e q u ick l ime n ece ssa ry t oc a r ry o u tt h ep roce ss o fi nhuma t i on e f fec t ive ly . A s p o in ted o u te a r l ie r , d i f f e ren tq ua l i t i es o fq u ick l ime a r et h er e su l to ft h eu se o fd i f fe ren tl o c a l t ype s o fl ime s tone . T hen t o o , t h e e f fec t ivene ss o f t h e q u ick l ime c an b e g rea t ly i mp roved b y t h e a dd i t ion o f as ma l l q uan t i ty o f p e rcen tage o f e a r th wh ich c on t a in s s od ium , w h ich a ppa ren t ly make s t h e q u ick l ime

t h a t t h e v a r ia t ion i n t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e q u ick l ime d o a t t ime s a s su re r e a sonab ly w e l l p re se rved i t em s , t h e f r e q uency o ft h e se p robab ly d epend s o nt h e s i ze o ft h ec e me te ry : t h e mo re g rave g ood s t h e re a r e o r ig ina l ly , t h e b e t te rt h ec hance t h ey s u rv ive t h er a vage s o ft h eq u ick l ime . D e sp i te t h is u sua l ly b ad p re se rva t ion , t h e d am a ged a r te fac t sc an o f ten b ei den t i f ied b yr e fe rence t ot h e p iece s t h a t a r e b e t te r p re se rved , a nd r ega rd le s s o f t h e s t a te o f p re serva t ion a s en se o f t h e o r ig ina l r i chne ss a nd e x t ravagance o ft h e o f fe r ing s b ur ied w i th t h e b od i e s i ss oon a t ta ined a nd r em ind s u so ft h e g ene ra la ff lu e nce o ft h e P o s tT a layo i ic p opu la t ion o f Ma l lo rca A t t h es ame t ime t h eo ve ra l lp re se rva t ion i sn o ts ob ad t h a t w e c anno t s e e t h e i nf luence o fo the r g eog raph ic a r ea s , r ep re sen ted i nt h et ypo logy o ft h ea r te fac t s wh ich w e re d epo s i ted a sg rave g ood s .

B IBL IOGRAPHY BRA ID WOOD ,J .R . a nd REED ,C .W . 1 957 . J e r icho a nd i t ss e t t ing i nN ea rE a s te rn P reh is to ry . A n t iqu i ty 3 1 ,p p . 7 3 -81 . CLARK ,J .C .D . 1 954 . E xcava t ion o fS t a r rC ar r : a ne a r ly Me so l i th ic s i te a tS eame rN ear S ca rbo rough , Yo rk sh ire . C ambr idge P re s s . COSGROVE ,C .B . a nd COSGROVE ,H .S . 1 9 32 . T he Swa r tR u in : R epo r to ft h eM imb re sV a l ley E xped i t ion , 1 924 2 7 . P aper so ft h eP eabody Mu seum ,H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty ,C amb r idge ,v o l .1 5 ,n o 1 ,p p .1 00 -10 3 HACK ,J . T . 1 942 . T he C hang ing P hy s ica lE nv ironmen to ft h e Hop iI nd ian so fA r izona . P ape r so ft h eP eabody Mu s eum , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty ,C amb r idge v o l .2 1 ,n o .1 p p . 7 8 -80 . . S TU IVER ,M .a nd WALDREN ,W .H . 1 974 . 1 4C C a rbona te D a t ing a nd t h eA ge o fP o s tT a layo t ic Ur ne B u r ia ls i n Ma l lo rca . N a tu re ,V o l . 2 55 ,J une ,p p .4 75 -476 . TARRADELL ,M . a nd WOODS ,D . 1 976 . E xcavac ione se nl aN ec ropo l i sd eS on R ea l yi le d e l sP o rm s . E x cava c i one sA rqueo log ica se nE spana 2 4 , Madr id . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . a nd WALDREN ,W . H . 1 990 . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fl ime b u r ia ls . PACT 2 9 ,p p . 4 03 4 14 . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . , DUPAS ,M . , DAUCHOT -DEHON ,M . , PACH IAUDA ,C . a nd MARECHAL ,J .1 983 . A f u r the rs t ep i nt h er ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fo ld mo r ta r s , B u l le t in K .I .K . 1 9 ,p p . 1 55 -171 . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . , DUPAS ,M . a nd KEPPENS ,E . 1 989 . I s o top ic f r ac t iona t ion o fo xygen a nd c a rbon i nl ime mo r ta ru nde rn a tu ra le nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s ,R ad ioca rbon ,3 1(3 ) ,p p . 6 10 -6 18 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 982 . B a lea r ic P reh i s to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu re : t h ee xcava t ion a nd s t udy o fc e r ta in c ave s ,r o ck s he l te r s a nd s e t t lemen t s ,B AR I n te rna t iona lS er ie s 1 49 ( i ) Append ix 3 A , p p . 6 75 -711 .O xfo rd .

1 63

RAD IOCARBON DAT ING OF THE S ON MATGE ROCK S I IELIER

MARK V AN S TR Y DONCK K on ink l i jk I n s t i tuu tv oo rh e i K un s tpa t r imon ium , J ub e lpa rk 1 B 1040 B ru s se l s ,B ELG IUM

W IL LIAM H . WALDREN R e se a r ch A s so c ia t e , D ona ld B ad en -Pow e l lQ ua te rn a ry R e sea rch C en t r e U n ive r s i ty o fO x fo rd ,O x fo rd 0X2 6 PN E HGLAND ‚

I NTRODUCT ION

Mo re t h an 4 0 r ad ioca rbon d a te s

t h e l ime c a rbona te . T h is g i ve s as h if t i n i s o top ic f r ac -

h ave b een made o n

ma ter ia lf r om S on Ma ige . D if f e ren tl a bo ra to r ie s p a r t ic i p a ted i n t h is d a t ing p ro jec t a nd a l so d i f fe ren t t y pe s o f ma te r ia l w e re u sed . T he u se o fd i f f e ren t ma ter ia l s s ome t ime s c omp l ica te s t h ei n terp re ta t ion o ft h e r e su l t s , e spe c i a l ly i nt h ec a se o ft h e c a rbona te o rl ime d a te s . A l l t h e d a te s d i scu ssed i n t h is p ape r a r e c a l ib ra ted ( S tu ive r & R e ime r , 1 993 ) a nd g rouped a tt h ee nd o ft h i sp ape r . T he s um p robab i l i ty o f a l l d a te s i sr ep re sen ted i n f i gu re 7 . T he d i f f e ren td a te s w i l l b ed i scu ssed a nd c ompa red t a k i ng i n to a ccoun t t h e d i f f e ren t o r ig in a nd n a tu re o f t h e s amp le s .

t i ona t ion ( a1 3 C ° / 1 )f r om t h ea tmo sphe r ic v a lue o fa bou t 7t o2 1 ( Pach iaud ie ia l , 1 986 ) . O ne wou ld e xpec tt h i s v a lue t ob e c on s tan t w i th in t h e n odu le . Unfo r tuna te ly t h i s i sn o ts o . AR ay le igh type d i f fu s ion ( Van S t rydonck e ia l , 1 989 )i nt h e n odu le c omb ined w i th c ompac t ion i n t h e mo r ta r o r i nt h e l ime b u r ia l make s t h a t t h e c a rbon i s o tope r a t io c hange s w i th in t h en odu le ( f ig . 1 .l .A -B ) . A f te r ac e r ta in p e r iod ,d ue t os e condary r eac t ion sa nd e xchange ,t h es u r face o ft h en odu le c an b ec on tam ina ted b y mode rn c a rbon ( f ig . 1 . 1 . 13 ) . T h is c hange s o fc ou r se t h e

1 4C

c on ten ta nd t h e a1 3C o ft h es u r face l a ye r .

I ft h eo r ig ina l l ime s tone w a s n o th ea ted l ong e nough t od ecompo se t h e g eo log ica l c a rbona te , s ome f o ss i lc a r b ona te r ema in s i n t h e n odu le s b efo re t h e a b so rp t ion o f

L I ME DAT ING

a tmo sphe r ic CO2 b eg in s ( f ig . 1 . 2 ) . T he p re sence o ft h is

T he p r inc ip le o f l ime d a t ing b y f r ac t ion s h a s b een d i s -

f o ss i l c a rbona te w i th aa1 3C 0 I a round 0a nd a ni nf in i te o ld r ad ioca rbon a ge h a s a n i nf luence o n t h e i s o top ic

c u ssed i nd e ta i l e l sewhe re ( Van S t rydonck e ia 4 1 983 ) . I n t h is p ape ro n ly t h e mode l r e p re sen t ing t h ea b so rp t ion o f a tmo sphe r ic CO2 o n l ime w i l l b e d i scu ssed . T h is mode l i st h e r ev ised v e r s ion o f t h e mode l p ub l i shed i n v o lume I o ft h el i nd D eya I n te rna t iona l C onfe rence o f P reh is to ry ( Van S t rydonck a nd Dupa s , 1 991) . T ha t p ape ra l so o u t l ine s t h ep r inc ip le s o f mo r ta rd a t ing . T o e xp la in t h e a b so rp t ion o f a tmo sphe r ic CO2 o n l ime [ Ca (OH )2 ] t h ea s sump t ion i sm ade t h a tl ime c a rbo n a te o ccu r s a ss ma l l s phe r ica l p a r t ic le s ( f ig . l . l .A ) . T he r eac t ion o ra b so rp t ion s t a r t s a tt h es u r f ace o ft h en odu le

f r ac t iona t ion a nd t h e

1 4C

c on t en to ft h en odu le sa nd h a s

o fc ou r se a na g ing e f f ec to nt h es amp le . I ti so bv iou s t h a td i f f e ren tf r ac t ion sw i l lg i ve d i f f e r en t a ge s . T he mo s tr e l iab le a ge i sn o t a lway s t h e o lde s t o r y ounge s t . I nt h es i tua t ion r ep re sen ted o nf i gu re l .1 .D t h e o lde s t d a te w i l l b e t h e mo s t r e levan t o ne , w h i le i n t h e c a se o f t h e s i tua t ion o n f i gu re 1 . 2 . 1 3 t h e y ounges t d a te w i l lb et h e mo s tr e l iab le . Wi th t h i s mode l i nm ind d i f f e ren tf r ac t ion s w e re d a t e df r om t h e l ime o fS on Ma tge . T he t e chn ique u sed t o o b ta in t h e r e su l t s a nd t h e c ho ice o f t h e b es t f r ac t ion i s

a nd p roceed s a s t h e a tmo sphe r ic CO2 p ene t ra te s d eepe r i n to t h en odu le ( f ig . l .1 .A -B ) . No rma l ly t h is p ene t ra t ion

d i scu ssed e l sewhere ( Van S t rydonck a nd Wa ld ren , 1 990 ) . I nt h ec on tex to ft h is p ap e rw eo n ly w an tt om en -

i sf a s t c ompa red t o t h e r ad ioac t ive d ecay o f 1 4 C . T h is mean s t h a tt h er ad ioca rbon a ge w i th in t h en odu le i sc on s t an t ( B ) . S ome t ime s , d ue t oc omp re ss ion h oweve r , t h e

t i on t h a tt h ed i f f e ren ts i tua t ion sr ep resen ted i nt h e mode l a l so a ppea red i n r ea l i ty . D if f e rences u p t o 4 00 y ea r s w e re mea su red w i th in t h e s ame l ump o fl ime d epend ing o n t h e f r ac t ion t h a t w a s t a ken . S ome t ime s e ven d i f fe r e nces o fs e ve ra l t hou sand s o fy ea r s w e re f ound ,b u t w e

a b so rp t ion c an b e s o s l ow t h a t t h e re i s ad i f fe rence i n 1 4

C -age b e tween t h es u r face o ft h en odu le a nd t h ei n ne r

p a r t( a ) . Due t ot h e c a rbona te f o rm ing c hem ica l r e ac t ion [ Ca ( OH )2

+

CO2

->

C aCC I 3 ] t h e re i s ad ep le t ion i n

1 4

Ci n

c ou ld d emon s t ra te t h a t t h is w a s d ue t o t h e p re sence o f f o ss i l ( r ock )ca rbona te . T ho se r e su l t s a r e n o t men t ioned i nt h i sp ape r .

1 64

M . V AN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

D ISCUSS ION OF THE DATES

c u l t .

T he d i scu ss ion i n t h is p ar to f t h e p ape r i sn o a r chaeo l og ica l d i scu ss ion b u t as t a t is t ica l e va lua t ion o f t h e d a te s t a k ing i n to a ccoun tt h ed if e rence si nn a tu re o ft h e d a ted s amp le s . T he a r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e d a t e s w i l lb e d i scu s sed i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l s e c t ion o f t h is p ape r . T he f i r s t d a t ing p ro jec t ( S tu iver a nd Wa ld ren , 1 975 a nd Wa ld ren , 1 981) o n l ime f r om S on Ma tge w a s u n d er taken b efo re t h ep henomenon o fl ime c a rbona te f o r ma t ion w a s e xam ined i n d e ta i l . S o f o r t h is s e r ie s o f l ime d a te s o n ly t h et o ta l c a rbon c on ten th a s b een e xam i n ed a nd s ome i n fo rma t ion a bou tt h ea b so rp t ion i sm is s i n g . P re ta layo t ic L eve l s F igu re 2 r epre sen t s t h e c onven t iona l r ad ioca rbon d a te s± ls a nd f i gu re 3t h es um p robab i l i ty o ft h eP re ta l a yo t ic s amp le s . T he c a rbona te s amp le sf r om t h eP re ta l a yo t ic f i re l e ve ls f o rm ac ohe ren ts e r ie s . I ti so ne o ft h e f i r s t s e r ie s n o t d a ted i nf r ac t ion s . A ge i n c rea se s w i th d ep th ( i ti st h eo n ly s e r ie si nt h is s t udy s how ing ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a ge a nd d ep th )a nd t h ei s o top ic r a t io ( 3 13C ) s hows v a lue s a r ound t h ee xpec ted v a lue o f

-

2 1 °/ ° .O n ly

t h e i s o top ic f r ac t iona t ion o ft h e o l de s t s a p l c s hows a ni mpo r tan td i sc repancy . T h i s d i f f e rence i n n o t n ece ssary d ue t o c on tam ina t ion . I tc an a l so b e c au sed b y t h e d i f fu s ion m echan ism . T he d a te s a r e a l so i na g reemen t w i th t h e P re ta layo t ic c ha rcoa l d a te s . T he d i s t inc to lde rd a te so nf i gu re 2a r e s amp le s i d en t if ied a s b e ing f r om t h eE a r ly S e t t lemen tP e r iod a nd Myo t ragu s b one a nd a r en o tr ep re sen ted o nf i gu re 3 .T he Myo t ra g u s d a te BM -1408B h a s al a rge s t anda rd d ev ia t ion a nd c ove r sa f te rc a l ib ra t ion ar a nge o f 1 200 y ea r sa tI sl e ve l a nd a bou t2 000 y ea r s a t2 s l e ve l . T he f a c t t h a tt h is d a te i sa l so t h e y ounge s t Myo t ragu s d a te make s i t s i n te rp re t a t ion n o to n ly v e ry i mpo r tan t ,b u ta l so e x t reme ly d i ff i -

T he s um p robab i l i ty s hows ap e r iod t h a t g oe s f r om t h e m idd le o f t h e 4 th m i l lenn ium BC t ot h e m idd le o f t h es e cond m i l lenn ium BC . T a layo t ic L eve l s T he re i so n ly o ne s amp le r ep re sen t ing t h eT a layo t ic l e ve l s i n t h e r ock s he l te r . E xcep t f o r t h is o ne d a te ( Y 2 667 : 3 200 ± 1 00 BP ) t h e re i s ag ap f r om a bou t2 730 ± 1 00 B Pt o3 350 ± 6 0 BP . T h is g ap i st oo i mpo r tan tt ob e e xp la ined b y c hange s i na tmo spher ic 1 4 C c oncen t ra t ion a nd r ema in s e ven a f te r c a l ib ra t ion . I ti sc au sed b y t h e f a c tt h a to n ly o ne s amp le h a s b een s ubm i t ted f o rd a t ing . T he re i se nough a r chaeo log ica l p roo ff o rt h eu se o ft h i s s i te i nt h eT a layo t ic p e r iod . T h is p rove s o nce a ga in t h e n eed o f ap ro found d a t ing p rog ram . P os l ta layo t ic L eve l s T he c a l ib ra ted d a te so b ta ined b yt h e " f rac t ion -da t ing " t e chn ique o n c arbona te s a r e l i s ted s epa ra te ly f r om t h e c ha rcoa ld a te sa nd o lde rc a rbona te d a te s . F igu re 4 r ep re sen t s t h e c onven t iona l r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e l ime . T he o ld d a tes ( ) a s w e l l a s t h e " f rac t ion -da t ing" r e su l t s ( x ) a r e r ep re sen ted ± 1s .T he g raph s hows a v ery c ohe ren t s e r ie s . A l though t h e o l d d a te s s how

3 13C/ °

v a lue s i nd ica t ing a b so rp t ion e f fec t s

t h ey d on o td i sag ree w i th t h eo ve ra l lp ic tu re . A l so i ft h e c a rbona te d a te s a r e c ompa red w i th t h e c ha rcoa l d a te s ( f igu re 5 )g ene ra l a g reemen ti sf ound . S tu ive ra nd Wa l d ren ( S tu ive ra nd Wa ld ren , 1 975 ) a l ready c ompa r ed t wo p a ir so f li me c a rbona te c h a rcoa ls amp le s( t ab le 1 ) .T h i s t a b le s how s d i f fe rence s t h a t ,d ue t ot h es t a t i s t ica l u nce r t a in ty , c an b e z e ro o r mo re t h an 3 c en tu r ie s . T h i s i si n a g reemen t w i th wha t w a s f ound d ur ing t h e " f rac t ion d a t ion " w he reby t h ed i f fe rence sb e tween t h ea ge so ft h e -

f r ac t ion s w e re s e ldom g rea te r t h an 4 . 00 y ea r s , m ean ing t h a t t h e a ve rage d ev ia t ion o f t h e a ge o n t h e t o ta l l ime c a rbona te mu s tb es ma l le r . T he c omb ined d a ta l ime c a rbona te -c ha rcoa l f o rm a

T ab le 1 :C ompa r ison b e tween l ime c a rbona te a nd c ha r coa l d a te s . Lab r e f .

S ec t ion

Ma te r ia l

Age ( BP )

Q l -

3 3

c ha rcoa l

2 520 ± 80

QL -7

3 3

l i me c a rbona te

2 730 ± 1 00

Q 1 -8

3 6

c ha rcoa l

2 080 ± 90

QL -9

P 6

l ime c a rbona te

1 65

D if fe rence

2 10± 1 28

1 20± 1 34 2 200 ± 1 00

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c ohe ren t s e r ies f r om a bou t 2 700 BP t o2 080 BP . C a l i b ra ted ( f igu re 6 ) t h i s g ive s a n a ge r ange r ough ly f r om t h e e nd o ft h en in th c en tu ry BC t ot h ef i r s tc en tu ry BC . T h i s i sl onge r t h an t h e p er iod 6 00 BC 1 00 BC p ro p o sed b y S tu ive ra nd Wa ld ren . T h is i sd ue t ot h eu se o f -

ad i f fe ren t c a l ib ra t ion c u rve s . T he MASCA c u rve u sed a tt h e t ime o ft h e f i r s tp ub l ica t ion h a s p roved t ob ei m p rec ise . I n t h is s t udy t h e l a tes t c a l ib ra t ion c u rve o f S tu ive r a nd P ea r son i su sed , r e su l t ing i n as h if t t ot he p a s tf o rt h eo lde rd a t e s . CONCLUS IONS B e s ide s s ome s amp le s r ecogn ized a s E a r ly S e t t lemen t P e r iod a nd Myo tragus b one s , t h e s amp le s f r om S on Ma tge s how t wo v e ry c ohe ren ts e r ie s . AP re ta layo t ic s e r i e so fd a te sc over s ar ange f r om a bou t4 000 BP t o3 350 BP . One s amp le ( QL -988 ) l i nk s t h e P re ta layo t ic s e r ie s w i th t h eE a r ly S e t t lemen ts amp le s .T he s amp le i sc on s i de red a s P re ta layo t ic . T he T a layo t ic p e r iod i sm is s ing ,

e xcep tf o ro ne s amp le .T he P o s t ta layo t ic s amp le sf o rm a v e ry c ohe ren ts e r ie sf r om a bou t2 700 BP t o2 080 BP . F igu re 7 r ep re sen t s t h e p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion o f a l l d a te s . T he P o s ta layo t ic , P re ta layo t ic a nd E SP d a te s a r e w e l l s epa ra ted . T he P o s t ta layo t ic ,d a te so nt h ec urve g ive ah ighe r s i gna l b ecau se many mo re s amp le s f r om t h a t p e r iod h ave b een a na lyz ed . T he T a layo t ic p e r iod i sm iss ing a l though i ti sp re sen t i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s . T he d u ra t ion o ft h is p e r iod c an b ee s t ima ted i fo ne a ccep t s t h a ti ti st h e g ap b e tween t h e P re ta layo t ic a nd t h e P o s t ta layo t ic d a te s . T h is i st h e p er iod f r om 3 350 BP u n t i l 2 700 BP , o r i n c a l ib ra ted y ear s ap e r iod o fa bou t 6c en tur ie s . D a te s o b ta ined o n l ime c arbona te a nd t h e c ha rcoa l d a te s d o n o tc on t rad ic te ach o the ra l though t h e c hem is t r yo ft h el ime c a rbona te f o rma t ion i sv e ry c omp lex . E xcep t f o r t h e P re ta layo t ic f i re l e ve ls o n ly a v e ry p oo rr e la t ion sh ip b e tween s t ra t ig raphy a nd a ge w a s o b s e rved .

RAD IOCARBON DAT ING RESULTS C F IC

=

CA

=

c ha rcoa l c a rbona te

P re ta layo t ic L eve l s P re ta layo t ic f i re l e ve l s f o rm ing l ime c a rbona te QL -5 CA .K .H . M .M . 3 7 ,95 c m R ad ioca rbon Age B P 3 350

±

6 0

c l13 C0/0

C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 1 673

= -20 .9 R ef e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s c a l BC 1 736 1 7 15 1 704-1600 -

1 560-1534 c a l BC 1 871- 1 843 1 7 75- 1 515

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 1 2 . 7 3 . 1 5 . 0 3 . 9 7

QL -5a CA .K .H . M .M .37 , 15 c m R ad ioca rbon A ge B P 3 420 ± 100 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 1 740

e 9 l3 C0I00

= -19 .9 R ef e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

1 66

M . VAN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC 1 880 1 630 c a l BC 2 020 2 000 1 980-1510 -

-

r e la t ive a r ea u nder p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion 1 . 00 . 0 1 . 9 9

QL -24 CA .K .H . M .M . 4 4 ,2 00 c m R ad ioc a rbon Age BP 3 670 ±70 a1 3 C ° / ' °= -21 .4 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 114 ,2 086 ,2 039

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion (Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s c a l BC 2 182- 2 166 2 142-1961 c a l BC 2 28 1 1 887 -

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 6 . 9 4 1 . 00

QL -5b CA .K .H . M .M .3 7 ,2 50 cm R ad io ca rbon A ge BP 3 970 ± 100 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 483

a1 3

C ° / ' = -19 .0

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s c a l BC 2 852 2828 2 654 2 645 2 6 10-2340

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 6 . 0 2 . 9 2

c a l BC 2 869 2 806 2 774-2720 2 700 2 200

. 0 8 . 0 4 . 8 8

-

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

-

-

QL -23 CA .K .H . M .M . 4 3 , 2 85 c m

R ad ioc a rbon Age BP 4 020 ± 5 0 a13 C " / ° °= -17 .7 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 573 ,2 535 ,2 506

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC a ge r a nge s c a l BC 2 651

-

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 2

2 649

1 67

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

2 6 10-2476 c a l BC 2 863 -2 812 2 74 1-2727

. 9 8 . 1 1 . 0 1

2 696 2 666

. 0 2 . 8 6

2 677 2 459

-

-

P re ta layo l ic l e ve l s C S IC -180 CHC l e ve l PRT R ad ioca rbon Age BP 3 620 ± 8 0 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 1 960

R e f e rence ( s ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 2 130 -2 080 2 040-1880

. 1 8 . 8 2

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC 2 190- 2 160 2 150-1750

. 0 3 . 9 7

I RPA -8 35 CHC Ce nc lo su re R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 3 700 ±60 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 133 ,2 067 ,2 047

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC a g er ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion

c a l BC 2 198-2152 2 149 2 027 1 994-1987

. 2 3 . 7 4 . 0 3

c a l BC 2 291

1 . 00

-

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

-

1 933

Y -2359 CHC l e ve l PRT R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 3 820 ± 1 20 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 280 ,2 230 ,2 210

R e f erence ( s ) ( Pear son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 2 45 0- 2 420 2 4 10-2130

. 0 8 . 8 7

2 070 2 050 c a l BC 2 570 -1 920

. 0 5 1 . 00

-

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

1 68

M . VAN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

C S IC -178 CHC l e ve l PRT R ad ioca rbon Age B P 3 980 ± 1 70 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 470

R e fe rence ( s ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 2 860 2 820 2 690-2680 2 670 2 270 2 250 2 200 c a l BC 2 900 2 030 -

-

-

9 5 .4(2 s ) BM -1408 B l e ve l PRT , Myo t ragu sb one R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 4 093

-

±

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 7 . 0 2 . 8 3 . 0 8 1 . 00

3 92

R e fe rence ( s )

C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 2 610

( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ges a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 83 ( i s )

9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC a ge r anges

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r

c a l BC 3 270-3240 3 100-2120

p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 2 . 9 4

2 090 c a l BC 3 640

-

-

2 040 1 670

0 4 1 . 00

QL -988 CHC l e ve l PRT R ad ioca rbon Age BP 4 650 ± 1 20 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 3 490 ,3480 ,3370

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a l a ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

6 8 .3(ls )

c a l BC 3 620 -3 570 3 540-3310 3 220-3190 3 160-3130 c a l BC 3 670 3 030

9 5 .4(2 s )

-

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 1 3 . 7 3 . 0 7 . 0 7 1 . 00

1 55 16 CHC l e ve lE SP R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 5 750 ± 15 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 4 580

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

1 69

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC 4 720 4 470 c a l BC 4 840 -4 360

1 . 00 1 . 00

-

C S IC -176 CPS l e ve lE SP R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 5 820 ± 3 60 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 4 710

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 5 200 -5 180 5 130 5 120 5 080 4 330 c a l BC 5 430 3 970

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 3 . 0 1 . 9 6 1 . 00

-

-

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

-

QL -29 B l e ve lE SP , Myo t ragu sb one R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 6 680 ± 1 20 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 5 580 ,5 540 ,5530

R e f e rence (s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4(2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r

c a l BC a ge r ange s

p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion 1 . 00

c a l BC 5 630-5450 c a l BC 5 750 5 330

1 . 00

-

T a layo l ic l e ve l s Y -2667 CHC l e ve lT R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 3 200 ± 1 00 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 1 4 . 40

R e f e rence ( s ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( l s )

9 5 .4(2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 1 8 . 7 6

c a l BC a ge r ange s c a l BC 1 6 10 1 550 1 540- 1 380 1 340- 1 320 c a l BC 1 690-1210 -

. 0 6 1 . 00

1 70

M . V AN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

P os t la layo t ic l e ve l s QL -8 CHC M. M .3 6 ,45 c m R ad ioca rbon A ge B P 2 080 ±90 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 1 05

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a l a ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion c a l BC 3 40 3 22 . 0 6 2 04- c a l AD15 . 9 4 c a l BC368-272 . 1 5 2 68- c a l AD75 . 8 5 -

9 5 .4(2 s )

QL -9 CA M .M .3 6 ,30 cm R ad ioca rbon Age B P 2 200 ± 100 31 3 C " / ° ° =46 .8 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 3 53 ,306 ,2 36

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

Y -2672

c a l BC a ge r ange s c a l BC 3 90- 1 70 c a l BC 4 88 4 34 4 30- c a l AD20 -

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion 1 . 00 . 0 2 . 9 8

CA

M .M . 3 5 ,8 0c m R ad ioca rbon A ge B P 2 240

±8 0

3

1 3 C0/00

= -13 .6

R e f e rence ( s )

C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 3 70

( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

6 8 .3 ( i s )

C a l BC 3 92-340 3 22 2 04

9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC 5 09 4 33 4 27-95

-

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 3 1 . 6 9 . 0 3 . 9 7

-

QL -22 CA M .M .4 4 ,20 c m R ad iocarbon Age B P 2 260 ± 6 0 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 3 79

31 3 C ' /

= -i 1 . 7

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) :

1 71

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

%a rea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 3 96 352 3 10-231 2 18-210

. 3 8 . 5 7 . 0 5

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC 4 09

1 . 00

-

1 63

Y -2669 CA M. M . 3 3 ,40 cm R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 400 ± 8 0 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 4 08

313

C'/ °

= -183

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a ta ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 7 59 685 6 55-64 1 5 48-396 c a l BC784-380

9 5 .4(2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 9 . 0 4 . 6 7 1 . 00

QL -10 CHC M. M . 3 3 ,90 cm R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 480 ±70 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 60 ,6 84 ,6 56 6 38 ,5 92 ,5 86 5 50

R ef e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion (Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc losed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 7 69-750 7 49-524

. 0 8 . 9 2

9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC 7 90 4 53 4 49-4 14

. 9 2 . 0 8

-

QL -6 C lI C M .M . 3 3 ,75 cm R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 520 ± 8 0 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 70

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 8 00 7 51 7 14-528

. 2 2 . 7 8

-

1 72

M . V AN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

9 5 .4(2 s )

QL -26

c a l BC807-4 13

1 . 00

CHC

M .M . 2 2 ,55 c m R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 520 ±80

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 70 c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a l a ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3(is )

c a l BC800-751 7 14-528 c a l BC 8 07 4 13

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion . 2 2 . 7 8 1 . 00

QL -4 CHC M .M . 3 7 ,90 c m R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 540 ± 100 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 86 c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion c a l BC809-520 1 . 00 c a l BC850-400 1 . 00

6 8 .3 ( i s ) 9 5 .4(2 s ) QL -27 CHC M .M .3 5 ,9 0 cm R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 640 ± 100 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 8 09

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 0 1 . 7 9 . 0 6 . 1 0 . 0 4 1 . 00

c a l BC972-968 9 30 7 60 6 82-658 6 34-595 5 79-559 c a l BC 1 020- 4 80 -

9 5 .4(2 s ) QL 11 CHC M .M . 3 5 , 1 00 c m R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 700 ±80 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 8 38

R e fe rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a l a ge sa sa bove )

1 73

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion c a l BC971-969 . 0 1 9 29-802 . 9 9

6 8 .3(ls ) 9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC 1 070

-

7 65

1 . 00

QL -7 CA M .M .3 3 ,75 cm R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 730 ± 100 C a l ib ra ted a ge (s )c a l BC 8 97

1 3

C ° / ° '= -19 .9

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( l s ) 9 5 .4(2 s )

c a l BC 1 000-810 c a l BC 1 220-760

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion 1 . 00 1 . 00

QL -7a CA l e ve lF T R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 070

±

1 20

a1 3

C ° / ° °

=

n o ta va i lab le

R e f e rence ( s )

C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 5 0 ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 ) c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3(ls ) 9 5 .4(2s )

c a l BC a ge r ange s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion c a l BC 3 40 320 . 0 5 2 00- c a l AD80 . 9 5 c a l BC380- c a l ADISO . 9 8 c a l AD170-200 . 0 2

QL -la CA l e ve lP T R ad ioca rbon A ge BP 2 240 ± 7 0 8 i3C 0 I C a l ib ra ted a ge (s )c a l BC 3 60 ,2 80 ,2 60

=

n o ta va i lab le

R e f e rence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

6 8 .3(ls )

c a l BC380-340

9 5 .4(2 s )

3 20 2 00 c a l BC400-100

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 5 . 7 5 1 . 00

-

1 74

M . V AN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

QL -5c CHC l e ve lV F R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 290 ± 1 00 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 3 80

R ef e r ence ( s ) ( S tu ive ra nd P ea r son , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 4 80-450 4 20-180

. 0 6 . 9 4

9 5 .4 ( 2 s )

c a l BC 7 60 6 70 6 60-630 5 60-60

. 0 7 . 0 1 . 9 2

-

QL -24 CHC l e ve lP T R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 540 ± 8 0 C a l ib ra t ed a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 70

R e f e rence ( s ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r a nge s

6 8 .3(is )

c a l BC800-750 7 10-530 c a l BC 8 10 420

9 5 .4(2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 3 . 7 7 1 . 00

QL -20 CHC l e ve lP T R ad ioca rbon Age B P 2 570 ± 1 00 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 90

R efe rence ( s ) ( Pea r son a nd S tu ive r , 1 993 )

c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge s a sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

c a l BC a ge r ange s

6 8 .3 ( i s )

c a l BC 8 20 7 50 7 30-530 c a l BC900-880 8 60-4 10

9 5 .4(2 s )

r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . 2 9 . 7 1 . 0 2 . 9 8

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B e s tr e su l tf rom f rac t ion d a t ing o fl i me ( s ee t e x t ) I RPA -751 CA 1 50 c m R ad ioca rbon Age BP 2 500 ±60 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 7 65 ,673 ,6 67 6 13 ,608

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1 75

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r e la t ive a r ea u nde r p robab i l i ty d i s tr ibu t ion . 1 7 . 8 3 . 9 5 . 0 5

7 9 1-753 7 07-531 7 98-46 4 47-4 16

I RPA -750 CA 10 c m R ad ioca rbon Age B P 2 610 ±60 C a l ib ra ted a ge ( s )c a l BC 8 03

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c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a l a ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

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1 76

M . V AN S TRYDONCK AND W .H . WALDREN

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c a l AD /BC a ge r ange s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3(ls )

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c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed

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c a l AD /BC a ge r a nge s ( c a la ge sa sa bove ) f r om p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion ( Me thod B ) : %a r ea e nc lo sed 6 8 .3 ( i s )

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S OC IAL CONTROL OR ' OP IUM OF THE P EOPLE '? THE ROLE OF RELIG ION I N THE NEOL ITH IC OF THE TAVO UERE

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I NTRODUCT ION

C la s sI v e ry s ma l l ,u sua l ly c i rcu la rs i te s ,w i th s i ng le o r mu l t ip le d i tche s ; u sua l ly l e s s t h an 4 h ec ta re s i n a r ea ( F igu r e s4 aa nd b ) . C las s I mo re c omp lex e nc lo su re d i tche s ,s ome t ime s w i th i n te rna l C shaped d i tche s ; 4 -7 h ec ta re s i n s i ze -

R i tua l a nd r e l ig ion a r en ow w ide ly a ccep ted a s s ub jec t s w o r thy o fs t udy i na r chaeo logy a f te rt h el ong s u sp ic ion ‚

a nd r e luc tance o fs cho la r s t oi n ve s tt ime a nd e ne rgy i n ' u nknowab le ' a spec t s o f p reh is to ry . A l though much p rog re s s h a sb een made i nt h is s t udy ,i ts t i l la ppea r s t h a t much o ft h ep ub l i shed a na ly se s o fp r eh i s to r ic r i tua l a nd r e l ig ion a r e h eav i ly d ependen t o n c ohe ren t s e t s o fd a ta w h ich s t and o u tr e cogn i sab ly a sr i tua la r te fac t so r monu -

-

( F igu re 4 a ) . C la s s I I l a rge s i te s , w i th s i ng le o r mu l t ip le e nc lo s u re d i tche s ,t h ei n te r io ri so f ten f i l led w i th C shap ed d i tche s ;7 16 h ec ta re si ns i ze ( F igu re 4 b ) . C la ss I V e x t reme ly l a rge s i te s w i th c oncen t r ic e n c l o su re d i tche s , may a l so h ave o u te r e nc lo su re s ( o r a nnexes ) , may b e f i l led w i th C -d i tche s o ra ppa ren t ly l a ck ing i n te rna l f e a tu re s ; u p t o2 8 h ec ta re s i n a r ea ( F igu re 4 b ) . App rox ima te ly 9 3% o fa l l s i te s b e long t oC la s s Ia nd I . T he C la ss I I a nd I V s i tes s e em t ob e ap henomenon o ft h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p e r iod r e su l t ing f r om ap roce ss o f n uc lea t ion , i n wh ich many E a r ly N eo l i th ic C la s s I a nd I s i te s w e re r ep laced b y l a rge r b u t f ewe r , e nc lo s u re s ( Brown , 1 991a ) . Howeve r , t h is p roce s s w a s ma in -

-

men t s a lmo s ta lway s o ff unera ry c on tex t s - s o t h a tt h e i n te rp re ta t ive a pp roach t a ken i nt h ea na ly s i s i st o al a rge -

e x ten td i c ta ted b yt h e ma te r ia lu nde rs t udy . I n t h is p ape r , e vo lved f r om t h e p r im i t ive a nce s to r g i ven a tt h eD eya C onfe rence i n Ma l lo rca , my a na ly s is a nd i n te rp re ta t ion a r e i ndeed i n f luenced b y my d a ta . T he re i sc ompa ra t ive ly l i t t le i n t h e w ay o f r i tua l a r te f a c t so rs i te s ;i n s tead t h e re i sa na bundance o fs e t t lemen t s i te s . T he N eo l i th ic d i tched e nc lo su re s o ft h eT avo l ie re r eg ion i nS .E . I t a ly ( F igu re 1 )a r e w e l l k nown t oa e r ia l a r chaeo log is t s a s c ropma rk p henomena , b u t e ven a f te r f ou r d ecade s o fi n ve s t iga t ion many a spec t s o f t h e i r a r c haeo logy a r e o b scu re - t h ey u sua l ly w a r ran t ap ho to g raph o r t wo i n mo s t t e x tbook s o n Med i te r ranean p re h i s tory , b u t l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t c h rono logy , s ub s is tence , o re xchange e xcep ti nt h eb roade s tt e rm s . DESCR IPT ION OF THE S ITES R ecen t i n ve s t iga t ion o fa e r ia l p ho tog raph ic a r ch ive s i n I t a ly a nd i nB r i ta in h a s s hown t h e e x is tence o fo ve r5 00 d i tched e nc lo su re so fN eo l i th ic t y pe i nt h eT avo l ie re ( K . B rown ,u npub l ished d a ta ) ,a na r ea o fs ome 6 000 s q . Km ( F igu re 2 ) . T he N eo l i th ic p er iod i nt h i s r eg ion o fI t a ly i s t hough t t oh ave b egun c . 7000 BC a nd e nded a bou t 3 500 BC ,a l though o ccupa t ion o nt h eT avo l ie re p l a in i t s e lf s e em s t od ec l ine d r ama t ica l ly a round 4 800 BC . T he d i tched e nc lo su re s h ave b een c l a s s if ied i n to f ou r t ype s ( J one s , 1 987 ) a sf o l lows ( F igu re 3 ) :

1 83

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l yc on f ined t ot h e No r the rn h a lf o ft h ep l a in ( s ee F ig . 5 ) , a nd o ccupa t ion c on t inued i n to t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a t C la s s Ia nd I s i te si nt h er e s to ft h eT avo l ie re . Unfo r tuna te ly , l i t t le i sk nown o f t h e i n te rna l s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f t h e d i tched e nc lo su re s ; v e ry f ew h u t s t ruc tu re s h ave b een u ncove red s o f a r . I n t h e a bsence o ft h is k ind o fd a ta , s e t t lemen td i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn sm ay b e r ega rded a st h ee xp re ss ion o ft h er u le s a nd v a lue s o f N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty (Wh i t t le , 1 988 ,3 8 ;87 ;194 ) a nd t hu s i t may b ep o ss ib le t oo b ta in s ome u nde r s tand ing , a l be i ta t av ery b road s ca le ,o ft h es oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion wh ich p ro d uced t h ese s e t t lemen t s . I nt h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic ,w es ee ad i spe r sed s e t t lemen t p a t te rn o fC la s s Ia nd I s i te s . T hese s e t t lemen t sa r eg en e r a l ly h e ld b y a r chaeo log is t s t or ep re sen t t h e d we l l ing s o fs i ng le s oc ia l g roup s , w he the rt h e se c on s is ted o ff am i l i e s o rs ome o t he rg roup ing . T hey a r er ega rded a sb e ing a u tonomou s , a cepha lou s a nd e ga l i tar ian i n c harac te r f ea tu re s o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion d educed f r om t h e d i s-

K ER l B ROWN

p e r sed s e t t lemen tp a t tern a nd t h eu n ifo rm ma te r ia l c u l t u re f ound a tt h is p e r iod . T h is r e semb le s t h e b and t y pe o fo rgan isa t ion u sua l ly f ound i ng a the re r /hun te r s oc ie t i e s a nd a l so i ns ome f a rm ing s oc ie t ie s . C a lcu la t ion so f t h e amoun t o f l abou r i nve s ted i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e se s i te s h a s s hown t ha t 1 2 -70 p e r son s may h ave l i ved a t t h e se s i te s ( Brown , 1 991b ) . T he se d i spe r sed

t l emen t n uc lea t ion . A l though many f e a ture s o fE a r ly N eo l i th ic s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion u ndoub ted ly c on t inued i n to t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic t h e d e ta i l s o fw h ich a r el o s t ‚

t ou s , o n t h e b roade r s c a le o ne c an n o te t h e c on t inued u se o fC -d i tche s w i th in t h eC la ss H I a nd I V e nc lo su re s , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t ah i gh d eg re e o fa u tonomy s t i l l e x i s ted among s tt h es oc ia l g roup s t h e se r ep re sen t . Mecha n i sm s mu s t h ave e vo lved t o p reven t t h e d i spe r sa l o f g roup sa nd h ence t h ed i s in t eg ra t ion o ft h en uc lea ted s e t -

g roup s o r b ands wou ld h ave b een s e lf -suff ic ien t f o r

t l emen t b ack i n to i t s c on s t i tuen t C la ss Ia nd I p a r t s . P opu la t ion s may h ave r e ached h igh n umbe r s i n t h e C la s s I I a nd I V s i te s 4 00 o r 5 00 p er son s a s ar ough e s t ima te ,t h es i ze o f amax imum b and o rt r ibe ( b a sed o n c on s t ruc t ion h our sf o rt h ee nc lo su re d i tche s ) ,p e rhap sa s many a s 1 000 a tP a sso d iC o rvo T h is f undamen ta l c hange i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn i m p l ie s a n e qua l ly f undamen ta l c hange i n s oc ie ty . B y s ome mean s t h e c o l lec t ive l abou r r e sou rce s o f many -

d i spe r sed C la s s Ia nd I s i te sw e re mob i l i sed a nd o rgan i s ed t owa rd s t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fe x t reme ly l a rge e nc lo s u re s a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic . T he re mu s ta l so h ave b een s ome d eg ree o fo rgan isa t ion , c on t r o l a nd d e s ign i nvo lved i n t h e p l ann ing o f t h e s e t t le men t , t h e ma rk ing o u to f t h e d i tch c i rcu i t s , t h en umbe r o f c oncen t r ic d i tche s t o b e d ug , t h e s i t ing o f t h e C d i tche s w i th in t h e e nc lo su re d i tche s ; wh ich g roup s c ou ld l i ve w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t a nd wh ich c ou ld n o t . T he l a rge r n umbe r s o f p eop le l i v ing c l o se ly t oge the r w ou ld a l so h ave r e su l ted i nv a r iou s s oc ia l s t re sse s a nd s t ra in s w h ich mus th ave b een a rb i t ra ted i ns ome f a sh ion t op reven tt h ef i ss ion ing o ft h es e t t lement P owe r fu li m p e ra t ive s mu s th ave b een e mp loyed t o ma in ta in t h e i n t e g r i ty o f t h e C la s s I I a nd I V s i te s , a nd i n a n e a r l ie r

F IGURE 1 . L o ca t ion m ap f ood r equ iremen t s , b u t f e r t i le y oung a du l t s f r om o the r

p ape r Is ugge s ted t h a to ne s t ra tegy t h a tm igh th ave b een i n vo lved w a s t h e d eve lopmen t o f ar e l ig iou s a u tho r i ty

g roup s wou ld b en eeded t os e cu re r ep roduc t ion w i thou t i nb reed ing ( Brown , 1 991a , 2 2 ) . T he re fo re r egu la rp a t t e rn s o fg roup g a the r ing s a nd d i spe r sa ls wou ld h ave t o b e e s tab l i shed t of a c i l i ta te t h e e xchange o f ma te s . One c an a l so e nv isage t h e s imu l taneou s e xchange o fs c a rce

t os anc t ion t h ec on s t ruc t ion o fl a rge rs e t t lemen t s ,w i th a r i tua l p a r t ic ipa ted i nb y membe r s o ft h ec ommun i ty , o r p e rhap s w a s c on f ined t ot h el e ade r s o r h eadmen o f t h e s oc ia l g roup s r ep resen ted b y t h e C -d i tches ( Brown ,

l i th ic s a nd p e r ishab le i t em s a t t h e se mee t ing s , w h ich p robab ly t o ok p lace a t' n eu t ra l ' s i te s . I ti si nt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic p e r iod ( t he 5 th m i l lenn i um b c ) t h a t t h e v i l lage -s ized s upe r s i te s a ppea r , t h e C la ss I I a nd I V s i te s , b u t t h e se a r e ma in ly c onf ined t o t h e No r the rn h a lf o ft h e r eg ion . T he l a bou r i n ve s tmen t i nvo lved i n e xcava t ing t h e se e nc lo su re d i tche s w a s e normou s ( ove r 1 00 ,000 c on s t ruc t ion h our s ) , b u t a s I h ave s hown e l sewhe re ( B rown , 1 991b ) , t h e wo rk w ou ld n o t h ave c r ea ted h uge d emand s o nt h e p opu la t ion a nd n o s pec ia l i s t wo rk fo rce wou ld h ave b een n ece s sa ry ( a s p ropo sed f o r S tonehenge I I ,f o r e xamp le ) . T he e me r g ence o ft h e se ' v i l lage ' s i te s i n vo lved ap roce s so fs e t -

1 991a , 2 2 ) . I ti st h ep o ss ib le e x is tence o ft h is r e l ig iou s a u tho r i ty Iw ish t oe xp lo re i nt h is p ape rb y e xam in ing t h ee v idence f o rr i tua la c t iv i ty i nt h eT avo l ie re . A sw e l l a s l ook ing a tt h e a r te fac t s wh ich c an b e c on s ide red a s h av ing ar i tua l i mpo r ta nd t h e b ur ia l e v idence f r om t h e r eg ion , Iw i l l a l so b e e xam in ing t h ec u l tc ave o fG ro t ta S ca lo r ia , l o ca ted n ea r t h e c oa s t a t t h e e x t reme No r th F a s to ft h e T avo l ie re . T o p l ace t h is c ave i ni t s I t a l ian c on tex t Ia mi ndeb ted t ot h er e cen ta na ly s is o ft h eI t a l i a n c u l t c ave s b y R . Wh i tehou se ( 1992 ) . I t mu s t b e r e membe red h oweve r t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion r e ached i n t h i s p ap e ri sb a sed o n av e ry s ma l l s amp le o fe xcava ted s i te s ,r ep re sen t ing af r ac t ion o ft h et o ta l n umbe rk nown

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f r om a e r ia lp ho tog raphy o ft h eT avo l ie r e . THE EV IDENCE FOR R ITUAL ACT IV ITY I N THE TAVO UERE Du r ing t h e E ar ly N eo l i th ic p e r iod ( c .7000 -6000 BC ) , t h e r e i sa na ppa ren tl a ck o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty a si mp l ied b y s pec ia lp l ace s o rb u i ld ing s ,b u r ia ls a nd a r te fac t s . I nf a c t t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r a ny f o rma l b u r ia l a ta l l i nt h e T avo l ie re i n t h is p e r iod . B u t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f r i tua ls

F IGURE 2 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fN eo l i th ic d i tch ed e n c lo su r e s 7 000 -3500BC c onnec ted w i th r ep roduc t ion i sf e a s ib le f o rt h e t y pe o f s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion e nv isaged f o rt h is p e r iod .T he re may h ave b een , a tt h e C la ss Ia nd I t y pe s i te s t h em se lve s , s pec ia l c e remon ie s f o rt h ep u rpo se o fe n su r ing a g r icu l t u ra l s ucce ss , a s w e l l a s t h o se ma rk ing t h e b i r th s a nd d ea th s o f t h e i nhab i tan t s , r i tua ls t h a t wou ld n o t l e ave a ny r e cogn isab le ma te r ia l r ema in s . Ac avea t mu s tb e s ounded h e re - t h e a b sence o fa ny e xcava t ion o rs u r face s u rvey f o r t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f E a r ly N eo l i th ic e nc lo s u re s mu s t b e b o rne i nm ind w hen c on s ide r ing t h e a p p a ren tl a ck o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty . O nt h eo the rh and t h el a ck

o fe v idence may r ef lec t ar e a l a b sence o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty i n e a r ly N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty a nd i ndeed an on -r i tua l is t ic s oc ie ty i so f ten o ne t h a t h a s l oo se , w eak ly b onded s o c i a l g roup s , a s s e en w i th g a the re r /hun te r b and s . O bv i o u s ly f u r the r e v idence f r om t h e f i e ld i sn eeded t or e s o lve t h is q ue s t ion . I n c ompa r ison t ot h e p reced ing p e r iod , t h e M idd le Neo l i th ic h a s aw ea l th o f e v idence f o r r i tua l a c t iv i ty a nd p re sen t s a mo re c omp lex p ic tu re . T h is e v idence w i l l b e d ea l t w i th u nde r f ou r h ead ing s

-

s e t t lemen t -

b a sed r i tua l ; b u r ia ls ; t h e c u l t c ave o f G ro t ta S ca lor ia ; a nd d i tch -d igg ing a s ar i tua la c t iv i ty . THE EV IDENCE FOR S ETTLEMENT -BASED R ITUAL ACT IV ITY Aga in o ne mu s tb ea ri nm ind t h e c ompa ra t ive l a ck o f e xcava t ion o nT avo l ie re s i te s ,a nd t h ee ven f ewe r mod er n e xcava t ion s t h a t h ave t a ken p l ace . T he q ua l i ty o f t h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i ss uch t h a to ne may b e o ve r d ependen t o n e v idence f r om a f ew w e l l s t ud ied a nd p ub l ished s i te s . T he e v idence f r om s e t t lemen t s i te s i n c ludes a r te fac t s t r ad i t iona l ly a s s igned ar i tua l f unc t ion b y a r chaeo log is t s , s uch a s f i gu r ines a nd p in tad era s

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e rc hambe r ; t h e u ppe r c hambe r c on ta ined t h e r ema in s o f3 0 -40 i nd iv idua ls , a nd c a l ib ra ted r ad ioca rbon d a te s s ugge s t ap e r iod o fu se f r om 5 800 -5000 BC . G imbu ta s p ropo sed t h a t t h e se i nhuma t ion s r ep resen ted s a c r if ic ia l v i c t im s , b u tt h i s s e ems u n l ike ly T ine a nd I s e t t i ( 1982 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t he b oSER IA SAnASe s s howed e v i d ence f o r t h e d i sea se ma lar ia , a nd c on ju re u p ar a the r d a rk v i ew o fl i fe i nt h eN eo l i th ic . A l though t h ey d on o t s pec if ica l ly men t ion wha t t h is e v idence w as , i ts e em s

i nhuma t ion s , b u tR obb t h ink s t h a t t h is i s mo r el i ke ly t o b e c au sed b y av a r ie ty o ff a c to r s s uch a si n f ec t iou s d i s e a se s ,i n te s t ina lp a ra s i t e sa nd /o r ad i e tl ow i ni r on . THE CULT CAVE OF GROTTA SCALOR IA

.

F IGURE 4 a .E xamp le so fd i t ched e n c lo su r e s -T avo l ie r e

T he l owe r c hambe r i sd i f f icu l t t o e n te r , b u t i ti st h is a r ea t h a tp rov ide s e v idence f o rr i tua l a c t iv i ty c onnec ted

w i th t h e s t a lagm i te s a nd s t a lac t i tes i nt h e c ave . P a in ted v e sse ls w e re f ound i nu nd is turbed c on tex t s c onc re ted ‚

p robab le t h a tt h ey w e re r e f e r r ing t ot h ei n c idence o fp o r o t ic h ype ro s to s ise . Un t i l r e cen t ly t h is w a s a s sumed t o b e a n i nd ica to r o f ma la r ia l i n fec t ion , b u t n ow i s t hough t me re ly t o i nd ica te ma lnu t r i t ion i n c h i ldhood ( Sa l la res , 1 991 , 2 75 ) . H oweve r , ar ecen t a na lys i s o f t h e se r ema in s ( Robb 1 993 ) s ugge s t s t h a t wh i le t h a la s s a em ia o r s ome o the r f o rm o f a naem ia i su n l ike ly , t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f ma la r ia l i n fec t ion i n t h i s p opu la t ion s hou ld n o t b e d i scoun ted . Cnb ra o rb i ta l ia , w h ich c an b e as ymp tom o ft h a la s saem ia w a s n o ted i n4 7% o ft h e

i n to t h ef l oo ro ft h e c ave b y s t a lagm i t ic f o rma t ion s , o r p l aced t oc a tch w a te r d r ipp ing f r om s t a lac t i te s ( F igu re 1 ) . F o re xamp le ,o ne p o th ad b een p laced o n t o po fa s t a lagm i te t oc o l lec tt h ew a te rd r ipp ing f r om t h e s t a lac t i t e a bove , a nd w hen t h e c ave w en t o u t o fu se , an ew s t a lagm i te f o rmed i n t h e b ow l ( T ine a nd I s e t t i , 1 982 , F ig . 4 ) . T he c hambe r i t se lf i so n a ve rage o n ly 1m i n h e igh t , r e ach ing 2m i n af ew p lace s . W i th t h e i mped i men ta o f s t a lac t i te s a nd s t a lagm i te s o n t h e c e i l ing a nd f l oo r , t h e d i ff icu l ty o f h uman movemen t i n t h i s c ave

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c an b ei mag ined . T he e n t rance t ot h el owe rc hambe ri s t h rough an a r row f i ssu re w h ich c an b e p a ssed t h rough b yo ne p e r son a t at ime o nh and sa nd k nee s . A r e c tangu lar b a s in ( i t s s hape p o ss ib ly a r t if ic ia l ly e nhanced ) w a s p re sen t , c on ta in ing ap oo l o f s t i l l ic ide w a t e r ,a nd n ea rt h is p oo l w a s ah ea r th , wh ich y i e lded a c a l ib ra ted r ad ioca rbon d a te o f 4 470 -4160 BC . N ea r t h is h ea r th w a s f ound t h e s ke le ton o f a ma le w i th a

a st h ec on tempo ra ry u se o fb o th E a r ly a nd L a t eS ca lo r ia w a re s c anno t b er u led o u t o fc on s ide ra t ion i nt h eM id d i eN eo l i th ic o ft h eT avo l ie r e . T he o ve ra l l c onc lu s ion r e ached b y t h e e xcava to r s i s t h a t t h ee v idence f r om G ro t ta S ca lo r ia p o in t st oi t su se a s ac u l t c ave , p robab ly o f ac u l t c onnec ted w i th t h e v ene ra t ion o f s t i l h ic ide w a te rc o l lec ted f r om t h e s t a lac t i t e s . T he h idden l o ca t ion o f t h i s c ave , i t s d i ff icu l ty o f a cce ss w e re p robab ly a l so i mpo r tan tf e a tu re so ft h ec u l t n o tj u s ta ny c ave wou ld d o , b u t o n ly o ne w ho se d an g e r sc ou ld s ymbo l i se t h et r an s i t ion f r om o ne k nown e n -

v i ronmen t t oa no the r , d a rk a nd my s te r iou s , t h e u nde r wo r ld . I n ar ecen t s t udy o f I t a l ian c ave s c on ta in ing e v idence o fN eo l i th ic r i tua la c t iv i ty , Wh i tehou se i d en t i f i ed t h ee s sen t ia lc ha rac t e r i s t ic so ft h e se c ave a ss e c recy ( in t h e i rl o ca t ion o rd i ff icu l ty o fa cce ss , a l so t h e d a rk n e ss w i th in c ave s ) ; ac once rn w i th ' a bnorma l ' w a te r , s uch a s b ubb l ing w a te r , s t eam ing w a te r , ' s o l id ' w a te r ( s ta lagm i te s a nd s t a lac t i te s ) a nd s t i l l w a te r ( unde r g round p oo ls a nd l a ke s ) ; f une ra ry r i tua l a nd ah un t ing ' c u l t ' . D ITCHES AS EV IDENCE OF R ITUAL ACT IV ITY F ina l ly Iw ish t o c on s ide r t h e p henomenon o f d i tch d igg ing i nt h e T avo l ie re a s ar i tua l a c t iv i ty . I ti sa f te r a l l t h eo n ly N eo l i th ic a c t iv i ty f o rw h ich w eh ave o ve r a bundan te v idence !Wha ta r e t h er e a son s f o ra s sum ing t h a t s uch amundane o ccupa t ion h a sa ny r i tua l i s t ic a s s oc ia t ion s ? T he o bv iou s e xp lana t ion s f o r e nc lo su re d i tche s r ange f r om s uch f unc t ion s a s d efence , a n ima l

F IGURE 4 B . D i t ched e n c lo su r e sf r om t h eT a vo l ie re b roken f emu r ,p e rhap s a na cc iden tv i c t im who w a si ma b le t ol e ave t h e c ave a ga in . I t wou ld b e i n te re s t ing t o s e e i f ar a d ioca rbon d a te f r om t h e se r ema in s m a tched t h e o ne f r om t h e h ear th . H oweve r t h e ma in p e r iod o f s e t t lemen to nt h eT avo l ie re p l a in a ppea r s t oe nd a r ound 4 . 800 BC , w h i le t h e p o t te ry f r om t h is c hambe r o f o f E a r ly S ca lo r ia t ype ( a lso p re sen ta tP a s so d iC o rvo ,d a t e do ccupa t ion o fs i t e 5 5004800 BC ) . T he u pp e rc ham b e r c on ta ined p o t te ry o fL a te r S ca lo r ia w a re w h ich i s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r ad ioca rbon d a t ing o f 5 800 -5000 ‚

BC f o r t h ep e r iod o fu se a s ab u r ia l s i te . I t may b et h a t t h er ad ioca rbon d a te f r om t h eh ea r th i nt h el owe rc ham b e r i nd ica te s af i na l , p o ss ib ly a noma lou s u se o f t h e c ave u nconnec ted w i th t h e e a r l ie rc u l ta c t iv i t ie s . I na ny ‚

c a se t h e p o t te ry t ypo logy c an b e s een t ob eu n re l iab le,

p en s , w a te r d ra inage o r c onve r se ly w a te r s t o rage ( a c c o rd ing t o o ne 's i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e N eo l i th ic c l i ma te ) , b u t t h e se f a i l t oc onv ince , a nd t h is l a ck o fc on v i c t ion h a s b een f e l tb y s eve ra l s cho la r s . Wh i le t h e se s ugge s ted f unc t ion sf o rm a dequa te e xp lana t ion sf o rs i n g l ed i tche s t h ey f a i l t oa ccoun tf o rt h ef a c tt h a tt h e ma j o r i ty o fT avo l ie re s i te s h ave mu l t ip le d i tche s , t wo o r ‚

t h ree u sua l ly o r i n t h e c a se o f Ma s ser ia L a Q ue rc ia , e i gh te nc lo su re d i tches .T ine 's s ugge s t ion ,t h a tt h eN eo l i th ic p eop le o f t h e T avo l ie re w e re p a rano id , w a s n o t r e a l ly mean tt ob et a ken s e r iou s ly "A meno c he n on s i v og l ia p en sa re c he o l t re a l la a nem ia med i te r ranea , l a ma la t t ia p i ud i f fu sa i r a in eo l i t ic i f o s se p a rano ia ." ( T ine 1 987 ,324 ) . S econd ly , t h ed i tch i t se l fi s al im ina l p l ace .A sL each f o rce fu l ly r ema rked " A l l ma te r ia lb ounda r ie s ,i n c lud ing w a l ls ,d i tche s ,f ence s ,t h re sho ld s ,g a teway s a r e s a c red ." ( 1977 , 1 70 ) . I tf o rm s t h e b oundary b e tween t h e i n s ide a nd t h eo u t s ide , t h ek nown a nd t h eu nknown , Howeve r t h ed i tch i sn e i the ro ne n o rt h eo the ra nd n e i the ri si to n

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t h el a nd n o ru nde ri t . T h i rd ly , t h ep re sence o f h uman b one f r agmen t si nd i tch f i l ls a nd o fb u r ia ls i np i t sa tt h e s i de so fe nc lo sure d i tche s ( eg .a tP a sso d iC o rvo ,F on te v i va a nd Ma sser ia C ande laro ) a l so p o in t s t ot h e r i tua l s i gn if icance o ft h ed i tche s . F ou r th ly ,f o l low ing o nf r om I an Hodde r ' ss t ruc tu ra l is ta na ly s i so ft h eN eo l i th ic i nS Ea nd NW E u rope , t h e d i tch a l so s e rves t op hy s ica l ly a nd s ymbo l ica l ly s epa ra te t h e o ppo s ing c oncep t s w h ich s t ruc tured e a r ly a g r icu l tura l s oc ie t ie s t h e ' do -

mu s ' a nd t h e ' a gr io s ' , o rc u l tu re a nd n a tu re .T h i s i n t e r p re ta t ion o ft h e d i tche s a s s ymbo ls o f t h e d ome s t ica t i on o f t h e w i lderness w a s r ecen t ly s ugges ted b y

i d en t i ty t ot h e i nhab i tan t s; s econd ly t op romo te s oc ia l c ohe s ion a mong s tt h e i nhab i tan t s a nd t hu sf o re s ta l l t h e d i s in teg ra t ion o ft h e C la ss I I a nd I V s i te s . T he c r ea t i on o ft h eC la s sI I a nd I V s i te s c ou ld t h u s h ave b een i mp lemen ted b yr e l ig iou s l e ade r s a s aw ay o f ma in ta in i ng t h e ir p owe r o ve r al a rge r n umbe r o f p eop le t h an w ou ld b e t h e c a se w i th C la s s Ia nd I s i te s ; i nt h is i n s t ance r i tua l ly -sanc t ioned d i tch -d igg ing p rov ides a m ean so fs oc ia lc on t ro l . T he e v idence f o rr i tua l a c t iv i ty e xam ined s of a rc on s i s t s o f af ew a r te fac t s o fu nce r ta in f unc t ion , af ew b u r i a ls ,o ne c u l tc ave a nd al o to fd i tche s. T he i n te rp re ta t i on o ft h i s e v idence i sp rob lema t ica l a si ts t and s , b u tI b e l ieve t h a t mo re e v idence w i l l b e u ncove red a s mo re s i te s a r e i n ve s t iga ted . T he e v idence p o in t s t ot wo f oc i o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty t h e s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e c u l t c ave o f G ro t ta S ca lo r ia . A l lo ft h ea r tefac t s d e sc r ibed a bove a r e f r om t h ei n te r io r so fs e t t lemen ts i te st h a th ave h ad o pen a r ea e xcava t ion , a l though a tp re sen t o n ly o ne a r tefac t -

c an b e s a id t oh ave b een f ound w i th in ah ou se ( t he f e ma le f i gu r ine f r om R end ina ) . A tt h e s ame t ime t h e re i s l i t t le e v idence f o rs t ruc tu re ss uch a sh ou se s ,a nd n oe v i d ence o f s pec ia l s t ruc tu re s f o r r i tua l a c t iv i ty , s uch a s s h r ine s o rt emp le s . If e e l t h a tt h e re a r e s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h ev i l lage -ba sed r i tua lo fV inca a nd s im i la rc u l tu re s a s d e sc r ibed b y Wh i tehou se ( 1992 ,189 ) . T he mo s t i mpo r t a n tf e a tu re s o ft h is t y pe o fr i tua l a re t h a tt h e s e t t lemen t i t se lf i st h er i tua l c en t re , w i th t h e r i tua l a r te fac t s b e ing f ound i n h ou se s o r p o ss ib ly s hr ine s ( o r t h e se may b e h ouse s w i th ac oncen t ra t ion o f r i tua l f i nd s ) , a nd e l se w he re i nt h es e t t lemen t .The re i s l i t t le e mpha s i so nb u r i a lr i tua l a nd t h e ma in c once rn i sw i th f ood p roduc t ion a nd d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s . T he r i tua l a r te fac t s t h em se lve s ,

F IGURE 5 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fC l a s sI Ia nd I V s i t e s ,6 000 -4800BC L oca t ion o fG ro t ta S c a lo r ia Wh i tehou se ( i np re ss ) . F i f th ly , t h e l abou r i nve s ted i n t h e c rea t ion o f t h e d i tche s , wh i le n o tu ndu ly o ve rbu rden ing t h e N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s c once rned , w a s n eve r the le ss c on s ide rab le ( Tab le 1 ) . One o ft h ec r i te r ia f o ri d en t ify ing r i tua la c t iv i t yi st h a tt h ei nve s tmen to ft ime a nd e ne rgy i si ne xce s s o ft h a tr equ i red b yu t i l i ta r ian c on s ide ra t ion s ;t h i sc r i te r i o n c an b e a pp l ied t ot h e mu l t ip le e nc lo su re d i tche s o f t h eT avo l ie re s e t t lemen t s . T aken t oge the r ,t h e se c on s ide ra t ion ss t rong ly s ugge s t t h a t t h e re w a s ar i tua l a spec t t ot h e d igg ing o fd i tche s . T he re w ere p robab ly f o r t wo ma in r ea son s f o r t h i s . F i r s t ly , t od ema rca te t h e s e t t lemen t a r ea a nd r emove i t f r om t h e ' w i lde rne s s ' , s o g i v ing a s en se o f p l ace a nd

u sua l ly a n ima l a nd h uman f i gu r ine s , a r e u sua l ly made o fb aked c l ay a nd t h e re i s a na b sence o f monumen ta l i ty ( a s s een f o r e xamp le w i th mega l i th ic s i te s ) . P a r t ic ipa t i on i nt h i s t ype o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty p robab ly i n vo lved a l l o ft h e s i te s ' o ccupan t s a nd w a sn o tj u s tr e s tr ic ted t oa n e l i te , a s s hown b y t h e l a ck o f s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n b u r ia la nd s e t t lemen te v idence . T he a b sence o ff une r a ry monumen t s a nd t h ec oncen t ra t ion o fr i tua l a c t iv i t ie s a t s e t t lemen t s a rgue s f o r ad i f f e ren tk ind o f s oc ia l g roup i ng f r om t h a ta s soc ia ted w i th mega l i th ic t omb s i n s tead o f t h e d e scen t g roup , t h e V inca c u l tu re w a s b a sed o n -

t h e r e s idence g roup . T he s t rong i den t if ica t ion w i th p l ace t h a tt h is e n ta i led l e dt ot h ef o rma t ion o fv e ry l a rge s e t t lemen t s i ndeed w i th h igh p opu la t ion l e ve l s , wh ich i n t u rn n ece ss i ta ted t h e s ubd iv is ion o f s oc ie t ie s i n to v a r iou s s oc ia l c a tego r ie s i n o rde r t o m a in ta in c on t ro l o ve r t h e se l a rge c ommun i t ies . I n t h e c a se o f V inca , c on t ro l w a sp robab ly e xe r ted v i ar i tua l . F o r t h ed i tched e nc lo su re s o f t h e T avo l ie re , as e t t le -

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m en t -ba sed r i tua l i sh ypo thes ised s im i la r t o t h e o ne s e en a tt h e V inca s i te s , e ven t hough t h e e v idence f o r r i tua l a c t iv i ty i t se l f i ss pa r se a t t h e momen t . A long w i th t h i s c e r ta in f e a tu res o f M idd le N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty

o f s oc ia l c on t ro l ?T he se t wo q ues t ion s a r e l i nked , a c c o rd ing t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fG ro t ta S ca lo r ia o f fe red b y Wh i tehou se ( 1992 ) . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic so fs ec recy o f l o ca t ion , i t s marg ina l p o s i t ion a way f r om t h e s e t t le men t s , a nd t h e ' t ran s i t iona l ' w a te r f ound i n s ide ( mov i ng f r om l i qu id t os o l id ) i mp ly l im ina l i ty . T he f a c tt h a t n o t many p eop le c ou ld f i ti n s ide t h ec ave i sa l so a ni m p o r tan tp o in t . A l li na l l , Wh i tehou se f e e l s t h a tt h e k ind o fc u l tp rac t ised i nG ro t ta S ca lo r ia a nd a l lt h eo t he rc u l t

c an a l so b e h ypo the s ised , d e r ived i np a r tf r om t h e s e t t l emen t e v idence d e sc r ibed e a r l ie ri nt h i sp ape r ,i np a r t

F IGURE 7 .( A )F i gu r ine : M on te A qu i lone ( n o t t os c a le ) N eo l i th ic ' s a l tp o t 'f r om O b r e( Chapman . 1 9 88 ) . c ave sw ou ld t a ke t h ef o rm o fr i t e so fp a s sage , mo re p a r -

F IGURE 6 .( A )F ema le f i gu r ine s : P a s so d i C o rvo ( n o tt os c a le ) ( T ine 1 9 83 ) ( B )F ema le f i gu r ine : R end ina ( n o tt os c a le )C h ipo l l i n eS ampo 1 9 83 . f r om c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e V inca c u l tu re n o ted a bove . Whe re d oe s t h ec u l tc ave o fG ro t ta S ca lo r ia f i ti n to t h i s s c ena r io a nd h ow c an r i tua l b e u sed a s amechan ism

t i cu la r ly t ho se o f i n i t ia t ion c e remon ie s ( Wh i tehou se , 1 992 ,133 ) , wh ich t u rn b oys i n to m en . Du r ing t h e se t y pe so fr i tua l , ag ene ra lp a t tern o fe ven t si sf o l lowed i n wh ich t h e i n i t iands a r e s ymbo l ica l ly s epa ra ted f r om t h e i r c ommun i ty ‚ t hen p laced i n al im ina l s t a te ,f ina l ly t h ey a r e s ymbo l ica l ly r e turned t o t h e i r c ommun i ty i n t h e i r c hanged s t a tu s . T he l im ina l p ha se i sv e ry d ange r o u s f o rt h ei n i t iand s , when t h ey a r en e i the ri no ne s t a te n o r a no the r ( ne i the r b oy s n o r men ) ; t h i s i s t h e t ime w hen t h es ec re t so ft h ec u l ta r er evea led t ot h ei n i t iand s .

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R i tua l k now ledge c an b e p e r i lou s i fw rong ly u sed a nd t h e re a r eu sua l ly s e ve ra l s t age so fi n i t ia t ion b e fo re a l lo f t h is k now ledge i sc omp le te ly r evea led t o t h e p a r t ic i -

l a rge r s e t t lemen t s o f t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic a nd t h e i r g rea te rn umb e r so fi nhab i tan t s . T he se c ommun i t ie sm ay h ave emp loyed v i l lage -ba sed r i tua l t op romo te f e e l ing s o f s oc ia l c ohe s ion , wh i le r ea l p owe r w a s k ep t i n t h e

p an t s . I n o the rw o rd s , o n ly t h e e l de r si nc ha rge o ft h e c u l th ave a cce s st ot h er i tua lk now ledge i nt o to . Wh i te h ou se make s t h e i n te re s t ing p o in t t h a t t h e se t yp e o f ma le c u l t s o f ten f unc t ioned a s ' i n s t rumen t s o f s oc io p o l i t ica l c on t ro l ' . T he r e s t r ic t ion o fr i tua l k now ledge t o af ew i s ,i ns ma l l -sca le s oc ie t ie s , as ou rce o fp owe r ,a nd

h and s o ft h ef ew . T h is p owe r w a su sed t o mob i l ise c o l -

i ti sa l so t h e mean so fe n fo rc ing t h a tp owe r . I nh e ra na l y s is o f t h e c u l t c ave s o f I t a ly , Wh i tehou se p ropo sed t h a t t h e p u rpo se o ft h e c u l t w a s t op rov ide a nd e nfo rce s oc ia l c on t ro l f i r s t ly o fy oung men b yo lde r men , s e c o nd ly o fw omen b y men ( 1992 ,152 ) . C on t ro l o fy oung m en b y t h e e l de r s i se a s i ly u nde r s tood i nt h ec on tex to f t h ec u l ta nd a cce ss t or i tua l k now ledge ,a nd p e rhap sa c c e s s t op re s t ige g ood s a nd b r ide s wou ld a l so h ave b een c on t ro l led b y t h ee l de r s . I ti s w i th t h ec on t ro l o fw om ‚

e n b y men t h a t d if icu l t ie s a r ise . T he i n i t iand s may h ave b een t a ugh t t or ega rd women a si n f e r io r , d ange r o u s a nd p o l lu t ing , b u th ow women m igh th ave r e ac ted t ot h e se v i ews i s n o t k nown . T he re i sn o ty e tt h e e v i d ence t os how i f w omen w e re ' c on t ro l led ' b y men i n N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty . THE ROLE OF REL IG ION I N THE NEOL ITH IC OF THE TAVOL IERE I nt h eT avo l ie re w ec ou ld h ave t h es i tua t ion w he re t wo t ype s o fr i tua l a r eo pe ra t ing a no pen ,a cce s s ib le t oa l l , r i tua l f ocu ssed o nt h es e t t lemen ta nd as ec re t r i tua l ,r e s t r ic ted t o af ew ( p robab ly ma le s ) e nac ted a tt h e c u l t c ave . T h is l e ad s o ne t ot h ink t h a tt h e re may h ave e x i s t e di nt h e M idd le N eo l i th ic c e r ta in c onf l ic t s o fi n te re s t s b e tween t h e t wo t ypes o fr i tua l , w h ich may h ave e ven -

F IGURE 8 .S e le c t ion o fI t a l ian p i n tade r a s( n o tt os c a le ) ( Wh i tehou se 1 992 )

t u a l ly c on t r ibu ted t o t h e e nd o f t h e C la s s I I a nd I V s i te s , a l though a tt h e momen t t h is c an o n ly b e s pecu la t i on . O ne o f t h e g rea t ' unknown s ' o ft h e N eo l i th ic o f t h e T avol ie re i st h e r e a son f o r t h e a ppea rance o f t h e C la ss

l e c t ive l a bou r r e sou rce s a nd o rgan ise t h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e e nc lo su re d i tche s o f t h e C la s s I I a nd I V s i te s , a nd p rov ided ar e l ig iou s s anc t ion f o r t h e w o rk . R e l ig i ou sa u tho r i ty w a s w ie lded b y o l de rm en i nc on t ro lo f

I I a nd C la ss I Ve nc lo su re sa tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eM id d l e N eo l i th ic ( da ted t oc . 6000 1 3C ) . I t may o r may n o t

i n i t ia t ion i n to t h ec u l tp rac t ised a tG ro t ta S ca lo r ia , w ho w e re p e rhap s t h e l e ade r s o r h eadmen o f t h e s oc ia l g roup s r ep re sen ted b y C -d i tche s . T he se d eve lopmen t s

b e ac o inc idence t h a ta c t iv i ty a tt h ec u l tc ave o f G ro t ta S ca lo r ia b eg in s a ta round 5 800 BC i nt h e u ppe rc ham b e r ,p e rhap s as im i la rd a te f o rt h el owe rc hambe r( j udg -

may h ave t a ken p l ace a tt h e e nd o f t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic o ra tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eM idd le N eo l i th ic . T h is m ech -

i ng f r om t h ep re sence o fe a r ly S ca lo r ia w a re a tP a sso d i C o rvo ) . T he g eograph ica l p o s i t ion o ft h e c u l tc ave a nd o ft h e mo s t ly n o r the rn d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eC la s s I I a nd C la s s I V s i te s i ss i gn if ican t . T he l a ck o fe v idence f o r r i tua l a c t iv i ty i nt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s t and s i nc on t ra s t t ot h a tf r om t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p e r iod . T he n eed f o r r i tua l ( a nd h ence r e l ig ion ) i so n ly a ppa ren t w i th t h e

a n i sm o fs oc ia lc on t ro l ,n ece ssa ry f o rt h ec on t inu ing e x i s tence o f t h e ' v i l lage s ' t hu s l a y w i th t h e p eop le i n who se i n te re s t wou ld h ave b een i nm a in ta in ing t h e ir a u tho r i ty o ve r many d i spe r sed c ommun i t ie s b y u s ing r e s t r ic ted r i tua l k now ledge . A t t h e s ame t ime , t ho se membe r s o f t h e c ommun i ty e xc luded f r om t h is i nne r c i rc le , t ho se w i th l i t t le o r n o c on t ro l o ve r t h e i r l i ve s

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( women a nd t ho se d eemed u nf i t f o r i n i t ia t ion i n to t h e c u l t ) , w e re p a r t ic ipa t ing i n ap ub l ic i n c lu s ive r i tua l t h a t may h ave b een d i rec ted t owa rd s h ome a nd f ood p roduc t ion ( p e rhap s r em in iscen t o f Hodde r ' sc oncep t ‚

r e l ig iou s s oc ie ty i ss oo f ten s e en a sa na t tack o nt h a ts o c i e ty a si ti se qua ted w i th ar e fu sa l t os ha re i t sn o rm s o r t oc oope ra te i nt h es oc ie ty 's i n te re s t s ( a s s e en f o re xam p l e , i n t h e R oman s ' r e ac t ion t o t h e E a r ly C hr i s t ian s ) . T he p re senc e o f ac u l t w i th s e c re t c e remon ies a nd p u r p o se s may a l so b e p e rce ived a s at h rea tt os oc ia l c ohe s i on ( a p re sen t -day e xamp le b e ing t h e F reema son s ) . T he c u l t p rac t ised i n G ro t ta S ca lor ia c ou ld n o t h ave b een k ep t c omp le te ly s e c re t f r om t h e r e s t o fM idd le N eo l i th ic s oc ie ty ;e xac t ly h ow many membe r s o ft h a t s oc ie ty w e re i n i t ia ted i n to t h ec u l t a nd h ow much w a s r evea led t on on -cu l t p e r son s may n eve r b e k nown . B u tf r om a n th ropo log ica ls t ud ie sw ek now t h a tt h el e ad e r s o f ma le c u l t s p o sse s sed c on s ide rab le p owe r o ve r y oung ma le s i n many a spec t s o f t h e i r l i ve s , a nd p o s s e ssed c on s ide rab le i nf luence o ve r t h e ir c ommun i t ie s . I nt h eM idd le N eo l i th ic , t h e s ame p owe r may a l so h ave e x is ted ,d eve lop ing i n to amechan ism o f s oc ia l c on t ro l o ve r p o ten t ia l ly d i srup t ive e l emen t so ft h ec ommun i ty w ho se d i spu te s c ou ld o the rw ise l e ad t ot h ef i ss ion ing o f t h e C la s sI Ia nd I V s i te s .

F IGURE 9 .P i n tade r a sf r om R end ina ( C ipo l lon i S ampo 1 9 8 3 ) o ft h e' domu s ' . T h is l a t te rr i tua l may i ndeed h ave f unc t i oned a st h e ' op ium o f t h e p eop le ' i nt h a ti th e lped t o ma sk t h e i r e xc lu s ion f r om t h e r e s t r ic ted r i tua l k now l e dge o f t h e c ave c u l t , a nd h ence t h e ir e xc lu s ion f r om d ec i s ion -mak ing . T h is i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h er o le o fr e l ig ion i nt h eT avo h e re i sf r ank ly f unc t iona l is t , a nd Ir e cogn ise t h a ti tmay b et h i s a spec to fr e l ig ion t h a ti s mo re amenab le t oa na l y s i s b y p r eh i s to r ian s . Wh i le r e l ig ion s may a r ise a si d e o log ie s o f fe r ing i n ten se emo t iona l i mpac t s o n t h e p a r t i c ipa t ing i n d iv idua l s ,i ti s af a c tt h a t t h ey a l so d eve lop i n to mechan i sm s o fs oc ia lc on t ro l . R i tua lp e r fo rmance s b ecome r e gu la ted , s oc ia l b ehav iou r i sp re sc r ibed . T h i s F IGURE 1 0 . ' F a ce p o t s 'f r om t h eT a vo l ie r e( n o tt os c a le ) ( A ) L aQ ue r c ia ( J one s 1 9 87 ) ,( B )R end ina ( C ipo l lon i S ampo 1 9 83 ) ,( C )P a s so d iC o rvo ( T ine 1 9 83 )a nd ( D )P oz zo d e l le C ap re , S an S e ve ro ( a f te rF on se c a 1 979 )

i sd ue t ot h e p romo t ion o f c oope ra t ion a nd n o rm s b y i d eo log ica l movemen t s , w h ich i n c rea se s t h el i ke l ihood o f s oc ia l c ohe s ion a mong s t t h e p a r t ic ipan t s . T h is e x p l a in s w hy t h e p re sence o f d i ssen te r s i n a mono -

1 9 1

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ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS Many t h ank s t oR u th Wh i tehou se f o rr e ad ing a nd c om m en t ing o na ne a r l ie rv e r s ion o ft h is t e x t . T h is p ape ri sd ed ica ted t ot h e memo ry o fD r . D e r r ick R i ley , o f who se d ea th Il e arned wh i le a t tend ing t h e D eya C onf e rence . H e w a s ac o l league , m en to r a nd f r iend , a nd h i s e ncou ragemen te nab led me t oc a r ry o u t f u r the rr e sea rch o n t h ea e r ia l a r chaeo logy o ft h eT avo h e r e . H ew i l lb eg rea t ly m is sed b ya l l w ho w o rk o na n c i en tl a nd scape s .

F IGURE 1 . P l an o fG ro t t aS c a lo r ia ( Wh i t ehou s e 1 9 92

TABLE 1 . AVERAGE CONSTRUCT ION HOURS : I NNER D ITCHES OF CLASS I ,I .I I &I V S ITES

CONSTRUCT ION HOURS UP TO 2 0 ,000 UP TO 6 0 ,000 UP TO 1 00 ,000 OVER 1 00 ,000

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R E FEREN CES BRO WN ,K .A . 1 99 1a . S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ia lO rgan isa t ion i nt h eN eo l i th ic o ft h eT avo l ie re , Apu l ia .I nH e r r ing ,E . , Wh i t ehou se ,R .a nd W i lk in s ,J .( e d s ) , P ape r so ft h eF our th C onf e rence o fI t a l ian A rchaeo logy , 1 .T he A rchaeo logy o fP owe r , 1 :9 -25 . A cco rd ia R e sea rch C en t re ,L ondon . 1 991b . Ap as s ion f o re xcava t ion . L abou rr equ i remen t sa nd p o s s ib le f unc t ion sf o rt h ed i tche so ft h e' vi lagg i t r ince r a t i ' o ft h eT avo l ie re , Apu l ia . A cco rd ia R e sea rch P ape r s ,2 :7 -30 . CASSANO ,S .M . a nd MANFRE I) IN 1 ,A . 1 983 . S tud is u lN eo l i t ico d e lT avo l ie re d e l la P ug l ia : i ndag ine t e r r i to r ia le i n i m 'a r ea -camp ione . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t s ,I n te rna t iona lS er ies 1 60 . O xfo rd . CHAPMAN ,J .1 988 . C e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd S oc ia ld i f fe ren t ia t ion : t h eD a lma t ian N eo l i th ic a nd t h e We s tern Med i t e r ranean .J ourna lo f Med i ter ranean A rchaeo logy , 1 : 3 -25 . C IPOLLON I SA MPO ,M . 1 98 3 . S cav in e lv i l lagg io n eo l i t ico d iR end ina ( 1970 -1976 ) .R e laz ione p re l im ina re . O r ig i n i , 1(1977 -82 ) : 1 83 -323 . FONSECA ,C .D . ( c d ) 1 979 . L aP ug l ia d a !P a leo l i t ico a lT a rdoromano .E lec t ra E d i tnce . HODDER ,I .1 990 . T he D ome s t ica t ion o fE urope .B a s i lB lackwe l l , Ox fo rd . J ONES ,G .D .B . 1 987 . Apu l ia . Vo l . 1 :N eo l i th ic S e t t lemen t in t h eT avo l ie re . S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s ,L ondon . L EACH ,E . 1 977 .

Av i ew f r om t h eb r idge . I nS p r igg s ,M . ( c d ) ,A rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy : A rea so f Mu tua lI n -

t e re s t .B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sS upp lemen tar yS e r ie s 1 9 , 1 6 1-176 . Ox fo rd . ROBB ,J .1 993 . N eo l i th ic s ke le ta lr ema in sf r om t h e G ro t ta S ca lo r ia : t h e 1 979 e xcava t ion s . R iv i s ta d iA n t ropo log ia , 6 9(199 1) , 11 -24 . SALLARES ,R . 1 991 . T he E co logy o ft h eA nc ien tG reek Wor ld . C o rne l l Un ive r s i ty P re ss . I thaca ,N ew Y o rk . T INE ,S .1 983 . P a s so d iC o rvo el ac i v i l ta n eo l i t ica d e lT avo l ie re . S agep ,G enova . 1 987 . C on s ide raz ion i s u l N eoh h ico d e l la P ug l ia . A t l id e l la XXV IR iun ione S c ien t if i ca :I lNeo l i t ico i nI t a l ia ,3 21 31 T INE ,S .a nd I SE IT E ,F . 1 982 . C u l to n eo l i t ico d e l le a que er e cen t is cav in e l la G ro t ta S ca lo r ia B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno lo g i a I t a l iana ,8 2(1975 -80 ) : 3 1 -70 . WH ETEHOUSE ,R .D . 1 992 . U nde rground R e l ig ion .C u l ta nd C u l tu re i nP reh is tor ic I t a ly . A cco rd ia R e sea r ch C en t r e ,L ondon . ( i np r e s s ) . S oc ie tA c de conom ia n e ln eo l i t ico i t a l iano : l ap rob lema t ica d c if o s sa t i . P ape r p re sen ted a t ' La p re is t o r ia d e lB a sso B e l ice ed e l la S i c i l ia m e r id iona le n e lq uad ro d e l la p re i s tor ia s i c i l iana em ed i te r ranea ' ,P a le rmo , 1 4 -17 Ma rch , 1 991 . WH ITTLE ,A . 1 988 . P rob lem si nN eo l i th ic A rchaeo logy . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge .

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FUNERARY PRAC TICES AND I BER IAN SOC IETY I N NORTH -EAST ANDALUS IA

T ERESA CHAPA B RUNET ANTON IO MADR IGAL B EUNCHON D ep a r t amen to . d eP r eh is to r ia U n ive r s idad C omp lu ten s e M ad r id ,S pa in

J UAN P ERE IRA S JE SO A r cad eP r eh i s to r ia U n ive r s idad d cC a s t i l la L aM an cha C ampu sd cT o ledo T o ledo ,S pa in

E t ru r ian s a nd R oman s k ep t i nc lo se c on tac t w i th I be r i -

SU M MARY I be r ian b u r ia l s i te s o fn o r th -ea s t Anda lu s ia a r ea na ly sed i nt h i sp ape ri no rde rt od e tec ts ome o ft h eb a s ic f e a tu re s o f I b e r ian s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e f ou r th c en tu ry BC . T he s t udy i sb a sed o n b o th o ld a nd r e cen t e xcava t ion s , a nd a t temp t s t oo f fe r ag ood d e scr ip t ion o ff une r a ry b ehav i o u r . T h i s i sd e f ined a s av a l id i nd ica to r o f s t a tu s a nd r ank ing . A cce ss t oc r ema t ion a nd b u r ia l w a s r e s t r ic ted , a nd o n ly t h e u ppe rl e ve ls o f s oc ie ty w e re a b le t op rac t i se i t .S oc ie ty s e em s t oh ave b een r u led b ya ne x tended a r is toc racy w i th as t rong w ar r io r c omponen t , a nd w i th s o l id k in sh ip t i e s . P rope r ty o fl a nd ,l i ve s tock a nd m ine s made a ne conom ic c on t ro l o fp roduc t ion a nd t r ade p o s s i b le t oge the rw i th as t rong a ccumu la t ion o fp owe r . RESU

4

a n s , a nd t h e I be r ian P en in su la w a s t h e ma in b a t t lef ie ld d u r ing t h e S econd P un ic Wa r . L og ica l ly , s uch a l ong c h rono log ica le x ten ta nd s uch al a rge t e r r i to ry m ake se v i d en tt h a t I be r ian p eop le s w e re q u i te d i f fer en tf r om o ne r eg ion t ot h e o the r , a nd t h a t t h ey c hanged al o t a s t ime p a ssed . G reek a nd L a t in a u tho r s h ave r e co rded t h e n ame s o ft h e d i f fe ren tp opu la t ion s ( F ig . 1 . 2 ) , a nd s peak a bou t ac omp lex o rgan isa t ion o f p owe r , e conomy a nd r i tua lp rac t ice s . O u rr e sea rch i sc en te red o n No r th -Ea s tA nda lu s ia ,a n a r ea r ang ing f r om E a s te rn C o rdoba t ot h e l im i tw i th A l b ace te , Mu rc ia a nd A lme r ia . T h is c omp le t e ly emb race s t h ep re sen tp rov ince o fJ aén ,a sw e l la st h eN o r th -Fa s to f G ranada , whe re o u ro wn f i e ldwo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t( F ig . 2 ) . C h rono log ica l ly , w e w i l l b e l im i ted t ot h e I V th a nd t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI Hrd c en tur ie s BC ,t h e se t wo b e ing

N

E ne s te t r aba jo s ea na l izan l a s n ec rópo l is d e l n o re s te d e A nda luc ia , c on c lf i n d e d e tec ta ra l guno s d cl o s r a s g o s b á s ico s d c l as oc iedad i bé r ica d u ran te e is ,I V a .C . E l e s tud io s eb a sa t a n to e ne xcavac ione s a n t igua s c omo r e c ien te s , yp re tende o f rece r u na b uena d e sc r ipc ión d e l r i tua l f une ra r io . E s te s e c on s ide ra c omo i m i nd icado r v á l ido d er ango ye s ta tu s . E l a cce so a lr i tua l d el ac r em a c ión ya le n te r r a in ien to e r ar e s t r ing ido , ys ó lo l oe f ec tu a ba l ac apa má sa l ta d el as oc iedad .E s ta p arece e s ta rd i r i g ida p o r u na e x tensa a r is toc rac ia c on u n f uer te c omponen te g ue r re ro yc on s ó l ido sl a zo sd cp a ren te sco . L a p rop iedad d c l a t i e r ra , d e l g anado y d c l a s m ina s h ace p o s ib le i mc on t ro l e conóm ico d el ap roducc ión yc l c ome rc io , yu na f ue r t ea cumu lac ión d ep ode r . I be r ian C u l tu re o ccup ie s t h e Med i te r ranean s i de o f t h e I b e r ian P en in su la ,i nc lud ing f r om t h e S ou th -Ea s to f F rance t o t h e C en t ra l / Wes tern p a r t o f Anda lu s ia ( F ig .1 . 1) . I t s c h rono logy e x tend s f r om t h e V I th t ot h e I s t . c en tu ry BC , at ime o f s t rong p o l i t ica l , c omme rc ia l a nd w a r l ike a c t iv i ty i nt h e Med i te r ranean B a s in . G reek s ,

1 94

b e t te rd ocumen ted a r chaeo log ica l ly ,b yb o th o ld a nd r e c en tr e sea rch . GENERAL F FAIURESOF NDRH 1 -EAST AM)AUJSLk I X iRl sU T hE T V /r nC EN TUR IES B C Du r ing t h is t ime , I be r ian o rgan isa t ion w a s v e ry c om p l ex , w i th l a rge v i l lage s ( Opp ida) c on t ro l l ing a n e x ten s i ve t e r r i to ry . T hey w ere n o rma l ly p l aced o n h i l ls a nd s t ra teg ic p o in ts , i no rder t o make u se o ft h e b e s t a r ab le l and , a nd a l so t o c on t ro l t h e p a ssage r ou te s a nd s uch s pec ia l r e sou rce s a sm ine s . T yp ica l e xamp le s o fc en t ra l p lace s a r e t h e C e r ro V i l la rgo rdo , l o ca ted i nt h e m idd le o f ar i ch d ry land a r ea , a nd P o rcuna ( t he I b e r ian I po lca a nd R oman Obu lco ) ,o ne o ft h e mo s tr e levan ts i tes d u r i ng I be r ian t ime s . O the r v i l lage s , s uch a sP uen te T ab la s o rL aG ua rd ia b ene f i tf r om t h e ir p r iv i leged g eog raph i c a lp o s i t ion d om ina t ing i mpo r tan tc r o s s road s . Mov ing t o t h e E a s t , i r r iga t ion a g r icu l tu re b ecome s mo re a nd mo re i n ten s ive ,a sd ry land i s wo r se h e re . P uen te d e l Ob ispo i s ag ood e xamp le o f t h is c a se . S pec ia l a t ten t ion mu s t b e p a id t oC á s tu lo ,n ea rL ina re s , whe re m in ing a nd e xp lo i t a t ion o f s i lve r w a s k nown ( P un . 3 3 ,27 ) . T oya i s s u r -

T ERESA CHAPA B RUNE fe ta l .

th a s b een u n t i l n ow a n i mr ounded b y p a s ture s , a nd i p o r tan tc a t t le ma rke t . C ommun+ ica t ion w i th t h e S ou th a nd t h e S ou th E a s t a r row v a l ley s , whe re s ome w a s c a r r ied o u t t h rough n

b igge ra nd s ma l le rv i l lage s i se v iden t .T he f i r s to ft h em among w h ich w ec an c i te ( ' a s te l lone sd eC ea la nd C e r r oA lca lá - w a s n eeded t oa ccomp l i sh ac omme rc ia l o r g an isa t ion w i th i mpo r tan tl i nk sf r om t h ec oa s tt ot h ei n -

F IGURE 1 . ( t op )I b e r ian t e r ra to ry i ni t sM ed i te r r anean c on t ex t . ( b o t tom )D i f f e r en te t hn ic g r oup si nP r eR om an t i me s .

s i tes o f s ma l le r s i ze h ave b een d e tec ted . T he se s i te s w e re e conom ica l ly s e lf -suf f ic ien t , a l though t h e i r p ro d uc t ion w a s p robab ly v e ry l im i ted . T h is w a s c en te red o nf e r t i le l ow land ,o ns ma l lp l o t so fd ry land ,o nd ome s t i ca n ima ls a nd o nh un t ing ,s i nce w ood land w a sc l o se t o t h e se s i te s . N eve r the le ss , ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween

n er p ar t s o f Anda lu s ia . T he se p rov ided s u rp lu se s o f f ood , c a t t le a nd me ta ls e nab l ing t h em t o a ccumu la te p owe r , a nd t oc on t ro l c omme rce w i th G reek a nd P un ic me rchan t s . D is tance s w e re v ery l ong a ts ome p a r t s o f t h ej ou rney , a nd s ome s econda ry c en te r s w e re f ounded i no rde rt os e rve t h en eed so fc omme rc ia lr ou te s .

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S ites c ited i n t he t ext: 1 .- G a lera, 2 .- B aza, -

' 400 m ts .

i k

3 .- C . d e C ea l; 4 .- T oya ; 5 .- C erro A lca lä; 6 .- P uente d e l O b ispo ; 7 .- C ästu lo ; 8 .- L a Guardia; 9 .- P uente T ablas; J O .- P orcuna

1 /1 35 O

F IGURE 2 .

T he e conom ic s i tua t ion i n t h e I Vt hc en tu ry BC w a sq u i te c omp lex , a s s pec ia l ized p roduc t ion wa s

b road ly e x tended . I r on me ta l lu rgy a pp l ied t ow eapon ry , a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t s , w agon whee ls , e t c . , h ad i m p roved t h el e ve l o fp roduc t ion . I na dd i t ion t h ef a s tp o t t e r 's w hee l h ad b een k nown f o r al ong t ime e nab l ing p o t te ry t oa ch ieve ah igh l e ve lo fq ua l i ty ,n o to n ly i nt h e d ive r s i ty o ff o rm s ,b u ta l so i nt h ep a in t ed d eco ra t ion . I n t h i s a r ea o fF .s tem Anda lu s ia p o t te ry t ype s i n c rea sed s i gn if ican t ly , wh i le , o n t h e c on t ra ry , d ive r s i ty d e c rea sed i nt h e w e s te rn p a r to ft h er eg ion ( F ig . 3 ) (Pe re i r a , 1 989 ) . T he h igh s t anda rd a ch ieved b y t h ec r af t smen r ef lec t s a n o rgan ized e conom ic e xpan s ion d i rec ted b y l o ca l p opu la t ion a nd d oub t le s s ly c onnec ted w i th Med i t e r ranean c omme rce . M in ing a c t iv i ty a t S i e r ra Mo rena mu s t h ave b een v ery i n ten se b y t ha t t ime , h ence i mp ly ing as u rp lu s i n a g r icu l tu re a nd l i ve s tock ,a st h ep opu la t ion n o tw o rk ing o n f ood p roduc t ion w a s i nc rea s ing . M in ing n o t o n ly n eed sh uman r e sou rce sa nd f ood ,b u ta l so o the rc ompo n en t s , s uch a s l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f wood . We c an t h e re -

f o re o b se rve an ew e conom ic mode l , i n wh ich t h e o r g an iza t ion o f l a bou ra nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c ommod i t i e s w e re l i nked w i th ac oncen t ra t ion o f p owe r a nd a ma rk ed s oc ia lh i e ra rchy . A t t h e momen t i ti sq u i te d i f f icu l t t ok now e xac t ly h ow t h i s p roce ss w as c a r r ied o u t , a s w e l l a s t od e f ine I be r ian s oc ia l s t ruc tura l f r om av e r t ica l o rf r om ah o r i z on ta lp e r spec t ive . C omp le te a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion o f v i l lage s i si mp robab le , a nd b u r ia l s i te s a r e t h e o n ly r e f e rence i nt h is i n s tance , s i nce f une rary e v idence c an b ec on s ide red a ni nd ica to ro fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re ( B in fo rd , 1 972 ) . We a r e t h e refo re p re sen t ing ag roup o fn ec ropo l i sr e la ted t ot h i s a r ea d a ted t ot h eI V -i l l c en tu r ie s BC , t ot r yr e con s truc t ing f une ra ry r i te sa sa ccu ra te ly a sp o s s i b le ,a nd a na ly s ing h ow t h i s e v idence c an b e c onnec t e dw i th s t a tu sp o s i t ion si nI be r ian s oc ie ty . BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH T he m a in I be r ian s i tes o ft h e Guad iana Meno ra r ea a r e k nown b y t h e i r b u r ia l g round s , s i nce t h e i r s e t t lemen t s h ave n o t b een e xcava ted . T he r i chne ss o f f une ra ry

1 96

T ERESA C HAPA B RUNET e ia l .

b u i ld ing s a nd ma te r ia ls e xp la in s t h is s i tua t ion , a s t h e e xcava t ion o ft omb s w a st h eq u icke s tw ay t oo b ta in o u t s t and ing a nd w e l lp re se rved o b jec t s . Mo reove r ,n ec rop -

w a s n o t e n t i re ly e xp lo red , e nab l ing u s t ou nde r take a n ew e xcava t ion o f t h e s i te b e tween 1 985 a nd 1 991 , w h ich a l lowed u s t oe va lua te p rev iou s i n fo rma t ion . F i -

o l i s w e re s i tua ted o np oo r , s l igh t ly e l eva t ed l a nd s ,l i t t le s u i t ed f o ra g r icu l tu r e .T he a cce s s w a se a sy a nd t h e i re x -

n a l ly , t h e n ec ropo l is o fB aza ( G ranada ) w a s n ew ly e x c ava ted b e tween 1 968 a nd 1 971 b y P re sedo ( 1982 ) ,

c ava t ion d id n o ti n te r f e re w i th f a rm ing . A l l t h ese a rgu m en t s m ade c l ea r t h a t e xcava t ing b ur ia l s i te s w a s t h e mo s t p rof i tab le c ho ice . T h is i st h e r e a son w hy I be r ian t omb sh ave u sua l ly b een d e s t royed a nd f une ra ry e qu ip m en t s , i fr e covered , h ave l o s t t h e ir a r chaeo log ica l c on -

w ho d i scove red 1 78 g raves . I n o ne o f t h em t h e w e l l k nown " Dama" w a s f ound , af em in ine s t one s cu lp tu re w h ich c on ta ined b one sa nd a she so ft h ed ead . P rev iou s a nd r e cen t d a ta mu s t b e a na ly sed t o ge the r i no rde rt oo b ta in aa pp rop r ia te p i c tu re o fI be r ian f une r -

F IGURE 3 .T ype sa nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fI b e r ian p o t t e ry i nA nda luc ia t e x t s . T he f i r s tr e fe rence t oa n u ncon t ro l led e xcava t ion i sa tt h es i te o fB aza ,w he re w eh ave aq u i te d e ta i led a c c oun to ff i nd s d a ted a t1 800 ( P re sedo , 1 982 ) . A cc iden t a lf i nd sa tG a lera ( Cab ré yMo to s , 1 920 )a nd T oya ( Ca -

a r yc u s tom s .T h is w i l lp rov ide f u r the ri n s igh t s a bou tt h e p eop le who p r ac t i sed t h em . FUNERARY R ITUAL

b ré , 1 925 ) a r e t h e r ea son o f s ubsequen t s ys tema t ic f i e ldwo rk s . Many o ft h eo b jec t sc ou ld b er e cove red ,b u t t h ey l a ck c on tex tua l i n forma t ion , a nd many o f t h e

We c an r ecogn ise s ome c ommon f ea tu re s s ha red b y t h e se n ec ropo l is . F i r s t ly , t h e i r l oca t ion . T oya , G a le ra

t omb s h ave d i sappea red . One o ft h ef une ra ry c hambe r s

a nd B aza a r e a l l

a tT oya ( J aën ) , maybe t h eb igge s to ne o ft h em ,w a sp re s e r ved a nd r e s to red , a nd i s ag ood e xamp le o f w ha t c ou ld b ef ound t he re a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i sc en tu ry . T he s e t t lemen t o f C a s te l lone s d c C ea l w a s d i scov e r ed l a te r , a round 1 950 , a nd a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk w a sc a r r ied o u tf r om 1 955 t o 1 960 ,o nt h en ea rby b ur ia l s i te ( Fe rnández C h icar ro , 1 955 ; 1 956 ) . F o r tuna te ly , i t

c l ay , u se le s s f o r a g r icu l tu re . T hey a r e s epa ra ted f r om t h ev i l lage sb y ar i ve r ,y e ta r ec l ea r ly v i s ib le f r om t h em . T he l a nd a s s igned t ob u r ia l u se c an b ee x ten s ive , o ccu -

s i tua ted o n s ma l l h i l ls o f g rave l o r

p y ing mo re t h an o ne h i l ls ide f o rm ing d i f fe ren t ia ted a r e a s( F ig .4 ) . T he c a se o fC a s te l lone sd cC ea li sd i f fe ren t , s i nce t h e v i l lage a nd t h e b u r ia l s i te a r e v e ry c l o se , t h e l a t te r b e ing s i tua ted o n t h e s l ope o f ah i l l a tt h e o the r

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s i de o ft h eo ld r oad . N ec ropo l i s h ave ap rom inen tp l ace o n t h el a ndscape ,a lway s w i th in s i gh to ft h e i nhab i tan t s

g rave s a r e v e ry c lo se l e av ing l i t t le s pace b e tween e ach . On m any o cca s ion st h es ame s pace i su sed f o rm ing v a r i ous i mpo s i t ion s o fg raves f ac i l i ta t ing ar e la t ive s t ra t ig -

o ft h ev i l lage s ,a sw e l la sp a s se r s -by . T he b u r ia l a r ea s w e re i s o la ted b y s o le ly n a tu ra l

r aphy o ft h eb u r ia l s .

A-

C emetery a reas a nd l ocat ion o f tomb s

F IGURE 4 .C eme te ry a r ea sa nd l o ca t ion o ft omb s b ounda r ie s a nd n oe v idence e x i s t s o fw a l ls o ro the rd e l im i t ing s t ruc tu re s . On ly i nC ea l d oe s ap e r ime te rw a l l a ppea r t oh ave e x i s ted i n t h e S ou the rn s i de d ue t oi t s p rox im i ty t ot h er oad a nd v i l lage .T h i s w a s s ub sequen t -

N ear t h e g rave s bu tn o t b e low t h em - w e f ound t h e f une ra l) 'p y re s whe re c o rp se s w e r ec r ema t ed ( c rema t ion w a s t h e o n ly b ur ia l r i tua l among I be r ian s ) . P y re s w e r e c on s t ruc ted f r om p ine b ranche s ,b u i l tu pon al ong h o le

l yu sed t os uppo r tl a te r s t ruc tu re s . Wi th in t h is a r ea t h e

d ug i n to t h ec l ay s o i l . C ombu s t ion w a sa cce le ra ted w i th

1 98

T ERESA C I IAPA B RUNET e ia l .

b u she s a nd t h icke t s e nab l ing i tt oa t ta in h igh t empe ra t u r e s . T he d eg ree o fb one c a lc ina t ion i nd ica te s t h a th ea t r o se u pt o8 00 ° -900 °C . T he b ody w a s c l o thed ,a nd w o re s ome o b jec t s o fp e r sona l a do rnmen t , a s w eh ave f ound b e l t -buck le s , b rooche s a nd e a r r ing s a mong t h e a she s

O the r o b jec t s a ccompan ied t h e c o rpse , i n c lud ing w eapon s s ome t ime s r ende red u se le s s b e fo re b u rn ing . A f te rc r ema t ion , c a lc ina ted b one s w e re p l aced i n ac e r am ic u rn a nd t a ken t ot h e t omb whe re s ome o the ro b j e c t s may h ave b een a dded . B ur ia ls a r e mo s t ly i nd iv idu -

F IGURE 5 .( A )T om fo ft h e" Lady "o fB aza , ( B )F une ra ry c h ambe ra tT oya . a nd r emnan t s o f w ood . T he se h ave b een e ncoun te red t w ice , a lways a t t h e w e s te rn s i de o f t h e p y re , wh ich may i n d ica te t ha t t h e d e func t w a s p laced w i th h i s /he r

a l , b u t i ti sn o t u nu sua l t o f i nd t wo , t h ree o r mo re p eop le i n s ide t h e s ame t omb , s ugge s t ing s imu l taneou s b u r ia lo rs ub sequen ti n t roduc t ion sa si nd iv idua l sd i ed .

h ead t owa rd s t h eE a s t . P y re s a lway s f o l lowed a nE a s t We s td i rec t ion .

1 99

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

BUR IAL TYPES

l e a s ti n ve s tmen to fl a bou ri ni t sc on s t ruc t ion ( F ig . 6 . 7 ) . 2 .B ox made o f mudb r ick ,p l a s te ro rs t one . S im i la rt o t h ep rev iou s o ne b u t i nt h i s c a se t h eh o le i sr e c tangu l a r , a nd t h e um i si n s ide ab ox w i th f ou r o r s i x ( f loo r a nd c ove r ) s i de s made o ft h e se ma te r ia ls . I n t h i s w ay a g ood p ro tec t ion i so b ta ined ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . 3 . Bu r ia l made o f mudb r ick s , s t one s a nd l ime . T hey

O u re xcava t ion s a tt h en ec ropo l is o fL o s C is te l Ione s d c C ea l e nab led u s t oi d en t ify s eve ra l t ype s o fb u r ia ls , o f t e nd i ff icu l tt or e cogn ise b ecau se o ft h e w idesp read u se o f mudb r ick i nt h e ir c on s t ruc t ion . T he f o l low ing a r et h e

‚

m a in t y pe s : 1 .A h o l low w a s made o nt h es o i l ,b ig e nough t oc on t a in t h e f une ra ry u rn a nd , o cca s iona l ly , s ome p e r sona l

w e re d e sc r ibed i nt h is w ay d ur ing o ld e xcava t ion s , b u t w e t h ink t h a t t h ey c or re spond w i th s t one b ar rows , o u r

F IGURE 6 .T ypo logy o fc r ema t ion b u r ia l sa tt h eG uad iana M eno rV a l ley b e long ing s . I t s s hape c an b e c i rcu la ro r s quare , a nd i t s

t y pe n umbe rf i ve . 4 . F o ssae made o f mudb r ick a nd /o r ma son ry , c ov e r ed w i th w ood o rs t one s l ab s . T her ei sa n amp le v a r ia -

w a l ls a r e s ome t ime s c ove red w i th mud a nd p la s te r . S ome s t one s c ou ld b e i n c luded t o r e info rce p i twa l l s , a nd t om a in ta in t h e um i n av e r t ica lp o s i t ion .T h is i so b v i ous ly t h e s imp les t b u r ia l t ype , w h ich r equ ires t h e

b i l i ty w i th in t h is t ype , b u t i ti s mo s t ly r e la ted w i th b u i ld ing ma te r ia l , a s t omb s t ruc tu re i sq u i te s im i la r i n

2 00

T ERESA CHAPA B RUNET e ta l .

a l l c a se s . T he b igge s to ft h em a r eg ene ra l ly c i ted a sf u n e r a ry c hambe r s ,b u tw ep ref e r t od i f f e ren t ia te b e tween t h et wo t y pe s ,a sf o s sae l a ck a ny d oo ro re n trance c o r r i d o r( F igs .5 Aa nd 6 . 4 -5 ) . 5 .S tone b a r row s . T hey a r e u sua l ly s t one a nd mud b r ick e nc lo su re s , w i th a ni n te rna l s pace w he re u rn sa nd f une r a ry e qu ipmen ta r ep l aced . T h is s pace c an b ed iv id e di nt wo s t ep s .T he u rn i sn o rma l ly p l aced o nt h eh i gh e s tp a r t a nd me ta l l ic o b jec t s i n t h e l owe s to ne . Ou t s ide

w i th s t one o r mudbnck s l ab s ( F ig . S B ) . I fb u i l t a r ea i s l a rge e nough t h ey c an emp loy ac en t ra l c o lumn o rp i l la r i no rde rt os uppo r tt h er oo f( F ig . 6 . 2 ) . S ome t ime s w a l l s w e re p a in ted w i th my tho log ica l s c ene s ,b u tt h ey a r el o s t b y n ow . On ly s ma l l i nd ica t ion s o f d eco ra t ion a r e p re s e rved a tL o s C a s te l lone s d c C ea l , w he re v ege ta l o rna men t s w ere d rawn o n t h e b a semen t ( F ig . 6 . 1) . T hey w e re a lway sc ove red w i th ab a r row , w h ich c ou ld r each r ea l ly h uge d imen s ion s . F une ra ry l a ndscape a tt h e n e -

F IGURE 7 .P l an o ft h en e c ropo l i s . C a s t e l lone sd cC e a l . w a l ls w e re u sua l ly c ove red w i th p a in ted p la s te r ( F ig .

c ropo l is o f G a le ra , whe re c hambe r s w e re l a rge ly em -

6 . 3 ) . 6 .P y re s . T h is t yp e o f b u r ia l i sl im i ted t o t h e v e ry f i r s to ccupa t ion o fC a s te l lones d eC ea l ,d u r ing t h eV I th c en tu ry BC . H and made p o t te ry u rn sw e re d epo s i ted b e -

p loyed , wa s l i ke a h i l ly s ur face , made b y d ozen s o f t h o se b ar row s . URNS AND F UNERARY EQU IP MENT

s i de t h e p l ace whe re c r ema t ion h ad b een c a r r ied o u t , w i thou t a ny s i gn o fd i f fe ren t s t ruc tu re s o fb u r ia l . T h is

A s p rev iou s ly m en t ioned , c r ema ted b one sa nd a she sa r e

t y pe h ad n oc on t inu i ty d u r ing t h eI V th c en tu ry BC .

u sua l ly p u ti n to ac e ram ic u rn . O n ly e xcep t iona l ly a r e

7 . F une ra ry c hambe r s . T he se a r e c i rcu la r o r s qua re r oom se xcava ted i nt h eg round . Wa l l sa r eb u i l to fs t one , a nd o ne o f t h em h a s a n a cce s s d oo r . F loo r i sc ove red

t h ey p l aced i n ad i f fe ren tc on ta ine r , s uch a ss t one b oxe s d eco ra ted w i th p a in t ing s a nd mou ld ing s . T he mo s to u t s t and ing r ec ip ien t i st h e a foremen t ioned s cu lp tu re o f

2 0 1

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t h e " Lady o fB aza" , w h ich h ad t h e b one s o f aw oman i n s ide h e rh o l lowed t h rone . Among p o t te ry v e s se ls w e c an f i nd A t t ic o rI be r ian v a se s , w i th o rw i thou tp a in ted d eco ra t ion . T hey a r e u sua l ly c ove red w i th ap la t e , a nd s ur rounded b y o t he r o b jec t s . T he mo s tf r equen ta mong t h em a r ep o t te ry v es se ls a nd w eapon s .T he se i mp ly t h a t d r ink s w e re p ar t o f f une rary o f fe r ings . Among t h e w eapon s f ound a r e c urved s wo rd s o f t h ef a lca la t y pe , s pea rp o in t s a nd t i p s , d agge r s ,j ave l in s ( s o l if errea ) a nd

e r a " ,b ronze j a r sa nd b raz ie r s ,e t c . AN EXAMPLE : THE I BER IAN CEMETERY OF LOS CASTELLONES DE CEAL T he a na ly s i s o f t h is n ec ropo l i s i ss ummar ized o n t h e f o l low ing p age s . I n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e t omb s h a s b een c omp i led t h rough d i rec t e xcava t ion i nf i ve c a se s , a nd b y r ev is ing o r ig ina l f i e ld n o te s f r om t h e 1 955 -1960

4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0

0 0

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1

6

4

2

0

F IG URE 8 . D is t r ibu t ion

1 0

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o f" wea l th "i nt h eI b e r ia n c eme t e ry o fL o sC a s t e l lone sd eC ea l ( H ino ja r e s ,J a én ) .

s h ie ld h and le s . L e ss f r equen t ly f ound a r e h e lme t s , c u i r a s se sa nd h o r se h arne s ses . We c an a l so f i nd e l emen t s o fp e r sona l d r e ss ,s uch a s b rooche s ,b e l t -buck le s , amu le t s ,n eck laces ,e t c . ,a sw e l l a sg o ld o rs i lve re a r r ing s a nd b u t ton s . A l l o ft h em w e re

c ampa ign s . We h ave ma in ta ined t h en umbe ra s s igned t o e ach t omb d u r ing t h e p rev iou s e xcava t ion . T he o b jec t s f ound b e tween 1 955 a nd 1 960 h ave b een d i rec t ly r e v i sed a tt h e J aèn Mu seum , w he re t h ey a r e n ow k ep t . D e sc r ip t ion o ft h e f une ra ry a rch i tec tu re w as q u i te a p -

b u rned w i th t h e c o rp se a nd t h ey w e re u sua l ly i n c luded w i th t h e b ones i n s ide t h e c ine ra ry u rn o r a dded t ot h e

p rop r ia te , s o t h ey c an b e i n c luded o n t h e t ype s o fo u r l i s t ,p rev iou s ly c i ted . T he n umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls b u r ied

r e s to ft h ee qu ipmen t . S ome t ime s t h ey w e re e ven a ban d oned a mong t h ea she s o ft h ep y re . Fu sayo lae a r ea l so

i ne ach t omb i sd e term ined b y t h e n umbe r o f c i ne r a ry u rn s , a si nr e cen t e xcava t ion s t h e re a r e n om ix tu re s o f

f r equen t ,a sw e l la sc l ay c i rcu la rt o ken sa nd a nk lebon e s , p robab ly u sed i ng ame s . T he re a r e many o t he r t h ing s

b ones b e long ing t os eve ra l c o rp se s , n o rd i v i s ion o fo ne p e r son ' sb one si nd i f fe ren t um s R e su l t s a r e q u i te s u rp r is ing , a s 9 9 i nd iv idua ls w e re b u r ied i n5 7t omb s ,d i v ided a sf o l lows :

t h a t c an b e f ound , mo re o f ten s uch a s mar ine s he l ls , e gg she l ls , p a in ted g la s s o fP un ic o r ig in , e t c . Mo re e x c ep t iona la r es ma l l s cu lp tu re s s uch a st h e " Lady o fG a l -

2 02

T ERESA CHAPA B RUNET e ia l .

N °T omb s 3 5 1 2 5 2 2

N °Ind iv . 1 2 3 4 5 7

a ny w r i t ten r eco rd . I n fo rma t ion a bou t s oc ia l o rgan i sa t i on c an b e d i s to r ted b ecau se o f i d eo logy a nd ad i rec t r e ad ing o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sn o t g ene ra l ly a c c ep ted ( Hodde r , 1 982 ) . T he a pp ra isa l o ff une ra ry c on t e x t mu s t b e r e la ted t os e t t lemen t o rgan isa t ion , e cono my ,p o l i t ic s a nd e ve ry o the rf e a tu re o f as oc ie ty ( Pa rke r P ea r son , 1 993 ) . T ho se a spec t s c an o f f e ra dequa te m a r g in s f o r o u r r e sea rch ( Chapman , 1 987 ) . B e s ide s , w e

Howeve r , c r ema ted b one s w e re n o t p r e se rved a f te r t h ef i r s te xcava t ion s , s oa ny p o s s ib i l i ty o fa na n th ropo -

mu s ta s sume t h a tA rchaeo logy i st h eo n ly s ource o f inf o rma t ion w e p o sse s s , a nd i nt h a t w ay w e h ave b u t a p a r t ia l a ccoun to fw ha tf une ra ry r i tua l r e a l ly w a s ( Ba r t e l , 1 982 ) , i fw e c on s ide r o the r c on tempo ra ry g roup s

l og ica l s t udy w a se l im ina ted . C h rono logy i sc h ie f ly d e t e rm ined b y t h ef une ra ry r e l ic t s .T he I b e r ian p o t te ry i n c l uded i nt h el i s td oe sn o tt a ke i n to a ccoun tt h ec i ne ra ry

( Mo r r i s , 1 987 ) . Ou rp o s i t ion i st ha tf une ra ry b ehav iou r i sc ohe ren tw i th t h e s oc ia lo rgan isa t ion o f ag roup , a nd i nt h is w ay I be r ian n ec ropo l is c an b ee mp loyed i no rde r t or e p re sen tt h is s oc ie ty ( Lu l l ,E s tevez , 1 986 ) . A s as t ar t ing p o in tw ec an f ocu so nt h ee s tab l ishmen t

u rn , a st h is i s ac ons tan tf e a ture o fb ur ia l s . P o t te ry a nd w eapon s a r e v e ry f r equen t ly p re sen t a mong o f f e r ing s , a nd t h a t' swhy w e o f f e r as econd l i s t s how ing t h e d i f f e ren tt y pe sa nd n umbe ro fo b jec t si n c luded .

o fd i f f e rence s a mong i nd iv idua ls b y c ompar ing d i f f e r e n t i nves tmen t i n b ur ia l a rch i tec tu re a nd f unera ry e qu ipmen t . Ou rr a nk ing i sa sf o l lows : a )F une ra ry b u i ld ing s : I t s s t udy i sb a sed o nT a in te rs s t a temen t t h a t e ne rgy e xpend i tu re o nf une r a ry p roce ss i sd i rec t ly p ropo r t iona l

A SSESS ING ARCHAEOLOG ICAL DATA D iscu s s ion s a bou t t h e " Archaeo logy o f D ea th " h ave ma in ly c en te red u pon t h e r o le t h a ts ymbo l ism p lays i n f une ra ry b ehav iou r ,a nd h ow t h i sc an a f f ec ta na dequa te e va lua t ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r eg is te r when w e l a ck

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t o t h e s oc ia l p o s i t ion o f t h e d ead . T h is c an b e a p -

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C HRONOLOGY N 2 I NDIVIDUALS S EX I BERIAN P OTTERY I MPORTED P OTTERY F IBULAE/BUTTON R ING B ELT B UCKLES N ECKLACE E LEM . E ARRINGS W EAPONS F USAYOLAE C OUNTERS A ST RAGAL U S I RON N IPPERS S HELLS E GGSHELLS A MULET G L ASS ( LEN .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p roached f r om t h ree d i f fe ren t w ay s : c omp lex i ty o f t h e t r ea tmen to f t h e c o rp se ; b u i ld ing c omp lex i ty a nd l o ca t i on o ft h e t omb ; i mpac ta nd d u ra t ion o ff une ra ry c e re mon ie s . T he f i r s t a nd t h e t h ird p o in t s a r e v e ry d if i cu l t t oe va lua te , s pec ia l ly t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h ec r ema t ion p roce ss , a s t h is c an h ide d i f f e rence s b a sed o n d re ss o r p rev ious p repa ra t ion o ft h ec o rp se . B e s id e s ,a sp y re sa r e

L oca t ion o ft omb s i s aq u i te d i f f icu l ta spec tt ov a lue , a s w e l a ck t h e g round p lan o f t h e n ec ropo l is c o r re s pond ing t o t h e o lder e xcava t ion s . T he n ec ropo l i s o f T oya i sn o tu se fu l i nt h is s en se ,a si th a sb een d ug o n ly p a r t ia l ly . G a le ra c an o f f e r ag ood mode l ,a l though mo s t o f t h e t omb s w e re s acked . A t B aza , t h e b igge s t t omb s s i gn if ied t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e s ma l le r o ne s , a s h a s b een a l ready d e tec ted ( Ru iz ,R i squez , Homo s , 1 991 ) . A f ea tu re t h a t s hou ld b e t aken i n to a ccoun t i st h e a r ea ( sq .m . ) t h a te ach b ur ia l o ccup ie s . I ff une ra ry l and w a s l im i ted ,a si ts e em sl i ke ly ,t h is s hou ld a l so b e ad i f f e ren t i a l c r i te r ion , a s o n ly r e levan t p eop le c ou ld emp loy a s i gn i f ican tp o r t ion o ft h el and ,w h i le t h er e s to ft h ep op u la t ion h ad o n ly a cce ss t o amo re r e s t r ic ted a r ea . T h is c an t h e refo re b ea no the rs oc ia lm a rke r .

l oca ted a t ad i f fe ren t a r ea , i ti sn o t p o ss ib le t or e la te t h em w i th t h e f i na l b u r ia l o ft h e a she s , a nd s o w e a r e n o ta b le t oa ccumu la te i n fo rma t ion o fb o th c on tex t s ,a l t hough t h ey b e long t o t h e s ame p e r son . H ence , w e s hou ld c on s ide rt h es e cond p o ss ib i l i ty ,b a sed o ne va lua t i on o ff une r ary a r ch i tec tu re a nd l o ca t ion o ft h et omb s . I be r ian b u r ia ls a tL o s C a s te l lone s d c C ea l c an b e c l a s s if ied a cco rd ing t ot h e ir c omp lex i ty ,t a k ing i n to a c c oun ta r ch i tec ture ,b u i ld ing ma te r ia ls a nd l a bou ri n ve s t men t . F o l low ing t h e se c r i te r ia ,w eh ave a s s igned d i f fe r -

b )F une ra ry e qu ipment J udg ing f une ra ry e qu ipmen t s a nd o f f e r ing s i se spec ia l ly c omp lex , b u t i ti sa lway s a k ey f a c to ri nt h e s t udy o fs oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o fc eme t e r ie s . I be r ian sd id n o th ave as t anda rd ized a nd r i g id f u n era ry d owry ,s oi ti sn o tp o s s ib le t oe s tab l ish q uan t i ta t i ve p a r ame te r s b a sed o nc r i te r ia a sa bundance /sca rc i ty o fc e r ta in o b jec t s ,a sh ave b een emp loyed i no the rI r on Age s oc ie t ie s ( J o rgen sen , 1 987 ) . I nt h is c a se ,v a lua t ion o ff une ra ry o b jec t sh a sb een e s tab l ished f o l low ing o the r

e n tv a lue s( po in ts )t oe ach t y pe o fb u r ia l : * Bur ia li n s ide ah o le : i p . Cy s t( made o f mudb r ick ,p l a s te ro rs t one ) : 2p . S tone b a r rows ( i nc lud ing b ur ia ls made w i th mud b r ick s ,s t one sa nd l ime ) : 4p . • Fo ssae made o f mudb r ick a nd /o r ma son ry : 5p . Chambe r s w i th ad oo ro fa cce s s : 7p .

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I MPORTED P OTTERY F IBULAE/BUTTON R ING B ELT B UCKLES N ECKLACES E LEM . E .RRINGS W EAPONS F USAYOLAE C OUNTERS A STRA LUS I RON N IPPERS S HELLS E GGSHELLS A MULETS G LASS ( LEN . c o

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T ERESA C HAPA B RUNE Fe ta l .

c r i ter ia s uccessfu l ly a pp l ied e l sewhere ( Shennan , 1 975 ) .T he se a r e : Loca l ly m anu fac tu red o b jec t sv .I mpo r ted o b jec t s . Acce s st or aw ma te r ia l s * Deg ree o fd i f f icu l ty i nt h em anu fac tu r ing p roce s s . F une ra ry o b jec t sa r ea s se ssed i nt h is w ay : a )I b e r ian p o t te ry ( 2p . ) : A s w e s a id b e fo re , w e e x c lude c i ne ra ry u rn s a nd c ove r s , a s t h ey a r e a lway s p re sen t . We i n c lude ,t h en ,v a se s a nd b ow ls t h a ta ccom p an ied t h ed ead i n s ide b u r ia l s .T hey a r ee qua l ly v a lued , a s p roduc t s o f s pec ia l ized w o rk shop s . We h ave n o t f ound h and -made p o t te ry i n s ide t h e t omb s , a l though i t c an b eo cca s iona l ly emp loyed i nt h e d ome s t ic c on tex t . We mu s tr emembe r ,o fc ou r se ,t h a tw eh ave o n ly r e cov e red t h er e c ip ien t ,b u tn o tt h ec on ten t ,w h ich c ou ld b ea v e ry i mpo r tan tf a c to rr e la ted w i th s oc ia lr ank . b ) I mpo r ted p o t te ry ( 3 .5p . ) : i ti sr e s t r ic ted t o r ed f i gu red a nd b l ack g l azed A t t ic p o t te ry . T hey w e re o f c ou r se al u xu ry o b jec t ,b u tl e ss e xcep t iona l t h an w ea r e u sed t ot h ink , a s t hey w e re f r equen t ly b u r ied a nd e m p loyed a l so o n s e t t lemen t a r ea s . T ho se v e s se ls s hou ld h ave b een r e la ted t oa r is toc racy a nd w ine c on sump t ion , k ra ierae a nd c up sb e ing w e l lk nown i nt h i sa r ea .R ecen t e xcava t ion a tL o s V i l lare s ( A lbace te ) h ave u ncove red

d ozen so fv a se su sed a nd b roken d ur ing af une r a ry r i tu a l( B lánquez , 1 991) . c )D re s s e l emen t s : b u t ton s , b rooche s a nd b e l t b uck l e s ( 2 .5p . ) . T ho se a re b ronze o b jec t s made i n s pec ia l i z ed w o rk shop s , af ac t i mp ly ing c e r ta in d i f f icu l t ie s i n o b ta in ing r aw ma te r ia ls a nd manufac tur ing . C o rp se s w e re d re s sed w i th t h em when t h ey w e re c r ema ted a nd f o r t h a t r e a son t h ey w e re q u i te d amaged b y f i re . T hey w e re t h en r e cove red a f te rc r ema t ion ,m ixed w i th b one s a nd a she sa nd i n c luded w i th t h em i n s ide c i ner a ry v a se s . E xcep t iona l ly ,t h ey c ou ld b ea bandoned o nt h ep y re , a s w e h ave o b served e xcava t ing t h e u s ir ina . A t o ne p y re o fL o sC a s t e l lone s d e C ea l w e f ound mo re t h an ah un d red b ronze a nd s i lve rr i ve t sa nd a pp l ique sb e long ing t o al e a th e rb e l to r av e s t . D e sp i te t h e i rc a tego ry ,t h o se e l e men t s w e re n eve r i nc luded i n t h e d ef in i t ive f une rary d ow ry , w h ich i s ag ood i nd ica to r o f h ow c a re fu l w e mu s tb ew hen mea su r ing s oc ia l d i f fe rence s among p eo p l e t a k ing e xc lus ive ly i n to a ccoun t t h e o b jec t s p l aced i n s ide t h et omb . d )P e r sona l a do rnmen t : c l ay b ead s ( ip .) ;p i e rced c a n ine ( lp . ) ; amu le t ( 3 .5p . ) ; g o ld e ar r ings ( 4p . ) ; s i lve r r i ng s ( 4p . ) . : T ho se o b jec t s h ave b een v a lua ted f o l low i ng t h e s ame c r i te r ia a l ready men t ioned . T he i r b ehav i -

C CE AL 3 T OMB T OMB T YPE C HRONOLOGY N ' I ND IVIDUALS S EX I BERIAN P OTTERY I MPORTED P OTTERY F IBULAE/BUT TON R ING B ELT B UCKLES N ECKLACE E LEM . E ARR INGS W EAPONS F USAYOLAE C OUNTERS ‚a

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R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

o u r a nd l im i t s a r e e qu iva len t t ot ho se d e sc r ibed i n t h e p r eced ing s e c t ion . e ) Weapon s : H e lme t ( 4p .) ; c u rved s wo rd f a lca ta ( 4 .p . ) ; h o r se h a rne ss ( 4p . ) ; s pade ( 4p . ) ; s pea r p o in t / t ip ( 3p . ) ;j ave l in so l if er reum - ( 3p .) ;s h ie ld e l emen t s ( 3p . ) ; d agge r ( 2 .5p . ) ; a r row p o in t ( 2p . ) ; s cabba rd ( ‚p . ) ; n on d e te rm ined o b jec t s( ip . ) . We f o l low h ere w i th m ino rv ar ia t ion t h ec r i te r ia em p loyed b y Que sada ( 1989 ) i nh i s t ho rough s t udy o ft h e I ber ian n ec ropo l is o f C abec ico d e l T e so ro (Mu rc ia ) . D if fe rence s p ropo sed t h e re a r e b e tween " cheap " a nd " expen s ive" w eapons . f )O the r o f fer ing s : G la s s a nf or iskos ( 3 .5p .) ; i r on t weeze r s( 2p ) ;i r on n a i l s( ip . ) ;c l ay t oken s ( ip .) ;F u say o lae ( ip . ) ; a nk lebone s ( ip . ) ; Ma r ine s he l ls ( ip .) ; E gg s he l l s ( ip . ) . G la ss a nf or isko i a r e i mpo r ted o b jec t s , a nd t h ey a r e p unc tua ted a cco rd ing w i th t h is f o re ign p roven ience ,a s a t t ic p o t t e ry o r amu le t s . Tweeze r s a r e me ta l l ic o b jec t s , b u tt h e ir manufac tu re i sq u i te s imp le . N a i l s a r er ema in d e r s o f w ooden o b jec t s ( boxe s , e t c .) , s o w e a r e c on s c iou s a ga in o ft h e l a ck o fi n fo rma t ion . P o t te ry t oken s a nd a nk lebone s a r e e l emen t s o f g ame , a nd s ome t ime s s eve ra l o f t h em a r e f ound i n t h e s ame g rave . Mar ine

s he l l s a nd e gg she l ls a r en a tura l o b jec t s ,a nd e ven i ft h e f o rme r c ame f r om ad i s tan tp lace ,t h ey s eem t ob e ac u r i o s i ty r a the rt h an at r ade o b jec t . We d on ' tr e a l ly k now t h e i mpo r tance o f h en s i nI be r ian d omes t ic e conomy , b u tt h ey h ad b een i n t roduced w e l lb e fo re t h ef ou r th c en t u ry BC b yt h eP hoen ic ian c o lon i s t s . F igu re 8p re sen t s t h er e su l t s o fa pp ly ing t h e se p unc t ua t ion s t ot h e o b jec t s i n c luded i ne ach t omb . G raph 1s hows t h a t t h e 8 2% o f t h e b u r ia ls a r e p l aced w i th in t he l owe s tr ange o fv a lue s , wh i le t h er e s tb e long t ot h e i n te rmed ia te o rh ighe r s e c t ion s . However , t h is c l a ss if i c a t ion c o r re spond st oe ach t omb ,a nd w ek now t h a ts e v e ra li nd iv idua ls c ou ld s ha re t h es ame b u r ia l .I nt h i sc a se w e a r e c on s ide r ing d i f f e ren t e qu ipmen t s a s o n ly o ne , wh ich i so bv iou s ly m is lead ing . S ing le b u r ia l sa re i nt h i s c a se u nde rva lued , wh i le t h e t omb s i n c lud ing t wo o r mo re c i ne ra ry u rn s t e nd t os eem " r iche r " . I ti sn o tewo r O

t hy , h oweve r , t h a t t h e u ppe r r ange i so ccup ied b y a t omb ( 1 1 /1 45 ) whe re o n ly o ne p e r son w as b u r ied . I fw e c on s ide ro n ly i nd iv idua lt omb s ( Graph 2 ) , mo s to ft h em a re l og ica l ly o n t h e l owe r r ange ( 93% ) . I n o rder t o a vo id t h is " a ccumu la t ion " f ac to r , w e h ave d iv ided t h e p unc tua t ion o fe ach t omb b y t h en umbe ro fi nd iv idua ls b u r ied i n i t( G raph 3 ) , w h ich makes t h e l owe r r ange

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T ERESA C HAPA B RUNET e ia l .

g row s ub s tan t ia l ly ,a nd m ake s r i ch s i ng le b u r ia l s s t and o u t . We mu s t a s sume , t h e re fo re , t h a t I be r ian t omb s i n A nda lu s ia a r eg ene r a l ly q u i te s imp le ,a st h er ange n um b e r o f e l emen t s a ccompany ing t h e d ead i sn o t h ighe r t h an f ou r ,f o l low ing t h et e ndenc ie s o fo the ra rea s o ft h e I b e r ian P en in su la ( Mayo ra l , 1 992 ) . I fw et a ke w eapon si n to a ccoun t ,w ew i l lf i nd s i gn i f i c an t d i f fe rence s a mong s i ng le /doub le t omb s , a nd t h o se t h a t i n c lude s eve ra l i nd iv idua ls . On ly a3 1 -33% o ft h e f o rme rh ad a ny w eapon s , w h i le t h e r e s th ad s eve ra l o f t h em ,f o rm ing f r equen t ly c omp le te e qu ipmen t s . On ly a 4 3 .8 % o ft h e b u r ia ls i nc lude w eapon s , ar a the rs im i la r p ropo r t ion t oo the r c on tempo ra ry n ec ropo l is o fS ou th E a s t S pa in ,s uch a sC iga r ra le jo o rC abec ico d e lT e so ro , b o th i n Mu rc ia ( Sanchez Me segue r yQue sada , 1 991) . N eve r the le s s ,w eapon s i n c luded i n mu l t ip le t omb sn ev e rr epea t t h e s ame e l emen t s , a nd t h ey c ou ld p e r f ec t ly w e l l b e long t oo n ly o ne p e r son . I nt h i sc a se t h ep e rcen t a ge o fw eapon s / ind iv idua l s wou ld j u s ta t ta in 2 6 .2% .

l one sd cC ea l a l low s u st or e cogn ize i mpo r tan td i f f icu l t i e s when w e t r y t oo b ta in s ome c onc lu s ion s f r om t h e a va i lab le i n fo rma t ion . F i r s t ly , w e mu s t r e cogn ize t h a t d e te rm in ing a ge a nd s ex i sv ery p rob lema t ic when w e a r e d ea l ing w i th b u rn t b one s . T hey h ave a l so l o s t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a ny c hem ica l a na ly s i s , s i nce t h ey h ave c omp le te ly l o s tt h e i ro rgan ic c omponen t s ( Run ia , 1 987 ; S an ton ja , 1 985 ) . A t p re sen t , p hy s ica l a n thropo log is t s h ave d one t h e ir b e s ti nt h er e cogn i t ion o fs exua l d i f fe r e nce s a nd a ge g roup ing s , b u t w e d on ' t h ave a b road p opu la t ion r e fe rence a nd t h eb one sa r ea lway sf r agmen t a ry a nd b ad ly p re se rved . T h is r a ise sr e a sonab le d oub t s a bou ta n th ropo log ica l a na ly s is , wh ich n eed t ob eb a sed o n aw ide rs amp le . Ano the rp rob lem i sp o sed b y t h el ow l e ve ls o fs t an d ard iza t ion o f I be r ian f une rary d ow ry . I n many o the r E uropean e xamp le s , ma scu l ine a nd f em in ine e qu ip men t s a r ed i f f e ren t ,a nd s ex i si n t h is w ay c l ea r ly i nd i c a ted ,e ven i fa n th ropo log ica ld iagno s i si sl a ck ing . G en e r a l ly ,w eapon sa r ec on s ide red a s am a scu l ine i nd ica to r ,

FUNERARY BEHAV IOUR AND S OC IAL IMPL ICAT IONS

wh i le j ewe le ry a nd f u sayo lae a r ej udged a s f em in ine . Unfo r tuna te ly , s ome n ec ropo l is w i th a n th ropo log ica l

T h is s ho r ta na ly s i so ff une ra ry b ehav iou ra tL o sC a s te l -

s t udy o fh uman b one s d o n o t c onfo rm t ot h is mode l . Women c an s ome t ime b e b u r ied w i th w eapon s , a s i s

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R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s hown a tL o s V i l la re s ( B lánquez , 1 991 : 2 54 ) oB aza

p roduc t iv i ty a nd t h e s i ze o f t h e v i l lage s , w e mu s t c on c lude t h a t o n ly a p a r t o f t h e c ommun i ty w a s b u r ied . T h is i sa na spec ta l ready d e tec ted ( S nchez Me segue ry

( Rever te , 1 986 : 1 90 ) . T h i s f ac t i sa l so v e r if ied a t t h e Me se ta , i n C e l t iber ian c on tex t s ( Sanz , 1 990 : 1 65 ; G a rc ia Hue r ta yAn tona , 1 992 : 1 51 ) . On t h ec on t ra ry ,a r i ch man c an b e b u r ied w i thou t a ny w eapon , a s i s s hown a tt .1 /145 o fL o sC as t e l lon e sd eC ea l( Chapa e i a l . , 1 991) . I ti sp robab ly t h e r i che s tf unera ry d owry o f t h en ec ropo l is , w i th A t t ic a nd I be r ian p o t te ry a nd s ome j ew lery ,b u tw i thou ta rm s . An th ropo log ica l a na ly s is d e t e rm ined t h ep re sence o f a5 0y ea ro l d man . Fu sayo lae c an b e a l so p r e sen ti n ma scu l ine b u r ia ls ,a nd b rooche s , e a r r ings a nd b e l tb uck le s wo rn b ym en a nd women c an b ei nd is t ingu i shab le . Wha t s e em s r e a l ly i mpo r tan ti st h a td oub le o r mu l t i p l eb ur ia ls a r eq u i te f r equen ta nd t h is c an b e r e la ted t o t h ei n f luence o ff am i ly g roup s . A r i s toc racy i sq u i te w e l l d ef ined a t t h is t ime , a nd h e red i ta ry t r an sm iss ion o f w ea l th i se v iden ti fw eo b serve f une ra ry d owr ie s .T he se n eve ri n c lude g o ld o rs i lve rv e s se ls ,o rc omp le te s e t so f j ewe ls , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t I be r ian f am i l ie s p o sse ssed t h em ,a sw ek now t h rough a nc ien tw r i t ing s ,b ronze a nd s t one s cu lp tu re so rh ide s( Chapa a nd P e r e ira , 1 991) . E c o nom ic v a lue o ft ho se o b jec t s w a s t o o h igh , a nd mem b er s o f t h e f am i ly c ou ld n o t d i spo se i nd iv idua l ly o f t ho se p rope r t ie s t h a t w e re t r an sm i t ted b y i nhe r i tance . T h is b ehav iou r i sq u i te w e l l k nown i no the rE u ropean s oc ie t ie s g iven s im i la r c i rcums tance s ( Rand sbo rg ,

Que sada , 1 991 :374 ;B lánquez , 1 991 :254 ;R u iz ,R I squez yHo rno s , 1 991 :416 ) ,n o to n ly i nI be r ian t ime s ,b u ta l so i nB ronze A ge c on tex t s ( Lu l l a nd E s tévez , 1 984 ) . T h is f a c ti sa l so k nown o u t s ide t h eI be r ian P en in su la ,i nC en t r a l -Eu ropean I r on A ge c on tex t s ,w he re s l ave ry i sp rov e nb yd i rec to ri nd i rec te v idence ( Rand sbo rg , 1 986 ;A r n o ld , 1 988 ) . We k now b y l a te r t e x t s t h a t I be r ian s h ad d omes t ic s e rvan t s , a nd t ha t c omp le te r u ra l v i l lages c ou ld b e d ependen t o n b igge r u rban c en te r s ( Manga s , 1 977 ) . C rema t ion r i tua l a nd l a te r b u r ia l a r e b y t h em s e lve s as e lec t ive f e a tu re . We l a ck ,a nyway ,t h ea r chae o log ica l e v idence o fc o rp se s t h a th ad n o ta cce ss t ot h is p roce s s ,a nd t h a tw e re p robab ly i nhuma ted o n ar e lega t i on s t ruc tu re . A t L o s C a s te l lone s d e C ea l w e h ave f ound a nu nbu rned h uman f emu r wh ich w a s p laced i n s i de ac r ema t ion b u r ia l , a nd t h a t w a s u sed t ol im i t t h e i nne rf une ra ry s pace . We s hou ld b e a b le t of i nd s ome where t h e p lace whe re t he se p eop le w e re b ur ied o r a bandoned . CONCLUS ION A s p rev iou s ly men t ioned , s oc ia l h ie ra rch ie s a r e w e l l ma rked among I ber ians , a nd h ave b een d e tec ted t h rough d i f f e ren tl e ve ls o fs t a tu s , b u r ia ls b e ing a n a de -

1 981 :112 ;K r is t ian sen , 1 991 :36 ) . A l though w eapon sa re u sua l ly ap a r to f" r ich" b u r ia l s ( Quesada , 1 989 ) , t h e r i che s t t omb s o fe ach b u r ia l s i te

q ua te i nd ica to r o ft h em . N eve r the le ss , f une rary e qu ip men t s a r e f a r f r om s t anda rd ize , a nd t h e re a r en oi nd is p en sab le o b jec t s among t h em . Ma scu l ine o r f em in ine e l emen t s a r en o te a s i ly d i s t ingu ishab le ,a st h ep re sence / a b sence o fw eapon si sn o t ad e te rm inan tf a c to r .T he a b s ence o fp rec iou s me ta l s , t h er e la t ion sh ip a mong t omb s

may n o t i n c lude t h em , w h ich c ou ld i nd ica te t h a t t h ey w e re n o ti nd ispen sab le a tt h is l e ve l . T ha ti st h ec a se o f t . 1 /145 a t L o s C a s te l lone s d e C ea l ( Chapa e i a L , 1 99 1) ,a nd t h es ame i so b se rved a tB aza , whe re as t a t i s t i ca l a na ly s is s hows t h a tt h a t mo s ti mpo r tan tb u r ia ls i n c lude a t t ic k ra ierae , b ronze b raz ie r s , c har io t e l emen t s

a nd t h e e x is tence o f mu l t ip le b u r ia ls a r e a rgumen t s i n f avou r o f as oc ie ty i n wh ich h e r i tage a nd d ependence

a nd c omp lex b u i ld ings p laced o n c en tra l p o s i t ion s . A r i s toc ra t ic b ehav iou r s hows i t s p r io r ity o ve r a rms

l i e sa r ev e ry i mpo r tan t . A tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI be r ian C u l tu re ( V I -V c en tu -

( Ru iz ,R I squez a nd Homo s , 1 991 :4 16 ) . T he E l i te r e l ied o na na rmed g roup ,w h ich h ad ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h em ,i n c lud ing f i rm o at h s o fl oya l ty . H ence , t h e re w a s a s or t o f m i l i ta ry a r is toc racy ( A lmag ro Gorbea , 1 991 :49 )t h a tw ou ld p e rm i ts ome k i nd o fs oc ia lf l ex ib i l i t y ,a l low ing w a r r io r s t oo b ta in ab e t te rs t a tu sp o s i t ion i f t h ey s e r ved t h e i n te re s t o f t h e r u l ing c l a ss . T h is i sc o -

r i e s BC ) , p owe r s eem s t oh ave b een v ery c en t ra l ized , a nd k ing s s howed t h e ir p owe r t h rough t h ec on s t ruc t ion o f b ig f une ra ry monumen t s ( A lmag ro Go rbea , 1 983 ) . I conog raphy p layed a n i mpo r tan t r o le h e re , a s t h o se men a r er ep re sen ted a ss upe rna tu ra lh e roe s .T he c a se o f P o rcuna i sq u i te r e vea l ing i n t h is s en se , a s ad i sa rmed

h e ren tw i th s ome o the rd e sc r ip t ion so ft h eI V th . c en tu ry BC b e ing p o r t rayed a s amomen t w hen p a t ronage a r i s t o c racy i sd eve loped ( Ru iz yMo l ino s , 1 993 :265 ;S an to s V e lasco , 1 992 :45 ) . D if fe rence s among s oc ia l g roup s a r e b e t te r u nde r s t ood i fw e r ea l ise t ha t I be r ian n ec ropo l is i n c lude a r a the r s ma l l n umbe r o f b ur ia ls . C ompar ing i ndu s t r ia l

2 08

man i sr ep re sen ted h e re f i gh t ing s ucce s sfu l ly a ga in s ta g r iff in . O the r s cu lp tu re s o n t h e s ame monumen t s how h ow ag roup o fI be r ian s o ld ie r sd e fea t sa no the ro ne i na s u rp r ise a t tack ( Negue rue la , 1 990 ) . T h is i s ap r oo f o f h ow h i e ra rch ie s ,t e r r i to r ia l d om ina t ion a nd c on t ro l o ve r p roduc t ion a r eb e ing d e f ined b yt h a tt ime . A tt h ee nd o f t h ef i f th c en tu ry BC w eo b se rve ac hange ,a s w ide rs o c i a l a nd t e r r i to r ia l n e two rk s a r ep re sen t . C en t ra l p lace s

TERESA CHAPA BRUNET e ia l .

( o pp ida ) a r ec on t ro l led b y a ne x tended a r is toc racy t h a t h ad d eepened i t s d i f f e rence s w i th o the r s oc ia l g roup s . P rope r ty o ft h e l a nd a s su red t h e c on t ro l o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion a nd l i ve s tock . M ine s p rov ided t h e mean s t o a ccumu la te p owe r , a s me ta l w a s s t rong ly i nd emand i n

b o th i n land a nd c oa s ta l t r ade . T h is i st h e momen t i n w h ich c eme te r ie sg row ,i n co rpo ra t ing ac omp le te s oc ia l s ec to ri n to f une ra ry r i tua l . We h ave p re sen ted a ne xam p i e o fh ow t h is r i tua l w o rked , a nd i n w h ich w ay s w e c an o b se rve s oc ie ty t h rough i t .

N o te : T h is p ape r i si n c luded i nt h e R e sea rch P ro jec t P S90 0 01I .C IC }T .M in is tery o fE duca t ion .

REFERENCES ALMAGRO GORBEA , M . , 1 983 : " Po w Mo ro . E l monumen to o r ien ta l izan te ,s uc on tex to s oc io -cu l tura l ys u sp a ra l e lo se nL aa rqu i tec tu ra f une ra r ia i b é r ica " . Mad r id er M i t te i lungen 2 4 : 1 77 -392 . 1 991 : " La sn ec ropo l is i b é r ica s e ns uc on tex to m ed i te r ráneo " .J .B lánquez a nd V . A n tona ( Coo rd . ) : " Congre so d e A rqueo log Ia I bé r ica . L a sN ecrópo l i s " U n ive r s idad Au tónoma d e Mad r id . V a r ia I :3 7 -75 . Mad r id . ARNOLD , B . , 1 988 : " S lave ry i nL a te P reh i s to r ic E u rope . R ecove r ing t h ee v idence f o rs oc ia l s t ruc tu re i nI r on A ge .

s oc ie ty" . I nD .B . G ib son a nd M .N . G e se low i tz : " T r ibe a nd p o l i ty i nL a te P reh i s tor ic E urope " : 1 79 -192 . P l enum P re ss .L ondon -N .Yo rk . BARTEL , B . , 1 982 : " A H i s to r ica l R ev iew o fE thno log ica l a nd A rchaeo log ica l Ana lys is o f mo r tuary p rac t ice s" . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 1 :3 2 -58 . B INFORD , L .R . , 1 972 : "Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s : t h e i r s t udy a nd t h e ir p o ten t ia l" . E nL .R . B in fo rd ( Ed . ) : " An A rchaeo l o g ica lP er spec t ive " : 2 08 -243 . S em ina rP re ss . N . Yo rk . BLANQ IJEZ , J . J . , 1 991 : " La s N ec ropo l is I bé r ica s e n e lS u re s te d e L a Me se ta" . E nJ . J . B lanquez a nd V . An tona ( Coo rd . ) : " Congre so d eA rqueo logIa I bé r ica . L a s N ec rópo l is . Umve r s idad Au tónoma d c Mad r id . V ar ia I :2 35 2 78 . CABRE ,J . , 1 925 : " A rqu i t ec tu ra H i spán ica .E ls epu lc ro d cT oya " . A rch ivo E spano ld eA r te yA rqueo log Ia I :7 3 -101 . CABRE ,J . yMOTOS ,F . , 1 920 : " La n ecrópo l is I bé r ica d e T ü :ug i , Ga lera , P rov inc ia d eG ranada " .J un ta S upe r io r d eE xcavac ione s yAn l iguedade s . Memo r ia n '21 ( 1918 ) . Mad r id . CHAPA ,T . yPERE IRA ,J . , 1 991 : " E lo ro c omo e l emen to d ep res t ig io s oc ia le né poca i b ér ica " . A rch ivo E spaño ld e A rqueo log Ia 6 4 : 2 3 -35 . CHAPA ,T .e ta l i i 1 991"La s epu l tu ra 1 /145 d cl an ec rópo l is i b é r ica d cL o sC a s te l lone sd cC ea l( H ino ja re s ,J aén )" ‚

T raba jos d eP reh i s tor ia 4 8 : 3 33 -348 . CHAPMAN ,R . , 1 987 : "Mo r tua ry P rac t ice s : s oc ie ty ,t h eo ry b u i ld ing a nd a r chaeo logy " . I nA . B odd ing ton e ta l . ( ed s . ) : " Dea th , D ecay a nd R econ s t ruc t ion . A pproaches t oA rchaeo logy a nd F oren s ic S c iences " : 1 98 -213 . Manche s te rU n ive r s i ty P re s s . DUDAY ,H . , 1 990 F ERNÁNDEZ CH ICARRO , C . , 1 955 : " P ro specc ión a rquco log ica e n l o s t é rm ino s d c H ino ja re s yL a G ua rd ia ( J aén ) , I ." .B o le t I nd e lI n s ti tu t od eE s :u d io sG ienen se s 1(6 ) : 8 9 -99 . 1 956 : " P ro specc ión a rqueo lóg ica e nl o s t é rm ino sd cH ino ja re s yL a G ua rd ia ( J a6n ) .1 1 ." . ß o le t I nd e lI n s t i tu to d eE s tud ios G ienense s 1 1(7 ) : 1 01 -117 . GARC f A HUERTA ,R . yA 1 "TfONA ,V . , 1 992 : " E tcavac ione sA rqueo lög ica s :L a Y un ta . G un i la la ja ra ." P a t r imomo f l is tó r ico . A rqueo log Ia . C a s t i l la -La Mancha . HODDER ,I . ,1 982 : " S ymbo l si na c t ion" . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . J ORGENSEN ,L . , 1 987 : " Fam i ly b u r ia lp rac t ice sa nd i n he r i tence s y s tem s .T he D eve lopmen to fa nI r on A ge S oc ie ty f r om 5 00 BC t o AD 1 000 o nB or nho lm ,D enma rk " . A da A rchaeo log ica 5 8 : 1 7 -53 . KR IST IANSEN ,K . , 1 991 : " Ch iefdom s , s t a te s a nd s y s tem s o fs oc ia l e vo lu t ion " . I nT .E a r le ( cd ) : " Power , S oc ie ty

2 09

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a nd C h ief dom s" : 1 6 -43 . C amb r idge . LULL , V . yE STEVEZ ,J . , 1 986 : " P ropue s ta m e todo lóg ica p am e ie s tud io d cl a s n ec rópo l is a rgá r ica s" . H omena je a L u i sS i re t ( 1934 -1984 ) : 4 4 1 -452 . S ev i l la . MANGAS ,J . , 1 977 : " Se rv idumb re c omun i ta r ia e nL aB é t ica P r e r romana " . Memor ia sd eH i s tor ia A n t igua 1 .O v iedo . MAYORAL , F . , 1 992 : " La s n ec rópo l is d e l Hor izon te I bdr ico An t iguo d e l Mon t s iá -Ba jo Mae s t razgo " . R ev Lta d ' Arqueo log ia d eP onen t 2 :9 7 -110 . MORR IS ,I . 1 987 : " Bur ia la nd A nc ien tS oc ie ty . T he R i se o ft h eG reek C i ty -S ta te " . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . NEG IJERU IELA ,I . , 1 990 : " Lo s monumen to se scu l tó r ico si bé r ico sd e lC e rr i l lo B lanco d eP orcuna ( Jaén ) " . M in is t eno d cC u i tu ra . Mad r id . PARKER P EARSON , M . , 1 993 : ' The P owe r fu l D ead : A rchaeo log ica l R e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e L iv ing a nd t h e D ead " . C amb r idge A rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l 3( 2 ) : 2 03 -229 PERE IRA ,J . , 1 989 : " La c e rám ica i b é r ica d c L aC uenca d e l Guada lqu iv i r . I . C onc lu s ione s" . T raba jos d eP reh i s tor ia 4 6 : 1 49 -159 . PRESEDO , F . . 1 982 : " La n ecrópo l is d e B a za " . E xcavac ione s A rqueo lóg ica s e nE spana 19 . M in is teno d cC u l tu ra . Mad r id . QUESADA , F . , 1 989 : " Armamen to , Gue r ra yS oc iedad e n l aN ec rópo l i sI bé r ica d e " E lC abec ico d e l T e soro" (Mu r c i a )" . BAR I S5 02 .O xfo rd . RANDSBORG , 1 981 : " Bu r ia l , S ucce s s ion a nd e a r ly s t a te f o rma t ion i nD enma rk " . I nR . C hapman , I .K inne s a nd K . R and sbo rg ( e d s ) : " The A rchaeo logy o fD ea th" : 1 05 -121 .N ew D ir ec t ion si nA r 1 986 : 'T he s t udy o fs l ave ry i n No r the rn E u rope . An A rchaeo log ica l App roach " . A da A rchaeo log ica 5 5(1984 ) : 1 55 -160 . RU IZ ,A . yMOL INOS ,M . , 1 992 : " Los I be ros .A ná l is i sA rqueo lóg ico d eu nP roce so H i s tó r ico" . C r I t ica .B a rce lona . RU TZ ,A . ,R ISQUEZ ,C . yHORNOS ,F . . 1 991 : " La sn ec rópo l i si b énca se nL aA l ta Anda luc ia " .B lánquez ,J . An tona , V( Coo rd ) . : " Congreso d eA rqueo log Ia I bé r ica . L a sN ecrópo l i s " : 3 97430 . Un ive r s idad Au tónoma d c Mad r id . V a r ia I .Mad r id . RUN TA ,L .T . , 1 987 : " The c hem ica la na lys i so fp reh i s tor ic b one s " . BAR I S3 63 . O x fo rd . ‚

SANCHEZ MESEGUE r ,J . yQUESADA .F . , 1 991 : " La n ec rópo i i s i b é r ica d e l C abec ico d e lT e so ro ( Ve rdo lay , Mu r c i a )" . B lánquez ,J . , An tona ,V . ( Coo rd . ) : " Congre so d eA rqueo logIa i bé r ica . L a sN ecrOpo l i s" : 3 49 -396 . U n ive r s i d ad A u tónoma d e Mad r id . V a r ia I .Mad r id . SANTON JA .M . , 1 985 : " Nec rópo i is d c " E lC iga r ra le jo . Mu la ( Mu rc ia ) . E s tud io o s teo lóg ico yp a leopa to ióg ico ( p r ime r ap a r t e ) " .f i o le tIn d el aA soc iac ión E spaf lo la d e Am igo sd el aA rqueo log(a 2 1 :4 6 -57 . SANTOS ,J .A . , 1 992 : " Te m to r io e conóm ico yp o l i t ico d e l s u rd cl aC on te s tan ia I bé r ica " . A rch ivo E spano ld eA rqueo l o g Ia 6 5 :33-47 . Mad r id . SANZ , C . , 1 990 : " R i tua ie s f une ra r io s e n l an ec rópo l is c e l t ibé r ica d c L a s R ueda s . P ad i l la d c Due ro ( Va l lado l id ) " . N ecrópo l i sC e l t ibé r ica s . 1S impos io s obre L os C e l t ibe ros" : 1 59 -170 . I n s t i tuc ión F e rnando e iC a tó i ico . SHENNAN ,S . , 1 975 : " The s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a tBranc " . A n t iqu i ty 4 9 : 2 79 -287 .

2 10

TRANSFOR MAT IONS I N MORTUARY P RAC T iCE AND MEAN ING I N THE NEOL ITH IC AND COPPER AGE OF LO WLAND EAST -CENTRAL I TALY

R OB IN S KEATES T he Q ue en ' sC o l lege O x fo rd , OX 1 4 AW E ng land

h e lp s t ob r idge t h e g ap t h a th a s t r ad i t iona l ly e x i s ted b e t ween t h ed e sc r ip t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l mo r tua ry d epo s i t s a nd g ene ra ld i scu s s ion s r ega rd ing t h en a ture a nd s t a t u so fd ea th a nd mo r tua ry p rac t ice i np r eh is to r ic s oc ie t ie s ( R icha rd s 1 988 : 4 2 ) . I ti sa l so e s sen t ia l , b ecau se i ti s t h rough t h e u se o f c onven t iona l ized s ymbo ls ( i . e . r e la -

I NTRODUCTION

Th i s p ape r f ocu se s u pon ' mo r tua ry p rac t ice s ' ( i . e .

t h e

h ab i tua l , c u s toma ry , o rt r ad i t iona l a c t ion c a r r ied o u tb y t h el i v ing i nr e la t ion t ot h e d ea th a nd s ub sequen td i spo -

e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly l . T h i s c omp r ise s ar e la t ive ly d e ta i led s ca le o f a na ly s i s , b u ti ti so ne wh ich i sj u s t if ied b y t h e

t i on sh ip s o fa c t ion s , o b jec t s ,o r wo rd s i n wh ich ad i rec t , p r ima ry , o r l i t e ra l mean ing a l so me tapho r ica l ly e voke s o r d e s igna te s a no the r i nd irec t , s econda ry o r f i gu ra t ive mean ing Hodde r 1 982 : 1) t h a t mo r tua ry r i tua l s f unc -

n a tu re o f t h e s ub jec t w i th wh ich i ti sc once rned , f o r mo r tua ry r i te s a nd mor tua ry s i te s c an b e b e t te r u nde r -

t i on t o p roduce e xp re ss ion , s t imu la t ion , a nd r e spon se ( Lew i s 1 980 ) . A s S u san Humph rey s s ay s , d ea th p ro -

s t ood i nt e rm so ft h e i rc on tex tua l s pec i f ic i ty a nd d i ve r s i t y , t h an i n r e la t ion t og ene ra l , c ro ss -cu l tu ra l , e xp lana t i on s wh ich u l t ima te ly make f or a u n iform a nd

v ide s as pec if ic r ange o f o cca s ion s a nd ma ter ia ls t h rough wh ich t oc a r ry o u ts uch as ymbo l ic d i scou r se o n l i fe t h rough t h e d i f fe ren t t r ea tmen t s a cco rded t ot ho se w ho se l i ve s h ave e nded i nd i f fe ren t w ay s a nd a td i f fe r e n t s t age s o fd eve lopmen t , t h rough t h eo r ie s a bou t wha t h appen s i nt h e a f te rl i fe , a nd t h rough t h e s ymbo ls u sed

s a l o f m embe r s o f s oc ie ty S yke s , e d . 1 976 : 7 10 , 8 67 ) p e r fo rmed i n t h e l ow land s o f Ab ruzzo a nd Ma rche i n -

-

-

u n in te re s t ing p a s ta sw e move f r om o ne a r ea t ot h en ex t ( Ucko 1 969 : 2 73 ; C hapman a nd R and sbo rg 1 981 : 2 3 ; B a r re t t 1 988 ) . A l though a spec t s o fN eo l i th ic a nd C op p e rA ge s oc ie ty a nd e conomy i ne a s t -c e n t r a lI t a ly a r ei n t r oduced b e low , ab roade r a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round f o rt h is p ape ri sp rov ided b y an umbe ro fr ecen tp ub l ica t i on s ( e .g . B a rke r 1 981 ; R adm i l l i 1 981 ; C remones i a nd T ozz i 1 987 ; C azze l la a nd Mo sco lom 1 988 ; R ad i 1 988 ;

i nf une ra ry r i te s o r e scha to logy t oe xp re ss t h e c on t ra s t b e tween l i fe a nd d ea th ( Humph rey s 1 981 : 9 10 ) . T h ird , mod if ica t ion s o f t h e s ymbo l ic a spec t s o f t h e mor tuary d epo s i t s a r ec on s ide red ,i n c lud ing t h ea ppea rance ,d i sap p ea rance , a nd r e appea rance o f c e r ta in a c t s a nd o b jec t s , a nd t h e ir s imp l i f ica t ion a nd e l abo ra t ion ( B loch 1 986 ) . Ana ly s is o ft h ed a ta i s ,h oweve r ,o n ly ap re l im ina ry me -

L o l l in i ,e d . 1 990 ;S kea te s 1 992 ) . A rchaeo log ica l ly r ecogn i sab le ' mo r tua ry d epo s i t s ' ( d e f ined b y t h e p re sence o f h uman r ema in s ) c omp r i se

t hodo log ica l s t a g e ; we a l so h ave a n o b l iga t ion t oi n te r p re tp reh i s to r ic r i tua l a nd r e l ig ion ( Ga rwood e ta l 1 991 :

t h eb a s ic u n i to fa na ly s is i nt h is p ape r , a nd t h ree i mpo r t a n t d imen s ion s o ft h e se d epo s i t s a r e e xam ined . F i r s t ,

v i i i ; c on t ra H awke s 1 954 ) , a nd s o ,a t amo re c oncep tua l l e ve l , Ih ave c ho sen ( i nt h is p ape ra tl e a s t )t od raw ma in -

t h ec r ea t ion o ft h e se d epo s i t si sc on s ide red i nr e la t ion t o av a r ie ty o fp o ten t ia lc u l tu ra l a nd n on -cu l tu ra lf o rma t ion a nd t r an sfo rma t ion p roce s se s , i n c lud ing : t h e ' r i tua l p ro c e s s ' wh ich may i n vo lve al eng thy l og i st ic s equence o f d y ing ,d ea th , b u r ia l ,a nd e ven r ebu r ia l ( e .g . H e r tz 1 907 ; V an G ennep 1 909 ;T u rne r 1 969 ;H umph rey s 1 981 ;B a r -

l yu pon p o s ts t ruc tu ra l is tt h eo r ie so fs t ruc tu re a nd s oc ia l p rac t ice ( e .g . B ou rd ieu 1 977 ; G idden s 1 979 ; T i l ley 1 990 ) i no rde r t oe xam ine t h e w ays i nw h ich mo r tua ry r i tua ls o pe ra te a nd a r e c hanged t h rough s t r a t e g i e so fs o c i a l r ep roduc t ion ( Bar re t t 1 991 : 8 ) .

t e l 1 982 : 5 2 -3 ) ; a nd f a c to r s a f fec t ing t h e d i f f e ren t ia l p r e serva t ion o fa spec t s o f mo r tua ry p rac t ices i na r chaeo l og ica l c on tex t s ( e .g . O 'Shea 1 981 ; H ende r son 1 987 ) . S econd , t h e s ymbo l ic a spec t s o ft h e se d epo s i t s a r e c on s i de red , i nc lud ing t h e i r ma te r ia l c omponen t s a nd t h e i r s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing . T h is i s au sefu l a pp roach ,b ecau se i t

( Fo r e xamp le s o f

t h e u se o fo t h e rt h eo re t ica l p e r spec t ive s i nt h e s t udy o f r i tua l a nd r e l ig ion , s t ruc tu ra l ism i n p a r t icu la r , s ee : Wh i tehou se 1 992 .) A s f a r a st h e i ro pe ra t ion i sc once rned , mo r tua ry r i tu a l s c an b ec on s ide red a sr e cu r ren ta nd m ean ing fu l s oc ia l p rac t ice s , w h ich a r ep e r fo rmed i nr e spon se t os i tua t ion s

2 11

ROB IN S KEATES

s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd d iv i s ion s ( e .g . B a rke r 1 981 ; f o r as ucc inc ts ummary o ft h e se t h eor ie s s e eC hapman a nd R and sborg 1 981 , a nd f o r e x ten s ive c r i t ic isms s ee , f o r e xamp le , P ade r 1 982 a nd S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 987 : 4 2 4 5 ) , a nd e a r ly ' p o s t -p rocessua l ' s t ud ie s , wh ich empha s i zed t h e i d eo log ica l man ipu la t ion o fm a te r ia l s ymbo l s i n mo r tua ry r i tua l , a nd e spec ia l ly i n s econdary b ur ia l r i te s , t os uppo r t ,l e g i t ima te ,a nd c oncea l t h ep o s i t ion o f ad om inan tp o l i t ica l g roup , a nd t oc oncea l t h a t g roup ' s s t ra teg ies a nd me thod s o f ma in ta in ing s oc ia l i n equa l i ty a nd d om ina t ion ( e .g . S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 982 ; P a rke r P ea r son 1 982 ) , If avou r t h e n ew ' c on tex tua l ' v i ew o f mo r tua ry r i tua l ( p ropo sed b y c er ta in B r i t ish p reh is to r i a n s wo rk ing i nn o r th , c en t ra l , a nd s ou th -ea s t E urope ) wh ich empha s i se s t h e p o ten t ia l o fi t s s ymbo l ic s ys tem t of unc t ion n o t o n ly a s t h e p ro jec to r o fa ni d eo log ica l d i s to r t ion o fs oc ia l r ea l i ty , b u ta l so i n ap o l i t ica l ly d i s c u r s ive a nd s ubve r s ive w ay , i n wh ich d om inan t r e ad i ngs o f t h e c u l tu ra l o rde r a nd t h e s oc ia l wo r ld ( a long w i th t h e ir u nde r ly ing r e la t ion s o fd om inance a nd o b l i g a t ion ) may b ee xpo sed t os c ru t iny ,q ue s t ion ing , r edef i n i t ion , a nd r econ s truc t ion ( e .g . B ou rd ieu 1 979 ; B ra i th w a i te 1 984 ;B a r re t t 1 988 , 1 991 ;C hapman 1 991) . Ma ry B ra i thwa i te w a s o ne o f t h e f i r s t a r chaeo log i s t s t op o in t t h is o u t , n o t ing t h a t " I t mu s tb e a cknow ledged t ha ta l t e rna t ive d i scou r se s a nd mean ing s i n he re i nr i tua l a nd

0 1 11 1

s ymbo l ic p rac t ice s , b o th i n ten t iona l ly , a si nt h e c a se o f Z ande s ec re t s oc ie t ie s , o r u n in ten t iona l ly , t h rough t h e c on t rad ic t ion s a nd amb igu i t ie s o f s ymbo l ic d i scou r se a nd p rac t ice" ( Bra i thwa i te 1 984 :95 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h i s

40km =1 00 1 =)

v i ew , r i tua l s ymbo l ism c anno t n ece ssa r i ly b e c on s id e r ed i n t e rm s o f at wo -way c ommun ica t ion ( wh ich i m p l ie s t h ei n t ended ,u namb iguou s ,a nd s ucce s sfu l i mpar t -

F IGURE 1 . M ap o fN eo l i th ic a nd C oppe rA g es i t e si nt h el ow land so f e a s t -c en t ra l I t a ly w he r em o r tua ry d epo s i t sh a ve b e en i d en t i f i ed : ( 1 )F on t e ro s s i ,( 2 )V i l lagg io R o s s i ,( 3 )G ro t ta d e iP i c c i on i ,( 4 )C a t ignano ,( 5 ) V i l la B ade s sa ,( 6 ) S .A gne se ,( 7 ) R i po l i ,( 8 )L aB ad ia ,( 9 )G ro t ta S an t 'Ange lo ,( 1 0 )V ia D uo m o ,( 1 1 )C a va K o ch ,( 1 2 )A r ea G uz z in i ,e a s t( 1 3 ) V i l la P o t e nz a ,( 1 4 ) V i aM a rcon i ,( 1 5 ) S .G io vann i ,( 1 6 ) V e scova ra , ( 1 7 ) S .R o s s i ,( 1 8 )R ipab ianca .

i ng o fi n fo rma t ion t h rough c oded m e ssage s ) , a l though s ome t ime s t h is may o ccu r . I ti sa l so r e cogn ised t h a t e ach p a r t ic ipan ti n ar i tua l p e r fo rmance c an p o ten t ia l ly c on t r ibu te t o , r e spond t o , a nd i n te rp re t o r ' r ead ' , t h e s ymbo l ic ' t ex t ' o f ar i tua l p e r fo rmance a nd i t s d epo s i t s

o fs t re ss a nd t r an s i t ion t h a to ccu ri nt h es oc ia l wo r ld a s ar e su l to ft h ed ea th o fc e r ta in membe r s o fs oc ie ty ,a nd w h ich c on s t ruc t p a s sage s b e tween l i f e a nd d ea th ( Ba r r e t t 1 988 : 3 1 ) . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h ey i nvo lve f o rma l a nd a l er t ing p e r formance s b y g roup s o f mourne r s wh ich ,a l though g ene ra l ly o n ly c apab le o fc a r ry ing s im p l ea nd g ene ra l me ssages ( B loch 1 986 : 1 95 ) ,o f ten r e f e r t o c u l tu ra l c a tegor ie s , a nd t o s oc ia l p r inc ip le s a nd i d ea l s , w i th r e fe rence t ot h el i v ing a nd t h ed ead . I no p p o s i t ion t o' p roce s sua l ' t h eo r ie s , w h ich made d i rec tc o r r e la t ion sb e tween t h er ema in so f mo r tua ry p rac t ice sa nd

2 12

a cco rd ing t o ar ange o fd ive r se a nd s ome t ime s c on f l ic t i ng e xpe r ience s ( Ge rho lm 1 988 ;B a r re t t 1 991 : 7 ) . G i l b e r tL ew is d e sc r ibe st h es i tua t ion p rec ise ly : 'he r u l ing [ o f ar i tua l ] i se xp l ic i t b u t i t s mean ing may b e i mp l ic i t ; may b ee so te r ic , o re s tab l ished f o ra l l t ok now ,o rf o rgo t ten a nd u nknown ;t o le ran to fi n te rp re t a t ion o nm any l e ve l sa nd b y many i nd iv idua ls ,o ri n to l e r an to fa ny b u tt h es i ng le ' t rue 'm ean ing e s tab l i shed b y t r ad i t ion w i th in t h a t c u l tu re . T he r u l ing i sp ub l ic , c l ea r a nd s oc ia l ;i t s m ean ing may b es o ,o ri tmay b ei nde te r m ina te , p r iva te , v a r iou s a nd i nd iv idua l ." ( Lew is 1 980 : 1 9 ) T he re n eed , t h en , b e n o mo re t h an am in ima l a g ree men to nt h er ead ing so ft h e t e x t( Ba r re t t 1 991 : 7 ) . F u r -

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t h ermo re , t h e n a tu re o ft h e d i scou r se i sn o tn ece s sa r i ly d i rec t . Among s t t h e Me r ina o f Madaga sca r , f o re xam p l e , Mau r ice B loch h a s n o t ed t h a t , " t he i d ea s e xp re ssed i nt h ec i rcumc i s ion r i tua l a r ei s o la ted f r om n o rma l d i s c ou r se b y t h e v e ry n a tu re o f r i tua l c ommun ica t ion , w h ich p lace s w ha t i tc ommun ica te s i n ah azy , n on d i scu r s ive wo r ld , i s o la ted f r om e ven t s a nd a rgumen t " ( B loch 1 986 : 1 95 ) . U l t ima te ly , mo r tuary r i tua l may f unc t ion a sa ni d ea l ized mode l o f , a nd d i scou r se u pon , h ow t oa c t i n t h e d a i ly , l i ved in , w o r ld wh ich e x is ts c omp lemen ta ry t o ,b u to u t s ide ,t h a tw o r ld . F rom ad iach ron ic p e r spec t ive w e c an s ee t h a t , d e s p i te t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic r epe t i t ivene s sa nd a ppa ren tf i x i ty o fr i tua l , a nd t h e c on s t ruc t ion o fa n i mage o ft ime le s s n e ss o ro fc yc l ica l t ime i nr i tua lc ommun ica t ion ( Lew is 1 980 ;B loch 1 986 : 1 84 ) , r i tua ls d o c hange ( pe rhap s e s p ec ia l ly i n n on l i te ra te s oc ie t ie s wh ich ma in ta in o ra l t r ad i t ion s o f k now ledge P ade r 1 982 : 3 8 ) , a l though mo re s l ow ly t h an o the rf o rm s o fs oc ia l a c t ion . T he b a s i cp roce s s t h rough wh ich r i tua l s a r ec hanged i so ne o f t r an s fo rma t ion , wh ich i nvo lve s t h e e l abo ra t ion o r s im -

p l if ica t ion o fp r e -ex i s t ing r i tua l s ymbo l i sm ,a nd t h ej ux t a po s i t ion o ft r ad i t iona l a nd a l te rna t ive s ymbo ls . S uch c hange s c an b ei n ten t iona l ,i nw h ich c a se r i tua l s pec ia l i s t s a nd l e ad ing a c to r s i n t h e r i tua l p er fo rmance o f ten p l ay a n i n f luen t ia l r o le i n t h is p roce ss , p e rhap s s ome t i mes a sp a r to fs t ra teg ie si n tended t oe nhance t h e i ro wn p owe r . F o r e xamp le , F redr ik B a r th , i n h i s s t udy o f ma le i n i t ia t ion c e remon ie s a mong t h e Moun ta in Ok o f I nne rN ew Gu inea ,n o te st h a t ar i tua le xpe r t may ma rg i -

F IGURE 2 . Pl a no ft h eM idd le N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta tC a t i g nano ,w i th p a i r so fh ou se ss u r round ed b yv a r iou sf e a t u r e si n c lud ing t wo d epo s i t so fh uman r ema in s( a f t e rT o z z i1 9 82 ) .

n a l ly r e shape t h ef o rm a nd c on ten to ft h ec u l tu ra l s ym b o ls e mp loyed a te ach n ew p e r fo rmance , i n h a rmony w i th h i s o wn v i s ion s ( Ba r th 1 987 ) ;a nd Mau r ice B loch , a ga in i nh i ss t udy o ft h ec i rcumc is ion r i tua lo ft h e Me nn a o f Madaga sca r , " f ee l [ s ] c onf iden t i n b e l iev ing t h a t many o ft h eo r ig ina to r so ft h ec hange si nt h er i tua l w e re c on sc iou s o f t h e p o l i t ica l i mp l ica t ion s o f wha t t h ey w e re d o ing , a nd t h a t t h is mo t iva ted wha t t h ey d id ." ( B loch 1 986 : 1 62 ) .

S uch c hange s may , i n p a r t icu la r ,

o ccu ra tc on junc t ion s b e tween c hang ing s oc ia l r e la t ion s a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o f a l te rna t ive a u tho r i ta t ive d i s c ou r se s . Howeve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t c hange s i n

t h e a r chaeo log is t , a l though c h rono log ica l ly c oa r se g ra ined , i sv a luab le t o t h e s t udy o f r i tua l , p a r t icu la r ly c on s ider ing Maur ice B loch ' s r ea l iza t ion t h a t at ime s pan o f2 00 y ea r sw a sq u i te i n suff ic ien tf o rs t udy ing t h e p roce s se si n vo lved i nt h ef o rma t ion o ft h ec i rcumc i s ion r i tua lo ft h e Me r ina o f Madaga sca r( B loch 1 986 : 9 10 ) . Wi th in t h is l ong t ime span , f ou r ( s omewha t a r t if ic ia l ) c h rono log ica lp ha se s c an b ed e f ined ( t he E a r ly N eo l i th i c , t h e M idd le -La te N eo l i th ic , t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic o r E ar ly C oppe r Age , a nd t h e M idd le -La te C oppe r Age T ab le 1 ) , a nd i ti st h e c hange s b e tween t h ese t h a t a r e e xam ined . F o r e ach p ha se , as ho r t c h rono log ica l d i s -

r i tua lm ay a l so b el e s si n ten t iona l ,p a r t icu la r ly c on s id e r i ng t h a tr i tua l s a r en o tu sua l ly t h e w o rk o fo ne a u tho r t h ey a r eg ene ra l ly t h er e su l to f ad i ve r s i ty o fi nd iv idua l c on tr ibu t ion s m ade o ve rl ong p e r iod s o ft ime ( Ge rho lm -

-

1 988 : 2 00 ) . I nr e la t ion t ot h is i s sue o ft r an sfo rma t ion , t h is p ape r e xam ine s c hange s i n mo r tua ry r i tua l o ve r at ime span

c u ss ion i sf o l lowed b y ab r ie fo u t l ine o ft h e ma in c u l tu r a l f e a tu re s a nd d eve lopmen t so ft h a tp ha se , a nd t h en a d e sc r ip t ion o fp a t te rn sa nd c hange si nt h e mo r tua ry d a ta i sp rov ided . T he se mo r tua ry p rac t ices a r e t h en i n te r p re ted i nr e la t ion t ot h e i r s pec if ic a nd c hang ing h i s to r i -

o fa bou t3 500 y ea r s , wh ich c omp r ise sb o th t h eN eo l i th i ca nd t h e C oppe r A ge i n e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly ( c . 5 500 2 050 c a l . BC ) . T h is l ong te rm h i s to r ica l p e r spec t ive o f

c a l c on tex t s , a nd w i th r e fe rence t ot h e t h eo r ie s a l ready

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2 13

R OB IN S KEATES

d e scr ibed . Ap rob lem c l ea r ly e x i s t si ne s tab l i sh ing ar e l i ab le s oc ia l c on tex tf o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fs uch mo r t u a ry p r ac t ice i np reh i s to r ic s t ud ie s ,p a r t icu la r ly w i thou t r e f e rence t o mo r tuary d a ta , f o r 'We c anno tp roceed b y a na lyz ing t h e o rgan iza t iona l f o rm o f mo r tua ry d a ta t o r e vea l t h e f orm o f t h e s oc ia l s y s tem , a nd t h en u se t h e f o rm o ft h e s oc ia l s y s tem t oe xp la in t h ef o rm o ft h eb u r i a l d a ta ." ( Bar re t t 1 988 : 3 0 ) . S o ,i n t h i s r e spec t Ih ave h ad t or e ly u pon g ene ra l mode ls o f s imp le a g r icu ltu ra l s oc ie t ie s ( d if fe ren t o ne s f o r e ach p ha se ) d e r ived f r om a n th ropo log ica l g enera l i sa t ion s ( e .g . S ah l in s 1 968 ; Me i l la s soux 1 972 , 1 981 ; B ou rd ieu 1 977 ; T i l ley 1 989 : 2 4 1 -5 ) a nd f r om my o wn v i ew o ft h e c on sen su s o fa r c haeo log ica l o p in ion c once rn ing p reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie si n E u rope .

p rac t ice s ,a nd s oc ia lr e la t ion s ,a nd d eve loped t h es imp le A b ruzzo - Ma rche s t y le o fI mp re s sed a nd I n c i sed Wa re . T he c omb ined e f f ec t o f s ymb io t ic e xchange s w i th t h e c o lon i s t s ,w i th w hom t h ey w e re n ow b rough ti n to much c l o se rc on tac t( bo th s pa t ia l ly b y t h e a r r iva l o ft h e f a rm e r si nt h e i rc oa s ta l t e r r i to r ie s ,a nd s oc ia l ly b y t h er e c ip r oca l n a tu re o f t h e i r e xchange s wh ich e s tab l i shed i n c r ea s ing ly b ind ing r e la t ion s b e tween m embe r s o f t h e t wo g roup s T i l ley 1 989 ) , a nd o f g row ing s oc io e conom ic d emand s a nd p re ssu re s u pon w i ld r e sou rce s -

EARLY NEO UTH IC

a nd u pon t r ad i t iona l s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s ( Bende r 1 978 ) , may h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e r ap id c u ltu ra l d i s in teg ra t i on o ft h e se i nd igenou s g roup s i nt h el ow land s , a nd t o t h e ir r egene ra t ion a s s a te l l i te a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s a l ong t h eb o rde r s o ft h en ew ly e s tab l i shed c oa s ta l c o lo n i e s . ( Examp le s i n c lude t h e o pen s i te s o fF on te ro ss i , V i l lagg io R o s s i , C o l le Magg io , V i l lagg io L eopa rd i ,

T he E a r ly N eo l i th ic i n e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly d a te s t o b e -

C o l le S .S av ino , Mon te C appone , Mon te C o lombo ,a nd R ipab ianca , a nd t h e c ave s i te s o f G ro t ta d e i P icc iom

t ween a bou t 5 500 a nd 4 850 c a l . BC ( Skea te s i np re ss c ) . S i te s o ft h i s p e r iod c an b ed e f ined t ypo log ica l ly b y t h ep r e sence o fI mp re s sed a nd I nc ised Wa re , w h ich c an b ea s s igned e i the r t ot h e s imp le Abruzzo - Ma rche s t y le , o r t o t h e mo re c omp lex s ou th -ea s t I t a l ian G uadone s t y le . I n t h e l ow land s , 1 E a r ly N eo l i th ic o pen s i te s a nd t wo c ave s i te s h ave b een f ound s of a r . T he mo s ti mpo r tan tc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen ta tt h is t ime i ne a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly w a s t h eg radua l t r an s i t ion t ot h eN e o l i th ic ( wh ich c an b e d e f ined , a bove a l l , i nt e rms o f a s e to fi d ea s o rs oc ia l k now ledge wh ich s t ruc tu red e a r ly f ann ing s oc ie t ie s a nd t h e i r w ay o fl i fe ) ( Skea te s 1 992 ; i n p re s s d ) . I n t h e r e la t ive ly o pen wood land s o f t h e c oa s ta l l ow land s o f s ou th -ea s t Ab ruzzo , s ma l l , k in b a sed , g roup s o f i mm ig ran t a gr icu ltura l is t s f r om t he d en se ly p opu la ted n o r the rn h a lf o f t h e T avo l ie re p la in ( def ined b y t he ir u se o f Guadone -s ty le p o t te ry ) may h ave e s tab l ished c o lon ie s a ts ma l l a nd d i spe r sed s i te s w e l l -cho sen t os u i t t ot h e ir p re -ex is t ing s ou th -ea s tI t a l i a ns y s tem o fm ixed a g r icu l tu re . ( Examp le si n c lude t h e o pen s e t t lemen t s i te s a tC o l le S ine l lo , C roce f isso , a nd F on tane l le . ) T h is m ig ra t ion p roce s s a ppea r s t oh ave l ed t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f a n i mpo r tan t c ommun ica t ion s r ou te a l ong t h eA d r ia t ic c oa s t , wh ich c onnec ted t h ec o l o n i s t s t ot h e i r r e la t ive s i nt h eT avo l ie re h ome land , a nd a l ong w h ich e xo t ic g ood s ( e .g . p a in ted f i neware a nd L i p a r i o b s id ian ) , p e r sonne l , a nd n ew i n fo rma t ion c on t in u ed t of l ow n o r thwa rd s t h roughou t t h e N eo l i th ic ( c .f . An thony 1 990 ; Donahue 1 992 ) . I nt h e mo re d en se ly f o r e s ted i nne r l ow land s o f s ou the rn Ab ruzzo a nd a long t h e l ow land s t o t h e n o r th , i nd igenou s ( me so l i th ic ) g roup s m igh t n ow h ave r ap id ly a dop ted t h e ' n eo l i th ic p ackage ' o fc oncep tua l ly l i nked a gr icu l tu ra l r e sou rces ,

a nd G ro t ta S . Ange lo ) . S oc ia l i n equa l i t ie s a nd d epen d enc ie s may h ave d eve loped b e tween t h e se t wo g roup s o fe a r ly f a rme r s i n t h e l ow land s , p a r t icu la r ly w i th t h e e s tab l ishmen t o fc lo se r s oc ia l r e la t ion s b e tween t h em , w i th t h e i mm ig ran t c oa s ta l c ommun i t ie s m a in ta in ing g rea te r g eog raph ica l a nd s oc ia l a cce ss t o s oc ia l ly v a lued n ove l g ood s a nd i n fo rma t ion s upp l ied b y t h e i r s ou th -ea s t I t a l ian h ome land , a nd e n joy ing t e r r i to r ia l r i gh t s o ve r s ome o f t h e mo s tp roduc t ive a r ab le l a nd i n t h er eg ion ( Skea te si np re ss d ) . T u rn ing t o mo r tua ry p rac t ice si nt h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic , s ome h uman r ema in s w e re i n ten t iona l ly d epo s i ted i n s e t t lemen t si nt h el ow land s o fe a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly . T he se i n c luded f our o pen s i te s , a nd t wo c ave s i te s ( o f w h ich t h el a t te rc an b er ega rded a sn on c rop -g row ing r e s iden t i a l s i te s ) . ( Re fe rence st op r imary d a ta a r e ,f o rt h es ake o f s pace a nd f l u id i ty , e xc luded f r om t h is t e x t b u t a r e p rov ided f o re ach s i te a nd p e r iod i nT ab le 1 . ) T he r e ma in s o f b e tween o ne a nd a bou t t h ir teen i nd iv idua ls w e re f ound p e r s i te wh ich p erhap s s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey c omp r i sed ar e la t ive ly s ma l l s amp le o ft h et o ta ln umbe r o f d ecea sed i nd iv idua ls , t h e ma jo r i ty o f w h ich may h ave b een d i spo sed o fi no the r ,a r chaeo log ica l ly i nv is i b l e , w ay s , p o ss ib ly o u t s ide t h ese s e t t lemen t s . ( Of c ou r se ,o n ly s ma l lp o r t ion so fe ach s i te h ave b een e xca v a ted , s o t h e a c tua l n umbe r s o f i nd iv idua ls b u r ied a t t h e se s i te s may , a tl e a s t , h ave b een s l igh t ly h ighe r . ) Wi th in t h e se s i te s , t h e mo r tua ry d epo s i t s a ppear t ob e s l igh t ly d i s t ingu ished ,e spec ia l ly s pa t ia l ly ,i nr e la t ion t o t h e ma in l i v ing a r ea s . F rom av e r t ica lp e r spec t ive ,t h ey w e re a lway sp l aced i np i t sb e low t h es u r face o fc on tem p o ra ry s e t t lemen t d epo s i t s , o f wh ich t h e o ne a tF on te r o s s i w a sa l so s u r rounded b ya ni r regu la rr i ng o fs t one s ;

2 14

R ITUA L R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

t h e o n ly e xcep t ion b e ing t h e r ema in s o f ac h i ld w h ich w e re l a id , p o ss ib ly a s af ounda t ion d epo s i t , o n al a ye r o fs t e r i le s t one s o ve r ly ing t h eb edrock o ft h eG ro t ta d c i P i cc ion ic ave d u r ing t h ee a r l ie s tp ha se o fi t s o ccupa t ion ( f u r the rc u l tu ra ld epo s i t s s ub sequen t ly b u i l tu po ve ri t ) . F rom ah o r izon ta l p e r spec t ive , t h ey w e re a l so f ound a t b ack o ft h em a in c hambe r si nt h e t wo c ave s i te s , wh ich s e em s s i gn if ican t , f o ri ti st h e m idd le a nd f r on t p a r to f c aves wh ich g ene ra l ly s e rve a s t h em a in l i v ing a r ea i n c ave s ( B in fo rd 1 983 ) . We c an s ee , t h en , t h e p re sence

t h ep i ta tF on te ro s s i ) . S uch mo r tua ry d epo s i t s may h ave b een l e f tu ncove red ,f o r d e sp i te t h eg ene ra l ly a r t icu la t e d a r rangemen t o f t h e s ke le ton s , t h ey w e re s ome t ime s i n comp le te a nd f r agmen ted , wh ich m igh t i n d ica te t h a t t h ey w e re l a te r d i s tu rbed e i the r b y a n ima l o r h uman a gency . T he s econdary b ur ia l r i te s s eem t oe xh ib i t a t l e a s tt h ree ma in p ha se s i nt h er i tua lp roces s . I nt h ef i r s t s t age , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een al ong la s t ing o ne ,w ho le b od ie s a ppea r t o h ave b een b rough t t o t h e mo r tua ry s i te s ( e .g . a tG ro t ta S . Ange lo a w ide r ange o f b ody

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F IGURE 3 . P lan o ft h eL a te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta tR ipo l i ,c omp r i s ing over 1 00 e xcava ted c av i t ie s a n d al i n ea rc eme te ry o fb un a lt r enche sa nd c a v i t ie sr unn ing a c ro s st h ec en t re o ft he s i te ( a f te rR adm i l l i 1 981) . a nd s ymbo l ic t r ea tmen to fh uman r ema in sa nd mo r tua ry d epo s i t s i n s e t t lemen t s o f t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic , a nd i t w ou ld s e em t h a tt h ey w e re c lo se ly a s soc ia ted w i th p ro d uc t ive a nd r ep roduc t ive a c t iv i t ie s i nt h ed omes t ic c on t e x t o f t h e se s i te s , a nd t h a t t h ey c on t r ibu ted t o t h e o r d e r ing o fs pace w i th in t h es e t t lemen t . D e sp i t e v a r ia t ion s f r om s i te t os i te a nd al a ck o fp re c i se d e ta i ls i np ub l ished r epo r t s , ab road d i s t inc t ion c an b e d r awn b e tween t h ep e r fo rmance o fp r ima ry a nd s e c o nda ry b u r ia l r i te s . ( Examp le s o ft h ef o rme rh ave b een i d en t if ied a tF on te ro ss i ,G ro t ta d c i P icc ion i ,a nd p roba b l y R ipab ianca , a nd e xamp le s o f t h e l a t te r c ome f r om V i l lagg io R o s s i a nd G ro t ta S . Ange lo . ) T he p r ima ry b u r ia lr i te s g ene ra l ly s e em t oh ave i n vo lved : t h ed epo s i t i on o f t h e b ody o f as i ng le i nd iv idua l ,u sua l ly i n ap i t , i n ac r ouched p o s i t ion , a nd w i th f ew o r n o a s soc ia ted a r tefac t s ( e .g . t h ree u n re touched f l ake s o f c he r t w h ich may , o r m ay n o t , h ave b een i n ten t iona l ly d epo s i ted i n

p ar t s w e re r epre sen ted , i nc lud ing a s ma l l p ha lange ) , a nd may t h en h ave b een d ef le shed i ns ome w ay . I nt h e s econd s t age , c e remon ia l f ea s t ing s e em s t oh ave t a ken p lace , t oj udge f r om t h e r i ch d epo s i t s o ff ood r ema in s ( e .g . w i ld a pp le sa nd a n ima lb one s ,o f wh ich m ea tp a r t s p redom ina te , i n t he G ro t ta S . Ange lo p i t s ) , p o t te ry s he rd s , l i th ic a nd b one a r te fac t s , h ear th s , a she s , a nd c ompac ted s o i l ;a nd ,i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t h is f e a s t i ng ,t h eh uman r ema in s w e re s ub jec ted t ov a r iou s r i tua l t r an sfo rma t ion p roce s se s ,i n c lud ing t h ei n ten t iona lf r ag men ta t ion ,b u rn ing /c rema t ion ,a nd m ix ing o ft h eb one s . I n t h e t h i rd s t age , s ma l l s amp le s o f t h e a l te red h uman r ema in s , a s w e l l a s f a ir ly l a rge s amp le s o ft h ef e a s tr e ma in s , w e re d epo s i ted t oge the ri np i t s d ug i nt h e s ame a r ea a s t h e c e remon ie s ; a nd s ome mo re s pec ia l ised d e p o s i t s w ere s ome t ime s e s tab l ished a d jacen t t o t h e se ( e .g . t h e p i t w i thou t h uman r ema in s c on ta in ing o n ly f i ne f i gu l ina s he rd s , a nd t h e p i t c on ta in ing o n ly p ig

2 15

R OB IN SKEATES

b one s , a tG ro t ta S . Ange lo ) . I n a dd i t ion , i ti se v iden t t h a t t h e s econda ry b u r ia l r i tes w e re p e r formed r e cu r r en t ly , i n t he s ame p l ace s a nd o n d i f fe ren t o cca s ion s ( e .g . o ne o ft h e mo r tua ry p i t sw a sd ug i n to t h ef i l lo fa n o the ra tG ro t ta S . Ange lo ; a nd t h en ume rou s , s upe r im p o sed , s t ra t ig raph ic u n i t s c on ta in ing h uman r ema in s i n t h ec av i t ie s a tV i l lagg io R o s s i ) . T he mo r tua ry d epo s i t s a l so e xh ib i t ac e r ta in d eg ree

T he se v ar iou s p a t tern s c an b e i n te rp re ted i n an umbe r o fw ay s . T o b eg in w i th , t h e mo r tua ry d epo s i t s f ound i n t h e s e t t lemen t s may h ave b een i n t ended t os ymbo l i se d ea th . I an Hodde r ( 1990 : 2 7 -9 ) h a s a rgued ,f o re xamp le , t h a t t h e s t o rage a nd s a fe -keep ing o fh uman r ema in s i nn eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s may h ave s e rved t h e i nhab i tan t s , o n t h eo ne h and ,a s ac on s tan tr em inde ro fd ea th a nd mo r -

F IGURE 4 . Coppe r Age s i t e ss i t ua ted a l ong t h eP o t enza v a l ley n ea rR a c ana t i : ( 1 )t h eE a r ly Coppe r Age s e t t lemen t a t A r ea G uz z i n i Wes t ,( 2 ) t h eM idd le C oppe rA ge s e t t lemen ta n db u r ia l a tA rea G uz z in iE a s t ,( 3 )t h eM idd le -La te C oppe rA ge c eme te ry a t

C ava K o ch ( F on tenoce ) ,a nd ( 4 )t h eM idd le -La te Copper A g eb u r ia l a tV i aD uomo 1 09 . o fs pa t ia l p a t te rn ing w i th r e spec t t ot h ea ge o ft h ei nd i -

t a l i ty ,i n c lud ing i t sp er va s ivene ss a nd i t sd ange rt os oc i e t y , a nd o n t h e o the r h and a s a n a t temp t t oc u l tu ra l ly

v idua ls r ep re sen ted . A t t h e c ave s i te s t h e r ema in s o f o n ly c h i ld ren a nd ' j uven i le s ' ( at e rm a c tua l ly u sed i nr e l a t ion t o t h e G ro t ta S . Ange lo r ema in s t oi n c lude n o t o n ly 1 4 -16 y ea ro ld s b u t a l so i nd iv idua ls a ged b e tween

c on t ro l a nd d ome s t ica te d ea th . F o rt h e mo s tp ar t ,h ow e ve r ,d ea th a nd i t sd i sp lay a ppea rt oh ave b een b an ished f r om s e t t lemen t s a nd f r om s oc ie ty ( C r iado 1 989 : 8 3 -4 ;

1 8 a nd 2 0 y ea rs w h ich m igh t b e b e t te r d e sc r ibed a s y oung a du l t s ) we re f ound , w he rea s a tt h e o pen s i te s , a t l e a s ti nt h ep r ima ry b u r ia l d epo s i t s ,o n ly t h er ema in s o f a du l t s w e re f ound . T he r ema in s o f ac h i ld w e re a c tua l -

Hodde r 1 990 : 7 3 ) . An a na logy m igh t b e d rawn h e re w i th K rahó e scha to logy ( i . e . d oc t r ine o f d ea th ) , i n wh ich t h e n ew d ead a r e k ep t e i the r o u t s ide t h e s oc ia l

l y f ound a tR ipab ianca , b u t a ga in as pa t ia l d i s t inc t ion may h ave b een ma in ta ined h e re , f o r t h e b one s w e re

s phe re ,a nd i nb o th c a se s t h ey a r ee xc luded f r om t h es o c i e ty o ft h el i v ing ( Ca rne i ro d aC unha 1 981 : 1 65 ) .

s pace o f t h e v i l lage o r a r e c on f ined t o t h e d ome s t ic

f ound s ca t te red i n t h e p lough s o i l t o t h e s ou th o f t h e

T he p r ima ry b u r ia ls m ay a l so h ave r e la ted t ob e l ie f s c once rn ing t h e e x is tence a nd s p ir i tua l p owe ro fa nce s t o r s . S uch b e l ie f s h ave b een w ide ly i d en t i f ied b y a n -

ma in s e t t lemen t a rea a nd n o t i n t h e c l ea r ly d ef ined g rave s i n wh ich t h er ema in so ff ou ra du l t s w e re f ound . One o f t h e l a t te r w a s d esc r ibed a s o ld -aged , a nd t h e s ame c an b e s a id o ft h e s ku l l o fa na du l tf ema le ,w h ich w a s a s s igned a n a ge o f a bou t 5 0 -55 y ea r s , a nd wh ich h ad b een s pec ia l ly p l aced i n as ma l lp i ta tt h eb o t tom o f t h el a rge c av i ty ( IA ) a tV i l lagg io R o ss i ( who se f i l l a l so c on ta ined d i sar t icu la ted a nd c r ema ted h uman r ema in s ) .

t h ropo log is t s i ns imp le a g r icu l tu ra l s oc ie t ie s ,w here t h e w ea l th a nd p ro spe r i ty o ft h el i v ing ( p a r t icu la r ly p roduc t i on a nd r ep roduc t ion ) i so f ten c oncep tua l i sed a sb e ing c on t ro l led b y s uperna tu ra l s p ir i t s , wh ich a r el i nked d i r e c t ly t h ough f am i ly ( o rl i neage )a nce s to r st ot h ee l de r s , who a c ta sr i tua l med ia to r sb e tween t h ec o smo s a nd t h e

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s oc ia lw o r ld ,a cco rd ing t o ap r inc ip le o fa n te r io r i ty ( e .g . Me i l la s soux 1 972 ; T i l ley 1 989 ) . T he r i tua l d epo s i t ion o f t h e r ema in s o f c e r ta in ( pe rhap s s pec ia l ly s e lec ted ) n ew ly d ecea sed membe r s o f s oc ie ty w i th in s e t t lemen t s may t h e re fo re h ave b een i n tended t oe n su re t h e ma in te n ance o fd i rec tr e la t ion s w i th t h ea nce s to r s : t h rough t h e r e inco rpo ra t ion ( bo th p hy s ica l ly a nd c oncep tua l ly ) o f t h o se i nd iv idua ls a s a nce s to r s w i th in t h e o n g o ing l i fe o ft h er e s iden t ia l g roup , a nd t h rough c on t inued w o r sh ip w h ich f ocu ssed u pon t h e v ene ra t ion o f t h e i r r ema in s . T h e g ene ra l c oncep to ft h e a nce s to r s ( and ar e la ted e s c ha to logy c once rn ing t h e d ecea sed a nd t h e i r p hy s ica l a nd s p ir i tua l r ema in s ) may h ave b een i n t roduced i n to e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly d u r ing t h e m id s i x th m i l lenn ium C a l . BC a sp a r to ft h e ' n eo l i th ic p ackage ' , wh ich c an b e d e f i ned a s as ha red s e to fn ew c oncep ts w h ich s t ruc tu red ma te r ia l t h ing s ,d a i ly a nd r i tua lp rac t ice s ,a nd s oc ia l r e l a t ion sh ip s i n e a r ly f a rm ing s oc ie t ie s ( e .g . C hapman 1 988 ;T homa s 1 989 ) . T he mo re e l abo ra te s econda ry b ur ia l r i te s may , o n t h e o t he rh and , h ave b een mo re c once rned w i th r ecu r r en t a ppea ls t o al e ss a n th ropomo rph ised c o smo s , a nd w i th e xp re ss ing m e s sage so fg roup u n i ty a nd c on t inu i ty i nr e ac t ion t ot h e d ea th o f membe r so fs oc ie ty . T he a s s oc ia t ion o f f ea s t ing w i th t h e se r i te s , f o r e xamp le , m igh tb ei n te rp re ted o nt h eo ne h and a s a( hope fu l ly r e c i p roca l ) t h ank sg iv ing o r ien ted t owa rd s t h ei nhab i tan t s o ft h e' O the r Wo r ld 'w i th r e fe rence t ot h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h e l i v ing a nd o ft ho se s ub s is tence r e sou rce s c r i t ica l t ot h e r ep roduc t ion o f s oc ie ty ( Leach 1 976 ; B loch a nd P a r ry 1 982 ) , a nd o n t h e o the rh and a sa n a t temp t t op romo t e a nd p rac t ice c o -ope ra t ion a nd s har ing b e tween mem b e r s o f t h e g roup , p a r t icu la r ly t h rough t h e c e remon ia l p repa ra t ion ,s e rv ing ,a nd s ha r ing o ff ood . T he r e cur ren t p e r fo rmance o ft h e se r i te s ,p o s s ib ly a s' c a lend r ica lr i te s ' w h ich a r ee nac ted a tw e l l -de l inea ted p o in t si nt h ea nnu a l p roduc t ive c yc le o f a g r icu l tura l s oc ie t ie s ( Turne r 1 969 ) , m igh t l i kew ise h ave c on t r ibu ted t o as en se o f g roup c on t inu i ty o ve r t ime . F u r thermo re , t h eb reakage , b u rn ing /c rema t ion , a nd m ix ing o f b one s b e long ing t o d i f fe ren t p eop le m igh t b e i n te rp re ted a s a n a t temp t t o o b l i te ra te a l l t r ace s o f t h e d ecea sed p e r son a sa n i nd i v idua l a nd t o empha s ise t h e s o l idar i ty o f t h e l i v ing g roup ( a s i n c e r ta in mega l i th ic t omb s i nn o r the rn E u r op e S hank s a nd T i l ley 1 982 : 1 50 -1 ; T homa s 1 985 : 5 53 ) . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e s i te s whe re t h e se s econ d a ry b u r ia l r i te s w e re p e r formed ( i . e . V i l lagg io Ro s s i -

a nd G ro t t .a S . Ange lo ,w h ich l i ei nt h ei nne rl ow land so f Ab ruzzo ) may h ave b een i nhab i ted b y i nd igenou s g roup s w ho , d e sp i te t h e ir a dop t ion o f s i gn if ican t e l e men t s o ft h e ' n eo l i th ic p ackage 'f r om s ou th -ea s tI t a l ian n eo l i th ic c o lon is t s i nt h e c oa s ta l l ow land so fs ou th -ea s t

Ab ruzzo ,c ou ld s t i l lh ave r e ta ined a spec t s o ft h e i rt r ad i t i ona l c u l tu re . T he p e r fo rmance o f t h e se d i s t inc t ive s econda ry r i tes m igh t t h en b e i n te rp re ted n o t o n ly i n t e rm s o fa ne xp re ss ion o fg roup u n i ty a nd c on t inu i ty i n t h ef a ce o fd ea th ,b u ta l so a sa ne xp re ss ion o fu n i ty a nd c on t inu i ty i nt h ef ace o fi n te r fe rence s t ot h eg roup 's s o c i a l a nd e conom ic l i fe c au sed b yg row ing c on tac t s w i th t h ec o lon is t s ( c .f .T i l ley 1 989 ) ,a nd a s ar e af f i rma t ion o f t h e i ro wn t r ad i t iona l r e l ig iou s b e l ie f s ( wh ich may h ave r e fe r red t o al e s sa n th ropomo rph ised c o smo s ) . T he mo r tua ry r i te s a nd t h e i rd epo s i t s may a l so h ave b een u sed ,l e s s d i rec t ly , b yt h e i ro rgan i se r s t or e in fo rce o rd r aw a t ten t ion t oc er ta in ( po s s ib ly i d ea l ised ) s t ruc tu r a l c l a ss if ica t ion s a nd d i v is ion s i n s oc ie ty ( Tu rne r 1 969 ) . W i th in t h e s e t t lemen t s , t h es pec ia l mo r tua ry d e p o s i t s , i na dd i t ion t op a thways a nd e nc lo su re s , m igh t h ave b een b een u sed t os t ruc tu re a nd d ema rca te s oc ia l s pace a nd s oc ia l d iv is ion s ,t h rough t h er e s t r ic t ion o fa c c e s s t o ,a nd t h ef ocu s s ing o fa t ten t ion u pon ,c e r ta in a r e a s( Tu rne r 1 977 ) . T h is c ou ld h ave b een d one a sp a r to f s oc ia l s t ra teg ie s i n tended t or educe s oc ia l t e n s ion s a nd c onf l ic t s ,a nd f o rma l ise s oc ia l i n te rac t ion s a nd b ehav i o u r , w i th in t h e n ew ly s eden tary g roup s t h a t o ccup ied t h e se s e t t lemen t s ( c .f . C ohen 1 985 ) . T he u se o fd i f fe r e n tb u r ia lp l ace sf o rd i f fe ren ts oc ia lc a tego r ies m ay a l so h ave c on t r ibu ted t o s t ruc tu ra l c l a s s i f ica t ion s a nd d i v i s i on s i n s oc ie ty , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se b a sed u pon a ge . Among s tt h eS hona ,f o re xamp le ,b ab ie sa nd o the rc h i l d ren a r e b u r ied n ea r t of l ood w a te ra nd a way f r om t h e r e s t o f t h e p opu la t ion ; a nd among s eve ra l Ghana ian t r ibe s , c h i ld ren a r e p l aced a tc ro s s road s , w h ich a r e r e g a rded a sp l ace so fd i spe r sa l t h a th e lp t os ca t te rt h ep o t e n t ia l ly a nnoy ing h ab i t s o f i nd iv idua ls who w e re , b y t h e ir a ge ,s t i l lo n ly i n c ip ien th uman b e ing s ( Ucko 1 969 : 2 70 -1) . I n t h e E ar ly N eo l i th ic o fe a s t c en t ra l I t a ly , t h e a ppa ren t s pa t ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion o f a du lt s f r om y oung p eop le m igh t b e i n te rp re ted n o t s imp ly i n t e rm s o f a s ymbo l ic d i s t inc t ion b e tween e l de r s a nd j un io r s , b u t a l so a s as t ra tegy d e s igned t o ma in ta in , l e g i t im i se , a nd e x tend t h e a u tho r i ty a nd p owe r o f t h e e lde r s ( Skea te s 1 991) , ( who ,a f te ra l l ,p r e sumab ly o rgan i sed t h er i tua ls , a nd who may h ave a c ted a sr i tua l med ia to r sw i th t h ea n c e s to r si nt h ep r imary b u r ia lr i te s ) . Ap r inc ip le o fa n te r i o r i ty , wh ich e ncou rage s t h e d ependency o f ' t ho se who c ome a l te r ' u pon ' t ho se w ho c ome b efo re ' , i sl i ke ly t o h ave f o rmed t h e b a s is f o r t h is s oc ia l c on t ro l ( Me i l la s s oux 1 972 ; T i l ley 1 989 ) , w i th s en io r i ty r eckoned a c c o rd ing t oa ge ; a nd i ti st h i s , i np a r t icu la r , wh ich may e xp la in t h e s e lec t ion o f s ome r e la t ive ly o ld a du l t s f o r s pec ia l mo r tuary t r ea tmen t ( i .e . s e t t lemen t b u r ia l ) a t V i l lagg io R o ss ia nd R ipab ianca .

2 17

ROB IN S KEATES

MIDDLE AND LATE NEOL ITH IC T he m idd le a nd l a te s t age s o f t h e N eo l i th ic i n e a s t c en t ra l I t a ly c an ,t o ge the r ,b ea s s igned t o at ime -span o f a bou t4 850 t o4 200 c a l . BC ( Skea te si np re ss c ) . T he i r a r chaeo log ica l d e f in i t ion b a s ica l ly r e l ie s u pon f i nd s o f p a in ted f i newa re ( d eco ra ted i nt h eC a t ignano a nd R ipo l i s t y le s ) , wh ich a r es of a rr e s t r ic ted i nt h e ir d i s t r ibu t ion t o l ow land s i te si n Ab ruzzo ,i nc lud ing e i gh to pen s i te sa nd f ou rc ave s i te s . O ne o ft h e ma in c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t s t ot a ke p l ace

t i on wh ich d rew t oge the r an umbe r o f s ma l l a nd d i s p e r sed E a r ly N eo l i th ic g roup s i nt h eP e scara p rov ince . An umber o f f ac to r s m igh t h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e ir e me rgence a sc en t res ,i n c lud ing : t h e i rt e r r i to r ia l c on t ro l o fv a luab le s ub s i s tence r e sou rce s( e spec ia l ly p roduc t ive a r ab le l a nd ) , t h e i r mob i l isa t ion o fl o ca l p roduc t s t oe s t a b l ish s oc ia l d ependenc ie s ( e spec ia l ly t h rough t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f f ood s u rp lu se s t o t h e ir n e ighbou r s ) , a nd t h e ir s oc ia la nd g eog raph ica la cce s s t ol o ng -d i s tance e x c hange n e two rk s a nd c ommun ica t ion s r ou te s ( pa r t icu l a r ly w i th t h e' c o r e 'r eg ion o fs ou th -ea s tI t a ly ) .

i nt h el ow land sa tt h i s t i me w a st h ee me rgence o f af ew , r e la t ive ly l a rge , o pen s i te s a s c en t re s o fp opu la t ion , l o c a lp roduc t ion ,a ccumu la t ion ( o fe xo t ic g ood s ) ,a nd c e r e mon ia l ( Skea te s 1 992 ) . T he M idd le N eo l i th ic s i te a t C a t ignano c omp r i se s ag ood e xamp le ,h av ing b een r e la t i ve ly w e l l e xcava ted a nd p ub l i shed b yC a r lo T ozz i a nd h i s c o l league s ( e .g . P i t t i a nd T ozz i 1 976 ;T ozz i 1 982 ) . S ur face r ema in s w e re f ound h e re o ve r a n a r ea o f b e t ween a bou t2 0 ,000 a nd 3 0 ,000 m ( wh ich i sa bou tf i ve t ime s t h e s i ze o ft h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s a tF on tane l le a nd S an to S tef ano ) . Ar e la t ive ly s t ab le ,g ene ra l i sed ,l o c a l ly a dap ted ,a nd p e rhap sh igh ly p roduc t ive a g r icu l tu r a l s y s tem s eem s t oh ave b een e s tab l i shed a tt h is w e l l p l aced s i te , i n vo lv ing t h ec u l t iva t ion o f aw ide r ange o f i n te rdependen tc e rea l a nd p u lse c rop s , a sw e l l a s s t ock k eep ing ,a nd t h es upp lemen tary g a th er ing o fw i ld f r u i t s , n u t s , a nd s eed s , a nd t h e h un t ing o f w i ld a n ima ls ( P i t t i a nd T ozz i 1 976 : 1 04 ;C o s tan t in i a nd T ozz i 1 983 ) . C a t t i e b reed ing a ppea r s t oh ave b een p a r t icu la r ly s ucce ss f u l ,f o r ar e la t ive ly l a rge p ropo r t ion o fc a t t le b one s w a s i d en t if ied a t t h is s i te ( 30% o f a l l a n ima l b ones , c om p a red t oa na ve rage o f 8% a tE a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te si nt h e l ow land s o f e a s t -c en t ra l I t a ly ) . An ew a nd d i s t inc t ive s t y le o fp a in ted f mewa re w a sp roduced a t ,o ri nt h ea r ea o f , t h is s i te , wh ich c an b es tb ed e sc r ibed a s ar eg iona l ly d i s t inc t s t y le o fs ou th I t a l ian e vo lved ' r ed p a in ted w a re '

F IGURE S . Ad oub le c a v i ty f r om t h eM idd le C oppe rA g e s e t t lemen ts i t ea tA r ea G uzz in iE a s tn e a rR e cana t i c o n t a in i n g ac r ouched i n d iv idua la c compan ied b y t wo p o t te r yv e s s e l s( a f te rP e rco s s iS e r ene l l ia nd S i lve s t r in i L a vagno l i 1 9 88 ) . ‚

( Ma lone 1 985 ) , a l though i ta l so e xh ib i t s s im i la r i t ie s t o e a r ly p a in ted p o t te ry f ound a t c ave s i te s a c ro s s t he Apenn ine s i n Umb r ia a nd L az io ( Pa sse n 1 970 ; D e lp ino a nd F ugazzo la D e lp ino 1 987 ) . A n e xc ep t iona l ly h igh p ropo r t ion o fi mpo r ted p i ece so fo b s id ian ( 5% o ft h et o t a l n umbe r o fl i th ic a r tefac t s ) w a s a l so f ound h e re ,a nd s amp le s o f t h e se a nd o the r p iece s f r om V i l la B ade ssa w e re a l l s ou rced t o L ipar i ( B igazz i a nd R ad i 1 981) , w h ich ,l i ke t h ep a in ted f meware ,p o in t s t oe xchange r e l a t ion s s ou thwa rd s a l ong t h e Ad r ia t ic c oa s t . T he s i te s b o th a tC a t ignano a nd V i la B ade ssa m igh t h ave b een

T urn ing t o mo r tua ry p rac t ice s , t h e r e levan t d a ta c ome f r om f ou r s e t t lemen t s i te s a l l o fw h ich h e i nt h e P e sca ra p rov ince o f Ab ruzzo : t h eo pen s i te so fC a t igna n o , V i l la B ade ssa , a nd S . Agne se , a nd t h e c ave s i te o f G ro t ta d c i P icc iom . ( The d a ta f r om S . Agnese a r e o f l i t t le v a lue ,f o rt h ey c omp r i se s i ng le f r agmen t s o f ah u -

e s tab l ished b y s ma l l g roup s o fi mm ig ran t s o r ig ina t ing f r om t h ec rowded n o r the rn h a lf o fT avo l ie re P l a in ( T ine

man c r an ium a nd af emu r f ound o n t h e s u r face o f t h e s i t e . ) C on t inu i ty c an b ei d en t i f ied i np a r t icu la r . A s b efo re ,

1 983 : 1 77 ) , b u t t h ey c ou ld a l te rna t ive ly h ave b een e s t a b l i shed t h rough al o ca l p roce ss o fs e t t lemen t n uc lea -

o n ly as ma l l s amp le o fi nd iv idua l s w a sa cco rded f o rma l mo r tua ry r i te s w i th in t h e se s e t t lemen t s ( t he r ema in s o f

2 18

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

f ou r i nd iv idua l s w e re f ound a tC a t ignano , t wo a tV i l la B ade s sa ,a nd f ou ra tG ro t ta d e iP i cc ion i ) . T he mo r tuary d epo s i t s a l so c on t inued t oc on t r ibu te t ot h eo rde r ing o f s pace w i th in t h e s e t t lemen t s , b e ing , o n t h e o ne h and , c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th p roduc t ive a nd r ep roduc t ive a c t i v i t ie s i n t h e d ome s t ic c on tex t , b u t o n t h e o the rh and , s l igh t ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h em a in l i v ing a r ea s . T h i s c an b e s een c l ea r ly a tC a t ignano w he re e x ten s ive a r ea e xcava t ion sr evea led t h a tt h eb ody o fa na du l th ad b een p laced i n ab e l l s haped c av i ty ( p i t9 a ) , p robab ly p rev i o u s ly u sed a s ac rop s t o rage s i lo , w h ich c omp r i sed o ne o f ag roup o fc av i t ie s s ur round ing al ong -hou se ( mea s u r ing a bou t 1 7 m i nl e ng th , a nd a bou t 7m i n w id th ) , a nd t h a tt h eb ody o f ay oung c h i ld w a sp l aced i n ap o s t h o le a tt h e f r on t c or ne r o f a n a d jacen t h ou se ( F igu re 2 a ) . I tc an a l so b e s e en a tG ro t ta d e lP icc ion i w he re t h e r ema in s o f f ou r c h i ld ren a nd a s soc ia ted mo r tua ry d e p o s i t sw e re d i s t ingu ished f r om t h e ma in s e t t lemen ta r ea ( wh ich p robab ly c omp r i sed t h em idd le a nd f r on tp a r to f t h is l a rge c ave )b yt h e ir l o ca t ion o n al a rge s l ab o fs t one a tt h eb ack o ft h ec ave ( F igu re 2 b ) . C on t inu i ty c an a l so b e s e en i nt h e p e r fo rmance o ft h eb u r ia l r i te s , w i th t h e p r ima ry r i te s a ga in i n vo lv ing t h ed epo s i t ion o ft h ea r t ic u l a t ed b ody o f ad ecea sed i n d iv idua li n ac rouched p o s i t i on i n ap i t ( a s a tC a t ignano a nd V i l la B ade ssa ) , a nd t h e s e conda ry r i te s a ga in i n vo lv ing t h e p l ac ing o f t h e d i sa r t icu la ted r ema in s o f mo re t h an o ne i nd iv idua l t o g e the r w i th r i ch f e a s tr ema in s i ns pec ia l , p a t te rned , d e p o s i t s( a s i nt h e ' L eve l o ft h eC i rc le s ' i nG ro t ta d e i P ic c i on i S kea te s 1 99 1 : 1 26 -7 ) . -

Aga in s t t h is g ene ra l b ackg round o f c on t inu i ty i n mo r tua ry p rac t ice s ,o ne p o s s ib le c hange a nd o ne c e r ta in c hange c an b ei d en t i f ied . T ob eg in w i th , ap o s s ib le i n c r ea se may h ave t a ken p l ace i nt h er i tua la t ten t ion g i ven t oa du l t women a nd c h i ld ren i nb o th o pen a nd c ave s e t -

a tt h is t ime , t h rough t h ea dd i t ion o f ma te r ia l e l emen t s b roken p o t te ry i np a r t icu la r wh ich h ad p rev iou s ly o c c u r red o n ly i nt h es e conda ry b ur ia lr i tes . A tC a t ign ano , -

-

f o r e xamp le , ab roken g r ey b ow l w a s p laced b y t h e h ead o ft h ec h i ld ,a nd t h eb ody o ft h ea du l tw a sd epo s i t e d i n t h e c av i ty i n t h e m idd le o f ah omogeneou s f i l l c omp r is ing " an e xcep t iona l a bundance o fp a in ted p o t t e ry" ( Tozz i 1 982 : 1 09 ) , a s w e l l a s o the r s he rd s o f c oa r se - a nd f i newa re , c ha rcoa l , a nd o rgan ic ma t te r . T he l a t te rc ou ld p o ss ib ly c omp r ise t h e r ema in s o f af u n e ra ry f e a s t . P a in ted f i newa re v e sse ls w e re a l so f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e a du l tb u r ia ls a tV i l la B ade s sa . A ga in ,t h e se p a t te rn sd emand i n te rp re ta t ion . T he c on t inued r i tua l p l ac ing o fs pec ia l mo r tua ry d e p o s i t s i n at r ad i t iona l m anne r w i th in l ow land s e t t le men t s d u r ing t h eM idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic c an , t ob e g in w i th , b e i n te rp re ted i nt h e s ame t wo b a s ic w ay s a s i nt h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic : o nt h eo ne h and ,a s af a i r ly d i rec t e xp re ss ion o f b e l ief s c once rn ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f d ea th ,t h en ew d ead ,a nd t h ea nce s to r st os oc ie ty i ng en e r a l , a nd t oi nd iv idua l ,f am i ly -ba sed , u n i t s o fr e s idence a nd p roduc t ion i np a r t icu la r ;a nd o nt h eo t he rh and a sa mo re i nd irec t e xp re s s ion o f c er ta in a ge - a nd g ende r b a sed p r inc ip le s a nd d i v is ion s i n s oc ie ty , wh ich m igh t b e s tb e r ega rded a si d ea ls p romo ted b y t h e e l de r s w ho d i rec ted t h e r i te s . Howeve r , t h e e l abo ra t ion o ft h ep r i ma ry b u r ia l r i te s a nd t h e p o s s ib le i nc rea se i nr i tua l a t t e n t ion g i ven t oc e r ta in a du l t women a nd c h i ld ren r e q u i re s l igh t ly amended i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he se c hange s i n t h ef une ra ry t r ea tmen t o fs e lec ted membe r s o f t h e g roup m igh t , i n p ar t icu lar , h ave b een

t l emen t s i te s a tt h i s t ime . A t C a t ignano , f o r e xamp le , a n o l d woman w a s s i ng led o u t f o rf u l l p r ima ry b u r ia l ,

b rough ta bou tb y t h ee l de r s ( who p robab ly d i rec ted t h e r i te s ) a s p a r t o f ag ene ra l p o l i t ica l s t ra tegy wh ich w a s c oncerned , o n t h e o ne h and , w i th e nhanc ing t h e c ohe s i on a nd i d en t i ty o ft h en ew k in sh ip g roup o rc ommun i t y wh ich i nhab i ted t h e n ew ly e s tab l ished s e t t lemen t c en t re s ;a nd o n t h eo the rh and w i th i n c rea s ing t h e o u t -

a nd a tV i l la B ade ssa t h e t wo a du l t s who r e ce ived p r i ma ry b u r ia l r i te s w e re i d en t i f ied a s women . T he o ld w oman a tC a t ignano h ad at r epanned s ku l l , a nd h e rc o r -

p u t o f d ome s t ic p roduc t ion a nd t h e i r c on t ro l o ve r i t , p o ss ib ly w i th in ab roade r c on tex t o fg row ing c ompe t i t i on b e tween k in sh ip g roup s a nd c ommun i t ie s p a r t ic i -

a coac rom ia l l i gamen t d i sp layed d amage w h ich w a s p robab ly c au sed b y r epe t i t ive p hy s ica l s t re sse s o n h e r

p a t ing i na ne xpand ing s y s tem o fc e remon ia l a nd l ong d i s tance e xchange . T he c hange s i n t h er i te s e xemp l ify t h e se s ugge s t ion si n an umb e ro fw ay s . T ob eg in w i th , t h ep o s s ib le a dd i t ion o ff une rary f ea s t ing t ot h ep r inuuy b u r ia l r i te sm igh tb er e ga rded ( a s w a s s ugges ted f o rt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s econda ry b u r ia l r i tes ) a s a no the r a t t emp t t op romo te a nd p rac t ice c oope ra t ion a nd s ha r ing b e tween membe r so ft h eg roup ,p a r t icu la r ly t h rough t h e c e remon ia l p repa ra t ion , s e rv ing , a nd s har ing o f f ood . S econd ly , t h ei n t roduc t ion o f s ymbo ls o ft h e d ome s t ic c on tex t , i n c lud ing t h e b roken p o t te ry v e sse ls a nd b urn t

s hou lde r( Robb i np re s s ) . ( Compa rab le I t a l ian n eo l i th ic b u r ia l s o f a du l t i nd iv idua l s w i th t r epanned s ku l ls h ave b een f ound a tG ro t ta d e l L eone a nd G ro t ta P a tr iz i i n w e s tc en t ra l I t a ly a nd a tT ra sano i nB a s i l ica ta Wh i te -

h ou se 1 992 ; R obb i np re ss ) . T he r ema in s o ft h ree c h i l d ren w e re a l so f ound a tC a t ignano , a nd t h e r ema in s o f a n i n fan t a nd t h ree y oung c h i ld ren w e re f ound i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve ls a tG ro t ta d e i P icc ion i ( a s i n t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic c ave s ) . S econd ly , a nd mo re c e r ta in ly , t h ep r ima ry r i te s s e em t oh ave b een e l abo ra ted s l igh t ly

o rgan ic r ema in s , m igh tb ei n te rp re ted a s a n a t temp t t o

2 19

ROB I N SKEATES

CALBC 5 500

PHASE EN

S ITE ( P rov ince ) F on te ro ss i ,L ama Manz id e lP dign i( PE ) V i l lagg io R os s i Ma rc ia o s se ( CH ) G ro t ta d c iP icc ion i B o lognano ( PE )

4 850

M -LN

EN /ECu

R el in i 1 914 , 1 932 & Macch ia re l l i 1 989 H edges e ta l . 1 990 :212 G en io la & Ma l legn i 1 975 G en io la 1 982 C r emon es i 1 976 . R adm i l l ie ta l . 1 978 :

G ro t to S . Ange lo L aR ipe ( FE ) Mon te rado ( AN )

R adm i l l i 1 975 . R ipab ianca ,C o r ra in & C ap i tan io 1 968 .

C a t ignano ( PE )

P i t t i &T oz7 i 1 976 : T on i 1 982 R obb & Ma l legn ii np r es s . C r emon es i 1 976

G ro t to d c iP icc iom B o lognano ( PE ) S .A gn ese , C i r ri G ro t ta S . Ang e lo ( PE ) V i l la B adessa ( PE ) 4 200

P R I MARY PUBLICAT IONS

R ipo l i( ‚ FE )

D cP ompe is 1 978 . G e rmana e ia l . 1 990 D a 1 1 'O s so 1 915 R e l l in i 1 9 34 P a rc il i 1 957 S ca is in i 1 978

3 250

M I -Cu

L aB ad ia R osa 1 871 : 5 03 , 1 874 : C o r ropo l i( FE ) 1 90 -2 . A rea Guzz in iE a s tPe rco s s iS e rene l l i& R ecana t i (MC ) S i lve s t r in iL avagno l i 1 984 -6 :382 ; 1 988 . C ava K och G a l l i 1 941 ,1947 -50 ; R ecana t i( MC ) V ia D uomo 1 09 R ecana t i( MC ) V i l la P o tenza (MC ) S .G iovann i C ame r ino ( AN ) S .R occo Mon t eS .V i to ( AN ) V escova ra O s imo ( AN ) V ia Ma rcon i L o re to ( AN )

R el in i 1 941 . L o l l in i 1 968 :413 L o l l in i &C ap i tan io 1 970 U npub l i shed m a te r ia li nB o logna Mu s eum . L o l l in i 1 974 : 2 50 -1 , 1 917 5 ,1917 8 : 9 5 -6 . B ev i lacqua 1 874 :7 P igo r in i 1 897 : 9 8 C o l in i 1 898 : 2 16 . A nn iba ld i 1 95 1 -2 . L o l l in i 1 978 :79 ; ( ' aiz ela & Mo sco lon i

2 050

1 98& 3 66 .

T ab le 1 :S umma ry o fN eo l i th ic a nd C oppe rs i tes i ne as t -cen t ra lI t a ly w i th f i nd so fh uman r ema in s

220

R ITUAL , R ITES AN D REL IG I ON I N PREH IST ORY

NO . 1

CONTEXT

OTHER F INDS

HU MAN REMA INS

C oa rsewa re , f i gu l ina d i shes , 1s he rd r ed

D i tch

3c rouched a du l ts

7 x3 .7 x0 .5 i n .

7 +d i sa r t icu la ted , i n -

p a in ted , s ands tone p ebb les , 2b l ades a nd

c lud ing s t acked l ong b ones ,

3f l akes o fc he r t , b oar s 't e e th , c ow b ones , p l as te r , c ha rcoa l , e spec ia l ly i nu pper d e p os i ts o fb lack f i l l .

2

3

4

5

6

R ec tuangu la rd i tch

5c rouched ; 3 +d i sa r -

' S tanda rd f i nds 'e spec ia l ly i nu ppe r

1 0x2 . 1 x0 .8 m .

t i cu la ted , i n c lud ing a s ku l l ,

d epos i ts , a r t icu la ted d og b y f e e to f awoman , c harcoa l .

Ova ld i tch

1s ke le ton , m inus f emu rs

Abundan t' s tanda rd f i nds '

55 2 .9 x 0 .35 m .

a nd t i b ia .

C ircu la rc av i ty

1v e ry d i sa r t icu la ted

Abundan tf i nds , a bundan t f i ne b l ack

2 .5 d ia . x0 .85 i n . d eep

i nd iv idua l ,

b u rn ished w are , l a rge p ieces o fs ands tone

C ircu la rc av i ty

1d i sa r t icu la ted a nd

2b rok en c a lca reous d i sks a nd as i ng le

2 .6 d ia . x0 .4 m .

i ncomp le te i nd iv idua l ,

f i na r rowhead i nt h e f i l l . H ea r th

E l ip t ica l c av i ty 3 .5x1 .5x 0 .7 m .

7 8

9

1 0

1

C av i ty d i tch

3c rouched

B lack c up n ea r t h e b ones

S em ic ircu la rc av i ty

Af ew s he rds o fp a le f i gu l ina a nd r ough

2m .d ia .

c oa zsewa re 2c rouched ;

L igh ta nd b l ack s he rds , a nd 2s i ng le f i n

2d i sa r t icu la ted

a r rowheads i nt h eu pper d epo s i ts .

D i tch

1 4i nd iv idua ls : c rouched

S carce s he rds o fc oarse ware a nd f i gu l ina

1 5x 2 .5 m .

a nd s up ine

Ova ld i tch 4 x2 .5 m .

2 ?d i sa r t icu la ted a du l t s ;

C av i ty

1c h i ld

T ab le 2 . R ipo l lC e me te ry ( Da ta f r om R e l l in i 1 934 : 2 0 -22 )

221

3s he rds c oa rsewa re

R OB IN SKEATES

l e g i t ima te t h e mo r tua ry a r ena a s ac u l tu ra l ly a pp rop r ia te c on tex t f o r s oc ia l a c t ion ( Chapman 1 991 : 1 61-2 ) . T h i rd ly , t h ed epo s i t ion o fp a in ted f mewa re v e s se l s d ec o ra ted i nt h e C a t ignano s ty le ( ar eg iona l v a r ian t o ft h e s ou th I t a l ian e vo lved ' r ed p a in ted w a re ' t r ad i t ion )i nt h e g rave s o f t h e d ecea sed a du l t s m igh t b e i n te rp re ted i n t e rms o f au se o f ma te r ia l s ymbo ls o f b o th l o ca l a nd w idesp read c u l tura l v a lue t os i gn ify t ot h ef une ra ry a u d i ence : ac once rn w i th t h e w e l l -be ing o ft h a tp e r son i n t h e a f te r -wo r ld ; t h e i den t i ty o f t h e d ead p e r son a s a memb e r ap a r t icu la r a nd l eg i t ima te c u l tu ra l g roup ( i . e . t h e n ew ly e s tab l ished l o ca l k in sh ip g roup o rc ommun i t y ) ;a nd t h ec on tac t s o ft h a tp e r son a nd t h e i rg roup w i th e xo t ic a nd d i s tan t p eop le a nd p lace s ( bo th i n Th is Wo r ld ' a nd i n The O the r Wo r ld ' ) ( c .f . T homa s 1 991) . F ina l ly , t h e p o ss ib ly i nc rea sed e mpha s is u pon c h i ld ren a nd a du l t w omen i nt h e mo r tua ry r i te s m igh t a ga in b e i n te rp re ted a sa ne xp re ss ion o fb o th r e ve rence a nd i n s t i t u t iona l ised r ep re ss ion o f c h i ld ren a nd p e rhaps a l so w omen a sk ey p ar t ic ipan t s i nt h ed ome s t ic l a bou r , p ro d uc t ion , a nd r ep roduc t ion o ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t y( c .f . Me i la s soux 1 981) . My p rev iou s i n te rp re ta t ion ( Skea te s 1 991 : 1 31 -2 ) o f t h e r i tua ls p e r fo rmed i n t h e ' L eve l o f t h e C irc le s ' a tG ro t ta d e i P icc ion i ( w i th i t s s ymbo l ic d epo s i t s o fc h i ld s ku l ls a nd i n f an tr ema in s )a s i n i t ia t ion r i te s f o rj un io r membe r s o f s oc ie ty c on t inue s t o make s en se i n t h is c on tex t . ( The r i tua l u se o f c ave s i te s i np reh is to r ic I t a ly h a s b een c on s ide red e x ten s ive l yo ve rr e cen ty ea r s ,a nd Id on o ti n tend t or e i te ra te t h is d i scu ss ion h e re , b u t f o r f u r the r d e ta i ls s ee : G r ifon i C remone s i 1 984 ; Ma lone 1 985 ; Wh i tehouse 1 990 , 1 992 ;a nd S kea te s 1 991 ,i np re s s . ) F INAL NEOL ITH IC /EARLY COPPER AGE

w ide b r im s ' ) . An ew r ange o fs t one w eapon s a l so m ade t h e ir f i r s ta ppea rance a tt h i s t ime ,i nc lud ing a r rowhead s a nd l ong b l ade -ba sed a r tefac t s o f c he r t , a nd g round s t one macehead s . Av a r ie ty o f ma jo rc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t s t o ok p l ac e a tt h is t ime t h roughou t e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly , wh ich w e re p o ss ib ly t r igge red b y ac omb ina t ion o f : i n c rea s ing d e mand s u pon l o ca l p roduc t ion b y c ommun i ty l e ade r s p a r t ic ipa t ing i ne xpand ing a nd i n c rea s ing ly c ompe t i t ive a l iance a nd e xchange s y s tem s , a nd g row ing e co log ica l p re s su re s u pon r e s t r ic ted r e sou rce s i nt h el ow land s a sa r e su l t o fc on t inued h uman e xp lo i ta t ion a nd as h if t t oa s l igh t ly c oo le r a nd d r ie r ' S ub -Bo rea l ' t ype o f c l ima te ( Skea te s 1 992 ) . F o r e xamp le , l ong -d i s tance e xchange r e ached ap eak a tt h is t ime ,w i th g rea te rq uan t i t ie sa nd a w ide r r ange o f e xo t ic g ood s a nd i d ea s f l ow ing f r om mo re d i rec t ion si n to e a s t -cen t ra lI t a ly t h an e ve rb efo re . N ew s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s w e re a dop ted i n t h e l ow l a nds , i n c lud ing i n ten s if ica t ion ( o fw ood land c l ea rance , s t ock k eep ing ,a nd f ood s t o rage ) ,d ive r s if ica t ion ( wh ich l e dt o as i gn if ican ti nc rea se i nt h ec on sump t ion o fw i ld f oods ) , a nd s p ec ia l isa t ion ( s uch a sc he r tq uar ry ing a nd t h e p oss ib le e a r ly m i lk ing o f c a t t le a nd s heep ) ; a nd c hange s i nt h eo rgan isa t ion a nd d i v is ion o fl a bou rm ay h ave a ccompan ied t h e se d eve lopmen t s . S e t t lemen tp a t t e rn s a l so d eve loped s i gn if ican t ly a tt h i s t ime w i th , o n t h e o ne h and , at h re sho ld o f s e t t lemen t d en s i ty b e ing r e ached a l ong t h el owe r s ec t ion s o f ma jo rr i ve r v a l ley s i nt h ec oa s ta l l ow land s w h ich h ad p rev iou s ly c omp r ised t h et r ad i t iona ln eo l i th ic s e t t lemen tz one i nt h el ow land s ; a nd o n t h e o t he r h and s e t t lemen t b reak ing o u t o f t h is z one , i n ag radua l a nd s ma l l -sca le p roce s s o fc o lon isa t i on , i n to p rev iou s ly p er iphe ra l g eog raph ica l z one s ( w i th d en se rf o re s t s ,p oo re rs o i ls ,a nd l i t t le o rn os i gn o f p rev iou s s e t t lemen t ) u pwa rd s ( On to h i l l s f l ank ing t h e -

T he F ina lN eo l i th ic o rE a r ly C oppe rA ge i ne a s t -cen t ra l

A dr ia t ic c oa s ta nd ma jo rl ow land r i ve r v a l ley s ) , i n land

I t a ly b e long s t o at ime -span o fa bou t4 200 t o3 250 c a l . BC ( Skea te s i np re ss c ) . I n t h e l ow land s , at o ta l o f3 4 k nown s i t e s c an b ea s s igned t ot h is p e r iod ,o fw h ich 2 4 a r eo p en s e t t lemen ts i te s ,e i gh ta r ef i nd -spo t s o f ma in ly l i th ic a r te fac t s , a nd t wo a r ec ave s i te s . F inewa re o ft h is

( a long ma jo rr i ve rv a l ley s i n to t h e i nne rl ow land s , a nd f u r the r o n i n to t h e i n te rmon tane v a l ley s , d ep re ss ion s a nd b a s in s o ft h e i n te r io r ) , a nd n o r thwa rd s ( a c ro s s t h e T ron to r i ve rv a l ley i n to t h e Ma rche r eg ion ) . P re -em inen tr eg iona l c en t re s ( o f s e t t lemen t , p roduc t i on ,e xchange ,a nd c on sump t ion ) may h ave e me rged i n t h eo ld s e t t lemen tz one a tl ong la s t ing s i te s wh ich w e re

p ha se i sc ha rac te r ised b y : d ec rea s ing q uan t i t ie so fg en e r a l ly u npa in ted ( i .e . p l a in ) ' f i gu lma ' ,o fw h ich al o ca l ly d i s t inc t ive v e sse lt ype a tR ipo l ii s ac a r ina ted d i sh d eco r a ted w i th u p t o t h ree r ows o f p a s t i l le s a pp l ied t oi t s s t ra igh t -s ided a nd i nve r ted n eck ( s ome t ime s d e sc r ibed a s ' R ipo l i S tudded Wa re ' T rump 1 966 : 6 6 ) ; a nd i n c r ea s ing q uan t i t ies o fb l ack b u rn ished w a re ,o fw h ich a c ha rac te r is t ic v e sse l t ype i s at r uncocon ica l b ow l w i th a no u tt u rned r im d eco ra ted o nt h ei n s ide b y as c ra tched -

( a nd s ome t ime s c o lou r -f iled )b and o fh a tched t r i ang le s p l aced b e low t h e r im ( o f ten d e scr ibed a s ' d ishe s w i th

f i r s t e s tab l ished d ur ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic a nd w h ich m a in ta ined l ong -d i s tance e xchange r e la t ion s ,p a r t icu la r l ya l ong t h eA d r ia t ic c oa s tw i th g roup si ns ou th -ea s tI t a l y( s uch a s R ipo l i a nd F o s sace s ia ) . R ipo l i i nn o r the rn Ab ruzzo i st h e b e s t e xamp le , h av ing b een e x ten s ive ly e xcava ted a nd r e la t ive ly w e l l p ub l ished f o ro ve r ac en t u ry ( Cape l l in i 1 871 ; R o sa 1 871 , 1 872 , 1 874 ; C o l in i 1 910 ; P igonn i a nd P e t tazzom 1 911 ; D a l l 'O sso 1 915 ; R e l l im 1 934 ;R adm i l l i a nd C remone s i 1 963 ;C remone s i

2 22

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

1 965 ) .

R ad ioca rbon d a tes s ugges t t h a t t h i s s i te w a s

h ook a nd c l ay w e igh t s ( Re l l in i 1 934 : 2 6 ; C remones i 1 965 ) ; a nd i mp ress ion s o f b a r ley a nd emme r w hea t w e re i d en t if ied a tt h e s i te ( Eve t t a nd R enf rew 1 971 ) .

c on t inuou s ly o ccup ied f o ra bou t9 00 y ea r s ( f rom a bou t 4 600 t o3 700 c a l . BC A le ss io e ia l . 1 971 ; A zz i e ia l . 1 973 ; C remone s i 1 965 : 1 52 ) . I ti sl oca ted a t 2 5 i n a bove p r e sen td ay s ea l e ve l ,o nt h ee nd o f af l uv ia l t e r r a ce wh ich f l ank s t h e R ive r V ib ra ta , a nd i nt h em idd le o f i t s b road l owe r v a l ley , f ou r k i lome t re s i n land f r om -

Mo re g enera l ly , t h e s i te s t and s o u t a s an ode o f e x c hange a nd a ccumu la t ion i n t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C oppe r A ge o f e a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly , t h rough t h e p r e sence o fe xo t ic g ood ss uch a sl a rge q uan t i t ie so fL ipa r io b s id i a n ( Ha l lam e ia l . 1 976 ) , a tl e a s t o ne g reen s tone a xe , a l a rge p i ece o fg rey p um ice , a nd av a r ie ty o fs e a s he l l s ,

t h e p re sen t -day A d r ia t ic c oa s t l ine . S e t t lemen t d epo s i t s e x tended o ve r a n a r ea o f a bou t 3 5 ,000 m2 ( wh ich i s

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a .F on t e ro s s i b .G ro t ta d e i P i cc ion i c .G ro t t a S .A nge lo d . R i pab ianc a e .C a t ignano f .V i l la B ade s sa g .G ro t ta d e iP i c c ion i h .R i po l i c eme t e ry i .A rea Guzz in i E a s t j .C ava K o ch c eme t e ry k .V i a D uomo 1 0 9 1 .S .R oc co i n . V e s cova ra c em e t e ry T ab le 3 : M in imum n umbe r s o f i n d iv idu a l s i n t h e s am e g r av e/ f ea tu re a nd a t t h e s ame s i t e ( f o r t h o se s i t e s w h e re s t a t i s t i c s a r e a va i lab l e )

s im i la r t ot h e e x t en to fo the rL a te N eo l i th ic s i te s i nt h e l ow land s o f Ab ruzzo ) , a nd t h e s i te w a s e nc lo sed , a t l e a s tp a r t ly , b y al a rge d i tch w h ich mea sured a bou t 5i n i n d ep th , a nd 7 .5 i n i nw id th a tt h e t op ( Radm i l l i a nd

a nd t h rough av a r ie ty o fs t y l is t ic l i nk s t ot h e p o t te ry o f o the rg roup s s i tua ted a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h e I t a l ian p e -

C remone s i 1 963 ) . C hange s i nt h e c ompo s i t ion o ff au -

A ge i nt h el ow land so fe a s t -cen t ra lI t a ly s of a rc ome e x c l u s ive ly f r om d epo s i t s a tR ipo l i . T he se d epo s i t s c an

n a l a s semb lage s c an b e i d en t if ied b e tween t h el a te a nd f i na ls t age so ft h eN eo l i th ic ,w i th a ni n c r ea se i nt h ep ro p o r t ion a nd r ange o fw i ld a n ima l s pec ie s ( f rom 1 0% t o 2 1% o ft h et o ta l n umbe ro fa n ima lb one s ,a nd f r om 3t o 1 3 d i f f e ren t w i ld s pec ie s ) , a nd s l igh t i nc rea se s i n t h e p ropo r t ion so fc a t t le a nd o v icap r id s ,b o th a tt h ee xpen se o fp i g s ( wh ich d rop f r om 5 0% t o2 6% o ft h et o ta l n um b e ro fa n ima lb one s )( C remone s i 1 965 ) . F i sh ing i ss ug g e s ted b y t h e p re sence o f al a rge U -shaped b one f i sh

n in su la . Mo r tua ry d a ta f o r t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C oppe r

p robab ly b ea s s igned t ot h is c h rono log ica lp ha se ( r a the r t h an t ot h eL a te N eo l i th ic )d ue t ot h ep re sence o fc h ron o log ica l ly d i agno s t ic a r te fac t s i nt h em ,i nc lud ing s he rd s o fb lack b u rn i shed f i newa re , f i gu l ina d i she s w i th p a s t i l le s ,a r rowhead s , amace -head ,a nd o n ly t wo s h e rd so f r ed p a in ted p o t t e ry . B a s ic c on t inu i ty i n mo r tua ry p rac t i ce sc an b ei d en t if ied a tt h is t ime ,b u to n ly i nt h ree g en e r a l a r ea s : f i r s t ly ,i nt h ec on t inued d epo s i t ion o fh uman

2 23

ROB IN SKEATES

r ema in si nc av i t ie s w i th in t h e s e t t lemen tc on tex t ,g ene r a l ly i na s soc ia t ion w i th w ha t a ppea r t ob e t h e r ema in s o f f e a s t s ( i .e . p o t te ry s he rd s , a n ima l b one s , a nd c ha r c oa l ) ;s econd ly i nt h ec on t inued p l ac ing o ft h eb od ie so f d ecea sed i nd iv idua ls i nc rouched p o s i t ion s i np r ima ry

m igh th ave b een t a ken o u to ft h e g rave s ( f o ri n spec t ion a nd d i sp lay ,f o re xamp le ) ,a nd t h en l a te rr edepo s i ted i n o t he rg rave si nt h ec eme te ry ,a sw e l l a si nt h ef ou rc av i t i e s s i tua ted e l sewhe re i n t h e s e t t lemen t . ( Th i s m ay h ave h appened t ot h es i ng le s ke le ton i nc av i ty 3 , who se l e g b one s w e re m is s ing , b u t who se u ppe r b ody p a r t s s eem t o h ave r ema ined i n a r t icu la t ion . ) On ly a f ew g oods a ppea r t oh ave b een d epo s i ted d i rec t ly w i th t h e h uman r ema in s , i n c lud ing ab l ack c up n ea r t ot h e i nd i v idua l s i nc av i ty 7 ,a nd t h ea r t icu la ted b ody o f ad og b y

b u r ia ls ;a nd t h ird ly i nt h ec on t inued empha s i s u pon t h e f o rma l b ur ia l o fa du l t s , w i th , a cco rd ing t ot h e e xcava t o r , t h e r ema in s o f l e a s t 4 4 a du l t i nd iv idua ls a nd j u s t o ne c h i ld b e ing r ep re sen ted i n t h e c eme te ry ( a l though t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t ha t s ome o f t h e ' a du l t s ' w e re a c tua l ly j uven i le s ' c anno tb e d i scoun ted J .R obb p e t s . c omm . 1 993 ) . O the rw i se , mo r tuary p rac t ice s s eem t o h ave

t h ef ee to fa na du l t w oman i nc av i ty 2 . E ven tua l ly , a l l o f t h e c av i t ie s w e re f i l led u p , n o t o n ly b y h uman r e -

-

b een t r an sfo rmed q u i te d r ama t ica l ly a tF ina l N eo l i th ic / E a r ly C oppe r Age R ipo l i , t h rough t h e c r ea t ion o fn ew s pa t ia l a r ena s f o r t h e p e r formance o f mo r tua ry r i te s , a nd t h rough af u r the r ma te r ia le l abo ra t ion o ft ho se r i te s .

m a ins ,b u ta l so ( e spec ia l ly t oward s t he t o po ft h ec eme t e ry c av i t ie s ) b y r i ch d epo s i t s c on ta in ing c ha rcoa l a nd n ume rou s a r tefac t s , s uch a sp o t tery v e s se l s a nd s he rd s , a n ima l b one s , s t one t oo l s , g r ind s tone f r agmen t s , a nd p la s te rf r agmen t s . No t a l o ft h e se may h ave b een d e p o s i ted i n ten t iona l ly i nt h ec av i t ie s ,b u ti nc av i ty 1t h ey d os eem t oh ave b een ,f o rt h ey w e re f ound i n ac l ea r ly d ef ined s ma l l t r ench ( i n a n u n spec i f ied p o s i t ion i n t h e c av i ty ) . T h is f e a tu re w a sf i l led b yd ark b l ack s o i l ,c ha r c oa l , s and s tone p ebb le s , s h e rd s o fc oar sewa re a nd f i ne w a re ,b oar s 't e e th ,a nd c a t t le b one s , wh ich m igh tt o ge th -

F o r e xamp le , i na dd i t ion t ot h e d i scovery o fs i x h u m an b one s i np o ss ib ly r e -u sed d ome s t ic c av i t ie s ( c av i t i e s XXV , 8 ,9 ,a nd 1 ) , ad i s t inc t c eme tery a r ea w a s a l so i d en t if ied i n t h i s s e t t lemen t . T h is ( u l t ima te ly ) c omp r ised ar ow o fn ine c av i t ie s , t h e ma jo r i ty o fw h ich s e em t oh ave b een d ug i n ten t iona l ly a sg rave s ,l y ing i n al i ne a c ro s s t h e c en t re o ft h e s e t t lemen t ( F ig . 3 ;T ab le 3 ) . T he r ema in s o fa tl e a s t4 5 i nd iv idua ls w e re r e cov e r ed f r om t h ec eme te ry ,a nd n umbe r s o fi nd iv idua l s d e p o s i ted i ne ach c av i ty v a r ied w ide ly ( f rom 1 4i nc av i ty 1 0 , t oo ne i nc av i t ie s3 , 4a nd 5 ;i nc on t ra s t t ot h ep r i ma ry b u r ia ls a tM idd le N eo l i th ic o pen s e t t lemen t s i te s wh ich g ene ra l ly c on ta ined j u s t o ne i nd iv idua l ) . A s i n e a r l ie r t ime s , t h e f i r s t ma in s t age i n t h e b ur ia l r i te s p robab ly i nvo lved t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e a r t icu la ted b ody o f a n i nd iv idua l i n ac rouched p o s i t ion i n t h e g rave . Howeve r , t h ef o l low ing s t age s i nt h er i tua l p ro c e s s i nd ica te a n e x ten s ion a nd e l abo ra t ion o fp rev iou s p r ima ry b ur ia l r i te s , a nd t h e ( r e ) in t roduc t ion o f s econ d ary b u r ia l r i te s ( wh ich w e re f i r s ts een i nt h eE a r ly N e o l i th ic , b u ti n ad i f f e ren t f o rm , i nvo lv ing t h e s ma sh ing

e rh ave c omp r ised t h er ema in so f amo r tua ry f e a s t . T he o the rc av i t ie s w i th h uman r ema in s s i tua ted o u t s ide t h e c eme te ry a r ea g ene ra l ly c on ta ined mo re d i s t inc t ive f i l ls , w h ich m igh tb ei n te rp re ted a sc ache so fs pec ia l o b jec t s , i n a dd i t ion t o wha t a ppea r t ob e d epo s i t s o f f e a s t r e ma in s . ( They c e r ta in ly s e em t ob e mo re t h an j u s t ' a cc i d en ta l ' d epo s i t s o f ' d ome s t ic r ubb ish ' . ) C av i ty XXV , f o r e xamp le , c on ta ined a h uman t i b ia , a mace -head , s ome a r rowhead s , s ome p e r fo ra ted s ea s he l ls ,a nd t h ree b one a w ls , i na dd i t ion t on ume rou s s he rd s o f c oa r se a nd f i newa re , a nd s ome c he r t f l ake s a nd b l ade s ; a nd c av i ty 8c on ta ined t wo f r agmen t s o f ah uman t empo ra l a nd 5 9p i ece s o fo b s id ian ( comp r i s ing 6 6% o f t h e t o ta l q uan t i ty o fo b s id ian f ound a tF ina lN eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C op p e r Age R ipo l i ) ,i na dd i t ion t o aw ide r a nge o fa r tefac t s o fp o t te ry ,b aked c l ay , s t one ,b one ,a nd s he l l ,a nd s ome a n ima lb one s .

a nd c r ema t ion o f b one s ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e b od ie s may h ave b een l e f t t od ecompo se , u ncove red , i n t h e ir g rave s . ( Th is i ss ome th ing wh ich m igh ta c tua l ly b ed i s t i ngu ished a rchaeo log ica l ly w i th c arefu l t a phonom ic w o rk J .R obb p e r s . c omm . 1 993 . ) T hen ,o nl a te ro cca s i on s ( p re sumab ly h av ing l o s tt h e ir f l e sh ,e i the rn a tu ra l -

Aga in , t h e se p a t te rn s i nt h e mo r tua ry d a ta r equ ire i n t e rp re ta t ion . B e low , t h e c eme te ry w i l l b e d i scu ssed f i r s t , a nd t h en t h e o the r c av i t ie s w i th h uman r ema in s

-

l yo ra r t if ic ia l ly ) s ome o ft h e se b od ie s s e em t oh ave b e c ome d i sa r t icu la ted . T h is a ppea r s t oh ave h appened t o a bou t h a lf o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o fi nd iv idua l s b u r ied i n t h ec eme tery ( f o r o n ly a bou th a lf o ft h em r ema ined a r t i cu la ted , a nd o ne o f t h em w a s l e f t h a lf -a r t icu la ted ) . T h is r e a r rangemen t o ft h e b one s may s ome t ime s h ave b een a cc iden ta l ,b u ti tw a s c e r ta in ly i n ten t iona l i nc av i t y 1w he re l ong b one s b e long ing t o t h ree i nd iv idua ls w e re a c tua l ly s t acked . F u r the rmo re , s ome o ft h eb one s

w i l lb ec on s ide red ,b e fo re t u n ing t o ag ene ra li n te rp re ta t i on o ft h et r an sfo rma t ion sw hen c on s ide red a s aw ho le . T he l i nea rc eme te ry a nd t h e e x tended mo r tua ry r i te s w h ich w e re p e r fo rmed t h e re m igh th ave b een u sed a sa b a s is f o rt h er epea ted s ymbo l ic e xp re ss ion ,d e l inea t ion , a nd r ep roduc t ion ( w i th r e f e rence t ot h el i v ing ,t h ed ead , a nd t h e h i s to r ica l o rde ro f t h ing s ) o f : l i neage s ; ac om mon d e scen t f o r t h e c ommun i ty ; a nd r e la t ed c oncep t s c once rn ing t h e i nhe r i tance , o wne r sh ip , a nd a ccumu la -

2 24

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i on o fv a luab le r e sou rce s ( r a the rt h an a s ab a s i sf o ra p p ea l s t ot h ea nce s to r s ,f o re xamp le ) . T h i s s ugge s t ion i s p r ima r i ly b a sed u pon L ynne Go ld s te in ' s ( 1981 ) r e fo r mu la t ion o fA r thu r S axe ' s ( 1970 ) ' h ypo the s i s # 8 ' ( bo th o f w h ich a r e b a sed u pon c ro ss -cu l tu ra l e t hnog raph ic d a ta ) , w h ich s t a te s t h a tt h ea ppearance o f amo re f o rma l d i spo sa l a r ea mo s tl i ke ly r ep re sen t s t h e r egu la r , r i tua l , r e -a f f irma t ion o f ac o rpo ra te g roup p rac t is ing l i nea l d e -

i n g ly ; a nd t h e h uman b one s m igh t , o n t h e o ne h and , h ave b een u sed t o s anc t ify a nd l e g it im ise t h e se n ew s pa t ia l a r ena s a sp l aces f o rt h ep er fo rmance o fc e remo n i e s , a nd , o n t h e o t her h and , t h ey m igh t h ave b een r e g a rded a s p owe r fu l s ymbo l ic r e sou rce s i n t h e ir o wn

a nd Mo sco lon i ( 1985 ) f o r as im i la r l i nk ing o f f o rma l c eme te r ie s t o c o rpo ra te k in g roup s . ) I ti sa l so b a sed

r i gh t( Shank sa nd T i l ley 1 982 ) . T he g ene ra l t r an sfo rma t ion s s een i n mo r tua ry p rac t i ce s d u r ing t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C oppe r Age a t R ipo l i m igh t , mo re b road ly , b e i n te rp re ted i nt e rm s o f t h ec rea t ion o fn ew ( and p o ss ib ly a l te rna t ive )a r ena sf o r t h e e xe rc ise o f s oc ia l p owe r . Aga in , t h e d i rec t ion f o r t h e se c hange s may h ave b een p rov ided , a tl e a s ti np a r t ,

u pon t h ea s sump t ion t h a tt h e s pa t ia l a r rangemen to fh u -

b y c ommun i ty a nd l i neage l e ade r s a c t ing a sr i tua l s pe -

man r ema in s h a s e xp l ic i t s oc ia l i mp l ica t ion s . I ti sa c c ep ted t h a t , f o r e xamp le : t h e b u r ia l o fi nd iv idua ls a nd g roup s o fi nd iv idua l s t oge the rp robab ly ma rk s t h e ir s o c i a l p rox im i ty ( Chapman 1 983 : 1 6 ) ; t h eb reak ing d own

c i a l i s t s . T h rough t h en ew r i te s , t h e se l e ade r s may h ave a t temp ted t o s ymbo l ica l ly e xpre ss a nd p romo te c on c ep t s c once rn ing t h e i nhe r i tance , o wne r sh ip , a nd a ccu mu la t ion o fv a luab le a nd r e s t r ic ted r e sou rce s b yl i neag -

o f b od ie s a nd t h e ir r e a ssemb lage may b e i n tended t o empha s ise t h e g roup o ve r t h e i nd iv idua l ( Shank s a nd T i l ley 1 982 ) ; al i nea r s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o f mo r tua ry d epos i t s m igh tr ef lec t ap r inc ip le o fd e scen t ,w i th r e f e r -

e s a nd b y t h e c ommun i ty a s aw ho le ; p o s s ib ly a s a n a l te rna t ive t ot h e t r ad i t iona l n eo l i th ic c oncep to f s oc ie t y , wh ich w a s p robab ly b a sed u pon t h e e x is tence o f s omewha ta u tonomou sh ouseho ld u n i t s o pe ra t ing p a ra l -

e nces t ot h e p a s t a nd t ol i neage s ( Ga rwood 1 99 1 : 1 5 1 7 ) ; t h e s epa ra tene s s o fd i f fe ren t g rave g roup s i n ac e me tery a r ea p e rhap s i mp l ie s d i f fe ren t d e scen t g roup s w i th d i f fe ren ts o c ia l r e la t ion sh ip s ( Chapman 1 983 : 1 9 ) ; a nd c o l lec t ion s o fg rave si n ac eme te ry m igh t ,l i ke c on -

l e l t oe ach o the ra nd i na n u ncoo rd ina ted w ay ( Sah l in s 1 968 ) . T he c oncep to fc ommun i ty may o r ig ina l ly h ave b een p romo ted i n mo r tua ry r i te s d u r ing t h eM idd le N e o l i th ic ( s ee a bove ) ,b u t t h is a nd t h e c oncep to ft h el i ne a ge n ow s eem s t oh ave b een e xp re ssed mo re d rama t i -

c en t ra ted c o l lec t ion so fh ou se si n as e t t lemen t ,r e f e rt oa c ommuna l e t h ic ( Hodde r 1 990 : 9 5 ) , a sm igh t t h e l o ca t i on o f ac eme te ry i nt h ec en t re o f as e t t lemen t . A wo rd

c a l ly a nd e f fec t ive ly t h rough t h e r i te s . U l t ima te ly , t h e c hange sm igh th ave b een p romo ted b yt h el e ade r si no r -

o fw a rn ing s hou ld ,h oweve r ,p e rhap s b es ounded ,f o r ,a t l e a s t i n t h e 1 8 th a nd 1 9 th c en tu ry c eme te r ie s o f t h e

e s , s uch a s p eop le , p lace s , l abou r , f ood s u rp lu se s , a nd v a luab le g ood sa nd k now ledge ) t h roughou tt h ec ommu -

n o r th -cen t ra l Amer ican P la in s I nd ian s , J ohn O 'Shea n o ted t ha t ' h or izon ta l ' s oc ia l d i v is ion s s uch a s d e scen t

n i ty . Mo re s pec if ica l ly ,h oweve r , t h ey may h ave b een b ound u p w i th a t temp t s b y t h el e ade r s t oc r ea te amo re

g roup membe r sh ip w e re d i f f icu l t t oi d en t ify i nt h e a r c haeo log ica lr ema in s ,f o rt h ey t e nded t ob ee xp re s sed i n

d ependab le p oo l o fc ommunua l l a bou r wh ich a l lowed i n c rea sed c ommun i ty p roduc t ion a nd wh ich t hu s g ave

p re in te rmen t r i tua l s , b ody p repa ra t ion , a nd t h e i n c lu s i on o f ma in ly o rgan ic i t em s a s g rave g ood s ( O 'Shea

t h em g rea ter a b i l i ty t o p a r t ic ipa te i n a n i n c rea s ing ly l a rge sca le a nd c ompe t i t ive s y s tem o fe xchange a nd a l -

1 98 1 ) . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e ma in f une rary r i te s p e r fo rmed i n t h ec eme tery , t h e c e remon ia l b ehav iou r wh ich r e su l ted i nt h e d epo s i t ion o fr i ch a s semb lage s ( c omp r is ing i s o l a ted h uman b one s , s pec ia l a r te fac t s ,a nd f e a s tr ema in s )

l i ance ( c .f . Hodde r 1 990 : 9 5 ; S he r ra t t 1 990 : 1 49 ;C hap man 1 991 ) .

i nc av i t ie s s i tua ted a way f r om t h ec eme tery ( a s w e l l a s i nt h eu ppe rf i l lo fs ome o ft h ec av i t ie si nt h ec eme te ry )

F o rs e t t lemen t s i te s i ne a s tc en t ra lI t a ly i ti sp o s s ib le t o d i v ide t h e ma in p a r to ft h eC oppe rA ge i n to t wo p ha se s ( m idd le a nd l a te ) ,w i th r e fe rence t o mode ra te ly c h rono l og ica l ly d i agno s t ic p o t te ry t ypes a nd e ven af ew r ad io c a rbon d a te s a nd s t ra t ig raph ic s equence s ; b u t , u n fo r tu n a te ly ,n os uch d i s t inc t ion c an b e made w i th c on f idence f o rt h eb u r ia l s i te s , wh ich h ave : l i t t le o rn o c h rono log i -

s c en t( i . e . al i neage )a nd o fi t s r i gh t so fa cce s s t os ca r ce r e sou rces . ( A l so s ee R . C hapman ( 1981 ) a nd C a7Je l la

m igh tb ei n te rp re ted i nt e rm s o f amo re p rac t ica lp ub l ic d emon s t ra t ion o fc o rpo ra te g roup s ' c on t ro l o ve rv a lua b l e r e sou rce s ( e .g . m ea t , o b s id ian , w eapon s , a nd o rna men t s ) , i nvo lv ing t h e a ccumu la t ion , d i sp lay , c on sump t i on , a nd s t o rage o f t h ose r e sou rce s . I tm igh t a l so b e i n te rp re ted i n t e rms o f as ecu lar isa t ion o f r i tua l . T he w eapon s may a l so h ave r e fe r red t ot h ea c t iv i ty o ff i gh t i ng , u pon wh ich t h is c on t ro l may h ave r e l ied i n c rea s -

d e r t oe x tend t h e i rs oc ia l p owe r( ove rc u l tu ra l r e sou rc -

M IDDLE AND LATE COPPER AGE

c a l ly d i agno s t ic p o t tery ;o the r( l i th ic a nd b one )a r tefac t s w h ich a r el e s s a menab le t ot y po log ica l d a t ing ; t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o fe xh ib i t ing g eog raph ica la sw e l la sc h rono log -

2 25

ROB IN S KEATES

i c a l v a r ia t ion ( Ca7ze l la a nd Mo sco lom 1 988 : 3 64 -6 ) ; a nd o n ly l im i ted p ub l ished d e t a i l s . l ti st h e r e fo re n ece s s a ry , f o r t h e p urpose s o f t h i s s t udy , t o d ea l w i th t h e mo r tua ry p r ac t ice s o fb o th p ha se st o ge the r . T he M idd le C oppe r Age i ne a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly c an b e

w i th : t h ef u l le re s tab l ishmen to f ac oo le ra nd d r ie r' S ub B o rea l ' t ype c l ima te , t h e i mpac t o f w h ich wou ld h ave b een f e l t mo s ts t rong ly i nt h er e la t ive ly d ry c oa s ta l l ow l a nd s ; af u r the ri n c rea se i nt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fw i ld f ood r e sou rce s , e spe c ia l ly t ho se o ft h ei n land f o re s t s ; g row i ng s oc ia l c onf l ic t ; a nd n ew t e chno log ica l d eve lop men t s ,i n c lud ing t h e u se o f an ew r ange o fh eavy d u ty wo rk -axe s ( s uch a s p e r fo ra ted a xe h amme r s ) wh ich wou ld h ave e nab led a n i nc rea se i n t h e s ca le o f f o re s t c l ea rance ,a nd t h ep o s s ib le e a r ly u se o ft h ec a t t le -d rawn a nd wh ich wou ld i n p a r t icu la r h ave ' made e conom ic ' t h e c u l t iva t ion o f ar ange o fp rev iou s ly m arg ina l s o i ls ( She r ra t t 1 983 ) . T he mo s t o bv iou s n ew c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t d u r ing t h e M idd le C oppe r Age w a s t h e t empo rary c o l lap se o f l ong -d is tance e xchange n e two rk s t h roughou t much o f t h e c en t ra l Med i te r ranean r eg ion . T he c au se s o f t h is h ave y e tt ob ei n ve s t iga ted f u l ly ,a l though i ts eem sl i ke l yt h a tg row ing s oc ia li n s tab i l i ty i nt h ec oa s ta ll ow land s a nd t h e w ide sp read s h if t o fs e t t lemen t a way f r om t h a t a r ea t owa rd s t h e i n te r io r o f t h e I t a l ian p en in su la c on t r ibu ted t ot h eb reak -down o ft r ad i t iona l c oa s ta la r te r ie s o fc ommun ica t ion a nd e xchange . I ne a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly , t h is c o l lap se , wh ich i sr ep re sen ted b y t h e d ry ing u p o f t h ef l ow o fe xo t ic o b s id ian a nd ' g r een s tone s 'i n to t h er e g ion , s e em s t oh ave l e d t ot h ed eve lopmen to f mo re i n w a rd look ing s oc ie t ie s , wh ich ,f o r e xamp le ,i n ten s if ied

a s s igned t o at ime -span o fa bou t3 250 t o2 850 c a l . BC , ma in ly a cco rd ing t o as i ng le r ad ioca rbon d a te f r om G ro t ta d e iP icc ion i ( P i -50 F e r rara e ta l . 1 961) . P o t t e ry f r om M idd le Coppe r Age c on tex t s ( s uch a s s p i t s 1 0 -9 a t G ro t ta d e i P icc ion i a nd t h e l owe r d i tch d epo s i t s a tL e C one l le ) e xh ib i t s as i gn i f ican t d eg ree o f t ypo log ica l c on t inu i ty w i th t h a to ft h eF ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C oppe r Age ( p a r t icu la r ly w i th t h e mo s tr e cen tp a r to ft h is p ha se r ep resen ted a t Aqua t ina i n Ma rche ) . C ha rac ter i s t ic t ype s o fd eco ra ted v es se l i nc lude : t r uncocon ica l b ow ls w i th g r a f f i t ii n c i sed i n te r io r s ;d eep b ow l s w i th s egmen t -

e d c o rdon s a round t h er im ; a nd b eake r s w i th t h e i r s u r f ace s r oughened b y f i nge ri mp re s s ion s o rb y t h e a pp l i c a t ion o fl ug s , p a s t i l le s , a nd r o se t tes ( Cremone s i 1 976 ; P ug l is i 1 959 , 1 965 ; C a7ze l la 1 987 ) . T he L a te C oppe r Age c an b e a s s igned t o at ime -span o f a bou t 2 850 t o 2 050 c a l . BC , a cco rd ing t o as i ng le r ad ioca rbon d a te f r om O r tucch io ( P i -80 ) i n t h e i n te r io r o f t h e Ab ruzzo r eg ion ( Fe r rara e ia l . 1 961) . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage s f ound a tO r tucch io a nd i nt h e m idd le a nd u ppe r l e ve l s o f t h e d i tch a t L e Cone l le , w h ich b e long t o t h is l a te p ha se ,b o th e xh ib i t : a ne l abo ra t ion o fd eco ra t ive mo t i f s f o rmed b yb and so fp a ra l le l l i ne s ;a ni nc rea se i nt h eo c c u r rence o f b lack b urn ished f i neware , f i nge r i mp re s -

t h e ir e xp lo i ta t ion o fl oca l r ock s f o r t h e p roduc t ion o f s t one t o o l s .

s i on s , a nd h and led c up s ; a nd an ew a ppear ance o fr ow s o fp o in ti mp re ss ion s s ome t ime s f i l led b y w h i te c o lou r i ng ( i . e . C one l le O r tucch io s t y le ' p un tegg io 'd eco ra t ion )

L ong -d is tance n e two rk s o fa l l iance a nd e xchange r e v ived d u r ing t h e L a te Coppe r Age ( Skea te s 1 992 ) . N ew n e two rk s w e re e s tab l i shed i nc en t ra l I t a ly , w h ich , f r om t h e p e r spec t ive o f g roup s l i v ing i nt h e e a s t , w e re n ow o r ien ted t owa rd s mo re w ea l thy a nd i nf luen t ia l

a nd o f t r uncocon ica l c ups w i th h and les r a ised h igh a bove t h e r im ( Pug l is i 1 959 , 1 965 ; R adm i l i 1 981 ; C remone s i 1 985 ;C 27ze l la 1 987 ) . At o ta l o f1 9M idd le L a te C oppe r Age s e t t lemen t s i te s h ave b een f ound s o

n e ighbou r ing g roup s s i tua ted t ot h ew e s t( i . e . t h e' R ina l d one c u l tu re ' i n Umb r ia , n o r thern L az io , a nd s ou the rn T u scany ) a nd t ot h e n o r th ( i . e . t h e ' R emede l lo c u l tu re '

f a ri nt h e l ow lands o fe a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly , 8 5% o f w h ich h ave b een f ound i nt h e Ma rche r eg ion .

a nd i t s ' S p i lambe r to a spec t ' i n Em i l ia -Romagna ) . I m p o r t sb egan t of l ow i n to t h er eg ion a ga in ,i n c lud ing n ew c u l tu ra l k now ledge ( wh ich i nf luenced ,f o re xamp le ,t h e

Ma jo r c u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t s f i r s t i den t if ied i n t h e l ow land s o fe a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly d u r ing t h eF ina l N eo l i th i c /Ear ly C oppe r Age c on t inued t op rog re ss i n as im i la r d i rec t ion d u r ing t h em idd le a nd l a te p ha se so ft h eC op p e rA ge ( Skea te s 1 992 ) . S e t t lemen tp a t tern s ,f o re xam -

d eve lopmen t o f t h e C one l le -Or tucch io s t y le o f f i ne w a re ,a nd p robab ly a l so t h ed eve lopmen to fn ew mo r tu -

p l e ,i nd ica te ac on t inued s h if to fs e t t lemen ts i te st ow e t t e r e nv ironmen t s : o f f t he l owe r i n terf luv ia l h i l ls a nd

l a rge , f i ne ly -made , a nd r e la t ive ly r a re w eapon s ( e .g . ' g reen s tone ' k nobbed b a t t le -axe s , a nd c opper f l a t -axe s

i n to t h e b o t tom s o f ma jo r r i ve r v a l ley s i n t h e c oa s ta l l ow land s ; a nd o n to t h ef o re s ted h ighe ri n te rf luv ia l b i l ls i nt h ei nne rl ow land s , s ome t ime s t on a tura l ly d e fended l o ca t ion s a sa tL eC one l le whe re t h es e t t lemen tw a s s i t u a ted o n t h e t op o f as ma l l h i l l p ro tec ted o nt h ree s i de s

a nd d agge r s ) . Howeve r , t h e a b i l i ty o f g roup s i n e a s t c en t ra l I t a ly t o a t t rac t s i gn if ican t q uan t i t ies o f s uch g ood s s e em s t oh ave b een s e r iou s ly r e s t r ic ted b y t h e ir l a ck o fd i rec ta cce s s t os ou rce s o fv a luab le r aw ma t e r i a l s s uch a sc oppe ra nd ' g reen s tone ' ,a nd p e rhap s a l so b y

b ys t eep s l ope s a nd o nt h eo th e rs i de b y ad eep a r t i f ic ia l d i tch . T he se d eve lopmen t s o ccu r red i n c on junc t ion

t h e ir r e la t ive l a ck o fs oc io -po l i t ica ld eve lopmen t( Ba rk e r1 981) . Af ew l ong la s t ing c en t re so fp opu la t ion ,p ro -

a ry p rac t ice s a nd r e l ig iou s b e l ie f s ) , a nd an ew r ange o f

2 26

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d uc t ion , e xchange , a nd c on sump t ion c an , h oweve r , b e i d en t if ied i ne a s t -cen t ra lI t a ly a tt h is t ime ( a tO r tucch io a nd L eC one l le ,f o re xamp le ) , w ho se s t reng th s e em s t o h ave b een b a sed p a r t ly u pon t h e ir i n ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f aw ide r ange o fp rev iou s ly u nde r -u t i l i sed n a tu ra l r e s ou rce s ( e spec ia l ly l a cu s t r ine a nd f o re s tf ood r e sou rce s

i so pen t od oub t , a nd i ti sn o to ne wh ich Iam p r epa red t op l ace much empha s i s u pon i n my i n te rp re ta t ion s b e l ow . T he b e s td a ted s i te i sA rea Guzz in i F . a s t , b ecau se t h e g r ave a nd s e t t lemen t a r ea h e re p roduced a na s sem -

f o r h uman a nd a n ima l c on sump t ion ) , a nd p a r t ly u pon t h e i r a cce s s t o ma jo r r ou te s o fc ommun ica t ion a nd e x -

b l age o f p o t te ry w i th c ha rac te r is t ic e l emen t s o f t h is p ha se ( e .g . a pp l ied l ug s a nd c o rdon s ,n o tched r ims ,f i n g e r i mp re ss ion s , e l onga ted l ug h and le s , a nd c a r ina ted b ow l s ) . T hree o f t h e s pec ia l p u rpo se b u r ia l s i te s ( i . e .

c hange . Mo re b road ly , t h er e v iva l o fl ong -d i s tance e xchange

V ia Duomo 1 09 , S .G iovann i , a nd V ia Ma rcon i ) m igh t t h en b e a s s igned t o t h e s ame c h rono log ica l p ha se b e -

i nt h is n ew f o rm ,w h ich s e em st oh ave f ocu ssed ,m a te r i a l ly , u pon t h e i mpo r t o f e xo t ic v a luab le s o b ta ined b y m ean s o fc on tac t s w i th h i gh rank ing g roup s e l sewhe re ,

c ause o ft h e ir c l o se t ypo log ica l s im i lar i t ie s t ot h eb ur ia l a tA rea Gll7zini E a s t . T he se c an b es e en i n : t h e i rc i rcu -

m igh tr ef lec tt h e a dop t ion ( a tl e a s tb y c e r ta in m embe r s o fs oc ie ty ) o f an ew c oncep to fp owe r , o f ten d e sc r ibed a s t h e ' p res t ige g ood s e conomy ' ( e .g . P o sp is i l 1 963 ; T ho rpe a nd R icha rd s 1 984 : 6 8 ; S he rman 1 986 ; H odde r 1 990 ; T homa s 1 991) . I n s uch a s y s tem , t h e r e la t ive s t a tu s p o s i t ion s o fd e scen t g roup s a nd i nd iv idua ls a r e d e te rm ined b y c ompe t i t ion , w i th in av o la t i le s y s tem o f

l a rc av i t ie s c on ta in ing o ne o r t wo b od ie s ; t h e ir p o t te ry v e sse l s wh ich c omp r ised e i the r af l a sk ( w i th ar ound b a se , ag lobu lar b ody , ah igh n eck , a nd t wo l ug h and le s ) ,o rb y ab ow l ( w i th ar ound b ase a nd ac a r ina t o d b ody ) , b o th i n d ark b u rn ished f i newa re ; a nd a tV ia Duomo 1 09 , t h e s im i la r t y pe o f a r rowhead s . C ava Koch m igh t b e a s s igned t o as l igh t ly e a r l ie r d a te , t o w a rd s t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eM idd le C oppe r Age ,f o rd e -

s h if t ing a l l iance n e two rk s , f o r d i rec t c on t ro l o ve r t h e p roduc t ion , c i rcu la t ion , d i sp lay , a nd c on sump t ion o r s a c r if ice o fv a luab le r e sou rce s a nd w ea l th i t em s , w h ich i n c lude e xo t ic k now ledge a nd m a r r iage p a r tne r sa sw e l l a sa r chaeo log ica l ly -v is ib le p re s t ige g ood s a nd s t a tu si n s i gn ia . A ta ni nd iv idua ll e ve l ,p owe rm ay b ed e r ived b y ac omb ina t ion o fp e r sona l s t reng th ( o fb ody a nd p e r son a l i ty ) a nd t h e man ipu la t ion o f l ong -d is tance c on tac t s a nd a l l iance s . F o r t h e M idd le a nd L a te C oppe r A ge , t h e r e levan t mo r tua ry d a ta c ome f r om e i gh t o r p o ss ib ly n ine s i t es , t h e ma jo r i ty o f wh ich l i ei nt h ec oa s ta ll ow land so fc en -

s p i te i t s g ene ra l s im i lar i t ie s t o t h ese o the r s i te s , i t s g rave s ,w h ich w e re n o to ft h e c i rcu la rc av i ty t y pe , p ro d uced ad i s t inc tr ange o fc oa r sewa re v e s se ls wh ich i n c l uded s i ng le -hand led f l a sk s , b i comca l a nd o vo id v e s s e l s ,a nd c on ica l a nd t r uncocon ica l b ow ls , wh ich m igh t b er ega rded a st ypo log ica l ly e a r l ie rt h an t ho se f ound a t t h e o t he r s i te s . T he c on t ra s tb e tween t h e p rov is ion ing o f t h e b u r ia l c av i t ie s a tS . G iovann i a nd V ia Ma rcon i ( i n t h e Ancona p rov ince ) w i th a cce ss r amp s , a nd t h e s t ra igh t s ided c av i ty b u r ia ls f ound a tA rea G 1 1 77 in i Fs t a nd V ia D uomo 1 09 t ot h e s ou th ( near R ecana t i i nt h e Mace ra ta p rov ince ) , m igh t t h en b e e xp la ined i nt e rm s

t r a l Ma rche ( i n ab and s i tua ted b e tween 4a nd 1 2 km i n l a nd f r om t h e p re sen t -day Ad r ia t ic c oa s t l ine ) . T hey a r e : t h eo pen s e t t lemen ts i te w i th as i ng le g rave a tA rea

o f g eog raph ica l v ar ia t ion . S . R occo a nd V e scova ra , a nd p o s s ib ly V i l la P o tenza a nd L a B ad ia , m igh tb e a s s i gned t ot h e L a te Copper Age . T ypo log ica l p a ra l le l s

G uzz in i E a s t ; t h e s pec ia l -purpo se s i ng le -bu r ia l s i te s a t V ia Duomo 1 09 ,V i l la P o tenza ,S .R occo ,V ia Ma rcon i , a nd p o ss ib ly L a B ad ia ; a nd t h e s pec ia l -pu rpo se c eme t e ry s i te s a tC ava Koch , S .G iovann i , a nd V e scovara , w i th s e ven , f i ve , a nd f i ve g rave s r e spec t ive ly . ( Cava K och s t and so u ta s ar e la t ive ly l a rge c eme te ry o n ac en t r a l I t a l ian s ca le , w i th i t s s even p i t s w h ich p roduced a t

c an b e d rawn b e tween mo s t o f t h e a r te fac t s f ound a t t h ese s i te s ( i .e . t h e a r rowhead s , l ong c he r t b l ades , n o tched c he r td agge r , k nobbed s haf t -ho le h amme ra xe , s imp le c oppe rf l a t -axe , a nd b one c omb ) a nd s pec imen s f r om s l igh t ly b e t te r -da ted s e t t lemen ts i te si na nd a r ound t h e r e g ion , a nd t h e se t end t o p o in t t owa rd s t h e L a te C opp e rA ge ( Skea tes 1 992 ) . Howeve r , t h e l a ck o fa ny c hrono log ica l ly mo re d i agno s t ic p o t te ry a tt h e se s i te s m ake s t h em d i ff icu l t t od a te t ypo log ica l ly w i th much c on f idence ,a nd p o ten t ia l ly t h ey c o u ld a c tua l ly h ew i th i n amuch b roade rt ime span t h a te x tend sf r om t h eM id d l eC oppe r Age t ot h eE a r ly B ronze A ge . S ign i f ican t c hange s c an b e i d en t if ied i n t h ree m a in

l e a s t 1 4i nd iv idua l s s e eB a rke r 1 981 : 1 89 . ) T he s i te a t L aB ad ia w a sd e sc r ibed b yt h ee xcava to ra sa na r t if ic ia l c av i ty w i th a n o pen ing f r om a bove w h ich c on ta ined a c her tl a nce ( Ro sa 1 871 : 5 03 , 1 874 : 1 90 -2 ) , w h ich , d e -

s p i te t h el a ck o fa ny m en t ion o fh uman r ema in s ,s ound s l i ke t h e s t anda rd f o rm o fI t a l ian o ven -shaped r o ck -cu t t omb w i th a n o pen ing f r om a bove ( Wh i tehou se 1 981 : 1 06 ) . An a t temp t c an b e made t oo rde r t h e se s i te s c h rono l og ica l ly , a l though Is hou ld p o in to u tt h a tt h a tt h er e su l t

a spec t so f mo r tuary p rac t ice sd u r ing t h em idd le a nd l a te p ha se so ft h eC oppe r Age : i nt h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f mo r tua ry d epo s i t s a nd s i te s ;i nt h e mo r tua ry r i te s t h em s e lve s ; a nd i nt h e a ge a nd s ex o fi nd iv idua ls a cco rded

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t h e se r i t e s . C on t inu ing o nf r om t h ec hange i nt h e s pa t ia lp a t te rn -

r a ) , a so ppo sed t oa n a ve rage o ff i ve i nd iv idua ls i nt h e F ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C oppe r A ge g rave s o ft h e R ipo l i c eme te ry . S econd ly , b od ie s a nd b one s w e r e l a id o u t mo re f o rma l ly i n t h e i r g rave s , a nd w i th g ood s p l aced

i ng o f mo r tua ry d epo s i t sf i r s ts een a tt h eF ina lN eo l i th i c /Ea r ly C oppe r Age c eme te ry o fR ipo l i ,n ew mo r tua ry d epo s i t sw e re p l aced e ven f u r the ra way f r om l i v ing a r e -

mo re d i rec t ly i n r e la t ion t o t h em . A t A rea Guzz in i E a s t , f o r e xamp le , t h e b ody o f a n i nd iv idua l w a s a r r anged i n ac rouched p o s i t ion , o n i t s l e f t s i de , w i th i t s h and sp l aced t o ge the ri nf r on to fi t s f a ce , a nd w i th t wo p o t te ry v e sse l s p laced i nf r on t o fi t s s t omach , b e tween

a s ,a l though p e rhap s s t i l li nr e la t ion t ot h em . T he b u r ia l a tA rea Guzz in i E a s t , f o r e xamp le , w a s f ound o u t s ide a ne nc lo su re d i tch i nt h es e t t lemen ta nd p o s s ib ly o nt h e e dge o ft h e s e t t lemen ts i te i t se lf ( F ig .3 c ) ,a nd t h eo the r mo r tua ry d epo s i t s w e re f ound a ts pec ia l p u rpo se b u r ia l s i te s w h ich l a yo u t s ide c on tempo ra ry s e t t lemen t s . O na b roade r l a nd scape s ca le , t wo ma in b u r ia l z one s c an b e i d en t if ied i n t h e c oa s ta l l ow land s o f c en t ra l Ma rche . A rea G uzz in i E a s t a nd C ava Koch l i e i nt h e f i r s tz one , w h ich c omp r ise s t h e b o t toms o f ma jo r r i ve r v a l ley s , w h ich s eems t o h ave f o rmed t h e f ocu s f o r s e t t lemen t a nd a g r icu l ture i nt h e c oa s ta l l ow land s d u r ing t h e l a te r p ha se so ft h eC oppe rA ge . Mo re s pec i f ica l ly ,t h ec eme t e ry a t C ava Koch l i e s i n as im i la r l oca t ion t o t h e ( r ough ly c on tempo ra ry ) s e t t lemen ts i t e a tA rea Guz z in i E a s t ,o n Ho locene d epo s i t si nt h eb o t tom o ft h eP o tenza r i ve rv a l ley ( a t ah e igh to fa bou t8 10 i na bove t h er i ve r

i t s l e g s a nd i t s a rm s ; a tC ava Koch t h e b od ie s o f t h e n ine a r t icu la ted i nd iv idua ls w e re g ene ra l ly l a id o u t o n o ne s i de , w i th t h e i rl e g s f l exed , t h e i rh ead s p o in t ing t o t h ee a s t( p e rhap s t ot h er i s ing s un o rt ot h el u na r s t and s t i l l s e e M . Ho sk in , t h i s v o lume ) , e i the ro ne o rb o th o f t h e ir h and s u nder o ri nf r on to ft h e i rf a ce s ,a nd as i ng le p o t te ry v e sse l p laced n ex tt ot h e i rh ead s ;a nd i np i t 4a t C ava Koch ag roup o fd i sa r t icu la ted b one s , w h ich p o s s i b ly b e longed t oo ne i nd iv idua l ,w e re s t acked i na no r d e r ly m anne rw i th t h el o ng b one sa tt h eb o t tom , a nd t h e p e lv i sa nd t h e mand ib le a tt h et o p ,a nd w i th t h es ku l la l mo s t a tt h e c en t re o f t h e p i le . T h i rd ly , t h e e x tended r i te s o f t h e N eo l i th ic s eem t oh ave b een r ep laced b y mo re a bb rev ia ted g rave -s ide r i te s a nd f une ra ry e ven t s d u r ing t h e M idd le -La te C oppe r Age , w h ich i n vo lved

b ed ) ,b u ti ti ss epa ra ted f r om i tb y ad i s tance o f 1 . 75 km a nd b y as t ream . V ia D uomo 1 09 ,V ia Ma rcon i ,S .G io v ann i , S .R occo , a nd V e scova ra l i e i nt h e s econd z one , wh ich c ompr ise s t h e i n te rf iuv ia l h i l ls s i tua ted e i the r s i de o ft h e f i r s t z one . No M idd le o rL a te C oppe rA ge s e t t lemen t s h ave b een f ound o n t h e se b i l ls , w h ich m ay s t i l l h ave b een c ove red b y f o re s t s a tt h is t ime , b u t t h e p re sence o fb u r ia l s i te s o n t h em ,i na dd i t ion t of i nd s o f c e r ta in l i th ic a r te fac t s s uch a s a r rowhead s a nd a xe s ( wh ich c an b e t ypo log ica l ly a s s igned t o t h is p er iod ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey may h ave s e rved a s m a rg ina l a r ea s u sed f o r b u r ia l , h un t ing , a nd wood p rocu remen t a nd /o r

t h ef i l l ing i no ft h e g rave s ( l eav ing t h e c on ten t s o f t h e g rave s u nd is tu rbed ) a nd o n ly l im i ted g rave s ide f ea s t -

f o re s t c l ea rance a c t iv i t ie s . Mo re s pec if ica l ly , S .G io -

i ng ( t he s pa r se r ema in s o f w h ich m igh tb e r e p re sen ted b y t h e f ew a n ima l b one s a nd ap i ece o f w o rked c he r t f ound i n ap i t wh ich l a yn ex tt ot h e b u r ia l c av i ty a tV ia Duomo 1 09 ) . A ge d i s t inc t ion s c on t inued t ob e r ep re sen ted i n t h e mor tua ry d epo s i t s , w i th t h e i nc lu s ion o f a du l t s a nd j uven i le s a nd t h ee xc lu s ion o fc h i ld ren a nd i n f an t s , b u t o the r s oc ia l d i s t inc t ion s , i n c lud ing t h a t o fg ende r , may h ave b een a dded t ot h e se w i th as l igh t ly g rea te rn ume r i -

v ann i ,V ia Duomo 1 09 ,S .R occo ,a nd V e scova ra l i eo n t h es i de o ft h e ir r e levan th i l l s ,p o s s ib ly o n t h eb oundary

c a l a nd s ymbo l ic e mpha s is u pon t h e b u r ia l o f c e r ta in a du l t ma le s . A s f a r a s a ge i sc once rned , t h e p a t te rn

b e tween p ar t ly c l ea red a nd u nc leared a r ea s o f f o re s t , a nd c e r ta in ly i n s i tua t ion s wh ich wou ld h ave p rov ided e x ten s ive v i ews o ve r t h e ir a s soc ia ted s e t t lemen t z one s w h ich l a yi nt h eb o t tom so ft h ea d jacen tm a jo rr i ve rv a l l e y s . ( 1d o n o t k now t h e p rec ise l o ca t ion o ft h e s i te a t

i d en t if ied a tF ina l N eo l i th ic /Ea r ly C opp er A ge R ipo l i s eem s t oh ave c on t inued a tC ava Koch a nd V ia Duomo 1 09 ,w i th a l l 1 a ged i n d iv idua l s b e ing d e sc r ibed a se i t h e r ' a du l t s ' o r j uven i le s ' b y t h ee xcava to r s . W i th g en d e r ,m embe r so fb o th s exe sa r er ep re sen ted a tt h e se t wo s i te s , b u t ma le s s eem t op redom ina te ( ou t o f at o ta l o f e i gh ts e xed i nd iv idua ls ,s i xw e re ma le a nd t wo w e re f e -

V ia Ma rcon i , wh ich l i e ss omewhe re o nt h eL o re to h i l l . ) An umbe ro fn o tab le c hange sc an b ei d en t i f ied i nt h e b ur ia l r i te s . T ob eg in w i th ,f ewe ri nd iv idua ls w e re b u r -

ma le ) ,a nd i ti so n ly w i th c e r ta in a du l t ma le s t h a tl i th ic a r te fac t s( wh ich c an g ene ra l ly b ei d en t i f ied a sw eapon s ) o ccu ra s g rave g ood s , e i the r w i th o r w i thou tw i th p o t -

i e d t o ge the r i n e ach g rave , w i th i nd iv idua l b u r ia l b e c om ing t h en o rm , a nd ,p re sumab ly a s ac on sequence o f t h is , s ma l le rg rave s w e re d ug . F o re xamp le , a na ve rage o f 1 . 3 i n d iv idua ls w e re b u r ied t oge the ri ne ach g rave a t

t e ry v e sse l ( s ) . A t V ia Duomo 1 09 , f o r e xamp le , t h e t wo a du l t ma le s w e re a ccompan ied b y al ong r e touched b l ade o fc he r t( 13 .6 cm l ong )a nd f ou rc he r ta r rowhead s

t ho se M idd le -La te C oppe r Age s i te s f o r wh ich s u ff i c i en ti n fo rma t ion h a s b een p ub l ished ( i .e . A rea Guzz in i E a s t ,C ava Koch , V ia Duomo , S .R occo , a nd V e scova -

i n a dd i t ion t o t wo p o t tery v e sse ls ; a nd i n c av i ty 4 a t C ava Koch t h e p o s s ib ly ma le a du l t w a s a ccompan ied

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b y ac he r t a r rowhead ( wh ich l a y u nde rh i s c h in ) a nd a b ow l c on ta in ing a c he r t ' s ide -sc rape r ' ( wh ich may i n p rac t ice h ave b een u sed a s ak n ife ) . O the rk ind s o fs o c i a l d i s t inc t ion may h ave b een r ep re sen t ed a tS .R occo a nd g rave 1a tV e scova ra , w h ich s t and o u t i nc ompa r i s on t oo the rg rave s( i nc lud ing t h eo the rg r ave si nt h ec e me tery a tV e scova ra ) w i th t h e i rr e la t ive ly l a rge q uan t i t i e s o fg rave g ood s , wh ich ma in ly c omp r i sed w eapon s , i n c lud ing o ne s made f r om e xo t ic r aw ma te r ia l s ( c oppe r a nd ' g reen s tone ' ) ,a nd t h e i rl a ck o fp o t te ry v e s se ls . T he S .R occo g rave p roduced ac o l lec t ion o f2 6c he r ta r row h ead s , t h ree c he r t b lade s ( one o f wh ich w a s 1 7 cm l ong ) , ac her t d agge r o r l a nce h ead , ac oppe r f l a t -axe , a nd ac l ay ' s p ind le -who r l ' ( o r p o ss ib ly ap endan t ) ; a nd g rave 1a tV e scova ra p roduced e i gh tc he r t a r rowhead s , an o tched c he r td agge r ,a nd ak nobbed s h al t -ho le h am me r -axe ;i nc on t ra s tt og rave 4 wh ich p roduced ab one c omb , a nd t o g rave s 2 ,3 , a nd 5 wh ich p roduced n o g ood s a ta l l . An umbe r o fi n te rp re ta t ion s c an b e p ro p o sed i no rde rt oa ccoun tf o rt h e se p a t te rn s . T ob eg in w i th , t h es pa t ia lp a t te rn ing o ft h e mo r tua ry d epo s i t s s e em s t oh ave c on t r ibu ted t o an ew ' t opog ra p hy o ft h ed ead ' ,i n wh ich p l ace s may h ave b een s e lec t e d f o r t h eb u r ia l o ft h e d ead a nd f o r t h e t e rm ina t ion o f t h e i rf une ra ls a cco rd ing t ot h e c onno ta t ion s w h ich t h ey h e ld f o rt h ed ecea sed i n d iv idua l sa nd f o rt h e i r mou rne r s ( Ba r re t t 1 990 : 1 83 -4 ) . I nt h i sl i gh t , wha ts e em sp a r t icu -

c u l tu ra lp e rcep t ion s o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h el i v i ng a nd t h e d ead . A tA rea G uzr im E a s t , f o r e xamp le , t h ep lac ing o ft h eb u r ia l t owa rd s t h ee dge o ft h e s e t t le men t a r ea may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o t h e d e l inea t ion o f t h eb ounda ry o ft h e s e t t lemen t ,i t s d ome s t ic s pace , a nd t h e l i ved in wo r ld o f t h e c ommun i ty ; t h e c eme tery a t C ava K och , o n t h e o the r h and , wh ich w a s e s tab l ished n o tf a ra way ,o nt h eo t he rs i de o f as t ream ,a nd i n as im i l a rl o ca t ion t ot h i s s e t t lemen t ,m igh tb ei n te rp re ted a sa r e la ted s e t t lemen t ,b u to ne w h ich w a se s tab l i shed s epa r a t e ly f o r t h e d ead ; a nd t h e s pec ia l p urpo se b u r ia l s i te s e s tab l i shed o n t h e ma rg in s o f t h e s e t t led l a nd scape , o n i n te rf iuv ia l h i l ls a tV ia Duomo 1 09 , S .G iovann i , V ia Ma rcon i , S . R occo , a nd V e scova ra m igh t b e r e ga rded a s ' l im ina l ' p l ace s , wh ich l a y o n t h e t h re sho ld b e tween t h e l i ved in wo r ld a nd t h e ' O the r Wo r ld ' , a nd wh ich w e re t h e re fo re w e l ls u i ted f o rt h ep e r fo rmance o ff une r a ry r i t e so ft r an s i t ion ( c .f . S kea te s 1 99 1) . Mo re g ene ra l l y ,t h ee s tab l ishmen to ft h e se mo r tua ry d epo s i t s o u t s ide s e t t lemen t s , i n av a r ie ty o fl e s s p ub l ic c on tex t s , m igh t b ei n te rp re ted i nt e rm so ft h ed i s tanc ing o ft h ed ead ,n o t o n ly s pa t ia l ly ,b u ta l so c oncep tua l ly ,a way f r om ,a nd i n o ppo s i t ion t o ,t h es e t t lemen ta nd i t sc ommun i ty ,i t s p re v iou s ly e s tab l ished t r ad i t ion o fc ommunua l b ur ia l , a nd i t s e t ho s o f c ommuna l i ty ( c .f . Hodde r 1 990 ; T homa s

l a r ly n o tab le a bou t t h e l oca t ion s s e lec ted f o r t h e n ew s pec ia l -pu rpo se b u r ia l s i te s i nt h e M idd le -La te C oppe r A ge i st h a tt h ey l a y e i the rr i gh ti nt h eh ea r to ft h ec on t empo ra ry s e t t lemen t a nd a g r icu l tu ra l z one ( i . e . i n t h e b o t tom o f t h e ma jo r r i ve r v a l leys i n t h e c oa s ta l l ow l a nd s a s a tC ava Koch ) , o r o n t h e e dge o ft h is z one , a nd w i th e x ten s ive v i ews b ack o ve ri t( a sa tV ia Duomo

1 99 1b : 1 40 ) . T h is t h eme o f d i s tanc ing t h e d ead a way f r om t h e c ommun i ty a nd i t s c o l lec t ive d ead a l so s eem s t ob e r e f l ec ted i nt h e mo r tuary r i te s , wh ich a ppea rt oh ave b een t r an sfo rmed i n to mo re e l abo ra te ly s t e reo typed f une ra ry e ven t s wh ich a t temp ted t of ocu s t h ea t ten t ion o f amo re r e s t r ic ted g roup o f mou rne r s o n t h e b u r ia l o fd ecea sed i nd iv idua ls . T o b eg in w i th ,c on s ide r ing t h es pa t ia l a nd s ymbo l ic d i s tanc ing o ft h e r i te s a way f r om t h ec ommu -

1 09 , S .G iovann i , V ia Ma rcon i ,S .R occo ,a nd V e scova r a ) . L ike o the r s b e fo re m e ( e .g . B rad ley 1 981) , Ia m t emp ted t oi n te rp re tt h i si nt e rm so fc l a im s made b y t h e

n i ty ,i ts e em sr ea sonab le t os ugge s t t h a t amo re r e s t r ic t e dg roup o f mou rne r s w e re i n vo lved i nt h eb u r ia l r i te s , c omp r is ing c lo se r e la t ive s o f t h e d ecea sed i nd iv idua l ,

mou rne r sc once rn ing r i gh t so fa cce s s t o ,a nd o wner sh ip

a nd membe r s o f t h e s ame d e scen t g roup , r a the r t h an membe r s o ft h e w ho le c ommun i ty d rawn f r om o ne o r mo re a s soc ia ted s e t t lemen t s . T he c on t rac t ion o f t h e mo r tua ry r i te s d u r ing t h e M idd le -La te Coppe r Age , w i th t h e i r d ec rea sed empha s is u pon e l abo ra te f ood s ha r ing ,a nd c on sump t ion ,m igh tr e la te t os uch ac hange i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e a ud ience . S econd ly , t h e eme rgence o f ac oncep to ft h eh uman b e ing a s ab ound e da nd i nd iv is ib le e n t i ty , a nd , mo re s pec i f ica l ly , a n a s s e r t ion o ft h e i nd iv idua l i ty o ft h e d ecea sed p e r son , a r e s ugge s ted b y : t h em a in tenance o f t h e p hys ica l i n teg r i ty

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o f ,p rope r ty a nd r e sou rce sl y ing w i th in t h a tz one ,p a r t ic u l a r ly w i th r e fe rence t o t h e d ecea sed i nd iv idua l who may ( o r may n o t ) h ave b een c l ose ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h em d u r ing h i s o rh e rl i fe ,w i th in ab roade rc on tex to f g row ing c ompe t i t ion b e tween d escen t g roup s o ver t ho se r e source s . Howeve r , t h e g rave s a t t h ese s i te s p r e sen ta lmo s tn oe x te r io r monumen ta l a spec t( Ba r f ie ld 1 983 : 1 23 ) , a nd s oo ne m igh ta rgue t h a ts uch c l a ims ,i f t h ey w e re made ,w e re i n tended mo re f o rt h ei mmed ia te f une ra l a ud ience t h an f o r m embe r s o f ab roade r c om mun i ty ,o rf o rf u tu re g ene ra t ion s . F rom ab roade r , c u l tu ra l , p e r spec t ive , t h e l o ca t ion s o ft h e mo r tua ry d epo s i t s a nd s i te s m igh tb ei n te rp re ted i nt e rm s o ft h e i r e xp re ss ion o f , o rc on t r ibu t ion t o ,n ew

o ft h em a jo r i ty o ft h eb od ie s i nt h eg rave s ;t h ef i l l ing i n o ft h e se g rave sp o s s ib ly i no rde rt op reven tl a te rd i s tu r b ance o ft h eb one s ;a nd t h ee x is tence o fs i ng le g r ave sa t a tl e a s tf ou ro ft h es i te s( Area G uzz in i F a s t ,V ia D uomo

2 29

ROB IN SKEATES

1 09 , V ia Ma rcon i , a nd S . R occo ) ( c .f . B ra i thwa i te 1 984 : 1 04 ; T homa s 1 991a : 4 0 ; G a rwood 1 991 : 1 4 ) . T he s t e reo typed s ymbo l ism o f t h e g r ave s m igh tb e r e g a rded a sa na t temp tt os uppo r tt h is a s se r t ion : b yf ocu s s i ng t h e a t ten t ion o f t h e v i ewe ro n t h e b ody o ft h e d e c ea sed i nd iv idua l ( by s u r round ing i tw i th g ood s w h ich r e fer red , b o th s pa t ia l ly a nd s ymbo l ica l ly , t o t h e b ody a nd i t s a c t ion s T homa s 1 991a ) ; a nd b y e xp re ss ing a s imp le a nd f i xed me ssage o fc once rn f o rt h ew e l l -be ing o ft h eb ody a nd s p ir i to ft ha ti nd iv idua l ( by ' l ay ing i tt o r e s t ' i n as l eep ing p o s i t ion ,a nd ,i ns ome c a se s ,b yp l ac -

p or t f o r t h i s o p in ion c an b e f ound b y l ook ing a tt h e n on -o rgan ic p e r sona l p o sse ss ion s o f t h e ' I ce Man ' , a a du l t ma le a ged 2 5 -40 y ea r s who w a s f ound u nde r t h e S im i laun g l ac ie ri nt h eÖ t za l A lp si nn o r the rn I t a ly a nd who d a te s t ot h e s t a r t o f t h e M idd le C oppe r Age ( c a .

i ng p o t s b y i t s mou th o r s t omach wh ich p re sumab ly c on ta ined f ood a nd d r ink ) . Howeve r ,t h is c oncep to fi n -

3 350 -3120 c a l . BC ) ( Höp fe l e t a ! , e d s . 1 992 ) . T he se p o s se ss ion s c omp r ised a s im i la r r ange o f w eapon s a s

d iv idua l i ty s hou ld n o tp e rhap s b e t a ken t oo f a r , f o r , i n t h e c eme te r ie s a tl e a s t , t h e g rave s o f t h e se i nd iv idua ls

t ho se f ound i nt h eg rave s ,i n c lud ing ac oppe ra xe b l ade , as ma l l f l in td agge r , a nd t wo f l in ta r rowhead s ; b u tt h ey

w e re s t i l lp l aced w i th s pa t ia l r e f e rence t ot h o se o fo the r p eop le , p robab ly a s ama rk o f t h e i r s oc ia l p rox im i ty p e rhap s a s membe r s o ft h es ame d e scen tg roup . A mo re p o l i t ica l d imen s ion c an a l so b e s ugge s ted f o r t h e se n ew r i te s , i fo ne a ccep t s t h e a r gumen t t h a t e ach f une ra l i n vo lved t h e p l ac ing o fn o to n ly t h e d ead , b u t a l so t h ea s semb led mou rne r s ,w i th t h el a t te rs ymbo l ica l l yo rde red ( t h rough t h e a l loca t ion a nd p e r fo rmance o f s pec if ic d u t ie s , r o le s , a nd p os i t ion s i nt h e r i tua l o b se r v ance s ) b o th i nr e la t ion t ot h e d ecea sed i nd iv idua l a nd

a l so c omp r i sed av a r ie ty o fs ma l le ra r te fac t s wh ich g en e r a l ly d on o to ccu ri nt h eg rave s ( e xcep tf o rt h e ' s p ind le who r l 'a tS .R occo ) t h e se i n c luded as ma l l d i sk shaped p endan to f ma rb le , ad r i l l , ab lade , a nd as ma l l s c rape r o ff l in t , as ha rpened p i ece o fb one , f ou ra n t le r t i p s a nd t h e t ho rn o f a n a n t le r , a nd a b und le o f b one s . S o , I wou ld s ugge s tt h a t ,e ven i ft h ea r te f ac t sp laced a nd d i s p layed i n t h e g rave s w e re t h e p e r sona l p o sse ss ion s o f t h ed ecea sed i nd iv idua ls ( wh ich c ou ld b e a n e t hnocen -

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g a rd t h e se g ood sa s t h ep e r sona l p o s se s s ion s o ft h e d e c ea sed i nd iv idua ls b u r ied i n t h e g rave s ( e .g . B ar f ie ld 1 985 ) , w h ich d i rec t ly e xp re ssed t h e ir s oc ia li d en t i ty a nd s t and ing a s t h ey w e re i nl i f e ( Hodde r 1 990 : 2 16 ) , a nd t h e re fo re t oi n te rp re t t h e i r f une ra ls i nt e rm s o f ac e le b ra t ion o ft h ed eed s o ft h ei lu s t r iou s d ead . S ome s up -

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( B loch a nd P a r ry 1 982 : 6 ;B a r re t t 1 989 , 1 990 ;G a rwood 1 991 , 1 993 ) . T h is s o r to fb u r ia ls t ra t egy may ,i np a r t ic -

t r ic , We s te rn ,i n te rp re ta t ion ,i nw h ich t h ing sa r es e en a s b e long ing t op eop le , a s p rope r ty , s ymbo ls o fp e r sona l s t a tu s , a nd r e s idue s o f p e r sona l l i fe -h i s to r ie s Hum p hrey s 1 981 : 8 ) , t h ey c omp r ised o n ly ar e s t r ic ted s am p l e wh ich w a s b ia sed t owa rd s r e la t ive ly l a rge , v i s ib le , a nd v a luab le o b jec t s , a nd wh ich o n ly p ar t ly r ef lec ted t h er e a l l if ei d en t i t ie sa nd a c t iv i t ie so ft h o se i nd iv idua l s . I nf a c t , w ha t t h e g rave d epo s i t s may r epre sen t i s" t he c on s t ruc t ion o f h igh ly f o rma l ised , i dea l ised , a nd r e s t r ic ted k ind s o fi d en t i ty i nd ea th " ( Thoma s 1 99 1 : 3 5 6 ) . T he s ymbo l ism o ft h eg rave s a tS .R occo a nd Y e s -

u l a r ,h ave b een i n tended t oe s tab l i sh ad eg ree o fs oc io -

c ova ra may p rov ide u s w i th c l ue s c once rning t h i s i d en -

p o l i t ica l s t ab i l i ty a mong s tt h es u rv iv ing membe r so ft h e l i neage ( w i th in t h e r i tua l a nd h i s to r ica l c on tex t o f t h e b ur ia l s i te )a tk ey momen t so fs oc ia li n s tab i l i ty a nd d an g e r , when t h eg roup ' sa cce ss t ol o ca l r e sou rce sf a ced i n t e nse s oc ia l c ompe t i t ion f r om r i va l d e scen t g roup s

t i ty . F o r e xamp le , t h e s i ng le g rave may h ave d e f ined

i nr e la t ion t oe ach o the r( " the d ead d on o tp a r t ic ipa te i n t h e ir o wn f une ra l" B ar re t t 1 988 : 3 1) . T he r i t e s may t h e re fo re h ave p rov ided ac on tex tf o rg enea log ica lr e ck o n ing a nd f o r t h e f o rma t ion o fp o l i t ica l a l l iance s , w i th c er ta in r i gh t s , d ut ie s , a nd t i t le s , a s w e l l a s r e la t ion s o f -

i nhe r i tance , a f f in i ty , o b l iga t ion ,a nd p owe r , b e ing r ea l l o ca ted among ,c onf irmed u pon ,a nd d emon s t ra ted b y ,a n ew g ene ra t ion t h rough t h e ir p e r fo rmance o f t h e r i te s

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t h is p e r son a s au n ique i nd iv idua l ; t h e l oca t ion o f t h e g rave , o n ah i l ls ide s i tua ted o n t h e e dge o f , a nd o ve r -

Mo re s pec if ica l ly , t h e ' weapon g rave s ' o n t h e h i l l -

l ook ing , t h em a in s e t t lemen ta nd a g r icu l tura l z one , a nd i t sl a ck o fd ome s t ic p o t te ry , may h ave r e fer red t o ak ind o fp e r son w ho e x i s ted o nt h e e dge o f s oc ie ty ; t h e b ody a nd t h e w eapon s p laced b y i t may h ave e nhanced t h e

s i de s a tS .R occo a nd V e scova ra , m igh tb e r ega rded a s a l te rna t ive p o l i t ica la r ena s , wh ich w e re i n tended t op ro mo te a nd e s tab l i sh a n ew c oncep t o f l e ade r sh ip a nd

i d en t i ty o ft h i s p e r son a s a na du l t ma le ( Ba r f ie ld 1 984 ; R obb i np re s s ) ,a nd a s ap owe r fu ll i f e taker ( i . e . aw ar n o r a nd a h un te r P ee t 1 909 ; H odde r 1 990 ; R obb i n

p owe r , a cco rd ing t o t h e n ew c oncep t s o f t h e ' p re s t ige g ood s e conomy 'i n wh ich p o s i t ion so fh igh r ank o rr e la t i ve s t a tu s c ou ld b ea ch ieved t h rough t h e a c t ion so ft h e i nd iv idua l , i n o ppo s i t ion t o t h e t r ad i t iona l c oncep t o f l e ade r sh ip wh ich w a s b a sed u pon t h e p r inc ip le s o fa ge a nd a n ter io r i ty . A tf i r s ti mp re s s ion ,i ti st emp t ing t or e -

p re ss ) ; a nd t h e e xo t ic a r te fac t s made o f c oppe r a nd ' g reen s tone 'm ay h ave r e fer red t oh i sc on tac t s w i th p ow e r fu l f o re ign p eop le , p lace s , a nd i deas , a nd t o h i s w ea l th .

( Chapman 1 983 :33 ;T homa s 1 99 1 ;G a rwood 1 991 ) .

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

SU MMARY AND CONCLUS IONS D u r ing t h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic ( c a . 5 500 -4850 c a l . BC ) i n l ow land e a s t -cen t ra lI t a ly ,d ea th a nd t h en ew d ead w e re g ene ra l ly b an ished f r om s e t t lemen t s a nd f r om s oc ie ty . O cca s iona l ly , h oweve r , h uman r ema in s w e re r i tua l ly d epo s i ted w i th in t h e d ome s t ic s phe re o f s e t t lemen t s . T he se mo r tuary r i tua l sa nd t h e i rd epo s i t s ,w h ich e voked t h e t h rea ta nd d ange ro fd ea th , w e re u sed s ymbo l ica l ly b y e l de r s a nd e me rgen t l e ade r s w i th in s ma l l a nd s t i l l p o ten t ia l ly f l u id r e s iden t ia l g roup s a s p a r to fs t ra teg ie s o fp owe r . T he i rs t ra teg ie s w e re i n tended : t os t reng then a nd u n i fy t h e se g roup s a nd t oo ve rcome s oc ia lc onf l ic t s a nd t e n s ion s w i th in t h em ;t oe s tab l i sh s t ruc tu ra la nd s o c i a l c l a ss if ica t ion s a nd d iv is ion s w i th in t h e se g roup s , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se b a sed u pon ap r inc ip le o fa n te r ion ty ; a nd t ol e g i t im i se a nd e nhance t h e ir o wn p o s i t ion a nd p ower w i th in t h em . Mo re s pec i f ica l ly ,t h ep r ima ry b u r i a l r i te s m igh t h ave c omp r ised a n ew ly i n t roduced f o rm o fa nce s to r wo r sh ip ,d e s igned t oe n su re t h e ma in t e nance o fd i rec ta nd b enef ic ia lr e la t ion s w i th t h ea nce s t o r s ; w he rea s t h e mo re e l abo ra te s econda ry b u r ia l r i te s may h ave c omp r ised c a lend r ica l f e r t i l i ty r i t e s , w i th a p p ea l s t o al e ss a n th ropomo rph ised c o smo s , w h ich w e re p e r fo rmed b y i nd igenou s g roup s a s ar e a f f irma t ion o f t h e i rt r ad i t iona lc u l tu ra l a nd r e l ig iou sb e l ie f s ,w i th in t h e c on tex t o f i n te r fe rence s t o t h e i r s oc ia l a nd e conom ic l i f e c au sed b y g row ing c on tac t s w i th c o lon is t s i n t h e c oa s ta ll ow land so fs ou th -ea s t Ab ruzzo . D u r ing t h e M idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic ( c a .4 850 -4200 c a l . BC ) s pec ia l mo r tua ry d epo s i ts c on t inued t o b e p l aced i n at r ad i t iona l m anne ri nl ow land s e t t lemen t s , b u tt h ey w e re a l so e l abo ra ted a nd t r an sfo rmed : t h rough t h e a dd i t ion t o t h e p r imary b u r ia l /ance s to r r i te s , p e r f o rmed i no pen s i te s ,o f ma te r ia ls ymbo ls o fw ide sp read d ome s t ic ,c ommunua l ,a nd c u l tu ra lv a lue ( i nc lud ing C a t i gnano s t y le p a in ted p o t s ) , a nd a n empha s i s u pon t h e b u r ia l o f a du l t women a nd c h i ld ren ; a nd p e rhap s a l so b y t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi n i t ia t ion r i te s i n to t h e s e conda ry b u r ia lr i te s p er fo rmed i nl ow land c ave s . E lde r s a nd r i t u a l s pec ia l is t s may h ave i n t roduced t h e se c hange s i n l i ne w i th ad eve lopmen t i n t h e ir s t ra teg ie s o f p owe r . T h rough t h e s ymbo l ism o f t h e mo r tua ry r i te s a nd d e p o s i t s t h ey may h ave i n tended : t op romo te a nd l eg i t i ma te an ew c om inunua l e t h ic a tt h e ir n ew ly e s tab l ished s e t t lemen tc en t re s ; t oe nhance t h ec ohe s ion a nd g roup i d en t i ty o f membe r s o ft ho se c ommun i t ie s ; t oi n c rea se t h e s u rp lu s o u t -pu t o f d ome s t ic , f am i ly sca le , p roduc t i on o n b eha lf o f t h e c ommun i ty ( e spec ia l ly t h a t p ro d uc t ion c a r r ied o u tb y women a nd c h i ld ren ) ; a nd t oi n c rea se t h e i r c on t ro l o ver b o th p eop le a nd s urp lus p roduc t s w i th in t h e c ommun i ty . A l l t h is w ou ld h ave e nab led t h e l e ade r s t op a r t ic ipa te , a s r ep re sen ta t ive s o f

t h e ir c ommun i t ie s a nd k i n sh ip g roup s ,w i th in a n e x ten s i ve a nd c ompe t i t ive s y s tem o fc e remon ia l a l l iance a nd g i f t -exchange ( i nw h ich s upp l ie s o fv a luab le a nd e xo t ic g ood s , ma r r iage p a r tn e r s ,a nd c u l tu ra lk now ledge c i rcu l a ted ) , t h e u l t ima te p o l i t ica l g oa l o f wh ich w a s t oe n h ance t h e r e la t ive s t a tu s o ft h e c ommun i ty , i t s k in sh ip g roup s , i t s a nce s to r s , a nd i t s l i v ing membe r s ( s ee : F r iedman a nd R ow land s 1 977 ; fodde r 1 979 ; C hapman 1 988 ;S kea te si np re ss b ) . Du r ing t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic /Ear ly C opper A ge ( c a . 4 200 -3250 c a l . BC ) mo r tua ry p rac t ice s w e re t r an s f o rmed mo re d rama t ica l ly , b y t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f a f o rma ll i nea rc eme te ry f o rt h ee x tended b u r ia lo fg roup s o fi nd iv idua ls i nd i f fe ren t g rave g roup s i nt h e h ea r t o f t h e s e t t lemen ta tR ipo l i , a nd b y t h ec e remon ia l d epo s i t i on o fr i ch a s semb lage s o f v a luab le c u l tu ra l r e sou rce s w h ich i nc luded i s o la ted h uman b one s . R i tua l s pec ia l i s t s a nd l o ca l l i neage a nd c ommun i ty l e ade r s p robab ly b rough t a bou t t he se c hange s a s p a r t o f ar enewa l o f t h e ir s t ra teg ie so fp owe r , wh ich i ne s sence m ay a c tua l ly h ave r ema ined u nchanged . T hey e xp lo i ted t h en ew r i t u a l s ymbo l ism , i n c lud ing i t s r e fe rence t ot h e h i s to r ica l o rde ro ft h ing s , i n af u r the ra t temp t : t op romo t e ac or n m unua le t h ic ,a nd ,i np a r t icu la r ,a ni d ea lo fc ommon d e s c en tf o rt h ec ommun i ty ;t od e l inea te a nd r e p roduce l i n e age s ; a nd t os t reng then a nd l eg i t im ise t h e owne r sh ip , p ro tec t ion , a nd a ccumu la t ion o f s ca rce a nd v a luab le c u l tu ra l r e sou rces ( i nc lud ing p eop le , p lace s , l a bou r , f ood s u rp lu ses ,a nd v a luab le g oods a nd k now ledge ) b y l i neage s , t h e c ommun i ty , a nd t h e i rl e ade r s ( a s o ppo sed t o t h e i ndependen t h ou seho lds wh ich made u p t h e se c ommun i t ie s ) . T h is w ou ld a ga in h ave e nhanced t h e l e ade r s ' a b i l i ty t o p a r t ic ipa te i n a n i n c rea s ing ly l a rge s c a le a nd c ompe t i t ive s y s tem o fa l l iance a nd e xchange . W i th in t h e e xpan s ion o f t h is s y s tem , h oweve r , l a y t h e s e ed s o fi t s d e s truc t ion , a nd d ur ing t h e l a te f ou r th m i l l e nn ium i tc o l lap sed ( i ne a s tc en t ra lI t a ly ,a tl e a s t ,p o ss i b l ya s ar e su l to fg row ing s oc ia l i n s tab i l i ty i nt h ec oa s t a ll ow land sa nd t h ew ide sp read s h i f to fs e t t lemen ta way f r om t h a ta r ea t owa rd st h ei n te r io ro ft h er e g ion ) . D u r ing t h e M idd le a nd L a te C opper A ge ( c a . 3 250 2 050 c a l . BC ) t he s pa t ia l a nd ma te r ia l s y mbo l ism o f mo r tua ry p rac t ice sw a st r an sfo rmed c on s ide rab ly . N ew s pec ia l -pu rpo se b u r ia l s i te s w e re e s tab l i shed o u t s ide s e t t lemen t s ,e i th e ri nt h eh ea r to ft h ea d jacen ta g r icu l tu r a lz one o ro nh i l ls ide so ve r look ing i t ;a nd t h e mo r tua ry r i t e st h em se lve sw e re c on t rac ted i n to s t e reo typed f une r a r y e ven t s wh ich a t temp ted t of ocu s a nd f i x t h e a t ten t i on o f amo re r e s t r ic ted a ud ience o n t h e b ur ia l o fs pe c i a l i nd iv idua ls i n s i ng le g rave s . T he se c hange s may n ow h ave b een b rough ta bou tb yl e ade r s o fl i neage s ( o r o the r s ub -g roup s w i th in s oc ie ty ) , r a the r t h an b y c or n -

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mun i ty l e ade r s ,i nl i ne w i th t h e ir p u r sua l o fa l te rna t ive s t ra teg ie s o fp owe r ,p a r t icu la r ly w i th in t h e c on tex to fa n ew ' p re s t ige g ood s e conomy ' a nd a n a s soc ia ted s e t o f i d ea s e s tab l ished b y d om inan t g roup s i n w e s t -cen t ra l a nd n o r the rn p a r t s o fI t a ly . T he se i n d iv idua l s man ipu l a ted t h er i tua l s ymbo l ism i na n a t temp t t oe xp re ss a nd p romo te n ew , a l te rna t ive , e ven r e vo lu t iona ry , c u l tu ra l c oncep t s a nd s oc ia l i d ea ls , u l t ima te ly i na n a t temp t t o e nhance t h e i r o wn p owe r a nd t h e p owe r o f t h e g roup s w h ich t h ey r ep re sen ted . T h ree l e ve ls o f mean ing c an b ei d en t i f ied . On t h e f i r s tl e ve l , t h e mo r tua ry r i tes a nd d epo s i t s e xp re ssed a nd p romo ted ac oncep tua l d i s tanc i ng a nd d i s t inc t ion o f t h e d e scen t -g roup , i nc lud ing i t s l i v ing a nd d ecea sed membe r s ,a way f r om t h es e t t lemen t a nd i t s t r ad i t iona l e t ho s o fc ommuna l i ty a nd c ommunu a ll abou r . O n t h e s e cond l e ve l , t h ep e r fo rmance o ft h e r i t e s , who se s ymbo l i sm e xp re ssed ag ene ra l me s sage o f c once rn f o rt h eu n i ty ,c on t inu i ty ,a nd w e l l -be ing o ft h a t g roup a nd i t s l i v ing a nd d ecea sed m embe r s , p rov ided a p rac t ica l c on tex t f o r t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f ad egree o f u n i ty a nd s t ab i l i ty among s t t h e s u rv iv ing membe r s o f t h e g roup , t h rough g enea log ica l r e ckon ing a nd t h ef o r ma t ion o fp o l i t ica l a l l iance s w i th in t h a tg roup ; p ar t icu l a r ly a tk ey momen t sw hen t h eg roup ' sa cce s s t op rope r t y a nd r e sou rce s i n t h e l ow land s f aced i n ten se s oc ia l c ompe t i t ion f r om r i va l d e scen t g roup s . On t h e t h i rd l e ve l , t h e r i ch ' wa r r io r g rave s ' p romo ted a n a l te rna t ive c oncep to fl e ade r sh ip a nd p owe r( t ot h et r ad i t iona l c on c ep to fl e ade r sh ip b a sed u pon t h ep r inc ip le o fa n te r ion t y ) , i n wh ich p o s i t ions o f p owe r b a sed u pon r e la t ive s t a tu s c ou ld b e a ch ieved , i np ar t icu la r , b y a du l t ma le s w i th in t h e g roup who s ucceeded i n g a in ing p re s t ige ,

w ea l th ,a nd i nf lu ence o nb eha lf o ft h em se lve s a nd t h e ir g roup t h rough t h e ir p e r formance , i nw a r a nd p eace , a s o u t s tand ing w a r r io r sa nd h un te r s ,a nd a se m inen tp o l it i c i an sa l ied t o mo re p owe r fu lf o re ign p eop le a nd p l ace s .

NOTES : 1 T he se t wo r e g in s b a s ica l ly c omp r ise mode rn a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t s ,a nd a r e t h e refo re a rb i ta ry u n i t s o fa na ly s i s f o r p reh is to ry , b u t t h ey d o e xh ib i t af a ir d eg ree o f g eog raph ica lu n i ty a nd a tl e a s t ac e r ta in d eg ree o fc u l tu r a l u n ifo rm i ty d u r ing p reh is to ry ,p a r t icu lar ly i nt h el ow l a nd s w h ich l i e i n a3 0 -50 km w ide b and b e tween t h e Ad r ia t ic c oa s ta nd t h ee dge o ft h e Apenn ine moun ta in s . -

T he i n a lnd i n te rmon tane v a l leys , b a s in s , a nd d ep re s s i on s ,a nd mon ta in so fA b ruzzo a nd Ma rche ,o nt h eo t h e rh and , s e em t oh ave b een o ccup ied b ys l igh t ly d i f f e r e n t , i nd igenou s , c u l tu ra l g roup s d u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic a nd C oppe r Ag e ,w ho c a r r ied o u ts im i la rb u t mo re c on s e rva t ive mo r tua ry p rac t ice s t h an t h o se o ft h el ow land s ( Skea te s 1 992 ) , a nd s o Ih ave c hosen t oe xc lude t h em f r om t h is p a r t icu la rs t udy .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iam v e ry g ra te fu l t oJ ohn R obb ( Mu seum o f An th ro p o logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM ich igan ) f o rc ommen t ing u pon a ne a r l ie rd r af to ft h i sp ape r ,a nd t ot h eo rgan ise r so ft h e c onfe rence f o rt h e i rh o sp i ta l i ty d ur ing my v i s i tt oD e ià .

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P re ss : 9 3 -104 . BRA ITH WA ITE ,M . 1 984 . R i tua la nd p r e s t ige i nt h ep reh is to ry o f We s sex c .2 200 -1400 BC : an ew d imen s ion t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence . I n ,I deo logy ,p ower a nd p reh i s to ry ,e d i ted b yD .M i l ley a nd C .T i l ley . C amb r idge : C am b r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss : 9 3 10 . CAPE ! . !. I N I ,G . 1 871 . L ' e tà d e l la p ie tra n e l la V o l le d e l la V ibra ta . B o logna :G ambe r im a nd P a rmegg ian i . CARNE IRO DA CUNHA , M . C . 1 981 . E scha to logy a mong t h e K rahó : r ef lec t ion u pon s oc ie ty ,f r ee f i e ld o ff a bu la t i on . I n : H umph reys , S .C . a nd K ing ,H . ( e d s . ) , Mor ta l i ty a nd i mmor ta l i ty . T he a n thropo logy a nd a rchaeo logy o f d ea th .L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 61 -174 . CAZZELLA ,A . 1 987 . Una s t ru t tu ra d i fen s iva e neo l i t ica : i lf o ssa to d iC one l le d iA rcev ia . I n :L e Marche . A rcheo lo g ia , S t or ia , T er r i tor lo :4 5 -62 . CAZZELLA ,A .a nd MOSCOLON I ,M . 1 985 . D i s leve l l ic u l tu ra l in e l Med i te r raneo c en t rc -o i ien tn le f r at e rzo es e con d om i l lenn io a c . .I nS tud id ip a le tno log ia i no nore d iS a lva tore M . P ug l i s i ,e d i ted b yM . L ive r an i ,A . P a lm ie r i a nd R .P e ron i . R oma : U n ive r s i tà d iR oma " La S ap ienza " : 5 31 -547 . 1 988 . L ef a c ie se neo l i t iche d e l le Ma rche . R a s segna d iA rcheo log ia ,7 :3 62 -370 . CHAPMAN ,J .C . 1 983 . Mean ing a nd i lu s ion i nt h es t udy o fB a lkan p reh is to ry . I nA nc ien tB u lga r ia .P ape r sp re sen t e dt ot h eI n terna t iona lS ympos ium o n t h eA nc ien tH i s to ry a nd A rchaeo logy o fB u lgar ia , U n ive r s i ty o fN o t t ingham , 1 98 1 ,e d i ted b yA .G . P ou l te r . N o t t ingham : D epa r tmen to fC la s s ica la nd A rchaeo log ica lS tud ie s( Archaeo logy S ec t i on ) , Un ive r s i ty o f No t t ingham , Monog raph S e r ie sI :1 42 . 1 988 . C e ram ic p roduc t ion a nd s o c ia ld i f fe ren t ia t ion : t h eD a lma t ian N eo l i th ic a nd t h ew e s te rn Med i te r ranean . J ou r n a lo f Med i te r ranean A rchaeo logy , 1 :3 -25 . 1 991 . T he c r ea t ion o fs oc ia la r ena si nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd C oppe r Age o fS .E .E u rope : t h ec a se o fV a rna . I n S ac red a nd p rof ane . P roceed ings o f ac onf e rence o n a rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig ion . O xf ord 1 989 , e d i ted b y P .G a r w ood , D . J enn ing s , R . S kea te s a nd J .T om s . O xfo rd : O x fo rd Un ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy , Monog raph n o . 3 2 : 1 52 -171 . CHAPMAN , R . 1 981 . T he eme rgence o ff o rma l d i spo sa l a r ea s a nd t h e ' p rob lem ' o f mega l i th ic t omb s i np reh is to r ic E urope . I n T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th , e d i ted b yR . C hapman ,I .K inne sa nd K .R and sbo rg . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 7 1 -8 1 . CHAPMAN , R . a nd RANDSBORG , K . 1 981 . A pp roache s t ot h e a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . I n : C hapman , R . ,K inne s , I . a nd R and sbo rg ,K . ( ed s . ) , T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 24 . COHEN , M . N . 1 985 . P reh is to r ic h un te r -ga the re r s : t h e mean ing o f s oc ia l c omp lex i ty . I n P reh i s tor ic h un te r g a therer s . T he e mergence o fc u l tura lc omp lex i ty ,e d i ted b yT . D . P r ice a nd J .A . B rown ,p p . 9 9 -119 . A cadem ic P re s s : L ondon . COL IN I ,G . A . 1 898 . I is epo ic re to d iR emede l lo S o t to n e l B re sc iano ei lp e r iodo e neo l i t ico i nI t a l ia . B u l le t ino d iP a -

/ Z\

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l e tno log ia I t a l iana ,2 4 : 1 47 ,88 -110 ,2 06 -260 .2 80 -295 . 1 910 . S coper te a rcheo log iche n e l la V a l le d e l la V ibra ta ( T e ramo ) . P a rma : B a t te i . CORRA IN ,C . a nd CAP ITAN IO ,M . 1 968 . 1r e s t is che le t r ic i uman id i Madda lena d i Mucc ia ed iR ipab ianca d i Mon t e rado ,n e l le Ma rche . R iv is ia d iS c ienze P re i s tor iche ,2 3 : 2 23 -244 . COSTANT IN T ,L .a nd TOZZ I ,C . 1 983 . L e sp l an te sc u l t ivée se tl ac on se rva t ion d e s g r a in sp endan tl eN éo l i th ique d e s Ab ruzze s ( I ta l ie C en t ra le ) : l et dmo ignage d u v i l lage d e C a t ignano ( Pe sca ra ) . I n A c te s d u C o l loqu ium d e N ice : l ongue d urée e ii nnova t ion d ans l em onde Méd i ier ranéen . S oc ie té s a gr ico le s e it e chn ique s a gra ire s , 1 981 : 1 9A 1 9H . CRA IDO ,F .1 989 . We ,t h ep o s t -mega l i th ic p eop le .. . I n T he m ean ings o ft h ings . Ma ter ia lc u l ture a nd s ymbo l ic e x p re ss ion ,e d i ted b yI .Hodde r . L ondon : Unw in H yman : 7 9 -89 . CRE MONES I ,G . 1 965 . I lv i l lagg io d iR ipo l ia l la l u ce d c ir e cen t i s cav i . R iv i s ta d iS c ien ze P re i s ior iche ,2 0 : 8 5 -155 . 1 976 . L a G ro t ta d e lP iccwn id iB o lognano n e lq uad ro d e l le c u l ture d a !N eo l i t ico a l l 'E tà d e lB ron zo i nA bru z zo . P i sa : G ia rd in i . 1 985 . N o te s un uov ii n sed iamen t id e l l 'E tà d e i Me ta l l in e l la p i ana d e lF uc ino . I n : L ive ran i ,M . ,P a lm ie r i ,A . a nd P e r o n i ,R . ( e d s .) , S t ud id ip a le tno log ia i no nore d iS a lva tore M . P ug l i s i . R oma : D ipa r t i inen to d iS c ienze S to r iche ,A r c heo log iche eAn t ropo log iche d e l l 'An t ich i tà ,U n iver s i t d iR oma " La S ap ienza" : 7 91-804 . '

CREMONES I ,G . a nd TOZZ I ,C . 1 987 . I iN eo l i t ico d e l l 'Ab ruzzo . A t l id e l la XXV Ir i un ione s c ien t if ica ,I s z i iu to I t a l iano d iP re i s tor ia eP ro to s tor ia . IN eo l i t ico i nh a ha .F i renze : I PP : 2 39 -251 . DALL 'OSSO ,I .1 9 15 . Gu ida i lu s tra ta d e l Mu seo N a z iona i ed iA ncona . Ancona : Mu seo N az iona le d i Ancona . DELP INO ,F .a nd F LJGAZZOLA DELP INO ,M . A . 1 987 . L a « f ac ie s» d i Mon te V ene r e n e l l 'amb i to d e l la c u l tu r ad e l S a sso . A t l id e l la XXV I r i un ione s c ien h if ica , i s t i tu to I t a l iano d iP re is tor ia eP ro tos tor ia . I iN eo l i t ico i nh a ha .F i r enze : IPP : 6 71 -679 . DE PO MPE IS ,C . 1 978 . R e s t i d it i nv i l lagg io d e l la c u l tu ra d iR ipo l i aC i t tà S an t 'Ange lo ( Ab ruzzo ) . A t l id e l la S oc ie tà T oscana d iS c ienze N a tu ra h i , 8 5 : 1 61-170 . DONAHUE ,R .E . 1 992 . D e spa ra te ly s eek ing c e re s : ac r i t ica le xam ina t ion o fc ur r en t mod le sf o rt h et r an s i t ion t oa g r i . c u l tu re in Med i te r ranean E u rope . I n T rans i t ion s t oa gr icu l tu re i np reh i s tory , e d i ted b y A . B . G ebaue r a nd T . D . P r ice ,p p . 7 3 -80 . Mad ison ,W i scon s in : P reh i s to ry P re s s . EVE ! 1 ,D . a nd RENF 1 .E W ,J .M . 1 971 . L 'ag r icu l tu ra n eo l i t ica i t a l iana : u na n o ta s u ic e rea l i .R iv i s ta d iS c ien ze P re i s t o r iche ,2 6 : 4 03 -9 . F ERRARA ,G . , FORNACA -R INALD i ,G . a nd TONG IORG I ,E . 1 961 . C arbon 1 4d a t ing i nP i saI l . R ad ioca rbon ,3 : 9 9 -104 . F R IED MAN ,J .a nd RO WLANDS ,M . 1 977 . No t e st oward sa ne p igene t ic mode lo ft h ee vo lu t ion o f' c iv i l iza t ion ' . I n : F r iedman ,J .a nd R ow land s ,M . ( e d s . ) , T he e vo lu t ion o fs oc ia ls y s tem s .L ondon : Duckwor th : 2 01 -276 . GALL I ,E . 1 941 . S cope r ta d id ue t ombe n eo l i t iche n e l t e r r i to r io d iR ecana t i . B u l le i t ino d iP a Je tno log ia h t a l iana ,5 : 1 01 -106 . 1 947 -50 . N uove s cope r te n e l la n ec ropo l i n eo l i t ica d i" Fon te Noce" p re s so R ecana t i . B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno log ia h a l l a na ,8 ,p a r t3 : 1 19 . GAR WOOD , P . 1 991 . R i tua l t r ad i t ion a nd t h e r e con s t i tu t ion o fs oc ie ty . I n S acred a nd p rof ane . P roceed ings o fa c onf e rence o na rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig ion . O xf ord 1 989 , e d i ted b yP .G a rwood ,D . J enn ings ,R . S kea te sa nd J . T om s . O x fo rd : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy , Monog raph n o . 3 2 : 1 0 -32 . 1 993 . T he t r oub le w i th a nce s to r s . I nR i tua l , r i tes a nd r e l ig ion i np reh i s tory . I h i rd D e ia I n te rna t iona lC onf erence o fP reh i s to ry . C onf e rence r e sumé s , e d i ted b yW . H . Wa ld ren . D e ià : D e ià A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t r e . GAR WOOD ,P . ,J ENN INGS ,D . , SKEATES ,R . a nd TO MS ,J .1 991 .P re face . I n : G a rwood ,P . ,J enn ings ,D . , S kea te s , R . a nd T om s ,J .( ed s . ) , S ac red a nd P rof ane . P roceed ing s o f ac onf e rence o n a rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig ion . O x f o rd , 1 989 . Oxfo rd : Oxfo rd U n ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy : v -x . GEN IOLA ,A . 1 982b . Ma rc iane se .I iv i l lagg io R o ss i .E n t i tà d e ln eo h i t ico m ed io a rca ico A bru z ze se . L . anc iano : I t inem r i . GEN IOLA ,A . a nd MALLEGN I ,F . 1 975 . I lc a lva r io n eo l i t ico d iL anc iano ( Ch ie t i ) : n o te p a le tno log iche es t ud io a n t r opo log ico . A t l id e l la S oc ie tà T oscana d iS c ien ze P re is io r iche , 8 2 : 2 37 -2 .54 . GER I T IOLM ,T . 1 988 . On r i tua l : ap o s tmodem i s tv i ew . E ihnos ,5 3 : 1 90 -203 . GER J v fANA , F . , MALLEGN I ,F . , DE PO MPE IS , C . a nd RONCO , D . 1 990 . I iv i l lagg io n eo l i t ico d iV i l la B ade s sa ( Pe sca ra ) : a spe t t i p a le tno log ic i ,a n t ropo log ic i ep a leopa to log ic i . A t l id e l la S oc ie tà T o scana d iS c ien ze N a tura l i , 9 7 :

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2 71 -310 . G IDDENS ,A . 1 979 . C en tra lp rob lem si ns oc ia lt h eor y . L ondon : Macm i l lan . GOLDSTE IN ,L . 1 981 . One -d imen s iona l a r chaeo logy a nd mu l t id imen s iona lp eop le : s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd mo r tu a r ya na ly s is . I n ,T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th ,e d i ted b yR . C hapman ,I .K inne s ,a nd K . R and sbo rg . C amb r idge : C am b r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss : 5 3 -69 . GR IFON I CREMONES I ,R . 1 984 . A lcun i d a t ir e la t iv i af e nomem f une ra r i c on i mp l icaz ion ic u l tua l in e l la p r e is tona e p rob lem i d ii n te rp re taz ione . D ia logh id iA rcheo log ia ,4 :2 65 -269 . 1 IALLAM , B .R . , W ARREN ,S .E .a nd RENFREW ,C . 1 976 . O b s id ian i nt h ew e s te rn Med i te r ranean : c ha rac te r isa t ion b y n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s is a nd o p t ica l e m is s ion s pec t ro scopy . P roceed ings o ft h e P reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty ,4 2 : 8 5 10 . HA WKES ,C . F . 1 954 . A rchaeo log ica l t h eo ry a nd me thod : s ome s ugge s t ion sf r om t h eO ld Wo r ld . Ame r ican A n thro p o log i s t ,5 6 : 1 55 1 68 . HEDGES ,R .E .M . , HOUSELY ,R .A . , BRONK ,C .R . a nd VAN KL INKEN ,G . J .1 990 . R ad ioca rbon d a te sf r om t h e O x fo rd AMS s y s tem : A rchaeome try d a te l is t 1 . A rchaeome tr y ,3 2 : 2 11 -237 . HENDERSON ,J .1 987 . F ac to r sd e te rm in ing t h es t a te o fp r e se rva t ion o fh uman r ema in s . I n : B odd ing ton ,A . ,G a r land , A . N . a nd J anaway ,R . C . ( ed s . ) , D ea th a nd r econ s t ruc t ion . A pproache s t oa rchaeo logy a nd f ore s ic s c ience . Man c hes t er Manche s te r Un ive r s i ty P re s s : 4 35 4 . HERTZ ,R . 1 907 . C on t r ibu t ion au ne é t ude s u rl ar ep re sen ta t ion c o l lec t ive d el a mo r t . L 'Année S oc io log ique , 1 0 : 4 8 1 37 . HODDER ,I .1 979 . E conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t re ss a nd ma te r ia lc u l tu re p a t te rn ing . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty ,4 4 :446 -454 . 1 990 . T he d ome s t ica t ion o fE urope .S t ruc tu re a nd c on t ingency i nn eo l i th ic s oc ie t ie s . Ox fo rd : B lackwe l l . HÖPFEL , F . , P LATZER , W . a nd S P INDLER ,K . ( e d s . ) 1 992 . D e r Mann i mE i s . B and 1 .B e r ich t ü ber d a s I n te rna t i ona le S ympos ium 1 992 i nI nnsb ruck . I nn sb ruck : V e rö f f en t l ichungen d e rU n ive r s i tä tI nn sb ruck , 1 87 . 1 IU MP I IREYS , S .C . 1 981 . I n t roduc t ion : c ompa ra t ive p e r spec t ive s o n d ea th . I n : H umph rey s , S .C . a nd K ing , H . ( e d s . ) , Mor ta l i ty a nd i mmor ta l i ty . T he a n thropo logy a nd a rchaeo logy o fd ea th . L ondon : A cadem ic P re s s : 1 13 . LEACH ,E . R . 1 976 . C u l ture a nd c ommun ica t ion . T he l o g ic b yw h ich s ymbo l s a re c onnec ted .A n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e u se o fs t ruc tura l i s ta na ly s is i ns oc ia la n thropo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . L EW IS ,G . 1 980 . Day o fs h in ing r ed .A ne s say o nu nde r s tand ing r i tua l . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . LOL UN T ,D . G . 1 968 . No t iz ia r io . Ma rche . R iv i s ta d iS c ien ze P re i s tor iche ,2 3 :4 13 -4 . 1 974 . No t iz ia r io . Ma rche . R iv i s ta d iS c ienze P re i s tor iche ,2 9 : 2 50 -1 . 1 975 . No t iz iar io . Ma rche . R iv i s ta d iS c ienze P re i s tor iche ,3 0 : 3 85 . 1 978 . Ma sche .I n : R adm i l l i ,A . M . ( c d .) ,G u ida d e l la p re i s tor ia i t a l iana .F i renze : S an son i : 9 3 -101 . LOLL IN I ,D .G . ,c d . 1 990 . Mu seo a rcheo log ico n a z iona le d e l le Ma rche . S e z ionepre i s tor ica . P a leo l i t ico -Neo l i t ico . F a lcona ra : S op r in t endenza A rcheo log ica d e l le Ma rche . LOLL IN I ,D . G . a nd CAP ITAN IO ,M . 1 970 .T omba e neo l i t ica d aR ecana t i . S tud i Macera te s i ,4 :5 1 -63 . MALONE ,C . 1 985 . P o t s ,p re s t ige a nd r i tua li nN eo l i th ic s ou the rn I t a ly . I n : Ma lone ,C .a nd S todda r t ,S .( ed s . ) , P aper s i nI t a l ian a rchaeo logy I V . T he C ambr idge c onf erence .P ar t i .P reh is tory .O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 44 : 18 -151 . MANZ I , G . a nd MACCFI IARELL I , R . 1 989 . L "uomo p r e -neo l i t ico" d e l la Ma ie l la ( Lama d c i P e l ign i , Ab ruzzo ) : l a d a taz ione r ad iome tnca d e l lo s che le t ro . R iv i s ta d iA n z ropo log ia ,6 7 : 3 25 -328 . ME ILLASSOUX ,C . 1 972 . F rom r e p roduc t ion t op roduc t ion . A Ma rx is ta pp roach t oe conom ic a n th ropo logy . E con o my a nd S oc ie ty , 1 :93 -105 . 1 981 . Ma iden s , m ea l a nd m oney . C ap i ta l i sm a nd t h ed ome s t ic c ommun i ty . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . O 'S I IEA ,J .M . 1 981 . S oc ia lc onf igu ra t ion sa nd t h ea r chaeo log ica ls t udy o f mo r tua ry p rac t ice s : ac a se s t udy . I n : C hap man , J . , K inne s , I .a nd R and sbo rg , K . ( ed s . ) , T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss : 3 9 -52 . PADER ,E . J .1 982 . S ymbo l i sm , s oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s a nd t h e i n te rpre ta t ion o f mor tuary r ema in s .O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A r c haeo log ica l R epo r t sI n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 30 . PARENT I ,D . R . 1 957 . L os che le t ro umano d e l la " t omba d e lc ane " aR ipol i .C on t r ibu t e ,u l la c ono scenza a n t ropo log ica d e ln eo e neo l i t ico i t a l iano . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE tno log ia ,8 7 : 5 -95 . PARKER PEARSON ,M . 1 982 . Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s , s oc ie ty a nd i deo logy : a ne thnoa rchaeo log ica l s t udy . I n : fodde r , I .( c d . ) ,S ymbo l ic a nd s t ruc tu ra la rchaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss : 9 9 -113 .

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PASSER I ,L . 1 970 . R i t rovamen t i p r e i s to r ic i n e i P ozz i d e l la P iana ( Umb r ia ) . R iv i s ta d iS c ien ze P re i s tor iche ,2 5 : 2 25 2 51 . P EET ,T .E . 1 909 . T he S t one a nd B ron ze A ges i nI t a ly . L ondon : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . P ERCOSS I S ERENELL I , E . a nd S ILVESTR IN I LAVAGNOL I ,M . 1 984 -6 . L e s t rade n e l le Ma rche . I ip rob lema n e l t empo .A t l i em emor ie ,8 99 1 : 3 55 -393 . 1 988 . 1l e r r i tor io d iR ecana l id a l lapre i s tor ia a l l 'e tà R omana . Ancona : S op r in tendenza A rcheo log ica d e l le Ma rche . P IGOR IN I ,L . 1 897 .T ombe e neo l i l iche i np rov . d iA ncona . B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno log ia i t a l iana , 2 3 : 9 8 . P IGOR IN I ,L . a nd PEFTAZZON T , 1 911 . F ond i d ic apanne n e l la V a l le d e l la V ib ra ta ( Te ramo ) . B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno l o g ia i t a l iana ,3 6 : 1 50 . P ITT I , C . a nd TOZZ I , C . 1 976 . G i l s c av i n e l v i lagg io n eo l i t ico d iC a t ignano ( Pe scara ) . No ta p re l im ina re . R iv i s ta d i S c ien ze P re i s tor iche ,3 1 : 8 7 -107 . POSP ISIL ,L . 1 963 . T he K apau lw P apuan so fW e s tN ew G u inea .N ew Yo rk : Ho l t ,R ineha r ta nd Win s ton . PUGL IS I ,S .M . 1 959 . L ec i v i l t .à d e lP i ceno d a l la p re is to r ia a l la p ro to s to r ia a l la l u ce d e l le p i l lr e cen t i s cope r te . A t l id e l ic onvegno d is t ud ie t ru sch i .A ncona . 1 9 -22 g iugno , 1 958 .S upp lemen tt oS tud iE t ru . sch i , 2 6 : 2 9 -44 . 1 965b . S u l la f ac ie s " P ro toappenn in ica " i nI t a l ia . A t l i d e l V ic ongresso i n te rna z iona le d e l le s c ien ze p re i s tor iche e p ro tos tor iche .R oma .2 9a go s to -3 s e t temb re 1 962 .V o lume I :4 03 -407 . RAD ! ,G . 1 988 . L 'Eneo l i t ico i n Ab ruzzo . R a ssegna d iA rcheo log ia , 7 :3 70 -37 7 . RADM ILL I ,A . M . 1 975 . C u l t i d if e r t i l i tà d e l la t e r ra t e s t imoma t i i na l cun i g i ac imen t i n eo l i t ic i I t a l ian i . V a lcamon ica S ympos ium 7 2 .A c te sd us ympos ium i n terna t iona ls ur l e sr e l ig ions d el aP réh i s to i re , C apo d iP on te . C apo d iP on te : C en t ro C amuno d iS tud iP re is to r ic i : 1 75 -184 . 1 981 . S t or ia d eWAb ru z zo d ale o r ig in ia l l 'E tà d e lB ron zo . S econd e d i t ion .P i sa : G iard in i . RADM ILU ,A . M . a nd CREMONES I ,G . 1 963 . No te d ip re is tona Ab ruzze se .A t l id e l la V I Ir i un ione s c ien h if i ca , I s t i t u to I t a l iano d iP re i s tor ia eP ro tos tor ia .F iren ze ,2 -3f ebbra io , 1 963 : 1 27 1 53 . RADM ILU ,A . M . , MALLEGN I ,F .a nd FORNAC IAR I ,G . 1 978 . R ecen t is cav in e l la G ro t ta d e l P icc ion id iB o logna n o( Pe sca ra ) er i e same d e ir e s t is che le t r ic i uman ip rovemen t id a ic i rco l i . A t l id e l la S oc ie tà T oscana d iS c ienze N a tu r a u, 8 5 : 1 75 -198 . RELL IN T ,U . 1 914 . LE ta d e l la P ie t ra s u l la Ma ie l la .B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno log ia I t a l iana , 4 0 : 3 0 -42 . 1 932 . L 'uomo f o ss i le d ela Ma ie l la eip r im i Med i te r rane i .A t l id e lc onvegno s t or ico A bru z ze se - Mo l i sano . 1 93 1 . C a s a lbord ino : 3 -20 .s 1 934 . L ap iu a n t ica c e ram ica d ip in ta i nh a ha .R oma : Me r id iona le . 1 941 . P o s t i l la a l la n o ta d e l P ro f . G a l l i s u l la s cope r ta d iF on tenoce . B u l le t t ino d i P a le tno log ia i t a l iana ,5 .p a r t3 : 1 07 -108 . R ICHARDS ,C . C . 1 988 .A l te red i mage s : ar e -exam ina t ion o fn eo l i th ic mo r tua ry p rac t ice si nO rkney . I n : B a r re t t ,J .C . a nd K inne s ,I .A . ( ed s . ) , T he a rchaeo logy o fc on tex ti nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd B ron ze A ge .R ecen tt r end s . S he ff ie ld : D e p a r tmen to fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fS he f f ie ld : 4 2 -56 . ROBB ,J .1 993 ( f o r thcom ing ) . T he N eo l i th ic o fp en in su la rI t a ly : a n th ropo log ica l s yn the s i s a nd c r i t ique . P ape rp re s en ted t o ac onfe rence o n ' P a leob io log ia d e l le P opo laz iom Uman i d a l Meo l i t ico a l l 'E tà d e l F e r ro i nI t a l ia ' , h e ld a t t h e Mu seo N az iona le " L . P igo r in i ", R oma , 1 5 -16 A p r i l 1 99 3 . B u l le t t ino d iP a le tno log ia h i a h iana . ( i np re s s ) . G ende r ,i d eo logy a nd s oc ia li n equa l i ty i np reh i s to r ic I t a ly . I n S oc ia ld ynam ic so ft h ep reh i s tor ic c en t ra l Med i te r ranean ,e d i ted b yJ . Mo r te r ,J .R obb a nd R .T yko t . ROBB ,J .a nd MALLEGN I ,F .i np re s s . An th ropo logy a nd p a leopa tho logy o fn eo l i th ic h uman sf r om C a t ignano ( P e s c a ra ) . P ape rp resen ted t ot h eP i t t sbu rgh SAA S ympo s ium 1 992 . Z e i t sch r if tf ü rA n thropo log ie u nd Morpho log ie . ROSA ,C . 1 871 . R ice rche d ia rcheo log ia p re i s to r ica n e l la V a l le d e l la V ib ra ta . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE tno lo g ia , 1 :4 57 -516 . 1 872a .R ice rche p a le tno log iche n e l la V a l le d e l la V ib r a ta . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE tno log ia ,2 :3 84 -400 . 1 872b . Un s e condo v i l lagg io d e l l 'epoca N eo l i t ica n e l la V a l le d e l la V ib ra ta . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE tno lo g ia ,2 :2 19 -220 . 1 874 . S cope r te p a leoe tno log iche f a t te n e l la V a l le d e l la V ib ra ta c di na l t r i l uogh i d e l l 'Ab ruzzo T e ramano n e l 1 873 . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE lno log ia , 4 :1 90 -204 . SA I IL INS ,M . D . 1 968 . T r ibe smen . E ng lewood C l i f f s ,N ew J e r sey : P ren t ice H a l l . S CARS IN T ,C . 1 978 . R epe r to c ramco g iovan i le d e l la n ec ropo l id iR ipo l i . A rch iv io p e rl ' An t ropo log ia el aE tno log ia , 1 08 : 2 99313 . SHANKS ,M . a nd T ILLEY ,C . 1 982 . I deo logy , s ymbo l ic p owe ra nd r i tua l c ommun ica t ion : ar e in te rp re ta t ion o fn eo -

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l i th ic mo r tua ry p rac t ice s . I n : Hodde r ,I .( e d . ) ,S ymbo l ic a nd s t ruc tura la rchaeo logy . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 29 -154 . 1 987 . S oc ia lt h eory a nd a rchaeo logy .C amb r idge : P o l i ty P re s s . S HENNAN , S . 1 986 . I n te rac t ion a nd c hange i nt h ird m i l lenn ium BC w e s t e rn a nd c en t ra l E u rope . I nP eer p o l i ty i n t e rac t ion a nd s oc ia lc hange , e d i ted b yC . R en f rew a nd J .F .C he r ry . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s : 1 37 1 48 . S HERRATF ,A . 1 983 .T he s econda ry e xp lo i ta t ion o fa n ima ls i nt h eO ld Wo r ld . Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 1 5 : 9 0 -104 . 1 990 . T he g ene s is o fm ega l i th s : monumen ta l i ty , e t hn ic i ty a nd s oc ia l c omp lex i ty i nN eo l i th ic n o r th -we s t E u rope . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy , 2 2 : 1 47 -167 . S KEATES , R . 1 991 . C ave s , c u l t a nd c h i ld ren i nN eo l i th ic Ab ruzzo , c en t ra l I t a ly . I n : G a rwood , P . , J enn ing s , D . , S kea te s ,R . a nd T om s ,J .( ed s .) , S ac red a nd P rof ane . P roceed ing so f ac onf e rence o na rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig i o n .O xfo rd : Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy : 1 22 -134 . 1 992 . T he N eo l i th ic a nd C opper A ge o ft h eA bruz zo Ma rche r eg ion , c en tra lI t a ly . Unpub l i shed D . P h i l . t h e s is . T he Queen ' sC o l lege ,O xfo rd . ( i np r es s a ) . T he h uman u ses o fc ave s i ne a s t -cen t ra l I t a ly d u r ing t h e Me so l i th ic ,N eo l i th ic a nd C oppe r A ge . I n , T he h uman u se o fc ave s ,e d i ted b yC . Bon sa l la nd C . Sm i th . ( I n p re ss b ) . N eo l i th ic e xchange i nc en t ra l a nd s ou the rn I t a ly . I n : H ea ly ,F . a nd S ca r re , C . ( e d s . ) , T ra i L " a nd E x c hange i nP reh i s tor ic E u rope .C ommun i t ie s ,c ommod i t ie sa nd c ommun ica t ion s . T he P reh i s to r ic S oc ie ty . ( I np re s s c ) . T owa rd s a na b so lu te c h rono logy f o rt h eN eo l i th ic i nc en t ra l I t a ly . I nR ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd I t a l ian p reh i s tory , e d i ted b y R . S kea te s a nd R . Wh i tehou se . L ondon : T he B r i t ish S choo l a tR ome a nd A cco rd ia R e sea rch C en t re . ( I np r es sd ) . U nve i l ing i n equa l i ty : s oc ia l l i fe a nd s oc ia l c hange i nt h e Me so l i th ic a nd E a r ly N eo l i th ic o fe a s tc en t ra l I t a ly . I n S oc ia ld ynam ic so ft h ep reh i s tor ic c en tra l Med i te r ranean , e d i ted b yJ . Mo r te r ,J .R obb a nd R .T yko t . S YKES ,J .B . ( e d . ) 1 976 . T he c onc i se O xf ord d i c t iona ry o fc ur ren tE ng l ish . S ix th e d i t ion . Oxfo rd : C la rendon P re s s . THO MAS ,J .1 985 .T he s oc ia ls i gn i f icance o fC o t swo ld -Seve rn b u r ia lp rac ice s . Man , 2 3 : 5 40 -559 . THO MAS ,J .1 991a . R ead ing t h eb ody : B eake rf une ra ry p rac t ice i nB r i ta in .I n : G a rwood ,P . ,J enn ing s ,D . ,S kea t e s ,R . a nd T om s ,J .( e d s . ) , S ac red a nd P rof ane .P roceed ings o f ac onf e rence o na rchaeo logy , r i tua la nd r e l ig ion . Ox fo rd : Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy : 3 3 -42 . THO MAS ,J .1 991b . R e th ink ing t h eN eo l i th ic . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . THORPE ,I .J .a nd R ICHARDS ,C . 1 984 . T he d ec l ine o fr i tua la u tho r i ty a nd t h ei n t roduc t ion o fB eake r si n to B r i ta in . I nN eo l i th ic s t ud ie s . Ar ev iew o fs ome c uren tr e sea rch . O x fo rd : R ead ingS tud ie si nA rchaeo logy N o . 1 ,B r i t i sh A r c haeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s 1 33 : 6 7 -84 . T ILLEY ,C . 1 989 . Hun te r -ga the r e r s ,f a rme r s a nd t h es oc ia l s t ruc tu r ing o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re . I n A pp roaches t oS wed i sh p reh i s tory . As pec trum o fp rob lem s a nd p er spec t ive s i nc on temporary r e sea rch , e d i ted b yT . B . L a r sson a nd H . L undma rk ,p p . 2 39 -285 . B r it ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n te rna t iona l S e r ie s5 00 : Ox fo rd . 1 990 . C laude L ev i -S t rau ss : s t ruc tu ra l ism a nd b eyond . I n : T i l ley ,C . ( c d . ) ,R ead ing ma te r ia lc u l ture :s t ruc tu ra l i sm , h e rmeneu t ic sa nd p os t -s truc tu ra l i sm Ox fo rd : B lackwe l l :3 -81 . .

T INE , S . 1 983 . P a s so d iC orvo n e l l 'amb i to d e l la c i v i l tà n eo l i t ica d e lT avo l ie re . I n : S .T ine ( ed . ) . P a s so d iC orvo el a c i v i l tà n eo l i t ica d e lT avo l iere . G enova : S agep : 1 61-166 . TRUMP ,D .H . 1 966 . C en tra la nd s ou thern I t a ly b ef ore R ome . L ondon : T hame sa nd Hud son . TURNER ,V .W . 1 969 . T he r i tua lp roce ss .S t ruc tu re a nd a n t is t ruc ture .L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . 1 977 . V a r ia t ion so n at h eme o fl i nuna l i ty . I n : Moo re ,S .F .a nd Mye rho f f ,B . G . ( e d s . ) , S ecu la rr i tua l . Am s te rdam : V an Go rcum : 3 6 -52 . UCKO , P .J .1 969 . E thnog raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o ff une ra ry r ema in s . Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 1 :2 62 2 80 . VAN GENNEP ,A . 1 909 .L e sr i te sd ep a ssage . P a r is : Nou r ry . WH ITEHOUSE ,R . D . 1 981 . Mega l i th s o ft h e c en t ra l Med i t e r ranean . I n : E van s ,J .D . , C un l if f e ,B . a nd R enf rew , C . ( e d s .) ,A n t iqu i ty a nd man .E ssay si nh onour o fG lyn Dan ie l : 1 06 -127 . 1 990 . C ave sa nd c u l ti nN eo l i th ic s ou the rn I t a ly . T he A ccord ia R e sea rch P ape r s , 1 :1 9 -38 . 1 992 . U nde rground r e l ig ion . C u l ta nd c u l ture i np reh i s tor ic I t a ly . L ondon : A cco rd ia R e sea rch C en t re .

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6

W ILL IAM H .W ALDREN R e se a rch A s soc ia t e , S ub -f a cu l ty o fA r cha eo logy D on a ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R e sea r ch C en t re U n ive r s i ty o fO x fo rd ,O x fo rd OX2 6 PN E NGLAND ‚

A rchaeo log ica l s i te so nt h eB a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo r -

i ng t h is l ong d u ra t ion i tu nde rwen t n ume rou s s t y l is t ic

c a a nd F o rmen te ra i n t h e P i t iu ssae I s land G roup h ave

c hange s , a s d emon s t ra ted i n t h e B a lea r ic I s land s a nd e l sewhe re . A tl e a s tf i ve d i s t inc tt e chn ique si nt h ea pp l i -

r e cen t ly p rov ided u s w i th aw ea l th o fe v idence a nd d a ta r e la ted t ot h ef unc t ion a nd s t a tu so fB eake rp o t te ry . T h is p ape rd i scu sse s t h ep o ss ib le c e remon ia l a nd v o t i ve s i gn i f icance o f B eaker w a re i n g ene ra l , b u t mo re s pec if ica l ly a s i th a s b een e ncoun te red i n t h e B a lea r ic I s land s . I te xam ine s e v idence f r om as e r ie s o fl o ca l a r c haeo log ica l s i te s a nd t h e s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t s a s so c i a ted w i th t h e u se o fB eake r p o t te ry o r ig ina t ing f r om s eve ra l d i s t inc t ly d i f fe ren t c i rcum s tance s a nd e nv i ron men t s ; e ach o f wh ich s t rong ly s ugge s t amu l t if a r iou s

c a t ion o ft h ei n t r ica te g eome t r ic d e s ign sh ave b een u sed i nt h e s i te s s t ud ied h e re , d u r ing d i f f e ren t t ime p e r iod s . I n my o p in ion ,i ti st h e se d e s ign s f o r wh ich t h ep o t tery s hou ld b ek nown ,e ve ry b i ta s much a sf o ri t s c ha rac te r i s t ic b e l l s hape .T he s ame d e s ign sa nd mo t if s a sw e l l a s t h e t e chn ique s u sed i n e xecu t ing t h e d eco ra t ion s a r e u n ive r sa l ly s p read , e ven mo re s o t h an t h e i r s hape , a p p ea r ing o n s uch e xo t ica a s P o r tugue se ' s h is t p l aque s ' me ta l lu rg ica l c ruc ib le s ( F igu re 1 4 ) a nd e ven u sed o n a nd i vo ry c omb s( F igur e 1 5 ) . E spec ia l ly v a luab le i nt h ep re sen tc a se i st h ef a c tt h a t t h ev a r ie ty o fd e s ign -mo t if sa nd t h e ir a pp l ica t ion c an b e

u se o ft h e se v e s se ls a so b jec t so fc e remon ia l a nd v o t ive i mpo r tance . T od a te ,i t s a lmo s tu n ique u se i nb u r ia ls a s p a r t o f t h e ir f une ra ry p a raphe rna l ia s t rong ly s uppo r t s t h i sf unc t ion . S ince i t sf i r s td e sc r ip t ion a s a' d r ink ing c up ' b yT hu r -

s hown t ob e aq ue s t ion o f c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t a nd a s s igned r e a sonab ly p rec i se p a rame te r s i nt h e s i te s e xam ined ( F igu re s 4 -6 ) . Whe the ro r n o t s uch c hange s i n d eco ra t ive t e chn ique s b ear a ny r e la t ion sh ip o the r

n am i n 1 871 a nd l a te rb y Abe rc romby a s' Be l lB eake r ' , t h is p o t te ry , g ene ra l ly a g reed t ob e t h e f i ne s t a nd mo s t

t h an c h rono log ica l t of a c to r s d ea l ing d i rec t ly w i th t h e f unc t ion o ft h eB eake r si sf o r t h e momen to pen t oc on -

b eau t ifu l i nt h e p reh i s to r ic r e co rd , h a s i n sp ired e nd le s s i n te rp re ta t ion s a nd d i ve r se e xp lana t ion s o f t h e c u l tu re

u se . T he re fo re ,i ti sn e i the rs u rp r i s ing n o rh a rd t oa r r ive a tt h e n o t ion t h a ti tw a s h igh ly v a lued a nd mo s tl i ke ly

j ec tu re a nd t oo e a r ly t op rope r ly a s se ss ; a l though s uch l i nes o fe nqu iry a r e c e r ta in ly i n te re s t ing a nd m igh t b e p roduc t ive i fo pened t o c on s ide ra t ion a nd f u tu re r e s ea rch . T h is c ou ld a l so b e s a id c once rn ing t h ed i f f e ren t mo t if st h em se lve s . T he e v idence i n t h e p re sen t p ape r s ugge s t s t h a t a t l e a s tf i ve f unc t ion sa nd e nv i ronmen ta l s i tua t ion s c an b e

u sed f o rs pec ia l p u rpo se so rf unc t ion s ,a pa r tf r om b u r i a l s . Mo s to ft h ee v idence i si np lace , a nd a l l w e h ave

b een u sed d i f f e ren t ly f o rc e remon ia l a nd v o t ive p u rpo s -

t h a tc rea ted i t . T he re a r e f ew h oweve r w ho w ou ld n o t a g ree w i th B eake rv e s se ls a s h av ing h ad s ome c e remo n ia l o r v o t ive p urpo se , g iven t h e s pec ia l n a tu re a nd c ha rac te r o f B eake r p o t tery ( i t s a r t is t ic a nd a e s the t ic b eau ty a nd i t s e x t ra f i ne c r af t sman sh ip ) a nd f une ra ry

d emons t ra ted whe re B eaker p o t tery a ppea r s t o h ave

t o d o i se xam ine i t mo re c lo se ly i n v i ew o f n ew e v i d ence . I t s a ppa ren tu se f o ru p t o 1 200 y ea r s , c i rca 2 500 c a l BC t o 1 300 c a l BC , a s i nd ica ted b y r e cen tr ad ioca rbon d a t ing i nt h es i te s e xam ined i nt h is p ape r , w ou ld f u r the r t e s t ify t oi t s i mpo r tance a nd d u ra t ion a s ap o ly semou s s ymbo l i nt h el i ve s o fi t s make r s (Wa ld ren 1 992 ) . D u r-

2 38

e si nt h es i te se xam ined . T he se i n c lude : ( 1 ) B eake rp o t t e ry u sed a s av e sse li nf une r a ry p r ac t ice sa nd o f fe red a s t h e c u s toma ry i t em o fg rave g ood s i nc ave s ,r ock she l t e r s a nd v a r iou s s o r t s o fc on s t ruc ted t omb s , ( 2 ) B eake r p o t te ry u sed a s ac ruc ib le v e sse l i ns ome r i tua l d ea l ing w i th m e ta lw o rk ing ,( 3 )B eake rp o t te ry u sed a s as p ec ia l d r ink ing o re a t ing v e s se l i nt h ec ou r se o fs e cu la ro rd o -

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

m e s t ic r i tua l a c t iv i ty , ( 4 ) B eake r p o t te ry u sed v o t ive ly a s a n o f fe r ing , c e remon ia l o r c ommemo ra t ive v e sse l d ur ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s a nd ( 5 ) B eake rp o t te ry o f fe red a s ag i f ta nd u sed i n c e remo n i a l o r v o t ive r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s w ith in a s anc tua ry .

c i a ted . T he se v i sua l a nd s u rface q ua l i t ies r ep re sen t a c oncen t ra ted , d ed ica ted a nd t ime c on sum ing e f fo r t t h a t h ad e i the r b een c ar r ied o u t b y s pec ia l i s t s f o r g a in o r b o rne o u t o f t r ad i t ion a nd d ed ica ted t oa ccomp l i sh ing a ne nd p roduc to fe xcep t iona lb eau ty , mean ing a nd u se .

A

B

S F0 -OS F IGURE 1 . Two e xamp le so fB a lea r ic ' s qua t 'b e ak e r sf r om t h eF enande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t A l l p u rpo se s t h a t p o in t t ot h e v e s se l s a sh av ing mu l t i f a r iou sf unc t ion a nd p o s s ib le p o ly semou s s t a tu s . I ti sh a rd t od eny t h a t t h eb eau ty o ft h e i n t r ica t e d e s i gn sa nd I me f i n ish o ft h ev es se l si sn o to ne o ft h es ub s i da ry o r a e s the t ic f unc t ion s o fB eake r p o t te ry . I ti sa p o t te ry t h a tw a s mean tt ob es een a nd mo s to fa l la pp re -

E ven w hen t h e d eco ra t ion i se xecu ted w i th l e ss s k i l l ( s ome th ing t ha t d oe s o ca s s iona l ly o ccu r ) t h e d eco ra t i on sa r el a bou ri n ten s ive a sw e l la ss t rong ly mo t iva ted . Wh i le o u ra t ten t ion a nd ma jo rs t ud ie s h a s c en te red o n i t s c ha rac te r is t ic a nd d i agno s t ic ' b e l l s hape ' t h e a r chae o log ica lr e co rd s hows t h a tt h i sf o rm i sb yn om ean s t h e

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W ILL IAM H . WALDREN

s i ng le s hape o f B eake r p o t te ry . E qua l ly s ha red a nd i f n o t mo re f r equen t ly f ound i st h es ha l low o rs em i sphe r i c a l b ow l , e spec ia l ly i n a r ea s l i ke P o r tuga l , S ou thern F rance , C a ta lon ia a nd t h eB a lea r ic I s land s . T he se a l te r n a t ive f o rm s s hou ld af r equency s t udy b e made , wou ld c e r ta in ly v i e c lo se ly w i th t h e b e l l s haped ' t anka rd ' . A t a nka rd t h a ti t se lf v a r ie s g rea t ly i nf o rm f r om e xpec ted ‚

t y p ica l ' b e l l ' s hape t o' f unne l ' s hape t o' s qua t ' b eake r s . ( F igu re 1 ) . T he s ha l low , s em i sphe r ica l f o rm s ( F igu re 2 ) , Iam c onv inced w e re mean t t o b e s een a nd d i sp layed u p s i de -down . T he f u l l e f f ec t o f t h e b eau ty a nd p o s s ib le m ean ing o ft h ed e s ign sa nd mo t if sc anno tb es e en o ra p p rec ia ted i n t h e ir u p r igh t p o s it ion , w he re o n ly a v e ry s ma l l p ropo r t ion o ft h e d eco ra t ion c an b e s e en ,e ven a t e ye l e ve l . O the rw i se ,t h ed eco ra t ion w ou ld b eb e s ts e en a nd mo re e f fec t ive i ft h ed e s ign s w e r ea pp l ied t ot h ei n s i de o ft h eb ow l . On o cca s ion st h i sd oe so ccu r ,h oweve r i ti s e xcep t ion ly r a re . B e s ide s , t h ei n c ised n a tu re o ft h e d e s ign s w ou ld r ende r ab ow l w i th i n te r io r d eco ra t ion h igh ly i mp rac t ica l , a si td id w i th t h e b eake r d eco ra ted c ruc ib le e xam ined , a nd u nfunc t iona l f r om t h e s t and p o in t o f c l ean ing o r h ygene . I ti st h e b o t tom o f t h e b ow l t h a ti sg iven t h ef u l l d eco ra t ive t r ea tmen t( F igu re

f u l l moon i n an igh ts ky a r e a l l e ven t s a nd t h eme s t h a t h ave b een c ommon ly a pp rec ia ted a nd c ommun ica ted t h rough e nd le s sa ge s . Wh i le s im i la r e v idence a nd e xamp le s o f t h e s pec ia l f unc t ion o fB eake rp o t t e ry c an b e f ound s p read o ve r a w ide g eog raph ica l s phe re t h roughou t E u rope , a nd i t s p a r t icu la ri d io sync ra t ic u se a tt ime sr e co rded ,n o s i ng le g eog raph ic r eg ion h a s d emon s t ra ted i t s mu l t ifunc t iona l u se a s ac e remon ia la nd v o t ive o b jec ts oc l ea r ly o rc om p le te ly a s i n t h e B a lea r ic s I s land s a nd t h e P i t iu s sae s . No rh a s t h e re b een a no the rg eog raph ic a r ea , a pa r tf r om t h eN e the r land s ( Lan t ing a nd V an d e r Waa l s 1 976 )a nd i t s D u tch Mode l , w he re i t s l ong c h rono log ica l d u ra t ion o f u se h a s b een b e t te r d emon s t ra ted a nd d e l inea ted , c h rono log ica l ly , t ypo log ica lo rd eco ra t ive ly . BALEAR IC BEAKERS

T he q ue s t ion o fB eake r si nt h eB a lea r ic sh a sb een ama j o rp rob lem a nd a r ea o fc on ten t ion i nl o c a l a r chaeo logy s i nce j u s t a f te r t h e t u rn o f t h e c en tu ry , w hen t h e f i r s t B a lea r ic F e lan i tx B eake r s herd s w e re d i scove red i n a c ave o n Ma l lo rca i n 1 9 15 ( Co lom ina s )( Ca s t i l lo Y ur r i ta 1 928 ) . S ince t h a tf i r s td i scovery , af und o fe v idence f o r

3 ) . T he d e s ign s c an o n ly b e f u l ly a pp rec ia ted u p s ide d own o rw hen h e ld h i gh i nt h eh and w h i le d r ink ing ,e a t -

aB a lea r ic I s land G roup o ft h eI n te rna t iona lB e l lB eake r C u l tu re ( Ha r r ison 1 989 ) h a s eme rged f r om a n e ve r -

i ng o ri ns ome o the rp o s i t ion , whe re t h e b o t tom c an b e c l ea r ly v i s ib le , s uch a s p ou r ing i n to a no the r v e sse l , o r e ven p r io r t o s ma sh ing t h e b ow l f r om a n e x tended h e igh t . Wh i le t h e re i ss ome r ea sonab le c l a im s t ot h e s ugge s t i on t h a tt h e mo t if sa r es i gn so f ak now ledge o fb a ske t ry a nd ar e su l t o f t h is e xper ience , wha t i s mo re s t r ik ing w hen w ec on s ide rt h ed e s ign sa nd p a t te rn st h ey f o rm o n t h e b a ses o f t h e s ugge s t ion s a bove , t h ey a r e a b s t rac t ly r em in iscen t , w i th t h e i rc i rcu la r c en t re a nd s t rong r ad ia l

g row ing n umbe r o fB a lea r ic s s i te s wh ich d emon s t ra te t h e mu l t if a r iou s u se o f t h e se v e sse ls i nd i f fe ren t e nv i r onmen t s . Wh i le much o f wha th a s eme rged o ve r t h e l a s t f ew d ecades c once rn ing t h el o ca l B eake rp henomenon c an b ef ound s ummed u pi na tl e as tt h ree p ub l i shed i n te rna -

l i ne s a nd e xpand ing b and s , o f s o lar a nd l unar mo t if s ( F igu re 3 ) . O ne n eed o n ly c on s ide r t h e f r equency o f t h is r e cu r r en tt h eme o ft h ec i rc le a nd r ad ia ll i ne s , e ven i nb a ske t r y , t ob ecome a wa re o ft h is u n ive r sa l s ymbo logy . N e i -

t i ona l c onfe rence s (Wa ld ren , Chapman , L ew thwa i te a nd K enna rd 1 984 ; Wa ld ren a nd K enna rd 1 987 a nd Wa ld ren , E n senya t a nd K enna rd 1 991) a nd i n ag ood n umbe ro f monog raph sa nd o the rp ub l ica t ion s (e .g . Wa l d ren 1 969 ; C an ta re l la s C amp s 1 972 ; Wa ld ren 1 982 ; Wa ld ren , E senya t a nd C ub ! 1 990 a nd 1 991 ; Wa ld ren 1 995 ,i np re s s ) ,l i t t le h a sa ppea red c once rn ing t h eq ue s t i on o fl o ca l f unc t ion a nd s t a tu s o ft h eB a lea r ic B eake r p o t te ry , p a r t icu lar ly a s ac e remon ia l o r v o t ive o b jec t

t h e r c an o ne d eny f o r e xamp le t h e a b st rac t n a tu re a nd t h eb rood ing i mp re s s ion o fs t e le d eco ra t ion ( e .g . t h eo c u lu s o ro cu l i ) , b e ing r e p re sen ta t iona l o fs p i r i tua l o ra n c e s t ra l d i e t ie s o r r e cogn i t ion a nd man ife s ta t ion s o ft h e f o rce s o fg ood a nd e v i l ,f e r t i l i ty a nd b a r rene s s ,p ro spe r i t ya nd p ove r ty o r l i fe a nd d ea th . T he f a c t t h a t B eake r

u sed u nde rd i f fe ren t c i rcum s tance s ; a l though o ne c om p rehen s ive i n ven to ry o n t h eB e l l B eake rC u l tu re o ft h e B a lea r ic I s land si si np r e s s (Wa ld ren 1 995 )i nw h ich t h e f unc t ion a nd c on tex t so ft h i sp o t te ry a r ec l o se ly s c ru t in i s ed .

p o t te ry d e s ign sp o ss ib ly h ave s im i la r mean ing ,i fs l igh t l yl e s s e a r th ly i mmed ia te a nd mo re c o sm ica l ly u n ive r s a l ,i ss t rong ly i mp l ied i nt h ec e le s t ia l s ymbo logy o ft h e

DESCR IPT ION OF THE S ITES

p o t te ry d e s ign s i n t h e f o rm o f t h e s un o r moon . T he c on temp la t ive v i s ion o f as un r ise o rs un se to rt h a to ft h e

T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e r e sea rch s i tes u sed t od emon s t ra te t h e B eake r e v idence o r ig ina te f r om t h e I s land o f Ma l l o rca ,b u te x tend t oo ne s i te o n t h eP i t iu s saean i s land o f

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

F ormen te ra ( Topp , F ernandez a nd P lan ta lamo r 1 978

p o t te ry f ound i nt h em , v a ry s i gn if ican t ly . T he f ac t t ha t

a nd T opp 1 987 ) . A t p re sen t t h ere a re o ve r 2 5 s i tes

a l l t he s i te s , e xcep t f o r t h e o ne o n F o rmen te r ra , a re l o -

A

B

C

S F0 -OS F IGURE 2 .T h r ee e xamp le so fs h a l low ,s em i sphe r ica lb ow l sf r om t h eF e r r ande l l -O leza C h a lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t

wh ich h ave p rov ided u s w i th B eake r p o t te ry . On ly s i x

c a ted w i t hin a v e ry c en t ra l ised g eog raph ic r eg ion o r

o f t h e se h ave b een s e lec ted f o r t h e p re sen t r e sea rch .

c a tchmen t i nt h e n o r the rn r eg ion o f t h e I s land o f Ma l -

T he r ea son f o rt h i s i sq u i te s t ra igh t fo rwa rd , t h ey r ep re -

l o rca i n c e r ta in r e spec t s f u r the r s ugge s t s t h e mu l t if a r i -

s en t t h e b e s t d ocumen ted a nd mo s t t ho rough ly s t ud ied

o u s u se o f t h e B eake r p o t te ry .

o ft h e s i te s . T hey c on s is to f be i i nw h ich t h e i rg eo log i -

d i f fe ren t , i nd iv idua l u se s t o wh ich t h e p o t tery w a s p u t

c a l , s t ra t ig raph ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e nv i ronmen t s , a s

c an b e s een t oh ave o ccu r red w i th in av e ry s ma l l g eo -

w e l l a s t h e a ppa ren t i nd iv idua l f unc t ion s o ft h e B eake r

g raph ic a rea , t hu s , h igh ly empha s is ing i t s mu l t ifa r iou s

2 4 1

I td oe s t h i s i n t ha t t h e

W ILL IA M H . WALDREN

S F0 -OS

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND REUG ION

A

B

C

D

S F0 -OS

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W ILL IA M H . WALDREN

F IGURE 3 . S e lec ted s amp le so fs ha l low ,s em i sphe r ica l b ow l h ace ss how ing s o la ra nd l u na rd e s ign sf r om v a r ious g eog raph ic a r ea si n c lud ing t h eB a lea r ic I s land s .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

I

2 F IGURE 4 . E xamp le s o f d eco ra t ive t e chn ique s p re sen t i nt h e F e r rande l l -O leza Cha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t . ( Fop ) F ive f r ag men t s o ft h e s i te 's e a r l ies t t ype o fi mp re ssed wa re , c i rca 2 500 c a l B ,d eco ra ted b yp re ss ing ac o rd i n to w e tc l ay . ( Bo t tom ) F ou re x amp les o f l a te t ype o f i n c ised d eco ra t ion , c i rca 1 450 c a l BC . T he p i ece s a r e d eco ra ted w i th d eep -cu t i nc is ion s i n w e t c l ay .

