The organization and administration of teacher certification in California
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THE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA
A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment of the. Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
Max M/ Appleby June 1950
UMI Number: DP23991
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Publishing
UMI DP23991 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
T h is dissertation, w ritten by
u n d e r the g u id a n c e o f
F a c u lt y C o m m itte e
on S tudies, a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l its m em bers, has been p resen ted to a n d a ccep ted by the C o u n c i l on G r a d u a te S tu d y a n d R e se a rch , in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f DOCTOR
OF
P H IL O S O P H Y
......... Dean
...........
D ate
Committee on Studies
/
Chairman
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere appreciation is here expressed to Dr. Irving R. Melbo, committee chairman, and to Dr. Louis P. Thorpe, Dr. Prank G. Wegener, Dr.. Edward H. La Franchi, and Dr. Lloyd D. Nelson, committee members, School of Education, University of Southern California for their suggestions and guidance in the development of this study. Assistance rendered by Dr. Aubrey A. Douglass, Associ ate Superintendent of Public Instruction in Charge of Teacher Education, Department of Education, State of California, in sponsoring and clarifying areas of the study was most helpful. Particular thanks should also be extended to the persons listed below for their contributions of pertinent data and information, and for their interest, cooperation, and willing ness to respond to queries or to participate in lengthy inter views. Without their aid completion of this study would not have been possible. Dr. T. M. Stinnett, Associate Secretary National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association of the United States• Frank W. Hubbard, Director, Research Division National Educe,tion Association of the United States Dr# Frank W. Parr, Assistant Secretary and Director of Research, California Teachers Association. Dr. John U. Miehaelis, Director of Supervised Teaching, School of Education University of California at Berkeley Mr. Howard C# Crofts, Coordinator of Teaching San Diego Public Schools Mr. Chester Gilpen, Assistant Superintendent Business and Administrative Field Service County Superintendent of Schools, Orange County Mrs. Ruth Hendrickson, California State Department of Education Division of Credentials Los Angeles Office
iii Dr. John Carroll, County Superintendent of Schools San Diego County Mr. Jens S. Hutchens, Assistant Superintendent County Superintendent of Schools San Diego County Miss Gladys Long, County Superintendent of Schools Office of the County Superintendent of Schools Presno County Mr. Vaughn D. Seidel, County Superintendent of Schools Alameda County Dr. 0. S. Hubbard, County Superintendent of Schools Santa Clara County Mr. Paul Grimm Office of the County Superintendent of Schools Santa Barbara County Mr. Herschel S. Morgan, Chief Technician California State Department of Education Division of Credentials Mr. Edwin Browne, Coordinator of Personnel San Francisco Unified School District Dr. Cecil D. Hardesty, Superintendent of Schools San Jose Unified School District Miss Lavona Hanna, Professor of Education San Francisco State College Dr. William G. Sweeney, Head of Department of Education San Jose State College Miss M. E. Murdock, Credentials Secretary University of California, Berkeley Dr. Albert R. Lang, Dean of Professional Education Fresno State College Dr. Lucien Kinney, Professor of Education Stanford University Mr. J. R. Hatfield, Supervisor in Personnel Los Angeles Public Schools
Mr* Ernest Wills, Supervisor in Personnel Los Angeles Public Schools Dr. Lester B. Sands, Assistant Professor of Education Santa Barbara College of the University of California Miss Clara Mencken, Credentials Secretary Santa Barbara College of the University of California Mr. Lawrence E. Chenoweth, Professor of Education Santa Barbara College of the University of California Miss Evelyn Richards, Credentials Secretary University of California at Los Angeles Miss Frances Hurd, Credentials Secretary Stanford University
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.
‘
PAGE
THE PROBLEM
1
Introduction
1
The problem • • • • • • • • • • • •
............
3
. ..................
3
Scope of the p r o b l e m ........................
k
Importance of the inquiry............. . . . .
J
Statement of the problem
Methods used in the study of the problem
. • .
10
Treatment of d a t a .............................. 13 Treatment of findings • * . • • • • * Definitions of terms
. ♦ . ♦ . .........
Organization of the dissertation
14 15
• • • • » • • •
18
Part o n e ...............................
19
Part two
19
Part three II.
........
.........
• • • • ............................ 20
GENERAL HISTORY OF CERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of related literature
•
21
................ 21
Original function of teacher certification
. •
21
Certification in the United S t a t e s ............ 22 New York lays the foundation of a state system
22
Teacher certification originally a lay function
23
Centralization of certification authority . . .
23
Effects of centralization of teacher
Vi CHAPTER
PAGE Evolution of certification in the United S t a t e s ......................................26 Bases of standards governing teacher certifi cation ...........................
. . . .
Current types of state certification programs*
28 29
Types of state certification organisations, 1898-1937
31
Summary of the chapter.......................... 31 III.
HISTORY OF CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA............ 33 Review of related literature............... ♦ .
33
Certification by county e x a m i n a t i o n .......... 35 Certification through teacher education institutions........................... . . Bases of issuance of certification • • • • • •
38 40
Growth of teacher certification in California • 4l Emergency certification in California Summary of the chapter IV.
TRENDS IN TEACHER CERTIFICATION
....
43
.................. 4-7 . . . . . . . . .
49
Review of related literature ..................
49
Increase In certification requirements . . . .
50
Increased specialization of certificates . . .
53
Centralization of certification...........
55
Reciprocity in certification
.............. 57
Certification by examination...........
60
vil CHAPTER
PAGE Emergency teacher certification................ 62 Renewal of certification...................... 63 I*ife certification
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Certification requirements
64
.............. 64
Enrichment of training of applicants for certification...............
65
Other trends in certification • • • • • • . • •
66
Certification problems requiring further study.
66
Bases of issuance of certification.......67 Summary of the Chapter V.
.................... 67
CERTIFICATION AND THE SELECTION OF TEACHER CANDIDATES
.
.................................. 70
Review of related l i t e r a t u r e ............... .. Accuracy of teacher selection procedures
...
70 70
Responsibility of the teacher............. 71 Selective certification
............ 71
Professional concept of teaching and selection of candidates.........
72
Establishment of selective procedures ........
72
Bases of selection of teacher candidates
74
...
State programs for selection of prospective teachers
• • • • • • .........
Summary of the c h a p t e r .....................77 VI.
CERTIFICATION BY E X A M I N A T I O N .................78
73
vili CHAPTER
PAGE Review of related literature • • • • • • • • • • Legality of certification by examination • . .
78 78
Use and construction of certification examinations............ * *
...........
80
Certification examinations and low-grade certificates........ . . . . . ..............81 Tendencies toward the elimination of examinations for certification.............. 81 The South Carolina plan
• • • • • • • • • . .
Conditions contributing to the need for change
83 83
Approach to the p r o b l e m ...................... 84 Procedure employed
. . . . . . . .
Acceptance of basic recommendations
85
. . . . . 86
Provisions of the new plan • • • • • • . • • •
86
Administration of the National Teacher Examination
. . . . . . .........
Operation of the new plan
. . . . 87
. . . . . . . . . .
89
Effects of certification by examination in South Carolina • • • • • • • • • • • * • • •
90
Certification by examination in California . . 92 Summary of the chapter . . . . . VII.
..............
93
RECIPROCITY AND TEACHER CERTIFICATION............ 94 Review of related literature . . .
............
94
Inter-state movement of teachers.............. 9^
ix CHAPTER
PACE Difficulties in reciprocal certification . •
95
Acceptance of credentials from approved teacher education institutions.......... Reciprocity and state history requirements .
95 96
Current status of reciprocity in state programs of teacher certification
. . • .
97
North Central Association study of reciprocity
. ........
98
Recommendations for r e c i p r o c i t y ..........
99
Uniform certification and reciprocity
99
...
.........
101
CERTIFICATION AND TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND
. . 103
Summary of the chapter VIII.
. . . . . . . . .
Review of related literature.......... . • .
103
Results of post-World War I educational developments • • • • « . • • • • • • • • •
10^
Current teacher supply and demand situation.
106
Supply and demand factors
107
Questions arising from increasing certifi cation requirements
.......... Ill
State programs and teacher supply and demand
112
Proposals for the state control of teacher supply and demand
.. . . .
113
*
Teacher education institutions and supply and demand
.............. 115
X
CHAPTER
PAGE Summary of the chapter . . . . . ................ 116
IX.
STATE PROGRAMS OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION........ 118 Review of related literature . • • • • • « • • •
118
Concepts of certification.................. 118 Major weaknesses in state programs of certi fication .......... .............. .
119
Purpose of certification .
................ 121
Principles of certification
. . • • • • • • •
124
Guidance elements involved in certification. • 130 State responsibility for education.......... 130 Theory underlying state certification Control of certification
....
132
............ 134
Criteria for issuance of certification . . . .
135
Certificate d a t a ............ ............... 135 Modifications of state programs of certification Ohio plan
..................
. ....
136
.......... ................. 136
Michigan p l a n ..............................137 Louisiana p l a n ............ . * ............. 138 South Carolina plan
..........
Application requirements
. . . . . . .
..................139
Issuance procedures State certification records
139
... • • •
139
........ 140
State legislation and certification........ 141
xi CHAPTER
PAGE Characteristics of a certification law . . . .
143
Methods of assigning certification authority •
144
Basic legal concept of the teacher*s c e r t i f i c a t e .......... .................. 147 Courts and certification.................... 14-7 Status of administrative control ............
148
Current status of state programs of certifi cation
........................148
General requirements for certification . . . . Professional education requirements
149
• • • • • 150
Recommendations for improvement of state programs of certification . General agreements ..........
.............150 . . . . . . . .
157
Suggested specific steps ....................
157
Types of certification
165
........ .
Recommendations pertaining to institutions • • 166 Reciprocity in certification .
.............167
Selected potential practices relating to the California state program of teacher certification
.....................
167
Definition of "credential” • • • • • • • • • •
168
Definition of "certificate"
170
• • * • • • . . •
The establishment of more regional certification o f f i c e s ....................17^
xii CHAPTER
PAGE Maintenance of "Active-Inactive” certification status records . . • • • . • • •
174
Estimate the number of teachers to be needed . • 178 Lists of potential substitutes for county offices
........... . . . . . .
I79
Designation of physicians and surgeons to conduct Health Certificate examinations
• . • 181
The establishment of regional offices to provide Health certificate examination service
................................. 183
Summary of the chapter......... The literature
185
.........
185
Selected potential practices relating to the California state program of teacher certification.................
189
Potential certification practices requiring further s t u d y ................. X.
191
TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND CERTIFICATION . . 195 Review of related literature .................. 195 The status of the training institution . . . .
197
Relation of teacher education institutions in certification
......................... 197
Evaluation of the probationary teacher . . . . Supply and demand and certification
.
199
• •• • 199
xiii CHAPTER
PAGE Criticism of teacher education institutions . . 200 Recommendations........................
202
Selected potential practices relating to teacher education institutions recommending teacher certification in California...............
204
Institution recommendations and minimum state requirements
................... 205
Publication of minimum state requirements for credentials in teacher education institution catalogues and bulletins
....
207
More accurate selection of candidates for certification by teacher education i n s t i t u t i o n s ...............
209
Actual directed teacher experience— a preliminary requirement..................... 210 Teacher education institutions and advisory evaluating committees...............
214
Discontinuance of institutional recommendations for certification........... 217 The l i t e r a t u r e .......................
217
Selected potential practices relating to teacher education institutions recommending teacher certification in California . . . . .
220
Potential certification practices requiring further study . . . . . .
........ 222
xiv CHAPTER XI.
PAGE
TYPES OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION.................. 224 Review of related literature ..........
.. . . .
Broad versus narrow certification........ . . Blanket certification
224 224
• • • • • • • ........ 225
Administrative and supervisory certification • • 227 Initial certification.........
227
Horizontal and vertical classification of c e rtification...............
228
Types of certification issued in Osceola . . . .
229
The South Carolina p l a n .................... 230 First certification g r o u p .................. 231 Second certification g r o u p .............
231
Third certification g r o u p .................. 231 Adult education certification in Pennsylvania. .
232
The emergency certificate
233
• • • . • • • • • • •
Aspects of low-grade certification ............
236
Retention of outstanding emergency certificated teachers The life certificate .
237 .........
237
Life certification in the various states . . . . Life certification and t e n u r e ............. Bases of issuance of life certification
239 . 239
....
Validity of life certification.............. 243 Revocation of life certification............ 244
240
XV
CHAPTER
PAGE Recognition accorded life certification . . . .
246
Abolition of life certification . . . . . . . .
248
Selected potential practices relating to types of certification in California
. . . . . . . .
248
A provisional kindergarten-primary credential should be i s s u e d ...............
251
Credentials for counselling and guidance should be i s s u e d .........................
252
The Junior High School credential........ .. .
255
The issuance of Special Secondary credentials ................ 257
should be discontinued
Special Secondary credential services should be authorized by General Secondary credentials o n l y .....................
257
Kindergarten services should be limited to holders of the Kindergarten-Primary credentials . . . . . .
....................
259
The General Elementary credential should authorize service as a junior high school principal............................... 26l Equivalent requirements should be required for General Elementary and General Secondary credentials .
........ . ............ . .
A ,lunified credential” should be issued . . . .
264 264
xv i CHAPTER
PAGE County boards of education and requirements for emergency credentials.............. 266 Emergency and provisional credential experience should be accepted for the Life Diploma . . . . . .
..................
...
Minimum residence and the Life Diploma. . . .
268 270
Life Diplomas should be classified as 11Inactiven
.............. 2J2
Periodic requirements should be established for teachers holding Life D i p l o m a s ......... ..
276
Experience on an emergency credential in a special field should be accepted for the Life Diploma........................... 278 Recency of service and the Life Diploma. . . .
280
Continued issuance of the Life Diploma in California,.......... ..................... 282 Summary of the c h a p t e r .................... 285 The l i t e r a t u r e .......................... 285 Selected potential practices relating to types of certification in California
• • • • 288
Potential certification practices requiring
XII.
further study ..............................
291
ISSUANCE OF TEACHER CERTIFICATION ................
293
Review of related literature
................
. 293
xvil CHAPTER
PAGE General bases of issuance of certification . . . 293 Principle of fitness and certification . . . . .
293
Factors influencing the issuance of .................... 294
certification The South Carolina plan
• • • • • ........ ..
Personal qualifications for certification Moral character
........
297
.......... .. 298
Personal fitness • • • • • • Proof of loyalty
• . • 297
. . . . . . . . . . .
Physical fitness
296
........
.. .. .
.......... ..
Evidence of Christian character Other personal requirements
299 299
• • • • • • • •
299
. . . . . . . . . .
300
Personality as a factor for certification
. • . 300
Teaching success and certification • • • • • • • Factors of competency and certification
302
• • • • 303
Selected potential practices relating to the issuance of teacher certification in California. 304 The California constitution requirement
....
305
. . . • • . . . • • • •
306
Granting credit for valuable and unique experience •
The $3.00 credential fee should be increased . • 310 A fee should be charged for the issuance of a credential................................ 312 A fee should be charged for re-issuing lost or destroyed credentials • • • • • • • • • • •
312
xviii CHAPTER
PAGE Expenditure of fees by the Division of 31*1-
.
Credentials . « • • • • • • ......... A ehest x-ray should be required of all applicants for credentials
.
.........
317
Temporary suspension of credentials of teachers afflicted with infectious or contagious diseases
........................
• • • • • •
A psychiatric examination should be required Summary of the chapter The literature
317
• . 319
. . • • • • • • • . • • • •
321
.............
321
Selected potential practices relating to the issuance of teacher certification in California 323 Potential certification practices requiring further study XIII.
. . . . . .
326
RENEWAL OF CERTIF I C A T I O N ........................ 327 Review of related literature
« • • • • • . • • • •
327
Underlying theory of recertification . . . . . .
327
In-service training...........
329
Bases for renewal of certification .......... 329 Successful teaching experience
•• • • • • • • •
Examination • Travel Recertification
331 333
........... .........................
Legislation concerning renewal ofcertification
333 33^ • 33^
xix CHAPTER
PAGE The South Carolina p l a n ........................ 336 Heed for carefully developed state recertification p r o g r a m ...................... 336 Selected potential practices relating to the renewal of c ertification................. . .
337
Health examinations for all persons requesting renewal of credentials . . . . . . Change of renewal date
338
.................... 339
Renewal of credentials prior to the beginning of the school year
.............. 344
Summary of the c h a p t e r ............. The literature
346
............................ 346
Selected potential practices relating to the renewal of certification in California
• • •
348
Potential certification practices requiring further study • • • • ............... XIV.
3^9
REVOCATION OF CERTIFICATION........................ 350 Review of related literature
• • • • • • • • • •
350
Theory underlying the revocation of certification................................ 351 Causes for revocation of certification
....
Who has the right to revoke certification • . . Rights of the teacher
351 352
.............. 353
Recommendations for improvement of revocation aspects of state programs of certification. .
353
XX
CHAPTER
PAGE Selected potential practices relating to Hie revocation of certification in California • .
354
Automatic revication on third suspension
356
Felony conviction and revocation
• •
• • • • • •
358
The superintendent must report the names of teachers dismissed for moral reasons
• • •
358
Immediacy of the report by the superintendent
363
Immediate report by the superintendent to the office of the county superintendent of schools
• . •
.........
365
Immediate report by the superintendent of the names of teachers discharged for moral reasons to the county and to the state
. .
Summary of the c h a p t e r ........ . ........... The literature
365 365
• • . • • • . . . . ........
365
Selected potential practices relating to the revocation of certification in California
............
. . . . . . . . .
368
Potential certification practices requiring
XV.
further study . . . . ....................
370
GENERAL SUMMARY, CONCLCJSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
371
Summary of findings............... General history of certification
371 . . . . . .
The history of certification in California
371 •
372
xxl CHAPTER
PAGE Trends In teacher certification ..............
373
Certification and the selection of teacher candidates
• • ................... . . . . .
374
Certification by e x a m i n a t i o n .................. 374 Certification and teacher supply and demand • •
375
State programs of teacher certification • . • .
376
Teacher education institutions and certification 377 Types of teacher certification................ 379 The issuance of teacher certification.......... 383 Renewal of certification
•
385
Revocation of certification............ . • .
387
Conclusions and recommendations • Conclusions • • • • * • * • •
389 .
Recommendations • . • • * ......... . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX
.........................
..............................................
389 389
LIST OF TABLES TABLE I•
PAGE Types of State Organization for the Issuance of Teacher Certification • • • • • • • « . • • . • •
II•
32
Total Numbers of Credentials Issued on Direct Application and on Institutional Recommendations
III. IY#
during the Years 1940-41 to 1948-49 . . . . . . .
42
Number of Credentials Issued In California, 1940-49
44
Number and Types of Emergency Certificates Issued from 5/1 to 9/30 in 1946-1949 ...........
V.
45
The Term "Credential11 Should be Employed in the Education Code and Administrative Code (Title 5) to Designate All Certification Documents Issued by the California State Department of Education •
VI.
169
In View of Recent Trends to Discontinue the Issu ance of County Certificates, the Term "Certifi cate” Should be Employed in the Education Code and Administrative Code (Title 5) Only to Designate the Act of Registering a Credential with a County Office and Not to Refer to a Document Which May or May Not be Issued by a County Office
VII.
...............
Because of the Confusion and Duplication Arising from the All-inclusive Use of the Term "Certification Documents" in the Education Code and Administrative Code (Title 5) > Further Use
172
xxiii TABLE
PAGE of the Term 11Certification Documents11 Should he Discontinued..............................
VIII.