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W ILL IA M H . WALDREN

1

F IGURE 5 . E xamp le s o fd eco r a t ive t e chn ique s p r e sen t i nt h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t . ( Top ) F ou r s im i la r f r agmen t s w i th s im i la rd e s ign s f r om t wo d i f fe ren ts i te s : ( A ) F e r rande l l -O leza s e t t lemen t( B ) R ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge. ( Bo t tom ) F i ve e xamp le so ff i ne ly i n c i sed d eco ra t ion ,c i rca 2 250 -2 100 c a l BC found i nw a l l f o unda t ion so ft h e S F0 -OS s i te .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

1

2 F IGURE 6 . E xamp le s o fd eco ra t ive t e chn ique s p re sen t i nt h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lement ( Top ) F ou rl a te f r ag m en ts w i th c re scen t a nd f i nge r -na i l i n c is ied d e s igns f r om t h e F e r rande l l -O leza s e t t lemen t ( Boqu ique ) , c i rca 1 300 -1400 c a l BC . ( Bo t tom ) s even f r agmen ts o f m idd le / la te p e r iod , h eav i ly i n c ised w a re w i th h e r r ingbone p a t te rn f r on t h e S F0 -OS s i te , c i rca 1 800 1 600 c a l BC . T hese d a te sa r es uppo r ted b y s im i la rp i ece si nt h ed eep s t ra t ig raphy o ft he Ma tge r ock s he l te r .

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W ILL IAM H . WALDREN

f unc t ion sa nd p o ly semou s s t a tu s w i th in ag i ven a r ea. O ne o ft h em a in t r oub les ,u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly ,s eem st o b et h a tm any o fu s h ave l ooked u pon t h e ' Anc ien tB r i t i s h f i c t i l ia ' n o to n ly a s t h e s i ngu la r , s ho r tl i ved a r t is t ic a ch ievemen t o fa n a ge , b u t a s o ne i t em i n ab u r ia l a s s emb lage mo re o rl e ss w i th as i ngu la rf unc t ion a nd o ne t h a t d e sp i te s uch a ccep ted c on tex t s h a s n o t u n t i l n ow b een e xac t ly c l ear . Ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion o ft h es i te s t h a td emon s t ra te p o ss i b l e p o ly semou s s t a tu s a nd mu l t if a r iou s u se o ft h e B a l e a r ic B eake rp o t te ry i so f fe red i nt h is p ape rs ot h a tt h e r e ade rc an c ome t ot e rm s w i th ac l ea rp ic tu re o ft h el o c a l e v idence a nd t h e a rgumen t s d i scu s sed . T he s i te s t h a th ave g i ven u s t h ee v idence a r ea sf o l lows : T HE P REH ISTOR IC S E I L EMENT COMPLEX O FF ERRANDELL -OLEZA -MAS ( 6 ° 16 'E39 ° 32 'N ) ( Wa ld r en 1 986 )

d oe s n o t a pp ly t ot h is s t udy b ecau se o fi t s c u r ren tl a ck o fB eake r c on tex t s , a l though r e cen t f i nd ing s h ave e x t e nded b eake rc on tex t si n to t h eY ounge rS e t t lemen t . T he se t wo s i te s a l ong w i th t h eo the rk nown p reh is to r i ca c t iv i ty a r ea s f a r the ra f ie ld , b e long ing t ot h e l a rge r g eog raph ica l u n i t( F igu re 7 )a r eb e ing s t ud ied a s as i n g l e e nv i ronmen ta l c a tchmen t . T hese c on s is t s o f s e ve r a l , i nd iv idua l a c t iv i ty a r ea s o fw ide ly v a ry ing c h rono l og ica l a ge a nd o ccupa t iona l c omp lex i ty a nd s how ing c on tempo ra ry c on t inu i ty t h roughou t . A l l h ave b een s u r v eyed a nd c h ronome t r ica l ly d e l inea ted b ya ne x ten s ive u se o f r ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd e ach h a s i t s i nd iv idua l s i te d a t ing in v e nt or y (s e e Wa ld ren 1 991 ; Wa ld ren a nd

PREH IST OR IC S ITES , CATCH MENT AREA OF FERRA N DELL - OL E SA- MAS VA U .D R ,4OSSA , MALLORCA . BALEARES , S PA IN

T he s e t t lemen t c omp lex i ss i tua ted i nt h e No r the rn J u r a s s ic S i e r ra s o ft h eI s land o f Ma l lo rca , n ea rt h e moun t a in v i l lage o f V a l idemo ssa . I ti sl o ca ted a ta na l t i tude

*IEMAT IC D 4AOL ' ,M O FT hE CATCHMENTS

o f4 00m o ve r look ing t h e s e aa tt h ee x t reme w e s te rn e nd o f as o i l r ich P l iocene a l luv ia l i n te rmon tane b a s in t h a t f o rm s amoun ta in p l a in ,k nown l o ca l ly a sE lP la d e lR e l o r P la in o f t h e K ing . E xcava t ion s o f t h e s e t t lemen t c omp lex h ave b een i np rog re ss s i nce 1 978 .T he i mpo r t a nce o f t h e c omp lex i st h e k now ledge a nd i n s igh t i t g i ve s u s i n to e a r ly o pen -a ir s e t t lemen t f o r ac omb ined c h rono log ica l d u ra t ion o f o ve r 2 500 y ea r s o fB a lear ic p r eh is to ry ,a l ong w i th aw ea l th o fa r t efac ta nd a r ch i tec t u ra le v idence f o rt h a tp e r iod . T he p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen tc omp lex i s made u po fs ev e r a l c l ose ly a s soc ia ted a nd i n te r re la ted s ub -un i t s : ( I ) O leza P re ta layot ic O lde r S e t t lemen t ( Cha lco l i th ic a nd I n i t ia l B ronze Age ) , c i rca 2 468 c a l BC t o 1 300 c a l BC a nd ( I ) t h eP reh is to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Ma s ( Cha lco -

P .U . . .R .

l i th ic -Bronze I ron A ge ) , c i rca 1 928 c a l BC t o2 00 BC a nd ( I II ) t h e F er rande l l -O leza T a layo t ic a nd P o s tT a l a yo t ic ( B ronze a nd I r on Age ) Younge rS e t t lemen t ,c i rca

0

0

100 c a l BC - 2 00 BC . T he t h ree u n i t s h ave s o f a ru n d e rgone 1 8 y ea r s c omb ined r e sea rch a nd r ep re sen t b u t

S chema t ic t e r-

1 1 -

-sen-ca s.

,

p nI i . i. a c t iv i tY m a ss ( 1 3I .. M . s . , . M f a s e r Wa s s iso a r. ‚ ( 3 ). I .. M. . o ft h .P 1 . S d R a i( H. .. o fI M I C ã L TM p n..p . In . t h UM . I . I Md .. t h . F .n S . I I P l.n. S . k. C N. a n I M . . . . . 5a r em em s ‚ .5 .d I MS , .0 p h i. ( h a "y .. 5. )a nd .dS .. M an R . á IM I., . 1 M. . t. .G . IMd a nd C ... o f S. M en-& i .d.M4 . . t h e M. i.m . 55 * 1 k. 5 ... . Wa s s a lmr sd in s (S .. . k i 5 .S .. I MC ... d > 5 . 1. .. ( s tu d ied 5 .I.r . )r .p. .. 1 k .. M( 1. 5 *. . 11 k . C . I .h. . .. iA ,. .. . . .. 1 k :F l a5 . 1 RU ‚ .5 I M P. d .1 - 3. .M .. a n.

t h ree o fs ome t wen ty -e igh t k nown s i te s i nt h ei mmed i a t ea r ea o ft h ea l luv ia lp l a in . On ly t wo o ft h e t h ree s ub -un i t sa r eu sed i nt h ep re sen t p ape ra se xamp le s o ft h e mu l t if a r iou sf unc t ion o fB eak e rp o t te ry : ( 1 ) t h e O leza P re ta layo t ic ( Cha lco l i th ic a nd

.t h e

F IGURE 7 .

I n i t ia lB ronze A ge )O lde rS e t t lemen ta nd ( 2 )t h eP r eh i s t o r ic S anc tua ry o f S on Ma s ( Cha lco l i th ic -Bronze Iron A ge ) , c i rca 1 936 c a l BC t o2 00 BC . T he t h i rd s ub -un i t , t h e F e r rande l l -O leza T a layo t icYounge r S e t t lemen t , a l -

V an S t rydonck 1 992 ; Wa ld ren 1 992 ; Wa ld ren , E n sen y a ta nd C ub I 1 992 ) . Aw ea l th o f d e ta i l w h ich i nc lude s a r ch i tec tura l a nd a r tef ac t e v idence e x is t s a nd d emon s t ra te s t h e k ind o f i n te rac t ion t h a tt ook p l ace b e tween t h ev a r iou s ,s ma l le r ,

t h ough ama jo r p a r t o ft h e o ve ra l l s e t t lemen tc omp lex ,

2 48

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

i n d iv idua l s ub -un i t so nt h ep l a in a nd i t sp e r iphe ry . T he v ar iou s s i te s g i ve u s d e ta i ls o f s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion , t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t , c hange i ne conom ic s t ruc t u re a nd d emog raphy f o rt h ea r ea t h roughou tb o th t ime a nd s p ace . R ecen t e v idence o f t h e a r ea ' s r e l ig iou s o rgan isa t ion a nd more s pec if ica l ly r i tua l p rac t ice s h ave e me rged i n

F IGURE 8 .v i ew o ft h e S ou th C ompound Wa l l a n d M a in E n t r a nce o ft h e F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t .

w h ich a l so i n c lude s c ompa ra t ive e v idence f r om a d ja c en t c ave a nd r ock s he l te r s i tes f ound w i th in as l igh t ly mo re e x tended c a tchmen t( F igu re 7 )a nd t h a tb eg in w i th t h e e a r l ie s t l o ca l p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t u n t i l c l a ss ica l t ime s , a l l o f wh ich s imu l taneou s ly s hows t h e p a t te rn a nd e x ten t o f c on t inu i ty a nd d eve lopmen t t h roughou t t h ea r ea .

F IGURE 9 .V iew t ot h es o u th s h ow ing a3 5me te rl e ng t ho ft h e s t one l i n ed Wa t e rC hanne l i nt h eF e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t .

t h e P reh is to r ic S anc tua ry o f S on Ma s l o ca ted w i th t h e c a tchmen t o f t h e a l luv ia l p l a in . T he re i se v idence t h a t t h is c en t re o f r e l ig iou s a nd r i tua l a c t iv i ty w a s e xac t ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h es e t t lemen ta r ea s o ft h ep l a in . I n c l uded i n t h e e v idence a nd c on tex t s o f t h e s anc tuary t h a t B eake rc on tex t sa nd ma te r ia ls w e re p r e sen ti nb o th t h es e t t lemen ta nd t h e s anc tua ry d u r ing t h eC ha lco l i th i c -B ronze Iron Age s . I n b o th s i te s , t h e re a r e c on tex t s d e l inea t ing t h e i rd u ra t ion o fu se , r i tua l a s soc ia t ion a nd w e l l p re served a r ch i tec tu ra l e v idence f o r u p t o 2 500 y ea r so ft h ep reh is to r ic r e co rd a nd a c t iv i ty i nt h ea r ea . S uch e v idence r ende r st h es i tes e spec ia l ly v a luab le o f f e r ing u s t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o s t udy c lo se ly a n o ccupa t i ona lc on t inu i ty a nd t h e s t age so fi t s d eve lopmen t . One

I OLEZA P RETALAYOT IC OLD S ETTLE MENT ( 6 ° 16E ,3 9 ° 32 'N ) (Wa ld ren 1 986 ) T he s i te i s aw a l led c ompound w i th a n i n te r io ra r ea o f 3 , 606 m2 . I ti sd e l inea ted b yf ou rl a rge s t one w a l l s w i th t wo m e te rw ide wa l lf ounda t ion sw h ich o r ig ina l ly s t ood s ome t wo t ot h ree me te r sh igh . I nt u rn ,t h eO leza P re ta l a yo t ic O ld S e t t lemen t c an b e f u r the r s ub -d iv ided i n to t wo s e t t lemen t a c t iv i ty z one s : ( a ) t h e O ld S e t t lemen t C ompound a nd ( b) We s t O ld S e t t lemen t ; t h e l a t te r a d i spo sa l o r t r a sh p i t a r ea , as epa ra te r e sea rch a r ea t h a t d ea l s o n ly i n d i rec t ly w i th t h ep re sen ts t udy . T he C ha l c o l i th ic o r P re ta layo t ic O ld S e t t lemen t p rope r i st h e

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W ILUAM H . WALDREN

F IGURE 1 0 . V iew o ft h eF e r r ande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen tH 4H ab i ta t ion .T he a p s ida ls h ape o ft h er e ar o ft h es t ruc tu re i sc l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le ,a sa r et h e 2m e te rw ide f o unda t ion s .R ecen t 1 4C a na ly s is o fo r gan ic m a te r ia lf r om t h ew a l lt i l h a s g i ven u sa d a t eo fc i r ca 1 700 c a lB Cf o rt h er e con s t ruc t ion o fo ne o ft h ew a l l s e c t ion s t h ough tt ob e ar e pa r a t ion .

w a l led c ompound a r ea . I tb eg in s w i th t h e5 6 me te rl o ng S ou thern C ompound Wa l l w h ich h a s aw ide , s em i c i rcu la r t owe r l ike s t ruc tu re o r f a cade w i th at unne l o r c ove red m a in e n t rance i ni t s c en t re ( F igu re 8 ) . T he l a t t e r a n i mp re ss ive a r ch i tec tu ra l f ea tu re t h a t n o t o n ly d om ina te s t h e e n t i re s ou the rn a spec to ft h e c ompound , b u t a l so w ou ld h ave i mp re ssed a ny t r an s ien t v i s i to r . C omb ined t h e f ou r c ompound w a l ls e x tend s ome 2 46 me te r s t o f o rm a n e nc lo sure , r ough ly r ec tangu la r i n s hape , w i th a7 2 me te r l ong We s t Compound Wa l l , a 6 9 .5 me te r E a s t C ompound Wa l l a nd t h e 4 3 .5 No r th C ompound Wa l l.

T he h igh w a l led c ompound w ou ld h ave a s su red t h a t t h ei nhab i tan t 's s e a sona l a g r icu l tu ra l a nd p a s to ra l a c t iv i t i e s w e re f unc t iona l ly s epa ra ted a nd w e l l o rgan ised b y p rov id ing b o th s a fe s he l te rf o r t h e i ra n ima l s a nd a tt h e s ame t ime p reven t ing d amage t o t h e c rop s t h a t w e re g rown o nt wo s i de so ft h ew a l led c ompound . T h is d i v i s i on a nd u se o ft h ei nne ra r ea so ft h ec ompound a nd t h e e r ec t ion o f ap ermanen t e nc losu re a nd w a te r s upp ly s how ah igh ly o rgan ised e s tab l i shmen ta nd s pa t ia l u se o f t h e a rea . T hey s how t ha t d ome s t ic a nd s ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie s w e re c l o se ly i n teg ra ted a nd ah i gh s t anda rd o f e x is tence d ependen to n s ucce ssfu l l a nd , w a te ra nd a n i -

T he i n ne ra r ea s o ft h ec ompound a r ed i v ided a pp rox i ma te ly i nh a lf , f o rm ing t wo a c t iv i ty z one s : ( a ) aw e s t -

ma lm anagemen t .T hey a l so s how ' c ap i ta l ' o rl ong te rm i n ve s tmen t( G i lman 1 981) i nt h ea r ea a sw e l l a s ' ad ec -

er n u ph il d ome s t ic a r ea c on s is t ing o f t wo w ide , l a rge s t one ,a p s ida l e nded o rn av ifo rm h ab i ta t ion s w i th al e s s

l a ra t ion o ft e r ra tona l d oma in ' a nd s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion i n r e la t ion t o o the r i nhab i tan t s o f t h e a l luv ia l p la in

i mp re s s ive t h ird s t ruc tu re t ot h e w e s ta nd ( b )a ne a s te rn

( Wa ld ren 1 982 ) .

d ownh i l l c o r ra l a nd wo rk a r ea . T he u ppe r h a lf o f t h e

B o th s i te s h ave u nde rgone e x ten s ive r ad ioca rbon d a t i ng s urvey s r ega rd ing t h e v ar iou s a r ch i tec tu ra l e l e -

d omes t ic a r ea i sf u r the r d iv ided b y a6 0 m e te r l ong , l a rge s t one l i ned Wa te r C hanne l a nd C a tch B a s in , wh ich w a s a t o ne t ime c ove red w i th s t one s l ab s t o g ua rd a ga in s t e vapo ra t ion a nd c on tam ina t ion ( F igu re 9 ) . T he w a ter c hanne l t r ave r se s t h e c ompound i n a

men t s , ap ro jec t c a r r ied o u t i no rde r t ou nde r s tand t h e b u i ld ing s equence a s w e l l a s t o e s tab l i sh t h e s e t t le m en t ' sd u ra t ion o fu se . B yd a t ing t h es i te ' sn ume rou sa r c h i tec tu ra l a nd o the r c on tex t s , u s ing t e chn ique s d e -

n o r th t os ou th d i rec t ion , d e scend ing f r om al a rge w a te r r e se rvo i rb u i l to u t s ide t h eu ph i l l ,n o r thwes te rn c o rne ro f t h ec ompound . T h is l a t te ra r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re i su n ique

s c r ibed e l sewhe re ( Wa ld ren , E n senya t a nd C ub ! 1 991 ; Wa ld ren a nd V an S t rydonck 1 993 ) ,i th a sb een p o ss ib le t oa s s ign s pec i f ic c h ronome t r ic p a rame te r s f o r many o f

a nd o f c on s ide rab le a r chaeo log ica l i n te re s t , f o rm ing a c omp le te h yd rau l ic w a te r s ys tem a nd d emon s t ra t ing a

t h e se b u i ld ing f e a tu re s , f i x ing t h e s i te ' s c on s t ruc t ion , d u ra t ion a nd a bandonmen tp ha se s .

r ema rkab ly h i gh d eg ree o fe ng inee r ing s oph i st ica t ion a s w e l la s ak now ledge o fw a te r managemen t .

T he a r te fac t e v idence f r om t h e s i te i n c lude s af u l l r ange o f i t ems b e long ing t o c u s toma ry B eake r a s sem

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R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

b l age , p o t te ry , f l in t t o o ls , c oppe r a iw is , s oc a l led a r ch e r ' s w r is tg ua rd s a nd V p e r fo ra ted e l ephan ti v o ry ,b one a nd s t one b u t ton s . T he h i gh f r equency o fB eake rs he rd s f r om t h es i te i so fs pec ia l i n te re s t ,s u rpa s s ing i nn umbe r t h e q uan t i t ie s f ound i n l a rge r l o ca le s l i ke Z ambu ja l L o s M i l la res a nd o the r I b e r ian m a in land a nd S ou the rn F rench C ha lco l i th ic s i te s w i th wh ich t h ey a r e c h rono l og ica l ly c on tempo ra ry ( Wa ld ren , E n senya t a nd C ub I 1 990 a nd 1 991) . I ti si nt h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s o f t h e s i te t h a t w e c an d emon s t ra te t wo o ft h e c e remon ia l o rr i tua lf unc t ion so ft h eB a lea r ic B eake rp o t te ry ,w he re w e h ave b een a b le t or e cogn ise f i ve d i s t inc t ly d i f fe ren t B eake r d eco ra t ive s t y le s i n c lud ing , f o r t h e f i r s t t ime , t h e p r e sence o f l a te Ma in land B ouqueque t ype s ( F ig u r e s4 -6 ) . S tone t o o l f i nd s i nt h ef i e ld s i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o a nd w i th in t h es i te p rov ide u sw i th e v idence o f aq ua l i ty l i th ic i ndu s t ry o f t a bu la r f l in t , s e r ra ted s i ck le s a nd b l ade s .T h is i sa l so p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan ta s ,a par tf r om c a sua l f i nd s , t h eB a lea r ic I s land s h ad n op reh i s to r ic l i th

i ci ndu s t ry o f i mpo r tance p r io r t o t h e O lez ian a s sem b l age ( Wa ld ren . S ande r s a nd C o l l 1 984 ) . S i ck le g lo s s p o l ish o n t h e s e r ra ted e dge s o f ah igh p e rcen tage o f t h e se f l in tt oo ls s how t h a te x ten s ive a g r icu l tu ra lp rac t ic e s t o ok p lace i nt h e f i e ld s i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t ot h e s e t t lemen tc ompound . A s men t ioned a bove , a l ong w i th t he f u l l r ange o fV p e r fo ra ted i vo ry ,b one , s t one a nd s he l lb u t ton s ,c r uc ib le s he rd s , c oppe r o f f -cu t s a nd c oppe r a w ls d emon s t ra te o n s i te me ta l wo rk ing .T he i vo ry b u t ton s a r ep a r t icu la r l y i n te re s t ing a s w e re made f r om e l ephan t t u sk i vo ry a nd f o rt h ef i r s tt ime i nd ica te t r ade i n to t h eB a lea r ic so f A f r ican i vo ry a nd a t ar e la t ive ly e a r ly d a te . T he p re sence o fn ume rous s p ind le -who r ls a nd c hee se s t ra ine r s s im i la r t o t ho se o f ma in land s i te s t e s t ify t o w oo l p roduc t ion a nd m i lk p roduc t s . Af u l l c on t ingency o fd ome s t ic a n ima l sa re p r e sen ta st e s t if ied b y t h ea bun d an t b one r ema in s o fg oa t , s heep , p ig a nd s ma l l c a t t le t h roughou tt h es i te .

F IGURE 1 . A e r ia l v i ew o ft h e P re h is t o r ic S anc tua ry o f S on Mas s how ing t h ec oncave f r on t a nd e n t rance . Wh i te s qua re s s how l o ca t ion o f ap o r t ion o ft h e s i te 's r a d io ca rbon d a te s . S ome o ft h eo l d e s td a te s ,c i rca 2 100 c a l B Ca r et ho se i nt he u ppe rl e f th and c o o ft h ep ho tog raph . F o r af u l le rl i s ta n dd e ta i led l o ca t ion o ft h es amp les s ee F igu re 1 2 .

'

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W ILL IAM H . WALDREN

I PRE IISTOR IC S ANCTUARY OF S ON MAS ( 6 ° 17 'E ,3 9 ° 32 'N ) (Wa ld ren ,E n senya ta nd C ub I 1 990 a nd 1 991 )

v en to ry o ft h i r ty two r ead ings t e s t ify t o al ong d u ra t ion o f t h e a r ea ' s u se a s ar i tua l a nd r e l ig iou s c en te r . A l t hough t h e s anc tua ry w a s amu l t ioccupa t iona l s i te d u r i ng a l l o ft h eB ronze a nd I r on Age s , t h ea r tefac t s f ound i n t h e s i te ' s l owe r l e ve ls a r e t h e mo s t i n te re s t ing a nd p e r t inen t t ot h is p ape r . T he se a r e P re ta layo t ic ( Coppe r a nd I n i t ia l B ronze Age a nd t ypo logy a nd f u r the rc ove r

T he s an tua ry s i te ( F igu re 1 ) i ss i tua ted a tt h eo ppo s i te e nd o ft h e a l luv ia l p l a in f r om t h e F e r rande l l -O leza S e t t l emen t C omp lex , w he re t h e s anc tua ry d om ina te s t h e m a in a cce s sr ou te su pf om i h c g r ea tc en t ra lp l a in o ft h e

t h e l o ca l l a layo t ic a nd P o s tt a layo t ic P er iod s a nd c on t empo ra ry t ot h eF e r rande l l -O leza O ld S e t t lemen t .T hey a r eo fa ne xcep t iona l ly h igh q uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty ,s ot e s t i fy ing t ot h ef unc t ion o ft h e s i te . T he mo s ti mpo r tn tt o t h is p ape ra r et h eB eake rp o t tery ( F igu re 1 2 )a nd i t sf r e q uency o f wh ich a l li so fr ema rkab ly h igh q ua l i ty . T h i s i nc lude s a tl a te s t c oun t 6% o f t h e t o ta l p o t te ry p f t h e P re ta layo t ic P e r iod f r om t h e se i n fe r io rl e ve ls .T h is r a t io i sr ep re sen ted b y5 86 f r agmen t so fg eome t r ica l ly d eco r a ted w a re , r ep re sen t ing n ea r ly 7 0 i nd iv idua l B eake r v es se ls . T he re i sa l so a no the r 1% o f t h e t o ta l p o t te ry o ft h ep e r iod t h a tb a sed o ni t s q ua l i ty ,f ab r ic a nd f i n ish , i su ndeco ra ted B eake rp o t tery . T he c omb ined p e rcen t a ge o fb o th t y pe s o fb eake r s a l ong w i th t h e f i ne w a re s o ft h es i te ' so t he rc u l tu ra lp e r iods i s wha to ne wou ld e x p ec tf r om as anc tua ry . T he s i te ' s a n ima l b one s o n a l l l e ve ls f u r the r s ubs tan t i a te s i t s f unc t ion . T hey i nc lude s heep , g oa t , p ig a nd s ma l lc a t t le . T he se s how ah igh p redom inance i ny oung a n ima ls , e spec ia l ly t h e o v icap ine s wh ich i n ma jo r i ty s how a na ge a td ea th i nt h el a t te rp a r to ft h ef i r s ty ea ro r t h e l a t te rp a r to ft h e s econd y ea r . T he i sa l so as i gn if i c an tl a ck o fp a r t icu la rb one so ft h ea n ima ls ,s uch a sc r a n i a l f r agmen t s , r i b s a nd v e r teb rae a nd ap redom inence o fl imb c omponen t s . T h is s t rong ly s ugge s t st h a tt h ea n i ma ls may n o th ave b een s ac r if iced o n s i te , b u tb rough t o n s i te a f te r s l augh te r a nd d i smembe rmen t . App rox i ma te ly ah a lf m i l l ion a n ima l b one s h ave r e tr ieved t o d a te .

F IGURE 1 2 . A ne x amp le o fB e ake rp o t te ry f r om t h eP r eh is to r i cS anc tua ry o fS on M a s ,l e ve l sd a ted a tc i r ca 1 9 36 c a l B C . i s land t ot h e e a s ta nd t h e c oa s ta l r oad s t ot h e n o r th a nd t h e s ou th o f t h e a r ea . E xcava t ion s , a r te fac t s a nd r ad io c a rbon d a t ing s how t h a t t h e s i te i se xac t ly c on tempo r a ry w i th b o th t h eo l de ra nd y ounge rs e t t lemen ta r ea so f t h e F er rande l l -O leza P reh i s to r ic S e t t lemen t C omp lex , w i th d a te s r ang ing f r om 1 958 c a l BC t o ad e s t ruc t ion d a te i nt h e2 nd c en tu ry BC ,w i th s ome i n c ip ien tu se u n t i l t h e 3 rd c en tu ry AD (Wa ldren , E nsenya t a nd C ub ! 1 990 ) . S eve ra l e a r ly c h ronome t r ic d a t ing s p a r t o f as i te i n -

T he I l i rd t o l i nd m i l lenn ia d a te s ( 1936 c a l BC t o 1 848 c a l BC ) a s soc ia ted w i th t h e B eake r f i nds a tt h e s anc tua ry a r ee spec ia l ly i mpo r tan to nt h eb a s i s t h a tt h ey n o to n ly o f fe ru s t h e e a r l ie s t d a te f o r ar e l ig iou s s t ruc t u re o fl o ca lP re ta layo t ic a ge b u ta l so d emon s t ra te ar i t u a l a r ea f o rt h ef i r s tt ime c on ta in ing c on s ide rab le B eak e re v idence . T h is l a t te rf a c to rp o in t st oa no the rf unc t ion o ft h e B a lea r ic B eake rp o t te ry , t h a t o f av o t ive o b jec t . O ne w ou ld r i gh t ly c onc lude a nd e xpec t s uch a n e x ten s i ve a s soc ia t ion w i th as anc tua ry ,i fB eake rp o t tery h ad r i tua l s i gn if icance . I nf a c t ,i t se x t reme ly h igh f r equency a l ong w i th s im i la r q ua l i ty u ndeco ra ted w a re s o f t h e s ame c h rono logy a nd t ho se o fs ub sequen t p e r iod s f u r t h e r c o labo ra te s i t s i mpo r tance i np o ss ib le c e remon ia l a c t iv i t ie s . . T he s i te h a sa l so p rov ided u s w i th e spec ia l ly r i ch me ta l f i nd s wh ich i n a ge e x tend t h rough mo s t o f

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R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

PREH ISTOR IC SANCTUARY OF SON MAS

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F IGURE 1 . F IGURE 1 3 . S u rvey p lan o ft h eP reh is to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Mas s how ing t h eg r id s ys tem a nd e xcava t ion q uad ran ts . S hown i s t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fd eco ra ted B eake rp o t te ry ( sma l l d o t s ) , l o ca t ion o fe x is t ing r ad ioca rbon d a te s ( s qua re d o t s ) a nd t he i rc o r re s pond ing i n ven to ry n umbe r s , 1 32 .

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W ILL IAM H . WALDREN

l u v ia l moun ta in p l a in ,k nown a sE lP la d e lR e i ( P la in o f t h eK ing )d i scu ssed a bove i nc on junc t ion w i th t h eF e r r ande l l -O leza P reh is to r ic S e t t lemen tC omp lex a nd P re h i s to r ic S anc tuary o fS on Ma s ; t hus f o rm ing t h e ma jo r p a r to f ah igh ly i n fo rma t ive c a tchmen ta r ea o f 8k i lome t e rd i ame te r( F igu re 7 ) .

F IGURE 1 4 . B eake rd e co ra ted c r u c ib le s h e rd sw i th c oppe re n c r u s t r a t ion s( A ) . N o rm a lc r uc ib le s h e rd s( B )f r om t h e Ma tg e R o ck S he l te r . t h ec h rono log ica lp er iod s whe re me ta l w a sp re sen t . i f i ROCK SHELTER OF SON MATGE ( 6 °25 'E ,3 9 °35N )( Wa ld ren 1 982 ) T he r ock s he l te rs i te i sl o ca ted 1 3 .5 k i lome te r sf r om t h e

F IGURE 1 5 . E l ephan ti v o ry l o om c omb w i th B eak e rd e s ign s f r om t h eM a tg eR o ck S he l t e r . ( A )R e s to ra t ion o ft h ec omb , ( B )t h ea c tua lr ema in s .

B a lear ic c ap i ta l o fP a lma , 4k i lome te r s f r om t h e moun t a in v i l lage o fV ai ldemo sa a nd o n ly 5 k i lome te r s f r om t h e S on Ma s s anc tua ry . I ti sf u r the rs i tua ted i nt h en a r r owe s ts e c t ion o ft h en o r th c oa s tr oad k nown a sS 'E s t r e t ( t he n a r row p lace ) w he re t h e r oad b eg in s i t s s t eep a s -

T he o lde s tc u l tu ra le v idence a nd l onge s ts t ra t ig raph ica l s equence i n t h e B a lear ic s o r ig ina te s f r om t h e R ock

c en ti n to t h e moun ta in s . T he n a r row p a ss f o rm s o ne o f t h e o n ly d i rec ta cce s s r ou te s i n to t h e n o r th c oa s to ft h e

r ock s he l te r w i th i t s l ong c u l tu ra l s equence a nd d eep v e r t ica l s t ra t ig raphy f o rm s ar e fe rence f r amewo rk f o r t h e w ho le o fB a lea r ic p reh is to ry a s w e k now i tt o day

i s land a nd i si ni t se lf am a jo rf a c to ro fi t ss i tua t iona li m p o r tance . T he r ou te a l so g i ve sa cce ss t ot h es o i l r i ch ,a l -

S he l te ro fS on Ma tge w i th i t s 5me te rv e r t ica l s t ra t . ig ra p hy a nd 3 6 l e ve ls o f c u l tu ra l d epo s i t ion d a t ing f r om 5 590 c a l BC t o 2 00 BC (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . T he Ma tge

a nd s e rve s a s ag u ide t oo u t ly ing s i te s w i th ma te r ia ls

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R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IGION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 6 . An a s semb led B eake rb ow l w i th ac heque rboa rd d e s ign f r om t h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma tge ,d a ted c i rca 2 100 c a l BC .

F IGURE 1 7 . C lo se -up o ft h ei n c isedcheque rboa rd d es igns s how ing t h ee x t reme ly f i ne wo rkmansh ip .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

b u tl i t t le o rn or ad iocarbon d ocumen ta t ion . T he v a r iou s u ses t ow h ich t h e s he l te r w a s p u tt h rough -

I V THE ROCK S HELTER OF M LJERTOS GALLARD ( 6 ° 19 'E ,3 9 °50 'N ) (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) T he s i te i s ar ock s he l te r s im i la r t ot h e Ma tge s i te , e x c ep t s ma l le r l oca ted a bou t 5k in s f r om t h e v i l lage o f D eya a long t h e n o r the rn V a l ldemo ssa -So l le r c oa s ta l r oad a nd e qua ld i s tance f r om t h eF e r rande l l -O leza - Ma s P reh is to r ic C omp lex a l ready d i scu ssed . D iscove red i n 1 960 , a bou tt h e s ame t ime a s t h e a d jacen t S on Ma r ro ig c ave ( de sc r ibed b e low ) , i ti si n c luded a l ong w i th Ma r -

F IGURE 1 8 .T he R o ck S he l t e ro fS on M a tg el o ok ing f r om e a s tt ow e s t T he s h e l te ri s4 5m e te r sl o ng w i th a1 0m e t e r w ide p a rape ta r ea

o u t p reh is to ry h ave b een c l ea r ly i d en t if ied a nd d ocu men ted b y r ad ioca rbon i n e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t b e t ween 1 968 a nd 1 979 a nd a r e a sf o l lows : ( 1 ) a n a n ima l s he l te r ,i n c lud ing ac o r ra l f o rt h ee x t inc t ,e ndem ic r um i n an t Myo tragus b e tween 6 680 BP : 5 600 c a l BC a nd 5 820 BP : 4 850 c a l BC ; ( 2) a h ab i ta t ion f o r s ome o f Ma l lo rca ' se a r l ie s ts e t t le r sf r om a bou t6 680BP : 5 600 c a l BC u n t i l c i rca 3 550 BP : 1 670 c a l BC ;( 3 ) aB eake r w o rk shop a r ea w i th me ta l w o rk ing c on tex t s d ur ing t h e l o ca l B eake r p ha se o f t h e P re ta layo t ic P er iod , c i rca 2 480 c a l BC t oc i rca 1 670 c a l BC a nd d ur ing t h e l a te B ronze Age o ft h eT a layo t ic P e r iod ,c i rca 1 230 c a l BC t o 9 00 c a l BC ; ( 4 ) ab ur ia l s i te d u r ing t h el oca lB ronze

F IGURE 1 9 . T he R o ck S h e l t e ro fM ue r to sG a l la rd l o ok ing i n t c t h ee n t r anc eo ft h em ode rn d ay a n ima lc ompound .T he ' c i s t 'b u r i a lw a sl o ca t ed o nt h ei n s ide t ot h el e f to ft h ee n t r ance .

r o ig a sp a r to ft h e 8kms c a tchmen ta r ea d e sc r ibed , b e c au se o f i t s o ve r lapp ing c hrono logy a nd g ene ra l g eo g raph ic p rox im i ty.

A ge a nd I r on A ge ,c i rca 1 670 c a l BC t o5 0 AD ; a nd ( 5 ) f i na l ly ,i t sc yc le o fu se c ame t o ac l o se i nh i s to r ica l a nd mode rn t ime s when i tw a s o nce mo r eu sed a sa na n ima l s he l te r .

B o th t h e Mue r to s a nd Ma r ro ig s i te s a r e s i tua ted i n a v e r t ica l s ec t ion o fa nc ien ts ea c l if f , w i th a ne l eva t ion o f a bou t 1 50 me te r s o ve r look ing t h e s ea . L ike Ma tge , t h e

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W I T UAM H . WALDREN

l e a r ic s ( t he e a r l ie s td a te si nt he Ma tge r ock s he l te rw e re 4 650 BP : c a l 3 375 BC ) . S ome t ime a f te r t h is o ccupa t i on d a te e v idence s hows t h e s i te w a s c onve r ted i n to a b ur ia l a r ea . T he f i r s t d a ted Ma l lo rcan B eake r l e ve ls c on ta in ing p o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th af o sa b u r ia l ( da ted a t3 790 BP : 2 240 c a l BC ) e s tab l ishe s a no the r f unc t ion o fB eake rp o t te ry . T he d a te s a nd c on tex t s c ompa re f a v ou rab ly w i th B eake rd a te sa nd a r te fac t sf r om t h eo the r

F IGURE 2 1 . B eak e rr i ms h e rd f r om t h e' c i s t 'g r a ve a tt h e R o ck S h e l te ro f Mue r to s -G a l la rd

F IGURE 2 0 . B e ak e r' c i s t 'g r ave i nt h eR o ck S he l te ro f Mue r to s G a l la rd . B eake rp o t te ry w a sf o und a tt h ef oo to ft h eg r ave ,a s so c i a ted c h a r coa ld a t ed a t2 2 39 c a l BC Mue r to sG a l la rd r ock s he l te ri s ac l a ss ic e xamp le o ft h i s

B eake rs i te locai ly a nd o nt h e Ma in land . T he s ku l l o ft h ef o sa b u r ia l h ad ac epha l ic i ndex o f 8 5 .5 ( hype rb rachyce ipha l ic ) ( non Med i te r ranean ) a nd b u r ia ls c on t inued t h rough t h eT a layo t ic P e r iod a nd P o s t T a layo t ic P e r iod (Wa ldren 1 967 ) a nd l i ke Ma tge i n c luded c r ema t ion b ur ia l s , a long w i th l a te i nhuma t ion s i nq u ick l ime w i th d a te s o f 1 720 BP : 3 00 c a l BC a nd 1 670 BP : C a l3 00 c a l BC .

k ind o fg eo log ica lf o rma t ion a nd i sv e ry s im i la ri nc u l t u ra l c on tex t s a nd s t ra t ig raphy t o t ha t o f Ma tge ; a l t h ough c on s ide rab ly s ma l le r a nd s ha l lowe r i n d imen s i on .T he o ve rhang c r ea te s as he l t e red a r ea o fa bou t 1 42 m2 a s c ompa red t oo ve r4 . 80 m2 i nt h e Ma tge s he l te r . Wh i le i td id n o tc on ta in t h e d ep th o fv e r t ica l s t ra t ig ra p hy , n o rh ave s im i la rc omp lex i ty ,i t s c h rono log ica l s e q uence w a s l a rge ly s im i la r ;d emon s t ra t ing al ong d u ra t i on o fl i v ing a nd b u r ia l d u r ing ap e r iod o fa tl e a s tf ou r m i l lenn ia . T he Mue r to s G a l la rd s i te ,l i ke Ma tge ,h ad P re ta layo t i co ccupa t ion b eg inn ing w i th d a ted l e ve ls o f5 160 BP : c a l 3 972 BC f o r t h e o lde s t a s soc ia ted c on tex t s d ocu men t ing t h ep re sence o fc e ram ic t e chno logy i nt h eB a -

V THE CAVE OF SON MARRO IG ( 601 9 'E ,3 9 °50 N ) (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) T he s i te i sn a tura l c ave o f P re ta layo t ic a ge ; a l though l im i ted i ns t ra t ig raphy a nd c on tent Ma r ro ig h a so ne r a d ioca rbon d a te . I ti sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h eP re ta layo t ic c on tex t s o f Mue r to s -Ga l la rd a nd t h eB eake r p ha se s a t t h eo the rr e sea rch s i te s .L oca ted a bou t5 0 me te r se a s to f t h e Mue r to s -Ga l la rd s he l te r ,i tw a sd i scove red i n 1 960 b y t he a u tho r a nd u nderwen t t wo s e a son s o f s t udy . I t h a s as i ng le c hambe r a bou t 8 me te r s l ong b y a pp rox i ma te ly 4me t e r s w ide .T he c ave i s aP re ta layo t ic s e con -

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d a ry b u r ia l d epo s i t t h a t c on ta ined t h e r ema in s o fe i gh t b od ie s . T he s ku l ls w e re s epa ra te ly s t acked i n an a tu ra l n i che i n t h e c ave ' s w e s te rn s ec to r a nd t h e l ong b one s a l ong w i th t h ef une ra ry p o t te ry i nt h ec en t ra l a r ea . T he b od ies w e re e v iden t ly p laced a td ea th e l sewhe re t oa l l ow s cavange r s a nd t h ee l emen t s t oc l ean t h eb one s b e f o re t h ey w e re c o l lec ted a nd d epo s i ted i nt h ec ave . T he re w e re f ou rc omp le te P re ta layo t ic p o t s ,o ne al a t e B eake r b ow l w i th f i nge r -na i l i nc is ion s o n i t s c o rded r im . One r ad ioca rbon d a te o n b one o f3 480 BP : 1 824 c a l BC d a te s t h e b ur ia ls a nd r ep re sen t s o ne o ft h e f i r s t r ad iocarbon a na ly se s c a r r ied o u t i nt h e B a lea r ic s . T he b u r ia l me thod s , a l though e qua l ly o f P re ta layo t ic a ge , d i f fe rf r om t h ef o sa g rave f ound i nt h en earby Mue r to s G a l lard s he l te r , whe re e a r l ie r d a te s 4 188 BP : 2 239 c a l BC w e re d emon s t ra ted ( Wa ld ren 1 967 ) V I THE MEGAL 1T I TIC TO MB OF CA NA COSTA ( Fe rnandez Gomez ,P lan ta lamo r Ma s sane ta nd T opp 1 984 ) T he s i te i sl o ca ted o nt h e s ma l li s land o fF o rmen ter ra i n t h e P i t ius saen G roup c l o se t o t h e i s land o f I b iza . A l t hough i tl i e s o u t s ide Ma l lo rca a n s ome d i s tance f r om t h eo the rs i te se xam ined i nt h i sp ape r ,i ti st h ef i r s t meg a l i th ic t omb o fi t sp a r t icu la rk ind f ound e i the ri nt h eP i t i u ssae s o r B a lea r ic s a nd i tp rov ided t h e f i r s t r ea l e v i d ence o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i ty i n t h e P i t iu ssaen I s land G roup . I nt h el a s tf ew y ea r s ,t h i se v idence o fp reh is to r ic a c t iv i ty h a s s i gn i f ican t ly i n c rea sed t oi n c lude t h eI s land o fI b iza . T he C a N a C o s ta s i te h a s p roduced s eve ra l B eake r s he rd s i nl owe rl e ve l s o ft h et omb ( F igu re 2 3 )a nd o the r i t em so fB eake r a s semb lage s uch a s aw r is tgua rd a nd V p e r fo ra ted b u t ton s a nd w o rked f l in t , w h ich f r om t h e i r t ypo logy w ou ld p lace t h ec on s t ruc t ion o ft h e monumen t c on s ide rab ly e a r l ie r ,b u tc on tempo ra ry w i th s ome h o r i z on s i nt h e o the rr e sea rch s i te s e xam ined . Wha t make s t h e se f i nd so fp a r t icu la ri n te re s ti st h ec on tex ti nw h ich t h e B eake r f i nd s w e re made a nd t h e p o ss ib le f unc t ion o ft h eB eake rp o t te ry i t se l f . T he t omb w a s i ne xce l len tp re se rva t ion a f ter e xcava t i on , a l though r e s to ra t ion h a s b een c a r r ied o u tr e cen t ly , i th a s b een d one ,u nfo r tuna te ly mo re f o rt h e p urpo se o f t o ur i sm t h an p rope rp re se rva t ion .T he re i s ,a l so u nfo r tu -

F IGURE 2 3 . P l an o ft h eM eg a l i th ic T omb o fC ana C o s t a , F o rmen ten i . S hown a r et wo B eake r f r agmen t sf r om t h et omb ADDENDUM I th a s o ccu r red t o me t h a t Ih ave b een s ob u sy p resen t i ng t h ee v idence a va i lab le f r om t h es i tes s of a rs t ud ied t h a t af ew e s sen t ia ld e ta i l sa re l a ck ing r ega rd ing t h eo r i g in a nd p re sence o ft h e B eake rq ue s t ion i nt h e B a lea r i c s , a nd o fl a te i nt h e P i t iu s sean I s land G roup . If i nd I h ave n eg lec ted t or epre sen t t h e v e ry f i r s t e v idence i n t h e f o rm o ft h eF e lan it x f r agmen t s ,t h e ma in s ource o f much o ft h ed i ff icu l t ie sa r is ing o ve rt h ed ecade s . On t h e b a s is o ft h ep hy s ica l e v idence , e ven a ss pa r se a si tw a s i nt h eb eg inn ing , Is e en o r ea son f o re ve rh av ing r epu d i a ted o ri nt h ep re sen tf o r c on t inu ing t or epud ia te t h e a u then t ic i ty o ft h es he rd s ,o the rt h an t h ey w e re o r ig ina l -

n a te ly , o n ly o ne r ad ioca rbon d a te o f3 270 BP : 1 526 c a l BC o n h uman b one , wh ich f r om i t s s t ra t ig rpah ica l d e -

l yf ound w he re n o o ne b e l ieved t h a t t hey s hou ld b e . . . . o n a ni s land ( s ome s t i l l b e l ieve t h is ) . Ih ave o n ly v e ry b r ief ly men t ioned e a r l ie rd e ta i ls r e ga rd ing t h et r oub led

s c r ip t ion i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een f r om al a te r c on tex t o f t h et omb a nd s ugges t s al a te r eu l i l isa t ion o ft h et omb .

h i s to ry o fB eake r s i n t h e i s land s b ecau se o f t h e s pace n ece s sa ry t oc ove ri tt ho rough ly . An e x ten s ive p ub l ica t i on o n t h e B eake r C u l tu re o f t h e B a lear ic I s land s i s c ur ren t ly i n p rog re ss (Wa ld ren i n p re ss ) whe re t h e

W ILL IAM H . WALDREN

w ho le h i s to ry i sc ove red . I nc luded h e re a r e o n ly af ew

a l te red h i s f o rme ro p in ion ( Ha r r i son 1 980 ) t h a ti ti sr e -

mo re d e ta i ls a nd a n i lu s t ra t ion o f t h e v e ry f i r s t s he rd s t o h ave b een d i scove red s ho r t ly a f te r t h e t u rn o f t h e c en tury .U n fo r tuna te ly t h ea c tua lF e lan i tx f r agmen t sa r e n o l o nge ra va i lab le , h av ing b een l o s ts ho r t ly a f te rt h e ir d i scove ry , p e rhap s mo re t o a vo id emba ra ssmen t t h an

l a ted mo re t oS ic i l ian Moa rda p o t tery t h an B eake ra nd h a sr e cen t ly i nc luded t h el o ca l g eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted w a re s i nq ues t ion a s b e long ing t o aB a lea r ic B ranch o f t h e I n te rna t iona l B e l l B eake r s ( Ha r r ison 1 992 ) . I n a l l e ven t s B a lea r ic B eake r s e x i s ta nd a r eh e re t os t ay . I ti s

n eg l igence a nd b ecau se o f wha tw a s t hough ta tt h et ime

n o t my i n ten t ion a tp re sen tt or eopen o ra rgue t h eq ue s t i on a tt h is t ime , b u tt oi n se r t ad raw ing o ft h e o r ig ina l F e lan i tx f r agmen ts f o rc ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s a nd g en e r a li n fo rma t ion .T he d raw ing h a sb een made o nt h eb a -

t oh ave b een f ound i nu n re l iab le c i rcum s tances . I na ny

s i so f ap ho tog raph f r om C a s t i l lo Yu r r i ta ' s ( 1928 )e a r ly B eake r i nven tory : " La C u l tura d e l V a so C ampan i f o rme " ( as t i l lh i gh ly u seab le r e fe rence ) ,w he re h ec au t i ou s ly w a rned t h a ti tw a si mp ruden tt o make aB a lea r ic G roup o fB eake r so nt h eb a s i s o f af ew s he rd s ( Ca s t i l lo Y U IT i ta 1 928 ) .T h is i sn ol onge rt h ec a se . CONCLUS IONS On t h e b a s is o f t h e c on tex tua l e v idence o f B a lear ic B eake r p o t tery i n t h e se s i te s , t h e mu l t if a r iou s u se a s w e l l a s t h e p o ly semou s s t a tu s o f t he p o t te ry a ppea r s w e l l s uppo r ted .T he e v idence c an b e s umma r ised i nt h e f o l low ing l i s to fu se sa nd c onc lu s ion s : 1 B EAKER P OTTERY A SSOC IATED W ITH ARCH ITECTU R AL CONSTRUCT ION AND DOMEST IC R ITUAL F ROM AN O PEN -A IR S En L EMENT . T he re i se v idence i nt h eO leza P re ta layo t ic O ld S e t t le m en t ,w he re s ome 8 56 B eake rp o t te ry s he rd s r ep re sen t i ng 8 0 v e s se ls w e re f ound u p t o 1 988 i nt wo d i s t inc t ly d i f fe ren tc on tex t s ,( a )i nt h ec on s t ruc t iona ll e ve l sw i th in a l l t h es i te ' sa rch i tec tura le l emen t s ,s uch a sw a l lf i l l a nd w a l l f ounda t ion s a nd ( b ) i nd ome s t ic o r s pec ia l s i tua t i on , s uch a sh ea r th z one s . I nt h e se c on tex t s , t h eB eak e rp o t te ry a ppea r s t oh ave s e rved a s av o t ive o f f e r ing o r p e rhap s a sc ommemo ra t ive o b jec ti ns ome r i tua ld u r ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e w a l l s o ft h e s e t t lemen t . B eake r

c a se , t h eg ho s to f t h e se f r agmen t s h ave h aun ted t h e l o c a l a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t ot h ep re sen td ay . T he a rgu men th a s b een p re sen ted t h a tB a lea r ic B eake r s a r e n o t B eake r s a ta l l ( Topp 1 986 ) b u t s imp ly d e sc r ibed a sl o c a l ' i nc ised w a re s ' , r eg iona l ly d eve loped w i th s ome

p o t te ry wa s a l so u sed i ns ome s o r t o f s ecu la r r i tua l i n

B eake ri nf luence . F ew w ho k now B eake r Wa re a nd h ave h and led a ny amoun to ft h ep o t te ry w i l l h ave v e ry l i t t le r e a son t ob e l i eve t h a t t h e l oca l e xamp le s a r e n o t t h e ' a u then t ic t h ing ' . B et h a ta si tmay . T he ' whe the ro rn o t 'a rgumen t h oweve rc on t inue s ,b u tp e rhap s t o al i t t le l e s se rd eg ree

T he f r equency o ft h eB eake rp o t tery f i nd sc ompa red t o c ommon d ome s t ic w a re si sl e s s t h an 1 % ( . 0671 ) o ft h e t o ta l o f 1 27 ,000 s he rd s , af r equency o f 1t o1 48 a nd r e -

w i th t h ep r e sen tr e sea rch ,a nd s i nce s ome o ft h ea u tho r i t i e s l i ke H a r r ison a nd B a r f ie ld ( 1977 ) h ave a l te red f o r m e r o p in ion s r ega rd ing t h e i d en t if ica t ion a nd r e cogn i t i on o ft h el o ca l B eake r Wa re s . R . H ar r i son h a sa c tua l ly

n umbe ro ff r agmen t sb yd i s t r ibu t iona l a nd q uan t i ta t ive s t anda rd s i no the r Ma in land B eake rs i te si se xcep t iona l -

d ome s t ic c on tex t s .

c ove red f r om a ne xcava ted a r ea o fa bou t 1 500 m2 : 1 . 75 B eake r s he rd s p e r m2 . Al ow f r equency t h a ti nc e r ta in r e spec t si nd ica te i t se xc lu s ivene s s . A l though t h eo ve ra l l

l yh i gh , ma tch ing s i te s Ma in land s ou thea s tern s i te sl i ke C e r ro d el aV irgen a nd P o r tugue se Z ambu ja l .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

2 B EAKER P OTTERY A SSOC IATED W ITH R EL IG IOUS AC F IV IT IES AND R ITUAL U SE F ROM A P REH ISTOR IC S ANCTUARY .

4 B EAKER P OTTERY A SSOC IATED W ITH A ' C IST ' BUR I AL I N A ROCK SHELTER AND USED AS AN O }FhR ING OR R ITUAL DED ICAT ION .

T he re i se v idence i n t h e P reh i s to r ic S anc tuary o f S on Ma s ,u n t i l 1 988 ,w he re 2 62 B eake rs he rd sr ep re sen t ing s ome 3 5v e sse l s w e r ef ound ma in ly i nt h ec on tex to fo f f e r ing s a tt h e s anc tua ry . He re i n 1 993 , t h e t o ta l i sw e l l o ve r 5 60 d eco ra ted B eake r s he rd s ( F igu re 1 2 ) , r ep re s en t ing o ver 5 5 v e sse ls . T he f r equency o f t h e B eake r p o t tery i n 1 988 c ompa red t o c ommon d ome s t ic w a re w a s 6% f o rd eco ra ted B eake ra nd 1 6% f o ru ndeco ra ted B eake r at o ta lo f2 2% o ft h e3 237 t o ta lP re ta layo t ic f i ne

T he Mue r to s G a l lard B eake r p o t te ry w a s f ound a sp a r t o fg rave g oods i n ac on s t ruc ted g rave made u p o ff o ur s t one s l ab s I ti s i n te rp re ted a s a n o f fer ing o r r i tua l d ed ica t ion . T he b ur ia l w a so f as i ng le i n d iv idua l b ur ied .

i n af l exed p o s i t ion o n i t s r i gh t s i de , f a c ing n o r thwa rd ( F igu re 2 0 ) . C ha rcoa l a nd B eake r p o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th t h eb u r ia l a l so i nd ica te u se o ft h ep o t t e ry i na no f f e r ing o ro the rr i tua la c t iv i ty .

w a res s he rd s f ound a tt he s anc tua ry . T h is w a s af r e q uency o f 1t o 1 2 r e cove red f r om a ne xcava ted a r ea o f a bou t 1 20m2 : 2 . 2 B eake r s he rd s p e r m2 . T he d i s t r ibu t i on o ft h e B eake r p o t te ry i sr ep re sen ted i nF igu re 1 , w he re i t s p rox im i ty t ot h er ema in s o ft h el a te r B ronze / I r on A ge s anc tua ry i sc l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le . No t o n ly t h e n umbe r o f f r agmen t s f ound , b u t t h e v e ry h igh q ua l i ty a nd s i z eo ft h ep o t s( mo s t ly e xcep t iona l ly s ma l l v e sse l s ) s ugge s tt h ey w e re o f f e r ing s . Abundan ta n ima ls r ema in s o f s heep , g oa t , p i g a nd s ma l l c a t t le w e r e p re sen t w i th t h e p o t te ry . T he a n ima l r ema in s s howed as i gn i f ican t l a ck o f c e r ta in b one c omponen t s , s uch a s s ku l l f r ag men t s , v e r teb rae ,r i b sa nd p e lv is s ec t ion s a nd c on s is ted m a in ly o fl imb b one s . T he a ge a td ea th o f t h e a n ima ls s howed ap redom inance o fy oung a n ima l s k i l led e i the r i nt h el a s th a lf o ft h ef i r s ty ea ro rt h el a s th a lf o ft h es e c o nd y ea r ,f u r the rs uppo r t ing o f f e r ing s . 3 B EAKER P OTTERY A SSOC IATED W ITH R ITUAL AC T IV ITY , METAL WORK ING AND DOMEST IC S ECULAR R ITUAL F ROM A R OCK S HELTER I n t h e R ock S he l te r o f S on Ma tge B eake r s herd s w e re f ound i nt wo d i f f e ren tc on tex t s , ( a )i nc i sed s he rd sf r om aB eake r p o t u sed a s ac ruc ib le w i th c oppe ri nc ru s t ra t i on s o n t h e ir i nne r s u r face a nd s how ing s i gn s o f i n t e n se f i r ing d u r ing me ta l me lt ing , a l ong w i th mo re c on v en t iona l c ruc ib le s he rd s w i th t h e s ame e nc ru s t ra t ion s , s t rong ly s ugge s t ing s ome r i tua l d ea l ing w i th me ta l w o rk ing a c t iv i ty a nd o the r wo rk shop a c t iv i t ie s ( b )o ve r 1 00 B eake r s he rd s a s soc ia ted w i th h ea r th f i re s ,i nd ica t i ng u se i nd ome s t ic s e cu la r o rs a c red r i tua l ( F igu re s1 4 1 6 ) . T he s i te ' s d eep v e r t ica l s t ra t ig raphy w a sl a rge ly b u r ia ls d u r ing t h eB ronze a nd I r on Age s w i th h ab i ta t iona l a nd o the ro ccupa t ion d u r ing t h e Cha lco l i th ic a nd L a te N eo l i th ic .

5

B EAKER P OTTERY ASSOC IATED WITH A S ECON DARY EARTH BUR IAL AND USED AS A R ITUAL OF -

F ER ING OR DED ICAT ION I N A NATURAL CAVE I nt h e Maf f o ig c ave B eake rp o t tery w a sf ound w i th c o l l e c t ive b ur ia ls t h a t f r om t h e b ody r ema in s a nd t h e ir p l acemen t w e re s econda ry i n te rmen t s . T he h ead s a nd l imb c omponen t s o ft h eb od ie s w e re d i sar t icu la ted a nd p o t tery c on s igned t od i f fe ren t a r ea s o f t h e c ave . T he h ead s w e re s t acked i n as epara te r ece s so ft h ec ave , t h e c r an ium s f ac ing n o r th . T he c en t ra l l o ca t ion o f t h e p o t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ke le ta l r ema in s a nd t he ir d i sa r l icu l a t ion c a re fu l ly s t acked a r ound t h em w ou ld f u r the rs ug g e s to rdered a nd r i tua lp l acemen t . 6 B EAKER P OTTERY ASSOC IATED W ITH A MEGAL ITH I C TOMB BUR IAL AND U SED A S AR ITUAL OH -bR ING OR DED ICAT ION I N A CONSTRUCTED TO MB .

I n t h e C a N a C o s ta t omb , B eake rp o t te ry ( F igu re 2 3 ) w a s f ound i n ab ur ia l w i th o the r a s soc ia ted a r t ic le s o f B eake rt ypo logy a nd a s semb lage .T he re u se a sp robab le f une ra ry p a raphe rna l ia s ugge s tr i tua l . * ** * * *** *

I fw ec an r e ly o n t h ee v idence p re sen ted h e re , t h e se s i x s i tua t ion s s ugge s tt h a tB a lea r ic B eake rp o t te ry h a s b een u sed i n wha t i ndeed a ppea r s t ob e v o t ive , d ed ica to ry , a nd c ommemo ra t ive c on tex t s . T h is s e r iou s ly s uppo r t s t h e mu l t iuf anou s u se a s w e l l a s p o ss ib le p o lysemou s s t a tu s o fB a lea r ic B eake rp o t te ry . Much o ft h i s i mp re s s i on i sf ur ther e nhanced b y t h e v a r ie ty o f t h e p hys ica l c on tex t sf r om wh ich t h ee v idence c ome sa nd t h ea c t iv i t i e s i nvo lved . Af u l le r a ccoun to fc ompa rab le e v idence o ft h e se k ind s o fd i ve r se c on tex t s e l sewhe re a s w e l l a s

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l o ca l ly n od oub tw ou ld b ev a luab le i nf u r the r ing t h i si n i t ia l e f fo r t t oi n te rp re t t h e c omp lex m ean ings a nd u se s o fB eake rp o t te ry i nr i tua l a c t iv i ty o ve r al ong d u ra t ion a nd e x ten s ive g eog raph ic a r ea .

B IBL IOGRAPHY & REFERENCES ** **

* * * * * **

CA MPS CANTARELLAS ,C . 1 972 . C e r ám ica I nc isa e n Ma l lo rca .C a ja d eA hor ro s yMon te P iedad d el a sB a l e a res , P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . CAST ILLO Y YURR ITA ,A . DEL , 1 921 . L aC e rám ica I n c isa d cl aC u l tu ra d el a sC ueva s .A nuar ia d el aU n iv .d e B arce lona 1 916 -21 ,B a rce lona , 1 922 , 6 5 -82 . CAST ILLO , YURR ITA ,A . 1 928 . L aC u l tu ra d eV a so C ampamfo rme . U n ive r s idad d eB arce lona ,B a rce lona . CLARKE ,D .L . , 1 970 .B eake rP o t te ry o fG rea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land . C amb r idge CLARKE ,D .L . , 1 976 .T he B eake rN e two rk . S oc ia la nd E conom ic Mode l s ,i nJ .N . L an t ing a nd J .D . V an d e r Waa l s ( e d s . ) ,G locken -beche r sympo s ion O be r r ied 1 974 , pp. 4 60 -77 ,B u s sum -Haa r lem . COLO M INAS ROCA ,J .1 915 -20 ,H ab i tac Io R omana d e l sA n t igo r s al e sS a l ine sd cS an tany ,A .I .E .C . , pp. 7 25 , B a rce lona . BARF IELD , L. H . AND FASAN I ,L . , 1 973 . P rob lem ic i rca l aF ine d e lN eo l i t ico eg i lI n iz id e lPE ta d e lB ronzo n e l l ' l ta l ia S e t t en t r iona le . A t l id e l la XV R iun ione S c ien t if ica d e l l ' l s t i tu to I t a l iano d iP re i s tor ia eP ro tos tor ia ,V e r ona -T ren to 1 972 ,

p p .

1 81 -90 ,F i renze .

BARHELD ,L .H . ,B IAG I ,P . AND BORRELLO ,M . , 1 975 -76 . S cav iN e l la S t az ione D i Mon te C ovo lo ( 1972 -73 ) , P a r te 1 .A nna l iD e l Mu seo D iG ava rdo , 1 2 , pp. 7 149 . BARF IELD ,L .H . , CREMASC Il ,M . AND CASTELLEF I1 ,L . , 1 975 . S t an7 iamen t id e lV a so C ampan ifo rme a S an t1 la r io d ' F .n7a ( Regg io Em i l ia ) .P re i s tor ia A lp ina , 1 , pp . 1 55 -99 . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 975 . V a s iC ampan ifo rm iD e l la V a lpadana : A t t r ibuz iom C rono log iche E C u l tu ral i .A t t iD e l S impo s io l n te rnaz iona le S u l l 'an t ica E ta D e lB ronzo I nE u ropa . ( Ve rona laz ise 1 972 ) .P re i s tor ia A lp ina ,1 0 ,p p . 7 3 -77 . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 976 .T he C u l tu r a l Af f in i t ie sO fB e l lB eake r s ,I nI t a ly A nd S ic i ly I nJ . n . L an t ing A nd J . d . V an D e r Waa ls ( Eds . ) , G locken -becher sympos ion O be r r ied 1 974 , pp. 3 07 -22 ,B u ssum -Haar lem . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 977 .T he B eake rC u l tu re I nI t a ly ,I nR . Me rce r( Ed . ) ,B eake r sI nB r i ta in And E u rope : F ou r S tud ie s . B .A .R .S upp lemen tary S e r ie s ,2 6 , pp. 2 7 -49 ,O xfo rd . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 981 . L ' eneo l i t ico E L ' an t ica E ta D e lB ronzo ,I nL omba rd ia . Am D e lL oC onvegno A rcheo log i c oR eg iona le D e l la L omba rd ia ,M i lano 1 980 , pp . 1 39 -56 . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 983 .T he C ha lco l i th ic C eme te ry A t Mane rba D e lG a rt h .A n t iqu i ty ,L v i i , pp. 16 -23 . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 984A . B ur ia l sA nd B ounda r ie sI nC ha lco l i th ic I t a ly ,I nC . Ma lone And S .S todda i t( Ed s . ) ,P a p e r sI nI t a l ian A rchaeo logy I v , B .A .R .I n te rna t iona lS er ie s ,2 44 , pp. 1 52 -76 ,O xfo rd . BARF IELD ,L .H . , 1 984b .T he B e l lB eake rC u l tur eI nI t a ly ,I nJ .G u i la ine ( Ed . ) , Lage Du C u iv re E u ropeen ,C iv i l i s a t ion s AV a se sC ampan i fo rme s ,p p . 1 29 -39 , C .N .R .S . ,P a r i s . BARF IELD ,L .H . ,( f o r thcom ing ) . C ha lco l i th ic B u r ia lR i tua lI nN o r the rn I t a ly .P rob lem sO fI n te rp re ta t ion .C on v egno S u l le P rospe t l ive S t or ico -an t ropo log iche ,I nA rcheo log ia P re is to r ica ,R oma 1 986 . BARF IELD , L. H . , 1 987 . T he I t a l ian D imen s ion o ft h eB eake rP rob lem .B e l lB eake r so ft h e We s te rn Med i te r rane a n Ox fo rd I n te rna t iona lC onf e rence ,I nW .H . Wa ld ren a nd R .C . K enna rd ,B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s B AR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 3 31 ( i ) ,pp .4 99 -524 . F ERNANDEZ ,J . ,P LANTALA MOR MASSANET ,L .a nd T opp ,C . , 1 976 . E xcavac ione se nc lS epu lco r Mega l i t i c od cC aN aC o s ta ,S epa ra ta d c Mayudga , 1 5 .E s tud io sd eP reh is to r ia B a lea r . M in i s ter ior d cE ducac iOn yC ien c i a ,P a lma d c Ma l lo rca ,p p . 1 09 -138 .

2 6 1

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

F ERNANDEZ GO MEZ ,J .a nd TOPP ,C . 1 984 . P reh i s to r ic A c t iv i ty i nt h eP i t iu s sae I s land . T he D eya C onfe r ence o fP reh is to ry . E a r ly S e t t lemen ti nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd t h e ir P e r iphe ra lA rea s ' ,W .H . Wa l d ren ,R .W . C hapman ,J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sB AR I n terna t iona l S er ie s 2 29 , Oxfo rd . v o l .i i ,p p .763 -783 . . .

HARR ISON ,R .J . 1 974 .O r ig in o ft h eB e l lB eake rC u l tu re s . A n t iqu i ty ,L ondon , pp . 9 9 -109 . HARR ISON ,R .J . 1 980 .T he B eake rF o lk ,C oppe rA ge A r chaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope . T hame sa nd Hud son , L ondon . HARR ISON ,R .J . , 1 977 . The B e l lB eake rC u l tu r e so fS pa in a nd P o r tuga l ' ,B u l le t in 3 5 , Ame r ican S choo lo fP re h i s tor ic R e sea rch , H arva rd ,C amb r idge , Ma s s . HARR ISON ,R .J . 1 989 . S pa in a tt h eD awn o fH i s to ry I b e r ian ,P heon ic ian s a nd G reek s . A n t iqu i t ie s L ondon : G ILMAN ,A . , 1 981 .T he D eve lopmen to fS oc ia lS t ra t if ica t ion i nB ron ze Age E u rope ,C ur ren tA n thropo logy 2 2 , p p . 1 69 -224 . LANT ING ,J .N .e t WAALS ,J .D . , VAN DER , 1 976 . B eake rC u l tu re R e la t ion si nt h eL owe rR h ine B a s in . R ep r in t f r om G lockenbecher sympo s ium Ober r ied , pp . 8 0 ,F ig .3 8 . TOPP ,C . , 1 986 . I nc ised v s . B eake r Wa res i nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s . B e l lB eake r s o ft h e We s te rn Med i ter r anean : O x fo rd I n te rna t iona lC onfe rence ,W . H . Wa ld ren a nd R .C . K enna rd ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , B AR i n te r n a t iona lS er ie s3 31 ( i ) ,pp .. 2 67 -282 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 967 .I n fo rme P re lim ina rS ob re A na l i s i s d eR ad ioca rbono e n Ma l lo rca . XC ongre so N ac iona l d eA rqueo log ia . Mahon yZ a rago s sa , pp. 7 5 -82 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 979 . ' AB eake r Wo rk shop A rea i nt h eR ock S he l t e ro fS on Ma tge ,V a i ldemo sa , Ma l lo rca Wo r ld A rchaeo logy , R ou tl e dge a nd K egan P au l ,L ondon , Vo l 1 ,N o . 1 , pp. 4 3 -67 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 982 . B a lea r ic P reh is to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu re : T he E xcava t ion a nd S tudy o fC e r ta in C ave s , R ock S he l te r sa nd S e t t lemen t s ' ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s B AR i n terna t iona lS e r ie s 1 49 ( i ) Append ix 3A , p p . 6 75 -711 . O xfo rd , WALDREN ,W .H . 1 984 . C ha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen ta nd B eake rC onnec t ion si nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s . T he D eya C on f e rence o fP reh is to ry . E a r ly S e t t lemen ti nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd t h e ir P e r iphe ra lA rea s . W .H . Wa ldren ,R .W . C hapman ,J .G . L ew thwa i te a nd R .C . K enna rd ( e d s ) ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR ..

I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 2 29 O x fo rd . v o l .i i , pp.91 1 965 . W ALDREN ,W .H . , CONESA COLL ,J . AND E .A .O SANDERS 1 984 .T he L i th ic I ndu s t ry o ft h eB a lea r ic I s ,

l a nd s . .. i t sO lez ian T rad i t ion o fT abu la rF l in tB lade s .T he D eya C on fe rence o fP reh i s to ry . . Ea r ly S e t t lemen ti n t h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd t h e i rP e r iphe ra lA rea s .W .H . Wa ld ren ,R .W .C hapman ,J .G .L ew thwa i te a nd R .C .K ennard ( ed s ) ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 29 Ox fo rd . v o l . i i , p p .859 -909 . ,

WALDREN ,W .H . 1 986 . B a lea r ic P en tapar t i te D iv i s ion o fP r eh i s to ry . .R ad ioca rbon a nd O the r Age D e te rm ina t ion I nven to r ie s ,B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 82 , Ox fo rd . WALDREN ,W . H . ,1 987 . AR o se b ya ny o the rN ame . .. A Que s t ion o fB a lea r ic B eake r s .. t he E v idence , O xf ord I n t e rna t iona l W e s te rn Med i te r ranean B e l lB eake rC onf e rence ,S t .C a the r ine sC o l lege , Un ive r s i ty o f Ox fo rd . WALDREN ,W . H . , 1 988 . S on Ma s : aN ew Ma l lo rcan P reh is to r ic S anc tua ry ,c i rca 2 000 BC -1750 BC ' ,l i nd D eya C on f e rence o fP reh is to ry . . A rchaeo log ica lT echn ique s ,T echno logy a nd T heo ry , Wa ld ren ,C hapman ,E n senya t a nd K enna rd e d s . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s ,BAR I n terna t iona lS er ie s5 74 , Ox fo rd . WALDREN ,W . H . , ENSENYAT ,J . AND CUB ! ,C . 1 991 .P reh i s to r ic A rchaeo log ica lE lemen t s ,F e r randel -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t , DA MARC 2 0 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rnary R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu s eum , Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,E ng land . WALDREN ,W . H . , 1 991 . Age D e te rm ina t ion ,C h rono logy a nd R ad ioca rbon R eca l ib ra t ion i nt h eB a lea r ic I s l a nd s ,l i nd Deya C on fe rence o fP reh is t o ry . . A rchaeo log ica lT echn ique s ,T echno logy a nd T heo ry , Wa ld ren ,E n s enya ta nd K enna rd e d s .B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona l S ene s ,T empu sR epa ra lum ,S e r ie s 5 74 ,v o l . i i ‚ p p . j4 5 -78 . WALDREN ,W . H . ,E n senya t ,J .a nd C ub ! ,C . 1 991 .P reh is to r ic A rchaeo log ica lE lemen t s ,F e r rande l l -O leza C ha l c o l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t , DA MARC 2 0 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu s e um , Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,E ng land .

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W ILL IA M H . WALDREN

C omp rehen s ive I nven to ry ' , DA MARC 2 6 ,D ona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua t e rnary R e sea rch C en tre ,P i t tR ive r s Mu s eum , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,E ng land . Wa ld ren ,W .H . , 1 992 : E xcava t ion a nd R e sea rch R epo r t 1 992 ,C en t re f o rF ie ld R e sea r ch ,E a r thwa tch DA MARC S e r ie s ,2 7 ,D e ja A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t re , Ma l lo rca p p .1 24 . WALDREN ,W . H . , E SENYAT ,J .A . a nd CUB IC . 1 992 : P r eh i s to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Ma s : E xcava t iona lR e p o r t 1 992 , DA MARC S e r ie s ,2 1 ,D e ja A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t r e , Ma l lo rca a nd Dona ld B a d en -Powe l l Qua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t r e ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum ,O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty ,p p .1 28 . WALDREN .W .H . , E SENYAT ,J .A .a nd CUB IC .1 992 : F e r r ande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t te lemen t : D a t ing t h eA rch i tec tu ra lE lemen ts , DA MARC S e r ie s ,2 3 ,D e ià A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e search C en t re , Ma l lo rca a nd Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Qua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum , Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,p p .1 38 . WALDREN ,W .H . , 1 992 : D e ià A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t re : I t sH is to ry ,A im sa nd A ccomp l i s m en t s , DA MARC S e r ie s ,2 8 ,D e ià A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t re , Ma l lo rca a nd Dona ld B aden P owe l lQ ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum , Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,p p .1 15 . WALDREN ,W .H . , 1 992 :R ad ioca rbon a nd O the rI s o top ic A ge D e te rm ina t ion f r om t h eB a lea r ic I s land s : aC om p rehen s ive I nven to ry ,S pan ish -Eng l ish ,E ng l ish S pan ish e d i t ion s , DA MARC S e r ie s ,2 6 ,D e ja A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t re , Ma l lo rca a nd Dona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rnary R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,p p .1 85 .

2 63

A CASE H ISTORY : FUNCT ION AND OR IG IN OF MALLORCAN CAST LEAD , VOT IVE FUNERARY J E WELRY

W I LL IAM H . WALDREN D ona ld B aden - P owe lQ ua te rna ry R e sea r ch C en t r e , P i t tR i ve r s Mu seum ,U n iv e r s i ty o fO x fo rd , O x fo rd , 0X2 6 PN ,E ng land .

C ARMEN G R IMALT CUB ! D e la A rcha eo log ic a lM u seum R e se a r ch C en t r e D e ja .M a l lo r ca ,B a le a re s ,S p a in .

7

T he c a se h i s to ry p re sen ted i nt h e c ur ren tp ub l ica t ion t a ke s t h i sf une ra ry /mag ica lc oncep ts e ve ra l s t ep sf u r the r i nd emon s t ra t ing t h e ir p robab le r i tua l i mpo r tance , s ome o f t h e d e ta i ls o f manufac tu re a nd d i spe r sa l o f ag roup t h e se l e ad p ec to ra ls f r om a tl e a s to ne c en t re o fd i s t r ibu t i on : t h eP reh i s to r ic S anc tuary o fS on Ma s , V a i ldemo s -

I NTRODUCTION

Diagno s t ic o ft h e l a te rs t age s o ft h eB a lea r ic P o s tT a l a yo t ic I r on Age s ,g eome t r ica l ly d eco ra ted f l a tc a s t ,l e ad p l aque s i n t h e f o rm o fp ec tora ls o rf ibu lae a re u n d oub ted ly t h e mo s t o rna te o b jec t s i n t h e p e r iod ' s a r te f a c t a s semb lage . T hey r ep resen t al a te e x ten s ion i nl o c a l me ta l lurg ica l t e chno logy a nd a r tefac t t ypo logy .

s a( F igu re s 5a nd 6 ) . I n t h is s t udy , e v idence i sd emon s t ra ted w here t h ese f une ra ry o b jec t s , n o rma l ly e ncoun te red i n b u r ia l c on t e x t sc an b ed i rec t ly t r aced f r om amanu f ac tu r ing c en t r e t o t h e ir f i na l f une ra ry d e s t ina t ion i n t wo c e me ter ie s s ome d i s tance a pa r t . T he p re sen t h i s to ry p r e sen t s e v i d ence r a re ly e ncoun te red i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i n t h a t an umbe r o f t he se l e ad f une ra ry p l aques w e re f ound i nt h ree w ide ly s epa ra ted g eog raph ica l a r ea s ( t he

T hey a r e a ccompan ied i n t u rn b y ac ommon u se o f i r on a nd b ronze a r tefac t s a long w i th a ne x ten s ive a va i l a b i l i ty o f i mpor ted c l a ss ica l a r t ic le s i n t h e f o rm o f w hee l -made p o t t t e ry a nd g la ss w a re s . T hey a r er ough ly a cc red i ted t ot h e F i r s tt oT h ird C en tu ry BC a nd a r ea s s oc ia ted w i th q u ick l ime i nhuma t ion s ( s ee t h i s p ub l ic d on ) , w he re t h ey a ppea r a s ' k i l led ' f une rary o f f e r ing s , m ixed w i th t h e h uman l ime c ong lome ra te . O fl o ca l i n v en t ion , c a s t i n o pen -faced o r b i fac ia l s t one mou ld s , t h ey c an b e e xcep t iona l ly e l abo ra te ( F igu re s 1a nd 2 ) ,

t wo c eme te r ie s a nd t h e s anc tuary manu fac tur ing s i te ) a nd t h a t t h e g rea te r n umbe r o f t h ese h ave b een p ro d uced f r om t h es ame mou ld ,h ence t h ep roduc to f as i n g l ec r a f t sman . I na dd i t ion ,t h eo r ig in o ft h e i r manu fac t u re c an b e d emon s t ra ted a s h av ing o ccur red i n a work rh op t h a t w a s p a r t o f ama rke t o r a gora a r ea a d jacen tt oa nd p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th r i tua la c t iv it ie s

j o ined t o ge the ri ns e r ie s ,a nd a r e ,b ya nd l a rge , r em in is c en t o fC e l t ic o r ig in s . T he r eh a sb een o n ly o ne s e r iou ss t udy o ft h e se i nd ige n ou s o b jec t s a nd t h is wa s c ar r ied o u t b y C . E n sef la t

i n t h e S on Ma s s anc tua ry i t se lf . F rom h ere , t h e e xam p le s w e re e ven tua l ly d i s t r ibu ted a nd u sed i n af unera ry c on tex tw i th in t h et wo c eme te r ie s .

E n sef la ti n1 975 .A tt h a tt ime ,s he p ub l ished a ni nven to r yo fk nown e xamp le s o ft h e se l e ad p ec to ra ls o rf i bu lae a nd made a n a t temp t t oc l a ss ify t h em u s ing at ypo log i -

BACKGROUND

c a l s y s tem t h a ti sn ot o oc l ea r . P r io rt ot h a ts i ng le s t udy , t h e se i n te re s t ing a r tefac t s w e re o b jec t s o n ly b r ief ly m en t ioned i ne xcava t iona l r epor t s ( e .g . P .B o sch G im p e ra 1 935 ,J . Ma luque rd e Mo te s 1 947 a nd M .A lmag ro 1 960 ) . A s l a te a s 1 964 , i nve s t iga to r s l i ke M . T a r rade l l ( 1964 ) i d en t if ied t h e ir r o le i nb u r ia l a su nde te rm inab le , a f te r r eco rd ing t h e d i scove ry o f an umbe r o f t h e se p l aque s f r om t h e I r on A ge N ec ropo l is o fS on R ea l . . On t h e b a s i s o fs uch o b se rva t ion a nd r epo r ti na r chaeo log i -

T he s pec ia l h i s to ry o f t h e l e ad p ec to ra l s u nde r r e v iew b egan w i th t h ef i r s td i scove ry o f as e r ie so fl e ad p l aque s f ound i n t h e c on tex t s o fi nhuma t ion s i nq u ick l ime b y o ne o ft h ea u tho r s i nt h eR ock S he l ter o f Mue r to s Ga l l a rd , D e ja Ma l lo rca i n 1 965 (Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . Ano the r c o l lec t ion w a s f ound i n 1 968 u nde r s im i la r c i rcum s t ance sa nd s t ra t ig raph ica l c on tex t s i nt h eR ock S he l te r

c a l c on tex t s , C . E n sef la ti nh e rp ub l ica t ion s ugge s ted a f une ra ry f unc t ion t ot h el e ad p l aque s , a l ong w i th r e cog n i s ing ap o ss ib le mag ica li mpo r tance f o rt h eo b jec t s .

2 64

o fS on Ma tge , V a l ldemo ssa , Ma l lo rca ( Wa ld ren 1 982 ) . B o th c o l lec t ion s w e re s ub sequen t ly s t ud ied , d raw a nd a r ch ived a f t e r p ub l ica t ion . I ts hou ld b e n o ted h e re t h a t b o th r ock s he l te r s i te s a r e s epa ra ted b y ad i s tance o f

W . H . WALDREN a nd C . CUB I GR I MALT

F IGURE 1 .

2 65

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

F IGURE 2 .

2 66

W . H . WALDREN a nd C . CUB I GR IMALT

a bou ta bou t 1 0k i lome te r s . I n 1 990 , a tt h e P reh i s tor ic S anc tua ry o f S on Ma s , a s e r ie s o f l e ad f i nd s , b eg inn ing w i th s eve ra l l a rge l e ad i ngo t s ( we igh ing s eve ra l k i lo s e ach ) a nd s c rap l e ad , w e re made i na na r ea u nde re xcava t ion s ome 5 0 me te r s

s anc tua ry . A l l t h e p iece s s howed i d en t ica l m ea su re men t s a nd c a s t ing f ea tu re s a nd t h ese c ompa r i son s c an

t ot h e s ou thea s to ft h e s anc tua ry a nd a s soc ia ted w i th a b ad ly p re se rved n e two rk o fb u i ld ing f ounda t ion s ( F ig -

d ence w e re u sed f o rd i f f e ren tp u rpo se s ,b u t a l l s how ing a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e s ou thea s te rn q uad ran t s o ft h e s i te s ug g e s t ive o fa n' a go ra 'o r ma rke tp l ace a r ea ( F igu re s 7a nd

u r e s 7a nd 8 ) . I nt h ef o l low ing s ea son s a nd u pt ot h e p r e sen tf u r the r l e ad s c rap i n c lud ing ' mou ld g u t te r ' o r ' s p reu ' p i eces

b es e en i ns ub sequen ti lu s t ra t ion s( F igu re 6 ) . T he p roduc t ive z one s , s t i l l u nde re xcava t ion , s how a s e r ie s o fr oom s o r b u i ld ing s t h a t f r om s uppo r t ing e v i -

8 ) .C e r ta in z one so ft h ea r ea i nq ue s t ion s t i l l c on t inue t o p roduce f u r the rs i gn so fm e ta l lu rg ica l a c t iv i ty i n t h e

A.

MALLORCA

D ISTR IBUT ION OF LEAD P EC T ORALS

IS on Ma s 2Mue r to sG a l la rd 3Ma lge 4S A lova 5SesCop ts 6S on B os c 7D e l s Mo r t s 8C ova Mon ja 9S on R ea l 1 0 S on M a imo 1 S on T a ix aquet 1 2 S on J u l ia 1 3 S on C r es t a

F IGURE 3 .

f o rm o ff i re p i t s , a sh a r ea s , b each c obb le s tone a nv i ls , f l a t , a l ong w i th a n umber o f s ha l low c oncave s t one p ad s ,c obb le h amme r s a nd g r ind s tones w i th o cca s iona l

w e re r e cove red f r om t h e a r ea , a l ong

w i th s e ve ra l' m i sca s t s 'o fa dd i t iona ll e ad p ec to ra l s . D ur ing t h e 1 992 s ea son , t h ef i r s t o f as ub sequen ts e r i e s o f c omp le te o r f i n ished , i d en t ica l ly c a s t l e ad p l aque s w e re f ound . T he p re sen ti nven to ry c on s is t s o f f i ve i d en t ica l e xamp le si ne xce l len tc ond i t ion o fp re se r v a t ion a nd w h ich s ub sequen t ly p roved t ob em ade f r om t h e s ame b i lac ia l s t one o r c l ay mou ld . T he se i d en t ica l

i r on t o o l s . T he p re sence o fe no rmou s q uan t i t ie s o fa n ima l b one o fg oa t , s heep ,p ig a nd c a t t le s p read t h roughou tt h ea r e a s ,t h eo ve rwhe lm ing ma jo r i ty o f wh ich u nde re xam ina t i on a r e y oung a n ima ls , k i l led i ne i the r t h e l a s t h a lf o f

e xamp les w e re l a te rc omp a red b yt h ea u tho r sw i th t h o se f ound a tt h e t wo c eme te ry s i te s o f Mue r to sG a l la rd a nd

t h e f i r s t y ea r o r s econd h a l f o f t h e s econd y ea r . O ve r 8 0% o f t h e a n ima l s a r e r up icap r ines a nd a s im i la r ly

S on Ma tge i n 1 965 a nd 1 968 ,r e spec t ive ly . Much t oo u r s u rp r ise e xamp le sf r om b o th c eme te ry s i te sc ou ld b ee x a c t ly m a tched b y mea su remen t sa nd c a s t ing i d eo sync ra c i e s w i th t h e s e r ie s o fe xamp le s f ound a tt h e S on M a n

h igh p e r cen tage o fy oung a n ima l sa r ef ound a mong t h e p i gr ema in s . Ah igh f r equency o ccu r rence o fy oung a n i ma l sh av ing b een s l augh te red a nd mak ing u p s im i la ro f f e r ing sh a sb een r epo r ted i no t he rs i te s ,s uch a st h eT au -

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l aS anc tua ry o fT o r ra lba d en S a lo r t ( Ho sk in 1 991) i n Meno rca , as i te a l so w i th c ompa rab le c h rono logy . Me ta l wo rk ing ,p a r t icu la r ly t h ec a s t ing o fl e ad f une r a ry p l aque s , i su nu sua l ly w e l l s uppo r ted b y t h ea ppea r a nce o f t h e l a rge , l e ad i ngo t s ,l e ad s c rap , mou ld g u t te r p i ece s a nd s p rews , a l ong w i th m isca s ti t em s a sw e l l a s

a s t h e f une rary s i tua t ion o f t h e c eme te r ie s . T he f a c t t h a t t h ep roduc t ion o ft h e se a r t ic le s i nz one s c l o se t o a r e l ig iou s o rr i tua l a r ea is p ar t icu la r ly r e vea l ing a si ts up p o r t s t h eo r ig in o fs uch p a rapherna l ia . T he f a c t t h a ta t l e a s t t wo o f t h e se l e ad p l aque s a r e i d en t ica l a nd w e re f ound a s soc ia ted w i th q u ick l ime i n huma t ion s e l sewhe re

F IGURE 4 .

f i n i shed p i ece s . S uch s t rong ma te r ia l

a s w e l l a s w e re f ound ' k i l led ' i n t ho se s i tu sa t ion s , c e r -

e v idence l e ave s l i t t le d oub t t h a t t h e P reh i s to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Ma s w a s s ome s o r to fc en t r e o f manufac tu re , h ence d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se e l abo r a te ly d eco ra ted l e ad o b jec t s t o o the r a r ea s o f t h e r e -

t a in ly s t rong ly r e info rce s t h ei d ea o ft h e i rf une rary s i g n if icance . T he e l abo ra te d e s ign s a nd c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e o b j ec t s ,a l ong w i th e v idence o ft h e ir h av ing b een a t tached t oo ne a no the ra nd p robab ly a t tached t oc l o th ing i si n t e re s t ing a nd i n f e r s s ome f o rm o ff une ra ry o rr i tua lj ew e l ry o r e ven s i gn o fs t a tus . o r of i ce . Whe the r o r n o t t h ey w e re s exua l ly d imo rph i lc i nc ha rac t e r - t h a ti sl im i t -

g ion . T he p re sence o fi d en t ica l p laque si na l l t h ree s i te s i r repu tab ly e s tab l i sh af o rm o fi n te rac t ion h av ing e x i s t e d b e tween t h em . T he o ccu r rence i n t h e s hape o f a p roduc ta ppa ren t ly made b y o ne c r af t sman a l ong w i th t h e a ppa ren tu se o f as i ng le mou ld t o manufac tu re t h is s pec if ic i t em f ound i nt h e t h ree s i te s p re sen t s u s w i th a

e dt oo ne s ex o ra no ther -i sn o tk nown .T he f a c th owev e rt h a tt h ey a ppea rt oh ave b een manu fac tu red i nq uan t i t y a nd a va i lab le i nt h e ma rke tp l ace t a ke s s ome ' e dge ' o f f t h e a rgumen t t h a t t h ey w e re a l l t o ge the r e xc lus ive , a l though t h ey may w e l l n one the le ss h ave r ep re sen ted

r a re s t udy o ppo r tun i ty . B a sed o n t h e p hy s ica l e v idence a nd t h e a ppa ren tn a t u re o f t h e o b jec t s i nq ue s t ion , i ti sp robab le t h a t t h e re w a s a l so ar e l ig iou s o r r i tua l s i gn if icance t ot h ep i ece s

s t a tu so r w ea l th , o r h ad s ome o the r u nde te rm ined s pe c i a l r i tua l f unc t ion a nd s i gn if icance . H ow c ommon , o r o the rw i se e a s i ly a va i lab le , t h ey r ea l ly w e re i so ne o ft h e

a nd e ven af une ra ry /mag ica lf unc t ion .T h is i sf u r the rr e i n fo rced b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o b jec t s h ave b een f ound b o th i n t h e c on tex t s o f t h e s anc tua ry r i tua l s i te a s w e l l

q ue s t ion s o pen f o rf u tu re e xcava t ion a nd i n ve s t iga t ion .

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T he q ue s t ion a nd mean ing o f t h e se o b jec t s w i th in t h e c h rono log ica l s equence o ft h el o ca l I r on Age P o s tT a l a yo t ic i ng ene ra l l e ave s al o tf o rc on s ide ra t ion . T he r e c en t e v idence h oweve rg i ve s u s ab e t te ri d ea t h an w e h ave h ad t o d a te o f t h e f unc t ion a nd s i gn if icanceo f t h e se p a r t icu la r ly h and some a r te fac t s . A t t h e s ame t ime a dd ing s ome c o lou r a nd i n te re s t t oa n o the rw ise d rab a nd u na t t rac t ive l o ca lI r on Age a r te fac ta s semb lage .

u se a s l a te a s 2 00AD ) (Wa ld ren 1 989 ; Wa ld ren C ub i a nd E n senya t 1 990 ,1991 , 1 993 ; Wa ld ren a nd V an S t ry d onck 1 994 ) .T he r ei sv ery l i t t le d oub t ,a sd emon s t ra ted b y t h e r e su l t s o f s ome 3 2 r ad ioca rbon a na lyse s , t h a t t h e re i s ac h rono log ica l c on t inu i ty i nt h e s anc tua ry a nd t h a tt h e s i te s e rved a s t h er i tua l / re l ig iou s c en t re f o r t h e

T he c en t ra l i mpo r tance o f t he p re sen t c a se h i s to ry h oweve r l i e s i nt h e f ac t t h a t t h e se p i ece s a nd t h e c on t e x t si n wh ich t h ey w e re f ound e s tab l i sh j u s th ow c l o se l yr e la ted , s oc ia l ly , r e l ig iou s ly a nd e conom ica l ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l s t a t ion s w e re t o o ne a no the r . T h is f ac t o f fe r s u s a dd i t iona le v idence a nd s ome i d ea o fh ow t h e l o ca le conomy w a s s t ruc tu red a nd c a r r ied o u t ,a ss hown b y t h e e v idence o ft h e S on Ma s s anc tua ry h av ing s up p o r ted aw o rk shop a r ea a nd ma rke t p l ace i n t h e z one s a d jacen t t o i t . T he mo re i mmed ia te ly h uman i n te re s t l i e s i nt h e f a c t t h a t t h e l e ad p laque s b y t h em se lve s a r e s o l id e v idence a nd ap l ea s ing e xamp le o fw ha ta ppea r s t ob e as i ng le i nd iv idua l ' s c r ea t iv i ty p re sen ti ns eve ra l a r chaeo log ica l s t a t ion ss epa ra ted b yd i s tance. LOCAT ION OF THE S ITES T he s i te s i nvo lved a r ep ar to f ac ha in o fa r chaeo log ica l s t a t ion s s t re tch ing a l ong a2 5 k i lome te r s ec t ion o f t h e n o r th c oa s to ft h ei s land b e tween t h e Mun ic ipa l i t ie s o f V a l ldemo s sa a nd S o l le r( F igu re 5 ) . T he S on Ma s s anc tua ry i ss i tua ted a tt h ee x t reme e a s t e rn e nd o f aP l iocene a l luv ia lf l a t land k nown l o ca l ly a s t h e P la d e l R e i ( P la in o f t h e K ing ) 4 5 ' N , 6 ° , 6 6 ' ( 3 90,

E ) , n ea r t h e moun ta in v i l lage o f V a l ldemo s sa i n t he Ma l lo rca 's n o r the rn , c oa s ta l J ura s s ic l ime s tone s i e r ra s . T he p l a in o n wh ich t h es anc tua ry i sl o ca ted l i e sa ta na l t i tude o f4 00 me te r s o ve r look ing t h e s ea a nd i st h er e s u l t o f w a te r s hed a nd s o i l e ro s ion . T he f l a t land s a r e p a r to fa ne x t reme ly f e r t i le i n te rmon tane b a s in made u p o f s o i ls wh ich h ave b een e roded d own f r om t h e s u r r ound ing h i l ls a nd moun ta in r ange k nown a s t h e T e ix R ange wh ich e nc lo se t h e e a s te rn a nd s ou the rn s i de s o f t h ea l luv ia l f l a t land . T he r i ch a l luv ia l s o i ls o ft h eb a s in a r e e xp lo i ted t oday b y f ou r ma jo r r e s idenc e -e s ta te s , k nown l o ca l ly a sf i nca s : S on Ma sa nd S on Ma raque s a t t h ee a s te rn e nd o ft h ep l a in a nd S on F e r rande l l a nd S on O leza o n t h e w e s te rn e nd . T he s anc tua ry , a s c an b e

F IGURE 5 . M ap o ft h er e sea rch s i t e s : ( 1 ) P reh is to r ic S anc tu a r yo fS on Ma s , ( 2 ) Ma tge R o ck S he l te r , ( 3 ) Mue r to sG a l la rd R o ck S he l te r , ( 4 ) F e r rande l l -O leza P r eh is to r ic S e t t lemen t C omp lex ,( 5 )C ave o fS o nP u ig a nd ( 6 )C ave o fM u le ta

w ho le g eog raph ica l a r ea T he P reh i s to r ic S anc tuary o fS on Ma s ,w i th i t ss epa r a t e i n ven to ry o f a b so lu te d a t ing s , i so ne o f t h ree s i te s mak ing u p as i ng le c a tchmen ta r ea c ur ren t ly r e fe r red t o a s t h e F er rande l l -O leza - Ma s P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t C omp lex . E ach s i te i nt h e c a tchmen th a s i t s p a r t icu la r d a t ing s e r ie s( Wa ldren a nd V an S t rydonck 1 994 :T ab le s 1 2 ) ‚ wh ich f o rm s ma l le r , i nd iv idua l c a tchmen t a r ea s

s e en o ppo s i te ( F igu re 3 , 1 )i sc en t ra l ly l oca ted i n t h e c l u s t e ro fs i te so na nd a round t h ea luv ia lb a s in. T he S on Ma s P reh is to r ic S anc tua ry h a s b een s t ud ied a nd i t s p a r t icu la r i mpo r tance d i scu ssed e l sewhe re a s h av ing b een t h e a r ea 's r i tua l c en t re f o r ad u ra t ion o f s ome 2 200 y ea r s ( 1936 c a l BC t o2 00 1 3C ,w i th i n c ip ien t

t h a to ve r lap t oc r ea te t h e c hrono log ica l ly c omp lex a nd s pa t ia l ly l a rge rc a tchmen t . I nt u rn , t h i s l a rge r c omp lex

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P REH ISTOR IC S ITES : CATCH MENT AREA OF F FRRA} 4DELL -OL V ALLE M( SA . MALLORCA .B ALEA E SS , SPAIN

f i nca sp re sen t ly e xp lo i t ing t h ep l a in h ave c l o se ly a s so c i a ted p reh is to r ic a rch i tec tu ra l f ea tu re s a nd a c t iv i ty z one s o n t h em , wh ich s t rong ly s uppo r t s ao ccupa t iona l c on t inuum ,o ne t h a ti sn o t t o o d i s s im i la rt ot h e p re sen t d ay e xp lo i ta t ion a nd s e t t lemen t p a t tern o f t h e p l a in . One o ft h ea im s o ft h e c ur ren tr e sea rch h a s b een t ou s d e r s to w ha td eg ree o ccupa t iona lc on t inuum may o rm ay n o tb et r ue . Wh i le t h e re a r e 2 8 r e co rded p reh is to r ic s i tes f ound w i th in a f ou r k i lome te r r ad iu s o f t h e p l a in , mo s t o f t h e se a r ec oncen t ra ted w i th in as t i l l s ma l le rg eog raph ic

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z one , w i th in at wo k i lome te rr ad iu s . I ti st h e s ma l le ro f t h e t wo c a tchmen ta r ea s , made u po ft h eP la d e l R e i a s ap ivo t p o in t , t h a tf o rm s t h e n uc leu s o f t h e l a rge r f ou r k i lome te rc a tchmen t( F igu re s 5a nd 6 ) . T he v a r iou ss i te s w i th in t h i sn uc leu sf o rm as e r ie s o f wha ti sr e f e r red t oa s i nd iv idua l e nv ironmen ta l c a tch men t s t h a th ave p roven o ve rt ime t ob eb o th c on tempo r a ry i nc h ronome t ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . C om b ined , t h ey c an b e s t ud ied a s as i ng le e nv ironmen ta l mode l ;o ne t h a td emon s t ra te s a ni n te r re la ted p reh i s to r ic c on t inu i ty f o rt h ea r ea . T he p re sen tc a se h i s to ry i lu s t r t e st h i sr e a son ing .

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F IGURE 6 .S c hema t ic o ft h es i t ec a t chmen t s h a s b een u sed t o make u pt h en uc leu so f as t i l l mo re e x t e n s ive s i te c a tchmen t a r ea t h a t i n c lude s a nd i n co rpo r a te ss t i l l o t he rs ma l la d jacen ts i te s ( F igu re 6 ) . D iscove red i n 1 987 , t h e S on Ma s P reh is to r ic S anc tu a r y

f o rm s av ery r e cen t a dd it ion o f t h e e xcava t iona l

a nd r e sea rch p rog ramme u nde rway s i nce 1 968 . I tn o t o n ly c omp r ise s t h e i mmed ia te c a tchmen ta r ea o ft h ea l l u v ia l p l a in b u t ,a l so ,a d jacen tp e r iphe ra l a r ea s w i th in a 4k i lome te rr ad iu s ,i n c lud ing t h e F e r rande l l -O leza P re h i s tor ic S e t t lemen t C omp lex ,d i scove red i n1 978 ( Wa lt h en 1 982 a nd 1 986 ) ,a nd t h eR ock S he l te ro fS on Ma t g e , d i scove red i n 1 968 ; r epo r t s o f wh ich h ave i n t h e i n ter im y ea r s b een p ub l i shed i n an umbe ro f a ccoun t s ( Wa ld ren 1 982 , 1 984 , 1 986 a nd 1 987 ) . E xcava t ion sa nd t h ee v idence c o l lec ted t od a te s t rong l ys ugge s t s t h a te xp lo i ta t ion o ft h er i ch a l luv ia l s o i ls o f t h eb a s in a sw e l la s a r ea s a d jacen tt oi tt ook p l ace , p e r h ap s i n as im i la r manne ra s a tp re sen t ,i na nc ien t t ime s f r om a s e a r ly a s t h e T h ird M i l lenn ium a nd f r om e v i d ence i n n ea rby c ave c on tex t s e ven e a r l ie r ( Fou r th t o S ix th M i l lenn ium ) . E ach o f t h e se r e s idence -e s ta te s o r

I n a l l , o n Ma l lo rca o n ly 8 p reh is to r ic s anc tuar ie s a r e k nown . O ft h e se , mo s th ave b een d a ted l a te c h rono log i c a l ly ,c i rca 5 00 BC t o2 00 AD_ a sq uo ted f r om t h ee x i s t ing l i t e ra tu re . T h is h a s b een ma in ly a s se ssed a nd i n t e rp re ted f r om b y t h e w ide r ange o fi mpo r ted c l a ss ica l p o t te ry t o ge the rw i th l a te i nd igenou s w a re s f ound d u r i ng e xcava t ion s o f t h e se s anc tua r ie s . A t t h is p o in t , i t s hou ld b e m en t ioned t h a t s im i la ri mpor ted a nd i nd ige n ou s p o t tery , o bv iou s ly o f t h e s ame c h rono logy , a r e f ound a lmo s ta s ama t te ro fr ou t ine i nt h eu ppe ro ccupa t i ona l a nd a bandonmen t l e ve ls o fn o t o n ly t h e Ma l lo r c an s anc tua r ie sb u t Meno rcan T au la s anc tua r ie sa sw e l l a s a lmo s t e ve ry p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t c on tex t o n b o th i s land s . On t h eb a s is o ft h e i rk nown a ge ,t h e se l a te a r te f ac t s a r e r e l iab le d a t ing ma te r ia ls o n ly f o rl a te o ccupa t i on a nd a bandonmen t c on tex t s i ns uch s i tes , b u t l i t t le e l se a pa r t f r om s ugges t ing t r ade o r ig in s . Mo reove r , s uch ma te r ia l s ,o nt h e ir o wn a nd t a ken a tf a ce v a lue ,a r e h igh ly d ecep t ive a nd d ol i t t le t os peak f o r t h e t r ue a ge o ft h es anc tua r ie s , t h e ir d u ra t ion o fu se ,f unc t ion o r t h e v a r iou s c omme rc ia l a nd t r ade a c t iv i t ie s t h a tt ook p l ace g ene ra l ly t h roughou tt h e i rh i s to ry . T he re h a sb een at e ndency t oe va lua te t h ea ge o f Ma l l o rcan L a te B ronze a nd I r on A ge ( Ta layo t ic a nd P o s t T a layo t ic ) s anc tua ry monumen t s , a s w e l l a s t h e ir Me n o rcan c oun te rpar t s , t ot h e ir l a te o ru l t ima te u se a sr i tu -

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a ls i te s , r a the r t h an t o make a ny a t temp t t od a te t h e i r c on s t ruc t ion o rp recon s t ruc t ion c on tex t s . No rh a s t h e re b een much e fo r ts pen tt od a te t h ea d jacen ts t ruc tu re so r a r ea s a r ound t h e s anc tuar ie s i no rde rt od e te rm ine t h e ir

i e s o f S ' l l lo t ( F rey a nd R o sse l lo B o rdoy 1 966 ) . T he c on sen su s o fo p in ion r ega rd ing t h ea ge o ft h e se e a r l ie s t Ma l lo rcan s anc tua r ie s r ange s f r om t h e V -V I c en tu r ie s BC . T h is p lace s t h em much l a te r t h an t h e i r Meno rc an

t r ue a ge b y a s soc ia t ion a nd i n fe rence a nd ad emon s t ra t i on o fa c t iv i t ie s t h a tp o ss ib ly t ook p l ace i na r ea s a d ja c en tt ot h em. I nt h ep a s t , when e s t ima te so ft h e i rc on s t ruc t ion a nd d u ra t ion o f a ge h ave b een made , s uch a s se s smen t h ave b een a r e la t ive e s t ima te a nd f o r t h e mo s tp a r t ama t te ro fg ue s swo rk .T h is h a s b een e qua l ly t r ue f o ro t he rb u i ld ing s i nt h eB a lea r ic a r ch i tec tu ra l a s -

c oun te rpa r t s , wh ich s ome a u tho r i t ie sb e l ieve a r e a se a r l ya s 1 800 BC ; a l though t h e re i sn o e mp i r ica l e v idenc e wha t soeve r f o r s uch a n t iq i ty f o r c on s truc t ion d a te s o f

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s emb lage . I n t h e c a se o f s anc tuar ie s , t h e re h a s b een v ery l i t t le a t temp tt os t udy o ri n teg ra te t h em i n to ag en e r a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cheme , o the r t h an r ud imen ta r i ly i n r e la t ive t e rm s .F ur the rmo re ,t h e re h a sb een e ven l e s se f f o r tt op l ace t h em i np rope rp e r spec t ive w i th in t h e mo re s pec i f ic s phe re a nd a c t iv i ty o fs oc ia la nd e conom ic c on t e x t s a nd i n te rna l o rgan isa t ion o f t h e s e t t lemen t s t hey

1 5

w e re s o o bv iou s ly a n i n teg ra l a nd i mpo r tan tp a r t . T he p re sen tc a se h i s to ry d emon s t ra te s s uch r e la t ion sh ip s ,i f o n ly d ea l ing w i th t h e l a t te r a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e s i te . O the r s t ud ie s h ave b een e qua l ly c once rned w i th t h e m idd le

1 6

1 4

a nd e a r ly s t age s o fa c t iv i ty , when d ea l ing w i th t h eT a l ayo t ic B ronze Age a nd C oppe rA ge P re ta layo t ic P e r i o ds ( Wa ld ren 1 989 ; Wa ld ren C ub i a nd E n senya t 1 990 ,1991 , 1 993 ; Wa ld ren a nd V an S t rydonck 1 994 ) , . o ne o f t h e m a in a im s a nd l ong t e rm o b jec t ive s o f t h e

1 7

c u r ren ti n ve s t iga t ion s . T he Ma l lo rcan p reh i s to r ic s anc tua r ie s r e ga rded a sb e i ng o fl a te d a te ,b a sed o na na r te fac tt ypo logy o fi nd ige n ou s a nd i mpo r ted c l a s s ica l p o ts he rd e v idence ,a r e t h e

1 8

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S anc tua r ie s o f S on O r r i s ( Ro s se l lo Bo rdoy a nd C amp s 1 971) a nd t h e S anc tua ry G roup o fA lma l lu tx ( Fe rnan d ez -M i randa , E n sena t a nd E n sef l a t 1 971) . Wh i le 5 o f t h e 8k nown Ma l lo rcan s anc tua r ie s d o h ave t h e s ome w ha tg ene ra lh o r se shoe p lan w i th a na p s ida ls haped r e a r

F IGURE 7 .P l an o ft h ew e s t e r n z o ne so ft h e a go ra o rw o rk s h op /ma rk e ta r ea ( 1 8 ,9 m2 q uad r an t s ) ( l3Wl -l8Y3 )

a spec t , c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e Meno rcan T au la s anc tua r i e s , mo s t b ea r l i t t le o the r s im i la r i ty i nc on s t ruc t ion t o t h eT au la s anc tua r ie s o f Meno rca . T h is i sb a s ica l ly b e c au se o f t h e m iss ing c en t ra l T s haped t a u la s t one a nd c oncave f r on ta l a spec t s o i nd ica t ive o f t h e Meno rcan s anc tua r ie s .I nt h ep l ace o ft h eo ne ma ss ive c en t ra lT au l ae l emen t , t h e Ma l lo rcan c oun te rpa r t s h ave 4 o r mo re s ho r t , r ound ish , d rum l ike u n i t s o r c o lumn l ike s t one s p l aced a tc a rd ina lp o in t s w i th in t h ei n te r io ro ft h es anc t u a ry . T he se a r e t h ough tb y s ome i n ve s t iga to r s ( t he a u -

t h e se s anc tua ry s t ruc tu re so ne i the ri s land . F o re xamp le t h eT o r ra lba d en S a lo r t s anc tua ry l i ke t h e c on s t ruc t ion d a te s f o r t h e S on M a n s anc tuay d emon s t ra te r ad ioca r b on a ge so fc i rc s 1 000 BC f o rt h eB ronze Age c on tex t s . E a r l ie r d a te s a re a s soc ia ted w i th P re ta layo t ic c on tex t s o n wh ich t h e l a ter b ronze A ge s t ruc tu re s h ave b een b u i l t . O the r t han t h e ir s im i la r i ty i n f l oo r p l an t o t h e

t h o r s i n c luded ) t oh ave b een u sed a s a l ta r s u pon w h ich t op l ace o f fe r ing s o r t o make s a c r if ice s r a the r t h an a c t -

Ma l te se T emp le s , t o wh ich t h ey h ave o f ten b een c om p a red , t h ey a re n o t a c tua l ly c h rono log ica l ly r e la ted . Howeve r , u n t i l w e h ave mo re e v idence o fc on s t ruc t ion

i n ga sr oo fs uppo r t ing p i l la r s . T ho se c on s idered a se a r l ie rt ype s a r et h eS anc tuary o f S on Ma n ( Gue r re ro Ayu so 1 983 a nd 1 992 ) , S anc tua ry o fS e sA n t igo r s ( Co lom ina s 1 915 -20 )a nd t h eS anc tua n -

d a te s f o r t h e se monumne t s , w e n eed t o r em ind o u r s e lve s t h a tu pu n t i ln ow e s t ima te s a st oa ge h ave r e s ted o nt h er e la t ive d a t ing o ft h em a te r ia ls e ncoun te red w i th i nt h ep rec inc t s o ft h e s anc tua r ie s ( ma te r ia ls r ep re sen t -

2 71

W . H . WALDREN a n d C . CUB ! GR I MALT

F IGURE 9 . A e r ia lv i ew o ft h ec oncave f r on ta nd e n t rance o ft h eS on M a sP r eh is to r ic S anc tua ry . Wh i te marke r s s how t h el o ca t ion o fr a d io ca rbon d a t e sf o rt h i sa r ea o ft h es a nc tua ry

i ng t h e i rl a s tu se a nd n o tp o ss ib le e a r l ie rc on tex t s )o re s t ima te sb a sed o na r ch i tec tura lc ompar i son s f a r the ra f ie ld O n ly u n t i l v e ry r ecen t ly h a s a ny th ing b een d one b y

d u r ing s t i l le a r l ie ro ccupa t ion ,o re ven l a te rr e d is t r ibu t ed b y

mo re me thodo log ica lm ean st od e te rm ine t h et r ue a ge b y

ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY

t h e u se o f a bso lu te d a t ing s t ra teg ie s , s uch a s t ho se r e c en t ly d e sc r ibed i nt h el i t e ra tu re (Wa ld ren a nd V an S t ry d onck 1 994 ) , w he re a c t iv i t ie s h ave b een s hown t o i n c l ude c on tex t s c i rca 2 000 BC . We s hou ld a l so b ea ri nm ind t h a t t h e se monumen t s u n d oub ted ly w e re p e r iod ica l ly c l ea red o u t a nd p u rged o f e a r l ie r d eb r is a nd o the r s i gn s o fp r io r o ccupa t ion i nt h e

a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i ty o u t s ide t h ep r ec inc t so ft h es anc tua r ie s .

Ar e sea rch p ro jec td ea l ing w i th t h er ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd l e ad i s o tope a na lyse si sc u r ren t ly u nde rway i nw h ich a l l o f t h e l e ad f i nd s f r om t h e s anc tua ry a nd b u r ia l c on tex t s a r e b e ing a na ly sed f o rc ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s .T h i si sb e ing c a r -

l ong c our se o ft h e i r h i s to ry . . I n s uch c a se s , l i t t le wou ld r ema in o ft h e se e a r l ie rm a te r ia l s ,a pa r tf r om o ccupa t ion -

r i ed o u ta tt h eI RPA K IK (Komn ld i jk I n s t i tuu tv oo rH e t Kun s tpa t r imon ium ) i n B ru sse ls u nde r t h e d i rec t ion O f Ma rk V an S t rydonck ( s ee t h is p ub l ica t ion ) . L ead o r e s amp les f r om a tl e a s to ne m ine s ou rce a r e a l so

a ld eb r i s o n wh ich l a t te rs t ruc tu re w e re b u i l t ,o rc on tex t s i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e ir b u i ld ing ,o rw a lked i n to t h ef l oo r

u nde rgo ing a na ly s is t od e te rm ine i ft h ef i n i shed p i ece s a r e f r om t h i s s ou rce .T h i s s hou ld a l low u s t oc o r re la te p e rhap s

2 72

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F IGURE 8 . T he ' Ago ra 'o r wo rk shop /ma rke ta rea s ou thea s to ft h e S on Ma sP reh is to r ic S anc tua ry . T he wh i te ma rke r sa re t h eb c t i on o ft h e ma jo rl e ad f i nd sa nd c o r re spond ing r ad ioca rbon s amp le s . T he f ou ri d en t ica l c a s tl e ad ' p ec to ra ls ' a r et ho se t ot h e r i gh t , g rouped i nt wo sa tb o th e nds o ft h el a rge o b long s t one .

2 73

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F IGURE 1 3 . As e lec t ion o fp ec to ra l f i bu lae f r om t h eR ock S he l te ro f Mue r to s -Ga l la rd

2 76

W . H . WALDREN a nd C . CUB I GR I MALT

F IGURE 1 4 .O the r e xamp le si nt h e Mue r to s -Ga l la rd l e ad p l aque a s semb lage o f Mue r to s -Ga l la rd

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F IGURE 1 5 . S on M a s c a l ib ra t ed r a d ioca rbon d a te sf o rt h e l e sd f i nd c on t ex t ss h ow ing s i gma r a nge s .

2 78

B IBL IOGRAPHY & REFERENCF S

ALMAGRO BASCH ,M . 1 960 .L aC u l tura Mega i l t ica O cc iden ta l , Manua ld cl aH is tona U n ive r sa lI , Mad r id ,p p . 6 60 . BOSCH G I MPERA ,P . 1 935 . L e sF ou i l le sd e Ma jo rquee tl aP reh i s to ire d cl i e sB a lea re s ,C omm is s ion I n te rna t iona le p ou rl aP reh is to ire d cl a Med i te r ranée O cc iden ta l , B a rce lona C onf e rence ,p p .33 . COLO M INAS ROCA ,J .1 926 . E lP rob lema d e lV a sd e Dob ie F on sd c Meno rca ,B e l l .A r s .C a t .A n t . E in P reh .4 . p p . 15 -121 . COLO M INAS ROCA ,J .1 915 -20 .H ab i tac io R omana d e is An t ig i r s al e sS a l inae sd eS an tany ,A lEC , B a rce lona , p p . 7 25 . ENSENAT , ENSENAT ,C1 975 .L a sP laque ta sd cP lomo Ma l lo rqu ina s. .S y s tcma t izac ión T ipo lo l ica ,T raba jo sd e l Mu seo d c Ma l lo rca 1 9 , Mayu rqa , 1 4P a lma ,p p . 6 3 -117 F ENN ,W . 1 950 .G rá f ica P reh is tO r ica d cE spaf ia yO i igen d cl aC u l tu re E u ropea , Mahon ,p p . 1 46 . F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA , M . , ENSE I AT / B . ENSERAT , C , 1 971 . E l P ob lado d c A lma l lu tx l e a re s ) , E xc .A rq .e nE spana , 7 3 , Mad r id , F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,M . 1 978 ,S ecucnc ia C u l tura ld cl aP reh i s to r ia d c Ma l lo rca , Mad r id .

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F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,M . 1 979 .T o r r a lba dEn S a lo rd , XV C .A .N . Z a ragoza .GUERRERO ,V . M . 1 99 3 L aC o l on izac ión P i . mn ica d e Ma l lo rca . B a se s A rqueo lóg ica s p a ra s u S i s t ema t izac ión , T e s t s Doc tora l , UNED , Madr id , p p .1 258 -1263 . F REY , H . ,a nd ROSSELLO BORDOY , G . 1 966 . L avan tam ien to P lan imé tnco d c S ' I l lo t( San L o renzo , Ma l lo rca ) , E xacavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica se nE spaf ia 4, Mad r id GUERRERO , V .M . , 1 983 . E l S an tua r io T a layó t ico d c S on Mar l ( Ma l lo rca ) , B o l . S oc . A rq . L u l iana , 3 9 , n . 837 , p . 293 -335 . GUERRERO , V .M . , 1 993a .

Una S oc iedad e nE s tad io d cJ c fa tu ra ( c h ie fdom s ) . L ac u l tu ra t a layó t ica b a lea r ,A c ta s

d ei lrd D e la C onfe rence o fP reh is to ry ( e np ren sa ) GUERRERO , V .M . , 1 993b . F o rmac iónSsoc ia l I nd igena y R e lac ione s C okn ia le s e n l a P ro toh is to r ia B a lea r , G e r ión , ( en p r en sa ) HOSK IN , M . , 1 991 . T au la S anc tua r ie s o f Meno rca , , l i nd D eya C on fe rence o fP reh is to ry . . A rchaeo log ica l T ech .

n i que s ,T echno logy a nd T heo ry , Wa ld ren ,C hapman ,E n senya ta nd K enna rd e d s . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s ,T empu sR epa ra tum ,S e r ie s5 73 ,v o l . i i ‚ p p .217 -236 . MALUQUER DES MOTES ,J .1 947 . L aE dad d e lB ronce d e las I s la sB a lea re s ,e n H is tor ia d eE spaf ia d e Menénde z P ida l , pp . 7 15 -751 . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G .1963 . P reh i s tona yP ro toh is to r ia d c Ma l lo rca , Ob ra C u l tu ra lB a lea r ,C u i ta td c Ma l lo rca , p p .3 5 . ROSSELLO BORDOY , G . a nd CA MPS , J . , 1 971 . L a s E xcavac ione s d c S on Om s ( Ma l lo rca ) 1 969 -1971 , X I I C ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log Ia ,J aen , pp. 3 01 -306 . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . 1 973 .L aC u l tu ra T a layó t ica e n Ma l lo rca .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca TAR .RADELL ,M . 1 964 .L aN ec ropol i sd cS on R ea l yl aI s la d e ls P o r ro s , Ma l lo rca . E scavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica se n E spaf ia ,pp . 1 6 -17 . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . a nd WALDREN ,W . H . 1 990 .

R ad ioca rbon d a t ing o fl ime b u r ia l s . PACT 2 9 , pp . 4 03 -

4 14 . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . , DUPAS ,M . , DAUCHOT -DEHON ,M . , PACH IAUDA ,C .a nd MARECHAL ,J .1 983 . A f u r the rs t ep i nt h er ad iocarbon d a t ing o fo l d mo r ta r s , B u l le t in K . I .K . 1 9 ,p p . 1 55 -171 . VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . , DUPAS ,M . a nd KEPPENS ,E . 1 989 . I s o top ic f r ac t iona t ion o fo xygen a nd c a rbon i n l ime mo r ta ru nde rn a tu ra l e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s ,R ad ioca rbon , 3 1(3 ) , pp. 6 10 -6 18 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 982 . B a lea r ic P reh i s to r ic E co logy a nd C u l tu re : t h ee xcava t ion a nd s t udy o fc e r ta in c ave s ,r ock s he l te r s a nd s e t t lemen t s , B AR i n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 49 ( i ) Append ix 3A , p p .6 75 -711 . O xfo rd . . WALDREN ,W . H . , ENSENYAT ,J . AND CUB 1 ,C . 1 990 -4 . P reh is to r ic A rchaeo log ica lE lemen t s ,F e r rande l l O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t ' , DA MARC 2 0 ,D e la A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a nd R e sea rch C en t r e ,D e la , Ma l -

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W . H . WALDREN a nd C . CUB I G R IMALT

l o rca , S pa in . WALDREN ,W . H . , ENSENYAT ,J . AND CUB 1 ,C . 1 99 1 .P reh is to r ic A rchaeo log ica lE lemen t s ,F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t , DA MARC 2 0 ,D ona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu s eum , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,E ng land . WALDREN ,W . H . , 1 991 . Age D e te rm ina t ion ,C h rono logy a nd R ad ioca rbon R eca l ib ra t ion i nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s , l i nd D eya C on fe rence o fP reh is to ry . . .A rchaeo log ica lT echn ique s ,T echno logy a nd T heo ry , Wa ld r en ,E n senya t a nd K enna rd e d s .B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s ,T emp z z sR epara tum ,S e r ie s5 74 , v o l . i i ‚ p p . j4 5 -78 . WALDREN ,W . H . , 1 99 1 . ' S on Ma s : aN ew Ma l lo rcan P reh i s to r ic S anc tua ry ,c i rca 2 000 BC -1750 BC ' .l i nd D eya C on f e rence o fP reh i st o ry . .. Archaeo log ica lT echn iques ,T echno logy a nd T heo ry , Wa ld ren ,C hapman ,E n senya t a nd K enna rd e d s . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s ,T empu sR epara sum ,S e r ie s 5 73 , v o l . i ‚ p p .267 -312 . WALDREN ,W . H . , ENSENYAT ,J . AND CUB 1 ,C . 1 992 . P reh is to r ic A rchaeo log ica lE lemen t s ,F e r rande l l -O leza C ha lco l i th ic O ld S e t t lemen t ' , DA MARC 2 1 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Qua te rna ry R e search C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu s eum , Ox fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,E ng land . . WALDREN ,W .H . , ENSENYAT ,J . AND CUB 1 ,C . 1 990 ,1991 , 1 993 . P reh i s to r ic S anc tuary o fS on Ma s the A c t i v i ty S equence so ft h eS anc tua ry , DA MARC 2 3 ,D ona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rnary R e sea rch C en t r e ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,E ng land . WALDREN ,W .H . , 1 992 . ' Rad ioca rbon a nd O the rI s o top ic A ge D e te rm ina t ion sf r om t h eB a lea r ic I s land s : aC om p r ehen s ive I nven to ry ' , DA MARC 2 6 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P in R ive r s Mu seum , O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty ,E ng landW ALDREN ,W .H . , VAN STRYDONCK ,M . 1 994 . ' F enande l l -O leza P reh i s to r ic S e t t lemen tC omp lex , Younge r S e t t lemen t ,T a layo t 1 ,D a t ing t h eA c t iv i ty S equence so ft h eS t ruc tu re : aR ad ioca rbon Ana ly se s S u rvey ' , DA MARC 2 2 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rnary R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum ,O x fo rd Un ive r s i ty ,E ng land WALDREN ,W . H . , VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . 1 992 . P reh i s to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Ma s :aR ad ioca rbon Ana ly se s S u rvey , D a t ing t h eA c t iv i ty S equence so ft h eS anc tua ry , DA MARC 2 4 , Dona ld B aden -Powe l l Q ua te rna ry R e s ea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum ,O x fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,E ng land WALDREN ,W .H . , VAN S TRYDONCK ,M . 1 993 . P reh is to r ic S anc tua ry o fS on Ma s : aR ad ioca rbon A na ly se s S u rvey , D a t ing t h eA c t iv i ty S equence so ft h eS anc tua ry ,E ng l ish !S pan i sh E d i t ion ,C a rmen C ub iG r ima l t : E ng l i sh T ran s la t ion , DA MARC 2 4 , Don a ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rna ry R e sea rch C en t re ,P i t tR ive r s Mu seum , Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty ,E ng land .

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E STUD IO DE COMPLFJOS FUNERAR IOS : RECONSTRUCC ION DE LOS PATRONES DE D IETA HU MANA Y DE LOS R ITOS FUNERAR IOS A TRAVES DE LOS ANA US IS PALEOETNOBOTAN ICOS Y FUNC IONALES DE LOS OBJETOS L IT ICOS .

MANUEL CALVO

ROSA MARIA ALBERT

B eca r i F o rmac ió I n ve s t igado r sd cl a G en e r a l i ta td eC a ta lunya D ep t .P reh i s tà r ia lF a c .Geog r a f ia iH i s töna U n ive r s i ta td eB a r ce lona B a rce lona ,E sp aña

f ORD ! JUAN

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XAV iER MANGADO J AUME ENR IC ZA MORA

S em ina r id E s tud is iR e ce rqu e sP r eh i s tà r ique s D ep t .P reh i s tàna iFa c .Geog r a f ia IH i s tör ia U n ive r s i ta td cB a r ce lona B a r ce lona ,E sp a i la

mtodos a c ua lqu icr p er Iodo c rono lOg ico , y e spcc If icamen te d c s u a p i icac iOn a L a i n te rp re tac ión a rqueo iOg ica d cl o sc omp le jo sf une ra r io s .

RESU MEN

Lad i f icu l tad d ee s tud ia rl o s d i feren tes a pec to s l i gado s

E s te e s tud io s ec en t ra rá e n l ar e con s t rucc iOn d c l o s p a t ronc s d c d i c ta h umana y r i to s f une rar io s at r avd s d c l o sa ná L i s i s p a leoe tnobo tán ico s ( f i to log ia ya n t raco log ia )

a tr i tua l f une ra r io h ace q ue e xp lo temo s a tm áx imo t o da s l ap os ib i l idade s q ue n o s p ueden o f rece r l o s d i fe ren te s mé todo s d e a ná l is is . E n e s te a r t Icu lo s e e xponen l a d i fe ren te s p o s ib i l idade s d c a ná l is i s d e l r i tua l f une rar io q ue o f recen L aA n t roco tog Ia , l o s a ná l is i s F i to lóg ico s y

ya ná l i s i sf unc iona le sd cl o so b je to sl I t . ico s . Med ian te e s te t r aba jo i n tcn ta rcmo s p rc scn ta r u na a p roxunac iOn a tc onoc im ien to s ob re L ad i c ta v ege ta l d c l a s p ob lac ione s , a s i c omo e ie n to mb p a leoamb ien ta l d c l a s m i sma s . Y u na a p rox i mac iOn a t mundo f une rar io ,

l o s a nM is is F i imcona le sd el ai ndu s t r ia l I t ica .

u so s yc o s tu inb re s . L ar c a i izac ión d cp rác t ica sf une ra r ia sp o rp ar te d cl o s

l . INTRODUCC ION E n á l t ima s d écada s s eh a p roduc ido e n A rqueo log Ia t oda u na s e r ie d c i nnovac ione s yp ropue s ta s q ue h an d ado l uga r au na s uce s ión d c c amb io s me todo lóg ico s y c oncep tua le s E li n ic io d ct o do se s to s c amb io ss ed eben a lh echo d c

h omb re s ,e su no d cl o se l cmcn to sm á sd e f im to r io sd cl a s s oc icdade s h umana s . P odemo s s i tua r l o s p r ime ro s p receden te s e n c lP a leo l I t ico Med io yl ag enc ra l izac iOn d c do s ap a r t i rd e l P a ieo l I t ico S upe r io r , c a rac te r izado s p o ru na c r ec ien tc c omp le j idad . E l e s tud io d e l mundo

q ue e n c l momen to d c e s tud ia r l o s y ac im ien to s p reh i s tó r ico s n o s e ncon t ramo s c on t oda u na s e r ie d c

f unerar io

s upone

c l

c n f ren ta rno s au na s e r ie d c p rob iema s q ue d c f o rma g ene ra l izada p odemo sd i v id ir e n 4g r ande s g rupo s ,e s to s

p rob Lema s q ue n o p odemo s s o luc iona r , c omo s on l o s e sca so s d a to s q ue n o s p ueden d a r i n fo rmac ión s ob re a spec to sc u l tu ra le s ,e conóm ico s 0s oc ia le s ,e t c . E l e sfuerzo p o r s upe ra r t odo s e s to s p rob tema s c ondu jo al ab ü squeda d c t o da u na S e r ie d c mé todo s y t é cn ica s p roceden tes d c o t ra s d i sc ip l ina s c i en t i f ica s ( bo tán ica ,g eo log ia ,b io log Ia ,a n t ropo log la , . . . ) . C omo c on secuenc ia d c e s ta i n te rd isc ip t inar iedad s e p roduce u na n ueva c oncepc ión y v i s ion e n e i c ampo

s on : 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

P l an team ien to st e o r ico s D ive r s idad d ce s ca la sd ca na l i s i s A l te rac ione sp o s t -depo s ic iona le s P rob lema sd cm te rp rc tac ion

V amo s av e r c ada u no d c e s to s p un to s u n p oco ma s d c ta l ladamen tc ; 1 )P l an team ien to st e o r ico s : L o s a ná L i s is d cl ac u l tu ra ma te r ia l r c Lac ionada ae s to s

a rqueo iOg ico ,é s ta s er e a l iza ad o sm ve le s : an i ve l p rác t ico s upone u n n ucvo p l an team ien to e n L a me todo log Ia d c L a e xcavac ión , yu na c on s igu ien te

c omp le jo s f une ra r io s , ys u p o s ib le i n terp re tac iOn d c c a rác ter s imbö l ico r e l ig io so h a s i do c l c ampo d c r e f lex iOn d c L a l i amada " A rqueo log Ia d c L a Mue r te " ,

e spec ia l izac ión d c l o s i nve s t igado re s e n l o s d i fe ren te s c ampo s . a mve l t e Or ico L a s upe rac ión d c p i an team ien to s mera inen te d escr ip t ivos a menudo d emas iado

r ama d c l a A rqueo log Ia n ac ida e n l a d écada d c l o s s e sen ta d c L a mano d c L a r enovac iOn mc todo log ica y c oncep tua l q ue s upu so L ac o r r ien te t e O r ica d cL a" Nueva A rquco tog Ia " . E s ta c o r r ien te p L an tcO L ap o s ib i l idad d c

s ub je t ivo s . Nue s t ra p ropue s ta p a r te d c l a e x ten s iOn d c e s to s

L l ega ra tc onoc im icn to d cL ae s t ruc tu ra so c ia l ap a r t i rd e l

2 8 1

MANUEL C ALVO e ta l .

e s tud io d e l mundo f une rar io . Y a q ue l o c on s ide raban c omo u n c onden sado r d c c onduc ta s s oc ia le s a l tamen te

t c r r i to r io d cl o s monumen to s m ega l i t ico s d c l af a chada a t lan t ica e u ropea , e n q ue L a i mp lan tac ión d c l a a gr icu l tu ra y l a g anade r ia s e a soc ia a e s te f enómeno c on s t ruc t ivo .

s i gn if ica t iva s . L o s d i ve r so s t i po s d e r e spue s ta s oc ia l p o r p a r te d e l g rupo a n te l a mue r te d c u no d c s u s m iemb ro s e s ta f ue r temen te v incu lada ad o s f a c to re s : p o r u n l a do l o s d i s t in to s r o le s s oc ia le s d esempenado s p o re li nd iv iduo e n v ida , d e e s tos r o les e i g rupo e scoge c l wa s s i gmf ica t ivo (W i l lems , 1 978 ) . P or o t ro l ado , l a c ompo s ic ión yc omp le j idad d e l p rop io g rupo . A s ip ue s ,

D en t ro d e l m ismo a ná l is i s mac roespac ia l d ebe c va lua rse t amb icn l a u b icac ión d c l o s p rop io s c omp le jo s f unera r io s , a s i e n s oc icdade s c on u n a l to g rado d c c xp lo tac ión d c l o s r e cu r so s a gr ico la s s e rán s c iecc ionadas p ara e i e n ter ram ie n to ‚ la s a rea s e conóm icamen tc meno s p roduc t iva s , d e l m ismo modo , e n s oc iedade s c on u na i mpo r tanc ia e conóm ica d c l a g anade r ia t r an shuman te s s c rán l a s n ec ropo l i s s i tuada s

l a s d i f e renc ia s s oc ia le s e ncon t rada s e n u na n ec rópo l i s r ep resen ta ra e n g ran m ed ida l av ar iab i l idad s oc ia l d e l g rupo . ( Chapa , 1 990 ) . L a p r inc ipa l c r i t ica a e s ta p ropo s ic ión p a r te d c l a e scue la P o s t -p roce sua l e ncabezada p o r I .Hodde r . E s ta

e n c e r ro s ya r ea s n a tu ra le s d c p a so , l ap r inc ipa l f o rma d c a s egu ra rc lc on t ro l s ob re l o sr e cu r so s v i ta le s p a ra l a s upe rv ivcnc ia d e lc ue rpo s o c ia l . b ) Me so e s ca la :

c r I t ica s ec en t ra e n q ue e ip r inc ip io a n te s menc ionado s upone u na s imp l if icac ión e xces iva e n tre L a i n te rp re tac ión s imbo l ica -re l ig io sa d e l mundo f une ra r io

L a Meso e sca la d ebe rá a na l izar l a s r e lac ione s c s tab lec ida s d en t ro d cl a s a r ea s d ce n te r ram ien to e ns i ,

ys ur e lac ión c on c l mundo d cl o sv i vo s . P ara H odde r ( 1982 ) , a s I c omo p a ra S hnak s yT hey ( 1982 ) e sl ai d eo log ia l aq ue d e te rm ina e il e ngua je d c e xp res ión d e l ámb i to f une ra r io , e s d ec ir , e s e ii d ea l d c o rdenac ión d c l a s oc iedad , d ef end ido p o r p a r te d e l s ec to rd om inan te p a ra l al e g i t im izac ión d cs u si n te re se s , q u ien d e term ina y c ond ic iona l a e xpre s ión d e l f enómeno f une ra r io . E s ta c r I t ica s e s upe ra med ian te u na p rofund izac iön t a n to d c l a s p ropue s ta s t e ó r ica s c omo d c l o s s i s tcma s a na l I t ico s q ue n o s p e rm i t irán c on s ta ta r u na r e lac ión e n t re e ic ue rpo s oc ia l ys u mundo f une ra r io . 2 )D ive r s idad d ce s ca la sd ca nà l i s i s : E l p oder c on s ta ta r L a r e lac ión e n t re c l mundo f une ra r io yl as oc iedad n oe su na t a rea n ada fäcil p a ra c l a rqueo logo , d eb ido a l a p a rquedad d c v es t ig ios g enera imen te c on se rvado s y al a r e lac ión e n t re e i m ime ro r e a l d c i nd iv iduo s q ue h an v iv ido y l o s t em to r io s o cupado s . A s I p a ra e mpeza r , s et hn ece sar ia l ao b se rva c ión d ct o da sl a sr e lac ione se s tab lec ida se n t re l o s i nd iv iduos d c u na c omun idad y c l e spac io g eog rá f ico d ondc d e sa r ro l la ron s u s a c t iv idade s . D icho a ná l is i st e r r i to r ia ld ebe r c a i iza r sc at r e sn i vc ic s : a ) Mac ro e sca la : No s p od rá d a r i n fo rmac ión p o r u na p a r te , s ob re l a c ap tac ion d c r ecu r so s d c u na c omun idad y p o r o t ra , s ob re s u s r e lac ione s d c v ec indad c on o t ro s p o s ib le s g rupo s . A s Ip odemo s o b se rva rc omo l ad i s t r ibuc ión d c

a s i c omo l o s d i s t in to s t i po s d c t umba s e x is ten tes e nt i n m ismo c omp le jo f unera r io , d i s t in to s r i tua le s , s u c onv ivenc ia s i nc rón ica on oe nt i nm ismo c omp le jo ys u d i s t i ibuc ion c spac ia l . E l a ná l is i s d c e s to s d i fe ren tcs e l emen tos p ucde d e term ina r d i st in tas c a tcgo r ia s s oc ia le s e n t re l o s i nhumado s d en t ro d c u na m isma n ec ropo l is ,d e l m ismo modo , u na r eu t i l itzac ion s uces iva d e l c omp le jo f une ra r io p uedc p erm i t ir e s tab lece r u na e vo luc ión t i po log ica ,t a n to amve l d c t umba s c omo d ct r ad ic ione s f une ra r ia s , h echo q ue p ucde s e rc lr e su l tado o b i cn , d c l ai l egada d c n uevos g rupo s p ob lac iona le s aa r ea s y a o cupada s ob i en d e l c amb io d cl ai d eo log ia d ci mg rupo d cp odc rp o ro t ro . c )l aM ic ro e sca la : L a e sca la m icroespac ia l , s e c if le a l a s p ar t icu la r idade s d c c ada t umba e n s i , yt i ene c omo p r inc ipa l i n tc ré s e i a ná l is i s d c l ac ompo s ic ión d c l o s a j ua re s yo b serva r a s i s u e vo luc ión e n c lt i empo y L a r e iac ión e n t re l o s d i s t in to se l emen to sq ue l oc on l igu r an . D c e s ta mane ra s e p uedcn e s tab lcce r l a s d i s t in t ia s c a tcgo r ia s d ci nhumado s ( homb re s , mu je re , müo s ) ys u r ango d en t ro d e lc ue rpo s oc ia l . P or o t ro l ado , c uando e i r i tua l l o p e rm i te ( i nhumac ion ) ,c la ná l is is d cl o sp rop io s r c s to sh umano s p uede p e rm i t irno s e s tab lccc r l a s p a icopa to log ia s má s s i gn if ica t iva s p ara c ada g rupo p ob lac iona l , e n f unc ión d cs u sa c t iv idade s ,d ic ta ,e t c .

l a s a r ea s d c e n tcr ran i icn to o d c c i c r to s monumen to s f une ra r io s ( e s te la s ,m cga l i to s ,e t c . )d e l im i tan c le spac io t e r r i to r ia l d c t i n g rupo . E n d onde L ae xp lo tac ión d c l o s r ecu r so s n a tu ra les s e l eg i t ima p o r l a a ius iön a l o s

F ina lmen te d en t ro d c e s ta e sca la e i a rqueó logo e ncucn t ra c lm a rco d c a ná l is is i dónco p a ra o b se rva r l a

a n tepa sado s mue r to s q ue y a l ao cupa ron . E s to s ucede p or e j cmp lo c on l a s i tuac ion d om inan te s ob re e i

c adave re s ( descarnac iones ) , n tua lcs p os t -mo r tem ( b anque tc sf une ra r io s ,o f rcnda s ) .

r e iac ión d i rec ta d c l o s v ivo s c on s u s d i fun to s : p reparac iön d c l a s s epu l tu ra s , a c tuac ión s ob re l o s

2 82

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

E s e n e s te mve l d c m ic roe sca la d onde s i tuamo s l o s m é todo sd ea ná l i s is q ue e xpond remo s ac on t inuac ión . 3 )A l t e rac ione sp o s t -depo s ic iona le s : L a c omp le j idad d e l mundo f une ra r io n o s o lo s e r educe al av ar iab i l idad d cl ae s ca la d ca ná l i s is al aq ue d ebe e n f ren tar se e i a rqueo logo q ue p re tende a b roda r e s te t ema ,s mo q ue l a sa l te rac ione s p o s t -depo s ic iona le s

e scapan e n l a mayo r ia d c l o s c a so s . S o lo l a s p r ác t ica s f unc ra r ia sr e lac ionada sc on e ic on t ro l s ob re m it em to r io p roduc t ivo ,p a recen t e ne ru na e v iden te f unc ión p r ác t ica . L a c omp le j idad d e l mundo f unerar io s e o b sc rva t amb ién e n l o s c amb io s q ue s e d an e n L o s a spec to s f o rma le s a dyacen te s a !r i tua l . E s to s s e r e lac ionan c on

s on o t ro a spec to ac on s ide ra r . L os p rob lema s d c a l terac ion p o s t -depos ic iona l p ueden d ebe r se b á s icamcn te al i e sf a c to re sp r inc ipa le s :

e i emcn tos c omo l a t r ad ic ión , c l p re s t ig io s oc ia l o e conom ico y s e r e f le jan e n L a a par ic ión d c d i s t in to s t i po s d c e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tec tomca s , d i st in ta s m anc ra s d c o rgan izac ion d c l o s e n tcr rados , d i fe renc ias d c

E np r ime rl uga r ,l o s f enómeno s d c I n do le g co lóg ico , c omo s on l o s r i tmo s e s tac iona le s d c h i e lo /de sh ie io , L a n a tu ra leza q u Im ica d e l p rop io s ue lo , q ue p uede c on i leva r L at o ta l d e sapar ic ion d e l o s r e s to s o rgan ico s

c an t idad yc a l idad d cl o sa j ua re s ,e t c . An te l a d i f icu l tad q ue s upone p ara e i i nve s t igado r u na b uena a p rox imac ión a lc a mpo d c L a a rquco log Ia f une ra r ia ,t odo sl o se s fuer zo ss on p oco sp ara o b tene rd c

s epu l tado s ,e t c . E ns egundo l u ga r ,l o sf enómcno sd co r igcn b io lóg ico q ue p ueden s e r d c n a tu ra ieza v a r iab le : d esde e i d esman te lam ien to d cc s truc tura s d eb ido al av ege tac ión

e i máx imo d ci n fo rmac ión . d i f Ic i i c onoce r e ii cngua je c on l o s r i to s mo r tuo r io s , n ive i d c c onoc im ien to

h a s ta l aa c tuac ión d c u n v a r iado n ümc ro d c e spec ie s a n ima lc s q ue p ueden a c tua r s ob re l o s s cd imcn to s (

ma te r ia le s q ue s ip ueden s e r s u scep t ib le s d c a ná l is is

g u sano s , a n ima le s e scavado re s ) , os ob re l o s p rop io s r e s to si n humado s( c a rn ivo ro s ,c a r ronc ro s ) . E n t c rce r l uga r , l o s f enómeno s d c o r igen a n t róp ico , y a s e a d u ran te c l p e r iodo d c o cupac ión d c c ueva s y a b r igo s , c on tempo raneamen te u t i l izado s c omo l uga re s d c e n te r ram ien to y h ab i ta t , oc on p o s te r io r idad e n c l t i cmpo ( r cu t i i izac iones s uces iva s d c mcga i i to s , v io lac iones d c t umba s , e xcavac ionc s f ur t ivas , d e sman te lanuen to d c monumen to s f une ra r io s p a ra s u r cu t i i izac ión , t r aba jo s a g r Ico la s od c c on s t rucc ión d c i n f rae s t ruc tu ra sa c tua le se t c ) .

a rqu eo log ico . E s e s ta v o lun tad d c p ro fund iza r c l e s tud io d c l o s c omp le jo s f une ra r io s l oq ue n o s h ai l evado ap r e sen ta r l o s m é todo s q ue ac on t inuac ión d e sar ro l laremo s . E s to s , s ib i en p rov ienen d co t ra s d i sc ip ima s c i en t If ica s , t i enen p o s ib i l idades d c a p l icac ión e n c l c ampo d c l a a rqueo log Ia d cL a mue r te . D o s s on l o s t i po s d cm é todo s q ue v amo s ap re scn ta r , c lp r ime r t i po a g rupa d i sc ip l ina s r e lac ionada s c on c l mundo d c L a p a leoe tnobo tan ica , m ien t ra s q ue c l s egundo g rupo r e ime d i f en tc s a nl is i s f unc iona le s d cl a mdu s t r ia l I t ica .

4 )P rob lema sd ci n te rp r e tac ión . E l c ua r to y u 1 t imo a spec to q ue p l an teábamo s e r ae l d cl o sp rob lema sd ci n te rp rc tac ión . L o s p rop io s a spec to s l i gados a l mundo f une ra r io o f recen e n s im ismo s u na g ran v ar iab i l idad , q ue n o f a c i l i ta e n L a mayona d c l o s c a so s u na i n tc rp re tac ión c l a ra . A s i , s e d cbe t e ne r e n c uen ta e n p r ime r l uga r , L a i nnacce s ib i l idad d i rec ta al ai d eo log Ia d om inan te q ue d i r ig ió L aa c tuac ión d c l o s d i s t in to s g rupo s h umano s a n te e if e nómeno f une ra r io . E s ta i n acce s ibi idad a l ec ta , n o s o lo a n ive l d iacrón ico s ino t amb ien s i nc rón icamen te ,y aq ue n oe se x t raf lo e ncon t ra rno s e n u na m i sma c omun idad , u na c onv ivcnc ia d cr i to s ,c omo p o re j emp lo o cu r re e nl o sc ampo sd cu rna sa n t iguo sd e l v a l le d e l S egre , e n d onde s e d ocumen ta n tua le s d c i nc inerac ión e i nhumac iOn c on tamporáneos

Y aq ue s ib i en n o s s e rá muy s imbó l ico q ue s ee xp re saba d ebemo s i l egar a l m ax imo p os ib le e n l o s a spec tos

2 . - ANAL IS IS PALEOE T hOBOTAN ICOS 2 . 1 . ANTRACOLOG IA L a a n t raco log la s e b a sa e n c le s tud io a na tóm ico d c l a made ra c ombu s t ionada , e sd ec ir , d c l o s c a rbonbe s q ue a pa recen e n l o s mve lc s a r queo lóg ico s man ipu lado sp o r e ih omb re e ne ip a sado . C on l a i den t if icac ión d c l a s e spec ie s v ege ta le s a t r avés d c u n m ic roscop io ó p t ico d c r e f lex ion , c on t ra s tada c on u na c o lecc iOn d cr e fe renc ia d c made ra s c ombu s l ionada s a c tua le s , l aa n t raco log ia p oe r s igue u n d ob le i n te ré s : por u n l ado , p a ieoeco lOg icamen te , b u sca L a r e con s t rucc ión d cl av ege tac ion yap a r t i rd ca h io b t ene r i n fonnac ión s ob re c lc l ima . Ambo s a spec to s d c g ran i n te ré s e n L a P reh is to r ia , p a ra f o rmu la r s I n tes is r eg iona le sd cl ae vo iuc iOn d e lp a isa jc . po r o t ro l ado , p a leoc tnobo tán icamen te , p c i -m i te v e r l a s r e lac iones h omb re -med io , e s d ec ir , l a a cc ión

( Maya ,1 978 ) . P o to t ra p ar te ,l ap rop ia v a r iac ión e nL af i na l idad q ue s e c scondc t r a s l a s a c tuac ioncs f une rar ia s ( p rc s t ig io s oc ia l , h ig iene , s imbo l ico -re l ig iosa s , e t c ) s e n o s

a n t róp ica s ob re L av ege tac iOn .

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MANUEL C ALVO e ia l .

Un h echo ad e s taca r d e l c a rbon e s s u c ompo s ic iOn q ue p o s ib i l i ta u na b uena c onse rvac iOn c on e ip a so d e l t i empo , t an to s i e s tá d i spe ra sdo e n e i s ed imen to a rqueo lOg ico c omo S i e s tA a soc iado a u na e s t ruc tu ra ( hoga r , h omo s , e n te r ram ien to s , s ue lo s d e i n cend io ) d e l y ac im ien to . E l c a rbOn v ege ta l ,p uede p o rt a n to c onve r t ir se e nu n e l emen to i mpo r tan te c uando a pa rece r e lac ionado c on e i r i tua lf une ra r io . S ui d en t if icac iOn n o s i n Io rma rá d eq ue made ra s e r an f r u to d cl as e iecc iOn d e l h omb re yd eq ue mane ra e s ta s s e p od ian r e lac iona r e co lOg icamen te c on e ie n to rno . a que l la s made ra sc on e ir i tua lf une ra r io . 2 . 2 . ANA US IS F ITOUTOLOG ICOS 2 . 2 .1 . -l n t roducc ión . L os a ná l is is d e f i to l i to s s e i n teg ran d en t ro d e l a a rqueobo tán ica , p re sen t ndo se c omo u na t é cn ica e f icaz p ara l ar e con s t rucc iOn h i s tO r ica d e l p a isa je yc omo u n n uevo i n s trumen to d c l a p a leoe tnobo tán ica p a ra c onoce rq ué p l an ta sh an s i do u t i l izada s p o re ih omb re y c on q ué f i na l idad . L os f i to l i tos s on m ic roes truc tu ra s v ege ta les d c c ompo s ic iOn m ine ra l yq ue p ucden c l a s if ica r se e n d o s g rupo s : f i to l i to sd cO pa lo os i icof i to l i to s yd cc a lc i ta . L o s f i to l i to s d c O pa lo ( S i02 . 5 -15% 120 ) s on c ue rpo s s i l iceo s q ue s e f o rman e n c i e r tos v ege ta le s ( Poaceae o G ram inea s , C ype raceae , E qu ise taceae . . )a p ar t i r d e l á c ido s i l Ic ico p re sen te e n l a s o luc iOn d e l s ue lo . E s te á c ido e s a b so rb ido p o r l a s r ake s d c l a p l an ta . E l p roce so d c s i ic iicac ión e sc on t inuo d u ran te e ic r ec im ien to d c l ap l an ta , c uando l ap l an ta mue re l o s f i to l i to s q uedan l i be rado s p ermancc iendo e n e il uga r d ondc e s taba l a p l an ta . L a s i l ic if icac iOn s e p roduce e spec ia lmen te p o r mode iado d c l o s e spac ios i n te rce lu lare s , p o r d epo s ic iOn i n t race lu ia r o p or f o rmac ión d c u na memb rana e x t racc iu la r ( Ande r son 1 984 -85 ,R ovne r 1 971 ,P ipe rno 1 988 ) . L a s i l ice v ar ia d c u n O rgano ao t ro , c onccn t rándo se e nl a sc d lu la s e p idé rm ica s . E nl ap l an ta p uede f unc iona r c omo c ndoesquc ic to e s t ruc tura l , f avo rcc iendo e i d csa r ro l lo y /o l ap roduc t iv idad , e v i tando l af l ac idez y a c tuando c omo d c fen sa c on t ra l o s a t aque s d c h ongo s , i n sec to s yc nfe rmedadc s ( Rovne r 1 988 ) . L a s v en ta ja s q ue n o s o f recen e s te t i po d cf i to l i to s e s s u p roducc ión e n g ran n r imero , d u rab i l idad e n

p o s te r io r t r an sfo rmac iOn e n c a lc i ta p o r i m p roce so d c c ombu s t iOn ( Broch ie r 1 983 ) . L a f orma o r ig ina r ia d e l c r is ta l d c o xa la to s e c on serva , c amb iando ü n icamcn te s u n a tu ra leza q u lm ica , o b servándo sc c i c r ta s f o rma s c a rac tc r I s t ica s d c d e term inado s g éne ro s ( Broch ic r 1 983 ; Hoya s e t a l . 1 990 ;J uan 1 993 ) . E s ta s c e lu las d cbcn f unc iona r c omo i m med io d c e l im ina rc lo xa la to q ue p uede a cumu la r se e nc an t idadc s t Ox ica s , d ado q ue e i c r is ta l d c o xa la to c á lc ico e s c on s ide rado u n p roduc to f i na l n o u t i l izab le p or l a p l an ta . L a p rob lemá t ica g enera l d c l o s a ná l is is f i to l i to lOg ico s r ad ica e n q ue p odemos e ncon t ra r mu l t ip l ic idad y r cdundanc ia e n d e te rm inado s t a xone s . L a mu l t ip l ic idad e s l a p roducc iOn d c u na f orma c a rac te r I s t ica e n d i vc r so s t a xones , yl ar cdundanc ia e s l ap roducc iOn d c v a r ia s f o rma s p o r u n m i smo t a xOn . E s ta d iver s idad mo r fo lOg ica c ompo r ta l a p r inc ipa l p rob lemá t ica d c l a c l a s if icac ión e i d en t if icac iOn d c c s to sm ic ro r re s to sv ege ta le s ( P ipe rno 1 988 ) . P a ra u na me jo r i n terpre tac iOn d c l o s a ná l is is f i to l i to lOg ico s ,a s Ic omo l ad co t ro st i po sd ca ná l is is q ue p re tenden h ace ri mr c con s t rucc ión d cl av egc tac iOn d e l p asado , h ay q ue b a sar se e n c l c ompo r tam ien to e co lóg ico d cl a s e spcc ic s mode rna s . E sp o re s to q ue e s t a n i mpor tan te l a e l abo rac iOn d c u na c o lccc ión d c r e f e renc ia q ue n o s p e rm i ta i d cn t if ica r l o s d i fe ren tes t a xone s q ue n o s c ncon t ramo s e n e i momen to d c h ace r e s tos a ná l is is . E s ta c o lccc ión d cbc h acerse mo r fo lOg icamcn tc , e s d ec ir s epa rando l o s f i to l i to s d cpcnd iendo d c s u f o rma p a ra c onoce r aq ue p l an ta c o r r e sponde ,e s ta mo r fo log ia p uede v a r ia rd epend iendo d e l l u ga rd cl ap lan ta e nc lq ue s e e ncuen t r ee if i to l i to , h o ja , t r onco , f r u to , e t c . E s te f a c to rh ad c s e rp ue s muy t e n ido e n c ucn ta al ah o ra d c c r ear e s ta c o lecc iOn d c r e f e renc ia . E l c s tud io d cl o s a n1 is is f i to l i to log ico s e n t odo s s u s á i nb i to s a po r ta u na muy i mpo r tan te i n fo rmac ión q ue i n teg rada a l a i n Io rmac ión a por tada p or o t ra s d i sc ip l ina s c on tnbuye a l a i n terp rc tac iOn d c u n y ac im icn to e n i mc on tex to d e te rm inado , yc omp le ta d c manc ra muy i n te re san te u na v i s iOn g loba l d c l a e vo luc ión d e l p a isa je y d c l o s r ecu r so s v ege ta les u t i i izados o n o p o r c l h ombre e n u n c on tex to d c tenn inado . 2 . 2 .2 . - Mc todo log Ia .

s cd imcn to s a n t iguo s y u na s uf ic ien tc mo rfo log Ia e spcc I f ica q ue p e rm i te l ai d en t if icac iOn d c u n amp i io n i imc ro d ct a xone s . Lo s f i to l i to s d c o xa la to d c c a lc io e n c a lc i ta s on c r i s ta ics q ue s uc len f o rmar se e n e i i n te r io r d c u na s c é lu la s e spcc ia l izada s l i amada s i d iob la s to s d cc r is ta le s ,

E nl o s i l t imo s a f io s c ld c sar ro l lo s i s t emá t ico d ce s ta t é cmca s eh ap roduc ido e spec ia lmen te e nc lc s tud io d c e spcc ie sv ege ta le sc on u na f ue r te s i gn if icac ión c u l tu ra l . L o s f i to l i to s p ucdcn h a l la r se e n d e te rm inado s c on tex to s c omo e s e n e is ue io , i n s i tu , e n c lm ismo

t r a s e ip roce so d cc r i s ta l izac iOn d e l o xa la to c á lc ico ys u

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

l u ga rd onde a n te r io rmen te e s taba l ap l an ta ,e s te t i po d c e s tud ios n o s a po r ta i n formac iOn d c t i po med io

e iM ic ro scop io O p t i c o . b . -E s tud io d cl o sf i to l i to sc on se rvado se nd i en te s .

a mb ien ta l . O t ro t i po d e a ná l is is f i to i i to iog ico s s e r ian l o s r e lac ionados c on c on tex tos a rqueo log ico s , a qu i i nc lu iremo s e i e s tud io d e l o s s ue lo s e n s i , d onde

a rqueo lóg icos s ea e s tud iando r e s to s h umano s o c u l tu ra les , d c a qw p odemo s d educ i r L a s a c t iv idade s h umana s e n r e lac ion c on e i mundo v ege ta l , s u d i c ta ,

P a ra e s te t i po d ca ná i is i s e sn ece sa r ia L ao b tenc ión d c mues t ra s d en ta le s , b i en i nd iv idua Le s oa g rupada s , e n b uen e s tado d cc on se rvac ión . L ap r inc ipa l v en ta ja d e l e s tud io d cL o sf i to l i to se n c l e sma l te d en ta r io , e s q ue p ropo rc iona u na i n fo rmac ión d i rec ta s ob re u n d c te rm inado a i imen to q ue u n d e te rm inado i n d iv iduo i n g ir ió e nv i da . E ncon t ramo s , t amb ién e n e s te t i po d c e s tud io d o s l i nea s d c i nve s t igac ión , u na a na L iza l o s r e s iduos e x is ten te s e n l o s d i en te s ( cá lcu lo d en ta l ) yL a o t ra

u t i l izac ion d cd i ve r sa sp l an ta s ,p ropo s i to s ,e t c . 1 l ay t r es t i pos d c a na L is is f i to L ito log icos , d epend iendo d cL o sr e s to s aa na i iza r : a . -e s tud io d c l o s s ed imen to s p o tenc ia le s d en t ro d c l o sq ue mc iu imo s e ie s tud io d c c op ró l i to s yc on temdo s

o b se rva l o s f i to l i to s a soc iado s ae s t r Ia s d en tar ia s oq ue a pa r ecen c l avado se nc le sma l te . 1 . Aná l i s is d e lc á lcu io d en ta l . P a ra e s te e s tud io s egu imo s c l mé todo p ropucs to p o r M idd leton ( 1990 ) q ue c on s is te e n u n s i s tema d c t r e s

d ce s tomago , q ue n o s a po r tan u na i n fo rmac ión s ob re c l p a i sa je y c l e n tomo d e l y ac im ien to , a s I c omo d c l a

L a vado s ,d o s p r ime ro s d cc on t ro l yl imp ieza p rc i im ina r ,

p od remo s c omp roba r s il o s r e s to s v ege ta le s q ue s e e ncuen t ran t i enen a l guna c au sa a n t rop ica o n o . O t ra p a r te d e l e s tud io e s L a r e iac ionada c on l o s r e s to s

d i c ta . b . -f i to l i to s e n d i en te s ( a soc iado s ae s t r ia s d en ta r ia s , c l avado s e n c l e sma l te , i nco rpo rado s e n c l c á icu Lo d en ta l ) . c . -e s tud io d cf i to l i to s a soc iado s aL ac u i tu ra ma te r ia l , ( ma te r ia l i I t ico , me tá le s , c e rám ico s od c o t ro t i po ) q ue c on t iene r e s to s d c f i to l i to s ymed ian tc c le s tud io d c l o s c ua le sp odemo so b tene ri n fo rmac ión d ct i po e conóm ico y cu l tu ra l . a . F i to l i to s e n s ue io s a rqueo lóg ico s . E s tud io d c S ed imen t o s p o tenc ia le s , c op ró l i to s , c on ten idos d c -

e s tómago s E l s i s tema d c muc s t reo s e lec t ivo e s e ii n s t rumen to b á s ico p a ra l ar ea l izac ión d c e s te t i po d c a ná L i s is . L a c an t idad d c mue s t ra n ece sa r ia e sd cu no s 1 00 g r s . E s t ea ná l is is s ei l eva ac abo m ed ian te c le s tud io d cl a f r acc ión imo sa , q ue e s L a q ue p resen ta l a mayo r c on cen t rac iOn d ce s to sm ic ro r re s to s v ege ta ie s .

y im t e rce r i a vado c on s i s ten te e n L ap repa rac ión d c l a mue s t ra p a ra e x t rae r l o s r e s to s d c c á icu io d en ta l d c l a s upe r f Ic ie d c l o s d i en te s . D e spué s d c e s te p roce so s e p rocede a l c ep i l lado d e l a s a rea s q ue p re sen tan l o s d epó s i to s d c c á lcu lo c on u na s o luc ión d c HC i d i lu ido . Una v ez p repa rada l a mues t ra s e r ea l iza c l m i smo p roce so d cc r ibado q ue c on c ls cd imen to . L a s mue s t ra s d cr e s iduo s o b ten ida s d cL o s l a vado s A yB s i rven p a ra l ac on t ra s tac ión d c l o s r e su l tado s d e l L a vado C , e spec ia lmen te p a ra o b tenc r u na mayo r f i ab i l idad i n te rp re ta t iv a . 2 . - AnI is i sd cf i to l i to se ne s ir la s E L s egundo t i po d c a ná l is is , e s c l d c f i to l i to s a soc iado s ac s t r ia sd en ta r ia s oc l avado se nc le sma l t e . E l e sma l te d en tar io e s L as ub s tanc ia b io log ica má s d ura c onoc ida , c on u na c ompos ic ión c as i e xc lu s ivamen te i no rgán ica , f o rmada p o ru na mai nz d c h id rox iapa t i ta , q ue c on t ienc p r inc ipa lmen te c a lc io y f ó sfo ro . E l s i l ice p o r s u p a r tc e s u no d c l o s p oco s ma te r ia le s q ue p o r s u d u reza , p uede r a l la r c le sma l te d en ta r io .

P o r g ranu lome t r ia s ec r iban 5 0 g r . d c s ed imen to e n u nc eda zo d c2 50 pm p a ra l ao b t enc ión ye s tud io d cl o s f i to l i tos y e s t ruc tura s mu l t ice lu la re s s i l ic if icada s c on temdo s e nl af r acc ión d ea r ena s , yc on i m cdazo d c

L a s c s t r Ia s d en ta r ia s s on p roduc ida s p o r p a r t Icu ia s a b ras iva s d u ran te l a ma s t icac ión s i endo a na i izada s e s pcc ia lmen te l a s e s t r ia s d cL ac a ra v es t ibu la r yo c lu sa l

5 0 pm p a ra s epa ra r l imo s ya r c i l la s . L o s l imo s s e f r acc ionan p o r s ed imen tac ión , s eg i ln l aL ey d c S toke s , e n t r e s t a inaf io s 5 0 -20 pm , 2 0 -8 pm y 8 -2 pm . L a a grupac ion p or t amaf los e n L a s t r es f r acc ione s m enc ionada s , f ac i l i tan c l c on ta je , l a d i s tnbuc ión e n

d cl o sd i en te s( F ine & C ra ig 1 981 ;( M ine 1 984 ;L a lueza &P é rcz -Pé rcz 1 993 ;P é rez -PA rez 1 988 ; P é rez -Pë rez e t a l . 1 992 ; R yan 1 979 ; R yan & J ohan son 1 989 ; T eafo rd 1 985 ; Wa lke r 1 979 ; Wa lke r & T eafo rd 1 988 e n t re

d i fercn tcs mo rfo log Ia s yl a i d en t if icac ión d c l o s f i to l i to s . S u d c tcrm inac iön s e r ea l iza g ene ra lmen te c on M ic ro scop io E lcc t rómco d cB ar ndo ,c on M ic roaná i is is p o rR ayo sX( EDS )L ink i nco rpo rado . S es ue le u t i l iza r u n s i s tema d cr e cub r im ien to d co ro . T amb ién s eu t i l iza

o t ro s ) . S ch as uge r ido q ue h ay u na r e lac ión d i rec ta e n t re l a s c s t r Ias y c la po r te d c f i to l i to s , a l l o ca L iza r sc f i to l i to s c l avado s e n c le sma l te , a lf i na l d c l ae s t r ia . H ay u na c l a ra t e ndcnc ia aa pa rece r mayo r n t ime ro d c e s t r Ia s e n g rupo s v cge ta r iano s q ue e ng rupo s c a rn ivo ro s( La lucza

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&P é rez -Pé rez 1 993 ) . L a d i ve r s idad mo r fo ióg ica d e e s to s c ue rpo s s i l Iceo s f avorece l o s e fec to s a bra s ivo s d e d e term inado s s i l icof i to l itos , c omo l o s q ue p resen tan f o rma s c sp ino sa s ,s ob re L as upe r f Ic ie d e le sma l te .

e t al .

d uran te d o s h o ra s e n u na s o luc ión d e á c ido a c& ico d i lu ido p a ra e l im ina r l o s c a rbona to s , e fec tuándo se p o s ter io rmen te l o s a c la rado s c on a gua d e s t i lada . L o s d ien te s s ef i jan s ob re i md i sco d cl a tón c on u na g o ta d c p la ta c o lo ida l , u t i l izando e ic a rbono c omo s i s tema d e r ecub r im ien to . S u d e te r in inac ión s e r ea l iza med ian te M ic ro scop io E lcc t rón ico d eB a r r ido .

e n t re 8y2 4h o ra s s eg i in l a mue s ira . P o s teno rmen te s e e f ec tuan l o sa c ia rado sc on a gua d e st i lada ys er e a l iza im c r ibado c on u na ma l la d c 2 50 jm p a ra s epa ra r l a s p a r t icu la sa r eno sa sd c mayo rt amaf lo . L a s mue s t ra s d c r e s iduo s o b temda s e n e il a vado A s i rven p a ra L a c on t ras tac ión c on l o s r e su l tado s d e l l a vado B , e spec ia lmen te p a ra o b tener u na mayo r f i abi idad i n te rp re ta t iva ( Law lo r 1 992 ) . E l a ná l i s i s f i to l i to lóg ico s ei l eva ac abo med ian te e i e s tud io d c l af r acc ión e n t re 2 50 -2 j .m p o r t am iza je y p o r s cd imen tac ión d e l m i smo modo q ue e n e ia ná l i s is d cs ed imen to sp o tenc ia le se xpue s to a n te r io rmen te . E l r e su l tado d c t odo s e s to s a ná l is is p erm i te l a i d en t if icac ión d c l o s t a xone s q ue s e r ea l iza med ian te c ompa rac ión c on u na c o lecc ión d c r e ferenc ia d c

c . - Ana l is is f i to l i to log ico s e n r e s tos d e c u l tu ra ma te r ia l E s to s a ná l i s is s ep ueden h ace r c on r e s to s d e c u l tu ra ma ter ia l t a le s c omo c e rám ica , ma te r ia l l I t ico , i ndu s tna l I t ica ,e t c . P ara n o e xp l ica r c ada u no d c do s y a q ue l a me todo log Ia e s L am isma v amo s ap onc rc omo e j emp lo l ae x t racc ión d c f i to l i to s d c ma te r ia l l I t ico e n c onc re te d ei m mo l ino d c mane . T ra s l a e x tracc ión d e l ma ter ia l l I t ico s e a con se ja t oma r u na s e r ie d c p recauc ione s c on c l o b je t ivo d c e v i ta r l a c on tam inac iön d c l a mue s t ra p o r a gen te s

f i to i i to s a c tua le s a s íc ome c on l a c on t ra s tac ión c on l a b ib l iog ra f la e spcc ia l izada e x is ten te . 2 . 2 .3 . - A p l icac ión a rque i lóg ica d c e s to s e s tud io s a l o sc omp le jo sf uen ra r io s . L a s a po r tac ionc sd cn ue s t ro se s tud io s s ep lan tean d c f orma g enera l , c ada y ac im ien to p rescn ta u na p rob lemá t ica e spec If ica y p rcc isa d c u n e s tud io i nd iv idua l izado s ob re l a e xcavac ión y e i r eg i s t ro d c d a te s . A c on t inuac ión p rcscn tamo s l a a p l icac ión d c n uc s t ro s e s tud io s a la nl is is d c c omp le jo s f une ra r io s , c j emp l if icándo lo e nl i nea sg ene ra le s .

e x te rno s . E i ma ter ia l n o s e d ebc l imp ia r ii l a va r , y d ebe c o loca r se e n i m c on tenedo r a i s ian te e s té r i l p a ra

E nc lc a so d e l e s tud io d cl o s c omp le jo s f une ra r io s s e h a t ene r e n c uen ta d i fcren te s e l emen te s o b je to d c

p rocede r as u e s tud io . N o s ed eben d e ja rl o s mo l ino s , mo r te ro s , e t c . a la i re l i b re n id cpo s i ta r sc e na lmacene s s i n u na p ro tecc ión e x terna d ado q ue s e g enc ran a l te rac ione s c on s idc rab le s q ue p ueden i mpo s ib i l i ta r c ua lqu ie ra ná l is is p o s te r io r . P ara e la ná l is is f i to l i to lóg ico d c mol ino s a soc iado s a c omp le jo s f une rar io s s e h a d c t oma r p recauc ione s

e s tud io : s ed imen tos p o tenc ia les ( con temdos d c e s tömago , c on ten ido s d c u rna s f unerana s , . . .) i nd icado re sd i rec to sd cp a t rone sd cd i c ta ( d ien te s ) ,a j ua r f une ra r io ( aná l is is d c c on temdos , ma ter ia l i I t ico , " ma te r ia lv ege ta l" , . . .) .

L os d i en tes s e l imp ian c on u n d e te rgen te d e i abo ra to r io p ara e x t rae r l o s r e s to s d e s ed imen to e x is ten te s s ob re e ie sma l te . L a s mue s t ra s s es ume rgen

d eb ido a q ue p ueden h aber s uf r ido p roce so s p o s t -depo s ic iona le s oa l te rac ionc ss ub s tanc ia le s . E l p r ime rp a so as egu i re se il a vado e nd o sf a se sp a ra a segura r u n mayor c on tro l a n te u na p os ib le " con tam inac ión" : e il a vado A yc il a vado B . E l l a vado A c on s i s te e n u n a c la rado c on a gua d es t i lada y u n l i ge ro c ep i l lado s uave q ue p erm i ta e x t rae rl o s r e s to sd cs ue lo ma t r iz . E lr e s idue r e su l tan te s eg uarda p a ra u na p o s te r io rc ompa rac ión . E l l a vado B i mp l ica u n c u idado so t r a tam icn to , s ume rg iendo l a muc s t ra e n i m r ec ip ien te c on a gua d es t i lada , t r a s d o s h o ra s s ep recede ai m c ep i l lado c on u na s o luc ión d c HO d i lu ido p a ra e l im ina r a l máx imo l o s r e s to s d c s ue lo a dhendo s , t omando c u idado p a ra m in im iza rs u s e f ec to ss ob re L as upe r f Ic ic d e l mol ino . E l r e s iduo o b ten ido s e d e ja e n l as o luc ión d e HC 1

2 86

a . -e s tud io d c l o s s ed imen to s p o tenc ia le s d en t ro d c l o s q ue i n c lu imo s e ie s tud io d cc op ró l i to s yc on temdo s d ce s tómago . L a i n fo rmac iön q ue p odemo s o b tene r c on e s te t i po d c e s tud io s t i ene d e s v e r t ien te s p e r i m l a de a le s tud ia r l o s s ed imen to s p o tenc ia le s d e l e n ter ram ien to , p odemo s c onoce r s u c ompo s ic ión v ege ta l , al av ez t amb ién n os p uede i n fo rma r s ob re p rác t ica s p repa ra tor ia s d e l e spac io , p or e jemp lo e n l a c ons t rucc ión d c d e te rm inado s monumen te s f une rar io s c omo s on l o s mega l i to s s eh ad ocumcn tado L aa cc ión d e l f uego s ob re e it e r reno ,q ue h as i de i n terp re tado c ome u na q uema d c l a v ege tac ióon p rev ia a l a f a se d c c on s t rucc ión d e l monumen to .

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e n ter ram ien to t cn ia a lgün t i po d c c ons t rucc ión a rqu i tec tón ica v ege ta l c omo p e re j emp lo l a se s t ruc tu ra s f une ra r ia s h ipogea s e n e iP e r iodo T a la io t ico f i na l d c Ma l lo rca c on c ub ie r ta v ege ta l . O tro t i po d c

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

i n fo rmac ión ao b tene rs e r ia l ap re senc ia d eo rnamen to s

i nc todo log la s q ue n o s p e rm i tc a ce rcarno s d c u na

oe l emen to s v ege ta le s q ue a compañaban a ld i lun to c on f i ne sr i tua le s on o . E l o t ro t i po d e i n fo rmac ión q ue p odemo s o b tene re s med ian te e i e s tud io d e c op ró l i to s yc on temdo s d c e s tómago , e s tos e s tud io s n o s i n fo rman d c l a d ic ta

manc ra a na l I t ica d educ t iva at odo c l mundo f une ra r io , c spec ia lmcn tc a l o q ue h ace r e fe renc ia a la j ua r ys u r e lac ión c on t o do e ir i tua l yc o s tumb rc sf unc r a r ia s . C omo v e remo s at r avé s d cl aT racco log Ia s ep ucdcn a na l iza rt oda u na s e r ie d c ma te r ia le s ( t i t i le sl I t ico s ) q ue s ue len a parece re nl o sa j ua re sf une rar io s ,e spcc ia lmen te

v ege ta ld ee s ta sp ob lac inc s . A s i p ues c on e s to s a nl is is o b tenemo s i n fo rmac ión d ec a rác te rs oc ia l ,c u l tu r a l ye conóm ico . b . -f i to l i to s e n d i en te s ( a soc iado s ae s t r ia s d en ta r ia s ,

e nl o sp r ch is tónco s . A unque e ns uo r igen l o sa nM is is f unc iona le sn o sd an i n fo rmac ión d c c a rác tc r f unc iona l ye conóm ica s ob re

c l avado s e n e i e sma l te , i n co rpo rado s e n e i c á lcu lo d en ta l ) . L ai n fo rmac ión ao b tene r d c e s te t i po d c a ná l is i s e s c l a ra , s e t r a ta d c u na e v idcnc ia d i rec ta s ob re l ad ic ta

l o s u ten s i l io s l I t ico s , at r avt i s d c e sa i n Io rmac ión p odemo s a dcn t ra rno s e n c l mundo f une rar io . A s i n o s p ucdcn o f rece r im t i po d ci n fonnac ión t i t i l e ne ii n tcn to d c e n tende r t oda u na s e r ie d c a spec to s c omo s on l a s

v ege ta l d cu no s d e te rm inado s i nd iv iduo s . E s muy l t i ia

c o s tumb res ,r i to s yc r eenc ia s q ue s en o s e scapan , yq ue s o lo p odemo s v i s lumb ra r at r avé s d cl o s v e s t ig io s d cl a c u l tu ra ma te r ia ld ce sa ss oc iedade s . E s te t i po d c análisis p e rm i ten o b tene r i n fo rmac ión

l ah o ra d c c ompa ra r c on l o s r c su l tado s o b tcmdo s p o r o t ro s a ná l is is c omo l o sd cl ac u l tu ra ma t e r ia l d e l m i smo e n te r ram ien to d c o t ro s od c o t ro s l ugare s c omo p uede s e rd ci mp ob lado d el az ona p a ra o b se rva r s i lo sr e s to s d ea l imen to sv ege ta le ss ec o r re sponden on o . E l a ná l is is d c f i to l i to s p rc sen ta e nr c lac ión al ad i c ta h umana c i er ta s l im i tac ione s d ado q ue s o lo i n fo rma d c l a d i c ta v ege ta l , ye spec I f icamen te s ob re a que l la s c spec ie s q ue c on t ienen f i to l i to s . E nc lc a so c onc re to d c l o s a ná l is is d c f i to l i to s a soc iado s ae s t r Ia s d en ta r ia s , ü n icamen te d e te rm inada s mo r fo log ia s q uedan c l avada s e nl a se s t r iac ione s . c . -e s tud io d cf i to l i to sa soc iado s al ac u l tu ra ma te r ia l ,

s ob re l af unc iona l idad o n o d c l o s o b jc to s l I t ico s , p o r t an to , l ap re senc ia o a u senc ia d e f unc iona l idad e n l a i ndu s t r ia u t ica d e l a jua rf une ra r io n o s p e rm i t i rá h ab la r d c t i t i le s c omo s imp le s o f rcnda s d e l a j ua r s in m ngt in t i po d c u t i l idad on o s p cnn i t ira i n te rp re ta ru na r e lac ión e n t re c lu ten s i l io u t i l izado d u ran te l a v ida y e ia jua r r e lac ionado c on c l mundo d cl a mue r te . P e ro a demá s , l o s a ná l is is f unc iona les d c l o s u ten s i l io s i l t ico s q ue n o s e ncon t ramo s e n l o s a j ua re s f unc ra r io s n o s p uede d a ri n fo rmac ión s ob re l av i da yl a

( ma te r ia ll I t ico , mc tá le s ,c e rám ica od co t ro t i po ) . E n e i c a so d e l ámb i to f une rar io l o s a ná l is is f i to l i to lóg ico s s ec en t ra r ian e ne ia j ua re ncon t rado e nc l e n te r ram icn to y q ue a compaf ia al o s r e s to s h umano s .

c conom Ia d c e sa s oc iedad , ( v e r c omo y s ob re q ué s e t r aba jaba c on e sa s h c r ram ien ta s yu ten s i l io s q ue l uego

L o s p r inc ipa lc s o b je t ivo s d ependc r ian d c l o s r e s to s a a n l iza r p o r e j emp lo e n e ic a so d c l ai ndt i s t r ia l I t ica c l o b je t ivo s e r ia c onoce rl af unc iona l idad , s ie it i t i l h ab ia s i do u t i l izado o n o ; e n c l d c l a c c rám ica s aber s i

a j ua r ,n o sd au na d ob lc v i ad ci n fonnac ión : i n fo rmac ión s ob re c lr i tua l yc o s tumb re sf unc ra r ia s i n formac ión s ob re l a v ida y c conom Ia d c l a s s oc icdade s q ue h an e n tc r rado d ce sa m ane ra yc on esos

c on ten ian a l g i ln r e s to v ege ta l yc ua l e r a , s ie s te e ra c ome st ib le o n o ; s i e x is t ian r e s tos v ege ta les

ma t e r ia le s as u nm iemb ro s . A n te s d c d esa r ro l la r t oda s e s ta s p os ib i l idades d c

o rnamen ta le s ,e t c . L o s r e su l tado s d ce s to s análisis i mp l ican im c a rác te r c u l tu ra l muy i mpo r tan te ye sc lt r a ta in ien to q ue s ed aba al o s muc r to s e nr e lac it in al o s v i vo s ,d i c ta a l i inen ta r ia , s ie r a on od i fe ren tc d cl ad cl o s v i vo s ,r e s to sd cc u l tu ra

a ná l is is y c i ta r a lguno s c j emp los c onc re to s , c rco n ccc sa r io h ace r u na r ecen s ion s ob re q ue e s ye n q ue c on s is te l o sa ná l i s i sf unc iona le s ot r acco lOg ico s .

d epo s i tan e ne ia j ua re t c . ) L o s a nl is i s f unc iona le s d c l o s ma te r ia le s l I t ico s d e l

-

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ma te r ia l s ic r an o n o l o s m i smo s q ue s e u t i l izaban e n

3 . 2 -. ANAL IS IS FUNC IONALES U na d c l a s cuestiones que má s h al amado s i emp re

v i da .

l aa t cnc iOn , yq ue má s ai n t r igado al o s mvc s t igado re s 3 . -ANAUS IS FUNC IONALES DELAINDUS11IA L t 1 ' ICA

3 . 1. INTRODUCC ION

p rch is tO r ico s h a s i do e i p rcgun ta r sc p a ra q ué s i rven t odas e sas p iezas l I t ica s q ue e ncucn t ran e n l o s y ac im ien to s p reh is tOnco s .E s to h a h ccho q ue d e sde c l i n ic io d c l a P reh is tO r ia c omo c i enc ia , l o s d i fe ren te s i nvc s t igado re s u t i l iza sen l o s r e cu r sos q ue t e n Ian a s u a lcance p a ra i n ten ta r d ar u na r c spues ta a e s te

L a T raceo log la , o Aná l is is F unc iona le s e s o t ra d c l a s

i n te r rogan tc .

2 87

MANUEL C ALVO e ta l .

E n t re l o s d i fe ren te s c a mmo s q ue d e sde e ii mc io d e e s ta d i sc ip l ina h an u t i l izado l o s i nve s t igado re s p ara a bo rda re s ta c ues t ión p odemo sc i ta r :

a r queo lóg ico q ue t e ncmo s . A demá s , c onc re tamen te e n c l mundo d c l o s a nt i L i s i s f unc iona ic s , c l h echo d c q ue s e u t i l iccn i t i lc s mo r fo Lóg icamen te p a rec ido s aL o s p reh is tór ico s , n o

A ) L ai nducc ión yd educc ión ap a r t ir d el af o rma d c L o s t i he s . E s te c au i ino s e o b serva d e sde e ii n ic io d c L a

i mp l ica n ece sa r ia xncn te u na i d en t idad d c f unc ión , y a q ue a dcmá s d c l a f o rma , i n terv ienen c an t idad d c

P reh i s tona c omo d i sc ip l ina , a s I p o r e j emp lo s e y e q ue d e sde s us i n ic io s L a t e rm ino log Ia t r ad ic iona lmen te u t i l izada p ara L ad e sc r ipc ión d e l u t i l ia je L I t ico r e f le ja e i i n te rd s p e rmanen te p o rp a r te d cl o s p reh is tonado re s e n i n ten ta rr e conoce rl af unc ión d ec ada t i t i l ,b a sándo se e n L a p u ra o bservac ión d c L a f orma . A s I n o e s r a ro e ncon t ra rno s t i rm ino s q ue i n v i tan ap e sa re n u nt i po d c u t i L iz ac ión c onc re ta , r a scado res r aedera s , b ur i le s ,

v ar iab le s q ue n o p odemo s c on t ro la r c on e s te t i po d c c omparac iones , v a r iab les c omo p or e j emp lo l a s c os tumbres , y mancra e spcc If ica d c h acer t i n d e te rm inado t r aba jo , q ue p uede v ar ia r d c i m g rupo a o t ro t a n to e n c l e spac io c omo e n c l t i empo , yq ue p uede h ace rq ue u nu t en s i l io i d én t ico mo r fo lóg icamen t e s ee mp lee n os o lo d cd i fe ren te f o rma ,s i no t amb ien p a ra u na d i fc ren te f unc ión . C ) L a c xpe r imen tac ión h a s i do l a t e rce ra v i a u t i l izada p o r l o s p rch is tonado re s p ara h acer i n fcrenc ia s s ob re l a f unc iona l idad d c L o s t I t i Lc s . E n e s te a pa r tado p odemo s i n c lu ir d e sde l o s

c uch i l Lo s e t c , u t i l izac ión q ue s o lo s ed educe ap a r t i rd c L a f o rma d c L a p i eza . P o s te r iomen te mucha s d c e sa s d enom inac iones h an q ucdado d ef in i t iv amen tc e s tab lec ida s c omo c a tego r Ia s t i po ióg ica s p e rd iendo t odo s u s i gn if icado f unc iona l c omo L a sq ue a pa recen e n L a t i po log Ia d e l P a lco l I t ico An t iguo y Med io d c F . B o rde s ( 1 961) y c lL dx ico t i po log ico d e l P a Leo L I t ico S upe r io rd cD . S omnevi l eBo rde s yJ .P e r ro t( 1 956 ) . T odo e s te mt i todo s e b a sa e n L a a p l icac ión d c u na l óg ica f o rma l modc rna al o ss i t i le sp reh is tór ico s aL ap a r q ue o lv ida u n a spec to muy i mpo r tan te a t e ner e n c uen ta , ye sL al L amada p o l ifunc iona l idad d ce s to sü t i lc s , c on e so s e q u iere i nd ica r q ue c l h echo d c q ue , u na m isma f o rma d c l o s t i t i le s n o s i gn i f ica n ece sa r iamcn te u na i g ua ldad d c u so , yq ue L ad i fe rcnc ia d c f o rma n o e xc luye p o rc on t ra u na i d cn t id ad d c cmp lco . B )C ompa rac ione sE tno lóg ica s . O t ra l I nca d c i nve s t igac ion p a ra i n ten ta rr e sponde ra l ap regun ta d c p a ra q ué s e rv Ian L o s ü t i lc s p rch is tó r ico s h a s i do l a d c l a s c ompa rac iones y a na log Ias c t nog rál ica s . E n e s te c a in ino s e p ueden c i ta r d e sde i nve s t igado rc s d e l s i g lo p a sado , B ouche s d c P cr thc s ( 1847 ) , E van s ( 1872 ) h a s ta l o s má s modemo s t r aba jo s r e a l izado s p o r e j emp lo p o r B info r t c on l o s Nunam iu t s ( 1978 ) , op o r Man su re nL aP a tagon ia ( 198 3 ) . An te e s ta s cgunda L i nea d c a p rox imac ión a L a f unc iona l idad d c L o s i l t i Le s p reh is tó r ico s , s e d ebe t c nc r e n c uen ta q ue e i c s tud io d c l a s I L amada s c u l tu ra s p r im i t iva s a c tua le s h a l evado a parc jado e n mucha s o ca s ione s l a e x t rapo Lac ión d c l o s d a to s o b ten ido s e n e sa s p ob Lac ione s aL a s p ob lac ione s p rch is tónca s , n o s o lo e n c lc ampo d c L af unc iona l idad d c l o s a r te fac to s , s i no t amb it in e n c ld c L o s mode lo s conóm ico s yd c s ub s is tenc ia ,o i nc lu so e n a lgunos c a so s d c l a p rop ia o rgan izac ion s oc ia l . A unque e s ta p rt i c t ica r e su l te a l tamcn te s uge s t iva , s e t i ene q ue t omar c on r e scrva s , ys ib i en e s u n b uen a bono p a ra L af o rmu Lac ión d ch ipo tc s is , é s ta s d cbcn s c r s ome t ida s aa ná l is is y c on f ron tada s c on c l r eg is t ro

p r ime ro s e xpe r imen to s d c p r inc ip io s d c s i g lo , Mu l le r ( u t i l izac ión d ch acha sp u l ida s p ara a ba t ir á r bo le s ) 'O ve r 1 937 e t c , h a s ta t oda o t ra s e r ie d ce xpe r imen tac ione s y a c on u na f i na l idad má s c onc re ta ,L ad cc on t ro la rt oda u na s e r ie d c v a r iab le s e n l au t i l izac ión d c u na p i eza p a ra d cspués c ompa ra r e i n fcr ir t oda e s ta s er ie d c i n formac ione s s u rg ida s d c l a e xpe r imen tac ión a l ma te r ia l a rqueo lóg ico . E n e s ta l I nca s e p ucden c i ta r b a s tan te s a u to res c omo p o r e j emp lo K ee ley ( 1974 ) , V aughan ( 1981) , Mansu r ( 1 983) , P l is son ( 1985 ) , Ande r son ( 198 1) e t c . R e spcc to a L a c xpcnmen tac ión s e d ebc d ec ir q ue h a s ta h acc p oco t i empo , l a mayor p a r te d c L a s a c tuac ione se xpe r imen ta le s a po r taban d a to sd cc a rác tc r muy p un tua L , ye n c on secuenc ia d c a l to r i e sgo p a ra c s tab lccer c onc lus ioncs s eguras . Adcmt i s l a s e xpenenc ia s d c s imu Lac ión n o s d an i n fo rmac ión s ob re L a mu l t ifunc iona l idad d c l o s i l t i les , e s d ec ir , c omo t i n t i po d ca r tefac to p uede s e ra p to p ara r ea l iza rf unc ione s d i f e ren te s , p e ro n o n o s d a u na i n fo rmac ión c onc re ta s ob re L au t i l izac ión d cu na p i eza i nd iv idua l ,e sd ec ir ,e i h echo d c q ue t i n r a scado r s ea dap te mo r fo lóg icamen te b i en a lt r aba jo d c L ap i e l n o s i gn if ica q ue c ada r a scado r h aya s i do u t i l izado d c l am isma mane ra n i c on e s ta m isma f i na l idad . D )L au t i l izac ión d cL ae s tad I s t ica d cl a sf o rma s yd c s u s ub s t i tuc ión yc vo iuc iOn h a s i do o t ra d cl a s t d cn ica s emp leada s . E ste mé todo t amb ién p a r te d c u na a t r ibuc ión c on je tu ra l p rev ia d cL af unc ión d c L o s t i t i le s , L a c ua l p re tende r a t if ica r med ian te c l cmp Leo d c L a e s tad I s t ica , p o r l o t a n to l a s c r I t ica s q ue s e h an h echo a n tcno rmen te a l o s o t ro s s i s tcmas , s i gucn s i cndo v á l ida s p a ra e s te c am ino , s i nr e s tar lc p o re l lo v a l idez a n i ve ld ch ipt i t c s is , yc onf ron tac iOn d cd a to s . S ib ien c s to s d i f e ren te s c am ino s n o s h an a ce rcado a

2 88

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

L a f unc iona l idad d e l o s ü t i le s , n o n o s d an n inguna i n fo rmac ión c onc re ta s ob re e s te a spec to , s i no q ue s o lo n os d an r e fe renc ia s m a rco at ene r e n c uen ta . E n e s te s en t ido s ed ebe d ec i rq ue h as i do e ia nI is i s d ch ue l la s d c u so , ot r aceo log Ia , l a me todo log ia q ue n o s h a

ys e e nla t iza e n l a n ece s idad d c c o lecc ione s d c r c fe renc ia . C on e id csa r ro l lo d c e s ta me todo log Ia s eo b sc rva l a c x is tcnc ia d c d o s t c ndenc ia s , u na q ue s e c a rac te r iza rá p o r c la ná l is is f unc iona l ab a jo s a umen to s (h a s ta 1 00

p e rm i t ido a ce rcamo s d ef o rma má sc onc re ta yv 1 ida a l ar e spue s ta d ep a ra q ué s e rv Ian l o sü t i le sp reh is tó r ico s . E l p nnc ip io b á s ico s obre e i q ue s e s u s ten ta e s ta me todo iog Ia e s , q ue a lt r aba ja r c on u nü t i l p reh i s tó r ico

X ) yo t ra t c ndcnc ia q ue s ec a rac t enza rá p o re ia nü l i s i s f unc iona l c on i n trumen ta l o p t ico d c a l to s a umen to s .

s ob re u n d e term inado ma ter ia l , s ob re e s te ü t i l s e

U n ivc r s idad d cH a rvad ,( 1974 ) ,e nd ondc l at é cmca d c o b se rvac ión u t i l izada h a s i do l al upa b inocu la r , q ue

p roducen t oda u na s e r ie d c d efo rmac ione s yc amb io s f r u to d c s u u t i l izac ión , c a mb io s yd e fo rmac ione s q ue

E n t re l a p nme ra t c ndenc ia s e d eben d es taca r l o s t r aba jos d c T r inghan y s us c o labo rado re s d c l a

v a r lan e n f unc ión d e l ma ter ia l t r aba jado d i recc ión d e l t r aba jo ,d u rac ión d e lm i smo ,c a rac te r I s t ica sf I s ica sd cl a

p erm itc o bservar u n t i po d e tcrm inado d c d efo rmac ione s , b á s icamcn tc l a s c squ ir la s , l o q ue p e rm i te o b tcne r i n fo rmac ión s ob re c l mov im ien to d e l

h e r ram ien ta ,p re senc ia oa u senc ia d ca b ra s ivo s e t c . P o r t an to i nd iv idua l izando e s tas d eformac ione s y

ü t i l d u ran te s u u t i l izac ión , yl a d u reza r e la t iva d e l ma te r ia l t r aba jado e n b a se a t r es c a tego r la s , d u ro

r e lac ionándo la s c on l a s d i fe ren te s v a r iab le s q ue d an l uga r ae l ia s s e p od rá o b tene r at r avé s d c s u a ná l is is ,

s em idu ro y b l ando .E s ta t e ndenc ia h a s i do f ue r temen te c i i t icada p o re ih echo d cq ue e sd i f Ici la p rec ia ra spcc to s má s c onc re to s q ue l o s a n tc r io rmen te menc ionado s e n b a se al aa l ta v a r iab i l idad d c l a s d efo rmac ione s q ue s e p ueden o bse rvar c on b a jo s a umen to s , ye n b a se a l

‚

i n formac ión s ob re e i ma ter ia l q ue s e h a t r aba jo l a d i recc ión d e l t r aba jo , s ud u rac ión e t c . A s Ip o r e j emp lo l a s d e fo rmac ione s p roduc idas a l t r aba ja r c l h ueso r a scándo lo s on d i fe ren te s al a s p roduc ida s c uando s e ‚

c o r ta l a made ra . P o rl ot a n to c onoc iéndo la s , p od remo s d educ ir a spec to s s obre l a f unc iona l idad d e l o s ma ter ia les a rqueo lüg ico s q ue p re sen ten e s te t i po d c d e fo rmac ione s . L a o bservac iön d c l a h ue l la s d c u so s e p uedc r emon ta r af i na le s d e l s i g lo p a sado , a s I s ep ueden c i ta r i n ves t igado res c omo R au ( 1864 ) , E van ( 1872 ) , N i lson ( 1838 ) . E l e s tud io d c l a h ue l la s d c u so y d c s u e vo luc ión c omo me todo log Ia v a d i rec tamen te l i gado a l a s p o s ib i l idade s d e ld i fe ren te i n s t rumen ta l ó p t ico . A s i e s e n 1 950 c uando F . B o rde s u t i l iza p o r p r ime ra v cz u na l upa b inocu la r p a ra o b se rva r l a s h ue l la s d c u so , p o s te r iormen te o t ro s a u to res c omo T ix ier ( 1 955 ) , B rez i l ion ( 1 973 ) e t c , h acen o b se rvac iones s ob re l a

h echo d c q ue a lt r aba ja r a l guno s ma te r ia le s c omo p o r c j emp lo l ac a rne n o a pa rccen e it i po d cd e fo rmac ione s q ue s ep ueden d ocumcn ta r ab a jo s a umen to s . P o r o t ra p a r tc l o s i n ve s t igado re s q ue h an a na l izado l o s ü t i le s p rch is tó r ico s aa l to s a umen to s h an u t i l izado e lm ic ro scop io ó p t ico , y ap a r t i r d c l o s i mc io s d c l o s a f to s o chen ta c l m ic roscop io e l ec t rón ico , yo t ra s t é cmca s c omo c l a ná l is is d c l a r ed c ns ta l ina p o r d i f racc ión d c r ayo s X , m ic roaná l is is p o r s onda d c e l ec t rone s e t c q ue h a p e rm i t ido n o s o lo o bse rva r t oda o t ra s e r ie d c d eformac iones ( m ic ropu l idos m ic roe s t r ia s yr e s iduo s ) q ue n o s d an u na i n lo rmac ión mucho má s p rec isa d e l ma te r ia l t r aba jado , s i no q ue a demá s n o s p erm i tc a den t rarno s e n l ae xp l icac ión d c c omo s eh an c r eado t o da se s ta sd e fo rmac ione s .

d i spo s ic ión yd i s t r ibuc ión d cl a s h ue l la s d cu so ,a unque e n e s to s momcn to s e s to s t r aba jo s n o t i enen a un u na i n te rp re tac ión f unc iona lp rec isa No s e rá h a s ta l at r aducc ión a li ng lé s d c l ao b ra d e l S ov iü t ico S emenov e n 1 964 ( P reh is to r ic T ccno logy ) , y p o s te r iormen te l o s t r aba jo s d c K ee ley ( 1974 ) y V aughan ( 1981) q ue h ace q ue l at r aceo log Ia e mp iece a a dqu ir i r u n c ue rpo m e todo lóg ico i mpo r tan te , yq ue s e v aya c onso l idando c omo u n mü todo v á l ido p a ra d e tec ta r l a f unc iona l idad d c l o s ü t i les i I t icos p r eh i s tó r ico s . C on S cmenov s ee mp iezan amd iv idua l iza rt r e st i po s d cd e fo rmac ione s( e s t r ia s , c squ ir la s , ym ic ropu l ido s )y e mp ieza a a dqu ir ir i mpor tanc ia l a s c o lecc iones

TTO S E 1NR MAQON UE S EOBHENEA1 1 AVES DEELI A S P odemos d iv id ir e n c ua t ro t i po s l a s h ue l la s d c u t i l izac ión . E n e s te a pa r tado n o e n t ra rcmo s e n l a p rob lemá t ica d c c ada u na d c e l ia s y a q ue n o e s l a f i na l idad d ce s te t r aba jo : 1 )E squ ir la s . S on c ada u no d c l o s n ega t ivo s q ue s e p roducen a ll e van ta r se l a s d im inu ta s l a squ i ta s q ue S e d e sp renden d e l f i lo d c mi a r tefac to c omo c on secuenc ia d c l a p re s ión e j erc ida s ob re e id u ran te u n p roce so

e xpe r imen ta les d cr e f e renc ia ,c on Kee ley s ep ro fund iza

l a bo ra l , n a tu ra l oa cc iden ta l . A n ive l f unc iona l n o s p ueden d a r i n fo rmac ión s ob re l a d ureza d e l ma te r ia l

mucho má se nl ai nd iv idua l izac iün d cl o sm ic ropu l ido s ,

t r aba jado (d u ro , s em idu ro ,b lando ) ys ob re e it i po d c

2 89

MANUEL C ALVO e ia l .

mov im ien to yd i r ecc ión r ea l izado s d uran te l aa c t iv idad . E s n ece sar io c omp lemen ta r l a i n lo rmac ión q ue n o s p ueden d ar e s te t i po d e d efo rmac ione s c on t o da s l a s

u t i L izac iOn d c l ap ieza . P o t s u n a tu ra leza p ueden s e r m ine ra le s ,m ine ro -o rgán ico s yo rgán ico s . L o s r e s iduo s n o s d an i n fo rmac iOn d i rec ta s ob re e i ma te r ia l t r aba jado , y a q ue c l io s s on r c s to s d cl am i sma a dhc i ido sa lt i t i l .

o t ra s h ue l la s d cu so , y aq ue p o rs is o la s n or e p re sen tan i me l emen to d ef in i tono d ef unc ional idad . 2 ) E s tr ia s . S e p ueden d ef in ir c omo h ue l la s l i nea le s q ue s upone u n a r ra s t re y p é rd ida d e ma te r ia l d e l a s upe r f ic ie d e l a r tefac to . L a s e st r Ia s p re sen tan muy d i ve r sa s t i po log Ia s ys e c l a s if ican s eg in s u a nchu ra , p ro fund idad ymo ro fo log la d ef ondo , yp ueden t e ne rs u o r igen e n f enómeno s d c a l te rac ión n a tu ra l , a cc iden ta l , t e cno lóg ica o d c u so . E n e s te s en t ido K ee ley ( 1985 ) c onc luye q ue i n icamen te c uando s ee ncuen t ra a soc iado

3 .3 .POS IB IL IDADES DE APL ICAC ION DE E STA M ODOLOG 1A . C omo s ey e ,p o rc lc a rác te rd ce s ta m c todo bog Ia ,u na d c l a s p r inc ipa le s p o s ib i l idade s d c a p l icac ión e s c ld c l o s e s tud io s f unc iona le s d c l a i ndu s t r ia l I t ica d c c ua lqu ier é poca . A p esa r d c l o s p rob lemas mc todo lóg ico s e x is ten tes , y ap e sa r d c a lguna s i ndu s tr ia s l I t ica s d c a l guno s y ac im icn to s n o p ueden a na L iza r sc p o r p re sen ta r p a t ina s , l u s t ro s e tc , c on l a t r aceo iog Ia s ea bnO n an uevo c ampo ,u na n ueva v i a al a h o ra d ce s tud ia rl ae conom Ia yl a s c o s tumb re sl abo ra le s d cc ada u na d cl a sd i ve r sa s c u l tura sp reh is tOnca s .

a m icropu l ido s p ueden s e r c ons ide rado c omo c on secuenc ia d cp rocc so sl a bo ra le s . L a s e s tr Ia s nos a po r tan i n fo rmac ión b á s icamen te s ob re c l mov im ien to d esar ro l lado p o r e i t i t i l . S u f o rmac ión s ec on s ide ra d eb ida al ap re senc ia d ca gen te s a b ra s ivo s ya lp rop io e squ ir la in ien to d e lf i lo d e lt r aba jo . 3 ) M icropu l idos .

An te e s te c ampo d c p o s ib i i idadc s p odemo s c i ta rt r e s t i po s d c e s tud io s ; e s tud io s an ive l s i nc rOn ico , an i ve l d i ac römco , ye s tud io sc ompa raf ivo s :

S on l a s a l te rac ioncs d c l a

s uperf ic ie d e l s i lex c omo c on secuenc ia d cl au t i l izac ión d c u na p ieza . E l m ic ropu l ido e s p o r t a n to i m r a s t ro l a bo ra l c uya a pa r ienc ia p uede s e rd c sc r i ta p o rs ug rado d c r e f r igenc ia , p o r s u v o lumen , d esa r ro l lo y p o r l a t e x tu ra d c s u s upe r f ic ie . E n o p imón d c l a mayo r ia d c

1 )E n t re l o se s tud io ss i nc rOn ico ss ep ueden d e s taca r : A ) E s tud io s f unc iona les a n ive l d c d i s t r ibuc iOn e spac ia l d c l a s p i eza s , yq ue r e lac ionado c on o t to t i po d c e s tud io s ( f aun I s t ico s t c cno lOg ico s e t c ) n o s d an u na i mpo r tan te i n formac ión a n ive l d c l a p os ib le

l o s i n ve s t igado re s , s on l a s h ue l la s q ue e v idenc ian u n mayo r v a lo rd i agnó s t ico ,e nl au r t i l izac ión d el a s p i eza , e n e spec ia l p a ra d i fe renc ia r l o s ma te r ia le s t r aba jo s p o r e la . D c t odas manera s , ys i n e n t ra r e n e i t ema , l o s m ic ropu l ido sp rc sen tan u na s e r ie d cp rob lema s : a )E I h echo d c q ue e x is ten ma te r ia s p oco d ada s a p roduc i rm ic ropu l ido s , yma te r ia s q ue a l guna s d c e l la s p roducen a l te rac ione s muy s eme jan te s , l o q ue p uede d i f icu i ta rs ui nd iv idua l izac ión . b )E l s egundo g ran p rob lema e se id cl af o rmac ión d c

d eim i tac iOn d ca r ea s ya c t iv idade s d en t ro d ci mm i smo y ac im ien to (a rea d ct a l la ,a r ea d cd escuar t iza m ien to d c a n ima le s , a r ea d c p rcpa rac iOn d c c om ida , t r aba jo d c h ue so o p ie le s e t c ) . E s te t i po d c i n formac iOn n o s p e rm i te t e ne tu na v i s iOn mucho má s a i np l ia n o s o lo d c c omo s eo rgan iza c lg rupo e nn aa sen tam ien to ,s ino q ue n o sp e rm i te a den t ramo s ,a unque s e a an i ve ld ch ipO te s i s d ct r aba jo e na spec to sr e lac ionado sc on l ao rgan izac iOn s oc ia ld e lg rupo .

l o s m ic ropu l ido s . S in e n t ra r e n l a p rob lemá t ica , s e p uede d ec ir q ue h ay t r es g rande s t e o r la s s ob re l a

B ) E s tud io s d c r c iac iOn e n t re L a i n du s tr ia l I t ica y f unc iona l idad , p o r e j emp lo an ive l d c v c r c l g rado d c r en tab i l idad d c d icha i ndu s t r ia : p o rcen ta jc s d c p i eza s

f o rmac ión d c l o s m icropu l ido s , p o r a b ra s ion , p o r a b ra s ion -fu s iOn y d i so luc ión , yq ue n inguna d c e l ia s o f rece u na s o luc iOn t o ta l a lp rob lema .

u t i l izada s f r en te a p ieza s n o u t i l izada s , p o rcen ta je d c p i eza s u t i l izada sc on r e toque yp i eza s n ou t i l izada s c on r e toque , e s tud io s f unc iona le s d c u n t i po d c p i eza ,

4 )R e s iduos .L o sr e s iduo ss on r e s to sd c ma te r ia a j ena aL ap rop ia d e l t i i ll I t ico , q ue s ee ncuen t ra a dhe I-i d a as u s upe rf ic ie , b ien c omo c on secuenc ia d c n a p roce so l a bo ra l op o r s imp le c on tac to t r a s l o s d epO s i to s e n l o s

c onc re to , c omo p ueden s e r e s tud io s s obre b ur i le s , r a scado re se t c .

s ed imen to s . P o rs ut amaho s ed i v iden e n mac ro scOp ico s ym ic ro scOp ico s . L o s macro scOp ico s p ueden s e r d c

C ) E s tud io s s ob re g es to s l abo ra le s ye l emen tos c u l tu ra le s e nl a mane ra d ct r aba ja r (modo d c c nmanga r i mt i po d ct i t i l , mane ra sd cu t i l iza ri mm i smo ü t i le t c . Conc luyendo p odcmos d cc ii q ue L o s e s tud ios

c arác ter m inera l u o rgán ico . L os r e s iduos m ic ro scóp ico s s on a t rapado s p o re ig e l d cs f l ice amo r fa

f unc iona les a n ive l s i nc rón ico n o s d a u na t r ip le i n fonnac iOn :

c r eado p o r l ad i so luc iOn l o ca l izada d cl as up e r f ic ie d e l t i t i l d u ran te c lc on tac to c on l a ma te r ia t r aba jada , ys e c on se rvan e i é lp o r l o q ue s on c on tempo räneo s al a

• i nfo rmac iOn s ob re a c t iv idade s q ue s eh an r ea l izado e ni my ac im ien to . • i n fo rmac iOn d c t é cn ica s d c t r aba jo ymov im icn to s

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l a bo ra le s . • i nfo rmac ión a n ive l er en tab i l idad d c l a i ndu s t r ia i l t ica p r e sen te . E s d ec i r , e ip r ime rp un to n o s d ai n fo rmac ión d e t i po s oc ioeconóm ico , i n ien t ra s q ue l o s d o s s i gwen te s n o s d an i n fo rmac ión d et i po t ( cn ico -o rgan iza t ivo r e spec to a

c omun idad aL aq ue p e r tenece . P o r o t ra p a r te n orma imen te l a mayo r Ia d e l ma te r ia l a rqueo lóg ico a pa rece e n c la j ua r , ae xcepc ión d c l o s e l emen to s d c omamcn to ,c su ln a soc iado s aa c t iv idade s conóm ica s q ue e if a l lec ido r e a l izaba d u ran te l av i da ,o

l af unc iona l idad d el a sp i eza s . 2 ) An i ve lo d iac rón ico l o s t r aba jo s f unc iona le s s e c a rac te r izan p o ra na l iza r l ae vo luc ión d c l au t i i idad d e

a l memo s q ue r ea i iza s u g rupo y q ue q u ie ren d e ja r c on s tanc ia d ce l ia s al ah o ra d cc n te r ra r al o sm iemb ro s d c s u c omun idad . A s I n o e s r a ro e ncon t ra r ma te r ia l l f t ico q ue r e f le je a c t iv idade s d c c aza , a c t iv idade s

u nm ismo t i po d c p i eza at r avé s d e l t i empo , yt amb ién

a g r Ico la s oa r te na le s .

e nv e rc omo l o s g e s to s t é cn ico s yc o s tumb re s l a bo ra les v an e vo luc ionando , o c omo s e r e lac iona l a

E s a n te e s ta i n tcrp rc tac ión t r ad ic iona l d c p a r te d e l r i tua l f unera r io e n d ónde l o s a ná l is is f unc iona le s

f unc iona l idad c on l a c a mb io s e n e it i po d c i ndu s t r ia i I t ica . 3 ) A mvc i c ompa ra t ivo s e p ueden d e s taca r d e sde

p e rm i ten i ru np oco má sl e jo s yn o sp e rm i ten d i s t ingu i r c on s egur idad c l c a rác te r q ue a dqu ic ren c i cr to s c l emen to sq ue a pa recen e nc ia j ua r , má s c onc re tamen te l ai ndu s t r ia l I t ica , q ue c omo h cmo s v i s to s i cmp rc s eh a r e lac ionado c on c lh echo d c q ue s e d cpo s i tan j un to a l

e s tud io s p un tua les , an ive l d c c ompa ra r d i fe ren te s t é cmca s d c t r aba jo y d c c nmangado d c p i eza s d c u n m ismo t i po d c t i i l , Man su r ( 1983 ) , h a s ta l o s e s tud io s má sa mp l io s c omo l o s d c Ko robova ( 198 )4 ys ui n ten to ap a r t ir d e a ná l is is f unc iona le s d c d a ru na mayo r l u z a l at r an s ic ión e n t re l ae conom Ia c azado ra r e co lec to ra yl a e conom Ia d c p roducc ión e n b a se al ac ue s t ión d e l u so p a ra l as i ega d cc e rea l s i lve s t re oc u l t ivado d cl a sp i eza s d eh oz . C omo s ey el a sp o s ib i l idade s d ca ná l is i s s on a mp l ia s ys uge s t iva s yl o s t r aba jo s r e a l izado s cmp iezan ad a rs u

f a i iec ido L a s a rma s yh e r ram ien ta s q ue h a u t i l izado d u ran te l av i da . E ne s te s en t ido , med ian te l o s a ná i i s is f unc iona le s s e p od rá d i s t ingu i r : S i r e a lmcn te e s ta i ndu s t r ia i I t ica t i ene u n c a rác tc r u t i l i ta r io r i tua l r e lac ionando p o r t a n to c lt i t i l u t i l izado d u ran te l av i da y c la j uar yt odo c ls imbo l ismo p rop io -

d e l mundo d cl a muc r te . V iendo p o rt a n to u na c onex ión d i rec ta e n t re l a s a c t iv idade s r e a l izada s p o r l as oc iedad

f r u to . E n c amb io o cu r re t odo l oc on t ra r io e n e ic ampo d c

d u ran te l av ida ys ur ef le jo e nc lá mb i to f une r a r io . o S i p o r e i c on t ra r io c s to s ma ter ia le s t i encn

l o s e s tud io s r e lac ionado s c on e i mundo f une rar io , e n

s o lamen te u nc arác te rs imból ico r i tua l , e sd ec i r , q ue n o

d onde a tm e s tán p or a br ir g ram p ar te d c l a s p o s ib i l idades q ue e s ta me todo log la a po r ta . Aqu l e s

h an s i do u t i l izado s d u ran te L a v ida y q ue s on s o lo r e f le jo d c l a s a c t iv idade s q ue r e a i iza l a s oc iedad , n o

d onde d ebemo s s i tua r n ue s t ra a po r tac ión e n e s te c ong re so , e n c lc n fa t iza r l a s p os ib i l idade s d c a ná l i s is

e x is t iendo p o rt a n to u na c omex ión d i rcc ta e n t re l av i da c o t id iana y l a s o f rendas q ue a compañan a l c n te r ram ien to , n i e n t re l a s a rma s yh e r ram ien ta s yc l

q ue t i ene e s ta me todo log Ia a li gua l q ue l a s o t ra s q ue p re sen tamo se ne s te a r t icu lo . C onc re tamen te l o s a nt l is i s f unc iona le s e n e ic ampo f une rar io n o s p erm i te o b tene r i n fo rmac ión a d os n i ve le s : 1 - an i ve ld cr i tua lf une ra r io 2 - an i ve l d c e x t rapo la rl ai n fo rmac ión q ue s ep uedc o b tene rd e l a ná l i s i s d cl ai ndu s t r ia l I t ica q ue a pa rece e n c la j ua r , aL a conom Ia d c l as oc iedad q ue h ar e a l izado

-

muc r to . C omo s e y e at r avt s d c l o s a ná l is is f unc iona le s d e l ma te r ia l l I t ico d e l a jua r s e n o s p e rm i te a ce rcarmo s d c u na m ane ra o b je t iva ac i e r ta s p a r te s d e lr i tua lf une ra r io ypm fund iza rc on mayo rs egu r idad e na spec to sq ue p o r s u n a tu ra leza s e e scapan d c L a v i s ion q ue t i ene i m a r queó logo a le xcava rm ie n te r ram ien to . S e h an r ea l izado a l guno s t r aba jo s e n e s te s en t ido,

d i cho e n t e r ram icn to . E s te t i po d ce s tud io sn o s r ef le ja rá p o rt a n to q ué a c t iv idade s ( s iega d cc e rea le s ,t r aba jo sd c

n o so t ro s c i ta remo s d o s q ue p o r s c r c on trad ic to r io s e n s u sr c su l tado sn od e jan d c5 e rp o re l lo más i u s t ra t ivo s .

h ue so ,d e scua r t izam ien to d ca n ima lc s ,e t c . )r e a l izaba e i g rupo yq ue q uedan r c f lc jada se nc la j ua rf une ra r io . R c spec to a lp r imer n ive l c l q ue h acc r e fc renc ia a l

Umo e s u n a ná l is is f unc iona l q ue r ca l izó l a S ra . T e re sa R odón s ob re L ai ndu s t r ia u t ica e n s i lex d c l o s

r i tua l f une rar io , s ed ebe d ec i rq ue t r ad ic iona lmcn te l o s ma te r ia le s r e cupe rado s e nl o s a j ua re sf unc ra r io s s eh an i n t erp rc tado c omo o b je to sp e r sona le s q ue a compa f iaban a l mue r to a lm á sa i la . O b je to s p e r sona le s q ue d u ran te l a v ida h an s i do u t i l izado s p o r l a p e r sona o p o r l a

y ac im ien to s d c F on t d c l aV ena ye iP ad rO ( Trave r te t , O sona C a ta iunya ) ( 1988 ) . Ambos y ac im ien to s c o r rc sponden as cpu lc ro s n co l I t ico sc on u na c rono log la d c L a s egunda m i tad d e l c ua r to m i len io . F ru to d e l a ná i i s is d e l ma te r ia l l I t ico q ue a pa rec iO e n l o s a j ua re s d ce s to s d o s e n te r r am ien to s s el egó al ac onc lu s ion d c

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q ue d i cho " u t i l ia je" n o h ab Ia s i do u t i l izado s i no q ue h ab Ia s i do f ab r icado c on l a m ica f unc iön d ed epo s i ta r lo e ne ia j uar , e s ta h ipö te s i s s ea f ianzaba c on l ap r e senc ia d e r e s to s d c t a l la ym i n üc leo . P o r t a n to e ic a rác te rd e e s te ma ter ia l e s ü n icamen te s imbó l ico -r i tua l . E s te c a rác te r s e d e sp rende d c l aa u senc ia d c h ue l la s d c u so e n l a s p i eza s l I t ica s ye n c ons ide rac ione s t i po lóg icas q ue d an a l ai ndu s t r ia u n a spec to muy e s tanda r izado d e sde e ip un to d e v i s ta d e l ar e lac ión f o rma -func ión ( P un ta s /caza , g eomé t r ico s /agncu l tu ra ) . L a p re senc ia d e e s te t i po d c u t i l ia je e n d e tnmen to d c mucho s o t ro s i nd iscu t ib lemen te p resen te e n l o s y ac im ien tos d c h ab i tac ión r e fuerza e i s i gn if icado q ue p a ra e s ta c omun idad p od r ian t e ne r l a s a c t iv idades e conóm ica s r ep re sen tada s .

e conóm ico s i no r i tua l . Y ap a rc onc lu i rd ec ir s o lo q ue d cc s ta s p o s ib i l idadc s d ca ná l i s is s el i ega al ac onc lu s ion d cl av a l idcz d ce s ta s me todo log i a s , e n c l s en t ido q ue n o s p erm i ten d a r u n p a so o b jc t ivo má s a l iü e n l ai n te rp re tac ión d c a spec to s c omo c lr i tua l , c o s tumb re s f une ra r ia s , e t c . E icmcn to s q ue p o r s u n a tu ra ieza s e n o s c scapan a l e xcava r m i e n te r ram ien to yt odo s ua j ua r .

E ne s te c a so l ai mpo r tanc ia s imbö l ica d e l ma te r ia ln o r ecae e n l a u t i l izac ión o n o d e l m ismo p o r p a r te d e l mue r to s i no e n l ap o s ib le f unc iona l idad q ue e n l av i da c o t id iano h ab r Ia d e sempef lado . P o r e ic on t rar io c le s tud io f unc iona l r ea l izado p o r Cnado Boado ( 1980 ) s ob re u n c on jun to d c m ega l i tos g a l lego s d emue s t ra c lh echo d c q ue e i ma te r ia l l I t ico d epo s i tado e n e i a jua r p resen ta marca s d c u so c or re spond ien te s al au t i l izac ión d c e sa s p i eza s s ob re g ram inea s . E n e s te c a so n o s t endr Ia ino s q ue h acer r e f e renc ia ami c a rác te ru t i l i ta r io r i tua l d e l ma t e r ia l c on t odo s l o s c amb io s d c c oncepc ión d e l r i tua l f une ra r io q ue e s to p uede i mp l ica r . E l c i tar c s to s d o s e j emp io s ap e r segu ido d o s f i ne s e spec i f ico s p o r u na p a r te c l d c e nfa t iza r u na d c l a s p rem isa s d c p ar t ida d c l o s a ná l is is f unc iona le s ye s e i p e l ig ro q ue s e p uede c or rer a l g enera l iza r ya l e x t rapo lar i n fo rmac ión d c t i po f unc iona l , yp o r o t ra p a r te l a d c mo s t ra r l a v a l idez q ue p uede t e ue r e s te mé todo a l a h o ra d c r ef le jar u na v a r iac ión d c c ompo r tam ien to e n c l r i tua l f unera r io y l a s i mp l icac iones q ue s e p ueden d educ ir d c e se c ompo r tam ien to a lc ompa ra r lo c on o t ro s y ac im ien to s y t r ad ic ione s c u l tu ra le s . E l s egundo t i po d ca ná l is is q ue s ep uede r e a l iza rc on c l ma te r ia l l I t ico d e l a j ua r f une ra r io e s e i d c i n ten tar i n f e r i rl ai n fo rmac ión d c t i po f unc iona l q ue s eo b t iene al a e conom Ia d c l a s oc icdad q ue h a r ca l izado e sos e n te r ram ien to s . E n e s te s en t ido c le s tud io f unc iona l d e l m a te r ia l n o s r ef le ja c i e r ta s a c t iv idade se conóm ica sc aza ,a g r icu l tu ra , t a l la d c made ra , e t c . yl am ane ra e n q ue s e r e a l izan d i cha s a c t iv idade s . P o r t a n to a t r avé s d e l a nü l is is d e l a j ua rp od rcmo s o b tcnc ri n fo rmac ión d c l a s a c t iv idade s c o t id iana s d c l av i da d e l g rupo o a l meno s d c l a s q ue e s te h aq uendo r ef le ja r e nc le n te r ram ien to , c on l oq ue v o ivemos a o b tene r i n fo rmac ión n o s o lo a n ive l

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B IB UOGRAF IA ANDERSON ,P . 1 981 . C on tr ibu t ion Me todo log iques al ' ana ly se d e s m icro tace s d u t i l i sa t ion

sur

l e s o u t i l sp réh i s to -

r i que s . T he se 3 ème C yc le . Umve r i té d eB o rdeaux I . 1 992 . E xpe r imen ta lc u l t iva t ion ,h a rve s ta nd t h re sh ing o fw i ld c e rea ls a nd t h e i rr e levance f o ri n t e rp re t ing t h eu se o f E p ipa leo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic a r tefac t s ,e n Ande r son ,P .( Ed ) . - P réh i s to i re d el ' Ag r icu l ture .N ouve l le sa pp roche se x p é r imen ta le se ie t hnograph ique s . Monog raph ie d u CRA n °6 .E d i t ion sd u CNRS . BERGADA , M . , FULLOLA , J .M . & S ERRAT D . 1 990 . L os y ac im ien tos a rqueo log icos y s u s e nc lave s g eo inor f o log ico sd el az ona d e l Mon san t . Gu Ia d el ae xcu r s ion d cl aR eun iOn N ac iona ld eG eoarqueo log Ia .B a rce lona . BERTOLD I DE PO MAR ,H . 1 975 . L o ss i icof i to l i to s : s i nop s i sd es uc onoc im ien to ,e n Darw in iana 1 9 : 1 73 -206 . B INFORD , LI I . 1 978 . N unam iu tE thnoa rchaeo logy . N ew Yo rk . BORDES , F . 1 961 . T ypo log ie d u P a leo l i th ique A nc ien e i Moyen . P ub l ica t ion s d c l ' In s t i tu t d e P reh is to ire d e l t Un ive r s t ié d eB o rdeaux . Memo ire n °1 .Ed .D e lma s .Bo rdeaux . BOUCHER DE P ERTHES ,J .1 847 . A n t iqu i te s C e l t ique se iA n ied i luv iennes Memo i re s u rl ' Indu s t r ie P r im i t ive e tl e s A r t s al e u ro r ig ine .T ome 1 .P a r is . BRENZ ILLON , M . 1 973 . L 'Ou t i l P reh is to i ique e tl eg e s te T echn ique . L 'homme H ie r e tA u jourd 'hw . p p .1 23 -132 . E d .Cu ja s .P a r i s . BROCH IER ,J .E . 1 98 3 . B e rge r ie se tf eux d eb o i sn éo l i th ique sd an sl eM id id cl aF rance ,e n Q ua r ta r3 3 -34 , 1 81 -193 . BUR JAC I H IS , F . 1 988 . Ap l icac iO d c l ap a l ino log ia al ' A rqueo log ia E s ta td c l aq üe s t io aC a ta lunya , e n C o ta Z e ro 4 . V ic . BUXO ,R . 1 990 . Me todo log Ia yt é cn ica s p a ra l ar e cupe rac iOn d cr e s to s v ege ta le s ( e ne spec ia l r e fe renc ia as em i l la s y f r u to s )e ny ac im ien to sa rqueo lOg ico s ,e n C ah ier N o i r 5 .G irona . 1 99 1 . Nou se l emen t sd cr ef lex iO s ob re l ' adopc iO d cl ' ag r icu l tu ra aL a Med i te r ràn ia O cc iden ta lP en in su la r ,e n C o la Z e ro 7 ,68 -76 .V ic . ( i néd i ta ) .D inàm ica d el ' a l imen tac ió v ege ta l ap a r t ir d el ' anà l i s id el i avors if ru i t s .! n terè sd e ls eu e s tud ip e r al ar e c ons trucc iO d el ad i e ta v ege ta la n t iga h umana .T e s id cU iccnc ia tu ra . Umve r s i ta tA u tônoma d cB a rce lona . 1 985 . CA l LEN , D . 1 987 . F onc t ion , lndu s t r ie e t cC u l tu re . B r i t i sh A rcheo log ica lR epor t . A c te s d u C o l loque d e l i ege ,p p .1 45 1 91 . CAUV IN , J .1 981 . T ypo log ie e tf onc t ion d e s o u t i l s p réh is to r ique s : Apo r td c L at r aceo log ie au n v i eux d eba t . T race s d u s i l isa t ion s ur l e so u t i l sn éo l i lh ique sd eu P roche O r ien t .C auv in ,M . C . ( Ed ) .L yon .p p . 2 59 -274 . CEBR IA , A . ,FULLOLA ,J .M . , GARC IA -ARGUELLES ,P . , GRAC IA .V . & MLLAN ,M . 1 981 . A vance a le s tud io d c l o sa s en tam ien to sc on c e rám ica d e lF i lado r( Ma rga lef d c Mon t san t ,P r io ra t ,T a r ragona )e nS agun tum 1 6 .V a lenc ia . CR IADO BOADO ,F . ( 1980 ) . A po r tac ione s a le s tud io d cl ae conom Ia mega L I t ica : a ná l is is d e l m ic rode sga s te e ni n s t rumen to sl I t ico s . G a l lacc ia 6 . Un ive r s idad d cS an t iago d cC ompo s te la . pp. 1 97 -204 . E I IREMBERG 1 854 . M ik rogeo log i e .L .Vo s s . L e ipz ig . E STEBAN ,A . & PARRA ,I .1 984 . L 'ü l t im c i c le g l ac ia l in te rg la c ia l al e s t c r re s mcd i t e r ràn ie s ap a r t i rd c l e s a nà l is is p o l . l In iquc s , aR ev is ta C a ta lana d eG eograf ia 0 .47 -60 .B a rce lona . EVANS ,J . S . 1 971 .A n i n t roduc t ion t oe nv ironmen ta la rchaeo logy . L ondon . 1 972 . T he A nc ien tS t one I mp lemen t s , W eapons a nd O rnamen t so fG rea tB r i ta in . E d .L ongman s ,G r een ,R eade ra nd D ye r .L ondon . FOLCH , R . 1 986 .

2

E d ic iö . L a v ege iac ió d e l s P a i sos C a ta lans . I n s t i tuc iO C a ta lana dT hs tô r ia Na tu ra l I n s t i tu t

dE s tut h sC a ta lan s . Memö r ia n ° i o . Kctres Editora . B a rce lona . F ORTEA , J .1 973 . L os c omp le jo s m ic ro lam ina re s yg eomé tr ico sd e le p ipa ieo l I t ico m ed i ter ró .neo e spano L Memo r ia s d e lS cm ina r io d cP reh is to r ia yA rqueo log Ia n '4 . Un ive r s idad d cS a lamanca . S a lamanca . F RANCESCH I , V .R . & HORNER , H .T . 1 980 . C a lc ium o xa la te c ry s ta l s i np lan t s , e n T he B o tan ica l R ev iew 4 6 ( 4 ) ,

3 61 -427 . F ULLOLA ,J .M . , GARC fA -ARGÜELLES ,P .&C EBR IA ,A . 1 987 . E l a b r igo d e l F i lado r ye ip roce so d cn eo l i t iza c i On e nc lV a l le d e l Mon t san t( Ta r ragona ,C a ta luf ia ,E spa f ia ) ,e n P rem ie re sC ommunau té sP ay sanne se n Méd i ter ra n é eO cc iden ta le s . C o l loque I n te rna t iona ld uC .N .R .S . Mon tpe l l ie r . 1 983 . GARC fA -ARGUELLES ,P . 1 990 . L a si ndu s t r ia se p ipa leo l I t ica sd e ls ur d eC a ta luna :a n teceden te s , d e sar ro l lo ye vo l u c ión h ac ia n uevas f orma s n eo l I t ica s . C o l • lccc iO d c t c s is m ic ro f ib radc s n °6 25 . P ub l icac ion sd cL aU n ive r s i ta td c B a rce lona .B a rce lona . GARC IA -ARGUELLES , P . , ADSER IAS , M . , BARTROL I ,R . , BERGADA , M . , CEBR IA ,A . , DOCE , R . , F ULLO -

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MANUEL C ALVO e ia l .

LA ,J .M . , NADAL ,J . ,R I M ,G . , RODON ,T . &V IRAS ,R . ( en p ren sa ) . S in te s is s ob re l o s p r ime ro sr e su i tado sd e l p rog rama s ob re e p ipa leo l i t ico e n l aC a ta luf la C en t ra l y Me r id iona l e n A c ta s d e A ragón /L i tora l Med i terrdneo . Homena je aJ .M a luque rd e Mo te s .Z a ragoza 1 990 . GARC IA -ARGÜELLES , P . , BERGADA , M . & DOCE , R . 1 990 . E i e s tra to 4 d e l F i lado r ( P r io ra t , T ar ragona ) : n a e j emp lo d et r an s ic ión E p ipa leo l i t ico -Neo l I t ico e ne is u rd eC a ta lunya ,e n S agun lwn 2 3 : 6 1 -71 . V a lenc ia GARC fA -ARGÜELLES , P . , DOCE , R . , NADAL ,J . & BARTROL I ,R . ( i ndd i ta ) . Memèr ia d ' excavac ió d e i ' e s t ra t 7 ( campanye s 1 988 -9 1) a i ' Abr ic d e lF i lador (Marga Jefde Mon t san t , P r iora t , T ar ragona ) . S .E .R .P . Un ive r s i ta t d e B a rce lona . B a rce lona . F eb re r 1 992 . GARC fA -CALDERON ,N . ,J UAN ,J . ,P IN ILLA , A . & GAL IC IA , S . 1 992 . Apo r tac ión d cl o s a nl i s i s f i to l i to lóg ico s a le s tud io d e m i a ndo so l e i N evado d c T o luca o X inan téca t l , Mex ico , e nX l ! C ongre so L a t inoamer icano d e l a C ienc ia d e lS ue lo . S a lamanca 1 992 . GU ILA INE e ta l . 1 988 . L e sr eche rche s al aB a lma d el a Marg ineda ( 1979 -1985 l I n s t i tu t dT h tud i s A ndo r r an s . Ana l s d e l C en t re d eP e rp inyà . Ando r ra l aV e l la . GU ILA INE ,J . , BARBAZA , M . , GEDDES ,D . , VERNET , J . -L . , LLONGUERAS M . & HOPF M . 1 982 . P reh is to r ic h uman a dap ta t ion si nC a ta lon ia ( Spa in ) ,e nJ ou rna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 9 ,407 -4 16 . HAYDEN ,B . (ed .) 1 979 . L i th ic U se -wea rA na ly s i s . P roceed ing s o fC onfe rence o nL i th ic U se -wea r ,B urnaby 1 977 . A cadem ic P re s s . HE INZ , C . 1 991 . Uppe rP le is tocene a nd Ho locene v ege ta t ion i nt h e s ou th o fF rance a nd Andor ra . A dap ta t ion s a nd f i r s tr up tu re s : n ew c ha rcoa la na ly s i sd a ta ,e nR ev iew o fP a leobo tany a nd P a lyno logy 6 9 : 2 99 -324 . Am s te rdam . H ILL MAN ,G .C . , COLLEDGE , SM . & HARR IS ,D .R . 1 989 . P lan tf ood e conomy d u r ing t h eE p ipa leo l i th ic p e r iod a t Abu H u rey ra ,S y r ia : d i e t ry d ive r s i ty , s e a sona l i ty a nd mode so fe xp lo i ta t ion ,e nH a r r is ,D .R . &H i l lman ,G .C . ( Ed ) . F orag ing a nd f a rm ing :e vo lu t ion o fp lan te xp lo i ta t ion . Unw in & Hyman . L ond re s . p p .240 -268 . HOYAS , C . ,J UAN ,J . , PALET , A . & MLLATE ,E . 1 990 . Aná l is is d cf i to l i to s e nó pa lo yp seudomo r fo s d co xa la to d c c a lc io e nc a lc i ta c omo i nd icado re sa rqueobou in ico s ,e nC , ia fprnar io yG eomorf o logia 4 ( 1-4 ) , 1 47 -154 .Z a ragoza . J UAN ,J .( méd i ta ) . A nd i i s is d ef i to l i tos e ns ue lo sa rqueo ldg icos :e iA br ic d e lF i lador (Ma rga lef d e Mon t san t ,P r iora t , T a rragona ) .N ueva sa por tac ione spa l eoe :nobo ldn ica s .T es i sd cL icenc ia tu ra .U n ive r s i ta td cB ar ce lona 1 993 . R . , BUR JACHS , F . , E STEBAN , A . , GENOVA , R . , LLASAT , C . , MONTSERRAT J . , PARRA I . , PEREZ OB IOL R . , ROURE J .M . &V ILAPLANA J .M . 1 989 . L a te G lac ia l a nd Ho locene P o l len S equence si n No r thea s te rn

J UL IA ,

I ber ian P en in su la ,e n T e rra a b s trac t s 1 ,426 . S t ra sbou rg . KEELEY ,L .H . 1 974 .T he Me todo logy o fm ic rowea ra na ly s is . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty , n '39 . p p . 1 26 -128 . 1 980 . E xpe r imen ta lD e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l s U se s . AM icrowea rA na ly s i s .T he Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . LALUEZA ,C . ,J UAN ,J .& P EREZ -PEREZ ,A . ( en p ren sa ) . Aná l is is p o rS EM d cf i to l i to s e ne ie sma l te d en tar io : i n f o rmac ión s ob re l ar e con s lrucc ión p a leamb ien ta l yl ad i c ta v ege ta l , e n V I I IC ongreso d e l aS oc iedad E spano la d e A n tropo logla B io I d g ica . Mad r id 1 993 . MANSUR F RANCHO M ME , M E . 1 983 . T race s d 'U t i l i sauon e tT ecno log ie L i th ique : E xemp le s d e l aP a tagon ia . T hese d c3 ème c yc le . U n ive r s i té d cB o rdeaux I . MANSUR , M . E . 1 981 . M ic rowea r a na ly s is o fn a tu ra l a nd u se s t r ia t ion s : N ew c l ue s t ot h e mechan isms o fs t ira t ion f o rma t ion . T a i l ler !p or q uo if a ire : P réh i s to ire e tT echono log ie l i th ique 1 .R ecen tp rogre s s i nm ic rowea rs t ud ie s . C ahen ,D .E d . S tud ia P rach i s tó r ica B é lg ica . n o2 .T e rvu re . pp . 2 13 -233 . MAR INVAL , P h . 1 985 . L aB a ima Ma rg ineda . C ue i l le t te e ta g r icu l tu re , e nL e s D os s ier s . H i s to ire e tA rchéo log ie 9 6 , 2 5 -27 . 1 988 .L 'a l imen ta t ion v égé ta le e nF rance d u Me so l i th iqueju squ 'a l Age d uF er . E d i t ion sd uC .N .R .S .P a r i s . 1 99 1 . L ' econom ia d cs ub s i s tènc ia aF ranca d u r an te im e so i l t ic ic ln eo l I t ic a n t ic : l e sa po r tac ion sd cl ap a leoca rpo lo g i a ,e n C o la Z e ro 7 ,88 -95 . V ic . MAZO ,C . 1 991 . G losar io yc ue rpo b ib l iograf i co d el o se s tud io sf unc iona le se nP reh i s tor ia . B a rce lona 1 99 1 . MOLERO ,J .( l nèd i ta ) . E s tud iof i or I s t ico yf i togeogrdf i co d el aS i e rra d e l Mon t san t ys ua rea d ei nf luenc ia .T es i Doc t o ra l .U n ive r s i ta td cB a rce lona .B arce lona . 1 976 . MOSS , E . 1 983 . T he F unc t iona l Ana ly s is o fF l in tI mp lemen t s . B r i t ish A rchaeo log ia l R epor t s . I n terna t iona l s er ie s . 1 77 . N ILSON . 1 838 . T he P r im i t ive I nhab i tan ts o fS cand inav ia .L ondr e s 1 968 . ODELL ,G .H . 1 980 . B u tcher ing w i th s t one t oo ls : s ome e xpe r imen ta lr e su l t s . L i th ic T echno logy , n '9 ( 2 ) . p p .3 9 -48 . P EARSALL ,D . 1 989 . P a leoe thnobo tany . Ah andbook o fprocedure s . A cadem ic P re s s . P IPERNO ,D . 1 988 . P hy lo l i th a na ly s i s .A na rchaeo log ica la nd g eo log ica lp e r spec t ive . A cadem ic P re ss . S an D iego .

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P L ISSON ,H . 1 985 . É tude f onc t ionne l le d ' ou t i l lage sl i t h iques p réh i s tor ique sp ar l ' ana lyse d e sm icrousure s : r e che rce ‚ n e thodo log ique e ta rcheo log ique .T he se p ou rl ' ob ten t ion d ut i t re d e Doc teu r .I nove r s i té d eP a r is I . PONS , A . & RE ILLE , M . 1 988 . T he Ho locene a nd U ppe rP le is tocene p o l len r eco rd f r om P adu l ( G ranada , S pa in ) : a n ew s t udy ,e nP a leogeo .P a le oc l im . ,P a leoeco l 6 6 ,243 -266 . RAUC . 1 986 . A g r icu l tu ra lI mp lemen t so ft h e No r th Ame r ican S tone P e r iod . A nnua lR epor to ft h eS m i th son ian I n s t i tu .

t i on f o r1 863 .p p .3 79 -380 . Wa sh ing ton . R IERA ,S . 1 990a ) I nf orme d e l ' anà i i s ip o l . l In ica d el e s t ra t 7d e ijac imen t " E lF i lador" ( Ser ra d e l Mon t san t ) . S e rve i C -T d eG e s t iö iE vo luc ió d e lP a i sa tge . U n ive r s i ta td cB a rce lona .B a rce lona . Oc tub re 1 990 . ( po lenc ) 1 990b .H is tô r ia d el av ege tac io d e lP la d eB a rce lona e ne i sd a r re r s9 .000 a ny s . Anà l i s ip o l . l In ica d el ' an t ic E s tany d e lC aga le l l( DR -1 ) ,e nR ev i s ta C a la lana d eG eograf ia 1 3 ,57 -68 .B a rce lona . R IVERA ,D . & OBON ,C . 1 987 .E s tud io p a leobo tn ico d cl aS epu i tu ra n ° 70 ,e nI N IESTA ( Ed . ) . E rcavac ione sa rque o l og ica se nC o imbra d e lB a r ranco A ncho ( Jum i l la ) .p p .74 -76 .C on se je r ia d c Cu l tu ra yE ducac ión . Mu rc ia . R IVERA ,D . , OBON ,C . & ASENC IO ,A . 1 988 . A rqueobo tán ica yp a leoe tnobo tán ica e nc lS u re s te d cE spaf ia . D a to s p r e l im ina re s ,e n T raba jos d eP reh i s tor ia 4 5 ,317 -334 . RODON BORRAS ,T . ( i néd i ta ) . E s tud i : r aceo log ic -f unc iona l :ap l icac ió a l sj ac imen t s d ef on t d e l av ena ,e lpad ró ( T rava r te t ,O sona ) iS an :G regor i( Fa l se t ,Pr iora t ) .Te s id cl i cenc ia tu ra .U n ive r s i ta td cB a rce lona . ROS ,M .T . 1 988 .L ' ap l icac ió d cl ' anà l i s ia n t raco lög ica a1 ' a rqueo log ia c a ta lana ,e nC o la Z e ro 4 :5 1-60 . V ic . ROVNER ,I .1 971 . P o ten t ia l o fo pa lp hy to l i th sf o ru se i np a leoeco log ica lr e con s t ruc t ion ,e n Q ua ternary r e sea rch 1 , 3 43 -359 . 1 983 .P lan to pa lp hy to l i th s a na ly s is : ma jo ra dvance si na r chaeobo tan ica lr e search ,e nS ch if fe r ,M .B . ( Ed ) ,A dvance s i na rchaeo log ica lm e thod a nd t h eor y6 ,225 -266 . 1 988 . F i to l i to se nl a sp l an ta s : u nf a c to rp robab lede l o so r igene sd cl aa g r icu l tura ,e n Manzar ni la L .( Ed . ) . - C o loqu io V .Gordon C h i lde .E s tud ios s ob re l ar evo luc ión n eo l I t ica yl ar evo luc ión u rbana . A rqueo log Ia . S e r ie Monog ra f Ia s2 . I n s t i tu to d cI nve s t igac ione s An t ropo lóg ica s .U .N .A .M . Mex ico . SANGSTER , A .G . & HODSON ,M .J . 1 992 . S i l ica d epo s i t ion i ns ub te r ranean o rgan s , e n RAPP G .J r . & MULHOL LAND S .C .( Ed ) . P hy to l i th s i s iema t ic s . Eme rg ing i s sue s ,e n Advance si nA rchaeo log ica la nd Mu seum S c ience . V o l 1 .P l enum P re s s .N ew Yo rk & L ondon . S CHELLE MBERG ,H .C . 1 908 . T he r ema in s o fp l an t sf r om t h e No r th K u rgan , Anau ,e nP umpe l ly ( Ed ) ,E xp lora t ion i nT urk e s tan . C a rneg ie I n s t i tu te . Wa sh ing ton . S E MENO ,S .A . 1 964 . P reh i s tor ic T echo logy .L ondon . SONNEV ILLE BORDES , D . e tP ERROT , J .1 956 . L ex ieu T ypo log ique d u P a leo l i th ique S uper ieu r . Ou t i l lage L i t h ique . B u l le t in d el aS oc ie te P réh i s tor ique F rança i se .n °5 3p p .408 -4 12 ,5 47 -559 . T I MER ,J .1 955 . L es Ab r i s s on sr ouche d cD akh la te sS andane ( comune m ix te d cB on -Saâda ) . I ndu s t r ie s e np l ace d c l ' Abn B . L ibycan °3 p p .81-12 . TR INGHA M , R COOPER ,G . ODELL ,G . VOYTEK ,B . e t WITHMAN ,A . 1 974 . E xpe r imen ta t ion i nt h ef o rma t ion o fE dge D amage : AN ew App roach t oL i th ic Ana ly s i s . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy ,n ° 1p p . 1 71 -196 . l iNGER -HAM ILTON ,R . ( 1988 ) . Me thod i nM ic rowea r Ana ly s is . P reh i s to r ic s i ck le s a nd o the r s t one t oo ls f r om A r j oune ,S y r ia .B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n te rna t iona ls e r ie s4 35 . VAUGHAN ,P . 1 981 .M ic rowea rA na ly s i s o fE xpe r imen ta lF l in ta nd Ob s id ian T oo l s . T h ird I n terna t iona l S ympos ium o nF l in t .p p .90 -91 . S t a r ing ia . VERNET ,J . -L . 1 973 .E tude s u rl ' h i s to ire d cl av égé ta t ion d uS udE s td cl aF rance a nQ ua tc rua i re ,d ' ap rè sl e sc ha rbon s d cb o is p r inc ipa lemcn t ,e n P a lé ob io log ie C o ru inen ta le 4 ,1 90 . Mon tpe l l ie r . VERNET ,J . -L . & KRAUSS - MARGUET I .1 985 .L aB a lma Ma rg ineda .C ha rbon sd cb o is e tv ege ta t ion , L e sD os s ie r s . H i s to i re e tA rchéo log ie 9 6 ,2 4 -25 . VERNET ,J . -L . , TH IEBAULT , S . & HE INZ , C . 1 987 . Nouve l les d onné s s u rl av égé ta t ion p o s tg lac ia i re méd i te r ra n éenne d ' ap rè s l ' ana lyse a n th raco log ique , e n P rem ie re s C ommunau té s P ay sanne s e n Méd i ter ranée O cc iden ta le s . C o l loque I n te rna t iona ld uC .N .R .S . Mon tpe l l ie r . 1 987 . YLL , R . &P EREZ -OB IOL , R . 1 992 . I n s ta lac ión d c l o s b o sque s d educ ida ap ar t ir d e l a ná l i s is p o l in ico d c i m s ondeo m anno d e lD e l ta d e lE b ro ( Ta r ragona ,E spaf ia ) ,e n O r s i s 7 ,21 -30 .

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APROX E MAC ION A LA S ISTE MAT IZAC ION Y CRONOLOG IA DE LAS E STRUCTURAS FUNERAPJAS DE LA CULT IJRA TALA JOT ICA EN MALLORCA .

9

J A UME COLL -CONESA Museo N ac iona l d eC e rám ica c /P oe ta Que ro l , 2 4 6002 V a lenc ia E spaf ia

A

p esa r d e l c onsen so y d e l o s c onoc im ien to s

a l canzado s e n l o s u l t imo s d ecen io s a ce rca d a l ag ran v ar iab i l idad d e r i tua le s f une ra r io s ye s t ruc tu ra s q ue s e o bse rvan a l o l a rgo d c l a e vo luc ión d e l a C u l tu ra T a la ió t ica d e Ma l lo rca , s e h ace n ece sar ia t u na s i s tema t izac ión d e s u s r a sgo s , y a q ue a l a na l iza r l a l i te ra tu ra r e c ien te a lr e spec to s e a p rec ia l af a l ta d e u n r e f e ren te p rec i so t a n to c oncep tua l c omo t e rm ino lóg ico q ue p enn i ta a na l iza r l o s h echo s c u l tura le s p a ra c x t rae r c onc lu s ione s d ct i po h i s tó r ico ,s oc ia l oc rono lóg ico . E n tendemo s C u l tu ra T a la ió t ica c omo a que l la c a rac te r I s t ica d c l a s oc iedad b a lea r d e sde c l B ronce F ina l h a s ta l a r omar nzac ión a cep tando e n l I nea s g ene ra le s l o s märgenes c rono lóg icos y ma te r ia le s d ef imdos p o r Ro sse l ló Bo rdoy ( 1973 , 1 979 ) y F ernández M i randa ( 1978 ) . S in emba rgo e s tamo s c onvenc ido s d el av e rac idad d el o sa r gumen to sd cW .H . Wa ldren e n q ue e x isten n umerosos r a sgos

s imét hco s . L ad e f imc ión q ue l o s a rqueo logo s h accmo s d c l a " cu l tu ra" , e spec ia lmen te a p ar t i r d c l a c u l tu ra ma te r ia l p uede s e r t e r i ib lemen te r e sba lad iza , y aq ue l o s p roce so s e vo lu t ivo s e nc lc ampo d ce s ta i l t ima p odr I an s e r i n terp re tado s c omo r ea les c amb io s c u l tu ra le s s i a bandonamo s u na v i s iOn d i ac rOn ica . E n c l e x t rcmo c on t ra r io ,c lc onoc im ien to e xhau s t ivo d cl ae vo luc ión d c l ac u l tu ra ma te r ia l s i nl ac on s tanc ia c l a ra d cp roce so sd c r up tu ra s oc ia l ( conqu i s t .a p o r p a r te d c a lg i In p ueb lo v cc ino ,r oman izac iOn ) p uede l eva rno s an o a soc ia r l o s c amb io sm a te r ia le sc on l o sh i s tO r ico -soc ia le s . E STRUCT 'URAS FUNERAR IAS

d i fe renc iado re s e n l ae t apa f i na l d e l d e sa r ro l lo c u l tura l a u toc tono e nl o s s i g lo s a n te r io re s al ar oman izac ión ,c on

Has ta h ace p ocos a f ios , l a s i stemá t ica e n l a c a tego r izac iOn d ce s t ruc tu ra sf unc ra r ia sp od ia c a l if ica r sc d c c on fu sa ei ncomp ic ta , d cb ido aq ue l o s I r aba jo s e n q ue s em enc ionaban s o l Ian s e ro b ra s d cc arác tc rg ene ra l e ncam inadas a o f recer v i s iones d c c on jun to . R cc icn temen tc c l c onoc im icn to h a p rofund izado e n

p rofundo s c amb io s p ob lac iona le s , c u l tura le s , s oc ia le s y e conóm ico s q ue h an s i do a na l izado s r epe t idamen te

a l guno s a spcc to s c omo e io r igen y l ac vo luc ión d c l a s e s t ruc tu ra s , s i s tcma s f unera r ios y p un tua l izac ión

(Wa ld ren , 1 982 , 1 985 ; Gue r re ro , 1 985 ; C o l l C one sa , 1 989 ) , a unque p o r c l momen to man ife s tamo s n ue s t ra i n tenc ión d c n o d e sdob la r c l d e sar ro l lo d c l a c u l tu ra

c rono lOg ica d c a l guno s e l emen to s ma te r ia le s , a s Ic omo

i n su la r e n d o s p e r iodo s ( fa la ió t ico y P o s ta la ió t ico ) y a q ue e n tendemo s q ue l o sl im i te sc rono lóg ico s d cl a s d o s e t apa s s on a ün i mprec iso s ya dcmá s e x is ten c i e r to s p rob lema s e n l a d a tac ión d c a lguna s e v idenc ia s c on s ide rada s f undamen ta le s e n c l p roceso , c omo c l

e n l a i n terp re tac ión s oc ia l d c e s tos p rocesos ( Co l l C onc sa , 1 989 ) . B asándono s e n l a d ocumen tac ión d c n ue s t ro r e c ien te e s tud io o f rcce remo s ac on t inuac iOn u m b reve c omen tar io d e l c ap I tu lo p e r tenec ien te a la nl i s is d cl a se s t ruc tu ra sf une ra r ia s . H a s ta n ues t ra v i s iOn p reva lec Ia c omo e squema

momen to d c a bandono d c l a a rqu i tec tu ra c i c lOpea . P ensamo s q ue a c tua lmcn te c lt é rm ino p o s ta la ió t ico n o

g enera l c l p un to d c v i s ta d c V . M . Guer re ro ( 1985 , 1 986 ) q ue d ebemo s c on s ide ra rc on t inu I s ta c on r e spec to al at e o r fa e sbozada p o r G . R o s se l lö ( 1973 , 1 979 ) . S u

e s a p rop iado c omo r e f eren te c u l tu ra l , a unque t odo s

p ropuc s ta s ep re sen taba d e l modo s i gu ien te :

e n tendemo s q ue l a e x is tenc ia d e l t é rm ino t i ene u no s c on temdo sq ue s ee ncuen t ran e nc on t Inua r e v i s ion d e sde c lp un to d c v i s ta d c l ai n te rp re tac iOn c u l tu ra l . D ch echo

L uga r e sf une rar io sd cl aC u l tu ra T a la ió i ica . 1 -C ueva sd cc áma ra s mt m l t ip le s .

é s ta p uede s e r u na d i scu s iOn e s té r i l y a q ue l o s I lm i te s

p e r s i s tenc ia c u l tu ra ld cl af a c ic sa n te r io r . 2 -A ) Abngo sr oco so s . c on os i nc i er re c i c lopco .

c u l tu ra le s c s tt mn i mbr icado s c on c ue s t ione s h i s tO r ica s y s oc ia lcs p ero e n mngün c a so s e t r a ta d c p roce so s

2 96

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o cupac ión c on f i ne sf une ra r io sh a s ta é poca r o

Ma io l , C ova d e S on B auça ( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) , C ova

m ana . B )C ueva sn a tu ra le sSon B o rona t p e r s i s tenc ia d e lu so h a s ta l o s momen to s f i

d eS a Madona ( San tany l ) ,S 'A ta la ia ( San ta Ma rga l ida ) Ademá s d e e s to s y ac im ien to s c on ta ino s c on o t ro s d ocumen tado s i n suf ic ien temen te c omo C an S ive l la ,

0

1

2 m

1 2 . C ueva n a tura l . Aan ta d e S on B orona t ,b asado e n G uerrero .

2 .

F IGU RA 1 .

.

A b r igo n a tura lc on c ien 'e o c lópeo . P lan ta d e l C uva ld es X araga l l , We = d oe nJ .C o IL

e n c a l e n n ec rópo l is .

t odas

l a s

1 . 2 . C ueva n a tu ra l ( F igu ral) . Documen tada d e sde e i p e r Iodo P re ta la ió t ico . P e rdu ra s i n p érd ida d e c on t inu idad h a s ta L ar oman izac ión . N ume ro sa s c ueva s s on u t i l izada s e n e ip er lodo T a ia ió t ico B ronce ( To ssa ls V e rd s ( Esco rca ) , F on t F iguera ( A la ró ) , S a C ova ( A lga ida ) , m ien t ra s e ncon t ramo s u t i l izac ione s d u ran te L a Had d e li l ier ro e nS on B o sc ( And ra tx ) ,S on B o rona t ( Ca lv iá ) , S on R ibo t ( San t L lo renç d e s C a rde s sa r ) , S on

s e rS on G a l ia rd ( De ià ) oC a la P iH . E n g ene ra l v emo s q ue s on n ec rópo l i s q ue p re sen tan c lr i to s e cunda r lo e nc lT a ia ió t ico I mc ia i ye ir i to d cl a c a l e nc lf i na l ,e ne s te c a so n oc on se rvando l o sa n t iguo s i lm i te s d e l e spac io s ag rado d e lp er lodo p r eceden t e . S on Ma tge d e staca s ob re e i r e s to d c l a s c ueva s d c e s te momen to e nt o da l ai s la y aq ue a demá sd cp re sen ta ri m e n te r ram ien to i n te rp re tab le c omo d c i m a l to p e r sona je , o f rece e s t ruc turas d c c u l to c on e spac ios b ien d e l im i tado se nL ap rop ia n ec rópo l is . Ma sca ró ( 1967 : 2 802 ) l a s s i s tema t izó e s tas

2 97

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

e s t ruc tu ra s e ns ug rupo 3 °s i np rec isa rs uc rono log la . E l o r igen c rono lóg ico d e e s ta s e s t ruc tu ra s f ue i n tu Ido p o r Ro sse l lO Co i l ( 1966 : 3 3 ) q u ien d efend ió s u s r ake s

j un to c on l o sa b r igo s d cc i er re c i c lópeo p a ra l a s c ueva s a r t if ic ia le s e xcavada s c on c i er re c i c lópeo t I p ica s d e momen to sp o s te r io re sc omo S on Ma i ino .

mega i l t ica sb a s ndo se e na r gumen to s q ue h oy e nd I an o p ueden s e r man ten idos , y a q ue e s te a u to r i nc luyó l a C ueva d eL aF on tF igue ra c omo y ac im ien to d e lB ronce An t iguo . L ap r ime ra n o t Ic ia i n te re san te s e d ebe aF on t ( 1970 : 3 76 ) a l c omen ta r q ue e n e iP u ig d e S 'E sco là , c ueva c on e n te r ram ien to se nc a l ,s eo b se rvaba c e r m ica

2 . 3 C ueva n a tu ra l c on mu ros o b anca le s i n te rno s ( F igu ra 2 ) . No t Ic ia s s ob re e s t ruc tura s n a tu ra les c ompa r t imen tada s i n ter iormen te s e o bse rvan e n l a b ib i iog r af Ia a lm eno s d e sde c rono log Ia s t a n a i ta s c omo c .1 700 a .C . ( Come ta d e l Mo r t s IyI ) . O t r a s p re sen tan b anca le s p ara d i spone r l o s r e s to s d e l o s i nhumado s ,

Secc n

. ..

Pl irb

"

. ‚

L cnitud d a I sg a ie va : 1 9l t

2 .3 .O jeve n a turi lc on m l,os 0b anc ea b tarnos . C a mels d e li Mar ts 2 . B oe n C .V eny .

2 .2 C ueva s c on c i er re c ic lópeo . A p ar t ir d e l t e s t imomo d e S on V aque r d en R ibe ra e s p rev is ib le s u c on s t rucc ión e n e ip er lodo

1 987 : 2 76 ) .

F IGURA 2 .

2 .4 C ámara s h ipO s t i la s ( F igu ra

med ian te p i la re s v e r t ica les f o rmado s c on g rande s p ied ra s , av ece s c on o t ra s f o rmando c ap i te l , yl o sa s h o r izon ta le s d c c ub ie r ta , t odo e l lo s epu l tado b a jo u na

P re ta la ió t ico ys uu t i l izac ión h a s ta l ar oman izac ión . S eg t in V eny ( 1977 :152 ) c abe i n c lu i r e ne s te g rupo a C ova Ma ssana ( Campane t ) , c on e n te r ram ien to e n c a l ,

c apa d c t i er ra . S o lo s e c onocen l a s d e An t igo r s ( Se s S a l ine s ) yS on J u l ia ( Uucma jo r ) .

j un to c on B óque r , F o rmen to r , L a C ova d e l D rac y l a C ova d e s Mo ro d e C a la F a lcó , q ue s eg n p arece p resen tó s a rcofago s d e made ra . Ma sca ró ( 1967 ) l a s s i s tema t iza e n s u g rupo 3 ° ys u o r igen y c rono log Ia p re sen ta l a s m i sma s i n te rp re tac ione s d e l o s d ive r so s a u to re s q ue e ig rupo a n te r io r , y a q ue g ene ra lmen te s on e s tud iada s c omo v ar ian te s d e u n m ismo t i po . P a ra R o s se l ló ( 1965b : 9 1 y1 979 : 10 ) s e u sa ron e n l o s s i g lo s f i na le s d e l a c u l tu ra t a la ió t ica ( Ta l . 1 1 1V ) n o t en iendo e n c uen ta l a a pa r ic ión d e ma ter ia les p re ta la ió l ico se nS on V aque r . E n s I n tes is s e t r a ta d c u n t i po d e n ec rópo l is c on p a ra le lo s c onoc ido s e n Meno rca , q ue d eb ió c on s t ru ir se d e sde c . 1 600 a .C . yq ue ma rco c i e r to s p receden te s

3 ) . C av idades

n a tu ra le s r eacond iconada s p a ra s os tene r u na c ub ie r ta

C o lom ina s ( 1920a ) c r eyó v e r e n e l ia s u no d e l o s t i po s d ec on s t rucc iOn f une ra r ia d el ac u l tur aT a la ió t ica . D e sgrac iadamen te d e sconocemo s l o s ma ter ia les q ue e ncon t rO e n An t igo r s p o r l o q ue n o p odemo s a po r ta r n ada s ob re e s te a spec to . E l t i po p a rece p ode ro r ig ina r se e n l aC ueva d c S o N tle reu , d e l P re ta la ió t ico Med io , d onde e it e cho d e l o sa s s es o s ten Ia p o rl a ja s v e r t ica le s ( Co lom ina s , 1 920a ) . L a e s truc tu ra d e An t igo r s yS on J u l ia e s f o rma lmen te T a la ió t ica , c omo e i s i s tema d c c ub ie r ta d c mucho s t a la io t s . C abe d educ ir q ue s e c on s t ruye ron d cf o rma s im i la rh a s ta e is i g lo I V a .C . p o r l o menos , d ado c l t e s t imon io d e S on J u l ia . P a ra R o ssc l lO ( 1979 : 10 ) e it i po d ebe r e lac iona r se c on l a s

2 98

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a rqu i tec ton ica s . D ebe c on temp la r se e i h echo q ue d u ran te L av i genc ia d e L a c u l tu ra T a la ió t ica s e d i e ran r i tua le s d ef undac ión c on s a c r i f ic io sh umano s ,b i en c on a u tdn t ica s i nmo lac ione s , l i en c on e id epo s i to e nc i e r to s

s i g lo s i n ic ia le s d eL ac u l tu ra T a la ió t ica , c uando mucho s g rupo s a f in r e s id i r lan e n a g rupac ione s d e n ave ta s . E s t e p ape l s imbó i ico a c tuar la c omo c ohe s ionan te d e l g rupo , c on l o c ua l s e r la p o s ib le q ue L ae r ecc ión d e l t a la io t s e v i e se e nvue l ta e n a c to s r i tua le s y ,e n e spec ia l , i n c lu so

l u ga re s s ag rado s d el o s d e spo jo s d ea l gün d i fun to . E s te

0

1

2m

2 .4 . C . ámarah ipös t i la . S es A nl igo rs ,b asado e nJ .C o lommas .

4 . 2 .1 . Qeva a , 1 if lc ia d up 4an la s encd *a . Mane d u S on C oves .B asado an C .Veny .

d onde l a s u rna s a l ineada s j un to a l a s p a redes s on s o spechosamen te s eme jan te s al a s u sada s e n l a s

p o r l a g ran v a r iab i l idad e n l ap re senc ia d e e l emen to s c omo mcho s ,b anco s oe s t ruc tu ra sq ue l ec on f ie ren g r an d ive r s idad . E n t re e l ia s c l a s if icamo s l a mayo r Ia d c l a s c ueva s d c E s Mono (Manaco r ) ,T one R edona ( Pa lma

F IGURA 3 .

n ec rópo l is i n fan t i les . R ec ien temen te , e i h a l lazgo r e a l izado p o rW . Wa ld ren e n S on Ma s , d e e s t ruc tu ra s

d e Ma l lo rca ) , yl aC ova d e S on S e im ( Fe ian i tx ) . E x i s te

p róx ima s a ts an tua r io u sada s p a ra f undac ión d e p i aca s

d ocumen tac iOn i n su f ic ien te s ob re E s Mono d c S on C oves ,T one Ma r ina , C an Qu i txe ro , yp odemo s i n c lu ir

d cp lomo q ue l u ego s e rán u sada s e nl o s r i to sf une r a r io s e su na p rueba mi m se ne s te s en t ido . D ebemo sn o ta rt a n ib idn l ap o s ib le r e lac ión e n t re e s ta p rac t ica y s u v incu lac ión a c on s t rucc ione s d e v a lo r

e n e s te g rupo l a s c ueva s d e C a s C anonge ( Or f i la , 1 988 :209 ) , E s F igue ra l B lanc ( O r f i la , 1 988 : 2 04 ) , S on Mo na ( Ma sca rO y Agu i lo , 1 969 : 12 ; O r f i la , 1 988 : 2 22 ) , S on R oca ( Pe t ra ) , S on C re ixe l l ( S ineu ) ,E is F i t e r s

s imból ico . E L t a la io t n o s e e xp l ica s o lo c omo u na e s truc tu ra d eh ab i tac ión , s mo q ue p uede a dqu ir i rv a lo r

( Mu ro ) ,e t c( Veny , 1 977 : 5 3 ) . E n r e sumen , s on e s t ruc tura s q ue p resen tan p robab lemen te u n r i to c omün r e lac ionado c on l o s e n te r ram ien to s e n c a l op os ib le s i nc ine rac ione s , r i to

s imbó L ico r ep resen tando l af ue rza d e l c o lec t ivo c omo s i gno d e lp ode rd e lg rupo . E s te h echo p udo a c tua rc omo c l a ro e l emen to d i sua sono yo s ten ta t ivo s ob re todo e nl o s

2 99

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

c ueva s d e c o lumna s e xcavada s e n l ar oca , p rop ia s d e l T a la ió t ico F ina l . G ue r re ro ( 1981 :195 )a f i rma q ue e nN a Mo l tona e x is t ió u na n ec rópo l is s eme jan te p e ro n o s e a t reve as ud a tac ión e spec If ica .

s imp le s f o sa s d c t i e r ra . E n a l guno s c a so s e s p rev i s ib le l a o cupac ión d c a n t iguo s e spac ios c on n umc ro so s c n tcr ram icn to s s i ne s t ruc tu ra sa pa rcn tc s . S ch an h a l lado r cu t i l izac ionc s f une rar ia s e n T a la ia J oana y p r ime r t a la io td c S c s An t igo r s ( Se a S a l ine s ) , S oN 'Om s C -D -E ( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) , S c s P a I sse s ( AAA ) , S on O leza ( Va l ldcmo ssa ) . E n S on F cr rande l l a pa reccn r e s to s i n comp ic to sd cn if io s yp e r ro s e no t ro t a la io t( Chapman ,

Dada l a i nex is tenc ia d e l uga res f une rar io s d e l T a la ió t ico I n ic ia l e n g ran p a r te d e l i l ano d e L a i s la , p odr Ian i n te rp re ta r se e s ta s e s truc tu ra s h ipogea s c omo l o s l uga re s f une ra r io s má s h ab i tua le s d e l T a la ió t ico B ronce e ne s ta s c oma rca s . S in emba rgo e s to n oe s má s q ue u na h ipó tes is p o r c omp robar d ada l aa u senc ia d c h a l lazgo sd ee s as c a rac te r I s t ica s .

R ; G ran t , A . 1 989 ) a unquc n o p arece c l ara s u r c lac ión c on a l g i in a c to r i tua l . E n G a lat zO p arece q ue a l guna s e s truc tu ra s f ucron r cocupada s c on f i ne s f une ra r io s . O t ra s r cu t i l izac ionc s s eh an d e tec tado e nc lt a la io t Ad c

3 . -R eu t i l izac ión d ce s t ruc tu ra sa r t if ic ia le s . A / I l ipogea s . 3 .A .1 C ueva a r t if ic ia l s imp le r eu t i l izada . S c t r a ta g ene ra lmen te d e c ueva s a r t if ic ia le s e xcavadas e n l a r oca p e r t enec ien te s a lB ronce An t iguo , r e adap tada s e n l o s momen to s f i na le s d c l a c u l tu ra T a la io t ica . S on r ep re sen ta t iva s d ce s te g rupo C aN aV id r ie ra ( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) , S on Mo ssón ( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) , S on S unye r 7( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) .

C apoco rb V c l l ( Co lom ina s , 1 920a : 5 66 -567 ) ,t a l v ez e n S on Ma s d e s P o tcca r i d c L lub I ( G .R . 1 928 ; L a No s t ra T e r ra , 1 928 ) , S on P e ro t ( Pon s F ab reguc s , 1 900 ) , V i la r d cT a lap I( Pa re ra , 1 918 ) , ye nE s C a r r i txO d cS on X ina , d c d ondc c ucn ta B o rdoy ( 1945 : 4 2 ) q ue s u p rop ic ta r io d es t ruyO u n t a la io t a pa rec iendo n umeroso s r e s to s h umano s . E s ta sc v idcnc ia s p a recen d a rs opo r tc at o da sa que l la s i n te rp rc tac ione s d c r a Ice s a nce s t ra lc s ( Damc to , 1 631 ; R am is , 1 818 ; yc omen ta r io s d c Ma sca rO ( 1967 : 2 644 s ) q ue i n tcn tan d cmo s t ra rq ue c lt a la io tf ue c on s tru Ido c on f i na l idad f unera r ia . E s ta m isma f unc iOn f ue d ef cnd ida p o r C o lom ina s ( 1920a ) , Amo ró s ( 1929 ) ,

L a r eu t i l izac ión d c e s tos e spac ios j un to c on L a d e tec tada t amb ién e n S aR i txo la d c S incu ( Veny , 1 968 : 2 13 ) ol ad c S on P u ig , amba s muy ma l d ocumcn tada s , p erm i te s uponer q ue s o lo g en te d c b a jo r ango u t i l izó e s to sl u ga rc sd cc u l to a n ter io r . 3 .A .2 C ueva a r t if ic ia l d c mü l t ip lc s c áma ra s . S eg t in Rossc l lO Bo rdoy c l t i po n o a pa recc h asta c l P re ta la iO t ico F ina l . S c t r a ta d c c ueva s a r t if ic ia le s c on t r es o c ua t ro c áma ra s al a s q ue s e a ccede p o r u n c o r redo rc on g rada s op ozo c on r eba je s e xcavado se nc l mu ro . S uc icn a parcce ra soc iada s an ave ta s . Una d cs u s c arac te r I s t ica s p r inc ipa le s e s l ac ompar t imen tac iOn d c s ue spac io i n terno c on mu ro s , a cced icndo d cu na ao t ra s a la med ian te u n p equef lo p o r ta l d c m ampo s t cr Ia . S ó lo u na d c l a s c ueva s h a p ropo rc ionado a jua r c l a ra incn te f une ra r io ap e sar d c l ao p in iOn d c R o sse l lO ( 1972 ) q ue y e e n c l las e spac ios f une ra r io s P re ta la iO t ico s . P cr tcnecen ae s te g rupo l a s c ueva s IyI d c S o N 'Om s ( Pa lma d c Ma l lorca ) . S in e mba rgo S o N 'Om s I I , yl a C ueva d c l a Nave ta d c S an t J o rd i od c E s R afa l n o mo s t ra ron e v idenc ia s d cu so f une rar io . P o re s te mo t ivo c r cemo sq ue l ai nhumac ión d c S oN 'Om s c ucva I d ebe s c r u na r cu t i l izac ión c asua l n o r e lac ionada c on s u p o s ib le f unc ión c u l tua ld e l momen to d cc on s t rucc ión . B /D cs upe rf ic ic . 3 . 1 3 .1 R eu t i l izac ión d c c d if ic ios . Documen tada a p ar t i r d c l a E dad d e l H ie r ro c on e s t ruc tu ra s ac i c lo a b ie r to d e l B ronce F ina l . S c t r a ta d c l ar cocupac iOn d c a n t igua s c ons t rucc ione s c on e n tcr ram ien to s , av ece s c on s ubc s truc tura f uncrar ia p rop ia q ue s ue le s c r u n l i gc ro t i lmu lo d c p ied ra s oc i s ta d c l o sa s , ot amb ién

S e r ra R àfo ls ( 1929 ) , S an ta -O la l la ( 1930 ) , Ma luque r ( 1947 : 7 37 ) , Amo rO s ( 1952 :10 ) , L i l l iu y B iancaf io rc ( 1959 ) , A lmagro ( 1960 ) , T ar rade l l ( 1962 ) , yh a s i do man ten ida h a s ta L a a c tua l idad p o r R osse l ló ( 1972 , 1 973 ) . Af irmamo s c on F on t O b rado r ( 1970 : 3 60 ) q ue n o c x is tc n ada q ue s o s tenga e s ta a scvc rac ión e n u na u t i l izac iOn p r imar ia y e s e spec ia lmen te r cba t ib lc L a a f i rmac iOn d cq ue e n do ss ep rac t ica scn i n c ine rac ionc s c omo y ah an c xpue s to a l guno s a u to rc s ( En scña t , 1 971 ; G ue r r e ro , 1 985 : 2 0 ) P a rece q ue l ar eu t i l izac ión d ce d if ic io s s on p rac t ica s d cc o lec t ivo s ma rg ina le s od ci nd iv iduo sd cb a jo r a ngo . E n a l g t in c a so p odr Ia t r a tar se d c e n tc r ram ien to s d c p e r sona sd cc i c r ta c on s ide rac iOn ( Ta la ia J oana ) a unquc n od i sponemo sd ca rgumcn to sp a ra p roba rc lh echo . P o r o t ra p a r tc e s tá f ue ra d c t o da d uda q ue n o s ed a n ingin c a so d c r cu t i l izac iOn p o ri nd iv iduo s d c e l cvado c s ta tu s d cmo s t rab le c on c on tcx to s s u l ic ien tcmen te c l a ro s . L o s n to s q ue d ocumen tamo s e n do s s on l ai nhumac iOn e n c oncx iOn yc le n te r ram ien to e nc a l ,a unque aj uzga rp o r l ao p in iOn d cC o lom ina s s ed io l ai n c ine rac iOn ,o p in iOn q ue y ah emo s d icho h a s i do r cba t ida yq ue a demá s n o e ncuen t ra s opo r tc e n l o s n to s p rac t icado s d c f o rma c oe tánea a l au t i l izac ión d c T a la ia J oana c omo l uga r f une ra r io h ac ia e is i g lo V I y má s p robab lemen te e n c l s i g lo V . 3 . 1 3 .2

3 00

I nhumac ione s

r i tua les

e n

e s t ruc tura s

J AUME C OLL -CONESA

é s te q ue s e h a ha i n su f ic ien temen te d ocumen tado e n Ma l lo rca . A unque L ac rono iog Ia d c l ac u l tu ra ma te r ia l a l cance ad u ra s p ena s e is i g lo V a .C . p en samo s q ue e i t i po d eb ió a pa rece r c on a n teno r idad d eb ido a l a e x i s tenc ia d ec ueva s m á s c omp le ja s c omo S on Ma imó , c on c o lumna s e xcavada s , c uyo e s t ra to i n fe r io r d e i jt hu inac ione s p odr Ia f e char se h ac ia e i s i g io V I a .C . c omo a na l iza remo sm á sa de lan te .

a mba s s e if a s u t é cn ica d c c d if icac ión , p o r e xcavac ión e n S on Ma imó Y p o r c xcavac iOn p a rc ia l ya l zado c on s t ruc t ivo d e lr e s to d cl ae s t ruc tu ra e ne iI lo t . 4 .A .3 C ámara s s em ih ipogea s c on c o lumnas e xcavada s ( F igu ra 5 ) . E s te g rupo s er cp re sen ta p o r l a s c áma ra s d c I lo t d e ls P o r ro s . C omo h emo s c omen tado s u e s t ruc tu ra s e i-f a muy s eme jan te a L ac ueva d c S on Ma imO a hp resen ta r mu ro d c c i e r re c on s t ru Ido y p a r te d c l a e s truc tura e xcavada c on p i la r c en t ra l s cm iexcavado y c omp le tado c on t a inbo re s c i rcu la re s . S u s i s tema d c c ub ie r ta e s d e sconoc ido , a unque T ar rade h l ( 1964 ) a f irma q ue s e r Ia d c b óvcda p o r a p rox imac iOn d c h i lada s a lh a l la r n ume ro sa s l o sa s d c

F IGURA 4 .

3 80 ) . D esconoc iendo e i o r igen d e l a s c ueva s d c

p regun tarse s i h ipogeos c on s t ru Ido s d e l mundo p ün ico c omo l o s d c Anda lousses ( Vu i l lemo t , 1 965 : 1 73 ) , s em ien te r rado s , c on e s ca lone s F IGURA 5 .

Menorca s o lo p odemos i nd ica r c o inc idenc ia d c c on s t rucc iOn y r i to c on l a s d e Ma l lo rca , q ue s i n e mba rgo p a recen má s t a rd Ia s ,p o r L o c ua l p en samo s q ue s u mode lo i nmed ia to s e h a ha e n Meno rca . D c t odo s modo s l a a par ic iOn d c l o s t i po s

d ca cce so , muro sd c manpo s te r la yt e cho s opo r tado p o r p i e s d e rechos d c made ra y c ub ie r ta d c t i e r ra y c a l , p odr ian e ncon t ra r se e nl ag ene s i s d e l t i po . L at r ad ic ión d c c on s t ru i r h ipogeo s s em iexcavado s ys u u t i l izac ión

ma h lo rqu ine s e s s imu lt h .nea a l a d c l o s h ipogeo s d c I b iza , p o r h o q ue n o d ebe r Ia d e scar ta r se u na c i e r ta

c on n to d ci nhumac iOn c o lec t iva e sf ue r te e nc l mundo p ü iuco . Sm e mba rgo e sd i f Ic i l p rcc isa rh a s ta q ué p un to

c onex iOn c on e i mundo s em i ta , a unque n o so t ros n o L a v emo s muy c l a ra p o rl af a l ta d co t ra sr e lac ion e s d ct i po

n os et r a ta s O lo d cs im i l i tude sc onccp tua le s .

ma te r ia l q ue , d u ran tc h a e t apa d c a pa r ic iOn d c e s ta s n ec rópo l is , p a rece a pun ta r s i nd uda s h ac ia L o s p ueb lo s c on t inen ta le sd e lH ie r ro . 4 .A .2 C ueva s c on c o lumnas e xcavada s yc i er re c i c lOpeo ( F igu ra 4 ) . S O lo p odemo s i n c lu i ra qu IL ac ueva

E nc uan to al ap o s ic ión c s t ra t ig ráf ica d cl a s t umba s , d c l a memo r ia p rc sen tada p o r T a r rade l l ( 1964 : 2 3 ) s e i n he re q ue s e e ncon t raban b a jo d o s mve hes d c e n tcr r am icn to s d c i nhu inac ión . E n p a r t icu la r s ob re c l d c r rumbe d c L a c áma ra B s e c on s ta tó c l mve i l a c on tcn iendo i nhumac ionc s e n d ccüb i to s upmo . D cba jo

d c S on Ma imO , y a q ue e s l a t i n ica e xcavada c omp le tamen te . E l t i po s e r e lac iona c on e s t ruc tu ras p receden te s c omo s e 5 r Ian l o s a br igo s yc ueva s n a tu ra lc s c on c i e r re c i c lópeo , yo t ra s má s t a rd Ia s ,c omo l a s " c áma ra s s em ih ipogea s c on c o lumna s e xcavada s" , r ep rc sen tada s p o rI lo t d e l s P o r ro s . L a d i fc rcnc ia e n t re

d c é s tc s e h a l haba e i n ivc h l b , c on ten icndo i nhumac ione se nc uc l ila s ,a h gun .a d cl a sc ua lc s s ep od ia f e cha rp o rl u cema s d c v o lu ta s od ob ie s h acha s v o l iva s e n t re é poca r omano r epub l icana y c ls i g io Id . C . E l h a l iazgo d cu na sa d cá nfo ra D re s sc l 1e nc lf ondo d cl a

3 01

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

c áma ra A , p od r Ia i nd ica r e if i n d e s u u t i l izac ión h ac ia f i ne sd e l s i g lo I oi n ic io sd e Ia .C . ,m ien t ra sl ad a tac ión

e l emen to r i tua l n o d e sca r tan io s q ue e n c ueva s t a rd Ia s é s ta a dqu ir ie se i m c a rác te r s imbó l ico ( Guer re ro , 1 985 : 9 3 ) d ado s uf r ecuen te u t i l izac ión e n r e c in to s c u l tua le s , t an to d e t i po f unerar io c omo e n t emp los n o

r ad iocarbómca yv a r io s ma te r ia le s p od r I an a pun ta rq ue s u u t i l izac ión o r ig ina l d eb ió i r uc ia r se h ac ia e is i g lo V a .C . T an to l o s e s tud io s a n t ropo ióg ico s ( Ma igo sa , 1 992 :

r e lac ionado sd i rec tamen te c on e ic u l to al o s mue r to s . 4 .A .5 C ueva s c on c o lumna s e xcavada s d e p i an ta c omp le ja ( F igura 7 ) . F o rman e s te g rupo l o s h ipogeo s d c má s d e d o s s a la s , d e e s t ruc tu ra c omp le ja , c on p re senc ia d e v a r ia s c o lumna s , t a l v ez c on c a rác te r e s t ruc tu ra l , c omo v emo s e n S on C res ta ( L lucma jo r ) , S on T axaque t( Uucma jo r ) ,C ova Mon ja ( B in ia l i ) .

1 5 ) c omo l a s d e sc r ipc ione s d e T a r rade l l ( 1964 : 2 8 ) i nd ican q ue e n l o s e s t ra to s s uper f ic ia le s l a yl b s e h a l la ron i nhun iac ione s , m ien t ra s e n e ii n te r io r d e l a s c áma ra s s e h a l la ron i nc ine rac ione s ( s ic ) ( Tar rade l l , 1 964 : 2 8 ) . I nc lu so Ma lgo sa ( 1992 )a f i rma : " A l ' à rea d ' inc ine rac ió , l ' a mun tegamen t il ' es ta t d c c on se rvac ió d el e sr e s te sh af e t mo l td i f I c i ld i s t ing ir u n s

E l r i to d e e n ter ram ien to n o h a s ido b ien d ocumen tado p e ro s u l a rga p e rdurac iOn e n t re l aé poca

0 I 1 SK .A 0

S m

a rqueö logo s d enom inamo s " en ter ram ien tos e n c a l" , e s tando p o rd i luc ida rl ar e a ln a tu ra leza d e lr i to . F IGURA 6 .

P a r t iendo d e l t e x to d e T ar rade l l , l o s r e s to s h umano s i nhumados e s tud iado s c o r re sponden p nnc ipa lmen te a l o s e s tra to s l a yl b , q ue t i n icamen te p ueden f echa r se e n t re f i ne s d e l s i g lo I a .C . ys i g lo I .d .C . ,c omc iden te s c on l a r oman izac ión . S in embargo s e e s tud ia ron 4 5 c r áneo s d e l o s mve le s d e i n c ine rac ión q ue a ba rcar lan d e l s i g lo V a l I a . C . S er Ia i n te resan te o f rece r l a d i s t r ibuc ión s exua l yd e e dad i nd iv idua l izando a n ibo s g rupo s p o r e lr i tua l y a q ue n o s on h omogéneo s n ie n r i to n ie nc rono log la . 4 .A .4 Cueva s d e c o lumna s e xcavada s d e p l an ta s imp le ( F igura 6 ) . I nc lu Imo s a qu I a que l la s q ue p resen tan u na o d o s s a la s c on c o lumna s e xcavada s c omo h a l lamo s e n S aC ova ( Ar tà ) , P le ta d e S a Mend la ( Manaco r ) ,S on C o s ta ,S aB a s t ida ,e t c . E n c onc lu s ion p re sen tan r i to n o d ocumen tado y s u o r igen p od r Ia s i tua r se h ac ia e i s i g lo V II a .C . , a pa rec iendo c omo f r u to d e l a a dap tac ión d e c ueva s n a tu ra Je s s eg i mn p arece d esp render se d e l a ná l is is c r ono lOg ico d el o s ma te r ia le sd eS aC ova d eA r tà . S on c onoc ida s o t ra s c omo l ac ova d e S a Mar ina d e S on D ani s , a l guna c ueva d e E s Mo r ro d e S on C ove s , S on C o s ta oS on D a labau ( Co lom ina s , 1 920a , Ma sca rö , 1 960 ) . E n c uan to a l ai n te rp re tac iOn d e l ac o lumna c omo

HGURA 7 .

f une r ar io d e l momen to .

4 .B .1 N ecrópo l is d e s uperf ic ie c on u rnas y e n te r ram ien to s i n fan t i le s ( F igu ra 8 ) . E n im momen to i nde term inado l a s u rna s d c i nhumac iOn i n f an t i l q ue s e c u s tod iaban e n l a s c ueva s f unerar ia s p a san a f o rma r p a r te d c c emen te r io s e spec ia l izado s p a ra n eona to s . L a c au sa d e t a l a c t i tud t i ene d i f Ic i l i n terp re tac ión q ue n o e s tud iaremo s , y a q ue a qu I n o s l im i tan io s ab u sca r l o s p a ra le lo s e s t ruc tu ra le s yn o l ag ene s i s c oncep tua l d e l

3 02

J AUME COLL -CONESA

n uevo r i to . Ae s te g rupo p e r tenecen l a s n ec rópo l is d c Ma r ina G ran ( Se s S a l ine s ) yC a s S an tama r ie r( Pa lma d e Ma l lo rca ) . C abr Ia i n te rp re ta rl aa u senc ia d e ma te r ia l e n Ma r ina G ran c omo e fec to d e d o s f ac to res : l a

B o rona t , S on R ea l , S oN 'Om s ) . E n e i mundo s em i ta s e d ocumen ta p r inc ipa lmen te e n e n te r r a in ien to s i n fan t i le s c omo e n l a t umba 6 2 d c R achgoun ( Orán ) ( Te je ra , 1 975 :789 ) . L ao f renda d c i mc a rne ro t i ene p a ra le lo s e n

s uper f lu idad

T rayama r ye nJ a rd in ( Gomez , 1 987 : 4 76 -477 ) , e ne s te ü l t imo l uga rc on r i to d ce n te r ram icn to e nf o sa . Ma sca rö ( 1967 : 2 807 ) c i ta n ume ro so s c j emp lo s d c

d c

d epós itos

f unerar ios

p ara

l o s

i nhumado s s egdn l a s n orma s d e l p rop io r i to y s u p o s ib le c on s t i tuc ión e n u n momen to a n ter io r al a l i egada mas iva d c p roduc tos i mpo r tado s , q ue p od r Iamo s c i f r a re n t re l o s s i g lo s I V yI a .C . S e r la p o r

HGURA 8 .

s epu l tura s e xcavada s e n l ar oca a unquc g ene ra lmen te s ean t umba s t a rdo r romana s . Un a ná l is is c r I t ico d c s u s

f o sa t i ene c l a ro s p a ra le lo s e nc l mundo p t in ico . S e d ocumen ta e n I b iza d e sde e ls i g lo V I a .C .

ye n c ln o r te d cA f r ica , c omo e nS id i Y ah ia d c Menze l B ourgh iba ( Tünez ) yD j id je l i ( Fe jera , 1 975 : 7 88 ) . L a p r ime ra d c e l ia s p re sen ta l o sa s d c c ub ie r ta , f e chándo se e n t re l o s s i g lo s 1 1 1 1 a .C . , yl as egunda e s u na f o sa o va lada , má s a n t igua . T oda s e l ia s c on t ienen s i n d uda i nhumac iones ( Gomez , 1 987 : 5 65 ; T e je ra , 1 975 ) . L a p o s ic ión d cn ue s t ra si nhumac ione se sm á s p rob lemá t ica p ues t i ene e sca so s p a ra le lo s c on c l mundo s em i ta s i b i en e s f r ecuen te e n e i med i te r ráneo o cc iden ta l y a demá ss ee ncuen t ra c on c i e r ta a s idu idad e nl ai s la ( Son

3 03

i n te rmed io se n t r el a s t umba sd ct i po sa n te r io re s . 4 .B .3 .6 P ian ta r ec tangu la r oc a s i c uad rada , s e d i s t inguen c l a r amen te d e l r e s to p o r l am a la c a l idad d c s u c on s trucc ión , l e van tada s c on p i edra s s i n t a l la r q ue d e scan san s ob rc l aa r ena e nv cz d c s ob re l ar oca c omo l o s t i po sa n te r io re s . T a r radc i i l a s d e sc r ibe c omo d cr i to d ci n c ine rac ión . Ma scarO ( 1967 : 2 786 ) a pun ta q ue c stas c on s t rucc ionc s n o s on l a s t i n ica s d c l a i s ia d c e s ta t i po log Ia . P a ra e s te a u to r s e e ncon t ra r lan e d if ic io s s cme jan tc s e nS aB egn ra ( S t . L lo rcnç ) ,P u ig d en N o f re ( Capdcpe ra ) , S on Dan i l s ( San tany l ) y S a Mo la ( Fe lan i tx ) . N o h emos p od ido r e conoce r n ada s im i la r

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

a tm a p esa r d e h aber p a r t ic ipado j un to c on L . P lan ta lamo re nl ae xcavac ión d eS aP le ta d e ls C a rd s d c S on D an i l s e n 1 976 , d onde s upue s ta inen te s eu b icaban l a sc on s t rucc ione sq ue c i ta Ma scaró . E l o r igen d e e s ta s e s t ruc tu ra s e s d i f Ic i l d c d i sce rn i r . F ernández M iranda ( 1978 : 2 49 ) a po r ta l ai d ea d c i m

l o s mcho s i n tc rno s , l o s s a rco fago s d c p i cd ra , mu ro d c

p o s ib le i nf lu jo f en ic io p o r l as eme janza d e l l i amado s a rcofago d e Kha ldé c on a l gunas e s t ruc tu ra s d e S on R ea l . S in emba rgo l ae s t ruc tu ra d c Kha ldé n o d e ja d c s e ru na f o sa r eve s t ida d c s i l la re s ( Sa idah , 1 966 ) ,c on l o c ua l e ip a rec ido c on l a st umba sd cS on R ea l s o lo p od r Ia e s tab lece r se p a ra e it i po V I . N o h ay q ue i rt a n l e jo s a b u sca r l ai n sp irac iOn q ue p udo o r igma rl a s t umba s d c S on R ea l . S i b ien e s c i e r to q ue n o e x is ten p a ra le los e xac to s ,n ol oe s meno s q ue e ne is i g lo V I I s ed an e nc l mcd it e r ráneo o cc iden ta l t i Imu lo sq ue p a r ten d cu na i d ea s eme jan te : d a rr e levanc ia a lc n tc r ram icn to c on u na g r an e s t ruc tu ra c ons t ru ída e n s upe rf ic ie . P lan teado d e e s te modo r educc ion is ta , n o s e ncon t ramo s c on q ue e n c l mundo f emc io p o r n a l a do y e n e id c l o s c ampo s d c u rna s p o re io t ro e x is te e sa m i sma p reocupac iOn .E nl o s s i g lo s V I I yV I e ncon t ramo s e n C ar tago y U t ica l a s d enom inada s f o sa s r c vcs t ida s d c s i l la re s , h ipogea s e n

c ua t ro c u idado s mu ro s e n e i S egr ia , B a jo A ragOn y B a jo S eg rc ( Pon s iB run , 1 986 :28 ) . E nl am ec rópo i i sd e l C o i l d e l Mo ro e ncon t ramo s t umba s c i rcu la re s , c on i m

f a chada d cg ra sa l tu ra ,e t c . ( Ben ichou , 1 982 : 3 57 ) . E n l a p en in su la i btr ica , e n l a z ona ampu rdanc sa , a pa recen e s truc tura s d c i nc inc rac iOn t umu la re s c on c on s t rucc ione s b ien d cf in ida s . D c e s te modo h a l lamo s t ümu lo s f ormados p or e s t ruc tu ra s r e c tangu ia rc s c on

p r inc ip io , p e ro c on p a r te d c l ae s t ruc tu ra a é rea , ol a s c áma ra s d c s i l lares g ad i tana s ( Aube t , 1 986 ) . L as p r ime ra s e s t ruc tu ra s e n p a r t icu la r s ea seme ja r lan al o s t i po sS on R ea l 5y 6 ,m ien t ra sl a sc áma ra sp od r ian t e nc r

a l to mu ro d c mampos ter Ia , d c l a s q ue s ob re sa lc e xcén t r icamen te u na c i s ta r e c tangu la r . O t ra e s t ruc tu ra p re sen ta p l an ta c uad rangu lar c on l a s p ied ra s b i en t a l lada s . Amba s s e f echan e ne is i g lo V I I a .C . (Mo la s , R a fe l yP u ig , 1 986 : 4 9 ) . Ma sa ls u r , l o se n te r ram ien to s t u inu la re s i b é r ico s d cl o s s i g lo s V I yV .p ueden a po r ta r t amb ién a l gtn p ara le lo p a ra l a d i fu s ión d c l a i d ea ( B iázquez , 1 988 ) . S i b i en e ia spec to f o rma l d c l a s t umba s t a ia ió t ica s p uede e s ta rr e lac ionado c on l a s n ec rópo l is q ue h emo s e nunc iado , e ic ons t ruc t ivo s ee ncuen t ra p e r fec tamen te v imcu lado al at r ad ic iOn l oca l , t a n to p o r l a mo r fo log Ia d c l a s c on s t rucc ione s ( denom inada s m ic ro ta la io t s y m ic ronave ta s p o r a lguno s a u to re s , d ada s u s eme janza c on l a s c on s t rucc iones mayo res ) c omo p o r l at é cmca d e sa r ro l iada e n s u r e a l izac iOn , v i s ib le t amb ién e n s u s h omOn ima sd c mayo rt amano 4 .B .4 E s t ruc tu ra s n o d ef in ida s . V a r io s h a l iazgo s f unc ra r io s d c l o s s i g lo s f i na le s d c l ac u l tu ra T a la iO t ica

más r e lac iOn c on e i t i po 4 . L a s s eme janza s d c l a s e s truc tu ra s t i po S on R ea l 5y6c on e s t ruc tu ra s d c f i u iac ión f cn ic io -pümca e s tán f uc ra d c t oda d uda . E l p r imero d c e i los e s p ara le l izab le a l o s p seudo -sa rcOfago s d c l a s i s tema t izac iOn d c C in ta s ( 1976 : 2 70 s ) o a l o s t i pos V I y V I I I d c B en ichou -Sa fa r ( 1982 ) l o ca l izada s e n Dou lme s ,B y r sa , J unon ,D e rmech ,B yb lo s , Kha ldë ,A lge r ,U t ica ,e t c .

p roceden d cl ugare sd c s upe rf ic ie e nl o sq ue n os ep udo d e tec ta rl ae s t ruc tu ra m ie n mucho sc a so sd ocun ien ta re i r i tua l . No s q ucda s imp lemen te c on s tanc ia d c q ue s e t r a taba d c e n te r ram ien to s d c s upe rf ic ic ,l oq ue v i ene a a bona r l a c reenc ia d c q ue e s ta s n cc rOpo i is n o c ons t i tu Ida s e n h ipogeo s n a tu ra les o a r t if ic ia ie s , p ud ie ron s e rb a s tan te f r ecuen te s . S c c on s ta tan h a l lazgo s d c e s te t i po e n C anyame i

S in e mba rgo l ar e lac ión c on l a s c áma ra s t i po S on R ea l 4c on e s t ruc tu ra sf eno -pün ica s s O lo p ucde h ace r se

( Amo rO s , 1 936 ) , E is F o rna sso s ( Veny , 1 965 ; Uompar t , 1 970 ) yC am ino I nca -L lub I ( Co lom ina s , 1 949 ) , é s ta t i l t ima d e ls i g lo Ia .C . yd onde s ee ncon t ra ron l o sc a sco s

c l im inando r a sgos e senc ia le s . E s c i e r to q ue t a n to l a p ian ta c omo c l p a ramen to e s s eme jan te a l a s d enom inada sc áma ra sc on a cce so l a te ra l ( t ipo B en ichou X .2 y X .3 ) (1982 : 1 44 ) d c l a n ec rOpo i i s d c M i le , o e s truc tu ra s d c Dou Imes , D crmech , B yr sa , J unon , Koud ia t Z a teu r , Khange t e i Hed ja j , R a s S amra , e

d c b ronce d c t i po e t ru sco , yp o r ü l t imo S a C a r ro t ja ( O r f i la , 1 988 ) , d c l a q ue s e s uponc q ue f uc u t i l izada e n t re l o s s i g lo s Va .C . yV I d .C . p o rl o s ma te r ia le s q ue

i nc iu so C ad iz . L ad i fe renc ia p r inc ipa l e s t r iba e nq ue e i

h an a pa rec ido e ne l la , yd cl ac ua l s O lo c onocemo s b i en d ocumen tado s d o s e n te r ram ien tos d c é poca r omana

p aramen to d c e s to s e j emp la rc s n o s e r ea l iza p a ra s e r v i s to p o r c le x te r io r y a q ue s e t r a ta g ene ra lmen te d c

e xcavado s p o r Co iom ina s ( 1920b ) . N ec rOpo l is c omo I l io t d e ls P o r ro s oS o N 'Om s p resen tan e n l a s f a sc s

t umba sd cp ozo . L a s t umba s t a la iO t ica s s i nd uda n o s on h ipogeas . S in emba rgo l a c rono iog Ia d c e s ta s

f i na le s i nhumac iones e n p os ic iOn q ue d eb icron

e s truc tu ra s q ue s e c i f ra c omo c on jun to e n t re f i ne s d e l s i g lo V I I ye i5 00 a .C . , s íe s s eme jan te al a s b a lca re s . O t ro s e l emcn to s d c l a se s t ruc tu ra s f emc ia s má s l i gado s a lp rop io r i tua l e ncuen t ran m eno r r c lac iOn , c omo s on

e s t ruc tu ra sm á su sua ie se ne s te t i po d cc emen te r io s .

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3 04

. J AUME C OLL -CONESA

E STRUCTURAS FUNERAR TAS YE SPAC IO SOC IAL

s upe re s t ruc tu ra le s . No d ebemo s o l v ida r q ue t r a tamo s c on s oc iedade s o rgamzada s s obre L a b a se d e l p a ren te sco , c on r e lac ione s f undamen tada s e n l o s i a zo s d c s ang re e n tre l o s i nd iv iduos y d onde e i p ape l i nd iv idua l ( e s ta tu s )e s tá e nf unc ión d cu na c omp ie ja r ed d c r e lac ione s s oc ia le s q ue r e su l ta d i l Ic i l d e senma raña r

T an to l a s e s t ruc tu ra s c omo l o s d epó s i to s or i to s p rac t icado s d eben s e r i n te rp re tado s e n f unc ión d e l a o rgamzac ión d e l a s s oc iedade s d e l p a sado y c omo r e f le jo d e s u s c ompo r tam ien to s s oc ia le s , c u i tua le s o e conóm ico s . Uno d c l o s f ac to res q ue p erm i ten a ce rca rno s ae s ta o rgan izac ion e s L a c ues t ión d e l a

( Sah l in s , 1 977 ) . Ana l izando e s to s f a c to re s v emo sq ue p uede h ab ia r se d c u na j c ra rqu izac ion d e l e spac io f une ra l an i ve l n o s o lo m ic roe spac ia ls i no t amb ién r eg iona l , yq ue a demá s

e s t ra t if lcac ión s oc ia l oe i e s ta tus p e r sona l ( Ta in te r , 1 978 : 1 30 ) . D ado e i r i to g ene ra imen te c o lec t ivo d e n ue s t ra s n ec rópo l i s ,p a r t ir d el o sp o sni lado s t e ó r ico s d e

e x is ten p au ta s d e c ompo r tam ien to c on r e spec to aé s ta q ue v ar Ian a l o L a rgo d c c oordenadas e spac io tempo ra le s , s i n o l v ida r q ue l a s t re s d e c a rác te r

G o ld s te in ( 1981) uO 'Shea ( 1984 ) h ace d i f Ic i l l ega ra l c onoc im ien to d e l e s ta tus i nd iv idua l , a unque s f

VA t .LL D E SOL IES PECROPOLIS DU . TALAPOT ICO FD IAL ( 500-123 AC.) .

g eo f I s ico mode lan e np a i te a l guna sp au ta sc u l tu ra le s .

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f unerar io ( Brown , 1 981 :36 ) , e stab lecemos t r es n i ve le s d c g radac ión s oc ia l : a l to , med io 0 b a jo r ango . D c e se modo L ap re senc ia d c i nd iv iduo s d c u no uo t ro c o lec t ivo d ef imrá c le s ta tu s d c L an ec rOpo l i s d en t ro d c

c u l tu ra m a te r ia l q ue s eo b serva e n t re l o s d o s c on jun to s yl ah omogene idad e ne ii n te r io rd ce l lo s . E np ar t icu la r , S 'A lova y S e s C op i s h an o f rcc ido p laca s d c p lomo , a rma s , c ampar ni la s d cb ronce , d i sco s c on v a ra , c uen ta s d c p a s ta d c v id r io , e t c . m ien t ra s e i g rupo mayo r c o inc ide p o r L a p rc scnc ia d c c uen tas , c ónd i los

L as oc iedad . E l r ango n o d ebe s e r i n terp re tado c omo r e f le jo d c mayo r omeno rp ode r e conóm ico s i no c omo e v idenc ia d c i mp ape l p repondc ran te oma rg ina l d c l o s i nd iv iduo s e n l a o rgan izac iOn o f unc ionam ien to d e l g rupo . E s d ec ir , c l r ango n o r ef le ja ü n ica inen te

r e co r tado s d c h ue so yL aa u scnc ia d c o t ro s e l emen to s . L a e x ten s iOn d e l modc lo a e sca la i n su la r n o p e rm i tc t a n ta f i ab i l idad c omo e n e se c a so c onc re to , p e ro s i n embargo d e ja e n trever L a e x istenc ia d c c ompo r ta in ien to ss eme jan tcs .

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h omogene idad e n l a s n ec rópo l is e n u na c oyun tura h i s tó r ica d ada . S i a na l izamo s l a s q ue c oex is ten e n u n momen to d ado ye s tud ia ino sl o s ma te r ia le sq ue o f recen , v e remo s q ue e x is te u na p e r fec ta d i s ime t r Ia e n f unc ión d e l g rupo s oc ia l a lq ue r ep re sen tan . S in e mba rgo ,c omo c omen ta remos , e x is te u na p robab le s ime t r Ia d en t ro d e l o s mve le s d e f in ido re s d er ango . T odav Ia h ay im f a c to r q ue a nade c omp le j idad y e s c lh echo d e q ue a e sca la

No e x is ten p o r c l momen to e s tud io s q ue p erm i tan e n tender c ómo l o s g rupo s f oráneo s p ud ie ron

i n su la re x is ten f ac to re sq ue d emue s t ran l ae x i s tenc ia d e c o lec t ivo s p o r e nc ima d e l r ango e spe rab le a e sca la

c onve r t ir se e n h egemómco s i mpon iendo s u s p rop io s r i to s .

g radac ión s oc ia l . Un p rob lema d cd i f Ic i l s o luc ión p o re i momen to s on l o s mer . an i smo s p o rl o s c ua le s l o s g rupo s f o raneo s I l egado s e n u n momen to d ado p ud ieron c on segu i r u n mcho e n l as oc iedad i n su la r c on t o do l o q ue e l lo r ep resen ta ( t e r r i tor io , r ecu r so s , p ob lac ión ) e n t r ando e nc ompe tenc ia c on l ap ob lac ión p r eex is ten te .

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1 . 1 . Abr igo n a tura l 1 .2 . C ueva n a tura l 2 . 1 . Abr igo c on c l erre 2 .2 .Cu.vi c on c i erre 2 .3 .Cuevi c on muros i n t . 2 .4 .C6miri h i pós t i le 3 .A .1 . C ueva i r k . s p . r eu t . 3 .A .2 .Cuevi i r k . mu l ti .c am . 3 .8 . 1 . R ,u t i l . • d if ic ios 3. B. 2 .I n hu rnac iones r i tua les o n. d if ic ios 4 .A . l . Cuevas a r t if . d o p l in ta s .nc if l a 4 .A 2 .Cuevi c on c o lumnas yc i err. 4 .A .3 .C6mari s .mt h ipog.a c on c o lumnas

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E ase d e c onstrucc ión :

F ase d e r eutf l izac ión :

L a p er s is tenc ia e n l a u t i l izac ión d c e s truc turas

p a rcn te sco má s b i en i nduce ac reer q ue l a s n ec rópo l i s

a nces t ra les c omo l uga rcs d e e n ter ram ien to d c l o s

d c r ango c l evado p ucden c on tene r i nd iv iduos v incu lados p or c l l i na je d c c ua lqu iera d c l o s

e s t ra to s e l evado s , d onde e l r i to d c e n te r ram ien to s e p re supone c omo e ip r inc ipa l f ac to r d c c amb io . P uede

e s tamen to s , ys o lo l a s n ec rOpo l is d c r ango b a jo m an ife s tar lan e xc lu s iOn d cl o sg rupo s d cr ango e l evado p o r L a e spec ia l r e lac iOn d c e s tos c o lec t ivo s c on l o s p r ime ro s , b i en p o t l a . zo s f am i l iarc s l c jano s ( s is tema

o cu r r i rq ue a lguna s e s t ruc tu ra s d cl o sg rupo s 1 . 1 y1 . 2 , q ue r e f le jan u t i l izac ión p o rc o lec t ivo s d ca l to r ango , s e e ncuen t ren d e scn ta si n suf ic ien temcn te e nl al i t e ra tu ra a l h abe r se p re s tado e sca sa a t enc ión a lp rob lema ,d ado q ue h a s ta a ho ra l o s a cond ic ionam ien to s i n te rno s h ab Ian p a sado c a s i d e sape rc ib ido s . E ne ig r áf ico 2p uede v e r se l a n I t ida a par ic ión d c e s truc tu ra s c omp ie ja s t an to

s egmcn tano ) , op o r d i fe renc iac ión d eb ida ac uc s t ione s d co rgan izac iOn d e lg rupo .

h ipogea s c omo d cs upe r f ic ie ap ar t i rd cl o s s i g lo s V I I I o V I I a .C . , c l a ramen te r e lac ionada s c on l o s e s tamen to s e l evado s . Wa ld ren ( 1982 ) d ef iendc q ue l a g ran v anab i l idad r i tua l s i nd uda t i enc r e lac iön c on l av a r iab i l idad é t n ica d cl o sp ob lado re s i n su la re s , e sd ear ,c on L al egada al a

C omo c onc lu s ione s g ene ra le s d ebemo s i nd ica r q ue p on iendo e nr e lac iOn L ae s t ruc tu ra d cl a sn cc rOpo l is ys u c onex iOn c on f enOmeno s s oc ia le s , s e e n t reven t r e s f a c to rc s : 1 - No e x is te s ime tr Ia e n l a s n ecrópo l is c on tempo ránea sd cl aC u l tu ra T a la iO t ica d c Ma l lo rca e n r i tua le s , ma te r ia le s oe s t ruc tu ra s , a unque e ip r ime ro d c l o s f a c to rc s ( e i n to q ue r c c ibe c li nd iv iduo ) s ea e i má s u n ifo rm izado r .

i s la d e g rupo s f o ráneo s , a unque t amb in e v idenc ia

3 06

J AUME COLL -CONESA

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B

4 .A .4 .Cuevas c on c o lumnas e xcay . s imp le 4 . A. 5. C uevas c omp le jas c on c o lumnas e xcay . 4 . 1 3 .1 . N ecrópo l is d c u rnas i e nterram . i n fan t . 4 .B .2 .Fosa c ub ier ta c on l o sas 4. B. 3. M icroes tructuras 4 .B .4 .Es tructuras n o d ef in idas

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2 -L ad i s ime t r Ia s eb a sa p nnc ipahnen t ee nc ue s t ione s d e t i po s oc ia l yn oe nf enómeno s d cc on se rvadur ismo o a i s lam ien to c u l tu ra l , ye l lo e s má s p a ten te e n e i momen to e n q ue s ei n c remen tan l o s c on tac to s c on l o s p ueb lo s c l á s ico s , c uando ma te r ia le s ,r i to s yt r ad ic ione s s e u n ifo rm izan a l o l a rgo d e t odo e i t e r r i tor io , p erm i t iendo i mag inar q ue l o s p ode res l oca les s e c oncen t ran ei n t en s i f ican a n ipa rándo se e nl o s v mncu lo s d e p aren tesco a l t i empo q ue p res ionan p a ra l a t r an sfo rmac ión d cl a se s t ruc tu ra sd cp roducc ión . 3 - L a e s t ruc tu ra d c l a s n ecrópo l is s e e ncuen t ra r e lac ionada c on d o s v ar iab le s p r inc ipa le s c on t ro lada s p o rl o s g rupo sd c mayo rr ango : a lC on e ic amb io c u l tu ra l , b i en s e ap roduc ido p o re i c on tac to c on g rupo s e x te rno s c omo p o r f enómeno s e vo lu t ivo si n terno s . b / C on l ad in ám ica s oc ia l , ye n p a r t icu la r c on l o s i nd iv iduo s og rupo sd c mayo rr ango d el as oc iedad . Ap a r t i rd e l s i g lo V I I e sp a ten te l ae s t recha r e lac ión q ue s ee s tab icce e n t re p re senc ia d ce s t ruc tu ra sd cn ueva

p l an ta , av ece s a soc iada s ar i to s n ovedo so s ,j un to c on p rueba s d c p re senc ia d c md iv iduo s d c mayo rr ango e n e s ta s n ueva s e s t ruc tu ra s . A p ar t i r d e l s i g lo I V l a t endenc ia s e a gud iza y s i b ien p e r s is te u na c i e r ta u n ifo rm idad e n e ir i to e n l a s c ueva s d c e n ter ram ien to c o lec t ivo , s e o b se rvan n ume rosa s v a r ian te s r i tua le s p r inc ipa lmea te e nl a sn ec rópo l i sd cs upe r f ic ic . P a ra t e rm ina r d e seamo s v o lve r ai l ama r l aa t enc ión s ob re l a e sca sa a t enc ión q ue s e h a p re s tado a l a s n ec rópo l is d c s upe r f ic ic d c momcn to s t a rd Io s e nl ai s la d c Ma l lo rca . Q u izá sl ad i f icu l tad e ns ul o ca i izac ión oe n s u i n terp re tac ión h ayan c on t r ibu Ido a e s te d e sconoc im ien to , p e ro e s tamo s c onvenc ido s d c q ue e i f enómeno t u vo u na g rau i mpo r tanc ia e n c l p a sado . Qu izá s u na mayor a t enc ión a e s te p rob lema p ueda c on tr ibu ir a c omp le tar n uc s t ra v i s ion s obre e s to s a spec to s . V a lenc ia , a1 3 d cs ep t iemb re d c 1 993 .

B IBL IOGRAF IA ALCOVER ,M . 1 94 1 -42 . E lh omb rep r im i l ivo e n Ma l lorca .P a lma . ALMAGRO , M . 1 960 . " La c u l tu ra mega l I t ica b a lea r " , H i s tor ia d e E spana I ,d c R . Menéndez P ida l , 2 E d . p p . 6 55 -662 . AMADES ,J .1 982 .L ac a sa . C o l . A rx iu d cT rad ic ion sP opu la r s .B a rce lona . AMOROS ,L . R . 1 929 . " E l t a la io td c R afa l C ago l lc s" , f i o le t In d e l aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l iana XX I I , n °5 79 , p p . 1 96 -198 . 1 936 . ' T roba l lc s aC anyame l( Capdepe ra ) "B o le t I nd el aS oc iedad A rqueo log ica L u l iana XXV I . 1 952 . L aE dad d e lB ronce e n Ma l lorca . C o l . P ano rama B a lea r ,n °2 3 .P a lma AUBET S EMLER ,M . E . 1 986 . " La n cc rópo l i s d c V i l la r ico s e ne iá mb i to d e l mundo i br ico p i mn ico p en in su la r " ,e n H omena je aL u i sS i re t ,J un ta d cA nda luc Ia ,S ev i l la . 1 987 . T i ro yl a sc o lon ia sf en ic ia sd eO cc iden te .E d .B ela te r ra ,B a rce lona . BEN ICHOU -SAFAR , H . 1 982 . L e s t ombe sp un ique s d e C a r thage . T opograph ie , s t ruc ture s , i n sc r ip t ions e tr i te s f unera i res .E d .d u CNRS ,P a r i s . BLAZQUEZ PEREZ , J .1 988 . " La s egunda c ampana d c e xcavac ione s e n l an cc rOpo l is i b é r ica d c l o s Vi la re s , e n Hoya G onza lo ,A lbace te . E s tado d cl ac ue s t ión " , IC o loqu io d eH i s to r ia d cC a s t i l la L a Mancha I I , pp . 3 45 -357 , C iudad R ea l . BORDOY ,M . 1 945 .P reh i s tor ia yP ro loh i s tor ia F e lan igen se . E d . R amon -L iu l l ,F e lan i tx . BRO WN ,J .A . 1 981 . 'T he s ea rch f o rr a nk i np reh is to r ic b ur ia ls" , e nR . C hapman , C . K inne s &K . R and sbo rg , T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th .N ew D irec t ion si nA rchaeo logy , p p . 2 5 -37 . C INTAS ,P .1 970 -76 . Manue ld 'Archeo log ie P un ique . Hv o ls ,P a r i s . COLL CONESA ,J .1 989 . L ae vo luc ión d e lr i tua lf unerar io e nl aC u l tu ra T a . la iö z ica T e s id oc to ra l /M ic ro f i txa ,n o 1 9 . Umve r s i ta td cl e sI le s B a lea r s .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . 1 991 . " Se r iac iOn c u l tura ld cl o s ma te r ia le sd e l C ova ld en P ep R ave ( S6 1 1e r , Ma l lo rca ) . E lemen to sc a lco l I t ico sy t a la ió t ico s ." E n T raba jos d eP reh i s tor ia 4, pp. 7 5 -101 .

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1 992 . " A spec te sd el aR e l ig ió iS oc ie ta tT a la ió t ica d c Ma l lo rca .E is R i tu sf une r ar i s " . I IT robada d 'H i s tor ia d a r si A rqueô l e g sd e Menorca .R e l ig ió iS oc ie ta l aMenorca a ll a rg d e lt emp s . Mao , 1 992 ,e np re ss . 1 993 . " Ap rox imac iO a1 ' o rgan i tzac i6 t e r r i to r ia ld cl aV a i ld eS 01e r( Ma l lo rca )d u ran tl ap ro toh i s tö r ia " . E n H omena lge a !D r .M ique lT ar rade l l Ma teu . E d . C u r ia l .B a rce lona . COLO M INAS ROCA , J . 1 920a . " L 'Eda t d e l B ronce aMa l lo rca " . A nua r i d e l ' ln s t i tu t d 'E s tud i s C a ta lans V I , p p . 5 55 -573 . B a rce lona . 1 920b . " Us e n ter ramen t sd el aC } a r ro txa a le sS a lme sd eS an tany i" ,A nua r id cl ' l ns t i tu td 'E s tud i sC a ta lans V I ,p p . 7 26 -728 . 1 949 . "Cascos e t ru sco sd cl aTéne e n Ma l lo rca " ,Ampu r ia s 1 ,p p . 1 96 -198 . CHAPMAN ,R ; GRANT ,A1 989 . " The t a la io t ic monumen t s o f Ma l lo rca :F o rma t ion p roce sse s a nd f unc t ion " . O xf ord J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 8 ,n ° 1 ,m ar io d c 1 989 , pp. 5 5 -72 . DA METO ,J .1 631 . H is tor ia G enera !d e lR e ino B c Jeá r ico . ENC INAS SANCHEZ , J .A . 1 970 . " La s c ueva s d c i n c ine rac i6n e n P o l len sa ( Ma l lo rca )" , IC ongreso N ac . d e E spe leo logI a ,p p . 1 37 -142 . B a rce lona . ENSE I AT , B . 1 971 . 'T h s to r ia P r im i t iva d c Ma l lo rca " , e n J . Ma sca rO P a sa r iu s ( Ed ) . H is tor ia d e Ma l lorca I ,p p . 2 89 -352 . P a lma . F ERNANDEZ MIRANDA , M . 1 978 . S ecuenc ia c u l tu ra l d c l aP reh i s tor ia d e Ma l lorca B ib l io theca P raeh i s tor ica H i spana XV . Mad r id . F ERNANDEZ M IRANDA , M . ; ENSE I AT . C , . ; ENSE I AT ,B . 1 971 . E lpob lado d cA lma l lu tx ( E scorca , B a lea re s ) , E xcavac ione sA rqueo log ica se nE spana 7 3 . F ERRA ,B . 1 896 . " Ha l lazgo sa r queo lOg ico se nC o s t ig " . B o le t I nd el aS oc iedad A rqueo log ica L u l iana V I ,

p p .

8 5 -89 .

FONT OBRADOR , B . 1 970 . "Ma l lo rca P ro toh is tO r ica " . E n J . Ma sca rO P a sanu s ( c d . ) , H is tor ia d e Ma l lorca I ,p p . 3 53 -416 . P a lma . G .R . 1 928 . " G lo sa r i" , d i a i io L aA lmuda ina ,5 ju l io . GARRALDA , M .D . 1 971 . " Re s to sh umano s h a l lado s e n c lp ob lado d cA lma l lu tx ( E sco rca , Ma l lo rca )" . T raba jos d c A n t ropo log la XV I ,n °2 ,C S IC ,p p . 6 3 -71 GOLDSTE IN , L . 1 981 . One d imen s iona l a r chaeo logy a nd mu l t i -d imen s iona l p eop le : s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd mo r tua ry a na lys is " . E n R . C hapman , C . K inne s &K . R and sbo rg , T he a rchaeo logy o fd ea th . N ew D irec t ions i n A rchaeo logy ,p p . 5 3 -69 . GO MEZ BELLARD ,C . 1 987 .L ac o lon i zac ionf en ic io -pün ica d cl ai s la d cI b i za T e s i s Doc to ra l , Un iv . d cV a lenc ia . GUERRERO ,V . M . 1 978 . " La c ucva d cC a la P 1 " , Mayu rqa 1 7 , pp . 1 3 -20 . 1 98 1 . " Lo sa sen tam ien to sh umano s s ob re l o si s lo te sc o s te ro sd c Ma l lo r ca " ,B o l le t Id cl aS oc ie ta lA rqueo lOg ica L uL l iana XXXV I I I ,p p . 1 9 1 -231 . 1 985 . I nd igen i sme iC o lom tzac ió p i ln ica aMa l lo rca . S c sS a lme s . 1 986 . " E li mpac to d cl ac o lomzac iOn p t in ica e nl aC u l tu ra T a layO t ica d c Ma l lo rca " .A u la O r ien ta li s4 , pp. 3 39 -375 . L ILL IU , G . ;B IANCAF IORE ,F . 1 959 . " P r im i s c av i n e l v i i lagg io t a la io t ico d iS e s P a ise s ( Ar tá , Ma l lo rca ) . M is s ione a r ch eo log ica i t a l iana a p r i le -magg io " . A nna l id e l la F acu l tà d iL e t te re d e l l 'Un ive r s i tà d iC ag l iar i2 7 . LLO MPART , G . 1 970 . L a R e l ig ion d e l h omb re p reh i s tOr ico e n Ma l lorca . S ep . d c H is to r ia d c Ma l lo rca I ,d c J . Ma sca rO .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . MALGOSA , A ssumpc iO 1 992 . L ap ob lac iö t a la iO t ica d c Ma l lorca . L e sr e s tes h umane sd c l ' I l lo td e s P or ro s( s . V II l a .C . ) . I n s t i tu td 'E s tud i sC a ta lan s ,B a rce lona ,4 64 p p . MALUQUER ,J .1 947 . " La E dad d e lB ronce e nl a si s la sB a lea re s" ,e nR . Menéndez P ida l , H i s tor ia d cE spana 1 . MASCARO PASAR IUS ,J .1 960 . " Cueva s p rch i s tó r ica s d c Ma l lo rca " . B o le t In d c l aS oc iedad A rqueo lOg ica L u l iana XXX I ,7 90 -791 ,p p . 6 45 -656 . 1 967 . C orpu sd c T opon im ia d c Ma l lorca ,t omo s V yV I . P a lma . MASCARO ,J ; AGU ILO ,C . 1 969 . " No t Ic ia s p a ra l ac a r ta a rqueo lög ica d cl ac oma rca d cS an tany l " . E nB o le t I nd c l a S oc iedadArqueok 5g ica L u l iana XXX I I I ,8 10 -811 , pp. 8 9 -120 . MOLAS , M . D . ; RAFEL , N . ; PUG , F . 1 986 . " E l r i tua l f une ra r i al an ec ropo l i s d e l C oi l d e l Mo ro , G ande sa ( Te r ra A l ta ) " . C o la Z ero 2 , pp . 4 8 -52 . NADAL ,G . ; PASCUAL ,G . 1 928 . " Excavac ione s e nB c l lve rR ic " . Manu sc r i to d e l S cm inar io C onc i l ia rd c Ma l lo rca , 4 5 /346 . NOSTRA TERRA , LA 1 928 . " Le s t r oba l lc sd cL lub I " ; L aN os t ra T er ra 1 ,p .2 10 .

3 09

J AUME C OLL -CONESA

ORF ILA ,M . 1 988 . L an ec rópo l is d eS aC ar ro t ja yl ar oman i zac ión d e ls ur d el ai s la d e Ma l lorca . BAR ,I .S .n '397 . O 'S I IEA ,J .1 984 . Mor tuary v ar iab i l i ty .A nA rchaeo log ica li n ve s t iga t ion .A cadem ic P re s s . L ondon . PARERA ,J .1 918 . " P reh is to r ia . X IV . V i la rd eT a lap I " ,S a Ma r ja l ,a ny x ,n ° 14 ,p p . 8 1 -82 . P EEBLES ,C .S ; KUSS ,S .M . 1 977 . " Some A rchaeo log ica l c o r re la t e so fr a nked s oc ie t ie s" . Ame r ican A n t iqu i t y4 2 ,p p . 4 2 1-448 . PONS IBRUN , E . 1 986 . " E l r i tua l f une ra r i d c l ai n c ine rac ió : c oncep te is i gn if icac ió . Una a p l icac ió aL 'Empo rdà " . C o ta Z e ro 2 ,p p . 2 5 -32 . PONS FABREGUES , B . 1 900 . " la l iazgo e nn ac l ape rd cL Iub i " . B o le t I nd el aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l iana V I I I , p p . 2 97 -298 . RA ? ' v I IS IRAN ' f IS , J .1 818 . A n t igüedade sc é l t ica sd el ai s la d e Menorca d e sde l o st i empo s má s r emo los h a s ta e is .I V d el ae ra c r i s t iana . Mahón . ROSSELLO BORDOY , G . 1 965a . " A iqu i tec tu ra c i c lópe ma l lo rqu ina " , E n A rqu i tec tura m ega i l l ica y c i c iópea c a ta lano b a lear . C S IC . B a rce lona ,p p . 1 33 -150 . 1 965b . " U l t ima sa po r tac ione sa lc onoc im ien to d cl ac u l tu ra p r e ta layó t ica m a l lo rqu ina " . V IC ongre so I n terna t iona le d e l le S c ien ze P reh i s tor iche eP ro toh i s tor iche . I ,p p .4 16 -422 . R oma . 1 972 . " La p reh i s to r ia d c Ma l lo rca " ,T raba jo sd e l Mu sco d c Ma l lo rca , 1 ,s epara ta d c Mayurqa VI . 1 973 . L aC u l tura T a . layó t ica e n Ma l lorca . P a lma . 1 979 . L aC u l tura T a layó l ica e n Ma l lorca . 2 E d .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca , 1 979 ,226 p p ,4 t a b . XXXV I Il am s . ROSSELLO -COLL ,G . 1 966 . T he c h rono logy o fe a r ly B a lea r ic I s land C u l tu re s ,P h .D .U n iv . o fL ondon . SAHL INS ,M . 1 977 . L a ss oc iedade st r iba le s . N .C .L abo r .B a rce lona SA IDAH ,R . 1 966 . " Fou i l le sd c Kha ldé" ,e nB u l le t in d u Mu sé ed eB ey rou th 1 9 ,p p . 5 1 -90 . SANTA OLALLA , J .M . 1 930 . " La s i s la s B a lea re s ys u c u l tu ra p re r romana" . A c ta s y Memor ia s d e l a S oc iedad . E spaño la d e .A n tropo log ia E tno log ia yP reh i s to r ia I X , pp . 6 5 -78 . S ERRA RAFOLS ,J . DE C . 1 929 . " Le sl i e sB a lea re s" . 1 VC ong re sI n terna t iona lD 'Archeo log ie , pp. 5 -35 .B a rce lona . TA INTER ,J .A . 1 978 . " Mo r tuary p rac t ice sa nd t h es t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic s oc ia l s y s tem s" ,e nM . S ch if f e r( c d .) A dvance s i na rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory 1 ,A cadem ic P re s s . N ew Y o rk ,S an F ranc i sco a nd L ondon ,p p . 1 05 -141 . TARRADELL ,M . 1 962 . " E l p ob ie d e ls t a la io t s aMa l lo rca iMeno rca . E i si nd igene s d cl e sB a lea r s v i s to sp e i sa u to r s c l a ss ic s " . H zs t6r ia d e l sC a ta lan s 1 ,d cF e r r àn S o idev i la .B a rce lona . TARRADELL ,M . 1 964 . L an ecrópo l i sd eS on R ea l yl al i la d e l sP orros (Ma l lorca ) ,E xcavac ione s A rqueo lóg ica se n E spaf ia ,2 4 . Mad r id . TE JERA GASPAR , A . 1 975 . " En te r ram ien to s i n fan t i le s d c i nhumac ión e n l a s n ec rópo l is f en ic io -p i in ica s d e l Med i tc r ráneo O cc iden ta l" ,X I I C ongreso N ac iona ld eA rqueo logI a ,p p .7 81 -790 . Hue lva . UCKO ,P . J . 1 969 . " E lnog raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion o ff une ra ry r ema in s" . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 ,p p . 2 62 , 2 81 . VENY ,C . 1 965 . C orpu sd el a si n scr ipc ione sb a !eá r ica sh a s ta l ad om inac ión d rabe .C S IC , Mad r id . 1 968 .L a sc ueva ss epu lcra le sd e lB ronce A n l iguo e n Ma l lorca .B ib l io teca P raeh i s tonca H ispan ica I X ,C S IC , Mad r id . 1 977 . " Apun te sc omp lemen ta r io s s ob re l ac ueva d cl aE dad d e lH ie r ro d cS on Ma imó ( Ma l lo rca )" , T raba jo sd e P reh i s tor ia XXX IV ,3 4 ,p p . 11-164 . 1 982 . L an ecrópo l i spro toh i s tOr ica d eC a . le sC ove s , Menorca B ib l io tcca P raeh i s to r ica H i spar nca XX , Mad r id . V IJ ILLEMOT ,G . 1 965 . R econna i ssances a us é che l lespun ique sd ' oran ie . Au tun . Mu séc R o l in . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 982 . B a lea r ic P reh i s tory . E co logy a nd C u l ture ;t h ee xcava t ions a nd s t udy o fc er ta in c ave s , r ock s he l te r sa nd s e t t lemen t s . B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR e sea rch S e r ie sI n te rna t iona l 1 49 . O x fo rd . 1 985 . E a r ly P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ti nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s . D cyà A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum And R e sea rch C en t re S . , 1 3 . 1 986 . T he B a lea r ic p en tapar t i te d iv is ion o fpreh i s tor y .R ad iocarbon a nd o ther a ge d e te rm ina t ion i n ven tor ie s , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR e sea rch S e r ie sI n te rna t iona l2 82 . O x fo rd .

3 10

" THAT 'S HO W I TI S" . AN ACCOUNT OF DEATH R ITUALS I N SALE ,C IRCA 1 935

K ENNE TH B ROWN U n ive r s i ty o fM anche s t e r M an che s te r ,E ng land .

2 0

The f o l low ing t e x th a sb een t r an s la ted f r om at r anc r ip -

T hey w rap h im . T he re ' sn o s c ream ing , n oc ry ing o u t , n e i ther t he o ne n or t h e o ther . T hose b e l iever s w ho t ho se w ho f ea r G od a nd k now w ha t ' s b e tween t h em a nd G od ( don ' tc ry o u t ) . When t h e d eceased h a s d i ed, t h ey c ove r h i sf ace . i f h e h as d ied i n t h e e ven ing t h e w asher o ft h e d ead c ome sa nd l a y s h im o n t h eb oa rd f or t h ew a sh ing . T hey p lace ab urn ing c ande labra b yh i s h ead a nd t h ey c l ose t h e d oor t o t h e r oom . T hey l e ave h im w i th G od . T ha t n i gh tn oo ne s l eep sw i th h im . T he n ex t m orn ing , t h ey ( t he f am i ly ) g o t ot h e r ec i t e r so ft h e Q uran a nd b uy as hroud , a nd t h ey b uy b a lm s . I s lam ic l aw h a s g iven u s t h ree b a lm s i nt h i s w or ld : t h e b a lm f or t h es even th d ay a f ter w e h ave b een b orn, t h e b a lm f or ma r r iage a nd t h eb a lm/ or d ea th . T he m en c ome . T hey g o t o t h e m o sque a nd t h e s hroud i sb rough t t ot h em . T hey s ew t h e s hroud t h ere . I n t h e h ouse t h e w omen p ound t h e b a lms . T here a re d r ied r o se s t h ere a re b a lms , t h e re ' sh enna ,a nd ,f or i n s t ance , c i nnamon , e xpens ive c l ove s . . , t h ef ragran tp e r f ume s o ft h i s w or ld, a l l o ft h em a re c omb ined -pure s aff ron , c amphor -camphor i sI s lam ic b ecau se i t ' sf rom p arad i se, i ta nd s aff ron . E very th ing i sp ounded Wa te ri sh ea ted i nt h eh ou se . F or t h o se w ho 're h on e s ta nd k now G od ' so b l iga t ion, t h ew a te ri s n ' tb rough t f rom t h e h ammam ;t h e w a te r i sh ea ted a th ome . T hen t h ey c ome i n , t h e w a sher s o ft h e d ead c ome i n . T he se w a she r so ft h ed ead a re r e c i te r so ft h eQ uran a nd r e l ig i ou s e xper t s . T hey k now . . I s lam ic l aw , w he re i tb eg ins a nd e nd s , h ow t ha t m an s hou ld b e w a shed . T hey w ash h im , h e i sw a shed , a nd t h ey w rap h im i nt h es hroud .H e i sp u t i n to t h e c of in a nd t hey b r ing t h ose b a lms a nd t h ey 're p oured o ver h im the d r ied r o se s , a nd t h e o range b lossoms , t h eh enna a nd a l l t h eb a lms . S af f ron i ss pr ink led s o t ha t h i s s hroud if s ome p eop le c ome t o s t ea lo ra ny th ing, t h es hroud i sf ound s t a ined w i th s af f ron f or s aff ron n eve r d i sappears . . .He ' sp laced i n s ide t h ee ar th a nd t h ey c l o se i to ve rh im . A sf or t h er ec i te r s o ft h e Quran .. t he c en t ra lc our to f t h eh ou se i ss p read w i th c a rpe t s t h er e c i te r s c ome , t h e r e la t ive s c ome , a nd a l l o ft hose w ho h ave h ea rd t ha t t h em an h a sd i ed c ome . T he p ub l ic c r ie ri ss en ti n to t h e c i ty: " There i sn og od b u tt h eo ne G od a nd Muhammad i st h e m e ssenge ro fG od . S uch -and -such aman h a sj u s t d i ed " , o r " s uch -and -such a w oman ." P eop le a rr ive , t h o se r e c i te r s o ft h e Qu ran c ome . T he c a ske ti sb rough t i n to t h e c en tra l c our t o f t h e h ouse , a nd a c over i s

t i on o f at a pe reco rded a ccoun t i n Mo roccan A rab ic o f v a r iou s r i tua ls o f p a ssage e l l ic i ted b y Z ineb Mk in s i f r om h e rg r andmo the rM ina B u' Azzaw iya i nt h ec i ty o f S a le , Mo rocco i n 1 966 . T he r e co rd ing s w e re made f o r my b ene f i ti nt h ec ou r se o fr e sea rch b e ing u nde r taken a t

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t h a tt ime f o r at h e s is o n t h e s oc ia l h i s to ry o fu rban l i fe i n aMo roccan c i ty . Iw a s n o tp re sen td u r ing t h er e co rd i n g s a nd h ad e xp la ined t o Zmeb t h ek ind o fd e sc r ip t ive m a ter ia l t h a t Iw an ted f o r my r e sea rch . A s t h e r e co rd i n g s b ecame a va i lab le Iw o rked t h rough t h em w i th Z i n eb , b u t mo s t ly w i th Z ubay r N ac ir i w ho w a s my r e s e rch a ss is tan t a t t h e t ime . We e s tab ished t he t r an sc r ip t ion , a nd Imade at r an s la t ion i n to E ng l ish a nd d r ew u p ag lo s sa ry . My m e thod w a s t h ec l a ss ica lo ne o f ' m anu fac tu r ing ' e thnog raph ic t e x t s t h a th ad b een d eve l -

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o ped i n t h e s t ud ie s o f Mo roccan A rab ic b y s pec ia l is t s l i ke G . C o hn ,L .B runo t ,E .L ev i -P rovença l ,a nd o t he r s . U n t i l n ow Ih ave d rawn o n t h is ma te r ia l o n ly f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f g ene ra l d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e l i fe c yc le i n S a le . I nt h ep re sen tp ape r Iw ou ld l i ke t ol o ok c l o se ly a t t h e t e x t i t se lf i n r ega rd t ot h e mean ing s o f d ea th t h a t m ay b e e x t rac ted . A f te r p re sen t ing t h e e n t i re t e x t i n t r an s la t ion , s ome g ene ra l l i ne s o f p o ss ib le i n te rp re ta t i on w i l lf o l low . THE FUNERAL : THAT 'S HO W I TI S ! T he s i ck man i sn ow ( qu i te ) s i ck . .. i ss l eep ing i nh i s p lace a nd t h ey d o n o t u n t i l t h ey s ee t h a t d ea th h as d e scended u pon h im . T hey b r ing t h er ec i te r so ft h e Q u r an , t h e r e lg iou ss pec ia l i s t s c ome , a nd t h ey p ronounce b ef ore h im t h e c a l l t of a i th , s ay ing t oh im " There i sn o g od b u t t h e o ne G od , o ur mas ter Muhammad i st h e m e ssenger o fG od " . T he r ec i ter s o ft h e Q uran r ec i te , a nd t h e yg i ve h im s ome d rop s h oney s o t h a t t h ea gony o fd ea th w i l lb e e as ie rf or h im . T hey g i ve h im d rop s o f w a ter ‚ and t h ose w ho a re b e l iever s r ec i te f or h im a nd h i s s ou l d epar t s i n t h e m id s t o ft h e r ec i te r s o ft h e Q u r an .

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p laced o ver i t ac ove r o f ap iou s man o r s ome c over f rom Mecca . Ac ove r t ha t c ome sf rom Mecca i sp a s sed a l ong f rom o ne h ouse t ot h eh ouse o ft h ed ecea sed .A nd t h er e c i ter so ft h eQ uran r ec i te . A sf or t h eg rave , i t' sb e ing d ug a nd b u i l t u p . When t h er e c i ter s o ft h eQ uran h ave f i n i shed , o ne o ft h er e la t i ve ss t and su p , t a ke s ap ur se o fm oney a nd n ow d i s t r ib u t e s i tt ot h e r ec i te r s o ft h e Q uran a nd t ot h ep oor a nd s oo n . T he c orp se i sl i f t ed a nd t a ken o u t a ccompan ied b y s ome r ec i ta t ion o f a( s uf i ) l i tany ( d ik r ) f rom t h e h ou se o f t h ose w ho . . .. i n to t h es t ree t: " The re i sn og od b u tt h eo ne G od o ur ma s te r Muhammad i st h e m e ssen g e ro fG od " . Among b e l iever st h e re i sn o . .scream ing, n o s cream ing n o c ry ing o u t . T he d ecea sed , i fp eop le b eg in s c ream ing a l o t, i ss hocked . T wo ( men a c t ing a s ) g uard ians f rom t h ef am i ly a re s ay ing t ha t n o o ne s hou ld s peak , n o o ne s hou ld c ry o u t n o o ne s hou ld s peak . C ry ing o u t o fc ompa ss ion may b e a l r igh t , b u t c r y ing tha t i so fl amen ta t ions , o fy oo -yoo , t ha ts or to f t h ing, n o ! F or u s t ha t ' s ( t he b ehav iour ) o ft h ei gnor a n t . T he d ecea sed i sb rough t i n h e ' s w rapped i n t h e s hroud, ma t s a re s pread t h ere a nd t h e r ec i ter s o ft h e Q uran s i t d own a nd r ec i te . T here a re r ec i ta t ions a nd w hen t h ey f i n i sh m oney i s a ga in d i s tr ibu ted b y t h e g rave . When t h ey c ome . .t h em embe rs o ft h ef am i ly w i th t h es heep f or t h es acr if ice, t h es oup -we c a l l i t " lmer k a " -ha s b een p repared . B ow l s o fs oup a re s erved, o l ive sa re s e rved -f o r u so l ive s a nd r ad ishe s a re I s lam i c . O ppos i te t h eb ow l s o fs oup a re b ow l s o fh oney a nd b u t ler . Y e s e very th ing i sp repared a nd w hoeve r w an t s t o l e ave l e ave s a nd w hoever w an t s t os t ay s t ay s . I n t h e e ven ing c of f ee i sp repa red -f or w hoever m ay b e t h ere, a nd a tn i gh t t h e re ' s c ou scou s . I t ' s c a l led " t he s upper o ft h e g rave " . T ha t n i gh t. .o n t ha t n igh t c ou s cou s . T he n ex t morn ing t h ere 's b reakf as t -bread, f i g s d a te s, b ro th ( l ehr i ra ) 'a nd c of ee . A nd a ga in i n t h e a f t ernoon . ( The re w as a t i me w hen t h ere w a s o n ly s oup ,s oup . B u tt oday t h e re ' ss oup a nd s t ew sa nd e ve ry t h ing ) .A tn i gh t , o nce a ga in , t h es ame c u s tom . I nt h e e ven ing w omen c ome t op ay c ondo lence sf rom e very n ook a nd c orner o ft h ep lace T here ' s o n ly c of f ee . P eop le a re t h ere a nd t r ay so fc of f ee . N e i the rs amo v a r o r k e t t le e n ter s . T he t r ay s a re s imp ly f i l led i nt h e k i tchen w i th g la sse s a nd s ugar b ow l s a nd s poons , a nd p eop le p as st h em a round . T he n ex t d ay w e c a l l " k nead ing" . When w e d o t h e k nead ing w e g o t ot h e o ven -keeper a nd p lace a n o rder w i th h im e ach o ne a ccord ing t o h i s c apac i ty :3 00 l o ave s o r4 00 o r6 00 o r2 00 . .o r2 00 a ccord ing t oh i s s i tua t ion . . .each o ne a ccord ing t oh i ss i tua t ion . A nd f i gs a nd d a te s a re b rough t . Ha lf i st aken a nd b rough t b y t h em en t ot h eg rave a nd d i s tr ibu ted t ot h ep oor a nd t o t h e r e c i ter s o ft h e Q uran . Ha lf i sl ef t t ot h e w omen . T hey s end i tt o r e la t ive s a nd d i s tr ibu te i ta mong t h e b egga rs a nd t h e p oor . T ha t 's t h e Day o f K nead ing . T here w as a t i me w hen o n t h e Day o fK nead ing p eop le t o ld y ou " don ' tk nead, d on ' tc ook ." T ab le s w ou ld c ome f rom r e la t ive s ' h ouse s t ab le s a nd b read o fw a lnu t f l our -you 'd s ay " whoo , h ow many !A nd c ooked m ea t s ‚

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o f v ar iou s k i nd s a nd v ege tab les o fv a r iou s k i nd s a nd b ow l s o f r anc id b u t ter . T he t ab le s w ou ld c ome i n t h ey 'd b eg in t oa rr ive . . , y ou 'd s end a t ab le , s omeone e l se w ou ld s end ( one ) P eop le w ou ld s end l oave s o f s ugar , t h ey 'd s end t e a a nd b ags o ff l our , a nd j ar s o f o l ive o i lw ou ld a r r ive ; i n aw ord , e ve ry th ing w as d one p erf ec t ly . P eop le a nd t h ose e n t ru s ted w i th t h ef une ra l r ea l ly c ar r ied o u tt h e ir w ork . T he n ex tm orn ing , t h e t h ird d ay, i sc a l led " d i s tr ibu t i on" . Wha t 's d i s t r ibu t ion? B read i sd i s t r ibu ted a nd f i gs .O nce a ga in w omen b r ing t h e ir p or t ion t ot h eg rave a nd d i s tr ibu te i t . T ha tn igh t , w h ich i sc a l led " t he n i gh t o fs o l i tude " c ouscou s i sp repared . Whoeve r i so fh e r f am i ly, w he ther s he h a sp re sen ted h er c ondo lence s o r n o t, w i l lb et h ere o n t h i sn i gh to ft h ec eme te ry . .e h. . of s o l i tude . T he r e c i ter s o ft h e Q uran r e c i te w omen a nd m en a re s i t t ing i nr ow s . Y ou m igh tc a l li tac e lebra t ion . W e l l, t h ey r ec i te a nd y ou g i ve t ot h er e c i ter sw ha tG od h a s g i ven t oy ou . P eop le s pend t ha t n i gh t o fs o l i tude t h ere ; a nd t h e n ex t d ay w hoeve r w an t s t o b reakf a s t d oe ss o , a nd t h en p eop le s epara te . A f terwa rd s t h ere ' s t h eF r iday a nd t h e Monday . T hey p repa re f or t h eF r iday . P eop le c ome o nF r iday t o of e r c ondo lence s . Whoever c an af ord i tp repare sf ood, a nd w hoever c an o n ly af ord a g la ss o fc of f ee ( doe s t ha t ) O n Monday y ou s i t a ga in , ( and s o o nf or ) t h ree w eek sa nd t h ree Monday s . When t h ef or ty d ay s h ave p assed a nd i fi t ' s aw oman , s he ' l l i mmed ia te ly a t t ha t t i me p u t o n " God ' s o b l iga t i on ." S he ' l l w ear e very th ing w h i te : t h e s carf o n h e r h ead i s w h i te, t h es haw li sw h i te . S he ' l l n o ts ee am an f rom o u t s ide t h ef am i ly ,s he ' l ln o ts ee am i r ror .T he m i r r o r i sc overed b y ac l o th s o t ha ts he w on ' ts ee h er f ace , b ecause t ha t ' s G od ' s o b l iga t ion . When i t ' s b een f our m on th s a nd t e nd ay s t h ey s ay i t ' s ( t he t i me )f or " t he m emory o ft h e d ead " . T hey p repare f or t h e m emory o f t h ed ead . C ou scou si sp repa red, a nd t h er ec i ter so ft h e Q uran ( a re t h ere ) . A n e ven ing o fs pr ink l ing a nd p e r f um ing ; a nd c ou scou s i sp repa red , a nd t h e r ec i ter s o f t h eQ uran r ec i te u n t i l . p eop le p ar tak ei nt h ec ou scou s a nd t h er ec i ter se a ta nd t h ey f i n i sh . A sf or t h e w if e o ft h e d ecea sed , d ur ing f our m on th s a nd t e n d ay ss he w ea rs t h ose w h i te t h ing s . S he c hange s i n to w h i te a nd . .. eve ry th ing i sw h i te . O nt h ed ay t ha tt h e p er iod o fG od ' so b l iga t ion f i n ishe s, t h er e la t ives c ome . Y ou b r ing h er as u i to fc l o the s , s omeone e l se b r ing sh e r ag a rmen t , a no the r o ne b r ings h er as carf . E ve ryone a ccord ing t o h i s c ond i t ion u n t i l t h e d ecea sed ' s w if e h a s ab ed f i l led o n ly w i th . .S he c hange s a l l o ft h ose t h ings s he h a s b een w ea r ing c on t inuou s ly d ur ing f ou r m on th s .S he g ives a way t h o se c l o the so f" God ' so b l iga l i on" t ha t s he h a s b een w ear ing t o c ha r i ty . S he ' l l n o l o nge rw ear t h em . S he d ona te s t h em t ot h ep oor . We l l, s he s i ts i nh e r h ou se p ra i s ing G od. I fs he h a sh e rc h i l d ren s he p ra i se s G od . I fs he h a sn ' ta ny, t h e i n he r i tor s e n te ra nd t a ke t h ei n her i tance . We l l, t h a t ' sh ow i ti s ! ‚

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3 12

K ENNETH B ROWN

B e l ie fi n DMo roccoC ] ,r ep r in ted N .Y . 1 972 ,v o l .I ,p . 4 34

CO MMENTARY T he woman who p rov ided t h is a ccoun t , M ina B u 'azzaw iya , w a s b o rn a round 1 896 . T hu s a tt h e t ime s he s poke ( 1966 ) s he w a s a bou t7 0 y ea r s o ld . S he w a s p a r t o ft h e g roup o fn o tab le f am i l ie s o f S a le , ak i nd o f u rban b ou rgeo is ie who h ad ap r edom inan t i nf luence o n t h e a f f a i r s a nd t h e mo ra l t one o f t h e c i ty , H e r mo the r w a s f r om t h e S b ih i f am i ly a nd h e r h u sband , aMk in s i o nh i s f a the r ' s s i de , w a sh e r c ou s in ,t h a ti sh e r mo the r ' s s i s te r 's s on . H e rh u sband w a s af e rven t f o l lowe ro ft h e z aw iya H a sun iyya ,t h e s u l io rd e rd e scended f r om S a le ' s p a t ron s a in t ,S id i ' Abda l lah H a sun ,a nd s he l i ke h e rs i s t e r s a nd t h e i rf a the rw e re f o l lowe r s o ft h e B u 'azzaw iya s u f i o rde r a t tached t ot h e i r a nce s to r . M ina w a s aw e l l k nown s e am s t re s s i n t h e c i ty a nd a n s pec ia l i s ta to rga n i z ing m a r r iage c e leb ra t ion sa nd f am i ly f e te so fv a r iou s s o r t s . T hu s , s he h ad t h e c r eden t ia ls o f a n e xce l len t s ou rce f o rt h ed e sc r ip t ion o fr i te so fp a s sage a st h ey h ad b een i nS a le . T he t e x tn eed s t ob e s e en i nc on t ex ti no the rw ay s ,a s w e l l . M ina i s aw oman t a lk ing t oh e rg randaugh t e r . S he i st r an sm i t t ing t o h e r as avo i r fa i re a nd d oe s s o i n a c l ea r ly d i dac t ic m anne r : a tt ime s s he s ay s , " you d o t h is a nd y ou d ot h a t ." T he a ccoun ti si d ea l ized , as e to fr u le s f o rp rope rp rocedu re .I ti s ad e sc r ip t ion o n ly i nt h e mo s t g ene ra l s en se ;i td oe sn ' tp re sen ta na ccoun to fa na c tua l d ea th o rf une ra l . A s ide f r om i t s f o rm t h a ti t ' s t h ev o ice o f awoman t a lk ing t o aw oman i n af o rm o fs peech t h a t h a s s ome l i ngu is t ic s pec if ic i t ie s i np hono logy a nd v o -

c abu la ry t h e t e x t ' s c on ten t sa r en o tv e ry d i f fe ren tf r om l e ga l a nd o t he re t hnog raph ic t e x t s o n t h es ub jec t . T hu s , -

f o re xamp le ,g i v ing t h ed y ing p e r son h oney ,t u rn ing h i s b ody t owa rd s Mecca a nd r e c i t ing t h et e s t imony o ff a i th , w a sh ing t h ec o rp se ,p repa r ing t h e s h roud , a nd t h er o le s o f t h e r i tua l s pec ia l i s t s i n a l l o f t h is a r e much a s t h ey a r ep re sc r ibed i nt h el e ga ll i t e ra tu re . T he se b ook so fj u r i sprudence d ea l m inu te ly w i th t h e se ma t te r s b y d r aw i ng o n t h e T rad i t ion s o f t h e P rophe t . C ondo lence s a nd b anque t s a r e e qua l ly p re sc r ibed i n t h e l aw a nd d e s c r ibed i nv a r iou s i d ea l ized a ccoun t s i n much t h e s ame manne r a s d oe s M ina . ( C f . Q ay rawan i , R isa la . E p i t re s u rl e se l emen t sd uD Ddogme e td cl al o id el ' I s lam s c ion l ar i te ma l ik i te . E d . e tt r ad . L . B e rche r , B ib l io theque a r abe f ranca i se 1 945 ,c hap . XX ,

p .

1 04 f . ; " D j inaza" i n

t h e DSho r te r E ncyc loped ia o f I s lam[ ] ; E .W . L ane , OManne r sa nd C u s tom so ft h e Modem E gyp t ian s lJ ,L on d on c d . o f 1 954 , p . 5 20 f . ; G . C o hn , DCh re s toma th ie ma roca ineD , P a r is 1 955 , p . 2 07 ; M . B ekkhoucha , DSavo i r -v iv re . V ie s oc ia le e tr e l ig ieu se d e s Ma roca in s lJ , C a sab lanca ,p .5 9 f ;a nd G . We s te rma rck , DRe h ig ion a nd

f . ) . Wha ti ss pec if ic t ot h is d i scou r se , t h e d ydac t ic o ne a s p r e sen ted b yM ina ,i si t s s t ruc tu re . S he t e l ls t h ing s mo re o rl e s s c h rono log ica l ly , wha th appen s a nd wha t ' s t ob e d one f r om t h e b eg inn ing u n t i l t h e e nd , f r om t h e a gony o fd ea th t h rough t h ec onc lu s ion o ft h e mourn ing p e r iod o f f ou r mon th s a nd t e n d ay s . T he d ay s a nd n igh t s a r e n amed , t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s s pec if ied . Know ing wha t t od o a nd when i so fc en t ra l i mpo r tance -an o rde r , ap e r iod i c i ty . T h roughou t t h e f unera l a nd mou rn ing t h e re i sa s t r ic ts exua l d i v is ion o fl a bou r . Men h ave c e r ta in t a sk s , women o t he r s . Much o f wha t t a ke s p l ace i ss ac ra l ized , i . e . , i t ' s r e f e r red t oI s lam ic l aw a nd t h is i n c lude s e ven s uch t h ing s a s w ha t f ood s a r e e a ten a nd w hen . I n t h e t e x tt h eA rab ic t e rm sh ra ' l i t e ra l ly " I s lam ic l aw ," r e f e r s t ot ho se a c t iv i t ie s t h a t a r e c u s toma ry p rac t ice . T hey ' re s e en a sc od if ied .A lso s ome p rac t ice s , s uch a st h ew ea r i n go fw h i te b y t h e w idow , a r er e f e r red t oa s" God ' s o b ‚

l i ga t ion " (haqq A l lah ) ar e fe rence t o s ac ra l iza t ion t h a t n eed s f u r the r e l uc ida t ion . ( E icke lman h a s p o in ted t o t h e g ene ra l i mpo r tance o f " ob l iga t ion" ( h aqq ) i n Mo r occan r e l ig ion a nd c u l tu re i n h i s Mo roccan I s lam A u s t in 1 976 ,p .1 24 , 1 780 . O the ra spec t s o fM ina 's a ccoun t wh ich d e ser ve a t ten t i on a r et h ew a te rh ea ted i nt h eh ome f o rt h ew a sh ing o f t h e c o rp se , t h e h erb s , p lan t s a nd p e r fume s p repa red a s b a lm s f o r t h ef une ra l ,a nd o ft h e v ar iou s f ood s t h a ta r e c ooked a nd e a ten a t s pec if ic t ime s . We c an v en tu re s ome e xp lana t ion s o f t h e se m a t te r s , b u t t h e ir s i gn i f i c ance w ou ld b e s te me rge f r om a c tua l s i tua t ion sa nd D in s i t u Dc ommen ta r ie sb yt h ea c to r st h em se lve s . T he s c r ib e sa nd r ec i te r so ft h eQ u ran ( De t to lbaf l )a p p ea r a s c en t ra l t o a l l a c t iv i t ie s . T hey k now t h e l aw " f rom t h e b eg inn ing t ot h e e nd " ,a sM ina p u t s i t .T he ir r e c i ta t ion s a ccompany many a c t iv i t ie s ,a nd much o ft h e f ood i sp repa red f o r t h e ir b enef i t . T he f une ra l a l so c r ea te s s i tua t ion s f o r t h e e x tend ing o f c ha r i ty t ot h e se s c r ibe s . I ti s at ime t og i ve a nd t or ece ive a nd h e lp s t o f i nance t h er e l ig iou si n s t i tu t ion . I nM ina ' sa ccoun tt h e se s c r ibe s a s sume p r inc ip le r o le s . A no the r e l emen t t on o te i n t h e d e sc r ip t ion i st h e i m p o r tance o ft h ec en t ra l c ou r tya rd o ft h eh ou se ( t Jo s tc d d a rD ) .T ha t ' s w he re t h ec o rp se i sv i s i ted b yr e la t ive sa nd w he re c ondo lence s a r e e x tended . T he se a c t iv i t ie s s im p ly r e in fo rce t h e c ruc ia l r o le o f t h is d ome s t ic s pace . M ina p l ace ss pec ia le mpha s is o nt h ed i sc ip l ined b ehav i o u rn ece ssa ry o n t h is o cca s ion a s as i gn if ican ti n s tance o fu rban c u l tu re , o fb e ing c i v i l ized . S he i n s is t s o n s e v e ra l o cca s ion s t h a t n o s hou t ing o r s c ream ing o u t o f g r ief s hou ld t a ke p l ace . S uch b ehav iou r c ha rac ter ize s

3 13

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t h ei g no ran t , s he s ay s , a nd s he c l ea r ly i mp l ie s t h a tp eo p l e w ho a l low t h emse lve s t oa c t i n s uch w ay s a r e n o t r e a l b e l ieve r s ,t h a tt h ey ' re n o td i sc ip l ined a nd o rgan ized a sc i v i l ized p eop le s hou ld b e . T he d e sc r ip t ion o fc l o th ing wo rn d u r ing t h ep er iod o f mou rn ing c onvey s as en se o f aw idow 's e xpe r ience o f d ea th a nd o ft h e c ompan ion sh ip o fh e rf ema le r e la t ive s w ho b r ing h e r c l o thes t oc hange i n to a f te r t h e p e r iod h a s e nded . P e rhaps t h e mo s t u nexpec ted a spec t o f M ina ' s t e x t i st h e c onc lu s ion w he re s he e xp re s se s t h e f e a r t h a t women f e e l i ft h ey h ave n o c h i ld ren . H e re a n e l emen t o fr ea l ism a ppea r s : i ft h e re a r e n o c h i ld ren t o o f fe r s e cur i ty t o t h e w idow b y a l low ing h e r t os t ay i n t h eh ou se ,s he w i l lb ep rey t ot h e wh im s o ft h eo the rl e g a l i n he r i to r s . F rom t h e t e x t , s ome h ypo the se s c once rn ing a t t i tude s t od ea th i nS a le o ft h e 1 930 s may b e c au t iou s ly d rawn . E ve ry th ing i sd one t oe nhance ad ign if ied a ccep tance o f t h e i n ev i tab i l i ty o f d ea th . A s o ne Mo roccan p u t i t , d ea th l i ke s i ckne ss i s " a ' v i s i t ' f r om God " . T he re i sa t o ne o fc e r ta in ty a nd c on f idence i nr i tua l a nd i t sp r ac t ic e s a s p r e sc r ibed b y l aw a nd c ommun ica ted a nd c on t r o l led b y r e l ig iou s e xpe r t s . L i s ten ing t oM ina ' s w o rd s o ne l e a rn s a nd f e e ls t h a t p eop le k new wha t t h ey w e re d o ing a ts uch t ime s . T he d idac t ic o b jec t o ft h e a ccoun t s ucceed s i n t h a t r e spec t . T he t e x t , i ts hou ld b e n o ted , n owhe re i mp l ie s t h eI s lam ic b e l ief t h a t" t he g r ave i st h e f i r s ts t age o ft h e j ou rney t oe t e rn i ty" . ( Cf .M i shka t 1 . 5 .2 c i ted i n We s te rma rck ,p . 5 34 ) . Wha tM ina r e coun t s c ou ld b ei n terp re ted in t e rm s o f s t ruc tu re a nd f unc t ion , b u t a s G eer tz h a s s hown i na n a r t ic le o n af une ra l i nJ ava s uch i n te rp re ta t ion s l e ad t o a s sump t ion s a bou t s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd c u l tu re t h a t c an e a s i ly m is lead u s i no u ri n te rp re ta t ion s ,e spec ia l ly i np e r i od s o f s oc ia l c hange . ( Cf . C . G ee r tz , " R i tua l a nd S o c i a l C hange : A J avane se E xamp le" r ep ren ted i n h i s E TThe I n te rp re ta t ion o fC u l tu resO , N .Y . 1 973 , p p . 1 42 1 69 ) . M ina p re sen t s h e r g r andaugh te rw i th w ha t s e em s as t ruc tura l a nd af unc t iona l d e sc r ip t ion o fr i tua l i no r -

r up t ive , e xcep t t h a t i mpo r tan t l a s t p hra se w h ich d e c l a re s t h a t aw idow w i thou t c h i ld ren i su np ro tec ted . O the rw ise e ve ry th ing i mp l ie s t h e i n te rdependence o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd c u l tu re . G ee r tz ' sa r t ic le o n aJ avane se f une r a l . H es hows t h e re t h a t c u l tu re a nd s oc ie ty l e ad t oq u i te s epa ra te t ype s o f i n teg ra t ion a nd t h a tt h ey d on ' tn ece s sa r i ly i mp ly o ne a n o the r . R i tua l may a c tt od i srup ts oc ie ty a nd c r ea te c on f l ic t ,r a the rt h an t or e info rce i t s s t ruc tu re , a nd s uch d i s r up t ion s may b e m ic ro scop ic e xamp les o f b roade r c onf l ic t s . B u t Mina g i ve s u s i n fo rma t ion a bou tp a t te rn s o fm ean ing a nd f o rm s o fs oc ia l i n teg ra t ion t h a ts e em t o f i t t o ge the r . T ha t ' s h e rd idac t ic me ssage . I st h i s i d eo lo g yr a the rt h an p rac t ice? I na ny c a se w en eed a c tua lc a se d e sc r ip t ion so rs t ud ie st od ec ide . I nM ina ' s a ccoun td ea th i s n ' ta ta l l d en ied . Ia mr e m inded o fF reud ' s v i ew t h a td ea th i st h en ece ssa ry o u t c ome o f l i f e : e ve ryone o we s n a tu re a d ea th a nd mu s t e xpec tt op ay t h ed eb tw h ich i sn a tu ra l ,u nden iab le ,i ma vo idab le . T ha t s en se i si n M ina 's t e x t . F reud a rgue s t h a t p eop le b ehave a s i ft h ing s w e re o the rw ise , a s i f d ea th c ou ld b e e l im ina ted f r om l i fe : n o o ne b e l ieves i n h i s o wn d ea th in t h eu ncon sc iou s w e 're a l l c onv inced o f o u r i mmo r ta l i ty . ( i n " Ou r A t t itude T owa rd s D ea th " i nv o l . 1 2 ,F r eud L ib r a ry , OC iv i l iza t ion ,S oc ie ty a nd R e l i g ionD ,P engu in B ook s 1 985 ,p .7 7 ) .T he re i sn oi n d ica t i on t h a tM ina d oe sn o tf a ce u pt od ea th . R e l ig ion i nF reud ' s v i ew r educe sl i fe e nded b yd ea th t o ame re p r epa ra t ion ,a nd i ns od o ing i td ep r ive s d ea th o f i t s mean ing a s t h e t e rm ina t ion o f l i fe . T h i s d en ia l o f d ea th ,f o rF reud ,i st h ec onven t iona l a t t i tude o fo u rc u l t u re a nd n o t ah ea l thy o ne . A s h ep u t s i t" i fy ou w an tt o e ndu re l i f e , p repa re y ou r se lf f o rd ea th" . M ina i sc l ea r ly ab e l ieve r , a" good Mu s l im" , o ne m igh t s ay , a nd p e r h ap s s aw t h e g rave a s as t age t oe t e rn i ty . A t t h e s ame t ime , s h e s e em s c omfo r tab le w i th t h e p re sence a nd r e a l i ty o f d ea th , h a s b een p r epa red f o ri t ,a nd s he w an t s h e rg r andaugh te rt ob ep repa red i nt h es ame w ay .

d e r t op e rpe tua te away o fa c t ing a nd o fd o ing t h ing s . M ina ' sp u rpo se i sd idac t ic . I nh e ra ccoun tb e l ie fa nd r i t u a l e xp l ic i t ly r e in fo rce s oc ia l t i e s . A t t h e s ame t ime i t i n c lude s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t r e l ig ion s a t isf ie s p eop le s n eed s f o r aw o r ld t ha t m akes s ense a nd t h a t i tg i ve s t h em af e e l ing o fs ecu r i ty a tt h e momen to ft h ep a in o f l o ss b yd ea th . T he a ccoun tw ou ld p l ea se t h ef a the r so fa n th ropo log i c a l t h eo ry , Ma l inowsk i a nd Du rkhe im . O ne c ou ld s ay t h a t h e r v i ew l i ke t h a to fs t ruc tu ra l -func t iona l i sm i ma g ine s as oc ie ty i n b a lance , t ime le ss , w e l l in teg ra ted . T he re i sl i t t le i nh e r d e sc r ip t ion t h a t c an b e c a l led d i s -

3 14

MEGAL ITH IS M AND SOC IETY I N EASTERN LANGUEDOC DUR ING THE F INAL LATE PHASE OF THE NEOL ITH IC P ER IOD

J EAN MARC ROGER I mp a s s ed el aD ougue 3 0 111 C ong en ie s , F r an ce .

2

The Fe r ne re s g roup o ccup ied e a s te rn L anguedoc d u r -

p seudo -co r r ido r , o f ten b u i l t w i th s ma l l d ry s t one w a l ls ( i nn o r the rn G a rd ) , a nd t h e mo s t c ommon , s imp le d o l men s ( w i th o n ly t h e s epu lch ra l c hambe r ) . V er i tab le

i ng t h e t h ird a nd f ou r th m i l lema , t h ef i na l p ha se o ft h e n eo l i th ic p e r iod a s e s tab l i shed b y C .14 d a t ing . T he i r h ou seho ld o b jec t s c an h a rd ly b e d i s t ingu ished f r om t ho se o f t h e s ub sequen t F on tbou isse g roup , o n ly t h e i r c e ram ic a nd s ome o rnamen ta l mo t if sp e rm i tt h ec l a s s if i -

m ega l i th ic n ec ropo le se x i s ti nt h el owe rC dvenne s . T he menh ir s , s ome t ime s r eg rouped i n c rom lech s , mo s to f ten q u i te i s o la ted ,a r eh a rd t od a te . We a s soc ia te t h em w i th t h e mega l i th ic p henomenon wh ich i s t h e w o rk o ft h eF e r ne re sg roup i ne a s te rn L anguedoc . T he menh ir s ta tue s a nd t h e s t e le s ( s cu lp ted o r e n -

c a t ion o ft h ea va i lab le s e r ie s . T he p re sence o fs eve ra ls ma l l me ta lo b jec t si n al im i t e d n umbe r o f F e r ne res s epu lch re s i si n te rp re ted a s a

g raved s t one s )b ecau se o ft h e i rd eco ra t ion c an b ea t t r ib -

s i gn o fr eg iona lt r ade .

u t ed mo re e a s i ly t o ap a r t icu lar c u l tu ra l g roup . S ome a r ea s soc ia ted w i th F er ne re s v e s t iges a s t ho se o f Mon t a iön ,w h i le o the rs ma l le rs t a tue s a ppea r mo re r e cen t ly ,

T he f o rm o fo pen -a i rd we l l ing i ss t i l l u nknown a si t s s t ruc tu re w a sp robab ly o fp e r shab le ma te r ia l s ,h oweve r , w e c an n o te t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o f t h e u se o f s t one , wh ich d eve loped d u r ing f o l low ing c en tu r ie si nf on tbux i a na r ch i tec tu re . T he mo r tuary a r ch i tec tu re p rov ide s e v idence o f t h e w ide v a r ie ty o f r i te s a nd monumen t s : p robab le b u r ia l t r ea che s w i th l ow d ry s tone , h ypogea , d o lmen s , r e -u se m ine g a lene sa nd t h ee ve r -p re sen tc ave sa nd p i tb u r ia l s . F une ra lr i te sa l so t e s t ify t ot h ei mpo r tance o ft h es a c red . A l though s eve ra l s econda ry s epu lch re s h ave b een i mc ove red i n mo re r e cen te xcava t ion s , t h e ma jo r i ty o ff u n e ra lr i te su ncove red a r ep r ima ry b u r ia l sw he re t h es ub j ec ti si n ac ha rac te r i s t ic f oe ta l p o s i t ion , h e ld t o ge the r w i th p e r ishab le ma te r ia l s . T he b od ie s a r e l a id b u t n o t r a ised , ap r inc ip le wh ich f ac i l i ta te s t h e r eu se o f t h e

w i th t h eF on tbou isse g roup . A l l t h e se monumen t s t e s t ify t o as e to fw e l l -ma s te red s t anda rd t e chn ique s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o fd o lmen s a nd t h ee r ec t ion o f men h i r sp o in tt ov e ry i mpo r tan ts oc ia lf o rce s ,p e rm i t t ing t h e e voca t ion o f w e l l -ma s te red c omp lex b u i ld ing t e ch n i que s ,w ea l thy s oc ia l g roup sa nd a ne f fec t ive o rgan isa t i on o fs oc ie ty . O u rk now ledge o ft h i s s oc ie ty e nd s h e re ,g iv ing w ay t oh ypo the s ie s . Ar ap id t o u ro ft h e mega l i th ic l a nd scape i ne a s te rn L anguedoc a nd o u rk now ledge o ft h es oc ie ty ( t he F e r ne re sg roup )a l lows u st oo bse rve : 1 .Ac l ear s epara t ion b e tween s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e ir m or tuary m onumen t s : b e tween t h e w or ld o fl i v ing a nd

g rave , n a tu ra l ly l e ad ing t ot h e s ca t te r ing o f t h e s ke le t o n s . T he f une ra lf u rn i tu re i sv a r ied ,b u tv e ry s p a r se . A l though e xam ina t ion o f t h eg rave s d oe s n o te xac t ly r ef lec t t h e d emog raphy , t h e e xcava t ion s d o n o t r e vea l

t h a to ft h ed ead . 2 .A na lmos tp e rmanen tr ef e rence t oc ave s , t h em a te r ia l r e s idence o ft h e d ead , a nd , i ts eems , as ymbo l o ft he c on t inu i ty o ft h es pec ie s , o fl i f ea nd , o fr eb i r th ( t he f oe -

a ny s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion o ft h ei n i t ia lg roup . Ac l o se e xam ina t ion o ft h es i te s r e vea ls ac e r ta in a c c umu la t ion o f w ea l th r e su l t ing f r om a h ea l thy a g ro p a s to ra l e conomy a nd ac ommun i ty o pen t oe xchange

t a lp o s i t ion o ft h ed ecea sed i sp erhap s t ob es een i nt h i s s en se ) . 3 .A no ppo s i t ion b e tween h ypogea a nd d o lmen :t h ed o l m ens b e ing f ound w here t h e g round i su nsu i tab le f or t h ed i gg ing o fh ypogea , h owever t h e i n ver se p henome -

g ood s a nd i d ea s . T he a r cheo log is t s g ene ra l ly a g ree i nr e cogn is ing o u r t ype s o f d o lmen s : d o lmen s w i th a n a n t ichambe r a nd c o r r ido r o f t h e H e rau l t g ar ngue ; d o lmen s w i th ac o r r i d o r( w i thou ta n t ichambe r ) t ho se w i th v e s t ibu le so rw i th

n on d oes n o t s eem t oa ppear . T he m er id iona l l im i t o f t h ed o lmen ss eem s t oh ave r a ther m ore ac u l tu ra ld e te r -

3 15

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

m ina t ion t han ag eo log ica lo ne . 4 . Ac ompar ison o ft h ec on tr ibu t ion o ft h es oc ia lg roup t ot h ec o l lec t ive s epu lchre w i th t h en eg lec to ft h ef une r a lf urn i ture i t se lf s ugges t s t ha t t h e s oc ia l a spec t t h e monumen t c oun ted m ore t han t h ed ecea sed i th ou sed .

l ' i n tég ra t ion s oc ia le d e s i nd iv idu s . L a r e l ig ion p a r s on a pp roche d e l ' un ive r s e tl ' en semb le d e n o rme s q u 'e l le v éh icu le , e s t i mf a c teu r p u issan t d c L ar egu la t ion s oc i a l e .

-

Nou s a bo rde ron s d an s c e t te c ommun ica t ion l e

-

S .T he m ega l i th ic b u i ld ing , at a sk r equ ir ing t h ea pp l ica t i on o fs ub s tan t ia lr e sou rce sa t ac ommun i ty p erm i t st h e p resump t ion o fs evera l h uman c ommun i t ie s , p erhap s c o -opera t ing a mong t h em se lve s , w h ich b enef i ted f rom a h ea l thy e conomy p rov id ing n o t o n ly t h e b as ic n ece ss i t i es b u tp robab ly a l so t h eb eg inn ing so fa nh i e rarch ica l s oc ia ls t ruc ture . 6 .T here i sn oc omp le te i d en t if i ca t ion b e tween m ega l i th i cb u i ld ing a nd t h e r eg iona lf ea ture s o ft he F er nere s g roup . However , c er ta in f ac ie s ( g roups o r e i hn ies ) p rac t ice b ur ia li nd o lmens , a s d o t h ose o ft h eA rd eche , t h e C aus se s , t h e c en tra l H erau l t v a l ley a nd i n l a rge p ar t t hose o f Mon tpe l l ier f ac ie s . W e n o te t ha t i n t he c en te ro f Mon tpe l l ie rg ar r igue , t h e V a lène -Hor tu sz one , l a rge d o lmens c on ta in ing a n a n t ichamber a nd a c or r i d or a nd a l so m enh i r -s ta tue sc an b ef ound . Whe re a s i n t h ec ase o ft h eR hodanf ac ie s , a nd e spec ia l ly t h a to ft h e l i t tora lp la in , h ave h ypogea a nd r e jec td o lmen s . T he G a rd f ac ie s a ppear s l e ss h omogenou s , s p l i t b e t ween b o th s t y le s o fs epu ic re s a nd t h e c en t re o fw h ich r e jec t s b o th u se ing m ine sha f t s a nd e ng rav ing s o f men h i r s ta tue s . We n o te f i na l ly t h a t mo s to ft h e menh i r s a r e e r ec ted o n t h e ma rg in so ft h eF e r ne re s g roup ( Cau sse d eB lan d a s )o ro nt h ee dge so fv ar iou s t e r r i to r ie s( ma in ly o nt h e l ime s tone s l ope sw h ich o ve r look t h el i t to ra lp l a in ) . T he s ac red a s w e l l a st h em ega l i th ic c on t r ibu te t ot h e s t ruc tu r ing o f t h e F er ne re s g roup . A s i n t h e f o l low ing

F IGURE 1 p rob Leme d u méga L i th i sme e nL anguedoc o r ien ta l ,z one g éog raph ique d uM id i d cl a F rance , d é f in ie p a rl el i t to ra l méd i te r ranéen a n s ud ,l e s

c en tu r ie s d ome s t ic ( d ry s tone h u t s) a nd v i l lage ( d i tche s a nd w a l led e nc lo su re s ) a rch i tec tu re w i l l c on s t i tue t h e s oc ia l t i e so ft h eF on tbou is se g roup .

c on t re fo r t sd u Ma s si fc en t ra la nn o rd ,l eR hone aV e s te t Plé rau l t al ' oue s t .

Wh i le w e h ave u nde r l ined ac u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty b e t ween t h eF e r ne re sa nd t h eF on tbou isse g roup s , d ur ing

Que L s s on tL e sc on s t ruc teu r s d e s d o lmen se nL angue d oe? q u 'e s t -ce q u i c a rac té r ise l eu r c u l ture ma te r ie l le , l e u r mob i l ie r ,l e u rh ab i ta t ,l e u ra r ch i tec tu re e tl e u r sr i t e s f uné ra i re s?

t h e t h ird m ilen ium a ni n ve r s ion o ft h e s y s tem o fv a lue s t ook p l ace a s t e chn ique s p rev iou s ly u sed o n ly f o r t h e s ac red w e re made a va i lab le t oa l l .

Ap rè s a vo i rp ré sen té mi r ap ide b i lan d c n o s c onna is s ances s u rc e s q ue s t ion s , n ou s d éc r i ron s l e s p n inc ipaux t ype s d c monumen t s m éga l i th ique s a ti nd c n ou s i n te r r oge r s u r l e s i mp l ica t ion s s oc ia Le s d c l ' e f fo r t e ngage p ou r l eu r é l Cva t ion , c q u i n ou s c ondu ira a p ropo se r

MEGAL IT I I IS ME ET SOC IErE EN LANGUEDOC OR IENTAL AU NEOL ITH IQUE F INAL : LA P ART DU S ACRE

q ue lque s h ypo the ses s u rL as oc ié té n éo l i th ique e n L an g uedoc o r ien ta l a n d ebu t d u m i l léna ire a van t n o t re è r e( F igu r e 1 ) . 30

Le sr i te s ,p ra t ique sr é g lée se ti nvar iab le s ,q ue lq ue s o i t

I .L e sc on s t ruc teu r sd cd o lmen s :

l e ur o b je t , s ac ré o np ro fane ( s i l ad i s t inc t ion e s tp o ss i b l e ) , e tl e s c ond i t ion s d c l e u r r e a l isa t ion , p a r t ic ipen t a

3 16

E n 1 ' e ta t d c L a r e che rche , i ls emb Le q ue c c s o i t a n g roupe d cF er ne re s q ue Y on d o ive l ac on s t ruc t ion d cl a

J .M . R OGER

c ommun ica t ion s u rl eg roupe d eF er ne re s .

p lupa r t d e s mdga l i the s d u L anguedoc o r ien ta l . C epen d an t , al as u i te d uD rJ ean A rna l , q ue lque s c he rcheu r s o n t dm i s l ' hypo thè se d ' une i n t roduc t ion d u m éga l i th is -

1 . 1 . LE GROUPE DE F ERR IERES : o ccupe l eL angue d oc o r ien ta l al a c ham iè re d u e td u m i l léna ire

me p ar l e sp opu la t ion si s sue sd cL at r ad i t ion c ha s séenne q ue l i on r a t tache a nN éo l i th ique r e cen t . C e t te o r ien ta t ion d el ar e che rche e s ts & lu isan te , m a is

3 0

40

a van tn o t re e t c ,e nd onnée sc a l ib rde s ,o nd i sa i ta u t re fo is a u tou rd c2 500 b e . L e D rJ e an A ma !P ad é f im e nd i sso -

TABLEAU S YN OP 1IQUE D E L A P REH ISTO IRE R ECENTE E N L ANGUEDOC OR IENTAL

P ER I ODES

S UBD IV IS I ONS

CHR ONOL OG IE C 1 4 -

AGE D E 1 ER

9 00 F i na l

Moyen

a

18 J )Q . . .

G roupe r Eg iona l i n f luences i t a l ique s

2 400

G roupe r Eg iona l i n f luence s r hodan ienne s G roupe s E p icampan i lo rme s

2 700

G roupe s C an span i fo rme s C u l tu re d c F on tbou is se

a

A nc ien

CHALCOL ITH I QUE ( Age d u C u iv re ) F i na l

C u l tu re d c F e r ne re s

R ecen t N EOL ITH IQUE

Ma i lhac een 1

C u l tu res r Eg iona le s i n f luence s i t a l ique s e t S ep ien t r ionna le s IS o i l . . . . ( S ly le -S t •VE rédê me )

-

AGE DU B R ONZE

GR OUPES CULTURELS R EG I ONAUX

o i I (L .

Mopen

F ac ies

d c

A vencas

hasséen 4 Q00. . C

A nden

( p ica rd ia l C a rd ia l

1 1 ur1en

6 QQQ— MES OL ITH I QUE

d a te s A v . I . C . c a l ib rEe s

i lr e s te e nco re am ieux c onna l t re c e s g roupe s e ta l ' d taye rp ar l af ou i l le d un mega l i the a yan t c on se rve d e s d ocumen t s n on é qu i F IGURES 2 . -3 .

-

v oque s . D cm ême ,i le s tp o s s ib le q u 'un p e t i tn omb re d c monu men t s d u G a rd s ep ten t r iona l s o i t u n p eu p lu s r e cen t , c omme c e r ta in s d o lmen s d c P rovence . Ma is t ou t c e la d emeu re e nco re ap réc ise r . Au ss i n ou s c en t ron s n o t re

C as te lnov ien Mon tc lus ien

c i an t l e s " Pa s teu r s d e s P la teaux" d c Maur ice L ou i s ( 1948 ) e ng roupe d c F er ne re s , o ccupan tl eN eo l i th ique f i na l , e t e n g roupe d c F on tbou isse , l u i s uccédan t a u C ha lco l i th ique o n Age d uC u ivre ( Ama l , 1 963 ) ( F igu re 2 ) . 1 . 2 . L E MOB J UER DU GROUPE DE F ERR IERES: L a v a isse l le a ux f o rmes s imp le s , o rnées p a rfo is d ' inc is ion se nl i gne so ue nc hev ron s ,e s tb i en c a rac t6 r i s -

3 17

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i que ( F igu re 3 ) , a l o r s q ue l e s o u t i ls e n s i lex ( c ou teaux , g ra t to i r s , r a c lo ir s , p e r co ir s , p o in te s d e f l èche . .) ,e n o s ( po incon s , l i sso ir s . . . ) o u e nb o i s d e c e rf ( ga ine s d e h a c he s )n es ed i st inguen tg uè re d e sp roduc t ion s d ug roupe

E nge l , 1 966 )p eu t -é t re a uc ou r sd une p hase r é cen te . O r , e ni ' é ta td cl ar eche rche ,o n e s t . ime q ue I cg roupe d c F er ne res a ppa r t ien t a u N éo l i th ique f i na l ( Ba i l L oud ,1970 ) . C ommen t i n te rp re te r a Lo r s l ap re sence d u

d eF on tbou is se q u iI m s uc .cède ,p a s p lu s d ' a i l leu r s q ue l e s p a ru re s ( pe r le s ,p ende l oque s. .)t i rde s d e r oche s d ive r se s , d e c oqu i l iage s o u d ' o sscmen t s p arfo is h uma in s ( Ba rge ,

mob i l ie r mé ta l l ique e xhume al ag ro t te d es Mo r t s e t d an sq uc ique s a u t re s s épu i tu re s d ug roupe d cF e r ne re s? L e s t r avaux l e s p lu s r écen t s o n t c on f irmd L ap re sence d une m e ta l lu rg ic t i e s a nc ienne s u rl e sC au s se s ( g roupe

1 982 ) . S eu l s l e s b ou ton s p e r fo ré s e n V( l e s b ou ton s d e

d e s T re i l le s , e x -Rhoddz ien d c J ean A rna l ) e td a r t s L a moyenne v a l lée d c l ' le rau L t ( g roupe d c C ab r iè re s ) q u i a u ra i t a pp rov is ionné l e s c ommunau td s d c F er ne re s a u moyen d ut r oc ( coi lec t if , 1 990 ) . L 'hypo thè se d une m e t a l lu rg ie d ' un f a c iè s F er ne re s c ha lco l i th iquc c c iu i d e s p e t i t s C au s se s - n e n ous p ar a l tp a s d evo i r ê t re r e tenuc ,

F IGURE 4 .

Dur fo r t , c a rac té r isé s

ap a r t ir

d e L ac é lèb re g ro t te d es

b a s se sC évenne s )e tl e sp ende loque s a a i le t te s s emb len t a ppa r ten i rp lu ss péc i l iquemen ta ug roupe d eF er ne re s . L a p r e sence d c p aru re s e n me ta l ( pe r le s e n t ô ie d c c u iv re e n rou lde o ue nc r i s taux d eg a Lènc ma r te lé s )e t d e menu s o b je t s e n c u ivre ( pe t i te s a i ène s p robab lemen t ma r te lée s a u s s i ,q ue Lque s p o igna rd s o nh ache sp l a te s )a s ou levé l aq ue s t ion d cl a me ta l lurg ie d e s p o r teu r s d el a c é ram ique ac hevron s ( Gu the rz , 1 984 ) . R appe lon s q ue Ad r ien J ean jean ( 1820 -1897 ) , a va i t d onnd , al af i n d u X IX ° s i èc le , l en om d cD u r fo r t ien a P Age d u Cwvre e n L anguedoc ( J ean jean , 1 884 ) ,e ns ef ondan ts u rl af ou i l le

d cl ag ro t te d e s Mo r t sa Du r fo r t( Ga rd ) ,q u i a va i tl i v ré a C aza l is d cF on tdouce e t Oi l ie rd c Ma r ichard ( 1869 )d e s c éram ique s q ue n ou s r a t tachenon s a u jou rd 'hu i a u g roupe d c F er ne re s ( Hugue s , Bo rd reu i l e t T ou re l le -

3 18

e nl ' é ta td cl ar e che rche , ma lg rè L ' abondance d e s d ocu men t s m e ta i l ique s d ar t s c e r ta ine s c av i tds e tL ap re sence d cm inc ra id cc u iv re d an sl e sb a s se sC évenne s . 1 . 3 . U F iAB ITAT DES CONSTRUL mURS DE MEG AL ITHES : Nomb reux s on tL e s h ab i ta t s e ng ro t te , d an s l av a l Lée d u G a rdon n o tammen t ( Lou is e tD rouo t ) , 1 953 B onne t , 1 969 . . . ) ma is mo ms , s emb le t i l q ue l e s s t a t ion s d c

p le in a i r . C e s d e rr nères é chappen t , b icn d e s f o is , a 1 ' archeo logue , f au te d c moyen s d c s u rve i l lance d e s t r a -

J .M . ROGER

v aux . On o ppo sa i t t r ad i t ionne l lemen tl ' a rch i tec tu re d e F e r r i è re s , a vec s e s h ab i ta t s e n ma té r iaux p é r is sab les , a ux m a ison sm açonnée se np i e r re s è che q u i ma rquen tl et e r r i to i re f on tbux ien . L es f ou i l le s r é cen te s o n t mon t ré l a c omp lex i té d up hénomène :a n Ma s d eM i ra inan , c or n m ime d e N ime s , s u rl e s t e r ra sse s d uV is t re , n ou s a von s d égagé l e sr e s te sd ' une c abane d uN éo l i th ique f i na ld on t

d ' hab i ta t s p e rche s d o te s d ' un s y s tème d éf en s i f( f o ssé e t mu r ) . C et y pe d cd e l im i ta t ion d cl ' e space v i lageo i se s t i lp rop re a ng roupe d cC ab r iè re s ,d on tl ' avance t e chno l o g ique v i en td ' ê t re m isc e ne v idence a nr e cen tc o l loqu e d c S a in t - Ma th ieu -de -T rév ier s ( Co l lec t if , 1 990 ) , o n p eu t i l We g ené ra l ise a ux s i tes i mpo r tan t s ( c en t raux? ) d uL anguedoc o r ien ta l? L 'a s soc ia t ion s pa t ia le d cl ' hab i ta t e td e s s epu l tu re s a e t C p lu s ieu r s f o is e voquée , ma i s r a remen t é t ab l ie . An C bs G a i l la rd ( N ime s ,G a rd ) ,1 ' hab i ta tF e r ne re se s ts i tué Aq ue lque s d i za ine s d c me t re s d ' une g ro t te s épu ic ra le q u i al i v ré p lu s ieu r s s u je t s e td c l ac e ram ique ac hev r on s i n c i se s . No s t r avaux , e n c our s , v i sen t av e r if ie r l e s ynch ron isme d e sd epo t s . 1 . 4 . L 'ARCIITECTURE FUNERA IRE: 1 . 4 .1 .L ES P R INC IPAUX TYPES DE S EPULTURE: L ed o lmen W e s tp a sl es eu l mode s épu ic ra l a dop té p a r l e sc ommunau tC sd ug roupe d cF e r ne re s:

C D

a - Que lque s s epu l tu re s e n p l e inc t e r re o n e n f o sse o n t e t C s i gna lées . L o r squ 'aucun a r nénagemen t p a r t icu l ie r W e s to b se rve , c omme aR oquemenga rde ,l e s a n th ropo l ogue s l e s q ua l if ien t d c s épu l tu re s d c r e lega t ion . C e t te

ci

I

f a çon d c m e t t re t i n i nd iv idu al ' éca r td c l ac ave rne d e s mo r t s , s emb le s e d oub le r , p ar fo is , dune a b sence d ' é lémen ta r ch i tec tu ra l e x té r ieu r v i s ib le , p e rme t tan td e g arde r l a mémo i re d u l i eu . E . Mah ieu , d an s t i ne n o te c on sac réc a c s u je t , o b serve q u ' i l n ' e s t t ou te fo i s p a s p o s s ib le d cp réc ise rl ac au se d cl ar e lega t ion ( s ta tu ts o c i a l p a r t icu l ie r , mo r tv i o len te , s u ic ide ,p a r ia . . . (Mah ieu , 1 989 ) . I ls ' ag i t ,e nl ' é ta td cn o sc onna is sance s ,d c s i tua t i on sc xcep t ionne l le se ts an sr appo r ta vec l er i te d e s s é p u l tu re s i n d iv idue l le s q u i f e ra , e nL anguedoc o r ien ta l , u ne t im ide a ppa r i t ion a nC ha lco l i th ique .

u n mu r as imp le p a remen t d e d a l -

b - L e s c ommunau té s d c F e r ne re s o n t P u amé l io re r L a s ol id i tC d e s f o sse s p a r l ' ad jonc t ion d c mu re t s e n p i e r re

l e t te s l i tée s h o r izon ta lemen t a va i t é chappé a ux e ng in s mécan iques .

s è che e ta i n s i c r ée rw ie c av i té a r t il ic ie l le p ou rl ed epO t d e s mo r t s q u in e s e ron tp a sa nc on tac td i rec td eL at e r re ,

Nou s s om ine sl àe np re sence d un p ro to type ,e nco re p eu é l abo ré , d e l ' a rch i tec tu re d ome s t ique q u 'adop te ra l e g roupe d eF on tbou i s se . Ma is l at e chn ique é t a i td é jà p a r -

e n seve l is , ma is a b r i té s e n semb le . Nou s a von s d égagé , a u Ma s S a in t -And ré ( Bezouce , G a rd ) , t i ne s t ruc tu re d c

F IGURE 5 .

ct ype ( Bo rd reu i l , Gu the rz ,L afaye ,P ène ,R oge r , 1 990 ) a ccue i l lan t2 2i nd iv idu sd on t 2e nf an t se t 1o n 2a do le s c en t s ( d e te rm ina t ion B . Mah ieu ) . On p en t s an s d ou te r app roche rc e t te f o s se ( F igu re 5 ) , ma lg ré l e s d i f f é renc e s C v iden tes ( s Cpu l tu re i nd iv idue l le , p e r iode , d imen s i on s . . . ) ,d cl as t ruc tu re c ha sséenne d cT cy ran ( Hému l t ) o nu ns y s tème d cc ouve r tu re mé lan tb o i se tp i er re s aé t é m is e ne v idence p a rl ' equ ipe d cG .B . A rna l ( 1991 ) . L e s s t ruc tu re s a é r ienne s a mu re t s e t c ouve r tu re e n p i e r re s èche d c l ' a r r iè re -pay s mon tpe l l ie ra in " Tombe s e n n iche " - s on t i m p en p lu s r é cen te s , e l le s a ppa r t iennen t

f a i temen t ma I t r isée p a r l e g roupe d e F er ne res p ou r l ' éd if ica t ion d e s e s d o lmen s ( Roge r , 1 988 ) . L e st r avaux d eG .B . A rna l ,c he rcheu ra nC .N .R .S . e td es on e qu ipe , t e nd ra ien t amon t re rq ue d an s l ag ar r igue h é rau l ta ise A T ey ran , 1 ' u sage d c l ap i e r re s èche , p ou rl ac on s truc t ion d el ' hab i ta t ,s e s o i td éve loppé d e s l eN éo l i th ique moyen ( A rna le ta l . . 1 991) ( F igu re 4 ) . C es h ab i ta t s é t a ien t i l so uve r t s ?L e s f ou i l le sr é cen te s c ondu i te s p a r J ean Gu i la ine ( 1989 ) e ts on e qu ipe d an s l a moyenne v a l lée d c l ' I lé rau l t o n t r évé lé l ' ex is tence

-

3 19

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p robab lemen t al ap ha se c ha lco l i th ique d e s " Pa s teu r s d e s P la teaux" ( Roge r , 1 991) .

l a ge s d c g a le t s , mu re t s e n p i er re s èche , d i spo s i t if c or n p l exe d c f e rme tu re , c omp lè ten t l ' éd i f ice s ou te r ra in e t p rouven t ,t i ne f o is e nco re ,l es om p a r t icu l ie rr é se rvé a ux c av i té s s épu ic ra le s( Co lome r , 1 980 ) .

c -L ag ro t te o ul ' aven ,c ' es t -à -d ire l ' ab r i n a tu re l ,e s t ,d c p u is d e s c l i za ine s d cm i l léna ire s , u nl i eu p r iv i lég ië p ou r l ed ëpô td e s c o rp s . D e sI c Néo l i th ique r e cen t , l e s a ven s p ré sen ten tp a r fo is d e sa ménagemen t s t e l s q ue d e sp l a te f o rme s , e sca l ie r s , mu re t s . . . ( Ga lan t . 1 992 ) q u i p euven t

C e r ta in sh ypogée s o n té t ér éoccupé sp a rl e s f on tbux i e n s aq u i i on d o i tp eu t -ê t re l ec r eu semen td c q ue lque s u ne sd cc e ss t ruc tu re sf uné r a ire s . Ob se rvon s a c e t te o cca s ion q ue l e s d ocumen t s c am -

i n tégr e rl ' accI s a ur e fuge f uné ra ire ,c omme

p an ifo rme s s on t a b sen t s d e s h ypogée s e n L anguedoc

aLa Bouc le

( Co rconne , G a rd ) , e tp ré f igu ren t a i n s i l e s c ou lo ir s d e s 4

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F IGURE 6 .

d o lmen s . Nou s r app roche ron s c e t te r écen te o b serva t ion d 'H . Duday ( 1992 ) d e s t r avaux d c L epr ince e tE ve sque al ag ro t te s épu ic ra le d c G aude ( Sa m tE t ienne d c F on tbe l lon , A rdèche ) q u i o n tr é vé lé l ap re sence , a ux d eux e n t rée s , d c d a l le s l a té ra le s r appe lan t l e s c hamb re s s épu ic ra le s d e s d o lmen s ( Eve sque , 1 989 ) . L e s mu re t sp euven tc on d amne rl ' en t rée d cl ac av i té ,c omme a l ag ro t te d uB o is d c C la s t re s aS a in t - Ma th ieu -de -T rév ie r s , H é rau l t ( Co l ome r , 1 980 ) o n s cu lemen tu nb oyau ( n iche n o rd -es td c l ag ro t te d cC bs G a i l la rd ,N ime s , G a rd ) . D an s d ' au t re s c a s , i ln e s ' ag i t q ue d ' un s imp le d i spo s i t if d ' iso lemcn t

v i e i l le , P e rp é ta ir i aMo l lan s ) . P lu tô t q u 'un é l émen t d c d a ta t ion d cl ac on s t ruc t ion d e s monumen t s c e t te d i f fe r e nce d o i t t r adu ire I cr e je t d e s méga l i the s p a r l e s c am p an ifo rme sd us ou s -g roupe g a rdo i s . c L a sa u t re sg ro t te s s épu lc ra le sa r t if ic ie l le s: d e sg a lc r i c sd cm ine sd cs i lex d é saf f ec tée so m i ta ccue il id e si nhu ma t ion s ,c omn ie a S a l ine l le s ( Pey ro l le , 1 959 ) o na C o l -

l o rgue s ( I lugue s ,D rouo te tG a r imond , 1 965 ,B o rdreu i l , 1 973 ) . C reusée s p a rl e sm ineu r sd ug roupe d cF e r ne re s r éu t i l isée s a nC ha lco l i th iquc ( Co lome r , 1 979 ) ,i lW es t p a s i mpo ss ib le q ue c e r ta ine s a i en t é t ér é a f fec téc s ai m e t

( p rov iso i re ? ) ‚ c omme s t i r l ab anque t te d c l ag ro t te d c C bs G a i l la rd , a N ime s ,d on tn ou s c ondu i son s a c tue l le m en tl af ou i l lc .

u sage s épu ic ra l p a r l e s F e r ne re s e ux -même s ( Roge r , 1 992 ) . f L e sd o lmen s: -

d - L e s h ypogee s , g ro t te s s épu ic ra le s a r t if ic ic i le s c r eu -

S c ion l a me ine b og ique ‚l e sN éo l i th ique so m i té d i l ié d e s

s e es d a r n sl e s t e r ra in s t e nd re s p ar l e sp r éh is tonque s a f in d ' y d épo se rl cu r s mo r t s ,s on td i s sém in é s a l ap e r iphe r ie d ud e l ta d uR hone . L e s monumen t sd ug roupe o cc iden -

" g ro t te s s épu ic ra le s" a énenne s a vec d e s b loc s e t d e s d a l le sd cp i e r re ( c a lca i re ,g rI s ,m ica sch is te ) . L e sd o lmen s s on tc ompo se s d une c hamb re , c oi f re e n p i er re , d e s t inée ar e cevo ir l e s d epO t s f uné ra i re s . E i le p en tê t re d é l im i tée p a rd e s mu re t se np i e r re s êche , ma i s , b ep lu ss ouven t ,c s on td e sd a l le sq u ic on s t i tuen tl e sp a -

t a l o n t u ne t a i l le p lu s mode s te q ue i c u r s h omo logue s p rovcnçaux . L e s h ypogée s d u L anguedoc o r ien ta l s on t c ons t i tué s d une c hamb re s épu ic ra le d c d imen s ion r é -

d u i te ( dc 3a2 1 m2 ) , u n ique e tr égu l iê re o u mu l t ip le e t s an s f o rme p réé tab l ie , a l aque l le o na ccede p a ri mc ou l o i r b a s ( F igu re 6 ) . D ive r s aménagemen t s t e ls q ue d a l -

3 20

r o is . L a c ouve r tu re e s t a u ss i a s su rée p a r u ne g ro sse d a l le , l a t a b le . D an s c er ta in s monumen t s d e s p i l ie r s ma rquen t l ' en t rée q u i p eu t ê t re d écen t rée . L e s e n t rée s

J .M .R OGER

d . H* d o c i i.vst d alie d a au wrtur. ( cu t able)

Mtic * d elle ö c t sancrE.

r. P ort. d a F our

T t alus V ue a x iomê tnque d u d o /men d u P ouge t ( Hé r au l t ) . L e s mu r sp rox imaux n es on tp a s r ep ré sen té s d an s l e u r t o ta / i té a f in d e m ieux f a i re a ppar a l t re l ' arch i tec tu re i n te rne . L e s d a / /e s d e c ouve r tu re s on t v ue s c omme d e s v o lume s t r an sparen t s . L e s / i m , te s d e l a t r anchêe e td ut umu lu ss on t/ i gu rée se np ro jec t ion -p l an p ar u nt r a i t -p /e m ( p lan G. B .A rna l , 1 986 , l e gende ) .

F IG URE

7 .

l e s p lu s é l abo rée s s on t t a i i lée s d an s d e s d a l le s . L a c hamb re e s t p ar fo is

p récédée d 'un d eux ième c of f re , p lus c ou r t , i ' an t ichamb re , c on s t ru i t s c ion l a même t e chn ique . Un c ou lo i r e n p ier re s èche p e rme t d an s c e r ta in s c a s d ' accéde r al ac hamb re . L e t umu lu s , t a s d cp i e r re s p a r f o is s t ruc tu re p a rd e s mu re t te s q u i r e couvr a i tp a r t ie l le men t l ac hamb re e ts e s a nnexe s , c ou so l ida i ti ' éd i f ice e t p a r t ic ipa i t

as as i gna l i sa t ion ( Roge r ,

1 99 1) ( F igu re 7 ) .

1 4 -2 -1 . F SR ITES FUNERA mES: L e s p r éh is to r ien s mu l t ip l ien t l e s o b se rva t ion s l o r s d e s f ou i l le s e td e s e t ude s e ni a bo ra to i re e nv ue d c s a is ir l e a r i te s q u ia ccompagnen tl ed epo td e sr e s te sh uma in s . a -L e t emp s s épa ran tl a mo r td u momen td ud epO tp en t ê t re

a pprehendé ,

a u

mo ms

p a r t ie l lemen t ,

p a r

1 ' an th ropo logue . L o r sque l ed epO t aC t é r é a l isé p eu d c t emp sa p rè s l a mo r te ts an s mod i f ica t ion d ci ' a spec te x t e rne d u s u je t , o n e mp lo ie l e t enne d c s épu l tu re p r i ma i re . P iu sr a re s , s emb le t i l ,s on tl e s s épu i tu re s s econ -

h ypo the se , d c même s an s d ou te , l e s d épô t s i ncomp le t s q u i p euven t ê t re l im i té s aq ue lque s o ssemen t s s eu le m en t( F igu re 8 )( Roud i i , 1 978 ) . C e r ta ine s man ipu la t ion s , s uggé rée sp a rl e st r ace sp o r t e e sp a rq ue lque so s semen t sh uma in se xhume sd an sd e s h ab i ta t s o n s epu l tu re s d u N éo l i th ique e td u C ha lco l i t h ique , s on td une t o u te a u t re n a tu re ( décan i i sa t ion a c t i ve , c ann iba l isme r i tue i , t r épana t ion . .) .I l y a mat h f e s temen t d an s t ou t c e la l av o lon té d e s p réh is to r ique s d c mod i f ie rl ' appa rence d u d éfun t o u t ou t a u mo ms d c l ep lace ra uc en t re d ' un c é rémon ia l c omp lexe s uppo san t d e sd epo t s s ucce ss i f s( Roge r , 1 992 a ) . b - L er eg roupemen td e s mo r t s: S i V on c onna I t t i n p e t i t n omb re d c s épu l ture s i nd iv i d ue l le s , c ' e s t -à -d i re a ccue i i ian t i m s eu l i nd iv idu , l a n o rme e a tl as Cpu l tu re c o l lec t ive: l el i eu s ac ré oi ls on t c ondu i te s p lu s ieur s g ene ra t ions d c d éfun t s d on t o n v a me ie r i n t imemen t l e s r e s te s o sseux , r eg roupe r l e s o s l ong s ,r ange rc on t re l e sp a ro i s l e ac r anes . . , t ou ta ul ong d cl ap e r iode d cf onc t ionnemen td cl as épu l tu re ( F igu re 9 ) . L 'a spec t f onc t ionne l d ' une t e l le p ra t ique s ouven t a vancée , e n r e la t ion a vec w ie d émog raph ie f o r te , W e s t

d a i re s q u i i mp l iquen t u n t emp s p lu s l ong a u c ou r s d uque l l e s p a r t ie s mo l le s s es on td écompo sée s t o ta le m en to up a r t ie l lemen t - ( Duday e t G u i la ine , 1 975 ) ,i le s t d i f f ic i le d ' in te rp ré te rl e sc au se s dun t e ld éca lage ,o b se r v en aguè re c hez l e sb e rge r sb ioqué sp a rl an e ige q u id e -

pa n t o ta lemen t s a t i sf a isan t e tc e r ta in s c he rcheu r s me t t e n te n a van tl av o lon té d c m ê le ri n t imemen tl e s r e s te s o s seux ( Duday , 1 988 ) .

p o sa ien t l ec o rp s d u d é fun t s u r l et o i t d u b u ron o u d u r e fuge . C e t te p ra t ique p e rme t d ' évoque r u ne c e r ta ine d i s tance e n t re l el i eu d c l a mo r te t c e lu i d ud epO td ef i n i t if . L e r eg roupemen t d es o ssemen t s d an s u n " s ac" c omme a l aB ouc le ( Co rconne , G a rd ) p e t i té t aye rc ele

c -L ap o s i t ion d uc o rp s: L a n o rme l ap lu s c ommunémen t o b se rvée e n L angue d oc o r ien ta ld an s l e s s épu l tu re s p nma ire s e s tl ap o s i t ion f oe ta le . C e l le -c i e s to b tenue a vec l ec oncour s d un l i en

3 21

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

o n d ' une e nve loppe ( c u ir o n v égé ta l ) f o r çan t l e s a r t icu -

E n L anguedoc o r ien ta l , l e s e n semb le s o s teo log ique s p e rmeuen td ' évoque ru ne c e r ta ine s e lec t ion al ' accè s a n

l a t ion s p eu d e t emp s a p rè s l a mo r t ( F igu re 1 0 ) . C e t te

p ra t ique n em e p a ra l tp a sl i ea im i mpd ra t if f onc t ionne l ( g a in d ep l ace ) . E he s uggè re p lu tô tl ac r a in te d cl ac or n -

munau té f a ce a l a mo r td un d cs e sm emb re s . P ar fo is , d es p i er re s p a r t ic ipen t a n c a lage d u c o rp s e t I ' i so len t i m t emp s d u r e s te d c l ac om inunau té d e s d e f un t s a van tq u 'i ln es o i te n su i te mê lé d dfm i t ivemen ta ux a u t res , i n tég re a n g roupe s oc ia l . L e d epo t d u s u je t a r n ême l es o l ,c ' e s t -à -d i re s an sq u ' i l s o i te n seve l i ,f a ci i te h ar educ t ion o n l ad i sper s ion d u c o rp s . L e s a n th ropo l ogues s i gna len t d e s t r ace s d c f eux r i tue ls o n l i e s a l ' hyg iène d an s p lu s ieu r s s épu l tu re s c o l lec t ive s . Ma is h a p ra t ique d cl ' i nc iné ra i ion q u ia ppa r a I ta nN eo l i th ique f i n a l s u rl e s C au sse s ( Lozè re ) n e s emb le p a s a t te ind re I c L anguedoc o r ien ta la van tl ' Age d uB ronze . d -L e mobi ie rf uné ra i re: L e n omb re d c p a ru re s , o u t i ls , a rme s o n cdra miques r e c ue i l l is d ins l e s s épu l tu re se s tt r ê s v a r iab le e tc u r ieu se men t s an s r appo r t d i rec t a vec c e lu i d e s s u je t s i nhumé s ( F igure 1 ae tb ) . Un t e lp hénor nene s ev é r if ic e nL an g uedoc o r ien ta l d an s t on s l e s t y pe s d c s épu l ture s , q ue l q ue s o i t l er i te o b se rve . C e p rob leme n ou s c ondu i t a a bo rde rl aq ue s t ion d el ' accè sa ns épu lc re .

F IGURE 8 .

e -L e r e c ru temen te s t i l é ga l i ta i re o n l ed o lmen t r adu i t i l l ' ex is tence d une s oc ié té h i é ra rch isee?

s épu ic re . C 'e s tl ec a s t ou tp a r t icu l iè remen tp ou r l e s h y p ogées o à l e s d epO t s s ou l , e n L anguedoc , p eu i mpo r t a n t s . L ap re sence , p a rfo is d in s l at ombe , d e b eaux o b j e t s ( po igna rd s p o l is , p aru re s t r è s é l abo rée s. .) q u i t r adu isen t a u ss i u ne c e r ta ine c ap i ta l isa t ion ( r oche s r a re s , s i lex d c q ua l i te , me ta l . . . ) :p e rme t -e l le d c r e con n a l t re d e s g roupe s s oc iaux o nd e si nd iv idu sd cr ang é l e ye ?L e sf ou i l le s mode rne ss emb len tr dpond re p a rl an e g a t ive a l aq ue s t ion d cl as t ra t i f ica t ion s oc ia le i n te rne a n g roupe d c r c c ru temen t . Ma is , a l ' év idence ,c e r ta in s e n s emb les s épu lc raux s on t b eaucoup p lus r i ches q ue d ' au t rc s ( vo i re nc cs en s l ag ro t te d e s Mo r t sa D u r fo r te t c e r ta ine sc av i t é sd uS a lavè s ) . L 'accumu la t ion d e s r i che sse s e s t f avor i sée p a r u ne e conom ic a g ro -pa s to ra le p ro spI re q ue r ef lè ten tl en om b ee d e sc ommunau td sv i l lageo i se s ,l ' abondance d e s a r te f a c t sr ecue i l l is e th a ma sse d ' éne rg ie m i sc e no euv re h o r s d e s c on s t ruc t ion s mdga l i th ique s . L ag roupe d cF e r ne re s e s t u ne s oc ie te o uve r te a1 ' échange d e s b i en s e t d e s We s c omme e n t émo igne h ec ou ran t méga l i th ique l u i même ( Roge r , 1 992a ) 2 L e sm éga h i the s: -

L e si mp l ica t ion s s oc ia le sd cl ' e f fo r te ngage p ou rl am i sc e n p lace d e s p i e r re s d re ssées q u i n ou s i n te re ssen t i c i , v a n ien te nf onc t ion d cl ac omp lex i té e td cl ad imen s ion

3 22

J .M .R OGER

d u monumen t . 2 . 1

-

L ES P R INC IPAUX TYPES DE MEGAL IT ITES:

d o lmen se t menh ir s

l e s C évenne s m ica sch i s teu se s . Ma i s n ou s n ' avon s p a s r e tenu l e sp e t i t sc o f f re se nb a t iè re r e conve r t sd ' un t umu l u sd on tl ad a ta t ion e s te nco re d i scu tée . L ' ex is tence d e v dn tab le s n ec ropo le s m éga l i th ique s r e g roupan tp l u s d e v ing td o lmen s o nc oi f re s c omme a l a G rande P a l l iè re ( Anduze , G a rd ) , p o se l ep rob leme d e s r e la t ion s s pa t ia le s d u mega l i the a vec l e s h ab i ta t s ( F ig u r e 1 2a -d ) . 2 . 1 .2 . LES MENH IRS: a -L e s menh ir s s on td e sp ie r re s d re ssée s i s o lée s , a t te ig n an tp ar fo is 5 , 20 m c omme c e lu i d eJ ou i l le s ( l eR oue t , H é rau l t ) v o i re p lu s d c 5 ,50 m c omme c e lu i d e L u ssan ( Ga rd ) . Dau t re s s on t d e t a i l le p lu s mode s te c omme l e m enh ir a c upu le sd u Mou l in a V en ta Auba is ( G a rd ) ,d t u d id p a r M . A uge r ( 1970 ) , q u i n e m e su re g uè re q ue 1 . 45 m , o u c e lu i d e l aT r iva l le , aR ogue s , G a rd . Une men t ion p a r t icu l iè re s e ra f a i te d u menh ir t a i l le e n amande d u G ine s tous , aMou lè s -e t -Bauce ls , H é rau l t , a ux p o r te sd cG ange s . Hu i tc oncen t ra t ion s d ep lu s ieu r s d i za ine s d c m enh ir s

r é a l isan tu nc e rc ie o n te t ei n t e rp ré tée sc omme d e sc rom l e ch s p a r l e s c he rcheu r s d u X IXe s i èc le ( Caza l is d e F on tdouce , 1 904 ) . E t P on d o i t aA . Du rand -Tu l lou l a r e s tau ra t ion d cd eux d ' en t re e ux s u rl ec aus se d e B lan d a s ( Dur and -Tu l lou , 1 946 -1960 )( F igu re 1 3 ) ,a l o r s q ue c e lu id cC onquey rac ( Ga rd ) ac omp lè temen td i spa ru . C e s menh i r sn es on ts an s d ou te q ue l ' o ssa tu re d e monu men t s p lu s c omp lexe s i nc luan t d an s l eu r a r ch i tec tu re d e s ma té r iaux p é r is sab le s c omme l es uggC ren t n o tam m en tl e st r avaux d cJ . -L . V o ruz ( 1990 ) .

2 . 1 .1 .1 . R S DOL MENS: F IGURE 9 . R ep renan t l e s t r avaux d e J . Ama ! ( 1963 ) e t d e Y . C heva l ie r ( 1984 ) , n ou s d i s t inguon s 4 t y pe sd ed o lmen s ( f igure 1 2 )e nL anguedoc o r ien ta l: l e s d o lmen s a a n t ichamb re e ta c ou lo i r q ue l ' on r en c on tre d an s l ' lé rau l t ( M ine rvo is , L odévo is e ts u r tou t g a r r igue mon tpe l l iC ra ine ) c omme l ed o lmen d uP ouge t ( A ma l , 1 986 ) o u c e lu i d u L ama lou p a r e xemp le . C e t y pe e s ta b sen td ud epa r temen td uG a rd .. l e s d o lmen s a c ou lo ir , b i en r ep rd sen td s , a n c on t ra ire , -

-

d an s l e s g a r r igue s e tC évenne s g a rdo ises ,n e s on t c on s t i tué s q ue d e d eux ë l émen t s a r ch i tec turaux :l ac ham b re e t l e c ou lo ir . L e d o lmen d e B anè le aS a in t H ippo ly te -du -Fo r t ,i lu s t re b i en c et y pe d em ega l i the .

l e s d o lmen s a v es t ibu le o np seudo -cou lo i r a ppar t ien n en t a ux g ar r igue s d u G ard s ep ten t r iona l . C 'e s t l ec a s d u d o lmen d e Co s te R igaude aS a in t -Ge rva is le s B agno ls ,G a rd . l e s d o lmen s s imp le s , e nf in , q u i c e in tu ren t a nn o rd I c L anguedoc o r ien ta l , s on t n omb reux , n o tammen t d an s -

L e s menh i r s , p i e r re s i no rnée s , s on t c r eu sée s p a r fo i s d c q ue lque s c upu le s c omme l e mega l i the d 'Auba i s . C e l u i d cC ongen ics ( Ga rd ) , P un d e s r a re s menh i r s g rave s d uL anguedoc ( F igu re 1 4 ) ,p o r te d e sc ro ix e ti me s e r ie d c mo t if s p lu so u mo ms a n th ropomo rphes ( P ran i shn ik o f f , 1 907 ) . T ou te s l e s g ravu re s d u monumen t n e s on t p a s p reh is to r iques f a u s sa ire sa c tue ls .

c e r ta ine s méme s on t l ' oeuvre d c

L e s menh ir s e ux -méme s s on td i ff ic i le s a d a te r . Nou s l e s a s soc ion s , p ou r l ap lupa r t , a u d o lmén isme q u i , e n L anguedoc o r ien ta l ,e s tl ' oeuv re d ug roupe d eF e r ne re s . E n c f fc t , o n c onna l td e s a s soc ia t ion s s pa t ia le s d e men h i r s e t d o lmen s , s u r l e s i te d u G ine s tou s (Mou lè s-e t B auce l s ,H é rau l t )p ar e xemp le . P lu s s i gn if ica t if se nco re s on tl e s b loc s mono l i the s p ouvan ta t te indre 1 , 60 m d e h au teu r - q u i c e in turen t l e t umu lu s d u d o lmen d c l a

B e rgene d c P ar n ss iè re , aAnduze ( Ga rd ) p ou r f o rme r u nc s o r te d c p ér i s ta l i the , r e s tauré r écemmen t p a r J . S a l le s e tl eG .A .R .A . . ( F igu re 1 5 ) . J .S a l le s ( 1988 ) s i g n a le d eux a u t re s monumen t s l a nguedoc icn s d o te s d ' un d i spo s i t if s im i la ire :l ' a l lée c ouve r te d c S i ran ( Hé rau l t )

-

3 23

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c n tou rée d ' un c rom lech d e 8i nd ed i amè t re e t l ed o lmen d eB i renque ( No t re -Dame d e -Lond re s ,H é rau l t ) . b -L es s t a tue s -menh i r se tl e ss t è le s: L e s p ay san s c ha sséen s d u N éo l i th ique moyen n ou s o n t l a is sé d e s f i gu r ine s e n c é ram ique ( Roge r , 1 982 ) . L a s t a tua i re d u g roupe d e F er ne re s e s t e np i e r re , s o l ide e t ma ss ive c omme s e s d o lmen s e t menh ir s . E i le o bé i t a q ue lque s n o rme s b i en é t ab l ie s :l ev i sage e s ts chéma t isé

c u l ines s e ron t f ém in isées p ou r r e t rouve r l e u r s exe d ' o r ig ine . L e f ond s c u l tu re l a u toch tone , m arqué p a r I c ma t r ia rca t , a ti lr é s i s té al a" r e l ig ion méga l i th ique " ,a u s e in d e l a que l le l ap lace d e I ' homme s ' af f i rma i m p eu p a r tou te nE urope

e t

c ondu is i ta ux s oc ié té sp a t r ia rca le s

9

L e N eo l i th ique f i na l e tl ed ebu t d el ' Age d e s mé taux v e r Ton tl af l o ra ison d e s r oche s g ravde s d am L az one a l p ine , s u r l e sque l les s ub s is ten t e nco re d e r a re s s u je t s f ém in in s , m a is s ur tou t , s emb le t i l , d e s p e r sonnage s d c h au tr ang ( c he f s ,p rê t re s o ua ncé t re s )d o te sd e s a t tr ibu t s d el ap u issance ( po igna rd s ,h ache so uc r o s se s ) . 2 . 2 . MODES DE CONSTRUCf lON: L a c on s t ruc t ion d ' un d o lmen , c omme I ' é rec t ion d ' un menh i r ,e ngage d e sf o rce sc on s idé rab le sq u i c on f irmen t l ec a rac tI re s oc ia l d c l ' en t . rep r ise . I ie s tp o s s ib le q ue L a c ommunau té e ngagée d am l ac ons t ruc t ion d c s on d o l m en a r tb éné f ic lé d uc oncou r sd cg roupe sv o is in so na p p a ren té s a u c ou r s d c r a ssemb lemen t s i mpor tan t s . D c t e l le s c oncen t ra t ion s o n t é t é e nv isagee s p a r p lu s ieu r s c he rcheu r s ( Ph i l l ip s , 1 985 , Roge r , 1 993) p ou r t e n te r d ' exp l ique r l e f onc t ionnemen t d e s s t ruc tu re s c ha s s é cnne s . L a s N éo L i th ique s o n tc ho i s i a vec im s o in p a r t icu l ie r l e s ma té i iaux d cc on s t ruc t ion . E x t ra i t sp a r fo i s aw ie d i s t a nce i mpo r tan te d ul i eu d ' imp lan ta t ion d u monumen t ,a l ' a ide d cp i c s ,d cc o in s ,d cl e v ier s ,p répa ré s ,é qua r r i s ,i L s s e ron tt r ac té s s u ri m c hem in d c r ond in s p a rw ie e qu ipe n omb reu se t i r an t s u rd e s c o rde s am ir y thme l e n te tr é -

L . Davo s d a

E tang

.

g u l ier . Une t e i le a c t iv i té i mp l ique u ne v i s ion d ' en semb le e t u ne c oo rd ina t ion d e s o pe ra t ion s . E i le s uggè re d one l ' ex is tence d ' une c ommunau té f o r te d ' une s oc lé té o rgan i sée e tp eu t -ê t re s t ra t if léc ( Roge r , 1 992a ) .

1 978

L ' é rec t ion d u menh ir o n d c L ad a l le d c c heve t d u d o l p a r i m If ac ia l ( nez e ts ou rc i ls ) . L a b ouche e s t t ou jou r s a b sen te ( F igu re 1 6 ) . Que Lque s s t a tue s -menh ir s s on tf ém in ine se t p o r ten td e s s e in s ;d ' au t re s , ma scu l ine s , s on ta s soc iée s a m i p o ignard . D ive r s o rnemen t s a ccompagnen tl e s s t a t u e s -menh ir s , t e ls q ue l e s t a touage s , l e s p aru re s , c e in t u re s , p l a s t ron s , h ache s o uc ro s se s ( Arna l , 1 976 ) . C 'e s t a vec l e s s t a tue s -menh ir s ,a nc ou r s d uN éo l i th ique f i na l C ha lco l i th ique ,q ue s ' ef f ec tue l ep a ssage d eL ar ep ré sen t a t ion d e L a f emme ( dée sse d e L a f é cond i té ) a u d i eu F IGURE 1 0 .

ma le , s exe e ne r ec t ion d eV Age d uB ronze r e cue i l l i al a g ro t te N ico la s ( Sa in te -Ana s ta s ie , G a rd ) p a r U . Duma s ( 1905 ) e tL . L a faye ( Gu ther z , L afayc e tP ène , 1 986 ) .

men n éce s s i te l ec reu semen td ' une,p e t i te f o s se d an s l aq ue l le L ap i e r re s e ra b a scu lée al ' a ide d un c heva le t , o u d ' une r ampe ,e tc a lée a vec d e sb loc s . L ac o f f re d ud o lmen s e ra c on s tm i tp a rl ' ad jonc t ion d c d a l lc s , b loquée s e n t re e l le s e ts u rmon téc s d ' une t a b le . L at umu lu s ,q u lp a r t ic ipe a nc a lage d ci ' éd if ice ,p e rme t , g race as af a ib le p en te , d c h i sse rl a( ou l e s ) d a l le (s ) d c c ouve r tu re . L a t umu lu s s e ra e n su i te a ménagé e n g ra d im . L As ' a r re te l ed oma ine d cn o sc onna i s sance sp our f a ir e p l ace ac e lu id e sh ypo the se s . Hypo the se q ue l ' a ss im i la t ion aw ie é chd l le , ai m a x i s mund i ,d um enh i rd re ssé a uc en t re d uc rom lech n ° 1d c

C e t t e e vo lu t ion aé t e ma rquee a u c ou r s d uN éo l i th ique

L acam d c P ey rar ine s s u r I c C au sse d c B landa s ( 35 b l oc s ,h au t sd c0 ,75 i n a1 , 90 i n ,d e s s inen tn i l c e rc le d c

f i na l ( g roupe d e F e r ne re s e tS a in t -Pomen ) p a rd e s r e t o u r se na r r iè re ( Arna l , 1 976 ) .D e s s t a tue s -menh i r s ma s -

1 20 i n d c d i am è t r e ) . Un s ymbo Le d on t M ircea E l iade ( 1976 ) amon t ré l ap re sence q ua s i p e rmanen te d an s L e s

3 24

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r e l ig ion s p r im i t ive s r dg ie s p a r u n o rd re c o sm ique . Hypot he se a u ss i q ue l ' i n te rp ré ta t ion d e s " g ro t te s c i t e rne s" c omme d e s s anc tua i re s v ous a n c u l te d c l ' eau F IGURE 1 .

e n s ef ondan t s u rl ad i spo s i t ion d e s r e c ip ien t s ,l ap rox i m i té d ' un s i te f uné ra ire ( Ph . R enau l t ) . J . -L . R oud i l ( 1990 )o b serve a u s s ia la g ro t te d uC laux a Gom iI s , He r au l t , L ap resence d ' une v ing ta ine d c c a rapace s d e t o r t u e s , d ' un f eu r i tue l d on t I cc ombu s t ib le u t i l isC a d t d c ho i s ip ou rs on r endemen tt h e rm ique t a n ta nn i veau d e s e s sences q ua c e lu i d u ma ténau e t d u c a l ib re d e s b ranche s c ho is ie s , e td ' une s e r ie d c c oqu i l le s m a r ine s méd i te r ranéenne s . L ef ou i l leur é voquan tl e s l i en s s ym b o l ique sé t ro i t sq u iu n i s sen tL ac av i té t u td la i re ,i d en t if ia b l e aL at e r re e t aL ad ée s se mi re , aL ac oqu i l le s ymbo le f em in in e t aL as ou rce d c v i e , s i nt e rr o g e s u rl e u rr dun '

i on aL ag ro t te d u C laux e te nv isage d e s p ra t ique s r it u e l le s , d e s o f f rande s a L as ou rce ( Roud i l , 1 990 , p .71 7 2 ) . Hypo the se e nco re q ue l er a t tachemen td e s a ccumu la t i on s d cb ov idé sd cl ag ro t t ed cC haze l le s( Sa in t -André d e -C ruz iè res , A rdiche ) e td c l ag ro t te d u Ha sa rd ( Fha r aux , G a rd ) ad e s " a c t iv i td s s ymbo l ique s e tr i tue l le s e n

g ro t te s" ( A . B eech ing , 1 992 ) , au n c u l te d u t a u reau ( Bo rd reu i L , 1 992 ) d on to n t r ouve ra i t d e sr d fé rence s s u r I cs i te c ha sséen d u Gou rn ie r( D rômc ) . Hypo these t o u jou r sq ue l ec u l te d uc e r f( Br ia rd , 1 987 ) é voque , a p a r t ir n o tammen t , d c l ' u sage d e s b o is o u d e s

d en t s p ou rL ar e a l isa t ion d cp ende loque s . AL ag ro t te d c

C ombe o b scu re ,c ' e s tu n ma ssac re d cc hevreu i lq u i ae t é m is a uj ou rp a rJ . -L .R oud i le tH . S aumade ( 1991 ) . Hypo the se s ,s an sd ou te ,q ue L a mdf iance d e sn éo L i th i c i en s f r ança i s aL ' éga rd d u d oma ine d u r i tue l e t d c l ' i r ra t ionne l ,n e p e rme tp a s e nco re d c t e s te re n d dp i td c L ' i nv i ta t ion d 'A .L e ro i -Gou rhan ( 1964 ) . CONCLUS ION: Ap a r t i rd cc r ap ide t o u rd ' ho r izon d u mdga l i th isme e n L anguedoc o r ien ta l e td c l a s oc ié té q u i 1 ' a g éné ré ( l e g roupe d cF e rnI re s )n ou so b se rvon s: 1 ) Un d eca lage a r ch i tec tu ra l e tt e chno log ique t r è s n e t e n t re L e s monumen t s f uné ra i re s e tI c s h ab i ta t s , e n t re l e d oma ine d e s mo r t se tc e Lu id e sv i van t s; 2 ) Une r é fé rence q ua s i p e rmanen te al ag ro t te , r e fuge ma te r ie l p ou r L e s mo r t s , ma is a u ss i , s emb lc t i l , S ym b o le d cL ap é renn i tC d cl ' e spice ,d cL av i ee tp eu t -ê t re d c L as u rv ie ( l a p o s i t ion f oe ta le d e s d é fun t s , o b se rvée d e s

L e MC so l i th ique , a L aB aume d c Mon tc lu s ,p a rM . E sca lo ud cF on ton e tq u is eg ene ra l ise a nN éol i th ique a nc ien a vec l ar e l ig ion n éo l i th ique d c L ad ée sse -mè re ( Roge r , 1 993a ,a p a ra l t re ) ,p eu t -ê t re u n s i gnc d cl ac r oyance e n L ar ena is sance d e s h omme sd an s l ec ad re d ' une r e l ig ion c o sm ique ); 3 ) Une o ppo s i t ion e n t re h ypogee s e td o lmen s do lmen s l ào üI cm i l ieu n e s ep rê ta i tp a s a u c r eu semen t d e s h y -

3 25

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURE 1 2 .

3 26

J .M . ROGER

r e l le q ue l i ée a mi d d te rm in i sme g éo log ique; 4 ) Un d eca lage e n t re L ac on t r ibu t ion d ug roupe s oc ia l a l as epu l tu re c o l lec t ive e t La pauvreté d u mob i l ie rs épu l -

d eux mode sd cs épu l tu re s ,h ypogde s e td o lmen s ,e td on t l ec en t re ,q u il e sr e je t te t om l e sd eux ,u t i l i se l e sg a le r ie s d cm ine se tg r ave l e ss t a tue s -menh ir s .

c ra l , c omme s iL ef a i t s oc ia l l e monumen t e tl ec u l te -

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B landa s ) o ue nl im i te d cf ac iI s ( c ô tc c a lca i re q u ib o rde l ap l a inc l i t to ra le ) . L es a c ré ,a vec l e méga l i th isme ,p a r t ic ipe aL as t ruc tu -

s ouven t c on s idé rab les q u i l a i ssen t p ré sage r 1 ' ex i s tence d c c ommunau té s

h uma ine s i mpo r tan te s peu t -e t re s o l i d a i re s e n t re c Ue s -e td une e conom ic a p te as a t i sf a ire l e s

r a t ion d u g roupe d c F er ne re s c omme , a ux s i èc ic s s u i v an t s , 1 ' arch i tec tu re d ome s t ique ( cabanes e n p i er re s èche ) e tv i l lageo isc ( f o ssé s e th ab i ta t s c c in tu ré s ) c on -

b e so in s e s sen t ie l s d c c e t te p opu la t ion ;ma is a u s s i p ro b ab lemen tl ' amo r ce d ' une h i é ra rch i sa t ion s oc ia le; 6 )1 1 n ' y ap a s c onco rdance p a r fa i te e n t re méga l i th isme e tf a c iè s r ég ionaux d u g roupe d c F e r ne re s . A lo r s q ue c er ta in s f ac iès , c er ta ines e thn ics , p ra t iquen t

s t i tue ra l el i en s oc ia ld ug roupe d cF on tbou i ssc . S in ou sa von ss ou l igné l cc on t inuum c u l tu re l e n t re l e s

l i nhuma t ion e n d o lmen c omme l ef ac iè s a rdécho i s , l e f ac iès c aus sena rd , c e lu i d c l a moyenne v a l lée d c 1 ' H6rau l t o ue nco re , p ou ru ne l a rge p a r t , l ef a c iI s d c l a g ar ngue mon tpe l l id ra ine ( r appe lon s q ue d an s s on c en t r e , z one d c V a lène -F lo r tu s , o n t r ouve l e s g rand s d o l mens aa n t ichamb re e tc ou lo i re tl e s s t a tue s -menh ir s ) . , d ' au tre s c omme I cf a de s r hodan ien , d am u ne c e r ta ine me su re , e ts u r tou t c e lu i d c l ap l a ine l i t to ra le , c onna is s en t l e s h ypogée s e tr e je t ten t l e s d o lmen s . Mo ms h o mogène p a ra l t ê t rc l ef a c iè s g a rdo is p a r tagé e n t re l e s

3 27

d eux g roupe s ,F e r ne re se tF on tbou isse ( Roge r , 1 992a e t b ) , i l ya ,s emb le t i l , i n ve r s ion d u s y s tème d c v a leu r s a uc ou r s d um i l ieu d uh ic m i l léna irc a vcc l am isc

al a

d i spo s i t ion d ct ou sd ct e chn ique sj u sque la r é se rvée sa u s ac ré . Ma i s a u p o in t d c v ue c u l tu re l , i ls emb le q u ' i l n ' y a i t p a sd cr up tu re ,d ' abandon c omp lc td cl ar e l ig ion méga l i t h ique ,a nd ebu td cl ' Age d e s mé taux , ma lg ré i mc e r ta in d e s in te re t p ou rl e s d o lmens a n C ha lco l i th ique e n L an g uedoc o r ien ta l .E ne f f e ti cr i te c o l lec t if s ep e rpé tueju s q u 'au b ronze r e cen te nd ép i td cl at e n ta t ion d e sr e l ig ion s

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d 'Eu ropc c en t ra le v éh icu lées p a r l e s c ouran t s t e chno lo g ique s .

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

L EGENDES DES I LLUSTRAT IONS F igu re 1 :L et e r r i to i re d ug roupe d eF e r ne re s: 1 f a c iè sh é rau l ta is d e sb a s se sC évenne se td el ag a r r igue mon tpe l l ié r a ine ( f ac iè s g éné t iqu ep robab le ) ;2 -f a c iè sg a rdo i s( f ade sc en t ra l ) ;3 f a c iè sl i t to ra l d cl ap l a ine h é rau l ta ise a vec e x t e n s ion p robab le d an sl eb a ss in d u V i s t re ;4 f a c iè sC éze -A rdèche ;5 f a de sr hodan ien ;6 f a c iè sc au ssena rd ;7 f a de sp enphé r ique d el a moyenne v a l lée d el ' } Ié rau l t( d 'ap rè sG u ther z , 1 990 ,c omp lé tee ) . S .M . :Z one s a s t a tue s m enh ir s .. . l i in i te m é i id iona le d e s d o lmen sl a nguedoc ien s ; l im i t es ep ten t r iona le d e sh ypogec s . -

-

-

-

-

-

F igu re 2 : T ab leau s ynop t ique d cl aP réh is to i re r é cen te e nL anguedoc o r ien ta l . F igu re 3:L ac é ram ique d cl ac u l ture d cF en t h e s( d 'ap rè sG a sco e t Gu the rz , 1 986 ) . F igu re 4 : T ab leau s yn thé t ique d e s é l émen t s a r ch i tec tu raux d e ss i tes d c Mon tbey re e td uG rand D evo is d cF iga re t: N éol i th ique moyen C ha s séen :p ha se p r im i t ive: a l ignemen td cb loc s( 1 ) ,f o s se n a ture l le aménagée ( 2 ) ;P ha se a n c i enne: f o sse a r t i l Ic ie l le a s ou têner n en td cp a ro i ( 3 ) . P ha se c l a s s ique :n o t ion d c mu r -ma s se e ns u i te d cb loc sj o in t if s ( 4 )o ud cd a l le s a cco lée s ( 5 ) .P ha se t a rd ive: a ppa re i l lage r e c t i l igne d cb loc s( 6 ) . N eol i th iquc f i na ld cF er ne re s :d oub le p a remcn td cd a l le sd cc han ta c omb lemcn ti n te rne ( 7 ) . -

-

-

C ha lco l i th ique d cF on tbou isse: d oub le p a remen te né l éva t ion d ' a ss ise s

ac omb lemen ti n te rne ( 8 ) .

F igu re 5 : S épu l tu r ec o l lec t ive d u Ma s S a in t -And ré ,B ezouce ,G a rd: C hamb re d reu i l , Gu the rz ,L . afaye ,P ènc e tR oge r , 1 990 ) .

amuret e np i er re s è che ( d 'ap rè sB o r -

F igu re 6 : Hypogée d uS e r re d cB c rnon ( Laudun ,G a rd ): P lan g énéra ld cl as epu l tu re d a tée d uN eo l i th iquc f i na l p a r s on mob ile r( d 'ap rè s C o lome r , 1 979 ) . F igu re 7 : Vue a x iomé t r ique d ud o lmen d uP ouge t( I lému l t ) . L e s mu r sp rox imaux n es on tp a sr ep ré sen tés c l an s l e u r t o ta l i té a f in d cm icux f a ire a ppa ra l t re l ' a rch i tec tu rc i n te rne . L a sd a l le sd cc ouve r tu re s on tv ue s c omme d e s v o lume s t r an spa ren t s . L es l i m i t e sd cl at r anchée e td ut umu lu s s on tf i gu rée se np ro jec t ion -p lan p a ru nt r a i t -p le in ( p lan G .B . A r n a l , 1 986 ,l é gendé ) . F igu re 8 : Aven d cl aB ouc le ( Co rconne ,G a rd ): S épu l tu re s e conda irc d ' un a do le scen t . Q ua t re d écapage s s ucces s if s r é a l isé s e tm is a nn e tp ar F L Duday . E nb l anc: o s semen t sd cl ' ado le scen td épo sé sd an al ag ro t te a p rê sd éca rn i sa t ion . E nn o ir: c é ram ique .L en *8 11 e s tu ne v a lve d cC a rd ium p e rcéc a nc roche ta ppa r tenan ta la t ombe .L en " 9 55 e s tu n p o inçon e no s ( d 'ap re s Gu ther z , 1 984 ) . F igu re 9 : Aven d cl aB ouc le ( Co rconne ,G a rd ): r e levé d ud épô tf uné ra ire d uN éol i th ique r e cen t ( d 'ap rè sH . Duday , G a l l ia , 1 987 -88 ) . F igu re 1 0: Hypogée d uD evo is d cP E tang ( T re sque s ,G a rd ): S que le t te e np o s i t ion f o rcée ( r e levé H . Duday ,d ' ap rè s C o lomc r , 1 979 ) . F igu re 1l a e tb . :D o lmen d cl aG a labe r te o nd e sR a sca sso l s( Sa in t -H ippo ly te -du -Fo r t ,G a rd ): P a ru re s ( d 'ap rè sH . B a rge , 1 982 ) . F igu re 1 2: P r inc ipaux t ype sd cd o lmen sd uL anguedoc o r ien ta l( d 'ap rè sY . C heva l ie r , 1 984 ): A : D o lmen a a n l ichamb re e tc ou lo ir d u I. ama lou ( 1 16 rau l t ); B : D o lmen a c ou lo i rc en t ra ld cl aB anè le a S a in t -H ippo ly te -du -Fo r t ,G a rd;

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J .M .R OGER

C D o lmen

ap seudo -cou lo ir e t mu r se np i e r re s è che d uG a rd o r ien ta l ,C o s te -R igaude a S a in t -Ge rva i s le s -Bagno ls ,

G a rd D : D o lmen s imp le o ua v e s t ibu le d uG a rd s ep ten t r iona le td el ' A rdèche ( Capor ie 1a Mé janne s le -C lap ,G ard e tR anc d 'Aven 1a C hando la s ,A rdèche ) .

F igu re 1 3: C rom lech n ° 1d cl aR iga ldene ,a B landa s ,G a rd ,c ompo se d e8 6b loc sd cc a lca ire ( Po r t land ien d o lom i t i que )e td éc r ivan ti mc e rc le r é gu l ie rd e 1 02 m d ed i amè t r e( d 'ap rè sA . Du rand -Tu l lou , 1 94 .6 -1960 ) . F igu re 1 4a e tb : Menh ir g rave d eC ongen ie s ,G a rd: a : f a ce sn o rd e ts ud d u mega l i the ;b : r e levd d es s i gne s ( d 'ap rè s Y . P ran i shn iko f f , 1 907 ) . F igu re 1 5: D o lmen d cl aB e rge r ie d eP an is s iè re ( on d o lmen n ° Id el an écmpo le méga l i th ique d cl aG r ande P a ll iè re , A nduze ,G a rd ) :L et umu lu s e s tc e in tu ré p a r 1 7b loc sf o rman tu ne s o r te d ep é r i s ta l i the ( f ou i l le ,r e s tau ra t ion e tr e levé: J .S a l le se tG .A .R . .A . , 1 988 ) . F igu re 1 6: S t a tue s -menh i r sd uL anguedoc o r ien ta l :T ab leau a na ly th ique p r é sen tan tl e sd i f fé ren t sg roupe st ypo lo g i que s ( d 'ap rè sJ a l lo te td 'Anna , 1 990 ) . Nou sr a t tachon sa uN éo l i th ique f i na ld cF e r ne re sl e sd a l le sd e s g roupe s 1e t 2 ,e ta uC ha lco l i th ique d cF on tbou i sse l e s s t è le sd e sg roupe s 4( g a rdo i s )e t 5( hé rau l ta is ) .L eg roupe 3( g ardo is )p ou r r a i ta ppa r ten i r

ami f a c iè sd uC ha lco l i th ique a nden .

B IBL IOGRAPH IE AUGER M . ( 1970 ) . Au s u je td e sm enh i r sd 'Auba is e td c Congén ies ( Ga rd ) .R evue A rchéo log ique d eN arbonna i se ,3 , 1 970 ,p .1 7 1-177 . ARNAL G .B . ( 1986 ) . L e Do lmen d uP ouge t( Hé rau l t )e ts on c on tex te a r chéo log iquc . Mémo ire I Vd uC en tre d eR e c herche A rchéo log ique d u Hau t -Languedoc ,1 986 . ARNAL G .B .e tN . , CLOPES J . ,DURREN MATH G . LABOUR IE S . SAHUC M . e t SAUVEUR C . ( 1991) .T ey r an ‚

( Hé rau l t ) .P r em ie re a gg lome ra t ion p réh i s to n ique

as t ruc tu r e se np i e r re s s è che s . App roche c h rono log ique d uC ha s séen

Me r id iona l . Mémo ire V Id uC en t re d cR echerche A rchéo log ique d u Hau t -Languedoc ,1991 ARNAL J .( 1 963 ) . L e sd o lmen s d ud ep ar temen td cl ' Hé rau l t , P réh i s to i re XV ,2 50 p . ,2 0p l anchc sh . t . ARNAL J .( 1976 ) .L e ss t a tue s -menh i r s ,h omme se id i eux . E d . d e sH e spé r ide s ,2 39 p . BA ILLOUD G . ( 1970 ) . L e concept d cc ha lco l i th ique , L e sC iv i l isa t ions N eo l i th ique sd uM id id cl aF rance ,A c te sd u C o l loque d cN a rbonn e ,s ou sl ad i rec t ion d cJ . Gu i la inc ,p . 1 27 . BARGE H . ( 1982 ) .L es p a rure sd uN eo l i th ique a nc ien a ud ebu td cl ' Age d e s Mé taux e nL anguedoc , Ma r se i l le , C .N .R .S . ,3 96 p . BEECH ING A .( 1992 ) ,L ' a rcheo log ie d e sc avemc s ,i n troduc t ion a ud éba t , ARENERA ,7 -1992 ,p . 9 12 . BONNET A . ( 1969 ) . Resu lta ts p re l im ina ire sd cn ouve l le sf ou i l le se n t rep r ise sa l ag ro t te d cl aS a r tane t t ea R emou l in s ( Ga rd ) . C ongre sP réh i s tor ique d cF rance ,X IXe s e s s ion , 1 969 ( 1972 ) ,p . 1 01-106 . BORDREU IL M . ( 197 3 ) . Mineurs C ha lco l i th ique se nL anguedoc o r ien ta l , 9 8e C ongrè sd e sS oc ié le sS avan ie s ,S a in t E t ienne , 1 973 ,A rchéo log ic ,p . 2 1-28 . BORDREU IL M .( 1992 ) . R eche rche s s u rl e sr i te sf un (r a i re sd an sl e sc av i td sd el av alée d cl aC èze ( No rd d ud é p a r temen td uG a rd ) . ARENERA , 7 1992 ,p . 3 7 -41 . BORDREU IL M . , GUTHERZ X . , LAFAYE L . ,P ENE J . -M . , ROGER J . -M . ,a vec l ac o l labo ra t ion d c Mah ieu E .e t G aud F .( 1990 ) .L aS épu l tu rc c o l lec t ive d u Ma s S a in tA nd ré ( Bezouce ,G a rd ) ,L eC ha lco l i th ique e nL anguedoc ,A r c héo log ie e nL anguedoc , 1 990 -199 1 ,p .1 57 -163 . BR IARD J .( 1987 ) . My the se is ymbo le sd el ' Europep réce l l ique . L e sr e l ig ion sd c1 ' Age d uB ronze ( 2500 -800 a y .J . C . ) ,c d .E r rancc ,c o i l .d e sH e spé r idc s , 1 987 .

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CAZAL IS d e FONTDOUCE P .( 1904 ) .L e sc r om lech sd cl aC an d eC ey rac ( Ga rd ) . B u l l .S oc ié té P reh i s to r ique d e F rance , 1 904 ,p .5 5 -66 . CAZAL IS d c FONTDOUCE P .e t OLL IER d e MAR ICHARD J .( 1869 ) .L ag ro t te d e s Mo r t sd c Du r fo r t C omp ie s r endu sd el aS oc ié té S c ien t if ique e iL i t ié ra i re d 'A la L s ,v o l . 1 ,b u l l . 2 ,1 869 ,p .3 3 .57 . CHEVAL IER Y . ( 1984 ) . L 'arch i tec ture d e sd o lmen se n ire L angued oc e iC en tre -Que s td el aF rance . R udo l fH abe l t Gmbh ,B onn , 1 984 . C o l lec t if ( 1990 ) . L eC ha lco l i th ique e nL anguedoc . S e sr e la t ion se x t rar eg iona le s .A c te sd uc o l loque i n t e rna t iona l , Hommage a nD rJ ean A rna l .A rchéo log ie e nL anguedoc , 1 990 -1991 ,352 p . COLOMER A . ( 1979 ) .L e sg ro t te ss épu lc ra le sa r t if ic ie l le se nL anguedoc o r ien ta l . A rch ive s dEco log ie P réh i s lor ique , E .H .S .S . ,T ou lou se , 17p . , 3 0p l anche sh . t . COLOMER A . ( 1980 ) . G ro t te s s dpu lc r a le sp réh i s to r ique s mu rée se nL anguedoc o r ien ta l . L eg roupe d eV é ra za e il a f i nd es t emp sn eo l i th ique sd an sl es udde l aF rance e tl aC a ta logne ,s ou sL ad i rec t ion d eJ .G u i la ine ,C .N .R .S . ,p . 2 87 2 91 . DUDAY H . ( 1988 ) . D iscu ss ion: l e ss épu l tu re s . L eC ha s sé en e nL anguedoc o r ien ta l . H ommage a J .A rna l ,A c te sd e s j ou rnée sd ' é tude s , Mon tpe l l ie r ,o c t . 1 985 ,p .2 80 -283 .

DUDAY H . ( 1992 ) . C o rconne , Aven d cL aB ouc le , B i lan s c ien ty ' Ique d el aR eg ion L anguedoc -Rou s s i l lon , 1 992 , D .R .A .C . , S .R .A . ,p . 5 1-52 . DUDAY H .e t GU ILA INE J .( 1975 ) .L e sr i te sf uné ra ire se nL anguedoc e tR ou ss i l lon d uN eo l i th ique a uP rem ie rA ge d uF e r . C ah ie r sL igure sd eP réh is to i re e id 'Archeo log ie ,2 4 ,p . 1 41-151 . DU MAS U . ( 1905 ) . L ag ro t te N ico la s ,c ommune d cS a in te -Ana s ta s ie .R evue d el Eco le A n thropo log ie d eP a r i s ,p . 18 -124 . DURAND -T IJLLOU A . ( 1946 -1960 ) . L e sc rom lech sd cL aR iga lde r ie ,c ommune d cB landa s ( Ga rd ) . B u l l .S oc ié té dE lude d es S c iences Na tu re l le sd eN ime s , XLV IX , 1 946 -1960 ,p . 7 5 -91 . EL IADE M . ( 1976 ) . H i s to i re d e sc royance se td e si dé e sr e l ig ieu se s , 1 ,d cl age d cl ap i e r re a ux mys te re s dE leu s i s , P ayo t ,P ans , 1 976 . EVESQUE R . ( 1989 ) .L ag ro t te s épu lc ra le d cG aude ,S a in tE t ienne d cF onbe l lon ( Ardèche ) , A rdèche A rcheo log ie ,6 , 1 989 ,p .2 -7 . GALANT P .( 1992 ) .T race sd ' aménagemen td e sc av i té sn a tu re l le sd u r an tL aP réh is to ire r é ccn te . Que lque s e xemp le s d uL anguedoc o r ien ta l .A c te sd e sR encon t re sN éo l i ih ique d eR ho n eA1 p e s ,7 1992 ,L yon ,p .1 3 -24 . GASCO J .e t GUTHERZ X . . ( 1986 ) . Ong ine e ts t ruc tu re d uN éo l i th ique f i na le nL anguedoc méd i te r ran éen :l ac é ra m ique . L eN éo l i th ique d cl aF rance ,P ica rd ,P a r i s , 1 986 ,p . 3 79 -390 . GU ILA INE J . , COU1AROU J . , BR IVO IS F .R IVENQ C . ( 1989 ) .L ' hab i ta tn éo l i th iqu cd cR oquemenga rde ( Sa in t P on s -dc - Mauch ien s ,H é rau l t ) .P rem ie r sé l dmen t ss u rl ed i spo s i t if d ' ence in te .E nce in tc s ,h ab i ta t sc e in tu ré s ,s i t e sp e r c hé sd uN ëo l i th ique a nB ronze a nc ien d an sl es ud d cl aF rance e tl e sr eg ion s v o is ine s , Mémo ire d cl aS oc ié té L angue d oc ienne d cP réh i s to i re ,2 ,1 989 ,p . 2 1-29 . GUTHERZ X . ( 1984 ) . L e sc u l ture sd uN éo l i ih ique r e cen te if i na le nL anguedoc o r ien ta l .T he se d cd oc to ra td c3 ec y c l e , mu l t ig raph iée ,A ix -en -P rovence , 1 984 . GUTHERZ X . ( 1990 ) .F er ne re se tF on tbou is sc ,h i s to ire e td even ir d cd cux c oncep t s ,A u tou rd cJ ean A rna l ,P r e m iè re sc ommunau té sp ay sanne s , Mon tpe l l ie r , 1 990 ,

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4 9 1-506 .

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aJ e an

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l Académ ie d eN ime s ,V i l le s e r ie ,t .L .XX I , 1 993 ( ap a ra l tre ) . ROUD IL J . -L . ( 1978 ) . C h ron ique d e sd i rec teu r s: C i rcon sc i ip t ion d uL anguedoc -Rou ssi lon , Ga l l ia P réh i s to ire , p . 66 1 -694 . ROUD IL J . -L . ( 1990 ) . L ag ro t te d uC law t( Gorn iè s , Hé rau l t ) ,c d .C .N .R .S . , 1 990 . ROUD IL J . -L . e tS AUMADE H . ( 1991) .L ag ro t te d cC ombe Ob scure , L agorce A rdèche , T ro is m i l léna i re sd ev i e n eo l i th ique , 1 991 . S AL !F SJ .( 1988 ) . Anduze ( 30 ) ,La Gr unde P a l l iè re Do lmen a ° 1d i td cL aB e rge i ie d cP an is s iè re ,G .A .RA . ,A c hy i t é se iT ra vaux , 1 988 ,p . 3 4 -41 . T ab le R onde C .N .R .S . . d e s S ab le sd 'O lonne ( Vendée ) s on sl ad i rec t ion d cR .J ou ssaume . Mega l i th i sme e is oc ié té , G roupe V endéen d 'E tude sP reh i s ton ique s , 1 987 ( 1990 ) ,2 35 p . VORUZ J . -L . ( 1990 ) . H omme se tD ieux d uN éo l i th ique ,L e ss t a tue s -menh ir s dYve rdon ,A nnua ire d cl aS oc ié té S u i s se d eP réh i s to i re e id 'Archéo log ie ,7 5 , 1 992 ,p .3 7 -64 .

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JOSEP F . EWSEWYAT ALCOVER

2 2

D ona ld B aden -Powe l lQ ua te rna ry R e s e a r ch C en t r e P i t t -R ive r s Mu seum ,U n ive r s i ty o fO x fo r d O x fo r d , 0X2 5 PN ,E NGLAND

Pr e -Ta la io t ic s i te s , e i the rf une ra ry o rn on -fune ra ry ,a r e w ide ly d i spe r sed t h roughou t t h e i s land . Howeve r t h e h ighe rd en s i ty o fs i tes i nt h e p e r iphe ra l a r ea s o f t h e i s l a nd c ou ld r ef lec tt h ee f fec tt h a t modem a sw e l l a sp re h i s to r ic a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty h a s h ad o n p re -Ta la io t ic s i te s a st h eP la i st h er i che s ta g r icu l tu ra l a r ea o ft h ei s l a nd . Modem a c t iv i t ie s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave h ad as i gn if i c an t e f fec t o n t h e p re se rva t ion o f t h e s i te s o r t h e ir a r c haeo log ica l d epo s i t s . T h is i ss pec ia l ly t h e c a se w i th q ua r ry a c t iv i ty o n s and s tone d epo s i t s ,w h ich h a s p roba b l y d e s t royed many a r t if ic ia l c ave s ; c on s t ruc t ion a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e c oa s ta l a r ea s i sa l so l i ke ly t oh ave d es t royed many s i te s ; t h e u se o fc ave s a sa n ima l s he l t e r s h a s s e r iou s ly d i s tu rbed an umbe ro fa r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s . T a la io t ic a nd p o s t -Ta la io t ic a c t iv i ty w i l l a l so h ave d e s t royed , a l tered , o r c oncea led p re -Ta la io t ic s i te s , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se s i te s t h a t a r e l o ca ted n ea r T a l a io t ic s e t t lemen t s , wh i le T a la io t ic a nd p os t -Ta la io t ic b u r ia ls c a r r ied o u t i n p re -Ta la io t ic b ur ia l c ave s , w i l l a l so h ave h ad ad e s t ruc t ive e f fec to nt h ee a r l ie s tl e ve ls . T he e f fec tt h a t modem a g r icu l tu re h a s h ad o na r chaeo l og ica l s i te s mu s tn o tb e e i the ru nde re s t ima ted o ro ve r e s t ima ted ,g iven t h ee x i s tence o f al a rge n umbe ro fT a l a io t ic s i te s i nb o th t h e M ig jom a nd t h eP la . F i r s t ly , t h e M ig jo rn i sa n a r ea o fv e ry l ow a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t iv i ty t h a t i sb a re ly c u l t iva ted , h ence t h e h i gh d en s i ty o f a r c haeo log ica l s i te s . S econd ly ,T a la io t ic s i te sa r eg ene ra l -

S y s tema t ic e xcava t ion o fp re -Ta la io t ic s i te s h a s b een a r a re e ven t i nB a lea r ic a r chaeo logy u n t i l v e ry r e cen t ly . Mo s to ft h e s i te s w e re e xcava ted b e fo re t h e 1 950 ' s a nd p ub l ished a ccoun t s o f t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined a r e v ague a nd l a ck s c ien t if ic r i gou r . On ly ah andfu l o f t h e p o s t 1 950 ' s e xcava ted s i te s h ave y i e lded s t ra t ig raph ica l s e q uence s a nd s i zeab le a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s w i th p ub l ished e xcava t ion s r epo r t s t h a t h ave a r ea sonab ly q uan t i f ied i n ven to ry o fa r tefac t s . T he r e i s ac on s ide ra b l ed i f f e rence b e tween t h e nu mb e ro fw e l l -s tud ied s i te s i nt h eS e r ra d eT ramun tana a nd i nt h er e s to ft h eI s land . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing i nt h e p re sen t i n ven to ry i sl im i ted t o s i x s i te s , a l l b u t o ne o f wh ich a r e , a ga in , l o ca ted i n t h e S e r ra d eT ramun tana . T he refo re , t h e re i s ad i s t inc t b ia s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch o ft h e p re -Ta la io t ic p e r iod t owa rd s t h a t a r ea . T h i s i sl a rge ly d ue t ot h e i n t e n s ive r e sea rch wh ich i sc u r ren t ly b e ing c ar r ied o u tb y t h e A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum o fD e ià , u nde r t h e d i rec t i on o fD r . Wi l l iam Wa ld ren . B UR IAL S ITES Bu r ia l s i te s f orm t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f k nown p re T a la io t ic s i te s .T hey a r em a in ly c ave s , e xcep to ne r ock s he l te r( r ss ) a nd o ne m ega l i th ic t omb ( m t s ) . C ave s a r e e i the rn a tu ra l ( bnc ) o ra r t i f ic ia l ( r ock -cu t c ave s ) ,e i the r S imp le A r t if ic ia l C aves ( s ac ) o r E vo lved A r t if ic ia l C ave s ( e ac ) , wh ich a r ew ide ly d i spe r sed t h roughou tt h e

l yl a rge monumen t s wh ich a r ed i ff icu l tt or emove ( e ven w i th modem t e chno logy ) , a nd i ndeed h ave b een d e l ib e r a te ly u sed b yf a rme r sa st h eb a s i sf o r' c lape r s '( an a r ea w he re s t one c o l lec ted p er iod ica l ly f r om t h e c u l t iva ted

i s land ,a l though , a s o ne w ou ld e xpec t , t h e i rg eog raph i c a l d i s t r ibu t ion ( F igu re 1 )d epend s e n t i re ly o n t h e g eo l og ica l n a tu re o f t h e a r ea : n a tura l c ave s a r e m a in ly l o -

f i e ld s i sp i led u p ) . T h is i t se lf e f fec t s t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd , a s w e s ee f r om t h e l a rge n umbe r o f p re T a la io t ic s i te s t h a th ave n o tp roduced a ny ma te r ia ls d ue

c a ted i n t h e moun ta inou s a r ea s o f t h e i s land , whe rea s a r t if ic ia l c ave s a r el oca ted i na r ea s w i th s o f tc a lca reou s s and s tone f o rma t ion s . T he re a r eo ne h und red a nd t h i r ty

t ot h e ir mode rn r e -u t i l iza t ion a sd ome s t ic a n ima l s he l t e r s : many o ft h ese h ave u nde rgone p e r iod ica lc l ean -up t oc o l lec tt h eo rgan ic f e r t i l ize r ,o rh ave b een s imp ly d e -

e i gh tr e co rded s i te s ,o f wh ich t h ir ty c an b et y po log ica l -

s t royed d u r ing r e -u t i l iza t ion .

l yc l a s s if ied a sn a tu ra l c ave s ,o ne h und red a nd s i xa sa r t i f ic ia l c ave s , o f wh ich t wen ty s even a r e s imp le a r t if i c i a l c ave s a nd s even ty n ine a r ee vo lved a r t i f ic ia l c ave s ,

3 34

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b e r . F u r the r a l te ra t ion h a s a f fec ted t h e w a l l s o f t h e c ave , whe re f i ve p ocke t l i ke a r ea s h ave b een t r an s -

N ATURAL C AVES

f o rmed i n to n i che sw he re t h eg rave g ood sw e re d epo s i t e d . T he mod if ica t ion s p e r fo rmed a tC a SHe reu ( Veny ,

B u r ia l n a tu ra l c ave s a r e d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e i s l a nd a l though t h e re i s ah ighe rf r equency o fs i te s i nt h e S e r ra d eT ramun tana . T h is g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion i s

1 968 ) a r e s omewha t mo re c omp lex , a s t h e c hambe r o f t h ec ave w a sp a r t i t ioned w i th l a rge , u p r igh t s t one s l ab s a nd t h ree mono l i th s w e re s e t u p a t t h e c en t re o f t h e c ave . T he se mono l i th s may h ave s e rved a s p i l la r s t o

d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tn a tura l c ave sa r e mo re e a s i ly f ound i n moun ta inous a r ea sa nd a l so t h a to n ly t ho se c aves t h a t h ave u nde rgone a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion a r e p re sen t

s us ta in p a r t o f ar oo f , p e rhap s made w i th l a rge s t one f l ag s ,c on s t ruc ted t ob lock t h ee n t rance .

i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . T he re a r e ,o fc ou r se , s ome p a r t s o f t h e i s land w he re n a tu ra l c ave s s imp ly d o n o t o ccu r . Un fo r tuna te ly , mo s to ft h ec ave s w e re e xcava ted many y ea r s a go b y ama teu r a r chaeo log i s t s w i th l i t t le

ART IF IC IAL C AVES I ti sa pp ropr ia te t o make ad i s t inc t ion b e tween n a tu ra l c ave s t h a tw e re mod if ied , a nd c ave s wh ich a r e e n t i re ly a r t if ic ia l i no r ig in . A r t if ic ia l c ave s a r e n ume r ica l ly a nd t ypo log ica l ly t h e mo s t c ha rac te r is t ic s i te s o f t h e p re T a la io t ic p e r iod . T hese s i te s a r e r ock -cu t t omb s w h ich h ave b een b u i l t i n s o f t s and s tone d epo s i t s . T he refo re , t h e e x is tence a nd u se o fa r t if ic ia l c ave s d epend s o n t h e

s c ien t if ic r i gou r a nd t h e ir d epo s i t s h ave b een d i s tu rbed o rd e s t royed b y t h e ir c on t inuou s u se i nr e cen t t ime s a s s he l te r s , w i th s y s tema t ic c l ean ing o u t , n o t t o men t ion t h e ir u se a s b u r ia l g round s d u r ing t h e T a la io t ic a nd p o s t -Ta la io t ic p e r iod s wh ich d i rec t ly f o l lowed t h e p re T a la io t ic . L og ica l ly ,t h et ypo logy o fn a tu ra lc ave si se n t i re ly d ependen t u pon t h e g eo logy o f t h e a r ea . Neve r t h e le s s , s ome c ave s w e re c e r ta in ly a r t if ic ia l ly mod i f ied d u r ing t h e p re -Ta la io t ic p e r iod . T h is i st h e c a se a tS on

g eo log ica l o r ig in o ft h e a r ea , a nd a cco rd ing ly t h e l o ca t i on o f a r t if ic ia l c ave s c oncen t ra te s i na r ea s w i th s o i l s f o rmed b yc a lca reou s s and s tone so fV indobon ian ,P l e is -

P u ig ( Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) , wh ich i s an a tu ra l f o rma t ion t h a t

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i on o ft h e se s i te s . H e d i s t ingu ished t h ree g roup s b a sed o nt h e i rt y po logy . T he f i r s tg roup c on s is t s o fc ave s w i th ar ound c hambe r a nd w i thou t ac o r r ido r . T he s econd g roup i sf o rmed b y c ave s w i th ar ound c hambe r a nd a c o r r ido r . T he t h ird g roup i sm ade u p o f t h e c ave s w i th a n e l onga ted c hambe r a nd ac o r r ido r , a s w e l l a s o t he r s t ruc tu ra l e l emen t s . I n h i s c l a ss i f ica t ion , V eny c l ea r ly d ef ined a n e vo lu t iona ry p a t te rn f r om t h e s imp le c ave s w i th a r ound c hamber a nd w i thou t ac o r r ido r , c i rca 2 000 -1800 b . c , t ot h e s imp le c ave s w i th ac o r r ido r , c i r c a 1 800 -1600 b . c . , t ha t i n t u rn d eve loped i n to t h e e vo lved c ave s w i th a n e l onga ted c hambe r , ac o r r ido r , a nd a dd i t iona l c on st ruc t ive e l emen t s , c i rc a 1 600 -1200 b . c . T he c l a ss if ica t ion p ropo sed b y R osse i ló -Bo rdoy ( 1962d ; 1 962 -63 ; 1 972 ; 1 979 ; 1 984 ) i sa l so b a sed o n t h et y po logy o ft h ec ave s . T he f i r s tg roup i n c lude s s im p l ea r t if ic ia l c ave s w i th o rw i thou t ac o r r ido r . T he s e c o nd g roup c o r re sponds t ot h ee vo lved c ave s w i th a ne l t o cene o r , r a re ly , Qua te rna ry o r ig in ( Ro s se l lö -Bo rdoy , 1 979 ) . C on sequen t ly , t h e g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r t if ic ia l c ave s , e ven t hough i tc ove r s t h e w ho le i s land , s hows a h igher d en s i ty i n t h e P la a nd t h e M ig jo rn ,

o nga ted c hambe ra nd a cce s s t h rough ac o r r ido r ,a sw e l l a st h ed i f fe ren ts t ruc tu ra l f e a tu re s l i ke n i che s ,b enche s , c en t ra l t r ench , e t c . T he t h i rd g roup i sf o rmed b y t h e mu l t ip le c ave s , an ew t ype o fc ave t h a td eve loped f r om

w h i le i nt h e S e r ra d eT ramun tana a nd t h eS e r re sd eL ie v an t t h ey a r e o n ly p re sen ti nt ho se a r ea s w i th t h e f o re men t ioned d epo s i t s , e xcep t i n t h e R a igue r whe re C an P a to s ( Ma scaró , 1 960 ) , E s C abà s , a nd G a ie ta G ran 1 2 ( Veny , 1 968 )a r ec u ti nl ime s tone . A r t if ic ia l c ave s a r ef ound i s o la ted a tC a la S aN au , Cova dEn D a ima t , C ova d e l P on t d c C ab re ra , E s C a lde re r s , a nd S on Mu le t , o r f o rm ing g roup s o f t wo a t R af a l L l inà s 1 2 , R afa l Pa l 1 2 ,a nd S on R ea l 1 2 ; t h ree a tS o N 'He reu 1 3 ,S 'Homone t ,a nd S on R ibo t 1 2 ;o ra ne ven l a rge n ec ropo l is a t S on T on i Ame r 1 -5 ( Veny , 1 968 ) , C a la d c S an t V icenc 1 12 ( Hemp , 1 927 ; V eny , 1 968 ) , Mono d c S on C ove s 1 5( Veny , 1 968 ) ,B ei lve rR ic 1 5 ( A lcove r , 1 941 ;V eny , 1 968 ) ,a nd t h a tf o rmed b yC aN a V id r ie r a ,C aS 'E sp iru t 1 2 ,E s S e r ra ld e s V erm ,a nd S on S unye r 1 -8 ( Ro sse l ló -Bo rdoy , 1 962a ; V eny , 1 968 ) . S ome o ft h ec ave sa r ec l o se ly r e la ted t on av ifo rm b u i ld i ng s ; t h u s t h eg roup o fc ave s o fC a la d eS an tV icenc 1 -

S a Mo la d 'En B o rdo i 1 ( Af ter

V eny .

1 968)

1 2 i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h eg roup o fn av ifo rm so fV a i l d e B oca , a nd R a fa l U inà s 1 2 ( Veny , 1 968 ) i sa s soc ia ted w ith t h e n av ifo rm b u i ld ing o f N 'Amera ( Ro sse l ló B o rdoy , 1 962d ) . T he n umbe ra nd d ive r s i ty o fa r t i f ic ia lc ave si n Ma l lo rca h a s d rawn t h e a t ten t ion o f many s cho la r s s t udy ing B a l e a r ic p r eh is to ry who h ave a t temp ted t oc l a ss ify t h em a s w e l l a s t od i sce rn t h e ir c h rono logy . V eny ( 1968 ) w a s t h ef i r s ti n ve s t iga to rw ho c omp i led ac omp le te i nven to r y o fa r t if ic ia l c ave s a nd a t temp ted as e r iou s c l a ss if ica -

3 36

t h ee l onga ted c ave sa nd c on s i s t so fr ock -cu tt omb s w i th s eve ra l c hambe r s s ubd iv ided b y w a l l s . T h is t ype o f c ave w a s d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th c yc lopean b u i ld ing s . T he re w e re t h ree r eco rded s i te s , E s R a fa l , S an t J o rd i , a nd S on On is I , b u t o n ly t h e l a t te r i sp re se rved . R o s s e l lö -Bo rdoy ( 1984 ) c on s ide r s t h a t t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l d i v e r s i ty o f a r t if ic ia l c ave s h a s ac h rono log ica l s i gn if i c ance , whe reby s imp le a r t if ic ia l c aves wou ld s t a r t

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER JOSEP F .E NSENYAT

ma te r ia ls b u t a r e a l so f ound t oge the r i n n ec ropo l ise s . Howeve r , i ta l so s ugge s t s ap o ss ib le r e la t ion sh ip b e t ween c ave t y pes a nd t h e i ro ccu r rence i ng roup s ,a st h e ma te r ia l sf ound i nl a rge c omp lex e l onga ted c ave sf o rm i ng c eme te r ie s a r ea lway s o fl a te p re -Ta la io t ic d a te , a l t hough t h e s ame ma te r ia ls h ave a l so b een f ound i ni s o l a ted s imp le a nd e vo lved c aves ( D iaz -And reu e ta l . , 1 991 ) . T he re a r eo ne h und red a nd s i xa r t if ic ia l c ave s r e co rded i n t h e c u r ren ti nven to ry o f wh ich t wen ty s even c an b e t ypo log ica l ly c l a s s if ied a s s imp le a r t if ic ia l c ave s a nd s even ty n ine a s e vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s ( Veny , 1 968 ) . Howeve r , o n ly n ine teen h ave y i e lded a rchaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s , t wo s imp le a r t if ic ia l c aves a nd s even teen e vo lved a r t i f ic ia l c ave s . A s w eh ave a l ready n o ted , t h e p re se rva t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s a nd o f t h e c ave st h emse lve sh a s b een s e r iou s ly a f fec ted b yt h ep e r i od ica l c l ean ing o ft h ec ave s a s ar e su l to ft h e ir u se a s a n ima l s he l te r s a nd , b y q ua r ry ing s and s tone o f t h e d e p o s i t s d u r ing t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium b . c . a nd a s t h e c us tom o f i nhuma t ion i n a r t if ic ia l c ave s e xpand s , t h ey wou ld e vo lve t owa rd s t h e e l onga ted c ave wh ich , i n t u rn , w ou ld f i na l ly d eve lop i n to t h e mu l t ip le c ave a tt h e e nd o ft h ep r e -Ta la io t ic p e r iod . N eve r the le ss , t h eo n ly c ave t h a th a s b een e xcava ted , S on Om sI ,h a s y i e lded aT a l a io t ic b u r ia l . T he f a c t t h a tt h em a te r ia l s f ound i na r t if i -

i n

w h ich t h ey w e re e xcava ted .

S I MPLE ART IF IC IAL CAVES S imp le a r t i f ic ia l c ave s ( F igu re 2 )a r e t h e l e a s t f r equen t t ype o f a r t if ic ia l c ave i n Ma l lo rca . T hey a r e f ound t h roughou tt h ei s land e i the ri s o la ted , a sa tE s C a lde re r s o r t h e C ova d e l P on t d e C ab re ra , i n g roup s o f t wo o r

c i a l c ave s a r eq u i te l a te a nd h omogeneou s ,h a sb een a t t r ibu ted t ot h el ong u se o ft h ec ave sa sb u r ia l s i te s : o n ly t h e a r tefac t s t h a t w e re d epo s i ted i nt h e c ave s i mmed i a t e ly p r io r t o t h e i r a bandonmen t a r e p re sen t i nt h e a r c haeo log ica l a s semb lage . I th a s a l so b een s ugge s ted t h a tt h e mu l t ip le c ave s w e re ,i nf a c t ,p re -Ta la io t ic r i tua l s i te si n s t ead o ff une ra ry s i te sa nd t h a tt h ey w e re r e -used a st omb sd ur ing t h eT a la io t ic p e r iod ( Co l l , 1 989 ) . F e rnández -M i randa ( 1978 ) c l a s s if ie s a r t i f ic ia l c ave s i n t wo g roup s a cco rd ing t ot h e t ype o fc hambe ra nd c on s i de r s t h e a cce s s c o r r ido r s a sa n a nc i l la ry a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t .T he f i r s tg roup i sf o rmed b ys imp le c ave sw i th ar ound c hambe r ,r ega rd le s so fw he the rt h ey h ave ac o r r i do ro rn o t . T he s e cond g roup c o r re spond s t ot h ec ave s w i th a n e l onga ted c hambe r a nd o the r s t ruc tura l e l e m en t s , w he the r c o r r ido r , b ench , t r ench , o r n i che s . Un l i ke t h e o t he r a u tho r s , F e rnández -M iranda d oe s n o t a t t r ibu te a c hrono log ica l s equence t o t he t wo t ype s o f c ave s a nd c on s ide r s t h em t ob e c on tempo ra ry , d u r ing h i s p r e -Ta la io t ic B ronze Ho r izon ,c i rca 1 800 -1300 b . c . , o n t h e b a s is o ft h eh omogene i ty o ft h e m a te r ia ls f ound i nt h es i te s . F u r the rr e sea rch i nt h es ub jec tc on f i rm st h a t s imp le a nd e vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s d o n o t f o rm as uc c e ss ion a s b o th t ypes h ave n o t o n ly p roduced s im i la r

mo re a s a tN a T on s d e S on S uau 1 2 ( A lcove r , 1 941 ; V eny , 1 968 ) , R ala l L l inà s 1 -2 ( Ro sse l lo -Bo rdoy , 1 962d ;V eny , 1 968 )o r Mo r ro d eS on C ove s 1 5 ( Veny , 1 968 ) , o r a s p a r t o f an ec ropo l is a s soc ia ted w i th e vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s a tC a Na V id r ie ra a nd S on S u -

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Mo r ro d eS on C ove s5 ,a nd Mo la dEn V ida l ;t r apezo id a la sa tS a Mo la dEn B o rdo i2 ,a nd B e l ive rR ic 1 ;i r reg u l a r a s a t Mo r ro d c S on C ove s 3 -4 , C a s C onco s , a nd B e l lve rR ic 3 ;o rs qua r ea sa tN aT on sd c S on S uau 1 2 . T he a cce ss t ot h ec ave i sg ene ra l ly d i rec tf r om t h ee x te r i o r a l though s ome c ave s h ave as ho r t c o r r ido r t h a t i s u sua l ly b u i l t i n t h e o pen -a ir w i thou t a ny r oof a nd i s n eve r mo re t h an 3me t r es l o ng . T he c o r r ido rc an b eh o r i z on ta l o rf o rm ar amp . T he r oo fi sa lway s v au l ted e x c ep t a t B e l iver R ic 1a nd E s C a lde re r s w he re i sf l a t ( Veny , 1 968 ) . T hey d on o th ave a ny a nc i l la ry c on s truc to i ia l e l emen t s e xcep t Na T on s d c S on S uau 2 t h a t h a s as ma l l n iche a nd ac en t r a lt r ench ,b o th i n comp le t e ;B e l ive rR ic 1t h a t h a sa na p s ida ln i che t h a ti sa ne x ten s ion o ft h ec hambe r ; a nd Mono d c S on C ove s 2t h a t h a s t wo n i che s . T he m a in a dd i t iona l c on s t ruc t ive c ha rac te r is t ic s a r e g roove s t h a ta r e c u ti nt h er ock i nt h e o u ter s i de o ft h e e n t rance a se v idenced a tR afa l L l inà s I C ova d e l P on td e C ab r e ra , B e l ive r R ic 1 ,C a N a V id r ie ra , C a la d e S an t V i -

R afa l L unas 1 ( Af ter

V eny ,

1 968)

‚

n ye r 7 -8 ( Ro sse l ló -Bo rdoy , 1 962a ; V eny , 1 968 ) , B e l l v e rR ic 1 ,3 -4 ( A lcove r , 1 94 1 ; V eny , 1 968 ) ,o rC a la d e S an t V icenç 1 0 -11 ( Hemp , 1 927 ; V eny , 1 968 ) . T he mo rpho logy o f t he c ave s i sg ene ra l ly v e ry s imp le . I t c on s i s t s o f as ma l l r ound c hambe rt h a ts ome t ime sh a s a s imp le c o r r ido r . T he ir s i ze i sr a the rs ma l l ,b e tween t wo a nd f ou rm e t re s i nd i ame te r , a nd t h ec o r r ido rc an b eu p t ot h ree m e t re sl ong a nd o ne me t re w ide . S ome t ime st h e p l an o ft h e c hambe rp r e sen t s as l igh tt e ndency t owa rd s b e ing r e c tangu lar , a sa tE s C a lde re r s ;o va l a sa tC a la d e S an tV icenç 1 0 -11 , A lcüd ia ( Hemp , 1 927 ; V eny , 1 968 ) ,

N a T ous d e S on S uau 2 ( Af ter

V eny ,

1 968)

3 38

c enç 1 0 -11 , P u ig d c S an ta E ugen ia , a nd S a Mo la d 'En B o rdo i 3 .T he g roove s w e re p robab ly u sed t of i t s t one s l ab s t o b lock t h e e n t rance o f t h e c ave ( Fon t e t a l . ,1962 ) . O n ly t wo c ave s ,C aN a V id r ie ra a nd S on S u n ye r 7( Ro sse l lo -Bo rdoy , 1 962a ; V eny , 1 968 ) , h ave p roduced a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls a nd t r ace s o ff une r a r yr i tua l . E VOLVED ART IF IC IAL C AVES E vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s f o rm t h e l a rge s t g roup o fp re T a la io t ic s i te s , a s w e l l a s b e ing t h e g roup t h a t h a s a

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT A LCOVER

l a rge rt y po log ica l v a r ie ty ( F igu re s3 -5 ) . T hey a r ec u ti n s o f t s and s tone d epo s i t s , e xcep t t ho se o fC an P a to s , E s C abà s , a nd G a ie ta G ran 1 2 ( Veny , 1 968 )w h ich a re c u t i n l ime s tone . B a s ica l ly , t h ey c on s i s t o f ac o r r ido r t h a t g ive s a cces s t oa ne l onga ted c hambe r ,h oweve rt h eu se o fs e ve ra l a r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t s ,s uch a sn i che s ,b ench e s , t r enche s , a nd av a r ie ty o ft ype s o fa cce s s , p rov ide s t h em w i th al a rge mo rpho log ica l d i ve r s i ty . T he se f ea t u res a r e d e sc r ibed b e low . T he c ave s v ary i n s i ze , a l t hough t h e mo s tg ene ra l ized l e ng th i sb e tween 8a nd 1 0 m e t re s ,t h a ti s ,i n c lud ing c hambe ra nd c o r r ido r . T he c hambe r i sg ene ra l ly e l onga ted a nd r e c tangu la r , t hough t h e re i s at e ndency t owa rd s r ound ing t h e e dge s t h a t i n many c a se sh a s d eve loped i n to a na p s ida lc ham b e r l i ke i n S on T on i Ame r 3 , S on C a rde l l , S on C an l ele s ( Veny , 1 968 ) , o rC ugu lu tx dEn J aque ta ( Fon te i a l . , 1 962a ; V eny , 1 968 ) . A l though t h eb a s ic f o rm o ft h e c hambe r i sv ery r egu la r s ome c ave s h ave s l igh t v a r ia t i on s : t hu s t h a t o f C a la d e S an t V icenç 1i sr ough ly s qua re ; t hose f r om S on Mesqu ida , C um i le ra d c S 'Agu i la ,a nd S on G ranada 2a r ei r regu la r ; a nd t ho se o f E sM i t jà d eS e s A be l le s ,E sR a fa le tD rac 2 ,G a ie ta ( I ran 1 ,a nd C ova d 'En D a ima t ( Veny , 1 968 ) a r e k idney s haped . R e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f t h e se s hapes a re a s s hown i nt h ef o l low ing d i ag ram : T he s i ze o ft h e c hambe r r ange s f r om 9 . 7 *2 .4 m . a t S on S u reda ,9 •4 * 3 . 2m . a tC aS rE sp iru t 2 ,o r 9* 3 . 1 m . a tS 'Homone tt o3 . 2 * 2m . a tL aS o lana 1a nd S on Mu l c t , o r 3 .2 * 2 .4 m . a tS a Mo la d 'En B la i 2 ,t h e mean

s i ze b e ing 5 -7 * 2 -3 m . T he r oo fo ft h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e c ave si sv au l ted ,b u ta tB e l ive rR ic 2 ,E sR a fa le tD rac 1 , S aT an c ad cN 'A lou ,S e sC omune s ,S on R ea l 1 ,S on R i b o t 1 2 , a nd S on T on i Ame r 5t h e r oof i sf l a t a nd a t G a ie ta G ran 1a nd S on B a t s 1i si r regu la r( Veny , 1 968 ) . T he h e igh to ft h ec aves i su sua l ly 1 . 5 -2 m . T h ea cce s s t ot h ec hambe ri sn o rma l ly t h rough al ong a nd n a r row c o r r ido r ,3 -4 m . l ong a nd a bou t 1m . w ide . T he c o r r ido r c an b e f l a t a si nC a la S a Nau , s ome t ime s a lmo s tf o rm ing ae x ten s ion o ft h ec hambe r ,a sa tL 'Ho r t d e ls Mo ro s ,o rs t eep ,i n wh ich c a se t h eg ap i so ve rcome w i th as ha f t , ar amp , s t a ir s , o r ac omb ina t ion o f t h e se : S e s C omune s , S on B a t s 1 ,o rS on G a l iana h ave ar amp ; E s Mo l ine r , S o N 'An te lm , o r S o N 'He reu 1 3 h ave a s t a irca se ; L a S o lana 1 ,S a Mo la d' E n B o rdo i 1 ,o r S a T anca h ave as haf t . S ome t ime s t h e se e l emen t s a r ec om b ined a s i nS 'Homone t whe re a cce s s t ot h e c hambe ri s t h rough ar amp t h a te nd si n as t a i rca se ;a tS on J aume l l a p i tg i ve s a cce s s t o af l a tc o r r ido r t h a te n t e r s t h e c ham b e r ;a tE s C abà s ap i tg i ve s a cce ss t o af l a tc o r r ido rt h a t l e ad s t o as t a irca se a t t h e e n t rance o f t h e c ave ; o r a t C a la d cS an tV icenç 1 ,6 -9 w he re t h ef l a tc o r r ido rs t a r t s a t af o recou r tc u ti nt h er ock o u t s ide t h ec ave .T he c o r r i d o r c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo o rt h ree s e c t ion s t h a t o f ten w iden t of o rm s ma l l a n techambe r s . S eve ra l c ave s , E s M i t jà d c S e s Abe l les , C a la d c S an t V icenç 7 , S o N ' l le reu 2 -3 , S on G ranada 2 ,a nd S on S unye r 1h ave g roove sc u ti nt h ed oo rway t h a t wou ld p robab ly b eu sed t of i ts t one s l ab s t ob lock t h ee n t rance ,a ss hown a tS on

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

Mu le t ,o rS on S u reda , t os i x a tS 'Homone to re ven s e v e na tS on T on i Ame r3 .T he n i che sc an b el o ca ted a tt h e a p se o ft h ec hambe ra s a tS on D ani s N ou 2 ,a tt h e e n t r ance o ft h e c hambe r a s a tS on J aume l l , i nt h e l a te ra l w a l ls o f t h e c hambe r a s a tC ugu lu tx d 'En J aque ta , b u t a l so ,a tt h ea p se a nd t h ee n t rance a sa tS o N 'He reu 1 ,a t t h ea p se a nd t h el a te ra lw a l ls a sa tN aF onda d e S aV a i l , a tt h e e n t rance a nd t h e l a te ra l w a l ls a sa tC a la d c S an t V icenç 1 2 ,o ra tt h ea p se , e n t rance , a nd l a te ra l w a l ls a s a t S 'Homone t a nd S on T on i Ame r 3 . E ven tua l ly , t h e n iche i nt h ea p se may f o rm ap ro longa t ion o ft h ec ham b e r l i ke i nN a F onda d c S a V a l l , S on C a rde l l , o r S on G r anada 2 . Two s i te s ,S on G ranada 2a nd S on Mand iv j ad eD a l t ,h ad o ne s ma l lp ocke t l ike r ound n i che c u ti n t h ec or r ido r .

E s M i t jà d e S es Abe l les ( Af ter

V eny ,

1 968)

S unye r2 ,S on J aume l l ,S e s C o snune s ,S aT anca ,a nd E s C abà s , whe re s t one s l ab s w e re s t i l l b lock ing t h e e n t r ance ( Hemp , 1 927 ; A lcove r , 1 94 1 , R o sse l ló -Bo rdoy , 1 962a ;V eny , 1 968 ) .

D ISTR IBUT ION O FN ICHES I NT HE E VOLVED ART IF IC IAL C AVES n o . o fn iche s 0 1 2 3 > 3 t o ta ln i che s 2 4 1 7 2 3 8 7 n i che si na p se 5 2 2 6 1 0 0 n i che si ne n t r ance 5 5 1 3 1 0 0 n i che so nw a l ls

4 4

2 0

1 0

1 4

T he c hambe ro f ten h a s al a te ra l b ench c u ti nt h er ock t h a t r un s a r ound t h e c hambe r a s a tS o N 'An te lm , S on C a rde l l , o rS on T on i Ame r 1 4 . S ome t ime s t h e b ench i s o n ly c u t i np a r t o f t h e c hambe r , e i the r o ne s i de o r t h e a p se , a s a tC o lôn ia d c S an t P e re , S 'Homone t , o r S on T on i Ame r 5 .T he b ench i sn o rma l ly 5 0 -80 cm . w ide a nd 5 0 -60 c m . h i gh . O cca s iona l ly , t h e b ench i sd i v ided i n to s ec t ion s ,a bou t4 0 -60 c m . w ide , b y t r an sve r se r i b s a s a t S on C au le l le s , C a la d e S an t V icenç 9 , S a Mo la d' E nB la i 1 ,S a Mo la

d vEn

B o rdo i 1 ,S on B a t s 1 ,o rS on

T on i Ame r3 . Ano the ra r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen tt ha ti sf r e q uen t ly f ound i nt h ee vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s i s ac en t ra l t r ench c u t i n t h e r ock a long t h e c en t ra l a x is o f t h e c hamb e r . T he s i ze o f t h e t r ench d i f f e r s f r om a v e ry s ma l l t r ench ,b a re ly ag roove ,3 0 cm . w ide a nd 2 5 c m . d eep a tS a Mo la d 'En B o rdo i 1 ,o r t h a to f C a la d c S an t V icenç 7 w h ich i s5 0 cm . w ide a nd 1 5c m . d eep , t ot h e l a rge t r ench o fS on S unye r5 ,1 . 30 i n . w ide a nd 1 . 10 i n . d eep . T he m ean w id th o ft h e t r enche s i s5 0 -60 c m . a nd t h e mean d ep th i s4 0 -70 c m . Ano the rd i s t inc ts t ruc tu ra l f e a ture i nt h ec ave sa r et h e i n che s c u ti nt h ew a l ls o ft h ec hambe r s . T hey a r er ough l yr ound o ro va l a nd t h e ir d i ame te ri sb e tween Ia nd 2 me t re s . Howeve r , a tN aF onda d e S 'Ava l l , S on G a l iana , a nd S on T on i Ame r 3a nd 5 ,t h en iches a r e s qua re . T he n umbe r o fn i che s v ar ie s f r om o ne a tS on D a r iu s 2 ,S on

p re sen t a b sen t c en t ra lt r ench 3 0 b ench 3 7 4 2

4 9

D e sp i te t h ee x ten s ive t y po logy o fr ock -cu t c aves t h a t d er ive s f r om t h e d i f f e ren t a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s t h a t

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER

b u r ia ls f ound i nt h e s i te .T he s i te i sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e n a tu ra l b ur ia l c ave o f S on Ma r ro ig (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) w h ich i sl o ca ted o n ly 5 0i n . a way f r om t h er ock she l te r . 2 . 1 .4 MEGAL ITH IC TO MBS S on B au ló d e Da l t ( F igu re 6 ) i st h e o n ly m ega l i th ic t omb t h a th a s b een f ound i n Ma l lo rca ( Ro sse l ló C o l l e t a l . , 1 962 ; R o s se l lo -Bo rdoy , 1 966b ) . I ti sl o ca ted i nt h e n o r th o f t h e i s land , a t a bou t o ne k i lome t re f r om t h e c oa s t ,i n ap inewood . T he t omb i sb u i l t o n a n a r t i f ic ia l e l eva t ion o fs and s tone s l ab s w h ich f o rm sa no va l e x te r i o rp la t fo rm . 1 6 m . l ong a nd 9 . 5i n . w ide . T he p l a t fo rm c on s i s t so f as e r ies o ff l a ts l ab so fs and s tone ,h o r izon ta l l yd i spo sed o ve r al a ye ro fe a r th a bou t3 0 -35 c m . t h ick . O ve rt h is p l a tfo rm t h e re i s ar ound s t ruc tu re m ade o f 1 6 u p r igh t s ands tone f l ags , t h a t h ave b een r egu la r ly c u t a nd d r iven i n to at r ench . I t s max imum d iame te r i s6 . 6 i n . a nd t h em in imum i s6 . 3i n .T he c en t ra lc hambe rc on s i s t so f as quar ec i s t ,2 . 2 * 2i n . mad ew i th p e r f ec t ly c u t

a r e i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e s t ruc tu re , e vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s b a s ica l ly c on s is to fa ne l onga ted c hambe rw i th a n a cces s , t h a t may o r may n o t c on ta in v a r iou s c on s t ruc t i ona l a dd i t ion s .T he re d oe s n o ts e em t ob ea ny g enera l t r end i n t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e d i s t inc t s t ruc tu ra l f ea t u re s ,s uch a s t ype o fa cce ss ,n i che s , t r enche s , b enche s , p l an ,e t ce te ra ,a s soc ia t ei nt h ec ave s ,i nt h es ame w ay a s t h e re d o es n o ts eem t ob ea ny c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e se s t ruc tu ra l f ea tu re s a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage t h a t h a s b een f ound i n t h e c ave s ( D iaz -And reu e ta l . ,

u pr igh t s and s tone s l ab s t h a t h ave b een d r iven i n to a t r ench e xcava ted i n t h e b ed r ock . T he a cce ss t o t h e c hamb e ri st h rough an ow f r agmen ted p e r fo ra ted s and s t one s l ab t h a tl i nk s t h ec o r r ido rw i th t h ec hambe r . T he c o r r ido ri nf r on to ft h ec hambe r mea sures 1 . 8 * 1 . 35 i n . I ti sf o rmed b y t h ree s and s tone f l ag s p l aced d i rec t ly o ve r t h e b ed r ock , o f wh ich t h e f r on ta l o ne c ou ld b e moved .F ive i nd iv idua ls w e re b u r ied i nt h ec hambe r . I ti s au n ique monumen ti nt h ei s land o f Ma l lo rca ,b u t c an b e r e la ted t o as im i la r t omb i nF o rmen te ra , C aN a C o s ta ( Topp e ta u . ,1 976 ,1979 ) ,a nd t of ou ri n Meno r -

1 991) .

c a , A lca idu s ( F laque r , 1 952 ) , Mon tp lé ( F laque r , 1 952 ) , B in ida l ine t ( P lan ta lamo r , 1 977 ) , a nd Roque s L l ise s

2 . 1 .3 ROCK -SHELTER

( Ro sse l lo -Bo rdoy e ta l i i . , 1 980 ) . I ti ss t r ik ing t h a t s o f ew m ega l i th ic t omb s a r e p re sen t i n t h e B a lea r ic I s -

T he r o ck -she l te r o f S on G a l la rd ( F igu re 6 ) i st h e o n ly b u r ia l s i te o f t h is t ype f ound i n Ma l lo rca (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) . I ti ss i tua ted i n as ec t ion o fa na nc ien ts e ac l if fa t a n a l t i tude o f a bou t 1 50 me te r s a bove s ea . T he r ock s he l te r i so r ien ted s ou th -we s t t on or th -ea s t . I ti sa bou t 1 2 .5 i n . l ong a nd h a s a2 0m . h igh o ve rhang ,c r ea t ing a s he l te red a r ea o fa bou t 1 42 m2 . Two p r e -Ta la io t ic b u r i a l s w e re f ound i ns t one ' c i s t l ike ' t omb s . One o ft h ei n h uma t ion s w a s l o ca ted i nt h e i nne r s he l te ra r ea a nd t h e o the r w a s l o ca ted i nt h e p a rape ta r ea , t h e z one j u s to u t s i de t h e w a l ls o f t h e mode rn -day a n ima l s he l te r . T he b u r ia l s a tS on G a l la rd a r e i n d iv idua l , p r ima ry i nhuma t i on s , w h ich h ave b een r ad ioca rbon d a ted a t1 840 ± 8 0 b . c . ( Y -1789 ) . T hey w e re a s soc ia ted w i th E a r ly B eake r p o t te ry . T he p re -Ta la io t ic d epo s i t s h ad b een p a r t ly d i s t u rbed b y t h e s ucceed ing T a la io t ic a nd p o s t -Ta la io t ic

l a nd s , whe rea s t h is t ype o f monumen ti ss oa bundan ti n t h e p e r iphe ra l a r eas o f t h e ma in land , l i ke t h e F rench M id i ( A rna l , 1 963 ; C u ra , 1 974 ) o rC a ta lon ia ( Pe r ico t , 1 950 ; Ma r t in , 1 977 )a nd e ven o the rl a rge med i te r ranean i s land sl i ke C o r s ica ( Lew thwa i te , 1 983 ;C u ra , 1 974 ) o r S a rd in ia ( Gu ido , 1 963 ) . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ASSEMBLAGE D e sp i te t h e l a rge n umbe r o f p re -Ta la io t ic b u r ia l s i te s , t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage i sr a the r s ma l l b ecau se v ery f ew s i te s h ave p roduced a r tefac t s : o n ly 1 7 o u t o f 7 9e vo lved a r t if ic ia l c ave s , 2o u to f2 7 s imp le a r t if ic ia l c ave s , a nd n a tu ra l ly , a l l t h i r ty n a tu ra l c aves , t h e r ock s he l t e r ,a nd t h e mega l i th ic t omb h ave y i e lded a r te fac t s . A s Ih ave a l ready s ugge s ted , t h i s s ma l l n umb e ro fs i te s wh ich h ave y i e lded ma te r ia ls m ay r ef lec t n o t o n ly t h e

3 41

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

S on G a l la rd ( Af ter

Wa ldren ,

1 982)

-

-.

.

S on B au ló d eD a l t A f t e rR o s se l ló B o rdoy , 1 9 66

e f fec t t h a t modem a c t iv i ty h a s h ad o n t h e a r chaeo log i c a l d epo s i t s , e spec ia l ly i na r t if ic ia l c ave s , b u t a l so t h e

c omp le te a r te fac t s w e re r e co rded ,w h i le v e ry f r agmen t e da r te fac t sw e re n o te ven c o l lec ted ,l e ta l one r e co rded .

e f fec t o f p reh is to r ic a c t iv i ty b y r e -u t i l iza t ion o f p re T a la io t ic s i te s d u r ing t h e s ub sequen t p er iod s . A no the r f a c tt h a th a sa f fec ted t h ea r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage h a s b een t h ee xcava t ion s t ra tegy . Mo s to ft h e s i te s w e re e x c ava ted b e fo re t h e 1 950 ' s a nd o n ly t h e p rom inen t a nd

T he a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage o f t h e p re -Ta la io t ic p er iod c on s i s t s o f p o t te ry , b o th p l a in a nd d eco ra ted ,

3 42

b one ,m e ta l ,a nd l i th ic a r t efac t s ; t h e se h ave b een f ound i n a l l t ype s o f s i te s t h roughou t t h e i s land . T he ma in c harac te r i s t ic o ft h ea s semb lage i st h el ong d u ra t ion a nd

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER

t y po log ica lh omogene i ty o ft h ea r te fac t s t h roughou tt h e

T ina ja s ' ( t ina ) h ave as l igh t ly c u rved c on tou r a nd a r e

p e r iod , o r e ven i n to t h e T a la io t ic p e r iod a si nt h e c a se o fb one a r te fac t s ( Can ta re l la s , 1 974 ) . T h is s t ab i l i ty a nd s t rong h omogene i ty c ou ld i mp ly t h e e x is tence o fc l o se

t h el e a s tf r equen tf o rm s .T he d eco ra t ed v e s se l s h ave t h e s ame b a s ic f o rms a st h ep l a in o n e s . T he p o t tery i sd eco -

i n te r -se t t lemen t e xchange a nd i n te rac t ion t h roughou t t h ep re -Ta la io t ic p e r iod i n Ma l lo rca (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) . P o t te ry i st h e mo s t c ommon a r tefac t i n t h e a s sem b l age d ue t o ab e t te rp re se rva t ion o ft h em a te r ia l i nt h e d epo s i t a nd i ti sf ound i na l l t ype s o fs i te s a l l o ve rt h e i s land ( Tab le 1 ) . P re -Ta la io t ic p o t t e ry i sc ha rac te r ized b y i t s g rea t h omogene i ty , b o th i n f o rm s a nd f abr ics , t h roughou tt h ep e r iod . A pa r tf r om m ino rd i f fe rence s i n t h en a tu ra l c l ay f a b r ic c ompo s i t ion , s i ze o rt h ickne s s o f t h ev e s se ls ,o ra dd i t iona l e l emen t s s uch a sl ug s ,h and le s a nd d eco ra t ion , t h e re a r e n o a l te ra t ion s i nt h e g enera l

r a ted w i th i nc ised g eome t r ic d es ign s s im i la r t o t h e B eake r c u l tu re d e s ign s , e xecu ted m a in ly o n t h e u pp e r p a r to ft h ev e s se l ,a l though s ome h ave b een t o ta l ly d ec o ra ted . T he p a t te rn s a r e a r r anged a r e u sua l ly a r ranged i nb and so rz one s a r ound t h e v e s se l . T he mo s tc ommon f o rm s o fd eco ra ted w a re a r e b ow ls a nd g lobu la r , af ew t r oncocomc p o t s a nd , r a re ly , c a r ina ted v e sse ls . T he re a r e t wo t ypes o f d eco ra ted p o t te ry , a cco rd ing t o t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e c e ram ic f ab r ic a nd t h e s k i l l w i th w h ich t h ep a t te rn sa r ee xecu ted ,t h a ta l so h ave ac h rono log ica l s i gn if icance : t h e e a r ly t ype , E a r ly B eaker ( ebw ) , i s c ha rac te r ized b y r e la t ive ly c omp lex i n c ised mo t if s ,

s hape s . T he s t anda rd q ua l i ty o f p re -Ta la io t ic w are s c an b e

f i ne ly e xecu ted o n t h in -wa l led b u rn ished v e s se l s w i th f i ne , c ompac tf ab r ic ; o n t h e o the r h and , t h e l a te t ype ' s

c on s ide red h igh ,a si ti s ah a rd , s moo th , w e l l f i red p o t t e ry . T he p o t te ry f ab r ic v a r ie s f r om r ough ly t of i ne ly t e x tur ed w a re s ,d epend ing o nt h et h ickne s so ft h ew a l l s . T h in w a re s a r eg ene ra l ly b urn ished ,o cca s iona l ly w i th a s l ip , a nd a r e t h e refo re s moo the r t h an t h ick w a re s . T he i n c lu s ion sa r eu sua l ly n a tu ra l .T he f ab r ic sa r ev e ry c om -

i n c ised mo t if s , L a te B eake r ( l bw ) , a r e s imp le a nd c oa r se ly e xecu ted , t h e w a l l s o f t h e v e sse l a r e t h icke r , t h e t e x tu re i sr oughe r , a nd t h e f ab r ic i si r regu la r a nd p o rou s .T her ei sa no the rt ype o fd eco ra ted p o t te ry ( imp )

p ac t , w h ich i n t u rn p roduce s as omewha th eav ie rp o t t e ry i fc ompa red w i th t h a t o fl a te r p e r iod s . T he c o lou r o ft h e p o t tery r ange s f r om y e l low o ch re s s uch a s Mun s e l l c o lour s ca le , 1 OYR ,8 /8 t o6 /8 a nd 7 . 5YR ,7 / 8 t o4 / 4t h rough b rown s s uch a s S YR 4 /6 t ob l ack ish b rown s s uch a s 5 YR , 2 . 5 /1 o r 5 / 1 , t hough e a r thy c o lou r s a re p redom inan t (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) . I n g ene ra l , p re -Ta la io t ic p o t tery f o rm s a r e v ery s im p l e . T hey c on s i s to fr ound o r s t ra igh tp ro f i le s t h a t may b e a l te red b y s imp le l i p s , l ug s , o r h and le s . Bow ls ( bow l )a nd g lobu la rv e s se ls ( g lob )h ave ar ound p ro f i le . T hey a r e t h e mo s tc ommon f o rm s ,b o th i nt e rm s o ft h e n umb e r o f p o t s f ound a nd t h e n umbe r o f s i te s whe re t h ey a r e f ound . G lobu la r v e sse ls may h ave l ug s , v e r t i c a l ly o fh o r izon ta l ly p e r fo ra ted h and le s ,o rh o rn shaped l u g s , s ome t ime s v e r t ica l ly p e r fo ra ted ,a r ound t h es hou l d e ro ft h ep o tj u s tb e low t h er im .T he se p e r fo ra ted h an d l e sa nd l ug s may h ave b een u sed f o rs u spen s ion o rl i f t i ng ,a l though t h e f a c t t h a ts ome v e sse l s h ave s e ve r a l o f t h em may s ugge s t ad ecora t ive p u rpo se r a the r t h an a f unc t iona l o ne . T roncocomc v e s se ls ( t ron ) h ave as im p l e , u n re s t r ic ted s hape , a lways w i th af l a t b a se . T hey may h ave t wo f l a t l ug s , s eve ra l s ma l l l ug s , o r al a rge c y l ind r ica lh and le a t tached t ot h er im .C a r ina ted v e s se ls ( c a n) a r es omehow mo re c omp l ica ted ,a st h ey a r ec om p o s i te f o rm s ,t h a ti s ,t h ey c on s is to ft wo p a r t sw h ich c an f o rm ac omb ina t ion o f c onvex a nd c oncave c u rve s , o r c urved a nd s t ra igh t l i ne s . T hey h ave al a rge r d i ve r s i ty o ft ype s w i th in t h e b a s ic f o rm . ' Ho rgen 'p o t s ( bo rg )a nd

wh ich c on s is t s o f s imp le i mp re ssed f i nge r ma rk s a nd c o rd i mp re s s ion so nt h er im o fc oa r se ,l a rge v e s se l s . B one a r te fac t sa r ec ha rac te r ized b yt h e i rl ong d u ra t ion a nd t ypo log ica l h omogene i ty t h roughou t t he p re T a la io t ic p e r iod . B one a r te fac t s o f p re -Ta la io t ic t yp e p e r s is ted w e l l i n to t h ei n i t ia lT a la io t ic p e r iod ,a l though t h e i r f r equency p rog re s s ive ly d ec rea sed u n t i l t h e i r d i s a ppea rance f r om t h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a tt h e b eg in n ing o ft h eI r on A ge ,c i rca 8 00 b . c . ,( Can ta re l la s , 1 974 ) . B one a r tefac t s a r e a l so f ound i n a l l t ype s o f s i te s t h roughou t t h e i s land ( Tab le 2 ) . D e sp i te t h e r e la t ive ly l a rge n umbe r o f a r tefac t s t h a t f o rm t h e b one i ndu s t ry a s semb lage o ft h e p re -Ta la io t ic p e r iod , t h e n umbe r o f s i te s whe re t h e se i t em s h ave b een f ound i ss ma l l c om p a red w i th t h a to fs i te st h a th ave p roduced o the ra r chae o log ica l ma te r ia l . T h i s i sd ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tj u s t af ew s i tes h ave y i e lded al a rge n umbe ro fb one a r te fac t s ,p a r t i cu la r ly p e r fo ra ted b u t ton s , wh i le t h e o t he r s h ave o n ly p roduced as ma l ln umbe ro ff i nd s . T he a r te fac t sh ave b een m anufac tu red o ng oa t , s heep , a nd p ig b one s ,e xcep tf o rs ome a r tefac t s t h a th ave b een made o n b oa r t u sk s . T he r ange o ft ype s i n c lude s : b u t t on s , ' V ' p e r fo ra ted ( vpb ) , s i ng le p e r fo ra ted ( s pb ) , a nd d oub le p e r fo ra ted ( d pb ) ;o rnamen ta l a r te fac t sl i ke b ead s ( b ead ) , a nd t u sk s ( t u sk ) ; n on -o rn amen ta l a r te fac t s s uch a sa w l s ( aw l ) ,s pa tu l ( s pa t ) , a nd h a f t s ( h al t ) ; a nd s pe c i a l f i nds ( s pc ) w h ich a r e u n ique o b jec t s t h a t d o n o t h ave a ny p a ra l le lo nt h ei s land . T he me ta l i ndu s t ry c omp r ises a l im i ted v ar ie ty o f a r te fac t s , wh ich a r e ma in ly r e s t r ic ted t oa w ls ( aw l ) a nd t r iangu la r l au re l l e af d agge r s ( dag ) , a l though o the r

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v e r , t h e d epo s i t s a r e o f ten f ound d i s tu rbed a s m any o f t h e s i te s h ave b een l oo ted , h ave b een u sed a s a n ima l s he l te r s d u r ing mode rn t ime s , t hu s b e ing p er iod ica l ly c l eaned -up ,o rh ave a l so b een u sed d ur ing T a la io t ic a nd p o s t -Ta la io t ic t ime s a s b u r ia l g rounds , t h e refo re d i s t u rb ing o re ven d e s t roy ing ,i nt h ec a se o fp o s t -Ta la io t ic q u ick l ime b u r ia ls , t h e i nhuma t ion s f r om t h e p reced ing p e r iod . T he d i spo s i t ion o ft h e s ke le ton s i sv ery i r regu -

i t em s , s uch a sa r rowhead s ( a r r ) ,a nd s pec ia l f i nd s ( s pc ) , i nc lud ing e v idence f o r me ta l p roduc t ion , a re a l so p resen t . T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s hows a p redom i n ance o fw ha tc ou ld b ec l a ss if ied a s' t oo ls ' ,w h i le ' weap o n s ' a nd ' o rnamen t s ' o ccu ri nv e ry s ma l l n umbe r s . Me t a l o b jec t s a r e ma in ly f ound i n f unera ry s i te s w h i le e v idence f o r me ta l p roduc t ion i sf ound i nd ome s t ic c on t e x t s t h roughou t t h e i s land ( Tab le 3 ) . T he a r tefac t s a r e o ft r ue t i n -b ronze ( Veny , 1 968 ; Wa ld ren , 1 979 ) ,d e sp i te t h e a b sence o ft i n o r es o n t h e i s land , c on sequen t ly t h e me ta l h ad t ob e i mpo r ted f r om t h e ma in land e i the r a s manufac tu red g ood s o ra sr aw ma te r ia l . S eve ra l c oppe r s ou rce sa r ek nown o nt h ei s land ,p r ima r i ly i nt h en o r th er nr ange s . A t l e a s to ne o ft h em i sr epo r ted t oh ave a r s en ica l c oppe ra s soc ia t ion s , b u tt h e re i sn oe v idence f o r m in ing o ft h em d u r ing t h ep e r iod ( Ho f fman , 1 991 ) . I ti s p o ss ib le t h a tb o th l o ca l a nd i mpo r ted s ou rce s may h ave b een e xp lo i ted f o rp roduc t ion o f me ta l a r te fac t s ( Ho f f man , 1 992 ) . T he l i th ic i n du s t ry i st h el e a s ts t u died e l emen to ft h ea r -

l a r , p robab ly d ue t ot h e f r equen tr e -u t i l iza t ion a nd d i s t u rbance o f t h e c ave s , b u t a l so b ecau se t h e re d oe s n o t s eem t ob e ag ene ra l ized p a t te rn i nt h ef une rary p rac t ic e s : m any o ft h e b u r ia ls p re sen t ad i f f e ren t p o s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eb od ie s a nd g rave g ood s , wh i le m any o ft hem n eve rd id h ave ap rec ise ly d e te rm ined d i spo s i t i on a nd t h eb od ie sw e re j u s tl e f ti nt h ec ave . T h is i st h e c ase o f S on B au ló d e Da l t ( Ro sse l ló a nd Ma sca ró , 1 962 ;R o s se l ló -Bo rdoy , 1 966 )w he re t h eb one s w e re s o f r agmen ted a nd d i s tu rbed t h a to ne c ou ld o n ly d educe n o mo re t h an t h ef a c tt h a ti tw a s ac o l lec t ive b u r ia l . A lso a t S on S unye r 5( Ro sselo -Bo rdoy , 1 962 ) , t h ed epo s i tw a s

c haeo log ica l r eco rd a s t h e f i nd s a r e s c a t te red t h rough o u tt h ei s land a nd ma in ly o u to fc on tex t . T he re fo re ,t h e s t udy o f t h e l i th ic i ndu s t ry , p a r t icu la r ly f l in t , r e l ie s h eav i ly o n t h e a s semb lage f r om S on F e r rande l l -O leza

s od i s tu rb ed t h a to n ly t wo f r agmen t so f ac r an ium a nd a l owe rj aw w e re f ound i n l e ve l V I I , a l ong w i th many t e e th a nd f r agmen t s o f b one s t h a t w ere r ecovered t h rough s i ev ing .

(Wa ld ren , 1 984 ; 1 987 ; Wa ld ren e ta l i i , 1 984 ; 1 990 ) a s i ti st h e o n ly s i te w i th ag ood a s semb lage t ha t c an b e p l aced i n ar ad ioca rbon d a ted c on tex t .T he l i th ic a s sem b l age c an b e d i v ided i n to f l in t a nd n on -f l in t a r tef ac t s . T he f l in t i ndu s t ry f i nd s c on s is t s o f b i fac ia l ly wo rked s e r ra ted b l ade s ( b la ) a nd s i ck le s ( s ck ) , s c rape r s ( s c r ) , b ur in s ( bu r ) ,f l ake s ( f la ) ,a nd s pec ia lf i nd s ( s pc ) s uch a s

T he c ommon f e a tu re o fp re -Ta la io t ic b u r ia l s i st h a ta l l o f t h em a r e i n huma t ion s , a s o ppo sed t oc r ema t ion a nd q u ick l ime b u r ia ls i n t h e s ucceed ing p e r iods . Ano the r w ide sp read f une ra ry p rac t ice i sc o l lec t ive s econda ry b u r i a l , whe re o n ly l ong b one so fs eve ra l i nd iv idua ls w e re f ound i n t h e c ave a nd s ma l l b one s , t h a t i s , v er teb ra :, p ha lange se t c . ,w e re e i the rm is s ing o re l se h ad b e en d e -

m ic ro l i th s o ra r rowhead s , mo s t ly o ft a bu la rf l in t . L oca l s ou rce s o ff l in t a r e k nown i nt h e S e r ra d e T ramun tana (Ma sca ró , 1 968 ) , t h eP ta (Ma sca ró , 1 968 ; Mo re l l e ta t . ,

p o s i ted i nf une r ary v e s se ls .T h i sp rac t ice s hows t h a tt h e c o rp se s h ad b een l e f t t od ecay n a tu ra l ly a nd w e re l a te r d epo s i ted i nt h ec ave .

1 987 ) , a nd t h e M ig jorn ( Pon s e ta t . , 1 984 ) . T he n on f l in t s t one a r te fac t s c on s is t o f g r ind ing s t one s ( g r i ) , a r che r 's w r i s tgua rd s ( a rc ) ,a nd af ew s pec ia l f i nd s ( s pc ) , ma in ly o fs and s tone a nd s l a te . L i th ic a r tef ac t s a r ef ound

T he o lde s t h uman r ema in s i n t h e i s land a re o ne f r ag men to f ah uman j aw ,e i gh t mo la r s ,f i ve p ha lange s ,o ne me ta tar sa l , a nd o ne f r agmen t o f af emu r , wh ich w e re

i nf une ra ry a nd n on -fune ra ry c on tex t st h roughou tt h ei s l a nd , t hough t h e re i s ah ighe r f r equency o f d ome s t ic s i te s t h a th ave y i e lded l i th ic f i nd s ( Tab le 4 ) .

f ound a tt h e C ova d e Mu le ta ( Wa ld ren a nd Ro s se l ló B o rdoy , 1 975 ) .T he b one sw e re a s soc ia ted w i th r ema in s o ft h ee ndem ic Myo t ragu s b a lea r icu s ,f ou rf l in tf l ake s , s eve ra l b ou lde r s a nd s i x b one n eed le s a nd w e re r ad io c a rbon d a ted a t3 985 ± 1 09 b . c . ( KNB -640 -d ) . T he s i te

FUNERARY R ITUAL

c anno tb ec on s ide red a s af o rma lb u r ia l s i te a sn of une r a ry c on tex tw a s f ound a nd t h en a tu re o ft h eo ccu r rence

D e sp i te t h e l a rge n umbe r o f b u r ia l s i te s t h a t e x is t s i n

s ugge s t s t h a ti tmu s tr ep re sen ta na cc iden ta l d ea th r a th e rt h an a ni n ten t iona lb u r ia l .

Ma l lo rca , t h ec u r ren tk now ledge o fp re -Ta la io t ic f une r a ry p rac t ice s i sv ery r e s t r ic ted b ecau se v e ry f ew s i te s h ave p roduced d e ta i l s o f t h e f une ra ry r i tua l . On ly s i x t e en o u t o f t h e o ne h und red a nd t h ir ty e i gh t r eco rded b u r ia l s i te s h ad s u rv iv ing h uman r ema in s i n t h em : o f t h e se , s even w e re a r t if ic ia l c ave s , s even n a tu ra l c ave s , o ne ar ock -she l te r , a nd o ne amega l i th ic t omb . Mo reo -

T he e a r l ie s t e v idence o ff une ra ry r i tua l i st wo c ha lco l i th ic i nhuma t ion s i n s t one ' c i s t l ike ' t omb s a s soc ia ted w i th E ar ly B eake rp o t tery t h a t w e re f ound a tt h e r ock s he l te r o f S on Ga l lard (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) . Un l ike o t he r k nown p r e -Ta la io t ic b ur ia ls , t h e i nhuma t ion s a t S on G a l la rd a r e i nd iv idua l , p r imary i nhuma t ions i n s tead o f

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J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER

s e conda ry , c o l lec t ive b u r ia l s . O ne o ft h e g rave sw a sl o c a ted i nt h ei nne rs he l te ra r ea a nd c on s is ted o ft h es ku l l o f am a le , a ged a pp rox ima te ly 3 5 , r e s t ing o n i t s r i gh t s i de ,f a c ing s ou th . T he c r an ium a nd l owe rj aw w e re i n t a c ta l ong w i th p a r to ft h ec e rv ica l v e r teb r, p a r to ft h e t r unk a nd a rm s . T he r e s to ft h eb ody a nd t h er ema inde r o ft h er ough s t one ' c i s t l ike 't omb h ad b een d e s t royed i n t h e d i gg ing o f t h e T a la io t ic g raves a nd t h e p o s t T a la io t ic q u ick l ime b u r ia ls . T he s econd b u r ia l w a s l o c a ted i n t h e p a rape t a r ea , d i rec t ly u ndernea th t h e T a l a io t ic c eme te ry , a tt h e s ame l e ve l a nd d ep th a sb u r ia l # 1 . I tc on s is ted o f av e ry d i s tu rbed g rave t h a tc on ta ined ab ad ly b roken s ku l la nd c er v ica l v e r teb r, o dd r i b sa nd p a r t o ft h ea rm s . E nough s t one s l ab s w e re f ound i nt h e i mmed ia te a r ea o ft h e b one s t oi nd ica te t h a t t h is b u r ia l , l i ke t h e o ne i n g rave # 1 , h ad b een p l aced i n ar ough s t one l i ned t omb . Al a ye r o f c ha rcoa l f r om t h is l e ve l a l ong w i th E a r ly B eake r p o t te ry s he rd s a nd p l a in w a re w a sr a d ioca rbon d a ted a t1 840 ± 8 0b . c . ( Y -1 789 ) . T he mo s tg ene ra l ized f une ra ry p rac t ice i nb o th n a tu -

b l er ad ia ld i spo s i t ion o ft h eb od ie s . S ome b u r ia ls h ave t h e s ku l ls d epo s i ted s epa ra te ly f r om l ong b one s , a s e v idenced a tS on Mar ro ig ( Wa l d ren , 1 982 ) whe re t h e s ku l l s o fe i gh t i nd iv idua ls w e re p laced i n t h e w e s te rn s i de o f t h e b ur ia l a nd t h e l ong b one s w e re s t acked i nt h ec en t re o ft h e c hambe r . On ly l ong b ones w ere f ound i n t h e c ave a nd s ma l l b one s ( ve r teb ra ,p ha lange se t c .) w e re a b sen t .T he g r ave g ood s c on s is ted o f h em ispher ica l b ow ls , g lobu la r p o t s w i th v er t ica l ly p er fo ra ted l ug s a nd a f r agmen t o f aL a te B eake rt r oncocon ic v a se w i thou ta ny p a r t icu la rd i s t r ibu t i on .T he b u r ia l w a sr ad ioca rbon d a ted a t1 520 ± 8 0b . c . ( Y -1824 ) . A s im i la r a r rangemen t o f t h e b od ie s w a s f ound a t S on P u ig (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) whe re t h e s ku l l s w e re p l aced n ea rt h e f i ve p ocke t l ike n i che s ; s ome t h e l ong b one s w e re d i rec ted t owa rd s t h ec en t re o ft h ec ave whe re t h er e s to fb one s o fa bou tt h i r ty i nd iv idua ls w e re a ma ssed .T h i sa r rangemen to ft h eb ones c ou ld s ugge s ta p o ss ib le r ad ia l d i spo s i t ion o f t h e b od ie s , a l though t h e s epa ra t ion o f b one s f r om s ku l ls i s c l ea r . T he g rave g ood s w e re d epo s i ted n ea r o r i n s ide t h e n i che s ( Wa lt hen ,p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) a nd c on s is ted o fb ow l s , g lobu la r , a nd c a r ina ted p o t s , t wo b ronze a w l s a nd o ne

r a l a nd a r t if ic ia l c ave s i sc o l lec t ive , s econda ry b u r ia l . T h i s r i tua l s i gn i f ie s as ub s tan t ia lc hange f r om t h ee a r l i e rf une ra ry p rac t ices e v idenced a tS on Ga l la rd . I ti m p l ie s amo re c omp lex r i tua l b ye xpo s ing t h ed ead t ot h e

b ronze d agge r ,a nd t wo a r che r ' sw r i s tgua rd s . T he r ad ia l d i spo s i t ion o fb od ie s i sc l ea r ly s hown a t

e l emen t s f o r ap e r iod o ft ime f o rd ecama t ion ,t h es e lec t i on o ft h eb one s t ob eb u r ied a nd t h e i rs ub sequen td ep -

S on S unye r 7( Ro sse l lo -Bo rdoy , 1 962a ) , whe re e i gh t s ku l l s w e re d epo s i ted n ea r t h e w a l ls o f t h e c ave w i th t h ef emu r s d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e c en t re o ft h e c hambe r . T he f une ra ry ofe r ing s c on s i s ted o fo ne f r agmen t o fa g lobu la rv e sse l d eco ra ted w i th L a te B eake r mo t if s , t wo b ow l s a nd t wo g lobu la r p o t s , a nd o ne f l in t a r rowhead . A t S aT anca ( Veny , 1 968 ) a l so , t h ei nhuma t ion s h ad a

o s i t ion i nt h e c ave w i th t h e g r ave o f fe r ing s (Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) . T he p o s i t ion o f t h e b od ie s i se i the r f l exed , e x t e nded , w i thou t a ny i n ten t iona l p o s i t ion , o r e l se t h e b one s h ave b een s e lec ted a nd s epa ra ted , e ven t hough mo s to ft h eb u r ia l s a r ef ound v e ry d i s tu rbed .N eve r the l e s s ,t h ea r rangemen to ft h eb od ie si nt h eg rave d oe sn o t s e em t of o l low a ny p reva len tp a t te rn a st h eb od ie s may b e p l aced r andom ly , s e lec t ive ly , r ad ia l ly o r p a ra l le l t o e ach o the r . S ome g rave s d on o th ave a ny d e l ibe ra te a r r a ngemen to ft h e b od ie sa nd t h eb ones h ad b een l e f to n t h ec ave ' s f l oo rw i thou ta ny o rde r ,a sf o re xamp le a tC a

r ad ia l d i spo s i t ion w i th t h e b od ie s i n af l exed p o s i t ion a nd t h e h eads d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e a p se . T he f une ra ry o f fe r ing s w e re l o ca ted n ea r t h e h ead s , f o rm ing a n a r c a round t h e a p se . I tc on s i s ted o f b ow ls , g lobu la r , a nd t r oncocon ic p o t s . T he s ma l l b ow ls w e re c ove red b y

S ' I le reu ( Veny , 1 968 ) , w he re t h e b one s a nd a r te fac t s ,

g lobu la rv e s se ls .

i n c lud ing b ow ls , g lobu la r , c a r ina ted , a nd ' Ho rgen ' v e s s e l s , a nd f ou r b ronze a w ls , w e re s c a t te red t h roughou t

P a ra l le l p lac ing o fb od ie s i se v idenced a tE s C abà s , S on J aume l l ,a nd C aN a V id r ie ra , where t h ey w e re d e p o s i ted p a ra l le l t oe ach o the rw i th r ough ly t h es ame o r -

t h ec ave ,e ven t hough t h e c ave s t ruc tu re h ad b een s i g n if ican t ly a nd c a re fu l ly mod if ied b ys t one s l ab sa nd p i l -

i e n ta t ion i nt h e s ame l e ve l . A tE s C abà s ( Veny , 1 968 ) , t h e r ema in s o f a bou t t h ir ty i nd iv idua ls w e re f ound i n p ara l le l r ows , s u r rounded b y c e ram ic v e sse ls w h ich

l a r s . A t S a Ma ta ( Veny , 1 968 ) , l ong b one s a nd t h e f u n e ra ry a s semb lage , wh ich c on s i s ted o fb ow l s ,g lobu la r ,

c on s i s ted o fb ow ls ,c a r ina ted ,g lobu lar ,a nd t r oncocon ic f o rm s . One b ronze d agge r w a s a l so f ound i nt h e c ave . T he c hambe r w a s s ea led b y as t one s l ab . A t S on J au me l ! ( Veny , 1 968 ) t he a cces s t o t he c ave w a s a l so s ea led b y as t one s l ab , a nd b eh ind i tt h e re w a s al a rge

t r oncocon ic a nd c ar ina ted v e s se ls , o ne ' V ' p e r fo ra ted b u t ton ,o ne b oa rt u sk ,o ne b one h a f t ,s i x me ta la w l sa nd t wo d agge r s , t wo l e ad d i sc s , a nd t wo a r che r 's w r is t g ua rd s , w e re s p read t h roughou t t h e c ave w i thou t a ny p a r t icu la ro rde ra nd s ome o ft h em h ad o n ly b een l a id o n

c e ram ic v e s se l . T he b od ie s w e re a r ranged i np a ra l le li n t h e c en t re o ft h e c ave i na ne x tended p o s i t ion w i th t h e s ku l ls p ro tec ted b y o ne a sh la r s l ab . Many h uman r e -

t h e f l oo r w i thou t h av ing e ven b een b u r ied . N eve r the l e ss , t h e p o s i t ion o ff i ve c ru shed s ku l ls g rouped t o ge th e rn ea r t h e e n t rance o ft h e c ave m igh t s ugge s t ap o ss i -

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

ma in s w e re f ound p i led u p i n t h e l a rge n i che n ea r t h e e n t rance . T hey w e re mo re n ume rou s t h an t h o se i n t h e c hambe ra nd n one w e re a r t icu la ted , w h ich s ugge s t st h a t t h en i che w a su sed a sa no s suary .T he g rave g ood sw e re n o ti na ny p a r t icu la ro rde ra nd c on s i s ted o fb ow ls ,g lob u l a r , c a r ina ted ,a nd t r oncocon ic v e sse ls , ' V 'a nd d oub le p e rfo ra ted b u t ton s ,b ronze d agge r s , a nd o ne a r rowhead . A t C a N a V id r ie ra ( L lab re s , 1 978 ) , t h e r ema in s o ften b od ie s w e re w e re f ound i nf l exed p o s i t ion s , s epa ra ted f r om e ach o the r b y e a r th a nd s t one s . T he g r ave g ood s w e re g ene ra l ly f ound m ixed w i th t h e b od ie s , a l though n ear t h eh eads o fs ome o ft h eb od ie so ne o rt wo v e sse l s h ad b een p l aced . One l a rge b ow l t h a tc on ta ined as ku l l w a s f ound c ove red b y as ma l le rb ow l i no ne c or ne ro f t h e c ave . S eve ra l b ow l s c on ta in ing me ta ta r sa l b one s o f t h ed ead w e re a l so f ound i nt h ec ave .T he o f f e r ing sc on s i s ted o f b ow l s , g lobu lar , t r oncocon ic , a nd c ar ina ted v e sse l s ,s eve ra l ' V 'p e r fo ra ted b u t ton s ,o ne f l in ts c rape r , s eve ra l f l in t f l ake s , o ne a r che r 's w r is tgua rd , a nd o ne s and s tone f l a tc i rcu la rp l aque . Ano the rf o rm o fp a ra l le l l a y -ou to ft h eb od ies i ss e en a t V em issa a nd S on Mu le t , whe re t h e s ke le ton s h ad b een d epo s i ted i n s upe r impo sed l a ye r s o fb od ie s w i th t h e s ame p ara l le l a r rangemen ta nd o r ien ta t ion . A tV e r n i ssa ( Veny , 1 968 )t h ef l oo ro ft h ec ave w a sp aved w i th

f ew s i te s h ave p roduced c l ea re v idence . O ft h e s i x teen s i te s t ha t h ave y ie lded h uman r ema in s , v e ry f ew h ave u nde rgone c on t ro l led a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion a nd e ven t ho se h ave p roduced v e ry d i s tu rbed d epo s i t s ,m ak i ng a n a ccu ra te a pp ra isa l o f t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e b od ie s v e ry d i f f icu l t . T h is i st h e c a se o f S on B au ló d e D a l t ( 149 ) whe re t h e b one s w ere s o f r agmen ted a nd d i s t u rbed t h a to ne c ou ld d educe n o mo re t h an t h e f a c t t h a t i tw a s ac o l lec t ive b u r ia l . A lso a tS on S unye r 5( 189 ) , t h ed epo s i tw a s s od i s tu rbed t h a to n ly t wo f r agmen t s o f ac r an ium a nd a l owe rj aw w e re f ound i n l e ve l V I I , a l ong w i th m any t e e th a nd f r agmen t so fb one s t h a tw e re r e cove red t h rough s i ev ing . N eve r the le s s ,f r om t h ea na ly s is o ft h ee v idence a va i l a b le t he re s e ems t ob e ad i s t inc tb u r ia l r i tua l a s soc ia ted w i th E a r ly B eake rp o t t e ry ,a nd ad i f fe ren to ne a s soc ia t e d w i th L a te B eake rp o t te ry . T he e a r ly f une rary p rac t i ce i sc ha rac te r ized b yp r ima ry ,i nd iv idua li n huma t ion s i n c i s t l ike g raves , a nd i s r ep re sen ted b y t h e r ock s he l te ro fS on G a l lard . B yc on t ra s t ,t h es ub sequen tb u r i a lr i tua l a s soc ia ted w i th L a te B eake rp o t te ry e v idence s as ub s tan t ia lc hange i nt h ef une ra ry p rac t ice s ( Wa ld ren , 1 982 ) : t h eu sua lf une ra ry r i tua li nvo lve ss e conda ry ,c o l l e c t ive b u r ia l i n n a tu ra l a nd a r t if ic ia l c ave s . T h is d e n o te s ah ighe r c omp lex i ty i n t h e b u r ia l p rac t ice , a s i t i mp l ie s t h ree s t age s i nt h ep roce s s : f i r s t ly , t h ed ead h ad t ob e e xpo sed t o t h e e l emen t s t od ecay n a tu ra l ly ; s ec o nd ly , t h e b one s h ad t ob e s e lec ted ; a nd t h ird ly , t h ey h ad t ob e d epo s i ted i n t h e c ave w i th t h e g r ave g ood s . Wi th in t h is g ene ra l t ype o fr i tua l , h oweve r , t h e re i sa s w e h ave s e en ag rea t d i ve r s i ty i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f t h e

l a rge f l ag s tone s . T he b od ie s w e re d i spo sed i nt h ree s u p e r impo sed l a ye r s ,s epa ra ted b y s t one s l ab sb enea th t h e p aved f l oo r . T he b od ie s i ne ach l a ye rw e re p l aced i na n e x tended p o s it ion a nd w e re d i s t r ibu ted i np a ra l le lr ows , w i th t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion . One c e ram ic v e sse l w a s p l aced b e tween t h es ku l ls .T he g rave g ood sc on s is ted o f b ow ls , g lobu la r , t r on cocon ic , a nd c a r ina ted v e s se l s , a s w e l la so ne ' I lo rgen 'p o ta nd o ne i nc i sed d eco ra ted f r ag m en to f aL a te B eake rt r oncocon ic p o t ;t wo b ronze d ag g e r s ,o ne o f wh ich w a sf ound i nt h et h ird l a ye r ,a nd o ne a r rowhead ; a nd t wo f l in t f l ake s . A t S on Mu lc t ( Veny ,

b od ie s a nd g r ave g ood s .

1 968 ) ,t h eb u r ia l si nt h e ma in c hambe rc on s i s ted o fs ev e n c omp le te s ku l l s a nd many f r agmen ted o ne s , a l ong w i th t h e r e s t o ft h e l ong b one s t h a th ad b een p laced i n a n e x tended p o s i t ion w i th t h e s ku l l s r e s t ing o n t h el e g s o f o the r d ead , f o rm ing t h ree s upe r impo sed p a ra l le l r ows . T he f une rary v e sse ls w e re d i s t r ibu ted n ea r t h e b od ie s . Howeve r ,i nt h en i che n ear t h ee n t rance ,f i ve i n d i v idua ls , i n af l exed p o s tu re , w e re b ur ied i n ar ad ia l p o s i t ion w i th t h e h ead s a t t h e c en t re a nd t h e l e g s t o w a rd s t h e w a l l s . T he f une ra ry a s semb lage w a s f o rmed b yb ow l sa nd g lobu la rv e sse ls ,o ne ' Ho rgen 'p o t ,o ne ' V ' a nd o ne d oub le p e r fo ra ted b one b u t ton , t wo t u sk s , t h ir t e en b ronze a w ls , o ne b ronze d agge r , a nd o ne b ronze a r rowhead . A s t h e a bove a ccoun t s hows , o u r k now ledge o fp re T a la io t ic f une ra ry p rac t ice s i ss t i l l r e s t r ic ted , a s v e ry

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B IBL IOGRAPHY

ARNAL ,J . , 1 963 .L e s Do lmen sd uD epa r temen td cV f lé rau l t . P réh i s to i re XV . CANTARELLAS ,C . ,1 972a . C e rám ica I n c i sa e n Ma l lo rca .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca :C a ja d eA horro s yMon te d e P iedad d el a sB a leare s . CANTARELLAS ,C . , 1 974 . ' L aI ndu s t r ia d e l1 l ue so e n Ma l lo rca d u ran te l aE dad d e lB ronce ' . I nP reh i s to r ia y A rqueo log fa d cl a sI s la sB a lea re s . V I S ympo s ium d eP reh i s to r ia P en insu la r . B a rce lona . pp. 7 3 -88 . CA 11GUERAL ,J . , 1 951 . ' L o sP r ime ro sH ab i tan te sd e Ma l lo rca .L aC ueva d eS aC anova d cA r iany ' . I b é r ica 1 3 :348 -355 . CA IIGUERAL ,J . , 1 952 . ' Má s s ob re S aC anova d c M any ' . I bé r ica 1 5 :385 -389 . CURA ,M . , 1 974 . ' R e lac ione se n tre e i Mundo Mega l i h ico C o r so e lC I rcu lo F un e ra r io d c " Son B au ló d c D al i " ( Ma l lo rca ) ' .I nP reh i s to r ia yA rquco log fa d cl a sI s la sB a lea re s . V IS ympos ium d eP reh i s tor ia P en in s u lar . B a rce lona . pp. 5 3 -62 . D IAZ -ANDREU ,M . AND M .F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA , 1 991 . ' Cueva sS epu ic ra le sP re ta layo t ica sd c Ma l l o rca . Un E n sayo d cA ná l i s is ' .I nT he l I nd D e ja I n te rna t iona lC on f e rence o fP reh is to ry . E d i ted b yW . Wa ld ren ,J .E n scnya ta nd R .K enna rd . O xfo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epor t si n terna t iona lS e r ie s 5 73 . p p . 7 9 -114 . F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,M . , 1 978a .S ecuenc ia C u l tu ra ld cl aP reh is to r ia d c Ma l lo rca . B ib l io teca P rae h i s tónca H i spana XV . F LAQUER ,J . , 1 952 . ' A layo r( Meno rca ) .T o r re dEn G aumé s .E xcavac ionc sd c 1 943 ' . N o t ic ia r io A rque o l og ico H ispdn ico 1 : 111 -120 . F ONT ,B . AND J . MASCARO , 1 962a .C on t r ibuc ión a lC onoc im icn to d cL aP r i ine ra E dad d e lB ronce e n Ma l l o rca .T a la io t2 . FONT ,B . AND J . MASCARO , 1 962b .T ipo log l ad cl o s Monumen to s Mega l I t ico sd c Ma l lo rca . T a la io t3 . GUDO , M . , 1 963 . S a rd in ia L ondon : T hame sa nd Hud son . HEMP ,W . , 1 927 . ' S ome R ock -cu tT omb sa nd H ab i ta t ion C ave si n Ma l lo rca ' . A rchaeo log ia 7 6 :1 21-160 . HE MP ,W . , 1 933 . ' Rock -cu tT omb si n Ma l lo rca a nd n ea rA r ie si nP rovence ' . T he A n t iqua r ie sJ ourna l 1 3 :33 4 7 . L EWTH WA ITE ,J . , 1 983 . The N eo l i th ic o fC o r s ica ' .I nA nc ien tF rance .N eo l i th ic S oc ie t ie sa nd T he i rL and s c ape . 6 000 -2000 B .C . E d i ted b yC . S ca r r e .E d imbu rgh : T he U n iver s i ty P re s s .p p . 1 46 -183 . L LABRES ,J . , 1 978 .' Ca N aV idr ie ra ,u na N ec rópo l i sd e lP r ime rB ronce Ma l lo rqu mn ' .T raba jo sd cP reh i s to r ia 3 5 . MASCARO ,J . , 1 960 . ' Cueva sP reh i s tó r ica sd c Ma l lo rca ' .B o le t (n d el aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l iana 3 1 :645 -656 . MASCARO ,J . , 1 968 .P reh is to r ia d cl a sB a lea re s .P a lma : M irama r . MORELL ,C . AND A . QUEROL , 1 987 . ' F l in tI mp lemen t so ft h eS on O leza B e i lB eake rS e t t lemen ti nt h e B a lea r ic I s land o f Ma l lo rca ' . I nB e l lB eake r so ft h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean . E d i ted b yW . Wa ld ren a nd R .K enna rd .O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n terna t iona lS e r ie s3 31 .

p p .

2 8 3 -306 .

P enco t ,L . , 1 950 .L o s S epu lc ro s Mega l I t ico sC a ta lane s yl aC u l tu ra P i r ena ica .B a rce lona : I n s t i tu to d cE s tud i o sP i r ena ico s . P reh is tor ia yA rqueo l .ogIa 4 . P LANTALA MOR ,L . , 1 974 . ' Avance a lE s tud io d cl aC ueva d cS on Ma io ld 'E s tab l imen t s( Pa lma d c Ma l lo r c a ) . I nP reh is to r ia yA rqueo log Ia d cl a sI s la sB a lea re s . V iS ympos ium d eP reh i s ior ia P en insu la r . B a rce l o na . pp . 8 9 -100 . P LANTALA MOR ,L . , 1 976 . ' A lguna sC on s idc rac ionc s s ob re l o sS cpu ic ro s Mega l f t ico sd c Meno rca ' . S au tu o l a2 : 157 -173 . P LANTALA MOR ,L . , 1 977 . E l S epu lc ro Mega l I t ico d cB in ida le t , Mahón ( Meno rca ) ' . I nX IV C ong r e so N a c i ona ld cA rqueo log Ia ( V i to r ia , 1 975 ) .Z arago za . pp. 4 79 -482 . P ONS ,J . AND J . COLL , 1 984 . ' Le nI ndu s t r ie sL i t ique sd e ls J ac imen t s al ' A irc l iure d cl aZ ona d cS an tany i ( Ma l lo rca ) ' .I nT he D e ja C on fe rence o fP reh is to ry .E d i ted b y Wa ld ren ,W . ,C hapman ,R .W . ,L ew th w a i te ,J .a nd R . K enna rd . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n terna t iona lS er ie s 2 29 .

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p p .

8 4 1 -858 .

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ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 957a . ' L aC ueva d eT r i spo le t ,A r tà " . B o le t I nd eI aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l ia n a3 1 :390 -391 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 960 . ' C e r m ica sI nc i sa sd c Ma l lo rca ' . S tud iS ard i 1 6 :300 -315 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 960 -1961 . ' L aF ac ie s " Cueva N a tu ra l" e nl aC u l tura P re ta layó t ica Ma l lo rqu ina ' . Ampu r ia s 2 2 -23 :263 -276 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 961-1962a . ' No t ic ia r io A rqueo log ico d c Ma l lo rca ' .B o le t in d el aS oc iedadArque o l óg ica L u l iana 3 2 :113 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 961-1962b . ' S e sS a l ine s . A vance a lE s tud io d cs u sY ac im ien to sA rqueo log ico s ' . B o le !I nd el aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l iana 3 2 :76 -77 ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 962a .E xcavac ione se nl aN ec rópo l is d cl a sC ueva sA r t if ic ia le s d cS on S unyc r ( Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) . E xcavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica se nE spaf ia 1 4 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 962b . ' No ta sd cA rquco log la d cB a lea res . F e lan i tx ' . Ampu r ias 2 4 :253 -279 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 962C . ' I nfo rme s ob re e iF l alazgo d cC e rin ica sP r e ta layó t ica se nl aC ueva N a t u r a l d cS on Ma io l ( E s t .ab l imen t s -Pa lma d c Ma l lo rca ) ' . N o t ic iar io A rqueo lóg ico J i ' i spdn ico V I: 7 6 -81 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 962d . ' Cueva s A r t i f ic ia le s Ma l lo rqu ina s ,d cP l an ta S enc i l la ' . I nV I IC ong re so N a c i ona ld cA rqueo log Ia ( Ba rce lona , 1 960 ) .Z arago za .p p . 1 78 -18 1 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 962 -1963 . ' Cueva s Ma l lo rqu ina sd c Mt i l t ip lc sC áma ra s ' .S t ud iS ard i 1 8 :7 -21 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 963 . U na Ap rox imac ión a la P reh is to r ia d c Ma l lo rca . B a rce lona : D ipu tac ión P ro v i nc ia ld cB a rce lona . I n s t i tu to d cP reh is to r ia yA rqueo log la . Monograf Ia s2 3 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 965a . ' U l t ima sA po r tac ione sa lC onoc im ien to d cl aC u l tu ra P re ta layó t ica Ma l lo r q u ina ' . I nA t t id e l C ong re so I n te rnaz iona le d e l le S c ienz eP re is to r iche eP ro to i s to r iche . R oma . V o l . 1 1 :4 16 4 19 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 966a . ' Ma jo rquc P reh is to r ique e ts e sR e la t ion sa vec l a Med i tc r ranée O cc iden t a le ' . I nC omp te sR endu sd cL a XVl l léme S e s ion d uC ong ré sP reh i s to r ique d cF rance .A jac io , 1 966 .P ar i s . p p . 2 89 -294 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 966b .E xcavac ione se ne iC I rcu lo F une ra r io d cS on B au ló d cD al i( San ta Ma rga r i ta ,I s la d c Ma l lo rca ) . E xcavac iones A rqueo lóg ica se nE spaV ia 5 1 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 969 . ' Va r ia P re ta layö t ica ' .I n XC ong re so N ac iona Ld cA rqueo log Ia ( Mahon , Me n o rca , 1 967 ) .Z a ragoza . P p . 9 0 -95 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 972 . ' L aP reh is to r ia d c Ma l lo rca ' .T raba jo sd e l Mu seo d c Ma l lo rca 1 . A lso May u rqa 7 : 115 -156 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 979 . L aC u l tu ra T a layo t ica e n Ma l lo rca ,b a se p a ra c lE s tud io d cs u sF a se sI m c i a le s .P a lma d e Ma l lorca . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , 1 984 . ' Cueva s Ma l lo rqu ina sE xcavada se nl aR oca ys uP rob lemá t ica ' . I nT he D e ià C on fe rence o fP reh is to ry .E d i ted b y Wa ld r en ,W . ,C hapman ,R .W . ,L ew thwa i te ,J .a nd R . K enna rd . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 29 .P p . 1 027 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . AND R MART IN , 1 962 .' Un Nuevo T ipo d cC e rám ica P re ta layO t ica Ma l lo rqu i n a ' .I nV I IC ong re so N ac iona ld cA rqueo log la ( Ba rce lona , 1 960 ) . Z a rago za . P p . 1 82 -183 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . AND J . CAMPS , 1 972 . ' E xcavac ione se nc lC omp lc jo No re s tc d c " E sF igue ra l d c S on R ea l" ( San ta Ma rga r i ta , Ma l lo rca ) ' . No t ic ia r io A rqueo lög ico H ispán ico .P reh i s tor ia 1 : 111-182 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . AND W . WALDREN , 1 973 . ' E xcavac ione se ne i Ab r igo d e lB o squc d cS on Ma t g e( Va i ldemo s sa , Ma l lo rca ) ' . No t ic ia r io A rqueo lóg ico } T ispán ico P reh i s tor ia 1 :1-86 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . , WALDREN ,W . AND J . KOPPER , 1 967 . ' Aná l is is d cR ad ioca rbono e n Ma l lo r c a ' . T raba jos d e l Mu seo d e Ma l lorca 1 . ROSSELLO -BORDOY ,G . ,P LANTALA MOR ,L . AND A . LOPEZ , 1 980 . ' E xcavac ione sA rqueo log ica se n T one dEn G aumé s( A layo r , Meno r ca )I .L aS epu l tu ra Mega l i t ica d cS c sR oque sU ise s ' . N o t ic iar io A rque o lóg ico H i spdn ico 8 :71 -138 . ROSSELLO COLL ,G . AND J . MASCARO ,1 962 . ' P rem ie r Do lmen D ccouve r t aMa jo rque : S on B au ló d cD a l ( Commune d cS a in te Ma rga l ida ) ' . B u l le t in d cl aS oc ie te P reh i s to r ique F ranca i se 5 9 :180 -186 . TOPP ,C . ,F ERNANDEZ ,J . AND L .P LANTALA MOR , 1 976 . ' Ca N aC o s ta : aMega l i th ic C hambe rT omb o n F o rmen te ra ,B a lea r ic I s land s ' . B u l le t in o ft h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o ft h e U n iver s i ty o fL ondon 1 3 :139 1 74 .

3 48

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER

TOPP ,C . ,F ERNANDEZ ,J . AND L .P LANTALA MOR , 1 979 . ' R ecen tA r chaeo log ica lA c t iv i t ie si nI b iza a nd F o rmen te ra ' .B u l le t in o ft h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon 1 9 :215 -231 . VENY ,C . , 1 947 . ' L aN ec rópo l is d eL aC ueva C ome ta d e l s Mo r t s ,c e rca d eL iuc ,e n Ma l lo rca ' . A rch ivo E spaño l d eA rqueo log Ia 2 0 :46 -59 . VENY ,C . , 1 953 . ' E sco rca ( Ma l lo rca )C ome ta d e l s Mo r t s ' . N o t ic ia r io A rqueo ldg ico H L spán ico 1 :41 -56 . VENY ,C . , 1 953a . ' L aC ueva d eA i ian t ' . B o le t in d el aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica L u l iana 3 1 :35 -39 . VENY ,C . , 1 961 . ' L aC ueva d e l sT o s sa ls V e rd s( Ma l lo rca ) .S a i tab i 1 :201 -212 . VENY ,C . , 1 968 . L a sC ueva sS epu ic ra les d e lB ronce An t iguo d c Ma l lo rca .B ib l io teca P raeh i s ló r ica H ispana l x . WALDREN ,W . , 1 982 . B a lea r ic P reh is to ry ,E co logy a nd C u l tu re : t h eE xcava t ion a nd S tudy o fC e r ta in C ave s , R ock -She l te r sa nd S e t t lemen t s . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n terna t iona lS e r ie s 1 49 . WALDREN ,W . , 1 984 . ' Cha lco l i th ic S e t t lemen ta nd B eake rC onec t ion si nt h eB a lea r ic I s land s ' .I nT he D e ja C on fe rence o fP reh i s to ry .E d i ted b y Wa ld ren ,W . ,C hapman ,R .W . ,L ew thwa i te ,J .a nd R .K enna rd . Ox f o rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor ts I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 29 .p p .9 11 -966 . WALDREN ,W . , 1 987 .'A B a lea r ic B eake r Mode l . . . F enanddl -O leza ,V a l idemo s sa , Ma l lo rca ' .I nB e l lB eak e r so ft h e We s te rn Med i te r r anean .E d i ted b yW . Wa ld ren a nd R . K enna rd . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epor t sI n terna t iona lS e r ie s 31 . p p . 2 07 -267 . WALDREN ,W . AND G . ROSSELLO -BORDOY , 1 975 . ' Excavac ione se nL aC ueva d c Mu le ta ( Só l le r , Ma l lo r c a ) ' . N o i ic iar io A rqueo lóg ico H i spán ico -P reh i s tor ia 3 :73 -108 . WALDREN ,W . , CHAPMAN ,R .W . , LE WTHWA 1TE ,J . AND R KENNARD ,( Ed s . ) , 1 984 .T he D e ja C on f e rence o fP reh i s to ry .E a r ly S e t t lemen ti nt h e We s t e rn Med i te r ranean I s land sa nd T he i rP e r iphe ra lA rea s . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n terna t iona lS e r ie s2 29 . WALDREN ,W . , SANDERS ,E . AND J . COLL , 1 984 . The L i th ic I ndu s t ry o ft h eB a lear ic I s land s . . . I t sO lez i a nT rad i t ion o fT abu la rF l in tB lade s ' . I nT he D e ja C onfe rence o fP reh i s to ry .E d i ted b y Wa ld ren ,W . ,C hap m an ,R .W . ,L ew thwa i te ,J .a nd R . K ennard .O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor ts I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 2 29 .p p . 8 59 -910 . WALDREN ,W . , ENSENYAT ,J .AND C . CUR L , 1 990 . The L i th ic I ndu s t ry o ft h eB a lea r ic I s land s ' . L i th ic s 1 :34 -39 . Wa ld ren ,W . ,E n senya t ,J .a nd R .K enna rd ,( F .d s . ) , 1 991 .T he U nd D e ià I n te rna t iona lC onfe rence o fP r eh is to ry . R ecen tD eve lopmen t si n We s te rn Med i te r r anean P reh is to ry : A rchaeo log ica lT echn ique s , T echno logy a nd T heo ry . O x fo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epor t sI n te rna t iona lS e r ie s5 73 -574 .

3 49

R ITU AL , R I TES A N D REL IG I ON I N PRE H ISTOR Y

TABLE 1 POTTERY F I NDS

S ITE

OWLGLOB T AR l T YPE B RON C

A r ian i B ennoc C a SHe rcu G odo ! d e l R o fo i s G omc ta d e ls Moos Go rnavaca C o r r a l d e s P o rc s C o va d c S a S in ia C ova d e l N e re I E i s T o s sa 1s V e rd s F o ssa r e l d c S on F o r tunN L icdoner Uucame t dEn B a r raque r Ma r ina Mon tb lanc R ose l is S a G anova d 'A t ianv S a Ma la S o l ier ic S on B auca

BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC ENG BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC BNC

S on Ma in ] ( Pa lma ) S on Ma r ro ig S on Ma s ( Manaco r ) S on Mo rc i S on P r ime r S on P u ig S on V aque r S on V ic d c S up ema T r ispo le t \ ' e rn issa Ga la d c S a n ( V icene 7 G o iön ia d c S aw P e re E s G ahà s N a F onda d c S 'Ava l l S a Mo ta dEn B o rdo l I S a R i txo la S a T anca S o N 'An le lm S on J aumc l l S on Me squ ida S on Mu ie l S on S unve r 2 S on S unvc r 4 S on S unve r 5 S on T on i Ame r I G a N a V id r ie ra S on S unve r 7 S on B au ló d c D a l I S on G a l la rd

BNC BNC ENG BNC BNC , BNC ENG BNC ENG EAG EAC EAG EAG EAG EAG EAG EAG EAG EAG EAG EAC FAG FAG EAG S AG SAG MIS R SS

1 3 6 4 I XX XX

1 4 1

2 3 1

6 2

9 I

1 1 2

3 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 0

2 8 XX 2 1

2 07 1 6 1 3 4 8 3 XX XX XX XX 2 8 2 8 7 2 4 1 3 1 3 3 I XX 9 1 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 8 9 XX I 3 4 6 5 5 2 1 3 4 2

6

4 XX

4 3 2

XX

5 XX XX XX

XX 1

2

I RK

2 I 4

XX

1 2

1

1 1 9 4

2 2 I

XX 5 1

4

3 1

2 XX

2

1

1 1

XX XX

1 4

3 I

2 5

1 XX XX XX

1 3

5

8 2 1

XX XX 3

2 9 5 XX XX 8 6 XX 2 6

HORG T INA U NDE E RK

XX 1

1 XX

1 XX 1

3 50

XX XX

1

XX 8 XX

I ' 3

I \ IF

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

TABLE 2 BONE I N DUSTRY

S ITE

EC FT S hK H ED T PB AWL B PB S PB D TYPE V BNC

1

C ome ta d e l s Mor ts

B NC

3 7

2

C orra l d es P orcs

B NC

6

1 0

Uedoner

B NC

2

1

S aC anova d 'Ar ianv

BNC

S a Ma ta

BNC

1

1

S o l ler ic

B NC

3

S on Ma lo l ( Pa lma )

B NC

1

G a la d eS an tV icenc 7

E AC

1

N a F onda d e SAva l l

F AG

3

S on l aume l l

E AC

2

A r ian t

3 7

1 0

3

1

1 0 1

2

4 X X

S on Ma r i

F AG

S on Mu le t

E AC

S on S unyer S C a N aV idn iera S on B au lO d e D al i

MT h

1

S on G a l la rd

R SS

7

1

1

F AG

1 2

2

S AC

X X

351

2 1 0

2

JOSEP F . ENSENYAT ALCOVER

TABLE 3 M ETAL I N DUSTRY

AWL

S ITE

TYPE

A r ian t

B NC

C aS 'Hereu

B NC

C on ie ta d e l s Mor ts

B NC

2 3

C orra l d es P orcs

B NC

X X

C ova d e l N ee re t

B NC

1

U edoner

B NC

1

Uucame t dEn B arraquer

B NC

DAG

ARR

1 4 3 3

1

Mon tb lanc

B NC

5 a Canovad Ar ianv

B NC

2 1

9

S a Ma ta

B NC

5

2

S o l ler ic

B NC

1 6

S on Ma io l ( Pa l ma )

B NC

4

S on P r ime r

B NC

1

S on Pu ig

B NC

2

T r is o 1e t

B NC

2

V ern is sa

B NC

2

C a laSa Nau

E AC

I

E s Cabà s

E AC

N a F onda d e SAva l l

E AC

2 1

1

S a Mo la dEn B ordo i I

E AC

4

2

S on l aume l l

E AC

4

3

S on Man

E AC

S on Me squ ida

E AC

8

3

S on Mu le t

E AC

1 3

1

1

S on S unver 5

E AC

9

1

1

S on T on i Amer I

E AC

3

3

S on ß au lOde D al i

M 1S

1

352

S FC

1

2 3

1 1 1

1

1

1

I

J OSEP F .E NSENYAT ALCOVER

TABLE 4 L ITH IC I NDUSTRY

PC UR F LA G R I A RC S LA S I C S CR B TYPE B

S ITE E i sT os sa ls V erds

B NC

S a Ma ta

BNC

S on P u ig

B NC

V ern is sa

B NC

N a F onda d c SAva l l

E AC

S a R i txo la

E AC

S on T on i Amer 1

E AC

C a N aV idr iera

S AC

S on S unver 7

S AC MIS

S on B au lO d e D al i

1

1 2 2 2

1 2

I 1 1

1

X X

I

I

8

1

5 5

2 0

P LAN O FC HAMBER

E JRECTANGULAR

1 % 50/

4 %

L LJ A PS IDAL

I R REGULAR

2 7° l

j jK I DNEY If S QUARE

GRAPH I

3 53

Ritual, Rites and Religion in Prehistory IIIrd Deya International Conferenee of Prehistory Volume II Edited by

W. H. Waldren, J. A. Ensenyat and R. C. Kennard

BAR International Series 611 1995

B.A.R. All titles available from: Hadrian Books Ltd, 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

BAR S611 (II)

Ritual, Rite and Religion in Prehistory: /1/rd Deya International Conference of Prehistory Volume II

© the individual authors 1995 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387314 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387321 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860547914 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407349169 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547914 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

DED ICAC ION

E s ta p ub l icac ión e s tá d ed icada al am emor ia d e lf a l l ic ido D r . Manue lF e rnande z -M i randa e ra , a ll av e z , u n q ue r ido ye s t imado a m igo , a s tc omo u n c o lega aq u ien t odos e chamos d e m enos . S u r epen t ino f a l lec im ien to c ons l i tuye u na g ran p é rd ida p a ra l a A rqueo logIa e n E spana yp ara l ad i sc ip l ina e ng ene ra l .

DED ICAT ION

T h i sp ub l ica t ion i sd ed ica ted t ot h e m emory o ft h e l a te D r . Manue l F ernande z -M iranda . Mano lo w a s ad ear a nd e s teemed f r iend a s w e l la s c o l league w hom w e w i l la l l m i ss . H i s u n t ime ly d em i se i s as e r iou s l o s st oS pan i sh a rchaeo logy a nd t ot h ed i sc ip l ine a s aw ho le .

THE DEV IL 'S ADVOCATE

Wha t m ake s u s t h ink t ha tf rom t h e c once i to fo ur d i sc ip l ines , t h e c omf or t o fo ur a rmcha ir s a nd t h e s o lace o fo ur b ook sw ec an i n te rpre tm ean ing s , a c t ion s , i nne re mo t ions a nd m o t iva t ions o fi nd iv idua l s w ho e xpe r ienced t h em m i l lenn ia a go? I nr ega rd t os ub jec t s l i ke r i tua l , r i te sa nd r e l ig ion, a s i no t he r q ue s t ions c once rn ing t h ed i s tan tp a s t , w ea s a rchaeo log is t sa nd p reh is tor ians h ave t ow ork a nd c on t e n to ur se lve s w i th m inu scu le , v e s t ig ia lp iece so fe v idence t h a ts omehow m iracu lou s ly h ave e scaped t h er avage s o ft i me . A s a rchaeo log i s t s , w ep r ise o u t t h e se i nd iv idua lf ragmen t s o fe v idence f rom t h e e a r th , o ne b yo ne . A ss cho la r sa nd s c ien t i s t s w ee xam ine a nd a na ly se t h em i nt h el i gh to fo ur p re sen t c on tex t sa nd a b i l i t ies . T h i s i st h ew ay w et a ke o n , a sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh is tor ians , t h e u ncer ta in a nd s pecu la t ive t a sk o fb reach ing t h eg ap b e tween t h ed i s tan t , u nrecorded p a s ta nd t h ep re sen t . H ow w et h ink w ec an m anage t oe x t rac ts ome r e semb lance o fw ha tt o ok p lace a nd b u i ld s ome l o g ica l , c on v i nc ing , e ven h i s tor ica lp ic ture o fw ha t t o ok p lace b e tween t h el i t era te p re sen ta nd a lmos tc omp l e te ly i l i te ra te p a s t , i sn o t much l e s s t h an aq u ixo t ic q ue s to r c ha l lenge a nd a rr iv ing a ta ny t h ing , ab i t o f am i rac le . T h i sd oes n o td o m uch e i the rt oi mprove o ur c oncep t ion o ft h ep a s t ,s hor ten t h ed i s tance b e tween t wo w or ld so rf i l lt h eg ap o fw ha tc an o n ly b er ef er red t oa s ac ha sm o rh ia tu s . N e i ther d oe s i ta f ord u s t h el e a s tb i to fr ea ls uccour f rom t h ef ac tt h a tt h ef a r ther b ack i nt i me w eg o , t h em ore o b s cure i st h ee v idence a va i lab le t ot h ea rchaeo log i s ta nd p reh is tor ian . T he re m u s tb es ome d eep -roo t ed b e l ief i nt h e a b i l i ty o ft h e h uman m ind a nd s p ir i t t ot h ink t ha ts uch e v idence i ss omehow r e tr ievab le , o t herw i se t h ere w ou ld b e n o d e s i re o r l o g ic i nt r y ing . A nd c er ta in ly , b ys o d o ing , t h e re i si n vo lved m uch n a ive ty a nd f anc if u l a l though p erhap sd i v ine , n o t ion. ‚

A nonymou s 1 995 .

ABOGADO DEL D IABLO

Q

Ué n os h ace c reer q ue d e lo rgu l lo d e nuestros d i sc Ipu los , l ac omod idad d e n ue s tros s i l lone s ye i c onsue lo d en ue s tros l i b ros p odemo s i n terpre za r l a sa cc ione s , l a se moc ione s ym o t ivac ione s i n te rna s d ei nd iv iduo sq ue t u v ie ron d i chos s en t im ien lo s h ace m i le sd ea ño s? C on r e spec to at er na sd omo r i tu a l , r i tos y r e l ig ione s , a s Ic omo o t ra s c ues l ione s q ue h acen r e f e renda a u npa sado l e jano , n oso iros , c omo a rqueó logos yp reh i s tor iadore s t e nemo sq ue t r aba jar yc onf ormarno s c on m inü scu los v e s t ig ios q ue d ef orma , m i lagrosa h an e s capado a l af ur ia d e l t i empo . C omo a rqueo logos , e x traemos u no a u no , e s to sf ragmen tos d ee v idenc ia d e li n te r ior d e l at i er ra . C omo i n ve s t igadore s yc i en t if icos l o se x a r n inamos ya na l i zamo s d e sde l ap e rspec t ivade n ue s iro p re sen te yd e n ue s t ra s h ab i l idade s . D e e s ta m anera e mpredemos , c omo a rqueo logos eh i s tor iadore s , l ai n c ier la ye specu la t iva m i si o n d e u n ir e i l e jano ei ndocumen tado p asado c on e ip re sen te . E lp en sa rq ue p odemos e x traer a l go p arec ido a l o q ue o cu rr ió yc ons tru ir a l guna i magen l O g ica ,f eac ien te , i n c iu so h i s tOr ica d el oq ue p a so e n t re e ip re s en te d e scr i to y u np a sado i nde te rm inado , e su n i n len to q u i jo te sco , u n r e to . . . ye iq ue t e nga s en t ido , u npequeno m i lagro . E s to z ampoco a yudo am e jora rn ue s t ra i d ea d e lp a sado , a cor tar l ad i s tanc ia e n t r e d os m undo s yr e i lena r u n h ueco q ue s O lo p uede s e r c ons iderado c omo u n s ir na , u n h i a to e n e i t i empo . T ampoco n os p rocu ra c on n i ngün t i po d e a s i s tenc ia c on r ef e renda a lh echo d e q ue c uan to m O sa t rá sn os i n ternamos e ne it i empo md so scu ro s on l a se v idenc ia sq ue e ia rqueo logo yp reh is tor ia d or p ueden o b tene r . D ebe d eh abe ra l guna c reenc ia b d s ica e nl ah ab i l idade sd el am en te ye ie spf r i lu h umano q ue n os p erm i ze p en sar q ue e s tos v e s t ig ios p uedan s e rr e cuperado sd ea l gunaf orma c orrec L as i no , n o h abr ia e id e seo oe im o z ivo e n i n ten tar io . Yd ef in i t ivamen ie , e s se p roce so , i n c luye m ucha i n exper ienc ia yi n cre ib le sn oc ione s ,a i gunas d ee l ia sd ec a rá ter d i v ino .

Anon imo 1 994

ACKNO WLEDGE MENT

CONSELLER IA DE CULT LJRA DEL GOVERN BALEAR CONSELLER IA DE C JJLTURA DEL CONSELL I NSULAR DE MALLORCA A JUNTA MENT DE DE IA A JUNTA MENT DE SOLLER A JUNTAMENT DE VALLDEMOSSA MUSEU DE SOLLER EARTH WATCH AND CENTRE FOR HELD RESEARCH DE IA ARCHAEOLOG ICAL MUSEU M AND RESEARCH CENTRE

PREFACE

I ti sb ecom ing i n creas ing ly c l ear t h a ts ome o ft h ed i sc ip l ines a nd a venues o fi n ves t iga t ion u sed i nt h ei n terpre ta t i on o ft h ep reh is tor ic p os t h ave n o t b een a sp roduc t ive a s w e h ave e xpec ted a nd b een l ed t ob e l ieve . A nd a / t hough t , t h ep hy s ica la nd o the rs c iences a re p rov id ing u s w i th a n e ver g row ing t oo lk i tf or u se i nt h e i n terpre ta t i on a nd a s se ssmen t o ft h ed i s tan tp a s t , i ti ss t i l ln o ts uf i c ien t . I ti si n zpera t ive t ha t w ec omb ine wha tw ed ok now a nd h ave w i th s t i l lo ther t h ink ing . Wh i l e emp ir ica le v idence a nd s oph is t ica ted p hys ica la na ly se s w i l l a lways b e a tt he r oo t o ft h e d i sc ip l ine so fa rchaeo logy a nd p reh is tor y i np ar t icu lar , i ti si n creas ing ly e v iden tt ha t w e mus t a l so s eek o ther a l terna t ive a nd i nnova t ive a venues o fe nqu iry . We n eed t od eve lop a venues o fi nqu iry t ha t a re more s u i ted t oo ur i nd iv idua l g eograph ica l a rea s o fr e search a nd p ersona l a pproaches , d eve lop ing o ur own t e chn iques a nd me thodo logy ,p rac t ica la nd a pp l icab le t ot h e i mmed ia te c on tex tua la rchaeo log ica lr equ iremen t s . l ti sa l so b ecom ing more a nd mo re e v iden t t ha tw e mu s tc on s ider k ind red d i sc ip l ines , l i k e a n thropo logy , e t hno lo g ya nd o ther a l l ied n a tura l , h uman a nd s oc ia ls c iences f or more e f ec t ive i n terpre t ive t oo ls . A tt h es ame t ime , w e mus t u nder s tand t ha t t he se mu l t ifar iou sd i sc ip l ines t hem se lve s h ave l im i ta t ions a nd d o n o ta lways r ecogn ise o r u se e ach o ther ef i c ien t ly a nd t ot h eb es to ft h e i ra b i l i t ie s , d e sp i te t h ef ac t t ha t t h ey d os hare t h e c ommon a im o f u nder s tand ing h umank ind , i t s i n s t i tu t ions ,p rac t ices a nd i d iosycroc ies , a nd t he ref ore t h ese d i sc ip l ines s hou ld i n a l lp rac t ica l i ty b eb rough tc l oser t o ge ther . O therw ise , h ow a re w ee ver t od e term ine a sa rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh i s tor ians , w ha t o nce w ere r i tua l , r i tes o rr e l i g ion? E spec ia l ly s i nce mo s t o ft h e r ea l e v idence o fp as t a c t iv i t ies , c us tom s a nd g es tures u nder ly ing t h es t ruc t u re a nd O rgan i sa t ion o fa nc ien td a i ly

We

i sa tb es tv e ry p oor ly p reserved , e ven o no cca s ion t o ta l ! ' , 'o b l i te ra ted i n

r e spec t t oh ard c o re e v idence . F ur thermore , t h ef ar ther b ack i nt ime w ea t temp t t or each , t h e more e v iden tt h ese f ac ts b ecome . L i t t le t r ace o fp as ts ubs is tence a c t iv i ty a nd i t ss uppor t ive e conom i c a nd s oc ia ls t ruc ture s urv ives . L ik e t h e o n -s i te p hys ica le v id ence w ha t l i t t le d oes s omehow manage t os urv ive i ss carce ly e ver w e l ld ef ined o r e as i ly p ercep tab le a nd , t he ref ore , a l lt he mo re d if i cu l tt ou nder s tand . I fl i t t l ep hy s ica le v idence s ur v ives r egard i n g s ecu lar ma t te rs , s t i l ll e s sr ema in s o f as acred o rs p ir i tua ln a ture b yw h ich w em igh tp o ss ib ly u nd er s tand b y g one r i tua lo rr e l ig ion , much l e s st h es ub t ler p rac t ices a nd mean ings t ha tw ere b eh ind t h em . Under t h e b es t o fc i rcum s tances w ha t w e a re c onf ron ted w i th a re t h ef ew , mu te a rch i tec tura l , a r tef ac t s a nd a n ima lr ema ins t ha t t h rough ac omb ina t ion o fb l ind c hance a nd g ood f or tune h ave s omehow managed t os ur v ive t h e r avages o ft ime . N ever the les s , i ti so ur t a sk a sa rchaeo log i s ts a nd p reh i s tor ians t ot r ya nd d e term ine , a s b e s t w ec an , h ow t h es ecu lar a nd s acred o pera ted a nd w ere i n corpora ted i n to t h ee ve ryday l i ves o ft h ea nc ien tp eop le w e h ave c ho sen t os t udy . I ti se s sen t ia lt ha t w ed o t h i s , e ven i fmos to ft h ee v idence t ha t w eh ave t ow o rk w i th i s t h ef ew , v e ry s ma l lp hys ica lv e s t ige s o ft h e i r ma ter ia lw or ld , a nd e ven l e s sv i s ib le r ema ins o ft he ir s p i r i tua lo ne . On t h e l a t ter a spec t , w ha tr ema ins a nd w a sh e ld a ss acred o rs p ir i tua l ly i mpor tan t i nt h em ind sa nd a c t iv i t ies o f t h ea nc ien t si si ndeed av er i tab le e n igma a nd mos t ,

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o ft he ir c onsc iou sa nd u ncon sc ious mo t ives a nd a c -

t i ons p erhaps g one f orever . U n l ike t he a rchaeo log is ta nd p reh i s tor ian , t h ea n thropo log is ta nd h i s tor ian f a ir b e t ter , h av ing n oe nd o fw ea l th a nd d i rec ta cce ss t ol i v ing p roof a nd g ood e xamp les , a long w i th o ther e v id ence o fs ecu lar a nd r e l ig ious b ehav i o ur a nd O rgan isa t ion b o th i nt h ep resen ta s w e l la s i mmed ia te p as t . T hey h ave t h ea dvan tage o fp e r soan lo bser v a t ion t h rough t r ave l a nd c on tac t a nd af und o fw r i t ten r ecord w i th w h ich t od raw c onc lus ions ; c onven iences f ew o fw h ich a re s hared b ya rchaeo log i s t sa nd p reh is tor ians , w here t h e ir e v id ence i sg leaned f rom c ompar ison , i n f erence o rh ypo thes is . I np reh i s to ry , u nder s tand ing o fs acred a nd s p ir i tua l ma t ter s , a s w i th s ecu lar a c t iv i t ie s , i s ama t ter o fs ke tchy , e ven p suedo -phy s ica le v idence . I ndeed , w eh ave ,f o rt h e mo s tp ar t , t e s ted a nd u n te s ted d e t a i l sp rov ided b yo ur p ee rs a long w i th c ompara t ive e xamp les i ne t hno log ica la nd a n thropo log ica lr ecord s . A l lo f t h is i so f ten m ixed w i th f ash ionab le h ypo these sa nd more t han ap lacebo o fi mag ina t ion , o b ser ved r e tro spec t ive ly f rom a n ine teen th a nd t wen t ie th c en tury p o in t o fv i ew . I ti si ndeed r are , a s a rchaeo log is ts a nd p reh is tor ians , w hen w e c ome u p w i th s t rong p hys ica l e v id ence f or r e l iab le s ecu lar a nd s acred a c t iv i ies i n t h e p reh i s tor ic r ecord , e v idence g iv ing u sr e l iab le c l ue s a nd d e ta i l s t ot h ep os s ib le s equence a nd manner i nw h ich e ven t s t ook p lace .

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND REL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

O n r a re o cca s ions , w eh ave t h ew r i t ten r e cord o fe ar ly h i s to r ian s ,s uch a sH e rodo tu s . D iodoru s , P l iny a nd S t ra b o , w ho i nt h ec on tex to ft h e ir p ar t icu lar c en tury h ave g i ven u ss ome i n s igh t sa nd e ven d e ta i l sr e gard ing t h e p r i m a uve 'p eop l e t h ey o b ser ved a nd c ame i n to c on tac tw i th d ur ing t h e i rt r ave l st h roughou tt h e Med i ter ranean a nd t h e r e s to fE urope . Mo s t o ft h ese a ccoun t s , w h i le h i s tor i ca l ly i n te re s t ing , c ur iou s l y i n f orma t ive a nd c er ta in ly w or th r ead ing , a r eo b ser va t ion s mad eb y e a r ly h i s tor ian sa nd t r ave le r sf rom t h ep e r spe c t ive o fw ha t mu s th ave b een c on s ide red a ne n l igh tened c i v i l i sed v i ew o ft h eg rea tB arba r ian Wo r ld . Aw o r ld t h a tw a si nr ea l i ty f ar o u t s i de t h e ir c on s truc t ive u nde r s tand ing , e ven a so ur si ss epara ted f rom t h e i r s ,o ro ur sf rom w ha tw ea n thropo log i c a l l yc a l l mod e rn p r im i t ive s oc i e t ie s . N o ma t ter h ow c l o se ly w es t ud yt h em o rl i ve w i th t h em , w ew i l ln ever s uc c e ed i nb e ing t h em , o re ven b e ing l i k et h em ,o the rt h an b yw ay o fe mpa thy a nd s ome f o rm o fr e con s t ruc t ion . W eh ave l e aned h eav i ly a tt i me so n t h e se e ar ly h i s tor ica lr e cord sa nd a ccoun t sf or e s sen t ia ld e scr ip t ion a nd u n d e r s tand ing o fa nc ien ts oc ia l ,e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou sc ond i t ion sa nd p rac t i ce s . U nfo r tuna te l y ,s uch e ar ly h i s tor i c a lr e cord sh ave v e ry l i t t le r ea lv a lue i no ur u nd er s tand ing o fs t i l le ar l ier p r eh is tor ic p er iod so u ts ide t h er e a lm o ft h e se e ar ly t r ave ler s . F or t h i s , w es t i l lh ave t o l o ok f o re mp i r i ca le v id ence w i th t h ep o ten t ia lo fb e ing a b l e t o g i ve u sr easonab ly r e l iab l ed a ta . A tt h es ame t i me , w em u s ts e tu ps ome f o rm o fc r i ter ia f or d e te rm in ing w ha ti s t h e s ecu lar a nd s acred a nd w ha ta re t h e s i gn s o fr i tua l i s t ic o r r e l ig iou s a c t iv i ty? F o r e xamp le , w ha t o n s i te p hy s ica lo ro t he re v idence d oe so rd oe sn o tc on s t i tu te ar i tua lo rr e l ig iou sa c t iv i ty h av ing t a k en p lace? O rw ha t c ons t i tu te s o rd if e ren t ia te s ar e l igou ss i te a rea f rom as ecu lar o ne f or t h a tm a t ter? A nd h ow c an w e a ch ieve a b e t ter a pprec ia t ion a nd u nder s tand ing o fb o th t h e a c t iv i ty a nd t h e s i te , a s w e l l a s t h e i nd iv idua l s w ho w ere p r e sen ta nd u sed t h es i te? I nc e r ta in r e spec t s , w en e ed o n ly t oe xam ine t h et o p ic sa nd v a r i e t yo ft h ep aper sp re sen ted a nd t h ea pproache s u nd er taken i nt h ec u rr en tc onf erence f or a ni d ea o fs ome o ft h er equ i red c r i t er ia ,p o ten t ia la venue se xp lored , a s w e l la st h e l i m i ta t ion sa nd o the rs hor tcom ings w eh ave t oa ccep ta nd w ork w i th . Among t h e se a re :( 1 ) t h em any k i nd s o fa rch i tec ture e noun te red , ( a ) t h e ir g eograph ic s i tua t ion ( a l ignmen t , o r ien ta t ion , s pac ia ld i v is ion , e t c . ) , ( b ) t h ec harac te r i s t ic sa nd n a tu re o ft h e ir c on s t ruc t ion ( t echn ique su sed a nd k i nd o fm a ter ia l s ,e t c . ) ;( 2 ) t h ea s so c i a ted a r te fac t s , ( a ) t h e ir t y pe a nd f unc t ion ( qua l i ty , q uan t i ty ,f requenc ya nd m a ter ia lc ompo s i t ion , e t c . ) ;( 3 ) t h e a s soc ia ted a n ima le v idence . ( a )i nd ica t ing o f er ings ,s ac r if ice s , e ven c omme rc ia ln ego t ia t ion . ( b ) t h ea n ima lt y pe ( a ge a td ea th a nd s pec ie sf r equency , e t c . ) ; ( 4 ) t h es i te a c t iv i t ys equence s , ( a ) t h e ir o r ig in ( p recons truc t ion , c on s t ruc t ion a nd p o s t c ons truc t ion p hases ) a nd ( b ) t h e ir f unc t ion , c on t ex t s a nd a s soc ia ted ma ter ia l s a nd ( 5 ) t h e c ompar i son a nd c o r re la t ion o ft h e d a ta a nd m a t e r ia le v id ence b o th i nt empo ra la nd s pa t ia l t e rm s , b o th c l o se t o h ome a nd f ar the ra f ie ld . A l lo ft h ese i n d iv idua la pp roache so ver lap , b o th d i sc ip l inar i ly a nd a r te f ac tua l ly , a nd a re c l o se l y i n ter re la ted . T he w ays i nw h ich t h ey r e ly o na nd r e la te t oo ne a no ther f o rm t h eb a s i so ft h ec o l lec t ive a nd p roduc t ive g u id e l i ne sa nd p roces se sw eh ave a dop ted f or t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fa nc ien tr i tua la nd r e l ig iou sp rac t ice s , a nd f o rt h e a rea s w here e ven t s t o ok p lace . T hey a re a l so h i gh l y i d eo syncra t ic t o t h er e g ion s i nw h ich t h ey o ccur red . i n s ho r t , t h ey a re t h ep rec iou sf ew v a luab l ec l ue si nd e te rm in ing t h ed e ta i l sa nd p a t t ern so fa nc ien te ve ryday e x i s t e nc e . I ti st h e se t h a tw eh av eh ad t od raw o nf o ro ur h ypo the se sa nd c oncep t sr e ga rd ing t h ec e l eb ra t ions o ff e r t i l i ty , b i r th , r i te so fp as sage a nd a t t i tude so fa nd r e spon se st od ea th . T h i sc onf e rence h a sb een mo t iva ted b yt h e e xp re s s n eed t oe xp lore t h e se i n te rpre t ive c r i ter ia mor ef u l ly , a nd p o ss ib ly t oc on s ide r n ew d i rec t ion sa nd a ve n ue so fe nqu ir ya sw e l la s ar e in terp re ta t ion a nd r e con s ide ra t ion o fw ha td oe sc ons t i tu t ea nc ien ta nd mod ern r i t u a l ,r i te sa nd r e l ig ion . W h i le t h es cope o ft h ec on f e rence h a sb een o rgan i s ed t oi n c lude p rac t ic e sw h ich m ay o rm ay n o th ave b een s e c u l ar o rs acred b ef o re t h ew r i t ten r e co rd i na l lp a r t so ft h ew or ld , ag roup o fa n thropo log i s t sa nd h i s tor ian sh ave a l so b een i n v i ted f o ra n i n te rchange o fi d eas a nd t or ound o fs ome o ft h ea n t iqua ted , o verused v i ew sa nd a r gu m en t sh e ld b ya l lt h ed i s c ip l ines , e spec ia l ly t h es t ud yo fp r eh i s tory . T he p re sen tc onf erence , t h ough amod e s to ne c on s id er ing t h ee norm i ty o ft h et h eme h a sb een o rgan i sed i na na t temp tt oc ro s so ve rt h eb oundar ie so fi nd iv idu a ld i sc ip l ine st h a t ,

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i fg i ven s uf i c ien tf o re though ts hou ld b ei ne ve ry r e spec ti n t erd i sc ip l inar y .

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24- MORTUARY RITES IN TIIE CELTIBERIAN CEMEfERY OF ARGONOLLO (GUADALAJARA, SPAIN). J.A. ARENAS ESTEBAN AND L. CORTES AYUSO .................................................................................. 1-20 25- RELIGION, RITO Y RITUAL DURANTE LA PROTOI-IlSTORIA PENINSULA EL FENOMENO REI.JGIOSO EN LA CULTURA IBERICA ADOLFO J. DOMINGUEZ MONEDER0.....................................................................................................21-91 26. LA ARQUITECTURA COMO RITUAL SOOAL: EL CASO DE LAS NURAGAS SARDAS NURIA SANZ GALLEGO ............ ................................................................................. .......................... 92-109 27. DISPOSAL OF TIIE DEAD AND DISPERSAL OF THE LIVING IN PRE-ARGARIC S.E. SPAIN, ABRIGO DE EL MILANO AND A REVISION OF TIIE DYNANICS OF CULTURAL CHANGE "LITTLE BIG MEN" AND NO GROWTI-1 IN POPULATION. MICHAEL J. WALKER AND MIGUEL SAN NICOLAS DEL TORO ................................................ 110-169 28- LES TINTINABULES: UN ESTAT DE LA QUESTIO MARIA LLINAS RIERA, ROSER PEREZ MERINO, CATAUNA ROCA BORRAS, MANUEL RODRIGUEZ GAGO, BARTOMEU SALVA SIMONET' .................................................. 170-181 29. TEMAS ATLANTICOS EN EL ARTE MEGALmco DE SUROESTE PENINSULA P. BUENO RAMIREZ AND R. DE BALBIN BEHRMANN ............................................................... 182-199 30, LA TAULA DE BINISSAFULLET JOANA M. GUAL CERDO AND LUIS PLANTALAMOR MASSANET' ........................................... 200-212 31. LOS "CUERNOS DE LA CONSAGRACION: VALORACION DE UN SIMBOLO DE CARACTER MEDITERRANEO C. POYATO HOLGADO AND A. VAZQUEZHOYS ...................................................................... 213-276 32. EL INFANTIODIO EN LA ANTIGUEDAD MARIA EUGENIA DELGADO TOUS AND TERESA VALLEJO ARANO .................................... 277-280 33. UBICACIO TOPOGRAFICA DE LES TAULES I SANTUARIS MENORQUINS, EL SEU SIGNIFICAT ECONOMIO SOCIAL LLUIS PLANTALAMOR MASSANET ............................................................................................... 281-294 34. UNA SOOEDAD EN ESTADIO DE JEFATURA (CI-IlEFDOMS): LA CULTURA TALAYOTICA BALEAR VICTOR M. GUERRERO AYUSO ............. ....... ....... ....... ............... ....... ......................... ....... ...... . ... ...

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35. L'ESISTENZA DI UNA COSOENZA RELIGIOSA DELLA PREISTORICO "OLD EUROPE" EDEL MONDO MEDITERRANEO: TESTIMONIANZE ARCHEOLOGICHE ROMOLO FORMEN'TINI .................................................................................................................... 314-321

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an ew c eme te ry f r om t h a t e r a . T he p lough s h ad u ncov e r ed a n i n te re s t ing c o l lec t ion o fi r on w eapon s a nd p e r s ona l o rnamen t s made i nb ronze ,d a t ing b e tween t he V I I a nd I c en tu r ies B .C . , w h ich p r e sumab ly c ame f r om c r e ma t ion b u r ia ls i n t h e s ub so i l o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd w he re t h ey w e re f ound ( A rena s , 1 990 ) . N ow , f i ve y ea r sl a te r , a nd a f te rh av ing c a r r ied o u ta r c haeo log ica l e xcava t ion s a tt h e s i te f o r t h ree c on secu t i ve s e a son s 1991 , 1 992 a nd 1 993, w e c on f ron t t h i s

i n

C on fe rence t h e a na ly s is o f s ome a rchaeo log ica l d a ta w h ich a l low a na pp rox ima t ion t ot h e r e l ig iou s q ua l i t t ie s m a in ly i nf une ra ry a spec t s , o f t h e h uman g roup b u r ied t h e re . T he a im o ft h is p ape ri st op o in t o u ts e ve ra l e l emen t s o f r i tua l c ha rac te r d e tec ted i nA ragonc i l lo a nd t os t a te , t h rough t h e ir i n te rna l a na ly s is a nd c ompa r ison s w i th d a ta p rov ided b y o t he rs im i la rc eme t er ie s , ap robab le i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e i ri d eo log ica l m ean ing . We d o n o t p re tend t or econ s t ruc t t h e f une ra ry r i tua l p roce s s i n i t s t o ta l i ty . B y v i r tue o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a va i lab le a nd o fi t s i n t r in s ic n a tu re i tw ou ld b e , a s R . Wh i tehou se s ay s , l i ke a t temp t ing " t o c omp le te a j i g saw p uzz le o f p erhap s 5 000 p i ece s f r om t wen ty o r t h ir ty s u rv iv ing" ( 1992 , 1 27 ) . H oweve r , i t ' s o u r a im t o i s o la te a s e t o f b a s ic e l emen t s i n t h e c on f igu ra t ion o f c e lt ibe r ian f une ra ry r i tua l , t r ace t h e ir p o s s ib le i mp l i c a t ion s i nt he c u l tu ra l s t ruc tu re c on s ide red a s aw ho le , a nd t op ropo se t h e o pen ing o fd i scu ss ion s , a tl e a s t a ta m e re ly h ypo the t ica l l e ve l , t h a t c on t r ibu te t oc oun te rac t t h e c u r ren t l a ck o f p rog re ss c oncern ing s t ud ie s a bou t

t o

c e lt ibe r ian i d eo logy . T os peak a bou tC e l t ibe r ian si st ot a lk a bou to ne o ft h e c u l tu ra l g roup s o ft h eI r on Age w i th t h e mo s tp e r sona l i t ya nd i d io sync ra sy o f t ho se t h a t f o rmed t h e c i rc le o f " c e l t ic p eop le s" o f t h e I be r ian P en in su la ; i ti st o t a lk a bou th uman g roup s w h ich ,p a radox ica l ly ,w eh ave o n ly

j u s tb egun t ou nde r s tand o ve rt h ep a s tf ew y ea r s ,d e sp i te t he mu l t ip le s t ud ie sc once rn ing t h em s i nce t h eb eg inn ing o f t h e c en tu ry . N ew f i e ld t e chn iques a nd , ma in ly , n ew i n te rp re ta t ive a pp roache s w i th wh ich t o t a ck le t h e a r c haeo log ica l r e co rd , a l low u s ag l imp se o f t h e c omp lex c u l tu ra l s t ruc tu re o f t h e se g roup s ( Ru iz G a lvez , 1 985 8 6 ; A lmag ro & L o r r io , 1 987 ; B ur i l lo , 1 987 ; B e l t rán Uons , 1 992 ) . T he l a s tp ape r s d evo ted t oc e l t ibe r ian r e l ig ion ( Ma rco S imon , 1 983 -84 ; Ma rco S imon , 1 987 ; S opeüa G enzo r , 1 987 ) s how h ow d i ff icu lt i ti sf o r t h e s cho la rt oa t temp t t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e b e l ie f s y s tem o f t h e se g roup s , b ecau se t he d a ta w e p o sse ss i s mo s t ly f r agmen ta ry . Howeve r , t h e se s t ud ie s s pec ify t h e b a s ic f e a tu re s o fc e l t i be r ian r e l ig ion wh ich c an b es umma r ized i nt h ef o l low i n gp o in t s : Re l ig iou s c omp lex o fc e l t ic a scendence w i th ah i gh l e ve l o fs ync r e t ism . S t rong mag ic a n im ism o fn a tu re . * Ab sence o ft emp le si nt h es t r ic ts en se o ft h e w o rd . I nex is tence o fa ni n s t itu t iona l ized p r ie s thood . Be l ief o fi mmo r ta l i ty o ft h e s ou l a nd , c on sequen t ly , i na n " a f te rw o r ld" . W i th r ega rd s t o t h e mor tua ry i d eo logy o f c e l t ibe r an g roup s , t h e mo s t i mpor tan t s ou rce s hou ld b e t h e mo re t h an f o r ty f i ve c eme te r ie se xc ava ted t h roughou tt h is c en t u ry , o f w h ich mo re t h an 9 0% w e re c ar r ied o u t i n t h e f i r s t t h ird o f t h e c en tury w i th i n adequa te me thodo logy . T h is h a s r e su l ted i nt h e l o s s o fb a s ic i n fo rma t ion wh ich h a s m ade i mpo s s ib le t h ep rec ise p ub l ica t ion o fi n fo rma t i on r e la t ing t ob u r ia ls a nd g ravegood s ( A lva rez S anch I s , 1 990 : 3 39 ) . I fw e a dd t o t h is h and icap t h e d e s t ruc t ion p rocess w h ich t h o se c eme te r ie s t h a t h ave b een " s aved " f r om t h o se e xcava t ion s h ave b een s ub jec ted t o b y t h e p lough s , w e w i l l c onc lude t h a t w e a r e f a c ing a g rea t c ha l lenge n o t o n ly b ecau se , g ene ra l ly , w hen o ne d ea ls w i th s ub jec t s a bou tr e l ig iou sne s s a ny o the r i d eo log i c a l a spec t o fo ld s oc ie t ie s a r e h and l ing i n fo rma t ion

w e

o r

w h ich i ne s sence b e long s t o ap a r t icu la r w ay o ft h ink ing

J .A .A RENAS E STEBAN a n d L CORTES AYUSO

a nd w h ich a tb e s ti sq u i te u ng ra spab le ( Sopeña G enzo r , 1 987 : 7 8 ) ;a l so b ecau se i nt h e s pec i f ic c a se o fc e l t ibe r i a nf une ra ry i d eo logy ,o u rs t a r t ing p o in ti s av e ry c on t ra -

t e r is t ic s , t h ep lough s h ad b een p u l l ing u pf r om i t s l a ye r

d i c to ry , r e la t ive a nd s ome t ime s n on e x is ten t a r chaeo -

s pa t ia l ly l i nked t ot h ec e l t ibe r ian s e t t lemen to fE l P a lo ma r , wh ich s t and s 6 00 me te r s f r om i t .T he e xcava t ion s i nt h e d ome s t ic a r ea s h ave b e en c ar r ied o u t s imu l tane o us ly w i th t h o se o f t h e c eme te ry , a nd h ave s hown a

l i t t le b yl i t t le . F ina l ly , i ti si mpo r tan t t o s ay t h a t t h is c eme te ry i s

l o g ica lr e co rd . I . THE S ITE

c onco rdan tc h rono log ica l s equence f o rb o th s e c to r s b e t ween t h eV I I -V Ia nd t h em idd le o ft h e IB .C .

T he c eme te ry , wh ich i sc a l led " La C e r rada d c l o s S an t o s" , l i e s i nt h e v i l lage o fA ragonc i l lo , NE o ft h e p rov -

I . THE EXCAVAT ION

i n ce o fG uada la ja ra , i na n a r ea w h ich , t o pog raph ica l ly , i sv e ry u neven a nd f o rm s t h e NE r im o ft h e Mese ta .

D ue t o t h e s upe r f ic ia l d i spe r s ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l a nd i t s s c a rce p o ss ib i l i t ie s f o r i n te rp re ta t ion , w e d ec ided , a s ap rev iou s s t ep t ot h e b eg inn ing o f t h e e xcava t ion ,t oc a r ry o u t as i te s u rvey t h er e su l to fw h ich w a s t h e d e l im i ta t ion o ft wo s e c to r s c l ea r ly d i f f e ren t ia t e db yt h ed en s i ty o fp o t tery a nd m e ta l l ic o b jec t s . A ma j o r p re sence o fw hee l t h rown p o t tery w a s d e t ec ted j u s t i nt h e z one w he re i r on o b jec t s w e re mo re a bundan t i n e a s te rn s e c to ro ft h e s i te - wh i l s ti nt h e We s t , w he re t h e mo s t a bundan t me ta l w a s b ronze , t h e c l ea r p r edom i n ance w a s h andmade p o t te ry . T he s e cond s t ep w a s t og r id a l t h e s u r face o ft h e s i te i n s qua re s o f 2 0 x2 0 m e te r s f r om a c oo rd ina te s a x is w i th aN -S o r ien ta t ion . E ach s qua re w a s d i v ided i n to t r enche s o fv a r iab le s i ze wh ich , t h rough t h e3 30 m2 a l r e ady e xcava ted 4 '1 % o f t h e a pp rox ima te ly 8 , 000 m2 i nt o ta l -h ave b rough tu sc l o se rt o t h ea r chaeo log ica l c on ten ta nd s t a te o fp re se rva t ion o ft h is c eme te ry . S ome o f t ho se t r enche s o n ly p rov ided a l a ye r o f m ixed -up m a te r ia l wh ich c on ta ined al o to fa r chaeo log i -

F IGURE 1 .C eme te ry o f" L aC e r rada d el o s S an to s " i n t h ec on tex to ft h eP en in su la

c a l ma te r ia l po t te ry , me ta l l ic o b jec t s , c r ema t ion r e ma in s , e t c , mak ing c l ea r t h e d eva s ta t ion o ft h e g rave s

A t a n a l t i tude o f 1 , 200 me te r s a bove s ea l e ve l , t h e s i te i sl o ca ted a tt h e b o t tom o f an a r row v a l ley wh ich i n

a nd /o r f une ra ry s t ruc tu re s f o rme r ly e x is t ing i n t ho se p o in t s . O no the ro cca s ion si tw a sp o s s ib le t of i nd g r ave s

i t s NW -SE d i rec t ion d e te rm ine s t h e d ep re ss ion o f S e l a s -A ragonc i l lo -R i l lo d c G a l lo ,o fp a ra l le l c ou r se t ot h e

a nd o the r s t one s t ruc tu re s w e l l p re served . T he t o ta l

a x is o ft h e S ie r ra d c A ragonc i l lo wh ich , w i th a l t i tude s h i ghe r t h an 1 , 500 m e te r s o ve r t h e s ea , c on s t i tu te s t h e w a ter shed b e tween t h e b a s in s o f t h e r i ve r E b ro t o t h e

n umb e ro fr eg is te red s epu lch re s i so f3 0 , n o tf o rge t t ing o fc ou r se c o l lec t ion s o fw eapon s o ra shen f o cu s o fd i f f e ren t mean ing t ot h eg r ave so ne ,a l lo ft h em i ns i tu . a )T he g rave sa nd t h er e su l tan tf une rary l a nd scape

N o r th ,a nd T a jo t ot h eS ou th . T he c eme te ry l i e si nt h e b a s in o ft h eT a jo ,a nd mo re p r ec ise ly ,i nt h ev a l ley o ft h er i ve rA rand i l la ,8 5 me t er s

T he G rave s : I nA ragonc i l lo t h eg raves a r e ,i na l l t h e c a se sr e co rd e d , o fc r ema t ion , a nd t h e d epo s i t ion o f mo r ta l r ema in s

f r om t h e r i ve rbed . T he a l luv ia l p l a in o n wh ich i tl i e s s how s av ery h igh f r ea t ic l e ve l , a lmo s t s uper f ic ia l , t h e r e su l t o f wh ich i st h e f r equen t f l ood ing o f a l l t h e a r ea

r e spond t os e ve ra lf o rm s : ai ) G rave s w i th a c i rcu la r l a ye r o f s t one s ( F ig s . 2

o ccup ied b y t h es i te . A t t h e momen t o fi t s d i scove ry , t h e s i te a ppea red t o b e ap l a in s l op ing s l igh t ly t ot h e s ou th o n w h ich , o ve r

a nd 6 ) B e long ing t o t h e e a r l ies t p ha ses o f t h e c eme te ry b e tween V I I a nd V Ic en tu r ie s ,t h ey a r eg ene ra l ly d i rec t d epo s i t ion s i n ah o le c overed b y amo re o rl e s s c i rcu la r

a n a r ea o f4 .000 m2 , c ou ld b e s een t h ree s t a in s o fd a rk e a r th w i th o u tc rop s o fa r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls t h a t ,a s a l ready h ad o ccu r red i no t he r s i te s o f t h e s ame c ha rac -

l a ye ro fs t one s . I na l l t h ec a se s w he re t h is t yp eh a sb een

2

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

v e r i f ied ,g ravegood sa ppea r s . Two r ema rkab le e xamp le s a r e g rave s 1 7 a nd 2 0 , i n -

n o t , b y g ravegood s w h ich , i fp re sen t , w e re p oo r a nd p l aced a lways o u t s ide : u nde ro rb e s ide t h eu rn . H oweve r ,t h e re a r ee xamp le s r e la ted t op ha se s e a r l ie r t h an t h ea bove . G rave 2 6 ,d a ted t ot h ee nd o fV I I c en tu -

s c r ibed i n al a rge s t one c i rc le o fn ea r ly 4 .70 me te r s i n d i ame te r i n s ide wh ich a r e p re se rved c obb l ing r ema in s .

. : +

_

_7.

f l t. r n,.

F IGURE 2 .L a rg es t one c i r c le a n da d ja cen tu s tnn ium o f G r ave s 1 7a n d 2 0G r ave s

_.I , _.... ....* ld•t

r y , g ave t h e o n ly h andmade u rn a s soc ia ted w i th ac r e m a t ion o fa l l t h er eg is te red i nt h es i te . Numbe r 1 7 ,f r om t h eV I c en tu ry ,o f f e red ,a sw eh ave a l ready s e en ,a nu rn b u r ia l ,n ow whee l t h rown ,i n c luded i n as t one s t ruc tu re . a 2 .2 )D irec td epo s i t ion s i nh o le ( F ig s . 2a nd 8 ) T hey a l so b e long t o t h e o lde s t p ha se s o f t h e c eme -

G rave 1 7 w a s c ompo sed o f al i t t le c i s tw h ich c on ta ined t h ec r ema t ion i n s ide a nu rn b enea th wh ich w a sp l aced a l a v ish s e lec t ion o f m e ta l l ic o b jec t s ( F ig s . 3a nd 4 ) . C lo se t ot h i s ,w a sg rave 2 0 ,w h ich c on s i s ted o f ac r ema t i on d i rec t ly d epo s i ted i n ah o le w ithou tu rn - a nd o n ly a ccompan ied b y as pea r ' sp o in t . a 2 )S imp le G rave s a 2 .1) W i th Um ( F ig .6 )

t e ry . T hey a r e h o le s o f amo re o rl e s s c y l ind r ica l s hape t h a tc an b e4 0 c en t ime te r s i nd ep th a nd 2 5 c en t ime te r s w ide , i n wh ich t h e c r ema t ion w a s p l aced m ixed w i th

I n g ene ra l , t h ey b e long t ol a te r p ha se s o f t h e c eme t e ry I I I a nd I c en tu r ie s - a nd c an b e a ccompan ied , o r

w ha t w e h ave c a l led " a sh d epo s i t s" , wh ich o n ly d i f f e r i nt h e v o lume o fc a lc ina ted b one s , w h ich i nt h e f i r s ti s

t h e g ravegood s , i ft h ese a r e p re sen t . When g ravegood s d on ' t e x is t , t h e g rave s a r e h a rd ly d i s t ingu i shab le f r om

3

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a nd L CORTES AYUSO

n o t iceab ly l a rge r .

7 64 ) . I np e r iphe ra l a r ea s o ft h e I b er ian P en in su la i th a s b een d ocumen ted i n t h e E b ro v a l ley ( A randa Ma rco ,

T he F une r ary L and scape : I nt e rm so ft h es pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eg r ave si nt h e c eme te ry , w e h ave a scer ta ined t h a t , a tl e a s t i nt h e c a se

1 990 :108 -109 ) . A s f o ri t s mo rpho logy ,A ragonc i l lo ' sc eme t ery s e em s t ob ec l o se ly r e la ted w i th t h ec i rc le o fc e l t ibe r ian c eme t e r ie s o f t h e N o r th o f G uada la ja ra . H e re whe the r i n Agu i la rd e Angu i ta , L uzaga o r Ho r t ezue la d e O cén t h e g rave a l ignmen t s s how aNE -S W d i rec t ion ,w h i le i nt h e

o ft h e s imp le g rave s , t h ey a r e p e r fec t ly a l igned i n NE SW d i rec t ion , r ega rd le ss o f t h e ir c h rono logy , a nd t h a t

p rov ince s o fS o r ia a nd A v i la , t h e g rave s a r e o r ien ta ted

00

F IGURE 4 .G ravegood s f r om G rave 1 7 .

i n aN -S o ne . T he a c tua l mean ing o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e se a l ign men t s r ema in s h idden t ou s a tt h e momen t , b u t w e d o n o t d i sca rd ap o s s ib le r e la t ion sh ip w i th s ymbo l ic e l e men t s l i nked w i th a s t ronom ic p henomena .W i th r e ga rd s

F IGURE 3 .U rn a nd g r a vegood sf r om G ra ve 1 7 .

t ot h is l a s t p o in t w e c an ' tf o rge t t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t h a t a s t ronomy p l ayed i na nc ien t c u l tu res a nd t h e i r r e sp ec -

t h ey a r e b e tween 0 . 70 a nd 1 . 70 me te r sa pa r t . T h is l a you t h a s b een d ocumen ted i n many mo r tua ry

t i ve r e l ig iou s c omp lexe s . I n t h e f une ra ry s phe re , t h e re

c on tex t s o f p en in su la r I r on Age . I n T he Me se ta , t h is

a r e s eve ra l s cho la r s w ho h ave d ea l t w i th t h is p henome n on ,p o in t ing o u tc e r ta in g r ave o r ien ta t ion s r e la ted w i th

d i s tr ibu t ion h a sb een r e co rded i ns ome o ft h ec e l t ibe r ian c eme te r ie s o f t h e No r th o f Guada la ja ra 's p rov ince ( Agu i le ra yG amboa , 1 916 : 1 ) , S ou th o fS o r ia ( Mo re n a s d e T e jada , 1 916 : 1 70 ; C ab rd Mo ran & Mo ran C a -

s un r ise a nd s un se t o n t h e a c tua l d ay o f t h e b ur ia l ( Ra th tz , 1 978 ;B rown , 1 983 ; R amo sS a in7 , 1 984 -85 ) . F o r t h e g raves a s soc ia ted w i th c i rcu la r l a ye r s o f s t one , w e h aven ' t b een a b le t on o te a tt h e momen ta ny

b r é , 1 975 : 1 24 ) a nd i nA v i la ( Fe rnandez Gomez , 1 986 :

4

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

s pec if ic a r rangemen t . T h is d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean t h a t t h e re h adn ' tb een o ne ,b u tt h a t t h ed amage i nf l ic ted o n t h e s i te , c omb ined w i th t h e l a ck o f e xcava t ion i n

b 1 .l )A sh d epo s i t s( F ig s 2 ,8 -A a nd 8 -B ) T hese a r e s ma l l a sh a ccumu la t ion s c on ta in ing s ome v e ry f r agmen ta ry b one s c l o se t ot i ny r ema in s o fm e ta l l i cg ravegood sa nd f a una . T hey a r ei n se r ted w i th g rave s b e long ing t oo lde rp ha se s o f t h e c eme te ry a nd t hey a p p ea re i the ra s : Len t icu la r p ocke t s w h ich n eve r s u rpa ss 0 . 5 m e te r s i nw id th a nd 0 . 10 m e te r si nd ep th . Cy l ind r ic h o le s o f s im i la r c ha rac te r is t ic s t o t ho se c on ta in ing g rave s . A l though ,i ng ene ra l , t h e r i tua l c harac ter o f t h is k ind o f man ife s ta t ion h a sa l ready b een p o in ted o u t , w e t h ink i tw ou ld b e g ood t ot a ck le t h e a na ly s is o fi t s m ean ing w i th p rec i se d e ta i l . I nt h ef i r s tp l ace ,i t s p r e sence i sv e r i f ied i n many i n c ine ra t ion c eme ter ie s o f t h e We s tern Med i te r ranean wo r ld . F rom B .F . t r an s i t ion c eme te r ie s t ot h eo l dI r on A ge o fS EF rance , a si nL o sF ado s ( Tal f ane l , 1 949 : 7 )o r L e Mou l in o f Ma i lhac ( Lou is e ta l i i , 1 955 : 1 0 ) , t os ome b e long ing t ot h e o nen ta l iza t ion o f t h eS ou th o ft h eI be r ian P en in su la a si nE lC o r t i jo d el a s S omb ra s o fF r ig i l iana ( An-i b a s &W i lk in s , 1 971 : 1 92 ) ,

0

L a C ruz d e l N eg ro o f C armona ( J imenez b ar r ien to s , 1 990 : 15 ) , Mede l l in ( A lmag ro , 1 977 : 3 37 ) o r t h e c e me tery o f S e tef i l la ( Aube t , 1 975 : 1 36 ) , a nd e ven i n No r th A f r ica , a s w e c an s e e i n t h e R achgoun f i nd s ( Vu i l lemo t , 1 955 ) . Mo s to ft h ec eme t e r ie s o fL a Mese ta s hows t h i s s ame e l emen t . I nt h e c eme tery o fE l P a loma r d e l P in tado , i n T o ledo ,i ta ppea r su nde rt h ef o rm o f ac i rcu la rs t a in s ep a r a te f r om t h e ma in c r ema t ion ( Ru iz Z apa te ro & C a r ro -

0

0

..

F IGURE 5 . V o t ive s e t( n umb e r 1 )f ound i n s ide t h ec i rcu la r

b l e s , 1 986 ;5 9 ) . I n t h ep rov ince o fC uenca i ti sf ound i n L a s Mad r igue ra s , w he re i ti si d en t if ied a s u s t r in ia o r p l ace s w he re o f fe r ing s w e re c r ema ted ( A lmag ro , 1 969 ; 3 3 ) a nd i nE l N avazo , w he re w e f i nd ad i f fe ren t f o rm

s t one s t r uc tu r eo fG rave 1 7a nd 2 0 .

l a rge s e c to r so ft h ea r ea ,i mpede u st oc o r robo ra te t h is . We h ave n o t b een a b le t ov e r ify t h e a s soc ia t ion b e -

r ep re sen ted b y t h e p l acemen t o f t h e se a she s i n al a ye r c ove r ing t h e u rn ( Ga lin S au ln ie r , 1 980 ; 1 55 -158 ) . I n t h is l a s t c eme te ry t h ey a r e i n terp re ted a sc l ea rr ema in s o ft h ec r ema t ion o fo f fe r ing s t o ge the rw i th t i ny c r ema t e dr ema in so ft h ec o rp se p l aced o ve rt h eg rave . Fu l ly i n teg ra ted i n to t h e c e l t ibe r ian c u l tu ra l s cope , t h e se k ind s o f man ife s ta t ion a re v er if ied i n U ce ro o f S or ia ( Ga rc ia S o to , 1 990 : 2 3 ) ,i nE lC abezo d eB a l le s t e -

t ween t h e g rave a nd t h e s t el e ,a l though t h e d e s t ruc t ive e f f ec to ft h ep lough s a nd t h ep re sence o fa ccumu la t ion s o f s l ab s o fl ime s tone p u l led u p b y t h e se f r om t h e s ub s o i l , make t h is ap o ss ib i l i ty . I n t h is s en se , a nd s t i l l a s s um ing t h e p o s s ib le i n ex is tence o f s t one s t e les , w e t h ink t h a tw i th r e ga rd s t ot h er egu la ra r rangemen to ft h e g rave s a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re i sn o e v idence t o s how t h a tt h e se h ave b een r emoved i no rde rf o ro t he r s t ot a ke t h e i rp l ace ,s ome k i nd o fm a rk f o rp o in t ing o u tt h ep re s e nce o fb ur ia ls mu s th ave e x is ted o n t h e s u r face , e i the r i n t h e f o rm o f as t one c a irn wh ich t h e p lough w ou ld h ave d e s t royed - o r a no the r t ype o f i nd ica t ion made

r o s o f Z a ragoza ( Pe rez C a sa s , 1 990 : 17 ) a nd , o f c ou r se ,i ns ome o ft h eI r on A ge c eme te r ie se xcava ted i n t h e p rov ince o f Guada la ja ra a s i n Mo l ina ( Ce rdeno e t a l i i , i 981 : 1 5 )o rE l A l t i l lo d eC e r ropozo ( Cab rd , 1 929 : 1 3 -14 ) . I fw e a ccep t t h e r i tua l n a tu re a s p ropo sed b y c er ta in

f r om p e r i shab le m a te r ia ls . b )O the re v idence

s cho la r s - o f t h e se a sh d epo s i t s , w e h ave t o c on s ide r

bi )A sh s t a in s I nt h i s s e c t ion w el ook a tt wo v e r s ion s o ft h i s k i nd o f a ccumu la t ion :

wha t p a t tern o f b ehav iou r t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted w i th . W i th r e ga rd s t ot h is w e f i nd p ar t icu la r ly i lu s t ra t ive t h e n ame g i ven b y T a f f ane l t ot h is k ind o fe v idence f ound

5

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a n d L CORTES AYUSO

c l o se t ot h em a in p a r to ft h eb u r ia l . I nA ragonc i l lo , t h ep re sence i nt h e se d epo s i t s o fp o t t e ry s he rd sb e long ing t op l a te s a nd p o t s w i th ag lobu la r

i nt h el a nguedoc ian c eme tery o fL o s F ado s : " a cce sso ry a she s" , i d en t ify ing t h em a s d epo s i t s c l o se t ot h e m a in c r ema t ion c ompo sed o f t h e mo s t c a lc ina ted p a r t o ft h e

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F IGURE 6 .( A )O f f e r ing p l a t fo rm o fT rench B -8 /C -8 .9 2 . ( B )A l ignmen to fg r a ve sa nd a s hd epo s i t so fT r en ch C -8 /A .92 . B e low ,s t on es t r uc tu re w i th v o t ive d epo s i t s . o u t l ine c ou ld b e a n i nd ica t ion o f f ood a nd o t he rs ub s tance s b rough t c o rp se a nd t h et i n ie s ta nd mo s td amaged r ema in s o ft h e

t ot h ep y re d u r ing o ri mmed ia te ly a f te rt h ec r ema t ion o f

g ravegood s ( Taf f ane l , 1 949 : 8 ) . T h i s p henomenon , t h a t w e t h ink w e h ave s een i n A ragonc i l lo , wou ld s i gn ify

t h ec o rp se . P ro f e s so rR eve r te ' s e xam ina t ion so ft h e c r e ma ted h uman r ema in s f r om t h is k ind o fc eme te ry s e em

t h e d i v i s ion o ft h e c o l lec t ion o ft h e i n c ine ra ted r ema in s

t oc onf irm t h is ,b ecau se t o ge th e rw i th t h eb one r ema in s ,

i n to t wo s t age s : f i r s t ly , t h e mo s tp re se rved p a r t so fb o th t h ec o rp se a nd t h eg ravegood s w ou ld b eg a the red ,f o rm i n g t h e m a in p ar t o f c r ema t ion t h a t w a s p l aced i nt h e

i ti sf r equen tt of i nd p o t te ry s he rd s , s ome t ime s c a lc ina t e d( Reve r te , 1 990 : 3 33 ) . b 1 .2 )L a rge a sh s t a in s ( F ig . 7 )

um o r h o le s pec if ica l ly made f o r i t . A s econd s t age

A t t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h e c eme tery w e d e tec ted a n

w ou ld b e t h e c o l lec t ion o f t h o se s e conda ry r ema in s ,

a sh s t a in w i th a n a r ea o f 6 3 m 2 ,t h a t a r e i n f a c t t wo

w h ich w ou ld b e p l aced i n h o le s o r l e n t icu la r p ocke t s

d i sc l ine a r ea s w i thou t c l ea r ly d ef ined l im i t s , 2m e te r s

‚

6

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

i nd iame te r a nd 0 . 40 me te r s i nd ep th wh ich d ue t ot h e

a b le t o r econ s t ruc t : c up s , p i tche r s , s eve ra l k ind s o f

p ro longed d epo s i t ion o fa she s , h a s e xceeded i t s c apac i -

p la te , a nd f i na l ly , l o t s o f l i t t le p o t s w ith g lobu la r o u t -

t ya nd f o rmed ac on t inuou s l a ye r .

l i ne . T he se e l emen t s s eem s t ob e i nd ica t ive o f ap o in t

T he mo s t s i gn i f ican t f ea tu re s o f t h e i n -f i l l o f t h e se

HGURE 7 . L a rge a s h s t a in o fT r ench C 1O /C -1 .92

whe re o f f e r ing s w e re p laced . T he s ca rc i ty o fa n ima l r e -

ma in s a nd me ta l l ic o b jec t s t oge the r w i th t h e a l ready men t ioned p resence o f s pec if ic c e ram ic mode ls , c ou ld b e r eca l l ing a t ype o f o f fe r ing i n wh ich l i qu id s , c om -

d i sc l ine a r ea s , a pa r t f r om t h e a bundance o fa sh , i st h e

b ined w i th f i re ,p layed a ni mpo r tan tr o le .

t o ta l a b sence o fs t one s o r s t ruc tu re s made w i th t h i s ma -

T he p re sence o f l i ba t ion s a nd o b jec t s r e la ted w i th

t e r ia l a nd t h e r a the r meag re p o t te ry t ype s w e h ave b een

t h em a r e b e ing d ocumen ted i na n i n c rea s ing n umbe r o f

7

J .A . ARENAS ESTEBAN a nd L CORTES AYUSO

c e l t ibe r ian c eme te r ie s . I n s ome , p i tche r s a nd c up s a p -

a nd 2 0 , b ecau se p a r t o fi t s a she s p ene t ra te i t .I ti st h u s

p ea r l i nked w i th g rave s , a si st h e c a se o ft wo g rave s o f t h e c eme tery o fP in i l la T ra smon te i nB u rgo s (Mo reda

p o s s ib le t h a tw ea r ed ea l ing w i th n o t ac o l lec t ive u s t r in i um b u to ne s pec if ica l ly i n s ta l led f o rb u rn ing i nd iv idu -

B lanco & Nuf lo G on7Mez , 1 990 : 1 72 ) , a l though i ti s mo re c ommon t of i nd t h em u n re la ted t os pec i f ic b u r ia l s o rf o rm ing wha t a r e t e rmed " f a lse g rave s" . We f i nd i n t e re s t ing e xamp le so ft h em i nt h e c eme tery o fL a s R u ed a s d e V a l lado l id , w he re i n c luded i nt h e g roup o fi no r -

a l sc on ta ined i nt h ea bove d oub le b u r ia l . F rom t h e v e ry f i r s t e xcava t ion s o fc e l t iber ian c eme -

g an ic o f fe r ing s , t h e mo s t f r equen t whee l th rown t y pe s a r e b o t t les , c up s , p i tche r s a nd b ow ls ( Sanz M inguez , 1 990 ; 1 66 ) . b -2 . -S tone s t ruc tu re s T hey a r e l ime s tone p l a t fo rm s t h a t , a s i ts e em s ,a tn o p o in ti nt ime c on ta ined a ny g r ave s . I nt h em w e re f ound a bundan t me ta l l ic o b jec t s a nd n on c r ema ted a n ima l r e m a in s wh ich ,i ns ome c a se s ,h ave f o rmed s i gn if ican ta c c umu la t ion s . U sua l ly , t h ey a r e mo re o rl e s s a l te red b y t h e p lough , b u t e ven s o i ti sp o s s ib le t os ay t h a t t h ey w e re c i rcu la r o ro b long i np l an w i th l a rge s t one s mak ing u pt h e i rp e r ime te r . T he s ma l le s tl e s s t h an 1m e te ri ni t s max imum a x i s a r en ' t u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th a sh r ema in s ( F igs . 8 1 3 a nd 9 ) . T he l a rge s t o ne 3 .5 me te r s i nd i ame te r - ( F ig . 8 -A ) ,a ppea r s u nde rt h ef o rm o f ag r ea ts t one a ccumu la t i on o ve r a nd b e tween wh ich w e re f ound many a she s w i th p o t tery s he rd s , m e ta l l ic o b jec t s a nd al a rge q uan t i t yo fa n ima lr ema in s . T he se d i f fe rence s i n mo rpho logy a nd c on ten t m ake u s t h ink t h a tw ea r en ' td ea l ing w i th au n i ta ry p henome n on ,b u tr a the rw i th s t one s t ruc tu res w i th d i f fe ren tf unc t i on sa nd p robab ly a l so ad i f f e ren tc h rono logy : U s t r in ium ( F ig .2 ) : A s i sk nown , t h is k i nd o fs t ruc tu re d e f ine s t h e p l ace w he re t h e b urn ing o f t h e c o rp se w a s c a r r ied o u t . T he mo rpho log ica l v a r ie ty o f t h e se c r ema to r ium s i sw ide , a nd r e spond s b o th t oc h rono log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s . T he s i gn s wh ich s ugge s t t h a t o ne o f t h e s t ruc tu re s f ound i nA ragonc i l lo w a s a nu s t r in ium a r e : •T he p r e sence o f al a ye ro fs t one s o f 3x 1 . 5m e te r s w i th p e r fec t ly d ef ined e dge s a nd w i th i t s l a rge s ta x is f a c ing NE -S W . •T he p r e sence o fa n i mpo r tan t l a ye ro fa she s mo re t h an 0 . 10 me te r s t h ick - c ove r ing t h e l a ye ro fs t one s a nd i n f i l tra t ing t h es l ab s w h ich f o rm i t . •T he p re sence o f many t i ny c r ema ted b one s . •T he p resence o f c ha rcoa l , s me l ted p ar t ic les o f b ronze a nd s eve ra l g roup ing s o fo b jec t s w i th ap o s s i b l er i tua l mean ing . I ti si n te re s t ing t op o in to u t t h a tt h is s t ruc tu re i sa s so c i a ted w i th t h e s t one c i rc le wh ich s u r round s G rave s 1 7

t e r ie s t h e p r e sence o f t h is u s t r in ia i sn o ted ( Agu i le ra y G amboa , 1 911 : 1 5 ; C ab ré e ta l i i , 1 950 : 1 63 ; C ab ré d e Mo ran yMo ran C ab ré , 1 975 : 1 26 ) , a l though n owaday s i t ' s d i f f icu l tt oa s c r ibe t h i s f unc t ion t ot h e s t ruc tu r e s d e s c r ibed i n t ho se d ay s , b ecau se t h e ir mo rpho logy a nd c on ten t s eem t ob e mo re r e la ted t o t h e d epo s it ion o f s ome s o r to fo f f e r ing s( Cuadrado , 1 968 : 1 0 ) . F rom r ecen t e xcava t ion s , w i th a mo re e l abora te m e thodo logy , o n ly i n s ome o cca s ion s , a s i nt h e c eme t e ry o fE l C abezo d e B a l le s tero s i nE p i la ( Perez C a sa s , 8 5 ; 4 28 ) o r i n P in i l la T ra smon te o f B urgos ( Mo reda B lanco & N uno G onza lez , 1 990 : 1 72 ) ,h a s t h is p henom e na b een n o ted . O f f e r ing s p l a t fo rm ( F ig . 8 -A ) : T he mo re s i gn if ican tf e a tu re s o ft h i s s t ruc tu re a r et h e h uge q uan t i t ie so fa sh t h a th ave a ppea red , t h er e la t ive ly g r ea ts i ze o fs ome o ft h e s t one s wh ich f o rm i t ,t h e s c a r c i ty o fp o t te ry a nd me ta l a nd t h e g r ea ta ccumu la t ion o f n on c r ema ted a n ima l b one s f ound , b e ing O v i s a r ie s 8 i nd iv idua l s - t h e mo s tf r equen ta n ima l , f o l lowed b y B o s t a u ru s 6i n d iv idua l s , w h i ls t E quus c aba l lu s a nd C e r v us e laphus a r e o n ly r ep re sen ted b y t h ree i nd iv idua ls r e spec t ive ly . T he v o t ive c ha rac te r o f a l l t h e se a n ima l r ema in s i s c on f irmed b y t h e a b sence o f h uman c r ema t ion s , t h e f o rm o f t h e v e ry f ew p o t tery v esse ls r e cove red g l obu la r p o t s a nd c up s - a nd t h e p resence o f h e rb ivo re b one s w i th d eca rna t ion t r ac es t h a t i nd ica te ap rev iou s p r epa ra t ion o ra n i ns i tu c on sump t ion o ft h e se s pec ie s . U s ing s ome t ypo log ica l t r a i t s a s i n t h e p re sence o f " b lack l e aded "p o t te ry s ign if ican t ly s c a rce i na l lt h ec e m e te ry - o rt y pe " 8 " p endan t s , ac h rono log ica l r e la t ion s h ip o f t h is s t ruc tu re w i th t h e n e ighbou r ing G rave 2 6 c an b ee s tab l i shed ,a nd t h e refo re t od a te i tt ot h es e cond h a lf o ft h eV I Ic en tu ry B . C . We h aven ' t f ound i n t h e c e l t iber ian f une ra ry s phe re a ny e xac t ly c ompa rab le man ife s ta t ion t o t h a t o f A ra g onc i l lo ' s , a l though o lde r p ub l ica t ion s w e re a l ready t a lk ing a bou tp henomena w h ich ,a tf i r s t ,c ou ld b e s im i l a r t ot ho se a tA ragonc i l lo , n o t s o much i ni t s e x te rna l mo rpho logy b u t r a the r i ni t s c on ten t a nd p o ss ib le r o le . C e r ra lbo d e sc r ibe s i n Agu i la rd e Angu i ta a nd Ho r tezue I ad e O cén t h e a l te rna t ion o f " s t ree t s" w i th g rave s a nd o t he r sj u s tf u l lo fa she s ( Agu i lera yG amboa , 1 9 16 : 1 5 ) . T he s ame h appens i n t h e c eme tery o f A lpansequc , w he re s ome o f t h e se " s t ree ts" c on ta ined , i n s tead o f

8

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

g rave s , at h ick l a ye r o f a sh , a nd s o t h ey w e re c a l led

p o t te ry b ecome si mpo r tan t . A cco rd ing t ot h e i rc ompo s i -

" c rema t ion s t ree t s" ( Cab ré d c Mo ran y Mo ran C ab rd ,

t i on a nd p l acemen tw i th in t h ec eme te ry w ec ou ld e s tab l i sh t h ef o l low ing c a tego r ie s :

1 975 : 1 25 ) .

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F IGURE 8 . S upe rpo s i t ion o fo l d ( numbe r s 3a nd 2 2 ) a nd y ounge rg raves . No te t h ea l ignmen to fy ounge ro ne s , a l o ft h em a r e i na n u rn .

b 3 .1 )U s t r in ium g roup ing s ( F ig . 2 ) : P laced b e tween t h e a sh a nd s t one s ,

w h ich f orm t h e c rema t ion p la tfo rm , e i gh t s e t s o f o b jec t s w e re f ound . T he ir c ommon f e a -

b 3 )V o t ive g roup s : U nde r t h is n ame w e c on s ide r s eve ra l o b jec t g roup i ngs f ound u ndoub ted ly i n s i tu , b u t d on ' t s e em t ob e l ong t oa ny p a r t icu la rb u r ia l . T hey a r e made u p o f i r on w eapon s a nd b ronze p e r s ona l o rnamen t s l i ke p l aque s , b race le t s a nd e ven f i bu l a e . S ome o ft h em c on ta in a n ima l r ema in s b e long ing t o mac romam iphe re s , a nd i t s r a re t of i nd e xamp le s w he re

t u re sa r e : •T he p re sence o f me ta l l ic o b jec t s . T he s uppo r t i ron o rb ronze - s how sv e ry s im i la rp e rcen tage s . •T he p re sence o f p o t te ry handmade a nd whee l t h rown - a l though i n v e ry s ma l l q uan t i t ie s . T h is k ind o f ma te r ia l h a s n o t b een v er if ied i nt h e o t he rg roup i ng so ft h ec eme tery .

9

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a n d LC ORTES AYUSO

•T he a ppea rance o ff a una r e p re sen ted b y B os t a ur z . mo la r t e e th a nd l ong b one s - a nd C ervu s e l aphus

I I . COMMENTS ON FUNERARY R ITUAL

-

o n ly l o ng b one sb -3 .2 . - S e t si n c luded i nb u r ia ls 1 7 -20 ( F ig . 5 ) : S i tua ted b e tween t h e s t one s l ab s w h ich f o rm t h ep ro -

I l l -A )T he c onf igu ra t ion o f as ymbo l ic s t age T he p hy s ica lc on tex to ft h ec eme tery We d on ' tb e l ieve t h a tt h ec ho ice o fl o ca t ion o ft h ec e -

t e c t ive l a ye r o f b o th g rave s , t h e re a r e t wo s e t s o f i r on w eapons a nd b ronze o rnamen t s s uch a s p ec tora l

me te ry t o b e ac a sua l f a c t . F rom a na lys i s o f c er ta in

1 7

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F IGURE 9 . T rench D -8 /B .92 : s t one s t r uc tu r en umb e r 1a n d p o s s ib le v o t ive g r oup ing sf o und i ni t .

p hy s ica lp a rame te r s c ou ld b e s ugge s ted as e r ie s o fr u le s

p l aque s ,f i bu lae ,b r ace le t s ,e t c . T he mo s ts i gn if ican td i f fe rence s i nr e la t ion t ot h ec o l l e c t ion sa s soc ia ted w i th t h eu s t r in ium a r et h ea b sence o f f auna a nd p o t tery ; c ommon e l emen t s a r e t h e s im i la r

c ommon t ot ho se o b se rved i no t he rc e l t ibe r ian c eme t e r i e s a nd e ven f r om d i f fe ren t c u l tu ra l s cop e s o fp en in su -

p re sence o fi r on a nd b ronze o b jec t s , a s w e l l a s c e r ta in t ypo log ica l t r a i t s d e tec tab le i n s ome o f t h e p i ece s t h a t

f l a tl a nd s uch a sf e r t i le p la in s o rg en t le s l ope s o f av a l l e y a ppea r s c l ea r . S im i la r t oA ragonc i l lo , t h e ma jo r i ty o f p ro toh is tonca l c eme ter ies o f t h e A l to T a jo -A l to

w h ich wou ld h ave t ob e f o l lowed a tt h e t ime o fc hoo s i ng i t s l o ca t ion ; r u les t h a t , i n tere s t ing ly e nough a r e

l a rp ro toh i s to ry . T he d e l ibe ra te p lacemen t o f c eme ter ie s i n a r ea s o f

c on s t i tu te t h em . b -3 .3 . - G roup ing s a s soc ia ted t os ma l l s t one s t ruc tur e s

J a lón a r ea a r es i tua ted o np l a in s ( Ce rdef lo & G a rc Ia H u e r ta , 1 990 : 8 4 ) ,a s w e l l a s t h o se e xcava ted b y C er ra lbo a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h ec en tu ry i nt h ep rov ince s o fG ua -

( F ig . 2a nd 9 ) : I n t h is c a se me ta l l ic o b jec t s a r e l i nked t o mode s t s t one s t ruc tu res . T he ir mo s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu re s a r e t h e n o tab le p r eva lenc eo fi r on o ve rb ronze a nd t h ep re sence o f a n ima l r ema in s p l aced w i th a n o bv iou s p ref e renc e , b ecau se w ha t w e f i nd e xc lu s ive ly a r e m and ib le s a nd

d a la ja ra , S o r ia a nd Z a ragoza ( Agu i le ra y G amboa , 1 916 : 9 )a nd t h ea r evaqu ian c eme te r ie s i n t h eu ppe rv a l l e yo ft h eD ue ro r i ve r( Ga rc ia S o to , 1 990 : 1 9 ) . T he e xp lana t ion f o r t h is o ccu r rence h as b een a d d r e s sed b y s e ve ra l s cho la r s . F o rC er ra lbo r e s ided i nt h e

t e e th f r om B os t a uru s .

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

e conom ic a nd s oc ia l v a lue t h a t t h e r i ver p la in s h ad , f i r s t ly b ecau se t h ey w e re n a tu ra lc ommun ica t ion r ou te s , a nd s econd ly b ecau se o f t h e ir e conom ic p o ten t ia l f o r a g r icu l tu re ( Agu i le ra yG amboa , 1 916 : 9 ) . G a rc ia S o to ( 1990 : 1 9 ) c on s ide r s t h is f a c t af unc t iona l q ue s t ion : t h e n eed f o r l e ve l s u r face s t op l ace t h e g r ave s a nd t h e d e s i re t oc on t ro l t h ec eme te r ie sf r om t h es e t t lemen t . We t h ink t h a t t h is p henomenon mu s t b e r ega rded f r om amuch w ide rp e r spec t ive , w h ich e mb race s t h er e l i g iou s c omponen t i nhe ren t i n a ny p l ace d ed ica ted t o t h e d ecea sed . I ti s ac on trad ic t ion i nt e rm s t os a c r if ice a r ea s o f h igh e conom ic p o ten t ia l t oS e t u p ac eme te ry w hen , w i thou t h av ing t og i ve u p t h e a bove men t ioned r e qu iremen t s , t h e r i ve r p l a in s a r e n o t t h e o n ly s u i tab le p l ace s f o r i t s l oca t ion . T he re mu s t b e o the r r e a son s wh ich d e te rm ine t h a t s pec if ic a nd a lmo s t g ene ra l ized l o ca t ion , n o t o n ly p hy s ica l o ne s b u t i d eo log ica l o ne s t o o . A v e ry c ommon f e a tu re , t h a t i sn a tu ra l ly p re sen t i n A ragonc i l lo ,i st h ec l o se s pa t ia lr e la t ion sh ip o ft h e se c e m e ter ie s w i th s ome w a ter s ou rces s uch a s b rook s , s p r ing s a nd e ven s a l t ern s . C e r ra lbo r ema rk s o nt h i s f a c t f o re ve ry c e l t ibenan s i te s h eh a s e xcava ted ( Agu i le ra y G amboa , 1 916 : 9 ) ,a sd oe sC uad rado i nL aR iba d eS ae l i ce s ( Cuad rado , 1 968 : 9 ) a nd G a rc ia S o to f o r t h e ma j o r i ty o fc eme t er ie so ft h eu ppe r Due ro ( 1990 , 1 9 ) ,e ven o ve r s tepp ing t h e c u l tu ra l c e l t ibenan b ounda r ie s a s w e c an s e e i nt h e t opog raph ic c on tex t o f t h e I r on A ge c e m e te r ie s o fC uenca a nd N o r th A lbace t e ( Mena Muf ioz , 1 990 : 1 85 ) . l ti sv ery d i ff icu l t t od e te rm ine t h e r e a son s f o r t h is f a c t , a l though i ts eem s a ccep tab le t ol ook f o ra ne xp la n a t ion i n t h e s ymbo l ic r e a lm . We t h ink i ti su n l ike ly t h a ti nt h is k ind o fc eme te ry t h e w a te rp l ayed a n a c t ive r o le i nt h er i tua l b ehav iou rb ecau se , b e s ide s t h ep i tche r s a nd c up s w e men t ioned , w e h ave n o td e tec ted t h ep re s e nce o f a ny o ther ma ter ia l e l emen t s wh ich c an b e l i nked t oi t s u se . We r a the r t h ink t h a t w a te r s hou ld b e r ega rded a s a n e voca t ive e l emen t o f ar i tua l s pace w he re o ne o ft h e b a s ic i d ea s w ou ld b e t h a to fl ime s ; o f af r on t ie r b e tween t wo d i f fe ren t c oncep tua l s copes , w ho se p ecu l ia r it ie s w i l lb ed ea l tw i th e x ten s ive ly l a te r . A no the r a spec t t h a t s e em s t ob e i mp l ied i nt h e l o ca t i on o f o u r c eme tery i st h e i n te res t i nm a in ta in ing t h e d ead v i s ib le . On t h eo ne h and t h ep rox im i ty a nd p e r fec t i n te rv isua l c on t ro l o f E l P a loma r w i th i t s c eme tery , p o in tt o ac l ea ri n ten t ion o nb eha lf o ft h e " l iv ing" i nt r y i n g t ob ea sc l o se a sp o ss ib le t ot h e " d ead " . On t h eo the r h and , t h e p l acemen to f ac eme te ry c l o se t o ac ommun i c a t ion r ou te i sa n i n d ica t ion o f t h e g roup 's i n te re s t i n " s how ing" t h e ir d ead t oo t he r c ommun i t ie s . T h is l i nk w i th a cces s mu te so ccu r sa l so i no t he rc e l t ibe r ian c eme -

t e r ie s a s i n Agu i la r d c Angu i ta ( Agu i le ra y G amboa , 1 911 : 1 2 ) ,L a Yun ta ( Ga rc ia Hue r ta & An tona , 1 992 )i n t h e C am ino R ea l t he o ld r oman r oad f r om L am in io t o B i lb i l is , L a Me rcade ra o f S o r ia , c l ose t o t h e r oman r oad f r om A s tu r ica t oC ae sa raugu s ta ( Ta racena , 1 932 ; 5 ) , a nd a ppea r ing i n ag ene ra l ized w ay i nt h e I r on A ge c eme t e r ie so fu ppe rE b ro r i ve r( L lano s , 1 990 : 1 44 ) . T o s ee a nd t o s how t h em se lve s t o t h e r e s t o f t h e wo r ld . . . Wha t f o r? Obv iou s ly , t oc ommun ica te s ome t h ing , i n t h is c a se b y w ay o f t h e p hy s iognomy w h ich t h e m a t te r a cqu i re s . I n e ach o f t h e c eme t ery ' s g r ave s a s i ng le f e e l ing w a s r ep re sen ted ; i no rde r t o me rge t h em i n to ac ommon o ne ,i ti sn ece ssary t h a te ach s i gn w h ich e x te rna l izes c omb ines t o f orm a s i ng le e xp res s ion w ho se a ppea rance w i l l make p eop le r e a l ize t h a tt h ey a c t i n u n ison , mak ing t h em a wa re o f t h e ir mo ra l u n i ty ( Du rkhe im , 1 983 :378 ) . T he c oncep tua l s cope : T he s t ar t ing p o in t o f t h is s ec t ion i st h e o bv iou s d i c ho tomy e x is t ing i nA ragonc i l lo b e tween t h es pace d ed i c a ted t ot h ed a i ly l i f eo ft h e c ommun i ty r ep re sen ted i n t h es e t t lemen to fE lP a loma r - a nd t h a te xemp l i f ied i ni t s c eme te ry . S een f r om ad ome s t ic s t ance , i nt h e f o rme r , a lmo s te ve ry th ing h a s au t i l i ta r ian c ha rac te r ; i nt h el a t t e r a lmo s tn one . I n t h e s e t t lemen t w e f i nd at y pe o fa r c h i tec tu re t o ta l ly d i f f eren t f rom a s t ruc tu ra l p o in t o f v i ew a sw e l l a sf r om af unc t iona l o ne - t ot h a t e x is t ing i nt h e c eme tery ; t h e ma ter ia l c u l tu re i se qua l ly d i f fe r e n t . E ven c ommon e l emen t s , s uch a s t h e p re sence o f f i re o ra n ima lr ema in s ,a ppea rd ife ren t ly i na r chaeo log i c a l r e co rd s , e vok ing f unc t iona l a nd i d eo log ica l ly d i f f e ren tc on tex t s . Wh ich i st h en t h e c oncep te mb raced i nt h e c eme te ry o fA ragonc i l lo? . I ti so bv iou s t h a t ,i ng ene ra l t e rm s ,w e a r ed ea l ing w i th ap l ace w he re r e l ig iou s p rac t ice s w e re c a r r ied o u t , a nd a s s uch p o sse sse s a n u nequ ivoca l om p ha l l ic s t amp ;i ne ach ompha lo so ccu r sa ne xchange b e t ween h uman b e ing s a nd d e i t ie s ( Sopef la , 1 987 : 5 5 ) ; i n t h is c a se i tw ou ld b eb e tween t h e " l iv ing w o r ld "a nd t h e " a f te rwo r ld " . We a r e , t h en , i n ac on tex tf u l l o fl im ina l i t y o b ta ined b y t h e s uperpo s i t ion o f t wo c oncep tua l s phe re s : t h a t o f t h e l i v ing t he p hys ica l s uppo r t - a nd T he A l t erwo r ld t he i d eo log ica l s uppo r t . Ap lo to fl a nd h a s b ecame t h e med ia t ing c hanne l b e tween t wo v e ry d i f f e ren t r ea lm s o f h uman c u l tu re ; i n s ho r t , i n ah o ly p l ace wh ich i sa nd i sn o ta tt h es ame t ime i nt h is w o r ld ( Leach , 1 976 : 7 1 ) . Wh ich w e re t h e e l emen t s u sed t oa ch ieve t h is e f fec t? U ndoub ted ly t h e re w e re many ;s ome o ft h em l o s tf o rev e ro w ing t ot h e i r i n t r in s ic n a tu re . O the r s , h oweve r , c an s t i l l b er e cogn ized i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd :

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J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a nd L CORTES AYUSO

D ead a nd g ravegood s A l l a l ong w e h ave i lu s t ra ted t h e c omp lex t r ea tmen t g i ven t ot h e d ecea sed i nc e l t ibe r ian c u l tu re . T he d ead , a n o b jec t o f ap a r t icu la r e mo t ion , b ecome s t h e c en t ra l f ocu s o f ar i tua l w ho se f unc t ion , b y mean s o f s eve ra l f a c to r s o f fe r ing s ,g rave c onf igu ra t ion ,e t c . - i st oi n su re t h e c o rp se r eache s t h e a pp rop r ia te s t a tu s : t h a t o f ad e c ea sed p e r son ( Ba rce ló , 1 984 : 9 7 ) . T he re i st h en ar i tua l d i ssoc ia t ion o f s eve ra l i nd iv idua l c omponen t s : t h e ma t e r ia l a spec t s o f t h e d ecea sed a r e p e rpe tua ted i n t h e g rave ; t h e s p ir i tua l o ne s i nt h e s ou l . . . t h e s ymbo l ic e x p re ss ion o f t he p e r sona l i ty ( Du rkhe im , 1 983 ; 4 39 ) . B o th i n te rac t a nd p roduce a n a nce s to r o r , i n o the r w o rd s , ac on s tan tp o in to fr e fe rence o ft h es oc ia l i d en t i t yo ft h ec ommun i ty . T he r ema in s o ft h e c o rp se a r e i n many c a se s a ccom p an ied b y g ravegood s . T he se o b jec t s w e re b u rned o n t h e p y re t o ge the r w i th t h e c o rp se , a st h e d i s to r t ion a nd p a r t ia l s me l t ing c l ea r ly i nd ica te ,a nd w e re o f ten d e l ibe r a t e ly r endered u se le ss ( F igs . 3 , 4a nd 5 ) . T h is b ehav i o u r ,o bv iou s ly o f ar i tua l n a tu re ,c ou ld c o r re spond w i th

p o in to fv i ew , t h ese d i f fe rence s c ou ld b e d e te rm ined b y t h ep resence o fs oc ia l s t ra ta , a nd c on sequen t ly d if eren t i a ted p owe r so fa cqu is it ion . I nt h i s c a se t h eg ravegood s w ou ld r e inac ti nT he A f te rwo r id as y s tem o fs oc ia lr e la t i ons wh ich m igh t b e r e spec ted b y f u tu re g ene ra t ion s ( San to s V e la sco , 1 990 : 6 11) . Adop t ing ad yach ron ic p e r spec t ive , i t ' s i mpo r tan t t o r ema rk t h a t w i th t h e p a ss ing o f t ime , g ravegood s d e c r ea se i nq ua l i ty a nd q uan t i ty ,a lmo s tt o ta l ly d i sappea r i ng o r , a tt h e mo s t , a ppea r ing a s r a the r p oo ra nd i n co h e ren tc o l lec t ion so fo b jec t s . Wha th app ened? : f o rs ome s cho la r s t h is w ou ld b e e xp la ined b y t h e a pp ea rance , a t t h ee nd o ft h eI V c en tu ry B . C . ,o f mo re s eden t a ry w ay s o f l i fe ( D iaz , 1 976 : 1 84 ) . O the r s , s uch a s A rgen te ( 1977 : 1 40 ) , t h ink t h a t i ti s t h e p re sence o f r oman t r oop s i nt h ei n te r io ro ft h eI b e r ian P en in su la , t h a ts i nce t h e e nd o f S econd C e l t ibe r ian Wa r 1 33 . B . C . - c on t r o l led o re ven c on f isca ted i nd igenou s w eapon s . Due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s p henomenon s eems t os t a r t a tl e a s t a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e I I c en tu ry B . C . , t h e r e a son mu s t b e d i f fe ren t , b ecause t h e R oman s d idn ' t a r r ive o n t h e

w i th i t s o wne r f o r e ver ( Ce rdef lo & Ga rc ia Hue r ta , 1 990 : 9 1) . S ome a u tho r s h ave p e rce ived t h a t c e r ta in p r im i t ive c u ltu re s t h ough t t h a t i n T he A f terwo r id t h e

S pan ish ma in land u n t i l t h ee nd o ft h a tc en tu ry . R ecen t s t ud ie s c oncern ing t h is s ub jec t , p o in t t oe n d ogenou s c au se s ; e spec ia l ly t ot h e g e s ta t ion o f an ew s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l o rde ri nw h ich t h e c i ty a cqu i re s i n c r ea s ing i mpo r tance a sr egu la to ry b ody ( Be l t ran , 1 992 ; 2 15 ) . F o l low ing Ru iz -Ga lvez , t h is n ew c i ty o rgan iza -

d ecea sed wou ld n o t m ake u se o f t h ese o b jec t s b u t o f t h e i r " doub le s" , a nd s oi tw a s n ece ssary t od e s t roy t h e

t i on wou ld h ave r e su l ted i n , a mong o the r s , t h ed i s so lu t i on o ft h e s y s tem o n w h ich t h e c e l t ib e r ian s oc ie ty w a s

f i r s t o ne s t o r e lea se t h e s e cond o ne s ( Brunaux , 1 986 ; 8 8 ) . T he i d ea o ft h ec l o se r e la t ion sh ip e x is t ing b e tween t h ed ead a nd t h e i ri n s t rumen t s t hu s b ecome s ap o ss ib i l i -

b a sed u pt ot h a t momen t : k i n sh ip . T he s imp l i f ica t ion o f

t h ei d ea t h a to nce t h ei nd iv idua l w a sd ead ,i tw a sn ece s s a ry t op reven t a nyone f r om u s ing t h em a nd s o t o g o

t y ,a nd s ot h e g ravegood s a r e s ub jec ted t ot h es ame d e s t ruc t ive p roce s se si n fl ic ted o nt h ec o rp se . T he f unc t ion o f t h e se g ravegood s c ou ld b e , o n t h e o ne h and , t h a t o fa ni n s t rumen to fr e la t ion b e tween t h e i nd iv idua l a nd T he S upe rna tura l ( Sopef la , 1 987 ; 8 3 I B rad ley , 1 990 : 2 01) ; a nd o n t h e o t he r h and , t oc on t r ib u t et os t a te c l ea r ly t h e s oc ia l c on ten t so ft h er i tua l sr e in f o rc ing n o t o n ly e l emen ta ry s oc ia l r e la t ion s a ge , s ex , e t c . - b u t a l so mo re c omp lex p henomena w h ich d eno te t h e a ppea rance i n t h e f unera ry s pec tac le o f h ighe r r e ach ing s oc ia l d i f fe rence s ( D 'Ago s t ino a nd S chnapp , 1 992 : 2 0 ) ; e xp re ss ion s o f s t a tu s t h a t mu s t b e r ega rded a s r e la t ing t o , mo re t h an r ef lec t ing , t h e s oc ia l p o s i t ion o ft h ei n d iv idua l t ow hom t h ey b e long ( Pa rke rP ea r son , 1 982 : 1 01) . H oweve r ,t h eg rave s d on ' ta lway sc on ta in h omogene o us g ravegoods a nd s o s t rong d i f fe rence s c an b e o b -

g ravegood s i nc e l t ibe r ian c eme te r ie s wou ld b e a t t r ibu t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t a s s oc ie ty a nd r e la t ion s o f p rope r ty c hanged s uch g ravegood s l o s t i t s s ymbo l ic v a lue ( 1990 :345 ) . T he re a r e h oweve r s ome o b jec t ion s t o t h is mode l wh ich make i td i f f icu l tt oa ccep t i tf u l ly . T he mo s ts i g n i f ican t o ne i st h a t n o t a l l c e l t ibe r ian c eme te r ie s l o se me ta l g ravegood si nt h e i rl a te rp ha se s . C u r ren te xcava t i ons i n c eme ter ies s uch a s Numanc ia a nd U ce ro ( Ga rc ia S o to , 1 992 ) a r e s how ing l a v ish w eapon c o l lec t i on s f o r t h e I I a nd I c en tu r ie s B . C . Howeve r , t h e se e xamp le s s e em t oc ome u nde r t h e d oma in o ft h e Due r o ' s v a l ley , s omewha t d i s tan t f r om t h e a r ea w he re o u r w o rk i sf ocu s sed . Wh i l s tt h el a ck o fg ood r eg iona l s t ud i e sp e r s is t si tw i l l b ei mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h ec au se s o ft h e se d i spa r i t ie s ,b ecau se w ec ou ld b ec onf ron t ing r e g iona l s t ud ie s wh ich wou ld n o t n ece s sa r i ly i nva l ida te t h a t p ropo sed f o r o u r z one , w he re a l l t h e c eme te r ies c omp ly w i th t h ea bove .

s e rved i nt h e n umb e r a nd q ua l i ty o fo b jec t s d i sp layed , w i th n one a ta l l i no the r s . T h is f a c t s hou ld b e v i ewed f r om t wo d i f fe ren t p e r spec t ive s . F rom a s ynch ron ic

T he f une r a ry l a nd scape : W i th t h eb u r ia l o fa ni nd iv idua l an ew s pace i sc r ea t -

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e d : t h eg rave ;i t s n ew r e s idenc ea f te rp a s s ing t h et h re sh o l do fd ea th . Ac l o se c onnec t ion i st h en e s tab l ished b e t ween t h ed ead p e r son a nd as pec if ic t e r r i to ry , w h ich i s s i gnpo s ted b y mean s o f ab ur ia l mound o r s t e le b e i t m ade o fs t one , wood o rs ome o t he rp e r ishab le m a ter ia l ,p e rpe tua t ing i t s memory among t h e l i v ing ( Ve rnan t , -

1 982 : 1 ) . F rom t h is w e a s sume t h a t t h ef une ra ry l a nd s c ape m an ife s tt h rough ac eme te ry t h a tw ea r en ow c on c e rned w i th ,c ou ld b ei n te rp re ted a s at y pe o f" s ymbo l ic a r ch i tec tu re " wh ich ,a sw e s ugge s ted b efo re ,h ad a ni m -

T he f i r e : Af undamen ta l e l emen ti nt h e r i tua l c omp lex o fA ra g onc i l lo i st h ep r e sence o ff i r e ,i nf lec ted o nb o th t h ed e c ea sed a nd t h eg r avegood s . F i re s e ems t ob e ac en t ra l t h eme i nc e l t ibe r ian f une r a r y i d eo logy : •A l l t h ep e r son sb u r ied i nt h ec eme te ry w e re i n c ine r a t ed . •T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a l lows u s t os ay , a tl e a s t i no ne c a se , t h a t t h e s pace whe re t h e c r ema t ion t o ok p l ace w a s r i tua l ized b ecau se b e s ide s b e ing t h e p l ace w he re t h e s ub s tan t ia l t r an sfo rma t ion o f t h e c o rp se w a s o pe ra ted , i ti s ap l ace w he re s ymbo l ic a c t s , a s t h ed epo s i t ion o fo f fe r ing s ,w e re c a r r ied o u t . •T o ta l c r ema t ion i sr e se rved o n ly f o rt h ei nd iv idua ls a nd a l lt ho se t h ing st h a ti d en t i ty t h em g ravegood s .

p o r tan t r o le i nt h e t r an sm i ss ion o fi d ea s a nd c o l lec t ive c oncep t s b ecau se , a s A . R u iz p o in t s o u t ( 1992 : 3 99 ) , c u l tu ra l r e la t ion sh ip s a r e r e cogn ized i nc ommun ica t ive a c t s a nd , a l though t h ey a r e mo re o b jec t ivab le i n l an g uage , t h i s d oe sn ' t e xc lude o the r s y s tem s o fe xp re s s ion s uch a si mage , r i tua l ,e t c . w i th w h ich t or e con st ruc tr e l a t ion s o fs oc ie ty w i th N a tu re a nd t op roduce t h eu nde r s t and ing b e tween s oc ia lg roup s . I nf une ra ry l a nd scape t h a t h a s b een d i sp layed i n c e m e te r ie s s uch a sA ragonc i l lo w en o te an on -ve rba lf o rm o f c ommun ica t ion i nc ha rge o f , o n t h e o ne h and , r e in f o rc ing e mo t ive a spec t s o ft h e p l ace a nd , o n t h e o the r , t r an sm i t t ing t h rough g ene ra t ion s s eve ra l c o l lec t ive v a l u e s t h a t , u l t ima te ly g i ve c ohe s ion t oc u l tu re i ni t s w ide r s en se b y t h e c r ea t ion o f " r e fe ren t ia l r o le s" w h ich i mp ly i nd iv idua l membe r sh ip t o ag roup w i th s pec if ic a nd i d en t if iab le f e a tu re s ( E l l is a nd McC l in tock ; 1 993 ; 1 30 ) . We s hou ld n o tf o rge t t h a ti nt h e s e lec t ive p e rcep t ion o fm e ssage s , v i s ion i st h e mo s t i mpo r tan t c hanne l . I n c om ing i n fo rma t ion i so rgan ized i n to ma jo rb lock s r e c o gn ized a s o b jec t s , s i gn s o r s i gna ls , a nd a t t h e s ame t ime , r e in te rp re ted a nd u sed ( A rgy le , 1 984 : 6 3 ) . S een u nde rt h is l i gh t , t h ed ead a r e ap a r to ft h e p a s t w h ich i s v e ry i mpo r tan tf o rt h ep r e sen t ,m a in ly i nt h ef o rm o fa n c es to r s , d e i t ie s a nd o the r s uperna tu ra l b e ing s . T he

•T he p r esence o f t h e s o c a l led " a cce sso ry a she s" s hows t h e e x is t ing i n te re s t i n c o l lec t ing a l l t h e r e ma in s o f t h e c r ema t ion . Once s ub jec ted t o t h e f i re , t h ei nd iv idua la nd h i si n s t rumen t sb ecome a ni n d iv is i b le " one " wh ich mu s tb ec on se rved . T he re a r e s eve ra l i n te rp re ta t ions c once rn ing t h e r o le o f f i re i n t h e f une ra ry c on tex t s . S ome s cho la r s a s so c i a te t h i s r i t e w i th t h eb e l ief i na n " a f t erwo r id" f ound i n t h e s ky , a nd s o b urn ing t h e p hy s ica l r ema in s l i be ra te s t h e s ou l t h a ti st h en c a r r ied t ot h a t " a f te rwo r ld" b y w ay o ft h er i s ing s moke ( J ame s , 1 928 : 2 32 -233 ) . C o inc id ing w i th t h is , S opena p o in t o u t , c once rn ing a l ready w i th c e l t ibe r ian mo r tuary r i tua l s , t h e i mpo r tan t r o le t h a t i n t h et r an s la t ion o ft h e s ou l t h ef i re p l ay s ,i tb e ing t o ge th e rt h e w a te r a nd s ky as y s tema t ic e l emen t o f c on junc -

b u i ld ing o f v i s ib le monumen t s i s aw ay t og i ve t h em

t i on n ece s sa ry f o rt h a tt r an s i t( 1987 : 1 22 ) . F i re i st h en a ne s sen t ia l p a r to f ap roce ss b y wh ich i t i sp o s s ib le t h e t wo i d en t i t ies w e re b e ing s epa ra ted : t h e e a r th ly o ne ,w h ich r ema in si nt h eg rave a nd mu s td eve l -

m a te r ia l e xp re ss ion a nd r e cogn i t ion i n h uman a f fa ir s ( Pa rke rP ea r son , 1 982 : 1 01) . We a r e d ea l ing w i th a me ta l ingu is t ic r e sou rce

o p s pec i f ic f unc t ion s i n t h e s oc ia l a r t icu la t ion , a nd t h e s p ir i tua l o ne , w h ich move s t oT he A f te rwo r id t of u l f i l l ap a r t o f t h e r e l ig iou s a sp ira t ion s o f t h e c ommun i ty .

t h rough w h ich , c on sc iou s ly o r n o t , c e r ta in r u le s o f s o -

T he d ecea sed f i nd s i td i ff icu l t t oa bandon t h e wo r ld o f

c i a l b ehav io rf ocu sed ;a cco rd ing t ou s ,o nt wo d i f f e ren t

t h el i v ing . . , o nce t h e s epa ra t ion r i te s h ave f i n ished i ti s d i f f icu l t f o r h im t oh ead t owa rd s T he A f te rwo r ld , a nd w h i le h e d oe sn ' t r e ach t h e r ea lm o f t h e a nces to r s , t h e l i v ing h ave t of o l low ac e r ta in p a t te rn o fb ehav iou r : t h e d ecea sed e n te r s t h e l im ina l s cop e . I n t h is s t a te t h e d e c ea sed b ecome s u ndef inab le : h e i sn e i the r l i v ing n o r

s cope sa r eb e ing t r an sm i t ted . F i r s t ly w ec ou ld r e cogn ize at y pe o fi n fo rma t ion d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e g roup ; c om i n g u nde r i n t racommuna l s phe re , a nd w ou ld b e a im ing t op erpe tua te as e to f mo ra l v a lue s w h ich w ou ld b e s e c u red b y t h e a nce s to r s a ch ieved t h rough , a mong o the r t h ing s , t h e e x te rna l r ememb ranc e o ft h e b u r ied i n d iv id u a ls b y m ean o fl a ndma rk s . S econd ly t h e re w ou ld b ea n e x t racommuna l c hanne l o fi n fo rma t ion wh ich wou ld b e d i rec ted t o o the r g roup s ; a nd w ou ld b e i n c ha rge o f

d ead ( Ba rce ló , 1 984 : 9 3 ) a nd mu s t l ook f o r aw ay t o r emedy t h is s i tua t ion . . . B a sed o nt h e se r ef lec t ion s , i ti sp o s s ib le t og i ve f i re a d ua lf unc t ion t oc e l t ibe r ian f une ra ry r i tua ls :

s how ing , i fn o t t h e s t a tu s , a tl e a s t t h e s oc ia l " i den t i ty" o ft h eg roup w i th r ega rd s t oo the rc ommun i t ie s .

An ece s sa ry c omponen tf o rt h ep hy s ica lc onve r s ion o f ac o rp se i n to ar i te d ep a s sage c on tex t .I nf une ra ry -

1 3

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a n d L CORTES A YUSO

r i tua l s ymbo ls a r e t r aced t h rough t h e b io logy o f d ea th ;o fd ecompo s i t ion ,c a tabo l i sm a nd o t he rp hy s i c a l e f fec t s wh ich h ave a n ega t ive t i nge ( Turne r ,

1 979 : 5 4 ) . A lso t h e v io lence o f t h e p roce s s a nd i t s c on sequence s , make t h i s t r an sfo rma t ion i r reve r s ib le

1 967 : 9 8 ) . T os t a r t w i th ,f i re a cce le ra te s t h et r an sfo r -

4 5 ) .

U I T R I N I U M

C I T R U C T U E I

a nd d ef in i t ive ( Du rkhe im , 1 993 : 1 05 / Bu rke r t , 1 987 :

�n

m a

c i s i c u i

C

Ia. ii s Uft.d .lth ...‚.rt y

F IGURE 1 0 . S cheme o ft h ea n im l r ema in sf o und i nd i f f e re n t a r e a so ft h ec eme te ry .

-

As ymbo l ic d oo r t ot h e " a f te rwo r ld " . When d ea th

o ccu r s , i ti sn ece ssa ry t od e s t roy i t s p hy s ica l c ove r i ng i n o rde r t o a l low t h e r i ddance o f s ou l ( Du rkh e im , 1 993 : 3 99 ) ,a nd f o rt h is ,n o th ing i s mo re d ra s -

m a t ion t h a tw i l l a l low s epa ra t ion o ft h es ou lf r om t h e c o rp se a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fi t sj ou rney . I ti st h e d i s s o lu t ion o ff o rm t h a tp rov ide s am e tapho ro ft h e mo -

t i c t h an c r ema t ion . T h is i d ea d i rec t ly r e la te s t o t h e l im ina l i ty t h eme a nd s o c ou ld b e l i nked w i th t h e p r esence o fw a te r ,p robab ly a s ac omp lemen ta ry e l e -

r a l a nd s oc ia l t r an s i t ion ( Hun t in tong a nd Me tca lf f ;

1 4

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

•When i th a s b een p o s s ib le t od e term ine t h e i r a ge ,

m en t ,r a the rt h an a n t i the t ic .

t h e se a lway s c o r re spond w i th a du l t a n ima ls . As pe c i a l ly i n te re s t ing c a se i st h a t d i sp layed i nt h e u s ir in i um , w he re a l l t h e B o s t auru s s pec imen s b e long t o

Wa t e r : D ue t ot h e i mp rec i se w ay i nw h ich i ts e em s t oi n te r v ene , t h e c oncep t o f w a te r h e r e s e em s t ob e q u i te f a r f r om i t s p hy s ica l p rope r t ie s , r e in te rp re ted a nd r eu sed f r om as ymbo l ic p e r spec t ive . A s as t a r t ing p o in t w e mu s tn ' t f o rge t t h e r o le t h a t i n g ene ra l t e rm s i sg i ven t ow a te ri nt h er i tua l r e a lm : s ym -

s en i le i nd iv idua ls . T h is c ou ld b ei n te rp re ted a s ag e s t u re t om in im ize i n ve r s ion b ys e lec t ing t h eo lde s ta n i ma ls a nd t h u s ,o fl e ss e conom ic i n te re s t . •T he p re sence o f " p re fe ren t ia l a s soc ia t ion s" o fa na t om ic p a r t sr ep r e sen ted ,i n d ica t ing t h a tn o ta l l t h ea n i ma l w a sc on sumed i nt h er i tua l a c t . On ly s ome p ar t s w e re e mp loyed i ni t ;t h er e s tm igh tb ec on sumed d o m e s t ica l ly . R ecen te xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u ti nc e l t ibe r ian c eme te r -

b o l o fa l l v i r tue s ,f ons e io r igo ,t h ew omb o fe ve ry th ing , w i th t h e c onsequen t p ro jec t ion t o t h e f une ra ry wo r ld a nd mo re s pec i f ica l ly t ob e l ie f s b eyond t h e g rave : t o ta l i mme r s ion o f t h e l a s t r ema in s o f t h e h uman c ond i t ion , s ot h ey c an b eb o rn a ga in ( E l iade , 1 990 : 2 37 -238 ) .T h is i d ea i sr e ga rded b y o t he rs cho la r s w hen i n te rp re t ing t h e p re sence o f w a te r i n p ro toh i s tonc f une ra ry c on tex t s :

i e s s how t h e e x is tence o f a n ima l r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th g rave s o rd i spe r sed t h roughou t t h e s i te . I n t h e c e me tery o fL a Y un ta , n e ighbou r ing A ragonc i l lo , t h ee x c ava to r so ft h es i te i n te rp re ted s e ve ra l c o l lec t ion s o fo b -

" wa te r a s as i gn o fr ena issance , l i fe a nd h ea l th " ( 1 Jaba a nd R odr igo , 1 990 : 2 72 ; Mena Mu f ioz , 1 990 : 1 93 ) . F rom t h is c oncep t w ec an e a s i ly p a ss t oa no the ro ne i n wh ich w a ter a ppea r s a s a n i mpo r tan t e l emen t i n t h e t r an s i t ion " f rom o ne s t a te t oo t he r " , " f rom t h is l i fe t o t h eo t he r " ( Sopena , 1 987 : 2 22 ) ;a ne l emen tt h a t ,t o ge th e rw i th f i re ,c on t r ibu te s t og ene ra te t h es ymbo l ic i d ea o f d i v i s ion b e tween t h e t wo v i ta l s phe re s o ft h ec ommun i -

j ec t s a s g rave s t h a tc on s is t o fc up s , d i she s a nd p i tche r s i n wh ich n o h uman c r ema t ion h a s b een f ound ( Ga rc ia H uer ta a nd A n tona , 1 992 : 1 48 ) . S pec ia l a t ten t ion mu s t b eg i ven t oG rave 2 7 ,c on ta in ing a ni n ver ted c up c ove r i ng ad i sh f u l l o f o v icap r id b one s ( 1992 : 3 9 ) . We b e l i eve t h ese s e t s d o n o t c or re spond w ith " symbo l ic g rave s" b u t w i th r ea l o f f er ing d epos i t s l i nked t o t h e

t y .

c on sump t ion o ff ood . T he s ame o ccu r s i nt h e c eme te r i e s o f C a rab ia s o r P rado s R edondo s o f S igüenza ( Ce rdef io , 1 977 : 2 56 ;P er ez d eY ne s t ro sa , 1 993 : 2 19 )o r Agu i la rd e Angu i ta i n wh ich w e re f ound t h er ema in s o f E quu s c aba l lu s , B os t a uru s , O v i s a r ie s , C apra h i rcu s , C ervu se l aphu s a nd O ryc to lagu sc un icu lu s .

1 1 -B . O f fe r ing s And S ac r if ice s : T h roughou tt h is p ape rs eve ra la l lu s ion s t ot h ep r e s e nc e o fb o th o rgan ic a nd i no rgan ic e l emen t s h ave b een made , t h a t mu s tn ' t b e c onfu sed w i th t h e g ravegood s w h ich w e re p l aced i ns ome g r ave s . N ow w ea r et a lk ing

Wi th r ega rd t o t h e d epo s i t s o f me ta l l ic o b jec t s , w e w an tt os t re s s t h ef a c tt h a tt h e se a r en ' ta s soc ia ted t oa ny

a bou t v i c t im s o f s a c r if ice dome s t ic a n ima ls m a in ly a nd v o t ive d epo s i t s e s sen t ia l ly c ompo sed o f m e ta l l ic o b jec t s .

p a r t icu la rg rave . T he d i f f icu l ty i st r y ing t of i nd am ean i ng f o r t h em . S ome o f t h em , a s t ho se i n c luded i n t h e s t ruc tu re o fG rave s 1 7 a nd 2 0o r t h a t f ound i nt h e n ea r

W i thou td i srega rd ing i t s r e l ig iou s t r an scendence , t h i s k i nd o f m an ife s ta t ion i sn owaday s c on s ide red t oo ve r -

b yu s t r in ium ,s e em t ob ea u then t ic v o t ive d epo s i t sr e la t e d t oi nd iv idua l s b ur ied t h e re . Howeve ri n mo re r e cen t o ne s ,p rob lems o fi n te rp re ta t ion o ccu rb ecau se i ts e em s t h a tt h ey m igh th ave l o s tt h e ir f unc t ion a sa no f fe r ing t o

l a p w i th t h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l d ynam ic s o ft h ec om mun i ty wh ich p roduced t h em a nd ap a r t o f av a s t p ro c ess o f c ommun ica t ion t h a t h a s a l ready b een

t a ke o na no th e rr i tua lr o le . T he a ppea rance o fo b jec t s u n re la ted t og rave s i sc e r t a in ly n o ta ne xc lu s ive f e a tu re o fA ragonc i l lo . I nt h ec e me tery o f L a s R ueda s , i n t h e p rov ince o f V a l lado l id , s eve ra l d epo s i t s ,l a ck ing c r ema ted h uman r ema in s ,a r e

r e cogn ized i no the rc e remon ia l a spec t s o fA ragonc i l lo . A s i nt h ec a se o fi nd iv idua l g ravegood s ,o f fe r ing sa r t ic u l a te ac ommun ica t ion b e tween t h el i v ing a nd t h ed ead , o r w ha t i st h e s ame , b e tween t h e h o ly a nd t h e p rofane ( Hube r t a nd Mau ss , 1 964 : 9 7 ) ; n o t ar e a l c ommun ica -

a t tr ibu ted t ot h e d egene ra t ion o f t h e r i te i nl a te r s t age s

t i on b u ta ni mag ina ry o ne , i nw h ich t h eo b jec to ff une r a r yu s ei sd e f ined n o tb yi t sf unc t iona l i ty o ru se b u tb ya

c on s i s t ing i nt h el o ss o ft h a tw h ich s e emed t ob e t h eb a s i c p a r t o f t h e b ur ia l : t h e d ecea sed ( Sanz M inguez , 1 990 : 1 64 ) . S im i la r g roup ing s f r om t h e c eme tery o fE l

v a lue t h a tw i l l d ep end o n t h es oc ia l t h eo re t ica ld eve lop m en ti nw h ich r i te e vo lve s ( Ba rc e ló , 1 984 : 9 0 ) . A s f o r t h e a n ima l r ema ins ,i ti si n te re s t ing t or e fe rt o s ome o ft h e ir c ommon f e a tu re s : B one s a r en ' t c r ema ted ; t h ey a r e p a r t ia l ly a f fec ted b yf i re o n ly i ns ome c a se s .

R a so d c C ande leda a r ei d en t if ied a s " s ymbo l ic g rave s" r e f er r ing t ob u r ia ls o fp eop le w ho d i ed f a ra way o ro f f e r ing s t oi nd iv idua ls w ho d i sappea red ( Fe rnandez Go m ez , 1 986 : 7 66 ) , a n i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t P e rez d c Yne s -

1 5

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a nd U CORTES AYUSO

r i tua l s i nt h e f i r s t p ha se s o f t h e c eme tery? P e rhap s b e c au se w e c ou ld b e f a c ing " con sp icuou s c on sump t ion "

t r osa h a s a s sumed w hen h e c a l ls t h em " ep i taph ic g rave s" r e fe r r ing t od ocumen ted c a se s i n t h e f une ra ry c e lt ibe r ian s cope a s t h e w ho le ( Pe rez d e Yne s t ro sa , 1 993 ; 1 93 ) . Twen ty f i ve g roup ings o f t h is k ind h ave b een i d en t if ied i nA ragonc i l lo ,a nd c ompa red w i th t h ir t yg rave s f ound , make u s c ons ide r t h e i mpo s s ib i l i ty o f

p rog ramme s o fc e r ta in e conom ic b a se so ft h ec ommun i t y . P rop er monumen t s a nd t h e a mo r t iza t ion o fl u xu r ie s i ng r ave s , b e s ide s t h e c onno ta t ion s a s s oc ia l s tab i l iza t i on e l emen t s t h ey h ave , t h ey c an r epre sen t af o rmu la f o re ncou rag ing s pec ia l ized c r af t smen a nd s t i r r ing c on s ump t ion a nd c i rcu la t ion o f g ood s , a nd e ven tua l ly t h e

h av ing s o many i nd iv idua ls b u r ied i nt h is " anoma lou s" w ay r a the rt h an b y t h eo r thodox r i tua l . Mo re i n te re s t ing t h an a na lys ing t h ei n terp re ta t ion so f s pec if ic o f fe r ing d epo s i t s p re sen ted i n t h e c ur ren t a r -

d eve lopmen to ft r ade e xchange s ( Luca s , 1 992 ;B u rker t , 1 987 : 4 3 ) . Why ,i nt h el a te rp ha se s o ft h e c eme te ry ,c an w e o b -

c haeo log ica l r eco rd ,i st h ee xam ina t ion o ft h ed i f f e renc e so bse rved f r om ad i ach ron ica l p e r spec t ive , o b se rva b l eb o th i n t he f ood a nd i nt h e me ta l l ic g roup ing s . I nt h eo l der p ha se so ft h ec eme t ery ,w ef i nd av as td i v e r s i ty a nd v o lume o f s a c r if iced a n ima ls a s w e l l a so f f e r ing s i nt h ef o rm o fo b jec t s , w h i le i nl a te ro ne s ,o f f e r i ng s a r e r a re a nd , a bove a l l , s ac r if ice s , w h ich s eem t o b e r ep laced b y n ew o rgan ic p roduc t s : p robab ly l i qu id s

s e r ve i nt h e o f f e r ing s as e lec t ive c on sump t ion b a sed o n s e conda ry p roduc t sa sd r ink s t o ge the rw i th much s ma l l e ra moun t o f m e ta l l ic p i ece s? A s w i th t h e a bove , b e c au se i nA ragonc i l lo w ec ou ld b ed ea l ing w i th t h ei nd i c a t ion o fd eep s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange s t h a t wou ld r e ach i t s max imum e xponen t i nt h e a l ready men t ioned d i s so lu t ion o ft h e o l dk in sh ip r e la t ion s p a ra l le l w i th t h e

e mp loyed i nl i ba t ion s . I n o rde r t of i nd a n e xp lana t ion t ot h is p henomenon w e mu s tl o ok o u t s ide o ft h es t r ic t ly r e l ig iou s s cope . O u r s t a r t ing p o in ti st h a t t h ef i r s t momen t s o fu se o ft h ec e -

g e s ta t ion o f an ew p o l it ica l s y s tem s im i la r t ot h a to fa c i ty -s ta te ( Ru iz -Gá lvez , 1 990 ; B e l t rán , 1 992 ) . H e re , s im i la rt oo t he ra r ea s i nE u rope , s pec i f ic c hange si no f f e r ing s a nd v o t ive f i nd s l a te r i nt h e I r on A ge c ou ld b e

me tery c o inc ide w i th t h e f o rma t ive s t age o fc e lt ibe r ian c u l tu re a nd , t hu s , w e s peak a bou t as oc ie ty i n ap roce s s

r ef lec t ing c hange s i ne conom ic c i rcum s tance s a l l o ve r t h ep e r iphe ry o ft h eR oman w o r ld . . , c hange s c a r r ied o u t " f rom w it h in " b y m an ipu la t ing t h e c onven t ion s e s tab -

o fc on so l ida t ion . T h is momen t , a l so r ep re sen ted i nt h e s e t t lemen t o fE l P a loma r , i s ap er iod o fh a rd e conom ic a c t iv i ty w i th t h eb eg inn ing o ft h e e x ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion

l i shed d u r ing e a r l ie rp e r iod s ( Brad ley , 1 990 : 1 97 ) . I V . CONCLUS IONS

o fm ine ra l r e sou rce s , t h ee s tab l ishmen to ft r ade c on tac t s w i th t h el e van t ine c oa s ta nd t h ea ppea rance ,f o rt h ef i r s t t ime i nt h is a r ea , o ft h e r a i s ing a nd o rgan iza t ion o fc a t -

U pu n t i l n ow w eh ave d esc r ibed a nd t r ied t o i n terpre t a

t l e( Are n a se ia l i i ; 1 990 ) . c en tu r ie s l a ter , h a s i t s p a ra l le l w i th E l P a loma r t oo ,

w ho le s e r ie so fa r chaeo log ica lf a c t s r eg is te r ed i n ac e l t i b e r ian c eme te ry . A s aw ho le , t h ey a r e t h ep roduc t o fa mo r tua ry r i tua l , t h e r ema in s o fr e l ig iou s p rac t ice s a nd ,

w he re t h e p r e sence o f as u rp lu s o fs a l ted mea t a nd t h e e x is tence o fl uxu ry i t em s w h ich a r en ' t f ound i nt h e c e -

t i ve r e a l i t ie s ; w ay s o f b ehav ing t h a t o ccu r o n ly w i th in

T he l a s t p ha se a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c eme te ry , f ou r

t h u s , o fc o l lec t ive p e r fo rmance s w h ich e xp re s s c o l lec a s semb led g roup s , a nd wh ich a r e d e s t ined t op rovoke , ma in ta in o r r emove c e r ta in men ta l s t a te s f r om t ho se

me tery a tt h a t t ime . T h is c ommun i ty s e em s t oe n joy a h i gh e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s t ab i l i ty d i s tu rbed o n ly b yt h e R oman s , w ho a r e t h e c au se o f t h e i r d e s t ruc t ion a nd s o

g roup s( Du rkhe im , 1 993 : 4 1 ) . I nt h e s t r ic t ly r e l ig iou s f r amewo rk , t h ec eme tery i sa p l ace c ha rged w i th s ymbo l ism whe re , a round t h e i d ea

t h ey a bandon t h e i r s e t t lemen ti nt h e m idd le o fIc en tu r yB .C . S oc ia l o s ten ta t ion i nf une ra ry r i tua l c an b e e xp re ss ly e v iden t w he re c hang ing r e la t ion s o fd om ina t ion r e su l t

o f d i v is ion s , aw ho le s e r ie s o f c oncep t s i sa r t icu la ted a ppea r ing t os u rpa ss t h e f une ra ry s cope a nd s p read t o o t he ra spec t so fr e l ig ion . F rom t h ea na ly s is o ft h ef une r a ry s pace s eve ra l f e a tu re s a r e i s sued f r om i t wh ich

i ns t a tu sr e -o rde r ing a nd c on so l ida t ion o fn ew s oc ia lp o s i t ion s ( Pa rke r P ea r son , 1 982 : 12 ) , i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t a n e conom ica l ly s t ab le s oc ie ty w i l l b e a b le t oi n v e s t s eve ra l s urp lu se s a cco rd ing t ot h e s t ipu la t ion s o f t h e i n s t i tu t ion s o r ,o nt h ec on t ra ry ,r egu la te c e r ta in r u le s

b r ing i tc l o se t ot h a t " open a i r s anc tu ary" p rope ro fc e l t i c w o r ld ; t on eme ton , t h a t make s r e f erenc e t ot h e s a c r ed a nd c e le s t ia l c l a r i ty : l o c ra s acra l i be ra w i th c en -

d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e e l im ina t ion o f s uch i nve stmen t , ma in ta in ing b yw ay o fo t he ri d eo log ica ld ev ice s ,t h es o -

t r ip e ta l c onno ta t ion s , whe re c on tac t w i th t h e wo r ld o f t h eG od st a ke sp l ace (Ma rco S imon , 1 987 : 6 7 ) .T he c e l t i c s anc tuary i s , a cco rd ing t oB eno i t , ap l ace w he re t h e

c i a l o rde rd e s ired ( Lu l l &P icazo , 1 989 : 1 8 ) . Why a r ep a r t s o ft h e p r ima ry e conom ic b a se s s uch a s

l i v ing c ommun ica te w i th t h e d ead ; aw o r ld i n w h ich God s w e re a nce s to r s a nd a nce s to r s w e re Gods ( 1970 ;

l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f mea ta nd me ta l l ic o b jec t si n ve s ted i n

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m i tage w e re f ound , f r om wh ich a c l ea r i n te re s t f o r m a in ta in ing t h a t p l ace i nhab i ted a nd s a c red o ccu r s . I f t h is h ypo the s is w e re e ve r c onf irmed , w e c ou ld s e e i n c e l t iber ian c eme ter ie s s ome th ing o the r t han s imp le g raveya rd s ; w e c ou ld s e e c en te r s o f a ff luence o f p e r S on s a nd g roup s w i th a c ommon d enom ina to r : t h e m embe r sh ip t o as ame e thn ic u n i t , w ho wou ld f i nd t h e re t h en ece ssa ry r e fe renc e s t op re ser ve t h e ir i d io syn -

7 ) . D iodo ru s S icu lu s a nd C ae sar d e sc r ib e t h em ,m a in ly , a s p l aces w he re o f fer ing s w e re d epo s i ted ( Brunaux , 1 986 : 3 6 ) . I n A ragonci lo w e h ave v e r if ied t h e r e i te ra t i ve p re sence o f o f fe r ing s a tt h e s ame t ime t h a t h ave b een t h ough t t o i d en t ify t h e d ev ice s u sed t og ene ra te a nce s to r s a nd t oe s tab l ish ac ommun ica t ion b e tween t h e l i v ing a nd T he A f te rwo r id . . . d on ' tt h e se f e a tu re sp u to u r c eme te ry i nc on tac t w i th t h e c u l tu ra l s pace s d e sc r ibed f o r t h ec e l t ic s anc tua r ie s? T os ay t h i s ,o fc ou r se ,i sv e ry

c r a sy . We s t re s s t h a t i ti sd i ff icu l ta tt h e momen t t oa c c ep t t h is , b u t t of i n ish j u s t as ma l l r ef lec t ion : i ti sv ery c u r iou s h ow t h eG eo logy h a so n ly c oncea led c eme te r ie s b e long ing t o s ma l l s e t t lemen t s . . , t ho se b e long ing t o l a rge ro ne sa t ar eg iona l l e ve la r e af ew c en t ime te r s i m-

a dven tu rou s ,b u tn o td i sca rdab le ,b ecau se a sw ew i l ls e e f u r the r o n , t h e re a r e o t he r d e ta i l s w h ich make u s t h ink t h a tp l ace s l i ke t h e se a r e s ome th ing o the rt h an f une ra ry c en te r s . As e cond p o in to fr e f e rence i st h a tc on s t i tu ted b yt h e s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s i gn if icance t h a t t h e c eme te ry a c q u ir e s . Mo r tuary r i tua l c on s t i tu te s ap a r t icu la ra r ena f o r

d e rt h e s u r face ,a nd p lough s a r ec er ta in ly s how ing t h is .

s oc ia l a c t iv i ty ,f o rm ing a ni n teg ra l p a r to fc u l tu ra l s t ruc t u ra t ion a s awho le ( Shank s &T hey , 1 982 : 1 30 ) . T he p a s t , s pec ia l ly t h rough r i tua l c ommun ica t ion i nc lud ing

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS We w an t t oe xp re ss o u r g ra t i tude t oP ro f e sso r s M . L . R u iz -Gá lvez a nd G . R u iz Z apa te ro , f r om t h e C omp lu t e n se Un ive r s i ty o f Madr id , f o r h av ing r e ad t h e manu s c r ip t a nd f o r s ugge s t ing s ome i n te re s t ing i dea s u se fu l

t h e c on tex t o f d ea th , i so f ten u sed t o o r ien ta te t h e p r e sen t . . . t o " na tu ra l ise " a nd l e g i t ima te h i e ra rch ie s o f p owe ra nd i n equa l i t ie s t h a tw ou ld o t he rw i se b eu n s tab le ( Pa rke rP ea r son , 1 982 ; 1 0 1) . I nA ragonc i l lo av ery e l ab o ra t e i d ea o f f une ra ry s pace e x is ted w h ich a ppea r s a t t wo d i f fe ren t l e ve l s : i na n " i n t racommuna l" s cope , a n c e s to r s w ho a c t a s i d eo log ica l p o in t s o f r e fe rence f o r t h e c ommun i ty a r ec r ea ted a tt h es ame t ime a so f fe r ing s

f o r o u r s t udy . A lso t o P ro fe s so r A . J imeno Ma r t inez , f r om t h e s ame c en te r , f o r t h e i n te re s t ing d i scus s ion s a bou tc e l t ibe r ian c eme te r ie s a nd t h ei n fo rma t ion t h a th e g ave u s a bou t t h e c eme te ry o f Numanc ia , s t i l l u npub l i shed .

a nd g r avegood s a r e p l aced ; s uch s pec i f ic f e a tu re s w i l l s how ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c i r c um s tance s : o n t h e o ne h and t h ey c on s t i tu te a n i mpo r t a n ts t ab i l iz ing f a c to ri nf am i ly a nd t r iba l t r ad i t ion ( Bu r k er t , 1 987 : 4 7 ) a nd , o n t h e o the r , c on tr ibu te t o d ynam ize e conom ic a c t iv i ty t h rough c on sump t ion i n c en t iva t ion . I n t h e " ex t racommuna l" s cope , f une ra ry l a nd scape i s an on -ve rba l w ay o fc ommun ica t ion w ho se r o le i st op ro jec tt h ei d en t i ty o ft h ec ommun i ty w i th r e g a rd s t oo the rh uman c o l lec t ive s . F ina l ly , w e w ish t op o in to u t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t n o t a l s e t t lemen t s h ad c eme te r ie s . T h is i s ah ypo the s i s t h a t mu s tb ei n ve s t iga ted b y m e t icu lou s f i e ld w o rk , b ecau se e r o s ive p roce s se s c ou ld h ave c oncea led t h e se c eme te r i e s s e ve ra l me te r s b e l low t h e s u r face ( Bu r i u lo , 1 992 : 5 67 -568 ) . Howeve r , t h e re i sa n u ndoub tab le f a c t : i n mo s t c e l t ib er ian s e t t lemen t s i th a s n o t b een p o s s ib le t o f i nd t h ec eme tery i nt h es ame w ay t h a t mo s to ft h ec e lt i b er ian c eme te r ie s t h a t w e h ave b een c ons ide r ing w e re n o ts pac ia l ly l i nked t oa ny l i v ing a r ea . I .e . : Agu i la rd e A ngu i ta ,w i th a lmo s ts i x t h ou sand b u r ia ls a nd w i thou ta s e t t lemen to fg rea ti mpo r t ance ,l i e s i n ap o in to fa n i m p o r tan t r ou te o f c ommun ica t ion i n wh ich as a l te rn , a m ega l i th ic g rave ,s eve ra l o pen -a ir s e t t lemen t s w i th l i t h i ca r te fac t s , ar oman v i l la a nd ,o ve rt h is , aC h r i s t ian h e r -

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ARANDA MARCO ,A . 1 990 . N ec rópo l is c e l t ibénca se na lb a jo J i loca . IS impo s ium s obre l o sC e l t I bero s : N ecrópo l i sC e l t ibé r ica s . Z a ragoza . p p . 1 0 1-109 . ARENAS E STEBAN ,J .A . 1 990 . L an ec rópo l is p ro toh i s tó r ica d cL aC e r rada d cl o s S an to s ( A ragonc i l lo ,G uada la ja r a ) . A lguna s c on s ide rac ione s e nt omo as uc on tex to a r queo log ico . IS impo s io s obre C e l t ibe ros :N ec rópo l i sC e l t ib é r ica s . Z a ragoza . p p . 9 3 -99 . ARENAS ,J .e ia l i i 1 99 1 . " E lT u rm ie lo "d cA ragonc i l lo ( Guada la ja ra ) : s eña le sd cd i ve r s if icac ión f unc iona l d e l h ab i ta te ne ip enodo p ro toce l t ibé r ico . I IS impos io s ob re l o s C e l i lbero s :e iP ob lam ien to C e l t ibé r ico . D a roca , 1 991 ( f o r thcom ing ) . ARGENTE OL IVER ,J .L . 1 977 . L an ec rópo l is c e l t ibé r ica d c " E lA l t i l lo" ,e nA gu i la rd cA ngu i ta ,G uada la ja ra ( Re s u l tado sd cl ac ampa i ia d ce xcavac ión d c 1 973 ) . Wad -A l -Hayara ,4 .p p . 9 9 -14 1 . ARGYLE ,M . 1 984 . P s ico log Ia d e lc ompor tam ien to i n terpe r sona l .A l ianza E d i to r ia l . Mad r id . ( F i r s tp ub l ished : T he P sycho logy o fI n te rpe r sona lB ehav iou r , 1 967 ) . ARR IBAS ,A . & WILK INS ,J .1 97 1 . L an ec rOpo l is f e n ic ia d e lC o r t i jo d cl a s S omb ra s ( F r ig i l iana , Má laga ) . P y renae , V . p p . 1 85 -224 . AUBET S E MLER ,M . E . 1 975 . L an ec rópo l i sd eS e tef i h la e nL ora d e lR io ,S ev i l la . B a rce lona . BARCELO ,J .A . 1 984 . E lemen to sp a ra u na t c o r Ia d cl a mue r te yd el o sn to sf une rar io s . E ihn ica .R ev i s ta d eA n i ropo l o g Ia ,n °20 . pp . 8 1-10 1 . BEL I RAN LLOR IS ,F . 1 992 . P a ren te sco yc i udad e nl ac é l t ica h i spana . D ia logue sd 'H i s to i re A nc ienne , 1 8 ,2 . p p . 1 89 -220 . BENO IT ,F . 1 970 . L es ymbo l i sme d an s l e ss anc tua i re sd el aG au le . B ruxe l le s . BRADLEY ,R . 1 990 . T he p a ssage o fa rms .A na rchaeo log ica la na ly s i so fp reh i s tor ic h oa rd sa nd v o t ive d epo s i t s . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P res s . BRO WN ,M . A . 1 983 . G rave o r ien ta t ion : af u r the rv i ew . T he A rchaeo log ica lJ ou rna l , 1 40 .

p p .

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9 3 . BURKERT ,W . 1 987 . O f f e r ing si np r e spec t ive : s u r rende r ,d i s t r ibu t ion ,e xchange . P roceed ings o ft h e U p sa la S ympo s i um 1 985 . B o rca s , 1 5 . p p . 4 3 -50 . CABRE ,J .1 929 . E xcavac ione se n l an ecrópo l i sc e l t ibé r ica d eE lA l l i l lo d eC e r ropo zo ,A t ien za ( Guada la ja ra ) . Mcm o r ia sd cl aJ un ta S upe r io rd cE xcavac ione s yAn t igüedade s , 1 05 . Mad r id . CABRE MORAN ,E . & MORAN CABRE ,J .1 975 . D o st umba s d a tab le sd cl an ec rópo l i s d cA lpan seque ( Sor ia ) . A r c h ivo d eP reh i s tor ia L evan t ina ,X IV . CABRE e ta l i i 1 950 .E lC a s tro yl an ec rópo l is d cl aE dad d e l H ie r ro d eC hama r t In d cl aS i e r ra ( Av i la ) .A da A rque o lóg ica H i spdn ica ,V . Mad r id . CERDE I O S ERRANO ,M . L . 1 977 . E xcavac ione sa r queo lOg ica se ne iy ac im ien to d cP rado sR edondo s ( Guada la ja r a ) . Wad -A l -Haya ra ,4 .p p . 2 55 .257 . 1 992 . N ec ropo l is c é l t ica s ,c e l t ibé r ica s ei b ér ica s : u na v i s iOn d cc on jun to . E nB lanqucz P e rez & A n tona d e l V a l ( Ed s . )C ongre so d eA rqueo logIa I b é r ica :L a sN ecrdpo l i s . Umve r s idad A u tónoma d c Mad r id , S e r ie V a r ia n ° 1 . Ma -

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d r id . pp . 4 73 -508 . CERDE !JO ,M . L . e ia l i i 1 981 . L an ec rópo l i sd e Mo l ina d cA ragon ( Guada la ja ra ) . C ampo sd cU rna se ne lE s te d cl a Me se ta . Wad -A I -Haya ra ,8 .p p . 9 -84 . CERDE I O ,M . L . & GARC I A HUERTA ,M . R . 1 990 . L a sn ec rópol i sd ei n c ine rac ión d e l A l to T a jo ye iA l to J a l6n ./ 1 S impos io s obre C e l i lbero s :N ec rópo i i sC e i t ibé r ica s .Z a ragoza . p p . 7 5 -92 . CUADRADO ,E . 1 968 . E xcavac ione se nl an ec rOpo l i sc e l t ibénca d cR iba d eS ae l ice s ( Guada la ja ra ) .E xcavac ione s A rqueo log ica se nE spaüa ,6 0 . Mad r id . D 'AGOST INO ,B . &S CHNAPP ,A . 1 982 . L e s mo r t se n t re l ' ob je te tl image . I nG no l i ,G . &V eman t ,J .P .( Ed s ) : L a m on, l e sm or t sd ans l e ss oc ié té sa nc ienne s .C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . p p . 1 9 -25 . D IAZ D IAZ ,A . 1 976 . L ac e rám ica d cl an ec rOpo l is c e i t ibér ica d cL uzaga ( Guada la ja ra )c on servada e nc l Mu seo A r q u eo log ico n ac iona l . R ev i s ta d eA rch ivos , B ib l io teca s yMu seo s , LXX IX ,2 .p .p .3 97 -489 . DURK I IE IM ,E . 1 993 . L a sf ormas e l emen ia le sd el av i da r e l ig io sa . A l ianza , Mad r id . E L IADE ,M . 1 990 . T ra tado d eh i s tor ia d el a sr e l ig ione s . B a rce lona . ( F i r s tp ub l i shed T ra i ted D 'H i s to i re d e sR e l ig i on s ,P a r is , 1 949 ) . ELL IS ,R . & McCL INTOCK ,A . 1 993 . T eor Iayprác t ica d el ac omun icac iOn h umana . B a rce lona . ( F i r s tp ub l i shed . I f y ou t a ke my m ean ing .T heo ry i n to p r ac t ice i nh uman c ommun ica t ion , 1 990 ) . F ERNANDEZ GO MEZ ,F . 1 986 . E xcavac ione se ne iR a so d eC and e leda ( 1 1 ) . D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia l d cA v i la . GALAN S AULN IER ,C . 1 980 . Memo r ia d cl ap nme ra c ampana d ce xcavac ione se nl an ec rópo l is d cE lN avazo . L a H ino jo sa ( Cuenca ) . N o t ic iar io A rqueo lóg ico H ispd . n ico ,8 . GARC IA HUERTA ,M . L . & DEL VAL ,V . 1 992 . L an ec rópo i i sc e i t ibé r ica d eL a Y un ta ( Guada la ja ra ) .C ampaña s d c 1 984 -1987 .P a t r imon io I l i s tó r ico d cC a s t i l la -La Mancha .A rqueo log Ia ,4 . GARC IA S OTO ,E . 1 990 . L a sn ec rópo l is d cl aE dad d e lH ie r ro e ne iA l to V a l le d e l D ue ro . IS impos io s ob re C e l i lbe ros :N ecrópo l i sC e i t ibé r ica s . Z a ragoza .

p p .

1 3 -38 .

HABA QU IROS ,S . & RODR IGO LOPEZ ,V . 1 990 . E lt ema d e l c u l to al a sa gua s ys uc on t inu idad e nr e lac ión c on l a sv I a sn a tu ra le sd cc omun icac ión . Z ephyru s , XL I I I .p p . 2 71-279 . HUBERT ,H . & MAUSS ,M . 1 964 . S acr if ice , i t sn a ture a nd f unc t ion . W . D . H a l l s ( t ran s . )C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s . HUNT INGTON ,R . & METCALF ,P . 1 979 . C e leb ra t ion so fD ea th . T he A n thropo logy o f Mor tua ry R i tua l . C amb i rdge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . J AMES ,E . 1 928 . C rema t ion a nd t h ep re se rva t ion o ft h ed ea th i n No r th Ame r ica . Ame r ican A n i ropo log i s i ,3 0 . pp . 2 14 -242 . J 1MENEZ BARR IENTOS ,J .C . 1 990 . A spec to sr i tua le sf une ra r io sd cl an ec rópo l is d cl aC ruz d e l N eg ro . C a rmona ( Sev i l la ) . Z ephy ru s , XL I I I . p p . 21 5 -222 . L EACH ,E . 1 976 . C u l ture a nd C ommun ica t ion . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . LOU TS ,M . e ia l i i 1 955 . L aP rem ier A ge d uF er L anguedoc ien . V o l .H . Mon tpe l l ie r . LUCAS P ELL ICER ,R . 1 992 . S oc iedad yr e l ig ion at r avé sd cl a sn ec rópol i si b énca s . E nB lanquez P e rez & An tona d e l V a l ( Ed s . )C ongre so d eA rqueo iog Ia I bé r ica :L a sN ecrópo l i s . U n ive r s idad Au tónoma d c Mad r id ,S e r ie V a r ia n ° 1 . Mad r id . p . p . 1 89 -205 . LULL ,V . &P ICAZO ,M . 1 989 . A rquco log Ia d cl a Mue r te yE s t ruc tu ra S oc ia l . A rch ivo E spaño id eA rqueo log Ia ,6 2 . p p . 5 -20 . L LANOS ORTIZ ,A . 1 990 . N ec ropo l is d e l A l to E b ro . IS impo s io s obre C e i t z ' be ros :n ecrópo l i sc e l t ibé n ica . s . Z a rago z a .p p . 1 37 -147 . MARCO S I MON ,F . 1 983 -84 . C on s ide rac ione se nt omo al ar e l ig io s idad i b d r ica e ne iá mb i to t u ro lcn se . T e rue l , 34 . p p .7 1-93 . 1 987 . L aR e l ig ion d cl o sC c l t ibc ro s . IS impos ium s obre l o sC e l i lbe ro s .Z a ragoza .

p p .

5 5 -74 .

MENA MU IJOZ ,P .1 990 . N ec ropo l is d cl aE dad d e lH ie r ro e ne i No r te d cC uenca yA lbace t e . IS impos io s obre C e l tI b e ros :N ecrópo l i s C e l t ibé r ica s . Z a ragoza .

p p .

1 83 -195 .

MOREDA BLANCO ,J . & NU4O GONZALEZ ,J . 1 990 . A vance a le s tud io d cL an cc rt ipo l is d cl aE dad d e l H ie r ro d c " E lP rad i i lo " . P in i l la T ra smon te ( Bu rgo s ) . IS impo s io s ob re C e l l[ h e ro s :N ec rOpo l i sC e i t ibé n ica s .Z a ragoza . p p .1 7 1 -18! . MORENAS DE TE JADA ,G . 1 916 . H a l la zgo A rqueo lóg ico e nE spaña :l aN ecrópo i i sI bé n ica d eG orma z . Mad r id . PARKER P EARSON ,M . 1 982 . Mo r tua ry p r ac t ice s , s oc ie ty a nd i d eo logy : a ne t hnoa rchaeo log ica l s t udy . I n Hodde r ,I .

1 9

J .A . ARENAS E STEBAN a nd L CORTES AYUSO

( Ed . )S ymbo l ic a nd S t ruc tura lA rchaeo logy . C amb r idge Un ive r su ty P re ss . p p .9 9 113 . P EREZ CASAS ,J .A . 1 985 . L an ec rópo l i sd eI nc ine rac ión d e lC abezo d cb a l le s te ro s ,E p i la ( Za ragoza ) . C ongre so A rqueo lóg ico N ac iona l , XV I I .p p . 4 19 -434 . 1 990 . L a sn ec rópo l i sd ei n c ine rac ión e ne ib a jo J a lón . 1S impos io s obre C e l i Iberos :Nec rbpo l i sC e l t ibé r ica s . Z a r a g oza .pp . 11-121 . P EREZ DE YNESTROSA ,J .L . 1 993 . E lf enomeno t umu lar e nl a Me se ta : u na r e v i s ion c r I t ica . Memo r ia d cl i cenc ia t u ra i n dd i ta e nl a Un ive r s idad C omp lu ten se d e Mad r id e nN ov iemb re d c 1 99 3 . RA I ITZ ,P . 1 978 . G rave o r ien ta t ion . T he A rchaeo log ica lJ ou rna l , 1 35 . pp. 1 14 . RAMOS S A JNZ ,M . L . 1 984 -85 . E lc u l to f une ra r io e ne i mundo f e n ic io p t mn ico p en in su la r ,r e sumen d cl a sc e remon i a sf uneb re sr e a l izada se ns u sn cc rópo i i s . C uaderno sd eP reh i s ior ia yA rqueo log Ia , 1 -12 . Mad r id .p p . 2 17 -224 . REVERTE ,J .M . 1 990 . P o s ib i l idade sd ce s tud io a n t ropo lóg ico yp a leopa to ióg ico d cl a sc r emac ione s . IS impos io s o b re C e l t iberos :N ecrópo l i sC e l i ibé r ica . s . Z a ragoza . pp. 3 29 -33 5 . R JJ IZ -GALVEZ P R IEGO ,M . L . 1 985 -86 . E i mundo c e l t ibér ico v i s to b a jo l aó p t ica d cl a" A rqueo log Ia S oc ia l" . U na p ropue s ta p a ra c le s tud io d cl o sp ueb lo s d e lO r ien t ed cl a Me se ta d u ran te l aE dad d e lH ie r ro . K a la thos ,5 -6 . p p . 7 1 1 06 . 1 990 . P ropue s ta p a ra c le s tud io ci n te rp re tac ión d cl a sn ec rópo l is s i na rma s . 1S impos io s obre C e l i lbe ros : N ec rOpo l i sC e l t ibé r ica s . 7 . a ragoza . p p . 3 43 -347 . RU IZ RODR IGUEZ ,A . e ia l i i 1 992 . L a sn ec rópo l i si b é r ica se nl aA l ta Anda luc Ia . E nB ianquez P e r ez & A n tona d e l V a l ( Ed s . )C ongre so d eA rqueo logIa I bé r ica :L a sN ec rOpo l i s . U n iver s idad A u tónoma d c Mad r id ,S e r ie V a r ia n ° 1 . Mad r id . p p .3 97 -430 . RU TZ ZAPATERO ,G . & CARROBLES ,J .1 986 . U na n ec rópol i st umu la ri b é r ica e nl a Mancha : V i l la f ranca d cl o s C aba l le ro s( To ledo ) . R ev is ia d eA rqueo log Ia , n '6 6 . Mad r id .p . p .5 8 -6 1 . SANTOS VELASCO ,J .A . 1 992 . N uevo se n foque s yp rc spec t iva se ne ie s tud io d cl a sn ec rópo l i si b d r ica s . E nB lau q uez P e rez & A n tona d e l V a l( Ed s . )C ongre so d eA rqueo log Ia I bé r ica :L a sN ec rOpo l i s .U n ive r s idad A u tónoma d c Mad r id ,S e r ie V a r ia n ° 1 . Mad r id . p p .607 -615 . S ANZ M INGUEZ ,C . 1 990 . R i tua le s f une rano s e nl an cc rópo l is c e l t ibd i ica d cL a s R ueda s ,P ad i l la d cD uero ( Va l la d o l id ) . IS impos io s ob re C e l i lberos :N ecrOpo l is C e l i ibé r ica s . Z a ragoza . p p . 1 59 -170 . SHANKS ,M . &T ILLEY ,C . 1 982 . I deo logy ,s ymbo l ic p owe ra nd r i tua lc ommun ica t ion : ar e in te rp re ta t ion o fN eo l i th ic mo r tua ry p r ac t ice s . I n Hodde r , I( Ed )S ymbo l ic a nd s t ruc tu ra lA rchaeo logy . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss . p p . 1 29 -154 . SOPE IJA GENZOR G . 1 987 . D io se s , é i ica yr i tos d el ar e l ig ios idad e n ire l o sp ueb los c e l i ibé r icos . Z a ragoza . TAFFANEL ,0 . &J .1 949 . L an ec ropo le H a l ls ta t ienne d c " Lo sF ado s" . C ommune d cP ép icux ( Audc ) . G a l l ia ,I V -! . TARACENA AGU IRRE ,B . 1 932 . E xca vac ione se nl ap rov inc ia d eS or ia . Memo r ia sd cl aJ un ta S upe r io rd cE xcava c i onc s yAn t igücdade s , 19 . Mad r id TURNER ,V . 1 967 . T he F ores to fS ymbo l s .A spec t so fN dembu R i tua l . I t haca & C o rne l l Un ive r s i ty P re s s . L ondon . VERNANT ,J .P . 1 982 . I n t roduc t ion a tG no l i ,G . &V eman t ,J .P . (E n s ) : L am on, l e sm or t sd ans l e ss oc ié ié sa n c i enne s . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . p p . 7 16 VU ILLEMOT ,G . 1 955 . L an éc ropo le p un ique d uP ha re d an sI ' i ie d cR achgoun ( O rán ) . L ibyca ,I I .

p p .

7 -62 .

W I -ITE I LOUSE ,R . 1 992 . U nde rg round R e l ig ion . C u l ta nd C u l ture i nP reh i s tor ic I t a ly . S pec ia l is tS t ud ie so nI t a ly , 1 . A cco rd ia R e sea rch C en te r . U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . L ondon .

2 0

REL IG ION ,R ITO Y R ITUAL DURANTE LA P ROTOH ISTOR IA P EN INSULAR . EL F ENO MENO REUG IOSO EN LA CULTURA I BER ICA

2 5

ADO IFO J .DOM ING U EZ MONEDERO D epa r t amen to d eH i s to r ia A n t igua F a cu l t ad d eF i lo so f ia yL e t r a s U n ive r s idad A u tónoma d cM ad r id C iudad U n ive r s i t a r ia d eC an tob lan co M a d r id ,E spana SU MMARY

I nt h i s p ape r a l l

t h e c u l t -p laces o f t h e I be r ian c u l ture

k nown i nt h e I be r ian P en in su la a r e r e v iewed . T hey a r e s t ud ied w i th in s eve ra lg roup s ,a cco rd ing t ot h e ir r e la t ion w i th t h e ir r e spec t ive c i ty . I t i s a rgued t ha t t he h i e ra rch isa t ion o f t h e I be r ian s oc ie ty , s uch a s r e vea led b y t h e n ec ropo l is , r e vea ls a c omp lex s oc ie ty a nd ,

d ema s iado . P a r te d c e so s p rob lema s h an s i do a bo rdado s e n i m a r t Icu lo a pa rec ido r e c ien temen te p o r T . C hapa ( 1990 : 2 49 -251 ) q ue r e toma s uge renc ia s d c R enf rew ( 1985 : 1 -26 ) yl a s s o luc ione s q ue p ropone , a unque r a zonab lc s , s i guen c hocando e n b uena med ida c on e sa s m isma sd i f icu l tade sq ue e l la a pun ta . S eg i ln C hapa , p o r c on s igu ien te , h ab r Ia q ue d i s t ingu i r t r e s t i po s d c p rob lema s r e f e r ido s , r e spec t ivamen te , al a

a cco rd ing ly , i ni t s c u l t -p rac t ice s mu s tb e r ef lec ted s uch c omp lex i ty . Howeve r , t h e p roce sse s i nvo lved a r e n o t mechan ica l o ne s ; t h u s , i ti sn ece ssa ry t os t udy , w i th in t h e i rg roup s ,a l l t h es anc tua r ie sa nd c u l t -p lace sk nown a t p re sen t . F ina l ly ,w ea dvance s ome c onc lu s ion s a bou tt h e c ha rac te r o f t he r e l ig ious e xp er ience i n t he I be r ian c u l tu re a sd er ived f r om t h e m a te r ia l r ema in s o fi t s r i te s a nd r i t ua l s .

p rác t ica d e l c u l to , a l c a rác te r d c l a s d iv imdades ( c rcenc ia s s ubyacen te s a lc u l to p a ra R enf rew ) ya lp ape l

1 .I NTRODUCC ION

a rqueo lOg ico d i rcc to c uan to e n i n fe renc ia s a sen tada s e n

L a s man ife s tac ione s r e l ig io sa s d en t ro d e l ac u l tura i b ér ica h an s i do u no d e l o s t ema s e n l o s q ue s e h a

a ná l i s i s i c onog rá f i co s y ,e nm cno r med ida ,f unc iona le s a s Ic omo e n l a s e ven tua lc s a soc iac ionc s e n t re i mágene s , s opo r te s d c l a s m isma s yd i spos ic iOn e n c d if ic io s p re sun tamen te s agrado s ; a im a s I , l a s p o s ib i l idade s d c

c en t rado e n mayo r med ida l a a t enc ión d e l a i nve s t igac ion r e c ien te . E l a ná l is is d e l o s t e s t imon io s d e r ivado s d e l a s f uen te s e sc r i ta s g reco r romana s , l a c on s ta tac ión a rqueo log ica d e l o s l uga re s d c c u l to , e i e s tud io d c l a s man i fe s tac ione s f une ra r ia s , e t c . , h an s i do o t ro s t a n to s a spec to sq ue c on c i e r ta f r ecuenc ia a pa recen e n l o s t r aba jo s r e c ien te s . S in e mba rgo , n o h a s i do t a n f r ecuen te r ea l ia r e s tud io s q ue a bo rda sen e i r ef le jo

d c l ar e l ig ion e nl as oc icdad ( Chapa , 1 990 : 2 50 -251 ;c f . R en f rew , 1 985 : 2 5 -26 ) . E n m i o p in ion s 6 10 e n c l p r ime ro ye it c rce ro d cl o s s upue s to sp uede a vanza r se d c f orma d ec id ida e n e i c s tado a c tua l d c n ues t ros c onoc im ien to s ; p a ra a t aca rc ls egundo ,e ic a rác te rd cl a s d i v imdades yl a s c r ccnc ia s s ubyacen te s , s e r la n ece sar io d epu ra r i m mé todo q ue s eb a sa se n ot a n to e nc lr eg i s t ro

é x i to s on p oca s p o r l a p rop ia l im i tac ión d c l a i n fo rmac ióu , l o q ue h a a cabado p o r l cva r aa l guno s

r e l ig io so q ue l a s f o rma s d eo rgan izac ión p o l I t ica yd el a

a u to rc s ap re sc ind ir d e l c oncep to d c " r e l ig ion " e nf a vo r d co t ro s má s v ago s c omo l o sd c " f o rma s s imbO l ica s" ( c f . B crmc jo , 1 992 : 4 17 -438 ) ; y o p er sona lmen tc n o c ompa r to n i l a p o s tu ra " pes im is ta" c xp rcsada p o r B c rme jo m l ae xce s ivamen te o p t im ist s d e fend ida p o r R en f rew ( 1985 : 1 3 -14 ) .

a r t icu lac ión s oc ia l d e l a s s oc iedade s i b éncas p od ia p ropo r c iona r . B ien e sv e rdad q ue u nc s tud io d ee s te t i po

e . p . ) ,l ac omb inac iOn d cl o s r i tua le sc on l o s v a lo re s yl a s

s ee n f ren ta au na s e r ie d cp rob lema s ,e n tr el o sq ue n oe s d c l o s menos i mpor tan te s l a s d i f icu ltade s d c c onoc im ien to , d ocumen tac ión e i d en t if icac ión d c l o s l uga re s s agrado s y ,e n e i c a so d c q ue p oda ino s e s ta r r e la t ivamen te s egu ro sd e lc a rác te rs a c ro d ct a le sl u ga re s , n o s i empre s u c onoc im ien to a rquco log ico e s l o s uf ic ien temen te b ueno c omo p a ra p ode r a vanza r

N oc abe d uda d cq ue ,t a l yc omo s ug ic re A lva r( 1992 , c r eenc ia s p e rm i t ir la i l ega r ac onoce r c lf unc ionam ien to r e a l d c l o s c omponcn tc s i d co log ico s a sum idos p o r l a s p ob lac ionc s p re r romana s d cl aP en in su la ; n oo b s tan te , y a unque d icho a u to r y a r econoce l o u tóp ico d c e sa p re ten s iOn , l a d i f icu l tad n o v i enc d ada t a n to p o r l a p o s ib i l idad d c t a l c omb inac iOn s i no s ob rc t odo p o r l o q ue d c i n duc t ivo t i ene c la ná l is is d c l o s v a lo rc s ap a r t ir

2 1

ADOLFO J . DO M INGUEZ MONEDERO

e s tad io b a lbucean te e nc lq ue a ho ra s ee ncuen t ran . Y ,s i n emba rgo ,l a s i n fo rmac ione s s ob re l o s a spec to s

d e l c onoc im ien to d e l o s r i tua le s ; s o lo p od remo s a t isba r t Im idamen te a qudlo s c uando h ayamo s s i do c apace s n o s o lo d e c s tab lece r é s to s s i no a demá s d c i n teg ra r io s e n

r i tua le s s on i mp re sc ind ib le s p a ra t r a ta r d c r e con s t ru i r n o y al ai d eo log Ia d cl as oc iedad q ue l o sj u s t if ica s i no ,

u na v i s iOn d c l a c u l tura i b dr ica d e sde d en t ro d e e sa c u l tu ra , e s to e s ,a bo rdándo la c omo u n s i s tema c omp le jo

i n c lu so , l ai n se rc iOn d c l o s m i smo s e n l at r ama s oc ia l ; s on é s to s l o s p r e supue s to s i mp resc ind ib le s p a ra , e n s u momen to , t r a ta r d c t r a scende r l a ma te r ia l idad d c l a s

d c r e lac ione s s oc ia les , p o l I t ica s ye conóm ica s q ue e l abo ra c omo j us t if icac ión d e s u c o smov is iOn u na i d eo log Ia s u s ten tado ra e n l aq ue h a l len c ab ida d i cho s

i n fo rmac ione s yl a nza r se a e sa u top ia q ue e vocaba

9

1 50 KM

F IGURA 1 . M apa c o nl o sl i ga r e sm enc ionado se ne it e x to

v a lo re s . Y ,s i n emba rgo ,e nc le s tado a c tua l d cn ue s t ro s

A lva re ne it r aba jo c i tado . C omo c on secuenc ia d c l o a n te r io r , yp ues to q ue i n l o s p rop io s t e x to s i b é r ico s i n l a s i n fo rmac ione s d c l o s

c onoc im ien to s , t a l a rgun ien to e sc i rcu la r p ue s to q ue n o d i sponemos d c e l emen to s e x ternos a l r eg is tro

a u to rc s a n t iguo s i nc iden a pena s e n c l f enómeno

a rquco lOg ico q ue c on t rapone r yr e lac iona r c on c l m ismo , q ue n o s p erm i t ie scn e n t i l t imo t é rm ino n o

r e l ig io so i b é r ico ,e spec ia lmen tc e ns u sf a sc sf o rma t iva s , r e su l ta q ue s O lo q ueda l ai n fo rmac iOn a r quco log ica a d i spo s ic iOn d e l i n ve s t igado r ; n o o b s tan te , l am isma h a

s egu ir r e t roa l imen tando u na a rgumen tac iOn c on l o s r e su l tados d c e sa m isma a rgumen tac ión . Y n o d i sponcmo s d ce so se l emen to sn os o lo p o rquc l o s t e x to s

s i do o b je to d c i n tc rp rc tac ione s n o s i cmp rc a j u s tada s a t a l e v idenc ia y r e inc iden tcs e n t op ico s d c d i f Ic i l d c sa r ra igo , yq ue a ba rcan i m amp l io c spcc t ro q ue v a

e scr i to s p o r l o s p rop io s i b e ro s op o r l o s e sc r i to rc s g reco r romano sq ue a s is t ic ron al o s t i l t imo s l a t ido sd cs u c i v i l izac ión n o n o s a po r tan i n fo rmac ione s t i t i le s s i no

d csdc p o s tu lado s n c tamen te p r im i t iv is ta s h a s ta i d ea s q ue ,c nma sca rando l ar c a l idad e n mi m s om cno sf or zada s

t amb ién p o rquc a i in n o h emo s s i do c apaccs d c p e rfecc iona r

o t ro s

i ns t rumcn to s

q ue ,

c omo

" koina i" p an -med i te r ránea s l egan a v e r e n l a r e l ig io s idad i nd Igena d c l aI be r ia p rc r romana c a lco s d c l a s r e l ig iones p ün ica o g r iega , o d c amba s

l a

i conog raf Ia o l a i cono log ia , s egu ramcn te d a ran r e su l tado s s o rp rendcn tc s u na v ez q ue h ayan s upe rado c l

2 2

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

i nd is t in tamen te .

F ru to d e t a les e squema s e s l a

( Ren f rew , 1 985 : 1 9 -20 ) ; l o s a vance s e n l o s u l t imo s

e x ten s ion d e c i e r to s l uga re s c omune s q ue v an d e sde l a c ons iderac ión d c l a r e l ig iOn i b ér ica c omo d c t i po a n icOmco h a s ta l ai d ea d c q ue l o s i b e ro s a caba rán p o r a cep ta r c u l to s d e d iosa s e x t ran jera s , s i endo l a s

t i empo s s i n d uda p e rm i ten u na a p rox imac iOn d c e s te t i po , i mpo s ib le h ace t a n s O lo v e in te a f io s . R eco rda ré a qu I , at a l r e spec to , l a s p a lab ra s d c E . L lob rega t c uando , ap ropO s i to d e l p re sun to L uga r d c c u l to d e l

p rr n c ipa le s c and ida ta sD emé te r yT an i t ,p o r má s q ue e n a l guno s c a so s s e l i egue a s uger ir q ue l o s i be ro s

p ob lado d c L a E scue ra a l irmaba q ue t a l v ez n o s e r la e x t raf lo q ue h ub ie se t en ido t a l f unc ión , " pero e i

C

F IGURA

' 5

‚ C

2 .C ancho R oano . P l an ta g ene ra ld e l e c hic io yd cl a se s tanc ia sa dya cen t e s , .( S egün C e le s t ino )

t e rm ina ron d ándo la s o t ro s n omb re s . N i q ué d ec i r t i ene q ue u na uo t ra v i s iOn d c L ar c l ig io s idad i b é r ica s eh ace r epo sa rs ob rc d i ve r s idad d c t c s t imou io s , b i en l i t c ra r io s , b i en i c onog ra f ico s , b i en a rquco lOg ico s , c onvcn icn tc m en te a na l izado s yr e in tc rp re tado s p a ra q ue e nca jen b i en e nc le squema i d eado p o re ia u to rc o r r espond icn t c . M i p ropO s i to e n e s te t r aba jo e s , p o r c l c on t ra r io , a na l iza r l a i n Io rmac ión a rqueo lOg ica d i spon ib le y , o rdcnándo la s cg u in c n tcr io s o b je t ivo s , i n tcn ta r e x t rae r d c e l la u na s e r ie d c r a sgo s q ue p uedan s e rv i rno s c omo

d e sconoc im ien to t o ta l e n q ue n os h a l lamos d e l a x c a rac ler i s t ica sd e l o s c en t ros r e l ig iosos i b é r ico s h acen q ue h aya q ue t oma r c on r e serva s e s ta a f i rmac ion , q ue p od rd s e r r a t if icada p or i n ve s t igac ione s p os te r iore s" ( L lob rcga t , 1 972 : 8 8 ) . A un c uando t o dav Ia f a l ta mucho p o r c onoce r , l o c i e r to e s q ue s e h a a vanzado n o tab lemcn te d e sde c la ño 1 972 , t a n to e ni d cn t i f icac ión d cl uga re s d cc u l to c uan to e nl o s p re supue s to s d c t o do t i po p a ra L ac omp ren s ión d e l f cnómeno r e l ig io so e n L a d u l tu raibé j ica .

p un to d cp a r t ida p a ra a bo rda rc lf enómeno r e l ig io so e n l a c u l tura i bér ica o , a l menos , p a r tc d c s us m an if es tac ione s r i tua les , e n c onc re to a qué l la q ue h a d e jado h uc l la s s ob re e it c r rcno : l o s l uga res d c c u l to y l o s r e su l tado s d cL aa c t iv idad r cig io sa y /o r i tua l ( cf .l a s a p rec iac ione s d c C e r i l lo e i a ! , 1 984 : 4 1-54 , C e r i l lo , 1 990 : 1 91-192 ) , c n tcnd iendo p o r r i tua l r e l ig io so , c on R en f rew , " t he p erf ormance o f e xpre ss ive a c t ions o f w or sh ip a nd p rop i t ia t ion b y t he h uman c e lebran t t oward s t h e t r a scenden t b e ing" ( Ren f rew , 1 985 :18 ) y a sum iendo c omo v á l ida s u l i s ta d c c or re lac iones

2 . ALGUNOS BREVES CONCEPIOS P REV IOS A n te s d c e n t ra r d c l eno e n c la ná l i s is , c r co n ecc sa r io e s tab lece r u na s e r ie d c p un to s d c p a r t ida i n ic ia les . A unquc h an s i do n ume ro sa s l a s d e f in ic ionc s q ue s e h an p ropue s to a cc rca d e l c a rác tc r yl an a tu ra leza d c l o s s an tua r io s ,m ep e rm i to r e toma ru na d cL a sm á sr c c ien te s d c q ue t e ngo n o t Ic ia : " A s anc tua ry i s ap lace w here a p er son o rp eop le e xpec t s t oc ome i n to c on tac t w i th a s uperna tura lf orce o r b e ing . T he e xpec ta t ion may b e

2 3

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

p lea san to ro the rw ise . T he b a s ic a c t iv i ty a t as anc tua ry w a s t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fc on tac t w i th a d e i ty f or t h e b enef i to ft h e w or sh ipper w h ich m igh tr ange a nywhere f rom t h e a ve r t ing o fd i v ine a nge r t ot h eg ran t ing o fa d iv ine f avour . F or t h i s n o b u i ld ing w as n ece ssa ry , m e re ly a s pace l ef t v acan tf or t h e p urpose . C on tac t c ou ld b ef ac i l i ta ted , h oweve r , b yn a tura lf ea ture s , s uch a s r ock s a nd h e igh t s , c l ef t s i nt h ee a r th , s p r ings , t r ee s , a nd a t c r i t ica l p o in ts s uchs a s p asse s , a rea s o f t r ans i t ion f rom o ne e l emen t t o o the r , a nd l a ter ,f rom o ne j ur i sd ic t ion t o a no the r , o r a t t he c en tre o f a c ommun i ty ' sl i v ing s pace " ( Schach te r , 1 992 : 5 6 ) . C ier tamen te , l a s ac ra l idad d c u n s i t io p uede d epende r , e n b uena med ida , d c s u p rop io a spec to ; " Cer ta in t y pes o fp lace s s eem m ore a p t t o e voke f ee l ings o f a we a nd m ys tery a nd t he p resence o f

12 ) . E n s u y a c l á s ico e s tud io S cu l ly a rgumen tó , c on u n a ná l is is p o rmenor izado r e fer ido a l mundo g r iego , a ce rca d cl ac s t rccha r e lac ión e x i s ten te e n t re c le n to rno n a tu ra l yl o s s an tuar io s q ue e ne im ismo s u rgen ( Scu l ly , 1 979 : p a s s im ) y , e n p a r te s i gu iendo u na l I nea s eme jan tc , S chach te r h a mo s t rado , r ec ien tcmcn te , t amb ién p a ra c l c a so g r iego , q ue s ue le h abe r u na r e lac ión e v iden te e n t re c lc a rác te rp e rc ib ido d e l d io s y c le n to rno e n c lq ue s ee ngen s u s l u ga re s d c c u l to ; a s I , A r tem is s ue le h a l la r se e n a r ea s f r on te r iza s d i spu tada s , P o se idon al ol a rgo d c r u ta s d c c omun icac ión , A tenca , A po lo yA f rod i ta e n c lc en t ro c í v ico d c l ac omun idad , D emé te r yZ eu s e n z ona s r u ra le s y s ubu rbana s , e t c . ( Schach te r , 1 992 : 1 57 ) .

n onhuman p ower s . S ome t ime s t h ey w e re c ons idered s acred a nd b ecame c u l ts i te s . S uch p lace s i n c lude h i gh s umm i t s , c aves , c ha sm s , s ource s o fs pr ing s ,p ecu l ia r r ock f orma t ions ,f ore s t s , g rove s , a nd s i te s m arked o f b ecause t h ey w e re s t ruck b y l i gh t ing ( ene lv s ia )" , s e t r a tar la d c l uga re s " s agrado s p o r n a tu ra leza " (Ma lk in , 1 987 : 1 42 ) . C omo r e ca lca Ma lk in , n o s i emp re e n e s to s l uga re s t i enen s u s ede l o s g rande s c u l to s d e l e s tado ,

D U 0

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s i no q ue r e c iben u na r e l ig io s idad d et i po r u ra l yp opu la r ( Ma lk in , 1 987 : 1 42 ; D c P o l ignac , 1 984 : 2 8 ) ; d c t a l modo , p a ra q ue p odamo s h ab la r d c u n s an tua r io n o e s

0

s u f ic ien te q ue c ll u ga r e n s ís ea o p a rezca " s ag rado" , s i no q ue h ace f a l ta a lgo má s : " L 'appa r i t ion d u

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s anc tua ire s t ab i l i se l ec u l te , e nrac ine ap ropremen t p ar /e rl er i zue ld ans l es o lp a rl eb i a i sd ec em orceau d e t e rr i lo i re c onsacré l ad i v in i té , l af o is l ' i n le r ieur e ih or s d u t e rr i to ire e nv ironnan t : s i te p ar e xce l lence d e

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t e r r i to ire" ( Dc P o l ignac , 1 984 : 3 0 -3 1 ) . SM

E nt i l t imo t é rm ino e s ta a p rox imac ión d e ja e nm ano sd e l i nd iv iduo o , mc jo r , d c l a c omun idad , l a e l ecc ión d e l l uga r e n c l q ue v a ar end i r c u l to a s u s d iosc s , a un

F IGURA 3 .L o c r i sE p iz ef i r ia . L aI l amada " e s toa e nU ' . ( S e g un C o s tamag na yS abb ion i )

c uando l ap rop ia n a tu ra leza " o r ien tc "e s ta e l ecc ión ;e s ta f o rma d c v er p a rcce , e n t i l t imo t é rm ino má s a ce r tada q ue l aq ue a l guno s a u to re s h an v en ido p ropugnando a

E l h aber a cud ido a c j cmp los s acado s d e l mundo

l ol a rgo d e l t i cmpo yq ue p uede r e sum ir se c on l af r a se d c B lazquez : " l as i tuac ión d e l o s l u ga re s s agrado s n o

g r iego n o i mp l ica q ue y o p re tcnda d e fende r u na a s im i lac ión s i n má s p o r p a r te d e l mundo i b ér ico d c

s ef i ja s egün l a s r eg la s d e e l ecc ión d e l a s c i udade s , s ino e n f unc ion d e c ond ic iones n a tura /es

c omponen te s c u l tua le s p roceden te s d c G rec ia ; e s é s te i m v i e jo d eba te e nc lq ue p o ra ho ra n ov oy ac n t ra r . E l

p ar t icu larmen le f avorab les a l a m an if e s :ac ion d e l o s agrado" ( B lazquez , 1 991 : 2 4 ; c f . B lazquez , 1 983 :

h abe r h echo u so d c e s to s c j cmp lo s t i ene , a l mcno s e n e s te momen to , u na f i na l idad c l ar amen te mc todo lóg ica ,

/

2 4

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

q ue n o s p erm i ta i n t roduc irnos e n a i guna s d e l a s c onno tac iones d e l f enómeno r e l ig ioso e n e i Med i ter ráneo a n t iguo af a l ta d e e l emen to s d c p r ime ra

e n e im ismo , e ie xvo to o , má s p rop iamen te , l ao f renda v o t iva m ed ian te l ac ua l e if i e le j e rce u n " i n ie rcwnb io d e b iene s c on l a d i v in idad q ue c ons i s i ir Ia e n d epos i tar

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F IGURA 4 . L aS e r r e ta . E s t ruc tu r a sc o r r e spon ien t e sa ls a nc tuano . ( S egun L i ob rega te ta l1 992 ) .

m ano ( no t ic ia s h i s tó r ica s )r e f cnda s a l mundo i b é r ico ;l a v a l idez d c l aa p rox imac ión q ueda r Ia mos trada t r a s e i e s tud io d c E d lund a ce rca d c l al o ca i izac ión yf unc ión

e s los e xvo tos f i gura t ivo sp or u nf avor a pe tec ido ob i en y ac onsegu ido" ( Mann & B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 9 3 ;B e iräo e i a l . , 1 985 : 1 06 ) ; e so s o b je to s p e rm i ten a lo fe ren te , a l t i empo q ue c ump ie s u v o to , p erpe tua r e ir ecue rdo d c

d c l o s s an tuar io s e x t rau rbano s e n Magna G rec ia y E t ru r ia , e n e iq ue a p e sa r d c l a s d i fe renc ia s e v iden te s

e sc c ump i im ien to m ed ian te l ae xpo s ic ión p üb l ica ,e n e i r e c in to s ag rado , d c d i cha o f renda ( Dc C azanove , 1 991 : 2 11 , n . 3 ) , d c t a l modo q ue , c omo o cur re e n o t ro s

e n t re l a s r eig ione s g r iega ye t ru sca ,s ed e tec tan a l guno s p a t rone s s im i ia res e n c uan to a l d e sa r ro l lo d c e s ta s e s t ruc tu ra s r e l ig io sa s a s I c omo c on r c lac ión a s u f unc ión y u b icac ión ( Ed iund , 1 987 ) ; n o o b s tan te , l o s r i e sgo s d c u n c ompa ra t ismo a u l t ranza s on muy

ámb i to s med i t e r ráneo s , l ao f renda v o t iva i l egan la as e r u n e l emen to t I p ico d c t odo s an tuar io ( Van S t ra ten ,

e l evado s ( Sche id , 1 991 : 2 79 -281) p o rl oq ue t r a ta ré d c

1 98 1 : 6 5 -151 ; V an S t ra ten , 1 992 : 2 68 ) , i n c iu so , c a s i , u na e spec ie d c a t racc ión t u n I s t ica ( Van S t ra ten , 1 992 :

n oi n s is t ir d ema s iado e ne s te t i po d cc ue s t ione s . A demá s d e l l uga r d c c u l to e n s ih ay q ue v a lo ra r

2 69 ) ; h emo s d c p en sa r , p ue s , q ue e n l a s s oc iedade s u rbana s i b ü r ica s l a d epo s ic ión d c o f renda s v o t iva s ,

t a n ib ién t odo a que l lo q ue e id evo to e n t rega y d epo s i ta

a demá s d c u n a c to d c p i edad , p od ia a sum ir t amb ién

2 5

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

s e d e sar ro l la l a r e l ig io s idad y c l r i tua l i b ér ico v i ene c on st i tu ido p o r c l c onoc im ien to d c a que l lo s l uga re s

c onno tac iones s oc ia le s yd ep r e s t ig io ,t a n to i n d iv idua le s c omo c o lec t ivas ; d e l m ismo modo , l a s i n fo rmac ione s a e x t rae r d c e l la s p ueden s e r t amb ién d c d i ve r sa I ndo le ,

d ed icado s al ad iv in idad yal o s q ue s ev ae xp re samen te ae n tra r e n c on tac to c on e l la y l o s q ue , a s ép t icamen te , p odemo s d enom ina r l uga re s d c c u l to . L a n om ina d c

d ea cue rdo c on l ac a tego r ia q ue a s ignemo s al ao f renda ( Ren f rew , 1 985 : 2 2 -23 ) . S u i mpo r tanc ia e n n ue s t ro e s tud io e s g rande y a q ue " l e r i tue l v o lf e s ! , a vec l e

e s to sl uga re se sl im i tada y ,s ib i en v aa umen tando l e n ta p e ro p rog re s ivamen te , d e f ic ienc ia s e n s u c onoc im ien to s on t a n to m ayo re s c uan to má sa n t igua e sl af e cha d cs u

s acri f i ce , u ne d e s r are s a c t iv i lé s r e l ig ieu se s e xe rcée s d ans l e s s anc tua ire s s ur l e sque l le s l ' archeo log ie s o i l

h a l lazgo . Al ah o ra d c p re sen ta r e s ta i n fo rmac iOn , s i n e mba rgo , l a s o pc ione s a unque t ampoco e xce s ivamen te n ume ro sa s ,s on v a r iada s ; s ep uede o p ta rp o ru na s imp le

s uscep t ib le d en ou s é c la ire r ", p or mó s q ue " l 'e ssen t ie l d es c é lébra l ions , l e s p roce ss ions , l e s i n voca t ion s , l e s c han t s , l e s c oncep t ions e ts en t imen ts r e l ig ieux q u i s on t l ' or ig ine d e c es c ompor temen t s n e l a issen t b ien é v idemmen ta ucune t r ace a rchéo log ique" ( Rey -Vodoz , 1 991 : 2 15 ; V an S t ra ten , 1 992 : 2 83 -284 ) . Ap esa r d c

e nume rac iOn , a t end iendo U n icamen te a c r i te r io s g eog ra f ico s ( po r e j emp lo , R uano , 1 988 : 2 66 -267 ) ; s e p uede r e a l iza ra t end iendo a lt i po d ct e s t imomo ma te r ia l i mp l icado ( c on o s i nc d if ic io s , e nc ueva s , e n e ic ampo , e n p ob lado s , e t c .) , s e p uede h ace r s egdn c i t i po d c

e l lo , h emo s d c g ua rdarno s d e i n ten ta r i d en t if ica r t a n s o lo p o r c l t i po d c e xvo to u o f renda d epo s i tada a l a

e xvo to s , p re sun to s or ea le s h a l lado s ( en b ronce , e n

d i v in idad v ene rada , p ue s to q ue c omo s e h a p ue s to d c man if ies to e n o t ro s c a so s mucho me jo r c onoc ido s , c omo c li t á l ico , n oh ay n ece sar iamen te u na c o r re lac ión mecán ica e n tre l at i po log Ia d e l e xvo to yc lc a rác te r d c l a d e idad a l a q ue s e I c e n t rega ( cf . C ome l la , 1 981 :

p iedra , e t c .) , s e p uede h acer s egün l a p os ib le a dvocac iOn d c l a d iv in idad ( cura t ivo -sa lu t I fe ras , p ro tec to ra s d e l g anado o d c a mma le s c onc re to s c omo l o s c aba l lo s , e t c .) ,e t c . S in d uda do d epende rá d c l o s i n te reses c onc re tos d e l i nves t igado r e n c ada c a so

7 59 -762 ) .

c onc re to . An tes d c j u s t if ica r m i p rop ia p re sen tac ión s ih a re

3 . PANORA MA GENERAL DELOS P R INC IPALES LUGARES DE C IJLTO ATEST IGUADOS EN I BER IA .

a l guna s o b servac iones p rev ia s af i n d c d e l im i ta r l a i n fo rmac iOn q ue c on s ide ra ré , t a n to d e sde c lp un to d c v i s ta c rono lóg ico c omo d e sde c lc spac ia l . E n p r ime r l uga r , q ue e n c le s tado a c tua l d c n ue s t ro s c onoc im ien to s , l a i mp rec is iOn c rono lOg ica e s c l

3 . 1 I n t roducc iOn . U no d c l o s e l emen to s b á s ico s p a ra d e te rm ina r c Omo B dncd l B

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p rob lema m á s g rave c on e iq ue n o se nf ren tamo s ;a pa r te d c a l guno s c a so s p a ra l o s q ue l o s d a to s s on a l go má s c l a ro s yn o s h ab lan d c u na a n t iguedad mayo r ( Cancho

E n s egundo l u ga r , t r a ta ré a qu I s O lo d c L o sl uga re s d c c u l to i nd Igena s , s i n e n t ra r e n l o s e x is ten te s e n l o s c cn t ro s f en ic io -pün ico s oh e lén icos ; d en t ro d c l o s i nd Igena s , s O lo t r a ta ré a que l lo s c en t ro s c u l tua les c o r re spond ien te s a lt i r ca i b é r ica ( o i b e ro tu rde tana ) o i ber izada p o r c on s idera r q ue , a un d en t ro d c l a s g rand I s ima s d i fe renc ia s q ue s e a t e s t iguan d c u na s r eg ione s i b t inca s ao t ra s h ay t o da u na s e r ie d c p roce so s d c i n te r re lac iOn q ue p e rm i ten d ef imr , s i qu ie ra amve l me todo lOg ico ,u na c u l tu ra i b énca . E n t e rce r l ugar , m e l im i tart i al o s y ac im ien to s p en in su la re s , n o a bo rdando e n m i e s tud io l o s c o r re spond ien te s a l S u r d c F ranc ia , q ue e n s u a r ea c u l tua l " i bér ica" , c ompa r ten má s o meno s r a sgo s s im i la re s c on l o s i b t i r ico s . L a b ib l iog raf Ia s ob re e s to s t i l t imo s e s s umamen te a bundan te , a unque p uede d e s taca r se a lr e spec to L ar ec ien tc p uc s ta a l d I a s ob re do se l abo rada p o rA rcein ,D ede t yS chwa l le r( Arcein

1

5G.

F IGURA 6 . S an M igue ld eL i r ia . P o s ib le s a nc tua r io u r b ano . ( S egun B one te ta l1 9 90 ) . R oano , L a Mue la d c C á s tu lo ) , l a mayo r p ar te d c l o s l u ga re s d c c u l to h a e s tado e n u so , c on t inuo o n o , e n a l gün momen to e n t r ee is i g lo I V a .C . yl ar oman izac ión , p e rdu rando mucho s d c do s c on p o s te r io r idad , s i n q ue e n mucha s o ca s ione s s e ap o s ib le f i ja rd en t ro d c ma rco s c rono ióg ico s má s r e s t r ing ido s s u s e t apa s d c u so . E n r e lac ión c on e s to e s tán a que l io s l uga re s d c c u l to p a ra l os q ue s o lo d i sponemos d e i nformac iones c o r re spond ien te s a lp e r lodo r omano ; n o s e rán t r a tado s e nn ue s t ro t r aba jo ap e sa rd cq ue p ueda h abe rs o specha s r a zonab le s ( pe ro s o lo s o specha s ,n oe v idenc ia s )d cq ue e ic u l to d c é poca r omana c on t in t i ac u l to s p re r romano s ; p o r e j emp lo , yp o rn o c i ta r má s q ue a l g t in c a so , t odo s a quë l lo s s an tua r io s s i tuado se nl uga re sa l to s q ue c s tud iO T ar rade l l t a les c omo e i Mones t ir d 'E I Co i l ( Susqucna -Ossor ) , Mon t Agu i la r ( Bada lona , B a rce lona ) , L 'Areny ( Mon t -ro ig ) , S an t G e rva s i

F IGURA 7 .U l la s t r e t .T emp lo d cl aa c ropo l i s . ( S egun O l iva 1 955 ) .

" Ade r rO " ( V i l lanueva yG c l ir i i ) yL a Mun tanya F ron te ra ( Sagun to ) ( Ta r rade l l ,1979 : 3 5 -45 ; c f . O l iver , 1 986 : 17 -122 ) , p a ra l o sq ue s ec onocen a r a s c on e p ig ra f la d c

e ta l . , 1 992 : 1 81-241) . E nl o s t i l t imo s t i empo s , ap a r t ir d c l ap ub l icac iOn e n

t i poca r omana ymuy p oco s m a te r ia le s d ct i poca i b t i r ica , c omo e i g raf i to i b ér ico d c l a Mun t .anya F ron tera , p o s ib lcmcn te d e l s i g lo I a .C . ( O l ive r , 1 986 : 17 -122 ) ; p o rl od emá s ,l oq ue m ei n te re sa t r a ta re ne s te t r aba jo e s

1 981 p o r p a r te d c R . L uca s d c u n i n te re san te t r aba jo , u no d c c uyo s m ayo re s m é r i to s c on s is t Ia e nr e ca lca r l o s v I ncu lo s q ue e x is t Ia e n t re L ar e l ig io s idad i b ér ica y L a

l a r e l ig ios idad i bér ica y n o e i p roceso d c " r oman izac iOn" d c l am isma , o b je to i n c luso d c a l g i mn t r aba jo r e c ien te ( Ran ia l lo , 1 993 : 17 -144 ) .

p rch is tór ica , s e h a g enera l izado p rác t icamen te L a t i po log la q ue d i cha a u to ra p ropon la p a ra l o s d i fe ren te s t i po s d cl uga re s d c c u l to , yq ue s ec ef l ia ,b á s icamen te a

/

2 7

ADOLFO J .DOM ! NGUEZ MONEDERO

t r e s t i po s : l o s l o ca s acra l i bera , l uga re s s agrado s d e c a rác te r n a tura l , s i n mod if icac ión h umana ,q ue h unden s u s r a Ice s e n t i empo s p reh is tór ico s , l o s s an tua r io s , d ef imdo s p o re l la c omo " t e rreno s agrado e n e iq ue s e e nge a l gün e d zf ic io ,y as ea p a ra a lberga r l ae s ta lua d e l ad i v in idad oa ls er v ic io d ed e term inada sc e remon ia so a c tos r e lac ionados c on e i c u l to y l a l i turg ia" y l o s t emp los , " cons trucc iones r e l ig iosas d e c i er ta p re s tanc ia y c ardc ter u rbano , e n h onor d e d e idn ' Js o p e rsona je s q ue i l egan a a lcanzar h onore s d iv inos" ( Luca s , 1 981 : 2 37 -247 ) . P e r sona lmen te , n o v eo s e r io s mo t ivo s p a ra u na s d i s t inc ione s d ee s te t i po ; s es abe q ue e n mucho s , oe na l guno s d cl o s l i amado s s an tua r io s e n c l mundo i b é r ico h ab Ia i m e d if ic io d c c u l to , y qwzá n ingün o t ro ; i gua lmen te , d en t ro d c p ob lado s h an

c u l tu ra d c l aq ue s u rge y ,a lt i empo ,l aj u s t if icac ión d c e sc d e te rm inado o rden s oc io -po l f t ico . N a tu ra lmen te , s i emp re h ay q ue v a lo ra r t odo s a que l lo s e l emen to s q ue , muy e spcc ia lmcn tc e n c l t e r reno d c l o r e l ig io so , v an p e rdurando y e nqu is tándo se e n p rác t ica s r i tua le s y c u l tua le sp o rn oh ab la rd e l t e r reno i d eo lóg ico ,e nb uena med ida map rehen s ib lc p a ra n o so t ro s , q ue i mp iden q ue p ueda h ace r se u na " l ec tu ra " l i nea l ymecán ica s cg n l a c ua l c ada h echo o a con tec im ien to d c m ndo le p o l I t ica o s oc ia l d ebe r Ia e ncon t ra r u n r ef le jo i nmed ia to e n c l t e r reno r e l ig io so l oq ue , as u v ez , p odr Ia p erm i t ir q ue i d en t i f icado a l g i . mn c a inb io e n c ls opo r te ma ter ia l d c L a r e l ig iOn i b é r ica p ud ié ramo sa p l ica r lo a u tomá t i camen te a lc onoc im ien to d co t ro sp o rmcno re s d cs uc u l tu ra .J .A . S an to s , q ue a na l iza c ld e sa r ro l lo d e l mundo i b é r ico e n l ac uenca m ed ia d e l S egura d e sde c ls i g lo V I a ll ! a .C . c ae e n u n c i er to mecan ic ismo a l o to rga r u n v a lo r p roba tono d cc a in au na e s t ruc turac iOn d e l c spac io b i en al ae x is tenc ia d c i mg ran p ob lado ,b i en al ae x is tenc ia d c l uga re s d c c u l to , b ien al ae x is tenc ia d c e scu l tu ra i b énca , y ae nc omb inac ión d cl o s t r e s e l emen to s , y ae n p a re ja s ,y aa i s lado s ( San to s , 1 989 : 1 29 -147 ) . H ay , s i n e mba rgo , v a r io s p rob lema s ; c lp r ime ro , u n p rob lema c rono lOg ico y a q ue , a unque c i e r tamen te f enOmeno s c omo L ad es t rucc ión d c e scu l tu ra h ay q ue c on temp la r los c omo p roce so s a mcd io p lazo , l o s m ismo s t i enen l uga re nc lt r án s i to e n t re c ls i g lo V yI V a .C . m ien t ra s q ue l ai nn ien sa mayo r Ia d cl o s l u ga re s d c c u l to c onoc ido s e n ip iezan aa dqu ir ir a uge , m an ife s tado e n c l n üme ro y c a l idad d c l o s e xvo to s e n e l lo s d epo s i tado s , ap a r t i rp rec isamen te d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ; s i n d uda h ab Ia l uga re sd cc u l to a n te s d ce se momen to y ,e n mucho s c a so s , e n e l m ismo l uga r . No o b s tan te , d eb ie ron d c v e r se d c a l guna f o rma a fec tado s p o r l a s c onvu ls ione s q ue a g i tan a l mundo i b é r ico e n e so s a ho s

F IGURA 8 .M a sca ra sd e l t emp lo d cU l la s t r e t . ( S egun O l iva

d c f i na le sd e l s i g lo V yq u izá i m e j emp lo d c e lo p ueda mo s t ra r lo c la s il i amado " pa lac io san tua i io " d cC ancho R oano , i n cend iado y s egu ramen te c ub ie r to d c t i er ra r e spe tuo samen te y c onve r t ido e n u n g ran t i lmu lo a

1 9 55 ) .

p r inc ip io s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( v id . a pdo . 3 .2 ) ;a s Ip ue s , a meno sq ue d i spongamo s d c c rono log Ia s muy a j u s tada s ,

a pa rec ido l oq ue s eb an s o l ido c on s ide ra rt emp lo s ,c uya p res tanc ia e s s i emp re r e la t iva y , e n o ca s iones ,

s c rá d i f Ic i l c ons ide ra r s i nc rOn icos monumen tos c scu l tO r ico s ys an tuar io s i b ér ico s . E s , ae s te r e spec to ,

p rác t ica inen te n u la . No q u ie re d ec ir e s to q ue c l e squema n ot e nga s uu t i l idad d e sde e ip un to d c v i s ta d c

muy s uge ren tc l ah ipO te s i s d c A rancgu i d c q ue e n c l s i g lo I V s ep roduce l at r an sfe renc ia al o s s an tua r io s d c

l at i po log la a rqu i tcc ton ica , s i no t a n s o lo q ue t ampoco r e sue lve o t . ro t i po d cp rob lema s , c omo l o s r e la t ivo s aL a

b uena p a r te d c l o s e l emen to s r ep re sen ta t ivos d c L a p o s ic ión s oc ia l q ue a n tenormen te s e c onl iaban a l a

i n se rc ión d e ll u ga rd cc u l to d en t ro d cs uc on tex to . S in d uda n inguna , u n a vance n o tab le p a ra l a c omprens ión d e l p roceso v iene d ada p or l a c on s ide rac ión d e l f enómeno r e l ig io so c omo l oq ue e s ,

t umba ( Aranegu i , 1 991 ; 1 993 , e .p .) a unque , n o o bs tan te , d i f Ic i l d c d emo s t ra r . E l f enOmeno e n s íl o

u n r c f le jo d c l a o rgan izac ión s oc ia l yp o i l t ica d c L a

t e nemos muy b ien a t e s t iguado e n L a G rec ia d e l s i g lo V I I , e n l aq ue l aa pa r ic ión d c l ap o l is i n t roduce u na n ueva e sca la d c v a lo re s e nL as oc iedad ,q ue h ace q ue e i

2 8

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a r i s tóc ra ta r enunc ie a l i eva r se c on s igo s u s r i queza s , e n t re e l ia s s u s a rma s , al a t u inba y , e n s u l uga r , l a s t r an sf ie ra a ll uga r n eu t ra l , a ls an tua r io d e l ad iv in idad

d e tend réaho ra e ne s ta sc ue s t ione s . E s e i t e rce r p rob lema e i q ue me i nqu ie ta . Y a a pun tada l a i mper fec ta c omb inac ión d e s an tuar io /

q ue e sl ac nca rnac ión d e e sa p o l i s ( Dom fnguez , 1 991 :

p ob lado /monumen to f uncra r io , f enómeno s q ue , a l

6 1 -95 ) y ,a s im ismo , e n e i mundo c é l t ico c ua t ro s i g lo s d e spués yc on g rande s s eme janza s ( B runaux , 1 991 : 8 ) : f i na l d e l a s t umba s a r is toc rá t ica s d e g uer re ro y a p a r ic ión d e s an tua r io s d onde s ed epo s i tan l a s a rma s e n

m eno s ap a r t i r d c l o s r e s tos ma ter ia les d c q ue h oy d i sponemo s n o p a recen d ema s iado s i nc rón ico s , s e p re tende e i eva r a mode lo e xp l ica t ivo e s ta p resun ta

g r an n üme ro . Sm e mba rgo ,e ne i mundo i br ico ,e ia uge d el o s s an tua r io s n ov aa companado d cu na bandono d c l a s p rác t ica s d e t e saur izac ión e n l a s t umba s s i no q ue , c omo h a mo s t rado Que sada p a ra e i C abec ico d e l

c omb inac ión ye x t rae rc on secuenc ia s d e l h echo d e q ue e n e so s c en t ro s ( Lo s A lba re s [ C ieza ] , C o imb ra d e l B a r ranco

Ancho ,

E l

C igar ra le jo ,

Mon teagudo ,

V e rdo lay , C eheg In , L a E ncarnac ión , Doña I nés /Coy ) ( San to s , 1 989 : 1 29 -147 ) , e n t odo s e l lo s , al ar e s idenc ia

HGURA 9 .L aQ uéo jo la . R e con s t rucc ión d e l p ob lado c on e ip o s ib le l u ga rd cc u l to . ( S egun B l ánquez yO lmo s 1 99 3 ) . T e so ro , a unque h ay u na d i sm inuc ión p rog re s iva d c l a n queza d c l a s t umba s al o l a rgo d e l p er Iodo d c

d c l a s e l i te s " s e a soc ia e i c u l to y l a v ida r e l ig io sa" ( San to s , 1 992 : 3 5 ) c uando p rcc isamcn te e sa i n s i s tcnc ia

u t i l izac ión d c l a n ec rópo l is u n e l emen to t an c a rac te r I s t ico c omo e s e ia rmamen to s e a t e s t igua e n

e n l a c omb inac iOn e n t re c en t ro h ab i tado y l uga r d c c u l to l oq ue s egu r amen tc n o s i nd ica e sq ue l e jo s d c s e r

t o da sl a s é poca s( Que sada , 1 989 ) . E l s egundo p rob lema p od r Iamo s

u na c xccpc iOn e s ,p o rc lc on t r a r io ,u na r c g la ,h echo p o r o t ro l a do n ada s o rp rendcn tc .

i l ama r lo d c

" t amaf lo " ; c on s ide ra r " g ran o pp idum" a C o imb ra d e l B a r ranco A ncho c on s u s 1 , 6h a . ( c f . A lmag ro , 1 987 : 2 6 ) p uede s c r a dccuado p e ro s o lo e n t é rm ino s r e la t ivo s ; c on s ide rar lo c on u na " f unc ión r ec tora p r imord ia l , e conóm ica a g ran e sca la , c omo c en tros d e r ed i s tr ibuc ión d e b i enes y r e cur so sy

...

a s ien lo d e l a s

E n e f ec to , ye s d s te u n a spec to q ue me i n tc rc sa d e s taca r , n o d cbemo s s orp rcnderno s p o r c ncon t ra r a soc iado s l uga res d c c u l to y h ab i ta t s ; ‚ c ómo c abc p en sa r q ue c ua lqu ie r n t ic leo d c p ob lac iOn i b ér ico , p o r p equeno q ue f ue se , n o t i e se a l g t in l uga rd c s i gn if icado e spec ia l d ed icado oc on sag rado al ad i v imdad? ; yc s to s

e l i te s yc en t ros r e l ig iosos" ( San to s , 1 989 : 1 31) p a rece má sd i f Ic i l d c a dm i t i r . No m ep a rece a decuado ,c mpe ro , c l abo ra r u n p ano rama d c d i s t r ibuc iOn d c c en t ro s

e spac io s l o s t c ncmo s t a n to e n l uga re s d c h ab i tac iOn a n t iguo s c omo l a Que jo la ( v id . a pdo . 3 . 3 .1 .8 ) c uan to t a rd Io s c omo e iP un ta l d e l L lop s ( v id . a pdo . 3 . 3 .2 .4 ) . Y o n o s ab r Ia d ec i r e n e s to s c a so s s it a les c en t ro s h an s e rv ido i n te rc sc s t e r r i to r ia le s o ,s imp lcmen te , l o ca le s o

d i rec to re s p ara e i v a l le med io d e l S egu ra a p ar t ir d c e l emcn to s t a n h c tc rogéneo s ; s i n e mba rgo , n o m e

N /

N

2 9

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

f a in i l ia re s p e ro d c c ua lqu ie r modo h emo s d e e v i ta r mezc ia r l oq ue e sl ai r rad iac ión t e r r i to r ia l d et i nc en t ro d c c u l to u b icado e n c li n te r io rd e u n p ob lado oc i udad d et oq ue s e r ia e ir ad io d ea cc ión p o l i t ico -económ ica d c e se c en t ro h ab i tado . A s I , p o r e j emp lo , c uando A bad h ab ia d e q ue e n t o rno al o s s an tua r io s d e l C a s t i l lo d e G ua rdama r y , s ob re t o do , d e L a S e r re ta d e A lcoy , l a d en s idad d c y ac im ien to s e s e l evada ( Abad , 1 989 : 7 9 ) , y o n o m e a t reve r Ia a r e lac iona r e sa d en s idad c on e i s an tua r io e n c ue s t ión s i no c on e i p e so t e r r i to r ia l ( y q u izá n o n ece sa r iamen te r e i ig io so )

d e l h ab i ta t d c L a

l i e s . B á s icamcn te ,e n e l ia s a pa recen t umba s " pob rc s" o c on meno s u n idadc s d c r i queza e n u n g ran p o rcen ta je q ue s e s i tt i a , e n l a s t i es , e n t o rno a l 7 0% d c l a p ob lac iOn ; l a s med iana s a i etn n mi 2 8% yl a s " r ica s" e i 2% r c s tan te ;s i n emba rgo , n oh ay g rande s s a l to se n t re e l ia s s i no , má s b i en , u na c ur ia g radua l , q ue " e s L a p rop ia d e u na s oc iedad c omp le ja e n l a q ue n o h ay b arre ra s d e r i que za ( jn i d e e s ta lu s p or r i que za? ) c laramen le m arca J Jc q ue s eparen g rupos , caslas 0 e s tamen los d e f orma i n superab le , s i no q ue P OT e i c on tra r iO s e d an p rác l icamen le t od a s l a s o pc ione s y

S e r re ta . C ue s t ión a par te e sq ue h aya l u ga re s d cc u l to q ue ,p o r e i n ümero y c a l idad d c s u s o f renda s , p o r s u

/

emp lazam ien to g eog rá f ico ,p o rs u s a c red i tada sv i r tude s c u ra t iva s op o r mo t ivo s q ue , c omo o cur re s i emp re e n t odo f e nómeno r e l ig io so , s on d i f Ic i lmen te e va luab ic s , a caben p o rg ana ru na f ama s up ra -coma rca l yh a s ta do s c onf luyan i nd iv iduo s d c d i fe ren te s p rocedenc ia s y p o r tado res d c c or r ien te s c u l tua les d ive r sa s , h echo o b se rvab le a p a r t ir d e l p rop io c arác tcr , t i po iog Ia y n üme ro d c l o s e xvo to s e n e i lo s d epo s i tados ( cf . B roncano , 1 989 : 2 32 ) . P e ro a tm e ne s to sc a so s s cgu ramen te s i emp re h ab rá a mayo r o meno r p rox im idad d e l m ismo u n c en t ro h ab i tado , e n c uyo t e r r i to r io s ec ncuen t ra u b icado yd e l q ue s egu ran ien te d epende e il uga rd c c u l to e nc ue s t ión ; e l lo n o o b s ta p a ra q ue ,c omo o cu r re e no t ro sc a so s b i en a t e s t iguado s , e il uga r d c c u l to , ap esar d c e sa e ven tua l d cpendenc ia p o l I t ica p ueda s e r ya c tüe c omo u na c spec ie d c " t ie r ra d cn ad ie" n eu t ra l . P o rf i n ,t ampoco e s n ece sa r io q ue e i c en t ro p o l i t ico d e l q ue d epende e i

Z

s an tua r io a dqu icra u n p res t ig io l oca l o t e r r i tor ia e qu ipa rab ic a ld e l s an tua r io e mp lazado e n s u t e r r i to r io ; y ,a unque e n o t ro c on tex to s wnamen te d i s t in to , n o me

Sm

F IGURA 1 0 . C A s tu io ,R econ s t rucc iOn d cl ap o s ib te f a chada d cu nt mp lo . ( S egun L u ca s yR u ano 1 9 90 ) .

r e s is to a menc iona r l o s c a so s d c D c lfo s yE p idauro , c uyo s s an tuar io s e c l ip san a l a s c iudade s d c l a s q ue

c omb inac iones , t odo e l lo d en tro , e so s t , d e u na muy

d ependen yc uyo n omb re r e c iben . O t ra c ue s t ión q ue c abe p lan tea r se , s i qu ie ra c omo

a cusada j erarqu i zac ión s oc ia l , yc on t ando c on l a e x i s tenc ia d e u np equeno g rupo d ep ob lac ión ( 1 ,5 -3% )

p rob lema a pno r I s t ico , e s e id c l o s d i s t in to s n i ve le s d c r e l ig io s idad q ue p ueden h abe r e x is t ido e n e i mundo

c on p ape l c la ramen ie d i r igen le , p ero a l q ue n o e s

i b é r ico ; e so i mp l icar la t e nc r t i n c onoc im icn to , q ue n o

i mpos ib le a prox ima r se , a lm enos e n l oq ue ar i que za s e

t e nemo s ,d cl as oc io log Ia d ce se mundo ;s i ne mba rgo ,s i p odemo s a l canza ra l g i mn t i po d ci n fo rmac ión ap a r t i rd c

r ef ie re " , t o q ue s uge r ir Ia u na s oc iedad c on u na a l ta p o tenc ia i idad d c mov i l idad i n terna ( Quesada , 1 991 , e .p . ; c f . S an to s , 1 989 -a , R u iz & Mo l inos ,1993 :

l a s n ec rópo l is ,u t i l izada s n oe ne s te c a so e ns u v e r t ien te r i tua l s i no , s ob re t odo , ys i gu iendo l a s p au ta s d c l a " A rqueo log Ia d cl a Muer te " , t r a tando d ce s tab lece ru na

2 22 -232 ) . Na tu ra lmcn te , n o c abe r ea l iza r u na t r a spo s ic ión mecán ica e n tre u na s oc iedad j cra rqu izada y s u r e i ig io s idad p e ro t a lj e ra rqu izac ión s iq ue n o s p e r in i te

r e iac ión e n t re a j ua re s yc s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l ( Chapa , 1 991 ; R u iz Z apa te ro & C hapa , 1 990 ) ; a s I Que sada , q ue h a a na l izado L ad i s t r ibuc ión d cl o s o b jc to s d c a j ua re n t i e s n ec rópo l is ,C abec ico d e lT e so ro ,C iga r ra lc jo yB aza ,h a

s uger ir , ye n s u momen to t r a ta r d c d cmo s t ra r , q ue l o s g rupo s d i r igen te s , r c spon sab le s d c L ao rgan izac ión d e l e spac io u rbano yd cs uc n to rno r u ra l ,d cl ad ef en sa d cl a

o b sc rvado c ómo e im ismo p a t ron e s tá p re sen te e n l a s

3 0

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c omun idad y d e l c omerc io p ueden h abe r a sum ido

t a n to ,a lp o s ib le p ape l d c e so s c u l to s r i tua le s e n e is eno

t amb ién r e spon sab i l idade s r e l ig io sa s o ,c uan to meno s , r i tua le s e n e i s eno d e e sa m isma c omun idad ; ae sa

d c s oc icdade s q ue s eo rgan izan e n e s t ruc tura s u rbana s c omo v i cnc s i endo c ada v ez má s a n ip l iamen te

m an ife s tac ión p od r Iamo s i l ama r la d c v a r ia s f o rma s ,

r econoc ido ( c f .

B enda la e i a l . ,

1 987 :

1 21-140 ) ,

p resupon iendo e l lo u na c s truc tu rac ión p o l I t ica d e tc rm inada . P o s ib lcmcn te e n r e lac iOn t amb ién c on e so s g rupos d i r igen te s p uedan h a l la r sc a que l los l uga re s s a c ro s q ue , a demá s d c d i cha f unc ión ,e j e rcen e ip ape l d cg a ran t iza r ys a lvagua rda r l o s i n tercamb io s ; e s d ec ir , l o s q ue p od r la ino s i l ama r s an tuar io s emponco s , q ue q u iza t e ngamo st amb ién a t e s t iguado se nI be r ia . S igu iendo l ae s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l s upue s ta p ara e i mundo i b dnco c ab r Ia p en sa r q ue e sc 2 8% d c l ap ob lac ión q ue s ee n t ie r ra e n t umba s d c r i queza med iana c on s t i tuye t i n g rupo r e levan te , p o s ib lemen te c on t i er ra s d c s u p rop iedad y , e n t odo c a so , c on e i n i ve l , e conóm ico s u f ic ien te c omo p a ra d i sponer d c a rmamen to y , e vcn tua lmen te , d c p roduc to s d c i mpo r tac ión , q ue a caban s i endo amo r t izado s e n s u s t umba s r e spec t iva s . E s r azonab le p ensa r q ue s u p os ic iOn s oc ia l , r e la t ivan ien te p rOx ima a l a d c l o s e s t recho s c I rcu lo s d i r igen te s , q ueda se p ues ta d c man if ie s to mcd ian tc l a c e leb rac ión d c r i tua le s , ac aba l lo e n t re l a e s fera e s t r ic tamen te p r ivada y d omé s t ica y l a p royecc ión p üb l ica . E l a ná l is is d c l a s n ec rópo l is mues t ra u na g rau p ropo rc iOn d c i nd iv iduo s , s egu ra lnen te l i b re s , c uyo v a r iab le n ive l d c r i queza s ug iere u na i n tcn sa a r t icu lac ión e n e is eno d c l a s s oc iedade s i b d r ica s ; e s te g ran g rupo p a r t ic ipa r Ia s i n d uda , s egu ramen te c omo e spec tado r , d c l a s c eremon ia s r e l ig iosa s p t ib l ica s r e a l izada s p o r l o s d i r igen tes d c l a c omun idad e n F IGURA 1 . C apo te . R econ s t ruc c iOn yp l an ta d e ls a n c tua r io . S e g un B e r ro ca l 1 992 ) .

n omb re p rop io y d c a que l la ; l a má s q ue p o s ib le e x i s tenc ia d c l a zo s c l ien te la re s i mp l Ic i to s e n c oncep to s t a le s c omo f i de s od evo i io , c on u na amp l ia c a rga

t oda s e l ia s a i-r i e sgada s p o r l a s c onno tac ione s q ue l o s

r e l ig iosa p o r e nde , d e term ina r Ia s u p a r t ic ipac iOn

t é rm ino s q ue h ay q ue emp lea r p r e sen tan ; n o o b s tan te , m e a t reveré a I l ama r la " r e l ig ion — c Iv ica " o" r i tua les

t amb ién e nl o sr i tua le s p rop io s d c l a s f am i l ia s al a s q ue s e h a l laban l i gado s . P e ro n o h emo s d c o lv ida r q ue

c I vi c o s

"

, q

u e

e n e i me jo r d c l o s c a so s p ueden n o s e r

a g r icu l tu ra yq u izá e n meno rm ed ida p a s to reo s e r lan l a s a c tade s e conOm ica s p r inc ipa le s d e l mundo i b d r ico , y

o t ra c o sa q ue c e remon ia s ,e s tac iona le s on o , p rop ia s d c l o s c u l to sd omés t ico sd cl o s g rupo sd i r igen t e sp e ro c uya

e so i mp l ica , a n te t o do , e ic on t ro l ye ia p rovecham ien to d ci mt e r r i to r io a g r Ico la . R ec ien temen te R u iz y Mo l ino s h an s i n te t izado l a s p r inc ipa les v ar iab le s q ue e n l o s u l t imo s a ño s s e h an

r e levanc ia s oc ia l a caba p o r c onvert ir e n s eña s d c i den t idad c u l tua l d c l ac o lec t iv idad ; e n s u momen to , t a le s l uga re s d c c e leb rac iOn p ueden g oza r d c a lgdn r a sgo d i s t in t ivo y p ob lado s d c n ueva p lan ta p ueden

v en ido c on s ide rando a ce rca d c l o s d i f e ren te s mode lo s d c a r t icu lac iOn d e l t e r r i to r io y , ap e sa r d c l a s v a r ian te s

c on ta ry ac on e l lo sd e sde s ui n ic io . P ien so t amb ién q ue d c a l guna f orma e s tos r i to s , yp ar te d c l a c a rga i d eo log ica i mp l Ic i ta e n e l lo s , h unde s u s r a Ice s e n l o s s i s t ema s v amo s al i a rna r te s " p r inc ipe sco s" d e l s i g lo V I

r eg iona les , s e p uede c on s idcra r q ue e n t odo s l o s mode lo s q ue d e f inen s i emp re e x is te u i i a scn tam ien to mayo r , h ab i tua lmcn tc f o r t if icado ; d epend iendo d c e i p uede h aber o b ien a sen tam ien to s r ura les n o f o r t if icado s ( modc lo c os ta d c G ar raf ) ob i en e s to s

yd e l s i g lo V aC . ,d cq u iene s l a s e l i te s d e l s i g lo I V s on h e rede ra s . E l c a l if ica t ivo d c " c Iv ico s" a l ude , p o r l o

3 1

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

u l t imo s má s a t a laya s e s t ra tég ica s ( mode lo E de ta -L ina ) ob i en o pp ida , a t a laya s ya s en ta in ien to s e n i l ano q ue a caban r ev ir t iendo a s o lo g randes a sen ta in ien to s

q u izá ,e nm io p in ion ,m á sd eé s to sq ue d ca quelo s . P e ro ,e n c ua lqu ie rc a so , n o s h a l lamo s a ün muy l e jo s d e c onoce r l ar e l ig io s idad c en t rada e n l uga re s d c c u l to

f o r t if icado s ( mode lo c amp ina d e J aén I ,q ue e n u n s egundo momen to r e toma a l mode lo c on t o r re s ,

n o u rbano s e n e i mundo i b ér ico ; ap esa r d c q ue e i t e r r i to r io d e l a s c i udade s p ud iese e s t a r má s om eno s

O!A

3 C OAU .OA O jJS

5C

C cI

F IGURA 1 2 . G a rvao . C o r te t r an sve r sa ld e ld epO s i to v o t ivo . ( S egun B e ir ao e ta l1 985 ) .

o cupado p o r p ob lado s mcno re s , t one s , r e c in to s o a lque r Ia s , e n t odo e ra c l a spec to r u ra l e i q ue p redom inaba y , e n c sa s c ond ic ione s , l o s l uga re s d c c u l to s e mu l t ip l ica r lan ,p o r má sq ue n od i spongamo sd c

c amp if la d eJ aén I )( Ru iz & Mo lmo s , 1 993 : 11-144 ) . R a sgo c omün d ec ua lqu ie ra d el o s mode lo s s upue s to s e s l a e xp lo tac ión a g r Ico la d e l t e r r i to r io p o r p a r te d c c ampe s ino s c uyo l uga r d e r e s idenc ia p uede h a l ia r se

d a to s s ob re c l los , e xcep to l a s c ueva s y , e n m eno r

t a n to e n l o s c en t ro s u rbano s c uan to e n p equeno s a sen ta in ien to s r u ra le s or ec in to s f o r t if icado s ; a un

m ed ida ,l a sa gua s ( cf .B lazqucz , 1 977 -c : 3 07 -330 ;H aba &R od r igo , 1 990 : 2 71-279 ; O lmo s , 1 992 -c : 1 03 -120 ) . E n o t ro s ámb i to s c u l tua les a l go me jo r c onoc ido s p odemo s c omp roba r h a s ta q ué p un to c s to e s a s i , e n e spec ia l e nt em tono s c uyo mve l d c u rban izac ión n oe s p rcc isamen tc d e s tacab le ( c f . , p or e j emp lo , c l a ni l i s is

c uando , c omo v e Iamo s c on a n ter ior idad , i n c lu so e n p equeno s n üc ico s f o r t i f icado s e x i s t lan l u ga re s d c c u l to d c c i e r to empaque ,n oe sd cc x t raña rq ue l o sh ab i tan te s d e l c ampo , mucho má s a pegado s af orma s a nce s t ra le s d c r e l ig io s idad y , s i n mnguna d uda , mucho meno s i n f lu idos p o r l a s c o s tumb re s u rbana s d c l e jana

q ue s ob re A rcad ia h ar e a l izado J OST , 1 992 :205 -239 ) . C reo q ue e nr e lac ión I n t ima c on c s te t i po d cl uga re s

r a igamb re med iter ránea q ue h ab lan a sum ido l o s c I rcu lo s d i r igen te s , s egu i r lan p rac t icando u na s f o rma s

d c c u l to e s tán a l guno s d c l o s má s n o to r io s d c l o s q ue c onocemo s , t a le s c omo l o s d c C a s te l lar d c S an t is teban oC o l lado d cl o sJ a rd incs , C e r ro d cl o s S an to s ,e t c . ;l a s r a zone s p o rl a sq ue l uga re sd cc u l to t l p icamcn te r u ra le s d cv icnen g rande s s an tua r ios t e rr i tor ia les n o c s tán

d c r e l ig io s idad c en t rada s e n l aa do rac ión p r ivada al a s d i v in idade s q ue c on t ro lan yd o s i f ican l a s f ue rza s d c l a n a tu ra leza r ep resen tada s e n b o sques , r I o s , f uen te s , manan t ia le s yc ueva s . D ct o da se l ia s l a s i m n ica sq ue h an

r c sue l ta s ,mt a ns i qu ic ra ,p ara e ic a so g r icgo 0 c li t á l ico . Ub icac ión e n l uga res e s tra tég icos , r econoc idas p rop iedades t e rapéu t ica s , e qu i l ibr io d c p ode re s y

d e jado c i e r ta h ue l la s on l a sp rac t icada s e ne s ta si l i t ima s q ue , a unque me jo r c onoc ida s e n c l P a l s V a lenc iano , p a recen s e r im f enOmeno g ene ra l izado at o do e i ámb i to i b ér ico e ,i n c lu so , a le x t ra i b é r ico . T iene r azón A bad

r eorgan izac iones t e r r i tor ia le s p ueden e xp l ica r lo p er fec tamen tc a un c uando l aa u tén t ica e xp l icac ión s e n o s e scapa p o r c omp le to y ,s ob re t odo , c l mecan ismo

c uando s ug ie re q ue s an tuar io s a l a i re l ib re y c ueva s s an tua r io s t i enen f unc ione s r e l ig io sa s c onc re ta s h ab ida c uen ta s u e s tr ic ta c on tempo rane idad a po s t i l lando q ue " parece l O g ico s uponer q ue l oq ue r ea lmen le e x i s le e s

p o l i t ico r e l ig io so q ue s ubyace a l f eni mmeno . D cl oa n tc r io rmcn t ed i cho s ed csp rcnde ,p o rl ot a n to , n ue s t ra c l a s if icac iOn d c l o s l uga re s d c c u l to e n d os

u na d i f erenc ia d e c u l tos y r i tua le? ( Abad , 1 989 : 7 9 )

3 2

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURA 1 3 . A lhonoz . Ma te r ia le s p roceden te s d e l d epEo s i to v o t ivo . ( Seg tn L opez P a lomo 1 98 1) .

F IGURA 1 4 . E l Ama re jo . P lan ta ys e cc ione sd e l d epO s i to v o t ivo . ( Segün B roncano 1 989 ) .

3 3

ADOLFO J . DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

__ -

c im • E IN

D ots .no a ctivos O pts.act n iidad l imilada D pts .de tansformacion d e a limentos D pts.de a ctividades d omésticas y a lmacen O pts. m ultifuncionales O pts. c ent r uies

IP i in to l d e li U opi . O lo cc iu .

F IGURA 1 5 . P un ta l d e ls L iop s . P lan ta d e l p ob lado . ( Segün B e rnabeu e ta l1 986 ) .

ga Ob .c

F IGURA 1 6 . C a s te ll e td eB e rnabé . ( Seg( in Gué r in e ta l 1 990 ) .

o z 4 I 3

c

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

g r ande s g rupo s a t end iendo b á s icamen te as uu b icac ión f I s ica , l o c ua i t amb ién n os d i ce a l go a ce rca d e s u s v Incu lo s c on e ic en t ro p o l i t ico : u r bano s ye x t rau rbano s . Y a A ranegu i , e n e i S impo s io d e Ampuna s d c 1 991 h ab Ia a vanzado l a t e rm ino log Ia d e s an tuar ios p e r iu rbano s ( A ranegu i , 1 991 ,e . p . ; c f . t amb ién S an to s ,

h ab i tac ión 1 -7 c omo a dy ton oc en t ro d cc u l to ( Cancho R oano I : 1 39 -140 ; C ancho R oano I I : 2 49 -250 ) t oq ue t amb ién v cnd r Ia a va lado p o r e ia ná l is is m ic roe spac ia l l i evado a c abo p o r A lmag ro y s u s c o labo rado re s ( A lmag ro e ia l . . , 1 990 : 2 64 -265 ,f i g . 1 ) . E n e f ec to , p a ra lc ia s al af a chada f o r te d e l e d if ic io

1 992 : 3 5 ) , a unque d e sde m i p un to d e v i s ta e ip ano rama e s a i go má s c omp le jo . D en t ro d e c ada u no d c l o s d o s

p r inc ipa l , p e ro p ro longándo se a l o l a rgo d c l o s o t ro s l a do s , s e h a l iaba u na s e r ie d c p equef ias e s tanc ia s

g rupo sc ab r Ia h ace rv a r io sa pa r tado s : Luga re sd ec u i to u rbano s :

c on t igua s ( nume rada s ,d ce s t e ao e s te , Ni aN -6 ) d ce n t o rno al o s 3 ,5 m . /4 m . d c l ong i tud p o ru no s 1 , 5 m . d c

-

T emp io s os an tua r io sc I v ico s .

a nchu ra , ys epa rada s d e l c d if ic io p r inc ipa l p o r u n p a s i l lo d c u no s 2m . . No s ec omun ican c r it i c s i , ys o lo t i enen u na p ue r ta q ue d a ae s te p a s i l lo ( F igu ra 2 ) . Aunque e i e s tado d c c on servac iOn d c l a s m isma s

C api ia sd omé s t ica s . S an tua r io s empó r ico s L uga re s d cc u i to e x t raurbano s . -

-

-

-

-

S an tua r io ss ubu rbano s op e r i -u rbano s . S an tua r io sd cc a rác te rs up ra te m to r ia l .