173
The California State Department of Education Should Establish Regional Offices to Provide the Services of Certification Technicians to Assist Applicants in Processing Applications for Credentials •
IX.
175
The Commission of Credentials Should Maintain Records of the "Active-Inactive” Status of All Persons Holding Credentials •
X.
........ .
•• •
177
The California State Department of Education Should Maintain Records Necessary to Estimate the Number of Teachers by Type of Credential that Will Likely 'be Needed in California for Each Coming School Year • • • • • • ..........
XI.
180
The Commission of Credentials Should Provide Each Office of the County Superintendent of Schools with a "Potential Substitute" List by November 1 of Each Year Giving the Name, Address, and Type of Credential Held by Each Person Posses sing a Credential, But Not Teaching, Who Resides Within That County
XII.
..................
The California State Department of Education Should Designate Physicians and Surgeons to
182
xxiv TABLE
PAGE ■Whom All Applicants for Credentials Shall he Required to Report for the Health Certificate Examination •
XIII.
184
............ .
The California State Department of Education Should Establish Regional Offices to Provide Health Certificate Examination Services • • • •
XIV •
186
All Applications Processed by Accredited Teacher Education Institutions Should be Subject Only to the Credential Requirements Established by the California State Department of Education
XV.
206
The Requirements Established by the California State Department of Education for Credentials Should be Printed in the Catalogues and Bulle tins Describing the Teacher Education Programs Issued by All Accredited Teacher Education I n s t i t u t i o n s ..............
XVI.
.............. ..
208
The Teacher Education Institutions Should Institute More Discriminating Means of Select ing Candidates for Teacher Certification
XVII.
• • •
Actual Directed Teaching Experience in the Class room Should be One of the Preliminary Require ments of All Teacher Training Programs as a Means of Eliminating Persons Not Adapted to Teaching before They Invest a Large Amount of
211
XXV
TABLE
PAGE Work, Training, Time, and Money Preparing for Work for Which They are Not Suited . . . • • • •
XVIII.
213
Each Accredited Teacher Education Institution in California Should Be Required to Maintain an Advisory Committee for the Purpose of Making Recommendations for Improvement of the Institu tion^ Teacher Education Program . .............. 216
XIX.
The Practice of Issuing Credentials on the Basis of Institutional Recommendation Should he Discontinued.....................
XX.
. .
A Provisional Kindergarten-Primary Credential Should be I s s u e d .........
XXI.
253
Credentials for Counselling and Guidance Should be I s s u e d .................................
XXII. XXIII.
218
The Junior High School Credential Should be Issued
25^ 256
The Issuance of Special Secondary Credential Should be Discontinued.......................... 258
XXIV.
The Service Provided by Special Secondary Creden tials Should be Authorized by General Secondary Credentials o n l y ...........
XXV.
260
Service on the Kindergarten Level Should be Restricted only to the Holders of the Kinder garten-Primary Credential
XXVI.
. . . • • . • • • • •
262
The General Elementary Credential Should Authorize Service as a Principal of a Junior High School .
263
xxvi TABLE XXVII.
PAGE In Order to Promote Approximately Equal Prestige and Status for Both Credentials, the General Requirements (Number of Years of College Work, Degree, Education Courses, Etc.,) for a General Elementary Credential Should he Equivalent to the General Requirements for a General Secon dary Credential.....................
XXVIII.
265
In View of the Trend Toward Unifying the Educa tion of the Child into a Broad, Continuous Experience, Unbroken by Educational Levels, a "Unified Credential" Authorizing the Holder to Teach in Any Grade from Kindergarten through Junior College Should be Issued • • • • 267
XXIX.
The Education Code Should State Specifically that the County Boards of Education are Author ized to Set Up Their Own Local Requirements of Training and Experience for Emergency Creden tial
XXX.
.......................................... 269
Experience Gained on Emergency and Provisional Credentials in California Should be Accepted on the Same Basis as Private and Out-Of-State School Experience for the Life Diploma
XXXI.
....
A Minimum Residence Requirement of' 27 Months of Successful Experience in One School Should be
271
xxvii TABLE
PAGE Required of All Applicants for the Life Diploma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XXXII
273
Life Diplomas Held by Persons Hot Engaged FullTime in Educational Work Should be Classified as "Inactive” and Should be Subjected to the Completion of Prescribed Training Before Being Permitted to Become "Active” Again
XXXIII.
. .
275
Holders of Life Diplomas Should be Required to Complete Periodic Educational Training Re quirements to Maintain Their Life Diplomas on "Active” Status
XXXIV.
• • • • • • • • » • • • •
277
Special Arrangements Should be Made* for the Acceptance for a Life Diploma of Experience Gained on an Emergency Credential in a Special Field (Mentally Retarded, Deaf, Speech Correction, Etc.,) by a Teacher Who Holds a Regular Credential Yet Who Has Agreed Upon Request to Serve in That Special Area . . . .
XXXV.
279
The California State Department of Education Should Set a Recency Time Limit During Which the Last Period of Service of an Applicant for a Life Diploma Shall Have Been Completed
XXXVI.
281
The Issuance of the Life Diploma in California Should be Discontinued
284
xxviii TABLE XXXVII.
PAGE Course Work That is Equivalent to the California Constitution Requirement and Has Been Completed within a Prescribed Time Limit Outside Cali fornia Should Be Accepted for California Credentials ♦ . ............
XXXVIII.
• • • . . . • • •
307
Procedure Should he Established by the Califor nia State Department of Education to Evaluate and Give Credit Towards Regular Teaching Cre dentials to Persons Possessing Valuable and Unique Experiences and Training in Such Fields as Special Business, Army, Wavy, Et Cetera, Who Give Promise of Becoming Good Teachers Yet, for Various Reasons, Would Find it Impossible to Meet Current Teacher Education Course R e q u i r e m e n t s .................
XXXIX.
309
The Current Fee of $3.00 for a California Credential Should be I n c r e a s e d ................ 311
XXXX.
A Fee Should be Charged for the Issuance of a California Credential
XLI.
.................... 313
A Fee Should be Charged for the Re-Issuance of a Lost or Destroyed C r e d e n t i a l ................ 315
XLII.
All Fees Collected for the Issuance of Creden tials Should be Expended by the Division of Credentials.............................
316
xxix TABLE XLIII.
PAGE A Chest X-Ray Should Be Required of All Applicants for Credentials « • • • • • • • • •
XLIV.
318
The Credentials of Teachers Afflicted with Infections or Contagious Diseases Should Be Suspended for a Limited Period of Time with Subsequent Reactivation of the Credential Being Permitted on Recovery of the Teacher to the Point of Exclusion of Further Infection or Contagion • • • • • • • • • • • •
XLV.
320
A Psychiatric Examination Should Be Prescribed and Required As a Part of the Health Certificate Examination
XLVI.
• . • • • • • • • • •
322
A Renewal Health Examination Should Be Pre scribed and Required of All Persons Applying for Credential Renewals
XLVII.
• • • • • • • • • • •
The Current Date of Renewal Should Be Changed from November 30 to January 1
XLVIII.
3^0
..............
3^3
Teachers Whose Credentials Will Expire during a School Year Should Be Required to Renew Their Credentials before the Beginning of that School Year
XLIX*
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
3^5
Credentials Previously Having Been Suspended Twice Should Be Automatically Revoked upon Becoming Subject to Suspension for a Third T i m e .............................
357
XXX
TABLE L.
PAGE The Division of Credentials Should Report Immediately to All County Offices the Name of the Holder and The Type of All Credentials Revoked or Suspended
LI#
••• ....................
359
The Credentials of a Person Convicted of a Felony Involving a Morals Charge Should be Automatically R e v o k e d ......................................
LI I#
360
The Superintendent of Schools of a District Should Be Required by Law to Report the Names of Teachers Dismissed forMoral Reasons
LIII.
.........
362
The Superintendent of Schools of a District Should Be Required by Law to Report the Names of Teachers Dismissed for Moral Reasons Immediately Upon Termination of the Teacher*s Employment with the D i s t r i c t ...........
LIT.
364
The Superintendent of Schools of a District Should Be Required by Law to Report the Names of Teachers Dismissed for Moral Reasons to the Office of the County Superintendent of Schools of the County in Which He is Serving Immediately upon Termination of the Teacher*s Employment with the District
LV#
..................... * .
The Superintendent of Schools of a District Should Be Required by Law to Report the Names of
366
xxxi TABLE
PAGE Teachers Dismissed for Moral Reasons to the Office of the County Superintendent of Schools of the County in Which He is Serving and to the California State Department of Education Immediately upon Termination of the Teacher's Employment with the Di s t r i c t ...............
LVI#
Total Respondents Per Cent Table * .
•
...........
367 404
LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1*
V
PAGE
Desired Characteristics of an Ideal State Certification Law
........................
145
CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The importance of obtaining the best possible teachers for service in American public schools long has been recognized as a matter of national interest.
American educators have
agreed that the certification standards controlling the train ing and qualification of teachers within a state determine to a large extent the quality of instruction to be found in the schools of that state.
The influences exercised by a state*s
program of teacher certification have been of profound signi ficance to the people of that state and to the nation. I.
INTRODUCTION
With the termination of World War II, the American people, freed of the burden of waging war on far-flung and distant battle fronts, but cognizant of the tremendous services rendered by the nationfs public schools, have given, for the most part, sympathetic and understending attention to state ments of current educational needs.
Tested in battle, the
adage ”a chain is no stronger than its weakest link,” has tended to confirm the reasoning that a School can be no better
*** Virginia Gildersleeve, ”State Requirements that Discourage.Educated Persons from Teaching,” Educational Record. 17:3^-43* January, 1936.
2 than its poorest teacher. In spite of a manifest desire that the nation*s schools be improved, war-time inroads upon teacher personnel have pro duced a continuing shortage of trained teachers that has threatened the loss of many hard won pre-war educational gains. Encouraged to desert their profession by a general lack of understanding that teaching was a war job equal to any, attracted by the high wages of war industries, and disil lusioned by the low Social status accorded the teacher by p society, thousands of American instructors left their class rooms never to return. American public schools, burdened with increasingly heavy t;
„ - . ................
w _ v—
_ .
t,
7
by instructors possessing emergency certification, strained by massive shifts of population which tax existing school facilities to the utmost, and limited by skyrocketing costs, have faced unprecedented problems in their quest for ,fa better society through better educational programs implemented by better educated teachers. Elwood P. Cubberley, discussing the primary problems
2 R. C. Woellner, "Teacher Certification," Review of Educational Research. 16:280, June, 1946. 3 b * S. Moore, "The Organization and Administration of Teacher Education in California Liberal Arts Colleges," Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 1947*
3 encountered in public schools stated: There are, in their ultimate analysis, but three primary problems in education. The first is that of how properly to finance a school system. The second is how to secure a trained teaching force for it. The third is how to supervise it to^,produce leaders for its management and improvement* Although admitting that the financial problem always underlies the other two, Cubberly declared that 11. * . the teacher is also the most important single factor in determining the efficiency of our educational system."5 It was with the securing of properly trained teachers, the second of these three problems, that this study was primarily concerned. II.
THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem.
The title of the problem is
"The Organization and Administration of Teacher Certification in California."
This study is primarily concerned with the
satisfaction of two questions:
(l) What issues and problems
exist in relation to the organization and administration of teacher certification in California in the following areas: —
-
—
^ E. P. Cubberley, "The Certification of Teachers," National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. Fifth Yearbook. Part 2 [Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1§06), p. o. M
.. p. 8.
«
(a) the over-all California state program of certification, (b) the operation of the certification program in relation to teacher education institutions, (e) the types of teaching certificates, (d) the issuance of teacher certificates, (e) the renewal of teaching certificates, and (f) the revocation of teaching certificates?
(2) What recommendations can he
made concerning practices relating to the organization and administration of teacher certification with respect to the _
above areas in California? Scope of the problem*
The problem of this study has
been limited in scope as follows:
(1) to the state of
California; (2) in terms of time, to treatment of the present status of the California teacher certification program; (3) to the organization and administration of teacher certification in California; and (4) to all of the various types of teacher credentials issued in California* This study sought to determine what conclusions could be drawn relative to the effectiveness of the organization and administration of teacher certification in California and to analyze the causes underlying and contributing to the current stage of development of the California program of certification*
The study also attempted to reveal means
whereby effective practices and requirements might be intro duced or extended to areas of current California teacher
5 certification where they have not existed, or where they have existed only in part# In keeping with the general nature of the problem, this study proposed to determine the present statue of the Califor nia program of teacher certification by bringing together and evaluating related materials in the staters certification laws
y
and regulations with the literature of the field, and with various recommendations made by persons actively working in the many areas of teacher certification in California#
Reali
sation of this purpose, of necessity, involved the summarization of present certification practices and requirements in states other than California, insofar as they presented distinguishable and important differences; and the unification of expert
^
/
opinion relating to various means for the improvement of state certification requirements and practices*
Evaluations of
requirements and practices have been accomplished in the study on the broad bases of the principles and judgments that are presented.
Explanations of the varying influences upon the
future development of the certification of teachers in Califor nia of the trends disclosed also have been made. The primary purpose of the study dictated that further limitations
in the scope of the report be made.
may be well
to indicate that much of the evaluation achieved
was based upon and opinion
First, it
criteria subjectively drawn from the experience
of individuals or groups of individuals actively
concerned with the organization and administration of teacher certification in California, and substantiated, in turn and insofar as possible, by the literature of the field*
The
study involved methods of research that were more subjective. than objective in nature, and, therefore, was classed as an inquiry and no claims for analysis or evaluation that could be regarded as being purely scientific were submitted, al though an attempt was made to be objective where possible* The subject matter involved in an interpretive study of this type did not tend to lend itself to the experimental method or to quantitative methods of rating or comparison* This study has not attempted to evaluate or analyze the specific requirements of any of the varying credentials which have been issued in California, but was primarily con cerned with the broad areas of policy underlying the organiza tion and administration of the California state program of teacher certification.
Specific requirements and provisions
established for particular credentials were not treated except in those instances in which a degree of urgency was indicated by a high frequency of appearance and reappearance of reference in the data gathered. A general view of the administrative policies currently supporting California teacher certification requirements and practices has been presented in the several chapters, however, those trends that appeared to throw the greatest amount of
7 light upon the future development of teacher certification in California were dealt with in considerable detail.
Tabul
ations of data pertaining to broad areas of administrative policy controlling the organization and administration of teacher certification in California, and statements of trends in certification, were presented only insofar as they tended to contribute to the realization of the study*s purpose. Importance of the inquiry.
It is to be noted that
every state in the Union has made provision for the certifi cation of its teachers.
Most foreign countries also have
recognized the importance of certification and have provided means for the legal qualification of applicants for service as teachers in their schools. It has been difficult, if not impossible, to divorce teacher certification from any of the various aspects of public education.
This has been particularly true in the
consideration of teachers1 salaries.
The largest-single
item in state expenditures for education has been for teachers1 salaries.
Teacher certification has constituted one of the
most effective means available to the state for avoiding waste of public funds by preventing the employment of instructors who have been incompetent and poorly qualified. Frequent reference has been made In the literature that the real key to educational efficiency has appeared to
8 rest, in large degree, in careful and accurate determination of the initial qualifications of teachers*
The contention
that the provision of competent teachers is the state*s most important educational enterprise has remained relatively unchallenged*
In the wide range of personnel activities
involving teacher recruitment, pre-service education, employ ment, assignment to work, and in-service training, teacher certification has occupied an essential, if not predominant, position*
Benjamin W* Frazier, Specialist for Teacher Educa
tion, Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, stated: The requirements for certification are an index to the amount of education of the teachers of a State, and are indications of the conscious concern of a state school administration for the advance-^, ment of the qualifications of its teaching staff It may also he observed that large numbers of teachers and teacher education institutions have been vitally interested in certification requirements and practices involving the initial issuance, renewal, or exchange of certificates*
The
relationships existing between teacher education and teacher certification have been so indissolubly interwoven that it may be argued that they have tended to become synonymous* In any democratic state where attempts have been made
^ Benjamin W* Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," Bulletin 1238, No* 12, U* S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Washing ton, D* C., p* 2.
to improve the standards of the teaching profession, it has been a matter of prime importance that every educator know the educational principles which are basic to effective certifi cation. Manifestly, the educational welfare and advancement of the pupil, around whom all public-school educational activities have revolved have been so closely related to the qualifications of teachers that even slight improvement in certification requirements has tended to produce widespread and lasting effects in the educational advancement of a state. In further amplification of the importance of the part played by a properly organized system of teacher certi fication in any state program of public education, Blyler declared that certification serves the following purposes: 1.
It protects American children from incompetent
teachers. 2.
It protects superintendents and boards of education
from local pressure that too often brings about the employment of poorly qualified "home town" candidates and relatives. /
3.
It is a merit system for teachers.
Through the
gradation of certificates, each succeeding certificate repre sents a merit award for professional growth and service. 4.
It protects good teachers from the competition of
poorly qualified teachers. 5*
It Is a means of raising the standards of the
profession until teaching can take its rightful place among the great service professions, and 6.
It guarantees the public the most for its money,
and will eventually lead to greater financial support for public education.? Methods used in the study of the problem.
To facili
tate a direct approach to the first question, "What issues and problems exist in relation to the organization and administration of teacher certification in California?" an Q
analysis of the certification sections in the Education Code0 and Title 5 of the California Administrative Code^ was first completed.
,^
This analysis revealed in concise form the various legal areas involved in the organization and administration of teacher certification in California.
Initial interviews
were then conducted to discover the areas in which state, county, and local agencies were experiencing the greatest difficulties in the administration of teacher certification.
^ Dorothea Blyler, "Certification of Elementary School Teachers in the United States," The Elementary School Journal. 4 5 :578-589, June, 1945. ^ Education Code, State of California, Printing Divi sion (Documents Section), sections 12001-13226, 1948. 9 State of California, "Title 5, Education," California Admin1atra11ve Code . California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California, sections 200-483, 600-640, 800-844, November, 1946.
'
These preliminary interviews, in addition to pointing out general areas of teacher certification practice which were apparently not functioning in a thoroughly satisfactory unerr^rovided data for the development of an Interview Guide
bich was employed In later discussions of the problem.
This" guiae, accompanied by a letter1^- explaining the nature of the study and requesting verification of a proposed appoint ment for further investigation of the problem, was then for warded to various accredited teacher education Institutions, offices of county superintendents of schools, and school districts were selected to provide a broad geographic coverage of the state of California. On receipt of replies from the various sources solicited an itinerary was established and visits were made to those organizations Indicating a willingness to participate In the Inquiry.
They Included:
Accredited Teacher Education Institutions: University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California University of California, Los Angeles, California University of California, Berkeley, California University of California, Santa Barbara, California Stanford University, Palo Alto, California San Diego State College, San Diego, California San Jose State College, San Jose, California San Francisco State College, San Francisco, California Fresno State College, Fresno, California
10 See Appendix* ^
See Appendix.
12 Offices of County Superintendents of Schools s Orange County Los Angeles County San Diego County Alameda County
Santa Clara County Santa Barbara County San Francisco City & County Fresno County
California State Department of Education: Division of Credentials, Sacramento, California Division of Credentials, Los Angeles, California School Districts: San Jose City Schools San Diego City Schools Los Angeles Public Schools
San Francisco Unified School District
Extensive interviews centering around the use of the Interview Guide /were conducted with representatives of the participating organizations in an effort to obtain suggestions for the improvement of those areas of teacher certification practice with which each organization was most frequently concerned* It was apparent early In the interviews that a great many certification problems and valuable recommendations for their solution could not be received in time to be Included in the Interview Guide for consideration by all persons talcing part In the Inquiry*
Such problems and suggestions were,
therefore, carefully noted as they originated and were sub mitted to the respondents not yet interviewed for their reactions*
Data so gathered were listed in appropriate
chapters with recommendations for further study. The persons interviewed were actively engaged in the
13 organization and administration of the varying phases of teacher certification which pertained to the educational services rendered by their agencies*
For the most part, the
-/respondents were selected to represent their organizations because of their possession of substantial knowledge and wide backgrounds of work experience in the various areas of teacher certification* Treatment of data* Upon completion of all interviews, the data gathered were analyzed in an attempt to discover possible answers to the second question, ”Vhat recommendations can be made concerning practices relating to the organization and administration of teacher certification in California?" The data were treated in the following manner: 1.
Classified according to the appropriate phase of
the investigation. 2.
Analyzed for the purpose of determining what funda
mental principles should prevail in the formulation of teacher certification regulations. 3*
Analyzed to ascertain whether any legislative
amendments are necessary in order to bring about active appli cation of the general principles of teacher certification which are described in the various chapters of this study. 4.
Summarized, evaluated, and interpreted.
14 5*
Critical thinking 12 was employed to fill in gaps,
and to build the findings into an organized and logical whole. 6.
Scientific
reasoning1
3 was applied to develop
general recommendations which might be helpful in the writing of statutory provisions pertaining to certification and other matters indirectly related to certification* 7*
Scientific reasoning was used to make specific
recommendations for the teacher certification program in California. Treatment of findings. Findings which were revealed by the treatment of the data were collectively evaluated by / criteria derived from a broad review of current teacher certification literature, views and opinions of experts and authorities in the fields of state programs of teacher certi fication, teacher education, school organization and adminis tration, and general higher education.
Information employed j
in the derivation of evaluation standards was drawn from the following sources: 1.
All available professional materials— textbooks,
magazine articles, reports of teacher organizations, Federal publications, and State publications (Education Code, Title 5— Adminis tra tive Code, e tc•)•
12 Carter V. Good, Dictionary of Education, McGrawHill, New York, 1945, P* 42*H 13 Ibid.. p. 333.
15 2♦
Previous investigations bearing upon the problem.
3*
Written communications with the Office of Education,
Federal Security Agency, the National Education Association, the California Teachers Association, and the California State Department of Education. 4.
Subtopics in the Yearbook of School Law, and
5*
Court decisions pertaining to the problem.
Especially heavy contributions were made by E. P. Cubberley in the Fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,I1*" the Education
Code,15
Title 5 of the
California Administrative Code,^ bulletins and circulars of the Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, and a variety of valuable material from numerous authors sponsored by learned organizations.
The studies executed by J. R. Emens for the
North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges also provided much information of value and importance. Definitions of terms.
The term teacher was employed in
this study to refer to ”all persons directly engaged in educa tion.”1? 14 *E. P. Cubberley, op. cit. 15 Education Code, o£. cit. 1^ California Administrative Code, o£. cit. ^ WEA Journal. f,The Teacher*s Code of Ethics,” November, 1948•
16 Certification was used to refer to the act, on the part of a state department of education, of granting authori zation to a properly qualified person to accept employment in teaching, supervision, and/or administration in education below college level in keeping with the provisions of a no
certificate issued to the person so qualified. S Certificate was interpreted to designate the legal permission to teach, granted* by the state through the adminis trative agent to whom the certificating power has been delegated John R. Emens contended that teacher certification is "one of a series of interrelated teacher personnel activities which are administered by the state as a means of maintaining and improving the instructional program for the citizenry of 20 the state#11 He described teacher personnel activities as including: 1.
Recruitment and selection of prospective teachers,
lQ Carter V. Good, oj>. cit. . p. 63* Maxwell Meyersohn, Educational and Legal Aspects of In-service Training and Certification of Teachers with Special Reference to New York State, 5l¥ W. 110th Street, New York, New York, 1939* 20
John R. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teachers: Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certifica tion Procedures," North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 15:242, June, 1941•
2 . Approval of teacher educating Institutions and programs , 3#
Certification,
4.
Supply and demand,
5.
Placement, and
6.
Follow-up.
teacher*s certificate was used synonymously with nteacherfs license,” ”teacher's certification,” and "teacher1 credential” in this study*
It was defined by Good as follows
A license issued by constituted authority stating that the holder is qualified to teach in a public school within the jurisdiction of the licensing authority, usually with certain reservations as to the grade level and/or subjects in which the holder is qualified.21 A similar definition was given by Mark E* Stine who declared: A teacher's certificate is an evidence of the fact that the teacher has the preparation required by the state school laws and regulations and that permission has been granted by the state through one of its general or special agencies to engage in public educational services for compensation*22 Teacher education institution was employed in this inquiry to designate any post-high school institution that 21
Carter V* Good, ojd* cit*« p* 63*
22 Mark E* Stine, ”The Influence of Permanent Teacher Certification on the Education of Teachers in Service,” School and Society. 42:707-709* November 23, 1935.
18 has been empowered by the State of California to recommend the issuance of teaching credentials to persons who have completed prescribed courses of training preparatory to teach ing in California public schools. The terms, directed teaching, student teaching, and practice teaching were used synonymously to refer to the general and practical experience obtained by a student in a program of planned, supervised, and directed classroom teach ing which may be conducted by a teacher education institution either in an on-campus or off-campus school. Crlterion and s tandard are of frequent reference in this study*
They were here used synonymously and refer to
carefully derived judgments which are based upon broad ex perience and all available information, and serve as bases for ^evaluation and comparison.
It is appropriate at this point
to indicate that the words, evaluation and appraisal were regarded as being basically equivalent in meaning insofar as they may relate to the procedure involved in determining the consequence, quality, and quantity of a given phenomenon. II.
ORGANIZATION OF THE DISSERTATION
This dissertation is arranged in three main sub divisions:
Part One, The Problem, General History of
Certification, and History of Certification in California; Part Two, Trends in Certification, Areas of Teacher
19 Certification, and Suggestions Pertaining to Current Teacher Practices in California; Part Three, The Summary, Conclusions, and Re commenda tions. Related literature and investigations have been pre sented in the appropriate chapters in Parts One and Two* Part One*
The Problem, General History of Certifica
tion and History of Certification in California are included in this subdivision*
C ^ p t e r ^ endeavors to state the problem
and establish it in an accurate setting, to describe the scope of the problem, to indicate the importance of the inquiry, to justify its selection, to explain the procedure employed in conducting the investigation, to define various pertinent terms, and finally to explain the organisation of the dissertation. Chapter II is primarily concerned with a review of the histori"V
bal growth, development, and evolution of certification concepts
as practiced throughout the United States*
Chapiter IIJC/de
scribes the historical development of the state program of certification in California. Part Two*
Trends in Certification, Areas of Teacher
Certification, and Data relating to Selected Potential Teacher Certification Practices in California.
/
C
Chapter, IV depicts
current trends in the certification of teachers*
Chapters^V
through VIII review the literature and investigations relating to. the certification areas concerned with the Selection of
20 Teacher Candidates, Certification by Examination, Reciprocity and Teacher Certification, and Certification and Teacher Supply and Demand.
Chapters IX through XIV review related
literature and investigations and present data concerning suggestions pertaining to the California State Program of Teacher Certification, Teacher Education Institutions, Issuance, Types, Renewal, and Revocation of Certification in California. Part Three. General Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.
Chapter XV summarizes the findings of the
various chapters as revealed by study of the literature, related investigations, and data gathered concerning recom mendations pertaining to current teacher certification practices in California.
CHAPTER II GENERAL HISTORY OP CERTIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES I.
REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE
Original function of teacher certification*
In the
beginning, the procedure of teacher certification was pri marily negative in nature.
Introduced by church schools, it
was designed to protect the Church against the teaching of individuals who were not "sound in faith."
When the schools
were later taken over by the state, certification continued to be protective in function, and was used to safeguard the state against the employment by local school officers of teachers not capable of meeting the demands expressed by the *i current educational policies of the state. Even though todayfs teacher certification practices have continued to be employed to protect the children of the state against inferior instruction, to guarantee maximum educational returns for the expenditure of school funds, and to guard the teaching profession against the admission of incompetent members, certification requirements also have given promise of becoming effective factors for the forcing
1 Benjamin W. Frazier, "State Certification Requirements as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards," Ikth Yearbook— American Association of Teachers Colleges, 13“15s32, 1935•
22 upward of the levels of teacher preparation* Certificatlon in the United States»
In 1789, Massachu
setts revised its school law which was based upon a section of the Constitution of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780, which declared it to, be a duty of the legislature to "cherish the interests of literature and the sciences * * . especially in the University of Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools in the towns*”
This revision established the following
certification requirements for teachers of that day: 1*
Teachers were to be college graduates, or
2*
If not college graduates, teachers were to be
certified by ministers of the Congregational Church, and 3*
Teachers were required to be citizens of the United
2
States ♦
Hew York lavs the foundation of a state system*
With
the inauguration of the New York state educational program in 1784 by Governor George Clinton, a state pattern of public education began to evolve that, while representative in re spect to developments in other states, has consistently re mained, in every period of its history, among the best in the United States.
Gradually, as the various state educational
organizations have developed and unfolded, a steady trend
2 Frederick Eby and Charles F* Arrowood, The Development of Modern Education. New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1946, p. 550*
23 toward centralization of authority in teacher certification has been noted. Teacher certification originally a lay function. From the earliest colonial times it has been customary to examine prospective school teachers in order to determine whether or not they possessed the requisite moral and scholastic quali fications.
For many years the procedures of examination and
certification were strictly lay functions.3 In 1825, an Ohio law required that teachers for each county be certificated by county examiners.
For thirty years,
from .1837 to 1867, the certification of teachers in Michigan rested largely in the hands of local township inspectors.2*' In Arkansas, for fifteen years following the first act pro viding for the certification of teachers, all authority was vested In county
agencies
Centralization of certification authority.
Sangren
3 R# c. Woellner, "Authority to Issue Teacher P* 133» 188, 189.
37 counties ♦ Need for change in the law was further high-lighted hy the inability of county boards of education to resist political pressures and by their tendency to resort to the issuance of certification by examination when persons of considerable local influence sought teaching jobs* Finally, there seemed to be little basis for the main tenance of a dual system of examination since legal provision had been made for examination by the State Board of Education of those candidates who were able to offer training and ex perience equivalent to that required for regular state credentials • Therefore, in 1945» the California legislature passed Senate Bill 486 under Chapter 1205, repealling Chapters One, Two, Three, Four, Five, and Seven of Division Seven of the Education Code.
Among the various Sections repealed was
Section 12376 which had provided that: The County Board of Education may examine applicants for elementary school certificates and may establish a standard of proficiency which will entitle the appli cants to certificates. In this manner the legal provision empowering county boards of education in California to grant certification to elementary teachers was rescinded, however, the constitutional provision authorizing such certification procedure was not repealed and has continued to remain in effect in the California state cons ti tution •
.
3
8
. Signed by the Governor on July 10, 1945, Senate Bill 486 became effective in the fall of 1945$ and also provided for the registration of state credentials by the county board of education.
Such registration was defined as the issuance
of a county certificate. This elimination of teacher certification through county examination in California has been widely regarded as a step of first-rate importance in guaranteeing the services of adequately prepared teachers for the children in California*s public schools. Certification through teacher education institutlons. The first break in the state-wide policy of certification by examination came in 1862.
In that year a state normal school
was established in San Francisco and its graduates received diplomas and certificates of qualification which authorized them to teach in any common schools in California without further examination.
This provision for certification by a
teacher education institution brought forth so great a re sponse that conditions in the school became so crowded by 1870 that the normal was moved to San Jose where a new building had been erected.
The need for similar training facilities in the
southern part of the state was so obvious that a branch normal school was established in Los .Angeles in 1881. Insistent demands from other sections of California made necessary the establishment of additional normal schools
39 at Ghico in 1887, at San Diego in 1897 * a-t Santa Barbara in 1909, at Fresno in 1910, and in Humboldt county (Areata, California) in 1913* *
In this way, the principle of certifi-
cation through teacher education institutions was firmly established in California and played a vital part in the subsequent development of the state program of teacher cer tification. While the various normal schools— later to be known as state colleges— were being organized, other events of great educational importance were taking place throughout the state. In 1892, a department of education was established at the University of California at Berkeley for the training of high school teachers.
In 1917 a school of education was set up
at Stanford University, and the next year a school of educa tion was established at the University of Southern California. In 1903 the first summer session was held with great success at San Jose.
This plan was immediately adopted by
the other normal schools. Other additional changes were yet to come.
In 1919*
Los Angeles Normal was discontinued to be taken over as a branch of the University of California.
Similarly, Santa
Barbara State College was absorbed as a part of the University of California in 1944
^ Zella P. Young, "History of Legislation and Certifica tion of Teachers in California, (unpublished thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1928).
40 Tremendous post-war population growth also made neces sary the establishment of new state colleges at Sacramento and Los Angeles in 1948 and at Long Beach in 1949. The organization of these and other California univer sities and colleges to serve as teacher education institutions contributed much to the raising of teacher certification standards in California and to the centralization of certifi cation controls in the hands of the state. Bases of issuance of certification.
The number of
teacher certificates issued on the basis of the recommendations of authorized teacher education institutions dropped steadily in California from 1940-41 to 1945-46.
The low ebb was reached
during the year 1944-45 when only eight percent of all new teachers certificates were issued on the basis of institutional recommendations.
The tide began to turn, however, in 1945-46
with the year*s total issuance of 1,552 credentials granted on the. .recommands,tions of teacher education institutions surpassing the 1944-45 total of 1,436.
In the years, 1946-47*
the recommended credential continued to show a definite upward trend reaching a recorded issuance of 3,461 teacher certifi cates* Meanwhile, the total number of California credentials Issued on direct application soared to a new high with each passing year from 1940-41 to 1945-46, only to lag slightly
41 in the 1946-47 school year.
However, substantial increases
were again recorded in 1947-48 and 1948-49* In the first quarter of the 1949-50 fiscal year a sixty per cent increase in the-number of credentials issued upon the basis of institutional recommendations was noted, while a nine per cent increase was reported in the number of credentials issued upon direct application.
General elemen
tary credentials granted on the basis of institutional recommendation outnumbered general secondaries issued on a similar basis by a ratio of approximately two to one*5 ft Table 11° makes possible the comparison of the total number of credentials issued on direct application and on institutional recommendation during the years 1940-49* Growth of teacher certification in California*
The
number of teacher certificates issued in California has tended to increase from year to year.
In the five year
period of 1940-41 to 1944-45, the number of certificates issued rose from a total of 14,741 to 26,154.
^ California State Department of Education, Office of Credentials, First Quarter Report of the 1949-50 Fiscal Year, Sacramento, California, p. 4. fi Hersehel S. Morgan, "Trends in Teacher Certification in California for the Past 5 Year Period," California Schools, 18:273, December, 1947.
42
TABLE
II
TOTAL NUMBERS OF CREDENTIALS ISSUED ON DIRECT APPLICATION AND ON INSTITUTIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS DURING THE YEARS 1940-41 TO 1943-49 School year
Issued on direct application
Issued on institutional recommendation
1940-41
5,222
3,782
1941-42
7,053
3,321
1942-43
6,321
2,809
1943-44
13,893
2,053
1944-45
17,422
1,436
1945-46
24,856
1,552
1946-47
24,285
2,543
1947-48
30,959
3,155
1948-49
35,113
3,461
1949-50* 2S, 1949 indicated a six per cent (6%) increase over the total for the same period in 194&-49. Data presented above for the years 1947-50 were provided by the Office of Creden tials, California State Department of Education.
Table III indicates the steady growth of certification in Oalifornia since 1940-41*7 Emergency certlfleatlon in California*
Under the
increasing pressures generated by war conditions, emergency credentials were first authorized in this critical period in California in 1941-42* were issued.
In that year, 900 emergency credentials
The demand for emergency certified teachers
continued to grow until a total of 9>368 persons served a part or all of the 1944-45 school year in public schools of Cali fornia on an emergency basis*
During the 1946-47 period,
14,276 emergency permits were granted.
In the five months
period from May 1, 1947, to September 30, 19^7> a total of 9,168 emergency credentials were issued.
This represented
an increase of 833 issuances or 9.9 P®** cent over the same period of the preceding year.
Table IV8 reveals the number
and types of emergency certificates that were issued during the periods of May 1, to September 30, in 1946-49* In April, 1949, Stone and Douglass reported a survey that indicated that a total of 13,038 emergency credentials were being used by teachers in California public schools on
7 Joel A. Burkman, 11Increase' in the Kumber of Certifi cation Documents Issued in California,11 California Schools. 17:119*
8 Herschel S. Morgan, on* cit., p. 276.
44
TABLE
III
NUMBER OF CREDENTIALS ISSUED IN CALIFORNIA, 1940-49 School year
Yearly total
1940-41
14,741
1941-42
17,609
1942-43
Per cent yearly increase
Number of renewals
Life diplomas issued
4,435
1,302
19
5,122
2,113
16,223
- 7
4,779
2,314
1943-44
20,189
19
2,516
1,727
1944-45
26,154
22
5,381
1,915
1945-46
35,952
27
7,731
1,813
1946-47
33,651
6
4,838
1,985
1947-43
42,298
2d
6,202
1,982
1943-49
47,603
13
6,918
2, 111
1949-50* ^Credential issuance figures from July 1, 1949 to September 2d, 1949 indicated a six per dent (6 per cent) increase over the total for the same period in 194d-49* Data presented above for the years 1947-1950 were provided by,the Office of Credentials, California State Department of Education*
45
TABLE
IV
NUMBER AND TYPES OF EMERGENCY CERTIFICATES ISSUED FROM 5/1 TO 9/30 IN 1946-1949 Type of certificate
1946
1947
1943*
1949*
Admini stration
145
173
245
234
Adult education
119
135
406
391
General elementary.
5,719
6,315
6,397
7,074
General secondary
1,435
1,467
1,514
967
237
262
316
343
27
44
31
17
Kindergarten-primary
299
400
649
570
Special secondary
272
263
536
570
31
43
63
59
3,334
9,167
10,162
10,225
Health and development Junior high school
Supervision Totals
Data presented in the above table for the years 194& and 1949 were provided by the Office of Credentials, California State Department of Education.
46 October 31* 1948#
This represented eighteen per cent of the
total number of 73*484 credentials that were in use at that time*
This study concluded that:
• • • abuses in issuance of emergency credentials, if any, are negligible* The anticipation, however, of a greater supply of regular teachers, does point to the necessity for more stringent regulations in the issuance of emergency credentials in the future. The greatest need for credentialed personnel, as calculated on the number of emergency credentials in use appeared to be in the areas of school psyehometry (40 per cent), health and development (33 P©** cent), kindergartenprimary education (29 per cent), adult education (28 per cent), general elementary education (26 per cent), and child welfare and supervision of attendance (25 per cent.^ A bare one per cent increase in the total number of emergency credentials issued was indicated in the first quarter of the 1949-50 fiscal year*
Wide differences were
noted in the number of different kinds of emergency creden tials issued in 1948 and 1949*
This first quarter report
revealed an eleven per cent increase in the issuance of general elementary emergency credentials as compared with a fifty-seven per cent decrease in the number of general secon dary emergency credentials issued*
9 James G* Stone and Aubrey A. Douglass, tfTeacher Supply and Demand," California Schools. April, 19^9* P» 90-92. California State Department of Education, o p . cit* . p. 4.