S an tua r io sr u ra le s . A tend iendo a e s tos

d i fer Ia , s e h a p od ido c on s ta ta r l a e x is tenc ia d c i n te re san te s ma te r ia le s a rqueo lOg ico s . A s I , e n Ni s e h a l lo u n b ra sen u lo d c m ano s , d o s p a ta s d c c ab ra y

-

b ás icos

c ampam l ia , a s I c omo u n b o rde d c j a r ro t odo e l lo e n

d i s tnbu iremo s l o s t e s t imomo s c onoc ido s e n I ber ia , empezando , s i n e mbargo , p o r e i p ecu l ia r c a so d e C ancho Roano , e n p a r te p receden tc , d eb ido a s u s

s e is

g rupos

b ronce , f r agmen to s d c c opa s g r iega s d c b am iz n eg ro , r e s to sd cá nfo ra s ,o l la s yr e c ip icn te sd cg r an t ama i lo . L a N -2 s e e ncon t ró s e l iada p o r p ied ra s , b a jo l a s q ue s e h a l lO c l s ue lo , r c a l izado e n u na a rc i l la d c c o lo r r o jo

c a rac te r I s t ica s y as u c rono log Ia , d c f enómeno s p o s t e r io rc s . 3 . 2 C ancho R oano ( Za lamea d c l aS e rena , B ada joz ) ;

muy i n tcn so ; l o s ma ter ia le s h a l lado s f ue ron c sca so s . E n l a N -3 , q ue o r ig inar iamen te t e ndr Ia l a s m isma s f unc ione s q ue l a s r e s tan te s h ab i tac ione s , s e c on s truyó

S an tuar io? , ‚ P a iac io? , ‚ P a lac io -San tuano? Aunquc s i tuado e n E x t remadu ra , C ancho R oano e n tronca , i ndudab iemen te , c on t r ad ic ione s m c se tcña s p e ro s on mucho má s s i gn if ica t iva s s u s v incu lac ione s

u n c ana l i l lo t r an sve r sa l d cd c sagüe s ob re e ip av imen to o r ig ina l , s eme jan te a td cN -2 . S c h a l lO a l g Im f r agmen to d c c c rá m ica á t ica y u na p un ta d c l a nza d c h ier ro y

c on c i mundo d cl af a chada a t ián t ica d c l aP en in su la y , at r avé s d c l a Me se ta me r id iona l yl aA l ta A nda luc ia c on c lá mb i to i b é r ico d e l S udc s t c p en in su la r ( Cab re ra , 1 987 : 2 15 -221 ; F ernAndez J u rado & C ab re ra , 1 987 , 1 49 -159 ; Ma luque r , 1 987 : 1 9 -25 ; Dom inguez , 1 988 :

p a rece c i a ro q ue t r a s l ac on s t rucc iOn d c t a l d e sague l a h ab i tac ión q uedO i nu t i l izada p a ra s u f i na l idad i n ic ia l . E n N -4 s ec on scr vaban r e s to s d e l a i zado d c l o s mu ro s e n a dobe a s I c omo e ip av imen to r o jo s im i la r a ld c l a s

3 27 -334 ) . No e sa ho ra e i momen to d ci n ten ta rd el in i rs u c arác tc r c onc re to , y a q ue l a s p os ic ione s s on l o s u f ic icn temen tc ma t izada s c omo p a ra c on s ide ra r q ue

a sado r d c b ronce yr e s to s d c a l meno s d o s r e c ip ien te s d e l m ismo me ta l ( uno d c e l lo s u n c a lde ro ) a s I c omo c e rá m ica á t ica yc ucnco s yo l la s . L a N -S c on sc rvaba

s i gue s i endo d i f Ic i i s e re s t r ic to e nc uan to ai d en t i l ica r io c omo p a lac io o c omo s an tua r io (Ma luque r , 1 981 =

t amb ién p a r te d e l a i zado yd e l p av imen to a s Ic omo u na r i ca c o lecc iOn d c ma te r ia le s . E n b ronce , r e s to s d c u n

C ancho R oano , 1 ; Ma luque r , 1 983 = C ancho R oano I , Ma luque r e i a l . , 1 986 = C ancho R oano , I l l ) . No o b s tan te , e n l a s ü l t ima s c ampaf ia s e s tán a pa rec iendo

j a r ro , r e s tos d c i m b ra sen l lo , j uego d c p onde ra les , a sado r d c b ronce , p un ta d c l a nza , p a lme ta d c c uenco , c l emen to s d ca t a la je d cc aba l lo ,f i bu la sa nu la re s yq u izá u na c ampan i l la ; e n h ic r ro , p un ta d c l anza , c uch i l lo

a n te r io re s e s tanc ia s ; e n t re l o s ma ter ia le s s e h a l lo u n

a lguno s e lemcn to s q ue , a un s eguramcn te s i n j re n c on t ra d c s u e ven tua l c a rác tc r d c p a lac io ( A lmag ro , 1 993 : 2 1-48 ; A l mag ro , 1 993 -a : 1 39 -161 ; A lmag ro & Dom inguez , 1 988 -89 : 3 39 -382 ; A lmag ro e ia l . , 1 990 : 2 51-308 ) , p ud ic ran i nc id ir má s e n s u a spec to c omo c en t ro c u i tua l ; ae l ia s me r e f cn ré , s ob rc t o do p o rque l a

a f a lca tado c on e nmanguc d c h ue so o m a r f i l , yo b je to s meno re s ; e n p iomo , u na c hapa f und ida y c anu t i l lo s

g ran a bundanc ia y h e tc rogcne idad d c l o s ma ter ia le s e ncon t rado se ne id if ic io p r inc ipa l r e ca lcan e nc lm i smo

u rna s , u n c ub i lc te h echo am ano yd o s c uenco s g r ise s , a s Ic omo im á nfo ra e np i ee ne ic en t ro d cl ah ab i tac ión ;

má s u na f unc ión p o l i t ico rcd is tnbu ido ra q ue l a e s t r ic tamen te r e l ig io sa q ue a ca so t i e ra , a lm cno s e n p ar te , s is e a dm i tc l ai n terp re tac iOn d c Ma luque r d c l a

a demá s , f r agmen to s d c u na c opa Cs tu lo , y a d ahada d u ran tc l a a n t igüedad , y mucha s o t ra s c e rám ica s y

a r ro l lado s . E n c uan to a l a c crám ica , s e c on servan v a r ios e j en ip la re s c omp le to s , e n t re e l io s d o s o l la s t o sca s , t i c s

f u sayo la s . S eh a l la ron t amb ién o b je to se nh ue so ,m a r f i l

3 5

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

1 79 -188 ) . A unque t odav Ia h ay c i c r to d eba te , p a rece q ue l a

yc oncha s , e n made ra ( en t re e l lo s n e d ado y r e s to s d c u na c a j i ta ) ye np i ed ra ,a s Ic omo r e s to s d cu na v a s i ja d e a l aba s t ro . P o r ü l i imo , e n N -6 , l a má s o cc iden ta l d c l a s

d e s t rucc iOn d c e s te c en t re t e ndr Ia l uga r s cgu ramen te a l ol a rgo d e l p r ime r c ua r to d e l s i g lo I V a .C . , momen to

e xcavada s , a lgo má s l a rga q ue l a s r e s tan tes , a pa ren temen te a l go m á sc u idada yc on p oye te sd c t a p ia l

d c a i no r t izac iOn d cf im t iva d e l c on jun to . C ie r tamen te , l a s e s tanc ia s aq ue h emo s a l ud ido , yq ue r odean e i e d if ic io p r inc ipa l , c on u n c on temdo r e la t ivamen te

e n s u i n ter io r , s e h alo u n c omp le to c on jun to d e ma te r ia le s ,a l guno s d ee l lo s aä nd i spue s to s e nl am isma p o s ic iOn e n q ue f ue ron a bandonado s : á nIo ra y v a s i ja s

h omogëneo , Ü encn t odo c la spec to d c h abe r s e rv ido a f i ne s c u l tua le s . P a ra a iguno s a u torc s h abr Ia q ue d e sca r tar n eu se c ome a lmacén d ado e ip oco n i ime ro d c o b je to se ncon t rado se ne l ia s ,f r cn te al oq ue o cu r rc e nc l

a do sada s , p un ta y r e s to s d c s o l if erreum , e l ia s y c uenco s , b rase r i l lo d c b ronce y p o s ib ie t r ipode d c made ra yj a r ro t a inb ién d cb ronce c on r e s to s d cc ebada yt r igo ,o r za ,a sado r e s d cb ronce ,r e s to s d co v icáp r ido s ,

e d if ic io p r inc ip a l . F ren te a l a b u squeda d c p a ra le lo s e n " r c s idenc ia s p r inc ipesca s" i t a l ianas ( Mu r lo , Acquarosa , e t c .)

h oz c on mango d c m ade ra , s opo r te c e rám ico , b o tone s d c b ronce , c uch i l lo s d c h i er ro , p i aqu i ta s d c made ra

( A lmag ro & D om Inguez , 1 988 -89 ; A lmag ro e i a l . 1 990 ; c f . Ru iz & Mo l ino s , 1 993 : 1 88 -191 ) , yq ue i nc iden má s e n s u p resun to c a rác te r d c r eg la , y o

d eco ra t h sc on z i gz ag s yc svá s t ica s ,e t c . R a sgo c om t in e n t o da s l a s e s tanc ia s e s l ap re senc ia d c r e s to s d c i ncend io q ue , s egün s u s c xcavado re s , h ab r Ia s i do p rovocado y d c e sca sa d u rac ión , yq ue

p rc f ie ro o t ra d i rccc iOn . E n e f ec to , n e p a ra ic lo p o s ib le p a ra u na e s t ruc tu ra d c e s te t i po , o bv iamen tc s a lvando

h ab r Ia t e n ido l uga rd e jando i ns i tu l o s ma te r ia le sq ue s e

l a s d i s tanc ia s p e r t inen tes , p od r Iamo s e ncon t ra r lo e n

h a l laban e n l a s e s tanc ia s , ye n t re l o s q ue , e n c ua t ro d c l a s s c i se s tud iada s ,l a su i n ica sa tm e nu so e nc l momen te d c s u d c s t rucc iOn , h ab la á n fo ra s , r c c ip ien te s d c b ronce

L oc r i s ,e ne iS u rd c I t a l ia . E n e f ec to , a l l Is ed c scubnO , e nl o sa ño sc i ncuen ta ,u na e s t ruc tu ra ,c onoc it hc ome l a

( c spec ia lmen te j a r ro s , b ra sc r i l lo , a sado res ) , a s I c omo c erám icas d iversas , l o q ue mostrar Ia q ue

" e s toa e n U " , c or respond ien tc a l a z ona s acra d c C en tocan ic re , q ue p resen ta u n e spac io c en t ra l , e n e s te

i nmed ia tamcn tc d c spud s d e l i ncend io l a s e s tanc ia s h ab r Ian s i do e n te r rada s ya bandonada s . L a i n terprc tac iOn q ue d an s us e xcavadore s a l c on jun to e sl ad e " c áma ra s o' c ap i l la s 'd eo f renda s , q ue a cogen u na s er ie d e c eremon l a s c u l tua le s d e c lara

c a se v ac Io p e ro e nc lq ue s ed epe s i taron , al ol a rgo d e l t i empo ,u na s t r e sc ien ta s s c ten ta yu na o f r enda s v o t iva s e n s endo s b o thro ic on s is tcn tc s e n r e s to s d c s ac r if ic io s

t r ad ic iön o r ien ta l i zan te a l t i empo q ue r ec iben u na v ar iada g ama d e e l emen tos v o t ivos , e n tre l o s q ue s e

d o s l a do s l a rgo s , d o s c o r redo re s med ian te l o s q ue s e a ccede au na s e r ie d c d iez p equeña s e s tanc ia s e n c at h w ie , d c u no s 5i n . x6 i n . , c uya i n te rp rc tac iOn d i s ta d c

d cv a cuno s ,s u ido s yo v ino s ,a s Ic omo r e s to sc e rt im ico s ; r odeando e s te e s pac io s ec ncuen t ran ,e nc ada t i ne d cs u s

...

e ncuen I r an p roduc los a gr I co la s , h erram ien ta . s d e u so c o t id iano yo b je tos s un tuar ios" a u tén t ico sd epó s i to sd c o f rcnda s , c omo mo s t ra r Ia l a i n s is tenc ia e n o b je to s c la ramen te r i tua le s c ome j a r ros y b raser i l los ,

e s ta rc omp le tamen tc a c ia rada ,p e ro q ue d ca l gi mn mode s e v incu lan c on e ic u l to d c A f rod i t ( F igu ra 3 ) ; p ara a l guno s s e t r a ta r la d e l l uga r e n c lq ue s ep r ac t icar la l a p ro s t i tuc i& is ag rada ,m ien t ra s q ue p a ra o t ro sp odr Ia s e r u na z ona d c h o speda je o , má s p o s ib lcmcn te , d c b anquc te , v incu lada a u n r ec in to s ac ro t a rdo -a rca ico

r c iac ionado s c on l i bac ione s oa b luc ione s ,p e ro t amb ién o t ro s v incu lado s ab anque te sr i tua le s c omo l o s a sado re s ol o s r e s to s ó seos d c o v ic pr ido s yl o s c e rca ics ; i gua lmen te , h ab r Ia o f rcndas , r eprc sen tada s p e r

r e c ien tcmcn tc e xcavado aw ie s 4 5i n . d c c s ta p a r t icu la r

h e r ram icn ta sd ct r aba jo ob i ene sd cp re s t ig io ( c e r ám ica s g r iegas ) ( Ce les t ino & J iménez , 1 989 : 2 26 -235 ;

e s t ruc tu ra . L ac r ono log Ia i n ic ia l s es i lt af i ne s d e l s i g lo

C e les t ino , 1 991 : 5 2 -85 ; C e les t ino ,

d e l s i g lo V I , yp e r s is t iendo h a s ta f i ne sd e l s i g lo I V a .C . , 1 990 : 6 7 -69 ) . E s t amb ién c u r io sa l av incu lac ión q ue s e

1 992 :

V I I ,c on i mpo r tan t e s mod if icac ione s ap a r t i rd cl am i tad

1 9 -46 ;

C e les t ino & J iméncz , 1 993) . Aunque h an s i do e xcavada s y av a r ia s d cl a s e s tanc ia s c o r re spond ien te s a l o s o t ros l a do s d e l e d i f ic io s u s d a to s n o h an s i do a tm o b je to d c r e fe renc ia p o rmeno r izada , c onoc iéndo se s o lo

I c a t r ibuye a l c on jun to d c C en tocame rc c on l a p ro s t i tuc iön s ag rada e mh ono rd c A f rod i ta ( no a cep ta t h u nám imemen te ) yl a má s q ue p robab le e x is t enc ia d c t a l r i tua l , i gua lmen te v incu lado aA s tar té , e n C ad iz , c ome s ug ie re R . O lmo s ( 1991 : 9 9 -109 ) r eg iOn c on l aq ue e i

p a rc ia lmcn tc c lc on ten ido d c l a d cnom inada e s tanc ia W-2 , d e l l a de o e s te ,q ue c on ten ia v a r io s p l a te s v o t ivo s , u n e sc ifo á t ico , n e t e la r , a s I c omo u n á nfo ra y o t ro s

c en t ro e x t remef lo d c C ancho R oano mue s t ra t amb ién c l a ra sr e lac ione s . N a tu ra lmcn te , n o s e t r a ta d c c omparar e s ta c on s t rucc ión c on l ae ncon t rada e nC ancho R oano ,p e ro

v a so s d c m eno r t amaño ; a demá s , ys ob rc i m p cqucno b anco d c a dobe h ab Ia u na o l la , u n p l a to , u na p e sa d c t e la r yu nc aba l l i to d cb ronce ( Ce le s t ino & J u l ián , 1 991 :

Z/ '\

3 6

ADOLFO J . DO M fNGUEZ MONEDERO

3 2

27

F IGURA 1 7 . a beza s v o t iva s p roceden te sd e l P un ta l d e l L lop s ( 27 y3 0 ; i m i tac ión d cp ebe te ro d e l C a s te l le td eB e rnabë . ( Segün B one te ta !1 990 ) .

F IGURA 1 8 . P u ig C a s te l le t . P l an ta d e l p ob lado . ( Segün L io rens e ta l1 989 ) .

3 7

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

l a s m isma s h a r e a l izado J .J uan iMo t to m ee v i ta e n t ra r e n u n a ná l is is d e l a s e t apa s d c l ai n ve s t igac iOn , ym e c on ten ta ré c on r e sum i r s u s c onc lu s ione s . L a s t é cn ica s d e e l abo rac iOn s on v ar iada s , i n c luyendo e i mode lado a mano , e i u so d e l t o rno y e i emp ieo d c mo lde s , f r ecuen temen tc u t i l izado s l o s t i e s e nu na m isma f i gu ra . L o s t i po s q ue J uan iMo l tO d i s t ingue e n t re t oda e s ta p roducc iOn s on l o s s i gu ien te s : I . - D ama s i b é r ica s ; I . P equeña s c abeza s ma scu l ina s ; I I . - C abeza s yp equef ia s c abezas c on c ue l lo , d c s exo i nde te rm inado ; I V . F ragmen to s d c c abeza s , t o r so s yc ue l lo s i n lo rme s ; V . Ma sca ra s yr o s t ro s d c f acc ione s h e len I s t ica s ; V I .B u s to s v e s t ido s , c on p cnd ien te s , c o l la re s yd iadema s ; V I I- C ompo s ic ione s d cv a r ia sf i gu ra s ; V I I I . -P ebe tem s

d omés t ico d c t i po f am i l ia r ) t o q ue , d c s e r c i e r to , p e rm i t ir la i n c lu ir a l m ismo d en t ro d e l g rupo d c l a s c ap i l la s d omé s t ica s ( v id . a par tado 3 . 3 .2 ) ; s i n e mba rgo , n o p odemo s d ecan ta rno s a lr c spec to p o r f a it h d c má s d a to s . E nc ua lqu ie rc a so c lp rob lema e s s abe r s ia l udc ami a spec to " m i t ico" , e s d ec i r , s ic lf i e l oe ia r te sano h an i n ten tado r ep re sen ta r ,e n f o rma s inbó l ica l a s c r cenc ia s q ueju s t if ican e se c u l to ( L lob rega t , 1 984 : 2 52 -253 ) 0 p o r e ic on t rar io , s e r e f ie rc a a l g t in a spec to d e l r i tua l , c omo s ug ie re e n t re o t ro s B lázqucz q ue o b ser va q ue a t l a do d e recho d c l a i magen h ay d o s a u l is ta s , l o q ue p robar la , p a ra d i cho a u to r , " que d an za s a compañada s d e mü s icos J ormaban p ane d e l r i tua l d e l c u l to a e s ia

e nf o r ina s d cc abeza f ememna ;I X . - F igu ra s d c c a rác te r p r im it ivo ; c l g rupo má s r ep resen tado e n t odo c l

d i osa " ( B lázqucz , 1 98 3 : 1 02 ) . Vo lv icndo a l c u l to p rac t icado e n c l s an tuar io

c on jun to e s e iV I I ( J uan IMo l tO : 1 987 -88 : 2 95 -329 ) ; B lech s ug iere , s ob re l a b a se d c l a p re senc ia d c

p rop iamen te d i cho , y aj uzga r p o r l ai n fo rmac ión q ue p uede p ropo rc ionarno s l a t e r raco ta e n c ues t ión , a un

t e r raco t .a s e l abo rada s ap a r t ir d c mo lde s , r e lac ione s d e l

c uando q u izá n o c onvenga p resc ind i r d c l a p r imera o pc iOn l am eno s c omp rome tedo ra e s l as egunda , q ue a l ud ir la aa l g i mn t i po d c c e remon ia or i tua l e n h ono rd c

s an tuar io d c l a S e r re ta c on l a s r eg ione s c o s te ra s v ec inas , l o q ue s e d cbe r Ia s egün s u o p in iOn a l s i gn if icado s up ra r reg iona ld e lm ismo ( B lech , 1 990 : 9 5 ) ; a un c uando n o c abe d uda r d c c sa s v incu lac ione s , c l g rue so d c l o s e xvo to s p a rece a l ud i r au no s d onan tc s mayo r i tar iamen te l o ca le s , p rcsum ib lcmcn tc d e l p rop io p ob lado y ,e ven tua lmen te ,d cs ue n to rno i nmed ia to , al o q ue p a rece d en samen te p ob lado ( Abad , 1 989 : 7 8 -79 ) . Ob scrva J uan iMo l tO q ue l a mayo r Ia d c l a s f i gu ra s a pa rec ida s s on f ememna s yq ue s ue len l evan l o sb razo s r e cog ido s b a jo e ip echo l o q ue p ara é le s u na c l ara a l u s iOn ac u l to sd cl af e cund idad ( J uan , 1 990 : 1 44 ) . S in d uda , u na d c l a s t e r raco ta s má s d e s tacab le s d c t o da l as e r ie , a unque n o p rocede d e l s an tuar io , s i no d c u na d c l a s v i v ienda s d e l p ob lado , e s J a p equef ia y c omp lc ja c ompo s ic ión e n l a q ue , s egün L lob rega t , mo s t rar la u na " r epre sen tac ión d e l a g ran D io sa a l a q ue I an s o lo J a l ta l a c abe za d e g ran l amaf io d e é s ta a maman iando a d os n iños , yas u d e recha ei z qu ie rda o f eren tes q ue z o can l ad oh le f l au la , i l evan p a loma s e n l a s manos y v an a compañados p or n i / los " ( L lob rega t , 1 984 : 2 52 ) ; p a ra B lazquez t amb ién s e t r a ta d c u na r cp rc sen tac iOn d cl ad io sa mad re ,c uyo a t r ibu to s e r ia l a p a loma ( B lazquez . 1 983 : 1 02 -103 ) . E s ta t e r raco ta r e a lmen te d if ie re b a s tan te d e l r e s to d e l c on jun to c ompuc s to ,c omo h cmo sv i s to ,e ns ui nmen sa mayo r Ia , p or f i gu ra s a i s lada s ys i n p rác t icamcn tc n ingün r a sgo d i s t in t ivo ; s eguramen te n o s e t r a ta , e mpe ro ,d cu na i magen d cc u l to ,a unque s uh a l lazgo e n u na z ona d c h ab i tac ión q u izá e s té re c a lcando l a r e l ig ios idad d c s u p rop ie tar io o c lc a rác tc r s ac ro d e l

l ad iv in idad , yq ue d o tar Ia d c t i n c on temdo m ayo r e i c u l to a l l I o f rec ido , m á s a lá d c l ar u t ina c o t id iana d e l " cu idado r d e l s an tua r io" , e ncargado , s egün l a r e con s t rucc iOn d c Uob rcga t , b a sándo se e nB láquez , d c h ace r d csapa rcce r c ada c i e r to t i cmpo l a s o f renda s a cumu lada s e n l a p equef ia s a la d c c u l to ( L lob rega t , 1 984 : 2 52 ) . No p a rece p robab le , s i n e mba rgo , q ue c l menc ionado " cu idado r " d i spu s ie ra t r anqu i la inen tc d c l o s e xvo to s a r ro jândo lo s p o r l a l a de ra d e l mon te ; s eguramen te e x is t ir Ia a l gdn o a l guno s d epo s i to s q ue s e r l an l o s e nca rgado s d c r ec ib ir a que l lo s a r t Icu lo s u na v ez h ub iese a cabado s u p er lodo d c v igenc ia . Má s r e c ien temen te L lob rega t p ien sa q ue e s p o s ib lc q ue c l t emp lo o s an tua r io n o s i rv ie se d c l uga r d c c u l to s i no q ue " má s b i en s e p od r Ia p en sar e n l ap os ib i l idad d e u na r ome r la a nua l , p ara l a s g en ie s d e l e n tom b , yd e u na c i er ia m ayor a f luenc ia p a ra l o s h ab z ian te s d e l p ob lado" ( L lob rega t e ta l . , 1 992 : 6 9 ) . A s Ip ue s ,l oq ue p o s ib lemen te r ep re sen ta l at e r raco ta e n c ue s t iOn s ea u na mep ifan la d c l ad i v imdad , q ue l a m isma s e y e a compaf lada d c a s is ten te s e n t re l o s q ue f i gu ran , a tm cnos , f l au t i s ta s , c on amp l io s p ara le lo s e n t odo c l Mcd i te r ráneo ( B lázquez , 1 983 : 1 02 -103 ; J uan I Mo ttO , 1 987 -88 : 3 24 -325 ) . E s t i t i l , a unque n o i n cue s t ionab le ,l ai n te rp rc tac ión d c Ma r in c omo " d io sa madre d c t i po med i ter ránco , c uyo r a sgo más c a rac te r I s t ico e s s ua spec to n u t r ic io , yal aq ue a cuden l a s mad re sc on s u sh i jo se nd emanda d cp ro tccc ion ,c on i mr i tua ld c md s ica yo f renda s c omo l ap a loma "( Ma n mn ,

l uga re nc lq ue s eh a l lO ( cj p o rc j cmp lo ,J uan IMo l tO ,

1 987 :64 ) . L a c rono log Ia q ue s e mane ja p a ra c l c on jun to

1 987 -88 : 3 26 -327 q ue s ug ie re l ae x is tcnc ia d ct i nc u l to

3 8

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

1 -I

-.

1i ll b

1l i la

-

1 1v

6 6 r I

t W". , .. .

I t • I 1 1

i

1

F IGURAS 1 9 . Mo l i dE sp igo l . L a s f a se s s uces iva sd e l ' e d i f ic io s i ngu la r " d e l p ob lado . ( Segün C u ra 1 989

*

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U F HL id A

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INHUNACI UN

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UVICAPRIDU I NFANTIL

F IGURAS 2 0 . P en d e l Mo ro . L oca l izac ión d c l o sd ive r so sr i tua le sd oé s t ico s ( Segün B a rbe rá e ta l1 989 ) .

3 9

ADOLFO J . DO W NGUEZ MONEDERO

F IGURA 2 1 . A lo rda P a rk . E I r e c in to A . ( Segün S anma r t i yS an tacana 1 992 ) .

F IGURA 2 2 . L aE scud i l la . C on jun to a rqu i tec tón ico y o f renda s ( Segün Gu s i 1 992 ) .

4 0

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c o rop lá s t ico d e l s an tuar io o sc i la e n t re l o s s i g io s I I yI a .C . ( Juan I Mo ltó , 1 987 -88 : 3 27 -329 ) q ue c o r responder la ,g ro s so modo ,c on u no d el o s momen to s

c o r re spond icn te sa t mve l F oi b é r ico ( s . V I I I a. C . ) , q ue a ca so p ud ic ran c o r rcsponde r aa u tén t ico s t emp lo s , d cb ido a l a a uscnc ia d c c on tex to s c l a ro s r c fer ido s a

má s i mpo r tan te s e n e i d e sa r ro i lo d e l h ab i ta t d e l q ue d epende e is an tua r io ( Abad , 1 983 : 1 73 -198 ) , p o r má s q ue p a rece e v iden te q ue e i m ismo , t r a s i m l a p so d e c e rca d e d o s s i g io s , v o iv ió as e r u t i i izado ap a r t i r d e l

e l ios ( cf . R amos F ernández , 1 975 : 1 02 -104 ) ; i g ua lmcn te , t a inpoco c on s ide ra ré l oq ue p a rece s e ru na

s i g lo I Id .C . ( Abad : 1 984 : 2 74 -276 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .2 P o s ib le " Ed iI ic io C ü l t ico "d el aE scue ra

c rono lóg ica s on d udo sa s ( Ramo s F e rnández , 1 975 : 1 31-132 ) . N a tura lmcn te , e hp rc sun to t cmp lo a ug i is teo

c ámara s ub te r ránea r ec tangu la r , h a l lada p o r I ba r ra a p nnc ip io s d c s i g lo yc uya f unc iona l idad ya d sc r ipc ión

q ueda y a f ue ra d c n uc s t ro c ampo d c i n tc ré s p re scn tc

( San F u lgenc io ,A l ican te ) . E n l a s e xcavac ione s q ue s e l i eva ron a c abo e n l o s a f io s 5 0 y6 0e ne s te p ob lado q ue s eh a ha d om inando l a o r i l ia i z qu ie rda d e h a d e sembocadu ra d e l S egu ra , l a e xcavado ra e ncon t ró e n l a z ona d e l " banca i B " u n

( Ramos F ernández , 1 975 : 1 64 -165 ) . A é poca i b e ro -pün ica r emon tar la i m r e c in to , c uya s f o tograf Ia s a pa recen e n a l guna s d c l a s p ub h icac ione s d c R amo s F e rnández ( Ramos F ernández , 1 974 : 6 9 ; R amo s

e d if ic io i mpo r tan te c ompues to d e , a l m eno s , o cho d epa r tamen to s ,q ue p ron to i n te rp re tó c omo d e s t inado a l

F e rn á ndez , 1 983 : 8 3 ) d e l q ue S cd i ce q ue p o se nu n a r a d c s acnf ic io s yd e l q ue n o d csca r ta r Ia q ue f uese e h

c u l to ,e n e ih ab Ia a n p a t io c on b a sa s d e c o iumna s y a igunos t i pos c erám icos q u izä r i tua ies ( va s i ja

l a s c e rám ica s p o l Ic roma s , l a s p in tada s d c b i anco , a s I c omo c e ránnca s á t ica s yd eb a rn iz n eg ro . E nu no d el o s

m ismo a hq ue ac on t inuac iOn n o s r e fe r iremo s , a unque h e s i do i n capaz d c c on l irma r lo . A l e s t ra to F , yh a l lado e n e s te l uga r d c c u l to , a t r ibuyc R amo s F e rn á ndez u na f i gu r i l ia mac iza d c t e r raco ta , d c u no s 9 cm . d c a i tu ra , muy c squemá t ica , yq ue p resen ta s eme janza s c on a i guna sd cl a s r ep re sen tac ione s e nb a r ro p roceden te sd c

d epa r tamen to s ( e i d ) s e h a l lo u na p equef la h o rnac ina c on u na b a sa d e c o lumn i ta e n e ic en t ro ( No rd s t röm ,

l aS c r re ta d cA lcoy ( Ramo s F e rnández , 1 975 : 17 -118 ; J uan , 1 990 : 1 43 ) yq ue d i cho a u to r c on s idc ra c omo

1 967 ) ( F igu ra 5 ) . E n l o s á l t imo s a i lo s s eh an r e a l izado a l guno s s ondeo s e n l a s z ona s a l edaf ia s ae sa s a n t igua s

I d o lo ( Ramo s F e rn á ndez , 1 988 : 7 9 ) . A demá s d c e s to s e l emen to s yd c o t ra s c s ta tu i l la s e n t e r raco ta h a h lada s

e xcavac ione s q ue h an s acado a l a l uz i m r epe r to r io c e rám ico may s im i la r , a unque n o s e h a p od ido c onf irma r l ae ven tua l e x i s tenc ia d e l l uga r d c c u l to q ue p ropugnaba l a i n ve s t igado ra s ueca y q ue n o h a s i do t omada n unca muy e n s eno ( L iob rega t , 1 972 : 8 6 -88 ) .

d u ran te l a s e xcavac iones ( J uan , 1 990 : 1 42 -143 ) , me r e fe r iréen s u l uga r a z ona s c i l i t ica s d c c a rác te r

L ac rono log Ia q ue h oy s ea s igna a lp ob lado v ad e sde e i s i g lo I V a tIa .C . ( Abad , 1 986 -a : 1 46 -147 ) . Y a e n c l p ob lado d e l O ra l , c uyo s h ab i tan te s , s eg i mn s ug ie ren l o s

( 2 ,48 m . x3 ,85 m .) c on i mi c cho d c p i ed ra s d c 0 , 83 m . x1 , 35 m . yu na a l tu ra d c0 , 24 m . d e lq ue s ea scgu ra q ue s et r a ta d ci ma l ta r ;c o r re sponde r la a te s t ra to q ue R amo s

e xcavado re s ,s e r lan l o s q ue s et r a s iada sen aL aE scue ra p a ra e s tab lece r se a i l I , s eh a l lO e nu na h ab i tac iOn ( I l iJi) , d a tada c omo e lr e s to d e l p ob lado e n l ap r ime ra m i tad

F o lqué s i l amaba E o i b e ro -p i ln ico ( 2 38 -50 a .C . ) yq ue h oy d Ia t i cnde ah l ama r sc i b e ro -hc len I s t ico ; s ob re e se l e cho d cp i edra s h ab Ia u na t e r raco ta d cu nt o ro e chado ,

d e l s i g lo V a .C . u n p av imen to d c a r c i l la m ezc lado c on c a l e n e i q ue a pa rec Ia r ep re sen tada l a f i gu ra d c u n

q ue t a l v ez h ac Ia f unc ione s d cp ebe tc ro ,j un to a tq ue s e h a l la ron v a r io s v a so s p in tado s ( c aba h lo s ,j i ne te s , g r an

l i ngo te ,h ab i tua lmen te v i ncu lada ac on tex to s f une ra r io s ( Pozo Mo ro , L o s V i l la re s ) ( Abad & SALA , 1 993 : 1 79 )

a ye , c a rn Ivo ro , e t c . ) ; e n l a s h ab i tac ione s q ue h ab Ia e n t o rno a l a m isma a t n or tc , s u r yo c s te , s e h a l la ron

yq u izá t amb ién c u i tua le s ( Cancho R oano ) . 3 . 3 .1 .3 U nP o s ib le T emp lo C fv i co e nl aA icud ia

t amb iën p o s ib he s r e s to s r i tua lc s ; a s I , e nl as a ha a tn oPe d cl ac en t ra l ,s er e cupe rO e nu na f o sa i mc r ánco a i s lado , j un to c on o t ro s ma te r ia les , l oq ue i l evO a te xcavado ra

g em inada ) , r e s to s d c a n ima ie s yc en iza s , a s I c omo i m a bundan te r epe r to r io c e rám ico e ne iq ue e s tán p r e sen te s

( E iche ,A l ican te ) L a s i tuac iOn d c L a A lcud ia d c E iche n o d e ja d c s e r

d omé s t ico ( v id . a pdo .3 . 3 .23 ) . S c i n fo rma d c q ue e n J a z ona s u ror ien ta l d e l y ac im ien to ( s ec to r 9 -E ) s e e xcavO i m d epar ta xuen to

c omp l icada , p ues to q ue d i sponemos d c a i guna s r e fe renc ia s ap o s ib le s l uga re s d c c u l to d u ran te l a s

s ugenr h ae x is tenc ia d ca nc u l to a tc rá neo ; a t momen to s i gu ien t e ( D ,i b e ro romano , 5 0a .C . -50 d .c . ) , yal as a la a ho c s te d c l ac en t ra l l e c o r re sponder la u na f o sa , c on

d i s t in ta s e t apa s d c v ida d c l a c iudad i b e r ica ; s i n emba rgo , l o s h a l lazgo s n o h an s i do o b je to d c

r ep re sen tac io ne s d c c abcza s h umanas e n p in tu ra y c scu l tu ra , e n t re e l ia s f r agmen to s d c p ebe te ro s , d c u na

d ema s iado s t r aba jo s e spec If ico s , l oq ue d e r iva e n u na s i tuac iOn d cc i e r ta c on fu s iOn . N oe n t r a ré e ne id e ta l le d c

ma sca ra , e t c . ; a to c s tc d c h af o sa a n d epa r tamen to c on u n c á i iz , d o s v a s i to s g eme lo s y im v a so c on t r e s d epa r tamen to s ,e s to sü l t imo sd cc i a ro c a rác te rr e l ig io so .

l o s

e lemen tos

a rqu itcc tOn ico s

a parec idos

y

4 1

ADOLFO J . DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

c occ ión , e r an p in tada s , d c b l anco l o s r o s t ro s f ememno s

h a l la ron r e s to s d c o v icápndo s ( Bc i t r án L ions , 1 976 :

yd c b e ige o r o sa l o s ma scu l ino s . S e i n te rp re ta ae s ta s p roducc iones c omo o b je to s d e c u l to , " l o c ua l n o

1 50 -151 ; 1 67 -168 ;4 27 ) . T a rnb ién p roceden d c l aa c ropo l is e n te r ra in ien to s d c p eno s e n c i s ta s , a s I c omo d epo s ic ionc s d e r e s to s d c o v icáp r ido s b a jo a lguna s c a sa s , a ca so s acnf ic io s

c on t rad ice q ue e n d e te rm inado m omen to p a sasen as e r e xvo tos u o f rendas e n l o s s an tua r ios , n ecrópo l i s o d epó s i tos v o l ivos" , q u izá e n r e lac ión c on i magene s

v o t iva s s e h a l len a l guna s i m i tac ione s d c l o s c onoc ido s " pebe te ro s" o " quemape r fume s" e n f o rma d c c abeza

n tua les ( Be i t rAn L lons , 1 976 : 4 27 -428 ) ; s obre l a r i qucza f i gu ra t iva d c l ac e rá rmca i bd r ica d c A za i la n o e n t ra ré c omo , e n g ene ra l n o e n t ro e n c l t ema d c l a i c onog ra f Ia c e rám ica i b énca . L ac rono iog Ia d ct o do e s te p er Iodo s e s i tua r Ia e n t re c l 2 00 a .C . yc i7 6 -72 a .C .

f emen ina , r ea l izada s e n l am isma t é cn ica q ue a qué l ia s , yq ue a ca so a caba ron p o ra dqu i r ir c a rác te rd ce xvo to su

( Be l t r án L ions , 1 976 : 4 54 -455 ) . D cl oq ue n oc abe d uda e sd e lc a rác te rc u i tua l d co t ro

o b je to s d c c u l to ( Bone t e ia ! , 1 990 : 1 89 -191) ( F igu ra

e d if ic io r ec tangu la r , c on r cve s t im ien to i n terno d c e s tuco ; a lf ondo , u n a l to p od io e n c lq ue s i tuaron d o s e s ta tua s d c b ronce ; c lp i so e r ad c mo sa ico ys u a cce so s e r ca l izaba a t r avd s d c u n p o r t ico c on c o iumna s i n

i dea l izada s d e l o s a n tepa sado s ( Bone t e i a ! , 1 990 : 1 85 -189 ; 1 93 -196 ) ; q u izá e nr e lac ión c on e s ta s c abeza s

1 7 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .5 E lC .so d cS agun to ( Va lenc ia ) . L a s f uen tes a n t igua s ( P l in io , XV I , 2 16 ) h an

a n t i s ; s et r a ta ,n a tura imen te , d ci m t emp lo r omano q ue p oco n o s i l us t ra s ob re L a r e l ig io s idad d e l p ob lado

t r an sm i t ido l a e x is tenc ia d c u n t emp lo d ed icado a A r t em is e n l ac iudad d c S agun to q ue G a rc ia yB e l l ido p ropu so b u sca r e n l o q ue p o s tc r io rmen te h a r e su l tado s e r u n l i enzo d e l a mu ra l la d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( Ga rc ia y B e l l ido , 1 963 : 8 7 -98 ; Rou i l la rd , 1 979 ) ; p or

i bér ico ( Be l t rán L ions , 1 976 : 1 51-152 ) , yc uya d a tac iOn s es i t i Ia e nc ls egundo c ua r to d e l s i g lo Ia .C . . 3 . 3 .1 .7 E lT emp lo d cU l la s t re t( Ge rona ) . I ndcpend icn temen te d c l o s o t ro s e vcn tua le s d c c u l to

c on s igu ien te , s egu imos s i n t eue r d a tos d c e s te s an tuar io ,q ue s egu ramen te e j e rc ió WI p ape l i mpo r tan tc

q ue p ud icran h abe r e x is t ido e n l a c iudad i b ér ica d c Ula s t re t( v id . a pdo .3 . 3 .2 .6 ) ,e nL ap a r te a L ta d e lP u ig d c S an tA nd reu ,d onde a c tua lmcn te s ee ncuen t ra c l Mu sco

d en t ro d cl ae s t ruc tu ra p o l I t ico -re l ig io sa d cL ac i udad ;c l p equef lo t emp lo d e é poca r omano rcpub l icana q ue s e v i enc e xcavando e n l o s ü l t imo s a f io s ( A ranegu i , 1 987 :

Monogra f ico s e d e tec ta ron t amb ién d uran te l a s c xcavac ione s d cl o s a ño sc i ncucn t .a l o sr e s to s d c l oq ue p a recen s e r d o s t emp io s . E n c l i ado s u r s e h a l lo l a p l an ta d c mi t emp lo i na n t i s , r e c tangu la r ( 6 ,9 m . x6 , 2

1 55 -162 ; A ranegu i , 1 991 : 6 7 -82 ; A ranegu i , 1 993 : 1 5 -20 ) , a unque i n lo rme d c l ar e l ig io s idad d c l an ucva c iudad s u rg ida t r a s l a d e s t rucc iOn a n ibá l ica , n o n o s

m .) , d c l c uyo v e s t Ibu io a pena s s e c on sc rva n ada ; p rcsen ta c on t ra fue r tes e x ternos , d o s e n l a p ar te p o s te r io r , t r e s e n u n l a do y d o s e n c lo t ro ( F igu ra 7 ) ; o r ien tado h ac ia o nen te , s e c on scrvan r e s tos d e l p av imen to . E n é l s e h a l la ron , j un to c on o t ros

a yuda p rác t icamcn tc n ada e n e i c onoc im icn to d c l a r e l ig io s idad d cl ae t apa i b d r ica . 3 . 3 .1 .6 Un P re sun to " Tcmp lo" I bé r ico e nA za i la ( Cabezo d cA lca lá T e rue l ) . E ne ip ob lado d cA za i la , s i tuado an o m á s d c 1 5 km . d e l r i o E b ro s e e xcavó , a p nnc ip io s d c e s te s i g lo , u n ‚

ma ter ia le s , v ar ia s t e r raco ta s q ue r ep resen tan r o s t ro s h u inano s ( O l iva , 1 955 : 4 08 -412 ; O l iva , 1 958 : 3 25 -328 ; O l iva , 1 959 : 3 82 -383 ; Ma r t in , 1 988 : 2 1) . E L t emp lo s e d e s t ruye e n e is i g lo I I a .C . , a unque e s p o s ib le q ue s u c on s t rucc iOn f ue se a n ter io r (M iró , 1 990 : 3 05 ) . Muy p o s ib lemen te d c e s te t emp lo p roceden a l guno s s i l ia re s

p ob lado h a l ls tá t t ico q ue a cabO p o r i be r iza r se . E n L a a cropo l is d e l m ismo , C ab ré d e tcc tO u n e d if ic io d c p lan ta t r apezo ida l ( 5 m . x4 ,5 m . x3 m . ) , a lq ue s e a cced Ia p o ru na g rada d e scend ien te , r c ve s t ida d c y e so ; j un to a lm ismo s e h a l lo mi a r a c nca lada d c b lanco y p a r te d e l p ede s t a l q ue s o s ten Ia l ac s ta tu i l la d c m i t o ro

q ue p r c sen tan d cco rac iOn d cr o ico s ymo t ivo s v egc ta lc s

a unque s ur e lac iOn c on c lp re sun to t emp lo e sp rob lemá t i ca . N o o b s tan te , B e l t rán L Io ns s e muc s t ra c scép t ico

( G imeno , 1 991 : 1 552 -1554 ) a s I c omo r e s to s d c c o rn isa s , yl oq ue p o s ib lemen t ee r ac la r ad e lm ismo ,e n

s ob re t a li den t if icac iOn : " l ac ube ta d ey e so l ai n c luye e n

p i ed ra ( O l iva ,1 959 : 2 1-22 ;i á m . V I I ,2 ) . Au n m e t ro d c e s te t emp lo , e n s u c o s tado f o r te y

e ia pa r tado d e l a s h ab i tac ione s d e s t inada s ap o s ib le s u sos i ndus tr ia le s , yl o s d a bs d e t i po c ons truc l ivo

p a ra le lo ae is e h a l lO o t ro e d if ic io , c uya c a ra e x te r io r e s tA r e ve s t ida d ce s tuco r o j izo yp a rece o t ro t emp lo d e l m ismo t i po ; A . Ma r t in s ug ie re q ue e s ta d i spo s ic iOn d c b a r r io s ag rado e n l ap ar te a l ta c op ia l ad i spo s ic iOn d c

p erm i ten e x t rae rc onc lu s ione sf i rme s ;s i ae s bo s e u ne n ue s tra i gnoranc ia s abre l a a rqu i tec lura r e l ig iosa i b é r ica e ng ene ra l , s ei e nd rá una i d ea d el a d if i cu i tad e x is ten te p ara a cep tar d i cha ss upos ic ione s " , t a mpoco

p o r má s

q ue l o s r e s to s

mucb lcs

mucha sc i udade sg n iega s( Ma r t in , 1 988 : 2 1 ) . P o rl oq ue s er ef ie re al o s e xvo to s menc ionado s , l o s m ismo s h an a pa rec ido t amb ién e n o t ra s z ona s d e l

s ug icran u na

v incu lac iOn c on e ic u l to a lt o ro ; a demá s e n l az ona s e

4 2

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c occ ión ,e r an p i n tada s ,d e b l anco l o s r o s t ro s f emcn ino s yd e b e ige o r o sa l o s m a scu l ino s . S e i n te rp re ta ae s ta s p roducc iones c omo o b je to s d e c u l to , " l o c ua l n o

j un to a lm ismo s e h a l lo t i n a r a e nca lada d e b i anco y p a r te d e l p ede s ta l q ue s o s ten la l ae s ta tu i l la d e i m t o ro a unque s ur e iac ión c on e ip re sun to t emp lo e sp rob lemá

c on t rad ice q ue e n d e te rm inado m omen to p a sa sen as e r

t i ca . N o o b s tan te , B e l t rán Uor i s s e mue s tra e scep t ico s ob re t a li d en t i f icac iOn : " l ac ube ta d ey e so l ai n c luye e n e ia pa r lado d e l a s h ab i tac ione s d e s t inada s ap os ib le s

e xvo tos u of renda s e n l o s s an tua r ios , n ecrópo l i s o d epó s i tos v o t ivos" , q u izá e n r e lac ión c on i mágene s

I

F IGURA 2 3 . E I C e r rón . R e l ieve e np a s ta d ea dobe . ( S egün B a lma seda yV a li e n te 1 9 8 1 ) .

i d ea l izada s d c l o s a n tepa sado s ( Bone t e i a l . 1 990 : 1 85 -189 ; 1 93 -196 ) ; q u izá e nr e lac iOn c on e s ta s c abeza s v o t iva s s e h a l len a i guna s i m i t .ac ione s d e l o s c onoc ido s

u sos i ndus tr ia le s , yl o s d a bs d e t i po c ons truc t ivo t a m p oco p erm i ten e x t rae rc onc iu s ione sf i rme s ;s i ae s to s e u ne n ue s ira i gnoranc ia s obre l a a rqu i tec tura r e l ig iosa i b é r ica e ng ene ra l , s e t e nd rá una i d ea d el a

" pebe te ro s" o " quemaper fume s" e n f o rma d e c abeza f emen ina , r ea l izada s e n l am i sma t é cn ica q ue a qué l la s ,

d if icu l tad e x i s ten te p ara a cep lar d i cha s s upos ic ione s " , p o r má s q ue l o s r e s to s mucb les s ug ic ran u na

yq ue a ca so a caba ron p o ra dqu i r i rc a rác te rd ee xvo to su

v i ncu !ac ión c on c lc u l to a lt o ro ; a demá s e n l az ona s e

o b je to s d e c u l to ( Bone t e ia b , 1 990 : 1 89 -191) ( F igu ra

h a i la ron r e s to s d c o v icápndo s ( Be l t rán L ion s , 1 976 :

1 7 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .5 E lC a so d cS agun to ( Va lenc ia ) .

1 50 -151 ; 1 67 -168 ;4 27 ) . T amb ién p rocedcn d c l aa c ropo l is e n tc r ram ien to s d c

L a s f uen tes a n t igua s ( P l in io , XV I , 2 16 ) h an t r an sm i t ido l a e x is tenc ia d c u n t emp lo d ed icado a A r tem i s e n l ac i udad d c S agun to q ue G a rc ia yB e l l ido p ropu so b u sca r e n l o q ue p o s te r io rmen te h a r e su l tado s e r i m l i enzo d c l a mu ra l la d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( Ga rc ia y

p e r ro s e n c i s ta s , a s I c omo d epo s ic ione s d c r e s to s d c o v icápr ido s b a jo a l guna s c a sa s , a ca so s acr if ic io s

B e l l ido , 1 963 : 8 7 -98 ; Rou i i lard , 1 979 ) ; p or c on s igu ien te , s egu imos s i n t ene T d a tos d c e s te s an tua r io ,q ue s egu ramen te e j e rc iO t i np ape l i mpo r tan te

i c onog r af Ia c e rám ica i b d r ica . L a cmno log ia d ct o do e s te p er Iodo s e s i tua r Ia e n t re c l 2 00 a .C . yc l7 6 -72 a .C . ( Bc ! t r án L lo r i s , 1 976 : 4 54 -455 ) .

d en t ro d cl ae s t ruc tu ra p o l i t ico re i ig io sa d cl ac i udad ;c l p equeno t emp lo d c é poca r omano repub l icana q ue s e

D cl oq ue n oc abe d uda e sd e lc a rác te rc u l tua ld co t ro c d if ic io r ec tangu la r , c on r cves t im ien to i n terno d c

v i ene e xcavando e n l o s t i l t imo s a f io s ( A ranegu i , 1 987 : 1 55 -162 ; A ranegu i , 1 991 : 6 7 -82 ; A ranegu i , 1 993 : 1 5 -20 ) , a unque i n fo rme d c l ar e l ig io s idad d c l an ueva

c s tuco ; a lf ondo ,

c iudad s u rg ida t r a s l a d c s t rucc iOn a n ibá l ica , n o n o s

a n t i s ; s et r a ta ,n a tu ra lmen tc ,d c t i n t emp lo r omano q ue

a yuda p rác t icamcn te n ada e n c l c onoc im ien to d c l a r e l ig io s idad d cl ae t apa i b d r ica . 3 . 3 .1 .6 Un P re sun to " Temp lo "I bé r ico e nA za i la ( Cabczo d cA lca lá T erue l ) . E nc lp ob lado d cA za i la , s i tuado an om á s d c 1 5 km .

p oco n o s i l u s t ra s ob re l a r e l ig io s idad d e l p ob lado i bdr ico ( Be l t rán L lor is , 1 976 : 1 51-152 ) , yc uya d a tac iOn s es i tt ia e nc ls egundo c ua r to d e l s i g lo Ia .C . . 3 3 .1 .7 E lT cmp lo d c Ula s t re t( Ge rona ) .

r i tua les ( Be l t rAn L lo r is , 1 976 : 4 27 -428 ) ; s ob re l a r i queza f i gu ra t iva d c l ac e rám ica i b d r ica d c A za i la n o e n t ra ré c omo , e n g ene ra l n o e n t ro e n c l t cma d c l a

mi

a l to p od io e n c lq ue s i tua ron d o s

e s ta tua s d c b ronce ; c lp i so e r a d c mo sa ico ys u a ccc so s e r ea l izaba a t r avé s d c u n p O r t ico c on c o lumna s i n

‚

I ndcpend icn temen te d c l o s o t ro s e ven tua le s d c c u l to q ue p ud ieran h abe r c x is t ido e n l a c i udad i b é r ica d e U la s t re t( v id . a pdo .3 . 3 .2 .6 ) ,e nl ap a r tc a l ta d e lP u ig d c

d e l r i o E b ro s e c xcavó , a p r inc ip io s d e e s te s i g lo , t i n p ob lado h a l ls tá t t ico q ue a cabO p o r i b c r iza r se . E n l a a crOpo l is d e l m ismo , C ab ré d c tec tO u n e d if ic io d c p l an ta t r apezo ida l ( 5 m . x4 ,5 m . x3 m . ) , a lq ue s e a cccd Ia p o t u na g rada d c scend ien te , r e vc s t ida d c y e so ;

S an tA nd reu ,d onde a c tua lmen t e s ee ncuen t ra c l Mu seo Monogra f ico s e d e tcc ta ron t amb ién d u ran tc l a s c xcavac ione s d cl o s a f io s c i ncucn ta l o s r e s to sd c l oq ue

4 3

ADOLFO J .DOM ! NGUEZ MONEDERO

p a recen s e r d o s t emp lo s . E n e i l ado s u r s e h a l lo l a p l an ta d e u n t emp lo i na n t i s r e c tangu la r ( 6 ,9 m . x6 , 2 m .) , d e l c uyo v e s t Ibu lo a pena s s e c on se rva n ada ; p re sen ta c on t rafue r tes e x ternos , d o s e n l a p a r te p o s te r io r , t r e s e n u n l a do y d o s e n e io t ro ( F igu ra 7 ) ; o r ien tado h ac ia o r ien te , s e c onservan r e s tos d e l p av imen to . E n d i s e h a l la ron , j un to c on o t ros ma ter ia le s , v a r ia s t e r raco ta s q ue r ep re sen tan r o s t ro s h umano s ( O l iva , 1 955 : 4 08 -4 12 ; O l iva , 1 958 : 3 25 -328 ; O l iva , 1 959 : 3 82 -383 ; Ma r t in , 1 988 : 2 1) . E l t emp lo s e d es t ruye e n c is i g lo I I a .C . , a unque e s p o s ib le q ue s u c on s t rucc ión f ue se a n te r io r ( M i rO , 1 990 : 3 05 ) . Muy p o s ib lemen te d c e s te t emp lo p roceden a l guno s s i l la re s q ue p r e sen tan d eco rac iOn d cr o leo s ymo t ivo s v ege ta le s ( G imeno , 1 991 : 1 552 -1554 ) a s I c omo r e s to s d c c o rn isa s , yl oq ue p o s ib iemen t ee r ae ia r ad e l m ismo ,e n p i ed ra ( Ol iva ,1959 : 2 1-22 ;l á m . V I I ,2 ) . Au n me t ro d c e s te t emp lo , e n s u c o s tado f o r te y p ara ie io ad is e h a l lO o t ro e d if ic io , c uya c a ra e x te r io r e s tA r e ves t ida d c e s tuco r o j izo yp a rcce o t ro t emp lo d e l m ismo t i po ; A . Ma r t in s ug ic r e q ue e s ta d i spo s ic iOn d c b a r r io s ag rado e n L ap a r te a l ta c op ia L ad i spo s ic iOn d c mucha sc i udade sg r iega s (Ma r t in , 1 988 : 2 1 ) .

d c s e r c l a s i f icado s e n t r e s t i pos : ma sca ra s i dea l izada s , c xp re s iva s ym i to lóg ica s ( Go rgona , Aque loo , S á t i ro ) . L ar e lac iOn d ce s to s e xvo to s e sc l a ramen te c on mo t ivo s yc o s tumb re s g r iega s , má s q ue c on l a s i bd r ica s . E l t emp lo , s ug ic re M .T . M i rO , e s tar la d ed icado a a l guna d i v in idad " r e lac ionada a mb c u l ies al af er t i l i la t , e iq ue s e r ia b as ian t n orma l e n u n mon e n e i q ua l l a s eva a c t iv i ta l p r inc ipa l c ons is le ix e n i ' agr icu l tura i l a r amader ia"; s i n e mba rgo , s e r e s is te a p ensa r e n D emd te r yc r ce má sb i en q ue l oe s ta r la " au na l tre t i pu s d e d i v in i ta t , s eguramen i a u tôc iona d e l m ön i b èr ic , e i c u l te d e l aq ua ls of re ix m od if ica t ions a mb 1 ' a ss im i lac i6 d er i tusf oran i s" ( M irO , 1 990 : 3 05 -309 ) ; P u jo l , p o r e i c on t rar io , p ien sa e n u na a s im i lac iOn i nd Igena d c A r tem is ( Pu jo l , 1 992 : 7 8 ) . E n t odo c a so , e s c li m n ico c a so c onoc ido d c t emp lo i b d r ico , c on u no s c xvo to s e n t e r raco ta s eme jan t e s al o sd cl o s t emp lo sg r icgo s . 3 . 3 .1 .8 P o s ib le L uga r d c C u l to e n L a Que jo la ( San P ed ro ,A lba ce te ) . E l h a l lazgo c a sua l d c u n t im ia ter io d c b ronce e n 1 986 ,d c c l ara t r ad ic iOn o nen ta l izan te ,q ue r ep re sen ta a u na f i gu ra f emen ina s o s tcn iendo u na p a loma , q ue s e p ropone d a ta re n t re l o s U l t imo s d ecen io s d e l s i g lo V I y

F IGURA 2 4 . C ampc l lo . V i s ta a xo nomé tnca d e lc on jun to d c" t emp lo s " ya lma cén . ( S eg ( in L l ob r ega t 1 9 93 ) . F o r l oq ue s er e f ie re al o s c xvo to s menc ionado s , l o s m ismo s h a r t a parcc ido t amb idn e n o t ra s z ona s d e l p ob lado ; s e t r a ta d c ma sca ra s v o t iva s q ue p ueden d a ta r sc e n t o rno a !s i g lo I I , momcn to d c d c s trucc ión d e l t emp lo . P rocedcn s eguramen te d c u n m ismo t a l le r l o ca l ,e s tn h echa s amo lde ya l guna s c on se rvan r e s to s d c p in tu ra b l anca ; s egu ra rnen te e s taban c o lgada s d c L a p a red d e l t emp lo , al aa l tu ra d cl a so re ja s ( F igu ra 8 ) . D c l o s 2 9 f r agmcn to s c onoc ido s , s O lo 1 5 s on s u scep t ib le s

c ls i g lo V a .C . , ( O lmo s & F e rnández -M i randa , 1 987 : 2 11 -219 )d io l ap i s ta p a ra i n ic ia rl a s c xcavac ione s e nc l l uga r e n c lq ue h ab Ia a pa rec ido . Aun s e h a p ub l icado muy p oco d c d i cho y ac im ien to , p e ro s ilo s uf ic ien tc c omo p a ra p odc r e mpeza r at c nc r u na i d ea d c q udno s e ncon tramo s e n c l m ismo ; s eg i mn l o s c xcavado re s , a f i ne s d e l s i g lo V I s ep roccd iO al ac on s t rucc iOn d c i m p equeno p ob lado , q ue f uc r ea l izado s imu l tá ncamen tc , j un to c on s u mu ra l la y s i s tcma s d c fen s ivo s . E n c l

4 4

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

i n t e r io r , yal ol a rgo d cl a sd o sp r ime ra s c ampaha s s eh a h a l lado u na s e r ie d c c on jun to s i n te rp re tado s c omo c a sa s -a 1mac n , d eb ido a l h echo d e q ue l a s e s tanc ia s e s tán r ep le tas d e á nlo ra s , e v iden temen te c on u na c apac idad muy s upe r ior a l a d e u n p os ib le a u tocon sumo . D e st a cando d e l c on jun to h ay i me d if ic io ,

s u s muro sp er ime tra le s d ef in iendo , a s I , u n e spac io i nj ( B lanquez & O lmo s , 1 993 : 8 5 -93 ) ( F igu ra 9 ) , e n e im ismo s e h a l la ron a rma s ( l anza s ) yc e rám ica s d c i mpo r tac iön ( c inco c opa s C á s tu lo , f r cn te al oh ab i tua l , u na ,e nc lr e s to d cl a s e s tanc ia s ) ,p e sa s d ct e la r ,o b je to s e nh i e r ro yb ronce , s I tu la , e t c . y ,s eguramen te , ad i cho

'

.

-

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/ 2 m

F IGURA 2 5 . C á s tu lo . E lp o s ib le s a nc tua r io d cl aM ue la ( S egün B l azque ze ta l1 99 1 ) . c ln °2 ,c uyo c a rác te r s i ngu la r p a rece c l a ro , a pun tando

e spac io s e v incu lar la e i t im ia te r io ( B i nquez , 1 993 :

s u s e xcavado re s au n e spac io d c c a rác te r s ac ro . S e

1 02 ) ;l o se xcavado re sa seguran q ue f ue ron b u scando i m

t r a ta r la d c d os c on jun tos a dosados que, c u l tua . imen te , d eben s er e s tud iados c omo u n t odo . E l má s a l n one t e n Ia u nd ob ie c ompa n l imen to c on a cce so d i rec to d e sde l a c a l le . E l s i tuado a l s ur , d e u na s o la h ab i iac ión , d ocumen td u nm uro m ed iane ro q ue p a r t Ia i n lernamen te

s an tuar io " e n l ac reenc ia d eq ue l o so b je tos r i tua le ss e v i ncu lan m ecán icamen te a d e term inados e spac ios p ref igu rados p or n ue s t ra s c a tegor las m ode rn i zan te s " ; s i n embargo , t r as l a s d os p n imeras c ampanas c ons id eran q uo " no h ubo d ee x is l ir p or t an lo u ne spac io

e n d os e i e spac io y u na p uer la c egada e n e lm i smo m omen lo d e l ac on s trucc ión d e l e d if ic io . U na ' p ue r ta

s agrado e spec if i co , c omo t a l , s ino un u so s agrado d e u n u t en s i l io yd e u n l ugar c omo l o s t h e sau ro ig n iegos

f a lsa ' , e nmarcada p or d os c olumnas , c on p seudo -cap i te le s q ue d aba a l ac a l le p r inc ipa l . Ambos

d onde e i a n is iOcra ta c oncen traba s us b ienes , l o s k e imé l ia a cces ib le ss o lo b a jo s u a u tor idad d i rec ia y s u c on tro l d onde n ue s tro o b je to s eg ua rda ys ot r an sm i te

c on jun tos p re sen lan u n v o lun tar io a de lan tam ien to d e

-

-

4 5

ADOLFO J . DO M INGUEZ MONEDERO

al ol a rgo d ev ar ias g enerac ione s" ( B lánquez & O lmo s , 1 993 : 9 8 ) . E l p ob lado d c l a Que jo la p ermanece r la a c t ivo e n t re

6 15 -633 ) . U l te r io rmen te ,h an a pa rec ido má s e xvo to s e n c ampaña s d c e xcavac iOn s uce s iva s ( Fe rnándeze l a l . , 1 99 3 :3 6 -43 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .12 E lS an tua r io d e lC a s t re jOn d cC apo te

f i ne s d e l s i g lo V I yf i ne s d e l s i g lo V a .C . ( B l nquez , 1 993 : 1 03 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .9 P re sun to T emp lo e nl aC iudad d e( ' t s tu lo ( L ina re s ,J adn ) . Ap ar t ir d e u np a rd ef r agmen to s a rqu i tec tOmco s , s i n c on tex to , R . L uca s yE . R uano h an s uger ido l a e x i s tenc ia d cn ap equeüo e d if ic io t emp lano p a ra c lq ue s e b u scan a l imdade s f en ic io -pün ica s , j un to c on u na c rono log Ia e n t re l o s s i g lo s 1 V 11 a. C . ; a unque l a r econ s trucc ión g ráf ica q ue p roponen e s s uge ren te ( Luca s &R uano , 1 990 : 4 3 -64 ) ( F igu ra 1 0 ) , yn oh ab r ia q ue d e sca r ta r l ae x i s tenc ia d c t a le s p equeño s e d if ic io s e n u n c en t ro c omo C a s tu lo , s i gue h ab iendo mucho d c h ipo té t ico e n l a f o rma c onc re ta d e l e d if ic io q ue r e su l tar la d c t a l r e s t i tuc ión . D c c ua lqu ic r modo , d c C á s tu lo p roceden a bundan te s r e s to s a rqu i tec tón ico s , q ue s ug ieren l a e x i s tenc ia d c i mpo r tan te s e d if ic io s p üb l ico s , a l guno s d c l o s c ua le s p od r Ian muy b i en s e r t emp la r io s ( B lázquez & G a rc iaGe labe r t 1 987 : 4 3 -54 ; G a rc iaGe labe r t 1 987 : 3 8 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .10 P o s ib le F A if ic io S ingu la re nl o sA lco re ( Po rcuna ,J aün ) . t amb iün an a e d if ic io s eme jan te a ld c C kc tu lo

QU iZü

c o r re spondan l o s r e s to s d c u n e d if ic io n o tab le , c on c o lumna s e n e i p o r t ico , h a l lado e n L o s A lco res ( Po rcuna , J aén ) yd a tado p o r s u s e xcavado rc s e n t re l a s egunda m i tad d e l s i g lo I a .C . yl ap nme ra m i tad d e l

F IGURA 2 6 . C o imb ra d e l B a r ranco Ancho . T e r r co ta sd e l

s i g lo I a .C . ; s e h a l laba j un to c on o t ros e d if ic io s

s a n tua r io . ( Segün M o l ina yMo l ina 1 991) .

i gua lmen te s i ngu la rc s e n l o q ue p arece s e r u na p l aza e n lo sada ( Ar teaga & B lech , 1 987 : 9 2 ; c f . R u iz & Mo l ino s , 1 993 : 1 87 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .11 Un P o s ib le S an tuar io e n e i Opp idum d c

( H igue ra L aR ea l , Bada joz ) . F uera d e l ámb i to c s t r ic tamen te i bé r ico , p ero

A la rco s( C iudad R ea l ) . L o i nc luyo e n e s te g rupo , ap e sa r d c l o s e sca so s t e s t imon io s ,b á s icamcn te p o rl ap re senc ia d ce xvo to sd c

i ndudab len ien te r e lac ionado c on e i mundo med i te r ráneo a s Ic omo c on c ld epO s i to d cG arvão ( v id .

b ronce ,q ue s egu ramen te l or e lac ionan , d ca ig t In modo ,

e xcavada e n c l p ob lado d e l C a s t re jón d c C apo te ( Bada joz ) . S c t r a ta d c u na e s truc tura a b ie r ta a l o q ue

a pdo . 3 . 3 .1 .13 .1) , p a rece h a l la r se u na p ecu l ia re s tanc ia

c on l o sg rande sc en t ro sc u l tua le s d cC o l lado yC a s te l ia r

p uede s e ru na d cl a s c a l le s p r inc ipa ic s d e l p ob lado ye n c lc en t ro g eog r af ico d e lm i smo ,d cp l an ta t r apezo ida ld c

( v id . a pdo s .3 .4 .2 .2 y3 .4 .2 .3 ) . E n l a p r imera c ampa l ia , d e sar ro l lada e n 1 988 , s e h a l la ron v ar io s e xvo to s d c b ronce , q ue r ep re sen taban

u no s 5m . /3 m . d c a ncho y u no s 4m . d c p ro fund idad , s ob ree levada c on r e spec to a ln ive l d c l ac a l le , c on u n b anco c o r r ido t o do a i rededo r yc on u na m e sa d c p i edra

f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s , v e s t ida s yd e snudas , f i gu ra s d c j i ne te s , f i gu ra s f emcn ina s yd c a n ima le s , yp a r te s d e l c ue rpo h umano ; e l c on tex to a rqueo lOg ico e n c l q ue

e n s u p a r te c en t ra l d c 1 , 8 x 1m . ; s egu ramen te s e h a l laba a la i re l i b re . S ob re l a me sa s eh a l la ron r e s to sd c u na p a r r i l la d c h i cr ro j un to a u n g ran a sado r ; t odo a l rededo r , r e s to s O seos , v a r io s c uch i l lo s a f a lca tado s ,

a pa rec ie ron n o e s muy c l a ro , a unquc s eh a l la ron t o da s e l la s muy p róx ima s e n t re s f . No p arecen r e lac ionab le s p or s u s t i po s c on l o s p roceden te s d c l o s d o s g r ande s

u na f a lca ta , a s Ic omo o t r a s a rma s ya rne se s d c c aba l lo .

s an tuar io s g i ennen se s , yq u izá h ayan s i do p roduc ido s l o ca lmen te . L ac rono log Ia q ue s el e sa t r ibuye e sa mp l ia ,

Ademá s , n ume ro sa s f u sayo la s yr e s to s c e rám ico s c o r re spond ien te s , a l meno s , ai m m i l ia r d c r c c ip ien te s ,

e n t re l o s s i g lo s V yI I a .C . ( Caba l le ro & Mena , 1 987 :

4 6

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t odo e lo mezc lado c on a bundan te s r e s to s d e c en iza s . E n t re l a s c e rám ica s a bundan p i eza s d e l t i po d e l o s l i amado s " quemado re s" , a t es t iguado s e n G a rvao y

d e l s i g lo I aC . , momen to e n c lq ue q u izá s u f r ie se i m " r áp ido s aqueo" . E n l af a se s i gu ien te " l a e s tanc ia d e l

e scud i l la s . S on p oco r ep re sen ta t iva s l a s c e rám ica s d e

S an tua r io J i se a mor t i zada c on u n e mped rado t umu lar y u n m uro d e ma la c a l idad , s obre e i b orde d e l p 0d b,

t i po i b é r ico i mpo r tada s . E s p o s ib le q ue e n l o s q uemado re s s e p roced ie ra a l a q uema d e ma te r ia le s

c ub r iendo e id epó s i lo r i tua l " . H ay q ue p en sa r e n i m á mb i to p equef lo , e n e iq ue c abr Ian s en tada s e n t o rno a

a romá t icos d e c ombu s t ion l i ge ra , q ue n o h an d e jado h ue l la s a p rec iab le s e n d icho s o b je to s . E n c l b anco

l a" me sa " n o mM d c v e in te p e r sona s , p e ro q ue a le s ta r a b ie r to a L a c a l le p e rm it ir la L a c oncen t rac iOn e n l a

c o rr ido h ab Ia g rande s c on tenedores , s egu ramen te v i ncu lado sa lr i tua l ( F igu ra 1 ) .

m isma , e n t o rno a L a e s tanc ia , d c o t ra s d o sc ien ta s ;

E n o p in iOn d e l e xcavado r s e t r a ta r Ia d e " un l ugar

s egün

B er roca l

" nos

e ncon tramos

a n te

u na

c ons t rucc ión s ingu lar , e spec ia lmen te d e s t inada a

F IGURA 2 7 . L aL uz . P l an ta d cl a sc on s t ru cc ione s .( S eg i ln F e rnández V eg a 1 9 82 ) . r i tua l , d ed icado a c e remon ia sp zt h i ica s e n l a s q ue s e r ea l i za ron o f renda s c á rn icas , c on a sados yc occ iones ,

a c t iv idade s c oncre ta s , r ea l i zada s od i r ig ida s p or u na m inor Ia d e p er sonas p ero c on l ap os ib i l idad d e s e r

a compañada s d e l i bac ione s s upue s tamen te e t u l ica s , y d e l aq uema d es u s tanc ias a romä t icas ys i co t róp icas " ,

o b serva j lo so l ye n l a s q ue p ar t ic ipen u n n ümero mucho mayor . P or s u s i tuac ión c en tra l , l o ca l i zac ión f oca l y

e n c lm ismo s i t io e n c lq ue y ae n momcn to s a n te r io re s ( qu izá d esde L as egunda m i tad d e l s i g lo V ) s e h ab Ian

a pe r tu ra a l dmb i to d ec omun icac iOn p r inc ipa lp odemo s s uge r ir q ue e s taba d e s t inada yp rop ic iaba l aa s i s tenc ia

r ea l izado r i to s s im i la re s ; s e a t e s t iguar la l ap rác t ica d c

d e t oda l a ' ma sa s oc ia l ' d e l p ob lado . S e I r a ta d e u n

s ac r if ic io s yb anque te s c o lec t ivo s , q u iza d c v ar io s d i a s d c d u rac iOn , h ab ida c uen ta l o s r e s to s O seo s h a l lado s ( vaca s , c i ervo s , a sno s , o v icápndo s ys u ido s ) , a un c uando e n l a e s tanc ia e n c onc re to s O lo a pa recen l a s p a s te s m cno sa p rovechab le sd cl o sa n ima lc s e nc ue s t iOn

l u gar p üb l ico y a b ier to , p os ib lemen te d e l a mayor i mpor lanc ia s oc ia l " ( Ber roca l , 1 989 : 2 45 -295 ; B e r roca l , 1 992 : 1 94 -201) . Y a e n é poca a l to imper ia l , e n o t ra p a r te d e l y ac im ien to , s e c ncucn t ra i m d epO s i to v o t ivo e n e iq ue

( c r áneo s , mand Ibu la s , yl o s e x t rcmo s d c l a s p a ta s ) ,q ue c o r re sponden ai mt o ta ld cu no sv e in t icua t ro s u je to s .

n om ed e tend ré ( Be r roca l , 1 991 :331 -344 ) . C on e s te y ac im ien to d c C apo te yc on c ld c G arväo

L a s s eme janza s c on e id epó s i to d c G a rvão s ug ie ren t amb ién p a ra e s ta e s tanc ia c u l tua l u na u t i l izac iOn

( v id . a pdo . 3 . 3 .1 .13 .1) n o s a l c jamo se np a r te d e l á mb i to p rop iamen te i b d r ico ym cd it e r ráneo p a ra a den t rarno s e n o t ro s e spac io s d i fe ren te s , c on u na f ue r te c omponen te

c omp rend ida e n t re med iado s d e l s i g lo I V ac om ienzo s

4 7

ADOLFO J . DO M INGUEZ MONEDERO

m e se teña ys eguramen te c on n o s r i to s t amb ién d i ver so s d e l o s q ue p arecen r e f le ja r a l guno s d e l o s s an tua r io s i b é r ico s . S in emba rgo , n o d e jan d e e x is t ir a lguna s

c on t inuac iOn a un c uando e n a lguno d c l o s e j emp lo s c on s ide rado s p arecc h abe ru na p repa rac iOn e spec ia l d c L az ona d c s t i nada aa cogc rt a le sr e s to s .

r e lac ione s i n te re san te s c on l az ona i b énca , e nl aq ue n o s on d e sconoc ido s l o s l uga re s s a c ro s d en t ro d ep ob lado s

3 .3 .1 .13 .1 D cpo s i to Vo t ivo d c G a rvão ( Ba ixo A lcn te jo ) Aunque f uera d e l a rea q ue p od r Iamos l i ama r p rop iamen te " i bér ica" , me d e tend ré ; e n e s te c a so

c omo e s tamo s v i endo y e n L aq ue l o s r i tua le s d c t i po c omum tar io , i mp l icando s i n d uda c om ida y b eb ida t ampoco d eb ie ron d cs e ri n f recuen te s . No q u ie ro s ugen r

p o rque p ucde s e rv ir , e n m i o p in iOn , p a ra c omp rendc r

q ue t e nga q ue h abc r , n ece sa r iamen te , r e lac ione s e n t re l a s p rác t ica s r i tua les d e l ámb ito i bé r ico y d e l

a l go me jo r a l guno d c l o s c a so s q ue s e h an a na L izado

e x t remef io ; s imp lemen te me b a s ta , p o r e i momen to , c on s ta tar e sa " conve rgenc ia" , a l meno s a pa ren te , d e

d cu n cr ro l amado C e r ro d o C a s tc lo d cG arvao ,c e rca d c O u r ique , ys et r a ta d ci md epO s i to v o t ivo c ompuc s to

r i to s . 3 3 .1 .13 A lguno sE jemp lo sd cD epó s i to sV o t ivo s . S e r e t inen a qu l a l guno s e j emp lo s d c " depö s i to s

p o ru na f o sa a r t if ic ia l ,d cf o rma o va lada d cu no s 1 0m . x5m . ; J a f o sa h ab Ia r c c ib ido p o s ib lemcn te a l guno s

c on a n tc r io r idad . E l y ac im ien to s es i tü ae nl av e r t ien t e

r i to s d c c on sag rac ión ( d cpo s ic iOn d c m i c r áneo c on s i gno s d c t r epanac iOn ) ( F igu ra 1 2 ) . L a f c cha q ue S e a t r ibuye aL af o rmac iOn d e ld epO s i to e se if i na l d e l s i g lo

v o t ivo s" o a cumu lac ione s d c ma ter ia l p re sum ib le men te p roceden te d c s an tua r io s . E s p rác t icamen te s egu ro q ue e n L a mayo r p ar te d c l o s s an tua r io s q ue e s toy a qu I c on s ide rando s e p roced la d c t i empo e n

I I a .C . , ys egu ramen te c o r rc spondc a u na o v a r ia s c s t ruc tu ra s d c c a rác tc r s a c ra l u b icada s e n L ac ima d e l c e r ro . E l d epO s i to s e c ompon ia d c n i i l la re s d c p i eza s

t i empo a r e t ira r d e l e spac io c u l tua l a que l la s o f renda s q ue l evaban y a c i e r to t i empo e xh ib ida s , af i n d c s e r d epos i tada s

e n

l uga res

e n

q ue

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crám ica s ,d cd i s t in to s t amaf io s yu t i l idadc s ( r ec ip ien te s c on tenedo re s d c p roduc to s a l imen t ic io s yl I qu ido s , r i tua les , a s i c omo o b je tos mc tá l ico s d c d ive r sa s

mo les ta sen

e xce s ivamen te ; e s p o s ib Le q ue mucha s d c e s ta s a cumu lac ione s ( Ca s te L la r d c S an t is teban , L a S e r re ta ,

f unc ione s ) , t o do c L Lo c onvcn ien tcmen te d i spue s to p a ra q ue , c on tcmendo l a s p ieza s mayores a L a s má s p equcna s , q ueda sen c u idado samen te d i spucs ta s y

e t c . ) p rocedan d c t a le s d cpö s i to s , a un c uando e n t a le s c a so s s e c onoce , oa l menos a s I s e c r ee , c l l ugar d c p rocedcnc ia . E n l o s c a so s q ue e s tud iamo s e n l o s

a ho r rando l a mayo r c an t idad d c e spac io p o s ib Lc . P o r c nc ima , u n mve l d c t i e r ra y d c p i ed ra s c ubr Ia t odo c l c on jun to , c on r o tu ra i n c lu so d c p i eza s p a ra e v i ta r s u

a pa r tado s s i gu icn te s , s i n emba rgo , s e d e sconoce e i a mb ien te c u l tua l d e l q ue p rocedcn s i endo , p o rl ot a n to , l o s ümcos t e s t imon ios d c L a e x is tenc ia , e n s us p rox im idade s ,d cl uga re sd cc u l to . L a i dea t r ad ic iona l a l irma q ue l o s e xvo to s d c l o s s an tuar io s , u na v ez q ue h an p e rd ido s u u t i l idad , s on e n te r rado s od epo s i tado s e n a lgün l uga r , f ue ra d e l a l cance d c l a s p er sona s p ue s to q ue p er tenecen a L a

r e u t i l izac iOn p ro fana . C omo r e sa i tan l o sc xcavado re s ,L a p rác t ica d c L a s d epos ic iones s ecundar ias c s tá a mp l iamen te a t e s t iguada e n e i mundo f en ic io -pt huco , e nC h ip re ye nc l mundo g r iego . L o s e xcavado re s d i s t inguen e n t re o b je to s d c u so c o t id iano , q ue e n e id epO s i to d c G arväo p re sen tan u na t i po log la amp lI s ima , y o b je tos e spec ia lmen te

d i v in idad ( cf ., p o r e j emp lo , N ico l in i , 1 969 : 4 0 -44 ; B e i räo e t a l ., 1 985 : 1 06 ) ; ae s te t i po d c d epó s i to s s eI c

c onceb ido s p a ra s e t emp lcado s c omo e xvo to s u o f renda s e n l a s c e rcmon ia s r e l ig io sa s , e n t re l o s c ua le s

s ue le d enom ina r , i mp rop iamen tc , fauissa os l ips . E nt i n t r aba jo r cc ien te d c C azanove h a a na t izado l o s

h ay e xvo to s a na tOm ico s , q uemado re s , n a a sperg i l lu s , f i gu ra s e qu ina s , p laca s o cu lada s , e t c . L o s t i po s d c c erám icas q ue a pa recen mues t ran p a ra lc io s , p o r e j emp io , c on L a n ec rOpo L is d c l o s P a to s e n C á s tu lo ( f ine s s i g lo V -med iado s s i g lo I V a .C . ) , c on u rna s d c

t e s t imon io s l i terar ios g recor romanos , a s I c omo a bundan te s d epö s i to s v o t ivo s i t á l ico s yh a l egado aL a c onc lu s ion d cq ue i e nc l mundo g r iego m e ne ii t á l ico e x is t Ia i n tenc ión a lguna d c c on serva r t a le s o b je to s , e spec ia lmen te l o s r ea l izado s e n t e r raco ta o c e rám ica , m ien t ra s q ue l o s mc tá l ico s t e nd ian as e r f und ido s p a ra s u r eu t i L izac ión . S u d epos ic iOn o bedecer Ia

o rc jc ta s p e r fo rada s , crám ica s i b é r ica s p in tada s , b a rn iz r o jo , c e ram ica s e s tamp i l iada s , e t c . , y ,e n g ene ra l , l o s c xcavado re s d e s tacan i m f uc r te a i rc med it er ránco e n e s te s an tua r io , a s I c omo c l a ra s r e lac iones c on L a Anda luc ia o cc iden ta l , p e ro t amb ién c on l a E dad d e l H ie r ro d c l a Me se ta , s i n d c sca r ta r sc l ai mpo r tac ión d c c e rám ica s i b é r ica sa s Ic omo d cb am iz r o jo ,p roccden te s

e xc lu s ivamen te a r azonc s d c o po r tun idad , i nc lu so a qué l lo s q ue a pa recen d cpo s i tado s e n l a s a gua s ( Dc C azanovc , 1 991 : 2 03 -214 ; C f . R ey -Vodoz , 1 991 : 2 15 -220 ) . D c s e rc i c r ta e sa i n terp rc tac iOn , e nL aq ue d c momcn to n o e n t ro , e s p o s ib le q ue t amb ién p ud ie ra s e t a p l icada a l o s c a sos i bér icos q ue a na l iza ré a

d e l s ude s tc p en in su la r od e l a r ea l e van t ina ,p o r má sq ue b uena p ar te d c l a c e rám ica p in tada d c t i po i b énco

4 8

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

p a rezca h abe r s i do e l aborada l oca lmen te . Como a f ir inan l o s e xcavado re s d e l y ac im ien to d c G arväo , e i m ismo " of erece , p o is , n os s écu los I V -! ! l a .C . um p anorama c u l tura lc arac ter i zado p e lo e n t rosamen to d e i nf luenc ias m er id iona is , i bé r ica s e , e m p ane , d e

d i s t in to s t amaf io s a lguno s d cl o s c ua Le s , e spec ia lmen te l o s p cqueüo s , t amb ién muy a bundan te s , p ueden h abe r s e rv ido d cl u ce rna s . S on f r ccucn te s t amb ién a nlo r i l la s y t one lc tc s e n m in ia tu ra , q ue r cp roducen f o rma s d c o b je to s r ea le s ( F igu ra 1 3 ) . O t ro d a to t amb idn muy

c a rác ie rs em i ta , o up ün ica s , c om i n j iuxos c on t inen ta l s ,

s i gn i f ica t ivo , am ij u ic io ,e sq ue l o so b je to sa pa rcc ie ron

m e se tenhos , r e lac ionáve i sc or n ac u l tura d eC ogo ta sI " ( Be iräo e ia l . , 1 985 : 1 33 ) . Muy a bundan te s t amb ién l o s

p e r fec tamen te o rdenado s ,c omo o cur r Ia e nG a rvão , ye n mucho s c a so se np o s ic iOn i n ve r t ida ,f cnOmeno d s tc q ue

i l amado s q uemado res c on " ven tana s" t r iangu la re s e l abo rados a mano , c on f ue r te s c onno tac ione s

e s muy f r ecuen tc e n l o s d epO s i to s v o t ivo s d c l o s s an tua r io s d ed icado s al a d iv in idade s c tOn ica s e n e i

m e se t eña s , muy s im i la re s al o sq ue a pa recen e nC apo te , ye n l o s q ue n o s e a p rec ian r e s to s d c c ombu s t ion ( Be r roca l , 1 989 : 2 52 ) ; t amb ién u na s e scud i l La s b a ja s

mundo g nego ( cf . p . e j . Dom Inguez , 1 989 : 2 79 [ s an tua r io d c B i ta lcm i e n G e la ] ; e n g ene ra l , A s t röm ,

s eme jauza d c p a r te d c l ap roducc iOn c e rám ica c on L a p roceden te d c l oq ue p od r ia s e ru n d epO s i to v o t ivo d e l

1 987 : 7 16 ) . Adcmá s d c t odo e s te r epe r to r io a parec iO , a soc iado a e s to s e s t . ra to s u n t im ia tc r io d c b ronce , d c l o s s i g lo s V I I -V I a .C . , q ue L opez P a lomo a segu ra q ue s e h a ha f uera d e c on tcx to y q ue p ucdc h abe r c a ldo p or a i guna d c l a s g r ie ta s d c L ae s t ra t ig ra f Ia ( Lopez P a lomo , 1 981 :

s i g lo I I a .C . e n A lhonoz ( Sev i l la ) , n o i n terp re tado c omo t a l p o r e ie xcavado r d e l c en t ro s ev i l lano ( LOpez P a lomo , 1 981) . E n o p in ion d c l o s e xcavado res , e s

9 2 -95 ) ; n a tu ra imen te , p uedc h abe r s i do a s I p e ro s i a cep t .a e i c a rác te r d c d epO s i to v o t ivo , t ampoco s e r Ia i mp robab le l ap e rv ivenc ia , l a rgo t i cmpo , d c u n o b je to

p o s ib le q ue l ad iv imdad v ene rada t i e se a l g t mn t i po d c

d c c arác te rr i tua l q ue , e n u n momen to d e term inado , e s a mo r t izado j un to c on a r t ícu lo s c on s ide rab lemen te má s

c on d o s o r if ic io s d c s u spen s iOn , s egu ramen te u na p roducc ión e s te reo t ipada , d ed icada e n e xc lu s iv idad a s e r o f rec ida e n e i s an tuar io . S c s eña la , i nc lu so , l a

r e lac iOn c on l al u z y ,p o r d e r ivac ión c on l av i s ta yl a s e n le rmedade s a soc iada s al am isma , a unque s i np e rde r d c v i s ta s u r e lac ión c on l a s d i o sa s mad re s , p ro tec to ra s d c l af e r t i l idad h umana y a g ra r ia . L a c rono log la q ue mue s t ran l o so b je to sa i l ld epo s i tado se sb a s tan te a mp i ia yv a d e sdc L a s egunda m i tad d e l s i g lo I V a .C . h a s ta f i ne s d e l s i g lo I I a .C . , momen to d c l a amo r t izac iOn d ef in i t iva d c t odo s c so s ma te r ia le s ( Be i räo e ia ! , 1 985 : 4 5 -136 ; B e iräo e i a l , 1 985 -86 : 2 07 -221 ; c f . L Opez P a lomo , 1 983 : 1 6 -23 ) . 3 . 3 .1 .13 .2 Un P o s ib le D epo s i to V o t ivo e ne iP ob lado D cA lhonoz ( He r re ra ,S ev i l la ) . E n l a c an ipana d c 1 977 s e e xcavO u n a rea a pa ren temen te a l go m a rg ina l c on r e spcc to aL az ona d c c a sa s c xcavada e n c ampaf i a s p o s tcno rc s , q ue p rc scn t6 u na c omp le ta e s t ra t ig ra f Ia . D c e l ia s n o s i n te re san l o s e s t ra to s I V I l lI l , c spec ia lmen te e s te d i t imo , q ue f ue i n te rp rc tado p o r s u c xcavado r c omo " cen t ro d c d i s tnbuc ión d cc e räm ica i b é r ica" d eb ido a lg r an n i lme ro d c é s ta s q ue a pa rcc Ian . Y a B e i räo , a lb u sca r p a ra lc io s

r e c ien te s . L a c rono log Ia q ue a s igna c l e xcavado r ae s te c on jun to c o r re sponde r la al a p l ena e poca i b ë r ica of a se I V ,d a tab le e n t re l o s s i g lo sI V Il a .C . 3 . 3 .1 .13 .3 D epO s i to Vo t ivo d c c l Ama rc jo ( Bone te , A lbace te ) S e d cscubr iO e i d epO s i to e n 1 985 , j u s tan len te e n f rcn te d c l o s d epa r tamen to s 1 3 ye n t re e i lo s ye i n ümcro 4 , e xcavados e n c ampaf la s a n ter io res ( Broncano & B lanqucz , 1 985 ) . S e t r a ta d c u n p ozo e xcavado e n l ar oca v i va , g ro se ramen te c uad rangu la r , d c u no s 2m . d c l a do , c on u na p ro fund idad , d e sde e i n i ve i d e l s ue lo e n c lq ue f ue e xcavado d c 3 ,60 m ; s u r e l leno e s muy u n ifo rme , c on u na p re senc ia a bundan te d cr e s to sd cc a rbOn yc emza s( F igu ra 1 4 ) . E l a ná l is is d e l c on jun to mo s t raba l a p resenc ia d c ma ter ia l p a rc ia lmen tc d c L u jo , p oco f r ecucn te e n p ob lado s , i n c luso e n e i d cpa r tamen to 4 d c p ob lado , c ons idc rado a lmacén d c c e ra zn ica ; v a s i ja s i b ér ica s d c

p ara c l d epO s i to v o t ivo d c G a rvAo , o b se rvO c Omo a l guno s d c L o s a r t Icu lo s p rescn tcs e n c l m isn io

l u jo c on d eco rac iOn b I c roma y p o l Ic roma ; a gu ja s d c c o se r , p ua zone s , a l f i le re s d c a do rno e n b ronce , h ue so ,

c ncon t raban p a ra le lo s e n A lhonoz , t a n to u na c opa c on d eco rac ión p l á s t ica d c p a loma s e n s u b a se c uan to , i n c lu so , p iaca s o cu lada s , d c l a s q ue u na d c e l ia s , e n

m a r f i l yo ro ;c e rám ica sq uemada s ,a l guna s a n te s yo t ra s d e spué s d c r ompe r se , t i t i le s d c m ade ra c a rbon izado s ; l o s t r ozo s d c L a s m isma s c c rám ica s p od Ian c s ta r

p l a ta , a pa rec ió e n A lhonoz ( Be iräo e ia l . 1 985 : 18 ) . C ie r tamen te , s ir e v isa ino sl o sm a te r ia le sp rocedcn te sd c

b a s tan te d i s tan te s , i nc lu so e n p ro fund idad ; v a so s o rn i tomo rfo s y" s aca leche s" , q ue n o p ucden s e r

e s to s s ondeo s d c 1 977 e n A lhonoz ( LOpez P a lomo , 1 98 1 : 3 3 -187 ; L Opez P a lomo , 1 983 : 1 6 -23 ) , ya demá s

c on s idc rado s d c u so c o mcn tc ; p resenc ia d c f r u to s y s em i l la s ; v incu lac iOn d c l a mayo r Ia d c l o s o b je to s a l

d c e so s o b je to s , a pa recen n ume ro s I s imo s p l a to s d c

mundo f cmen ino ,e t c . T odo e l lo c onvcnce aB roncano

4 9

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

t a pön d ea l aba s t ro ym ip ar d cp a rede s d ev a so . E no ro , a l g i ln a lf i le s ya do rno s ; e n p l a ta , u na p l aca d e c i n tu rón

d e q ue " nos e ncon tramos a n te u no d e l o s c asos r e la t ivamen te p oco d ocumen tados d en tro d e l ac u l tura i bé r ica d e u n d epó s i to v o t ivo c on ten iendo o f renda s

c on g ue r re ro yc aba l lo ; e nl a tón u na p l aqu i ta d ea do rno ; e n b ronce , a l f i le re s yf i bu la s , a s I c omo o t ro s a r t Icu lo s

d ed icada s au na d i v in idadf emen ina '1( Broncano , 1 989 : 3 1-33 ;2 40 ) .

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F IGURA 2 8 . E l C iga r r a le jo . P l an ta d el a sc on s t ruc c ione s . ( S egün F er n ández V ega 1 9 82 ) .

E l r i tua l q ue s ug ic re e ie xcavado rc on s is t ir la p r ime ro

r e s to s d c l ám ina s c on i n sc r ipc iones e n s i gnar io i b U r ico

e n e ncende r e n c lp ozo o e n l a t e r raza e n L a q ue s e

m e r id iona l . P o r s upues to , e s L ac e rUm ica c lc l emen to

e xcava u na p i ra ( e nc ina ,p ino ,f r e sno ) ;m ien t ra s a rd Ia L a m i sma s ea r ro jar lan l a s o f renda s s ó l ida s ( t r igo , c ebada , b e l lo ta s , a lmend ra s ) y l I qu ida s ( ( ‚ i eche , c erveza , p e r fume s , m id? ) e n s u s c o r respond ien te s v a s i ja s , q ue s e r ompe r Ian a ! c ae r . E l f uego s e a paga r Ia l u ego c on a gua , t r a s l oq ue s ee n te r ra r ia l od epo s i tado c on a dobe s op i ed ra ; e s te r e l leno s e r la r e t i rado l a s v ece s q ue f ue se

má s a bundan te , c on p resenc ia d c p c sa s d c t e la r , f u sayo la s , " f icha s" r ea l izada s r c co r tando i n tenc iona l m en te c e rám ica s ,a s Ic omo u na g ran c an t idad d cf o rma s q ue c ub ren " una g ran p a ne d el a sf orma s t i p icas d e l a

n ece sano p a ra d e sa r ro l la re ir i to c o r re spond ien te ;q u izá

b u s to d c " Tan i t oD emU te r " ( B roncano, 1 989 : 1 61 ;f i g . 1 65 ) ,l oq ue s ed ef ine c omo im " va so c a lado d ec oc ina c on b orde h or i zon ta l yb ase c uyo p ie f l ue c or tado p ara

c u l tura i b é n ica , t a n to d ef ac tura f ina , c omo c omün , d e c oc ina ya un d el u jo" ( Broncano, 1 989 : 3 7 -207 ) . E n t re l a sp i eza sh a l Lada s ,d e s taca u nf r agmen to d ci m

e nl o s U l t imos momen to s d e l p ob lado s ec on s t ruyU u na e s t ruc tu ra c i rcu la r , q ue s e s upe rpon Ia a lp ozo ; e s muy p os ib le q ue c l r i tua l s e c e leb ra se e n o tof lo ,

q ue q uedaran I r e s p ies" c on d eco rac ión i mpresa ( Broncano , 1 989 : 1 62 ; f i g . 16 ) , a demá s d c a l guno s v a so s p lás t ico s , h ab i tua lmen te o rn i tomo r fos u no d c e l los c on c abeza h umana tf emen ina? ( ‚ s irena? )

p o s ib lemen te h ac ia c l me s d c o c tub re ( B roncano ,1 989 : 3 3) y s egu ramen te t i ene r a zón c uando a l inna q ue L a mayo r Ia d c p ob lado s y c i udade s d eb ie ron d c t e ne r f e s te jos d ed icado s a d iv in idades c onc re ta s e n d e te rm inada sf echa s ( B roncano, 1 989 : 2 36 ) .

( Broncano , 1 989 : 1 41; f i g . 8 5 ; 2 14 -217 ) yq ue s t ie len r ep re sen ta r , ap e sar d c s u s d i ferenc ia s ap a loma s ( Broncano 1 989 ; 2 12 -217 ) ; h ay q ue d e s taca r , s i n e mba rgo ,L ap rác t ica a u senc ia d cv a so s c a l ic ifo rme s ,t a n f r ccuen te s e n l o s s an tuar io s l e van t ino s ( Broncano ,

L o s ma te r ia le s s on d c u na g ran c a l idad y p r esen tan u na a mp l I s ima g ama : o b je tos t o rneados e n made ra , p e ine s ya do rno s , a gu ja s ya gu jone s d ch ue so yma r f i L ;

‚

1 989 : 2 07 ) . E nc uan to al o s p o rcen ta jc s , l a s c e rá xn ica s

r e s tos ó seo s d e o v icUp r ido s , c e rdo , c aba l lo , p e r ro a s I c omo d c s ep ia , t i bu rón y h uevo s d c g a l l ina ; t e j ido s

d c b anuz n eg ro r ep re sen ta r Ian c l3 ,2 % ‚ l a s d c b am iz r o jo e i 1 , 7% y e i9 5% r e s tan tc c o r rc sponde a v a j i L la

( e spa r to , t e la ) ; n odu lo s d e p i edra , " f icha s" d c c a J iza ,

5 0

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

i b é r ica ; e n c uan to at i po s , l ac e rá in ica f i na l i ega a l5 0 % ‚l ade c oc ina a !2 1% ,l ac omün o t ro 2 1 % yl ade l u jo u n 8% ( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 07 -209 ) . A f irma e i e xcavado r

q ue

n o

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P o ri m , ye nr e lac iOn c on l ap re senc ia d cd o s a s /w ie n f orma d c p a loma , o t ro c oncabeza h umana y l a r e i tc rac iOn d eh alazgo sv incu lado sa l mundo f ememno ,

p rox im idade s r e s to s q ue p ud ieran c o r re sponde a u n t emp io yd e sca r ta e spec ia lmen te l o sd epa r tamen to s 1 ,2

I c i l evan a B roncano a p en sa r q ue c l s an tuar io d e l Ama re jo s eh a l lar la d ed icado " al aG ran D iosa Mad re oaT an i t , q ue t a n lo a r ra igo t oc omo c on secuenc ia d el a

y3 ,a dyacen te s a !d epO s i to ( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 32 ) . N a tu ra lmen te , n od i sponemo s d ce l emen to s d ej u ic io

i nf luenc ia c ar tag ine sa y q ue p uede s er c ons iderada c omo l av e rs iön p ün ica d e a qué l la " ; l ad io sa v ene rada

s u f ic ien te s p eso h ay g rande s s eme janza s e n t re l o s ma ter ia le s p roceden te s d e l d epO s i to yl o s h a l lado s e n

s e r la , p ue s , u na a s im i iac ión d c l ad io sa T an i t , q u izá a va lado t a inb ién e n s u o p in iOn p o r l a p resenc ia d c

l o s d ive rsos d epa r tamen to s : p ebe tero s , a skoi o rn i tomo r fo s , f u sayo la s , e t c . , a demá s d e c e rá in ica s d e i mpo r tac ión y u na g ran a cumu lac iOn d e v a so s a pa rec ie ron e n e ld epa r tamen to 4 ; v a so s c on c a lado s t r iangu la re s e ne i 1 ,e t c . ( Broncano & B lánquez , 1 985 : p a s s im) . E nm io p in iOn ,s ei mpone u na r e v i s ion af ondo d cl o sd a to sd eL ae xcavac iOn , al al u zd cl ai n fo rmac iOn p ropo rc ionada p o r e i d epó s i to v o t ivo , p a ra z an jar d e f in i t ivan ien te , e n u no u o t ro s en t ido , L a e ven tua l r e lac iOn d cl a s e s tanc ia s 1a4c on e im i smo . E nt i l t imo c a so , s u p o s ib le i n te rp re tac iOn c omo z ona s d c a lmacén n o e xc luye ( má s b ien l o c on t rar io ) s u ( h ipo té t ico ) c a rác te rd c amp l ia a r ea ( ‚ "po l I t ico "? -c ti l tua l )e nl ap ar te a l ta d e l p ob lado : z ona d c v i v ienda ( d epa r tamen to 1 ) , z ona a r te sana l yd c a lmacenam ien to ( d epa r tamen to 3 ) , e n e i q ue a demá s a pa rec ie ron d o s r ueda s d c c ar ro y z ona d c u so i nde term inado ( depa r tamen to 2 ) ( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 32 ) ; e nf ren te , h ac ia c l e s te y a meno sd c 5me t ro s ,e id epa r tamen to n °4 ,s em iexcavado e n l a r oca , p equeüo , c on s u s 3 , 3 m . x2 ,2 m . ys u s d ecena s d cp la to s ,p a te ra s , t a pade ra s , e t c . ( B roncano & B lanquez , 1 985 : 1 43 -257 ) ; e n t re med ia s , e i d epó s i to v o t ivo e n c lq ue a pa recen o b je to s q ue s er ep i ten e n l a s e s tanc ia s menc ionada s . L ai mp re s iOn q ue e l lo d ae s l a d cu n c on jun to e n c lq ue e conom Ia yr e l ig ion s ed an l a mano s i n d csca r ta r c l p ape ! p o l I t ico . L o q ue o t ro s p ob lados n o s mue s t ran , p rec isa inen te , s on l uga re s d c c u lto , b ien d c t i po " c Iv ico" , b ien e s tnc tamen te d omés t ico q ue , c omo e n c lc a so d c E l Ama re jo , n o s e

F IGURA 2 9 . E IR e cue s to . D ive r so sm a te r ia le sp r o ceden te s d e l s a n c tua r io s . ( S eg t in L i l lo 1 9 79 -80 ) .

d i fe renc ian a rqu i tec tón icamen te e nn ada d e l r e s to d cl a s e s tanc ia sd e l h ab i ta t . E n o t ro o rden d c c o sa s , B roncano o b se rva a l guna s s eme janza s c on c l d epós i to d c G a rväo : a mbo s e s tán o ncn tado s a le s te , e xcavado s e nl ar oca c on r dlcno d c r oca s yt i e r ra p ara e v i ta r p ro f anac ione s , g r an c an t idad

r e s to s d c t e la s ya gu ja s d c c o se r yf u sayo la s , a soc iada s c on c lt e j ido q ue I cp e rm i ten r c iac iona r ae s ta p re sun ta d i v in idad f emen ina d c modo e spec ia l c on l aa c t iv idad t e x t i l ( B roncano , 1 989 : 2 35 ; 2 40 ) : " t odos e s tos d a tos

d c c e rám ica y d i spe r s ion d c s u s f r agmen to s , a u senc ia d e a rma s , e t c . L a p r inc ipa l d i fe renc ia e s t r iba r la e n l a

Amare jo f i se u na d i osa d e l am i sma I ndo le q ue A s ta r té , A f rod i ta o T an i t , b a jo l a a cepc iOn d e t e jedora"

p re senc ia e n G arväo d c p l aca s o cu lada s q ue s uge r ir lan u n c u i to d i fe ren te a l p rac t icado e n e i Ama re jo ; e n c uan to al a s c onex ione s q ue d i cho a u to r o b serva c on C ancho R oano , n o me p a recen a m l t a n c l a ra s

( B roncano, 1 989 : 2 4 1) . C ue s t iOn i n te re san te t amb ién e s l ai n te rp re tac ión d c t a l d epo s i to ; e n o p in iOn d c B roncano e i d epO s i to d e l Amare jo n o c o r re sponder la a lt i po f av issa ( c f s ob re e i u so e n mucha s o ca s ione s i nap rop iado d e l t é rm ino

n os i l evan ap en sa r q ue l a d i v in idad v enerada e n E l

( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 33 -234 ) .

5 1

ADOLFO J . DOM I NGUEZ MONEDERO

HGURA 3 0 . T o r repa redone s . U b icac ión d e l s a nc tua r io . ( S egün Mo r ena 1 989 ) .

1 9

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F IGURA 3 1 . T o r rep a redone s . R e l ieve r e p re sen tado u n p o s ib le t emp lo . ( S egün S e r rano yMo rena 1 988 ) .

5 2

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

P l am a d e l A d o r a t o r i o

F IGURA 3 2 . C e r ro d el o s S an to s . P lan ta d e l e d i f ic lo d ec u l to . ( Segün R u iz B remOn 1 989 ) .

F IGURA 3 3 . Co l lado d cl o sJ a rd ine s . C roqu is d e l s an tua r io . ( S .egün N ico l in i 1 969 ) .

5 3

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F IGURA 3 4 . C a s te l la rd e S an t is teban . C roqu is d el az ona d e l s an tua r io . ( Segün N ico l in i e ta l1 987 ) .

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HGURA 3 5 . E xvo to se nb ronce d el o s s an tua r io s g i ennen ses . ( Segün N ico l in i 1 968 ) .

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

H acken s , 1 963 : 7 1-99 ; t amb ién R ey -Vodoz , 1 991 : 2 17 ) , e s d ec ir , d epó s i to e n e iq ue s e g u a rdan o b je to s q ue y a h an p e rd ido s u u t i l idad , p e ro s i guen s i endo

3 . 3 .1 .13 .4 E i C a so d e l C a s te l le td cB anyo le s ( T iv isa ,

s ag rado s , s i no q ue , p o r e ic on t ra r io , e ip rop io d epó s i to s e r la e il u ga rd ec e ieb rac ión d e lr i to , " e sd ec ir , n oh ab l a

d cbe a l a s p oco d ocumen tada s c i rcun s tanc ia s q ue c ondu je ron a lh a i iazgo d e l c on jun to d c p a tc ra s yo t ro s

d z f erenc iac ión j i s ica e spac ia l e n tre e i l emp lo y e i

o b je to se n 1 927 ;y ac on a n te r io r idad ,e n 1 912 ye n 1 925

d epó s i to" ; e n e s ta a p rec iac ión n oc o inc ide d i cho a u to r c on B e i räo yo t ro s , q ue a seguran e ic arác te rs c cunda r io

h ab Ian a pa rec ido s endo s t e so r i l lo s q ue ,j un to c on e id c 1 927 ,i n c i ta ron ai n ic ia ru na s e r ie d cc xcavac ione se ne i

d e l d epó s i to d e G arväo ( Be iräo e ia l . , 1 985 : 4 9 ) c on e i q ue l oc ompa ra B roncano ;i nf lu ido ,a demá s ,p o rl ai d ea

C a s te l le t d c B anyo le s q ue s aca ron al al u z r e s to s d c l a f o r t if icac ión ; e n l az ona e n l aq ue s e d escub r ie ron l a s

t a n ta s v ece s r epe t ida p o r B iaquez d e q ue e n e i mundo i b é r ico n oh ab r Ia s a ce rdo te s , s i no t a ns ó io " s ac r i s tane s" o' s an tone s" e nca rgado s d e d epos i ta r l o s e xvo to s e n z an ja s ( po r e j emp lo , B lázquez , 1 990 : 2 25 ; B iazquez ,

j oya s yl a s p á te ra s t a n s o lo s e h a l ia ron " muro s m uy d e s tru ido s" .E l p r ime rh ai la zgo s ec ompon Ia d ej oya s y moneda s ; c l s egundo , d c u na y un ta d c b ueye s e n

T ar ragona ) : ‚ DepO s i to oS an tua r io 9. E i h echo d c q ue i n c iuya a qu I e ic a so d c T iv isa s e

1 991 : 2 4 ) , o to rga B roncano e i p ro tagon ismo d e l a s

b ronce ,p o s ib iemen t e d c c a rác te r v o t ivo ye it e rce ro d c c ua t ro p á te ra sd cp i a ta ,d i cz v a so s yf r agmen to s d c o t ro

c e remon ia s aé s to s yi e s a s igna c omo v i v ienda l o s d epa r tamen to s 1y2 ( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 39 -240 )l oq ue p o r l o meno s l ep e rm i te man tene r l a r c lac ión , e n m i

d e l m ismo me ta l yd o s b raza le te s , t amb ién e np l a ta ,a s I c omo u n p equeüo v a so c e rá m ico ; e i p r ime ro y e i t e rce ro f ue ron e ncon t rado s e n L am isma z ona , m ien t ra s

o p in ion i ndudab ie , e n t re e sa s e s tanc ia s ye id epó s i to v o t ivo . E v iden temen te , p uede t r a ta r se d e u n r i tua l c e leb rado i ns i tu , p e ro e n e se c a so u no e spe ra r la h a i lar

q ue e is egundo ( l ay un ta )p roceden d e l e x t remo o pue s to d e l p ob lado , ycrca d c l ac n t rada ( Se r ra , 1 94 1 : 1 5 -34 ) . No i n c id iré a qu I e n c ue s t ionc s a ce rca d e l s i gmf icado

u na e s t ra t if icac ión o rdenada d e l ao f renda s , e n l a s q ue p odr Ian d e tec ta r se l a s d i ve r sa s e t apa s d c u so d e l p ozo ( c f . L owe , 1 978 : 1 42 )l oq ue n op a rece o cu r r i ra qu I ;p o r

r e l ig io so d c l a s p á te ra s , p o r o t ro l a do e v iden te , t a n to d e sde c lp un to d cv i s ta r i tua l yc u i tua l c omo i d eo ióg ico , p o r h abc r s i do a bo rdada s y a p o r S e r ra R áfo ls y p o r

t o do e l lo , ye n m i o p in ion , p a rece má s b i en q ue c abe i n te rp re ta r lo c omo u n d epO s i to s e cunda r io e ne iq ue , e n e i momen to d e r ec ib ir o f renda s p roceden tes d e l v e rdadero l uga r s agrado , t e ndr ia l uga r a i gün r i to d e

mucho s o t ro s a u to re s c on p o s ter iondad ( bá s icamen te

c on sag rac iOn e n e iq ue p ud ie se i n te rven i r t amb ién e i f u ego . No o b s tan te ,e si gua lmen te e specu la t ivo . E s c i e r to t amb ién q ue e it i po d e o f renda e s d i s t in to

h ai lazgo , s egu ramen te má s c u l tua l q ue v o t ivo , aj uzga r p o r c lt i po d c r e c ip ien t es a t e s t iguado s , p á te ra s yv a so s

B lázquez , 1 977 -a : 2 21-241 ; B lazqucz , 1 977 -b : 2 42 -245 ; Ma r in , 1 983 : 7 09 -717 ; P a l la rés , 1 991 : 5 87 -595 ) ;ü n icamen te ,r e sa l ta ré e ic a räc te rr e i ig io so d e l

d e l p r e sen t ee no t ro s s an tua r io s ,s egu ramen te p roduc to s a l imen t ic ios , v ege ta le s ya n ima les , d epo s i tado s e n

c a l ic ifo rmes , q ue s ug ie re l a e x is tenc ia e n s u s p rox im idade s d c u n l uga r d c c u l to d c c a rác te r c I v ico c omo l o sq ue e s tamo s c on s ide rando e ne s te c on tex to ; a

v a so s , yq u izá e l lo i mp l ique e i c arác te r l o ca l d c l a d i v in idad v ene rada ( Broncano , 1 989 : 2 40 ) , p e ro n o e s meno s c i e r to q ue e n l o s s an tua r io s c on e xvo to s e n

p e sa r d e l e p Ig rale c on q ue i n ic iaba e s te a pa r tado , q ue n oo b s tan te c onv icne man tene r , v eo má s p ref e r ib le q ue e ic on jun to d c a r t Icu io s d c c u l to f ue se o cu i tado a n te

p i ed ra o e n b ronce , é s to s e r an f ab r icado s l o ca lmen te y

c ua lqwe r e ven tua l idad a dve r sa , q ue e i q ue f ue se u n

p o r l oq ue p oco q ue p odemo s s abe r , n o e r an t a inpoco l a s o f renda s e xc iu s iva s ; e s p o s ib ie q ue l a s c ond ic ione s

s imp le d cpO s i to d cc xvo to s . P o r e nde , l o s e xcavado re s r e c ien te s d e l p ob lado h an p ues to d c man if ies to L a e x is tenc ia d c u na p ode ro sa mura l ia , d c med iado s d e l s i g lo I V , a b so iu tamcn te

d c l a s e xcavac ione s a n t igua s h ayan d e te rm inado l a d esapa r ic iOn d co t ro s a r t Icu lo s ,c e rám ica s ,p o re j emp lo , mucho meno s a t rac t ivo s p a ra l o s c o lecc ion is ta s d e l s i g lo p a sado od cp r inc ip io sd cé s te . E l i n ic io d c l au t i i izac iOn d e l d epO s i to p uede f i ja r se h ac ia med iado s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . , m ien t ra s q ue e if i na l d c s uu so s e s i tü aaf i ne s d e l s i g lo I I op r inc ip io sd e l

d eudora

d c

l a s

má s

i nnovado ra s

t r ad ic iones

p o l io rcé t ica s med i te r ránea s d e l momen to , yt i enden a r e lac iona r e s te h echo t amb ién c on l ae x is tenc ia d c u n i mpo r tan te s an tuano : " debe b uscarse e n e s ias f or t if icac iones u na mo i ivac iön d e p res : ig io , l a

s i g lo I , l o q ue c o inc ide c on e i f i na l d c l a v i da d e l p ob lado ( Broncano . 1 989 : 3 3-34 ) y , más c onc re tamen te , c on l o s n ive le s a t es t iguado s e n l a s

e xa i tac ión d e lp ode rp o l i t ico -re l ig ioso d e ten tado P OT l a

h ab i tac ione s 1 4 q ue , p o r r e sum ir m i o p in iOn , d ebcn i n te rp re ta r se c on jun ta e i n sepa rab lemen te c on d i cho

i n ic ia s uv ida al ol a rgo d cl ap r ime ra m i tad d e l s i g lo I V aC . , yp e rdu ra h a s ta f i ne s d e l s i g lo I aC . , s e t i ende a

d epo s i to v o t ivo .

h acc r r emon ta r l o s o b je to s c u i tua le s al o s p r ime ro s

c üpu la d i r igen te d e l p ob lado y , i Og icamen te , d e l t e rr i tor io" ( Grac ia e ia l 1 991 : 7 4 ) . A unque e ip ob lado

5 5

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

6 1-62 ) s e mo s t raba r e la t ivamen te c scép t ico al ah o ra d c a dm i t ir l ac x is tenc ia d ci ms an tua r io p e ro t r a s h alazgo s c omo l o s d e l C a s t i l lo d e l Gua rdama r n o p a rece r a zonab le s egu ir m an ten icndo l a s d uda s . S in e mba rgo ,

momen to sd e lm ismo ( Pa l la ré s , 1 991 : 5 92 ) . 3 . 3 .2 C api la s Domé s t ica s . I n c lu imo s e n e s te a pa r tado a que l lo s l uga re s d c c u l to q ue , a un h ab iëndo se h a l lado d cn t ro d e p ob lado s , n o p a recen p re sen ta r l o s s uf ic ien tes d a to s c omo p a ra p en sa r q ue e n do s s e h an c e leb rado r i tua les q ue

p oco má s s es abe d c e s te p o s ib le c en t ro c i i lt ico ( v id .e n d i t imo l uga rJ uan , 1 990 : 1 45 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .3 P o s ib le s S an tua r io s Domé s t ico se nl aA lcud ia

a l ec ten aim p o rcen ta je i mpo r tan te d cl ac omun idad ;e n a lgün c a so t a l v ez n ueva s e xcavac iones q u iza s

( E iche ,A l ican te ) . A dcmá s d e l p re sun to t emp lo c I v ico a lq ue y a s e h a

mod if iquen n ue s t ra o p imón . E n o t ro s , p o r e ic on t ra r lo , p a rece b a s tan te p o s ib le q ue e s ta c l a s if icac ión q ue a qu l

h echo r e f e renda ( v id . a pdo . 33 .1 .3 ) , a l ud i remo s a qu Ia u na s z ona s d c c a s i s egu ro c arác te r r e l ig io so q uc

p roponemo s s e man tcnga ; e s e ic a so , p o r e j cmp io , d e a que l lo s l uga re sd ch ab i tac ión q ue p re sen tan ,j un to c on r e s to s d c e n te r ram ien to s i n fan t i le s , i nd ic io s d c a lgün t i po d c r i tua l p rop ic ia to r io . E jemp lo s d c e l lo s s e rán

c onv ienc a d sc r ib ir a lá mb i to d cl od omé s t ico . 33 .23 .1 L aE s tanc ia d e l K c rno s . E n l a p a r te n orocc iden ta l d e l y ac im ien to ( ap rox imadamen te s ec to r 4 -C ) s e h a l laron u no s d epa r tamcn to s , c o r rc spond icn tc s a l p er Iodo l amado

t r a tado s má sa de lan te . 3 . 3 .2 .1 C a s t i l lo D cG ua rdama r . ( Gua rdama rD e l

a l terna t ivamen te I bero -p i ln ico , I bér ico I o I b e ro -he len I s t ico ot c rce rp e r lodo i b é r ico ,e nu no d cl o s

S egu ra ,A l ican te ) . L a e x is tenc ia d c u n s an tua r io e n e i C a s t i l lo d c Gua rdama r

v iene

s uger ida

p or

c l h a l lazgo

c ua les s e h a l la ron t r e s o b je to s d e g ran i n te rt i s : u n k erno s f o rmado p o r m i t ubo c i rcu la r d e l q ue s u rgen

d c

a bundan te s f i gu ra s d c t e r raco ta d c l a s c onoc ida s c omo p ebc te ro s ; s i n emba rgo , b au s i do h a l lada s s i n c on tex to

c ua t ro r e c ip ien te sq ue s ec omun ican c on e l ,u no d ce l lo s i m á nfora e n p o s ic iön d c v e r tc r s u c on ten ido e n u na v a s i ja ; l a d eco rac ión e s d c t ema s a n ima l I s t ico s

a rqueo lóg ico a l guno ; s e s ug ic re q ue , a le ncon t ra r sc e n e il uga r má s d e s tacado d e l e n to rno , p odr Ia s e rv i r d c c en t ro d c a g lu t inam ien to d c l o s n ume ro so s p ob lado s

( p a loma s , l i eb re s , e t c . ) . O t ra p i cza h a l lada e n c lm i smo d epa r tamen to t i enc f orma a campanada , q ue t i cne a b ic r ta s t r e s v cn tana s c uad rada s e n t re l a s q ue s u rgen s enda s c abeza s h umana s , b a jo l a s q ue h ay i m a gu je ro ; s e h a l la t oda e l la p in tada d c r o jo ; c l t c rce r o b jc to h a l lado p a rece u na e spec ie d c b o te l l i ta . No s e h a l lo

i b é r ico s d c l ad escmbocadu ra d e l S egu ra , t a le s c omo C abczo L uce ro , L a E scuc ra o E l O ra l . L o s e l cmcn to s c rono lóg ico s n o s on d ema s iado c sc la recedo re s , p ero s i s eh a c on s ta tado u na a bundanc ia d c c e rám ica s i b é r ica s p in tada s yu na g ran e sca sez d c c e rá in ica s g r icga s , b arn iz n eg ro y ma ter ia le s mc t .á i ico s . L . Abad s ug ic rc q ue p uede t r a ta r sc d c i ml uga rd c c u l to s eme jan te a ld c

mngün o t ro m a te r ia l e nc ld epa r tamen to e nc ue s t iOn . E l c a rác te r r i tua l d c t a le s v a so s , c spec ia lmcn te d c l o s d o s p nme ro s n o p a rece d udo so ; s i n emba rgo , l a s e sca sa s i n fo rmac ione s d c q ue s e d i sponc s ob re c l c on tex to c xac to d e l d epar tamen to i mp iden , e n m i o p in iOn , c onoce rc on d e ta l le s is et r a ta ,e ne f cc to ,d ci ml uga rd c c u l to ( Ramo s F o ique s , 1 966 : 2 98 -300 ;R amo s F o lqué s ,

l aS e r re ta d c A lcoy . E l m a te r ia l má s s i gn if ica t ivo e s tá c ompucs to p o r f i gu ra s d c t e r raco ta d c l a s l i amada s p cbe te ro s ( 145 e j emp la re s ) , a unquc d c u na g ran s cnc i l lcz y t o squedad , p e ro p a rece q ue t amb ién l o s h ab Ia d c mi t i po má s e l abo rado , má s p róx imo s a lt i po d c l a A lbufcrc ta ; e s p os ib le q ue c l p er fodo d c

1 968 : 3 63 -386 ;R amo s F o lqué s , 1 975 : 6 65 -666 ;R amo s & Amo s ,

f l o rec im icn to d e l s an tua r io t i c ra l uga re nl o s s i g lo sI I y Ia .C . (Abad , 1 986 : 1 51-152 ; Abad , 1 992 : 2 25 -238 ) .

1 976 :

2 0 -21;

v id . e n g enera l R amo s

F e rnández , 1 988 : 1 46 -147 ; R amo s F ernández , 1 991 ; s ob re l o s k c rno i d c b a se a nu la r ,B ar n l , 1 990 : 3 27 -345 ; s ob re k erno i d cd i ve r so s t i po s yo t ra s p i eza s q ue s el e s p a rcccn B e l trán , 1 962 : 2 1-36 ; B e l t rán , 1 964 : 1 5 -17 ; B e l t r án , 1 964 -a : 15 -117 ) . Ae s t e mve lI ca s igna R amo s

J uan iMo l tó c ons ide ra q ue l a mayo r p a r te d c e so s p ebe te ro s d eben a d sc r ib ir sc a lq ue e id cnom ina T ipo I d c l a S er re ta y ye b a s tan tcs s eme janza s e n t re o t ra s t e r raco ta s d e l C a s t i l lo d c G ua rdama r yl a s p roceden tc s d ca que l y ac im ien to ( J uan , 1 990 : 1 40 -142 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .2 P o s ib le S an tua r io e nc lT o ssa l d cP o lop , od c

F e rnández u na c rono log Ia d c f i ne s d e l s i g io I I a .C .

-

f i ne ss i g lo IaC . . No o b s tan te , yc omo s ug ie re L uca s , " ha s ia q ue n o

l aC a la ( Bcn ido rm ,A l ican te ) . D cl a s n o t ic ia s c on fu sa s r c fc r ida s al ae xcavac ión d c

e x is lan mós d e ta l le s i gnoramos s i s e t r a ta d e l a d epend enc ia e spec if icamen te r e l ig iosa d e u na c a sa d e

e s te p ob lado e nl o sa f io s4 0y 5 0s ed e sp r end la q ue e nl a z ona a pa rcc ie ron , e n l ac umb re d c u n c e r ro , t e r raco ta s

c i er lo n i ve l s oc ia l od e u na e d if icac ión l emp lar ia " y

d e l t i po " pcbe te ro " e n t re c n te ra s yf r agmen tada s , a s I c omo h a s ta c i en f r agmen to s d c o t ra s t e r raco ta s , s i n

p a rece muy a decuado c l p a ra le lo q ue e s ta a u to ra c s tab lcce c on l a p laca d c t e r raco ta c on p e r sona jc

r e s to a l guno d c e d if ic io . L lob rega t ( L lob rega t , 1 972 :

a maman tando a d o s n iños p roccden tc d e L a S e r re ta

/\

\‚

5 6

‚ .

/\

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

( Luca s , 1 981 : 2 46 -247 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .3 .2 O t ro sR i to s Domé s t ico se nl aA lcud ia . A demá s d c 1 0a n te r io r h ay t amb ién o t ro s i nd ic io s d e l ae x i s tenc ia d e l uga re s d c c u l to d en t ro d e l ap ob lac ión ( a l ta rd omé s t ico ) yl aa bundanc ia d e e scu l tu ra h a l lada , e n t re e l la l ap rop ia D ama d e E iche , a s I c omo p i eza s

( L ir ia ,V a lenc ia ) . E I g rupo f o rn iado p o rl o s d cpar tamen to s 1 ,2 ,5 , 9y 2 2 d c c s te p ob lado , c on s tru ido af i ne s d e l s i g lo I I a .C . yd e s t ru ido n o mucho d c spué s , h ac ia e i2 00 a .C . ,f o rma t i nc on jun to r e s idenc ia l a i s lado d e l r c s to e ne iq ue c ada e s tanc ia d c scmpena r Ia u na f unc ión c onc re ta ( F igu ra

a rqu i tec tómca s , s ug ic rc l ae x is tenc ia e n l ac iudad d c a l g i mn o t ro l uga r d c c u l to . P o r o t ro l a do , n o h ay q ue

1 6 ) ; l a n üme ro 2 ( 3 ,5 x 4 ,5 m . ) p resen ta t i n h oga r c en t ra l c uad rangu la r d i s t in to d c l o s h ab i tua lmen te

p e rde rd c v i s ta l ac x i s tenc ia d cr i tua le s d omé s t ico sd e l t i po d c l o s e n ter ram ien to s i n fan t i le s b a jo v i v ienda , t a inb ién a t e s t iguado s e n L a A lcud ia y q ue s ue len c on s i s t i re nr e c ip ien tc s c e rám ico sq ue c on t ienen r e s to s

h a l lado s e nl az ona ;j un to al ap ue r ta h ab la o t ro h oga r c on ce mzas ye nl ap a red s ur h ab Ia u na h o rnacma e nl a

i n f an ti le s d c e s ca sa e dad ( Ramo sF o lqué s , 1 970 : 7 -32 ) ; n oo b s tan te , e nt i nc a so s eh alo u na d ce sa u rna s e ni m a r ad cp i ed ra c on u na h omac ina s upe r io r ac uyo s l a do s s eh ab lan d i spuc s to s imét hcamcn te d o sá nlo ra s ;n oc r eo q ue s et r a te e nn inguno d c l o s c a so s a t e s t iguado s e nL a A lcud ia d c s acr if ic ios i n fan t i le s c omo s ug iere e i

q ue s e d cpo s i ta r Ian l o s o b je to s d c c u l to ; s e h a l la ron n ume ro so s m ic rova so s ; e n o p in ion d c l o s c xcavado re s s e t r a ta r la d c u na c ap i l ia d omé s t ica e n l a q ue s e d e sempef lar la t i n c u l to d c t i po f am i l ia r ( Bone t e ia ! , 1 990 : 1 92 ) . Adems d c do , e na l guna s d cl a se s tanc ia s a nc ja sq ue f o rman c lc on jun to , s eh an h a l lado r c s to s d c s acr if ic ios , b ien d c a n ima les , b icn i n fan t i le s , e n o ca s ionc s c l a ramen te f undac iona les ( Guér in e i a ! ,

e xcavado r ( Ramo s F e rnández , 1 988 : 1 47 -149 ; R amo s F e rnández , 1 989 : 1 27 -132 ) , h ab ida c uen ta d c l a

1 989 : 6 3 -93 )( c f .a pdo .3 . 3 .2 .1 0 ) . E l c on jun to f o rmado p o rc l" t cmp lo " d c S an M igue l

e x ten s ion d c e s ta p rác t ica e n b uena p a r te d e l mundo

d c L ir ia ( v id . a pdo . 3 .3 .1 .4 ) yl o s l uga re s d c c u l to f am i l ia r oco munitario, " c ap i l la sd omé s t ica s" d e lP un ta l d e ls Uop s yd e lC a s te l le td cB e rnabé p e rm i t e aB one ty c o labo rado rc s e s tab lece ru na g radac ion e n t re s an tua r io s

i b é r ico(v id .apdo . 3 3 .2 .10 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .4 D epa r tamen to s 1y 1 4d e l P un ta l d e ls L iop s ( O locau ,V a lenc ia ) . E l a ná l is i s m ic roe spac ia l l cvado a c abo e n c s tc

ot emp lo s ,r ep re sen tan te s d cl a" r e l ig ión o f ic ia l" ( s ic ) ,y

p equeño a scn tam ien to ( con s ide rado c omo i m s imp le f o r t In ) , c on u na s o la f a se d c o cupac ión ,c onvence al o s e xcavado rc s d c q ue e n e i m i smo t u vo q ue h abe r d o s

l o s s an tuar ios o c ap i l la s d omé s t ica s , c on u na l i tu rg ia p rop ia ( e spac io s d e s t inado s a lc u l to al o s d i fun to s ol o s

l uga re s q ue t uv ic ron c a rac tc r I st ica s c u l tua les , l o s d cpa r tamcn tos 1y 1 4 ( F igu ra 1 5 ) . E n c ln i i inc ro 1s e h a l la ron p ebe te ro s e n f o rma d c c abeza f emen ina , t e r raco ta s , v a so s e n m in ia tu ra ,j a r ra s d c l i bac ione s a s I

r e l ig io sa s) ( Bone t e i a l . ,1990 : 1 92 ) . S in emba rgo , m ien t ra s q ue e n c i udade s g rande s , t a le s c omo C á s tu lo E iche p ueden c oex is t i r ambos t ipos d cl uga r e sd ec u l to , e nl o s c en t ro sp equef io s ,c omo l o sa qu It r a tado s yc omo

c omo c e rám ica s d c i mpor tac ión y u n j uego d c p ondc ra les d c b roncc ; ae i lo h ay q ue a i iad ir s u s p ecu l ia r idade s c on s t ruc t iva s , c l q ue d i sponga d c u n

mucho s o t ro s , d a l ai mp re s iOn d c q ue s o lo h a e x is t ido

a n tepa sados y r ec in to s d es t inado s ac eremon ias

c n te r ram ien to i n f an t i l b a jo c ls uc lo , c ls e r d c m ayore s

t i n ico l uga rd c c u l to ; s upone rp ara e i lo s u n c a rác te r d omé s t ico , c uando e n o tras e s tanc ia s d e l p ob lado e n c ue s t iOn n o h an s i do h a l lado t e s l imon io s c qu ipa rab lc s ,

d imen s ione s yc l h a l la r se e n t i n l uga r c en t ra l d e l y ac im icn to . P o rl oq ue s er cf ie re a lm ime ro 1 4 s eh alo

a ca so s ea i n c ie r to . A ca so c ab r Ia p en sar q ue , a unque a t i n n i ve i i n f e r io r , t amb ién podIan s c rv ir p a ra s a t i sface r

u na g r an c oncen t rac iOn d c c abeza s v o t iva s ( 8 69 ) ( F igu ra 1 7 ) a s I c omo l uce rna s ( que s O lo a pa recen e n é s tc ye ne i1 ) ,t i n b ibe rón yd i ez p a tcn ta s ,d i ez p l a t i to s

l a s n ece s idadc s r e l ig io sa s d e l r e s to d c l ac omumdad , p o r má s q ue l o s r i to s f ue sen p rop io s , ye s tuv iesen e ncomendado s , aim s O lo g rupo f am i l ia r . H ab rá q ue

yd i ez c a l ic ifo rmc s ; s ug ic ren l o s e xcavado re s q ue e n e l

s egu i rp rofund izando e nc lf u tu ro e ne s ta sc ue s t ione s .

d epa r tamen to 1 l a a bundanc ia d c o b je to s l i tt i rg ico s ( pebe te ro s , a sado r yc opa s r i tua les , e xvo to s ,j arras d c l i bac iones , l uccrnas ) l e h ace a decuado p a ra L a c e leb rac ión d cl o sr i to s q ue c on s t i tu lan l av i da r e l ig io sa

3 . 3 .2 .6 P o s ib lc sL uga re sd cC u l to Domé s t ico e n U l la s t re t( Ge rona ) . Y ad u ran tc l a s e xcavac ione s q ue t i e ron l uga re n e s te l ugar d uran te l o s a f los c incuen ta s e h a l la ron

d e l p ob lado ,m ien t ra sq ue e nc l1 4 ,d ondc s ec onccn t ran

o ca s iona lmen te a l guno s e i emcn to s d c t i po r i tua l , t a le s

l a sc abeza sv o t iva s ,s ed csempeña r Ia u nr i tua l d cc u l to a

c omo p ebe te ro s yo t ro s t ipos d ct c r raco ta s ( O l iva , 1 955 : 3 39 -340 ; O l iva , 1 956 -57 : 3 28 -329 ; O l iva , 1 958 :

mi

l o s a n tepa sado s ( Bone te ia l . , 1 990 : 1 91 -192 ;B e rnabeu e i a l . ,1 986 : 3 32 -336 ) . E I p ob lado f ue d es t ru ido y a bandonado ap r inc ip io sd e l s i g lo I a .C .

3 27 -328 ; O l iva , 1 959 : 3 85 -386 ; O l iva , 1 961-62 : 3 56 -357 ) a l guna s d c e l la s s im i la re s al a s p rocedcn tc s d e l t emp lo ( v id . a pdo . 3 .3 .1 .7 ) . D e l m ismo modo ,

3 3 .2 .5 D epa r tamen to 2d e lC a s te l lc td cB emabé

5 7

ADOLFO J . DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

HGURA 3 6 . Cueva Me r ine l . P lan ta d e l s an tua r io i upe s t re i b ë r ico . ( Segün Ma r t inez P e rona 1 992 ) .

F IGURA 3 7 .

V a so s c a l ic ifo rme s p roceden tes d eI aC ueva d e l P un ta ld e l Homo C iego . ( Seg( in Ma r t i 1 990 ) .

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5 8

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

LL -I" d e l o s r e a l izado s p o r O l iva t a l v ez p od r ia h abe r e x is t ido t i n l uga rd e c u l to aj uzga rp o rl ae x is tenc ia d e

a r ea s d c s upe rf ic ic ; s e s aca ron a l al uz u na s e r ie d c b a r r ios i n t ramu ros e n l a p a r te o cc iden ta l d e l y ac im icn to . L a s e xcavac ione s h an p e rm i t ido d e tec ta r

t i n p o s ib le r i tua l d e f undac ión ( c e rea le s c a rbomzado s ) d u ran te L as egunda o cupac ión ( p r ime ra m i tad d e l s i g lo

c ua t ro f a sc s c on s t ruc t iva s , i n ic iándo sc l ap r ime ra ,p oco c onoc ida , a n te s d e l 4 00 a .C . ( To rnabou s I V ) , ys i cndo

V ) a s Ic omo p o rl ap o s ib i l idad d eq ue d u ran te l ac ua r ta

L a me jo r c onoc ida L a s egunda ( Tornabou s I I ) q ue

o cupac ión ( med iado s s i g lo I V imc io s s i g lo I I a .C .) h aya e x is t ido i ma l ta rr i tua l b a jo e iq ue h ab Ia r e s to s d e

a ba rca d c sde i n ic io s d e l s i g lo I V al ap r ime ra m i tad d e l s i g lo I I yq ue s e c a rac te r iza p o r u na r cmode lac ión u rban I s t ica t o ta ld e lp ob lado ( Cu ra , 1 989 : 1 74 -176 ) . E ne ie x t remo o cc iden ta ld cl ac a l le p r inc ipa l s eh alo

r e c ien temen te s eh a s ugendo q ue e n c li l amado " Co r te

e n ter ram ien to s i n fan t i le s yd e o v icápndo s , a s i c omo o t ro s i n d ic io s ( Ma r t in , 1 990 : 3 5 -4 1) , yc uyo s p a ra le lo s m á sp róx imo s s ee ncuen t ran e nA lo rda P a rk (vid. a pdo . 3 . 3 .2 .9 .2 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .7 E l E spac io 4 d e l P ob lado d e l P u ig C a s te l le t ( L io re td c Ma r ,G e rona ) . S e t r a ta d et i np cquef lo p ob lado amu ra l lado ( 650 m2 ) c uya f unc ión p r imo rd ia l p a rece s e r l ad e fen s iva ; e n 6 1 s e h an v en ido e xcavando u na s e r ie d e e spac io s y h ab i tac ione s , a pa ren temen te c on u so s d e f imdo s : c a sa s ,

u n c on jun to d c h ab i tac iones q ue f uc ron p ron to d enom inada s " ed if ic io s i ngu la r " ( Ma luque r , 1 982 : 2 74 ) , a im c uando h an s i do l a se xcavac ione s s uce s iva s l a s q ue h an p e rm i t ido u na me jo r i n te rp re tac ión d e l m ismo . E n e f ec to , d u ran te L a p r ime ra f a se d e l p ob lado s e h an h a l lado a uf r e s to s c ons t ruc t ivo s yp a r te d c u na c a l le , q ue f ue ron t o ta lmen te r emode lada s d uran te L a f a se T o rnabou s I l l /b , momen to e n e i q ue s e c ons t ruye e i

e spac io s d e t r aba jo , e spac ios c omp lemen ta r io s y e spac io s d e u so c omun i ta r io . An o so t ro s n o s i n te re sa e spec ia lmen te e s te ü l t imo , q ue r e c ibe c lm ime ro 4e nl a p l amme tr Ia g ene ra l d e l y ac im ien to ( F igu ra 1 8 ) . S et r a ta d e mi p equef lo e spac io d c u no s 8x 6 m . , a do sado al a p a red o r ien ta l d e l a mura l la d e l p ob lado e n e l q ue

d i cho " cd i f ic io s i ngu la r " , c on s t i tu ido p o ru na g r an s a la d c 5m . d cl ado ( n °6 1) f l anqueada p o r v a r ia s o t ra s ; e n med io d c e l la s e h alo i m g ran h oga r r ec tangu la r y ,a t o e s te d e lm ismo ,i mg ra sz Oca lo d cp i edra y ,a do sada a l

a parec ió u n h oga r c en t ra l c on ma te r ia le s s i ngu la re s , t a le s c omo mo r i l lo s , a s I c omo c erám ica s d c b arn iz n egro , ma ter ia les t odos e l los d is tr ibu idos u n iformemen te e n t o rno a t h oga r . L o s c xcavado re s

b a rn iz n eg ro á t ico yc e rám ica si b énca s . H ac ia med iado s d e l s i g lo I V s ep roduce u na r emode lac iOn d e l a r ea ys e mod i f ica L af achada d e l c on jun to , q ue p a sa a o cupa r a ho ra 1 6m . , c on u na p ue r ta d c 1 , 5 m . d c a nchu ra q ue

d ef inen e s te t i po d c e spac io c omo " des t inado a f unc ione sq ue a f ec tan a lc on jun to d e l ac omun idad , s i n

d a d i rce tamen te a l a e s tanc ia n ° 6 1 , yq ue s e h a ha p reced ida p o r u n e sca lOn y f l anqucada p o r s endo s

q ue s ea n i d e h ab i tac ión n E d e t i po l abora l . C abe r e lac ionar lo c on l a e s iruc lura s oc ia l , p o l ( t ica y e sp ir i lua l d e l a c omun idad " . E n e i p ob lado s e

b a samen to s c i l Indr ico s d c c o lumna s , d eco rado s c on mo ldu ra s , p i eza s q ue , S c s ug ic re , p o s ib lemcn tc f ue scn r e ap rovechada s d e l c d if ic io o ng inar io e l cvado d u r an te

d i s t inguen t r e s f a se s c on s t ruc t iva s al ol a rgo d cl o s 5 0 a l io s d c v i da q ue s e a t r ibuyen a lm ismo ( 250 /240 -200 a .C .) ; d u ran te l ap r ime ra s ec on s t ruye e ie spac io 4 ,c on

l ap r ime ra f a se ( To rnabou s I V ) ( F igu ra 1 9 ) . Al af a se

d e s t ino av i v ienda , a unque c amb ia s u d ed icac ión au so c omun i tar io d u ran te l a s egunda e t apa , e mp lco q ue man tend rá d u ran te l a t e rce ra ( L lo ren se t a ! , 1 986 : 2 37 -256 ; L lo rense t a l . , 1 989 : 10 -114 ; P on s & L lo r en s , 1 991 : 2 81 -29 1) .

mu ro , u na b anquc ta . E n t re l o s ma te r ia le s h a l lado s , t odo se l lo s d c L a s p r ime ro s d ecen io s d e l s i g lo I V , h ab la

1 1 /a c o r responden d o s c n te r ram ien to s i n fan t i les h a l lado s e nl ae s tanc ia n °6 5b a jo c ip av imen to d ct i er ra a p isonada y p róx imo s e n t re s I , c o r re spond ien tes a s endo s f e to s at é rm ino o n eona to s . P a rece q ue e sa e s tanc ia c s to p in tada , s i cndo l ai l n ica d e l p ob lado e nL a q ue s eh ad e tec tado t a l d cco rac ión ye ne l la a pa rec ie ron t amb ién r e s to s d cc e r ám ica s d cb arn iz n eg ro o cc iden ta l

E l p equeüo t amano d e l r ec in to " comun i ta r io "4 ,c uya f unc ión r e l ig io sa , a unque n o e n c xc lu s iva , e s s uge r ida p o r l o s e xcavado res , a s I c omo l a s imp l ic idad d c s u p l an ta , a con sc jan s i tua r lo e ne s te a par tado ;n oo b s tan te ,

a s ic omo c e r ám ica s i b é r ica s , t o do e l lo d a tab le e n t re l o s t i l t imo s d ecen io s d e l s i g lo I V yl ap r ime ra m i tad d e l s i g lo I Ia .C . ,a s Ic omo a l guno sr e s to sf aun I s t ico s( Cu ra , 1 989 : 1 73 -179 ) . S e t r a ta d c l o s t i n icos e n te r ra ir nen to s

a ca so t ampoco p ud ie ra d e sca r ta r se u n c a rác te r " c Iv ico" at o no c on l ap equef ia a g lome rac ión al aq ue s e rv Ia .

i n fan t i le s h a l lado s p o r c l momen to e n c lp ob lado ye i c xcavado r s ub raya q ue " e s t r oben u n u na h ab i tac iO

3 . 3 .2 .8 D epa r tamen to s5 5 y6 1 -66 d e l Mo l d 'E sp Igo l

a i lp ica , d o tada d un c er lp re s t ig E iq ue a l av egada s e s ob reposa a l ' i nd re t o n a mb a n te r ior i ta t , af ina l s d e l

( To rnabou s ,L é r ida ) . L a se xcavac ione si n ic iada se nl o sa ño s7 0( Ma luque r , 1 982 : 2 72 -273 ) mo s t ra ron q ue s et r a taba d ci mp ob lado d c f o rma l i ge ramen te e l Ip t ica yq ue o cupaba u na s 8 0

s eg le y e ,h avIa j a e x is t i t u n e df ic i d e c arac ter I s t ique s e xcepc iona l r " ( Cu ra , 1 989 : 1 79 ) . D a L a i mp re s ión , p or c ons igu ien te , d c q ue n o s

5 9

ADOLFO J . DoM INGUEZ MONEDERO

d c a cuc rdo s egu ramen te c on d i fe rcnc ia s d c r i tua l yd c mo t ivo e n l ac e leb rac iOn d e l m ismo ; s eguramen te e n a l g imo s c a so s l a d epo s ic ión s e a compaf la r Ia d c u n b anque te , y a q ue s O lo a pa reccn l a s p ar tes meno s a p rovechab le s d e sde c l p un to d c v i s ta a l imen t ic io , c omo c lc r áneo yl a s p a r te s i n fe r io re s d c l o s m iemb ro s l o como to rc s ,c on mucho c lr i tua l má sa t e s t iguado ( o cho c a so s d c u m t o ta l d c t r ece e n l a P ef la d e l Mo ro ) . Aunque e n o ca s ionc s s e h a a vanzado q ue p od r Ian c o r rc spondc r as ac r if ic io s d c f undac iOn , n o p a rece p robab le ; l o s e xcavado rcs h an l egado a a van7a r l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue p ud ie se t r a tar sc d c " s acr if ic io s s u s t i tu to r io s" d cl o ss ac r i f ic io si n fan t i le s( Ba rbe ra e ia l ., 1 989 : 1 61-171 ; M irO e ta ! , 1 990 : 3 11-319 ) . E nl aP eña d e l Mo ro t odo s l o s s acr if ic io s d c o v icápr idos c o r re sponden a lI i l t imo momcn to d co cupac ión ,d a tab le e n c ls egundo c uar to d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( Ba i lbd e i a l . ,

F IGURA 3 8 . D is t r ibuc ión p en insu la rd el o s p ebe te ro se n f o r -

1 986 : 3 03 -320 ) ; c lr i tua l s e a t e s t igua t amb ién e n l o s p ob lado s d c A lo rda P a rk ( Ca lafe l l ) yc lT u ró d c C an

ma d ec abeza f emem ina ( Segün J 4 a r 1n 1 987 ) .

h a l lamo s a qu I a n te u na z ona d e v i v ienda , q ue s uf re v ar ias r e facc ione s al o L a rgo d e l t i empo , p ero q ue p os ib lemen te y d e sde i n ic io s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . , s in o a n tes , g ozaba d e u n c i e r to c a rác te r c i l i t ico , a ca so v incu lado a l o s q ue e n e l la v i v Ian ; s e rá a p a r t ir d e med iado s d e e se s i g lo c uando a dqu ie ra i mc a rác te r a tm má s d e s tacado , c on L ar e fo rma d e u na d e s u s e s tanc ia s ( l an °6 5 ) , a dyacen te al ag r an s a la 6 1 , s egu ramen te d c r ep resen tac ión , c on l o s e n ter ra in ien to s i n fan t i le s , l a p in tu ra mu ra l yl o s o b je tos c e rá m ico s e n e l la d epo s i tado s . D e sde m i p un to d e v i s ta , p o rl ot a n to ,n o s e ncon t ramo s a n te u na v i v ienda d e a lgün p e r sona je d e s tacado d en t ro d e l p ob lado q ue , p rec isamen te , p o r e l lo m ismo , s e c onv ie r te e n l uga r d e c u l to , t a l v ez n o s o lo p a ra s u c I rcu lo i nmed ia to s i no i nc lu so p a ra c l c on jun to d cl o sr e s iden te s o ,a l meno s ,p ara p ar te d cL o s m i smo s . 3 . 3 .2 .9 R i tua le s Domés t icos e n A lguno s P ob lado s C a ta lane s . 3 . 3 .2 .9 .1 L a P ena D e l Mo ro ( San t J u s t D e sve rn B a rce lona ) . E s e n e ip ob lado d c l a P ef la d e l Mo ro ( San t J u s t D e sve rn ,B a rce lona )d onde t e nemo s e j emp l if icado s t r e s t ipos d cp o s ib le s r i tua le sd omé s t ico s ,r ep re sen tado sp o r c l s ac r i f ic io d c o v icáp r idos , l a i n se rc ión d c c oncha s ma r ina s e nl o s h oga re s yL ao f renda d c h uevo s ( F igu ra

F IGURA 3 9 . R ep r e sen tac ion e sd cd iv in i dade sp r o te c to r a s d cl o s é qu ido s . ( S egün E i roa 1 9 88 ) .

2 0 ) . O t ro d c l o s r i to s q ue a pa recen , l o s e n te r r am ien to s i n fan t i les , p rc sen tan s egu ramen te o t ra p rob lemá t ica e spec i f ica , q ue s e a bo rda e n s u l uga rcor re spond icn te

O l ive ( Bar r ia l

a pa r tado 3 .3 .2 .10 ) . P o r l o q ue s e r e f ie re a l s acr jf ic io d c o ve ja s yc ab ra s , s e h an d c tec tado t r e s

C o r tadd l la s , 1 986 -a : 1 33 -135 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .9 .2 A lo rda P a rk ( Ca laf e l l , T a r ragona ) . ‚ R i tua l

( v i c i .

& Co r tade l las ,

1 986 ; B a rr ia l

D omé s t ico oL uga rd cC u l to E specf f i co? .

v a r ian te se nl as e lecc ión d cp a r te s d e l a n ima le n tc r rado ,

6 0

&

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

E n A lo rda P a rk , yd en tro d e u na d c l a s h ab i tac ione s

P o r ü l t imo , l ao f renda d c h uevo s , a unquc f r ecuen tc

( r ec in to A , 6 ,8 x 3 , 3 m .) ( F igu ra 2 1) , s eh a l la ron b a jo u na l o sa r e c tangu la rl o s r e s to s d ci m c r ánco yl a s p a ta s d eu nc ab r i to , r odeado s p o ri mc i rcu lo d e p i ed ra s s ob re l a sq ue s eo b se rvan r e s to s d ec emza s ;p o rd eba jo d ce se p av imen to h ab la o t ro , c o r re spond ien te a o t ra f a se d e

e na mb ien te sf une ra r io s ,n op o see o t ro se j emp lo sc l a ro s

o cupac ión , s ob re l aq ue s ea sen taba u namon tonam ien to d ep i edra st r abada s ,d c f o rma t r oncocón ica yr e cub ie r to

f a un I s t ico s2 92 -298 ) ;r e c ien temen t e ,s eh ac r e Ido v e ri m t i po d c r i tua l s eme jan te e n U l la s t rc t ( Ma r t in , 1 990 :

d ca r c i l la ;e ne s te o t ro p av imen to , ye ns endo sa gu je ro s , s e h ab Ian d epo s i tado t anb ién l ac abeza y l a s p a ta s d c

3 5 -41) ( v id . a pdo . 3 .3 .2 .6 ) . Gus i h a l amado i r ec ien temen te L aa t enc ión s ob re l a e ven tua l r c lac ión c on c u l to s d c f e r t i l idad o f c cunod idad d c e so s n tua lc s d c d cpo s ic ión d c o v icap r ido s , p equeño s mam f fc ro s ,

d o s c ab r i to s , m ien tra s q ue e n c lt e rce ro s eh a l laban l o s r e s to s d c i m p cqueno ma in I fe ro , q u izá u n mü r ido ; e n t o ta l , p o r c on s igu ien te , s e a t e s t iguan c ua t ro s a c r if ic io s d i f e ren te s . Amba s f a se s d c o cupac ión s ed a tan ap a r t i r

e n z ona s d c p ob lado , ai m c uando s u r e lac ión c on l a f ecund idad p a rece e v iden te ( Samna r t l & S an tacana , 1 986 : 2 57 -269 ; S anmar t I &S an tacana , 1 987 : 1 57 -169 ; S anma r t I & S an tacana , 1 992 : 4 1-45 ; p am l o s a ná l i s is

h uevo s ,e t c . ( Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 49 -250 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .10 H 1 ob lema d cl o sE n te r ram ien to sI n f an t i le s .

d cf i ne s d e l s i g lo V yal ol a rgo d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ys e e ncuen t ran s e l lada s p o r l at e rcc ra , d a tab le ap a r t ir d e l 3 00 a .C . A demá sd cl a s o f renda s menc ionada s , yd cl ae x t raha e s t ruc tu ra t r oncocón ica ( ‚ a l ta r? ) ,j un to al aq ue h ay

Un i n tc re san te a spec to d c l a r e l ig io s idad i bér ica v i ene d ado p o r L a r e la t iva f r ecuenc ia , a l menos e n d e term inada s r cg iones , d c L a c o s tumbre d c l o s e n ter ram ien tos i n fan t i le s , g enc ra lmen te d eba jo d c v i v ienda s ; p rec isan ien te p o r s u c a rác tc r e spec ia l me d e tend rd e n e s te r i tua l , ap e sa r d c n o i n c id ir e n e s te

im

a gu je ro e n c l s uc lo ( tpa ra c o loca r u n p os te e n c lq ue a t a r al av I c t ima? ) e se it i n ico r c c in to d e l p ob lado q ue n o p r e sen ta mo l ino d c r o tac ión , yq ue p o see muy e sca so s ma ter ia les crám ico s . C omo a segu ran l o s e xcavadore s , " podem c onc loure q ue l e s of renes

t r aba jo e n l a c ues t ión d c l a s p rác t ica s yr i tua les f une ra i io s . A p e sa r d c l a d i spe r s ion d c l a d ocu inen tac ión , l a r e c ien te r e cop i lac ión d ci mc on u n to a mp l io d ct r aba jo s

d e scober te s e n e ir ec in te o b jec te d ' aques t t r eba l i s on

e n l o s C uadernos d e P reh is tor ia y A rqueo iogIa C a s te i lonen se s f a c i l i ta c on s ide rab lemen te L al a bo r , a s I c omo i ma r t Icu lo d c s I n tc s is d c G u s i , c uya s p r inc ipa le s

s acrf ic ia l s i ,p er t a f t , h an e s la lc onsagrades . T o t a r nb t o t , c a l d i r q ue a que s t s s acr if ic i s s ' I ian d e c l a ss if ica r c or n ao ccas iona ls , c or n s i gu i q ue e n t o t e ip rocé s d ' excavac iO n or né s s e n ' han t r oba t q ua tre" l o q ue

c onc lu s ione s s i n te t iza remo s ( VV .AA . , 1 989 ; c f . Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 39 -260 ) .T ienc r a zOn Gu s ic uando a f i rma q ue e n

s uger ir Ia , f r cn tc a l o s p er iód ico s , q ue s e h ab r Ian r e a l izado e no ca s ión d c momcn to s s o lemne s . Ac l i fe renc ia d c l oq ue o cu r r Ia e n l aP cüa d e l Mo ro , d onde l o s s acr if ic io s d c o v icáp r idos c s tán c a s i

l o s e n ter ram ien to s c on s ta tado s " pa rece e x ist ir l a p re senc ia d c u n c omp le jo r i tua l n cc ro lá t r ico , muy d i ve r s i f icado , a l ta inen te s i s tema t izado yo rgan izado , y q ue e na l guno sc a so se se v iden te ye no t ro sp r e sum ib le "

g enc ra l izado s e n t o do s l o s r e c in to s , e n A lo rda P a rk e i

( Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 4 1) ; p a rece q ue s on s u sccp t ib le s d c e s ta

r ec in to p a rece h abcr t cn ido u na f unc ión c u l tua l e spcc I f ica , p o r má s q ue a rqu i tcc tón icamcn te n o h aya d i fc renc ia a lguna e n t re c l m i smo y l o s r c s tan tcs

p rác t ica l o sf c to s at é rm ino op e r ina ta le sh a s ta L o sn if lo s d cs e i sm e se s ( cj l o sr e c ien te sa ná l is is d e lT u ró d cC a 'n O l ive : B a r r ia l , 1 991 : 1 36 -140 ) ; d e spué s d c e sa e dad s e r Ian c n tc r rado s e nl a s n cc rOpo l i s p rop iamen te d i cha s ; a un c uando c ada c aso r equcr ir Ia u n a ná l is is p o rmenonzado e s t e t i po d cr i tua l s eh a l lar la e nr e lac ión c on a c t iv idade s a g r Ico la s yp a s ton le s e na l guno s c a so s ,

c onoc ido s e n c lp ob lado , l oq ue d i fc rcnc iar Ia e s te l uga r d cc u l to d cl o s a t e s t iguado s e no t ro s á n ib i to s c omo ,p o r e j emp lo , l o s p t mn icos c on l o s q ue s e h an e s tab lec ido r e lac ione s ; l o s a ná l is is f aun I s t ico s l evado s ac abo p e rm i ten c onc iu ir q ue l o s a n ima le s má s r cp re scn tado s

m ien t ra s q ue e n o t ro s h ab r Ia q ue p en sa r e n n tos f undac iona le s ye no t ro s ,i n c lu so ,e nr i to sd cp ro tccc iOn d cl ac a sa . E s te t i po d c p rác t ica , s egen p a rece , s e h a ha p oco

e n l o s s acnf ic io s s on o v icap r ino s , a unque t a inb ién h ay p e r ro s yg a l lo s . L o s a n ima le s s o l Ian s e r s e lecc ionado s e n t r e l o s má sj óvenc s yl a sp a r te s r ep re sen tada s s on l a s q ue p o seen m i meno rv a lo r conóm ico e ne ic a so d cl o s o v icap r ino s y lo s g a l lo s ,n oa s Ie nc ld cl o sc án ido s .

a t e s t iguado e n c l a r ea mer id iona l , m ien t ra s q ue e n V a lenc ia ,C a ta luf ia ,b a jo A ragOn yv a l le m ed io d e lE b ro l a s i n . fo rmac ione s s on c ada v ez má s a bundan te s ye n a l guna s z ona s c lf enOmeno s e a t c s t igua e n momen to p re ibér ico s , t a l y c omo mues tra e i c omp le to y e xhau s t ivo c a tá logo d c e s ta s p rác t ica s q ue p rc scn ta Gus i yq ue e v i ta q ue n o s d c tengamo s má s e n e s ta

E lo t ro r i tua l ,p rc sen tc e nt r c sh ab i tac ione sd cl aP cüa d e l Mo ro , e s l a c o locac ión d c u na c oncha e n l a p r epa rac ión c e rám ica d e l h oga r ;o t ro s e j emp lo s d ce s ta c o s tumb re s e a t e s t iguan e n B u r r iac ( Cab re ra d c Ma r ) ( c f .B a rbe rá & P a scua l , 1 980 : 2 03 -242 ) .

6 1

ADOLFO J .DOM ! NGUEZ MONEDERO

c ue s t iOn ( Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 50 -258 ) ; l a s t i po log Ia s d e l o s e n te r ram ien to s s on s umamen te v a r iada s y ,a l meno se n u np a rd cc a so s ,e sp o s ib le i d en t if ica rs endo sl ugare sd c

p re sen tan i nhumac iones i n fan t i le s . E l s i gn if icado q ue d i cho a u to rp roponc p a ra c lt emp lo l ov i ncu lar la a lc i c lo a g r Ico la d e l g rano ( Gu s i , 1 970 : 6 6 -70 ; G u s i , 1 989 :

c u l to n ec ro lá t r ico ( Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 39 -246 ) l oq ue t a l v ez f ue se t amb idn e ic a so d e l c a so d c L a A lcud ia d e E lche

1 9 -42 ; Gu s i , 1 992 : 2 46 -250 ; G u s i , 1 993 : 4 63 -473 ; c f . G ué r in & Ma r t Inez , 1 987 -88 : 2 31-265 ) . 3 .3 .2 .11 S an tuar io e n A rch ive l ( Caravaca ,

( v id . a pdo . 3 3 .2 .3 .2 ) . 3 . 3 .2 .10 .1 L o s R ec in to s S ac ro s d e l aE scud i l la L o s C abañ i le s ( Zuca ina ,( ' a s te l lón ) . Ambo s c en t ro s s ee ncuen tran e n l a s t i e r ra s q ue b af ia e iA l to M i ja re s , au na d i s tanc ia u no d e l o t ro d c med io q u i lomc t ro . E nl aE scud i l la s eh a l la ron t i n icamen te t i e s e s tanc ia s i ndepend ien tes , p ero u n ida s p o r mu ros med iane ro s . E nL ae s tanc ia c en t ra l ,s eh a l la ron r e s to s d c s ac r if ic io s d c a n ima le s ( c a l if icado d c s i l ice rn io ) a s f c omo d o s a g rupac ione s d c c inco u rna s c ada u na c on ten iendo d i ec iocho i n humac ione s i n f an t i les e nt o ta l . E n l a e s tanc ia s ep ten t r iona l , 1 1 -2 , s eme jan te a l a a n te r io r p e ro ms g rande , s e h a l lo u na s o la u rna , c on r e s to s d c t r e s i nhumac ione s . L a e s tanc ia me r id iona l , H -3 e sd ci n te rp re tac iOn m ás d i f Ic i l ; e sl a mayo rd cl a s t i e s ( 15 x 3 m . ) , l a e n t rada s e h a l laba e n d i recc iOn o pues ta al ad c l a s o t ra s d o s yt e n Ia u n umb ra l yd o s e sca lone s q ue d e scend Ian a l mve l d e l p i so . S u

Mu rc ia ) . L a s n o t ic ia s s ob re e s te l uga rd cc u l to s on s umamen t e e scasa s ys e d eben b á s ican ien tc a p ro specc ione s s upe rf ic ia le s yh a l lazgo s f o r tu i to s d u ran te l a s l a bo re s a g r i co la s ; Me lga re s ,q ue e sq u ien l oh ad ado ac onoce r , a scgu ra q ue s e e ncuen t ro d en t ro d c t i n p equeño p ob lado , d c a h i s u i n c lu s iOn-en e s te a pa r tado . D c d l p roceden a l guno s c xvo to s a n ima l I s t ico s e n b ronce , f i gu ra s d cg ue r re ro yp equeno s c uch i L lo s a l a lca tado se n m in ia tu ra ; s ea t r ibuye t amb ién a lm ismo u na c o iu inna . L ac rono log I a p ropue s ta e s s i tuada p o r s u i n ves t igado r e n t re c l s i g lo I a .C . ye i I l l d .C . (Me lga res ,1990 : 1 63 -171) . L a a u senc ia d c má s d a to s i mp ide t i n me jo r c onoc im ien to , a unque c l h echo d c q ue e n e i v ec ino s an tua r io d cl aE nca rnac iOn ye ne ia i go m á s a i e jado d c L a L uz t amb idn h ayan a pa rec ido f a lca ta s e n m in ia tu ra ( L i l lo , 1 986 -87 : 3 3 -46 ; c f . s ob re s u s imbo l ismo

d i spo s ic iOn i n ter io r p re sen taba u na e spec ie d c

Quesada ,

v e s t Ibu lo , e n c uyo c j c h ab la t i e s b loque s d c p i edra , p o s ib lemen te c on f unc ión d c b a sa s ; t r a s e l la s e a b r ia

r e lac iOn , d i f ic i lmen te

u na e s tanc ia má sl a rga ,c uyo mu ro n o r tc s e rv Ia d c mu ro me r id iona l al a Hi ; t amb ién d i spon ia d c t i e s b a sa s d c p i ed ra . S e h a l la ron n ume ro so s ma te r ia le s c e rá m ico s , c e rám ica s at o rno p in tada ab anda s , d omé s t ica amano , d o s Mo l inos b a rqu ifo rme s yn ume ro so s o b je to s d c b ronce . E l c on jun to s O lo t i cnc u na f a se d c o cupac ión y f ue d e s t ru ido p o ri mi n cend io ( F igu ra 2 2 ) . P o rl oq ue s er e f ie re al o s C abaf l i le s , s eh a l la ron d o s c ámara s d c p l an ta c uad rangu la r d c d imen s ione s muy s eme jan te s ( 8 x4m . , 8 x5m . ) muy ma l c on s t rwda s y

1 992 : 2 12 -215 ) , s ug ie rc a lg i mn t i po d c c uan t i f icab ie e n c l momen to

a c tua l . 33 .2 .12 E lC e rn 5n d cI le sca s( To ledo ) . Aunque f ue ra d e l á mb i to e s tnc tamen te i b dr ico , l a i n c lu s ion d ce s te y ac im ien to sd ebe ,f undamen ta lmen te , al ap re senc ia d c i m r e l ieve c on c i a ra s v i ncu lac ione s med i te r ránea s q ue , al av ez , e se iq ue p e rm i t e s uge r ir , s i qu ie ra t e nuemcn te , c l c a rác te r d c l uga r s a c ro d c L a e s tanc ia e n l aq ue s e h ala . S e t r a ta d c u na h ab i tac ión r e c tangu la r , c on v a r ia s f a se s d c o cupac ión , e n l a q ue

a pa rec ie ron i nhumac ione si n fan t i le se nL ae s tanc ia A ,e n

a pa rec iO , a do sado a u n b anco d c a dobe s , u n r e l ieve r e a l izado e n p a s ta d ca dobe d c 1 , 35 m . d c l o ng i tud p o r 0 , 22 /0 ,30 m . d c a l tu ra ; e im ismo s e a s igna a ls egundo p e r lodo d e l p ob iado ,d a tado g r ac ia s al ac e rám ica á t ica

c i nco u rna s , c on n ueve i nd iv iduo s . S e a sume p ara l o s C abaf l i le s l am isma c rono log Ia q ue p a ra l aE scud i l la , q ue s ef i ja t i l t imamen te e nl ap r ime ra m i tad d e l s i g lo V

amed iado s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . . L a e scena r ep re sen tada " p re sen ta u na s ecucnc ia d c d o s c ar ro s , g u iado s p o r s endo sa u r iga s ,a r ra s t rado s p o rc aba l io s , aL o s q ue s i gue

a. C . . E n o p in iOn d c G us i l ae s tanc ia H -3 d c L a E scud i l la

im

s c r Ia ' u n t emp lo d e t i po med i terráneo d e p lan la i r ipar l i ta r ec tangu lar a largada u n t emp lo i nd I gena , s imp le e n s u a rqu i tec lura , p ero q ue a un a si s u d i spos ic ión c ons truc l iva p erm i te a s im i lar lo a u n e d if tc io c u l tua l , a modo d e a dora zor io" ; l a s

e xcavado re s a na i izan l a i conog ra f la d e l r e l ieve y c onc luycn s u s eme janza c on t ema s p resen tes e n á mb i tos f une rar io s e n o t ra s c u l tu ra s med i ter ránea s , t a n to d e sde c lp un to d c v i s ta i d eo lOg ico c omo d e sde e i f orma l ( Ba lmaseda & Va l ien te , 1 979 : 1 53 -210 ;

h ab i tac ione sa ne ja s ,q u izá a la i re l i b re s e r lan a nexo sd e l t emp lo y t e ndr Ian u na f unc iOn"s acra l n ecro lá t r ica

B a lma scda & Va l ien te , 1 981 : 2 15 -239 ) ( F igu ra23 ) . E s , p o r l o t a n to , l a p resenc ia d c e s ta t emá t ica t a n

i n f an t i l " ; e n L o s C abaf l i le s , s i n e mba rgo , q u iza s O lo

p oco c o t id iana l o q ue p e rm i t i r Ia s ugenr l ae x is tenc ia b i en d ci m s a n tua r io ,b i cn d ca i gu in t i po d cr e l ig io s idad

c on t i n ma ter ia l a rqueo lOg ico muy p ob re . S O lo

...

h ub ie se i me spac io d omé s t ico d c l o sq ue h ab i tua lmen te

g r ifo ; f r en te a ls egundo c a r ro , i m p e r sona je , e n p i e , e nvue l to e nt i n man to ,l e van ta s ub razo i z qu ie rdo " . L o s

6 2

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a ca so d omé s t ica o f am i l ia r e n a l meno s e s ta v i v ienda d e lC c r rón d cI le sca s . 3 . 3 .3 . S an tua r io s Emponco s I n c Iuyo e n e s te a par tado , a unque r e conoc iendo l o s

d ando au na c a l le d e l p ob lado . L a f achada p re sen taba u na p ue r ta d c 6m . d c a nchu ra c on d o s c oh imnas d c

p rob lema s q ue e l lo p l an tea , d o s e j emp lo s , u no e n l a p rop ia c o s ta y o t ro s d o s a li n te r io r ; s on , e n t o do c a so , e j emp la re s ümco s e nI be r ia ; p od r ia h abe r i nc lu ido c on

m . d c p ro fund idad , q ue d a a cce so a t r es n ave s , l a c en t ra l má s a ncha ( 2 ,60 /3 m .) q ue l a s l a te ra le s ( 1 ,75 /2 m .) .P a rece q ue c le d if ic io s ec ub r Ia c on i mt e jado ad o s a gua s , f o rmado d c r amas o t r onco s . S c h a l la ron a bundan te sr e s to sc e rám ico s , q u izá d eb ido al af unc ión

mayo r d e ta l le u n c uar to c a so , e i s an tua r io d c L a A lga ida ( San it ica r d c B a r rameda , C ad iz ) , a unque p a ra m l s i gue s i endo d udo so s is e t r a ta d c i m s an tua r io c o lon ia l o ,p o rc lc on t rar io ,i nd Igena , a unque a ca so s ea l a s d o s c o sa s , y a s ea s imu l tánea y a s uce s ivamen te . Ademá s , l a s I n f ima s i n fo rmac ione s q ue h an a pa rec ido , s obre t odo s obre s u d e sa r ro l lo a p a r t i r d e l s i g lo I V , i mp iden c onoce r c on d e ta l ie s u s r a sgo s p r inc ipa le s . E n t odo c a so , e n e i h an a pa rec ido t amb ién n ume ro so s p ebe tero s e n f o rma d c c abeza f ememna ( B lanco & C o rzo , 1 983 : 1 22 -128 ) ,a s ic omo u na p l aca d cp l a ta c on o jo sg rAbado s( CORZO , 1 99 1 : 4 02 -403 ) ,c on p a ra le lo s e n G arvAo , A lhonoz , e i R ecue s to , e t c . ( cf . B e r roca l , 1 992 : 1 4 .6 ) . R ec icn temen te A rancgu i ( 1993 , e . p . ) h a i n s is t ido e n c l p ape l d c l o s s an tua r io s c o s te ro s c omo med io s d c a r t icu lac iOn d el a s r e lac ione s e n t re l ac o s ta ye ii n te r io r ; n o o b s tan te ,c r eo q ue l im i ta rl ae x i s tenc ia d ce s te t i po d c s an tua r io al ac o s ta r e su l ta p rob lcmá t i co yq u irA l o s c a so s d c C ancho R oano yL a Muc la d c C á s tu io n o s e s tén h ab lando d e l t r a s lado a li n te r io r d c e s t ruc tu ra s y mode lo s d c i n te rcamb io , t u te lado s p o r s an tuar io s ,

p i cd ra c a l iza , yp i an ta o c togona l ; t r a s e l la , u n p equeüo e spac io d cl am isma a nchu ra q ue l af a chada yu no s 1 , 20

d c a lmacén q ue e n a lgán momen to p udo h abcr d e sempef iado c le d if ic io ; i gua lmen te , s eh a l lo t i n r e s to c scu f tOr ico , u na c abeza ma scu l ina q ue q u izá c o r re spond ie se a u na f i gu ra q ue a l e .an7ar la 1 , 5 m . d c a l tu ra , yq ue s e h a i n tc rp re tado c omo u na p o s ib le i magen d cc u l to ,q ue s ee ncon t ra r la s i tuada a l f ondo d c l ac áma ra c en t ra l . E s h a r to p robab le q ue ,e nl am isma c a l le , yf r eu te a l t emp lo ,p ud ie ra h a l la r se c l ma lmacén q ue c u s tod ia se l a s o f rcnda s yr i queza s d e l t emp lo ; a lo es te d e l m ismo s e h a l lO o t ra c on s t rucc iOn i gua lmen te i n te rp re tada c omo t emp lo ( c l B ) , d e l q ue s ec onocen d o s f a se s . S e t r a ta r la d c t i n r e c in to ( 7m . x6 ,5 ) q ue e nce r rar la im e spac io a c i c lo a b ie r to , e n c lq ue s eh a l lar la i m p equcüo a l ta re n p icdra c a l iza , s egu ramen te d es t inado a q uema r p er fume s ( L lob rega t , 1 984 -a : 3 01-308 ) ; al a p nme ra f a se c o r rc spondc u na e s te la d c p i edra ( F igu ra 2 4 ) . L a s d o s f a ses mues tran s eme janzas ; a l a s egunda c o r re sponden d o s f us tes d c c o lumna d Or ica y u n p ebc te ro d c t e r raco ta ; l ac rono log Ia d e l c on jun to i r la

s eme jan te s al o s q ue a pa recen , e n o t ra s c u l tu ra s , e n a mb ien te sc o s te ro s . 3 . 3 .3 .1 E l S an tua r io d c C ancho R oano ( Za lamea D c L aS e rena ,B ada joz ) . N o i n s is t ird a qu l e n e s te e x t raord ina r io c on jun to , a l q ue m e h e r e fer ido c on a n te r iondad ( v id . a pdo . 3 .2 ) c omo e j emp lo d c l a s c omp lc ja s e s t ruc tu ra s s oc ia le s e i deo lóg icas

d er ivadas

d c

l a

l a rga

d esde e iü l t imo c ua r to d e l s i g lo V h a s ta l o s u l t imo s d ecen io s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . . L lob rega t s uge r la q ue e n e s te t i l t imo p od r ia r e c ib ir c u l to l ad io sa d cl o s mue r to s y l af e cund idad , Aq u izá a le s t i lo o r ien ta l y( i l t imamcn te h a a rgumcn tado e n c ls en t ido d c c on s ide rar e is i t io y s u s s an tua r io s c omo l a ma te r ia l izac ión a rqueo lóg ica d c u n e mpor ion ( L lob rega t , 1 985 : 1 03 -111 ; L lob rega t , 1 985 -a : 1 87 -205 ; L lob rega t , 1 986 : 6 3 -67 ; L lob rega t ,

t r ad ic ión

o r ien ta l izan te ; s u u b icac ión e n d i cho l u ga r s ej u s t if ica

1 988 :

c omo p receden te q ue e s d c t o do m i mundo i d eo lóg ico n uevo q ue s u rge e n l o s c onfl ic t ivo s a hos d e l t r án s i to e n t r el o s s i g lo s V yI V a .C . ;n oo b s tan te ,e nc uan to as u f unc ión , yc omo h e t r a tado d c mo s t rar p rcv iamcn te ,

a u to re s ,s i n emba rgo ,p re f ie r en o t ra i n te rp re t .ac ión ,e ne i

1 37 -143 ; L iob rega t , 1 993 : 4 21-428 ) ; o t ro s

s en t ido d cb u sca re ne ic on jun to " una r eg ia a soc iada a u na lmacdn yau ns an tua r io d iná s l ico d el i po o r ien laP ,

c nca ja r la b i en e ne s te g rupo . 3 . 3 .3 .2 T emp lo s I bénco s E n L ' i l le ta De ls B anye t s

s i endo l a p re sun ta r c s idenc ia r e a l c ll amado t emp lo A p o r l o s e xcavado rc s ( A lmag ro , 1 993 : 3 6 -37 ) . Aun c uando y o n o t e rm ino d c v e r c l ara t a l p o s ib i l idad ,

( Campe l lo ,A l ican te ) . E n u na p equef ia i s la ( hoy p en in su la ) a dyacen te al a

p robab le , yt e ndr iamo s n uevamen te u na a soc iac iOn

t ampoco s e r Ia d c scabe l lado e n e xce so c ons ide ra r la

c o s ta s eh an I l evado ac abo u na s e r ie d c e xcavac ione s e nc lc on jun to d ci mp ob lado i b énco , q ue h an p e rm i t ido d escub r i rl oq ue s eh a c on s ide rado c omo d o s p eque i io s t emp lo s . P o r l oq ue s e r ef ie re a ll amado t emp lo A S e t r a ta r la d ct i np equc i lo e d if ic io ( 9 ,40 /8 ,50 m . x1 0 ,75 /12

r e s idenc ia d e l " j ef e" , a lmacén ye d i f ic io d c c u l to , t a l y c omo c ncon t r amo s , má s c oncen t rada a tm , e n c lc a so d c C ancho R oano y q ue p o s ib lcmen te s e p e rpe t u ic e n

m . ) ,c on s ue j e mayo r yp ue r ta o r ien tado sh ac ia c lo es te ,

3 . 3 .1) .

a lguno s d c l o s l uga re s d c c u l to " c Iv ico s" q ue s e c on s ide ran e n e ia pa r tado c o r re spond ien tc ( v id . a pdo .

6 3

ADOLFO J . DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

3 . 3 .3 .3 E l S an tua r lo d el a Mue la e n Cá s tu lo . F ue ra d el oq ue e sc on jun to d e c e r ro s q ue c omponen l a c i udad d e C á s tu lo , yj un to a l r i o Guada l ima r , s e e xcavó u n c on jun to d e e s tanc ia s q ue f ue ron i n te rp re tada s c omo s an tuar io , yq ue s urg ian s ob re l o s

z ona , c l s i g lo V I I I a .C . . P o r t i l t imo , l o s r e s to s ó seo s h a l lado s c or respondcn a b óv idos y o v icápndo s f undamen ta imen tc , a unque t ampoco c s tán a u sen te s l o s s u ido s ( B lázqucz & V a l icn te , 1 981 ; B lázqucz & V a l ien te , 1 985 : 1 79 -200 ; B lázquez e i a l . , 1 985 ;

i nd Igena . E l m ismo c on s taba d e v a r ia s c on s t rucc ione s " d e l a s q ue ü n icamen te h a s ido p os ib le e xam ina r u n

B 1á z ruez , 1 983 : 7 6 -89 ; B lázquez e ia l , 1 986 : 6 9 -86 ; B lázquez & G a rc iaGe labe r t 1 990 : 1 09 -123 ) . P o r s u s c a rac te r I s t ica s yc omp le j idad , p e ro t amb ién p o r s u a l ta c rono log Ia , c l s an tuar io d c l a Mue la n o

p a t io , u na f osa r i tua l , u na r ampa y l a e s tanc ia ( s o lo p a rc ia lmen te e xcavada ) aq ue é s ta d aba a cce so , c uyo a i s lam ien to c u idadoso c on r e spec to a l r e s lo d e l a s

p rcsen ta d ema s iados v Incu io s c on l o s r c s tan tcs c onoc ido s e n e i á i nb i to i b é r ico a unque S i f lOS p uedc h ab la r d c u na r e l ig ion c i e r tamen tc o rgan izada y de l a

c ons t rucc iones p odrIa i nd icar a s im ismo u na i n ienc iona l idad r i tua l "; l o s h a l lazgo s c ons tan t a n to d e g rande s t i na ja s c on d eco rac ión i n c isa , r e c ip ien te s c on p eana s c uad rangu la re s ,c azo le ta s yp i eza s o b longa s c on

c en t ra l izac iOn e n C á s tu lo d e-e s t Imu lo s c u l tu ra ic s d c d i ve r sa s p roceddnc ia s ; d c a h i q ue l o h aya i n c lu ido e n e s te g rupo d c " s an tuar io s c mpo r ico s" , p ap a l q ue q u izá p ud ic ra c ompa r t i rc on e im cnc ionado d cC ancho R oano

r e s to s d e o t ra s má s a n t iguas , s egu ramen te t amb ién c or respond ien te s au n l ugar d c c u l to p u ramen te

b o rde s e s t r iado s , a s i c omo r e s to s d c u n t o r i to d c

yar e sc rva d c q ue c s tud io s u l te r io re s p uedan p oner e n

c erám ica . E n l a P en in su la I bé r ica n o h ay p a ra le lo s a dccuado s p ara e s te t i po d c s an tuar io , p e ro s on f r ecuen tc s e n c l mundo s cm i ta y , e n g enera l , e n e i

e n t red icho e i c a rác tc r r i tua l d e l c on jun to , q ue y a f ue d udado , p o s ib lcmcn te a n te s d c l a p ub l icac ión d e l v o lumen C d s tu lo V (B iazquez e ia l . , 1 985 ) p or a lg i ln

Med i tc r ráneo O cc iden ta l , e n e spec ia l p o r l o q ue s e r ef ic re a lg ran mo sa ico d c g u i ja r ro s q ue c ub r Ia e lp a t io d e lc d if ic io ( F igu ra 2 5 ) . P a rece f uera d c d uda q ue e s l ai n c idenc ia c u l tura l

a u to r( c f .S i lgo , 1 989 : 8 25 -831) . 3 .4 L uga re sd cC u l to E x t rau rbano s . E ng lobamo s e n e s te a pa r tado t odo s a que l lo s l uga re s d c c u l to q ue p a recen h a l la r se f uera d c l o s r ec in to s

f e n ic ia l ar c spon sab lc d c l ae r ecc ión d e e s te santuario, s egu ramen tc s ob re l o s r e s to s d c l ugares d c c u l to p uramen te i nd Igcna s y a n ter iores a é s tc . L a

u rbano s d c l a s c iudades o cn t ro s d c p ob lac ión c o r re spond icn te s , s ib ien l op reca r io d e l c onoc im ien to d c mucho s d c e l lo s h ace q ue s ea d i f Ic i l s abe r c on

c on s trucc ión d e l c on jun to s e d a ta r ia t a l v cz af i ne s d e l s i g lo V I I aC . , yp ennaneccr ia e n u so d uran te c ls i g lo

c xac t i tud c uá l e s s u v Incu lo e xac to c on a qué l . I nc lu imo s s endo s a par tado s d ed icado s al o s e xvo to s d c

V I aC . yq u izá c on p o s tcr iondad ; n o d e ja d c s e r i n tc rc san te e i h echo d c q ue e n L a Mue la s e h a d e scub ie r to u na c s tanc ia , s i n n ingün t i po d c e n t rada ,

b ronce yal a sr ep rc scn tac ionc sd ce qu ido s f l anqucando au na f i gu ra h umana . 3 .4 .1 S an tua r io sS uburbano s oP en -u rbano s .

q ue l o s e xcavado re s i n te rp re tan b i en c omo a lmac n , b ien c omo r ccep tácu lo p a ra c l " á rbo l s ag rado" ; n o

E n e s te g rupo s e i nc luycn l o s s an tuar ios q ue , h a l lándose f uera d c l a s c iudades , p a recen e s ta r

p odcmo s o lv ida rq ue e nC ancho R oano ( cf e ia pa r tado 3 .2 ) l ah ab i tac ión c en t ra l ( 1 -7 ) d e l e d i f ic io p r inc ipa l t ampoco d i spon Ia d c n ingün t i po d c a cce so ; e n l a s e s tanc ia sd e l s an tua r io ( mvc les V -C yV I -C )s eh a l lo i m

p rOx imo s al a s m isma s yn o p a recen p re sen ta r u na e spec ia l s i gn i l icac iOn d cá mb i to t e r r i to r ia l . 3 .4 .1 .1 S an tua r io e n C o imb ra d e l B a r ranco Ancho

d epó s i to c ompues to d c u na mezc la d c t i er ra c on a bundan te s c en iza s , c on g ran n t imcro d c h ue so s y f r agmen to s c e rám ico s , e n t re e l lo s á nfo ra s d c t i po log ia p ün ica

y a l mcno s

d o s

r ec ip ien tes

c on p eana

c uad rangu la r Oca lada , q ue p a recen r cp roduc ir l af o rma d c t i n c a ldc ro , yc uyo c a rác tc r r i tua l p a rece c l a ro ; e i t i po d c p i e p resen ta s eme janza s c on c lp re scn te e n l o s q uemado rc s d e l d epO s i to v o t ivo d c G a rväo ( Be iräo e i a l . , 1 985 : F ig . 1 8 ) yd c C apo te ( Be r roca l , 1 992 : L am X I) . I gua imen tc , l a s p ecu l ia rc s p ieza s c erám ica s o b longas c on h o rdes i nc iso s , q ue s e h a s uge r ido r ep rc sen ten l i ngo t c s ,a ca so d c p i a ta ; l av incu iac ión d e l c on jun to c on a c t iv idade s m inero -me ta lü rg ica s p a rece c l a ra y a d e sdc l ae poca má s a n t igua a t e s t iguada e n l a

( J unu l la , Mu rc ia ) . I gua l q ue e n e ic a so d e l C a s t i l lo d c G ua rdama r , l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue e n e s te c en t ro i b é r ico , d e l q ue s e c onoce t a n to l az ona d c h ab i tac ión c omo l an ec rópo l is , h aya e x is t ido u ns an tuar io v i enc a va lada p o rc lh a i lazgo d c f i gu ra s d c t c r raco ta , " que r e sponden a u na v e r s iOn l o ca ld e l o sp ebe te ros c on r ep re sen tac ión d ec abe za d e D emé ter e x iend ido a t oda e ia rea i bé r ica . R ef le jo d e u n c u l to r e lac ionab le c on l a n a tura le za y mds c oncre tamen te c on e i c ardc ie r a grar io o b ien d e p ro tec tora d e l ah uman idad yd e lv I ncu lo m a t r imon ia l d ee s ta d i osa " ( F igu ra 2 6 ) . N os eb an h alado a soc iada s , p o r c l momen to , ae s t ruc tu ra a l guna y d e s tacan l o s c xcavado rc s q ue s ed c tcc tan c i a ra s d i fe renc ia se n t re l a s t e r raco ta s p roceden te s d e l a r ea d c l an cc rópo l is y l a s

6 4

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

q ue s e r lan d epo s i tada se ne is an tua r io ,p rueba d cq ue e n c ada c a so s e h ac la u so d c p roducc ione s e spec i f ica s ( VV .AA : 1 987 : 5 4 -55 ;6 9 ) . Ademá s d ce s ta s t e r raco ta s , q ue c on s t i tu ir Ian e i G rupo I d e L a c l a s if icac ión p ropue s ta p o rl o s e xcavado re s , h an a pa rec ido m a sca ra s q ue r ep re sen tan r o s t ro s f ememno s a s f c omo p ebe te ro s d e l o s t i po s h ab i tua le s e no t ro s y ac im ien to s ; s es ug ie re

( c sf inge , c i e rvo e h ipocampo ) ; L a f unc ión c u l tua l d c e s to s o b je to s , c omo h a r e ca lcado O lmo s s e h a l la r Ia r e lac ionada c on c l f uego y s c rv i r Ia " t a l v e z p ara r ecoger l a s b rasas e ncend idas e n e i r i to d e l o s

p a ra t o do s do sl ae x i s tenc ia d c am eno sd o s e ven tua le s

p erf ume s q u emado s , l oq ue e nca ja b i en e n e ic on te .x to d e u n s an tua r io" ( O lmo s , 1 989 : 4 6 ) . E n t re l o s n o muy a bundan te s e xvo to s e n b ronce l o s h ay q ue r ep re sen tan j i ne te s , h omb re s , av ece s g ue r re ro s , ( con

c en t ro s d c p roducc ión , v o lcado s e xc lu s ivamen te a a ba s tece ra ls an tua r io . E l s an tua r io s ed i spone e n l a s f a it h s d c i m c e r ro q ue d i s ta c e rca d e 5 km . d c L ac i udad a c tua l ; s es ug ie re q ue

man to , t ün ica o d csnudos ) , d ama s ( ves t ida s y d e snuda s ) , p a r tc s d e l c ue rpo ya n i ma les . E l o r igen d e l s an tua r io q u izá h aya q ue r e lac iona r lo c on s u u b icac ión e n u n l uga r a l to , ys eguramen te t amb ién c on L a

l a s t e r raco ta s p ucden p rocede r d c " a lguna ' f av issa ' a caso v er tedero s i tuado e n t re l a s c o las menc ionodac

e x is tenc ia d cu n manan t ia l ; i gua lmen te ,M . R u iz sug ie re s u r e iac iOn , c omo o curre e n o t ro s c a so s , c on u na s c ueva sp rOx i mas a ll u ga rd e l s an tua r io . E lf l o rec im ien to

[ 646 y 6 441 d onde e n l aa c tua l idad s o lo s e c on servan m uy e scasos r e s to s d e c ons trucc iOn ap ied ra yb ar ro" ; l ac rono log Ia q ue s e I ca s igna v a d e sde med iado s d e l s i g lo I V h a s ta i n ic io s d e l s i g lo I a. C . , f c cha p robab le e n l a q ue c l p ob lado , d e l q ue s e r Ia a b so lu tamen te c on tcmpo ránco , e sd e s t ru ido ( Mo l ina & Mo l ina , 1 991 : 1 5 4 -162 ;G a rc ia C ano e ta l . , 1 994 ,e . p . ) . 3 . 4 .1 .2 E iS an tua r io d cl aL uz ( Mu rc ia ) . Aunque c ompar te c on l o s g randes s an tuanos r upe s t rc s g i cnncn se s a l guno sr a sgo s ,e spec ia lmcn tc p o r L a t i po log Ia d c s u s e xvo tos , c r eo q ue , p o r l a n o d ema s ia t hr i queza d c s u s h a l lazgo s yp o rs uc n to rno ,I c c o r re spondc e s ta r s i tuado e n e s te a pa r tado . S i tuado a5 km . a l s u r d c l a c i udad d c Mu rc ia , s e h a l la ron u na s c ons t rucc ione sd cc a rác te rp oco c l a ro ( Fe rnández V ega , 1 982 : 1 56 -157 ) yd cl a s q ue s es ef ia lan s u s s eme janza s , a unque d cp eo rc a l idad ,c on l a sd e lC iga r ra le jo ,e nc uyo c en t ro s eh a l la ron e xvo to sd cb ronce , s i ni n lo rmac ione s

d e l s an tua r io s es i tua r la e n t re l o s s i g lo s 1 1 I a .C . ( Ru iz B rcmOn , 1 988 :230 -244 ) . 3 .4 .1 .3 E iS an tuano d e lC iga r ra le jo ( Mu la , Mu rc ia ) . R ea lmcn tc , e s d udo so s i i n c lu ir c l s an tua r io d e l C iga r ra le jo e n e s te g rupo ; p o r s u s i tuac iOn , s e a s emc ja a ld c l aS c r re ta ,e nl ap a r te má s a l ta d ct i np ob lado ; p o r si n h a l lazgo s , e s p o s ib le q ue t c nga u na r epe rcu s ión s up ra te r r i to r ia l . S in e mba rgo , c lt r a ta r se d c u n c en t ro a pa ren temen tc e spec ia l izado e n é qu ido s , ye lh echo d c q ue S c c onozcan a i guno s o t ro s ,n o s I l eva ai nc lu i r lo e n c lp resen te gn ipo .

E L s an tua r io s e e ncuen t ra u b icado e n l a m a rgen d erecha d e l r i o d c Mu la , a f luen te d e l S egu ra p o r s u margen d e recha , e n l a p as te má s a l ta d c im c e r ro a l a rgado , e nu na e spec ic d c me se ta q ue s ee ncuen t ra e n L ac u inb rc ; a l l I s e e xcava ron af i na le s d c l o s c ua ren ta u na s h ab i tac ione s d c l a s q ue n o s e p udo d e te rm ina r s i

e s t ra t ig ra f icas d c n ing i ln t i po ( F igu ra 2 7 ) . N ico l in i s ug ie re , p o r e i e s t i lo d c l a s f i gu r ila s , q ue p od r ian c o r re sponde r al o s s i g lo s 1 1 I a .C . , má s i n i lu ida s p o re i a r te h e len I s t ico y r omano q ue l a s p rocedcn te s d e l C o l lado d c l o s J a rd ine s yC a s te i la r ( N ico l im , 1 969 : 4 6 -47 ) . S o lo l ar ev is iOn d c l o s h a l lazgo s p roceden te s

c or respond ian a u n s o lo e d if ic io 0 s i s e t r a taba d c v i v ien t h s i ndepend ien te s . E l c on jun to s e c omponc d c " un c or redor c en tra l , q ue s i gue u na d i recc iön E -O c on

d e l m ismo e s tä p e rm i t iendo t i n me jo rc onoc in i ien to d c e s te l uga r d c c u l to , v incu lado a l a n ec rópo i is d e l C abec ico d e l T e so ro y a s u p ob lado c o r re spond icn te , c omo q u izá o cu r re e n o t ro s l ugarcs ( Ru iz B remOn , 1 988 : 2 30 -244 ) , l oc ua l , p o ro t ro i a do , r e su i ta b a s tan te r a zonab lc e n p rác t icamen te t o do s l o s s an tua r io s , q u izá c on e xcepc iOn d cl a sc ueva s san tua r io .

e n e ie x t rcmo No roe s te d c l a z ona e xcavada ; b a jo e i mu ro q ue f o rma l ap a red o r ien ta l d c e s ta h ab i tac ión s e e ncon t ra ron 're s to s d c o t ro má s a n t iguo , p rác t icamen te

E n l o s d i s t in to s h a l lazgo s yr ebusca s e f ec tuado s , a demá s d c l o s e xvo tos , a pa rec ie ron c e rám ica s , p oco a p ta sp a ra f i ja rc rono log Ia s ,o b je to se nm e ta l ,d cl o sq ue e i má s s o rp renden te e s u na b ad i la r i tua l q ue J o rge d a taba e n e i i u i t imo t e rc io d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( J o rge , 1 968 : 3 17 -346 ) , p e ro q ue qu iza p ud ie ra s e r a n te r io r , a j uzga r p o r c l t i po y c l e s t i lo d c l a r ep re sen tac ión

d os c ru f la sd eh ab i tac ione s al o sl ados yd os g rupos d e e l ia s as u se x tremo s , n os imé tr ica s" ;d ce l ia s ,l as i tuada at i nn i ve lm á sa l to e sl al i amada H .1 ,q ue s ee ncuen t ra

a l ineado c on é l . C uadrado a f irmó q ue e s tas h ab i tac ione s , a unquc c on s t ru ida s a l e s t i lo i b énco , c o r rc spond Ian y a aé poca r omana a n t igua ( s . I 1 aC) . B a jo l a s h ab i tac ione s H .1 0 yH .!! , e n l ap a r te má s a l ta , ya poyado s s ob rc L a r oca , s ee ncon t raban mve lc s c o r re spond ien te s al a et hd d e l B ronce y , e nc ima d c do s , s e e ncuen t ra c l n ive l d c e xvo to s i b énco s , q ue p a sa P o l e nc ima d e l muro má s a n t iguo a n tes menc ionado y q ue c orresponder la a l s an tuar io p nm i t ivo ; e n e sc n ive l " s e e ncon traron 4 9 a n i l los e n te ros y1 3r o bs d ec ob re ob ronce ;c i nco s or t i ja sc on

• ' / \ /\ /'

6 5

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

c ha tón d e l m ismo ma ter ia l ; 1 2 a r i tos d e p la za , p os ib lemen te a n i l los o a dornos ; u n a r i lo y c i nco f ragmen tos d e o t ros , d e c obre ; d os f ibu la s d e t i po h i spdn ico , u n r ega tón d el an za , u naf a lca ta v o t iva , t r e s p ie za sd ep lomo c omo b o tone s , q ue d eben s e rp e so s , u n

S ude s tc , má s q ue c on l o s g i ennen se s ( Cuadrado , 1 950 : p as s im) . L a c rono iog Ia q ue p roponc C uad rado p ara c l s an tua r io e s d c l o s s i g lo s 1 Vui a. C . , s i endo d e s t ru ido e n l as egunda m i tad d e l s i g lo I I a .C . , p a ra s e r l u ego r econ s tru ido y f i na lmcn tc v ue l to a d es t ru ir y a bandonado s egu ramen tc e n e i s i g lo I a .C . , s i endo s umamen te i n te rc san te l ar c lac ión q ue e s tab icce e n t re l o s d i s t in tos s an tuar ios d e l S udes te p en in su la r ,

g lande d ep lomo p a ra h onda , d i e zf u sa lo la s , u na c uen ta d e c o l lar d e b a rro c on a dornos p un t i l lados . o t ra d e p a s ta v u trea a zu l c on s upe rf ic ie s egmen tada , v ar ios f ragmen los d e c erám ica i bé r ica c on d ecorac ión g eomé t r ica yf lora l , t r e sf ragmenws d ec e rám ica az i ca l y ,p o rü l t imo , 1 79 e scu l tura sd ea ren isca , ‚ n d s om eno s c omp le tas , yg ran c an t idad d e f ragmen tos d e o t ra s

p o s tcr io rmen tc mod if icada p or R u izBremón ( Ru iz B remón , 1 988 : 7 0 ) . 3 .4 .1 .4 E l S an tuano d c l aE ncamac iOn ( Ca ravaca ,

v a r ia s , od el a sm isma sr econs tru ida si n comp le tamen te . I gua lmen le r ecog imo s u n t r ozo d e c uenco l abrado e n a ren i sca ma rgosa " ( Cuad rado , 1 950 : 4 2 -43 ) ( F igu ra

Mu rc ia ) . Y a d c sdc a n t iguo s e h ab lan d e tcc tado e n l a z ona r e s to s c on s truc t ivo s d c d i vc r sa s é poca s , mc luycndo l a r omana q ue s ug ie ren s u u so c omo l uga rd c c u l to d e sde l aé poca p r e r romana h a s ta n ue s t ro s d ia s ; e is an tuar io s e h a l la e n c il amado C e r ro d c c è la E rm i ta , e n t omo a 1

2 8 ) . L a s f i gu ra s a pa recen , p o rl od i cho , s i n o rden e nu na c apa d e u no s 2 0 c m . , r o ta s yc on s u s f r agmen to s

km . a !S E . d e l p ob lado i b é r ico , q ue s e s i tuó e n c lc e r ro l amado d c V i l la r ico s ( s . Ia .C . -per Iodo t a rdo r romano ) y au no s 5 00 m . a l s u r d c o t ro i mpo r tan te p ob lado , s i tuado e n f ren te d e l a n te r io r , e nc lc e r ro d cl o s V i l la re s

d i s tan te s , l o q ue s ug ie re " que l a s f i gu ra s f ue ron a r ra s t rada s h a s ta e ir i ncón d onde a pa rec ie ron , c ayendo r odando a l guna s p o rl ai a de ra N " , c onf i rma e ih a l lazgo d ef r agmen to se nl am isma ;s i ne mba rgo ,e id epó s i to n o p a rece p ro longa r se e n e sa d i recc ión . E s p o s ib ie q ue l a s e scu l tu ra s f ue ran s i tuada s a l l I c uando s e p roced ió al a e xp lanac ión d e l t e r reno p a ra c on s t ru ir l a H .!! , q ue

( s . V I l i l a .C .) ( Rama l lo , 1 99 1 : 3 9 -49 ; R ama l lo , 1 993 : 1 21) ; d e l y ac im ien to p rocede , a dcmá s , u no d c l o s r e l ieve s c on r ep re scn tac ión d e d i v in idad p ro tec to ra d c ë qu ido s ( v id . a pdo 3 .5 .2 ) . E n c s ta z ona s e b an l o ca l izado p i eza s c scu i tó r ica s , r e a l izada s e na r en isca , y d c r educ ido t amaf lo , d c t a l la muy e squcma t ica , yq ue p resen tan p a ra le lo s c on e scu ltu ra s d cT o r re d cB enza lá

a ca so r ep rodu je se l ap l an ta d e l t emp lo p r im i t ivo , a un c uando e n o t ro s c a so s s ee mp learon r e s to s e scu l tónco s e nl am ampo s te r la d el o s mu ro s . L o s d o s f r agmen to sd e c e rám ica á t ica q ue a pa rec ie ron j un to c on l a s e s ta tua s

c ue rpo ) y mayo r i ta r iamen te ë qu ido s ( a n ima le s s ue l to s , y un ta s yg rupo s d e y egua c on s u p o t ro , c on o s i n

( To r redon j imeno , J aén ) , T o r repa redone s ( Ca s t ro d e l R io , B acna , C ó rdoba ) yc on a l guna s d e l C e r ro d c l o s S an to s (Mon tea lcgre d e l C a s t i l lo , A lbace te ) . L a c rono log Ia q ue s ep uede a t r ibu ir ae s ta s e scu l tura s e s amp l ia , d c sde e i s i g lo I V a l Ia .C . yp a recen t c nc r

a t a la je s d e mon ta r ) ; l a b rada s e n d i s t in ta s v a r iedade s d c

c xc lu s iv idad l a s f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s . S c s ug ic re , ap a r t i r

a r en isca , s e e ncuen t ran mu t i lada s e n mayo r o meno r g rado . L a s f i gu ra s h umanas s e e ncuen t ran e n l a s a c t i tude s t I p ica s ( o ran te s , o feren tes ) . L a s f i gu ra s e qu ina s s on a g rupada s p o r Cuad rado e n 1 4 g rupo s ,

d e l h a l lazgo d c l a menc ionada f i gu ra c on e qu ido s , u na v incu lac ión c on c u i to s d c l a f ecund idad a caso

c o r re sponden a ls i g lo I V a .C . . L a s e scu l tu ra s e ncon t rada s s on , m ino r i ta r iamen te h umana s , 1 7 e j emp la re s , ( dama s , g ue r re ro s , p a r te s d e l

r e lac ionado c on l o s c aba i lo s ( Ruano , S an N ico lá s , 1 990 : 1 0 1-107 ) . E s ta s c squcma t ica s p ieza s c scu l tó r ica s s e a soc ian a

a t end iendo as u s s eme jan7a sd e t é cn ica ye s t i lo ;p a ra e l , h ab r Ia o b ra s d i rec tamen te i n sp i rada s e n e scu l tu ra s

c e rám ica si b é r ica sp in tada s yab am iz n eg ro á t ico ,t o da s c l la s e n t rcmczc iada s e n c ln ive l d c r e l leno p rcv io al a

h e lén ica s yo t ra sp roduc ida s p o ra r t is ta sq ue h a i laban s u i n sp irac ión e n o t ros d c l o s a r te sano s q ue r ea l izaban e s ta s e scu l tu ra s ; t amb ién h ay d i feren te s n ive le s d c

c on s t rucc ión d cu nt cmp lo d cë poca r omana ,e x is t iendo t amb ién c xvo to s d c t e r raco ta q ue r cp re sen tan f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s e squ cma t ica s , c on p a ra le lo s e nC o imb ra d e l

d e s t reza y c ompe tenc ia . P o r t i l t imo , h ay r e l ieve s y g rAbado s , t amb ién d c t ema e qu ino , q ue c omp le tan e i c on jun to . No a l ud iré a c ues t iones a r t I s t ica s od e e scue la , o al a s r e fe r ida s al o s a t a ia je s q ue p o r tan l o s é qu ido s , y a q ue a pa r te d c l a s e ven tua le s c onsecuenc ia s

B ar ranco Ancho y e n l a S c r rc ta d c A lcoy ; n o h an a parec ido ,

c o rrespond ien tes

a e s tc

momen to

p re r romano r e s to s c ons truc t ivos ( Rama l lo , 1 993 : 1 22 -123 ) , s ug ir iendo c l e xcavado r q ue p ud ie ra h abe r

c rono lóg ica s , n o p a rece q ue h ayan i n f lu ido e n

c x is t ido a l g i mn c d if ic io d c made ra a p ar t ir d c l a

c ue s t ione s d e r i tua l . P a ra C uadrado , c l s an tuar io d e l C iga r ra le jo mue s t ra a u in idade s c on l o s s an tua r io s d e l

i dcn t if icac ión d c a lguno s o r if ic io s p a ra p os tes , c xcavado s e n l ar oca , b a jo l o s s i la rc s d c c imen tac ión

6 6

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d e l i l amado t emp lo A ; e s to s h ueco s d e l inu tan u n e spac io c uad rado , c on u n o r if ic io c en t ra l ye s tán p r e sen te se no t ro sl uga re s d e l y ac im ien to ,i n c luyendo l a

e x is tenc ia d c u m s an tua r io v incu lado a u na d i v in idad

r oca s ob re l aq ue s ea l za e it emp lo B ;e sp o s ib le q ue e n

f i na l d e l p o s ib le s an tuar io , a unque s egu ramen te h ay e xvo to s b a s tan te má s a n t iguo s . L a r e iac iOn má s e v iden te d c e s to s r e l ieve s e s c on l o s d e l s an tua r io d e l

ambo s c a so s l o s e d if ic ios r omano s s up ian ten y c on t int i en l o s a n t iguo s c u l to s i nd Igena s ; c omo e j emp lo d c e l lo menc iona R ama l lo e i c a so d e l C e r ro d c l o s S an to s , " donde h a l lamos e s le m ismo p roce so d e s up lan tac ión d e l a s t r ad ic iona le s e s t ruc turas d e c u l to i bé r ica s

POT

Uf l

a u lén h ico e d if i c io d e i r ad ic iön y ,

s eguramen le ,p lan ba r omana" ( Rama l lo , 1 991 : 4 9 -51 ) . C on r e spec to at a le s e d if ic io s , h ab r ia q ue d e s taca rq ue e it emp lo A ( s . I a. C . ) p od r Ia s e ru n t emp lo i na n t is o b i en u mp ró s t i lo t e t rá s t i lo yc lB ( s .I ! a .C .) ,q ue a caba s i endo u n o c ts t i lo p seudoper ip te ro , p o s ib lemen te s e i n ic ia c omo u n p ro s t i lo t e t rá s t i lo ( Rama l lo , 1 99 1 : 5 0 -65 ;B ro ton s &R ama l lo , 1 993 : 7 3 ) . E n l a s p rox im idade s d c e s te s an tua r io s ee ncuen t ran a l guno s o t ro s d c l o s c onoc ido s , t a le s c omo e i d e l R ecue s to ( Ceheg in ) ,c lC iga r ra le jo yN ue s t ra S eño ra d c L aL uz , a s I c omo o t ro s d c t i po c ueva , c omo e i d c l a

p ro tec to ra d c l o s c aba l lo s . Una d c l a s p i eza s p a rece i l cva ru na i n sc r ipc iOn l a t ina ,q ue ma rcar la l ac r ono log Ia

C iga r ra le jo , yt amb ién s e d e s taca s u r c iac iOn c on l a s p l aca s q ue r ep re sen tan al ad i v in idad p ro tec to ra d c l o s c aba l lo s ( v id . a pdo . 3 .5 .2 ) . C omo a f irman s us i n vcn to res , " e s tos l e s t imon ios a rqueo log icos l o q ue p onen d e r e l ieve e s e se p ragma t ismo d e l a r e l ig ion i b é r ica q ue e n e s ie c a so n or h ab la d e u n t i po d e d i v in idadpro zec bora d el o sc aba l los q ue q u i zd ,c omo s e h a s ena lado e n r e i terada s o cas iones , d eba s er u na d i osa d e c ardc ter f ecundan be" ( Rodr iguez O l iva e ha l . , 1 983 :7 5 1-768 ) . E n L lano s d c S i lva , ab a s tan te d i s tanc ia , s e h a d ocumen tado t a n ib ién u na p i aca s im i la r , p o s ib lemen te c o r re spond ien te ao t ro l uga rd c c u l to ( Rodr iguez O l iva e ta l . , 1 983 :756 ) . 3 .4 .1 .7 U nP o s ib ic S an tua r io e nC a sa s V ie ja s ( A lmac i ic s ,G ranada ) .

N ar iz d c S a ich i te , Mo ra ta l la y o t ra s c ueva s p róx ima s ( Ruano & S an N ico lá s , 1 990 : 1 01 -107 ) . 3 . 4 . 13 H S an tua r io d e lR ecue sb (C eheg fn , Mu rc ia ) . Emp lazado e n u na p equeña c o l ina r oco sa c e rca d c C eheg In yao r i l la s d e l r i o A rgo s , n o s ec on se rva r e s to c on s t ruc t ivo a i guno q ue p ueda a s igna r se a ls an tua r io ;s e s i tC i ae n l ar u ta n a tu ra l q ue p e rm i te e ia cce so d e sdc l a v ega d c l S egu ra al aA l ta Anda luc la . A l l I s e h a l lo u m p equeño t e so r i l lo d c p laqu i tas d c p la ta q ue

E n u n t r aba jo r e fe r ido a f a lca ta s e n m ima tu ra m enc iona L i l lo C a rp io u na z ona , e n l al a de ra d e l c er ro e n e iq ue s eu b ica p rc sun tamen te e ip ob lado , e n L aq ue e x is te u na f uen te e n L a q ue s e h an v emdo h a l iando r e s to s crám ico s yf i gu r i l la sd cb ronce or e s to s d ce l ia s , a s I c omo r e s to s d c p equeña s f a lca ta s , g ene ra lmen te e nca jada s e nl a s f i su ra s d c L ar oca ( L ilo , 1 986 -87 : 3 6 ) ; a unque e sp o s ib le q ue a l l Ih ub ie se e x is t ido i m l u ga rd c

r e p re sen taban f i gura s h umana s , c abeza s d c a n ima le s y o jo s ; i g ua lmen te , n ume ro sa s p i eza s d ch i e r ro yb ronce .

c u l to ,n ada m á sp uede a ven tu ra r se p o rc l momen to . 3 .4 .1 .8 U nE xvo to B ronce P roceden i e d eG r a wda .

E n t re l o s e xvo to s d c p i ed ra f i gu ran f r agmen to s d c p i eza s q ue r ep re sen tan a e qu ido s , c uyo p a ra le lo má s o bv io l o r ep re sen tan l a s i mágene s d c E l C iga r ra le jo ( F igu ra 2 9 ) ; l a s c erám ica s s on d c v ano s t i po s ,

S c h alO al as a l ida d c L ac i udad , e n L ac ar rc te ra d c Mu rc ia , f ue ra d c c on tex to ; s e t r a ta d c u na f i gu r i l la f cmemna c on man to , p a ra l aq ue s e s ug ie re u na f e cha

i n c luycndo l a s á t ica s a s I c omo a l guna p ieza p iá s t ica ,

f i guni la sp roceden te sd cl o s s an tua r io sg i enncn sc s yd e l

c omo l o q ue p uede s e r u na c abeza d c p a loma , c o r rc spond ien tc au na sko s ;s eh an h a l lado t amb ién d o s

d cl aL uz ( Mendoza , 1 986 :327 -330 ) . A unquc e sp o s ib le q ue c o r re spond ic se ai m l uga r d c c u l to , L aa u senc ia d c c on tex to u np ide c onoce r má s a ce rca d e li n i smo . 3 .4 .1 .9 E lP o s ib ic S an tuar io d cT o r re d cB enza lá ( To r rcdon j imcno ,J aén ) .

f r agmen to s d c s endo s v a so s c a lado s ,a s Ic omo p a r te d c u n v a so g em inado . L a c rono iog Ia q ue c lL i l lo p roponc p a ra e i c on jun to , b a sándose e n L a d c l a s c e rám ica s á t ica s , e s d c f i ne s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . ( L i l lo , 1 979 -80 : 1 95 -207 ;L ilo , 1 981 : 2 5 -36 ) . 3 .4 .1 .6 Un P o s ib le S an tuar io e n E l C e r ro d c l o s I n f an te s ( P ino sP uen te ,G ranada ) . J un to au na s e r ie d c r e l ieve s c onoc idos d c a n t iguo , a l gunos d c l o s c ua le s s e c on se rvan e n e i Musco d c G ranada , s e h an i nven tar iado o t ra s 6 4 p i eza s ( en t re r e l ieve s , g rAbado s yb u l to r edondo ) q ue a nua lmcn tc s a ca al al u z c la r ado e n l a s p rox i in idade s d e l C er ro d c l o s I n fan tes . L a a cumu iac iOn d c p i eza s s ug ie re l a

d e l s i g lo I V a .C . , yq ue p rc sen ta r a sgo s c omune s c on

E . R uano menc iona u n g rupo d c d i ez e scu l tu ra s p roceden te s d c e s tc l uga r , d e l q ue s e d i ce q ue p odr Ia h abe r i m s an tuar io , n o c on f irmado a rqueo lOg icamcn te ( Ruano , 1 987 : I ,7 8 -79 ;I I , 1 5 -22 ;c f . t amb ién Ma nn & B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 8 0 -82 ) . 3 .4 .1 .10 E xvo tos e n P ied ra P roceden tes d c L a B obad i l la ( A lcaude tc ,J aén ) . S c t r a ta d c u n p a rd c e scu l tu ra s , u na q ue p rc sen ta u m p e r sona je , p o s ib lemen te f ememno , s cden te y o t ra q ue p re sen ta u np e r sona je v e s t ido c on a mp l ia t ' i n ica ( Ma nn

6 7

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

r omana , a im c uando p a rece h abe rs i do e xcavado , p oco

&B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 8 2 -83 ;8 6 -89 ) . A demá s d e é s ta s , e n e i Mu seo d e J aén s ec on servan

e sl oq ue s es abe ( c f .R ama l lo , 1 99 3 :) . E s t i l I s t icamen tc , yc on l a s f e cha s q ue a c tua lmcn tc s e

o t ra s e scu l tu ra s c uya f i na l idad c omo e xvo to s p a rece p robab le , a unque s e d esconocen s u s l uga res d c

m ane jan p a ra L ae scu l tu ra i b é r ica c s to s e xvo to s p odr Ian s e r f echado s e n t o rno aL o s s i g lo s 1 V 11 ; s i ne mba rgo , d o s c p Ig ra f c s e n l a t In ye i modo d c v e s t i rd c u na d c l a s

p rocedenc ia ( Ma r in & B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 8 3 -84 ) . 3 .4 .1 .11 E l S an tua r io d cT o r repa redone s ( Cas t ro,D e l R io -baena , C&doba ) E ls an tua r io d eT o r repa redone ss eh aHa e ne ie x t remo me r id iona l d e L a c i udad i bé r ica yj un to a L a mu ra l la , p e ro a le x te r io rd eL am isma ( F igu ra 3 0 ) , e nu nl uga re n e iq ue s ob re sa len r e s to sc on s t ruc t ivo s d ee poca r omana ,

f i gu ras ( con p a l l ium) s ug ieren u n momen to má s a vanzado , a l meno s p a ra a l guna s d c e l ia s , q ue p a r c l momcn to s es i tt i ae nl o s s i g lo s I 1 a .C . ,f i na l izando s u

a s I c omo s i l la re s yf r agmen to s a r qu i tec tomco s , c omo r e s to s d c u n c ap i te l d eco rado c on v o lu ta s ; e n e is eh an h a l lado e n s upe r f ic ie l a s 9 1 p i eza s c a ta logada s p o r Mo rena ; f r en te a l o q ue o cu r re e n o t ro s c a so s , p a rece e v iden te L ar e lac ión e n t re c en t ro u rbano ys an tua r io ye n

a bundan te , f r en te aL oq ue e s f r ecuen te e n e ir e s to d e l

l a s l a de ra s yb ase s -de l c e r ro t a inb ién h ay s u rgenc ia s d c a gua ( Mo rena , 1 989 : 4 2 -43 ) . L o s e xvo to s h a l lado s

m eno se ns upe r f ic ie ( Mo r ena , 1 989 : 5 0 -52 ) . E n t re l a s p i eza s má s d es tacada s p roceden te s d c T o r reparedone s , a unque n od c L az ona d e l s an tua r io , s e

u so a n te s d e l c amb io d c e r a . L a c e rám ica n o a yuda d cma s iado p o rquc e n L a z ona d e l s an tuar io n o e s y ac im ien to ; s e h a l la ron c uenco s op L a t i to s , l u ce rna s , c a l ic ifonne s yp l a to s ,e sd ec ir ,f o rma s muy c o r r ien te s y s i n c rono log Ia c onc re ta ; a dcmá s u n f r agmcn to d c c ampan ien se B ; s e s ef la la L aa u senc ia d c s i g i l la ta , a l

e s tn r ea l izado s e n p ied ra , s a lvo u na c abec i ta d c t e r raco ta ys on p roduc to s c l a ramen te l o ca le s ; p re sen tan u n g r an e squema t ismo y t o squedad e n s u r e a l izac ión y r ep re sen tan f i gu ra s h umana s yp a r te s d e l c ue rpo . L a s

h a ha u n p equeño r e l ieve ( 75 cm . x8 3 cm . x4 . 6 cm . ) q ue r ep re sen ta , e n s u p a r te c en t ra l , " un g rupo d e d o s d amas e n a c t i tud of ren te , s os ten iendo u n v aso c aliciforme" , e nmarcadas e n u n amb icn te a rqu i tec tómco ,c ompue s to p a rc o Lumna ,c uyo c ap i te le s u n p equef lo L eon e n r epo so l c uya c abeza s e h a ha

f i gu ra s s on t a n to f emen ina s c omo ma scu l ina s , v e s t ida s yd e snuda s , e s tan te s , s eden te s , o fe ren te s yd onan tes , c on p a ra le lo s o bv io s e n l o s s an tuar io s d c T or re

d i r ig ida h ac ia e ie spec tado r ; e ic on jun to l o c o rona u n

B enza lá , E lC igar ra lc jo yC e r ro d cl o s S an to s . E n t re l o s o b je tos o f rec idos e i t i n ico i den t if icab le e s i m v a so ; a pa rece a l gün g uer re ro y b uena p a r te d c l o s e xvo tos r ep re sen tan f i gu ra sd e sca lza s (Mo r ena , 1 989 : 4 3 -45 ) .

f nso d c p a lme ta s , c on p o s ib le s r o ieo s e n t re e l ia s ( F igura 3 1 ) . S eg s in L o s e xcavado re s , " l ar ep re sen tac iOn n os r em i te a u na e scena p rop ia d e l mundo r e l ig ioso -cu l tua i , c ompa rab le c on l o sa c tos d el i bac iOn

S e s ug ie re i mr i tua l b a sado e nL al i bac iön d ca gua ,l o

yo f renda p la smados e n l ap ld s t ica d e l o ss an tuar io sy c uevas s agrodn c , d e sar ro l lada d e lan te d e u np os ib le t emp lo , d e l o s q ue p oseemos a lgunos p ara le los e n e i

q ue p odr Ia d ebe rse a L a e x is tenc ia d c a gua s m ine ro -med ic ina les e n l a s i nmed iac ione s , d c t i po b i ca rbona tada s u lfa tada s , c on c l a ro v a lo r t e rapéu t ico ; e L lo e xp l ica r la l o se xvo to s a na tóm ico s . E s t i l I s t icamen te , L a e s ta tua r ia mues t ra c laras s eme janza s c on l a

á mb i to p en insu lar " . L a f echa q ue p roponen l o s e xcavado re s p a ra e ir e l ieve e se nt o rno a !s i g lo I a .C . y

p roceden te d c T o r re B enza iá y d c l a Bobad i l la ( A lcaude te ) , l o q ue h a l i evado aMo rena as uge r ir L a

s ei l ega as uge r ir q ue e ip o s ib ic t emp io q ue e nma rca l a e scena s ea e lm i smo d c T o r repa redone s ( Se r rano &

e x is tenc ia d c u n m ismo c en t ro d c p roducc ion q ue a ba s tec ie se al a s t r e sl o ca l idade s ,p oco d i s tan te s e n t re s f ( Mo rena , 1 989 : 4 7 -48 ; f i g . 8 ;c j e n c lm ismo s en t ido

Mo rena , 1 988 : 2 45 -248 ; Mo rena , 1 989 :3 5 -36 ) . 3 .4 .1 .12 U nP o s ib le S an tua r io e n Me sa d cL uque ( Ins R e tama s ,C o rdoba ) . L a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue e n e s ta l o ca l idad e x is ta u n

Ma r in & B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 8 4 -85 ) . E l s an tua r io s i gu ió e n u so e n é poca r omana , c omo a t e s t igua a lg i mn e p Ig ra fe e n l o s e xvo to s , yu no d c e l io s menc iona , p o s ib iemen te , al a D ea C ae les t is ; s i n

s an tua r io v i ene d ada p a re ih echo d c q ue s ec onoce i m c on jun to d c d i ec is ie tc p lacas c on s endo s r e l ieve s r e p re sen tando c aba l lo s ,d cd i s t in to s t i po s yc on mayo ro

r echaza r q ue " e i s an tuar io d e T orreparedones p udo

m cno r r e a l ismo s egt in L o s c a so s yc on y s i n a t a la jc s ;

h abe r e s tado d ed icado a F a D ea C ae les t i s ( Mo rena , 1 989 : 4 8 -49 ) , " vers ion r oman izada d e F a T an z t c ar lag inesa" (Mo rena ,1989 : 7 4 ) y o p rcf ir ir Ia p en sa r q ue c uando s ep roduce L ai l egada r omana l o s i nd Igena s

a igunos p resen tan s eme janza s c on e jemp la res p roceden t e s d cP ino s P uen te ( v id . a pdo . 3 .4 .1 .6 ) . S ob re l a b a se d c l a c rono log Ia d c e s te t i l t imo y ac im ien to ,

i d en t if ican s u c u l to a nce s t ra l c on e i r omano d c e sa

d c L uque l am isma c rono log Ia , e n t re e is i g lo I V yl a é poca r omana ( Cuad rado & R uano , 1 989 : 2 03 -228 ) .

C uadrado yR uano s uponen p a ra l a s p i eza s d c L a Me sa

d io sa ;s ob re q ue l ad io sa v enerada a n te s s e aT an i t ,n oL o c r eo p robab le . S ob re c le d if ic io d c c u i to , y a d c é poca

E n C amo r ra d c l a s C abezuc la s ( San tae l la ) h a

6 8

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

a pa rec ido u n r e l ieve d e u n t i po s im i la r , a unque s u a i s lam ien to i mp ide p ode rp rec isa rs ip rocede on od cu n s an tua r io ( Cuad rado & R uano , 1 989 : 2 22 ) . 3 . 4 .1 .13 Ha l lazgos A is lado s d eT e rraco ta se nl a P rov inc ia d cS ev i l la E n e s te a par tado m e v oy a r e f er ir a u no s c uan to s c a so s d e f i gur i l la s d e t e r raco ta , p roceden te s d e l a p rov inc ia d e S ev i l la y s i n c on tex to p rec iso s . A s i , h an s i do p ub l icada sp o rF ernández G ómez c ua t ro t e r raco ta s , u na p roceden tc d cO suna yl a s o t ra s t r c s d cU t re ra ys u t é rm ino ;l ap r imc ra r ep re sen ta r ia ,s eg i in d i cho a u to ru na o r an te , d e l t i po d c l a s r ep re sen tada s e n l o s e xvo to s d c b ronce , m ien t ra s q ue l a s r e s tan te s , p eo r c on servada s , r epre sen tan f i gu ra s f ememna s ( Fernández Goméz , 1 988 : 1 43 -151) . Adcmás d c e l la s t amb ién h a d ado c onoce r o t ra s d o s q ue , s eg i mn p a rece , r ep re sen ta r ian ,

p uedan h abc r d escmpcf lado f unc iones e x tra c omun i tar ia s ; s i n emba rgo , h e p re fe r ido s e r p ruden te a n te l ae sca scz d el o st e s t imon io sd i spon ib le s . 3 .4 .2 .1 E l S an tua r io d e lC e r ro d cl o s S an to s (Mon tea leg re D e lC a s t i l lo ,A lbace te ) . E l s an tuar io d e l C e r ro d c l o s S an to s e s u no d c l o s c en t ro s p a rad igmá t ico s d c l a r e l ig io s idad i b ér ica ; s i n e mba rgo , l o a n t iguo e i r regu la r d c s u c onoc im ien to ( Chapa & Ma r t inez , 1 990 : 1 03 -111 ; e n j i l t imo l uga r L opez A zo r in , 1 993 : 4 5 -53 ) ,a s Ic omo t o da u na s e r ie d c c i rcuns tanc ia s r e la t iva s al a s f a ls if icac ione s d c q ue f ue ron o b je to s u s e xvo to s p é t reo s h a h echo q ue s e a t amb ién u no d c l o s q ue má s -p rob lcma s p re sen ta a l a h o ra d c s u v a lo rac ión c i en t I f ica . E l s an tua r io s e s i tt i a e n u na p equcña e l evac iOn d e l t e r reno , c on t ro lando c l l amado " Cam ino d c An iba l" o V ia H e rac lea , e n c uya pa s te f o r te s e h a l laba u n e d if ic io d c c u l to d e l q ue ümcamcn te q ucdan d escr ipc ione s ya lgün d ibu jo ( Fer ná ndez V ega , 1 982 : 1 53 -155 ) ; s e r la u n e d if ic io

r e spec t ivamen te al al i amada G ran D ama d e l C e r ro d c l o s S an to s y al aD ama d c E iche . L a p nme ra d c e l la s h ab r Ia s i do h a l lada e nu na t umba d cA lmodóva rd e l R io ( Sev i l la )l aa n t igua C arbu la , d cc r ono log la i mp rcc isa y l a s egunda p rocede r la d c L cb r i ja , yn o s e c onoce s u

r e c tangu la r q ue med ir Ia 1 5 ,6 x 6 ,9 i n . , p rcce cl ido p o r u na e sca l ina ta y u n v e s t lbu lo d c 2 , 68 x 6 i n . ( F igu ra 3 2 ) ; c l e d if ic io d e sapa rec ió p ron to , a s I c omo u no s p re sun to s c ap i te le s d c e s t i lo j ón ico , l oq ue d io l uga r a t odo t i po d c e spccu iac ione s a ce rca d c s u s a f in idade s c u l tu ra le s ys u c rono log la ; e s p o s ib le , ap ar t ir s ob re t odo d c l a s f c cha s q ue a po r tan l a s p i eza s e scu l tó r ica s , q ue c lp r ime re d if ic io h ub ie se s u rg ido y ae nc ls i g lo I V

c on tex to . E n ambo s c a sos , s u d i vu lgado r h a s uge r ido q ue s e t r a ta d c " pequena s t e r raco tas , r ea l i zadas a m o lde , q ue r eproduc lan c on g ran f ide l idad l o s r a sgos d e l a s g rande s d iv in idade s , c onoc ida s POT z odos l o s f i e le s" ( Fe rnández Goméz , 1 982 : 1 73 1 77 ; F e rnández Goméz , 1 987 : 6 39 -647 ) t o q ue d a ae n tende r , e n s u o p in ion q ue l a s e scu l tu ra s o r ig ina le s r ep re sen ta r lan al a

a .C . , p o r má s q ue p e rdu ra se e n é poca r omana ( c f . R ama l lo , 1 993 : 1 37 -139 ) . L a s c i rcun s tanc ia s d c l o s h a i la . zgo s h an d e te rm inado

d i v imdad d cq ue s et r a ta sc e nc ada c a so y ,a lm eno s e n l aD ama d e l C e r ro d cl o s S an to s n o s e r la u nc xvo to . E s d i f Ic i l p ronunc ia r se a ce rca d e l s i gn if icado d c t a les

q ue a penas s e c onozcan l a s o f rendas q ue , c on e xcepc ión d c l ae scu l tu ra , r c c ib Ia c l s an tuar io y q ue

t e r raco ta s , d ada s ur a reza e nl az ona c on s ide rada yp a ra l a mayo r p a s te d c e l la s F e rn á ndez GOmcz s ug ie re q ue s et r a tar la d co b je to s r e lac ionado s c on e ic u l to ,d e l t i po d c l o s e xvo to s ( Fernández Gomëz , 1 988 : 1 50 ) , a un c uando s u emp lco e n c on tex to s f une ra r io s c s tá muy

a pena s e s menc ionada a n te l ae spec tacu la r idad d c l a s e scu l tu ra s q ue i b an s i endo r e cupe rada s , p e ro e n t re l a s

b ien a t es t iguado t amb iOn e n o t ros l uga re s d c l a P en In su la ( cf .B lech , 1 992 : 2 3 -31) . L a s r e lac ione s e n t re

a de rezo ya do rno ( f ibu la s ,p u lsc ra s , e t c .) . P o r1 0q ue s e

l ag r an p l á s t ica e np i ed ra yf i gu r a s d ct e r raco ta t amb ién h an s i do p uc s ta sd c man if ie s to p o rB lech ( B lech , 1 990 : 9 1 -96 ) . 3 .4 .2 S an tuar io sd cC a rác t e rS up ra te r r i to r ia l . E n e s te g rupo s e i n c luyc a l o s g rande s s an tuar io s i bénco s q ue h an p ropo rc ionado e xvo to s e n g ran n t ime ro yc a l idad ; a demá s , a unque p redom ina e n c ada u no d c e l lo s u n t i po d c e xvo to d e te rm inado , s e h an d e tec tado r e lac ione s e n t re e i lo s q ue a ba rcan , a l meno s , c l p er lodo c omp rend ido e n t re l o s s i g lo s I V y Ia .C . ( Ru iz B remOn , 1 988 : 7 0 ) ;c lc a rác tc re x t rau rbano d cl o s

q ue h ab Ia p un ta s d cf i ceha ,f a lca ta s , s o l ij e r rea ,p un ta sy r ega tonc s dl a nza , a n i l lo s d cl a tOn ,a s Ic omo o b je to s d c r e f ie rc al a s e scu l tu ra s , R u izBremOn o p ina , f r en te al o q ue h ab i tua lmcn te s e h a p ensado , q ue " l os e xvo tos , d epos i lados má s om enos i nd i scr im inadamen te p or l o s f i e les s obre L a s uperf ic ie d e l p romon zor io , c omo c orre sponde a l r i to g enera l i zado e n l o s S an tuar ios p opu lares d e l mundo a n l iguo , n o f ueron n unca a rro jados a l ac anada e n m omen bo s d e a c t iv idad d e l S an tuar io , s i no ü n icamen te c uando s e p rodu jo s u d e s trucc iOn oa bandono d ef ln i : ivo ,s i endo m u l t ip l icados l o se f ec tos d ee s te p roce so p or l aa cc ión d e s t ruc t iva d e L a n a tura le za " ( Ru iz B remOn , 1 989 : 2 1) . E n e s te s en t ido , n o h an p e rm i t ido a c la rac ione s i mpo r tan te s l a s c ampa u ia s d c e xcavac ión d cT . C hapa d u ran te l o s a no s

m ismo s p a rece c l a ro , p o r má s q ue e n l a s p rox im idade s s e h ayan d e tec tado r e s to s d c p ob lac iOn ; e sp o s ib le q ue

1 977 a 1 981 , s a lvo e ih a l lazgo d c c e rám ica s á t ica s d e l s i g lo I V a .C . , q ue f i jan u n lm i te i n f e r io r p a ra l av ida

a l guno s d c l o s q ue s e r c señan e n e i a pa r tado 3 .4 .1

/\

6 9

7

ADOLFO J . DO W NGUEZ MONEDERO

d e l s an tua r io

( Chapa , 1 980 : 8 1-111 ; Chapa , 1 983 :

6 43 -653 ;C hapa , 1 984 : 1 09 -124 ) . E n s u e s tud io s ob re e is an tuar io M . R u i7ani l iza 4 54 e scu ltu ra s p roceden te s d e l m ismo d e sde muy d ive r so s a spec to s ; a qu I me l im i ta réa r e su in ir s u s o b servac ione s c on r e spec to al o s g e s to s q ue e xh iben l o s e xvo to s . L a s f i gu ra s f emen ina s p ueden l i eva r l o s b r azo s c a ldo s al o l a rgo d e l c ue rpo ,p ueden l e van ta rl i ge ramen te l a s f a lda s d e lm an to ,p ueden i l eva rl o sb razo so cu l to so ,e ne ic a so d c l a s s eden te s , a poya rl a s mano s s ob re l a s r od ila s . E l g e s to má s h ab i tua l , s i n e mba rgo , c on s is te e n p o r ta ri m v a so c on l a s d o s mano s , s o s temëndo lo a n te e ip echo o c le s tomago . L a s f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s p ueden a pa rece r c on l o s b razo s c a Idos a l o l a rgo d e l c ue rpo , c on l o s b razo s d ob iado s s ob re e iv i en t re , v e s t ido s c on t o ga o p a l l ium y ,s ob re t odo , p o r tando u n c uenco c on l am ano d e recha m ien t ra s s o s t ienen e i man to c on l a mano

r e c ien te s q ue s e h an d ado p a ra e i s an tua r io mue s t ran u na g ran v ar iedad ; c omo e j emp lo d c o p in iones d i ame t ra lmen tc o pue s t .a s , a l ud i remo s al a s a vanzada s p o r M . R u iz B rcmón y p o r E . Ruano . L a p r imera s ug iere q ue s e t r a ta d c i m l uga r d c c u l to " popu lar " ( v incu lado c on c i e ven tua l c a rác te r s a lu t I fe ro d c l a s a gua s ( s u lla to -magne s iada s ) d c l az ona ; e n s u o p in iOn , " a l o s s an luar ios d e t i po p opu lar , m ode lo a l q ue r e sponde e i n ues t ro , e i d evo zo p eregr ina , p ue s , p or v ar ia sr a zone s , e n t re ; l a sq ue d e s tacan l ab ü squeda d e l ac omun icac ión d i rec ta c on s u d ios , l ap rop ic iac ión d e lm ismo a t r avé s d el ap lega r ia , e iv o to , l ao f renda o e is ac rf ic io , e ia gradec im ien to p or l o sb i ene sy f or tuna d epa rados o ,p or ü l t imo , c on l ae speran za d e q ue s u s ab idurIa y p ode res s obrena tura ie s i n tervengan d e m odo d ec is ivo e n l ac urac ión d e u na e nf e rmedad , y a s ea é s ta j i s ica , y a e sp ir i tua l " ( Ru iz B remOn , 1 989 :

i z qu ie rda , a c t i tud q ue p e rm i te d i f e ren te s v a r ian te s . P o r c on s igu ien te , l a mayo r pa s te d e l a s f i gu ra s , t a n to

1 86 ) . P o r l o q ue s e r ef ie re a l as egunda , l oc on s ide ra n a

ma scu l ina s c omo f emen ina s , p resen tan u na a c t i tud o f e ren te ,c on l ao f r enda c on ten ida e nv a so sd ed i fe ren te

c en t ro c on " f unc ión em inen temen te g eopo l I t ica y e l i t i s ta " , d cb ido as u c a rác te r d c p un to f oca l e n t re d o s p re sun ta s " pen tá p o l is" i b ér ica s ( Ruano , 1 988 : 2 53 -272 ) . C on r e spec to a e s ta t i l t ima i n terp rc tac ion h abr Ia q ue ma t iza r q ue , e n p nnc ip io , c ua iqu ie r

t i po log Ia ,a nn c uando l am isma s eh ai n te rp re tado t a n to c omo o f renda c uan to c omo l i bac ión . Ann c uando c on a l guna e xcepc ión l a s p au ta s menc ionada s a ce rca d e l a s u jec ión y l a t i po log la d e l v a so d c o f renda s , p e rmanecen b a s tan tc f i jada s e n e s ta s e scu l tura s . Una s p oca s f i gu ra s p re sen tan o t ro s o b je to s , n o s i emp re d e f á c i l i den t if icac ión , yad i ferenc ia d c l o s s an tuar io s r upes t re s g i ennen se s l a s f i gura s ma scu l ina s n o h acen

s an tua r io e s p er s e mi p un to f oca l , d c c onf luenc ia d c i nd iv iduo s d c l am isma o d c d i s t in ta s c omun idade s o n ive le s s oc io -cu l tu ra lc s yq ue , a nn s i n r cchaza r d c

o s ten tac ión d c s u s a rma s q ue , s i n emba rgo , p o r tan c on s igo . E l h a l lazgo d c e xvo to s d c b ronce , a s I c omo d c

e x t rao rd ina r io p un to f oca l" q ue p ropugna l aa u to ra ;c on r e lac iOn ae s te s an tua r io A ranegu i h ai l egado as uge r i r q ue e s c l t i n ico s an tuar io i b é r ico e n e i q ue p uedc

e scu l tura s a n ima l I s t icas h a p erm it ido e s tab lecer

e voca r se u na c ien te la a r i s toc rá t ica p a ra e is i g lo I V a .C .

v I ncu lo s e n t re e is an tua r io a l bace tense yl o s d e l aA l ta Anda luc ia yl e van t ino s ( Ru iz B remón , 1 988 -a : 7 0 ; c f .

( A ranegu i , 1 993 ,e . p .) . E n c uan to a a spec to s d c r i tua l , a par te d c l a d epo s ic ión d c e xvo to s s egu ra lnen tc e n t o mb a le d if ic io d c c u lto , s o lo p ueden s uponer se o t ro s t i po s d c c eremon ia , e n tre e l los u na e ven tua l p rac t ica

R uano , 1 988 : 2 62 -265 ) . L a c rono log Ia i n ic ia l q ue a c tua lmen te s e d a p a ra e i s an tuar io l os i tü ap r inc ip io s d e l s i g lo I V , momen to e n c l q ue a ün n o e s tar la p l enamen te d e f imda l a a c t i tud o fe ren te , q ue i r a ma t izándo se yf i jándo se al ol a rgo d e l s i g lo I I , momen to e n e i q ue " deb ió q uedar d ef in i l ivamen le e s tab lec ido q ue l a sd ama ss os t ieran e i v a so c on a mba s manos y l o s v arone s , e n c amb io , l o i l evasen c on l ad erecha ys em iapoyado e n l ac adera" . N oo b s tan t e ,e sp o s ib le q ue y aa n te sd ce s e momen to e i s i t io t uv iese e sa f unc iOn s ac ra y , p o r o t ro l ado , e i s an tua r io p e rv iv irá e n é poca r omana yq u it h h aya q ue s c r p ruden te a lh ab lar d c " i nf lu jo h e lén ico" s ob re l a s f o rma s r i tua le s yo r igcn d c t a l l uga r d c c u l to ( pa ra l a

p iano l ap o s ib i l idad q ue a pun ta R uano , p a rece d i f Ic i l a dm i t i r p a ra e i s an tuar io a ibace teüo e s te p ape l d c

p u r i f icado ra b a sada e n l al i bac iOn oi nge s t ion d c a gua s s a lu t i f e ra s . T ampoco s e h a a vanzado d ema s iado e n l a c ue s t iOn d c s u e ven tua l d ependeuc ia d c a l gün t i po d c p ode r p t lb l ico o c en t ro u rbano ( ‚gc la s ta? ) ( Ru iz B r emOn , 1 989 : 1 89 -19 1 ; c f .R uano , 1 988 : 2 53 -272 ) . 3 . 4 .2 .2 E l S an tuar io d e l Co l lado d el o sJ ard i ( J aén ) . S i tuado e nl oq ue p udo s e ru na z ona d cp a so ( a unque n o s cgu ra incn tc d c l a s má s i mpo r tan te s a n te s d e l s i g lo XV I I I ) e n t re l a A l ta Anda luc ia c on l a Me se ta , s e h a l iaba e s te s an tua r io d e l q ue p rác t icamen te l oi m n ico

mayo r p ane d c l o s a spec to s a qu I a bo rdado s , c on l a e xege s is yb i b i iog raf Ia d c l o s e s tud io sp recedcn tc s ( v id .

q ue s e c onoce s on s u s e xvo to s d c b roncc ( unos 2 .200 p rocedcn te s d c l a s e xcavac ionc s o f ic ia le s ) . E l l ugar d c

R u iz B rcmón , 1 989 : p a ss im) .

c u l to o r zg ina r io v end r Ia c on s t i tu ido p o ru na g ru ta e n c i

L a s i n terpre tac ione s

7 0

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

mac izo r oco so y u na f uen te ; d e lan te d e a qué l ia e s p o s ib le q ue s u rg ie sen e n momen to s d i s t in to s , e d i f ic io s d c c u l to s uces ivo s ( Fernández V ega , 1 982 : 1 57 -158 ) ( F igu ra 3 3 ) ; p ara e i má s a n t iguo s e c on se rvan n o t ic ia s d e s u p l an ta r e c tangu la r , ys es o specha u na c rono log la

m i tad d e l s i g lo V . ys ei n ic ia r la i mp oco m á s t a rdc e nL a a i ta ; l ao cupac ión p ro segu ir la al ol a rgo d e l s i g lo I V , h a s ta p o s ib lcmen te c l p r ime r c ua r to d e l s i g lo I I , momcn to a l q ue c o r rc sponder Ia l a c on s trucc ión d c mu ro s d c g rau a pa re jo , q u izá c on f unc iones d c a t c r ra7am ien to ,c on tcnc ión od e l im i tac ión . E l c on jun to

d el o s s i g lo s V IV aC . ;p a ra e i má s r e c ien te l ad a tac ión mane jada l e s i tua r Ia e n e i s i g lo I q u izá a n tes ( cf .

e s taba o rgan izado e n d o s t c r raza s ye n L ac ampana d c

R ama l lo , 1 993 : 1 39 -140 ) ; e i s an tuar io r upe s t re y a f unc ionar ia d e sde a n te s d e l ac on s t rucc ión d e l p r ime r

1 985 s e c ncon traron a lgunas v iv iendas c o r re spond ien te s a lh ab i ta t ( f ine s d e l s i g lo I V -p r imc ra

e d if ic io ys egu ir ia h ac iéndo io , a lm eno s , h a s ta e is i g lo I V ,d e spue sd cl ad e s t rucc ión d e ls egundo e d i f ic io h ac ia e i s i g lo I I d .C . . S eg t in p a rece , l o s e xvo to s , e n s u

m i tad d e l I I ) yl a e x tens ion g loba l d e l c on jun to s e c a lcu la e n t or no al a s 2 , 5h a . Ap e sa rd ce so s d a to s , ya p a r t ir d c l o s e xvo to s , d a l a i mp re s iOn d c q ue l a o cupac ión s e i n ic ia t i empo a n te s d e l 4 50 a .C . yq ue p e r s is te , q u izá c on a l guna i n te r rupc ión ,a lm eno s h a s ta i n ic io s d e l s i g lo I I d .C . . N ico l in i r cca lca l a s s emc janza s d e l s an tua r io d e l C a s te l la rd c S an t i s tcban

i nmen sa m ayo r ia o e n s u t o ta l idad f i gura s d e b ronce , " f uren t p r im i t ivemen t d éposées d ans l a c averne , e i j e iée sd e t e inp s a u t re s ur l ap en ie , ma i sj ama i sa ucune f os se n eJ u tc reu sée p our l e sr e cevo i r" , l oq ue i mp ide l a e x is tenc ia d e u na -e s t ra t ig ra f Ia f i ab ie , h echo q ue s e a g rava p o tl a sp reca r ia sc ond ic ione sd el ae xcavac ión ,a

c on e id e l C o l lado d cl o sJ a rd ine s , ys u sd i f c rcnc ia sc on l o s p equeño s s an tua r io s r upes t res d c l a r eg ion v a ienc iana ,a un c uando p arece d efende rL ae x i s tenc ia d c

p r inc ip io s d c s i g lo , d e l y ac im ien to . N o e s i mp robab le , c omo s uger ia u no d e l o s e xcavado re s , q ue e ic on jun to r e l ig io so s ec omp ie ta se t amb ién c on u nb o sque s ag rado ,

v I ncu lo s e n t re c s to s s an tua r io s r upe s t re s yd i v in idadc s p ro tec to ra sd cL au l t ra tumba ;s i ne mba rgo ,p a rccen e s ta r p oco c i a ra s l a s r c iac ione s e n t re i m p re sun to t ümu lo y

d c c uya s r ama s c o iga r Ian l o s d evo to s p a r te d c l a s o f renda s( N ico l in i , 1 969 : 3 7 -43 ,q ue r e sume l a sn o t ic ia s d c I .C a lvo y J .C ab réde l o s a f io s 1 917 -1919 y l a s p ro specc ione sd c 1 959 ) . 3 . 4 .2 .3 S an tua r io d c Ca s te i la rd eS an t is teban ( J ain ) .

u na p re sun ta t umba y e is an tua r io p rop iamcn te d i cho ( N ico l in i , 1 969 : 4 3-46 , c on r e sumen d c l a s e xcavac ione s a n t igua s ys ondeo s d c 1 966 ; a dcmá s , N ico l in i , 1 983 : 4 43 -486 ; N ico l in i , 1 987 : 5 5 -61 ; N ico l in i e ia L ,1987 : 2 16 -220 ) . 3 .4 .2 .3 .1 L o sE xvo to sI b d r ico sd cB ronce . H emo s menc ionado e n a pa r tado s p rev io s l o s t r e s c en t ro s má s i mpo r tan tes q ue p ropo rc ionan e xvo to s e n b ronce ; a dcmá s d c c l io s N ico l in i r e sef iO a quc l io s o t ro s l uga res e n l o s q ue s e h ab Ian p roduc ido h a l iazgo s d c e s to s a r t Icu lo s ( N ico l in i , 1 969 : 3 6 ; 4 7 -56 ) , ye n c uyo a ná l is is y v a io rac iOn n o e n t ra rdpe ro q ue c a pa s te

S i tuado au no s 3 5 km . d e l C o l iado d e l o s J a rd ine s , e n t re l o s v a l le s d e l Guada lén y d e l Guada l ima r , c ompar te a i guno s r a sgo s c omune s c on a qué l , c omo c l d ch a l ia r se e nu na v i ad cp a so ye id cd ebe rs u so r Igene s al ae x is tenc ia d cg ru ta s ym anan t ia lc s . U na d ca qué l la s , L am á s g r ande ( Cueva d cl aL obe ra ) ,p a rece h abe rd ado o r igen a l s an tuar io y h a s i do o b je to d c o b ra s s egu ramen te p a ra m e jo ra rs uf unc iona l idad ( F igu ra 3 4 ) . P o r d e lan te d c l a s g ru ta s , ye n u na t e r raza , s eh a l ió l a mayo r p a s te d c l o s e xvo to s ( en t o rno a l o s 1 . 500 ) ,

p ueden s e t t e s t imon io n o t a n to d c l a a bundanc ia d c i uga re sd cc u l to d e l t i po r ep re scn tado p o tl o s s an tua r io s

d en t ro d c u n e spac io n o s upe r io r al o s 6 0 m2 a nn c uando l a s p o s ib i l idade s d c h a l lar c s t ra t ig ra f ia s c r an

g i enncn sc s c uan to d c l ag cnc ra i izac iOn d e l f enómeno r e i ig io so e n e s te mundo , h echo d e l q ue ,p o ro t to l a do , n oc abe d uda r . Un a spec to mucho má s i n te rc san te , b i en t r a tado p o r N ico l in i , e s c ld e r ivado d c l ai c onog ra f Ia d c l af i gu ra h umana ,e ne spec ia l e il c ngua je d cl o sg e s to s : o f rcnda s , c on l a s m ano s e x tend ida s q ue p r e scn tan im f r u to , od c

p equcna s " pu isque l e sf i gur ine sa va ien ié l éje tée ss u rl a p en ie a uc ou r sd e rn e t toyage ss ucce sf sd us anc tuar ie " . N ico l in i h ab la d c l ad c f in ic ión d c W I c spac io s ag rado e nma rcado p o r e i c o r te r oco so e n e i q ue s u rgen l a s c ueva s , c i m anan t ia l yl a v ega , d eb ido a q ue e n c l m ismo h an i do a pa rcc icndo f i gur i l ia s al o l a rgo d e l t i cmpo . N ico l in i d i r ig ió d o s c ampana s d ce xcavac ione s e n 1 966 y 1 968 , c uyo s r c su l tado s h an s i do m a t izado s p o tl o sl og rado se nl a sn ueva sc ampana sr c in ic iada sp o r e im ismo e n 1 98 1 yc on t inuadas e n 1 985 , q ue h an s acado a l a l uz a l guna s e s t ruc turas d i f ic i lmen te

i bac ión c on l o s v a so s s ag rado s ol o s o ran te s , c on mucho l o s má s n ume ro so s ye xp rc s ivo s ( F igu ra 3 5 ) ; t amb ién i n tc resan te e ih echo d c q ue s e t r a ta d c f i gu ra s i nd iv idua lc s yn od c g rupo s ,a nn c uando q u izá s e a má s c ue s t ionab ie q ue e voquen " l a s o l i tude d e I ' i nd iv idu

i d en t if icab le s , yh an p erm i t ido a lguna s d cducc ione s c r ono lóg ica s d ci n tc ré s . E nl ap a r tc b a ja l ac on s trucc iön d c l o s p r ime ro s mu ro s c o r re sponder la a l a s egunda

t e s t imomo s d c u n " a r te p opu la r " o , c uan to menos e s tc rco t ipado , s e e ncuen t ran a l s c rv ic io d c u na r e l ig io s idad s cgu ramen tc muy c i abo rada e n s us

d evan t l e d i eu " ( N ico l in i , 1 969 : 2 59 -26 1) ; s i n d uda

7 1

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

h omb re s on n u la s o muy c sca sa s y e n g enera l a p rovechan s i na pcna s mod i f icac iOn c n to rno sn a tu ra le s ;

c on temdo s i deo iog ico s yr i tua le s , aj uzga r p o r l a g e s tua l idad e ne l lo sp re sen te yp o re ip ro fundo l e ngua je s imbó i ico q ue e nc ier ran ( N ico l in i , 1 968 : 2 7 -50 ) . No s ab r Iamo s , s in e mba rgo , s ip re sen tan a l gun s i gr nf icado r e levan te

a lgunos

h echos

d es tacados

p or

d c do s c onocemo s O n icamen te ,p o r s u s c a rac ter I s t ica s , l a s c ucva s p ero s i n d uda b o sques , a rbo lcda s , r I o s y f ucn te s s i rv ic ron t amb ién a l o s p ropó s i to s d c u na s oc iedad r u ra l , s umamen te s enc i l la , q ue o f rec Ia e n

l a

i nve s t igac ión r ec ien te , t a le s c omo q ue s e a mayo r e i p o rcen ta je d e d e snudo s ma scu i ino s q ue f ememno s , o q ue , p or c l c on t ra r io , l a s f i gu ra s o fe ren te s s ean

e so s e n tomo s u n r epe r to r io muy e s te reo t ipado d c f o rma s c e rám ica s y ,o ca s iona lmcn tc ,a l guno sp roduc to s d cl u jo ,q u izá a compaf i ando oc on tcmendo l a sp r inuc ia s d c l ac o secha y e ven tua lmen te c omp le tada l ao f rcnda c on a l guna c om ida r i tua l . D a l ai mp rc s iOn d c q ue e s

mayo r i ta r iamen te l a s f emen ina s ( P rado s , 1 988 : 9 1 -92 ; P rado s , 1 992 : 1 58 , c on u na t i po log Ia g ene ra l d e e s te t i po d ee xvo to s ) . S egu ramen te r e sponde ama t ice sp rop io sd ec ada u no

e s ta l af o rma má sa n t igua d cc u l to yl aq ue p e rmanece ra d u ran te má s t i empo , s i n q ue p a rezcan verse a f ec tada s e s ta s p rác t ica s p o r l o s p roce so s d c monumcn ta l izac ión ye x t rcma n tua l izac iOn que p a recen a f ec ta r al o s o t ro s

d e l o s d o s g r andes s an tua r io s g i ennen se s e ih echo d c q ue l a s f i gura s o feren te s s ean má s a bundan te s e n C o i iado d c l o s J a rd ine s ye s tén p rác t icamen te a u sen te s e n C a s te l la r , i gua l q ue l o s j i ne te s , q ue p ro l if eran e n

l u ga rc sd cc u l to a qu li r a tado s . T a l yc omo h cmo s v i s to a lr e fe r imo s al o s s an tua r io s

C o l iado , p e ro n o e n C a s te l lar ; s i n e mba rgo , l a s f i gu ra s

d e l Co l lado d c l o s J a rd ines y d e l C a s te l la r d c S an t is teban , e ic u l to c e lcb rado e n l o s m ismo s c s tá en I n t ima r e lac ión c on l a e x is tenc ia d c g ru ta s n a tu ra le s , má s o meno s r eadap tada s yr eap rovechada s p o r l a

e squemá t icas e s tán muy b ien r epresen tada s e n C a s te l la r , p e ro n o t a n to e n C o l lado . I n te re san te d e sdc e ip un to d e v i s ta d e l r i tua l e s l ai d en t if icac ión d c l o s e l emen to s o f rendado s ; ap e sar d e l e squema t i smo d c mucha s f i gu ra s s e p ueden i d en t if ica r p o s ib ies f r u to s ,

a cc iOn h umana , yq ue s t ie len s c r u n l uga ri dóneo p a ra q ue s e muc s t re l ad i v in idad ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 71 -174 ) . N o e s , p o r c i lo , e x t raf lo , q ue l a r c l ig ios idad i b ër ica s e man if ics te , d c f o rma b a s tan te i n tensa , e n e s ta s

p anec i l io s , o b je tos e n f o rma d c h uevo y p iña , a yes , v a so s , e t c .; s i n embargo , l a s f i gu ra s o feren te s r ep re sen tan u np o rcen ta je b a s tan te r educ ido d e l t o ta l d c l o s e xvo to s ( P rado s , 1 992 : 1 4 .4 -145 ; 1 58 -159 ) . H ay q ue d e s taca r a s im ismo l a p resenc ia d c f i gu r i l la s q ue

f ormac ioncs n a tu ra le s , q ue f uc ron o b je to d c l a s p r ime ra s s m n te s is p o rT ar rade l l ( Ta r radc l l , 1 973 ) yc a s i s imu ltánea inen tc p o r G i l - Ma scare l l ( G i l - Ma scare l l ,

r ep re sen tan n o p er sona s c omp le ta s s i no U n icamen te p a r tcs d e l c ue rpo h umano , i n te rp re tada s e n f unc ión

1 975 ) y Apar ic io ( Apar ic io , 1 976 ) al o s q ue h an s cgu ido e s tud io s p o s te r io re s . Y aT a r radc l l o b se rvó q ue

c u ra t iva y p rop ic ia to r ia , t a le s c omo o jo s , d en tadu ra s , f a lo s , b razo s y ma im s , p i e rna s ( con mucho l a s má s a bundan te s ) ,p i e s yc abeza ( P rado s , 1 99 1 : 3 13 -332 ) .

a p esa r d c l a s d i fe renc ias e n t re l o s s an tua r io s g i ennen se s yl o s s an tua r io s e n c ueva v a lenc iano s e n ambos e i p ape l f undamen ta l v cn Ia r eprcsen tado ,

F o rü l t imo ,c on s ide ro ar ne sgado i n ten ta rc onoce rc on p rec is ion l aj e ra rqu izac iOn d c l as oc icdad ap ar t i r d c

p r ec i sa lnen te ,p o rl ac ueva ( Ta r rade i i , 1 973 :3 4 -35 ) . E n l a s l m nca s q ue s i guc e nume ra ré la s

t a le s f i gur i l la s y , mucho má s , i n ten ta r i d en t i f ica r u na p re sun ta " ca s ta s ace rdo ta l" e n e l ia s ( P rado s , 1 992 : 1 58 -159 ; c f . N ico l in i , 1 969 : 2 60 -261 ) . P o ra p rox imac ión p odcmo s a cep ta r l ai n te rp rc tac ión d c e s to s s an tuar io s r upe s t re s c omo v incu lado s au na (s )

que

h an s i do

o b je to d cp ub l icac ión , má s omeno ss uma r ia o c omp le ta y ,e ns uc a so ,d cl o s p nnc ipa lc s ma te r ia le sp rocedcn tc s d cl a sm isma s . 3 .4 .3 .1 C ucva d c l a Mu rc ie lagu ina . ( P r iego D c

d iv in idad (es) d c l a f ecund idad ( presenc ia d c r ep resdn tac ionc s i t i fá l ica s ) yc u ra t iva ( p re senc ia d c

C ó rdoba ,C ó rdoba ) . S c t r a ta d cu na cueva s i tuada

en

u na z ona d cp a so e n

e xvo to s a na tOm icos ) ( P rado s , 1 992 : 1 58 ; P rado s , 1 988 -a : 1 96 ) ; s i n e mba rgo ,p oco má s p od r Ia d ec ir se d c l a (s ) m isma ( s ) ; c omo v e íamo s e n t i n a pa r tado p rev io

c lc am ino d cC O rdoba aG ranada , ys et r a tar la d e l( m ico c a so d c c ucva -san tua r io c onoc ido e n Anda luc ia . L a mayo r p a r te d c l o s h a l lazgos d c d poca i b ér ica s e

( v id . a pdo . 2 ; c f . C ome l la , 1 981 : 7 59 -762 ) , e s s i emp rc a r r ic sgado I r a ta rd ca vc r igua re ic a rác te rd cl ad i v in idad v ene rada a p ar t ir á n icamen tc d c l a t i po log Ia d c l o s

p rodu jo e n u na d c l a s s a la s i n te r io re s d c l ac ueva y s e t r a ta d c p la tos , c uenco s y a lgunas f o rmas d c c a l ic ifo rme s , a ca so d c s t inada s ao f rcnda s ol i bac ione s ;

e xvo to s ae l la d cd icado s . 3 .4 .3 S an tua r io sR u ra le s( Cueva s -San tua r io R e lac io

i gua lmcn te , s e h a l la ron r e s to s d c u na e scu i tu ra e scu lp ida muy s uma r iamen tc , q ue p rc scn ta p a ra le lo s e n

n ada s ) . E s to s s an tuar io s s e c a rac ter izan p o r h a l la r sc e n e i c ampo ; l a s c ons t rucc ione s r ca l izada s p o r l am ano d e l

l o s e xvo to s d e l s an tuar io d c o r repa redone s ; l o s m a te r ia le s s ed a tar l an e n c ls i g lo I V a .C . ; i m r epa so d c l a s c a rac te r I s t ica s d cl ac ueva c onvcnce aV aque r izo d c

7 2

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

q ue s et r a ta d ci mc on jun to e ng r an m ed ida s im i la ra ld c l a s c ueva s -san tuar io v a lenc iana s ( Vaque r izo , 1 985 : 15 -124 )0 3 .4 .3 .2 Cueva d el a Nar iz . ( Sa ich ite , Mora ta l la , Mu rc ia ) . D e i m t i po s eme jan te al a s a t e s t iguada s e n e iP a l s V a lenc iano s on e s ta s c ueva s d e S a ich i te , e n l a s q ue s e h a l la ron e n p rospecc ión crám ica s i mpo r tada s , c ampan ien se A y B a s I c omo o t ra s c e rám ica s , e n t re e l ia s u na n ina c on u na i n tere san te r ep re sen tac ión f i gu rada q ue c li n ven to r i n tc rp re ta c omo " d io sa d c l o s l o bo s" .L a c rono log Ia s c r Ia d ch ac ia m ed iado sd e l s i g lo Ia .C . ( Li lo , 1 983 :7 69 -787 ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 C ova d cl aP in ta . ( Ca l iosa d in Sm i àA l ican te ) . H ay r e fe renc ia s ad o s f r agmen to s d c c e rám ica á t ica d c b a rn iz n eg ro , r e s to s d c v a s i to s c a l ic ifo rme s yo t ro s f r agmen to s i b ë r ico s ,e n t re do s d cc e räm ica g r is ;e x is te u n m anan t ia l e n e ii n ter io r , e n c iq ue a pa rec ic ron l a s crám ica s ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 1 ; G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 15 -320 ;A pa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 8 ) . 3 .4 .3 .4 C ova F o sca . ( Onda ra . A l ican te ) . V a so s c a l ic ifo rme s , p i a to s yp l a t i to s i br ico s yd o s f r agmen to s d c s enda s p á tc ra s á t ica s d c b arn iz n eg ro ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 2 ;G i l - Ma scar e l l , 1 975 : 3 15 ) . 3 .4 .3 .5 C ova d cl e s Me ravd l lc s . ( Gand la ,V a lenc ia ) . D c s taca e n l a m isma c l h a l lazgo d c u na s e r ie d c p equcüo s v aso s c a l ic i fo rme s y f i gu r i ta s d c t e r raco ta ,

c onoc ido c omo c a l ic iforme s , d c c o lo r g r is o n eg ro ( G i l - Ma sca r el , 1 975 : 3 03 -305 ) . 3 .4 .3 .9 C ueva Me r inc i . ( Buga r ra . V a lenc ia ) . S c t r a ta d cu na d cl a s c ueva s q ue e nl o s ü l t imo s a f io s e s tán s i cndo o b je to d c e xcavac ione s c i cn t If ica s , l oq ue p e rm i te o b tcne r r e su l tado s má s i n te re san te s yv a l io so s d c sdc u n p un to d c v i s ta c i en t I f ico ( F igu ra 3 6 ) . E n d iver sa s i n tc rvenc iones s e r ccupera ron má s d c m i c en tena r d c c e rám ica s at o rno y s o lo u na s c uan ta s a mano ,a s Ic omo n umc ro so s r e s to s f aun l s t ico s a soc iado s c on l o s r e s to s c e rám ico s , a iguno s d c l o s c ua les p re sen tan r e s to s d c f uego , m ien t ra s q ue o t ro s n o , s egu ramen te c omo c onsecuenc ia d e l d i s t in to t r a to s acr if ic ia l r ec ib ido . E l mayor n ümero d c r e s to s c or responde a c ráneo s d c c abr i tos o c o rderos , g enc r a lmen te d c meno s d c i m a f io , a s Ic omo ac r ánco s d cc e rdo sd ca l guno s mc sc s ,s i nq ue s eh ayan o b se rvado h uc l la s ma lguna s d c t r a ta in ien to y s i n q ue h ayan a pa rec ido o t ro t i po d c r e s to s . P o r l oq uc r e spec ta a l a c e rám ica , l af o rma p redom inan te v i cnc c on s t i tu ida p o r l o s c a l ic ifo rmes d epa s ta s n eg ra s -gr ises y v a r iada t i po log Ia ; l e s s i guen p l a t i to s , b o le s , p á tc ra s , a s I c omo c e rám ica d cc oc ina . L ac r ono log Ia g loba l s es i tt i ae n t r e f i ne s d e l s i g lo V h a s ta b i en e n t rado c ls i g lo I I ,a unque p ucde q ue s u u so p erv iva h a s ta c l Ia .C . ( Ma r t inez P e rona , 1 992 : 2 61-271 ; BLAY , 1 992 : 2 83 -287 ; c f . G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 :305 ) . 3 .4 .3 .10 C ueva d cL o s Mancebone s . ( Rcquena . V a lenc ia ) . C on ten la a bundanc ia d c ma te r ia le s e n c li n ter ior d c

a s I c omo ma te r ia le s r omano s , e n t re e l lo s l uce rna s y moneda s ; l a s f i gura s , " I do los" c omo l a s d ef ine G i l - Masca re i l , c on s is tdn e n u n c i l ind ro c on l i ge ro s e s t rangu lam ien to s , d onde f i gu ra l a c abcza , c on l o s r a sgo s a na tóm ico s r cp rc sen tado s d c f o rma s umamen tc c squemá t ica ;i gua lmcn tc A pa r ic io m enc iona c lh a l lazgo d c d o s p i ema s h umana s d c c e rám ica y a l guno s o t ro s f r agmen to s d c f i gur i l las d e l t i po menc ionado . C on s t i tuycn

im

c a so t I n ico p o r c l momen to ( Ta r rade l l ,

1 973 : 2 9 -31 ; G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 10 -311 ; Apar ic io ,

u na c apa n egra d c t i er ra ; p rcdom inan l o s v a so s c a l ic ifo rme si b é z ico s( G i l - Ma sca r el , 1 975 :305 -306 ) . 3 .4 .3 .11 C ueva d cL o sA nge le s . ( Rcquena . V a lenc ia ) . H a l lazgo d c v a so s c a l ic ifo rme s i b é r ico s , a s I c omo c e rám ica sd cb a rn iz n eg ro yu na b a se d cv a so d cf i gu ra s

1 976 : 1 6 -17 ) . 3 .4 .3 .6 S ima d cl ' l nf e rn . ( Ton s . V a lenc ia ) . R cferenc ias a l h a l lazgo d c v a so s c a l ic ifo rme s i b é r ico s g r ise s ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 1-32 ; G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 :309 ) . 3 .4 .3 .7 C ueva d e l C e r ro H ueco . ( Requena . V a lenc ia ) . E su na c ueva d cd i f Id i la ccc so q ue p ropo rc ionó r e s to s

r o ja s ; i gua lmen te , g ra s n i ime ro d c f u sayo la s . E s i m l uga ri nhab i tab le yc on l ac e rám ica a pa recen m czc lado s mucho s h ue so s d c a n ima lc s ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 07 ; Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 5 ) . 3 . 4 .3 .12 C ova d cL e s Done s . ( M i l la rc s . V a lenc ia ) . A lgunos f r agmen tos d c v asos c a l ic ifo rmes , h ab i tua lmen te e n c av idade s n a tu ra les d c l a r oca ( gou rg s ) q ue c on t icnen oh an c on ten ido a gua ; t amb ién a pa rcc icron v a so s g randc s , d c t i po o l la y d c p e r f i l

( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 2 ; G i l - Ma sca rc l l ,

Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 5 -16 ) . 3 . 4 .3 .8 C ueva d dC dn mr . ( l )nn i. V a lenc ia ) .

g lobu la r yf u sayo la s ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 07 -309 ; Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 2 -13 ) . 3 . 43 .13 C ueva d cL a sP a loma s . (M i l ia re s . V a lenc ia ) . S c h a l laron v asos c a l ic iformes i bér icos

L a s p oca s n o t ic ia s q ue s et i cncn h ab lan d e l h a l lazgo d c a bundan tcs crám ica s , p o s ib lcmcn te d e l t i po

( G i l - Ma sca rdi l , 1 975 : 3 09 ) . 3 . 4 .3 .14 S ima d cL ' a igua . ( Ca rcagen te . V a lenc ia ) .

d c u na crám ica a t i ca d c f i gu ra s r o ja s , a s I c omo a bundan te s c a l ic ifo rme s yo t ra s c e r á rn ica s i mpo r tada s d c b a rn iz n eg ro ; s e t r a ta d c u n l uga r i nhab i tab le 1 975 : 3 07 ;

7 3

ADOLFO J . DO W NGUEZ MONEDERO

L a c erám ica má s a bundan te v i ene c on s t i tu ida p o r v a s i tos c a l ic iforme s ; s e h a l la ron t amb ién a lguna s c e rám ica s d e b a rn iz n eg ro , a l guno s ar n i lo s , e t c . S e d e s taca l ai nhab i tab i l idad d e l l u ga r ( Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 3 -14 ) . 3 .4 .3 .15 C ova d e ls S an t s . ( A lcud ia d eC re sp in s . V a lenc ia ) . R e s to s muy f r agmen tado s d c v a s i to s c a l ic ifo rme s d e p equef io t amaf lo , a s I c omo p la t i to s yc azo le ta s ; y aP la

c omo a l g i mn f r agmen to d c b arn iz n eg ro á t ico d a tab le a f i nes d e l s i g lo I V , q ue p ropo rc iona p o r c on s igu ien te u na c rono log Ia a cep tab le p a ra l ac ueva ; f a l ta l at I p ica c e rám ica a t o rno i b ér ica . S c s ubraya s u c a rác tcr d c c ueva -san tua r io , l i gada a lc u l to al an a tura leza , a la gua ya li n te r io rd cl at i e r ra ,t o do do l i gado al af e cund idad ( Pa loma r &O l ive r , 1 985 : 1 4 1-155 ;c f . y a V ega , 1 987 : 1 74 ) . 3 .4 .3 .21 C ueva d e lC o sco ja r . (Mo ra d cR ub ie lo s . T e rue l ) . E xcavada d u ran te 1 981 y 1 982 ,p ropo rc ionO ,a demá s

B a l le s ter s upu so q ue p od r ia h aber d e sempef lado f unc ione s r e l ig io sa s e nr e lac ión c on u np ob lado i br ico v ec ino ( G i l- Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 09 -310 ; Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 1 7 -18 ) . 3 .4 .3 .16 n ova B e rna rda . ( Pa lma d cG anda . V a lenc ia ) . D c e l la p rocede u n c uch i l lo a f a ica tado , a l guna s c e rám ica s i bér ica s y v a s i to s c a l ic ifo rmes g r ises ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 11) . 3 .4 .3 .17 C ova B o i ta . ( Rea ld cG and fa .V a lenc ia ) . L o s ma te r ia le s i b énco s p roceden d c l ap a r te f i na l d c l ac ueva , q ue e ns ué poca d eb Ia d cc on tenc ru nl a go ; h ay c erám ica s d c v a r ias t i po log Ia s , e n tre e l ia s c a l ic i fo rme s ( G i l - Ma sca rc l l , 1 975 : 3 11-313 ) . 3 .4 .3 .18 B a r ranc d e lL iop . ( Gand fa .V a lenc ia ) . V a r ios v a s i tos c a l ic ifo rme s d c p a s ta g r is c l ara y

d c e n tcr ram ien tos e nco l I t ico s , c erám ica i bér ica b á s icamen te p cqueno s c a l i -c iformes y p á te ras ; s e s ub raya s u s im i l i tud c on l a s c ueva s -san tuano s l e van t ina s ( Ma rco , 1 983 -84 : 7 5 -76 ) . 3 .4 .3 .22 C ova d cl aF on t Majo r . ( L 'e sp iuga d c F ranco f T a r ragona ) . L o s h a l lazgo s s e e ncon t raban a lf i na l d c l ag a le r Ia , .

p o rd onde a un d i scu r re i mr i o ; s eh a l laron v a so s at o rno yam ano ,e s to sd i t imo si m i tando f o rma s c l á s ica s ,c omo e nOcoe s d c b oca t r i lobu lada ; e n t re l o s h echo s at o rno , c erám ica g r is " ampu r i tana " . P a rece q ue t oda s e sa s p icza s h an s i do d epo s i tada s c on f i na l idad v o t iva ; d uran te c ls i g lo Id .C . l ac ueva s i gu iO s i cndo v i s i tada

o b scu ra ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 13 ) . 3 .4 .3 .19 C ueva s d e lP un ta ld e lH omo C iego . ( V i l la rgo rdo D e lC ab r ie l . V a lenc ia ) . S e t r a ta d cu na s d c l a s p oca s c ueva s d c e s te t i po q ue

( Ta r radd l l , 1 973 : 2 6 -28 ; V ega , 1 987 : 1 78 -179 ) . 3 .4 .3 .23 C ova d c L 'o l ia o d e l S umo i . ( Marme l la r . T a r ragona ) . S c r e cog ie ron a l guno s r e s to s d cc á la to s yf r agmen to s d c p equef io s v a so s p in tado s , a s I c omo c erám ica g r i s

h an s i do o b je to d c u na i nvcs t igac ion c i en t I f ica , a un

ampur itana y f r agmen tos d c a sas ( Vega ,

c uando l os r e su itados n o r e su ltaron t ampoco e spec tacu lare s ap e sa r d c q ue p udo i d en t if ica r se u na e s tra t ig raf la ; s e c on s ta tan l a s d i f icu l tade s d c a cce so a l

1 74 -175 ) . 3 .4 .3 .24 C ova d e lG ar ro f e t . ( Ce l ina , Que ro l

i n te r io r d c l ac ueva I , a s Ic omo l ag ran a bundanc ia d c v a s i to s c a l ic ifo rme s e n s u mayo rp a r te c omp le to s , ye n g rau v a r iedad d cf o rma s yc o lo re s ,d i spues to s s i no rden a pa rcn te a lguno ( F igura 3 7 ) . E n me ta l s ó lo s e r e cog ic ron a n i l lo s d c b ronce ; i gua imcn te , s e h a l la ron f u sayo la s a s I c omo r e s to s d c c en iza s yc a rhone s . L a c rono log Ia q ue s ed a p a ra l o s n i vc ie s i b é r ico s v ad e sde f i ne s d e l s i g lo V I a ls i g lo V a .C . ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 977 : 7 05 -712 ; Ma r t I , 1 990 : 1 4 1-182 ) . D c l ac ueva It a ns o lo h ay r e ferenc ias g enér icas y a lguno s ma ter ia les s upe r f ic ia le s . 3 .4 .3 .20 C ueva d c C e rdaf ia . ( P ina d c Mon ta lg rao . C a s te l lon ) . S e t r a ta d c u na c ueva c on d o s b oca s q ue d an a u na g ran s a la , e n d onde s e h a l lO J a mayo r p a r te d c l o s m a te r ia le s ;p re sc ind ir éa qu Id cl o s ma te r ia le sd cl aE dad d e l B ronce , p a ra c en t ra rmc e n l o s d c é poca i b é r ica ; s e t r a ta b ás icamen te d c v a so c a l ic iformes d c c o lo re s o b scu ro s ( be ige , g r is , n eg ro ) yp cquef io t a rnaf lo , a s I

1 987 :

T a r ragona ) . A lguno s f r agmen to s d c c erám ica p in tada , a n fo ra s , c ampan ien se B (V ega , 1 987 : 1 77 -178 ) . 3 .4 .3 .25 C ova C a s s imanya . ( Beguc s . B ar ce lona ) . S c h a l la ron c er ám ica s i b énca s p in tada s , c e rám ica g r is a mpun tana y i m f r agmen to d c c ampan ien se A ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 75 -176 ) . 3 .4 .3 .26 C ueva -ab r igo d e lG egan t . ( S i tge s . B a rce lona ) . T an s O lo s eh a l la ron a l guno s f r agmen to s at o rno ,c on a l guno s f r agmen to s d c c e rám ica s d c b a rn iz n eg ro ( uno d c c l lo s c ampan iense B y o t ro d ef in ido c omo p rccampan ien se ) ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 76 -177 ) . 3 .4 .3 .27 C ova D e l B o le t . ( San t Qu in t d c Mcd iona . B a rce lona ) . D c e l la p roceden a l guno s f r agmen to s d c c e rám ica p i n tada yc ampan ien se A ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 77 ) . 3 .4 .3 .28 C ova d cC an S a rdun . ( Begue s .B a rce lona ) . C crá in ica s p in tada s yu n p a r d c f r agmen to s d c c ampan ien se A ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 78 ) .

7 4

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

3 .4 .3 .29 Cueva V o t iva d e B a r ro d c l a A lbufere ta .

3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 9C ova d e lD o sU l ls ( J á t iva ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 10 C ova d e lB a r ranc F ondo ( J á t iva ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .11 C ova Ma jauma ( A lcud ia d cC re sp in s ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 12 C ova d e lC a s te l l od e ls C ava r t je t s

( A l ican te ) . S e t r a ta d e u ne j emp la r ( i n ico q ue p a rece r ep re sen ta r u na c ueva e n b a r ro ; e n L a p a r te e x te r io r d c L am isma h ay u na s e r ie d e p ego te s e n f o rma c i L Ind r ica , s i n d uda

( Va l lada ) . 3 .4 .331 .13 C ova d cl aG a le ra ( Fava re ta ) .

s opo r te s p a ra c o Loca r a l go e n e l lo s ; e l i n te r io r d e l a c ueva s e r ep re sen ta v ac lo y n o p a rece c abe r d uda d e q ue s e t r a ta d c u na p roducc ión l o ca l . Apa rec ió e n L a

e j emp lo , e n l a s p rox im idade s d c l ac ueva d c L a N a r iz

3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 14 C ova d e lV ei l( J araco ) . 3 .433 1 . 15 C ova d cl e s Ma l lae te s B áR ig ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .16 C ova N cg ra ( Gand la ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .17 C ova d cl aR ecamb ra ( Gand la ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .18 C ova d e lB a r ranc d cL ' in fc rn ( Gand Ia ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 19 C ova d e l sC e rdo s ( Gand Ia ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .20 C ova d e lR e to re t( Gand Ia ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .2 1 C ova d ele sR a te sP ena t s( Ró tova ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 22 C ova d e lP ob le t( 0 1 1e r l a ) .

S a ich i te , Mo ra ta l la , Mu rc ia ) s ed i ce q ue t amb ién s eh an d c tec tado o t ra s p o s ib le s c ueva s -san tua r io , t a le s c omo

3 .4 .3 .31 .23 C ova d cl aF o s( Aye lo d c Ma lfe r i t ) . 3 .4 .331 .24 C ova d cL aS ima ( Sa lem ) .

l a s d e l C a lo r , P ef la R ub ia , yP oyo M iñano e nC eheg in ; l a s C an te ra s e n C a la spa r ra y P e l ic icgo , J um i l la ( L i l lo , 1 981 : 3 7 -43 ;c f ., R uano & S an N ico lá s , 1 990 : 1 01-107 ; Me lga rcs , 1 990 : 1 63) . D e l i msmo modo , e n l a s p rox im idadc sd eL aS enc ta s em enc ionan a l guna s , t a le s c omo L a Cova d e l L a rg ( Banye re s ) , l a C ova d c l a

3 .4 .33 1 . 25 C ova d el aG e r ra ( Boca iren te ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 26 C ova d e l S ape t( Pego ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 27 C ova d cl e sC a lavc re s ( Ben ido le ig ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .28 C ova dEn P a rdo ( Ben i s i l i ) . 3 .4331 .29 C ova d cl ' O r B en ia r ré s ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 30 C ueva d cl aP i le ta ( Ag re s ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .31 C ove ta F o sca ( Cocen ta ina ) .

n ec rOpo l i sd cl aA lbu f e re ta ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 5 -37 ) . 3 . 4 .3 .30 O t ra sP o s ib le sC ueva s san tua i io . Ademá s d c l a s menc ionada s c on a n ter io r idad o ca s iona lmen te a pa recen r e f e renc ia s b ib l iog ráf ica s a h a l Lazgos d c c uevas d c e s te t i po , a unque s i n p rác t icamen te m inlormac ione s d c u t i l idad . A s i p o r

Moneda ( I b i ) yL aC ova d e l Mo ro ( Mu ro ) ( Uob rega t e i a l . , 1 992 : 4 2 ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 " cueva sR c fug io " . D en t ro d c s u c s tud io ,M . G i l -Ma sca re l l d i s t ingue t i n g rupo d c c ueva s e n e lq ue h ay a l gunos t e s t imon io s ma te r ia le s i b é r ico s ,p ero e nl o s q ue n oh ay o t ro t i po d c c on s tanc ia d c s u emp ico c omo l uga rcs s agrado s .

3 .4 .3 .31 .32 C ova d e ls C o lom s ( Cocen ta ina ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 33 C ova d el aP a s to ra ( A lcoy ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 34 S ima d cl e sP o r ra se s( On i l ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 35 C ova d cD a l t( Tá rbena ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 36 C ova d cl aC end ra ( Mo r a ira ) . 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 37 C ova d cl e sR a te s( Mo ra ira ) . 3 .43 .3 1 . 38 C ova d e l sC o loms ( A l tea ) .

D e s taca e n e l la s l ar e i te rac ión d c l o s ma te r ia le s , c on g ran a bundanc ia d c p la to s , p ero s i n q ue á nIo ra s , c á la to s ,e nócoe s yc a l ic ifo rme sc s tén a u sdn t c s ;t amb ién

3 .433 1 . 39 S ima d e l s V a l ls ( J i jona ) . 3 .43 3 2A b r igo sC on L e t re ro sI bé r ico s . D c a d scr ipc ión c u l tua l b a s tan te má s d i f Ic i l q ue a que l la s c ueva s e n l a s q ue h an a pa rec ido r e s to s

s ue lcn a pa rcce rp cqucña s p á tc ra sd cb am iz n eg ro ,t a n to á t ica s c omo c ampan ien se s . E n n i nguna d e e l la s s e h a c ncon t rado t i n n i vc l i bd r ico p rop iamen te d i cho , s i no

c e rám ico s ,h an s i do o b je to d c u na r c c ien te s I n te s i s ; s u s r a sgo s c omune s s on e s ta r r ea l izado s e n a b r igo s , n o e n c ueva s , yc l t e ne r , a pa ren temen te , s o lo u na v a l idcz l o ca l . Qu ic ro i n s is t i r , n ucvamcn te , e n q ue n o e s tá d e l n ada c l a ro q ue s et r a tc d cr e c in to sc on sag rado s aa l guna d iv in idad . P erez B a l les te r e nume ra l o s s i gu ien tes : R e iná ( A lca lá d e l J üca r ) , L a C ama re ta ( He l l In ) , E l

q ue s on ma te r ia le s d espe rd igado s ; t odo c l lo I cl eva a G i l - Ma sca rc l l aa f i rma r q ue n o f uc ron u t i l izada s e n é poca i b d r ica c omo v i v ienda h ab i tua l yas uge r i rq ue o b i en e r an u t i l izada s p o rl o sp a s to re s ob i cn e r an u sada s c omo r c fug io e ven tua l ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 01-303 ) . S ur e lac ión i n c luyc l a s s i g inen te s ( G i l - Ma sca rei l , 1 975 : 2 89 -300 ) 3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 1 C ueva d e l S a rga l ,V ive r .

-7

3 .4 .3 .3 1 . 2C ueva d cL aT one d e l Ma l P a so ( Ca s te l lnovo ) .

Bu rga l ( S ie te Agua s ) , E L T ar ragOn ( V i l la r d e l A r z .ob i spo ) , Ma sd e l C ing le ( A re sd e l Macs t rc ) ,C an te ra P ena lba ( V ii la s ta r ) ,L e sG rat i s ( Roda d cT e r ) ,R oca d e ls Mo ro s ( Cogu l) , C ovacha d c Mon t f ragüe ( To r re jOn c l

3 . 4 .3 .313 C ueva d e l R eque jo ( U t ie l ) . 3 .4 .3 .31 .4 C ova d e lC o lom ( R iba r ro ja d e lT u na ) .

R ub io ) , R ep là d e l G inebr I ( Os se ja , R o se l lOn ) yP l a d c V a l le l le s ( P rune t , R o se l lOn ) ( Pe rez B a l le s te r , 1 992 :

3 . 4 .3 .3 1 . 5 3 . 4 .3 .3 1 . 6 3 . 4 .3 .3 1 . 7 3 . 4 .3 .3 1 . 8

2 89 -300 ) . 3 .4 .3 .33 O t ro s . E n e s tc g rupo i nc luyo ümcamen te e ic a so d c S an ta B a rba ra , e n c l C ampo d c Nu le s , d e l q ue p roceden

C ueva d cL aC oc ina ( Do s Agua s ) . C ueva N cg ra ( Ayo ra ) . C ueva d e l V o lct h id e lF a ro ( Cui le ra ) . C ova d e l s F r ance so s( A lc i ra ) .

7ç

7 5

ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

a l guna s i n sc r ipc ione s r omana s , r e s tos e scu l tó r ico s y r e s to s d e a n ima le s ( s u ido s , b óv ido s , o v icapndos ,

d esempcüaban e ven tua lmen te f unc ione s d c o f renda , o p o r tado re s d c o f renda s ( Apa r ic io , 1 976 : 2 3 ) . Ma r t Inez

g a l i inácea s yo t ra s a ye s ) . E s p o s ib le q ue e i l uga r d e c u i to , u b icado e n u na mon taf ia , e s t ie se e n r e lac ión c on i m manan t ia l . D c é poca p r e omana e s muy p oco l oq ue s e c onoce ( una moneda c a r tag ine sa ) , s i endo l a mayo r p ar te d e l a d ocumen tac ión h a l lada d e e poca t r a jano -adr ianea ; s i n e mba rgo , e s d e i n teré s q ue l a s i n sc r ipc ione s l a t ina s i l even f o rmu la s d e l t i po E x v o to o

P crona , e n u n t r aba jo r e c icn te , p a sa r ev is ta a l a s d i s t in ta s p o s ib i l idades q ue s e h an v en ido b a ra jando a ce rca d c s uf unc iön ,b á s icamen te v a so sp a ra l i bac ione s o r ec ip ien te s p o r tado re s d c o f renda s s ó l ida s ; l a

v o tum s o iv i t ; e l lo y s u u b icac iOn e nu n e n tomo a g re s te

e mp leados " c omo l dmpa ra p or iadora d e i u z s agrada " , a unquc s i ne xc lu i rs u s imp le c a rác te rd co b jc to s v o t ivo s

i n te rp re tac iOn q ue p ropone d i cho a u to r , t r a s i m a ná l is i s d c l a i mpo r tanc ia d c l a i l um inac ión e n l o s r i tua le s r e l ig io sos , e s q ue t a les c a l ic iformes h ayan s i do

s ug ie ren p e rdu rac ione s d e c u i to s d c é poca i bér ica ( V icen t , 1 979 : 1 81-22 1 ;S empe re & V icen t , 1 991 : 8 10 ;

( Ma r t inez P c rona , 1 992 : 2 71 -275 ) . Un a spec to muy i n ter esan te q ue a bo rda c l c l á s ico

c f . t amb ién R ama l lo , 1 993 ) . 3 .4 .3 .34 Ob servac ione sd cC on jun to . T a r rade l l h izo a l guna s i n te re san te s o b servac ione s d c c on jun to , e n t re e l ia s l o i nacce s ib le d c muchas d c l a s c ueva s ys u s n u la s c ond ic ione s d c h ab i tab i l idad , a s I c omo c lh echo d c q ue l o s h a l lazgo s s o l fan e s ta r e n l a s z ona s i n te rna s d c l a s m i sma s ; i gua lmen te , l ar e iac iOn e x is ten te e n t re c ueva s ya gua ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 : 3 3 -35 ) . Como a f irma G i l- Masca re l l , c omp ic tando l a s o b sc rvac ionc s d cT a r rade l l , " l os m a ter ia le s s e s i lü a n e n l o s l u gares i nacce s ib le s d e l i n ter ior d e l a s c ueva s , b ien p or s u p rof und idad , b ien p or l a df icu l 1ad d e i l egada a l a s m isma s c ueva s . E s ia e l ecc ión p rovoca e i q ue , e n o ca s ione s , l ac ueva s e y ea s us t i tu ida p or u na s ima o q ue i n c luso l a a ber iura d e l a c ueva e s té c on st i tu ida p or u n e s irecho o r if ic io q ue i mp ida u na e n iradaf ác i l yc ómoda " ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 20 ) ;e s , i gua lmen te , má s q ue p robab le q ue h aya v ar ian te s s egu ra inen te e nc uan to al ad i fe renc iac ión d cf unc ione s d c l a s d i feren te s c ueva s c onoc ida s ( G i l - Ma sca re l l ,

t r aba jo d c G i l - Mascare l i e s e i d c l a r e lac iOn e n t re c ueva s yp ob lado s , a na l izada ap a r t i r d c l a s d i f e ren te s u n idadc s r eg iona le s d e l P a l s V a lenc iano ; a im c uando e i n ü rne ro t a n to d c u na s c omo d c o t ro s s e h a v i s to i n c remen tado e n l o s c a s i v e in tc a ño s t r an scu r r ido s d c sde l ap ub l icac iOn d c s u t r aba jo , l as i tuac ión d e sc r i ta s i guc s i endo v á l ida : " en f unc ión d e l o s d a bs m ane jados , t oda s l a s p robab i l idades c onf luyen a d . e s ignar a l a s c ueva s c omo c ons t i tu t iva s d e u n c en t ro d ea t racc ión d et oda l ac oma rca , t a ly c omo o curre h oy d Ia c on l a s e rm i tas , al a s q ue s e a cude d esde l o s n üc leos u rbano sm d si nmed ia tos " ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 22 -325 ) . L o s d a to s c rono lOg ico s s egu ro s d c u t i l izac ión d c l a s c ueva s c on f i ne s r i tua les h ay q ue s i tuar lo s e n t re f i ne s d e l s i g lo V a .C . yd uran te t odo e i s i g lo I V ; má s p rob lcmá t ica e s l a c uc s t iOn d c s u u t i l izac ión c on

c a so c a ta lán l a s c ueva s s ue len s e r má s p equef ia s y

p o s ter io r idad ,h a s ta e is i g lo I a .C . ,h ab ida c uen ta d cl a e scasez d c c e rám ica c ampan iense , q ue s e r Ia e i f ó s i l -d irec to rd e lp e r Iodo ;e l lo i mped ir la s abe rs is i guen s i endo u t i l izada s os es u s t i tuyc l ar e l ig io s idad e n e l ia s e xp resadas p o r o t ra s f o rma s ( G i l- Ma sca re l l , 1 975 :

s enc i l las q ue l a s v a lenc iana s y , g enera lmen te c on s t i tu ida s p o r u na s o la s a la q ue r ec ibe l uz s o la r

3 25 -326 ) . L a v incu lac iOn

d i rec ta ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 81) . D e l m ismo modo , T a r rade l l y a d e s tacO l a g ran a bundanc ia , e no ca s ione s e xc iu s iv idad ,d c v a so s d c t i po

amp l iamen te c onoc ida e n d iferen tes ámb i tos m ed i te r ránco s ye n d i f e ren te s c u i tu ra s ( cf . B lá . zquez , 1 983 : 2 04 -206 ; A pañc io , 1 976 : 2 0 -23 ) ; s i n e mba rgo ,

1 975 : 3 28 -328 ;G i l- Ma sca re l l , 1 977 : 7 10 ) . E ns u r e c ien te e s tud io ,V ega h a mo s t rado c Omo e ne i

r e l ig iosa

d c

l a s

c ueva s

e s

c a l ic ifo rme e nl a s c ueva s v a lcnc iana s ( Ta r rade l l , 1 973 :

h ay q ue t c ne r t a inb ién p recauc ión c on u na a p l icac iOn

3 3 -35 ; c f . G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 02 ; 3 20 -321 y V ega , 1 987 : 1 73 -174 ) , o b je to é s te d c e s tud io s u l ter io res ( Ma r t inez P e rona , 1 992 : 2 61-281) . E n l a s c ueva s

a u tomá t ica d c p a ra ic lo s , má s omcno sp re sun to s , r i e sgo c on t ra c lq ue y a a dv ir t iO e n s u momen to G i l - Ma sca re l l ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 2 86 ) ,p o rn o mcnc iona r s ue sca sa

c a ta lanas e s to s v a so s s on mucho meno s f r ecuen tes ( Vega , 1 987 : 1 81) . T amb ién s on f r ecuen te s l o s r e s to s ó seo s d c a n ima le s , a unque h ab i tua lmen te n o h an s i do

u t i l idad . A p c sa r d c e l lo , im e j emp lo r e la t ivamen te p róx imo p ucde v cmr d ado p o r c l i amado " s an tuar io r upe s t re" d c A gr igen to , e n S ic i l ia , d onde c on f luyen

o b je to d c e s tud io d e ta l lado ( B lay , 1 992 : 2 83 -287 ) . P o rl oq ue s er ef ie re al o s v a so s c a l ic ifo rmes , s el e s

c av idade s e n l a r oca c on e i a gua , a s I c omo c u l to s c t ón ico s (? )e nr e lac iOn c on D emé te r , c on d epo s ic iOn d c

r e lac iona h ab itua lmen te c on l a s l i bac iones ( G i l - Ma sca re l l , 1 975 : 3 20 -321; P a loma r & O l ive r ,

m cno s l o s s i g lo s V yI V a .C . ( S iracu sano , 1 983 ; D c

1 985 : 1 51 -155 ) , ai mc uando t amb ién s eh ap cn sado q ue

M i ro , 1 986 : 2 38 -242 ; c f . Dom Inguez , 1 989 :4 37 -44 1) .

t e r raco tas q ue r ep re sen tan a l a d iv in idad d u ran te a l

7 6

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

3 . 5R ep re sen tac ione sd eD iv in idade s .

d ec on ju n to . 3 .5 .1 L a sT e r raco ta s e nF o rma d eC abeza F emen ina ,

Como h e d icho a n tc r iormen tc , n o c rco q ue r ep re sen ten n i aD emé ter n i aT an i t ; s i n e mba rgo , v eremo s s cndo s e j emp lo s d c c ada a t r ibuc ión . E n o p in ion d c M .C . Ma r in p o s ib lcmen te h ub ie se q ue d es taca r q ue e n o ca s ione s a pa recen e n " p equena s e l evac iones s obre c uyas i ade ra s a parecen g rande s

L iamada s " pebe te ro s" . I nc luyo a qu I e s te i n te re san te g rupo d c a r t icu lo s e n

c an t idade s d ep ebe te ro s , s i n q ue s e h ayan o b servado h a s ta a hora r e s tos d e c ons t rucc ione s : G ua rdama r d e l

t e rraco ta p o rque , a unque n o e s s egu ro q ue e s tén r e lac ionado s e n t odo s l o s c a sos c on s an tuar io s n i ,

S egu ra , C o imb ra d e lB ar ranco A ncho , T os sa ld eP o lop . T odo p arece i nd icar q ue s e t r a ta d e s an tuar ios e n l ugare s a l tos y a l a i re l i bre , e n d ef in i z iva , s egün l a c os lumb re i b é r ica , al a mane ra d el o sd eC o l iado d el o s

A lud i ré e n e s te a pa r tado , ür ncamen te , ad o s t i po s d e r epresen tac iones , r e la t ivamen te s egu ra s , d c f i gu ra s d i vma s ; ac on t inuac ión r e a l iza ré a l guna s o b se rvac ione s

mucho meno s , c on l o s q ue h emo s d ef in ido c omo c I v ico s ,s on s i n emba rgo u n ma te r ia ll os uf ic ien temen te g ene ra l izado y c uyo s i gr nf icado r e l ig io so p a rece t a n c l a ro , q ue s up r e senc ia e nz ona sd eh ab i ta tp uede s e rv ir

J ard ines , C a s te i lar d e S an t i s teban , L a S erre ta , e t c ." ( Ma nn , 1 987 : 5 6 ) ; a nn c uando s ip odemo s a cep ta re s ta p ropue s ta , q ue s i n e mba rgo p resen ta p rob lcma s , n o p odemo s h ace r lo c on l a c on secuenc ia q ue e x t rae L a a u to ra : " l a c ons ta tac ión d e e s te h echo p uede r e su i tar muy s i gnf ica l iva p a ra a prec ia re ig rado d ea s im i lac ión

c omo i nd ic io p a ra i nd ica r l a e x is tenc ia d c u n c en t ro c u l tua l d c u no uo t ro t i po . E n e f ec to , c omo s eh a v i s to e n s u l uga r c or respond ien te , f ue e i h a l lazgo d c t e r raco ta s d e l t i po c onoc ido d e sde c lt r aba jo d c A. M . Muf loz ( Muf ioz , 1 963 ) c on c l i mp rec iso ( y , s egt in p arece i ncor rec to ) n ombre d c " pebe te ro s" l o q ue p er suad ió a L . Abad a i den t i f ica r u n s an tua r io e n c l C a s t i l lo d c Guardama r ( Abad , 1 986 : 1 51-152 ; v id .

p or l o s i b eros d e u n c u l to q ue , e ns u o r igen , d eb ió s e r c ar lag iné s" (Ma r in , 1 987 : . 5 6 -57 ) . P o ro t ro l a do ,e nE l B o rd isa l d c C ama r lé s ( Ta r ragona ) a parec ie ron e n i m d epó s i to má s d c c i ncuen ta e j emp la re s d c e s ta s f i gu ra s , l oq ue s ec ompadece ma l c on c lc a rác tc rd ct e s t imomo s d c u n c u l to p r ivado q ue l e s h an a t r ibu ido P a l la ré s ,

a pa r tado 3 .3 .2 .1) ; s i n emba rgo , s on muchos l o s h a l lazgo s d c e s te t i po d c f i gura s q ue n o p a recen p rocede r d c c on tex to s c l a ro s d c s an tua r io y , s i n e mba rgo , p a rece h abe r p oca s d uda s d c q ue r ep re sen tan

G rac ia yMun i l la , s ob re L ab a se d cq ue s et r a ta n od ci m d epO s i to v o t ivo s i no " come rc ia l" ; e s to s a u to re s , s ob re u na b a se e xc lu s ivamen te f o rma l yt i po lOg ica a f irman

aa l guna d iv in idad i nd Igcna , p o rl ot a n to n i aD emé te r n i aT an i t e n m i o p imón , p o r má s q ue l a i gno ta d i v in idad i b é r ica h aya a sum ido l o sr a sgo si c onog ráf ico s

q ue s et r a ta d cr ep re sen tac ione s d cD emé te r ,c uyo c u l to " no s i nd ica e ig rado d ep ene t rac ión h e iena e n e ib a jo E bro y ,e n g ene ra l , e n t odo e iP r inc ipado af i na le s d e l 5 1 g b V " . P o rü l t imo , c i cvan e s t a h ipO tc s is d c t r aba jo a

d c e s ta s d io sa s med i tc r ránea s . E n l o s d i t imo s a f lo s h an a pa rec ido n uevo s e s tud io s q ue a bo rdan e s te t i po d c a r t Icu lo s , t an to a f lad iendo n uevo s e j emp la res c omo r ec s tud iando l o s c onoc ido s d c a n t iguo . P odemo s d esc r ib i r , c on M .J . P ena , t i po c omo c ompue s to p o r

c onc lu s ion y a scgu ran q ue " d icho c u l to e s a dop tado I n tegramen le p or e i m undo i nd igena a p ar t ir d e l o s c en tros h e ienos d e l a Magna G rec ia y S i c i l ia , y a a f i na le s d e ls i g lo V ei n ic ios d e lI Va .C ." ( Pa l la ré se ta l . ,

" c abe zaf emen ina a dornada c on u n k a la thos d ecorado d os a ye s e nf ren tada s p odr Ian s er p a loma . c e s I i l i zada . s oq u i zá sc i sne s - e n tre l a s q ue a pa recen t r e s

POT

1 986 : 1 23 -149 ) . E na mbo sc a so st oq ue t e nemo se sl ab i l squcda d cu n p ro to t ipo p a ra l a r cp re sen tac ión f i gu ra y , u na v ez h a l lado , e l p rocc so l Og ico l cva a s us r c spec t ivo s

-

o b je tos e sf e r icos q ue p od rIan s e rf ru tos : g ranadas , man zanas - ya dornado t amb ién c on h o ja s yf i bre s" ; s ue lcn s e r h ueca s , h echa s ap a r t i r d c d o s mo lde s y c ub ie r ta s e n s u p a r te s upe r io r p o r med io d c u na p i eza c i rcu la r c on o s i n a gu jc ro s ( P ena , 1 987 : 3 50 ) . E n l o s

d e fen so re s ae qu ipa ra r t i po f o rma l oi c onog ra f ico c on u n c u lto d e tcrm inado y e s e n e s te a spec to , p rec isamen te ,d onde s ec onfunden . N iT an i tz uD emé te r d eb icron d c s e n v ene rada s má s a i lá d c l o s c en t ro s g cnu ina incn te pt h i ico s og r iego s ; l oq ue s ep roduce e s

e j emp la re s p emnsu la re s n o s ue le h abe r h ue l la s d c f u ego , t oq ue i nd ica r la q ue n o f ue ron u t i l izado s c omo q uemaper fumes y l o s c on tex to s d c h a l lazgo s on

l a i n t roducc iOn d c u n t i po d c o b je to , e n c uya e l abo rac iOn h an i n f lu ido s egu ra lnen te mu l t i tud d c

s umamen te d ive r so s ( c ampo s d c s i lo s , n ec rópo i is , a r ea sd c h ab i tac ión , " depo s i to s" , . . ) ; a pa recen al ol a rgo d c t oda l a c os ta Med i ter ránea d c L a P en in su la y s u d i s t r ibuc ión s ue le s e r c os te ra o p róx ima a l a c o s ta ( F igu ra 3 8 ) ; f ue ra d c e l la , a pa recen c on f r ecuenc ia e n

c on ien te s r e l ig io so -cu l tu ra le s ,q ue al o s i b e ro s l c s s i rvc p a ra p e r son if ica rd e te rm inada s c oncepc ione s r e l ig io sa s t a l v ez a n te s p oco c onc rc tada s . E l é x i to d e l t i po y s u g ran e x ten s iOn l o q ue i nd ican e s , p rcc isamen te , c l

C a r tago , C erdef la e I b iza y , e n r educ ido n ümero e n

a c ie r to d c l ac l ecc iOn y L ai n tegrac ión e n c lu n ivc r so c u l tua l ci deo log ico d c l o s i b e ros ; l a a pa r ic ión d c

o t ro s p un to sd cS i c i l ia eI t a l ia ( Pena , 1 991) .

7 7

ADOLFO J . DOM fNGL TEZ MONEDERO

f i gu ra s q ue s on c l a ramen te i m i tac ione s ya dap tac ione s l oca le s y má s o meno s a l e jadas d e l o s t i po s " c anón ico s" r e a f i rman e ia r ra igo d ee s ta r c p resen tac ión

c a rác te r r i tua l n o c reo q ue q uepa d udar y q ue p ropo rc iona u na p i s ta e x t rao rd ina r ia d c c a ra a l a i oca l izac ión d c u n l uga r d c c u i to d ed icado a l a s d iv in idade s e i cu s ina s e n l a z ona ; n o o b s tan te , n o p odemo s e x t rapo la rL as i tuac ión e x is ten te e nl ac horay

e n t re l o s i b e ro s . C onv iene , s i ne mba rgo , q ue v o lvamo s al o sp ro to t ipo s . A ce rca d e l o r igen d e l p ro to t ipo ,a s Ic omo d el a s v I a s d c d i fu s ión , s i gue h ab iendo d i scu s ione s a im c uando l a

p roschoros e mpo r i tana a lr c s to d cI b e r ia S in e mbargo , yv o lv iendo al o s " pcbe te ro s" n o e se n

mayor ia d e l o s e s tud io so s s ug ie ren r e lac ione s c on e i mundo p i ln ico , t i l t imamen te c ue s t ionada s p o t P ena t a n to d e sde e ip un to d e v i s ta d c l a c rono log Ia c omo d e sde c ld cl ai c onog ra f Ia ( Pena , 1 987 : 3 53 ) ;e s ta a u to ra s e i nc l ina a b uscar s u o r igen e n S ic i l ia , d onde

e ln o rde s t ep en in su la rd onde e s te t i po s ee ncuen t ra má s r cp rc sen tado ,s i no e n e is ude s te z ona a demá sd c mayo r c oncen t rac iOn d c t e s t imon io s s ob re l a r e l ig io s idad i nd Igena y p ara e s ta z ona P ena s ug ie re u na mayo r r e lac iOn e n tre l af a ce ta c t On ica d cD emé te r yP e r sé fonc yl ac x i s tcnc ia d c d i v in idadc s f emen ina s md Igena s q ue a sumen e s te c a rác tcr , l o q ue a dcmá s v endr Ia

c on f lu ir Ian e l emen to s g r iego s yp ümco s ( Pena , 1 990 : 5 7 ) . E n t odo c a so , t e nd rá q ue s e ru ne s tud io d e ten ido d c l a s p i eza s ,p a ra d e te rm ina rs is et r a ta d ei mpo r tac ione s ,

c onf irmado p o r l a a bundanc ia d c h a i lazgo s d c e s ta s

d c a r t Icu lo s f ab r icado s i ns i tu p e ro a p a r t ir d c mo lde s i mpor tado s , od c r e e labo rac ione s l oca le s d e l t ema e i q ue a cabe p o r r e so lver L a c ue s t ión d e l o r igen y

t e r raco ta s e n a mb ien te s f une ra r io s ( Pena , 1 990 : 5 9 ; c f . t amb ién C It ia , 1 988 ; 2 9 -36 ) , a unque s i n d e sca r tar L o s s an tua r io s , c omo p odr Ian s e r e ic a s t i l lo d c G ua rdama r ( v id . a pdo .3 . 3 .2 .1) l ap rop ia S e r re ta d cA lcoy ( t ipo V I I I

d e sa r ro l lo e s t i l I s t ico yc rono lóg ico d c e s to s o b je to s , l o c ua l t e ndrá t amb ién i mpo r tan te s c on secuenc ia d e sde e i p un to d c v i s ta d c s ua dopc ión p o t l o s md Igena s , l a bo r

d c J uan ( J uan IMo l tO , 1 987 -88 : 3 14 -315 ) ( v i i i . a pdo . 3 . 3 .1 .1) . D en t ro d cl aP en in su la c il uga re nc lq ue má s o b je to s d c e s te t i po h an a pa rcc ido e s e i c en t ro p ün ico d c V i l lar ico s ,d onde s eh a l lo , e nu na a r ea i mp rec isa ,p e ro

q ue h a s i do o b je to d c a l g t In t r aba jo p o r p a r te d c M .J . P ena ( Pena , 1 987 ; P ena , 1 990 ) . E n t odo c aso , e s s i gr n f ica t ivo q ue e na l guno sl u ga re sc omo ,p o re j emp lo , e nP un ta l d e ls L iop s( O locau )a pa rezcan f i gu ra sd e lt i po h ab i tua lj un to c on c l a ra s i m i tac ione s l o ca le s , l oq ue l e i l eva a p en sa r aB one t yc o labo rado re s q ue l o s p ebe te ro s , h ab i tua lmen te , e r an p roduc to s q ue l i egaban d c l a m ano d e l c ome rc io j un to c on o t ro s p roduc to s ,

f ue ra d c l an ec rOpo i is , l o q ue p a rece s e r t i n d epO s i to v o t ivo q ue c on tcn Ia t e r raco ta sd c d i fc rcn te s t i po s , e n t re l a s q ue p redom inaban é s ta s ( má s d c 1 00 ) al a s q ue m e e s toy r e f ir icndo ; s u v incu iac ión a u n s an tua r io , c ven tua lmen tc d c T an i t , p a rece f ue ra d c d uda e n e s te

t a le s c omo l o s d i s t in to s t i po s d c c e rám ica s d c b a rn iz

amb ien te ( A lmag ro , 1 983 : 2 91-307 ; Muñoz A in i l ib ia ,

n eg ro ( Bone te ia l . , 1 990 : 1 90 ) . R e tomando a ls i gn if icado d c l a s t e r raco ta s p ara l o s i nd Igena s , P ena t amb ién s emue s t ra e scdp t ica al ah o ra

1 963 ; 2 7 -29 ) . L a c rono log Ia d c e s to s o b je to s e s amp l ia , h ab icndo a pa rec ido e nc on tex to s q ue v an d e sde l ap r imc ra m i tad d e l s i g lo I V h a s ta l a m i tad d e l I a .C . ( Pena , 1 987 :

d cp en sa rq ue s et r a te d cD cmé tc r od cT an i t yc r eo q ue t i ene r azOn c uando a f irma q ue " no m e a t reve r Ia a a f i rma rq ue l o sg r iego s ol o sp ün icos i n t rodu jeron e ne i mundo i bé r ico e i' c u l io ' aDemé ter y 10 T an i t , s i no q ue i n irodu jeron u na i conograf (a q ue l o s i nd Igenas

3 50 -35 1 ;P ena , 1 990 : 5 6 ) . 3 .5 .2 L o sR e l ieve sC on R ep re sen tac iOn d cu na D iv in idad P ro tec to ra d cL o sE qu ido s . B iaquez e s tud ió e n 1 954 u n c on jun to d c r e l ieve s ,

a s im i laron oa t r ibuyeron au na d i v in idad p rop ia , c uya s a t r ibuc ione sp od lan c orresponder se md s am enos c on l a s d eD emé te r " ; l ega as ugc r ir ,i n c lu so ,q ue e nP on tó s yC ama r lés ( no a l ud i réa Ampur ia s ) p od r Ian d a r sc

p roceden te s d c v a r ia s l o ca l idadc s ( Sagun to , MogOn , B a lone s ,V i l la r ico s , Uano d cl aC on so iac iOn ) , al o sq ue s e h a a f lad ido a l gün o t ro p o s teno rmen te ( F igu ra 3 9 ) , q ue p re sen tan au na f i gu ra , b i en s en tada , g enc r a lmen te

v Incu lo s c on D emé te r yq ue a ca so é s ta f ue ra l a

e n u na e spec ie d c s i l la d c t i j e ra s ( cf . R uano , 1 993 :

i conog raf Ia p r ima r ia , a un c uando l u cgo l o s i nd Igcna s p ud ie ran u t i l iza r e i t i po p a ra r ep re sen ta r aa l guna

4 1-43 ; 7 9 -80 ) b i en e s tan te , e n med io d c d o s o má s c aba i lo s ,d i spue s to s e n modo h e rá ld ico , al o s q ue s ue le c s ta r s u je tando p o r L a b oca . No s uc le h abe r d uda s a ce rca d c qu ar ep re sen tan au na d i v in idad p ro tec to ra d c l o s c aba l lo s ; s u c rono iog Ia , c on s idc rab lemcn te a mp l ia , a ba rca r la e n t re e i s i g lo V I a. C . ye lI I a. C . , a unque

d iv in idad p rop ia c oncom i tan tc ( Pena , 1 987 : 3 54 ) ; c on t odo ,I ar c lac iOn c on D emé te re nc la r ea n o ro r ien ta l d c I be r ia p od r ia v e r se r e for zada p o re ir e c ien te h a l lazgo d c u na i n te re san te v a s i ja c on r ep rc sen tac iOn d cT np tó lcmo yl a p rop ia d iosa e n e i c ampo d c s i lo s d c B o se d e l C ongo s t ( San tJ u l i d c R am is , G e rona ) , d a tab le e n t re e i s i g lo I V ye iI I a. C . ( Bu rch e ia l , 1 993 : 4 0 -45 )d cc uyo

q u izá e n a lg i ln c a so p ud ie ra r eba ja r se s u c rono log Ia h a s ta c ii n ic io d cl a mman izac iOn ,e ne is i g lo I a .C . ;l a s i nf lucnc ia s med i terráneas d c e s te g rupo d c

7 8

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

r e p re sen tac ione s d i v ina s p a recen c l a ra s . L o s c on tex to s d e s u h a l lazgo n o s on n ada c la ro s , y p ueden p rocede tan to d e z ona s d e h ab i ta t , c omo d c n ec rOpo l i s ( B lazquez , 1 977 : 2 90 -306 ; S an N ico lá s , 1 983 -84 : 2 77 -279 ; E iroa & Mar t inez , 1 988 : 1 23 -133 ; E iroa , 1 988 : 1 05 -115 ) . F l ay s eme janza s d e l t i po c on a lguna s r e p re sen tac ione sv a scu la re sp roceden te sd cE iche e nl a s q ue a pa rece l o q ue p a ra a i guno s p ud ie ra s e t u na d i v in idad a l ada s u je tando d o sc aba l lo s ( Ramo sF o lqué s , 1 954 -55 : 1 02 -113 ) . 3 . 5 .3 C on s ide rac ione s G ene ra le s . E l t ema d c l a s r ep re sen tac ione s d c d iv in idade s h a r e c ib ido , al ol a rgo d e l t i empo s umamen te e lus ivo y q ue

t i nt i po d c t r a tam ien to e n b uena p a r te h a

e mponzoüado t o da l ai n ve s t igac ión s ob re l ar e ig io s idad d e l á mb i to i bénco .

E l

v ie jo d eba te s ob re q ué

r ep resen tan l os e xvo tos , s i d iv in idades , s a ce rdo te s /sace rdo t i sa s ,d evo to s ;l a sa i np l ia sp o lém ica s s ob r e c ls i gn if icado d c l a s r ep re sen tac ione s f i gura t iva s e n c e rám icas i b ér icas ( d iv ina s , m I t ica s , h ero ica s , p ro f ana s . . ) ; l a s n o meno s a g r ia s d i scu s ione s s ob re l a s r epre sen tac iones e scu l tór ica s , a n ima iI st icas o a n t ropomo r fa s ; l o s d eba te s , c a s i me taf I s icos s ob re e i

med ian te t a l a na log Ia , l av i s ión q ue d e l mundo d i v ino t e n fa c li b e ro , ci l ar c lac ión I n t ima e n t re s e t h umano y d i v in idad ni, y endo m á s a l lá , e is opo r te q ue l o s d io se s b r indaban a l p ode r p o l i t ico ci c l p ape l d iv ino e n l a a r t icu Iac ión yr ep roducc iOn d c l o s v mncu lo s f am i l ia re s , e t c . . E n t odo s i s tema r c l ig io so c omp le jo , yc li b dr ico c omo c one sponde au na s oc iedad e s ta ta l l o e r a , t odo s e so s e x t remo s s e h a l lan e xp l Ic i ta o i mp l Ic i tamen tc r e cog ido s e n m i to s yl e yenda s q ue h acen a cce s ib le s a l o s mo r ta le s l o s p a rad igma s e senc ia le s yl a s n o rma s d t ica s d c c ompo r tam ien to q ue l o s d io se s d i sponen ; yc l i n tercamb io mu tuo f r uc t Ife ro , a unque d e s igua l , d c b enef ic io s e n t re l a d iv in idad y l o s h umano s q ue j us t if ica e n c l p iano i d eo lOg ico t oda r e l ig ion q ueda g a ran t izado me rced a lr i to ,p re sum ib lemen te v incu lado a lm i to . P o t c on s igu ien te , i d en t if ica r i mágencs d i v ina s n o e s s uf ic ien te ; e sa s i ma g ene s , e so s p er sona je s s ob rehumano s , d eben e s ta r r ea l izando a lgün t i po d c a c t iv idad q ue s ea s u scep t ib le d c s e r i d en t if icada e i n te rp re tada e nc ave m I t ica ( cj p o re j cmp lo l o sa ná i i s is d cO lmo s , 1 989 : 4 9 -5 1 od c K u r tz , 1 993 : 2 39 -245 , q ue p odr lan a p l ica r se amucho s o t ro s v a so s ) . P e ro , i n c lu so e n c se c a so ,a lf a i ta rno s r c f e renc ia s i n te rna s ye x te rna s a lt r a sfondo m I t ico , h ab rcmo s d c c on fo rma rno s c on c l p á l ido r ef le jo q ue p ueden r ep resen ta r ( y n o s i emp re )

c a rác te r a n icón ico o f i gu ra t ivo d c l ar e l ig ion i b d r ica , e t c . ,h an c on tr ibu ido aa r ro ja rp oca l u zs ob re c lt cma d c l a s r ep resen tac iones d iv ina s e n t re l o s i b ero s . E s n ecesa r io y u rgen te u n p ro fundo d eba te s ob re t a l c ue s t ión ; me l im i ta réa r epe t ir c on O lmo sq ue " l os l i po s h umano s yd iv inos s e c onf orma rdn c omo u n r ef le jo d e l a s oc iedad i bé r ica . Hay u n d iá logo c on t inuo , u n l r asva se e n tre a mba s e sf era s y , av ece s , r e su i ta d q f I c i l d i s t ingu ir d ónde e mp ie za u na y d önde a caba l ao t ra " ( O lmo s , 1 992 -a : 2 4 ) ; l a a p l icac ión d c l aa na log Ia , s i b i en r e suc lve c uc s t ione s d cc omp ren s ión g loba l ,n on o s a s egu ra n iu na s o luc ión c o r rec ta n i , mucho m eno s ,u na l og ica e xp l ica t iva : "has la q ué i lm i tes n o d ev iene

b i en c i n to b i en l a s i n tcrp re tac iones má s o meno s a r r ie sgada s d c u na s i má g ene s c od if icada s , c uyo s c Od igo sn os i emp re e s tamo s e nc ond ic ione sd cd e sc if r a r s a t isfac to r iamen te , a n te t odo p o rque " e is imbo l i smo e s i ndepend ien te d e q ue s ea o n o e n tend ido ; t i ene s u p rop ia l óg ica i n c lu so c uando y a h a s ido o l v idado" ( Ma rco , 1 983 -84 ; 7 3 ) . Una p rueba d c l a s l im i tac ione s d e l mé todo i conog ráf ico y a na lóg ico p odemo s v e r la , p o re j emp lo ,e nc lc a so d cl o se xvo to sd cl o s s an tua r io s g iennen se s , q ue n o s mues t ran c omp le jo s g es to s y a c t i tude s s i n d uda r i tua le s ( N ico l in i , 1 968 : 2 7 -50 ) y q ue , s i n emba rgo , p oco n o s d icen a ce rca d c l a s i d ea s

h i s tór icamen te a qu íe id ios u na i magen d e lh ombre , a t t i empo q ue e ih ombre s e c onf orma c omo u na i mago

r e l ig io sa sa n te l a sq ue r e acc ionan c on t a lg e s tua l idad . A l o l a rgo d c l o s a pa r tado s p rev io s s O lo me h e r e fendo d c f o rma e xp l Ic i ta ap o s ib le s r ep re sen tac ione s

d e i? . S e a pun la e s ta d ia iéc t ica e n l o s s an tuar ios i b é r icos , l o q ue p erm i le e i d iá iogo r e l ig ioso y l a r e iac ión s oc ia ld el o sh ombre sc on l o sd iose s " ( O lmo s ,

d cd i v in idade s e nd o s c a so s : l a l sp re sun ta / sd i v in idad /e s p ro tcc to ra /s d ce qu ino s( v id .a pdo .3 .5 .2 ) yl o sl amado s p ebe te ro s( v id . a pdo . 3 . 5 .1) . L ad i fe renc ia s e n t re a mbo s s on a b isma le s : e n c lp r ime r c a so h ay u na " ac tuac iOn " I d iv ina ; e n e is egundo t e nemos t an s O lo u n r o s t ro ; e s

1 992 -b : 2 5 ) . Obv iamen te , é s ta e su na d cl a s r e spue s ta s q ue n ue s t ro t i empo h a c l abo rado p e ro , ‚ q ué c r i te r io s t e nemos p ara a segura r l a v a l idez d c n uest ra a p rox imac ión? ;c r i tc i io so b je t ivo s ,q u ie ro d cc i r . S egu ramcn te e s v e rdad q ue e ii b e ro c onc ibe a s u s d i o se s c ompar t iendo c on e It i n a spec to h umano y q ue t r an sf inendo s u p e r sona l idad a L a i magen d c l o s e xvo to s , c lh umano , a lt i empo q ue i n tc rcamb ia d one s c on L a d iv in idad a sume p a r te d c e sa d i v in idad a l

p o s ib le q ue n unca s ep amo s q ué l e yenda om i to s u s ten ta l aa cc iOn d e l p ro tec to r d c l o s e qu ido s , p e ro l am isma e x is tenc ia d cl o s r e l ieve s e nq ue a pa rece n o s a po r ta u na v a l io s I s ima i n fo rmac iOn a ce rca d c l ae x i s tenc ia , má s q ue p robab le ,d ct a le sr c la to s ;l as cme janza d e l t i po c on o t ra s r ep resen tac ione s v a scu la re s p ueden s ugen r q ue é s ta s t amb ién r ep resen tan a u na d iv in idad . S in

p r e sen ta r sc a n te e l la as u i magen y s cmc janza ; p e ro a p e sa rd c e l lo n o t e nemo s mcd io d c e x t rae r , ü n icamen te

7 9

ADOLFO J .DOM fNGL IEZ MONEDERO

emba rgo , e i s imp le r o s t ro d e l s egundo t i po d e r ep re sen tac ión h a h echo c o r re r r I o s d e t i n ta a ce rca d e l

momen to e nc lq ue s u rgen ys ef i jan u no se squema sq ue p e rmanccen yp e rdu ran a c t ivo sh a s ta L ar oman izac iOn y ,

s i gn if icado y a d sc r ipc ión d e e sas i má g enes , d e s lumb rado s l o s e spec ia l is tas p o r l a p o s ib i i idad ,

n a tura lmen te , p erv iv irán d espués d c J a m isma . N a tu ra lmen te , ye s u n r i e sgo c a lcu lado , c lp ano rama e sbozado p uede p a recer e s tá t ico a unque h emo s d e

me ramen te b a sada e nl at i po log ia ,i d eb u sca rp ré s tamo s r eig io so s p i in ico s og r iego s , s eg i in s ev i e se e ne ir o s t ro d e l a i magen u n mayo r a spec to d e T am t q ue d c D emé ter o v i ceve r sa .

r e seüa r q ue n o l o e s e n a b so lu to ; c l a spcc to d c l o s l uga re s d cc u l to e su ls u jc to amod if lcac ionc s c on t inua s ;

P o r c on s igu ien te , e i c am ino

s u p rop ia u b icac ión e spac ia l e s tá s u jc ta a t r an sfo rmac iön , d epend iendo d c f ac to re s n o s i cmp re c on t ro lab le s d e sde i m p un to d c v i s ta a rqueo lOg ico . P o r e nde , a que l lo s c en t ro s q ue a sumen u n c l a ro p ape l d en t ro d c J a a r t icu lac iOn d c t e r r i to r io s e x ten so s n o

e s tá t a n to e nl ap ro fund izac ión d e l c onoc im ien to d cl a s i mágenes c uan to e n u n me jor c onoc im ien to y c ompren s ión d c l o s r i to s , t a l y c omo q uedan r ep re sen tado s e n l o s l uga re s d c c u l to ; s o lo ap a r t i r d e l o s r e su l tado s p od remo si n ten ta rp cne t ra re nl a sc an sas ; s o lo c onoc iendo é s ta s ya qué l lo sp od r iamo s p ene t ra re n l o s a spcc to s i d co lóg ico s ye n tonce s , s O lo e n tonce s , h ab r iamo s p od ido r e con s t ru ir e ns uc on jun to l ar e l ig ion

s i emp re h an d e sempef lado e sa f unc iOn , s i no q ue l a m isma d ebe s er c onsecucnc ia d c p rocesos s oc io -econOm ico s y ,n a tu ra lmcn te , p o l i t ico s q ue s en o s e scapan ; i gua lmen te , c en t ros c u l tua le s q ue e n d e te rm inado s momen to s p rescn tan u na f unc iona l idad

i bé r ica c omo e i s i s tcma c ohe ren te e xp l ica t ivo y d c r ep re sen tac iOn q ue s i nd uda f ue . E l c a in ino ,n iq uédec i r t i cne e s l a rgo y a rduo y l a me ta d i f Ic i lmcn tc v i s lumb rab le h oy e nd I a .

s up ra tc r r i to r ia l p ueden a cabar p e rd iendo e s e p ape l . E n c le s tado a c tua ld cn ue s t ro s c onoc im ien to sn op odemo s s egu ir man ten iendo i d ea s c omo l aq ue e xp re sO y ah ace a ño s A r r iba s c uando a f irmaba q ue " l as c eremon ias

4 . CONCLUS IONES .

h ub ieron d e s er

a c ios d e a J Irmac ión d e u n idad

Una v ez r ea l izado c l a ná l is is p rev io , e s l cgado c l

s up rapo l I t ica , yl a e x l irpac ión d e e s tos h ogares d e r e s is tenc ia y n ac iona l i smo h ubo d e s e r u n e mpeno d e

momen to d c e sboza r u na s b reve s c onc lu s ione s q ue t r a ten d c r ccap i tu la r l o h a s ta a qu l v i s to y e Do n o s l evará e n p r ime r l uga r ar e conoce r , e n l ae s f e ra d c l o

l o sc onqu is tadore s "( A r r iba s , 1 976 : 1 56 ) . D en t ro d c l o s h ab i ta t s d a J a i mp res iOn d c q ue l a p rác t ica d c r i tua le s d c d i ve r sa I ndo lc y a i cance e s m i

r e l ig io so u na i mpo r tan te a r t icu lac iOn , t a n to e n e ip i ano d cl a s m an if e s tac ione s ma te r ia les d e l f enOmeno c uan to

h echo g ene ra l izado ;d e l m ismo modo , a l guno se spac io s d e li n i c leo h ab i tado v an d o tándo se d cc i e r to s i gr n f icado

e nc ld cl a si d ea sq ue s ubyacen a lm ismo . D esde e i p un to d c v i s ta d c l a i n serc ión d c l o s s an tuar io s e n s u c n to rno c i p ano rama c ons ide rado

p o l I t ico -re l ig io so , p os ib lcmen te c omo r e f le jo d c d e te rm inado sp roce so s d c e s truc tu rac iOn d cl as oc iedad h a s ta a sunur f o rma s c omp lc ja s ; s i n emba rgo , yc omo muy b i en h a v i s to A ranegu i ( 1993 , e . p .) l o s s an tuar io s c on e lemen tos a rqu i tec tón icos d es tacab le s s on

r eve la , e n e i t e r reno d c l a d ef in ic iOn d c l a s oc iedad i bér ica , u na g ran c oherenc ia c on J o q ue a ná l is is d e p ob lam ien to y d c n ec rópo i is s ug ie ren ; e i f enOmeno

s umamen te r a ro s e n c l mundo i b d r ico ; e j emp lo s c omo

r e l ig io so e n c l mundo i b ér ico mue s t ra u na p ro funda e s t ruc tu rac iOn t e r r i to r ia l ,h a l lándo se l o sl uga re sd cc u l to e n f unc iön d c l o s i n te re sc s d c l a s oc iedad i b é r ica y c l abo rando c ada s egmen to d c l a m i sma s u p rop io

l o s d c L ir ia p onen e n g uard ia a ce rca l o s r i e sgo s d c b u sca re nt odo sl o sc a so s i mr ef le jo a rqu i tcc tOn ico d cL a r e l ig ios idad i b énca . L a g ra s p e rdu rac iOn d c l a r e l ig io s idad c en t rada en l a s c ucva s d emue s t ra c Omo

ámb i to r e l ig io so , c on o ca s iona le s t r an sva se s d c u no a o t ro , n o s i emp rc f á c i le s d c d e tec ta r , p e ro q ue t r a s lucen

d e term inados s egmen tos d c J a s oc iedad i bér ica e ncuen t ran p lena s a t isfacc iOn a s u s n eces idade s

l aa sunc iOn , p o r p a r tc d e l i b e ro , d c r o le s d i fe ren te s d c a cuerdo c on l a s d ive rsas f unc iones q ue p od ia d e sempeña r d en t ro d e l á mb i to u rbano y t e r r i to r ia l e n

r e l ig io sa s e n e n to rno s n a tu ra le s a pena s t r an sfo rmado s , d e l m ismo modo q ue o t ros l o h acen e n z ona s d c h ab i tac iOn n od ema s iado d i fe renc iada s ,e nc uan to as u s

q ue s ed e senvo lv Ia s uv i da . E s ta d ive r s i f icac ión d c ámb i to s l o e s t amb ién d c f unc ione s ys e r e f le ja e n c l r cg is t ro a rqueo log ico

c s t ruc tu ra s , f o rmas y d i spos ic iOn , d e l r e s to d c l a s

mcd ian tc l a v ar iab i l idad e n l a s u b icac ionc s yl a d i fe renc iac iOn a rqu i tcc tOn ica ( c f .u na p r imcm r c fe renc ia

c oncen t rac iOn d c l o s e s fuerzo s d c l a c omumdad e n h ono rd cl a s d i v in idade s t u te la re s . D ce s ta i n ter re lac ión

e n R u iz & Mo l ino s , 1 993 : 2 06 -207 ) . E l p ano rama q ue

s u rge u na s oc iedad p ro fundamen te d ma m ica y q ue mue s t ra i mp roce so d ct r an sfo rmac iOn n o tab le al ol a rgo

h emo s d e l ineado p uede a p l ica r se , g rosso modo , a l p er Iodo c omp rend ido e n t re l o s s i g los I VI a .C . ,

u n idadc s d c h ab i tac iOn . Y ,p o r s if ue ra p oco , h ay o t ro s l uga re sd cc u l to c uyo c a rác tc ra rqu i tec tOn ico mue s t ra L a

d cl o ss i g lo sp r ev io sa lc amb io d c era.

8 0

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

O t ro t i po a po r tac ión q ue p a rece d e sp rende r se d e l a na l i s i s e f ec tuado s er ef iere al ac ue s t iOn d e l r i tua l ; l o s l uga re s d ec u l to e s tud iado s p ropo rc ionan p rác t icamen te l o s t i n icos e l emen to s o b je t ivab le s a ce rca d e l ar e l ig iOn i b é r ica , h ab ida c uen ta l o s p rob lema s q ue p re sen tan l a s r ep resen tac ione s i conográ f i ca s c on servada s . C on r e spec to aé s ta sq u ie ro d ec i rq ue l ai c onog ra f la p uede ,o p od r a c on t r ibu i r yn op oco au na m e jo rc a rac te r izac ián d e l os ag rado e n c lá mb i to i b ë r ico c omo mue s t ra a l gt h i men to r io m ten to r e c ien te ( O lmo s , 1 992 ) ; s i n emba rgo , ‚

ys i emp re e n m i o p in ion , s i gue h ab iendo u na z ona d i fu sa e n t re t oq ue e s op uede s e r r i to y e n t re t oq ue p ud ie ra s e r l ar ep re sen tac ión d e i dea s q ue p od r famo s l i ama r " m I t ica s" , p o r n o c omp l ica r l ac ue s t iOn c on l a p os ib i l idad ( wa s q ue e v iden te ) d e e ven tua tes r ep re sen tac ione s p ro fana s o ,me ramen te , d eco ra t iva s y d e " r epe r to r io " . U na v ez a i s lada sl a sp re sun ta si mágene sq ue a l uden a t o

d iv ino

med ian te

l a

s u ina

d e

r a sgos

q ue ,

p re suponemos 0 f lOS c ons ta , a compaf ian a l a man if e s tac iOn d et os ag rado ,n os abemo s c on s egu r idad

A k i-o t e r ion menc ionado s p o rE s t rabOn ( I I I , 1 ,5 ) yo t ro s ( c f . S a l ina s , 1 986 : 1 35 -147 ;B lá zquez , 1 990 : 2 23 -233 ) . A p a r t ir , p uc s , d c l o s t e s t imon io s ma te r ia le s a qu I r e cog ido s l a p r ime ra o b se rvac iOn q ue s e i mpone s e r e f ic re a lh echo d c q ue r e su l ta d i l Ic i l s egu ir a cep tando q ue l o s r i to s i b énco s s on d c u n c a rác te r t a co y e n mano s d c " s an tone s" o " s ac r is tanes" c omo a lguno s a u to rc s h an d efend ido ; a un s i n n ega r q ue e n a 1 gina s o ca s ione s é s te h aya p od ido s e rc lc a so ,l oq ue p a rece e n o t ra s e s q ue h an e x is t ido c omp lc ja s c e remoma s q ue i nc iuycn s acr if ic ios c ruen tos , l i bac ioncs , s imp le d epo s ic iOn d c o b je tos , e t c . , a companada s , c omo s uge r ir la l ai c onograf Ia , d c p roce s ione s e sco t tada s p o r md s i co s , a s i c omo d an7a s yb a i le s o má s c omp le jo s r i tua te s . E s t amb ién c i e r to q ue n o t odo s l o s l uga re s d c c u t to i mp l ican u n r i tua l s im i la r , p e ro e i i nd iv iduo i b é r ico s ab la d i fe renc ia r muy b i en c lc on tex to r e l ig io so e n c l q ue s e h a l laba y a p rox ima r se a l ad iv imdad d c modo d i s t in to s cg i in c l e n to rno , l a o ca s iOn o c l r o l s oc ia lq ue e nc ada momen to s eh alaba r ep re sen tando . C omo e r ad ce spe ra r ,t o do sl o s s egmen to s s oc ia lc s s e h a l lan i nvo tuc rado s d c t wo u o t ro modo e n l o s r i to s r e l ig io so s , b i en c omo c e leb ran te s op a r t ic ipan te s e n

c uándo n o s h a l lamo s a n te l a r ep re sen tac ión d e l a d iv imdad e n a l guna d e s u s e p ifan la s oa dvocac ione s o c in indo t e nemo s a n te n oso t ro s s imp lemen te d e sc r i ta s f o rma sd ea do ra r ad i cha d i v in idad oc u ndo ,p o rf i n ,s e i n ten ta d esc r ib ir , c omo c omb inac iOn d e l a s d os p o s ib i l idade s r e c ién p e rgef lada s ,r e ta to s q ue n o s h ab tan

cremon ia s c omun i ta r ia s , b ien c omo c e leb ran tes o p a r t ic ipan te s e n r i tua le s d omds t ico s ( s ac r if ic io s d c a n ima tes , d epo s ic iones i nfan t i les ) , b ien c omo d epo s i tan te s d c o f renda s oe xvo to s , i c onog ra l icamen te muy s im i la re sd ct wo s s i t io s ao t ro s ,p o rm á sq ue v a r Icn

d e l a s a cc ione s d e e so s e n te s d i v ino s ys u r e lac iOn c on e le n to rno yc on l o s h umano s . E l l e ngua je q ue h ab tan l a s r ep re sen tac ione s i c onog rá f i ca s ad a n o h a s i do

o p in ion p odemo s h a l tarnos a n te r ep re sen tac ione s d e d iv in idade s e n mucho s c a so s , p o r má s q ue n o s i emp re s eamo s c apace s d e d e te rm ina r c uá te s s on d s to s . Yo n o

l a s s i n tax i s c ompo s i t iva s yl o s ma te r ia les e n q ue l o s m ismo s s eh alan c on fecc ionado s . No o b s tan te t o a n te r io r , n o d a l ai mp re s iOn d c q ue e x i s t ie se u n s a ce rdoc io p ro f e s iona l o ,e n t o do c a so ,n o t e nemo s d a to s p a ra a segu ra r s u e x is tcnc ia ; l o s c e leb ran te ss egu ramen te n os on s ace rdo te se nc ls en t ido r e s t r ic t ivo d e l t é rm ino , s i no q ue a c td a nc omo t a le s e n a que t la s o ca s iones e n q ue l a s c i rcun s tanc ia s a s I t o

c r eo q ue l ar e l ig iOn i b é r ica s ea a n icOn ica c omo s e h a a rgumen tado e n a l guna o ca s ión ( c f . r e c ien temen te , p o r

d emandan ; l o sj e fe s oc on se jo s d c l a s a i dea s , p ob tado s oc i udade s , e n c l á i nb i to c iudadano ; l o s c abeza s d c

e j emp to , B roncano , 1 989 : 2 34 -236 ) ; l a a bundanc ia y r i queza d cu nl e ngua je i c onog raf ico p rop io v ae nc on t ra d ce s ap o s ib i l idad yc l mé todo c ompa ra t i s ta ad ap uede

f am i l ia o d c e n t idad s up rafam i l ia r e n c l e n torno d omd s t ico , t e nd r Ian c omo u no má s d c l o s c l emen to s

s a t i s f ac to r iamen te d e sc if rado y ,p o r e l lo , h e p ref endo n o i n s is t ir d ema s iado e n e s te t i po d e c ues t ione s ; n o o b s tan te , d c t od i cho c r eo q ue q ueda c l a ro q ue e n m i

s ob re l o s q ue s e s u s tcn taba s u p o s ic iOn d en t ro d c l a s oc iedad e sa s a t r ibuc ione s v incu lada s at or eig io so . Y e s p o s ib ie q ue l a c or robo rac iOn d c e s to s v incu lo s p odamo s h a l la r ta p a ra l ad poca r omana , e n f o rma d c p e rv ivenc ia , e n c lc on jun to d c e s ta tu i l la s d c b ronce d c

d epa ra r , p o r l o meno s , i n s t rumen to s d c c l a ro v a lo r p ropeddu t ico ( c f . ,p o re j emp lo , Ma rco , 1 983 -84 : 7 8 -93 ) . P o r o t ro l a do , l a s f uen te s e sc r i ta s n o a po r tan d ema s iada s i n fo rmac ione s al ah o ra d c i d en t if ica r l o s l uga re s d c c u l to i nd Igena s ( cf . C uadrado , 1 950 : 1 48 -150 ; R ama l lo , 1 993 : 17 , n . 1 ) ya unque t a l i n fo rmac iOn e s s umamen te v a l io sa e s d i f Ic i l e x t rae r

c l a ra t r ad ic iOn i b énca p e ro y a

d c é poca r epub l icana

r omana ( s . Ia .C . ) yp roceden tes d c u n t emp le te e n S agun to , ys ob re l a s c ua le s B lech s ep regun ta s in o s e t r a ta r la " de u na d onac ión p ar t icu lar , d es t inada a l s an tuar io d e u na g ens , q ue d i f und Ia d e e s ta f orma l a

c onc tu s ione s p o s i t iva s d esde e ip un to d c v i s ta d c l a r e l ig io s idad i nd Igena , c omo mues t ran l o s a ná i is is r e a l izado s ap ropó s i to d c s an tua r io sc omo e id e l H ie ron

g lor ia d e u na f am i l ia s ag u n t ina e n e s ta z ona e n t re l a a c rOpo l is y l a c i udad?" ( B lech , 1 989 : 9 1) . P e ro

N

8 1

ADOLFO J . DO MINGUEZ M ONEDERO

e sacapac idad d e r ea l izar a c to s r e l ig io sos , i nc luso s ac r if ic ia le s , n o o to rga a l c e leb ran te l a c a tego r Ia d c

E l p er lodo d c t i empo , má s o meno s a mp l io , q ue s e e x t iende e n t re f i nes d e ls i g lo V yp nnc ip io sd e l s i g lo I V aC . , c a rac te r izado p o rn o tab le s t r an sfo rmac ione s s oc io e conóm ica s , yc uyo r ef le jo a rqueo lOg ico p uede v en i r d ado p o r l a s d c s t rucc ione s d c monumen to s f une ra r io s ,

s ace rdo te ; c omo h a o b se rvado P o r te e n e i c a so d e R oma ,d onde e is a ce rdo te s egu la r e a l izando u na v i da d e c i udadano , " i yf au t , d ep lu s , c e manage m y s t ique o mag ique , i ln impor le , c oup s l 2r i n expr imab le , q u l

q u izá a l gunas d e s trucc ione s e n h ab i ta t s y ,e n t odo c a so , a l te rac ione s od e sapar ic iOn d c a lguno s l ugare s d c c u l to d e l momen to p rcv io , m a rca c l t r án s i to h ac ia c l c l a s ic ismo i b é r ico o i b é r ico p l eno . L af o rma s d c c u l to s ef i jan d efm i t ivamen te y ,e nb uena med ida , t amb ién l a s oc iedad y e s e n p a r te c i e r to , c omo a pun ta A ranegu i , q ue " l es s anc tua ire s i b ère s d u s ud -e s i s e m e t ten t e n

a t tache l a v i e d e l E ta l e n h ier a u g es te d e s e s d e sservan t sr e l ig ieux " ( Po r te , 1 989 : 2 5 ) . S ie se v i ncu lo e x is t Ia on oe ne i mundo i b é r ico e sa l go q ue n ot e nemo s m ed io sd cs abe r . E n t odo c a so , l a s d if icu l tade s p a ra i den t if ica r a s ace rdo te s e n e i mundo i bé r ico s on p a re ja s al a s q ue e x i s ten p a ra i den t if ica r l uga re s d c c u l to q ue , c omo

p lace a u I Va y . J .C ." ( Aranegu i , 1 993 , e . p .) . S c imcia e n tonce s mi momen to e n e iq ue l o s e s t Imu lo s e x tc rno s s e rán a dm i t ido s yt r an sfo rmado s e n t a n to e n c uan to s i rvan p a ra e xp re sa r u na s i d ea s e n e it e r r eno r e l ig io so q ue y a h an q uedado p rác t icamcn te f i jada s . E l lo q u ie re d ec ir q ue , p o r e j emp lo , h ab ia r d e l c u l to a T an i t ( cf . B roncano , 1 989 : 2 34 -235 ) od e l c u l to a D cmé te r n o t i ene s en t ido e nI be r ia ,s a lvo e na l guno sa mb ien te s muy p un ic izado s oh e len izado s ;l oq ue l o s i b e ro s emp iea r án

h emo s i do v iendo , p ueden a sum i r g ran c an t idad d c v ar ian tes s i n q ue n o so t ro s s c amo s c apace s , j uzgando s o lo p o rs ua spec to e x temo ,d ci d en t i l ica r ap r ime rv i s ta u nl u ga rd cc u l to ,e spec ia lmen te l o s d cc arác te ru rbano , c omo t a l ; s i ne mba rgo ,l o s o b je to s e ne l io s u t i l izado s s f q ue s on u ni nd ic io c ada v ez má s s egu ro yf i ab le . E l q ue p odamo s a cep ta r q ue l a r e l ig iOn i b énca h a a sum ido c l g rado d c c omp ie j idad q ue a qu l h e i n ten tando mo s t ra r i mp l ica c ons ide ra r ae s ta c u l tura p oseedo ra d c u n a l to g rado d c s of is t icac iOn , c on c omp le ja s a r t icu lac ionc s i n terna s yt e r r i tor ia le s . L a

s e rá u n l engua je i conográf ico , e n b uena med ida d er ivado d c l a s r ep resen tac iones d c c sa s uo t ra s d iv imdade s , c omo med io d c e xp resar s u s p rop ia s

p regun ta q ue

i nqu ie tude se ne it e r reno d cl or e i ig io so .

s u rge e spon táneamen te d c

f orma

i nmed ia ta s e r la q ue c ómo s e h ai l egado ae s tc mve l d c c omp le j idad y c uá l h a s i do c lp apc l d c l o sj e lemen to s a l Oc tono s ,f e n ic io s ,g r icgo s , pt huco s ,e t c . ,e ne ip roce so .

E ne it e r r eno d cl a sm an ife s tac ione s ma te r ia le sd ce sa r e l ig io s idad n o s h a i lamo s , c omo h e i n ten tado mo s t ra r e n l a s p ág ina s p recedcn tes , c on u na e x t raord inar ia

Ae l lo h ab r Ia q ue r e sponde r q ue c sa a cc iOn e x ter io r , i ndudab le yf undamen ta l c omo d e sencadenan te d et odo

v ar iedad , p o r má s q ue r educ ib le , e n L am ed ida d c l o p o s ib ie , ag rupo s ;a s I , d en t ro d c l o s l uga re s d cc u l to e n e i i n ter io r d c n üc leo s h ab i tado s h emo s c r e Ido p ode r d i st ingu ir v a r io s g rupo s , a t end iendo a s u mayo r o

e ip roce so , n o h emo s d c c on s ide ra r la c omo d i rec ta y c on s tan te ; e s l a a cc ión c u l tura l r e su l tan te d c l a c o ion izac ión f en ic ia e n u n p r ime r momen to y ,e n u n s egundo momen to , d c l a p rc scnc ia g nega l a q ue h a d e tenn inado , ap a r t i r d e l o r ien ta l izan te , c lp rog res ivo a cce so ae s t ruc tu ra s s oc ia le s c omp le ja s p o rp a r te d cl a s

meno r e n t idad a rqu i tec tOmca yd e l m ismo modo e n t re l o s q ue s e e ncuen t ran f ue ra d c n üc leo s h ab i tado s h a s i do p o s ib le e s tab lecc r d i fe ren te s g rupo s , d c a cue rdo c on l a mayo r o meno r c apac idad d c v ec tonzar c l

p ob lac ionc s i nd igena s , e spec ia lmen te l a s d c l a s

t e r r i to r io y p ar t iendo b á s icamen te d c L a c uan t la y

r eg ione s c o s te ra s . S on l o s p ré s tamo s c u l tu ra le s y u na a cc iOn c u l tu ra l i n ten sa l o s r e spon sab le s d c l aa par ic ión

t i po log la d cl o se xvo to so f rcc ido sa la d i v in idad . S oy c on sc ien te d cq ue l aa g rupac iOn p ropuc s ta p od rá s e r o b je to d c c r I t ica o r ec t if icac ione s u l ter io re s ; n o o b s tan te , c on e l la h e t r a tado d ci n teg ra rl ai n fo rmac ión d cq ue h el og rado d i spone re ni mc on tex to g loba l izado r ,

d c f e nómeno s c omo C ancho R oano ol ag ran e scu l tura e n p i edra , man ife s tac iones d c u na r e l ig io s idad n ueva , l en tamen te s u rg ida p a ra s e rv ir l o s i n te re ses d c l o s g rupo s f avo rec ido s p o r l o s v en ta joso s i n te rcamb io s

c omo med io d c a ce rca rme aa qué l lo s t e s t imomo s má s t a ng ib le sd cl ar e l ig io s idad i b énca ,c ua le s s on l o s r e s to s

e conóm ico s e st ab lec ido s ; c en t ro s p resun tamen te e mpO r ico s c omo l o s d e l C ampe l lo s i rven , c omo muy

ma ter ia le s d c l o q ue h an s i do l o s l uga re s d c c u l to i bé r ico s ; s i n d uda mucho s o t ro s , y a d escub ier to s ,

b i en h a v i s to A ranegu i c omo med io d c a r t icu la r l a s r e lac ione s e n t re J a costa ye ii n te r io r ; ae l lo a nad ir Ia y o l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue o t ro s c en t ros c u l tua les , n o c os te ro s ,h ayan p od ido s e rv ir al a s m i sma s n ece s idade s d esde u n momen to a n t iguo y l uga re s c omo C ancho R oano o c ls an tua r io d c L a Mue la e n C á s tu lo s e r Ian c and ida to si dOneo s .

e spe ran s ur c conoc im ien to c omo t a le s yt a l v ez a l guno s d c l o s a qu íp re sen tado s sean d c a d sc r ipc iOn d udo sa . E n t odo caso, l o q ue a qu I h e p re tcnd ido e s u na p r imc ra a p rox imac iOn yl ar e un iOn d ce l emen to sp a ra i md eba te . L o q ue l o s t e s t imon io s c o lac ionado s n o s p e rm i ten v e r e s e ip e so a bso lu to d c u na s e r ie d c t r ad ic ione s d c

8 2

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

o rgan izar l or e l ig io so b á s icamen te c omune se nt odo i m c on jun to d c t e r r i to r io s muy d i s tan te s u no s d co t ro s ;a im c uando s e p ueden o b se rva r d i fe renc ia s l o ca le s , c on Wi é n fa s i s mayo r e n a i guno s a spec to s e n d e t r imen to d e o t ro s , p odr Iamos d ec ir q ue l o q ue c amb iará o ca s iona lmen tc s e rá e i" deco rado "p e ro n oe ii r a s fondo ; c omo h an o b se rvado Mar In yB e lén t r a s a na l iza ru no s e xvo to s t o scamen te t a i lado s d c l a p rov inc ia d c J aén ( v id . a pdo s . 3 .4 .1 .9 y3 .4 .1 .10 )c onc luyen q ue ,e np i edra oe nb ronce , me jo r op eo rt a l lado s ,t odo e l lo " e v idenc ia q ue a unque l a s p rác l icas r e l ig iosas p ud ieran s er s im i lares , l os e s l i los i conograf icos v ar iaban n o tab lemen te s egün l a s z ona s" (Ma nn & B e lén , 1 986 -87 : 9 3 ) . E s c i er to q ue a pena s c onocemo s l o s n omb re s d c l o s d io se s v enc rado s , a un c uando p a r te d c l o s m i smo s p erv iv irán e n e poca r omana , av ece s m an temendo s u

n omb rc yav cce s n o ; s i n e mba rgo , n o e s meno s c i e r to q ue D emé tc r oT an i t , oc ua lqu ie r o t ro d io s od io sa e xt ran je ro n o t c n I an n ada q ue h ace r e n n a mundo q ue , c omo e ii b énco ,h ab Ia a l canzado i mpo r tan tc s mve le s d c h omogene idad c u l tu ra l , c omo muc s t ra , p o r c j emp lo , l a e x ten s ion d cl al c ngua yl ac s c r i tu ra i b é r ica at c r r i to r io s d onde c on a n ter ior idad h ab Ian c x is t ido c u l tu ra s d c t r ad ic iOn d i fe r en te ; e if cnómcno r e l ig io so v a p a re jo a e sa e xpan s ion d c l a c u l tu ra i b dnca a l o l a rgo d e l a mb i to q ue a caba rá p o r s e r le p rop io y , d en t ro d c l a s e v iden te s v a r icdadc s l o ca le s , l ar e l ig io s idad i bé r ica s e e xp re saba m ed ian te u na s f O rmu la s c omune s ye n u no s e n to rno s s im i la r e s e nt odo s ur ad io p rop io d ca cc iOn ;c l e s tud io d c c so s l uga re s d c c u l to e s , p o r l o t a n to , p r io r i ta n io p a ra c ua lqu ie ra p rox imac iOn al ar c l ig io s idad p ro toh i s tónca d cl aP en in su la I b é r ica .

B IB UOGRAF IA D e sco e xp re sa rm ia g radec im ien to at o do sa que l lo sc o lega sq ue m eb an p enn i t ido h ace ru so d cs u s t r aba jo s ad a i n dd i to s . ABAD ,L . 1 983 . " Un c on jun to d c ma te r ia le sd cl aS c r rc ta d cA lcoy" .L ucen tum ,2 :1 73 -198 . 1 984 . " Roman izac iOn " . A lcoy .P reh is to r ia yA rqueo log la . C icn a ño sd ci n vc s t igac iOn . A lcoy : 2 59 -276 . 1 986 . " Ca s t i l lo d c Gua rdama r " .A rqueo log la e nA l ican te , 1 976 -1986 .A l ican te : 1 51 152 . 1 986a . " La E scue ra " .A rqueo log la e nA l ican te , 1 976 -1986 . A l ican t e :1 46 -147 . 1 989 . " E l s u rd e lP a l sV a lcnc iano " . H ab i ta t se ts t ruc tu re sd omc s t iquc se n Méd i ter r anéc O cc iden ta le d u ran tl a P ro toh i s to ire . ( P reac ta sd e lC o loqu io ) . A r le s : 7 5 -79 . 1 992 . " Te r raco ta si b é r ica sd e lC as t i l lo d c Gua rdama r " .E s tud io sd cA rqueo log la I b énca yR omana . H omcna je a E n r ique P la B a l le s te r . V a lenc ia : 2 25 -238 . ABAD ,L . ;S ALA S EL l. F S ,F . 1 993 .E lp ob lado i b é r ico d cE lO ra l ( San F u lgenc io ,A l ican te ) .T raba jo s V ar io sd e l S . I .P . ,9 0 . V a lenc ia . ALMAGRO GORBEA .M .J . 1 983 ."Un d cpó s i to v o t ivo d ct c r raco ta se nV i la i ico s" . Homcna jc a lP ro f . Ma r t in A lmag ro B a sch ,I . Mad r id : 2 91-307 . 1 987 . " E la r ea s upe rf ic ia ld cl a sp ob lac ione si b é r ica s " .L o sa sen tam ien to si b é r ico sa n te l ar oman izac ión . Mad r id : 2 1 -34 . 1 99 3 . " Pa lac io yo rgan izac iOn s oc ia le nl aP en In su la I b é r ica " . L engua yC u l tu na e nl aH i span ia P re r romana . A c ta s VC o logu io s ob re L engua s yC u l tu ra sP rc r romana sd cl aP en In su la I bé r ica . S a lamanca : 2 1-48 . 1 993a . " Ta r teso d e sde s u sa r ea sd ci nf luenc ia : l as oc iedad p a lac ia le nl aP en in su la I bénca" .L o se n igma sd c T a r te so . Mad r id : 1 39 -161 . ALMAGRO GORBEA ,M . ; DOM INGUEZ DE LA CONCHA ,A . 1 988 -89 . " E lp a lac io d cC ancho R oano ys u s p a ra le lo sa rqu i tec tOn ico s yf unc iona lc s" . Z ephy ru s .4 1 -42 :339 -382 . ALMAGRO GORBEA ,M . ; DO M fNGUEZ DE LA CONCHA ,A . ; LOPEZ A I v IB ITE ,F .1 990 . " Cancho R oano . Un p a lac io o r ien ta l izan tc e nl aP en In su la I b é r ica " . MDA I(M ) .3 1 : 2 5 1-308 . ALVAR EZQUERRA ,J .1 992 ,c . p . " Rc l ig io s idad yr e l ig ione s e nH ispan ia " APAR IC IO

P EREZ ,J .1 976 .

" E lc u l to e nc ucva sd cl ar eg iOn v a lenc iana " . H omena je aG a rc i a yB e l l ido ,I .RUCM ,

2 5 : 9 -30 . ARANEGU I L GASCO ,C . 1 987 . " A lguna sc on s t rucc ione sp r eaugu s tca sd cS agun to" . L o sa s en tam ien to si b ér ico s a n tc la r omar nzac iOn . Mad r id : 1 55 -162 .

8 3

ADOLFO J .DOM ! NGUEZ MONEDERO

ARANEG IJ I GASCO ,C . 1 991 ,e . p . " E lc f r cu lo d e l S ude s te ,e f ec to d cu na n ueva o nen tac ión e ne ic ome rc io e n t re g nego s eI b e ro s" . S impo s io G r iego s eI bem s ,s i g lo s V I IV a .C . 1 99 1 . " Un t emp lo r epub l icano e ne ic en t ro c I v ico s agun t ino " . T emp io sR omano sd eH ispan ia . C uade rno sd eA rqu i tec tu ra R omana 167 -82 . ARANEGU I GASCO ,C . 1 99 3 . " Dc l ac i udad i b é i ica al ac i udad r omana : S agun to" . L aC iudad e ne i Mundo R omano . P re -Ac ta sd e lX IV C ong re so I n temac iona l d cA rqueo log Ia O s ica . Vo l . 1 .P onenc ia s . T a r ragona :1 5 -20 . 1 993 ,e . p . " Loca s a c ra I be r ica " . Homena je aA . N icke ls . ARCEL IN ,P . ; DEDET ,B . ,S C I I WALLER ,M . 1 992 . " E space sp ub l ic s ,e space sr e l ig ieux p ro toh is tonque se nG au le m é r id iona le " . Documen t sd 'A rchéo log ie Mé i id iona le ,15 : 1 8 1 -24 1 . ARTEAGA ,0 . ; BLECH ,M . 1 987 . " La r oman izac ión e nl a sz ona sd cP o rcuna yMeng iba r( J aén )" . L o s a s en tam icn to sB a rce lona )" . Ampu r ia s ,4 1-42 : 2 03 -242 . BARRA BAGNASCO ,M . 1 990 . " Nuov id ocumen t i s t i lc u i to d iA f rod i te aL oc r iE p ize f ir i" . PP .4 5 :42 -61 . BARR IAL IJ OVE , 0 . 1 991 . " Nove s d ade s s ob re l e s i nhumac ion s i n fan t i ls d e l p ob la t r ic d e l T u rÖ d c C a n 'O l ivd " . L ime s . 1 :1 36 -140 . BARR JAL ,0 . ; CORTADELLA ,J .1 986 . " Le se xcavac ion sa rqueo lóg ique sd e lT u ró d cC an O l ive d c Mon tf io r i t . R iu S ec " . B u t l le t Id ' inf ormac ió d cS a rdanyo la ,6 1 . 1 986a . " T roba l la d ' un s ac r i f ic ia lp ob la ti b e r ic l a ie tA d e lT u rö d cC an 'O l ivé d c Mon tf io r i t( Ce rdanyo la d e l V a l le s , V a l le sO cc iden ta l )" .E s tud ios d c An h igüedad 3 : 1 33 -135 . BARR IL V ICENTE , M .M . 1 990 . " Do s i m i tac ione s d c k emo i e n e i Mu seo A rqueo iog ico P rov inc ia l d c P a lenc ia " . A c ta sd e li !C ongre so d cH i s tor ia d eP a lenc ia ,I .P a lenc ia 3 27 -345 . BE IRAO , C . DE M . , TAVARES ,C . ; SOARES ,J . ; VARELA ,M . ; VARELA ,R . , 1 985 . " Depö s i to v o t ivo d a II dade .

d oF er ro d cG a rvao . No t Ic ia d ap r ime ira c ampanha d ce scava cöe s" . 0A rqueO logo P or tuguê s , 3 :4 5 -136 . BE IRAO ,C . DE Me ta l . . 1 985 -86 . " Um d epo s i to v o t ivo d a II dade d oF e r ro ,n os t i ld cP o r tuga l , ea ss ua s r e la çöe s c o rn a sc u i tu ra sd a Me se ta " . V e le ia ,2 -3 : 2 07 -221 . < BELTRAN LLOR IS , M . 1 976 . A rqueo log la eH is tor ia d c l a s c i udade s a n t igua s d e l C abe zo d eA lca Jd d e A za i la ( T e rue l ) . Monog raf la sA rqueo lóg ica s , 1 9 . Z a ragoza . BELTRAN MART INEZ , A . 1 962 . " Do s n o ta s s ob re e ip ob lado h a l ls tá t i ico d e l C abezo d c Mon león : I .L ap i an ta . I . L o sk e rno i" . C ae sa raugu s ta . 1 9 -20 : 7 -36 . 1 964 . " Dc n uevo s ob re k e rno i( Addenda aC ae sa raugu s ta 1 920 ,

p .

2 1-36 ) " . C ae sa raugu s ta . 2 1-22 : 1 5 -17 .

1 964a . "Má sn o t ic ia s s ob re k e rno i" . C ae sa raugu s ta .2 3 -24 : 15 -117 . BENDALA GALAN , M . ; F ERNANDEZ OCHOA ,C . ; FUENTES , A . ; ABAD CASAL ,L . 1 987 . " Ap rox imac ión a l u rban i smo p re r romano yal o s f enómeno s d c i r an s ic ión yd cp o tenc iac ión t r a s l ac onqu is ta " . L os a sen tam ien tos i b é r ico sa n te l ar oman i zac iOn . Mad r id : 1 2 1-140 . BER I v IE JO BARRERA , J .C . 1 992 . " Dc l aA rqueo iog Ia d c l ar e l ig ion al aA rqueo iog Ia d c l a s f o rma s s imbó l ica s : b a se s t c ór ica s y me todo lOg ica s" . F in is T e rrae .E s tud ios e n l embran za d o P rof . D r . A lber to B a l i l . S an t iago d c C ompo s te la : 4 17 -438 . BERNABEU ,J ; BONEr ,H . ;G IJER IN , P . ; MATA . C . 1 986 . " Aná l is is m ic roespac ia l d e lp ob iado i b énco d e lP un ta l d e l sL iop s( O locau ,V a lenc ia ) " . A rqueo log la E spacw l , 9 .T e rue l : 3 2 1-337 . BERROCAL RANGEL , L . 1 989 . " E l a sen tam ien to ' c é l t ico ' d e l C a s t re jOn d c C apo te H igue ra l aR ea l , B ada joz )" . C uPAUA M . 1 6 : 2 45 -295 . 1 99 1 . " Avance a le s tud io d e ld epó s i to v o t ivo a l to impe r ia ld e lC a s t r e jOn d cC apo te ( H igue rala R ea l ,B ada joz ) " . E x tremadura A rqueo lOg ica , I i . J ornada s d e P reh i s tor ia yA rqueo log la e n E x tremadura ( 1986 -1990 ) . Mé r ida á ce re s : 3 31-344 . 1 992 . L o sp ueb lo sc é l t ico sd e lS u roes te d el aP en in su la i bé r ica . Mad r id . BLANCO , A . ; CORZO , R . 1 983 . "Mon te A lga ida . Un s an tua r io p ün ico e n J ad e sembocadura d e l G uada lqu iv ir " . H i s tor ia 1 6 ,87 : 1 23 -128 . BLANQUEZ P EREZ , J . 1 993 . " E l p ob iado i b énco d c L a Qué jo la" . H omena je a D . R at i l Am i trano . P a t ina . 6 :

V

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9 9 -107 . BLANQUEZ PEREZ , J . ; OL MOS RO MERA , R . 1 993 . " E l p ob lam ien to I bé r ico An t iguo e n l a P rov inc ia d c A lbace te : e it im ia te r io d el aQ ué jo 1a ( San P ed ro ) ys uc on tex to a r queo ióg ico" . A rqueo logIa e nA lbace te T o ledo : 8 5 -108 . BLAY GARC IA , F . 1 992 . " Cueva Me r ine l ( Buga r ra ) . Aná l is i s d e l af a una " . E s tud ios d e A rqueo logIa i bé r ica y R omana .H omena je aE nr ique P la B a l le s te r .Va lenc ia : 2 83 -287 . BLAZQUEZ MART INEZ ,J .M . 1 977 . " D io se s yc aba l lo se ne i mundo i b é i ico " .I magen yM i to . Mad r id : 2 90 -306 . 1 97 7a . " La i n te rp re tac ión d cl ap á te ra d cT iv isa " . I magen yM i lo . Mad r id : 2 21-24 1 . 1 977b " Nueva sa po r tac ione sa la i n te rp re tac ión d el ap á te ra d cT iv isa " . I magen yM i lo . Mad r id : 2 42 -245 . 1 977c . " E lc u l to al a sa gua se nl aP en in su la I bé t ica " .I magen yM i lo . Mad r id : 3 07 -330 . 1 98 3 . P r im i t iva sr e l ig iones i b é r ica s ,H .R e l ig ione sp rerromana . s . Mad r id . 1 990 . " La r e l ig ion d cl o sp ueb lo sd cl aH ispan ia p r e r romana " . C o loqu io s obre ' R e l ig ione sP reh i s tör ica sd el a -

P en insu la I bé r ica ' . Z ephyr is . 4 3 : 2 23 -233 . 1 99 1 . " Lo ss an tua ro si b é r ico sd cl ap rov inc ia d cJ a én " . R e l ig ione se n l aE spana A n t igua . Madr id : 1 9 -27 . BLAZQUEZ M ART INEZ , J .M . ; GARC I AGELABERT , M .P . 1 987 . " E l i b c r i smo e n l ac i udad d c C á s tu lo" . L os a sen tam ien tos i b é r ico sa n te l ar oman i zaöc ión . Mad r id : 4 3«54 . 1 990 . " Ägä ische E inf lü s se a u fd a sG eb ie ta m Obe ren Guada lqu iv i r " . O r ien ta l i sch -Ägä i sche E inf lü sse i nd e r E uropä ischen B ronze ze i t . Bonn : 1 09 -123 .BLAZQUEZ MART INEZ , J .M . ; VAL IENTE MALLA , J . 1 981 . C a s tu lo I I . EAE 17 , Mad r id . BLAZQUEZ MART INEZ , J .M . ; VAL IENTE MALLA , J .1 985 . " E l s an tua i io p re ibd r ico d c C á s tu io . R e lac ione s e n t re l a Me se ta yA nda luc i ae nl aP ro toh is to r ia " .A c ta sd e lI IC o loqu io s obre l e ngua s yc u l tu ra sp a leoh ispán ica s . S a lamanca : 1 79 -200 . BLAZQUEZ MART INEZ , J .M . ; GARC IA -GELABERT , M .P . ; LOPEZ PARDO , F . 1 985 . C as tu lo V .E AE , 1 40 . Mad r id . 1 986 . " La Mue la d cC á s tu lo ( P rov . J a én )u nd i h re S i ed lung söpha sen" . MDA I (M ) . 2 7 : 6 9 -86 . BLECH , M . 1 989 . " Repub l ikan i sche B ronze s ta tue t ten a u s S agun t " . H omena ige A . C hab re t . 1 888 -1988 . V a lenc ia : 4 5 - 9 1 . 1 990 . " I be r ische T e r rako t ten . B eobach tungen z ue i ne rS ta tue t te i mA rchäo log ischen Mu seum v on Ma laga " . V e rdo lay . 2 :9 1-96 . 1 992 . " A lguna sr e f lex ione ss ob re l ap i á s t ica e nb a r ro ,b a sada se nl a s t e r raco ta sp roceden te sd cl an ec rOpo l i s i b é r ica d cE IC iga r ra le jo , Mu la ( Mu rc ia )" . B AEAA .3 2 : 2 3 -3 1 . BONE-1 7 ,H . 1 992 . " La c e rám ica d cS an tM ique ld cU ir i. . s uc on tcx to a rqueo lOg ico" . L as oc iedad i b é r ica at r avé sd e .

l ai magen . Mad r id : 2 24 -236 . BONE-1 7 ,H . ; MATA ,C . ;G IJER IN ,P . 1 990 . " Cabeza sv o t iva s yl u ga re sd cc u l to e de tano s" . V erdo lay . 2 :1 85 -199 . BRONCANO RODR IGUEZ , S . 1 989 . E l d epO s i to v o t ivo i b é r ico d cE l Ama re jo . B one te ( A lbace te ) . E .A .E . 1 56 . Mad r id . BRONCANO RODR IGUEZ ,S . ; BLANQUEZ P EREZ ,J .1 985 . E l Ama re jo .B one te ( A lbace te ) .E .A .E . 1 39 . Mad r id . BROTONS YAGUE ,F . ; RA MALLO A SENS IO ,S .F . 1 993 . " Un s an tua r io e x t rau rbano : l aE ncamac iön d cC a ravaca ( Mu rc ia )" . L a C iudad e n e i Mundo R omano . P reAc tas d e lX IV C ongre so I n ie rnac iona ld eA rqueo iogIa C ió . s ica . V o l .2 .C omun icac ione s .T a r ragona : 7 3 . BRUNAUX , J .L . 1 991 . "L a s s anc tua ire s c e l t iquc s e tl e ur s r appo r t s a vec I c monde méd i te r ranéen " . L e ss anc tua ire s c e l t ique se tl em onde m éd i te r rané en .P a r i s : 7 12 . BURCH , J . ; CARRASCAL , C ; . CASELLAS , L .E . ; MER INO , J . ; NAVARRO , M . 1 993 . 'T hp to lemo . E l c u l to a D cmé tc r yl o s m i s tc r io s e l eu smo s . H a l lada e nG e rona u na r ep rc sen tac iOn e xcepc iona l d e l h é roe g r icgo" . R ev i s ta d eA rqueo log( a , 1 44 : 4 0 -45 . CABALLERO KL INK , A . ; MENA MU I OZ ,P . 1 987 . " Lo s e xvo to s i b d r ico sd e l o pp idum d cA la rco s" . XV I I C .N .A . Z a ragoza : 6 15 -633 .

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CABRERA BONET , P . 1 987 . " Con s ide rac ione s e nt o rno al ac e rám ica á t ica d c f i ne s d e l s i g lo V e n E x t remadu ra" . ü re lwn . 3 :2 15 -221 . CELEST INO P EREZ ,S .1 99 1 . " Nuevo sja r ro s t a r ts ico sd cb ronce e ne iS u rP en in su la r " . MDAI (M ) . 3 2 : 5 2 -85 . 1 992 . " Cancho Roano . Un c en t ro c ome rc ia ld cc a rác te rp o i f t ico re l ig io so ei n I luenc ia o r ien ta l" . R S tudFen .2 0 : 1 9 -46 . CELEST INO

P EREZ ,

S . ; MMENEZ AV ILA , F . J . 1 989 . " Una o f renda e n l ae s tanc ia N -4 d e l P a lac io -San tuar io d c

C ancho R oano " . AEA . 6 2 : 2 26 -235 . CELEST INO P EREZ ,S . ;J TMENEZ AV ILA ,F . J . 1 993 . E lpof r ir io -san lua r io d eC ancho R oano . I V .E lS ec tor N one . B ada joz . CELEST INO P EREZ ,S . ;J UL IAN RODR IGUEZ ,J .M . 1 99 1 . " E l c aba l lo d eb ronce d cC ancho R oano " . C uPAUA M . 1 8 : 1 79 -188 . CERR ILLO MART IN DE CACERES , E . 1 990 . " A rqueo log Ia d e l a s r e l ig ione s p r im i t iva s ya rqueo log Ia d c l a s r e l ig iones o rgan izada s . Una r ef lex ion" . C o loqu io s obre R e l ig iones P reh is tOr ica s d e l a P eninsu la I bér ica ' . Z ephy ru s . 4 3 : 1 89 -192 . CERR ILLO MART IN DE CACERES , E . ; ONG IL VALENT IN , MI . ; SAUCEL )A , M . I 1 984 . " Re l ig iOn ye spac io . a p rox imac iOn au na A rqueo log Ia d cl ar e l ig iOn " . A rqueo log( aE spac ia J , 1 .T e rue l : 4 1-54 . CHAPA BRUNET , T . 1 980 . " Nueva s e xcavac ione s e n e iC e r ro d c l o s S an to s Mon t ea leg re d e l C a s t i l lo , A lbace te ) . C ampaf ia d eO c tub re d e 1 977 " . A l -Ba s i l . 6 :81 -111 . 1 983 . " P r i ine ro sr e su l tado sd cl a se xcavac ione se nc lC e r ro d cl o s S an to s( Mon tea leg re d e lC a s t i l lo ,A lbace te ) . C ampaf i a sd c 1 977 -1981" . XV IC .N .A . Z aragoza : 6 43 -653 . 1 984 . " E lC e r ro d cl o s S an to s( A lbace te ) . E xcavac ione sd c 1 977 -1981" .A l -Ba s i l . I S : 1 09 -124 . 1 990 . " A lguna sc on s ide rac ione s s ob re c le s tud io d cl o s s an tua r io si b é r ico s " . Z ephyru s ,4 3 : 2 49 -251 . 1 991 . " La ' a rqueo log Ia d cl a muc r te ' : p l an tam ien to s ,p rob lema s yr e su l tado s" . F on s Me l la r ia . C u r so d e V e rano1990 :A rqueo logI ad cl a Mue r ie : Me todo log la yP e r söpec l iva sA c tua ie s . C O rdoba : 1 3 -38 . CHAPA BRUNET , T . ; MART INEZ NAVARRETE , M . I . 1 990 . " Va lo rac iOn g ene ra l d c l a s e xcavac iones d e sa r ro l lada s e n c lC e r ro d c l o s S an to s (Mon tea leg re d e l C a s t i l lo , A lbac e te )" . Homena je aJ . Mo l ina . Mu rc ia : 1 03 -111 . CLÜA ,J .A . 1 988 . " Lo s t h ym ia te r ia ,D cmé te r yl om i s té r ico " . F aven t ia . 1 0 : 2 9 -36 . CO MELLA , A . 1 981 . " T ipo log ia c d i fu s ione d c i c omp le s s i v o t iv i i n I t a l ia i nc poca med io ct a rdo repubb l icana . C on t r ibu to a l la s t ona d e l l 'a r t ig iana to a n t ico" . MEFR . 9 3 : 7 17 -803 . CORZO SANCHEZ , R . 1 991 . " P ieza s e t ru sca s d e l s an tua r io d c l aA lga ida ( San it ica r d c B a r rameda , C ad iz )" . L a p re senc ia d c ma te r ia le t ru sco e nI aP en in su la I bé r ica . B arce lona :3 99 -411 . COSTA MAGNA ,L . ; S ABB IONE ,C . 1 990 . U na c i l ia i n Magna G rec ia .L . ocn iE p i zef i r i . R egg io C a lab r ia . CUADRADO D IAZ , E . 1 950 . " Excavac ione s e n e is an tua r io i b é r ico d e l C iga r ra le jo (Mu la , Mu rc ia )" . I nf orme s y Memon ia sd el aC om z . sar Ia G ene ra ld cE xcavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica s .2 1 . Mad r id . CUADRADO D IAZ , E . ; RUANO RU IZ , E . 1 989 . " E scu l tu ra s d c ë qu ido s p roceden te s d c l ac o lecc ión A lhonoz ( Puen t eG en i l ,C O rdoba )" . T P .4 6 : 2 0 3 -228 . CURA IMORERA , M . 1 989 . " En te r ramen t s i n f an t i ls a l Mo l Id 'E sp igo l d cT o rnabou s ( U rge l l , L le ida ) " . C uade rno s P reh a . yA rq . C a . s ie l lonen se s . 1 4 : 1 7 3 -181 . DE CAZANOVE , 0 . 1 991 . " Ex -vo to d c i ' l ta i ie r é pub l ica ine : s u r q ue lque s a spec t s d c l e u r m isc a u r ebu t " . " Le s s anc tua ire sc l t ique se tI c monde m éd i te r ranéen " .Pa r i s : 2 03 -214 . DE M IRO ,E . 1 986 . " C iv i l tà r upe s t re d e l l 'Ag r igen t ino . E semp id a l la P rc is tona a l Med ioevo " . L aS i c i l ia R upe s t re n d c on te s to d e l le c i v i l tà m ed i te r rance .G a la t ina : 2 35 -244 . DE PO UGNAC ,F . 1 984 .L aN a i ssance d el ac i te g recque . P a r i s . DO M INGUEZ MONEDERO , A .J . 1 988 . " A lguna s o b se rvac ione s e n t o rno a l' c ome rc io c on t inen ta l g nego ' e n l a Me se ta m e r id iona l ". A c ta sd e l C ong re so d cH is to j ia d cC a s t i l la -La Mancha .I I . C iudad R ea l : 3 27 -334 . 1 989 . L ac o lon i zac ión g n iega e nS i c i l ia .G r iegos , i nd I gena s ypün icos e nl aS i c i l ia A nca ica :I n te racc idn

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a cu l turac ión . B .A .R . m t . S e r ie s ,5 49 . O xfo rd . 1 99 1 . L ap o l i s yL ae xpans ion c o lon ia lg r iega . Mad r id . EDLUND ,I . E .M . 1 987 . T he G od s a nd t h eP lace . L oca t ion a nd f unc t ion o fS anc tuar ie s i nt h ec oun tr y s ide o fE trur ia a nd Magna G raec ia .( 700 -400 B .C . ) . E s toco lmo . E IROA ,J . J . 1 988 . " Lo sr e l ieve s d e l P o tn io sN ippon d cL o rca ( Mu rc ia )" . H omena je a !P rof . E duardo R ipo l lP e re l lO , 1 .E spac io . T i empo yF orma . S e r iel l . 1 :1 05 -115 . E IROA , J . J . ; MART INEZ , A . 1 988 . N o t ic ia d e d os r epre sen iac ione s d ep o tn ios h ippon e ncon t rada s e n L orca ( Mu rc ia ) .A na le sd eP reh i s ior ia yA rqueo log(a .3 :1 23 -133 . F ERNÁNDEZ GO MEZ , F . 1 982 . " Una r ep l ica e n b a r ro d e l a D ama d e l C e r ro d c l o s S an to s" . H omena je a C . F e rnánde zC h icar ro . Mad r id : 1 73 -177 . Mora les .M i sce lánea d ee s tud io sc on m o t ivo d es uj ub i lac iön . Mad r id : 6 39 -647 . 1 988 . " Ter raco ta s t u rde tana sd e lG uada lqu iv i r -Co rbonc s " . H omena je a lP rof .E duardo R ipo i lP ere l lO , I .E spac io , T i empoy F orma . S e r ie I l . 1 :143 -151 . F ERNÁNDEZ J URADO , J . ; CABRERA BONEF , P . 1 987 . " Come rc io g r icgo e n Hue lva af i ne s d e l s i g lo V a .C ." G rec se tI bé re sa uI V es i éc le a van tJ e su s -Chr i s t . C ommerce e ii c onograph ie . REA . 8 9 : 1 49 -159 . F ERNÁNDEZ RODR IGUEZ ,M . ;J UAN GARC IA ,A . ; CABALLERO KL INK ,A . 1 993 . " A 1a rco s . E lc e r ro s ag rado d cl aO re tan ia " . R ev i s ia d eA rqueo log (a . 1 52 : 3 643 . F ERNÁNDEZ VEGA ,A . 1 982 . " E lemen to sa rqu i tec tón ico sd cl o ss an tua i io si b é r ico s" .H e l ike . 1 :1 53 -162 . GARC IA CANO , J .M . ; I N IESTA SAN MART IN , A . ; PAGE DEL POZO , V . 1 994 , e . p . " E l s an tua i io i b& ico d c C o imb ra d e lB a r ranco Ancho ( J um i l la , Mu rc ia )" . A na le sd eP reh i s tor ia yA rqueo logI a .7 . GARC IA Y BEL UDO ,A . 1 963 . " Da sA r tem is ion v on S agun t " . MDA J (M ) .4 :87 -98 . GAR C IA -GELABERT P EREZ ,M .P . 1 987 . " Evo luc iön s oc io -po l If lca d c C J ' s tu lo : s oc iedad d cj e fa tu ra" . L ucen tum . 6 :29 -41 . G IL -MASCARELL , M . 1 975 . " Sob re l a s c ucva s i b é r ica s d e l P a l s V a lenc iano . Ma te r ia le s yp rob lema s" . P LAy . 1 : 2 8 1 -332 . 1 977 . " Excavac ione s e nl aC ucva r i tua li b é r ica d cV i l largo rdo d e lC ab r ie l ( Va lenc ia )" .X IV C .N .A . Z a ragoza : 7 05 -712 . G I MENO PASCUAL , J . 1 991 . E s iud ios d e a rqu i tec lura y u rban i smo e n l a s c i udade s r omana . s d e l N orde s te d e H i span ia . Mad r id . GRAC IA ALONSO , F . ; MUN ILLA CABR ILLANA , G . ; PALLARES CO MAS , R . 1 991 . " E s t ruc turac ión d e l p ob lam ien to ys i s tema s d e fen s ivo s e nc la r ea d cl ad e scmbocadu ra d e lE b ro . Do sc a so s d ce s tud io : L a Mo le ta d e l R eme i ( A lcana r ) ye iC a s te l le t d c B anyo ie s ( T iv is sa )" . F or t if icac ions . L ap rob lem t i ca d c i ' i bèr ic p ie : ( s eg l e s I V 1 1 1a .C . ) . Man re sa : 6 7 -78 . GUER IN , P . ; CALVO ,M . ; GRAU ,E . ; GU ILLEN ,P .M . 1 989 . " ' Fumba si n fan t i le s e nc lC a s tc l lc td cB emabé ( L i r ia , V a lenc ia ) . I nhumac ionc si n fan t i le s e nc lá mb i to m ed i te r r áneo e spano l ( s . V I I a .E . a tId .E . )" . C uad i 'rnos P reh ° .y A rq .C as te l lonen se s . 1 4 : 6 3 -93 . G IJER IN ,P . ; MART INEZ VALLE ,R . 1 987 -88 . " I nhumac ione si n fan t i le se np ob lado si b d r ico sd e la r ea v a lcnc iana " . S agun tum ,2 1 : 2 31-265 . GULL IN I ,G . 1 977 . " A rch i te t tu ra aLocri". A t t id e l XV IC onvegno d iS t ud is u l la Magna G rec ia .N ápo le s :4 09 -439 . 1 980 . L ac u l tura a rch i te t ton ica d iL ocr iE p i zef i r i .T ar en to . GUS ! GENER ,F . 1 970 . " En tcr ram ien to si n f an t i le si b é r ico se nv i v ienda" . P yrenae . 6 :6 6 -70 . 1 989 . " Po s ib le sr e c in to sn ec ro lá t r ico si n fan t i le si b é r ico se nC a s te l lón " . C uade rnos d eP reh i s ior ia yA rqueo logIa C a s ie l lonense , 1 4 : 1 9 -42 . 1 992 . " Nueva sp e r spec t iva se nc lc onoc im ien to d cl o sc n te r ram ien to si n fan t i le sd cé poca i b é t ica" . E s tud io sd c A rqueo log Ia I bé r ica yR omana . H omena je aE nr ique P la B a l le s te r . V a lenc ia : 2 39 -260 . GUS ! GENER , F . 1 993 . " Nove s p un tua l i tzac ion s e n to rn d e ls e s tab l iömen t s i b dr ic s a mb e n tc r ramen t s i n fan t i ls" . H omena . tge aM ique !T ar rade l l .B a rce lona :4 63 -473 .