^7 II.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature reviewed in this chapter is summarized as follows: 1.
Certification in California has gradually grown
from a matter of local concern to a centralized responsibility of the state. 2.
The certification program in California has been
classified as the state and county type of state organization. 3.
The issuance of elementary certification by county
examination in California has hot been permitted since 19^5» although the provisions in the' state constitution authorizing such certification practice have not been rescinded. 4.
The principle of certification through teacher
education institutions has played an important part in the development of the California state program of teacher certifi cation. 5.
The organization of California universities and
colleges to serve as teacher education institutions has tended to raise state *teacher certification standards and to centra lize certification control in the state. 6.
The number of new credentials being issued in
California has tended to increase from year to year. 7.
A great increase in the number of new credentials
issued on emergency basis has occurred in California during the years 19^1 through 19^9*
48 8.
The number of emergency credentials Issued In
1946 and 1947 has indicated that the greatest need for new teachers in California has been in the field of elementary education. 9 . A material increase in the number of new creden tials issued upon recommendation of approved California teacher education institutions occurred during the 1946-47 school year. 10.
The demand for new teachers in California has been
met, in large part, through the issuance of emergency creden tials • 11.
Continued issuance of emergency credentials has
indicated that the California program of recruitment of teacher training candidates has not been able to produce the number of qualified teachers needed for instruction in California schools.
CHAPTER IV TRENDS IN TEACHER CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
"Certification, in recent years, lias become increasingly important as a positive factor in forcing the levels of teacher preparation upward, with a naturally salutary effect on standards of ins true tion •" Benjamin ¥• Frazier*1 Examination of the field of teacher certification has indicated that general trends in that area may be classified as follows: 1*
A steady rise in minimum scholastic requirements
for certificates# 2.
An increase in the specialization of certificates
by subjects, grade levels, and fields of work such as school admini s tra tion # 3#
Centralization of certification in the state board
or department of education# 4#
Decrease in the issuance of certificates upon an
interstate exchange basis# 5#
A decrease in the Issuance of certificates upon
1 Benjamin W* Frazier, "State Certification Require ments as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards," Fifteenth Yearbook— The American Association of Teachers Colleges. 1936, p • 32#
50 the basis of examinations * 6#
An increase in the issuance of certificates upon
the basis of institutional credentials. 7.
An increase in the issuance of probationary rather
than unconditional life certificates, and 8 . Lengthening and enrichment of the education of applicants for teacher certificates* Increase in certification requirements.
Frazier con
tended that the rise in minimum scholastic requirements for certificates probably has been the most important of the various trends*
He pointed out that the average amount of
preparation by teachers in 1921 was a little less than two years of college work.
However, in 1937» the average was
probably close to the three year college level*
This eleva
tion in the scholastic qualifications of teachers, Frazier reminded, has rarely been equalled in any preceding periods of similar length in the history of American education.
2
Carter V. Good reported that the steady rise of teacher certification requirements has averaged about one additional year of college preparation in every 10 or 12 years.3
2 Benjamin ¥* Frazier, "Trends in Certification of Teachers,” School Life, 24:123, January, 1939• o Carter V* Good, "Recent Graduate Theses in School Law,” Yearbook of School Law, 7:175# 193B*
51 In 19^0, Frazier described a steady rise in minimum scholastic requirements for the certification of beginning 4 teachers in forty-seven states during the decade, 1930-^0 * This rise, he declared, has averaged more than one year of teacher education and prepare,tion*
Again, in 19^2, he re
iterated that, 11Probably the most significant trend in American education is the steady improvement in the qualifi- s cations of teachers*”
He also described a continued elevation
of minimal scholarship requirements for regular certificates in a diminishing number of states during the early years of World War II*
During this same period, he declared, there
existed a slight tendency to increase the amount of profes sional education required for high school certificates, as well as a definite tendency to Increase requirements in R student teaching for such certificates. Willard S. Elsbree viewed the raising of training levels for all types of teaching certificates and the tenden cies to malce four years of training above high school gradua tion the minimum for teaching in the elementary school, and five years of preparation beyond high school graduation the
^ Benjamin W. Frazier, “Minimum Certification Require ments for Teachers," School Life, 26:27* October, 19^0* ^ Benjamin W* Frazier, "Teacher Certification in Wartime, Federal Security Agency," Office of Education, Circular, Washington, D. C*, Government Printing Office, September, 19*1-2•
52 minimum requirement for secondary school teaching as one of the most noteworthy trends of teacher certification to appear 6 in the last five decades* Richard 0* Jonas also recognized the raising of minimum requirements for certification as one of several specific trends in certification which he listed as follows:? 1.
Simplifying types of certificates and centering
responsibility on the state, or even the national government, rather than on local authorities* 2.
Making training requirements for certificates and
licenses to teach more specific to the field or fields of teaching, particularly in science* 3*
Raising minimum requirements for certificates.
4#
Issuing fewer permanent or life certificates*
5*
Reducing petty state-line limitations and estab
lishing reciprocity based on training and merit rather than geographical or political situation. 6.
Recognizing emergency demand for teachers while
at the same time maintaining high standards. 7.
Developing cooperative studies of certification
problems•
6 Willard S. Elsbree, The American Teacher. The American Book Company, New York, 1939* P* 337* ^ Richard 0* Jonas, "Teacher Certification,” Review of Educational Research. 13:301, June, 19^3*
53 8.
Providing for long range planning and needed
changes in qualifications and certification, and 9.
Including directed observation and practice
teaching with training requirements • Increased specialization of certificates •
Tendencies
in legislation toward the creation of graded series of certificates during the decade, 1917-1927, were studied by Cubberley.
He reported that the grades system of certifica
tion provided for the advancement of the teacher from a lower grade certificate to a certificate of higher grade on the following bases:
additional preparation, passing written
examinations, obtaining higher grades on examination, and/or evidence of successful teaching experience#
He contended
that states which permit higher-grade and longer-term certi fication solely on bases of higher average grades on written examinations and upon the verification of successful
teaching
experience are actually operating a graded system of certifi cation, unless additional evidence in regard to preparation and professional success is also required for advancement to each certificate of higher grade.
8
In 1938, Frazier, reporting the varying developments in state teacher certification programs, cited the following
® E. P. Gubberley, State School Administratlon. Houghton Mifflin Go., New York, 1927* P* 630.
as growing trends:
1.
An increased specialization of certi
ficates, from the unspecialized in a growing number of states for different grade levels, subjects, and types of work, and 2.
A growing emphasis upon the issuance of initial certifi
cates as probationary certificates, including greater emphasis upon additional scholarship as a condition for their renewal.^ The Michigan State Board of Education placed a new code relating to the certification of teachers in effect on July 1, 1 9 3 9 , with the following results:
1.
Fifteen different kinds of certificates formerly
issued were reduced in number to five significantly named ones • 2.
The old "blanket certificate11 which had permitted
the holder to teach any subject whatever in any type of school was abolished. 3.
The issuance of life certificates was discontinued.
4.
The renewal of each certificate was made subject
to the presentation of evidences of continued growth and pro fessional development on the part of the holder, and 5.
Certificates were classified according to the
various levels of instruction— rural, elementary, secondary, and collegiate— and each restricted the holder to the specified g Benjamin W. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers ,*1 TJ. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938. HP. 12., p. 1 5 1 .
55 field thus defined*10 The abandonment of blanket licenses through the dif ferentiation of certificates according to the nature of the student*s preparation was regarded by Elsbree as one of the most promising central trends in certification to appear in the last half-century.1^ Centralization of certification*
The steady growth
of centralization of state certification powers has been forcefully illustrated by the increase in the number of state systems in which the issuance of all certificates has been completely controlled by the state (city and institutional issuances excepted) from three states in 1898 to forty-one states in 1937* ^ By 1946, all teachers1 certificates were issued by the state board or department of education, the chief state school officer, or a state board of examiners in thirty-six states.
In the remaining twelve states, most of the certifi
cates were likewise issued by the foregoing centralized state agencies, but, in addition, county school officers and/or school officers in certain towns, cities and institutions of
Galvin 0. Davis, ”New Teacher Certificate Standards in Michigan«>fSchool and Society. 51:461, April 6 , 1940. 11 Willard S. Elsbree, The American Teacher, (The American Book Company, New York, 1939) P* 337* 12 Benjamin W* Frazier, ojd. cit* . p. 123*
56 higher education were authorized to issue certificates, usually under the authority of the centralized state certification agencies, in one of the following manners. 1*
County or town issuance.
This was once a very
common practice, but in 1946 only three states continued to permit county or town issuance:
Massachusetts, where the full
power of appointment has been accorded local town committees without state certification except for a few limited groups of teachers and administrators; Missouri, where county authori ties have issued some certificates, under state control, regulations, etc.; and Illinois, Cook County outside of Chicago• 2.
City issuance.
The authority to issue certificates
directly to applicants has been granted to city school boards or other city school agencies or officers, usually under the general authority of the state, in Colorado (all first class districts including Denver for designated special subjects only), Delaware (Wilmington), Illinois (Chicago), Maryland (Baltimore), Missouri (St. Louis and Kansas Gity), Massachu setts, New Jersey, New York (New York City and Buffalo), Oregon (Portland).
The requirements in the above cities
usually have exceeded the minimum requirements of the states in which they are located*
In New Jersey, city certificates
requirements are in addition to those levied for state certi ficates •
57 3*
College or university issuance*
In the following
states, one or more state normal schools, state teachers colleges, state colleges or state universities have heen authorized, under more or less state supervision, to issue certificates or to confer diplomas or degrees that in them selves may constitute certificates:
Colorado (three state
teachers colleges), Idaho, Kansas, Missouri, and Washington# The institutional requirements for these certificates usually have heen higher than the state minimum#^3 Reciprocity in certification#
In 1903» teacher certi
ficates were issued upon the basis of exchange for out-ofstate certificates by fourteen states*
This practice became
increasingly popular until a total of thirty-eight states were exchanging certification on these grounds in 1921*
This,
however, represented the peak of reciprocity in certification as the number of states willing to issue certification on exchange for out-of-state certificates was reduced to seven
fey 1937*
As late as 1946, seven- states continued to issue
certificates in exchange for certificates granted in other states#
However, these states usually have demanded that
out-of-state certificates meet the requirements for the
Beniamin W# Frazier, "Summary of Teacher Certification Requirements, 1946, Federal Security Agency, U* S* Office of Education, Washington, Circular Wo. 233, May, 1946, p. 2-3*
53 certificate to be granted as equivalent.
Evidence concerning
the preparation received by applicants submitting out-of-state certificates for recognition has also usually been demanded. States granting reciprocity have included:
Delaware (condi
tional), Idaho (1 year only), Kentucky (provided Kentucky requirements are substantially met), Maine (provided require ments meet those of Maine), Montana, Tennessee (permitted but in practice not issued), and Vermont (provided out-of-state standards are as high as Vermont^) . The chief difficulties experienced by out-of-state applicants seeking teacher certificates are described by Stinnett as: 1.
Graduation from a college that is not accredited
by the state board or department of education. 2.
Varying state requirements in the professional
3.
Varying state requirements in given teaching
field.
fields .15 Frazier reported that there has existed a decided tendency to break down the more or less arbitrary requirements made of out-of-state applicants, particularly, in respect to residence, work in in-state teacher education institutions,
Benjamin W. Frazier, oj>. cit., p. 4. T. M. Stinnett, "Current Status of Reciprocity in Teacher Education," North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly« 1 9 • 35*6* April, 1945*
59 and specific courses that are peculiar to a given state. ° He also declared that there has heen an increasing acceptance of institutional credits as the basis for reciprocal certifi cation.^ Current trends in reciprocity of certification in the states constituting the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges were listed by Stinnett as follows: 1.
Liberalization of requirements has resulted in
the development of reciprocity to a highly effective degree among the states in the North Central Association. 2.
Barriers to the movement of teachers across state
lines have been removed with but one or two of the following exceptions remaining:
(a) Residence requirements,
(b)
Specific course requirements, and, (c) Specific work in state requirements. 3*
Marital status has not continued to be an effective
barrier to the certification or employment of native or non native teachers, and 4.
A trend toward the elimination of specific courses
peculiar to a given state has been well-defined.
Where such
requirements have been maintained, a reasonable period of time
^
Benjamin W. Frazier, ojd. cit., p. 2.
**■7 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,” TJ. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938, No. 12, p. 39*
has been generally allowed for the removal of this deficiency. Certification by examination.
The gradual elimination
of the examination as a means of controlling the issuance of teacher certificates proceeded slowly but steadily during the years prior to the advent of the Second World War.
There
was widespread indication that its eventual disappearance, except in a few particularly appropriate instances, might well occur in the immediate future.
A steady decrease in the
issuance of certificates on the basis of examinations was reported by Frazier in 1936*L9 and again in 1939
he declared
Certification of teachers upon the basis of exami nation, once the predominant method of certification in practically all states, is slowly being superseded by certification upon the basis of college credentials . • . in 28 states this method has entirely superseded the issuance of certificates upon examinations. In California, the number of teachers certificated upon the basis of examinations declined from 1,050 in 1899 to 30 in 1936 . . .20 The substitution-of approved training for teachers* examinations was regarded by Elsbree as one of the central trends, appearing largely in the past fifty years, which has promised eventually to 11bring order out of chaos” in teacher
^ T. M. Stinnett, ojd. cit.. p. 356. 19 11 Benjamin W. Frazier, State Certification Require ments as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards,” Fif teenth Yearbook of the American Association of Teachers Colleges , 19367 p. 32. 20 Benjamin W. Frazier, o p . cit., p. 124.
61 certification*
21
The enbroilment of the United States in World War II upset this trend toward the elimination of certification by examination and created such a continuing scarcity of accredi ted teachers that Frazier was prompted to declare in 1942 that the discontinuance of the practice of issuing certificates upon the basis of written examinations could not be expected as long as the current emergency persists*22 The issuance of regular certificates on the basis of state, county, or local examinations, in addition to certifica tion on the basis of college credentials has persisted in many areas.
Arkansas and the District of Columbia have required
bachelor and master degrees, respectively, as prerequisites to examinations for elementary and high school teacher certifi cates.
Florida has required thirty semester hours of credit
as a prerequisite to examination for teacher certification. Examination has been employed in Illinois and Iowa primarily as a means of elimination of candidates for certification.
In
Kansas and Massachusetts, certification through examination by local officials has been authorized, but local authorization to teach on the basis of institutional credential has pre dominated.
The Issuance of certification upon the combined
21 Willard S. Elsbree, The American Teacher, New York, The American Book Company, 1939» P* 337 • 22 Benjamin W. Frazier, o£. cit., p. 403.
62 bases of examination and college credentials has been prac ticed in Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraslca, North Dakota, South Dakota, South Carolina, Texas, Tennessee, and Wyoming. Emergency teacher certification.
Wholesale depletions
of the nation’s ranks of teachers for war-time services re sulted in the almost immediate issuance of emergency teaching permits on a broad scale basis throughout the country.
In
many cases, it was necessary to make reductions and other minor adjustments in certification requirements to increase the number of certified teachers.
Even though the tendency
to reduce requirements for teacher certificates was strong during the war years and a phenomenal increase in the number of emergency permits ensued, there was no trend toward accepting out-of-state certificates in exchange for certificates issued by a given state. 24 In May, 1946, Frazier reported a study of the national emergency certification situation.
The various states were
asked to indicate any significant changes which may have occurred in emergency credential iza tion since June 1,
1944,
and to describe any contemplated changes which were likely to be made in emergency certification requirements, regulations,
Benjamin W. Frazier, o p . cit.. p. 4. Benjamin W. Frazier, oj3. cit., p. 403.
63 and practices in the future*
He summarized his findings as
follows: There were encouraging signs of optimism here and there in the answers to this question* However, the lack of significant responses from at least fivesixths of these state leaders to a very important question concerning a serious situation, indicates a decided contrast in planning the postwar recovery of a vital aspect of American education, to planning postwar recovery and advances in industrial and other vital activities in our national life. More over, no important changes in either regular or emergency certification can reasonably be expected until the competitive position of teaching in the employment market for college-trained workers is improved * . *25 Frazier also stated: The continued maintenance on all school levels of essential prewar standards for the issuance of regular certificates has resulted in some, but not irreparable, losses through flexible administration of requirements * * *2& Renewal of certification*
Wartime trends in certifica
tion were characterized by marked tendencies toward the liberalization of renewal requirements, and toward the sus pension of additional training desiderata*2? Prior to the war-developed emergency period, the requirements of in-service preparation were commonly employed to advance the levels of teacher preparation much more
^
Benjamin ¥• Frazier, oj). cit*, p. 5* hoc» cit* . p* 3* Benjamin W* Frazier, o p . cit.. p. 403*
6k vigorously than has heen observed in recent post-war years* A relaxation of these requirements for in-service preparation as a means for extending or renewing certificates has now become manifest.
28
Life certification*
Trends toward the discontinuance
of further issuance of the Life Diploma were reported by Elsbree2^ and Frazier*
In 19^8, a summary of teacher certi
fication requirements by Frazier revealed that seventeen states no longer issued unconditional life certificates* States not issuing life certificates included Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, and Washington*
Life
certificates also weienot granted in the District of Columbia* In Maine, teachers who were in service prior to August 1, 1932, were eligible for life certification.
Teachers who
held Glass A certificates prior to 1931 were granted uncondi tional life certificates in North Carolina. Certification requirements.
State certification pro
grams generally have established minimum requirements for the
2^ Benjamin W. Frazier, oj>* cit* . p. 1. 29 Willard S. Elsbree, oja. cit*, p* 337*
65 issuance of regular certificates with regard to the appli cant fs age, health, citizenship, oath of allegiance require ments, scholarship, number of credits in professional education courses, and semester hours of student
teaching.
3°
The requirement of a certain number of specialized courses in education in the Candidate*s program of preparatory studies was listed by Elsbree as one of six of the most pro mising central trends in teacher certification
An interest
ing commentary upon this trend was offered by Alonzo Grace who declared; One of the unfortunate tendencies of present certification procedures is to magnify in the minds of teachers the importance of courses and credits . . Enrichment of training of applicants for certification. The lengthening and enrichment of the courses of study for prospective teachers was described by Frazier as "an outstand ing trend during the present century.”
He supported this
contention with reference to the fact that the number of teachers colleges in the nation had increased from forty-six in 1920 to one hundred and eighty in 1938♦
This increase was
Benjamin W. Frazier, “Summary of Teacher Certifica tion Requirements, 19^8," Federal Security Agency, U* S. Office of Education, Washington. Circular H o . 233. Fifth Revision, February, 19^8, p. 3* 81 Willard S. Elsbree, Ojd. cit., p. 337* Alonzo G. Grace, "Teacher Certification— A Problem in Teacher Education," Education Record. 23:22, January, 19^2.
66 correspondingly balanced with a decrease in the number of states with teacher training high schools or county normal schools from twenty-three in 1923 to eight in 1938.
The
number of first-degree graduates of teachers colleges also increased from 11,073 in 1930 to 18,510 in 1936.33 Other trends in certification.
Sisk reported the dis
cernment of a general trend toward specific statement in the statutes of professional and academic requirements.
He added
that requirements for the secondary school certificate of the highest grade were also becoming increasingly standardized among the various states.31*Certification -problems requiring further study.
The
field of teacher certification has been replete with many unsolved problems.
Areas of study which may well prove to be
worthy of further effort and examination have included:
(1)
Clarification of certification requirements through the de velopment of methods of coordinating the offerings of teachereducatlon institutions; (2) The revision of certification standards in the light of the discovery and evaluation of the qualifications that are most important in measuring success
33 Benjamin ¥. Frazier, oj>. cit.. p. 124. ^ Henry L. Sisk, "Trends in Requirements for Secondary School Certificates,11 School Review. 4o:285> April, 19^0.
67 in teaching; (3 ) & comparative study of the requirements established by state universities and teachers* colleges and their implications for teacher certification; (4) Certi fication requirements in specific subjects and fields of education service; and (5) The development of certification programs in specific states. Bases of issuance of certification*
State programs of
teacher certification have been commonly based upon three sources of issuance*
These have been:
(l) Upon college
credentials, (2) Upon examination, and (3) Upon out-of-state certificates, by exchange or reciprocity* While the issuance of certification has been practiced to an ever-decreasing degree upon the bases of examination and exchange, it has appeared that most regular certificates have been issued on the basis of college credentials*
In 19^6,
every state Issued one or more types of certificates upon the basis of college credits, and, in most states, such credits usually have been earned in accredited institutions either within or without the II.
state.
35
SUMMARY OP THE CHAPTER
Prom the literature examined In this chapter the following summarizetions may be drawn:
35 Benjamin W. Frazier, oj>. clt* . p. 3*
68 1*
Teacher certification requirements have continued
to show a steady rise* 2.
Increasing specialization of teacher certificates
has continued to take place* 3*
There has been a steady growth in the centraliza
tion of state certification powers* 4*
There has been an increasing tendency among the
states to demand that out-of-state teacher certificates must meet the requirements of the certificate sought* 5*
There has been increasing acceptance of institu
tional credits as a basis of reciprocal certification* 6*
Issuance of certification by examination has slowly
disappeared• 7*
Shortages of properly trained teachers, and lack of
Improvement in the competitive position of teaching in the employment market have made continued issuance of emergency certification necessary. 8.
The regaining of pre-war certification renewal
requirements has not yet been achieved. 9*
There has been slow movement among the various
states toward cessation of further Issuance of lifelong certification* 10.
Magnified importance of courses and units of credits
have continued to be reflected in certification requirements. 11*
Lengthening and enrichment of courses of study for
69 prospective teachers has been an outstanding trend in certification* 12*
A general trend has existed tovard specific state
ment of professional and academic requirements for certifica tion in state statutes* 13*
State programs of teacher certification commonly
have been based upon three sources of issuance:
(l) upon
college credentials, (2) upon examination, and (3) upon outof-state certificates. 14.
Numerous problems in certification have continued
to be in urgent need of further study, ie., coordination of ✓
teacher education institutions, revision of certification standards, establishment of certification requirements for special subjects and fields, and the development of certifi cation programs in various states.
CHAPTER V CERTIFICATION AND THE SELECTION OF TEACHER CANDIDATES I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
"It Is essential that the unqualified he excluded, and the only sure way to accomplish this is by the elimination of the unfit at time of admission to pro fessional study or during the early period of prepara tion by a rigid system of teacher certification that limits licenses in terms of the kind of curriculum completed by the applicant." 1 Hermann Cooper Accuracy of teacher selection procedures *
Just as
the quality of a manufactured product has been direGtly related to the quality of the original raw materials used in its manufacture, so has the educational effectiveness of the teacher been related to the accuracy of the processes employed in the selection of the teacher candidate.
The failure of
selective screening procedures has played no small part in placing many improperly trained persons in the all-important position of teacher in the classroom.
The inability of the
poorly trained instructor to properly protect the welfare of his pupils and of the state was forcefully reflected in the o recent charge by the great historian, H. G. Wells, that the
^ Hermann Cooper, "A Forward Look in Teacher Education," Education. 56:199, December, 1935* p Ralph McDonald, "A Call to Action for All Classroom Teachers," Arizona-Teacher-Parent. 36:13* December, 19^7•
71 human race is doomed to extinction by virtue of its failure to maintain equality of balance between scientific and tech nological discoveries and social and educational progress* Marvelously equipped for self-destruction, modern man has not yet learned through effective education how to live, peacefully and constructively, with his brothers.
The United
States, even though leading the rest of the world in the production of modern miracles of science and engineering, has continued to dabble in education and to be satisfied with makeshift and half measures for the education of its children. Responsibllitv of the teacher * Writing in 19^7, Ralph McDonald declared: The responsibility of the classroom teacher lies right in the heart of this problem. The teacher must promote an understanding and an appreciation of the importance of education so that much more adequate support will be made available by the citizens. Selective certification.
Benjamin W. Frazier, in a
report on state certification requirements as a basis for promoting professional standards, argued that: ,!It is highly unfair for young people who have given three or four years of their lives, and savings of themselves and their parents to preparation for teaching which leads them nowhere but to work for. which they are not prepared, or to the relief roles, simply because they are not protected from unfair competition by the state which prepares them.,f He added, ”It is about time we began to talk about selective certification as well as about selective admission to teacher
72 prepara tion ins ti tutions."^ Professional concept of teaching and selection of candidates *
If accurate selection of teacher candidates is
to he effectively accomplished, it seems logical to contend that before the general public can be expected to accept a given concept of teaching, agreement and approval of that concept must first be accorded by American educators them selves.^
Such recognition of teaching as a professional
activity that has required an exceptional kind of personal qualities, long arduous preparation, and highly specialized skills may be expected to result in substantial improvements in the accuracy and simplification of teacher candidate selection procedures. Establishment of selective procedures.
Arrangements
for determining accurate answers to the question, "Who shall teach?" will likely include the following provisions: 1.
Organization and application of selective processes
before the prospective teacher enters the teacher-preparation ins ti tut ion. 2.
Continued application of selective processes all
3 Benjamin W. Frazier, “State Requirements as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards,” American Association of Teachers Colleges Yearbook, 1 3 - 1 5 1 9 3 ^ * h Ralph McDonald, o p . cit.. p. 13*
73 the way through the pre-service stages of education. 3*
Continuation of selectivity even after certifica
tion throughout a probationary period during which the candidate for teaching should be required to prove his fitness in practice. 4*
Establishment of a strong, vigorous and effective
professional organization of teachers to demand and maintain selectivity of admission in much the same manner as the medical and bar associations have done.-* A good professional organization, declared McDonald, will concern Itself primarily with a program for the improve ment of its membership in teaching, and will establish and maintain high standards of professional competence.
It will
also promote group action for adequate salaries, tenure, retirement, and improved working conditions.
Thus far,
McDonald contended, the organized teaching profession has failed to demonstrate convincingly its belief in and practice of teaching as a real profession, and American educators have shown little more concern over the inadequacy of pre-service education than to grumble about it.
5
Ralph McDonald, op. pit., p. 13* Ibid. . p. 38.
74 Bases of selection of teacher candidates ♦
Owen^ sug
gested the following criteria as bases for the selection of candidates for certification: 1*
Personali ty.
2*
Character*
3*
Social and cultural background*
4•
Intelligence, and
3*
Intellectual interest*
Cooper® pointed out that general methods of selection of teacher candidates have included scholarship record re quirements, standard -tests, confidential statements of school authorities, and personal interviews.
As an additional
requirement, he declared: In order to teach others how to read rapidly and understandingly in a subject field, to speak fluently and convincingly, and to write correctly and interest ingly, one must possess the ability to read, speak and write good English. Impressed with the importance of the teacher candidates1 personalities he prophesied that: Once objective standards for measuring personality have been established, this qualification should be given first consideration in selecting tomorrowfs teachers«
7 R* D. Owen, "State Control over Teacher Supply,11 Rational Elementary Principal. 17:51* October, 1937* ® Herman Cooper, o p * cit*, p* 195*
75 Admission to the study of education, stated Cooper, should be won by the teacher candidate in terms of his scholarship standing, demonstrated capacity for mental growth, healthy body free from major defects, leadership qualities, personality, and enthusiasm and aptitude for teaching, and should be regarded as a privilege and not as a right.
This
privilege, he continued, should be granted the high school graduate or college student who plans to make teaching 11a life work, not a stepping-stone to a more lucrative position in business, industry, or some other profession.*^ State urograms for selection of prospective teachers* In 1932 the state of New York proclaimed a state-wide selec tive admissions program for its ten institutions preparing persons for elementary school teaching*
This program estab
lished the following requirements: 1*
The maintenance of a four-year high school scholar
ship average record of at least seventy-two per cent. 2.
Standard tests measuring mental ability, reading
ability, and command of English. 3*
A certificate of physical fitness from the family
physician, and 4.
A confidential report from the high school princit pal concerning the applicant^ study habits, character,
9 Ibid., p. 197-
76 personality, interests and special aptitudes for teaching. In 1939$ the sub-committee on teacher certification of the North Central Association reported a preliminary study of state programs for the selection of prospective teachers. This
study
revealed that:
1. No state in the North Central areahad any law that
time)
relating to
(at
teacher selection.
2. In only two of the twenty stateswere there
any
state regulations concerning the selection of prospective candidates for teaching, and 3.
In only one state had a state study been made of
the selection techniques used by the various teacher education institutions within the state.-1-*1As a result of these findings (above) , a study of institutional teacher selection and guidance procedures was instituted by the NGA sub-committee on teacher certification but was temporarily delayed to permit the completion of the one year study of teacher certification which was reported at the 1941 Annual Meeting of the North Central Association
10 Hermann Cooper, oj>. clt. . p. 196. J. R. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teachers; Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Procedures,” North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 15s2A2, January, 1941.
77 in Chicago, Illinois.12 II.
SUMMARY OP THE CHAPTER
The literature reviewed in this chapter is summarized as follows: 1*
Improved techniques for the selection of teacher
candidates are urgently needed. 2.
Teacher education institutions must assume a large
part of the responsibility for the accurate selection of teacher candidates. 3«
Teacher organizations have failed to demonstrate
convincing concern for the accuracy of the procedures employed in the selection of teacher candidates. 4.
The accurate measurement of personality promises
to become an increasingly important factor in the selection of teacher candidates. 5.
State programs for the selection of prospective
teachers have been placed in operation.
1 John R. Emens, ”Teacher Certification Study,” North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. l 6:268, January, 1942.
CHAPTER VI CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION I*
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Examination of the candidate has served as one of the oldest procedures employed in varying manners— written, oral, et cetera,— by the states for the purpose of granting teacher certification# During the early history of public education in the United States, examination by local authorities constituted the primary method of issuing teaching certificates and licenses.
In the early 1900fs this practice reached its
peak, became less popular, and receded into semi-oblivion. However, because of the demonstrated inability of the teacher education institution to predict and guarantee the teaching efficiency of the teacher candidate that it trains and gradu ates, and because extensive educational research has failed to develop any reliable criteria for the measurement of teaching success, various states have returned, in recent years, to attempts to develop new methods of employing the examination as an instrument for more accurate issuance of teacher certification. Legality of certification by examination.
In some
instances, individuals have attempted to challenge the right
79 of the state to grant certification upon the basis of exami nation# Lowery declared that it has been entirely within the province of any state to require what-ever examinations it will, even of college graduates who have ample professional and post-graduate work to their credit#1 Cubberley pointed out the fact that the state depart ment of education may legally employ competitive examinations o for the purpose of granting teacher certificates. Because it has not been possible to depend upon pass ing grades to indicate possession of real knowledge in a particular subject matter field, Gtt urged that all teachers be required to demonstrate subject matter knowledge in oral and written examinations before being allowed to teach#3 The weakness of granting certification merely upon the completion of a prescribed program of professional preparation was attacked by Adams who proposed that no person be granted license to teach until he has passed a comprehensive examina tion over the field of work in which he seeks to teach*
These
*** M# L. Lowery, "Certification of High School Teachers," Doctoral thesis. University of Pennsylvania, 1924, p# 64. ^ D# H. Cooke, "Teachers: Certification, Appointment, and Dismissal the contract of Employment," The Sixth Yearbook of School Law, 1938:7# ^ E. Ott, "Why Not More Uniform State Certification of Teachers?" School Management. 16:14, April, 1947#
80 examinations, Adams suggested, might well be employed to determine the term of validity of the certificate.
li
A further extension of the legal right of the state to employ examinations as a basis for Issuance of certifica tion was demonstrated in a by-law passed and published by the state board of education of Maryland to the effect that applicants who ranked in the lower fifth of the class could not qualify for teaching certificates.^ The state department of education in Connecticut has attained a marked degree of elimination of incompetence through the certification of language teachers by examination.0 Use and cons true tion of certification examinations. Frazier contended that the chief justification of the use of examinations for certification has appeared under the follow ing circumstancess
(1 ) when they have been scientifically
constructed according to the best modern educational practices, (2 ) when the state departments of education or equivalent state offices have possessed complete control and have pre scribed the conditions under which the examinations have been
^ E* M. Adams, "New Certification Proposals,11 The Texas Outlook. 28:58, February, 1 9 ^ * ^ E. W. Anderson, "Teachers: Certification and Appoint ment— the Contract," The Fourth Yearbook of School L a w . 1936:15* ^ A. C* Grace, "Teacher Certification: A Problem In Teacher Education," Education Record, 23:22-33* January, 19^2*
81 given and have marked all examination papers, and (3 ) when examinations have been employed as a supplementary device and have been extended when possible to provide for the evaluation of a broader field of qualifications than scholar ship alone*
Frazier also recommended that high evidence of
educational preparation should be required as a prerequisite 7 to all examinations for certification*1 Certification examinations and low-grade certificates * The issuance of certification on the bases of examinations has tended to perpetuate low standards of scholarship in those states that have resorted to such practices in past years*
Concomitantly, the certificates so issued have been
of low grade, and it commonly has been recommended that the issuance of such low-ranking certificates be discontinued o as rapidly as local conditions will permit. Tendencies toward the elimina tion of examina tions for certification*
In many eases, the local examination for cer
tification has proved to constitute a waste of time and en ergy for local authorities who not infrequently have been
^ Benjamin W. Frazier, “Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,11 U. S* Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938. No.*_J_2, p. 46, 47, 194. o
Benjamin W* Frazier, op * cit* . p* 46, 149*
82 subjected to undesirable local pressures concerning the out come of the examinations.
Examinations for certification
have also been charged with limiting competition to the home product and resulting in inbreeding, low wages and low standards.^ In 1927, Cubberley reported a definite trend toward minimizing the importance of the written examination for certification, and increasing the recognition rendered to evidences of academic and professional preparation completed in approved institutions of learning Taking a stand in opposition -to certification by examination, Cook declared that the acceptance of college credits as satisfactory evidence of proper educational and professional training and as being the equivalent of the oral or written test ”is obviously much the better of the two."11 A study of teacher certification practices in twelve states reported by Trudeau in 1933 described a rapid disap pearance of the practice of issuing teaching certificates on
9 e. P. Cubberley, State School Adminlstration (Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 1927 k, P* 62^. 10 E. P. Cubberley, oj>. cit., p. 634, 652. K. M. Cook, fState Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers1 Certification,” United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1927* No. 19*
83 the basis of examination in the states concerned The disappearance of certification by examination has tended to occur, explained Frazier, as soon as complete state control has been exercised over certification and minimum scholarship prerequisites for certification have been raised ***-3 The South Carolina plan*
In January 1944, a new
program of state certification of teachers calling for the use of teacher examinations as its integral part was innaugurated in South Carolina*
Aimed directly at obtaining
an improvement in the instruction in the public schools, the admitted objective of this plan was M* . * to use the exami nation to validate, rather than to substitute for, the applicants education. In view of the primary concern of this paper with cur rent best practice in modern state teacher certification, the basic and most salient provisions of the South Carolina plan will be discussed in detail in this chapter. Conditions contributing to the need for change *
In
1941 more than eighty-five per cent of the negro teachers and
12 C* F. Trudeau, “Current Practices in Certification of Teachers,11 The High School Quarterly. 21:79, January, 1933* ^
Benjamin ¥. Frazier, 0£* cit*» p. 149*
E. R. Crow, “Teacher Examinations and the South Carolina Certification Program,11 Education Record. 28:454, October, 1947*
84 ninety-nine per cent of the white teachers in South Carolina held the highest type of certificate issued in the state, in spite of the fact that twenty-two per cent of the white teachers and seventy per cent of the Negro teachers had not graduated from college. Additional training requirements had proved to he unen forceable because the South Carolina legislature, each year from 1932 to 1941, had passed provisions providing for the renewal of expiring teacher certificates without demanding the presentation of evidence of summer school attendance or other types of professional experience. The acceptance of a state teacher*s salary schedule on a wide scale by local districts also tended to produce a general condition of professional stagnation in that local districts consistently failed to make any provisions for encouraging teachers to go ahead with additional training.-^ Approach to the problem.
This deplorable state of
affairs was widely known throughout the statefs educational circles with the result that in 1941 the South Carolina legislature was asked to provide an appropriation for the study of state laws and regulations affecting education.
Nhen
this appropriation was denied, the South Carolina State Board
15 Ibid.. pp. ^54-^55•
85 put into action a plan to raise the needed monies from non legislative sources*
Succeeding in obtaining the necessary
funds, a staff of investigators was assembled and the study undertaken. Procedure employed.
Directing their efforts toward
the determination of the qualities and qualifications of excellent teachers, the investigating staff attacked the problem in the following manner. 1.
School administrators, supervisors, teachers, and
pupils were asked to provide the names of living teachers whom they regarded as the most excellent within their experi ence . 2.
Teachers designated as excellent were asked to
give information about themselves which would reveal their teaching qualities• 3*
On the basis of an analysis of the qualities thus
revealed, recommendations for an improved program of certifi cation were made. 4.
Volunteer teachers were asked to take the National
Teacher Examination; 212 agreed to do so.
Conclusions were
as follows: a.
Successful teachers in South Carolina had made
respectable scores on each of the examinations. b.
Successful teachers in South Carolina were likely
86
«
to make higher scores than prospective teachers who
. j
«
were seniors in the colleges of the state, and c*
South Carolina teachers holding master*s
degrees were likely to rate higher on the examination than those who had bachelorfs degrees, and those with bachelor fs degrees were likely to rate higher than the non-college graduates i After two years of work, the study was reported 3.7 in December, 19^3* Acceptance of basic recommendations«
In January 19*1-1,
the South Carolina State Board of Education accepted the basic recommendations of the report and directed the Director of Teacher Education and Certification to prepare detailed plans for the operation of a certification program to be based upon:
(1) amount and kind of education, (2) length and
quality of experience, (3 ) personal and professional qualifi cations evaluated by competent judges, and (4) a written -jQ
examination, comprehensive and objective in nature# Provisions of the new plan#
New application require
ments and issuance procedures (see Chapter IX--State Programs
ibid.. p. *5 6 . 17 Ibid.. p. *55Ibid., p. 456.
37 of Certification, sections titled, Application Requirements, and, Issuance Procedures) were established*
It was also
ordered that the South Carolina Director of Teacher Education and Certification maintain complete up-to-date records of all certificates issued and of all applicants eligible for certification• A new salary schedule to accompany the new certification program was adopted in 19^5 » and it provided that no state aid could be paid to any teacher who had failed to secure a certificate under the new system* Hew groups and classes of certificates were established with provisions for further differentiation based on grades determined by scores made upon common examinations of the National Teacher Examination*1^ Administration of the National Teacher Examination» Policies recommended for controlling the administration of the National Teacher Examination in South Carolina were de scribed by Frick as follows: 1*
Arrangements for administering the examination
should be made by the Director of Teacher Education and Cer tification to insure uniformity of administration and increased efficiency of administering personnel*
18 Ibid.. p. 456. 19 Ibid.. p. 454.
88 2*
Individual ratings in terms of percentile scores
should he based on scores made by other South Carolina teachers taking the examination* 3,
Percentile ratings should be revised each year as
new people take the examination* 4*
The examination should be given during the spring
semester of each school year to facilitate the certification of college seniors who might be planning to teach in the coming fall semester. 5*
The cost of administration of the examination
should be borne by the state, and each applicant for a pro bationary certificate who has met the other prerequisites for certification should be permitted to take the examination one time without cost to himself* 6.