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1 IABA QU IROS , S . ; RODR IGO LOPEZ , V . 1 990 . " E l t ema d e l c u l to al a s a gua s ys u c on t inu idad e nr e lac ión c on l a s v I a sn a tura le s d cc omun icac ión" . C o loqu io s obre ' R e l ig ione sP reh i s tó r ica sd el aP en insu la I bé r ica ' .Z ephy rus . 4 3 : 2 71 -279 . HACKENS , T . 1 963 . " Fau isae" . E tudes é l ru sco i ta i ique s . Mé langes p our 1 e 25ème a nn iversa ire d e l a c ha i re dE i ru sco log ie aI ' Un iver s i tEde L ou va in .L ova ina : 7 1 -99 . J ORGE ARAGONESES , M . 1 968 . " La b ad i la r i tua l i b d r ica d e L a L uz ( Mu rc ia ) yl at opog ral Ia a rqueo lóg ica d e a que l la z ona ,s eg tn l o s( i l t imo sd e scub r im icn to s" . A na les d el aU n ive r s idnd d e Mu rc ia . 2 6 : 3 17 -346 . J OST , M . 1 992 . " Sanc tua ires r u raux e ts anc tua ir e s u rba in s e n A rcad ie " . L e S anc tua i re G rec . E n t re t ien s Hard i , XXXV I I . G ineb ra 2 05 -239 . MOLTO , J UAN IMOLTO . J .1 987 -88 . " E l c on jun t d c t e r raco te s v o t ive s d e l s an tua i i i b d i ic d c l aS e r r e ta ( A lco i , C ocen ta ina ,P en g u i la )" . S agun twn ,2 1 : 2 95 -329 . J UAN IMOLTO , J .1 990 . " La p l a s t ica i b é r ica e n a r c i l la d c l ap rov inc ia d e A l ican te" . A yud c z . c al aI n ve s t igac iOn . -

1 986 -87 .3 .A l ican te : 1 39 -145 . KURTZ ,W .S . 1 993 . " Un p o s ib le t ema h e ro ico i br ico " .S agun tum . 2 6 : 2 39 -245 . L ILLO CARP IO , P .A . 1 979 -80 . " La s r e l ig ione s i nd Igena s d c l aH ispan ia An t igua e n c lS udes te P en in su la r . E l S an tua r io d e lR ecue s to ( Ceheg mn )" . A na le s U n iv . Murc ia .P i losof la yL e t ra s . 3 8 : 1 95 -207 . 1 98 1 . E lp ob lam ien lo i bé r ico e n Murc ia . Mu rc ia . 1 983 . " Una a po r tac ión a le s tud io d cl ar e l ig ion i b énca : l ad io sa d cl o sl obo sd cl a Umb r ia d cS a lch i tc , Mo ra ta l la ( Mu rc ia )" . XV IC .N .A . Z a ragoza : 1 986 -87 . " Un s i ngu la rt i po d ce xvo to : l a sp equeüa sf a lca ta s" . H omena je a lP rof . G ra t in iano N ie lo , I .C uPAUA M . 1 3 -14 :3 3 -46 L ISS I , E . 1 961 . " G l i S cav i d e l la S cuo la N az iona le d iA rcheo log ia aL ocn E p izef i r i ( a nn i 1 950 -1956 ) " . A t l i V i i C ongre sso I n lerna z iona le d iA rcheo log ia C la ss ica .R oma : 1 09 -115 . LOPEZ AZOR I N ,F .P . 1 993 . " E lP ad re L a sa lde yl o sd e scub r i in ien to sd e lC e r ro d cl o s S an to s " . BAEAA .3 3 : 4 5 -53 . < LOPEZPALO MO ,L .A . 1 981 . " A lhonoz : E xcavac ione sd e1973 a1 978 " . NAH . 1 :33 -187 . 1 98 3 . " A lhonoz ,c i udad p e rd ida e nl ap roö toh is tona a nda luza " . R ev i s ta d eA rqueo log Ia ,2 6 : 1 6 -23 . LO WE , C . 1 978 . ' The h i s to r ica l s i gn if icance o fe a r ly L a t in v o t ive d epo s i t s ( up t o4 th c en tu ry B .C . ) " . P aper s o f I t a l ian A rchaeo logy ,1 .Ox fo rd : 1 4 1-152 . LUCAS P EL UCER ,M .R . 1 981 . " San tua r io s yd io se s e nl aB a ja E poca d cl aC u l tu ra I b é r ica " . L aB a ja E poca d el a C u l tu ra I bé r ica . Mad r id : 2 33 -293 . LUCAS P ELL ICER , M .R . ; RUANO R IJ IZ , E . 1 990 . " Sob re l a a rqu i tec tu ra i bé r ica d c C á s tu lo ( J aén ) : R ccon s t rucc ión d cu na f a chada monumen ta l" . AEA . 6 3 : 4 3 -64 . LLOBREGAT CO NES A, E .A . 1 972 . Contestania

i bérica .

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1 984 . , " I be r izac ión " . A lcoy .P reh i s tor ia yA rqueo log(a . C ien a / lo sd ei n ve s t igac ión .A lcoy : 2 31-258 . 1 984a . " Un a l ta rd cp e r fume sd ct i po o r ien ta le nc ly ac im ien to i b é r ico d cl aI le ta d c ls B anyc t s( E lC ampe l lo , A l ican te )" . B o le t I nA soc . E spano la O r ien ta l is ta s .2 0 :3 0 1-308 . 1 985 . " Do st emp le si b é r ic s al ' i n tc r io rd e lp ob la td cl ' i l le ta d e ls B anyc t s" . F onamen t s . 5 :1 03 -111 . 1 985 -a " E lc on u n to d ct emp lo si b é r ico sd cl a' I l le ta d ' e ls B anye t s '( E lC ampe l lo )" . S t ud ia H i s ior ica i nh onorem V i cen te Mar t ine z More l l i . f . A l ican te : 1 87 -205 . L LOBREGAT CONESA ,E .A . 1 986 . " I l le ta d c ls B anyc t s" . A rqueo log ia e nA l ican te , 1 976 -1986 . A l ican t e : 6 3-67 . 1 988 . " Un c on jun to d ct emp lo si b é r ico sd e l s i g lo I Va .C . h a l lado e nl a se xcavac ionc sd cl aI s la d e lC amp e l lo ( A l ican te )" . H omena je aS amue ld el o sS an tos .A lbace te : 1 37 -143 . 1 993 . " L ' Ilc ta d c l sB anyc t s( E lC ampe l lo ,C amp d 'A lacan t ) . ‚ Fou u nempO r ion?" . H omena ige aM ique lT arrad e l l . B a rce lona :4 21 -428 . LLOBREGAT CONESA , E .A . ; CORTELL , E . ; J UAN , J . ; S EGURA , J .M . 1 992 . " E l u rban ismo i b d r ico e n l a S e r re ta " . R ecerque sd e l Mu seu d ' Ako i . 1 :3 7 -70 . LLORENS IRA MS ,J .M . ; PUNS IBRUN ,E . ; TOLEDO IMUR ,A . 1 986 . " La d i s ir ibuc iön d e l c spac io e nc lr c c in to

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

f o r t if icado i br ico d e Pu ig -Ca s te l le t ' ( L io re t d e Ma r -La S e lva , G irona )" . A rqueo logIa E spac ia l , 9 .T erue l : 2 37 -256 . 1 989 . " L 'hab i ta tf o r t if lé d uP u ig C a s te l le ta L lo re td e Ma r( Ca ta logue )" . Hab i ta t se is t ruc ture sd ome s l ique se n Méd i terranée O cc iden ta le d u ran il aP ro ioh is to ire .( Preac ta sd e lC o ioqu io ) . A r le s : 10 -114 . MALK IN ,I .1 987 .R e l ig ion a nd c o lon i za t ion i nA nc ien tG reece . L e iden . MALUQUER DE MOTES , J .1 981 . E ls an tua r io p ro toh i s tó r ico d e Z a la ,nea d e l aS e rena ( Bada joz ) . 1 978 -1981 . B a rce lona . 1 982 . "Mo l Id 'E sp igo l ,T omabou s" . L e se xcavac ion sa rque ibg ique s aC a ta lunya e ne i sd ar rer sa ny s .B a rce lona : 2 72 -276 . 1 98 3 . E is an tua r io p ro toh i s tó r ico d eZ a lwnea d el aS e rena ,B ada jo z .H . 1 98 1-1982 . B a rce lona . 1 987 " Come rc io c on t inen ta lf ocen se e nl aE x t remadu ra c en t ra l" .C e ràm ique sg regue s iF i e len I s t ique s al a P eni n su la I bé r ica . Monograf ie s Empor i tanes , V I I .B a rce lona : 1 9 -25 . MALUQ IJER DE MOTES ,J . ; CELEST INO , S . ; GRAC IA ,F . ; MUN ILLA ,G . 1 986 . E is an tua r io p ro toh is tó r ico d e Z a iamea d el aS e rena , B ada joz .I I . - 1 983 -1986 .B a rce lona . MARCO S I MON ,F . 1 983 -84 . " Con s ide rac ione s s ob re l ar e l ig io s idad i br ica e nc lá n ib i to t u ro len se " . K a ia zhos . 3 -4 : 7 1 -9 3 . MAR IN CEBALLOS , M .C . 1 983 . " Una n ueva i n terp re tac ión d e l ap a te ra d c T iv issa " . XV I C .N .A .

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7 09 -717 . 1 987 . " j ,Tan i te nE spana? " . L ucen tum . 6 :4 3 -80 . MAR IN CEBALLOS , M .C . ; BELEN , M . 1 987 . " Nuevo s e xvo to s i b é r ico s d c l ap rov inc ia d c J aén " . A na le s d e l a U n ive r s idad d eC ad i z , 4 :7 9 -96 . MART I BONAFE , M .A . 1 990 . " La s c ueva s d e l P un ta l d e l Homo C iego . V i l la rgo rdo d e l C ab r ie l . V a lenc ia " . S agun lum . 2 3 : 1 4 1-182 .71 MART IN IORTEGA ,M .A . 1 988 . U l la s t re t .P ob la ti b é r ic .G e rona . 1 990 . " E l s .I I aU l la s t re t( Ba ix Empo rd ) .E xcavac ió d e l t a l l LL -1" . L aR oman i t zac ió d e lP ir ineu .S eC o i . ioqu i I n ternac iona ld 'Arqueo log ia d eP u igce rd P u igce rd :3 5 -41 . MART INEZ P ERONA , J .V . 1 992 . " E l s an tua r io i b é r ico d c l aC ueva Menne l ( Buga r ra ) . E n t o rno al af unc ión d e l v a so c a l ic ifo rme " . E s tud ios d eA rqueo logIa I bé r ica y R omana . Homena je a E nr ique P la B a l les ter . Va lenc ia : .

2 61 -281 . MELGARES GUERRERO , J .A . 1 990 . " Un

s an tua r io ib é r ico e n c l ' C ampo d c A r r iba ' d c A rch ive l . T é rm ino

mun ic ipa ld cC a ravaca ( Mu rc ia )" . H omena je af e rOn imo Mo l ina G a rc ia . Mu rc ia : 1 63 -17 1 . MENDOZA EGUARAS , A . 1 986 . " Exvo to i b é r ico d e l Mu seo A rqueo lóg ico d c G ranada " . C uadernos d e P reh ' . U n iv . G ranada . 1 : 3 27 -330 . M IRO IALA IX ,M .T . 1 990 . " Le sm à sca re sd e l t emp le d 'Ula sö t re t" . Z ephyru s ,4 3 :305 -309 . M IRO IALA IX ,C . ; MO UST ICAPELLA . N . 1 990 . " E lemen t s d cr i tua l d ome s t ic a lp ob la ti b é r ic d c l aP enya d e l Mo ro ( Ba r ce lona ) " . Z ephyru s ,4 3 :3 11 -319 . MOL INA GRANDE , M .C . ; MOL INA GARC I A , J .1 991 . C ar la a rqueo iög ica d e J um i l la . A ddenda 1 973 -1990 . Mu rc ia . MORENA LOPEZ ,J .A . 1 989 . E is an tua r io i b é r ico d eT or repa redone sC a s tro d e lR i o -Baena . C O rdoba ) .C ó rdoba . MU OZ AM IL IB IA , A .M . 1 963 . P ebe te ros i bé r icos e nf orma d e c abe za f emen ina . ( De c oroOp la s t ia i bé r ica I ) .1991 . " Lo s e xvo to sa na tóm ico s d e l s anö tuar io i b é r ico d cC o l lado d cl o sJ a rd inc s( San ta E lena ,ö Jaén )" . T P .4 8 : 3 13 -332 . 1 992 . E xvo io si b é r icos d eb ronce d e l Mu seo A rqueo lóg ico N ac iona l . Mad r id . PU JOL IPU IGVEH I ,A . 1 992 . E I sI b er s . V ida ic u l tu ra . B a rce lona . Q IJESADA SANZ , F . 1 989 A rmamen to , g uer ra ys oc iedad e n l an ecrópo i i s i b é r ica d e ' E i C abec ico d e l T e soro ' (M urc ia , E spaf ia ) . B .A .R . ,m t .S e r ie s ,5 02 . O x fo rd . ( 1991 ,e . p . ) " R iqucza yJ e ra rqu izac ion s oc ia l e nn ec rópo l is i b énca s : l o sa j ua rc s" .H omena je a lP rof .B ld zque z .

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ADOLFO J .DOM INGUEZ MONEDERO

1 992 .A rma ys Imbo lo :l af a lca la i b é r ica . A l ican te . RA MALLO ASENS IO , S .F . 1 991 . " Un s an tuar io d e é poca t a rdo repub l icana e n L a E ncarnac ión ( Ca ravaca , Mu rc ia )" . T emp ios R omanos d eH ispan ia . C uadernos d cA rqu i tec tura R omana , 1 :3 9 -65 . 1 993 . " La monumen ta l izac ión d cl o ss an tua r io si b ër ico se në poca t a rdo repub l icana " . O s traka . 2 : 17 -144 . RAMOS F ERNANDEZ ,R . 1 974 . D cH e l ikéa I l l ic i .A l ican te . 1 975 . L ac i udad r omana d cJ u ic E .E s tud io a rqueo lög ico . A l ican te . 1 983 . L aA l cud ia d cE iche .E iche . 1 988 . Mu seo sA rqueo lóg ico sd cE lche l aA lcud ia . P a tema . 1 989 . " Sob re c i e r to t i po d ce n ter ra in ien to si n f an t i le s i b é r ico s . I nhu inac ione si n f an t i le se ne iá mb i to m ed i tert hneo e spaf io l ( s . V I Ia ll !d .E . )" . C uade rnos P reh a . yA rq .C as te l lonen se s . 1 4 :127 -132 . 1 99 1 . E iy ac im ien to a rqueo lóg ico d cL a Akud ia d cE lche .V a lenc ia . RA MOS FOLQUES , A . 1 954 -55 . "Memo r ia d c l a s e xcavac ione s p rac t icada s e n L a A lcud ia d e E iche ( A l ican te ) . C ampana s 1 949 a1 952" . N AH ,1 1 1V : 1 02 -113 . 1 966 . " Un k e rno s yo t ro sv a so sd cL aA lcud ia d cE iche" .I XC .N .A .Z a ragoza : 2 96 -300 . 1 968 . 1 970 . 1 970 . 1 975 .

" E ln i ve ii b e ro -pün ico d cl aA lcud ia d cE iche ( A l ican te )" .R SL .3 4 : 3 63 -386 . " Excavac ione s e nL aA lcud ia ( E iche ) " . ( Va lenc ia . ) " Reig ione s yc u l to sa n t iguo se nE iche " . l EA . 3 :7 -32 . " En l aé poca i b e ro -p i ln ica oIb e r ico I ,e nl aA lcud ia d cE iche ( A l ican t e ) ,r i to sr e l ig io so s" . X i i iC .N .A .

Z a ragoza : 6 65 -666 . 1 975a . " Gu Ia d cL aA lcud ia d cE iche yd cs u Mu seo " . E iche . RA MOS FOLQ IJES ,A . ; RAMOS F ERNANDEZ ,R . 1 976 . " Excavac ione s e nL aA lcud ia d cE iche d u r an te l o s a f io s 1 968 a !1 973" . E AE .9 1 . Mad r id . RENFRE W ,C . 1 985 . T he A rchaeo logy o fC u l t . T he S anc tuar ya tP hy lakop i . .. Lond re s REY VODOZ . V . 1 991 . " Le s o f f randc s c l an s l e s s anc tua i rc s g a l lo roma in s" . L es s anc tua ire s c e l t ique s e il em onde m éd i ler ranéen . P a r is : 2 15 -220 . RODR IGUEZ OL IVA ,P . ;P EREGR IN PARDO ,F . ; ANDER ICA FR IAS ,J .R . 1 983 . " Exvo to s i b é r ico sc on r e l ieve s d ce qu ido sd cl aV ega G r anad ina " . XV IC .N .A . Z a ragoza : 7 51 -768 . ROU ILLARD ,P . 1 979 . i nve s t igac ione ss obre l am ura l la i bé r ica d cS agun to ( Va lenc ia ) . T raba jo s V a r ios d e lS . i .P . , 6 2 . V a lenc ia . RUANO RU IZ ,E . 1 987 .L ae scu l tura h umana d cp ied ra e ne i mundo I bé r ico . Mad r id . 1 988 . " E lC e r ro d cl o s S an to s (Mon tea leg re d e lC a s t i l lo ,( A lbace te ) : u na n ueva i n te rp re tac ión d e l s an tua r io " . C uPAUA M . 1 5 : 2 53 -272 . 1 993 . E lm ueb le i b é r ico . Mad r id . RUANO RU IZ , B . ; SAN N ICOLAS DEL TORO , M . 1 990 . " Exvo to s ib e r ico s p roceden te s d c ' L a E ncarnac ión ' ( C a ravaca , Mu rc ia ) " . V e rdo lay . 2 : 1 01 -107 . RU IZ ,A . ; MOL INOS . M . 1 993 . L os I be ro s .A ná i i s i sa rqueo iog ico d cu np roce so h i s tó r ico .B a rce lona . RU IZ BRE MON ,M . 1 988 . " Ap rox imac ión a le s tud io d e l s an tua r io i b é r ico d cL aL uz ." AEA . 6 1 : 2 30 -244 . 1 988a . " E scu l tu ra v o t iva i b d i ica e np i ed ra " . E scu l tu ra l bé r ica . Mad r id : 6 8 -81 . 1 989 . L os e x vo los d e ls an tuar io i bé r ico d e lC e rro d cl o sS an to s .A lbace te . RU IZ ZAPATERO , G . ; CHAPA BRUNET , T . 1 990 . " La A rqueo iog Ia d c l a mucr te :

p er spec t iva s

t e o r ico -me todo lög ica s" . N ec ropo l i sC e l t ibé r ica s . IS impo s io s obre l o sC e l t (be ros . Z a ragoza 3 57 -373 . SAL INAS DE FR IAS , M . 1 988 . " E l ' H ie ron A k ro ter ion ' yl ag eog raf Ia r e l ig io sa d e l E x t remo O cc iden te s eg i mn E s t rabón " .A c ta sd e li C ongre so P en in su la rd cH i s tor ia A n t igua . V o l .I l . S an t iago d cC ompo s te la : 1 35 -147 . SAN N ICOLAS DEL TORO , M . 1 983 -84 . " Un n ucvo r e l ieve d e l ' d omado r ' d c c aba l lo s p roceden te d c L a E nca rnac ión ( Ca ravaca , Mu rc ia )" . P y renae . 1 9 -20 : 2 77 -279 . SAN MART I ,J . ; S ANTACANA ,J .1 986 . " Aná l i s is f unc iona l d cl o sr e c in to sd omé s t ico sd e lp ob lado d cA lo rda P a rk ( Ca la fe l l ,B a ix P enedé s ,T a r ragona ) " . A rqueo log Ia E spac ia l , 9 .T e rue l : 2 57 -269 .

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

1 987 . " Un r e c in te c u l tua la lp ob la ti b ë r ic d 'A lo rda P a rk ( Ca la fe l l ,B a ix P enedé s ) " . F onamen is ,6 :1 57 -169 . 1 992 . " E lp ob la ti b é r ic d 'A lo rda P a rk .C a laf e l l ,B a ix P enedé s . C ampanye s 1 983 -1988 " . E xcavac ion s A rqueo làg ique s aC a ia lunya , 1 .B a rce lona . SANTOS VELASCO ,J .A . 1 989 . " Aná l is is s ob re l at r an s ic ión au na s oc iedad e s ta ta l e nl ac uenca med ia d e l S egu ra e né poca i b é r ica ( s . V I Il la .C . )" . T P .4 6 : 1 29 -147 . 1 989 -a . " Aná l is is s oc ia ld el an ec rópo l is i b é r ica d eE lC iga r ra le jo yo t ro sc on tex to sf une ra r io sd cs ue n to rno " . AEA . 6 2 : 7 1 -100 . S ANTOS VELASCO , J .A . 1 992 . " Te r r i to r io e conóm ico y p o l i t ico d e l s u r d c l a C on te s tar na I bdnca " . AEA , 6 5 : 3 347 . S CULLY ,V . 1 979 . T he e a r th , t h et emp le , a nd t h eg od s . G reek s acred A rch i tec ture . 2 c d .N ew H aven . S CHACHTER , A . 1 992 . " Po l icy ,c u l ta nd t h ep lac ing o fG reek s anc tua ire s" . L eS anc tua tre G rec .E n t ré t iens Ha rd t , XXXVI . G ineb ra : 1 57 . S CHE ID ,J .1 991 . " Conc lu s ion " . L e ss anc tua ire sc e l t ique se il em onde m éd i te r ranéen .P a r i s : 2 79 -281 . S E MPERE ,V .F . ;V ICENT CAVALLER ,J .A . 1 991 . I be rs iR oman sa !C amp d eN u les (Ma scare l l . Moncof a , N u le si l aV i lave l la ) . Nu le s . S ERRA RAFOLS ,J . DE C . 1 94 1 . " E lp ob lado i b énco d e lC a s te l le td cB anyo le s" . Ampu r ia s .3 : 1 5 -34 . S ERRANO CARR ILLO , J . ; MORENA LOPEZ , J .A . 1 988 . " Un r e l ieve d c B a ja E poca i b é r ica d cT o r repa redone s ( C is t ro d e lR io -Baena . C ó rdoba ) " . AEA ,6 1 : 2 45 -248 . S ILGO GAUCHE ,L . 1 989 . " Sob re i mi n ex i s ten te t emp lo p re ibénco d c( "M tu lo " . A r se . 2 4 : 8 25 -831 . S IRACUSANO ,A . 1 983 . is an tua rw r upe s ire i nl o ca ! i t S .B iag io a dA gr igen to . R oma . TARRADELL , M . 1 973 . " Cueva s s agrada s oc ueva s s an tuar io : im a spcc to p oco v a lo rado d c l ar e l ig ion i b é r ica " . Memor ia 1 973 .i n s ti t u to d eA rqueo log Ia yP reh i s tor ia .B a rce lona : 2 540 . 1 979 . " San tua r is i b é r ic s ii b e ro roman s a' I l oc sa l t s ' " . Memor ia 1 979 .I n s t i tu td ' Arqueo log ia IP reh i s tôr ia . B a rce lona : 3 5 -45 . TORELL I ,M . 1 977 . " Ic u l t id iL oc r i" . XV IC onvegno d iS tud is u l la Magna G rec ia .T a ren to : 1 47 -184 . VAN S TRATEN , F . 1 981 . " G if t s f o r t h e God s" . F a i th , H ope a nd Wor sh ip . A spec t s o fr e l ig iou s m en ta l i ty i n t h e a nc ien tw or ld . L e iden : 6 5 -15 1 . 1 992 . " Vo t ivc sa nd v o ta r ie si ng r eek s anc tua r ie s" . L eS anc tua i re G rec .E n t re t iens Ha rd ! , XXXVI .G ineb ra : 2 47 -284 . VAQUER IZO G IL , D . 1 985 . " La c ueva d c l a Mu rc ie lagu ina e n ö P r iego d c C ó rdoba , u na p o s ib lc c ueva -san tua r io i b d r ica" . L ucen tum . 4 : 15 -124 . VEGA ,J . DE LA 1 987 . " Con t r ibuc ió c a ta lana al ' i nven ta r id cl e sp robab ic sc ove s s an tua r i i b é r iquc s" . F onamen t s . 6 : 1 7 1-190 . V ICENT CAVALLER ,J .A . 1 979 . " Excavac ion s a ls an tua r i b i spano romà d cS an ta B a rba ra ( La V i lave l la d e Nu le s , P lana B a ixa )" .C uad .P reh ayArqueo log( a C a s te l lonen se s . 6 :1 81 -221 . V ISEDO MOLTO , C . 1 92 1 22 . " Excavac ione se nc l mon te ' L . aS er re ta 'p rOx imo aA lcoy ( A l ican te )" . MJSEA .4 5 : 1 3 p .+X Il ám s . 1 920 -21 . " Excavac ione se ne i Mon te ' L aS e r re ta 'p róx imo aA lcoy ( A l ican te ) " . MJSEA ,4 1 : 1 12 . VV .AA . 1 954 . C orpu s V a sorum H i spanorum . C e rdm ica d e lC er ro d eS an M igue l .L i ra . Mad r id . 1 987 . D ie za nos d ee xcavac ione se nC o imbra d e lB a rranco A ncho .J um i l la . Mu rc ia . 1 989 . " I nhumac ione si n fan t i le se nc lá mb i to med i tc r ránco e spaf io l( s ig lo sV I Ia .E .a ll !d .E . )" . C ua4e rnos d e P reh i s to r ia yA rqueo log Ia C a s te l lonen se s , 1 4 .

9 1

LA ARQU ITEC IURA CO MO R ITUAL S OC IAL : EL CASO DE LAS NURAGAS SARDAS

2

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

D epa r t amen to d eP r eh i s to r ia U n ive r s idad C omp lu ten s ed eM ad r id M a d r id .E spaf l a

c o lec t iva d c a n c spac io p a ra c ompa r t ir . P o r l o t a n to ,

" E il i na je s er emon ta h ac ia a t rá s , E n iazad s ó l idamen t el o sc onoc im ien to s : Que e ie n lace s ea f i rme Que c ln udo s ea s ó l ido ,

t odo e l lo d e semboca e n c l s i gn if icado s oc ia l d c L a a c t iv idad c on s t ruc t iva . Adcmá s e xp l ic i ta L ad i spo s ic ión e nc lt cm tono yl ao rgan izac iOn d e lp a isa jc c u l tura l . L o s p a t rone sa rqu i tcc tón ico s r e cu r ren te s yL ap rác t ica

Q ue s u je te "

q ue d c e L lo s s ec o L ige , p ucdcn r e sponde r aa n t i po d c

T er ang i H iroa , 1 92 1

c omo a np uche ro ." ( Gee r tz , 1 987 )

o rgan izac ión s oc ia l c omun i tar ia : l a a rqu i tec tu ra s e c onv ic r te a s I e n i n Ie rcnc ia d c e n t idades s oc ia les o b servab lc s . F ren te a d ef in ic ionc s t r ad ic iona le s d c l a

A pesar dc l ap o l isem ia d e a n t é rm ino c omo

a rqu i tec tu ra n u rág ica c omo m i l i ta r , e sa s " t or re s d c g ue r re ro s" p r esen tan u na d i spo s ic ión q ue l a s a l e ja d c u na d cfcn sa muy c f cc t iva , d cb ido a L a p rox im idad d c

" La e xpe r ienc ia e su na c o sa q ue s eh ace ,c omo a nr i to ,

r i tua l , c l

u so g ené r ico d e n tua l idad d ef ine i m a c to o rgan iza t ivo d cl av i da s oc ia l ,q ue p uede m an if e s ta r se c omo u no r e n

mucha s d c e l ia s , s ob re t odo e n momcn to s d c B roncc Med io y R ec ien tc ; l a s n ueva s p ro specc ionc s p onen d c man if ie s to n ol ad e fen sa d c L ac omun idad c omo i m t o do ( Trump , 1 991 ; Web s te r , 1 99 1) , s i no L ac onc ienc ia d c l a c omun idad c omo a n t o do q ue , ap a r t ir d c s u c s fue rzo c on s t ruc t ivo , r e af i rma L ap rác t ica s oc ia l ; p rác t ica é s ta

e s tab lec ido ,a s Ic omo p o rL aa r t icu lac ión r epe t it iva d el a s r e lac ione s q ue e nca rd inan a cc ione s ei n te racc ione s c on l ai n fo rmac ión ys u sr e de s . E ne s te t r aba jo s ep r e tcnde i l u s t ra rl aa po r tac ión q ue l aa c t iv idad c on s t ruc t iva d c a ne spac io s i gr nf ica p a ra L a c omun idad q ue l oc r ea , a cep tando q ue L ar i tua l idad , s i n

q ue p e rm i te a lg rupo c on t inua rm an tcn iéndo se c omo t a L . D e sde e i e s tud io d c l a s d enom inada s P ro to -Nu raga s p roponcmo s l al e c tura d e l d e sar ro l lo d c d o s ó rdcne s i n te rconec tado s :e ia rqw tcc tOmco ye is oc ia l . E n t i po s d c o rgan izac iOn s oc ia l , c omo L ap re tend ida

p e rde r e n c i er to s c on tex to s s u d imen s ion c o smO iog ica , c on l ieva t amb ién u na d imen s iOn c o t id iana . Una a cc iOn r i tua l , e n t re o t ra s a cepc iones , e s c l c on s t ru ir y r e con s t ru i r a n r e cue rdo , l aI d ea c I c i ica d e l

p a ra med iado sd e l s egundo m i len io a .C . , d ef in ida c omo

u so d c l a s c o sa s ; L ai n s t i tuc ión r i tua l e s u na f o rma d e r econoce r ap o s ter io r i t i n e s tado d c r e lac ión e n t re

t nbu d c c a rác tc r s egmcn tano p o r v a r io s i n ves t igado re s ( Pe rom , 1 989 ) , l ac e remon ia c o Lec t iva e s u na i n ve r s iOn

a que l lo s q ue l or ep roducen , d c mane ra q ue p rac t ica ra n r i to e se n tonce s u na f o rma d cd ef in ir od cr e a f irma ru na

g e renc ia i d onde s er e con l irman o a l te ran l a s d i s tanc ia s s oc ia le s e n t re c omun idad o c omun idade s . F rcn tc al a s p o s tu ra s f unc iona l is ta s q ue u t i l izaban L as oc iedad p ara e xp l ica r l a s c r eenc ia s , s ep rc t ende a na L iza rL ac r eenc ia y s ui n f e rcnc ia at r avé s d cL a man ife s tac ión a r qu i t cc tOn ica ,

p o s ic ión d c e n tend im ien to s oc ia l p o r l o s m iemb ro s d e l g rupo ,d onde L aa cc ión ,v ac on s t ruyendo L am emona q ue p e rdu ra e nc lt i empo ( I tu r ra , 1 992 ) . E l r i to t amb ién p o r d ef in ic ión e s c l r ecu rr ir s ecuenc ia lmen te a a n c on jun to p ree s tab lcc ido d c a c t iv idades , d c t a l modo q ue s e r cac t iva r eg lamcn tac iOn s oc ia lq ue i mp l ica s uc ump l im ien to .

p a ra e s t ima r L a f orma d c c ohes iOn s oc ia l ( Doug la s , 1 990 ) . T amb ién e i f unc iona l ismo a cep taba L a a cc iOn h umana s ob re L ab a se d ci n tenc ione s e xp i Ic i ta s ,s i nt e ne r

L a

e n c ucn t . a l o s modo s d c e xp re s ión ( P i t t -R ive r s , 1 993) .

L a s o b ras mega l I t ica s p a ra c spac io s d c h ab i tac ión d e sde c l B ronce Med io e n C e rdef la i mp l ican y c onl irman u na o rgan izac ión s oc ia l c orpo ra t iva . L a

T ra ta remo s d c h ace r h incap ié e n c ómo L a s f o rma s d c r ep resen tac iOn s on a n c ap I tu lo d c L a s i n fc rcnc ia s q ue p ueden a yuda rno s ar e cons t ru i r L an ece s idad s oc ia l d e l

s oc iedad y s u a rqu i tec tu ra c s truc tu ran l a c reac ión

m ega l i t ismo .

9 2

NUR IA S ANZ G ALLEGO

L a s r cp roducc iones d c momumen to s n urág ico s a modo d c a l ta re s ( Su S t radomo d c D ex imu , S an tu

c o inpo r ta e p isod io s o rdcnado s , i mpone c ond ic ionc s p r c l im ina re s d c l u ga r yd c t i empo . S u c Od igo d cbc s e r

A n t ine , . . )o l o s d enom inado s b e t i lo s , f i gu rac ione s p l á s t ica s e na r ci la ob ronce e nf o rma d et one ,c omo l o s

c l a ro ,y aq ue s o lo a s Is e rá s oc ia lmen te e f icaz . E l r i to t amb ién r e cue rda y p e rpe t i la l a memona d e l g rupo ,a c tuando e nc i e r to modo c omo u nd i spo s i t ivo d c

d cB a rum in i , S an ta V i t to r ia d iS em , . . . r e fuer zan l ai d ea d c l a r epresen tac ión p lás t ica d e e lemen tos a r qu i tec tómco s c uando y a h ay u n e spac io c on sag rado p a ra e ir i tua l : l o s s an tua r io s ; d c modo q ue d cu na f o rma c o t id iana d c r i tua l , c omo p uede s e r s u c on s t rucc ión a

a lmacenam ien to . C on c ada p rác t ica , e ir i to a c tüa c omo a c to i n s t i tuc iona l , c uya f unc ión s oc ia l e senc ia l e s l e g i t ima ri mo rden . D e sde c l s i g lo X IX e t nógrafo s c omo R . Sm i th s e p r eocupa ron p o r l ad imen s ion d c l aa cc ión r i tua l yn o s o lo , on o e spec ia lmen te , p o t s u r ep re scn tac ión , d c t a l

t r avé s d c l ac r eac ión d c u n e spac io a rqu i tec ton ico , s e i l ega ao t ra c o smo log la : l aa r qu i tec tu ra s ec onv ie r te e n p a r te e xp l ic i ta d c l ac reenc ia y s u r ep re sen tac ión e n i c ono , j u s to c uando e i r i tua l s oc ia l t i ene u n e spac io

modo q ue i n te re saba má s l a n a tu ra lcza p üb l ica y c o lec t iva d e l f enOmeno r i tua l e nl ac omun idad . D e f in la u na c l a ra f unc ión p a ra t os ac ro : c lr i to t r aba jaba c omo

a u tónomo ye spec I f ico p ara e ic u l to .

e l emen to c ohe s ivo d cl as oc iedad ,r e fo rzando c ls en t ido E LR ITUAL : LA P RACT ICA COLECF IVA

d c p e r tenec ia a tg rupo y d e f in iendo d i s tanc ia s yt a rea s s oc ia les d e term inada s . L uego e n tonces e i r i to n o

Y SU CO MPRO M ISO SOC IAL

s e rv ir Ia s o lo p a ra s a lva r a lma s s i no p a ra c on se rva r e i b i ene s ta r s oc ia l . T ampoco e i r i to t i ene i n tenc ión s i emp re d c i nf lu ir e n e i o rden n a tu ra l d c l a s c o sa s , ( c a rac te re s p rop ic ia to r io s d c F raze r ) , s i no má s b i en e s

E l r i tua l p uede d e f in i r se e n t re d o s p o s ic ione s e x t rema s : b ien c ons idc rándo s o lo l o s obrena tu ra l , c omo p o s ib i l idad má s r e s t r ing ida , ob i en c omo c ua lqu ie r a c t iv idad s oc ia l e s tanda r izada ; d en t ro d c e se i n te rva lo d c p o s ib i l idade s , n o s s i rve c omo c a tego r fa a na t I t ica p a ra e n tende rc omo s eo nen ta l ac xpe r icnc ia c u l tu ra l d c

u n i n tcn to d c r e s t i tu ir a l a n a tu ra leza u n o rden s imbó l ico , c ohc rcn te a l a s n ece s idade s v i ta le s d c l a c omun idad . L a s oc iedad n o q u iere o rdenar

u n g rupo ; s e t r a ta p o t t a n to d c a na l iza r l a s f o rma s d c i n te r fcrcnc ia e n t re s oc iedad y s imbo l ismo , c on l a i n tenc ión d ca caba rc on l ad i co tom Ia e n t re t os ac ro yt o

s imbO l icamen te l an a tu ra ieza n ece s i ta o rdena r se a s í

p ro f ano . C omo f o rma d c c onoc im ien to c od if icado a pa rece e n

c omun idad . E l mega l i t ismo e s u na f orma d c p royec to n ecesa r iamen te c orpo ra t ivo , s i n n eces idad d c

m isma , a unque p a ra e l lo e n o ca s ione s l au t i i ice . F o r l o t a n to , e ir i tua l e sp a r te d e l s opo r te c I c i ico d cl av ida e n

l a l i t c ra tu ra a rqueo -an t ropo lOg ica t r ad ic iona l e n u na e s fe ra i ndepend ien te d c t od omé s t ico , p e se a t o do n o s d ccan tamo s af a vo r d c u na p rác t ica q ue c ompa r te e squema s g ene ra te s d c s i gn i f icado , d cpend iendo é s te

c a tego r iza r lo p royec to d e l E s tado . E lp ape l i n s t i tuc iona l d cl aa r qu i tec tu ra n ot i ene p o rquc t e ne rc omo p ar angón u n s i s tema s oc ia l e s ta ta l . E n c lt i po d c s oc iedade s q ue c s tud iamo s , c uya v ar iab i l idad p uede o sc i la re n t re t r ibu s d c c a rác ter s cgmen tar io a o rgan izac ione s d c t i po

d e l c on tcx to s oc ia l d c s u u so , ( Bou rd ieu , 1 977 , 1 993 ; B a r re t t , 1 991) . E l g rue so d c l o s t r aba jo s d c c a rác te r e t nog rá f ico s e

c i án ico , d efendemo s mi c i e r to s u s tanc ia l ismo , p a ra e i q ue l a t a rea c on s tn ic t iva n o s e c on temp la p e r Sc, n o t i ene i m l uga r a u tónomo e n l a p rác t ica s oc ia l , n i s e

d ed icó al ad e sc r ipc ión d c l a s s oc iedade s t r iba le s , ye s e n é s tas d onde q ucdaba d c man if ies to c Omo l a s o l ida r idad s oc ia l e nvo lv Ia e s tado s d c p ac If ica

c on temp la i ms i gr n f Icado a r t I s t ico oa r qu i tcc tOn ico e ns í m ismo . A l o l a rgo d c l a l e c tu ra c on s t ruc t iva d e l s egundo m i icn io a .C . e n l ai s ia d c C e rdeña s ea na l iza c omo e i e spac io y c l t i empo a yudan a t r avés d c l a a r qu i tec tu ra ad e f in ir e io rden s oc ia l yc omo e io rden

h o s t i l idad ; e n c ada p rac t ica r i tua l n o d eb Ian d i soc ia r se o rden yd e so rden ,n ip od ia d c sv incu la r se l os a c ro d ct o p ro fano , ye s e n é s tc c a rác te ri n teg rado r d c d ua l idade s d onde c n tendemo s l af unc ión d e l r i tua l : c lr i to t r aba ja a f a vo r d c u n o rden , e s u n o pe rado r s imbO l ico . E l d e so rden n oe su n f a c to r e x tc rno , d e se s tab i l izado r , q ue i r rumpe e n l av i da d cl ac omun idad , s i no q ue p e r tenece

s oc ia l q u ierc e spac io tempo ra le s .

al ad i a léc t ica s oc ia ld cc ada p rác t ica E I r i to c on temp la t amb ién u na c omponen te emo t iva , c l q ue p a r t ic ipa s e i mp l ica e n u n s en t im ien to d c d ependenc ia : a l h omb re l e t r anqu i l iza p ensa r q ue p e r tenece a u na r ea l idad , yq ue e n e sa r e a i idad s e p a r t ic ipa d c f o rma c on t inua o c I c l ica . A demá s e ir i to

d ef in irse

e n

c ategor las

ARQU ITECTURA S IN ARQU ITECIOS U mcga I i t i smo n oe ss o lamen te u nh echo e s t ruc tu ra l d c s uperpos ic iones , ( Lo S h iavo , 1 991) , l o s s a rdos c on taban y a c on b uena e scue la c omo h e rcnc ia d c é poca s a n tc r io re s ,q ue e mp tea ron p r inc ipa lmcn te e nl a s

9 3

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

LA ARQU TTECFURA ENTRE

r ep re sen tac ione sc o lec t iva s d cl a mue r te . S e t r a ta d cp royec to s s oc ia lmen te v i ncu lan te s amve l d c c omun idad , d c p roporc ione s d e l iberadamen te e xage rada s ( Mo rave t t i , 1 980 ) . E l p rob lema d c e sca la q ue i mp l ica e i mega l i t ismo , h ace r e ferenc ia a u n p royec to c uan to meno s a mb ic io so . C ada e d if icac ión e s i mg ran p royec to c onden suado s oc ia l yt empo ra lmen te . (F ig . 1 ) . E l mega l it ismo i mp l ica u n g ran p rograma c ons t ruc to r d e sde s u s i n ic io s . A lguno s a u to re s y en J a a rqu i tec tu ra c omo a spec to e s t ruc tu ra l d c L a c u l tura ,

LA COOPERAC ION -CO MPET IC ION L a I Og ica s oc ia l d e l e spac io e s tá i mp l icada c on J al óg ica e spac ia l d c l as oc iedad , d onde l as o i ida r idad s oc ia l e s u na n ece s idad d c J ae s t ruc tu ra c omun i t ar ia , ( H i l l ie r y H an son , 1 984 ) . E l e spac io s e c on s t ruye s oc ia lmen tc e n t re d erccho s yd ebc re s , p o r e so e s u na f uen tc d c c on i l ic to s oc ia l , e sg ene rado rd c d e sO rden e s yt amb ién n ece sar iamen te f uen te d c v incu lac ión . T ra tando e i e spac io c omo s i s tema d c a d sc r ipc ión ( comuna l , t r iba l ,

o t ros y en l a c u l tu ra c omo e s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tón ica ( Ken t , 1 989 ) , e n c ua lqu ie r c a so e ie spac io c on s tru ido y /o e n u so e s u na a rqu i tec tu ra e s t ruc tu rada y

i n te rg rupa l. .)mucho s h an h echo h incap ié s ob re l o s d erecho s , ( Renf rew y C he r ry , 1 986 ; R en f rew y

e s t ruc tu ran te , yd ebe l e e r se c omo i m s oc iog ra ina , n o

d eberes , e n l a t a rea c omo t r aba jo c o iec t ivo . L a

c omo p roduc to f i na l . E L l e ngua je y l a t a rea a rqu i tec tón ico s e n l a s

p a r t ic ipac iOn e s c au sa y c on secuenc ia d c L an eces idad

S hennan , 1 982 ) n oso t ro s q ue remo s p ro fund iza r e n l o s

l e Ida s p o rt o do s . No h ay s o lo r e g lamen to p ara c on s t ru ir

s oc io -coyun tu ra ld cs e rc o rpo r a t ivo s . C ua lqu ie r i n t roducc iOn al o s s i s tema s d c t r an spo r te d c ma ter ia le s p e sado s , c omo l o s q ue i mp l ican l a s c on s irucc ione s mega i I t ica s ,r e su l tan m te re san t es p a ra e i

s i no p a ra i n te rp re ta r , i nd isoc iab le s s ob re t o do c uando l a s t a rea s p ueden i mp l ica r aJ a c omun idad e n s u

a r qucO logo y aq ue a dcmá s d cv a lo ra rl o s c onoc imen to s t é cn ico s n ece sar io s , p uede c aer e n l a c uen ta d e l

c on jun to . L a a rqu i tec tu ra e s p ar te i n tegran te d e l p a isa je ; i mpo r ta rá d esen t raña r e n tonces c Omo d a v ida a l

e s fue rzo e mp leado a s I c omo d c L ai mp l icac ión s oc ia l n ece sar ia e n s u a cepc iOn má s g loba l , p a ra v a lo ra r l a s p o s ib i l idade s s oc ia le s d c g e s t iOn . D e sde l ae s t imac ión

t e r r i tor io , av ece s s i n c on s t rucc ione s . S e c r ea u na

d c mov i l idad d c L a s p i ed ra s p o r mecan ismo s s imp le s ,

c ompo s ic ión q ue p uede s e r l ac ave p a ra e n tende r l a s r e Lac ione s s up rafam i l iares : av eces e n f o rma d c r ep resen tac iOn , d c p ermanenc ia ( e vocac iOn . .) , d c

e xcep tuendo r u eda s d en tada s op o lea s , a yudado s p o r

memo r ia ob i en d c s a c ra l izac iOn . C ada c on s t rucc iOn e s u na f o rma p a rad igma t ica d e l c oo rd inar u n s i s tema s oc ia l d cp ob iam ien to : L aa rqu i tec tu ra d cr e s idenc ia yl a d c t e r r i to r io e s t . án c o imp l icado s . L a a rqu i tec tu ra a co ta u na p o rc ion d c e spac io y l a c onsagra a u n f i n

m i s te r io s , p e ro e iq ue s e af á c i l op l au s ib le n oe xp l ica e i

d e te rm inado .

c o rpo ra t ivo s . A demá s d c l o s e s tud io s d c e s tab i l idad e s t ruc tu ra l y

s oc iedade s e s tud iada s e s e senc ia lmen te c o lec t ivo , i n c lu so l a s i n ic ia t iva s má s m ino r i ta r Ia s d eben p ode rs e r

p a ianca s om ade ra p a ra d i sm inu ir l a s f r icc iones d e l s ue lo : s et r a ta d c e mp re sa s e x trao rd ina r ia s s i n g rande s p orqué t r an spo r tan l a s e no rme s p ied ra s . ‚ Cómo s e a i t icu la L ae s t ra teg ia s oc ia l d cJ a mo t ivac ión? , ‚ c ómo s e p roduce u na p e r sua s ion c omuna l? L a r e spue s ta n o L a t i ene l ai ngen ier la s i no J an ece s idad d c t e ue r q ue s e r

d c i n f rae s t ruc tura s n ecesar ia s ( Cavanagh y C axon ,

9 4

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

1 987 ) , l a c on s t rucc Ión e s u n c omp rom iso s oc ia l d e f u tu ro : v a r ia sf a se sp e ro d i señada sc omo u n idad . L a a rqu i tec tura p uede c on s ide ra r se u n t i po d c d ocumen to c omp le jo , y a q ue a l a l e c tu ra e s t i l I s t ica ( l engua le a r t Is t ico ) d e l a q ue s i emp re v i enen a compañada s e s tas " ob ra s d c g igan te" , s e u nen

f é r rea d i sc ip ima as cgu ir , e s l ac s t ra teg ia a na ióg ica l a q ue p rovoca u na c onc ienc ia e n c i ave d c i n tcrvenc iOn c o lec t iva , d onde l af i sonom la f i na l e s d c a l guna f o rma l ac u lm inac iOn d ci mp a sado , c l1 ma l d c im p roce so q ue h ab Ia y an ac ido c on i mp ropO s i to yi mc a rác tc ru n i ta r io . L a t e cno log Ia c mp lcada c oni leva d i vc r so s g rado s d c

r e fe renc ia s t é cn ico -ope ra t iva s , l a a rdua l abor d c i ngen ier la , l a s c a l idade s ma té r ica s , l o s c on t rape so s , e i

c sfuerzo s oc ia l , a dcmás d c o t ra i mp l icac ión c on s truc t iva : l ar e lac ión c ons t ruc to r /u sua r io , yé s to e n

j uego d i f Ic i l d c mu ro s yv ano s ; p e ro a demá s l ao b ra a rqu i tec tón ica , q ue e n s u má s a sép t ica d cf in ic ión e sl a

c lc a so d cl a s n u raga s , s ob rc t o do l a sd cl ap r ime ra f a se , e s muy d i f Ic i l d c c ons ide ra r y a q ue n o s e c uen t .a c on

c r eac iOn d cu ne spac io ,e s tá d o tada d e má s s i gn if icado s e nl af o rma ;s i ne mba rgo n oh ay p o rqué p r c sc ind ir d cl a c ua l idad e s t i l I s t ica s i emp re yc uando e n tendamo s p o r

d a to s q ue r ep roduzcan s c cucnc ia s ,d cm ane ra q ue n oe s p o s ib le v a lo ra r l a s i n te r rupc ione s ys u r e lac ión c on l a o cupac iOn d c p ob lado s oa l dea s q ue c a recen d c e s ta s

e s t i lo c lp roce so mcd ian tc c lc ua l u na s e r ie d c mo t ivo s s e c onv ie r ten e n a tnbu to s ; h acemo s a s I d e l o b je to e n c ues t ión u n s oc io tec to , l a f o rma c ob ra e nuc iado i n fo rma t ivo ( Eco , e n C a lab re se , 1 993 ) . L a o t ra c ave d e l a ná l is i sf o rma l q ue p roponemo se sl ai n te rpe lac ión a

g r ande sc on st r ucc ione s . P a ra I l eva r ac abo t a le s t a rea s s e h ipo te t iza u na c o laborac iOn i n ter t r iba l e n l a c onstrucc ión m I t icos imbOl ica d e l t e r r i to r io ,c ada c on s trucc ión p uede s e r u n s cgmcn to d e l p a t r imon io m I t ico , i n s t rumen to d c

l as oc iedad q ue l ac r ea , l a man t icne yl ad o ta d c v i da y

t r an sm is iOn d c v a lo re s . Y aq ue L ap rac t ica n o s ep uede

s i gmf icado , c onf ir idndose a s I m isma u na e spec ic d c h i s to r ic ismo v incu lan te . A cep tamo s q ue l an a tu ra lcza d c l aa rqu i tec tu ra e s s oc ia l yq ue j ucga u n p ape l e nl a

d i soc ia r d c s u r ep re sen tac iOn , l an uraga p roc lama im s t a tu s d c p ose s ión , u n p ropo s i to s oc ia l c o lec t ivo e n f o rma d c i ngen ie r la . A l a cep tar l aa rqu i tec tu ra c omo

o rgan izac ión d c l as oc iedad . D c l ai n te racc ión q ue s e c r ea e n t re p rác t ica s oc ia l ys o luc ión e spac ia l , ( l engua jc

i n s t ituc iOn c u l tua l , c l e spec tador e s t amb ién c o labo rado r g ene rac iona l e n u na t a rea d c n a tu ra lcza

c spac ia l ) , l a a c t iv idad a rqu i tec tón ica p uede s e r med iadora e n t re e s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l y t i po log Ia

c on s t ruc t ivo soc ia l . S c t r ab d c u n p roce so d c a cc iOn q ue s e r e s t i tuye

c on s t ruc l iva . L o s p a rec ido s f o rma les s o lo s on f o rma lmcn tc c omparab les , h ay q ue c on t ro la r muy d ive rsos

c I c l icamcn te , r eco rdando u n p a sado p rop io c omo

p a rame t ro s , y a q ue l a a rqu i tec tura n o e s n unca u na t r aducc iOn l i t e ra l d c u n t i po d c s oc iedad , n iu na f o rma

c onf igu ra a t r avé s d c u na d u ra t iv idad , ( an teccden te , p o r tado r d c u na mcmona ) yd c u na p un tua l idad ,

d cr e spue s ta u n Ivoca as o luc ione ss oc ia le s c ompa rab le s , l ar e lac ión q ue v i ncu la au ng rupo ys ut e r r i to r io n unca t i cne u na l e c tu ra me tah is tO r ica . E s u ni n s t rumen to d cl a

( consccuen te , e s u n p roce so e n c u r so q ue d ebc

v i da s oc ia l ,q ue n os o lo p uede f unc iona rc omo p roduc to r c su l tan te ; n o e s o t ra f o rma d c c u l tu ra ma te r ia l , oa l meno s n o d ebe s e r t r a tada c omo o t ra f o rma d c

G ue r re ro s d cD ec imopu tzu , ( Uga s , 1 990 )e n momen to s d c c on s t rucc ionc s p ro tonu rág ica s , h a s ta l a sT u inba s d c G igan te , c on tempo ránca s d c l o s momen to s n u rág ico s

a r tc fac to ; t r a ta remo s e n tonce s d c e n tcnde r la c omo a c t iv idad g l oba l , q ue r e fuc rza l ae s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l . L a

má s c s tandanzado s ye x tend ido s , l a muc r tc s i emp re c on l ieva u nc a rác te rc o lcc t ivo . L a t umba t amb idn e si m

e sca la y magn i tud d c e s ta s a rqu i tec tu ra s e xceden l o s r equer im ien to s d c c ua lqu ic r f unc iOn p rác t ica . S e t r ab p o r t a n to d c max im iza r e s fuc rzo s , ym in im iza rr i e sgo s

l uga r c omun i tar io , e n momen to s p ro tonu rag ico s . E I e spac io e s a g lu t inan te y l a s f o rma s q ue a dop ta s u c on s t rucc iOn s on r c fc rcn te sc o lcc t ivo s ,( Ga r c ia , 1 992 ) .

p ero a c o s ta d c u n c s fue rzo c on sp icuo , ( Veb len e n T r igge r , 1 990 ,p . 124 . ) d c mane ra q ue c lp odc rd e l g r upo

B ien e s c i e r to q ue l o s p r ime ro s i nve s t igado re s d ese s t ima ron d c sde e lp r inc ip io u na f unc ión h ab i ta t iva

q uede s imbO l icamcn te r e fo rzado y r c f rendado ; e s u na

p a ra l an u raga ; s u s ma la s c ond ic ione s d c v en t i lac ión y

e s t ra tcg ia d co p t imac ión . L a d cmanda s oc ia l

c omun idad . L a t i p if icac ión n o p uede e n tende r se s O lo

l oa ngo s to y o scuro d c s u s c o r redo re s n o s uge r lan i m g ran c onfo r t ( Pa is 1 881 , e n Web s te r , 1 991 . p . 171) . D csde e s te momen to L a s o l idcz d c l a e d if icac iOn c omenzO ae n tende r se e n d ave m i t i ta r , a cog iendo al a p ob lac iOn e n momen to s d c c r is is : s u u so t c n Ia im c a rác tcr p un tua l , c uando c l r i csgo a p rem iaba ; s i n

c omo n o rma t iva c d i l ic ia . L ae s tanda r izac ión n o e su na

e mba rgo a lg uno s c omcnza ron aa p rec ia r q ue n oh ab r Ia

d c

e spac io

c on l lcva

l a

i mp l icac iOn d e lt i empo . L a c r eac iOn d c c so s e spac io s r eque r ir ia u n t i cmpo c p isód ico ,i mp l icado d cl eno e nl ah i s to r ia a nua ld cu na

p ermanenc ia , q ue c u lm ina c on u na r cp re sen tac ion a c tuan te , e n p rev is ion d c o t ra a cc ión f u tu ra . S e

c on t inua r ) . D e sdc c lc s tud io p o rmeno r izado d c L aT umba d cl o s

/

9 5

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

e spac io n i p a ra l a s g uarn ic iones ( Fe rgu son , 1 872 , e n Webs te r , 1 99 1 , p . 1 71) . E xcavac ione s p o rmeno r izada s d e s tacan l ap re senc ia d c h oga re s , c e rám ica s yd emá s r e s to s d e o cupac ión , d e m ane ra q ue e n a l g n momen to d e s u h i s tona a l be rga ron u n u so d e h ab i tac ión , a unque e s te f ue ra d e c a rác te r i n te rm i ten te . C omb inando l a r e s idenc ia ye ic a rác te rf o r t i f icado f unc ionan l a mayo r Ia d e l a s h ipó tes is i n terp re ta t iva s má s c on sensuada s ( L i l l iu , 1 988 ) , q ue p a ra c ons trucc iones d e mayo r e nve rgadura p re tenden u na f am i l ia p róspe ra y

s ab Ia b a s tan te . L a c ons t rucc ión a l be rga r Ia a u na f am i l ia n uc lea r ; q u it he n e ip r ime r momen to s e t r a te d c c ampa rnen to s n o p ermanen te s d c p a s tore s , p a ra p a sa r má s t a rde a a lberga r g ran ja s d c t i po t r iba l h a s ta 1 250 aC . y p os te r io rmen te s edes d c j e fa tura s s ubr eg iona le s (Web s te r , 1 991) q ue c omb inan r e s idenc ia y v i l la a nex ionada , d onde s e e s tab lecen l a s p r imeras e spec ia l izac ione s at i empo c omp le to . R e spec to al au t i i izac ión d c c at he te r p a s to r i l , v en la

F IGURA 2 .

a cogedo ra q ue g ua rece a l r e s to d c l a p ob lac ión e n momen to s d c p e l ig ro . L o má s n ume ro so s on l a s

p a re ja a lb i nom io t I p ico d cp a s to r -gue r re ro ( e nr e v is ion , L ew thwa i te , 1 986 ) , o t ro d c l o s t óp ico s m á s m an ido s

c ons trucc iones mono tO lTeS y e s ta s

s on l a s má s

p ara l a p re y p ro toh is tor ia s a rda . P o r u n l ado l a s

d i f Ic i lmen te d e fend ib le s . A lguno s r e cu r ren al a s d e sc r ipc ione s c l á s ica s : P l in io

p seudonu raga s s upe raban c on mucho l a s e x igenc ia s c on s truc t iva s d ed icada s aa l be rga r g anado , yp o r o t ro

d e f ine l an u raga c omo i m o pp ida , ys i gu iendo c on l a t r ad ic ión c en t roeu ropea d cl o s 1 I i l lfo r t s ,l ac on s t rucc ión

n ucvo s a ná l is is d c c apac idad d c s ue lo s c onf ie ren i m i mpo r tan tc p e so a l a a gncu l tu ra , e spec ia lmcn tc e n a que l la s z ona s d ondc mayo rc an t idad d cc on s t rucc ione s

s a rda n op a rece e v idenc ia ru n c a rác te rd e fen s i vo , n oe s u n c ampamen to m i l i ta r , yd c e so e l mundo r omano

s e h an i n ven ta r iado , ( Row land , 1 991) . P a race q ue l a

9 6

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

F IGURA 3 .

9 7

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

n o h ay n ada d i r ig ido a e sca t ima r e s fuerzos c on s t ruc t ivo s , yc on e l io , s oc ia le s . C on u na a cu sada

z ona s c omo B onu I gh inu ( Trump , 1 991) . Ap a r t i r d c 1 500 aC . e n l az ona B o ro re , ( C -W ) a pa recen r e s to s d c v a s i ja s d e a imacenam ien to y h ue so s d c a n ima le s d omd s t ico s s a c r if icado s ,j un to au na p ropo rc ión 4 : 1 d c

p res ión s ob re l a t i er ra e n p er iodo n urág ico a l guno s e xp l ican L a amp i ia e s tandar izac ión d c l a t one , e x t rapo lando e s tud io s d cc amb io s c imá t ico s ,q u eo t ro s

n u raga p o r t umba c o lec t iva . L o s a sen tam ien to s p o r e i momen to n o p a recen c on ta r c on u na d i f erenc iac ión

p onen e n t e ia d cj u ic io ; l at i er ra e s a n r e cu r so e xca so

PHOTOGRAPHS 1 a nd 2

e conóm ica 0 p o i l t ica . Un g ran n üme ro d c " t o r re s" ( como p one y a d c m an if ie s to l as o rp re sa d cL a Marmo ra , 1 840 ,F ig . 2 )n o

( Trump , 1 990 ) , yl at one e s ma rchamo d c p rop icdad , ( ocupa l uga re s v i s ib ics ) , ( T rump , 1 991) . L a z ona C -W d e l a i s la p o see b uena s t i e r ra s d c c a rác te r a g r ico la s ,

p ueden r e fo rza r l a i d ea d e c omun idad p r ec isamen te d éb i l , y a q ue l ac on s t rucc ión e n s ím isma i mp l ica q ue

( zona d c S ed i lo ) yo t ra s e spec I f icamen te d c v i ncu lac ión g anade ra , ( Bono ) c on i gua ies c on s t rucc ione s yc on l a

9 8

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

n o e se ia p rovecham ien to d i fe renc ia l l oq ue c ond ic iona l ac on s t rucc ión s i no l an ece s idad d e s e r c o rpo ra t ivo s e n e ir eg imen d e s ubs is tenc ia , l o q ue h ab lar la d e sde ‚

a n t iguo d cu ns i s tema d ca p rovecham ien to s m ix to s yd e u na c o labo rac ión c on s t ruc t iva q ue r e fuer za l o s c l i ve r so s c a rac te re sq ue c oni leva l ap roducc ión . L a e s tandar izac ión n o c reemo s q ue e xp rese u n men sa je d e s t a tu s a n te l o s v ecmo s , y aq ue e s e m en sa je s e r Ia u n c ód igo d c s im i lar idade s , " yo t amb ién p ude c on ta rc on v ue s t ro a poyo " . L o s v ec ino sn ot i enen p o rq ue i mp r e s iona r se ,p o rque e sp o s ib le q ue e l lo s h ayan i n tervemdo ; s et r a tar la d cu n o rgu l lo c o lec t ivo y n o u n r e conoc im ien to a j eno a s u c omur ndad . C onv iene r eco rda ra qu Iq ue e ne s te momen to n oh ay t emp lo s ,n is an tua r io s e ne s ta f a se n u rág ica ,h a s ta 1 200 a .C . n o s e c rea u n e spac io a rqu i tcc tón ico a u tónomo p am e ic u l to . F ren t e au n mundo d cr e cu r renc ia s a r qu i tec tón ica s ,a p a r t i r d e l 1 200 a .C . c om ienzan t a rea s c on s t ruc t iva s d i fe renc ia le s , c oncen t rando e s fue rzo s e n p oco s p un to s , r epa r t ido s e n l ap rác t ica t o ta l idad d c l ai s la , a pa recen l a s I l a inada s Nu raga s i r i lobu lada s oc omp le ja s . S e t r a ta d c c on s t ru ir s ob re l o c on s t ru ido , c omo g a ran te d c l a p resenc ia d e l p a sado , d onde l o n uevo v a c ob rando t amb ién o t ra i den t idad f orma l y s oc ia l ; e s ta r eu t i l izac ión i mp l ica e n c i e r ta mane ra u na f o rma d c c omp rom iso . L a r enovac ión i n fo rma d c u na n ueva d emanda s oc ia l d c e spac io , e s e s ta re n c on t inu idad , e n r azón d c l o e x i s ten te . Anexo s al a c o s trucc ión d c c a rác te r c en t ra l a pa recen e spac io s d c c o -p roducc ión e spec ia l izada , ( Fo to 1 . C omp le jo d c B arum in i S u Nurax i ) . A lguno s ma ter ia les c erám icos d c b uena f a c tu ra ,c lc a rác tc r ' r i tua l" d ca l guna s c ombu s t ione s d c p er fume s yh ue so s d c a n ima le s , h an i n v i tado ap ensa r e n f e s t ine s ; d c e s ta mane ra c om ienza ap e r f i la r se u na f i gu ra s oc ia l , i m g a ran te y g e ren te d e l p ode r e n c u r so , q ue m á s q ue u na ü n ica c abeza v i s ib le p uede t r a ta r se d c u na s e r ie d c f i gu ra s b a sa le s q ue v an c oagu lando e i e s fue rzo s oc ia l e n t omo a i m d e te rm inado c en t ro d c p oder y p res t ig io ; a pa recen l uga res d c r eun ion o r icn tado s al a c e lcb rac ión d e l p ode r d e l j e fe o d e l g rupo d e l j cfe , ( Fo to 2 . " Sa la d e l Cons ig l io , S an t 'Ana s ta s ia d iS a rda ra ) . Un a r te sanado e spec ia l izado s ep re s ta at a rea sc on s t ruc t iva s d cg r an p e r ic ia t é cn ica ,a f avo r d c u n c l a se q ue c on t int ia med ian tc l a f o rma a rqu i tec tón ica d emo s t rando s u s uper iondad , c omo i n s t rumen to d c d i fe rcnc iac ión s oc ia l , a tm s i n l a p re s tac ión d c t r aba jo o b l iga tor io . F ren te a l t r aba jo c oo rpo ra t ivo q ue e n e i momen to a n te r io ri mp l ica r la u n

F IGURAS 3 a -4

e s fuc rzo c omuna l , a pa rece a ho ra u n t r aba jo a r te sana l :

m isma p ropo rc ión ,p o re l lo n o si n c l inamo s ap en sa rq ue

9 9

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURA S .

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NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

F IGURA 6 .

F 1GURA 7 .

1 01

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURA 8 .

F IGURA 9 .

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NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

F IGURA 1 0 .

F IGURA 1 .

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

F IGURA 1 2 .

HGURA 1 4 .

a ß

HGURA 1 3 .

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d eu na rqu i tec tu ra c omo i n s t rumen to d c s a lvagua rda d c

d c ma ter ia les t i r rén ico s y f en ic io s . J un to a l a s

e qu i l ib r io , as e r i n s trumen to q ue h ace p o s ib le e i d e sequ i l ib r io . D em ane ra q ue ,p r ime ro s ep re tende d cl a

r ep re sen tac ione s d cg ue r re ro s , yd c n av ice l le , l an u raga p a sa a s e r l a r ep resen tac ión d c u n e xvo to e n l o s s an tua r io s oc ls opo r te d c u n a l ta re n l oq ue podr Ia mos d enom ina r c omo " Sa las d c C on se jo" d c a l guna s

c oope rac ión u na s i tuac ión e qu i l ib rada , yd e spué s d c l a d i fe renc iac ión u na f o rma d c e qu i i ib r io , i m s opo r te , l o q ue i mp l ica i m c amb io d c r i tua l izac ión : e is an tuar io e s u n l uga r t i n ico q ue r ep roduce l a c on s t rucc ión d e l h ab i ta t , y a h ay u n l uga r s ag rado d i s t in to y f ue ra d e l e spac io d cv i da ,p e ro at r avé sd cu na m isma p rác t ica : l a a c t iv idad c on s t ruc t iva . Ahora i n teresa n o h ace r c o rpo ra t iva l ae s ira teg ia c on s t ruc t iva ,y an ot o do s e s tán l amado s ap a r t ic ipa r ,c o in ienza a ho ra ag anar p a r t ido e i c omponen te d cl im ina l idad . D ive r so s t i po s d c u t i l izac ión d omé s t ica , ( a n ima le s c om ido s ,u so sd c p roduc to s s e cunda r io s . . . )s ug ie ren u na f i es t a c í v ico -r i tua l , ( Web s te r , 1 991) . E l p ode r n oe s u n r e cu r so m l od a mi s o lo r e cu r so ,e se n tonce sc uando u na c e remoma p uede c onve r t i r u na d i fe renc ia e n u n e s t .ado n a tu ra l . J un to a e s to s d epó s i to s a pa recen c erám ica s " a p e t t ine" , c on s ide rada s t r ad ic iona lmen te c omo i t em d c p re s t ig io . A n t iguo s b a s t ione s ot o r re s ,q ue aj uzga rp o r e ir eg is tro s i rv ie ron d c c s t ruc tu ra s d c a lmacena jc , s e r odean a ho ra d c a n tcmu ra lc s , c r ec icndo l a s z ona s d c h ab i tac ión a nexa s a l a s n uraga s . P ocos c cn tros c omp le jo s e nca rd inan a ho r a u n ma rco d c j e faru ra s r e g iona le s al ol a rgo d cl ai s la ,p a ra a l guno sc on n ive ic s r ud imen tar io s d ca dm in is t rac iOn s up ra loca l . Ap a r t i rd e l 9 00 aC . , l ac abeza s up ra reg iona l v a c ob rando f ue rza a t e no r d c l a c omp lc j idad d c l a s c on s t rucc iones , l a s c apac idades d c a lmacenam ie n to , l a s e spec if icas p roduc t iv idade s a do sada s al o s c omp lc jo s n u rág ico s , q ue i mp l ican l ap o s ib i l idad d cj e fe s s up rc reg iona lc s ,e n u mm a rco d cp ee rp o l i ty i n te rac t ion ,( Web s te r , 1 991) . E l r i to e sa ho ra u np rOpo s i to s oc ia lc o lec t ivo e nu ne spac io i n ter ior c on sagrado a t a l u so . No s e c e lebra e i monumcn to e n s í , s ec leb ra u na c e remon ia d en t ro d e l monumen to . D u ran te e i B ronce R cc ien te l a v a r iac iOn d c l a s d imen s ionc s e s v a r iac ión d c e sca la ( mayo r o mcno r a l tu ra d c l at o r re ) yn o d c c a rác tc r , ( var lan l o s mcd io s d c i n ter sccc iOn e n t re l a s p l an ta s ) e n l ugarcs n o e spec ia lmen te p rom inen te s i i n s ign ia , p e ro c on u na d i s t r ibuc ión e nt oda l ai s la b a s tan te p ropo rc iona l . A p a r t i r d c 1 200 a . C . c mp iezan a a pa recer e n C e rdcna l o s i l amados T emp lo s d c P ozo , u n e spac io a r qu i tec tOn ico q ue , amodo d c n u raga b a jo t i c r ra , c r ea u m l uga r c onsag rado a lc u l to . E s s O lo ap a r t ir d e l 9 00 a .C . c uando h ay r ep resen tac ione s e n c scu l tu ra q ue r ep i ten mode lo s a rqu i tec ton ico s ; h ab rá q ue e spe ra r h a s ta e s te momcn to p a ra e ncon t ra rl a s p r imer a s t umba s d c f o so i nd iv idua le s , v i l la s san tua r io ei mpo r tac ione s

n u raga s . E n t re l a s e v idenc ia s a rqueo lóg ica s c on l a s q ue c on tamo sp odemo sd e s taca r : R e s to s d cp i la re s ye l emen to ss u s ten tan te s : 1 . - C abana 5 ,S a la d e l C on s ig l io d c S an t 'Ana s ta s ia d c S a rda ra , e n C ag l ia r i , ( Uga s yU sa i , 1 986 ; U ga s y F aden , 1 990 ) . S an tua r io d ondc f ue e ncon t rado c l c on jun to d c a l ta r d c p i ed ra a r cn isca c ncon t rado e n 1 981 , e scu lp ido amodo d c t one n u rág ica , p a ra e iq ue s e o f ece u na c rono log Ia y a d c l a E dad d e l H ier ro , ‚

( S . IX -V I I I a .C . ) . ( F ig . 3 ) 2 . - R c s to s d c a l ta r e n c a l iza e n l a c abana 5 , S ta . V ic to r ia d c i S em ,( Ta r ame l l i , 1 9 14 ) . E ne s t e c a so c omo e n c l a n te r io r l a c ompo s ic ión e s ta f o rmada p o r d os d i sco s yi m c l emcn to t r oncocómco , al oq ue s eu ne u n c ue rpo e n f o rma d c t one c on u na c o rona d en tada ;l o s a u to rc sI ad e scnben c o ronada p o r 1 0 o b je to s d c p l omo , e n p a r te c on se rvado s , c ompon iendo u na e scena . No muc s t ran r e s to sd cf u cgo . ( F ig .4 ) 3 . - C ap i te le s yf r agmen to s d c c o lumna s e n a r en isca e ne is an tua r io d c Mon t i P ra ma , C ab ra s , ( L i l l iu , 1 977 ) . ( F igS ) 4 . - A l ta r d c S u Mu l ino , V i l lanova f ranca , ( Uga s y P ad icn , 1 990 ) . ( F ig .6 ) 5 . -A l ta r -Nu raga d c a r c i l la , p rov icne d c P a lmave ra , c abaf i ad cl a sR eun ione s ,( L i l l iu , 1 982 ) . ( F ig . 7 ) T oda l a i s la e s p a r t Ic ipe d c e s te d esa r ro l lo , e spec ia lmen te l o s l uga re s p rOx imo s al a s g randes n u raga s c omp le ja s , i n c lu so l o s p ob lado s a nexo s al a s g randcs n u raga s , c omo l a d c B arum in i , d an b uena c uen ta d cl a sr ep re sen tac iones . Exvo to s : 6 . - Mode lo d c e s tea t ita q ue r ep re sen ta l a p a r te s uper io r d c u na t one n urág ica p rovcn ien te d c C o rd ianu ( Oz ic r i ,S S ) . ( Lo S ch iavo , 1 985 ) . ( F ig .8 ) 7 . - Modc lo d c E stea t i ta d c t one n u rág ica d c R u ina s , ( O l iena ,N uo ro )( Lo S ch iavo , 1 985 ) . ( F ig . 9 ) . ‚

‚

8 . - T one d c a r cn isca d c Baru m in i , ( L i l l iu , 1 962 ) . ( F ig . 1 0 ) 9 . - R cp roducc ión m e tá l ica d c n u raga , B a rum in i , ( L i l l iu , 1 962 ) ( F ig . i ) 1 0 .- F o r ta leza yt emp lo , s an tua r io d c l t ircddu , ( S s ) , S .V I I I -V I Ia .C .( Lo S ch iavo , 1 985 ) . ( F ig . 1 2 )

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p o rn o t e ue rc ub r im ien to d c t h o lo s , n of ue ron i n c lu Ida s

1 . - F igu rac ión p l á s t ica d ep i ed ra d cl an u raga d c S u S t . radom i d e D ex imu . S an S pe ra te , ( OR . C ag l ia r i ) . ( Lo

e nl o sp rm ic ro s " c en s imen t i" . E l m ega l i t ismo n eo l I t ico yc a lco i l t ico h ab Ia f undado e scuc la d c c an te ro s e n l ai s la , p ero l ag cnc ra l izac iOn y u n ifo rm idad c on q ue a pa rcce t a p izado e ip a isa je n o s

S ch iavo , 1 985 ) . ( F ig . 1 3 ) 1 2 .- K ernos to r re e n t e r raco ta , c o ronado p or mdn su ia s t r apezo ida le s ; p udo a l be rgar p e r fume s p a ra q uema r d c S an ta V i t to r ia d e i S e r r i , e ncon t rado e n e i a t r io d e l t emp lo d cp ozo ( Ta rame l l i , 1 914 . ,U ga s 1 980 ) .

l eva ap cn sa r e n u n p ro fundo r cp lan team ien to d c l a s e s truc tu ra s s oc io -econOm ica s . L o s r e s to s d c c u l tu ra m a te r ia l e nm e ta l ,a rma sp r inc ipa lmen te , yl af i sonom Ia d cl a s t one s , " c la ramen te d efen s iva " ,l evan amucho sa d e s taca r p o r c nc ima d c t odo c l m i l i tar ismo d c l a s n ucva s c omun idade s ; d c spué s l o t i cncn má s d i f Ic i l c uando , a l p regun ta r se p o r l a s d cfen sa s , a c ie r tan a o b serva r q ue d c u na c on s t rucc iOn a o t ra n o h ay n i

( F ig . 1 4 )

LA ARQU ITEC T1JRA Y SU RAZON SOC IAL No e s d ema s iado l I c i to h ipo te t iza r l a n eces id .ad d c a l ianza s s o lo e n e i momen to d c p re s iOn p o r l a t i er ra

s i qu ie ra e spac io d c s ub s is tenc ia p a ra u na c omun idad . T u inba s c omo l ad cl o s G ue r re ro s p on lan d cm an i f ie s to l ap resenc ia d c mi g eno s d om inan te , d c l oq ue a l guno s d e sc if ran u na e s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l j e requ izada , d onde l o s

( Bonzan i , 1 992 ) . L a a l ianza e s a l go c on sue tud inano , q ue c ob ra d i s t in ta s r ep re sen tac iones y o bedece a

a j ua re s t r aduccn c lm iedo a lv ec ino yl an cce s idad d c d cfcnsa , ( Ugas , 1 990 ) ; s i n emba rgo l a s n ucva s p ro specc ione s p a recen c onf i rma r q ue c iv ec ino e r a t a n v ec ino q ue c uando meno s h ab r Ia q ue s opo r ta r lo . P oco s

d i s t in ta s c ausas p a ra l ogra r u na c onsecuenc ia g ene ra l izab le : u ns opo r te s oc ia l s u s ten tado rq ue p e rm i ta al ac omun idad p ennanece r c on s u f o rma yc a rác te r o c amb ia r , p e ro d c i gua l modo s egu ir v iv iendo e n c omun idad . No h ay p o rquc c spe r a r al a s c h ie fdom p a ra

s on l o s e s tud io s q ue p uedan d cc ir a l go e n c l a ro s ob re

e n tende r al an u raga c omo i nd icado r d c a soc iac ión , y a q ue l a s p r imeras d i spers iones o rdenadas d c p ro tonu raga s t a inb ién i mp l ican u na t a rea c omuna l c onceb ida t r n i tar iamcn te ,p e ro al a rgo p l azo . Una d cl a s

l a s r e lac ionc s d c c sas " f o r ta leza s" c on e i r e s to d c e s t ruc tu ra s d c h ab i ta t , J oq ue s ip a recc c i c r to e sq ue n o

c a rac tcr I s t ica s má s s o rp renden tc s e s l a magnef icenc ia

R cc ien te3 . D c J oq ue p ucde c onc lu ir se , ap e sa r d c l o s e s tud ios e n c ur so , q ue l a s v i l las p ueden s c r c on tempo ránea s d c l a s n u raga s q ue n o e s tán e n s u s

d c l a s man ife s tac ione s n u rag ica s d csde s u s i n ic io s . P a rece q ue d c l an ada s u rge u n e no rme t e r r i to r io , u na

h ay c en t ro s d c h ab i tac ión c e rca d c l a s c on s trucc ione s mcga l I t ica s , i n c luso h a s ta b ien e n t rado c l B ronce

i s la , a va sa l lada d c t one s d c c a rac te re s mega l I t ico s ; a e s tc p re l im ina r ys e sgado a ná l is is d ebemo s i n t roduc i r d os c or recc iones : l a p r imera e s d c c a rác ter a r queo log ico : l o s p ob lado s d c e dade s a n te r io rc s n o s on

p rox im idades ; p or o t ro l a do h ay e s t ruc turas d c

muy b i en c onoc ido s yl a s t umba s m cga l I t ica s e s tán b a jo

L a s p ro tonu raga s r cp re sen tan L am in ima p ropo rc ión d c v ano e nr e lac iOn a l mu ro . D c spué sp rog re s ivamen te h ay má s d cmanda d c e spac io y l a s p r ime ra s n u raga s ,

t i cr ra ;l as egunda e sl at e ndenc ia ac on s ide ra rc lr eg i s t ro a h is tónco , c omo f o rmado d c u na v cz , s i n t e ue r e n c uen ta q ue c ada o bra e s c l r e su l tado f i na l d c l a rgo s p roccsos , n o s i empre c on temporáneos e n m an ife s tac ione sv ec ina s uh omogenea s . E n c ua lqu ie r c a so l oq ue i ndudab lemen te s o rp rende e sl as uc r te c on l aq ue c uen tan l a s e s tanda r izac ione se n

h ab i tac ión a nexa s al a s t one s n u rág ica s q ue n o s on c on tempo r ánea s d c t odo s l o s momcn to s d c v i da d cu na n u raga c omp le ja , e n momen to s y a d e l B ronce F ina l .

p rop iamen te d i cha s ,i n augu ran má s a mp l ia s s a la s c omo l a s d c " nave r ove sc ia" , d onde e spac io s d c p lan ta e l ip so ide c om ienzan ah o rada rl o s mu ro s , s ob repa sando l a s magn i tude s d c l o s p equef los c o r rcdo re s d c l a s p r ime ra s s eudonu raga s ap a r t ir d e l B ronce Med io . L a

l ai s la . L a c rono log Ia d c mayo r c on sen so , a dm i te u na f e cha d c 1 800 B .C . p a ra l aa pa r ic iOn d c l a s p r ime ra s m an ifes tac iones p ro tonurág icas , ( L i l l iu , 1 982 ) , c on tamo s c on muy p oca i n fo rmac ión r e lac ionada c on l a s f o rma s d c h ab i ta t d c e s e momcn to , n o h ay n ingün " ed if ic io p ro to sa rdo" ( Uga s , 1 992 ) q ue h aya r e s t i tu ido m a ter ia l c e rám ico d c B onnana ro ( B ronce A n t iguo ) ;l o s

e spac ia l idad area s e b u sca t amb ién c omo e xp res ion c o lcc t iva d c l a muer tc , e n l a s l i amada s T umba s d c

m a ter ia le s más a n t iguo s r c la t ivo s al a f r ecuen tac ión C ada d I a s e i nc rcmen ta e in t imc ro d c c on s t rucc ione s

l o ca les ,e na l tu ra s s upcno rc s al o s3 00 m t rs . n .m . ( h i to s e n v I a s d c c omun icac ión , d ema rcado re s l o ca le s , . . )e n c ua lqu ic r c a so y a s on d c f in ido ra s d c u n e spac io ,

d enom inada s p ro tonu raga s q ue , p o rn o s c rc omp le ja s o

a demá s d c a n te sa la a c on s t rucc ione s v en ide ra s . L o s

i n ic ia l d c l a s n u raga s n o s ob rcpa san c lB ronce Mcd io2 .

G igan tc . L a z ona d c l a i s la c on mayor n i imcro d c m an ife s tac ione s p ro tonu rág ica se sc lc en t ro -oe s te ,e n t re e l ia s d es tacan l a s d c c o r redo r p a san tc ( Dermu ta s y D ermu ta s , 1 991) , c on s tru ida s c on b a sa l to s yg r an i to s

1 06

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

D ermu ta s s i guen p en sando e n u na d ob le f unc ión a l a p ro tonuraga : h ab i tac ión y d e fensa , c omp le j idade s t é cn ica s p a rangonada s c on c omp le j idade s e conóm ica s , s imp lemen te e n tend iéndo la s c omo l uga res d e p roducc ión , ( habr Ia q ue p en sa r má s e n d ef ende r e se e spac io m ismo , a h I e s tá l a s ac ra l idad ) . Aná l is is p a leoamb ien ta le s yd e c apac idad d e l s ue lo , p onen d c man if ies to q ue n o h ay u n rg imen d e p a s to r ic ia p redom inan te e n l o s i n ic io s , ( Row land , 1 99 1) , a demá s p a ra s e r t o r re s d c p a s to re s l ac on s t rucc ión e xcede c on mucho l a s n ece s idade s f unc iona le s , c onc luyendo a s I q ue l o s c o r redo re s p odr Ian h abe r f unc ionado c omo a lmacene s ,e t c . . . F a l ta mucho p o rh ace rp a ra d e te rm ina r s uc a rác te rd cu na f o rma ms p rec isa ,p e ro e nc ua lqu ie r c aso e s ta v ar iab i l idad d c p o s ib i l idade s n o s mue s t ra c omo t odo n o e s t a n f ác i l : h ay q ue j r má s a l lá d c l a s a na log Ia sf o rma le s yd cl ah omo tax ia l idad ,p a ra v a lo ra r v ar iedade s l oca les , i mp l icac iones s oc ia le s e n l a c on s t rucc ión , L a l o ca l izac ión e n l a s t i e r ra s más r i ca s d e sde e i p un to d c v i s ta a g r Ico la e t c .. (no h ay q ue r e cu r r ir a d eb i l idad d e l s ue lo n i ad eb i l idad s oc ia l ) . P roponemo s e n tonce s e n tende r l a g ene ra l izac ión e n t é rm ino s d c p roce so e i n ten ta remo s p o rmeno r iza r l a s c au sa s . L a i mp l icac ión s oc ia l d e l i n ega l i t ismo n o e s s o lo l a n ece s idad d c l a d e fen sa f I s ica c o lec t iva . S c a cude a l c r ec im icn to d c l ap ob lac ión oal as ob reexp lo tac iOn d e l p a i sa je a g rar io c omo c l mo to r d e l c a inb io , a ho ra b i en , L a i s la e s u n mo sa ico d c p o s ib i l idade s p roduc t iva s ( Ph i l l ip s , 1 991) ; l ac ompe t ic iOn , mo t ivada p o r e iu so d e la r ado t i rado p o rb uey , ( Le thwa i te ,e nP h i l l ip s , 1 991 , p .8 5 ) yl a s f o rma sd c c on s t ruc iOn t i enden ah omo loga r e sa s d i fe renc ia s . L a a l ta d en s idad d c e l ia s e s tA muy l e jo s d c e xp l ica r se p o r p re s ione s a j ena s al ap rác t ica s oc ia l c omo t a l . D c mane ra q ue l as oc iedad d ebe s e r a t end ida c omo a l go q ue v a má s a l lá d c a s egu ra r l a d ef en sa c o lec t iva . L o s má s f unc iona l is ta s a dm j t ir Ian q ue l ae vo luc ión t é cn ica i mp l ica u n c amb jo s oc ia l , s i n e mba rgo i n ten ta remo s b usca r e n l a s oc iedad l a s mo t ivac ione s d c l ac on s trucc iOn , e n v ez d c i d en t id ica r l a monumen ta li d ad c on e im i l i ta r ismo . L a a r qu i tec tu ra

c omün d cb i ene s ys e rv ic io s . N o h ay e spec ia l is ta s c on s t ruc to re s , ( Web s te r , 1 991 ) , s e t r a ta d c u na s oc iedad d c p a t rone s i gua l i tar io s , ( Bonzan i , 1 992 ) d onde l a h omogene idad , e s tanda r izac iOn yg cne ra l izac iOn e n t o da l ai s la p ueden e n tendc r se c omo L a r epe t ic ion d c u na c on s igna . L a p rop iedad t i ene u n c arác ter s oc ia l , h ay c o -re spon sab i l idad c ons t ruc t iva , q ue p uede i mp l ica r c omp lemen ta r iedad p roduc t iva . S in e mba rgo , p a ra L a s oc io log Ia y l a a n t ropo log Ia e r a b i en s ab ido q ue e i s egmen to m mn imo d c c ua lqu ie r c omun idad g ozaba s i emp re d c u na a u tonom Ia , ( d ia léc t ica d c c on t ro l y c fec t iv idad d c c on t ro l e n n o h ace r la p reponde rar , G idden s , 1 984 ) , y aé s to n o s r e fcnmo s c uando t r a t bamo s d c c xp i ica r e id e so rdcn c omo s oc ia lmcn te n cce sa r io . E I p a ren tc sco o pera c omo u na m en te c u l tura l ( I tu r ra , 1 992 ) . p ropo rc iona l o s c r i teno s d c d i s tanc ia s oc ia l , y j ucga c on L ap roducc ión y r ep roducc ión d c l o s oc ia l , c onfecc iona e s t ra teg ia s p a ra s us b a remo s , a d sc r ibe d ebe res y o b l igac iones . S uponga ino s p a ra u na s man ifes tac ioncs c omo l a s p ro tonu raga s u n s i s tema s oc ia l b a sado e n l ap a ren te la , c omo p a recen d emo s t ra r l o s a j ua re s f une ra r io s c on tempo ráneo s : p redom in io d c l ah omogene idad , ‚ u nc a rác tc rt r iba l? : e nc ua lqu ie rc a so d e f in ir u n s i s tema t r iba l n o e s t a rca f á c i l ; ac s te t i po d c c omun idade s s e h an d ed icado l a mayo r Ia d c L o s e s tud io s a n t ropo lóg ico s s i n q ue h aya u nan im idad d c d ef in ic ione s , m ien t ra s q ue u no s c r i te r io s h acen p e sa r má s e n l ai d eo log Ia , o t ro s s e e s fue rzan e n p e rf i la r l a s v ar iab les e conóm ica s , i e ngua o p a ren te sco ; p uede h ab lar se d c u na u n idad d c d e recho s c omune s e n L a u t i i izac iOn d c u n t e r r i tono y l ac on s igu icn te g e s t ión y d ef en sa d ce so sr e cu r so sr e spec to ao t ra st r ibu s . L a h omogene idad d en t ro d c l o s s egmen to s d c u na t r ibu v i ene d ada p o r l a r eun iOn d c s u s m iemb ro s e n g rupos d c d esccndenc ia , l oca l izado s e n a i dea s , c os t i tuyendo c ua lqu ie ra d c e l lo s u na u n idad p o l I t ica d cf imda . S in e mba rgo n oe x is ten a para to sp e rmanen te s p a ra c lm an t en im ien to d e l o rden , ob i en é s to s n o c s tn e n g rado d c e j ercer u n p ode r d ec is ivo d c p o s ic ión

p uede d a r al as oc iedad u n i n s t rumcn to d c c on t ro l p e ro s ob re t o do s ob re s fm i sma .

a b so lu to ( Fab ie t t i , 1 992 ) . S e t r a ta d c u n idade s p o l I t ica s a céfa la s , p r ivada s d c i m p ode r d ec is iona l c en t ra l izado ; l ac omun idad y n o

Al ah o ra d c h ace r u na I e c tu ra s oc ia l , e s f á c i l d a r se c uen ta d c q ue d u ran te mucho s a f io s l aa rqueo log la d e l Med iter ráneo h a r enuc iado a l a a n tropo log la . I n ten ta remos a ho ra p erf i la r e i p roceso s oc ia l c o imp l jcado e nl a mo t ivac iOn d c l a sc on s t rucc ione s . E n

s o lo u n g rupo , t i ene c apac idad d c c on t ro l yc oe rc iOn s ob re c lm ismo g rupo . S on a soc iac ione s c o rpo ra t iva s , d onde c ada u n idad c uen ta c on i gua l a cce so a l o s

p nnc ip io ys eg i ln l o s d a to s e n c u r so ,c lg rupo p ar t ic ipa d c u na r a c jona l jdad c omuna l e n l aq ue l ae s tra teg ia d c t r aba jo v i enc d ef in ida c omun i tanamen te : p o sc s iOn e n

r e cu r so s , f o rman u na r ed p a ra l u cha rp o re so s d e recho s c omun i ta r io s , yl u chan c omun i ta r iamen te . L a s oc iedad s eo rgan iza e na u scnc ia d ci n s t i tuc ione sp o i I t ica s ,ya q ue c l p ode r o rgan izado e s l a c omun idad e n b loquc . E l l i na je p uede d e f in ir se e n tonce s c omo e ic uad ro m In imo

1 07

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

B IB UOGRAF IA BARRETT ,J .C . , 1 991 . T owa rd sa nA rchaeo logy o fR i tua l ,e nG arwood ,D . ,J enn ing s ,D . ,S kea t s ,R . ,T om s ,J .( e d s ) S ac red a nd P rof ane ,p p . 1 9 . Monog raph n '32 .P roceed ing so f aC on f e rence o nA rchaeo logy ,R i tua la nd R e l ig ion , O xfo rd , 1 989 . BARTH ,H . ( c d ) 1 969 . E thn ic g roup sa nd B ounda r ie s . B e rgen ,O s lo . BONZAN I ,R .M . , 1 992 .T e r r i to r ia lB ounda r ie s ,b u f f e rz one sa nd s oc io log ica lc omp lex i ty : ac a se s t udy o ft h e Nu ragh i o fS a rd in ia ,e nT yko tR .H . a nd T .K . A nd r ews . P P . 2 10 -220 . BOURD IEU ,P . , 1 977 . O u t l ine aT heory o fP rac t ise . C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . 1 993 . L o sr i to sc omo a c to sd ci n s t i tuc ión .e nJ .P i t t -R ive r s yJ .G . P e r i s t iany ( e d s ) ,H ono r yG rac ia . p p .! 1 -123 . CALABRESE ,0 . , 1 993 . C ómo s el e eu no b ra d ea r le .C o l . S igno eI magen . E d . C a tedra . CANAVAGH W . yCAXON ,R .R, 1 987 . An i n ve s t iga t ion i n to t h ec on s t ruc t ion so fS a rd in ian N urag ic . P aper so f B r i t i sh S coo lo fR ome , V o l LV .p p .1 5 -45 . DER MUTAS ,L .M . yDER MUTAS ,S . , 1 99 1 . Ana l i s id e ip ro tonuragh in e l la S a rdegna C en t ro -Occ iden ta le ,e n S an t i l lo ,B . ( c d ) . p p . 4 1 -52 . DOUGLAS ,M . , 1 990 , C ome p en sano l ei s l i tu z ion i . E d . I Mu l ino ,B o logna . EVANS -PR iTCHARD , 1 940 . T he N ue r . Ox fo rd . FAB IEF II , 1 992 .L 'o rgan izzaz ione p o l i t ica , e1 7009mod id e l la c u l tu ra ,L an uova I t a l ia S c ien t if ica , Manua le d c E tno log ia .p p .1 79 -192 . FADDA ,M .A . , 1 990 . I iV i l lagg io ,e n L aC iv i l tà N urag ica ,p p . 1 00 -119 . M i lano : E lec ta . GARC fA ,J .L . , 1 992 . E lu so d e l e spac io : c onduc ta s yd i scu r so s ,e nJ .A . G onza lez A lca tua yM . Gonza lez d c Mo l ina ( e d s . ) , pp 4 00 -411 . GFFRTZ ,C . , 1 987 . L ai n te rpre tac iOn d el a sC u l tu ra s . B a rce lona ,G ed isa . G IDDENS ,A . , 1 984 . T he c on s t i tu t ion o fs oc ie ty :o u t l ine o ft h et h eory o fs t ruc tu ra t ion . C amb r idge . GONZALEZ ALCATUA ,J .A . yGONZALEZ DE MOL INA ,M . ( ed s ) 1 992 . L a T i e r ra ;M i to s , R i bs yr ea l idade s . A n t ropo log la ,E d . A n th ropo s . H ILL IER , B yHADSON ,J . , 1 984 . T he S oc ia lL og ic o fS pace . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss . I TURRA ,R . , 1 992 . L ar e p re sen tac ión r i tua ld cl am emo r ia o ra le nc lt r aba jo d cl aT ie r ra , e nA . Gon7Mez A lca tua y M . G onza lez d c Mo l ina ,p p 2 34 -250 . KENT ,S .( c d ) 1 989 . D ome s t ic a rch i tec tu re a nd t h eu se o fs pace :a ni n terd i sc ip l inary s t udy . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . LA MAR MORA . A . , 1 840 . V oyage e nS a rda igne , p a r t . I l ,C h .I V ,P a r i s , 1 840 . L ILL IU ,G . , 1 962 . 1N urag i . T orr ip re i s tor iche d e l iS a rdegna . E d iz iom " La Z a t te ra " : V erona 1 977 . Da lb e t i lo a nocon ico a l la s t a tuar ia n u rag ica . C a l l izz i -Sa ssa r i . 1 982 . L aC iv i l tà N u rag ica . S ardegna A rchaeo log ica ,S tud i eMonumen t i 1 ,C a r lo D e l f ino E d i to re : S a ssa r i . 1 988 . L ac i v i l tà d e iS a rd id a lP a leo l i t ico a l l 'E ta d e in uragh i T o r ino : N uova ER l , 1 988 . UVERAN T ,M . , 1 988 . P re s t ige a nd I n te re s t . I n te rna t iona lR e la t ion i nt h eN ea rF a c tc a .1 600 -110 B .P .H i s tory o f ‚

a nc ien tN ea rE a s tS t ud ies n ° 1 . P adova . LO S CH IAVO ,F . , 1 985 . E conom ia eS oc ie tà n e l la e t an u rag ica .I chnu s sa , L aS a rd egna d e l le O r ig in ia l la E ta c l d . ss ica . G a rzan t i -Sche iw i l le r . 1 99 1 .P e ru no s t ud io s a l le o f f e r te n e is an tuar i d e l la S radegna N u rag ica . S c ien ze d e l l 'An t ich i tà ,S to r ia A rchaeo log ia eA n t ropo log ia 34 . (1989 -1990 ) . MORAVEF I! , 1 980 .N uov i mode l l id it or nn u rag iche . B u l le t t ino dAne ,n o7 ,p p . 6 5 -84 P ERON I ,R . , 1 989 . L ' e tà d e lB ronzo n e l la p en iso la i t a l iana . P opo l i eC iv i l tà d e l l h a ha A n t ica ,

n c9 .

E d . S to r ia P a t r ia .

R oma . PH ILL IPS ,P . , 1 991 . C hang ing f unc t ion sa nd A rch i tec tu ra l R e sponse sa tn u rag ic c en te r s ,e nS an t i l lo ,B ,( c d ) . p p .83 -86 . P ITT -R IVERS , 1 993 .E p l logo ,e n H onor yG rac ia ,J .P i t t -R ive r s yJ .G .P ens t iany ,( e d s )A l ianza Umve r s idad . RENFRE W C . yCHERRY ,R .C . ,( e d s ) 1 986 . P eer p o l i ty i n te rac t ions a nd s oc iopo l i t ica lc hange .C .U .P . RENFRE W . C . ySHENNAN ,S t . ( e d s ) 1 982 . R ank ing , r e source a nd e xchange .A spec t so ft h ea rchaeo logy o fe a r ly e uropean s oc ie ty . C. U. P . RO WLAND ,R .J . , 1 99 1 . C on tad in i -Gue r r ie r i . An a l te rna t ive h ypo the s i s o fS a rd in ian c u l tu ra le vo lu t ion i nt h en u rag ic p e r iod ,e nS an t i l lo ,B . ( c d .) , pp . 8 7 -117 .

1 08

NUR IA S ANZ GALLEGO

SAHL INS ,M .D . , 1 984 . L a ss oc iedade si nha le s .N ueva C o lecc ión L abo r . E d . L abo r : B a rce lona . Q 'Ed ) . SANT ILLO ,B . ,( cd . ) 1 991 . A r ie m i l i ta re eArch i t .e t tura n u rag ica .N u rag ic a r ch i tec tu re i ni t sm i l i ta ry ,t e r r i to r ia la nd s oc io -econom ic c on text P roceed ing so ft h eF i r s tI n te rna t iona lC o l loqu ium o nN u rag ic A rch i t ec tur e . S wed ish I n s t i tu te i nR ome ,7 -9 D ecemb re , 1 989 . S tockho lm , 1 991 . TARAMELL I , 1 914 . I lt emp io n u rag ico eimonumen t ip nm i l iv i d iS an ta V i t to r ia d iS e r r i , Mon .A n i .L ince i XX I I I . TE RANGFI H IROA , 1 921 . Mao r iD eco ra t ive A r t -Hou se P ane ls ,e n N ew Z ea land I n s t i tu te T ransac t ions , L II I ,p p 4 72 -470 . TR IGGER ,B .G . , 1 990 . Monumen ta lA rch i tec tu re : at h e rmodynam ic e xp lana t ion o fs ymbo l ic b ehav iou r ,e n Monumen t sa nd t h e Monumen ta l , Wo r ld A rchaeo logy ,v o l .2 2 -n2 ,p p . 11 9 -132 . TRUMP ,D . , 1 990 . N u raghe N oeddo sa nd t h eB onu I gh inu v a l ley . O xbow B ook s ,n o4 19 . 1 99 1 . N u ragh ia ss oc ia lh i s to ry : ac a se o fs t udy f r om B onu I gh inu , Mara ,e nS an t i l lo ,B . ( c d )p p .1 63 -168 . TYKOT ,R .H . yT .K . And rews ,( e d s ) 1 992 . S a rd in ia i nt h e Med i ter ranean : af oo tp r in ti nt h es ea . S tud ie si nS a rd in ian A rchaeo logy . S hef ie ld A ccadem ic P r e s s . UGAS ,G . ,( 1987 .L af o r tezza d iS u Mu l ino -Vi lanovaf ranca . Un n uovo co r i t r ibu to p e rt os t ud io d e l ta t h o lo si n S a rdegna ,e nB a tmu th ,M .S . ( c d )S t ud ie si nS a rd in ian A rchaeo logy I I ,

p p

7 7 -128 . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 87 .

O x fo rd . 1 990 . L aT omba d e i Gue r r ie r id iD ec imopu t zu . N o rax 1 ,C ag l ia r i .E d iz ion iD e l la T o r re . 1 992 . C on s ide raz ion id e l lo s v i luppo d e l l 'a rch i te t tu ra ed e l la s oc ie tà n u rag ica ,e n R . H .T yko t ,T .K .And rew s . p p . 2 2 1-234 . UGAS ,G . yPAD IER I , MC . , 1 990 .P e r s is tenze r i tua l i ec u l tura l ii nE ta p un ica er omana n e l s a ce l lo n u rag ico d e lv ano Ed e l la f o r tezza d iS u Mu l ino , Vi lanova f ranca ,( Cag l ia r i ) ,e n L 'Af r ica R omana ,A t t id e l V I Ic onvegno d is t ud io , S a s sa r i 1 5 -17 , 1 989 . pp. 4 75 -486 . UGAS ,G . yUSA I ,L . , 1 986 . Nuov i s c av in e l s an tua r io n u rag ico d iS an t 'Ana s ta s ia d iS a rda ra ,e n U nm i l lenn io d i r e la z ion if ra l aS a rd egna eiP ae s id e l Med i ter raneo , S e la rg iu s -Cag l ia r i , 1 986 .pp . 1 67 -218 . WEBSTER ,G .S . , 1 991 . F unc ion sa nd s oc ia ls i gn if icance o fn u rag i . Ap rov i s iona l Mode l . A r te m i l i ta ree a rch i t te tu ra n u rag ica . p p . 1 69 185 .

1 09

D ISPOSAL OF THE DEAD AND D ISPERSAL OF THE L IV ING I NP RE -ARGAR IC S .E . S PA IN . ABR IGO 2DE E LM ILANO AND A REV IS ION OF THE DYNAM ICS OF CULTURAL CHANGE : " L ITTLE B IG MEN " AND NO GRO WTH I N POPULAT ION?

MIGUEL S AN N ICO LAS DEL TORO

M ICHAEL J . WALKER D epa r tan ien to d cB io log la An ima l

S e rv ic io R eg iona ld cP a tnmon io H i s tónco D i re cc ión G ene r a ld cC u l tu ra

F acu l tad d eB io log Ia

Comun idad Au tónoma d cl aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia

A rea d e An t ropo log la F I s ica ,

2 7

M u r c ia , S p a in

U n ive r s idad d c Mu rc ia , Mu rc ia , S pa in SU M MARY

La t en eo l i th ic mu l t ip le b u r ia l i n a n u nvau l ted mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re a tt h e r ock s he l te r o f Ab r igo 2 d c E l M i lano ( Mu la , Mu rc ia ) s hed s l i gh to n s pa t io tempo ra l v a r ia t ion o fS .E . S pan i sh b u r ia lp rac t ice si nt h el a te rn eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic ( =c oppe r ) a ge s , t h e c h rono logy o f wh ich i s t h en o u t l ined . N ex t , s im i lar i t ies a nd d i f fe rences a r e h igh l igh ted a t S. E .S pan ish mu l t ip le b u r ia l s i te s a ts im i l a rl o ca t ion s o ri nc l o sed mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s . T hey ,a nd E l M i lano ,a r e t h en c on s ide red i n aw ide rc on tex t wh ich t a ke s i nC a ta lon ia , F rance a nd I t a ly , p ay ing p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion t ot h e t r ea tmen t me ted o u t t oh uman r ema in s . A t ten t ion i st h en p a id t oh ow h uman r ema in s w e re d i s p o sed o fi nS .E . S pa in . T he re f o l lows r e a sse ssmen to fd i f fe ren t modes o fb u r i a l i nn a tu ra l v au l ted c av i t ie s ( c ave s ,r ock s he l te r s ,c r e v i ce s ) , w i th a ccoun t b e ing t a ken o fs i te -fo rma t ion p ro c e s se s . I n t ra reg iona l s im i la r i ty o fg rave g ood s i n S .E . S pa in f r om n a tu ra l v au l ted c av i t ie s a nd t ho se f r om a r t i f i c ia l b u r ia ls t ruc tu re s ,b o th v au l ted a nd u nvau l ted ,l e ad s t or e con s ide ra t ion o fb u r ia ls i n man -made v au l t s ( cham b ered t omb s , e t c . ) . T he s im i lar i t ie s , h oweve r , c anno t d i sgu ise g l ar ing s pa t io tempo ra l i nequa l i t ie s i n i n t ra -

r ough ly s peak ing ,C -14 5 500 a nd 3 500 BP c an b ei n te r p re ted mo s tp ar s imon iou s ly i nt e rm s o fo ve rr id ing c on c e rn t o ma in ta in a cces s t o ad ive r s i ty o f w ide ly d i s p e r sed r e sou rce s , s ome o f w h ich c hanged a s t ime w en t b y . C on t inua l a b sence o fm ember s f r om t h e ir c ommun i t i e s b a re ly a l lowed t h e se t o s u s ta in i n te r -gene ra t iona l t u rn -ove r , w i th n eg l ig ib le g row th e ven a tC -14 3 500 -

-

BP . S een f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o f ma ter ia l -cu l tu re h i s to ry , p r eh is to r ic S .E . S pa in l ook s l i ke ab ackwa te r : r e spond i ng t o d eve lopmen t s b eyond b y a dop t ing o r a dap t ing s ome e l emen t s a nd i gno r ing o the r s . S een f r om t h a t o f s oc ia l e vo lu t ion , t h e s ub s tan t ive a r chaeo log ica lf i nd ing s i mp ly n o mo re t h an p eop le t ol e ad a dh oc t a sk s ; mayb e d i f f e ren t p eop le f o r d i f fe ren t t a sk s , w i th , a t mo s t ,f l ee t i ng a t tr ibu ted s t a tu s . T he re i sn o u namb iguou se v idence f o ra cqu i red " B ig Man" s t a tu s , l e t a l one a sc r ibed s t a tu s , w he the r e l ec ted o r h e red i tary , b e fo re t h e p ro toh is tonc I be r ian so ft h el a te rf i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . . T he mo s tp a r s imon iou s i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e s ub s tan t i ve a rchaeo log ica l a nd p a laeoan th ropo log ica l r e co rd , wh ich mu s t b e r e fu ted w i th in t ha t r e co rd b efo re r e so r t i ng t oo the r ,l e ss p a r s imon iou sa l te rna t ives ,i st h a ts oc ia l

r eg iona l r ep resen ta t ion o f b ur ia l p rac t ice s . T hese a r e

a c to r su nde rwen tN oG row th i nn umbe r s ,w h i le t r a ip s ing a round l a rge a r ea so fl a nd l e db yn o mo re t h an t h eo cca -

t h en c ons idered i n t h e l i gh t o f d i f fe ren t ia l s pa t io -

s i ona lL i t t le B i g Man ( o r Woman) .

t empo ra l v ar ia t ion s i ns e t t lemen td i s t r ibu t ion a nd d i f f e r e n t ia l a va i lab i l i ty o fn a tu ra lr e sou rce s .

WARN ING NOTES :

S ub s tan t ive f i nd ing s a r e d i scu ssed i nd e ta i l i n o rde r t ou nde r l ine t h e f undamen ta l s im i la r i ty o fl a te rn eo l i th i c -aeneo l i th ic b u r ia l a s semb lage sf r om n a tu ra l a nd a r t if i c i a l S. E . S pan ish mo r tua ry s i te s a l ike . B o th a r e s ome w ha t d i f fe ren t f r om P o r tuguese b u r ia l a s semb lages , e ven t h ough s ome v au l ted a r t if ic ia l mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s i n S .E . S pa in a r e a rch i tec tura l ly speak ing s im i la r t o s ome f r om S .W . S pa in a nd P o r tuga l . I fb o th n a tu ra l a nd a r t if ic ia l S .E . S pan ish mo r tua ry s i tes a r e c on s ide red t oge the r , t h e s l ow ly e vo lv ing d y n am ic s o f c u l tu ra l c hange w i th in S .E . S pa in b e tween ,

S .E . S pa in r e fe r sh e re t ot h e S .E . q ua r te ro ft h eI be r i a nP en in su la ,f r om C a s te l lón t o Má laga . BP r e fe r s t o u nca l ib ra ted C -1 4 e s t ima te s ( a s i n t h e j ou rna lR ad ioca rbon ; =" b .p ." o f Ant iqu i ty) , b a sed o ni t s h a lf l ife o f5 568 y ea r s . R ea l t ime e s t ima t e sa r ei nd ica ted b y B .C . o r AD . . B road ly s peak ing , 7 000 BP = 5 800 B .C . ,6 000 BP =4 800 B .C . ,5 000 BP =3 800 B .C . ,4 000 BP = 2 500 B .C . ,a nd 3 000 BP = 1 250 B .C . ( cf .Pea r son &S tu ive r 1 993 ;S tu ive r &P ea r son 1 993 ) . R ad ioca rbon d e term ina t ions a r e p receded b y C -14 , t h e rmo lum ine scence o ne s b y TL . ii d e te rm ina t ion s a r e

10

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

r ough ly t h e s ame a sB .C . e s t ima te s . E ve r s i nce l a bo ra t o r ie s ' d a te l i s t s c ea sed a ppea r ing r egu la r ly i n R ad io c arbon i th a sb ecome i n c r ea s ing ly h a rd t of i nd l a bo ra to r yi d en t if ica t ion n umbe r s o fd e te rm ina t ion s ; o n ly w hen t h e n umbe r s e l uded u s , o r i ft h e re w a s u nce r ta in ty , a r e b ib l iog raph ica lr e f e rences g i ven t os ource s i nw h ich w e f ound d e te rm ina t ion s c i ted . N umbe red f oo tno te s i nt h e t e x to f ten a mp l ify C -1 4d a ta f r om s i te s . A dhe rence t o aC -14 c h rono log ica l s equence d oe s n o t i mp ly t h a t t wo o s ten s ib ly s im i la r d e te rm ina t ion s h ave t ob ec on tempo raneou s ,e ven w hen t h ey a r eo the r w ise r ega rded a s r e l iab le , i ff o r n o o the r r e a son s t h an t h a t i n equa l i t ie s i n c a l ib ra t ion c urve s may mean t h a t o ne d e te rm ina t ion c an s ome t ime s c o r re spond t o t wo d i f f e ren t ,b u te qua l ly l i ke ly ,c a l ib ra ted a ge s ,o rt h a t t wo s omewha td i f fe r en td e te rm ina t ion s may h ave e qua ll i ke l i hood o fb e ing c on tempo raneou s . I no rde r t od ef ine s pa t io tempo ra l u nconfo rm i t ie s " c h rono -cu l tu ra l f au l t l ine s" a s i tw e re w h ich m igh t b e d ec is ive i nc hoo s ing b e tween a l te rna t ive p roce s sua l -

-

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m ea su red 0 . 50 .3 i n . T he r ema in s w e re c ove red b ys o i l , b rough t i nf r om o u t s ide ( 1 ) , c apped w i th s ma l l s t one s f o l lowed b y ah eap o fr ock s . T he 7 20 h uman b one f r agmen t s a nd t e e th r ep re sen ta 2 -8 y ea r -o ld c h i ld , o ne o r t wo 8 -12 y ea r -o ld c h i ld ren , t wo 1 4 -20 y ea r -o ld a do le scen t s , t h ree 1 8 -25 y ea r -o ld y oung a du l t s ,a nd a na du l t maybe 2 5y ea r s o ld (Wa lke r 1 991) . A l l c ame f r om t h e ma in mo r tua ry a r ea , e xcep t f o rc h i ld b one s ( s ku l l p i ece s , t e e th ,l e f t w r is ta nd h and ) f ound i nt h ee x ten s ion . S eve ra l r ema in s w e re c ha r red . Ac ha r red t o o th r oo t mean s t h a t b u rn ing f o l lowed i t s s epara t ion f r om t h e j aw . S ku l ls a nd l a rge r b one s a r e f r agmen tary . V er te b rae , r i b s , s hou lder b l ade s a nd h ip b ones a r e u nde r r ep re sen ted , s ugge s t ing t h a tr e duc t ion o fc adave r s p re c eded b u r ia l . " Packe t s" o ff l exed l imb b one sw e re e xca v a ted , i nd ica t ing b u r ia l b e fo re d i sa r t icu la t ion , b u ta f te r w r i s t s ,h and s ,a nk le sa nd f e e tw e re c ha r red . B ecau se o n ly t wo b one s ( r ib s ) h ave c u t ma rk s , a nd

-

i n te rp re ta t ion so fi n t ra reg iona lm a te r ia l -cu l tu re d ynam i c s , c a l ib ra ted C -14 d e term ina t ion s s hou ld a l low c on t r a s t s b e tween s i te s t ob ed rawn i nt e rm so fs t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t s im i la r i t ie s , o r d i f fe rence s , b e tween p oo led m ean s o fC -14 d e te rm ina t ion s f r om t wo , o r mo re , s uc c e s s ive c u l tu ra l h o r izon sp re sen ta tt wo ,o r mo re ,o ft h e s i te si nt h er eg ion . T ran sfo rmed C -14 d a ta f r om S .E . S pa in d on o tm ee t t h a tp e r fo rmance c r i te r ion ,b ecau se a lmo s tn os i te sh ave mo re t h an o ne c u l tu ra l h o r izon f r om wh ich e nough C 1 4 d e te rm ina t ion s a r e a va i lab le f o r s equen t ia l p oo led m ean s t ob ec ompu ted , e ven w he re t h ere a r es po rad ica l d e te rm ina t ion s f r om e a r l ie ro r l a te r h o r izon s n e i the r t h e se ,n o rm ave r ick d e te rm ina t ion s , much l e ss i s o la ted o ne s , c an b e m an ipu la ted s o a s t o make g ood t h e d ef i -

-

t wo o the r s g naw ma rk s , p r ima ry d i sa r t icu la t ion c anno t b e c l ear ly a t t r ibu ted t o h uman s o r c a rn ivo rou s mam m a ls . P e rhap s v u l tu re s ( 2 ) s c avenged o ne xpo sed c o rp s e s , a nd a dhe r ing h a ir o r s k in ( on h and s , f e e t o r s ca lp ) w e re b u rn t o f f b efo re i n te r r ing manageab le p acke t s o f f o lded l imb s i n t h e s ma l l mo r tuary s t ruc tu re . No a she s w e re f ound i ni t ,h ence r educ t ion a nd b ur n ing o ccur red o u t s ide T he ma in s t ruc tu re c on ta ined ap o l ished s t one a xe h ead , b one a w ls a nd s pa tu la ,f l in ts ( geome t r ica l t r apez e sa nd l una te s , b l ade s , f l ake s a nd s pa l l s ) , 2 6 l ime s tone b ead s ,l a gomo rph a nd o v icap r ine b one s ,a nd ap e r fo ra t e d G lyc imer i s s ea s he l l . T he o n ly p o t she rd c ame f r om t h ee x ten s ion a nd s howed z ona l ,h achu red i n c is ion s ( 3 ) .

c i ency . C on sequen t ly , r ad iome t r ica l d e te rm ina t ion s a r e g i ven w i thou t c a l ib ra t ion , a nd i n f u l l k now ledge t h a t t h e ir s t anda rd e r ro rb y n om ean s d ef ine s t h a to ft h e s t a t i s t ica lu nce r ta in ty o ft h e ir c a l ib ra ted " t rue " v a lue . ABR IGO 2DE EL M ILANO T he t wo r ock s he l te r s a tE l M i lano a r e l i t t le mo re t h an s t eep ly i nc l ined c l if f s ( Abr igo . . . 1 987 ; S an N ico lá s 1 993 ; S an N ico lá s &A lon so 1 986 ) . Ab r igo 1h a s n a tu r a l is t ic ( Levan t ine ) a nd c onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic ) w a l l p a in t ing s a nd ab a r ren r ock f l oo r . A b r igo 2 c on t a ined a 1 . 40 .9 i n mo r tua ry s t ruc tu r ef o rmed b y ac u rv i n gl i ne o fl a rge s t one s c l o s ing o f f ah o l low i nt h e r ock f a c e . I ni t ,h uman b one s ( C -14 5 220±280 B P , 1 14655 ) l a yo ns ma l l s l ab sp l aced o nt h en a tu ra l r o ck f l oo r0 . 5i n b e low t h e s u r face . A s econda ry e x ten s ion a to ne e nd

D IRECT RAD IOMETR ICAL DETER M INAT IONS ON MULT IPLE BUR IALS c a . C -14 5 000 BP T he E l M i lano b ur ia l l a y i n a n u nvau l ted mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re b e low an a tu ra l v au l t . Wha te l se w a sg o ing o n i nt h e P en in su la a round C -14 5 000 BP? A s pec tacu la r b ur ia l i n vo lved 3 00 s ke le ton s , s ome w i th a r rowpo in t s embedded i n b one , i n m ine g a l le r ie s i n A lava a tS an J uan A n te P o r tam L a t inam ( C -14 5 070±150 , 5 020±140 BP ,1 14842 , -1 4594 ) . B u rn th uman r ema in s o ccu r red i n ac i rcu la r ,n on -mega l i th ic b u r ia li n ac a irn a tE lM irade r o i n V a l lado l id ( C -14 5 155±35 , 5 115±35 BP , G rN 1 2 100 , -1210 1 : Deib e se ta l . 1 987 ) . S im i la rd e te rm ina t ion sc ome f r om S .E . S pan ish c ave b u r ia ls , n ame ly , C ueva S an ta i ns ou the rn V a lenc ia ( C 1 4 5 060±110 BP , UGRA -188 ) , a nd C ova d e l Mo ro i n A l ican te w he re h uman b one s h ad b ecome e nc ru s ted

11

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

w i th c a lc i te ( C -14 4 780±80 BP , SUA -2070 ) a ccompa n i ed b y n eo l i th ic c a rd ia l a nd c ombed p o t te ry ( A sque r i -

t a m ed af l exed s ke le ton . G rave g ood si n c luded u ndeco r a ted v e sse ls , b ead s , c oppe ra w ls a nd ab l ade w i th t wo

n o 1 979 ) . S ke le ton s a tC ueva d e l o s Mu rc ié lago s n ea r A lbuf io l i nG ranada w o re e spar io-g ra ss c l o th ing ( C -14

h al t ing r i ve t s ( wh ich i sp robab ly l a te r t h an C -14 4 500

5 400±80 BP ,C S IC -1 46 ) ( 4 ) . C ave b ur ia l s o ccur red b yC -14 5 000 BP i nC a ta lon ia ( 5 ) . T omb c on s t ruc t ion w a s w e l l u nde r w ay t h roughou t t h eP en in su la b y 5 000 BP ( 6 ) . Mu l t ip le b ur ia ls c ha rac t e r ize t h e l a te r n eo l i th ic ( C -14 5 800 -4500 BP ) f o l low i ng d i sappearance o f c a rd ia l w a re ( C -14 7 000 -5800 BP ) . T hey c on t inued i n t h e a eneo l i th ic ( C -14 4 500 3 800 BP ) a nd s ome a r e a s l a te a s t h e A rga r ic b ronze a ge ( C -14 3 900 /3800 -3300 BP ) . B u rn t h uman b ones a r e d a ted a t t h e Ku r tzéb ide c hamb e red t omb i n Maya ( C -14 4 445±95 BP ,1 10826 : V ega s 1 981) a nd t h eP o r tugue se c ave o fL apa d oF umo ( C14 5 040 ± 1 60 BP ,K -361) . H e re , r ema in s o fu pt o7 i nd iv idua ls w e re b u rn t( s ome b one s s how c u t ma rk s )o n as l ab a nd c l ay f l oo r , w h ich c ove red a n e a r ly n eo l i th ic l a ye r ,m ixed w i th a r t i fac t s ,i n c lud ing s ch i s tp laque sa nd az oomo rphou s b one p endan t , c r ushed a nd m ixed w i th r ed o ch re , a nd t h en c ove red w i th s o i l ( daCunha S e r räo y Ma rgue s 1 971) . Ab u rn t l a ye r s epa ra ted t wo b u r ia l e p isode s a t t h e Gobaede r ra c ave i n A lava c a . C -14 3 660±100 BP ( 1 -3984 ) , c ompa red t oF on tbou I sse b u r i a l s a ccompan ied b yb urn ing i nF rance ( Ape l lan iz e ia l . 1 967 ;A pe l lan iz 1 968 ) . MORTUARY S TRUCTURES UNDER CL IFFS , TO MBS WITHOUT CHAMBERS , OVAL AND ROUND GRAVES T he E l M i lano s t ruc tu re w a s n o t ac hambe ra si tl a cked r oo f ing o rr oo fs uppo r t s ,n o rh ad i ta ne n t rance p a s sage . I t s v au l t w a s n a tura l a nd o ve r t h e mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re r a the r t h an f o rmed b y i t . C ompar ison s a r e f i r s t w i th mo r tua ry s t ruc tu res u nde r c l if f s o ro ve rhang s , a nd t h en w i th r ound g rave sa nd e a r ly c i s t s . A n e x tended i nhuma t ion w a s e xcava ted i n ar ock s he l te ru nde r ac l if fa tB a r ranc d e lC inc i nA l ican te ( V i s edo 1 937 ) . G rave g ood s i nc luded a G ic imer i s ( "Pec tuncu lu s" ) s he l l p i e rced n ea r i t s h inge , p a r t o f a

BP ) . A lso o va l i ns hape w e re s ome A lmenan p a s sage le s s b u r ia l c hambe r s ( 7 ) , u sua l ly l umped t o ge the rw i th c i r c u la r o ne s a s r ound g rave s ( Le isne r &L e i sne r 1 943 ) . No t a l l w e re m ega l i th ic ( b ig u nhewn s l ab s ) : s ome h ad d ry s t one w a l l s . R ound g r ave s c an b ea ss ma l la sE lM i l a no : o ne a tL oma d el o s P a rdo s w a s o n ly 1 . 3ma c ro s s ( i b id . : 1 943 : 7 ) . O the r sw e re l a rge : t h eo va lL lano d e lJ au tón 5c ham b e r mea su red 6 .8x5 .6 m , h ad a c en t ra l r oo f s uppo r t , h e ld 3 00 s ke le ton s a nd a s many p o t s ( one p e rc o rp se? ) . I t s d eco ra ted p l a s te r v es se ls ( G ipsekeram ik ) m ir ro r t ho se a ts eve ra l s ou thea s te rn a eneo l i th ic b u r ia ls ; b e l l b eake r s h e re ( i b id . : 7 0 ) may mean t h e t omb i sl a t e ( A r r i ba s 1 960 ) . U se ,i fn o t e ven b u i ld ing , o fr ound g rave s s e em s t oh ave g one o n a l te rC -14 4 500 BP , w hen p a s s age -g rave c eme te r ie s w e re w e l l e s tab l ished ( 8 ) . F o l l ow ing L eed s ( 1920 , 1 922 ) , t h e L e isne r s h e ld r ound g rave s t ob e n eo l i th ic a nd e a r l ie r t h an p a s sage g rave s : f ew c on ta ined c oppe r . L ike E lM i lano ,r ound g r ave s t e nd t oh ave G lyc ime r i s ( =P ec tuncu lu s )p endan t sa nd b ang le s ( wo rn b yc h i l d ren o r g i r ls a s s uch s he l ls b a re ly r each 6 0 -70 mm a c ro ss ) ( 9 ) , e spec ia l ly t h e n or thern A lme r ian P a lace s t omb s n ea rZ u rgef la . As he l l b ang le o ccur red i no ne o f t h ree o va l c hambe r s i nt h e S i e r ra d eA ique r la n ea rV é l e zR ub io ,6 0 km s S .E . o fE lM i lano . N ea rby , s he l lb an g l e s w e r e f ound i n s ma l l r ound g rave s u nde r mound s b e s ide ap r eh is to r ic s e t t lemen t a tC e r ro d el a s C an te ra s n ea rV é lez B lanco .T hey c on ta ined f l in ta r t ifac t s b u tn o c oppe r ,a nd w e re r e ga rded a s " neo l i th ic "a nd o lde rt h an " a eneo l i th ic" o ne s i nt h es ame g roup ,w h ich h ad c opp e r ( a nd i no ne c a se ac o rbe l led v au l t )( d e Mo to s 1 9 18 ) . E igh t s im i la r r ound g rave s o ccur 5 km a way a tE l P ia r( M .S .N .T . ,n . d . ) . No tf a ra way ,a tC anada d e lA lba , n ea r P ue r to L umbre ra s i n Mu rc ia , w ere 3 0 emp ty c a irns , e ach c ove r ing t wo e longa ted p a ra l le l s e t t ing s , 0 . 5 m w ide , o f h o r izon ta l s l ab s a nd t r ace s o f b u rn ing ( i b id . ; d e l a V ega d e l S e l la 1 929 ) ; E l M i lano w a s

c oppe rs hee to rb l ade ,p o l ished s t one a xehead s ,e ve r ted r im b ow ls a nd b aggy j a r s . I ts hou ld d a te f r om b e tween

f l oo red w i th s ma l l s l ab s . On t h e Mu rc ian c oa s t , as ma l l p a s sage les s s ub rec -

C -1 44500 a nd 3 500 BP . O va l s t ruc tu re s wh ich w e re n o tr oo fed c hambe r s l a y u nde r c a irn s h a rd u p a ga in s tc l if f s i n ad e f i le o ft h e R .

t a ngu la r c hambe r , c on ta in ing b ead s , f l in t a r t i fac t s a nd t r ace s o fb u rn ing , l i e s b e s ide t h e w a l l w i th c i rcu la ra nd

C ac In , T a jo s d e C ac In , i nG ranada ( Cape l e ia l . 1 981) .

s qua re b a s t ion s a round t h e C abezo d e l P lomo s e t t le men t ( Muf ioz 1 982 ) whe re c oppe r w a s u nknown a nd

One p rov ided b one s o f 3y oung w omen , a n a do le scen t b oy a nd ac h i ld ( Ga rc ia S anchez & J iménez 1 981) a l t h ough 6 f l exed s ke le ton s l y ing o n t h e ir l e f t s i de w e re

wh ich h ad r ed -wa sh w a re ( C -14 5 170±90 ,4930±60 BP , SUA -1474 , -1 476 ) . T he t omb w a s l i kened t o ar ound g rave ( Muhoz 1 986 ) . Two o the r s n ea rby w e re d e -

s a id t oh ave b een o r ig ina l ly s een ; t h e o the r t omb c on -

s t royed b e fo re a r chaeo log ica l e xp lo ra t ion c ou ld t a ke

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12

M ICHAEL I WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

p l ace . I n land , 1 s ma l l p a ssage le s s p o lygona l c hambe r sl i e

p rog r e s si nc a se t h ey c ove r mo re b u r ia l s . S ku l ls w i thou t m and ib le s l a y c l o se t ot h e s t ra igh t s i de a nd r e a r o f t h e

b e s ide as e t t lemen t a tE l C ap i tán n ea r Z a rc i l la d c R a mo s , l i kew ise w i thou t c oppe r ( C -14 4 890±130 .

mo r tua ry a r ea ; o ne g roup w a s i n an i che i nt h e s t ra igh t

4 140±140 BP , SUA -26610 , -26611) ( M .S .N .T . ,n .d . ) T h ree r ock s he l te r s i nt h e Mu rc ian Guada len t in v a l l e y w e re a l te red a r t if ic ia l ly a nd may t h u s b e c ompa red t oE lM i lano . One a t Mu rv ied ro w a se x tended o u twa rd s a nd p a r t ly s ea led b yr ock sa nd s l ab s( I dáf iez 1 987 )( 10 ) .

s i de ,b eh ind l o ng b one s wh ich f o rmed a na ng le i nf r on t o f t h em . Mand ib le s , b y c on t ra s t , w ere s ca t te red t h roughou t t h e mo r tua ry a r ea . Mo s t b ones a nd l oo se t e e th f o rm n o s pa t ia l p a t te rn . Af ew w e re f ound i na na t om ica l r e la t ion sh ip . I n d i f fe ren t p ar t s o f t h e mo r tua ry a r ea w ee xcava ted a na lmo s tc omp le te w r i s ta nd h and ,a

S ome o f i t s b urn t h uman b one s w e re p robab ly b u rn t o u t s ide t h e b u r ia l a r ea ( I dáhez 1 986 ) . G rave g ood s i n c l uded a mar i t ime b e l l b eake r , e ngraved b one p iece ,

s a c rum w i th i t s l owe r t ho raco lumbar b ackbone r e ta in i n g t h e k ypho s is a nd l o rdo s is , ap a ir o f f l exed t h igh s h in l imb b one s c omp le te w i th k neecap s a nd t h e i r c o r -

g o ld r i ng , s ma l l g o ld a nd s i lve r t r umpe t l ike o b jec t s

c l o sed o f fb y s l ab s , a nd t h e r ock r oo fo f Ab r igo d c l o s C arbonero s w a s a l tered t o g ive a r i dged s hape ( M .S .N .T . , n .d . ) . Mod if ica t ion o f n a tu ra l c av i t ie s i s

r e spond ing a nk le a nd f oo t b one s , a nd ap a ir o ff l exed a rm -fo rea rm l imb b one s . No t r ace s o fc u t ma rk s , g naw m a rk s ,o rb u rn ing w e re f ound . O u rP hD s t uden tJ o sef i n a Z apa ta c on so l ida ted a nd i d en t if ied e ach b one , a nd c hecked i t s t h ree -d imens iona l s pa t ia l c oo rd ina te s a ga in s t s ca le -ad ju s ted p ho tog raph s f o r c ompu ter ized s pa t ia l a na ly s i s ,p r io rt ol i l t ing f o rr emova l t oo u rl a bo r -

k nown

a t o ry f o rf u r the ri n ve s t iga t ion .

( 1 1) ,c oppe ra r t i fac t s ,a n ima l shaped a mu le t s , G ip seke r ar n ik a nd many b ead s a nd f l in t a r rowpo in t s . A r ock s he l te r n ea r C e r ro d c l a S a lud s eem s t o h ave b een

i n

V a lenc ia b o th a tC ueva d cR oca fo r t , whe re a

s ku l l a nd a eneo l i th ic g rave g ood s l a y b eh ind d ry s t one w a l l ing ( Ba l les te r 1 942 : 3 7 -49 ) ,a nd a tC ova d cl aS a r sa

THE " CATALAN CONNEX ION" REASSESSED

( s ee b e low ) . A t L oma d c l o s P e reg r ino s i n Mu rc ia a n i mpo r tan t

A lme r ian r ound g rave s w e re c ompa red t o C a ta lan p i t

b u r ia l a s semb lage l a yi n ac hambe rs a id t ob ec u to u to f

g r ave s ( s epu icre sd ef 0 ss4 b yB o sch ( 1919 ; 1 923 ) .T he

b ed rock ( Fe rnández d c A v i lé s 1 945 ; N ie to 1 959a ) ; a f l in t h a lbe rd f r om i ti se xcep t iona l i n S .E . S pa in a nd

c ompa r i son w a sc r it ic ized b y S e r ra ( 1927 ) a nd s ub s tan t i a l ly mod if ied l a t te r ly ( L longue ra s 1 981 ; Ma luque r

p o in t s t oc on tac t s w i th P o r tuga l w he re t h e t ype i sw e l l k nown . Ano the r r ock -cu t t omb o ccu r red a tL o s R ea le -

1 945 , 1 950 ; Muhoz 1 965 ; R ipo l l & L longue ra s 1 963 ; T a r rade l l 1 960 ) . P i t g rave s a r e o f ten u nde r c a i rn s a nd c on ta in s i ng le s up ine s ke le ton s ,o f ten w i th k nee sd rawn

j o s i n Mu rc ia . R ock -cu t c hambe r s o ccu ri ne a s te rn A n d a lu s ia ( Be rd ischewsky 1 964 ) . I n N .W . Mu rc ia , s l ab c ove red g rave s ( maybe n o t e ven p reh is to r ic ) w e re r e p o r ted n ea r A rch ive l a nd a tL a H o radada ( J iménez d c C isne ro s 1 904 , 1 925 ) .

u p . S ome p i t s a r e c ove red b y ,o rl i ned w i th s l ab s . E a r th a nd s t one s m ay f i l l t h e g rave s ( c f . E l M i lano , C ac In ) . G rave g ood so f ten i n c lude G lyc imen rb ang le s . C a rd ia l w a re d i sappea red f r om t h e s t ra t ig raph ica l s e -

A tP a ja so la i n Mu rc ia , amo r tua ry s i te i su nde re xca v a t ion i nw h ich s ke le ta l r ema in s o fs ome 2 5a du l t s a nd

q uence a t C ova d c C an S adurn I b y 5 800±160 o r

c h i ld ren , s he rd s , f l in t b l ade s a nd ad agge r , a nd c oppe r a w l s , w e re f ound w hen am echan ica l s hove l u ncove red ac av i ty i n al ime s tone h i l ls ide i n 1 993 . T he o r ig ina l s hape o ft h e c hambe ri su nknown a sa l l o ve r ly ing r ock

b o ló w are a ppea r s ( B lanch e ia l . 1 983 ) . E p ica rd ia l w a re a nd aG lyc ime r is b ang le o ccu red i n ad epo s i t a tC ova d e l F ra re ( C -14 5 800±130 BP , MC -2298 ) . Mon tbo ló w a re a ccompan ied h uman b ur ia ls a t C ova d c

a nd s o i l h ad a l ready b een r emoved w hen t h e s hove l e x p o sed b one si n a0 . 5r n -deep h o l low 3 x3 m a c ro ss i nt h e r ock . V e r t ica l a nd l a te ra l f i ssu re s may h ave g i ven a c c e ss t ot h e s u r face . I tw a s s a id b lock s o fs t one r emoved b y t h e s hove l d i f fe red f r om t h e a ngu la r g rave l i n to

l 'Ave l lane r ( C -14 5 830±100 BP , UBAR -109 ) ; t hu s c ave b u r ia l i s ap rac t ice t h a ta n teda te s p i t g rave s , e ven

wh ich t h e s u r round ing m e tamo rpho sed l ime s tone c r um b l e s . T he h o l low i si r regu la ri np rof i le a nd o u t l ine . O ne w a l l r un s s t ra igh t f r om o u t s ide t o i n s ide , b u t e ven t h ough i tc u t s t h rough t h e d i p o ft h e b ed rock i ti sh a rd

e ra l . 1 975 ) . A ne a r ly p i tg rave i sa t Us G a r ro f e r s ( C -14 5 100±110 BP ,1 JBAR -100 ) . L a te p i t g raves c ome f r om S abassona ( C -14 4 310±140 ,4070±130 BP , I -1518 , C S IC -31 ) , w he re a n -

t os a y w he the ro rn o ti tw a sa r t if ic ia l ly c u t . T he r ema in s s e em t oh ave b een d epo s i ted o n ab ed o f l ime s tone g rave l c h ip s , e xcava t ion o f w h ich i s i n

o the r c on ta ined a mar i t ime b e l l b eake r . A t C ova d e l F ra re ab e l l -beake rd epo s i ti so fs im i la ra ge ( C -14 3 990 B P : B lanch e ia l . 1 982 ) ;h e re a ga in ,h oweve r ,c ave b u r i -

5 700±110 BP ( I -11787 , -11789 ) , w hen e p ica rd ia l Mon t -

t hough a to the r s i te si ti sl a te ( 5 ) . Mon tbo ló w a re l a ye r s a tC ova d c l aF on td e l Mo l ino ta r ef o l lowed b y t h ep i t g rave c u l tu re ( C -1 45 450±90 BP , MC - 111 : B a lde l lou

13

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

h oweve r ,b rachyc rany i se xcep t iona l i nV a lenc ian c ave b u r ia ls ( Fu s té 1 957a : 2 0 )( 13 ) ,a l though t r epana t ion w a s

a l s o ccu r red ( w i th V e raza w a re ; C -14 4 450±100 BP , MC -2297 : Ma r t in 1 977 , 1 980 ) , a s a tC ova d e C an S a d um I(C -144225±90 BP ,1 11533 ) . I na dd i t ion t ob u r ia l s p ro tec ted b y u nmod if ied o ve r -

p rac t i sed i nC a s te l lón ,V a lenc ia ,A l ican te , Mu rc ia ,G ra n ada , a nd t h e B a lea r ic I s land s : h ence , c ran ia l g ene t ic s a nd c u l tu ra lp rac t ice sn eed n o tg oh and i nh and . T h is i sn o t t h e p lace t od i scu s s ap ropo sed r e la t ion s h ip i nS pa in a nd P o r tuga l b e tween s t eep -headed s ku l l s w i th o cc ip i ta lf l a t ten ing a nd b e l l b eake r s ( Bubne r 1 976 ,

h ang s , r ock s he l ter s , c ave s a nd c r ev ice s ,C a ta lon ia a l so o f f e r s n o to n ly mega l i th ic t omb s ( i nc lud ing s ome e a r ly o ne s ( 5 ) ) b u t a l so mu l t ip le b u r ia ls u nde r s ma l l , l ow , r ock o ve rhang s p a r t i t ioned o rs ea led b y s l ab s ,s t one so r w a l ls ( " c ryp t s" , " pa ra -do lmen s" , " poo r f o lk ' s mega l i th s" ) ( 12 ) . Among t h e l a t te r a r e C an d e l s O ssos ( Bo sch 1 919 : 9 1-92 ) , B a lma d e l aS a rgan tana (Ma rce t

1 987 ;G ar r a lda 1 981) . Wha t n eed s s t re ss ing , i n s tead , i s t ha t t h roughou t Med i te r ranean S pa in mu l t ip le s econda ry b ur ia ls o f ten

e ta l . 1 982 ) , G ar ngó ( Se r ra 1 923 : 1 3 -15 ) , S o le r B rocó

c on ta in n o t o n ly t r epanned s ku l l s , b u t a l so ar ange o f

( i b id . : 1 6 -20 ) ,B a lma d e S o lane l ls ( i b id . : 2 8 -33 ) ,C an d e l a G u ineu ( C -14 4 040±110 BP : C as tany 1 984 ) a nd C ova d 'A igüe s V ive s ( Cu ra 1 984 ; S e r ra 1 923 : 3 9 -58 ) w he re ab e l l b eake r a nd r i ve ted c oppe rd agge r s ugge s t C -14 4 200 -3800 BP . T he V a lenc ian C ueva d eR oca fo r t

g rave g oods ( s po rad ica l ly i n c lud ing ab e l l b eake r ) f a r w ide r t h an t h e " be l l -beake r p ackage " w i th s i ng le , p r i m ary i nhuma t ion s i nC en t ra l a nd N .W . E u rope ; n o r i s i t s " packag ing " c ha rac te r ized b y c i s t s . Med i ter ranean S pa in s hows " t ype B " b eake r p re sence ( 1 -10% ) i n

a eneo l i th ic b u r ia l may b e c ompa rab le , b u t t h a t a tc a r d i a ln eo l i th ic C ova d cl aS a r sa i nV a lenc ia i s much e a r -

C la rke ' s( 1976 )t e rm s ,t hough i ti s am ixed r eg ion a sr e g a rds h i s " t yp e 2 " ( s co re s o f f i nd s po t s ) a nd " t ype 1 " ( t ime s pan o f3 00 -500 y ea r s : H a r r ison 1 974 ; c f .R amo s

h e r( s ee b e low ) . C lay f o re ign t o t h e s i te s k ep t t h e b one s i n p l ace a t C ova d 'A igüe s Mo r ts ,P oue td e lC ava l l a nd ar ock s he l -

F e rnández 1 98 1 , 1 983 , 1 986 ,a nd c f. ( 3) ) . T he C a ta lan n eo l i th ic p i t -g rave c omp lex h a s y e t t o

t e r a tB a l la rd ( Se r ra 1 923 : 8 8 -92 ) , r e ca l l ing t h e f o re ign s o i l a tE l M i lano . S ome b one s a tt h e f i r s ts i te w e re c o l -

b e c onf ir m ed s ou th o ft h e E b ro . I ti su nknown i nC a s t e l lón , V a lenc ia a nd A l ican te . S ome C a ta lan p i t g rave s

o u red r ed -- f a r f ewe r t h an wou ld h ave b een e xpec ted w e re d i sco lou ra t ion d ue t od i agene s is f r om t h ec l ay ( d i a gene t ica l d i sco lou ra t ion h ad b een c l a imed a tV end re s t

h ave n eo l i th ic s qua re -mou thed v e sse ls , a na logou s t o I t a l ian o ne s , b u t o n ly 5 s uch p o t s r e ached S .E . S pa in ( 14 ) . N eo l i th ic C ha s sey p an -p ipe l ug s a r e l a ck ing i n

a nd B azoge s i nF rance ) -- a nd t h ey w e re c ompa red t o i r on o x ide -pa in ted Ma s d 'Az i l b one s o r t h e I t a l ian c i n -

S .E . S pa in d e sp i te i t s w ide a r ray o f l ugs , h and le s , s pou t s a nd s pou ted h and le s ( cf . Ma r t I 1 977 ; N avar re te

n aba r -pa in ted S gu rgo la s ku l l ( i b id . : 5 1 ,9 3 -94 ) . O ne s ku l l v au l ta tC ova dA ig i ie s V ive s s howed c u t ma rk s ( i b id . : 4 2 ,8 8 ) a nd s ome b one s o ft h ev ery many

1 976 :p a s s im) . E pheme ra l s im i la r i ty e x is t s b e tween l a te r n eo l i th ic p o t t ery c omp lexe s ( C -14 5 800 -4500 BP ) f r om s ou the rn F rance t os ou the rn S pa in , b u t d i f fe ren t ia t ion c ome s t o

i nd iv idua ls r ep re sen ted w e re c o lou red r ed ( i b id . : 5 1 , 9 3 -94 ) . A t C ova d c S an t B a r tomeu ( i b id . : 2 0 -27 ) c u t

s epa ra te t h ec on s t i tuen tr eg ion s

-

n o to n ly i nc e ram ic s ,

ma rk s w e re a l so s een . A tb o th s i t e s , a nd i no the rC a ta -

b u t a l so b one , s t one a nd me ta l a r t ifac t s

l a n " c ryp t s" ( Ga rngo a nd B a lma d cS o lane l l s )o rb u r ia ls u nde ro ve rhang s ( A ta la ia ) t h e s ma l l mo r tua ry s pace ( c f . E lM i lano )c ou ld n eve rh ave h e ld af u l lc omp lemen to f s ke le ton s r ep re sen ted ( i b id . : 8 8 -92 ) , h ence r educ t ion

e a s tern a eneo l i th ic ( cf Mi l laran )b u r ia l a s semb lage sa r e c ompa red t oV a lenc ian , C a ta lan o rL anguedoc o ne s o f C -14 4 500 -3800 BP . A l lr eg ion s ,b u tp e rhap se spec ia l ly S .E . S pa in ,s how v e ry l ong c on t inu i ty o ff une ra ry p rac -

a nd s e lec t ion mu s th ave b een p rac t i sed

h ad a tE I V i la ró whe re o n ly t h eu ppe rh a lf o f as ke le ton

t i ce s t o ge the r w i th v a ry ing d ive r s i ty o f mo r tuary t ype s a nd mo r t ic ian p rac t ice s . Ana ly s is o f s pa t io tempo ra l

h ad b een i n te r red ( i b id . ) -- a nd c ompa r i son w a s made i n t ho se r e spec t s w ith t h e s ou thern F rench G ro t te d es

v a r ia t ion i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re i sn o t h e lped w hen b u r ia l p l aces a r er eu sed .

F ee s . S eve ra l s ku l ls f r om C a ta lan " c ryp t s" a r e t r epanned a nd /o r b rachyc ra iva l ( Me rcada l e ia l . 1 991) . Whe the r t h ey i nd ica te n ewcome r s f r om t h e n o r th ( i b id . ; F us té

R IPARO VALTANES I ,P ET IT CHASSEUR , AVEN DE LA BOUCLE , AND OTHER PARALLELS

-

-

a si tc e r ta in ly

-

when s ou th -

A l though f a r f lung c ompa r ison s a r e u n l ike ly t o h e lp

1 957a ,b ; T u rbón 1 981) may b e q ue s t ioned . B rachyc ra f l y i nB a sque mega l i th ic t omb s i sp a r s imon iou s ly i n t e r -

w he re o ne s n ea rby d on o t , t h ey d oh igh l igh tc on tempo r aneou sd i ve r s i ty o f mo r tua ry t ype s a nd mo r t ic ian p rac -

p re ted a s r ef lec t ing l o ca l mo rpho log ica l h e te rogene i ty ( A rena l &d cl aR u ia , 1 988 ) ; p e rhap s as im i la ri n te rp re -

t i ce s . H a rd u p a ga in s t ac l if f f a ce a tR ipa ro V a l tane s i

t a t ion m igh t s u ff ice f o r C a ta lon ia . S ou th o f C a ta lon ia ,

n ea r Mane rba d e l G a rt hi nn o r the rn I t a ly l a y ac r ema -

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/\ /\ /\ / "

' \ / \/

/ \/ /

14

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M ICHAEL J .WALKER a n dM IGUEL S AN N ICOL&S D EL TORO

t i on t r ench a nd f ou r 2 x1 i n mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s w i th p ebb le o r s l ab f l oo r s s e t i n " p la t fo rm -ca irn s" ( Ba r f ie ld 1 983 ) . T he mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s s e rved u p t o 3f unc t i on s : mo r tua ry f o rt h ed ead ,c r ema to r ium ,a nd o s sua ry . Two w e re l i ned w i th p l ank s b u rn t ,i no ne c a se ( C -14 4 420±90 BP , B irm -1132 ) , a l te r s t one s w e re h eaped o n -

-

b u rn ta nd s ma shed h uman b one s , b e s ide w h ich as ma l l c i s t h e ld a n eona te . C ompa r ison w i th E l M i lano i s t emp t ing , b u tR ipa ro V a l tane s i i s8 00 C -14 " yea r s" l a t e r . One u nburn t mo r tuary s t ruc tu re h e ld d i sa r t icu la ted b one sa nd ab ackbone a s soc ia ted w i th ar i b c age . Man d ib le s w i thou t s ku l ls o ccur red i na no the r c hambe r . I n t wo s t ruc tu re s , h and a nd f oo t b one s l a y a ga in s t t h e w a l ls . P acke t s o fr e la ted s ke le ta l e l emen t s a r e i mp l ied . A l l t h is i s mo s tu n l ike c on tempo raneou sR emede l lo s i n g l e i n huma t ion sa ccompan ied b y af l in td agge r . I n s tead , g rave g ood s i n c lude b ead s a nd p endan t s o fG lyc imer i s a nd o the r ma te r ia l s , c oppe r b ead s , a w ls a nd s hee t ing , R emede l lo a nd R ina ldone p o t te ry ,f l in ta nowpo in t s a nd

a l s o f u nburn t b one s l a y u nde r s ma l l mound s h a rd u p a ga in s t ac l if f ( Bago l im e i a l . 1 991) . T h ree w e re i n s ma l l s t one mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s : o ne h e ld a n a du l t a nd c h i ld , a no the r ac omp le te , f l exed , a du l t s ke le ton ; b y c on t ra s t , t h ei ncomp le t e s ke le ta l r ema in s o f 7i nd iv idu a l s w e re s imp ly c ove red b y a mound . A me ta l b l ade w i th 3 r i ve t h o le s i nd ica te s al a te r a eneo l i th ic a ge . 2 0 s im i la r s i te s l i e i nt h e v i c in i ty : b u rn t b one s o ccur red a t Noga ro le 3 a nd b urn ing a to ne mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re a t C o lombo d i Mon ( i b id . ) . B u rn th uman b one s o ccu r red i nF rench C ha ssey c u l t u re c i s t s a tB a s t idonne , a nd i n c ave s Abn d u F ra is c hamp ( Cou r t in 1 976 ) a nd G ro t te d u Noye r ( C -14 5 050±130 BP : C lo t te s &C on s tan t in i 1 976 ) . As capu la f r om F ra ischamp s hows c u t ma rk s( V i l la 1 992 ) . A t A ven d e l aB ouc le b u rn ing a f fec ted l a ye r C 4c , wh ich p rov ided h uman b one a nd y e l low s o i l l ump s

p o l ished s t one a xehead s ;u n s t ra t if ied b e l l -beake rs he rd s w e re f ound . A s a to the r n o r the rn I t a l ian b ur ia l s i te s , t h ere i sn o e v idence f o rd i f fe ren t ia t ion o f s oc ia l s t and -

( b rough ti nf r om o u t s ide : B roch ie r 1 987 ;c f. E lM i lano ) c ha rac ter is t ic o f t h e o ve r ly ing l aye r C4b ( C -14 4 600±100 BP , MC -1 499 ) w i th many b one s o f3 5a du l t s a nd 8 c h i ld ren , s ome o f wh ich a ppa ren t ly m ig ra ted d ownwa rd s ( Duday 1 987a ,b ) . E ndogamy i ss ugge s ted b y a na noma ly c ommon t o3 9 o u to f5 9k nee -cap s . D c -

i ng ,r a nk o rs ex ( Ba r f ie ld 1 984 , 1 986 ) . C opp e r -age b u r ia ls n ea r V i l lanuova s u l C l is i w e re f ound i n t h e R ipa ro C ava l l im a nd R ipa ro P e r s i r ock s he l te r s ( Ba r f ie ld & B u teux 1 992 ) . T he l a t te r w a s d i s -

f l e sh ing i si nd ica ted b y c u t ma rk s o n a( congen i ta l ly ma l fo rmed )h ume ru s . Duday ( 1980 )r emarked o nb u r ia lo fp a r t ske le ton sa t D o lmen d e s P i er re s , r ock s h eaped o ve rb one s a tG ro t te

t u rbed b y Med iaeva l b ur ia ls . T he f o rme r c on ta ined 3 d i sc re te a r ea s . T he re w a s ac en t ra l ,u nvau l ted mo r tua ry

d e sD emo ise l le sa nd b u rn ing a tG ro t te d e sT ro is C hêne s a nd V a rc hamber ed t omb s . A tA ven d cl aB ouc le , s eve ra l s ku l ls a nd l ong b one s w e re a r ranged a ga in s to ne w a l l ( Duday 1 980 ) . S uch r e a r rangemen t i sc ommon i n s ou the rn F rench c o l lec t ive b u r ia ls ( Duday 1 987 ) . H ighe r u p , l a ye r s C 4a ( C -14

s t ruc tu re ,f o rmed b ya na ng le i nt h er ock w a l l c l o sed o f b ya na ngu la rl i ne o fs t one s( v e ry l i ke t h a ta tE lM i lano ) c on ta in ing " d isar t icu la ted , a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly u nburn t , h uman b one s" , w i th s ku l l f r agmen t si n ar e a rn i che . On o ne s i de o fi tw a s as qua re " bone p i le " o fb u rn ta nd u n b u rn tf r agmen t s o fh uman a nd af ew a n ima l b one s( p e r -

4 200±100 B P , MC -1498 ) c on ta ined F er ne re s w a re ,C 3 F on tbou I sse w a re , a nd C 2 b ronze -age w a re ( Cou la rou

h ap sa l h e ld i nw ooden s t ruc tu re ) . Ac r ema t ion a r ea l a y o n t h e o the r s i de . Ac oppe ra w l a nd t ube s w e re f ound , a sw e l l a s af l in td agge r ,f l in ta r rowpo in t s ,a nd a na bun d ance o f b ead s , s he rd s a nd f l in t f l ake s . Human b one

e ia l . 1 980 ) . D ef le shed s ke le ta lp acke t s o fa na do le scen t b oy l a y a mong a nd u nde r r ocks i n t h e m idd le o f t h e c hambe r . A c l ef t d own wh ich a l l b one s h ad t o b e p a ssed w a s b locked w i th r ock s , p e rhap s i nt h e b ronze

g ave ac a l ib ra ted C -14 a ge o f 2 466 -2202 B .C . ( OXA -

a ge . C u tm a rk s a nd b urn ing a f fec ted b one sc a . 5 880±130 BP ( Ly -3748 ) a tB aume d c F on tb rdgoua w he re c a rd ia l w a re l e ve ls a r e f o l lowed b y p re -Cha ssey a nd C ha ssey d epo s i t s . H e re ,m a rk s o fd ef le sh ing a f fec ted a bou t4 0% o fh uman b one s ,i n c lud ing s ku l ls , o fb e tween 8a nd 1 4 i nd iv idua ls , a nd a bou t 4 0% o f s ome a n ima l s pec ie s , p e rhap s s ugge s t ing a l l w e re b u tche red i n s im i lar f a sh -

3 746 ) . B u r ia l s t ruc tu re s a r e k nown a tS a in t Mar t in d e C o r l e an s ( Va l le d 'Ao s ta ,I t a ly ) ,a nd a tP e t i tC ha sseu r( S ion , S w i tze r land ) wh ich h ad 1 0 r e c tangu la r s t one mo r tuary s t ruc tu re s , 3o t he ri n fan tb u r ia l s ,a n th ropomo rphou s s t e l a e , a nd 2 1 C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s s pann ing 4 150 -3450 BP ( Ga l lay 1 987 ) : h e re t h e re w e re mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s w i th h uman b one s s p read o u t s ide t h em ,o s sua r ie s ,a nd a s t ruc tu re w i th s i gn s o f b urn ing a nd a r rangemen t o f s ku l ls a ga in s to ne w a l l . B ur ia ls b enea th c l if f s a nd o ve rhangs o ccu r i n t h e e a s te rn I t a l ian A lp s . A tD o s d el aF o rca , 4s epa ra te b u n-

i o nf o re a t ing ( V i l la e ia l . 1 986 ;V i l la 1 992 ) . T he p o s s i b i l i ty o fc ann iba l ism i nt h e I be r ian P en in su la w a s a i red l o ng a go a tC ova d cl e s L lome te s i nA l ican te ( Ba l le s t e r 1 928a )a nd C ueva d cl a Mu je ri nG ranada a nd F um inha d eP emche i nP o r tuga l ( San V a le ro 1 948 ) .

15

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

C ann iba l ism , h oweve r , i sn o t t h e o n ly e xp lana t ion

B y c on t ra s t , g a ther ing u p b one s f o r t h e ir r ebu r ia l i n c l u s te r s o rb und le s g oe s b ack t ot h e m e so l i th ic a tP e t i t Ma ra i s a nd Mou l in V i l la rd ( i b id . ) . I nb o th F rance a nd S pa in , d i f f e ren t w ay s o fi n te r fe r i n gw i th t h ed ead p redom ina ted a td i f f e ren t t ime si nt h e n eo l i th ic . I n S .E . S pa in d i spo sa l o f t h e d ead c hanged t h rough t ime s omewha t d ife ren t ly f r om i n F rance , a s

c on s is ten t w i th t h e F on tb régoua f i nd ing s . P icke r ing ( 1989 ) s ays t hey c ou ld b e r ep roduced b y n on c ann iba l is t ic Au s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l f une ra ry p rac t ice s . T he se o f ten i n vo lve d i smembe r ing c o rp se s e i the rj u s t a l te r d ea th , o r f o l low ing d e s icca t ion o r d ecompo s i t ion o f e xpo sed o r b u r ied b od ie s ( wh ich may l e ad t oa cc i -

-

d en ta l l o s s o f s ome b one s ) , t h en d ef le sh ing b one s b y c u t t ing o r s c rap ing t hem , a nd s ome t ime s s ma sh ing , p a in t ing o r b u rn ing t h em . F le sh a nd b one -ma r row a r e b u r ied , n o te a ten . S ome b one so rt e e th may b eg i ven t o f r iend s a nd r e la t ive s , o the r s a r e b ur ied some t ime s c a re fu l ly s e lec ted b one s f r om t h e s ame p e r son may b e b u r ied a td i f fe ren t p l ace s , a ts ome o f w h ich t h e re may a l so b e b one s o f o the r p eop le ( c f. Bernd t & B e rnd t

w i l l b e s een l a te ro n . A tE l M i lano , i n te rmen to fp a r t ly b u rn ta na tom ica lp acke t s u nde rs t one s i n an a tu ra l c av i t yh a s a spec t si nc ommon w i th A ven d cl aB ouc le . T h i s f ou r th k ind o fi n te r f e rence mu s t b e a dded t o t h e t h ree F rench k ind s l i s ted b y V i l la ( 1992 ) , n ame ly F on tb ré g oua typc d ef le sh ing a nd t h e t wo k ind s men t ioned i n t h ep rev iou sp a rag raph .

1 977 ; Maddock 1 982 ; Meehan 1 971 ; P e te r son 1 974 ;

D ISPOSAL OF THE CORPSE I NS .E . S PA IN ,

P i cke r ing 1 985 ) . B ecause p os t m or tem " f re shne s s" o f b one s i s ma in t a ined b y d ry s of t t i ssues i n d es icca ted Abo r ig ina l c o rpse s , a nd b ecau se t h e ir s ub sequen t ly d ef leshed b one s c an s t i l l b eg rea sy t ot h et o uch f o r al ong t ime a f -

C -14 5 800 -3800 BP S ke le ta l r ema in sc ame f r om C ueva d c l a Mu je ri nG ra n ada w i th " l aye r s o fc ha rcoa l a l te rna t ing w i th e a r th a nd s t one s" ( t hu s , McPhe r son 1 870 : 5 ) . A t 2 1 A lmer ian c hambe red t omb s many h uman s ke le ton s w e re p re s e rved wh ich , n eve r the les s , s howed s i gn s o f h av ing

t e r c l ean ing , P icke r ing w a rn s h ow f r ac tu r ing o fb one s ( o ro the ri n te r fe rence w i th t h em )b rough ta bou tb yn on c ann iba l is t ic f une ra ry p rocedu re s ,m igh tm is lead p a lae -

b een s ub jec ted t of i r e ( 15 ) ;l i kew ise a t 8G r anada c ham -

o an th ropo log is t s i n to i n fer r ing , w rong ly , t h a t s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e ir b reakage p a t te rn s a nd t ho se o b ta inab le i n

b e red t omb s ( 16 ) . A she s t e s t ify t ob u rn ing a ta no the r2 0 A lme r ian t omb s a nd 4 i nG ranada ( 17 ) . C ha rcoa l , e v i d ence o f b u rn ing , g ave r ad ioca rbon d e te rm ina t ion s a t t wo mo r tua ry s i te s : L o s M i l la res 1 9 ( C -14 4 380±120 BP , KN72 : S chwabed is sen & F reund l ich 1 966 ) a nd C ueva d cl o s Mu rc id lago sa tA lbuho li nG ranada ( 4 ) . Two p o in t s s t and o u t . F i r s t , b u rn ing w a s n o tu ncom mon a l though , s e cond ly , r educ t ion o f s ke le ton s t ou n r e cogn izab le c a lc ined f r agmen t s b y c r ema t ion w a s e x c ep t iona l . F o r mos t e a s tern Anda lus ian c hambe red

f r e sh ly -k i l led a n ima ls i s as u re g u ide l ine t h a tb one ma r r ow a nd f l e sh w e re n o t o n ly r emoved b y p eop le , b u t a l so a lway se a ten b yt h em . T he a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd , i n d ry l a nd scape s ( e .g . c i rcum . Med i ter ranean l and s , A u s t ra l ia , e t c . ) , may i m p ede o u r a b i l i ty t o d i s t ingu i sh o s teo log ica l f i nd ing s a bou t a nc ien t p rocedu re s a imed a tp rocu r ing f ood f o r r enew ing t h e b ody f r om o ne s a imed a tp rocu r ing i tf o r t h e s p i r i t

-

-

" f ood f o r t hough t " , a sP icke r ing p u t s i t !I n

t omb s b urn ing i sn o tr eco rded , b u t t os ay t h a ti sn o tt o s ay v ery much , b ecau se a t many t omb s t h e L e isne r s

A u s t ra l ia ,t h el a t t e rr ef lec t av i b ran tw eb o fi n te r -r e la ted c oncep t s a bou t b ody a nd s p i r i t , f l e sh a nd b one , a nd t h e s p ir i t l i fe o f al i v ing l a nd scape a nd i t s h uman i nhab i t a n t sp a s ta nd p re sen t .

-

d e sc r ip t ive s umma r ie s f a i l t o men t ion h uman b one s o f a ny k ind ,b u rn to ru nbu rn t . I n Mu rc ia , a s w e l l a sa tE l M i lano a nd s i te s a l ready

Me so l i th ic c u t ma rk s o ccu ro n b one s f r om C uzou l d u G rama t a nd n eo l i th ic o ne s o n t wo s ku l l f r agmen t s

men t ioned , t h e re w e re t r ace s o fb urn ing a tC ueva 1d c L o s B lanqu iza re s d c L ébo r ( 25% o f i t s h uman b one s w e re a ppa ren t ly b u rn t i n s ide t h e c ave : C uadrado 1 930 ;

f r om C hf l teauneul l e z Ma r t igue s , amand ib le f r om Un a ng ,a nd s ku l ls a nd o the rb one sf r om G a rdon c ave ( V i l -

A r r iba s 1 953 ) ; C ueva d c l aR ep resa ( bu rn ing a f fec ted

l a1 992 ) . R ea r rangemen t o f s ke le ta l r ema ins o f d ecompo sed c o rp se s i sn o t a t te s ted t oi nt h e F rench me so l i th ic a nd e a r ly n eo l i th ic . I tb ecame c u s toma ry i nt h em idd le n eo l i t h ic w hen " s ing le i s o la ted h o l low s c on ta in ing t h e d i s-

2 0% o f 1 0 ,000 b one f r agmen t s ;g rave g ood s i nc luded a r ed -pa in ted G lyc ime r i s s he l l , r ed -pa in ted a nd i n c ised G ip seke ram ik a nd i nc ised p o t tery : S an N ico lá s 1 981 ,

a r t icu la ted b u tc a refu l ly a r ranged b ones o fo ne o r mo re

1 982 ) ; C ueva d c l aJ abone ra a nd C ueva d c l aT azona ( Le isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 9 2 ) ; C ueva d c l o s T ie s to s ( Mo l ina & Mo l ina 1 973 ; Wa lke r 1 972 , 1 973a ,b ) ;C ueva

i n comp le te s ke le ton s" a r e s een a t S a in t P au l T ro is

d c l a s A ta laya s ( I dáhez & Muhoz 1 986 ) ; C ueva d c l a s

C hâ teaux ,o rw hen a t Gou rn ie rs ome h uman b one s w e re

C oncha s a nd C ueva d e l H umo ( San N ico lá s 1 987 ) , a nd C ueva d e l C a lo r( w i th aw h i t t led h uman p ha lanx ,f r om

r emoved f r om ar eopened mu l t ip le g rave ( V i l la 1 992 ) .

16

M ICHAE LJ .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL T ORO

al e ve l b e low o ne w ith a C -14 d e term ina t ion o f 3 660±70 BP , SUA -2832 : L i l lo & Wa lke r 1 987 ; Ma r t inez & S an N ico lá s 1 993 ) a nd p e rhap s a tC ueva d e l P e l ic iego ( San N ico lá s 1 987 ) . I n A l ican te , b urn t b one s o f y oung s te r s c ame f r om C ueva d c R oca ( Mo reno 1 942 ; V i lanova 1 872 , 1 894 : 3 89 ; V i lanova & d e l a R ada 1 890 : 4 61-463 ) , b u rn t b one s c ame f r om C ova d c l e s L iome te s ( V i lanova & V i lap lana 1 920 -1922 ; B al ie s te r 1 928a ) , b u rn t t e e th c ome f r om C ueva 1d e l P eñOn d e l T r in i t . a r io (Wa lke r 1 973a : 3 84 ) , ab u rn tl a ye ra nd as ku l l o ccu r red a tC ova d c B o lu in in i ( Pa scua l 1 957 ) ,a nd b u rn ts ke le ta l r ema in s a t Ab r ic d c VE scur rupen ia ( Coque l l 1 990 ; P a scua l 1 990 ) . I n V a lenc ia , b urn ing t ook p l ace a tC ove ta d e l B a r ranc d e l Ca s te l le t( Ba l le s te r 1 928a ; P Iá 1 954 ) ,C ova d e l R acó T anca t ( Coque l l 1 990 ) , a nd C ova d c l aS a r sa ( Ca sanova 1 978 ) ,a nd i nC a s te l lón a tC ueva d cl aT one d e l Ma l P a so ( J o rdá 1 958 ) . B u rn t h uman b one s c ame f r om C ueva d c l a s C a lave ra s a nd c a lc ined b ones a nd

C ova dA igüe s V ive s , a nd c u t ma rk s a nd b u rn ing a f f e c ted t h o se a tB aume d cF on tb régoua a nd o the rF rench s i te s ( V i l la e ia l . 1 986 ; V i l la 1 992 ) . A tE l M i lano o n ly t wo b one sh ad c u t ma rk s , a nd c u t ma rk s s e em t ob eu n c ommon i nS .E . S pa in g ene ra l ly . A ne xpe r ienced h and c an s epa ra te ac o rp se i n to a na t om ica l p acke t s w i thou t c u t t ing a ny b one s : t r epana t ion t e s t if ie s t oe xpe r ienced h and s . V u l tu re s c an a l so r educe c adave r s l e av ing n om a rk Human b one s o ccu rs po rad i c a l ly i n s e t t lemen t d eb r is , s ugges t ing i nhuma t ion o f c o rp se s w a s a tb e s t i n comp le te . T hu s , 1 0 s ma l l h uman b one s o ccu r red a mong 1 0 ,000 a n ima l b one s ( L i l lo & Wa lke r 1 987 )a tt h e Mu rc ian E lP rado s e t t lemen t( C -1 4 4 350 -3950 BP ( 18 ) ) . A ga in , as ku l l o ccu r red i n as i lo a t t h e A lme r ian E l G á rce l s e t t lemen t ( Go sse 1 94 1) ( C -14 4 120±100 , 3 850±70 BP , SUA -1173 , -2145 ) . Ano the r o ccu r red i nl a ye r 3a tt h e E re ta d e l P edrega l s e t t lemen t i nV a lenc ia ( F le tche r 1 96 1a )( 19 ) .

a sh w i th b u r ia ls a tC e r r ico R edondo , b o th i ns ou the rn A lbace te whe re l a rge mound sc ove red b u r ia l si nn a tu ra l c r ev ice s ,a r t if ic ia lc hambe r so rj a r s( Sanchez 1 948 ) . At h ick a sh l a ye rw a s s e en w hen s ke le ton s a ccompa n i ed b y m e ta l a xehead s w e re f ound i n ap i t u nde r t h e m id -po in t a l ong aw a l l r unn ing b enea th amound 3 0i n a c ro ss a nd 1 0i nh igh a tC a s te l le td e l P o rque ti nV a len c i a . A l though v a r iou s ly i n te rp re ted a s p a s sage g rave ( V i lanova 1 869 ;L e isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 9 2 )a nd r ock c u tt omb ( Be rd i schewky 1 964 ; A lmag ro Go rbea 1 965 ) , p e rhap s i tw a s mo re l i ke t h e s ou the rn A lbace te b ur ia l mound s o rl i ke t h e ma ss ive s t ruc tu re wh ich b i sec t s t h e

S .E . S PAN ISH NEOL ITH IC CAVE BUR IALS AND PROBLEMS OF S I T h FO MAT ION A l though c ave b u r ia ls p redom ina te n o r th o ft h e R . S e g u ra , c ompa r ison s a nd c on t ra s t s b e tween b ur ia ls i n c ave s a nd a r t if ic ia l mo r tuary s t ruc tu re s mu s t b e d e f e r red u n t i l p a rame te r s o f s pa t io tempo ra l c hange h ave b een o u t l ined f o re ach . F ou rk ind so fb u r ia l i nS .E . S pan ish c ave s a r e c h ron o log ica l ly s epa rab le ( L lob rega t 1 966 ; Ma r t i 1 981 ; P IA 1 954 ,1958 ) : ( a )s po rad ica l b u r ia ls i nn eo l i th ic i n hab i ted c ave s ,

Mu rc ian a eneo l i th ic -ea r ly b ronze -age s i te o f C e r ro d c l a s V Ibo ra s a t B ag i l , u nde r e xcava t ion b y J . J . E iroa , w he re b u r ia ls w i th in t h e s i te ma rk t h e o n se to fA rga r ic c u s tom . V i lanova c l a imed as t ruc tu re s im i la rt oC a s te l l e td e l P o rque ta tA ie lo d c Ma lf e r i t ,a nd a no th e r may b e t h a t a tA l te t d c F on tana r s ( Ba l les te r 1 937 ) . A shes o c c ur red w i th a s ke le ton , t o ge the r w i th s he rd s a nd a q uern , a tC a s t i l lo d c Mo scone s i nV a lenc ia ( Le isne r & L e i sne r 1 943 : 9 3 ) . T he a r t i f ic ia l ly w h i t t led h uman p ha lanx f r om C ueva d e l C a lo r c a l ls t o m ind i n ten t iona l ly b roken h uman b ones f r om G ranada c hambe red t omb C ue s ta d c l aS a b i na 5 6 , as ku l l w i th i n c is ion s f r om C ue s ta d cl aS ab ina 5 3 ( Ga rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 ) , s t r ia t ion s o n s ku l l b one s f r om G ranada c ave s a tC añon d c l a s Ma jo l ica s , C ueva d cl aC a r ihüe la ,a nd C ueva d cl a sT on ta s ( Bo te l-

( b )a cneo l i th ic o s sua r ies ( t he ma jo r i ty ) , ( c )o rde r ly i n t e rmen t s ,a nd ( d )b ronze -age b u r ia l si nc ave s ,c l ef t s ,a nd c r ev ice s . I ti sn ece ssa ry t oo u t l ine w ha t c an b e g l eaned f r om a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ing s t o s uppo r t a nd e luc ida te t h e c h rono logy o fc ave b u r ia ls . I ti sh e lp fu lf i r s tt oc on s ide r ( a ) , a nd i n t h e n ex t s ec t ion ( c ) a nd ( d ) w i l l b e d ea l t w i th . T h is w i l l h i gh l igh t wha ti sc h rono log ica l ly s pec ia l a bou t c l ea r -cu t e a r ly a nd l a te c ave b ur ia l a s semb lage s s t ra t if ied i nc ave s ,a nd f a c i l i ta te i d en t if ica t ion o fs im i la r a spec t s i na r t if ic ia l mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s . I tw i l l a l so h e lp t or educe ( b ) t o manageab le p ropo r t ion s b y r emova l o f e a r ly a nd l a te a nach ron ism s , ap ro jec te spec ia l ly h e lp fu l when w e g o o n t o c ompa re a cneo l i th ic c ave b u r ia ls w i th u n s t ra t if ied c h rono log ica l ly m ixed b u r ia l a s sem -

1 98 1) , a nd c u t ma rk s o n h uman b one s f r om C ueva d c Ma la lmue rzo ( J iméncz e ia l . 1 986 ) . A s a l ready r e -

b l age si nc hambe r ed t omb s . E xcava t ion o fs o i li n ac l ef ti nC ova d cl aS a r sa , V a l e nc ia , u ncove red as t one w a l l wh ich s epa ra ted ab ur ia l f r om t h e ma in c hambe r( Ca sanova 1 978 : f i g . 2 ) . B eh ind t h e w a l l l a y ap ar t ly b urn t i n f an t s ku l l , a du l t s ku l l a nd

ma rked , d e f le shed h uman b one s w e re p a in ted r ed a t

l o ng b one s ,p i e rced G lyc ime r i ss he l ls ,b one a nd f l in ta r -

l a1 973 ) , a n a r t if ic ia l ly mod if ied h uman s ku l l c ap f r om C ueva d c l a C a r ihüe la ( Ga rc ia S anchez & C ar ra sco

17

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t i fac t s ( i b id . )a nd ac a rd ia l -wa re mug ( Asque r ino 1 976 ) . A no the r 5s ku l ls c ome f r om t h e ma in c hambe r w h ich h a s v a r iou s ly b een r ega rded a s al a te c a rd ia l -wa re , a e n eo l i th ic b ur ia l a s semb lage ( A sque r ino 1 975a , 1 978 ; P on se l l 1 928 ; B a l le s te r 1 928a ,b ) o r a n e a r ly n eo l i th ic , c a rd ia l -wa re d ome s t ic o ne ( San V a le ro 1 950 ; c f .T opp 1 958 ) . T he c l e f tb u r ia li s mo re c l ea r ly n eo l i th ic b ecau se o f t h e c a rd ia l w a re a nd i t s l a ck o f a eneo l i th ic b a rbed a nd t a nged f l in t a r rowpo in t s ( c f . Ca sanova 1 978 ) . I n f an t t r epana t ion w a s p rac t ised h e re ( Ga rc ia S anchez 1 983 ) I nA l ican te ,h uman r ema in so ccu r red a tC ova d c YO r

a s semb lage s i nc ave s a nd i np urpo se -bu i l t t omb s . P ru d ence c oun se l s an u l l h ypo the s i s t h a ta s semb lage sn eed b en oe a r l ie rt h an t h el a te ra eneo l i th ic ( C -14 4 100 -3800 BP )u n le s s t h e re i se v idence t ot h ec on t ra ry . T he a pp roach l e ad s t o a n a wkwa rd p a radox . I ti s t h a t , w he rea s c ave s p rov ide g ood e v idence f o r mu l t ip le b u r ia l f r om e a r ly n eo l i th ic t ime s , t h ey p rov ide l e s s e v i d ence t h an d o p u rpo se -bu i l t t omb s f o rl a te n eo l i th ic o r e a r ly a eneo l i th ic b ur ia ls . A rchaeo log ica l ly -speak ing " s p lend id " b u r ia l a s semb lage s i n c ave s o f ten l ook l a te a eneo l i th ic ( Wa lke r 1 973a , 1 985a ) . T h is i n fe rence l e ad s t ou n rea sonab ly e xac t ing r e qu iremen t s f o rt h ek ind s o f

( Ma r t i 1 977 : 3 4 ) , whe re c a rd ia l -wa re l a ye r s s pann ing C -14 6 720 -5980 BP ( 20 ) w e re f o l lowed b y l a te r n eo l it h ic l a ye r s . Human r ema in s c ome f r om s ome c ave s i n A l ican te a nd Mu rc ia a ccompany ing c a rd ia l w a re wh ich i sp robab ly c on tempo raneou s w i th t h em a st h ey a r en o t

v e r if ica t ion c r i te r ia n eeded t oi d en t ify e a r l ie re l emen t s . No ra r ec hambe red t omb sa l toge the rf r ee f r om s uch d e -

o ve r la in b y l a te r ( neo l i th ic , a eneo l i th ic o ro the r ) s ed i m en t s f r om wh ich b u r ia ls m igh t h ave b een i n t roduced ( Cova d e D a l t a nd Ab r igo g rande d e l B a r ranco d c l o s G ra jo s ( 2 1) ) . I nV a lenc ia C ove ta Empa re tá ( Asque r ino

c ave b u r ia l s i te s i no rn ea rt h eu ppe rS e rp i s b a s in ( Cova d c l aP a s to ra , C ova d c i m L lome te s , C ueva d e l Mon t e

1 975 ) a nd C ova d e l F o ra t d e l A i re C a len t ( Apa r ic io e t a l . 1 979a ) b u r ia ls may g o b ack t o l a te c a rd ia l -wa re t ime s a nd a eneo l i th ic ma te r ia l s e em s t ob e a b sen t ;b o th s i t e sa ppea rt oh ave b een u sed a l so f o rd ome s t ic p u rpo s -

B en i S id , C ueva d c l a s L echuza s ) (Wa lke r 1 985b , 1 986a ,b , 1 988a ,b ,c , 1 989 ) . I ft h er e su l t sa r em ean ing fu l t h ey may i mp ly s e lec t ive m a t ing o ve rt ime l o ng e nough f o rm ino rd i f fe rence s t oa r ise : e ven i fa l l t h e se s ku l l s e r i e s w e re a sl a te a sC -14 3 900 BP , d emog raph ica l s ep a r a t ion w ou ld n eve r the le s sh ave b egun c en tur ie sb efo re , a nd h ence t h e re c ou ld b e c i rcum s tan t ia l b io log ica l s up -

e s . C aves w i th b u r ia l a nd n on -bu r ia l d epo s i t s s ome t ime s s how s t ra t ig raph ica l s epa ra t ion b e tween t h em . A ts e ve r a lc ave sn eo l i th ic ,a nd s ome t ime s m e so l i th ic ,h ab i ta t ion a s semb lage s w e re s t ra t i f ied b e low b u r ia la s semb lage s -

-

e . g . C ueva d c l aC ar ihüe la i nG ranada ( Pe l l ice r 1 964 : 2 0 ) , C ueva d c l aR ep re sa i n Mu rc ia ( San N ico lá s 1 981 , 1 982 ) , C ueva d e l L ag r ima l a s t r ide t h e Mu rc ia -A l ican te b ounda ry ( So le r 1 967 -1968 ; 1 981 ; 1 991) , i n V a lenc ia C ove ta Empa re tá ( Asque r ino 1 975b ) a nd C ove ta d e l B a r ranc d e l C a s te l le t ( P IS 1 954 ) ,a nd i n Má laga p e rhap s H oya d c l aM ina ( Such 1 919 , 1 920 ) . S ome t ime s t h e re a r e d i ff icu l t ie s i nc l ea r ly d i s t ingu ish ing n eo l i th ic f r om a eneo l i th ic e l emen t s i nt h e se b u r ia l a s semb lage s , ama t t e rt ob ed ea l tw i th i n mo re d e ta i lb e low . A l though t h e many C -14 a nd TL d e te rm ina t ion s > 4500 BP f r om I be r ian b u r ia l s i te s ( s ee a bove a nd ( 5 ) ( 6 ) ) p u t l a te n eo l i th ic p rac t ice o fi n ten t iona l b u r ia l b e y ond d oub t , c ave s mu s t , n ever the les s , b e t r ea ted w i th

m and s . Mu l t ivar ia te s t a t is t ica l c r an iome t r ica l a na ly s is h in t s a tm ic roevo lu t iona ry p roce sse s h av ing d i f fe ren t ia ted 4

d c l aB a r sc l la , C am IR ea l d 'A lacan t ) f r om 3 o t he r s l yi ng s l igh t ly p e r iphe ra l ly ( Cova d c P a lanqud s , C ova d c

p o r tf o rl ong te rm s i te -fo rma t ion p roce sse si n as pa t io t empo ra l c on tex to fp opu la t ion d ynam ic s . S TRAT IGRAPH ICAL AND OTHER EVIDENCE FOR I NTENT IONAL R ITUAL BUR IAL I N CAVES I ti si mpo r tan t t od i s t ingu ish b e tween b ur ia ls f o l lowed b yo ccupa t iona l l e ve ls i nc ave s a nd t h o se t h a tw e re n o t . S ome t imes h uman a nd o the r r ema in s c ou ld b e s een w hen c ave s w e re e n te red , b u t a to t he r s t h ey w e re c ov e r ed . I n ten t iona l c ove r ing o fh uman b one s i nc ave s w a s n o t c onf ined t o E l M i lano o r Aven d c l aB ouc le . I n Mu rc ia i to ccur red a t C ueva d c l o s T ie s to s ( Wa lke r 1 972 , 1 973a ,b ) . I n V a lenc ia a tC am IR ea l dA lacan t , a r ock s he l te r p e rhap s a r t if ic ia l ly d eepened , r o ck s l a y o ve r s ku l ls , i nt u rn , p l aced o no rb e s ide " packe t s" ( s ic )

c au t ion b ecau se : ( a ) t h ey o f ten s e rved d i f fe ren tf unc t ion sa td i f fe ren t

o fh uman b one s : a sa tE l M i lano , d i f f e ren t ia l r ep re sen t a t ion o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s i nd ica ted s e conda ry i n te r -

t i me s , ( b )t h ey a r ea tr i sk f r om v e r t ica ld i s tu rbance ,a nd

m en t( Ba l le s te r 1 928a ) . A eneo l i th ic b u r ia ls a tC ueva d e l Mon te d cl aB a r se l l ai nA l ican te p receded i n t roduc t ion o fl a te ro ne s ( ?ca .

( c )e ven when u sed j u s tf o rb u r ia la r e ,l i ke t omb s , o pen t or e u se a tl a te rt ime s . T he se a spec t s o f s i te -forma t ion p roce sse s h ampe r

C -14 3 900 -3800 BP? ) a ccompan ied b y c oppe r b l ade s ,

c h rono log ica l o r c u l tu ra l c ompa r ison s b e tween b u r ia l

g l e s ( Be lda 1 929 , 1 931) . B e lda c l a imed s ome o f t h e

p i e rced f o r h a l t ing r i ve t s , a nd V -pe r fo ra ted b one t o g -

18

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

u ppe rs e r ie s w e re s e a ted a ga in s tt h ew a l lb ecau se l owe r l imb b one s w e re f ound i n a na tom ica l p o s i t ion s b u t

N ea rby i sa nA rga r ic s e t t lemen t( C -1 43640 -3290 BP ( 22 ) ) . 3a rm le s s w a is ted f i gu r ine s w e re f ound a t Mona -

u ppe ro ne s w e re d i spe r sed ;h oweve r , t h e f i r s td i scove r e r s r epo r ted o n ly d i so rdered s ke le tons ( Ba l les te r

c h i l ( Cab ré 1 922 ) , p e rhap s s im i la r t oo ne s k nown f r om T herm i ( Lamb 1 936 : p 1 . 2 7 , n o s . 1 13 ) a nd T roy 1 1V ( B legen e ia l . 1 950 v o l . 1 , 2 : p 1 . 2 16 ,n o . 3 3 -217 a nd p 1 .

1 928a ) . Two l a ye r s o f b u r ia ls o ccu r red a l so i n A l ican te a t C ova d el e s Uome t e s( Ba l le s te r 1 928a ;B e lda 1 931 : 3 5 , f i g . 3 ;P a scua l 1 963 ;V i lanova & V i lap lana 1 920 -1922 ; V isedo 1 925 , 1 959 ) . As l ab s ea led t h e l ow r ock s he l te r a nd B e lda d rew t h el owe rs e r ies i na ne a r th f i l lo n ab ed

3 60 , a nd v o l . 1 ,2 f i g . 4 1 , t y pes 1 , 2a nd 3 ,a nd P l . 4 . 8 ; B legen 1 963 , e sp . p 1 . 3 3 , a l so c f . p la te s 1 5 ,3 0 a nd 2 6 ) i nt h e3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C . . S t i l li nG ranada , 9s ke le ton sa ccompan ied b yb ronz e a ge g rave g ood s w e re s a id t o h ave b een a r ranged a ga in s t t h e w a l l o f ac ave a tC e r ro d e l G rea l ( Pe l l ice r 1 957 -1958 ) . I n C ueva d e l o s Mu rc ié lago s a tA lbuf lo l ( Góngo ra 1 868 ; S an V a le ro 1 948 ) awoman w ea r ing a g o ld h eadband ,a l leged ly s e a ted ,w a sa ccompan ied b ya d ozen i nd iv idua ls , s a id t o b e e x tended , a nd n eo l i th ic p o t te ry ( C -14 5 400±80 BP ,C S IC -246 ) ( 4 ,23 ) .

o f s ma l l s t one s ; t h e s ke le ton s l a y o n t h e i r l e f t s i de , w he r ea s t h e u ppe r s e r ie s l a y s up ine . As up ine s ke le ton l a y b es ide ab ronze -age p o t a tC ove ta d e l B a r ranc d e l C a s te l le t i n V a lenc ia , a bove af i l l w i th e a r l ie r s ke le ta l r ema in s , s i gn so fb u rn ing a nd p o t te ry r ang ing f r om c a r d i a l w a re t ob e l l b eake r s ( Ba l le s te r 1 928a ; P I S 1 954 ) . V a lenc ian b ronze -age b u r ia ls i n n a tu ra l c ave s , c l ef t s , a nd c r ev ice s d i f f e rf r om a eneo l i th ic o ne s b ya b sence o f

O rde r ly a r rangemen t s w e re c l a imed a t E l B a r ran q ue te 1 a nd 2 3 c hambe red t omb s i nA lmer i a , t h ey a r e

s egmen ted , o rr i bbed , b one p i nhead s ,a nd g r ea te ra bun -

a eneo l i th ic ( t omb s , C -14 4 300±130 , 4 280±130 BP , C S IC -82 , -81 ; n ea rby T ara ja l s e t t lemen t , C -14 4 230 -

d ance o f me ta l o b jec t s a nd s e r ra ted r ec tangu la r f l in t s i ck le t e e th ( P IS 1 958 ) . N ow ,b ur ia ls i nc ave sa nd c r ev ice sa r ef ound i ne a s t e r nA nda lu s ia i nt h eA rga r ic e a r ly b ronze a ge a tL uga r i c oV ie jo ( bu r ia l s 1 0 , 1 ,a nd 1 2 ,S i re t&S i re t 1 887 : 8 1 -

3 820 BP ( 24 ) ) . T hey w e re c l a imed a l so a tc ave s a tL a s P eña s d el o s G i tano si nG ranada a nd C ueva d e l C o r t i jo i n A lme r ia ( dc Hoyo s 1 947 ) , a nd a t t h e P o r tugue se P ra ia d a s Maca s t omb ( a l though t h ey w e re n o t men t i oned t h e re b y " L .S .M ." 1 925 ) . Hexed s ke le ton s w e re s e en a tt h e P o r tugue se c hambe red t omb o fS âo Mar l in h od eS in t ra ( Apo l l ina r io 1 896 )a nd f l exed s ke le ton sl a y a l ong t h e w a l ls o f t h e p a ssage , f a c ing t h e i n te r io r , i n t h a t o f Ma tar rub i l la i n w e s te rn Anda lu s ia ( Co l lan te s 1 969 ) .

8 2 ) ,a nd F uen te A lamo w here b u r ia ls o ccu r red i nc ave s a nd d romos a nd 2 2 C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s s pan 3 970 3 160 BP ( Schuba r t &A r teaga 1 986 ) . Two s l ab -cove red g r ave s a tC e r ro d el aE nc ina ( Cab ré 1 922 ) l a y b eh ind a l ow r e ta in ing w a l l u nde r ar ock o ve rhang . T hey c on t a ined 4a nd 2s ke le ton s ,r e spec t ive ly : i ne ach c a se w i th o ne i n tac t s ke le ton a nd o the ri n comp le te o ne s ( l ack ing s ma l le rb ones ) , a r r anged i np acke t s , m and ib le s s epa ra t -

S .E . S PAN ISH CAVE BUR IALS :

e df r om s ku l ls ; o ne s ku l l w a s ac h i ld ' s , a no the rl a y b e s i de a n a t la s v e r teb ra a way f r om t h e r e s t o f t h e s ke le -

NEOL ITH IC V S . AENEOL 1TH IC PACKAGES

t o n . G rave g ood s i n c luded ac a r ina ted b ow l a nd b ow ls w i th i n tu rned r im s ,r e semb l ing b ow l sf r om t wo o pen -a ir g rave s n ea rby ( one h e ld 3i nd iv idua ls ) wh ich c on ta ined

T h roughou tS .E . S pa in ,c ave -bu r ia lp ackage ss ha re w i th

A rgar ic g ob le t s , s i lve r h ang ing b ow l , c oppe r d agge r s

1 963 , 1 966 ;N ie to 1 959b ; P e r ico t 1 928 ; Wa lke r 1 973a , 1 983 , 1 985a , 1 986a ) . S ome e l emen t sa r er a re i nC a ta lan b u r ia l a s semb lage s h oweve r p ackaged . S egmen ted ,

t ho se o fp urpo se -bu i l t t omb s ap a r t icu la ra r ray o fg rave g ood s ( A r r iba s 1 953 ;B a l le s te r 1 928a , 1 945a ;L iob rega t

w i th h a f t ing r i ve t s , a nd o rna te b ead s . T he b u r ia l m ake s i tv e ry c l ea r t ha t e a r ly A rga r ic b ur ia l p rac t ice w a s n o t l im i ted t ob ury ing 1o r 2p eop le i nc i s t so rj a r s . O ne b ead h e re w a s made o f ag l a s sy s ub s tance . A n o t he rc a rved s e rpen t ine b ead o ra mu le tw a s v e ry s im i la r t o o ne p laced i n a n " un iden t if ied " t ypo log ica l c l a s s

c hanne l led o r r i bbed b one p endan t s a r e v i r tua l ly c on f i ned t o S .E . S pa in ( N ie to 1 959b ) . P a r t icu la r ly s ou th e as te rn a r e o cu lus -deco ra ted a n ima l b one s ( A lmag ro G o rbea 1 973a ;A ya la 1 980 , 1 986 ,B a l le s te r 1 945a ;P a s c ua l 1 957 ) : c l u s te ra na ly s is s epara te s t h e se f r om c y l in -

f r om t h e 6 th d yna s ty ( Brun ton 1 928 : p 1 . 9 9 , t y pe A ,2 ) , c a . C -14 3 700 BP . T hey may b e r e la ted t o " d eba sed " f o rms o f " f aces" , " an ima l h ead s" , a nd " f is t s" a nd " h and s" ( c f. i b id . :p a s s im; B run ton & C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : P l . 2 4 , i t em 5 409 ) . T he re w e re a l so f ound t wo

d r ica l s t one b ae ty ls w i th o cu l i f ound ma in ly i n S .W .

p eg -shaped b ead s , q u i te s im i la r t o 6 th -dynas ty " f ly" f o rm s ( i b id . : p 1 . 9 9 , t ype F ,4 ) , a nd g ene ra l ly r e la ted t o

I b e r ia ( San N ico lá s 1 986 ) . S .E . S pan ish b onewo rk i s e xube ran t a nd v ar ied . C harac te r is t ica l ly s ou thea s te rn t ype s a r e n o tch -headed n ar row s pa tu la s o r h a ir o rnamen ts ( Ga rc ia d e l T o ro 1 985 ;G a rc ia d e l T o ro & L i l lo 1 977 , 1 980 ;L ópez e ia l .

o t he re a r ly d yna s t ic " f ly" t ype s( c f . ib id . : p 1 . 9 7 ) .

1 990 -1991 ; P e l l ice r 1 957 -1958 ) , a nd s egmen ted , c han -

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19

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A

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R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

n e l led o r r i bbed p inhead s a nd b one t ubes ( N ie to 1 959b ) ,u ndeco ra ted a nd d eco ra ted p ha langea lb one s o f

4 70±120 BP ; b e l l b eake r s c a . C -14 4 210±120 BP : B ad a l e ia l . 1 989 ;B e rnabeu 1 984 ) ,a nd C ova d cl aR ecam -

h o r se s a nd o the r l a rge a n ima ls ( A lmag ro -Gorbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ; A r r iba s 1 953 ; Aya la 1 985 , 1 986 ; S an N ico lá s 1 986 ) , a nd c a rved b one a nd s t one f i gu r ine s o f

b ra i nV a lenc ia ( C -14 5 790±220 BP ,L y -2849 ) . ANALOG IES AND THE IR L IM ITAT IONS :

v a r iou s s hape s ( A lmag ro Go rbea 1 973a ; A r r iba s 1 953 ;

BONES AND SY MBOLS

B a l le s te r 1 928a , 1 945a ,b ;S an N ico lá s 1 982 ) . A l so t yp ica l ly s ou thea s te rn a r e p la s te r v e sse ls o r G ip se keram ik ( l dáñez & Muñoz 1 986 ; L e isne r&L e i s -

When C -1 4d e te rm ina t ion sa r eu nava i lab le ,t y pe f o s s i l s

n e r 1 943 ; Muhoz 1 985 ;S an N ico lá s 1 98 1 , 1 982 ; Wa lk e r 1 973a , 1 983 ) , a nd S unbo lke ram ik : i n c ised o rp a in t ed p o t te ry d eco ra ted w i th e ye s o rs un s , a n ima ls , t r iang le s , c hevron s ,h e r r ing -bone ,f i shbone ,f e rn o rf e a the r mo t if s ( Le isne r & L e isne r 1 943 ) . S ome t ime s t h e re a r e f ound d umb -be l l s haped , l ime s tone c onc re t ion s o fn a tu ra lo r i g in ( Mo l ina & Mo l ina 1 980 , 1 990 )( 25 ) . S p lend id a s semb lage s i nc ave s o rc hambe red t omb s may p rov ide s eve ra l i t em s o f o ne o r mo re o f t h e se t ype s , a nd n ume rou s c e ram ic , f l in t , b one a nd p o l i shed s t one a r t i fac t s , a nd b ead s o rp endan t so fs t one ,b one o r s ea -she l l , a ccompan ied b y o ne o r mo re o f t h e f o l low i ng : b e l l b eake r s o r b eake r type d ecora ted w a re , a r t i f a c t s o fc oppe r , s i lve r ,g o ld ,o s t r ich e gg she l l ,i v o ry ( e l e phan t ; h ippopo tamu s ) , f a Ience , a l aba s te r , a me thy s t , a mbe r , j e t , c ha lcedony , a ragon i te , c a rne l ian , j ade i te , ma lach i te , s e rpen t ine , c i nnaba r , r ock c ry s ta l , q ua r tz , a ga te ,j a spe r , a pa t i te , ma rb le , a sbe s to s , c a l la I s ( a lum in i um p ho spha t e ) ,s t ea t i te a nd t a lc ( magnes ium s i l ica te ) . A l though a s semb lage s f r om M i l la ran t omb s i mp re s s a r chaeo log is t s , a ny o ne may b ej u s t ac umu la t ive o u t c ome o f l ong te rm s i te fo rma t ion p roce sse s i n vo lv ing s co re s ,o re ven h und red s , o fs ucce ss ive i nd iv idua l b u r i a le ven t s a t at omb . U sua l ly t h e re a r e o n ly o ne o r t wo p o t s p e r s ke le ton , much a s i nA rga r ic b u r ia ls l a te r o n , a nd a s im i la r p ropo r t ion o f p o t s t od ecea sed e x is t s a t s ou thea s te rn c ave b u r ia ls i n C ueva 1d c l o s B lanqu i z a re s d c L ébo ri n Mu rc ia ( 92 i nd iv idua ls ) a nd C ova d e l aP a s to ra i nA l ican te ( 65 ) . V a lenc ian b u r ia ls a tC ova d c l e s Me rave l le s a tE ngue ra ( >100 i nd iv idua l s ) ( V i la n ova 1 877 ) ( 26 ) o r C ova d c l aS o lana d e l 'A lmux ich

c an h e lp ,d e sp i te r i sk s o fc h rono log ica l m ix ing , v e r t ica l d i s tu rbance , o ra nach ron is t ic h e ir loom s . S ince o u ra im i st oe l uc ida t ei n t ra reg iona l c ompa r i son s a nd c on t ra s t s , r a the r t h an i n te r reg iona l o ne s , e xo t ica mu s t b ek ep ti n t h e i rp l ace . Mo s te xcep t iona li t em s l ook l i ke t h readba re h omespun , g a rb led v e r s ion s o f o ve r sea s t y pe s r a the r t h an g enu ine i mpo r t s . T hey a r eo fs can ti mpo r tance f o r i n te rp re t ing l o ca l ma ter ia l c u ltu re p rec i se ly b ecau se t h ey a r e u n rep re sen ta t ive i t em s , s t a t is t ica l ly s peak ing . S ome t ime s , h oweve r , t h ey may p rov ide b road c h rono l o g ica lh in t s . R ibbed o r s egmen ted b one t ube s a nd p endan t s f r om C ueva d c l o s B lanqu iza re s d c L dbo r , C ueva d e l Mon te d c l aB ar se l la a nd C a in I R ea l dA lacan t c an b e c om p a red t op r e - a nd e a r ly d yna s t ic i vory a nd b one " f ancy c y l inde r s" ( c f. Brun ton 1 928 : 1 00 , t ype 7 6 L ,6 , i t em 3 236 ; B run ton & C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : P l . 4 9 , t ype 7 6A ,3 ,i t em 5 399 ) , t h ough s im i la rf o rm si nf a lence a nd l a p is l a zu l i a l so c ome f r om t h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean w o r ld ( A r r iba s 1 953 ) . T he C -14 c h rono log ica lf r ame o f r e fe rence f o r E gyp t s hows t h a t t h e i s t d yna s ty b egan a r ound C -1 44 400 BP ,i . e . 3 100 B .C . ( Ha ssan 1 980 ) . Ab one h ook p endan t f r om B lanqu izare s r e semb le s E gyp t ian T a s ian h ook s ( Ar r iba s 1 953 ) . Among b one a nd s t one o rnamen t s a tC ova d c l aP a s to ra i s at w in l obed s t one p endan t , c ompa red t o a n E gyp t ian p iece ( Penco t 1 951) wh ich h ad b een d e sc r ibed a s b e ing a p omme lf o r aw eapon ( dc Mo rgan 1 896 : 1 48 ,f i g .3 48 ) . S egmen ted ,r i bbed ,o rc hanne l led p inhead s a r ew ide s p read i n S .E . S pa in f r om V a lenc ia t oA lme r ia , b e ing c ommon b o th i nc ave b u r ia ls a nd a r t if ic ia l t omb s ( N ie to

( >40 )p e rhap sh ad f ewe rp o t s( Apa r ic io e ia ) . 1 983 ) .

I 959b ) . On ly a tT he rm i o nL e sbo s ( Iamb 1 936 : p 1 . 2 7 , n o s . 1 13 ) w e re t h ey s im i la r ly a bundan t , f o r wh ich a

H igh l a ye r s o r c lo s ing e p isode s g ave C -14 d e te rm i n a t ion s o f3 790±115 a nd 3 600±80 BP ( HAR160 , -358 ) a tC ueva d c l o s T ie s to s , 3 660±50 BP ( SUA -2832 ) a t

d a te o f ac en tury o rs ob e fo re C -1 44 000 BP i sp robab ly a pp rop r ia te . B y c on t ra s t , o n ly o ne r i bbed p inhead i si l l u s tra ted f r om T roy ; i tc ome s f r om T roy I l ( B legen e i

C ueva d e l C a lo r , o r aTL o ne o f4 320±400 BP ( TB-4 ) f o r a eneo l i th ic b u r ia l a tC ueva d c l aC a r ihüe la ( whe re

a l . 1 951 ,v o l .1 ,2 : f i g .4 0 ,n o . 8 ) . P inhead s c a rved w i th l o zenge shaped mo t if s f r om

u nde r ly ing , n eo l i th ic h ab i ta t ion l a ye r s g o b ack t oc a r d i a l w a re t ime s ) . N eo l i th ic l a ye r s ( C -1 47 640 -5550 B P )

C ueva d cl a s P a loma si n Mu rc ia ( Ga rc ia d e lT o ro 1 986 ; S an N ico lá s 1 987 )a nd C ueva 2d e l P ehón d e lT r in i ta r io

u nde r l ie a eneo l i th ic o ne s a tC ova F o sca i n C a s te l lón

i nA l ican te ( Wa lke r 1 973a : 3 85 , f i g . 6 8 , n o . 1 4 ) r eca l l

( O là r ia 1 988 ) ,C ova d cl e s C end re si nA l ican te ( c a rd ia l w a re c a . C -14 7 540±150 BP ; i mp re ssed , i nc ised ,

I b e r ian i r on -age p i n s a nd m igh tp e rhap s b el a te i n trud -

c ombed a nd s c ra tched w a re c a . C -14 5 820±130 a nd

d yna s ty E gyp t ian p inhead s( Pe t r ie 1 927 : 2 4 ,P l . 1 9 ,n o s .

e r s . O n t h e o the rh and , t h ey a l so r e ca l l d eco ra ted 1 8 th -

1 20

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICO LAS D EL T ORO

2 1 , 2 2 a nd 2 3 )o f 1 560 -1300 B .C . , a nd 3 rd -m i l lenn ium p in s f r om Meg iddo ( Loud 1 948 : p 1 . 2 01 , n o . 4 ) a nd F epe G aw ra ( Spe i se r 1 935 : P l . 8 2 ,n o . 1 5 ) w h ich p roba b l y c o r re spond t o aC -14 c h rono logy o f c a .4 250 -3900 B P . P ha langea l a nd me tapod ia l b one s , e spec ia l ly o f h o r se ,a nd s ome t imes o the rb one s , a r ef r equen t ly f ound i nS .E . S pan ish a eneo l i th ic c ave a nd t omb a s semb lage s a nd s e t t lemen t s ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ) . S ome t ime s t h ey a r e i nc ised o rp a in ted w i th e ye o r s un s ymbo ls s im i la r t ot ho se o n S imbo lkeram ik Two A l ic an te c ave b u r ia l a s semb lage s h ave s e ve ra l s uch d eco r a ted b one s : C ova d e l aP a s to ra ( Ba l le s te r 1 945 ) a nd C ova d eE l F on t'na l ( So le r 1 985 ) . O the rs i te sw i th d ec o ra ted b one s c ome f r om V a lenc ia a tC ova d c Ma l la V e rde ( Engu ix 1 975 ) , E re ta d e l P ed rega l ( Ba l les te r 1 945 ; F l e tche r e ia l . 1 964 ) , C ova d e l G a r ro f e r ( Be rna b eu 1 981 ; Muf ioz 1 985 ) a nd C ova d e B o lum in i ( Pa s c ua l 1 957 ) , a nd f r om Mu rc ia a tR ec l In ( San N ico lá s 1 986 ) , C ueva d e l af l o ja ( i b id . w rong ly f i gu red a s -

-

c om ing f r om P ena R ub ia b yG a rc ia d e lT o ro 1 980 : 5 1) , L orca a nd L o s R oyo s ( =L os R o l lo s ) ( Aya la 1 985 , 1 986 ; S an N ico lá s 1 986 ) a nd L o s B lanqu iza re s d c L d b o r( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ) . D eco ra ted b one s o ccu r a l so i ne a s te rn A nda lu s ia : i n G ranada a t Hoya d cl o sC a s te l lone s 1 9( Le isne r &L e is n e r 1 943 : 12 ) a nd L a s Ango s tu ra s ( E sco r iza 1 989 ) ;i n A lme r ia a tA lm iza raque ( A lmag ro Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 1 79 ; B a l le s te r 1 945 ; L e isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : P l . 9 3 ) , T e r re ra V en tu ra ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ) ; L o s M i l la re s s e t t lemen t w a l l ( A r r iba s e ia l . , 1 983 ) a nd t omb 7 ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 2 7 ) a nd t omb s 2 , 1 0 , 3 2 a nd a n u npub l ished t omb ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ) a nd C abec ico d c A gu i la r( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 6 ) . ( Fo ru ndeco ra ted p ha langea l b one s a te a s te rn Anda lu s ian t omb s , s ee A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 1 79 ) . B one s o f t h e se k ind s a r e ac ommon f e a tu re t o n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn S .E . S pa in . T he se d eco ra ted b one sd ec is ive ly s epa ra te S .E . S pa in f r om P o r tuga l w he re v e ry f ew a r ek nown : n ame ly , d ec o ra ted o ne sf r om G ru ta d aB uga lhe i ra ,O le la s ,S aô Ma r t i nho d c S in t ra ,C a renque ,V i la Nova d c S âo P ed ro a nd T r igache 4 ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 1 53 -179 ; L e i sne r 1 965 , v o l . 1 , 3 : P l . 1 67 ) a nd Z ambu ja l ( Mu i ioz 1 985 ) , a nd a nu ndeco ra ted o ne f r om S e r ra d cV i la . Whe r ee l se d ot h ey o ccu r? A d eco ra ted h o r se p ha lan g ea l b one c ame f r om a n e p ipa laeo l i th ic a s semb lage a t C u ina T u rcu lu i r ock s he l te r i n R uman ia ( Bo ronean t 1 969 : f i g . 8 ) . F rom t h eR ipa ro G aban r ock s he l te ri nt h e e a s t e rn A lp s t h e re i s ad eco ra ted h o r se h umeru s f r om a n eo l i th ic a s semb lage w i th s qua r e -mou th p o t tery ( Bago l i n i 1 972 ;B e rgamo D eca r l i e ia l . 1 972 ) , p robab ly e a r l i -

e rt h an C -14 5 000 BP . D eco ra ted l ong b one s w i th z ona l d eco ra t ion c ome f r om t h e E gyp t ian 6 th d yna s ty ( Brun ton 1 927 : p 1 . 4 0 , n o . 2 ,i t em 154 ) a nd R a s S ham ra ( Scha f fe r 1 962 : 2 07 , f i g . 1 8 , i t em 4 528 )i n ap ha se c ha rac te r ized b y K h i rbe t K e rak ( =B e th Y a reh ) p o t te ry . Kh irbe t K e rak w a re i s o f ten r ega rded a s h av ing i n t ruded f r om f u r the r n o r th a nd i ss e en i nt h e L evan td u r ing e a r ly b ronze a ge 1 1 1 1 ( Ben -To r 1 992 : 1 09 -111 ; E s se 1 984 ) c a . C -14 4 250 4 000 BP ( c l. Ca l laway & We in s te in 1 977 ) . Undeco ra t e d h o r se p ha langea l b one s a r e k nown a bou t t h a t t ime f r om T roy I Il . A l though a g eog raph ica l ly w ide sp read t e ndency t o f a vou rh o r se b one s o ve r t ho se o fo the rl a rge mamma l s i si n t r igu ing , n one o ft h e p i ece s men t ioned i sq u i te l i ke S .E . S pan ish d eco ra ted p ha lange s , a nd a l l l a ck e ye o r s un mo t i f s . E ye o r s un mo t if s a r e f a i r ly c ommon i ne a s te rn a nd s ou the rn S pan ish c onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic ) r ock p a in t ing s( Acost a1 968 : 1 32 -137 ; Wa lke r 1 971) . A l though u ncommon o np o t tery , t h ey a r e mo re c om mon o n p o t te ry f r om Med i te r ranean S pa in t h an a ny w he re e l se i nt h eP en in su la ,e l sewhe re i nE u rope ,o rt h e N ea rE a s t . S .E . S pan ish s un o r e ye mo t if s , w he the r o n b one , p o t tery ,o rp a in ted i nr ock s he l te r s ,f a l li n to o ve r lapp ing f o rma l t y pe s . S un mo t if s a r e c i rc le s f r om wh ich s hor t r ay s s p read o u ta l l a r ound . E ye mo t if s may b en o mo re t h an p a ir s o f a d jacen t s un s , o r t h ey may b e s i ng le o r p a ired s un s w i th e i the r c en t ra l d o t s ( pup i ls ) o r as em i c i rc le o f r ay s ( eyeb rows ) s ome t ime s w i th in a n o u te r c oncen t r ic s em ic irc le ,o r ac omp le te c i rc le o fr ay s ( i r i s ) w i th in a n o u te r c oncen t r ic c i rc le , o r ad o t i nt wo c on c en t r ic c i rc le sw i th o rw i thou to u te rr a y s . P a in ted o n t h e o u t s ide o f ah o le -mou th j a rf r om L o s M i l la re s t omb 2 1 ( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 4 8 ) a r e t wo p a ir so fd o t in -c irc le e ye s . One p a ir h a s d oub le c oncen t r ic c i rc le s w i th o u te r e yeb row s . E ach p a ir i sd ep ic ted a bove 3p a ir so fc oncen t r ica l ly c u rv ing l imb s w h ich e nd i nZ -shaped a ng le s . S i re t ( 1913 : 3 7 ) f anc ifu l ly s aw i n t h e se " hec tapu ses" a na na logy w i th o c topu se sp o r trayed i n t h e A egean a s p a ired e ye s am id 4 p a ir s o f w avy l imb s . J u s t a su nconv inc ing i s aL o s M i l la re s t omb 3 7 " one -eyed o c topu s" w i th 4 c u rv ing l imb s e nd ing i nZ s haped a ng le s , b ecau se t h ey s p read o u t f r om a s i ng le d o t in -c irc le wh ich l i e s c en t ra l ly w i th r e spec tt o 4mo re d o t in -c irc le mo t if s wh ich , h oweve r , a r e b o rde red b y t wo p a ir s o f a r ch ing e yeb row s a l l i nc ised i n s ide a -

-

b ow l ( Le i sne r &L e i sne r 1 943 : 4 5 ) . 4s imp le s un s a r e i n c ised i n ab ow l f r om t omb 5 7 ( i b id . : 3 2 ) . T he se i n s t ance s o fo ve r lapp ing f o rma l t ype s h i gh l igh t t h e o rna m en ta l n a tu re o fs un so re ye s ,a nd t h ed i f f icu l t ie sf a c ing

1 21

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a t temp t sa tn a tu ra l is t ic i n te rp re ta t ion .

o l á s 1 983 -1984 ) ,a nd i n c i sed a tL a s P ef l ica s ( =P ied r a s

E ye s a nd s un s a re f ound s po rad ica l ly o n p o t te ry i n b o th n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn S .E . S pa in , a nd o u t s t r ip t h e s pa t io tempo ra l b oundar ie s o f a eneo l i th ic M i l la ran t omb sa nd a s soc ia ted s e t t lemen t si nA l me r ia a nd G r ana -

d e l S eño r =L a s C a s ica s : i b id . ) . T he L a sP ef l ica s e ye o r s un i su n ique b e cau se i th a s as t a lk o r t a i l o f 4i n c i sed l i ne s wh ich b ea r a n e ye o r s un c ompo sed o f t wo c on c en t r ic c i rc le s ,w i th o b l ique s t abbed l i ne sb e tween t h em

d a . F i r s t ,h oweve r ,p o ss ib le a na log ie so u t s ide t h er eg ion may b e men t ioned . E ye s o r s un s o ccu r o n ly e xcep t iona l ly o n p o t tery

( r a the rl i ke aC a the r ine w hee l ) ,f r om t h eo u te ro f wh ich r ay s o r e yeb row s s p read o u t : mayb e t h i s f l owe r l ike

f r om t h e m idd le n eo l i th ic P e t s -R icha rd c u l tu re o fw e s t e rn F rance ( Ba i l loud 1 973 : 1 24 , P l . 3 2 ) , t h e l a te r n eo l i th ic o f n o r the rn G e rmany a nd D enma rk ( C rawfo rd

c i rc le s w i th r a y s a nd s t a lk s o n S i c i l ian w a re f r om T re -

1 957 : 1 08 , f i g s .3 8a ,3 8b ;p 1 . 3 1a ) ,t h eC en t ra l Med i te r r an ean S ten t ine l lo c u l tu re ( Aco s ta 1 968 : 6 7 -69 ) ,a tT re -

a n ima lb one s , i ti ss u re ly r e levan tt or ema rk t h a ta n ima l s a r e t h e o b jec to f mo s t S pan ish n a tura l i s t ic a nd c onven -

f on tane o n S ic i ly ( Crawfo rd 1 957 : 4 0 41 , f i g . 8 , p1. 8 , a ) , L epo rano ( i b id . : 4 0 -41 : f i g . 8 ,p 1 . 8 , a ) , a nd S e r ra dA l to ( i b id . : 4 0 -4 1 , f i g . 1 0 ,d ) , a nd t h e Ma l t ese Gha r

t i ona l ized r ock p a in t ing s ( Aco s ta 1 968 :p a s s im; B e l t rán 1 982 :p a s s im ; Wa lke r 1 97 1) ,a t t r ibu ted ,r e spec t ive ly , t o t h e me so l i th ic -ea r l ie r n eo l i th ic a nd l a te r n eo l i th ic -

D a la in c u l tu re ( T rump 1 966a : 2 2 , f i g . 1 9 ,g ) w h ich h a s C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s o f 6 140±160 a nd 5 760±200 BP ( BM -378 , -216 ) . T hey o ccu rv e ry e xc ep t iona l ly o nw a re a tT roy I( B legen e ia l . 1 950 , v o l . 1 , 2 : p 1 . 2 44 , n o . 3 1)

a eneo l i th ic b y mo s tp reh is to r ian s . F rom C ova d c l 'O r t h e re a r e a Card ium s he l l i mp re s sed r ep re sen ta t ion o f ag oa to ri b ex o no ne s he rd a nd as he l l imp re s sed r ep re sen ta t ion o f ah uman f i gu re

a nd T epe Gawra ( Aco s ta 1 968 : 6 7 -69 ) . I nS .E . S pa in , a ne a r ly e ye o rs un mo t if i si nc i sed o n

o na no the r( Lapreh i s ior ia . . . , 1 993 : 7 ,p l a te s 1 5a nd 1 6 ) . L e s sl i f e l ike , mo re s t y l ized o rc onven t iona l ized ,r ep re -

as he rd f r om C ueva d e l a Mu je r i n G ranada ( Cab r 1 924 ; McPher son 1 870 : P l . 8 , n o . 1 ) whe re s pou ted h and le p o t tery ( i b id . : P l . 7 ,n o . 1 )i nd ica te s at yp ica l ly Anda lu s ian n eo l i th ic a s semb lage , s u re ly e a r l ie rt h an c a . C -14 5 000 BP , w i th h uman s ke le ton sa nd s he l l b ang le s .

s en ta t ion s o f a n ima ls a r e i n c ised o n p o t te ry f r om t h e l a te rn eo l i th ic a tC ova d cl 'O r( Apa r ic io 1 979 : 2 30 ,f i g . 2 4 1) a nd a eneo l i th ic a tL o s M i l la re s 7 , 1 5 ( Le isne r & L e isner 1 943 : 2 7 , 4 4 ) a nd XX I ( A lmag ro & A r r iba s

mo t if i sc ompa rab le t o a n th ropomo rphou s c oncen t r ic f on tane ( Be rnabö B rea 1 962 : p l a te s 1 2a nd 1 4 ) . Wi th r ega rd t oS .E . S pan ish i n te re s t i nd eco ra t ing

1 963 : 1 59 ) . An ima ls i n c i sed o n p o t te ry a r e s po rad ica l ly s een e l sewhe re i nt h e Med i te r ranean : n ame ly ,o nS i c i ly ( Be r n abô B rea 1 954 : 3 5 ) , i n t h e Ma l te se Z ebbug p ha se

A t C ueva d c N er ja e ye o r s un mo t if s o ccu r o n s he rd s f r om n eo l i th ic l e ve ls ( Pe l l ice r , p e r s . c omm .) . A t C ova d c l 'Or i nA l ican te a n e ar ly n eo l i th ic i mp ie s sed s he rd h a s as un l ike mo t if ( Ma r t i 1 980a : 1 09 : f i g . 4 9 , n o . 7 ) . An e a r ly s he rd w i th a n e ye o r s un may b e o ne f r om C ova Amp la d e Mon tgó i nA l ican te (Ma r t i 1 980b : 1 59 , f i g . 6 3 ) whe re t h e re a r e a l so b o th c a rd ia l w a re ( Sa lva

T roy I V ( B legen 1 963 :

1 966 ) a nd aC -14 d e te rm ina t ion o f6 550±180 BP ( Ly -

1 69 ) a nd i n s ide ap la te f r om t h e Ma l tese H a l S af l ien i

2 850 ) ,a sw e l l a sp a in ted w a re ,a l though m ix ing o fn eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic ma te r ia l may h ave t a ken p l ace . S un mo t if s a r e i n c ised o n a no the rA l ican te s he rd f r om C ova d e l Com i ( Concen ta ina Museum ) a nd o n o ne f r om C ova d cl aS o lana d cl 'A lmux ich i nV a lenc ia ( Ap -

h ypogeum ( Evan s 1 959 : p 1 . 7 5 ) . F rom w ha t h a s b een s a id , i ti sc l ea r t h a t , i n S .E . S pa in , p o t te ry d eco ra ted w i th a n ima l s a nd e ye s o r s un s i sf ound f r om b e fo re C -14 5 000 BP u pt o a tl e a s t C -14

a r ic io e ia l . 1 979 ) . E ye s o r s un s a r e i n c ised o n as he rd f r om A lmenan C er ro d c l a s C an te ra s ( dc Mo te s 1 918 ; 3 1 , F F IG . 1 2 ; G i l F a r ré s 1 950 ) , wh ich may h ave h ad b o th n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l ith ic p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion , a nd o n p o t tery f r om C er ro d c l aV irgen i nG ranada ( C -14 3 920 -3735 BP ( Schü le & P e l l ice r 1 966 ) . I n Mu rc ia , e ye s o r s un s a r e p a in ted o n s he rd s f r om C ueva d c l a s P a loma s ( San N ico lá s 1 987 ) , a nd Cueva d c l o s T ies to s ( C -14 3 790±115 BP a nd 3 600±80 BP : HAR160 , -358 ) (Wa lk e r 1 971 , 1 977 , 1 979 ) , p a in ted a nd i n c ised o n o ne f r om C ueva d c Doha J oaqu ina ( =P oyo M iñano ) ( San N ie -

( Evan s 1 971 : f i g . 1 0 .n o . 6 )w h ich h a s C -14 d e te rm ina t i on s o f 5 140±150 a nd 5 000±140 BP ( BM -145 , 147 ) a nd -- a bou t 1 , 000 C -14 " yea r s" l a te r o n i n t ime a t P l .

3 2 ; B legen e ia l . 1 951 : p 1 .

3 800 BP , a l though mo s t S imbo lkeram ik p robab ly c ome s f r om C -14 4 300 -3800 BP . I ti sw o r th p o in t ing o u tt h a ti nS .E . S pa in ,u n l ike a nywhe re e l se i nt h e Med i t e r ranean ,o ne a nd t h e s ame p o t may c a r ry n o to n ly s un a nd a n ima l mo t if sb u ta l so z i gzag s f i l led i nb y s t ipp led d o t s ( Lo s M i l la re s XX I : A lmag ro & Amba s 1 963 : 1 59 ) . Wou ld i ts t re tch c r ed ib i l i ty t oo f a r t o wonde r w he the r S .E . S pa in may n o t h ave b een t h e s ou rce o f s uch mo t if sf ound e l sewhe re o np o t te ry ( s ee b e low )? I n Mu rc ia ,f l a tp endan t sc arved i na n ima l ( ?rabb i to r h a re ? ) s hape s c ome f r om Murv ied ro n ea r L o rca ( l dáñcz 1 985 )a nd C ueva d cl a s P a loma so nP eña R ub ia n ea rC eheg In ( Ga rc ia d e l T o ro 1 980a : 5 0 ; S an N ico lá s

1 22

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

1 987 ) . T he se amu le t sa r eo fe r ec tq uadruped s w i th f o re q ua r te r s a nd h indqua r te r s e ach s hown a s as i ng le c on j o ined l imb p i e rced b y ah o le t h rough t h e f oo t . F rom C ueva d e l P e r ro o nP eña R ub ia t h e re i sa na mu le to fa c rouch ing r abb i t i n a n u npub l ished c o l lec t ion s e en b y o ne o f u s (M .J .W .) . An a n ima l p endan t ( d e sc r ibed a s " bea r " l ike ) c ome s f r om a p i t b u r ia l c on ta in ing s ha rk t e e th a tO chavo i nJ aén ( Apa r ic io e ia l . 1 979b ) . F la t a n ima l p endan t s l i ke t ho se o f n o r the rn S .E . S pa in a r e u nknown i nA lme r ian o rG ranada c hambe red t omb s , b u t d o o ccu ra to ve r ad ozen P o r tugue se t omb s a nd c ave s ,a l l n o r th o ft h eT agu se s tua ry a pa r tf r om t wo i n E vo ra ( Le isne r 1 965 , v o l . 1 , 3 : 2 24 -226 , f i g . 3 ; Muhoz 1 985 ;S avo ry 1 968 : 9 1 ,f i g .2 4 ,g , i ) . O u t s ide t h eP en in su la t h e re a r en oc l ea r -cu tp a ra l le ls . T he re a r e a bundan t , i fr a the r d i f f e ren t , f l a t q uad ruped p endan t s o ra mu le t sf r om t h eE gyp t ian B ada i ian ( Brun t o n &C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : P l . 5 3 ,n o . 2 1 ,i t em 1 7 16 ) a nd 4 th 1 0 th d yna s t ie s ( i b id . : p l a te s 9 2 a nd 9 5 ,p a s s un ) . Howeve r , whe re t h e se h ave h o le s f o rs u spen s ion , t h ey a r en o ti nt h ef e e tb u ti nt h eh ead o rb ody o ft h ea n i ma l . A n ima lp endan t s a l so c ome f r om t h e Ma l te se H a l S af l ien ih ypogeum ( Evan s 1 971 : P l . 3 7 ,n o . 9 ,i t em s S /S 8a nd S /S 1) ;h e re a ga in ,t h ep a ra l le li sn o tp rec i se . N a tu ra l is t ic , t h ree -d imen s iona l mode ls o f a n ima ls a r eu nu sua l . Aw e l lmade o ne o f ac ow c ome s f r om t h e G ranada c hambe red t omb o f L lano d e l aS ab ina 1 26 -

( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 9 7 , P l . 3 6 , n o . 2 9 ) . I tr e sem b l e s w e l l -made mode l c ows f r om t h e Ma l te se Mga r r p ha se ( Evan s 1 971 : 3 5 ,P l . 3 3 ,n o . 1 3 ,i t em Mg /P 1 000 ) o fc a . 4 660±150 BP ( BM -100 ) a nd f r om t h e E gyp t ian 6 th d yna s ty ( Brun ton & C a ton -T homp son 1 928 : P l . 9 2 , t ype 2 3 ,A ,3 , i t em 2 058 ) w h ich may h ave i n sp ired l e ss w e l l -made mode ls o f b ov id s o r o the r q uad rupeds k nown f r om E l A rga r ( S ire t &S i re t 1 887 : 1 23 , P l . 1 7 . n o s . 1t o3 ) wh ich mu s td a te f r om C -14 3 900 -3300 BP . I ti s wo r th r ema rk ing t h a tn one l ook s l i ke ah o r se . I ti s i n te re s t ing t h a tt h ree -d imen s iona l mode l s s e em t ob eo f b ov id s a nd f l a to ne s o fl a gomo rph s , w he rea s e qu id s a r e r ep re sen ted b y p ha langea l a nd o the r b one s w h ich a r e o f ten d eco r a ted . F rom C ueva d e l C a lo r o n P ef la R ub ia n ea rC eheg in i n Mu rc ia t h e re i s ac og -o r r a tche t -shaped p endan t ( Ga rc ia d e l T o ro 1 980a : 5 0 ) , w h ich m igh t p e rhap s b e c ompa red t o 6 th -dyna s ty E gyp t ian " r o se t te" amu le t s ( c f . B run ton 1 928 : P l . 1 28 , t ype 5 8 G ,3 , i t em 2 102 ) . T h i s t ype i s u nknown i n M i l la ran b u r ia ls . I n g ood a g reemen tw i th t h e6 th -dyna s ty a na logy i s aC -1 4d e te r m ina t ion o f3 660±50 BP ( SUA -2832 )f r om t h ec ave . A lso u n ique t oc ave b ur ia ls i s amonkey s ku l l f r ag men t f ound a tC ueva d e l o s A lco re s w h ich d oub t le ss c ame f r om A f r ica . L ikew i se o fA f r ican o r ig in a r ea no s -

t r i ch e gg -she l lb ead f r om C ueva d el aC a r ihüe la ( c ham b e rG ,l a ye r8 )w i th r ed -wa sh a nd b urn i shed w a re s ( Ee l l i ce r 1 964 : 3 9 -40 ) ,a nd as ho r t too thed i vo ry c omb w i th as em ic i rcu la rh ead ,s im i la rt ol a te p re -dyna s t ic a nd e a r l y d yna s t ic E gyp t ian o ne s , a nd p i e rced i vo ry s l ide o r t o gg le ,c ame f r om C ueva d e l Mon t ed el aB a r se l la ( Ee ld a 1 929 , 1 931) . When s c ru t in iz ed c l o se ly v e ry f ew b one o ri vo ry a r t i f a c t sa r ep rec ise c h rono log ica lm a rke r sf o rc ave b u r ia l s . T hu s , s i ng le -ba rbed h arpoon s ( Cueva d e l o s T ie s to s ) , a r rowhead s ( Cova F onda d c S a lamó i n C a ta lon ia : B o sch 1 919 : 8 0 -82 ) , c omb s ( Cueva d e l Mon te d e l a B ar se l la ) , a nd e ven s aws ( Cueva d e l o s T ie s to s ) , s e em l a te r t han s im i la r p re -dyna s t ic E gyp t ian o ne s . S aw e dged b one o b jec t s , p e rhap s u sed l i ke O ld K ingdom s c ra tch c omb s , c ome f r om p re -dyna s t ic a nd a r cha ic E gyp t ( c f . B run ton & C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : p 1 . 5 4 n o s . Ia nd 2 ,i t em s 1 700 a nd 1 606 ) a nd T roy I I ! ( B le g en 1 963 : P l . 2 6 ; B Iegen e ia l . 1 950 v o l . 1 , 2 : P l . 3 65 , n o s .3 5 -50 ,36 -293 ,37 -33 ) . Ab one a r rowhead w i th 2 s nag s o n t h e t ang c ame f r om A rga r ic b u r ia ls a tL ade ra s d e l C a s t i l lo a tC a l lo sa d c S egu ra i nA l ican te ( Co lom ina s 1 927 -1931) ( 28 ) , i n s p i red mo s tl i ke ly b y me ta l a r rowhead s f r om E l A rga r w i th ab u lge o nt h et a ng ( S i re t&S i re t 1 889 : P l . 2 6 ,n o s . 4 7a nd 4 9 ) , a l though s nag s a nd b u lge s a r e a l so s e en o n t h e t angs o f p re -dynas t ic b one a r rowhead s a nd h a r p oon s ( Ch i lde 1 934 : 7 6 ,f i g . 2 4 ;P e t r ie 1 920 : P l . 2 8 ,n o . 5 ; P e t r ie 1 939 : 4 9 , p 1 . 2 2 , n o . 9 ) . B one a r rowhead s c ome f r om a eneo l i th ic E re ta d e l P ed rega l i n V a lenc ia a nd e a r ly b ronze -age C abezo R edondo i nA l ican te . B one d agge r s c ome f r om e a r ly b ronze -age S an An tön a tO r ihue la ( A lbe r t 1 945 ) a nd Mo la A l ta d c l e s S e re l le s n ea r A lcoy ( Bo te l la 1 924 -1925 ) . Un l ike b one a r rowhead s , b one b l ade s a nd d agge r s a r e c l a imed f r om c hambered t omb s i n Mu rc ia , A lmer ia a nd G ranada ( s ome l ook mo re l i ke s pa tu la s ) : L oma d cl o sP e reg r ino s ( N ie to 1 959a ) ,L o sM i l la re s 7( Le isne r&L e isne r 1 943 : 2 7 ) , C ab ezo d cl aP e rne ra ( i b id . : 1 2 ) , F uen te d e l L obo ( i b id . : 1 2 ) , L lano d c l a s E ra s 3( i b id . : 8 0 ) , L lano d c l a S ab ina 1 26 ( i b id . : 9 7 ) , L a G ab ia r ra 13 ( b id . : 17 ) , L o s L ian i l lo s T agebuch 2 1 /5 ( i b id . : 1 43 ) , L lano d c l a C ue s ta d cG uad ix 5 0( Ga rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 = L e isne r s ' L o s C a s te l lone s 9 ) a nd Hoya d e l C onqu i l 5 ( i b id . : 1 34 , = L e isne r s ' L o s C a s te l lone s 1a nd t h e L a s A scen s ia s t omb o fG óngo ra , 1 868 ) . Ab roken ,b road ,b one d agge rb l ade , w i th v ery s ma l l i n c ised c u t s o rn o tche s a l ong b o th b o rder s a sf a ra s t h e p o in t o f t h e b lade , wh ich c ome s f r om L a G ab iar ra ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : p 1 . 4 1 , L 3 n o . 1 6 ) , h a s g ood p a ra l le l s i n t ha t r ega rd f r om p re -dyna s t ic E gyp t ( c f . B run ton 1 928 : P l . 5 3 ,n o . 2 4 ,i t em 1 36 ;P e t r ie 1 920 : p 1 .

1 23

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

3 1 ,n o s .3 8t o4 1 ;P l .5 3n o .3 0 ,i t em 3 904 ) . O the r e a r ly i n s tance s i nS .E . S pa in o f s im i la r ly e x t e n s ive i n c i sed n o tch ing ,a l be i to nn a r rowe rb one b l ade s f r om ac a rd ia ln eo l i th ic a s semb lage a tC ova d cJ aS a r sa ( San V a le ro 1 950 : f i g . 1 0 , n o s . 4 , 5a nd 1 2 ) , h ave b een l i kened t on eo l i th ic S t a rcevo b one p i ece s ( Topp 1 959 ) . H oweve r ,a tt h is e a r ly t ime , c a . C -14 6 000 BP ,o ve r s ea s n eo l i th ic c on tac t s w i th Med i te r ranean S pa in w e re i n f requen t . T he r eg ion i sa b sen tf r om n e two rk s o fn eo l i th ic o b s id ian movemen ti nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean ( Po h lmann 1 99 3 :p a s s im ) . A l though s ome p reh is to r ian s a t t r ibu te n eo l i th ic o r i -

j e c t s 1 , 000 y ea r so lde ra tT e le i la t Gha ssu lt ow h ich t h ey w e re c ompa red b y S avory ( 1968 : 9 1 ,f i g . 2 4 ,a ) . T he 4 h ook s hape i sp a in ted a tv ar iou s r ock s he l te r s ( Aco s ta 1 968 :p a s s im ) ,n o tab ly i nt h e S i e r ra Mo rena o fn o r the rn A nda lu s ia . A laba s te r v e s se ls a nd b ead s o ccu r i n S .E . S pan ish c hambe red t omb s , b u t t h e c rud i ty o f mo s t i t em s n o t o n ly i s af a rc r y f r om f a s t id iou s e a s te rn Med i te r ranean c r a f t sman sh ip , b u t a l so make s t y po log ica l c ompar i son i mpo ss ib le p re sumab ly l o ca l c r a f t smen c a rved t h em f r om i mpo r ted b lock s . T hey c e r ta in ly c a rved o b jec t s -

-

f r om i mpo r ted e l ephan t i vo ry , o f w h ich ab lock w a s

g in s i n S .E . S pa in t o s e t t le r s f r om a f a r ( Ma r t i 1 982 ) , t h ey f a i l t o " equa te t h er a t iona l a t t i tude a nd t h e c r i t ica l a t t i tude w heneve r w e p ropo se a s o lu t ion t o ap rob l em ,w e o ugh tt ot r ya sh a rd a sw ec an t oo ver th row o u r

f ound a tt h e Ma ta rrub i l la c hambe red t omb i n w es te rn A ndal u s ia ( Co l lan te s 1 969 ) . T h is may h e lp t oe xp la in ( ?exp la in a way ? ) why p r e c i se o ve r sea s p a ra l le ls f o r mo s t S pan ish b onewo rk a r e

s o lu t ion , r a the rt h an t od e f end i t " ( Poppe r 1 968 : 1 6 ) . A

o f ten e l u s ive . S uch p a ra l le ls a sc an b e i d en t i f ied g i ve a r ough i d ea o f t h e c h rono logy a pp ropr ia te f o r S pan i sh p i ece s b u ti ft h e se a r en o tn ece ssa r i ly i mpo r t s t h en t h ey n eed n o t b e l a te ri nt ime t h an o ve r sea s p a ra l le ls a nd i n

.. .

mo re p a r s imon iou s r ead ing o f t h e s ub s tan t ive S .E . S pan ish a rchaeo log ica l r e co rd s hows u s d i so rgan ized n eo l i th ic i mp ingemen t s , wh ich p robab ly i nd igenou s c ommun i t ie s a dop ted h aphaza rd ly a nd a dap ted t ot h e i r n eed s a nd c oncerns ( Apar ic io 1 982 ; Wa lker 1 977 ,

s ome c a se sm igh te ven b e mo re a nc ient A no the ri n s tance o fe x t rao rd ina ry S .E . S pan i sh e a r ly

1 986 ) . A t c a rd ia l n eo l i th ic C ova d e l 'Or t h e re a l so w a s a

2 nd -m i l lenn ium b onewo rk , n o t r ep re sen ted i nA lme r ia a tL o s M i l la re s o r E l A rga r , i sa n i n t r igu ing d en ta te

r i ch b one i ndu s t ry , i n c lud ing s pa tu la s w i th l a rge l a te ra l n o tche s s epa ra t ing b l ade a nd h ead ( Ma r t i e ta l . 1 980 : 1 38 ) . S im i la rn ar row p i ece s f r om l a te rn eo l i th ic a nd a e n eo l i th ic s i te s i nS .E . S pa in a bound wh ich h ave o ne o r mo re n o tche s a l ong t h e h ead a nd i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h ey w e re u sed a s h a ir o rnamen t s ( Ga rc ia d e l T o ro

b one r i ng f r om a n e a r ly b ronz e -age b ur ia l a tI s lo te d c C an ipe l lo n ea rA l ican te ( La p reh i s tor ia . . . , 1 993 : 1 2 ,p 1 .

1 986 ) . P e rhap s t h ey h ave p a ra l le ls i n r a re , e a r ly E gyp t ian n o tch -headed p i ece s ( c f .B run ton & C a ton -Thomp son

4 0 ) .I t sc l o se s tp a ra l le l s a r e ( a ) f r om Mycenae s ha f tg rave i o ta o fg r ave c i rc le B , a nd ( b ) " s cep t re moun t s" a t Bu sh B ar row i nt h e E ng l ish We s sex c u l tur e . T he se a r e c i rcu la r whe rea s t h e S pan ish p i ece i so va l

1 928 : p 1 . 5 3 ,n o . 2 4 , i t em 1 36 ) , a l though h ead -shav ing

a nd h a s mo re t e e th ;i tc ame f r om ac i s tg rave c on ta in ing a n A rga r ic me ta l d agge r w i th 3 h al t ing r i ve t s . S hal t

f o r w ea r ing w ig s i ne a r ly d yna s t ic E gyp t p robab ly l e d

g rave i o ta d a te s f r om c a . C -1 43 300 BP ,i . e . c a . 1 600

t ot h e se , l i ke c omb s ( s ee b e low ) , g o ing o u t o ff a sh ion f r om r ough ly C -14 4 400 BP f o r s ome c en tu r ies . B y c on t ra s t , n o tch -headed s pa tu la s w e re mo re c ommon a t T roy 1 1V ( B Iegen 1 963 : p l a te s 1 5 , 26 , 3 3 a nd 3 6 ;B le g en e ia l . 1 950 , v o l . 1 , 2 : p 1 . 2 20 , n o s . 3 7 -626 , 3 7 -781 ;

B .C . ( P iggo t t 1 965 : 1 34 ; Megaw & S imp son 1 979 : 2 26 2 29 ) . I fi t s b one r i ng s w e re i mpo r t s , maybe t h ey w e re made s ome t ime b efo re e l sewhe re , p e rhap s i nE ng land ( Bu rge ss 1 980 : 1 08 ) o r p e rhap s i n S .E . S pa in w he re

P l .3 60 p a s s im ; B legen e ia l . 1 951 v o l . 1 ,2 :

P l .

4 8 ,n o s .

3 4 -436 a nd 3 7 -44 1 ; P l . 1 49 , n o s . 3 6 -406 a nd 3 7 -82 ) , b u t many a r e s im i la r i ns i ze t op ape r -kn ive s a nd s e em r a th e rl a rge f o rd eco ra t ing t h eh a i r . F rom C ueva 1d cl o s B lanqu iza re s d e L dbo ri n Mu r -

b onewo rk w a sw e l ld eve loped . B ecau se f a lence i s k nown f r om Wes te rn E u rope ( New ton & R en f rew 1 970 ) b efo re E gyp t ian T e l l c l Ama rna manu fac ture b egan a t 1 600 -1500 B .C . ( i .e .C 1 4 3 300 -3200 BP ) , a n e a r l ie r d a te i s p o ss ib le f o r a

c i at h e re a r en o to n ly ap a in ted ,c rude ly made a l aba s te r c up a nd a l aba s t e rb ead ,b u ta l so a" doub le -ancho r" b one p endan t( Cuad rado 1 930 ;A r r iba s 1 953 ) t h a ti so n ly p a r -

g l a ssy b ead f r om C ova d c L aP a s to ra ( Ta r rade l l 1 963 : 1 95 ) o r g l a s sy b ead s f r om C ueva d e l Mon te d cl aB a r s e l la ( Be lda 1 931) a nd C e r ro d c l aE nc ina , wh ich a r e l e s s w e l l -known t h an t h e 8g reen -b lue t ubu la r , d oub t -

a l le led a tC ueva d e l Mon te d e l aB a r se l la i n A l ican te

l e ss E gyp t ian , f a Ience b ead s f r om A rganc F uen te

( Be lda 1 929 , 1 931) . T hey h ave 2 u ppe r a nd 2 l owe r

A lamo ( C -14 3 970 -3160 BP ) . Ab lue g la s s b ead c ame f r om t h e B a r ranco d c h aC ue s ta d c l aS ab ina 4 9 c ham b e red t omb ( Ga rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 )a nd ad a rk

h ook s ,t h el owe ro ne s s epa ra ted b y an o tch a nd a r er e a l l y " 4 -hooked " p endan t s , q u i te d i f fe ren t f r om s t one o b -

1 24

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D ELTORO

g l a s sy p o lyhed ron f r om t h e V ie ra c hambe red t omb i n Má laga ( d e Me rge l ina 1 922 ) . Two b l ack g l a ss b ead s w i th w h i te s t reak s c ome f r om C ueva 1d e l P eñón d e l T r in i tar io (Wa lke r 1 973a : 3 84 , f i g . 6 8 , n o s . 4a nd 5 ) , u n l ike a ny f r om M i l lar an t omb s b u t l i ke 9 t h -dyna s ty E gyp t ian o ne s ( c f. B run ton 1 928 : p 1 . 1 02 ,t ype 8 0 " f an c yb a r re l s" T ,3 ,i t em s4 981 a nd 5 009 ,a nd t y pe 8 2 " f an c ys phe ro id s" K ,3 ,i t em 5 010 ) . S econd -m i l lenn ium b ronze -age t r ade w i th B a l t ic E u r ope m igh t e xp la in f i nd s o f a mbe r a t B lanqu iza re s , C ova d c L aP a s to ra a nd t omb s L o s M i l la re s 7 , 1 2 , 7 4 ( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 2 4 -27 ) 8a nd 6 3 ( A lmag ro &

( C -14 6 140±160 , 5 760±200 BP , BM -378 , -216 ) . C om p a rab le mo t if s a r e f ound o n e a r ly E gyp t ian b one a nd " im i ta t ion t u sk" p ieces ( c f . . Brun ton & C a ton T homp son 1 928 : P 1 . 5 3 ,n o . 1 9 ,i t em 1 787 ,n o . 2 5 ,i t em 13 ,a nd n o . 2 6 ,i t em 1 500 ; P e t r ie 1 920 : P l . 3 2 ,n o s . 1 5 a nd 1 6 ;p 1 . 3 2 ,n o . 2 2 , a nd P l . 3 3 ,n o . 2 6 ) a nd o ne f r om T he rm i( Lamb 1 936 : P l . 2 7 ,n o .3 0 ) . On t h e o t he r h and , ap i e rced b one p l aque w i th h o r i z on ta li n c is ion sf r om S a r sa ( San V a le ro 1 950 : p 1 . 1 )r e s emb le s s ome f r om A lme r ian r ound g rave s : o ne f r om L lano d e l J au tón 4 ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 6 9 ) a nd t wo p iano -convex o ne s f r om L lano d e l a J.mpa ra 1

A r r iba s 1 963 : 16 -122 ) a nd L lano d e l a T e ja B -17 ( Tagebuch 2 2 /18 ) ( Le isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 1 46 ) . A

( i b id . : 6 7 ) . B o th p i ano -convex a nd s t rangu la ted b one i t em sc ome f r om E r im io nC yp ru s ,a sd ot r unca ted c on i -

B a l t ic o r ig in i si mp l ied b y t h e 2% s ucc ina te o f aV -

c a l o ne s s im i la r t oM i l la ran f o rm s ( D ika io s 1 939 : P l . 2 9 ,n o .3 ) .

p i e rced ambe rb ead f r om L o s M i l la re s 1 2 . O the r ambe r i t em s c ou ld b el o ca l ly made ,b ecau se f o s s i l y e l low a m b er i sp re sen t i nT e r t ia ry b ed s n ea r Ago s t i nA l ican te a nd Mo ra ta l la i n Mu rc ia ( J iménez d e C isne ro s 1 936 ) . An a mbe r b ead wh ich i sc e r ta in ly much e a r l ie r t h an 2 000 B .C . c ame f r om C ova d e l F ra re i n C a ta lon ia w he r eb u r ia l s ( C -14 4 450±100 BP , MC -2295 )w e re f o l l owed b y b e l l b eake r s ( C -14 3 990 BP ) ( Ma r t in 1 980 ) . E ar ly s e cond -m i l lenn ium B .C . a mbe rc ome sf r om V ilen ai nA l ican te ( So le r 1 965a ) ,f r om t h eR amb la d e l P an a de ro h oa rd a nd t h e C abezo R edondo s e t t lemen t ( C -14 3 565±55 , 3 300±55 BP , H -2277 /1964 , G rN -5 109 ) . J e t a l so s ugge s t s an o r the rn E u ropean o r ig in : i tw a s f ound a tC ova d e l aP a s to ra ( Tar rade l l 1 963 : 1 95 ) , ab u r ia l n ea rA ln i iza raque ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 2 ) a nd a t L o s M i l la re s 7 ,8 , 1 2 a nd 1 8 ( i b id . : 2 7 ,5 2 -53 , 2 5 ,3 9 ) . J e t a nd a mbe r a r e c on sp icuou s b y t h e ir a b sence f r om t yp ica l A rga r ic b u r ia ls , w he rea s i f mo s tj e t w a s as e c o nd -m i l lenn ium i mpo r t i tm igh th ave b een e xpec ted t o b em o s tf r equen ti nt h em .

POTTERY PROBLEMS I tw a s s t re ssed a bove t h a t s un o re ye mo t i f s o np o t te ry , a l though u ncommon , a r e f ound i n b o th n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn S .E . S pa in f r om t h en eo l i th ic o nwa rd s . I ti su n d en iab le t h a t t h e ir o ccu r rence ( l ike t h a to fS imbo lke ra m ik i n g ene ra l ) w a s af e a tu re o f a eneo l i th ic A lm iza r aque ( Le isne r &L e isner 1 943 : 1 ) a nd L o s M i l la re s : t omb s 4( i b id . : 3 6 ) , 7( A lmag ro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 1 26 1 32 ; L e isne r & L e isner 1 943 : 2 7 ) , 1 5 ( i b id . : 4 4 ) , 1 7 ( A lmag ro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 10 -114 , 2 83 P L . 1 6 ) , 2 1 ( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 4 8 ) , 2 2 ( i b id . : 4 7 ) , 3 7 ( i b id . : 4 5 ) ,4 0( i b id . : 2 2 ) , 5 7 ( i b id . : 3 2 ) , XX I ( i b id . : 1 59 ) ,a nd 2 3 ( B lance 1 960 : 16 ) . T hey o ccu r red a t G ranada t omb s F l oyo d e l Conqu i l 4 6 ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 00 )a nd L a sP ef lue la sT agebuch 1 9 /10 ( i b id . : 1 57 ) . T he ir p re sence a tC er ro d c l aV i rgen i nG ranada h a s a l ready b een men t ioned ;t h es equence h e re r an f r om a e -

B one t ogg le s a nd b u t ton s w i th V -shaped h o le s a nd p er fo ra ted , s moo thed s t one p l aque s ( wr is t g ua rd s o r w he t s tone s )c ome f r om s eve ra lS .E . S pan ish c ave b u r ia l

n eo l i th ic t ob e l l -beake r , a nd t h en t oA rga r ic , c e ram ic

a s semb lage s . B e l lb eake r s a tB lanqu iza re s a nd C ova d e l aP a s to ra a r e mo s t ly l a te r a eneo l i th ic , a s i s ac oppe r

1 88 ) , i nC en tra l I be r ia w i th z oomo rphou s o rnamen t o n b eake r w a re f r om L a s C a ro l ina s ( von Obe rma ie r 1 917 ) a nd o n s he rd s f r om P e ra les d cT a juña a nd , p e r -

P a lme la p o in tf r om P a s to ra , w h i le ac ru tch -headed b one p in f r om t h e re h a s Une t ice p a ra l le ls ( Topp 1 959 ) a nd a l so A na to l ian o ne s . F rom S a r sa t wo b one p i ece s w i th c omp lex i n c ised , r e c t i l inea r g eome t r ica l mo t if s ( San V a le ro 1 950 : p 1 . 1 ) r e ca l l a nE a s t Med i te r ranean o ne f r om B yb lo s ( Dunand 1 939 : 3 67 , f i g . 2 87 , i t em 5 373 ) i n al e ve l w i th I s t3 rd d yna s ty E gp t ian i mpo r t s ( ca . C -1 44 400 -4100 BP ) , a l t h ough t h eS a r sa p i eces a r ef a ro lde r ,p robab ly f r om b e t ween C -14 6 500 -5500 BP . O ne o ft h em b ea r sn e s ted V mo t i f s w h ich a r e a l so s e en o n Ma l te se p o t te ry ( T rump 1 966a : 2 1 ,f i g . 1 8 ,e ;P l . 3 3 )f r om t h e Gha r Da lam p ha se

h o r izon s . E ye s o r s un s a re v e ry s po rad ica l ly f ound i n P o r tuga l a tR eguengo s a nd P a lme la ( B lance 1 960 : -

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h ap s ,S o lana d e l Agu i la a nd C ueva d cl aN oga leda ( Ca b r d 1 924 ) ,a nd i nt h eC a ta lan c hambe red t omb s o fP u ig s e s P rede s a nd P u ig R odó ( Pe r ico t 1 950 : 6 0 -61 , f i g . 4 4 ) . AV a lenc ian b ronze -age s he rd w i th e ye o rs un mo t i f s c ome s f r om C a s t i l la re jo d c l o s Mo ro s ( F le tche r & A lcá ce r 1 958 ) . A l though s ome s un o r e ye mo t if s o ccu r i n ab e l l b eake r c on tex t , a l ong w i th o ther S imbo lkeram ik t h ey a r e f ound n o t o n ly o n o the r k ind s o f w a re b u t a l so i n c u l tu ra l h o r izon s b o th e a r l ie r ( neo l i th ic s e e a bove ) a nd l a te r ( b ronze -age ) t h an t hose e vo lved a eneo l i th ic -

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a s semb lage s o f t h e p er iod c a . C -14 4 200 -3800 BP w hen b e l l b eake r s s eem t oh ave b een mo s t f r equen ti n S. E .S pa in .T he mo t if sc anno tb ed e spa tched a sn o mo re t h an p a r ta nd p a rce lo f a" be l l -beake rc omp lex" . N o r , d u r ing t h a t l a te p e r iod , i sS imbo lke ram ik c on f i ned t o c hambe red t omb s a nd n ea rby s e t t lemen t s o f G ranada o rA lmer i a ,b ecau se i ti sa l so f ound i nc ave si n Mu rc ia ,A l ican te a nd V a lenc ia - i n c i sed o re ven p a in t e d . T he re a r e b e l l b eake r s a tC ueva 1d e l o s B lanqu i z a re s d eL ébo r a nd z i gzag s p a in ted o n i t s a l aba s t e rc up r e semb le z i gzag s a nd t r iang le s p a in ted o n s he rd s a t C ueva d e l o s T ies to s i n Mu rc ia a nd C ova Amp la d e Mon tgó a nd C ova d e l T fo G i l i n A l ican te . S im i la r ly p a in ted c e ram ic s , a nd e ven G ipsekeram ik , o ccu r a t s ome c hambe red t omb s i nS .E . S pa in . S un s a nd af e rn l i ke mo t if p a in ted o n C ueva d e l o s T ies to s p o t te ry r e f l ec t b o th M i l la ian S imbo lkeram ik mo t if s a nd t ho se o f c onven t iona l ized r ock p a in t ing s ( Aco s ta 1 968 : 1 32 1 37 ; S an N ico lá s 1 983 -1984 ; Wa lke r 1 971 , 1 977 , 1 979 ) . S uch s ymbo l -deco ra ted v e sse ls ( made o f w ha teve r ma te r ia l )a r ea lway s u nu sua l i nc e ram ic a s semb lage sa t s i te s , w he the r b ur ia l o r d ome s t ic . S l igh t ly l e s s i n f re q uen t a r e s he rd s d eco ra ted w i th z i gzag s , t r iang le s o r h e r r ing -bone mo t if s , whe the ra sc on t inuou s l i ne s ,l i ne s o r a r ea s o f i mp re ssed d o t s , o r ac omb ina t ion o f b o th , w i th o r w i thou t p la s t ic o rnamen t s uch a s a pp l ied c o r d on s w h ich a r eq u i te c ommon f r om t h e Anda lu s ian n eo -

a bou tC -14 5 000 BP ;t h ey d i sappea ri nt h ea eneo l i th ic . S im i la r i n c ised a nd d o t imp re ssed w a re i sf ound i n e a s tern S pa in , f r om j u s t s ou th o ft h e E b ro a tC ova F o s c a i n C a s te l lón f r om c a . C -14 7 000 B P ( 27 ) ( O làr ia 1 988 ) ,o rV e rde lp ino i nC uenca c a . C -14 5 000 BP ( 2 9 ) , t o C ova Amp la d c Mon tgó i nA l ican te ( M i l lán 1 950 ; S a lva 1 966 ) . T h is e a r ly s ub s tan t ive p r e senc e u p se t s aw ide sp read P roc ru s tean B ed o ff a i th , o n w h ich n eo l i th ic p o t te ry i s r a cked i n to t h eo re t ica l s hape d e l im i ted b y c on jec tu re s o f n eo l i th ic c a rd ia l imp re ssed p o t te ry h av ing t o a n te d a te a l l o the rk ind so fn eo l i th ic d eco ra ted p o t te ry s ou th o f t h e E b ro i nt h e w ay i ts e em s t od o f u r the r n o r th i n C a ta lon ia a nd Med i ter ranean F r ance . T h i s c on jec tu re p re sume s t h a t " e a r ly n eo l i th ic " a nd " c a rd ia l -wa re n eo l i th ic " c a r ry i d en t ica l c u l tu ra l -ch rono log ica l mean ing , a nd t h a to the rk i nd s o fn eo l i th ic w a re a r e ,b yd e f in i t ion , " l a te rn eo l i th ic " . S im i la r i t ie s b e tween V a lenc ia a nd Anda lu s ia o fn eo l i t h ic c e ram ic f o rm s , s pou ted h and le s ,h o rned l ug s ,a nd g eome tr ica l mo t if s whe the r c a rd ia l imp re ssed o r i n c i sed o ne s( L lob rega t 1 973 ; Ma r t i 1 984 ) , mu s tb eo f f se t a ga in s t e a r ly n eo l i th ic p r e sence i n Anda lu s ia e . g . i n t h e l owe s t l e ve ls a t C ueva d c l a C a r ihüe la ( Pe l l ice r 1 964 ) o fc a rd ia l , i n c ised , d o t s t ipp led ,r e d -wa sh , a nd -

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c o rdon -app l ied p o t te ry ( Nava r re te 1 976 , 1 986 ) . S c ra tched w a re o ccu r red a tC ueva d c l aC ar ihüe la

l i th ic o nwa rd s . T he I b e r ian n eo l i th ic s equence s ou th o fC a ta lon ia i s c omp l ica ted b y t he u n t idy ma t te r o f i nc ised , d o t i mp re ssed o rc o rdon -deco ra ted p o t tery a ts ome s i te s a s e a r ly a sC -14 > 7000 BP i n w e s tern Anda lu s ia ( Aco s ta

( a nd maybe H oyo d c l aM ina c ave , S uch 1 919 : 3 7 , f i g . 3 4 ) . I nV a lenc ia a nd A l ican te i ti sr e co rded f r om ad oz e n e a r ly n eo l i th ic s i te s , i n c lud ing C ova d c l 'O r ( Ma r t i 1 980b : 1 54 ) . S c ra tched w a re i sf ound b o th o n Ma l ta ( Evan s 1 959 : p 1 . 8 5 )a nd i ns ou the rn I t a ly - w he re Ma t e r a w a re s ome t ime s s hows e ncru s ta t ion o f s c ra tched

1 986 ) . I tc on t inue st ob ep re sen ta tl a t er o ne s w he re c a r -

mo t if s ( Trump 1 966b :

d i a l w a re m ay n o t a lway s b e p re sen t , a l though c a rd ia l

w a sh w a re : R ed D iana a nd R ed S ko rba w a r es ( c a . C -14

w a re i sr ep re sen ted i n Anda lu s ia ( Nava r re te 1 976 : p a s s im ; 1 986 ) . D o t imp re ssed , i n c ised ,a nd c o rdon -deco ra ted s h e rd s a r ef ound i ne a s te rn Anda lu s ia : i n Má laga a t Hoyo d eL a M ina c ave ( Such 1 919 ) a nd C ueva d e N er ja ( Pe l l ice r

5 200 BP ) . E nc rus ta t ion o fi n c ised p o t te ry i ss een i na n eo l i th ic c on tex to fr ed -wa sh p o t te ry a tC ueva d cl aC a n hüe la ( Pe l l ice r 1 964 : 4 7 )i nl a ye r s b enea th o ne w i th a TL d e te rm ina t ion o f4 320±400 (M -4 ) . O the r f o rm s a t Hoyo d c l aM ina i nc luded n a r row -

1 962 ;P e l l ice r &A co s ta 1 986 ) , i nG ranada a tC ueva d e

n ecked j a r s , c ombed a nd p erhap s s c ra tched w a re , a nd

l aC a r ihue la ( Pe l l ice r 1 964 ) , C ueva d e l o s Mu rc id lago s n ea r A lbuno l ( Gongora 1 868 ) , C ueva d e l a Mu jer ( McPhe r son 1 870 ) ,C ueva d cl o s T on to s ( d e l P ino d cl a T o r re 1 984 ) a nd o the r s i te s ( Nava r re te 1 976 : p a s s im ) , a nd i n A lmer ia a t C ueva Amb ro s io ( J imënez 1 947 , 1 961-1962 ) . E ven w hen t h ey f o rm h o r izon ta l b and s ,i n c i sed g eome t r ica l mo t if s h a rd ly e ve rr e semb le t h e n a r r ow r e pe r to ire o fr i g id F rench C ha ssey c e ram ic d eco ra -

w a re d eco ra ted w i th c o rdon s o r i mp re ssed d o ts . R e ma in s o f3 8 s t one b race le t s f r om t h e Hoyo d c l aM ina b u r ia l a s semb lage s uppo r t an eo l i th ic r a the rt h an a eneo -

P l .

1 7 ) - a nd s o , a l so , i sr ed -

l i th ic a t tr ibu t ion ; t h e re w a sn o me ta l ( 36 ) . Mo reove r ,a s a tA b r igo g r ande d e l B a r ranco d c l o s G ra jo s (Wa lke r 1 977 ) t h e re w e re b o th s un -d r ied w a re a nd a c e ram ic l e ve l s t ra t i f ied a bove , s how ing l i th ic c on t inu i ty w i th , e p ipa laeo l i th ic l e ve ls . An e p ipa laeo l i th ic a s semb lage

t i on , n o r a r e C ha ssey p an -p ipe l ugs s een . I n ma rked

( Suá rez 1 981) u nde r lay n eo l i th ic l e ve l s a tC ueva Am -

c on t ra s t , i ti ss pou ted h and les wh ich c ha rac te r ize mo s t

b ro s io a l so ( J iménez 1 96 1-1962 ) . I nV a lenc ia c o rdon -deco ra ted a nd c ombed w a re sf o l -

o ft h e se Anda lu s ian n eo l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om b efo re

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M IC I IAELJ . WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

l ow m e so l i th ic l e ve l s a t C ueva d e l aC oc ina ( Fo r tea

S ha rma ( Schaf fe r 1 962 : 2 04 , f i g . 1 7 ) wh ich , a sa l ready

1 973 : P l . 2 ,n o s . 1a nd 2 ; P l . 3n o . 2 ; P l . 4n o . 1 )a l t hough t h e g eome t r ica l a nd l ep to l i th ic f l in t i ndu s t ry

m en t ioned , b e longs t o t h e p e r iod c a . C -1 44 250 -4000 BP . H achu red t r i ang le sa r ei n c ised o n s he rd sf r om T roy

l o ok s s im i la r . A t C ova F o sca r e d -wa sh ( a lmagra ) a p -

I( B Iegen e ia l . 1 950 : P l . 2 36 , n o . 1 ,p 1 . 2 37 , n o . 7a nd P l . 2 38 ,n o s . 7a nd 2 0 ) . As he rd f r om T he rm i s how si n c i sed h achu red t r iang le s p o in t ing d ownwa rd s wh ich a l t er na te w i th t r iang le s p o in t ing u pwa rd s f i l led i n w i th s t ipp led d o t s ( Lamb 1 936 : p 1 . 1 4 , n o . 1 ) . S he rd s w i th d ownwa rd ly p o in t ing t r i ang le s f i l led i nw i th d o t s f r om Ma l te se S ko rba w e re d e sc r ibed a sT he rm i type i mpo r t s ( Evan s 1 971 : 2 17 ; T rump 1 966a : 4 5 , f i g s . 4 4 ,h a nd 4 4 , i ) , p re sumab ly c ons ide rab ly l a te r t h an R ed S ko rba

p ea r sc a . C -14 5 715±80 BP ( 1 -9867 ) , b u t i ti su ncom mon i nt h e P a l s V a lenc iano . T he V a lenc ian e p ica rd ia l n eo l i th ic h a s p la in , c ombed , a nd s c ra tched p o t te ry ( Cova d el e sC end re s ,C ova d c VO r ,C ova dEn P a rdo ) , l a te r g i v ing w ay t op l a in w a re b ow l s a nd s t eep -wa l led d i she s( s ome t ime s w i th ab eve l led r im ) ,o cca s iona l ly i n c i sed w i th h e r r ing -bone s , z i gzag so rd ownwa rd ly p o in t i n g t r iang le s s ome t ime s f i l led i nw i th s t ipp led d o t s o r i n c ised h achur ing ( c f . . Ma r t i 1 978 ; B e rnabeu e ia l . 1 988 ) . A l though c o rdon s , z i gzag s , o rd ownwa rd ly p o in t ing t r i ang le s , f i l led i n w i th d o t s o r h achu r ing , a r e s een o n p o t t e ry f r om S .E . S pan ish a eneo l i th ic a nd e a r ly b ronze a ge s i te so fC -14 4 000 3 000 BP ,e spec ia l ly i nn o r the rn A lme r ia : e . g . E l Of ic io ( S ire t&S i re t 1 887 : 1 9 1 ,p 1 . 6 2 , -

n o . 7 8 ) ,F uen te A lamo ( i b id . : 2 03 ,P l . 6 5 ,n o s . 19 a nd 1 22 ) ,L uga r ico V ie jo ( i b id . : 7 7 ,p 1 . 1 6 ,p ) ,L a s A nchura s ( i b id . : 9 8 ,p . 1 8 ,n o . 1 5 ) C ua r t i l la s ( i b id . : 1 6 ,P l . 4 ,n o . 2 4 ) , C a lde ro d c Mo jáca r ( i b id . : 6 4 , P l . 1 2 , n o .1 ) ,e t c . , ‚

t h ey a l so o ccu rb o th i nt h ep reced ing S .E . S pan ish a ene o l i th ic a nd i n d epo s i t s w i th s uch e xc lu s ive ly S pan ish n eo l i th ic f o rm s a s s pou ted h and le s . Z igzag s a r e s ome t ime s p a in ted a tr ock s he l te r s i n S .E . S pa in d eco ra ted w i th c onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic ) mo t if s( Aco s ta 1 968 , p as s im) . A l though t h e d eco ra t ive mo t if s a r e t h e refo re n o tc h rono log ica l ly s pec if ic b y t h emse lve s , s ome i n fe r e nce sc an b e made w hen t h ey a r ec on s ide red i nt h ec on t e x to fc hang ing v e sse l s hape s a ts i te s o fd i f f e ren tp e r i o d s . L ong b efo re C -14 3 800 BP , z i gzags , d ownwa rd ly p o in t ing t r iang le s a nd s t ipp led d o t s a r e s e en o np o t te ry f r om t h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean t ot h eA t lan t ic . I nc ised z i gzag s f i l led i nw i th d o t i mp re s s ion s o ccu ro n ah o le mou th p o t f r om N aqada ( Pe t r ie 1 921 : P l . 3 9 , t ype 4 9 , D , i ) a nd o n e a r ly n eo l i th ic p o t tery a tK no s so s ( Theo c ha r is 1 973 : 1 38 ,P l . 6 9 ) . C ompa rab le o rnamen ti ss e en o ns h e rd sf r om l a te n eo l i th ic Yümük T epe ( Me r s in )a nd S ak je G euz i ( Gar s tang 1 953 : 3 5 ,f i g . 1 9 ;3 7 ,f i g . 2 0 ,n o . 3 1) , a nd Amuq ( B ra idwood & B ra idwood 1 960 : f i g . 3 3 , n o . 1 ) . I nI s rae l t h e re a r e i n c ised t r iang le s p o in t ing d ownwa rd s w h ich a r ef i l led i nw i th s t ipp led d o t so ns o c a l led Abydo s w a re ( Ben -To r 1 992 : 1 06 ,f i g . 4 .20 ,n o s . 6a nd 7 ) , w h ich i sf ound a tt h e E gyp t ian t yp e -s i te f r om t h et i me o fK ing [ ) je ri nt h e i s td yna s ty ( i . e .f r om a bou t C -14 4 300 BP ) . C ombed w a re i sa l so c ommon i n t h e L evan ta tt h is t ime ( i b id . : 1 08 ) . A tB yb lo sz i gzag sa r es een o np o t te ry ( J ide j ian 1 971 : f i g s . 4a nd 5 ) , a st h ey a r eo n Kh irbe tK e rak w a re a tR a s

w are , f o r wh ich t he re i s aC -14 d e te rm ina t ion o f 5 175±150 BP ( BM -148 ) ( Evan s 1 971 : 2 11 , f i g . 6 7 ; T rump 1 966a : 4 . 6 ) u n le s s t h e d eco ra t ive t ype w e re t o h ave o r ig ina ted i nS pa in a nd t oh ave s p read e a s twa rd s . -

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I nc ised z i gzag sf i l led i no nb o th s i de sw i th d o t so ccu ra t P a ja so la i n Mu rc ia t oge the r w i th r ed -wa sh w a re a nd c opp e ri mp lemen t s . I n A t lan t ic F rance , d ownwa rd ly p o in t ing t r iang le s f i l led i nw i th d o t s o ccu ro n aC ha s sey type b ow l f r om B r i t tany ( Ba i l loud 1 973 : 1 23 , f i g . 8 , n o . 7 ) wh ich s hou ld b e long s omewhe r eb e tween C -1 45 800 a nd 4 500 B P . N eve r the le s s , t h ei n c ised t r iang le s o fC ha ssey w a re a nd F rench l a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic p o t te ry a r e u sua l ly f i l led i n , n o t w i th s t ipp led d o t s , b u tr a the rw i th i n c ised v e r t ica l , h o r izon ta l , i nc l ined , o r c ro ss -ha tched l i ne s ( c f . O ou e s & Co s i s tan tm i 1 976 ; G u i lane & R oud i 1 976 ) , a nd s ome t ime s t r iang le s j ux tapo sed i n h ou r g l a ss m anne r a r e s im i la r ly d eco ra ted o n Cha ssey p o t s . A na logou s mo t if sa ppea rs po rad ica l ly o np o t te ry i nS .E . S pa in ; t h ey a l so o ccu rs po rad ica l ly f u r the re a s t ,w i thou t e ve r h av ing b een r e fe r red t o t h e C ha ssey c u l tu re : o n s c ra tched w a re f r om Ma l ta ( Evan s 1 959 : p 1 . 8 5 )a nd i n c i sed o np o t te ry f r om e a r ly b ronze -age Kno s so s ( Theo c ha r i s : 2 00 , P l . 7 4 ) . A s i n S pa in , s ome v e sse ls w i th d ownwa rd ly p o in t ing t r i ang le s f i l led i n w i th d o t s a p p ea r a s l a te a s c a . C -14 3 500 BP o n e a r ly b ronze -age C apo G raz iano w a re f r om t h eA eo l ian I s land s ( Be rnabö B rea 1 962 : 1 05 , f i g . 1 8 ,a ; Ho l loway 1 98 1 : 6 3 , f i g . 1 2 ) a nd o n t h e e ven l a te r M i lazzo w a re ( Be rnabö B rea 1 962 : p 1 . 5 0 ) .

I n t h e L evan t , Kh irbe t K e rak ( =B e th Y a reh ) w a re s ome t ime s h a s h e r r ing -bone d eco ra t ion , a l though i to c c u r s e a r l ie r s t i l l o n p o t tery f r om t h e N aha l M ishma r " Cave o f t h e T rea su re" ( Ba r -Adon 1 980 : 1 4 .6 , f i g . 1 5 , n o s . 1t o7 ) , wh ich , a l though b u r ied w rapped i n am a t w h ich p rov ided d i rec td e te rm ina t ion so fc a . C -1 44 800 4 750 BP ( i b id . : 1 99 ) ,m igh te ven b e2 00 -300 y ea r s o l d e ri fc ompa r ison s w i th C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s f r om o t he r s i te sa r ev a l id ( c f. i b id . : 1 99 ;c f .Gonen 1 992 ) . E ven i ft h e d i rec t d e te rm ina t ion s o n t h e ma t c one -

1 27

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s pond t o t h e t ime w hen t h e e nc losed a r t if ac t s w e re made , t h ey p recede b y 5 00 C -14 " yea r s" n o to n ly e a r ly

D una s d c l a s Amo lade ra s ( C -14 4 700±70 BP , SUA 2 065 ) a nd i na bundance a tE l P rado ( C -14 4 350 -3950

b ronze a ge I lI l l ( c f. Ca l laway & We in s te in 1 977 ) t o wh ich K h i rbe tK e rak w a re i sn owaday s a s s igned ( E sse

BP ) (Wa lke r 1 981 , 1 984 , 1 985a ) . T h is s i te p rov ided many f u s ifo rm a n t le ra r t ifac t s ,p e rhap s c e ram ic s moo th -

1 984 ) b u ta l so e a r ly b ronze a ge l B IC b ya tl e a s t2 00 " yea r s" ( c f . Ca l laway & We in s te in 1 977 ) . S ome a l leg e d ly i n t ru s ive a spec t sa te a r ly b ronze a ge I t ime sc ou ld , p e rhap s ,j u s ta sl i ke ly d e r ived f r om t h el o ca l c oppe ra ge o ft h e L evan ta s Am iran ( 1985 ) h a s , i ndeed , p ropo sed .

i ng t oo ls ( L i l lo & Wa lke r 1 983 , 1 984 , 1 986 ) l i ke o ne f r om C ova d c l aS a r sa ( Asque r ino 1 978 : 1 46 -147 , f i g .

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T he r e levance o f t h i s f o r t h e c h rono logy o f h e r r ing -

2 4 ) . L oca l manu f ac tu re o fE lP rado p o t te ry i sd emon s t ra t e db ym ine ra logy a nd t r ace e l emen t s ( Mo l ina & Mo l ina

i nt h en ex ts ec t ion . I n S .E . S pa in i t se lf , h er r ing -bone d eco ra t ion o np o t t e ry i sk nown i nt h ea eneo l i th ic a tL o sM i l la re st omb s 1 ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 9 -20 ,p 1 . 8 ,n o . 1 9 ) ,8 ( A lma g ro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 19 -122 ,p 1 . 3 7 ,n o . 1 5 ;L e i sne r&

1 977 ; Wa lke r 1 973a , 1 982 ) . B ow ls , h o le -mou th j a r s a nd s t eep -wa l led d i she sw e re c o i led w i th in l ow , e spa r to g ra ss b a ske t mo ld s . When s moo th ing w a s n o t p er f o rmed , o r w a s i n comp le te , b a ske t ry i mp r es s ion s w e re l e f to nt h eb a se a nd w a l ls o ft h ep o t . Mo s tv e s se ls w e re n o td eco ra ted b u ts ome h ad l ug s . D epend ing o n whe th e rt h eb a ske tw a s as ha l low o rd eep b ow l ,i t sr im l e f te i -

L e isne r 1 943 : 5 3 ) a nd 7 ( A lmagro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 1 26 -32 , P l . 5 2 , n o s . 5 1 t o5 3 ) , L oma d e l B e lmon te 1

t h e r a n e ve r ted o r i nve r ted c ar ina t ion o n t h e b a se o r w a l l o f t h e v e s se l . Much l a te r , a tE l A rga r mo ld s w e re

( Le isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 5 9 ) , a nd T e r re ra V en tu ra ( Gu s i &O là r ia 1 991 : 1 69 -176 ;T opp & A r r iba s 1 965 ) . I n f luence s o n I be r ian b e l l b eake r s c ou ld i n c lude l a te n eo l i th ic z ona l d eco ra t ion w i th h achu r ing o rc ro s se s a t w e l l -known s ou the rn c aves s uch a s Hoyo d el aM ina o r C ueva Amb ro s io ( c f . ( 3 ) ) . A t Hoyo d el aM ina as ma l l , b aggy , w ide -mou thed p o t w i th s i nuou sp rof i le a nd l u g s

u sed b yp o t te r s( S i re t&S i re t 1 887 : 1 62 -164 , 1888 : 3 4 ) . C a r ina t ion i sc l o se ly l i nked t o u se o f mo ld s i n S .E .

b one mo t if s o n S pan ish a r t ifac t s w i l l b ecome a ppa ren t

( Such 1 919 : 6 ,f i g . 2 )m igh tb ec a l led " p re -be l l b eake r " i ns hape w i thou t v io la t ing l a nguage , a nd t h e s ame g oe s f o r as he l l imp re ssed v e s se l f r om C ova F o sca ( Apa r ic io

S pa in (Wa lke r 1 990a ) . Sma l l n umbe r s o f b a ske t -wa re s herd s a r e f ound a t A lme r ian a nd G ranada a eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s . T hey o ccu r i nA lme r ia a tT e r re ra V en tu ra ( C -14 4 655 -4010 BP ( 31 ) ) ( Topp & A r r iba s 1 965 : 8 1 , f i g . 7 ) , L o s M i l l a re s ( C -14 4 380 -3820 BP ( 32 ) ) ( t omb 1 : L e isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 2 1 , P l . 8 ,p a r t4 ,n o . 7 ;s e t t lemen t : A r r i b a s e ta l . 1 979 : 8 8 ; 1 983 ; R amo s M i l lán 1 982 : f i gs .

& S an V a le ro 1 988 : P l . 3 1) , a nd t h is m igh t a lmo s t b e s a id o f ab eake r w i th ap i e rced l ug f r om Ma l ta ( Evan s

4 84 -489 ) ,C ampo s (Ma r t in & C ama l ich 1 986 : f i g . 5 , d ) , A lm iza raque ( C -14 4 310 -3810 BP ( 33 ) ) ( De l ibe s e ia l .

1 971 , f i g . 3 3 , n o . 1) f r om t h e Z ebbug p ha se ( C -14 5 140±150 , 5 000±150 BP , BM -142 , -147 ) . I n V a lenc ia , b e l lb eake r s ,i n i t ia l ly i mp re ssed ( ?ca . C -1 44100 BP ? ) ‚ l a te ri n c ised ( ? c a . C -14 3 900 BP ? )a ppear a tC ova d e l e s C end re s ( Uob rega t e ia l . 1 981 ; V en tó 1 986 ) , C ova

1 986 ) a nd C e r ro d e l a s C an te ra s ( dc Mo te s 1 918 : 2 9 , f i g . 1 Ma r t inez 1 981) . T hey o ccu r i n G ranada a tE l Ma lagön ( C -14 4 515 -3870 BP ( 34 ) ) ( A r r iba s e i a l . 1 978 : F ig s . 9 , b ; 1 0 ,d ) , C e r ro d c l aV irgen ( C -14 3 920 3 735 BP ( 35 ) ( Schü le & P e l l ice r 1 966 : f i g . 1 6 , n o . 4 ) ,

d e l aR ecamb ra ( San V a le ro e ia l . 1 976 ) , E re ta d e l F e d rega l ( P IA e ia l . 1 983a ,b ) a nd e l sewhe re ( Be rnabeu

C ueva d c l aC a r ihue la ( TL 4 320±400 BP , TB -4 ) ( Fo r t e a 1 971 : 7 4 ) ,L o sC as t i l le jo s d e Mon tef r Io b efo re C -14

1 984 ;H ar r i son 1 974 , 1 977 ) . A tC ova d cl aS a r sa c ombed a nd s c ra tched w a re ( San V a le ro 1 950 ; A sque r ino 1 978 ) a r e l a te r n eo l i th ic , b u t o ne e a r ly s he rd s how s e x te rna l c a rd ia l i mp re ss ion s a nd i n te rna l c omb ing . C ombed s he rd s c ome f r om C ova d e

3 840±50 BP ( G rN -7282 ) ( Ar r iba s & Mo l ina 1 978 : 9 0 ) , a nd p e rhap s a tm ega l i th ic t omb Hoya d e l C onqu i l 4 8

l 'O r a nd o the r s i te s i n A l ican te a nd V a lenc ia ( Ma r t i 1 980b : 1 51-152 ) a nd R amb la d e L ib r i l la ( C -14 5 610 4 500 BP ( 30 ) ) a nd D ima s d e l a s Amo ladera s ( C -14 4 700±70 BP , SUA -2065 )i n Murc ia . Ab a ske t imp re ssed s he rd o ccur red a tC ova d c l 'O r ( Ma r t i 1 977 : 9 3 , f i g . 8 ,n o . 2 )a nd p o ss ib ly a tC ova d e l

( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 02 , P l . 3 8 , p a r t 6 ,n o s . 7t o 1 0 ) , C ueva d e l C ap i tán d e L ob res ( Nava r re te 1 976 : 4 31) a nd C ueva d e l o s Mu rc ié lago s a t A lbuf lo l ( Góngo ra 1 868 ) .O the rp o s s ib le e xamp le se x is ti nS pa in (Wa lke r 1 990a ) . T rue b a ske t w a re , w i th i mp re ss ion s o nw a l l s a sw e l l a s b a se , i su nknown i n t h e E a s t Med i te r ranean ( i b id . ) a pa r tf r om af ew s c arce s he rd s a tl a te n eo l i th ic E r im i i n

C on i l ( Mu seo d c C ocen ta ina ) , b u tb a ske t w a re i sr ea l ly

C yp ru s ( D ika io s 1 939 : 3 8 , P l . 2 8 , n o . 9 ; P e l tenbu rg 1 980 : 6 ) . T he E r im i c u l tu re h a s C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s

t h e h a l lma rk o f Mu rc ia a nd e a s tern Anda lu s ia ( Wa lke r 1 990a ) : i n Mu rc ia i to ccu r sa tC ampo d e l A lfa re ro ( Ay -

s pann ing C -14 4 8 15 -4650 BP a t My lou thk ia ( Pe l ten b u rg 1 979 ) a nd C -14 4 620 -4470 BP f o r al a te p ha se a t

a l a 1 977 ) , R amb la d c L ib r i l la ( C -14 5 610 -4500 BP ) ,

E r im ii t se lf ( i b id . ;D ika io s &S t ewar t 1 962 : 1 98 ) . M igh t

1 28

M ICHAEL J . WALKER a nd MIGUEL SAN N ICOLAS DEL TORO

t h e se f ew s he rds b e i mpo r t s f r om S .E . S pa in? S ome b one f i gur ine s f r om E r im i a r e s t r ik ing ly s im i la rt oS .E . S pan i sh o ne s . I ti sa l so p o ss ib le t h a tt h e " no tched l i nes " o ns h e rd s f r om t h e Ma l te se G ha rD a lam n eo l i th ic c ou ld b e b a ske t ry i mp re ss ion s ( Evan s 1 971 : 2 08 , P l . 6 3 , n o . 6 ) . J u s t a s b e l l b eake r s a bound a tC e r ro d el aV irgen i n G ranada o r P romon to r io d e l A igua Do lça iS a lada i n A l ican te ( Ramo s F ernández 1 98 1 , 1 983 , 1 986 ) , b u tn o t a to the r s e t t lemen t s , s o , t oo , b a ske t w a re s t and s o u t a t E l P rado . No s t ra t ig raph ica l c hange s i n c e ram ic s a r e s e en a tE l P rado , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e C e r ro d e l aV irgen s equence f r om a eneo l i th ic b ow l s w i th e ve r ted c ham f e red r im s a nd c a r ina ted b ow l so rj a r s ,o f ten h i gh ly p o l i s hed , t h rough t oA rga r ic w a re ( by C -14 3 735 BP ) , b e f o re w h ich m ar i t ime b e l l b eake r s a nd b ow l s w i th z ona l i n c i sed g eome t r ica l p a t te rn s b ecame i mpor tan t ( ca . C 1 43 900 BP ) a nd ,s l igh t ly l a te ro n ,e xc i sed p a t te rn sa l so ( Schä le & P e l l ice r 1 966 ) . B o th b a ske t w a re a nd b e l l -beake rw a re a r e o n ly m i n o r a c to r s o n t h e S .E . S pan ish a eneo l i th ic c e ram ic s t age . Howeve r , t h ey d raw a t t en t ion t oi t s v ar ied r epe r t o ire . I ti ss u re ly s i gn if ican t t h a t b eake r type o rnamen t a ppea r s o n aw ide r ange o ff o r ms , r ang ing f r om s imp le b ow ls , d i she s , p la t te r s a nd s oup p l a te s , t o p o lypod b ow l s ( a l though n o to nh o le -mou th j a r s ) . M ino rr o le s ,h oweve r ,h igh l igh tc on t ra s t s w h ich may h e lp u st os e e mo re c l ea r ly t h er O le so ft h e ma jo ra c to r s , a nd t h e h igh l igh t s a nd s hadows o f t h e ir mo re c omp lex p ar t s . T he m ino ra c to r s u nde r l ine t h ree p ecu l ia r i t ie s o f S .E . S pa in : ( a )a b sence o ft h en o r the rn b e l l -beake rp ackage , ( b ) ma rked a eneo l i th ic d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween s e t t le m en t s w i th in S .E . S pa in s ome o f wh ich , l i ke E l P ra d o , h ave n o t r ace w ha teve ro fa ny ,s uppo sed ly " e a s te rn -

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S pan i sh b e l l -beake rh o r izon " a nd ( c ) c ommon d ome s t ic p o t te ry a ts e t t lemen t s o f fe r s f ew o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r l i nk ing h igh ly s pec if ic c e ram ic -

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h o r izon s t oe ven n ea rby b u r ia l a s semb lage s ,w h ich may c on ta in u nu sua lp i ece s i l rep re sen ted a ts e t t lemen t s . C e ram ic d i ve r s i ty a nd h e te rogene i ty c omp l ica te a t t emp t s t od raw u ps equence so ru se c e ram ic t y pe -fo ss i l s a s c h rono log ica l ma rke r s . T he p rob lem i sp a r t icu la r ly a cu te a sr ega rd sp o t t e ry a tp l ace so f mu l t ip le b ur ia l ,e s p ec ia l ly v au l t sl a ck ing s t ra t ig raph ica ld i f f e ren t ia t ion b e t ween d i f fe ren t e p isode s o fb u r ia ls . I ti sn o t h e lped b y f i e ld m e thodo logy wh ich a vo id s i n ve s t iga t ing ap o ss i b i l i ty t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e d i f fe ren t p ha se s o fc on s t ruc t i on a ta ny g i ven mega l i th ic t omb . C onsequen t ly , c ompa r ison s mu s t b e made b e tween

o f fe r ing s . When c on t ra s t s c an b e d rawn , a na log ie s m ay b e s ough t w i th s e t t lemen t a s semb lage s w i th in t h e r e g ion , a l though t h a t i sb y n o mean s e a sy . C ompar ison w i th i t em s f r om f u r the r a f ie ld c anno t b e a vo ided b u t t e nd s t ob e aw i ld g oo se c ha se wh ich r a ise s a s many p rob lem sa sa r es o lved . N eo l i th ic p o t tery w a s p re sen t a tb u r ia ls n o t o n ly a t C ova d e l Mo ro a nd C ova Empa re tá ( s ee a bove ) , b u t a l so a tC ova d e l 'A lmud i nV a lenc ia ( c ard ia l a nd r ed w a sh w a re s : J uan -Caban i l le s & C a rdona 1 986 ) , t o wh ich may p e rhap s b ea dded t h e n on -fune ra ry c ache i n a ja r w i th z ona l h achu red i n c i s ion s f r om C ueva d c l o s T oyo si n Mu rc ia ( S i re t&S i re t 1 887 : 1 7 -18 ) . Ac a rd ia l imp re s sed t w in c up f r om S a r sa ( San V a le r o 1 950 : P l . 1 4 ) , a nd a no the r f r om C ova d e YO r ( P 1á 1 961) ,m ay b ee a r ly , w he rea s a nu ndeco ra ted o ne f r om C ueva 1d el o sB lanqu iza re sd cL ébo ri sp robab ly a ene o l i th ic ( Ar r iba s 1 953 ) , a nd o ne f r om C abezo R edondo ( So le r 1 952 , 1 987 ) i se ar ly b ronze -age . Tw in c up s a r e s imp ly n o tc h rono log ica l ly i nd ica to r s . T h is i st r ue e l se w he r e i nt h e Med i te r ranean : i nE gyp t t h ey o ccu r f r om t h eB ada r ian , w he rea s h igh ly d eco ra ted Ma l te se e xam p l e s o ccu r much l a te r i n t h e T a rx ien p ha se ( Evan s 1 971 : 1 59 , P l . 5 5 , n o . 2 ,i t em TC /P 9 1 , a nd n o . 2 ,i t em TC /P .99 ) . Ho le -mou th p o t s , c ommon i nt h e S .E . S pan i sh a ene o l i th ic ,o ccu rw ide ly f r om E gyp t ,C yp ru s ,T roy ,T he rm i a nd Ma l ta f r om p r e -dyna s t ic t ime s t ot h el a te t h ird m i l l e nn ium B .C . a nd a r eu nhe lp fu l a sc h rono log ica l m a rk e r s . A egean s auce b oa t s , f r u i t s t and s , f r y ing p an s , c oa l s cu t t le shaped p o t s ( f ound a l so i nt h e Ma l ta T a rx ien c e me tery p ha se ) , l o ng -necked j ug s o r s t i r rup j ugs a r e u n k nown i nS .E . S pa in a pa r tp e rhap s f r om ac oa l s cu t -

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t l e -shaped p o tf r om C e r ro d cl aC ampana i n Murc ia ( C 1 43 320 -3300 BP ) w he re ah o rned a l ta r , s im i la r t oo ne f r om A rga r ic E lO f i nA lme r ia ,h a s Ana to l ian a na lo g i e s . C ompa r ison s o f A rgar ic p o t te ry a nd b u r ia l c us t oms t ot h o se o fA na to l ia ( Schuba r t 1 976 )a r e ,h oweve r , o pen t or e ady c r i t ic ism ( Wa lke r 1 985c , 1 986a ) . E qua l ly s ca rce a r e s t one a r t ifac t t ype s wh ich a r e c ommon i n t h e e a s te rn Med i ter ranean ; o r t h e w e s te rn Med i te r ranean ,f o rt h a t ma t te r , whe re aw e l l recogn ized n eo l i th ic o b s id ian n e two rk d oe sn o ti n c lude S pa in ( Po l lm ann 1 993 ) . I n S .E . S pa in t h e re i so n ly o ne i r anche t a xe -shap ed f l in ta r rowpo in to ft h e k i nd w h ich r e p lace s p r e -dyna s t ic h o l low -ba se a r rowpo in t s i ne a r ly d yna s t ic E gyp t ( 37 ) . B y c on t ra s t , h o l low -ba se a r rowpo in t s a r e c ommon i n S .E . S pa in u n t i l l a te a eneo l i th ic a nd e a r ly b ronze -age

c o l lec t ion s f r om b u r ia l s i te s w h ich i n many c a se s a r e

t ime s ,a nd ,a si nE gyp t ,t h ey h ave p o in ted b a rb s . A tL o s M i l la r e s t omb 4 0h o l low -ba se f o rm s r ep re sen ted 7 1 o u t

p robab ly o u tcome s o f s ucce s s ive e p isode s o f f unera ry

o f8 5f l in ta r rowpo in t sf ound .

1 29

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

N eve r the le ss , t h e ir p re sence n eed n o ti mp ly g rea ta n t i qu i ty , g i ven t h a t h o l low -ba se p o in t s w i th s ha rp b a rb s l i nge red o ni nt h ee a s te rn a nd c en t ra l Med i te r ranean a f t e rt h ey h ad g one o u to ff a sh ion i nE gyp t .T hey o ccu ra t T roy V ( B iegen 1 963 : P l . 3 6 ) , a nd i n t h e S ic i l ian S an tippo l i to d e C a l tag irone ( Ber sag i io ) c omp lex ( Be r n abô B rea 1 954 : 2 5 ,f i g . 8 )t hough t ( i b id . ) t od a te f r om M idd le M inoan It ime s ( i .e . c a . C -14 4 000 -3800 BP : Wa r ren 1 975 ) . S l igh t ly d i f fe ren t , w i th n oI b e r ian p a ra l l e l s , a r e h o l low -ba se f o rm s w i th c hamf e red b arb s f r om Ma l ta ( Evan s 1 971 : P l . 6 8 ,n o s . 4t o7 ,i t em sK I /S1 , TC I S 6 ,G /S4 a nd G IS5 ) . T yp ica l c re scen t ic E gyp t ian m e ta l a xehead s a r e n o t f ound , a l though t h ey d oub t le ss i n sp ired L o s M i l la re s b one o r i vory f l a t s em ic i rcu la r p i ece s w i th n ume rou s h o le s a l ong t h e s t ra igh tb ack f r om t omb s 5a nd 7( Le is n e r & L e isne r 1 943 :

P l .

1 6 , p a r t 1 ,n o . 7 2 a nd

P l .

1 2 ,

p a r t 1 ,n o .4 5 ) . P e rhap s o f p re -dyna s t ic i n sp ira t ion ( cf . " p run ing k n ife" , P e t r ie 1 939 : 3 2 ,3 7 , P l . 1 6 , n o . 2 2 ) a r e u ndeco r a ted , f l a t , h ook shaped k n ive s o f f l aked s ch is t f r om c hambe red t omb s L o s M i l la re s 1 6 a nd 1 7 , a nd E l P o z ue lo 3 ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : 2 26 ; L e isne r &L e is n c r 1 943 : p 1 . 1 9p a r t 1n o . 1 ) . S omewha td i f fe ren ta r e o rna te ly d eco ra ted h ook -shaped c roz ie r s , ma in ly o f s l a te , f r om 2 1 P o r tuguese s i te s ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 97 3a : 2 28 -233 ) ,f o r wh ich ,h oweve r , ab ronze -age d a te h a s b een p ropo sed b ecau se t h e ir d eco ra t ion r e ca l ls t h a t o fA t lan t ic l u nu lae ( i b id . ) . An E gyp t ian type h oe o rm a t tock c ome sf r om T e r re r a V en tu ra ( A lmagro -Go rbea 1 973a : 2 59 ) a nd o the r s o ccur i n P o r tuga l . I n s ho r t , E a s t Med i te r ranean s t one a nd me ta lt oo l s made s can ti mpac to nS .E . S pa in . I ti su nhe lp fu l t oi n voke c o s t re lj a r s f r om N aqada a s p ro to type s f o r S. E . S pan ish p o in ted -ba se p o t te ry f r om C ova d e lOr ( C -14 6 720 -5980 BP ( 20 ) ) ( L lob rega t 1 973 ; Ma r t i 1 977 : p 1 . 1 4 ) , C ueva d c l o s Murc ié lago s n ea r Z uhe ro s i n C ó rdoba ( C -1 4 6 295 -5930 BP ( 38 ) ) ( V icen t & Muf loz 1 973 : 6 2 , f i g . 2 6 ) , C ueva d c N er ja ( C -14 7 960 -4810 BP ( 39 ) ) ( Pe l l ice r 1 962 : 3 6 ; P e l l ice r

B a se s w i th n ave l s a r e mo s t u ncommon i nS .E . S pa in a nd m ay h in ta to ve r sea s i n sp ira t ion . Whe the r t h ey a r e c h rono log ica lm a rke r si s ,h oweve r ,o pen t oq ue s t ion b e c au se o f af unc t iona l r o le o f b a sa l d imp le s i nh e lp ing o the rw ise r ound -ba sed v e s se ls t os t and u p r igh t . N ave l b a se s h ave n o th ing t od o w i th a l leged ly m e ta l p ro to t y pe s f o rc e ram ic v e sse l s a no p in ion b o rn o u to fc on -

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f u s ing t h em e ta l l ic r i ng g iven o u to nt a pp ing h and -made " me ta l l ic" K h irbe t K e rak p o t s w i th a t t r ibu t ing t h e i r s hape s t o me ta l p ro to type s s ome o f wh ich f r om K h i r b e tK e rak i t se lf a r e m e re ly h o le -mou th v e sse ls s im i la r t ot ho se f ound f r om E gyp tt ot h e A egean , i n Ma l ta a nd -

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i na eneo l i th ic S .E . S pa in a bou tt h i st ime . P e rhap s E a s t a nd C en t ra l Med i te r ranean i nf luence s o n b eake r typ e i n c ised o rnamen t o n S pan ish b ow ls s hou ld n o tb ew ho l ly e xc luded e i the r ,g iven p r e sence o f e a r ly b ronze -age b ow l s p erhap s w i th a na logou s d eco ra t i on f r om C yp r io t V ounou s ( S tewar t & S t ewa r t 1 950 : P l . 7 2 ) a nd o n Ma l ta f o l low ing t h e T a rx ien c eme te ry p ha se ( Evan s 1 971 : f i g . 1 ,n o . 1 ) . I tw a s r ema rked e a r l ie r t h a tI t a l ian n eo l i th ic c e ram ic s hape s a r es c a rce i nS .E . S pa in a nd e ven s c arce ri sI t a l i a n n eo l i th ic p a in ted w a re ( s ee b e low ) , wh i le F rench C ha ssey p an -p ip e l ug s a r e a b sen t a l toge the r , l i kew ise f l o r id I t a l ian t u bu la rl u gs . S .E . S pan ish n eo l i th ic s pou t s a nd s pou ted h and le sa r e , b yc on t ra s t , c ha rac te r i s t ic . D e s p i te p re sence o f s t rap h and le s a nd a bundan t c o rdon a pp l ied d eco ra t ion f r om t h e e a r ly n eo l i th ic o nward s , S .E . S pan ish p o tl ug s a r e s imp le e ven when p i e rced a nd c hange l i t t le f r om t h en eo l i th ic t ot h ee ar ly b ronze a ge . S ome t ime s t h ey o ccu ri nh o r izon ta l o r v e r t ica l p a ir s o r t r ip le t s , o cca s iona l ly p ie rced . P a ired b u t terf ly l ug s s ome t ime so ccu r . Upwa rd ly p o in t ing h o rn l ike l ug s o ccu ra ta eneo l i th i cs i te s s uch a s E l P rado , T re s C abezo s ( S ire t &S i re t 1 887 , v o l . 2 :P l . 3 ,n o s . 3 3 a nd 3 4 ) o rP a razue lo s ( C -14 4 350±80 BP , HAR521) ( i b id . : P l . 6 ,n o s . 9t o 1 ) i n Mu rc ia , o r T e r re ra V en tu ra i n A lme r ia , a s w e l l a s a t e a r ly b ronze -age C abezo R edondo i n A l ican te . No -

& A co s ta 1 986 ) , E l G á rce l ( 40 ) ( S ire t 1 893) , a nd a

w he re a r e t h ey c h rono log ica l o rc u l tu ra l m a rke r s ,g i ven t h a t t h ey o ccu r f r om t h e C ha ssey c u ltu re i nB u rgundy

p o in ted -ba se h and led c up f r om C abezo R edondo ( C -1 4 3 565±55 ,3 300±55 BP , H -2277 /1964 , G rN -5109 ) ( So l e r 1 952 ) . Once mo re , i tl ook s a s i fp o in ted -ba se j a r s

( Théveno t&C a r ré 1 976 ) t oT roy I V ( B legen 1 963 ,p 1 . 3 2 ) . S .E . S pan ish a eneo l i th ic s i te s s ome t ime s h ave c e r am ic o r b aked c l ay c r e scen t s a nd h o rns , s ome t ime s

may s po rad ica l ly o ccu ro ve r al ong s pan o ft ime .

p i e rced . Up s ide -down U -shaped l ug s o ccu r a tS .E . S pan ish

T he E a s t Med i te r ranean h a s o mpho io s -o rn ave l -ba se p o t tery ( i n h and -made K h i rbe tK e rak w a re , e t c . ) . S ome S .E . S pan ish v e sse ls a r e n ave l -ba sed , n o t o n ly s ome b e l l b eake r sa nd b ow ls w i th b eake r type d eco ra t ion ,b u t

s i te s a sd i ve r se a sC ueva d cl o s Mu rc id lago sa tA lbuho l i nG ranada a nd E l G á rce l i nA lmer ia . T hey a r e k nown

a l so ,i nA lmer ia , ab aggy b ow lw i th 3i n c i sed h o r izon ta l

f r om n eo l i th ic S a l iago s ( Evan s & R enf rew 1 968 : f i g . 4 7 ,n o . 2 )a nd ,l a te ro n ,a r e af e a tu re o fT roy I V ( B iegen

l i ne s ( Loma d c l aA ta laya 6p a ssage g rave ) a nd as im -

e ta l . , 1 951 ,v o l . 1 ,2 : p 1 . 1 70 ,n o . 1 6 ) .

p l ep l a in b ow l ( Loma d cl a Ma laya 3r ound g r ave ) .

P u t b lun t ly , b e tween C -14 5 800 a nd 3 800 BP i ti s

1 30

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

v ery h ad t oi d en t ify s ou thea s te rn c e ram ic t y pe s wh ich o ccu re xc lu s ive ly w i th in p e r iod s o fj u s t af ew c en tu r ie s , p redom ina te a tm any s i te s ,a nd s how c on s is ten tp a t te rn s o f e vo lu t ion o r c hange . T h is d i f f icu l ty h ampe r s a t t emp t s t os ubd iv ide f une ra ry a s semb lage s c h rono log i c a l ly , a nd t o a na lyze c hange s i nf une ra ry c u s toms i n t ime a nd s pace . S . E . S PAN ISH MEGAL ITH IC (E v IE l TER IES , E € I v I0GRAF 11Y , AND S f lEJORMAT ION PRO CESSES B y c on s ider ing b u r ia l i n c ave s b e fo re b u r ia l i nc ham b ered t omb s , i th a s b een p o s s ib le t oa s se ss c h rono log i c a l a spec t s mo re e a s i ly t h an c on s ide ra t ion o f c ham b ered t omb s p erm i t s o n i t s o wn . S t re ss h a s b een p u to n c on t inu i ty ,p a r t icu la r ly i nc e ram ic s ,f r om t h ee a r ly n eo l i th ic t ot h e e a r ly b ronze a ge , a nd o nu se o fc ave s b o th f o rb u r ia la nd d ome s t ic p u rpo se so ve rt h a tt ime s pan . T h is h igh l igh t s t wo i mpo r tan t m a t te r s . O ne i st h a t o pen s e t t lemen t s a ppea r l a te i nt h e S pan ish n eo l i th ic : a l te rC -14 5 500 BP . Ano the ri st h a ta r t i f ic ia l mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s a nd t omb s c an b e d i sp laced f r om t h e c en t re o fa r chaeo log ica l a t ten t ion o nt h er e g ion w i thou tu p se t t i ng c he r ished v i ew s o n s po rad ica l l ong -d is tance c on t a c t s , b ecau se c ave b ur ia ls s how t h em j u s t a s much o r j u s ta sl i t t le . A l though c ave b u r ia ls o ccu r t h roughou t S .E . S pa in , mo s t a r e i n Mu rc ia , A l ican te a nd V a lenc ia , w he rea s mo s t c hambe red t omb s a r e i n A lmer ia , G ranada a nd Mu rc ia ; g eog raph ica l c omp lemen ta r i ty i si n comp le te b ecau se Mu rc ia h a s s eve ra l e xamp le so fb o th k i nds . A l r e ady m en t ioned w e re Mu rc ian c hambe red t omb sa tC a b ezo d e l P lomo , E l C ap i tán , C e r ro d e l a s V Ibo ra s , L oma d el o sP e reg r ino s , t h eC af iada d e l A lba c a i rn sa nd t h e a r t if ic ia l ly e x tended Mu rv ied ro s t ruc tu re ( 10 ) . A c hambe red t omb w i th a ne n t rance l i e sb e s ide t h e a eneo l i th ic C e r ro d cl a sV ibo ra s s e t t lemen ta tB ag i l( San N ic o l á s & Ma r t inez 1 979 -1980 ) . I tc on ta ined s ke le ton s a nd t r ace s o fb u rn ing ( Wa lke r 1 973a ; I d áf i ez 1 986 ) . 5mo re s uch t omb s h ave n ow b een f ound ( J .J . E iroa , p e r s . c omm . ) . Mu rc ian c hambe red t omb s w e re r epo r ted f r om R am b l ad e l o s R u ice s ,P i ed ra s d c V e rga ra a nd L oma d e l o s P a le tone s ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 8 1-82 ) , C ar rac laca (M .S .N .T . , n .d .) a nd t h e l owe r s l ope s o f S i e r ra d e E spuña ( i b id . ) . T he re w a s a l so s a id t ob e a" do lmen" a t C er ro d e l Mo jón ( J iménez d c C isne ro s 1 925 ) . T umu l i f r om A lbace te a nd V a lenc ia h ave a l ready b een m en t i oned . S ome A lme r ian " mega l i th ic" c eme te r ie s e mb race a d i ve r s i ty o fb u r ia lp ackag ing . L o s M i l la re sh a s ,i na dd i t i on t o mega l i th ic p a ssage g rave s , o ne o r t wo r ound

g rave s , n on -mega l i th ic d ry s t one w a l led t omb s , t wo c i s t s , a nd a tl e a s t o ne c ave b u r ia l w i th 1 00 p o t s ( g rave 6 6 : L e isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 5 4 ) , wh i le t omb 3 3 h a s v a r ious ly b een c a l led r ound g rave ( i b id . : 5 3 ) o r c ave ( An iba s 1 960 ) , a nd t omb 1 0 w a s ap ar t ly u nde rg round p a s sage g r ave . M i l la ran a s semb lage s ( a nd o the r A lmer ian o ne s , s e e a bove ) s how a l ow p ropo r t ion o f p o t s t o d ecea sed , wh ich i sa bou t 1 : 1 a nd r a re ly a t ta in s 2 : 1 ( 4 1) . 7 5 L o s M i l la re s t omb sr eco rded b y t h eL e isne r sc on ta ined a l to g e the r a bou t 9 00 s ke le ton s ( r ang ing f r om 0 t o 1 00 p e r t omb ) a nd a bou t 9 00 p o t s ( r ang ing f r om 0 t o 1 26 p e r t omb ) . (We re c hamb er s w i th many g rave g ood sa nd n o h uman r ema in sn o tt omb sb u tr epo s i to r ie sf o rc e remon i a l o f fer ing s? ) A t A lme r ian t omb s n ea r N I ja r a nd Mo jáca r , i n c lud ing s ome w i th o ve r 1 00 s ke le ton s , t h e p ropo r t ion o f v e sse ls t o d ecea sed f a i l s t o r e ach 1 : 1 . L ow p ropo r t ion sc harac te r ize t h eb e t te rp r e se rved o ft h e -

G ranada c hambered t omb s ( c f . G a rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 ) . E ven p re sum ing L o sM i l la re s t omb s h e ld 2 0i nd iv id u a l s o n a ve rage , o r t h a t o n a ve rage t h ey c on ta ined l e s s t h an o ne v e sse l p e r t wo d ecea sed , i t s 7 5 t omb s r ep re s en t 1 , 500 -1 ,800 i nd iv idua l s . E ven i fL o s M i l la re s w a s i n hab i ted f o rn ol onge rt h an 6 00 y ea r s( C -14 4 380±100 , 4 295±85 ,4150±40 ,4 110±110 ,3820±40 BP , KN72 ,H 2 04 /207 , BM -2343 , -2344 , -2345 ) , a nd a low ing t h a tf ew c h i ld ren ' s r ema in s s u rv ived , a n a nnua l d ea th r a te o f t h ree i nd iv idua ls , a ged 1 0 o r o ve r , i sa n u n imp re ss ive d emog raph ica l s t a t is t ic . T he n ine teen th -cen tu ry r u ra l S pan ish d ea th r a te o f3 -4 /100 , o r al i ke ly h ighe r o ne o f 5 -6 /100 ,m ean s t h e L o s M i l la r c s p opu la t ion w a s b e low 1 50 men , w omen a nd c h i ld ren ( af i gu re s im i la r t ot h a t f o rE lA rga r : K un te r 1 990 )( 42 ) . I t s p opu la t ion s h r ink s f u r the r i fL o s M i l lare s t omb s w e r eu sed f o r 1 , 000 y ear so r mo re . S ub s tan t ive a r chaeo l og ica l e v idence i mp l ie s t h ey w e re . Two i t em s f r om L o sM i l la re s mu s ta n teda t eC -1 44 500 BP : ( a ) as t umpy -w inged i vo ry c omb ( t omb 1 2 )a nd ( b ) ah o le -mou th p o t p a in ted w i th b a sa l " f lames" ( t omb 4 0 ) . T he c omb i ss a id t oh ave b een made i nt wo v e r t ica l l y jo ined h a lve s ( S ue t 1 9 13 : 3 3 -34 ) a nd a n E gyp t ian p a ra l le l w a s p ropo sed ( i b id . : 3 4 , f i g . 6 ,n o . 1 0 ) . T he S pan ish c omb h a s s hor t t e e th a nd ab ody l onge r t h an i t i sw ide . I nb o th r e spec t s i tr e semb le s mo re p re -dyna s t ic E gyp t ian c omb s t h an e a r ly d yna s t ic a nd l a te rf o rm s ( c f . P e t r ie 1 920 : p l a te s 2 9a nd 3 0 ) . I t mu s t b e b o rne i nm ind t h a t i nE gyp t c ombs w en t o u t o f f a sh ion b e tween t h e 1 0 th a nd 1 8 th d yna s t ie s , w hen s ca lp s w ere s haven a nd w ig s w o rn . O the r l a te p re -dyna s t ic a nd v ery e a r ly d yna s t ic c ombs a r e s qua t

1 31

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a nd b road , w i th e i the r s em ic i rcu la ro r r e c tangu la rb od -

K e rak w a re ( ca . C -14 4 250 -4000 BP ) , b u t a l so l a te

i e s , wh ich a r e w ide r t h an t h ey a r e l ong . S em ic ircu la r h eaded c ombs c ome f r om t h e A l ican te C ueva d e l Mon te d e l aB a r se l la ( Be lda 1 929 , 1 93 1 )a nd f r om L o s M i l la re s t omb s 4 0 a nd 7 4 ( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : P l . 9 ,p a r t 1 .n o . 2 3 ,a nd P l . 1 0 ,p a r t2 ,n o . 8 ) . M idd le K ing d om c omb s h ave w ide , s qua t r e c tangu la rb od ie s c a r ry -

c ha lco l i th ic -ea r ly b ronze a ge Ip o t tery o f a tl e a s t C -14 4 800 -4750 BP a nd p e rhap s a se a r ly a sC -14 5 400 -5200 BP ( s e e a bove ) . H e r r ing -bone d eco ra t ion i sf ound o n p o t tery a tL o s M i l la re s t omb s I( Le isne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 1 9 -20 , p 1 . 8 ,n o . 1 0 ) ,I V ( =8 )a nd V I I ( =7 ) ( A l mag ro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 19 -122 , p 1 . 3 7 , n o . 1 5 ; 1 26 -

i ng t wo r ows o ft e e th , o ne o ne ach s i de , r a the r t h an e l o nga ted ,n ar row b od ie sw i th as i ng le r ow . W inged i vo ry c omb s c ome f r om p re -dyna s t ic E gyp t . T hey h ave s i ng le s t umpy w ing s o n e ach s i de o f t h e b ody i n t h e B adar ian ( Brun ton & C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : P l . 2 4 . n o . 1 8 . i t em 5 130 ; L y thgoe 1 965 : f i g . 3 5 ,g ;P e t r ie 1 920 : 2 9 ,p 1 . 2 9n o s . 1 t o 1 3 ; 1 921 : P l . 2 1 . n o s . 1 -14 ; 1 939 : 1 , P l . 2 ,n o . 1 , i t em 5 130 ) , b ecom i ng l onge r a nd e nd ing i nb i rd ' s h ead s i nt h e Am ra t ian a nd i n s t and ing a n ima ls b y G er zean t ime s ( c f .Pe tne 1 920 : p l a te s 2 9a nd 3 0 ,p a ss im ) . ( A s ho r t -bod ied c omb w i th l o nge rt e e th i nt h e R o s ic ruc ian E gyp t ian Mu seum , r eg is te red t h e re a s b e ing f r om t h e 1 8 th d yna s ty b u t o f u nknown p rovenance , i su t te r ly d i f fe ren t ,p ace L e isne r 1 965 , 1 , 3 : 2 27 . Ap ho tograph , k ind ly s en t t ou s b y t h e Mu seum ' s R eg i s t ra r , s hows n e i the rw ing s n o rs ymme t r i ca l ly p l aced p ro tube rance s t y p ica lo fa n ima l f e e t t h e p ro tube rance s l ook mo re l i ke r emnan t s o f t h e s e cond , -

-

o ppo s i te ,r ow o ft e e th c ha rac te r i s t ic o fM idd le K ingdon c omb s . ) T he t omb 1 2c omb h a s 2s t umpy w ing s o n e ach s i de o fi t s b ody w h ich r i se u p a nd c urve o u twa rd s l i ke u p s i de -down J ' 5 o rh ockey -sl ick s . T hey s eem t oh ave e nd e d n e i the r i n b i rd ' s h ead s n o r a n ima ls . I ti st h e re fo re l i ke ly t ob e v ery much e a r l ie rt h an t h eo n se to ft h ef i r s t d yna s ty w h ich b egan a round C -14 4 400 BP ( cf .Ha s san 1 980 ) . I fi tw e re t ob ec on tempo raneou sw i th t h eB ada r i a n ac h rono log ica l a t t r ibu t ion o fC -1 4> 5000 BP w ou ld b e manda to ry . I t s b ody b ea r s a n i n c ised h er r ing -bone d e s ign . T he b od ie s o f mo s t p r e - a nd e a r ly d yna s t ic E gyp t ian c omb s s how v e ry l i t t le d eco ra t ion o rn one a ta l l , t h o se o fM id d l e K ingdom c omb s o f ten h ave d o t in -c irc le mo t if s . Howeve r , o ne e longa ted a rcha ic E gyp t ian wooden

1 32 ,

P l .

5 2 , n o s . 5 1 t o5 3 ) , a nd L oma d e l B e lmon te I

( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 5 9 ) . I ti sa l so s e en a tT e r re ra V en tu ra ( Gu s i &O là r ia 1 991 : 1 69 -176 ;T opp & A r r iba s 1 965 ) . T he h e r r ing -bone d eco ra t ion o f t h e w inged c omb i s p rec ise ly a r ranged i ns eve ra l h o r izon ta l p ane ls s im i la r t ot ho se f i l led w i th c hevron d eco ra t ion o n a ni vo ry s an d a l s o le f r om A lm iza raque ( do P aco 1 971 ; S i re t 1 907 : P l . 6 ) . T he re a r e n o g ood w e s te rn I ber ian p a ra l le l s f o r e i the r . A s w i th S imbo lke ram ik , t h ey may r ef lec t S .E . S pan ish d eco ra t ive t r ad i t ion s ,a l though i t na l lev ia ted ,e x c l u s ive ly l i nea r ,p r ec ise ,g eome t r ica l d eco ra t ion i sh a rd l yt y p ica l i nS .E . S pa in ,a pa r tp e rhap sf r om i nc ised G ip s ek eram ik ,o rt h ev e ry d i f fe ren tb e l l -beake r mo t if s . T he L o s M i l la re s 1 2 w inged i vo ry c omb n eed n o tb e i n compa t ib le w i th t h e V -pe r fo ra ted ambe r b ead f ound i nt h es ame t omb ,i fa ni vo ry s anda l w i th V -pe r fo ra t ion s ( f o ra t tachmen to fu ppe r so rt h ong s ) ,a l so f ound i nt omb 1 2 ,w e re t or a i se ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a tS pan ish V -pe r fo ra ted b onewo rk m igh ta n teda te t h o se V -pe r fo ra ted t o gg le sa s s oc ia ted w i th n o r the rn b e l lb eake r s . Wh i le o nt h e ma t te ro fc omb sa nd b e l lb eake r s , men l i on mu s t b e made o f as ma l l e l ephan t i vo ry " weav ing c omb " e xcava ted a t Ab r igo d e S on Ma tge o n Ma jo rca i n al e ve l c o r re la ted w i th o ne o fC -1 43 820±120 BP ( Y 2 359 ) a nd b enea th o ne o fC -14 3 670±100 BP ( QL -24 ) (Wa ld ren 1 979 , 1 982 : 1 69 , f i g . 7 6 ) . I th a s s ho r t t e e th a nd as qua tt r apezo ida lb ody , w ide rt h an i ti sl ong , w i th o b l ique c heque r -boa rd d eco r a t ion o nb o th s i de s . I ti su t t e r ly u n l ike t h ed eco ra ted E gyp t ian a nd M i l la ran c omb s j u s td e sc r ibed . S on Ma tge h a s b e l l -beake r d eco ra ted p o t tery . A l t hough ac on jec tu re t h a t b e l l -b eaker s w e re e xchanged

r ows o f i n c ised d oub le t r iang le o r h ou r -g la ss mo t if s f i l led i nw i th h o r izon ta l l i ne s ( Bdnéd i te 1 911 : 1 0 ,P l . 6 ,

f o r ap re s t ige c ommod i ty s uch a s A f r ican i vo ry ( c f . Ha r r ison & G i lman 1 977 ) c ou ld b e i nvoked i n t h i s c a se ,i tc anno tf o rs ome o ft h e much e a r l ie ri vory wh ich i sf ound i n S .E . S pa in l ong b efo re b e l l b eake r s a p -

i t em 4 4 .324 ) . I tw a s r ega rded a s a t yp ica l a nd a sc r ibed

p ea red , l e t a l one b ecame a bundan t i n c e ram ic a s sem -

t ot h e c r a f t sman sh ip o f " nomad s" . T he h ead b ea r s t h e b roken -o f f h ind a nd f o re l imb s o f a n a n ima l , p e rhap s l i ke G e rzean p re -dyna s t ic i vo ry c omb s w i th b ea s t s .

b l age s t h e re . T he L o s M i l la re s b a sa l ly f l ame -pa in ted b aggy j a r i s t h e o n ly i n tac t o ne o f i t s k ind i n S pa in . T he b rown

T he L o s M i l la re s 1 2h er r ing -bone d eco ra t ion i se ven

p a in ted mo t if sr i se r ad ia l ly f r om t h eb a se u p t h e s i de o f

l e ss t y p ica l o fE gyp t ian o rnamen tb u tc ou ld p e rhap s r e f l ec t t h a to ft h eL evan t w he re h e r r ing -bone p a t te rn sa r e s een o np o t tery ,n o to n ly e a r ly b ronze a ge 1 1 1 1 K h i rbe t

t h eb ody a nd t h e ir e dge i sp i cked o u ti n ab r igh tr ed z i g z ag o u t l ine ( Le i sne r&L e isne r 1 943 : 2 4 ) . I t s n ea re s t a na logue s a r e o n C ap r i , whe re b a sa l ly

c omb i sp rofu se ly d eco ra ted o n b o th s i de s w i th t h ree

1 32

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

f l ame -pa in ted w a re c oex is t s ( F rump 1 966b : 5 1 ,f i g . 1 3 ) w ith R ipo l i w a re o f c a . C -14 5 140±120 BP ( Bray 1 966 ) , a nd o n t h e A eo l ian I s land s a nd S i c i ly ( Be rnabö

c ar ved p inhead s c ome f r om L o s M i l lare s X I I I ( A lma -

B rea 1 962 : p la te s 1 5 a nd 1 6 ) , where b a sa l ly f l ame p a in ted v e sse ls a n teda te a l l -ove r r ed -wa sh R ed D iana w a re . R ed D iana w a re h a s b een c ompa red t o S pan ish r ed -wa sh a lmag ra w a re ( Pe l l ice r 1 962 : 3 7 . S avo ry

v e ry c rude a nd p robab ly l o ca l ly i n sp ired . T runca ted c on ica l f i gu r ine s w i th t wo s t umpy p ro t ru s i on s ,f r om L o sR u r ia l i l lo s 4a nd R amb la d el o sP oc ico s 8n ea rT abe rna s a nd L o s M i l la re s 5 7 , may b el i ke Hun g ar ian l a te l i nea r -po t te ry c u l tu re o ne s ( Topp 1 959 ) ,i . e . b efo re C -14 5 000 BP . T he T e r re ra V en tura s e t t lemen t a tT abe rna sh a s2 2C -1 4d e te rm ina t ion s s pann ing 4 655 4 010 BP ( 3 1) a nd a maver ick o ne o f 5 370±350 BP ( HAR155 ) . Ab road -h ipped f ema le a l aba s te rf i gu r ine w i th a ni n -

1 968 : 7 8 ) a nd r e semb le s Ma l te se R ed S ko rba w a re ( Evan s 1 971 : 2 11 ;T rump 1 966a : 4 6 ) ( C -14 5 175±150 BP , BM -148 ) ; R ed S ko rba h o le -mou th v e sse ls e x is t ( T rump 1 966a : p 1 . 2 4 ,b )w h ich r e ca l lS pan ish f o rm s . P a in ted v e sse l sa r ei n f requen ti nS .E . S pa in a nd r a re l y s ugge s t c l ea r -cu t c ompa r ison s w i th o ve r sea s t ype s . P o ss ib ly o ne w h ich may i s as ma l l p a in ted b ow l o rc up f r om A lmer ia ( Lav io sa Z ambo t t i 1 951 : p 1 . 5 ) wh ich

g ro & A r r iba s 1 963 : 1 50 -152 )a nd L oma d cl o s Un ia le s 9a tT abe rna s ( Le isne r&L e i sne r 1 943 : 7 5 )b u tb o th a r e

c i sed p ub ic t r iang le a nd b u t tock s c ame f r om A lm iza r aque ( S ire t 1 913 : 3 5 , p 1 . 5 , n o . 1 8 ) . Ano the r c ome s

s hows a S a in t And rew ' s C ro s s mo t if i n ap ane l b o r d e red b yv e r t ica ll i nes ; maybe i tc ou ld b ec ompa red t oa

f r om E l Ma lagon ( Ar r iba s e ta l . 1 977 ) . T hey a r e o n ly s upe r f ic ia l ly l i ke B ada r ian o ne s , wh ich a re p lano -

p a in ted mo t if i n ap ane l s een o n S ic i l ian e ar ly b ronze a ge C a s te l lucc io p o t te ry a l be i to fu t te r ly d i f fe ren ts hape

c onvex b one o ri vo ry o ne s w i thou tb u t tock s ( e .g . B run t on & C a ton -Thomp son 1 928 : f i g . 2 4 , i t em 5 769 ) , b u t o n ly i nb e ing made o fs t one d o t h ey r e semb le A egean o ne s( c f . S i r e t 1 913 : 3 5 ) . B yb lo sa nd T roy may a l so o f f e ra na log ie s ( A r r iba s 1 953 ) . Ac l o se ra na logy may b ea

( Be rna b oB rea 1 962 : P l . 2 8 ) . O n C ap r i , t h e A eo l ian I s land s a nd S ic i ly , e a r ly n eo l i th ic p a in ted p o t te ry , wh ich i n c lude s b a sa l ly f l ame p a in ted v e sse ls ,w a sf o l lowed b yn eo l i th ic monoch rome R ed D iana w a re . A tG ro t ta d e l la C h ius077a ,R ed D iana w a re w a sf o l lowed b yd epo s i t s w i th c oppe r -age p a in ted

C yp r io t f i gu r ine f r om E r im i ( D ika io s 1 939 : P 1 . 2 8 , n o . 9 ) . F rom E r im i , mo reove r ,t h e re a r eb o th c ruc ifo rm a nd p eg top o r s t rangu la ted -neck f i gu r ine s , s im i la r t ov ery

w a re so fC onzo ,S e r ra fe r l icch io a nd Ma lpa s so t y pe s ,r e s pec t ive ly ( Be rnabö B rea 1 962 : 6 9 ) , s ome o f wh ich h ave a l te rna t ing ,c on t ra s ted p a in ted p ane l s . T he re may h ave b een v e ry l o ng l o ca l e vo lu t ion o f

many i nS .E . S pa in . An a xe -ended c ruc ifo rm f i gu r ine c ame f r om a n A l -

p a in ted c eram ic s i n i s o la t ion o n S i c i ly ( i b id . : 7 4 ) a nd s uch c ou ld w e l la l so h ave b een t h ec a se i ns ou the rn I be -

d e A lmanzo ra 1 5 , a nd o ne , i n t h e G ranada Mu seum , f r om Go ra fe . A l though t h e s ha rpened e nd r e ca l l s C y c l ad ic Amo rgo s f i gu r ine s ( S ire t 1 913 : 2 56 , f i g . 1 01 ,

r i a . O n t h e o ne h and , t h ep a in ted s un so re ye s a nd f e rn s a tC ueva d e l o s T ie s to s , wh ich l a ck o ve r sea s p a ra l le ls o n p a in ted w a re , c an h a rd ly b e v e ry much e a r l ie r t h an i t s C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s o f3 800 -3600 BP ( s ee a bove ) a nd a no the rs he rd t h e re ,i n c ised w i th o ppo s ing t r iang le s wh ich a r ef i l led i nb ys t ipp led d o t s ,h a sp a ra l le ls a t Ma l t e se S ko rba ( T rump 1 966a : 4 5 , f i g . 4 4 ,h ) o n a l leged ly T herm i type w a re . On t h e o the r h and , t h e b a sa l ly f l ame -pa in ted j a rf r om L o s M i l la re s 4 0h a s n oo ve r sea s p a ra l le ls i np a in ted w a re s o ft h eC en t ra l Med i t er ranean a f te r c a . C -145200BP . A re t h e re o t he r h in t s f r om c hambe red b u r ia l a s sem b l age s t h a tt h ey b egan a ccumu la t ing e a r ly? O rt h a tp eo p l e u s ing t h em w ere a round e a r ly o n? T he w inged c omb o r f l ame p o t m igh t h ave b een d epo s i ted al ong t ime a l te r manu fac tu re , b u t i ti su n l ike ly t h ey o n ly a r r i ved i n S pa in al ong t ime a f te r t h ey h ad b een made . Wha t o ther i t em s f r om t h e t omb s a re c h rono log ica l c l ue s ,w he the re a r ly o rl a te? T he B adar ian h a s s p ira l ly -ca rved p inhead s ( Brun ton &C a ton -Thompon 1 928 : f i g . 2 4 ,i t em 5 143 ) . S p ira l ly -

me r ian c i s t ,C abezo d cl aP e rne ra 1( S ire t 1 888 : 3 2 , p1. 5 ,n o . l a ) , t wo mo re f r om A lme r ian r ound g rave L oma

n o s . 1 ,6 ,7 a nd 8 ;c f . . Ren f rew 1 967 : 1 84 ,f i g . 1 ,n o . 8 , P l . 8 , n o s . 6 , 7a nd 8 ) , t h e who le s hape i sd i f f eren t . T hey w e re p robab ly l o ca l c r ea t ion s a nd h igh l igh t t h e v a r ie ty o fs ou thea s te rn s t one a nd b one f i gu r ine s ( A lma g ro -Go rbea 1 97 3a ) . F rom S i re t ( 1913) o nwa rd s , s ome f i gur ine s h ave b een c ompa red t of o rm s f r om T roy 1 -V I a nd e l sewhe re i n t h e E a s t Med i ter ranean ( A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a : p a s s im ;A r r iba s 1 953 ; S avo ry 1 968 : p a ss im ; ( c f . ( 36 ) ) . A la s , p r ec ise e x t ra reg iona l c u l tu ra l p a ra l le ls a r e e lu s i ve a nd t h u s u nhe lp fu l a s e xac t c h rono log ica l i nd ica t o r s f o r S .E . S pan ish a s semb lage s ( c f . Renf rew 1 967 ) ( c f . ( 25 ) ( 36 ) ) . I n t ra -reg iona l c ompa r ison s may b e j u s t a s h e lp fu l . C ompa r i son s b e tween M i l la ran d eco ra ted b ae ty l s a nd P o r tugue se d eco ra ted s ch is t p laque s a re w e l l -known ( Savo ry 1 968 : 1 30 ) . L o s M i l la re s 4 0h a s t wo d eco ra ted s l a te p l aque s ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 2 3 )a nd ah i gh ly d eco ra ted s l a te p l aque c ame f r om L lano d c A l ic t in 1 6 ( i b id . : 1 33 ) a nd a n u ndeco ra ted o ne f r om L lano d e

1 33

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

A l ic t inlø(ib id . : 1 32 ) . I ti st e nden t iou s t og i ve mo re w e igh tt os uch f i nd ing s

t h e t a sk , i ti sp ruden t t oa t tend f i r s t t o ma t te r si ti sa b le t oa dd r e s s . I ti su nw ise t od raw i n fe rence sf o rp r eh i s to ry

a tc hambe red t omb s t h an t op re sence i n t h em o f v e ry u n -Po r tugue se G ip sek e ram ik ( e .g . ap a in t ed p l a s ted v e s s e l f r om F one la s 1 0 : L e isne r & L e isne r 1 943 , 1 38 ) , w h ich t yp ica l ly o ccu r s a ts ou thea s te rn c ave b u r ia ls , o r

f r om e t hnograph ica l o r h i s to r ica l a na log ie s w h ich a r e i mmune t of a l s i l iab i l ty o rr e fu tab i l i ty b ya r chaeo log ica l m e thods ( Mu r ray & Wa lke r 1 988 ; Wa lke r 1 989 -1990 ,

t h an t op re sence i nA lme r ian a nd G ranada c hambe red t ombs o f n on -Po r tuguese a n ima l p ha langea l b one s , s ome t ime s i n c ised o rp a in ted l i ke t ho se f r om c ave a s s emb lage s , o r p l ano -convex i n c ised b one p l aque s ( s ee a bove ) . I n l i ke v e in , i ti si n te re s t ing t h a t a mong t h ree f i gu r ine s w i th p ronounced h ip sa nd u p l if ted a rm s t ump s ( 2 o f i vo ry , 1s l a te ) f r om A lmer ian r ound g rave s a t L oma d el aT o r re ( Le i sne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 5 ) ,o ne h a s t h igh s s epa ra ted b y an o tch , f ound o the rw ise i n S .E . S pa in o n ly i n 3o f 7b one f i gu r ine s f ound i n as t one l i ned s ha f ta tB anca ld el aC o rona i nA l ican te ( Ta racena 1 950 : P l . 6 ) . C a rved s anda l s o le s o ccu ra t mo re s ou thern S pan ish t h an P o r tugue se s i te s . I vo ry e xamp le s c ome f r om A l m iza raque ( do P aço 1 971 ; S i re t 1 907 ) ,L o s M i l la re s 1 2 ( Le i sne r & L e isne r 1 943 : 2 5 ) a nd Ma ta r rub i l la ( Co ll a n te s 1 969 ) . Two l ime s tone e xamp le s c ome f r om A la -

1 990b ) . S epa ra t ion b e tween b u r ia l p lace s o fa bo r ig ina l p a s t o ra l is t s a nd c o rb e l -vau l ted t ombs o f i mag ina ry c o lo n i s t s w a s a ccep ted b y L e i sne r &L e isne r( 1943 ) ,C h i lde ( 1958 : 5 4 -55 , 16 -177 ) a nd B lance ( 1961 , 1 960 a nd 1 971 : c hap s . 2a nd 3 ) . R ea sonab le d oub t w a s c a s t o n t h e e x is tence o f a ny s uch c o lon i s t s ( Renf rew 1 967 ) . B lance t r ied t od emon s tra te t h e s epa ra t ion u s ing u n s qua red s t a t is t ic s o f a s soc ia t ion b e tween g rave g ood t ype s ( B lance 1 960 : 4 6 -58 ) . T hey a re s t a t is t ica l ly n o t s i gn if ican tw hen c h i -squa re t e s t sa r ep e r fo rmed ( Wa lke r 1 973a : 2 57 -26 1) . I ti st h e refo re i lu so ry t op i t a bo r ig i n a ls t omb a s semb lage s ( s ymme t r ica l t r apeze f l in t a r r owpo in t s , p o l ished s t one a xeheads , b one p o in t s , s he l l '

b ang le s ) a ga in s t c o lon is t s ' o ne s ( b ilac ia l ly f l aked f l in t a r rowpo in t s w i th t a ngs o rh o l low b a se s , f l a t a n th ropo mo rphou s f i gu r ine s , g reens tone b eads , a bundan t p o t -

p ra ia i nP o r tuga l ( do P a ço 1 971 ) . U nu sua l i t em sa mong g rave g ood s a r e u n info rma t ive

t e ry ) ( 4 3 ) . B lance w an ted t os o lve ap uzz le p osed b y t h e L e is n e r s 'e vo lu t iona ry s cheme t h a tw en tf r om s ma l l t ol a rge

a bou tc ommon f une ra ry c u s tom sp rec ise ly b ecau se t h ey

r ound g rave s w h ich b ecame M i l laran c i rcu la r p a s sage

a r eu ncommon . T hey m ay b e mo re u se fu l a sd a ta w h ich h igh l igh ts pa t io tempo ra l p a rame te r so fh omogene i ty o r h e te rogene i ty , p rov ided w e d o n o t i mpo se a s t ra igh t j acke t o f p reconce ived n o t ion s wh ich e xc lude t ho se

g rave s b y a dd ing p a ssage s , n ex t a cqu ired c orbe l led v au l t s ( t ho l o t ) ,a nd f i na l ly s i de -chambe r s . Sma l l s imp le v au l t sw e re a t t r ibu ted t oa bo r ig ina lp a s to ra l i s t so f ac on j ec tu ra l A lme r ian c u l ture , c o rbe l l ing t op ha se s 1a nd 2

d a ta f r om a s semb lage s c on ta ined i n mo r tua ry p ackag i ng o t he rt h an a r t if ic ia l mo r tua ry s t ruc ture s i . e .t ho se i nc ave s , s ome o fw h ich c on ta in p ackage s e ve ry b i t a s s p lend id a st ho se i nc hambe red t omb s .

o f as o -ca l led M i l laran c u l ture i n t roduced b y c on jec tu r a l i mm ig ran t s . T he p uzz le i s , o fc our se , t h a t w he rea s

I f ,i ndeed ,L o s M i l la re s 1 2 ,4 0 ,5 7 , a nd v ery l i ke ly 7 , w er e n uc le i o f t omb c l u s te r s ( Chapman 1 981a . 1 990 ) ,

s p lend id g rave g ood s ( e .g . L lano d e l J au tón 5 a nd 6 ) : e xp la ined a way b y B lance a s s how ing p ene t ra t ion o f

maybe t h e ir c on ta ined a s semb lage s a ccumu la ted o ve r

t h e i nd igenou s c u l tu re b y c o lon is t s , s uppo r ted b y h e r

C -14 5 200 -4000 BP , w i th c oncom i tan te r a su re o f mo s t e a r ly o ne s t o make w ay f o r l a te r o ne s . S u r round ing t h e se t omb s ,p e rhap s o ff ounde rc l an s o r mo ie t ie s ,o th e r s may h ave b een b u i l t b y g roup s o r f am i l ie s c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu lar f ounder g roup s , wh i le y e t

s t a t i s t ica l s epa ra t ion b u t ,a s t h is i su n sound ,t h e p uz z l ei ss t i l l w i th u s . E xcava t ion s a t L o s M i l la re s ( A lmag ro & A r r iba s 1 963 ) p e rm i t ted c r i t ic ism o f s uppos i t ion s b y t h e L e is n er sa bou th o r izon ta l c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen to ft h e

o the r s may h ave b een b u i l t a s a l te rna t ive s , p e rhap s w hen h yg iene t a bu s p ro sc r ibed r epea ted a cce ss t ot h e

c eme tery , p a r t icu la r ly a s r ega rd s c o rbe l -vau l ted t omb s a nd s i de c hambe r s , a nd i t s r ep lacemen t b y a n a l te rna -

f o rme r . Wha t s t r ike u s a s s p lend id b u r ia l a s semb lage s n eed b e n o mo re t h an o u tcome s o f v e ry s l ow a cc re t ion i n d r ib s a nd d rab s . I ti st op r esume w ha t i ts hou ld b e o u r t a sk t op rove (Wa lke r 1 992 ) , t oa s se r t t h a t wha t s t r ike

t i ve p ropo sa l o f 3o r 4t omb c lu s te r s , e ach a round a t omb w i th " p re s t ig iou s" g rave g ood s a nd i n te rna l a r ch i t e c tu ra l d i f fe ren t ia t ion ( o ra tl e a s t l a rge s i ze : t omb 4 0 ) , s a id t or ef lec t ac ommun i ty r anked b y d i f f e ren t ia l a c c e ss t o e conom ic r e sou rce s ( Chapman 1 981a , 1 990 :

u s a s s p lend id a s semb lage s mu s t , i p so f ac to , b e s i gna -

1 92 ) . S oc ia l r ank ing n e ed n o t ,h oweve r , b e t h eo n ly e xp la n a t ion . Ano the r c ou ld b e t h a t i f 3o r 4u n ranked b u t

-

-

t u re s o f p reh is to r ic s oc ia l " p re s t ige" ( pace C hapman 1 990 ) . I fa r chaeo log ica l m e thodo logy i sn o t y e t u p t o

s ome r ound g rave s h ave f ew s ke le ton s a nd s pa r se " i n d igenou s" a r t ifac t s , o ther s h ave many s ke le ton s a nd

-

1 34

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MICHAEL J. WALKER and MIGUEL SAN NICOLAS DEL TORO

long-established nuclear groups had retained better� farmland and pastures than were available to other descendants or newcomers, then the most important factor underlying their ostensibly splendid burial accumula­ tion might have been simply their lower morbidity, low­ er mortality, and more stable intergenerational continui­ ty of group size, with corresponding repercussions on numbers of skeletons accumulated and grave goods de- t posited at each burial, not to mention manpower availa­ ble for tomb building or remodelling. This conjecture accounts more parsimoniously for the splendo\D' we im­ agine than do self-justifying circular conjectures pre­ suming concepts of prestige and social ranking which ,1 are immune to archaeological falsifiability. It has been conjectured that child burial in passage­ grave side chambers occurred only when status diffe­ rentiation was advancing from a ranked to a stratified society (Mathers 1984a). It flies in the face of an utter lack of archaeological evidence at Los Millares for stat­ us differentiation or ranking of individual corpses. Nor does any exist at sites, from Riparo Valtanesi to El Mi­ lano, where small pits, cists or extensions contained re­ mains of infants or young children. It cannot be demon­ strated even much later on at Argaric La Bastida in Murcia, where Lull (1983: 319-322) finds the best evi­ dence for social stratification in all S.E. Spain. He high­ lights 5 burials, including 2 infants -- one with a copper bangle and earring, the other with a silver earring -- un­ der a hut no grander than others but providing more metal implements (perhaps a metalworker's hut). Despite inferring ascribed social status, Lull warns that this neither shows that there were social classes nor differentiated economic relationships in the coonmmity (ibid.: 324). Today, children lacking social standing in life may have more elaborate tombs ascribed to them by grieving parents than many dedicated to successful adults. Lull's praiseworthy caution is a far cry from those who conjure up from weaponry and gewgaws of Argaric burials emerging samurai-type fighters, or per­ haps mafia capos, who resolved, or forestalled, rural disputes consequent on increasing diversification of the agricultural subsistence base (Gilman 1981). Social stratification cannot be unambiguously seen in the Ar­ garic, and is even more elusive in the Millaran. Those who want to see it, need reminding that "whenever we propose a solution to a problem, we ought to try as hard as we can to overthrow our solution, rather than to de­ fend it" (Popper 1968: 16). This brings us, once again, to bell beakers in aeneo­ lithic assemblages, seemingly discordant with other pot­ tery in the burial packages in vaults, be they tombs or caves. Their associations here lack clear-cut parallels in

European cultural sequences further north or east. S.E. Spain lacks their bell-beaker packages and packaging -­ most cists occur in a different context of the Argaric culture. More awkward still, north of the lower Segura flood-plain, early bronze-age burial packages lose Ar­ garic cist or jar packaging, even when grave goods of Argaric type occur. It is not unthinkable that aspects of distant material cultures spread from S.E. Spain rather than invariably to it. When some aspects of Spanish incised ware are brought into account, distant parallels may offer less clear-cut upper and lower chronological limits for S.E. Spanish cultural complexes than is sometimes asserted. The reigning paradigm, however, is what Binford (1983) lampoons as an "aquatic" view of cultural change: change is explained (away) as due to influences from elsewhere spreading out like ripples. Now, if this is the best we can do to understand an archaeological phenomenon studied ad nauseam for a hundred years, it is unsurprising other aspects of S.E. Spanish burial as­ semblages elude us. A common view is that S.E. Spanish bell beakers might have been introduced from Portugal after C-14 4100 BP, with appearance at Los Millares fort l and at El Malag6n of maritime bell beakers (Arribas & Molina 1985), in line with the Leisners' claim that an aeneolith­ ic phase without bell beakers preceded one with them at Los Millares. Another view -- not mutually exclusive with regard to the first -- holds that the bell-beaker apo­ gee in Spain was the outcome of a "reflux" from north of the Pyrenees (Sangmeister 1963) when the Argaric culture came into being, ea. C-14 3900-3800 BP. This version was adopted by Blance (1961, 1971) in an attempt to explain Argaric origins. The 1inch pin of Blance's argument was that Argaric 3-rivetted copper daggers, because they allegedly were of Central Euro­ pean inspiration, had therefore to be early in the Argaric sequence. However, multivariate association analysis of El Argar grave goods failed to support any very neces­ sarily early Argaric associations of such daggers (Lull 1983), contrary to what Blance's unsquared association measures had led her to infer (c/ .Walker 1985c). Both views explain away cultural change more than they illuminate how it happened. In both, descriptive use of bell beakers (to define a chronological horizon) is unable to analyze processes involved in cultural change. Yet they stir up as many matters as they re­ solve. Here is one. Why do neither bell beakers nor the Ar­ garic culture abound on the southern Murcian coast, where copper, tin and silver were available, as well as good harbours? In Almeria, Los Millares lacks them all,

YSZSZVV\Z\2SAAZ\2SAAZ\2SAZ\2SAAZ\2SAAZ\2SAZ\2SAA2SZ\AAAA, 135

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a s d o i n land G ranada p a ssage g rave c eme ter ie s . How a nd w hy m igh tP o r tugue se b eake r s a te i the rp rope l e a r -

s ma l le r d i spe r sed g roup s o f t h e s ou th -we s t h a s b een o ve rempha s ized" ( Chapman 1 98 1b ) , a sk ing w i th r e ga rd

l yb ronze -age d eve lopmen ti nS .E . S pa in? I f ,i n s tead o f t h em , C en t ra l E u ropean i n f luence s i n sp ired c u l tura l c hange s i n t h e C er ro d e l aV irgen s equence i nt h e i n l a nd e a s te rn A nda lu s ian u p land s ,h ow a nd w hy w a st h a t

t o" t he s pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o ft omb sw i th in t h e s e t t lemen t l a nd scape . Wha tp a t te rn s c an b ed ef ined? How d o t h ey

l o c a l i ty f a vou red? O ne c on jec tu re ,i nr ep ly t ob o th q ue s t ion s ,i st h a tl o c a l c ommun i t ie s t ook o ve ra l ien c e ram ic f a sh ion s . I ti s ar ep ly w h ich d owng rade s s i gn if icance o f b eake r s t o t h a t o f b o t t le s o f C oke n ex t t oo the r s o fG u inne s si n a

e df r om t h es ou th -we s tt ot h es ou th -ea s tb ya sk ing i fg e -

D ub l in b a rb ecau se n o to n ly ( a ) a r e t h ey o u t o f c on tex t ( t he a l l -Ame r ican C oke c on t ex ti s am i lk b a r ) , ( b ) b u ta l so t h ey h ave f a i led t op rope l a ny r e loca t ion o f I r ish c u l tu ra l p rac t ice s . I ncong ru i ty a nd o u t land ish n e s s a r e d e sc r ip t ion , a nd d e sc r ip t ion i ss imp ly n o tp ro c e ssua le xp lana t ion . I nS .E . S pa in ,t h er ep ly i su n info rma t ive a bou tt h er e l a t ion sh ip o f t omb a s semb lage s w i th b eake r s t o c ave b u r ia ls w i th t h em . B y d owng rad ing t h e s i gn i f icance o f c e ram ic i n t ru s ion , a qua t ic mode l s f o rp roce sses o fc u l t u ra l c hange w re s t c r ed ib i l i ty f r om c on jec tu re s t h a t e i t h e rp ro to -u rban ,u rbane M i l la ran so rb e l l ige ren tb eake r p eop le c a r r ied t h e ir g ospe l t ob en igh ted c ave -dwe l le r s l i v ing o n t h e f r inge . C ommun i t ies who b u r ied t h e i r d ead i nc ave s w e re n o mo re b ackwa rd t h an t ho se who b o the red t ob u i ld t omb s ju s td i f fe ren t . H ow a nd why w e re t h ey d i f fe ren t? When a nd w he re d id t h ey b ecome d i f fe ren t? T o t h ink a bou t t h e se q ue s -

r e la te t os e t t lemen t sa nd r e source d i s t r ibu t ion? " T he se a r e t a n ta l iz ing q ue s t ion s . T hey m ay b e a dap t o graph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s w i th in S .E . S pa in i t se lf o f c hambered t omb s a nd b u r ia l c ave s r e la t e t os e t t lemen t l a nd scape i ns im i la ro rd i f f e ren tw ay s . Wi thou td eny ing i n ter -reg iona l c ompar ison s b e tween b u r ia l p ackage s a nd mo r tua ry p ackag ing s i n S .E . a nd S .W . I be r ia ( Chapman 1 990 ; L e isne r & L e isne r 1 943 ; S avo ry 1 968 ) , a n i n t ra -reg iona l f ocus o n c omp lemen ta r i ty c an p i ck u pw ha tD av id C la rke ( 1968 )c a l led " r egu la ri r reg u l a r i t ie s" a nd " i r regu la rr e gu la r i t ie s " . S een f r om a t wo -d imen s iona l ( s pa t ia l ) s t andpo in t , n ove l r e a r rangemen t s a r e s ugge s ted w hen c ave b u r ia ls a r e a dded t o b u r ia ls i n a r t if ic ia l mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s , w hen n a tu ra l ly o r a r t if ic ia l ly v au l ted l o ca t ion s a r e i n c l uded w i th u nvau l ted o nes , a nd w hen s p lend id g rave g ood s may a ppea r i na ny o f t h o se , w i th t h e i mpo r tan t n o te t h a tc hambe red t omb sa r ea b sen tf r om t h eP a l sV a l e nc iano . N eve r the le ss , i ti su nc lea r t h a t b ur ia l p l ace s , e ven mega l i th ic c eme te r ie s ,d om ina ted t h eb e s ta g r icu l t u ra l l a nd a va i lab le f o r m ixed f a rm ing , l e ta l one whe re ab a lance w a s s t ruck b e tween c u l t iva t ion a nd l i ve s tock . S een f r om a d eep ( chrono log ica l ) s t andpo in t , c ave b u r ia l t ook p l ace f r om e a r ly n eo l i th ic t o b ronze -age t ime s f r om V a lenc ia t o Anda lu s ia , a l though a r t if ic ia l ly

L IFE AND DEATH I N THE IR LANDSCAPE

made s t ruc tu re s a ppea r b o th a bove - a nd u nde rg round a f te r C -14 5 800 BP ; a f te r C -14 3 800 BP c r ev ice , c i s t , j a r o r p i t b ur ia l p redom ina te i n S .E . S pa in ( 44 ) . P re s e nce o fg rave s a tA rga r ic s e t t lemen t s s imp l if ie s n oe nd

R e th ink ing o u r me thodo logy mean s d ev is ing d i f fe ren t

t h e a r chaeo log ica l t a sk o f t h e ir c u l tu ra l a s s ignmen t . A p rob lem w i th mu l t ip le b ur ia ls i sd e term in ing wh ich

t i on s , w e mu s ts c ru t in ize t h e S .E . S pan ish c u l tur a ll a nd s c ape f o rc ompa r ison sa nd c on t ra s t s .

p rob lem s t os o lve . One s e te schews c ompa ra t ive a na lo g i e so rp a ra l le ls o u t s ide t h e r eg ion a nd p re fe r sc ompa r i ng o rc on t ra s t ing a rchaeo log ica l ma t te r s w i th in i t .T h is w a so ne r e a son w e b egan w i th E l M i lano : am ix o fn a t u ra l v au l t a nd a r t i f ic ia l u nvau l ted mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re , l o ca ted b e tween t h e s ou the rn p a r t o ft h e r eg ion w he re

p ar t s o fw h ich b u r ia l a s semb lage s c o r re spond t ow h ich

a r t if ic ia l v au l ted s t ruc tu re sp redom ina te a nd i t sn o r the rn p a r t whe re u nvau l ted n a tu ra l o ne s o ccu r a lmo s t e xc lu -

C ou ld i tb e t h a t g eog raph ica l d i s t inc t ion s b e tween S .E . S pa in c ave b u r ia ls a nd t omb c eme te r ie s , o r b e -

s i ve ly . I st h is s pa t ia l d i f fe rence r e a l o ri lu so ry?

t ween c ave d we l le r s a nd v i l lage r s ,a r e ap roduc to fd i f f e ren t ia l s i te -fo rma t ion p roce sse sa f fec t ing s i t e v i s ib i l i t yd i f fe ren t ia l ly? T he p o ss ib i l i ty mus t b e e xp lo red , a t

A no the r r ea son i st h a t b o th o f t h e E l M i lano r ock s he l te r s h ave r ock p a in t ing s : Ab r igo 1h a s n a tu ra l is t ic ( Levan t ine ) o ne s o f a n a r cher a nd r ed d ee r ; Ab r igo 2 h a s c onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic ) mo t if s . Wha t i st h e s i gn if icance o fb u r ia l b e s ide r ock a r t? C hapman h a s " a rgued t h a t t h e c on t ra s t b e tween t h e l a rge , n uc lea ted c eme ter ie s o f t h e s ou th -eas t a nd t h e

p ha se sa ts e t t lemen ts i te s ,e ven o ne sq u i te n ea rby : s ome b ur ia l s i te s w e re u sed i n te rm i t ten t ly f r om n eo l i th ic t o b e l l -beake rt ime s ,n o to n ly f o rb u r ia ls b u ta l so a sd we l l i ng s i nt h ec a se o fs ome c aves , w he rea sn oo pen s e t t le m en to f f e r s as equence s pann ing s uch al ong t ime .

l e a s t . T he ma t te r o f d i f fe ren t ia l v i s ib i l i ty o f S .E . S pan i sh b u r ia l s i te si s ad i f f er en ta spec to fb o th t h ef l a ta nd d eep p er spec t ive s r ema rked o n a bove . P u t a no the r w ay , t o w ha t e x ten t h ave p roce s se s o f l a nd scape mod if ica t ion

1 36

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

s kewed o rd i s to r ted t h es pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs u rv iv ing p r eh is to r ic b ur ia ls a nd o the r s i te s? How f a rh ave t ho se p roce s se s c hanged t h en a tu re o ft h en ea rby l a nd scape o r o fi t s a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l? Wha tm igh th ave b een t h e c on sequence sf o rp a laeodemog raphy? Wha td os ub s tan t i ve p a laeoan th ropo log ica l d a ta s ugge s t i nt h a t r ega rd? D o S. E .S pan i sh r ock p a in t ing s c o r robo ra te ap ar t icu la r mode l? I ns ou the rn a nd c oa s ta l Mu rc ia t h e re a r es i te s o fl a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t : C abezo d e lP lomo , P a razue lo s ,R amb la d eL ibn l la T he l a s t -men t ioned ,e x p o sed i nt h e w a l l o ft h el owe s t , 2 5 -me t re t e r race o ft h e R . Guada len t in a nd s i de v a l ley w h ich j o in s i t( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 977 , 1 986a , 1 986b , 1 986c , 1 986d ; Wa lke r 1 986a ) i sb ur ied u nde rs eve ra lm e t re s o fl a te ra l luv ium . S im i la r ly b ur ied s e t t lemen t s a r e E l P rado i n n o r thern

w a rd s ,a l though r i ve r ine t r ench ing w a sl e ss p ronounced t h an i tw a st ob ecome i nh i s to r ica l t ime s p e rhap s w id -

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e re xpan se s o fa l luv ia l s o i ls w e re a va i lab le c l o se t ot h e w a te r t a b le . L a te ro n , p e rhap s A rga r ic s e t t lemen t s t ook a dvan tage o f ma rg ina l ly g rea te r h um id i ty ( d ew , m is t , r a in fa l l , s now ) o n h i ghe r g round , a s v a l ley f l oo r s l o s t t h e i rp o ten t ia lf o rc u l t iva t ion . E x ten s ion o f t h e g eog raph ica l a pp roach i n Mu rc ia , A lme r ia a nd G ranada ( G i lman & T ho rne s 1 985 ) s how s b ronze -age s e t t lemen t s l i e c l ose r t o p e rmanen t w a te r t h an d oa eneo l i th ic o ne s .D id t h el a t te rd epend o na r t i f i c i a l i r r iga t ion f o rc u l t iva t ion? E v idence f o rt h a ti ss l en d e r , a mb iguou s a nd l a te . B e s ide C e r ro d c l aV irgen i n u p land G ranada ( C -14 3 920 -3735 ( 35 ) ) ap reh is to r ic d i tch w a s e xcava ted , o f u nce r ta in p urpo se ( maybe i t c a r r ied e xce s s w a te r f r om a d jacen t s p r ing s a way f r om t h es i te s a nd c u l t iva ted p lo t sn ea rby , mo re t h an s e rv ing t ow a te r t h e se ) , a nd o fe pheme ra l d u ra t ion , b ecau se i t

Mu rc ia ( L i l lo & Wa lke r 1 983 , 1 984 , 1 986 ; Wa lke r 1 981 , 1 984 , 1 985a , 1 986a ) ,L e s J ovade si nn o r the rn A l i c an te ( L lob rega t 1 978 ; Wa lke r 1 986a ) a nd E re ta d e l P ed rega l i ns ou the rn V a lenc ia ( F le tche r 1 961 ; F le tche r

w a s a l lowed t o s i l t u p r ap id ly , a nd ah a lf -hear ted a t t emp tt oc l ea ri to u t w a s a bandoned a l toge the rw hen a n A rga r ic b u r ia l w a s c omm i t ted t oi t( ano the ri n s tance o f

e ta l . 1 964 ;P IA 1 983a ) . A tE lP rado a nd R amb la d eL ib r i l la t h ea l luv ium d e v e loped i nl a te rp reh is to r ic t ime s ,p robab ly o w ing t oi n c r ea sed e ro s ion c omb ined w i th i n c rea sed a va i lab i l i ty o f

A rga r ic i nhuma t ion b e s ide , r a the r t h an w i th in , as e t t le men t , i n c iden ta l ly ) ( Schu le 1 965 ) . On ly a s w ide a s t h e s e cond p ha se o fd i tch -u se a tC e r ro d c l aV i rgen wa s a

s u r face mo is ture o n n ea rby s l ope s , w h ich t u rned f o r me r ly h ab i tab le v a l ley f l oo r s i n to s wamp s ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 986a ,b ,c ,d ; Wa lke r 1 986a ) . O ther v a l ley -

0 . 5i nw ide d i tch a tA rga r ic R incón d cl o s A lmend r ico s ( C -14 3 680±100 , UGRA -146 ; 3 530 BP , W 03 -6363 0 72 ) ( Aya la 1 991 : 7 5 ) . Maybe b y C -14 3 700 BP r a in -

b o t tom s i te s ( e .g . C a sa d eL a ra a nd A rena l d cl aV i rgen i nA l ican te , p o s s ib ly o ccup ied f r om n eo l it h ic o r me so -

f a l l c ond i t ion s d id n o t r equ ire l a rge d i tches , o r a ny d i tche sa ta l la t mo s ts i te s . T he C e r ro d c l aV irgen d i tch w a s l a te a eneo l i th ic , o r ig ina l ly d ug 2 -3 i n w ide x 2 i n d eep w ide r a nd

l i th ic t ime s : S o le r 1 961 ; S o le r 1 965b , 1 968 -1969 ) w e re o nce ma r sh land ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 979 ) b e ing s ub s t i tu ted i ne a r ly b ronze -age t ime s b y C abezo

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d eepe r t h an mo s t i r r iga t ion d i tche s c r iss -c ros s ing t h e

R edondo wh ich i so n ak no l l . R ega rd ing s i te v i s ib i l i ty ,p e rhap s many l a te n eo l i th ic

ma rke t g a rden s o f Mu rc ia t o day ; i ti sh a rd t os ee w hy p reh is to r ic c u l t iva t ion d emanded s o b ig ad i tch . C e r ro

o r a eneo l i th ic s i te s a r e n ow c oncea led u nde ra l luv ium . L a te n eo l i th ic c oa s ta l s i te s may l i e u nde r d une s , l i ke D ima s d c L a s Amo lade ra s ( Ga rc ia d e l T o ro 1 987a ,b ) w h ich i sa ts ea l e ve l , s o t h e re w a s n o t e c ton ic s i nk ing h e re . On h igh g round , b y c on t ra s t , e ro s ion h a s e n -

d cl aV i rgen w a s as ma l l ,w a l led s e t t lemen to fb eeh ive s haped s t one h u t s ( Schu le & P e l l ice r 1 966 ) . B e l l b eak e r sc ha rac te r ize i t s s e cond p ha se ( C -14 3 900 -3800 BP ) , t h et h i rd b e ing A rga r ic ( c a .C -14 3 735 BP ) . T he re w a s e x ten s ive w ood land n ea rby , i mp ly ing h u m id i ty a nd s can tn eed f o ri r r iga t ion ( cf .Luf l 1 983 : 3 8 -

h anced s i te v i s ib i l i ty b u th a s a l so d amaged s i te s . l tu n d er l ie s t h e v i s ib i l i ty o fA rga r ic s e t t lemen t s , a l ong w i th

3 9 , 3 83 -384 ) . L ook ing o u t o ve r t h e O rce f l ood -p la in , C e r ro d cl aV irgen i sa bove a nd s ome w ay f r om i t s r i v e r , s o t h e d i tch b e s ide i tp e rhap s t ook s p r ing -wa te r t o

A rga r ic p ref erence f o rh igh g round a nd as ho r te rl a p se o ft ime s i nce t h e i ra bandonmen t ;t h e ir f ounda t ion w a l ls o f ten s t and h ighe rt h an t ho se o fa eneo l i th ic a nd l a te n e -

s ma l ln ea rby p lo t so fl e gume c rop s , wh i le w hea to rb a r l e y g r ew o n t h ef l ood -p la in w i thou tn eed o fi r r iga t ion ,

o l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o rt omb s . A s w e l l a s e f fec t s o f p roce s se s o f l a nd scape e vo lu t i on o ns i te v i s ib i l i ty ,t h e i rc on sequence sf o rp a laeoeco n om ic a c t iv i ty a to rn ea rs i te sm u s tb ec on s ide red . P u ta -

w i th c hange s i nt e r r i to r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion p e rhap s ma rk ing t h eA rga r ic p ha se ( i b id . ) . P a laeoc l ima to log ica l p o in ter s e x is t t o l e s s ma rked s ea sona l i ty o f r a infa l l a f te r 3 900 BP i n S .E . S pa in

t i ve s i te -exp lo i ta t ion t e r r i to r ie s s how c hanges f r om m eso l i th ic t ob ronze -age t ime s( Wa lke r 1 979 ) . A eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s a r e e spec ia l ly l ow ly ing ;

( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 986a ,b ,c ,d ; Wa lke r 1 986a ) . I fa d i tch w a s d ug t od r aw e xce s s w a te ra way f r om o ve rac t i ve s p r ing s , m aybe i n t h e S pr ing , i t s u se fu lnes s m ay

maybe w a te r t a b le s w e re l owe r t h an b efo re o r a f te r -

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R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

h ave d ec rea sed i fr a in fa l lb ecame mo re e ven ly d i s t r ibu t e d o ve r t h e y ea r (Wa lke r 1 986a ) . S im i la r ly , C hapman

s ugge s tt h a ti nS .E . S pa in t h e re o ccur red " i n te rna l c o lo n i za t ion " o ft h ec oa s ta l b e l t ( where in L o sM i l la re s l i e s )

( 1990 : 1 40 ) wonde r s w he the r " t he c r i t ica l i mpo r tance o fw a te rc on t ro l f o rs ub s is tence p roduc t ion a nd s u rv iva l may h ave v a r ied t h rough t ime , p a r t icu la r ly w i th s ho r t t e rm c l ima t ic o sc i l la t ion s . T h is m igh t a ccoun t f o r t h e

f r om t h eG ranada h in te r land ( whe re C e r ro d el aV i rgen i s ) , w i th a s soc ia ted t r an sfe r o f h ydrau l ic t e chno logy e nab l ing t h ec oa s ta l b e l tt ob e s e t t led b yp e rm i t t ing i r r i g a t ion c u l t iva t ion (Ma the r s 1 984a ) . I f t h a t h ad h ap -

d i su se o f t h e d i tch a tC e r ro d e l a V i rgen i n t h e e a r ly

p ened i tw ou ld b e a n t ic ipa ted t h a t t h e G r anada s e t t le men t s a nd c hambe red t omb s m igh t p rov ide f i nd s o f g rea te ra n t iqu i ty t h an t ho se o fc oa s ta l A lmer ia o r Mu r -

s e cond m i l lenn ium b e " . Whe rea s g eomo rpho log ica l c on s idera t ion s i mp ly e ro s ion i nS .E . S pa in i sn o g rea te r t h an i no the r Med i t e r ranean r eg ion s ( G i lman & T home s 1 985 : 7 6 ) ,t h a ti s n o t t h e p o in t a ts t ake . T he ir " p rem ise t h a t c l ima te h a s r ema ined a pp rox ima t e ly s t ab le o ve rt h ep a s t6 000 y ea r s i ns ou th -ea s tS pa in " ( i b id . : 1 3 )d oe s n o tl e ad b yi n exo r a b le l og ic t o ah a s t i ly -d rawn " conc lus ion t h a t c l ima te h a s b een f a ir ly s t ab le i n s ou th -ea s t S pa in" ( i b id . : 1 5 ) ( ou re mpha se s ) . Me thodo log ica li n fe rence mu s tn o tp r e d e te rm ine p a laeoeconom ic i n te rp re ta t ion s . T h is h a s d i r e c tr epe rcu s s ion s f o ri n te rp re t ing C e r ro d e l aV irgens

c i a . Y e t t h ey f a i l t od o s o . F rom t h e c oa s ta l b e l to fA lm e r ia , h yd rau l ic t e chno logy i sd emon s t ra ted b y a na que d uc t a tL o s M i l la re s ( S ire t 1 893 ) wh ich c anno t b e a ny l a te rt h an t h eC er ro d el aV irgen d i tch a nd i sa lmo s tc e r t a in ly e a r l ie r . C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s f r om A l menan a nd Mu rc ian a eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t s o r t omb s L o s M i l l a re s ,T e r re ra V en tu ra ,E lB a r ranque te ,T a ra ja l ,A lm iza r aque , C ab ezo d e l P lomo , D ima s d c L a s Amo lade ra s , R amb la d eL ib r i l la ,E lP rado an teda te t ho se f r om C e r -

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p a laeoeconomy . A l though G i lman a nd T ho rne s ( 1985 : 7 4 -76 )g rudg i ng ly a dm i t t h a t r a infa l l v a r ia t ion i n t ime o r s pace , o r s ea sona l v ar ia t ion i nv ege ta t ion ,d i f f e ren tf r om t ho se o f t o day , c ou ld h ave c au sed e r o s ion l e s su n ifo rm ly i nS .E . S pa in t h an t h a t i n fe r red b y t h em f r om me thodo log ica l

r od el aV i rgen . I n G ranada , t h e o n ly s i te s e a r l ie r t han C er ro d e l a V irgen a r e E l Ma lagon ( 34 ) a nd L a s Ango s tu ra s ( 46 ) .

u n ifo rm i ta r ian c on s ide ra t ion s , t h ey n eve r the le ss p re s ume p a laeoenv ironmen ta l c hange le ssne ss when t h ey make a na s ton ish ing a nd ,p a laeoeconom ica l ly -speak ing , h e t e rodox a s se r t ion t h a t " one s hou ld u se s i te -ca tchmen t a na ly s i s t oa s se s sd ev ia t ion sf r om e conom ica l ly r a t iona l

d c l aC a r ihüe la o rC ueva d e l A gua i nG r anada ( Nava r r e te 1 976 ) , o r C ueva d c l o s Mu rc ié lago s n ea r Z uhe ro s i nC ó rdoba . T he re i ss imp ly n o e v idence i nt h e e a s te rn Anda lu s ian u p land s f o r a ny n eo l i th ic f o rerunne r s w i th o r w i thou t i r r iga t ion d i tche s o f A lmer ian o r

b ehav iou r "( i b id . : 6 ) . A pa r tf r om b egg ing t h eq ue s t ion o fj u s t w ha tk ind o f t e r r i to r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion i st ob e r e ga rded a s" e conom ica l -

Mu rc ian c oa s ta l b e l t v i l lage r s o f t h e l a te n eo l i th ic o r e ar ly a eneo l i th ic . T he c on jec tu re t h a t c u l t iva t ion i n S .E . S pa in c a . C -

l y r a t iona l" p re sumab ly c e rea l c u l t iva t ion i tc on f l a te s s i te te r r i to ry p o ten t ia l w i th s i te -ca tchmen ta na ly -

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s i s ,b ecau se t h el a t te ra tC e r ro d e l aV irgen d oe si ndeed s how as i gn if ican tc hange f r om a bundan tp ig si ni t s s e c o nd p ha se t o a bundan t h o r se s i n t h e t h ird ( Har r ison 1 980 : 1 53 -155 ) ( 45 ) ,i na cco rd w i th a nh ypo the s i s o fa n e nv i ronmen t whe re o pen p a rk land o r w ood land s t eppe r ep laced d en se rw ood land b yC -1 43 750 BP . Why s pend s o much t ime o n C e r ro d e l a V irgen w hen o u r t h eme i sd i spo sa l o ft h e d ead? T he re a r e t wo r e a son s . F i r s t , i t s b eeh ive h u t s a r e s e en b y s ome a sr e l a ted t oc o rbe l -vau l ted c hambe red t omb s . S econd ly , i t s h yd rau l ic t e chno logy a nd a l leged e qu ine d ome s t ica t ion a r es e en b yo the r sa si nd ica t ing ,i fn o ta ni n c ip ien ts t ra t i f ied s oc ie ty , a tl e a s t ar anked o r c omp lex c ommun i ty

A s a l ready s e en , t h e p r inc ipa l n eo l i th ic s i te s i n t h e a l l eged " h in te r land" a r e n o t o pen s e t t lemen t s b u t a r e c ave sl i ke C ueva Amb ro s io i nn o r the rn A lme r ia ,C u eva

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1 46500 -6000 BP b egan i nt h eu p land s b ecau se t h ey r e c e ived mo re r a in fa l l t h an t h e c oa s ta l b e l ti sc o r robo ra t e d b y c e rea ls a nd l i ve s tock f r om C ueva d cl o s Mu rc ié l a go s n ea r Z uhe ro s i n C O rdoba a nd C ova d c l ' O r i n n o r the rn A l ican te . P o l len r e co rds f r om Med i ter ranean S pa in p o in t t o ar i se i n mo is tu re lov ing v ege ta t ion a bou t t h a t t ime (Wa lke r 1 986a ) . T ha t l ow ly ing o r c oa s ta l a r ea s s how n o s i te s f r om t h a tp e r iod may mean t h a tr a in f e l l mo re o n h igh g round , p erhap s b rough t b y w e s te r l ie sw h ich h ad a l ready l o s t mo s to ft h e i rm in o ve r w e s te rn I b e r ia . Wha th appened n ex t? T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd b e c ome s c l ouded u n t i l c a . C -14 5 000 -4500 B P . C l ima te , o n t h e o the r h and , w as b ecom ing c loud les s . P o l len r eco rd s a nd f l uv ia t i le l i tho s t ra t ig raph ica l s equence s c a .

d ependen to nt e chno log ica li nnova t ion . N ow , a eneo l i th ic s oc ia l d i f fe ren t ia t ion h a s b een i n f e r red b y s ome p reh is to r ian s a ta eneo l i th ic c eme te r ie s

C -14 5 500 -3900 BP s ugge s t d ec rea s ing a va i lab i l i ty o f s u r face mo is tu re ,a nd h o td ry S umme r s . I nt h eu ppe rV ina lopo v a l ley o fA l ican te , w ide sp read

s uch a s L o s M i l la re s ( Chapman 1 990 ) , w h i le o the r s

l a te ra l e r o s ion a nd g u l ly ing o ccu r red , w i th f o rma t ion o f

N

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Z

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M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

b road g rave lf a n s w he re t r ibu ta r ie sj o ined t h ev a l ley ;a l t h i s w a s b e fo re C -14 5 200 BP w hen t h ep a laeochanne l s

a nnua l r a in fa l l mo re r e semb led t h a to fB a rce lona t o day ( 600 m in p .a . ) t h an t h e p resen t 2 00 -300 mm p .a . a t

b ecame s ea led b y c a ic re te ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 981 , 1 985 ; Wa lke ra nd C u enca 1 977 ) a ni nd i c a to r o f s ea sona l c on t ra s t b e tween h o t , d ry S umme r s

F uen te A lamo ( C -14 3 970 -3160 BP ) ( Schoch & S chwe ing rube r 1 982 ) a nd R incón d e l o s A lmend r ico s

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a nd c oo l mo is t Win te r s ( c f. Rohdenbe rg & S abe lbe rg

( C -14 3 680±100 BP , UGRA -146 ; 3 530 BP , W03 6 363 -072 ) ( Aya la 1 991 : 4 29 ) o rC er ro d el aV iña s ( Ay -

1 969a ,b ) . A tt h a tt ime ,p eop le w e re a b le t ol i ve o nf l ood p l a in s i n A l ican te a tL e s J ovade s ( C -14 5 210±80 BP , SUA -

a l a 1 991 : 4 39 ) . G eomo rpho log ica l o b se rva t ion s s uppo r ted b y C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s i n d ica t e t h a ta bou tC -14 4 000 BP r i ve r s

2 066 ) a nd N iue t( C -14 4 600±80 B P ,B e rnabeu & B ada l 1 990 ) ,a nd i n Mu rc ia a tR amb la d eL ib r i l la a nd E l P ra -

d ra in ing e a s tf l owed t h roughou tt h ey ea ra l though t o day many a r e d ry f o r p a r t o f t h e y ea r ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 986a ,b ,c ; Wa lke r 1 986a ) . P a laeobo tan ica l f i nd ing s a t

d o wh ich i nr e cen tt ime s w a s as e a sona l s wamp o rp ond ( 47 ) . A tE l P rado t h eo ccupa t ion w a s f o l lowed a f te rC 1 4 3 950 BP b y i luv ia t ion w hen s wampy c ond i t ion s r ende red t h e s i te u n inhab i tab le . A t t h is a nd o the r s i te s g ranu lome t ry a nd s ed imen to log ica l c hange s p o in tt oa n i n c rea se i na va i lab le s u r face mo is tu re c a . C -14 3 900 3 700 BP . I t may n o t b e t h a t t o ta l a nnua l r a in fa l l w a s a ny g r ea te r ;m aybe i tw a s s imp ly mo re e ven ly d i s t r ibu t e do ve rt h ey ea r . L ike l ihood t h a tS .E . S pan ish s o i l -e ro s ion " r a te s w e re much h ighe ri nt h e p a s tb ecau se t h e c l ima te w a s d i f f e r -

a eneo l i th ic A lm izaraque ( Neo l i tzky 1 935 ) p o in t t o a w arm , h um id c l ima te . A lm iza raque i so n ak no l l in t h e R . A lmanzo ra d e l ta , wh ich s p read t o s eawa rd a nd s o d i dn o tc ove rt h es i t ew i th s i l t . E l sewhe re i nS .E . S pa in , c oa s ta l s and b a r s , s p i t s a nd d une s c l o se o f fl a goon s a nd ma r she s . T he se w e re l a rge r t h an t o day i n Med iaeva l a nd R oman t ime s , e spec ia l ly whe re t h e S egu ra a nd V ina lopó r i ve r s f l owed i n to a s a l tma r sh . We t land s h inde red p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t o f t h ec oa s ta nd l owe rr e ache so fr i ve r s .

e n t" c an b e r ebu t ted i f al ong term v i ew o fQ ua te rna ry s t ab i l i ty i st a ken ( cf . G i lman & T ho rne s 1 985 : 7 4 -75 ) b u t p r eoccupa t ion w i th l ong te rm e ro s ion r a te s s i de s t ep s f undamen ta l ma t te r s c onc e rn ing s u i tab i l i ty o fl o -

R e loca t ion o f s i l t d own s t ream i n to t h e m idd le a nd l owe r r e ache s o f r i ve r s f l ow ing t o t h e Med i te r ranean

c a l i t ie s f o rp a laeoeconom ic e xp lo i ta t ion d u r ing t h ed i f -

a nd i ne ndo r rhe ic b a s in s s i l ty s ed imen ta t ion a l so b l an -

f e ren t s ho r t te rm p a laeoc l ima t ic o sc i l la t ion s w i th in t h e Ho locene ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 986a ,b ,c ,d ; Wa lke r

k e ted s i te s ( e .g . E l P rado ) . Many s uch l o ca l i t ies w i th n a tura l s u r face w a te ra va i lab le f o rm a in ta in ing c rop s o r

1 986 ;C hapman 1 990 : 1 08 -110 ) . I ti s , h oweve r , l e ss ama t te r o f h ow t h o se l o ca l i t ie s w i th s tood o rs uccumbed t oe r o s ion t h an o ft h e ir c hang i ng s u i tab i l i ty f o re xp lo i ta t ive s t ra teg ie s c on s t ra ined b y p r im i t ive t e chno logy .I ti su nwa r ran ted ( pace G i lman & T home s 1 985 )t oi n fe rt e chno logy o fw a te rc on t ro l w a s

p a s tu re d oub t le ss s uppo r ted a eneo l it h ic s i te sn ow i n v is i b l eu nde rl a te rs ed imen t . S i te e xp lo i ta t ion te r r i to r ies a round n eo l i th ic c ave

w ide ly d i ssem ina ted i n a eneo l i th ic S .E . S pa in i n t h e f a ce o ft h ep au 'n ty o fe xcava t ion f i nd ing s . S ho r t te rm c l ima t ic o sc i l la t ion s c an b e s e en t oh ave a f fec ted t h e p reh i s to r ic l a nd scape i nt h e c hang ing l i th o s t ra t ig raph ica l r eco rd e xpo sed i n t h e w a l ls o f many r i ve r a nd s t ream c anyon s ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 976 , 1 981 , 1 985 , 1 986a ,b ,c ,d ; Wa lke r 1 981 , 1 984 , 1 985a , 1 986a ) o r i n d eep c u t t ings , i n c lud ing a r chaeo log ica l o nes ( e .g . E lP rado ) . Nowaday s , t h e s ou thwe s te rn B ae t ic b iogeog raph ica l z one i so n ly r ep re sen ted t ot h ee a s to ft h ew a te r shed b e t we en t h eG ranada u p land sa nd Mu rc ia b yr e s idua l ,i s o l a ted w ood land s .I t se x ten s ion t oS .E . S pa in w a sg rea te r i n a eneo l i th ic t ime sj udg ing f r om p a laeobo tan ica l a nd p a lyno log ica lf i nd ing s( cf . R ive ra & Wa lke r 1 988 ;A ya l a 1 99 1 : 4 39 ) , a s w e l l a s p l en t ifu l h e rd s o fl a rge r um i n an t s . I n t h e A rga r ic , p a laeobo tan ica l f i nd ing s s ugges t

b u r ied many s i te s ( e .g . R a inb la d e L ibn l la ) b enea th t h e ma rke t g a rden s ( ma in ta ined t oday b yi r r iga t ion c ana l s )

s i te s i n S .E . S pa in , l i ke e p ipa laeo l i th ic o r me so l i th ic o ne s , o f f e r wa te r re ten t ive s o i l o n ly i np e r iphe ra l l o ca t i on s ( Wa lke r 1 972 , 1 977 , 1 979 ; G i lman & T home s 1 985 : 1 43 -153 ) , w he rea s l a te rn eo l i th ic o re a r ly a eneo l i t h ic c ave o ccupa t ion sa r en ea rt os uch l a nd ( G i lman & T ho rne s 1 985 : 1 22 -125 ,156 -158 ,162 -164 ) . No r the rn A lme r ian a eneo l i th ic o pen s e t t lemen t s o f T res C abezo s , C ampo s , L a G e rund ia , E l A rga r a nd E l G árce l l i e o n ab ench e t ched b y t h e R . An ta s ( =R . A gua s ) o u to fN eogene ma n s a nd i ti su n l ike ly t h a tt h e r i ve rt r ench t h ey o ve r look w a s w ide rt h an t o day . C hap man ( 1978 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t c onf luence s o ft r ibu ta r i e sa nd r i ve r s m igh th ave b een w e l l su i ted t oc u l t iva t ion b ecau se w a te r wou ld h ave b een r e ta ined l onges tb y s o i l t h e re , a nd n o tw i th s tand ing d ange r f r om f l a sh f l ood s . Away f r om t h er i ve r ,b eh ind G e rund ia -Arga r -Gá rce l , a s ha l low d ry g u l ly r un s o f f t h e n ea rby s l ope s a bove t h e b ench , c u t t ing d i agona l ly a c ro s s i tt or each t h e r i ve r : i t m igh t h ave s uppor ted c u l t iva t ion , w i thou t i r r iga t ion d i tche s , w e re i t s s o i l t o h ave r e ta ined mo is tu re f r om

1 39

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

W in te ra nd S p r ing r a in s . A eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t sa r ea lmo s ta lway sb es ide n a t u ra l ly -wa te red l a nd , w hen n o t a c tua l ly s i tua ted w i th in

f l oo r s a nd w i th b u r ia l p l aces n ea rby , w he the r c ave s o r a r t if ic ia l v au l t s . I n b o th a r ea s t h e re a r e s p lend id b u r ia l

i t . T he i r l i ke ly e xp lo i ta t ion t e r r i to r ie s u sua l ly s how

s ke le ton s . E lM i lano i sn o to n ly a" h inge" ,i n te rmed ia te b o th t y p o log ica l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s ,

t h em t ob e s ur rounded b y r ough ly c oncen t r ic , a l t i tud i n a l ly d i f f eren t ia ted , e co log ica l z one s . On l ow ly ing g round w i th w a te r r e ten t ion , l e gume s a nd w hea t may h ave b een g rown ; o nh ighe rg round , b a r ley , o l ive s a nd o the r t r ee c rop s ( f rom a co rn s t o p i s tach io s a nd a l mond s ) , a nd p e rhaps s w ine w e re h e rded ; w h i le i n t h e u p land s c a t t le , o v icap r ine s , a nd w i ld g ame ( i nc lud ing h o r se , a u roch s ,b oa r , a nd r e dd ee r )c ou ld n od oub th ave b een e xp lo i ted . S uch p a laeoeconom ic d ive r s if ica t ion , a nd c o r re s pond ing " ex ten s if ica t ion " o f t e r r i to r ia l e xp lo i ta t ion (Wa lke r 1 986a ) , i ss im i la r t op ropo sa ls made f o r t h e f o l low ing A rgar ic e a r ly b ronze a ge ( G i lman 1 98 1) . Wherea s G i lman s ugge s ted t h a t max ima l e x ten s ion o f l a nd u se t o ok p l ace i nt h eA rganc c u l tu re , mayb e p re s -

a s semb lage s c on ta in ing s im i la rg rave g ood sa nd s eve ra l

b u t i ta l so r em ind s u s o f ad i f fe ren t , much o ve r looked a spec to ft h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd : n ame ly , r ock p a in t i ng s . Na tu ra l is t ic ( Levan t ine ) r ock p a in t ing s o f p eop le a nd a n ima ls a r e s c a rce s ou th o r w e s t o f t h e w a te r shed b e tween t h e S egu ra b a s in a nd A nda lu s ia , b u t c ommon n o r th o fi t .C onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic )r ock p a in t ing s o ccu ri nb o th a r ea s . I si tc o inc idence t h a t t wo &f f e ren t a spec t s o ft h e a r c haeo log ica l r e co rd i n vo lv ing n a tu ra l r ock s he l te r s a nd c ave s ( a lbe i t u sua l ly d if eren t c aves ) name ly , b ur ia l a nd c onven t iona l ized p a in t ing a r e d i s t r ibu ted a c ro s s b o th a r ea s , w he rea s t wo o the ra spec t s o ft h er e co rd a r e g eograph ica l ly mo re s epa ra te n ame ly , n a tu ra l is t ic -

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t h a to f mo s te a r ly b ronze -age h am le t s . J u s th ow u n ifo rm i nt ime a nd s pace ,t h roughou t S .E . S pa in ,w e r ea eneo l i th ic p a laeodemog raphy a nd p a laeoe c onomy n e ed s t ob e c on s ide red . V a r iou s a u tho r s h ave

r ock p a in t ing sa nd a r t if ic ia l v au l t s? T he k ey w o rd i sm ore ,b ecau se i ti si n Murc ia ,i nt h e w e s te rn h a lf o f t h e S egu ra d r a inage b a s in , t h a t b o th o f t h e se o ccu r t o ge the r i n s ome n umbe r s , t h ank s t on ew f i nd s i n t h e p a s t 2 0 y ea r s ( cf Ga rc ia d e l T o ro 1 987 ) . T he re a r ee ven s i te s w i th b o th b ur ia l r ema in s a nd r ock

p o in ted t op a laeoeconom ic d i ve r s if ica t ion a nd p e rhap s

p a in t ing s : C ueva d e l P e l ic iego ( Fernández d e A v i lé s

p a laeoeconom ic s pec ia l iza t ion a tp a r t icu la r b ronze -age

1 939 -1940 ;F o r tea 1 974 -1975 ; Mo l ina & Mo l ina 1 973 : 1 56 -158 , C ueva d e l Humo , C ueva d e l a s C oncha s a nd

e nce o f mob i le s ubun i t s o f a eneo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s m ean t t h e ir t e r r i to r ia l r ange w a s v e ry much g r ea t e rt h an

s e t t lemen t s o ft h e s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . , w i th i mp l i c a t ion s f o r p a laeoeconom ic r e c ip roc i ty o r c omp lemen t a r i ty ( c f .Chapman e ia l .1 987 ; H a r r ison 1 985 ; H a r r i -

C ueva d e l a s P a loma s ( Be l t rán 1 987 ; S an N ico lá s 1 987 ) , Ab r igo d e l o s C a rbone ro s (M .S .N .T . , n .d .) a nd

s on & Mo reno 1 985 ;L u l l 1 983 : 4 28 -436 ) . A t s ome , o r p e rhap s mo s t , o f t h e s i te s w here i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a tt h e r e w a s s pec ia l iza t ion i n vo lv ing a

E lM i lano . D av id C la rke ( 1968 )s t re s sed t h ea t ten t ion a r chaeo lo g i s t s s hou ld p ay t o " r egu la r i r regu la r i t ie s" a nd " i r regu -

p a r t icu la rl a rge mamma l s pec ie s , an u l l h ypo the s is t h a t i tw a s c on s is ten t w i th p a laeoeconom ic s e lf -su f f ic iency

l a rr egu la r i t ies " i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd

c anno tb e s hown t ob ei nc l ea rc onf l ic tw i th t h ea r chae o log ica l r e co rd o f t h e s i te i nq ue s t ion . T h is w ou ld b e e ven mo re t r ue f o rt h ea eneo l i th ic ,w e re p a laeoeconom i c s pec ia l iza t ion o f s i te s t o b e i mag ined . C hapman ( 1990 : 1 33 -134 ) r ea son s t h a th e rd s w e re at r iv ia l c om p onen t o f a eneo l i th ic s ub s is tence a g r icu l tu re . E ven i f

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s uch a s

t h ea symme t ry j u s td e sc r ibed . C onven t iona l ized p a in ted mo t if s o n p o t te ry o ccu r a l ong s ide p a in ted mo t if s o n w a l ls o fr ock s he l te r s (Wa lke r 1 971 ; c f .Chapman 1 991 : 1 32 ) . C ueva d e l o s T ie s to s s ugge s t s t h e l i nk w a s s t i l l p re sen tc a . C -14 3 800 BP . R ed o chre i n a l l l e ve ls o f Ab r igo g r ande d e lB a r ranco d el o s G ra jo s wh ich h a s c onven t iona l ized p a in t ing sa nd C -14 a nd i i d e te rm ina -

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t i on s h in t s t h a t n a tu ra l is t ic ( Levan t ine ) p a in t ing s i n t h e a d jacen t r o ck s he l te r c ou ld d a te f r om C -1 4 7 500 -

t h ey p l ayed o n ly as ma l l p a r ti nt h ed a i ly f ood i n take ,i t n eed n o t mean t h ey c ou ld b e d i spen sed w i th i na n u n -

7 000 BP ( Wa lke r 1 972 , 1 977 , 1 986a ) . A no the rc ave w i th t r an s i t ion f r om m e so l i th ic t on eo -

s t ab le e nv i ronmen t .

l i th ic l a ye r s i sC ueva d e l aC oc ina

ASY MMETRY OF THE P REH ISTOR IC S TAGE

i n

V a lenc ia ( Fo r tea

1 971) ; an a tu ra l is t ic a n ima l w a s p a in ted o n i t s w a l l C on s ide ra t ion mus ta l so b e g i ven t og eog raph ica l d i v i -

( Pe r ico t 1 946 ) .A rche ry e qu ipmen tp a in ted a to t he rs i te s

s i on o fa eneo l i th ic S .E . S pa in i n to an o r the rn a r ea f r e q uen t ly i nb a s in s o rv a l ley b o t tom s a nd w i th c ave b u r i a l s o f ten a t ad i s tance , a nd a s ou thern a r ea w i th

s hows b o th s i ng le -ba rbed a r rowpo in t s ( p e rhap s m ic ro l i th ic ) a nd d oub le -ba rbed o ne s ( p re sumab ly b i fac ia l f l in ta r rowpo in t s ) (Wa lke r 1 971) . T he l a t te rw e re made

s e t t lemen t s s i tua ted p er iphe ra l ly t o b a s in s o r v a l ley

f r om n eo l i th ic t ob ronze -age t ime s ,a sw e re g eome t r ica l

1 40

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

m ic ro l i th s a l though t h ey g o b ack much e a r l ie r i n t h e H o locene . A s w e l l a sb e ing amo r tua ry " h inge " ,E l M i l a no o f fe r s ac h rono log ica l c on tex tf o r ap a in ted n a tu ra l i s t ic -conven t iona l ized o ve r lap . N a tu ra l is t ic p a in t ing i sa lmo s te n t ire ly m iss ing f r om a eneo l ith ic p o t te ry o r b onewo rk , whe rea s b o th may h ave c onven t iona l ized d eco ra t ion . Wa s t h e re ac omp lex

i z ed p o r t raya l . Two s c enar io s a r e s ugge s ted ,n o tn ece s sa r i ly mu tua l l ye xc lu s ive . F i r s t , e s tab l ished t r ad i t ion s o f u p land e x p lo i ta t ion o fp l an t s a nd a n ima l s may h ave b een e xpand e dt ot a ke a dvan tage o fl owe r ly ing h ab i ta t s o rp e rhap s m ine ra l r e sou rce s f o ri mp lemen t s ,p o t te ry o rd eco ra t ive o b jec t s . S econd ly , p o s s ib le c rop f a i lu re a tl owe r ly ing

s pa t io tempora l s p l i t : o n t h e o ne h and s pa t ia l ly , b e t ween n a tu ra l is t ic w a l l -pa in t ing s a nd c onven t iona l ized f i gu re s o n s ma l l o b jec t s , a nd o n t h e o the r c h rono log i -

h am le t s s ub jec t t o i n te rm i t ten t d rough t o r f l a sh f l ood s c ou ld h ave b een c ompen sa ted f o r b y m a in ta in ing a n i ma l s t ocks , b o th n ea r t os e t t lemen t s a nd f u r the ra f ie ld .

c a l ly , b e tween e a r l ie r n a tu ra l is t ic a r t o ft h e m e so l i th ic t o -ea r ly n eo l i th ic a nd c onven t iona l ized f i gu re s o f t h e

B one i mp lemen t s a nd d eco ra t ive o b jec t s a r e p l en t ifu l a nd w e re i mpo r tan t i n t h e a eneo l i th ic ; maybe s k in s , woo l , mea t ,m i lk ,a nd c hee se w e re t o o . T ho se a r ea s o fS .E . S pa in w h ich m a in ta ined p red ic t a b le , r egu la r p roduc t ion o f a n ima l a nd p lan t p roduce

l a te n eo l i th ic to -aeneo l i th ic? A lmo s t a l l p a in ted r ock s he l t e r s i nS .E . S pa in l i e i n u p land r eg ion s a nd t h e ir s ub jec t ma t te r i sl a rge g ame a nd a s soc ia ted h uman a c t iv i t ie s ( o f ten w i th b ows a nd a r rows ) ,w he rea sp l an t s a nd a s soc ia ted h uman a c t iv i t ie s a r e e xcep t iona l (Wa lke r 1 97 1 , 1 979 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fn a tu ra l is t ic p a in t ing s c o r re spond s w e l l w i th t h a t o f e p ipa laeo l i th ic , meso l i th ic a nd e a r ly n eo l i th ic s i te s n o r thwa rd s f r om t h e S egura w a te r shed t ot h eP y renee s ( Wa lke r 1 971 , 1 972 , 1 977 , 1 979 , 1 986a ) . Many u p land c ave s i te sw i th C a rd ium imp r e s sed e a r -

p robab ly l a y i nt h e u ppe r a nd m idd le r e ache s o fr i ve r b a s in s , o r i n e ndor rhe ic b a s in s . Up land h un t ing g round s ,a nd g r az ing a r ea sf o rd ome s t ic r um inan t s ( p e r h ap s o b jec t s o fs ho r t -r ange t r an shumance ) , c ou ld h ave b een b e t te r e xp lo i ted f r om s uch s e t t lemen t s t h an f r om t ho se b e s ide t h e c oa s t e ven t hough m e ta l o re s l i e n ea rby t h el a t te r wh ich may h ave d epended mo re o n -

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t h eh in te r land t h an i td id o nt h em . I ti sr a sh t op re sume c oa s ta l s i te s c ou ld o n ly h ave

l yn eo l i th ic p o t tery w e re u sed u p t o a eneo l i th ic t ime s . S ome o f t h e se , h oweve r , l i e S .W . o f t h e S egu ra w a t e r shed ( e .g . C ueva d e l aC a r ihüe la ) . C onven t iona l ized r o ck p a in t ing s a l so a bound i n Anda lu s ia , e spec ia l ly i n t h e n o r the rn Anda lu s ian moun ta in s . T hey a r e p robab ly n o e a r l ie r t h an t h e l a te n eo l i th ic . T he ir s ub jec t ma t te r

b een m a in ta ined b yi r r iga ted c u l t iva t ion a nd t h a ti t s e x i s tence s hou ld mean t h a t o the r r e sou rce s t ob ack i tu p w e re u n impo r tan t ( c f .G i lman & T ho rne s 1 985 : 1 811 82 ) . S uch a priori r ea son ing c onf l ic t sw i th ( a ) ad ea r th o fu namb iguou s a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o ra eneo l i th ic i r r iga t ion a tc oa s ta l -zone s e t t lemen t s ,

s t i l l s hows u s o ve rwhe lm ing c once rn w i th l a rge g ame a nd a r che ry . S ome n a tu ra l i s t ic p a in t ing s h in ta ti n t imacy b e tween

( b ) s ub s tan t ive e v idence f o rg rea te rs u r face mo i s tu re n ea rt h em d u r ing t h ea eneo l i th ic ,a nd ( c ) s ub s tan t ive p a laeodemog raph ica l d a ta t h a tp opu -

h uman s a nd l a rge a n ima ls ,p e rhap s t ame i ns ome c a se s . Af ew c onven t iona l ized d ep ic t ion s p o in tt od ome s t ica t i on a nd e ven t r ac t ion , a l though t h ese m igh t h ave b een e xecu t ed l a te i nt h eb ronze a ge t o ge the rw i th s po rad ica l

l a t ion s a th am le t s s uch a s E l A rga r , a nd n o d oub t L o s M i l la r e s a nd o t he rs e t t lemen t s , w e re s os ma l la st oh ave e a s i ly b een s u s ta ined b yc u l t iva t ing v ery s ma l l a r ea s o f

p o r t raya lo f me ta li mp lemen t s . I tm ay b e c on jec tu red t h a t l a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo -

a r ab le l a nd , p a r t icu la r ly i fr e sou rce " e x ten s if ica t ion " o r

l i th ic p a laeoeconom ic a c t iv i t ie s i nvo lved n o t o n ly e x p l o i ta t ion o ft e r r i to ry i n t h e i mmed ia te s ur round s o f a

t i on " ( Wa lke r 1 986a ) . T ha t i n te rp re ta t ion i sv e ry d i f f e ren t f r om b o th o ne t h a t s e e s c oa s ta l s e t t lemen t s a s amo to rd r iv ing a eneo -

d i ve r s if ica t ion p reva i led o ve r c e rea l -c rop " i n ten s if ica -

s e t t lemen t ,b u ta l so t h a to ft e r r i to ry s eve ra lo r many k i l ome t re s a way : i t s " ex tended " t e r r i to ry , s o t os peak . I t may b e s u rm ised t h a t c onven t iona l ized r ock p a in t ing s

l i th ic c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s i nS .E . S pa in , a nd a no the r t h a t s ee s ac en t ra l E u ropean s oc io -econom ic g a s -peda l b e -

r e p re sen t t h a t e x ten s ion o f s i te s whe re s im i la r mo t if s o ccu ro np o t tery o rb one ,f r om L o sM i l la re si nA lmer ia t oE re ta d e lP ed rega li nV a lenc ia . F rom t h ei n land d i s t r ibu t ion o fb o th n a tu ra l i s t ic r ock p a in t ings a nd o f e a r ly n eo l i th ic c ave o ccupa t ion s , i t m igh t b e a sked w he the r l a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic

i ng k i cked i n t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . b y a" s econ d a ry -p roduc t sr e vo lu t ion " wh ich g ave a dded r i ng a nd c l a ss t ot h a t mo to ri nS .E . S pa in . We i mag ine a nu t te r ly d i f f e ren tp i c tu re ,o f as pa r se ly p opu la ted l a nd scape i n wh ich , a sK un te r ( 1990 ) s t re s s e s , a4 -5% a nnua l d ea th r a te wou ld h ave p r even ted e ven

o p en s e t t lemen t s a ro se b y r e loca t ion o fu p land c ommu n i t ie s( a tl e a s t ,s ou th o ft h eE b ro )a t at i me w hen n a tu ra l i s t ic p a in t ing h ad l a rge ly g i ven w ay t oc onven t iona l -

s econd m i l lenn ium E l A rga r f r om s pawn ing d augh te r c o lon ies . T he d emog raphy e nv isaged r e semb le s mo re t h a t o fh un te r -ga the re r s w a tch ing o ve r al a rge a r ea a nd

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1 4 1

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p inpo in t ing r e sou rce s n o to n ly t ob eu sed b u ta l so s a f e g ua rded a ga in s t ar a iny d ay o r ap a rched o ne . Mob i le c ommun i t ie s may e ngage i nc u l t iva t ion a nd a n ima l h u sband ry : t o day t h e re a r e c ommun i t ie s i n t h e P a s v a l ley o fn o r the rn S pa in w ho se a nnua l r ound t a ke s

g o( Fe rnández d eA v i lé s 1 939 -1940 ;F o r tea 1 974 -1975 ; Mo l ina & Mo l ina 1 973 : 1 56 -158 ; S an N ico lá s 1 987 ) , Ab r igo d e l o s C a rbone ro s ( M .S .N .T . , n . d . ) , C ueva d e l

e ach f am i ly t h rough u p t o s i x o f i t s d i f f e ren t h ome s t ead s , s ca t te red a td i f fe ren t a l t i tud ina l a nd e co log ica l

i ng s o ccu r o n Mon tef r Io t omb L 5 ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 1 70 ,p 1 . 5 2 ) . I mpo r tance o fs econda ry a n ima l p roduc t s i si nd ica t -

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z one s t ob ee xp lo i ted ( F reeman 1 979 ) . Mob i l i ty n eed n o t , h oweve r , i n vo lve e n t ire c ommu n i t ie s o r e ven who le f am i l ie s ; i ti se nough f o r s ome g roup s t o d e tach t h em se lve s f o r ap er iod . S ince t h e M idd le Ages S pan ish h erdsmen u nder take l ong d i s tance t r an shumance , t hough i ti sf a r -f e tched t oc on j ec tu re a eneo l i th ic t r an shumance b e tween P y renean a nd Anda lu s ian mega l i th s ( H igg s 1 976 ) . H e rd -movemen t s u p t o 1 50 km m igh t b e i mag ined ( Dav id son 1 976 , 1 982 ; Wa lke r 1 983 ) a l though s ho r t e rd i s tances o fv e r t i -

H umo ,C ueva d el a sC oncha sa nd C ueva d el a sP a loma s ( Be l t rán 1 988 ;G a rc i ad e lT o ro 1 980 : 4 5 ) . A n ima l c a rv -

e d b y t h e r i ch b onewo rk o fS .E . S pa in ,f r om p in s ,p en d an ts , b u t ton s , t ogg le s , s pa tu la s ( ? ha ir o rnamen t s ? ) ‚ h a rpoon s , a r rowhead s , b ang le s , r i ng s , e t c . , a s w e l l a s l e a th e r( Cueva S ag rada 1 :A ya la 1 987 ) . H oweve r , t h e re

c a l t r an shumance w e re p robab ly mo re c ommon t h en a s

a r e f ew a eneo l i th ic l i dded p o t s ( "m i lk b o i ler s" ) o rp e r f o ra ted p o t s ( " chee se s t ra ine r s" ) ; p e rhap s m i lk f r om c ow s , s he ep , a nd g oa t s , w a s l i t t le u sed b e fo re t h e e a r ly b ronze a ge . Whee led v eh ic le s , p lough s a nd h a rne s s p i ece sa r en o tk nown e i the r ;t h ee a r l ie s te v idence c ome s f r om r ock a r t ( conven t iona l ized ) , p robab ly o f t h e l a te r

n ow . O the rd i sp lacemen t s p e rhap sw e re t op a r t icu la rh un t -

b ronze a ge ( Aco s ta 1 968 ,p a s s im ) . P e rhap s S .E . S pan ish l a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic

i ng p re se rve s o f d i sc re te g roup s , e spec ia l ly i n a r ea s w he re t h e i r me so l i th ic o rn eo l i th ic f o rebea r s h ad l i ved . T rad i t ion st ob e ma in ta ined ,w h ich r e la te c l a im so np a r t i cu la rl a nd t os pec i f ic a nce s to r s o rp a s te ven t s , a re n o t c onf ined t o Au s t ra l ian Abo r ig ina ls . I n l a te Med iaeva l S co t land , many c l an p a s tu re s o r h un t ing c ha se s c ou ld s t i l l b e s epa ra ted f r om ac l an ' s ma in v i l lage s b yl a nd o f

s oc ie ty w a s s egmen ted a nd i t s d im inu t ive , d i spe r sed c ommun i t ie s c on ta ined s po rad ica l ly mob i le s ubun i t s , p e rhap s men w ho t r a ip sed a round t h e l a nd scape ,c u ra t i ng r e se rve s i na nce s t ra l h igh land t e r r i to r ie s . T he c on j ec tu re n o t o n ly a f fo rd s ar o le f o r t h e a bundan t r ock

o t he rc l an s ,t h rough wh ich p a s sage r equ i red n ego t ia t ion o ra l l iance s . E thnog raph ica l mode ls c an h a rd ly b e i mpo sed o n p reh is to r ic S pa in b u t i t s e mp ty , s em i -a r id l a nd scape c ou ld a l low a n e l emen t o f mob i l i ty a nd t h e s pa r sene ss

p a in t ing s i ns pa t io tempo ra l c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s ,b u ta l so may e xp la in w hy e a r l ies t n eo l i th ic a t temp t s a tm ixed a g r icu l ture w e re i n u p land c aves a nd n o t l ow ly ing h am le t s( cf . Wa lke r 1 986a a nd r e f s . ) . I ta ccoun t s f o r t h e t a rdy a ppearance o f l ow ly ing h am le t s ,i nt h el a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic , b yr e la t ing t h e ir l o ca t ion i np a r t t ot h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fn on -

o fi t sp opu la t ion m igh th ave f a vou red ac a re fu l c u ra t ion o fl a rge t e r r i to r ie s s o t h a t i fc rop s f a i led ac ommun i ty

e d ib le n a tura l r e sou rce s f o r m ak ing d u rab le c ommod i t i e s . A s w i th e a r ly a t temp t sa ta g r icu l tu re ,t h et e chno lo -

m igh tt a ke t ot h eh i l ls a nd l i ve o f ft h el a nd ( cf .B info rd 1 983) . P opu la t ion s o fa bou t 1 00 a tL o s M i l la re s o rE l A rga r wou ld n o t h ave n eeded e no rmou s h e rd s o fl a rge g ame t os u rv ive . C u ra t ion o fd ome s t ica ted a nd w i ld h e rd se n su red n o t

g y n eeded w a s d oub t le ss b o r rowed a nd a dap ted t o s t r ic t ly r eg iona l p r io r i t ie s ad er iva t ive , h ome spun

j u s t s econda ry p roduc t s , b u t a l so ma in tenance o fs k i l ls a nd l o re s uch t h a ta n ima l r e sou rce s c ou ld a lways b ee x p lo i ted mo re i n ten s ive ly w hen n eed a ro se . P erhap s h un t ing o r o the r m an ly e xp lo i t s w i th l a rge a n ima ls o r t h e ir c on se rva t ion f o r t r ansac t ions ( e .g . b r ide p r ice s ) , m igh t h ave b een i mpo r tan tf a ce t so fs oc ia l l i f e . L a rge m amma ls w e re p e rce ived d i f fe ren t ly f r om d o m e s t ica ted p l an t s .T hey p redom ina te i nn a tu ra l is t ic ( Le v an t ine ) a nd c onven t iona l ized ( s chema t ic ) r ock a r t , w h ich h a rd ly e ve r s hows p lan t s ( Aco s ta 1 968 ; B e l t rán 1 982 ; Wa lke r 1 97 1) . S ome t ime s s i te s w i th b ur ia ls h ave a n ima l p a in t ing s : i na dd i t ion t oE l M i lano t h ey i n c lude C ueva d e lP e l ic ie -

/'

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t e chno logy i nb o th i n s tance s . T he c on jec tu re a l so a ccoun t s f o r b o th n eg l ig ib le g row th i np opu la t ion , e ven a s l a te a s t h e A rga r ic , a nd e s tab l ishmen t o f v ery l oca l ized g roup s o fp eop le w i th c r an io log ica l ly d i s t inc ti nhe r i ted t r a i t s . I ta ccoun t s f o r u nde r ly ing h omogene i ty o fl a te n eo l i th ic a nd a eneo l i th ic b u r ia l a s semb lage s i n mo r tuary s t ruc tu re s o rn a tu ra l v au l t s t h roughou t S .E . S pa in f r om V a lenc ia t o Má laga . T h is h omogene i ty n eed s f u r the r d i scu s s ion , i nt h e l i gh t o fr egu la r i r regu la r i t ie s a nd i r r egu la rr egu la r it ie s w i th in t h a tr eg ion . T hey c an i np a r t b eu nde r s tood ,i nt e rm so ft h ec on jec tu re o f fe red a bove , i fa r t if ic ia l v au l t s w e re p e rce ived a sb e ing h omo logou s w i th n a tu ra l o ne s , a nd t h e refo re t oh ave b een r equ ired w he re t h el a t te rw e re t h in o nt h eg round ,b u tu sua l ly n o t o the rw ise w i th t h e i n te re s t ing e xcep t ion i n t h e a r -

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M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

S t a ted b lun t ly , s e a sona l v i s i to r s f r om t h ec oa s tc ou ld s upp ly n a tu ra l r e sou rce s , u se fu l f o r mak ing p a r t icu la r

c haeo log ica lr e co rd o fs ou thern a nd w e s te rn Mu rc ia b e t ween t h eR . S egu ra a nd Anda lu s ia . H e re , l i ke v ery m any o the rp a in ted r ock s he l te r s , E l M i lano o ve r look s an a tu ra lc o r r ido rb e tween t h ee a s te rn

c on sume r d u rab le s , wh ich w e re o n ly a va i lab le n ea r t h e c oa s t , e spec ia l ly c oppe r , t i n a nd s i lve r ( 48 ) . T he r e c ip i e n t s , o n t h e o the rh and , c on t ro l led a cce s s t o as u rp lu s

A nda lu s ian u p land sa nd t ho se o fA lbace te ,A l ican te a nd V a lenc ia . T he se c o r r ido r s s e em t oh ave b een f a vou red g r az ing a r ea sa nd n a tu ra lr ou te sf o r movemen t so fh e rd s o fl a rge m amma ls s i nce t h em e so l i th ic ( Wa lke r 1 973a ,

o f a n ima l r e sou rces p e rhap s c ove ted b y c oa s ta l d we l le r sl e s sf o ri t si mmed ia te u se t h an i t sp o ten t ia lv a l u e a sa ni n su rance p o l icy a ga in s t c rop f a i lu re o rf o ri t s r e a l o r s ymbo l ic w o r th a s ac ommod i ty b y mean s o f wh ich p e r sona l i den t if ica t ion i n t h e s oc ie ty w as a ch ieved o rs pou se s w e re a cqu ired .

1 979 ; D av idson 1 976 , 1 980 ) . P a in ted r o ck s he l te r s a r e mos t ly o n h igh g round , s u i tab le f o r h un t ing a nd S um m e r g r az ing . Concur rence o f a bove -g round mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re sa nd l ime s tone c ave su sed f o rb u r ia li su ncom -

C ommun i t ie s i nt h e c oa s ta l b e l t w e re n o l a rge r t h an

mon i nS .E . S pa in , e xcep t , s i gn i f ican t ly , i nt h is p a r to f Mu rc ia . E l M i lano h a s e l emen t so fb o th t y pe s o fb u r ia l ,

t ho se f u r the r i n land o r f u r the r n o r th , n o r c ou ld t h ey g row f a s te r . A l l c ommun i t ie s w e re m inu scu le a nd t h e ir g row th r a te s n eg l ig ib le . A ny f ounda t ion o f n ew c om mun i t ie sa t ad i s tance r equ i red u p land n eo l i th ic c ommu -

h i gh l igh t ing t h e ir e s sen t ia l c ommona l i ty . U se o fc ave s o r r ock s he l te r s f o r mu l t ip le i n te rmen t w a s a dap ted t o d i f f e ren t g eo log ica l c i rcum s tance s b y a r t if ic ia l mod if ica t ion o ft h el a nd scape a bove -g round mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re so r v au l t s e xcava ted u nde rg round a nd b y i n co rpora t ing mo r tua ry c on s t ruc t ion i n s ome -

n i t ie s t ot a ke d emog raph ica l r i sk s wh ich c a r r ied s oc io e conom ic c o s t s . Any n ew c ommun i t ie s w ou ld b e b o rn w i th ad eb t t h a t h ad t ob e h onou red f o r many g ene ra -

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r o ck s he l te r s . T omb s may h ave b een at e chno logy f o r d i spo sa l o ft h ed ead b o r rowed f r om e l sewhe re w i th in o r

t i on st oc ome . T h i s c l ea r ly d id n o tt a ke p l ace i n at ime -warp . S k i l l f u l u p land c ave -dwe l l ing c ommun i t ie s , w i th t h e ir l i fe -

b eyond t h eI be r ian P en in su la . S. E . S pa in i ss pec ia l b e c ause n o t o n ly a r e t h e re many d i f fe ren tk ind s o fa r t if i -

l i ke p a in t ings o fh un t ing a nd g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie s , t r ied o u t n ew t e chno log ie s o f p o t t ing a nd p e rhap s a n ima l -

c i a l mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s b u tn a tu ra l p ackag ing w a s a l so c on s ide red a pp rop r ia te ( c ave s , r ock s he l te r s , c r ev ice s )

t am ing a s t h ey b ecame a va i lab le i nt h e We s te rn Med i t e r ranean ; m aybe i nr e spon se t og row ing a r id i ty i nS .E . S pa in c a . C -14 7 500 BP . T hey a dded t e chno log ie s o f

f o rd i spo sa l o ft h e d ead . T he r e w a s e xpe r imen ta l a dap t a t ion o f amo r tuary t e chno logy ,i n c lud ing b o th v au l ted a nd u nvau l ted s t ruc tu re s ,t o al i f e s ty le d om ina ted b yt h e n a tu ra l v au l t so f fe red b yc ave sa nd r ock -she l te r s . Mo s t c ave b u r ia ls a r e n o r th o f A nda lus ia a nd mo s t mo r tua ry s t ruc tu re s a r e s ou th o f A l ican te . T h is i n t ra r e g iona l d i f f e rence i nd i spo sa l o ft h e d ead p e rhap s r ep r e sen t s o u ri mpo s i t ion o np a s tl a nd scap e so ff o rma lc a t e go r ie s a nd s t ruc tu ra l d i cho tom ie s wh ich mean tn o th ing t op r eh i s to r ic p eop le . N a tu ra l c ave sa r el e ss c ommon i n A lme r ia , G ranada a nd c oa s ta l Mu rc ia , w he re i gneou s a nd m e tamo rph ic r ock s p redom ina te , t h an f u r the rn o r th w he re l ime s tone p redom ina te s . P u ti nt e rm s o fl i fe -way s r a the rt h an o fd ea th ,a c t iv i t i e s i n vo lv ing p e r iod ica l ( o rl onge r ) s e t t lemen t s i nl ow l y ing b a s ins w i th w a te r -ho le s , f r om t h e G ranada u p l a nd s t ot h e Gu lf o fV a lenc ia ,c ou ld a l so h ave i n vo lved movemen t s f r om t h em i n to t h e h igh land s f r ing ing t h e Me se ta . I fd i spe r sed c ommun i t ie sd we l ti nt h a te co log i c a l z one a nd c u ra ted a n ima l h e rds , a l be i t r e ce iv ing p e rhap s i n S umme r -t ime h e rd smen w ho w e re k in s f o lk , b u t w ho h ad s e t t led n ea re r t ot h e Mu rc ian o r A l m e r ian c oa s tc a .C -14 5 500 -4500 BP ,t h en i ti sc once iv -

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a n ima l h u sband ry a nd c e rea l g row ing f o l low ing r e turn o f mo re h um id c ond i t ion s c a . C -14 6 500 BP , wh ich p e rm i t ted c rop sa nd i n -pa s tu re sa tu p land l o ca l i t ie sn ea r t ot h e ir c ave s . B ecau se t h et e chno logy w a sa dop ted ,a nd a dap ted t o t h e i r l i f e s ty le , r a the r t h an t h e o the r w ay r ound , mob i le s ubun i t s c a r r ied o nc u ra t ing w ide t e r r i to r i e s w h i le o the r s e ngaged i n mo re i n ten s ive p a laeoeco n om ic s ub s is tence p roduc t ion . T ha t a s tu te s t ra tegy o fh edg ing t h e ir b e t s made f o r , a nd e ven d emanded , n eg l ig ib le g row th r a te s a nd v e ry l ow p opu la t ion d en s i ty . S po rad ica l c on tac t s o ccu r red w i th d i s tan tc ommun i t ie s . C a rd ium imp re ssed c e ram ic o rnamen ta t ion , p o l ished s t one a nd b one t e chno log ie s , a nd b i fac ia lf l in two rk ing t e s t ify t oi t .I tg r ew a st h en eo l i th ic a dvanced . I n t h e l e e o f t h e e a s te rn P y renee s , t h e C a ta lan p i t g rave c u l tu re b o r rowed much f r om F rance a nd I t a ly . S ou th o ft h e R . E b ro ma t ter s t ook ad i f fe ren t c ou r se , w he re mob i l i ty o f s ubun i t s h ad a l lowed e a r ly n eo l i th ic p rac t ice s t o e x tend t oc ave s i n t h e A l ican te a nd Anda lu s ian u p land sb yC -14 6 500 BP . S e t t lemen ti nl ow ly ing s i tua t ion s o n ly b egan a r ound C -1 45 200 BP ,b y wh ich t ime mo re s po rad ica l c on tac t s

a b le t h a t ar e la t ion sh ip d eve lop ed b e tween u p land a nd

o ccu r red w i th f a r Med i te r ranean s ho re s t h an o ve r land

l ow land c ommun i t ie s wh ich w a s r e c ip roca l b u t a sym -

o ne s w i th C a ta lon ia . Dur ing t h e a eneo l i th ic o ve r land

m e t r ica l .

c on tac t s o ccu r red b o th w i th w e s te rn I be r ia a nd C a ta lo -

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

ma . Ou ri n t ra -reg iona l f o cu s s i de s tep s p rob lem s o fs pa t i o tempo ra l d i rec t iona l i ty r a ised b y a eneo l i th ic c on t a c t s , w he the r w i th t h eT agu s c u l tu re o rr ep resen ted b y b e l l b eake r s . R a the r , wha t i ss ugge s ted h e re i st h a t l a te n eo l i th ic l ow land s e t t lemen t i n S .E . S pa in w a s a n o u tcome o f

O n t h e o the r h and , whe re c oa s ta l e x ten s ion o f u p land t e r r i to r ie s e i the rd id n o t t a ke p l ace , o r w he re l ime s tone a bound s i n c oa s ta l r eg ions ( b e tween A l ican te a nd V a l e nc ia ) mo r tua ry st ruc tu r et e chno logy w a ss upe rf luou s . H oweve r ,w he re e x ten s ion o fu p land t e r r i to r ie sl e dt o

s l ow i n t ra reg iona l d emog raph ica l p roce s se s o fc hange a nd t h a t i t s l a te n eo l i th ic ma ter ia l c u l tu re w a s a n o u t c ome o f e qua l ly s l ow i n t ra -reg iona l t e chno log ica l a c -

s e t t lemen t s b e ing e s tab l ished i na r ea s wh ich w e re n o t j u s tp oo ri nn a tu ra l c ave s ,b u ta l so s of a ra way f r om t h e e r s twh i le h ome land s t h a t r o le s w e re i nve r ted a nd t h e l aue rc ame t of o rm p a r t o fa n e x tended t e r r i to r ia l z one

c r e t ion a nd o ppo r tun is t ic e xp lo i ta t ion o fr e sou rce s a nd r e se rve s b y c ommun i t ie s b ound b y m inu scu le h am le t s a nd d i spe r sa l o f p roduc t ive s ubun i t s , p e rhap s l e d b y

o fn ew h am le t s , r a the r t h an t h e o the r w ay r ound , t h en many a bove -ground t ombs w e re b u i l t ( e .g . L o s M i l l a re s ) . T he s pa t io tempo ra l a symme try o f t h ea r chaeo -

t a sk l e ade r so rL i t t le B ig Men .

l og ica l r e co rd i sp a r s imon iou s ly r e so lved b y ac on jec t u re t h a t s ome s oc ia l a c to r s h ad r eve r sed t h e ir r o le s . B u i ld ing t omb s c ou ld h ave b een o rgan ized b y t a sk -

G row th w a sp e rhap s s t rang led b yo ve r r id ing r equ ire men t s t oi n teg ra te aw ide r ange o f e xp lo i ta t ive s t ra te g i e s w h ich f o r a ny g i ven h am le ti n vo lved al a rge a r ea

f o rce f o remen

-

-

n o t s o much B ig Men ( c f .Ramo s

o f t h e r e g ion . T he re c ou ld h ave b een r e qu iremen t s t o p ay b ack a d eb t o f h onou r t o a n i n land c ommun i ty wh ich h ad f ounded i ti nt h e f i r s tp l ace , a nd t o ma in ta in

M i l lán 1 981) a s L i t t le B ig Men w i thou t h e red i ta ry a s c r ip t ion o fr ank .

a n i n su rance p o l icy a ga in s t h a rd t ime s i n as em i -a r id

WANTED : S OC IAL ACTORS , DEAD OR AL IVE !

l ow land e nv ironmen t s ub jec t t oc r ipp l ing d rough t s a nd d eva s ta t ing f l a sh f l ood s . T ho se e nv ironmen ta l c i rcum s tance s f a vou red d i ve r -

R ev . C hasub le :

s i f ica t ion a nd " ex ten s if ica t ion" o ft h e s ub s is tence e con omy o ve r monoc rop i n ten s if ica t ion (Wa lke r 1 986a ) . E x t rac t ion a t , a nd d i spe r sa l f r om , s pec i f ic l o ca l i t ie s o f s uch d u rab le c ommod i t ie s a s m ine ra ls ( f l in t , c oppe r , d umb -be l l s haped c onc re t ion s , i gneou s s t one f o r a xe h ead s ,m ine ra l p igmen t s ,c l ay s ,o rg r i t s l i ke t h ep h logo p i te -r ich j um i l l i te f i l le ru sed b y t h e E l P rado p o t te r s a t

. .

.

t h e p rac t ice o f t h e P r im i t ive

C hu rch w a sd i s t inc t ly a ga in s t ma t r imony . M i ss P r ism : T ha t i so bv iou s ly t h e r e a son w hy t h e P r im i t ive C hu r ch h a s n o tl a s ted u pt ot h ep r e sen td ay . ( Osca r Wi lde , T he I mpor tance o fB e ingEar n e s t . ) C on jec tu res o f g row ing p opu la t ion p re s su re wh ich

J um i l la i n Mu rc ia ) , o rs uch a sa n ima l o rp l an tp roduc t s ( bone ,l e a the r , esparlo g ra s sf o rc l o th ing ,r ope sa nd b a s -

i nduced ap o l i t ica l e conomy ( Ramo s M i l lán 1 981) a r e u nwa r ran ted , b ecau se " popu la t ion p re s su re a rgumen t s a s sume wha t t h ey s hou ld d emons t ra te" ( Chapman

k e t ry ) mu s t h ave l e d t oe s tab l ishmen t o f am in ima li n f r a s t ruc tu re a tt ho se p l ace s ,e ven t hough a r ab le l a nd a nd

1 990 : 1 47 ) . M in ima l g row th ra te i n fe r red f r om E l A rg a rp a laeoan th ropo logy ( Kun te r 1 990 ) r ende r s p a laeo -

g ood p a s tu re may s ome t ime sh ave b een s c a rce . T he i n f ra s truc tu re may h ave b een t empo ra ry a nd a l -

d emograph ica l c on jec ture b ased o n s e t t lemen t e nc lo su re a r ea ( Chapman 1 990 : 1 57 -158 ) e qua l ly u n -

mo s tc e r ta in ly w a s s oa tp a in ted r ock s he l te r s . I ti sp o s -

t e nab le (Wa lke r 1 992 ) , p ar t icu la r ly i fe nc lo s ing M i l la r an w a l l s w e re " s ymbo l ic" ( Chapman 1 990 : 1 74 ) . A s

s i b le t h a t o pen s e t t lemen t s o n s ome v a l ley f l oo r s o r i n e ndo r rhe ic b a s in s ( s uch a sE l P rado ) w e re u sed a tp a r -

l a te a s t h e I be r ian c u l tu re ( 500 -200 B .C . ) l a rge e nc lo -

t i cu la r s e a son s o ft h e y ea r , p e rhap s a sW in te rp a s tu re s o r p erhap s a s mee t ing p l ace s o rn ode s i ne xchange n e t -

s u re s w e re s pa r se ly i nhab i ted , t h e ir ma s s ive w a l ls p e r -

w o rk s . I fc oa s twa rd e x ten s ion o fu p land e xp lo i ta t ion t e r r i to -

s u r round ing l a nd ( Wa lker 1 988d ) . S cep t ic ism i si n deed n ece s sa ry a bou t c on jec tu re s o f p opu la t ion p re s su re o rg row th ( pace L u l l 1 983 ; R amo s

r i e s b egan f i r s t i n t h e u p land s o f t h e S egu ra d ra inage b a s in w he re t h e re a r ec ave s w i th n eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion -

-

h ap s s e rv ing mo re t o r e in fo rce c ommun i ty c l a im s o n

M i l lán 1 981) . P opu la t ion s may h ave b een s ma l le r a nd

( f rom C ueva Amb ro s io o r Ab r igo g rande d e l B ar ranco d e l o s G ra jos t o C ueva d e l N ac im ien to , C -14

mo re s t a t ic t h an e ven C hapman i mag ine s . S ub s tan t ive a rgumen ts p u t i nj eopa rdy h i s n umbe r g ame s wh ich

7 630±140 , 6 780±130 , 5 480±120 , 3 990±120 BP , G if 3 74 1 , -2368 , -5422 , -5421) t h en i ti sp e rhap su nde r s tanda -

p u rpo r ted t o " s uppo r tL u l l ' s c l a im o fi n c rea sed p opu la -

b l e t h a t amo r tua ry -s t ruc tu re t e chno logy d eve loped f o r c ave le ss c oa s ta l r eg ion s w a s c ar r ied b ack a nd u sed e ven w he re i tw a s n o t s t r ic t ly n ece ssa ry ( E l M i lano ) .

t i on i nt h eE ar l ie rB ronze Age" ( Chapman 1 990 : 1 58 ) . T hey u nde rm ine c l a im s ( Lu l l 1 983 ) t h a tE lA rga rw a s a l e ad ing s e t t lemen t i n s oc io -econom ic t e rms , m a in ta in i ng s oc ia l c on t ro lo ve rt h er eg ion t h rough as t ruc tu re i n -

1 44

MICHAEL J. WALKER and MIGUEL SAN NICOL.AS DEL TORO

volving 3 or even 4 social classes. Kunter's palaeodem­ ographical inferences render unlikely any chance that El Argar could have spawned daughter communities. They also suggest abundance of grave goods increas­ es with biological age at death. No statistical findings support any conjecture that buried infants were attribut­ ed, let alone ascribed, rank or special status. Arguing that isolated instances (e.g. La Bastida) represent just what should be anticipated if ascribed status of limited access to uncommon resources had existed, is to pre­ sume what needs to be archaeologically demonstrated. As already remarked, not even Lull feels this to be firm evidence for social stratification (Lull 1983: 324). His statistical association analysis of El Argar burial assem­ blages does not conflict with possible existence of 3 or 4 groupings. It is less clear whether the groupings were contemporaneous social ones (as Lull claims), represent sequential change in assemblages of grave goods, or both together. Cave and dromos burial at Fuente Alamo, and multi­ ple Argaric interments in mortuary structures in caves at Cerro de la Encioa, are unsurprising in the light of preceding aeneolithic burial practice. The Argaric slowly shifts away from it, but that hardly implies implanta­ tion of exotic customs (pace Schubart 1976). It is fashionable to interpret Argaric funerary assemblages in terms of a change from collective to individual interest in the paraphernalia of death, or go even further and interpret Argaric society as increasingly stratified as time went on (Gilman 1981; Lull 1983; Chapman 1990). The interpretation depends on conjecturing, or conjuring, prestige from grave goods. Once more, such argument presumes what needs to be demonstrated other than by circular reasoning. It is less likely that El Argar folk were so busy administering S.E. Spain that they failed to till their fields, thereby bringing about social collapse (thus Lull 1983), than that being so few in number they were too busy making ends meet to do anything else. Splendid aeneolithic burial assemblages are more parsimoniously interpreted as due to accretional siteformation processes of accumulation over the centuries, rather than to prestige. Because hydraulic technology at Los Millares can hardly be later -- and is probably earlier -- than at in­ land sites like Cerro de la Virgen, and because some coastal walled hamlets such as Cabeza del Plomo were underway at C-14 5000 BP, substantive findings undermine conjectures that hydraulic technology only reached the coast after irrigation farming had begun inland, and that rapid introduction near the coast of agriculture or Millaran walled hamlets with tombs, and, later on, an Argaric cultural "consolidation". were

outcomes of unidentified, imaginary aeoeolithic "cri­ ses" (pace Mathers 1984a). Cultural buffering through reciprocal exchange of commodities over a regional exchange network need not be encumbered with such conjectures. Once shorn of them, an aeneolithic prestigious economy and emer­ gent socio-political control seem less than self­ evidently necessary outcomes of regional integration. The same goes for conjectures about elite Argaric war­ riors (Gilman 1981). Archaeological findings suggest the Argaric culture arose with scant trauma from the S.E. Spanish aeneolithic (Lull 1983: passim). Intra-regional integration of aeoeolithic strategies is inferred from splendid burial assemblages in natural and artificial burial places. Maybe intra-regional inte­ gration is least needed where environmental parameters of most settlements are similar. Hence the aeneolithic contrast, between low-lying settlements from the Segu­ ra drainage basin northwards, and settlements interme­ diate between low-lying land and high ground to the south, may be a pointer to intra-regional integration prior to attainment of a geographically more uniform pattern of site territorial exploitation in the early bronze age, particularly if by that time erosion had led to the silting-over of low-lying areas which then required ex­ ploitation of upland resources further afield once more. Aeoeolithic exchange networks may therefore be antici­ pated in S .E. Spain which link areas north of the R. Se­ gura to those of southern Murcia, Almeria, and Grana­ da, and, indeed, inferred from some aspects of grave goods. It is that broad geographical scope of interaction, in­ volving what, at first glance, might seem to be cultural­ ly distinct funerary packaging (although not the packag­ es), which distinguishes the interpretation proposed here. Another difference is that this interpretation takes account not just of geographically discrete distributions of typologically separate forms of burial packaging, but also of geographically discrete distributions of analo­ gous packaging of non-funerary artifacts, both domestic and artistic. It attempts to fit spatio-temporal regular ir­ regularities and irregular regularities of all of them to the most parsimonious palaeodemographical explana­ tion consistent with palaeoeoviroomental opportunities and limitations and with the possibility that technologi­ cal adoptions were adapted for those. El Milano occupies a key position in the model of spatio-temporal dynamic change inferred here. Socio­ economic inequalities between deceased social actors are nowhere seen to be self-evident; if anything they are conspicuous by their absence during the third and, prob­ ably, much of the second millennia B.C .. By contrast,

YYV\/VS2V\2S2S2V\2S2S2V\2S2V\2S2S2V\2S2S&S2S2S2S2S2S2V\2S2S2S2S,

145

RITUAL, RITES AND RELIGION IN PREHISTORY

ex.tended territorial behaviour may hold the key as much to maintenance of intra-regional contacts as to demographical fragility of individual settlements and their negligible growth, Unlike other exponents of integration, we hold the chronological record to be fundamental to understand­ ing regional dynamics in prehistory. If that record im­ plies consideration of archaeological phenomena of di­ verse formal typology occurring over a broader geographical spread than that which at first glance seemed to be involved, then lateral thinking simply means expanding regional borders laterally. In the case of S.E. Spanish aeneolithic burials, that means broaden­ ing the regional scope from eastern Andalusia to take in Murcia, Alicante and Valencia, especially aeneolithic burial assemblages at caves in the latter. This makes sense of the overall intra-regional ar­ chaeological record and its chronological sequence, while at the same time it lessens a need to invoke a deus ex machina of social prestige as a useful explanatory concept or methodological tool. It does not attempt to provide any answer to matters about extra-regional rela­ tionships; working hypotheses about these must be the object of a separate archaeological investigation. Suf­ fice it to say that even if they existed, they need not greatly alter the inferences which result from this one. EPILOGUE Nevertheless, one consequence of the kind of argument outlined here may be that reconsideration is in order of how archaeologists should regard aeneolithic burials in caves and artificial vaults outside S.E. Spain, both in the Iberian Peninsula and beyond the Pyrenees. Wheth­ er Riparo Valtanesi and El Milano have much in com­ mon or not, neither belongs to a widely known type of aeneolithic funerary practice. They warn against over­ simplification of burial categories. Again, those conjectures which imply a spill-over to Spain of Central European aeneolithic and early bronze-age socio-economic evolution, end up in S.E. Spain as a Procrustean Bed onto which local findings are racked into shape, willy-nilly. If these findings are less than unambiguous there are always some prehisto­ rians prepared to lean over backwards and assert the likely, albeit unverified, presence in the archaeological record of prestigious commodities, animal traction, hy­ draulic technology, ranked societies, or redistributive economies. Prehistoric S.E. Spain need no more have reflected, say, the Danube-Rhine basins, than do High­ land New Guinea horticultural communities reflect those of neighbouring Javanese palace societies or of

Arnhem Land hunter-gatherer ones. A major problem concerns those performance crite­ ria by which we can disentangle what was conceptually equivalent from what ought to be interpreted as specific to well-circumscribed prehistoric communities in time and space (in Catalonia, for ex.ample). Catch-all expla­ nations have to be avoided that ex.plain nothing by ex.­ plaining away everything (c/ .Murray & Walker 1988; Walker 1989-1990, 1990b). It is therefore necessary that interpretations permit formulation of working hy­ potheses about the data, capable either of being refuted within that part of the archaeological record they pur­ port to illuminate, or, at least, of making reliable predic­ tions about those parts of it as yet undiscovered. Like the Bible, historical and ethnographical analo­ gies, drawn from other times or other places, may not be surest guides to irrefutable truths about observable normative behaviour. If the prehistoric record tells us anything important at all, it surely is that human behavi­ our has undergone a great deal of change, albeit differ­ ently in different segments of the record from the past. The task of archaeologists is to "decompose" echoes of music from the past, which reaches us piecemeal amid much background noise (Murray & Walker 1988; Walker 1989-1990, 1990b). The task is to unpick what has come through to us and to discern those different pitches, tonalities. wavelengths, frequencies, ampli­ tudes, and combinations of notes which were sounded by prehistoric musicians who improvised and adapted their folk music as they went along, using a diversity of poorly known instruments, sometimes mastered indif­ ferently. It is a daunting task, but one that is only made harder by appeals to concepts that assume what needs to be demonstrated. We are unsure how far our proposal is open to poten­ tial refutation, or even corroborative prediction, by fu­ ture research within the S.E. Spanish prehistoric record. Site-formative and site-degenerative processes need much more investigation, especially from the perspec­ tive of off-site archaeology, before we can begin to feel satisfied with it. Computer-assisted dynamic modelling is also required which takes account of substantive pre­ historic findings before our Little Big Men-No Growth model of ex.tended territorial activity can be shown to be at least mathematically possible.

YSZSZVSZ\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\&SZ\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\Z\2S.

146

M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS D EL TORO

NOTES ( 1 ) A cco rd ing t o mo rpho scop ica la nd g r anu lome tnca la na ly se su nd er taken b yg eo log i s tJ . L . P ér ez -Cuadrado . ( 2 ) S pa in h a s 4v u l tu re s : t h eG r i f fon V u l tu re ( Gyp sf u lvu s ) ,t h eC ine reou so rE gyp t ian B lack V u l tu re ( Aegyp iu sm on a rchu s ) ,t h eP e rcnop te r ,P ha roahs C h icken ,o rE gyp t ian Wh i t eV u l tu re ( Neoph ronpe rcnop teru s ) ,a nd t h eL amme r g e ie ro rB ea rded Vu l tu re ( Gypae lu sb a rba tu sa ureu s ) . ( 3 ) T he d eco ra t ion o ft h i ss ma l ls he rd i sa sc ompa rab le t ot h a to fb e l lb eake r sa si ti st o" p r e -beake r "w a re f r om C ueva Amb ro s io ( Savo ry , 1 968 : 1 72 -173 ; Wa lke r 1 973a , 1 985a , 1 986a ; c f .de l Ca s t i l lo 1 922 ,1928 ,1943 ,1944 ,1947 ;J imé n ez 1 947 : p ace H a r r i son , 1 977 :3 ) .O ne o fu s( M .J .W . )s po t ted as he rd w i th z one so fi n c i sed c ro s se so nt h eC ueva Am b ro s io s po i lh eap . No to n ly i sz ona l " p re -be l lb eake r "h achu r ing a nd i n c ised d eco ra t ion f ound a ts e ve ra l s ou thea s te rn s i te s ( M i l lán 1 950 ) ,b u ta tC ueva Amb ro s io o ne s he rd b o re e xc i sed d eco ra t ion ,e l sewhe re t h eh a l lma rk o f" C iempo z ue lo s "b e l lb eake r s ( J iménez 1 962 : 2 9 ,f i g . 1 0 ,n o . 1 ) .A tC ueva d el a Mo ra i nS o r ia b e l lb eake r sc ome f r om ad epo s i t w i th C -14 4 730±120 a nd 4 620±130 BP ,C S IC -68 , -69 ( Ba rand ia rán 1 975 : 6 0 ; 1 976 ) . A tZ a inbu ja lb e l lb eake r sg ob ack n o tj u s tt op ha se 2( C -1 44 200±50 BP : Gome s L i sboa 1 987 ) ,b u tv e ry p robab ly t op ha se 1( Ca se 1 987 ) . I ns ho r t , w he the ro rn o tt h eE lM i lano s he rd i n d ica te s al a te d a te f o rt h es ha l low e x ten s ion ,o rw a s al a te c on tam inan ti ni t ,d e p end so nw he the ri t sd eco ra t ion i ss e en a s as pec if ica l ly l a te a eneo l i th ic f e a tu re r a the rt h an ag ene ra ll a te n eo l i th ic a eneo l i th ic o ne . ( 4 ) T he re i sa l so ad e te rm ina t ion o nc ha r coa l ,p erhap sf r om t imbe ra l ready a nc ien t when i tw a s b u rn t ,o f7 440±100 BP ( CS IC -247 ) .B o th w e r eo no ld mu seum s pec imen s . Howeve r ,c on tam ina t ion w i th moder nc a rbon s hou ld h ave g i v e nr e su l t s mo re r e cen tt h an e xpec ted ,w he rea s ,i fa ny th ing ,t h ey s e em o l de rt h an e xpec ted . ( 5 ) B ecau se s ome t ime sc ave sw e re r epea ted ly u sed f o rb u r ia ls ,a nd i n te rm i t ten t ly o re ven p r inc ipa l ly f o rh ab i ta t i on ,r a d iome t r ica l d e te rm ina t ion su nequ ivoca l ly a s soc ia ted w i th h uman b one sa r en ob e t te rt h an t h ec a re w i th w h ich t h e se w e re e xcava ted .T he f o l low ing C a ta lan b u r ia ld e te rm ina t ion sm ay b ea ccep tab le : C ova d e YAve l lane r( C -1 4 -

-

-

-

5 830±100 BP , UBAR -1 09 ) ,C ova d e l si lad re s 1( C -14 5 330±90 BP , UBAR -63 ) ,C ova d cl aE ncan tada ( C 14 4 480±250 ,3570±250 B P ,M -1022,1021) ,C ova d e lF ra re ( C -14 4 450±100 BP , MC -2297 ) ,C ova d eC an S adu m I ( 4225±90 BP ,1 11533 ) . ( 6 ) O ve r3 0d e te rm ina t ion sb e fo re 4 500 B Pc ome f r om I b e r ian t omb s ( FL d e te rm ina t ion sa r ei n c luded ,a l though c on s i de rab le s ub t rac t ion i sn ece ssa ry f o rc o r re spondence w i th C -1 4 ) : A n ta 1d cP oço d aG a t e ira ,A l to A len te jo ( TL 6 460±360 BP ,O xTL -169b ) ; An ta 2d c Go rg ino s ,A l to A len te jo ( TI .6 390±360 BP O xTL -169c ) ;F on td cl aV ena ,B a r c e lona ( C -14 6 190±100 ,5780±290 BP , UBAR -60 , -61 ) ;C a renque ,L i sbon ( TI .5 880±340 BP ,O xTL -169h ) La r ra r te , Gu ipüzcoa ( C -1 45810±290 ,5070±140 BP ,1 14781 , -1 4919 ) ; Mamoa 3d c Ou te iro d cA n te , Dou ro L i to ra l ( C -1 4 5 780±80 ,5 540±90 ,4800±80 ,4 .090±120 BP , I 4857 ,4858 ,4856 , -4859 ) ;C han d cC ruz ,P on teved ra ( C -14 5 640± 120 /140 BP : T a r rü s e ta l . 1 983 -1984 ) ; Mamoa d o Mon te d aO lhe i ra , Dou ro L i to ra l ( C -14 5 630±90 BP , UGRA 2 87 ) ; Mamoa 2d e Ou t e i ro d cG rego s ,D ou ro L i to ra l( C -14 5 500±70 ,4950±50 BP , KN2768 ,C S IC -547 ) ;A r regan y a t s ,G e rona ( C -14 5 400± 100 BP , UGRA -148 ) ;T nkau iz t i I ,G u ipüzcoa ( C -14 5 300±140 BP ,1 14099 ) ;C ie l la ,B u rgo s ( C -14 5 240±40 BP , G rN -12121) ; Mamoa 3d c Ou te iro d cG rego s ,D ou ro L i to ra l ( C -14 5 230±75 ,5200±65 BP , KN2 766 , -2765 ) ; Memna s d eC ra s to ,D ou ro L i to ra l ( C -14 5 21 0±50 ,5 21 0±50 ,5 21 0±50 BP ,C S IC -656 , -657 , -658 ) ;L o s L lano s ,A lava ( C -14 5 190±140 ,4660±200 ,4090±120 ,4080±170 BP ,1 -1 5 168 ,44788, 1 4593, 1 5 195 ) ; Ant s 1( ant s g rande )d eC omenda d aI g re ja ,A l to A len te jo ( FL 5 185±310 BP ,O xTL -169 1) ;E lM i rade ro ,V a l lado l id ( C -14 5 155±35 ,5 115±35 BP ,G rN -12100 , -12101 ) ;C a rba l le i ra d cR oza s ,P on teved ra ( C -14 5 150±120 /140 :T a rn i se ta l . 1 983 -1984 ) ;T ire s Ua rgue s ,G e rona ( C -14 5 090±160 BP ,G aK -12162 ) ;O rca d o sC a s tena i ro s ,B e i ra A l ta ( C -14 5 060±50 ,4610±50 BP ,G rN -4294 , -4925 ) ;A zu tán ,T o ledo ( C -14 5 060±90 BP , UGRA -288 ) ;C hä d eS an t inho s2 , Dou r oL i to ra l ( C -14 4 990±50 BP ,4 930±50 B P ,G if -6784 , -6785 ) ; CM d cS an t inho s 1 ,Dou ro L i to ra l ( C -14 4 990±90 , 4 980±50 BP ,G if -4858 , -6783 ) ;L o sG ab r ie le sD ,S ev i l la ( TI .4 950 BP ,O xTL -199o : P i i ión 1 987 ) ;O rca d cS e ixa s ,B e i r aA l ta ( C -14 4 900±40 BP ,G rN -5734 ) ;C a rap i to 1 ,B e ira A l ta ( C -14 4 850±40 .4600±65 BP ,G rN -5 110 , -5268 ) ; Ma moa 5d eO u te i ro d eG rego s , Dou ro L i to ra l ( C -14 4 780±60 BP ,C S IC -659 ) ; An ta 1d eF a r isoa ,A l to A len te jo ( TL 4 625±270 ,4355±260 BP ,O xTL -169 j , -169 i ) ;L a s Am i l la s ,B u rgo s( C -144575±40 BP ,G rN -12124 ) .

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

( 7 ) I nt h et own sh ip so f An ta s ,C an tona ,H ue rca l -Ove ra , Mo jáca r ,U r raca l ,V é lez R ub io ,a nd Z u rgef la ( Le i sne r &L e i s n e r 1 943 : 1 2 -14 ,55 -56 ,61 ,78 -79 ) . ( 8 )C -14 d e te rm ina t ion sf r om a eneo l i th ic s e t t lemen t sa nd c hambe red t omb si nA lmer ia a nd G r anada mo s t ly p o s tda te 4 500 BP .E xcep tf o rs ome n ea rT abe rna s ,r ound g rave s a r en o tc ommon n ea rt h o se s e t t lemen t s ;i n s tead ,t h ey a r ec om mone s ti nn o r the rn A lme r ia . R ec tangu la rc hambe r su nde r mound sa r ea l so k nown ,n ame ly : L lano d el aR ueda 5 ,T a b e rna s ;C e r ro d e lC a s t i l lo ,N I ja r ;L o sM i l la r e s3 5 ;a nd ,i nn o r the rn A lme r ia ,C abezo d el aP e rne ra 1 , An ta s ) . ( 9 ) P er ico t( 1928 )r ema rked o nt h e ir s im i la r i ty t oS pondy lu sb ang le so fC -1 47 500 -5500 BP i nG reece a nd t h eB a l k an s ,b u tS pan i sh G lyc ime r is p endan t s a nd b ang le sa r e mo s t ly l a te rt h an C -1 45 500 BP . ( 10 )T he Murv ied ro s i te s eem s t ob et h es ame a st h a tw he re b u rn th uman b one sw e re s e en i n ab u r ia l s t ruc tur eu nde ra c a irn i nS i er ra d e lC a f io n ea rL o rca ( V i lanova & d cl aR at h 1 890 : 4 94 -495 ; Menc ión 1 908 ) ,a nd p robab ly t h e " c rom l e ch "n ea rt ot h e " tw in menh i r "o fP ied ra R a já ( E sp In 1 947 ) .I ti s ,h oweve r ,c l ea r ly d i s t ingu ished f r om t h ec hambe red t omb o fP i ed ra sd cV e rgara ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 8 1) . ( 1 1) C ompa rab le t o4 6b e l l shaped g o ld b ead s( e ach 5mm a c ro s s )f r om A rga r ic S an A n ton a tO r ihue la i nA l ican te ( Fu rg t i s 1 937 :

P l .

1 ,n o . l a ; Wa 1ke r 1973 : 3 11) .

( 12 ) Wa l led -up ,l a te n eo l i th ic b u r ia la r ea sa l so o ccu ri ns ou the rn F rench c ave s : A vcn -G ro t t ed cl aT ou re l le ,G ro t t ed u B o i sd cC la s t re s ,A ven -G ro t te d e sE sca rava sson s ,a nd G ro t te d uB aou ( Co lome r 1 980 ) . ( 1 3 )O n ly t wo b rachyc ran ia l s ku l l s w e re f ound i n5 4 mea su r ed b yF u s té . O ne o fu s( M .J .W . )h a sa l so mea su red t h e se a nd s eve ra lo the r si nS .E . S pa in a nd c an c on f i rm t h is . ( 14 )O ne i nV a lenc ia f r om T o r rea l ta ( F le tche r 1 960 ,1961b ) ,t wo i nG ranada ( i ni t s Mu seo P rov inc ia l )f r om C ac In a nd ac hambe red t omb w i th A rga r ic p o t te ry a tL aN av i l la ,o ne i nN .W . Mu rc ia a tC ueva d cl o s A lco r e s ( Ga rc ia d e lT o ro 1 980 ) , a nd o ne a tC ueva d e lI l igue rOn i n Ma laga ( J iméncz 1 976 ) . ( 15 )R ound g r ave sL lano d e lJ au tOn 5 (300 s ke le ton s ,L e isne r&L e isne r 1 943 : 6 9 -70 )a nd L o sR u r ia li lo s 2( i b id . : 7 6 7 7 ) ;c i s tC abezo d cl aP e rne ra 1( 10 -15 s ke le ton s , i b id . : 1 2 ) ;a nd o the rc hambe red t omb sL o sR u r ia l i l lo s 4( i b id . : 7 6 7 7 ) ,L aE ncan tada 1a tA lm izar aque ( 50 s k e le ton s , i b id . : 1 ;A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 965 ) ,L o sM i l la re s t omb s 1 ( 20 s ke le t o n s ,i b id . : 1 2 ;O làr ia 1 97 7 ) ,8 ( 20 s ke le ton s ,O là r ia 1 977 ) , 1 3( 50 s ke le ton s , i b id . , 1 9( 12 s ke le ton s ,i b id . ) ,2 0( 20 s ke le ton s , i b id . ) ,2 2( 20 s ke le ton s , i b id . ) ,4 7( 12 s ke le ton s ,i b id . ) ,5 0( 8s ke le ton s , i b id .) ,5 3 ( 6s k e le ton s , i b id . ) ,5 4 ( v ar iou ss ke le ton s ,i b id . ) ,5 7( 8s ke le ton s ,i b id . ) ,5 9( 8s ke le ton s , i b id . ) ,6 6( v a r iou ss ke le ton s , i b id . ) ,6 7( 3 0s ke le ton s , i b id . ) ,7 1 ( 20 s ke le ton s ,i b id . ) ,7 5( v a r iou ss ke le ton s ,i b id . ) . ( 16 )F o l low ing t h e S i re t s 'n umbe r ing s y s tem ,w i th t h eL e isne r s 'n umbe r ss hown i nb racke t s : L lano d cl o sC a s te l lone s 1 0( 37 ) ,B a r ranco d cl aC ue s ta d cl aS ab ina 5 8( w i th b u rn tc h i ld a nd a du l tb one s ) ,P un ta ld cl aR amb la 2 ,L lano d cl a S ab ina 9 9( Lo sC a s te l lone s6 ) ,H oya d cl o sC a s te l lone s 1 2 , 1 8a nd 3 8( Lo sC a s te l lone s8 ,33 a nd 4 1 ) ,a nd L lano d cl a C ue s ta d cA lm ie l 2 4( Lo s C as te l lone s 1 5 ) ( Ga rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 ) . ( 17 ) ( a ) I nA lme r lan r ound g r ave s L a sC hu ru le ta sT i ( O là r ia 1 977 ) ,R amb la d cl o s Mudo s ,L oma d cl a sA lbo luca s 1 , L oma d eL aG a rnqu ia ,L oma d cL aA ta laya 8( Le i sne r&L e i sne r 1 943 : 7 3 ,7 8 ,79 ,6 4 ) ,L oma d cL aA ta laya 1 2a nd C a b ezo d cl aC opa 3 / 1 ( Aco s ta & C ruz 1 981) ,a nd C abec ico d c Agu i la r( I dánez 1 986 ) ,a nd p a s sage g rave sL oma d cl o s Un ia le s9 ,C anada d cl a Mencr ia 1 ,L oma d cl o sC apo rchane s ( Le i sne r &L e i sne r 1 943 : 7 5 ,78 ,79 ) ,E lB a r ranque t e 1 , 5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 a nd 1 ( A lmag ro G o rbea 1 973b : 1 88 ) ,L oma d cH uécha r2 1 ( =T agebuch 1 6 /2 )( Rod r iguez & C a ra 1 985 ) , L o sM i l la re s7 0( O là r ia 1 977 ) ;( b )I nG ranada r ound g r ave L oma d el aS ab ina 1 25 ( Le i sne r &L e i sne r 1 943 : 9 7 )a nd p a ssage g rave sL aG ab ia r ra 4 9a nd 7 3a nd L abo rc i l la T agebuch 4 / 1 ( i b id . : 16 , 1 55 ) . ( Fu r the rw e s ti n Anda lu s ia ,b u rn t h uman b one sc ome f r om t h eE l Do rado p a s sage g rave a nd s i gn so fb u rn ing a tS o to ,Z arc i ta a nd C ueva d e lV aque ro ; A lcáza ra nd C ab re ro 1 988 ) . ( 18 )E lP rado : C -14 4 350±50 ,4230±50 ,4 180±50 ,4170±50 ,4080±30 ,3950±160 BP ,B e ta -7072 , -7073 , -7071 , -7070 ,

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HAR 146 ,B e ta -7069 . ( 19 )E re ta d e lP ed rega l : C -1 4f r om l a ye r 86130±300 BP ,M -754 ,a nd f r om l a ye r6 3930±250 BP ,M -753 ;l a ye r 3p ro v i ded b e l lb eake r s ( P IS e ia l . : 1 983a ,b ) . ( 20 )C ova d c1 'O r : C -14 6 720±380 ,6630±160 ,6620±160 ,6265±75 ,5980±260 BP ,C 13 - M3 ,C 12 -M2 , KN5 1 ,H 1 754 /1208 ,C u - Mi . ( 21 )H uman r ema in sa ccompan ied c a rd ia lw a re i nl a ye r s 2a nd 3a tC ova d cD al ii nA l ican te ( Sa r r ión 1 976 ) .T he se t wo l a ye r sa ccoun ted f o r2 0 cm o ft h et o ta l3 5c md ep th o fs ed imen ta tt h ec ave a nd c a rd ia l s he rd so ccu r red i nt h es u p e r f ic ia l 1 5 cm t h ick l a ye r . I n Mu rc ia , ah uman c r an ia lf r agmen ta nd c a rd ia l s he rd l a yi nd i s tu rbed s upe r f ic ia l s o i la t A b r igo g rande d e lB a r ranco d cl o sG ra jo s w h ich o ve r lay ac l o sed e a r ly c e ram ic d epo s i tw i th t h ef o l low ing d e te rm ina t i on s : C -1 4o nb one a nd c ha rcoa l7 200±160 BP , HAR -1 79 11 I ,a nd TL o n ap o t she rd 7 950±500 BP ,A dTL -200 1 .T he f l in ti n du s t ry o ft h a td epo s i ts how sc on t inu i ty w i th t h a to fu nde r ly ing m e so l i th ic o re p ipa laeo l i th ic l a ye r s ( Wa lke r 1 977 ) . ( 22 )C e r ro d cl aE nc ina : C -1 43630±40 ,3620±120 ,3350±140 ,3360±160 ,3290±140 BP ,G rN -6634 , UGRA -1 5 , -16 , 16 ,44 . ( 2 3 )T he e spar to g r a ss c l o th ing a nd b a ske t sa r ew e l l -known ( A lla ro 1 980 , 1 984 ) . Go ld h eadband sa r en o to therw i se k nown u n t i l t h eA rga r ic e a r ly b ronze a ge . Wa s a nA rga r ic w oman w ea r ing o ne a dded t o an eo l i th ic mu l t ip le b u r ia l? S eve ra lc e ram ic e l emen t sa r en eo l i th ic : i n ve r ted U shaped l u g s ,i np a r t icu la r ,d a te f r om c a .C -14 5 000 BP e l sewhe re . Howeve r ,i tmay b ei no rder t or ema rk t h a te spar to g ra s s ,l i nen ,a nd l e a the rg a rmen t s( Aya la 1 987 )w e re w o rn b ya y oung w oman a nd p e rhap sa no the ra du l t( Dom nech e ia l . 1 987 )a tC ueva S ag rada 1i n Mu rc ia ( C -14 3 870± 1 00 BP , 1 153 1 9 : E i roa 1 987 )a bou tt h et i me o ft h ea eneo l i th ic -A rga r ic t r an s i t ion . ( 24 )E lT a ra ja l : C -1 44 230± 50 .4200±50 ,4 110± 50 ,4 100±50 ,4090± 50 ,4080± . 50 ,4050±50 ,4 030±50 ,4020±50 , 4 0 10±90 ,3860±80 ,3 820±50 BP ,C S IC -227 , -222 , -228 , -219 , -221 , -220 , -218 , -225 , -229 , -223 , -230 , -234 ) . ( 25 )T hey c ome f r om T e r t iary ma r lo u tc rop sn ea rt h ec onf luence o ft h eR ive r sS egu ra a nd Mundo . I ti sl i ke ly t h a to ne r e ached B yb lo st oj udge f r om ap ho tog raph ( Dunand 1 937 : p 1 . 1 43 ,i t em 3 833 )o fo ne f r om l e ve l 1 9 ,t h ed a te o f wh ich c anno tb e much l a te rt h an t h eE gyp t ian 6 t hd yna s ty a r t ifac t sf ound i ni t ,a nd c ou ld b ee a r l ie rg i ven t h a tt h en ex tl e ve l d own c on ta ined 4 th ,b u tn o t5 t h ,d yna s ty a r t if ac t s . Ad a te o f2 300 -2250 B .C .( c a . C -14 3 900 -3800 B P )i sl i ke ly f o r l e ve l 1 9 . A no the r may h ave r e ached T a rx ien o n Ma l ta ( c f .Evan s 1 971 : 1 4 .8 ,P l . 5 2 ,n o .4 ,i t em T IS 1 ) . ( 26 )A lso k nown a sC ueva d cl o s Mue r to so rC ueva d cl a sC a lave ra s( Apar ic io 1 975 ) . ( 27 )C ova F o sca : C -1476 40±110 ,7 210±70 ,7100±70 ,5550±180 BP ,C S IC -353 , -357 , -356 ,1 9867 . ( 28 ) Ab one s aw c ame f r om t h e se b u r ia l s ( Co lom ina s 1 927 -1931) a nd a no the rc ame f r om A rga r ic b u r ia ls a tP un ta r rón d e lC h ico i n Mu rc ia ( Wa lke r 1 973a ) . ( 29 ) V e rde lp ino : C -14 7 950±110 ,5 170±130 ,5120±130 ,4630±130 ,4330±130 BP ,C S IC -I SOB , -152B , -1 5 1B , -1 53A . T he f i r s td e te rm ina t ion o ft h el i s ti sr e jec ted b y mo s ta r chaeo log is t s . ( 30 )R amb la d cL ib r i l la : C -14 5 610±330 ,4610±150 ,4520±90 ,4500±100 BP , SUA -2039 , -2038 , -2037 , -2040 . ( 31 )T ene r aV en tu ra : C -14 4 655±115 ,4540±75 ,4490±60 ,4430±340 ,4 4 15±95 ,4305±95 ,4295±95 ,4265±95 , 4 265±90 ,4265±110 ,4250±95 ,4250±95 ,4240±60 ,4200±60 ,4185±95 ,4 180±60 ,4130±95 ,4 115±95 ,4 110±60 , 4 075±90 ,4030±80 ,4025±90 ,4010±95 ,3325±90 ,3280±95 BP ,1 7420 , KN -1795 , -1794 , -7443 , -7442 , -74 19 , -74 14 , 7 4 17 , -6935 , -74 . 44 , -7423 ‚ 7421 ,C S IC -264 , -265 ,1 8702 , KN -1796 ,1 -74 15 , -74 18 ,C S IC -267 ,1 6934 , HAR -298 ,I 7 251 , -7422 , -8703 , -74 16 .

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( 32 )L o sM i l la re s : C -14 4 380±100 ,4295±85 ,4 150±40 ,4 110±110 ,3820±40 BP , KN -72 ,H -204 1207 , BM -2343 , 2 344 ,2 345 . ( 3 3 ) A lm iza raque : C -1 44310±100 ,4200±110 ,4130±140 ,4 120±100 ,4 120±140 ,4 100±120 ,4090±130 ,3950±100 , 3 860±60 ,3810±60 BP , SUA -1169 , UGRA -93 , -95 , -163 , -94 , -83 , -96 , -164 ,C S IC -269 , KN -73 . ( 34 )E l Ma lagón : C -14 4 520±240 ,4070±150 ,4020±60 ,3870±60 BP , UGRA -87 , -12 , BM -2347 , -2348 . ( 35 )C e r ro d el aV irgen : C -1 43920±60 ,3920±35 ,3890±40 ,386 . 5± 50 ,3 83 5±35 ,3800— +35 ,373 5±55 BP ,G rN -5597 , 5 596 , -5593 , -5595 , -5598 , -5764 , -5594 . ( 36 )T he c ompa r i son b yS uch o f aw a is ted s l a te f i gu r ine f r om Hoyo d cl aM ina ( Such 1 9 19 : 4 6 -47 ,f i g .4 2 )w i th o ne f r om E I G á rce l ( C -14 4 120±100 ,3850±70 BP , SUA - 173 , -2145 )i sq ue s t ionab le .T he f o rme rd oes n o ts e em t oh ave h ad a rm sa nd i sp e rhap s c ompa rab le t oa rm le s s w a is ted f i gu r ine sf r om T roy I I T( B iegen e ia l . 1 950 : f i g . 1 27 )o rC y c l ad ic G ro t ta -Pe lo sa nd K e ro s -Sy ro sf o rm s ( Ren f rew 1 972 ) ,w he rea st h el a t te rb e long s t o ac l a s s o ff i gu r ine s w i th t wo a rm sa nd ac i rcu la rb ody s e en a ta eneo l i th ic ,b e l l -beake rb u r ia ls ( S i lo 1d eE lA r tea l a nd C ueva 1d el o sB ianqu iza re s d cL abo r : A lmag ro -Go rbea 1 973a ,4 7 -49 ;A r r iba s 1 953 ) . O nt h eo the rh and ,S .E . S pan ish s imp le w a is ted f i gu r ines c ou ld o we mo re t on a tu r a l ly o ccu r r ing d umb -be l l s haped c onc re t ion sf ound a t many s i te s ( s e e( 25 ) ) . ( 37 )T he t r anche ta r rowpo in tc ame f r om ab u r ia l mound a tL a s A lmag re ra si nA lbace te w he r e2 4h o l low -ba se a r row p o in t so ccu r red ( Sanchez 1 948 ) . Ho l low -ba se f o rm sc ome f r om C ueva 1d el o sB lanqu iza re sd eL abo r( A ir iba s 1 953 ) a nd C ovacha d eR ibe ra ( P IS 1 958 )a l ong s ide b a rbed a nd t a nged a r rowpo in t s ,a nd g eome t r ica la r rowpo in t so ccu r red a t t h ef o rme ra nd a to the ra eneo l i th ic c ave b u r ia l s ,s uch a sC ova d e l B a r ranc d e lC a s te l le t( P IS 1 954 )o rC ueva d cl o s T ie s to s : s uch e c lec t ic ism i s mo s tu n -Egyp t ian ! H o l low -ba se a r rowpo in t sa ccoun tf o r5 5% o fa l f l in ta r rowpo in t sf r om t h eG ranada Go r -Go ra f et omb s ( Ga rc ia S anchez & S pahn i 1 959 ) . No ra r eE gyp t ian b u lbou sp o l ished s t one a xehead s a ny mo re c ommon i nS pa in ;o ne w a s f ound b y ac o l lec to ra tC abezo Agudo n ea rL a Un ion i n Mu rc ia ( Wake r 1 973a : 3 39 ) ,a no the ri nt h eS ev i l le P rov inc ia l Mu seum i sf r om C a rmona . ( 38 )C ueva d cl o s Mu rc ié lago sa tZ uhe ro s : C -1 46295±45 ,6250±35 ,6 190±130 ,6 190±130 ,6 170±130 ,6 150±45 , 6 100±100 ,6 025±45 ,5 980± 1 30 ,5 960±130 ,5 930±130 B P ,G rN -6626 , -6638 ,C S IC -53 , -54 , -55 ,G rN -6169 ,C S IC -58 , G rN -6639 ,C S IC -57 , -56 , -59 . ( 39 )C ueva d cN er ja n eo l i th ic : C -1 47 960±200 ,7890±170 ,7160±180 ,7 130±180 ,6 4 .80±180 ,6 200±100 ,5 790±140 , 5 190±90 ,5065±40 ,48 10±210 ( GaK -8962 , -8974 , -8973 , -8975 , -8959 , UGRA -261 ,G aK -8969 , UGRA -255 ,G rN -5526 , G aK -9860 ) . P o in ted -ba se j a r sa nd r ed -wa sh w a re a ppea rs ho r t ly b efo re 5 100 BP ( Pe i l ice r 1 962 ;P e l l ice r&A co s ta 1 986 ) . ( 40 )E lG á rce lh a sC -14 d e te rm ina t ion so f4 120±100 BP a nd 3 850±70 BP ( SUA - 173 , -2145 ) . C oppe rs l ag w a sf ound ( Go s se 1 94 1 )a nd c oppe rw a s c on f irmed b yl a t e re xcava t ion s( Aco s ta 1 976 ) . I t sc on ica lp o t te ry c up ( S i re t1 893 : 5 10 , f i g . 1 02 )i su nu sua l .I ti sr a the rd i f fe ren tf r om ap o in ted -ba se h and led c up f r om e a r ly b ronze -age C abezo R edondo i n A l ican te ( So le r 1 952 )a nd p e rhap s mo re l i ke C yp r io te a r ly b ronze -age c up sf r om V ounou s( S tewa r t&S t ewa r t 1 950 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h eE lG á rce i s i lo sw e re as t o rage a r ea f o rn ea rby E lA rga rr a the rt h an a ne a r l ie rs e t t lemen t . S ome ma te r i a l ,h oweve r ,c ou ld b ea eneo l i th ic o re ven l a te n eo l i th ic .I t s i n ve r ted U shaped p o tl ug sa r es e en a ts ome c h ambe red t omb s ( e .g . L a sC hu ru le ta s 1 :L e isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 7 2 )a nd a tC ueva d cl o s Mu rc ié lago s ( C -14 5 400±80 BP , C S IC -256 )( Gongo ra 1 968 ) ;t h ey o ccu ra tT roy I I li nt h et h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . . A ga in , amode l " p ine c one " ( Go sse 1 943 )h a s ap a ra l le la tP o r tugue se C a renque ( TL 5 880±340 BP O xTL -169h )( Savo ry 1 968 : 1 24 ,f i g . 4 0 ,d ) .T he s i lo s p rov ided n o to n ly as he l lb ang le b u ta l so p a r to f as t one b r ace le t ;s t one b race le t s a r e mo s t ly n eo l i th ic . A bundan ta nd v a r ied g eome t r ica lf l in two rk a tE I G á rce lp e rhap sr e ca l ls t h a to fp re -a nd e a r ly c e ram ic l e ve ls a t Hoyo d cl aM ina ; t h e v a r ie ty i ss t r ik ing ly d i sco rdan tw i th g eome t r ica lf l in t sf r om mo s tS .E . S pan ish a eneo l i th ic a s semb lage sw h ich a r e ma in ly l im i ted t ot r apez ilo rm a r rowpo in t s .P a r to ft h eE lG á rce lc o l lec t ion c ou ld b ea so ld a sC -14 5 000 BP a nd n eo l i th ic ,p a r ti sa eneo l i th ic a st h ec oppe rs l ag a nd C -14 d e te rm ina t ion s s ugge s t ,a nd p a r t may b ee a r ly A rga r ic . ( 4 1) LM 4 0 1 26 p o t s( P )a nd 14 s ke le ton s( 5 ) ( Le isne r &L e isne r 1 943 : 2 2 -24 ) ; LM 1 036 P ,3 0 S( i b id . : 2 6 ) ; LM 7

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M ICHAEL J .WALKER a nd M IGUEL S AN N ICOLAS DEL TORO

9 4P ,5 0 S( i b id . : 2 7 ) ; LM 93 5P ,3 6 S( i b id . : 2 9 ) ; LM 1 6 1 3P ,21 S ( ib id . :46 ) ;LM57OP ,50S( ib id . : 3 6 ) ; LM 1 3 1 27 P .50 S( i b id . : 3 8 -39 ) ; LM 1 829 P ,2 5 S( i b id . : 3 9 ) ; LM 3 84 P .7 S( i b id . : 4 041) ; LM 1 536 P .30 S ( i b id . : 4 3 4 4 ) ; LM 4 2 1 5P ,46 S( i b id . : 4 5 ) ; LM 2 4 1 7P .21 S( i b id . : 4 6 ) ; LM 2 0 1 5P ,3 5 S( i b id . :4 7 ) . ( 42 )K un ter ' s s ub s tan t ive p a laeoan th ropo log ica lb a s is f o rp a laeodemog raph ica le s t ima t ion a tE lA rga rg i ve si tap opu l a t ion g row ing f r om 4 0 -60 t o1 33 -156 3o r 4t ime sl e s st h an t ho se 4 20 s ou ls i mag ined b yC hapman ( 1990 : 1 52 -153 ) b yf a ncy ing 3 00 p eop le p e rh ec ta re o fb ronze -age s e t t lemen t . H is 2 00 p eop le p e rh ec ta re o fc oppe r -age s e t t lemen tl e d -

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h im t op eop le L o sM i l la re sw i th o ve r at h ou sand .I f ,h oweve r ,i t sw a l lw a s " s ymbo l ic "( i b id . : 1 74 ) ,c a lcu la t ing p opu la t i on d en s i ty f o rt h ea r ea r e ta ined b yi ti sp o in t le s s ;e ven w a l led I be r ian i r on -age s e t t lemen t so f5 00 -200 B .C . o n ly c on t a ined ah and fu lo fd we l l ing s( Wa lke r 1 988d ) . ( 4 3 )T he f o rme rg roup w a ss a id t ob el oo se ly a s soc ia ted w i th a symme t r ica l t r apez ep o in t s ,b one p o in t s ,p ol i shed s t one a xehead sa nd p o t te ry b ow l s .T he o n ly d emon s t rab ly n on random a s soc ia t ion sa mong B lance ' sd a ta a r eb e tween ( a ) f l a tf i gur ine sa nd b i lac ia l t a nged a r rowpo in t s ,( b )f l a tf i gu r ine s a nd a symme t r ica l t r apeze a r rowpo in t s ,a nd ( c ) s t one a xehead sa nd b aggy j a r s ;t h et wo k i nd so fa r rowpo in t sd on o tc oncu r mo re o f ten t h an c hance p erm i t s . ( 44 )A f te rC -1 43 900 BP t h e se w e re o f ten w i th in o rb e s ide s e t t lemen t s ,a l though n o ta lway si mmed ia te ly b e s ide d we l l ing s( e .g .c i s t sa tR incón d cl o sA lmend r ico s ,C -14 3 680±100 BP , UGRA -1 46 ,o ri n ad i tch p robab ly c o r re spond i n gt oC -1 43740±55 BP ,G rN -5594 a tC e r ro d el aV irgen w he re a eneo l i th ic d e te rm ina t ion sw e re C -1 43 920±60 , 3 920±35 ,3890±40 ,3870±50 ,3840±35 a nd 3 800±35 BP ,G rN -5596 ,5593 , 5595 , -5598 , -5764 ) . ( 45 ) Whe the rh o r se s w e re w i ld o rb r ed i sn o tk nown . F o l low ing U e rpmann ( 1979 ) ,C hapman ( 1990 : 1 34 )p re sume s t h ey w er eb red ,p e rhap se ven f o rt r ac t ion . O ne o fu s( M .J .W . )h a sb een s t ruck b yo s teome tnca lh omogene i ty o fh o r se b one sf r om E lP rado a tJ um i l la ;n eve r the le s s ,v e te r ina ry a na tom is t sa tt h e Un ive r s i ty o fS ydney o b se rved t h a t mo rpho l og ica l h omogene i ty b rough ta bou tb yn a tu ra ls e lec t ion c ha rac te r ize sA u s tra l ian f e ra lh o r se s ( brumb ie s ) ,w ho se a nce s t r yi n c lude st h a t who le r ange o ff a rms tead h o r se ss e lec t ive ly b red f o r d if eren t mo rpho log ica lc ha rac te r s ,f r om p lough h o r se sa nd c a r td ray st ol i gh tp on ie s . T h en u l lh ypo the s is t ob ep re sumed a t S. E . S pan ish p reh is to r ic s i te s mu s tb e t h a t n a tu ra l s e lec t ion c au sed o s teome tnca lh omogene i ty o fh o r se b one su n t i l t h e re i se v idence t ot h ec on t ra ry . I np reh i s to ry i ti sw i se s tt op u tt h ec a r tb e fo re t h eh o r se : c a r t sa nd h o r se h a rne ss a r eu nknown a ta eneo l i th ic a nd A rga r ic s i te s . ( 46 )L a s Ango s tu ra s : C -14 5 020±190 ,4450±240 ,4310±150 ,4240±120 ,4210±140 ,4 150±170 ,4040±140 ,3980±160 , 3 860±140 ,a nd 3 460±110 BP , UGRA -88 , -87 , -84 , -126 , -82 , -182 , -30 , -125 , -80 , -17 ) . ( 47 )T he re w a sl e s sg u l ly ing a nd t r ench ing o fr i ve rb ed s t h an h a s t a ken p l ace s i nce R oman t ime s ,n od oub tb ecau se o f g rea te rv ege ta t iona lc ove ra nd s o i l mo re r e ten t ive o f mo is tu re . Many f l ood p l a in ss e em t oh ave b een b roade rt h an t o d ay ;e ro s ion o fs u r round ing h i l ls ide sh ad n o ty e tp roduced t h a ti nc rea se i ni luv ia t ion ,d ue t os ea sona l s hee tw a sh ,o n f l ood p l a in so ri ne ndo r rhe ic b a s in s wh ich o u t s t r ipped l ong i tud ina l t r an spo r tc apac i ty o fs t ream st or emove i t ,a nd h ence l ed t of a l l ing w a te rt a b le si nw ha tw e r ef o rme r ly t h e ir f l ood p l a in s , ap roce s s w h ich h ad a l ready b egun b yC -14 3 900 BP a nd w a sp robab ly u nchecked u n t i l r a in fa l lc ond i t ion sc hanged i nt h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . a nd R oman a nd I s lam ic d ra inage a nd i r r iga t ion p r ac t ice sw e re i n t roduced b e tween 2 00 B .C . a nd A .D . 1 000 ( Cuenca & Wa lke r 1 986a ,b ,c ,d ; Wa lke r 1 986 ) . ( 48 )G o ld o ccu r sb o th i n land i nG ranada r i ve r sD a r ro a nd G en i l ,a nd n ea rt h ec oa s to fA lme r la a tt h eR oda lqu i la r m ine .

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REFERENCES ABR IGO DE ARTE RUPESTRE DE " EL M ILANO" (MULA ) . 1 987 . ( Mu rc ia C omun idad A u tónoma d el aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia , C on se jer la d c C u l tu ra yE ducac iOn ,S e rv ic io R eg iona l d c P a t r imon io H is tO r ico , " B iene s d ei n te ré s c u l tu ra l e n Mu rc ia 1 " ) . ACOSTA MART INEZ ,P . , 1 968 . L ap in tu ra r upe s t re e squemd t ica e n E spana .( Sa lamanca : U n ive r s idad d e S a laman c a . " Memo r ia sd e l S em ina r io d cP reh is to r ia yA rqueo log Ia 1 " ) . 1 976 . " Excavac ione s e ne iy ac im ieno d cE lG á rce l ,A n ta s ( A lme r ia ) ." N o t ic ia r io a rqueo lóg ico h i spán ico 5P reh i s t o r ia : 1 87 -191 . 1 986 . " E ln eo l f t ico e n Anda lu s ia o cc iden ta l : e s tado a c tua l" . p p . 1 36 -15 1 i n0 . A r teaga ( c d ) , H omena je aL u i sS i re t ( 1934 -1984 ) .A c ta sd e lC ongre so " Homena je aL u is S i re t "( 1934 -1984 ) , C uevas d eA lmanzora ,J un io 1 984 . ( Ma d r id : J un ta d cA nda luc ia ,C on se je r ma d cC u l tu ra ,D i recc ión G ene ra ld cB e l la sA s te s ) . ACOSTA MART INEZ ,P . & CRUZ AU IJON , C . , 1 98 1 . " Lo s e n te r ram ien to s d cl a s f a se s i n ic ia le s e n l a' c u l tu ra d c A lme r ia ' ." Hab is 1 2 : 2 75 -360 . ALBERT ,I . , 1 945 . " Una i n te re san te c o lecc iOn p r eh is tonca e nO r ihuc ia ." A rch ivo e spano ld ea rqueo logI a 1 8 :8 6 -87 . ALCAZAR , J . & CABRERO , R . 1 988 ." I nc ine rac iOn e n e ic a ico l i t ico E spaho l" . I nve s t igac ión y c i enc ia 1 3a ( Abn i 1 988 ) : 4 4 -46 . ALFARO G INER , C . , 1 980 . " E s tud io d c l o s ma ter ia le s d c c e s te r Ia p roceden te s d c l a C ueva d c l o s Mu rc ié lag ( A ibuf io l ,G r anada ) ." T raba jos d ep reh i s tor ia 3 7 : 1 09 -162 . 1 984 . T e j ido yc es te r la e nI aP en in su la I bé r ica . H i s tor ia d es ut é cn ica ei ndu s tr ia sd e sde l ap reh is to r ia h a s ta l a r oman i zac ión .( Mad r id : C on se jo S upe r io rd cI nve s t igac ione sC ien t I f ica s ,I n s t i tu to E spano l d cP reh is to r ia , " B ib l io t h eca p r aeh is tonca h i span ica 3 7 " ) . AL MAGRO BASCH , M . & ARR IBAS PALAU , A . , 1 963 . E lp ob lado y l an ecrópo l i s m ega i l t icos d e L o s M i l la re s ( San ta F e d c Mondü ja r , A lmer ia ) . (Madr id : C on se jo S upe r io rd c I nve s t igac ione s C ien t I f ica s , I n s t i tu to E spaf io l d c P reh is to r ia , a nd U n ive r s idad d c Mad r id , S em inar io d c H is to r ia P r im i t iva d e l Homb re , " B ib l io theca p raeh is to r ica h i spana 3 " ) . AL MAGRO -GORBEA ,M .J . , 1 965 . " La st r e st umba sm ega i I t ica sd cA lm iza raque ." T raba jo sd epreh i s lor ia 1 8 : 1 88 . 1 973a .L os I d o lo sd e lb ronce I h i spano . ( Mad r id : C on se jo S upe r io rd cI nve s t igac ione sC icn t I f ica s ,I n s t i tu to E spaf io ld cP reh is to r ia ,a nd U n ive r s idad d c Mad r id ,S em ina r io d cH is to r ia P r im i t iva d e l Homb re , " B ib l io theca p rach is to r ica h i spana 1 2" ) . 1 973b . E xcavac ione sa rqueo log ica se nE lB ar ranque te .( Mad r id : D irecc iOn G ene ra ld cB e l la s A s te s ,C om isar la G ene ra ld cE xcavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica s , " Ac ta a rqueo iOg ica h i spán ica 6 " ) . AM IRAN ,R . , 1 985 . " The t r an s i t ion f r om t h ec ha lco l i th ic t ot h ee a r ly b ronze a ge ." p p . 1 08 -112 i nJ .A v i ram ( c d ) , B ib l i ca l a rchaeo logy t oday . P roceed ings o ft h e I n terna t iona l C ongre ss o n B ib l ica l A rchaeo logy . J e ru sa lem , A pr i l 1 984 . ( J eru sa lem : T he I s rae lE xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty ) . APAR IC IO PEREZ ,J . , 1 975 . " La c ueva d cE ngue ra , d c l o s Mue r to s , d cl a s C a lave ra s od cl a s Ma rav i l la s ( Engue ra , V a lenc ia )" . p p . 3 4 1-346 i nC rón ica d e lX I I IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log la . Hue lva 1 973 .( Sarago ssa : U n ive r s i dad d cZ aragoza ,S em ina r io d cA rqueo log Ia ,C ong re so sA rqueo lOg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 979 . E lm e so l I t ico e n V a lenc ia ye ne i Med i ter rdneo o cc iden ta l .( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac iOn P rov inc ia ld cV a lenc ia , S e rv ic io d cI nve s t igac ión P r eh i s tónca , " T raba jo s v a r io s5 9" ) . 1 982 . " La n eo l i t izac iOn yc ln eo i I t ico e nV a lenc ia ." pp . 8 1 -96 i nR . Mon t ja rd in ( c d ) ,L en éo l i th ique a nc ien m éd i te r r a néen . A c te sd uC o l loque I n te rna t iona ld eP réh is to i re . Mon tpe l l ie r 1 98 1 . (Mon tpe l l ie r :R evue d el aF édé ra z ion A rchéo log ique d e FH é rau l t ,n ° . s pec ia l 1 982 , " A rchéo log ie e nL anguedoc " ) . APAR JC IO P EREZ , I & SAN VALERO APAR IS I , J . , 1 977 . L a C ova F osca ( Are s d e l Mae s tre C as te l lOn ) ye i n eo l I t ico v a lenc iano . ( Va lenc ia : Un ive r s idad d c V a lenc ia ,F acu l tad d cF i io so f Ia yL e tra s ,D epa r tamen to d cH is to r ia -

A n t igua , " Se r ie a rqueo lOg ica 4 " ) . APAR JC IO PEREZ , J . , SAN VALERO APAR IS I , J . & SANCHO SANTA MAR IA J .A . , 1 979a . "Ma ter ia le s n eo l I t ico sd cL aC ova d e l F o ra td e l Afe C a len t yd cl aC ova d e lL lop ( Gand Ia ,V a lenc ia ) ." p p . 8 5 -122 i nJ . Apa r ic io P e rez ( e d ) ,Va r ia I .( Va lenc ia : Un ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia ,F acu i tad d cG eog ra f Ia eH is to r ia ,D epa r tamen to d cH is to r ia A n t igua , " Se r ie a r quco log ica 6 ) " APAR JC IO P EREZ . j . , S ANCHEZ MART INEZ , C . , LOPEZ PAYER , M .J . & GARC IA GARC IA , F . , 1 979b . " Do s i mpo r tan tc s y ac im ien to s a rqueo lóg icos p a ra l ap reh i s to r ia a nda luza yp en in su la r h a l lado s e n ' L a C a ro l ina ' ( J aén ,

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E spana ) ." p p . 3 5 -70 i nJ .A pa r ic io P e rez ( c d ) , V ar ia 1 .( Va lenc ia : U n ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia ,F acu l tad d cG eog raf Ia e H is to r ia ,D epa r ta rnen to d eH i s tona A n t igua , " Ser ie a rqueo lóg ica 6 ) " . APELLAN IZ ,J .M . , 1 968 . " La s d a tac ione s p o re iC 1 4d el a s c ueva s d e G obaede r ra yl o s Hu so s Ie n A lava . ( Den t ro d e l c on jun to d e d a tac ione s p o r e s te m é todo d c y ac im ien to s d e l P a l s V a sco ) ." E s tud ios d e a rqueo log Ia a lave sa 3 : 1 39 -147 . APELLAN IZ ,J .M . , LLANOS ,A . , & FAR I IJA , J .1 967 . " Cueva s s epu ic ra le s d eL echón , Ana lday , C a lave ra s yGo b aede r ra ( A lava ) ." E s tud io sd ea rqueo logI aa lave sa 2 :2 1 -48 . APOLL INAR IO ,M . , 1 896 . " Nec ropo le n eo l i th ica d ov a l le d cS . Ma r t inho ." 0 a rcheo logo p o r tugue s 2 :2 10 -221 . ARENAL , I . & DE LA R ( JA , C . , 1 988 . " Nuevo s d a to s d cl ap ob lac ión m ega l l t ica d c Maya ( Pa l s V a sco ) : l o s r e s to s h umano sd e l d o lmen d cL aH ech ice ra ." Mun ibe 6 : 1 99 -208 , ARR IBAS PALAU , A . , 1 953 . " E la j ua rd cl a sc ueva ss epu ic ra le s d cL o sB lanqu iza re sd cL ébo r( Mu rc ia )" . Memor ia s d el o s mu seos a rqueo lóg icos p rov inc ia le s 1 4 : 7 8 -126 . 1 955 -1956 . " E l s epu ic ro mega l i t ico d e lC abec ico d c Agu i la rd cC ua r t i l la s( Mo jáca r ,A lme r ia ) ." Ampur ia s 1 7 -18 : 2 10 -224 . 1 960 . "Mega l i t ismo p en in su la r ." p p .6 9 -102 i nP r imer S impos ium d eP reh i s tor ia d el aP en i n su la i bé r ica , S ep t iem b re 1 959 . (Ba rce lona : Un ive r s idad d cA rquco log Ia yP rch i s to r ia ;a nd P amp lona : D ipu tac ión F o ra ld cN ava r ra ,I n s t i tuc ión " P r inc ipe d cV iana " ) . ARR IBAS PALAU ,A . & MOL INA GONZALEZ ,F , 1 978 . E lp ob lado d c ' L os C a s t i l le jo s ' , e nL a sP ena sd el o sG i ta n os (Mon tef r Io , G ranada ) . C ampana d ce xcavac ione s d c 1 971 . ( Granada : Un ive r s idad d c G ranada ,C uade rno s d c p reh is to r ia d cl a Un ive r s idad d cG ranada , " Se r ie monog ra f ica 3 " ) . 1 985 . " New b e l lb eake rd i scove r ie si nt h es ou thea s tI be r ian P en in su la ." pp. 1 26 -146 i nW .H . Wa ld ren & R -C . K en n a rd ( ed s ) ,B e l lb eake r so ft h e W e s tern Med i ter ranean .D ef in i t ion , i n terp re ta t ion , t h eory a nd n ew s i te d a ta . ( Ox f o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , " BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie s S -33 1 " ) . ARR IBAS PALAU , A . , MOL INA GONZALEZ , F . , DE LA TORRE P E A , F . , AGUAYO DE HOYOS , P . & NAJERA ,T . , 1 979 . " Excavac ione se nL o s M i l la re s ( San ta F e ,A lmer ia ) ." C uad ernos d ep reh i s tor ia d e l aU n ive r s i d ad d eG ranada 4 :6 1-110 . ARR IBAS PALAU , A . , MOL INA GONZALEZ , F . , SAEZ P EREZ ,L . , DE LA TORRE P E I A , F . , AGUAYO DE HOYOS , P . , & NA JERA .T . , 1 983 . " Nueva s e xcavac ionc se nL o s M i l la re s ( 1978 -1981) ." p p . 1 47 -166 i n C rón ica d e l XV IC ongreso N ac iona ld cA rqueo logIa . Murc ia -Car tagena 1 982 . ( Sa rago ssa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza , S em i n a r io d cA rquco log la , " Cong re so sA rquco lóg ico sN ac iona ic s" ) . A SQUER INO F ERNANDEZ ,M .D . , 1 975a . " Una a po r tac ión a le s tud io d e l b roncc Ie spa l io l : t i po log la d cl a s a sa s d c a pénd ice d cl aC ova d cl aS a r sa " . p p . 3 5 1-364 i nC rón ica d e lX I I IC ongre so N ac iona ld cA queo log Ia . Hue lva 1 973 . ( Sa rago ssa : Un iver s idad d cZ a ragoza ,S cm ina r io d cA rqueo log Ia , " Cong re so sA rquco lóg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 975b . " Cove ta Empa rc tá ." N o t ic ia r io a rqueo lOg ico h i spán ico 3P r eh is tona : 1 09 -188 . 1 976 . " Va so sc a rd ia le si n dd i to sd cl ac ueva d cl aS a r sa ( Boca iren te ,V a lenc ia ) ." T raba jo sd cp reh i s to r ia 3 3 : 3 39 3 47 . 1 97 7 . " No ta s s ob re p e r iod izac ion d e ln co l l t ico e spa i lo l : e ip roceso d cn eo l i t izac ión yc lh o r izon te c a rd ia l" .

p p .

2 31 -

2 40 i nC rón ica d e lX IV C ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log Ia . V i tor ia 1 975 . ( Sa rago s sa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza , S em ina r io d cA rquco log la ," Cong re so sA rquco lóg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 978 . " Cova d cl aS ar sa ( Boca ir en t c ,V a lenc ia ) . Aná l is is e s tad I s t ico yt i po lóg ico d c ma te r ia le ss i ne s t ra t ig ra f la ( 1971 -1974 )" . S agun tum 1 3 : 9 9 -225 . 1 979 . " ' Cova d e l Mo ro '( Ag res A l ican te )" .p p . 1 23 -146 i nJ . Apa r ic io P e rez ( c d ) , V a r ia 1 .( Va lenc ia : Un ive r s idad -

d cV a lenc ia ,F acu i tad d cG cog r a f la eH is to z ia ,D cpa r tamcn to d cH is tona A n t igua , " Se r ie a r quco ldg ica 6 " ) . AYALA HURTADO , F . , 1 977 . U np ob lado n eo l I t ico e n l ac omarca d e ' L a sA lgua za s ' ( Mu rc ia ) . ( Mu rc ia : p ub l ished b y t h ea u tho r ) . AYALA J UAN ,M .M . , 1 980 . " E l I d o lo d cC a ravaca d cl aC ruz " . P yrenae 1 5 :362 . 1 985 . " Apo r tac ión a le s tud io d cl o si d o lo s c a lco l I t ico sd c Mu rc ia " . A na le sd cp reh i s tor ia ya rqueo log Ia 1 :2 3 -32 . 1 986 . " Con t r ibuc ión a le s tud io d cl o s l d o lo so cu lado sd e l S u res te e spaf io l ." p p . 1 5 1-156 in M .S . H c rnández -Pé r ez ( c d ) ,E le neo l l t ico e n e iP a l s V a lenc iano .A c tas d cc o loqu io ( A lcoy . 1 -2 d cd i c iembre d c1 984 ) . ( A l ican t e : D ipu ta c i ón P rov inc ia l d cA l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sA l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lber t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . 1 987 . " En te r ram ien to s c a lco l I t ico se nl aS i e r ra d cl aT c rc ia . L o rca . Mu rc ia . E s tud io p r eim ina r " .A na le sd ep reh i s t o r ia ya rqueo logla 3 :9 -24 . 1 99 1 . E ip ob lam ien to a rgá r ico e nL o rca .E s tado d el ac ues : ión . ( Mu rc ia : A cadem ia A lfon so X E lS ab io ) .

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BADAL GARC IA , E . , BERNABEU A IJB IAN , J . , DUPRE OL IV IER , M . &F IJMANAL GAR dA , M .P . , 1 989 . " Cova d c l e s C end re s . E s tud io p a leoamb ien ta l d c u na s ecuenc ia h o locena e n e i Med i te r ráneo P en in su la r ( 7000 3 800 B P )" . ( Unpub l ished c ommun ica t ion a tt h e 2 R eun ion d e l C ua terna r io I bé r ico , Mad r id , 2 5 -29 S ep t ie inbre 1 989 . ) BAGOL IN I ,B . , 1 972 . " Aspe t t i f i gu ra t iv i c de l emen t i d id eco raz ione n e l n eo l i t ico d e lR ipa ro G aban ( f ren to ) ." R iv i s ta d is c ien ze p re i s tor iche 2 7 : 3 45 -355 . BAGOL IN T ,B . , CARL I ,R . ,F ERRAR I ,A . , MESSORL A . , PASQUAL I ,T . &P ESS INA ,A . , 1 991 . " I i s epo ic re to d e l Do sd cl aF o rca ( Mezzoco rona T ren to )" . P re i s tor ia a l p ina 2 5 : 1 21-164 . BA ILLOUD , G . , 1 973 . " The f i r s t a g r icu l tura l is t s : 4 000 1 800 BC ." p p . 1 02 -130 i n S .P iggo t t , G .E . D an ie l &C .B . -

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BERNABEU AUB IAN , J . , 1 984 . E lv a so c ampan if orme e n e iP a l s V a lenc iano . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia l d c V a lenc ia ,S e rv ic io d eI nve s t igac ión P reh is tó r ica , " Tr aba jo sv a r io s8 0 " ) . BERNABEU AUB IAN , J . & BADAL GARC fA , E . , 1 990 . " Imagen d e l av ege tac ion y u t i l izac ión e conóm ica d e l b o sque e nl o s a sen tam ien to s n eo l I t ico s d c J ovades yN iue t ( A l ican te ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 2 0 : 1 43 1 66 . BERNABEU AUB IAN ,J . , GU ITART , I . & PASCUAL BEN ITO ,J .L . , 1 988 . " E I P a l s V a lenc iano e n t re e if i na l d e l n eo l I t ico yl ae dad d e lb ronce " . A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 1 8 : 1 59 -180 . BERNABO BREA ,L . , 1 954 . L aS i c i l ia p reh i s tö r ica ys u sr e lac ione sc on O r ien te yc on l aP eni nsu la l bé r ica . ( Mad r id : C on se jo S uper io rd c I nve s t igac ione s C ien t l l ica s , E scue la E spano la d c H is to r ia yA rqueo log la e n R oma , " Se r ie a r q ueo log ica 1 " ) . 1 957 . S i c i l ia . ( Ba rce lona : A rgo s ) . BERNDT R .M . & BERNDT ,C .H . , 1 977 . T he w or ld o ft h ef i r s tA u s t ra l ian s .( Sydney : U re Sm i th ) . B INFORD ,L .R . , 1 983 . I np ur su i to ft h ep as t .( London :T hame s &H ud son ) . BLANCE ,B . , 1 960 . T he o r ig in a nd d eve lopmen to ft h ee a r ly b ron ze a ge i nt h eI ber ian P en insu la . ( Ed inbu rgh : E d in b u rgh U n ive r s i ty , MS .P h .D . t h e s is ) . 1 96 1 . " Ea r ly b ronze a ge c o lon is t si nI be r ia " . A n t iqu i ty 3 5 : 1 92 -202 . 1 971 . D ie A nf änge d e r Me ta l lurg ie a uf d e ri b er i schen H a lb in se l . ( Be rl in : R öm i sch -German ische sZ en t ra lmu seum , " S tud ien z ud en A n fängen d e r Me ta l lu rg ie 4 " ) . B LANCH FALP ,M . , BLASCO OL IVARES ,A . , EDO BENA IGES ,M . &M ILLAN CASCALLO ,M . , 1 983 . " La c uev ad eC an S adurn I( Begue s ,B a rce lona ) ys u sa po r tac ione s al ap r eh is to r ia c a ta lana ." p p . 8 3 -93 i nC r6n ica d e l XV I C ongre so N ac ionc id eA queo logla . Mu rc ia -Ca r tagena 1 982 . ( Sarago s sa : U n ive r s idad d c Z aragoza , S em ina r io d c A rqueo iog la , " Cong re so s A rqueo log ico sN ac iona le s" ) . BLEGEN ,C .W . , 1 963 . T roy a nd t h eT ro jan s . ( London : T hame s &H ud son , " Anc ien tp eop le sa nd p l ace s" ) . BLEGEN , C .W . , CASKEY , J . L . , & RA WSON , M . , 1 951 . T roy . T he t h ird ,f our th a nd f if th s e t t lemen t s . ( P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . BLEGEN ,C .W . , CASKEY ,J . L . , RA WSON ,M . &S PERL ING ,J . , 1 950 . T roy G enera li n troduc t ion . T he f i r s ta nd s econd s e t t lemen t s . V o l . 1P a r t2 :P la te s . ( P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . -

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BOSCH IG I MPERA , P . , 1 9 19 . P reh i s tôr ia d e C a ta lunya . ( Ba rce lona : E d i to r ia l C a ta lana , " Enc ic lopèd ia C a ta lana 1 6 " ) . 1 923 . " Con s ide rac ion s g ene ra l s s ob re l e se s tac ion se neo l i t lque sd e lB a ix A ragó id e lR egne d cV a lènc ia ." A nua r i . I n s t i tu t dE s tud i sC a ta lan s( 19 15 -1920 ) 6 :4 63466 . BOTELLA CANDELA ,E . , 1 924 -1925 . " Excavac ione se nl a' Mo la A l ta 'd c S e rele s ( A lcoy )" . Memor ia . sd e l aJ un ta S uper ior d eE xca vac ione s yA n z igüedade s7 9 : 1 14 . BOTELLA LOPEZ ,MC . , 1 973 . " Re s to s h umano s e neo l I t ico s c on i n c i s ione se nL ap rov inc ia d cG ranada " . A na le s d e l d e sar ro l lo 1 7( 4 1-42 ) : 4 . 0 1-423 . BRA ID WOOD , R .J . & BRA ID WOOD , L .S . , 1 960 . E xcava t ions i nt h ep la in o fA n t ioch . I .T he e ar l ier a ssemb lage s , p ha se sA -f .( Ch icago : Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re ss , " Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion s6 1" ) . BRAY ,W . , 1 966 . " Neo l i th ic p a in ted w a re i nt h eA d r ia t ic ." A n t iqu i t y4 0 : 1 00 -106 . BROCH IER ,J -E . , 1 987 . " Un a ppo r td cs ed imen te nm i l ieu s epu ic ra l : I c' s &l imen tjaune 'd c1 'Aven d cl aB ouc le aC o r c onne ( Ga rd ) ." pp . 1 05 -109 i nH . Duday & C . Ma sse t ( e d s ) ,A n thropo log ie p hy s ique e ia rcheo log ie . Mé thode s dé t ude d e ss epu l ture s .A c te sd uc o l loque d eT ou lou se 4 , 5e i 6n ovemb re 1 982 . ( Pa r i s : E d i t ion s d uC en t re N a t iona l d cl aR eche r che S c ien t i f ique ) . BRUNTON ,G . , 1 928 . Qau a nd B adar i .I i .( London : B r i t ish S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nE gyp t ) . BRUNTON ,G . & CATON -THOMPSON ,G . , 1 928 . T he B ada r ian c i v i l isa l ion .( London : B r i t ish S choo lo fA rchaeo lo g yi nE gyp t ) . BUBNER ,T . , 1 976 . " Ace rca d c l ap ob lac ión c ampan ifo r ine d c l aP en in su la I bdnca" . C uad'rnos d ep reh i s io r ia ya r q ueo log Ia c a s te l lonense s3 :5 1-79 . 1 987 . ' The b e l lb eake rf o lk o ft h eI b e r ian P en in su la ." p p . 6 37 -665 i nW .H . Wa ld ren & R -C . K enna rd ( e d s ) , B e i b eake r so ft h e We s tern Med i te r ranean .D ef in i t ion , i n te rpre ta t ion , t h eory a nd n ew s i te d a ta . ( Ox fo rd : B r i t ish A r c haeo log ica lR epo r t s , " BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie s S -331" ) . BURGESS ,C . , 1 980 . T he a ge o fS t onehenge . ( London : J .M . D en t , " H is to ry i nt h el a nd scape s e r ie s" ) . CABRE AGU ILO ,J . , 1 922 . " Una n ec rópo l id cl ap r ime ra c dad d cl o s mc ta le s ,e n Monach i l ,G ranada ." A c ta s ym emor i a sd el aS oc iedad E spano la d eA n t ropo logl a ,E ino log Ia yP reh i s tor ia] ( 2 ) Memor ia s : 2 3 -32 .

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1 924 . " Ob je to sc on g rabado s eI do lo sd e l Mu seo d cA n t ropo log Ia ,d e Mad r id ." A c las ym emor ias d el aS oc iedad E spaño la d eA n iropo logla , E tno log la yP reh i s tor ia 3A c tas : 9 1-102 . CALLA WAY , J .A . & WE INSTE IN ,J .M . , 1 977 . " Rad ioca rbon d a t ing o fP a le s t ine i nt h e e a r ly b ronz ea ge ." B u l le t in o ft h e Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sea rch 2 25 : 1 16 . CAPEL MART INEZ , J . , CARRASCO RUS , J . & NAVARRETE ENC ISO , M .S . , 1 981 . " Nueva s s epu l t i i ra s e n l a c uenca d e lr I oC ac in ( A lhama d cG ranada ) ." C uad e rnos d epreh i s tor ia d el aU n ive rs idad d eG ranada 6 :1 23 -165 . CASANOVA

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T raba jos s obre N eogeno -Cua ternar io 6 :6 5 -

7 7 . 1 98 1 . " Nuevo sd a to s s ob r ee iP l e i s toceno S upe r io r ye iF l o loceno c on t inen ta le se nA l ican te yMu rc ia ." R ev i s ta d e l I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sA l ican t ino s 3 4 : 7 9 -85 . 1 985 . " Con s ide rac ione sg ene ra le s s ob re e iC ua tema r io c on t inen ta le nA l ican te yMu rc ia ." S a i t ib i 3 5 : 2 07 -218 . 1 986a . " Pa lacoeco log ica la spec t sa nd p a laeoeconom ic i n te rac t ion si ns ou thea s te rn S pan i sh p reh is to ry ." p p . 3 77 -390 i nF .López -Ve ra ( c d ) , Qua terna ry c l ima te i nW e s tern Med i te r ranean . ( Mad r id : Un ive r s idad Au tónoma d e Mad r id ) . 1 986b . " Pa laeoc l ima t ic ,p a laeoenv ironmen ta la nd a n th rop ic i n te rac t ion si nS .E . S pan i sh H o locene p r eh i s to ry . P ar t 1 :C l ima t ic a nd e nv ironmen ta le vo lu t ion ." p p . 5 9 -61 i nF .López -Be rmddez & J .B .Tho rne s( ed s ) ,E s tud ios s obre g e o morf o log la d e lS ur d eE spaf ia . ( Mu rc ia : Un ive r s idad d c Mu rc ia ) . 1 986c . " Pa laeoc l ima t ic ,p a laeoenv i ronmen ta la nd a n th rop ic i n te rac t ion si nS .E . S p an i sh H o locene p r eh i s to ry . P a r t 2 :P a laeoenv ironn ien ta l -pa laeoeconom ic i n te rac t ion i nl a te rp r eh is to r ic t ime s ." pp. 6 3 -66 i nF .López -Be rm t idez & J .B .T ho rne s ( e d s )E s tud io ss ob re g eomorf o log ia d e ls u rd cE spana . ( Mu rc ia : Un ive r s idad d c Mu rc ia ) . 1 986d . " Aspec to sp a leoc l imá t ico sd e l E neo l I t ico a l ican t ino ." p p .4 3 -49 i nM .S .H e rnández -Pé rez ( c d ) , E le neo l I z ico e ne iP a l s V a lenc iano .A c ta sd cc o loqu lo ( A lcoy .1 2d cd i c iembre d c1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld c A l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sA l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . CURA IMORERA ,M . , 1 984 . " O r igen ie vo luc ió d e lm ega l i t i sme al e sc oma rque sc en t ra ls io cc iden ta ls d eC a ta lunya : I .d e ln eo l I t ic m i t ja al ' eda td e l b ronze ." C o la z e ro 3 . DAV IDSON ,I . , 1 976 . " Sea sona l i ty i nS pa in ." Z ephy ru s 2 6 -27 : 1 67 -173 . 1 980 . " T ran shumance , S pa in a nd e t hnoa rchaeo logy ." A n t iqu i ty 5 4 : 1 44 -147 . DE HOYOS SA INZ ,L . , 1 947 . " I I . A n t ropo log Ia p r eh i s tónca e spaf io la " . p p . 9 5 -24 1 i nR . Mcnéndez P ida l ( c d ) ,H is tor j ade E spana . T omo 1 , 1 . ( Mad r id : E spa sa -Ca lpe ) . DE LA VEGA DEL S ELLA ,( CONDE ) . 1 929 . " Lo se n t er ram ien to sd cC af iada d e l A lba ." A c ta s ym emor ias d el aS o c i edad E spano la d eA n t ropo log la ,E lno logl a yP reh i s tor ia 8A c ta s : 1 9 -22 . DE MERGEL INA , C . , 1 922 . " La n ec rópo l is t a r té s ica d c An teque ra ." A c la s ym emor ia s d e l aS oc iedad E spaño la d e A n t ropo log ia .E lno logla yP reh i s tor ia 1Memor ia s : 3 7 -90 . DE MORGAN ,J . , 1 896 . R eche rche ss ur l e so r ig ine s d cl ' Egyp te . L 'äge d c l ap ier re e tl e sm é taux . V o l . 1 .( Par i s : E r n e s tL e roux ) . DE MOTOS ,F . , 1 918 . L ae dad n eo l i t ica e n V é le z B lanco .( Mad r id : I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d cC ienc ia s F I s ico -Na tu ra les , J un ta p a ra Amp l iac ión d c E s tud io s eI nve s t igac ione s C ien t I f ica s , Mu seo N ac ióna l d c C icnc ia s N a tu ra le s , " Co m i s ión d cI nve s t igac lon P a leon to lög ica yP reh i s tónca . Memo r ia 1 9" ) . DEL CAST ILLO YUR IUTA , A . , 1 922 . L a c e rám ica i n c i sa d c l ac u l tura d c l a s c ueva s d el aP en in su la I bé r ica y e i p rob lema d e lo r i gen d e l ae spec ie d e l v a so c ampan if orme . ( Ba rce lona : Un iver s idad d c B a rce lona , Anua r io d c l a U n ive r s idad d cB a rce lona ;o f -p r in ti nA shmo lean Mu seum L ib r a ry ) . 1 928 . L ac u l tura d e lv a so c ampan if orme ;s uo r igen ye x ten s ion e nE uropa .( Ba rce lona : U n ive r s idad d cB a rce lona ) . 1 943 . " C rono log Ia d cl ac u l tu ra d e l v a so c ampan ifo rme e nl aP en in su la I b é r ica ." A rch ivo e spano ld ca rqueo logia 1 6 : 3 88 -435 . 1 94 3 . " C rono log Ia d cl ac u l tu ra d e l v a so c ampan ifo rme e nl aP en in su la I b é r ica ." A rch ivo e spano ld ca rqueo logl a 1 7 : 1 67 . 1 947 . " E ln eoeneo l I t ico ."

p p .

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C a lpc ) . DEL P INO DE LA TORRE SANTANA ,M . 1 984 . " La C ueva d cl o sT on to se nl ae s tac ión a r queo lóg ica d cL a sP eña s d cl o sG i tano s( Mon tef r Io ,G ranada ) ." C uaderno sd cp reh i s tor ia d cl aU n ive r s idad d cG ranada 9 :8 5 -96 . DEL IBES DE CASTRO , G . F ERNANDEZ -M IRANADA ,F . ,F ERNÁNDEZ -POSSE Y ARNA IZ ,M .D . & MARTIN MORALES ,C . , 1 986 . " E l p ob lado d cA lm iza raque ." p p . 1 67 -177 i n0 . A r teaga ( c d ) . Homena je aL u is S i re t( 1934 1 984 ) . A c tas d e lC ongre so " Homena je aL u is S i re :( 1934 -1984 ) , C ueva sd eA lman zora ,J un io 1 984 . ( Madr id : J un ta d cA nda luc ia ,C on se jer la d cC u l tu ra ,D irecc ión G ene ra ld cB e l la sA r te s ) . DEL IBES DE CASTRO ,G . , ALONSO D IEZ ,M .& ROJO GUERRA ,M .A . , 1 987 . " Lo s s epu lcm sc o lec t ivo s d e l Due r o Med io yL a s L o r a s , ys uc onex ión c on e if o co d o ln iémco n o jano ." p p . 1 81-197 i nG . D e l ibe s d cC a s t ro ( c d ) , E l m ega i i t i smo e n l aP en i nsu la I bé r ica .( Mad r id : M in is te r io d cC u l tu ra ,D i recc ión d cB e l la sA r tc s yA rch ivo s , S ubd i r e cc ión G ene ra l d cA rqueo log Ia yE tno log la ) . D IKA IOS ,P . , 1 938 . " The e xcava t ion sa t Vouno s -Ba l lapa i si nC yp ru s . 1 931-2 ." A rchaeo log ia 8 8 : 1 174 .

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1 939 . " The e xcava t ion sa tE r im i , 1 933 -1935 .F ina l r e po r t ." R epo r to ft h eD epar tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s , C ypru s , 1 936 : 1 81 . D IKA IOS , P . &S TE WART ,J .R .B . , 1 962 . T he S wed i sh C yp ru s E xped i t ion I VP a r t J A . T he s t one a ge a nd t h e e ar ly b ronze a ge i nC ypru s . ( Lund : S wed ish C yp ru sE xped i t ion ) . DO PA O , A . , 1 971 . " Sandá l ia s d e A lap raya ." pp. 7 3 -77 i n T raba ihos d e a rqueo log ia d e A lf onso d o P aço ( 1929 1 968 ) . V o lume H . ( L isbon : A ssoçâo d o s A rqueo logo sP o r tugue se s ) . DO MENECH RAT I 'O , G . , MORENO CASCALES , M . , F ERNÁNDEZ V ILLAC Á NAS - MAR IN , M .A . & R IJ IZ I B Á NEZ ,T .J . , 1 987 . " Apénd ice I .E s tud io p re l ir n ina rd e l o s r e s to s ö seo s p roceden te s d e l e n t enan i ien to c o lec t ivo l o ca l izado e nl a' Cueva S ag rada ' ." A na le sd ep reh i s tor ia ya rqueo logI a3 :2 5 -30 . D IJDAY ,H . , 1 980 . " Le sr i te sf une ra ir e se nL anguedoc a nc ou r sd ut r o i s ième m i l lena ire . ( Que lque so b se rva t ion sa p ropo sd ed écouve r tc sr é cen te s ) ." p p . 2 73 -282 i nJ .G u i lane ( ed ) ,L eg roupe d e V é ra za e il af in d e st emp sn éo l i t h ique sd an sl eS ud d eL aF rance e tC a ta logne .( Pa r i s :E d i t ion sd uC en t re N a t iona ld el aR eche rche S c ien t if ique ) . 1 987a . " O rgan isa t ion e tf onc t ionnemen td 'une s épu l tu re c o l lec t ive n eo l i th ique . L 'Aven d eI aB ouc le

aCorconne

( Ga rd ) ." pp. 8 9 -105 i nH . Duday & C . Ma s se t( e d s ) , A n thropo log ie p hy s ique e ia rcheo log ie . Mé thode s d' é tud ed e s s epu l tures .A c te sd uc o l loque d eT ou louse 4 , 5e i 6n ovemb re 1 982 . ( Pa r is : E d i t ion sd uC en t re N a t iona ld el aR e c he rche S c ien t i f ique ) . 1 987b . " Con t r ibu t ion d e s o b se r va t ion so s teo log ique sa la c h rono log ie i n te rne d e ss épu l tu re sc o l lec t ive s ." pp . 5 1-59 i nH . Duday & C . Ma sse t( e d s ) ,A n thropo log ie p hy s ique e ia rcheo log ie . Mé thode s dé t ude d e ss epu l tu re s .A c tes d u c o l loque d e T ou lou se 4 , 5e i 6n ovembre 1 982 .( Pa r i s : E d i t ion sd uC en t re N a t iona ld el aR eche rche S c ien t if ique ) . DUNAND , M . , 1 937 . F ou i l le s d e B yb lo s 1 .1 926 -1932 . A t la s . ( Par is : I mp r ime r ie N a t iona le , " L ib ra ir ie Onen ta l is te P au lG eu thne r " ) . E IROA GARC IA ,J . J . , 1 987 . " No t ic ia p re l im ina rd cI ap r ime ra c ampaf ia d ee xcavac ionc se ne ip ob lado d eL aS a lud y e nC ueva S ag rada I( Lo rca ) , Mu rc ia " . A na le sd ep reh i s tor ia ya rqueo logIa 3 :5 3 -76 . ENG IJ IX ALEMANY ,R . , 1 975 . " La C ova d cI a Ma l la V e rde ( Co rbc ra d eA lc i ra ,V a lenc ia ) ." pp. 3 33 -340 i nC rón ica d e lX I I IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log Ia Hue lva 1 973 ( Sa rago s sa : Un ive r s idad d e Z aragoza , S em ina r io d c A r q ueo log Ia , " Cong re so s A rqueo log ico sN ac iona le s" ) . E SCOR IZA MATEU , T . , 1 989 . " Nuevos I d o lo s e iy ac im ien to d c L a s Ango s tu ra s ( Go r , G ranada ) ." p p . 3 77 -384 i n C rOn ica d e lX IX C ongreso N ac iona ld eA rqueo logI a . C a s ie l lón d eL aP lana 1 987 . ( Sa rago s sa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ra g oza ,S em ina r io d cA rqueo log ia ," Cong r eso sA rqueo lóg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . E SP iN RAEL ,J . , 1 947 . " Sob re c ld ob ie m enh ir d cL o rca " . p p . 7 8 -80 i n C rón ica d e li !C ongre so d eA rqueo logIa d e l S ude s ie E spano l .A lbace te 1 946 . ( Ca r tagena : P ape le r ia E spa i io la ) . E SSE , DL . , 1 984 . " Ac h rono log ica l m ir age : r ef lec t ion si ne a r ly b ronze I Ci nP a le s t ine ." J ou rna lo fN ear E a s te rn s t ud i e s4 3 :3 17 -330 . EVANS ,J .D . , 1 959 . Ma l ta . ( London : T hame s &H ud son , " Anc ien tp eop le sa nd p l ace s" ) . 1 97 1 . T he p reh i s tor ic a n t iqu i t ie so ft h e Ma l te se i s land s . ( London : A th lone P re ss ) . EVANS ,J .D . &A .C . RENFR .E W , 1 968 . E xcava t ion sa tS a l iagos o nA n t ipa ro s . ( London : T hame s & Hud son f o r t h e B r i t i sh S choo l o fA rchaeo logy a tA then s , " Supp lemen ta ry v o lume n umbe r5 " ) . F ERNÁNDEZ DE AV ILES , A . , 1 939 -1940 . " La s p in tu ra s r upe s t re s d cl aC ueva d e l P c l ic icgo , e n te r ram ien to d c J u m i l la ( Mu rc ia ) ." B o le t I n d e T raba jos d e lS em inar io d eE s tud ios d eA r ie yA rqueo logIa , F acu l iad d eH i s tor ia , U n i v e r s idad d e V a l lado l id 6( 22 ) : 3 7 -46 . 1 945 . " La c ueva f une ra r ia d cI a' Loma d cl o s P e reg r ino s ' ,e nA lg 1 I7 J i ( Mu rc ia ) ." A rch ivo d epreh i s to r ia l e van t ina 2 :7 3 -79 . F LETCHER VALLS , D . , 1 960 . " Va so s d c b oca c uadrada e n I aP en in su la I bénca" .

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F e s t schri f tf ür L o tha rZ o t zz um 6 0 . G erbur t s tag . S t e inze i tF ragen d e rA lt en u nd N euen We l t . ( Bonn : I n s t i tu tf ü rU ru nd F rühge sch ich te d e rF r ied r ich -A lexande rU n ive r s i tä tE r langen ) . 1 96 1a . " La E re ta d e lP ed rcga l ( Nava r ré s ,V a lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 9 :7 9 -96 . 1 96 1b . " Un v a so d cb oca c uad rada d cl ap rov inc ia d cV a lenc ia " . pp. 8 2 -85 i nC rón ica d e lV iC ongre so N ac iona ld e A rqueo logIa . O v iedo 1 959 . ( Sa rago s sa : Un ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza ,S em ina r io d cA rquco log Ia , " Cong re so sA rque o l óg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . F LE I TCHER VALLS , D . ,P LA BALLESTER ,E . &L LOBREGAT CONESA ,E .A . , 1 964 . L aE re ta d eP ed rega l( Na v arré s V a lenc ia ) . (Mad r id : M in is te r io d c E ducac iOn y C ienc ia , C om isar la G ene ra l d c E xcavac iones A rque o l óg ica s , " Excavac ione s a r queo log ica s e nE spana 4 2" ) . F LETCHER VAL E S ,D . & ALCACER GRAU ,J . , 1 958 . " E lC a s t i l la re jo d el o s Mo ro s ( And i l la V a lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo -

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d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 7 :9 3 -110 . FORTEA P EREZ ,F . J . , 1 971 . L ac ueva d el aC oc ina . E n sayo d ec rono logIa d e le p ipa leo l l t ico ( f ac ie s g eomé tr ica s ) . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld eV a lenc ia ,S e rv ic io d cI nve s t igac ión P reh is tó r ica , " T raba jo s v a r io s4 0 " ) . 1 974 -1975 . " La sp in tura sr upe s t re sd el aC ueva d e lP e l ic iego od el o s Mo rcegu i l lo s( J um i l la , Mu rc ia ) ." Ampur ia s 3 6 -37 :3 1 -39 . F REEMAN ,S . , 1 979 . T he P a s iego s :S pan ia rd si nn om an' sl and . ( Ch icago : C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . FURG I I JS ,J . , 1 937 . C o l . lecc ió d e t r eba l l sd e lP . J .F urgü ss abre p reh i s tàr ia v a lenc iana . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ión P ro v i nc ia l d cV a lenc ia ,S e rv ic io d eI nve s t igac ión P reh i s tó r ica , " T raba jo sv a r io s5 " ) . FUSTE ARA ,M . , 1 957a . E s tud io a n zropo log ico d el o sp ob ladore sn eo -eneo l l t ico sd el ar eg ion v a lenc iana . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld cV a lenc ia ,S e rv ic io d cI nve s t igac ión P reh is tó r ica , ' T raba jo s v a r io s 2 9 " ) . 1 957b . " C ráneo d inár ico -a rmeno ide d cé poca e neo l I t ica p roceden te d cC h iva ( Va lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 6 :2 7 -43 . GALLAY ,A . , 1 987 . " Ana ly se d cl an éc ropo le n éo l i th ique d uP e t i t -Cha sseu r( Va la is ,S u i sse ) , v e r su nb i lan md thodo l o g ique ." pp. 1 9 -45 i nH . D uday & C . Ma s se t( ed s ) ,A n thropo log ie p hy s ique e ta rcheo log ie . Mé thode s dé t ude d e s s epu l tu re s . A c te s d u c o l loque d e T ou lou se 4 , 5e i 6n ovemb re 1 982 . ( P ar is : E d i t ion s d uC en t re N a t iona l d cl aR e c he rche S c ien t if ique ) . GARC IA DEL TORO ,J .R . , 1 980a . " La p r eh i s to r ia d e sde e ip a leo l I t ico a le neo l I t ico " . pp . 3 -53 i nJ .R . G a rc ia d e lT o ro , M .M . A ya la J uan ,M . R o s S a la ,J . Ma s G a rc ia & S .R amai lo A sen s io ( e d s ) , H i s tor ia d el ar eg ion murc iana 2 .L os p r ime ros h omb re s ys u sc u l iu ra s .P reh i s ior ia eh i s ior ia a n l igua . ( Mu rc ia : E d ic ione s Med i te r ráneo ) . 1 980b . " Cueva s epu ic ra le neo l I t ica d c' Lo sA lco re s ' ,C a ravaca d cl aC ruz ( Mu rc ia ) " . A na le sd el aU n ive r s idad d e Murc ia , F i losof l a yL e t ra s3 7 : 2 39 -259 . 1 986 . " La si l amada s v a r i l la sd ch ue so d cl o se n te r ram ien to sc o lec t ivo sd e lL evan te e spaho l ." p p . 1 57 -164 i nM .S . H e rnández -Pé rez ( c d ) , E le neo l I t ico e ne lP a l s V a lenc iano .A c ta sd ec o loqu io ( A lcoy . 1 2d ed i c iemb re d e1 984 ) . ( A l ican t e : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld cA l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io s A l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . 1 987a . " E lh ab i ta tc o s te ro -med i te r ráneo e neo l I t ico d cL a s Amo lade ra s ( Cabo d cP a lo s ,C a r tagena ) ." pp . 2 71-283 i n C rón ica d e l XV I ! !C ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log la .I s la sC ana r ia s 1 985 . ( Sa rago s sa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza , S em ina r io d cA rqueo log Ia ," Cong re so sA rquco log ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 987b . " E lh ab i ta te neo l I t ico d cL a s Amo lade ra s ( La Manga ) . C ampana d c 1 981-1984 . Memo r ia s uc in ta ."

p p .

9 3 -

1 0 1i nE xcavac ione s yprospecc ione sa rqueo lOg ica s . ( Mu rc ia : C omun idad Au tónoma d cl aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia ,C on s e jer la d cC u l t i i ra ,E ducac iOn yT u r ismo ,D irecc iOn G ene ra l d cC u l tu ra ,S erv ic io d cP a t r imon io H i s tO r ico ) . GARC IA DEL TORO , J .R . &L ILLO CARP IO , P .A . , 1 977 . " En tc r ranucn to h un iano c o lec t ivo d e l e neo l I t ico e n l a C ueva d e l B a r ranco d c l aH iguc ra ( Baf io s d c F o r tuna , Mu rc ia )" . Murc ia 2 ° t r ime s t r e 1 977 : 4p p . ( unpag ina ted ) . ( Mu rc ia : Ayun tam ien to d c Mu rc ia ) . 1 980 . " Un n uevo c n te r ram ien to c o lec t ivo c neo l I t ico e nl aC ueva d e lB a r ranco d cl aH iguc ra ( Baf io sd cF o r tuna , Mu rc ia ) ." A na le sd el aU n ive r s idad d e Mu rc ia , F i losof l a yL e t ra s 3 7 : 1 91 -199 . GARC IA SANCHEZ , M . , 1 983 . " Pa r ie ta l i n f an t i l t r epanado d cl aC ova d cl aS a r sa " . pp. 1 89 -198 i nJ . Apa r ic io P e rez ( c d ) , V ar ta I . ( Va lenc ia : Un ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia ,F acu l tad d cG cog ra f Ia eH is to r ia ,D epar tan ien to d cH is to r ia An t i gua ," Se r ie a rqueo lOg ica 7 " . GARC IA SANCHEZ , M . & CARRASCO RUS , J . , 1 981 . " C ráneo -copa ' e neo l I t ico d c l ac ueva d c l aC ar igüe la d c P ina r( G ranada ) " . Z ephy ru s32 -33 : 1 21-131 . GARC IA SANCHEZ , M . &J IMENEZ BROBE IL , S . , 1 981 . " Re s to s h umano s p r ch is tó r ico s d c l o s ' T a jo s d c C ac In ' ( A lhama d cG ranada )" . C uadernos d ep reh i s tor ia d el aU n iver s idad d eG ranada 6 : 1 67 -180 . GARC IA SANCHEZ , M . &S PA I IN I ,J .C . , 1 959 . " Sepu lc ro s m ega i l t ico s d cl ar eg iOn d c Go raf e( G ranada ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 8 :4 3 -113 . GARRALDA , M .D . , 1 98 1 . " Le s p opu la t ion s d un eo l i th ique e td u b ronze Id an s l aP én in su le I bé r ique e tl e s l i e s B a l d a re s ." A rch ive ss u i sse s da n thropo Iog ie g ené ra Je 4 3 : 2 31-257 . GARSTANG ,J . , 1 953 . P reh i s tor ic Mer s in . Y üm i ik T epe i ns ou the rn T u rk ey . ( Oxfo rd : O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . G IL FARRES , 0 . , 1 950 . " L a c s tac iOn d c V é lcz B lanco ( A lmer ia ) . C on s ide rac ione s a ce rca d e l n eo -eneo l I t ico yd cl a e dad d e lb roncc h i spán ica ." p p . p p . 1 27 -140 i nC rOn ica d e li C ong re so N ac iona ld eA rqueo log la yd e lI VC ongre so A rqueo lOg ico d e lS ude s te .A lme r ia 1 949 . ( Ca r tagena : P ape le r Ia E spaf io la ) . G ILMAN ,A . , 1 98 1 . ‚ The d eve lopmen to fs oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i nb ronze a ge E u rope ." C u rren ta n thropo logy 2 2 : 1 23 . GONEN , R . , 1 992 . T he c ha lco l i th ic p e r iod ." p p . 4 0 -80 i nA . B en -To r ( c d ) , T he a rchaeo logy o fa nc ien tI s rae l . ( New H aven : Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re ss a nd L ondon : T he Open U n ive r s i ty o fI s rae l ) .

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G ( 5NGORA Y MART INEZ ,M . , 1 868 . A n t igüedade spreh i s ió r ica sd eA nda luc ia . ( Mad r id : C . Mor n ) . GOSSE ,E . , 1 94 1 . " A l jo roque . E s tac ión n eo l I t ica i n ic ia l ,d el ap rov inc ia d cA lme r ia ." Ampur ia s 3 :6 1-84 . GU ILANE ,J . & ROUD I ,J -L . , 1 976 . " Le sc i v i l isa t ion sn eo l i th ique se nL anguedoc ." p p . 2 67 -278 i nJ .G u i lane ( c d ) ,L a p réh i s to i re f rança i se . T ome i . L e s c i v i l isa t ion s n eo l i thque s e ip ro toh i s tor ique s d e l aF rance . ( Pa r i s : E d i t ion s d u C en t r eN a t iona ld cl aR eche rche S c ien t if ique ) . GUS I IJ ENER ,F . & OLAR IA IPUYOLES , C . , 1 99 1 . E lpob lad . on eoeneo l ( t ico d eT e r re ra -V en tura ( Tabe rna s ,A lm e r ia ) . ( Mad r id : M in i s te r io d eC u l tu ra ,D irecc ión G ene ra ld eB e l la sA r te s ,I n s t i tu to d eC on se rvac ión yR e s tau rac ión d eB iene sC u l tu ra le s , " Excavac ione sa rqueo lóg ica se nE spaf ia 1 60 " ) . HARR ISON ,R .J . , 1 974 . " E l v a so c ampan ifo rme c omo h o r izon te d e l im it ado re n e iL evan t e e spano l" . C uaderno s d e p reh i s to r ia ya rqueo logla c a s te l lonense s 1 :6 3 -70 . 1 97 7 . T he b e l lb eake rc u l ture so fS pa in a nd P or tuga l . ( C amb r idge , Ma s s . : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty ,P eabody Mu seum , Ame r ican S choo lo fP reh is to r ic R e sea rch , " Bu l le t in 3 5 " ) . 1 980. T he b eake rf o lk . C oppe rA ge a r chaeo logy i n We s te rn E u rope .( London : T hame s a nd H ud son ) . 1 985 . " The ' p o l icu l t ivo g anade ro 'o rt h es econda ry p roduc t sr e vo lu t ion i nS pan ish a g r icu l tu r e ,5 000 -1000 b c ." P ro c eed ings o ft h eP reh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 1 : 7 5 -102 . HARR ISON ,R .J . &G IL MAN ,A . , 1 977 . " T rade i nt h es econd a nd t h i rd m i l lenn ia B .C . b e tween t h e Magh reb a nd I b e r i a ." p p . 9 0 -104 i nV . Ma ro t ic ( c d ) , A nc ien t E urope a nd t h e Med i ter ranean . S tud ie sp re sen ted i nh onou r o f Hugh H encken . (Wa rm in s te r : A ns & P h i l l ip s ) . HARR ISON ,R .J . & MORENO LOPEZ ,G . , 1 985 . " E l p o l icu l t ivo g anade ro ol ar e vo luc ión d cl o sp roduc to s s e cunda r i o s ." T raba jo sd epreh i s torw 4 2 : 5 1-82 . HASSAN ,F .A . , 1 980 . " Ca rbon -1 4d a te sf r om a r cha ic E gyp t ." J ourna lo fN ea rE a s te rn s t ud ie s3 9 : 2 03 -207 . 1 EGGS ,E .S . , 1 976 . ' The h i s to ry o fE u ropean a g r icu l tu re : t h eu p land s ." P h i lo soph ica lt r ansac t ions o ft h eR oya lS oc ie t yo fL ondon B 2 75 : 1 59 -173 . HOLLO WAY ,R .R . , 1 98 1 . I t a ly a nd t h eA egean . 3 00)

-

7 00 B .C . . ( Louva in la -Neuve : C o l lege E ra smc ,I n s t i tu tS upé -

n cu r dArchéo log ie e tdT h s to i re d c LA r t , " Pub l ica t ion s dH is to irc d c LA r te t dA rcheo log ie d cl l Jn iver s i td C a tho l i quc d cL ouva in 2 8 ,A rchaeo log ia t r an sa t lan t ica 1 " ) . I DA I EZ SANCHEZ ,J . F . , 1 985 . " Avance a le s tud io d c l an ec rópo l is c neo l I t ica d c Murv ied ro ( Lo rca , Mu rc ia ) ." p p . 1 97 -209 i nC rOn ica d e l XV I IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logIa .L ogrono 1 983 . ( Sa rago ssa : Umve r s idad d cZ a ra g oza ,S em ina n io d cA rqueo log Ia , " Cong r e so sA rqueo log ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 986 . " I nc ine rac ión p a rc ia l e nl o se n te r ram ien to sc o lec t ivo s c neo l I t ico sd e lS ude s te ." pp . 1 65 -166 i nG . Muhoz C a rba l lo ( c d ) ,A c ta sd el a Me sa R edonda s obre Mega l i t i smo P en in su la r( 8 -14 O c tubre 1 984 E spana -Por tuga le ie i XV a n ive r sa r io d el aA soc iac ión E spa .f io la d e Am igos d el aA rqueo logla . ( Mad r id : M in i s te r io d cC u l tu ra ,D irecc ión G ene ra l d cB e l la s APe s ) . 1 987 . " I nfonne : e xcavac ión d cu rgenc ia r c a l izada e nl an cc rópo l i se neo l I t ica d c Mu rv iedro ( Lo rca ) ."

p p .

9 3 -102 i n

E xcavac ione sy prospecc ione sa rqueo lóg ica s . ( Mu rc ia : C omun idad A u tónoma d cl aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia ,C on se jer la d cC u l tu ra ,E ducac iOn yT unsmo ,D irccc iOn G ene ra ld cC u l tura ,S e rv ic io d cP a t r imon io H is tó r ico ) . I DAFEZ SANCHEZ , J .F . & MU 1 OZ LOPEZ , F . , 1 986 . " A lguna s s cme jan7a s yd i f e renc ia s e n t re c le neo l I t ico d e l P a l s V a lenc iano yl aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia ( Yec la -Jum i l la ) ." p p . 1 45 -149 i nM .S . H e rnández -Pé rez ( c d ) ,E le neo l I t ico e n e iP a l s V a lenc iano . A c ta sd e c o loqu io ( A lcoy . 1 -2 d e d i c iembre d e 1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia l d c A l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . J IDEJ IAN ,N . , 1 97 1 . B yb los t h rough t h ea ge s .( Be iru t : D a re l - Mach req P ub l i she r s ) . J IMENEZ BROBE IL , S . , ORTEGA VELLE I T ,J .A . & GARC IA SANCHEZ , M . , 1 986 . " I nc i s ione s i n tenc iona le s s o b r ch ue so s hwnano s d e l c nco l l t ico d cl aC ueva d c Ma ia lmue rzo ( Moc l In ,G ranada ) ." A n tropo iogla yp a leoeco log la h umana 4 :3 9 -49 . J T MENEZ DE C ISNEROS , D . , 1 904 . " Rc s to s p reh is tO r ico s e n l aa l dca d c A rch ivc l ." B o ic t In d c l aR ea l S oc iedad E spaf io la d cH is to r ia N a tu ra l 5 :2 94 -296 . 1 925 . " I nd icac ión d ca l guna sy ac im ien to sp r ch is tO r ico s yn o t ic ia a ce rca d co t ro s ." B o le t ln d el aR ea lS oc iedad E spaño ia d eH is tor ia N a tura l2 5 : 7 1-81 . 1 936 . " Encuen t ro d e ls ucc ino oá mba ra ma r i l lo e nl a si nmcd iac ionc sd cA go s t ." B o le t l nd el aR ea lS oc iedad E spaf io ia d eH i s tor ia N a tura l3 6 : 3 65 -366 . J IMENEZ GO MEZ ,M .C . , 1 976 . " Lo s b raza lc tc s d c' p icd ra b l anca ' ys uc on t cx to e nl aE spaf ia m ed i tcnánca ."

p p .

5 31-

5 44 i nC rön ica d e l XV C ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo iog Ia L ugo 1 975 . ( S a rago ssa : Un ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza , S em i n a r io d cA rquco log la , " Cong re so sA rquco log ico sN ac iona le s" ) .

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J D4ENEZ NAVARRO , E . , 1 962 . " Excavac ione s e n C ueva Amb ro s io ." N o t ic ia r io a rqueo lOg ico h i spdn ico ( 1959 1 96 1 )5 :1 3 -48 . 1 947 . " Sob re e io r Igen d e l v a so c ampan i fo rme ." p p . 1 27 -132 i nC rón ica d e l IC ongre so A rqueo lóg ico d e lS ude s te E spaño l .A lbace te 1 946 . ( Ca r tagena : P ape le r ia E spa f io la ) . J ORDA CERDA ,F . , 1 958 . " Lo se n te r ram ien to sd el ac ueva d el aT o r re d e l Ma l P a so ( Ca s te lnovo ,C a s t e l lón d cl aP l a n a ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van l ina 7 :5 5 -92 . J UAN -CABAN ILLES , J . & CARDONA E SCR IVA ,J . , 1 986 . " La C ova d c UA lmud ( Sa lem , l aV a i l d 'A lba ida ) : u n e n te r r amen tm ul t ip le n eo -eneo l I t ico " . p p . 5 1-63 i nM .S . H e rnández -Pé rez ( cd ) ,E le neo l I t ico e ne iP a l s V a lenc iano . A c ta sd ec o loqu lo ( A lcoy . 1 -2 d ed i c iemb re d e 1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia l d cA l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d c E s t u d io sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . KUNTER , M . , 1 990 . Men sch l iche S ke le t t re s te a u s S i ed lungen d e rE lA rga r -Ku l tur . E in B e i trag d er P räh i s tor i schen A n thropo log ie z ur K enn tn i s b ronze ze i t l iche rB evö lkerungen S i idos t span iens .( Ma inz am R he in : V e r lag P h i l ipp v an Z ebe rn ,D eu t sche sA rchäo log i sche sI n s t i tu t Mad r id , "Mad r ide rB e i t räge 1 8" ) . L .S .M . , 1 925 . " Sepu l tu ra p re -h is tó r ica d aP ra ia d a s Maca s ." 0 a rcheo logo p or tuguê s 2 7 : 1 94 . L A P REH JSTOR IA EN E L MUSEO ARQUEOLOG ICO DE L A D iP UTAC ION P ROV INC IAL DE A L ICANTE , 1 993 . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld cA l ican te ;u npag ina ted ) . LA MB ,W . , 1 936 .E xcava t ion sa tT herm ii nL e sbos . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) . LAV IOSA ZA MBOTF I ,P . , 1 951 . " E spaf ia cI t a l ia a n t e sd cl o sr omano s ." C uade rno sd el ah i s tor ia p r im i t iva d e lh om b r e 6 :7 -101 . L EEDS ,E .T . , 1 920 . " The d o lmen sa nd m ega l i th ic t omb so fS pa in a nd P o r tuga l" . A rchaeo log ia 7 0 : 2 0 1-32 . 1 922 . " P rob lem so fm ega l i th ic a r ch i tec tu re i nt h ew e s te rn Med i te r ranean" . A nna l so fa rchaeo logy a nd a n thropo lo g y9 :2 9 -40 . L E ISNER ,V . , 1 965 . D ie Mega i i thgräber d e rI be r i schen H a lb in se l . D e r We s ten . ( Be r l in : Wa l te rd cG ruy t e rf o rD eu t s c he sA rchäo log isches I n s t i tu t ,A b te i lung Mad r id , " Mad r ide rF o r schungen 1 , 3" ) . LE ISNER G . & LE ISNER V . , 1 943 . D ie Mega l i thgräbe r d e r I ber i schen Ha lb inse l . E r s te r T e i l . D e r S üden . ( Be r l in : R öm isch -German isches Z en t ra lmu seum , " Röm isch -Ge rman ische F o r schungen 1 7 " ) . L ILLO CARP IO , P .A . & WALKER , M .J . , 1 983 . " Excavac ione s a rqueo lóg ica s e nc ly ac im ien to d cE l P rado ,J u mi la ( Mu rc ia ) ." pp. 1 05 -112 i nC rón ica d e l XV IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logla C a r tagena - Murc ia , 1 982 . ( S a rago s s a : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza ,S cm ina r io d cA rqueo log Ia , " Cong re so sA rqueo log ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 984 . " Excavac ione sa rqueo log ica se nE lP rado ,J um i l la ( Mu rc ia )C ampaha d c 1 980 ." A na le sd el aU n ive r s idad d e Mu rc ia , L e t ra s4 2( 1983 -1984 ) : 3 -36 . 1 986 . " Ascn tam ien to se nco l I t ico se nc lS u rc s te e na r ea sb a ja s ." p p . 1 75 -186 i nJ . Má sG a rc ia ( c d ) , H i s io r ia d eC a r t a gena .I .P r imeros p ob lar n ien tos d e lS u re s ie . ( Mu rc ia : E d ic ione s Mcd i te rn ianca ) . 1 987 . " Lo sr e s to sh umano sd i spe r so se ne ia s en tam ien to e neo l I t ico d cE lP rado d cJ um i l la ( Mu rc ia ) ." A na le sd e p reh i s tor ia ya rqueo log la 3 : 1 05 -109 . LLOBREGAT CONESA , E .A . , 1 963 . L a s c ueva s d e e n ter ram ien to e neo l u t icas e n e ir e ino d e V a lenc ia .( Va lenc ia : U n ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia , MS ,t c s ina d cl i cenc ia tu r a ) . 1 966 . " E s tud io d cl o sm ega l i to sp o r tugue se sp o rl o sL e isne r yl a sc ueva sd ce n tc r ran i ien to mu l t ip le d e lP a l sV a len c i ano " . A rch ivo d epreh i s tor ia l e van t ina I t : 8 1 -90 . 1 973 . D e lf in d e ln eo i l t ico d ec e rär n ica si mp re sa sa lc on i ien zo d el ae dad d eb ronce e nl ar eg ion v a lenc iana . ( Va l e nc ia : U n ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia ,F acu l tad d cF i lo so f Ia yL e t ra s , " Papc le sd e lL abo ra to r io d cA rquco log ia d cV a len c i a9 " ) . 1 978 . " Cocen ta ina y ae s taba h ab i tada h ace m á sd cc ua t ro m i la f io s ." C ocen ta ina ( o f f -p r in t , 2p p . ,u npag ina ted ) ( Co c en ta ina : Ayun tam ien to d cC ocen ta ina ) . L LOBREGAT CONESA ,E . , MART !O L IVER ,B . , BERNABEU AUB IAN ,J . ,V ILLAVERDE BON ILLA ,V . , GAL LARD MART ! , M .D . , P EREZ R IPOLL , M . , ACU tIA F IERNANDEZ , J .D . & ROBLES CUENCA , F . , 1 981 . " Cova d cl e sC cnd re s ( Teu lada ,A l ican te ) . I n lo rme p r e l im inar " . R ev i s ta d e lI n s ti t u lo d eE s tud ios A l ican t ino s 3 4 : 8 7 11 . LLONGUERAS ICA MPA4A ,M . , 1 98 1 . " La c u I tu ra d e ls s epu lc ro s d cf o ssa d e l N eo l I t ic M ig recen td c C a ta lunya ." p p . 1 61 -171 i nC amp s ,G .M . ,L ionguc ra s iC ampa i iá ,M . , Marce t iB a rbé , R . ,P e t i t iMcnd izába l , M .A . &R ov i ra i P o r t ,J .( ed s ) , E lN eo l l t ic aC a ia lunya . T au la r edona d e Mon t ser ra t . Ma ig , 1 980 . ( To r to sa : P ub l icac ion s d c VAbad Ia d c Mon t se r ra t ) . LOUD , G . , 1 948 . Meg iddo I . S ea son s o f1 935 -1939 . P la te s .( Ch icago : Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re ss , " Un ive r s i ty o f

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C h icago O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te p ub l ica t ion s6 2" ) . LULL SANT IAGO , V . , 1 983 . L a " c u l tura " d eE lA rga r ( Un m ode lo p ara e ie s zud io d e l a sf ormac ione s e conóm ico s oc ia ie spreh i s tó r icas ) .( Mad r id : Aka l , " Se r ie u n ive r s i ta r ia 4 9 " ) . LYTHGOE ,A .M . , 1 965 . T he p redyna s t ic c eme te ry N 7000 N aga -ed -Der P a r tI V . ( Be rke ley a nd L o s Ange le s : Un ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia P r e s s , " Un ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia P ub l ic a t ion s ,E gyp t ian A rchaeo logy 7 " ) . MCPHERSON ,W . , 1 870 .T he Woman ' sC ave . D e sc r ip t ion o f ac ave c on ta in ing p reh i s tor ic r ema ins d i scove red i nt h e n e ighbourhood o fA ihama n ear G ranada b y W . McPhe r son . ( Cad iz : I mp ren ta d el aR ev is ta M& l ica a nd F ede r ico J o ly yV e la sco ) . 1 87 1 . T he W oman ' sC ave .D e scr ip t ion o f ac ave c on ta in ing p reh i s tor ic r ema in sd i scove red i nt h en e ighbourhood o fA ihama n ear G ranada b yW . McPher son .P a r ts econd . ( Cad iz : I mp ren ta d el aR ev i s ta Méd ica a nd F ede r ico J o ly yV e la sco ) . MADDOCK , K . , 1 982 . T he A u s t ra l ian A bor ig ine s . Ap or t ra i to ft h e i rs oc ie ty . ( F la rmond swo r th a nd Me lbou rne : P en g u in ,2 nd . e d . ) . MALUQUER DE MOTES ,J . , 1 945 . L ap rov inc ia d eL é r ida d u ran te e ie neo i u t ico , b ronce yp r ime ra e dad d e lh i er ro . ( L ér ida : I n s t i tu to d eE s tud io sL e r iden se s ) . 1 950 . " La c u l tu ra n co l I t ica d e l V a l lé se ne l ma rco d el ap r eh i s tona d e lO cc iden t e Med i te r ráneo ." A r rahona 1 2 : 6 1 7 5( Sabade l l : Mu seo d eS abade l l ) . MARCET IBARBE ,R . , PET IT IMEND IZABAL ,M .A . , ROV IRA IPORT ,J .& V IVES ,E . , 1 982 . " Ba lma d el aS a r g an tana o d e R enan . O l io la ." p p . 1 55 -157 i nL e s e xcavac ione s a rqueo iOg ique s aC a ta lunya e n e i s d arrer s a ny s . ( Ba rce lona : D epa r ta inen td eC u l tu ra d el aG enera l i ta td eC a ta lunya ,D i recc ió G ene ra ld e lP a t r imon i A r t i s t ic ,S e rve i d 'A rqueo lög ia , " Excavac ion sa r queo log ique s aC a ta lunya 1 " ) . MART I OL IVER , B . , 1 977 . C ova d e 110 r( Ben ia r ré s , A l ican te ) . V o l .] . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ion P rov inc ia l d eV a lenc ia , S e rv ic io d eI n ve s I igac ión P reh i s tó r ica , ' T raba jo s v a r io s5 1" ) . 1 978 . " E ln eo l I t ico d el aP en in su la I bé r ica . E s tado a c tua l d el o sp rob lema sr e la t ivo sa lp roceso d en eo l i t izac ión y e vo luc ión d cl a sc u l tu ra sn eo l I t ica s" . S agun tum 1 3 : 5 9 -98 . 1 980a . " IV . L ai ndu s t r ia d es f lex ,l ap i ed ra p u l imen tada ,l o so b je to sd ch ue so yl ac e rám ica ." p p . 2 7 -126 i nB . Ma r t i O l ive r , V . P a scua l P e rez ,M .D . G ala r t Ma r t i ,M .P . L opez G a rc ia ,M . P e rez R ipo l l ,J .D . A cu i ia H emández & F .R o b l e sC uenca , C ova d e 1‚ O r( Ben ia rré s A l ican te ) . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld eV a lenc ia ,S e rv ic io d eI nve s -

t i gac ion P r eh is tó r ica , " T raba jo s v a r io s6 5 " ) 1 980b . " E s tud io t i po lOg ico d cl o s ma t e r ia le s ." p p . 1 27 -164 i nB . Ma r t iO l ive r ,V .P a scua lP e r ez ,M . D . G a l la r t Ma r t i ,M .P .L opez G a rc ia ,M . P e r ez R ipo l l ,J .D . A cuña H e rnández & F .R ob le sC uenca ,C ova d e iO r( Ben iar ré s A l ican te ) . ( Va lenc ia : D ipu tac iOn P rov inc ia ld cV a lenc ia ,S erv ic io d cI n ve s t igac iOn P reh is tO r ica , " T raba jo sv a r io s

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6 5 " ) . 1 98 1 . " La C ova S an ta ( Va l la rda ,V a lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo d epreh i s tor ia l e van t ina 1 6 : 1 59 -195 . 1 982 . N eo l i t izac iOn yn eo l I t ico a n t iguo e nl az ona o r ien ta ld cl aP en in su la I b é r ica ." pp. 9 7 -106 i nR . Mon t ja rd in ( c d ) ,L en eo l i th ique a nc ien m éd i te r ranéen .A c te sd uC o l ioque I n te rna t iona ld eP réh i s to i re . Mon tpe l l ie r1 981 . ( Mon tpe l l ie r : R evue d el aF édé ra z ion A rchéo iog ie d e I1 lé rau l t ,n °s pec ia l 1 982 , " A rchéo log ie e nL anguedoc ." ) 1 984 . " Va so n eo l i t ico p roceden te d cl aC ueva d e l N iño . A yna ( A lbace te )" .p p . 7 7 -80 i nH omena je aS amue ld el o s S an tos . ( A lbace te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld cA lbace te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sA lbace tcn sc s ) . MART IN , A . , 1 977 . " E l g rupo d c V e raza e n C a ta lunya ." p p . 3 4 1-354 i nC rOn ica d e lX IV C ongre so N ac iona ld eA r q ueo logIa . V i tor ia , 1 975 . ( Sa rago ssa : U n ive r s idad d c Z a ragoza , S cm ina r io d c A rquco log Ia , " Cong rc so s A rque o l Og ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 980 . " Avance al o sr e su l tado so b ten ido se nl a se xc avac ione sd cC ova d e lF ra re ( Ma tadepe ra ,B a rce lona ) ." A rraho n a 1 0 . ( Sabade l l : Mu seo d cS abade l l ) . MART IN SOCAS , D . & CA MAL ICH MASS IEU ,M .D . , 1 986 . " La s e xcavac ione s e nc lp ob lado d cC ampo s ( Cueva s d cA lmanzo ra , A lme r ia ) ys u p rob lemá t ica ." p p . 1 78 -191 i n0 . A r tcaga ( c d ) , Homena je aL u is S i re t( 1934 -1984 ) . A c ta s d e l C ong re so " Homena je aL u i s S i re t ' ( 1934 -1984 ) , C ueva s d eA lman zora , J un io 1 984 .( Madr id : J un ta d c A nda luc ia ,C on se je r l ad cC u l tu ra ,D i recc iOn G ene ra ld cB e l la sA r te s ) . MART INEZ GARC IA , J . , 1 98 1 . " E l c on jun to r upes t rc d cl ar amb la d cG e rga l ( A lmer la ) ." C uadernos d ep reh is tor ia d el aU n ive r s idad d eG ranada 6 :3 5 -73 . MART INEZ SANCHEZ ,C . &S AN N ICOLAS DEL TORO ,M . , 1 993 . " La o cupac iOn a rgá r ica d el aC ueva d e lC a l o r( Ceheg In ) . C ampaña 1 990 " . pp. 7 4 -82 i n Memor ia s d ea rqueo logIa 4 .P r imera sJ orna s la c d eA rqueo logIa R e g iona l2 1 -24 Mar zo 1 990 . ( Mu rc ia : C omun idad A u tónoma d cl aR eg ion d c Mu rc ia ,C on se je r la d c C u l tu ra , E duca -

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c i ón yT u r ismo ,D irecc ión G ene ra ld eC u l tura ,S erv ic io R eg iona l d eP a tr imomo 1 I is t6nco ) . MAT I IERS , C . , 1 984a . " Beyond t h e g rave : t h e c on tex t a nd w ide r i mp l ica t ion s o f mo r tua ry p rac t ice s i ns ou th -ea s t S pa in " . p p .1 3 -46 i nT .F .C .B lagg , R .F .J .Jone s &S . J .Keay ( ed s ) , P ape r s i nI ber ian a rchaeo logy . ( Ox fo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , " BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie sS -1 93" ) . 1 984b . " L inea rr eg r e s s ion ' ,i n f la t ion a nd p re s t ige c ompe t i t ion ,s e cond m i l lenn ium t r an sforma t ion si ns ou th -ea s t S pa in " .p p . 167 -1196 i nW .H . Wa ld ren ,R .W .C hapman ,J .L ew thwa i te & R -C . K enna rd ( e d s ) , T he D eya C onf er e nce o nP reh i s to ry .E a r ly s e t t l emen ti nt h e W e s te rn Med i te rranean i s land sa nd t h e i rp re iphe ra la rea s .P a r ti v . ( Ox f o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , " BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie sS -229" ) . MEGA W ,J .V .S . &S I MPSON ,D .D .A . , 1 979 . I n t roduc t ion t oB r i t i sh p reh i s tory f rom t h ea rr iva lo fH omo s ap ien st o t h eC laud ian i n va s ion .( Le ice s ter L e ice s te rU n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . MENC ION SASTRE ,J . , 1 908 . " E s tac ione sp reh is tó r ica sd cl ac i udad yr eg ion d cL o rca ." B o le t i nd el aR ea lA cadem ia d eH i s ior ia 5 2 : 4 83 -487 . MERCADAL ,0 . ,P EREZ -PEREZ ,A . & CH I MENOS ,E . , 1 991 . " E s tud io p a leoan tmpo lOg ico yp a leouu tnc iona l d eL a p ob lac iOn d cL aS a rgan tana ( O l io la ,L a Nogue ra .L é r ida )" . p p . 3 92 -399 i nE .R eba to & R . C a lde rOn ( ed s ) , V IC on g re so E spaf io ld eA n iropo logla B io log ica ,A c ta s /P roceed ing s . ( B i lbao : Un ive r s idad d e lP a l s V a sco ) . M ILLAN , C . , 1 950 . " La o b ra d e l S em ina r io d c 1 l is to r ia P r im i t iva d e l H omb re e n e iS u re s te e spaf io l" . p p . 4 9 -52 i n C rón ica d e l IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logl a yd e l VC ongre so A rqueo lóg ico d e lS ude s te .A lme r ia 1 949 . ( Ca r t a gena : P ape le r la E spano la ) . MOL INA GRANDE ,M .C . & MOL INA GARC IA ,J . , 1 973 . C a r la a rqueo lOg ica d cJ um i l la . ( Mu rc ia : D ipu tac ión P ro v i nc ia l d c Mu rc ia ,P a t rona to d cC u l tu ra ) . 1 977 . " La ' j um i l l i ta 'c omo d e sg ra san te e nL a crám ica e neo l I t ica l o ca l . J um i l la ( Mu rc ia ) ." Mu rge tana 4 7 : 6 3 -8 1 .

1 980 . " 1d o lo sn a tu ra le sd cp i ed ra e ne ib ronce d e l S u r e s te p en in su la r ." Mu rge tana 5 9 : 5 -36 . 1 990 . " f do lo sn a tu ra le sd cp i ed ra . Amp l iac ión d cs ue s tud io ." A l -ba s i l 1 6 : 1 09 -137 . MORENO TOV ILLAS , S . , 1 942 . " Apun te s s ob re l a s e s tac ione sp r eh i s tO r ica s d cL aS i e r ra d cO r ihue la ." ( Va lenc ia : I n s t i tu t dE s tud is V a lenc ian s ,S ecc iO H i s tb r ico -A rqueo iôg ic ,S er ve id l lnve s t igac iO P reh i s tö r ica , ' T r eba l l s s o l t s7 " ) . MU 1JOZ AM L UB IA ,A .M . , 1 965 . L ac u l tura n eo l I t ica c a ta lana d el o s ' s epukros d ef o sa. ( Ba r ce lona : Un ive r s idad d c B a rce lona ,I n s t i tu to d cA rqueo log Ia yP reh is to r ia , " Pub l icac ione se ven tua le s9 " ) . 1 982 . " Pob iado c nco l I t ico d e l t i po ' L o sM i l la rc s 'e n Mu rc ia . E spaf ia ." p p .2 97 -303 i nJ .G a rc ia -Bá rcena ( c d ) ,A c ta s . U n ion I n te rnac iona ld eC ienc ia sP reh i s tó r ica s yP ro toh i s tór ica s . XC ongre so . Mé . x ico D .F . . ( Mex ico C i ty : XC on g r e so d cl a Un ion I n tc rnac iona ld cC ienc ia sP r ch is tó r ica s yP ro toh is tónca s ) . 1 985 . " E le neo l I t ico e nc l Pa l s V a lcnc iano yMu rc ia ." p p .85 -99 i nL . Abad C isa l &M .S . H e r iu lndez -Pë rez ( ed s ) , A rqueo logl ad e lP a l s V a lenc iano :p anorama yp e r spec l iva s .( A l ican t e : Un ive r s idad d cA l ican te , Anc jo d cL ar e v i s I aL ucen tum ) . 1 986 . " Sepu l tu ra d e lC abezo d e lP lomo ( Mazar rOn , Mu rc ia ) ." A na les d cp reh is tor ia ya rqueo log la 2 :1 7 -28 . MURRAY ,T . & WALKER ,M .J . , 1 988 . " L ike WHAT? A p rac t ica lq ue s t ion o fa na log ica li n fe rence a nd a r chaeo log i c a lm ean ing fu lne s s ." J ourna lo fa n thropo log ica la rchaeo logy 7 :2 48 -287 . NAVARRETE ENC ISO , MS . , 1 976 . L ac u l tura d cl a sc ueva sc on c e rá ,n ica d ecorada e nA nda luc ia o r ien ta l . V o l s . 1 , 2 .( G r anada : U n ive r s idad d cG ranada ,D epa r tamen to d cP reh is to r ia ) . 1 986 . " La sc omun idadc sn eo l I t ica se nl aA l ta A nda luc ia " . pp. 1 09 -118 i nO .A r t eaga ( c d ) , H omena je aL u i sS i re t ( 1934 -1984 ) .A c ta . sd e lC ongre so " Homena je aL u is S i re t "( 1934 -1984 ) , C ueva sd cA lman zora ,J un io 1 984 . ( Ma d r id : J un ta d cA nda luc ia ,C on se jc r ia d cC u l tu ra ,D irccc iOn G ene r a ld cB e l la s A r tc s ) . NEOL ITZKY ,F . , 1 935 . " Ku l tu rpf lanzen u nd Ho lz re s te a u sd en p r äh i s t o r i schen S pan ien u nd P o r tuga l ." B u l le t inu lF a c u l ia t i iS t i in te d i nC e rnau t i 9 (1 -2 ) . NEWTON ,R .G . & RENFREW ,A .C . , 1 970 . " Br i t ish f a ience b ead sr e con s ide red ." A n t iqu i ty 4 4 : 1 99 -206 . N IETO GALLO ,G . , 1 959a . " La c ucva a r t if ic ia l d c l aL oma d c l o s P e reg r ino s e n A lgua7 . a s ( Mu rc ia ) ." Ampur ia s2 1 : 1 89 -244 . 1 959b . " Co lgan te s yc abeza sd ca l f i lc rc on d eco rac iOn a cana lada : s ud i s t r ibuc ión e nl aP en in su la I bénca ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 8 :1 25 -144 . OLAR IA IPUYOLES , C . , 1 977 . " Excavac ione s e n L an ec rOpo l is m ega l I t ica d c l a s C hu ru le ta s ( Pu rchena , A lme r i a ) ." p p .4 39 -452 i nC rón ica d e lX IV C ongre so N ac iona ld cA rqueo log la . V i tor ia , 1 975 . ( Sa rago ssa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a r a goza ,S em ina r io d cA rqueo log ia , " Cong re so sA rqueo lOg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . OLAR IA IPUYOLES ,C . ( c d ) , 1 988 .C ova F osca . U na sen lam ien to m e so -neo l l t ico d cc a zadore s yp a s tore se nl aser r anla d e lA l to Mae s t ra zgo . ( Ca s tc l lón d c L aP lana : D ipu tac iOn P rov inc ia l d c C a s te l lón , S erv ic io d c A rqueo log Ia ,

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" Monog raf ie sd cp r eh is to r ia ia r queo log ia c a s te l lonenque s3 " ) . PASCUAL BEN ITO ,L . , 1 990 . " L 'Ab r ic d eY E scu r rupen ia ( Cocen ta ina

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Macan t ) . E n te r ra inen t má l t ip le d ec r emac ió

d e ln eo l I t . ic J IB ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 2 0 : 1 67 -188 . PASCUAL P EREZ , V . , 1 957 . " Un n uevo i do lo p roceden te d el ac ueva B o lum in i ( A l ican t e )" . A rch ivo d ep reh is tor ia l e van t ina 5 :3 5 -64 . 1 963 . " Ha l lazgo sp r eh is tónco se nL e s Uome te s( A lcoy ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh is tor ia l e van t ina 1 0 : 3 9 -58 . P EARSON ,G .W . &S TU IVER , M . , 1 993 . " H igh -p rec i s ion b i decada l c a l ib ra t ion o ft h e r ad iocarbon t ime s ca le , AD 1 950 6 000 BC ." R ad ioca rbon 3 5 : 1 23 . P ELL ICER CATALA , M . , 1 957 -1958 . " E l e n te r ram ien to e n c ueva a r t if ic ia l d e l b ronce Ih i sp an ico e n c lC e r ro d e l -

G rea l ( I rna l 1oz ,G ranada )" . Ampur ia s 1 9 -20 : 1 23 -136 . 1 962 . E s t ra t ig raf Ia p reh i s tó r ica d cl aC ueva d cN er ja . ( Madr id : M in is te r io d cE ducac iOn yC ienc ia ,C om i sa r la G en e r a l d cE xcavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica s , " Excavac ione sa r queo log ica se nE spaf la 1 6 " ) . 1 964 . E ln eo l I t ico ye ib ronce d el aC ueva d cl aC a r igüe la d cP If ia r( G ranada ) . ( Mad r id : ' T raba jo sd cp r eh is to r ia d e l S em ina r io d cH is to r ia P r im i t iva d e l Homb re d el aU n ive r s idad d c Mad r id yd e lI n s t i tu to E spaf io ld cP reh i s to r ia d e l C on se jo S upe r io rd cI nve s t igac ione sC ien t I l ica s 1 5" ) . P ELL ICER CATALA , M . & ACOSTA MAR11 NEZ , P . , 1 986 . " Neo l I t ico yc a lco l I t ico d e l aC ueva d e N e i ja ." p p . 3 4 1-450 i nJ .F . J o rdá P a rdo ( cd ) ,L ap reh i s lor ia d e l aC ueva d eN e r ja (M d iaga ) . ( Ner ja : P a t rona to d cL aC ueva d c N er ja , " T raba jo ss ob re L aC ueva d cN er ja 1 " ) . P ELTENBURG ,E . J . , 1 979 . " Lemba a r chaeo log ica lp ro jec t ,C yp ru s , 1 976 -77 : p re l im inary r epo r t ." L evan t 1 :9 -45 . 1 980 . " Lemba a r chaeo log ica lp ro jec t ,C yp ru s , 1 978 : p re l im ina ry r epo r t ." L evan t 1 2 : 1 21 . P ER ICOT GARC IA ,L . , 1 928 . " E l d epö s i to d cb raza le te sd cp ec t i incu lo d c ' P enya R ô ja ' ( Cua t re tonde ta ) ." A rch ivo d e p reh is tor ia l e van t ina 1 :2 3 -29 . 1 945 . " La C ueva d cl aC oc ina ( Do s Agua s ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 2 :3 9 -71 . 1 950 . L os s epu icro sm egc i I l ico sc a ia lane s yl ac u l tu ra p i rena ica . ( Ba r ce lona : U n ive r s idad d cB a rce lona ) . 1 95 1 . " Pa ra lc lo e g ipc io d cu na p i eza a l coyana ." p p . 8 6 -8 i nC rón ica d e lV IC ongre so A rqueo lóg ico d e lS ude s ie E spaño l .A lcoy , 1 950 . ( Ca r tagena : P ape le r la E spaf io la ) . P ETERSON ,N . , 1 974 . "Mo r tuary c u s tom so fn o r thea s tA rnhem L and . A na ccoun tc omp i led f r om Dona ld T hom sons f i e ld n o te s ." Memo i r so ft h eN a t iona l Mu seum o fV i c to r ia 3 7 : 9 7 -108 . P ETR IE ,W .M .F . , 1 920 . B r i t ish S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nE gyp ta nd E gyp t ian R e sea rch A ccoun t Twen ty th i rd y ea r 1 917 ,P reh i s tor ic E gyp ti lu s tra ted b yo ver 1 , 000 o b jec t si nU n iver s i ty C o l lege ,L ondon . ( London :B e rna rd Q ua n tch a nd U n ive r s i ty C o l lege ,B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy in E gyp t , " Pub l ica t ion 3 1" ) . 1 921 . B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nE gyp ta nd E gyp t ian R e sea rch R epor tT wen ty th i rd y ear 1 917 .C orpu so f p reh i s tor ic p o t tery a nd p a le t tes . ( London : B e rna rd Q ua r i tch ,C on s tab le ,a nd U n ive r s i ty C o l lege ,B r i t ish S choo lo f A rchaeo logy i nE gyp t , " Pub l ica t ion 3 2" ) . 1 939 . T he mak ing o fE gyp t . ( London : T he S he ldon P re ss a nd U n ive r s i ty C o l lege ,B r i t ish S choo l o fA rchaeo logy i n E gyp t , " Pub l ica t ion 4 1" ) . P ICKER ING , M .P . , 1 985 . C ann iba l i sm a mongs tA bor ig ine s? A c r t ic ia l r ev iew o ft h e l i t e ra ry e v idence . ( Canbe r ra : Au s t ra l ian N a t iona l U n ive r s i ty , MS .u npub l i shed L i t t .B . t h e s i s ) . 1 989 . " Food f o rt h ough t : a na l te rna t ive t o c ann iba l ism i nt h en eo l i th ic" . A u s tra l ian a rchaeo logy 2 8 : 3 5 -39 . P IGGOTr ,S . , 1 965 . A nc ien tE urope . ( FA inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . P I I ON VARELA ,F . , 1 987 . " Con s t ruc to re sd cs epu lc ro sm ega l I t ico se n Hue lva : p rob lema sd cu na i mp lan tac ión ." p p . 4 5 -72 i nG . D e l ibe sd cC a s t ro ( c d ) , E lm ega l i t i smo e n l aP en in su la I bé r ica . ( Mad r id : M in i s te r io d cC u lt h ra ,D irec c i ón G ene ra ld cB e l la sA r te s yA rch ivo s ,S ubd i recc ión G ene ra l d cA rqueo log Ia yE tno log ia ) . P LA BALLESTER ,E . , 1 954 . " La ' Cove ta d e lB a r ranc d e lC a . s te l le t ' ( Ca r r Ico la Va lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e v an t ina 5 :3 5 -64 . 1 958 . " La c ovacha d cR ibe ra ( Cu l le ra V a lenc ia ) ." A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 7 :2 3 -32 . 1 96 1 . " Ac t iv idade sd e lS e rv ic io d cI nve s t igac ión P reh is tónca ( 1956 -1960 ) " .A rch ivo d ep reh is tor ia l e van t ina 9 : -

2 11-253 ( pp . 2 15 -216 " 3 . 'Cova d cl 'O rB en ia r ré s" ) . P LA BALLESTER ,E . , MAR11 OL IVER , B . & BERNABEU A IJBL&N ,J . , 1 983a . " E re ta d e lP ed rega l ( Nava r rés , V a l e nc ia ) ." N o t ic ia r io a rqueo lög ico h i span ico 1 5 :4 1 -58 . 1 98 3b . " La E re t .a d e lP cd rega l ( Navar r é s ,Va lenc ia ) yl o si n ic io sd cl ae dad d e l b ronce" . p p . 2 39 -247 i nC rón ica d e l XV IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logIa C a r iagena -M urc ia , 1 982 . ( Sa rago ssa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza , S em ina r io d cA rquco log Ia , " Cong r e so sA rqueo log ico sN ac iona le s" ) .

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POLL MANN ,H -O . , 1 993 . O bs id ian i m n ordwe s lmed i ter ranean R aum . S e ine V e rb re i tung u nd N u t zung i mN eo l i th ik u mu nd A neo l i th ikum . ( Ox fo rd : T empv sR epa ra tvm , " BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie sS -585 " ) . P ONSELL CORTES ,F . , 1 928 . " La C ova d cl aS a r sa ( Boca i ren te ) ." A rch ivo d epreh i s tor ia l e van t ina 1 :8 7 -89 . P OPPER ,K .R . , 1 968 . T he l o g ic o fs c ien t if i cd i scove ry .( London : H u tch in son ,2 nd r e v ised e d i t ion ) . RAMALLO ASENS IO , S . , 1 981 . " Ha l lazgo s d e l ae dad d e l b ronce e n e iL lano d e l o s C epe ro s ( Ramone te , L o rca Mu rc ia )" .A na le sd el aU n ive r s idad d e Mu rc ia , F i losof l a yL e t ra s 3 8 : 2 5 -36 .

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RAMOS F ERNANDEZ ,R . , 1 981 . " E i P romon to r i d e l A igua Do iça iS a lada d c E iche . Avance as ue s tud io " . A rch ivo d ep reh i s lor ia l e van t ina 1 6 : 1 97 -226 . 1 983 . " P rec i s ione se vo lu t iva ss ob re c e rám ica sd et i po c ampan ifo rme " . p p . 13 -120 i nC rón ica d e l XV IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logIa C a r iagena - Murc ia , 1 982 . ( S a rago s sa : U n ive r s idad d cZ a ragoza ,S em ina r io d eA rqueo l o g Ia , " Cong re so s A rqueo lóg ico sN ac iona le s" ) . 1 986 . " Fo rma s ymo t ivo sd cl ac e rám ica d et i po c ampamfonne d cE iche " . pp. 1 31-138 i nM .S .He rn ndez -Pé rez ( c d ) , E le neo l i t ico e ne lP a l s V a lenc iano .A c ta sd ec o loqu io ( A lcoy . 1 2d ed i c iembre d e 1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu ta c i ón P rov inc ia ld cA l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sA l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . RA MOS M ILLAN ,A . , 1 981 . " I n te rp re tac ione ss ecuenc ia le s yc u l tu ra le sd cl ae dad d e l c ob re e nl az ona me r id iona ld c l aP en in su la I bénca . L aa l te rna t iva d c ma te r ia i ismo c u l tu ra l ." C uadernos d ep reh i s tor ia d el aU n iver s idad d eG ra n ada 6 :2 42 -256 . 1 982 . E s tud io a na li l i co d el o sm a ter ia le sa rqueo lóg icos d el af or t if i cac i6n d eL o sM i l lare s , IC ampaña r( 1978 1 979 ) . ( Granada : Un ive r s idad d cG ranada , MS ,t e s ina d ci cenc ia tu ra ) . RENFRE W ,A .C . , 1 967 . " Co lon ia l ism a nd m ega l i th ismu s" .A n t iqu i ty 4 1 : 2 76 -288 . 1 972 . T he e me rgence o fc i v i l i sa t ion . T he C yc lade sa nd t h eA egean i nt h et h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . .( London : Me t h uen ) . R IPOLL P ERELLO ,E . & LLONGUERAS CA MPANA , M . , 1 963 . " La c u l tu ra n eo i I t ica d c l o s s epu lc ro s d c f o sa e n -

C a ta luña ." Ampu r ia s 2 5 : 1 90 . R IVERA Nt J 1 EZ ,D . & WALKER , M .J . , 1 989 . " Ar e v iew o fp a iaeobo tan ica l f i nd ing s o fe a r ly V i t is i nt h e Med i te ra n ean a nd o ft h eo r ig in so fc u l t iva ted g rape -v ine s ,w i th s pec ia lr e fe r ence t on ew p o in te r s t op r eh is to r ic e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean " . R ev iew o fp a laeobo tany a nd p a lyno logy 6 1 : 2 05 -237 . ROHDENBURG ,H . & SABELBERG , U . , 1 969a . "Ka lk ru s ten 'u nd i h rk l ima t ische r Au ssagewe r t . N eu B eobach tung e na u sS pan ien u nd No rda f r ika ." Gö t l inge rb oden lwnd l icher B er ich te 7 :3 -26 . 1 969b . " Zu rl a nd scha f t söko l i sch -bode r igeog raph ischen u nd k l ima -gene t i sch -geomo rpho log i schen S te l lung d e s w e st h schen Med i te r rangeb ie t es ." Gö t t inge rb odenkund l iche rB e r ich te 7 :2 7 -47 . RODR IGUEZ LOPEZ , J .M . & CARA BARR IONUEVO , L . , 1 985 . "Mega l i to s c on p ue r ta p e r fo rada e n l o s a l rede d o re sd cL o sM i l la re s ." pp. 2 11-220 i nC rón ica d e l XV I IC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logla .L og rono 1 983 .( Sa ra g o ssa : U n ive r s idad d eZ a rago za ,S em ina r io d cA rqueo log Ia , " Cong re so sA rqueo iog ico sN ac iona le s" ) . S ALVA , A . , 1 966 . "Ma ter ia l c e r äm ico d c l ac ueva d e l Mon tgo ( J avea ) e n L ap rov inc ia d c A l ican te" . p p .92 -99 i n C rön ica d e lI XC ongre so N ac iona ld eA rqueo logla . V a l lado l id 1 965 . ( Sa rago s sa : Un ive r s idad d c Z aragoza , S em i n a r io d cA rqueo log Ia , " Cong re so sA rqueo lóg ico sN a c iona le s" ) . S AN N ICOLAS DEL TORO ,M . , 1 981 . " Un n uevo I do lo d e lb ronce Ip roceden te d cl ac ueva s epu ic ra ld cL aR ep rc sa d cC a ravaca ( Mu rc ia ) " .A rgo s 2( 2 ) : 2 1-50 . ( Ca ravaca d cl aC ruz : Ayun tam ien to d cC a ravaca d cL aC ruz ,I n s t i tu to Mun ic ipa l d cC u l tu ra d cC a r avaca d cl aC ruz ) . 1 982 . L ai n ve s l igac iOn a rqueo iOg ica e n C aravaca ( S i n te s i s ) . ( Ca ravaca d cl aC ruz : Ayun ta in icn to d cC a ravaca d c l aC ruz ,I n s t i tu to Mun ic ipa ld cC u l tu ra d cC a ravaca d cl aC ruz ) . 1 983 -1984 . " Un v a so c e rám ico c on mo t ivo s o la rd cC a ravaca ( Mu rc ia ) ." A na le sd el aU n iver s idad d e Murc ia .L e I r a s .4 2 :4 9 -56 . 1 986 . " Ap rox imac ión a lc onoc im icn to d cl o s I do lo st i po P a s to ra : l o so cu iado se n Mu rc ia " .p p . 1 65 -174 i n M. S . H er nández -Pér ez ( c d ) ,E le neo l i t ico e ne iP a l s V a lenc iano .A c ta sd ec o ioqu io ( A lcoy . 1 -2 d ed i c iembre d e1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld cA l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io s A l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) . 1 987 . "Ma ter ia le sa rqueo iog ico sp rocedcn te sd cl a sc ueva sn a tu ra le sd cL a sP a loma s yH umo ( Pef ia R ub ia ,C e h eg In , Mu rc ia ) ." C aesa raugu s ta 6 4 : 8 7 -118 . S AN N ICOLAS DEL TORO ,M . ,( c d ) , 1 993 . E la br igo d eE IM i lano d e Mu la . ( Mu rc ia : C omun idad A u tónoma d cl a R eg ion d c Mu rc ia ,C on se jcr Ia d cC u l tu ra ,E ducac iOn yT ur ismo ,D i recc iOn G ene ra ld cC u l tu ra , S e rv ic io d cP a t r i mon io H i st O r ico ) . S AN N ICOLAS DEL TORO ,M . & MART INEZ ANDREU , M . , 1 979 -1980 , " E I d o lmen d cB ag i l ( Mo ra ta l la

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1 96 1 . " La Ca sa d eL a ra ,d eV i l lena ( A l ican t e ) .P ob lado d ei l anu ra c on c e r ( im ica c a rd ia l ." S a i t ib i 1 : 1 93 -200 . 1 965a . E il e so ro d e V i l lena . ( Mad r id : M in is teno d cE ducac ión yC ienc ia ,C om i sa r ia G ene ra l d eE xcavac ione sA r q ueo log ica s , " Excavac ione sa rquco ióg ica se nE spaha 3 6 " ) . 1 965b . " E lA rena ld el aV i rgen ye in eo l I t ico c a rd ia ld el ac oma rca v i l lenen se ." V i l lena 1 5( o f f -p r in t ,4 .pp . ,u npag i n a ted )( V i l lena : Ayun ta in ien to d eV i l lena ) . 1 967 -168 . " La ' c ueva p equef ia 'd eL aH ue sa T acaña ye i' r ne so l I t ico 'v i l lenen se ." Z ephy r z L s 1 9 -20 : 3 3 -56 . 1 987 . E xcavac ione sa rqueo lóg ica se ne iC abe zo R edondo ( V i l lena ,A l ican te ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia ld e A l ican t e ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io sA l ican t ino sJ uan G i l -A lbe r t . 1 988 . E le neo l l t ico e n V i l lena ( A l ican te ) .( Va lenc ia : Un ive r s idad d cV a lenc ia ,F acu i tad d cG eog r af Ia eH is to r ia , D epa r tamen to d eH is to c ia A n t igua , " Se r ie a r queo lóg ica 7 " ) . 1 99 1 .L aC ueva d e lL agr ima J . V i l lena ( A l ican te ) Y ec ia (M u rc ia ) . ( A l ican te : F ondo E d i tor ia ld el aC a ja d eA ho r ro s P rov inc ia ld cA l ican te ) . S PE ISER ,E .A . , 1 935 . E xcava t ion sa tT epe G aw ra I .( Ph i lade lph ia ,U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P re s s ) . S TEWART ,E . &S TE WART ,J .R .B . , 1 950 . V ounos 1 937 -38 F ie ld -repor to ft h ee xcava t ion ss pon sored b yt h eB r i t i sh -

S choo lo fA rchaeo l o gy a tA then s . ( Lund : C .W .K . G lee rup ) . S TL T IVER ,M . &P EARSON ,G .W . , 1 993 . " H igh -p rec is ion b i decada l c a l ib ra t ion o ft h er ad ioca rbon t ime s ca le ,5 00

-

2 500 BC ." R ad ioca rbon 3 5 : 2 5 -33 . SUAREZ MARQUEZ ,A . , 1 981 . " Cueva Amb ro s io ( Vd lez B lanco ,A lme r ia ) . Nueva s a po r tac ione s a le s tud io d e l e p i p a leo l f t ico d e lS ude s te p en in su la r ." A n t ropo log la ypa leoeco logl ah umana 2 :4 3 -53 . SUCH ,M . , 1 919 . " Avance a le s tud io d cl ac ave rna ' F loyo d cl aM ina" . B o le t In d el aS oc iedad Ma lagueña d eC ienc io s 3 aepoca2 : 1 54 . poca 1 920 . " Avance a le s tud io d el ac ave rna ' F loyo d cl aM ina ' " . B o le t I nd el aS oc iedad Ma laguena d eC ienc ias 3'6 3 :2 3 -54 . TARACENA ,B . , 1 951 . " I n fo rme a ce rca d cl aa u ten t ic idad d cl o s o b je to s h a l lado s e ne iB anca l d c l aC o rona d c Ma s d cI s ,t d rm ino d c P enágu i la ( A l ican te ) ." p p . 4 2 -59 i n C rön ica d e l V IC ongre so A rqueo lóg ico d e lS udes te E spaf lo i , A l coy 1 950 . ( Ca r tagena : P ape le r la E spaf io la ) . TARRADELL MATEU , M . , 1 960 . " La c u l tu ra d c l o s s epu ic ro s d c f o sa e n C a ta luha ye ip rob lema d e s u s r e 1ac ione s c on V a lenc ia yA lme r la ." S a i t ib i5 :5 -25 . 1 963 . E iP a l s V a lenc iano d e sde e in eo l l t ico al ai b e r i zac ión .E nsayo d es I n te s i s . ( Va lenc ia : Umvc r s idad d cV a len c i a ,A na le sd cl a Umvc r s idad d cV a lenc ia 3 6 ,c u r so 1 962 -63 , " Cuademo s 2 .F io so f Ia yl e im s" ) . TARRÜS IGALTER ,J . , CH INCH ILLA ,J . ,V ILARDELL ,R . & CASTELLS ,J . , 1 983 -1984 . " P r ime r e s d a tac ion s d c C -1 4p e re i mega l i t isme d e l' A l t Empo rdà ( G i rona ) ." P yrenae 1 9 -20 : 2 49 -254 . THEOCHAR IS , DR . , 1 973 . N eo l i th ic G reece . ( A then s : N a t iona lB ank o fG reece ) . THEVENOT ,J -P . & CARRE ,H . , 1 976 . " Le sc i v i l isa t ions n do l i th ique sd cl aB ou rgogne ." pp . 4 024 14 i ni nJ .G u i lane ( c d ) , L ap réh i s to i re d e l aF rance . T ome I . Le ac i v i l i sa t ions n eo i i th ique s e ip ro toh is tor ique s d e l aF rance . ( Par i s : E d i t ion sd uC en t re N a t iona ld cl aR eche rche S c icn t if ique ) . TOPP ,C . , 1 959 . " Some B a lkan a nd D anub ian i nf luence s t os ou the rn a nd s ou th -ea s te rn S pa in "A rch ivo d ep reh i s tor ia l e van t ina 8 : 15 -123 . TOPP ,C . & ARR IBAS PALAU ,A . , 1 965 . " As u rvey o ft h eT abe rna s ma te r ia li nt h e Mu seum o fA lme r ia ." B u l le t in o f t h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy 5 :6 9 -89 . TRUMP ,D .H . , 1 966a . S korba . ( Ox fo rd : T he S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s , " Repo r t s o ft h e R e sea rch C omm i t tee o ft h e S oc i e t yo fA n t iqua r ie so fL ondon 2 2 " ) . 1 966b . C en tra la nd s ou thern I t a ly b ef ore R ome . ( London : T hame s &H ud son , " Anc ien tp eop le sa nd p l ace s" ) . TURBON BORREGA ,D . , 1 981 . A n tropo log la d eC a la luf la e ne iIm i ien io a . c . . ( Ba rce lona : E d ic ionc s d cl a Umve r s i dad d cB a rce lona ) . UERPMANN ,H .P . , 1 919 . " Equu s( Equu s )c aba l lu su nd E quu s (M inu s )h yd run t inu si mP o s tp lc i s tozän d e rI be r i schen H a lb inse l( Pe r is sodac ty la , Man ima l ia ) " S auge t ie rkund l iche M i t te i lungen 2 4 : 2 06 -218 . VEGAS ARA MBURU ,I . , 1 981 . ' Tümu lo -do lmen d c Ku r tzdb ide ( Le tona ) ." E s :u d ios d ea rqueo log la a lave sa 1 0 : 1 9 6 6 . VENTO M IR , E . , 1 986 . " Ca inpan ifo rme i n c iso y c ampan ifo rme i mp re so e n l aC ova d c l e a C end re s ( 1 'eu lada , A la c an t ) " . p p . 19 -129 i nM .S . H er nández -Pd r ez ( c d ) , E le neo l i l ico e ne iP a l s V a lenc iano .A c ta sd ec o loqu io ( A icoy . 1 2d ed i c iembre d e 1 984 ) . ( A l ican te : D ipu tac ión P rov inc ia l d c A l ican te ,I n s t i tu to d cE s tud io s A l ican t ino s J uan G i l A lbe r t , " Pa t r imon io 5 " ) .

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V ICENT ZARAGOZA ,A .M . & MU I OZ AM IL IB IA , A .M . , 1 973 . S egunda c ampana d ee scavac ione s . L aC ueva d e l o s Murc ié lagos , Z uhe ros ( Có rdoba ) , 1 96 1 . ( Madr id : M in i s te r io d eE duca c ión yC ienc ia ,D irecc ión G ene ra ld e l P a t r imon io A r t i s t ico yC u l tu ra l ,C om isar la G ene ra l d c E xcavac ione s A rqueo lóg ica s , " Excavac iones a rqueo log ica s e n E spa f ia 7 7" ) . V ILANOVA Y P IERA ,J . , 1 869 . " P reh is to r ic r ema in si nV a lenc ia ."

p p .

3 98400 i nI n te rna t iona lC ongre s so fP reh i s -

t o r ic A rchaeo logy . T ransac t ion so ft h e3 rd S e s s ion 1 868 . 1 872 . Memo r ia sd el o st r aba jo sI l e vados ac abo p or l aS oc iedad A rqueo lóg ica V a lenc iana d uran te 1 872 . ( Va len -

c i a ) . 1 877 . Memor ias d el aS oc iedadArqueo lög ica V a Jenc iana 1 874 -75 -76 . ( Va lenc ia ) . 1 893 . Memor ia g eogno s t ico -agr I co la ypro loh i s !ó r ica d el aprov inc ia d e V a lenc ia . ( Mad r id ) . 1 894 . O r Igen ,n a tu ra le za ya n t ig l iedad d e lh omb re . ( Mad r id ) . V ILANOVA Y P IERA .J . & DE LA RADA Y DELGADO ,J . DE D . , 1 890 . " Geo log Ia yp ro toh is to r ia i b d r ica s" . i nA . C ánova sd e lC a s t i l lo ( c d ) ,H i s tor ia g ene ra ld eE spaña . ( Madr id ) . V ILANOVA Y P IERA ,J .& V ILAPLANA Y J UL IA ,E . , 1 920 -1922 , " La g ru ta d c' L e sL iomc tc s 'd cA lcoy ."

p p .

6 7 -

7 6i nV icedo S anfe l ipe ,R . ( c d ) .H i s tor ia d eA l coy ys ur eg ion . ( A lcoy ) . V ILLA , P . , BOUV ILLE , C . , COURT IN , J . , HEL MER , D . , MA I -HEU , E . SH IP MAN , P . , BELLUO M INL G . & BRANCA ,M . , 1 986 . " Cann iba l ism i nt h en eol i th ic ." S c ience 2 33 : 4 31-437 . V ILLA ,P . , 1 992 . " Cann iba l i sm i np reh is to r ic E u rope ." E vo lu t ionary a n thropo logy . I s sue s , n ew s , a nd r ev iew s 1( 3 ) : 9 3 -104 . V ISEDO MOLTO , C . , 1 925 . " Breu n o t ic ia d c l e s p r ime re s e t a t s d e l m e ta l l al e s p rox im i ta t s dA lco i" . B u t l le t Id e IA s soc iac iO C a ta lana dA n t ropo log ia ,E tno log ia iP reh is lor ia 3 ( 2 ) : 1 73 -176 . 1 937 . U ne n se rramen :p reh i s tOr ica lB ar ranc d e lC inc ( A lco i ) . ( Va lenc ia : I n s t i tu t dE s tud i s V a lenc ian s , S ecc ió H is tönco -A rqueo lôg ic ,S e rvc id lnve s t igac ió P reh is tô r ica , " T reba l ls s o l t s4 " ) . 1 959 . A lcoy . G eo logIa .P reh i s tor ia . ( A lcoy : p ub l i shed b yt h ea u tho r ) . VON OBER MA IER , H . , 1 917 . Y ac im ien to p reh i s tO r ico d eL a s C aro l ina s . ( Mad r id : , I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d cC ienc ia s F i s ico -Na tu ra le s ,J un ta p ara Amp l iac ión d cE s tud io s eI n ve s t igac ione sC icn t I f ica s , Mu sco N ac iona ld cC ienc ia N a t u ra le s : C om is ión d cI nve s t igac ione sP a leon to lóg ica s yP reh is tó r ica s . Memo r ia 1 6 " . W ALDREN , W .H . , 1 979 . " A b eake r wo rk shop a r ea i nt h e r o ck s he l te ro fS on Ma tge , Ma l lo rca ." Wor ld a rchaeo logy 1 :43 -67 . 1 982 . B a lear ic p reh i s tor ic e co logy a nd c u l ture . T he s t udy o fc e r ta in c ave s , r ock s he l te r sa nd s e t t lemen t s .P t . i .( Ox f o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , BAR i n te rna t iona l s e r ie s S -1 49 ( i ) ) . W ALKER ,M .J . , 1 971 . " Span ish L evan t ine r o ck a r t ." Man 6( n .s . ) : 5 53 -589 . 1 972 . ' Two c ave sf r om Mu rc ia p rov ince ,s ou th -ea s tS pa in " . N ew s le t ter o ft h eC ave R e sea rch G roup o fG rea tB r i t a i n 1 28 : 8 10 . 1 973a .A spec t so ft h en eo l i th ic a nd c oppe ra ge si nt h eb a s in so ft h eR ive r sS egura a nd V ina lopO ,S ou th -Ea s tS pa in . ( Ox fo rd : O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty , MS .D .Ph i l . t h e s i s ) . 1 973b . " t te s t so np reh is to r ic a nd modem c ha r red g r a in mea su remen t s ." S c ience a nd a rchaeo logy 1 0 : 1 -32 . 1 977 . 'T h ep e r s is tence o fu ppe rp a laeo l i th ic t o o lk i t si n to t h ee a r ly s ou th -ea s tS pan i sh n eo l i th ic ." pp . 3 53 -379 i n R .V .S . Wr igh t( cd ) ,S t one t o o l sa sc u l tura lm a rke r s :c hange , e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty . ( A t lan t ic H igh land s : Hu m an i t ie sP re s s ) . 1 979 . " F rom h un te r -ga the re r st op a s to ra l is t s : r o ck -pa in t ing sa nd n eo l i th ic o r ig in si ns ou thea s te rn S pa in ." N a t iona l G eograph ic S oc ie ty r e search r epor t s 1 : 5 11 -545 . 1 98 1 . " C l ima te ,e conomy a nd c u l tu ra lc hange : t h e S. E .S pan ish c opp e ra ge ." p p . 1 71 -197 i nJ .G a rc ia -Bá rcena & F . S anchez - Ma r t inez ( e d s ) ,M i sce lánea . U n iOn I n te rnac iona ld eC ienc ia sP reh i s tó r ica s yP ro toh is tOr ica s , XC ong re s o , Mex ico D .F . , O c iubre 1 9 -24 , 1 98 1 . ( Mex ico C i ty : XC ong re so d cl aU n ion I n temac iona ld cC ienc ia sP re h i s tónca s yPm toh is tO r ica s ) . 1 982 . " E lemen ta la na ly s i so fs ou thea s te rn S pan ish p reh is to r ic c oa r se p o t she rd s ."

p p .

6 8 -74 i nW . Amb ro se & P .

D ue rden ( e d s ) , A rchaeome t ry :a nA u s tra la s ian p e r spec t ive . ( Canbe r ra : A u s t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . 1 983 . " Lay ing amega -my th : d o lmen sa nd d rove r si np reh is to r ic S ES p a in " . Wor ld a rchaeo logy 1 5 : 3 7 -50 . 1 984 . 'T h es i te o fE lP rado ( Mu rc ia )a nd t h ec oppe ra ge o fS ou th -Fa s tS pa in ." p p . 4 7 -78 i nT .F .C .B lagg , R .F .J .Jone s&S . J .Keay ( e d s ) ,P aper si nI ber ian a rchaeo logy . ( Ox fo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s , " BAR i n t e rna t iona l s e r ie sS -193" ) . 1 985a . " E l P rado a nd t h es ou thea s t e rn S pan ish c ha lco l i th ic ." N a t iona lG eograph ic S oc ie t yr e sea rch r epor t s2 0 :

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7 99 -834 . 1 985b . C harac ter i s ing l o ca ls ou thea s te rn S pan i sh p opu la t ion so f3 , 000 -1 ,500 B .C . .( Ox fo rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log i c a lR epo r t s , " BAR i n te rna t iona ls e r ie s S -263" ) . 1 985c . ' The A rga r ic r e v i sed ." T he q ua r ter ly r ev iew o fa rchaeo logy 6( 4 ) : 3 -8 . 1 986a . " Soc ie ty a nd h ab i ta ti nn eo l i th ic a nd e a r ly b ronze a ge S .E . S pa in ." p p . 14 -140 i nA . Hem ing ( e d ) ,T he n eo l i t h ic o fE urope .C o l loqu ium o ft h e Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica lC ongre s s 1 -7 S ep tembe r 1 986 . ( London : G eo rge A l len &U nw in , " The Wo r ld A rchaeo log ica lC ong re s s" ;p r e -c ircu la ted p ape r s ,u npag ina ted v o lume ) . 1 986b . " Avance a le s tud io d el ac r aneo log la d cE lA rga r yo t ro sy ac im ien to se ne iS u re s te e spaf io l ." p p .4 53 -466 i n 0 .A r teaga ( c d ) , H omena je aL u i sS i re !( 1934 -1984 ) .A c la . sd e lC ongre so " Homena je aL u i sS i re t "( 1934 -1984 ) , C ueva sd eA lman zora ,J un io 1 984 . ( Mad r id : J un ta d cA nda luc Ia ,C on se je r la d eC u l tura ,D ir ecc ión G ene ra ld eB e l l a sA r te s ) . 1 988a .E nsayo d ec a rac te r i zac ión d epob lac ione sd e lS ure s te e spano l , 3 .000 a1 . 500 a J .C . . ( Mur c ia : Umve r s idad d c Mu rc ia , " Cuademo s4 " ) . 1 988b . " C ran iome t r ica lp r inc ipa lc omponen t sa nd p a laeogene t ic s : ap o ss ib le i n te rp re ta t ion o fs ome S .E . S pan i sh d a ta ." p p . 1 01 -1 09 i nA c t s ,5 t hC ongre s so ft h eE u ropean A n thropo log ica lA s soc ia t ion V o l . 1 .A c ta sd o C on 5 0 •

g re sso d aS oc iedad eE u rope ia d eA n tropo log ia V o l . 1 .( L i sbon : P re s idenc ia d aR epub l ica P o r tugue sa ) . 1 988c . " Aspec t so fh uman g ene t ic si nS .E . S pan ish p r eh is to ry : e p igene t ic a nd mu l t iva r ia te c r an iome t r ica l a na ly s e s ." p p . 1 70 1-17 1 0i nM . V a le ra ,M .A . E gea & M .D . B lázquez ( e d s ) , V I I !C ongre so N ac iona ld eH i s tor ia d el a Med ic ina .V o 13 . ( Mu rc ia : Umve r s idad d c Murc ia ) . 1 988d . " E I C a s t i l l ico d cE I S ab ina rd c Mo ra ta l la : u np ob lado f o r t if icado p r e ibd i ico " .A na le sd epreh i s tor ia ya rque o 1 og1a4 : 1 0 1-110 . 1 989 . " Cha rac te r iz ing p reh is to r ic S ES pan i sh c r an ia : s ome c on s ide ra t ion so fm e t r ica la nd n on -me t r ica lo b se rva t i on s ." p p .2 47 -254 i n! .H e r shkov i tz ( c d ) , P eop le a nd c u l ture i nc hange .P roceed ings o ft h eS econd S ympos ium o n U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic P opu la t ion so fE u rope a nd t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in . ( Ox fo rd :B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s ," BAR I n t e rna t iona l S e r ie s S -508 ( i )" ) . 1 989 -1990 . "De s -con s t rucc ión ' ya r queo log Ia : l ar e p re sen tac ión c i en t If ica d cf e nómeno sd e lp a sado yl af o rmac ión d ca rqueó logo s" .A na le sd ep reh i s lor ia ya rqueo logI a 5 -6 : 1 5 -34 . 1 990a . " E IP rado d cJ um i l la yc lp rob lema d cl ac e rá rn ica d cc e s ter la d e le neo l I t ico d e l S u re s te p en in su la r ." p p . 7 3 8 6i nH omena je aJ e rón imo Mo l ina G a rc ia .( Mu rc ia : A cadem ia A l fon so X E lS ab io ,a nd Mu rc ia : C a jamu rc ia Ob ra C u l tu r a l ) . 1 990b . " Ana log ie so po r tune s ii nopo r tune se nl ai n ve s t igac ió p reh is tè r ica : l ad e scompo s ic ió d e lp a s sa t ."

p p .

6 3 -101

i nJ .AnI run s &E . Uobe t( e d s ) ,E lc anv ic u l tu ra l al apreh is lör ia . ( Bar ce lona : C o lumna ) 1 991 . " E l Ab r igo 2d cE lM i lano ( Mu la , Mu rc ia ) : n ueva sa po r tac ione sa n tropo lóg ica s s ob re e ip roce so f une ra r io e n c le nco l I t ico ." p p .4 61 -473 i nE .R eba to & R . C a ld e rón ( e d s ) , V IC ongre so E spano ld eA n t ropo logl aB io log ica ,A c : a s /P roceed ing s . ( B i lbao : U n ive r s idad d e lP a l s V a sco ) . 1 992 . " Mega l i th sa nd m ega -my th s ." T he r ev iew o fa rchaeo logy 1 3 ( 1 ) : 1 -24 . WALKER , M .J . & CUENCA PAYA ,A . , 1 977 . " Nucva s f e cha s C -14 p a ra e is ec to rd c A l ican te yMu rc ia ." T raba jos s obre N eogeno -Cua ie rna r io 6 :3 09 -317 . WARREN ,P . , 1 975 . T he A egean c i v i l i za t ion s . ( Oxfo rd : E l sev ie r -Pha idon ) .

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Q I JEST IO

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MAR IA L U NAS iR IERA ROSER PEREZ MERINO CATAL INA ROCA BORRAS MANUE LA RODRIGUEZ GAGO BARTO MEU S AL V AS I MONET

I -I NTRODUCC IO Abans d ' en t ra r d im e i t ema q ue e ns o cupa , v o ld r Iem a g ra i r aJ aume C o i l L as eva a j uda iq ue e n s d e ixà s c on s u i ta rl as e va t e s i ,e nca ra q ue a que s t .a n o s i gu i d cl ' aba s t p üb l ic ,j aq ue s en se e l la e n sh au r ia e s ta ti mpo s s ib le r e a l i t za ra que s te s tud i . E n p r ime rh oc h em d ' ac la r ir q ue a que s te s u n e s tud i t e ènc d e h ap rob ier nà t ica d e l e s t i n t inàbu le s iS i b e , e n u n p r ime r momen t , L an o s t ra i n tenc ió e r a f e r u n e s tud i

s on s , a mb u na f i na l i ta t , d c l aq ua l md s e nvan te n p a r la r em . Mo r fo lôg icamen t e s d iv ide ixen e n l e s s egüen t s p a r t s : a - D isc s S on d c d i fe ren t s g ru ixe s ( e no ca s ion s mo l tg ru ixa t s , i d ' a l t re s ma ssa p r ims ) , e iq ua l e n s f a e s tab l i r u na c e r ta

,

e xhau s t iu d ' aque s t s o b jec te s , am ida q ue P e s tud i e vo lu c i onà e n s h em a dona t d c L ai mpo ss ib i h i ta t d c r e a i i tza r a que s ta p r imera i n tenc ió , d egu t al a g ran manca d c d ade s e x is ten t s d e ls d i fe ren t sj ac imen t s o n s en ' han t r o b a t . L ' e s tud i h ae s ta td i v i cl i te nt r e s g rup s , q uè e su na t i n t i nàbu la , p e rt a l d cd e te rm ina re it i pu s d ' ob jec te d e l q ue p a r iam ,j a q ue s o lamen t s e n ' han t r oba t aMa l lo rca ; c l s eu c on tex t ,p e rd e te rm ina re i s h oe s d c t r oba l la , s emp re a s soc ia t au n r i te f une ra r i ; iL ar e l ig ió , ac au sa d e l s eu c a ire f une ra r i ir e l ig ió s q ue s emp re a companya a que s t s l i oc s , ii n t en tan t d e te rm ina r L as eva f unc ió ,j a s igu i p e r l ad eco rac ió c or np e ri ' ob jec te e ns ima te ix . P e ra caba re sd óna u na r e lac ió d cg ra f ic so ne sr ep re s en ta l at i n t inàbu la amb a l t re s o b jec te s a l s a i xova r s d e ls e n te r ramen t s , it ambd u nq uad re d ' a s soc iac ion sq ue p e r m e t rà o b tem ru na i r na tge m é sg ene ra l d e l t ema . I - LA T INT INABULA 1 . - D e sc r ipc ió D e sc r ipc ion s d ' aque s t s o b jec te sj a s ' han l e t e n r epe t i de s o ca s ion s ( C . E n senya t , 1 981 /110 , M . F e rnández M iranda , 1 978 /275 , G . R o sse i ló , 1 979 /155 , J . C o i l , 1 989 /413 -4 18 ) , p e ra i xô e na que s ta par ta tn omé s v o lem d ona r u na p e t i ta r e f e rènc ia p e is l e c to r s q ue d e scone ixen t o ta lmen te i so b jec te sd e ls q ua l sp a r la rem . C onc re tamen tp a re ix q ue e st r ac ta n ot a n td un i n s t ru m en t mu s ica l , s i nó , mé s a v ia t , d ' un o b jec te p e r f e ru n s

F IGURA 1 .D i sc d ct i n t inàbu la s i mp le .s e gon sD am ià C e rdà

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MAR IA L L INASIR IERA e la / .

p r ecauc ió v e r s u na f unc ió mu s ica l . E l s eu t amany t am b eo sc i l . la d cf o rma n o tab le ,e nca ra q ue e s mou d in se i s

l a r amb u n d c ls e x t rem s e n s em i-ce rc le . L a f unc ió d ' aque s ta p eça e s mo l ti mpo r tan t ,j aq ue a nava r ema txa -

1 0 -15 c m . d e d i à ine tre . S o len t em r u na a ne l la , ou na p e r fo rac ió a l a p a r t c en t ra l , op rôx ima a l i l av i d c

d aa td i sc .

l anve r s( F ig . 1 ) . b . - C adene ta ot i j a

2 . -T roba l le s F in s al ' ac tua l i ta t n omé s s ' han t r oba t ac on tex t s f u n e ra r is , is cgu in t l ' i nven ta r i d c J aume C o l t , h em p ogu t d ocumen ta r le s av in t i -nou c ove s d e l T a la iè t ic F ina l ( F ig .4 ) . Quan t aL a s eva d i s tnbuc ió , n o e s c on temp ia c ap d ada s i gn if ica t iva , a i x I it o t , in omé s at I to l i n fo rma t iu , h em d i s senya tu nm apa a mb L as eva d i s t r ibuc ió .

F IGURA 2 . P e rcu to r ,a ne l la ic a dene ta ot i j ad eS aC ova d e S ' A lova ,s e gon sC .E n senya t L ' ane l la d e l d i sc e s s ub jec ta au na c adene ta o t i j a ( s egon sl ap eça ) , v an s u spend ida s med ian te u na v a "...

r i l la o c aden i ta d e l m ismo me ta l au na a sa c i rcu la r . . ." ( C . E n senya t , 1 981 /110 ) ( F ig . 2 ) . c . - A ne l la T en im u na a ne l la d e s u spen s ió aL aq ua l s ' enganxa L a c adene ta d e sc r i ta a ban s , iaL av egada a tp e rcu to r ( F ig . 2 ) . d . -P e rcu tor P e r a ques ta p ar t p odem s egu ir L a d escr ipc ió d 'En senya t : d c e s te p ende t a inb ien o t ra v ar i t la q ue s ue x t remo e s tá e n sanchado f o rmando u na b o la e s f é r ica "...

q ue s e rv Ia d cp e rcu to rp a ra h ace rs ona rc ld i sco amodo d eg ong "( C . E n senya t , 1 98 1 /110 )( F ig .3 ) . e . - P laque te sd es u spen s ió N o p odem d ocumen ta r s emp re L a s eva e x is tènc ia , p e rö s fp odem a s segu ra r q ue s on mo l t c omun s . P en jen d el ' ex t rem d cL ac adene ta ot i j a , it e nen f o rma r e c tangu -

F IGURA 3 . P e rcu to rd et i n t inàbu la d eS aC ova d eS ' A lova , s e gon sC .E n senya t 3 . -S i s tema t i tzac ion s No v o Lem e n tra r d ins u n t ema , j a més

q ue

à n ip l ia inen t d ocumen ta t . E nca ra q ue v o lem f e r n o ta r q ue amb a que s t s t r eba l l s s ' agrupcn t o t c l c on jun t d c d i sc s d c L aC u l tu ra T a la iö t ica , s i gum on o t i n t inàbu le s , c om p e r e xemp le e i s umb s1 , oa l tre s d i sc s d c d ub to sa a f i l iac i62 . E spec I f icamen t c o rn a t i n t inàbu le s t emm e i " t ipo 2 " d c F er nández -M iranda ( Fe rnández -M i randa , 1 978 /276 ) , c l d c " d isco s" d 'En senya t ( C . E n senya t , 1 981 /110 ) ,40 i4 1 d cB occon i Mon tei la ( Bocconn i M . , 1 984 ) , id ar re ramen t l am é s c omp ic ta d c J .C o i l , a mb e i s g rup s 1 9 .1 .2 , 1 9 .2 , 1 9 .3 , ic l1 9 .4 ( e ncara q ue a que s t d a r re r s egon s d l n o q ueda d e l t o t d a r ) ( J . C oi l , 1 989 / 4 13 -4 18 )( F ig s . 1 -12 ) . 4 . -D eco rac ió E sa quc s t u n t ema q ue t éu na cr ta a mp l i tud , a mb v a r ian t sd eco ra t ive s mé sa v ia td i ver se s .

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N 'apa re ixen t o ta lmen t R i se s oa mb b o ton s a mb r e l leu c or n a( m ica d eco rac ió ( F ig . 1 ) . b . - E i s t eme si n e sc omun s s on e i sc e rc ie s amb a l tr e l l eu , iq ue p oden r ep resen ta r s imbo log ies a s t ra ls ( B lazquez , J .M . , 1 981 /190 ) , if i n s it o t e is o ! , c or np a r e ix v eu re ' s mo l t c l a ramen t au na p eca e s tud iada p e r Guer re ro ( Guer re ro , V . , 1 985 /103 ) . A que s t s c e rc ie s amb o ca s ion s e s c or nb inen t ambé a mb b o ton s amb r e l -

t i n t in bu le s a mb e i s d i fe ren t s e l emen t s d e ls a i xova r s ( F ig .7 ) . 2 . -L e se spa se s T emm t i n t o ta l d e v in t i -nou c ove s a mb p re senc ia c l ara d ct i n t inàbu le s3 . S o ls t r obam s i s c ove s al e s q ua ls e sp ugu i a s soc ia rl ap re sènc ia d e t i n t inàbu le s ie spa se s ( a ixö r ep re sen ta u n 1 3 '89% ) . P e r t o t a i xà e s q ua s i b e i mpo ss ib le i n ten ta r t r oba r c ap t i pu s d e r e lac ió e n t re

1

F IGURA 4 . S i tuac ió g eog ra f ica d e ls j a c imen t sa mb t i n t inàbu le s l e u( F ig . 5 ) . c . - D esp rés t en im l e s d eco rac ion s d c mo t ius g eome t r ic s ,c or np e re xemp le z i ga -zaguc s . d . P e r t i l t im e n s t r obam amb e i s mo t iu s v ege ta is , p oc n omb ro so s , p e rö c l a ramen t r ep r e sen ta t s , id c g ran b e l le sa . D e s taquen e i s d c l aC ome ta d e ls Mo r t s , d e ls q ua ls C . E n senya td in : " h ay q ue d e s taca rc ld i sco q ue s e -

d eco ra c on v i de s , r a c imo s yh o ja s a s Ic omo c lq ue p re s en ta u na d eco rac ión d c h o ja s d c h i ed ra , a mbo s e n S a C omet s " ( C . E n senya t , 1 981 /111) ( F ig . 6 ) . I l . - CONTEXT 1 . -I n t roducc ió Aque s t s g ràf ic s e n s r cf lcc t iran u na v i s iO mé s c l a ra d e ls j ac imen t s f une rar is d ' epoca t a la iô t ica c a ta loga t s f i n s al ' ac tua l i ta t ( J . C o l l , 1 989 ) ; p o san t e n r e lac iO l e s

a que s t s o b jec te s , imé s s it cmr ne n c omp te q ue n o s a b em s il e sp oque se spa se sq ue s u r ten t e nen r e lac ió a l gu n a a mb l e s t i n t inàbu lc s d in s c lm a tc ix j ac imen t ( r eco r d am c l t cma j a p lan te ja t e n d ive r ses o ca s ion s d e l d ef ic ien t r eg is t re a rquco làg ic a lq ue e n s v e im s uped i t a t s ) . 3 . -L e sp l aque sd cp lom Aques te s p l aques s on u n c l emen t h ab i tua l al e s n cc röpo l is t a la io t ique s , ie s p o t a f irma r q ue l a s eva p rc sènc ia f o ra d e l c on tex tf une ra r i e s n u la . A u to r s c or n C . E n senya t ( C . E n senya t , 1 98 1 /112 , i1 37 -142 ) , B o sch G impe ra ( B . G impe ra , 1 935 ) , oMa sca ró P a s sa r iu s ( M . P a ssa r iu s , 1 968 ) a t r ibue ixcn c ls cu u s al ' o rnamen tac ió d e ls mor t s . P c rè Ma sca rO p l an tc ja u na a l t ra t e o r ia , c x p l ican t le sc or n au na t r ibu ts ace rdo ta l p e rd e te rm inade s c e remon ie s . N o p odcm d e ixa r d c c i ta r u na d c l e s d a r r c rc s t c o r ie s p l an te jade s p e rJ .C o i l ( J . C o i l , 1 989 /460 ) ,

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e nq ue s ib en oe n t reveu c l a ramen tl as eva f unc iona l i ta t , s iq ue l e si l iga c l a ra inen ta mb e is e xe m a scu l l . N o p re ten im a p ro fund i r d e scnv in t t o ta l at i po log ia , a p rox imadamen td evu i t t i pu s , s e gon s E n senya t ( C . E n s enya t , 1 975 ) , e n t re e i s q ua ls e n s t r obam e l emen t sa mb mo t iu s d eco ra t iu s c onc nU ic s , g eomè t r ic s , e s t i l i tzado r s

d c l as eva d cpo s i tac ió d cvo ra c l mo r t , c or n au n p o s s i b l er i tua lf unc ra r i or e l ig iO sd cc a ràc te ra p ro t ropa ic6 . 5 . -C on te sd cp a s ta v I t rea E n s t r obam d avan tt i ne l emen t mo l tb en a ccep ta td i n s l ac or nun i ta tt a la iö t ica ,a mb u na p re sènc ia q ue ,f i n s it o t e n s a t rcver n ad i r , e s ma s s iva . A ixO e s p o t d eu re ad i v e r se s c au se s , c lc e r t e sq ue l as eva a s soc iac iO a lc u l te e sp e r f ec tamcn tc on s ta tab le aE iv is sa ( r eco rdem q ue l e s f i gu re te sd c t e r ra c u i ta d cL ad ee sa T àn i t , e i s p o r ten s o b re e i sp i t s ) . E ne i mon t a la iô t ic s egu ra inen ts 'mco rpo rà d in s e i mOn f une ra r i 7 imo l tp robab lemen te r at i n ma te r i a la s sequ ib le ap ràc t icamen tt ot sL ap ob lac iO . D c f e t au n 4 4 '64% d c c ove s a mb p re sènc ia d c t i n t i nàbu le s , e n s t r obam a mb c on tes d c p a s ta v I t rea , p e rö c or nj ah em p a r la te na l t re sd c is o b jec te s e s tud ia t s , c a r c a ru na r c lac iO r e l ig io sa or i tua l e st o ta lmen ti mpo ss ib le p e ra r a8 . 6 . -B ra ça i s Aque s t s a pa re ixen c i a ramen t e n c lT a la iö t ic I n ic ia l ( De l ibe sd cC a s t ro iF er n ández -M i randa , 1 988 /132 ) ,e n c a ra q ue p erv iuen a !T a la iô t ic F ina l ( De l ibe sd cC a s t ro I F e rnández -M iranda , 1 988 /132 ) . A ixö p e r a lq ue e s r e -

F IGURA 5 .D i s cd e co r a te nr e l leu ,e iq ua l r e co rd u ns o i , s e gon sC .E n senya t d ec ap d eb rau ,e t c .4 E n r e lac ió a l e s t i n t inàbu le s e s p o t e n t reveu re u na c l a ra r e lac ió e n t re a r nbdó s e l emen t s , a mb u n 2 9 '55% d e l t o ta ld cc ove sa mb t i n t inàbu le sq ue t e nen p l aque sd e p iom . A ra b e , i n ten ta rc e rca ru na r e lac ió d e t i pu s r i tua l e n t re l e s p ece s e sd e l t o ti mpo s s ib le , ie n s i n c l ina in p e r n omé s d e s taca rq ue s ib e l e s p l aque s d c p lom p a re ixen e s se rd i s t in t ive s d c ma scu l in i ta t ,e iq ue s ip odem a s seg u ra re sq ue a mb l e s t i n t inàbu ie s a i xô n o e sa i x I ,j aq ue a que s t es s ' han t r oba td evo ra c adve r sd e l s e xe f emen IS . 4 . - L e sc ampane s L e sc ampane sq ue e st r oben al e sn ec ropo l is d c Ma l l o rca s on d c b ronze , id c f o rma b i cön ica , ie n o ca s ion s e s d eco ren a mb l I n ie s i n c ise s e n s en t i t c oncen t r ic al a b a se , al ap a r t s upe r io r p o r ten u n o r if ic i c i rcu la r p e r p en ja r le s . A que s t t i pu s d ' ob jec tc s s on mo l t c omun s ad i ve r se s c u l tu re s , amb u n s en t i t c i a ramen t p rof i lac t ic , ia mb e i s cu s o a l lunyen e i s ma is c spe r i t s , al aN ec röpo l is d e l P u ig d e ls Mo l in s , s e n ' han t r oba t g ran q uan t i ta t , ie n o ca s ion s p en jade s d e l p i td c l e s f i gu re te s d c t e r ra c u i ta , q ue r e p re sen ten al ad ee sa T àn i t . L ' a s soc iac iO e n t re e i sl oc so ne st r oben c ampane te s i t i n t inàbu les A s r e l lcvan t ( t robam c ampanc tes a u n 2 79 1% d c l e s c ove s a mb t i n t inàbu le s ) , ip o t e s se r q ue r e f lec te ix in u na r e lac ió d e is d o s e l emen t s , t a n t aI ho ra

F IGURA 6 .F r agmen td ct n t in .abu la a mb d e co ra c ió d cv i nya I e s p iguc sd cS on B o s c ,s e gon sC .E n seny a t f c re ix al e sp ece sd cb ronze ;h em d cr c co rda rq ue t ambé s e rà c oma L at r oba l la d c b raça ls d c f e r ro , e v idcn tmen t d cc rono log ia mo l tm é sa vancada .

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C or n ac onc iu s ió p odem d i r p ràc t icamcn t e i ma te ix q ue al ' an te r io ra pa r ta t ,l ac o inc idènc ia e n t re e i si l oc so n

c on t ra r i , n o s o f re ixen c ap a d ic ió d e t i pu s a r qu i tec ton ic ( Cova d e S on B o rona t ( V . Gue r re ro , 1 979 ) ol ad c S a

e s t r oben b raca l s it i n t inäbu le s e s mo l ta i ta ( un 4 038% d el e sc ove sa mb t i n t inàbu le st e i len b ra ça ls ) ;p e rö i n ten t a ri lga r lo sf o ra d un p u rc on tex tc u l tu ra l s e r ia mo l ta r -

C ome ta d e s Mo r t s ( C . V eny , 1 983 ) ) . A l ma te ix t emp s t ambé e x is te ix c lc o s tum d ' adap ta ra n t igue s c ove sn a tu -

n sca t . 7 . -G an ive t s

Ma imó ( P ian ta lamo r Ma ssane t , 1 979 ) iS aC ome ta d e s

r a ls d ' en te r ramen t p re ta la iö t ique s9

( Cova d c S on

Mo r t s ( C . V eny , 1 983 ) ) . Ä ra b e ,c ln on t i pu s d ' en te r ramen te nh ipogeu s e xca v a t s al ar oca c a lcà r ia a mb c o lumnc s e xemp te s .a pa re ix c ap a lT a la iö t ic I I ; V . Gue r re ro e n s d in : " En l ' e s ta ta c t u a l d c l ai n ve st igac io e s d i f Ic i i e s tab l ir u na c o r re iac ió c l a ra e n t re e i s i n f iuxo s c o lon i tzado r s il ' apa r ic ió d ' aque s t s t i pu s d c monumen t s , m a ig ra t t o t h i h a u na s e r ie d c c o inc idênc ic s d i f Ic i lmen tc a sua ls q ue e n s p e r me ten s o sp ita r q ue l ' accep tac ió d ' aque s ts t i pu s d c

F IGURA 8 .D i s cd e co r a te nr e l leu , ia mb m o t iu sg eomè t r ic sd e

S on B o sc ,s e gon sC .E n senya t No p a re ix e s se r i m e l emen t mo l t c omü a l s e n ter ra men t s o nh ih at i n t inàbu les ( ma l r eg is t re a rquco lög ic? ) , d cf e ts i gn if iquen n a 1 8 '42% d e l t o ta ld ec ove s a mb t i n t i nàbu ie s . T ambd p en sam q ue e sd i f Ic i l e s tab l i ri m l ug a me n t re a que s te sp ece s il e st i n t inàbu ie s . 8 . -L e sn ec rbpo l i s L e s n ec röpo l is e nc ove sn a tu ra ls c onfo rmen u na t r ad i c ió a nce s t ra l d el e s c omun i ta t s i nd igene s ( r eco rda rq ue a ques t c o s tum j a e s tava e n v i genc ia a !P re -Ta la iö t ic ) , l e s q ua ls h an man t ingu t P i ls d ' aques ts t i pus d ' en te r ramen t s ai mp e r Iode mo l te s ti l s . S emb la e s se rq ue a l gune s c ove sn a tu ra ls ,e xpe r imen -

F IGURA 9 .D i sc d e co r a te nr e l ieu ,a mb d e co ra c ion sd c

t a ren r eacond ic ionamen t s a l T a la iô t ic F ina l , amb l ' apa r ic ió d ' e s t ruc tu re s a ls eu a cci l s oi n ter io r ( r eco rda r e i mu r c i c lop i al ' cn t rada d c l aC ova d e C a la P i ( V . G ue r re ro , 1 979 /13 ) oe i s d i ve r so s mu r s ip o s s ib le s a t e r a s samen t s al aC ova d c S aP un ta aP o l lença s en se c on s t rucc ion s n i e s t ruc tu re s ( Enc ina s , 1 974 ) ; ia l t re s p c i

v ege t a ] sd cS aC ome ta d e s Mo r t s ,s e gon sC .V eny n ec röpo i is p e r p a r t d c I a p ob iac ió i nd Igcna e s c on s cqüènc ia mé s o meny s d i rect s d e ls c on tac te s a mb e i mon c o lon ia l s em i ta " ( V . Gue r re ro , 1 985 /92 ) .

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J u s tamen t amb a qu e s ta a po r tac ió a rqu i tec tôn ica ,s eg o n s e i ma te ix G ue r re ro , t ambé s ' i n t rodu iran u na s e r ie d c r i tu s d e c l a ra i n l luènc ia s em i ta ( V . G ue r re ro , 1 985 /92 ) . E sa qu lo n o b se rvam 1 ' en t rada d cn ou s o b jec te s r e lac io n a t sa mb u n s r i tua ls mo l tc onc re t s , s egu ramen td ec l a ra t e ndènc ia f o ràn ia ,e n t re c i s q ua ls p odr Ier ns i tua re i s q ue e sr e lac ionen a mb l e st i n t inàbu le s1 0 .

d i fe ren t s e l emen t s d e ls a i xova r s il e s t i n t inàbu le s e st o t a lmen t i mpo ss ib le ; e s m é s , e n s a t rev im a d i r q ue l ' ün ica f o rma d ' a rnba r aa l guna c onc iu s iO e s c e rcan t p a ra lie l i sme s f o ra d c Ma l lo rca , a mb u n s c on tex t s m é s c l a r s Ib en e s tud ia t s . A ixö e sp o tf e re x ten s ib le at o t s e i s d i fe ren t s o b jec te s q ue c ompo sen l ' a ixova r d e l T a la iô t ic F ina l , ia i x I t o te s l e s t e one s q ue p ugu in s o rg ir s ob re l a f unc iona l i ta t d c l e s p ece s s e rà t o ta lmen t a l ea tè r ia ( a c au sa q ue l ai n fo rmac iO s emp re s e rà p a rc ia l ) .

F IGURA 1 . D i s cd e coø ra te nr e l leu , ia mb m o t iu s g eomè t r ic sd cS aC ova d cS oB o sc ,s e gon sC .E n senya t A ixö n o v o l d i r , n i mo l t m eny s , q ue n oe s p ugu i S e g u i ri n ten tan to fe r i rn ove s v i s ion ss ob re e ip rob lema ,d c

F IGURA 1 0 . D i s cd e co ra te nr e l leu ,a mb d e co ra c ion sd ' a r i t ja E nc lg rau ic e sr e f lexa c l a ra inen tl ai gua l ta te n t re l e s t i n t inàbu le s q ue a pa re ixen ac ove s n a tu ra ls ( 57 '69% ) , i l e s q ue e s t r oben ac ove s a r t if ic ia l s ( 42 '3 1 % ) . No s on d i fe rènc ie s c l a ra inen t s i gn i f ica t ive s , Imeny s s ip en sam e nl ad ef ic iènc ia d e lr eg i s t re a r queo lög ic . C or nh ipö te s i e sp o tp l an te ja rq ue a que s to b jec te am b a a s soc ia t au n s n ou s r i tua ls ,j un tamen ta mb a l t re s a s p ec te s d e l ac u l tu ra ma te r ia l , iq ue s o rg i rà t a n t e n c i s n ou sh i pogeu s ,c or n ae i sc ove sn a tu ra ls . 9 . - C onc lu s ion s E s a ques t u n a pa r ta t d e l t r eba l l , d c , d iguem l i , s i s t ema t i tzac ió d cl ai n lo rmac iO ,p e ra i xô , ip e rd ona r mé s c l a re ta t h em d i ssenya t u n q uad re d ' ab sènc ies i

F IGURA 1 2 . D i sc d e co ra te nr e l leu , Ia mb m o t iu s g eomè t r ic sf rS aC ova d cS on B o s c ,s e gon sC .E n senya t

p re senc ies e n t re c i s d i fe ren t s e l emen t s d e ls a i xova r s , a mb m és p o s s ib i l i ta t d c d ocu inen ta r , or e lac iona r amb l e s t i n t inàbu le sll . E i s r e su l ta t s , e n a que s t c a s , b an e s ta t n ega t iu s , e s a d i r ,a r ap e ra r ai n ten ta rc e rca ru na c l a ra r e lac iO e n t re e i s

f e t n o sa l t re s mé s e nvan t o fer irer n u nes c onc lus ions q uan t al af unc iona l i ta t d c l e s t i n t inàbu les , 1 ' 6n ic q ue v o lem f e r v eu re , e sq ue a c tua lmen t i n ten ta r f e r e s tud is

1 75

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

I X ) ; l a mé s a n t iga f i n s a ra a u n j ac imen t a mb t i n -

d et i pu sc ompa ra t iu n oe sv i ab le .

t i nhbu le s1 3d ade se nl e sq ue s ' ha d ' e sse rp r ecabu tja q ue e s u n t ema o be r t d es d c f ap oc t emp s ip odr ien s o r t ir

I V . - CRONOLOG IA

n ou s mè tode sd ' anà l is i q ue d ona ss in a i t re sr e su l ta t s . Q uan t al ac rono log ia d e l e s t i n t inàbu le s , c a l d i rq ue e s b a s tan td i f Ic i lp a r la r -ne ,ja q ue f i n sa r ae n s h a r te s la td o n ade s l e s d a te s s egu in t e ip roce s p e rl ' an t ic s i s tema d e

A ix i e n s t r obam q ue e i s p a ra lle ls q ue a i gun s h an v o igu t v eu re e n e i s d i sc s d c b ronze i i so s t r oba t s al e s n ec röpo l is d ' E iv is sa iL as e va i nf luènc ia n os e r ia c o r rcc t a( F ig . 1 3 ) ac ausa q ue l e s p r ime r s o b jec t e s d ' ü s s u inp t u a r i e n t re l ap ob iac iO md Igena s ' han s i tua tc ap a lf i na l d e l s .V I a C . , s egon s V .Gue r re ro ( " Ind igen i sme ic o bn i tzac iO . . ." , 1 985 ) , ai r avd sd e lc ome rç a mb e i sm e rcad -

1 3 .89%

6 1%

•T i n t in i kbu le s • T i n t .

+

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e r ss e in i te s . L 'apar ic iO d e l e s t i n t inàbu ie s a s soc iade s ao b jec te s d ' impo r tac ió e bu s s i tana ( p a s ta v I t r ea ip l aque sd cp iom ) n oa r r iba rà f i n sa l ss .I Va C .

P ropo r c ió d e spa se s t r obad e s aj a c imen t s a mb t i n t inabu le s .

P ropo r c ió d e b r aca ls t r oba t s aj a c imen t s a mb t i n t inibu le s .

P ropo rc ió d e p l aque s d e p l om t r obade s aj a c imen t s a mb t i n t inIbu lc s .

2 7 ,91%

1 8 ,42%

•T i n t inAbu le s 7 2 ,09%

• T i n t .

+

C amp .

1 , 58%

P ropo r c ió d c c ampane s t r obade s aj a c imen t s a mb t i n t inàbu le s .

+

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+

G a n .

P ropor c ió d cg a n ivc t s t r oba t s aj a c imen t s a mb t i n t inàbu lc s .

• C a l i ;

•T i n t inAbu le s • T i n t .

• T i n h inàbu les

P . V i t r . n hu r na w •i • S a rc ô fag s

P r opo r c ió d ec omp te sd ep a s ta v I t r ea t r obade sa ja c imen t sa mb t i n t inabu le s

P ropo rc ió d c t i pu s d ' cn t er r amen t o n a pa re ixen t i n t inäbu le s .

F 1GURA 1 3 .

C -14 s en se c a i ib ra r aa i gun s j ac imen t s . D 'a l t ra b anda mo i te s d a te s n o s on f i ab ie s p erquè e i sj ac imen t s f o ren e xcava t s amomen t s e n q ue e nca ra l e s p rove s d e l C -14 n oe sd u ien at e rme . E Ij ac imen t amb m C s f i ab i l i ta tq uan t al ac r ono iog ia s e r ia e id e S on Ma tge ,e ne iq ue e iD r . W . Wa ld ren ie i

P r opo r c ió d ' en te r ramen ts n a tu ra l oa r t if ic ia lc on s ' han t r oba t t i n t inabu le s F IGURAS 1 4 .

D r . G . R o sse i iO B o rdoy 12 d onaren p r ime ramen t u ne s d a te s p e r ai ' ex t ra to na pa re ixen l e s t i n inàbu ie s ,a mb e n t e r ramen t s amb c a iç d c 6 90±100 f i n s e i4 50±80 a C . A que s ta d a ta v ae s se rr e ca l ib rada d onan tu n8 09 a C . ( s .

Q uan t aL ad e sapar ic iO d e l s eu C s ,J .C o l lc ls i tua a ls . I I a C . , p e rô ac ove s d ' en te r ramen t c or n S a c ova d c s a

1 76

MAR IA L U NAS IR IERA e ia l .

Madona oS aC ova d es 'A lba ra ie t ,J ap e rdu rac ió d e l se n t e r ramen t s e s s i tua f i n s a ls . Ia C . in o s abe rn s il ' ü s d e l at i n t inàbu la t ambé p e rdu ra . L ' epoca d apogeu e sp o t s i tua rd eve r s e i s s eg le s I V i

al an a tu ra ,e i s q ua is q ueden d emo s t ra t s e ne i s d i f e ren t s mo t iu s v ege ta l sq ue a pa re ixen al e s t i n t inàbu lcs ( fa l le s i b ranques , a més d c p oss ib le s e sp igues d c b l a t ) . Aques te s p oden e n l laça r a mb u n c u l te a f i l ia t a l d c

Va C . , c omc id in ta mb e id e senvo lupan ien td e l r i tua l e n

D emè te r , iq ue s en s d ub te e n l la ça a mb im c u l te d c L a f e r t i l i ta t d ' una b anda , ia l a mor t ia l a r e ssu srecc ió

s a rcô fag s d ef u s ta ;p rova d ' a ixb h o t e n im a l s t r oba t s a l s j ac imen t s d e S a P un ta , S on B o rona t , S on Ma ir nó o C ome ta d e s Mo r t s . C a l d e s taca r q ue t ambd e s a que s ta è poca o nt r obam l e s t i n t inàbu le sd eco rade s a mb mou r n v ege ta l s ( r a Ir n , b l a t ,a r i t ja ,f a l le s , ia n ima ls ( c ap d e .. .

e i gne d el aC ome ta d e l s Mo r t s ) . P e r t a n t p od r Iem d i r q ue l e s p r ir ne re s t i n t in bu 1e s f o ren , c or n d in J . C o i l ( "Evo luc ió d e ls r i tua ls t a l a iö t ic s. .) ,l e s q ue n ot e nen c ap t i pu sd cd eco rac ió . S c g u idamen te sd eco ra ren amb mo t iu s g eor nè t r ic s ( pun t s , z i ga -zagues , c e rc le s c oncèn tr ic s. . .) ; s i b e l e s t i n t i nàbu le s a mb d i fe ren t s d eco rac ion s s ana ren u t i l i tzan t a i x Ic o rn a naven a pa re ixen t . V . - EL CONT INGUT REL IG IOS DE L ES T INT INABULES E s mo l t d i f Ic i l i n ten ta rc e rca rc lv e r tade r s en t i tr e l ig ió s q ue t e nen a que s t s o b jec te s , ar n é sj as ' han d ona td i ve r s e si n te rp re tac ion s r e lac ionade s a mb e ic u l te aT àn i t ( J . C o l l , 1 989 /4 17 ) , o ad éu s d e c a ràc te r s o la r ( J . C o i l , 1 989 /4 17 ; V . Gue r re ro , 1 988 /103 ) . A ix I it o t g ràc ie s a l e s d i fe ren t s v ar ian t s d eco ra t ive s h em p ogu t d i s t ing ir e i s s e güen t s s i gn i f ica t s : 1 . - S Ir nbo i sc i rcu la r s og eome t r ie s S egon sJ .C o i l , ic o rn j ah em e smen ta ta ban s , p o tt e n i r r e lac ion s amb i m c u l te a ls o l , p e rö a i xô p o t e s se r a mp l ia t ,j aq ue c o rn o p ina B lázquez , t ambë p oden r ep r e sen ta re i s c e rc ie sq ue e nvo l ten e i s a s t re s ,s inbo l i tzan t l e s à n ime sq ue v i a tgen e nt o rn l aI l una ,l aq ua ]r ep re sen t al ac a sa d e l s mo r t s( B lázquez , 1 981 /190 )14 ( F ig .8 ) . 2 . - Mod u sd ev i nya A que s t s e s r e lac ionen c l a ra inen t amb e i s c u i tes m is tè r ic s ,c or ne se id e DionIs, if i n s it o t ,e id cD emè te r ( Son B o se iS a C ome ta d es Mo r t s ) . T o t s a que s t s t i pu s d c r i t e s e s r e lac ionen a mb J af e r t i l i ta t , it ambé a mb l a i mmo r ta l i ta t( F ig . 9 ) 3 . - F u i ie sd ' a r i t ja Au n d e ls d i sc s q ue a pa regue ren a l aC ome ta d e s Mo r t s , e sp oden o b se rva r u n s mo t iu s d e r edu I t t amany q ue e nvo l ten t o t e ic e rc le , iq ue r ep re sen ten c o r s d c r e du I tt amany . S ego sJ an o s t ra h i pö te s i e sp od r ien i n te r p re ta rc or n af a l le s d a r i t ja ,l aq ua l , ac au sa d e l c a ràc te r d ep e renn i ta td cl e s s e ve f a l le s ,s imbo l i tza l ai mmo r ta l i t a t( ß iázquez , 1 98 1 /190 ) ( F ig . 1 0 ) . 4 . - Mo t iu sv ege ta ls D 'una a l t ra b anda t ambé t e n im r e lac ió a mb e i sc u l te s

d ' una a l t ra ( r ap te d cP e r s6 fone ) 15 ( F ig .9 ) . Ap a r t ir d ' aqu Ip odem c onc lu i rd i en tq ue l e s d i ve r se s i n te rp re tac ion s d e ls o b jec te s a na i it za t s , t e nen d o se i xo s c en t ra ls : l af e r t i l i ta t iL au l t ra tomba . A que s t sn ov an d cc ap m ane ra d e si l iga t s

im

d ci ' a i t re ,

s i nó q ue e sp oden c omb ina rp e r fec tamen t 16 . E ng ene r a le it i pu sd cc u l te a s soc ia t al e s t i n t inàbu ie s n oe sg a ire f à c i ld ' en t reveu re . R ea lmen te ii l igam f e r t i l i t a t -àn ime s , e s F i lme q ue e s p o t o b se rvar amb c e r ta c i a re ta t . D 'a i t ra b anda l ai d ea d ' un o b jec tc amb v a lo r a po t ropa ic n oe si n ve r semb lan t1 7 . P e r a i xö c r e im q ue l e s p o ss ib ie s f unc ion s q ue t él a t i n t inábu la , n o p o t a na r i l igada d i rec tamen t amb i m c u l te or e i ig ió p e r son if icada , e s ad i re n se s tam m ovcnt d im u n s r i tua l s d ct e ndenc ie s i n e s a v ia ta n im is te s . E s a d i r ,e iq ue e sp r e tén e sr e f lexa ru na c oncepc ió g ene ra i i t z ada d c l ai d ea d c l ai mmo r ta l i ta t , a mb u n d a r i igam a mb L af e cund i ta t 18 . Q uan t aL ai d ea d e l s i nc re t isr n e , e s t ambé i m a pa r ta t mo l t d ub tós ,j a q ue t o t e in o s t re e s tud i e s b a sa e n e i s mo t iu s d eco ra t iu s , ia mb l ai d ea d ' una f unc ió c l aramen t d ocumen tada a l mOn c l a ss ic ( G rèc ia iRoma ) ip i mn ic , p et hn o al ' êpoca t a ia iö t ica 1 9 . V I . - CONCLUS IONS E I d e sa s t rO sr eg i s t re a rquco log ic q ue a mp e ra r at e n im a Ma l lo rca ,e n s o b l iga ae s se rp recavu t s al ' ho ra d ct r eu re c onc lu s ion s . E np nnc ip i e n sh em t r oba ta mb e ip rob ie ma d c t e n ir im i n ven tar i d c c ove s d c l e s q ue s o iamen t u na p e t i ta p a r th an p ogu t e s se r b en e s tud iade s . Mo l te s d ' e l le s v a ren e s se r e xcavade s mo l t d c t emp s e n re ra , e i q ue s upo sa q ue f o ren n omé s b u idadc s s en se c ap m ena d ' o rd re n ie s tud i , a i xô s ense c on ta r q ue u na b ona p a r t p a t iren e xpo l iac ion s . A ix I e n s h em t r oba t q ue d c 4 1 c ove s d e l T a ia iÖ t ic F ina l , n ' h i h a 2 9 a mb t i n t inàbu ie s i 1 2q ue e sp o s s ib le q ue e n t c ngue ss in p e rô h aur ien d e sa p a regu t , a nan t ar omand re a c o l ' lecc ion s p a r t icu la r s . S 'ha d c p en sa r t ambe q ue l a f a l ta d ' e s tud is a n t ro p o iôg ic se s im impedi ment p e rc onè ixe rm i l lo rL as oc ie t a td ' aque s ta e poe s ;i ' exemp ie e sp o t v eur c a lb a ix n om b r cd cc ove s al e s q ue e ss ap c is exe d e ls i nd iv idu s q ue d uen t i n t inàbu le s . H em d ' apun ta rq ue n oh em v o igu te n t ra r un se i mOn d c l am i to log ia p i in ica , ac au sa e n t re a l t re s c o sc s d c l a n o s t ra i mpo s s ib i l i ta t d ' acced ir au na b a se b ib l iog ra f ica

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mé s a mp le . E s mé s , t ambé s ' ha c on s ide ra t q ue e it i pu s d e f unc ió d e l e s p ece s e n q üe s t io , t a n t e s p o t c oné ixe r p e ru n s p a ra lle ls oa l t re s , e n e is en t i td cq ue c anv ia ren e i s n om s d e l s d éu s , ia spec te s d ec i c le sr n i to lôg ic s mo l t c onc re t s , p e rô e nc ap momen tc lc a ràc te r f unc iona l e s -

men to s d c i mpo r tac iOn s on d i s t in t ivo s d e l r ango s oc ia l d e l s exo m a scu l ino if emer nno " ( J . C o i l , 1 989 /4 17 -4 18 ) . No sa l t r e sp l an te jam d ue sh ipô te s is : 1 . - L a t i n t inàbu ia s e r ia t i n o b jec te d c c u l te r e i ig io s p e ra l s v iu s , a mb r e lac ió amb l af e r t i l i ta t , it ambé , p e r q uè n o , d c c a ràc te r a po t ropa ic . E s t r ac ta r ia d ' un i n s t ru -

p ec If ic d cl ap eça . L e s i d ee s c or nl ad c l af e r l i l i ta t ia l t re s s on l e s q ue e n t ren d in s l ac u l tu ra i nd Igena , is egu ramen ta s soc iada a lc u i te l o ca l , q ue i ' un ic q ue f a rà s e rà a p rop ia r se d ' un s

m en t q ue n omé s p oden u t i l i tza r e i s " s ace rdo t s ox a man s" , iq ue s ' en te r ren amb e l l n o c or n as Imbo l d ' c s ta tus s oc ia l , s i nO mé s a v ia t c or n as Imbo l d i s t in t iu

r i tua ls ii n s t rumen t sf o ran i s . E n t o t c lt r eba l i n os ' ha t r ac ta t e nc ap momen td c l e s

d cJ as eva c ond ic iO . 2 . -L at i n t inàbu la t c nd rà av eu re amb l ai mmo r ta l i ta t -

p o ss ib le s i mp l icac ion s s oc ia l s d c l at i n t inàbu la ,j a q ue e sr e a lmen tu nt ema mo l td i f Id i l d ci n te rp re ta r .W . Wa l -

f e r t i l ita t , ic ic u l tc d e ls mo r t s il as eva r c inaxença ,s en se o b l ida rc lp o s s ib le c a ràc te ra po i ropa ic . A le sho re ss fq ue

d ren l e s i d en t if ica c o rn t i n o b jec te d i s t in t iu d e ls c ap s ( W . Wa ld ren , 1 978 )20 . E nca ra q ue J .C o i l d Ona u na i n -

p od r ia r eve la r u n e s ta tu s s oc ia l , a mb u n a ccé s d ' aque s tes p ece s ,n omé s o be r t aa l gun s e l emen t se l cva t s

t e rp rc tac iO t o ta lmen td i fe ren t " E i d i sco v ar i l la il o s d c -

d cl as oc ic ta t .

NOTAS 1 -E Is umb s s on u n s d i sc s d c r edu I t t amany a mb d eco rac ion s d c c e rc ie s c oncèn t r ic s e n r e i leu imug ró c en t ra l , a l ' anve r s t r obam a ne i le s , ob ep e r fo rac ion s . L as eva u t i l i ta te n s e sd e sconeguda ,e nca ra q ue G . R o s se l ló a mb c r ta l ö g ica c l sc l a ss if ica c o rn al ap a r tc en t ra ld ' e scu t s : " l ac x i s tcnc ia d cp equeño s umbo s c on p a sado re se ns ur e ve r so , oi n co rpo rado s c omo l ap a r te c en t ra ld ce scudo s or ode la sd cc ue ro od cm adc ra" ( G . R o sse l ló , 1 979 /155 ) . Am é s t ambé h em d afeg i rq ue l ' ongen d ' aquc s te s p ece s e sr emun ta mo l t mé s e n re ra q ue l e s t i n t inàbu lc s , ic or nt ambé d iu e i ma te ix R o sse l ló : " no e s d c e x t raha re n l o s momen to s i mc ia le s t a layO t ico s . S un üme ro e sa bundan te ys u p re senc ia e nn i ve le sd cc rono log Ia v a r iada" ( G .R o sse l ló , 1 979 /155 ) . 2 -E s t r ac tc d cd i fe ren t sp ece sq ue op e rl as e va c xce s iva g ru ixa op r imo r ,e sd ub tó sq ue f o ss in e mp ra t sc o rn ai n s t ru m en t s . ( F ig s . 1-12 ) 3 -En a quc s te s tud id cc ove s a mb p re sènc ia d ct i n t inàbu ic s h em u t i l i tza te ic a tà leg d cJ .C oi l( J . C oi l , 1 989 ) ,c lq ua l a mab lemen te n sh ad e ixa tc on su l ta re is eu t e x t .H em d ' af eg i r ,q ue d cc ap m ane ra ,a que s tv o l e s se rt i ne s tud i t o ta l m en te shau s i iu j aq ue s egu ramen te sp oden t r obar a l t re sj ac imen t s a mb t i n t inàbu le s , am é sd cl e s d i f e ren t s p ece s q ue e st r oben ad i ve r so s mu seu s ic o l . iecc ion s p a r t icu la r s . A ix i it o t ,c lq ue d cv cn ta te n si n te re ssava e r ar ef lec t ir a spec tc sc or nl ai n te rp re tac iO , ip o s s ib le f unc iO r i tua l d cl e sp ece s ; ia i xö c r e im q ue q ueda s ob radamen td cmo s t ra t s en se a ba rca ri m mven ta r i mon s t ruO s ,e iq ua lf wg t o ta lmen td e ln o s t re a ba s t . 4 -C . E n senya tE n senya t . " La sp laque ta sd ep lo w ma . 1 1orqu ina s " . 1 975 ,P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . 5 -Conc re tamen te n s r e fe run a lc adave rS B -i d cS on B o sc I( And ra tx ) ,e xcavada p e rE n senya t( En senya t , 1 98 1 ) . E s t r act s d ' una d ona q ue a pa regué amb c ls egüen t a i xova r : u na t i n t inàbu la s ob re e ip i t , i m g an ive t d c f e r ro , t i n u ngüen ta r ip i r ifo rme , iu na g e r re ta d cc e r àm ica g r i s -ampun tana . C re im q ue q ueda f o ra d ct o ta d ub ta c li l i gam e n i r el at i n t inàbu la ie is exe f emen I ,e nca ra q ue n oe sp o td emo s t r a rq ue a i xÖ s i gu ie xc lu s iu d ' aque s ts exe . 6 -No p en sam q ue e ir i tua l e nc lq ue s ' u t i l i tzen c ar npane tc s , ie nc lq ue s ' emp ren t i n t inàbu le s s i gu in mo l td i fe ren t s ,d c f e t a l mon r or nà d i ver se s p eces amb c a rac te r i s t ique s a p ro t ropa ique s t ambé s ' anor nenen t i n t inàbu ic s ( t in r e levan t e xemp le a lq ua l e n s t o rna rem r c f e r i r mé s c nvan t , e it r obam e n u na f i gu ra d c c a ràc te r i t i f à l ic , d c l aq ua l t ambé p en jen d i ve r ses c ampane tc s ( B lázqu ez ,G a rc ia , 1 988 /45 ) . P e rt a n tp odem p en sa rq ue ob ee s tam d avan td i f e ren t s o b jcc tc sp e rè d ' un m a te ix r i tua l ( amb u na d i f e rcnc iac ió q ue p od r ia o be ir ad i fe ren t s c a tego r ie s s oc ia ls ) op e lc on t r ar i ar i tua ls s cmb lan t s p e te d c d i fe ren t s imbo log ia c o rn p od r ia e s se r l al u i ta c on t ra e i s e spe r i t s d c c a rac t e r I s t iquc sd i fe ren t s . 7 -E s a que s ta u na q üe s t iO s ob re l aq ua l n o e n s a t rev im aa f i rma rr e s , e i s d e sa s t rO s r eg is t re a rqueo làg ic q ue a r ap e r a r at e n im aMa l lo rca e n s o b l iga ae s se rc au t s . E nca ra q ue e sp o ss ib le q ue e sr cf lec te ix ie nl ai d ea d cp o r ta r se a l mé s c nlà l e s p e r tcnènc ie s d ' aque s t mOn . No e n s i n c l inam ap en sa re nr i tua ls r eig io so s c o rn s egu ramen ts ip a ssa a mb l e s ma te ixe st i n t inàbu lc s . 8 -No sa l trc se n s i n c l inam ap en sa ra mb u na s imp le c o inc idènc ia d cc on tex tf unc rar i ,e nca ra q ue d c s imbo log ie sd i f -

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c r en t s . 9 -Aqu l a s s is t im au n c u r io s f enomen ,j a q ue s ib e l e s c ove s p re ta la iö t ique s n a tu ra ls s on r eu t i l i tzade s c or n e n ter ra m ea t s ae poca t a la iô t ica it a la ió t ica f i na l ,n op a re ix o cO r re ra i x Ia mb l e s c ove s a r t if ic ia ls . E is q ue s ie s s egu re sq ue l ac oncepc ió d e l s p r ime r sh ipogeu s amb e i sd e lT a lat h t ic F ina l ,& d e l t o td i fe ren t , ic or no p ina V . G ue r re ro " du ran t e iP re -Ta la iô t ic s ' u t il i tza r en n ec röpo l is ac ove sa r t if ic ia ls ,p e rô l as eva c oncepc iO ie s t ruc tu ra s on t o ta lmen ta l iene sa l e sq ue a r ae n s p r eocupen ( r e f e r in t se al e sd e lT a la iö t ic F ina l ) ,p e rl aq ua l c o sa l ac on s ide rac ió d ej a c imen tn ou e n s s emb ia t o ta lr nen tju s t i t icada " ( V . G ue r re ro , 1 985 /133 ) . E s n a t ema q ue c r e im q ue p o te s se ro b jec te d 'un i n te re ssan t e s tud i ,e i sh ipogeu se nq üe s t ió ,e no ca s ion s s on r eu t i l i tza t s ,t ambé n oc or ne n te r ramen t s ( r eco rdem e ic a s meno rqu I d cT one d ' en G a lmé s ,e nq ue u na c ova p re ta la iô t ica s ' u t i l i lzà c or n ac i s te rna ( G . R o s seló , 1 975 ) . Ie nca ra q ue h em d ' a feg i rq ue au na c ova d e S a Mo ia d ' en B la i , aF e ian i tx ( Cova I ) iq ue l aq ua ] e sd ' epoca d e lT a la iö t ic F ina l ,p a re ix e s se rq ue e st r ac te d ' una mé s a n t iga d e lP re -Ta la iö t ic ,r e acond ic ionada e na que s ta o ca s iO ,s ic or n at omba ( B . S a lvà , 1 990 /16 ) . 1 0 -E l q ue n o t e n im g a ire d a r e s q u ine s f o ren a que s te s n ove s a po r tac ion s n ic o rn s ' in t rodu I ren , b e s i gu i p c i c or ne rç a mb c l mOn s em i ta , op e rl ai n te rvenc iO d e l s mer cena r i s t . a la iö t ic s al e sg ue r re sd e1 ' ex te r io r , omé sp robab ler n en td c l e sd ue s m anc re s . D et o te s m ane re se ip rocé sd ' accep tac iO p e rp a r td et o t s e i se f ec t iu sd cl as oc ie ta t il as eva a ccep t a c ió t o ta ld egué e s se rl i a rga , is i nó p en sem amb u na d cl e sm ul t ip le sd ef imc ion sd e lc oncep te d cc u i tu ra : " l ac u i tu ra c or no a que l ia s c o sa s q ue d eber no s c onoce r oc r ee r p a ra p ode r o pe ra r d c u na mane ra q ue s ea a cep tab le p ara l o s m iemb ro s d el as oc iedad e s tud iada " ( i lyme s , 1 964 /36 , iK ahn , 1 975 /10 -11) . A que s ta d eir n ic ió e sp o ta p l ica rf i n s i t o ta l s r n a te ixo s t a la iö t ic s , a mb u n s s ec to r s q ue i n ten ten i n t rodu ir e l emen t s a l iene s , il an ece s s i ta td ' accep tac ió p e r p a r td c l ar e s ta . E s mé s ,l e s n ove si n f luènc ie s q ue e sr e ben d c1 ' ex teno r( l at a nd eba tuda a cu l tu rac ió ) , h an d c s o f r i r e l seu n ece s sa r ip rocé s . 1 -En c ap momen te n sh em p ropo sa to fe r ir u na r e iac ió e n t re t o t s e i se l emen t sd cl ' a ixova rd e l T a la iô t ic F ina l il e s t i n t i nàbu le s ,f i n s it o ts ' ha o bv ia tm ia spec te t a ni mpo r tan tc or nl ac e ràm ica . A ixô o bee ix aq ue , d ' una b anda e st i nt r e b a i l q ue s u r t d e l r edu I t àmb i td ' aque s ta c omun icac ió , id ' a l t ra ,q ue s ib ee nu n ip r inc ip i e n s h av Iem p ropo sa tf e r -ho d cf o rma c omp le ta ,s ' ha v i s tl ai nu t i l i ta td cs egu ir ,d egu t al ap ob re sa d cl ai n fo rmac iO . 1 2 -Ro s se l l6 B o rdoy ,U . , Wa ld ren ,W . , iKoppe r ,J . S . : " Aná l is is d cR ad ioca rbono e n Ma l lo rca " . T raba jo s d e l Mu seo d c Ma l lo rca . P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . 1 967 . 1 3 -OWa id ren , W . : " Rad ioca rbon a r nd o the ri s o top ic a ge d e te rm ina t io s f r om t h e B a lea r ic I s land s . Ac omp ren s ive i n v en to ry" . D e ià .1 992 . 1 4 -En a que s t s en t i tl ai l una a c tua c or n " Po r5 e rl ai una e ip r ime r mue r to , l as eño ra d cl a mue r te ,e st amb idn c lp a l s d c l o s mue r to s" ( B lázquez , 1 981 /190 ) . E nca ra q ue d c c ap mane ra p odem d e ixar d cp a r la rd c l e s d i f c rcn t s i n te rp ret s c i on sq ue s ' han f e t ,r e fe ren t al ar e lac iO e n t re l e sd eco rac ion sd cl e st i n t inàbu le s amb c ls o l " e i mé s s en . z i l l s c r ia r e la c i ona r -ho amb n a mo t iu s o la r oa s t ra l , c o sa q ue n ot e nd r ia r e s d cp a r t icu la rs ip en sam amb c li l igam q ue t e ncn l e s r e p re sen tac ion s s o la r s a mb e i s c i c le sd c l an a tu ra le sa ie nc on seqüènc ia a mb t eme s r e iac iona t s e nd ar re ra m s tànc ia a mb l af e cund i ta td cl at e r ra "( V . G ue r re ro , 1 985 /103 ) , i" mucho s d ce s to s e l emen to sh an s i do v i s to s c omo e v iden c i a sd cn as imbo l ismo s o la r "( J . C o l l , 1 989 /4 17 ) . Am é sc a l r e co rdar ir e ca lca rq ue e s tam p a r lan td cl ' exemp le d eco r a t iu m é s c arac te r i s t ic ic om u ld ct o t s e i s q ue h em p ogu tc on s ta ta r , ip e rt a n tL as eva s imbo iog ia h ad ' e sse rr e a lmen t i mpo r tan t ,e nca ra q ue n os i gu i t a nc omp i icada c or nl e sd en ie s . 1 5 -En a que s tc a s e is imbo l i smc e sp rou d a r ,d ' una b anda t e n im l ai d ea d cl a mo r tr ep re sen tada p e ri ' e s tànc ia o b l igada q ue f aP c r séfone a lr egne d 'Hadc s , is e rà e n a que s t momen te nq ue l at e r ra n of r u i tarà ( p en sem q ue e im i te e sr e la c i ona s ob re to ta mb c lb l a t , ie sp e ra i xô q ue l e sè poque sd cf o sco rd e lm i te e ss i tuen a l sr n e so sd ' e st iu ) . D e sp ré sP e r s é fone t o rna amb l as eva m a re al ' O l imp il at e r ra f l o r e ix .E im é si n te re s san te sq ue e n s t r obam a mb u n ic u l te d cf à c i i a ccd s p e rt o te ip ob le e ng ene ra l s i gu i on od 'n ae s ta tu se i eva t , il ai d ea q ue v o l r ep re sen ta rs egu ramen tt e ngué f à c i i a ccd sa ] mon t a la iö t ic ,ja q ue e r en a sp ec te sf à c i lmen ti d en t i l icab ie s amb c u i te sd ' a r r e l i nd Igena . 1 6 -Dc f e ta l t re s a u to r sj ah an p a r la td ' una p o ss ib le r e lac iO e n t re e i s c u l te s d cl af e r t i l i ta t il a mo r t " En a que s t s can t ,e i c u l te a la f e cund i ta t ie ic u l te a l s mo r t s s emp re e s tan r e lac iona t s" ( V . G ue r re ro , 1 985 /113 ) . 1 7 -E s p r ec isamen tJ .C o i l q u i f ar e fe rènc ia e n a que s tt i pu s d c v a lo r , ir epa ssan te im a te r ia l d c l aC u l tura d cH a l is ta t ( Deche le t te , 1 927 /84 ) , d i uq ue a pa re ixcn u n s d i sc s q ue s e rvc ixcn p e rf e rf o ra e i s ma i s e spen t s ( J . C oi l , 1 989 /4 16 ) . P e rô a i xô e s mé s c i a ramen tc on s ta tab le ae poca r omana , n ot r obam e np r inc ip i d i sc s mu s ica ls , p e rô s if i gu re s a mb c ampane te s ( a1 I e rcu Ià p e re xemp le ,e st r obà u na f i gu ra a n t ropomo r fa a mb c an ipane sd cp e t i tt amany q ue p en jen d c l af i gu ra h umana ) ,l e sq ua ls e sn omenen t i n t inàbu ie s , id cf unc iO p o ss ib lemcn t mo l tv e r semb ian t al e sp ece sq ue e n s o cup en " E s ta s c ampan i l la s , i l amada s t i n t inábu la s , s ec o locaban e n l a s t i enda s c on t ra c l ma l d c o jo p a ra a t rac r l a p ro sper idad d c l o s q ue r cgen taban l a s c a sa s yt i enda s" ( J .M . B iázquez , M .P . G a rc ia , 1 988 /45 ) . E nca ra q ue e n

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a que s t sc a so sa pa re ixen d e s l l iga t s d cc on tex t sf une ra r is . 1 8 -La i d ea d ' una v ida m é s e n l là ol an ece ss i ta td c t o rna r an é ixe r , n o v ad e si l igada d ' un s em i td ef e cund i ta t . A ixô e s p a rc ia lmen te xp l icab le amb d i f e ren t s c i c ie sr e l ig io so s ,c or ne se ic a s d cD emé te r( M i te d 'E ieu s i s ) , oe id ' T ss is ( c ic le o s ir iac ) . No s abe rn U m s aq u in c e r tp un tp od r ia e x i s t ir u na m i to log ia i nd Igena mo l ta vançada , a mb l ' i nc lu s ió d cp o s s i b le s c i c le sd ef e r t i l i ta t ir enovac ió d cl av i da ,r e lac iona t sa mb f i gu re sd e Mu sc onc re t s " l o se sp I r i tu sd el af e cund i d ad s O lo s on d io se se nl a s r e l ig ione s o rgn izada s , in os i emp re "( J . U r rue la , 1 981 /258 ) ,p e rt o ta i xö 1 ' ün ic q ue p odem d i re sq ue p robab lemen te x i s t ia u na p e r sona e nca r regada d cr e a l i tza re i sr i tua l sp e rc on fond re e i s ma is e spe r i t s , oi n t e n ta ra j udar al ' àn ima d e l d i fun t as upe ra re is en p a s e ne i mOn d e l s mo r t s , ir ené ixe r " Pa r t i rd e l h echo d eq ue t o da s oc iedad h umana c uen ta c on mago s ,c han iane s os ace rdo te s" Q .U r rue la , 1 98 1 /258 ) . E lq ue n os abem d cc ap m ane r ae ss ia que s te s p e r sone s e sd ed icar ien e na que s t sa f e r s at emp sp a rc ia l ot o ta l ,p e rô 5 1q ue e sr e a lmen t mo l td i f Ic i l d ub ta rd cl as eva e x i s tènc ia . 1 9 -P rec isamen tP ano f sky j ap reveu e i se r ro r sq ue p o td u rl ai n te rp re tac iO b a san t se n omé s e nu nt i pu sd cd eco rac ió v i g en t ai mh oc c onc re t , ie iq ue e sm é sg reu l as eva e x t rapo lac ió aa l t re sz one s " e i mundo d cl a si mágene s ,a dn c uan d oc on s iga se n tende r lo ,p a r t iendo d e ld e sc if ram ien to d cs u sp rop io sc od igo s ,n o so f rece u na v i s iOn muy h im i tada d e l c on jun to d c p rob lema s q ue n o s p re sen ta . Ye s ta v i s iOn s e rá s i emp re a b so lu tamen te f r agmen ta r ia , s il ai magen n o p uede s e ri n te rp re tada c on l aa yuda d cu no st e x to sq ue mue s t ren ,i mp l Ic i ta oe xp l Ic i tamen te ,s us i gn i f icado" ( Pano f s ky ,E s tud io s s ob re i c ono log ia . Mad r id , 1 972 ( 1 39 ) . P e rt o ta i xô ,e nca ra m é sd i f Ic i l e si n ten ta re x t rapo la rl af unc ió d ' un t i pu s d ' ob jec te q ue p ugu i e x is t ir aG rèc ia oR oma au na c u l tu ra c or nh at a la iô t ica ,q ue am é s ,e nl ar n a jo r ia d e l s c a so s ,e sp o ta s segu ra rq ue e i s o b jec t e se s tud ia t ss On p roducc ion s i nd igene s ' Se p uede ,p o rt a n to ,a f i rma r , s i nl u ga r ad uda s ,q ue l ai conog ra f Ia p o see i m n icamen te i mv a lo r muy l im i tado a ls e ru t i l izada c omo f uen te p a ra c le s tud io d c l ad i fu s iOn d cl o s c u l to s il o s m i to s c on e l lo s r e la ionado s , s ob re t odo c uando t a l d i fu s iOn s upone e it r a spa so d cu na i magen d cu na c u l tu ra ao t ra d i f e ren t .e d ce l la "( J .C . B erme jo , 1 98 1 / 435 ) . 2 0 -No c r e im q ue W . Wa ld ren v ag i p c ib on c an i li l igan tl e s t i n t inàbu le s amb e i sc ap s( s ie sq ue a que s t se x i s t ien ) ,j aq ue ob ee ne i mOn t a la iö t ic l e sd one s t a inbd f o ren c ap s , ot a l a s soc iac iO n oe sv i ab le .

B IB UOGRAHA BERMEJO ,J .L o so b je to s yl o sm i to s . p p4 17 -426 . BLANES iBLANES ,C . , ia i t re s . 1 990 . L e sI les al e sf on t sc l à s s ique s . C o liecc ió A l icom . P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . BLAZQUEZ ,J .M . 1 981 .E ls i ncre t ismo e nl aH i span ia R omana e n tre l a sr e l ig ione s i nd I gena s ,g r iega s , r omana ,f en i c i ay m i s té r ica . pp 1 77 -222 . I n : L ar e l ig iOn r omana e nH ispan ia . Mad r id . BLAZQUEZ ,J .M . iGARC IA -GELABERT . 1 988 . A r te ye ro t i smo e n l aR oma a n t igua . I n : R ev is ta d cA rqueo iog Ia . Any I X Ni mm . 6 3 . Ma r c . BRU I IL , A . 1 953 . . O r ig ine e ie xpans ion d u c u l te d iony s i sque a R ome e td eus l em onde r oma in B ib l io thdquc d e s E co le sF rancc i se sd 'A thene s e td cR ome . F a sc icu l 1 75 . COLL CONESA , J .1 989 . E vo luc ión d e lr i tua lf unerar io e n l aC u l tura T a layó t ica .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . T e s i d oc to ra l . U IB . I n èd i ta . CHAPA BRUNET , J . iDEL IBES DE CASTRO , G .

1 986 . L a e dad d e h i e rro . I n : G rau H is to r ia U n ive r sa l . V o l . 3 .

C lub I n te rnac iona l d e lL ib ro . Mad r id . DUBY ,G . 1 991 . H i s to r ia d el a sm u jere s . Mad r id . ENSENYAT ENSENYAT ,C . 1 98 1 . L as c ueva ss epu lc ra . le s ma l lorqu ina s d el ae dad d e lh i er ro . M in i s te r io d cC u l tu r a . Mad r id . ENSENYAT ENSENYAT ,C . 1 975 . L a sp laque ta sd ep lomo ma l lorqu ina s . .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . F ERNANDEZ ,J .H . 1 983 . Gu ia d e lP u ig d e l s Mo l ins . F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA iDE UBES DE CASTRO ,G . 1 988 . A rma s yu t en s i l ios d eb ronce e nl aP reh is tor ia d el a s I s la sB a lea re s . S tud ia A rqueo log ica ,7 8 . U n ive r s i ta td cV a l lado l id . F RANço ISE -RUZE iMAR IE -CLA IRE AMNOURE 1T I . 1 987 .E l mundo g r iego a n z iguo . E d . Aka l . GR I MALT ,P . 1 965 . D icc iona r io d em i to log ia g r iega yr omana . E d . L aG a r . B a rce lona . G IJERRERO AYUSO ,V .M . 1 985 . I nd igen i sme ic o lon i i zac iópün ica aMa l lorca . A jun tamen td cS e sS a l ine s . GUTHR IE ,W .R .C . 1 950 . T he G reek sa nd t h e ir G od s . L ondon . N e then & C o .L td . H is to r ia d cl a sr e l ig ione s . L a sr e l ig ione sa n l igua . s . V o l .I . 1 977 . s .XX I . J EAN MAR IE ,H . : D IONYSOS . 1 970 . A i s to ire d uc u l te d cB acchu s . B ib l io théque h i s to i ique . P eyo t . P a r i s .

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K IRR ,S .1 974 . T he n a ture o fG reek R i th s . 1 974 . LA MBOGL IA ,N . : N ec rOpo l i sd eC h iovanr i . R iv is ta d iS tud i Lgu r i . a nno XXV In üm . 1 4g ene r -de semb r e . p àg . 1 77 . LAURENZ I ,L . 1 960 . C iv i l tá d e lF er ro .D ocumen t i eS tud i . v o l .V IB o logna . L ICHARDUS ,J .1 987 . L ap ro loh i s tor ia e nE uropa .E d . N ueva C l io .B a rce lona . PANOFSKY . 1 972. E s tud ios s obre i c ono logi a . Mad r id . ( 1939 ) ROGER , J .1 948 . E s tud io e t no lOg ico c ompa ra t ivo d e l ar e l ig ion i t á l ica p r im i t iva . Madr id . I n : T raba jo s d e l I n s t i tu to B e rna rd ino d eS abagdn d eA n t ropo log Ia yE tno log ia . TV !d e lC S IC . S ALVA S I MONET ,B . 1 990 . S a Mo la .I n : F i re s if e s te sd cS an tA gu s t I .F e lan i tx .p p 1 0 -17 . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . 1 979 . L ac u l lura t a layO t ica e n Ma l lorca .E d .C o rt P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . , WALDREN ,W . iKOPPER ,J . S . 1 967 .A nO i is is d eR ad iocarbono e n Ma l lorca . I n : T raba j o sd e l Mu seo d e Ma l lo rca . P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . TARRADELL , M . 1 964 . L a n ec rOpo l is d e S on R ea l yl i la d e l s P or ros . Ma l lo rca . E xcavac ione s A rqueo log ica s e n E spana ,2 4 . Mad r id . URRUELA ,J . J . 1 981 . R e l ig ion r omana yr e l ig ion i n d I gena :e ip rob lema d e ls ace rdoc io e n l o sp ueb lo s d e lN one . p p 2 53 -262 . I n : L ar e l ig ion r omana e nH ispan ia . Mad r id . WALDREN ,W . 1 992 . R ad ioca rbon a nd o t her i s o top ic a ge d e te rm ina ti o ns f rom t h eB a lear ic I s land s . Ac ompren s ive i n ven to ry .D e ja . WALDREN ,W . iROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . : E xcavac ione se ne ia br igo r oco so d eS on Ma lge ( V ai ldemo s sa . Ma l lo r c a ) . I n : N .A .H .P r eh i s to r ia I ( Mad r id , 1 973 )p p . 1 76 . V o l 1 . XJ o rnade s d 'E s tud is f l is tö r ic sL oca ls . C o se l lena d eC u l tu ra ,E ducac iO iE spo r t s , Gove rn B a lea r . P a lma d e Ma l lo rca . 1 99 1 .

1 8 1

TE MAS ATLANT ICOS EN EL ARTE MEGAL IT ICO DEL SUROESTE P EN INSULAR

2 9

P .B UENO R AM IRE L R . DE B ALB IN B EHRMANN U n ive r s idad d cA lca lá d eH ena r e s D ep to .d eH i s to r ia yF i lo so f ia C o leg io d cM á laga A l caá d cH ena r e s ,E spana

I NTRODUCC ION

Es t e t r aba jo f o rma p a r te d e u na i nve s t igac ión s ob re e i A r t e Mega i l t ico d cl aP en in su la I b é r ica f i nanc iada p o rl a DGC ICYT q ue e s tamo s i l evando ac abo e n l o s t i l t imo s a ño s .A r a iz d e l a nl is is d e ta l lado d c l o y a c onoc ido y d e l c onoc im ien to d c n uevo s d a to s h emo s p od ido e s tab lece r u na s e r ie d c n ueva s p rem isa s q ue n o s h an p e rm i t ido a po r ta r c i emen to s d c d i scu s ión y a ná l is i s a ! [ er na c on p e r spec t iva s d i fe ren te s al a s q ue p l an teö E . S heeen 1 981 . E l t r aba jo d c e s ta a u to ra t i ene c l c l a ro v a lo r d c r e fe renc ia d c t o do c a t1ogo , a der ná s d c h abe rp ue s to d c r e l ieve l at r a scendenc ia d c e s te modo d c e xp re s ión e n r e lac ión c on e i mcga l i t ismo o cc iden ta l .No so t ro s h emo s i n c id ido e n e ia ná l is is p a r t icu la r d c l aP en in su la , p ucs é s ta p a rce la h ab Ia q uedado o scu rec ida e n r e lac ión c on u na s c uan ta s i d ea s p reconceb idas y r epe t ida s e n l a i nve s t igac ión d e sdc l o s a f lo s 2 0 s ob re l a r epa r t ic ión g eog ra f ica d cl a s m an i le s tac ione sd cA r te Mcga l I t ico ,s u f echa d c i n ic io y s u a soc iac ión a d e te rm inada s a rqu i tec tu ra s .E l h abe r t r a tado c s ta s c ue s t . ioncs e n o t ro s l u ga re s n o s p enn i te a l ige ra r e s ta e xpo s ic ión i n ic ia l ( P . Bueno R am irez -R d cB a lb In B eh rmann , 1 992 ) ,en f a vo r d c c en t rarno s e n c l p un to d c a ná l is is q ue q ue remos d i scu t ir a qu I . S egün i n i n terp re tac ión t r ad ic iona l , l a P en in su la p o se Ia c l emen to s d c A r te Mega l i t ico e n c l s ec to r n o roe s te , a soc iado s ac áma ra s d e sar ro l lada s e n f e cha s n o s uper io res a l 3 .000 aC . E l S u r n o t en Ia mamfe s tac ioncs a s im i lab le s ae xcepc iün d c a l gunos c j emp los poco s ya i s lado s - y , ac amb io d c e s ta a usenc ia , s u c apac idad a r t I s t ica s e c en t raba e n l a p roducc ión d c i do lo s v a r iado s d c c a rác te r mueb le .En r e sumen , a l No r te s ep in taba og r ababa e nl o s o r to s ta to s , p e ro n o h ab Ia I do lo s mueb le s ya l S u r , s e i n iroduc Ian I d o lo s e n e ia j ua r , p e ro n o s ep i n t .aban od eco raban l o s o r to s ta to s .

C omo e r a d c s upone r e n p rem isa s t an r ad ica les , e i d ecu r so d c l a i n vc s t igac ión h a d emo s t rado q ue e n e i No r te t amb ien e x is ten f i gu rac iones a n t ropomo rfa s mueb lc s e n amb ien te s mcga l i t ico s yq ue e n e i S u r , c l A r te Mega l i t ico n o s o lo e x is te s i no q ue s u v ancdad d c t d cn ica s y mo t ivo s l o c onv ie r ten e n u n c on jun to e xcepc iona l d e l q ue h ab rá mucho q ue d ec ir e n l o s uces ivo , a m ed ida q ue l o s d escub r ir n icn tos S e a c rcc icn tcn . Y a d e sde n uc s t ra p r imera i n cu r s ion e ne ia ná l is is d e l A r te mega l I t ico d e l S u roe s te ( F . P iñon -P . B ueno ,1983) c omenzamo s ad c s taca rl ae v idcnc ia e né s tc d c u n" a i rc" a t lán t ico muy n o to r io , t a n to má s c uan to q ue n o s e r cm i t ia e xc lu s ivamcn tc a l a s t cmá t ica s d c sar ro l lada s , s i no t amb ien al a sa rqu i tec tu ra s s ob re l a sq ue a parec ia . L ac on t inuac iOn d cn ue s t ro s t r aba jo s e ne s te a r ea d e l S u roe s te ( P . B ueno -F . P iñOn , 1 985 ;d cB a ib In -P . B ueno , 1 989 ; P . B ueno R am irez - R . d c B a lb In B ehrmann , 1 992 ) , n o s p e rm i t iO v enf ica r e sc a t lan t i smo e n l a s t emá t ica s d e l A r te m ega l i t ico d e l S u roe s te , al ap a r q ue p one r e n c ue s t ión a s e r to s c omo L ae xcepc iona l idad d e l A r te Mega l I t ico e ne iS u r ol ai n ex is tcnc ia d c p in tu ra e n s u s monumen to s . Nucvo s h a l lazgo s e n l a p rov inc ia d c C ad iz , muy r e lac ionado sc on 1 0y ac onoc ido e nl ad c Hue lva ,no s d an p ie a ho ra p a ra p roponer u na s e r ie d c i dea s má s o rdenada s s ob re l a s r e lac iones a t lán t icas d c c i e r to s mo t ivo s d e l S u roe s te p en in su la r yp a ra e sboza r s c r ia s d uda s s ob re l av i ab i l idad d c q ue L ap in tu ra c on s t i tuya p o r s ii n isma t i n e l emcn to d c c l a s if icac iOn d en t ro d e l A r t e Mega l I t ico i b é i ico . P a ra c omenza r e s ta c xpo s ic ion s e r Ia n ecesa r io d e l im i ta r aq ué s e h a d enom inado t r ad ic iona imcn tc mo t ivo s a t lün t ico se n c lc on jun to g rá f ico q ue n o s o cupa yp a ra e l lo n ada m c jo r q ue r e fenrno s a l t r aba jo d c E .Shee (1981) .En é s te , l aa u to ra p ropone i n terpre ta r c l A r te mega l I t ico d c l a p en in su la e n d os g rupo s :e l d c V iseu c omo g rupo c ompac to d c f in ido p o r u n c on jun to d c t cma s q ue a na l iza remo s má s d e ta l ladamcn tc y o t ro

1 92

P . BUENO R AM IREZ yR DE BALBIN BEHR MANN

g rupo ,m eno s d ef undo q ue a ba rca : l o s monumen to s d e l No r te d e l Due roja s c áma ra s c on f a lsa c dpu la y o i ro s d i spe r so s e n e l r e s to d e L a P en insu la .De e s te i l t imo g rupo s o lo d e s taca l a e sca s I s ima i n c idenc ia d e l a p in tu ra y l a p resenc ia d e g rabados , c omo s o le s o s e rpen t iformes q ue r ecuerdan s ob remanera c l a r te i r landé s t i po L ougc rew ( E .Shee , 1 981 ,p . 3 5 ) . P a ra L aa u to ra ,l o s mo t ivo sm á sc L a ramen te a t lán t ico s s on L o s q ue c a rac te r izan a lg rupo d e V iseu , al o s q ue r e lac iona c on s u F a se 2 d e l a r te mega l I t ico b rc tón y f e cha e n t re 3 .000 y2 . 500.C . N o so t ro s p l an teamo s a qu l q ue n o e s f á c i l m an tene r e sa d iv is iOn p ues l os d a tos h an a umen tado s en s ib lemen t e yl oq ue s ed educe d c e L lo s , p re sen ta u n p ano rama má s c omp le jo p a ra l ac omp ren s iOn d e l A r te Mega l I t ico p en in su la r . (1 ) GRAF IAS EN EL ARTE MEGA UT ICO DEL SUROESTE : LOS DATOS P ara a na L iza r c lt ema q ue n o s p roponemo s , h emo s d c

r em i t i rno s aL ap re senc ia c ada v ez mayo r e n L az ona S u roes te p en in su la r d c u na s e r ie d c monumen tos d eco rado s d c l o s q ue h a remo s u na s ome ra d c sc r ipc iOn ,

F IGURA 1 .

d e s tacando l a s g r a f la s yt é cn ica s u t i l izada s ,a s Ic omo l a d i s t r ibuc ión d c l a s m isma s , c on c lo b je to d c c f ec tua r

2 .Ba ld Io G itano I , San t iago d c A icán ta ra ( Cácc rcs ) . C áma ra d c u n s o lo e spac io y

u na c r I t ica a ce rca d c s u s p o s ib i l idade s d c r e lac iOn c on a l guno s d c L o s g rupo s e s tab lec ido s p o r E . S hee y d c e s tab lece r e i g rado d c c onex iOn c on e l emen to s d c c a rac te ra t lán t ico r e conoc ido se no t ra s z ona se u ropea s . D e l im i ta r g eograf icamen te l a z ona q ue n os p roponemo s a na l izar e s s i emp re u n t a n to d i f Ic i l ; c ua Lqu ie rd i v is iOn p re sen ta p rob lema s . H emo s i n c lu ido l a s r eg ione s d e l A len te jo yA lga rve , e n P o r tuga l yS u r d c C áce rcs , B ada joz , Hue lva y C ad iz , e n E spana , a t cn iéndono s aq ue l a sn ovedade sm á sd c s tacada sd cl o s t i l t imo s a ño s s ec en t ran a qu l . P o ro t ra p ar tc , c la ná l is is d c c s te s ec to r e sc spec ia lmcn te s i gn if ica t ivo d c c a ra a l t ema d e l A r te Mega i l t ico , p ue s L a i nvcs t igac iOn t r ad ic iona l n oI cc onced la p rac t icamen te n ing t in p ape l . 1 -Hue r ta d c l a s Mon ja s , V a lenc ia d c A Lcán ta ra ( Cáce rc s ) . S c t r a ta d c u na c á ina ra c on c o r rcdo r ,que f orma p a r te d e l i mpor tan tc c on jun to d o lmémco l o ca l izado e ne s ta c oma rca c ace r cf ia . F ue c xcavada p o r n oso tros ( P .Bueno R am irez , 1 988 ; R .de B a lb In -P .Bueno , 1 989 ) ye n c l t r an scu r so d c l o s t r aba jo s ,l o ca l izamo s e nl ap ane t r a se ra d e l o r to s ta to d c c abece ra ,e sd cc i ie n u n l uga rq ue q uedaba o cu l to al o s

5Cms

p rop ios a r t I f ice s d e l monumen to a e xccpc iOn d e l momen to d c s u f a c tu ra , u n mo t ivo a n t ropomo r fo g r abado . P a lab ra s c l ave :C .C .L . -G rabado -An t ropomo r fo

F IGURA 2 .

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

d es taca r umca inen te e n e s te t e x to e i c a so d c B a ld Io G i tano Is e d ebe a s u l o ca l izac ión e n e it r an scu r so d c u na e xcavac ión a rqueo log ica , p er in i t iéndono s a f inna r s ur e lac ión c rono log ica c on l af a c tu ra d e l monumen to . P a lab ra sc l ave :C .S . - G rabado -Cazo le ta s . 3 .Vega d e l G uadanc i l .Ga r rov i l la s . ( Cáce re s ) . S c t r a ta d c d o s monumen tos d c f a isa c t ipu La s i tuado s e n l a s p rox im idades d e l T a jo y q ue h oy s e e ncuen t ran d e sapa rec ido s b a jo l a s a gua s d c i mp an tano .S egün l o s L e isner ( 1956 ,p l .3 y 1 959 ,p l .81) e n u no d c c s to s monumen tos , h ab Ia d os o r to s ta tos d eco rados c on g rabado yp in tu ra . At r avé sd cu ne stud io f o tog rá l ico d cl ar ep roducc ión d c l o s menc ionado s a u to re s ( P . B ueno R am irez - R . d c B a lb In B eh rmann , 1 992 , F ig .66 ) , h cmos p od ido d i fe renc ia r l a p re senc ia mayo r i ta r ia d c c azo le ta s y a n t ropomo rfo s d c v e r s iones d ivc rsa s :dc b razo s y 1 0

2 0

2 0

p ie rna s a b ic r ta s yr ep re sen tac ione s c squcmá t ica s d c r o s t ro s e n ' T 'b i en s em ic i rcu la re s ,b i en r e c tangu la re s . A ce rca d c l ad i s t r ibuc ión d c l ap in tu ra n ada p uede e spec if ica r se , p ue s l o s L e isne r s ef la lan s u p r e senc ia c omo r e s to sd i fu so se na l guno so r to s ta to s P a lab ra s c ave : T . -G rabado y p in tu ra - C azo le ta s y a n t ropomo r fo s .

HGURA 3 .

p equef io t amaño s i tuada e n u na n ec rópo l is d c s epu lc ro s d e i d én t ica s c a rac te r i s t ica s ( P . . B ueno R am irez e . p . ) q ue e xcavamo s e n e i a ño 1 983 . E l o r to s ta to d e c abecera p re sen ta c azo le ta s muy ma rcada s .Ademá s d c e l lo e nl az ona q ue d a r la e n t rada a L a c áma ra p rop iamen te d icha l o ca l izamo s u na p i eza s em ic ircu la rc on u na c .7o le ta e n J a z ona s uper io r , q ue p robab lemen te e s ta r la h incada i nd icando L a e n t rada a l c spac io p reem inen te d e l e n ter ram ien to ( P . Bueno R am irez - R . d c ß a lb In B eh rmann , 1 992 ;p . 540 y F ig s . 7 5 -79 ) . S on muchos L o s e jemp los d c c azo le ta s e n monumen to s m ega L I t ico s d e l S .O . q ue h emo s d e t .a L lado e n o t ro L uga r ( P . B ueno R am irez - R . d c B a lb In

t r a ta d ci m monumen to a rqu i tec ton icamcn t es im i la r aL o

B eh rmann , 1 992 ; p .540 -541) , c uyo i n te ré s n o s p a rece man if ie s to e n r e lac ión c on e i v a lo r s imbó l ico q ue o t o rgan a lo r tos ta to e n e iq ue s e u b ican . E l h echo d c

d escr i to p a ra V ega d e l Guadanc i l , u na c áma ra o r to s tá t ica c on c o r redo r l a rgo , c er rada p o r u n s i s tema d c mampo s te r la a s eco , L i amado t r ad ic iona lmen tc d c

F IGURA 4 .

1 84

4 . G ran ja d c T on if lue lo , J e rez d c l o s C aba l le ro s ( Bada joz ) . S c

P . BUENO R AM IREZ yR .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

" f a l sa c üpu la" . Mucho s d c s u s o r to s ta to s e s tan p in tado s yg r abado s . P o re i momen to s ue s tu di lo d e f in i t ivo n oe s p o s ib ie ,pue s e il amen tab le e s tado d c c on servac ión d el a c on s t rucc ión h a h echo n ece sa r ia l a p re senc ia d e u n e n t ramado d e v i gue r la q ue i mp ide l av i s ion t o ta l d e l a s

c azo le ta s ,s e rpen t ifo rme s ,c I rcu lo s ya n t ropomo r fo s . 5 .Ce rca d c Ma rco , Magace la ( Bada joz ) .Cáma ra c on c o r redo r l a rgo . E i monumen to a pa rece c i tado e n 1 950 ( E . N ava r ro d e l C a s t i l lo - J .R . F e rnandez O xea y E. R . Amaya ) , c omo d eco rado , c i ta q ue e s r e cog ida p o r E . S hee ( 1981) . E n e i t r anscur so d c n ues t ros t r aba jos d c d ocumen tac iOn d e l mega l i t ismo e x t reme i lo r ea l izamo s u na p r ime ra r e v is iOn ( P . B ueno -F .P if lón , 1 985 ) yu n a ná l is is p o s te r io r ( P . Bueno R am i rez - R . d c B a lb In B e rhmann , 1 992 ;

F IGURA 6 .

p .

5 38 yF ig s . 6 9 -72 ) , c on s ta tando l a

p re senc ia d c má sg rabado s .

p i eza s . L o so r to s ta to sq ue r e cogen l o s

E n p r ime r l uga r l a s c azo le ta s

L e isner y q ue n oso t ros h emos i n te rp re tado c on e i m ismo s i s tema f o tog raf ico q ue e n V ega d e l Guadanc i l r e i te ran l a

a pa recen e np rac t icamen te t odo s l o s o r to s ta to s , n o s o lo e ns uf r en t e ,s i no e nc lt ope s upe r io r ,d onde s ea sen tar la L ac ub ie r ta ,h oy d e saparec ida . A l o r to s t .a to p ub l icado e n 1 950 y d c c uya i n te rp re tac ión d i sen t imo s , p ue s p o see má s g rabado s q ue l o s d e scn to s e n tonce s , s es uma o l ro

F UGURA 5 .

p r e senc ia d c s o le s ,r . a r .o le ta s , s e rpen t ifo rme s ,c f r cu lo s y e l emen to s a n t ropomo r fo s e nd o s v e r s ione s :ca ra e n ' T ' d c t e ndenc ia r e c tangu la r yr am ifo rme c on l a te ra les c e r rado s . L o s r e s to s d c p in tu ra s e a p rec ian e n c a s i t o do s l o s o r to s ta tos , a unquc c omo y a d ec imo s e s n ecesa r io e spe ra r as u r e s tau rac ión y c on so l idac ión p a ra p ode r r e a l iza ru ne s tud io d ef in i t ivo . N os p a rece i n te re san te d e s ta ca r q ue e s muy p o s ib le q ue l a e s ta tua -menh ir c onoc ida c omo G ran ja d c T on iñue lo yq ue p rocede d cl am i sma f i nca e s tuv ie ra e n r e lac ión c on l a p re senc ia d c e s te monumen to ( G . L e i sne r , 1 935 ;P .B ueno R am ir ez e . p ) . P a labras cave : T .-Grabado y p in tura -So les ,

n o r econoc ido e n a que l momen to q ue mue s t ra u n c uadn ipedo muy e squcmá t ico y u na f o rma o b longa a b ra s ionada ,a demá s d c c azo le ta s . E nc lm enc ionado e n p r ime r l uga r s e g raba ron c azo le ta s , a l guna s d c l a s c ua le s e j e rcen u np ape l s i ngu la re nl od ibu jado c omo l a q ue i nd ica l ac abeza d c L as e rp ien te o l aq ue i nd ica l a c abeza d e l a n t ropomo r fo r am ifo rme . Al a s c azo le ta s s e s uman u na s e rp ien te e n

s en t ido h or izon ta l , u n

r am iforme d c b uen t a inaho y o t ro a n t ropomor fo e squema t ico , e s e n e s te c a so u na f o rma s em ic ircu la r c e r rada c on v a s tago c en t ra l . L o s o r to s ta to s d eco rado s s e s i tuan e n L a z ona d c

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C .C .L .-Grabado -Cazo le tas ,

s u t ümu lo d c i m menh ir c on g r abado s , e n u na s i tuac ión s im i la ra lq ue a cabamo s d c menc iona re n A n ta G rande

s e rp ien te s ,a n t ropomo r fo s . 6 . A n ta G rande d c Z ambu je iro ,Evo ra ( A len te jo ) . C áma ra d e c o r redo r l a rgo d e g r an t amaf lo . E n e l la , E .

d c Z ambu je iro . E . S hec ( 1981 , F ig . 7 4 ) s eña la l a p re senc ia d c mo t ivo se nU ,s e rpen t i fo rme s yc azo le ta s . P a lab ra s c ave : Menh i ra n te T . G rabado -Cazo le t .a s ,

S hee ( 1981) r ecoge r e s to s d c p in tu ra e n l a z ona d e c abece ra d c l a c áma ra . C omo y a s ef la lamo s e n o t ro l uga r ( P . B ueno R am irez - R . d c B a lb mn B ehrmann , 1 992 , p .532 y F ig . 5 8 ) e n u na v i s i ta r ea l izada a l monumen to e n e i t r an scu r so d c s u r e excavac ión y l imp ieza , t u v imo s o po r tun idad d cc on s ta ta rl ap r e senc ia

s e rpen t i fo rme s , mo t ivo se nU . 8 . A lmend re s . E vo ra .A len te jo . S e t r a ta d c u n c rom lech , a l guno s d c c uyo s m enh ire s e s tán d eco rado s ( I I . L cono r P ina , 1 971) . D e s taca e id c l az ona c en t ra l c on i mO va lo e ns em iba jo r re l ieve ,o t ra p i cza c ub ie r ta d c b ácu lo s yt ema o ndu lado s yu na c s ta tua -menh ir . E s te

d c g r abado s s e rpen t ifo rmes v e r t ica le s q ue r e co r r Ian u n o r to s ta to d cl az ona d cl ac abece ra e ns uz ona p o s te r io r .

c on jun to s e e ncucn tra muy p róx imo a l a s n ec rópo l is m ega i l t ica s d c R eguengo s ys u p re senc ia s ee xp l ica e n

E s ta s i tuac ión r ep i te l a d esc r i ta p a ra e i g rabado d c H ue r ta d c l a s Mon ja s , p ue s e ip o ten te t imu lo d e l q ue h ay v i s ib le s r e s to se nZ ambu je i ro i mped ir la l av i s ion d c

r e lac iOn c on e s ta z ona f unc ra r ia . P a lab ra s c ave : C rom iech -Grabado s -Cazo ie ta s , s e rpen t ifo rme s ,b ácu io s ,a n t ropomo r fo . 9 . B u lhoa . Mon saraz . A len te jo . Muy p róx imo a l c on jun to a n te r io r , c l menh ir d c Bu lhoa s e c ncucn t ra

c abece ra d cl ac áma ra . P a labras cave :

i gua lmen te a soc iado a ls e c to rd cn ec rópo l i s mega l I t ica s l o ca l izado p o rl o s L e isne re n R eguengo s d c Mon sa raz . S u t e rc io s upe r io rp rc scn ta g rabado s a ncho s c on t cma s s e rpen t ifo rme s , m i s o l muy d cs tacado e n l a p a r te s upe r io r ym ib ácu lo e nl ai n fe r io r . P a lab ra s c ave : Menh ir -Grabado -S e rp icn tc s , s o ! , b ácu lo 1 0 . C a ran iu je ira . L ago s . A lga rve . C on jun to d c menh ire s e n s u mayo rp a r te d cc o rado s , a soc iado s ai m y ac im ien to d c h ab i tac iOn ( M .Va rc la G ome s , E . d a C unha S cr rao , J . P inho Mon tc iro , 1 978 ) , c on d o s e s ira to s :uno d cc e rám ica si n c i sa s ei mp re sa n oc a rd ia le s yo t ro d c c c rám ica s l i sas q ue l o s a u tores s i tuan r e spec t ivamen te e ne iN eo l I t ico F ina l ye nL at r an s ic ión N eo l I t ico /Ca lco l I t ico d c l az ona , e s d ec i ri l t imo c ua r to d e lI Vm i lemo a .C . ,i n ic io sd e lI I m i lcmo a .C . J . P inho Mon te iro y M . V a re la Gome s ( 1981) , r ecogen e n i m e s tud io p o s te r io r L a p re senc ia d c má s menh ire s e nc lt nángu lo L ago s -S i lve s -Fa ro , a l guno s d c

F IGURA 7 .

e s to sg rabado s . A l a e n t rada

d e l

monumen to

p e rmanec la c a ldo i mg ran menh ir . No s p a rece i n te resan te d c s taca r t amb ien q ue e n l ap r ime ra c xcavac ión d c c s te monumen to s e d e scub r ie ron g ran c an t idad d c p lacas d ecorada s , d emos t rando l a c oex is tenc ia e n t re f o rmas mueb le s yp a r ie ta le s e n c l A r te m ega l I t ic p en in su la r . P a lab ra s cave : C .C .L .- P in tura S c rpen t ifo rme s ,I do lo s mob i l ia re s .

y g rabado -

e l lo s c on d eco rac iones s e rpen t ifo rme s d c u n t i po muy s im i la r al o s d c C a ramu je ira . D es tacan c l p eso e spec I f ico d cl o sm enh ire sd eco rado se nt o do P o r tuga l y r ecuerdan l a s i tuac iOn p a rec ida q ue p o seen e n e i mega l i l ismo b r e tOn . P a lab ra s c ave : Menh ire s -G rabado -Se rp ien te s , f o rma Mica . 1 . N o ra V e lha . Ou r iquc . A lgarve . E s u na s cpu l tu ra c on c ub icr ta d c f a lsa c üpu la q ue p o see g rabado s a n t ropomo r fo s e n u na p i eza q ue s cpa ra l ac áma ra d e l c o r redo r . E nl ac ara q ue m ira al ac áma ra t i ene d o s mo t ivo se n

7 . V a le d c R odr igo . E vo ra . A lcn te jo . C á ina ra c on c o r redo r l a rgo , t e chada med ian te f a lsa c üpu la . L o s

U , c on u na i l nea v e r t ica l e n c lc en t ro , a s im i lab ic s al a s f o rma s e n ' T ' ,e s ta v ez c on t r azo c urvo . E nl ac a ra q ue

L e isnc rr e cogen l ap re senc ia a lE .de l monumen to ,s ob re

d aa lc o r redo rh ay n umc ro sa sc azo le ta s .

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P .B UENO R AM IREZ yR .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

P a lab ra sc ave : T .G rabado .Ocu lado s yc azo le ta s . 1 2 . S o to I .T r igue ro s . Hue lva . E s u na cma ra c on c o r r edo rd esa r ro l lado d ee spac io sp oco c l i fe renc iado s e n p l an ta ,po rl oq ue e n l a mayo rp a r te d c l a s o ca s ione s s e c i as if ica c omo g a le r Ia . T iene c a s i 2 1 m .de l a rgo c r ec iendo s u t amaf lo d e sde l ae n t rada h a s t .a e if ondo d e

d c S o to y s u s p rop ia s c on s ide rac iones a ce rca d c l o s g rabado s( H . Obenna ie r , 1 924 ) . E l d o lmen d c S o to e s u n d ocumen to e xcepc iona l e n t o do s l o s s en t ido s . E np r ime ri uga rl a s d escnpc ione s d c A .de S o to p e rm i ten i n fe r i r q ue e s taba c omp le tamen te r e l leno p o r u na ma sa c ompac ta d c a r c i i ia d c d i f Ic i i e x t racc ión y q ue p o r t a n to l ad cco rac ión n unca e s tuvo a l a i re l i bre . Cons t i tuye u n b uen a rgumcn to a rqueo log ico p a ra a f i rma r e i c on tcx to e n c l mundo m ega l I t ico d e l a s d eco rac ione s ,h echo s ob re e iq ue h an e xp re sado d uda s a l guno s a u to re s e nL aP en in su la . O t ro s d a to s má s r ec ien te s ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d c B a ib mn B eh rmann , 1 992 ) ,r edundan e n e s ta c on tempo ranc idad , p o r l oq ue e s tamo s c on ' venc ido s d c q ue é s ta l a d c l a c on tempo rane idad o n o d c l o s g rabados y p in tu ra s m ega l I t ica s -e su na c ue s t ión z an jada . E s t amb ien e xcepc iona l p o r s u s d imcn s ionc s y a menc ionada s yd e sde l u ego , p o r l ap rofu s ión ,ca l idad y b uena c on se rvac ión d cs u sp in tu ra s yg rabado s . D u ran te mucho t i empo s e c on s ide ró l ae xccpc ión al ar e g ia d c q ue n o e x is t ia A r te Mega i I t ico a lS ur d c l aP en In su la , a unque s e menc ionaba l a e x i s tenc ia d c g rabado s . Nue s t ro e s tud io p o rmeno r izado n o s h a p erm i t ido d emo s t ra rq ue l ag r an mayo r Ia d c l a s i o sa s d e l d o lmen

F IOURA 1 0 .

l ac áma ra d onde i l ega aa 1 can72 rl o s 3m . E s te mor nunen to s ec onoce d e sde

l o sa ño s 2 0d ce s t es i g lo c uando e id ueño d cl af i nca e n l aq ue s e e ncuen t ra d ió c on e id c modo c a sua l . A . . d e S o to , c id e scub r ido r c om ienza L ae xcavac ión y a n te l a i mpo r tanc ia n o to r ia d cl o s r e s to sl o ca l izado s ,a v isa aH . O be rma ie r q u ien p ub l ica l o s d a to s o b tcmdo s p o r e iS r .

F 1GURA 1 2 .

d cS o to e s taban p i n tada sd cr o jo . R e spec to al o sd a to sr e cog ido sp o r

e iS r .dc S o to e ns ue xcavac ión h ay q ue d e s taca r : ia p oca c an t idad d c c adáve res 8 - e n r e lac ión c on l a g rand io s idad d e l monumen to , l ap o s ic ión e ncog ida d c é s to sc omo d a to a ce rca d e lr i tua l emp icado yl ar c iac ión d c a l guna s p i eza s q ue p ueden s c r i n tc rc san te s p a ra c omp rende rl o s g rabado s ,c omo l ap r c senc ia d cp una le s

1 87

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d eh ue so . S eña la a s Im ismo l ap re senc ia d ch oga re s , s i n

s i guc d i scu t iendo e n o t ro s L uga rcs e u ropco s , p ues mucho sd eL o sd O lmene s c on g r a f Ia s s upuc s tamcn tc me , t á l ica s p o seen f e cha s má s a n t igua s . Q u izá c on s t i tuye ra

m a t iza rs ud i s t r ibuc ión oc uan t la . L a c on s t rucc ión r ev is te u n i n terés e spec ia l e n e i i r aba jo d e Obe rma ie r( 1924 )q u ien c on s ta ta l ap r e senc ia d eu n mum d ec on tenc ión t r a sl o so r to s ta to s ,a demá sd e l o q ue e ii n te rp re ta c omo l o s r e s to s d e u na p ue r ta d e

n a i n te re san tc d a to a rqueo Log ico r e co rda r L ap r e senc ia r e cog ida p e re i S r . d cS o to d cp uf la le sd ch ue so . E n d ef in i t iva , l o s mo t ivo s d e l d o lmen d c S o to a

made ra a4 i n . d e l ae n t rada . Do s m e t ro s má s a l La m i p i la rd cs u s ten tac ión d cL ac ub ie r ta ya lp i ed cL al o sa d c c abece ra , u na me sa o a l ta r r e c tangu la r d c 1 , 50m . d c

n ue s t ro e n tende r , n o s on ü n ico s e n l aP en in su la ymá s a ba jo c omen ta remo s a lguno s e j emp Lo s e n t re l o s q ue n ece sa r iamen te h ay q ue d e s taca rL ag a le r la d c A lber i te

L a rgo ,0 . 75m . d ca ncho ys o lo 0 , 15m . d ca l to . H ay 3 1 o r tos ta to s e n L a p ared d erecha d e l

I ,e n C ad iz yr e sponden e n g enera l au na t emü t ica c on b ucna sr e fe renc ia se nc lá i nb i to a t Lün t ico e u ropeo .

monumen to y3 3 e n l ap a red i zqu ie rda . D c l ac ub ie r ta p r im i t iva s o lo q uedan 2 0l o sa s . L a s ma te r ia sp r ima ss on c a l iza , c ong lome rado y p izar ra , n o a p rec iándose e n n ingün c a so L a p re senc ia d c g ran i to q ue d e s tacaba O berma ie r c omo n a d a to d c i n te rd s p o r L oca l iza rse s u

D csdc L u ego , n o n o s e s p o s ib Lc r e a l iza r a qu I u n e s tu cl io e xhau s t ivo d e l d o lmen d c S o to , n i e s n ucs tra

p o s ib le f ucn te d c a p rov i s ionam ien to b a s tan te L e jo s d e l monumen te. L a s t ü cn ica s u t i izada s s on muy v anada s :ab ra s ión muy marcada , p u l imen to d c l a s s uperf ic ies , s eudoba jo r re l ieves , p ique teado e i nc is iOn . C omo d ec lamo s a n-i b a ae l lo s e u ne L ap re senc ia d c p in tu ra r o ja e n muchos d c l o s o r to s ta to s , t o q ue p e rm i te p l an tea r l ap resenc ia d c u na d eco rac ión c omp le ja q ue c on s t i tu i r Ia muy p robab lemcn tc e n o r igen u n t odo s imbO l ico j un to c on L aa r qu i tec tu ra d e l monumen to . L o s t cma s r cf le jado s s on c onoc ido s at r avé s d c L a p ub t icac iOn d c Obe rma ie r ( 1924 ) yd c L ar ep roducc iOn

i n tenc iOn , p e ro s in o s p a rece i mpo r tan te s ef la La rq ue s u r ee s tud io p erm i te u b ica r c on mayo r c i ar idad u na t emá t ica q ue c om ienza a t e ne r e n l a P en in su la u na e n t idad c ada v ez mayo r . L os ma te r ia les p ub l icado s p o r Obe rma ie r i nd ican f echa s e n t omo a m i tad d e l I I m i lcn io a .C .Lo s o b temdos p e r n o so t ro s e n l a e xcavac iOn d c l a r ea d c a cce so y d c o t ro s s ec to re s d e l t ümu lo p e rm i ten p en sa r e nu na o cupac iOn má sa n t igua ,e nt omo aL o s i n ic io s d e l I Im i len io a .C . P a lab ra s c ave : G . - P in tu ra y G rabado - C I rcu lo s y c azo Le ta s , a rmas ( hacha s e nmangadas o n o , d ob lc s h acha s ,p uf ia le s yc uch i l lo s ) ya n t ropomo r fo s .

d c E . S hee ( 1981 , p . 159 -160 yF igs . 7 0 -72 ) ys e r c sumcn f undamen ta lmen te e n :mo t ivo s c i rcu tare s ,

S o to I . T r igue ro s , Hue !va .200m . a ! No re s te d e l monumen to a n te r io r , s e e ncuen t ra O s te ,de a r qu i tcc tu ra s im i lar , p e ro d c d imen s ione s s en s ib lcmen te meno re s

i nc luyendo

q ue , e n s u d I a , t amb ien f ue e xcavado p er d c S o to .

c azo Le tas ,

e lcmen tos

t r iangu lares

i n terp re tado s c omo h acha s , d ob le s h acha s ,puna les o c uch i t io s ya n t ropomor fo s .A e l lo h ay q ue s uma r L a c onoc ida c s ta tua -menh ir c o locada b oca a ba jo y L a p resenc ia d c a lgunas f i gurac iones d c d i f Ic i l

O be rma ie rd e sc r ibe q ue y ae s taba muy d e s t rozado ,p ue s h ab I an s i de a r rancado s v ar ie s o r to s ta to s .G . yV .Le i sne r

c l a s if icac ión c omo c l " cande lab ro" d c u na d c l a s j amba s ,e l mo t ivo a ngu lar d c ! o r to s ta to 2 8 d c L az ona

( 1943 , t a f .73 .3) r ecogen l a p l an ta y c l a j ua r d c L o p ub t icado p e rH . Obe rma ie r( 1924 ,p Z 7 ) . E s i n te re san te q ue c ln üme ro d c c adáve re s r c cog ido a qu Ip e rd cS o to e sd c 1 8 o2 0 ,s en s ib Le inen tc mayo ra !

S u r ,de i q ue o f rccemo s n ue s t ra v e r s iOn e n L a f i gu ra a d jun ta , oc ls upue s to " p ie" d e l o r to s ta to 2 1 d e l m ismo

d e l S o to I , s ob re t ode s i t e nemos e n c ucn ta L a d i fe renc ia d ct amaho e n t re L o s monumen to s . E l a j ua re s

f l anco . Nuc s t ro a ná l is i s c omo d cc Ia amba , d cs taca L a

e sca so yc on t iene u na p un ta P a lme la . L a r e excavac iOn d e l monumen to , p em i i t ió l o ca l iza r

p resenc ia d c p in tu ra r o ja e n L a mayo r p a r tc d c l o s o r to s ta tos , a demá s d e l r cconoc im icn to d c h acha s e nmangada s yd cL ar c in te rp re tac iOn d ca l guno s mo t ivo s

ma te r ia le s e ncuad rab le s e nc ln eo L I t ico f i na l d cl az ona ,

c omo c l " cande lab ro" d e scr i to e n u na d c l a s j amba s , q ue c nca ja p e r fec tamcn te e n L a g ra f Ia c onoc ida e n B rc taf i a p a ra L ar cp re scn tac iOn d c h acha s e nmangada s . F o rma s t r apezo ida ic s c on " r ayo s" ( p ie d c ! o r to s ta to 2 1 ) s on t amb ien c onoc idas e n L a g raf la b re tona , i n t crp rc tándose c omo p robab ie s c squema t iz ac ionc s h umana s . L ap o s ib lc p re senc ia d ca rma se sh oy n a t ema q ue s e

a ti gua l q ue e nS o to I .A e l lo s es uma u ne n tc r ram icn to i nd iv idua lc on me ta l ,d cc l a ra f i l iac iOn c ampan ifo rmc . S o to I p o see i mo r to s ta to d eco rado ,e nL aa c tua l idad f r ac tu rado y c on se rvado e nc l Mu seo d cH ue lva . P o rl a p o s ic iOn e nq ue s el o ca l izO d eb Ia p e r tcnece ra lf r en te d c L ac áma ra . M ide 1 , 60m . d c a L tu ra , 1 , 37 i n . d c a ncho y 0 ,42m . d cg ro so r . E L mo t ive a n t ropomo r fo d c c a rac tc r f á L ico t r ad ic iona lmen te r ep roduc ido ( H . Obe rma ie r , 1 924 ) ,p o see p a ra n o so t ro su na v e r s iOn d i s t in ta . U n a ná L i s is e xhau s t ivo d cL ap i eza n o s h ap e rm i t ido

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P .B UENO RA M IREZ yR .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

d i fe renc ia r d o s a n t ropomo r fo s u n mo t ivo t r apezo ida l c on a sa a s im i lab le a l q ue E . S hee , d enom ina 'T he t h ing" y v ar io s s e rpen t ifo rme s . T odo e l lo c on f ie re a

d i s t in ta s v e r s ione s a n t ropomo r fa s , q ue i n c iuycn f o rma s e n ' T" , a n t ropomo r fo s e n b razo s e n a sa yu m e l emen to muy i n te re san te q ue p o rs uf o rma s ug ie r ec i e r ta r e lac ión

e s ta p i eza u n v a lo re spec ia l q ue l ap one e nr e iac ión , e n p r ime r l uga r c on e i monumen to p rox imo d e S o to Iy , d esde l u ego , c on t o do e i mundo a t lán t ico p en in su la r ( Ga l ic ia ) ye x t rapemn su la r ,e ne iq ue e s to s mo t ivo s s on

c on l o s b e t i io s ,a lq ue a compana u na i I nea q ue s u rge d c s u z ona i n f er io r , a modo d c c o la . E s ta v e r s ion n o e s d e sconoc ida e nl aP en in su la ;u ne l emen to s im i la re x i s te e n e id o lmen d c Hue r ta d c l a s Mon ja s , c i tado a rnba y

c onoc ido s . U na v ez má s e ir e c ien temen te d e scub ie r to d o lmen d e

r e c ien temen te h emo s d ado a c onoce r o t ro s e n l a s p rox im idade s d e l d o lmen d e l P o r t i l lo d c l a s C o r te s , e n

A lber i te , e n C ad iz , mue s t ra u n mo t ivo a n t ropomo r fo

Guada la ja ra ( P . B ueno - R . d c B a lb in - J .A lco lca -R .

muy s im i la r e nu no d e l o s o r to s ta to s q ue h ac Ia c lp ape l d ej amba . E l d e s t rozo d c L a mayo r p a r te d c l o s o r to s ta to s n o p e rm i te v e r if ica rs ih ubo r e s to sd cp in tu ra . P a lab ras cave : G .Grabado -An t ropomo rfos . S e rpen t ifo rme s Hacha 1 4 . G ab r ie le s I .V a lve rde d e l C am ino . H ue lva . S e t r a ta d e u na g a le r la a codada , a rqu i tec tu ra d c c i a ra s

B a r ro so -P .J imenez A . C ruz e . p . ) . 1 6 . A lbe r i te I .V i l lama n t In . C ad iz . S e t r a ta d c u na g a le r Ia , a te s t i lo d cl ad c S o to , e sd ec i ru na c tma ra c on c or redo r l a rgo p oco d i f e renc iado , c on g ran d i fe renc ia

‚

-

r em imscenc ia s a t lán t icas ( F . P iñon - P . B ueno ,1983 p . 4 .5 1 ) . E ns u mayo rp a ne ,c l monumen to t i cnc l o so r to s ta to s r o to sp o rL ap ane s upe r io r , ac on secuenc ia d ch abe ns i do c o r tado s p o r u na maqu ina p a ra l a r ea l izac iOn d c u n c am ino . P e se as u ma ia c on se rvac ión , a tm s e a p rec ian t i e s o r to s ta to s c on r e s to s d c d eco rac ión , f o rmada p o r g rabado s d c t r azo a ncho , muy v i s ib le s yr e s to s d c p in tu ra r o ja . D o s d c l o s o r to s ta to s mue s t ran f o rma s r e c tangu la re s r e l iena s d c t r azo s v e r t ica le s ye n u no d c e l lo s , s ea p rec ia a demá s l ap re senc ia d c u n o cu lado e n

-

d ca l tu ra e n t re l ae n trada yL ac abece ra d e l monumen to . T iene 1 9m . d c d csa r ro l io y a l i n ter io r t i ene l o s e spac io s d e l im i tado s p o rj amba s , e n n üme ro d c d o s y p a ru na p ue r ta q ue d aa cce so aL ac tma ra . S epa nando l a c áma ra ye ic o r redo r , s es i tuO u na e s te la c on e ig rabado d cu ma n t ropomo r fo q ue s o s t iene u mh acha e nmangada . L o s ma te r ia le s emp leado s s on ,c omo e n S o to , c a l iza , e squ i s to yc ong lome rado . A lber i te Ih a s i do e xcavado r e c ien temen te p o r u n e qu ipo d i r ig ido p o r F .G i ie s , d i rec to r d e l Mu sco d c P ue r to d c S ta . Ma r ia y p r J . R amos Munoz d c L a Umve r s idad d c C ad iz . L a e xcavac ión h a p erm i t ido p one r a td e uc"h icr to u m monumen to e xcepc iona l q ue c on tcn ia u n e sca so n üme ro d c i nd iv iduo s e n ter rado s , t odo s e l lo s c ub ie r to s d c p in tura r o ja , a li gua l q ue e i

s uv e r s ion má sc squemá t ica d cf o rma e n ' T ' . L a s p i eza s d eco rada s s e i o ca l izan e n e il a te ra l S u n

s ue lo . R e s tos d c p in tu ra r o ja , a i guno s d c e l lo s muy v iv ido s e x i s ten a ün e n l a p rác t ica t o ta l idad d c l o s

d e l c o r redo r ye ih abe rt r a tado d es us i tuac ión ymo t ivo s e n u n t r aba jo r ec ien te , n o s p erm ite e v i ta r u na d e sc r ipc ión e xhau s t iva ( P . B u eno R am i rez -R . d cB a lb In

o r to s ta to s ,p a rt odo s s u sl a do s i nc iuyendo l o s L a te ra le s o cu i to s p a r l ac on s trucc ión , a demá s d c e n l a s p i eza s q ue f o rmaban e it e cho d e l monumen to . E nL aa c tua l idad

B ehnnann , 1 992 ) . P a lab ra s cave : G .-Grabado y p in tu ra -Forma s g eomé tnca s ya n t ropomo r fo e n ' T ' . 1 5 . G ab r ie le s 4 . V a lve rde d e l C am ino . H ue lva . S e

e s tamo s e s tud iando j un to c on l o s menc ionado s e xcavado re s L ad eco rac iOn d e l monumen to q ue r e v i s te g ram c omp le j idad , p e ro p odemo s d e s taca r u no s d a to s

t r a ta d c u n monumen to d c l a m isma p l an ta q ue e i a n te r io r y muy c e rcano ae i . Ambas g a ier la s f o rman p a r te d c u na n ecrOpo l is c on s e is monumen tos

monumen to ( 2 ) . T an to s u p lan ta , c omo s u d ecorac iOn s on muy

l o ca i izado s ye xcavado s . E l d o lmen n°4 p a r t ic ipa d c l a s c a rac tc r I s t ica s a r qu i tec tOmca sd e ln ° 1 y ,p o rt a n to ,d cmue s t ra d cn uevo l a p re senc ia d c f o rma s d e f i l iac iOn a t ián t ica e n l a s a r qu i tec tu ra sd o lmémca sp en in su la rcs . S c c onse rvam d o s o r to s ta to s d eco rado s , tamb ien d c e squ is to c omo l o s a n te r io re s , s i tuado s e n e ip un to d c i n f lex ión d c c áma ra y c o r redo r . P o r c i e r to , e s ta s i tuac iOn d c l a d eco rac ión e s c omün a l a s g a le r Ia s a codada sd eco rada sd cL aB re taña f r ance sa . L o s mo t ivo s e n a n ibo s o r to s ta to s d eco rado s s on

i n teresan tes p ara l a u b icac ión c u l tura l

d c e s te

c l a ramen te r e lac ionab le s c on e i d o lmen d c S o to . L a p in tu ra p o sce u mp ap a l t r a scenden ta l e n l ad eco rac ión , p enn i t idndonos a f irma r u na v ez má s n ues t ra i d ea d c q ue t a n to e nc l No r te d cl aP en in su la c omo e ne iS u n ,e n c lC en tro oe ne iE s te , L ap in tu ra e x is te .Pe ro n oe s s o lo s u e x is tenc ia l o q ue h ace t a n i n te re san te e ie s tud io d c l a s d eco rac iones d c A lber i te , s i no q ue é s ta e s tá d i spue s ta e n f r am ja s d c l I ne n s q ueb rada s e n a l guma s d c s us p i eza s , f ormamdo u n f r iso h or izon ta l c omo e n mucho sd cl o s d O lmene sd c V isen yd cG a i ic ia .En o t ro s o r to s ta to s , s e h a d i spue s to e n mo t ivo s s e rpen t ifo rme s v e r t ica le sq ue r e co r ren t o da l ap i eza .

1 89

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

o r to s ta to

i nd iscu t ib le a ce rca d c l ac oncepc ión c on tempo ránca d c

l ong i tud ina l q ue h ace d cp a red yo t ro d em ayo rt amaf lo , e nca jado as u l ado q ue e j e rce e ip ape l d e p ue r ta . E s te u i l t i mo p re sen ta f ue r te s r e s to s d c p in tu ra r o ja ,m ien t ra s q ue e i q ue h ace d e c er ram ien to t o ta l d e l r ec in to ,

l aa rqu i tec tu ra y s u d eco rac ión , c omo n o so t ro s h cmo s v cn ido man ten iendo ( P . B ucno R am i rez -R . d c B a lb In

L a

c áma ra e s tá d e l im i tada p o r u n

mue s t ra e n l a c ara q ue m i ra a lo r to s ta to d e c abecc ra c l a r idad u na f a ja d e t r iangu lo s r ea l izado s ab a se d e p un to s ,muy s im i la r al o sd e l d o lmen d cP ed ra C obe r ta o d e Domba te ,e nG a l ic ia . No h cmo s l oca l izado a im c l emen to s f i gu ra t ivo s

B eh rmann , 1 992 ) . S u s g rabado s s on t amb icn d cu ne no rme i n te rd s .Hay f o rma sg eomé t r ica sr ec tangu la re s ,e i emcn to s c i rcu la re s , i n c lu ida s c azo le ta s , s o le s , h acha s e nmangada s , h o ja s t r i angu lare s ot r apezo ida lc s d e l c s t i lo q ue c omunmen t e s ed enom inan p uf ia le s yh acha s ,mo t ivo s a n t ropomor fo s c omo l o s d c S o to I yl ac s te la -menh ir y am enc ionada . E ns uma , todo t i nr epe r to r io r e lac ionab lc c on l a sg a lcr Ia s o nuben sc s y ,d c sde l u ego ,c on e i mundo a t lán t ico . H emo s i n t roduc ido a qu Ic omo e j cmp lo , lo s g rabado s d cu na d cl a sj amba se nl o sq ue s ed c l im i tan d o s f o rma s a n t ropomo r f a sa codada s , muy s im i lare s al a sd cS o to I , t amb ien c on e i s cxo ma rcado . E n l a z ona s uper io r i z qu ierda s e a p rec ian s e rpen t ifo rmes y e n c l s ec to r c en t ra l u n h acha c nmangada .A l ad e recha s e o bsc rva

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r ea l izado s e n p in tu ra , p e ro e s tamo s HGURA 1 5 . a na l izando l a s f o to s d c i n f ra r ro jos y e sp o s ib le q ue e x i s tan . E it i n ico mo t ivo d i f e renc iab le e s u na f o rma t r apezo ida l c on a sa e n u nl a te ra l , i d én t ica a l

F IGURA 1 6 .

o t ra p i eza s im i la r , a ho ra d c meno r

t amaf lo . L a s e mc janza c on l o d e scn to e nS o to e s muy o bv ia . P a labra s d ave : G . -P in tu ra y g rabado - Tnangu lo s , s e rpen t ifo rme s , c azo le ta s , a n tropomor fo s , a rmas ( hacha s e nmangadas o n o , d ob le s h acha s , p uña les ,

mo t ivo c onoc ido c omo " t h e t h ing" y q ue y a h emo s d e sc r i to e nS o to I . O t ro d a to i n te re sen t I s ismo r e spec to al ap re senc ia d c

e s te la -menh i r . 1 7 .A lbe r i te I . V i l lama r t in . C ad iz . Muy p róx imo a l

p i n tu ra e nA lbe r i te I ,e sq ue e na l guno sd cl o so r to s ta to s d c c ub ie r ta s e d i s t inguen f r an ja s d c l I nea s q ueb rada s ,

monumen to d c sc r i to , s e e ncuen t ran l o s r e s to s muy d c sperd igado s d c u na a rqu i tcc tu ra mega l I t ica , q u iza d c

c ncuad rando e l emen to sr e c tangu la re s . P o r n ecc s idade s d c l ae xcavac ión y p o r s egu r idad , p a r te d c l a s p ieza s d c c ubr ic iOn y a l guna s d c l o s l a te ra les q ue s e c a Ian ,hub ieron d c s acar se d e l monumen to y e n toncc s p udo c omp roba r se q ue l a p in tu ra c ub re t odo sl o sl a te ra le s d el o so r to s ta to s E l io

p l an ta s im i la r . E n t re l o s o r to s ta to s c a ido s s ed i fe rcnc ia a l guno s c on f ue r tes r e s to s d c p in tu ra r o ja y c on

p erm i te d educ ir q ue h an s i do p in tado s a n te s d c i n t roduc ir se e n l af o sa d c c imen tac ión d e l monumen to y , p o r t a n to , c on s t i tuyc u n a rgumcn to a rqueo lOg ico

p o s ic ión d cl o s o r to s ta to s p a ra c omp roba rl ae x is tenc ia d cm á sd eco rac ione s . L an ue s t ra e ss imp iemen te s cf la la r q ue l ac omp le j idad d eco ra t iva d e l d o lmen d c A lbe r i te I ,

.

g rabado s , e spec ia lmcn te c azo le ta s ys o le s , e n l o q ue h oy p uede o b se rva r sc . L ai n tenc ión d e l Mu seo d cP to . d cS t a . Mar ia e sl ad c v c r if ica r l a s i tuac ión d e l monumen to y r ecupe ra r l a

1 90

P .B UENO R AM IREZ yR .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

n oe s( m ica e ne im ega l i t i smo g ad i tano . P a labras cave : P os ib ic G .-Grabado

y

p i n tu ra -Cazo le ta s ,s o le s . 1 8 . D o lmen d c O lve ra . C ad iz . S e t r a ta u na v ez ma s d c u na g a ier Ia c ub ie r ta d c 1i m . d c d e sa r ro l io ( R . R odr iguez F ernandez , 1 990 ) , u no d c c uyo s o r to s ta to s l a te ra le s mue s t ra u na e s te ia menh ir . L a p i eza s e h a ha f r ac tu rada e n L a z ona s uper io r y r ep roduce i m a n t ropomo r fo c on s eno s , c o i la re s , u na b anda o b i icua q ue a t rav ie sa p a r te d e l c uerpo d e l p er sona je y u na e spec ia d e d ob ie h acha , q ue n uevamen te n o s s ug ie re r em in iscenc ia sa t ián t ica s .T odo do ,l o s mo t ivo s ys uc oncepc ión t i enen c l am r ef le jo e n e s ta tua s -menh i r d e l S u r d c F ranc ia , c omo y a h emo s a r gumen tado e no t ro l u ga r( P . B ueno R am i rez ,c . p . ) O t ro s o r to s ta to s t i enen c azo le ta s ye s p o s ib le q ue e x is t ie ran má s mo t ivo s , p i le s e i monumcn to e s tá a tm b a s tan te c ub ie r to d ct i er ra . P a labras cave : G .-Grabado-Cazo letas , A n t ropomo r fo Y a d ec lamo s a l i n ic io d c e s ta s p ág ina s q ue n o e s f á c i l a r gumen ta ru na s cpa rac ión c l a ra e n t re l a s d i ve r sa s z ona s d c L a P en in su la , p e ro c r eemo s q ue i n c lu ir l o s

momen to d c a pogeo y e x ten s iOn d c l a s a rqu i tec tu ra s m ega l I t ica s p en in su la re s . O t ro d c l o s p un to s d c p ar t ida q ue h oy s e d cmues t ra i n vá i ido e r a c lh echo d c q ue L a t é cm c a -p in tu ra o g rabado -pueda c on si d era r se a r gumen to d c mayo r om eno ra n t iguedad . Hoy , n ue s t ra s p e r spec t ivas e n c s tc c ampo h an c amb iado . E x is ten f e cha s C 14 d e l Vm i ien io a .C . ys e a dm i te L a c oex is tenc ia d c d i ve r sa s a rqu i tec tu ra s . P o r o t ra p a r te , s e h an d ado a c onoccr monumen to s d eco rado s d c g ran i n teré s , e n l a Me se ta , C a ta iuña y Anda luc ia , p in tado s yg rabado s , c on l o q ue L o s d a to s q ue a n tcr io rmen te a pared Ian c omo d ispersos c on st i tuyen h oy u na i n fo rmac iOn má s c ompac ta . E L a ná i is is d c c s ta i n Iormac ión n o s p e rm i te e sboza r i m p ano r ama i n te rp re ta t ivo s cn s ib icmcn tc d i s l in to . P ara L ac omp ren s iOn d e l A r te Mcga l I t ico p en in su la r c x is tc a demä s nit c omponen tc g ráf ico muy i mpo r tan te , q ue c r eemo sn os eh ac on s ide rado e ns uj u s ta m cd ida e n a na i is is a n te r io re s . No s r c fcr imo s an uc s t ro r i co A r te E squema t ico , c on jun to d c p in tu ra s yg rabado s a ha i re L i b re q ue s ed e sa r ro i La c uando mcno s d e sde i n ic io s d e l

d a to s d c Ma iaga n o si l evar la ap l an tea rc ip ano rama d e l S ure s te , c uya c omp ie j idad e xcede a l o q ue a qu l n o s

N co L I t ico p en in su la r yq ue c on s t i tuye u na f ucn tc g r af ica ci d eo lóg ica d ci nnncgab lc p e so ,cuya sh uc L ia s p odemo s p e rc ib ir c on f ac i l idad e n c L r cpe r to r io f unc rar io q ue v en imos d enom inando A r te mega l I t ico . A e s te

p roponcmo s .Aho ra b i cn , l o q ue s is e v i s lumb ra c ada v cz má s c i a ro e s q ue l a s d ive r sa s z ona s m cga i I t ica s

p ano rama f i gu ra t ivo s e s uma u na i nnume rab le y v a r iada c an t idad d c c L er icn to s mob i l ia re s d c c a rác tc r

p en in su la res n op ueden d e l im i ta r se d c im modo t a jan te p o r l at emá t ica d c s u s d cco rac ione s s i no q ue m á s b i cn p uede s cgu ir se u na b a se g r áf ica c omün ye x tend ida e n t o da l aP en in su la .

a n t ropomor fo q ue e n r iqucccn s cns ib iemen te l a s p o s ib i l idade sd ci n te rp re tac iOn . L a p ropue s ta d c E . S hee d c L a c x is tcnc ia d c d o s g rupo s e n L a P cn in su La :c L g rupo d c V isen y e i d c " o t ros" , d cscan saba c omo d ec Iamo s e n l ac r eenc ia d c q ue L ap in tu ra c on s t i tu Ia " pe r S c " im s i s tema t é cmco d c

l IU ADGRAHC B 'EL ARrE MEGALH ICOFEN INSULAR . E n e i m enc ionado t r aba jo d c E . S hee ( 198 1) e i a r te mcga i I t ico d c L aP en in su la I bé r ica s e i n te rp re ta c omo u na v e r s ion n o r teña e n a rqu i tec tu ra s d c c o r redo r c on s u s o r Igenes e n e i3 .000 a .C . S O Lo e ig rupo d c V iseu mue s t ra c i emen to sc omune s ,m ien t ra sq ue c lr e s to d cl o s d a to s f o rman u n t o do d i spe r so yp oco s i gn if ica t ivo q ue s e c ompara c on l o s c a rac te res d c e s t i lo má s e squemt t ico yi mt a n to g comé lnco d e l a r te i r l andé s ( E . S hee , 1 981 ;p . 22 a3 7 ) . C uando L aD ra . S hee r c a i izO c s ta a p rec iac iOn n o s e c onoc lan t a n to s m ega l i to s e nl aP en in su la ys ep ar t la d c b a se s p rcconceb ida s . L a p nme ra r e Lac ionada c on l a s ecuenc ia c u l tu ra l yc rono log ica d e l m cga l i t ismo h i spano q ue p ropon Ia p o r u na p a r te l a s f echa s r e la t ivamen te t a rd la s d c é s te r e spcc to a L a s d c o t ra s z ona sd cl af a chada a t lán t ica c u ropea y ,p o ro t ra ,L ai d ea d c q ue l a sc áma ra s c on c o r redo rs ec o r re sponden c on e i

mayo ra n t iguedad q ue c lg rabado yd cq ue e ne s ta z ona s ed esa r ro l laba u na g ra f Ia r e i te rada e nL o s monumen to s c onoc ido s q ue p erm i t Ia a f i rma rs uh omogenc idad . No so t ro sc ompa ra remo sa qu IL ap ropue s ta d cE .S hee c on L oq ue h oy c onocemo s e ne iS u roe s te zona q ue s e c n tend Ia d e sp rov is ta d cA r te mega L I t ico -e i n tdn ta remo s e sboza r p o s ib le s n exo s g raf ico s c on o t ra s z ona s d c L a f a chada a t lán t ica e u ropea . P a ra E .Shee s on 1 0 l o s t ema s q ue c a rac ter izan e i g rupo d eV i sen ( E . S hee , 1 981 ,F ig .1) . L o s t cma s 1y 2 s on a n t ropomor fo s ,c i s egundo d c c h io s d a s en sac iOn d c e s ta r " c s t irado" c omo u na p i e L q ue s ep one as e ca r . E L h echo d c h abc r se r ea i izado c on p in tura L e s c onf ie re c i cr to a spec to n a tura l is ta . An t ropomo r fo s p in tado s e x is ten e n c l d o lmen d c Hu idob ro , B u rgo s ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d c B a lb In B eh rmann , 1 992 , F ig .46 ) , e n d i spo s ic iOn y r c Lac ión muy s emc ja n te a L o s d e l d o lmen d c L ubague i ra , e n V isen .

1 9 1

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

An t ropomo r fo s g rabados y , p o r t an to c on u na c oncepc ión a i go má s r I g ida p e ro d en t ro d c l oc onoc ido e n e i A r te E squemá t ico p emn su la r , tenemos e n e i d o lmen d el aE s t re l la ( To ledo ) o ,e ne ic a so d e l o s a qu I a na l izados e n :

Huer ta d e l a s Mon ja s , V ega d e

Guadanc i l , G ran ja d cT on if lue lo , Magace la , S o to IyI , Gab r ie le s 4 , A lbe r i te Iy O lve ra . E so s fe n v e r s ione s má s omeno s e squcma t ica s ,p e ro t o da s e l ia s e nr e lac ión a l o q ue c onocemo s e n e i A r te E squemá t ico p en in su ia r :ca ra s e n ' T ' ‚ r am ifo rme s , b razo s e n a sa y v ers ione s má s c lara inen te a t lán t icas c omo e i a n t ropomor fo c ompa r t imen tado d c Huer ta d c l a s Mon ja s oc ld c c a rac te r f á l ico d c l o s G ab r ie le s 4 , l a e s ta tua -menh ir d c S o to I o l a d c O lve ra d c c l a ra s r em in iscenc ia s d e l No roe s te y d e l S u r d c F ranc ia e , i nc lu so , v e r s iones n e tamen te n a tu ra l is ta s c omo l a s d c ( a lso b a jo r re l ieve d e ld o lmen d cS o to I . S il ae x is tenc ia d c e s to s e l emen to s a n t ropomo r fo s e s i n teresan te , a ün l o e s má s e n r e lac ión a l t ema q ue I r a tamo s d c s u c onex ión c on e i g rupo d c V iseu , e i h echo d c q ue c uando a pa recen a soc iado s e nu nm i smo o r tos ta to o e n o r to s ta to s d ive r so s d en t ro d e l m ismo monumen to , se r ep i ten l a s g raf Ia s d c modo s im i la r .E s d ec i r , l o s a n t ropomor fo s s e a soc ian a s e rp ien tes y f o rma s c i rcu la re s , i n c luycndo s o le s yc azo le ta s , e n s u g ran mayo r Ia . O t ra s a soc iac ione s p o s ib le s i nc luyen a rma s . Y a h emos d e sa r ro l lado c l a rgumen to d c l a s a soc iac ione s e n o t ro l u ga r ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d c B a lb In B ehrmann c . p . ) , p e ro e s i n te resan te d e s taca r a qu I q ue e n e ic on jun to d e l S u roe s te a tq ue a ho ra n o s r e fe r imo st e nemo sl a ss i gu ien te s : An t ropomo r fo /cazo le ta s oc I rcu lo s os o l : V ega d e l Guadanc i l ,G ran ja d c T on iñue lo , Magace la , S o to I , A lbe r i te I ,O lve ra . An t ropomo r fo /se rp ien tc : V ega d e lG uadanc i l ,G r an ja d cT omnue lo , Magace la ,S o to I ,S o to I ,A lbe r i te I . An t ropomo r fo /a rma : Magace la , S o to I , S o to I , A lbe r i te I . T cmendo e n c uen ta q ue n ue s t ra i n te rpre tac iön d e l A r te mega l I t ico e s q ue s et r a ta d c u n c ód igo f une rar io , p o see u n v a lo r s i gmf ica t ivamcn te mayo r c lh echo d c q ue s ec on s ta t en a soc iac ionc sd cg r a f Ia si d én t ica se nc l g rupo d c V iseu ye ne ic on jun to q ue t r a tamo s . Má sm , l a d i s t r ibuc ión e spac ia l d c l o s t ema s q ue t amb ien

s upone , s egun n ue s t ro c r i te r io ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d c B a lb In B eh rmann , 1 994 a ) u n d a to i mpo r tan tc a t e ne r e n d ucn ta , e s l a m isma . C uando s e h an g rabado o p in tado a n t ropomo r fo se nl o s o r to s ta to s a companado so n od co t ro s t ema s ,e s to s s es i ti man e nl az ona d cc abcce ra d e l monumen to . S is et r a ta d c v er s ione s c scu i tó r ica s , s e d ocumen tan e n l o s e spac io s d c e n t rada a t monumcn to , d c e n t rada al ac áma ra op rc s id icndo z ona s p re fe ren te s ,

s is et r a ta d c monumcn to s má s c omp le jo s ,c omo s ucede e n A lbe r i te I . T amb ien d s ta s i tuac ión s e r ep i te e n l o q ue c onocemo s p a ra c lS u roc s tc yp a ra o t ra s i m r ea s q ue y ah emo s a na l izado e nc s te s en t ido c omo l a Mese ta ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d cB a lb ln B e rhmann , 1 994b . ) . L o s t ema s 3 y4 d c E . S hec p a ra c ig rupo d c V iseu , s e r e f ic ren a l ap re scnc ia d c e i emcn tos g comé t r ico s p in tado s , d i spue s to s n o rma lmen te e n f a ja s v c r t ica le s u h o r izon ta le s , c omo l o s q ue h ace p oco h emo s t emdo o po r tun idad d cd ocumen ta re nc ld o lmen d c A lbe r i t e I , n o s o lo e n s u s o r to s ta to s , s i no e n p a r te d c l a s p i cza s c on se rvada s d c l ac ub ie r ta . E l h echo d c q ue t e ngamo s r e conoc ido s r e s to s d cp in tu ra e n o t ro s monumen to s d e l S u roc s tc : V ega d e l Guadanc i l , G ran ja d c T omf tue lo , S o to I ,l o s G ab r ie le s . Z ambu je iro , A lber i te I , n o s p e rm i tc p ropone r q ue S i f lO s e h an d ocumen tado e n o t ro s l uga rc s yl o s t enemo s e n C ad iz , h ay mucha p robab i l idad d c q ue s e t r a te d c ma la c on se rvac ión o f a l ta d c e s tud ios p o rmeno r izado s e n c l r e s to d c l o s c a so s . L o s t ema s 5y6 , s e r e f ic ren a l a e x is tenc ia d c mo t ivos o ndu lados v cr t ica lcs u h o r izon ta le s q ue n o so t ro s e n o t ro l uga r h emos a rgumen tado c omo v er s ione s c squemá t icas d c s crp ien te ( P . Bueno R am irez -R . d c B a lb In B ehrmann e . p .) . E s to s mo l ivo s e s tan b i en d ocumen tado s e n c lc on jun to d e l S u roe s tc , n o s o lo g rabados s i no t amb ien p in tado s , c omo e n e i d o lmen d c A lbe r i te I ,e nC ad iz . L ar c lac ión q ue h emo s e xp rc sado a r r iba d c a soc iac ione s c on a n t ropomo r fo s , n o s a ho r ra r epe t i r l o s d a to s . Ae l la h ay q ue a ñad i r l o s g rabado s v er t ica ic s d ocumen tado s t r a s u no d c l o s o r to s ta to s d cl ac 4ma ra d c A n ta G rande d cZ ambu je i ro ol o s d ocumen tado s e n menh ires : V a le d c Rodr igo , A lmcnd re s , B u lhoa y C aramu je ira . L a f o rma d c e s to s m cnh irc s , e senc ia lmen te e n e i c a so d c C aramu je ira , c l a ran ien te a n t ropomo r fa , n o s h ap e rm i t ido t r a ta r lo s e n o t ro l uga r ( P . B ueno R am i rez -R . d c B a lb In B eh rmann , e .p .) e n r c iac ión c on l a a soc iac ión A n t ropomo r fo /sc rp icn tc . L o s t ema s 7 , 8y9 e n t ran e n l a c on s iderac iOn d c c I rcu lo s , s em ic f rcu lo s , tema s s o lare s yc azo ic ta s . L a p re scnc ia d c é s to s e n t oda s s u s v a r ian te s e s a bundan te e n l o s e j emp lo s m cnc ionado s d e l S u roc s te ,po r l oq ue n o p a rece n ece sa r io r epe r t ir a ho ra l o s d a to s . S i n o s p a rece i n te re san te d es taca r q ue l o s t ema s c i rcu la rc s y s o la re s s e a soc ian mayo r i tar iamcn te a s e rp ien tc s ya e l cmcn to s a n t ropomo r fo s , c onf igu rando e n s u c on jun to u na a soc iac ión d c c i a ro s i gr n f icado mo r tuono q ue s e r ep i te n os o lo e n mucho s monumcn to sm cga l i t ico s ,s i no t amb ien e n a b r igo s p in tado s d c l o s q ue t e nemo s i nd ic io s d c s u u so c omo e n ter ram ien to ( P . B ueno R am irez -R .d cB a lb In B ehrmann c . p . ) .

1 92

P .B UENO R AM IREZy R D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

n oe si m n ica e ne im ega l i t i smo g ad i tano . P a labras cave : P os ib ic G .-Grabado

y

p i n tu ra -Cazo le ta s , s o le s . 1 8 . D o lmen d e O lve ra . C ad iz . S e t r a ta u na v ez má s d c u na g a le r Ia c ub ie r ta d e 1i m . d c d e sa r ro l lo ( R . R od r iguez F er n andez , 1 990 ) , u no d e c uyo s o r to s ta to s l a te ra le s mue s t ra u na c s te la menh ir .

momen to d c a pogeo y e x ten s iOn d c l a s a rqu i tec tu ra s mega l i t icas p en in su la re s . O t ro d c l o s p un to s d c p a r l ida q ue h oy s e d cmue s t ra i n vá l ido e r a c lh echo d c q ue l a t é cmca -p in tu ra o g rabado -pueda c on s idera r se a r gumen lo d c m.yo r omeno ra n t iguedad . Hoy , n ue s t ra s p er spec t iva s e n c s te c ampo h an

L a p i eza s e h a ha f r ac tu rada e n l az ona s upe r io r y r ep roduce u n a n t ropomor fo c on s eno s , c o l la re s , u na

c amb iado . E x is ten f e cha s C 14 d e l Vm i lemo a .C . ys e a dm i te l a c oex is tenc ia d c d i ve r sa s a rqu i tec tu ra s . P o r o t ra p a r te , s e h an d ado a c onocer monumen to s

b anda o b l icua q ue a t rav iesa p a r te d e l c uerpo d e l p e rsona je y u na e spec ia d e d ob le h acha , q ue

d eco rado s d c g ram i n te ré s , e n l a Me se ta , C a ta luña y Anda luc ia , p i n tado s yg rabado s , c on l o q ue l o s d a to s

n uevamen te n o s s ug ic re r em in iscenc ia sa t lán t ica s . T odo

q ue a n ter iormen te a pared Ian c omo d ispersos c on s t i tuyen h oy u na i n fo rmac iOn má s c ompac ta . E I a ná i is is d c e s ta i m fo rmac ión n o s p erm i te e sboza r u m p ano r ama m te rp re ta t ivo s en s ib lcmen t ed i s t in to . P a ra l ac omp ren s iOn d e l A r te Mega l I t ico p en in su la r e x is tc a dcmá s u mc omponcn tc g rt f ico muy i mpo r tan te ,

c l lo ,l o s mo t ivo s ys uc oncepc ión t i enen c l aro r e f le jo e n c s ta tua s -menh i r d e l S u r d c F ranc ia , c omo y a h cmo s a r gumen tado e no t ro l u ga r( P . B ueno R am irez ,e . p . ) O t ro s o r tos ta to s t i enen c azo le ta s ye s p o s ib le q ue e x is t ie ran má s mo t ivo s , p ue s c l monumen to e s ta a tm b a s tan t ec ub ie r to d ct i e r ra . P a labras cave : G .-Grabado-Cazo letas , An t ropomo r fo Y a d ec Iamo s a l i n ic io d c c s ta s p ág ina s q ue n o e s f ác i l a r gumen ta ru na s epa rac ión c l a ra e n t re l a s d i ve r sa s z ona s d c l a P en in su la , p e ro c r eemo s q ue i n c lu ir l o s d a to s d c Má laga n o s i l eva r la ap l an tea rc lp ano rama d e l S u re s te , c uya c omp le j idad e xcede a l o q ue a qu I n o s p roponemo s .Aho ra b i en , l o q ue s fs e v i s lumb ra c ada v ez m á s c l a ro e s q ue l a s d i ve r sa s z ona s m cga i I t ica s p en in su la rc s n op ueden d e l im i ta r se d cu n modo t a jan te p o r l at emá t ica d c s u s d eco rac ione s s i no q ue mä s b i en p uede s egu ir se u na b a se g r áf ica c om i ln ye x tcnd ida e n t o da l aP en in su la . l J T hAD GRAHCAR ' JE L AR IE NT zC iAL MCO H SUL R E n e i m cnc ionado t r aba jo d c E . S hee ( 1981) c l a r te mega l I t ico d c l aP en in su la I bd r ica s e i n te rp re ta c omo u na v e r s ion n o r teña e n a rqu i tec tu ra s d c c o r redo r c on s u s o r Igene s e n c l3 .000 a .C . S O lo c lg rupo d c V iseu mue s t ra e l cmen to sc omune s ,m ien t ra sq ue c lr e s to d cl o s d a to s f o rman i m t o do d i spe r so yp oco s i gr n f ica t ivo q ue s e c ompa ra c on l o s c a rac te res d c e s t i lo má s e squemá t ico yu nt a n to g eomé t r ico d e l a r te i r landé s ( E . S hee , 1 981 ;p . 22 a3 7 ) . C uando l aD ra . S hee r e a h izO e s ta a p rec iac iOn n o s e c onoc lan t a n to s mega l i to s e nl aP en In su la ys ep a r t Ia d c b a se s p reconceb ida s . L a p r ime ra r e lac ionada c on l a s ecuenc ia c u l tu ra l yc rono lOg ica d e l mega l it ismo h i spano q ue p ropon la p o r u na p a r te l a s f echa s r c la t ivamen te t a rd la s d c d s tc r e spcc to a l a s d c o t ra s

q ue c r eemo sn os eh ac on s ide rado e ns uju s ta med ida e n a ná l is is a n te r io re s . No s r e f e r imo s an uc s t ro r i co A r te E squcma t ico , c on jun to d c p in tu ra s yg rabado s a la i re l i b re q ue s ed c sa r ro h la c uando meno s d e sde i n ic io s d e l N eo l I t ico p en in su la r yq ue c on s t i tuyc u na f uen te g r á f ica ci d eo hóg ica d ci n nnegab le p e so ,cuya s h ue l la s p odemo s p e rc ib i r c on f a c i l idad e n e ir cpe r tor io f une rar io q ue v cn imos d cnom inando A r te mcga l I t ico . A e s te p ano rama f i gu ra t ivo s e s uma u na i nnume rab le y v a r iada c an t idad d c e l cmcn to ' mob i h ia re s d c c a rác te r a n t ropomor fo q ue e nr iquecen s ens ib lemcn tc l a s p o s ib i l idade sd ci n tc rp rc tac iOn . L a p ropuc s ta d c E . S hee d c l a e x is tcnc ia d c d o s g rupo s e n l a P en mnsu la :e l g rupo d c V isen y e i d c " o t ro s" , d e scan saba c omo d ec iamo s e n l ac r eenc ia d c q ue l ap in tu ra c on s t i tu la " pe r s e " mi s i s tema t cn ico d c m ayo ra n t iguedad q ue e ig rabado yd cq ue e ne s ta z ona s ed c sa r ro l laba u na g ra f la r e i te rada e n l o s monumen to s c onoc ido s q ue p enn i t ia a f irma rs uh omogcne idad . No so tro sc ompara remo sa qu ll ap ropue s ta d cE .S hee c on l oq ue h oy c onocemo s e nc lS u roc s te zona q ue s e e n tend Ia d e sp rov is ta d cA r t e mega h I t ico -c i n ten ta rcmo s c sboza r p o s ib le s n exo s g ráf ico s c on o t ra s z ona s d c l a f a chada a t lán t ica c u ropea . P a ra E .Shee s on 1 0 l o s t ema s q ue c a rac te r izan c l g rupode V isen ( E . S hee , 1 98 1 ,F ig .1) . L o s t ema s 1y 2 s on a n t ropomor fo s ,c l s egundo d c e l lo s d a s en sac iOn d c e s ta r " c s t irado" c omo u na p i e l q ue s ep one as c ca r . E l h echo d c h abe r se r e a l izado c on p in tu ra l e s c onf ic rc c i er to a spec to n a tu ra l is ta . An t ropomo r fo s p in tado s e x is ten e n c l d o lmen d c Hu idob ro , B u rgo s ( P . Bueno R am i rez -R d c B a lb In

z ona s d cl af a chada a t lán t ica e u ropea y ,p o ro t ra ,l ai d ea

B ehrmann , 1 992 , F ig .46 ) , e n d i spo s ic iOn y r e lac ión muy s eme jan te a l o s d e l d o lmen d c L ubague ira , e n

d cq ue l a sc áma ra s c on c o r redo rs ec o r rcsponden c on c l

V isen .

1 93

P . BUENO RA M IREZ yR . DE BALB IN BEHR MANN

E i ü l t imo t ema s eña lado p o r E .Shee ( 1981 , p .23 ) p a ra d e f in ir e ig rupo d e V iseu e sl oq ue d enom ina ' T he t h ing" . S e t r a ta d e u na f o rma t r apezo ida l c on u n e l emen to s em ic i rcu la r l a te ra l y ,e n o ca s ione s , c on u na p equena b a se t amb ien t r apezo ida l . S uponemo s q ue e i h echo d e l i ama r la a s I ,s igmf ica q ue l a a u to ra n o l e e ncuen t ra n inguna r e lac ión p o s ib le c on o b je tos c onoc ido s . P a ra n o so t ro s e s tá c l a ra s u f i l iac ión c on l o s o b je to s d enom inado s h acha s ,e spec ia lmen t e l o s q ue l a m isma a u to ra d enom ina " hacha s t i po Mane R u tua l" , a unque n o s ean e xac tamen te i g ua les .Pue s b i en , e s to s mo t ivo s s e s i tuaban h a s ta h ace p oco c omo e xc lu s ivo s d e l g rupo d c V iseu , e n v er s ione s g rabada s op in tada s , c on e j emp lo s e n Domba te , C a sa d o s Mouro s , E sp if l a redo yAbobe re i ra . H oy h ay q ue s uma rl av e r s ion p in tada d e A lbe r i te 1yl ag rabada d e l d o lmen d e S o to

a que l momen to s e p od ia a rgumen ta r . E s muy p o s ib le q ue l a c oncu r renc ia d c má s n ovedades , c a mb ie e n p oco sa f io sl oq ue n o so t ro s p roponemo sa ho ra . C on n ue s t ro s d a to s , n o s p a rece d i f Ic i l r e af irma r l a d i v is ion d e lA r te mega l I t ico p en in su la re nd o sg rupo s :e i d c V iseu y o t ro s , p ues l o s a rgumen to s g rá f ico s , s umado s al a s t é cn ica s emp leada s yal aa rqu i tec tu ra , s ey en h oy d e sde p un to sr ad ica lmcn te d i s tm to s . L a sg r a f ia sn o mue s t ran u na d i f e re renc ia t a na b i sma l , má s b i en al aI u z d c l oq ue a cabamo s d c c omen ta r s e d i r Ia q ue l ab a se c omün e s b a s tan te f ucr te e n t o da l a P en in su la . N o s o lo s er e cogen l a s m i sma s f o rma s , s i no q ue l a sa soc iac ione s s on s i gn if ica t ivamen te r e i te ra t iva s , t a n to e n u na z ona c omo e n o t ra . E s d ec ir , e n l a g ene ra l idad d c l o c onoc ido h a s ta a ho ra p a ra l a d eco rac ión d c l o s mega l i to s e n l a P en in su la p uede

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p ub l icado e n 1 981 , y d esde e n tonces s e h an i n co rpo rado mucho s d a to s n uevo s al o c onoc ido q ue p erm i ten o b tene ru na v i s ion b a s tan te d i s t in ta al aq u ee n

F IGURA 1 8 .

o b se rva r se L ap rcsenc ia d c u n " cód igo"

b as tan te h omogene izado , c on u na s p au ta s b á s ica sd cf o rma s ya soc iac ione s e n t re e l ia s yd e s i tuac iOn e spac ia i d c l a s m isma s . Ae se c Od igo b á s ico ( t emas g eomé t r ico s i n c luycndo t oda s l a s v e r s ione s

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1 94

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c i rcu la re s , a n t ropomo r fo s , s e rp ien te s ) s e a haden s egin l o s s e c to re s a l guno s o t ro s e l emen to s e sca so s -que t r aducen u na v a r iedad muy t e nue e ne ic od igo f une ra r io p in tado o g rabado s ob re l o s o r to s ta to s m ega i l t ico s . L a n o ta d e d ive r s idad L a p onen l a s d i s t in tas v e r s ione s a n t ropomo r fa s d cc a rac te re scu l tónco q ue a pa recen al a e n t rada d e l monumen to , al a e n t rada d e L a c áma ra o s ob re e i t ümu lo ( P . B ueno R am irez -R . d e B a lb In , B eh rmann , 1 994a ;P .B ueno R am i rez ,e . p . ) . C ab r Ia e n tonce s p regun tar se s ie s at r avé s d e e s ta s v e rs iones e scu l tónca s c ómo p ueden d e l im ita r se v e r s iones r eg iona le s o má s b i en , l ad i ve r s idad d e ë s ta s d ebe e n tender se c omo e l c on temdo g rá f ico má s d i nám ico d c e n t re t o da s l a s g ra f Ia s r ecog ida s e n e s te mundo f une rar io . E fec t ivamen te , m l p equef lo r epa so a l o s a n t ropomo r fo s p in tado s og rabado s s ob re l o s o r to s ta to s ,n o s mue s t ra q ue é s to s s on l o s e l emen to s má s c amb ian te s e n s u a spec to f o rma l , m ien t ra s q ue s o le s , s e rp ien tes y d emá s , c on t indan r ep i t iendo f orma s

a n t igua s , a demt sd cq ue t e nemo s d a to sd cd eco rac ione s m cga l I t ica s e n o t ro t i po d c a rqu i tec tu ra s :cáma ra s s i n c o r redo r , c áma ra s c on c or redo r p oco d e sar ro l lado , g a le r la s ya rqu i tec tu ra sc on c e r ram ien to d cf a l sa c üpu la . LA CONEX ION ATLANT ICA EN E L ARTE MEGAL 1T IC0 DE LA P EN INSULA I BER ICA . T ra s n uc s t ra p r ime ra h i pd te s is :e l a r te m cga l I t ico i b énco c on s t i tuyc e n s u t o ta l idad u n r I g ido c Od igo f une ra r io , c uya s v a r ian te s n o p e rm i ten d e l im i ta r e n l o q ue h oy c onocemo s g rupo s e s t r ic tamen tc d i fe renc iado s‚ n o s p roponemo s a rgumcn ta rL o sn exo sa t lán t ico sd ca l guna s d cl a sv e r s ione sg raf ica s d cc s te c od igo . Cuando s e a na l iza u n c on jun to c omo e i q ue a cabamo s d c d c sc r ib ir e n c lS u roc s te , s a l tan al av i s ta e l emen to s s i gn if ica t ivo s c omo l a p rc senc ia d c d e te rm inada s a rqu i tec tu ra s ol a e x is tenc ia d c g ra l Ia s c on p a ra lc io s b i en c onoc ido s e n c l Ä s te mega l I t ico

g raf Ia

a t ián t ico . Y a h emo s c omcn tado a rnba q ue l a v a r iedad d c

a n t ropomo r fa mega l i t ica ,h emo sd ch ace r menc ión d cl a e no rme v ar iedad c onoc ida e n c l A r te E squemá t ico

f orma s q ue a dop ta c l t ema a n t ropomo rfo e n l a P en In su la , e s g r ande y p a r te d c e l la h unde c l a ramen te

p en in su ia r ,con jun to g rá f ico d c g ran r i queza q ue n o p odemo s d e ja r d c l a do a la na l iza r c l A r te mega l I t ico p en in su la r . Nue s t ro A r te Mega l I t ico p o see p ro funda s r a Ice s g r á f ica s e nc lg r an c on jun to e squema t ico yq u izá l av a r iedad q ue a dqu ie re c lt ema a n t ropomo r fo t i ene e n e iu na b uena e xp l icac ión . P e ro t amb ien h ay q ue s eüa la r

s u s r a ices e n l a p anop l ia d e l A r te E squcmá t ico p en in su la r , p e ro t amb ien e s c i er to q ue p aPe d c l o s a n t ropomor fo s d escn to s p o seen p a rangón e n c a so s c onc r e to sd e la r te m ega l I t ico o cc iden ta l . E ns uce s ivo s t r aba jo s h emo s d e ta l lado l a s r e iac ione s d e l g rabado a n t ropomo r fo d c Huer ta d c l a s Mon ja s

c onoc ida s . P a ra e xp l icar

e s ta

d inám ica

d c

L a

q ue e s ta v ar iedad p uede e s ta re nr e lac ión c on u nm tc ré s

( Cáce re s ) ( R . d c B a lb In -P .Bueno , 1 989 ; P .Bueno

c onc r e to p o rd e s taca re ip ape ld e lh omb re ,p uc s s i cmp rc q ue é s te a parece e s e n u n l uga r d es tacado d e l monumen to , y a s ea e n L a z ona d c c abece ra , y a s ea d e l im i tando z ona s d en t ro d e l c spac io r i tua l f une rar io . Amba sc ue s t ione sn os on i n compa t ib le s . C on tr nuando c on n ue s t ro a ná l i s is d e lg rupo d cV isen , t ampoco h oy p uede man tenc r se l a c ue sL i on d c l a

R am ir ez -R d cB a lb In B eh rmann , 1 992 ) od cl o s d cL o s G ab r ie le s ( Hue lva ) ( F . P iüón -P .Bucno , 1 983 ; P. Bueno R am irez -R . d cB a lb in B eh rmann , 1 992 ) . S u p a rec ido c on a n t ropomo r fo s c ompa r t imen tado s c omo L o s d c L e L izo o c on e l emen to s emna sca rado s c omo c l d c P ier re P la te s ( F . S hee , 1 981 , F ig .7 ) e s

d i fe renc ia d c t é cmca s . N i s e t r a ta d c c rono log Ia s

o bv io , a li gua l q ue c ld c a l guno s g rabado s a la i re f i b re d c G a l ic ia c omo e ia n t ropomo r fo d c C o to d o s Mou ro s

d i fe r en te s , m c on fo rman g rupo s d i s t in to s ,m muc s t ran p re f e renc ia s p o rm l t i po uo t ro d ca rqu i tec tu ra . P in tu ra yg r abado h an c oex is t ido al o l a rgo d e l d e sa r ro l lo d e l

( R . d c B a lb In B ehrmann -P . Bueno R am irez , 1 989 , p . 240 ) . C on t inuando c on l o s a n t ropomo r fo s ,h ay q ue s eña la r

A r te m cga l I t ico . P o r o t ra p a r tc , L oq ue h oy c onocemo s n o s p e rm i te a l irma r q ue l ae x is tenc ia d c p in tu ra e n c l

l av e r s ion f emen ina e nb a jo r re l ieve d e ld o lmen d cS o to . S eno s a soc iado s ac o l la re s c on e sa m isma t é cn ica s on

s u r ,e st a n to

b i en c onoc ido s e nl a s g a le r la s b re tona s ( F . S hee , 1 981 , F ig . 8 ) , a dcmá s d c e n l a s g a le r la s d c l ar eg ion d c P a r i s ( E .Shee , 1 981 , F ig . 9 ) , l uga r d onde s ue len a pa rccc r a soc iado s ac a ra s e n ' T ' yah acha s e nmangada s os i n e nmanga r . T odo s c s to s e l emen to s s e r cunen e n l a

0

ms q ue J oq ue y ac onoc la ino S p a ra o t ra s

z ona s . L a c ues t ión d c l ap refe renc ia p o r a rqu i tec tu ra s d c c áma ra c on c o r redo r l a rgo , e s taba e n d i rec ta r e iac ión c on l a c oncepc iOn c rono lOg ica d e l d esa r ro l lo d e l m ega l i t i smo h i spano , e n l a q ue é s ta s a rqu i tec tu ra s

e s ta tua -menh i rd e ld o lmen d cS o to . E nl am i sma d i recc iOn md ican l o s p a ra le lo s p o s ib lc s p a ra l ae s ta tua -menh i r d c O lve ra ( Cad iz ) , e s d cc ir u na r c lac iOn f o rma l yg ra f ica c on l a s e s ta tua s -menh i r d e l

c on s t i tu Ian c l momen to d c a pogeo y e x ten s ion e n f echa s d e l 3 .000 a .C . Boy s abemo s q ue e x is ten a rqu i tec tu ra s d c c áma ra c on c o r redo r e n f echa s má s

/

1 95

P .B UENO R AM IREZ yR .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

c omo u nh acha e nmangada s eme jan te al a sd cT ab le d e s

S u r d c F ranc ia . P o see s eno s , c o l la re s ei nc lu so " e ler nen to d ob le" ( L . J a l lo t , 1 987 ; p .63 ) c omo a l g i ina s

Ma rchand s oaa l guna s d c l a s d e l t imu lo d c D i ss ignac , q ue s abemo s s eh an r ea l izado e n elI V r n i len io a .C . O t ro s e l emen to s r c c tangu la rc s q ue p re sen tan l I nea s

p i e7s d e lL anguedoc o r ien ta l , ymá s c onc re tamen te d e l g rupo d e F é r r ie re s .En é s te c ur io samen te s on t amb ien c or nune s l a ja s d c p equeno t amaf lo q ue a s u v ez c ons t i tuyen u n g rupo e spec ia l , c omo e s e i d e

v e r t ica le s e n c ls ec to r s upe r io r oe n t odo s u c on tomo , t i encn c la ros p a ra le los e n c l a r te r n ás a n t iguo

C a s te lnau -Va lence , a lq ue t a n p róx ima r e su l ta l ap i eza

b re tón .No sr e f e r imo s al o s mo t ivo s d e l t i po q ue e nS o to Oberma ier i den t if icó c omo p ie y q ue h er nos d ocu inen tado i gua lmen te e n c ld o lmen d c A lben te . S u r e lac ión c on l o q ue L 'Hc lgouach d enom ina " I do lo n eo l I t ico" ( J . L 'Hc lgouach , 1 979 ; p . 180 ) e s r nuy

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m enc ionada s : S o to , O lve ra y A sque ro sa n o s r em i ten a r e lac ione s c on l a se s ta tua s -menh i rd e l S u rd c F ranc ia y p o r l o q ue s e r e f iere a a rqu i tec tu ra s , ag a ler Ia s

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d e sar ro l lada s c omo l a s q ue s ec o r re sponden c on S o to y p robab lemen te O lve ra . O t ro s t ema s a pa recen e n l o s m i smo s l uga re s , e spec ia lmen te c lc on jun to i d en t i f icado c omo a rma s .

1 147 2 0C a

E nt a l d enom inac ión s e mc luyen f o rma s t r i angu la re s c on p or no o s i n d l oc on p ro tube ranc ia r e c tangu la r , f orma s t r iangu la res d ob les , f orma s t r apezo ida le s s imp les o c on s em ic I rcu lo l a tera l yb a se t amb ien t r apezo ida l ( The ‚ f orma s t r apezo ida les e nmangada s ya lguna s f o rma s o b longa s c omo l a s d e l

Ia ll

AE D IRS

2 3 C4

d o lmen d c S o to . T rad ic iona lmen te s e h an v en ido i n te rp rc tando c omo c uch i l lo s , p uña le s , h acha s od ob le s h acha s . D ichas i n te rp re tac iones p o seen p rob lema s m an if ic s to s , c omo y ah ae xp re sado l 'He lgouach e no t ro l u ga r( 1979 ,p . 312 ) . E f ec t ivamen te mucha s d c l a sf o rma s a r r iba d e sc r i ta s s e h an i d en t if icado c on e l emen to s me tá l ico s , c uando s i gn if ica t iva . E s te e s p a ra c l a u to r ,

h ay p rueba s r e i terada s d c s u d ocumcn tac ión e n monumen to s c on f e cha s C 14 d c i n ic io s d e l I V r n i len io a .C . . Nos r e fer ir no s e spec ia lmen te a l a s h acha s

o t ra d c l a s g r af Ia s d e f in ido ra s d c l a p r imc ra f a se d e l A r te mega i l t ico b re tón d en t ro d e l I V

e namangada s os i n e nmanga r ya lo b je to d eno rn inado " t he t h ing" p o r E .Shee , q ue n o so t ro s i d cn t if icamo s

m i len io a .C . E l m ismo a u to r s eña la q ue l ac on t inu idad t emá t ica d e l a r te m ega l I t ico b r e tón e sf ue r te ,p e ro q ue s i

F IGURA 2 0 .

1 96

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

a i go c l i fe renc ia b i en u na e t apa m á sr e c ien te e se im te ré s

p o r d es taca r L a p re senc ia f ememna q ue e id enom ina " I do lo f emen ino" med ian te p a re s d e s eno s a soc iado s a c o l ia res . E s ta t e ndenc ia e s muy ma rcada e n l o s monumen to s d e l I I m i Len io a .C . yp uede o b se rva r se e n e i c aso d c n uest ro d o lmen d e S o to , c omo m enc ionábamo s i l nea s a t rá s ,aunque n o d e ja d e s e r c u r io so q ue a pa rece e n e im ismo monumen to e nq ue s e h a d ocumen tado L af o rma t r apezo ida l c on r a yo s a r r iba m enc ionada , s i tuada e n l a p r imera p a r te d e l A r te m ega i l t ico b r e tón .

g a ler Ia a codada d c L o s G abr ie le s , t amb ien e n L a p rov inc ia d cH ue lva . O t ro e j emp io e sc ld e l d o lmen d c L aG ro s se P é ro t te ,e nC ha ren te ( E . S hee , 1 98 1 ;F ig .201) oE r I. 2 nn ic , e ne ib re tOn L a rmo rB aden E . S hee , 1 981 ; F ig .1 8 1) . L a p resenc ia d c s o le s ys e rp ien tes e s u n t ema c onoc ido e n t oda L af a chada a t ián t ica y t r a tándo se d c u na g rá f ia d cp oca c omp le j idad t é cmca n oh emo sc r e ido n ccesa r io L ama r L a a t enc ión s ob re L a e x is tenc ia d c p a ra le lo s . E . S hee d es taca L a r e Lac iOn e n t re s u g rupo d c " d ive r so s" ye ia r te i r iandc s t i po L oughc rew ,b a sándo se e n L a a bundanc ia d c t ema s g eomé tr ico s ye n L a e x is tenc ia d c s o le s . L o s d a to s d c q ue h oy d i sponemo s p e rm i ten d e sca r ta r e sa r e iac ión t a n e xc Lu s iva , p ues p odemos d emos t ra r L a e x is tenc ia d c g ra f Ias má s c l abo rada s q ue n o s c onduccn n o s o Lo a I r Landa , s i no a demá s a l mundo b re tOn ya ld cL a s g a le r la s d e l B a ss in P a r i s ien . H cmo s c en t rado n ues t ro a ná l is is d c r e iac iones p rec isamen te e nL o st ema sq ue m eno sp ueden e xp i ica r se c omo c onvergenc ia s of o rma s s imp les y p o t t a n to , c omune s amucha sc u l tu ra s . C ua l s ea e i mecan ismo d c i n teracc ión e n t re u na s z ona s yo t ra s ,c ua le s s on l o sd db i to sg r af ico s yd onde s e o r ig inan , s on t ema s q ue h ab rá q ue a rgumen ta rc on má s f uer za amed ida q ue l o sd e scub r im ien to s s ea c rcc icn ten . Nue s t ra i mp re s ión a c tua l e sq ue l aP en In su la I bd r ica p o see u na v e r s ion s i ngu la r d e l A r te Mega L I t ico c uyo d db i to f o rma l e sl ag ra f la d e l A r te E squema t ico . Ae i lo s es uman i n f luenc ia s d cc a rac te ra t lán t ico , a l guna s muy c i a ramcn te b rc tona s ( ga ic r Ia s a codada s ) yo t ra s p a sada s

O t ra f o rma t amb ien g eomé t r ica , p ero i n te rp re tada c omo v e r s ion

p o r e i B ass in p a r is ien y s urocste f r ances ( e s ta tua s -menh i r ) . E s ta s i l i t ima s s eo b se rvan c on mayo r

a nt ropomor fa , e s L a r ec tangu la r av ece s d i v id ida a l

c i ar idad ap a r t i r d e l I I m i ien io a. C . , p e ro h oy p ueden

i n te r io r ya soc iada ac azo le ta s . S e t r a ta d cu ne l emen to

a dm i t ir se f e cha s a n ter io re s p a ra a l guna s d cco rac ione s m ega l I t ica sh i spana s .

F IGURA 2 1 .

b i en d ocumen tado e ne ia r te b re tOn ,e spec ia lmen te e nL a g a Le r la d c P ra jou - Menh ir d a tada e n e iI I m i icn io a .C . E n e s te monumen to ,e i mo t ivo d e sc r i to t i ene e li n te ré s

NOTAS :

d c e ncon t ra rse a soc iado a h acha s e nmangadas , e xac tamen te d e l m ismo modo q ue h emo s d ocumen tado e n e i d o lmen d c A lber i te ( Cad iz ) q ue a c tua imen te t e nemo se ne s tud io . C omo d ec Iamo s ,e x is ten t amb ien f o rma s t r i angu la re s i d en t if icada s c on a rma s , p e ro q ue n o n ece sa r iamen te h an d c s e r m e tá i ica s . R eco rdemo s a qu IL ap re senc ia e n e ia j ua r d e l d o lmen d c S o to d c u n p uf ia l d c h ue so . H o ja s d e l t i po d cl a s c onoc ida s e nc ld e imen d c S o to y q ue t amb ien h e mo s d ocumen tado e n A lbe r i te y e n Magace ia , a pa recen e n g a le r Ia s f r ance sa s c omo L e T rou -aux -Ang la i s (E . S hee ,1 981 ; F ig .1 88 ) , a soc iada s a a n t ropomo r fo s d c c a rac ter f á l ico c omo e id e scn to e n L a

1 . L o s d ibu jos a t i n ta d c e s te t r aba jo h an s i do r e a l izado s p o r J .J av ie r A ico ica , q u ien t amb ien . h a p a r l ic ipado e nL ae i abo rac ión d cl o sc a ico s . 2 .

Queremo s a ga radecer a ambo s p rofe s iona ic s s u

g ene raos idad , d e l m ismo modo q ue aP . C an ta le jo , a l h abernos c ed ido e i e s tud io d c l a d eco rac ión d e l monumen t . R . B ar ro so p a r t ic ipO e n L o s t r aba jo s d c t oma d c d a to s ei gua lmen te d i spu s imo s d c L aa yuda d c F . G i le s , J .R amo s yJ .M . Rod r iguez . A t odos e i lo s n ue s t ro a g radec im ien to .

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P .B UENO R AM IREZy R .D EB ALB IN B EHRMANN

B IBL IOGRAF IA BALB IN BEHR MANN ,R . d e yBUENO RAMIREZ ,P .1 989 . A r te mega l I t ico e ne iS u roe s te :e l g rabado d e ld o lmen d e Hue r ta d el a s Mon ja s ( Va lenc ia d cA icán ta ra . C áce re s ) .X /X C ongre so N ac iona Jd eA rqueo logI a .Ca s te l lón , 1 987 . Z a ragoza .Vo 1 . I I ,p . 127 -i62 1 990 : R ep resen ta t ion sa n th ropomo rphe sa nC en tre d el aP én in su le I bénque . 15 C ongré sd e sS oc ie té sd e sS a van te s ( Av ignon ) . P a r i s ;p .45 -56 BALB IN , Rde , BUENO ,P . yV ILLA ,R . 1 989 . E ld o lmen d e lp an tano d cN ava lcán . R ev is ta d eA rqueo log Ia . Mad r id , n ° 104 ;p .6 1 -62 . BUENO RA M IREZ ,P . 1 988 .L o sd ó lmene sd cV a lenc ia d cA lcán t ara . E x cavac ione sA rqueo lóg ica se nE spaf la , . Mad r id .M .0 v o l . 1 55 . 1 99 1a . Mega l i to se nl a Me se ta S u r .Lo sd ó lmene sd cA zu tán yl aE s t re l la .vo l .159 . 1 30 p . 1 99 1b . S ta tue s -menh ir se ts t è le s a n th ropomo rphe sd an sl aP én in su le I b é r ique . L 'An thropo log ie . P a r i s ,1 94 , n01 ;p . 8 5 -110 . 1 99 1c . E s ta tua s -menh i r ye s te la sa n t ropomo r f a se nl aP en in su la I bë r ica .L as i tuac ión c u l tu ra l d cl o se j emp la re s s a lman tmo s . D e lP a leo l I t ico a la H i s ior ia . Mu seo d cS a lamanca ;p . 81-97 1 992 : L e sp l aque sd éco rée sa l en te ja ine s :app roche as on é t ude e ta na ly se . L' An thropo log ie . P a r is ,

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n °2 3 ;p .

5 7 3 -604 . e . p . Mega l i t i smo ,e s ta tua s ye s te la se nE spana . C oope ra t iva l 'Orme d el 'Huomo . ,V a lcamon ica . BUENO RA M IREZ ,P . yBALB IN BEHR MANN ,R .d c 1 992 .L 'A r t méga l i th ique d an sl aP én in su le I b é r iquc . L 'An thropo log ie . P a r is ,t . 96 ,n ° 1 . p . 499 -572 e . p . L ag raph ic d us e rpen td an sl ac u l tu re m éga l i th ique p emsu la ire : r e p re sen ta t ion sa np l e in a i re tr ep re sen ta t ion s d o lmén ique s . L' An thropo log ie . P a r i s 1 994a . E s ta tua sm enh ir ye s te la sa n t ropomo r fa se nm ega l i to si b énco s . U na h ipó te s is d ci n te rp re tac ión d e l e spac io f une ra r io . Homena jc E chega ray . Mu seo yC en t ro d eI nve s t igac ión d eA l tam ira . Monograf l a s ‚n ° 17 ;p . 337 -347 . 1 994b . E lA r te Mega l I t ico c omo f a c to rd ca ná l is i sa r queo log ico : c lc a so d cl a Me se ta e spano la . 6 °C ong re so H i spano -ru so d eH i s ior ia .F undac ión B ane s to -CS IC . Madr id ;p .20 -29 . BUENO ,P -BALB IN ,R .de , ALCOLEA ,J . , BARROS ,R J IMENEZ ,P . yCURZ ,A : e . p . . H a l lazgo sd ca r te mcga l I t ico e nl ap rovmc ia d cG uada la ja ra :Po r t i l lo d cl a sC o r te s Agu i la rd c Angu i ta . Wad -a l -Hayara . BUENO RA M IREZ ,P . yP I 1 ON VARELA ,F .1 985 .L o sg rabado sd e ls epu lc ro mega l I t ico d c Magace la B ada joz . S e r ie sd eA rqueo log la E x tremena , n ° 1 . C áce r e s ;p . 65 -82 . D 'ANNA ,A .1 977 . L e ss t a tue s -menh i r se ts i è le sa n thropomorphe sd uM id i Med i te rranéen .E d .C .N .R .S . P a r i s . 2 77 p . 5 5f i g . J ALLOT ,L .1 987 . N ouve l le sd onnée s s u rl e ss t au tue s -menh i r sd uL anguedoc o r ien ta l . A c te sd e sfourné es d 'E tude d e s S t a tue s -menh ir s . P a rc N a tu re iR eg iona ld uH au t -Languedoc ;p . 37 -84 . L E ISNER ,G . 1 935 . L ae s te la -menh ir d cG r an ja d cT on iñue lo . I nve s t igac ión yP rogre so . ,vo l . IX . L E ISNER ,G . yV . 1 956 . D ie Mega l i thgräbe rd er I be r i schen Ha lb inse l .D e r We s ten . Mad r ide rF o r scbungen ,B and 1 . B e r l in . 1 959 : D ie Mega l i thgräbe rd e rI be r i schen H a lb inse l .D er W e s ten . Mad r ide rF o r schungen .B e r l in . L EONOR P INA ,H . 1 971 . N ovo s monun ien to s mcga l I t ico sd od i s t r i to d cE vo ra . A c ta sd o 1C ongre sso N ac iona ld e A rqueo log ia . C o imb ra ,p . 15 1-162 . L 'HELGOUACH ,J .1 979 . L e sg roupe sh uma inc sd uV ea u Me m i l ldna i rc s ,e nP réh i s to ire d el aB re tagne .Renne s : p . 157 -320 . NAVARRO DEL CAST ILLO ,E . ,F ERNANDEZ OXEA ,J .R . y AMAYA ,E .R . 1 950 . A rqueo log Ia d c Magace la . R ev i s ia d eE s iud ios E x : rer neños .Bada joz ,n ° 3 -4 ;p . 658 -659 . OBER MA IER ,H . 1 924 .E l d o lmen d cS o to ( T r igue ro s ,Hue lva ) . B o le t l nd el aS oc iedad E spano la d eE xcur s ione s. Af lo XXX I I ;p . 1 -31 . P INF IO MONTE IRO ,J . yVARELA GO MES ,M . 1 981 .T he m enh ir so fP o r tuga l . B o l le i ino d e lC en tro C amunode S t ud iP re i s ior ic i , XV I I I ;p . 75 -88 . P I ON ,F . yBUENO ,P . 1 983 . L o sg r abado sd e ln üc leo d o lmén ico d cL o sG ab r ie le s( Va lve rde d e l C am ino .1 1ue lva ) . H or n . a lP rof . Mar t in A lmagro B a sch . T . I Madr id ;p . 445 -455 .

1 98

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

RODR IGUEZ FERNANDEZ ,R . 1 990 . E Ia r te g rabado m ega l I t ico e nL ap rov inc ia d c C ad iz : G a le r la c ub ie r ta E 1 T ocona l" O lve ra ,Cád iz . Gade s , n°1 9 ;p . 25 -40 . SHEE TWO I I IG ,E . 1 981 . T he m ega l i th ic a r to f We s te rn E urope . O xfo rd . 2 59 p .2 9f i g s . VARELA GO MES ,M .

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P INF IO MONTE IRO ,J . yCUNHA S ERRAO ,E .da , 1 978 . Ae s ta cao d e

C a ramu je ira .T raba lho sd e 1 975 -76 . A c ia sd a sI IJ ornodo vA rqueo lög ica s . 1 977 .A ssoc iaçao d o s A rqueo logo s P o r tugue se s ;p . 35 -72 .