An applicant should be permitted to take the exami
nation more than once in an effort to improve his rating provided he does so at his own expense and the cost to him is not more than the actual cost for administration to the state. 7*
The. highest rating which the applicant has obtained
the first time he has taken the examination or on any subse quent occasions should be determined as the grade of certifi cation to be issued to him* 8.
No applicant who has met all other prerequisites
for a certificate should be denied a certificate because of
89 his score on the examination.
His score should determine only
the grade of the certificate that he is to receive. 9*
Continupus study should he conducted by the Director
of Teacher Education and Certification to ascertain the rela tionship existing between the rating of teachers on the exami nation and their excellence in teaching, and 10.
Constant revision of the entire South Carolina plan
should be made in terms of the findings of continuous study of the program.
20
Operation of the new plan.
The use of examination in
South Carolina to bring about improvement in instruction was based upon the following operational provisions:
(1) Four
grades— A, B, C, and D — were given, and the score ranges for these grades were based as follows on the distribution of scores made by South Carolina teachers talcing the examination: A — approximately the upper twenty-five per cent of the scores, B — approximately the middle fifty per cent, C— approximately the lower ten to twenty-five per cent, and D— the lower ten per cent, (2 ) the applicants personal and professional qualities were rated as acceptable» satisfactory. or superior. (3) applicants had to achieve a minimum rating of acceptable
H. L. Frick, "A Proposed Plan for the Certificatio of Teachers in South Carolina,” Report of the Investlgatlon of Educational Qualiflea tions of Teachers in South Carolina. Univer sity of South Carolina, Columbia, 1 9 ^ , pp. 56-57*
90 before being considered a candidate for a certificate, (4) changes in critical scores could not be made retroactive for certificates previously issued, (5) future upward revision of critical scores would apply only to new applicants and to persons retaking the examination, (6 ) ratings might be com bined with the examination results to raise or lower the certificate grade, (7) the state would bear the expense of the first examination, but a teacher taking the examination a second time would be required to bear the expense himself, (8 ) the results of a second examination would not be used if such use would reduce the teacher*s grade, (9) no provision existed for the rating of recertified teachers, (10) institu tion ratings were to be reviewed by field ratings during the initial two-year period of probationary certification, and (11) if available, optional examinations were to be taken in lieu of course credits to establish eligibility for certifi cation to certain subject areas Effec ts of certifies tion by examination in South Carolina*
Results of use of the examination for the improve
ment of instruction in South Carolina were cited by Crow as: 1*
The new program of certification operated to reward
the better-trained teacher and the teacher of experience by
21 E. R. Crow, o p . cit* . p*
91 the provision of fourteen salary increments. 2.
Interest in graduate work has been greatly stimu
lated by restricting the issuance of higher grade certificates only to those who complete required amounts of graduate work. 3.
Attendance at summer schools and enrollment in
extension courses has greatly increased. 4.
Teachers in South Carolina were studying more than
ever before. 5*
State aid was being paid to teachers without regard
to race or color. 6.
Teachers* salaries have been greatly increased.
7*
The program weighed against the poorly trained
teacher. 8*
Teachers were being certified to teach in specific
fields or areas. 9.
Teachers were being given credit beyond the
bachelor*s degree. 10.
When the supply of teachers has become adequate,
the function of the examination in certification will be to secure the elimination of applicants below certain educational levels• 11.
The use ct the common examinations of the National
Teacher Examination has tended to broaden the interest of teachers, thus Improving their general education and helping to guard against narrow specialization. 12.
The use of examinations might serve to attract
92 the more capable teachers, and help toward the development of teaching as a professIon. 13*
There was danger that many teachers might be
satisfied to amass credits in the shortest time possible without becoming better teachers in the process.^2 Certification by examination in California.
The power
to examine teacher candidates and to grant certification was primarily a matter of local concern in California until i860. California law empowered county boards of education to examine and certificate teachers from i860 until 1945. In 1943 a study by La Franchi showed the certification of elementary teachers on the basis of examinations conducted by California county boards of education served no useful purpose and should be discontinued.
This need for legal
change was recognized by the California legislature in 1945 when it passed Senate Bill 486 which repealed Section 12376 of the Education Code which had previously authorized county boards of education to grant certification by examination.2^ Although enabling legislation was thus rescinded, provisions in the state constitution authorizing such certification cer tification procedure were not invalidated and have continued po 23
E. R. Crow .op. clt. . pp. 461-462. Supra, p. 3 7 .
93 to remain In effect# II.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature reviewed in this chapter Is summarized as follows; 1•
New attempts have been made in recent years to
develop new methods of employing the examination as an instru ment for more accurate issuance of teacher certification. 2#
In past years, the issuance of certification on
the basis of examination has tended to perpetuate low standards of scholarship in those states that have resorted to such practice# 3#
The issuance of teaching certification on the basis
of examination has seemed to be slowly dying out. 4.
Complete state control usually has resulted in
disappearance of issuance of certification by examination# 5#
Recent issuance of certification in South Carolina
has been based upon a carefully developed system of examination with many real Improvements being achieved# 6.
The issuance of certification for elementary teachers
by county board of education examination was discontinued in California in 1945, but provision for such practice remained in the state constitution.
CHAPTER VII RECIPROCITY AND TEACHER CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A decreased supply of well-trained teachers, increased interest in the free exchange of teachers aeross state lines, and greater mobility of teachers have appeared to he definite by-products of World War II*1
The failure of thousands of
American teachers to return to their classrooms has generated heated competition between states for qualified instructors* The flow of teachers between states has made the problem of reciprocity in certification a matter cf increasing importance* Inter-state movement of teachers *
In treating the
problem of reciprocity, Elwood P* Cubberly stated that as long as professional standard are maintained, inter-state movement of teachers should be impeded as little as possible. He also contended that inter-state recognition of higher grades of teacher certificates should be encouraged as long as such recognition does not entail the reduction of certification standards* 2
^ School Review, "State Reciprocity in Teacher Certifi cation," Educational News and Editorial Comment,525396, Sep tember , 1§ W • 2
Elwood P* Cubberlev. State School Administration (Houghton Mifflin Co., New York, 1927) , PP* 634-5•
95 Allen supported this position, declaring that: ♦ • . the migration of teachers should not be artificially or arbitrarily restricted by certifi cate regulations or requirements that are based upon considerations other than the professional competence of such teachers.3 The practice of reciprocity has been feared in some quarters as a potential aid to the inter-state movement of poor teachers.
As an answer to this hypothesis, Gubberley
pointed out that the freedom of movement of poor teachers can best be restricted by the maintenance of high certifi cation standards, and the abolition of temporary teaching permits and low grade certificates. Difficulties in reciprocal certification.
Benjamin
W. Frazier2*' described problems generally occuring in the issuance of reciprocal certification as: 1.
The necessity of evaluating credits from institutions of doubtful standing, and
2.
The lack of equivalence of courses offered by teacher training institutions.
Acceptance of credentials from approved teacher education institutions♦
Supporting the thesis that equivalent
3 Harlan B. Allen, “Origin, Development, and Evaluation of the General Policies and Practices Governing Teacher Certi fication in New York State,” (Hew York University, 1939) P* 158* Benjamin ¥. Frazier, Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,” U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin N o . 12, 1938, p. 3 8 .
training and experience secured in other states should he recognized as a basis for certification, Frazier recommended that the acceptance of credentials from approved teacher education institutions should prove to be more desirable and accurate than the cumbersome, and often highly inaccurate, procedures involved in attempted evaluation of our-of-state 5 credentials• 6 Cubberley declared that a fundamental principal of reciprocity demands that “the certification door should always be open for competency, from whatever quarter it may come.11 To achieve this end, he argued that it should not be impossible for the state to determine with a sufficiently high degree of accuracy the value of credentials from elsewhere, and that such credentials should be recognized as far as they apply. Reciprocity and state history requirements.
The estab
lishment of local history and government hurdles for the certification of our-of-state teachers has not been justified in the opinion of Knepper.
He stated:
It may be conceded that a knowledge of local history and government is very desirable but it is rather far fetched to assume that a teacher coming from another state would lack the professional integrity which
5 Ibid., p. 39^ Elwood P. Cubberley, “The Certification of Teachers,11 Fifth Yearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Educationf Part II (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, 1906), p. 75*
97 would require him or her to become acquainted with the local institutions and law of the area in which he or she expected to teach*7 Current status of reciprocity in state programs of teacher certification*
In reporting the developments emerg
ing from the various state programs of certification, Frazier pointed out in 1938 that reciprocity was practiced on an interstate exchange basis by fourteen states in 1903*
This
figure rose to a high of thirty-eight states in 1921 only to fall in 1937 to a low mark of seven states continuing to 8 exchange certificates* However, Frazier added, one or more types of certifi cation have been granted in all states to out-of-state appli cants upon the basis of institutional credits.9 In 1945, Stinnett reported a study involving nineteen of twenty states of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and indicated the following findings: 1.
Sixteen states reported that out-of-state applicants were certified on exactly the same basis as in-state applicants.
2.
Three states had established additional re quirements for out-of-state applicants*
7 D. ¥. Knepper, ”Interstate Barriers and Public Education,11 School and Society. 62:140, September 1, 1945* ® Benjamin W. Frazier, o£. cit•, p. 147* 9 ibia« . p. 38.
98 3*
Eighteen states issued one-year probationary certificates to out-of-state applicants who meet minimum hour or degree requirements*
4*
Ten states required by the law or regulation one or more specific courses but allowed one year after certification for these require ments to be met*
5*
The minimum requirements were not changed in the states studied during 1944-45*
6.
The movement of teachers across state lines had been facilitated by liberalization of regulations and administrative procedures.10
In the same year, Blyler, in discussing the certifi cation of elementary teachers, wrote, There is no such thing as reciprocity between states in certification. All certificates are issued on the basis of college credentials• Eighteen states said that there was definitely no reciprocity, and one state said that it could be arranged. Twentynine states made no mention of it.11 North Central Association study of reciprocity.
In
describing the work done by John R. Emens and his associates on one of the subcommittees of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, an editorial of the School Review cited the following conclusions as drawn from corres pondence with state departments of education, teacher-training
10 T. M. Stinnett, "Current Status of Reciprocity in Teacher Education," North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges. Quarterly. 19:358, April, 1945* 11 D. M. Blyler, "Certification of Elementary School Teachers in the United States," Elementary School Journal. 45:588, June, 1945.
99 institutions, and employing officials: 1.
There is widespread desire for a workable and acceptable plan for the free, unhampered movement of teachers across state lines.
2.
Graduation from an accredited teacher-education institution is a prerequisite for reciprocity in the majority of states studied.
3.
There is much impatience with variations in terminology, course titles and content.
4.
Groups exist within each state that are highly critical of specific courses or other require ments that are peculiar to that state.
5.
The provision of one-year temporary certificates would tend to control local exigencies which, in many cases, are responsible for isolated course requirements.1^
Recommendations for reciprocity.
The development of
more satisfactory reciprocity procedures in state programs of certification would be promoted, declared Frazier, with the application of the following recommendations: 1.
Competency should be the criterion for control of inter-state teacher migration.
2.
Certificates should be issued in exchange for equivalent out-of-state certificates, and
3.
Out-of-state credentials that are equivalent to those of approved state teacher-education institutions should be accepted.13
Uniform certification and reciprocity.
Lagerberg
12 School Review, pp. cit•, p. 396. Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 148.
100 sugges ted tha t: A basic certificate for the different teaching fields could be outlined that all states might accept# Additional state or local requirements could then be met after the first year in service. Basic teachers * qualifications for all states would help to equalize the supply of teachers in this country, to bring "new blood" into the local systems, to help avoid greater provincialism, to assist in the dissemination of new educational ideas, and undoubtedly to induce many superior teachers who have been casualties of World War II to return to the teaching profession."1^ In support of this position, Khepper declared: . . . It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that a pattern of uniform certification would serve the ends of education and promote the free movement of capable teachers across state boundaries.-*-5 Further consideration of this suggestion was noted In the following editorial.: Bars to teachers1 crossing state lines in accepting positions may be lowered or removed among the New England states, New York and New Jersey. Education officials of the eight states are studying a system of reciprocity in which all would "honor" the teaching licenses of the others, eliminating the necessity of teachers1 taking extensive examinations when applying for an out-state position. On January 13, 1949, the eight state school chiefs plan to meet in Boston to discuss the proposed system further and to make recom mendations for changes in legislation that may be required. Dr. John H. Bossart of New Jersey indicates that a certificate might be devised which would attest that a teacher has met standards established jointly by the states.1^
^ Matt N. Lagerberg, "Trucks and Teachers," School and Society, 61:428, June 30, 194515 D. W. Knepper, o£. cit., p. 140. ^
Education Summary. January 5, i9^9,
!•
101 II.
SUMMARY OP THE CHAPTER
The literature reviewed in this chapter is summarized as follows j 1.
The shortage of well-trained teachers following
World War II has resulted In renewed interest in the exchange of teacher certification. 2.
The practice of reciprocity is feared, in some
quarters, as an aid to the inter-state movement of poor teachers• 3*
Common difficulties experienced in the Issuance
of reciprocal certification are: a.
The need for evaluation of credits from
institutions of doubtful standing, and b.
The lack of equivalence of courses offered by
teacher education institutions. 4.
The acceptance of teachers1 credentials from
approved teacher education Institutions is widely urged as a satisfactory basis for reciprocity in certification. 5.
Lack of justification for local and state history
and government course requirements is widely recognized. 6.
The issuance of reciprocal certification has
ceased in various states. 7.
Widespread desire exists for the development of
a workable and acceptable plan for free, unhampered movement of teachers across state lines.
102 8.
The provision of one-year temporary certificates
would tend to control local emergencies and permit the elimination of isolated course requirements* 9*
The practice of issuing certificates in exchange
for equivalent out-of-state certificates is becoming increas ingly popular* 10*
Competency should be the criterion for inter-state
teacher movements, and 11*
A basic certificate that could be accepted in all
states is needed.
CHAPTER VIII CERTIFICATION AND TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND I*
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• • • if there be a shortage of teachers, and there will be in certain areas, the incompetent should not be permitted to obtain even temporary certification# Playing with the destiny of a child is playing with the future of America.1 Education in the United States has suffered educational travail similar to that which was experienced in the years immediately following World War I.
During the period of the
first great world conflict, approximately 200,000 teachers left the profession, most of them with no desire to return. Those who remained at their posts were underpaid, demoralized, and unhappy.
The deterioration that occurred in the nationts
schools was realized only dimly by a public that seemed to be little concerned.
Many sub-standard teachers were employed
in order to keep institutions of learning open.
The obvious
result was a staggering deterioration in educational standards which had been won only after long years of unremitting toil and effort* Myers described the educational crisis which succeeded
1 A. C . Grace, "Teacher Certification— A Problem in Teacher Education," Education Record. 23:32, January, 19^2.
104 World War II as "the greatest that has ever confronted our country.”
Its closest approximation, he declared, was seen
in the period which immediately followed the cessation of hostilities in 1918.2
In 1919-20, as in 1946-47, public
interest in education slowly re-asserted itself, and there was an insistent demand that effective steps be taken to remedy the situation.
The remedial developments which ensued
were as follows: 1.
Minimum salary laws were enacted.
2.
Recruiting campaigns were organized to attract
students to teacher-education institutions. 3.
Salary schedules were adopted.
4.
Teacher tenure laws and regulations were adopted
in many states and cities. 5.
Teacher retirement systems were established.3
These measures were basically the same as those which have been employed as solutions for more recent teacher shortages• Results of post-World War I, educational developments. The cumulative results of efforts to recoup and prevent o
Alonzo F. Myers, "Supplying Teachers for the Nation*s Schools," Educational Outlook, 21:153, May 1947• 3 Alonzo F. Myers, ojd
. cit.,
p. 153*
105 further educational losses in the years Immediately following World War I have been described in the following chronological manner: By 1926:
There was no longer a serious shortage of teachers for the nationfs schools.
By 1928:
Clear indications of a developing surplus of teachers could be seen, especially in cities•
By 1929:
The first phases of the economic depression appeared. existed.
A large surplus of teachers As a result of this surplus, a
great advancement in teacher certification requirements was made possible. 1930-35:
Widespread reductions in salaries were experienced by teachers throughout the nation.
Most of the economic gains that had
been made by educators during the years of 1919 to I926 were completely wiped out be cause of the severity of the depression. The situation was further complicated by fierce competition for available jobs engen dered by an over-supply of teachers who were willing to bid for a chance to work in the capacity for which they had trained.
106 1935“40:
Improved economic conditions resulted in not more than partial restoration of salaries which had been drastically reduced In the early 1930*3^ . In 1936., there were approxi mately 100,000 certificated teachers in the United States who were unable to secure employment.
At this time, the average salary
of teachers was approximately $1,226 and about one teacher in every three was paid less than $750 per year.-* Current teacher supply and demand si taxation.
Since
World War II, It has been argued that a repitition of most of the post-World War I experiences described above has taken place• First, a critical teacher shortage calling for between two and three hundred thousand qualified instructors has been faced.
Once again, teachers1 salaries have been drastically
less than those paid in comparable occupations.
As before,
there have been many thousands of sub-standard teachers in the nation*s classrooms.
A slow arousal of the American public
Alonzo F. Myers, o p . cit.. p. 154. 5 Benjamin W. Frazier, ’State Certification Requirements as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards,” 14th Yearbook. American Association of Teachers Colleges. 13~15:3^* 1935*
107 to the seriousness of the crisis facing the country's schools has been experienced. On February 10, 19^7* Benjamin Fine reported in the New York Times that at the mid-point of the 1946-47 school year there were 67,987 unfilled positions and vacancies in America's public schools.
6
*7
In May of the same year, Frazier*
revealed that the annual rate of teacher turnover, roughly estimated at ten per cent in so-called normal pre-war times, had reached a high-point of approximately twenty per cent during the war years. In November 5 , 1948, issue of Education Summary. new estimates of teacher need were released by the National Com mission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the NEA and indicated that in the five year period between 1949-50 and 1955-56 approximately 1,045,622 new elementary teachers would be required.
At the current 1948 rate of
teacher output, it was estimated that a mere 200,000 elementary o teachers would be available. Supply and demand factors.
Nhat can be done to protect
^ Benjamin Fine, "Teacher Shortage Imperils Our Public School System,” New York Times . February 10, 1947* 7 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Changing Trends in the Teacher Shortage,” School Life» 29:5* May, 1947* ® Educational Summary. November 5 * 1948, p. 4.
108 the welfare of the nationfs children, and, at the same time, prevent a repetition of past policies of educational "boom and bust?”
As an answer to this question, Myers suggested
that the following steps would be effective: 1#
Establish safeguards against ever flooding the
market again with a serious over-supply of teachers. 2.
Eliminate all emergency certificates by requiring
their holders to meet regular certification standards, and permit no lowering of certification requirements• 3*
Force colleges and universities to refuse to admit
students of low ability to teacher-preparation
programs.