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J OANA M .GUAL C ERDO uu Is P L 4K TAL 4MOR MASSANET M u seu d cM eno rca A v inguda D r . G u a rd ia s / n M ao ,M eno r ca ,E sp ana

I rfRODUCC IO

E i poblat t a laR ) t ic d cB in is sa fu l le t( San tL lu I s ) c on s ta a 1 ' Inven ta r i d e Monumen t s P reh is tO r ic s iP ro toh is tè r ic s a mb e in .2 .093 1e sl o ca l i tza al e s c oo rdenade s U .T .M . 6 05 .750 /4 .4 11 .565 . S e s i tua e nu na p l a ta fo rma a mb g rau d om in i v i sua l s ob re l ac o s ta s ud d e 1 ' i l la . E nca ra q ue n o c omp te a mb t i ne s g r an s d imen s ion s iq ue h a s o fe r t u na f or ta p ress ió a n t röp ica p resen ta e i s r ec in tes a rqu i tec ton ic s mé sr e p re sen ta t iu sd cl ac u i tu ra t a la iö t ica : t a la io tc en t ra l , r e c in te d c t a u la , s a la h ipö s t i la id i f e ren t s t i pu s d ' hab i tac ion s . L e s r e f e rènc ie s b ib l iog rà f iques q ue t éa que s ta s sen tamen ts on e sca s se s : u na d e scnpc ió a l aC a r ta A rqueo lög ica d e l t enne ( Ma sca ró , d e N ico la s , 1 982 ) iu n r ecu l l d e c e ràm ica r eco l l ida e n s uper f Ic ie ( Orf i la , S in tes , 1 981-84 ) h an e s ta t e i s d o s p r ime r s t r eba l ls q ue a po r taven l e sü n ique sd ade sd e lj ac imen t . A c onseqüènc ia d c l a d efo re s tac ió ip lan ime t r ia r e a l i tza t s 1 ' any 1 988 e s p o sà d c man ife s t l ' i n te re s d e l p ob la t , s ob re t o t p e r d escob r ir -se d c n ou u n p o ss ib le r e c in te d ct a u la d cp e t i te s d imen s ion s amb l ap i la s t ra ie i c ap i te l l c a lgu t s a lm ig . A ix I , s ' in ic ia ren e i s t r àm i t s p e r t a l d e p ode r d un at e rme i ' excavac ió a rqueo lèg ica d e l s ec to rq ue ,e f ec t iva inen tc on f i rma r ia a que l la p o ss ib i l i ta t . M i t jancan te i sc onvems s i gna t s e n t re l ' A jun tamen td c S an t L lu I s ie i C on se l l I n su lar d c Meno rca s ' han s ubvenc iona t l e s q ua t re c ampanye s r e a l i tzades e i s a ny s 1 990 ,91 , 9 2 i9 3 . E I s d o s p r ime r s a nys s ' efec tuà l a r e s tau rac ió d c l a t a u la 1I ' excavac ió d e l r ec in te ( Gua l ,

1 .E s t ra t s upe r f ic ia l d c t e r ra v ege ta l ( 20 c m s . a p rox . ) a mb o sc i l . lac ions d c l a s eva p o tènc ia a c au sa d c l e s a bundan t s s oques d 'u u la s t re q ue p resen ta . C on té f r agmen t s d c c e ràm ica med ieva l i s iàm ica , d ' àmfo res p i ln ique s id cv a so s t a la iö t ic s . 2 . E s t ra t d ' acumu lac iO ( 50 cms .ap rox .)de t e r ra v e rme l la , a rg i lo sa , a mb g ran q uan t i ta t d c p ed r es d c d i fc rcn s t s g randà r ie s ie sca ssa c e ràm ica o a lm eny s , e n q uan t it a t mode rada . 3 .E s t ra tf è r t i l ( 50 c ms .ap rox . ) a mb c l ma te ix t i pu s d c t e r ra v crmc l lo sa ia rg i lo sa q ue c on té a bundan t s r e s te s ma ter ia ls c e ràm iques t a la io t iqucs i d ' impo r tac ió i l I t iquc s a i x Ic or nd cf auna .P re sen ta d i f e ren t s mve l l s : 3 . 1 . N ive l l d c c endre s mo l t b lanq ' i inose s ( 20 c m s .ap rox . ) e n c l q ua l t ambé s ' ob sc rven d o s n i vd l ls s cpa ra t s p e ru nc i Imu l d cp cd re s t i rade s s en se c ap o rd re . C on té t ambé a l gun s f r agmen s d c c e ràm ica id ' os sos d ' an ima l 3 .2 . N ive l l d c t r e spo l ( 10 c m s .ap rox . ) d c t e r ra mo l t d u ra c ompo s ta p i inc ipa imen t d ' a rg i la , p ed ra c a lcà rea , p e t i t sf r agmen t sd ' o sso si ,e nc ls ec to rd cd avan tl ap o r ta , p e t i t sf r agmen t sd c cr àm ica p r e ta la iö t ica . 3 . 3 . N ive l l d c p rcpa rac ió d e l t r è spo l imve l lac ió a mb l ar oca ma re f o rma t p e r p cd re s mé s om enys p l ane s i t e r ra a rg i lo sa . C on tü , e n c l ma tc ix s ec to r q ue c ln i vc l l a n ter io r , t ambé a l gun f r agmen td cc e ràm ica p r c ta la iô t ica al ac o ta s upe r io r . 4 .R oca m a re .

I sbe r t ,1990 ) ia l e s d a r re re s l ' excavac iO d c l a c a sa a do ssada . Aque s ta c omun icac iO e s u n a venç d e ls r e su l ta t s d c l ' excavac ió amb u n p l an te jamen t i n ic ia l d c l aq üe s t ió q ue s ib e p o t s e r i n te re ssan t , n o s e rà t a n n c c or n e i q ue e s d e n iv i d c l ' es tud i e xhau s t iu d c t o t e i m a te r ia l . S EQt JENC IA E STRAT IGRAHCA E lr ec in te e xcava to cupa u na e x ten s ió a p rox imada d c6 4 m2 il as e qüen ica e s t ra t ig ra f ica o b t inguda e sl as egüen t :

E L MATER IAL Y LA S EVA LOCAL ITZAC IO L a p re senc ia d ' o sso s d ' an ima l e s mo l t s i gn if ica t iva n o t a n s o ls p e r l aq uan t i ta t n o tab le e n q ue e s t r oben s i nó t ambé p e r l as e va u b icac ió . E s t r ac ta d ' o sso s d c p e t i t s c ab r i t s ia nye l ls q ue f o rmen b o s se s oc a ramu l ls e np un t s ‚

c onc re t s : d a r re r a l ap i la s t ra d c J at a u la , e n t re c lf o c 1c l mu r ie n e i s a ng le s q ue f o rmen l e s p i la s trc s p e n if e r iques al a t a u la . A més a mé s c a l d e s taca r l a c o l . locac ió i n tenc ionada d ' una b o ssa c ompac tada 1c sp i t jada a mb

2 00

J OANA M . GUAL C ERDO iL LU IS P LANTALAMOR MASSANET

/ F IGURA

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x cava c ió . 1 .P l àno lg e ne r a ld eB i n i sa fu l le t( S . L l u i s )a b an sd eI 'e

mo l t s d ' o s so s p e t i t s ad ue s c av i ta t s oo r if ic is i regu la r s d e l m u r s ud id e l mu r o e s t , d a r r e ra u na p i la s ta , u na d c

t r oncocön ic s d c I l av i p l a ii n c l ina t , i m i tac ion s d c b o ls c a inpan ian s io l ie te sd ' an sa a nu la ra l ta .

l e s q ua ls f i n s it o tp re sen tava l am e i ta t d un a mo ló q ue I at a pava . D e l ma te r ia l i l t ic c a l d es taca r e i s c i nc a mo lon s l a

DESCR IPC IO ARQU TTECFON ICA

u t i l i tzac ió d e ls q ua l s s emb la ma rg ina l ; t r es e s tan r e co iza t s s ob re e i mu r , u n e nca ixa t al ar oca j un tamen t a mb u na p ique ta iu na p ed ra e s ca i rada p e rt a l d cl im i ta r l ' e spa i d c d a r re ra l at a u la iL am e i ta t a ban s e smen tada . S ' han l o ca l i tza tt ambé l e s n omenade s " ped re sd cf one r, u ng r up d cc i nc iu na l t re d cd o s m e sc ia t s a mb e i so s so s a i x í c or n a bund an t s e sque rdes d c p i ssar ra d i sper se s . Menc ió ap a r tr n e re ix l ap ed ra v i va r odona s i tuada al a d re ta d e l p o r ta l , al ' i n ter io r d e l r e c in te , q ue a s imp le v i s ta c r ida l ' a tenc ió d e l v i s i tan t o b se rvado r p e rl as eva f o rma iq ua l i ta tq ue c l a ramen t e sd i f e renc ia d c l ar e s ta d c p ed ra c a lcà rea q ue c ons t rue ix l ' ed if ic i . E l s eu s i gn i f ica t s egu ramen t e s r e lac iona a mb e ic u l te o amb l ' espec if i ta t d e l r e c in te d in s c l p ob la t , c o sa q ue c a l c on s idc ra rs ie st ée nc omp te e if e tq ue aa l t re s r e c in te s

E l r e c in te e s tà o nen ta t c ap e is ud im ira c ap al am a r ( Ho sk in , H och s iede r iKnö se l , 1 990 ) . L a p i an ta ( 9m s . d c l a rgana i9 , 5 m s . d ' amp làr ia ) p re seu ta u na f o rma q uadrangu la r dang les a r rodon it s , e ssen t u na c on s t rucc iO d i fe ren t al aq ue e st éc o rn at I p ica ,e s ad i r , a b s ida l amb f a cana c öncava . E l c a s e spec ia l d c B imssa fu l lc t s ' exp l ica p e r d ue s c i rcum s tànc ie s : p r ime r p e rquè e s c on s true ix a p ro f i tan t e i mu r d c l ' ed if ic i d e l c o s ta t e s t is egon p e rquè s emb le s o f r i r d i fe ren t s r e fo rme s . A tcnen t ai ' ob se rvac ió e s p odcn a s senya la r t r e s f a ses d cc on s t rucc ió : 1 .E s c on s t ruc ixen e i s mu r s n o rd , o e s t ic a ra i n tema d e l s udoe s t a mb u na t è cn ica d c p ed re s v e r t ica ls s ob re s öcu l a p rof i tan t F es t d c l ' ed if ic i d c d evo ra . Mds p rob lemà t ica e s l ac on s t rucc iö d c l ap a r t d c l af a cana

d c t a u la e s t r ob in p ed re s s emb lan t s ie n l a ma te ixa u b icac ió . L a m a jo r p a r t d e l c on jun t c e ram ic i nd Igena i d ' impo r tac ió e sl o ca l i tza e n e i s m a te ixo s p un t s q ue e i s

q ue p a r t in t d e l p o r ta l s ' ado ssa t ambé a ! mu r e s t p e rè a mb u na t è cn ica d i fe ren t a l s a ban s e smen ta t s amb

o s so s d ' an ima l s ,a !d evo ra . L ac e ràm ica d ' impo r tac ió e s d ' o r igen p t mn ic il e sà m fo re s t i pu sP E -14 iP E -16 ( que e s

ma re , t r e td c l e s q ue e sc on s t ru iran p o s t c r io rmen t . S ' ha

t r oben e n a bundan t s f r agmen t s d c g randa r ia p e t i ta t a l c or n s i h agues in e s ta t r ompudes d c manera i n tenc ionada ) s on l e s ' mé s a bundan t s ic a rac ter I s t ique s a po r tan t u n m a rc c rono lôg ic q ue a b raça d c l as egona m e i ta td e l s .I V a .C . ap r inc ip is d e l s .I I a .C . ( Ramon , 1 99 1) . L a cràm ica t a la iô t ica p re sen t a v a so s d c v o ra e xva sada i c os més o menys g lobu la r , v asos

f i lade s d cp ed re s g ran s . D 'aques tp r ime r momen ts on l a ma jo r p a r t d c l e s p i la s t rc s e nca ixade s s ob re l a r oca d ' a sscnya la rq ue e s mo l tp robab le q ue q uan e s d ugud a t c rmc a que s ta e d if icac iO e s d es t ru I s in a lgunes e s truc tu re s p r e -ex is ten t s t a l c o rn u ne s e mp remp te s a l ar o ca m a re p a rc ixcn i nd ica r . 2 . R cforma p r inc ipa lmen t r ea l i tzada a l a z ona s udoe s to n s ' ob sc rva l ac a ra e x tema c on s t ru Ida a mb u na t è cn ica d cp ed re s p e t i tc s iI ' a ixeca rnen td cd ue s p i la s t rc s s ob re u na b a se ip e r as ob re d e l t r è spo l .

2 01

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

F IGURA 2 .D e ta i ld el ' a r ea e x cavada

3 .C lau sura d e l p o r ta l a mb l ac o 1 . io ac i6 e n v e r t ica l d el ai l inda i n f er io r ip robab le c on s t rucc ió d ci ' hab i tac ió

I NTERPRETAC IO

q ue s ' ado s sa al af a cana . L a p i la s t ra d c l a t a u la e s r e co iza s ob re u na p ed ra

D c l at a u la d c B ims safu l ie t e n s h a a rnba t e it c s t ir non i d c l ' home q ue l a v a u t i l i tza r p e r d ar rera v egada p e rö a que s t s cgu ramen t n o v a e s se r l ' t in ic . E n s h e -P t rt ha t

s upo r t ( c osa q ue t ambé l a f a d i feren t al a r e s ta d c t au le s ) e nca ixada a l a r oca m i t jançan t u na s e r ie d c f a ique s . L a s eva r e s tau rac ió n o v a r c su i ta r c omp l icada

a mb u nc s t ra t d ' ocupac ió q ue e st ambé c ld ' aban j . L e s r e s te s ma te r ia ls p re sen taven c e r ta c o l . locac ió d e r ivada d c l e s n cce s s i ta t s od c l e s m ane re s d c f e r d e ls h ome s

p erquè a que s ta p ed ra s upo r tp re sen ta e ir eba ix d e l s o ic o n s ' a ssen tava l a p i la s t ra . R espec te d c L a p l an ta d e l r e c in te e s t r oba ai ' i n te r io r id avan t d c L ap o r ta e nca ra q ue a que s ta n o s egue ix F e ix l ong i tud ina l q ue ma rca L a p i la s t ra s i nó q ue e sd e sp iaca i l euge ramen t c ap aP e s t . A

q ue h ic leb raven e i s s eu s c u l te s ir i te s . L ' època e n q ue

l as eva p a r t p o s te r io r h ih a d o s e spa is d i fe renc ia t s : u n e n l io sa t d c p ed ra s p o l igona ls i r egu la r s al ad r e ta iu na

d e l s .I I a .C . D e sp ré s e i r e c in te e s c l au su rà id e ixa r

e s v a ad u a que s ta a c t iv i ta t e s s i tua , t a l c or n h em a s scnya la t ,e nl as egona me i ta td e l s .I V a .C . ip r inc ip i s d ' u t i l i tza r -se . E i s e l emen t s q ue e n s p oden a cos ta ra lt i pu s d c r i tu s q ue s ' h i c e ieb rava s on : i ' accè s ,l at au la ,l au b icac ió d e ls o s so sd ' an ima l id el e sc er a in ique s ic lf oc . L ' accè s s ' ef ec tuava at r avé s d ' una l inda mo l ta l ta , e s ad i r , r e su i tava d i f icu l to s s imé s n o t a n f a c i l c or n e s p odna f e r ap eu p i a . A mé s am és l ai l inda p re scn ta u n r cba ix a ccen tua tq ue e n si nd ica e i Hocs ' a s sen tava a l gun

mena d c n Inxo l l im i ta t p e r u na i I n ia q ue f o rmen u na p ique ta , u na p ed ra e sca irada iu n amo ló e nca ixa t s al a r oca . U na i mpo r tan tz ona d c l ' à rca e s t c s tà o cupada p c i f oc : u na f oganya c i rcu la rd cf o r ta c imcn tac ió iu na z ona s en se c ap c l a ra d e i im i tac ió , an o s c r e i s p rop is mu r s , d ' abundan t sc end re s . P er a i t ra b anda , c a l menc iona r l e s c s t ruc tures e xcavade s aF e s t d e l r e c in te d c t a u la q ue a mb d ue s c a inpanyes d ' excavac ion s h an d e scobe r t u n p o ss ib le

t i pu s d c t a ncamen t . J a d in t re i ' ed if ic i ,i ' en t rada e sp e r a u na m ena d c c o r redo r e n t re l e s p i la s t re s l a te ra ls iu na p ed ra v i va a r rodon ida q ue u na v egada p a s sa t s e s t opa

e d if ic i d c p lan ta a b s ida l t o t iq ue c a ld rà f i na l i tza r e i s t r cba i ls p e r ac onf irma r -ho . L a z ona p rc scn ta u n c spa i

d c f r on t a mb l a t au la , a i xecada s ob re u n s upo r t i

c ompa r t imen ta t a r t icu la t m i t jançan t d i fe ren t s p o r ta ls i mu r s q ue p rescn ta d i f e ren t s t e cn ique s c on s truc t ivc s i

e l evada s ob re e in i ve l i d c t e r ra . A l s eu p eu n o s ' h i t r oba c ap e l emen t e spec ia l os i gn i f ica t iu s i nó c lt r è spo l . L e s

q ue , p e r t a n t , t ambé h a s o f er t r e fo rme s . E n t o t c a s , e s t r ac ta d ' unc s h ab i tac ion s d ' u s d ome s t ic q ue c a l s i tua r c rono lbg icamen te ne im a te ix momen t d ' ocupac ió d c l a

r e s te s ma te r ia ls e si o ca l i tzcn e ne ip e r Ime t re d ci ' ed i f ic i d cm ane r aq ue e sd e ixa l iu re l ' e spa ic en t ra l . L ag ran q uan t i ta td cd e ixa l le sd ' o s so sd ' an ima l sj ove s

t a u la d ona tc l ma te r ia l d impo r tac ió q ue s ' h il o ca i i tza .

e n s i nd ie s l a r ea l i tzac ió d ' o f rcnc s al a d i v in i ta t q ue

2 02

J OANA M . GUAL CERDO iLLU f SP L ANTALk MOR MASSANET

F IGURA 3 .P lan ta d e l aT au la

p robab ier nen t e s c on sum ien e n a pa t s r i tua ls . P odem p en sa r t ambé q ue a que s t s e s r e a l i tzaven e n p r imave ra , è poca d e i ' any e n q ue c omp ter ien a mb p oc s me so s d ' eda t . E n a que s t c a s s ' hauna d c p en sa r e n c er ta e s tac iona l i ta t d e is r i tu s ic a id r ia e s tud ia r amb m és

i ' ex i s tènc ia d un a s sen tamen t p re ta la iô t ic al az ona . L a d ocumen tac ió d c f r agmen t s p re ta la io t ic s e n p ob ia t s t a la iö t ic s e s c ada v egada md s amp le ie n c onc re t , l a r e lac ionada a mb l e s t a u le s t ampoc e s e x t ranya j aq ue a l ' ex ter io r d c l ad cT one d ' en G aumés , aT repucó iaS a

p ro fund i ta t e iq ue i mp l ica a que s t f e t . P e r a l t ra b anda 1 ' abundan tp re sènc ia d ' am fo re sq ue t r an spo r taven v ic ap al ' i l la ( Ramon ,1991 : 1 85 )e n s i nd ica q ue a que s te r au n a l t re e l emen ti mpo r tan te ne it i tu s .

T o r re ta s ' han l o ca l i tza tf r agmen t sd ' aque t st i pu s2 . E l s egon f e t e s m é s d i f Ic i l d ' exp l ica r p e rquè e nca ra

Mé s c omp l ica te se n tend re e if e tq ue e nd ue sc av i ta t s d e l mu rs ' h i c o l . ioqu in , mo l te sp i t ja t s id i f Ic i ls d et r eu re ,

t a rdana d ocumen tada e n e i mve l i d ' abandó d e l at a u la . E s p robab le q ue e i r e c in te d c t a u la s i gu i a n te r io r a l

p e t i t s o sse t s . P odnen i n terp re ta r -se c or n as ac r if ic is f undac iona ls p e rô ,a que s ta e su na p o ss ib i l i ta tq ue c a ld rà

s eg le I VI I a .C . p e rquè s if o su na c on s t rucc ió d ' aque s ta è poca e n c l t r èspo i s ' haur ia d c t r oba r n o n omé s c e ràm ica p r e ta la io t ica s i nó t ambd t a laô t ica a n t iga in o

c omp roba r amb l ' e s tud i m é s d e ta l la t . CONCLUS IO Ap a r td e is e l emen t s s i nc ràn ic s l o ca l i tza t s e ne i ma te ix e s t ra t i q ue e ns h an p ermès u n c er t n ive l l d in terpre tac ió , 1 ' excavac i6 h a a po r ta t t ambé d o s e l emen t s d i ac römc s ; u n d ' e l ls d i n t re e i ma te ix r e c in te i F a lt re d efo ra . E s t r ac ta d e l a p r e sènc ia d c c e ràm ica p re ta la iè t ica c or n ae l emen t d e l t r e spo l id e t a la iö t ica a n t iga e n u n n i ve i l d e i ' ex ter io r d e l a f a çana e s t . E l p r ime r f e t t é u na e xp l icac ió s i p en sam q ue e n e i momen t e n q ue e s c ons t rue ix l ' ed if ic i s ? ap ro f i ta ren i

e n sm anquen e v idènc ie sa rqueo log ique sp e rô ,e nt o tc a s e n si nd ica t ambé l ap re sènc ia t a la iô t ica a ban s d cl af a se

e sc lc a s . E lf o r th i a tu sq ue e sd ona n os ' exp l ica s in o e s a mb J ai d ea d c q ue l ' ed if ic i h a e s ta t b u ida t e n è poca t a la iô t ica , a n te r io ra ls .I V , iq ue c o rn h em d i t , e n s h a a r r iba te it e s t imon i d cl ad ar re ra o cupac ió . T o ta a que s ta q üe s t iO s ec omp l ica d ona te if e tq ue e nca ra n od i spo sam d e ls e s tud is s u f ic ien t s q ue e n s p e rme t in p rec isa r amb s egu r e ta tc l momen tc rono lôg ic e nq ue e sc omença ren a c on s t ru ir l e s t a u le s . A l r e spec te c a l d i r q ue h un ica d a tac ió a b so lu ta d c c on s t rucc ió o b t inguda a mb a nà i is i C 14 e sL ad cl at a u la d cT o r ra lba s i tuada a l s v o l tan t s d c 9 50 -1000 a .C (ca l ib rada ) .( Wa id rcn , E n scf la t iC ub i , 1 989 :6 ) .

u t i l i tza ren f r agmen t s d c c e ràm ique s i nt i t i ls p roceden t s d e l e s r oda l ie s od e l ma te ix I l oc iq ue e n s e v idenc ien

2 03

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

NOTAS :

d eju l io l d c 1 992 .

1 . Aque s ta c omun icac ió amb p e t i te s d i f erènc ie s f ou

2 . E Is ma ter ia ls d e T repucó i S a T o r re ta q ue M . Mu r ray l o ca l i tzà amb l e s s eve s e xcavac ion s e fec tuade s

p re sen tada al aI I T robada d 'H is to r iado r s iA rqueè leg s o rgan i tzada p e r l a s ecc ió d 'H is tàna iA rqueo log ia d c l ' In s t i tu t Meno rqu I d 'E s tud is ic e leb rada aMao e i me s

l a d ècada d e l s 3 0 , h an e s ta t d ipo s i ta t s r ecen tmen t a l Mu seu d c Meno rca ie st r oben e np rocé sd ' e s tud i

A

B

F IGURA 4 . S ecc ion se s t ra t ig r a f ique sl o ng i tud ina l it r an sve r sa l d cl aT au la

'

\.

'•

'

\

'

2 04

J OANA M . GUAL CERDÖ iLLU IS PLANTALA MOR MASSANET

F IGURA 5 . E s t ruc tura d e l p i la rc en t ra l ic ap i te l l c a igu t sa bans d cl excavac ion

F IGURA 6 . E s t ruc tu ra d 'e s ta lonamen td e l p i la rc en t ra l i ns i tu .

2 05

R ITUA L R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

HGURA 7 . R epo s ic ió al ap o s ic ió o r ig ina l d e l c ap i te l ld el aT au la

2 06

JOANA M . GUAL CERDO iLLU IS PLANTALA MOR MASSAN EF

F IGURA 8 .E s t ruc tura c en t ra l a bans d e J ar e t irada d el ab as t imen ta

2 07

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

TABLA 1 - CO MPLEJOS PALAC IALES A rea s F achadas Ex ter ior s

Accesos

P a t ios Cen tra les

ALTARES

REMATF J ' EXENTOS

KNOSSOS : F achada W(? ) PHAS ITOS : F achada W(? ) GOURN IA G IA

: KNOSSOS : KNOSSOS achada W P .E sca lona F P .Ceen t ra l P rop i leo S ? PHA ISTOS B a s t ion E ZAKROS : Ca rXXXVl E n t iahN? M ICENAS? ( Q OMF

C umiia l e s I Cu l to

S a la s Lus t ra les

Cap i l las P r ivadas

I nde term .

Ot ros

KNOSSOS : A la E : C . Xoanon?

KNOSSOS : A rea T ea t ra l? N l 1 J -KHAN 1 P a t io UE zLFS iJ !TAN . KNOSSOS : C . T npa r t i ta P a t io O e s te

' Y WS : R ampa d e l A cueduc to

VATHYFE IRO ZAKROS : C ama ra d ela P r imave ra

FUI TAT ILES

S .Lus t ra l 6 3 1d

C .Dob le H acha L AUJA H .XXV I I I -3

z i a H il l

FRESCOS

KNOSSOS : F ragmen to s

KNOSSOS :

ZAKROS : 1 l ab it . LV I I

A .M in ia tu ra s PYLOS : P o r t ico d e l Mega ton KNOSSOS : C .M in ia tu r .

MAQUETAS

KNOSSOS : A rea d el a C .T eso ro A .T ea tr a l?

" D IOSAS " VASOSDELA S ER m " RHYTA"

ZAKROS : H . XX VI I

MESA DE OERENDAS . 4A WA : KNOSSOS : ' V e s t ibu lo A rch ivo s S an tua r io C .T eso ro S ec to rS E

VASOS C ERAM IODS

S F ! IOS T MH ONTAS

KNOS SOS : Depo s i to d el o s J e rog l i f ico s

F t .ACASORO ' BRON E t kRFl ES

2 08

KNOSSOS A J aO r i ent i W .S ta ir c a se ) ?AKROS : P a lac io?

J OANA M . GUAL C ERDO iL LU IS P LANTALAMOR MASSANET

TABLA 2 - ED W IC IOS C IVILES NO PALAC IALES

ALTARES

S ANTUAR IC ) S I X )MESH (DS B (1SULTANA iaA

S AL M WS TRALFS

AREAS (E B v IC )N IALES

A LMACFN I ES E SF iALES I N IE IFR M

G IROS

E L OHC IO?

KUSURA : A x va sVLV I 1 REMATE / EXTENTOS : F ORrAIRES KNOSSOS C a sa S ET E d . C a izada R ea l P equena C ap i l la P equeno P a lac io MALUA : B loque A PALA IKASTRO : B loque N B loque B B loqueX ROUSSES TY USSOS : C a sa I A rea C a sa sA I B EY ESULTAN :A r e a ERESCOS

MAQUE TA

L ) 1USAS"

j V IR 1AUIA :V i 11A H ab i tac ion 1 4 AKRG I IR LC a sa W

GOUR MA

KARPFi l : H ab i t5 7 H ab i tac ion 8 5 H ab i tac ion 1 06

KANN IA : A lmacen I I

VASOS E * L 4 S ERP IENTE 1 ' A IA IhAS IRO 1 3 kx l J I " RHY I A" H ab i tac ion 1 4 MESA Uh OFRENDAS KNOSS (JS : Man s ion VASUS n exp lo rada QRAM I f l S I

KANN IA : A lmacen XV

IA ( AORU BRONCE i v i kF ' 1L S

KAR I 'HY

KNOS P ozo U

KNOSSOS : P eq . P a lac io GOURN IA ATENAS : A go ra PROSY MNA KOUR ION F HY I AKU-t H ab i tac ion 1 2 FR G 1ORA L ACANLA A1 ' UAD i IA " Ba su re ro" KANN IA

S ELL (JS

I M I 'RUN l AS

LA I R iN T : AKROT IR I : AY B a s t ion NE E d i f ic io A

KNUSUS :F ' eq . P a lac io

ATR I Mk 1 e vf l LA E sca le r a5 3

2 09

C i NAS C a sa d cl a s E sf inge s

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

TABLA 3 - SANTUAR IOS I JRBANOS ALTARES

S .O MA BE

AREA

S AN WAR IO S

M ONTANA

AR IERTAS

l 'EE F I END

CUEVAS

G

Q S

K IT ION :Temp lo 1 Temeno sA Temeno sB MYR I1 IOUS F IG I IADES PMAEPAP I 1c B EY E SULTA NA r ea R

RE MATE /

MA WA : S an tua r io

d el o s C uemo s EXTENTOS AKROT IR I : B loque

M ( IN IEPYRGOS AKRGHRL A rea D e l ta MCNTE JUKFAS

D e l ta P ATS : S opo r te

AY IA T E IAE I4A S opo r te sd c

F OR A 1 1LES

" P .d c iS acc i l i" F RESCOS

AKROT IRO : X e s t e3 M ICENAS : T emp lo d e l o sF re sco s AY IA T P JAE *{k S an tiade ra C o l ina

f l SKOKE I+ IA WS

MAQUE AS

P ETSOFAS

" D IOSAS"

GAZ I

KARPHY : S anc tuano l ab i tac ion 1

IA : C ap i l la VASQ SEELA GOURN s tR idge R oad S ERP IENTE We " RHYTA " P {L4 KOKKl ' OKRE

MESA DE OFRENDAS

S an t . A rea 1 VASC 1 S Q E RAM ICD S S ELLOS

CPSYQ IRO

MA MA-S an tua r io O cc iden ta l ( A lmacen 3 )

CSf l AVC MHY C .I DA lON

I DA ILON :Hab i tac ion XXXV

v I F O N TAS

CF SYQ IRO

ACAORY BRONCE

CP SYQ IRO

MARF ILES

2 10

J OANA M . GUAL CERDO iLLU IS P LANTA Lk MOR MASSANET

TABLA 4 - H ALLAZG OS DE CARACTER FU NERARI O THO LE 4

TUMBAS DECAMARA

TR v tRk

UJMBAS DE

F UNERAR IOS ALTARES

OAS Q EFA GR RiA -f f l E R D Q EFA GR R iA Q

NDEFER GJUA c I i IAS OfROS I

F OSA

KNOSSOS : T ioT ixn I LA ENCAN E 'ADA 1 Q 1 .DSS

REMATE J

Khan ia l c

EXTENTOS

T ekke f t RFAT ILES F RESCOS MAQUETAS

KAM I -

. & X i 1 -i l

r . v

LAR I

" D IOSAS " VASDSDE LA S ERP IENTE GYP -

M ICENAS '

" R I IYTA"

S ADHES T . I V MESA DE OFRENDAS VAS 8 FRAMK DS S ELLOS /

RAKO

L ALYS -

v 1YRS N K ALAM IcN

PYLOS

KNC8 OS :

M .McNAS

T . I V

Gyp sadhe s

MK NA

ROUTS ]

A rea T .

T . 5 5

VAPH IO

ENDRA UGc R [ 1 . D

AN ILLOS

T umba

1-7 1

S phounga

TEBAS

P y rgo s .P .

I MFRO N TAS VO I DS

F IACA 0 1«)

M I (INA 5 T .I I

BRONCE

T .I V MARF ILES LARNAKES

E NKCM I P AQ T IYA M

S OS

ARK -

(KHEL A . GA T hA F ANAGRA D

HANES S J f l ? JAD

T. A .

T4 4 .T h EMA E BSK I 3 IOFYRA 1PA FOU . R Ef l YMNO

2 11

P ALA IKA KASH

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

B I I 3L IOGRAF IA GUAL , J .M . II SBERT ,F . ( 1990 ) I nf orme p re l im inar d e l ' excavac ió a rqueo làg ica a lr ec in te d e t a u la d eB in is saf l i l le t ( San tL 1u L) . P rog ra ina d cF e s te s d e1 ' A jun tamen t . HOSK IN ,M . , HOCHS IEDER ,P . iKNÖSEL ,D . ( 1990 ) T he o r ien ta t ions o ft h ei au la . s o f Menorca (2 ) :The r ema in ing t a u la s . aA rchaeoa s t ronomy 1 5 . P p .S37 -S4 .8 . MASCARÖ ,J . jN ICOLAS , J .de ( 1982 ) C ar la a rqueo lóg ica d e S t . L Lu I s . aG eog ra l ia eH is tor ia d e Meno rca

t .

I I .

Meno rca . ORHLA ‚ M . iST hTES ‚ G . ( 1984 ) E s tud io p re l im inar s obre p e rdurac iön d e l h ab i ta t e n l o s c on jun to s t a layó t icos m enorqu ine s . aMayu rqa 2 0 .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . P P . 1 9 -47 . RA MON , J . ( 1991) L as a nf ora sp ün icas d eI b i za .T raba jo sd e l Mu seo A rqueo log ico d cI b iza 2 3 . WALDREN ,W . , ENSE IJATJ . ICUB I ,C . ( 1989 ) S on Ma r. Ba lear ic P reh i s tor ic S anc tuary . O xfo rd .

2 12

VALORAC ION Y S IGN IF ICADO DE UN S f MBOLO MED ITERRANEO : LOS " CUERNOS DE LA CONSAGRAC ION "

C . POYATO HOLGADO ( U .A .M . )

3 L

A . V AZQUFZ HOYS ( U .N .E .D . )

L05

d enom inado s Cuernos d e í a Consagrac ión

c i rcun s tanc ia se nq ue s eh a l la ron ,p u s ie ron d cm an i f ie s to d esde u n p r inc ip io e sa d ive r s idad a l a q ue n o s

c on s t i tuyen u no d e l o s emb lema s má s s i gr nf ica t ivo s y c a rac te r I s t icos d e l mundo m ed i te r ráneo d e l Im i len io

r e fe r lamo s . L a s e xcavac ione s a r queo lOg ica s r e a l izada s al ol a rgo d e lp re sen te s i g lo t a n to e nG re ta c omo e no t ra s a r ea s d e l

a .C . , c on u na a pa ren te c oncen t rac ión e nl a sf a se s med ia s y t a rd Ia s d e l m ismo , t en iendo , s i n d uda , u na s i gn if icac ión , u n c arác ter y p or t an to u na r ep re sen ta t iv idad muy e spec ia le s e n l ac uenca o r ien ta l

E geo , Ana to l ia y o t ro s p un to s d e l Med i ter ráneo ,j un to c on l o s h a l lazgo s c a sua le s q ue p a ra le lamen te s e b an v en ido p roduc iendo ,h an p ropo rc ionado i mc on s ide rab le c on jun to d c man ife s tac ione s d c l o s C uerno s d c l a

d e l Ma re No s t rum , aj uzga rp o re ip ano rama q ue o f rece s u d i spe r s ion g eog ra f ica ; e s má s , t odo p a rece i nd ica r q ue f u e e n l a I s la d e C re ta d onde e s te s Imbo lo o

C on sag rac ión d c má s d c d o sc ien to s h a l lazgos d c d i fe ren te mo r fo log Ia y c a rac te r I s t ica s t i po lóg ica s e n t re l o s q ue , p a ra n o so t ro s , m e recen u na e spec ia l a t enc iOn ,

e mb lema s e u t i l izO p refe ren temen te , a l meno s d u ran te u n d e te rm inado p er lodo d e e se I m i len io , s ib i en e s

p o r f o rma r p ar te d c f l ue st r a P ro toh is tor ia y p o r s u d i s tanc ia c u l tura l yc rono lOg ica d c mucha s d c l a s d c l a c uenca o r ien ta l med i te r ránea , l o s c onoc ido s a l ta re s d c C ue rno sd e ly ac im ien to a rgá r ico d c " E l Of ic io " ( Cueva s ,

c i er to q ue n o f ue e sa s u " a rea d e a cc ión " e xc iu s iva , p ue s to q u es up re senc ia s eh ad e tec tado t amb ién e no t ra s a r ea s c u l tu ra le s , d e sde l a s r eg ioneS o cc iden ta le s d e Ana to l ia yC h ip re h a s ta l aG rec ia c on t inen ta l y , má s a l O cc iden te , e n c i e r to s c omp le jo s c u l tu ra le s d e l a s I s la s

A lmer ia ) , d e l q ue , c omo e s s ab ido h ay u na muy e sca sa i n Io rmac iOn r e la t iva a s u v e rdadc ra l o ca l izac ión e n c l

B a lea r e s yd el ap rop ia P en in su la I b d r ica . Aho ra b i en , e ie s tud io d el a sc a rac te r I s t ica s , c on tex to c u l tu ra l yc rono log Ia d e d i fe ren t e s m an ife s tac ione s d c

a scn tam ien to ( S irc t , S ue t , 1 890 ) , yc ld e l C er ro d c l a E ncan tada ( C iudad R ea l ) ,é s t e u b icado e n e ii n te r io rd c u nc omp le jo r eig io so d cn e to c a rác tc rf unc ra r io h a l lado e n e it r an scu r so d c l a s e xcavac ione s i l evada s ac abo e n e se a sen tam ien to d e l B ronce d c l a Mancha ( Sanchez Me seg ie re t AL . , 1 984 , 1 985 ) , a s I c omo u na s p eque u ia s p i cza s d c b ronce , q u iza a p l iqucs , c ncon t rado s e n l a n ec rOpo i is d c c ueva s a r t if ic ia lc s d c G a les C ove s , e n

l o s C ue rno s d e l aC on sag rac iónpe rm i te o b se rva r u na c l a ra d i ve r s idad e nl oq ue r e spec ta p rec isamen te ae so s t i es a spec to s , l o q ue , u n ido a l a a mp l ia d i spe r s iOn g eog rál ica d e l s Imbo lo a q ue n o s r e fe r Iamo s e n l a s I m nea s p r eceden te s ,p l an tea d ei nmed ia to u na l a rga S e r ie d c i n ter rogan tes r e la t iva s as u p rop io s i gn if icado , p robab lemen te s uf ic ien temen t e c onc re to c omo p a ra s e r c omp rend ido p o r g en tes d i feren tes c u ltura l y c rono lOg icamen te , p ero a l t i empo , y t amb ién

Meno rca ( Vcny , 1 982 ) , d c c a rác tc re v iden temen te muy

p robab lemen te , a lgo c amb ian te a med ida q ue f ue u t i l izado e n d i s t in to s e spac io s , a mb ien te s yt i empo s , s i endo é s t e u n p rob lema q ue y a s ep l an tea i n c lu so a n te l a p re senc ia d e s u s man ife s tac ione s má s a n t igua s , l oca l izada s e n e i t r anscur so d c l a s e xcavac iones

b a leá r ico s l o s q ue má s p rob lema s p l an tcan e n c uan to a l ai d cn t i f icac iOn e i n tc rp rc tac iOn d c l o s mo t ivo s d c s u

r e a l izada s p o r A . E van s e n e iP a lac io d c C no sso , a s I c omo e n l a s l evada s ac abo e n l a n ec rOpo l is d c Moch lo s , y ac im ien to s e n l o s q ue s e h a l la ron l o s p r ime ro s ya lp a rece r má s a n t iguo s e j emp la re s d c e s te

d i f e ren te s m an if es tac ione s , d c a l go q ue a im n o h a s i do b i en i d en t if icado , yn op o rn oe s tud iado , e s d ec ir , c omo r ep re sen tac ionc s ma te r ia l izada s d c i d ea s oc oncep to s c i e r tamcn te d i f Ic i le s d c i d en t if ica r , yc i io e n b uena

s Imbo lo o emb lema q ue t a n to " p e r s e ' c omo p o r l a s

m ed ida d eb ido p rcc i sa incn tc a e sa g ran v ar icdad d c

d i f e ren te a ld ce so sl o s " a l ta re s" p en in su la res . C on t odo , n o s on l o s e j emp la re s p cmnsu la rc s o

p r e senc ia yd cs us i gn i f icado ,e sd cc i r ,d cs ur a zón d cs e r ye s ta r , s i no q ue , c omo e n e ic a so d c o t ro s mucho s d c l o s c onoc ido s , s e n o s p re sen t an c omo m i s Imbo lo , e n

2 13

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

man ife s tac ione s aq ue y a n o s h emo s r e fendo y q ue a l ec ta t a n to al o s t i po s d er e s to s a r queo lóg ico s c omo a l

ys i gn if icado e s , s i n d uda , d i f ic i l d c d c tcrm ina r , p re tend iendo ü n icamen tc a cc rca rno s a s u mc jo r

c on tex to e nq ue s eh ala ron . P o r e l lo , al a v i s ta d e L a e x is tenc ia e n d i s t in to s y ac im ien tos a rqueo lóg icos t a n to d e o b je to s y e s truc tu ra s e n f orma d e t o q ue s e h a v en ido d enom inando C ue rno s d c L a C on sagrac ion , c omo d e

c onoc im ien to . I .L AI CONOGRAHA

o t ro s o b je to s ye s truc tu ra s op a r te s d c e l la s e n l o s q ue a pa recen r ep re sen tac ione s d e l menc ionado s Imbo lo , p en samo sq ue q u izá e ie s tud io d ce s ta sr ep re sen tac ione s p ud ie ra a r ro ja ra l go d ei u zs ob re e io scu ro mundo d el o s

A unque e n c lc a so d c l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión n o s o lamen te c on tamos c on r epresen tac iones i c onogra i ica s d e l s Imbo lo , s i no t amb ién , c omo h emo s i nd icado , c on r e s to s ma ter ia le s d c o b je to s q ue p o r s u f o rma h an r e c ib ido e sa d cnom inac iOn , h a i lados e n

o b je to s ma ter ia le s , a n te l o s c ua le s mucha s v ece s e l a rqueo iogo p uede i d en t if ica rs u mo r fo log Ia ei n c lu so s u

d i fe rcn te s t i po s d c y ac im ien tos c omp ie jo s p a lac ia le s , g r ande s v i l la s , u n idadc s r e s idenc ia ie s , l ugarc s d c c u i to

f unc iona i idad ,p e ro c uyo s i gn i f icado e nu nd e t e rm inado l uga r ye n u n d e term inado momen to t a t v ez s e y ea o b l igado ap ropone rs o lamen te amodo d ch ipó te s is .

c omo l o s S an l u a r ios d e C ima d e Mon taña e s t ruc tu ra s f une rar ia s , e t c . -e i nc lu so e n z ona s ya r ea s d c l o s m ismos d c d i fe rcn te c a rác te r , s i n emba rgo e sa s r ep re sen tac ione s c on s t i tuyen i m c l emen to f undamen ta l

A bo rdamo s a s Ic ia ná l is is ye s tud io i c onog rá l ico d c l o s e j emp la re s e n q ue l o s C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión a pa recen r ep resen tado s , y a s ea p in tado s , t a i lado s , mode lado s oe scu lp ido s , af i nd cd e te rm ina rs ur e lac ión c on o t ro s e l emen to s yt ema sr ep re sen tado sj un to ae l lo s , e sd ec ir , s ur e lac ión c on l o s o t ro s s Imbo lo s ,e s t ruc tu ra s y /o e scena s , mucha s d c e l ia s i d en t if icada s p o r l o s d i fe rcn te s i n ve s t igado re s c omo d c c arac te r r i tua l , q ue a pa recen e nf r e sco s ,s e l lo s ,i mp ron ta s , v a so sc e ránuco s , r hy ta d c p ied ra p u l imen tada o p l a ta , l a rnakes , e t c . , p a r t iendo d e lh echo d cq ue e s te a ná l i s is p e rm i t i r la : d e term ina r L a v e rdadera f unc iona i idad d c l o s e j emp la res q ue s e h an c onservado a p ar t ir d c l a s -

r ep re sen tac ione s ; e n s egundo l uga r , i den t if icada s u f unc iona l idad , c l a s if ica r t i po lóg icamen tc l o s e j emp la re s d c C uerno s d cL aC on sag rac iónde a que l lo s ; e n t e rcc r l uga r , u na v ez i d en t if icado s l o s " t ipo s" y t e n iendo e n c uen t .a l a s c a rac ter i s t ica s d c l o s c on t ex to s -

-

d c q ue p roccden t a n to l a s r ep re sen tac ione s c omo l o s e j emp la re s c on se rvado s ,p re sum ib lemcn tc s e r la f a c t ib le

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p a ra c onoce r s i t f unc iOn y s i gn if icado , p ues p a rece l óg ico p en sa rq ue e iu n ive r so i d eo lóg ico q ue s ee sconde t r a s e sa s man ife s tac iones a r t I s t icas n o d eb ió s e r d i fc ren te d c a que l t e s t imon iado p o r l oq ue h oy n o s on s i no r e s to s d co b je to s ye s t ruc tu ra s . A ho ra b i en , c omo v e remo s má s a de lan te , e n mucha s o ca s ione s e so s r e s to s ma te r ia le s q ue h an i l egado h a s ta n o so t ro sn os on f á c i l ot o ta lmen te i d en t if icab le s c on l a s i magcne s q ue t amb ién s eh an c on se rvado ,l oq ue p a rece p onc r d c man if ie s to l a p o s ib le e x is tcnc ia d c o t ro s s i gn if icado s yf unc iona l idade s d e l s Imbo lo oemb lema q ue n o s o cupa o cu l to s t r a s l a s p rop ia s i mágene s , s i n o l v ida r q ue e s t amb ién p robab le q ue n o s e h ayan c onse rvado d e term inados o b je tos o e s t ruc tura s p re scn te s e n d i cha s r ep re sen tac ione s , c omo e se v iden te e n e ic a so d c l o s e l emen to s v ege ta te s , p e recede ro s p o r n a tu ra leza , y muy p o s ib le e n c l d c d c tcrm inada s e s t ruc tu ra s , t a n to e n e id c l a s muy s imp le s os enc i l la s

c on ira s tar " l o r ep rc sen tado" c on " J o c on se rvado " , c on

p o r s u f o rma y / o p o r l o s ma ter ia les c on q ue f ue ron c ons t ru ida s , c omo e n e id c o t ra s má s c omp ie ja s p e ro s u jc ta s ar emodc lac ionc sa rqu i tec tOn ica sc on e ip a so d e l

t odo l oc ua l e r a d ce spe ra rq ue e is en t ido ys i gn i f icado d e l s imbo lo q ue n o s o cupa p od r Ia s e r má s f á c i lmen te

t i cmpo . C on t o do , an ad ic e scapa q ue L a i mpor tanc ia q ue

i d cn t if icab ie yc omp ren s ib le . A s i p uc s , c l c on ten ido b á s ico d c l a c omun icac ión

r ev is te c le s tud io d c c ua lqu ic r c on jun to i conog rá f ico p ue s to q ue c l mundo d c l a s i magene s e su na p ar te muy i mpo r tan tc ys i gn if ica t iva d cc ua lqu ie rc u i tu ra ,e n t a n to q ue d c a l guna m ane ra e s l af o rma e n q ue u n p ueb lo " e scr ibe " yd e sc r ibe s up rop io mundo , s u sp e rcepc ione s ys u s i d ea s e nl ae s fe ra d c l oc oncep tua l . S e t r a ta d cu n

q ue p r c sen ta ino s e sc le s tud io i c onog raf ico c i tado ,p e ro a n te s d c p a sa r ae xponer e i a ná l is is d c l o s t emas , c ompo s ic ione s yc scena s aq ue a pa recen a soc iado s l o s y a t r ad ic iona lmen te d enom inados C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac ion , d ebemo s s ena la r , p o r u na p a r te , q ue e v iden temen te e l lo n o h ub ie ra s i do p o s ib le s i n l a c l abo rac ión p rev ia d c u n c orpu s d ocumen ta l e n c lq ue h emo s r e cop i iado , c a ta logado yc l a s i f icado e n f unc ión d e l c a rác te r d c " con se rvada s" o " r cp re scn tada s" , u n c l evado n üme ro d ce s ta s m an if e s tac ione s ,c uyo c a rác te r

l e ngua je

" p ic tónco" e n c lq ue l ai d eo log Ia -i d ea s y

t ema s q ucda r e f Ie jada o ma tena l izada e n u na s r ep resen tac iones , mucha s v cces c onvenc iona le s y s t anda r izada s , e nu na s i mágenc s c uyo s i gn if icado s uc le -

s e r d cpcnd icn te e n muchas

o ca s ione s

d c

o t ras

r e p re sen tac ione s yq ue v a r la d c sde c lp un to d cv i s ta q ue

2 14

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

a dop te e io b servado r ,p un to d ev i s ta q ue ,e ne ic a so q ue n o s o cupa , p os ib lemen te n unca s e rá e xac tamen te e i m i smo q ue e in ue s t ro ,p ue s to q u eS ia que l lo s aq u iene s e s tuv ie ron d i rec tamen te d es t inada s e sa s i mágenes f u eron r e a lmen te o b se rvado re s , n o so t ro s d i f Ic i lmen te p a sa remo sd e s e rm e ro s e spec tado re s d eu na e spec ie d c e spec tácu io c uyo s en t ido y s i gn if icado q u izá n o l i eguemo sn unca ac omp rende rt o ta imen te . P o r e i lo , c on sc ien te s d c l a s d i f icu l tade s q ue e n t raha c ua iqu ie ra ná l i s i si c onog ráf ico , ymuy e spec ia imen t ee n c l c a so d e l d e u n c on jun to d e r ep resen tac ione s n o a soc iada s at e x to s e sc r i to s q ue p ud ie ran e sc la rece r s u s i gn if icado , p lan teamo s e s ta p a r te d c n ue s iro e s tud io t e n iendo e n c uen ta v a r io s a spec to s : e n p r ime r l uga r e i s opor te ma ter ia l e n q ue s e e ncuen tran l a s r ep re sen tac ione s a na l izada s ( v a so s c erám ico s , s e l lo s , f r e sco s ,l a rnake s e t c . .) , ye i lo e nf unc ión n od e lt i po d c m a te r ia l u t i l izado , q ue e v iden temen te c ond ic ionó l a c a l idad a r t I st ica d c d i cha s r ep re sen tac ione s , s i no d c l a p rop ia f unc iona l idad d cl o sr e spec t ivo so b je to s ,e nt a n to ‚

q ue m ien t ra s u n v a so c e rám ico p udo h abc r s i do t a n to u n o b je to d e u so d omé s t ico c omo i t i i rg ico yt i n f r esco p udo h abe r d eco rado t an to u na d ependenc ia p r ivada c omo u na s a la c e r emon ia l ,s i ne mba rgo m is e l lo e s" p e r s e ' u n o b je to d c u so p e r sona l c omo u n l a rnax l oe s f une ra r io ; e n s egundo l uga r p l an teamo s e ia ná l is i s d c l o s e lemen tos i nd iv idua l izab les e n e sas

l uga r , c on s idc ramo s n ece sar io a na l iza r c l l uga r d c p rocedenc ia d c l a s r ep re sen tac ione s e s tud iada s e n q ue h an a parec ido e sas r epresen tac ione s ( sa las c e remon ia le s , a r ea s d c c u l to , l uga re s f unc rar io s , e t c . . . ) , p ue s to q ue do p uedc c on t r ibu ir aL ai d cn t i l icac ión d e l c a rác tc r d c l a s m i sma s e n a que l io s c a so s e n q ue , a l meno s ap r ime ra v i s ta , n o h ay n ccc sar iamcn te u na a soc iac ión d i rec ta e n t re l o r e p re sen tado y e il uga r e n q ue s ee ncuen t ra ,c omo e sc ld cl o s a domo s p e r sona le s , l o s v a so s c e rám ico s ol a s p íx ide s d c marf i l , p o r c i t . a r a l gün e j cmp io ,o b je to s s un tuano s S i a pa reccn e ne ia r ea r e s idcnc ia i d c u n p a lac io , p ero q ue a dqu ir ie ron t i n c a rác tc r d i fe ren te c uando f ue ron d epo s i tado s c omo p a r te d co na j ua rf une ra r io . I . ! . LOS SOPORTES MATER IALES L a v a r iab i l idad d c l o s s opo r te s m a te r ia le s s ob re l o s q ue s er e a l iza ron r e p re sen tac ione s e n l a s q ue d c a l guna f orma a pa reccn l o s d enom inado s C uerno s d c l a C onsag rac ión , e s r ea lmcn te r educ ida , a unque e n a l guno s c a so s s e d c tec ta l a e x is tenc ia d c g rupo s r e ia t ivamen tc h omogénco s yn ume ro so s e nc uan to al o s t i po s d c o b je tos e n l o s e sa s r ep re sen tac ione s h an i l egado h a s ta n o so t ro s ,t a le sc omo : a ) Una s e r ie d c o b je tos p e r sona le s c omo l o s s e i lo s d c p i ed ra s d u ra s y mar f i l ya n i l io s -se l lo s d c o ro ,

r c iac ione s ,a soc iac ione s má s 0m eno s s i s temá t ica s ,e t c . e n t re e l ia s ; e n t e rce r l uga r , a bo rdamo s e ie s tud io d e l

h alado s g ene ra imen te e nn ec rópo l i s ,a unque e n v a r io s c a so sd e sconocemo s s ul uga re xac to d cp rocedenc ia p o r t r a ta r se d ch a i la . zgo so ca s iona le s ; ae l lo sh ay q ue s uma r u na s e r ie d c i mp ron ta s , t c s t imon io e v iden te d c i n c x is tenc ia d c o t ro s t a n to s s c i lo s oa n i l io s -se l io s , e n l a s q ue S e i den t if ican e scena s c on c a rac ter I s t icas S eme jan tes a l a s f i gu rada s e n l o s q ue s e n o s h an c on se rvado . P ese a ta pa ren temen te e l evado m Ime ro d c

s i gn if icado med ian te c l a ná l i s is d c l a y ux tapos ic ión ,

p i eza s , c on s iderando e n c on jun to s e i lo s ei mp ron ta s ,

s i s temá t ica o n o , d c l o s e i emcn to s i d cn t if icado s c on o b je to d c d e te rm ina r l a p rc senc ia d c t o q ue p odemo s d enom ina r " t ema s" i conog raf icos , p ue s to q ue , p o r

h ay q ue p one r d c r e l ieve q ue e s ta s p i eza s r ep rc sen tan

r ep re sen tac ione s , s i n c a rac ter I s t ica s yl a s i mp l icac ione s d c c ada u no d c e l los ( j a r ro s , mo t ivo s v ege ta les , d ob le s -hacha s , l o sp rop io s C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión , e d if ic io s yo t ra s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tec ton ica s , f i gu ra s f emen ina s o ma scu l ina s , e t c . ) , af i n d c c on s ta ta r

e j emp lo , l ap rcscnc ia d c j a r ro s d c f onna s e spec i u ica s s ob re C uernos d e l aC onsagrac ión , s ug ic re l ar c iac ión d c e sa s r ep re sen tac ione s c on cr cmon ia s d c l i bac ión , l o s c d if ic io s c o ronado s p o rr cma tc s a rqu i tcc tón ico sq ue r ep i ten l a f o rma d e l s Imbo lo q ue n o s o cupa p od r Ian i den t if ica r se c omo c on jun to s a rqu itcc tón ico s d c

t i n p o rcen ta je m In imo

r e spec to a l c on jun to t o ta l d c

e s to s t i po s d c o b je to s h a l lado s t a n to e n C re ta c omo e n o t ra sa r ea sd e lE geo . b ) A lguno s F re scos , q ue e n o ca s iones h an i cgado h a s ta n ue s t ro s d i a s e n u n e s tado t a nf r agmen tano s q ue e s d i f Ic i l d e te rm ina r e i s cn t ido y s i gn if icado d c l a e scena d c i nq ue f o rman p a r te l o s f r agmen to s q ue s e

c a rác tc r s agrado s i s e c on f irma é s te p a ra e i p rop io s Imbo io , l ap re senc ia d c f i gu ra s h u inana s , oa l meno s

h an c on se rvado ;n oo b s tan tc e na l guno s c a so s l o sr e s to s r c cupe rado sh an s i do s u f ic icn tc s ,e no p imón d c mucho s i nves t igado res , p a ra d esve la r e i a l meno s a pa ren te

d c a pancnc ia h umana , s i tuada s d c lan tc d c l o q ue s e

s i gn if icado d c l a e scena r cp re scn tada y p odc r a s I

p ueden i den t if icar c omo a l tares , s ug iere i n r e prc sen tac ión d c a c to s d c a do rac ión u o f renda o ,e n c ua lqu ier c a so d c e scenas d c c a rác tc r r e l ig io so m i to log ico s i s e t r a ta se d c d i v in idadc s op e r sona jc s

v a lo ra r l ar e lac iön e n t re c ls Imbo lo q ue n o s o cupa ye i r e s to d c l o s c l emen to s p re sen te s e n l am isma . C abe s ena la r a lr e spec to q ue l am ayo r p a r te d c e s to s f r esco s s e h an l o ca l izado e n y ac im ien to s c r c ten se s ( Cno sso s , P ha is to s , A y ia T r iadha , Z ak ros ) , a unque n o f a i tan e n

-

r e lac ionado s c on e l ia s

-‚

e t c . ; f i na lmen te , ye n c ua r to

2 15

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

G rec ia C on t inen ta l ( M icena s ,P y lo s ) , n it ampoco e nl a s C Ic lada s (Ak ro t ir i , Ay ia I hm ) . c )Vasos c erám icos ,p Ix ides d c ma r f i l ya lguno s r hy ta , t a n to d c p ied ra p u l imen tada c omo d c me ta le s n ob le s , r e c ip ien te s t odo s e l lo s e n g ene ra l p ro fu samen te d eco rado s c on e scena s q ue , e n L a med ida q ue l o

p ucden a g rupa r se e n d o s g rande s c on jun to se nf unc ión d c l a s i d en t if icac ione s ci n te rp re tac ione s d c d i s t in to s i n ve s t igado re s : p o ru n l ado d i vc r sa s e spec ie s a n ima le s yp l an ta s , p o ro t ro u na s e r ie d c o b je to s p e r tenec ien te s s egu ramen te c omo c lp rop io s Imbo lo al ap a r af e rna l ia d cc u l to ,t a le sc omo l a s d ob le s -hacha s yl o se s cudo s " e n

p erm i te s u e s tado d e c on se rvac ión , p erm i ten a li gua l q ue e n l o s c a so s a n te r io re s d e te r in ina r a soc iac ione s y p o s ib le ss i gn i f icado s d e ls Imbo lo e s tud iado .

o cho " , a l gunas r e p re sen tac ione s d c me sa s d c o f renda y / o l i bac ión ,j a r ro s c on u na e spec ia l mo r fo log Ia , yu n c on jun to d ce s t ruc tu ra sa rqu i tec ton ica s .

d ) P equena s p l aca s d c o ro , b ronce ei nc lu so m a rf i l e n l a s q ue l o s Cuerno s d c l aC on sagrac ión a pa recen , c on jun to s

1 . 2 .1 . MA M IFEROS , AyES ,E SPEC IES MAR INAS Y OHD IOS

a r qu i tec tón ico s . e ) L arnake s , s a rcO fago s c e rám ico s c omune s e n l a s f a se s r e c ien te s d e l B ronce c geo q ue , j un to c on c l s a rco fago d cp i ed ra d c A y ia T r iadha yc lf r agmen to d c D ikhe l ia ( Ch ip re ) , c on s t i tuyen u n g rupo e spec ia l d c

mundo e geo o f rccen u n amp l io a ban ico d c c spcc ie s , s on mucha s m eno s l a s q ue a pa reccn a soc iada s al o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , h a l lándo sc e n t re é s ta s f undamen ta lmen te mam I fe ro s - b óv ido s , I b ices ( o

h a l lazgo s d c c a rác te r f une ra r io , e n c lq ue l o s Cue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ion ta l v ez a pa rezcan c omo me ro s

c abra s mon te sa s ) , l eones y monos a n t ropo idcs -‚ m icn t ra s q ue e n t re l a s a yes , a l p a rece r s o lo s e

f undamen ta lmen te , f o rmando p a r te d c

e l emen tos d ecora t ivo s , a unquc c i c r tamcn tc s u a soc iac ión a o t ros c l emen to s s imbó l icos y l a s p ecu l ia r idades d e l s opo r tc h acen s ospccha r q ue t amb ién e n e s te c a so c l u so d e l e mb lema t u vo u n

S i b i cn e n l a s r ep re sen tac iones d c a n ima tes d e l

e ncuen t ran p a loma s yj un to ac i la s ye xccpc iona lmen te , a l g t in p ez ,s e rp ien te s ya l guno s s c re s f an ts t ico s , g rf os yg en ios od emon io s , t a n c omune s p o r o t ra pa s te e n c l a r te c r e to -m icén ico .

s en t ido muy e spec ia l . f )F ina lmen tc , t i n h e te rogénco g rupo d c o b je to s d c c a rác te rc l a ramen te v o t ivo e n o p imón d c l a mayo r Ia d c l o s a u tores , c ompue s to p o r f i gur i l la s f emen ina . s i mágene s d c l a " d io sa " od c s u s o f ic ian tes , v a . sos r i tua le s , c omo l o s d cnom inados " Va so s d c l a s e rp ien te" , m esa s d e o f rendas , maque tas , a l tare s p or tá t i les , e t c . . e n l o s q ue d c u na u o t ra f o rma e s tn t amb ién p re sen te s l o s C uerno s d c l a C onsag rac ión , a unquc e n e s to s c a so s q u izá n o s e t r a ta d c r epresen tac iones e n s en t ido e s tnc to , s i no d c l a u t i l izac ión d e l s imbo lo e n d e te rm inada s a soc iac ionc s y c i rcun s tanc ia se spec ia le s . E n c ua lqu ic r c a so , yc omo s eña lamo s a t c i ta r l o s f r e scos , c lc on jun to d c r ep re sen tac ione s e n l a s q ue l o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac iónapa rcccn f o rmando p a s te d c e scena s uo t ro t i po d c p rogra ina s i c onog raf ico s e s , n uméncamen te , r c la t ivamen te l im i tado r e spec to a t c on jun to d c h a l lazgo s d c c ada u no d c l o s t i po s d c o b je to s c i tado s , r c su l tando p o rt a n to s en s ib lemen te m á s a bundan te sa qudi lo se nl o sq ue e s t es Imbo lo n oa p a rece , h echo é s tc q ue p o r5 1m i smo h ab la y ad cl ap ccu l iar idad d e l p rop io e mb lema c uyo u so f ue muy p robab lcmcn tc e xc ius ivo p a ra d c tcrm inada s p er sona s , l uga re s y o ca s ione s .

L o s v a r iado s e l emcn to s q ue c ncon t ramo s a soc iado s d c u na uo t ra f o rma al o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión ,

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e n C re ta e s tá a t e s t iguada d e sdc c l Neo l I t ico , m ien t ra s q ue l ap ropo rc iOn r e la t iva d c r e s to s d c e s to s a n ima te s e n t re l aa iquco fauna d c d i s t in to s y ac im icn to s , p a rece p one r d c r e l ieve l a i mpo r tanc ia q ue t u v ic ron , n o s o lamcn tc d e sde c l p un to d c v i s ta e conóm ico s i no t amb ién e n r e lac iOn c on o t ro s a spec to s d c l a v i da m ino ica ,i mpo r tanc ia q ue e ncon t ra ino s c o r robo rada p o r s up re senc ia e nv a r ia sr ep re sen tac ione s a r t I s t ica s . A s I ,a l a s n u rne ro sa s f i gu r i l la s e ncon t rada s e n l o s d i fe rcn te s y acun icn to s c r e t cn sc s , e spcc ia lmcn tc e n S an tua r ios d e C ima d e Mon tana ye no t ro sl uga re sd cc u l to , S cs uman f r e sco s , a n i l lo s , s e l to s , i mp ron ta s , r hy ta , e t c . , e n l o s q ue s eo b servan e s cena s c uyo s p ro tagoms ta s s on e s to s a n ima te s , s i endo q u izá l a s má s c onoc ida s a que l la s e n l a s q ue l o s a t le ta s c r e ten sc s p ar t ic ipan e n e il i amado " J uego d e lT o ro "e n t re o t ra s d cd i fe ren te c a rác te r . E n e s te s en t ido e s i mpo r tan te s ub raya rl ae x is tenc ia d c e scena s e n l a s q ue c ls ac r if ic io d c e s to s a n ima te s e s e v iden te at r avé s d c l a s d i fe ren tc s r ep re sen tac ione s , a s I c omo s u muc r tc p or mcd io d c d c tc rm inada s a rma s -

d ob les h acha s omá s r a ramen tc , l a nza s -‚ r ep re sen tada i n c lu so e n o ca s ionc s s ob re " me sa s d c s a cr if ic io " o " a l ta re s d c s ang re" , e scena s c uyo me jo r c xponen te e s s i n d uda l a a i np l iamcn tc c onoc ida d e l s a rco fago d c

1 . 2 . LOS ELEMENTOS I ND IV IDUALES

V.

1 . 2 .1 .1 . LOS BOV IDOS C omo e s s ab ido , l ap re senc ia d c b óv ido s d omé s t ico s

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A y ia T r iada . P o r o t ra p as te , t a l c omo h a s ena lado N . Mar ina to s ( 1986 , 1 ) , l o s t o ro s s on l o s a n ima te s q ue ,

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2 16

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V.

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R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e spec ia l inen te e nl ag l Ip t ica ,a pa recen c omo v i c t ima se n l a s e scena s d e s acr if ic io , s i endo p or e l lo a igo s o rp renden te , a unque e n c i e r to m odo p a rece c on f irma r J ap ecu l ia r idad d el o s C uerno s d el aC on sag rac ión , q ue t a n s o lo e n d o s s d l lo s a pa rezcan r e lac ionado s c on e s te s imbo lo . E l p r ime ro d e do s e s

im

s e l lo e ncon t rado e n Ma i l ia

( Long , 1 974 , 6 7 ; Mü i ie r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , I V /3 ,L am . 2 05 , 3 7 ) , e n e lq ue e it o ro e s tá s ob re u na me sa d eo f renda s , a pa rec iendo s ob re e ia n ima l e is Imbo io s ag rado , u na e spada op uha i ( qu izá e ia rma u t i l izada e ne is a c r if ic io ) yp robab lemen te u n b ucran ia ( F ig .1 ,a ) o b i en l a r e pre sen tac ión e s t i l izada d c i m v a so r i tua l , i m r hy ton ( N . Manna to s , 1 986 , 2 9 ) ; e ip e r sona je ma scu l ino q ue , c on l o s b razo s e n a l to , p re s ide l ae scena p od r Ia s e r i d en t if icado c omo e is a ce rdo te uo f ic ian te d e l s a c r if ic io . E i s egundo s e l lo , p roceden te t amb ién d e C re ta ( Chapou t ie r , 1 946 , F ig .5 ,e ; E van s , 1 964jV /2 ,4 49 -50; Manna to s , 1 986 , 2 9 , F ig . 1 8 ) , e s a l go d i fe ren te ( F ig .1 , b ) ,e nt a n to q ue s et r a ta d cu ns e l lo d ob le : e nu na d c l a s c a ra s a pa rece g rabado u n t o ro a i anceado , m ien t ra s q ue e nl ao t ra s eo b se rva i mj ano d c l i bac ión a poyado s ob re l o s Cuerno s d c l a C on sagrac ion . P resum ib lemen te s e t r a ta , e n s u c on jun to , d c u na

1 931 , 6 33 - 3 4 , F ig . 6 55 ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 8 1) , l o s b óv ido s c on s t i tuyen u na p a r te e senc ia l d c l ad eco rac ión p i c tónca a soc iado s c on f i la sd cC ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión op a re s a i s lado sd c e i lo s q ue e n o ca s ione s s on a s u v cz s opo r te s p a ra d ob ie s -hacha s .H emo s d c s eña la r a dcmá s q ue e n e i p ane l l a te ra l d e l l a rnax d cl aT umba 1 0d cA rmeno i , e i t o ro a pa rece a soc iado a u na c abra ( F ig .1 , d ) , p r cv is ib iemen tc o t ra v I c t ima d e s t inada a ls ac r if ic io , t a l c omo s uccde a unque a l i I l a r ep resen tac ion e s má s e xp i Ic i ta ,e ne is a rcó fago d c Ay ia T r iadha . P o rs up a r te e il a rnax d cE p iskop ip re scn ta t r e sp a re s d cC ue rno s d c l a Con sag rac ión , u no d c l o s c ua lc s , s i tuado j un to ai m b óv ido ,a c t i ia t amb idn c omo s opo r te p a ra d ob le -hacha , q u izá e ia nna d e l s ac r if ic io ,e nt a n to q ue l o so t ro sp a re s a parcccn s obre c l a n ima l m ien tras u n a ye , p re sum ib iemcn tc u na p a loma , p re s ide t o da l ae scena , a c tuando t a l v cz c omo s Imbo lo d c l ap resenc ia d c l a d e idad e nl ac e remon ia . P o r o t ra p as te , l a a soc iac ión d e l s imbo lo s ag rado c s tud iado c on b óv ido s ya l p a rccc r c on r i tua le s q ue r c v i s t ie ron u na e spec ia l i mpo r tanc ia e ne i mundo e geo ,

c ompos ic ión d c c a rác te r n a r ra t ivo e n l aq ue s e r e ia ta c ómo t r a s e is a c r if ic io d e l t o ro , s us ang re , r e cog ida e n

c s tá t amb ién p rc sen tc e n l ad eco rac ión d c a l mcno s t i n v a so c e rám ico , p uc s s on b ucran ia l o s e l emen to s q ue , j un to a l a d ob le -hacha y a l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , a pa rcccn r e p re scn tado s e n l ac r á te ra d c

e ij a r ro ,s ev e r te rá s ob re c ls Imbo lo s a g rado . Má s e xp i lc i ta e s l ae scena , al aq ue n o s r e fe r lamo s má s a r r iba , r ep resen tada e n e i s a rcofago d c Ay ia

E nkom i ( F ig .! ,g ) , man ifc s t ándo sc a s I d c n uevo , l a a soc iac ión d ce so s t r e s c l emen to s : l o sb dv ido s ,p o s ib le s v I c t ima s d e l s acr if ic io , l a s d ob ic s -hacha s , p o s ib le s

T r iadha ( Chadw ick , 1 977 , F ig . 3 3 ; E van s , 1 964 , 1 , 4 39 4 0 , F ig . 3 16 -17 ; I V Il , 4 2 -44 , F ig . 2 7 ; Hu tch in son ,

i n s t rumen to s u t i l izado s e n c lm ismo , yl o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión , s ob re l o s q ue s e h a r lan l a s i bac ione s c on l as ang re d cl o sa n ima le s .

1 978 ,4 39 ; L ong , 1 974 ; P a rabem , 1 908 , 5 -8 8 , L am . 2 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 06 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 1 , 3 24 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 16 ) , e n l aq ue t a rnb ién e s mi t o ro e ia n ima l q ue h a s i do s acr if icado s ob re J a " me sa d c o f renda s" ( F ig .! ‚ c ) yc uya s angre s e r ecoge e n u n v a so s i tuado d eba jo d c l a m isma ; e sa s ang re , b i en p uede s e r c l l I qu ido q ue l af i gu ra , e n e s te c a so f ememna , q ue a c t i la c omo o f ic ian te v c r te rá e n c la l ta r s i tuado d e lan te d cl a e s t ruc tu ra c o ronada p o r C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac iön y

F ina lmen te , t odav Ia af i na le s d e l MR I I , t a l c omo i nd ica e i h a i lazgo d c im a l ta r p o r tá t i l e n K a rph i , d eco rado c on C ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión ,e nc uya c a ra s uper io r h ab Ia c ua t ro f i gu r i ta s d c t o ros , u na e n c ada e squ ina ,s e man ten la l av i ncu iac ión e n t re c s to s a n ima le s yl a d e idad , e n e s te c a so a lud iendo d c u na mane ra d i rec ta ys imból ica as us a c r if ic io .

d e l p o s te r ema tado p o r u na d ob le h acha , s ob re l aq ue e s tá p o sada i ma ye ,p o s ib lemen tc u na p a ioma . S ib i en l ae scena d c A y ia T r iadha e ss u f ic ien tcmen te e l ocuen te r c spec to a l ar c lac ión d e l s Imbo lo q ue n o s o cupa c on e i mundo r c l ig io so , y l o s s e l ios a n te r io rmen te m enc ionado s c omp le tan a pa ren temen tc e sa i n fo rmac ión , h ay q ue s cf la la rq ue a l mcno s e n t r es d cl o s l a rnake s h a l iado s e n l an ec rópo l is d c A rmeno i ( Kan ta , 1 980 , 2 13 ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 8 , F ig s . 2 1 , 9 1 , L ám s . 8 ,3 2 . ; M ichaud , 1 972 , 8 05 , F ig s . 5 12 - 5 14 ; Mü l le r -Karpe , 1 980 , I V /3 ,L am . 2 07 ,4 ,5 ,7 ) ( F ig .1 , d -f ) , ye n o t ro p rocedcn te d c E p iskop i ( Kan ta , 1 980 ; LEV I ,

1 . 2 .1 .2 . LA CABRA MONTES L o s c ápndo s c on s t i tuycn u na d c l a s c spec ie s m e jo r r ep re sen tada s e n l o s y ac im ien to s m ino ico s , yd c i gua l m ane ra s e t r a ta d c a n ima le s q ue c on f r ecuenc ia h acen s u a par ic ión e n e scena s d c s ac r if ic io e n l ai c onog ra f la c r e ten se , e spec ia lmen te e n l ag l Ip t ica . S in emba rgo , a l i g ua l q ue s ucedc e ne ic a so d cl o sb óv ido s l aa soc iac ión d ce s to s a n ima le s c on l o s C uerno s d cl aC on sag rac ión , s el im i ta ae s ca so s e j cmp la re sf r cn tc al o s o t ro s mucho s c a so se nq ue d i cha a soc iac ión n os ep roduce . C ab ra s mon tc sa s , s on l o s a n ima le s q ue a pa recen e n e ip a isa je mon ta i lo so q ue r odea c le d if ic io r ep re sen tado

2 17

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

e n e ic onoc ido c omo R hy ton d c Z ak ro s ( Ge s se l L 1 985 , 1 39 -40 , F ig . 8 9 ; I l awke s , 1 974 , 1 29 ; P la ton , 1 981,1 , 4 2 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 ,8 1 , 18 , 1 36 ,F ig .94 ; S haw , 1 978 , 4 32 y s . , F igs . 6 -9 .) , e d if ic io q ue p ara a i guno s i n ve s t igado re s e s or e p re sen ta u no d cl o s d enom inado s s an tua r ios d e C ima d e Mon tana ( F ig . 2 . a ) . S e t r a ta d e u n c omp le jo a rqu i tec ton ico c uyo mu ro e x ter io r e s tá c o ronado p o r C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión y e n c uyo p a t io o e spac io a b ie r to i n te r io r mue s t ra t r e s a l ta re s: e i p r imero d c e l lo s u na g r an p l a ta fo rma d c m a inpo s te r Ia q ue o cupa L a p os ic ión c en t ra l ; e i s egundo , o t ra e s t ruc tu ra d c mampo s ter la d c meno re s d imen s ione s y q u iza e sca lonada , c e rcana aL ae sca l ina ta , s ob re L aq ue s eh a l la i mp a rd cC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión p rov is to s d c r amas s agrada s ; f i na lmen te mi a l ta r oq u izá u na me sa d c o f renda s d c p a rede s i n cu rvada s ot i po s ka ra , s ob re e i p r ime r p e ldaf lo d c L a e sca l ina ta c en t ra l . E I c on jun to s e c omp le ta c on u na f a chada t npar t i ta , c uyo c uerpo c en t ra l e s tá d eco rado c on r o leo s ye sp ira ic s , s i gu iendo e i m ismo s i s tema c onvenc iona l q ue s e a p rec ia e n e ie d if ic io r ep rcscn tado e n e is a rcó fago d c A y ia T r iadha ( F ig . 1 , c ) ye n e if r e sco d e l a dy ton d c L a We s t H ou se d c Ak ro t i r i ( F ig .8 ,a ) ,e n t a n to q ue L o s d o s c ucrpo s L a tera les a pa recen c o ronado s t amb ién p o r C ue rno s d c l a Con sag rac ion y d e l im i tado s p o r s endo s p a re sd c " po s te sp a ra c s tanda r te s" d ce s t i lo c g ipc io . E l e d i f ic io r ep resen tado e n e s te r hy ton d c Z ak ro s e s tá u b icado , c omo d cc Iamo s , e n u n p a isa je r oco so , e n e iq ue a pa recen I b ice s s a l tando e n t re l a s r oca s , e nt a n to q ue o t ro sa n ima le sd e lm ismo t i po a pa recen e np o s ic ión d c r epo so s ob re l a p a r te s uper io r d e l c uerpo c en t ra l , m ien t ra s e n l o s c uerpos l a tera les s enda s a ye s -

p o s ib iemen te p a loma s c s tán p o sada s s ob re l o s e mb lema s s ag rado s , r ep it iendo a s I u na c ompo s ic ión -

muy s cmc jan te aL aq ue s eo b se rva e nl a s p l aca s d co ro e ncon t rada s e n l a s T umba s I I yI V d e l C I rcu lo A d c M icena s ( F ig . 3 , a ) . A s Ip ue s ,s ic ip a isa je p od r Ia i nd ica r q ue e is an tua r io r ep rc scn tado e s d e l t i po d c C ima d c Mon tana , L ap re senc ia d c c ab ra s e n a c t i tud d e r cpo so s ob re e i c uerpo c en t ra l p odr Ia i n terp re tar se c omo l a i nd icac ión d c q ue e s tos a n ima les , c ap tu rados p os ib lemen te e n e i e n torno d e l c omp le jo , e s taban d e s t inado s a ls ac r if ic io ,c e remon ia q ue p rcv is ib lcmcn te p od r Ia c e leb ra r se e n e i i n ter io r d e l m ismo , s i endo p robab le q ue e i g ran a l tar -p la ta fo rma q ue o cupa L a p o s ic ión c en t ra l s ea e nr c a l idad l ar ep rc sen tac ión d cu na m esa d e s acr zf ic ios , a s I c omo q ue L a s ang re d c L o s a n ima le s s a c r i l icado s f u e se r e cog ida yv e r t ida s ob re l o s C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión d epo s i tado s s ob re e io t ro a l ta r menc ionado . L a e scena g raf icamen tc n ar rada e n e l r hy ton d c Z ak ro s n o mue s t ra c l a ramen te , s i no m á s b i en d c f o rma

i mp l Ic i ta , L ar e lac ión e n t re s a c r if ic io , v I c t ima , l uga r y mane ra d e l r i tua l ye is Imbo lo s ag rado . E n e s te s en t ido c abe s ef ia la rq ue t ampoco o t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s e n L a s q ue a pa r ecen c ap r ido s ,c on L ac xcepc ión d e l " Sarcof ago d e A y ia T r iadha " n o s r c su l tan d ema s iado e xp l Ic i ta s , a unque d c a l gün modo c on t r ibuycn a c omp le ta r e i c onoc i in ien to d cs us i gn if icado . A s I , e n o t ra s d os o ca s iones s e c ncuen tran r ep re sen tac ione s s eme jan te s , p ue s e n ambo s c a so s s on a gr im i l o s a n ima le s i mp l icado s e n u na e scena d c a pa ren te c a rác tc rr i tua l ,o b je to s al o sq ue h ay q ue s uma r e i" l a rnax" h a l iado e n L aT .10 d c A rmeno i yi m f r e sco d cL aV i l la A d cA y ia T r iadha . S et r a ta ,e np r ime rl uga r , d c t i n a n i l lo -sc i lo e n c uya i conog raf Ia p od r Iamo s a d iv ina r , má s q ue r e a lmen te o b se rva r ,L ar ep re sen tac ión d c u na e scena d c s ac r if ic io , yc s to t e n iendo e n c uen ta q ue e n c l s a rcó fago d c Ay ia T r iadha d o s p equef ia s c ab ra s p a recen v I c t ima s p rop ic ia to r ia s e n l a m isma c e remoma d c s a c r if ic io d e l b óv ido ; e sp robab le q ue e n e ic a so d e l a n i l lo -sc i lo a q ue n os e s tamo s r e f inendo , p roceden te d e l T ho lo s I V d c E pano E ng l iano s , s e t r a te d cL ac onducc ión d e la n ima l h a s ta e il uga rd cs a cr i f ic io , a qu l u na e s t ruc tu ra ,que h a s i do i d en t if icada c omo u na c ap i L la o q u izá t i n " s an tuar io d c c ima d c mon taf ia " , c o ronada p o r C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión ,j un to a L a q ue a pa recen , au n i ado d o s p e r sona je s , q ue b i cn p od r Ian s e rl o so f ic ian te s d c L ac e rcmon ia , ya lo t ro u n a n ima l , p o s ib lcmcn te u na c ab ra ( F ig .2 ,b ) , q ue p a rcce s e r c onduc ida a lL uga r d c s a c r if ic io . ( B iegen e t A l . , 1 973 ,1 1 1 , 13 ,F ig .9 ,a -b ;R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,4 4 ,F ig .2 ,6 ) . E l s egundo s c i io c i tado e n e iq ue e x is te u na r e lac ión e n t re L a s c ab ra s mon tesa s u n a p rcsam icn to e s e i p rocedcn tc d cP a la ika s tro ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 53 -54 ,F ig .31 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , F ig . 2 2 , 1 ) , s i endo e n e s te c a so l o s p ro tago tus ta s d c L ae scena e n e ir cp re sen tada ( F ig .2 ,c ) u n I b ice a t acado o p robab lemen te c ap tu rado p o r mi d emon io , a le s t i lo d c o t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s c onoc ida s e n s e L lo s c r e tcn sc s ( Ma r ina to s , 1 986 ,4 2 -45 ) , y mi p a r d c C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ion q ue " p re s iden" L a c ap tu ra , s i tuado s ai ml a do d cl ae scena , yq ue a c tt ian a s u v cz c omo s opo r te d c t i n " p i la r a rbo lado" , e n t a n to q ue a lo t ro l a do ,j un to a ld emon io . a pa rcce u nt nángu lo c s t i l izado , i l amado " e i t r iángu io i mpa lado" , c uyo s i gn if icado s e h a d i scu t ido L a rgamen te ( Mar ina to s , 1 986 ,61) , yq u ei n c lu so p od r ia s e ri d en t if icado c omo c l a rma r i tua l c on L aq ue s e l L evan ac abo l o s s a c r if ic io s , e n e s te c a so am ano s d e l d emon t o , q ue a c tua r Ia c omo o f ic ian te e n L ac ap tu ra y s ac r if ic io d e l a n ima l , p a ra l u ego v c r te r s u s ang rc s ob re c ls Imbo lo s ag rado q ue a l p a rece rp re s ide t o da l ae scena . P o r s u p a r te , e ic i tado l a rnax d c L aT umba 1 0 d c A rmeno i ( F ig .1 ,d ) , mue s t ra e n u no d c L o s p anc ie s

2 18

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

l a te ra le s u na c ab ra mon té s s epa rada p o r u na f r an ja v e r t ica l d c r o leo s d c o t ro p ane l e n e iq ue a pa rece i m t o ro . Ambo s a n ima le s , q ue e no t ra s o ca s ione sa pa recen , c omo h emo s v i s to , c omo v I c t ima s d e l o s s a cnf ic io s , p ueden p one r se e n r e lac ión c on l ap re senc ia , e n l at a pa d e l l a rnax , d e i m p a r d e C uerno s d e l aC on sag rac ión q ue a c tüan c omo s opo r te d e u na d oble-hacha , r ep i t iendo se p o rt a n to e na l guna f o rma l a s a soc iac ione s aq ue n o sh emo sr e fe r ido a n te r io rmen te . F ina lmen te , r e spec to a l f r esco q ue a do rnaba l a h ab i tac ión 1 4d e l a r ea c e remon ia ld cl aV i l la A d cA y ia T nadha ( Came ron ,1 987 ,F ig .1 0 ) , c abe m enc iona r q ue , p e se as ug r an f r agmen tac ión s eh ap od ido o b se rva rq ue e ic a rác te r d e l ae scena e n e ir e p re sen tada e s d i f e ren tc d c l a s a r r iba m enc ionada s , y a q ue e n e l la a pa rece u na f i gu ra f ememna r i camen te v e s t ida ,u na " D io sa " ,s en tada a n te u n e d if ic io c o ronado p ot C ue rnos d e L a C on sag rac ión , yj un to ae l la at i n l a do o t ro p e r sona je , ‚

t amb ién f emen ino ,r e coge f i b re s l i r io s ya t a f r án ya l o t ro c ab ra s yg a to s s e mueven e n u n p a isa je r oco so , -'

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r e sa l tando p o r s u b e l leza l a f i gu ra d c u no d c e so s f e l ino s q ue a cecha a u n p a ja r i l lo r o jo d c l a rga c o la n egra .T odo p a rece i n d ica rq ue e ne s te c a so l ad i v imdad a pa rece c omo D io sa d c l a v ege tac ion y d c l a v ida a n ima l , e n d e f im t iva d c l a N a tu ra leza , m ien t ra s q ue q u izá l a p re senc ia d c c ab ra s mon te sa s e n t i n p a isa je r oco so , c omo e n c l r hy ton d e Z akros , s e p ueda i n te rp re ta rc omo l ar ep re sen tac ión d cl o sa n ima le sc uyo s a cn f ic io c on s t i tu Ia u na o f renda a l a D io sa , l a c ua l m ien t ra se ne s te f r e sco d cA y ia T r iadha 5 1e s tá p re sen te , s i n e mba rgo e n e i v a so d c Z ak ro s p o s ib lemen te c s tuv ie se r ep re sen tada p o rl a s p a loma sp o sada s s ob re e i s Imbo lo s ag rado . 1 . 2 .1 .3 . LOS L EONES S i b i en e s tos f e l ino s n o f o rman p a r te d c l a f a una c r e ten se , t odo p a rece i nd ica r q ue l o s a r t is ta s e geo s e s tuv ie ron b a s tan te f am i l ia r izado s c on e l lo s , h a st a c l p un to d e h abe r lo s r ep re sen tado e n s u s má s c l a ra s a c t itudes d c c aza c on u na g ran c or recc ión y n a tu ra l ismo . P o r o t ra p a r te , l o s l e one s p a recen h abe r s i do e l eg ido ss i s temá t icamen te e nl ai c onog ra f Ia e g ipc ia yc geo -o r ien ta l , a s I c omo e n o t ro s c I rcu lo s c u l tu ra le s d e l P róx imo y Med io O r ien te , c omo l a max ima e xp r c s ión d e l p ode r ,e nr e lac ión d i rcc ta c on l ap o tenc ia ei n te l igenc ia d ce s to s magn i f ico sc azado rc s . Du ran tc c l Im i len io l o s l eone s s e c ncon t raban t o dav Ia e n t re l a f auna d ca mp l ia sr cg ione s d cA s ia O cc iden ta l , Ana to l ia yp o r s upue s to e n E g ip to , l oq ue s upone q ue l a s g en ie s d e l E gco a r t is ta s y me rcade res

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p ud ie ron d c a l guna

f o rma c n t ra r e n c on tac to c on e s to s a n ima les b i en d i rec tamen te , b i en at r avd s d cl a s r cp re sen tac ione s q ue

d c e l lo s s eh ac Ian e n e so s á mb i to s c u l tu ra le s , s i emp re c on l a s c onno tac ione s a n tc r iormen t e s ena lada s , p o r l o q ue e s muy p robab le q ue , y ad esde c lM ino ico A n t iguo , n o s o lamen te s ec op ia ra ,a dap tándo ia a l modo mmo ico , s u f o rma f I s ica , s i no t amb ién c l s imbo l ismo d c s u magen e n s u s d o s a spec to s f undamen ta les : l o s d c a n ima lc azado r yh e r á id ico . A s I , l a mayor p ar te d c l a s n umerosas r ep re scn tac ione sc onoc ida s d cl e one s ,e spec ia lmen te e n l a g l Ip t ica , c o r rc sponden a l s egundo d c l o s a spec to s a n te r ionncn tc s ef ia lado s ys u p ape l , s eh a i n te rp re tado e n o ca s ioncs c omo u na r ep re sen tac ión s imbó l ica d c a cc ione s s acr if ic ia les , e n l a s q ue l o s d ep rcdado re s s imbo l iza r Ian t a n to s ace rdo te s c omo c azado re s ( N . Ma r ino to s , 1 986 , 4 3 ) , d c mane ra s eme jan te a c omo s ucede c on l o s g r ifo s od emon ios . S in embargo , l o s l e one s e n t a le s c scena s n o s uc icn e s ta r a soc iado s al o s C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ión , a l c on t ra r io d c l o q ue s ucede c on L o s g r ifo s ,

m ien t ra s q ue e i l e on c omo

a n ima l h erá ld ico s f a pa rece a soc iado a l s Imbo lo m ino ico , a unque d csdc l u ego d c f o rma e xcepc iona l p ues s O lo e x is te u na r ep resen tac ión c onoc ida , l a i mp ron ta d e l i l amado D epó s i to d e l o s J e rog i lf icos d e l P a lac io d c C no s so s , c e rcano al aC ap i l la T r ipa r t i ta d e l A la O cc iden ta l ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 1 /2 , 8 08 -09 , F ig .528 ; Hu tch in son , 1 978 , 4 20 ; Mo rgan , 1 988 , 4 5 , F ig .28 ; P ea tf ic ld , 1 983 , 2 79 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 6 3 ; P la ton , 1 981 , T . I . 2 81) . R e spec to ae s ta p i eza h ay q ue s ef l a la rq ue e n r e a l idad , E vans e ncon t rO g ran c an t idad d c f r agmen to s d c i mp ron ta s c o r re spond ien tc s e n s u mayo r p a r te a l i n i smo s e l lo , l oq ue l ep erm i t iO r e con s t ru i re id i seno d c mi

e j cmp la rc omp le to e ne iq ue a pa rece r la r ep re sen tada

u na d c idad f emen ina s i tuada s ob re l a c ima d c u na mon tana , f i anqueada p o t d o s l e one s r ampan te s , a n te l a c ua l a pa rece t i n p e r sona jc ma scu l ino e n t i n l a do , ya l o tro una e s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tón ica , t a l v ez i mc d if ic io d c c a rác te r r e l ig ioso , c oronado p o r C uernos d c l a C on sag rac iOn ( F ig .2 ,d ) ; c sa d iv in idad f emcn ina , q ue p robab icmen te p odemo s i den t if ica r c on l a D io sa M ino ica ,p e r son if icada c omo " Seño ra d cl o sA n ima le s" , p re s ide L ae scena , ya n te e l la s e e ncucn t ra t i n e d if ic io q ue q u izá p od r ia i n te rp rc ta r sc c omo l ar cp rc scn tac ion d c s u r e s idenc ia e n l at i e r ra , r eve lando c omo e n o t ro s c a so s , i n c lu so e n e i d c l a s C ap i l la s T r ipa r t i ta s , l a a soc iac ión e n t re l a" d io sa " ye i emb lema s agrado . L o s l eone s , a c tuando c omo a n ima le s h e rá ld ico s oq u izá a n ima le s s Imbo lo d c l aD io sa , t amb ién p od r Ian s e rl o s g ua rd iane s d c l am isma o d c s u r c s idcnc ia , p ape l q ue e s to s a n ima le s t amb ién d c sempef iaban e nl ai c onog r af Ia o r ien ta l yq ue s e man tuvo al o L a rgo d e l t i cmpo h a s ta i l ega ra l mundo m ed ieva l c r is t iano .

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2 19

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

1 . 2 .1 .4 . LOS MONOS ANTROPO IDES C omo e n e ic a so d c l o s l e one s , e s e v iden te q ue l o s mono s a n t ropo ide s n o f o rmaban p a r te d e l a f auna a u tóc tona e gea , s i b i en e s to s a n ima le s p ud ie ron y d eb ie ron s e rc onoc ido s p o rl a s g en te sm ino ica s at r avé s d e s u s c on tac to s c on E g ip to . L a s r ep re sen tac ione s d e mam I fe ro s a n t ropo ide s s on muy n ume ro sa s e n e ia r te c r e ten se , s it e nemo s e n c uen ta l o s h a i lazgo s e f ec tuado s t a n to e n J ap rop ia C re ta c omo e n Ak ro t i r i . U no d c l o s f r agmen to s d e f r e sco má s a n t iguo s d e l P a iac io d c C no sso , e ncon t rado e n c l s ec tor d e l d enom inado An t iguo B a s t ion y c onoc ido c omo e i " Reco lec tor d e A zaf ran" ( Evan s , 1 964 , I I , 2 3 ) , e n c l q ue A . E van s

d c Mon tana" , ante e iq ue u no d c l o s "M onos A zu le s" e s tá e n a c t i tud d c a do rac iOn (Mo rgan ,1988 , 8 4 ) . E s to s f r agmen to s p uedcn f o rma r p a r tc d c u na e scena d c c a rác ter d e sconoc ido a l a q ue t amb ién p odr Ian p e r tencce r l o s r e s tan te s f r agmen tos e ncon t rado s e n l a z ona ( Douma s , 1 983 , 7 7 ) , p e ro s u mayo ri mpo r tanc ia , r e spec to a lp rob lema q ue n o s o cupa , r e s ide e n q ue , c omo s ena lábamo s , p o r p nme ra yt m n ica v cz , a lm eno s h as ta l a f c cha , v cz l o s "Monos A zu le s" a pa recen a soc iado s al o s Cue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn e n u na p o s ic iOn y a c t i tud r e se rvada i mc ia lmen tc p a ra l a s f i gu ra s hu lnRnRs , t a n to f emen iv a sc omo m a scu l ina s . S in

i n ic ia lmen te h ab Ia i den t if icado l a f i gu ra d c i mj oven p in tado e na zu l , má s r e c ien temen te s eh ar em te rp re tado c omo l af i gu ra d ci m "Mono A zu l" , ap ar t i rd e lh alazgo

emba rgo , aj uzga r por l a a pa ren te s imbo log la d c l o s r e s tan te s f r e sco s d c T e ra y d c C no sso s e n l aq ue l o s a n t ropo ide s s on p ro tagon is ta s , n o p uede d e sca r ta r se l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue l aa c t i tud e n q ue a pa rece e ia n ima l

d c l o s f r e sco s q ue d eco raban l a H ab i tac ión B 6 d e l E d if ic io B d c Ak ro t ir i -" F re sco d e l o s Monos A zu le s "

s ea r ea lmcn te r i tua l , s us t ituycndo c oncep tua l y s imbO l icamen tc , a l o f ic ian tc h umano a l q ue

( Douma s , 1 983 ,78 ) , y d e l q ue o rnamen taba L a H ab i tac ión 3 d c l a X c s tc 3 , e n e i q ue i m g rupo d c "M ono sA zu le s" r c a l izan d i ve r sa s a c t iv idade s ( Douma s , 1 983 , 1 08 ) , e n t re e l ia s l ar c co lecc ión d c a za f ran y u na o f renda aJ aD io sa (Mar ina to s , s . f . ; Mo rgan , 1 988 , 1 68 ) .A l o s h a l lazgos r e a l izado s e n T e ra h ay q ue s uma r , a demá s d e l f amo so f r e sco menc ionado d e l P a lac io d c

c o r rc spondc r Ia a c tua r .

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C nosso , l o s f r agmen to s e ncon t rado s e n l a c onoc ida c omo C a sa d c l o s F re sco s , t amb ién e n C no sso , con l o s q ue E van s ( 1964 , 4 31-467 ) , r e con s t ruyó u na s e r ie d c p ane les , r ec icn temcn te r e in terp re tado s p o r M .A .S . C ame ron ( 1968 ) , e n l o s q ue a ho ra s eh an i d en t i f icado a l meno s s e is "Monos A zu les " , q ue p a r t ic ipan e n u na c omp le ja e scena q ue s e d e sa r ro l la e n u n p a isa je d c e s t i lo e g ipc io ,c uyo p rog rama i c onog rt i f ico p a rccc e s ta r r e lac ionado c on l o s r i tua le s d c r enovac iOn d c l a v ida v ege ta l . A s I p ue s , l o s "M onos A zu le s" , p a recen d e sempef la r u n p ape l r e la t ivamen te i mpo r tan te e n l a i conog ra f Ia m ino ica , a unque , t a n s O lo e n i m c a so e ncon t ramo s l a a soc iac iOn c on l o s C uerno s d c l a Consagrac iön , h a l lazgo q ue n o s e h a p roduc ido e n C re ta s i no e n A k ro t ir i ( Te ra ) ( Bran igan , 1 981 , 2 8 -9 ; Douma s , 1 983 , 7 7 ; Ma roma to s ,N . , 1 984a , 12 -13 ,F ig .79 ; 1 984 b ,1 67 ; Ma r ina to s , S . , 1 969 , 5 3 , F ig .43 ; Mo rgan , 1 988 , 8 4 ; R R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 12 , 2 26 ) , d onde e n c l s ec to r d c A lmacenc s A lfa , s i tuado a lf o r te d c l ac i udad y e n L a H ab i tac ión A lfa 1 ,u na p cquef ia e s tanc ia d c u na z ona d e s t inada aa lmacene s , s ec ncon t rO e if r agmcn to d c u n f r e sco c onoc ido c omo c ll o s "M onos A zu le s " , e n e iq ue a pa ren temen te v ar ios a n ima le s r odean una e s t ruc tu ra c o ronada c on C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOny s opo r tada p o rc o lumna sr ema tada s por p ap iro s ( F ig .2 ,e ) , c on jun to q ue p odr Ia s e r l af i gu rac ion d c u n " San tuar io d c C ima

1 . 2 .1 .5 . AVES C omo t a n ib ién e s b i cn c onoc ido , l a s a yes t i enen u n impor tan te p ape l e nc la r t e c r e ten se , yn o s o lo d e sde c l p un to d cv i s ta d cl av a r iedad d c e spec ie s r cp rc scn tada s ys u a decuac iOn al o s e n to rno s n a tu ra le s e nl o s p a isa je s p in tado s e n l o s f r e sco s , oe n l a s c sccna s f i gu rada s e n l o s s e l lo s ei n c lu so e na l guna sj oya s ( Te so ro d cE g ina ) . F recuen temen tc s et r a ta d ca n sá t ida s ,r ep re sen tada s c on t odo l u jo d c d e ta l le s v o lando , e n s u s n ido s , e n c l momen to d c s e rc azada s p o r g a to s , g r ifo s , e t c . . , ym á s r a ramen te r c lac ionadas c on f i gura s h umana s , ma scu l ina s of emen ina s ,q ue s ei d en t if ican c omo d i o se s e n s u p ape l d c " Seño re s d c l o s A n ima lc s" , t a l c omo s ucede e n e ic a so d e l c o lgan te d c o ro d e l T eso ro d c E g ina , e n e i q ue c l p er sona jc ma scu l ino s o s t iene f i rmemen te d o s p a to s , u no e nc ada mano , oe nc ld cu n s e l lo c r e ten se e n e iq ue u na " D io sa " s u je ta i gua lmen tc c on f i rmeza o t ro sd o sa n sa rc s (Mo rgan , 1 988 ,6 5 ,F ig s . , 4 9 y 5 0 ) . S in emba rgo , a unque l a s a ná t ida s s e r ep re sen ta ron c on mayo r f r ecucnc ia , s on l a s p a loma s l a s a ye s q ue a pa recen má s d i rec tamen te r e lac ionada s c on l a D io sa y a dcmá s , l a s t i n icas q ue a pa recen e n c on tac to c on e is Imbo lo s ag rado q ue f uc ron l o sC ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión . Apa ren tcmen tc e s ta s a ye s t i enen u n s i gn if icado i c onog ráf ico q ue t r a spa sa l o me ramen te d e sc r ip t ivo e n c uan to al ae spec ic r ep rc sen tada . D e sdc c s te p un to d c v i s ta d eb ie ron s e r emb lema s , oi nc lu so t e ne r u na f unc iOn r e l ig io sa e spec I l ica . S c e ncuen t ran p a loma s p osada s

s ob re c o lumnas , p os tcs r ema tado s c on

d ob ic shacha s , e st r uc tu ra s a rqu i tcc tOn ica s , a l ta re s y C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn , p e ro t amb ién s i tuada s

2 20

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s ob re l o s b r azo s yl a s c abeza s d c e s ta tu u l la s f ememna s .

d c o ro p roceden te s d c l a s T umba s I I yI V d e l C I rcu lo

P odr ian i n te rp re ta r se c omo s Imbo lo s d e L as an t idad d c a n l u ga r , c omo s eüa l d e ti n " p r e senc ia s agrada " , c omo m en sa jera s d c l o s d io ses , e t c . . . , ei n c lu so a inbu ir se c omo " an ima l -s Imbo lo" d e u na d e idad p a r t icu lar ,

Ad c M icena s ( D ick in son , 1 977 ;E van s , 1 901 , 9 9 ys . , F ig .65 ;H agg , S i cu r in , 1 982 , 1 86 ; My lona s , 1 966 , 1 38 -

c onv i r t iendo c on s up re senc ia l ae s ta tu i l la e ni magen d e l a m isma . A s I m i smo , e n o ca s ione s s e e ncuen tran p a loma s a i s lada s , ei n c lu so p equef ia s e s ta tu i l la s q ue l a s r ep re sen tan ( Mo rgan , 1 988 , 6 6 ) , a unque e n a soc iac ión d i rec ta c on l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión ,t a ns o lo s e h an p od ido c a ta Loga r a l guna s p i eza s , d e muy d i ver sa n a tu ra leza , f unc iona l idad y c rono log Ia , e n l a s q ue s e mue s t ra s u r e lac iOn . T a l e s e ic a so , e n p r ime r l uga r e i S a rcofago d e Ay ia T r iadha , e n c uya e scenograf Ia ( F ig .1 ,c ) a pa rece u na p a loma p o sada s ob re u n p o s te r ema tado p o r u na d ob le hacha p re s id iendo l ae scena d e l s ac r if ic io d e l t o ro y L a o f renda q ue h ace l a s ace rdo t isa s ob re e i a l ta r , o f renda c on s i s ten te e n e l l I qu ido c on ten ido e n u nj a r ro yl o s f r u to s d epo s i tado s e n u n r ec ip ien te ; e n d i cha e scena , e la ve p odr Ia e s ta r

3 9 , F ig . 1 22 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 11 , 6 ;T ay Lou r , 1 983 , F ig .44 ;Y av is , 1 949 ,30 , 1 3 ,F ig .1 7 ) ,e nl a s q ue a pa rece r e p re sen tada u na e s t ruc tu ra t r ipa r t i ta p o s ib lemen tc u na " Cap i l la " c uyo s d o sc ue rpo s l a te ra le s e s tán r ema tado s p o r p a re s d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac iOn s ob re l o s -

-

e s tán p o sada s s enda s p a loma s , a n ima l -s Imbo lo d c l a d e idad , q ue s eha lan L a s an t idad d e l l ugar o b i en a nunc ian , c omo e n o t ra s o ca s ione s , l ap re senc ia d c l a D io sa e n e i r e c in to s ag rado , e n t a n to q ue c l c uc rpo c en t ra l , má s a l to ,e s tA c o ronado p o ro t ro s d o s p a re s d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac ión s uperpue s to s yl a z ona i n fer io r d e l s upues to e d if ic io p re sen ta t i e s c o lumna s a pa ren temen te a poyada s s ob re o t ro s t a n to s p a re s d e l m ismo emb lema ( F ig .3 ,a ) . A s Im ismo , l aa soc iac iOn d c p a loma s yC ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac iOne s v i s ib le t amb ién e n d os d c l a s

a c tuando c omo a n ima l-s Imbo lo d e l a d e idad , d e l a

e s t .a tu i l la s f ememna s h a l lada s e n c lp equef lo s an tuar io d cG az i ( Ge ssd l l , 1 985 , 6 9 ,F ig .3 ,4 4 ,4 5 ; K an ta , 1 980 ,

" d io sa m ino ica" , e n t an to q ue l o s C ue rno s d e L a C on sag rac ión q ue c o ronan l ae s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tomca u b icada d e t rá s d e l p o s te s ob re c l q ue s e e ncuen t ra

2 0 ; P la ton , 1 981J , 3 29 , 3 57 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 03 , F ig . 1 43 ) . L a p r ime ra d c e l la s L l eva u na t i a ra c on u n p a rd c C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac ión f l anqueado p o r d o s

p o sada L a p a loma , a c tuar Ian c omo e mb lema d c l a s an t idad d e ll uga r ,t a l yc omo s es eña lO e no t ra ca s ión .

p a loma s , p o r l oq ue l aa soc iac ión d c a mbo s s Imbo lo s h ace s o specha rq ue q u iza s e t r a te d c u na i magen d c l a

O t ra p i eza e nL aq ue s eo b se r va l aa soc iac ión d ea ye s yc ls Imbo lo o b je to d e n ue s t ro e s tu cl io e s e ic onoc ido c omo R hy lon d cZ ak ro s ,e ne lq ue l a sp a loma s a pa recen

d e idad ( F ig .3 ,b ) . L as egunda f i gu ra , t amb ién f ememna

e n d o s p os ic ione s d i s t in ta s , u na p o sada s ob re l o s C ue rno s d e l a C on sagrac iOn y l a o t ra v o lando p a ra s i tua r se s ob re o t ro d c l o s p a re s d c e s te e mb lema q ue c o ronan l o s d o s c ue rpo s l a te ra le s ( F ig .2 ,a ) ; e sp robab le q ue e n e s te c a so l a s p a loma s a c tüen d e n uevo a n ima les -s Imbo lo d c l a d e idad q ue r e s ide e n e i s an tua r io , o b ien q ue a nunc ien s u p resenc ia y b encp lác i to a n te yp a ra l o s s ac r if ic io sq ue v an al eva r se a cabo . F o r s u p a r te , e n l a p laca d c b ronce g rabada p roceden te d c l aC ueva d c P sych ro ( P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 07 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 1 , 1 38 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 3 , 5 7 , 7 0 , F ig . 5 9 ; Wi l lc t t s , 1 962 , 1 45 ) , s e r ep re scn tO u na e scena ( F ig .2 ,f ) d c p robab le c a rác te r r i tua l e n l a q ue u n p e r sona je ma scu l ino p a rece e s ta re j ecu tando u na d anza e n t i n e scena r io e ne lq ue h ay t i e s p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l aC onsagrac ión , l o s t i e s a c tuando c omo s opo r te s d c " r a ina s s agra .da s" , yu n a rbo l s ob re o t ra e s t ruc tu ra r e c tangu la r , p o s ib lemen te u n a l ta r ; e n e s te c a so t o da l a e scena e s tá p re s id ida p o r u na p a loma a compa f iada p o r d o s s Imbo lo s a s tra ic s , p o r u nl a do c ld i sco s o la rq ue s e e ncuen t ra s ob re e l la yp o ro i ro u nc r ec ien te l u na r . Menc ión e spec ia l mereccn l a s d o s p equena s p l aca s

yd c t amaf io y c a rac te r I s t ica s s im u la rc s al a a n te r io r , a pa rece t o cada c on o t ra t i a ra , p e ro é s ta c on d i fe ren te s a domo s u na p a loma e n c lc en t ro , d o s p a le ta s ac ada -

l a do d cl am i sma yo t ra sd o s p l aca sr ema tada s e nf o rma d c C uernos e n l o s l a te ra le s p o r l o q ue t a inb ién e s muy p robab le q ue , c omo e n c l c a so d c l a f i gu r i l la -

‚

a n te r io r , s e t r a te d c u na i magen d c " D io sa " yn o s imp lemen te d cu na o f renda . A e sa s d o s f i gu r i l la s h ay q ue a üad ir u na t e rce ra , p roceden te d e l T emp lo 1 d c Ka rph i , u no d c l o s " San tua r io s c on b anco " u rbano s d c C re ta d c c rono Log Ia má s t a rd Ia ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 , 7 9 , F ig .49 ,a ; H u tch in son , 1 978 , L am . 2 1 ; P end lebury e t A l . , 1 937 -39 ,75 ; R u tkow sk i , 1 986 ) . E nl aH ab i tac ión 1d c e se c omp le jo d c c u l to s e h a l laron v a r ia s f i gu r i l la s f cmcn inas d c t e r raco ta d c c on s ide rab le s d imen s ione s , e n t re l a q ue d e s taca u na , q ue c on serva r c s to s d c d cco rac ión p in tada ei n c isa , t o cada c on u na t i a ra o d i adema a do rnada c on e mb lema s s ag rado s - C ue rno s d c l a C on sagrac ión - y a ye s .P o s ib iemcn tc ae s te g rupo d cf i gu r i l la sc on s t i tu ido p o rL a s d cG az i yK a rphy d ebamo s s uma ra que l la s al a s q ue d eb ie ron p e r tenece r l o s f r agmen to s d c p equeno s e mb lema s s cme jan te s al o s d c s u s t i a ra s , h a l lado s e n e i A lmacén I I d e l " Comp le jo d e l S an tuar io " d c K ann ia ( Ge sse l i , 1 985 ,77 -79 ) j un to a o t ra s f i gur i l la s d c

2 21

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

" d io sa s" . E n t re l o s o b je to s d e c a rác te r n e tamen te f une rar io ,

K arph i s e h aHa u n f r agmen to d c u na p Ix idc c on d eco rac ión t a jnb ién p in tada e n l a q ue a pa reccn l o s

c onc re tamen te e na l guno s l a rnake s d el a sn ec rópo l is d c E p i skop i yGyophy rak ia ( C re ta ) yd cT anag ra ( Beoc ia ) s e e ncucn t ran a lguna s a soc iac ione s e n t re p a loma s y

C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ion c omo s opor te d c l a d ob le -hacha ,f l anqueado s p o rd o s a ye s , q u izá p a loma s ( F ig .3 ,c ) . D ada l ac rono log Ia t a rd Ia d c e s ta s c e rám ica s f i na les d e l MR h IC ! S ubm ino ico ( Se iradak i , 1 960 ,

C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ión , t amb ién a pa rece l a

-

-

ys imbó l ica s ep re tende n a r ra re is acnf ic io r i tua l d c t i n

F ig . 2 4 , A ,2 ) ,s up re senc ia p one d c man i f ic s to , c omo c l c a so d e l l a rnax d c T anag ra q ue l ac u l tu ra m ino ica c on se rvó d u ran te mucho t i empo l a mcmona d c l o s e l emen to s s unbö l ico sa soc iado s al a" d io sa " . P o r t i l t imo e s o b l igado menc iona r a qu l c lh echo d c q ue e n t re l o s s e l lo s e n l o s q ue a pa recen a ye s s e

t o ro , m ien t ra s q ue e n e i e j emp la r d c G iophyrak ia ( Daux , 1 960 , 8 40 ; K an ta , 1 980 , 2 1 ,F ig . 13 , 1 ; , 1 974 ,

e ncuen t ra c l h a l lado e n l a T umba d c C áma ra 1 0 , c onoc ida c omo , d c D endra , M idea ( My lona s , 1 966 ,

6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 7 8 , n o ta 2 61 ; Wa lbe rg , 1 988 , 2 14 ) , p re sen ta e n c lp ane l c en t ra l d c

1 39 -140 , F ig .1 24 , 3 ; P e r sson , 1 942 , 8 1-83 , 9 5 , L am . V I I , l a -c ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 06 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,

u no d c l o s l ado s l a rgo s u n p a r d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión r ep re sen tado s e n e s ta o ca s ión c omo s opo r te d c u na d ob le - h acha s ob re l a q ue a pa rece

F ig .l , 12 ; 1 986 ,203 ys . , 2 11 ,3 ,F ig . 2 94 ; S akc l la r iou , 1 964 ,2 16 , 2 18 ;Y av is , 1 949 ,3 0 ,4 ,F ig . 1 8 ) . S e t r a ta d c

p o sada u na p a loma , r ep re scn tac ión q ue r e cue rda l ay a menc ionada d e l s a rcófago d c Ay ia Tnadha . S in

u na e scena d c c a rác te rr eig io so ,p ro tagon izada p o rd o s f i gu ra s f cmen ina s s i tuada s d e lan te d c u na e s t ruc tu ra c o lumnada ,r ema tada ,c omo e sb a s tan te h ab i tua l ,p o rt i n p a r d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión , r e lac ionado s c on d o s p á ja ro s ,e ne s te c a so t amb ién q u iza p a loma s ,q ue a l c on t rano q ue e no t ra so ca s ione s n oe s tán p o sada s s ob re

a soc iac ión aq ue n o s e s tamo s r ef i r iendo , a unque c on c a rac ter I s t ica s muy d i fe ren tes . E n c l l arnax d e E p iskop i , y a c i tado e n o t ro l uga r , l ap a loma p a rece p res id i r l a e scena q ue s e r ep re sen ta e n u no d c l o s p ane le s l a te ra le s , e scena e nl aq ue d cf o rma c oncep tua l

emba rgo , e ip ape l d c l a s a ye s e n e il a rnax d c T anag ra ( Ru tkowsk i , 1 981 , 8 8 , F ig .26 , 4 ; S py ropou lo s , 1 970 , 1 84 y s . , F ig .8 ) , e s p a r te d c mnguna a pa reccn p osada s s opo r tados a s u v ez

muy d i fe ren tc y a q ue n o f o rman e scena , s i no q ue s imp lemcn tc s ob re l o s c ua t ro d i scos q ue , p o r l o s c o r rc spond ien te s p a re s d c

C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , r ema tan l o s c ua t ro á ngu lo s d e l s a rco fago ( F ig . 3 , c ) . A s I , s u s i gn i f icado p o s ib lcmcn te n o s ea c l m ismo q ue e n l o s c a sos a n te r io re s , a unque t a l v ez s f s u v a lo r c omo a n ima l s Imbo lo d c l a d e idad , p o s ib lemen te e n s u d ob le v a lo rac ión d c " d io sa d c l a muc r te y d c l a v i da" , s e c on servó e n f a se s muy t a rd la s ( F IR I l IB I I l iCi) y t amb ién f u c ra d cl ai s la d cC re ta . Una f unc ión e v iden temcn te d i s t in ta f ué l ad e l r hy lon c ón ico d e l " B loque P i" d c P a la ika s t ro ( Dawk in s , 1 903 -04 , 2 12 -214 , F ig . 5 a ; 1 904 -05 , 2 86 ; Hood , 1 977 , 1 67 ) , c uya d eco rac ión p in tada o f rece , e n l a p a r tc s uper io r , u n f nso d c C ue rno s d c l a C onsagrac ión , m icn t ra sq ue e nl ai n f er io r s er ep rc scn tó u na ve c on l a s a l a s e x tend ida s , c uya e spec ie n o p uede d e te rm inar sc c on s cgundad , a unque p o s ib lcmen te p ueda t r a ta r se d c u na p a loma ( F ig .3 ,d ) , p o rl oq ue e ne s tc c a so d c n uevo v o lver lamos a e ncon t ra r y , e s ta v ez e n u n v a so d c c a rác te r r i tua l h a l lado e n u n p robab le s an tuar io d omé s t ico , l aa soc iac ión e n t re c la n ima l - s Imbo lo d cl a d e idad

f cmcn ina

y c l s Imbo lo o b je to d c

e s ta

c omun icac ión . E n c ua lqu ie r c a so , n o e s d s te c lt lmco v a so c erám ico c uya d ccorac ión i nc luyc d icha a soc iac ión ,p ue s to q ue e n t re l o s ma te r ia le s d ce sa c l a se e ncon t rado s e n c l t a rd Io a scn tam icn to m ino ico d c

u na n i l lo s c l lo d c o ro ( F ig . 3 ,0 , e ne iq ue s er ep re sen tó

e i

s Imbo lo

s agrado

q ue

c orona

l a e s t ruc tura

a rqu i tec tón ica , s i no r evo lo teando e n s u i n ter io r , yq ue q u izá a nunc ian d c e s ta f o rma l al egada o l ap re scnc ia d cl ad i v in idad e ne is an tuano . 1 . 2 .1 .6 . LOS P ECES Y OTROS F I .F MENTOS DE LA FAUNA MAR INA S ib i en l af a una ma r ina t i ene u na p re scnc ia má s q ue n o tab le e ne ia r te c r e t cn se , u t i l izándo se c omo e l emcn to c l a ramcn te d e f in i tono d e l med io amb icn te e n q ue s e d e sa r ro l lan n ume ro sa s e scena s , ob i en c omo e l cmen to d cco ra t ivo e n s u s mucha s v ar ian te s , s i n emba rgo l a a soc iac ión c on l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión e s muy p oco f r ecuen te ,p ue s s el im i ta a lp ez r cp rc scn tado e nl a p l aca d c b ronce h a l lada e n l aC ueva d c P sych ro aq ue n o s h emo s r e f endo a n ter io rmen te , a s I c omo a l q ue a pa rece e nu ns opo r te d cc e rám ica h a l lado e nC no s so . E i p ez g r abado e n l ap l aca d c P sych ro e s d c t r azo muy e squemá t ica ( F ig . 25 ) , a unque p resen ta b i en d ef imda s l ac o la y l a s a l e ta s d o r sa le s , l o q ue p e rm i te d e te rm ina r q ue n o s e t r a ta d c u n d e lf In , c l a n ima l a cut ico má s r ep re sen tado p o r l o s a r t is ta s m ino ico s y q ue t amb ién a pa rece e n e scena s a pa ren temen te d c c a rác tc r c e remon ia l ( Mo rgan , 1 988 , 6 0 -63 ) , r azOn p o r l ac ua l p robab lemcn te c lp ez r ep re scn tado e n e sa p l aca d c P sych ro n o d eba s e r c on s ide rado má s q ue c omo l a r cp re scn tac ión d cu na o f rcnda r e lac ionada c on L ae s cena

A

2 22

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e n e l la r ep re sen tada . F o r s u p a r te , e is opo r te c e rám ico p i n tado d cC no sso ( F ig .3 , i ) , h a l lado e nl al i amada Ca sa

a rgonau ta s muy e s t i l izados , a soc iándose a s I t r e s mo t ivo s d cc a rác te r s ag rado . E n c uan to a l v a so d c c sa

d e l T esoro ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 /2 , 6 19 -20 , F ig .390 ) , e s t ruc tu ra u b icada e n e i á ngu lo NO d e l P a t io O cc iden ta l ,p re sen ta e n s u d eco rac ión u no s C ue rno s d c

n i isma f o rma , h a l lado e n c lá ngu lo S E d e l p a lac io d c C no sso (Wa lbe rg , 1 988 , 2 13 ) , e s tá d ecorado c on

l a C on sag rac ión q ue a parecen c omo s opo r te d e l a d ob l e - h acha , a soc iada e n e s te c a so a u na " r a ina

a za f ran yC ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn , t odo t oc ua l I c c on f ie r ce iv a lo rr i tua lq ue h as i do i d en t if icado . N oo b s tan te , t amb ién o t ro sa n ima te s m ar ino s p ucdcn

s agrada" , e n t an to q ue e n o t ro d e l o s p ane les e i n ined ia tamen te d eba jo d e l mo t ivo a n te r io r , a pa rece i m

c oncha s d c t r i tOn , h o ja s d c m i r to y o l ivo , f i b re s d c

p ez d ci mt i po c omün ,e ne ic a so a n te r io r . O t ros e l emen to s d c l a f auna mar ina q ue g ozan d c u na e spec ia l c on s ide rac ión e n l ai conog raf la c r e ten se

r e lac iona r se a lp a rece rc on e i mundo r eig io so m ino ico , p ue s t o do p arece i nd ica r q ue l o s h ipocampo s d eb ie ron t e ne ri m v a lo re spec ia l yc i aramen te r e lac ionado c on l a " d io sa" . E s to s a n ima te s a parecen a soc iado s al o s

s on l a s c oncha s d c t r i ton q ue c on f r ecuenc ia s e e ncuen t ran ma te r ia lmen te e n l o s l u ga re s d c c u l to , b i en c omo c onchas a u tén t ica s o b ien e n f orma d c r ep roducc iones e nc e rám ica , p i ed ra e t c . d c l a s m isma s .

C ue rno s d c l aC onsagrac ion e n i m s o lo c a so , a unque b i en e sc i e r to q ue s et r a ta d c u na p i eza e xcepc iona l , e i l amado A n i l lo d e M ino s, d ado ac onoce r p o r E van s y q ue s e e ncon t ró e n l a z ona s i tuada a l s u r d e l

P e ro l ai c onog ral Ia i l u s t ra a demá s s ob re a l meno s u no d c l o s u so s aq ue e s taban d e s t inados e s to s o b je to s e n d e te rm inada s c eremoma s . N o s r e fe r imo s a l s e l lo d c c n s ta l d cr oca h a l lado e n l a c onoc ida c omo C ueva d e l

C aravan se ra i , e n l a s p rox im idade s d e l l ugar e n q ue p o s te r io rmen te s ee xcava r la e iT emp lo T umba ( Evan s ,

I d a ion ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 42 , F ig . 2 5 ; 1 964 ,l I /i , 2 21 ,F ig . 1 67 ; P i ca rd , 1 948 ,6 7 , 1 07 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 00 , F ig . 1 26 ; Y av i s , 1 949 ,2 0 , F ig . 1 ; W i i le t t s , 1 962 , 1 44 ) , e n c lq ue s e r ep re sen tó u na e scena e n l aq ue u na f i gu ra , a pa ren temen te ma scu l ina , s op la p o r u na c oncha d c t r i ton e n l o q ue p a rece s e r u na c e remon ia d c c a rác tc r r i tua l a n te u n a l ta r d c t i po s kara s ob re c l q ue e s t d cpo s i tado im p a rd c C ue rnos d c l aC on sag rac iOn q ue a qu I a c tüan c omo s opor te d c u na " r ama s ag rada " ( F ig .3 ,h ) . L a c oncha d c t r i tOn p a rece f ue p ue s u n e l emen to u t i l izado e n d e te rm inado s r i tua le s yq ue l o s o f ic ian te s p ud ie ron h aber u t i l izado p a ra i nvoca r l a p re senc ia d c l a " d io sa" , p re senc ia q ue e n e s te m ismo s e l lo b i en p ud ie ra c s ta r r ep re sen tada p o r l a f i gu ra p scudo rcc tangu la r q ue a pa rece e n t re e i s upues to s a ce rdo te uo f ic ian te yc la l ta r ,d ado q ue c omo t a l S eh a i den t if icado u n s Imbo lo r e c tangu la r q ue a pa rece d i vc r sa s r ep re sen tac iones , q ue s eh ai n te rp re tado c omo c ii nd icado rd cl ae p ifan la d cl ad e idad . N oo b s tan te ,l a

1 964 , I V /2 , 9 50 -53 , F ig . 9 17 ;P la ton , 1 984 , 6 7 , F ig . 1 3 ) . E l v a lo rr e a l d ce s ta p i eza e xcepc iona l h as i do p uc s to e n t e la j u ic io p o r a l guno s i nve s t igado re s , h ab iéndose d i scu t ido amp l iamen te i n c lu so e i q ue s e t r a te d c u n o b jc to g enu inamen te m mno ico ( P la ton , 1 984 ) , p ese a q ue E van s l o f e chO e n e i M IR I A (s . XV I a .C r . ) , t r a tándo se r ea lmen te d c u no d c l o s o b je to s d c má s d i f Ic i l i n terp re tac iOn d esde c l p un to d c v i s ta i c onog r a f ico ,p ue s e nu no d cl o s e x t remo s d cl ae scena e n d ir ep re sen tada , a pa rece i m f i gu ra f emen ina s en tada j un to ai ma l ta rd cm ampo s te r la c o ronado p o ru np a rd c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn , m ien t ra s q ue e n l az ona c en t ra l s e e ncuen t ran d o s e s truc tu ra s c o lumnada s , r ema tada s p o r s endo s p a re s d e l m i smo emb icma s ob re e ie x t remo d cu na b a rca on av Io e nf o rma d ch ipocampo c onduc ido p or o t ra f i gu ra f emcn ina ( F ig .3 ,g ) e i d en t if icado c omo l ab a rca e nq ue s et r a s lada l a" d io sa " d c i m r e c in to s ag rado ao t ro , f i gu rado s a mbo s e n l o s e x t remo s d e l a n i l lo , t odo e l lo s cg i In l ai n terp re tac ión s uge r ida p o rE van s ( 1964 , IV /2 ,95 1) .

a soc iac iOn e n tre a rgonau ta s y Cuernos d c l a C on sag rac iOn , v i s ib le e n e is opo r te d c C no sso , n o e s d ema s iado f r ecuen te , y a q ue s e a p rec ia s o lan ien te e n d icho s opo r te y e n o t ro s d os v a so s c e rám icos , c onc re tamen te d o sr hy la p rocedcn te su no d cP a la ika s t ro yo t ro d c C no s so , v a so s r i tua le s e n a mbo s c a so s c uya f unc iona l idad h a s i do a na l izada p o r d i s t in tos

1 . 2 .1 .7 . LAS S ERP IENTES A l i gua l q ue e ne ic a so d cl a s p a loma s ,l a s s e rp ien te s t uv ie ron a t p a rece r u na r e lac iOn muy d i rec ta c on l a d cnom inada " D io sa M ino ica " ,t a l c omo s ed e sp rende d c l a s c a rac te r I s t ica s d cd i fe rcn tes h a l lazgo s e f ec tuado s e n l a i s la d c C re ta , e n t re l o s q ue c abe d e s taca r e iv a so

i nve s t igado re s ( Koc lh , 1 981 ; Moun t joy , 1 985 ) . E l r hy zon , h a l lado e n l aH ab i tac iOn 1 4 d e l B loque P d c

e ncon t rado e nP ha is to s ,f c chado e nc lMM I ,e nc lq ue p o r p r ime ra v ez s e h a r ep resen tado a u na f i gu ra f emcn ina r odeada d c s e rp ien tc s , a s I c omo d e sde l u ego

P a la ika s t ro ( F ig .3 ,d ) I l eva u na d eco rac ión p in tada e nl a q ue c omo y ah cmo s s ef la lado a n te r io rmen t e a pa rece u n

l a s c onoc ida s e s ta tu i l la s d cf ayenza c ncon t rada s e nl a s a rque ta s d c l o s R epo s i to r io s d e l T emp lo d c C no s so , h ab i tua imen tc c on s iderada s c omo i mágene s d c l a

f r iso d c p a re s d c C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac ión y u na b anda c on a ye s , e n t a n to q ue l ab anda c en t ra l p re sen ta

2 23

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

p rop ia D io sa . Mucho meno s f r ecuen te e s e ncon tra r l a

f ue se , c omo t amb ién s ug ir ió E van s ( 1964 , / V /2 ,965 ) , u na c ap i l la e nl aq ue l o s f i c le s r e a l izaban a l g i mn t i po d c

a soc iac ión d e e s te a n ima ls Imbo lo d e l a d io sa c omo d e idad d e l a muer te y d c l a v ida s ub ter ránea e n

o f renda s e n h ono r d c l a y a t a n ta s v cce s m enc ionada D io sa , p e ro a qu Ic omo D io sa d c L aV ida , m ien t ra s q ue

a soc iac ión c on e i emb lema q ue n o s o cupa . D e h echo , t a ns o lo e ni mc a so s ep roduce t a la soc iac ión ,i r a tándo se d c t i e s d e l o s c i nco V c r sos d e l aS erp ien te e ncon t rado s

e n J ac áma ra s ub ter ránca e sa m isma d i v in idad f ue se o b je to d cc u l to c omo D io sa d cl a Muc r te .

e n l aC ap i l la o S an tua r io c on B anco d c l a We s tR idge R oad d c Gou rn ia , q ue e n t re l o s e l emen to s d e s u d ecorac ión p re sen tan C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , ( Ge sse l l , 1 976 ,2 48 -250 , 2 56 ; 1 985 ,7 2 ,F ig s .4 , 1 , 19 , 1 40 ; Hood , 1 977 , 1 60 -61 ; Hu tch in son , 1 978 , 3 11 ; K an ta , 1 980 , 1 39 ; Mü l le r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , IV /3 ,L am . 2 08 , F 6 ; Y av is , 1 949 , 1 2 , F ig .2 ) . E l p nme ro d c e s to s r e c ip ien te s r i tua le s p re sen ta e ns up ar te s upe r io ru np a r d c C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ión e n tre l o s c ua le s s e e ncuen t ra u n d i sco s o la r ( F ig .3 ,k ) ; l o s d o s v aso s r e s tan te s a demá s d c l a s s e rp ien te s , c on se rvaban s endo s p a re s d c C uerno s q ue , e n e s ta o ca s ión , n o e s tán a soc iado s an ing t in o t ro s Imbo lo ( F ig .3j ) . L ar e lac ión e n t re d e te rm inado s c u l to s c r e ten se s yl a s s e rp ien tes s e h a a poyado t a n to e n l a s i n enc ionada s " D iosa s d c l a s S e rp ien tes" d c Cno sso c omo e n l o s h a l lazgos e f ec tuado s e n c ld epó s i to d c l aC a sa s i tuada a l SO d c l a c onoc ida c omo " Casa d e l T e soro" d e l m ismo c omp le jo p a lac ia l ( Evan s ,1964 , IV , 1 38 -168 ) , d onde a pa rec ie ron u no s v a so s d cco rado s c on s e rp ien te s e nr e l ieve j un to ai m c on jun to d c p equcf io s r e c ip ien te s ( e n t re do sa lguno sd cl o s d enom inado s " m i lk j ug" ) ,a s I c omo " me sa s d c o f renda s" y o t ro s o b jc to s , c on jun to t odo e I q ue l evó a E van s ai n terp re ta r d i cho s v a so s c omo e v idenc ia d cl ar e lac ión c i tada . Adcmá s ,e ip rop io

1 . 2 .1 .8 . LOS AN I MALES FANTAST ICOS S in d uda , q u iza l o s "Monos A zu le s" a q ue n o s r e fe r imo s a n te r io rmcn tc p odr Ian e n t ra r e nl ac a tego r la d c a mma ic s f a n tá s t ico s , a unque d ado q ue r ep rc scn tan c on u n g ran r ea l ismo a l o s mam I f ero s a n t ropo ide s h emos o p tado p or c on s ide ra r los d en t ro d c l a s f i gu rac ione s t omada sd e l mundo r e a l . N oe se s te c lc a so d c l o s d emon ios , g r if os e i nc luso e sf inge s a ladas , p r é s tamo s d cl ai c onog raf la e g ipc ia ymc sopot hm ica a l mundo c u l tu ra l e geo , d onde a dqu ine ron c a rac ter I s t ica s p rop ia s y g oza ron d c g ran a cep tac ión . E n r e a l idad , p a rcec t r a ta r se d c u na f o rma d c ma te r ia l iza rl a s f u e rza s d o tada s d cm ip ode r mág ico e spec ia l yd cu na v o lun tad p rop ia e n f i gu ra s d c s e re s f an tá s t ico s q ue c on s t i tu ir Ian im n i ve l i n te rmed io e n t re d io se s yh omb re s , c r cado s y s uped i tado s al o s p r ime ro s yc uyo c ampo d c a cc ión s ue le e s ta rl i nu tado al a s c o sa s q ue c o rpo re izan , a unquc s ue len t e nc ri mp ape l muy a c t ivo e nl o sd rama s m I t ico s d c c u l to , p ud iendo s e r i nf lu ido s oi n c lu so d om inado s p o r l o s h omb re s at r avés d c d c te rm inado s r i to s y c e remoma sd cc u l to . E i g r ij o , c r ia tura h Ibnda e n l a q ue s e c omb inan r a sgo s d c l e on e n c l c ue rpo y d c a ve d c p rc sa e n l a

l a s s e rp ien te s " domé s t ica s" q ue s e man ten Ian e n e se l uga r , e n a l gün r ec in to e spec ia l ya t cnd ida s p or l o s d cvo to s q ue a cud lan a ls an tuar io ; a s í , E van s c on s ide ró

c abeza y l a s a l a s , f uc b i cn c onoc ido e n c lE geo , t a l y c omo s e d e sp rende d c d ive r sa s r ep resen tac ione s , a l guna s r e la t ivamen te a n t igua s c omo l a s i mp ron ta s y s dlo se ncon t rado s e nP ha is to s e n mvc le sd e l MM I ,e n A y ia T r iadha y Z ak ro s c on d a tac ione s d e l M IR I ,e n c e rám ica s yf r esco s d c Ak ro t ir i oe n l a s h o ja s d c a l guna s e spada s yp uha lc s ye n l a s c abeza s d c a gu ja s ,

q ue l a c áma ra s ub ter ránca d c d i cho T emp lo -Tumba p uede s c ri d en t if icada c omo u na C ap i l la d c J a" D io sa" , d i v in idad c t ón ica e n e s te c a so , m ien t ra s q ue l ac ap i l la

e t c . d c d ive r sa s t umba s d c l o s C I rcu lo s A yB d c M icena s , e t c . ( Mo rgan , 1 988 , 5 0 - 5 2 ) . S in e mba rgo , l a r e iac ión e n t re lo s g r if os y C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión

d c l ap l an ta s uper io r , c on u n g ran p a t io a b ie r to , s e r la r ep re scn ta t iva d c o t ra man ifes tac ión d c l a m isma

e s muy p oco f r ccuen te yc uando s ep roduce n o s et r a ta d cg ri f os t I p ico ss i no q ue ,t a l c omo s uccdc e ne is e l lo d c

d e idad , c s ta v ez c omo D io sa C e le s te . D c e s te modo l a

P y rgo s -P s i lone ro ( F ig .3 , 1 ) , s e t r a ta d c c r ia tura s a l ada s , c on c ue rpo d c I c on y c abeza d c " agr im i" a soc iado s a

E van s ( 1964 , IV /2 ,1014 -1015 ) i n s is t ió e n q ue u n c on jun to d c v a so s h a l iado s e n e ie x te r io r d e l c omp le jo d e l T emp lo -Tumba f ue ron u t i l izado s p a ra a l imen ta r a

D io sa s e m an ife s ta r Ia a s I e n i m m ismo r e c in to e n s u s d o s " ve r t ien te s" , c omo d iv in idad d c l a v ida y d c L a mue r tc ,a soc iada e nl ap r ime ra d c e sa s man i fe s tac ione s al o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión , ye s to e nc ls upue s to

u na f i gu ra m a scu l ina , p rc sum ib iemen te u na d e idad e n

d c q ue e fec t ivamen te l a e s truc tura s uper ior d e l

s u p e r son if icac iOn c omo " Seño r d c l o s An ima ic s" ( Evan s , 1 964 , I V /2 , 4 67 , F ig . 3 92 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 07 ; P IN I , 1 975 , 1 56 ; Ru tkowsk i , 1 981 , F ig . 2 2 ,6 ) , q ue

T emp lo -Tumba , d onde a pa rec ió u n e j emp la r h echo e n c a l iza d cd i cho emb lema e jemp ia rq ue t a l v ez e s tuv ie se o r ig ina lmen te s i tuado e n t re d o s c o lumna s d cl a s q ue n o

a pa rcce s i tuada s ob re u n p a r d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn yf l anqueada p o rd o s s e re s f a n tá s t ico s ,c l g r if o yu n d emonio q ue s o s t ienc u n j a r ro c uya

s e h a c on se rvado má s q ue l ab a sa d c u na d c e l ia s

mo rfo log Ia e s s im i la r al a d c o t ros r ec ip ien te s

‚

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R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

r e lac ionado sc on l a sc e remon ia sd el i bac ión . E l c amb io e n e i a spec to f orma l d e l

v i da c o t id iana c omo e n l a muc r te . S amb in ( 1989 ) h a g r if o

r ep re sen tado e n e s te s e i lo e s muy n o tab le f r en te al o s c onoc ido e n o t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s , p ues to q ue e s mucho más f r ecuen te q ue s e c omb inen l a s c a rac te r I s t ica s d e a n ima le s f ue r te s yp ode roso s , c omo l e one s ya ye s d ep re sa , ambo s muy a g r es ivo s ,l oq ue s e j u s t if ica s up ape l d ec azado re sd el a s p re sa s q ue h an d e s e ro f rec ida s al o s d i o se s , os uf unc iOn d eg ua rd iane s e n o t ra so ca s ione s( Ma r ina to s , 1 986 ,44 ) . E ne lc i tado s e l lo d e P y rgos -P s i lone ro , L a s u s t i tuc iOn d e L a c abeza d e l a n ima lp o rL ad eu na c ab ra mon t é s ,c r eando u na c r ia tura muy d i fe ren te d eL at r ad ic iona l ,j un to c on s ua soc iac ión ai m d emon io p o r tado r d e lj a r ro d e l i bac ione s , p odr Ia e s ta r i n cl icando q ue s e t r a ta d e l a n ima l d e s t inado a l s ac r if ic io , e n e s te c a so al ad e idad ma scu l ina a poyada s ob re c l s Imbo lo s ag rado d e L o s C ue rno s d e l a C on sag rac iOn . No o b s tan te , n ada i mp ide p l an tea r L a p o s ib i l idad d eq ue s et r a te n oa r ia p o tenc ia l v I c t ima d e l

s eña lado p o r s u p a r te q ue l ai m n ica r ep re sen tac ion d c e s ta d io sa c onoc ida e n C re ta a parece e n mi e sca rabeo e ncon t rado e n u na d c l a s T umba s d c C áma ra C ircu la r d c P la tano s , f e chado e n c lP r ime r P e r lodo I n te rmcd io , a lt i empo q ue h ap ue s to d c man i f ie s to l a ss cme jan7a sy d iferenc ias e n tre l o s g enios m ino icos y l a s r cp re sen tac ione s d c L ad io sa e g ipc ia ; c lm i smo a u to rh a p ue s to t amb ién d c r e l ieve u no d c l o s a spec to s d c l a d io sa e g ipc ia p er son if icada e n u n h ipopó tamo , q ue e j e rc Ia u n p ape l i mpor tan te c omo g a ran te d c l a i r r igac iOn y d c L af e r t i l idad d e l s uc lo , a unque t amb ién r e lac ionado c on e i mundo a n ima l , a c tuando c omo im g en io e nca rgado d c L a d efen sa f r en te a a n ima le s d af l ino s . S in e mba rgo , c omo y a h cmo s c omen tado , l o s g en ios m ino icos , r epresen tados c on b a s tan tes s emc janza s f I s ica s r e spcc to a s us " pa r ien tc s" c g ipc io s , p arecen h aber s i do r epresen tado s , a l mcno s e n o ca s ione s , c omo " Seño re s d c l o s An ima le s" , a c tuando

s ac r if ic io , s i no d e l a n ima l -gua rd ian d e l ad e idad a n te q u ien e i d emon io , a c tuando c omo o f ic ian te , i l eva rá a

c omo a gen les d e c u 1 t c a dqu ir iendo a s I u n p ape l l i tt i rg ico n uevo q ue s ea pa r ta yd i f ic re d e lp odc rm ág ico

c abo l ac e remon ia . F o ro t ra p a r te , t amb ién e n t r el o s l a rnakes f une rar io s e n l o s q ue s e e ncuen t ran l o s C uernos d e l a C on sagrac iöncomo p a r te d e s u d eco rac iOn , a pa rece , a ün c uando s ea e nu na s o la o ca s ión , l aa soc iac iOn e n t re l o s g r if o s yc lm enc ionado e l emen to o rnamen ta l . A s I ,

q ue t c n Ia l ad e idad e g ipc ia , e n t a n to q ue , e no p imón d c a l guno s i n vc s t igado rc s , a pa recen c omo " c azado re s " d c

e nu no d el o s d o s l a rnake se ncon t rado s e n P a la ika s t ro , e nu na p equeüa c tma ra s epu ic ra l l o ca l izada j un to a lr I o ( Bo sanque t , 1 901- 0 2 , 2 86 y s . , L i mm . XV I I I -X IX ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; Mü l le r K a rpe , 1 980 , I V /3 , L am . 2 07 ,3 a ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 9 0 , n o ta 3 54 ) , p i n tado e n r o jo y n eg ro y c uya d eco rac ión s e d i s t r ibuye e n p ane le s , a pa rece e n t wo d e e l lo s i m p a r d c C ue rno s d e l a C on sag rac iOn a soc iado a mo t ivos v ege ta les muy e s t i L izado s , e n t a n to q ue e n e lp ane l c on t iguo s on d o s l o s p a re s d c C ue rno s d e L aC on sag rac iOn l o s q ue s e e ncuen t ran s i tuado s s ob re u n g r ifo c on l a s a l a s d e sp legada s( F ig .4 ,a ) . P o rl oq ue r e spec ta l o s d emon ios og en io sm ino ico s , s ue len e s ta r r ep re sen tado s e n mucha s d c l a s e scena s r ep re sen tada s e nl o s s e l lo s ei mp ron ta s c omo o f ic ian te s e n l o s s acr if ic io s ob ien c omo c azado re s d c l o s a n ima le s d e s t inado s al o s m ismo s , p e ro a l p a rece r s i emp re d esempeñando i mp ape l d ci n t enned ia r io e n t re l o s d i o se s yl o s h omb re s ( Ma r ina to s ,1986 ,45 - 4 6 ) . E n o p in ion d c E vans ( 1964 , I V , 4 31-44 1) , e s to s g en ios m ino ico s t i enen u na c la ra " a scendenc ia" e g ipc ia ,

l o sa n ima le sd c s t inado sa !s ac r i f ic io . No o b s tan te , h ay q ue r e co rda r q ue T ue r is f ue u n d emon io a po t ropa ico y a cuá t ico , r e lac ionado c on l a v cge tac ión , f unc iOn q ue q u iza f ue se L ar e cog ida p o rL a s g en te s d c C re ta y q ue p odr la e xp l ica r c lh echo d c q ue a l guna sd e l a s r ep re scn tac ione s c onoc ida s d cl o s g en ios m ino ico s l o s p rcsen ten s o s temendo j a r ro s d c l i bac ión , c uyo c on tcn ido p re sum ib lemeu te s c r Ia d er ramado p o r c l lo s m ismo s s ob re l a s " r ama s oá rbo le s s ag rado s" , t a l c omo a parece r ep rcsen tado e n a lgunos s e l lo s e i mp ron ta s c ncon t rado s e n C re ta y G rec ia . E n a mbo s p ape le s , c omo " c azado re s" d c l o s a n ima le s d c s t inado s a l s ac r if ic io y c omo a gen tes d c c u l to s yc eremoma s v i ncu lado s al av ege tac iOn ,l o se ncon t ramo sa soc iado sa l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn e n d o s s e l lo s . E l p r ime ro d c e L Lo s , a l q ue y a n o s h emo s r c fcndo a n te r io rmen te ( F ig . 2 , c ) ,p rocede d cP a la ika s t ro ye né l c lg en io e s tá a p re sando u na c ab ra mon t é s , yp o r t a n to d esempef lando s u p ape l d c c azado r d c l a p re sa d e s t inada a l a s acr if ic io . E n c l s egundo , u n s c i lo l e n t icu la rp roceden te d c u na d c l a s c i s ta s d e l T ho los d c V aph io e n L acon ia ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 01 , F ig .1 ; 1 964 , I V /2 , 4 53 , F ig .378 ; My lona s , 1 966 , 1 49 , F ig s .26 , 2 7 ;

P a Lcopa lac ia l ya p rox imi mndo se al a s f i gu ra s d cL ad io sa e g ipc ia T ue r is , d iv imdad p ro tec to ra d c l o s s c rc s má s

P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 07 , R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 4 7 , 8 7 , 8 9 , F ig .12 ,6 ; 1 986 , 2 12 , 30 , S ake l lar iou , 1 964 , 3 1 , 2 52 ; S amb in , 1 989 , 9 0 , F ig .23 ) , d o s g en ios o d emon ios d c c s t i lo m ino ico q ue l evan s endo s j a r ro s d c l i bac ión , a pa recen u no ac ada l a do d ci ma l ta r ome sa d co f r enda s

d éb i le s yd emon io f am i l ia ra lq ue s er c cu r r Ia t a n to e nl a

d ct i po s ka ra c o ronado p o rC ue rno s d cl aC onsag rac ion

a pa rec iendo l a s p r ime ra s r ep re sen tac iones y ae n é poca

2 25

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

s ob re l o s q ue e s tán l a s h ab i tua le s " r ama s s agrada s" ( F ig .4 ,b ) . E n e s te c a so , l o s d o s g en ios o d emon io s e s t ar lan a c tuando c omo a gen tes o s e rv ido re s d e l c u l to e n l ac e remoma d e l i bac ión d u ran te l aq ue s e v i e r te c l l I qu ido c on ten ido e n l o sj a r ro s q ue s o s t ienen s ob re l o s C ue rno s d e l a Con sag rac ión , r enovando l a v i da y l a v ege tac ión , t a l c omo s ug ie re l ap re senc ia d e l a " r ama s ag rada " . F ina lmen te h emo s d e m enc iona r al ae s f inge a l ada , o t ro d e l o s e l emen to s i c onog ráf ico s r ecu r ren te e n l a t r ad ic ión e g ipc ia yq ue p a so a l ámb i to e geo ,d onde t u vo

I i bac ión ,

s on l o s ü n icos

" p ro tagon is tas" d c l a s

" e sccnas" , a unque e v iden temen te r e su l tan más e xp l Ic i ta s a que l la s r ep re sen tac iones e n q ue s a cc rdo tcs , s ace rdo t isa s , os imp lemen te o f ic ian te s op ar t ic ipan te s e n l ac e remon ia a c tüan d e lan te d c i m e d i f ic io o a l ta r c o ronado p o rC u e rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión . Aunque e xcepc iona lmen tc s e p uedc d e tenn ina r l a e spec ie v ege ta l r ep re sen tada , l a mayo r p ar te d c l a s v ece s n o s e ncon t ramo s a n te a u tén t ica s a bs t racc ionc s q ue , l e jo s d c t e ne ri m c arác te rn ar ra t ivo , p a recen l cva r s i n emba rgo u na f uer te c arga s imbó l ica e n s u

u n c on s ide rab le ë x i to a j uzga r p o r l a s d i feren te s r ep resen tac ione s q ue s ec onocen d ee s ta s c r ia tu ra s . N o

s i gmf icado . Q u izá , e sa m isma a b s iracc ión d c l o s e l emen to s v ege ta le s s ea t amb iün s imbó l ica e ns ím isma ,

o b s tan te , a li gua l q ue s ucede c on g rf os y d emon ios ,L a a soc iac ión d i rec ta d el a s e sf inges c on l o s C ue rno s d el a C on sagrac iOn e s p oco c omün , yd e h echo t a n s o lo s e p roduce e nL ap equena p l aca d c ma rf i l e ncon t rada e nl a

d ado q ue , e n o t ra s o ca s ione s , l o s a r t i s ta s e geo s f ue ron c apace s d c r e p re sen ta r c on i m v I v ido r c a l i smo mucha s e spec ie s v ege ta le s , h a s ta c l p un to d c q ue p ucdcn

l a inada " Ca sa d e l a s E sf inge s" d e l a c i udad b a ja d e M icena s , t r aba jada e n b a jo -re l ieve y c o r re spond ien te p o s ib lemen te a l a t a pa d e u n c o f rec i l lo , e n l a q ue a pa recen d o s e sf inges e n f ren tada s ( F ig .4 ,c ) , a poyada s s ob re i mf r i so f o rmado p o rs e i s p a re sd eC ue rno s t r e sa c ada l a do d e u na c o lumna d c f u s te e s t r iado ( Chadw ick , ‚

1 977 , 1 90 , F ig .51 ; P ou r sa t , 1 977 ,43 -44 , 5 4 , L am . X I I , n ° 1 38 ) .

i d en t if ica r se d i fe ren te s t i pos d c á rbo le s , v ege tac ion d c r i be ra ya cuá t ica , e spec ie s c u l t ivada s , e t c . . yn o s o lo e n l o s t ema s d eco ra t ivo s d c l a s c e rám ica s ( Be tancou r t , 1 985 ) s i no t amb ién e n l o s p a isa je s d c l o s f r esco s ( Mo rgan , 1 988 ) , ei n c lu so e np l aca s d cm a rf i l , a domo s p e r sona le sd co ro yf a yenza ,e t c . . E n t re l o s á rbo le s q ue má s f r ecuen temen te a pa recen c on fo rmando p a isa jes , p resum ib lemen te d c t i po m ed i te r ráneo ,s ee ncuen t ran l a sc on i f e ra s ,t a n to c l" P ino d c A lepo" c omo c l" P inu s p inea " yl o s c i p re se s , al o s

1 . 2 .2 . LOS ELEMENTOS VEGETALES Una d c l a s c ons tan tes q ue muest ran l a s r ep re sen tac iones d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iön c onoc ida s h a s ta c l momen to , e s l aa soc iac ión d c e s te s Imbo lo c on e l emen to s v ege ta les , s et r a te d c á rbo le s o d c r ama s , h ab i tua lmen te c on s ide rada s c omo s ag rada s ( Evan s , 1 901) , a soc iado s a l a d ob le -hacha" e n n umerosas o cas iones . D icha s r epre sen tac ione s mue s t ran

al o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión c omo

s opo r te s p a ra e s ta s " r ama s" o b i cn , ye n e i c a so d e a lguna s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tec tón ica s , c omo r ema te s a rqu i tec tón ico s s imbó l ico s q ue c o ronan c lr c c in to q ue

q ue h ay q ue s uma ro t ra s e spec ie s c omo l a s h iguc ra s y c lo l ivo . L a s p a lme ra s , má s r a ramen tc r ep rc sen tada s e n l o sf r e sco s ,a unque l oe s tAn e na l guno s c a so s e spcc ia le s c omo e n c lc a so d e l S a lOn d e l T rono d c C no sso o e n l o s f r e sco s d cl ah ab i t .ac ión A l d c Ak ro t ir i , c on s t i tuycn s in e mbargo u no d c l o s mo t ivos d eco ra t ivos má s c omunes d c l a s c e r ám ica s m ino ica s e nd i s t in ta s e poca s ( Be tancou r t , 1 985 ; Wa lbe rg , 1 992 ,81-89) . L a v ege tac ion d c r i bc ra y a cuá t ica , e spec ia lmen te p l an ta s h e rbácea s yc lp ap iro , f ue u na c l a ra f u en te d c i n sp irac ión p a ra l a i conog raf Ia c gca c omo l o f ue t amb ién e ia za f rán . Amba s e spec ie s f ue ron c u l t ivada s ,

e nc ie r ra a s u v ez u n á rbo l , p o s ib lemen te t amb ién s ag rado . E n o t ra s o ca s ione s p e ro q u izü c on c lm ismo

c on i m c omp le jo p roce so d c r c co lecc ión , s e lccc ión y

s i gn if icado , s e u t i l iza ron o t ro t i po d c r ep re sen tac ione s d c e l emen to s v ege ta le s c omo s on l a s g u i rua lda s p a ra e voca rl ar e lac ión e n t re l o s C uerno sd cl aC on sag rac iün

r ep resen tO e na l guna s oa s ione se nl o sp a isa je a cuá t ico s q ue c on s t i tuyen s uh ab i ta tn a tu ra l . P o r o t ra p a r te , t a n to

yl av i da v ege ta l . L os s opor tcs ma ter ia les e n q ue a parecen r cp rescn tada s e s ta s a soc iac ioncs s on d c c a rac ter I s t ica s muy d i fe ren tes , h a l lándo se e n t re e l lo s c e rám ica s p in tada s , s e l los e i mp ron ta s , l arnakes , r hy ta , e t c . , a unque q u izá c lc on jun to má si mpo r tan te ys i gn if ica t ivo s ea e i d c l o s s e l lo s d e l g rupo d c l o s I l amados i a l i smán icos , e n t a n to q ue e n e l lo s c ls Imbo lo q ue n o s o cupa yl o se l emen to s v ege ta le s ,j un to c on l o s v a so sd c

t r a tam ien to p o s ter io r e n c l c a so d e l p ap iro , q ue S c

e i p ap iro c omo c l a zaf rán s e r ep re sen ta ron mucha s v cce s d c mane ra c onvenc iona l , c on s t i tuycndo u no d c L o s mo t ivo s má s c omune s d c l a s d cco rac iones c e rám ica s , d c l o s c o lgan te s , c uen ta s yo t ro s a dorno s p e r sona tes , e t c . , m ien tra s q ue o t ra s a pa recen a soc iado s ad c te rm inado sa n ima le s ob i en f o rman p a r t ed cc s cena s e n l a s q ue s e r ep rcsen ta ron c e remon ia s or i tua le s e spec ia les , h a s ta c l p un to d c q ue f r ecuen temen te a pa recen a soc iado s af i gu ra s f ememna s os Imbo lo s q ue s e i n tc rpre tan c omo " d io sa s" o emb lema s d c l a s

2 26

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d e idade s . Ademá s , e i a zaf rán e s u na e spec ie r e lac ionada

i n te rm inab le v ar icdad d c o b je tos y c uyo s f r u to s , l o s d á t i ie s , t uv ic ron u na e spec ia l c on s idcrac ión e n c i

t amb ién c on l o sr i to sd ev ida ym ue r te ,c on e ia mo r yl a s exua l idad ,h a s ta e ip un to d eq ue e ne i mundo c l á s ico l a f i gu ra d e l a 7 . af rán s e c or responde c on L a d e l h é roe

mundo a n t iguo . S in emba rgo ,n op odemo s p a sa rp o r a l to c ih echo d c q ue e n n ume ro sa s o ca s ionc s l o s mo t ivo s v egc ta le s S e

K roko s , mue r to a ce iden ta imen te am ano s d e H erme s , d i os c on e iq ue man ten la r e lac ione s a mo ro sa s . A s I , e i

h an r ep re sen tado d c u na f o rma muy c squcma t ica ,h a s ta c lp un to d c q ue c on s t i tuyen u na p ura a b s t racc ión s i n

a zaf rán p od r Ia c on s ide ra r se , yn o s o lamen te e n e i mundo c i á s ico , c omo u n s Imbo lo d ob le d e v ida y mue r te d up l ic idad q ue s e a dv ier te t amb ién e n s u u ti l izac ión e nl o s r i to s i mc iá t ico s yf une ra r io s ( Be rme jo B ar re ra , 1 988 , 7 -24 ) , s i n o l v ida r q ue t amb ién a pa rece r e iac ionado c on ema tr imon io ,l oq ue i l eva ap l an tea rl a p o s ib i l idad d eq ue e i mundo c r e t en se , d onde e su no d c l o s t ema s f a von to s e n mucha s d e l a s e s cena s e n q ue a pa recen f i gu ra s f ememna s , i n c luso p ud ie ra e s ta r

q ue s ea p o s ib le d c tc rm ina rl ae spec ie , yq ue do p uede

a l ud iendo au na h i erogam ia , d c t a l f o rma q ue mucha s

q ue p ueden t r an sm i t ir se , d i r ig ir sc , a crecen ta r se o a m ino ra r sc at r avé sd cl o sr i to s yc e remon ia sr e a l izado s

-

-

d cl a s s upue s ta s " d io sa s" r e lac ionada sc on L av ege tac ion yq ue a pa recen r e lac ionada s , p r ef e ren temen te s en tada s j un to a e s t ruc tu ra s c o ronada s p o r C uerno s d e L a C on sag rac ión ,e nr e a l idad s ean f i gu ra sf ememna se nl a s q ue s e h a r ep re sen tado u na mu je r , p o s ib lemen te u na s ace rdo t isa , d e s t inada a l ma t r imon io r i tua l c on l a d e idad o S e r S up remo , s imbo l izado e n e im enc ionado e mb lema . F o ro t ra p ar te ,e se v iden te p ue sq ue l av ege tac ión ,y a

e s ta ri nd icando q ue t a n s o lo s et r a ta d c p ropo rc iona ra l e spec tado s uv a lo rs imbO l ico c omo c l emen to r e f e renc ia l p a ra q ue e im i smo o b tuv ie sc c ls i gr n f icado t r a scenden t e d c L ae scena oc ompo s ic iOn a li n te rp rc ta r la ya dccua r ia as u s p rop ia s i d ea s . N oo b s tan te , h ay q ue s ub raya rq ue c i c a rác te r s ag rado d c l a s p lan tas p a recc e s ta r r e lac ionado c on l ac r eenc ia e nq ue a t r ibuycn p o t enc ia o f ue rza v i ta l al o s s e re s v i vo s , p ode re s s ob rcna tu ra le s

p o rl o s h omb re s ye spec ia imen te p o rl o s s a ce rdo t e s . D c a cue rdo c on e sa c r cenc ia , l af uc rza v i ta l q ue h a d c s e r d i i ig ida r e s ide e n L a s av ia d c L ap i an ta , s u e l emen to p o r tado rd c v i da c omo l as ang re l oe sp a ra l o sa n ima le s ; p o r e l lo , e s p robab le q ue l o s r i to s d c r enovac ión d c L a v ida v ege ta l s e f unden e n c reenc ia s mág ica s q ue s e

s e t r a te d c e spec ie s s i lves t re s oc u l t ivada s , c on s t i tuyó

m an if ie s tan e n c e remon ia s q ue i n c luyen c lv e r t ido d c i I qu ido s " s ag rado s" c omo r i to sd cr cnovac ión d cl av i da d c l a s c spec ie s v ege ta ic s , c eremon ia s yr i to s q ue

u no d cL o st ema sf a vo r i to s d cl ai c onog ra f Ia e gea ,p o rl o q ue n o r e su l ta s o rp renden te q ue d i fe ren te s t i po s d c

p robab lemcn tc t e ndr Ian l uga r e n p r imavc ra , c uando l a s av ia v i v i l ica l a sp l an ta s .

p l an ta s a pa rezcan a soc iado s d c u na uo t ra f o rma al o s C ue rnos d c l a C onsagrac ión , l o q ue i mp l ica l a e x is tenc ia d c i mpo r tan te s l a zo s s imból ico s e n t re t o do s e s to s e i emen tos i conogra f ico s , r e lac ione s c uyo s i gn if icado p uede e s ta r v incu lado a l o s c u i tos y c e remon ia s q ue i mp l ican as u v ez c r eenc ia s r e la t iva s a l ar enovac ión d c l a v i da v ege ta l , e spec ia lmen te s is e t r a ta d c p l an ta s q ue t i enen u n p ape l i mpo r tan te e n l a e conom Ia d ce s to sg rupo s h umano s yn od e sde e ip un to d c v i s ta d c l a s ub s is tcnc ia , s i no d c q ue s e t r a ta d c e spec ie s c on u n a p rovechanuen to c spcc ia l izado , t a l c omo s ucede e nc lc a so d cc on i fe ra s , az a f rán yp ap i ro ,o b i en d c c spec ie s d cu n a l to r end im ien to p a ra c ls i s tema e conóm ico c omo s ucede c on e io l ivo . N o o b s tan tc , e n o t ro s c a so s c omo c l d c l a s p a ime ra s , s u p re senc ia r e cu r ren te e n s u a soc iac ión ad e tc rm inado s a n ima le s , b i en r e a le s c omo l o s l c one s ob i en f an tá s t ico s c omo l o s g r if os , p odr Ia t e ne r o t ra s i mp l icac ione s s imbó l ica s s ubyacen te s a ld c seo d c l o s a r t is ta s e geo s d c r e c rea r

1 . 2 .2 .1 . LOS " ARBOLES SAGRADOS" G ene ra imen te e i ol o s t i po s d cä rbo le s q ue a pa recen a soc iado s al o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ion e n l a s d i feren tes r ep rc sen tac ionc s c onoc ida s n o p ueden i d en t if ica r se c on mucha s c l a r idad , s ib i en s e p uede a pun ta r q ue p a rece t r a ta r sc d c h iguera s , o l ivos y p a lmera s , c s ta s i l t ima s muy e squcma t izada s ob i en s imbo l izada s s imp lemen te p o ru na p a ima . E ne s te g rupo s ei n c luyen d i fe ren te sr ep r e sen tac ione s r e a l izada s e ns e i lo s ci mp ron ta s , r hy za yi ms a rcO fago , a s I c omo e n a i guna p iaca d c b ronce , al a s q ue n os r e fe r iremo s ac on tmuac iOn . E n e s te s en t ido e s o b l igado menc iona r d c n uevo c l s a rco fago d c A y ia Tnadha , e n c uya e scenogra f Ia l ay a menc ionada e s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tOn ica a n te l a q ue s e

u no s p a isa jc s e n l o s q ue s e mov ie ran e s to s " a n ima le s" ,

r e a l iza l ac e remon ia y q ue c s tá c o ronada p o r C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac iOn , p od r Ia s c r i n te rp rc tada c omo c i mu ro q ue d e l im i ta e i t emenos o e spac io s ag rado , e n c uyo i n ter io r s e e ncucn t ra u n á rbo i e n e s te c a so

a unque

c l

r ep resen tado c on t r azo s s ue l to s yh o ja s p equef ia s , q ue

a p rovecham ien to e conóm ico d c e s ta s p l an ta s , c uya s

q u izá p ueda i d en t if ica r se c omo i mo l ivo , t a l yc omo y a s ug ir iO E van s( 1964 , IV /1 , 43 ) .

h o ja s

n o

h emos

d c

o lv idar

t ampoco

y f i bra s p ueden u t i l iza r sc p a ra u na c a s i

/

2 27

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

U na d c l a s ms c i a ra s r ep resen tac ione s d c h iguera s e sl af i gu rada e n e if r agmen to d e l r hy ton d e s e rpen t ina e ncon t rado e n C nos so ( Evan s , 1 90 1, 1 0 1 ys . , F ig .2 . 1 964 , 1 /2 , 6 14 15 , F ig .386 ; Mo rgan , 1 988 , 1 8 , L ám .11 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 8 2 , 1 01 , F ig .95 ; Y av is , 1 949 , 2 3 , F ig .1 2 . ) , e n l aq ue e iá rbo l a pa rece s i tuado d en t ro d e l r e c in to d e te rm inado p e re i mu ro q ue a pa rece d e t rá s d e l a l ta r d c mampo s te r Ia c o ronado p e r C ue rnos d c l aC on sag rac ión , a l ta r a n te e iq ue v a r io s p e r sona je s ma scu l ino s r ea l izan u na d anza ( F ig .4 ,d ) ;e s p robab le q ue s e t r a te d c l ar ep re sen tac ión d c u n t emenos c on e i á rbo l s ag rado e n s u i n te r io r , t a l c omo s ug ir io A . E van s ( 1901 ,4 ) ,a unque n op uede d e scar ta r se l ap o s ib i l idad d c q ue s e h aya t r a tado d c r ep re sen ta r e ip a i sa je e nq ue s e e ncon traba e ia l ta r c omo f ondo p a ra u na e scena " dc g éne ro" . No o b stan te l ah iguera r ep re sen tada e n e s te f r agmen to d c r hy ton yl a s q ue a pa rccen e ne if r e sco d e l Mu ro Nor te o " F resco d c l o s P a s to re s" d c l a We s t Hou se d c A k ro t ir i (Mo rgan , 1 988 , 1 8 ) s on l a s ü n ica s f i gu rac iones d c e s ta e spcc ie c onoc ida s h as ta c l momcn to e n e i a r te e gco , t o q ue c on t ra s ta c on L a i mpo r tanc ia q ue , a l mcno s a pa ren temen te , t u v ie ron l o s h igo s aj uzga rp e rl oq ue s ed e sp rende d c l o s t e x to s d c l a s t a b l i l ia s d c t i po L inea l B . P e r o t ra p a s te , yc omo v c remo s ac on t inuac ión , e x is te t amb in l ap o s ib i l idad d c q ue e iá rbo l r ep re sen tado e n u n s e i lo d c L ygo r t ino ( C re ta ) s e at amb ién l ae squema t izac ion d cu na h igue ra . Mucho má s n ume ro sa s s on l a s r ep rc sen tac ione s d c á r bo le s d c tec tada se n s c l lo s ei mp ron t a s ,d e s tacando l o s e j emp la re s e ncon t rado s e n K han ia , L igo r t ino , K ann ia , C no sso , P hy lakop i (Me lo s ) yZ ak ro s , e n t odo s l o s c ua le s e x is te u na a soc iac ión c on l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ion , a unque d c n uevo s a lvo e n r a ra s e xcepc ionc s r e su l ta p rác t icamen tc i mpo s ib le i d en t if ica r l ae spec ie i n c lu ida e nl o s r c c in to s s ag rado s ol a s q ue s e e ncuen t ran j un to al o so f ic ian te s e nl a sc e remon ias . Una d c e s a s c xcepc ione s e s u n s c l lo d ce s tea t i ta p roceden te d c l a n ec rópo i is d c L ygo r t ino , e n e i d i s t r i to d c Mono fa t s iou ( C re ta ) , e n e iq ue e s tä r ep re sen tada u na e scena d cc a rác ter r e l ig io so ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 84 - 8 5 , F ig . 5 9 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 17 , 2 9 ) p ro tagomzada p e r t i n p e r sona je f emen ino q ue s eh aHa s i tuado d e lan te d c t i n e s t ruc tu ra c o ronada p e r l o q ue p odr Ia i n te rp ret a r se c omo med io p ar d c C uerno s d c L a C onsag rac ion , r ep rcscn tado s c on t i n p un to d c v i s ta y p er spec t iva p ecu l ia rcs y c o ronando t i n r ec in to c o lumnado q ue e nc ie r ra t i ná rbo l s ag rado ,q ue p e rc li r a tam ien to q ue h a r e c ib ido , q u iza p od r Ia i d cn t if ica r se c on u na h iguera ( F ig .4 ,f l , s ob re t odo s ic ompa ramo s e s ta r e p re sen tac ión

s e l lo d cm a r f i l e ncon t rado e n c la sen tam ien to c i c Lád ico d c P hy lakop i , e n Me lo s , d u ran te l a s e xcavac ione s q ue s el eva ron ac abo e n 1 899 y e n t re l o s ma ter ia le s d c l a e s tanc ia H 2 :14 ( C iudad I I , MR I A / HR I ) . S c t r a ta d c u na p ieza ümca s i t e nemos e n c uen ta d c l a c omb inac ión d e l t i po d c ma te r ia p r ima e n q ue e s tá h echo , s u f o rma y s u d eco rac ión ( Ren f rew , 1 985 , 2 95 9 6 ,L án i . 5 5a -d ;S ake l lar iou , 1 964 ,4 26 ) ,e nl aq ue s e r ep re sen tó n a p e r sona je s i tuado a n te u na e s t ruc tu ra s ob re L aq ue h ay i mp ar d cC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión a soc iado s al ac squema t izac ion d cu na " r ama s ag rada " , e n t a n to q ue o t ro s mo t ivo s v ege ta les s e i ncu rvan a c spa lda s d e l o f ic ian tc ( F ig .4 ,g ) , s i cndo p rec i samen te e s to s t r azo s l o s q ue p ucden i d en t i f ica r se c on l af o rma e nq ue h ab i tua lmen te s er ep re sen tan p a lma s yp a lme ra s ( Mo rgan , 1 988 ,24 -29 ) . P e r s u p a r te , u na d c l a s i mp ron ta s e ncon t rada s e n Khan ia ( Ha l lagc r , 1 985 , 2 0 , F ig . 2 4 g ) p re sen ta d o s e s t ruc tu ra s c o lumnada s ,r ema tada s e n s u pa s te s upe r io r p e r C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn , e n t re l a s q ue e s tán s i tuada s d o s f i gu ra s f cmcn ina s , d e t rá s d c l a s c ua le s a s u v ez ,a pa rece l ar ep re sen tac ión d ct i n " á rbo l s ag rado " c uya c spec ic n o p uede i d en t if ica r sc c on s cgu r idad , a unque n o s e t r a ta , a lm eno s a pa ren temen te , n id c u na p a lme ra ci d c t i no l ivo . L ad a tac ión p ropuc s ta p a ra e s ta i mp ron ta e sc l MR I . E I c onoc ido c omo A n i l lo d e M inos ( F ig .3 ,g ) r c vc la t amb ién e sa m i sma r e lac ión e n t re e ic u i to m ino ico yl a v i da v ege ta l ,p l a smada e ne s te c a so e nl ar e p re sen tac ion d c t i n á rbo l , q ue p arece s u rg i r d c u na e s t ruc tu ra d c mampo s tc r Ia s i tuada e n u no d c l o s e x t reme s d c l a e scena yac uya s r ama s s ea ce rca u na f i gu ra f emen ina c uya a c t i tud p a rece s e rl ad ce s ta rr c cog icndo s u sf r u to s od i spone r sc ado ; e n e s ta m isma e scena , u n s egundo p e r sona je , t amb ién f emen ino yd c snudo , s ea p rox ima a t i n s egundo á rbo l a pa ren temen te s i tuado e n e ii n te r io r d e l r e c in to r ep re sen tado s ob re L ac umb re d ct i n mon te , r e c in to g cne ra lmen te i d en t if icado c on t i n " San tua r io d c C ima d c Mon taf ia " . E n p r inc ip io , p odr ia rno s s upone r q ue a mbo s p e r sona je s a pa recen r e co lcc tando f r u to s d c á rbo lc s " s ag rado s" , a unque d ado q ue l as egunda f i gu ra c i tada i l eva u n v a so e n l a mano , t amb ién p od r Ia p cn sa r se q ue r e a lmen te s e d i spone ar e coge r s u s a v ia ; e n c ua lqu ie r c a so , p o s ib lemen te f r u to s ys av ia s e r Ian o f rendado s p o s te r io rmen te al ad i v in idad r ep re sen tada p e rl af i gu ra f emcn ina q ue a pa rece s en tada j un to au na e s t ruc tu ra d c m a xnpo s te r Ia c o ronada p e r C uerno s d cl a C on sag rac ion y a c uyo l a de s e h a l la u na " s erv ido ra "

c on L ad e lf r agmen to d c r hy ton e ncon t rado e nC no sso . P a rece p o s ib le i d en t if ica rc omo u na p a lmc ra , ob i en

p a ra a s is t ir ia e n l a c e remon ia o a t endc r la d u ran te s u e s tanc ia e nc lr e c in to s ag rado . P e r t i l t imo h emo s d c c i ta r t amb ién y d c n ucvo l a

a lm cno sc omo " pa lma s" ,c lt ema v ege ta l i n c lu ido e nu n

p laca d c

\//

\ / \/ \ •/

b roncc

d c

/7

2 28

\/

P sychro

7

/

( F ig .2 ,f ) ,

c uya

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

c ompo s ic iön i c onog ráf ica p a rece p res id ida p o t e so s C ue rno s d e l a C on sagrac ión q ue e n e s ta o ca s ión s opo r tan u na " r ama s ag rada " , d eba jo d e l o s c ua le s s e e ncuen t ra L ar ep rc sen tac ión , s umamen te e squema t ica , d c u n á rbo i c uya s r ama s i nc l inada s h ac ia a ba jo r e cue rdan l a s d e l a s c on I fe ra s , p o s ib lemen te e nce r rado e ne ii n te r io rd em ir e c in to r ep re sen tado p o ru na f i gu ra

a soc iac iones

n o

r cp i tcn

c xac tamen tc

e i m ismo

a rque t ipo , s i no q ue e x is ten a lguna s v ar iac ione s q ue p e rm i tcn a g rupa r lo s as uv ez d cL as i gu icn tc f o rma : A .! . C on r ep re sen tac ione s d cj a r ro s s i tuado s s ob rc C uerno s d c l a C onsag rac iOn , s Imbo lo q ue a demá s a pa rccc " f lo rec ido T M yn oc omo s imp le s opo r te o jun to a u na " r ama s agrada " . D c e s te t i po s on l o s s e l lo s

r e c tangu la r .

e ncon t rado s e n S i t ia ( P la ton , P in i , 1 984 ,3 67 ) , e nC re ta

1 . 2 .2 .2 . LAS " RA MMS S AGRADAS " L a s r ep resen tac ione s d e " r ama s s agradas" s on r e la t iva men te n ume ro sa s e nl ad cco rac ión d ed i f e ren te s

O r ien ta l , yo to p rocedcn te d c L aC o Lecc ión Me t axa s ( Sake l la r ak is ,K enna , 1 969 ,2 31 )( F ig s . 4 , . i , y4 j ) . A .2 . C on l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión c omo s opo r te d cu n v á s tago ya poyado s e nl oq ue p odr Ia s e t

t i po s d c v a so s c e rá in ico s yl a rnakes , a s I c omo e n l a s c ompo s ic ione sf i gu ra t iva s d el o ss e l lo s , mucha sd e da s c onoc ida s s o lo p o r l a s i mp ron ta s c onse rvada s , y o ca s iona lmen te e n o t to t i po d c o b je to s , s i endo muy p o s ib le q ue e s te t i po d c r ep re sen tac ione s r e sponda al a i d ea , q u izá p ue s ta e np rác t ica t amb ién e n d e te rm inada s c e remon ia s , d c u t i l iza r " L a p a r te p o r e it o do " , e s d ec ir , e ne s t e c a so u na r ama c on c lm ismo s i gn i f icado q ue c l á rbo l , e n t a n to q ue l a f ue rza v i ta l , l a p o tenc ia d c

L ar ep re sen tac iOn d ci ma l ta r -p la ta fo rma ye nl o s q ue e i j a r ro d cl i bac ión o cupa u na p o s ic iOn l a te ra l . S on d o sl o s s e l lo s c on e s ta s c a rac tcr I s t icas , a l guno s e ncon t rado s e n C no sso ( F ig . 5 , a ) y Otto h a l lado e n P e racho ra ( CMS , S upp i . I ,7 5 ,7 8 ) ,e n t re l o s ma te r ia le sd cé poca m icén ica e ncon t rado s e n u n d cpO s i to d cba jo d e l t cmp lo d c H e ra L imcma ( Pe racho ra , C o r in to ) ( F ig . 4 ,k ) . Una v a r ian te d c e s te g rupo l ac on s t i tuycn a que l lo s s e l lo s e n l o s q ue l o s C ue rnos d c l a C onsag rac ion a pa recen c omo

c r ec im ien to yf e r t i l idad d c l a s p l an ta s , r e s iden t amb ién e nl a sr ama s ye ns u sh o ja s . E n t re e ic on jun to d cs e l lo s ci mp ron ta sc onoc ido s e n

s opo r te s d c r ama s yj un to ae l lo s s es i tüan l o sj a r ro s d c L i bac iOn , t a l c omo c s tán r ep re scn tado s e n n a s e l lo ,

L o sq ue e sa s " ramas s agrada s" a pa recen d ca l g ih i modo a soc iada s al o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión , s ep ueden d i s t ingu ir d i fe rcn tes g rupos e n f unc iOn d e s u s

D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 , 1 75 , F ig .45 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 8 0 ,F ig . 2 5 ,5 ) ,e nc lq ue a parece mi n uevo e l emen to ,l o s " c rec ien te s" ( f ig .5 ,c ) , ye n Ot to d c L a C o lccc iOn Me taxa s( Sake l la rak i s ,K enna , 1 969 ,2 11 )q ue c a rcce d c e l io s ( F ig . 5 , d) . A .3 . C on med io p a rd c C ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac iOn .

c a rac te r i s t ica s : A . LOS S ELLOS " TAL IS MAN ICOS" U no d cL o sc on jun to s má sh omogéneo se se if o rmado p o rl o sd enom inado s s e l lo s " t a lz . s má .n icos" t I p ico sd cL a ‚

g l Ip t ica d e l M 1 v 1 I I , a n te l o s q ue l as imp l ic idad d c l o s mo t ivo s r ep rc scn tado s yl af a l ta d c v ar icdad d c s u r cpe r to r io i conog rá f ico s ug ie ren q ue s e t r a taba d c o b je tos c on u n s i gn if icado yu na f unc ión muy c spec If ica , q u izá l a d c p ro tcge r d c s u s p o seedo re s o p o r tado re s . C omo e s s ab ido , a i nu ie to s yt a l ismanc s c on s t i tuyen e n mucha s c u l tu ra s u no d c l o s med io s má s e s t imado s p a ra o b tcnc r p ro tecc iOn , t a n to p a ra l o s h omb re s c omo p a ra l o s amma le s ol a sv i v icnda s ,s i endo f r ccucn tc q ue e n l o s t a l ismanc s s e emp leen d i cho s , s cn tenc ia s of O rmu la s mág ica s oq ue e xp rc san r i to s

p roceden te C nos so ( f ig .5 ,b ) ( Chapou t ic r ,1946 , F ig .5c ;

E s te e se ic a so d c m i s c l lo , h a i lado e n l an cc rópo L is d c S phounga ra s , e n e i q ue a pa rcn temcn tc , t a n to l o s C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac iOn , q ue e n e s te c a so f u e ron r ep re sen tado s e n u na p o s ic iOn d i fe ren tc , d c t a l f o rma q ue t i cnen l a a par icnc ia d c med io C uerno , c omo L a s " r ama s " , q ue q u izá p odr Ian i n c lu so i n tc rp re ta r sc c omo á rbo ie s , se c ncuen tran e n e i i n te r ior d c u n r e c in to d e l im i tado p o ri m mu ro e squema t icamen te . t r azado . E l v a so d c l i bac iOn , e n e ic en t ro d c l ai magcn , v o lver la a r e co rda r l a s c e remon ia s q ue d eb ie ron r ea i iza r sc e n c l i n te r io rd e l t emeno s ,c omp le tando a s Il an a r rac ión . A .4 . S in v a so d cl i bac ión ( F igS , e -g ) . E ne s te g rupo s e i n c luyen l i e s s e l lo s e ncon t rado s e n C rc ta , u no d c

s ag rado s ;p uc sb i cn ,e nu ng rupo d cc s to ss e l lo sq ue h an s i do i n tcrp rc tado s c omo " t a l ismán icos" p rcscn ta

e l io s , d c c o rna l ina , p e r tencc ien te a l a C o lecc ión d e l Museo B r i tán ico ( Kenna , 1 967 , 9 3 ) yo t ros d o s d epo s i tado s e ne i Mu seo d c I r ak l ion , u no p er tenec ien tc

a soc iado s u n p a r d c C uerno s d c L aC on sag rac iOn , u n j a r ro d c l i bac iOn y " r amas s agradas" , p o r l o q ue e s p robab le q ue e s to s s e l lo s m ino ico s , a lr ep rc scn t a r e n u na i magen l i e s d c l o s e l cmen to s f undamen ta le s e n L a s c e remon ia s r e lac ionada s c on l o s r i to s v i ncu iado s al a

al a C o lecc ión Me taxa s ( Sake l la rak is , K enna , 1 969 , 2 05 ) yo to al o s f ondo sd e l p rop io Mu seo ,e nc lq ue d c n uevo e ncon t ra mos l aa soc iac iOn d c r ama s s agrada s , C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac iOn y " Crec ien te s" muy

n a tu ra leza , p re tendan r eproduc ir lo s s i n të t icamen te , a t rapando L af uc rza mág ica d cl a sm isma s . No o b s tan tc , l o s s e l lo s e n l o s q ue a pa recen e s ta s

e s t i l izado s ( Ef fen te r rc , 1 982 , 1 21) . Un c ua r to s c l lo p rocedcn te d c G rec ia , e s d c t r azo s umamen te

2 29

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

e squemá t ico y p re sen ta l am i sma s imbo log Ia (CMS , S upp l . I , 1 982 , 1 72 ) . B .O tro ss e l los U n s egundo c on jun to d e s e l lo s e s tá f onnado p o r a qud l lo sc on r ep re sen tac ione se nl a sq ue l o s C ue rno sd c l aC on sag rac ión q ue s opo r tan l a s " rama s s agradas"

meno s e n o ca s ione s muy c onc re ta s , e n t re l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ion , a lguno s e l emen to s v ege ta les y a l guno s n to s r c lac ionado s c on c u i to s al an a tu ra leza . T a l e s c l c a so d c l a y a v ar ia s v eces c i tada p laca d c b ronce d c l aC ueva d c P sych ro ( F ig .24) , e n L aq ue t r e s a l ta re s , t a l v ez r ec tangu la rc s , s opor tan o s os t ienen

a pa recen d epo s i tado s s ob re a l gC in t i po d ea l ta r o" me sa d e O f renda s" , p a r t ic ipando s i emp re e n l a e scena a gen tes d c c u l to d e d i st in ta s moda l idades y e n d i f e ren te s a c t i tude s . E n t re e l lo s s ep ueden d i fe renc ia ra s u v ez : B .1 . C on f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s . E x is ten d o s d c l o s

r ep re sen tada s e n e s ta o cas ión c on l a s r ama s h ac ia amba , p o r t a n to e n p o s ic ión c on t rar ia al a s d e l á rbo l p resen tc e n e s ta m isma c ompo s ic ion , l o q ue p e rm i te s upone r q ue s e t r a ta d c r ep re sen tac ione s d c e spcc ie s

s e l lo s e n l o s q ue s e h an r epresen tado f i guras m a scu lma s ,q u izá s a ce rdo t e s ,a n te e i" a l ta r " ;e nc lc a so

v ege ta le s d i f e ren te s a unquc , e n a mbo s c a so s , d c d i f Ic i l i d en t if icac ión . T a l e se ic a so t amb idn d e l a s I m ismo y a

d e l s e l lo d c mar f i l d c P hy lakop i ( F ig .4 ,g ) , p od r Ia t r a ta r se d c m i a l ta rd c m ampo s ter la , e n t a n to q ue e n e i

menc ionado r y thon d c Z ak ro s , v a so e n c l q ue l a s

s e l lo e ncon t rado e nL aC ueva d e lI da ion ( f ig . 3 , h )p a rece t r a ta r se má s b ien d c u na " mesa d c O f renda s o L ibac ione s" d e l t i po c onoc ido c omo " dc p ede s ta l" , s im i la r al a sr ep re sen tada s e no t ro s s e l lo s ei mp ron ta s y al a s e ncon t rada s e n n ume ro so s y ac im ien to s c r e ten se s ( P la ton , PARARAS , 1 99 1 ,49 ) . B .2 . C on f i gu ra s f emen ina s . T a l e s c lc a so d e l s e l lo e ncon t rado e n mi t h o los d cR ou l s i ( My lona s , 1 966 , 1 4 1 ; S ake l lar iou , 1 964 , 3 04 , 3 15 ) , e n c lq ue e s u na f i gu ra f ememna l aq ue e s tá s i tuada e na c t i tud r i tua l d e lan te d c

s cndo s p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión q ue a s u v ez s i rven d c s opo r te a s enda s " rama s s agradas " ,

" ramas s agradas " a pa recen s ob re l o s C uerno s d c l a C onsag rac ión q ue c oronan u no d c l o s t r es a l ta res r cp re sen tado s e n e i , t a l v ez r e vc iando a s I q ue t amb ién e n l o s " San tuar ios d e C ima d e Montana" s e d esa r ro l laban p rác t ica s c u i tua le s r e lac ionada s c on l a r enovac ión d cl av i da v ege ta l . c omo t amb ién a pun tábamos a n ter iormen te , " ramas s agrada s" y C uerno s d c l a C onsag rac ion a pa recen c on c i e r ta f r ecuenc ia e n l a d ecorac ión d c c i er to s v a so s c e rám ico s , a l guno s d c e i lo s p roceden tcs d c a r ea s d c c u l to y o t ro s d c a j ua re s f unc rar io s , yd c

u na e struc tura , p resum ib lemen te u n a l ta r d c m a inpo s te r la ( F ig .5 ,h ) . B .3 . C on g en ios . E n c ls e l lo d c V aph io , a lq ue n o s r efer i mos a n ter iormen te ( F ig .4 ,b ) , a pa recen

a l gunos l a rnake s , e n c uyo c a so a dqu ie re d c a l guna

r ep re sen tado s d o sg en ios m ino ico s q ue p o r tan j a r ro s d c l i bac ión ,c uyo c on ten ido a pa ren tc lnen te v an ad e r rama r

v es t Ibu lo d c u n p os ib le s an tua r io , ot a l v ez a rea c e remon ia l ,s i tuado e n l ap l an ta s upe r io rd e l s ec to r NO

s ob re l a s " ramas s agradas " , q ue s eh a l lan a poyada s e n e ip a r d c C ue rno s d e L aC on sag rac ión q ue as u v ez s e

d e l P a lac io d e C nos so s , s ob re l o s c onoc idos c omo A lmacencs O cc iden ta ics ( Evans , 1 964 , IV /1 ,345 , F ig .289 ,c ; R u tkowsk i ,1981 , 8 0 , L ám .22 ,5 ) ; e n e i a pa rece u n p a r d c C ue rno s d c l a Con sag rac ión q ue

e ncuen t ra d epo s i tado s ob re u na "Me sa d c O f renda s o L ibac iones" d e l t i po " dc p ede s ta l" , u no d c l o s c onoc ido s e l emen to s d c l a p a ra ferna l ia d c c u l to c r e ten se . B .4 . C on

mane ra a lm eno st i nc i c r to ma t iz f unc ra r io . E n t re e sa sc e rám ica s h cmo sd cc i ta ri mf r agmen to d c á nfo ra h a l lado e n t re l o s ma te r ia le s p roccdcn tcs d e l

s opo r ta t r e s r ama s oá rbo le s " s ag rado s" ( F ig .5j ) . Un s egundo f r agmen to c or respond ien tc a u n v a so d c ‚

e s t ruc tura s

a rqu itec tón ica s .

E n u n

a n i l lo -se l lo d c o ro e ncon t rado e n M iccna s ( Evan s ,

med iano t amaf lo d e l " e s t i lo p ic tor ico" ( Sapouna S ake l la rak i ,1990 ,85 -86 .F ig40 , a ) , e n e iq ue a pa recen

1 901 , 1 82 , F ig .56 ; My lona s , 1 996 , 1 41 , F ig .125 , 8 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,F ig .2 ,12; 1 986 , 2 11 , 1 3 ) ,l a s " rama s s agradas" a pa recen s ob re u na c s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tómca

t amb ien l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión p e ro e s ta v ez c omo s opo r te d cu na s o la " r ama s ag rada " ,p rocede d cl a C ueva d c S t r avomy t i ,a b ie r ta e nl al a de ra S O d e l Mon te

c o lumnada r ema tada p o r e is Imbo lo s ag rado , a n te l a c ua l s ee ncuen t ra u na f i gu ra f ememna e na c t i tud r i tua l , m ien t ra s q ue e n e i o t ro e x t remo d c l a c ompo s ic idn

J ouk ta s yq ue c uen ta c on n ume ro sa s g a le r Ias , u n g ran l ago i n te r io r yv ar ia s s a la s c on e s ta lac t i ta s , e n l ac ua l p o s ib lcmen te d e sde c l M J ' vll - MR I s e d e sar ro i la ron a c t iv idadc s d c c u l to r e lac ionada s c on d iv in idades c tón ica s , a c t iv idade s q ue d cb ieron r e ves t ir c i er ta

a pa r ece

mi

á rbo l ( F ig .

Si),

s ub ray ndo se d c e s ta f o rma

l ar e lac ión e n t re l o s C uernos d e l a C onsagrac ióny c l mundo v ege ta l . C omo s ef la lábamo s l I nca s má s a n-i b a , c x is ten o t ro s t i po s d co b je to s e n l o s q ue l ap rc scnc ia d cl aa soc iac ión q ue a ho ra n o s o cupa c o r robo ra l ae x is ten te as u v ez , a l

i mpo r tanc ia , d ado q ue a l p a rece r a lguna s g a ler la s s e d es t ina ron a a lmacene s , c omo p arece i nd ica r l a p re senc ia e ne l ia s d cg rande sp i th o i , yq ue , s eg t in t odo s l o s i nd ic io s , s es i gu ie ron r e a l izando d u r an te c lB ronce

2 30

R ITUAL . R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

R ec iente e i nc luso ( Ru tkowsk i ,1986 ,182 ) .

e n

é poca

c lás ica

c ua le s , e n l az ona i n fe r io r , a pa rcce i m p a r d c C ue rno s d c l aC onsag rac iOn q ue s o s t ienen u s c l emen to v ege ta l

E se t ema d eco ra t ivo c on s t i tu ido p o r l o s C uerno s d e l aC on sag rac ión c omo s opo r te s d ee l emen to s v ege ta le s s e m an tuvo e n u so a l ol a rgo d e l M IR I I I , s i emp re c on e sca sa f r ecuenc ia d e r ep resen tac ión r e spec to a o t ro s

d ct a l lo l a rgo ,i má rbo l or ama " s ag rado s" ;p o rs up a r te , l a z ona i n fer io r d c u no d c l o s l ado s l a rgo s d e l d enom inado L a rnax 1 0 p re sen ta u n f nso d c p a re s d c s Imbo lo s ag rado , s cpa rado s p o r f r an ja s v e r t ica le s , c omb inados c on d iverso mo t ivos v ege ta les

mo t ivo s yt ema s d eco ra t ivo sd el ac e rám ica , h echo é s te q ue ,j un to c on l a s c a rac ter I s t ica sd el a sf o rma ss ob re l a s q ue a pa rece p in tado , e n d e f im t iva s i gue p on iendo d e r e l ieve q ue s e t r a ta d e a lgo má s s imbó l ico q ue s imp lemen te o rnamen ta l . E n t re e so s e j emp lo s má s t a rd Ios c abe menc ionar u n p equeno f r agmen to p roceden te d e l P equeno P a lac io d e C no s so ( F ig .5 ,k . ) , a unque n oc onocemo s d e q ué z ona c onc re ta d e l m ismo ( Popham ,1970c , 1 94 ,F ig .3 , L ám .46 ) , yo t ro h alado e n c l r e l leno d e l d enom inado " Pozo U " ( f ig . 5 , 1 ) , l o ca l izado c e rca d e l a " Pequena C ap i l la " d e l m ismo c omp le jo p a lac ia l ( Popham ,1970b ,124 , n o ta 9 ,F ig .3 ,1 , L ám .46b ) , p ozo i d en t if icado c omo u na e s truc tu ra d e p robab le c a rác ter f undac iona l . A s I m ismo , d e l a s en tam ien to d e K arph i c l f r agmen to d e u na p ix ide ( F ig .5 ,m ) e n c uya d eco rac ión p in tada a pa recen l o s C uerno s d e l a C on sagrac ión s opo r tando u n mo t ivo v ege ta l , q u iza l a e s t i l izac ión d e l t r ad ic iona l á rbo l " s ag rado" ( Desborough , 1 966 , 1 76 , L am .!!; Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 ,79 ; Mü l le r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , I V /3 , L ám .220 ,321 ; S e iradak i , 1 960 ,F ig .23b ) . F o r l o q ue r e spec ta a l a a soc iac ión d c "ra m as s agradas" y Cue rnos d c l a C on sagrac ión , y e n o ca s ione s o t ro s e l emen tos d c l ap a rafema l ia d c c u l to , e n l o s l a rnakes menc ionemo s e n p r imer l uga r c i l a m as d c P a la ika s t ro ( Bo sanque t , 1 901 -02 , 2 99 , L am . XV I I I ) a pa recen u na s " r ama s s agradas" d i spue s ta s s ob re u na "Me sa d c O f renda s" c on p ede s ta l , s ob re l a q ue e s tán d epo s i tado s l o s s ag rado s C uerno s d c l a ‚

C on sagrac ion q ue a c t i lan c omo s opo r te d c a que l la s

c a l ic ifo rmc s , e n t a n to q ue e n c ll a do o pue s to s endo s p a re s d e l m ismo s Imbo lo , muy e s t i l izado s , d eco ran t a n to l a p a r te s uper io r d c l a c a ja c omo s u t a pa ( Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 5 7 -86 , L ám s . X I I I , XV I , XX IV , XXX IX ) . I nc lu so u no d c l o s l a rnake s d cl an ec ropo l is b eoc ia d cT anag ra ,c onc re tamen te c lL am as 5 ,p rc sen ta e n s u d eco rac iön l o s C uerno s d c l a C onsagrac ión d i spuc s to s e n t r e s b anda s , a lp a rcce r c omo s opo r te s d c i mt cma v ege ta l ,p o s ib lemen te u na r ama , muy e s t i l izada ( Ve rmeu le , 1 965 ,L ám .XXV I I I ) . T amb ién e nr e iac ión d i rec ta c on c l mundo f une ra r io s e h a l lan , c omo a pun tábamo s e n l m neas a n teno re s , a l guno s v a so s c crám icos d c f unc iona l idad muy e spec I f ica ( t apadc ra s d c i n cen sano s yp Ix ides ) , e n l o s q ue s e a p rec ian r ep re sen tac ione s s im i la re s . A s I , e n l a n ec ropo l is d c P achyamno s , a pa rcc ió u na " p ix ide" p i n tada e nl aq ue l o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión c s tán a soc iado s ae l emen to s v ege ta le s ( Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 5 9 , n o ta 1 4 1) . E n l a T umba H d c l a n ec rópo l i s d c My r s in i ( d is t r i to d c S i te ia ) s ee ncon t ró u na t a padc ra d c i n cen sa r io c on d eco rac ión p in tada ( Geo rg iou , 1 979 , 4 30 ; R u tkowsk i ; K an ta , 1 980 , 1 68 ) e n l a q ue c l e mb lema e s tá r ep rcscn tado c omo s opo r te d c u s o b je to d c d i f Ic i l i n tc rp re tac ión , i m " c s tandar te " e n o p in ion d c B . R u tkowsk i ( 1981 , 7 2 , F ig .24 , 7 ) , a unque b i en p ud ie ra s e r l a e s t i l izac ión d c u na r ama s ag rada , o i n c lu so l ad cu na d ob lc h acha . E n l an ec ropo l is r od ia d c Mak ra Vouna ra , j un to a

( P la ton , P a ra ra s , 1 991 , 4 9 ) , r ep roduc iéndo se a s I l a m isma i d ea g ene ra l , s i n te t izada s i n emba rgo e n l a s r ep resen tac iones d c o t ro s l arnakes q ue , c omo l a s d eco rac iones c e rám icas , s imp lemen te p resen tan c l

o t ro s v a so s d epo s i tado s c omo a j ua r f une ra r io e n l a T umba d c C áma ra X IX , f echado s e n c l HR I IA2 ( C . Mee , 1 982 . 1 4 , F ig . 1 ,1 )o b i en e n c l HR l i lA ( Long , 1 974 , 6 3 ; Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 8 1; Mü l le r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , I V /3 , L am . 2 18 , A -29 ) , s e

s Imbo lo s ag rado c omo s opo r te d c t ema s v ege ta le s o

e ncon t rO

b i en a mbo se l emen to sa soc iado s e nu nm i smo p ane l ,e n u n f r iso ,e tc . . E n e s te m ismo g rupo d c p i eza s h ay q ue s i tua rt amb ién l o s f r agmcn to s d cl ap a r te s upe r io rd cu n l a rnax p in tado l o ca l izado e n l ac áma ra p r inc ipa l d e l

i n terpre ta c omo u n v a so r i tua l . S u d ecorac ión c omp cendc u na " Dob le -H acha " s opo r tada p o ru np a rd c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , e n t a n to q ue o t ro s d o s

T holos A d c P hou rn i ( A rchane s ) , f e chado e n e i M 1R 1 1 1A 1 ( Sapouna -Sake l la rak i ,1 990 , 7 8 -80 ,F ig .24

d c " rama s s agrados" c omp le tan l a d cco rac ión d c l a b anda c en t ra l ( F ig .6 ,h ) . E s ta d eco rac iOn s ug ie re q ue c l v a so e ncon t rado e n e s ta n ec rópo l is r od ia e s , muy p robab lemcn t c ,u na i mpo r tac ion m ino ica ( Ma iu r i , 1 926 , 1 29 -32 ,F ig .51-52 ; Mav r iyannak i , 1 967 -68 , 1 74 -75 ) .

a c ) , ye n e i q ue l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión a p a recen s opo r tando u n mo t ivo v ege ta l , a s I c omo a l guno s d c l o s l a rnake s h a l lado s e n R e thymno ( Cre ta O r ien ta l ) ,c omo c ld enom inado L a m as 5 ,q ue p re scn ta

mi

emb lcma s

e nu na d c s u s c a ra s l a te ra le s d o s p ane le s e n u no d c l o s

2 31

‚

j a r ro p in tado c on l ab a se p e r fo rada q ue s e

u no ac ada l a do , q ue a c t i ian c omo s opo r te s

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

1 . 2 .2 .3 . EL PAP IRO , LOS UR IOS Y EL AZAFRAN C omo y a v imo s a n te r io rr nen te u na c l a ra r e lac ión e n t re C ue rno s d c L a C on sagrac ión y p ap iro s e s l a q ue s e e s tab lece e n e i f r agmen to d e f r e sco e ncon trado e n e i s ec to r d e A lmacenes d e l E d if ic io A l d c Ak ro t ir i . S e t r a ta , s i nd uda d e i m e l emen to i c onog r af ico t o rnado d e l mundo e g ipc io , a unque d eb ió t ener u na g ran i mpo r tanc ia s imbö l ica e ne i mundo c r e ten se . E l a 7 . 2 f rán y l o s l i r io s s on a ün m A s i mpo r tan te s , a l meno s d e sde e ip un to d c v i s ta d c s u r e lac ión c on l o s C ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión ,d ado q ue e sm á sf r ecuen te s ua soc iac ión . Aqu Id eber no s r e co rda rq ue e ia zal rán s e v a io ra c omo u na p l an ta q ue s imbo l iza e i amo r , J a v i da yl ar nue r te , l i gada p o r s u c o lo ra l mundo f er nen ino y q ue r e su l ta mo r ta l , c uando s e b eben s o luc iones d e l p roduc to e nd e te rr n inada s c an t idade s ( Be rme jo B a r re ra , 1 988 , 7 -24 ) . A sI p ues , t an to e n e i f r esco q ue o rnamen taba e ia r ea d e l " megaron c re lense "d cl aV i l la A d c Ay ia T r iadha a l q ue n os h emo s r e fer ido a n ter io rr nen tc , d onde u na f i gu ra f er nemna r e co lec ta f i b res l i r io s ya za f rane s que p re sum ib ler nen te o f renda rá d e spué s aI a " d io sa " , s en tada d e lan te d c u n -

e d i f ic io c o ronado p o rc le mb lema s ag rado , c omo e ne i c a so d e l p rog rama i conog raf ico d c L a X e s te 3 d c A k ro t i r i , d onde e ip un to f oca l d e l m ismo p a rece s e r L a e s truc tu ra i den t if icada c omo u n a l ta r c o ronado p o r C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ión ( Ma r ina to s , 1 984 , )y omamen tado p o rl i r io s ( F ig .8 ,a ) . E l s upues to a l ta r , q ue b ien p ud iera s e r l a s imbo l izac iOn d ua l d c u n e d if ic io d c c u l to y d e l l o s r i tua le s r e lac ionado s c on l ar enovac iOn d c l av i da , q ue p res ide t odo e i p rograma i conog rau ico , e s tá s i tuado e nc ima d e l " ady ton" d e l a r ea c e remon ia l d e l e d if ic io , d e l q ue f o rma p ar te u na " d io sa" s en tada s ob re u na p l a ta fo rma , al aq ue h acen o f renda s u n " mono " yu na s s acerdo t isa s . F ormando p a r te d e l m ismo p rog rama a pa recen o t ras f i gu ra s f emen ina s q ue r eco lec tan a za f ranes y l i r io s I nc lu so e n a l gunas c e rár n ica s s e u t i l iza ron t amb ién l o s a za f rane s e n r e lac ión c on l o s C ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión yo tm s s Imbo lo ss ag rado s , t a l c omo s ucede e n e i c a so d c l o s f r agmen to s c o r respond ien te s ai m " rhy ton" p in tado , d eco rado a demá s c on c oncha s d c t r i ton yh o ja s d c m ir to yo l ivo .

r ep resen tac iones d i fe ren tes , a unque q u izá l a má s c xp l Ic i ta e s l a e f ec tuada e n i m f r agmen to d c u na " p Ix ide" d c m arf i l h a l lada e n Ay ia T r iadha ( Ges se l l , 1 985 , 7 6 ; H a lbhe r r e t AL . , 1 980 , 9 5 -98 . F ig s . 6 4 , 6 5 ; L ong , 1 974 , 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , F ig .6 , 2 ; 1 986 , 16 , n o ta 2 ) . L a p ieza p rocede d e l c omp le jo c e remon ia l s i tuado e ne is ec to r NO d c l aV i l la A ,e ne i a r ea d e l m ega ron C re tense y e n e l la e s tá r ep re sen tada u na e scena d c c a rác te rr eig io so ,p ro tagon izada p o rd o s f i gu ra s f emen ina s q ue e s tán d anzando s ob re u na e spec ie d c p la taforma s i tuada e n t re d o s p ó r t icos c o lumnados , c oronados p o r Cuernos d c l a C on sag rac iOn y d eco rado s c on g u irna lda s ( F ig .6 ,a ) . Aunque s i nl ap re senc ia d c f i gu ra s f emen ina s yc on i m c a rác ter n ar ra t ivo r ná s s i n té t ico , e ncon t ramo s o t ra r ep re scn tac ión s im i la r e n e if r agmen to d c im v a so d c c e r ám ica p in tada h a l iado e n C no sso ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 , 4 9 1 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 98 1 , 8 4 , F ig .1 ,1 5 ; 1 986 , 17 , 2 8c ) , e n e iq ue a pa rece u na e s t ruc tura c o lumnada a do rnada c on g u irna lda s , c on u n p a r d c Cue rnos d c l a C on sag rac iOn e nl o si n te rco l i imn io s ( F ig . 5 ,n ) . A igo d i fe ren te e sl ar ep re sen tac ión e f ec tuada e nu na d c l a s i mp ron ta s h a i lada s e n Ay ia T r iadha , e n l aq ue a pa rece u n p e r sona je , a lp a rece r f ememno , d e lan te d c u na e st ruc tu ra c oronada p or Cuernos d e l a C on sag rac ión ( F ig . 6 ,b ) , e s t ruc tu ra q ue p a ra B . R u tkowsk i ,q u ien l af e cha e n e i MR I( 1986 , 1 0 1 , 1 09 , F ig .1 32 ) , b i en p ud ie ra s e r u na me sa s ob re l aq ue e s tán c o locada s v a r ia se s ta lac t i ta s ,e nt a n to q ue e no p in ion d c D . L ev i s e t r a ta d c u n " a l ta r" c on a spec to d c me sa ( 1925 -26 , 1 39 ,F ig .1 52 ) ,a poyada e nd o sp a ta s , s ob re l a q ue s e e ncuen t ran d o s p a res d c C ue rnos d c l a C on sag rac iOn . E n t odo c a so , e n l a p a r te i n fe r io r d e l s upue s to a l ta r oe s t ruc tu ra s ee ncuen t ra u na " gu ima lda " , q ue c omo e n l a s o ca s ione s a n ter io re s b i en p ud ie ra s e r má s q ue i m e l emen to p u ramcn te o rnamen ta l , u na f o rma má s d c s imbo l iza r l a r e lac ión d c l o s C uernos d e l a C on sagrac ióncon l a n a tu ra leza v ege ta l , p on iendo d c m an if ie s to q ue n o s i emp re s e u t i l izaban l o s m ismo s r e cu r so s e scén ico s ys ir nbO l ico s e n e it r an scu r so d c l a c e remon ia s . 1 . 2 .3 . LOS " VASOS DE L IBAC ION " E n c l L i amado T emp lo " San tuar io O cc iden ta l"

( Wa lbe rg , 1 988 , 2 13 ) , e ncon t rado e n c la ngu lo S Ed e l P a lac io d cC no s so . 1 . 2 .2 .4 . LAS " GU IRNALDAS" O tro t i po d c r ep re sen tac iOn d c e l emcn to s v ege ta le s

d c

Ma l l ia ,q ue c uen ta c on t r e s e s tanc ia s , u na d c d c e l ia s l a " ce l ia" , e n t a n to q ue l a s d o s r e s tan tes f ueron d ependenc ia s . E n u na d c e l ia s ( Hab i tac ión 3 ) s e

o ca s iona Lr nen te r e lac ionada c on l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn s on l a s " Gu i rna lda s" q ue a pa recen c omo

e ncon t ró u n f r agmen to d e l b o rde d c u n v a so d c c e rám ica d eco rado c on i m p a r d c " Cuerno s d c l a C on sag rac iön " quc a pa recen c xcn to s s ob re c lm ismo .

u n e l emen to o rnamen ta l c o lgado e n t re c o lur nna s q ue s opor tan e i s Imbo to s ag rado . E n e s te c a so h ay

E l c omp ie jo s ef e cha e n e iM l v ii i ( Gc sse l l , 1 985 , 1 07 , F igs . 4 2 , 4 8 , Um . 7 3 ; P our sa t , 1 966 , 5 14 - 5 51;

/N

'N

2 32

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 59 , F ig . 2 24 ) , ye if r agmen to d e l v a so c e rám ico , r e ve la q ue y a d e sde e s to s momen to s e x is t ieron r ec ip ien tes s ac ra l izados med ian te l a u t i l izac ión d e l s Imbo lo , v a so s q ue p o s ib lemen te t a n s o lo s e u t i l iza ran e n l o s r i tua le s e n l o s q ue e s taba i mp l icada l ad e idad r e p re sen tada p o rl o s C ue rno s d e l a C on sag r ac ión . A unque n o p uede i d en t il ica r se l af o rma d e l v a so , s u f unc ión q u izá n o f ue d i s t in ta d c l a q ue t i enen l o s r e c ip ien te s d eco rado s c on e lm i smo e mb lema q ue s e f e chan e n f a se s má s t a rd Ia s , od e L aq ue t i enen a l guno s v a so s d e f o rma s e spec ia l izada s , q ue h emo s e ng lobado d en t ro d c l o s l amados " Vasos d e l i bac ión" , q ue c on s t i tuyen u no d e l o s o b je to s d e l a p a ra f e rna l ia d c c u l to má s s i gr n f ica t ivo s ; e n t re e l los s e i nc luyen l o s " rhyla" e n c ua lqu iera d c s us moda l idades , f unc iona l idad a na l izada e spec I f icamen te p o r R .B . Koeh i ( 1981) y e n e i c a so d c l o s v a so s d c " E s t i lo Ma r ino" p o r P. A . Moun t joy ( 1985 ) . S in e mba rgo , l a s r e p re sen tac ione s e n q ue a pa recen a soc iado s v a sos d e l i bac ión yC ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión c o r re sponden a r e c ip ien te s d c mo r fo log Ia d i fe ren te f r ecuen temen te s on " j ar ro s" c on p i co v e r tede ro , d c l a rgo c ue l lo y g a lbo c s fe ro ide , c on p i e yu n a sa s ob rec levada , t a l c omo a pa recen r ep re sen tado s p rr nc ipa lmen tc e n l o s s e l lo s t a l i smán icos , a unque h aya a l guna s v ar ian te s . P uedc t r a ta r se v a so s c onceb ido s e spec ia lmen te p a ra s uu so e n l a s c e remoma s d cl o s l u ga rc s d cc u l to , s in o s a t enemo s al a s r ep resen tac iones , a l i gua l q ue s ucede c on l o s " r hy ta" . E nE g ip to , p o re j emp lo ,e x is ten u no s v a sos d e l i bac ión d c u n t i po c spec I f ico I l amado s " Hese t o S enbe t" , p rov is tos i gua lmen te d c g randes p ico s v c r tede ro sq ue s eu t i l izaban p a ra h ace rl i bac ione se nl o s t emp lo s . S in e mba rgo , s ec onoccn o t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s , u na e nu n s e l lo yo t ra e n u n f r agmen to d c c e rám ica , amba s p i eza s p roceden te s d c Ma l l ia yd c c rono log Ia b a s tan te a n t igua , q ue r e sponden av a so s d c d i fe ren te t i po log Ia , a unque s et r a te t amb ién d cj a r ro s c on p i co s v e r tede ro . S c t r a ta d c d e l f r agmen to d c u nf r agmen to d c t i n v a so crám ico c on d cco rac ión i n c isa ( Chapou t ie r , 1 946 , 8 8 -89 ,F ig . 8 )e nc lq ue a pa rece r ep rcsen tado i mp a rd c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn j un to au nj a r ro ( F ig .6 , f ) . T an to F . C hapou t ie r c omo B . R u tkowsk i ( 1981 , 8 0 , F ig .25 ,3 )i nd ican q ue s e t r a ta d ct i n p i eza d a tab le e nc l MM I , l o q ue s uponc u na d c l a s má s a n t igua s a soc iac iones c onoc idas e n t re l o s C uernos d c l a C on sag rac ión yl o sj a r ro s d ci bac ión , mo s t rando a s Il a a n t igücdad d c l as imbo log Ia yd c l a s c e rcmoma s aq ue e s ta a l ude . L as e gunda i magen a pa rece e n im s e l lo p r ismá t ico d c e s tca t i ta , q ue p r e sen ta e n u na d c s us c a ra s u n p a r d c

C uerno s d c l a Con sagrac iön c on t r azos i n c isos s upe rpuc s to s ys ob rc e l los im j a r ro ( F ig .6 ,e ) . P o r s u t i po log Ia e s te s e l lo s e f e cha e n e i M M I( Chapou t ie r , 1 946 ,7 8 ,F ig s . 1 , c y5 , a ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,8 0 ,F ig . 2 5 , 2 ) ,a li g ua lq ue e if r agmen to c e rám ico a lq ue n o sh emo s r c f c r ido a n te r io rmcn tc . R ep re sen tac ione s d cj a r ro s c on c a rac tcr I s t ica s mo r fo log ica s s im i la re s s e c onocen e n o t ro s s e l lo s d c Ma l l ia ( Be tancou r t , 1 985 , F ig . 4 5 ) f e chado s e n c sa m isma é poca ; i n c lu so , a l guna s d c l a s f o rma s d c l o s j a r ro s m ino ico s d e l M M Iy M M I ( Be tancou r t , 1 985 ) , q ue s e c on se rvan c on l i gcra s v a r iac ioncs d uran te c l MM I I , s e a prox iman n o tab icmen te a l a s i magencs i conog raf icas m enc ionada s . L o s j a r ro s d c c ue l lo a l to , c on g a ibo s e s fdr ico s , p rov is to s d c u n p ie ma rcado , u n a sa d c g randcs d imen s ione s yp i co s v c r tcde ro s , r ep re sen tado s e n l o s s e l lo s t a l ismán icos ( F igs .4 ,5 ) , r c spondcn e n g rau mcd ida al a mo r fo log Ia d cl o sj a r ro s ya guaman i le s q ue c om icnz n aa pa rece rd en t ro d cl a s cránuca s d e le s t i lo d e K amares , e vo luc ionando h ac ia f o rma s más e s t i l izada s t I p ica s d e l l amado E s t i lo d e lP a lac io , yq ue s e c on sc rvan h a s ta e i MR I I A 2 ( Be tancou r t , 1 985 ) . P o r t a n to , t amb idn e n e s te c a so , l a s r epre sen tac ione s i c onog raf ica s p a recen a j u s tar sc at i nt i po d cr e c ip ien tes e spcc ia i izado s , mucho s d c e l lo s d eco rados c on s Imbo ios s ag rados , a unque e n l a s i mágcnes e n o ca s ione s n o mue s t ran l ab a se p l ana d cl o sj a r ro s , s i no q ue p roducen l a s en sac ión d c e s ta r a poyado s e n u n s opo r tc h ucco , p a ra p ropo rc iona r les u na mayo r c s tab i l idad . L a m i sma mo r fo log Ia t i enen l o sj a r ro s q ue p o r tan l o s " gen ios" r epresen tado s e n l o s s e l lo s d c V aph io ( F ig .4 ,b ) yP y rgo s P s i lone ro ( F ig .3 , 1 ) . S im i la r e s t amb ién e ij a r ro q ue c s t á r cp rc scn tado e n l ac sccna r i tua l d e l s a rcófago d c Ay ia T r iadha ( F ig .1 ,c ) , p rec isamcn te c lq ue e s ta s i tuado s ob rc e ia l ta r yj un to a l p o s te c o ronado p o ru na " Dob ie H acha " e nl aq ue e s tá -

p o sada L ap a loma . P resum ib icmen te , e s te s e rá e iv a so q ue l a s acc rdo t isa u t i l iza rá e n l a c e remoma , q u iza d e r ramando l as ang re d cl o sa n ima lc s s a c r if icado s yq ue s ec s tá r e cog iendo e n o t ro r e c ip ien te s i tuado d eba jo d c l a "M e sa d es ac r if i c io s S in emba rgo , e n d o s d c l o s s e l los t a l ismdn icos , ambo s c re ten scs , ( F ig .4 , j) , c l t i po d c r e c ip ien te r cp rc scn tado e sd i fe ren te , p ue s s u mo r fo log Ia r e cuc rda t an to l a d e l v a so d c d ob ic c ue l lo y d ob ies a sa s s ob ree levada s d c p ied ra p u l imcn tada h a l lado e n e i C omp le jo d e l S an tuano d e l A la O cc iden ta l d e l p a !ac io " .

d cZ ak ro s ,c omo l ad e lr ec ip ien te d cm ám io lb l anco q ue f o rmaba p a r tc d e l a j ua rd c l aT umba I V d e l C I rcu lo A d c M icena s . Ambo s r ec ip ien tes t i enen l a s b a ses p e r fo rada s i n tcnc ionadamcn tc c on l af i na l idad d c q ue

2 33

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

s i rv ieran p a ra d er rama r l o s l I qu idos d u ran te l a s c e remon ia s , s i gu iendo a s I l a m isma p au ta q ue s e

P rcpa lac ia l e n C re ta e n a l guna s d c l a s t u inba s d c Moch io s ,e si ms Imbo lo u t i l izado c on mayo rf r ecuenc ia

a p rec ia e n mucho s d e l o s " rhy la" e ncon t rado s t a n to e n C re ta c omo e n o t ra s z ona s d e l E geo . E n t re l o s v a so s c e rá rn ico s s ee ncuen t ran a l guno sd c mo r fo log la s im i la r , t a le s c omo l o s e ncon t rado s e n My r to s , e n e ie d i f ic io

e nl ae t apa P a leopa lac ia l od cl o s " P i ime ro sP a lac io s" y , s ob re t odo c onoc ida a p a r t ir d c l o s muy v a r iado s e j emp la re s c on se rvado s yr ep re sen t ado s e n l a é poca N eopa lac ia l , man teméndo se a l o l a rgo d e l p e r Iodo

s i tuado e nl a dma d el ac o l ina ,e ne is e c to ri d en t il icado c omo u na " Cap i l la Domés t ica" . S e t r a ta d e d o s r e c ip ien te s c on e ngobe o scu ro y b anda s d e p in tu ra b l anca q ue p re tenden i m i ta r l a s v e ta s d e mármo l ( F ra se r , 1 969 -70 ,3 1 ,F ig .57 ) , c on s enda s p e r fo rac ione s

P o s tpa lac ia l . D esde e i p un to d c v i sta i conog ráf ico c x is ten n umero sa s r ep re sen tac ione s e n l a s q ue s e r ef le ja l a r e lac iOn e n t re a n ibo s emb lema s , a unque n o s i emp rc s e t r a ta d c man ifes tac ione s d c i gua lc s c arac tcr I s t ica s ,

e ns u sb a se s ,l oq ue i n ip l ica q ue d eb ie ron u t i l iza r se p a ra l a s m isma s a c t iv idade s q ue l o s d c p i ed ra p u l imen tada . E n t odo c a so , l o s e sca so s h a l lazgo s d c v a so s c on e s ta mor fo log la , s ub raya a tm ma s s u f unc iona l idad , a pa ren temen te r e s tr ing ida a a ct iv idade s d c c u l to , a l m enos e n C re ta , ei n co rpo rado s e xccpc iona lmen te a l

s i cndo l o má s f r ecuen te q ue l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn a c t i ien c omo s opo r te s d c l ad ob le h acha ,

a j ua r f une ra r io d c u na d c l a s t u inba s d e l C f rcu lo A d c M icena s . P o r o t ra p a r te , e n C no sso s e h a e ncon t rado u na i mp ron ta e n l a q ue a pa rece r ep re sen tado i m v a so d c c a rac ter I s t ica s muy d i le ren te s ( F ig .6 ,d ) , a soc iado c omo e n e ic a so d c l o s s e l lo s i a l ismdn icos au na c e remon ia v i ncu lada al o s r i to s d c r enovac ión d c l av i da v ege ta l . L ai mp ron ta n o e s tä b i cn c on se rvada ,p o rl oq ue n o s e s p o s ib le d e te rm ina rl a mo r fo log Ia d e l v a so s q ue s o s t iene e n s u s m ano s l a f i gu ra f ememna , p robab lemen te u na s a ce rdo t isa , r ec ip ien te c uyo c on ten ido d c r rama s ob re o t ro v a so , a poyado d i rec tamen te s ob re u n p a r d c C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión ,j un to al o s c ua le s a pa rece u na r ama o á rbo l s ag rado . R ec ip ien te s d c e s te t i po s e c onocen y ad c sde e iMM I I( Be tancou r t , 1 985 ,F ig .7 7 ) y ,e s p robab le q ue , c omo e n e lc a so d c l o s j a r ro s d c d ob le a sa , c uando s e u t i l iza ran e n c e remon ia s r i tua le s , s u s b a se se s tuv ie ran p e r fo rada s i n tenc ionadamen te af i n d c p erm i t ir q ue e i l I qu ido s e v i e r ta s ob re c l s Imbo lo s ag rado , r enovando c on s u p odc r , c on s u f u e rza v i ta l s e as a ng re os av ia l av i da e nl aN a tu ra leza .

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1 . 2 .4 . LA " DOBLE HACHA" Y OTROS s f lvn 3oLos 1 . 2 .3 .1 . LA DOBLE HACHA S c t r a ta s m d uda d c u no d cl o s s Imbo lo s m á s t i p ico s d c l a r e l ig ion m ino ica y q u izá t amb ién e i má s f r ecucn temen te r ep re sen tado , p ue s s e e ncuen t ra p o r t o da s p a r te s , i nc lu so s ob re l o s S u n omb rc t r ad ic iona l " l ab rv s" c s tá r e lac ionado c on u no d c l o s ma s m is tc r io so s m i to s c r e ten se s l al c yenda d e l M ino tau ro -

ye il a bcnn to ye n u na t a b l i l la L inea l Bd e l p rop io C no sso s er eg i s t ra l ao f renda d c u na j a r ra d c m ie l al a -

'

" D io sa d e l L abe r in to " ( Ma s torak is , E f f cn te r re , 1 99 1 , 1 87 ) . A unquc [ ad ob le h acha s ec ncucn t ra y ae nl af a se

r cp i t iéndo sc e s ta c omb inac iOn e spec ia lmen te e n l a s c e rám ica s , e n t a n to q ue n o l ac ncon t ramo s e n n inguno d c l o s s el io s ei mp ron ta s q ue h emo s p od ido c a ta loga r h a s ta c l momen to . E n a lguno s f r agmen to s d c f r e sco s h a l lado s

e n l a s

a rque ta s d e l A imacdn X I I I ! d e l P a lac io d c C nos so s e e ncuen t ran t amb ién a soc iado s a n ibo s emb lema s . E n u no d c e l lo s ( Evan s , 1 964 ,1 1 /2 ,5 99 ,6 03 ,F ig . 3 73 ) ,l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sagrac ion c o ronan l a c s truc tu ra a rqu i tcc tOmca c on c o lumna s d c c uyo s c ap i te le s p enden d ob le sh acha s( F ig . 6 , i ) ye nc lo t ro s ee ncuen t r an e nl o s i n te rco lumn io sd cu na g a ler la p o r t icada c uya s c o lumna s i g ua lmen te y e n i d én t ica p o s ic ión muc s t ran d o s p a re s d cd ob ic s h acha s( F ig .6 ,g ) . E n l a s c e rán i ica s m ino ica s e s q u izá d onde l ad ob le h acha s e e ncuen t ra c on más f r ecuen temen te r ep resen tada , a unquc e s mucho meno s c omün q ue a pa rezca a soc iada a l o s s ag rado s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn ,n o o b s tan te ,e nc lP a lac io d c C no s so , s e h an e ncon t rado a l guna s á nfo ra s d e l I l amado " e s t i lo d e l P a lac io" , c a Ida s d c l a p l an ta s upe r io r , d onde d eb Ia e ncon tr ar se i m a rea c e remon ia l , d eco rada s p a r ambo s e mb lema s , a c tuando l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac ión c omo s opo r te d c [ ad ob le h acha ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 /2 , 6 05 ) . E n c lt a rd Io v a so c er ám ico d c l an ec rópo l is d c I a iysso s ( Roda s ) , v o lvemo s ae ncon t ra r l a m isma a soc iac iOn , f o rmando p as te d e l f r iso e n q ue l od eco ra , c on jun tamen tc c on l ac omb inac iOn d c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ion a c tuando c omo s opo r te s p a ra m i mo t ivo v ege ta l ( f ig .6 ,h ) . Qu izá e n e s tc c a so s e h a q ucr ido r ef le jar e xp l Ic i tamen te q ue e i e mb lema s ag rado s e u t i l iza t a n to e nl a sc e remon ia s r e lac ionada sc on l av i da v ege ta l c omo e n l o s r i to s d c r cnovac ión d c l a v i da a n ima l . Ambos

e mb lcmas

a parccen

e n

l a " p Ix idc"

e ncon trada e n K a la in ion ( D i s t r i to d c Apoko rona s ) , f o rmando p a s te d c l a j ua r d c u na d c l a s T umba s d c C áma ra . L a " p ix id e" p in tada ,c uya d cco rac ión ( F ig .7 .a ) i n c luye u na e s cena e nl aq ue h ay u np e r sona jc t o cando

2 34

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

u na c i ta ra j un to au na e s t ruc tu ra ,d c t i po i n de tenn inado , e n l aq ue s e e ncuen t ran d o s p a re s d e C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , q ue a c tüan c omo s opo r te s d c s enda s " Dob le s -hacha s" ( Ca ta logo , 1 980 , 9 8 , F ig . 5 2 ;K an ta , 1 980 , 2 38 , F ig .93 ,8 -10 ; L ong , 1 974 , P 1 .18 , F ig . 4 8 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 01 , 1 09 , F ig . 1 32 ; T zedak is , 1 969 , 3 65 - 3 69 ,F ig .2 ; 1 970 , 11-14 , F ig s . 1y2 ; Wa lbe rg , 1 988 ,2 14 ) . E n u no d c l o s f r agmen to s d c c e rám ica e ncon t rado s e n e iP equef lo P a lac io ( Popha in , 1 970c , F ig .3 , L a in . 4 6) , a pa recen d c n uevo l a s m isma c ompos ic ión i c onog raf ica , c omp ie tando l a e scena l a s d o s f i gu ra s

ys . ,F ig .1 54 ;P l a ton , 1 981 , 1 ,357 ;Y av is , 1 949 ,22 ) . P o r s upues to , n o f a l tan d ob les h achas e n l a d cco rac ión p i c to r ica d cl o s " l a rnak es" ,s i endo e nv a r io s d onde l a s e ncon t ramo s a soc iada s al o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión . E nc ls a rcófago d c A y ia T r iadha S ef l05 mue s t ra u na p a loma a poyada s ob re c lp o s te r ema tado c on c l " l abrys" s i tuado d c t rá s d e l a l ta r o me sa d c o f rendas y d e lan te d c l a e s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tón ica r ema tada c on C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión ,e ne s te c a so l ar e lac ión n o e s d i rcc ta , a unque q u izá l ad ob le h acha p uede i n te rp re ta r se t a l c omo s ucede e n o t ra s o ca s ione s c omo c l a nna u t i i izada e n e i s ac r if ic io r i tua l d c l o s

h umana s , muy e squemá t ica s , d i spue s ta s u na a c ada l a do . T an to e nl a crdtera d c E nkom i ( F ig .1 , g ) c omo e n e if r agmen to d cK a rph i ( F ig .3 ,c ) ,l ad ob le h acha p a rece i n se r ta r se e nl o s s ag rado sC ue rno s ,c on L ap a r t icu la r idad

a n ima les L a p re senc ia d c l ap a loma , a n ima l h e rá id ico d c l ad e idad p od r Ia e s ta ri nd icando t a n to s u p re senc ia , c omo l aa cep tac ión d e ls a c r if ic io . D c i gua l manc ra e n u no d c l o s " l arnakes"

d cq ue a mbo sc a so se x i s te u na a soc iac ión c on a n ima le s . E n e i f r agmen to d c E nkom i , c s tán d i rec tamen te r e lac ionada s c on l o s b ucran ia , p ue s to q ue a pa recen n o s o lo s ob re e i cmb lcma q ue n o s o cupa , s i no t amb ién

e ncon t rado s e n E p iskop i ( Kan ta , 1 980 ; LEV I , 1 931 ,

a poyada s e n l a s c abeza s d c l o s t o ro s , r c i te rándose s u f unc iona l idad c omo a rma d c s ac r if ic io , f unc iona l idad q ue s ea dv ie r te t amb ién e ne ic a so d e l f r agmen to d cu n " p i thos" e ncon t rado e nl aC ucva d e l D ic ta ion ( Hoga r th , 1 899 , 1 04 - 0 5 , F ig . 3 4 , 4 ; P i ca rd , 1 948 , 1 07 ) , e n c uya d eco rac ión e n r e l ieve , a pa ren temen te i nc lu so s e h a

6 33- 3 4 , F ig . 6 55 ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; Mav r iyannak i , 1 972 , 8 1) , q ue p re sen ta e n u no d c l o s p ane ics l a te ra le s s endo s p a res d c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión a i s lado s , t amb iën s eh ar ep re sen tado u na e s cena e nl aq ue p odr Ia r ef le ja r se e im ismo s imbo i i smo , p ue s mi p a rd cC ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión a c t i ia c omo s opo r te d c u na d ob le h acha " ,j un to a l a s f i gura s d c i m b óv ido yi m a ye , a s Ic omo ao t ro s mo t ivo s f i tomo r fo s e s t i l izado s . I gu .a imen te s i gn if ica t iva , e s l ad eco rac ión

r ep re sen tado e i l uga r , c l a l ta r , d onde s e r ca l iza rá c l s a c r if ic io . S in e mba rgo , e n e i c a so d e l f r agmen to d c K a . rph i , l ap re senc ia d c s enda s a ye s ,u na ac ada i a do d c l o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sagrac iOn ,p a rece e s ta rs eña lando l a p r esenc ia d c l a d e idad o l a s an t idad d c ambo s s Imbo lo s , s i n r eque r ir l ar e a l izac ión d c u na o f renda o

q ue o f rece e i" l a rnax "d cl aT .1 7d cA rmeno i ,d onde l o s

s a c r if ic io s ang r ien to . P o r s u p a r te , e n c l s opo r te e ncon t rado e n C no sso ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 /2 , 6 19 -20 , F ig .390 ) ya lq ue y a n o s h emo s r e fe r ido a n te r io rmen te ( F ig .3 , i ) , l ad ob le h acha s ea poya s ob re u no s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión , p e ro c on l a p a r t icu la r idad d c q ue s u a s t i l p a rece l a

s acr if ic io , e n t a n to q ue l o s a n ima le s s i tuados e n l o s f r iso s d e l c o f re p a recen d e sf i la r e n u na e spec ie d c p roce s ión . E n e ic a so d e l " l arnax " d c l aT .10 d c e s ta

t i n ico s mo t ivo s r ep re scn tado s s on p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión c omo s opo r te s p a ra l a s d ob le s h acha s" ( F ig .1 5 ) yb óv ido s ; a demá s e nl at a pade ra d e l " l arnax " s eh ap in tado l af i gu ra d cm it o ro j un to al o s e mb lema s , c on l at e s tuz i n c imada ye na c t i tud d c s um i s ión a n te e i

n i i sma n ec rópo l is ( F ig .1 , d ) ,l ad ob le h acha q ue a pa rece e n s u t a pade ra , a poyada s ob re u np a r d c C uerno s d c l a

p ro longac ión d c l a " r ama s ag rada " q ue s o s t iene e se t i l t imo emb iema , s upon iendo u na v ar iac ión

C on sag rac ión , p odr Ia f o rma r p a r te d c u n p rog rama i c onog ráf ico d cc a rác te rs a c r if ic ia l , t a n to e n c uan to q ue e nl o s p ane le s d e l c o f re s eh an r ep re sen tado n a b óv ido

i c onog rá f ica q ue n o s h emo s e ncon t rado e n n i ngün o t ro v a so c e rám ico . U nh alazgo e spec ia l e sc lp equeno a l ta r

y mi c an ie ro , l o s d o s a n ima le s q ue c omo y a s e s cña ló a n te r io rmen te a parecen p refe ren temen te a soc iado s a

os opo r te d c p i ed ra , d c f o rma p r ismá t ica y p in tado e n r o jo , q ue t i enc u na p equcña d ep rc s ión c uad rangu lar e n s uc a ra s upe r io r , e n t a n to q ue e nl ap a r te i n fe r io rd c l a s c a ra s l a te ra les p re sen ta d o s p a res d c C ue rno s d c l a

e s te t i l t imo e mb lema e ne scena sc on e s te s i gn if icado . Mucho má s s i n té t ica s s on l a s r ep re sen tac ione s q ue a pa recen e n l o s " l arnakes" e ncon t rado s e n Aga tha ( Cre ta ) ( Long , 1 974 , 7 1 , n o ta 8 8 ) ye n D ikhe l ia ( Ch ip re )(Kan ta , 1 980 , 3 12 ) .Long , 1 974 , 6 7 , i o ta 8 8 ; V e rmeu le , 1 965 , 1 45 , n o ta s3 ,4 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 968 ,2 25 ,

C on sag rac ión s ob re l o s q ue a pa recen Dob le s - H acha s , t o do c l lo e n b a jo r reieve . E s p o s ib le q ue e n e s ta p i eza , s e u t i l iza ran a s t i le s d c m ade ra p a ra c omp le tar l a i mp rc s ión d c q ue l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión e r an s opo r tes e n l o s q ue s e i n se r taban l a s d ob le s h acha s t a l lada s c omo e l lo se nl ap i ed ra ( Evan s , 1 964 ,I V /1 ,2 02

n o ta 2 9 ) , p uc s e n e i lo s c omo s ucede o t ra s v ece s e n l a i c onog ra f Ia m ino ica , s eh as i n te t izado e is imbo i i smo d c l ac e remon ia d cs ac r if ic io e n s o lo d o s d cl o s e i cmcn to s -

2 35

C ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión y" Dob le sH acha s" s ob re

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

e lo s . S ie n e s to s c a so s , a li gua l q ue s ucede e n a l guno s d e l o s f r agmen to s c e rám ico s aq ue n o sh emo sr e f endo má s a r r iba , s e p uede d e tec tar l a e x is tenc ia d e s acr if ic io s s ang r ien to s e n l o s q ue e ia rma r i tua l b ien p udo s e r l a d ob le h acha , e n c l c a so d e l a s r epresen tac ione s e f ec tuada s e n l o s " l arnakes" d e P a la ika . s t ro ( F ig .4 ,d ) y d eG yoph irak ia ( Daux , 1 960 ,8 40 ;K an ta , 1 980 ,2 1 ,F ig . 13 , 1 ;L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; Mavr iyannak i , 1 972 , 7 8 ,n o ta 2 61 ; Wa lbe rg , 1 988 ,2 14 ) ,l as imbo log la p od r Ia s e r a l go d i fe ren te . E n c lp r ime ro d e e l io s , f o rmando p a r te d e l p rog rama i c onog rá f ico , u na d ob le h acha a pa rece s ob re u no s Cuerno s d e l a Con sag rac ión a poyado s as u v ez s ob re u n mo t ivo v ege ta l , c on jun to i n te rp re tado p o r R .C . B o sanquc t ( 1901-02 , 2 99 ) c omo u n c o lumna mo ldu rada s ob re l a q ue s e a poyan l o s s Imbo lo s s ag rado s ; e ne ip ane l c on t iguo e ig r 4f o a l ado s ob re e i q ue s e h ayan d o s p a re s d e e s te t i l t imo emb lema , p od r Ia s imbo l iza r a l a gen te d e c u l to , a t o f ic ian te d e u n r i tua l d e o f rendas y i bac iones r e lac ionada s c on e i mundo d c l an a tura leza v ege ta l . E n e i" l a rnax " d e Gyophy rak ia d en uevo e ncon t ramo s u na r ep re sen tac ión s i n te t izada d e l a s c e remon ia s , t a n to e n c uan to q ue u na p a loma , a n ima l emb lemá t ico d e l a d e idad ,e s tá p o sada s ob re u na d ob le h acha a poyada as u v ez s ob re l o ss ag rado sC ue rno sd el aC on sag rac ión

c a rác te rr e s idenc ia l s i tuado j un to a t" Pequeno P a lac io" , e n c lq ue s e h an e ncon t rado d ive r so s ma te r ia le s q ue , a pa rcn temen te , p roceden d e l d e rrumbe d c u na c ap i l la d omé s t ica s i tuada e n l a p l an ta s upe r io r . E n t re e s to s o b je to sd e s taca l ap re senc ia d cu n v a so p in tado e nc uya d cco rac ión a pa rccen l o s C ue rnos d c l aC on sag rac ión , j un to c on i me scudo yd i ve r so s t ema s v ege ta te s yq ue p o r s u e s t i lo s ef c cha e n e iM IR I ( Ge s se l l , 1 985 , 1 01 ; P opham , 1 973 ,5 3 ,F ig .1 9 ) . A l i g ua l q ue s ucede c on l a s p i eza s a n teno res , s e t r a ta d c u na a soc iac ión n ada f r ecuen te e n l o s v a so s c e rám ico s , d onde s i n e mba rgo l o s " e scudos e n O cho" s e u t i l iza ron c on c i e r ta f r ecuenc ia c omo t ema o rnamen ta l s ob re f o rma s e spec ia les r e lac ionada s c on a c t iv idade s r i tua les ( Ca s so la G u ida , 1 97 3 ) . S is ea cep ta l ah ipO tc s is d c q ue e n c lp an tcón c r c to m icén ico c x is t Ia u na d iv in idad g uer re ra , c uya r cp re scn tac ión a n icOn ica s on l o s " e scudos e n O cho e i ",

s i gn i l icado s imbó l ico d cs ua soc iac iOn c on l o s s ag rado s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac iOn e s r ea lmen tc c omp le jo y p uede e nIoca r sc d e sde d i s t in to s p un to s d c v i s ta . D c sde l u ego , e s ta a soc iac iOn p odr Ia r e ve la rno s q u e l am isma d e idad p e r son i f icada e n l o s s ag rado s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión e r a c apaz d c m an ife s ta r se t amb ién e n f o rma d cd i v in idad g u e r re ra ,r e s id iendo b a jo e s ta f o rma e nl o s m ismo s e d if ic io s s ag rado s t a l c omo r e ve lar la l a i mp ron ta d c Z ak ro s ;a ho ra b ien , l a i mp ron ta d c -

1 . 2 .3 .2 . LOS " ESCUDOS EN OCF IO" S ib i en l o s i l amado s " e scudos e n O cho " p ud ie ron s e r r ea lmen te a rma s d ef en s iva s f unc iona le s q ue u t i l iza ron l o sg ue r re ro s e geo s ,P .C a sso la Gu ida ( 1973 ,2 9 -3 7 )h a p ues to d er e l ieve q ue s eq u izá s et r a ta d c u no b je to c on v a lo r s imbó l ico yr e l ig io so q ue p udo c onve r t ir se e n l a r ep re sen tac ión a n icón ica d c u na d e idad g ue r re ra d e l p an teón m icén ico . E n e s te s en t ido , h ay q ue p one r d c mamf ie s to q ue e s to s e scudo s s e a soc ian c on o t ro s

C no sso p od r Ia e s tar i nd icándonos q ue l a d iv in idad g ue r re ra q ue m an if ies ta e nf o rma d c " e scudo e n O cho" yq ue a pa rece t r a s l af i gu ra ma scu l ina e n a c t i tud d c s a ludo o a do rac iOn , s e d i nge a ll uga r e n q ue r e s ide l a d e idad s imbo l izada p o rl o sC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión , emb lcma q ue c orona L a e s t ruc tu ra c o lumnada , r ep roduc iéndo se a s I d c a l guna f o rma e i c l á s ico c e remon ia l c g ipc io , c r ccnc ia s yr i tua le s q ue s i n d uda l o sc r e tcn sc sc onoc ic ron c on a mp l i tud .

s l inbo lo s s ag rado s , t a le s c omo l o s " nudos" c on c i e r ta f r ecuenc ia ,e n t a n to q ue c s tán a soc iado s t a ns o lo e nd o s o cas ione s c on l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , ye n ambo s c a so s d c t r a ta d c i mp ron tas , u na d c e l la s p roceden te d c C no sso ( Ha l lage r , 1 986 , 7 , F ig .24 , c ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 6 6 , n o ta 2 5 , F ig .1 , 7 ) yl a o t ra d c Z ak ro ( Ca sso la -Gu ida , 1 973 , 2 4 , L am . V I ,2 ; E van s , 1 964 , 1 , 3 08 , F ig . 2 27 ; H a l lagc r , 1 985 , 7 , F ig .25 , g ; Hogar th , 1 902 , 8 8 , n üm . 1 31 , F ig . 3 0 ) . L a p nme ra d e e s ta s i mp ron ta S mue s tra u na e s t ruc tu ra c o lumnada a n te

1 . 2 .3 .3 .E SP IRALES , CREC IENTES ,D ISCOS Y S O ! E S A l s u rd cP a la ika s t ro , e nP i ako , s ee xcavt iu na c ueva s epu lc ra l , e nl aq ue s eh ab lan p rac t icado i nhumac ionc s e n " l a rnake s " a companada s d c u n a j ua r f une r ar io d e l q ue f o rmaba p a r te l at a pade ra d ci mi n cen sar io ( F ig .7 ,c ) q ue p rc scn ta u na d eco rac iOn p in tada a b a se d c u na b anda d c e sp ira les y u n p ar d c C ue rno s d c l a

a do rac ión ( F ig .6j ) , t r a s l ac ua l a pa rece c l " e scudo e n

C on sag rac ión ( Dawk in s , 1 905 -06 , 1y s . , F igS ; G co rg iou , 1 979 , 4 30 ; R u tkow sk i , 1 981 , 8 3 , n o ta 3 05 ) . E sp ira le s r e lac ionada s c on e s te s Imbo lo s ag rado s on

O cho " ,e nt a n to q ue e nl ai mp ron ta d cZ ak ro s ( F ig .61 ) . l o s e scudo s a pa recen c omo t i n ico mo t ivo r c lac ionado

f i gu rada s e n e is a rcO fago d c Ay ia T n iadha ( F ig .1 , b ) , e i

l aq ue s ee ncuen t ra u na f i gu ra ma scu l ina e n a c t i tud d c

c on e le d if ic io c o ronado p o rc l emb lema s ag rado . L a " Mans ion I nexp lo rada" , e s u n g ran c d if ic io d c

t amb iün l a s q ue d eco ran l a s e s truc tu ra s a rqu i tec tómca s r hy ton d cZ ak ro s ( F ig .2 ,a ) yc ls upue s to a l ta r d e l f r e sco d e l a dy ton d cl aX e s tc 3d cA k ro t ir i ( F ig .8 ,a ) . P o re l io ,

2 36

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e sp robab le q ue e n e s ta t a pade ra d e i n cen sa r io , a unque d e u na m ane ra s i n té t ica , s eh aya t r a tado d c r ep resen ta r

e d if ic ios y /o e s truc tura s c onservadas c uya c o r respondenc ia c on l a s f i gu rada s p uede d a r se e n

e im ismo s imbo l i smo . L o s i l amado s d i scos s o la re s , e s tán r ep re sen tado s e n

d i s t in to sg rado s ob i en ,n it a ns i qu ie ra e x is t ir . P o rt a n to ,h cmo sp re tend ido c a tcgo r iza rl a si mágene s

L ad eco rac ión d e u n v a so c e rám ico d e l an ec rópo l is d e

c on e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tcc ton ica s f i gu rada s , v a lo rando e i

My r s in i , e n e i q ue l o s C ue rno s d e L a Con sag rac ion a pa recen c omo s opo r te s d e u n s Imbo io c on s t i tu ido p o r

p ape ld cl o sC ucmo sd cl aC on sag rac ión e ne L la sc on L a i n tcnc ión d c d e tc rm ina r L a c o r re spondcnc ia f unc iona l d c l o s e j emp la re s c on se rvado s ys u s i gn if icado yv a lo r

d o s d i sco s s uperpucs tos ( Daux , 1 960 , 6 17 y s . ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 7 2 , F ig .24 , 7 ; VV .AA . 1 988 , n üm .1 00 ) . T amb ién c omo y a s eña iamo s a n te r io rmen te e n u no d e l o s L i amado s " Va so s d e l a S e rp ien te" d c G oum ia ( F ig .3 ,k ) ,s i endo p robab lemen te u na a soc iac ión s imbó i ica e n l a q ue e i d i sco s o la r e s l a f uen te v i v if icado ra , yp o r t a n to d c n uevo s e man i t ie s ta l a c apac idad d c l ad e idad s up rema d c d a r v i da . D c u na mane ra m á s e xp l Ic i ta , e n e ic a so d e l ap i aca d c b ronce d c P sych ro , s e h a r cp re sen tado e is o l d e u na m ane ra m á sr e a l ,c on s u sr a yo sp r e s id iendo l ae scena ( F ig .2 , f ) . 1 . 2 .4 . ARQU ITECTURA Y CUERNOS DE LA CONSAGRAC ION

s i n iból ico al o s o jo s d c l o s c spec tado re s q ue p ud ie ron c on tcmp ia rl o s g rande s e d i f ic io s m ino ico s c on t o do s u e sp lendo r . F resco s , s e l lo s , i mp ron ta s , maquc ta s , " rhy ta" e i n c lu so v a so sc e rám ico sc on d cco rac ión p in tada o f rcccn u na mp l io r epe r to r io d ce s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tec ton ica sq ue , e n l I nea s g ene ra Lc s , p ucden a g rupa r se d c l as i gu icn te f o rma : 1 .L o sg r ande sc omp le jo sa r qu i tec ton ico s S in d uda ,d u ran tc mucho t i empo c lf amo so " Rhywn d e lA sed io" , h a l lado e n l aT umba I V d e l C I rcu lo A d c T umba s d c M icena s q ue s cgün A . E van s s er la u na p roducc ion m ino ica ( 1964 , 1 1 1 ,89 -94 ,F ig s . 5 0a ,5 1 )f uc

S in d uda , u na d c l a s r e Lac ione s má s f i rmemen te e s tab lec ida s e s J a q ue e x is te e n t re l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión yl aa rqu i tee tu ra r e l ig io sa yp a lac ia l , yn o s o la rnen te d e sde c l p un to d c v i s ta i c onog ráf ico s i no t amb ién a p ar t ir d e l h a l lazgo d c e j emp lares c on se rvado s , av ece s d c g rande s d imen s ione s , d c e s te

l a t i n ica r cp rcsen tac ión c onoc ida d c u na c i udad m ino ica , a unque s ua spec to d ca scn tam icn to f o r t i f icado c s taba e n c on trad icc ión c on l a s e v idenc ias

s Imbo io s ag rado e n l o s g rande s p a lac ios c r e ten se s y m icén ico s , a s I c omo e n a i guno s l uga re s d c c u l to n o p a lac ia le s . L óg ica inen te n inguno d c e s to s e j emp la re s

a mu ra l lada , c on v ar io s e d if ic io s , u no d c l o s c ua le s e s u na e s truc tu ra d c p i la res e n t re l o s q ue c s tán l o s C uc rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión , e n t a n to q ue s ob re e l la

a pa r ec ió " i ns i tu ", s i no q ue s ee ncon t ra ron c a ido s , e n t re l o s d e r rumbe s y mucha s v ece s f r agmen tado s , p e ro s u s r e s to s f ue ron s u u ic ien te s ,j un to c on l a s r ep re sen tac ione s i conog rá f ica s , c omo p a ra c ons ide ra r ios c omo c l

a pa rece u na f i gu ra h umana . S c t r a ta r Ia q u izá d c l a r ep rc scn tac ión d c u na c i udad e nl aq ue p robab lemen te e x is t Ia u n e d if ic io d c c a rác tc r r e l ig io so , i den t if icado c omo t a l e n f unc ión d c s u r e iac iOn c on c l s Imbo lo m ino ico . E l s i gn i f icado d e l v a so , e spec ia lmen te e n l o q ue s e r e f ie re a ll uga r q ue s ep re tend ió r ep rc scn ta r h a

e x nb lema m ino ico p o re xce Lenc ia . S in e mba rgo ,l av a lo rac ión d e le mb lema h av a r iado y e s d i scu t ib Le d e sde d i f e ren te s p un to s d c v i s ta , s ob re t o do s it e nemo s e n c uen ta q ue a pa recen e n c on tex to s r e la t ivamen te d i ve r s if icado s , a unque s i emp re d en t ro d c u no sl Im i te sd e te rm inado s p a lac io s ye d if ic io sd cc u l to e n c l c a so d c l o s e j emp la re s c on servado s . L a s r e p r c scn tac ione s f i gu rada s s on mucho m á s n ume ro sa s y d i f Ic i les d c a na l izar , y a q ue s a lvo e n c asos c xcepc iona ie s , n o p uede i d en t il ica r se c on s egu r idad c l t i po d c e d i f ic io y /o e s t ruc tu ra a r qu i tec tOn ica q ue s eh a -

-

p re tend ido f i gu ra r , L o q ue h a d ado l uga r a amp l ia s d i scu s iones , mucha s v ece s m an ten idas s ob re l a s m ismas

i mágcnes .

S in

d uda ,

l os

a rqueo log icas q ue i nd icaban l a a usenc ia d c f o r t i u icac ione s e nl ai s la d cC re ta . D c h echo ,e nc iv a so s e h a r cp rc sen tado c l a sed io q ue s uf rc u na c i udad

s i do amp l iamen te d i scu t ido ( I iagg , S ieur in , 1 982 , 1 86 ; ( ' a s so la Gu ida , 1 973 ,119 ,L am .1 1 ,1 ; Ma r ina to s , 1 97 1) . B a s tan te s a f io s má s t a rde , l a s e xcavac iones l i evada s ac abo e n Ak ro t in s aca ron a l a l uz u na n ueva r ep re sen tac ión d cc i udadc s m ino ica s d ondc c lc mb iema s ag rado h ac Ia d c n uevo s u a pa r ic ión . A s I , s i n d uda e i l i amado " F re sco d e l a Uego z la" d c l a We s t Hou se , s e c onve r t Ia e n o b je to d c a na l is is ei n te rp re tac ione s muy d i f e ren te s s ob re e ic a rác tc r d c l o s e d i f ic io s c o ronado s c on c l cmb lcma s ag rado ,c on t r ibuycndo e ng ran med ida n o as o luc iona r l o s p rob lema s q ue y a e x is t Ian , s i no a l

c on tcx tos

p l an tcam icn to d cn ueva sh ipó te s is yv a lo rac ione s d cl a s

i c onog ráu ico s c on tr ibuyen ap l an tca rh ipó te s is s ob re c l c arác ter y f unc iona l idad d c l a s e s t ruc turas

e s t ruc tura s a rqu i tcc tón ica s . Má s t a rde , t u vo l uga r u n n uevo h a l lazgo , e n e s te c a so u na i mp ron ta e ncon t rada e n K a s tc i l i - K han ia , e nC rc ta , q ue c on t r ibu Ia aa mp l ia r e ir epe r to r io i c onog ráf ico d ca s en tam ien to sf o r t i f icado s .

a r qu i tec ton ica s f i gu rada s , p e ro n oh emo sd co l v ida rq ue mucho s d c l o s y ac im ien to s s e h an e xcavado r e s to s d c

/

2 37

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

E ne if r e sco " m in ia tu ra " q ue d eco ra e i mum s t i rd cl a

E nl oq ue s er e f ie re a le d if ic io i n te r io r , s i tuado j un to a lm ar ,L . Mo rgan p l an te nl ah ipó te s i sd cq ue s et r a ta d c l ar ep rc sen tac ión d c u na c ap i l la u rbana , s i n d e sca r ta r q ue l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión s ean p o r tá t i ie s , d i spue s to s s ob re u na e s t ruc tura d c madc ma ( 1988 , 8 5 ) , d c t a l f o rma q ue s e s i tuaban e n l ap a r te s upe r io r d e l e d if ic io , s an t if icando e i l uga r , c on mo t ivo d c c e remon ia s e spec ia lc s . E n r e a l idad , s ia t cndemo s al a

Hab i tac ión 5 d e l a Wes t H ouse d e T era e s tá r ep re sen tada u na c omp le ja e scena c on u na p roce s ión o d e sf i le n ava l q ue d i scur re e n t re d o s c i udade s , u no d e e l ia s c on a spec to d c u n a sen ta in ien to r u ra l yl ao t ra t r a tada c omo u n c en t ro d c mayor i mpor tanc ia . P rec isamen te e s e n e s ta s egunda c i udad , e ip ue r to d e a r r ibada , e s d onde s e h an r cp re sen tado C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión e n d o s p o s ic ione s d i fe ren te s :s ob re e i

p o s ic ión q ue t i ene e s te e d if ic io ,e ne ii lm i te d ci nc i udad

mu ro oe nc in tado q ue a pa ren temen te r odea l ac iudad a mane ra d e u na f o r t i f icac ión ( Mo rgan , 1 988 , 8 3 , 8 6 ) y e n t wo d c l o s e d if ic io s i n ter io re s , c e rcano a lp ue r to , e n

yl ap o s tu ra d cs a lu tac ión q ue a dop ta i nf i guma f emen ina d e t rá s d c l o s C uerno s d c l aC on sag rnc ión , t c ncmo s l a s cn sac ión d c q ue e s tá p re s id iendo e i d e sa r ro l lo d e l

c s te c a so a soc iado s au na f i gu ra f emen ina c on l o s b razo s l e van tado s yl o s d edo s d cl a mano a b ie r to s e nl a m isma p o s tu ra e n q ue a pa recen l a s mu je res e n o t ra s

d csf i le n ava l oa l memo s r e c ib idndo io , p o r l o q ue e s p robab le q ue e s ta f i gu ra c o r re sponda , e f ec t ivamen te , a l a r ep rc scn tac ión d c u na s ace rdo t isa a n te l a c ua l s e r e a l iza e id e s f i ie p roce s iona l , c uyo c a rác t e r , e n o p in ion d c N . Ma r ina to s ( 1974 a , s i c .) n o e s g ue r re ro , s i no

r ep re sen tac ione si c onog ra l ica s . E l f r e sco h a d ado i uga r a mucha s y v a r iada s i n te rp re tac ione s , s ug ir iendo t a n to S . Ma r ina tos ( 1974 ,

c e remon ia l . Adcmá s , t amb ién e n Ak ro t ir i , a unquc e n o t ro d c l o s e d if ic io se nl o sq ue p r e sum ib lemen te s el i eva ron ac abo

5 2 -53 ,F ig .1 05 , 12 ) c omo C h . D ouma s ( 1983 ) , s et r a ta d c l ar e p re sen tac ión d c l ap rop ia c i udad d c " Ak ro t i r i" , c uya s mu ra l la s e s tán c o ronada s p o r C ue rno s d c l a C on sagrac ión ; p a r

N . Ma r ina to s

( 1984 a ,4 2 43 )

t amb ién e s p robab le q ue s ea l a r e p rescn tac ión d c l a c i udad e n t a n to q ue l o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión s e emp lean c omo emb lema d c l a a u to r idad r c l ig io sa ; t amb ién N . Mar ina to s ( 1984a , 4 3 ) s ug ie re q ue l a s f i gu ra sa somada s ab a icone s ye nt c r raz a sr ep rc sen tan l a n ob leza , d c s tacando e n t re e l ia s l a f i gu ra f emen ina a soc iada a le d if ic io i n ter io r c o ronado p o r e i emb lema s ag rado , f i gu ra q ue i d en t if ica c omo u na s acc rdo t isa . P o r s up a r te , B . R u tkowsk i p l an tea l ah ipd te s is d c q ue s e t r a ta d c l a r ep re scn tac ión d c u n " San tuar io y u n t emenos q ue s e e ncucn t ran f ue ra d c l a c i udad ( 1986 , 2 12 ) . L . Mo rgan ( 1988 ,8 6 ) s em c l ina p o rl ap o s ib i i idad d c q ue e i muro d c mampos ter Ia q ue r odea a pa ren temen tc i n c iudad , q ue a caba e n i n p uer ta d c e n t rada al am isma yq ue c s tá c o ronado p o rC ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iön" , c o r rc sponda r e a lmen te a i m r e c in to f o r t if icado , s ef la lando q ue a sen tam ien to s c i c iád ico s c on tempo ráneo s c omo Ay ia I r im ( Keo s ) yP hy lakop i (Me lo s ) e s taban p ode ro samen te a mu ra i lado s ,a lt i empo q ue s ef la ia q ue e n A k ro t ir i c l a r ea e xcavada a tm e s p equcf ia yim i tada al oq ue p a rece l az ona c en t ra l d e l a sen tam ien to , p o rl oq ue e s d i f Ic i l d e tc rm ina r s i estuVo on o f o r t if icada . P o r e l lo , L . Mo rgan p ian tea l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue s e t r a te d c l ar ep rc sen tac ión d c i m a scn tam icn to q ue s e c ncuad ra d en t ro d c l a s t r ad ic ione s a rqu i tcc tomca s c i c lád ica s , p e ro n o c r e tcnsc s . Adcmá s , p one d c r e l ieve q ue i np re senc ia d c l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión s ob re c l mu ro yc e rca d cl ae n t rada d cl a c i udad ,e su na f o rma d cp one rd cm an if ie s to e ic a rác te r s ag rado q ue t i ene i ne n t rada a lr e c in to .

a c t iv idade s c eremoma les s e h a r cp re sen tado u na e s t ruc tu ra a r qu i tec ton ica q ue , e n c i e r ta f o rma p odemo s r e iac iona r c on e i " F re sco d e l a L iegada " d c l a We s t Hou se . S ct r a ta d e lf r e sco e ncon t rado s ob re l ap a red d e l a dy lon d c l aS a la L u s t ra i d cl aX e s té 3 ( F ig .8 ,a ) , e n e i q ue u np a r d cC uerno s d c i nC on sag rac ión r ema ta u na e s t ruc tu ra d eco rada c on f i b re s d c i r io y c sp ira ie s , i n c lu ida e ni m mu ro e nc lq ue s eh af i gu mado i ma l zado d c mampo s tc r ia r egu la r , c on i m e s t i lo muy s im i la r n i q ue t i ene c l mu ro d e l r e c in to d ci nc i udad d e l " Fresco d e l a L iegada " d c i n We s t House . L a e s t ruc tu ra d c i n X e s te 3 p odr Ia i d en t if ica r se c omo u na l t a re n o p in ion d cN . Ma r ina to s ( 1984 a ,7 4, 1984 b , 1 75 ) ,i n teg rado e n e ip rog rama i c onog rá f ico q ue s er ep re sen ta e n e ir e s to d c l o s f r e sco s d e l s ec to r c e remon ia l d c l aX c s tc 3 ,y a q ue N . Mar ina to s p lan tea q ue , a poyando sc e n l o s c ho r reone s d c p in tu ra r o ja q ue h ay s ob re c l p rop io e mb lema y q ue a pa recen t amb itn s ob re p a r te d c l a e s truc tu ra , s e h ab r Ia q uer ido r ep re sen ta r i n s ang re v e r t ida s ob re e ls Imbo io s ag rado d u ran te l a sc e remon ia s yc u i to s r e lac ionado s c on l o s n to s d c r enovac ión d c l a v i da . S in e mba rgo , t amb ién s ob re l o s C uernos d c i n C on sag mac ión q ue c o ronan e i mu ro d e l r e c in to d e l F re sco d c l aL iegada y e ie d if ic io d e l p ue r to , a parecen t r azo sr o jo sd cf o rma i ndef in ida (Mo rgan , 1 988 ,83 ,85 ) ye nc s te c a so e ip rog rama i c onog ra f ico p a rcce s c r muy d i f e ren te ,a unque d e sde i u cgo l ap re senc ia d e le mb iema i nd ica r la , t amb ién e n o p in ion d c L . Mo rgan l a i mpo r tanc in r e l ig io sa d c l ac scena e n s u c on jun to . P o r t a n to , n op uede d e sca r ta r se q ue e if r e sco d c i nX c s tc 3 s ea , t a l c omo s ug ie rc B . R u tkowsk i , l ar ep re sen tac iOn

2 38

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

d cu nr e c in to s ag rado ou np a iac io ( 1986 ,2 12 ) , al oq ue p odemo s a ñad i r l ah ipó te s is d e q ue s e h aya t r a tado d e r ep re sen ta re il uga r , e ir e c in to e nq ue s ed e sa r ro l ia t o da

p roce s iona L n o muy d i s t in to a lf i gu rado e n e if r e sco d c l a We s t Hou se d c T c ra , e n e i q ue a lguna s d c l a s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tcc ton ica s d c L ac i udad e n L aq ue S c

l a c e remon ia . P o r o t ra p a r te , p uede t r a ta r se d e u na a l ego r la p l ena d e s imbo i i smo , e nl aq ue s ec omb inan l a

d csar ro i la e i a con tec im ien to , h an s i do i den t if icada s c omo " t or re s" o c on s t rucc iones s im i la re s a l a s r ep re sen tada s e n L a i mp ron ta d c K a s te l l i - Khan ia

i d ea d c s a c r if ic io s s ang r ien to s yL i bac ione s , e ir e c in to e n q ue s e l i eva a c abo l a c eremoma s a c raza i izado med ian te L au t i l izac ión d e l s Imbo io s ag rado m ino ico yL a mamfe s tac ión d e s u p ode r e n L a s oc iedad d c -

( Ha l lage r , 1 985 , 1 9 ) , r cma tada s p o r c im ismo s Imbo lo s ag rado . No o b s tan te , n o s e h ap od ido d e te rm ina r s ie n e if r esco m in ia tu ra d c K eo s c x i s te t amb ién u na mu ro -

A k ro t i r i . S i b i en , t a n to e n e i" rhy ton d e l A sed io" c omo e n e i f r esco d e l a Wes t H ou se d e Ak ro t i r i , ye spec ia lmen te

d c f o r t if icac ión , p o r l o q ue t a n s o lo s abemo s q ue s e i nd icó e ic a rác te r s ag rado d c a l guno s d c L o s e d if ic io s mcd ian tc L a u t i i izac ión , t a l c omo s ucede e n o t ra s

e n e s te c a so , l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión e s t fm n i t idamen te d ibu jados , t an to e n u na i mp ron ta

o ca s ioncs , d c L o s C uernos d c L a C on sag rac ión" ( Ab ramov i tz , 1 980 , 5 9 -60 , 6 3 , L ám .3 ; C o leman , 1 973 ,

e ncon t rada e n K a s te l l i -Khan ia ( Tzedak is , H a l lage r , 1 987 , 17 - 19 ,F ig s . 1 ,2 ; Ha l lage r , 1 985 , 1 2 ,F ig s . 1 0 -

2 84 ) . 2 .

1 7 ) , c omo e n l o s f r agmen to s d c u n f r e sco mr n ia tu ra e ncon t rado se nA y ia I r im ,e nK eo s ,( Ab ramov it z , 1 980 , 5 9 -60 , 6 3 , L ám .3 ; C o leman , 1 973 , 2 84 ) , s obre l o s e d if ic io s s e e ncuen t ran u no s t r azos q ue E . Ha l lage r ( 1985 , 1 9 )h ai d en t i l icado c omo r e p re sen tac ione sd ce s e m ismo emb lema ,a poyándo se e no t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s

C on sag rac ión S i l o s g rande s c omp le jo s a rqu i tcc tón ico s aq ue n o s h emo s r e fcr ido má s amba p uedcn i dcn t if ica rsc

-

i c onog raf ica s e n l a s q ue e is Imbo io e s tä t r azado c on c i m ismo e s t i lo , t a l c omo s ucede e n L ai mp ron ta d c Ay ia T r iadha ( F ig . 6 ,b ) ye n l o sa n i l io s d eB e r l in (F ig .8 ,e )y d c Mega Mona s t ir i ( F ig .8 , f) . E nl ai mp ron ta d c Khan ia s eh ar ep re sen tado i mg r an c omp le jo d c e d if icac ione s c o ronada s p o rC ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac ión , s i tuado e n im p a isa je r oco so , s ob re e i q ue s e e ncuen t ra u na f i gu ra m a scu l ina e n u na c l a ra a c t i tud a u to r i ta r ia H a l lage r , 1 985 , 3 1) . O bv iamcn te , e i c omp le jo a rqu i tec tómco p uede d escomponer se e n d i fe ren te s b loquc s , a li gua i q ue s ucede e n e ic a so d c l a c iudad d e l

F re sco

d c L a L iegada d c

e nc in tado ( Ha l lage r , 1 985 , 1 9 ) , t a l c omo s ucede t amb ién e n e ic a so d e l " Rhy ton d e lA sed io" , a unque e i mu ro r ep re sen tado e n L a i mp ron ta d c K an ia n o e s t r ema tado p o rC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión , s Imbo lo q ue s i n e mba rgo s ic o rona p rác t icamen te t odo s L o s e d if ic io s f i gu rado s e n c i i n ter io r d e l r e c in to , ad i fe renc ia d e l f r esco d c Ak ro t ir i , d ondc c omo y a h emo s v i s to , c l e mb iema s ag rado t a ns o lo s eh au t i l izado e nu no d cl o s

c oronados

p or

C uernos

d c

L a

a pa ren tcmen te c omo l a r eprcsen tac ión d c a sen tam icn to s , s i n d e sca r tar e n modo a iguno q ue a l meno s e nc lc a so d ce scena d cl ai mp ron ta d c K a s td l l i Khan ia s e h aya r ef le jado u n c omp le jo d c c a rác te r p a lac ia i ( Ha l lage r , 1 985 , 2 1) o i n c iu so i m r e c in to d c c u i to , e x is tcn o t ra s r ep re sen tac ione s e n l a s q ue L a s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tcc tón ica s f i gu rada s s on má s s imp le s . Av cce s c ic a rác te rd c l ac s truc tu ra p uede i d cn t if ica r sc d cn t ro d c u no s má rgencs r azonab ics , p e ro e n o t ra s o ca s ione s t amb ién c x i s ten v ar ia s h ipó tc s is a i tema t iva s . P o r s upue s to , n o t oda s l a s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tcc tomca s r ep re scn tada sr e sponden a lm ismo t i po ,s i no q ue c x is ten n umc ro sa sv a r ian tc s: 2 . 1 . E d i f ic io sTr ipa r t i to s E n p r imer l ugar e x iste

Ak ro t ir i ,

r ep re sen tac ione s a mba s q ue d if ie ren e na i guno s p un to s yc o inc iden e no t ro s . A s I ,e na mbo sc a so sp a rece q ue s e t r a ta d c u n c omp le jo a rqu i tec tón ico r odeado p o r u n

E d if ic ios

u n

c on jun to

d c

r epresen tac iones e n l a s q ue L a s e s truc turas a rqu i tcc ton ica s f i gu rada s s e h an i d en t if icado c omo L uga re s d c c u i to , b i en s can " Cap i l ia s T r ipar t i tas" o " San tuar io s d c C ima Mon taf ia" , p uc s L ai magen e s l o s u f ic icn temen tc e xp i lc i ta c omo p a ra e l lo . Sm d uda , c i f r esco má s s i gmf ica t ivo e n l o q ue r e spec ta a l a s d cnom inada s C ap i l la s T r ipar t i ta s e sc iq ue c o r rc spondc al o s f r agmen to s c ncon t rado s p o r A . E van s e n t re L o s d e r rumbe s d e l A la O cc iden ta l d e l P a iac io d c C no s so , L o s c ua ie s s il o s c on s idc ra ino s d c u na manc ra a i s lada r ep rcsen tan e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tec ton ica s d i fc ren te s -

e d if ic io s c e rcano s a lp ue r to ya soc iado c omo , p o r o t ra p a s te e s t r ad ic iona l e n L ai c onog ra f Ia m ino ica , au na

f achada s d c e d if ic io s , g a le r Ia s p o r t icada s , r o se ta s a soc iada s c on C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión ( F ig . 6 , gi ;

f i gu ra f emcn ina . E l e s tado s uma inen te f r agmen tar io d e l i l amado F resco d e l a C iudad d c A y ia i r in i , n o p e rm i te d e te rm ina r c lc a rác tc r d c l ae scena a q ue p e r tenccen , a unque p o s ib lcmen te s e t r a ta d c u na d csf i les

F ig .7 .f h ) . E i f r agmcn to c onoc ido c omo " F re sco d e l aC ap i l ia T r ipar t i ta ' s e a f iadc a L o s q ue f o rman l o s [ L amado s " Gran P a rada , Danza S agrada ye iB osque S agrado

-

f o rmando u nc on jun to q ue p robab lemcn tc d eco raba L a s

2 39

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

p a redes d e u na e s tanc ia d es t inada a a c t iv idades c e remon ia le s s i tuada e n l ap ian ta s upe r io r d e l s ec to r NO d e l P a lac io . E l c on jun to s e i n terp re tado d e sde d i f e ren te s p un to s d e v i s ta p o r d i s t in to s i n ve s t igado re s . A s I , M .A .S . C ame ron ( 1970 , 1 987 ) , t r a s u n e xhau s t ivo a ná l is is d e t odo s e s to s f r agmen to s , h a p lan teado L a p o s ib i l idad d e q ue c o r re spondan at i n ü n ico p rog rama i c onog rá f ico ,f o rmando u nf r i so c on ido aJ ol a rgo d cl a s p a rede sd el am enc ionada e s tanc ia . E n e i f r iso d e l q ue f o rman p a r te e i f r e sco d e J a C ap i l la T r ipa r t i la ye id el aG ran P a rada , s ea dv ie r ten a l guno sd e ta l le sd cg r an i n te ré s , t a lc omo l ad iez f i gu ra s f ememna s c i nco ac ada l a do q ue f l anquean e ie d i l ic io ‚

d e c u l to , d e t rá s d e l a s c ua les a pa rece u na mu l t i tud d c c abec i ta s s ob re u n f ondo a zu lado . Ac ada l a do d c e s t .a e scena p r inc ipa l ys epa rado s d ce l la p o ru no s p o s te s d c e s t i lo e g ipc io , s eme jan te s al o s r ep re sen tado s e n l o s r hy ta d c Z ak ro s yd c C no sso , d i ve r so s g rupo s d c mu je re s o cupan l a s p la ta fo rma s oe sca le ra s , a lf r en te d e l c o lec t ivo q ue a pa rece d e t rá s . L o s a r t is tas q ue p in ta ron e s to s f r iso s a f iad ieron a demá s u na s e r ie d c e l emen to s a rqu i tec tómco s , e n t re l o s q ue d es taca i m f r agmen to d c u na c o rn isa c o ronada p o r C uernos d e l a C on sagrac ion , r e s tau rada c omo t i n b a lcón a l q ue s e a soman v a r ia s mu je re s ( Evan s , 1 964 ,1 1 /2 ,F ig .48 d ) . S ie ne if r e sco d cL aC ap i l la T r ipar l i ta , s ea p rec ia e n l az ona i n fe r io r ,u na e s t ruc tu ra q ue q u izá p ud ie ra s e ra n a l ta r , d eba jo d c l a s c o lumna s , l a m isma e s t ruc tu ra g ene ra l t i ene o t ro f r agmen to d cf r e sco e ncon t rado e nc l A imacén X I I I a unque e n e s te c a so l a e s t ruc tura a rqu i tec ton ica ,e s tá d eba jo d c t i nf r iso d cC ue rno s d cl a C on sag rac ión q ue q u izá p uede c or re sponde r al ap a r te i n fer io r d c L a z ona c en t ra l d c u na r ep resen tac ión c onvenc iona l d c u na " Cap i l la T r ipar t i ta" ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 1 /2 , 6 03 - 0 4 , F ig . 3 77 ) , a unque s e d e sconoce c l c a rác te r d e l p rog rama i c onog rá f ico e n q ue e s ta r Ia i n teg rado . E l t ema c en t ra l d e l p rog rama i c onográ f ico d e l a r ea c e remon ia lc onoc ida c omo A r ea d cl a sM in ia tura s ,s e r la u n " Fe s t iva l d e l n ac im ien to /regene rac ión d c L av i da " , c on l ad e idad f emen ina c omo p un to r e fe renc ia l , s eg i ln M .A .S . C ame ron ( 1970 , 1 987 ) . P o r s u p a r te , N . Ma r ina to s ( 1987 , 1 39 ) r e tomando l ah ipO te s is d cq ue c l F re sco d c L a C ap i l la T r ipar l i ld ' yc l d c l a " G ran P a rada " , muy r e s tau rado s p o r A . E van s ( 1964 , I , 6 03 ; I I ,4 7 ,5 9 ,8 3) ,p e r tenecen au nm i smo f r iso , p l an tea l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue e i p rograma i conograf ico d esar ro l lado c or responda a l d esa r ro i lo d c u na

q ue e s tán i n te rcamb iando o s o s ten iendo a l guna c o sa , o b je to q ue N . Ma r ina to s i d en t if ica c omo s em i l las d c c e rea le s oq u izá a ce i tuna s p o r l oq ue d educe q ue s e t r a ta d e u na c e remoma o r i tua l r e lac ionado c on l o s " Fe s t iva le s d c l aP r imave ra o q u izá d c L a C o secha " . E s to s r i tua le s , t a l c omo s eña la t a n ib ién N . Mar ina to s ( 1987 , 1 40 ) s e c e leb raban t a n to e n E g ip to c omo e n d i ve r so sl uga re sd e lP rOx imo O r ien t e ye ns ud e sa r ro l lo , -

-‚

a demá s d e l c omponen te mag ico , e x is t la t i n f a c to r d c c a rác te r p o l i t ico a f lad ido l ar enovac ión d c l ar e a leza , d c L aa u to r idad d c l o s g obe rnan te s , i n teg rada d en t ro d c -

L am i sma s imbo log ia . P o r s u p a r te ,E .N . Dav i s ( 1987 , 1 57 - 1 61) p l an tea l a p os ib i l idad q ue e i f r iso d c L a C ap i l la T r ipar t i ta c o r re sponda al ar ep resen tac iOn d c l a s c e remoma s q ue t en Ian l ugar e n e i i n ter io r d e l p rop io P a lac io , s ub rayando L ai mpo r tanc ia d e l c a rác te rp t lb l ico d c e s te d i spo s i t ivo c om i mn a l o s c ua t ro g randes p a lac io s c r e ten ses . P o r s upues to , h ay q ue p a r t i r p a ra c i lo d c a cep ta r t amb ién q ue l ae s t ruc tu ra f i gu rada e n c lf r e sco t i ene s u c on t rapa r t ida r ea l e nL af a chada O cc iden ta l d e l P a t io , s i gu iendo l a i den t if icac iOn r ca l izada p o r A . E van s , a unque e s ta i den t if icac ión r e su l ta d udo sa , e n o p imOn d cJ .W . S haw ( 1978 ,4 31) ,d ada s l a s d i f e ren t e s c a rac ter Is t ica s d c l a s e s truc tura s e xcavadas y r ep re sen tada s . S in e mba rgo , c lh a l lazgo d c f r agmcn to s d c C uerno s d c L aC on sag rac ion e n l o s p a t io s d c l o s P a lac ios , c omo v e remo s p o s ter io rmen te , r e fue rza L a t e o r Ia d c q ue e n l a s a l a s o cc iden ta les y o r ien ta le s e x is t lan m s ta lac ione sd cc u l to ,s i endo e ic a so d cC no s so L ac onoc ida c omo C ap i l la T r ipar t i ta e ip un to f oca l d c l o sr i tua le s . S i b i en , e s te f r e sco e s c lq ue p ropo rc iona u na i d ea má s c omp le ta d c c omo p ud ie ron s e r l a s Cap i l las T r ipar t i ta s , e n o t ro s mucha s r cp re sen tac ione s c x is ten e s t ruc tura s c o lumnadas q ue q u izá , a unque má s s i n té t icamen te , i n ten tan r ep roduc ir c l m ismo t i po d c i n s ta lac iOn . E n t re e s ta s r ep resen tac ione s s e c uen ta s i n d uda l a s p Laca s d c o ro d c l a s T umba s I I yI V d e l C I rcu lo A d c M icena s (F ig . 3 , a ) , yt amb ién l a i mp ron ta e ncon t rada e n e ip rop io C no s so e n L aq ue l a e s t ruc tura a rqu i tec tómca d c d o s p lan ta s , amba s c o lumnada s yc on C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión e n L o s d o s n ive le s p od r Ia r ep re sen ta r u na c ap i l la s im i la r ( F ig .2 ,d ) , a l i gua l q ue s uccde e n e i c a so d e l a n i l lo e ncon t rado e n M icena s d c L a ( F ig .8 . e ) , q ue s e c ncuen t ra e n e i Mu seo d cB e r l in ( Evan s , 1 90 1 , 1 90 -91 , F ig .64 ; My lona s , 1 966 , 1 40 , F ig .1 27 , 4 ; R u tkowsk i ,

c e remon ia q ue t i ene l uga re ni m A rea T ea tra l , s im i la ra

1 981 , F ig .2 ,4 ; 1 986 , 2 07 ,211 ,12 ) . E l m ismo c squcma ,

q ue e x is t Ia e n e ip rop io C no s so . L a s f i gu ra s f emen ina s

c on c o lumna s e n l a p lan ta b a ja , p e ro e n e s te c a so s o lamen te C uemo s d c L a C on sagrac iOn e n l a c om isa s upe r io r s e r ep roduce e n c la n i i lo d c l aT umba 5 5 d c

s i tuada s e n L ag r an e sca l ina ta , e n e ip ane l l a te ra l d c l a i z qu ie rda d c l a C ap i l la T r ipa r t i ta , d an l ai mp re s ión d c

2 40

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

M icena s r ep roduc ido e n l aF ig .8 , d ,( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 89 , F ig .63 ; Ma r ina to s , 1 971 ; My lon a s , 1 966 , 1 39 ,F ig .1 25 , 1 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 11 , 9 ; S ake l ia r iou , 1 964 , 5 9 , 1 02 ) . E n e s te m ismo c on jun to h ay q ue i nc lu ir e i e d if ic io ,q ue a pa ren temen t e ,t i ene t amb ién d o sp i an ta sy e s tá r e p re sen tado e nl ai mp ron ta e ncon t rada e n C no s so ( G i l l , 1 965 , 8 2 , F ig .! , 4 4 , L am V I , R90 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,F ig . 4 , 23 ) . T r ipa r t i ta , a l m eno s a paren temen te , p od r Ia s e r l a e s truc tu ra r ep re sen tada e n l a i mp ron ta h a l lada e n l a S a la L u s t ra l d e l P equeno P a lac io d e C no s so ( F ig .7 , 1 ) , a unque e n e s te c a so e le mb lema s ag rado ümcamen te r ema ta l a s c o rn isa s d e l c uerpo c en t ra l yl a te ra l d e l e d if ic io , e s tando a u sen te d e l o s i n te rco lumn io s E n l a

g a ler la p or t icada q ue , i n c lu so p od r Ia c o r re sponde r a l a spcc to q ue p robab lemen te p re scn taban l o s p a t io s d c l o s g r andc s P a lac io s c uando s e omamcn taban c on e s te s Imbo lo s ag rado d u ran te l a s c ercmoma s . E n ambo s f r agmen to s , s i n d uda s e h a t r a tado d c r ep re sen ta r u n e spac io d cg rande sd imen s ionc s , yl ad i f e rcn te p o s ic ión d c l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac ión , e n i m c a so e n l o s i n te rco l , imn io s ye n o t ro s c omo r ema te d c l ac o rr n sa , q u izá s e d eba a q ue e n u n c a so l a f i gu rac ión c o r re sponde au na f a chada ( F ig . 6 ,i ) ,e n t a n to q ue e nc l o t ro f r agmen to p robab lemen te s e t r a ta d c u na g a lcr Ia s i tuada e nl ap l an ta b a ja d c im e d i f ic io yl o sC ue rno sd c l aC on sag rac ión mc lu so p ud ic ron h abe rs i do d i spue s to s e n e l la d c mancra o ca s iona l , c on mo t ivo d c l a

e s truc tu ra f i gu rada e n e l s e l lo d e D end ra ( F ig .3 , f ) , d onde l at r aza e squema t ica h ace d i f Ic i l l ai d en ti l icac ión

c e remon ia . D c h echo , y a n o s h emo s r e fer ido a n te r io rmcn tc a

d c l a e s t ruc tu ra , c omo e n o t ros mucho s c a sos , l o s e d if ic io s r ep re sen tado s s o lamen te c uen tan c on C ue rno s

a l guno s f r agmen to s c e rám ico s ( F ig . 5 ,n ) yal ap Ix ide d c m ar f i l d cA y ia T nadha ( F ig .6 , a ) , e nl o s q ue s eh an r ep re sen tado l o q ue p od r Ian s e r p ó r t ico s og a ler la s

d cl aC on sag rac ión e nl ap a r te s upe r io rd el ae s t ruc tu ra . E nl ai mp ron ta d eK anma ( F ig .4 ,e ) ,d cn uevo a pa rece a l a d e recha d e l a f i gu ra f emen ina u na e s t ruc tu ra a rqu i tec tón ica c on d o s mve les , l o m ismo q ue s ucede c on l a s d o s e s t ruc tu ra s r ep re sen tada s aambo s l a do s d c l a s f i gu ra s f emen ina s e n u na i mp ron ta d c K a s te l l i Khan ia ( Ha l lage r , 1 985 , 2 0 , F ig . 2 4 g ) , a unque t a n to a qu l c omo e n e is e l lo d e L ygo r t ino (F ig .4 , 1 ) oe n l a i mp ron ta d cZ ak ro s ( F ig . 4 ,h ) ,l o s s ag rado s " Cue rno s" ,

c o lumnada s . P o r o t ra p a r te , a unque s e t r a ta d c r ep re sen tac ione s má s t a rd Ia s , h ay q ue mcnc iona r e i h a l lazgo d c o t ra s r cp resen tac ioncs d c e d if ic io s c oronados p or C uernos d c l a Consagrac ión , e spec ia lmen te c lq ue a pa rece e ni mp equcno f r agmen to d c c e rám ica h a l lado e n c lP equcf lo P a lac io d c C no s so ( Popham , 1 970 , 1 94 , F ig .3 , L am . 4 6 ) q ue p re sen ta u na e s t ruc tu ra s ob re c o lumna s op i la rc s , q u izá u n e d if ic io

ümcamen te c o ronan l ap a r te s upe r io rd cl a se s t ruc tu ra s . E s ta m isma s i tuac ión s e r ep i te e n u no d c l o s s e l lo s

d c c a rác te rs ag rado , c o ronado p o re i emb lema m ino ico ( F ig . 7 , i ) , oe if r agmen to d c u na c rd tera e ncon t rado e n

e ncon t rado s e n M icena s ( F ig . 5 ,i ) , e n l ai mp ron ta d c

l o s n i ve le s i n icén ico s d e l Ago ra d cA tcna s , d onde e s tá

Ay ia T r iadha ( F ig . 6 , b) ' oe nl ae ncon t rada se nC no s so

r ep re sen tado u n e d i f ic io d c a pa ren te c a rác t e rr c l ig io so , c o ronado p a r C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión y " be t i lo s" ,

( F ig .6 , jyF ig .7 , k ) yZ ak ro s ( F ig .6 , k ) ; a s im ismo , e n l a se s cena sp roce s iona lc sd cl o ss e l lo se ncon t rado se nl a T umba s d c C áma ra 7 1 ( F ig .8 ,c ) d c M icena s ( Evans , 1 90 1 , 1 84 ,F ig .58 ; My lona s , 1 966 , 1 39 -40 ,F ig . 1 23 , 2 ; R u tkow sk i , 1 981 , F ig .1 , 9 ; 1 986 , 2 12 , 1 4 ; S ake l la r iou , 1 964 , 1 24 ; Y av is , 1 949 ,3 0 ,5 ) , e n c ls e l lo d c l aT umba d c C áma ra G amma ( F ig .8 , f )d c Mega Mona s t ir i ( P it h , 1 975 ,5 85 -86 , 6 00 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,F ig . 1 , 10 ) ye nc l i l amado a n i l lo d cT cba s ( F ig .8 ,g ) ( My lona s , 1 966 , 1 40 ; R u tkow sk i , 1 981 , 5 4 , 8 4 , 1 08 , F ig .33 ,2 ; 1 986 , 2 11 ,25 ) , l a s e s t ruc tu ra s a r qu i tcc tón ica s c o lumnada s s o lamcn tc mucs tran Cuernos d c l a C onsagrac ión c omo c o ronam icn to . 2 .P a t io s og a le r la s P o r o t ra p a r te , e n l o s f r agmen to s d c f r esco s e ncon t rado s e n l a s a rque ta s d c l o s A lmacenes d e l

q ue p a r s u e s t i lo s e f c cha e n c l HR l I lA ( My lona s , 1 966 ,141 ;R u tkow sk i , 1 986 ,211 ,1) . Ma s d if Ic i l e s d e tcrm inar s i l a s e s t ruc tu ra s a rqu i tcc tón ica s r ep rc sen tada s t a n to e n l ap laca d c o ro e ncon t rada e n c l " Tho los d e K ap lak i" ( Vo lo s ) ( My lona s , 1 966 , 1 39 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 12 , 3 1 ; V e rmeu le , 1 971 , 2 01 , F ig . 3 2 ,A , ) e n l a q ue a pa rece r ep re sen tado i m e d if ic io c o ronado p o r C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión ( F ig .7 , d ) , c omo e n c l f r agmen to d c f r e sco d e l p o r t ico o " pródomo d e l m egaron" d cP y lo s ( F ig . 7 ,g ) ( B legen , R awson , 1 966 , 2 29 y s ; T ay lou r , 1 983 , 4 7 ys ; V e rmeu le , 1 971 , 2 01 , F ig32 , C ) , muy s im i la r a la n te r io r , s eh aq ue r ido r ef le ja ru n e d if ic io d c c u l to . E n ambo s c a so s s e r c f le ja u na f achada c on c I rcu lo sd e l t i po q ue g cnc ra lmcn te s ei n te rp re ta c omo l a

P a lac io d c C no sso ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 1 /1 , 4 43 , 4 45 , F ig s . 3 19 ,321 ;1 /2 ,F ig .373 ayb ;H u tch in son , 1 978 , 2 47 ) ,a l o s q ue n o s h emo s r e f endo a n ter io rmcn te , p uc s e n

r ep rc scn tac iOn d c l a s v i ga s d c made ra u t i l izada s e n l a s i n f raes truc tu ra s d c l o s e d if ic io s m ino ico s yp od r Ian i d en t if ica r se c omo p uc r ta sd ce n t rada ai mr e c in to , t a n to au na c i udad e nga lanada c on l o s e mb lema s s ag rado s

a mbo s l a s c o lumna s p resen tan d ob lc s h acha s ( F ig .6 , g , i ) , muy p robab lemen te s e h aya r ep resen tado u na

c on mo t ivo d cu na c e remoma ,c omo au ng r an e d if ic io

2 4 1

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

d e c u 1 to d e f achada t r ipa r t i ta , p e ro d e e s t ruc tu ra d i f e ren te a l q ue mue s t ra e i menc ionado f r e sco d c l a C ap i l la T r ipar t i ta a l q ue n o s h emos r e fe r ido

au n mu ro i s odóm ico ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 01 y s . , F ig .2 ; 1 964 ,1 1 /2 ,6 14 15 ,F ig .386 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 8 2 , 1 0 1 ,

a n te r io rmen te . 3 . S an tuar io s d e C ima d c Mon tana y S an tuar io s

F ig .95 ;Y av is , 1 949 ,2 3 ,F ig .1 2 ) . E l c a rác ter v o t ivo d c u n c on jun to d c p equef io s o b je to s h a l lado e n l o s i u ve lc s i n f e r io re s d e l l aI l amada

Ab ie r to s O t ra c ue s t ión s on l a sr e p re sen tac ione sd ce d il ic io sd c

" Area d e l a s P e sa s d e T e lar" p roceden tes d c u na i n s ta lac ión r i tua l s i tuada e n l ap l an ta s upe r io r ( Cap i l la

c u i to q ue s eh an i d en t if icado c omo f i gu rac ione s d e l o s i l amado s S an tua r ios d e C ima d e Mon tana , t a l c omo s ucede e ne ie nc lc a so d cl o s c on jun to s a r qu i tcc tón ico s

d e l a s P a lomas o C ap i l la d e l a s M in ia turas ) . E n t re

d e l " r hy ton d eZ ak,o s" ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 , 1 39 -40 ,F ig . 8 9 ; H awke s , 1 974 , 1 29 ; L ebe ss i , Muh ly , 1 990 , 3 29 -331 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 1 ,42 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 8 1 , 18 , 1 36 , F ig .94 ; S haw , 1 978 , 3 2 ys . , F igs . 6 -9 ) , d e l r hy ton d e G yp sadhes y o t ros f r agmen to s d c C no sso ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 01 y s . , F ig .2 ; 1 964 , 1 /2 , 6 14 15 , F ig .386 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 8 2 , 1 01 , F ig .95 ; Y av i s , 1 949 , 2 3 ,

p ieza d c t enaco ta p in tada e n r o jo , n eg ro yb l anco q ue p uede r cp re scn ta ru na c ap i l la c o ronada p o rv a r io s p a re s

‚

e s to s o b je to s s ee ncuen t ran v a r ia s m in ia tu ra s , e n t re l a s q ue d e s tacan d o s " maque ta s" : l ap r imem d ce l ia s e su na

d cC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac iön ( F ig .8 ,k ) ,d ado q ue e s tá p in tada s imu lando u n mu ro i s odöm ico ; l a s egunda , f r agmen tada ei n comp ic ta , yp re sen ta ü n icamen te d o s p a re sd cd e lm ismo e mb iema ( Ca sc i l i , 1 986 ,2 8 ,n i im .4 ; E van s , 1 964 , 1 ,2 20 , F ig .57 ;1 /1 ,221 ys . ,F ig .1 66 a ,d ;

F ig .1 2 ) , a s Ic omo t amb ién c on a lguna s maquc ta s c omo l a s e ncon t rada s e n C no s so , P i skokepha lo s , Gou rn ia y

I V /1 , 2 01 ; G e sse l l , 1 985 , 9 2 ; Hu tch in son , 1 978 , 3 09 , 3 16 , F ig .39 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 , 2 78 . P ica rd , 1 948 , 6 6 ;

K am i la r i q ue b i en p ueden r cp rc sen ta rr e c in to ss ag rado s . Y a n o s r c fer imo s a l r hy ton d e Z akros c on

Yav is , 1 949 , 2 3 ,2 ) . E l c on jun to d c o b je to s , e n t re l o s q ue s ec uen ta t amb ién i mp i la rs ob re c lq ue c s tá p o sada i m p a loma , p a rece r ef le ja r s Imbo lo s r e lac ionados c on

a n teno r idad ,p uc s e no ca s ione ss eh ap l an tcado t amb ién l ap o s ib i l idad d c q ue c le d if ic io r ep re sen tado f uc ra u na

l a s

a c t iv idades

d c

c u l to ,

c onoc ido s

e n

o t ras

e s truc tu ra t r ipa r l i ta ( Shaw , 1 978 ,4 32 ) , a pa r icnc ia q ue e v iden temen te r e f le ja c on c l a ii d ad . E ip a i sa je q ue r odea c le d if ic io i nd ica q ue s et r a ta d c u nl uga r s i tuado e nl a

r ep re sen tac ione s . Ademá s , s u r e la t iva a n t iguedad p one d c man if ies to q ue s e t r a ta d c u n s i s tema b ien e s tab lec ido e n c on jun to d c c recnc ia s yt r ad ic ione s

mon tana , l uga r e n c l q ue t r ad ic iona lmen tc p o r o t ra p a r te , s eu b ica l ar e s idenc ia d cl o s " s e re s S up remo s" e n s u a ccpc ión d c d e idadc s c e le s t ia lc s . D e sde e ip un to d c

c r e ten se s . R espec to a l a s maquc ta s e ncon tradas e n P i skokepha lo s ,e n t re l o s r e s to s d ct i ne d if ic io q ue s eh a

v i s ta d c l aa rqu i tec tu ra , t amb ién h ay a l guno s d c ta l le s

i dcn t if icado c omo , u n " s an tua r io i ndepend ien te"

i n te re san te s c omo e i mu ro i s odóm ico q ue d e l im i ta c l r e c in to s ag rado , e s t ruc tu ra s im i la r al ar cp re sen tada e n

( Ru tkowsk i , 1 981 , 2 2 , n o ta 4 2 , F ig . 8 , 5 y6 ; 1 986 , 7 8 , 18 , F ig s .79 , 8 0 ; P apadak is , 1 983 , 7 7 ) ; h ay q ue

e ir hy ton d cC no s so ( f ig .4 ,d ) . E n l ar c cons t rucc ión p i an tcada p o r A . L ebe ss i yP . Muh ly ( 1990 , F ig .1 7 ) ,e is an tuar io c s ta r I a f o rmado p o r

s ub raya r q ue e n e l ia s s e h a r ep re sen tado u n mu ro i s odóm ico d cc a rac ter I s t ica s s im i la re s al o sf i gu rado se n l o sr hy la a n te r io rmen tc menc ionado s . S on d o sp i eza sd c

u n e d if ic io t r ipa r t i to p rov is to d c u na p uer ta y d o s

a r c i l la p in tada ( f ig . 8h ,i ) , u na d c e l ia s d c 1 5 cm . d c a l tu ra , r ema tada p o r c ua t ro p a res d c C uernos d c l a

c ap i l la sl a te ra le s ,c o ronad a sp o rl o s emb lema s s ag rado s , a lq ue s e a ccede p o r u na g ran e sca l ina ta y i m p a t io a b ie r to d e l im i tado p o r c l mu ro i s odóm ico , c on t r e s a l ta re s d c d i fe ren te s c a rac ter I s t ica s e n s u i n te r io r . P o r t a n to ,p odr Iamo s i d en t if icar e ie d if ic io c omo e il uga rd c r e s idenc ia d c l ad e idad , a lq ue n o t c nd r Ian a cce so m á s q ue l o s s ace rdo te s uo f ic ian te s , t a l c omo s e mue s t ra e n u no d c l o s f r agmen to s d c r hy ta e ncon t rado s e n C no s so ( F ig .4 , d ) , e n c lq ue e is ace rdo tc r c a l iza u na o f renda . S in emba rgo , l a mayo r p a r te d c l a s c e rcmoma s , s e c e lcb rar Ian e ne ip a t io a b ic r to , d ondc s ee ncuen t ran l o s a l ta re s yt cnd r Ian i m c a rác te r p t Ib l ico o s em ipüb i ico , a cced iendo p o s ib icmen te as u i n te r io rt a n s o lo a que l lo s i n d iv iduo s i mp i icado s e nc ir i tua l , t a l c omo n o s mue s t ra o t ro d c l o s f r agmen to s d c C no s so ( F ig .4 , d ) , e n e iq ue l o s p o r tado re s d c o f renda s ma rchan e n p roce s ión j un to

C on sag rac ion yl ao t ra d c 2 2 c m . d c a l tura ,t amb ién d c t e r raco ta p in tada c on c i nco p a re s d c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión e nl ap ar te s upe r io r . A demá s s eh a i la ron t r e s p equef io s p a res d c C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ión e xen to s d c r educ ida s d imen s ione s , q ue b i en p ud ie ron p er tencce r ao t ra maque ta s emc jan te al a s a n ter io re s

0

s e r u t i l izados d i rec tamen te c omo o b je to s d c c u i to o s Imbo lo s s ag rado s . S in d uda , p od r Ian i n te rp re ta r se c omo l ar ep re sen tac iön d c i m r e c in to s ag rado , d c im l emeno s , a unque e s d i f Ic i l d e te rm ina r S i S C t r a ta d c t i n c omp le jo d ct i po S an tua r io d cC ima d c Mon taf ia ,i m n ica s e s t ruc tu ras c u l tua le s e n l a s q ue s e h an e ncon t rado e j emp la rcs c on se rvado s , ob i en d c u n a r ea d c c u i to a b ier t .a , d e i im i tada p o r t i n r e c in to , a l c s t i io d c l a e xcavada c i d cn t if icada e n S yme , e n l a i a dcra s d e l

N

2 42

/ •

/

\

/

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

Mon t eD ic té ( Lebe s s i , Muh ly , 1 990 ) . F o r o t ra p a r te , t amb ién e n u na a n i l lo s e l lo e ncon t rado e n G yp sadhe s ( F ig . 7j ) ,s eh a r e p re sen tado

c on u na c om isa b i en m a rcada al am ane ra t r ad ic iona i ,

av a r ia s f i gu ra s f ememna s a ce rcándo se au nr e c in to c on u n mu ro i s odóm ico c o ronado p o r C uerno s d e l a C on sagrac ión , i magen q ue muy p robab lemen te r ep resen ta e i t emenos d c u n l uga r s ag rado , s ea u n

c a rác te rs a c ro ,p e ro u b icado e ni mn üc ico u rbano .

l a s v en tana s yo t ro s p equeno s d e ta l ie s a rqu i tec ton ico s , má s b i en i nd ican q ue p odr Ia t r a ta r se d c u n e d if ic io d c 3 .A l ta re s yMe sa sd cO f renda s E n Ay ia T r iadha a demá s d c l ae scena a q ue n o s -

s an tua r io d eC ima d c Mon taf ia ou nr e c in to a b ie r to ,d e l t i po d e l e xcavado e nS yme . I nc iu so e nl a sp i aca sd eo ro

r e fe r imo s a n te r io rmen te c on p a r te d c l o s f r agmen to s d c f r esco r e cupe rado s e n l a z ona d e l "Megaron C re ten se " d c l aV i l la A ( Came ron , 1 987 ; L ong , 1 974 ,

d e M icena s ( F ig . 3 a ) , l a d i spo s ic ión d e l ae s truc tu ra t npa r t i ta s ob re u na t r aza s im i la r al a d e u n mu ro i s odóm ico p odr Ia p re tende rr e p re sen ta r ,a unque c on u na p e r spec t iva d i s to r s ionada , u n c omp le jo s eme jan te a l

6 7 , n o ta 8 8 ; P ar iben i , 1 908 , 6 7 -71 , F ig . 2 1; S ake l la rak is , 1 987 , 1 22 - 1 23 ; H a lbhe r r e tA l . ,1 980 , 6 3 ys . ,91) s eh a r e con s t ru ido o t ra s e scena e n l aq ue h ay im c o r te jo f ememno , e nc lq ue l a s mu je re s a vanzan e n

f i gu rado e ne lr hy ton d cZ ak ro s . L o sd o sp equeü I s imo s e j emp la re s d c C ue rnos d c l aC on sag rac ión d c a r c i i la

l ac l á s ica p o s ic iOn o fe ren te , mov idndo se d e lan te d cu na e spec ie d c g a le r Ia p o r t icada e n t re c uya s c o lumna s s e

e s tucada , u no d en t ro d c o t ro , q ue s eh an e ncon t rado e n e is an tua r io d cP e t sopha s , b i en p ud ie ron p e r tenece r al a maque ta d cu na e s t ruc tu ra d cc a rac te r I s t ica s s im i la re sa

i n te rca lan , e n i m p iano s upe r io r , v ar io s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión q ue p re s iden l ae s cena ,d i spue s to s s ob re z Oca lo s e sca lonado s . U n t i po s im i la r d c e s t ruc tu ra s a lt a re sp la ta forma - s on l a s q ue a parccen e n c i

-

‚

-

l a s r ep re sen tada s e n l ap a r te s upe r io r d c l a s p l aca s d c o ro d e l C I rcu lo A d cM icena s ( Dava ra s , 1 981 ; Mo rgan , 1 988 ,84 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 986 ,79 -80 ) . R e spec to a e s to s r e c in to s a b ie r tos , t amb ién h ab r Ia q ue p onc rd cr e l ieve q ue e x is te u na maque ta e ncon t rada

f r agmen to d c f r esco e ncon t rado e n l a S a la L u s tra l ( LV I I ! ) d e l p a lac io d c Z ak ro s c on u na h i le ra d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn p in tado s e n b l anco s ob re u nf ondo r o jo ( Ge s se i l , 1 985 , 1 40 ) . E n r ea l idad , r ep re sen tac iones d c a l ta re s d c t i po

e n e it h o los Id c K am i la r i , e n t re l o s n ume ro so s o b je to s d epo s i tado sc omo p a r te d cl o s a j ua re s f unc ra r io s . E s u n o b je to d c t e r raco ta , e n l aq ue s er e p resen ta u ng rupo d c

p l a tafo rma , d c mampo s te r Ia e n mucho s c a so s , a unque n oe sca lonado s , s ep ueden d e tec ta re nc l i fe ren te s c a so s ,

c ua t ro f i gu ra s ma scu i ina s q ue , p o s ib lemen tc , e s t án e j ecu tando u na d anza d cc a rác te rr i tua l e ne ii n te r io rd c u nr e c in to c uyo s mu ro sc s tn c o ronado sp o rC ue rno sd c l aC on sag rac ión ( Edcy , 1 976 , 6 0 ; H awke s , 1 974 , 1 26 ;

t a le s c omo e ir e i tc radamen tc m enc ionado r hy ton d c Z ak ro s ( F ig .2 , a ) , d onde e s tA c o ronado p o r c ls Imbo lo s ag rado s ob re e iq ue h ay u na s r ama s , s i endo t amb ién d c mampo s te r Ia l a " me sa d c o f renda s" o p od io p a ra s acnf ic io s q ue o cupa u na p o s ic ión c en t ra l e n e ip a t io .

L ong , 1 974 , 6 3 ;P la ton , 1 981 , 1 ! , 3 6 ;Ru tkow sk i , 1 986 , 16 , 1 2 ) . L ap re senc ia d ce s t e s imbo lo s ag rado h ad ado l uga r a q ue c l r ec in to s e i n tc rprc te c omo l a r cp rc sen tac ión d c u n e d if ic io o l uga r d c c u l to . S in d uda , p odr Ia r e iac iona r sc , e n f unc ión d c l a e scena r ep rc scn tada , c on l a q ue a pa rece e n u no d c l o s

D c mampo s ter la e s t amb ién c l a l ta r c o ronado p o r C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión d e l f r agmen to d cr hy ton d c C no sso ( F ig . 4 ,d ) ,c lr ep re sen tado e nc ls di lo d cR ou t s i ( F ig .5 ,h ) yq u iza p odr Ia s e r lo c lr ep re sen tado e nc la n i l lo s e l lo d cP hy lakop i ( F ig .4 , g ) . S in d uda , i m h a l lazgo c xcepc iona l l o c on s t i tuye c l

f r agmen to s d c r hy za d c C no s so (F ig .4 , d ) ,e nl aq ue u n p e r sona je ma scu l ino e s tá r e a l izando u na d anza d e lan te

a l ta r -p l a ta fo rma q ue f o rma p a r t ed cl a si n s ta lac ione sd c c u l to d e l l amado T emp lo d e l o s F rescos , e n l a a c ropo l is d c M icena s ,y q ue s e e ncuen t ra e n e ia ngu lo

d c u n r e c in to c on u n á rbo i s ag rado , d e l im i tado p o r u n mu ro , a unque e ne s te c a so e sc la l ta r yn oc lr e c in to c l q ue a pa rccc c o ronado p o r e i s agrado e mb iema . No o b s tan te , e n a mbo s c a so s p od r Ia t r a ta r se d c s an tua r io s a b ie r to s ,d c lt i po d e li d en t if icado e nS ymc .

e s te , e n c l c x trcmo d c u n b anco c or r ido d c mampo s te r Ia , q ue o cupa t odo e il a do me r id iona l d e l e d if ic io ( F rench , 1 982 , 4 5 , F ig s . 1 2 -14 ; Mü l le r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , ! V /3 , L am . 2 31 , A l , A 3 ; My lona s , 1 966 , 1 46 ; 1 972 ; T ay lou r , 1 970 , 1 70 ys . , F ig .! , L am . XL ; 1 983 , F ig .34 ) . L a p la ta fo rma r e vocada y d ecorada c on u n

E n c lc a so d c l a maque ta d c c e rám ica p in tada ( F ig . 8 j ) ,e ncon t rada e n Gou rn ia ( Evan s , 1 964 ,! , 1 34 ,F ig .70 b i s ;I V !! , 1 40 , F ig . 10 ; K an ta , 1 980 , 1 40 ; Ma s to rak i s , E f fen ter re , 1 991 , 1 76 -177 ) , q ue r ca imcn te d eb iO

f r e sco e n c lq ue a pa recen t r e s p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l a

u t i l iza r se c omo u n s opo r tc , s i n d uda h a t r a tado d c r e p re sen ta r se u n e d if ic io c uya s a c ra l idad e sm an if ie s ta a le s ta r r cma tado p o r C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión . N P l a ton ( 1981 . 1 1 , 1 34 ) s eña ia q ue p od r ia r cp rc sen ta ru n

C on sag rac ión ( F ig . 8 ,b ) s ob re u n f r iso d c c f r cu lo s p in tado s e nr o jo yn eg ro a l tc rna t ivamcn te ;e nL ab a se s e c on se rvaban r e s to s d c o t ro s t r azo s , p e ro n o e s p o s ib le

" s an tua r io d c C ima d c Mon tana " , p e ro s u s d o s p l an ta s

a l ta r aj uzga r p o r l o s t r e s h oga re s i d en t i f icado s e n s u

i d en t if ica r e id i scf lo . L a p la tafo rma , p o s ib iemen te u n

2 43

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

c a ra s upe r io r , e s tá d i rec tamen te r e lac ionada c on e i f r e sco s i tuado e n J a p a red a J a q ue e s tá a do sado , d i v id ido e nd o s p ane le s e ns up a r te s upe r io r , e n u no d e

p robab lcmen tc e n f a sc s má s a n t igua s , s e d i spon Ian

l o sc ua le ss ec on se rvaban d o s f i gu ra s f ememna s yo t ra s d o s p equeüa s f i gura s a n tropomorfa s d c d i f Ic i l

s imbO l ico d e l cmb lema d eb Ia p ermanece r v igen te d u ran te l a s f a se s f i na le s d e l B ronce R ec icn te , i n c lu so man ter nendo u n a spec to r e s t i-i c t ivo e n J oq ue r ef ic re a u n s u u t i l izac iOn , p ucs to q ue t ampoco e s e s tos

s ob re e se t i po d c o b je to s ys ob re l o s a l ta re s p l a tafonna aq ue n o sr e fe r imo sa n te i ionncn te . No o b s t an te ,c lv a lo r

i n terp re tac ión . D eba jo ,a ll a do d e la l ta r -p la tafo rma ,o t ro p ane l c on J a r ep resen tac ión d e u na f i gu ra f emen ina a soc iada a u na c o lumna m ino ica y al o s r e s to s d e u n

momen to s d c g ene ra l iza . A lgo s im i la r , s ucede c on c l p equeüo a l ta r os opo r tc d c p ied ra d c C no sso ( Evan s , 1 964 , I V /1 , 2 02 y s . , F ig .154 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 , 3 57 ;

a n ima l , p o s ib lemen te J ac o la y l a s g a r ra s d e u n g r ifo s eg t in N . Ma r ina to s ( 1988 , 2 45 y s . , F ig s . 1 3 ) . E n e s te c a so , a unque p o s ib lemen te e x is t Ia i m p rog rama

i c onog rá f ica s d e sde G re ta aG rec ia C on t inen ta l ,i n c lu so

Y av is , 1 949 , 2 2 ) q ue e n J a pa n e i n fer io r d c l a s c a ra s l a te ra les p resen ta d o s p a res d c C ue rnos d c J a Con sag rac ión s ob re l o s q ue a parecen d ob le s h acha s t a l lada s c omo e l lo s e n J ap i ed ra , d c t a l f o rma q ue J a r ep resen tac ión s imbO l ica c omp lc ta J ap a rafe rna l ia d c

e nJ ae s fe ra d ci d eo log Ia . S in e mba rgo , e n o t ra s o ca s ione s s e h an f i gu rado e s t ruc tura s d c p a rede s i ncu rvada s , p robab lemen te

c u l to . A lgo s im i la rs ucede c on J a" maque ta " oa l ta rp o r tá t i l e ncon t rada e n K a rph i , yc on l o s f r agmen to s d c o t ro s

i c onog ráf ico p rop io e n J ap i a tafo rma , J ap re senc ia d e l o s C ue rno s d c J aC on sag rac iön c on t r ibuye ap one r d c man if ie s to J a t r an sm is ión d c l a s man ifes tac ione s

" mesa s d c o f renda s" p or tá t i le s d e l t i po d c l a s r ec ien temen te e s tu cl iada s p o r L . P la ton y Y . P a ra ra s ( 1991) , a l guna s d ce l la sp rov is ta s d c o quedade s yo t ro s

v ar ios

‚

o b je tos

s im i larcs

q ue

c onservaban

r ep rc sen tac ione s d e l emb lema s ag rado . L ap i eza me jo r c on se rvada p rocede d cl aH ab i tac iOn 5 7 ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 , 8 1 , F ig . 1 50 a , b ; Y av is , 1 949 , 2 6 , 9 ) ; e s n a o b je to d c c e rám ica , h ueco , c on d eco rac iOn p in tada y r e co r tada ,

d i spos i t ivos s ob re l o s q ue v e r ter l o s l I qu ido s d c l i bac ión , ob i en c o loca r l a s o f renda s . E n c ls e l lo d c J a C ueva d e lI da ion ( F ig .3 ,h ) ye ne id cV aph io ( F ig .4 , b ) ,

s e l lo d c Mega Mona s t i r i ( F ig .8 , 1 ) , u no má s d c l o s

q ue r ep re sen ta e n u na d c s u s c a ra s u n a l ta r o" me sa d e o f rendas" , c o ronado p o r i m p a r d c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn ; e n o t ra d c l a s c a ra s a pa rece t i n a l tar d c l a s m isma s c a rac t e r I s t ica s s ob re e iq ue e s tan d i spue s to s

e l emen to s at e ne r e n c uen ta c uando s e i d en t if ican l a s e s t ruc tu ra s c o lumnada s yr ema tada s c on C ue rno s d c l a

o t ro s d o s p a re s d e l m ismo s Imbo lo s ag rado . E n l a s d o s r e s tan te s c a ra s d c J a p ieza , l o s C uerno s d c l a

C on sag rac iOn d ce s te s e l lo ,c omo e d if ic io sd cc u l to yn o c omo a l ta re s . E x is ten a demá s d o s e j emp la res d c Mesa s d c

C on sag rac iOn e s tán p in tado s i l n icamen te . En o p in ion d c M . S e i radak i ( 1960 . 2 9 ) , s et r a ta d c i m a l ta rp o r tá t i l ,e n c l q ue s e q u iso r cp rcsen ta r u na c ap i l la c on p i ia re s

O f renda s s ob re l o s q ue s e g raba ron C uernos d e l a C onsagrac ión , u na d c e l la s e ncon t rada e n G re ta , e n e i

e sca lonado s , v en tana sr e c tangu la re s ymac izo sC ue rno s d c J a C on sagrac iOn c omo r ema te . L a p ieza , a pa ren temen te e s tuvo r ema tada p o r c ua t ro f i gur i ta s d c b óv ido s , s i tuada s c ada u na d c e l la s e n c l a ngu lo

s e t r a ta r la d c o b je to s d c e s te t i po , yt o m ismo s ucede c on J ap equena e s t ruc tu ra c on p ede s ta l r ef le jada e n e i

c omp le jo d c l o s A lmacenes d c K ann ia ( Ge sse l l , 1 976 , 2 54 - 5 5 ; 1 985 , 7 7 -79 , F ig s . 1 , 1 36 ; P la ton , P a ra ra s , 1 991 , 1 ) . E s d c n a p i eza c sca lonada i nvc r t ida , d c t a l f o rma q ue p a r te s upe r io r e s má s a ncha q ue J ai n f e r io r , q ue l eva u na d eco rac ión e n f o rma d c f r iso a b a se d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión i nc iso s , a compaf iado s d c s i gnos m ino ico s . E l s egundo e j emp lar , t amb ién d c

c or re spond ien te , J o q ue p one d c man if ies to J a c on t inu idad d cJ as imbo log la yd c l o s r i tua les c r e ten se s aJ ol a rgo d e l t i empo . F ragmen to s d c a l ta re s s im i ia re s p roceden d c l a H ab i tac ión 8 5 ( Gesse l l , 1 985 , 8 1 ; P end lebu ry e tA l . , 1 937 - 3 9 , 8 9 -92 ) yd cJ aH ab i tac ión

p i ed ra p u l imen tada p rocede d c im y ac im ien to c h ip r io ta , P y la - Kokk inok remo s ( D ika io s , 1 971 , I , 8 99 - 9 00 ,

1 06 ( Pend lcbu ry e t AL . , 1 937 -39 ,9 5 ) .

L am . 2 38 , 3 ;L ou l loup is , 1 973 , 2 35 -36 , L am . 2 8 ,10 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , F ig . 2 5 , 6) ;t l eva v ar io s p a res d c C ue rno s d cJ aC on sag rac ión c scu lp ido s e nb a jo re l ieve e n s u p ane s upe r io r ys e f ccha e n u na é poca t a rd Ia ( Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 ,9 ) . P o r t a n to , p odemo s s uponc r q ue e n a mbo s c a so s J a d eco rac iOn g rabada s ob re l a s " me sas d c o f renda s" , p uede a c tua rc omo s u s t i tu to s imbO ! ico d c l o s p equef lo s C uemo s d c J aC on sag rac ión q ue e n o t ra s o ca s ione s y

I . LA FUNC IONAL IDAD DE LOS E JE MPLARES CONSERVADOS E n p r ime r J uga r h emo s d c p one r d c r e l ieve l a g ran c an t idad d ce j emp ia rc sd cC ue rnos d el aC onsag rac ion , q ue s e h an c on servado , p uc s s er eg is t ran h a l lazgo s e n C rc ta , G rec ia C on t inen ta l , C h ip re , T e ra , A na to l ia yl a P en In su la I b é r ica . S in e mba rgo ,s et r a ta d ce spcc Imenc s c on c a rac tc r I s t ica s d i fe ren te s q ue p ueden a g rupa r se

2 44

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

t amb ién e n d i fe ren tes c on jun to s : p o r u n l a do l o s e j emp la re s d e g rande s d imen s ione s q ue p o s ib lemen te f o rma ron p a r te d e l o s r ema te s a rqu i tec tón ico s d e g r ande s e d if ic io s , t a n to p a lac io s c omo l uga re s d e c u l to f undamen ta lmen te . E n s egundo l uga r , l o s p equef lo s e j emp la re s p o r tá t i le s q ue , a unque d e t i po s d i fe ren te s , d eb ie ron t e ne rl am i sma f unc iona l idad - c omo p equeno s a l ta res s imbó l ico s d ispues to p o s ib lemen te s ob re e s truc tu ra s f i ja s om e sa s d c o f renda / l i bac ión , t amb ién

i n s ta lac ione s d c c u l to d c c sa z ona , i d en t if icada s c omo t a le sp o ré lm i smo . No o b s tan te , d ada l az ona e nq ue s e e ncon t r a ron d i cho sC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión ,e s muy p robab le q ue h ub ie sen f onnado p a r te d e l c o ronan i idn to d e l á ngu lo NO d ce sa f a chada ,p uc s to q ue e nc s e s e c to r d e l c omp lc jo , e n u na d c l ap l an ta s a l ia s , d eb Ia e s ta r s i tuada u na z ona d e s t inada aa c t iv idadc s cremon ia lc s , r e lac ionada c on c lA rea d el o sF re scos M in ia zura yo t ro d i spo s i t ivo s d c c u l to , e n t a l c a so , l o s C ue rno s d c l a

p o r tá t i le s . E l t e rce rg rupo l oc on s t i tuyen l o s A l ta re s d e C ue rno s d e l a C on sag rac ión c on se rvado s , t o do s e l lo s f u e ra d c C re ta y , i r na lmen te e ic ua r to g rupo s on l o s p equeños o b je to s , g enera lmen te a p l iques , q ue r e a l izado s s ob re d ive r sa s ma te r ia s p nma s , d eb ie ron

C on sag rac ión s eh ab r Ian u t i l izado c omo c li nd icado rd c L af unc iona l idad e spec I f ica d e l s e c to rd en t ro d e l p rop io c omp ie jo p a lac ia l . S in d uda e s te h a l lazgo , j un to c on l ap resenc ia d c

u t i l iza r se a modo d e emb lema s oq u izá s imp iemen te c omo o b je to s a do rno , a unque e s d i f Ic i l a cep ta r q ue

C ap i l la T r ipa r t i ta , f uc d c u na d c l a s r azone s q ue mov ie ron a A . E van s ar econ st ru ir l a fd e l A la O cc iden ta l c o ronada p o r C ue rno s d c L aC onsagrac ión

e s tuv ie ran y av ac iado sd ec on ten ido s imbO l ico .

b a sa s p a ra c o lumna s yl a a par ic ión d e l f r esco d c l a

( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 /2 , 8 02 -08 , F igs . 5 25 - 5 27 . 5 32 ) , I .! . LOS REMATES ARQU ITEC I 7ON ICOS 1 )P a lac io s :E np r ime rl uga rl o sg r ande s C ue rno sd c l aC on sag rac ión d c p i ed ra o a r c i l la e s tucada , d e l t i po d c l o s l oca l izado s e n C no sso , Z ak ros , P ha is to s , A k ro t ir i , P y lo s , G la y p resum ib lemen te t amb ién e n M icena s . E nC re ta l o sh a l lazgo s s e h an p roduc ido t a n to

r econ s t rucc ión a cep tada p rác t icamen tc p o r t odo s l o s

e n z ona s p a lac ia le s c omo , a unque e xcepc iona lmen te e n a r ea s f une ra r ia s . A s I ,a lh ccho d cq ue l o s C ue rno s d el a C on sagrac iónse e ncuen t ren e n e s t ruc tura s d c muy d i fe ren te f unc iona l idad ( en t rada s ye spac io s p üb l ico s d e l P a lac io , a rea s d c c u l to y c ap i l la s p a lac ia le s , y

l oca l izada s i nmed ia tamcn te d e t rá s d c l a s b a sa s d c c o lumna s d c e s e s ec to rd e l p a t io , L l evaban l óg icamcn tc as upone r q ue p udo e x is t i r , d en t ro d c l o s l Im i te s d c l o

n ec rópo l is ) s e a i iadc s u r e la t ivamen te e l evado n ümc ro y ,d e sde l u ego s uc oncen t rac ión e nl o s g r ande sn üc leo s , f c nómeno q ue n o s o la rnen te s ep roduce e n C re ta , s i no t amb ién e n G rec ia c on t inen ta l , a r ea s g eog ráf ica s y c u l tu ra les q ue , p o r c l momen to p o seen e n e xc iu s iva e j emp la res d c C uernos d c l a C on sag rac ion q ue p ud ie ron r ema ta r l a s f a chada s d c l o s e d if ic io s a le s t i lo d c l o y a c onoc ido a p a r t ir d c l a s r ep re sen tac ione s i c onog rá f ica s . E l p a lac io d e C no sso h a p ropo rc ionado n ume ro sa s e v idenc ia sd cl ai mpo r tanc ia q ue e ne s te c en t ro m ino ico d eb Ian t e ne r l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac ion , p ue s to q ue a pa ren temen te f o rmaban d e l c o ronam ien to d c d e te rm inado se spac io si n te r io re s ye x tc r io re sd cd i ve r sa f unc iona l idad , ma rcando a s Ie n s uc on jun to c lc a rác tc r s ac ra l izado d e l c omp le jo p a lac ia l . R e s to s d c g rande s e j emp la re s t a n to d c p i ed ra c omo a r c i l la , e s tucado s e n

i nve s t igado re s S c t r a ta r Ia d c u na d c l a s e s truc tu ra s r i tua le s má s i mpo r tan te s d e l A la o cc iden ta l d e l P a lac io .

d cC no s so ,d ando f achada a lP a t io C en t ra l , . S ur c iac ión d c p rox im idad c on l a s C is ta s q ue c on tcn Ian e s ta tu i l la s d c l a d io sa y d i ver so s o b je to s d c c a rác te r v o t ivo ,

r azonab ic , u na e s t ruc tu ra c on c sa s c a rac tc r I s t ica s e n l a q ue h ab Ia t e n ido s ur c s idenc ia l a" d io sa " . E nt odo c a so , s i e s q ue r ca lmcn tc b ubo u no s C uernos d c l a C on sag rac ión r ema tando l ae s t ruc tu ra i d en t if icada p o r A . E van s , s u f unc ión p udo h abe r s i do s im i la r aL aq ue t u v ie ron e n e ic a so a n te r io r : s ef l a l iza ra n te l o s o jo s d e l p übl ico ,d cl o sa s is ten te s al a sc e remon ia s ,l ae x i s t enc ia d c u n l uga r " s agrado" e n c l c en t ro d c L a f achada o cc iden ta ld e lP a t io d e lp a lac io d cC no s so . P robab lemen tc l a m isma f unc ión t uv ieron l o s C uernos d c l a C on sagrac ión c uyo s f r agmen to s s e e ncon t ra ron e n c l s ec to r mer id iona l d e l P a lac io . C or responden a i m c j emp ia r d c p ied ra e s tucada y c on s ide rab le s d imen s ione s , p ue s a 1 can7an 2 , 20 m . d c a l tu ra , q ue a pa rec ió e ne ie x t reme ,o r ien ta l d e l P o r t ico , c e rca d c l a l amada " Ca sa SO" q ue a c tua lmcn te , s e e ncuen t ran c o locado s s ob re c la l a o e s te d e l P rop i leo S u r . ( Evan s , 1 964 ,1 1 /1 ,59 -60 ,F ig s . 7 5 ,81 ;R u tkow sk i , 1 981 ,7 7 ; 1 986 , 1 25 ; Y av is , 1 949 , 2 3 ) . P robab lemen tc ,

r o jo on os eh an e ncon t rado e n v a r ia s z ona sd e l P a lac io , t a le s c omo l o s f r agmen to s d c u n e j emp la r d c p i ed ra

t a l c omo s ug ir iO A . E van s c o ronaban l o s a ccesos me r id iona le s d e l C omp le jo , s i tuado s s ob re e i P o r t ico

e s tucada h a l lado s e n c lü ngu lo NO d e l P a t io C en t ra l ( Evan s , 1 964 ,1 1 /2 , 8 14 , F ig .532 ; I I , 1 5 -45 ) . A . E van s s upu so q ue r cma taban l ae n t rada o p a r te d c l af a chada

E sca lonado yb i cn v i s ib le sd c sdc c le x te r io r ,s umándo se al o s r e s to s e ncon t rado s c e rca d e l P rop i lco S u r( Evan s , 1 964 ,T . 1 /2 ,7 08 - 1 2 , F ig s . 4 44 - 4 6 ) , d c t a l f o rma q ue

o cc iden ta l

c ls Imbo lo s ag rado e nc ls i s tema d c c n t rada sa nunc iaba

d e l

p rop io

S /

\

p a t io ,

\

s cna l izando

.-

l a s

• \/

2 45

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

aL o s v i s i tan te s q ue p ene t raban e n u n l uga r s ac ra L izado

t u v ie ron e nC no sso . A s I ,e sp robab le q ue L af a chada NO

p o rl ap r e senc ia d el ad e idad os e rs up remo . P o r e l lo , n o p uede d e sca r ta r se , t a l c omo s ug ir ió A . E van s q ue t amb ién e ne iC omp le jo d el aE n t rada No r te

d e l p a t io C en t ra l e s tuv ic ra r ema tada c on c l s Imbo lo s ag rado , s eüa l izando e ic omp le jo c e remon ia l s i tuado e n l ap l an ta s upe r io r , s ob re e iP rop i lco O e s te , aj uzga rp o r l o s r c s to s d c im e j emp la r d c p i ed ra e ncon t rado s e n e sa

h ub ie ra C uerno s d e l a C onsagrac ion c o ronando l a p i an ta s upe r io rd cl a s f a chada se s te yo e s te d e l c o r redo r d e a cce so , f achada s a i nba s q ue , as u v cz , e s tuv ie ron

z ona d e l p a t io . J .W . G raham h a r e con s t ru ido a mba s f a chada s o cc iden ta l d e l P a lac io y s ep ten t r iona l d e l P a t io C en t ra l r ema tada s p o r p a re s d c C uerno s d c L a -

d eco rada s c on f r e sco s e n l o s q ue s eh ab Ia r ep re sen tado u n c omp le jo p rog rama i c onog ra f ico e n e iq ue e is u je to p r inc ipa l s on c e remon ia s r e lac ionadas c on l o s t o ro s ( Evan s , 1 964 ,I I , 1 65 ,F ig s . 1 06 - 1 08 ; I V , 8 ,F ig .3 ) , e n

C on sag rac iOn ( Graham , 1 970 , 2 13 ys . F ig s .1 , 2 ; 1 978 , 4 0 -4 1 ,F ig s .4 8 ,50 ;L ou l loup i s , 1 973 ,231 ,n o ta 4 5 ) E n e i p a lac io d c Z akro s , l o s h a i lazgo s s on má s

s i n ton I a c on e ip ape l q ue e s to s a n ima le s p arecen t e ne r

n ume ro so s ya pa ren temen te l o s l uga re s d onde s e h an

r e spec to a le mb lema s ag rado . O t ro sg r ande sC ue rno sd c l aC on sag rac ión s e h a i la ron e n e is ec to r d e l V e s t Ibu lo O r ien t a l ( Evan s , 1 964 , 1 1 /1 , 6 0 , n o ta 3 I I , 5 24 -25 , F ig .367 ) , muy c e rca d e l l uga r e n q ue e im ismo s i tuaba

h a l lado e nla t izan l ar c lac ión e n t re l o s C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ión y L o s r i to s r e iac ionado s c on c l a gua c omo e l emen to v i v if icado r d c l a n a tu ra lcza . A s I , l o s f r agmen to s d c i m p r ime r e j emp la r s e h a l La ron d e lan te

u n a r ea d e c u i to ,e n l aq ue p udo h abe re s tado d i spue s ta u na e s ta tua d c l a d e idad , u n x oanon g i gan te sco d c

d c l af achada o r ien ta l d e l P a t io C en t ra l , e n l ae n t rada d e l d enom inado C or redo r XXXV I I I , ma rcando l a

made ra . S i do f ue a s I , e sp robab le q ue l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac ión d c a r c i l ia , e s tucado s e n o c re r o j izo ,

e n t rada a ls e c to r c e remon ia l s i tuado e n c lA la O r ien ta l ( Buchho lz , K a rageo rgh is , 1 973 , 4 9 , F ig . 4 49 ; G c ssd l l ,

h ub ic ra s ena l izado e i l uga r d c c u l to , a unque e s i gua lmen te p robab le q ue e s tuv ie ran d i spues to s e n l a e n t rada d c ! B a s t ion O r ien ta l , ma rcando c omo e n c a so s a n te r io re s q ue s ea cced Ia au n c omp le jo vmcu iado c on

1 985 , 1 40 ,F ig . 8 8 ;P la ton , 1 981 J ,3 47 ) . E s te c omp le jo c e remon ia l e sc lc onoc ido c omo C dmara d e l Manan t ia l y ,j us tamen te c e rca d c e i s e e ncon t raba o t ro p a r d c g rande s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 ,

l ap r e senc ia d cl ad e idad e nc ua lqu ie ra d cs u sf o rma s . A lgo d i fe rcn te p udo s e r l af unc iOn q ue t u v ie ron l o s C ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión h a l lado se ne ie x t remo NO

1 40 , F ig . 8 8 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 25 ) . D c e s ta f o rma , p a rece q ue p ondr Ia d c man if ie s to e ic arác te r e spec ia l d e l s ec to rc e remon ia ld e lA la O r ien ta l d cZ ak ro s ,d onde

d c ! P a t io O cc iden ta l yc e rca d e l A rea T ea tra l , e n l a p rox im idade s d c u n a l ta r - p l a ta fo rma d c mampo s te r la .

a demás e x is ten o t ra s t r e s i n s ta lac ione s r e lac ionada s i gua Lmen te c on a b luc ione s y/ 0 l i bac ione s r i tua le s , t a le s

S e t r a ta d cu na p i eza monumen ta l d cp i ed ra ,d c3 ,20 m . d c l o ng i tud y 1 , 38 m . d ca l tu ra q ue t a n to d eb ie ron e s ta r

c omo L aS a la L u s t ra l , o rnamen tada c on f r e sco s e n l o s q ue t amb ién h ay u na r ep resen tac iOn d e l s Imbo !o

s i tuado s s ob re e i menc ionado a l ta rc omo e n o t ro l uga r , a unque q u izá e i s imbo lo s ag rado e s taba d e s t inado a p re s id i r l a s a c t iv idade s c e remon ia le s q ue s ec e leb ra ran

s ag rado , c ig ran e s tanque c i rcu la r , p un to f oca l d c ! a c e remon ia s y ,c lp ozo s i tuado e ne ie x t remo s u rd c e s ta z ona d e l P a lac io . P o r t an to , l o s C ue rno s d c l a

e n e i p rop io P a t io O e s te o e n e i " A rea T ea t ra l" , e nfa t izando s u s i gn if icado a n te e i l o s a s is ten tes

C on sag rac iOn d c Z ak ro s s e r lan , u na e v idenc ia d c l a r c Lac iOn e n t re l ad e idad q ue p uedcn r cp re sent a r ye i a gua c omo l I qu ido v iv if icado r , d o tado d c u na c apac idad , d c u na f uerza v i ta l q ue p e rm i te r cnova r l a

( M icha i i idou , 1 981 ,48 ;P l a ton , 1 981 , 1 ,348 ;R u tkow sk i , 1 981 , 7 8 , L am . 5 , 2 ) . I nc luso e s p robab le q ue , l o s C uemo s d c l a C on sag rac ión , c uyo l uga r e xac to d c a pa r ic ión e s a i go i mp rec iso , n o h ayan e s tado s ob re c l " a l ta r - p l a tafo rma " o r ig ina lmen te , s i no c o ronando l a z ona c en t ra l d c l af a chada o es te d e l P a lac io , d onde s e d cb Ia e ncon t rar s i tuada u na " Ven tana d c l a s A pa r ic ione s" , s im i la r al aq ue s upue s tamen te e x i s t ió e n e iP a lac io d cP ha is to s ( I Iagg , 1 987 , 2 9 ) . E n t a l c a so ,e s p robab le q ue e i emb lema s eña la ra L ap o s ic iOn d c i m " s an tua r io " p r ivado , oq u izá d c u na a r ea c e remon ia l s i tuada e n l a p ian ta n ob le d e l e d if ic io , s ob re e i c omp le jo d cl o sA lmacene sO cc iden ta le s . E no t ro sd o sp a lac io s P ha is to s yZ ak ro s - t amb ién s e h an e ncon t rado c j cmp la rc s d c g randes C uerno s d c l a -

C on sag rac ion c uya f unc ión d eb ió s e r l a m isma q ue

v i da d cl an a tu ra lcza . E n Ma l h ia n o s e h an e ncon t rado C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ion ,p ese al ai mpo r tanc ia q ue d eb ió t e nc rc i p a lac io , l oc ua l e sc i er tamcn tc s o rp rcndcn tc s ob re t o do s i t e nemo s e n c uen ta q ue q u izá l o s má s a n t iguo s e j emp ia re s yr ep re sen tac ione sd e l emb icma p roccdcn d c e s e n t ic leo m ino ico . S in e mba rgo , s is e h a e ncon t rado i me j emp la rd cm ed iana sd imen s ione se nG oum ia ,e ne i A r ea a b ie r ta oP a t io q ue e s tá s i tuado a ls u rd e l m i smo , b o rdeado p e r d o s p O r t ico s , O e s te y No r te . E n e s te ü l t imo s e e ncon t rO u na g ran l a ja d c p ied ra c on o quedade s yr c cep tacu io s " i n s i tu " , q ue J .W . G raham i n tc rp rc tó c omo m i " a l ta r - p l a tafo rma " r e lac ionado c on c i s acr if ic io d c l o s b óv ido s t r a s l a p rac t ica d c l a

2 46

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

c e remon ia c onoc ida c omo " J uego d e lT o ro " , s ef ia lando q ue a l guna sd cl a sp e r fo rac ione sq ue mo s t raba L al a ja d c p i ed r ap ud ie ron h abe rs e rv ido p a ra f i ja rs ob r ee l la e ip a r d e C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión d e a r em sca ( 38 cm . d e a l tu ra y3 8 cm . d cl ong i tud ) q ue s ee ncon t r a ron c a ldo s e ns u sp rox im idade s ( Buchho lz ,K a ragco rgh i s , 1 973 ,49 , F ig . 4 50 ; G raham , 1 972 , 4 9 , 1 42 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 19 ) . S in emba rgo , H .B . H awes h ab la s ef la lado l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue e sos C uemo s d c l aC on sag rac ión , q ue a pa rec ie ron f r agmen tado s , s eh ub ie ran c a ldo d c sde

c ncon t rado s cndos p a res d c C uernos d c L a Consagrac iOn , c uya v a lorac ión y s i gn if icado p robab lemen te y a n o e r a , ao jo s d c l o s c spec tado re s , e xac tamcn tc L am isma q ue h ab Ian t e n ido e nC re ta . E nL a a cropo l is m icémca d c G la , l o s C uernos d c l a C on sag rac iOn a parcc ic ron e n e ie x te r io r d c l af a chada p r inc ipa l d e l c d if ic io ( B iegen , R awson , 1 966 , 3 29 ; B uchho lz , K a rageo rgh is , 1 973 , 4 9 ; P la ton , 1 981 , 1 1 , 3 52 ) , l ac ua l d cb icron c o rona r . O rchomeno s ,u no d cl o s g r ande s a sen t .anucn to s m icén ico s d c B eoc ia , t i ene u na

l a p a r te s uper io r d e l p o r t ico , d onde s e c ncon t rar Ian d i spues tos e n t re l a s c o lumna s . J .W . S haw ( 1978 ) p l an teó l ah ipO tc s is d c q ue l ap rc senc ia d e l cmb lema

a c rOpo L is f o r t if icada e n L aq ue h ay i mp a lac io , e n c uyo p a t io s eh an c ncon t rado f r agmen to s d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac iOn , p rcsum ib lcmcn te c o r re spond ien tes a l

e s tuv ic ra r c lac ionada c on u na c ap i l la " t r ipar t ita" l o ca l izada e ne sa z ona ( Shaw , 1 978 , 1 978 , 4 29 -448 ) y J. S .S o le s ( 1979 ,14 ; 1 991 ,4 1 ,45 -48 ,7 1 ,F ig s .3 ,46 ) ,p o r s u p a r te , s cña la q ue t a n to L a " mesa d c o f renda s" d c p i cd ra c omo l a p rcsenc ia d c l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn i n d ican l ae x is tcnc ia d c t i na r ea d c c u l to

r ema tc a rqu i tec tómco d c a lguna d c l a s f a chada s d e l m ismo , t a l c omo s ucede e n G la y d eb ió o cu m r e n M icena s ( P la ton , 1 981J I , 2 87 -8 8 ) . E ne ip a lac io d cP y lo sf r agmcn to sd cs endo sp a re sd c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn d c p i cd ra r evocada y

e ne iP o r t ico Nor te ,u t i l izada p a ra l i bac ione sa unque n o p a ra s acnf ic io s r e lac ionado s c on c lJ uego d e lT o ro . S c

p in tada , s ec ncon t ra ron e n e it r an io f i na l d cl al i amada " Rampa d e l A cucduc to" ( B iegen , 1 961 , 1 57 , L ám .55 , F ig .1 5 ; B iegen ,R aw son , 1 966 ,3 27 ys . ,F ig s .238 ,2 39

t r a ta r Ia , p ues , d c u na " cap i l la " , q u izá d c c arác te r p üb l ico , a b ie r ta h ac ia c lP a t io d e l c omp le jo ,t a n ib ién d c

y2 71 ,9 ) ; u no d c e i lo s ( 35 cm . a l tu ra y 5 4 c m . d c l ong i tud e n l ab a se ) , s er eu t i l izO e n l ac on s t rucc ión d e l

c a rác te r p üb l ico , s ef la l izada p o r c l emb lcma m ino ico , c uya f unc ión a rqu i tec ton ica e s p rec isamen te s cña i iza r l a s a r ea s s ag rada s , e n c s tc c a so r ema tando c lP O r t ico

umb ra l d c u na p ue r ta s i tuada e n c sa z ona ; e is egundo e j emp la r ( 6 1 cm . d c a l tu ra y 7 0 c m . d c l ong i tud ) , t amb ién f uc r eu t i L izado , p e ro e n e s ta o ca s ión e n l a c on s t rucc iOn d e l p rop lo mu ro d cL ac onducc ión d ca gua . L ap re scnc ia d ce s to sC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ión e nc i p a lac io d c N é s to r n o e s s o rp renden te , p ues to q ue

N o r t ed cl af a chada s t i r . E n c lc omp le jo d c V a thype t ro , a ls t i rd c A rkhane s , s eh an e xcavado l o s r e s to s d cl oq ue p udo s e tu na g ran " v i l la " ,q ue q u izá t u vo c a rác t e rp a lac ia l ,c on s t ru ida ye n

c on f irma r la l a u t i l izac iOn , a l meno s e n momcn tos r c la t ivamcn tc a n t iguo s , d e l t r ad ic iona l emb iema m ino ico e n l o s c cn t ro s d c p odc r m icén ico s , d c i g ua l m ane ra q ue c on a n te r iondad s e h ab Ia h ccho e n C re ta , a unque p o s ib lemen tc s uc on ten ido s imból ico h ab Ia s i do

u so d u ran tc l ac t apa d c mayo r c sp icndo r d c l ac u l tu ra c r e tense , e s d cc ir , e n c l p e r Iodo N eopa lac ia l s cg i In i n d ican t o do s l o s a u to re s . E ne ia l a o e s tc d e l c omp le jo a r qu i tec tón ico s eh a l lo u np a t io c o lumnado e nc ls ec to r o cc iden ta l , e n t a n to q ue e il a do o r ien ta l s ee ncon t raban

t r an sfe r ido aG rec ia ü n icamcn te e n i m s en t ido , c omo

l o s c im ien tos d c l o q ue s e h a i d cn i if icado c omo u na " Cap i l la T r ipa r t i ta "p o rs up l an ta yd i spo s ic iOn g ene ra l .

e mb lema d c l ar ea icza y q u izá i n c lu so , c omo s Imbo lo d c c a rác tc r s agrado d e l p oder , t a n s o lo u na d c L a s

A dcmá s , e ih a l lazgo d c f r agmcn to s d c C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn e n c l p a t io , d e lan tc d e l e s t i loba to d e l p O r t ico ,h ai l evado aa l guno si n ve s t igado re s as ugc r ir l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue q u izá c o rona ron c lm ismo , a le s t i lo

f a ce ta sq ue a pa ren temcn te h ab Ia t e n ido e nC re ta . 2 )L uga rc s d c C u l to : t ampoco e sf r ecuen tc e ncon t ra r e j emp la re s c on se rvado s d cC ue rno s d cL aC on sag rac ion c on d imen s ionc s s uf ic ien te s c omo p a r a h abe rr cma tado e d if ic io s d e s t inado s ac u l to s , a unque d e sde l u ego u no d cl o sh a i lazgo s má sa n t igua sc o r re sponde p rec i samen te

d c l o q ue p u so s ucedcr e n l o s g randc s c omp le jo s p a lac ia lcs . No o b s tan te , e s muy p robab le q ue l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión c o rona ran o e s tuv ie ran

ai mt emp lo u rbano ( Ma i l ia ) . L o s e ncon t ramo s t amb ién e n d o s s an tua r ios d e C ima d e Mon tana d c C re ta

i n s ta lados e n l a e s t ruc tu ra t r ipa r t i ta , a s I c omo e n e i r ema te d e l p O r t ico c i nc lu so e n l a c a ra s upe r io r d e l

-

J uk ta s yP y rgo s F o r t a n to , p a rece e v iden te q ue L a i dcn t if icac iOn q ue s e h a h ccho e n t re a lguno s d c e d if ic io s r e p re scn tado s e n L a i conog raf Ia al o s q ue n o s h emo s r e fendo c on a n ter iondad ( r hy ta d c Z ak ro s , -

" pe r ibo lo s" q ue c i er ra c lr c c in to ( Gc ssc i l , 1 985 , 1 37 , F ig s .24 ,2 5 ,8 6 ,87 ;S haw , 1 978 ,430 ys . ,F ig s . 1 4 , 1 5 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 ,53 -54 ,303 ) . H ay q ue p one r d c r e l ieve q ue t amb idn e n G rcc ia C on t inen ta l , t a n to e n c l p a lac io d c P y lo s , c omo e n O rchomeno s ci n c lu so e n l af o r ta lcza d c G la , s e h an

.

C no sso s , maque ta s d cC no sso , P i skokepha lo s ,G ou rn ia , v , g . ) , e s u na h ipo te s is e n g ran med ida a j u s tada a l o s h a l lazgo sr e a lmen te e f cc tuado s .

2 47

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

A . D e senne e xcavó i me d if ic io s i ngu la r , c onoc ido c omo

E n Ma l l ia ,c e rca d e lA rea E p s i lon , a lS O d e l p a lac io ,

n o r te d cT y l isso s ,e n t re l o sm a te r ia le s e ncon t rado se nc l d e r rumbe d e la r ea d cc u l to s ee ncon t ramn u no sC ue rno s

" San tua r io d el o sC ue rno s" ,q ue t i ene p l an ta r e c tangu la r c on d o sa cce so s ,u no e nc ada u no d el o sl a do sc o r to s ; e i a cce so d cl af a chada o r ien ta l c on se rvaba u na e sca l ina ta

d c l a C on sag rac ion d c p ied ra y c on s iderab ics d imen s iones y a q ue m iden 5 5 c m . d c a l tu ra q ue , p robab lemen te r ema taban e i mu ro d c c i e r r e d e l r e c in to

l im i tada p o r u na e spec ie d e p la taforma o b anco r ema tado p o r s enda s h i le ra s d e " med io s C ue rno s d e l a C on sag rac ión e n lazado s e n t re s i , h echo s d c a r c i l la e s tucada q ue a pa rec ie ron c a ldo s s ob re l a e sca l ina ta ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 , 1 07 , F ig s . 4 9 , 7 4 ; Hood , 1 977 , 1 65 ,

F ig . 9 3 ) P o s ib lemcn te , l a s p equef ia s maque ta s d e l l amado S an tuar io d e l a s M in ia tura s d c C no sso , al a s q ue n o s

L am . A ,5 ; Ma s to rak is , E f fen te r re , 1 991 , 1 28 ; P ou r sa t , 1 988 , 7 4 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 7 8 , F ig .23 , 3 ) . S e t r a ta p ues , d e l ü n ico e d if ic io c on e s ta s c a rac te r I s t ica s e ncon t rado h a s ta e i momen to e n C re ta yp ue s to q ue s e f e cha e n c lMM I ( Pou r sa t , 1 988 , 7 4 ) , r e p rc sen ta u na r n amfe s tac ión p ecu l ia r y muy a n t igua d e l emb lema m ino ico , r eve lando q ue q u iza , i n ic ia lmcn te s u p ape l

c l emb lema q ue n o s o cupa , s i n q ue e l lo , e n modo a l guno e xc luya s u u t i l izac ión c omo p equeño s a l ta re s d u ran tc l o s r i tua le s . L o m ismo p ucde s uccde r c on l a maque ta d c G ourn ia , ei n c lu so c on l a s c ncon t rada s e n P i skokcpha lo s ,d ct a l f o rma q ue e s to s p equeño s o b je to s

",

e s taba l im i tado as e ru na r ep r esen tac ión a n icón ica d cl a d i v in idad s up rema , s i n c onno tac ione s p o l I t ica s , p ape l q ue s e mod if icó c on e i t r anscu rso d e l t i empo , e spec ia lmen te e né poca N eopa lac ia l , c uando i n vade l o s c omp lc jo s p a lac ia le s , c en t ro s d c p ode r e conöm ico y p o l i t ico d cl ai s la . E n e s te s en t ido , p odr Ian i n te rp re ta r se l o s h a l lazgo s e f ec tuado se nd o sd cl o sg r ande ss an tuar io sd eC ima d e Mon tana Mon te J ouk ta s yMon te P y rgo s D c h echo , e i Mon te J uk tas , más d c 1 000 m . d c a l tu ra , -

-

.

r e la t iv a men te c e rcano aA rkhane s ya lp rop io C no sso , c uen ta c on i m S an tua r io d c C ima d c Mon taf la q ue e s

e x te r io r ( Ru tkowsk i , 1 98 1 , 8 4 , n o ta 3 13 ; 1 986 , 8 0 ,

h emo s r e fer ido a n ter iormen te , b ien p od r Ian e s ta r a l u cl iendo ae d i f ic io sd cc a rác te rs ag rado c o ronado sp o r

u n lan i md ob ie v a lo r

-

l ar cp re sen tac ión r e a l d cr e c in to s

s agrado s y s u f unc ión c omo a l ta re s d e s t inado s al a c e leb rac ión d c o f renda s e n h ono r d c l am i sma d e idad -

-

s up rema A lgo d i fc rcn te e s c l c a rác te r d c l o s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión e ncon t rado s e n Ak ro t i r i ( Douma s , 1 983 ; Ma r ina to s ,N . , 1 984 b , 1 76 ,F ig . 9 ; Mar ina to s ,S . ,1974 , L am . 8 3 ,A ; Mo rgan , 1 988 , 8 3 ) , d onde a dcmá s d c l o s -

.

f r e sco s s imbó l ico s aq ue n o s r e fe r imo s a n tenormcn te , s e h an e ncon t rado d o s e j cmp la re s d c p i ed ra , e n t re e i l amado B io q ue D e l ta yl a " Xe s te 2 " . E l p r ime ro d c

u na d c l a s i n s ta lac ione s r e l ig iosa s d c e s te t i po má s

e l lo s t i ene a p rox imadamen te i m me t ro d c a l tura y s e h a l lo e n l a s p rox im idades d c l a d enom inada Hab i iac ión D e l ia 2 o Hab i iac ión d e l o s L ir ios ,

i mpo r tan tes y q ue t uvo u na f a se má s d i la tada d c u t i l izac ión . O rgan izado e n v ar ia s t e r raza s ad i s t in to s

mo s trando u na p e r fo rac iOn e n c l cn t ro , e n l aq ue e n o p in ion d cN . Ma r ina to s ( 1984 , 1 76 ) s ep udo i n se r ta rc l

n i vc ic s , e s e n l at e r raza s upe r io r d onde s e e ncuen t ran l o s r e s to s d e l e d if ic io , p re sum ib lemen te e ip un to f o ca l

a s t i l d c u na d ob le h acha , a unque c omo s eña la e s ta m isma a u to ra ,h emo s d c t e ne re nc ucn ta q ue e n Ak ro t i r i

d c l a s c rcmon ia s , p ue s to q ue s u s mu ro s c x te r io re s a s I

n o h a a pa rec ido , a l meno s h a s ta e i momen to , n ing s in

c omo p os ib iemen te l o s i n te rco lumn io s , e s tuv ie ron omamcn tado sp o rC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión aj uzga r p o rl o sf r ag rncn to s d c e mb lema s d c e s te t i po d cp i ed ra , q ue s e h an e ncon t rado e n c l l a do o r ien ta l d c l a menc ionada t e r raza . S u p re senc ia , c omo s ucede e n

c j cmp la r d c " Dob le Hacha" , q u iza d eb ido aq ue l o s s Imbo lo s s agrado s f uc ron r e t irados d c l a i s la e n e i momen to e n q ue a bandonO . Adcmá s , q u izá n o d eba d e sca r ta r se s uu t i l izac ión c omo s opo r te s p a ra u na r ama o á rbo l s ag rado , e n c l c u r so d c l o s r i tua les d c

o t ro s l u ga re s c e remon ia le s od c c u l to ,d eb ió s imbo l iza r

r c novac ión d cl av i da . E l s egundo h a l lazgo c o r re sponde

l ai mpo r tanc ia q ue t e n Ia e ls an tua r io d c Mon te J uk ta s , p ue s n o s e e ncuen t ran e mb icma s e n o t ro s s an tuar io s q ue , a pa ren temen te , e ran d c meno r c a tego r Ia

a l f r agmen to d c o t ro e j emp la r d c C uernos d c l a C on sag rac ión , t amb ién d c r egu la re s d imen s ione s ( 55 cm . d c a l tu ra ) , q ue s ee ncon t rO e n l a s p rox im idade s d c

( Hu tch in son , 1 978 , 3 07 ; K are t sou , 1 981 , ; K a re t sou ,

l a Hab i iac ión De l ia 1 1 . L a p resenc ia d c ambo s e j emp la re s p od r Ia e s ta r i nd icando q ue , a l meno s e n

G oda r t , O l iv ie r , 1 985 ;P ea t f ie ld , 1 983 ,2 78 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 ,7 6y s . ,F ig s . 7 6 ,7 7a yb ,7 8 ) . E l S an tuar io d c Mon t eP y rgo s ,e st amb ién u no d cl o s

a l guna s o ca s ione s l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión r e ma taban l a s f a chada s d c e d if ic io s d c c u l to u rbano s , y

má s g rande s ci mpo r tan te s S an tuar ios d e C ima d e Mon tana , a l meno s d c sdc c l p un to d c v i s ta d c l a

n o s o lamen tc c omp ie jo s p a lac ia lcs o S an tuar io s d c C i ma d c Mon taf ia . A s I p ue s , e sp robab le q ue c s ta z ona

e s truc tu ra s

ma ter ia les

d c l ac i udad , t a l c omo s ug ir iO S . Ma r ina to s , t e nga u n

c on scrvado s . S i tuado e n l ac ima d e l Mon te P y rgo s , a l

v a lo re spec ia l ,e s enc ia lmcn te r e l ig io so y /o c e remon ia l y

a rqu i tec ton ica s

y d c

l o s

2 48

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a demá s , s ih ab la c d if ic io s c o ronado s p o tC ue rno s d cl a C on sagrac iön , y má s a dn s ia l meno s u no d e e l io s a c tuaba c omo s opo r te p a ra u na d ob le h acha o r ama s

C ue rno s d c l a C onsag rac iOn d c p ied ra y r egu la res d imcn s ione s q ue , s egün s eña lan l o s c xcavado res ( Hu tch in son , B oa rdman , 1 954 , 2 16 y s . , L a m. 1 9 , a ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 9 1) , h ab Ian c a ldo d e lan te d c l a

s agradn s , r e ve lando a s I l ap ro funda i n f luenc ia c u l tura l e j e rc ida p o r C re ta e j e rc Ia s ob re l ap ob lac ión d e J ai s ia , h a s ta e ip un to d e q ue q u izá e s u na má s d e ma s l a s m an ifes tac ione s d c s u c on t ro l s ob re l o s t e r r i to r io s

p uc r ta d c l a c áma ra c on a n ter ior idad a q ue s e p rodu jeran l o s e n te r ram ien to s d c ü poca g eomé tr ica , e t apa e nl aq ue f ue r eu t il izado c l monumen to f une rar io .

c e rcano s . 3 ) A reas F unerar ia s :L o s ü n ico s h a l lazgo s f une ra r io s q ue s e c onocen h a s ta l a f e cha l ac uenca o r ien ta l d e l Med i te r ráneo h an t er ndo l uga r e n C no s so . S in d uda , e i má s s i gn if ica t ivo d ada l a monu inen ta l idad

S c t r a ta , a li gua l q ue s ucede e n c l c a so d e l T emp lo T umba d c i m h a l lazgo e xcepc iona l , p uc s s et r a ta d c i m ( i n ico monumen to d ce s te t i po e xcavado e n C re ta h a s ta c l momen to , e n q ue h ay u na a soc iac iOn d i rec ta c on e i emb lema m ino ico q ue n o so cupa . No o b s tan te ,c omo e n

d e l c omp le jo f une rar io e s e iT emp lo T umba oT umba d e l R ey S a sce rdo te , d onde e n l a p l an ta s uper io r A .

c l c a so d e l T emp lo T umba , h ay q ue p l an tea r se s ie i emb lema c o ronaba l ae n t rada al ac üma ra f une ra r ia o

E van s e ncon t ró u n p a r d c C uerno s d c l aC on sagrac ion

b i en s i lo s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn e s taban s ob re s uc lo , u t i l izándo sc c omo u n a l ta r d u ran te l a s

d c p i ed ra y d c g rande s d imen s ione s ( Evan s , 1 964 , I V , 9 64 y s . , F ig s . 9 30 , 9 49 ; B uchho lz , K a rageo rgh is , 1 973 ,4 0 ,F ig s .1 4 1-47 ; G e s se l l , 1 985 ,9 9 ,F ig .38 ;L ong ,

cremon ia s yr i tua ie sf une ra r io sp o s tdepo s ic iona le s .

1 974 , 6 7 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 06 ) ) .A . E van s c on s ide raba

1 .2 . LOS ALTARES DE C IJERNOS DE LA CONSAGRAC ION S e r la d cc spe ra r q ue u na g r an p a r te d cl o s h a l lazgo s s eh ub iera p roduc ido e nl ai s la d cC re ta ,p e ro e s to n oe s

q ue p ud ie ron e s ta r s i tuado s e n t re d o s c o lumna s , d c l a s s o lamen te s ec on se rvaba u na ü n ica b a sa ,e nu na c ap i l la d ed ica a c u l tos r e lac ionado s c on l a v ida , p or c on t rapo s ic ión aa l mundo d c l a mue r te q ue r e f le ja l a

a s I ,q u iza d eb ido aq ue c l emb lema a l l If ue u t i l izado d c u na m ane ra d i f e ren te y ,d ch echo n oh emo s e ncon t rado r ep rcsen tac iones i n equ Ivoca s d c " a l ta re s" c on e s ta

c áma ra y c r ip ta d e l a z ona b a ja d e l monumen to , t a l c omo y a h emo s r e fe r ido a n te r io rmen te . E n t a l c a so s e t r a ta r la d c u n " a l ta r " yn o d c u nr ema te a rqu i tcc tómco , a unque s m emba rgo e x is te u na i mpo r tan te c on t rove r s ia e n t o rno al ap o s ic iün q ue r e a lmen te t u vo e ie mb lema

f o rma , t a l c omo h emo s v i s to a n te r io rmcn te , c on l a e xcepc iOn d c N irou - Khan i D c t oda s f o rma s , r e su i ta muy i n te re san te s ub raya rq ue t amb iün f a l tan e nG rec ia yl a si s la sC Ic lada s yd e l Dodccanc so ,p e ro s me mba rgo

e ne ic on jun to d e le d if ic io . S in e mba rgo ,J .W . S haw h ap l an teado J ap o s ib i l idad

s is ec onocen a l ta re s d c e s tc t i po t a n to e nC h ip re c omo e nl aP en In su la I bü r ica ye n Ana to l ia . N irou - Khan i , e s u no d c l o s c omp le jo s m ino ico s d c

d cq ue c o ronaran l af a chada d e l c omp le jo ( Shaw , 1 978 , 4 46 , n o ta 3 2 ) , l ac ua l , p o to t ra p a r te ,r e sponde al oq ue p uede c on s idc ra r sc c omo u na " f achada t r ipa r t i ta" ,

má s d i f Ic i l i n te rp re tac iOn p ues n o p a rece t e ue r u na f unc iona l idad e spcc If ica ,d ado q ue j un to ac on s ide rab le c an t idad d c p roduc to s a g r Ico la s a lmacenado s , s e e ncon t raron c ua t ro Dob les - h achas d c b ronce yv a r ia s d ccena sd c " me sa sd co f rcnda s" d c t i po t r Ipode , a demá s

c or roborando e n s u o p in ion , d c e s ta f o rma , l a s r e con s t rucc iones e f ec tuadas e n e i p rop io p a lac io d c C no sso y e n o t ros y ac im ien to s c re ten ses c omo V a thype t ro . E n t odo c aso , s e t r a ta d c u n c a so e xcepc iona l y aq ue e x i s te , a pa ren temen te , u na r e lac iOn

d c f r agmen to sd c f r e sco s c on p rog rama s i conog rau ico s

d i rec ta e n t re e ig r an c omp le jo f une ra r io yl o s C ue rno s d c l a C onsagrac ion , c uya p re senc ia j un to c on s u

r e l ig io so s yu no s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn e n l a z ona s u rd e l P a t io O r ien ta l 7 6 cm . d cl ong i tud y5 1 cm . d c a l tura , c erca d c u na e spec ie d c p la taforma

i mponen te a rqu i tec tu ra , r eve la q ue s e t r a ta d c u n monumen to q ue b i en p udo c o r responde r , t a l c omo s eña ló A . E van s , ai m p e r sona je d c e l evado " s ta tu s " o j e ra rqu la ,q u izá i m " Rey - S acerdo te " , oa lm eno su no d c l o s m iemb ro s d c l ae l i te q ue g obe rnO C no s so , s ie sq ue 10 s e t r a ta d c u n l u ga r d onde s er end Ia c u l to au n S e r S up remo , e n s u s d os v e r t ien te s c omp lemen ta r ia s y o pue s ta s s eño rd cl av i da yd cl a muc r te A lgo d i f e ren te e s c lh a l lazgo e f ec tuado e n Khan ia le -

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.

T ekké ,u na z ona d e s t inada an ec ropo l is s i tuada a ln oPe d e l c omp le jo p a lac ia l e n l a q ue s e h a e xcavado t i n " t ho los" e n c uyo " dromos" s e e ncon t raban u no s

'N ''

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7

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5

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e sca lonada a do sada a l " per ibo los' m e r id iona l , q ue s e i d en t if ica c omo i m a l ta r , s ob re c lc ua l p ud ieron h abe r e s tado d epo s i tado s e n o p in ion d c S . Mar ina to s ( 1959 , 9 0 -91 , F ig .18 ) , N . P la ton ( 1981 , 1 ,3 93 ) yB . R u tkow sk i ( 1986 , 2 7 , 1 20 , F ig .1 9 ) ' a unquc J .W . S haw p l an tea l a p os ib i l idad d c q ue l os r c s tos a rqu i tec tOn icos c o r re spondan e nr e a l idad au na e s t ruc tu ra " t r ipa r l i ta " ,a u na " cap i l la" d c c a rac te r I s t ica s s eme jan tes a l a s i d en t if icada s e nc lP a lac io d cC no sso ye n V a thype t ro, q ue e s ta r Ia c oronada p o t l o s C uernos d c l a C on sag rac iOn ( 1978 , 4 46 , n o ta 3 2 ) . F ren te a e s ta s

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2 49

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C . POYATO HOLGADO

yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

o p in ione s s e s i t ia J .W . G raham q u ien man t iene l a

c e rcmon ia s ye n c lq ue h ay a dcmá s o t ro s d i spo s i t ivo s

h ipó te s i s d eq ue e ie mb iema i mno ico p udo h abe re s tado

d c c u l to , s e e ncon t ra ron l o s r e s to s d c i m monumen ta l

e nu n mcho l o ca i izado e ne im ismo p a t io , r e la t ivamen te c e rca d c l ap i a tafo rma e sca lonada ( 1972 , 5 9 ) . E n t o do

a l ta r e sca lonado d c mampos tc r Ia , j un to a l c ua l s e e ncon t raban c a ldo s s ob rc c l p av imdn to , u n p a r d c

c a so , l ap re senc ia d c l o s C ue rno s d c L aC on sagrac ion

C ue rno s d c l aC onsag rac ión t a l lado s e n mi b l oque d c p i ed ra q ue , o r ig ina lmcn tc , r cma ta ron e ip rop io a l ta r , p r e s id iendo t o da s l a s a c t iv idadc s r i tua le s q ue p ud ie ran

c on f ie re ae s ta " V i l la "i mc a rác te rt a ne xcepc iona l c omo e iq ue t i ene e ic omp le jo d cV a thype t ro ,p ue s s a lvo e s ta s

l i evar se ac abo e n e ir ec in to ( Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 , 9 9 , F ig .40 ; K a rageo rgh i s , 1 976 , 7 1 , L am . 5 2 ; 1 982 , 9 9 ; L ou l loup i s , 1 973 ,2 27 - 2 31 ,L am . 2 8 ;P ia tlay lo r , 1 957 ; P la ton , 1 981, 1 1 , 4 09 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 979 , 2 26 , F ig . 2 ,

e xcepc iones e i s Imbo lo m ino ico c omo r ema te a rqu i tcc tón ico e s tá l im i tado al o s c omp le jo s p a lac ia le s yl o ss an tuar ios d e C ima d e Mon tana . E i e d i f ic io s eh a i d en t if icado c omo im c en t ro d ec a rác t e rr e i ig io so ,q u izá i nc lu so u na e spec ie d c " mona s teno " or e s idenc ia d e

L am . 3 3 ; 1 986 , 1 20 ,F ig . 1 72 ) . F ina imen te , e n P a lacpapho s , d eba jo d e l T emp lo d c A f rod i ta s e e ncuen t r an l o s r e s to s d c i m s an tua r io má s a n t iguo ( San tua r io 1 ) , f echado e n c l CHR I i - l i lA

p e r sona je s v incu lado s al a s a c t iv idade s s ace rdo ta lc s ( Ma s to rak is ,E f fen tc r rc , 1 99 1 , 1 28 -129 ) . L os h a i lazgos c h ip r io tas s on r e la t ivamen tc n ume ro so s , ys e h an p roduc ido e n K i t ión , My r thou

( Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 , 3 0 - 3 5 , 9 1 , 9 9 , F ig s .11-13 )q ue d eb ió t e ne r c a rác te r u rbano , c on s t i tuycndo e n o p in ion

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P ighadcs y P a iaepapho s . E n K i t ión ( Ka tha r i ) , s e c on se rvaban r e s to s d c i mi mpo r tan te c on jun to d e c i nco " t emp io s" e ne ia r ea I d cl ac i udad ,f o rmando i ms e c to r q ue s ec onoce c omo e i" Bar r io S ag rado " . Uno d ce l io s , e s e i " T emp lo 1 " , c on s t ru ido j un to c on e iT emenos A d u ran te e iC hR l i lA ( Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 , 2 4 ) yo t ro

d c M . B u rda jew icz e i p ro to t ipo d c t cmp lo c h ip r io ta " i nd igena"po r e xce icnc ia ( 1990 , 3 5 ) , a unquc s es umen a i guno s e l emen to s s imbO i ico s d c o ngen e geo . E n e i T emenos d e l s an tua r io , e n t re i m e s tanquc d e s t inado a a b iuc ionc s n tua ic s ye i mu ro d c l a" ce l ia " os an tua r io

T emp lo 2 - ‚ a igo más a n t iguo ( CUR IC ) e ra r emode lado e n l a m isma d poca , a l t i empo q ue s e

c ub ie r to , s e e ncon t rO u n g rau s i i ia r d c p i ed ra s ob rc c l q ue p o s ib lcmcn tc s es i tua ron o r ig ina lmen te l o s g r ande s

c on st ru la e i T emenos B . E ne iT emenos A d e l T emp lo 1 , q ue s e e ncuen tra s i tuado a ! NE d e l m ismo , s e c ncon t ró u n a l ta r d c m ampo s te r Ia j un to a lc ua l h ab Ia

C uernos d c l a C on sag rac ion , t amb idn d c p i ed ra , h a i lado s e n e im i smo T emenos ( Ka rageo rgh i s , 1 982 , 9 8 -99 ,F ig .7 5 ; Ma ie r , 1 979 ,2 23 ,n o ta 1 7 ) .

u na " me sa d c o f rcnda s" , c on s t ru ida d c i gua l mane ra ; c e rca d c amba s e s t ruc tu ra s s e h a l la ron u n p a r d c d imen s ione s 4 7 c m . d ca l tu ra y4 0 cm . d cl ong i tud e n l ab a se q ue , p resum ib lemen te , e s tuv ie ron d epo s i tado s

E n Ana to l ia s eh an c ncon t rado " a l ta re s d e C ue rno s d e l a C onsagrac ión " e n B eyce su l tan y Ku su ra . E n B eyce su l tan e x i s t Ia y au na l a rga t r ad ic ión d ce s t ruc tu ra s d c c s tc t i po ,p ue s e iA rea d c l o s T emp lo s d ur an te e iI I m i icn io p ropo rc ionó a iguno s c d i f ic io s e n l o s q ue e i

o r ig inahnen te s ob re e im enc ionado a l ta r . E ne iT emeno s B , a soc iado a lc omp le jo d e l T emp lo 2 s ee ncon t ró o t ro

p un to f oca l d cl a sc e remon ia s e r a im A l ta rd eC ue rno s . S in emba rgo , t r as l a s d es t rucc ione s q ue p u s ie ron f i n a

p a r d c Cuernos d c l a Consagrac ión , t a i lados i ndepend ien temen te e n d o s b loque s d c p i ed ra d c t a l f o rma q ue , a l q ueda r u n ido s e n s u z ona c en t ra l , d cb ie ron f o rma r u na ( m ica p i cza d c u no s 7 6 cm . d c i ong i tud p o r4 3 cm . d c a nchu ra , q ue t a l v ez c o ronaban

l o s n ive le s d e l B ronce An t iguo , d u ran te c l B roncc Med io , l a s g en te s q ue o cupaban e i a sen tam ien to o l v ida ron , a l meno s a pa rcn temen te , s u s t r ad ic iones r e l ig io sa s . S erá d u ran te e iB roncc R cc ien tc c uando d c

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C uerno s d c l a Con sag rac ión d c p i ed ra d c r egu la re s -

u n a l ta r ou na e s t ruc tu ra d cc a rac ter I s t ica s s eme jan te s a l ah a l iada e n e i T emenos A , e s t ruc tu ra q ue n o s e h a c on servado ( C le rc , K a rageo rgh is , 1 976 , 3 -5 , 6 9 -70 , L am . 4 8 ; Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 , 2 4 -25 , 8 8 , F igs .7 ,8 ; Ka rageo rgh is , 1 973 , 1 05 y s . ; 1 976 , 6 9 -71 , L ams . 4 8 -51 ; 1 982 , 9 6 , F ig s . 7 2 , 7 3 ; L ou l loup is , 1 973 , 2 26 -

n uevo s e c ncucn t rcn e s t ruc tura s r eig io sa s d c e s te t i po ( D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 ,148 y s . ; L amb , 1 956 , 8 9 ; loyd , 1 972 , 1 4 'y s . ,F ig s . 3 14 ) . L o s " a l tare s d e C uernos " s e h an e ncon t rado e n d ifercn tcs z ona s d e l y ac im ien to ,e nl o s e s t ra to s I yI I . Apareccn t a n to e n u n g ran e d if ic io , q ue p od r Ia i n terpre tar sc c omo u n " comp le jo p a lac ia l" - e i d enom inado Mega ron B ( E s t ra to I ) c omo e n o t ro s c on jun to sa r qu i t ec tOn ico sd cc a rác tc rr e s idenc ia i ,q ue s e s uman al o s " T emp los " d e l A rea R . U no d ce s to sa l ta re s

2 27 , L ám s .28 , 2 -5 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 979 , 2 25 , L am . 3 2 , F ig .2 ;1 98 1 ,7 9 ,F ig . 2 3 ,5 -6 ; 1 986 ,79 ) . E n My r tou - P ighades , a l NO d c N icos ia , s e h a e xcavado i me d if ic io d cc u l to q ue e s tuvo e nu so r e c in to

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q ue s ee ncon t rO e nl aH ab i tac iOn 4 d e l A rea A ( E s t ra to I ) , e s u na e spcc ic d c " hoga r - p l a talo rma " p rov is to d c

c s tuvo e nu so d u ran te l o s s .X I I I yX I I a .C r . E nc lp a t io d e l c omp le jo c or rc spond ien tc a l P er Iodo V d c l a s ccucnc ia , d ondc c s taba e i p un to f oca l d c l a s

i m p a rd c C uerno s d cl aC on sag rac ion d ca r c i l la ,jun to a lq ue e s taba u n p equcf io c j cmp la r p o r tá t i l , u t i l izado

2 50

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c omo s opo r te . O t ra e s t ruc tu ra e s l a e ncon t rada e n e i s e c to r o cc iden ta l d e l p a t io d e l e d i f ic io c onoc ido c omo "Mega ron B " , ( E s t ra to I ) f o rmada p o r t i n h ogar d e p l an ta o va lada q ue s ec on se rvó e nu so h a s ta e iN ive l I a , momen to a l q ue p e r tenecen l o s f r agmen to s d e u no s C ue rnos d e t e r raco ta q ue , muy p robab lemen te , p e r tenec ie ron a lc on jun to d e l h oga r . A s I , e ip a t io d e l Mega ron B p od r Ia i d en t i f ica r se c omo u nl u ga rd onde s e c e leb raban c e remon ia s a l a i re l i b re , al a s q ue p o s ib lemen te e ia cce so e s taba r e s t r ing ido yl im i tado ,a l e s t i lo d c l oq ue a pa ren temen te s uced ió e no t ro s i uga re s d e l Med i ter ráneo . E l p er sona je o q u iza l a " e l i te" q ue o cupaba e i Mega rón B p udo s e r , p o r t a n to t amb ién , q u ien d e ten taba e i p ode r e n B eyce su l tan e n e so s momen to s , e j e rc iendo s u s f unc ione s e n l a s c e remon ia s q ue t u v ie ran l u ga re ne ip a t io d e lC omp le jo . E i A rea R d e B eyce su l tan e su na z ona e n l aq ue s e e ncuen t ran s i tuado s v a r io se d il ic io sd cc u l to ,u no d cl o s c ua le s e sl ad enom inada " Cap i l la E s te " ( E s t ra to I ) ,e n c uyo e x t remo n o r te s ec on se rvaba u na e s t ruc tu ra r i tua l d c a r c i l la , q ue c on s ta d c u n mu ro d c c a ra l i ge ramen t e c onvexa , p rov is to d c d os p royecc iones e n f o rma d c " Cue rnos ', c on u na s c l imen s ione s a p rox imada s d c4 2 ,4 c m . d c l ong i tud y u no s 6 8 ,70 c m . d c a l tu ra , c on l o s e x t remo s v ue l to s h ac ia a t rá s , e l evándo se s ob re u na p l a ta fo rma , d c t a l f orma q ue e i c on jun to s e h a i d en t if icado c omo u n " hoga r r i tua l " . J un to a e i s e e ncon t raba u n g r an v a so c e rám ico a poyado s ob re u na e spec ie d c " p i la r "dc a r c i l la , c a lzado c on t i n s opo r te e n f o rma d c " cuernos ' t amb ién c e rám ico . E n l o s n ive le s c o r re spond ien te sa lE s t ra to I I s ee xcavó o t ro c on jun to -

C ap i l la O es te o t ro s an tuar io e n c uyo i n te r io r s e c on servaba u n mu re te c on l a c a ra s u r l i ge ramen te -

c onvexa , ac uyo p i e h ab Ia u na p equcna p l a ta fo rma y s ob re e l la d o s e l emen to s e nf o rma d c " Cue rnos" q ue s e p royec taban h ac ia d e lan te . T ienen u na l ong i tud d c 4 4 c m . yu na a l tu ra a p rox imada d c7 0 cm . . L o s " Cuernos " , e s tán h echo s e n a r c i l la c omo e n e ic a so a n te r io r , p e ro t i enen l ap a r t icu la r idad d ce s ta rd eco rado s c on c f r cu lo s i mp reso s yp in tu ra r o ja . J un to a l a e s t ruc tu ra s e e ncon t raba t i n h oga r , t odo l oc ua l h ace q ue s et r a te d u u n c on jun to d cc a rac tcr I s t ica s muy s im i la re s a lh a l iado e nl aC ap i l la E s te d e lE s t ra to I . L a a soc iac ión e n t re a l tare s d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión y h oga res , j un to c on l a p re scnc ia d c v a so s d c c oc ina , l i bac ión e t c . . , e n B eyce su l tan p od r Ia e s ta r r e lac ionada c on l a p r epa rac ión y c on sumo d c a l i men to sc on sum ido sd e spué se nl o sb anquc t e s n tua le s q ue t u v ie ran l u ga re n l o s l uga re s d c c u i to . A dcmá s , e i q ue a l guna s d c e s ta s e s t ruc tu ra s e s tén p in tada s e n r o jo r eve la , q ue t amb ién a qu I p uede e x is t ir e i m ismo s imbo l i smo q ue e nc lE geo .

Ku su ra , u n a sdn tam ien to a na to i io s i tuado e n l a s p rox im idadc s d c A fyon K a rah isa r , e n e iv a l le a l to d e l r i o Meand ro ,t i cne n i vc ic sd e lB ronce An t iguo al o s q ue s es upe rponen l o s c o r re spond ien te s ao t ra s d o s f a sc sd c o cupac ión , l a má s r e c ien te d c l a s c ua le s ( Fa se C ) h a p ropo rc ionado r e s to sd cv a r io s e d i f ic io se n t re l o sq u e s e c on sc rvaban v ar io s c j cmp la re s d ca l ta re s d cC ue rno sd c C on sag rac ion y o t ra s e s t ruc tu ra s c o ronada s p o r e i m ismo e mb lema ( D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 , 1 4, F ig . 6 ; L amb , 1 937 , 1 2 -13 ,3 7 -38 ,F ig . 1 7 , L am . V ,3 -8 ; 1 956 , 8 9 , L an i .5a ;R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 7 6 , F ig .24 , I ) . E n t re l o s a l ta re s s ee ncuen iran e is i tuado e nl ai l amada " Cap i l la d e lP i la r " ( lab i tac idn l A rea V I .!) , u na p l a ta fo rma d c a r c i l la c u idadosamen te r e vocada , s i tuada f r en te al o s r e s to sd e l " p i la r " q ue d an omb re al ai n s ta lac ión . S ob re l a p la ta fo rma e s taban l o s r e s to s d c u na e s truc tu ra p rov is ta d c " Cuerno s" , t amb ién h echo s c on a r c i l la q ue , c omo a l guno d c l o s c j cmp ia rc s p rocedcn te s d c B eyce su l tan , c on servaban r e s to s d c u na d ccorac ión d c c I rcu lo s i mp reso s . P o r t a n to , p od r Ia t r a ta r sc d c u n " hoga r r i tua l" s im i la r a l d escr i to a n tcr io rmcn te y c on secuen temen te c on l am isma f unc iona l idad d en t ro d cl au n idad d omd s t ica s aq ue p e r tencce . E n c l i n ter io r d c o t ra s d o s h ab i tac iones V I I .l y V I I .2 l o ca l izada s e n c la r ea V I I , d c c rono log Ia a l go ma s r ec ien te q ue l ae s t ruc tu ra a n ter io r , s e h a l ia ron l o s r e s to s c or re spond ien te s ao t ra s d o s e s t ruc tu ra s d c t c r raco ta t amb ién e n f o rma d c " Cue rno s" , amba s d eco rada s c on c f rcu lo s i mp re so s . P o s ib lemen te s et r a ta -

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d c " hoga re s n tua lc s" , s cme jan tc s a le ncon t rado e n c l A rea V I . F ina lmen te , e n c l A rea I I , s ec to r q ue e n é poca sa n teno re sf ue t i np a t io oe spac io a b ie r to ,d u ran te e i B ronce r ec ien te s e i l evaron a c abo v ar ios e n te r ra in ien to s , a l guno s d c e i lo s e n " p i tho i" , q u izá e n momen to s p o s te r io re s as u p é rd ida d e l af unc iona l idad o r ig ina l . A qu It amb ién s e h an e ncon t rado l o s r e s to s d c d o s " hoga rcs r i tua le s" , u no s i tuado e n l a z ona me r id iona l yo t ro c l i spue s to j un to au no d c l o s mu ro s d e l s ec to r o cc iden ta l . E I p r ime ro d c c l ios e s u na e s t ruc tu ra d c a r c i l la , d c p l an ta s em ic ircu la r , d cco rada c on l o s y a h ab i tua le s c I rcu lo s i mp re so s yl o s e x t r emo s r ema tado s p or d o s p royccc ionc s e n f o rma d c " Cuernos" , c uyo s f r agmen to s a pa rec ie ron c a Ido s e n t re l a s t i c r ra sq ue c ubr Ian e ih oga r . E l s egundo c on s is tc e n u na e s t ruc tu ra a do sada a l mu ro d c c i c r rc d e l r e c in to , c on s t i tu ida p o r u na p l a ta fo rma d c a dobe d e lan te d c l a c ua l s e e ncucn t ra u n b loquc , t a inb ién d c a r c i l la , d cco rado c on i mp rc s ionc s c i rcu la re se ns uc a ra e x te rna , c on p royecc ioncs e n f o rma d c Cuernos d c l a C on sag rac ión , e n e s te c a so e x t remadamen te a l a rgado s e ns ub a se . Qu izá c omo i n s ta lac ionc s e spec ia l izada s p a ra

2 51

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

c omo s opo r te . O t ra e s t ruc tu ra e s l ae ncon trada e n e i s ec to r o cc iden ta l d e l p a t io d e l e d if ic io c onoc ido c omo "Mega ron B " , ( E s t ra to I ) f o rmada p o r t i n h oga r d c p i an ta o va lada q ue s ec on se rvó e nu so h a s ta e iN ivc lI a , momen to a l q ue p e r tenecen l o s f r agmen to s d e u no s C ue rno s d e t e rraco ta q ue , muy p robab lemen te ,

Ku su ra , u n a sen tam ien to a na to L io s i tuado e n l a s p rox im idade s d c A fyon K a rah isa r , e n e iv a l le a l to d e l r I o Meand ro ,i ene n i vc le sd e lB ronce An t iguo al o s q ue s es upe rponen l o s c o r re spond ien te s ao t ra s d o sf a se s d c o cupac ión , l a má s r e c ien te d c L a s c ua le s ( Fa se C ) h a p ropo rc ionado r e s to sd cv ano se d i f ic io s e n t re l o sq ue s e

p e r tenec ie ron a lc on jun to d e l h oga r . A s I , e ip a t io d e l Mega ron B p od r Ia i d en l if ica r se c omo t i nl u ga rd ond es e c e leb raban c eremon ias a l a i re l i b re , a l a s q ue

c on sc rvaban v a r io s e j emp la re s d ca l ta re s d cC ue rno sd c C on sag rac iön y o t ra s e s t ruc tu ra s c o ronada s p o r c l m ismo e mb iema ( D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 , 1 48 , F ig . 6 ;

p o s ib lcmen tc e ia cce so e s taba r e s t r ing ido yl im i tado ,a l e s t i lo d cl oq ue a pa rcn tcmen te s uced ió e no t ro s l u ga rc s

L amb , 1 937 , 1 2 -13 ,3 7 -38 ,F ig . 1 7 , L a in . V ,3 -8 ; 1 956 , 8 9 , L am .5a ; R u tkow sk i , 1 981 ,7 6 , F ig .24 , 1 ) . E n t re l o s

d e l Med i te r ránco . E l p e r sona je o q u izá l a " e l i te " q ue o cupaba e i Megaron B p udo 5 e r , p o r t a n to t amb ién ,

a l ta re s s ec ncuen t ran c ls i tuado e n l ai l amada " Cap i l la d e lP i la r " ( I lab i tac ión l A rea V I .!) , u na p l a ta fo rma d c

q u ien d e ten taba e i p ode r e n B eyce su l tan e n e so s i no inen to s , e j e rc iendo s u s f unc ione s e n l a s cremon ia s q ue t u v ic ran l u ga re ne ip a t io d e l C omp lc jo .

a r c i l la c u idado san ien te r evocada , s i tuada f r eu te a l o s r e s to s d e l " p i La r " q ue d an omb re al ai n s ta lac ión . S ob re l a p la tafo rma e s taban l o s r e s to s d c u na e s t ruc tu ra p rov is ta d c " Cuernos" ,t amb ién h echo s c on a r c i l la q ue , c omo a lguno d c l o s c j emp larcs p roceden tes d c B eyce su l tan , c on scrvaban r e s to s d c u na d cco rac ión d c c I rcu Lo s i mp reso s . P o r t a n to , p od r Ia t r a tar se d c t i n " hoga r r i tua l" s im i lar a l d e scr i to a n ter iormen te y

E l A rea R d c B eyce su l t an e s u na z ona e n l aq ue s e e ncuen t ran s i tuado s v a r io sc d i f ic io sd cc u l to ,u no d cl o s c ua ie s e sl ad enom inada " Cap i l la E s te " ( E s t ra to I ) ,e n c uyo e x t remo n o r tc s ec on se rvaba u na e s truc tu ra r i tua l d c a r c i l la , q ue c on s ta d c t i n mu ro d c c a ra l i ge ramen te c onvcxa , p rov is to d c d o s p royecc ionc s e n f o rma d c " Cuernos" ,c on u na s d imen s ionc s a p rox imada s d c4 2 ,4 cm . d c l ong itud y u no s 6 8 ,70 c m . d c a l tu ra , c on l o s e x t remo s v ue l to s h ac ia a t rá s , c i cvándo sc s ob re u na p l a tafo rma , d c t a l f o rma q ue e i c on jun to s e h a i d cn t if icado c omo u n " hogar r i tua l " . J un to a e i s e e ncon t raba u n g ran v a so crám ico a poyado s ob re u na e spec ie d c " p i la r "de a r c i l la , c a izado c on i m s opo r tc e n f o rma d c " cuernos" t amb ién c e rám ico . E n l o s n i vc les c o r rc spond ien te sa lE s tr a to I I s ee xcavö o t ro c on jun to C ap i l la O es te o t ro s an tuar io e n c uyo i n te r io r s e c on servaba u n mu rc tc c on l a c a ra s u r l i gc ramen tc c onvcxa , ac uyo p i e h ab Ia u na p cquef ia p l a tafo rma y s ob re e l la d o se l emen to s e nf o rma d c " Cuernos" q ue s e p royec taban h ac ia d e lan te . T iencn u na l ong i tud d e4 4 c m . yu na a l tu ra a p rox imada d c7 0c m . . L o s " Cue rnos " , -

-

e s tán h echo s e n a r c i l la c omo e n e ic a so a n te r io r , p e ro t i encn l ap a r t icu la r idad d c c s ta rd eco rado s c on c I rcu lo s i mp reso s yp in tu ra r o ja . J un to a l a e s t ruc tu ra s e e ncon t raba m i h oga r , t o do l oc ua l h ace q ue s e I r a te d u

c on secuen temen te c on L am isma f unc iona l idad d en t ro d cl au n idad d omé s t ica s aq ue p e r tcncce . E n c l i n ter io r d c o t ra s d o s h ab i tac ione s V I I . 1y V I I .2 l o ca l izada s e n e ia r ea V I I , d c c rono log Ia a l go -

-

ma s r e c ien te q ue l ae s t ruc tu ra a n te r io r , s e h a l la ron l o s r e s to s c o r re spond icn tes a o t ra s d o s e s t ruc tu ras d c t e r raco ta t amb ién e n f o rma d c " Cue rno s" , amba s d cco rada s c on c I rcu lo s i mp re so s . P o s ib lemen te s et r a ta d c " hoga re s r i tua le s" , s eme jan te s a lc ncon t rado e n c l A rea V I . F ina lmen te , e n e i A rea I I , s e c to r q ue e n é poca sa n te r io re s f u ct i np a t io oc spac io a b ie r to ,d u ran te c l B ronce r ec ien te s e L l evaron a c abo v ar ios e n tc r ram ien to s , a l guno s d c e l lo s e n " p i tho i" , q u izá e n momen to s p o s te r io re s as u p d rd ida d c L af unc iona l idad o r ig ina l . A qu lt amb ién s eh an e ncon trado l o s r e s tos d c d os " hoga res r i tua les" , u no s i tuado e n l a z ona me r id iona l yo t ro d i spue s to j un to au no d c l o s mu ro s d e l s ec to r o cc iden ta l . E l p r imero d c e i lo s e s u na e s t ruc tu ra d c a r c i l la , d c p l an ta s em ic ircu la r , d ecorada

C ue rno s d c L a

c on l o s y a h ab i tua !e s c l rcu lo s i mp re so s yl o s e x t remo s r ema tado s p o r d os p royecc iones e n f o rma d c " Cuernos" , c uyo s f r agmen to s a parec ie ron c a Ido s e n t re l a s t i e r ra sq ue c ub r Ian e ih oga r . E l s egundo c on s is te e n

C on sag rac iön y h oga re s , j un to c on l a p rc senc ia d c v a so s d c c oc ina , l i bac iön e t c . . , e n B eyce su l tan p od r ia

u na e s t ruc tu ra a do sada a l mu ro d c c i e r re d e l r ec in to , c on s t i tu ida p o r u na p l a taforma d c a dobe d e lan te d c l a

e s ta r r e lac ionada c on l a p repa rac ión y c on sumo d c a l i men to sc on sum ido sd e spué s e nl o sb anque te sr i tua le s

c ua l s e e ncuen t ra u n b loque , t amb ién d c a rc i l la , d eco rado c on i mp rc s ione s c i rcu la re se ns uc a ra e x te rna , c on p royccc iones e n f o rma d c Cuerno s d c l a

u n c on jun to d c c arac ter i s t ica s muy s im i la re s a lh a l lado e nL aC ap i l la E s te d e lE s t ra to I . L a a soc iac ión e n t re a l tares d c

q ue t u v ie ran l uga re n l o s l uga re s d c c u l to . Adcmá s , e i q ue a l guna s d c e s ta s e s t ruc tu ra s e s tén p i n tada s e n r o jo r eve la , q ue t amb ién a qu I p uede e x is t ir c l m ismo s imbo l i smo q ue e nc lE geo .

C on sag rac ión , e n e s te c a so e x t remadamen te a l a rgado s e ns ub a se . Qu izá c omo i n s ta lac ione s e spec ia l izadas p a ra

2 52

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

a b luc ione s ,s on l a s " p i le ta s" h echa s c on a r c i l la d e lA rea

L o s e j emp la res

V II I d e Ku su ra , r ema tada s e n s u s e x t remo s p o r p royecc ione se nf o rma d e " cuemo s" ,t amb ién d eco rada s c on c I rcu lo s i mp re sos , d c l a s q ue ü n icamen te s e h an c onservado t r e s e j emp la res a unque p o s ib iemen te

d c ma s r educ ido t amaño , e n

o cas ionc s t a n s o lo u no s c en t Imc t ros , q ue h emos d cnom inado " por tá t i le s ", d c a r c i l la o p i ed ra , av cce s

h ub ie ra c ua t ro .S i r ea lmen te s e t r a ta d e " p i le ta s" , e s p robab le q ue p ud ie ran h abe r c on ten ido i I qu ido s

e s tucado s op in tado s e n r o jo , s on p ieza s t a n to q ue p od r Ian h abe r sc t r a s ladado d c u n l uga r ao t ro , s cg i in e x ig ie ran l a s n ece s idade s d c c u l to , d cpo s i t ndo se s ob re a l ta re s t amb iün móv i le s d e l t i po d c l a s " mesa s d c

u t i l izado s e n a b luc ione s oi n c lu so a lgün t i po d e

o f renda s" ,

p roduc to s qu iza a g r ico la s - emp leado s e n l a s o f renda s , s i endo l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión e n e s te c a so e i s imbo lo d e s u v a lo r r e l ig io so , d e l ap e r tenenc ia a l a

mampo s tc r Ia . A lguno s d c e l lo s t i enen t a inb ién u na p equeña p e r fo rac ión c en t ra l e nl aq ue s ed cb Ian i n sc r ta r

-

-

o f i jos

c omo

l o s

r cc tangu lares

d c

o t ro s s Imbo lo s , b i en " r ama s s ag rada s" , b i cn " Dob les H acha s " , a unque e n s u mayo r Ia d cb ie ron s e r c lo b je to

d e idad . E nl aP en in su la I bü r ica c on tamo s c on d o s h a l lazgo s i mpo r tan te s . Uno d c e l lo s t u vo l u ga r e n c ly ac im ien to a rgü r ico d c E i O f ic io ( Cueva s , A lme r ia ) , d onde e n t re

s ob re e iq ue s e v e r t lan l o s l I qu ido s d c l ao f renda y b l i bac ión , a unque i nc lu so e n c lc a so d c l o s q ue e su in p in tado s e n r o jo , q u izá c l c o lo r q ue , e n s í m ismo ,

l o s r e s tos d c d iversas c ons trucc iones c uya f unc iona l idad e s d i f Ic i l d c i den t i f ica r , s e e ncon t ró u n a l ta r d c Cuerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión h echo c on

e xp re saba c l s imbo l ismo c omp lc to d c l a c eremon ia . D en t ro d c e s te g rupo u n c on jun to e spec ia l e s e i

a rgamasa d c p ied ra y b a r ro , c on u na a rmazón d c

c ou s t i tu ido p o r l o s l amado s " s opor tes" , p i eza s d c t e r raco ta c on u na p ro tuberanc ia c en t ra l e n L a q ue

m ade ra q ue p o s ib lemen te e s tuvo r e vocado . E I a l ta r s e e ncon t raba a poyado s ob re l ar oca n a tu ra l y a do sado a

p robab lemen tc s ei n se r taba a l gün t i po d co b je to sr i tua l . Una p ar t icu la r idad d c e s te t i po d c Cuerno s d c l a

u n mu ro d c m ampo s tc r ia ( F ig .9 ,a ) . N o e x i s ten d a to s o n ir e fc rcnc ia s s ob re l o s ma te r ia le s q ue p ud ie ran h abe r

G on sag rac ión

e s t .ado a soc iado s a lm ismo m d c l a s c a rac tc r I s t ica s d e l c on jun to a rqu i tcc tomco c on c lq ue c s tuvo r e iac ionado ( Deche le t te , 1 924 , 1 1 , 8 1 , F ig . 2 5 ,1 ; L u l l , 1 983 , 2 42 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , 7 6 , F ig . 2 3 ,8 ; S i re t , 1 893 , 1 70 ,

e s q ue f ucra d c C re ta n o s e h an

e ncon t rado o b je to s s im i la re s ,q u izá c on L ae xcepc ión d c u no s s opo r te s e n f o rma d c " cucrno s" e ncon t rado s e n B eyce su l tan , e n a lguna s c ap i l la s d omü s t ica s , s ob re o j un to ah oga re s r i tua le s , a unque t i enen u na mo r fo log Ia muy d i fe r en t cc omo v e r emo s má sa de lan tc .

F ig .288 ) . Ma s r e c ien te e se ih a l lazgo e f ec tuado e nc lC e r ro d c L a E ncan tada , u n y ac im ien to c o r respond ien te a l l amado B ronce d el a Mancha , d onde s eh an c xcavado l o s r e s to s d c u n g ran c d if ic io i d cn t if icado c omo u n t emp lo f une ra r io Comp lc jo 7 - d c p l an t .a e n L ; e n s u

2 . 1 . PORTAT ILES S I MP J. F S L a mayo r p a r te d c e s to s e j emp la re s p roccdcn d c a r ea s d c c u l to d omés t ica s , a unque a lgunos s e h an e ncon t rado e n l o s p a lac io s ; mucha s v eces e s tán a soc iado s ao t ro s e l cmcn to s d cL ap a ra fe rna l ia d c c u l to , t a le s c omo " me sa s d cO f renda s" , " r hy ta " yo t ro s v a sos d e l i bac iön , e s ta tu i l la s , e t c . E l c a ta logo d c l o s e j emp la re s d c e s te t i po h a l lado s e n C re ta e s e i

i n te r io r , e n c l s e c to r n o r te , s e e ncon t raba u n i a l ta r d e C ue rno s d c L a C on sagrac ión c on s t ru ido c on u na a rmazón d cp i ed ra s t r abada sc on b a r ro ,d cl a sc ua le sl a s d os má s a l ta s , d i spuc s ta s e n p o s ic ión v er t ica l , c o r re sponden al o s e x t remo s d c l o s " Cue rnos" . E la l ta r e s taba a poyado s ob re L ar oca n a tu ra l , a p rovechando u na eme rgenc ia r oco sa c omo p a r te d cl ac s t ruc tu ra m tc rna y t o da L ae s t ruc tu ra s e h ab fa r ecub ie r to c on u n c apa d c a rc i l la muy c ompac ta , d espués r cvocada c u idado samen te c on c lm ismo r e voquc b l anquec ino q ue c ub r Ia e ip av imen to d e l e d if ic io , l o s b anco s c o r r ido s a do sado s al a s p a rcde s d e l m ismo y l a s r e s tan tcs e s t ruc tu ra s q ue s e l oca l iza ron e n s u i n ter io r . l a s d imen s ione s d e l a l ta r , b a s tan te g r ande s p o r o t ra p a r te , s on 9 2 c m . d c l ong i tud e n l ab a se y4 0 c m . d c a l tu ra ( N ic to G a l lo , S anchez Me segue r, 1 980 ;N ic to G a l lo e t A l . , 1 983 , 9ys . , Lkn .3 8 ,A ;S anchez Mesegue r e ta l . , 1 984 ; 1 985 , 1 25y s . ,F ig . 5 -8 ,L á .m . I V ,V i l lA ,I X ) . 1 .3 . L o sC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión "po r tá t i les"

s i gu ien t e : 1 . 2 . E n t re l o s e j emp la re s e ncon t rado s e ne d i f ic io s d c c a rác te r p a lac ia l h ay q ue menc iona r c l c j cmp la r e ncon t rado e n c l s ec to r s ep tcn tnona l d e l p a lac io d c Ma l l ia ( Hab i tac ión XXV I I I -3 ) , S on d c a r c i l la c s tucada yd c u no s 2 0 cm . d c a l tu ra ( A lex iou i , s . f . , 17 ; B uchho lz , K a rageo rgh is , 1 973 , 4 9 , F ig .449 ; T ire , E f fen tcne , 1 983 , 4 7 ) - E s tucado s e n r o jo s on t amb ién l o s h a l lado s e n A rkhane s yq ue p rocedcn d c u na a r ea c e remon ia l s i tuada e n l ap l an ta s upe r io r ( Daux , 1 967 , 7 84 -785 ; G c sse l l , 1 985 , 6 9 ; S apouna S ake l la rak i , 1 990 ) . E nc lP a lac io d cP ha is to s s eh a l la ron ,e nl aS a la L u s t ra l 6 3d ,s i tuada e nc lA la O r ien ta l d e l p a lac io , d o s p cqueüo s p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l a C onsag rac ion d c p i ed ra p in tados e n r o jo , d c r educ ida s d imen s ione s -

u no s 6 ,8 c m . d c a l tu ra y 8 c m . d c l ong i tud , c on u n

2 53

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

g ro so r d c t a n s o lo 2 ,8 c m . - q ue muy p robab lemen te , d eb lan p re s id ir l a s c e remoma s q ue s e i l evaban ac abo

d epos i ta ron t i np a rd cC ue rno sd ch aC on sag rac ión j un to c on a lgunos g u i jar ros , v a r io s f r agmen tos d c

e n l ai n s ta lac ión r i tua l ( A lcx iou , 8 9 -90 ; P em ie r , B an t i , 1 95 1 , 1 77 -78 , F ig . 1 09 ; G e s se l l , 1 985 , 1 28 , F ig . 7 1) . F ina lmen te , e n u na p cquef ia e s tanc ia d e l P a lac io d c Z ak ros ( Hab i tac ión L I I ) , s i tuada e n c lA la No r te d e l

e s ta lagm i ta s yl o s c o r re spond icn te s au na e s ta tu i l la q ue r cp rcscn ta u n f b ice d c t c r raco ta , a dcmá s d c o t ro s o b je to s d c c u l to ,l oq ue s upone l ar ep roducc ión d c u na

p a lac io , s e h a l la ron u no s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión d c p ied ra , d c u no s 2 1 cm . d c a l tu ra y 3 7 cm . d c l ong i tud , q ue n o p re scn taban r e s to s d c p in tu ra r o ja y q ue p robab lemen te h an c a ldo , e n t re l o s d e rrumbe s , d c a l guna d cl a sh ab i tac ione s s i tuada s e nl ap l an ta s upe r io r d es t inada a a c t iv idades d c c u l to o c eremon ia le s ( Ge s se l l , 1 985 , 1 4 1 ,F ig .8 8 ) . P o r s upue s to , d e s tacan l o s e j emp la re s d c a r c i l la y p equeñas d imens ione s ( 20 y 1 5 cm . d c a l tu ra r e spec t ivamen te ) ,e ncon t rado s e n l ah a " Cap i l la d e l a s D ob le s Hacha g" ,i m " San tua r io c on b anco" , s i tuado e n c ls e c to r S E d e l c omp le jo p a lac ia l d c C no s so ( Evan s , -

1 964 ,1 1 /1 ,2 23 ,336 ys . ,F ig s . 1 89 -191 ;G e sse l l , 1 985 , 9 0 -92 ; Hu tch inson , 1 978 , 3 11-13 ; Ma s torak is , E f fcn ter re , 1 991 , 1 80 ; M icha i l idou , 1 981 , 8 4 ; Mü l lc r -Ka rpe , 1 980 , I V /3 , L am . 2 08 g ;P ica rd , 1 948 , 6 4 , 1 06 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 28 , F ig . 1 84 ; Y av is , 1 949 , 4 ,F ig .4 ) . S ob re c lb anco c o r r ido a do sado al ap a red d e l f ondo d c l ae s tanc ia . A . E van s e ncon t ró d o s p a re s d c C ue rnos d c l a C onsagrac ión q ue i n tcrp re tó c omo s opo r te s p a ra " dob le s - h acha s" , d eb ido a lh a l lazgo d c u no d c e s to s o b je to s , d c r educ ida s d imen s ione s , e n t re l o s n ume ro so s o b je to s n tua le s d epo s i tado s t a n to s ob re

d c l a s t r ad ic iona lc s a soc iac ione s q ue h emo s v i s to e nl a i conogra f Ia . A e s te h a l lazgo h ay q ue s uma r l o s e j cmp lares e ncon t rados e n l a " Casa S ures te" ( Hab i tac ión L I ) c on se rvado ss ob re c lp av imcn to muy crca d e l mu ro o cs te , u n p a r d c Cue rnos d c l a C on sag rac ión d c p i edra , f r agmen tado s yd c mcd iano t amaf lo , p uc s m iden 2 0 c m . d c l ong i tud y 1 9 c m . d c -

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a l tu ra ( Evan s , 1 964 ,1 ,4 27 ,435 ,F ig .306 ;G e s se l l , 1 985 , 9 7 , F ig34 ; G raham , 1 972 , 5 5 ) ye n c l " Edf ic io d e l a C a i zada R ea l ' , e n e s te c a so i m e j emp la r d c p cqueña s d imen s ione s ( Ge s se l l , 1 985 , 1 01 ) . E nP a la ika s t ro l o s h a l lazgo s d cp cquef io sC ue rno s d c l a Con sag rac ión p o r tá t i lc s s e h an c fcc tuado e n d o s g randc s e d if ic io s l o s l amado s B loquc s B yN , a s I -

c omo e n c lB loque X

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.

E l p r imc ro d c e l lo s e su no d c

l o s c omp le jo s r c s idenc ia ies má s i mpo r tan tes d c P a la ika s t ro , s i tuado e nL az ona c en t ra l d c l ac i udad . E n d l s e h an e ncon t rado v ar io s p a re s d c C uerno s d c h a C on sag rac ión d i sper so s e n t re l o s d errumbe s d c l a s e s t ruc tu ra s d omd s t ica s q ue f o rman h a manzana S e t r a ta d c c ua t ro p i eza s d c p ied ra e s tucada d c d i feren te s t amaf io s ; i mc j cmp la r a pa rcc ió e ni m e s t rccho p a sad izo

c lb anco c o r r ido c omo d c lan te d e l m ismo . S in d uda , p ue s to q ue a i nbo sc uen tan c on p er fo rac ionc s ,s et r a ta d c l o s me jo res r cp resen tan tes d c h a a soc iac ión e n t re C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ióny " Dob le s - Hacha s" q ue

s i tuado e n t re L aH ab i tac ión 2 0 yc l" mcga ron c r e ten se" d c h a C a sa 1 .E n l a H ab i tac ión 4 2 d c h a C a sa 5 , s e e ncon t ra ron o t ros C ue rno s d c h aC on sag rac ión d c t a n s o lo 4 cm . d c a l tu ra , p rac t icamen te u na m in ia tu ra , a compaf i ado s c omo e nc lc a so a n te r io rd co t ro s o b je to s d c c arác tc r v o t ivo . L o s d o s e j emp la re s r e s tan te s , q ue

h emo s v i s to b i en r ep re scn tada d e sde e ip un to d c v i s ta

p roceden d c L am isma z ona , a unque n o e s tá c l a ro e i

n umé r ico e nl ai c onog ra f Ia .

l uga r e xac to e n q ue s e h a l la ron , s on s umamen te

1 . 2 . E n t re l o s p equeno s C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac ión p roceden tes d c e d if ic io s d c c a rác te r c i v i l , p ero r e lac ionado si g ua lmen te c on a r ea sd cc u l to ,e ne s te c a so d omé s t ica s , h ay q ue s eña la r q ue s e c oncen t ran e n d o s

p equef lo s :4 ,6 c m . d cl ong i tud y3 ,6 cm . d ca l tu ra y2 7 cm . d c l ong i tud y 2 0 cm . d c a l tu ra r e spcc t ivamcn te ( Bo sanquc t , 1 901-02 , 3 14 ; 1 903 -04 , 2 80 , 2 89 , F ig .2 ; D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 , 1 72 -73 , F ig .78 ; E van s , 1 964 , 1 /2 , 5 67 -68 , F ig .354 ; G e sse l l , 1 985 , 18 -19 , F ig .61 ;

y ac im ien tos Cno ssos y P a la ika s t ro c on l a p a r t icu lar idad d c q ue e n ambo s c a sos a parecen e n -

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R u tkowsk i , 1 98 1 ,76 ) . E n c l " B loque N " ( I 1ab i tac i6n 3 ) , s e e ncon t ra ron u no s C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ión d c p iedra d c r educ ida s d imen s ione s ,p rác t icamen te e nm in ia tu ra ( 6 ,5

umdade s d omd s t ica s d c e l evada c a tegor la ( McEn roe , 1 982 ) , l oq ue p uedc r e ve la r q ue s ec ls Imbo lo s ag rado t a n s o lo s eu t i l izaba e nl a sa r ea sd cc u l to p er tenec ien tc s ap e r sona je s d c c i e r ta j e ra rqu Ia , b icn f uera c i v i l o r e l ig io sa , oi n c lu so c on jun ta e ni mm ismo i nd iv iduo . E n C no sso , l o s h a l lazgo s s e h an p roduc ido e n J a d enom inada " Cap i l la d e l F c t ichc " d e l P cquef lo P a lac io

c m . ) , q ue q u izá p rov icncn d c u na c ap i l la d omd s t ica s i tuada e n l ap l an ta s upe r io r ( Ge s se l l , 1 985 , 19 , F igs . 6 1 , 6 4 ; S acke t t e t A h . ,1965 , 2 57 , L ám .79 E ) . E n l a h ab i tac ión p r inc ipa l d c l aC a sa 2 d e l " B loque X " , u no

( Evans , 1 913 -14 , 6 1-62 ; G e sse l l , 1 985 , 9 3 , F ig .27 ;

d c

H u tch inson , 1 978 , 3 11; Mar ina to s , 1 959 , F ig .42 ) . D u ran te l ar cmodc lac ión q ue s u f r ió e ie d if ic io e nc l MR

d omd s t ica s s i tuado a le s te d e l " B loque B e ta " ,p equef io s C ue rno s d c l aC on sagrac ión d c a r cmsca , e n t re o t ro s m a te r ia le s t a le s c omo f r agmen to s d c o b je to s d c m a rf i l ,

I I , s e d i spu so u n b anco c or r ido s ob re c l q ue s e

2 54

l o s

c on jun to s

a rqu itec tón ico s

d c

u n idadcs

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA .V AZQUEZ HOYS

v a so s d c p ied ra p u l imen tada , e t c . . , c uya p re senc ia p uede i nd ica r q ue q u izá , c omo e nl o s c a so s a n te r io re s , p udo e x ist ir t i n a r ea d c c u l to e n l a p i an ta s upe r io r ( Dawk in s , 1 904 -05 ,285 ) . T amb idn e n Ma l l ia , e n e i c on jun to r e s idenc ia i " Quar t ier L ambda " ( Hab i tac ión XV I I ) , s e h a l lo u n d epO s i to d c o b je to s v o t ivo s , e n t re l o s c ua le s h ay u np a r d eC uerno sd el aC on sag rac ión d ct e r raco ta ,d eu no s 2 6

d c u n o b jc to d c a rc i l La e n f o rma d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sag r ac iOn d cr e duc ida s d i incn s ione s ,y aq ue a pena s t i cne 4 ,5 c .d c a l tu ra y 1 4 , 2 5 c m . d c l ong i tud e n L a b ase . E s ta p ieza e s p o s ib lemen te l a má s a n t igua r ep rescn tac iOn d e l s imbo lo q ue , al o l a rgo d e l I n i i lcn io , a dqu ir ira c a r ta d c n a tu ra lcza e n L ai c onog raf Ia m ino ica . S uc rono log la h as i do e s tab icc ida p o rL a mayo r p a r te d c l o s i nves t igado res e n c i M M I( D iaman t ,

c m . d c a l tu ra ( E f fen te r re , 1 969 , 1 20 - 1 32 ; G esse l l , 1 985 , 14 ) . E nR ou s se s , c e rca d cT ou rk i s sa ,d onde h ay u n c omp le jo a rqu i tec tOn ico q ue e n o ca s ione s s e h a i den t if icado c omo u n p equef lo " San tuar io

R u t te r , 1 969 ;E van s , 1 964 ) ,a unque R .W . Hu tch in son s e

I ndepend ien te " ,a unque t amb ién p odr ia s e ru na p equef ia " v i l la " r u ra l e nL aq ue e x i s t Ian i n s ta lac ione s r i tua ie s , s e e ncon t ra ron u no s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn d c p i ed ra , q ue a pa rec ie ron j un to al o s r e s to s d c t i n p i la r y

L a i npo r tanc ia d e l h a l Lazgo r ad ica , p r inc ipa lmen te , e n q ue s u a par ic ión e n C re ta s e h ace d en t ro d c i m c on tex to d cc a rác te rf une ra r io , c omo s ie n i mp nnc ip io e iv a lo r s imbó L ico d c l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión h ub iera e s tado r e Lac ionado s o Lamcn te c on l a mue r te .

d onde h ab Ia n umero so s v a so s d e a Lmacenan i ien to ( Ges se l l , 1 985 , 1 34 , F ig . 8 1 ; Hood , 1 977 , 1 69 ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , 7 1 , n o ta 8 1 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 1 3 ) . F ina lmen te e nT y i is so s , e nc lá ngu lo NO d cl aC ssa G ,

i n c l ina p o ru na d a tac iOn e nc l MA 1 ( 1978 ) yN . P la ton ( 1981) s e p roponc u na f echa d en t ro d e l p er Iodo P repa lac ia l ,S egunda F a se ( Bronce A n t iguo ) .

e nL aH ab i tac iOn 3 ,c on t igua al a" C r ip ta d cP i la re s" , s e e ncon tró u n p equef io p ar d c C uernos d c L a

S in emba rgo e s te s i gn i l icado , a lm cno s a pa ren tcmcn tc , s e f ue mod if icando y má s t a rde , y a d u ran te l a f a se P a Leopa lac ia i (M M I ) L oe ncon t ra ino s e n c on tex to s muy d i f e ren tes , d e sde l u ego n o f une rar io s , a unque s i c u l tua ie s , t a l c omo s ucedc e n e ic a so d c l o s " med io s

C on sag rac iOn d c p ied ra e s tucada . E s te o b je to , p e se a

C ue rno s d c L aC on sag rac iOn " q ue r ema tan L ab a ran cl i u la

h abe r se e ncon t rado e n e s ta h ab i tac ión y ,s i n d c scar ta r q ue p udo e s ta r r e lac ionado c on a l g t in l u ga r d c c u l to s i tuado e n L a p l an ta s upe r io r d e l e d if ic io q u izá u na c ap i l la d omd s t ica t amb ién p udo i nc lu ir se c omo r cma te a rqu i tec tón ico d c L a f a chada d e l e d if ic io , s cña L izando e ic a rác tc r e spec ia l d e l e d if ic io o d c t a n s o lo u na p a r te d e l m ismo ( Ge sse l l , 1 985 , 1 36 , F ig s .84 , 8 5 ; H azzodak is , 1 934 , 1 01; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 , 2 6 ) . A dcmá s , e n t re e ia r ea o cupada p o rl a s C a sa s A yG s e e ncon t ra ron o t ro s t r es e j emp la re s d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sag rac iOn , f e chado s e n e i MR I I , d o s d c t e r raco ta p in tada e n t ono s o c re s - r o j izo s ,m ien t ra s q ue e it e rce ro

d c a cce so a ld enom inado ' Tcmp lo d c l o s C ue rno s" d c Ma l l ia .

e s d c p i ed ra y ,a unque p udo h abe r t emdo i m r e voque , n o s e h an c on se rvado r e s to s d e l m ismo ( Hazzad ik is ,

t i enen l o s e j emp iares c a ta Logados a n ter iormcn te . Ademá s , s e h an c ncon t ró t i n icamen te e n l ugare s d c c u l to , t a n to e nC ueva s P a t so s - ( Evan s , 1 901 , 1 36 - 3 7 ,

‚

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1 934 , 1 0 1 ) . H a i iazgo s e xcepc iona le s s on l o s p equeno s C uerno s d c L a C onsag rac ión d c b ronce e n m in ia tura q ue s e e ncon t ra ron e nL a" Ca sa d e lT e so ro" d cC no sso ( Evan s ,

2 . 2 . " SOPORTES" Mucho m eno sn ume ro so s yd cc r ono log Ia t a rd Ia ,e s te t i po d c C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ion e s tá p rov is to s i emp re d c u na p ro tube ranc ia t ubu la r e n L aq ue d cb Ian i n se r ta r se l a s r ama s s ag rada s , d ando p o r s upucs to q ue t o dav Ia e nL a s f a se s má sr e c ien te s d e l MR I I e s tuv ie ran v igen tes l o s a n t iguos r i tua les . No e x is tcn r ep re sen tac ione s i c onog rá f ica s d c o b jc to s d c e s te t i po , a unque s u s d imen s ione s r c su i tan s im i la re s al a s q ue

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F ig .1 9 ; K an ta , 1 980 , 2 04 - 2 05 , F ig . 8 5 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 1 06 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 981 , F ig .23 ,2 ; 1 986 , 5 9 , 7 0 ,F ig .61) , c omo e n " San tua r io s U rbano s" P iazza ic d c i S acc l L i d c -

1 964 , 1 1 /2 , 6 19 ) yL am in ia tura , d c a r c i l la e n e s te c a so , l o ca l izada e n A y ia T r iadha , a l p i e d e l u na z ona i d en t if icada c omo d c c u l to e n u na c o i ina c e rcana a l a s en tam ien to ( Long , 1 974 ,n o ta 8 6 ,F ig . 3 6 ,L am . 1 4 ) . 1 . 3 . P o r o t ra p a r te , e it m n ico p a r d c C ue rno s d c L a C on sagrac iOn p o r tá t i l e ncon t rado e n u n c on tex to f unc ra r io e s e ie j emp la r e ncon t r ado e n L aT umba V d c Moch io s ( D iaman t , R u t te r , 1 969 , 1 71 , F ig . 3 6 ; E van s ,

A y ia T r iadha E s ta sp i eza s s on muy s im i la re se n t re s i , p ucs h echa s e n t e r raco ta p rcsen tan d eco rac ione s

1 964 , 1 , 5 7 , F ig .16 , c ; Hu tch in son , 1 978 , 3 16 ; P la ton ,

r i tua l ,

1 98 1 , 1 , 1 46 , 1 66 ; P ica rd , 1 948 , 6 6 ; R u tkowsk i , 1 986 ,

s an tuar io u rbano a b ie r to , u t i l izado e n é poca t a rd Ia ( Ban t i , 1 941-43 , 5 8 ys . , F ig s . 5 8 , 5 9 y6 2 ; G e sse l l ,

2 7 , 1 20 ,F ig . 1 9 ; S aege r , 1 912 ,9 3 ,F ig s . 4 . 8 ,3 ) . S c I r a ta

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p in tadas y a l mcno s e n t r es d c c l io s p a recen i d en t if ica r se l o s r a sgo s d c u na c a ra h umana , s i endo p o s ib Lemen te L ap r ime ra r e p re scn tac iOn a n t ropomo r f ica e f ec tuada s ob re e is Imbo lo s ag rado . L o s s opo r te s d c e s te t i po e ncon t rado s e nl aP iazza ic d c i S ace i l i d c Ay ia T r iada , a pa rec ie ron e n t i n b o thro s

2 55

q ue a pa ren tcmen te f ormaba p a r te d c u na

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

1 985 , 7 6 , F ig s . 6 , 7 8 , 7 9 ; L ong , 1 974 , 6 7 , n o ta 8 5 ; L ou l loup is , 1 973 , 2 31 ,n o ta 4 5 ;R u tkowsk i , 1 981 ,7 6 ) y c on s t i tuyen e n c on jun to má s c omp ie to . Qu izá t amb ién e i e j emp la r e ncon t rado e n l a C ueva d e l Mon te I da

p a ra l a s d i f e ren te s p laca s e n f o rma d c C ue rno s d c l a

( D ist r i to d e My lopo tamos ) , u no d e l o s más emb lemá t ico s l uga re s d eC re ta , u t i l izada c omo l uga rd c c u l to , a l meno s d u ran te e i MR I I yq ue t u vo u n e spec ia l s i gmf icado e n l o s t i empo s p os t -m ino ico s

C on sag rac ión ( F ig . 9 ,b ) e ncon t rada s e n e l la s u na c rono log Ia muy t a rd Ia: s .I X - V I I I . T oda s t i enen u na mo r fo log Ia s im i la r , yd eb ic ron u t i l izar se c omo a p l ique s s ob re v es t idu ra s , f unc iona l idad s cme jan te a l a q ue

( Kan ta , 1 980 , 2 03 ) , p uede c on s ide ra r se d en t ro d c e s te g rupo , a unque c a rece d c p ro tube ranc ia c en t ra l ys u d eco rac ión e sd i fe ren te , y a q ue n o e s t án r cp re sen tado s

h ab Ian t cmdo l a s e ncon t rada s e n l a s s epu l tu ra s d c M icena s yV o lo s . E nl aC ueva I I ,u na c ama ra d cp l an ta o va l yc ub ic r ta

l o s r a sgos a n t ropomo r fo s . E l p a r d c C ue rno s d e l a C on sag rac ion e s d c t e r raco ta y c on servaba u na d eco rac ión p in tada a b a se d c mo t ivo s g eome t r ico s ( Toucha is , 1 988 , 6 88 , F ig . 1 42 ) . Aunque s i n d eco rac ión , p e ro e n c amb io d c u na mo r fo log Ia s im i la r

a bovedada , a pa r te d c l o s r e s to s h umano s e ncon t rado s

yp rov is to s d c l ap ro tube ranc ia c en t ra l , l o s C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac ión e ncon t rado s e n l a" Pequcüa ( ' ap i l la" d e l A rea d c C no sso , p ueden i nc lu ir se e n e s te m ismo g rupo ( Popham , 1 970a y 1 970b ) .

e s ta s t umba s n o e s muy s egu ra , d cb ido al ae sca sez d c d a to sq ue e x i s ten s ob re e l la s ,e ng ran p a r tc d cb ido aq ue s ee ncon t raban v io lada s , C . V eny ( 1982 ) h a p ropue s to

e n s u i n te r io r , q ue a pa ren temen te c o r rc sponden a u n a r ea d c e n tc r r an i icn to c o lcc t ivo , a pa rec ie ron a l guno s p equcüo s o b je to s d c b ronce e n t re l o s q ue s ec uen ta u n f r agmcn to d c u na p l aqu i ta d cb ronce f und ido , d c f o rma t r apezo ida l ,c on l ab a se p l ana ye s t recha yl o s e x t remo s s upe r io rc s a b ie r to s yd i le renc iado s c on d o s a n i l la s e n ‚

l ac a ra p o s te r io r , c on l o s s u rco s m a rcado s p a ra e ip a so d c l a s a gu ja s d c s u jecc ión . S u s d imen s ione s s on muy r educ ida s 2 , 2 , cm . e n l ab a se , 3 cm . d c a l tu ra y 1 , 5 -

1 .3 . LOS P EQUE 1 OS OBJETOS EN FOR MA DE CUERNOS DE LA CONSAGRAC ION S in d uda , s e t r a ta d c u n c on jun to d c p equeno s

mm . d c e spe so r . E n o p imón d c C . V eny s e t r a ta d c p i eza s q ue p ueden i den t if ica r sc c omo " pec to ra le s" ( 1982 , 3 1-32 , 3 16 , F ig .6 , 1 ) . L a s r e s tan te s p i eza s

o b je to s p l aca sd co ro ,m a r f i l yb ronce e ncon t rada se n l uga re s muy d i fe rcn te s ye n c on tex to s d i s t in to s ,a unque mayo r i ta r iamen tc f une ra r io s . L a s p l aca s d c o ro y a h an

p roceden d cl aC ueva XX I I I ( Veny , 1 982 , 1 08 , F ig .62 , 1 ) yd c l a C á ina ra o Cueva XXXV q ue a unque t amb ién v io lada y s aqucada , c on servaba i n tac ta u na e s t recha f r an ja d c t i e r ra al ae n t rada , p ro teg ida p o r l a s

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s i do menc ionada s c on a n tenondad , p uc s s e t r a ta d c l o s a p l ique s e ncon t rado se nl a sT umba sI I yI V d e lC I rcu lo A d c M icena s ye n Vo lo s ; o t ra d c l a s d c mar f i l , c onoc ida c omo l a " P laca d c l a s E sf ingc s" , p roceden te d c M icena s i gua lmen te h as i do m enc ionada , p e ro ae l la h emos d c a nad ir o t ra p equef ia p ieza , t amb ién p roceden te d cl a" Ca sa d cl a sE s f inge s" ,r e co r tada s ob re u na l am ina d c mar f i l , d c r educ ida s d imen s ione s ye n f o rma d c p a r d c C ue rno s d c l aC onsag rac iön q ue s e f e cha e n c l HR I l IB ( Pou r sa t , 1 977 , 4 3 -44 , 5 4 , L am . X I I , n ° 1 38 , L am . X IV , n o 1 82 ) . T an to u na c omo o t ra

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l o sa sd cl ae n t rada . Cnbada se s ta st i e r ra s s ee ncon t ra ron g r an c an t idad d c h ue so s h umano s , a lguno s o b je to s d c h ue so y o t ro s d c b ronce , e n t re l o s q ue c ucn t an v a r ia s p l ac e s d c b ronce s im i la re s al a s a n teno re s d e sc r i ta s , a unque mue s t ran l as upe r l ic ie d eco rada c on s e is b anda s d c t r azo s f i no s v e r t ica le s , d o s d c l a s c ua les s i gucn l a c u rva tu ra d e l e sco te y l a s o t ra s c ua t ro r e s tan te s s on p a ra le la s yh or izon ta les ( F ig . 9 ,b ) ( Veny , 1 982 , 1 27 -129 ,F ig .7 9 ,2 -6 ) .

d eb ie ron s e r a p l ique s p a ra c o f re s o mueb le s , q ue b i en p ud ie ron u t i l iza r se e n l uga re s cremon ia le s , p ue s d c

I l . CONTEXTOS

n uevo l a b a ja f r ecuenc ia d c e s te t i po d c emb lema s ,

S in d uda , u no d c l o s r a sgo s c omunes a t odo s l o s

s uponc q ue muy p robab lcmen te t odav Ia c on se rvaban u na p a r te d cs us i gn i l icado .

h a l lazgo s e f ec tuado s , s ob re t odo e n c l c a so d c l o s e j emp la re sd cC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión c on sc rvado s ,

L o sr e s tan te s p equef lo s o b je to s s eh an e ncon t rado e n e io t ro e x t remo d e l Med i te r ráneo , c onc rc tamen te e n l a i s la d c Meno rca ,e nt r e sd cl a s t umba sd e la r ea f une rar ia d cC a Je sC ove s d e l d eno rn inado " T ipo I "( VENY , 1 982 , 3 72 ) , S c t r a ta d c p equena s c áma ra s c on p lan ta s d c t e ndenc ia o va l oc i rcu la r , e xcavada s e n l ap a red r oco sa

e s q ue p rocedcn d c l uga re s q ue s e h an i d cn t if icado c omo a rea s c e remon ia le s od e c u l t« l o q ue s ucedc a v ece s t amb ién c on a l guno s d cl o s o b je to s s ob re l o s q ue e s tán r cp rc sen tado s ,c o inc id iendo a demá s c on q ue p a r tc d ce s to sm ismo so b je to st i enen u na f unc ión e spec If ica y

d e l a can t i lado . E l i n te r io r d c e s ta s c áma ra s n o s ue le mo s t ra rn ing i mn t i po d ce s t ruc tu ra s i n tema s , s a lvo a l g i ln n i cho a b ie r to e n l a s p a rede s . A unque l ac rono log Ia d c

r i tua l ,t a lc omo h emo sv i s to a n tc r io rmen te . N oo b s t an te , ya unque n op odemo sp ro fund iza re nc l a ná l is is d c l o s c on tcx to s e n q ue s e h an p roduc ido l o s h a l lazgo s , h emo s q uendo r c f le ja r s uc in tamcn te e n l a s

2 56

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

T ab la s 1 , 2 ,3 y4 ,e ic a rác te rd ee so sc on tex to s . E s d ec i r , s i s e h an e ncon t rado e n c omp le jo s p a lac ia les , d omé s t ico s , u rbano s of une ra r io s ob i en s is e t r a ta d e h a l lazgos o ca s iona les . P o r s upues to , i gua lmen te s i gn i f ica t iva e s l af unc iona l idad d e l a s a r ea s e n q ue s e h an p roduc ido l o s h a l lazgo s ( Tab la s 14 ) , p ues h an t e n ido i uga r t a n to e n c omp le jo s c e remon ia ie s c omo e n r i tua le s , e n s an tua r io s d e s upue s to c a rác te rp i . Ib l ico , e n c ap i l ia s p r ivada s p a lac ia le s , s an tuar io s d omés t ico s e

K han ia ( La C anea ) s e r e cupe ró e n t re e ir c l lcno d c u n " ba su re ro "( Ha l lage r , 1 985 ) . 3 )S an tua r ios yo t ra sA rea s d e C u l to : mucho mcno s n umc roso s l o s h a l lazgo s , s e c oncen t ran b i en e n S an tua r io s d c c a rác tc r u rbano o p üb i ico , a unque h ay a l guno s e j cmp lare s q ue s e h an r e cupe rado e n c ucva s s ag rada s ,a r ea s d cc u l to a b ie r ta s op equcño s " s an tua r io s i ndepend ien te s" d e l t i po d c G az i . O ca s iona lmcn tc S c

d c e n n ec rópo l is , f o rmando p a r te u na s v ece s d e l o s a j ua re s p e r sona le s yo t ra s d eco rando l o s " l a rnake s "

h an l o ca l izado a l guno s c j cmp la re s n oc on tex tual izado s , a unque p a rccen e s ta rr c lac ionado s c on a r ea s d c c u l to o p equeño s s an tuar io s q ue ad an o s eh an I o ca i izado c on p rec is ion ( l ade ra d c l o s c o l ina d c A y ia T r iadha v . g . )

f une ra r io s . P o r o t ra p a r te , a lguno s d c l o s o b je to s má s c onoc ido s n o e s tán b i en c on tex tua l izados , ob i en s e

( Long , 1 974 ) . 4 ) N ecrópo l i s yA rea s F unera r ia s: e n e s te c a so l a

t r a ta d e h a l lazgos o ca s iona le s p ermanec iendo e i c a rác t e rd el o s y ac i rn ien to si nde te rm inado .

mayo r p a r te d c l o s h a l lazgo s c onoc ido s r e sponden a l a rnakes e n l o s q ue l o s C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac ión c on se rvan s u s i gn if icado s imbó i ico , a unque e s c l

i mpo r tan te s s an tuar io s d e " C ima d e Mon tana " , a demá s

P o r t a n to , e n l a s T ab la s c o r re spond ien tes s e h an e s tab iec ido c inco g rande s g rupos p r imar io s d e h a l lazgo s : 1 )C omp le jo s P a lac ia le s ;2 )E d i f ic io s C iv i le s n o p a lac ia le s ; 3 ) S an tuar ios y o t ra s a r ea s d c c u l to ; 4 ) N cc rópo l is y A rea s F une rar ia s ; 5 ) H a l lazgo s a i s lado s n o c on tex tua l izado s . D en t ro d e c ada u no d e e s to s

T r iadha c l h a l lazgo má s n o tab le . Un g rupo muy i mpo r tan te d c h a l lazgo s f unera r io s l o c on s t i tuycn l o s s e l lo sd cp i edra s ol o s a n i l lo s -se l lo sd co ro ci n c lu so l a s p L aca s d ce s te m i smo me ta l yl a s d cb ronce e ncon t rada s

g rupo s s e h an p od ido d i fe renc ia r , d e a cue rdo a l a f unc iona l idad a pa ren te d e l o s i uga re s d e h a l lazgo u na s e r ie d c s ubg rupo s e n l o s q ue s i tüan l o s d i fe ren te s e j emp la r e s: 1 ) C omp le jos P a lac ia les :l o s h a l lazgo s s e h an p od ido r e lac iona r t a n to c on l a s f a chada s o cc iden ta le s c omo c on a lguno s c omp le jo s d e a cceso ( Por t ico

e n Meno rca , a s I c omo l o s R hy ta d c p l a ta yd c p i ed ra l o ca l izado s e n t umba s d c d i fe rcn tc s t i po s ob i en e n l a s c e rcan la s d ca r ea s f une rar ia s ,o b je to s al o s q ue h ay q ue s uma r a l guna s maque ta s c omo l a s c ncon t rada s e n l a TN d c Moch io s oe n " Tho lo s" d cK am i lar i . H a l lazgo s c xcepc iona le s , t a l c omo s e h a s ef la lado a n teno rmen tc s on l o s C uc rno s d c l a Con sag rac ión a soc iado s a

E sca lonado d eC no s so , v . g . ) ,c on l o s P a t io s C en t ra ic s y o t ra s A rea s C eremon ia les y /o d c C u l to , c on S a la s

e s truc tu ra s d cc l a ro c a rác te rf unc ra r io e n t re l o s q ue h ay

L u s t ra le s ( Hab i tac ión 6 3d d c P ha is to s , v . g .) , c ap i l la s a pa ren temen te p r ivada s ( Cap i l la d c l a s Dob le s H acha s d c C no sso , v .g .) y t amb ién e x is te u n c on jun to i mpo r tan te d e h a l lazgos q ue c a recen d e u na i o ca l izac ión p rec isa e n e ii n te r io r d c e s to s c omp le jo s , t a n to c r e ten se s c omo g r iego s c on t inen ta le s ob i en , s e h an e ncon t rado e n s ec to re s c uya f unc iona l idad e s muy d i fe ren te , t a l c omo s ucede c on u n f r agmen to d e c e rám ica e ncon t rado e n c i a r ea d c l o s A rch ivo s d e l P a lac io d c Ma l l ia . 2 ) E d tf ic ios C iv i le s n o p a lac ia les : t a n to má s

s a rcO fago d c p i ed ra p in tado d c l aT umba 4 d c A y ia

q ue i nc lu ir e i " Tholos" d c K ann ia le T ekke y c l c omp le jo d e l T emp lo T umba d e l R ey S ace rdo te e n C no s so , a s I c omo e i " Comp ie jo 7 " d e l C e r ro d c L a E ncan tada e nl aP en in su la I bénca . 5 )H a l la zgos a i s lados n o c on tex tua l i zado s : e n t re l o s c ua le s s e c uen ta u n c on s ide rab le n ümero d c s e l ios , i mp ron ta s ei n c lu so a n i i lo s - s elo s l o ca l izado s t a n to e n C re ta c omo e n G rec ia , a unque l a a na log Ia d c l a s r ep re sen tac ione s c on a que l la s q ue a parecen e n l o s r e s tan tes c a sos mue s t ra l a g ran u n ifo rm idad e n l a c oncepc iOn g ene ra l ye n l au t i l izac ión d c e s te s Imbo io s ag rado .

n ume ro sos l o s h a l lazgos e f ec tuado s e n e s te t i po d c e d if ic io s , h ay q ue m enc iona rq ue l a mayo rp a r te d c l o s e j emp ia re s c onoc ido s s e h an l o ca i izado e n " San tua r io s

I V . S INTES IS Y VALORAC ION

d omé s t ico s" , a unque a lguno s p roceden d c A rea s C e rcmon ia le s ( V i l la A d c Ay ia T r iadha , v . g .) , o t ro s s e

A s Ip ue s ,l o s d i f e rcn te s a spec to sa na i izado sn o s r c ve ian q ue l o sC uemo s d cl aC on sag rac iOn c on s t i tuycn u no d c

h an r ccuperado S a ia s L us t ra le s ye n A lmacene s " e spcc ia lc s" , e n t a n to q ue e ic on jun to má s i mpo r tan te p roccdc d c z ona s n o b i en i d en t i f icada s d e sde e ip un to

l o s emb le ina s r e l ig io so s d c má sc omp le ja s i gn i f icac iOn , p ucs to q ue s e e n t remczc lan c onccpc ione s , r i to s y

d c v i s ta d c s u f unc iona l idad y , i nc lu so a lgunos c j cmp la rcs c omo l a i mp ron ta d c s c l io d c K a s te l l i -

c r eenc ia s m ág ica s c on a spec to s q ue má s b i en p a rccen t e ne r a l go q ue v e r c on p odc r p o l i t ico y conOm ico , c onno t ac iones e s ta s t i l t ima s q ue s e t r a s lucen n o d e l

2 57

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

p rop io s Imbo lo e n s i m ismo , s i no d e l c a rác te r d e a l guno s d e l o s l uga res e n q ue s e h an e ncon t rado l o s e j emp la re sc on servado s yd e l b a jo n t i rne ro d ch alazgo s , a s I c omo d c s u c oncen t rac ión e n d e term inado s

d c l o s s e re s ye s c on s ide rada c omo l a n a tu ra leza i n te r im ,c omo u na i d ea . L a mag ia yl o s a c to s m ág ico s s on u na c on sccuenc ia d c c s ta s c r eenc ia s , t a n to e n c uan to l o s p ueb lo s s e

y ac im ien to s ei n c lu so e ne l lo s ,e nt a n s o lo a l guno st i po s

e s fue rzan e n f o r ta lece r l af uer za v i ta l , t a n to l as uya

d ee d il ic io s . D e sde e i p un to d e v i s ta i conog ráI ico h emo s i do s ub rayando l ac on t inua a soc iac ión d e l o s C ue rno s d el a

p rop ia c omo l ad c a que l lo s s e re s d c l o s q ue d cpenden e n a lguna f orma . R i tua les y c c remon ia s e s tán

C on sag rac ión c on d e te rm inado s a n ima le s r ea les t o ro s , c ab ra s , p a lomas , l eones , p eces , t r i tones , a rgonau ta s ,e t c . . - of an tá s t ico s " mono s a zu le s" ,g r ilo s ,

l a s f uerza s mag ica s e n s u p rop io b enef ic io . C on f r ecuenc ia , e s te f i n s e l ogra a ün me jo r s i s e p uedc c on ta rc on l a ss u s tanc ia sq ue e ns u s c r eenc ia sc on t ienen

d emon io s ye sf inge s a l ada s

l ap o lenc ia v i ta l s on

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a s Ic omo c on l a s p l an ta s

t a n to e n f o rma d c á rbo le s c omo d c r ama s ob ien c on d e term inado s r e c ip ien te s d c f o rma s e spec i f ica s r e a les o f i gu rado s ob i en c on d e te rm inado s o t ro s -

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s Imbo lo s d ob les h achasy e scudos e n o cho A s im ismo , e n l o q ue r e spec ta a l o s e j emp la res -

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c on se rvado s h ay q ue s ub raya r s u a pa r ic ión , c a s i s i s temá t ica e n l uga res d e c u l to o c e remon ia les -

C ap i l la s p a lac ia le s , c ap i l la s d omé s t ica s , S an tua r ios d e C ima d e Mon tana , s an tua r io s u rbano s , e t c . . - ob i en e n l u ga res d c c u l to f une rar io , a unque i nc lu so e n e s te ü l t imo c ap i tu lo h ab r Ia q ue i n c lu ir i m e l cvado m ime ro d e o b je to s e n l o s q ue e i s agrado emb lema e s tá r e p r escn tado . E n l a s e scena s r ep re sen tada s , l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ión a parecen c omo u n e l emen to d c l a p a ra fe rna l ia d c c u l to a 1 q ue s e p re s ta u na a t enc ión e spec ia l , t a n to e n c uan to q ue e n mucha s o ca s ione s p a rece p re s id ir L ac e remoma , r ema ta re ie d i f ic io a tq ue s e d i ngen l a s f i gu ra s h umana s e n p roce s ión , oe ia r ea e n l aq ue e s tán d anzando , ob i en e il uga r d onde e s tán

e ncam inado s al ao b tenc ión d c c so s f i ne s , c on t ro lando

-

e spec ia lmen te l a s ang re e n e i

c a so d c l o s h omb re s ya n ima tes y l as av ia e n c lc a so d c l a p lan ta s , p o r l o q ue f r ccucn temen te t a le s s u s tanc ia s ,a s Ic omo e ia gua ,c i emen to v i v if icado rd cL a n a tu ra lcza s e u t i l izan e n l i bac iones y a b luc ione s . -

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L og icamcn te , l am isma i mpo r tanc ia t i ene l ai nge s t ion d cl a s s u s tanc ia s ,t emendo e nc uen ta q ue s ec r ee q ue l a s f ue rza s mág ica s e spec I f ica s d c l o s s e res v i vo s , b i en p ueden e s ta r c oncen t rada s e n d e te rm inada s p a r te s y ó rgano s d e l c uc rpo , ob i en e nt odo e i ;d ce s ta f o rma l o s b anque te s n i tua le s s on u na man if e s tac ión d e l d c seo d c

a p rop ia r se d c l af uerza v i ta l . A v eces , p od r Iamo s s upone r q ue u na p a r te d e l o b je to d c s ac r i f ic io , q u izá a que l la e n l a q ue c recn q ue r e s ide l af uerza , e n d e te rm inada s cremoma s , n o s e i ng ic rc s i no q ue s e d es t ina d i rcc tamen tc a l o s s eres s uper iores , p re se rvándo ia p a ra o f rece r se ia e n c l t r an scu r so d c l a c eremon ia . Qu izá , c uando l o s Cuerno s d c l a C on sag rac ión a pa recen s ob re o r e lac ionado s c on b uc ran ia , s eh aq ue r ido s imbo l iza rp rec isamen te q ue e s l ac abeza d e la n ima l ,l ap a r te p re scrvada yo f r cc ida ,t r a s

e nce r rado s l o s á rbo le s yr ama s s ag rado s , c o rona l o s a l ta re s s ob re l o s q ue s eh acen l a s o f renda s yl i bac ione s

im

b anque te r i tua l , al ad c idad . A s I p ue s , e n e i c a so d c l o s C ue rnos d c l a

oe s e i o b je to s imbó l ico d c c u l to . S upon iendo q ue p uede t r a ta r se d c u na r ep re sen tac ión a n icón ica d c u na d i v in idad , ob i en l a d c u na d c s u s m an ife s tac ione s , d ebemo s p l an tea rno s e n p r ime rl uga re ic a rác te rd c l o s d rama s om i to s d c c u l to e n q ue e s tá i mp l icada y ,

c on sag rac ión s u e v iden te r e lac ión c on d e te rm inado s a n ima le s -e spec ia imen te c ab ra s yt o ro s q ue p ueden i d en t if ica r se c omo v I c t ima s d c s ac r if ic io , n o s p odr Ia e s ta r i nd icando q ue s u s ang re s e u t i t iza e n n i to s mág ico s , p re tcnd iendo d i n ig ir L af uer za v i ta lq ue r e s ide

d e spud ss up rop ia n a tu ra leza . E sb i en c onoc ido q ue e nl a s s oc iedade s c omp le ja sd c

e n l as ang re d c l o s a n ima te s e n b ene f ic io p rop io , t a n to c on L ai n tcnc ión d c c on t ro lar e conóm icamen tc a mba s

e conom Ia a gr Ico ia s e v i ve c on p lena c onc ienc ia e i e t emo c i c lo d e l d even ir yd c l ad e s t rucc ión d e l mundo v ege ta l , c i c lo c uyo s i gn if icado e s t r an sfe r ido a t d c

e spec ies c omo c on e i d cseo d c r enova r l o s c i c lo s n a tu ra le s d c n ac im icn to y mue r te , s imbo L izando e n s u s ac r if ic io L a p rop ia muer te d e l i nd iv iduo y s u

n ac im ien to / mue r te d c l o s h omb res . E l lo i mp l ica l a n ece s idad d c l a mue r te c omo s upue s to p a ra u na n ueva v i da , p e ro t a inb idn s upone L ac r eenc ia d c q ue L a mue r te

r e su r recc ión . L o sf r e sco s ,c omo e id cT c ra oe i Ak ro t i r i ,

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c r eenc ia s c l i nam is ta s t o da L an a tu ra leza e s tá a n imada y

e n e i q ue l o s C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ión l i evan p in tu ra r o ja , ol o s p equeno s e j emp la re s d c C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac ión e s tucado s op in tado s e n r o jo e ic o lo r d c l as ang re n o s e r lan p uc s má s q ue man ifc s tac ione s

p o r t a n to , v iv if icada ; a n ima le s , p lan ta s ei nc luso i n a tc r ia s i n o rgán ica s p o seen u naJ ue r za 0 p o tenc ia v i ta l s ob rena tu ra l , q ue s e d i s t ingue d c l aa panenc ia e x te r io r

s imbó i icas , c omprcn s ib les a l o s o jos d c l o s c spec tado re s d e l momcn to , d c l o s r i tua le s mág ico s e n l o s q ue c s tá i mp l icada l a mue r te d c c s to s a n ima tes .

d e semboca e n u na r c su r recc ión . P o r o t ra p a r te , e n l a s

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2 58

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

A demá s ,p o rv i a mág ica ,c on l o s s a c r i f ic io ss ang r ien to s , e s c omo s e o b t ienen u n f o r ta lec im ien to o r e juvenec im ien to d c l a s p rop ia s d e idade s , yc on e l lo s e l o g ra l a s uperv ivenc ia d e l Un iver so y d e l o rden

s ag rado m ino ico y d i fc rcn te s c l emen tos v cge ta les á rbo lc s y ra ma .s s agrado y ,l i r io s ya 7af ranc s - .T odo c i lo , h a r Ia s upone r q ue l a d e idad r ep re sen tada e n c l emb lema s ag rado , p udo h abcr s i do u na f i gura

e s tab lec ido . U n p roce so s imi la r s e r la e ls egu ido e n r e lac ión al a s p l an t a s , aL a n a tu ra leza v ege ta l . S in d uda , d e sde q ue c omenza ron ad e sa r ro l la r se l a s s oc iedade s a g r Ico la s o i nc luso c on a n ter ior idad e n t re l a s s oc iedades r e co lec to ra s ,l ar enovac ión d cL av i da v ege ta l ,l o s c i c lo s

p ro tec to ra d c L a n a tu ra leza , a l meno s e n u na d c s u s m an if c s tac ionc s .

d c n ac im ien to y muer te a pa ren te d c l a s p lan ta s , d eb ie ron c on s t i tu i ru no d cl o sf enómeno sd cm a s d i f ic i l c omp ren s ión . L o sa g r icu l to re s s aben q ue e nL a s s em i l la s r e s ide l av ida d c l a s p l an ta s , p e ro t amb idn t i enen n un

h umana , g ene ra lmen tc f emen ina a unquc h aya t amb idn f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s .E sf r ecucn te ,q ue c uando s et r a ta d c f i gu ra s f ememna s l a s e ncon t rcmo s d c p i ea n te u na l ta r ,

c l a ra n oc ión d c L a p o tenc ia v i v if icado ra d e l a gua , e l emen to q ue d eb la i n co rpo ra r se al o s m ed io s mág ico s , yt amb ién c onoc Ian e iv a lo r d cL as av ia c omo e l emen to t r an spo r tado r d c l av ida d c l a s p l an ta s . S on , p o r t a n to , t r c s l o s c i emen to s m ág ico s r e lac ionado s c on l o s c i c io s d cr c novac ión yv i da d cl an a tura leza v ege ta l . Ademá s , l ad ependenc ia r e a l q ue l o s h omb re s ys u s a n ima le s d omé s t ico s , a s I c omo mucho s d c L o s s a lva je s d c s u c n to rno , t c n Ian d cl a s p l an ta s h ace i n ev i tab le p l an tea r se q ue l o s r i tua le s yc e remon ia s mag ica s r e lac ionada s c on c s c c i c lo d eb ic ron t e nc r u na c on s ide rab le i mpo r tanc ia . D ebemo s r eco rda ra a qu I , q ue a lm eno s e n c lc a so d e l P a lac io d c Z ak ro s , l o s e j emp la re s d c g rande s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión q ue s eh an c on se rvado ,a pa rcc ie ron e n c lc o r redo r q ue l cva al aC áma ra d e l Manan t ia l y t a xnb iénjun to ae s ta c s tanc ia ,d ct a l f o rma q ue p odemo s s o specha r q ue q u izá e x is tc u na r e lac ión e n t re - a gua c omo l I qu ido v iv if icado r yp ode res d c L a d e idad r e p r e sen tada e n e ie mb lema s ag rado . D c i g ua l mane ra c lh a l lazgo d c p equeno s C uerno sd cl aC on sag rac ión e n l aS a la L u s t ra l d cP ha i s to s ye nL ad e l P equcf lo P a lac io , q ue e s te m ismo e mb lema e s te p in tado s ob re c la dy ton d c l aX es te 3 d c A k r i ton , oq ue u n f r e sco c on u na f i la d c e mb lcma s d cco rc l a c s tanc ia d c e n t rada a l a S a la L us t ra l d c Z ak ro s , p uede r e lac iona r sc c on r i to s d c p ur if icac ión e n l o s q ue c l a gua , uo t ro s L i qu ido s

P or o t ra p a r te , s on muy n umerosas l a s r cp re scn tac iones e n l a s q ue l o s C uerno s d c l a C on sag rac iOn , e s tando a soc iado s d cn un uo t ra f o rma a c i cmen to s v egc ta le s , a pa recen v i ncu lado s c on l af i gu ra

t a l c omo s ucede e n e is c l lo d cR ou t s i v . g . ( F ig .5 ,h ) , e n u n d e s f i le p roces iona l c a so d c l o s a n i l io s -se l los d c M icena s ( F ig .8 c , d ) e n t re o t ro s , d e lan te d c r e c in to s s ag rado s e nl o s q ue s ec nc ie r ran á rbo le s or ama s , c omo s ucede e n l a s i mp ron ta s d c K a s te l l i - K han ia y K ann ia ( F ig . 4 ,e)

e ntre

o tras

r epresentac iones .

E xcepc iona lmen te , c omo h emo s v i s to e n c l " Se l lo d c M ino s" , u na f i gu ra f emen ina c s tá c og icndo f r u to s o s av ia d c u no d c l o s á rbo le s , a pa ren temcn te p ara c n t rega r la ao tm p e r sona je ,t amb ién f cmen ino . E s te t i po d c a soc iac ione s , l evan a s upone r q ue L a d e idad r e lac ionada c on l a v ege tac ion , b i en p udo h abcr s i do f emen ina ,u na d io sa . P e ro t amb idn e s c omün , q ue a pa rezca u na f i gu ra f emen ina s en tada d e lan te o i nc lu so e nc ima d c u na e s t ruc tu ra c o ronada p o r C ue rno s d c L aC on sagrac ion , i mp re s ión q ue p roducen l a s e scena s r e p re sen tada s e nc i f r e sco d c A y ia Tnadha , im s e l lo d c M iccna s ( F ig .8 ,e ) , u na i mp ron ta d c C no sso ( F ig .7 , k ) , c la n i l lo d c T eba s ( F ig .8 , g ) ,

e n e i s e i lo d c M ino s ( F ig .3 , g ) , o má s

i nd irec tamen te i nc lu so e n c lp rog rama i c onog ra f ico d c l a X e s te 3 d c Ak ro t ir i , oi nc lu so e n c l f r e sco q ue o rnamen ta l a p a red d e l T emp lo d e l o s F re scos d c M icena s . E s ta f i gu ra g ene ra lmen te s ei d en t i f ica c omo l a f i gurac ion d c l ad e idad f emen ina , r c lac ionada c on l o s F c st iva le s d c l a C o sccha o d c l a P r imave ra ( M .A .S .

t i encn l o sa c to s mode lo se nl a s c e remon ia sm ág ica s ,d e l t a l f o rma q ue i ma c to c omo c lq ue l i eva ac abo l af i gu ra

C ame ron , 1 987 ) , s i nd c sca r ta rq ue t amb ién p uede s c rl a p e r som f icac ión d c l ad i v imdad e n u na s acc rdo t isa . S u r c lac ión d i rcc ta c on c le d if ic io s ag rado yq ue a n te e l la l a s r c s tan te s f i gu ra s q ue p a r t ic ipan e nl a s c scena s , b i en h agan o f renda s ob i en e s tdn e nl at r ad ic iona l a c t i tud d c s a lu tac ión , i nd ica s i n d uda q ue s et r a ta d c n a f i gu ra d c

f emen ina q ue a pa rece r ep resen tada e n L ai mp ron ta d c C no sso ( F ig .6 ,d ) , v er t iendo u n I qu ido s ob re l o s C ucmo s d c L aC on sag rac ión e n r c lac ión c on u n r ama s ag rada , c s ta r Ia i mp l icando u na L l amada al a s f ue rza s v i v if icado ra s d c l an a tu ra leza , u n r i to d c f c r t i l idad e n

g r an r e levanc ia . S i t r a ta d c l a d io sa , p od r Iamo s s upone r q ue l o s c r e ten sc s h ab Ian p e r som f icado d c a l guna manc ra as u s d e idade s , ye ne s te c a so l o s s ag rado s C uernos p od r Ian s e r u no d c s u s cmb lemas , i den t if icándosc e n

d ef in i t iva . Qu izá r e f le jo d c e sa i mpo r tanc ia e sL af ue r te

c on sccucnc ia l a s c s ta tu i l la s q ue l o s I l evan e n s u s t i a ra s

r c lac ión q ue ,c omo h emo s v i s to ,e x i s te e n t re c ls Imbo lo

c omo i mágene sd cl ad io sa ( Gaz i ,K ann ia ,K a rph i v . g . ) .

s ag rado s ,s eu t i l izan e nl a sc e remon ia s ya b luc ione s q ue s ec e leb raban e ne s ta s i n s ta lac ione s . E ne s te s en t ido , h ay q ue r e co rda rl ai mpo r tanc ia q ue

y

2 59

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

F o r o t ra p a r te , e i s Imbo lo s ag rado a pa rece t amb ién , a unque e n c on tada s o ca s ione s a soc iado c on f i gu ra s ma scu l ina s imp ron ta s Khan ia , Z ak ro s ( F ig .4 ,h ) , C no sso ( F ig .6j ) oe is e l lo d eP y rgo s ( f ig .3 , 1 ) ,l ap i aca d e P sych ro ( F ig .2J) , e ir hy ton d c C no sso ( F ig .4 , d ) , v . g . E s to s p e r sona je s a c tüan c omo o f ic ian te s ob i en e s tán e n p o s ic ión d e s a lu tac ión a n te u na e s t ruc tu ra -

-

.

a rqu i t ec tón ica c o ronado p o re is imbo lo s ag rado ,a unque e ne is e l lo d eP y rgo s e ip e r sona je e s tá s ob re e ie mb lema s ag rado , yl om i smo s ucede e ne ic a so d el ai mp ron ta d e K a s te l l i - Khan ia , l o q ue i mp l icar la q ue a l meno s e n

p ueden h abe r c oex ist ido d e idades d c d i feren te s f unc ione s , p re s id ida s p robab lemen te p o r u n " Ser S up remo" , q ue g ob ierna a l a s r e s tan te s d e idade s f cmen ina s y mascu l ina s , a s I c omo u no s s e re s i n termed ios , c omo l o s d emonios , g en i os y o t ro s a n ima le s m i t ico s q ue t i enen u na p ar t ic ipac ión a c t iva e n l o s d rama s d c c u l to , ye s tán d o tado s d c p ode res c spec ia le s , a unque s uped i tado s al o s d i o se s ,p ue s to q ue l a mayo r Ia d c l a s v ece s f ueron c r eado s p o r e l lo s . R ca l izan t i np ape ld ci n termed ia r io se n t re l o sh omb re s y l o s d ioses , p ero t amb ién p ueden l ega r a s e r c on s idc rado s c omo v crdade ra s f i gu ra s d i v ina s , p o r s u

e s ta s o ca s ione s , l ad e idad a soc iada a ls Imbo lo n o s e r la f emen ina ,s i no m a scu l ina . A s I , n o s e ncon t ramo s a n te d o s h ipo té t ica s d e idade s d c s e xos o pue s to s , a soc iado s a lm ismo e mb lema . S i v o lvemos a c ons ide rar l a s c eremon ia s mág ica s

r e lac ión d c c onf ianza c on c l S er S upremo , op o r e s tab lece r u na r e lac ión d c c on l ianza c on l o s h omb re s . No o b s tan te , n o d ebemo s o l v ida r q ue t odo c lu n ive r so

a na lóg ica s ,n oe scapa an ue s t ra a t cnc ión q ue u no d el o s r i to s d e f e r t i l idad má s y me jo r c onoc ido e s e i q ue c o r re sponde al a s h i erogam ias , o ma t r imon io s d i v ino s d e l D io s" , od e l R ey Sace rdo te c on u na j oven "

má s t a rdc p ueden s e r c l evado s al a c a tcgo r Ia d c d e idade s p ro tcc to ra s ya po t ropa ica s , p a ra l a s q ue s e c rea ran n uevo s c u l to s . A s I , e n c l p an tcón m ino ico

i deo lóg ico q ue c onc ie rnc a l a p e r somf icac ión d c l a p o tenc ia v i ta l ,d cL a s f ue rza s n a tura le s ys ob rena tu ra le s ,

r e y-

t e r rena o al ai nve r sa , p o r s e r l o s r ep resen tan te s d c l a D e idad C e les t ia l y d c l a D iosa d c l a T ier ra r e spec t ivamen te . M .A .S . C ame ron ( 1987 ) h ap l an teado l ah i pö te s is d c q ue c e remon ia s d e e s tc t i po f ue ron l a s

s on c oncep to s q ue t i enden a h ace r se muy d i fu so s , mezc iándo sc yc oex is t iendo u no sc on o t ro s . S in d uda , c lS e r S upremo e s u na o b je t ivac ión d e l p ode rq ue a c tt ia e n e i Un ive r so , od c t oda s l a s f u erza s mág ica s yd c l ap o tenc ia v i ta l , c oncep to s q ue mucha s v ece sc xp re san a !m i smo S e rS up remo . Av ece s s ui d ea i magen s e c onfunde c on l a d e l d io s c e le s t ia l , t r an sformándo se e n u na d e idad s up rcma q ue r i ge y g ob ierna c l Un iver so , l a s d e idades i n fer io re s , l a

q ue s e d e sa r ro l laban e n e i P a t io C en tra l d c C no s so , t e n iendo c omo p un to f o ca ll aC ap i l la T r ipa r t i ta . N o o b s tan te , d ado q ue t a n to s on f i gu ra s f emen ina s c omo ma scu l ina s l a s q ue e s tán r e lac ionada s c on l o s C ue rno s d c L a Con sag rac ión , yq ue e n l o s r i tua lc s a pa ren temcn te t a n to o f ic ian yr e c iben l as a lu tac ión u na s c omo o t ra s , p odemo s p l an tca rno s l ap o s ib i l idad d cq ue l o s C uerno s d c l aC on sag rac ión s can e i emb lema d c

n a tura leza y l o s h omb re s . E n e s ta c oncepc ión p odr Iamo s c ncon t ra r l a r a zón q ue n os e xp l ica ra l a a usenc ia d e l emb lema s ag rado

o t ra d e idad , d c u n d ios o s e r s up remo q ue n o s e p e r son if ica e n u na f i gu ra h umana , s i no q ue u t i l iza emb lcma s p a ra a nunc ia r s up rc senc ia . E l S e rS up remo , omn ip re scn tc yu n ive r sa l , t i cnc e id on d cl au b icu idad y a sume e ip ape l d c c r cado r yc au sa d e l U n ive r so , d cL a s c osa s má s i mpo r tan te s q ue r odean o I c s uceden a l

-

C ue rno s d c l a

Consag rac ión - e n o t ra s muchas r epre sen tac ionc s i conog ra l ica s , y a q ue b i en p odr Ian c o r rc sponde r al a s d e idade s mcd ia s ci n fe r io re s d e l p an teon , d io se s d c a c t iv idad ob i en r ep rcsen tan te s d c c oncep to s a b s t rac to s t a le s c omo f c r t i l idad , n qucza , g ue r ra , e t c . . . , q ue c a s i p odemo s d enom ina r " d io ses d epa r tamen ta les" , e n

h omb re , d c l an a tu ra leza c i rcundan te y d c l o s p rop io s h omb re s . E s c apaz d c d o ta r al o s h omb re s , p l an ta s y a n ima les d c p o tenc ia v i ta l yf ue rza s mág ica s , p e ro t amb ién c omo s e r q ue i n s t i tuye l a s c eremon ia s y r i tua le s q ue a scgu ran l ac x i s tcnc ia d c l aH uman idad y

s en t ido d cq ue s el e s a s ignan f unc ione s e spec ia le s e ne i

d e l mundo q ue l o r odca , p ropo rc ionO a l h omb re l a p o s ib i l idad d c c on t ro la r l o s f cnómeno s n a tu ra le s , oa l

l o s D io se s s imbo i izado e n l o s s ag rado s C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , e s p robab le q ue e s ta s ea l ar a zón q ue

m cno s l a f a cu l tad d c i n f lu ir e n e l lo s , med ian te c so s r i to s . A unque mucha s v ece s e i S e r S upremo n o e s e n s i m i smo o b je to d c c u l to , p r es ide t i np an teón e nc lq ue s e

l im i ta l a p resenc ia d e l e mb lema e n t a n s o lo u no s l uga re s d e te rm inado s , e nc onc re to l o s n üc leo sd cp ode r

i n teg ran l a s r e s tan te s d e idades , mucha s v ece s s u rg ida s c omo c on sccucnc ia d cl ap e r son i f icac ion d cL a s f u e rza s n a tu ra le s , l o s a s t ro s , e t c . . e n d emon ios og en ios , q ue

d o in in io g ene ra l . S i r ea lmen te e s te e squema g enénco p odemo s a p l ica r lo a ls i s tema d c c r eenc ia s m ino ico , c on u n S er S up remo q ue e j e rce e ip ape l d c g obcrnan te , d c R ey d e

p o l i t ico yconóm ico , l o s P a lac io s c r e ten sc s ya que l lo s s an tua r io s n o o lv idemos q ue d c t i po C i ma d c Mon taf ia - p o r t a n to mucho má s c e rca d c l a mo rada d c e se S e r S up remo C e le s t ia l q ue t amb ién t i cnen u na -

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g ra s i mpo r tanc ia . E l h a l lazgo d c p equeno s e j emp la rc s

2 60

C . POYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

p o r tt i le s e na l guno s e d i f ic io sc i v i le s ,s i emp re u n idade s d o rné s t ica s q ue r e f le jan l aj e ra rqu la o s t a tus d c s u s p rop ie ta r io s , n o s h ace s o specha r q ue q u izá e r an é s to s

y a h emo s v i s to a n ter io rmen te , oi n c lu so q ue t a n s o lo a l guno s d c l o s c i en to s d c l a rnake s c ncon t rado s e n c l E geo e s tén d cco rado sc on c ls Imbo lo s ag rado . P o r o t ra pa s te , u n u n ive r so i d eo lóg ico d c e s ta s c a rac ter I s t ica s , p res id ido p o r u n S e r S up remo d c c arác tc r g ene ra l , b ien p udo s c r a dm i t ido p o r o t ra s

p e r sona je s q ue a c tuaban c omo s a ce rdo te s d c l ad e idad s up rema ,c omo p o r tado re sd ec u l to . F o r o t ra p a s te , e s c omün q ue l a s i mágene s d e c u l to , s e a c ua l s ea s u n a tu ra leza y mo r fo log Ia , s e d epo s i ten b a jo t e cho , av ece s e n l uga re s e spec ia le s , t a le s c omo p od r Ian h aber s i do l a s e s tanc ia s s i s temá t icamen te

p ob lac iones , c omp rcnd iendo s u o rgan izac ión y s i gn i f icado e n c l c a so d c mucho s d c l o s p ueb lo s d e l Mcd i ter ráneo O r ien ta l , p ero t amb ién q u izá p o r l a s g en te s q ue o cupaban L aP en in su la I bér ica . D ch echo ,L a s s oc iedadc s c gco -o r ien ta lc s , s umamen te e s ira t i f icada s y o rgan izadas f ác i lmen te p ud ieron a sum ir e sos c on ten ido si d eo lOg ico s ,a dop tando c lm i smo s Imbo lo e n

i d en t if icada s c omo " cap i l la s d omé s t ica s" , e n l a s q ue u na d c l a s e s t ruc tu ra s má s f r ecuen te s s on l o s b anco s c o r r ido s , ob ien e i h a l lazgo d c p equeno s a l ta re s p o r tá t i les ( Gesse l l , 1 985 ) . D e e s ta f orma , l a s r ep re sen tac ione s a n icón ica s d c l ad e idad s up rema , e n f o rma d c p equeno s C uerno s d c l a C on sagrac ion

i m f enómcno d c s i nc re t ismo , f enómeno q ue s i n d uda t amb ién p udo d a r se d c a l guna mane ra e nr e lac ión al a s

p o r tá t i le s , h ab r Ian e s tado b a jo L a c u s tod ia d c l o s p o r tado res d c c u l to , d c l o s s ace rdo tes , b a jo c uya d i recc ión a c tüan e n l a s c e remoma s l o s d evo to s , ye s to s

p ob lac ione sp en in su la rc s . B uena muc s tra d c e l lo s e r la l a a sunc iOn d e l s i gn if icado p o r pa s te d c l a s p ob lac ione s g r iega s

h abr Ian s i do l o s e nca rgado s d c t r anspo r ta r lo s al o s l u ga re sd c c u l to ye j ecu ta rl a s cremoma s , c on c a rác te r p r ivado ,s cm ipüb l ico op t Ib l ico s egün l ao ca s ión . L o s l uga re s d c c u l to d onde s e l eva a c abo l a

c on t inen ta le s ,y aq ue e na l guno sd cs u sp a lac io s d onde r e s ide e ip ode r s e h an e ncon t rado p a re s d c C ue rno s d c l aC on sag rac iOn ( Py lo s , G la , O rchomeno s , v . g . ) -

-

‚

-

p rev is ib lemen te u t i l izado s c on l a m isma i n tenc ión s ef ia l iza r a n te l o s c spec tado re s q ue e n e sc l uga rr e s ide d e l S e r S up remo ,p e ro t amb ién p on iendo d c m an if ie s to -

a do rac ión d c L ad e idad s up rema ,d e l p ode r s uper io r , s e e ncuen t ran a l l I d onde é s ta t i ene s u r e s idenc ia . P o r a na log Ia , c l S er S up remo d ebe r c s id ir e n e ic en t ro d e l

q ue l o s p e r sona je s q ue v iven e n c l p a lac io y q ue

p ode rp o l f t ico ye conóm ico e nc s tc c a so l o s P a lac io s yl ap r e senc ia d cl o s C ue rno s d cl aC on sag rac ión c omo r ema te a rqu i tec tón ico s ena l iza r Ia t a l f enómeno , p e ro c omo t amb ién s e t r a ta d c u na d e idad c e les t ia l , s u mo rada e n L at i c r ra d ebe e s ta r , c omo l ad c o t ro s d io se s a s t ra le s , e nl ac ima d c u na mon taf i a . E n s u v c r t ien te d c " s eño rl an a tu ra leza " p odr Ia s e ra do rado e nl o s l uga re s

g ob ie rnan d esde e i ,l o h acen q u izá e n s u n omb re , d o tado s d e l p ode r m ag ico , d c L ap o tenc ia s ob rcna tu ra l q ue l c sc onf ie re L ap ro tecc iOn d cL ad i v in idad .

e nq ue a c td ac lm ismo ,s o lo oe nu n ion c on l a sd c idade s i n fe r io re s , p o r t a n to e n r e c in to s s ag rado s , b o sque s , m anan t ia les , e t c . . . , p o r l o q ue n o e s d c e x t raf ia r q ue

l o s d c My r thou -P ighadc s ,K i t ion oP a laepapho s , e n l o s q ue l o s a l ta re s d c C uerno s d c l a Con sagrac ión r ep re sen tan au na d e idad q ue t i ene s u s p rop io s r e c in to s d c c u l to , a l m ismo n i ve l p robab lemen te q ue o t ro s

-

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L a f a c i l idad c on q ue s e p ud ic ron a sum ir t o do s l o s p re supue s to s d e l s i s tema d c c r eenc ia s m ino ico e n l o s r e s tan te s á mb i tos d c L a c uenca d e l E geo s e p one d c m an i l ic s to e nl aa pa r ic ión e nC h ip re d cs an tua r io sc omo

t amb ién l o s r e c in to s s ag rado s e nl o s q ue s ee xp l ic i ta l a v ege tac ion , e s tén s ef la l izado s med ian te c le mb lema d c l ad e idad S up rema . F o r o t ra p a r t c , c omo S e rS upremo , e s tá v i ncu lado a t o do s l o s a con tec im icn to s d c l av i da d c l o s h omb re s , t i ene c apac idad ye sd ado rd cl ap o tenc ia yf u e rza v i ta l , n g iendo l o s c i c lo s v i ta le s d c L an a tu ra leza , c i c io s d c

d io se s l o ca le s ; od c p equef ia s " me sa s d co f renda s" c on e im ismo e l emen to s ünbO l ico ( Py la Kokk inok remo s ) c i n c luso d c u n l a rna . r ( D ikhc l ia ) , a unque f a l ten o t ra s mucha s d c l a s t r ad ic iona lc s man ife s tac ione s c r e ten ses , f cnómeno q ue t amb ién s e p roduce e n l a G rec ia m icdn ica . S in d uda , t a l c omo s ef la La M . B u rda jew icz ( 1990 , 1 00 ) , a unque n o s e h an c ncon t rado C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac iOn e n mucho s l uga re s d cc u l to d cl ac uenca

r cnovac iOn d c l a v ida , d c l a v ida y d c l a mue r te e n d e f in i t iva . P roc reac ión y mue r tc e s tán e s t rcchamcn te l i gado s ,p o rt a n to ,L ap re sdnc ia d e l e mb lema s ag rado e n l o s r i tua le s yc e rcmon ia s r e la c ionado s c on l a mue r tc n o

d e l E geo , e l lo n o r ep re sen ta m á s q ue d i fe renc iac ione s i n terna s o v ar iab i l idad e n l a s man ifestac iones ma te r ia le s d e l s i s tema d c c r eenc ia s e geo . E ne ic a so d c l o s h a l lazgo s c h ip r io ta s , m icdn ico s oc i c lád ico s , l o s c on tac to s c u l tu ra le s yc ome rc ia le s c on C re ta c s tán a t es t iguado s p o r o t ras v I a s , p e ro e s má s d i f Ic i l e s tab lece r l ac onex iOn c on Ana to l ia , a unque e n e s tc

p uede e xc lu ir se , e s tando s u p re scnc ia r e s tnng ida t amb ién ac i rcun s tanc ia s e xcepc iona les , l im i tándo se e l d erccho a p o sccr s u emb lema a d e term inados i n d iv iduo s omonumen to s f une r ar io s , l oq ue c xp l ica r Ia L a c sca sa f r ccucnc ia c on q ue l o s C uerno s d c L a C on sag rac ión s e e ncucn t ran e xen to s e n t umba s , c omo

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c a so i n c lu so p odr Iamo s p l an tea rno sl ap o s ibi idad d eu n r e su rg im ien to d e l o s s i s tema s d e c reenc ia s yd c s u s m an ife s tac ion e si c onog ráf ica s . S in e mba rgo , ms a l lá d e lE geo ,e nI s r ae l ,t amb ién s e h an e ncon t rado a lgunos " a l tare s c on C uernos" ( Aha ron i , 1 976 ) , d e l t i po d e l a pa rec ido e n T e l B ee r -sheba , e n e i N egeb , y q u iza e n T e i l - Q a s i le ( Bu rda jew icz , 1 990 , 9 9 ) , a unque s e t r a ta d e u na s e s t ruc tu ra s c uad rada s , d c mampo s te r Ia q ue l evan c ua t ro p royecc ione s ,u na e n c ada e squ ina , e n f o rma d c C ue rno s , s epa rándo se s i n d uda d e l mode lo c geo y c h ipno ta . S in emba rgo , e s tos h a i lazgo s i s rae l i ta s a s I c omo l a s r e f e renc ia s q ue e x is ten e nl aB ib l ia ( Lev I t ico 9 , 9 1 ,R eye s , 2 ,28 v . g .) r eve lan q ue e x is te u n c i e r to g rado d cs im i l iL u d e n t re l a s man i f es tac ione s s imböl ica s e n o b je to s e spec i f ico s u t il izado s p o r g rupo s c u l tu ra le s muy d i fe ren te s ,a unque n op odamo s i l ega r ad e te rm ina r

l aE dad d e l B ronce , i n c lu so e n a que l lo s d o s C e r ro d c l a E can tada y E l O f ic io d onde s e h an c ncon t rado s endo s a l ta re s d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión . S in emba rgo , e n e iC omp le jo 7d e l C e r ro d c l aE ncan tada , -

-

n o s o lamen te c x is te c omo e v idenc ia c l m enc ionado a l ta r , s i no q ue o t ro s c l emen to s d c l ap a raf erna l ia d c c u l to e s tán t amb ién p re sen te s ( N ie to G a l lo , S anchez Mc segue r , 1 980 ; S anchez Mesegue r e t AL . , 1 984 , 1 985 ) , d e s tacando s ob re t o do l o s v a sos d e l i bac idn ,e n e s te c a so c opa s d i spo s i t ivo s p a ra l I qu ido s , c omo l a s p i le ta s q ue s ee ncuen t r an i n c lu ida s e n e ib anco c o r r ido , -

g rande sv a so sd ca lmacenam ien to yo t ro sm á sp equef io s q ue p ud ie ron u t i l iza r se c omo a j ua r d omé s t ico p a ra l o s b anque te sr i tua le s ,e t c . .po rl oq ue l a s a na log Ia s a un s on mayo re s d c l oq ue i n ic ia lmen te p uede s upone r se . P o r o t ra p a r te , e n e i y ac im ien to a rgár ico d c E l O f ic io ,

h a s ta q ue p un to e x is ten s eme jan7a s e n l o s s i s tema s d c

a dcmá s d c l ap rc senc ia d c u n a l ta r d c C ue rno s d c l a C on sag rac ión , s e ha s d e tec tado l ap re scnc ia d c u no s

c r eenc ia s . S in d uda , l a s s oc iedade s d e l B ronce A rgá r ico y e i

s a rco fago s d c p i cd ra ( Le ira J imenez , 1 987 ) d c f o rma o va l , ü n ico s p o r e l momen to e n l aP en in su la I bé r ica y

B ronce d c Mancha d eb ie ron t e ue ru na c oncepc ione s e n l ae s f e ra d cl o si d eo lóg ico ,u ns i s tema d ec r cdnc ia s q ue

q ue c on t r ibuyen ar ep lan tea r c l t i po d c c on tac tos q ue p ud iera h abe r h ab ido e n tre e s te e x t remo d e l Med i tenáneo yl a s p ob lac ione s d e l E geo ,c on tac to s q ue a l menos a pa ren temen te s on má s f ue r te s an ive l

b ás icamen tc n o d eb la s e r muy d i fe ren tes d e l q ue p o se Ian o t ro sp ueb lo sd e l Mcd i tcf f áneo ,a unque n o sh an d e ja do man ife s tac iones s imbó l ica s e spec if icada s e n a lgün t i po d c o b je to , c on l a e xcepc ión d c l o s d o s A l ta re sd cC ue rno sd cl aC on sag rac ión aq ue n o sh emo s r e fe r ido , h a l lado s e n E l O f ic io y e n l a E ncan tada . Qu izá , n o s e ncon t ramo s a n te u n f enómeno s im i la r a l q ue s e d e tec ta e n c lc a so d c l o s h a l iazgo s i s rae l i ta s , y s imp lemen te s e t r a ta d c u n f enómeno d c c onvc rgenc ia q ue h al evado al au t i l izac ión d e l m ismo c mb lema p o r c am ino s d i f e ren te s . S in e mba rgo , n o h ay d uda d c q ue t amb ién p odemo s p l an tearno s l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue h aya h ab ido a l gün t i po d c c on tac to e n l a s e s fe ra d c l o i deo lóg ico , p o r l o q ue p re supon iendo q ue l a s g en te s p en in su la re s t u v ie ran i m s i s tema d c c r ecnc ia s n o muy a l e jado d e l mode lo g enera l d c l a s s oc iedades j e ra rqu izada s c omp le ja s , c on u n S up remo , n o s e r la

i d eo lóg ico q ue ma te r ia l . S in e mba rgo t odo e l lo n o e xp l ica c ómo y e n q ue f o rma s ep rodu jo l at r an s in i s ión d e lh echo c u l tura l h a s ta l a P en In su la I bé r ica , a unque p odemo s s uponc r q ue e x is t ió a lgün t i po d c c on tac to at r avé s d c l o s c i rcu i to s c omerc ia lc s d e l Med i te r ráneo . S i b ien d c e s ta s r e lac ione s , a l meno s d e sde e i p un to v i s ta ma te r ia l a pena sn o sh an q uedado r e s to se n t re l o sm a te r ia le sd cl a E dad d e l B ronce , d e sde c l p un to d c v i s ta d c l o s i deo lóg ico , q u iza c l s i nc re t i smo d c l o s s i s tema s d c c r eenc ia p ueda a cep tar se t amb ién c omo u na e v idenc ia d ce so sc on tac to s .

d i f Ic i l , q ue p ud ie ran a cep tar c omo e mb lema d c s u p rop ia d e idad u na o b je to c spec If ico , c onoc ido y c omp ren s ib le p a ra u na g ran p a r te d c l o s p ueb lo s med i ter ráneo s y , a paren temen te , t amb idn a lguno s p róx imo -o r ien ta lc s . No o b s tan te , c l mecan ismo d c t r an sm is ión d c l o s s i s tema s d c c r eenc ia s ys u s m an if es tac iones , d c u n e x t remo a l o t ro d e l Med i te r ráneo n o p odemo s d e tec ta r lo s o lamen te a p a r t ir d c l o s e sca so s r e s to s ma te r ia le s q ue s eh an c on servado , ai ma dm i t iendo q ue l a s i dea s v i a jan má s d ep r isa q ue l o s a r tefac to s ma te r ia le s . S igue s i endo u no b s tácu lo l af a l ta d cr e s to s d c c u i tu ra ma te r ia l e n l o s y ac im ien to s p en in su la rc s d c

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B IB UOGRAF IA AHARON I ,Y . 1 976 . "No th ing E a r ly a nd No th ing L a t eR ewr i t ing I s rae l ' sC onque s t " ,B A3 9 ,p p . 5 5y s . ABRAMOV ITZ ,K . 1 980 . " F re scoe sf r om Ay ia h im ,K eo s . P a r t s1 1V" , H e spe r ia 4 9 ,p p . 5 7y s . ALEX IOU ,S .( s .f . ) . Ag u ide t ot h eM inoan P a lace s . K no s so s -Phae s tos - Ma l l ia . H e racion ,C re ta . A STROM ,P . 1 972 . T he S wed ish C ypru sE xped i t ion s . A rch i tec tu r ea nd P o t te ry ,V o l . IV ,P a r tC .E s toco lmo . BANT I ,L . 1 94 1 43 . " IC u l t iM ino ic i eG rec id iH agh ia T nada ( C re ta )" ,A .S . A tene 1 9 -21 ,p p . 9y s . BER ME JO BARRERA ,J .C . 1 988 . " Zeu s ,H e ra ye i ma t r imon io s ag rado " ,P o l i s1 ,p p . 7ys . BETANCOURT , P. P . 1 985 . T he H i s tory o ft h eM inoan P o t ter y , P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re ss ,P r ince ton ,N .J e r sey . BLEGEN ,C .W . 1 961 . " The P a lace o fN e s to r . E xcava t ion so f1 960 . P a r tI " , A lA 6 5 ,p p . 1 54y s . BLEGEN , C .W . y RA WSON , M . 1 966 . T he P a lace o fN e s tor a tP y los i n We s tern Mes sen ia . V o l .] . B u i ld ings a nd t h e ir c on tex t s . P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,P r ince ton ,N .J e r sey . BLEGEN ,C .W . e ia l . 1 973 . T he P a lace o fN e s tor a tP y los i nW e s te rn Me s sen ia .i I . L ondr e s . BOSANQUE I ' ,R .C . 1 901 -0 2 . " Excava t ion sa tP a la ika s t ro" , ABSA . V I I ! ,p p .2 86 ys . 1 902 -03 " Excava t ion s a tP a la ika s t ro 1 " , ABSA .I X ,p p .274 ys . BRAN IGAN ,K . 1 981 . "M inoan c o lon ia l ism " , ABSA 7 6 ,p p .23 ys . BUCHHOLZ ,H .G . 1 980 . " The p rob lem o fM inoan r e la t ion s w i th t h e We s ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eL a te B ronze A ge" , TUAS 5 ,p p .4 45 ys . BUCHHOLZ , H .G . y KARAGEORGH IS , V . 1 973 . P reh i s tor ic G reece a nd C ypru s . A n A rchaeo log ica l Handbook , P ha idon ,L ondr e s . BURDA JE W ICZ ,M . 1 990 . T he A egean S ea P eop le sa nd R e l ig iou sA rch i tec ture i nt h eE a s te rn Med i ter ranean a tt h e c l o se o ft h eL a te B ron ze A ge , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s5 58 . CAMERON ,M .S .A . 1 970 . " New R e s to ra t ion so fM inoan F re scoe sf r om K no sso s" , B /CS 1 7 ,p p . 1 63 ys . 1 987 . " The " pa la t ia l" t h ema t ic s y s tem i nt h eK no sso s mu ra l s" ,e nR .Hagg yN . Mar ina tos ,E d s . , 1 987 ,p p . 3 20 ys . CASSELL I ,G . 1 986 . L a sp r ime ro sc i v i l i zac ione s .E d . G ene ra le s A naya ,C o l . " La v i da e ne ip a sado " , Mad r id . CASSOLA - G I . J IDA , P . 1 973 . L e A rm i d if ens ive d e i M icene i n e l le f i guraz ion i . I ncunabu la G raeca LV I , E d . d e l l 'A teneo ,R oma . C ATALOGO d e l a E xpos ic ión d e l Me tropo l i tan Mu seum o fA r t 1 980 :" Greek A r t i n t h e A egean I s land s " , T he Me t ropo l i tan Mu seum o fA r t ,N ew Yo rk . CATALOGO d el aE xpos ic iön d e l Mu seo A rqueo lóg ico N ac iona !d e Mad r id 1 992: " E l Mundo M icén ico . C inco s i g los d e l ap r imera C iv i l i zac iOn E uropea . 1 600 - 100 a .C ." , M in is te r io d e C u l tu ra , M in is t e r io d e C u l tu ra d e G rec ia , Mad r id . CHAD W ICK ,J .1 977 .E l Mundo M icén ico , A l ianza U n ive r s idad , Mad r id . C lL AO , M .B . 1 975 . " Pe r spec t ive s o n t h e r e l ig ion o f P reh is to r ic C re te . A c te s d u S ympos ium I n terna t iona l s ur l e s R e l ig ion sd el aP reh i s to ire , V a lcamon ica S ympos ium ' 7 2 .C ape d i Mon t e ,E d .d e lC en t ro ,p p . 2 21 ys . C F IAPOUT IER ,F . 1 946 ."La g lyp t ique c r e to ise et l ac on t inu i td d el ac i v i l i sa t ion m inoenne " , BCH 7 0 , pp . 7 8y s . CHARLES ,R .P . " P rob lème sd eC h rono log ie M&l i te r r anéenne " , CLPA 1 2 ,2 ,p p . 1 81 ys . CLERC ,G . yKARAGEORG I -IS ,V . e tA l . 1 976 . F ou i l le sd eK i t ion . L e so b jec t se gyp t iénne se te gyp t ic ien te s . D p t . o f A n t iqu i ty sR epub l ic o fC yp ru s ,N ico s ia . COLE MAN ,K . 1 973 . " F re scoe sf r om A y ia I r uu , Keo s ,P a r tI " ,H espe r ia 4 2 ,p p . 2 84 ys . DAUX ,G . 1 960 . " Ch ron ique d e sF ou i l le se td dcouve r t e sa r cheo log ique se nG reece " , BCH . LXXX !V .p p . 6 17 ys . 1 967 " Ch ron ique d e sF ou i l le se td écouve r te sa r chéo log ique se nG reece e n 1 966 " , BCH .9 1 ,p p . 6 23 ys . DAVARAS ,C . ( s .f . ) . M inoan A r ti nt h eH e rak l ion Mu seum . E d .H ann iba l ,A tena s . 1 98 1 . ' ‚ Th ree n ew L inea r AL iba t ion V e sse l sf r agmen t sf r om P e tsopha s" ,K admos XX , 1 ,p p .

1ys .

DAV IS , E .N . 1 987 . " The K no sso s M in ia tu re F re scoe s a nd t h e f unc t ion o f t h e C en t ra l C our t s" , e n R . H agg y N . Ma r ina to s , E d s . ,p p . 1 57 ys . DA WK INS ,R .M . 1 903 -04 . " Excava t ion sa tP a la ika s t ro I I" , ABSA .X ,p p . 1 92y s . 1 905 -06 . " Excava t ion sa tP a la ika s t ro V " , A BSA .X I I ,p p . 1ys . DA WK INS ,R .M . , HA WES ,C .H . , yBOSANQUET ,R .C . 1 904 -05 . " Excava t ion s a tP a la ika s t ro I V" , A BSA 1 ,p p . 2 58 . ys DEC I LELEF IE ,J .1 924 . Manue ld 'Archéo log ie P reh i s ior ique e iG a b- R oma ine ,T .I ,

p p .

8 1 ys . ,P a r is .

DEONNA ,W . 1 934 . " Mob i l ie rd e l ien" , BCH 5 8 ,p p . 1 8 1 ys . DESBOROUGH , V .R . d 'A . 1 966 . T he l a s t Mycenaean s a nd t h e ir s ucce s sor s . A n A rchaeo log ica l S urvey c .1 200 -

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c . J( XX )B .C . ,C la rendon P r e s s ,O xfo rd . D IA MANT ,S . , yRUTTER ,J .1 969 . " Hor n ed Ob jec t si nA na to l ia a nd t h eN ea rE a s ta nd p o ss ib le c onnec t ion s w i th t h e M inoan Ho rn so fC on sag ra t ion " , A S1 9 ,p p . 1 47 ys . D ICK INSON ,O .T .P .K . 1 977 . T he O r ig ins o f Mycenaean C iv i l i za t ion , S I MA XUX ,G o tebo rg . D IKA IOS ,P . 1 969 .E nkom i .E x cava t ions 1 948 1 958 . Vo l . 1 .E d . P .v on Z abe rn , Ma inz a mR he in . 1 97 1 E n /wm i . E x cava t ion s 1 948 - 1 958 . V o l . 1 1 .E d . P .v on Z abe rn , Ma inz a mR he im . -

DO I J MAS ,C . 1 983 . T hera .P ompe i io ft h eA nc ien tA egean . T hame s & Hud son ,L ond re s . EDEY , M .A . 1 976 . L as p r imeras c u l turas d e G rec ia , T ime -L ife I n te rna t iona l C o l . " Or Igene s d e l Homb re" , .

N ede r land ( 1 3V .) . EH 'ENTERRE , H . yM . v an 1 969 . F ou i l le se xecu tée s aMa l l ia . L ec en t re P o l i t ique 1 .L 'Agora ( 1960 - 1 966 ) . E tude s C re to ise s XV I I ,P a r i s . 1 972 . CM S ,B and I X ,B e r l in . EVANS ,A . 1 901 . " Mycenaean t r ee a nd P i l la rC u l ta nd i t s Med i te r ranean r e la t ion s" , JHS 2 1 ,p p . 9 9y s . 1 905 . 'T h eP reh i s to r ic T omb sa t Kno s so s" ,A rchaeo log ia L IX ,p p .3 91 ys . 1 914 . ' The " Tomb o ft h eD oub le Axe s" a nd a s soc ia ted g roup ,a nd t h eP i l la rR oom sa nd R i tua l V es se l s o ft h e L i t t le P a lace " ,A rchaeo log ia LXV ,p p . 1ys . 1 964 . T he P o lare o fM inos 1 1V . B ib lo & T annen , Nueva Y o rk . EVELY ,D . 1 976 . " Aq ues t ion o fi d en t i ty i nt h eN o r th E n t rance P a ssage a tK no s so s" , ABSA 7 1, pp . 5 7 ys . F RASER . P .M . 1 969 -70 . "A rchaeo logy i nG reece 1 969 -7 0" ,AR 19 69 -70 ,p p . 2 7 ys . F RENCH ,E . 1 981 . " Cu l tP lace sa t Myceanae " ,e n R . Hagg yN . Ma r ina to s ,E d s . ,p p . 4 1 ys . F RENCH , E .B . yW ARDLE , K .A . . E d s . 1 988 . P rob lem s i nG reek P reh i s tory . P ape r sp re sen ted a t t h e C en tenary C onf e rence o ft h eB r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy a tA thens , Manche s te r , A pr i l1 986 ,B r i s to l C la s s ica l P re ss ,G rea t B r i ta in . GARC IA BELL IDO ,A . 1 948 . H i span ia G raeca .I n s t i tu to E spaf io l d eE s tud io s Med i te r ráneo s ,B a rce lona . GEORG IOU ,H . S . 1 979 " La te M inoan I n cen se B urne r s" ,A JA 8 3 ,p p . 4 2 ' 7y s . GES S ELL ,G .C . 1 976 . ' The M inoan S nake T ube: A S u rvey a nd C a ta logue " ,A JA .8 0 ,p p . 2 47y s . 1 985 . T own , P a lace a nd H ou se C u l ti nM inoan C re te . S I MA LXV I I ,G o tebo rg . G ILL ,M . 1 965 . 'T h e Kno sso sS ea l ing s :p rovenance a nd i d en t if ica t ion " , A BSA 6 0 ,p p . 5 8 ys . G JERSTAD ,E . e tA l . 1 935 . T he S wed i sh C yp ru sE xped i t ion s .I . ,E s toco lmo . GRAHA M ,J .W . 1 970 . " Egyp t ian F ea tu re sa tP ha is to s" ,A JA 7 4 ,p p . 2 31 ys . 1 972 . T he P a lace so fC re te . P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,N .Je r sey . GUTHR IE , W .K .C . 1 96 1 . ' The R e l ig ion a nd My tho logy o ft h e G reek s" , C AH I / I l , C ap .XL , C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . HAGG , R . 1 987 . " On t h er econ s t ruc t ion o ft h e We s tF acade o ft h eP a lace a t Kno sso s " ,e n R . Hagg yN . Mar ina tos , E d s . ,p p . 1 29y s . HAGG ,R . yMAR INATOS ,N . ,E d s . 1 981 . S anc tua ire sa nd C u l ts i nt h eA egean B ron ze A ge .P roceed ings o ft h eF i r s t I n te rna t iona l S ympo s ium a t t h e S wed i sh I n s t i tu te i nA then s , 1 2 -13 May , 1 980 . S k r if te r U tg ivna a v S ven ska I n s t i tu te t IA then ,4 , XXV I I I ,E s toco lmo . 1 987 . T he F unc t ion o ft h e M inoan P a lace s . P roceed ings o ft h e F our th I n terna t iona l S ympos ium a t t h e S wed ish I n s t i tu te i nA then s , 1 0 -16 J une , 1 984 . S k r if te rU tg ivna a v S ven ska I n s t i tu t e t IA then s4 , XXXV ,E s toco lmo . i IAGG ,R . yS IEUR JN ,F . 1 982 . " On t h eO r ig in o ft h e Wooden C o f f in i nL a te B ronze A ge C re te " , ABSA 7 7 ,p p . 1 77y s . HALBHERR , F . , S TEFAN T , E . yBANT I , L . 1 980 . Hagh ia T r iada n e l P e r iodo T a rdo P a la z ia le . A .S .A . A tenc L V , R oma . HALL , E .H . 1 912 . E xcava t ion s i n E a s tern C re te . S phoungara s . Un ive r s i ty o f P enn sy lvan ia , T he Museum A n th ropo log ica lP ub l ica t ion s1 1 ,2 ,F i ladel ia . HALLAGER , E . 1 985 . T he Ma s ter I mpre ss ion . Ac l ay - s ea l ing f rom t h e G reek - S wed i sh E xcava t ion s a t K a s ie l l i , K han ia . S I MA 6 9 , Go tebo rg . HA WKE SM ITH ,C .F . 1 976 . " Th e Kno s so sF r e scoe s: ar e v i sed C hrono logy " , ABSA 7 1 ,p p . 6 5y s . F IA WKES ,J .1 974 . A t la so fA nc ien tA rchaeo logy . HAZZ IDAK IS ,J .1 934 . L e s V i l le sM inoenne sd eT y l is so s . E tude sC re to ise sI l ,P a r i s . HOOD , M .S .F . 1 977 . "M inoan T own - S h r ine s ?", e n K .H . K ind E d: G reece a nd t h e E as tern Med i ter ranean i n A nc ien tH i s tory a nd P reh i s tory. S tud ie sp re sen ted t oF .S chache rme yr o nt h eo ca s s ion o fh i se i gh t ie th b i r thday ,W .

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d eG ruy te r ,N . Yo rk ,p p . 1 58 ys . HOGARTH ,D .G . 1 899 -1900 . 'T he D ic taean C ave" ,ABSA 6 , p p . 9 4y s . 1 902 . " The Z ak ro S ca l ing s" , JHS 2 2 ,p p . 8 0 ys . HUTC FINSON ,R .W . 1 954 . ' The K ann ia le -T ekke T omb s" , ABSA X L IX ,p p . 2 15y s . 1 978 . L aC re la P re sh i s tó r ica . B rev iano sd e lF .C .E . , Mé j ico . KANTA , K . 1 980 . T he L a te M inoan I I P er iod i nC re te A S urvey o fs i te s ,p o t te ry a nd t h e ir d i s tr ibu t ion . S I MA LX I I I ,G o tebo rg . KARAGEORGH IS , V . 1 973 . " Con t r ibu t ion t ot h eR e l ig ion o fC yp ru si nt h e 1 3 th . a nd 1 2t h . c en tu r ie s B .C ." , A c t s o f t h eA rchaeo log ica lS ympos ium " T he Mycenaean si nt h eE as te r Med i te rranean" ,N ico s ia ,p p . 1 0 5s . 1 976 . K i t ion . Mycenaean a nd P hoen ic ian D i scover ie si nC ypru s .T hame s &H ud son ,L ond re s . 1 982 . C ypru s . F rom t h eS t one A ge t ot h eR omans .T hame s &H ud son ,L ond re s . KARETSOU ,A . 1 981 . ' The P eak S anc tua ry o fM t . J ouk ta s" ,e n R . Hagg yN . Ma r ina tos E d . s . 1 981 ,p p . 1 37 ys . KARETSOU , A . , GODART , J .L . y OL IV IER , J . -P . 1 985 . " I n sc r ip t ion s e n L inea ire A d u S anc tua ire s u S omme t m inoen d u Mon tI ouk ta s" ,K admo s XX IV ,2 , pp. 8 9 ys . KENNA , V .E .G . 1 967 . CMS ,B and V I I ,B e r l in . K INLZ ,K .H . , E d . 1 977 . G reece a nd E a s te rn Med i te rranean i nA nc ien tH i s tory a nd P reh i s tory . S tud ie sp re sen ted t o F .S chachermeyr o nt h eo cca s ion o fh i se i gh t ie th b i r thday , E d .W .d eG ruy te r ,N .Yo rk . KOEHL ,R .B . 1 981 . "T h ef unc t ion so fB ronze Age R hy ta " ,e nR . Hagg yN . Mar ina tos , E d s . , 1 981 ,p p . 1 79 ys . LA MB ,W . 1 937 . " Excava t ion sa tK u su ra ,n ea rA fyon K a rah i sa r " , A rchaeo log ia 8 6 ,p p . 1ys . 1 956 . " Some E a r ly Ana to l ian S h r ine s" , AS 6 ,p p . 8 7 ys . LEBESS I , A . y MUI ILY , P . 1 990 . " Aspec t s o f M inoan C u l t . S ac red E nc lo su re s . T he e v idence f r om t h e S yme -

S anc tua ry ( C re t e ) " , A A1 990 ,p p .3 15 ys . LE IRA J IMENEZ ,R . 1 987 . " E ly ac im ien to a r gá r ico d eE lO f ic io ,C ueva s ( A lme r ia )" , T P4 4 ,

p p .

2 01 ys .

L EV I ,D . 1 925 -26 . " Le c r e tu le d iH agh ia T r iada ed iZ ak ro " ,A .S .A tene V I I I IX ,p p . 7 1 ys . 1 927 -2 9 . "A rkades . U na c i t tá c r e te se a l?a lba d e l la c i v i l tá e l lemca " ,A .S .A tene X -X I I ,p p . 6 34 . 1 964 . T he r ecen tE xcava t ion sa tP ha is tos ,S I MA X I ,L und . LONG , C h . 1 974 . T he A y ia T r iadha S a rcophagu s . As t udy o fL a te M inoan a nd Mycenaean f unerary p rac t ice s a nd b e l ief s . S I MA XV I , Go tebo rg . LOULLOUP IS ,M . 1 973 . " Mycenaean " Ho rn so fC on sag ra t ion "i nC ypru s" . A c te so ft h ei n terna t iona lA rchaeo log ica l S ympos ium " The Mycenaeans i nt h eE as te rn Med i te r ranean" ,N ico s ia ,p p .2 25 ys . LULL , V . y E STEVEZ , J .1 986 . " P ropue s ta p a ra e ie s tud io d e l a s n ec rópo l is a rgá r ica s" , H omena je a L u i s S i re t , C on se je r la d cC u l tu ra d el aJ un ta d cA nda luc i a ,D i recc ión G ene ra ld cB e l la sA r te , Mad r id ,p p . 4 4 1 ys . LLOYD , S . 1 972 . B eyce su l tan . I i i , P a r t 1 .0 cc . P ub l ica t ion s o ft h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o f Anka ra 1 , L ond re s . LLOYD , S . y MELLAART , J . 1 962 . B eyce su l tan . V o l . 1 .T he C ha lco l i th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze A ge l e ve l s . 0 cc . P ub l ica t ion so ft h eB r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy a tA nka ra 6 . MA IER ,F .G . 1 979 . " The P aph ian S h r ine o f Aph rod i te a nd C re te" ,A c te s o fI n te rna t iona lA rchaeo log ica lS ympos ium " The r e la t ions b e tween C yp ru sa nd C re te c a. 2C K )O -5 00 B .C . N ico s ia ,p p . 2 28 ys . MAR INATOS ,S . 1 959 .K re ta u nd d a s Myken i sche H e l las ,H i rme rV e r lag , Mun ich . ",

1 969 . E xcava t ions a tT he ra i , BAAEA 1 969 . 1 97 1 . " Les e géenne se tl e sl i e sg ymne s ienne s" , BCH 9 5 ,p p . 5ys . 1 973 . K re ta , T hera u nd d a s Myken i sche H e l lo s . 1 974 . E xcava t ion sa tT he ra V I , BAAEA 1 974 . MAR INATOS ,N . 1 984 a .A r ta nd R e l ig ion i nT he ra .R econ s truc t ing aB ron ze A ge s oc ie ty . A tena s . 1 984 b . "M inoan T h re ske ioc racy o nT he ra " ,e nR . Hagg yN . Ma r ina tos ,E d s . , 1 984 ,p p . 1 67 ys . 1 986 .M inoan s acr if i c ia lr i tua l . C u l tp rac t ice a nd S ymbo l ims . S k r i f te rU tg ivna a v S ven ska I n s t i tu te t iA then 8 , IX , E s toco lmo . 1 987 . " Pub l ic F e s t iva ls i nt h e We s tC ou r t so ft h eP a lace s" ,e nR . Hagg yN . Ma r ina to sE d s . ,p p . 1 35 ys . 1 988 . ' ‚ The f r e sco f r om R oom 3 1 a t Mycenae: P rob lem s o f me thod a nd i n te rp re ta t ion" , e n E .B . F rench y K .A . Wa rd le , E d s . 1 988 ,B r is to lC la s s ica lP re ss ,p p . 2 45 ys . MA IUR I ,A . , 1 926 . " J a l isso s" ,A .S .A tene V i -V I I , 1 923 -24 ,p p . 1 31 ys . MAVR IYANNAK I ,C . 1 972 . R eche rche ss ur l e sL arnake sm inoenne s d e l aC re te O r ien ta le I ncunabu la G raeca L I I I , R oma .

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MATZ . F .1 956 .K re ta , Mykene , T ro ja .D ie M ino i sche u nd d i eH ome r L sche We l t , S tu t tga r t . McENROE ,J .1 982 . " AT ypo loy o fM inoan N eopa la t ia lH ou se s" ,A JA 8 6 ,p p . 3y s . M IEE ,C . 1 982 . R hode si nt h eB ron ze A ge .A nA rchaeo log ica lS urvey . At i s &P h i l l ip sL td , Wa rm in s te r . M ICHA IL IDOU ,A . 1 98 1 . C no s so s .G u id ed e ta i l le d uP a la is d eM ino s . E kdo t ike A thenon ,S .A . ,A tena s . M ICHAUD ,J . P . 1 972 . " Ch ron ique d e sf ou i l le se td écouve r te sa r chéo log ique se nG reece e n 1 971" , BCH 9 6 ,p p .8 05 y s . MORGAN , L . 1 985 . " I dea , I d iom a nd I conog raphy " , e n " L ' Iconograph ie M inoenne , A c te s d e l a T ab le R onde d' A thene s( 2 1 -22 A v r i l , 1 983 ) ,É co le F rança i se d 'A th ene s ,P a r is ,p p . 5 ys . 1 988 . T he M in ia tu re Wa l lP a in t ings o fT hera . AS tudy i nA egean C u l ture a nd I conography . C amb r idge C la s s ica l S tud ie s ,C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,C amb r idge . MOUNTJOY , P .A . 1 985 . " R i tua l a s soc ia t ion s f o r LM l B S ty le V a se s" , e n " L ' Iconograph ie M inoenne" , B .C .H . S upp iX i ,É co le F ranca ise d 'A thene s ,P a r i s ,p p . 2 31 ys . MÜLLER KARPE ,H . 1 973 . H andbüch d er V orge sch ic lue .B and I I , 1 3 . Mun ich . 1 980 . Handbüch d e r V orge sch ich te .B and I V , 1 -3 . Mun ich . MYLONAS ,G . 1 957 . A nc ien t Mycenae , T he C ap i ta lC i ty o fA gamenon ,P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,P r ince ton . 1 966 . Mycenae a nd t h e Mycenaean A ge ,P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,P r ince ton . 1 972 . T he C u l tC en ter o f Mycenae , TAA 3 3 . 1 973 . " Con t r ibu t ion t o t h e r e l ig ion o f t h e A chaean s" , A c t s o f t h e I n terna t iona l A rchaeo log ica l S ympos ium " M ycenaeans i nt h eE a s tern Med i ter ranean" ,N ico s ia ,p p . 1 0 1 ys . 1 975 . " New e v idence o n Mycenaean R e l ig ion: t h eL a te B ronze A ge S h r ine s a nd A l ta r s o f Mycenae C .1 300 - 1 200 B .C ." ,A c te sd uS ympos ium I n te rna t iona ls ur l e sR e l ig ion sd el aP reh i s to i re , V a lcamon ica S ympos ium ' 7 2 ,C apo d i Mon te ,E d . d e lC en t ro ,p p . 2 43 ys . N IETO GALLO ,G . yS ANCHEZ MESEGUER ,J .1 980 . E lC er ro d eL aE ncan tada , EAE 13 , Mad r id . 1 98 3 . " Excavac ione se ne ic e r ro d eL aE ncan tada ( G raná tu la d eC a la t rava )" , NAH 1 7 ,p p . 9ys . PAPADAK IS ,N . 1 983 . S i t ia , S i t ia . PAR IBEN I ,R . 1 908 . " I i s a rcophago d ip in to d i Ay ia T r iada " , Monum .An t ich iX IX , p p . 5 ys . P ERSSON ,A .W . 1 942 . " New T omb s a tD end ra ,M idea " , A c ta R eg .Soc ie tw i Humanorum L i t ter L undens i s XXX IV p p . 5 9ys s . P EATF IELD ,A .A .D . 1 983 . ' The T opog raphy o ft h eM inoan P eak S anc tua r ie s" , ABSA 7 8 ,p p . 2 73 ys . P ENDLEB IJRY ,J .D .S .1 938 . " Excava t ion sa tt h eP l a in o fL a s i th i . I I .K a rphy" , ABSA 3 0 ,p p . 1 965 . T he A rchaeo logy o fC re te ,W .W . No r ton & C ompany ,I n c . P ERN IER ,L . yBANT I ,L . 1 95 1 . I lP a la z zo M ino ico d iF e s tos . S cav i es t ud id e l la M i ss ione A rchaeo log ica I t a l iana a C re ta d a !1 900 - 1 950 . V o l . ! ! . 1S econdo P a la zzo ,L aL ib re r ia d e l io S t a to ,R oma P ICARD , C h . 1 948 . L e s r e l ig ions p rehe l len ique s ( Cre te e t Mycenes ) , "MANA" :I n t roduc t ion a l ' H is to i re d e s R e l ig ion s2 . PUF ,P a r is . P IN T ,I .1 975 . CMS ,B and V , 1 ,B e r l in . P LAT - TAYLOR ,J .1 957 . My r tou -P ighade s . AL a te B ron ze A ge S anc tua ry i nC ypru s , A shmo leam Mu seum ,O xfo rd . P LATON ,L . yPARARAS ,Y . 1 99 1 .P ede s ta l led Of e r ing T ab le si nt h eA egean Wor ld ,S i l v iA P ocke t -B ook 1 06 . P LATON ,N . 1 98 1 .L ac i v i l isa t ion e geenne . C o l . L 'Evo lu t ion d eP Human i té ,E d . A lb in M iche l ,P ar i s , 1 981 . P LATON ,N . yP IN T ,I .1 984 . CM S ,B and 1 ,3 ,B e r l in . POPHA M ,M . 1 970a . " A L a te M inoan S h r ine a t Kno s so s" , ABSA 6 5 , p p . 1 9 1 ys . 1 970b " AL a te M inoan S h r ine a t Kno s so s" , MA 3 ,p p . 9 3 ys . 1 970c . " La te M inoan h UB P o t t e ry f r om K no s so s" , ABSA 6 5 ,p p . 1 95y s . 1 973 . " The U nexp lo red Man s ion a tK no s so s :A p re l im ina ry R epo r to nt h eE xcava t ion sf r om 1 967 t o1 972 " ,A R 1 9 , p p .5 0 ys . P OURSAT ,J .C . 1 966 . " Un s anc tua i re d uM inoen Moyen I aMa l l ia " , BCH 9 0 ,p p . 5 14y s . 1 977 a .C a ta logue d e sI v o i re s Mycénn iens d u Mu see N a t iona ld 'A thene s . B .E .F .A .R . . 2 30 ,P a r is . 1 977 b .C a ta logue d es I vo ire s Mycénn ien sd u Mu see N a t iona ld 'A thene s . B .E .F .A .R . . 2 30 b i s ,P a r is . 1 988 . " La V i l la m inoenne d e Ma l ia : R eche rche se tp u l ica t ion sr e cen te s" ,R .Arch . 1 988‚ Fa sc . 1 ,p p . 6 1 ys . POYATO HOLGADO , C . 1 989a . " Luga re s d e C u l to y S an tua r io s d e e poca P o s tpa iac ia l e n l aC re ta M ino ica : u na r e v i s ion c r l t ica " ,C uPA UA MI6 ,p p . 9 7 ys . 1 989b " Ed if ic io s d e Cu i to y p r ác t ica s r e l ig io sa s e n C h ip re d u ran te e iB ronce R ec ien te ( I )" ,E spac io , T z empo F orma , S er ie I ,

H aAn t igua ,

0 1 ,p p . 1 ys .

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y

C .P OYATO HOLGADO yA . VAZQUEZ HOYS

RENFRE W , C . 1 985 . T he A rchaeo logy o fC u l t . T he S anc tuary a tP hy lakopy .T he B r i t ish S choo l o fA rchaeo logy a t A then s ,S upp i . 1 8 ,T hame s & Hudson ,L ond re s . RUTKO WSK I ,B . 1 968 . " O r ig in o ft h eM inoan C o f f in " , ABSA 6 3 ,p p . 2 19y s . 1 979 . " Re l ig iou s a rch i tec tu re i n C yp ru s a nd C re te i n t h e L a te B ronze Age" , A c ts o f t he I n terna t iona l A rchaeo log ica lS ympos ium " The r e la t ions b e tween C yp ru sa nd C re te , c a .2 00) -500 B .C . ,N ico s ia ,p p . 23 ys . 1 98 1 . F rühgr ie sch i sche K u l ida r s te l lungen . M .D .A . I . ,A ten ischen Ab te i lung 8 ,B e r l in . 1 986 . T he C u l tP lace so ft h eA egean . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,N ew H aven -L ond re s . SACKEFT ,L .H . , POPHA M ,M .R . yWARREN ,P .M . 1 965 . " Excava t ion s a tP a la ika s t ro V I" , ABSA 6 0 ,p p .2 48 ys . SAEGER , R .B . 1 912 . E xp lo ra t ions i nt h ei s land o f Moch los . Ame r ican S choo l o fC la s s ica l S tud ie s a tA then s ,B o s ton Nueva Yo rk . SAKELLARAK IS . J .A . yKENNA ,V .F .G . 1 969 . CMS ,B and I V , B e r l in . SAKELLAR IOU ,A . 1 964 . CMS , B and! , B e r l in . SAMB IN ,C . 1 989 . " Gen ie M inoen e tG en ie E gyp t ien " , BCH 13 ,p p .7 7 ys . SANCHEZ MESEGUER ,J .e tA l . 1 984 . " E l O f ic io yl aE ncan tada : d o se j emp lo sd ec u l to e nl aE dad d e lB ronce d cl a P en in su la I b dr ica " , A c ta s XV IC .A .N . ,Z a ragoza ,p p .3 83 ys . 1 985 . " E l " A l ta rd eC ue rno s" d eL aE ncan tada ys u sp a ra le lo so r ien ta le s" , O re tum 1 ,p p . 1 25 ys . SAPOUNA - SAKELLARAK I ,E . 1 990 . " A rchanè sa 1 ' dpoque Mycén ienne " , BCH 14 , p p . 6 7 ys . SHAW ,J .W . 1 978 . " Ev idence f o rt h eM inoan T r ipa r t i te S h r ine " , A JA 8 2 ,p p .4 30 ys . 1 984 . " Ay ia T r iada: A N ew P e r spec t ive o nt h eM inoan V i l la" ,A JA 8 8 , p p .1 23 ys . S E IRADAK I ,M . 1 960 . " Po t te ry f r om K a rph i" , ABSA 5 5 ,p p . 1ys . S IREF ,E . yS IRET ,L . 1 890 . L a sp r ime ra sE dade sd e l Me ta le ne iS ude s te d eE spana ,B a rce lona . SOLES ,J . S . 1 979 . ' Towa rd s ar e con s truc t ion o ft h eP a lace a t Gou rn ia " , TUAS 4 .p p . 1 ys . 1 99 1 . ' The Goum ia P a lace" ,A JA 9 5 ,p p . 1 7 ys . S PYROPOULOS ,T .G . 1 970 . " Excava t ion si nt h e Mycenaean C eme te ry o fT anag ra i nB eo t ia " , A AA 1 / 1 , TAYLOUR , W .D . 1 979 . " Mycenae 1 968 " ,A n t iqu i ty XL I I I , 1 70 ,p p .9 1 ys .

p p .

1 84y s .

1 970 . " New l i gh to n Mycenaean R e l ig ion " ,A n t iqu i ty X L IV , 1 76 ,p p . 2 70y s . 1 983 . T he Mycenaeans ,T hame s & Hud son ,L ond re s . T IRE , C . yEH 'hNTERRE , H . v an 1 983 . G u ide d e sf ou i l le sF rança i se s e n C re te , É co le F r ança ise d 'A thene s , E d . d c B occa rd ,P a r i s . TOUCHA IS , G . , 1 980 . " Ch ron ique d e s F ou i l le s e td écouve r te s a r chéo log ique s e n G reece e n 1 979 " , BCH 1 05 , p p . 6 8 3 ,815 . 1 988 . " Ch ron ique d e sf ou i l le se td écouve r te sa r chéo log ique se nG reece e n 1 987 " , BCH 12 ,p p . 6 88 -89 . TZADAK IS ,J .1 969 . " LM l i lA B C eme te ry a tK a lam ion ,n ea r Khan ia " , A AA 2 ,p p .3 65 ys . 1 970 . "M inoan K i tha rodo s" , A AA 3 ,p p . 11 ys . TZADAK IS , J . y HALLAGER , E . 1 987 . " A c l ay - s e a l ing f r om t h e G reek - S wed ish E xcava t ion s a tK han ia" , e n R . Hagg yN . Ma r ina tos , E d s . , 1 987 , p p . 17 ys . VERMEULE ,E .1 965 . " Pa in ted Mycenaean L a rnake s" ,J HS L XXXV ,p p . 1 23y s . 1 97 1 . G rec ia e n l aE dad d e lB ronce ,F .C .E . , Mé j ico . WACE ,A .J .B . 1 949 . Mvcenae a nd A rchaeo log ica lH i s tor ya nd G u ide , P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ,L ond re s . WALBERG ,G . 1 988 . " P rob lem si nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fs ome M inoan a nd Mycenaean C u l tS ymbo ls" e n E .B . F rench yK .A . Wa rd le , E d s . , 1 988 ,p p . 2 11 ys . WALBERG ,G . 1 992 . M idd le M inoan I l l AT ime o fT ran s i t ion -

-

‚

S I MA XCV I I .

WILLEFS ,M .A . RF . 1 962 . C re tan C u l t sa nd F e s t iva l s , R u t ledge a nd K egan P au l ,L ond re s . YAV IS ,C .G . 1 949 . G reek A l ta r s . O r ig ins a nd T ypo logy . S t .L ou is U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,S t . L ou i s ,M issou r i . YOUNGER ,J .G . 1 993 .B ron ze A ge A egean S ea l si nt h e i rM idd le P ha se ( ca . 1 700 - 1 550 B .C . ) , S / MA C / I . ,

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EL I NFANT IC ID lO EN LA ANT IGEÜEDAD

MAR iA EUGEW IA DELGADO TOUS TERESA V ALLEJO ARANO

3 2

c /S o ledad ,2 P a lma d eM a l lo r ca E sp ana

SUM MARY

Th i s p ro jec tp r e sen t s aj o in t v i ew c once rn ing d i f fe ren t i n terp re ta t ion s c ove r ing t h e t h eme o fi n f an t ic ide i nt h e a nc ien t w o r ld . T he a u tho r s h ave b a sed t h e i r w o rk o n a n umbe r o f a spec t s s uch a s : p a l io logy , a n th ropo logy , a rcheo logy , c l ima te , e thno logy a nd d emography . Howeve r ad eg ree o f u ncen ta in iy i s men t ioned w hen t r ue mo t ive so fi n f an t ic ide a r et ob ed e f ined . I NFANT IC ID lO CO MO MED IDA DE CONTROL DEMOGRAF ICO L a p rác t ica d e l I n f an t ic id io s ep uede a f i rma r q ue h a s i do u n mé todo b a s tan te u t i l izado y e x tend ido c omo m ed io d ec on t ro l d e l c r ec im ien to d el ap ob lac ión . S egün e ia n t ropó logo Ma rv in H a r r is : " e i c am ino má s f á c i l p a ra a l canza r u na n u t r ic ión d e a l ta c a l idad y u na v ida p ro iongada y v igo ro sa , l i b re d c f a t iga s yt r aba jo s p eno so s ,n oc on s i s te e na umen ta rl ap roducc ión ,s i no e n r educ i rh ap ob lac ión ." ( Ha r r is , 1 987 :17 ) D ce s ta mane ra e n momen to s d e t e n s ion yd cn ece s idad d i f e ren te s t i po s d e s oc iedade s p onen e n p rác t ica e i I n fan t ic id io y e i G e ron t ic id io . No s e menc iona e i a bo r to c omo a l go d i fe ren te d e l I n fan t ic id io , y a q ue n o e x is te u na d i s t inc ión n i t ida . P e ro ‚ En q ué momen to s p on Ian e n p rác t ica e s ta s m ed ida s? (‚ E ra d cu na f o rma c on sc ien te of o rmaba p a r te d cf o rmu la se s tab iec ida s oi n s t i tuc iona l izada s? H ay c l a ro s i nd ic io s e n t re l o s r azado res reco lcc to re s d e q ue l a s t a sa s d e l I n fan t ic id io s on s en s ib le s al a s f l uc tuac ione s e n l ad i spomb i l idad d c r ecu r so s , p o r l o q ue p odr Iamo s a f i rma r q ue a lc a rece r d c l at e cno log Ia n ece sar ia p a ra c on t ro la r l o s n ac im ien to s e n momen to s d e p oca d i spon ib i l idad d c r e cu r so s od e e sca sez d c a l imen tos e iI n f an t ic id io e s u n e i emen to c omin e n l a o rgan izac ión s oc ia ld c mucho sc o lec t ivo s . E s ta a f irmac iOn l av emo sr e f le jada e nc id e sa r ro l lo d c d i fe ren te s c u l tu ra s yc i v i l izac iones . E s tud io s r e a l izado s

e n l o s d i t imo s a f io s e n t re p ob lac ione s a bo r Igene s d c Au s t ra l ia y d c s oc iedades d c c azado re s -reco lec to re s d u ran te e l P a leo l I t ico n o s i nd ican q ue e iI n fan t ic id io p udo s e r t a n e l evado q ue a l canza ra e i 5 0% d c l o s n ac im ien to s . Aunque n oe nI nd ice st a ne l evado s t amb ién s e p rac t icó e n l a s p r ime ra s c i v i l izac ione s , e n l aé poca g r eco romana ,e nl o s p nme ro s a f io s d e l c r is t ian ismo ye n E u ropa h a s ta e is .X IX . O t ro s momen to s e n l o s q ue s e p ond r Ia e n p rác t ica e s te m ecan ismo , a l ma rgen d e l c i tado a n te r io rmen te p o r l af a l ta d c r e cu r so s , s e r lan ( Hau s fa t e r , 1 987 )c uando l o s r e c ién n ac ido s p re sen ta ran a l guna d efo rmac ión , e nc a so d c i l eg i t imac ión ,n ac ido sc on p oco t i empo d c d i fe renc ia r e spec to a lh e rmano a n te r io r yc on c ls exo n o d e seado e nu na s oc icdad q ue v a lo ra d cf o rma d i fe ren te c lt r aba jo d cc ada s exo . L a f o rma d c p one r e n p rác t ica c l I n fan t ic id io p a ra l ogra ru ne qu i l ib r io e n t re l o s r e cu r so s yl ap ob lac iOn d e l momen to s e p od ia h acer i nd irec tamen tc : " ma la a l imen tac iön ,c lr e t iro d e lp echo ,c ld e s te te p r ema tu ro ,l a e xpos ic ión a t empe ra tura s e x t rema s yl a c r ianza d escu idada e i nd ife ren te s ob re t odo d uran te l a s e nlermedades" o d i rec tamen te : " por i nan ic ión , d e sh id ra tac ión , e ia bandono al ai n tempe r ie ,l aa s f ix ia y l o sg o lpe s mo r ta le se nl ac abeza ." ( Ha r r is , 1 987 :14 ) O t ras c i rcuns tanc ias q ue i nf lu Ian d irec ta e i nd irec tamen te e n c l c on tro l d e l c rec im ien to d cmog ráf ico e r an : l a s t e n s ione s s oc ia le s ,l a si n f luenc ia s e x terna s e n l o s c i c lo s r ep roduc t ivo s , l a l a c tanc ia p ro longada q ue d e te rm ina r la c l e spac i in ien to d c l o s n ac im ien to s yl ar educc iOn d c l a s p o s ib i l idade s d c v i da d cl o sn eona to s . L a t e s is d e l I n fan t ic id io c omo u n mcd io i mpo r tan te d c c on t ro l e n l o s p roce so s r ep roduc t ivo s e s a na l izado p o r o t ro s a u to re s ( D raf fko rn , Wagne r , L ip in sk i ) q ue a t r avé s d c d i fe ren te s f uen te s l i tera r ia s , a rquco lOg ica s , e p igraf ica slas i n terp re tan c omo u na r e spue s ta a dap ta t iva a lc r ec im ien to i ncon t ro lado d c u na s oc iedad e nu n momen to d e tc rm inado .

/

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MAR IA EUGEN IA DELGADO TOUS yTERESA VALLE JO ARA IJO

Anne D rai fko rn a f i rma q ue e ic on t ro l d en a ta l idad s e d eb Ia c onceb ir c omo L a mo t ivac ión o r ig ina l p a ra l a

f a c to re s q ue i nf luyen e n l ad eg radac ión a mb ien ta L , q ue h acen p rec isa s r e spue s ta s d c I ndo Le c u ltura l a n te l a

p rac t ica d c c u l to s e n l a s E n s u a r t Icu lo " The o verpopu la t ion a nd h i s my tho logy" ( D raf fko rn ,

p ob lac ione s d e Me sopo tam ia . Mesopo tam iam c oncep t o f s o lu t ion a s r e f lec ted i n t h e 1 972 ) e xp l ica e i n terp re ta l a

a menaza d c u na c rec ien te p res ión d cmog ráu ica n o s p re sen ta l aD e s fo re s tac ión , c au sada p o r l ac xp lo tac ión s i s temá t ica d cb osquc s f cn ic io s p o rp a r te d cl o s e s tado s v ecmo s , yc lp a s to reo .T amb ién l aE xp lo tac ión c ada v cz

E popeya d e " La A t raha s is" , p oema b ab i lón ico s i tuado a n te s d c l ac r eac ión d e l a Human idad , q ue n o s r e La ta c omo e n u n p r inc ip io l o s d io ses mcno re s , " I g ig i" ,

má s i n tens iva d c l o s r ecu r so s a g r Ico ia s c on s u c onsecuen te a go tam icn to d e l med io y c l p e so q ue a dqu ieren l a s manufac turas y s e rv ic ios a n te l a

t r aba jaban e n e i man temm ien to d e l mundo , h a s ta q ue o p r im ido s p o rc lt r aba jo d ec iden c onvoca ru na " hue lga g ene ra l" . E l c on f l ic to s e s o luc iona c uando i l egan au n a cue rdo c on l o s d io ses mayo res , " Anunnak i" , l a

d i ver s if icac ión d c l aa c t iv idad c ome rc ia l , n o s i nd ican u n p rog reso d c teno ro a mb ien ta l ei n suf ic ienc ia d c r e cu r so s . S i ae lo ,s eI ca hade c ld e speguc d emog ráf ico , p a rece b a s tan te s eguro ,q ue d u ran te L ap nmc ra Had d c

c r eac ión d ci ms e re spec ia l : e i Homb re . L a H uman idad S e d esa r ro l la r áp idamen te y v a r ca L izando l a st a rea s a s ignada s ,h a s ta q ue c ia umen to d c l ap ob lac ión p reocupa al o s d io se s ei n ten tan d c modo s d i fc rcn te s c l i czma r l a p ob lac ión , p o r ü l t imo d ec iden

H ie r ro , l ap r e s ión d emog rau ica c ons t i tuye ra t i n f a c to r d c s tacado q ue c ond ic ionaba L as i tuac ión d c F en ic ia y h ac Ia n ece sa r io p oner e n ma rcha meran ismo s c u l tu ra les

a p l ica rl as o luc ión f i na l : E lD i luv io . An te s d c e s te momen to , l a f e r t i l idad f ue p en sada c omo i l im i tada yL ac ond ic ión p ropue s ta p o rl o s d io se s p ara l a c on t inu idad d e l h ombre , e ra q ue l a s upe rpob lac ión y l o s ma le s q ue e l la c on l levaba i b an a s e r e v i tado s p a ra s i emp re y q ue c l c on t ro l d c l a p ob lac ion s el og rar Ia p o r l an a tu ra leza yl o s d io se s p o r u na p a r te , yd e l ibe rada xncn tc p o r e ih omb re , p o r o t ra .

s ac ra i izac iün d e lo b je to d e ls a c r if ic io . O t ro s a u to re s , a unque s u s e s tud io s n o s ean

p a ra r egu la r e i c rec im ien to d c L a p ob lac ión . E s to s mecan ismo s s e h ac Ian mcd ian te l a n tua l izac ión y

D raf fko rn ( D ra f fko rn , 1 972 ) y e e n e s te p oema a li g ua l q ue e n o t ro s t e x to s G i lgame sh , r e la to s b ib l ico s , m i to log la c l á s ica -u na g r an p reocupac ión p o rc it ema d c l a s c on sccuenc ia s o ca s ionada s p o r l as upe rpob lac ión e

t a n

e xhau s t ivo s , t r aba jan t amb iün e s te t ema . E nu na r t Icu lo d c L ip in sk i , e n c o labo rac ión c on Wo lf y S tage r ( L ip in sk i , 1 988 ) p lan tean l a p o s ib i l idad d c q ue l o s mf lo s s acr if icado s e n C a r tago p ud ieran s e r lo c omo m ed ida d cc on t ro l d cc r ec im ien to d emog rá f ico a n te u na p ob lac iön c ada v ez má s a bundan te . L a a por tac ión d c L ip in sk i s e c en tra e n e ia ná l is is d c l ad emog raI Ia d c C ar tago e n e i s . IV q ue h ab Ia i l egado a c on ta r c on 7 00 .000 h ab i tan tes , s eg t in E s trabón . E n t a les c ond ic ionc s , l o s s acnf ic io s d c c o rdero s yc ab ra s n o

i n te rp r e ta t o da sl a sm ed ida s ya con tec im ien to sc omo mi c on t ro ld e lc r ec im ien to d emog raf ico . C . Wagne r má sq ue a na l iza rl ap re senc ia d e l Mo loch e n l a s c o lon ia s o cc idcn ta le s d c l o s f en ic io s , p l an tca u n ma rco i n te rd isc ip l ina r io , l o s f a c to re s q ue c ond ic ionan

o f r ec Ian mnguna v en ta ja , s i no t o do l oc on t rar io , p o rl o q ue s ep od r Ia e xp l icar e ic amb io d ca n ima le sp o rn iho s . L os a rgumen to s p re sen tado s h a s ta a ho ra h an s i do r e chazados p o r e spec ia l is ta s q ue s o s t ienen q ue n o e s n ecesa r io mng t In c on t ro l d e l c rec im ien to d c l a

s ua panc ión ys ud e sa r ro l lo . P a ra e l , d icho s ac r if ic io , s i gn if ica u na f o rma d c I n f an i ic id io e ncub ie r to , e s d cc ir , u na r e spue s ta c u l tu ra l a dap ta t iva a c ond ic ioncs d c p re s ión d emog raf ica . A rgumen ta q ue c lI n 1 an t ic id io h a s i do i m m ed io muy

p ob lac ion y aq uc l a mo r ta l idad i n fan t i l h as i do s i emp re

c x tend ido p a ra c on t ro la rc lc r ec im ien to d cL ap ob lac ión

t e n s ione sd emog rüf ica s .

muy e l evada e ns oc iedadc s d cc azado re s reco lec to re s y d u ran te l a A n t iguedad . P e ro e s ta m isma mo r ta l idad p od ri as e r r e su l tado d c g ran n ümc ro d c I n fan t ic id ios r e a l izado s , d i rec ta e i nd irec tamcn te , f r u to s d c l a s

e n t re l o s c azadores -reco lec to res , L o s a gr icu l to res a l dcano s ei nc lu so , l o s h ab i tan te s d c l a c iudad , a l irmando q ue l a mayo r Ia d cl a ss oc icdade sq ue c a recen d c m ed io s c f icace s d c c on t racepc ion , S c d c shacen d c

E LI NFANT IC 1D IO CO MO R ITO FUNERAR IO 0 SACR IF IC IO

u na f o rma u o t ra d c l o s h i jo s n o d eseado s , y f r ecuen temen te , med ian te a lgün t i po d c I n fan t ic id io e ncub ie r to . D eb ido a e s to s ue len a dop ta r se amenudo e s t ra tcg ia s c u i tu ra le s , e ncam inada s ae nma sca ra r c l v c rdade ro s en t ido d ct a les p rác t ica s yc ompo r ta in ien to s ,

E l c s tud io d e l I n fan t ic id io e n f o rma d c n to f unerano o s acr if ic io e s u n t ema i nve s t igado p o r mu l t i tud d c a u to rc s q ue t r a s l o s r e s to s h a l lado s e n l o s " t o fe t s" h an e l abo rado l at e o r la d cl o sn to s f unc rano s p a ra p u r if ica r al o s n if lo s mue r to s p o r c au sa s n a tu ra le s e n e dad

oL a s ac ra l izac ión r i tua l . E s ta p rác t ica , L a c on s ide ra r e ia t ivamcn te f r ecuen te e n e i Med i tcr ráneo . C omo

t emp rana s i n h abe r s upe rado s u s n to s d c i n ic iac ión o p re sen tac ión e ns oc iedad ; c s to s n ino s e r an s ome t ido sa

2 78

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

u na c eremon ia p u r if icado ra c ons is ten te e n u na c e leb rac ión e n l a q ue e i mue r to e ra i n c ine rado s ob re

d csean , s ac r if ica rán u n n iüo a C ronos" ( P la ton ,

o ca s iones d e a n in ia le s s ob re t o do o v icap r ido s ,r e s to s

R ep i lb l ica 3 37A ) D iodo ro d c S ic i l ia : a que l lo s q ue a n te s h ab Ian s acr if icado a e s te d io s l o s mayo res d c s u s h i jo s , c omp raban a ho ra s ec re tamen te mnos q ue a l imen taban

d cc oncha s ,c a raco le s ,p i ed ra s ,c e r ám ica , e t c . V a le l a p ena c omen ta r l a s im i l i tud q ue e s tab lece

p a ra d e spuë se nv ia r lo sa !s a c r i f ic io "( XX , 1 4 ,4 ) P lu tar io : " Lo s c a r tag ine se s s ac r if icaban

Wa ldema r D eonna ( Deonna , 1 955 ) e n t re l o s n to s d c

p rop io s h i jo s aC rono s , ya que l lo s s i n h i jo s , l o s c omp raban al o s p ob re s c omo s if ue ran a n ima lcs" ( Dc

u na p i ra , p o s te r io rmen te r ecog ido s s u s r e s to s e n u na v a s i ja ye n t e r rado e nu na u rna , a companado e na l guna s

..

p u r if icac ión d cn if io s mue r to se ne s tado i mpu ro ,c on l o s r i tos e s tab lec ido s p o r c l c r is t ian ismo . E n l a r e l ig ion c a tól ica ,u nn iño mue r to s i nh abe rr e c ib ido l ab end ic iOn d e l b au t ismo n op uede s e re n ter rado e nl o s c emen te r io s c a tó l ico s a cep tado s p o rl aI g le s ia , d e l m ismo modo , e n l aA n t igüedad i m mno mue r to s i nh abe rs i do p re sen tado e ns oc iedad n op od ia s e re n te r rado s i na n te sc e leb ra rs u r i tua l . An te s d c c on t inua r c onv iene a c ia ra r l o q ue e s c l t o fe t . S egün M .E .Aube t( Aube t , 1 987 :214 -224 ) ,e lt o f e t e s im r e c in to s ag rado s i tuado a la i re i b re , d e l im i tado y r odeado p or mu ro s , c on ten iendo u rna s f une ra r ia s s eña lada s e n l a s upe r f ic ie p o r u n b e t i lo o p i la s t ra d c p i ed ra ,c on u na i n sc r ipc iOn d ed icada aB aa l oT an i t . O t ro a spec to d e l I n f an t ic id io s e r Ia c lr i tua l " mo loc "o " mo lk " , amp l iamen te d i fund ido e n c le spac io y e n c l t i empo y d ef in ido c omo u n s ac r if ic io d c c a rác te r r e l ig io so ,n ac ido e nO r ien te yu sua lmen te p rac t icado e n F emc ia y C a r tago . E s c on s ide rado u n I n fan t ic id io e ncub ie r to m ed ian te r i tua l izac ióu c on c a rác te rd cm ed io d cc on t ro l e ns i tuac ione sc r I t ica se nc conom Ia ,s oc iedad od emog raf Ia . E ncon t ramo st amb ién L ap o s ibi idad d cq ue e i" mo lk" p od ia c on s t i tu i r t amb in i m s ac r i f ic io o ca s iona l " s O lo o f rec ido e n s i tuac ione s d e se spe rada s q ue p rov ienen d c g ue r ra s , s equ la o p e s te" . E n e s to s c a so s s e d e sc r ibe e i s a c r if ic io d e l s i gu ien te modo : " c l n if io e sd ego l lado d c f o rma m i s t e r io sa a n te s d cs e rp rec ip i tado e nl a s l ama s , s um ad re n od ebe n im i ra r ,i ng em ir " ( P icard , 1 990 )

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a na l izadas l a s d i fe ren te s p o s tu ra s a n te e iI n f an t ic id io , c abe r e sa l ta r q ue ë s tc f ue u t i l izado d u ran te l a An t igüedad c omo u na s o luc ión a l e xagerado c r ec im ien to d emog rá f ico e n momen to s d c c r is is o t e n s iOn s oc ia l , y a q ue e i c xcc s ivo a umen to d c L a p ob lac iOn e n momen to s d i f Ic i lcs d e se s tab i l izaba l a o rg an izac iOn s oc ia l ye conóm ica d e l momen to . I gua lmen tc e n e ic a so d e l s ac r i f ic io ,d s te s ep re sen ta e n a l guna s o ca s ione s c omo l a ümca s o luc iOn p a ra a p laca r l ai r a d c l o s d io se s , ob i en p a ra c on segu i r d c é s to s a t enc ione s , p ro tecc iOn ,d efen sa a yuda yp e rdOn , e n t i cmpo s d c a dve r s idad guc r ra s , e p idem ia s , e sca sez ‚

d ca l imen to s . E no t ro sc a so s , s ep re sen ta e is ac r if ic io c omo t i nn to i n ic iá t ico ,d cf undac ión ,d cc onmemo rac iOn od c a cc iOn d cg r ac ia s . E n a l guna o ca s iOn , e n e it i empo y e n c le spac io e s p o s ib le q ue e s ta s c a ra s d e l I n fan t ic id io s e d ie ran c on jun tamen te , e s d ec ir , q ue i ncon sc ien temen te s e u t i l iza ra c l r i tua l d c l o s s ac r if ic io s c omo mcd ida d c c on t ro ld e lc r ec im ien to d emog r áf ico .

H a l lamo s e n c l An t iguo T e s tamen to n umc ro sos i nd ic io s d e l " mo lk" , d e sde L aI l amada L uz S ag rada d e l E xodo ( Ex .28 -29 ) : " Me d a rá s c l p r imogen i to d c t u s h i jo s" . L ev I t ico 2 0 -24 : " Qu ien q u ie ra q ue d c e n t re l o s h i jo s d c I s rae l o f rczca aMo loc m i h i jo s uyo , s e rá c a s t igado c on l a mue r te ,c lp ueb lo l el a p ida rá" . S on i n te resan te s p a ra e i c s tud io d c e s te t ema , l o s t e s t imomo s a po r tado s p o ra u to re s c l á s ico s r e fe ren te s a l s a c r if ic io ; v emo s p ue s q ue F i lOn d cB ib lo sc i ta q ue " l o s f emc io s. .m a taban a l guno s d c s u s ( s e re s ) má s q ue r ido s o f rec iéndo io s aS a tu rno " ( Po r f i i io . D cl aa b s t inenc ia ,I , 5 6 ,1 ) C l i ta rco c i ta : " Lo s f en ic io s y s obre t odo l o s c a r tag ine se s p rome ten q ue , s io b t ienen a que l lo q ue . ..

2 79

MAR IA E UGEN IA D ELGADO TOUS yT ERESA V ALLE JO ARA t O

B IB UOGRAF fA AUBET ,M .E . 1 987 . " T i ro yl a sc o lon ia sf en ic ia sd eO cc id en te" B a rce lona . p ig s . 2 14 -224 . BEN ICHOU -SAFAR , 1 981 . " A p ropo s d e s o s semen t s h uma in s d u t ophe t d e C a r thage" R ev i s ta d i S tud if en ic i I X . R om . p ág s . 5 -9 . 1 988 . " Su rl ' i nc ine ra t ion d e ls e nf an t s a ux t o phe t sd cC a r thage e id eS ou ss so" R evue d el ' h is tor ie d e sR e l ig ion s . P a r i p ág s . 5 7 -67 . DE MOULE ,Y .P . " L 'Ana ly se A rqueo log ique d e sc ime t iè re se il ' exe inp le d e sn ecropo le sc e l t ique s " . p ig s . 3 19 -337 . DEONNA ,W . 1 955 " C im i t ie re sd cb ebe s" R ev .A rcheo log ique d el e s te id uC en t re -Su r . G eneve . p ig s . 2 31 -24 . DRAFFKORN A . 1 972 .

" The Me sopo tam ian c oncep t o f o verpopu la t ion a nd h i s s o lu t ion a s r ec lec ted i n t h e

My tho logy " O r ienw . l ia 4 1 /2 .p ág s .1 60 -178 . F EDF I .F -FOSTER . 1 988 . 'T h a r ro s : o v icap r in i s ac r if ica l i er i tua l id e l t o fe t " R ev .S iud iF en ic i XV I , 1 ,p ág s .2 9 -46 . F EDF JF ,F .G . 1 983 . " Thar ros :a n thropo logy o ft h et of lw ta nd p a leocok 'gy of p unk t o rn" . p ág s . 3 7 -649 G IJERRERO ,V . 1 988 . I nd igen i sme ic o lon i t zac i .d p i mn ica aMa l lorca " P a lma . 1 989 . " Po s ib le ss a cnf ic io si n fan t i le se nl ac u l tu ra t a layo t ica d c Ma l lo rca" e n A A W , p ig s . 1 9 1 -209 . 1 990 -1991 . " Un i n ten to d c a ná l is is e tnoa rqueo lög ico d e l S an tua r io t a layó t ico ma l lo rqu In" C uadernos d e "

,

P reh i s tor ia yA rqueo log Ia C a s te l lonense n ° 1 5p ig s .3 75 -400 1 993 . ( En p r en sa ) " Formac ión s oc ia lI nd Igena r e lac ione sc o lon ia le se nl ap ro toh i s lor ia B a lea r" 1 986 . " Impac to d c l aC o lon izac ión p ümca m a l lo rqu ina " O lmo A ube t E d i tore s . C e n l aP eni nsu la I bé r ica . Vo lumen I .p ig s .3 39 -375 ,B a rce lona . HARR IS ,M . 1 987 . " Can(ba le s yR eye s ", Mad r id HARR JS ,M . yROSS ,E . 1 987 . "Mue r ie ,s exo yf ecund idad " Madr id . HAUSFATER G . 1 987 . " I nf an t ic ide : c ompa ra t ive a nd E vo lu t iona ry p e r spec t ive s" C urren t A n thropo log i 2 5 ,4 , p ág s . ‚

5 00 -502 L ICHTY E . 1 972 . " Demon sa nd P opu la t ion C on t ro l" E xped i t ion 1 3 ,p ag s .2 2 -26 L IP INSK I , E . 1 988 . " Sac r if ice s d ' enf an t s aC a r thage e tc l an s J e monde s em i t ique O r ien ta l" S t ud ia P hoen ica L euven p ig s . 1 5 1-163 MOSCAT I ,S . 1 987 . " I i s ac r if ic io p un ico d c i f a nc iu l l i : r e a l tà oi n venz ione? "A ccadem ia N a z iona le d e iL ince s . R oma , p ig s .3 15 1 988 . " I .Fen ic i" M i lán -Venec ia . OL MO LETE ,G . 1 992 . " Pe rv ivenc ia s c ananea s ( upa r I t ica s )e nc lc u l to f e n ic io "

-

IE I c u l to mo lk R ev is ta " Sem I t ica "

XXX IX H ommage aMau r ice S anyce r I .p ág s .7 6 P ICARD C . 1 978 . " Re s s ac r if ice s d ' enf an t s aC a r thage " R ev . K a r tago ; R ep re sen ta t ion s d c s a c r if ice mo lk f i gu re s s u r l e s s l e t e sd cC a r thage . P a r i s 1 976 ,p ag s . 1 8 -27 1 990 . " Le ss ac r if ice s Mo lk c hez l e sp un ique s : c e r t i tude se th ypo the se s" R ev i s ta " Sem I t ica " XXX JX H ommage a Maur ice S anycer I ,p ág s .7 7 -88 ROSSF !. 10 ,G . 1 973 . " La c u l tura t a layö l ica e n Ma l lor ca " Ma l lo rca . SAHL INS ,M . 1 972 . " Las s oc iedade si nha le s " B a rce lona S I MONETT I , A . 1 983 . " Sac r if ic i uman i ei n c is ione r i tua le n e l mondo f emc io -pur nco . I ic on t r ibu to d e l le f on t i l e t te ra r ie c l a ss iche " R ev .S t ud iF en ic i ,X I , 1 ,R oma ,p ag s . :91-111 S L IM ,L . 1 982 . " L 'un ive r sd e s mo r t s aT hy sd ru s" H i s tôr ia e iA rcheo log ie 6 9 .p ág s .74 -84 SUDER ,W . 1 987 . " Tophe t aC a r thage . G ue lgue s r ema rque s s u rI cr i te f une ra i re e tl e s p rob leme s d emog ra f ique s"I / C ongre so l i i .d i eS tud iF en ic i eP un ic i. p ág s . 4 07409 WAGNER ,C . 1 991 . " E l s a c r if ic io d e l Mo loch e nF en ic ia : u na r e spue s ta c u l tu ra l a dop ta t iva al ap re s ión d emog raf ica " 1 991 E s t ra t to d a : A t t id e l 1C ongre s so I n terna z iona le d is t ud iF en ic i eP un ic iR oma . p ig s .4 11-4 16 1 992 . " En t o rno a ls upue s to c a rac te ri n c ruen to ei n ic iá t ico d e l mo lk " G e r ion n ° 1 0 E d i to r ia lC omp lu ten se , Madr id . p ig s .1 -23 1 993 . ( En p ren sa ) " P ro b l emá t ica d el ad / i i s iOn d e l Mo lk e n O cc iden te F en ic io P ün ico " WARREN ,P . 1 984 . " Knosos :N ew e xcava t ions a nd d i scove r ie sA rchaeo logy "j u l io a go s to . p ág s .48 -55 -

AAVV : " I nhumac ione sI n f an t i le s e nc lá i nb i to med i te r r áneo e spaf io l" ( s .V I I a .C . yA rqueo logIa C a s te l lonen se n ° 1 4 .

2 80

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UB ICAC IO TOPOGRAF ICA DE I FS TAULES IS ANTUAR IS MENORQU INS E LS EU S IGN IF ICAT ECONOM IC ! S OC IAL .

L LU IS P LA J 'T TAL AMOR MASSANET M u s eu d cM eno r ca M aO , M eno r ca I l e sB a lea r s E sp an a

L an e te ja ie xcavac ió d e S o N a C açana ,i n ic iade s al a t a rdo r d e 1 982 , p osa ren a l d escober t u n c on jun t monumen ta l e n e iq ua ! l au n i ta tb à s ica c on s t ruc t iva e r a l at a u la oe is an tua r id cp l an ta a b s ida l .

3 3

Una a nà i is i d ' aque s t f e t s e n s d u rà c on seqüen tmen t a e s tab l ir t r e s p o s s ib i h i ta t s d c r e lac ió e n t re l e s t a u les I s an tua r i sd cp l an ta a b s ida h il e sà r ee sd cp ob lac ió : A . - Monumen t ss i ngu la r se ni mn uc l iu rbà . B . - C on jun t s monumen ta ls p rôx im s a l n uc l i u rbà , p e rô d ecan ta t sd ci ' à r ea d cp ob lac iO i n ic ia l . C . C on jun t s monumen ta hs a l lunya t s d e ls n uc l i s d c

A que s tf e t , q ue v a s e rn on al ' i l la d c Meno rca , f aq ue e s p ugu i c ons ide ra r e i c on jun t c or n d e c a ràc ter i n te rcomun i ta r i ,j aq ue c r ec q ue mo l tp robab ier n en t p o t i n terp re ta r -se c lh oc c or n a r ea d c c oncen t rac iO d e l e s

-

p ob lac iO . E sb r ina r l e s r aon s d ' aque s te s d i le renc ie s , id edu i r -ne l e s c on seqüènc ie s d c s i gmf ica t f unc iona l , s oc ia l , a rqu i tec tön ic i c rono hög ic , s on c l a spec te s q ue

d ive r ses p ob lac ion s o g rup s i nd iv idua l i tza t s , q ue c omp tar ien amb d i s t in t se d if ic i sr e p re sen ta t iu s . Am é s , a i xô c on ira s tava a mb l e s t a u le sd ocumen tade s f i n s e i momen t , u sua lmen t s i tuade s e n i m p ob la t c or n

t r ac ta rem e nc lp r e sen te s tud i .

e d if ic i s i ngu la r , c l q ue e n a lguns c a so s p rodu I d i scu ss ion s s ob re l ' ex is tènc ia d cd ue s t a u le s e n p ob la t s

LA TAULA EN E L POBLAT TALA IOT IC

c or n T o r re l ie fuda , S an t Agus t I V e i l , oT o r re d en G aumés (Ma sca ró P a sa r iu s . J .1 968 ) . P e ra l t ra b anda , l a c on t inuada u t i l i tzac ió d c h ' e spa i d e l t u ró d c S o N a C açana , d emo s t rada p e r h as upe rpo s ic ió d ' e s t ruc ture s , a dos samen t s , r eut i l it zac ion s ir e fo rme s , e n s p o sava d avan t l ' ev idènc ia q ue L ac on s t rucc ió ii d s d e l c on jun t s ' e s tdn d in si mp e r Iode mo l ta mp l i ,d i f ic i lmen ta t r ibu ib he n omé s a l t a l a io t i c f i na l . L e s t r oba h le s ma ter ia ls d c i ' excavac ió c onf irmen a ques ta s upos ic ió ( P ian ta hamo r Ma s sane t ,L . 1 986 ) . Ma lau radamen t l a f e ina c omençada e s v a h ave r d ' in tc r romp re p e r r aon s p re s supo s thr ie s , ia ln o p ode r c on t inua r l e s t a sque s s en se e i s m i t jan s e sca ien t s , s ' han h agu t d c c e rca r a h t res a l terna t ives , q ue s i n o s on d ef in it ives , e n s p oden o r ien tar i o br ir n oves p e r spec t ive s . L e s n e tege s d c v egc tac iO p a t roc inade s p e h C on se i l I n su la r d c Meno rca ia l gun s a j un tamen t s d c ! ' i l la e n s h an p e rmè s d ocumen ta r g rà l icamen t mo l t s d c monumen t s f i n s al e s h o re s d e sconegu t s oc onegu t s n omé sp a rc ia lmeni A ix Is ' han p ogu tf e re i sa i xecamen t s p l an imè t r ic s d c S an t A gu s t I V e i l iC u rn ia ( P han ta lamo r Ma ssane t , L . 1 991) ,j ac imen t s q ue e n tenem p oden s e r d ' impo r tanc ia c ap i ta l p e r al ' e s tud i d cI ' o r igen Ie vo huc ió d e ls s an tuar i s d c p l an ta a b s ida h il e s t a u le s d c l ' i h la d c Meno rca e ne ic on tex td cl a Med i t e r ràn ia O cc iden ta l .

D cf e t a que s ta i sl au b icac ió mé s u sua l ic oneguda f i n s e i momen t d e ls e d if ic is r e l ig io so s meno rqu in s , d e l s q ue j a b en c oneguda a ques ta f unc ió a l s eg le p a ssa t

e r a

( R a in i s IR am i s ,J .1 817 ) . L a t a u la , a mb e hs eu c on jun t monumen ta l , e s t r oba g ene ra imen ts i tuada al ' i n te r io rd e l n uc h i ( Se r ra B e hab re , M .L . 1 965 , P e t ru s , M . 1 974 , D c A lva ro , E . 1 983 ) , a h ' à rea q ue p od r Iem d ef imr c or n ac en t re r eg ido r d c h a v i da u rbana d e lp ob la t . E sa i x iq ue v e im c or n aMeno rca O r ien ta l g ene ra lmen t e s t r oba p röx ima a lg rau t a la io t q ue c oncen t ra e hp ode rd e ln uc i i ,i n en t rc q ue a l sc on jun t s d c Meno rca O cc iden ta l l ap o s ic ió d epèn d c l au b icac ió d e ls d i s t in ts t a la lo t s . L a t r oba l ha al e s t a u le s d c T repucó IS a T or re ta d c ma te r ia ls p re ta la iö t ic s , f e t q ue e s r epe te ix al ' excavac ió d c B im safu h le t , d emo s t ra L ai mpo r tanc ia q ue t da quc s t t i pu s d c monumen t d e s d c I ' i n ic i d c L ac u i tu ra t a la iô t ica , c or n c omponen t d c p r ime r o rd re p er al af o rmac ió d e l c on jun t . L a g ran p rox im i ta t a l c en t re d e l p ob la t ( Tor ra iba , T a ha t I d c Da l t , B in icud re i h , T o r ra ibe t , B imma imu t. .) ,f i n s a r r iba r e n a l guns c a so s al as eva p rac t ica a b so rc ió ( Tone d en G aumé s , S a T o r re ta , T repucó ) of i n s it o t ah ' ado ssamen td cl at a u la a ht a la io t

2 81

L LU IS P LANTALkMOR MASSANET

c en t ra l ( Son Ro tge r ) e n s p e rme ten d edu ir u na a i iança i i n te rdependènc ia e n t re e i s p ode r s p o l i t ic -m i l i ta r i r e l ig ió s -cu ltu ra l . Aque s tf e te sv eu r ia r e fo r ça te n e ic a s d e T one d en G aumés s i e s d emo s t rà s m i t jançan t i ' excavac ió q ue l ap ed ra e n f o rma d e s e ien t s i tuada a l s ud d e l t a la io t iaF e s td el at a u la e st r ac ta d ' un v e r i tab le t r on . L a t a u la d e S on C a t ia r ( it a l v egada l e s d e S aT one T rencada iB ei laven tu ra ) p re sen ta u na s i tuac ió d i fe reni E na que s tc a se sl at a u la , in ot i nt a la io t ,l aq ue o cupa e i c en t re d e l p ob la t , e i q ue d emo s t ra l a s eva f unc ió

F IGURE 1 .

s i tuar lem s en s d ub te l e s t a u le s d eT one D en G aumé s i T r epucO . Amb l ap au la t ina e vo iuc ió d ' a i t re s n uc i is , ic or n a p rova d ' have r a s so i i t c o te s d e p e r sona l i ta t p rôp ia , h i t r oba r lem l ac on s t rucc iO d ' a i t re s t a u le s e n l e s q ue e i s p a ramen t s , s empre d in s e i s a rca isme s c on s tan t s a i ' a rqu i tec tu ra r e i ig io sa , p re sen ten e l emen t s i nnovado r s d i f Ic i ls d ed e f in ir c or nc i c löp ic s oc o rn m ega l I t ic s , ie n e i s q ue v e im f r eqüen tmen t u n e s tud i d e f o rces i e qu u i ibns d e is e l emen t s c ons t ruc t iu s . Aques tes c a rac te r I s t iques , e spec ia imen t 1 ' i l s d e p a ramen t s d e

p edre s c o i . locade se nf l iade s h o r i tzon ta is d e s d e l ap a r t

a g iu t inado ra r e spec te d e ls g rup s o c omponen t s c l àn ic s r ep resen ta t s p e ls

b a ixa d e i s p a r amen t s i n te r io r s , s on b en d ares aT a ia t I d e Da it , T o r ra iba d en S a lord , S a T or re ta d e T rar nun tana , B imma imu t , T or ra lbe t . . . a Menorca O r ien ta l iaS on C a t la r ,B ei laven tu ra ,T o r re t rencada , . . . a

d i ve r so st a ia io t s . H ipo tè t icamen tp en sam e nl ap o ss ib i i i ta tq ue a i gune s t a u le s , i l igades a l s p r ime r s n uc l is r eg ido r s d el ac u l tu ra t a la iö t ica , f o ss in c on s tru Ide s j a e n e ip r ime r momen t

Meno rca O cc iden ta l . Quan t al ac rono log ia , p en s q ue e i s f e t s c i ta t s ( l a

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2 82

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

ma ter ia ls p re ta la iô t ic s aL e s t a u le s d e S a T or re ta I B in i s sa fu l le t , l ai o ca l i tzac ió a i x I ma te ix d e c e ram ique s

Aque s te s c a rac te r I s t ique s d e S an t A gu s t I V e i l id c C um ia : s i tuac ió r n é s a l lunyada d e l n uc l i p r im i t iu d e l

t a la iö t ique sa r ca ique s al af a çana d eT o r re d en G aumé s ) e n s p e rme ten s i tua rl ac on s t rucc ió d el e sp r ime r e s t a u le s

p ob la t ,c on s t rucc ió a b s ida l a mb t i ne spa i o va l a do s sa ta L af a çana a ls ud d e l n uc l i u rbà , s on mo l t s im i la r s al e s

a lc omencamen t d e L a c u i tu ra t a la iô t ica ie i momen t c on s iruc t iu f i na l e n e i t a la iö t ic I , è poca e n L a q ue s i tuam l a c on s t rucc ió d e l a t a u la d e T o r ra lba d en S a lo rd , ma rcada p e r L a d e s t rucc ió d e l e s e s t ruc tu re s

q ue p resen ta S a Comerma d c S a Ga r i ta , j ac imen t p röx im a lp ob la td cT o r re d en G aumés . No d i spo sam d c p L an ime tne s d e l c on jun t d c S a C ome rma ( d if Ic i imen t r ea l it zab les p e r L ' e s ta t d c L a v ege tac io e n q ue e s tà

p reex is ten t s aL ' à rea ( 9 10 ± 4 5 a .C ) ii ' abandö d e L a p r ir ne ra l i a r( 890±30 a .C . )( Wa ld ren ,W .H . 1 986 ) . C rec mo l tp robab le q ue p o s te r io rmen t ,d e sp ré s d ' una è poca d ' abandó Iu na c on seqüen t r e e s truc tu rac ió ( cor n s ha d ocumen ta t aB in issa fu l ie t iq ue t ée is eu p a ra lle la S oN aC açana ) , e i s e d i f ic is f o s s in r e cupe ra t s e nL as eva f unc ió s a c ra f i n se i momen td el aIg ue r ra pd r i ica . S e rà e n a que s t d a i-r e r p e r iode q uan s ' in t rodu iran r ep re sen tac ion s f i gu ra t ive s , e n f ang o e n b ronze , q ue c on t ra s ta ran amb l a t r ad ic iö a n icön ica t r ad ic iona l , e i q ue e st i ne xponen td a rd cL ai nf luènc ia d e lr nön c l a ss ic q ue e nvo l ta l ' àmb i ti lenc . CONJUNFS MONUMENTALS P ROX I MS ALS NUCL IS URBANS . L e s tud i d c l e s e s t ruc tu re s d e C u rn ia mo s t ra c l a ramen t q ue u na d e l e s c on s t rucc ion s , q ue s ' e s tén p a rc ia lmen t p e r d ava l l d e l t a ia io t o e s t , e s ta r ia i n ic ia lmen t s epa rada d e l n uc l ip r im i t iu ,s i tua ta lt u ró d ci l evan t . L 'a ixecamen t p lan imè t r ic d e l c on jun t p erme t i d en t if ica r d ue s p l an te s p e r tanyen t s ad o s monumen t s d e f a çana c öncava ip lan ta e x terna a b s ida l . Aque s ta e s t ruc tu ra r eco rda l e s p i an tes e x terne s d c l e s t a u les , p e rö n o s ' h i L o ca l i tza L ap i la s t ra c en t ra l iamd s , p e rl e s r e s tes v i s ib les , e s f àc i i d edu ir u na d i s tr ibuc ió p o l i lobu la rs imè t r ica r e spec te d ' un c i x l ong i tud ina l aL a f a çana . Aque s ta e s t ruc tu ra i n te rna c ond ic iona , e n c e r ta manera , l ' e s t ruc tu ra e x te rna g loba l ip odem o b se rva r c or nl ' e ix l ong i tud ina l d e ls e d i f ic is e ss en s ib lemen t mé s l a rg q ue e it r an sve r sa l aL af a çana . L a ma te ixa p ropo rc ió s ' ob se rva t ambé e n e i s d o s

F IGURE 2 .

i mmer s e i c on jun t ) , p e rö e s p o t d edu ir f àc i ir ncn t q ue e s t r ac ta d ' una

e d if ic is mé s a r ca ic s d e l c on jun tq ue e s t r oba a ls ud d e l p ob la t d c S an t Agu s t I V e i l , p c i q ue e s p o t d edu i r d c l ' e s t ra t ig raf ia mu rà r ia . Una d cl e st i l t ime s c on s t rucc ion s d ' aque s t c on jun t s e r ia i ted i f i cic onegu t t r ad ic iona lmen t

e s t ruc tu ra a b s ida la mb t i nà r nb i t op a t ie x te r io r . L ' e s t ruc tu ra i n te r io r , a mb a bundànc ia d c c o lu rune s d e s t inade s s en s d ub te a s o s ten ir u na c obe r ta L I t ica a r a c a iguda i n s i tu , p re sent s u na d i s t r ibuc ió r egu la r . U na

c or nL at a u la d c S an t Agu s t I . C a l f e r n o ta rq ue a que s ta

d ' aque s te s c o iur nnc s ( o r né s b e p i la s t ra , j a q ue e s tà

c on s t rucc ió , ia i x I ma te ix L as i tuada aV oe s t , t e nen L a f a çana o r ien tada ai l evan t ,f e tq ue ,i gua l q ue p a s sa a mb L at a u la c on s ide rada t a rdana d e T o r ra lba d ' en S a lo rd ,

e s ta lonada e ne i mm ) t éL ' e s iruc tu ra c a rac te r I s t ica d cl e s t a u le s . Una c on s tan t e n a que s t g rup c on s truc t iu e s q ue e n

p od r ia s e r i nd ica t iu d c modem i ta t r e spec te d c L ar e s ta

t o t s e i s c a so s s On c on jun t s p röx im s aa l ie s monumen t s d c c a ràc te r f une ra r i , c ove s d ' en ter ramen t e n e i s d o s p r ime r s c a so s ie i s epu ic re mcga l I t ic d c S e s R oque s

d c l e s t a u le s is an tuar is , c omunmen t o nen ta t s c ap e i s ud .

2 83

L LU I SP LANTALkMOR MASSANET

L l ise s e n e id a r re r . A ixö i ndub tab iemen te s p o td eu re a q ue e i s monumen t s f une r ar is e s tan s i tua t s f o ra d c l e s mu rades i r e lac iona ts amb s i s temes v iar is d c c omun icac ió , p e rö t ambé e s p o t p en sa r q ue e n a que s t s s an tuar is e s r ea l i tzar ien c u l te s f unerar is . Aquesta r e lac ió e n t re l a t au la 0 s an tuan Il a n ec rôpo l is e s f à c i lr n en t d edu lb ie d c l ' ob servac ió d c c ove s c or n l ad e B in isa fü l ie r iL an ° 4d e C a la 'n Mo re l ! ( P lan ta lamo r , L . S a s t re ,J . Go rné s ,J . S .J uan ,G . 1 989 ) .

l as eva e s t ruc tu ra a mb a l gunc s p ro tonu rague s ( Manca D emw ta s ,L . iD cmu r ta s ,S .1 99 1) . A S an t Agu s t I V e i l e s d óna u na e vo luc ió c on s t ruc l iva b en c omp lexa . E s p o s s ib le q ue e x is t I s u na a l t ra e s t ruc tu ra a ln o rd ,a n te r io ra l s à mb i t s 1i2 ,e nca ra q ue e s d i f Ic i l d c d cf in ir . No h i h a d ub te q ue e i monumen t 2e s tä e s ta lona ta l mu rc s td e l monumen t 1 , a ques t t d a l s ud u n e spa i s em ic ircu la r ( coe tan i o d i rec tamen t p o s te r io r ) e nca ra p a rc ia lmen tc ober t ia mb i ' cn t rada ai l evan t( monumen t3 ) . A ixô f aq ue l ' à xnb i t4 , a do s sa ta ls ud d e l monumen t 2e sd e sp iac ic ap al at he ta p e rp e rme t re l ' accé s a l monumen t 1t r ave ssan t c l3 .E l monumen t5 ,i d en t i f ica tt r ad ic iona imen tc or nl at a u la d c S an t Agu s t I V e i l , s ' ado ssa a ! 3 , 1a i x I ma te ix e i 6 s ' ado ssa a !4 .A l s ud e s t r oben més e s truc tu re s , e nca ra p a rc ia lmen t t a pade s p e rl av ege tac ió ( monumen t 7 ) , d c l e sq ue n omé se s tà d eim i tc l mm n o rd . Aques t s c omp lex i ta td ' ado ssamen t s is uperpo s ic ion s d i f Ic i lmcn t p o t e sse r p roduc te d ' un s o l momen t c on s truc t iu .

E s

b a s tan t p robab le , a l meu p a re r , q ue

e s truc tu re s c or n l e s 112 s ' hag in d c s i tua r a l ma te ix momen t q ue l e s d c C u rn ia , m en t re q ue c l monumen t 5 ( l a t a u la ) p re sen ta u na c rono log ia s im i la r aL at a u la d c T o r ra lba d en S a lo rd , amb L aq ue c ompa r tc ix l ' o r ien tac ió al cvan t( Fe rnandez M i randa ,M . 1 979 ) . EL CONJUNT DE S O NA CAçANA : E STAT AC I1JAL DE LES I NVEST IGAC IONS T o t iq ue e i s t r eba l ls e n a ques t j ac imen t s ' han i n ter rompu t s a ques t s d ar re r s a nys s en se c omença r i ' cxcavac ió d e l monumen t 4 , l e s d ades o b t ingude s a bans d c 1 987 p erme ten p resen tar u na v i s ió r e la t iva inen t a mp i ia d e l s i gr n f ica t d ' aque s t c on jun t ,

s i tua t aF e s t d e l Km . d c l ac are tc ra d 'A ia io r aC a la 'n P o r te r iq ue o cupa i m t u ró d ' ap rox imadamcn t 1 80 p e r

F IGURE 3 .

N oe sd i spo sa d cd ade sp roduc te d c ! ' excavac ió a rqueo lög ica q ue

p enne t in d ona ru na c rono log ia p rec isa p e ra que s t t i pu s d c c on jun t . P e rö b a san t -no s e n! ' e s t ra t ig ra f ia mu ràr ia e s p o t a r r iba r ac er tes c onc lus ion s . E is monumen t s a b s ida i s d cC urn ia i ndub tab iemen th an d c s e ra n te r io r s al ac on s t rucc ió d c l g ran t a ia io t o e s t . Aque s t t a ia io t ( d 'e s t ruc tu ra r egu lar iamb u n c i x d c s ime t r ia v e r t ica l ) , p er c ompa rac ió a mb l e s e s t ruc tu res d c l e s g ran s n u rague s s a rde s h a d c s i tu a r -se e nc ld ar re rq ua r td e l I

9 0 me t re s . F in s q ue e s v an c omença r e i s t r eba l is , e ij ac imen t h av ia e s ta t i d en t if ica t c or n t i n h ab i ta t , t o t iq ue a L a m emö r ia p rèv ia al e s c ampanyc sj as ' hav ia d ef in i te is cu f i sc or n al oc d cc u i tc . S 'han i nd iv idua f i tza t u n t o ta l d c 1 0 e d if ic is , p r e sum ib lemen t t o t s e l ls amb c a rac ter I s t ique s c omune s os im i ia r s al e s d e ls e d if ic is c onegu t s c or n t a u les . Aque s ta f unc ió s ' ha p ogu t c on f inna r e n t o t s e i s q ue s ' han e xcava t s : e l s i d en t if ica t s c or n monumen t 2i monumen t5 , ie nu na p s ime ra f a se c l monumen t3 . Aque s ta ma tc ixa f unc ió c u l tua l d ev ien t e n ir e i s

m i l . iena r i A .0 ( L i l l iu , G . 1 982 ) . A ixö s ugge re ix p e r a a que s t s monumen t s a b s ida l s u na è poca d c c on s t rucc ió

monumen t s 4 i7 ; L a p ro sp ecc ió magnè t ica d ' aque s t s monumen t s r e a l i tzada p e rJ .O r t iz iA . G a rc ia c onf i rmà q ue e n s t r obàvcm d avan t d o s e d if ic is a mb e s t ruc tu ra

c o inc iden t amb l ad e l t a la io te s t ,e d i f ic i c ompa rab le p e r

i n te rna d i s t r ibu lda d cf o rma t n iobu la re nc lp r ime rc a s

2 94

i

R ITUAL R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

a lmeny s a mb

n i l

e spa i o va l , p a ra lle l al af a çana , e n e i

s e gon . No e s p oss ib le d escr iure d e ta l ladamen t l e s e s truc tu re s d e lj ac imen t e n a que s ta c omumcac ió , p e rô c onvé d e s taca r -ne a l gun s t r e t s d ' e spec ia l i n te rè s p e r a I ' e s tud ig l oba l .

f a ran r e fo rme s ic on so l idac ion s ,c o rn e sc onf uma e ne i s c on jun t s2 ,3 , i5 . L a s egona g ue r ra p ün ica il ac onque st s r omana d c i ' i l la a caba ran amb P ü s d e l f l oc c or n a r ea d c c u l te . A P es t d e l monumen t 4 e s c ons t rue ix e n è poca r epub l icana u na v i ta r u ra l q ue usarà, p e r aa c t iv i ta t s

F IGURE 4 .

D c a co rd amb l ad ocumen tac ió d e q ue d i spo sam s emb la s egu rq ue l ' ocupac ió d e l h oc s ' imc ia amb l a c ons t rucc ió d e ls

a g ropecua r ie s ,e l s monumen t se nca ra n oc a igu t s . E l c on jun t s i tua t al ' à rea d c p onen t , f o rma t p e ls monumen t s6 ,7 ,8 ,n oh ae s ta te xcava td c momen t ,p e rè

monumen t s 4i7 ,q ue a l gun sa u to r sh an i d en t i f ica tc or n t a la io t s . A que s ta f unc ió c r e im q ue n op o t s e ra ccep tada

e sp o ts upo sa rq ue t du na e vo luc ió s im i la r . Mé s ap onen th ih a mi e d if ic i , e n p a r tc on s t ru I t ie n p ar t e xcava t a t r oqu issa r . Aque s ta z ona e s man té b a s tan th um ida d u ra th as eque ra d ' e s t iu ip o t se re sp ugu i i d en t if ica r a mb u n p ou o h oc d e s ubm in is t ramen t d ' a igua , e l emen t v i ta l p e rô f r eqüen tmen t r e lac iona t

d aco rd amb l ' e s t ruc tu ra e x te rna a b s ida l il ap o ss ib le e s t ruc tu ra i n te rna q ueja h em p r e sen ta t . P e ra r ae sd i f Ic i l d ef in ir q u ina p o ts e rl ar e lac ió e n t re a que s te s c on s trucc ion s ie i s h i pogeu s e x is ten t s al ' à rea . L t in ica d ada c l a ra e s q ue e s l o ca l i tza mi h ipogeu d c

t ambd amb r i tu sc u l tua l s .

f o rn p e r d ava l l d c I ' amp i iac ió d e l monumen t 3 . H ipo tè t icamen t p od r Iem p en sa r q ue o b e e s d óna u na c oex is t ènc ia e n t re e i s e d if ic i s d c c u l te ie i s f une ra r i s , a l in ic i d c l ac u l tu ra t a la iè t ica , ob e a que s t s h ipogeu s s e r ien d i rec tamen t a n ter io r s ah a c ons trucc ió d e ls monumen t sd eS oN aC açana . E i s a do s samen t s s ucce ss iu sa t monumen t4 ,p o r ta ran

P ROPOSTA CRONOLOG ICA D 'acord amb

l e s

d ades

q ue

e s

d educ ixen

d c

l ' e s t ra t igraf ia mu rà r ia , e sp o t f e r u na h ipö te s i d c q u ina s e r ia h ' evo luc ió d c l e s t a u le s ie i s s an tua r is a b s ida ls a V i l la . A que s ta h ipô te s i e s v eu , amés , c o r robo rada p e r

al ac on s t rucc ió d e l s monumen t s 5i3( f a se i n ic ia l ) ,q ue s e ran a bandona t s e n e iS . V I I I A. C . ( 760 ± 4 0 i7 30 ±

l e s p oque s d ades o b t ingudes e n l e s e scasses e xcavac ion s q ue s ' han f e t e n a ques t t i pus d c

4 0 ) . E na que s ta è poca e sc on s t rue ix

monumen t s . C rec mo l t p robab le q ue , e n i m p r ime r momen t , l a c on s irucc ió e sf e s f o ra d e ls n uc l i s u rban s , ia i x I s e r ia a C u rn ia ia t monumen t 1d eS an t Agu s t IV ei l . E n e i sd o s

mi

h ab i ta t s ob re e i

monumen t 3imi a l t re al ap a r td avan te ra d e l monumen t 4( 630 ± 4 0 ) , q ue p re s t s e ran a bandona t s , r ecupe ran t e lmonumen t s L a s eva f unc ió r e l ig io sa . P e r a i xö s ' h i

25

L LU (S P LkNTALAMOR MASSANET

c a so s e s t r ac ta d ' ed if icac ion s p o l i iobu la r s , a mb l ' e ix t r an sve r sa l s en s ib ier nen t meno r q ue e il ong i tud ina l , d e f açana c ôncava ie n e i s q ue s emb la q ue n o e x is t ia p i la s tra c en t ra l . E is monumen t s 4i7d e S o N a C açana p re sen ta r ien l e s m a te ixe sc a rac te r I s l ique s . N o mo l t s a i lunyade s e n e it emp s e sp oden s i tua r l e s

L a t a u la d e T o r ra lba s e r ia u n d e is i l i t ims e sg iaon s c rono iög ics ,

s egons

a questa

h ipô tes i .

T é

c a rac te r I s t ique ss i n i i la r s al e s t a u le s c i tade s a ban s , p e rO e s tà o r ien tada c ap a i l evan t . P a ssa e i ma te ix e n e i monumen t 5d c S an t Agu s t I V e i l , o n l a t è cmca c on s truc t iva j a e s mo l t a cu rada iq ue s ' ha d c s i tua r c ap

t a u le sd cT repucó iT one d en G aumé s . E ne i s d o sc a so s

-

F IGURE 5 ,

i nterns

r ecorden

t ecn iques

CONCLUS IO

" mega l I t ique s" . S egon sa que s ta h ipö t e s i

s e r ien c oet h xue s amb e i s monumen t s 2 i5 d e S o N a C a çana ( a ques ts egon a do s sa ta l monumen t4 ) . A que s te s d ue s t a u le s e s p oden s i tua r t ambé e n e i momen t i n ic ia l d e l ac u i tu ra t a ia iè t ica , ip robab lemen t c oe tàme s a l s g ran s t a ia io t s d ' e ix d e s ime t r ia v e r t ica l ( Cu rn ia , T o re i ió , T repucö ,T one d en G aumé s ) , men t re q ue e i s monumen t s d e C urn ia iS an t Agu s t I V e i l e n

D 'una p r ime ra o b servac ió d c l e s d ade s p re sen tade s e s p oden d edu i rc on seqüènc ie s t . a n te nl ' a spec te e s t ruc tu ra i

s e r ien a n te r io r s . T o t s e i s monumen t s c i ta t s t e nen l af a çana o nen tada

C açana . Aque s te s e s t ruc tu re s t a l v o l ta e sp ugu in t ambé r e iac iona r a mb l e s r e s te s al e s q ue s ' ado ssa l at a u la d c

a ls ud , c or n s ' ob serva t ambé amo i te s a l t re s t a u le s : S a T o r re ta d cT ramun tana ,T a ia t Id eD a i t ,T one l l isà ,T one

B in isafu l ie t . L 'es tud i d c l e s e s t ruc tu res i d c l e s t e cn ique s

T rencada , B e l iaven tu ra , S on C a t la r , . . . t o te s e l ie s a mb p a ramen t s i n te rn s d e p ed re s mé s o menys i l avo rade s

c on s t ruc t ive s d e l s p a ramen t s aC u rn ia iS aa t Agu s t I V e i l p erme t e s tab l ir u na r e lac ió e n t re a ques t s

c o l . iocade s e nf i lade s r egu lar s iamb p i ia s tre s v e r t ica ls . E l monumen t 3 a d e S o N a C açana , a mb l e s ma te ixe s c a rac t e r I s t ique sc on s t ruc t ive s ,v as e ra bandona te i7 60 ±

monumen t s ie i s a nomena t s t emp le s d c V i l la d c Ma l ta ( Evans , J .D . 1 971) . Aque s t s monumen t s e vo luc iona ran a Meno rca c ap a l e s t au le s p rop iamen t d i tes i a

4 0a .C .

Ma l lo rca ( Ro sse l ló Bo rdoy , G . 1 973 , P lan ta iamo r

c or ne ne ic rono lög ic . C rec q ue e s mo l td i f Ic i lf e ru na s epa rac ió c l a ra e n t re l e s t au les i a i t res c on s t rucc ions a b s ida is c or n l e s i d en t if icade s aC u rn ia iS an t Agu s t IV e i l , oc or nl e sq ue e s p oden p re sum ir e n u n momen t i n ic ia l aS o N a

2 86

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

Ma ssane t , L . 1 973 ) c ap a l s s an tuar is m a l lo rqu in s d c p l an ta a b s ida l . E sd cd e s taca rq ue t o t sa que s t s c a so s s ' han d cs i tua ra I ' à rea o r ien ta l d el ' i ia ,F e l q ue f ap en sa rq ue e st r ac t i d e I ' ob ra d ' un g rup i n ic ia l b en d e f im t , c or n e s p o t d edu ir t ambé d ' al i re s t r e t s c on s t ruc t iu s o b serva t s ( P lan ta lamo r Ma s sane t ,L . 1 992 ) . E s t ambé e n a que s ta z ona o n e s d óna u na ma jo r

F IGURE 6 .

p rox im i ta t e n t re e i s e d if ic is c i v i ls i m i l i ta r s ie l s c u l tua ls . T o t iq ue

d c l i nd iv idu s q ue l ac omponen . Aque s t p rocd s s hau r ia d cs i tua ra lp e r Iode c or np rè sp e rl e sf a se s t a la iO t ic l ii i . A lgun s a u tor s h an a pun ta t p e r ac a so s s im i la r s l a p o ss ib il i ta td cf unc ion s p ràc t ique s s ac ra ! i tzade s ,c or ne s a r a q ue e s t r ac tés d c c en t res r ed is tnbu Ido r s d c l e s r i que ses , p e rô n o h em t r oba t c ap d ada q ue i nd iqu i a que s ta f unc io ,a imeny s aV i l la d c Meno rca . E nca ra q ue e s fAcil r e lac iona r e i s monumen t s

e x t ramu r s amb r i tua ls f unerar is , a ques ta r e iac ió d i f Ic i lr n en te sp od ra c onf i rma rs en se l ' excavac ió . E lq ue

p re sen ten c a rac te r i s t ique s c on s t ruc t ive s ie s t ruc tu ra i s p rou d i fe renc iades , a ques ta r e !ac ió a pun ta a l a d i ve r s i f icac ió d cf unc ion sp rôp ia d cc u l tu r e su rbane s . L a p au la t ina g ene ra l i tzac ió d c l ac on s t rucc ió d c l e s

s ie s c e r t e s q ue men t re e n a l gun s c a so s c or n C urn ia p o ss ib lemen t q ueda e s tanca t oc anv ia d c f unc ion s o ma t i so s ,e na l t re s ,c or n aS an tA gu s t IV e l l ,l ' evo luc ió e s p a ra l . !e la a la d cl ar e st sd cl e st a u le s .

t a u le s i nd ica l ap rog ress iva a s s ir n i lac ió d c ! a c u l tu ra t a la ià t ica , a mb t r e t s d ef im ton s d ' una c u l tu ra u rbana a mb f unc ion s e spec I l ique s ii n te rdependen t sd cc ada u n

I n te rp re t a re ic on jun t d c S oN aC açana il ' e sp lanada me r id iona l c or n i m c en t re a g lu t inado r i n te rcomun i tar i s cr nb la t e n tado r ; e n a que s t c a s e sp od r ia p ensa rq ue e i s

2 87

LLU IS P LANTALA MOR MASSANET

d o s g rans monumen t s ( 4 i7 ) f orma r ien e i g rup i n ic ia l men t re q ue e i s d ive r so s a do ssamen t s s i gn if icar ien e i c r e ixemen t ia s sumpc ió d c p e r sona l i ta t d ' a i t re s g rup s

l as ugge r ida p e r a l guns a u to r s p e ls t emp le s d c l ' i l la d c Ma l ta ( Cu ta ja r , D . 1 982 , B onanno , A . 1 986 ) , a i x íc or n p e is c on jun t s s a c re s d c l ' i l la d c S a rdenya ( San ton i , V . 1 985 ) q ue e n mo l ts c asos p erv iuen c l aramen t

s ub s id ia r i s . T ambé e s t e n tado rp en sa r q ue l ' à rca d ' in f luènc ia d e l c on jun t v a s e r l a me i ta t o r ien ta l d e i ' i l la , d e l a q ue

c r is t ian i tza t s . Aque s t e s c l c a s d e l c on jun t d c S an ta C r is t ina d i P au l i la t ino . E n a ques t h oc , d ' econom ia

o cupa e i c en t re g eogra f ic . Aques ta ma te ixa f unc ió

d i e s s enya la t s ,a i xop luga t s e n p e t i t e s c a se s , e n tom al a c ape l la p rOx ima a lp ou p reh i s to r ic s a c ra l i tza t , d c f o rma s im i la r at a n te s p e reg r inac ions c or n l a c oneguda d e l

p od r ia s e r e xerc ida p e r T o r re i lafuda a l a me i ta t o cc iden ta l . Aquesta

f unc ió ,

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p er to t

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a g r Ico la ir amade ra , o n l ap ob lac ió d i spe r sa e st r oba e n

R oc io a nda lu sa .

( e spec ia lmen te n e i mon c l a ss ic d e l a Med i te r ràn ia ) , e s

B IB UOGRAF IA ALVARO , E . d c . 1 983 . Ana l is is e spac ia l d c l o s p ob lado s t a layó t ico s e n l aI s la d c Meno rca 1 l omena je a lP rof . Ma r l i nA lmagro B a sc I i .M . C . Mad r id .P g . 1 93 -203 . BONANNO , A . 1 986 . AS oc io -Econom ic A pproach t o Ma l te se P reh i s to ry . T he T emp le B u i lde r s . Ma l ta . CUTA JAR ,D . 1 982 . A ni n te rp re ta t ion o fT h e Ma l te se P reh is to ry . H yphen . Ma l ta . EVANS ,J .D . 1 971 . T he P reh i s tor ic A n t iqu i t ie so fT he Ma l te se I s land s .L ondon . F ERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,M . 1 979 .T o r ra lba d 'En S a lo rd , XV C .A .N .Z a ragoza . MASCARO PASAR IUS , J . 1 968 . L a s T au la s . T c s t ir non io d c l a f e r c l ig iosa y L a c apac idad c readora d c l o s p a lco -meno rqu ine s .R .d eM . MahOn . P ETRUS DE TOLOS ,M . 1 974 . I n ten to d ca ná l is is e s t ruc tu ra ld cl o sp ob lado st a layó t ico sd cl ai s la d c Meno rca . V i S .d eP .P .B a rce lona . p g . 2 09 -216 . P LANTALA MOR MASSANET , L . 1 973 . E l S an tua r io d c S on Om s is ue ncuad re c u l tura l . T e s i s d c l i cenc ia tu ra p re sen tada e nc ld epa r tamen to d cA rquco iog Ia eh i s to r ia a n t igua d cl a Un ive r s idad d cB a rce lona . 1 986 . E l s an tuar io d c S o N a C açana y l a s r e lac iones c on c l Med i ter ranco C en t ra l yO cc iden ta l . S c la rg iu s -Cagl ia r i . P LANTALAMOR MASSANET , L . , SASTRE MOLL , i . , GORNES HACHERO , J . S . , iJ UAN BENE JA M , G . 1 989 . Gi na a rqueo lOg ica d cl an ec röpol i sd cC a la 'n Mo re l ) . MaO . P LANTALA MOR MASSANET ,L . 1 991 .E l c on jun td cC um in ( MaO ) il ' evo luc ió c u l tu ra l aMeno rca o r ien ta l a lI m i l . lenar iA .C .B .SA .L .P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . ROSSELLO BORDOY ,G . 1 973 .L ac u l tura t a . layó l ica e n Ma l lorca . P a lma d c Ma l lo rca . SANTONL V . 1 985 . /t emp l id ie t an urag ica . C iv i l là n urag ica . M i lano . S ERRA BELABRE , M .L . 1 965 . A rqu i tec tu ra c i c lópea m eno rqu ina . A rqu i tec tu ra mega l I t ica y c i c lópca c a ta lano -ba lea r . B a rce lona .p g .1 51 -172 . WALDREN ,W .H . 1 986 .T he B a lea r ic P en lapar t i te D iv i s ion o fP reh i s tory . BAR 2 82 . G rea tB r i ta in .

2 88

LLU IS P LANTAL MOR MASSANET

F IGURE 7 .

2 89

R ITUAL , R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

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F IGURE 1 2 .

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R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

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2 94

UNA S OC IEDAD EN E STAD JO DE J EFATURA ( CH IEFDO MS ) . LA C IJLTURA TALkY OT ICA BALEAR

V ICTOR M . GUERRERO A YUSO U n ive r e s i ta tf l i e sB a le a r s

3 4

P a lma ,M a l lo rca ,E sp ana

SUM MARY

d ens idad d e p ob lac iOn a l o l a rgo d e l l i empo? Z Qug p ape lp ud ieron h abe r d e sempenado e n e id mb i to d e l a

Th i s a r t ic le p resen t s t he h ypo thes is t ha t t he

d emarcac iOn t e rr i tor ia l? Z E sp os ib le d i scern ir e ig rado

Pm toh i s tor ic B a lea r ic S oc ie ty ( La te B ronze a nd I r on A ge ) w a s h e ld o n ac omp lex t r iba l o rgan iza t ion . I tw a s

c omp lej idad p a ten te e nl o sp ob lados f or tf icado s d e l/ e r

b a sed o n ah iera rch ica l

d e e xpans ion d emogrdf ica y d e

d e

l a

m i len io?" Muy r e c icn temen te h emo s r ea l izado u n i n ten to d c

s y s tem w i th a p r ince ly

l e ade r sh ip ( " ch iefdor n s " ) . We s ha l l s t udy s ome c u l tu ra l f e a tu re s a st h e p r esence o f ap r e s t ig iou sa r ch i tec tu re a nd t h e e x i s tence o fn ec ropo l i s w i th h igh s oc ia l -c la s s s i gn s . A l l t h is i n o rde r t o s uppo r t t h e a bove m en t ioned

a n á l is is d c l af o rmac ión s oc ia l i nd Igena t a layó t ica , q ue e s tá a tm i n6d i to3 p ero , a p rovechando l a amab le i nv i tac iOn d c W . Wa ld ren p a ra p a r t ic ipa r e n e s ta l IP C on fe renc ia d eD e ia ,h emo s c r e ido i n te re san tc p re sen ta r

h ypo the s is . I NTRODUCC ION Y PROPOS ITO

c l t ema t amb ién a qu l , d onde l a d i scu s ión c on o t ro s c o lega se n r iquece ra s i nd uda n ue s t ra a po r tac iOn . L e jo sd cl oq ue p ueda p a rece r ap r ime ra v i s ta ,e it ema

E n l ay a l a rga l i s ta d e b ib l iograI Ia s ob re P reh is tor ia y A rqueo log ia d el a si s la sB a lea re sn oe sf á c i le t ron t ra re l t I tu lo d e a l g i in t r aba jo d ed icado al af o rmac ión s oc ia l i n d Igena . L o s e s tud io s d c l ac u l tu ra t a layó t ica ( Bronce F ina l , F l ier ro ) n o h an t r a spa sado l a f a se me ran ien te

q ue p roponemos a l a d i scus ión s e e nmarca p e rfec tamen te e n l o s o b je t ivo s d c e s ta C onic renc ia : " R i tua l , R i te s a nd R e l ig ion i n P reh is tory" , t odo c l muado s abe q ue l a r e l ig ion e n l a s s oc iedadc s

d e sc r ipt iva , a nc lada e n l a d i scu s ión t i po log ica y f unc iona l d e l aa r qu i tec tura , m ien t ra s q ue s o lo s e h an a pun tado a l guno s t Im ido s i n ten to s a i s lado s d e a ná l is is

a umen to

p reh is tó r ica s n o e s a j ena a l a o rgar nzac ión s oc ia l , e s

e is i s tema d c c r eenc ia s e sc on sccucnc ia d e l p rop io o r d en s oc iocconOm ico ;M . D . S aha l in s4 l oh ac xp re sado má s ,

d c l ao rgan izac iOn e spac ia l d el ap ob lac iOn i nd Igenal y

c on t o da c l a r idad : " La sc r eenc ia se sp i r i tua le sr ef l e jan l a

a pena s n ada s ob re l a f o rmac ión s oc ia l ys us b a se s

e s truc lura d e l as oc iedad . L os d iose s , m i lo s yp rdc t ica s r i tua le ss i n ibo l i zan l o sp r in c i pa le s v a lore s yr e lac ione s

e conóm ica s . R . C hapman 2 h a p l an teado c on g ran c rudeza , p e ro c on a b so lu ta c l a r idad e s ta s i tu iOn : " Los a nd l is i s d e l a s c u l tura s d e l a P reh is tor ia

s oc ia le s . T oda s e s ta sp rdc l ica s yc reenc ias c on tr ibuyen a i n tegrar l a s oc iedad , l e p roporc ionan c ohes iOn , f omen lan l as o l ida r idad yman t ienen l ac on t inu idnd "

r e c iente e n e s tas i s las s e h an c en trado e n s us p ar t icu lare s c ons trucc ione s a rqu i tec tón icas . . . L os e s tud ios s obre e i c amb io med ioamb ien la l , i n zens zf icac ión m ed ioamb ien ta l yc omp le j idad s oc ia l h an r ec ib ido u na m enor a t enc ión . . . P e se a l o s i n tensos d eba te s s ob re l at i po iogIa a rqu i tec tón ica , d i s tri ,uc ión , f unc ión y c rono logIa r e la t iva y a bso lu ta d e e s tos m onumen to s [ t a layd t icos] s on p ocos l o sa nd l i s i sq ue s e c en tran e n l o s p rocesos s oc ioeconómicos e xpe r imen lados P OT l a s c u l turas q ue l o s e d if icaron . C ómo s e t r ansf ormo e ip a tron d e a sen tam ien lo y l a

LAS BASES ECONO M ICAS DE LA SOC IEDAD TALAYOT ICA L o s d a to s r e levan te s d i spon ib le s p a ra e ia nl is is d c l a s b a se s e conOm ica s d c l ac u l tu ra t a layO t ica s on , c omo y a h emo s a pun tado , v e rdade ramen te e sca so s . Uno d c l o s p nmero s i n ten to s a p rovcchab le s e n e s te a spcc to s e d eben aG . L i l l iu , r e f c ri lo s a lp ob iado t a layó t ico d cS e s P a is sc s5 , p a ra e s te i n ve s t igado r e s ta r Iamo s a n te u na c omur ndad a gr ico la c on u na r ud imen ta r ia a g r icu l tu ra b asada e nl o s crea le s ,m ien t ra s q ue l ag anade r la e s ta r la

2 95

V ICTOR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

c en t rada p r inc ipa imen te e n l o s r ebaf io s d e c ab ra s y

p rch is tor ia ma l io rqu ina , t a l v ez c on l a i n tenc ión d c e s tab lece r u n c on t ro l s ob re manada s e n e stado s cm isa lva jc , c omo c omp lemen to d c l a g anade r la

o ve ja s ,j un to au na d omes t icac ión c a se ra d e l c e rdo . L a c aza d e l c one jo , d e c i e r ta s a ye s yJ a r e co lecc ión d c mo luscos

mar inos

c onst itu Ian

e i c omp lemen to

a l imen ta r io d el ac omun idad i nd Igena d cS e sP a i s se s .

d ás ica . E l t e rce rp ob lado q ue n o sp ropo rc iona d a to s s egu ro s

D e l p ob iado d e S ' I 1 lo t6 t enemo s d a tos más a bundan te s yp rec i so s , q ue e n g rau p ar te c on f irman l a s

e s c l d c A lma l Lu tx8 y n o s c onl irma c on b as tan te c o inc idenc ia l o sd a to sy as eña lado sd cS t l l lo t :

F IG EJRA 1 .

a p rec iac ione sd cG . L i l l iu . S ob re u na muest ra d c 1 .447 r e s to s o seo s

O vc ja C ab ra C e rdo

a na l izado s7 , 9 .925 ( 86 ,70% ) e r an e spec ie s d omé s t ica s , e i p o rcen ta je má s a l to l o o cupan l o s o v icápndo s c on 6 .884 ( 69 ,36% ) r e s to s , l es i guen l o s b óv ido s c on 2 . 096 ( 2 1 , 11 % ) y e i c erdo c on 9 45 ( 9 ,52% ) r e s tos i den t if icado s . Do s mue s t ra s d c p er ro y u na d c g a l lo c omp le tan c lp ano rama d c f a una d omé s t ica d c S ' l L lo t . E l c omp lemen to c i negé t i co n o e s r e levan te , s o lo 5 79 ( 5 ,05% ) d c l o s r e s to s i den t if icado s , l a mayo r Ia s on c one jo s , p e ro e s i n te re san te c on s ta ta r l ap re senc ia d c c aza m ayo r c on 2 4 mue s t ra s d c c i e rvo , 1 6 d c g amo y a l guno s i nd ic io s d c j aba l I yf oca . L a p resenc ia d c c i e rvo , g amo yj aba l l r equ ieren u na a t cnc iOn e spec ia l q ue a qu fn ol ep odemo s d ed ica r , p ue s , c omo e s s ab ido , s e t r a ta d c u na f auna d e sconoc ida a l a i l egada d e l p r ime rp ob lam ien to h umano aJ ai s la , t u v ie ron q ue s e r i n t roduc ido s e n a i g L ln momen to d e sconoc ido d c l a

E d il .1 E d if .6 6 5 ,7% 6 6 ,6% 1 4 ,2% 1 7 ,1 % 2 2 ,2%

B Ov ido s 2 , 5%

-

-

1 ,1 %

E d if .7 5 7 ,1 % 7 , 1% 1 4 ,2%

E d if . 1 Mu ra l la 3 4 ,6% 1 8 ,7% 1 9 ,2% 3 1 ,2% 2 3 ,0% 3 7 ,5%

2 1 ,3%

2 3 ,0%

1 2 ,5%

E s ta s i tuac ión n o h a c a inb iado e n p lena é poca c o lon ia l . L af a c to r la d c N aG ua rd is s ea s icn ta s ob rc i m i s lo te q ue n o t i ene p o s ib i l idad p a ra m an tener a n ima le s d omé s t ico s , an o s e r e s tabu lado s ya l imen tado s c on f o r ra je t r a Ido d c l ac o s ta v ec ina , c uc s t ión q ue c r eemo s p oco p robab le y s i n c on s ta tac ión a r queo log ica . E n l a d i c ta d c l o s h ab i tan te s d c l a f a c tor la t u vo u n p e so r e la t ivamcn tc i mpo r tan te L ae xp lo tac ión d cl o s r e cu r so s m a r ino s9 , p e ro l a s p ro te Ina s d c l o s mam Ifcros d omé s t ico s , ab uen s egu ro , f uc ron c on segu ida s d c l a g anade r la i nd Igena . Ap a r t i rd c l o s r e s to s i d en t if icado s c on s egur idad e s p o s ib le a f irma r q ue l a c abana

2 96

R ITUAL , R ITES AND R EL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

g anade ra s egu la b a sada e n l o s o v icap r ino s , t a l v ez c on u n l i ge ro a umen to , r ep re sen tando u n t o ta l d e 7 5 ,65% , m ien t ra s q ue e i c e rdo y e i b uey c ompa r ten u n p o rcen ta je d e 1 0 ,43 % d e l t o ta l d e r e s to s d e f auna d omé s t ic ai d en t il icada . N o d ebemo s o l v ida r , a unque a hora n o p odemo s e n t ra re n u n a ná l is is d e ta l iado , e ii mpac to n ega t ivo q ue s ob re e i med io a mb ien te t i enen p rec isa lnen te u n s ob repa s to reo d e o ve ja s yc ab ra s , p r inc ipa l f ac to r

s ub s id iar ia l3 , c omo n o s i nd ica l ap re senc ia d c mo l ino s p iano s y ti n m o r te ro d c c azo le ta , s i n emba rgo n o a parccen i n s trumen tos a gr Ico las e spec ia l izados , s i tuac iOn q ue e s g ene ra l izada p a in t oda l a c u l tu ra t a iayó t ica . S on f r ecuen te s , p o r o t ro l a do , l a s g rande s

d e s t ruc to r d e l o s b o sque s . E l s ob repa s to reo d e l a s o ve ja s a r ra sa e ip a s to d esde l ar a iz , p e ro a ün e s má s a g re s ivo e id e l ac ab ra q ue , a demá s d e l p a s to ,r amonca l o s a rbu s to s d e l a g a r r iga y t r epa , c uando é s to s s e a go tan , al o á rbo le s . C uando s e d a e s ta s i tuac ión c l b o sque y a d i f Ic i imen te s e r egene ralO y e i med io amb ien te a gr Ico ia p uede e n t ra r f a ta lmen te e n u n p roce so d er end im ien to s d ec rec ien te s q ue p uede p one r e n c r is is g rave l a s b ases d c s ubs is tenc ia d e l a c omun idad . DE LA SOC IEDAD TR IBAL CO MPLE JA A LA DE J EFATURA E i p r ime r , yi n ico i n ten to , d ee s tab lece rt i n mode io d e f o rmac ión s oc ia l t a layó t ica ap a r t i rd e l a ná l i s i s i n teg ra l d e u na e xcavac ión s eh a i l evado ac abo e n e ip ob lado d e S on F o rnés 1 . 1 l e qu ipo d c i nve s t igado re s q ue c xcavó e s te y ac im ien to l egó a l a c onc lu s ion q ue l a g anade r Ia p arece s er l a a c t iv idad e conOm ica f undamen ta l

d c

e s ta

c omun idad

i nd Igena .

L a

c ompo s ic ión p o rcen tua l d c l o s r ebaf lo s e s s im i la r al a q ue y ah emo s i do v i endo ,e sd ec i r ,u na mayo r Ia n o tab le d c o v icap r ino s ( 58 ,7% ) , s egu ido s d c b Ov ido s ( 25 ,39% ) yf i na lmen te u na b a ja p ropo rc iOn d c c e rdo s ( 14 ,28% ) , h ay t amb ién u na m In ima r ep resen tac iOn d c e qu ido s ( 1 ,58% ) . S in e mba rgo , s on d e g ran i n te rés l a s

cr ea le s1 4 . D e l a ná l is is f unc iona l d c l a s e s t ruc tu ra s e xcavada s e nS on F o rné sd educen s u si n ve s t igado re sq ue n oe x is te mnguna u n idad c s t ruc tu ra l e spec ia l izada e n a l guna

i n fe renc ia s s ob re e i t i po d e a p rovecham ien to q ue

t a rea p roduc t iva q ue n o s ean l a s c s t r ic tamen te

c o r re sponde ac ada c spec ie 12

d omé s t ica s , t ampoco d e tec tan i np re senc ia d c a r te sano s

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a s I ,e ia p rovecham ien to

HGURA 2 .

v as i ja s

d c

a imaccnam ien to

d c

y c erdos , y

e spec ia l izado s . P o r l ot a n to e s ta r lamo s , s i emp re s eg i in

e spec ia lmen te d c e s tc t i l t imo , p a rcce i nd ica rq ue t c n Ian c omo f i na i idad c lc on sumo c á rn ico . S in emba rgo e n t re

e i e qu ipo q ue i nves t igó e i y ac im ien to15 , a n te u na e conom ia d e s ub s i s tenc ia , s i n e xcedcn te a l imen ta r io

b Ov ido s yo ve ja s p redom inan l o s r e s to s d c a du l to s , l o q ue c on s t i tuye t i ni nd ic io c l a ro d cs uu t i l izac iOn p a in c l a p rovecham ien to d c I ci e che yl a na , e n c lc a so d c l o s b óv ido s e s t amb ién p o s ib ie s u u t i l izac iOn c omo

s u f ic icn te p a ra man tene r e spec ia i is ta s a r tesano s . L a u n idad d c p roducc iOn e s l ad omé s t ica , c ada v i v ienda c o r re sponde au na f am i l ia a u to sul ic ien te . S in e mba rgo ,

d c e spec Imenes j Ovenes d c c abra s

a n ima le sd ct r acc ión . E n S on F ornés l a e xp lo tac ión g anade ra e s taba o rgan izada p a ra c ubnr d c l a mane ra má s r ac iona l p os ib le e i a ba s tec im ien to a u tosuf ic ien te d c l a s n eccs idades c omun i tana s , p e ro s i n u na f i na l idad c omerc ia i . L a a c t iv idad c conOm ica , b á s icamcnte g anade ra , d cb Ia c omp iemcn ta r sc c on u na a g r icu l tu ra

a unquc mucho s a rqueO logo s y en e n l a a panc ión d c e spec ia l is ta s a r te sanos u na s cña l i nconfund ib le d c s i s tcma s s oc ia le s c omp le jo s , L .R . B in fo rd 1 6 , d e sdc e i c ampo d c l ae t no log Ia , n o c r ee q ue l ae spec ia i izac ión a r tc sana i t e nga n cce sar iamcn te q ue j uga r u n p ape l i mpo r tan te , ys cüa la c omo e j emp lo s l a s i tuac ión e n A f r ica , d ondc e i t r aba jo d e l me ta l e s r ea l izado p r inc ipahnen te p o r p ar ia s , t amb ién l o s i nd iv iduos

2 97

V ICFOR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

e spec ia l izado s e n l a p roducc ión c erám ica p e r tenecen g enera lmen te a l o s s ec to res d esfavorec idos y

p ueb lo , l a f am i l ia s o lo g ozar Ia d c d erecho u suI ruc tua r io ,p e ro n ing s in g rupo q ueda e xc lu ido d cl o s

d e sp ro teg ido sd el as oc iedad ,s on g en te sq ue c a recen d c t i e r ra s yn o t i enen a cce so al ap roducc ión d c a l imen to . E n s um ayo r Ia l o se j emp lo sd ee spec ia l izac ión a r te sana l c or re sponden a i nd iv iduo s q ue i n ten tan c on segu i r u n

m ed io s d cs uperv ivenc ia ,l a ss oc iedade s t r iba le s e ne s te g r ado d c d e sa r ro l lo n o p roducen s u je to s d e sa r ra igado s s i n med io sd c s ub s is tenc ia . C uando u na s i tu ac ión a s Is e p roduce e sd eb ido aa lg i ln f a c to rd c c r i s i s , n o d e r ivado d cl ap rop ia e s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l ,c omo l ag uer r a 19 . L a t i e r ra c on s t i tuye , p o r l o t a n to , u n b i en c omtn s ag rado yl i gado a lo r igen m i t ico d cl ap rop ia s oc iedad t r iba l , c lt m n ico med io d c a dqu in r n ueva s t i e r ra s e s l a i nva s ion y c onqu is ta d c l a s t i e r ra s p e r tenec ien te s a c omun idades v ec ina s . E s to t r ae s i empre c omo c on secuenc ia c la f ian7 .am ien to d cL ap rop iedad p r ivada d c l at i e r ra , r e su l tado d c u m d e s igua l r epa r to d e l b o t In , c omo n o rma c o r rc spondc rt m e jo rl o te a l" h é ro e" yal o s d cr ango s upe r io r . Aho ra b ien , e n S on F o rné s , ys egu ramen te e n mucha s c omun idade s t a layó t ica s , e ir ecu r so p r inc ipa l d e s ub s is tenc ia e r a b á s ican ien te l ag anade r9 .0 , e n e s ta s i tuac iOn e i p a so d c l a p rop iedad c omuna l d c l o s r ebaf io s aL ap rop iedad p r ivada d c l o s m is ino s e s má s s imp le ,e nl a s e conom Ia s p remone ta r ia s c lg anado s i rvc d c med io e va lua t ivo d c l a n queza , c uando n o d c c amb io . L a p o se s iOn d c mucho g anado s e p ucde c on s ide ra rs i gno e v iden te d cr i queza . P odcmo s s upone r q ue l ap rop iedad d c l o s g anado s l ao s ten taba c lg rupo f am i l ia r , c omo a tm

o cur re e n mucho s p ueb lo s

l u ga re nl as oc iedad . ‚ Qué t i po d c e s t ruc tu ra s oc ia l p a rece

b á s icamen te p a s to re s . E l mccan ismo d c i n te rcamb io d c b i ene s e n c s ta s s oc iedade st r iba le s ,a r t icu lada se nt o rno al a sr e lac ione s

d e sp rendc r se d e l a ná l i s is d c S on F orné s? . C onv iene a dve r t i r q ue e s tamo s e n u na f a se a tm t emp rana d c l a

d c p a ren te sco , e s c lr cd is t r ibu t ivo . Una e conom Ia d c p roducc ión d omt s t ica t i ene c omo f i na l idad p rovee r a l

c u l tu ra t a layó t ica , T a layó t ico 17 ( 1 .250 -700 a .C . ) , y q ue c lc a so d cS on F o rnt s ,c on s e ra l tamen te i l u s t ra t ivo ,

g rupo f am i l ia r d c l o s p roduc tos d c c on sumo i mp resc ind ib les p a ra L a s ub s is tenc ia , l o s i lm i tes d e l

n o p uede c on s idera r se c onc luyen te p ara t oda l a s oc iedad t a layó t ica . E n t odo c a so p a rece s egu ro q ue e s tamo s a n te u na o rgan izac ion t r iba l , c on u na f o rma

r cnd im ien to e s ttn p rec isamcn te c a l a d emanda

F IGURA 3 .

d omé s t ica d c p roducc ión q ue , s eg i ln M .D . S ah l in s 18 , v end r Ia d e f in ida p o rl o ss i gu ien te sr a sgo s : L a mano d e o bra n o h a s ido s uped i tada a -

o rga s z i zac ione s yf ina l idad es e x te rna s al af am i l ia . L a p roducc ión e s u na f unc ión d omé s l ica . L a s

d omé s t ica d c b i cne s . P e ro t amb itn e n u na p roducc iOn d c s ub s is tenc ia e s p o s ib le a umen ta r c i r end im ien to p rop ic iando l a p roducc iOn má s a l lá d c l a s s imp le s d emanda s d omé s t ica s d c l o s p roduc to rc s p ar a a t cndc r c omp rom iso s s oc ia le s e x t radomt s t ico s . E l p r inc ipa l d c e s to s c omp rom iso s e s p rec isamen te c l man temm ien to

r e lac ione si n terna s( ma r ido -mu je r ,p ad re -h i jo ,e t c . )s on

d c u n s i s tema r cd is tr ibu t ivo q ue a segura l a s uperv ivcnc ia d cl ac omun idad t r iba l e ns uc on jun to e n

e ns ím i sma sr e lac ione sd ep roducc ión . L a p roducc iön s e o rgan i za d e a cuerdo c on l a s

c a sos d c c r is is d c s ub s is tenc ia . E s te s i s tema e s tá g a ran t izado p o r l a j efa tu ra t r iba l , q ue g enera u na

d emanda sf am i l iare s .

c i rcu lac iOn c en t ra l izada d c s ob rep roducc ión d i r ig ida h ac ia e ic omo c ü sp ide d cl ap i r ám ide s oc ia l ,y , al av ez , l a p rop ia j e fa tu ra a segu rará L a r ed is tr ibuc ión d c l o s

-

-

L os g rupos J am i l ia re s e s tán c ons t i tu idos p a ra l a p roducc ión , c uen lan c on l o s r ecursos b d s icos y e spec If i co s ,h er ram ien ta s yc apac i l la r iP st é cn ica . s . -

E ne s tc t i po d cs oc iedade s l ap rop iedad d cl at i e r ra e s s i emp re c omuna l , s ob r e e l la e j c rcen e id om imo g rupo s c orpo ra t ivo s s upeno re s al af am i l ia , c omo e il i na je oe i

e xceden te s c omuna lc s . S eg i in S ah i in s2 1 ,e ii n t e rcamb io e n l a s s oc iedade s t r iba le s e s tä t o ta lmen te m cd ia t izado p o r l a s r e lac ione s d c p a ren te sco , a s I e n e l s cgmcn to s oc ia l d omt s t ico r i ge u n s i s t ema d ci n te rcamb io b a sado

2 98

R ITUAL R ITES AND REL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e n l ar e c ip roc idad g ene ra l izada , a s is tenc ia a l imen ta r ia ,

q u iene s d i s t r ibuyen l a s " ayuda s" a l o s n ece s i tado s23

h o sp i t a l idad , p re sen tes y a yuda s mu tua s d e t odo t i po .

e j ecu tando s u e spec I f ica f unc ión r edu inbut iva o d c r e a s ignac ión d eb i ene s .

E n e is egmen to s oc ia l q ue a ba rca e il i na je , p ueb lo y t nbu , r i ge e ii n te rcamb io b a sado e n u na r e c ip roc idad e qu i l ib rada ,s on l o si n te rcamb io sd eo b sequ io s yd one s , e i t r ueque , e t c . , e ia spec to ma te r ia l t i ene t a n to p e so

L .R . B info rd24 h a e xp l icado d c u na f o rma muy g r a l ica l aa s cen s ion al a je fa tu ra d eu n " g ran h omb re" : " Cuando u n h ombre I l ega as u n adure z , emp ie za a

c omo e ic omp rom i so s oc ia l , l a s o pe rac ione s d eben s e r ,

c ompe t ir c on s us i gua les c on e i f in d e e s tab lecer

e n c ua iqu ie r c a so , c ompen sada s . M ien t ra s q ue e n l a s r e lac ione s m te r t r iba ie s n ge e i s i s tema d e i n te rcamb io b a sado e n l ar e c ip roc idad n ega t iva , l a s t r an sacc ione s

p er tenec ien tes a o tras u n idades s oc ia les d is tr ibu idas

a l ian za s , n egoc iab lesf uera d es ug rupo , c on i nd iv iduos l os a irededores . L i lo c ompor ta u na f orma d e

P OT

( 7 1

F IG URA 4 .

v an e ncam inada s h ac ia u na g ananc ia u t i l i ta r ia n e ta . L o s i r aba jo s , y a c i tado s , q ue h an p re s tado a lguna

a t enc ión a lp a t ron d e a sen ta in ien to t a layO t ico , p a recen

i n te rcamb io r ecIproco r e tardado . L os s egu idores d e l

" gran

h ombre"

c ons iguen

s egur idad y e iobtiene prestigio. En e s ios s i s temas l a c ompe lenc ia s e e s tab iece p or l a s p ersona s ye l lo d a

i nd icar q ue e s tamo s a n te u na s oc iedad t r iba l s egmen tar ia , c on u na c l a ra j e ra rqu izac iOn d e l o s a sen tam ien to s ys egu ramen te t a n ib ién c on u n c i e r to g rado d e e spec ia l izac iOn e conóm ica . E l t i po d c

h ombre " s e y en p ro teg idos a c or to p la zo p orque é s ie p uede u t i l i zar s u s a l ianza s para c onsegu ir a i imen tos

o rgan izac iOn p o l I t ica g ene ra l izado e n e s ta s s oc ied 1e s

p ara e l ios .

t r iba les e s l aj e fa tu ra o c h iefdoms22 , q ue o s ten ta u n p oder c en t ral iz ado c on d i s t r ibuc iones d e e s ta tu s

c ed ida s ao tra p er sona ;n os on t ransf er ib les as us h i jos ,

c on to r e su l lado u na g rav i tac ión d eg en ie s .

C uando l ac osechaf a l la , l o s s egu idores d e u n " gran

L as a l ianzas d e u n g ran h ombre n o p ueden s er

j e rá rqu icos yh e red i tar io s . E I r a sgo má s c a rac ter Is t ico d c e s ta sj e fa tu ra s e s l ac en t ra l izac iOn d e l i n te rca nt h io ,

l os c ua les d eben n egoc iar l a s s uyas p rop ias . E n c on secuenc ia c uando u n " gran h ombre" c on é x i to

c on t ro lan e i s i s tema d e r e c ip roc idade s med ian te l a r e cepc iOn d c t r ibu to s e s t ipu lado s yas u v ez s on e l ia s

muere s u s a l ianza s mueren c on

e iy s u s

c ompe t idore s

g anan e s ia tu sc omo c on secuenc ia d ee s ta muer te"

NY

2 99

v fcroR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

c o lon ia le s . E s ta r e c ip roc idad e n c l i n tc rcamb io d c b i ene s d ep re s t ig io e s tá muy g r á l icamcn te p i a smada e n

E l é x i to p a ra e s tab lece r y man tene r L a j afa tu ra r ad ica r la e n e ir e conocun ien to p o rp a r te d e l r e s to d c l a s oc iedad d c u na s i tuac ión d e p re s t ig io . P o r l ot a n to e n e ip roce so d e c onF so i idac ión d e l p ode rd ebe rá amp l ia r p rog re s ivamen te e i c f rcu lo d e s u s i e a ies . S uce s ivo s ma t r imon io s c r ean a s u v ez u n á mb i to c ada v ez má s

a l guno sp a sa je sd eL aO d isea : P robar s i m e o f recerla l o s d one s d e l a "...

h o sp i ta l idad . . ." ( Od . ,I X ,2 25 -230 ) . yv en imo s aa bra za r Z u s r od i l la sp or s iq u ie re s p re sen la rnos l o s d one s d e h osp i la l idad o h acernos a lgün

r ega lo ,

c omo

e s

c os tumbre

e n tre

l o s

h ué spede s . . ."(Od . ,I X2 55 -259 ) . " . . lomó d e l c arro l o s h ermosos p resen le s l os v e s t ido s ye io ro - yl o s d e Jó e n l ap opa d e l b a rco . . ." ( Od . , XV ,2 21-228 ) . E s te s i s tema p o l i t ico , e n e iq ue c l p re s t ig io d c a n p e r soia jcjucga i mp ape lf undamen ta l ,e sp o rd ef in ic ión i ne s tab le , l a c ompe tenc ia e n t re d i s t in to s " g randes h omb re s" e s p o r c on s igu ien tc c on s tan te , p o r e lo n o e s r a ro e ncon t ra rd e te rm inada s a c t i tudes e nl o s c ac icazgo s yj e fa tu ra s t e nden te s ac on so l ida re ip ode r yc onve r t i r lo e nh c red i ta r io . E lj e fe t r iba l e ni ms i s tema r ed i s t r ibu t ivo 0

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e s tá e n u na p o s ic ión o p t ima p ara r e t ira r d e l a

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c i rcu lac ión g enera l u na p a s te d e l e xceden te p a ra c i s o s temm ien to d c u na c o r te " p r inc ipc sca " d c c a rác te r h c red i ta r io , e s ta s i tuac iOn p ucdc v e r se r e fo rzada a ls e r c l ümco q ue e s tä e n u na p o s ic iOn i n s t i tuc iona l i dónea p a ra e s tab lece r c ou tac to s c on e i e x ter io r ( come rc io c o lon ia l ) y r ec ib ir l o s p roduc to s e xO t icos q ue

A

F IGURA 5 .

v eces ,

amp i io d c p a r ien tes o b i igados a i n te rcamb io s d c r e c ip roc idad . A igunas e stos ma t r imon ios " i nst ituc iona les 0

a umen ta rán s u c ar isma y , p o r l o t a n to , s u p oder y e s tab i l idad . E s te r eg imen i n s t i tuc iona l c on tr ibuye p a ra le lamen te a l man ten im icn to y r e fucrzo d c L a j e ra rqu izac iOn s oc ia l . E l a f ianzam icn to d c e s ta

d ip iomát icos" p ueden f ac i l i ta r e i e s tab lec im ien to d c c o lono s e n t em to r io s i nd Igena s , q ue n o d e ja d c s e ru n s i s tema p a ra a mp i iar h ac ia c le x ter io rc lá mb i to d c l o s

f o rmac iOn s oc ia l s ep roduce , s eg s in E .R . S e rv ice26 ,p o r d o sv I a s : " La e s iruc tu ra d e l a a u tor idad e s i amb ién l a e s t ruc tu ra d er ed i s t r ibu idore sg rande sy pequenos . e se i -

i n te rcamb io s d c r ec ip roc idad , u n b uen e j emp lo l o c on s t i tuye l af undac ión d c Ma sa l ia e n l aq ue , s eg i ln L a

s i s tema b á s ico d e a bas tec im ien to , y , p or t a n to , e s

v er s ion d c J u s t ino ( XL I I I , 3 , 4 -13) , c l j e fe d c L a c xped ic ión f ocea s e c a sa c on l a h i ja d e l r égu io ,

o bv ia ,nen te n ece sa r io al as oc iedad . U n r ed is tr ibu idor p uede c a s t igar r e ten iendo l o s b i ene sd ec ua lqu ie rs ub jef e og rupo d i s iden te ." C uando s ee s tab icce ei n s t i tuc iona l iza e s ta f o rma d c -

r e c ib iendo c omo d o te t i ni uga rp a ra f unda rl ac o lom a 25 . L a j a fa tura t e rm ina o b ten iendo p a r t ic ipac ión e n L a p roducc ión a j ena , e s t imu lando l ap roducc iOn má s a l iá d c l a s n eces idade s d omés t ica s ya b so rb icndo c sa

p oder p e rsona l n o t a rdan e n a parecer r angos d i fe renc iado s e ne s ta tu s q ue c on s t i tuye e ie n t ramado d c

s ob rep roducc ión , q ue e i j efe r e serva p a ra f i nes

u na s oc iedad c ada v ez m á . s j c ra rqu izada y c on r a sgo s a r is toc rá t ico s . A lguno s i nves t ig ado res , c omo E. R . S erv ice y a c i tado , e s tán d c a cue rdo e n c on s ider a r q ue

c o lec t ivo s , e n tre e l lo s L a r ed is t r ibuc iOn y a c i tada d c b i ene s , p e ro t amb ién p ucde d e sv ia r u na p a r te p ara c l

c x is te u na t e ndenc ia n a tu ra l d e l p ueb lo a c r ee r q ue c l

o b sequ io y e i i n te rcamb io d c d one s c on o t ro s j e fcs t r iba le s yp o r e x ten s ion c on v i s i tan te s o ca s iona le s q ue I c p ropo rc ionan o b je tos e xO t ico s s u scep t ib ie s d c i nc remen ta r s u p re s t ig io , e s l as i tuac iOn c a rac te r i st ica d c l o s c on tac to s p reco loma le s , l o s p r ime ro s n avegan tc s

c a r i sma d e lj e f es et r an sm i te as u sh i jo s ye spec ia lmen te a l p nmogén i to , l o q ue n o r c s ta a l o s m iembro s d e l l i na je d e l j e fe c l c a rác tc r d c e l i te b cne f ic iar ia d e l d e s igua l a cceso a L a r i qucza p roduc ida p o r t oda l a

s em i ta s c on t r ibuyen a s I ac on so l ida r l a e s tab i l idad , s egu r idad y c on t inu idad d c l a j efa tu ra , q ue s c rán i r np re sc ind ib les p a ra e i d e sar ro i lo d c l a s r e lac ione s

c omumdad t r iba 127 . E l d e sa r ro l lo d c e s ta i n c ip ien t e a r is tocrac ia s e y e f avo rcc ida e n l a s s oc iedades d c j e fa tu ra p o r l a e x is tenc ia d c l I neas d iná s t ica s c on

3 00

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

e sca sa s e spec ta t iva s d e a l c . ir n 7l r l aj e fa tu ra , p e ro a s u v ez p ueden s e rl o si n ic iado re sd cn uevo s a sen tan i ien to s l i gado sp o rl a zo sd el i na je c on l aj e fa tu ra c en t ra 128 L a i n s tanc ia i deo log ica c on t r ibuye d e f o rma p ode ro sa a l man ten im ien to ye s t abi idad d cl aj e fa tu ra y L a j e ra rqu izac iOn s oc ia 129 . E l a n tepa sado c omt in , f undado r d e l l i na je q ue o s ten ta l aj e fa tu ra , p uede s e r

mode lo t eór ico b a sado e n c aso s h i s tó r ica y e t no lóg icamen te b i en d ocumen tado s ye ne ia ná l is i s d c a que l la s s oc iedade s p ro toh i s tó r ica s , c omo L at a r té s ica , c on b a s tan te s má s d a to s r e levan te s s u scep t ib le s d c s e r c o r rec tan ien te i n t e rp re tado s q ue l o s d i spon ib le s p a ra l a s oc iedad t a layó t ica . P e ro l ae l abo rac ión d c u n mode lo t e ó r ico y c l p l an team ien to c or rec to d c i n te r rogan tes

l e

t a layó t ica e s u no d c l o s f ac to res amb ien ta le s30 q ue

p rec isa s c ons t i tuycn , s i n d uda , c l pri mer p a so p a ra a bo rda r u na i nve s t igac ión s ob re L a f o rmac iOn s oc ia l t a lay& ica q ue atm está e ne s tado e mbnona r io . V eamo s a ho ra s i a lgunos d c L o s e sca so s d a to s r e levan te s c on q ue c on tamo s r e su l tan s i gn if ica t ivo s

t i encn l a p rop iedad d c f o r ta lcce r l a c ohe renc ia y L a c f icac ia d c l a s s oc iedade sd cj e f a tu ra a li mped i rq ue l o s

p ara a poya rL at e s i s d cq ue e s tamo s a n te u na f o rmac ión s oc ia l c omp le ja , o rgan izada e n t o rno e j e fa tu ra s o

g rupo s os egmen to st iba le s d om inado sp uedan r e t i ra r se

r é gu lo s d c c a rác te r má s om eno s p r inc ipe sco . U no d c l o s r a sgo s c a rac te r I s t ico s d c e s te t i po d c f o rmac ión s oc ia l e s p o r l o t a n to l a d e s igua ldad s oc ia l , yc s t . a

F IGURA 6 .

d i v in izado , c on l oc ua L e ij e fe v i v ien te t e rm ina s i endo e ir ep re sen tan te n a tu ra l

d cL ad i v in idad s ob re l at i e r ra . P rec isamen te e i c arác te r i s lef lo d c l a s oc iedad

f unda r n uevo s a sen tam ien to s e n " t ie r ra d c n ad ie " , l o l Im i te s f I s ico s d c u na i s la t e rm inan p o r i mped i r l a e x ten s ion d c e s te p rocc so q ue a boca f i na lmen te a i m p ode r c en t ra l c ada v cz más f u e r te y j e rarqu izado . y

P rec isamen te p ara l a c u l tu ra t a mna31 s e h an d e scn to j c ra rqu Ia s d cc ac ique s q ue d onunaban v ana s i s la s ,p e ro a lm eno s e lp ode r d c c ada c ac ique c o inc id la c on e id c c ada i s la . S omos p e r fec tamcn te c on sc ien te s q ue l a s p ág ina s a n tenore s n o s on o t ra c o sa q ue l ac on s t rucc ión d c

mi

d e s igua ldad s em an if ie s ta c on má s om eno s c i ar idad e n l ao rgan izac iOn e spac ia l d c L o s a sen tam ien to s , e n s u j e ra rqu izac iOn y e spec ia l izac ión , ei gua lmen te e n l a a pa r ic iOn , d en t ro d c c ada a sen tam ien to , d c e l emen to s a rqu it ec tOn icos e spec If icos3 2 o a rqu i tec tu ra d c p res t ig io , p a ra r c sa ita r y a f ianza r c l p oder d c d e te rm inada s e l i tes p o l I t ica s y /o r e l ig iosas . E n l a s s oc iedades j erarqu izadas med ian te r angos c l

3 0 1

V ICTOR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

t r a tam ien to d i fe renc ia l ,n os o lo s er e f le ja e nl ap o se s iOn e xc iu s iva d e d e te rm inado s s Imbo lo s ma ter ia les d e p re s t ig io ( e spada s , e spe jo s , d e te rm inada s v e s t imen ta s , e t c . ) , s i no e n e i d e s igua l a cce so a c i e r ta s p ar tes o u n idade s a rqu i tec tOn ica s d e l a sen tam ien to y , p or

a l p a t rOn e spac ia l d e term inado p o r l a s e s truc tu ra s c o lec t iva s , e n e s te c aso l o s t a la io t s . T amb ién R . C hapman36 p i en sa q ue e n l a s s oc iedade s c omp le ja s l o s e l emen to s a rqu i tec tOn ico s d c c at he te r s un tuano , c omo e it a la io t ,f unc ionan c omo e l emen to sd cc ohe s ion s oc ia l e n t re d i s t in ta sc omun idade sq ue p ueb lan z ona se x ten sa s y r ef le jan U n n ive l c rec ien te d c c omp le j idad y j e ra rqu izac iOn s oc ia l . E s te mve l d c c omp le j idad , s uge r ido p o re s ta s g rande s e s t ruc tu ra s ( Nuraga s , t one s , t a la io t s ) s e r ia i mpen sab le , p ara R . C hapman , s i n a l g th i t i po d c i n tens if icac iOn d c l a p roducc ión , q ue , c omo h emo s p ropue s to , s O lo p uede s e re s t i inu lada ( of or zada ) p o re s t ruc tur as p o l I t ica s d e l t i po d cj c fa tura s c omp le ja s 0r é gu lo s t nba le s .

A l a l uz d c e s to s n uevo s a ná l is i s c reemo s q ue c l t a la io t c on s t i tuyc u na a rqu i tec tu ra d c p re st ig io37 d e s t inada a r ea lz a r e i p ode r yc ar isma d e l j e fe d e l g rupo , n a tu ra imen te e l lo n o i nva l ida q ue p ucdan a ibe rga r d e term inada s s cña s f unc iona le s d c h ab i ta t c omo h oga re s yc e rám ica d c u so d omé s t ico , t amb ién p ud ie ron c on s t i tu i rl uga re s i dOnco sp a ra c e rcmon ia s d c r ed is t r ibuc iOn , e s d ec ir a c to s d c r eccpc iOn d c l a s ob rep roducc iOn c omuna l , d epós i to o a imaccnam ien to e nl a s g rande s v a s i ja sq ue p r edom inan e n t re l o s a j ua rc s d c t o do s l o s t a la io t s e xcavado s , yp o s te r io r r cpa r to e n a c to s s o lemne s d cd onac ione s ,l i gado s al ac p i fan ia d e l r égu lo e nl o sq ue s ee xa l ta p rec isamen te l ag randeza d c l a j efa tu ra , s u p res t ig io c on segu ido mcd ian te l a h ab i l idad d cc ap ta rl as ob rep roducc iOn ( oe xcedcn te )d c s u s s egu ido re s . E nt i l t ima i n s tanc ia , u na d cl a s s cña s d c i d en t idad c a rac t er i s t ica s d cl a s s oc iedade s d ejef a tum e s p r ec isamen te l as egregac ión r e s idenc ia l ,a unquc n op o r f uer za t i enc q ue r eve s t ir l a f o rma p a 1ac iega 38 , s i no s imp lemen te s i n t i po d c a rqu i tec tu ra c ua l i ta t iva inen te s up e r io ra lr e s to . E l c a rác te r d e l t a la io t c omo a r qu i tec tura s Imbo lo d c p r e s t ig io s er e fucr za p o rd e ta l le sc omo l o s s i gu ien te s : a ) S on l a s i m n ica s c on s t rucc ione s e n l a s q ue s e h a

F IC JURA 7 .

s upue s to ,e nl as eg regac ión f una ra r ia .

E n l ac u l tu ra t a iayó t ica , l o s e l emen to s a rqu i tec tón ico s má s s i gn if ica t ivo se ne s te s en l ido s e r lan e i p rop io t a la io t , l o s monumen tos e sca lonado s33 , l o s s an tuar io s ma i io rqu ines34 n i eno rqu ine s .

y l a s t au la s -san tua r ios

P a ra e ip ob lado d c S on F o rné s y a s e o b serv635 u na g ran h omogene idad t é cn ica e n l a c on s t ruc iOn d e l o s c on jun tos monumen ta les ( t a la iot s) y u na h e te rogene idad e s truc tu ra l a cu sada e n l a s v iv ienda s . T oda s l a se s t ruc tu ra s d omé s t ica s a par ecen s ubo rd inada s

d ocumcn tado l ac x is tcnc ia f r ccuen te d cs i np i so s upe r io r c on d om in io v i sua l yr e a l s ob re c lc on jun to d e l p ob lado ye i t e r r i tor io c i rcundan tc . E s t amb ién l a t i n ica a rqu i tec tura , j un to c on l o s s an tuar io s tau la y l o s monumen to s c sca lonado s , q ue t i enc u n c a rác ter c omp le jo ymonumen ta l . b ) O cupan c a s i s i cmp re s i tuac ione s p nv i leg iada s e n l ao rgar nzac iOn e spac ia l d e l p ob lado , c omo e n c l c a so d c S es P a is ses e n Ma l lo rca e n c l q ue t odo c l a s cn tam ien to s eo rgan iza e nf unc iOn d e l t a la io tc en t ra l , oT o r re d en G aumd s e n Meno rca . c ) E ni m t r aba jo s O lo e sbozado39 p e ro q ue p rome te r e su l tados i n teresantes s i s e c on t int ia , J . A ramburu -Zaba la h a o b servado q ue l o s t a la io t s d c

3 02

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

p ian ta c i rcu la r a i s lados s i emp re t i enen s u s p uer ta s o r ien tada s h ac ia p ob iado s oh ac ia o t ro t a la io t a i s lado ,

t r iba l . E I a jua r q ue a companaba a l a s e s ta tu i 1 1as4 3 r c fucr za s i nd uda c lc a rác te rd cl uga rs a c ro d e lc on jun to monumen ta l l i gado au n p e r sona je d c a l to r ango . L o s

q ue as u v ez o r ien ta s ue n t rada h ac ia m ip ob lado . E s ta s o nen tac ione s s on d e u na g ran e xac t i tud y s egün e s te i n ve s tgado rn o t i enen u na d e sv iac ión s upe r io r al o s 1 0

g rupo s f unc iona ic s má s s i gn if ica l ivo s d e l a j ua r s e r lan : 1 )I n s trumen to s d c t o cado r ( cua t ro u nguen ta r io s d c p a s ta v í t rca yu no d c ma r f i l ) ;2 ) Ob jc to s d cc u l to ( P icza d c q ucmaper fume s d c b ronce , t r ipodc s y mob i l ia r io s ob re c lq ue r cpo saban l a s e s ta tu i l la s ) ;3 )E lcmen to s d c

g rado s . E s ta r Iamo s , p o r l o t a n to , a n te u na a rqu i tec tum d c p re s t ig io q ue a demá s d e l im i ta c la ramen te u n t e r r i to r io c omuna l . S egu ra inen te , e i d Ia q ue l a s i nve s t igac iones e n e s ta l I nea madu ren p od remo s

v e s t imen ta s un tua r ia ( f ibu la s a nu lare s ) ; 4 ) V a j i l La d c

e s tab lecer u na c ier ta j era rqu izac ion d e l os a sen tam ien to s , h oy s o lo g ros so m odo i n tu ida p e ro s i n

b ronce ( j a r ro s d c a s a s f i gu rada s , g ran c uenco , f u cn te o b ra sc r i l lo ) ;5 ) V a j i l la cr ám ica ( v a so s ,j a r r i ta s yc opa s ) r e lac ionada c on c lc on sumo r i tua l d cb cb ida s , ‚ v ino? , o

b a se d ocumen ta l s O l ida . d ) J .A rambu ru -Zaba la h ac omp robado t a inb ién ,e n e i t r aba jo y a c i tado , q ue L a mayo r Ia ( 84 ,21 % ) d c l o s t a la io ts d c p lan ta c uad rada s u s p uer ta s s e a b ren i n va r iab lemen te h ac ia e iS E , o sc i lando l ao nen tac ión e n t re 1 45 y 1 50 g rado s . O tra n o ta c a rac ter i s t ica d ee s te t i po d e t a la io t s e s q ue s i guen n a p a t ron a rqu i tec tOn ico c om i mn c on g ran r i go r , e i 7 7 ,27% d e t odo s l o s e s tud iado s m iden 1 m . d cl a do . L o s t r aba jo s d cc ampo h an d c c on t inua r , p e ro u na p r ime ra i mp re s iOn p a rece c l a ra , y c onf irnma l o q ue h a s ta a ho ra v en imos a pun tando , e s d ec ir , q ue e it a la io t c ump le , e n t re o t ra s , l af u nc iOn i d eo lóg ica d ce xa l tac iOn d e lp ode rt r iba l . e ) O t ra s u n idade s a rqu i tec tOn ica s d c c l a ra f unc iOn c omuna l , i d eo iOg ica o s ac ra , c omo l a s s a lm h ipO s t i ia s , l o s s a n tua r io s ol a s t a u la s ,c s tán p rOx ima s oc onec tada s d i rec tamen te a l o s t a la io t s . E l t a la io t c en t ra l d c S c s P a is se s s ec onec ta p o rm ip a sad izo c on l as a la h ipó s t i la d e l p ob lado . E n T repucó , T or ra lba y T or re d ' en G aumé s , e n t re l o s má s c onoc ido s , L at a u la o s an tua r io s e s i tC ia e n u na e xp lanada i nmcd ia ta a u no d c l o s g r ande s t a la io t sd e lp ob lado . I ) E n u na c on s t rucc ión a do sada a lt a la io t d c S on F ava r40 f ue h a l lado u n i n tc rc san t I s imo c on jun to d c e s ta tu i l la s d c g ue r re ro s , " sm i t ing g od s" q ue , c omo h a p ropues to r ec ien temen te M . A lmag ro4 1 , p odr I an s e r i n t e rp re tada s c omo " d iv in idade sg en l i l ic ia s , t u te lare sy d ef en soras d e l ae s t irpe d e lj ef e " , s i n q ue e s to c l in i ine n ece sa r iamcn tc o t ro s a t r ibu to s . E l q ue c s ta s e s ta tu i l la s , a s im i lab le s aR cse f - Me lka r t e n 0 r icn te42 , o s ten tcn e n t r e s u s a t r ibu to s o r ig ina le s c ls e r p ro tcc to ra s d c L o s r eye s yd c l a c i udad , e xp l ica r la e n g ran mcd ida l a f a c i l idad c on q ue l a s j e fa tura s i nd Igcna s l a s p ud ic ron a dop ta rc omo e l emen to s i d co lOg ico s yd c p r e s t ig io q ue r e fo rzaban e ic a rác ter s ac ra l izado d c s u p ode r a n te l a c omun idad . E I l uga r d e l h a l iazgo d c l a s e s ta tu i l la s d c S on F ava r , q ue n o e s p rec isamen te u n s an tua r io o r todoxo , s i no u na d ependenc ia a do sada a l t a la io t ,

F IGURA 8 .

s egu ran ien te d e s t inada a c u i to s d iná s t ico s g en t i l ic io s , t amb ién r efuc rza n o tab lemen te e i c arác ter d c a rqu i tec tu ra d c p res t ig io d e l t a la io t l i gada a t p ode r

p a ra l ap rác t ica d cl i bac ione s . Ademá s d c l o s t a la io ts ,

o t ras

c ons trucc ioncs t a layO t ica s , c omo l o s monumcn to s

3 03

v icroR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

p rec isa men te c l c arác te r d c

e sca lonado s d c P u la44 S on 0m9 I5 y S on Má s d c

l uga r d c e spec ia l

s i gn if icado p a ra l a c omun idad , a lguno s e d il ic ios s e a r ru inan o p i e rdcn s u f unc ión o r ig ina l p e ro c l l uga r c on t inüa l i gado p robab lemen te a c e remon ia s c omo l a

P o teca r i46 e n Ma l lorca y T o ra ixa , T or re t .a d c T ramun tana o B in ix iqu ie r e n Meno rca47 d ebcn s e rs i n d uda i n c lu ida s e n t re l o s e l emen to s a rqu i tec ton ico s d c

e p if an Ia d e l r égu lo , l a s c s tac iona le s d c l af e cund idad ,

p re s t ig io , al o s q ue t amb ién s e p ueden a f iad ir l o s A

B

HGURA 9

s an tuar io s yl a s t au las . A lgunos a sen ta m ien tos t a layó t icos

p resen tan una s ospechosa e i nsó l ita a cu mu lac ión d c

e l emen to s a rqu i tcc tó zuco s d c p re s t ig io y /o c on f unc ión s ac ra e i deo log ica , q ue p arecen c on f irma r l a l I nea a rgumen ta l q ue e s tamo s man ten iendo . E s p o s ib le q ue e s ta c oncen t rac ión d c monumen to s t a n s i ngu la re s p e rm i ta i n te rp re ta re s to sa sen tam ien to sc omo l u ga r e sd c a grcgac ión i n te r t r iba l , c on u n t r a sfondo i d eo lög ico i mpo r tan te p a ra r e a lza re ip re s t ig io d c u na a u to r idad d c

e t c . , e nl a s q ue p r ec isa inen te s ep rocede c on g rau b oa to al a sl a bo re sr ed i s t r ibu t iva s . E n f echa s muy t a rd Ia s ( s . I lI a .C . ) , a lguno s monumen to s d c S on Oms f ue ron u t i l izados c omo n ec rOpo l is , om e jo rd icho c omo l uga rd ce n te r ram ien to d c a lguno s p e r sona je s al o s q ue n o l e s a companaba a j ua r , oe r a muy p ob rc , s i n e l emen to s d c p re s t ig io , t a l v ez n ol e sh ac Ia f a l ta r e sa l ta rs ur ango ,p ue s s o lo e l lo sy s u l i na jc p od Ian t e ne ra cce so ae n te r ra r se e n s eme jan te

c arác te rs a c ra l izado . E n t re l o s c a so s má s p a rad igmá t ico s t e ndr ian io s c l

l uga r . Au no s 2 50 m . d c l o s c on jun to s a r qu i tec tón ico s , a n te s c i tado s , s eu b ica i my ac i in ien to q ue s ec arac te r iza p o r l a d cpos ic iOn d c i nhumac ione s i n fan t i les d c

c on jun to d c S on 0m s48 , q ue c oncen t ra u n t a la io t c i rcu la rc on d o s h ab it a c ione s a do sada s , u n monumen to

s i emp rc h emo s c ons ide rado q ue t e n Ian u na f uer te

e sca lonado , u n s an tuar io y u n e d if ic io d c p lan ta

n eona to s e n u rna s d c a r en isca o d c c e rám ica , q ue s i gn if icac iOn r i tua l , má s a l lá d e l f ac to r f une ra r io5 1 .

r ec tangu lar l i amado " l abe r in to " , c on u na s e r ie d c d epcndenc ia s r e la t ivamcn te c omp le ja s q ue r e cue rdan b ürdamen te a lguno s e lemen tos t I p icos d c l a s c on s t rucc ione s d cp re s t ig io yp a lac iega sd cl ap en In su la

C omo v emo s ,l ap e rv ivenc ia d ce l emen to sd cc on ten ido r i tua l , i deo log ico o s imbO l ico , c oncen t rados e n u n

1 b 6 r ica49 a unque n oe st a n to l as eme jan7a f orma l , c omo

s egmcn t o st r iba le s . H ace t i empo h ab Iamo s a rgumen tado n ue s t ra o p in ion e n c on t ra d c l ac on s ide rac ión d e l t a la io t c omo l uga r

l a s f unc ionesSO al a s q ue p ud ie ron c s ta r d ed icado s l a s q ue n o s a p rox iman l o s d o s mode lo s . C omo e s l óg ico , t o da sl a sc on st r ucc ione s d c S on Om s e nume rada s n os e c on s truye ron s imu l t nea inen te , p e ro e l lo r c af irma r Ia

m i smo a sen ta in ien to ,n oh ace más q ue r e ca lca rc lp ape l d cl uga rs a c r a l izado yr e conoc ido p o rd i s tm to sg rupo so

f une ra r io p a ra l ac r emac ión d c c adáve re s52 , p e se al o s h a l lazgo s d c C o lom inas e n d o s d c l o s t a la io t s d e l p ob lado d c S e s A n t igo rs . 53 , a que l la I l nea a r gumen ta l

3 04

R ITUAL . R ITES AND REL IG ION I N P REH ISTORY

n o s s i gue p a rec iendo v á l ida a dn h oy , s i ne mba rgo , al a l u z d c l a s r e f lex ione s q ue e s tamo s e xpon iendo a qu l ,

c abaf la y a lguna s c on s trucc ionc s d c I n f ima c a l idad a do sada s al o s e scarpe s r oco so s d c l a p end icn te . E l

c abr Ia i n te rp re ta r l o s c adáve re s h a l lado s e n l o s t a la io t s d e S e s An t igo r s c omo p e r sona jes d ea l to r a ngo ‚ Jef e s t r iba les ? - e n te r rados p rec isamen te e n u n idades a rqu i tec tómca s d c p res t ig io , al o s q ue , a demá s ,

s i gn if icado m l t ico q ue e n l a mayo r Ia d c l a s c u lt i i ra s p reh is tónca s t i cncn l o s " a l to s l uga re s" y a c on f ie rc i m c i e r to c a rác te ri d eo lóg ico at odo c lc on jun to , q ue s ey e r e a lzado p o rl ap rc scnc ia c uhn inan te d c l o s s an tuar ios .

a companaban e l emen to s d e a j ua r q ue d eno tan c lp ode r d e l p e r sona je e n te r rado , c omo e r an l ad aga d eh i e r ro y l a s p un tas d c l anza . T a l v ez , p od r Ia t amb ién

P a rece f uera d c t oda d uda q ue t an menguado a sen tam ien to h umano n o n ccc s itaba p a ra c ubnr s u s n ece s idades r e l ig io sa s d c t r e s g r and io so s s an tuar io s

i n te rp re ta r se c li n cend io y l ar u ina p o s te r io rd e l t a la io t c omo u na amo r t izac lon r i tua l i n tenc ionada , a le s t i lo d c

( do s e n l ac ü sp idc yo t ro c x tramu ro s ) . E s t amb ién o t ro d c l o s l uga re s q ue c ab r Ia c on s ide ra r d c a g regac ión

l a sc on s ta tada se no t ra sa rqu i tec tu ra sd cp re s t ig io ,c omo

i n te r t r iba l , a li gua l q ue S on Um s yd e sde l u cgo S o n a

s e r la c lc a so d e l p a lac io d c C ancho R oano54 , e n c uyo

C acana58en Meno rca , t a l v ez c l má s p a rad igmá t ico d c

i n te r io ra pa rec ie ron e n te r rado su nv a rón ys e i sd ama s55 . L a s p uc r ta s d e l c d if ic io f ue ron t a p iada s a n te s d c

t o do s . R e su l ta má sd i f Ic i li d en t if ica rl o so b je to sd cp r e s t ig io

p rocede r a li n cend io r i tua l d e l e d if ic io . E s te r i tua l d c d e s t rucc ión i n tenc ionada h as i do i gua lmen te c on s ta tada

c a rac ter i s t icos d e l r ango y e s ta tu s s oc ia l e n l o s

e n l as cgunda f a se d e l p a lac io d c P ogg io C iv i ta tc56 d c

i n s t rumen to s c onc re to s d cl ac u l tu ra m a te r ia l t a layó t ica a n teno re s al a s p r ime ra s i mpo r tac ione s p rcco lon ia le s y c o lon ia le s . L o s o b je to sq ue c onf ic ren p r e st ig io au njc f c oam ia r i s tóc ra ta t i encn i ma l to s i gn i f icado s imbó l ico , y f r ecuen tcmen te s on d i f Ic i le s d ci d en t i f ica re nc lr cg is t ro a r queo log ico , l oc ua l n o s i gr n f ica q ue n o e x is tan , s i no q ue l aa r queo log Ia t i enc p rob lcma s p a ra d i sc r im ina r lo s , mucho s s Imbo lo s d c p res t ig io y r ango s oc ia l q ue c onocemo sp o rl o se s tud io se t nog ráf ico s ,c omo t a tua je s , p luma s , a do rno s d c ma te r ia s p e recede ra s , e t c . , t i enen p oca s p robab i l idades d c p ermanecer e n e i r cg is t ro a rqueo lóg ico . P e se at odo , l af r ecuenc ia y d i s t r ibuc ión d c o b je to s me tá l ico s , c omo s ug ie re R . C hapman59 , e s taba s oc ia lmen te r c s tr ing ido a d e tcrm inados p er sona je s q ue l o s u sa r lan c omo s Imbo lo d c e s ta tu s . E n t re e s to s e l emen to s n o s p a rece s i gn if ica t ivo s cña la r e n p r ime r l uga r l a s e spada s t a layó t ica s , p ec to ra ic s , c in turones(? ) y t i n t inábu los , e n tre l o s más s i gn if ica t ivo s , p e ro t amb ién l o s e spe jo s d cb ronce , q ue , c omo e s b ien s ab ido , s on u n c l emen to q ue f i gu ra h ab i tua lmen te e n t re l o s o b je to s d c p re s t ig io q ue a compaf ian a l a s f i gu ra s d c l o s r égu lo s e n l a s e s te la s d eco rada s d e l S .O . p en in su la r60 . S u i n ex is tenc ia , oa l meno s s u e scasez , e n tre l o s a juares f unc ra r ios t a layó t icos n o r epresen ta e n p r inc ip io n inguna c on t rad icc ión , p ue s l o s e l emen to s d c p res t ig io y s imbo lo s d c l aa u to r idad , e n i m c on tex to d c p ob reza a b so lu ta d c me ta le s , d eb Ian t r a spa sa r se a lh e rede ro y

F IGURA 1 0 .

Mur lo .

O t ro c on jun to q ue , an uc s t ro j u ic io , p a rece r eumr u n a l to s i gn i f icado i d co log ico s e r la c l d enom inado p ob lado d c A lma l lu tx57 , e n r e a l idad t odo c l y ac im ien to g rav i ta e n t o rno a t r es magn I f ico s s an tua r io s q ue c on s t i tuycn l o st i n ico s e d if ic io sd cc i c r ta c n t idad , l o s r e s tan t e s n o p a san d c s e rp ob rc s f ondo s d c

muy r a ramen te e n ter ra r se c on e ip rop ie ta r io , s a lvo e n c i rcun s tanc ia s muy c spec ia lcs , c omo p od ia s e r l a d e sapa r ic ion d e l l i na je p o rf a l ta d c h e rcde ro s . S egt in l a t r ad ic ión r omana , e nl ar eg ia , mo rada d e l r ey d cR oma f undada p o r c lr ey sace rdo te Numa , s e g uardaban l a s l a nza s ye scudo s d c l o s s a l io s , s ace rdo te s d e l c u l to a ma r te . T amb ién p o rp a ra lc io se t no log ico s , s abemo s q ue l o s c l ane s yl i na je s l uo s61

3 05

( pueb lo s b ás icamen te

V ICTOR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

l i na je f undado r . U na d ee s ta s l R nza s s ag rada s s eu sa e n l o s s ac r if ic io s . T amb ién s on f r ecuen te s l a s e spada s s ag rada sq ue p e r tenec ie ron al o sl i na je sq ue o cupa ron e i a c tua l t e r r i to r io . E s to so b je to st i enen u na l to s i gn if icado

t r iba l o ,t a l v cz ,m iemb ro s c o la t e ra lcs d e l l i na je d e lj e f e r t gu lo . A lguna s n ec rOpo l is p re sen tan r a sgo s r n uy e spec ia le s q ue p erm i ten p ensa r e n u m u so a bso lu tar nen te r e s t r ing ido ac i e r to sg rupo s , t a l v ez s o lo al o sm iemb ro s 0

1

p a s to res a sen tado s a l E . d e l l ago V ic tor ia ) p oseen 1 a f l 7a s s ag rada s q ue p e r tenec ie ron al o sa n tepa sado s d e l

i d eo lóg ico y s on s Imbo lo s d e l au n idad d c u n c l an o l i na je y , p o r e x tens ion , d e l a t r ibu , s e u t i l izan r i tua lmen te e nt i empo d eg ue r ra , od ed e sg rac ia s ,c omo p l aga s os equ Ia . G ene ra lmen t e l a s c u s tod ia l al I nen r n á s 12 4 I 2 5 I 2 e 2 7 j

a nc iana d ei ml i na je . E n e ls i s ter na f une rar io , a li g ua l q ue o cu i re e n o t ra s c u i tu ra s p ro tob i s t6nca s62 e s p o s ib le t amb ién r a s t rea r i nd ic io s q ue p e rm i ten s u s ten ta rl at e s is d c l as oc iedad d cj e fa tu ra p a ra l af o rr nac iOn s oc ia l t a layó t ica . A l i gua l q ue p a sa e nl o sl uga re sd ch ab i ta t ,l o sa j ua re sf une ra r io s s on meno s i l u s t ra t ivo s q ue o t ro s r a sgo s a pa ren temen te s e cunda r io s . No s f a l tan e s tud io s , c omo y a s e d i jo , s obre l a o rgan izac iOn t e r r i to r ia l d c l ac u l tu ra t a layO t ica y e s to n a tu ra lmen te a f ec ta t amb ién al a s n ec rOpo l i s . P o r e l io , e n e s to s momen to s , a tm n o t enemo s i den t if icada n inguna r e lac ión e xac ta e n t re u n a sen ta iu ien to d c h ab i ta t ys u s c o r respond ien te s n ec rópo l is , c ld I a q ue s e

! i

p ueda d ef imr c on a l g t in I nd icc d c cr teza e it e r r i tono t r iba l , c l mo sa ico d cn cc rópo l is t a layO t ica st e nd rá c i e r to s en t ido ,s ob re c s ta sb a se sp oca c o sa má sp odemo sh ace r

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S .

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q ue p l an tea r d c n uevo a l guna s b ipó tes i s . E l s i s tema f une ra r io t a layO t ico h as i do e x ten sar nen te e s tud iado p o r

,

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J .C o l l63 ,p o rl oq ue n o sr cr n i t ir no s ad i cho e s tud io p a ra o t ro s a spec to s , a qu I s o lo n o s i n te re sa d e s taca r a l guno s r a sgo s q ue p a recen a pun ta r h ac ia c l r nodc lo d c

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a a

f onnac ión s oc ia lq ue v en imo sp ropon iendo . D e sdc c lp r inc ip io m ismo d c l a c u l tu ra t a layO t ica ( 1 .250 a .C . ) e s p o s ib le r a s t rea r c i er to s t r a tan i ien to s f unc ra r io s q ue d cno tan l ae x is tenc ia d c i nd iv iduo s c on u sa l to r ango d en t ro d cl ac omun idad . Uno d cl o sc a so s r n t s e v iden te s l ot e nemo s e nu sp e r sona je e n tc r rado e n

a

S on Ma tge64 f ue i nhumado s i n d e sca rnam ien to p rev io

c

ya cor npaf iado d c u n a j ua r c xcepc iona l , e n c l q ue d cs tacan c l a ro s e l er nen to s d c p res t ig io , c omo s on l a e spada d c p or no , u na a j o rca o c o rona d c b ronce y u na a gu ja op r endedo rd c c abeza e s f é r ica , q ue h ay t amb ién q ue r e lac iona r c on u na v e s t imen ta d i s t ingu ida . C ie r to s

-

a

a o

i nd iv iduo s q ue s ee n ter ra ron e n S on Ma tge t u v ic ron c l p r iv i leg io d ci n hur na rse e nu nr c cm to c ompa r t ir nen tado , s cpa rado d c l a n ec rópo l is g enera l , q ue s e h a c on s ide rado65 c omo " c ap i l la f unerar ia " p o r c on ta rc on u na s e r ie d c h a l lazgo s d c a l to c on ten ido i deo lOg ico , e n t re e l lo s u na r ep re sen tac ión d c l a " d io sa mad re" y v a s i ja s c on a sa s z oor no r fa s . P o r l o t a n to c ab r Ia p en sa r q ue s e t r a ta d c c or nponcn te s d c u na e l i te o a r is toc rac ia

HGURA 1 . s egregac iOn f unerar ia66

c ons t i tuye

t a znb ién ,j un to c on l ar e s idenc ia l y a s cña lada , o t ra d c l a s n o ta s d c f in i tona s d c l a s s oc iedade s d c j e fa tu ra o c h ie fdom s . Uno d c l o s c a so s m á s p arad igma t ico s e s l a

3 00

R ITUA L R ITES AND REL IG ION I N PREH ISTORY

c ueva d e S on B o rona t67 . E l y ac im ien to n o h ab la s i do p rof anado ye id epó s i to a rqueo log ico e s taba i n tac to , l o q ue p e rm i t ió u na d ocumen tac ión d e ta l lada d e l m i smo y u n c ómpu to d c e n te r ram ien to s e xac to . S e h ab Ian i nhumado i m t o ta l d e o cho p e r sona s a du l ta s , e n t re a nc iano s , a du i to s yj óvcne s , a s I c omo n ueve n if to s e n g ene ra l meno re s d e l o s t r es a f io s . L o s má s a nc iano s

a .C . n oi nd ican n ccesar iamen tc q ue l o s c n te r ram ien tos s ep ro longa scn h a s ta c sa f e cha , n op ud ie ron v incu lar se a mngün c n tcr ram ien to c onc re to y t a l v ez p odr Ian i n tcrp re ta r sc c omo o f renda s t a rd Ia s or e s to s d c a l gün c u l to a l Ic e lcb rado u na v cz a bandonada l ac ueva c omo n cc rópo l is , l o q ue r e fo rza r Ia l a c oncepc iOn s a c ra d e l l uga r ys u r ccuc rdo ad a v igen te d cpués d c v a r ia s g ene rac ionc s . P a rece c l aro q ue e n S on B o rona t c s tamo s a n te i m r e c in to f une ra r io d c u so muy r e s t r ing ido y e ih echo d c q ue c ompa rczcan c adáve rc sr cp re scn ta t ivo sd ct o do sl o s g rupo s d c e dad , d esdc n eona to s aa nc ianos , p a rcce i nd icar q ue s e t r a ta d c i m g rupo f am i l ia rc onc re to . L o s a j ua rc s c r an p rác t icamcn tc i n cx is tcn te s p o r l o q ue n o p odemo s i n fer ir a t r avé s d c e i los n inguna s ena l d c r ango o c s ta tu s . P e ro l a s s cña lc s d c p re s t ig io p ueden e s ta r n o t a n to e n l o s a j ua rc s , i nex is ten te s , s i no e n c l f unera l ye n l a e l ccc ión m isma d e l l uga r f une ra r io . A lguno si n ve s t igado re s6 8 h an o bservado q ue am ayo r

‚1 /

e s ta tu s s e p roduce u na mayo r i n c idcnc ia d c l a mue r te e n c l f unc ionam icn to d e l g rupo t r iba l yu na m ayo r i nve r s ion e n l o s f une ra les , q ue n o n ecesar iamen tc s e r ef lc ja e nc la j ua r . S in d uda a l guna , l a" i nve r s iOn d c e ne rg Ia s oc ia l" e n l o sf unc ra le sd cl a sp e r sona se n tc r rada s e n S on B o rona t d eb iO d c s e r e x t rao rd inar ia y s O lo j us t if icab le s is e t r a taba d cp e r sona je s d ca l to r ango ys u sf am i l ia rc s má s a l legado s . E l r e c in to f unera r io s es i tda e nu na c ueva d c d i f ic i l I s imo a cceso , a b ie r ta e n u na c o r tada r ocosa v er t ica l , n o s O lo c la cce so e s d i f Ic i i , s i no q ue , u na v cz e n l ap uc r ta , l ae n t rada s O lo e s p o s ib le i n s ta lando u na p l a tafo rma c on e sca le ra s d c made ra . E l c o r te jo f i m neb re d eb Ia t r an spo r ta r p e sado s a t aude s yu rna s d c a r en isca d e sde a l g i ln a sen tam icn to n o d e term inado d e l v a l le d c V a l ldurgen t d u ran te v anos kms , p a ra f i na lmcn te a ccedc ra lr e c in to e nu na e s ca lada r e a lmen te a rne sgada . No c onocemos mnguna o t ra n ec rOpo l is c on t a n ta s d i f icu l tadc sd ca cce so c omo l ad cS on B o rona t . O t ro y ac im icn t io f une ra r io c on i ndudab le s s cña lc sd c c ons t i tu ir u n c cmen ter io s i ngu la r c on e v iden tes

F IGURA 1 2 .

f ueron i nhumado s e n c l i n ter io r d c a t aude s os ob re p a r ihue la s d c made ra ,

l oa du l to s yj óvene s s e i nhumaban d i rec ta incn te s ob re c ls ue lo , m ien t ra s q ue l o s n i no s f u e ron i n t roduc ido s e n u rna s c e rám ica s od c a r cn isca . E l y ac im ien to t u vo i m c o r to p e r Iodo d c u so d c a p rox imadamen te d o s o m áx imo t r e s g ene rac ione s , l a s f e cha s d c r ad ioca rbono o b temda s d c l o s a t aude s o sc i lan e n t re 4 40 y4 00 a .C . . E l r e c in to f une ra r io f ue a bandonado c uando s o lo 2 / 3 d c s u i n ter ior h ab Ia s i do o cupado , q ucdando e spac io s u f ic ien te p a ra a l guna s g ene rac ionc s m á s . L aa pa r ic ión d cd o sf r agmen to sc e rám ico s at o rno i mpo r tado sd e l s . I I

c l emen to sd cp re s t ig io s oc ia l e sc lA venc d cl aP un ta69 P ara e mpeza rc ll uga rf une ra r io s ei n s ta lO e n im m ed io n a tu ra l d cd i f Ic i l a cce so , p ue s s e t r a ta d cu na s ima al a q ue s ea ccede at r avé s d c im p ozo v e r t ica l d c 1 8 m . d c p ro fund idad ,l as ima t i ene as u v cz u na p end icn te muy p ronunc iada q ue f ue a cond ic ionada c on n ueve mu re te s d c a t e r razado p a ra l og ra r a l guna s s uper f ic ic s p l anas d onde d cpo s i tar l o s a t aude s yc e leb ra r a l guno s r i to s f unc rar io s . S c c on tab i l iza ron u no s 5 0 i nd iv iduo s , mucho s d c c uyo s r e s to s , a j ua rc s ya t audes c s taban d e sp lazado sh ac ia e il a te ra l yc lf ondo d cl as ima d eb ido ad csp rcnd im icn to s yc o r r im icn to s d c p i ed ra s . P e ro c l

3 07

V ICTOR M . GUERRERO AYUSO

c l emen to q ue c onf ie re e spec ia l s i gn if icac ión a lg rupo h umano q ue s e e n te r ró a qu f e s q ue a lguno s d e e l lo s ,

j e ra rqu izac iOn s oc ia l , d c sar ra igo d c a lguno s g rupo s y

s e is a lm eno s ,s ei nhuma ron e ne ii n te r io rd es a rcó fago s d e madera q ue r ep roducen f i gura s t auromo rfas

p e r sona l . P a ra l as oc iedad i nd Igcna p reco lon ia l d c S i c i l ia , A .J .

c o rnp le ta s , mag is t ra lmen te t r aba jada s p i eza ap i eza y e n samb iada s c on c l av i ja s ymecha s t amb idn d e made ra ,

Dom Ingue75a a pun ta a lguna s c a rac tc r I s t ica s q ue e n

med ian te u ns i s tema q ue r e cue rda e it r aba jo a r te sano d c a rqu i tec tu ra n ava l . L a made ra d c l o s a t aude s h a s i do

a par ic iOn o i n crcmen to d c f orma s d c d ependenc ia

g r an med ida p odr Ian s e rp a ra ic la sa lc a so t a layó t ico ,a s I e s tab lece q ue s et r a ta d cm i t i po d c s oc icdad c omp le ja , a r t icu lada , yc on u na c l a ra c s t ra t if icac iOn i n terna ,

d a tada p o rr ad ioca rbono e n3 20 aC . L a i nhumac ión e n s a rcofagos d c madera e s r e la t ivamen te f r ecuen te e n L ap reh is to r ia ma l lo rqu ina ,

s uponc t amb ién q ue e ip ode r s eh ab r Ia c oncen t rado e n u n t i po d c f i gu ra p r inc ipesca c on f unc iones r ed is t r ibu t ivas . L a n ece s idad d c r eaf irma r s u p ode r l e

p e ro d e sde l u ego l o s p e r sona je sq ue s ee n te r ra ron e n S a

i l evar la ae ng i rc i e r to s monumen to s a rqu i tcc tOn ico s d c

P un ta t en lan r ango s oc ia l muy e l evado y t a l v ez e s tamo s t amb ién a n te u n c emen te r io d ed icado a ll i na je

p re s t ig io , e s e ic a so d e l " anak ioron" d cP an tá i ica , q ue a sum ir la f unc iones d c r e s idenc ia p a lac iega d c L a j efa tu ra , a c t iv idade s e conOm ica s c en t radas e n e i

d c u n r egu lo o u na j efa tu ra s acra l izada , p ue s n o p odemo s o lv ida r l a s c onno tac ione s m I t ica s q ue l a i magen d e l t o ro t i ene e n l ap reh is to r ia b a lea r , p a rece p oco p robab le q ue u n p e r sona je s i n u n e s ta tu s s oc ia l e l evado p ud ie ra t e ne ra cce so ae n te r ra r se e n c li n te r io r d c u na i magen s ac ra , t a l v ez c on v a lo r t o tén i ico p ro t ec to ra d e ld i s t ingu ido l i na je d e ld i fun to .

a lmacenam ien to d c g rande s v a s i ja s , q ue e s u na s ena l t I p ica d c l o s s i s tema s r ed ist r ibu t ivo s , j un to c on a c t iv idades me ta lt i rg ica s r ea l izada s e n e i m ismo e d if ic io yc on t ro lada sp o rc lp ode r . L a c o lon izac iOn g r iega , s egün A .J . Dom inguez , n o h ab r Ia o r ig inado e s ta f o rmac iOn s oc ia l , p e ro s ih ab r ia

E n e s te c on tex to d c n ec rópo l is s i ngu la re s , n o e s

f avorec ido l a s t e ndenc ia s aL aj e ra rqu izac iOn y a l a

p os ib le o lv idar se d c S on R ea l70 , J . Co l l L a h a c on s ide rado c omo u na n ec rópo l is c on s i gno s d c a l to

p rofund izac iOn d c u na d es igua l d i s tr ibuc ión d c l a r i queza , e l lo i r Ia a pa rc jado a l ac on so l idac iOn d c u na

r ango7l a l a q ue s o lo p od Ian a ccede r d e term inado s i nd iv iduos . E i q ue l a mayo r Ia s ean a demás

a r is toc rac ia ,c omo p a rece d e sp rende r se d cL aa l i rmac ión d c D iodo ro S Icu io ( X I , 7 8 , 5 ) a l r e fer ir se a l s I cu lo Dudec io , d e l q ue d ice q ue e ra im " hombre d e u na

b raqu icd fa lo s7 2 q ue e n e ic on jun to d c L ap ob lac iOn n o r ep re sen tan má s d e l 2 5 ,27% , c on a scend ien te s e n e i p ob ia m ien to t a layO t ico d c o r igcn o r ien ta l7 3 c i rcun s tanc ia q ue , s i n embargo , n o s e p roduce e n l a v ec ina n ecrópo l is d e l I lo t d e i s P o r ro s74 , d onde l o s b raqu imo r fo s n op a san d e l 1 6 ,3% ,f r en te au n8 2 ,6% d c d o l icomo r fo s ,p od r Ia h ace rno s p en sa rq ue e s tamo s a n te u n s cgmen to s oc ia l c on e s ta tu s d c p r iv i ieg io e n c l c on jun to d cl ap ob lac iOn i s lcüa . S egu ra inen te p od r Ian a f iad ir se a l guno s e j emp los má s , p ero n o p re tendemos h acer u n i nven ta r io e xhaus t ivo d c t oda s e s ta s s i tuac ione s , s i no s O lo p re sen ta rl a s m á sI l ama t iva sc omo a poyo d e l mode lo d c f o rmac ión s oc ia l q ue e s tamo s e sbozando . A iguna s d c l a s e xpues ta s , c omo S on B o rona t y L a P un ta , c o r rc sponden af e cha s t a rd Ia s d c l ac u l tu ra t a iayó t ica ,

f am i l ia r enomb rada ypode rosa " . I NC IDENC IA DE LA COLON IZAC ION PUN ICA EN LA D INAM ICA S OC IAL INDfGENA L a c o lon izac iOn i mp l ica f o rzo samen te u n c on tac to a s imé t r ico e n t re d os c u l tu ras q ue d e term ina u na r e lac ión d c i n te rcamb io d es igua l , c oncep to q ue S . A in in75b p ropu so p ara e l a ná l is is d c l a s r e lac ioncs e conOm ica s q ue s e e s tab lecen e n t re c l c ap i ta l ismo c en tra l yl ap e r ife r ia d e l s i s tcma . S u mé todo d ca ná l is is yg ran p a r te d e l c orpu sc oncep tua l ,c on L a s n ece sa r ia s y i Og ica s c o r recc ione s , t i de u t i l idad t amb ién p a ra c l e s tud io d c l ac o lon izac iOn a n t igua y s u i mpac to e n l a s f o rmac iones s oc ia le s i nd Igcna s s ob re l a s q ue a que l la s e

c uando y ac li mpac to d cl ac o lon izac iOn s eh ab Ia d e jado n o ta r , s i n emba rgo l o s c r ecmo sa dn v á l ido sp a ra i l u s t ra r l o s a spec to s i n s t i tuc iona le s q ue n o s o cupan , d eb ido t amb idn a q ue n o c reemo s q ue e i f ac to r c o lon ia l

i mp ian ta . L ad i a ldc t ica c en t ro -per if e r ia , e n c lc on tex to

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p ropo rc iona u na h e r ra rn icn ta d c t r aba jo b á s ica y t i i l

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p a ra c la ná l i s i s d cp roce so s c o lon ia le sc omo c iq ue a qu I p re tendemo se s tud ia r .

c o lomzac ión , c omo a ho ra v e remo s , f ue ai n ten s i l ica r a i guna s t c ndcnc ia s y a p re sen te s e n l ap reco lon izac ión ,

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3 08

s in

d uda n o s

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

NOTAS 1 -E . ALVARO , A nd l i s i se spac ia ld el o sp ob lados t a layO t ico se nl ai s la d e Menorca . , Hor na !P ro f . M . A lmag ro B a sch , v o l . 1 1 1 , 1 983 ,p . 193 -203 ;J . COLL ,A p rox imac io al ' organ i t zac ió t e r r i tor ia ld e l aV a i ld e S ó l ler (Ma l lorca ) d uran t l ap ro toh is lor ia , Hor n . a !P ro f .M .T a r rade l l ,U n iv d cB a rce lona ( e np r en sa ) ;J . ARA MBURU -ZABALA , P a t ron d e a sen ta in ien to d el ac u l tu ra t o ia yó t ica ,S agun tum ( e np r en sa ) . 2 -R . CHAP MAN , L . af ormac ión d el a ss oc iedade sc omp le ja s ,B a r ce lona , 1 991 .p . 343 -345 . 3 -V .M .GUERRERO , F ormac iOn s oc ia l i nd I gena yr e lac ione s c o lon ia le s e n l ap ro toh i s tor ia b a lea r ,G e r ión , 1 , ( e n p r en sa ) 4 -M . S A I IL INS ,L a ss oc iedade st r iba le s , B a rce lona , 1 984 ,p . 152 . 5 -G . L ILL IU , C enno s u i pa lr ecen t is cav id e l v i l ia i oi a la io t ico d iS e sP a i sse sa dA r id - Ma iorca , B a lea r i S tud i S a r ‚

d i , 1 8 , 1 962 -63 ,p . 22 -48 ;I b id . , I nf o rme s obre l aI Vc ampana d ee scavac ione se n S e sP a i s se s( Ar ta - Ma l lorca ) d el a M i s iOn I t a l iana ,N o t . A rq .H i spán ico ,V I I , 1 3 , 1 963 ( 1965 ) ,p . 116 -i30 . 6 -H .P . UERPMANN , D ie T i e rknochef l inde a u sd er t a layo t -S ied lung v on S i l lo t , München ,1 971 . 7 -E l d e sg io se c ab ra -ove ja e sr n á s d i f Ic i i d c e s tab lece r ,p ue s t e ncr no s 4 . 981 r e s to sd c o v icáp r ido s s i n d i fe rem ia r ,p o r 1 . 118 d co ve ja y 785 d cc ab ra b i en i d en t if icado s . 8 -M . F ERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ! C . ENSE I AT / B . ENSERAT , E lpob lado d eA lma l lut r ( E scorca , B a leare s ) , E xc . A rq .e nE spana ,7 3 , Mad r id , 1 971 . 9 -V .M . GUERRERO , L ac o lon i zac iOn p ün ica d e Ma l lorca . B a se s a rqueo iógca sp ara s us i s tema l i lac ión ,T e s is D oc t o ra l , UNED , Mad r id , 1 993 ,p . 1258 -1263 . 1 0 -J .D . HUGHES ,L ae co logla d el a sc i v i l i zac ione sa n t igua s , Mex ico , 1 981 , p49 -50 . l i -P . GASULL !V . LULL !M .E . S ANAHUJA ,S on F orné sI :L af u se t a layO t ica , BAR ,

m iS er ie s ,2 09 ,

1 984 ,p . 83 -85 .

1 2 -GAS IJLL ! LULL ! SANAHU JA ,S on F orne sI . . ,c i t . ,p . 83 1 3 -GASULL ! LULL ! S ANAHU JA ,S on F orne sI . . ,c i t . ,p . 84 . 1 4 -G rande sv a s i ja si g ua le s al a sd cS on F o rné s a pa r ec ie ron c lt a la io td cS on Oms i l ena sd ct r igo c a rbon izado ( I néd i to ) . 1 5 -GASU W LULL / S ANAHU JA , S on F orné sI . . ,c i t . ,p . 85 . 1 6 -L .R .B INFORD ,E nb u sca d e lpasado , B a rce lona , 1 991 ,p . 239 . 1 7 -M .FERNANDEZ -M IRANDA ,S ecuenc ia c u l tu ra ld el aP reh istor ia d e Ma li o rca ,Mad r id , 1 978 . 1 8 -S .D . SAHL INS ,L a ss oc iedade st r iba le s ,B arce lona , 1 984 ,p . 120 -123 . 1 9 -SAHL INS , L a ss oc iedad e s . . . ,c i t . ,p . 85 ys i g . 2 0 -Una s i tuac ión p ara le la p uedc p l an tea r se t amb idn p am Meno rca ,M . FERNANDEZ -M IRANDA , L at r ans ic ión h a c i al ac u l tura t a layö t ica e n Menorca ,T rab . d cP reh " . ,4 9 , 1 991 , p3 7 -50 . 2 1 -SAF IL INS ,L a ss oc iedad e s . . . ,c i t . ,p . 129 ys i g . 2 2 -E .R . S ERV ICE ,P r im i t ive S oc ia lO rgan i za t ion , N ew Yo rk , 1 962 ;I b id . ,L os o r I gene sd e lE s tado yl aC iv i l i zac ión , Mad r id , 1 990 ,p . 34 ;J .ALC INA !J . PALOP , E nt o rno a lc oncep to d ej ef a tura ,J . ALC INA ,J . , L ac u l tu ra t a I na c omo s oc iedad d e t r an s ic ión e n tre l o s n i ve le s t r iba l yd ej ef a sura s , e n " La c u l tu ra t a mna " , B ib l io teca d e l VC en tena r io , Mad r id , 1 983 , p . 69 -80 ; I b id . , E lc oncep to d e " j ef a tura" e n e ic on tex to d e l ae vo l ic idn s oc ia l ,A rbo r , t . 123 ( 482 ) , 1 986 ,p . 35 -54 ;H .T . WR IGHT , " Pre s ta te p o l i t ica lf orma t ion s" , O nt h eE vo lu t ion o fC omp lex S oc ie t ie s ,e nE s say si n h ono ro fH . H i jc r , Ma l ibt i , 1 984 , p . 4 1-77 ; C .G . WAGNER ,L aj ef a tu ra c omo i n s tr z i 'nen to d ea nd l i s i sd e l h i s tor ia d o r .C ue s t ione st e O r ica sy m e todo lóg ica s , E spac io yO rgan izac ion S oc ia l , Mad r id , 1 990 ,p . 91-108 . 2 3 -SAHL INS , L a ss oc iedad e s . c i t . ,p . 146 ;S ERV ICE ,P r im i t ive . . . ,c i t . ,p . 144 . 2 4 -B INFORD , E nb u a . . . ,c i t . ,p . 235 -236 ;t amb ién M . HARR IS ,C an i l i al e s yr eye s , Mad r id , 1 977 ,p . 98 -119 ;I b id . ,E l . .,

p o t la tch ,e n V aca s , c e rdos ,g uer ra s yb ru ja s , Mad r id , 1 990 ,p . 102 -120 . 2 5 -DON 'INGUEZ MONEDERO ,A .J . ,L o sg r ie gos d cO cc id en te ys u sd t f eren te s m odos d ec on tac to c on l a sp ob lac io n e s i n d I gena s . I .E lm omen to d ef un d ac iOn d e l ac o l c v z ia , C uad . d cP reh a yA rq . , Un iv . Au tónor na d c Mad r id , 1 8 , 1 99 1 ,p . 149 -i7 7 2 6 -SERV ICE ,L os o r Igene s . . . ,c i t . ,p ill 2 7 -La c oncepc ión b ea t I f ica yc a s i a l tru i s ta q ue E .R . S erv ice m an if ie s ta e nr e lac idn c on c lr o l d cl aj e fa tu ra ys ul i na je h as i do a cer tadan ien te d i scu t ido p o rC .G . WAGNER , L aj ef a tu ra c omo i n s t rumen t o . . . ,c i t . ,p . 96 ,n o ta 8 . 2 8 -SERV ICE ,L os o r I gene s . . . ,c i t . ,p . 93 -94 . 2 9 -SERV ICE , L o so r Igene s . . . ,p ill . 3 0 -Lo so r Igene s . . . ,c i t . ,p . 321 ; HARR IS ,C anIba le s yr eye s ,c i t . ,p . 112 -113 ;R . CARNE IRO , AT heory o ft h eo r i g in o f t h eS t a te , S c ience , 1 69 , 1 970 ,p . 733 -738 .

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31 -ALC INA ,L ac u l tura l a ma . . . ,c i t . ,p . 72 3 2WAGNER , L aj ef a tura c omo i n s t rumen to . . . ,c i t . 3 3 -F recuen temen te d enom inado s e nl ab ib l iog ra f la m a l lo rqu ina c omo " t i imu lo s" , p e ro p en samo s q ue e s ta d enom ina c i ón d eber la r e serva r se p ara u na a rqu i tec tu ra f une r a r ia e spec i l ica yb i en c onoc ida . 3 4 -V .M . GUERRERO , U n i n ien lo d e a nd l i s i s e t noarqueddg ico d e ls an iva r io t a layó l ico ma l lorquln , C uademo s d c P reh . yA rq . ( ' is te l lonen se s , 1 5 , p375 -400 . 3 5 -GASULL / LULL ! SANA I IU JA ,S on F orne s1 . . ,c i t . ,p . 84 . 3 6 -CHAP MAN ,L af ormac ion . . . ,c i t . p 347 -348 . 3 7 -T6 rm ino u t i l izado p a ra d ef in i rl aa rqu i tec tu ra monumen ta l c omp ie ja ,e qu iva len te t a it h idn a" a rqu i tec tu r ad ep ode r " ya l a nak ioron g r iego . P uede i nc lu ir se a qu l t amb ién l aa rqu i tec tu ra p a la iega e n tend ida e n s u s en t ido g ene r ico c omo c on s t rue c i ón d et amaho mayo r ymonumen ta ll i gada al af i gu ra q ue d e ten ta e ip ode r ,c on f unc ione sd cv i v ien d a ,e conóm ica s ,a dm in is t ra t iv a s ,s oc ia ie s ei d eo ióg ica s ,q ue n os ee xc iuyen e n t re s f( 0 . AURENC I IE , L' o r ig ine d u t emp le ed up a la is d an s l e s c i v i l isa t ion s d e l a Mé sopo lam ie A nc ienne ,K tema , 7 , 1 982 , p . 237 -260 ; J . MARGUE RON ,A ppar i t ion d up a la is a u P roche -Or ien t , e nE . LEVY ,L es y s lèma p a la t ia le n O r ien t , e n G race e ia R ome ,

A c t e s d uC o l loque d c S t ra sbou rg ( 1985 ) , 1 987 ,p .9 -38 ;M . ALMAGRO -GORBEA / A . DOM INGUEZ /F . LOPEZ AMB ITE , C ancho R oano . U np a lac io o r ien ta l i zan le e n l aP eninsu la I bé r ica , Mad r ide r M i t te i lungen , 3 1 , 1 990 , p . 251 -308 ; M . AL MAGRO -GORBEA , P a lac io y o rgan izac ión s oc ia l e n l aP en in su la I bé r ica , VC o loqu io s ob re L engua s yC u l tu ra sP re r romana sd cl aP en in su la I bénca ,K ö ln ( 1989 ) ,S a lamanca , 1 993 ,p . 21-48 . 3 8 - WR IGHT ,P res ta te p o l i t ica l . . . ,c i t . ,p . 43 -44 3 9 -J . ARA MBURU -ZABALA ,P a t ron d ea sen tam ien to d el ac u l tura t a layO t ica d e Ma l lorca , ( e np r en sa ) . 4 0 -L . AMOROS / A . GARC IA BELL IDO ,L os h o i la zgo s a rqueolOg ico s d e S on F ava r , A rch . E sp . d e A rq . , XX , 6 6 , Mad r id , 1 947 ,p .3 -27 . 4 1- M . AL MAGRO -GORBEA ,T ar te so d e sde s u sa rea sd ei nf luenc ia :l as oc iedadpa lac ia le nl aP en insu la I bé r ica ,e n ALVAR ] BLAZQUEZ ( FA s . ) ,L os e n igma sd e T ar te so , Mad r id , 1 993 ,p .1 39 -161 . 4 2 -La i n te rp re tac ión d c e s ta s e s ta tu i l ia s c omo u n t r a sun to i nd Igena d e l Ma r te i t á l ico n o i nva l ida l aa rgu i ien tac ión , p ue s t amb ién e i Ma r te i t á l ico s e i n sc r ibe e n e s ta m isma i n te rp re tac ión d c d i v in idad t u te la r d e l l i na je p r inc ipe sco ( ALMAGRO -GORBEA ,T ar te so . . . ,c i t . ,p . 154 ) 4 3 -AMOROS ! GARC IA BE I J1 )0 , L os h al la zgo s . . . ,c i t . 4 4 -G . ROSSELLO , Ma l lorca e ne lB ronce F ina l( s .SXV I -X I I Ia .C . ) ,2 °C ong . " Un M i l lemo d iR e laz ion i f r al aS a rdeg n a eiP ac s id e l Med i ter raneo "S e la rg iu s -Cag l iar i , 1 987 ,p . 4 .21 -437 . 4 5 -G . ROSSELLO ,L ac u l tu ra t a layO l ica e n Ma l lorca , P a lma , 1 979 ,f i g .3 1 . 4 6 -G . ROSSELLO , L ac u l tu ra . . . ,c i t. ,p . 112 4 7 -L . P LANTALA MOR , L 'arqu i tec tu ra p reh is tôr ica ip ro toh is tèr ica d e Menorca ie ls eu marc c u l tura l , Mao , 1 991 , p . 324 -332 . 4 8 -G . ROSSELLO , E xcavac ione s e n e lc on jun to t a layO t ico d eS on Oms ( Pa lma d e Ma l lorca ) , E xc .Arq . e nE spaf ia , 3 5 , Mad r id 1 962 ; G . ROSELLO / J . CAMPS .L a se x cavac ione sd eS on Om s (Ma l lorca ) 1 969 -1971 ,X I I C ong . N a l . d e A rq . ,J aén 1 971 , p . 30 1-306 ; L . P LANTALAMOR I C . CATARELLAS , L a n ecr ,o l is d e S on Om s ( Pa lma d e Ma l lo rca ) , X I I C ong . N a l . d c A rq . , J aén 1 971 , p . 307 -310 ; G . ROSSELLO / V .M . GUERRERO ,L a n arOpo l L s i n f an t i ld eC a rS an tamar ier ( Son Om s ) ,N o t . A rq . H i spán ico , 1 5 , 1 983 ,p . 407 -448 . 4 9 -M . AL MAGRO -GORBEA , E lp e r I odo o r ien ta l i zan te e n E x tremadu ra , e n " La c u l tu ra t a r té s ica e nE x t remadu ra" , Mé r ida , 1 990 , p .85 -126 ; ALMAGRO -GORBEA / DOM INGUEZ /LOPEZ -A MB ITE ,C ancho R oano . . . ,a t ; AL MA GRO -GORBEA ; L a o rgan i zac iön p a lac ia l .. ‚ c i t . ; b id . , T a r te so . . . , c i t . ; E .A . LLOBRB3AT , D os t emp le s i b èr ic s a l ' i n ier io rd e lp ob la td el I l le ta d e l sB an y e t s ,F onamen t s ,5 ,1 985 ,p . 103 -1 1 2 . 5 0 -Pa ra C ancho R oano s eh an s ef la lado ,e n t re o t ra s : a )R e sa l ta rl aa u tor idad ye ic on t ro l d e l d ueño s ob re l as oc iedad , b )D ive r so s ámb i to s b i en d ef in ido s ,c omo v i v ienda d e l a mo , san tua io d iná s t ico ol uga rd c e xa l tac ión i d eo ióg ica d c s u mo rado r ;c )A lmacén d ca l imen to sp roceden te sd cd one s ,e t c . ( ALMAGRO -GORBEA / DO M INGUEZ / LOPEZ AMB ITE ,Cancho R oano . . . ,c it .) 5 1-V .M . GUERRERO , P os ib le ss ac r if c ios i n f an t i le s e n l ac u l tu ra t a layO t ica d e Ma l lorca , e n " I nhumac ione s i n f an t i l e s e n e i ámb i to d e l Med i te r ráneo e spano l ( S ig lo s V I I a .E . a ll ! d .E . )" , C uad . d cP reh . yA rq . C a s te i lonen se s , 1 4 , p . 19 1 -209 . 5 2 -V .M . GUERRERO , I n id igen i sme ic o lon i t zac iópün ica aMa l lorca ,P a lma , 1 985 ,p . 1 9 -2 1 . 5 3 -i . COLO M INES , L e s S a l ine s d e S an lany l . P ob la t d e l s A n h igors ,A nua r i I n s t i tu t d 'E s tud is C a ta lan s , XX , v o lV I , 1 9 15 -20 ,p . 567 -569 .

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5 4 -ALMAGRO -GORBEA / DOM INGUEZ ! LOPEZ -A MB ITE ,C ancho R oano . . . , c i t . , ALMAGRO -GORBEA , P a la c i o yo rgan i zac iOn s oc ia l . . . ,c i t . 5 5 -ALMAGRO -GORBEA , T a r le so d e sd es u sa rea sd ei nf luenc ia c i t . ,p . 144 . 5 6 -E .O . MELSEN !A l i i , P ogg io C iv i ta te (Mu r lo ) , S .S TOPPON I ( Ed . ) , 1 985 ,p . 64 -154 ;J .A . SANTOS , L ac a sapa la .. ‚

c i oe t rusca d eP ogg io C iv i ta te , Mur lo , T oscana ,R ev .d cA rqueo log Ia , 1 25 , 1 991 ,p . 52 -56 5 7 -FERNÁNDEZ -M IRANDA ! ENSE I AT / ENSE 1IAT ,E lp ob iado . . . ,c i t . 5 8 -L . P LANTALA MOR ,E ls an luar io d eS on aC aça sana yl a sr e lac ione sc on e i Med i te rráneo C en tra l yO cc iden ta l , e n " Un m i l lenn io d ir e laz ion i f r a L aS a rdegna eiP ae s i d e l Med i ter raneo" , S e La rg iu s -Cagl iar i , 1 986 , p . 533 -546 ; I b id . ,L ' arqu i tec tu ra p reh i s tôr ica ip ro toh i s tOr ica d e Meno rca Ie is eu ma rc c u l tu ra l , Mao , 1 99 1 ,p . 373 -392 . 5 9 -CHAPMAN , L af ormac ión . . . ,c i t . ,p . 342 . 6 0 -BARCELO , l n t roducc ión . . . c i t ; CELEST INO , L a s e s te la s d ecoradar . . . , c i t . ; ALMAGRO -GORBEA ,E s te la s a n I r opo m orfa s . . . ,c i t . 6 1-E . EVANS PR IT CHARD , T r ibus yc l ane s l u os ,e nI b id . , L a m u je re nl a ss oc ied idspr im i t iva s ,B a rce lona , 1 971 , p .2 25 -226 . 6 2 -RU TZ DELGADO , M .M . , L as n ecrópo l i s l a r té s ica s :p re s l ig io ,p ode r yj era rqu Ia s ,e nM .E . AUBEI ! A l i i , T ar te s s os .A rqueo log Ia P ro toh i s tó r ica d e lB a jo G uada lqu iv ir , S aba d e l l , 1 989 ,p . 247 -286 . 6 3 J . CULL ,L aE vo iuc ión d e lr i tua lf une rar io e n l ac u l tura t a lyó t ica , T e s i sD oc to ra l , Un iv .I L le sB a lea r s , 1 989 . ‚

6 4 -CULL ,L ae vo iuc ión d e lr i tua l . . . ,c i t . ,p . 668 6 5 -CULL ,L ae vo luc ión d e lr i tua l . . . ,c i t . ,p . 668 . 6 6 - WR IGHT ,P re s ta te p o l i t ica l . . . ,c i t . ,4 3 -44 . 6 7 -V .M . GUEREERO ,E ly ac im ien tof une rar io d eS on B orona t( Ca lv iá , Ma l lor ca ) ,B o l . S oc . A rq . L u l iana ,3 7 , 1 979 , p . 1 -58 . 6 8 -L .R . B INFORD , Mor tua ry p rac t ice s : t h e i rs t udy a nd t h e i rp o ten t ia l , " An A rchaeo log ica l P e r spec t ive" , S an ina r P re s s ,N ew Y o rk , 1 972 ,p . 208 -243 ;J . TA INTER , Mor tua ry p rac t ice sa nd t h es t udy o fpreh i s tor ic s oc ia ls i s tem s . e n M . S CH IFFER ( c d .) , A dvance s i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , v o l . 1 , A cadem ic P re s s , N ew Yo rk , 1 978 , p . 105 -14 1 . 6 9 -V .M . GUERRERO , L o s s a rcof agos t a u romorf os d e " La P un ta " . U n c a so d ea cu l tu rac ión i nd i gena e n l ap ro loh i s tor ia d e Ma l lorca ,R iv . S tud iF en ic i , XV ,2 , 1 987 ,p .1 63 -178 . 7 0 -M . TARRADELL ,L a n ec rópo l i sd e " Son R ea l " yl a " I l ia d e l s P or ros " (Mal lo rca ) , E xc A rq . e nE spaf ia , 2 4 , Ma d r id , 1 964 . 7 1 -CULL ,L ae vo luc ión d e lr i tua l . . . ,c i t . ,p . 681-682 . 7 2 -A . FONT ,E s tud io d el o sr e s to sh umanos p roceden te sd el an ec rópo l i sd eS on R ea l .A lcud ia . Ma l lorca , T e s is D oc t o ra l , B a rce lona , 1 977 ; I b id . , N uevo t e s l imon io d e l ap re senc ia e n S on R ea l (Ma l lorca ) d e b r u icef a los p lanoc c i p i ia le s , Ampur ia s ,4 1-42 ,p . 139 -154 . 7 3 -GUERRERO , L aco lon i zac ión . . . ,c i t . ,p . 122 -123 . 7 4 -A . MALGOSA ,L ap ob lac ió t a la ià t ica d e Ma l lorca , B a rce lona , 1 992 ,p .455 . 7 5a -A .J . DO M INGUEZ , L ac o lon i zac ión g r iega d e S i c i l ia . G r iegos , i nd I genas yp ün ico se n l aS i c i l ia a rcd ica : I n te r a cc ión ya cul iurac ión , BAR ,I n t . S e r ie s ,5 49 , 1 989 ,p .6 6 . 7 5b -S . AM IN ,E ld e sar ro l lo d e s igua l ,E d .F on tane l la ,B a rce lona , 1 975 ;I b id . , I mper ia l i smo yd e sar ro l lo d es igua l ,B a r c e lona , 1 976 . 7 6 -M . RO WLANDS ! M . LARSEN ! K . KR IST IANSEN ( Ed s . ) ,C en tre a nd P er iphe ry i nt h eA nc ien t Wor ld , N ew sD i r e c t ion s ,C amb r idge , 1 987 ;T .C . CHA MP ION ( Ed . ) , C en tre a nd P e r iphe ry .C ompara t ive S tud ies i nA rcheo log ie , U nw in H yman , L ondon , 1 989 . P am l ap en in su la I bé r ica , c en t rado b á s icamen te e n e i mundo t a r té s s ico , C .G . WAG NER ,L as e s truc tura sd mundo t a r té s ico ,e nJ . ALVAR JJ .M . BLAZQUEZ , L o s e n igma s d e T ar te so , Madr id , 1 993 , p . 103 -116 ; I b id . , A spec to s s oc ioeconóm icos d e l ae xpan s ion f en ic ia e n O cc iden te : E l i n te rcanb io d e s igua l yl a c o lon i zac iOn a g r I co la ,R ev .E s tud is d 'H is to r ia E conóm ica ,U n iv .I le sB a lea r s ,( e np r en sa ) 7 7 -C .G . WAGNER , N o ta se n t o rno al aa cu l turac ión d e T a r te s sos ,G e r ion ,4 , 1 986 ,p . 129 -160 ; I b id . , Me todo logl ad e l a a cu l turac ión . C on s iderac ione s s ob re l a sf orma s d e l c on tac to c u l tu ra l ys u s c on secuenc ias , Hor n . aJ .M . B lazquez , I , Mad r id ( e np ren sa ) , q ue e nl o s momen to s d cr edac ta re s ta s p ág ina s a da n oh emo s t e n ido o po r tumdad d cc on su l t .a r ;J . ALVAR , E lc on tac lo i n te rcu l tura le nl o sp rocesos d ec amb io ,G e r ión ,8 ,1 990 ,p . 11-27 . 7 8 -M .E . AUBET , E l i mpac to f en ic io e n T a r te ssos : L a se sf e ras d e i n teracc iOn , " La c u l tu ra t a r té s ica yE x t remadu ra " , Mé r ida , 1 990 , p . 29 -44 ; J . BARCELO , U na i n terp re tac ión s oc ieconOm ica d e l B ronce F ina l e n e iS udoe s te d e l a P en in su la I bé r ica , T rab . d e

P reh a . ,

4 9 , 1 992 ,p . 259 -275 .

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7 9 -A . PR IETO , L ad evo t io i bé r ica c omo f orma d cd epender ia e n l aH ispan ia r omana , e n " Co lona to yo t ra s f o rma s d ed ependenc ia n oe sc iav is ta " , Memo r ia sd cH is to r ia A n t igua ,O v iedo , 1 978 ,p . 13 1 136 . 8 0 -M .D . S AHL INS ,S obre l as oc io log la d e li n te rcamb io p r im i t ivo ,e nI b id . ,E conom la d cl aE dad d cP ied ra , Mad r id , 1 977 ,p . 246 . 8 1 -SAF IL INS ,L a ss oc iedade s . . . ,c i t . , 1 29 -130 . 8 2 -HERODOTO ,I V , 1 96 8 3 -C .G . WAGNER , A spec tos s oc ioeconöm icos . . . ,c i t . 8 4 -SAHUNS , S obre l as oc io log la . . . ,c i t . ,p . 322 8 5-WAGNER , A spec los s oc ieconöm icos . . . ,c i t . 8 6 -DO M LNGUEZ MONEDERO , L a sg r iegos d eO cc iden te . . . ,c i t . 8 7 -YON , Déve loppemen t sr écen t ss u rf r iy ule p hé n ic ienne d eK i t ion , IC ong .

m iS tud iF en ic i eP un ic i ,v o l . 1 1 1 ,R oma ,

1 99 1 ,p . 1291-i297 . 8 8 -J .P . MOREL ,L e s r e la t ions e conom ique sd ans l ' Occ iden tg rec ,e n " Fo rme d ic on ta t to ep roce s s i d ii r a sfo rma z ion e n e ue s oc ie tà a n t iche" ,( Co r tona 1 981) ,R oma , 1 983 ,p . 549 -580 . 8 9 -V .M . GUERRERO , L ' exp lo tac ió a n h iga d e l e s s a l ine s , e n I b id . , L a C o lon ia d e S an : J ord i (Ma l lorca ) . E s tud i s d ' a rqueo log ia ie p igraf ia ,P a lma , 1 987 ,p .59 -200 9 0 -La m isma d t ica d ec ompo r ta in ien to S eo b se rva e ne ib ando le r ismo a n t iguo , q ue j amá s e f ec tuaba s u s r a z ia s s ob re s u sp rop ia st r ibus . A . GARC IA BELL I IDO , B anda s yg uer r i l la s e n l a sl u cha sc on R oma , e n " Con i l ic to s ye s t ruc tu r a s s oc ia le se nl aH i span ia An t igua " , Mad r id , 1 97 7 ,p . 13 -60 9 1-HOMERO , Od isea ,X IV ,2 20y s i g . 9 2 -ESTRABON ,I I ,5 , 2 ;F LORO ,1 ,43 ; OROS IO ,V . 1 3 ,1 9 3 -A . TCHERN IA ,L ey i nd el ' I ta l ie r oma ine ,R oma , 1 986 ,p . 91 9 4 -DO M INGUEZ ,L ac o lon i zac ión g r iega . . . ,c i t . ,p . 648 . 9 5 -S . GORNES / J .M . GUAL I A . LOPEZ , L ac o lon i t zac ió p ün ica al e s B a lea rs . U na v i s ió c r I t ica , " La P reh is to r ia d c l e sI le sd cl a Med i te r ran ia O cc iden ta l " , XJ o rnade sd 'E s tud is H i s tônc sL oca l s ,P a lma , 1 992 ,p . 443 -452 . 9 6 -ALC INA ,L ac u l tura l a ma . . . ,c i t . ,p . 69 9 7WAGNER ,L a se s t ruc tura s . . . ,c it . 9 8 -POL IB IO , XV , 1 9 9 -J .M . BLAZQUEZ , P rob lema se conOm icos ys oc ia le sd cl o ss i g lo s VyI Ve nD iodoro d eS i c i l ia , e n " C la se s yc on f l ic to ss oc ia le se nl aF l is tona" , Mad r id , 1 977 ,p . 13 -62 . 1 00 -PR IETO ,L ad evo t io i b é r ica . . . ,c i t . 1 0 1-A . RU IZ /M . MO UNOS ,Los I bero s , B a rce lona , 1 992 ,p . 264 -267 . 1 02GARC IA BEL UDO , B anda s yg ue r r i l la s . . . ,c it . 1 03 -D IODORO ,V .3 4 ,6 : " . .Hay u na c o s tumb re muy p rop ia d cl o s I b e ro s ,m á s s ob re t odo d c l o s l u s i tano s , ye sq ue , c uando a l canzan l ae dad a du l ta ,a que l lo sq ue s ee ncuen t ran má sa pu rado sd cr e cu r so s ,p e ro d e s tacan p o re iv igo rd c s u s c ue rpo s ys ud enuedo , p roveyéndo se d c v a lo r yd ca rma s v an au n i r se e nl a s a spe reza s d cl o s mon te s ; a l l If o r m an b anda s c on s ide rab le sq ue r e co r ren I be r ia ,a cumu lando n queza sc on c lr obo ye l lo c on e i má sc omp le to d e sp re c i od ct o do "( c i t . p o rG a rc ia B e l l ido ,B anda s yG ue rr i l la s . . . ,c i t . ) 1 04 -FLORO ,I ,43 1 05 -A . P R IETO , U np un to o scuro e n l ai n va s iOn r omana d cl a sB a lea re s :l ap i ra te rI a H ab is , 1 8 -19 , 1 987 -88 ,p . 271 2 75 . 1 06En t re o l ra s , Od i sea ,1 1 ,314 ys i g . ;X IV ,9 5 ys i g . ; XV ,4 61-465 ; XV I I ,2 89 ys i g . ; XV I I ,4 32 ys i g . 1 07A rg . ,I ,1 269 ys i g . 1 08 -TUC ID IDES ,H is tor ia d cl aG ue rra d e lP e lopone so , 1 ,5 1 09 -0d i sea , I V ,4 16440 ;6 67 -673 ;6 75 -683 ;I X , 1 77 -190 . 10 -" . . . e scog ió v e in te h ombre mó se sf or zados . . . ys u sb ravo ss erv ido re st r a jé ron le sl a s ar mas..." ( Od . ,I V , 81 8 -827 ) . 11-" . . . L os mancebos q ue I ca compañan s on l a sq ue md ss obre sa len e ne ip ueb lo , e n tre n oso t ros , yc omo c ap t iOn v i e mba rca r se aMen tor oaim d i os q ue e nt odo l ee ra s eme jan te . . ." ( Od . ,I V ,6 75 -683 ) . 12 -V .M . GUERRERO ,P o s ib le ss ac r if i c ios i n f an t i le se n I ac u l tu ra t a layO t ica d c Ma l lorca , e n " I nhumac iones i n f an t i l e s e n c lá mb i to d e l Med i te r ráneo e spaf io l ( s ig io s V I I a .E . a lId .E .)" , C uad . d c P reh . yA rq . C a s te l ionen se , 1 4 , 1 989 ,p . 191-210 . 13 -Con c a rác te rg ene ra l M . HARR IS / E . ROSS , Mue r te , se .xo y f ecund idad . L ar egu lac iOn d emograf ica e nl a ss oc ie d ade sp re indu s tr ia le s ye n d e sar ro l lo , Madr id , 1 99 1 . D cf o rma n oe xhau s l iva ,t r aba jo s monog ráf ico sm á s r ec ien t e s

3 12

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

q ue r e cogen im s ta tus quaes i ionis y b i bl io g ra f la a n te r io r : C . G . WAGNER ,E l sacrif ic lo d e l moloch en fenicia: una r e spue s ta c u l tura l a dap ta t iva a l a presiön d emogrdf ica , IC ong . m t .S tud i F en ic i eP un ic i , v o l . 1 , R oma , 1 991 , p .411-416 ; I b id . , E n t o rno a l s upue s to c a rdc te r i n cruen lo e i n ic id t ico d e l m o lk , G e r ión , 1 0 , 1 992 , p . 11 -22 ; I b id . ,Prob lemá t ica d el ad i f u s ión d e l Mo lk e nO cc iden ief en ic io p ün ico , ( e np ren sa ) ,c on e xhau s t iva b ib l iog ra l Ia a n t e r io r ys e lecc ión d e f u en te s e s c r i ta s ;C . P ICARD ,L e ss ac r if i ce s Mo lk c he z l e sp un ique s : c e r t i tude s e ih ypo the se s , S em I t ica , XXX IX , " Hor n . a M . S znyce r " , I , 1 990 ,p .77 -88 ; G . d e l OLMO , P e rv ivenc ia s c ananea s( ugar I t icas ) e n e ic u l tof en ic io -I I . E lc u l to " m lk " , S em I t ica , XXX IX ,c i t . ,p . 67 -76 ; S . MOSCAT I / S .R IB ICHIN T ,I is ac rf lc io d e i b amb in i : u n a gg iornamen to ,A ccad . N az . d c i L ince i ,n .266 ,R oma , 1 991 ;T amb ién G . HAUSFATER ,I nf an t ic ide : C ompa ra t ive a nd E vo lu t ionary P e r spec t ive s ,C u r ren t An th ropo logy ,2 5 ,4 ,1 984 ,p . 500 -502 ; E .L ICHTY , D emons a nd p opu la t ion c on tro l , E xped i t ion , 1 3 , 1 971 ,p . 22 -26 ;A .D . K IL MER , T he Me sopo tam ian C oncep to fO ve rpopu la t i on a nd I t s S o lu t ion a s R ef l ec ted i n t h e My tho logy O r ien ta l ia , 4 1 ,2 , 1 972 , p . 160 -178 ; E . L IP INSK I , S ac r if i ce s d ' enf an t s aC a r thage e id an s l em onde s em i t ique O r ien ta l , S tud ia P hoen ic ia V I , L euven , 1 988 , p .1 51-163 , H . BEN IC I IOU SAFAR ,S ur l ' i nc iné ra l i on d e s e nf an t sa ux t o phe t s d e C a r thage e id eS ou s se , R ev . d e LH io ire d e s R e l ig ion s , CCV -1 /1988 ,p . 57 -68 . 14 -C . VENY ,C orpu sd el a s i n sc r ipc ione sb a leá r ica sh a . s ia l ad om inac iön á rabe , Mad r id , 1 964 ,p .34 ys i g .

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L 'ES ISTENZA D I UNA COSC IENZA REL IG IOSA NELL 'UO MO P RE ISTOR ICO DE li A " OLD EUROPE" E DEL MONDO MED ITERRANEO : T EST I MON IANZE ARCHEOLOG ICHE

3 5

RO MOLO FOR MENT IN I

V i ad e lC o l l i ,6 L aS p ez ia I t a l ia

L'a r te p r e i s tonca I ms emp re a vu to u na e s senz ia le f unz i o ne p ra t ica n e l r i to f une ra r io : q ue l la c i oè d i c r ea re u n o s taco lo i n te l le t tua le a lr i to rno m inacc io so d e l mor to n d mondo d e iv i v i . Et a le f unz ione s i èc e r tamen te e sp l ica ta , n e l la i n ten z i one d e i d ed ican t i , a t t rave r so id ue t em i e sc iu s iv i d e l la r app resen taz ione d iu na p arvenza d ic on t inu i tà d e l le a t t i v i tà v i ta l i ( i mondo d e ic acc ia to r i ,d eg l i a l leva to r i ,d e i d is eduz ione d c i s en s i , m ag ica o ,p i i i s pe sso , a s t ra t tamen t e s imbo l iz -

p astor i) ; ed el le f igure meu te r ea l ist iche

z a te . Ma s eq ue s to

ev e ro ,n e d e r iva l ac o inc idenza d e i

s i t i

c a ra t te r izza t i d a l la p r e senza d e i p rodo t t i d e l l 'a r te p re is t o r ica c on il uogh id ic o l locaz ione d e i mot h . P e r c u i l ec a ra t te r is t iche amb ien ta l i d e l le z one d ip iü d en sa d i s t r ibuz ione d e i p rodo t t i a r t is t ic i p o ssono e s se re r ag ionevo l inen te g iu s t if ica te ,p iu t to s to c he d a l la p re sen z ad e l la man ife s taz ione a r t i s l ica i ns e ,d a l la r ego la g ene r a le d e lr i to f une ra r io ,c onco r rendo e s se a ppun to c on i m p ed imen t i d i c a ra t te re ma ter ia le a q ue l la f unz ione d i r emo ra a lr i to rno d e l mo r to c he al i ve l lo i n te l le t tua le è a f f ida ta a l le r app re sen taz iom d e l l 'a r te f i gu ra t iva . L ec a ra t te r i s t iche a mb ien ta l i n co r ren t i i nu na s va r ia ta s e r ie d is i t i f une rar i , i nc u t s ono p re sen t i f i gu re o s egn i p iü o m eno s i du ramen te r i fenb i l i a i d ue g rand i t em i d e l l 'a r te f une r ar ia , s ono t u t te v a l ide i n fa t t i ac r ea re a pp u n to u no s taco lo ma te r ia le a la e va s ione d e l mo r to c d a l s uo r i to rno m inacc io so n e l mondo d e i v i v i . Es ep a s s iamo i nr a s segna a l cun i e semp i d is i t i p re is t o r ic i i nc i i i s ip o ssono r a vv isa re I cc a ra t ter is t iche a m b i en ta l i c o r r isponden t i a l la mo t ivaz ione d e l la d up l ice f unz ione d il uogo d ic o l locaz ione d e i mo r t i ed im an ife s t a z ione d e l l 'a r te f i gu ra t iva ; d a l le g ro t te d ip in te d ela r e g ione d iS an tande ra i" r ipa r i" d ir occ ia d e l T a s s i l i od e i mon t i D rakensbe rg d e l N a ta l , d a i " pa rch i" d ii n c is iom r upe s t r i d e l la V a lcamon ica aq ue l l i , d ip i t tu re ed im c i s i on i , s u l le j i ve , oa dd in t tu ra n e l le i s o le , d e i g r and i f l u m i d e l la S ibe r ia ;c ir ende remo f a c i lmen te c on to d e l f a t to e he t u tu q ue s t i o s taco l i ma ter ia l i , e he s pe s so s ono s t a t i

i n te rp re ta t i c ome i mped imen t i a l l 'acce sso a ll uogo " s a cr0", e he d oveva e s se re a ppun to i n acces s ib i le a g l i e s t ra n e i , n on p o ssono e s se re ma i s t a t ic on s ide ra t i r ag ionevo l men te mi i mped imen to i n supe rab i le p e r l acces so a l l uogo , eq u ind i a ve rd e te rm ina to l as c e l ta d is i n e he d o v e sse ro e s se re v e ramen te i n acce s s ib i l ia g l i " e s t rane i" .

0gm p e r sona n o rma lmen te v a l ida i n fa t t i ei ng rado , o gg i c ome c e r tamen te a nche a l lo ra , d i g iunge re f i no a l 'u l t imo s a s so f i gu ra to d ele g ro t t ed e l l 'Occ iden te e u ro p eo , s upe rando t r a t t i s co sce s i ei ngombn d io s taco l i , e p a ssagg i n e i q ua l i S i d ebba p rocede re c a rpom oa dd ir i t t u ra s t r i sc iando . Eq ue s to v a le a nche p e r o gm a l t ro i mped imen to a m b i en ta le , i ce rca to o p rocu ra to , p e r is i t i d ia l t ro t i po : 1 l ungh i p e rco r s i d ii mpe rv i s en t ie r i p e rr agg iunge re i" n p a n" mon tan i ;l as ca la ta d ib r ev i t r a t t id i" r occ ia " p e ra r r i va re s a l le n i p ide t e r razze f l uv ia l i ; i ls upe r amen to d ii m c o r so d ' acqua p e rr agg iunge re l ' i so la f l uv ia le ol az ona d i c onf luenza d id ue f l u in i ; i lc umu lo d i g ro sse p i e t re e he c h iude l ' acce sso a du na v a l leco la ar i p ide p a re t i . 0 si CSt e nde " an a s t ro "p e rn ch iuder s i s us es t e sso ei s o la re u na b r eve z ona p i anegg ian te . Ma , s ed unque n on s i êm a i n ce rca ta l as i cu rezza d e l l ai n acce s s ib i l i tà d e l s i lo , q ua le a l t ra p o teva e s se re l ar a g ione d e l la s c e l ta d iu na i mpe rv ie tà f a c i lmen te s upe ra b i le , eq u ind i i nu t i le p e r l a d i f e sa d i u na p re sum ib i le s ac ra l i tà d e ls i to? Non s ip uö , aq ue s to p un to ,n on p rende re i nc on s ide r az ione u n 'a l t ra i po te s i d il a vo ro s ugge s t ivamen te p ro me t ten te : q ue l la moe e he g l i i mped imen t i ma te r ia l i e he h anno d e te rm ina to l as c e l ta d e ls i to s ip o te s sero c on s ide r a re a s so lu tamen te i n superab i l i , n on p e rl ' acce sso d e i v i ma p e rl ' eva s ione d e i mo r t i . Imo r t i i n f a t t i ,c ome c ii n segna L at r ad iz ione p opo la re d e l mondo i n te ro , f i nché i ll o ro t r apa sso n on è s anc i to d ala d i s so luz ione d e l le memb ra , p o ssono man tene re u m m in imo d iv i ta l i tà a t t iva ;p e rö s ono c o lp i t i d ap a r t ico la r i m enomaz ion i : n on p o s sono a f f ron ta re l al u ce d e l s o le ;

3 14

ROMOLO FORMENT IN I

n on p o ssono a ve rc on ta t to c on l ' a cqua ; n on p o ssono p i ega re g l i a r t i( g ambe eb racc ia ) .

v i v i ; èa cce t tab i le l ad ef in iz ione d it emp io o s an tua r io ( oc a sa s an tua r io ) , c he d ovrebbe c o msponde re a d u na

Eq u ind i n on s ono i ng rado d ir a gg iunge re l ed imo re d e i v i v i ,s es ono a bba s tanza l on tan i ,p r ima d e l lo s pun ta r d e l s o le c he i a nn ien te rebbe ; n e d is upe ra re u n c o r so d ' acqua ( anche i tp i ü mode s to ) , ea dd in t tu ra d ia t t rave r -

m an ife s taz ione d e l l ' idea r e l ig io sa , p e r q ue l le s t ru t tu re p e rc m ip rodo t t i d e l l 'a r t ep re is to r ica n on s ono a s soc ia t i c on l at r acc ia d ir i t if une r ar i , oa lmeno t a le a s soc iaz ione n on a ppa r ed e lt u t to s i s tema t ica?

s a re u n v ano a l laga to ( c ome n e l le t ombe a " domu s d e j ana s" ) ;n ed ip e rco r re re c amm in i s co sce s i ed i ssem ina t i d ii n c ia lnp i ed i s l ivef l i ( a nche i m g rad ino t r oppo a l to ) ,

P e rq ua le mo t ivo s id ovrebbe ro c on s ide ra re " t emp l i" l eg igan te sche s t ru t tu re i np i e t ra d i Ma l ta? oc a se d ia b i taz ione l ec e l le t te a s e t to re d i c e rch io

p e rché c ad rebbe ro en on p o t rebbe ro r i a lz a r s i . H oa vu to o cca s ione d ip re sen ta r eq ue s ta i po te s id il a v o ro i n im r ecen te c onvegno d i s t ud i ( Va lcamon ica S ympos ium 1 992 ) , r i f e rendon i i a d u na s e r ie d i t e s t i -

t r onca to a lv e r t ice d iL epen sk i V i r? o" c a se s an tua r io " g l i e d if ic i " mono loca l i" d iC a ta l

mon ianze o vv iamen te mo l to r i a ssun t ive ,c he n on h anno t r ova to o b iez ion i , a lmeno i mmed ia te , n e l q ua l if ica to

v e r so u na s c a la mob i le ( d ic mn on r imane t r acc ia ) ,c di n c m ir e s t i uman i s ono r i n t racc iab i l i s o t to l a s t re d ip i e t ra i n te rp re ta te c ome i tl e t to d eg l ia b i tan t iv i v i?

c on se ss . H oc i ta to , at io lo d ie s emp io ,l eC ueva sd eS an tand e r , i mon tan i d e l m e rav ig l io so " pa rco" d e l l 'a r te "

ri p a ri

"

p re i s to r ica d e l T a ss i l i eq ue l l i d e l la r eg ione d e i mon t i D raken sbe rge d e l N a ta l ; is i t i d ii n c is ion i r upe s t r i e n p l e in a i r s a l le r i ve d e l f i ume T om i n S ibe r ia e n e l le i s o le f l uv ia l id e lf l ume Anga rà ( Ka inmen j ie o s t rawa ) . Non h o manca to d i f a r c enno a d u n t i po d i monu men t ip re is to r ic ic on iq ua l i h ou na magg io re " con l iden z a " , ec i oè l es t a tue s m enh ir s el es t a tue s t e te " med i te r r anee "( Roue rgue ,C o r s ica ,S a rdegna eV a ld i Mag ra ) . E dh oc onc lu so c on l af o rmu laz ione d iu na i po te s i d i l a vo ro , c he r i po r to q u i t e s tua lmen te ,p e rt r a rne t os pun t od i im u l teno re r a g ionamen to : L ' a r te p re is to r ica h a s emp re a vu to , e sc lu s ivan ien te , u na e s senz ia le f unz ione p ra t ica n e tr i to f une ra r io ; ec i oè q ue l la d ic r ea re i m i mped imen to i n te l le t tua le a lf u ro re d e l mo r to c he p o t rebbe s p inge r lo a d u nm inacc io so r i -

H uyyuk ( l ap ut a n t ica c i t tà d e l mondo ) , ac m s ia ccede s o l tan to d au na b o to la a per ta s t i l t e t to at e r razza , a t t ra -

P e r n on p a r la re d e l le " ab i taz ion i" d i S ka ra B rae , a nch 'e s se c on imo r t i s o t to , eS op ra ,i ll e t to ( d ip i e t ra ) . od e l ta c o l l ina " s ac ra " d i L u ine i n V a lcamon ica , e d e l la mon tagna " s ac ra "d iH a rK a rkom n e t S ina i . Non s a ra p i t ) p robab i le , c on s ide rando a nche c he s i t r a t ta , i nt u tU q ue s t i c a s i , d is i t i i nc m s ir i pe te s i s tema t i camen te l a c o inc idenza d e l le p a r t ico lar i c ond iz ion i a mb ien ta l i d ii s o lamen to ed id i ff lco l tà d ia cce s so ( ed i e va s ione ) c on l ap re senza d ip rodo t t i d e l l 'a r te p re is to r i c a c l a s s if icab i t i n e l la t ema t ica c ara t te r i s t ica d e i s i t i f u n e rar i , c he s id ebba n cono sce re a nche a d e s s i a ppun to l aq ua t if ica d is i t if une ra r i? N a tu ra lmen te l a s e r ia v er if ica d i u no s o lo d e i c a s i e l enca t i , at i to lo d ie semp io ,r i ch iede rebbe a nn i d ii n da -

t omo n e l mondo d e i v i v i . Et a le f unz ione a vrebbe d ovu to e sp l ica r s i , a lmeno

g i n i ed ir i f le ss ion i , a nche p e rc h i a ve s se t u t ta l ap o s s i b i l i tà d ia cce s so a il uogh i c da l la l e t te ra tu ra s u t " d e l ica t o " a rgomen to . E n on v ar rebbe n eppu re l a p ena d i p o r ta r la at e rm ine , n e l la c on sapevo lezza d e l ta v a l id i tà d e l la f a ta le r ego la d e l q u iu num v i d i tn u l lum v i d i t .

n e l l ' in tenz ione d e i d ed ican t i , a t t rave r so l as ugge s t ione d e id ue t em ie sc lu s iv id e l la r app re sen taz ione d iu na i lu -

E d e cco p e rché m i èv enu to i n men te d i p ropo r re , a nche aq ue s to r i gua rdo ,u na s e r ie d ir i l iev ic he s emb re -

s o r ia p a rvenza d ic on t inu i tà d e l le a t t iv i tA v i ta l i ( i mon d o d e i c acc ia ton ,ne l P a leo l i t ico ,pe r e semp io ) , ed e l le f i gu re d is eduz ione d e i s en s i , t a lvo l ta mag icamen t er e a l i s t iche ( come l ei mmag in i d eg l i a n ima l i ) , ma p iü s pe s s oa s t ra t tamen te s imbo legg ia te ,c ome p e ru ni n c red ib i le

r e bbe ro t e s t imon ia re l ac r ed ib i l i tà d e l la i p o te s i ,r e la t iva m en te a da l cun ic a s i s c e t t if r aq ue l t ip e r iq ua l i èpi nc o -

s en so d ii nna to p udo re . E de cco i tr ag ionamen to : S e èv e ro c he l ' a r te p r e is to r ica s ia s soc ia p e r s ua d e s t i naz ione a ls i to f une ra r io " c ome t a le " , ec i oè ap r e sc in -

d e l l 'uomo p r e is to r ico n e l la o ld E urope , ec i oê p r ima , e

d e re d a l p a r t ico la re t i po d ia mb ien taz ione ( g ro t ta , " npa r o " , s uper f ic ie d ir occ ia e n p le in a i r , a l l ineamen to , o

c l i i a nn ir a pp r e sen tano u no d e ip i i ia s s i l lan t i ( es ugge s t i v i )p rob lem i d e l le m ie r i f le s s iom s o l i ta r ie ,p e rg iunge re

a lmeno r aggruppamen to s i s tema t ico , d i monumen t i , s t ru t tu re t omba l i v e re e p rop r ie ) , c onco r rendo a t t iva men te a la f i na l i tà f ondamen ta te d io s taco la re i tp e r ico l -

l i no a l la Mon tagna s ac ra d iH a sK a rkom ,a la q ua le n on a vevo a vu to o cca s ione d id ed ica re l am ia a t tenz ione p r i ma d e l t 'u l t imo S ympo s ium i nV a lcamon ica ,n e lq ua le è s t a ta a r gomen to d ip nma r ia i mpo r tanza p e r l ap re sen -

080

n tomo d e l " po s s ib i le" n osf era tu n e t mondo d e i

mune e d i f fuso i l g iud iz io d i u na d iver sa i n te rp re taz ione ;c he èp e ra l t ro s emp re , pi n om eno d i re t t amen te , r i f e r i ta a d u na t e s t imon ianza d e l la r e t ig io s i t f uo r i d e l l 'amb i to , d e l ta d i f fu s ione d e l la n uova c u t tu ra m a tu ra ta n e t te c i v i t tà u rbane d e l v i c ino O r ien te . C om inc iamo p u re d a i " t emp l i" ma t te s i ,c he d ap a rec -

3 15

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

s cope r ta n e i s uo i v a lo r ie s senz ia l ii n quest i u lt im i a nn i . It emp l i d i Ma l ta d unque , n e l l o ro i s o lamen to a m -

N e ssuno s paz io , q u ind i , a l l ' in te rno , p e rl ac e leb raz i o ne d ir i t i ec e runon ie e he n on s i ano t a l d ap o te r s i s vo l g e re n e l l 'amb i to d iu na s i ngo la " c appe l la " ; eq u ind ir i f e -

b i en ta le , n e l la l o ro s t ru t tu ra p o ssen te , o pe ra , s i cu ra -

r i b i l i s o l tan to a d u n r i to d i d epo s iz ione d i i m s i ngo lo

men te , d i u na c o l leu iv i tà s o l ida le ; eq u ind i f i na l izza t .a a d u na f unz ione e s senz ia le , r a f f ron tab i le a q ue l la d e l

d e fun to . L 'a ssenza d iu na c ope r tu ra , e he è d e l r e s to r avv isa -

g igan te sco c i rco lo d ip i e t ra d iS tonehenge od eg l i s t e r m ina t i a l l ineamen t i d im enh ir d iC a rnac ; ec i oè c h ia ra -

b i le a nche n e in u ragh is a rd i ,n e l le t or nc O r se c di nt u t t ii c a s i d ip robab i l id epo s iz iom en plein air ( c irco l i d ip i e I r e ,c amp i d is t a tue m enh ir es t a tue s t el e ,r occe i s to r ia te

t a z ione f a t tane d ag l i s t ud io s i d ie 1 ' hanno , s ip ub d i re ,

m en te i d en t if icab i le c on i ls i to f une ra r io . P e rché a ppun to l as i cu ra c o l locaz ione d c i mo r t i ès t a t an e ue s oc ie tà p a leo l i t iche ( ed e p ipa leo l i t iche ) d e l la o ld E u rope l ' un ica mo t ivaz ione c he p o te s se r a g ionevo l -

d ii nc is ion i r upe s t r i ) ,e f o r se g iu s t i f icab i le c on l as ee l ta d ii ms i s tema d ia cce le raz ione d e lp roce s so d id i sso luz i o ne d ele s a lme ,t r am i te l ' az ione d eg l i a gen t i a tmo sfe r i c i , em agar i a nche f a vo rendo l ' i n te rven to d ag l i u cce l l i

meu te g i u s t if ica re l ap i ena s o l ida r ie tà i nu n i mpegno d i t a le p o r ta ta . C on t ro l l iamo c omunquc , s omma r iamen te , l ar i spon -

r apac i . Ma i nf ine q ue l lo e he d ovrebbe e s se re l ' a rgomen to pi nc onv incen te ,i lv e ro ep rop r io t e s td ec i s ivo , èq ue l lo

d enza a l le c ara t ter is t iche s t ru t tu ra l i e d amb ien ta l i e he a bb iamo p ropo s to d in cono sce rappun to , i ng ene ra le , a l s i to f une ra r io : L ep o s sen t i c o s iruz ion i s p iccano d al o n tano ,s t ag l ian d o s i s emp re i s o la te n e l p ae sagg io a s so la to d e l l ' iso la ,i n i m p un to c u lm inan te s u l la l i nea d e l l 'o r izzon te , c ome s i c onv iene a ppun to a l le s t ru t tu re f une ra r ie d a l le q ua l i ê

r i fe r i to a la t ema t ica d c ip rodo t t i d e l l 'a r te f i gura t iva . Que s to t i po d it e s t imon ianze n on s ono mo l to a bbon -

p ruden te t e ne r s il on tan i . S ono p r ive d ic ope r tu ra , ep e r tan to n on v i ès eno i m p ed imen to ap ene t rarv i , ma s o lo d i f f ico l tà a de vademe , s op ra t tu t to p e r imo r t i n on mo r t i , ac au sa d e l la r i g id i t i i

d a im a l t ro p nne ip io , c on s ta ta to a nche i n mo l t i a l t r i c a s i : ec i oè i lf a t to c he ,q uan to pi ns i cu ra p o te sse e s se re c ons ide ra ta l a d i fesa ma ter ia le c on t ro i t p er ico lo

d an t in e i " t emp l i" ma l te s i ;c i èe he f a e i lmen te

S i

g iu s t il i -

c ac on i lf a t to c he l ae v idenza d c ir e s t in e im i l lenn i t r a s c o r s i d ovrebbe a ve r f avor i to i l s acchegg io d e l ta magg io rp ar te d eg l io gge t t id e l l 'a r te mob i l ia re ;o l t re e he

d e l l 'eva s ion e r app re sen ta ta d ag l i o s taco l i f i s ic i , t a n to meno n ece ssar io s id ove sse c on s ide ra re l ' aus i l io d e l la d i fe sa i n te l le t tua le a t t r ibu ib i le a l la s ugge s t ione d e l l 'a r te .

d e l le l o ro memb ra . L a l o ro p i an ta p o l i loba ta , at r e o d ac i nque s po r g enze , s ir i fà c e r ta inen te a d u no d e l pi n d i f fu s i t i p i d i

C omunque n on u no d eg l i e l emen t i r app re sen ta t iv i d e l l 'a r te p r e i s to r ica t r ova ta n e i " t empl i" s id i s taeca d a l la d up l iee t ema t ica e he c a ra t te r izza ip rodo t t i a r t is t ic i d i

s egm v u lvar i , e he v anno d a q ue l lo c he , n e l le g ro t te d e l l 'Occ iden te , v i ene s pe sso i n te rp re ta to c ome u na p un t ad if r ecc ia ;f a cendo e v iden temen t ei n genuo n f e rnnen -

t u t t i is i t i ae n si nb a se a nche a l le e a ra t te r i s t iehe amb ien t a l is id eve n cono sce re l af unz ione d is i l lf une ran p re is -

t ov i s ivo a l le c u sp id i me ta l l iche , i ni m a mb ien te p a leo l i t ico ; ec he d iven terà a l t rove ( s pec ia lmen te i n

t o j ic i : R app re sen ta z ione d ia n ima l i " amb ien ta l i" , e he f o r se

Ame r ica ) ,s emp re p e rl ' i ngenu i tA d c i mode rn ii n te rp re t i , l at r acc ia d e l la z ampa d ii m u cce l lo ; f i no a lc o s idde t to

q u ih anno a s sun to l af unz ione r app re sen ta t iva d iv i t t ime

d i segno d e l " capovo l to" ( a l t ra d ef imz ione v e ramen te s i ngo la re )d e l le s t a tue m enh i rd e l la S a rdegna ; ea nco ra , n e l mondo c l a ss ico , i ld i segno r e a l is t ico d e l la f og l ia p o l i loba ta d ia can to , d c i c ap i te l l i c o r inz i ; e ,n e l mondo

s ac r if ica l i ( a l mo r to ) ; a nche s e t a lvo l ta l a mo l t ip l icaz i o ne i nf i le r e go la r i d ip eco re oc ap re ( d i p ro fd o ) , c ome

c r is t iano , i ld i segno , s emp re p i1 r i g idamen te s t i l izza to ,

q uelo d c ic acc ia to n i . Ma a nche , pi nn u ine ro s i c d i n confond ib il i , is egn i e I cf i gu re d e l mo t ivo d e l la f emm in i l i t .à p rovocan te ;c ome l aS e r ie d is p ira l i r i co r ren t i , i n te rva l la te d a b a s tonee l l i

i nV a leamon ica ( d i b ov id i ) , p ub f a rp en sa re ag regg i o a rmen t i d i i m mondo p a s to ra le , e he a ve s se s o s t i tu i to

d e lc o s idde t to " f io rda l iso " . L a f r on te d e l l 'ed if ic io c h iude , i n l e gge ra c urva tu ra , u no s paz io p i anegg ian te ,f o rmando a l la b a se u nm a s s ic -

a da ngo lo oat e rm inaz ione b if ida , e he n co rdano mo l to

c i os ed i le i np i e t ra e he l ap e reo r re t u t ta ,i n te r rompendo S i s o l tan to d avan t i a l la p o r ta , q ua s i ac o s t i tu ire u na t n -

s ugge s t ivamen te is egr nv u lvan pi na n t ich i ; eI cr app re s en taz ion i r ea l i s t iche ( s ta tue o s t a tue t te ) d if i gu re f er n m mi i i c a ra t tenzza te p a r t ico la r inen te d a l ia e nfa t izz az i -

b una ,d om inan te u no s paz io a s semb lea re . A I I ' in terno u no s t re t to c o rndo io e he v a d i r i t to d a l l ' ing re sso f i no a d u na p i cco la a b s ide èa f f ianca to d a u na od ue c opp ie d i" c appe l le " l a te ra l i , s im i l i a ppun to a q ue l le d e l le n o s t re c h ie se c ns t iane ( c d a ven t i p robab i l -

o ne d c i g l u te i , t a lmen t e e sage ra ta d aa ve rf a t to t a lvo l ta t r a scu ra re a l 'au to re o gn ia l t ro e a ra t te re f emnum .. . d an

m en te a nche l as t e s sa f unz ione f une ra r ia ) .

men te n on g iu s t if icab i le ,s u l s e s so d e l p e r sonagg io r ap -

‚

d o aq ua lche e ommen t .a to re a dd i r i t tu ra

3 16

im

d ubb io ,c e r ta -

R OMO W F ORMENT IN I

p r e sen ta to . E id eh oc s ai l s ! E doe l a sc iamo u l t e r ion p r ec isaz ion i a lc ommen to a de ven tua l ip r esen taz ion i d ii mmag in i ;e , a nco r meg l io , a l la r i spo s ta a di mp reved ib i l i ,q uan to d e s i de ra te , o b iez ion i i ns ede d id i scu ss ione ; p a s sando a d u na l t ro a r gomen to d e lb reve e l enco d is i t i d ap o r ta re a d

v o , ec i oè mi a gg lome ra to d ie a se . Ev ed iamo q uai lp a r t ieo la n i r i l iev ip o t rebbe ro i ndu r re ap o r re i nd ubb lo t a le e s senz ia le d elm iz ione : Anz i tu t to l a p o s iz ione o r ig ina le d e l le f ondaz ion i s t ru t tu ra l i d c i r e s t i , c he , p r ima d ie s se re t r a sfer i t i p e r s a lva r l i d a l la m inacc ia d iu na p o ss ib i le i nonda7 ione d c -

e s emp io d e l la m ia i po te s i , i nq ue l l 'o rd ine c he m i èa v v enu to d if o rmu la re ,d e l t u t to c a sua lmen te .

n van te d a l la c r e sc i ta d il i ve l lo d e l D anub io p e r l ar e en te c o s t ruz ione d id ighe d e s t ina t e a ppun to a da umen t a re I ' i nva so , g i à s it r ovavano t a n to v i e ino a tl i ve l lo

L EPENSK IV IR

n o rma le d e l f l ume d a n on p o te re e s se re a ts i cu ro d a l le p i ene er tan ien te a s sa i v i o len te i nq ue l p un to i ne m I c o r so ,r e s t r ingendo s i n e t t r a t to c he p r ende i ls i gr nf lca t i v on ome d iP o r te d iF er ro ,g iu s t if ica f o r se q ue l t opom -

L cpen sk iV ir ,p re sso l ep o r t ed if e r ro d e lD anub io : i tl u o go d ove p e rm i l lenn i ( una m ezza d ozz ina a lmeno )e r a n or ima s te ,q ua s ia ff lo ran t i ,I ct r acce d l mi i n sed iamen to umano e he c on servava , a l l ' in te rno d is t ru t tu re mu ra r ie e l emen ta r i es t anda rd izza te i nu na s o rp renden te u n ifo r m i ta , m i m irab i le p a t r imon io d i o pe re d ' a r te ; q ue l le s cu l tu re s uc i o t to l i d if l ume ,s pe s so d ic on s ide revo l i d i m en s ion i , e he s ono s t a te c e r tamen te f r a ip iü n ievan t i

mo ( Lep en sk i V ir ) , i n e i n L a s econda p aro la s i gmf lca a ppun to v o r t ice 0 g o rgo . P o i l as t ran i ss ima d i spo s iz ione u rban is t ica d iq ue l le

mode l l i d e l ta l ungh iss ima t r ad iz ione d e l ta s t a tua r ia

p ai ll i gne i ,e on u na p i an ta a s so lu tamen te i mmu tab i le ( a s e t to re d i c e rch io t r onco ) c he n on p ub a ve re a l cuna s p iegaz ione d i f unz iona l i tà , t u t te r i g idamen te " o r ien t a te " c d a mma ssa te i n modo d a n on l a sc ia re s paz io a d a l cuna a nehe e l emen ta re v i ab i l i tà , s pe sso s ov rappo s te P una a l l 'a l t ra c on s f a lsa tu re d e l ta p i an ta e he mo s t rano l a

m ega l i t ica n on s o l tan to i nE u ropa . U no d c i p i i ia n t ich i a gg rega t i u rban i d e l ta t e r ra , a nn i t p iü a n t ico i n s ieme a q ue l lo a na to l ico d i C a ta l H uyyuk , d i eeva , ec on t inua ad i re , D rago s lav S re jov ie , n cono scendo n e l le " monumen ta l i s cu l tu re d ip i e t ra "t r o -

c a se ,e he s ono p iu t to s to d e l le p i a t ta fo rme ,p e rl eq ua l is i p uô t u t t 'a l pi ni mmag ina re d e l le c ope r ture p rovv iso r ie c d i n s tab i l i d e l t i po d e l le p e l l i d ia n ima l i s o s tenu te d a

v a te i n " nume ro s i s an tua r i d ome s t ic i" L a" i l lu s t raz ione i c onog ra f ica d iu nc omp le s so m i to " . Ma L am ia o p imone èmo l to d i ve r sa , s op ra t tu t to p e r

mancanza d e l ta v o lon tA d iu na n o rma le n eo s t ruz ione d i

q ue l e he r i gua rda i ls i gr nf lea to eL af i na l i tà d ele o pe re d a r te f i gu ra t ive , ep iü i n p a r t ico la re d e l le s cu l tu re s u

t u t to i n suf f ic len te a l le e s igen . ze d iu na s t ru t tu ra a b i ta t i v a , s op ra t tu t to p e rl ap re senza d ie l emen t i f i s s i ( i lf oco l a re , l ap i e t ra a " coppe l la " , I cs cu l tu re monumen ta l i , l a s og l ia t r apezo ida le ) e he n on l a sc iano a l t ro s paz io c he q ue l lo ,s t re t tamen te m isu ra to , i nc m s it r ovano f r equen -

g rand i c i o t to l i f l uv ia l i , e he r app re sen tano d e l r e s to l a p i ü g rande es i gn if ica t iva p a r te d e l le t e s t imon ianze a r c heo log iche . M i p a re i n fa t t i e he I cf i gu raz ion i s co lp i te n on p o s sa n or a pp re sen ta re a f fa t to l a" i l lu s t raz ione i e onog ra f ica d i u nc omp le s so m i to " ,n e t q ua le i tma sso d ip i e l la , " c ome m i g rande p r imevo u ovo " , s ii mmag ina sse a ve r d a to n a sc i ta at u t t i g l i e s sen v i ven t i , e" p r ima r iamen te a l le c r ea tu re s im i L i ap e sc i" ,e he s a rebbe ro s t a t e i" f onda to r i d e l ta r azza umana " , e" ag l i a n ima l i p i t ) f r equen temen te e aec ia t i ( p e se i ,d a in i ) " . Eq ue s to p e rv a ne , ef onda te ,r ag ion i e he erche rô d i c h ia r i re ; n on p e r s t e r i le a mo re d ip o lem iea , ma p e r a s s i cu rarm i e he i lm io r ag ionamen to n on t r ov i v a l ide o b iez ion i d a p a r te d ie o lo ro a iq ua i l s ono o vv iamen te d i spo s to ar i eono sce re u na e ono scenza d e l p rob lema a s s a t m agg io re d iq ue l la e he ,m a lg rado L ap iü g r ande b uo n av o lon tà ,p o ssa a ve re a cqu i s i to i os t e s so . C om ine iamo d unque d a l la s t e ssa d e f in iz ione d i" una d e l le p i i I a n t iehe c i t tà d e l ta t e r ra" , e he a t d i L à d e l l 'enfa s i , s i gn i f ica q uan to m eno l ' i n te rp re taz ione d e l c omp le sso a r cheo log ieo c ome u ni n sed iamen to a b i ta t i -

s t ru t tu re d ecadu te . E d a nco ra l am isu ra , mo l to v a r iab i le , ma s pe sso d e l

t emen te Ir e s t i uman i . E di nl ine , a ppun to ,l ap re senza d iq ue s t i r e s t i uman i , a l la c u ic o l locaz ione t u tU g l ie l emen t i s t ab i l id e l ta s t ru t t u ra s emb rano c h ia r amen te f i na l izza t i . Ma L ac o sa pi nc u n io sa êe he t u t te l ee ond iz iom r i le v a te c ome n ega t ive p e r l ad ef in iz ione d ii n sed iamen to a b i ta t ivo s ono i n vece p rec isamen te p o s i t ive p e rq uan to r i gua rda l ai n te rp re taz ione d iu na f unz ione f une rana . L ' in su ff lc ien te l i ve l lo d i s i cu rezza n spe t to a l le p o s s i b i l ip i ene d e l g r ande f l ume i nu na z ona i nc m a sche L a f r equenza d c i v o r t ie i d enunc ia l ap o tenz ia le t e r r ib i le f o rza d e l le p i ene , ec he , s e eo vv iamen te u na c ond iz i o ne a s so lu tamen te c on t ran ia a l la s c e l ta d i m i i n sed ia -

men to a b i ta t ivo , r i co rda a nche i n modo s ugge s t ivo L a f r equenza d i g r and i c omp le ss i d if i gu raz ion i r upe s t r i , s eeondo me r i ve la t r ic i d e l ta f unz ione f unerana d c i s i t i , i n z one p ianegg ian t i r agg iung ib i l i d a l la p i ena d i i m f l ume ,c ome s u l la r i va d e lT om on e l le i s o le t te d ip i e tn i d e l l 'Anga ra ( i n S ibe r ia ) , op res so I cr ap ide d e l f i ume

3 17

R ITUAL ,R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

V aupe s , t i na ff luen te d e l R io N eg ro a ic on f in if r al aC o -

d ic r ea tu re s im i l i ap e sc i ( if onda to r i d e l la r a zza n i na -

l omb ia e d iB ra s i le . L a f o rma e l a d i spo s iz ione d e l le p re sun te c a se , o

n a ) ,o l t re c he d egl i " a n ima l i p iü f r equen temen te c acc ia t i ( p e sc i ,d a in i ) " . A me p a re i n fa t t i c he l es cu l tu re d iL epen sk i V ir s i a n o d a d i s t ingue re s o l tan to i n d ue g rand i c a tego r ic : l e f i gu r e a n tropomo rf iche ,t a lvo l ta l im i ta t e a l la r a pp re sen -

f o r se m eg l io c apanne , c he n on h anno a l cuna r i sponden z a n e l c o s tume en e l la t r ad iz ione , p a r t ico la rmen te p e r q ue l c he r i gua rda is i t i p re i s to r ic i , s ono i n vece , l ' una e l ' a l t ra , b en g iu s t if icab i l i s er i fe r i te as i t i f une ra r i : i ld i s -

t a z ione d e l la t e s ta , c he , q uando c omp le te , mo s t rano i c a ra t te r i c ii i d iu na i mmag ine f emm in i le ; el ef i gu re c o s t i tu i te d a u na g rande c omp l icaz ione d is egn i i n c is i ,

e gno d e l la p i an ta as e t to re d ic e rch io t r onco ,n ch iaman d o s i a l la f i gu ra d iu n t r i ango lo c on b a se a d a r co , c he , p o s to c apovo l to , c o r r isponde a du no d e i p iü t r a spa ren t i s egn i v u lva r i , n on p uô n on r i ch iama rc i a l la men te q ue l le p i a t ta fo rme i np i e t ra af o rma d it r i ango lo i s o sce le

s pe sso , s u d i u na l im i ta ta s upe rf ic ie p i ana o l e gge r men te b omba ta ,l ac u i s i cura i n te rp re taz ione e ,a lmeno i na l cun i c a s i , q ue l la d is egn i v u lvar i , c he d ' a l t ra p ar te n on Ia f fa t to d ae sc iude r s in eppu re p e rg l i a l t r ip i üc om -

od it r apez io , a l lunga t i n e l s en so d e l l 'a l tezza , c he n e l la r eg ione a l pma ( aS ion , a d Ao s ta , e ,c on m ino re c e r tez -

p l ica t i ec on fu s id i segn i . Non m i s os p iega re , f r ancamen te , l ' i n te rp r e taz ione d i i mmag im d i a n ima l i s e lvagg ina , ep a r t ico larmen te d i

z a ,i nV a lcamon ica ) c o s t i tu iscono l ab a se d e l le s t ru t tu re f une ra r ie d o lmen iche a s soc ia te a l le s t a tue s t el e . Men t re l ad i spo s iz ione d e i s mgo l i e l emen t i , c he n on c o r r i sponde a da l cun r e go la re a l l ineamen to ,s i ae s so r e t t o oc u rvi ineo , eq u ind in on c on sen te u na r az iona le v i a b i l i tà i n te rna , r i sponde a d u na n o rma i nde rogab i le d i o r ien tamen to c he è ,d ac he mondo èmondo ,u na c a ra t t e r is t ica s i cu ra d e l modo d ic o l loca re imot h ,c he S ii -

c e rv id i ; a meno c he n on s iv og l ia r i cono sce re n e l la c omp l icaz ione d e l le l i nee i nc ise l ar app re sen taz ione ,

f l e t te a nche s t i l le a n t iche c h ie se , e v iden temen te p e re s -

l a b i le f ondamen to a l la i n te rp re taz ione d if i gu re s em i te r i omo r fe d iu om in i p e sce f onda ta s u l la c a sua le s om ig l i a nza c on L ab occa d ii m p e sce d iu na b occa umana d i s c h iusa , i n ser i ta , s enza c on t ra sto , i n u n v o lto

c he n on s a rcbbe p e ra l t ro n e r ea l is t ica n e s chema t ica , d e l le mo l tep l ic i i mpa lca tu re d ic oma c e rv ine ; ep os so c omp rendere c he l as ugge s t ione d e l la p reconce t ta i m mag inaz ione d ii mp oe t ico m i to d e l le o r ig in i s i al ' un ico

s e re s t a te q ue s te l ep r ime s t ru t tu re f une ra r ie d e l mondo c r i s t iano . E di n l ine l ag r ande v a r ie tà d e l le d imen s ion i ,c he n on

ec e r tamen te c a ra t te r is t ica c omune d e l

v i l lagg io p r im i t i -

c h ia ramen te u r nano , c di ni m c a so a lmeno i nu na i n te ra f i gu ra f emm im le .

v o , el af r equen te m an ife s ta i n su f f ic ienza d is paz io u t i le p e ru na s t ab i le d imo ra f am i l ia re ,c he èd ' a l t ra p a r te c au s a ta ,o l t re c he d a l la p r e senza d is t ru t tu re f i sse c he h anno

CATAL HUYYUK

c e r tamen te i m c a ra t te re p iü r i tua le c he f unz iona le ,d a l la p re senza d ir e s t i uman i , oq uan to meno d a l la r i cono sc i -

C a ta l Huyyuk ,i n Ana to l ia : " L ap iü a n t ica c i t tà d e l mon -

b i l i tà d e l lo s paz io a de s s id e s t ina to .

d o" . S t rana c i t t, i n y e nta ; n e l la q ua le n on e s is tono

L epen sk i V i r d unque n on e r a u na c i t tà , ma u na n e c ropo l i ; o ,c on m agg io re s en so d ela p ropo rz ione , n on e r ai mv i l lagg io , ma i mc im i te ro . E imot h ,s en on e r ano

s t rade ; el ep i t ld im i l le c a se " s an tua r io "c omumcano f r a l o ro a t t rave r so it e t t i at e r razza p o s t i ad i ve r so l i ve l lo ( e q u ind i f a cendo u so d is ca le mob i l i , d ic u i n on r e s ta 0V-

p u1 1 a l momen to d e l la s cope r ta , v ie r ano s t a t i , ov is a -

v i amen te a l cuna t r acc ia ) ; el ' i ng re s so d ic i a scuna c a sa I u na b o to la s uo gn i t e t to t e r razza ,d ac mu na s c a la ,a l t re t t a n to mob i le ,c he p robab i lmen te Il as t e s sa c he ès e rv i ta p e r a ccede re a lt e t to , s c ende d i re t tamen te s t i l f oco la re

r ebbe ro s t a t i i ns egu i to s en on s if o s se e sau r i ta q ue l la f unz ione . En on èmo l to r ag ionevo le ,m i p a re ,c r ede re a l la c on v i venza f r a imot h c d iv i v i , i nu n a mb ien te p o i c he è

d e l la " cuc ina" , i ni ml o ca le u n ico , d ove , s o t to d ue p i a t -

s o l tan to a da t to a ip r im i , men t re èd e l t u t to o s t i le , s co modo c dm su ff ic ien te a l le n ece s s i tà d e i s e cond i . Q uan to a l le c o s ì n ume ro se , ec e r tamen te s i gn i f ica t ive , s cu l tu re s u g r and i c i o t to l i d if i ume es ul a s t re d ip i e t ra ,n on c ed -

t a fo rme a ven t il af unz ione d il e t to ,s ono s epo l t ig l i s che l e t n i d e i mo r t i ,e spo s t i a l l 'a r ia " f inchd l eo s sa n on e r ano n pu l i te d ag l ia vvo l to i" . " Id efun t i ma sch is o t to L ap i a t ta f o rma -d ivano d e l c apo f am ig l ia , el ed onne s o t to q ue l la

e rè a lf a sc ino d e i p oe t ic i , ef an ta s io s i , g iud iz i d i t a n t i s t ud io s i s e r i es t i ma t i , c he , c e r tamen te s ugge s t iona t i

d e l la p ad rona d ic a sa " . Non èd a to d ic ap i re c ome p o ssano e s se re c on s ide r -

d a l lincan to d e l l 'amb ien te ec o lp i t i n e l la f an ta s ia d a l la m e rav ig l io sa n ov i th d e l la t ema t ica , c he n on h ap ra t ica m en te r i scon t ro , s en on i n mond i a s sa i l on tan i n e l t em -

a t e c a se d ia b i taz ione q ues t i v an i ac m t u t t i im emb r i d i c i a scuna f am ig l ia , g iovan i ev ecch i , s am o ma la t i ( o m ino ra t i ) a v rebbe ro d ovu to a ccede re i n modo c o s ! s co modo , p e r v i ve rv i f r a p a red c i eche , c on s c a r sa l u ce c d

p o en e l lo s paz io ,h anno i n tu i to a ccenn i am i t ip nmo rd i a h l e ga t i a lf i ume e da l la p i e t ra ,r i cono scendo i mmag in i

a r ia ,d o rmendo s t i l le t ombe d e ip rop r i mot h( ! ) .

3 18

R OMOLO F ORMENT IN I

Men t re n on manca n e s suna d e l le c ond iz ion i a mb ien -

t a l ic he q ua l if icano Is i t i f une ran : i s o lamen to ;d i ff ico l tà d ia cce sso ,s upe rab i le p e r iv i v i ,m aa s so lu ta i mpo ss ib i l i t àd ie va s ione p e r imo r t i ; s t ru t tu ra r i cono sc ib i le f i n d a l o n tano , a per tura d a l l 'a l to , f a vo revo le a l l 'acce sso d eg l i a gen t i a tmo sfe r ic i , e d a nche d eg l i u ccei l i r a pac i ; e ,p e r q uan to r i gua rda i lt e s t e s senz ia le , ec i oè l at ema t ica d e i p rodo t t i d e l le a r t i f i gu ra t ive : f i gu re f emm im l i i np o sa p rovoca to r ia , s egn i v u lvar i , f i gu re a n ima l i ( s op ra t tu t to c oma ep ro tom i b ov ine ) , ea nche ,c a ra t te r is t ica e ccez io n a le , l a r app resen taz ione d e l l 'avvo l to io , ec i oè d i q ue l l 'an ima le a lq ua le s a rebbe a f f ida ta l af unz ione d i s c am if ica to re d e ic adave r i .

d a l la r occ ia v i va p e rme t te u n a cce sso a nche d i re t ta m en te d a l la p i ana d e l f ondo v a l le e he s is t ende a de s t " . E" non è d a e sc lude r s i e he l af o rma t opog raf ica i m p onen te d e l la c ol ina , e he èv i s ib i le d a l o n tano ed om i n a i lp ae sagg io c i rco s t an te , l as ua u b ic -a s ione a l la c on f l uen za d i d ue f l um i [ . .]s i ano f a t to r i e he n e a bb iano d e te rm ina to h as ce l ta d ap a r te d el 'uomo p r e i s to r ico "p e r f ame , c ome s emb ra , u n i mpo r tan te l u ogo d ic u l to d e l la p re is to r ia . E cco d unque L at e s t imomania , a s so lu tamen te i n so s p e t tab i le , d a pa s te d i Emanue l Ana t i , d e l la p re senza d i t u t te l ec ond iz ion ia mb ien ta l ie he d i s t inguono a ppun to i s i t if une ra r i . Ec i oè L ad i f f ico lt hd ia cces so , s o t to l inea ta d a l la f a t i c o sa r ea l i7727 ione d e l la g r ad ina ta , s cava ta n e l la r o cc ia ,

SKARA BRAE

e he , s e èa s so lu tamen te i n u t i le am ig l io ra re i lp e rco r so V i èp o i i lf amo so v i l lagg io d iS ka ra B rae , n e l la mag g i o re d e l le i s o le O rcad i . N on h om a ic ap i to p e rche ,f r at u t te l es t ru t tu re ,c h ia r a men te f une ra r ie , d iq ue s ta i s o la , s is i a v o lu to r i cono s c e re l af unz ione d ig ruppo d ia b i taz ion i aq ue s to s i to e he h at u t te l ec a ra t tens t iche d it u t t i g l i a l t r i s i t i f une ra i , c o s ! n ume ro s i i nq ue s to l embo d i t e r ra a l l 'e s t remo

p er iv i v i , èi n vece d id ec iso o s taco lo a l l 'eva s ione d e i mo r t i ; el a v i s ib i l i tà d a l on tano , ai n te rd iz ione p e r l ' i ncau to a pp ro ss ima r s id el ' igna ro v i andan te . Quan to p o l a ls i gn if ica to d e l l 'e sp re ss ione " l uogo d i c u l to " , èb ene t e ne r c on to d i q uan to s c r ive l o s t e sso Ana t i s emp re n e l la p ubb l icaz ione d e l C en t ro C amuno

N o rd d e lc on t inen te e u ropeo ,d ove I cc a se d ia b i taz ione d evono e s se re s t a te n do t te af o rma d ic apanna i n s tab i le ed iu so s t ag iona le , p o s to c he y e n e s i ano m a i s t a te i n u n ' iso la l ac m f unz ione f ondamen ta le d eve e s se re s t a ta n e l la p re i s to r ia q ue l la a ppun to d il uogo d ic o l locaz ione d e i mo r t i p e r l eg en i i c he a b i tavano l ec o s te s e t ten t r io -

d ed iea ta a l la " co l l ina s a c ra " ;q uando r i leva e he id ue c l e men t i p nnc ipa l i e me r s i d a u na u l te r io re i n ten s iva e s p lo raz ione a r cheo log ica s ono s t a t i " L a s t ru t tura n on a b i t a . t iva d e l lo s cavo n . 6eI cp ia t taf orme d e i g rand if a là d eg l i s eav i n .5 , 6e1 , a t t r ibu ib i h i a l l 'e tä d e l B ronzo " . Agg iungeudo e he q ue s te u l t ime f u rono p re sum ib i l men te u sa t e as copo r i tua le p e r g r and i f uoch i i nr e laz i -

n a l id e l la S coz ia . Ma o ra , at u t te l ec on s ide raz ion i s u l la i log ic i tà d e l le s t ru t tu re d ip i e t ra ,m a s s icce ed ie s age ra ta s t ab i l i tà ,q ua -

o ne c on l es eu l tu re r upe s t r i" ; ec one ludendo e he " v a ne i po te s i" ,e he d e f in isce " s ugge s t ive " ,a nche s ea nco ra c h iedono u na v e r if ica " , " n e f a rebbe ro l uogh i d i i n c ine -

s ia f fonda te n e l t e r reno , et u t tav ia a pe r t e a le i n t emper ie p e r l a mancanza d i u na c omp le ta c ope r tu ra ( come i

r a z ione d e im or t i od ir i evoca z ione d eg l is p i r i t id avan t i a l le s upe rf i c ii s tor ia te " .

" t emp l i" ma l te s i el ec a se s an tua r io d iC a ta l H uyyuk ) ,

Ea nco ra , p e r q uan to r i gua rda i lt e s t e s senz ia le , e c i oè l a t ema t ica d e i p rodo t t i d e l le a n t i f i gu ra t ive , e he s ono i nq ue s to c a so ,i nm isu ra a s so lu tamen te p reponde r an te , h ei n c is iom r up e s t n i ; s emp re a t tenendo s i a ht e s to d i Emanue l Ana t i , n o t iamo l ad i s t inz ione c rono log ica

p e r d e i v an i d i a b i taz ione , s ia gg iunge l an o t iz ia d e l la p re senza d i " m is te r io s i" s egn i t r acc ia t i d a l la mano d e l l 'uomo , s pec ia lmen te s ug l i s p igo l i d e i " l e t t i d ip i e I r a" , c he mo l to s om ig l iano aq ue l l i d e l le c a se d iC a ta l H uyyuk , ed e l " mob i l i d ip i e t ra " , c he mo l to s om ig l iano a g l i " a l tar i" mu l t ip l i d e l le a b s id i ed e l le c appe l le d e i " t emp l i" d i Ma l ta .

r i sa l ire a d u n o r izzon te p r e -Neo l i t ico " , c d i ln uovo r e p e r to r io p o s tn eo l i t ico e he c omp rende " meand n i , s p i ra l i , LU INE

mo t iv i az i g -zag , mo t iv i ar e t ico la to ,d i sch i s emp l ic i ea

L ac o l l ina d iL u ine s it r ova i nV a lcamon ica , " a l la c on f l uen za d e lf l ume O g l io c on i ll o r ren te D e z zo" . S ie rge s u l la v a l le d e l l 'Og l io , " con r occe ap iombo , c he r e ndono l acce sso a s sa id if i c i le" . El ' un ico p a ssagg io a gevo le èc o s t i tu i to o gg i d au na s t rada e he f au nl ungo g i ro . Men t re " un 'an t ica E rad ina ta r i cavab i n g r an p as te

-

f r a I cg rand i f i gu re a n ima l i s ub -na tura l is t iche , " ehe s ono n o tevo lmen te pi na n t iche d it u t te I ca l t re , ed evono

r agg ie re , s e r ie d i d i seh i c onceu t r ic i c on c oppe l la e cu t r a le ,r e t tango l i r i emp i t i d il i nee p a ra l le le c da l t r i mo t iv i g eome t r ic i" ; ec i oè t u tU , n e l la p i l lr e cen te i n te rp re taz i o ne , s egn i s imbo l ie i d i a l lu s ione s e ssua le , c omp re so q ue ls egno s ub tnango la r e ,e he èmo l to s im i le a hd i segno d iu na l ama d ip ugna le c a lco l i t ico ; ee he f i n irà p e r I r a d u r s i n e l la p rec isa r app re sen taz ione d iu n 'a rma i mma n i ea ta : p ugna le ,a l aba rda ,a cce t ta ; p u rd e r ivando i no n-

y

3 19

R ITUAL .R ITES AND R EL IG ION I NP REH ISTORY

g ine , s econdo me , d a l s egno a p un ta d i f r ecc ia d e l le

p a r te o ppo s ta ( ec i oè a d

g ro t te f r anco -can tab r iche . S ir e s ta q u ind i p e r f e t tamen te n e i l im i t i d e l la t ema t ica d e l l 'ar te f une rar ia ; c on l ef i gu re a n ima l i s ubna tu ra l is t i che c he ,i nu n p e r iodo p ut a n t ico , mo s t rano q ue l t a n to d ir e a l ismo r app re sen ta t ivo c he p e rme t te d ir i cono sce re

c r eando u na s pec ie d ia nf i tea t ro , d ove s ono r a cco l te l e s t a tue " , e he s ono " una q ua ran t una , d ie i nd i c io t to i np o -

i ls ogge t to , eq u ind i t r a rne l a s ugge s t ione d iu na i lu s i one d iv i ta ,e d is egn i c onvenz ional d ia l lu s ione e r o t i c ac he i no gn i t empo e di no gr nt i po d is oc ie tà umana s i ep en sa to p o te sse ro c r ea re c on fu s ione e q u ind i d i s to g l ie re i lr a nco re v end ica t ivo d e l mo r to v i ven te . Ed e l r e s to m i t i po d ir i to " r e l ig io so " c he s ie sp r ime

p e s t r i ( 40 .000 !) ( l e f i gu re p e r q uan to r ozze e s p rec ise c e rcano d im e t te re i ne v idenza l ec a ra t te r is t iche t i p iche

i n m ig l ia ia d i i mmag in i es egm " cop ren t i u na s e r ie d i p er iod i d e l la d ura ta c omp le ss iva d ia lmeno 8 000 a nn i" ( come d i ce Ana t i ) ,q ua le mo t ivaz ione c o s tan te p ub a ve r a vu to , s en on q ue l la d iu nr i to f une rano !

d e l c o rpo umanof e inm in i le ( i n im c a so s i p a r la e sp l ic i t a i nen te d iu na " s co rza d is e lce , d a l la f o rma v agamen te

ovest) " Si

a l la rga av en tag l io ,

s i z ione e r e t ta el ea l t re g iacen t is t i lt e r reno " . 5 - T emo i ica d e l lar tef igura t iva . F igure d ia n ima l i es cene d ic acc ia n e l le i n c is ion ir u -

d eg l ia n ima l i ,b en r i cono sc ib i l ip e ri lc acc ia to re ! ) . F igure f emm in i l i s ce l te f r al ef o rmaz ion i n a tu ra l i d e i b l occh id is e lce ,c on i lm in imo d ia gg iun te d ip a r t ico la r i v o l te as o t to l inea re l ac a sua le s om ig l ianza e on l ef o rme

a n t ropomo r fa ,r i tocca ta i np iü p un t i p e rm e t te re i nc v i d enza g l io cch i ,l ab occa , is cm e di lp ube " ) ( c da l t rove d i" bu s t if emm in il ii ng r andezza n a tu ra le" ed i " mo rb ide f o rme s i nuose r i ch iaman t i l es cu l tu re d i

HAR KARKO M " LA MONTAGNA SACRA" ( ? )

Moo r ein ud id i Manzü " ) . 6 - A l l ineamen t i . " Le g rand i s t a tue s ono d i spo s te s econdo i m p rec i so

H a r K a rkom ès t a ta s i cu ramen te , p e rm i l lenn i , ap a r t ire d a l P a leo l i t ico S upe r io re ,i ms i to f une ra r io , ep i t )p rec i s a men te i lc en t ro d iu na r eg ione f une ra r ia .

d i segno ac e rch ic oncen tnc i 7 - R ogh if ir n eb r i( ? ) .

S u l la mon tagna s a c ra n co r rono i n fa t t i t u t t i g l i e l e menÜ c a ra t ter i s t ic i d it a le t i po d is i to a r cheo log ico ; e he q u i d is egu i to e l ench iamo ,t r aendo I ci n fo rmaz ion id a l la

" T race so fhugef i re sh ave b een n o t iced o nt h em oun t a in . E spec ia l ly n ea r t h ec oncen tra t ion o fr ock a r t ,f i re a ppea r st oh ave p layed av e ry i mpor tan tr o le i nt h ep er -

p iü r e cen te b ib l iog raf ia s u l l 'argomen to : 1 D if f i co l là d ia cce sso ( es op ra t tu t to d ie va s ione ) . Una p i a t tafo rma ic i i l a t i s co scendono t u t to i n to rno ,

f ormance s t h e re " . V ed iamo o ra d iL i cap i to la re , r i ch iamandoc i a lt e s to d e l la n o s t ra i n iz ia le i po te s id il a vo ro :

-

s enza c o st i tu ire u m i mped imen to i n so rmon tab i le

S i èc e rca to d id imo s t ra re , c on u na s e r ie d ie semp i ,

a l l 'accesso d iu om in i n e l p i eno v igo re d e l le l o ro f o rze , ma r app re sen tando c e r tamen te , n e l la o p imone d ic o lo ro c he l ' hanno s c e l ta c ome l uogo d ip r ima d epo s iz ione d e i l o ro mo r t i , i m i n supe rab i le i mped imen to a l la e va s ione

a s sa i d i ver s i f r a l o ro p e rq ue l e he n gua rda l at i po log ia , l ' amb ien taz ione , l ac o l locaz ione g eog raf ica , el ac rono -

d e i mo r t in on mo r t i ,d i CUj S i t eme i lp o s s ib i le r i tomo . 2 - I s o lamen to . N e l c uo re d iu na z ona d e se r t ica ; l on tano a nche , c e r t amen te ,d a l le n o rmal ip i s te d ic omun icaz ione f r aI cr e g ion i a b i ta te . 3 - S egna l id ii n le rd i z ione . L a s t e le " r o sa" c he " r aff igu ra u na m ano s t re t ta ap ug n o c on i lp o l l ice a cco s ta to i n p o s iz ione v e r t ica le " ,

" S i

s t ag l ia c on t ro i lc i e lo l ungo i lp rof i lo d e l c r ina le " , p ro p r io n e l p un to d a c i i i p a r te u n p e rco r so c he " pa ssando l ungo l ec enge d ai mn pa ro s o t to r occ ia a l l 'a l t ro " s c ende f i no a ip i ed i d e l lo s t rap iombo e " s i n co l lega c on in u me ro s i s en t ien c he s o lcano i ls o t to s tan te d e se r to " ;n yc -

l o g ia ( da ! P a leo l i t ico a l le p r ime E ta d e i Me ta l l i ) , e he mo l t i a lmeno d e i p iü n o t i s i t i p re is to r ic i , a t tr ibu i t i , p e r g i ud iz io p re ssoché u nan ime , af unz ion i a ven t i s t re t to r appo r to c on u na v i s ione r e l ig io sa d e l mondo , c ome s an tua r i , t emp l i , l u ogh i s ac r i i ng ene re ( i nq uan to d ed i c a t i a l la man if e s taz ione d ir i t i ec u l t i r e l ig io s i a ppun to ) , d ov rebbe ro ,c on pi np onde ra to g uud iz io , e s se re r i cono s c i u t i , p e rt u t te l el o ro c a ra t te r i s t iche g ene ra l i , c ome s i t i f une ran . N a tu ra lmen te n on s ip ub e s c lude re c he n e e s is tano a l t r i p e r iq ua l ii lr appo r to c on i l" s ac ro" s i ai n vece c l i i a r amen te d ocumen tab i le . Ea nz i n i lp e rme t te re i d ii n v i ta re c h i , o r a op iü t a rd i ,

4 - O r ien lamen to . L a s t el e" ap ugno " s it r ova , a nco ra " b locca ta s a lda -

ec i oè i n s egu i to an uove e spe r ienze , oa nche amag g io re r i f le s s ione ,p o te sse p o r ta re e s emp i d io ppo s to s i g m f Ica to , av o lc r l i f a rc ono sce re ac o lo ro e he , c ome m e , t a l i c a s i n on s ono a nco ra r i u sc i t i an cono sce re ,c o l labo r a ndo c os i a d u na i ndag ine s u l la men ta l i ta d e ! l 'uomo

men te n e l l ' incavo d e l la r occ ia c on s chegge d ip i e t ra" a !

p r e i s tonco ,e he p o t rebbe t r ame magg io rv a lo re ee r cd i -

" l im i te e s t " d i u na v a l le t ta ( l unga 8 0 me t r i ) , e he d a l la

t o .

l a ndo l ' acce s so a ll uogo " s ac ro " .

3 20

R OMO W F ORMENT IN I

N e l l 'a t te sa c omunque d obb iamo t r a r re l en o s t re c on -

f e t te ed om e he d ovrebbe ro e o s i i tu ire i m e o r redo u t i le

c l u s ion i b a sandoc i s u l l ' ipo te s i c on le rma ta d ag l i e semp i a ddo t t i , c he , c ome g i à n pe tu tamen te a f ferma to , n on s ono c he una p i cco l iss ima p a r te d it u t t i ie a s i e he a bb ia mo a vu to o cca s ione d ic on s ide r a re c on c o se ienz io sa a t -

p e ru n 'a l t ra v i ta ,n e l la q ua le d eve a ve re q u ind i ma s i cu -

t e nz ione . Ed unque : s e êv e to e he is i l l p r e is to r ie i l ec i i i c a ra t t e r i s t iche h anno g uu s t il ica to l ' a t t r ibuz ione d iu na m an i f e s taz ione d e l la men ta l i tà r e l ig io sa s ono i nr e a l tà ,f i no a p rova c on t ra r ia , s i l f une ran , a vendone t u t te l ee a ra t te r i s t iche e s senz ia l i , q ua le d ocumen taz ione a r cheo log ica

p a r la to . N e l mondo " med i te r raneo " n on s iv uo le p ro t egge re i mo r t i , ma a lc on t rar io e is iv uo le d i f ende re d a l o ro , d a u n l o ro m inacc ioso r i torno , f i nché n on s i èb en s i cur i

p o t ra m a ip rova re L ae s is tenza d iu na e o sc ienza r e l ig io sa

g iu s t if ica t u t t i g l i a cco rg imen t i v o l t i a d i mped irne l ' eva s ione , s i a q ue l l i ma tena l i d eg l i o s taeo l i f i s ic i , s i a q ue ll i n te l le t tua l i d e l le r app re sen taz uon u a r t is l iche , e he a cqu ie tano l os p i r i to . Non v is ono d om , n e o f fe r te , n e s op ra t tu t to c o r red i d a u t i l izza re i n im a l i ro mondo , e he s i eu ramen te n on è

a ppun to n e l l 'uomo p r e is to r ico? Q i ia lcuno h a s c r i t to , r i fe rendo s i a dd ir i t tu ra a iP a leo a n t rop i , e he s ee s s i v engono e on s ide ra t i " uom in i c or n p l e t i" n e c on segue e he e s s i " po s sedevano a nche i mc e r t on ume ro d ic r edenze ep ra t ieavano er t ir i t i" . P e r e u i ' s e s ip one l aq ue s t ione d e l la r e l ig io s i tà o n on r e l ig io s i ta d eg l i u om in ip r e i s to r ie i ,s pe t ta a is o s ten i -

r af ede " r e l ig io sa" . E bbene e i o n on è v ero , a lmeno n e l l 'amb ien te , n e l l 'epoca en e l l i ve l lo e u l tu ra le d ic m i a bb iamo f i n q u i

e he s ono v e ramen te mo r t i . Ei ls o spe t to d e l la p r e senza d i " mor t i v i ven t i" e he

n eppu r ei mmag ina to . EC i S i a dope ra i nvece p ropno p e ra f f re t ta re L ad i s so -

t on d e l la n on r e l ig io s i tà i lc omp i to d if o rn ire p rove d e l -

l u z ione n a tu ra le d e l le m emb ra ,e he n on èv o l ta a l la " l ib -

l al o ro i po te s i" . E bbene ame p a re e he l ' a f f ennaz ione e he l e spe r ienza d e l s a c ro c o s t i tu isea i nnegab i lmen te t i n e l emen to n e l la s t ru t tu ra d e l la c o sc ienza n on s i a a cce t tab i le q uando s i n f e r i sea a l l 'uomo " na tu ra le "p nvo d iu na t r ad iz ione e u l -

e raz ione" d e l lo s p ir ito , ma , a l c ou tra r io , a l 'annu l lamen to d e l la p e r sona umana e he n on h ap i i ' i im r uo lo n e l la v i ta e omune d e lg ruppo ac u t a ppa r teneva . N a tu ra lmen te l ad imo s t raz ione , a nehe s o l tan to e s em p l i f ica t uva ,d iq ue s ta u l t uma " i po te s id il a vo ro" r i ch iede -

t u ra le , e he a vrebbe d ovu to l a se ia re a lmeno u na t r aec ia n e i p rodo t t i d e l la s ua a t t iv i tà i n te l le t tua le , ec ioè n e l l 'a r te f i gu ra t iva . En on m i s ono s o t t ra t to a l l 'obb l igo d if o rn i re l ea rgo m en taz ion i a t te a d ir nos t ra re l a i n sus s is tenza d e l le p rove p o s i t ive d e l la e s i s tenza d iu nt a le s i gn if ica to n e l la

r ebbe a lmeno a l t re t tan to s paz uo , et empo , d iq ue l lo i m p egna to p e rL ap receden te . Non c ir e s ta q u ind i e he r i nv ia re l ae one lu s ione a d u na p ro ss ima o cca s uone d ii n con t ro ; l a sc iando ,p e ro ra , a l la b uona v o lon tà d e i c o l legh i i lp i acevo le e omp i to d i u na p e r sona le c on s ide raz ione b a sa ta s u l la p e r sona le e s -

a t t iv it h i n te l le t tua le d e l l 'uomo p re is toneo , a lmeno p e r q uan to r i gua rda l ao ld E urope , el ' an ib ien te c i reummed i t e r raneo ,d a lP a leo l i t ieo a l le p r ime E ta d e i Me ta ll .

p e r ienza d ic i a seuno .

En on m i nma r rebbe q u ind i e he a t tende re q ua lche o b iez ione d ocumen ta ta a im ie lg i ud iz i ,o ,a neo rm eg l io , l ' e semp l i f ieaz ione d ie a s i d a m e n on p re S i i nc on s ide r a z ione , ed imo s t ran t i i nvece L ap re senza d iq ue s ta " e s p e r ienza d e ls a c ro " . M i p a re p e rö o ppo r tuno a n t ie ipa re u na r i spo s ta , s i a p u rg ene r ica en on d ocumen ta ta ( p e ro ra ) ,a du na p r e su m ib i le o b iez ione f onda ta s u l s i gn if ica to " r e l ig io so " d e l r i to f une ra r io . Ei n la t t i o p imone e omune f r ag l i s t ud io s id e l la p re i s t o r ia e he i lr i to f une rar io , i n s e s t esso , s i a l ap rova d i u na e o sc ienza r e l ig io sa ( ne l s en so d iu na t r a seendenza r i spe t to a l le mo t ivaz ion i r ea l is t iehe d e l l 'uomo ) i nq uan t ot e s t imon ianza d e l la c r edenza d i u na v i ta p os t m or l em . L 'uomo , s io sse rva , ad i f f e renza d eg l i a n ima l i , s i p r ende c u ra , f i n d a l la p iü l o n tana p re i s to r ia , d e i s uo i mo r t i ; n e p ro tegge l es pog l ie ; l ea ceompagna e on o f-

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