^
In addition to the measures listed above, Richardson, in reporting a study of the use of emergency certificates in small, rural schools in Michigan, revealed the possibility that even though there be an ample supply of properly certi ficated persons, various factors may have induced them to avoid the field of teaching*
He stated:
. • • it is believed that there havebeen more than enough legally certified teachers in Michigan; however, temporary certificates were a necessity because of the low salaries, community demands, lack of political freedom, and uncertainty of continuing tenure involved in the available teaching positions*10 It thus has
appeared thatif a steady supply
9 Alonzo F*
Myers, ojq* cit. , p* 157*
of highly
10 Eugene Richardson, "Half of Emergency Certificates Used in Small Rural Schools," Michigan Educational Journal. 23:138, November, 1945.
109 trained teachers Is to be made available when needed for Americans schools, steps must be taken to provide teacher salaries that will compare favorably with those paid In other comparable occupations.
Similar importance has been attached
to the contention that excessive community demands must be reduced to reasonable levels, and the teacher must be accorded political freedom equal to that enjoyed by any citizen. Referring to the twelve major goals submitted by the N.E.A.*s Rational Commission on Teacher Education and Pro fessional Standards as being essential to the establishment of teaching on a professional basis, Alonzo P. Myers declared that "Through the attainment of these goals we will solve the problem of supplying teachers for the nation,s schools These goals were formulated at the National Emergency Con ference on Teacher Preparation and Supply which was held at Chautauqua, New York, in the summer of 19^6 and have been stated as follows: 1.
Earliest possible elimination of emergency permits
without any reduction of regular certification standards. 2.
The raising of certification requirements for new
teachers in all states to a minimum of four years of thorough professional training; and continuation of progress in advanced states by the adoption of a minimum requirement of five years
11 Alonzo F. Myers, o£. cit.. p. 159*
110 of professional training for the issuance of a teaching certificate• 3*
Minimum beginning salaries of $2,400 per year for
four-year college graduates professionally prepared to teach. 4.
Annual salary increases starting with the second
year of service and continuing with additional experience and training to a level of at least $4,000 per year for college trained teachers
with ten years of service, and providing
salaries of $5,000 to $6,000 per year for teachers of long experience and demonstrated efficiency. 5.
A maximum class size of 25-30 pupils, with teachers
in high schools and other departmentalized schools dealing with a maximum of 100 pupils per day in four, or at most, five classes. 6.
Refusal by colleges and universities to admit
students of low ability into teacher-preparation curricula. 7*
Liberal state scholarships to attract the most
competent young people into teacher-preparation courses • 8.
Increase of $ 2 ,000,000,000 in financial support
for public schools from local, state, and federal sources. 9.
Financial support of teacher-preparation institu
tions by an amount per student equal at least to the average expenditure per student for other types of general and pro fessional higher education. 10.
Effective tenure, retirement, and tax legislation
Ill extended to all states and Institutions. 11.
Cooperative in-service education programs for
teachers, with adequate financial support. 12.
Active commissions on teacher education and pro
fessional standards in all state education associations to advance these and other necessary standards. Questions arising from increasing certification requirements.
"When proposals have been made to raise certi
fication standards, various questions immediately have arisen. Anderson-*-2 listed these questions as;
(1) Will there he
enough teachers available to meet the increased requirements? (2) Will the change improve the teaching in the areas affected? and (3) What individuals will be barred from teaching by the new requirements? and (4) What are the implications of such a bar?
As a partial answer to the last question, Anderson
pointed out that while increased certification standards within specific areas may have decreased the supply of quali fied teachers available, such action also has been likely to result in greater demand for instructors who are able to meet the increased requirements.
To substantiate this statement,
he cited a case in Ohio in which high standards in music
-*-2 E. W. Anderson, "Supply and Demand as Influenced by Teacher Certification.” .American Educational Research Association. 1937•162.
112 appeared to have resulted in fine teaching in music, and the consequent satisfaction of parents and pupils subsequently led to expansion of the music curriculum. A committee of the American Chemical Society pointed out that some certification requirements occasionally barred qualified persons from teaching due to specific demands in the way of required professional courses#
This has occurred
in states where "blanket” certificates have been issued, and knowledge of teaching techniques has been stressed to a far greater extent than knowledge of the subject to be taught. ^ State urograms and teacher supply and demand.
Frazier
states 2 The history of teacher certification shows that state departments of education with requisite powers will advance the requirements for certification as rapidly as the supply of teachers will permit, provided the departments receive the support and encouragement of the public and of the teaching profession.^ Frazier also pointed out that most state departments of education have not maintained a continuous inventory of teachers and their qualifications; hence they have not made sufficiently exact data for use in calculating and regulating teacher supply and demand.
A wide lack of coordination between
1*3
W. L. Evans, and others, f,High School Teaching of Chemistry,” School and Society« 43:604, May 2, 1936. Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit. . p. f>.
113 certification requirements and employment demands has existed In state teacher certification programs throughout the nation. In many cases, the state has not demanded specific preparation for the teaching of certain subjects with the result that teachers, especially when employed in small schools, often have been assigned to instruct in subject fields in which they havenft been trained and adequately prepared.1^ The general tendency toward centralized state control of teacher education and certification, in the opinion of Sangren,*^ has stemmed largely from the desire to balance supply and demand as well as to elevate the standards of the teaching profession. Proposals for the state control of teacher supply and demand.
If an over-supply of teachers Is to be prevented,
declared Owen,1^ candidates for teacher certification should be more carefully selected, and the state department of edu cation should establish an annual teacher certification quota. In support of this statement Owen directed attention to the
■*■5 Benjamin ¥. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," tJ. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin No. 12, 1938, p. 150. ^ Paul V. Sangren, "Central Regulation of the Sources of Various Types of Teachers," American Educatlon Research Association, 3-5:164, February 23, 1937* R. D. Owen,"State Control Over Teacher Supply," National Elementary Principal. 17:48, October, 1937*
annual quotas employed by the American Medical Association and the American Bar Association to determine the yearly -number of new practitioners to be admitted.
He suggested
the use of an eligibility list as a suitable means of control, explaining that the individualfs position on the list could be determined as follows: 1.
Subject matter examination--70 per cent.
2.
Personal interview with examining committee— 30
per cent. Anderson proposed that certification standards should be used by each state department of education first, to make available the best prepared people, and, secondly, to keep out those less well qualified.
This procedure, he admitted,
must necessarily depend upon the discovery of a consistently accurate means of determining the qualifications of good teachers, and, also, upon controlled restriction of the output 18 of teacher education institutions. Satisfactory state control of teacher supply, Frazier contended, will be based on the maintenance of accurate, detailed, and up-to-date information concerning the extent of teacher supply and demand throughout the state.
To accom
plish this, he added, all sources of teacher supply within the state should be subject to appropriate checks by the
18
Anderson, o p . cit. . p. 163*
115 state department of education with particular reference to efficiency in teacher education*
Minimum scholastic require
ments for certification also should he set at the highest level that the supply of teachers permits.^9 The National Survey of the Education of Teachers in 1933 indicated that:
(1) Solution of the problem of supply
and demand requires the control and regulation of conditions in the teaching profession, (2) Control must be attempted on a state rather than federal basis because of variations in state practice, and (3 ) State control must be based upon definite and uniform standards agreed upon by all states if variance in quality of teaching is to be avoided* Teacher education institutions and supply and demand♦ If an over-supply of teachers is to be avoided, urged Cooper, schools and colleges engaged in the preparation of teachers must examine their standards of admission and raise them to such a point that the annual output of teachers will not greatly exceed the existing demand. 00
Much need has existed, declared Frazier,“
■*•9 Benjamin ¥. Frazier,
o j d
20 Paul V. Sangren,
cit*. p. 166.
o j d
.
.
for voluntary,
cit., p* 30, 137*
Herman Cooper, ”A Forward Look In Teacher Education,11 Education. 5 6 :1 9 5 , December, 1935* pp Benjamin W. Frazier, o£. cit*. p. 4*
116 cooperative action in regulating teacher supply among teacher education institutions, and among schools and departments of teacher education institutions.
Frazier added that a few
states and a larger number of institutions have recognized the importance and need for continuous and complete informa tion concerning teacher supply and demand in various subjects and fields•
This information has served as the basis for the
organization of programs of selective admission, guidance, and placement which have proved to be effective in maintaining the desired balance between teacher supply and demand. of this position,
In support
stated that:
A n d e r s o n 2 ^
Certification should influence the supply of teachers and should be influenced by supply-demand relationships. In the Interests of society . . . the number of teachers who are unemployed should be as small as is feasible. II.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature reviewed In this chapter is summarized as follows: 1.
A teacher shortage similar to that which occurred
immediately after World War I has materialized since the con clusion of World War II. 2.
The current teacher shortage has tended to result
in the appearance of many sub-standard teachers in the nationls classrooms.
. cit. . p.
e. W. Anderson, ojd
163.
117 3*
Teacher supply and demand safeguards are needed to
protect the educational welfare of the nationfs children• 4*
Increased certification standards have resulted in
greater demand for instructors who have heen able to meet the increased requirements• 5*
State departments of education have tended to ad
vance certification requirements as rapidly as the supply of teachers will permit. 6.
Many states have not maintained a continuous inven
tory of teachers and their qualifications, thus falling to collect needed and sufficiently exact data for use in calcula ting and controlling teacher supply and demand* 7*
The selection of teacher candidates influences the
available supply and demand of teachers* 8.
The maintenance of accurate, detailed, and up-to-
date information concerning the status of teacher supply and demand within a state is a prerequisite to adequate state control of teacher supply* 9*
Need exists for voluntary, cooperative action in
regulating teacher supply among teacher education institutions* 10*
Certification standards are influenced by supply
and demand relationships* 11.
The interests of society are served by keeping the
number of unemployed teachers as small as is possible.
CHAPTER IX STATE PROGRAMS OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION I*
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Concepts of certification.
A state*s program of
teacher certification was defined by Jaggers as a positive means of implementing that state*s philosophy of education. He declared: The certification program in any state Is the expression of that state*s concept of what the educa tion of a teactxer should be; therefore, the require ments for certification will take into consideration the importance of guaranteeing that a teacher will be able to render the services for which she is certifi cated. Meyersohn suggested that a state*s conception of certification ought to go beyond the mere setting up of regulations applying to pre-service requirements.
He con
tended that provisions should be made to guarantee continued professional growth of teachers after licenses have been issued to them.
2
Michigan Education Association, Report of the Com mittee on Teacher Training, Book I, The Certification and Training of Teachers In Michigan, Bulletin N o . 2 6 , March, 1957, P. 175. 2 Maxwell Meyersohn, ^Educational and Legal Aspects of In-Service Training and Certification of Teachers11, New York State (thesis), 51? W. 110th St., New York, 1939, P. 37*
119 Ma.1or weaknesses in state programs of certification* A study of the certification and training of teachers in Michigan by the Michigan Education Association in 1957 listed the major weaknesses of that state's certification program as being: 1.
Lack of centralization, and
2»
Practical certification by those who produce or
train the prospective teacher.-^ Discussing certification as a problem in teacher educa tion, Grace cited the complexity of prevailing state rules and regulations as a major weakness commonly found in state pro grams.
He contended that complicated state requirements have
produced the following "devastating tendencies11: 1.
They place the education of teachers in the schools
of education in an educational strait jacket, making it essential that the institution train for certification requirements and not for the teaching profession. 2.
They paralyze every effort to redirect the school
program, particularly since under rules and regulations, generally speaking, a teacher cannot be shifted from one field of endeavor to another and be permitted to train in service for the field in which there is a position. 3
A. C. Grace, "Teacher Certification a Problem in Teacher Education", Education Record. 23*24, January, 1942.
120 3*
They cause training institutions merely to meet
minimum requirements and do not place upon the training institution full responsibility for initial selection and induction into the profession. 4.
They eliminate the possibility of admitting to the
profession promising graduates of schools of art or music who
have not had the blessing of a school of edu
cation. 5.
They restrict free opportunity for the development
of experimental teacher education programs.
lL
Frazier maintained that the goals of certification can never be fully achieved because (l).the requirements made for certification are largely conditioned by the available supply of teachers and the nature of the training provided them by teacher-education institutions, (2 ) teacher employment and certification requirements have been only partially related, and (3 ) certification requirements are concerned primarily with minimum standards.^
He added that most of the difficulties
which states commonly have experienced in the administration of teacher certification have arisen primarily from inadequate coordination of teacher-personnel activities, notably the education of teachers, and state certification practices.
^ Alonzo C. Grace, pp. cit.* p. 24. ** Benjamin W. Frazier, ©J». cit., pp. 29, 144.
121 Purpose of certification*
Since the children within
a state have been recognized as its charges and looked upon as assets of the state, it has behooved the state to take necessary steps to safeguard itself by providing the youth with education of such degree and caliber as to guarantee their growth and development into an active and intelligent citizenry*
Thus it has become common practice for states
to regard certification as an effective way and means of developing and maintaining public schools of a high quality.^ In discussing the purpose, function, criteria, and principles of state certification, Ellwood P. Cubberley declared: The purpose of all certification requirements is to insure to the child a properly-prepared teacher on the one hand, and to protect the state against the employment of incompetents and a wasting of the proceeds of taxation for education on the other . . .7 It has seemed likely that the meaning of Gubberley^ statement may very well have varied greatly from state to state, especially when it has been recognized that the pro ductive capacity of the people of a given state and the sur pluses which they have enjoyed over and above the necessities
6 Ann Brewington, "Certifiestion of Business Teachers in Illinois*", Journal of Business Education* 15*2,3, May, 19^0.
7 Ellwood P* Cubberly, State School Administration (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927 ), p* 635*
122 of living often have proved to be controlling factors in determining the type and quality of educational services to be rendered the children of the state* Grace contended that the rules and regulations govern ing teachers 1 certificates have been designed primarily: (l) to protect children against poorly prepared and inefficient teachers, (2 ) to protect the teaching profession from unqual ified teachers whose standards are so low that classroom instruction suffers, and (]5 ) to protect superintendents of schools and boards of education from local pressures urging the employment of teachers who are o positions* Ott and
Gooke^
not qualified for teaching
also agreed with the contentions advanced
by Oubberley and Grace as to the basic purpose of certification. Ott maintained that: The idea behind the licensing of teachers is that children should be protected against poor teachers; only qualified teachers with certain training should be eligible to teach; and that schoolboards be re stricted in their choice to competent personnel, free of political complications*10 Meyersohn held that, in addition to assuring competent
^ Alonzo C. Grace, op* cit., p. 24. 9 D, H. Cooke, Administering the Teaching Personnel (Chicago: B. H. Sanborn and Company, 1939)/ P. 124. 10 Edward Ott, ,JWhy Not More Uniform State Certification of Teachers?” School Management, 16:14, April, 1947.
125 Instruction, certification includes motives that are, in their broad concepts, identical to the motives of tenure which he described as (l) to promote effective teaching in public schools, and (2 ) to encourage professional growth on the part of the teachers in the public schools,^ Frazier stated that, in addition to safeguarding the children of the state against incompetent Instructions, certi fication should yield information on which a continuous inventory of teachers and their qualifications might be based and employed for the ultimate improvement of the professional qualifications of teachers in service.
He also suggested that
the properly organized state program of certification should protect qualified teachers from the competition of other teachers not as well qualified, and provide more effective control by the state over teacher-personnel activities that 12 are common to that state* Bowers argued that a state program of certification should do more than guarantee a professionally prepared teacher for each child, and protect the state from expending public funds for the services of incompetent, immoral, or undesirable teachers.
The state program of certification should
be developed in such a way, he declared, as to attract better
I* Maxwell Meyersohn, pp. cit,, p. 5 6 . 12
Benjamin W. Frazier, pp. cit., p. 145*
teachers to the profession who are deeply interested in the education of boys and girls in America, and to guarantee their continued professional growth. Principles of certification.
Basic to a state program
of certification has been the principle that education is a state function.
Prom this concept, it has followed that the
state is responsible for providing an adequate number of qualified teachers for the schools of the state.
This goal
has been sought through state administration of teacher personnel activities which usually have been controlled by a state board of education.
It has been suggested that laws
pertaining to teacher personnel should be grants of broad power rather than statements of specified items, and that procedures should also be formulated that will obtain accurate and continuing teacher personnel data and guarantee cooperative participation of all agencies in planning and appraising of the state program of teacher certification.^ Principles of teacher certification suggested by Maul^-5 were reviewed by Good as follows:
^ Harold J. Bowers, J,Ten Principles of Teacher Gertification ,11 American School Board Journal, 96:41, June, 193S. ^ Carter V. Good, ^Recent Graduate Theses in School Law / 1 Yearbook of School Law, 8:162, 1940. ^ Ray 0. Maul, ,fThe Certification of Teachers in Kansas, (unpublished Master* s thesis, New York University, New York, 1937)*
125 1. 2.
5. 4. 5* 6.
7* 8. 9. 10.
Certification of teachers is a state function. There should “be one source of authority of certification* The authority should be a professional body. Certificates should be based on academic and professional training. Certification laws should be general in form and flexible in application. Original certificates should be probationary or provisional. Certificates should be differentiated or specific. Certification regulations should be simple and easily administered. Certification should be valid throughout the state. Permanent certificates should lapse after a period of non-use , . .3-6
The position that there should be no differentiation in definition between ^certification9 and 9 education” has been further defended by Jaggers who declared: Education and certification of teachers should constitute one word. They cannot be separated in the thinking of a person who believes that they are to be used as agencies for procuring teachers who meet the needs of children in the schools. The certification program should continue to be an expression of the state1s teacher education concept. If teacher educa tion includes in-service, as well as ;'pre-service education, certification regulations should be so drawn that they may be a constant stimulus to contin ued growth on the job . . .^7 A state certification program, according to Cooper, should be based upon the following principles:
(l) Every
teacher should complete a program of preparation that equips
Carter V. Good, 9Recent Graduate Theses in School Law ,9 Yearbook of School Law, 7:186, 193-9* ^ R. E, Jaggers, 11Teacher Certification by the State,” Phi Delta Kappan, 2^:142, December, 1940.
126 him not only for classroom teaching but also for community leadership, (2 ) every child has the right to educational growth under the guidance and direction of teachers especially fitted to render the particular kind of service to which they have been assigned, and (3 ) teachers should continue.to keep alert professionally, that is abreast of the professional, scientific, and social changes that affect the schools program.^ Burris maintained that a properly planned and admin istered program of certification is the answer to 11the most important educational problem of the state . . . that of providing a well-trained teacher for every classroom . • .^9 In 19^1i Barnhart reported that tentative agreement had been reached in regional conferences of the North Central Association that (l) there should be a single state certifying authority, issuing state wide certificates, with provisions for reciprocity between states, (2 ) teacher education and certification programs should provide for broad, general education, professional education, and specialization.
There
io H* Cooper, ”A Forward Look in Teacher Education,” Education^ 56;199> December, 1935* ^9 Benjamin J. Burris, ”The Problem of Certification in Relation to Teacher Training,” National Education Association Proceedings, 1926, p. 932.
127 should be opportunity for reasonable experimentation, and (3 ) teacher certificates should be limited to well-defined areas*
They should provide for a program of recertification
which encourages continuous growth of teachers in service ,20 A teleological summary of the principles of certifica tion was offered by Cooke as follows:
(l) There should be a
marked degree of uniformity in the method of issuing teacher certificates and in their terminology, (2 ) authority to issue teachers 1 certificates should be centralized in the State department of education, (3 ) authority to issue teachers* certificates should be removed as far as possible from per sonal, charitable, local, social, or political influences, (4) secondary school teachers should be certificated by subject, (5 ) until the general level of teacher education has been appreciably raised, certificates should be issued primarily on a basis of institution credentials rather than by examination, (6 ) the period of validity of all types of certificates, with the possible exception of life certificates, should be based upon evidence of continued or additional pro fessional attainment.
In addition to such attainment, a
written recommendation of a satisfactory nature should be
W*~ S, Barnhart, ”State Certification of Teachers of Business Education,” Journal of Business Education, 17:12, November, 19^1* P* 13*
128 required from all superintendents for whom the teacher has taught before renewal or progression to a higher-level certificate may be granted, (7 ) minimum scholarship require ments should be the equivalent of the masters1 degree for all teachers,
0*1
although it may be expedient to require only a
minimum of four years of college training for elementary teachers for a few years longer, (8) personal qualities should be considered in the granting of teaching certificates as soon as the estimation of these qualities can be placed upon an objective basis, (9 ) the certificating authority should be sure that the teacher is in reasonably good health before the certificate is issued, (10) as a teacher*s training, experience, and merit increase, he should be able to be passed on a promotional basis from lower to higher certification, and (ll) the issuance of life certificates should be discontinued or reduced 22 to an absolute minimum. 2‘ ^:5 The literature pertaining to this area thus far reviewed has primarily dealt with principles of certification that have been generally accepted or presumed to be of desirable char acter.
Approaching the problem from another point of view,
21 Gooke stated that this principle should have been achieved by 1940. 22 A moratorium for ten to fifteen years on life cer tification was urged by Gooke. 2^ D. H. Cooke, op. cit., pp. 60-61.
Barnhart reviewed those principles that have not yet achieved wide acceptance or application.
He stated that, in many
instances, the teacher-education institution is not allowed to conduct a reasonable program of experimentation, that newly trained teachers are not provided with a strong general education, and many teachers who have mastered certain skills before entering a teacher-education institution have continued to be required to retake subject matter already completed for the mere sake of complying with the letter of the certifica tion code.
He maintained that certain broad types of certi
fication should be issued to allow business and technical schools to determine whether the teacher to be hired is pro perly qualified for the specific subject or combination of subjects to be taught, and that teachers in non-business and non-technical schools should be certificated in two or three subject matter fields.
Barnhart also contended that continued
rigid prescription of general and professional requirements for teachers tended to defeat efforts to effect needed educa tional adjustments decreed by an evolving democratic society. Certification standards, he declared, should be constitued in such manner as to evolve with changing emphases in our pit
society. ^
^
W. S. Barnhart, o£. cit., p. 13.
130 Guidance elements involved in certification.
Pour
guidance elements that have been involved in the training and selection of teachers and thus have been indirectly related to certification were described by Good as:
(l) Careful
selection for admission to the training school to be com plements with the most accurate selection practices available to be invoiced during the training school experience, (2 ) li censing by the state according to rules and regulation pre vailing therein, (3 ) nomination by the superintendent of schools and election by the board of education, and (k) con tinued professional growth through in-service training either under the jurisdiction of the local school system with the leadership of the superintendent, or by other various media employed by training institutions.2^ State responsibility for education. The chief limit to future advancement in teachers 1 qualifications will be set by those who purchase educa tional services; that is, by parents and taxpayers. In view of the growing needs for the preparation of demo cratic citizenry to meet the increasingly urgent politi cal, social, and scientific problems of the postwar world, it is to be hoped that no premature limits will be placed on the investment by the public in educational services . . .26
25 Carter V. Good, pp. pit., p. 22. 2^ Benjamin W. Frazier, “Changing Trends in the Teacher Shortage ,*1 School I&fe, 29*10, May, 19V7.
131 In recent educational thought there has been little real opposition to the concept that education is the func tion of the s t a t e . S u c h acceptance has tended to automat ically imply that the state has the authority, through its control of certification, to impose certain eligibility requirements which must be met prior to the granting of the right to teach.
It also has seemed to be obvious that the
direct influence of quantitative and qualitative standards of certification upon the efficacy of instruction has been so pronounced that extreme diligence should be exercised in setting up a state*s certification rules and regulations to guarantee achievement of the greatest possible teaching efficiency in the public schools. The state's responsibility for providing efficient teachers was regarded as indivisible by Meyersohn.
He argued
that such a duty cannot be restricted to the teacher's pre service period of training because of the distinct possibility that an instructor may not possess, at some subsequent time, sufficient training and skill to meet the then current educa tional demands.2^
27 M. Meyersohn, pp. cit., p. 37. 28 I k M . , p. 37-
132
Theory underlying state certification*
The general
problem of public education within a state has called for careful consideration of the following integral parts of the state1s educational system:
a sound taxation program,
provision of adequate financial support for public education, carefully developed teachers1 salary laws, adequate facilities for the training and supervision of new teachers, broad super vision of instruction, accurate measurement of teacher success, issuance, suspension and revocation of teacher certification, and a satisfactory program of teacher
r e t i r e m e n t .
Revision of the state system of education in Virginia indicated that the efficacy of a certificating program is conditioned by the maintenance of a proper relation between itself and teacher training institutions, teachers1 tenure, teachers1 salaries, and teacher retirement. Criteria for the development of a state program of certification were postulated by Cubberley as consisting of provisions (l) demanding evidence of the attainment of the highest possible degree of initial preparation in keeping with the state1s economic resources and educational organi zation, and (2) offering incentives to better preparation
Elwood P. Cubberley, op, cit.j p. 6. Virginia State Board of Education, "Regulations Governing the Certification of Teachers in Virginia," Bulletin Vol. XI, No. 2, 1928, p. 169.
133 and continued professional growth. Jaggers held that the state program of teacher certi fication should be planned in such a way as to guide those persons who give greatest promise of being successful into teaching, to give them the kinds of experiences during their formal preparation which will insure that they may, with reasonable safety, enter the profession, and to guarantee the completion of a continuing program of education by each teacher after he has actually embarked upon a teaching career.^ The formulation of basic theory underlying a state system of certification cannot be regarded as complete, de clared Morrison, until it is recognized by those concerned that state certification must always deal primarily with minimum standards. Oubberley suggested that the following principles should be regarded as fundamental in the development of state teacher certification:
(l) general salary increases
should be planned to make increased certification require ments possible, (2) examinations for certication should be de-emphasized, (3 ) temporary and low-grade certificates
^
jHDid, p. 6.
3 2 Richard E. Jaggers, op. cii:. , p. l4l. 33 J. Gayce Morrison, JIStandards for the Preparation and Certificatibn of Elementary School Principals ,11 State Education Department, University of New York, Albany, 1931# P* 7*
13k
should be abolished, (4) high school graduation, to be followed with additional preparation, should be the minimum requirements for any certificate, (5 ) the issuance of two types of elementary certificates is ample, (6) legislation should fix dates for enforcement of additional preparation requirements, and (7 ) differentiation of certificates on. the basis of educational level (secondary, elementary, etc.,) should be maintained.^4 Control of certification.
State control of teacher
certification has implied more than the raising of standards and governing of the number of certificates issued.
It has
been contended that careful regulation must be established regarding the number of general types of certificates, pro bationary periods, requirements pertaining to professional growth following the issuance of certification, and the pos sible allocation of certain types of training to particular Institutions.
The issuance or non-issuance of life certifi
cates must also be resolved.35
The certification of teachers
generally has been administered by centralized state systems under the direction of professional authorities.
^
In some
Elwood P. Cubberley, op. cit., p. 6 3 6 .
^ Paul V. Sangren, 1*Central Regulation of the Sources of Various Types of Teachers,11 American Educational Research Association. 3 -5•167* February 2 3 , 1937 •
135 instances, the state has delegated powers of certification to administrative boards of officers Criteria for issuance of certification.
Accuracy of
judgments as to the applicants possession or non-possession of those qualifications which may insure effective instruction long has been regarded as a matter of first-rate importance in the development of a competent system of teacher certification. Lowery suggested that the necessary measurements of the applicant1s ability and skill might be attempted on the basis of the following criteria:
(l) data furnished by the
candidate concerning himself, (2) records of his previous preparation and achievements, (5 ) examinations, (4) observa tions of the worker while at work, and (5 ) certified state ments made by acquaintances of the worker who are competent to testify. Certificate data.
Frazier declared that a teaching
certificate should indicate, as a minimum of information, its scope and length of validity, the amount and kinds of prepara tion required for its issuance, and the terms or conditions under which it may be renewed or exchanged.*^
26 M. Meyersohn, pp. cit. , p. 57* ^ M. L. Lowery, ”Certification of High School Teachers,” (unpublished Doctor1s dissertation, The University of Pennsyl vania, Philadelphia, 1924), p. 53. 23 Benjamin W. Frazier, op. pit., p. 151*
Modifications of state programs of certification* Continuing demand for improvement of instruction has resulted in complete, partial, and unceasing revision of certification requirements in many states.
Efforts to strengthen and im
prove state programs of teacher certification is here reviewed Ohio Plan.
In May, 1935# Dilley reported a plan pro
posed for the reconstruction of teacher certification in Ohio.
This plan called for the employment of the following
measures:
(1) that all certification he vested with the state
department of education in a special division, (2) that all certificates he hased on academic and professional prepara tion as certified by approved institutions of higher learn ing, (3) that there should he one grade of original certi ficate— the four-year provisional— which would he renewable for four more years upon presentation of satisfactory evidence of successful teaching experience and professional interest. The certificate would then continue to he valid, on presen tation of similar evidence, as long as the holder remained active in teaching, (4) that there should he as many types of certificates as there are types of teaching and adminis trative positions,
(5) that certificates should he care
fully differentiated, and
(6) that all present (1 935 )
laws— eight-one sections— pertaining to teacher certifica tion should he repealed and a simple law giving sole authority over teacher certification (with some limitations) to the
137 state department of education should be written.^9 Michigan Plan.
Sweeping changes in the regulations
governing certification in Michigan were described by Elliott in 1936m
Sangren, reporting Elliott1s study, stated
that under the provisions of the new code a fifty per cent reduction in the number of teacher certificates issued had been effected.
jir\
Outstanding results accomplished by the
new code were described by Elliott as follows:
(l) the kinds
of certificates issued was reduced from fifteen or twenty to five, (2) blanket certification was eliminated, (3) issuance of life certificate was discontinued, (k) specific training requirements were established, (3 ) subject matter area limitations and requirements were set up, (6) controls of teacher supply and demand were involved, (7 ) a more careful selection of students for teacher training was implied, (8) certificates were drawn in such a way as to make a practical demand that the holder engage in a continuous program of im proved preparation for the job at hand, and (9 ) the operation of the new certification plan, except as a temporary expedient, had made no distinctive differentiation in the demand for
prank B. Dilley, ”Teacher Certification in Ohio and a Proposed Plan of Reconstruction,n Teachers College, Columbia University, Contribution to Education, No. 630, reported in Teachers College Record. 3 6 :7 1 3 , May, 1935* Paul V* Sangren, op. pit., p. 1 6 7 .
158 training on the part of elementary and secondary teachers. Louisiana plan.
The search for better teachers in
Louisiana culminated in 1945 in the development of a revised program of certification.
War conditions delayed its
inception and it was scheduled to go into effect on July 1, 1947•
This plan provided for:
(l) the establishment of a
requirement of 50 hours of general education for certifica tion, (2) the establishment of specific professional require ments for superintendents, supervisors, and principals, (5) registration of teacher candidates in the department or school of education of an approved teacher-education institu tion not later than the junior year, (4) certification for upper and lower elementary grades, with prohibition of the assignment of teachers to fields or grades in which a lack of special preparation exists, (5) the lapsing of certifica tion after five consecutive years of disuse, (6) assignment of responsibility for leadership in teacher education to the state supervisor of teacher education and certification, (7 ) assignment of explicit responsibility for appraisal and ap proval of teacher-education curricula to the state depart ment of education, and (8) application of an adaptation of
^ Eugene B. Elliott, 11Ninety-third Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,11 State Department of Education, Michigan, 1936, p. 47.
the criteria and pattern for reciprocity in teacher certifi cation between Louisiana and other southern states which was approved by the Louisiana State Board of Education on January 5, 19^1 .42 South Carolina plan. certification of teachers in Frick.
In 1944, a proposed plan for the South Carolina was described by
The particulars Involved in the broad and sweeping
changes contemplated for that state1s system of certification are discussed here in detail: Application requirements.
Each applicant for a
teacher1s certificate was to be required to provide the following items of information upon a prescribed form:
(l)
desired teaching level (elementary or secondary), (2) subjects to be taught (if in secondary), (3) a recent photograph, (4) summaries of all credentials of the applicant, (5) a health and physical report, (6) college ratings of personal, pro fessional, and scholarship qualities, and (7 ) the applicants rating on the National Teacher Examination. Issuance procedures.
After the application had been
received and evaluated, two steps were to be involved in the issuance of a teaching certificate.
First, the Director of
Teacher Education and Certification was to notify the person 42 Joseph E. Gibson, ^Louisiana Demands Better Teachers, School Executive. 63:32, December, 1943#
140 seeking a certificate as to:
(l) the types of certificate
to which he was entitled, and (2 ) that this certificate would be issued to the applicant on presentation of an official statement from the board of trustees of a school that the board had employed him to teach in accordance with the provisions of the certificate to which he was entitled*
The
second step provided that when satisfactory evidence had been received verifying the fact that the applicant had been em ployed, the proper type of certificate (small size) would be issued and would contain the following information:
(l) name
of the person to whom issued, (2 ) a copy of the photograph provided by the applicant printed on the certificate, (3 ) a statement of the type of school in which the holder is en titled to teach, (4) a statement of the subjects he is au thorized to teach, (5 ) the group, type, and grade of the cer tificate, and (6 ) the official seal of the Director of Teacher Education and Certification. State certification records.
The maintenance of a com
plete up-to-date record of all certificates issued was consid ered to be of vital importance, and it was provided that the Director of Teacher Education and Certification would keep such information, as well as a record of applicants who were eligible for certification.
Such records would provide infor
mation concerning the number of various types of certificates
141 Issued, the experience of the holders of certificates, and the status of certificates extant*
These data were to he
employed to aid South Carolina teacher education institutions in the provision of intelligent guidance for prospective teacher students, to correct the general impression that all college graduates are potential teachers, to provide a basis for the issuance of emergency certificates, and to indicate the available supply of
t e a c h e r s . ^
State legislation and certification*
Education, ac
cording to the American principle, h as.been looked upon as a concern of the state.
As such, the further requirement that
it exercise some supervision over the quality of education that is provided in the public schools has been regarded as implied.
The responsibility of the state to provide a frame
work of law that will guarantee achievement of the goals and objects of teacher certification was forcefully declared in the following statement by Kandels The state exercises the right to certificate teachers in the interests of the public. If it has the right to protect the public against unqual ified practitioners in medicine, law, and other pro fessions, if it has the right to see to it that foods sold to the public are pure, it certainly has the right
^ H. L. Prick, ,TA Proposed Plan for Certification of Teachers in South Carolina,11 Investigation of Educational Qualifications of Teachers in South Carolina, The Steering Committee Report, Columbia, 1944, pp. 57-60.
to set up such standards as will protect the public against unqualified teachers in its schools# # The duty of determining the ,!pattern of the good teacher” cannot be evaded by the state, Kandel argued#
He
maintained that the right of the state to certificate teachers is no longer the issue, and that the basic problem can be seen in the efforts ns.de to determine the nature of require ments to which the state should prescribe for certification# The question of HOW the right is exercised is now of vital import he insisted#
Kandel held that the right of the state
should apply to private schools, and that since there can be no
guarantee that the best planned scheme of teacher prepar
ation will produce a finished teacher, the final award of the teacher1s certification, following the analogy of the licens ing of medical practitioners, should not be made until after a period of probation#
Kandel re-emphasized the responsibil
ity of the state to accept the challenge of determining criteria for the measurement and recognition of good instruc tion#
He declared that unless this challenge is accepted,
#,the chaos which now characterizes certification requirements will grow, the best qualified students in our high schools and colleges will be deterred from entering the teaching profes sion # • • 11^5 ^ I. L. Kandel, ”The State*s Right to Certify Teachers, Hew York State Education# 26:10, October, 1933. 45 Ibid.. p. 11.
143 The basic purpose of the state in all legislation re lating to the improvement of teachers in service, declared Cubberley, is to try to ensure some little betterment each year on the part of all teachers, as a condition to con tinuing in the teaching profession.
State certification
legislation, he continued, when properly developed, will pro duce the most highly professional body of instructors that can be obtained through the shaping and controlling of teachertraining facilities, administrative conditions, salaryschedule laws, and teacher-certification requirements.
A
solidly based state program of certification, he added, must be supported by a legal structure that will permit the main tenance of a proper balance between teacher training, pay, and supply.^ Gharacteristics of a certification law.- Bowers de scribed the ideal certification law as one which grants broad general authority and does not prevent flexibility in admin istration through the existence of restrictive legal detail, and he urged that certification law must not be so strict as to prevent needed changed.
Bowers maintained that the pro
perly planned certification law is one which:
(1) sets mini
mum standards, (2 ) defines the grades and types of certificates, (3) delegates the authority for establishing standards and
^El w o o d P. Cubberley, o p . cit.» pp. 636,630.
144 administrative regulations to the certificating agency, (4) allows schools to be adequately staffed when demand exceeds supply, (5) raises standards when supply exceeds demand, and (6) makes continuity of educational policy possible through the development of long range planning programs. Frazier argued that properly developed certification law must fix minimum standards and empower the state board of education to interpret these standards into rules and regula tions, and secondly, must make it possible to set higher stand ards when such action is regarded as advisable.
Specific cer
tificate requirements, other than minimum or general standards, he maintained, must be subject to determination by the state board of education rather than by statute.^
Good also con
tended that certification laws should be general in form and flexible in application.^ Figure 1 shows a list of desired characteristics of an ideal certification law. Methods of assigning certification authority.
Two
methods of allocating and defining responsibility for the granting of teacher certification were described by Dynes as follows:
(1) statutory provision specifying the number of
^7 h. J. Bowers, "Ten Principles of Teacher Certifica tion," American School Board Journal» 96:41, June, 193$* ^
Benjamin W. Frazier, ££. cit., p. 29«
^
Carter V. Good, o£. cit., p. 1&6.
145
Authority is broad and general. V Is flexible in admini strati on.
Minimum standards are clearly defined.
\ 9
/
\ Provides adequate number of teachers when supply is less than demand.
....
Establishes specific grades and types of certification.
/-*’
IDEAL STATE CERTIFICATION LAW Promotes continuity of state education al policy.
Encourages longrange program planning. /
Permits needed changes.
Works for continued raising of certifi cation requirements.
FIGURE
1
DESIRED CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL STATE CERTIFICATION LAW
146 certificates to be issued, the qualifications required for each certificate, the term of validity of each certifi cate, and the authority empowered for issuance, and (2) as signment by statute of authority to state officers, usually a state board or state department of education, to formulate rules and regulations for teacher certification.-*0 Teacher selection techniques and state certification procedures were the subjects of intensive study at the re gional conference held by the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges in March, 1940.
At the con
clusion of a two-day cooperative working session, delegates from Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin were in general agreement that the allocation of broad powers of teacher cer tification to a single state certificating agency is the most desirable means of delegating state certification authority. It was also suggested that the most satisfactory manner of determining minimum certification requirements can be achieved by legal provisions calling for cooperative action by repre sentatives of the state certificating department, teacher-education institutions, employing officials, regional and other interested agencies.51
John J. Dynes, f,How Certification is Practiced in the Various States,*1 Nation1s Schools, J: 6 8 , April, 1931* 51 John R. Emens, Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Procedures,11 North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 15*243# January, 1941.
147 Basic legal concept of the teacher* 3 certificate. The teacher*s certificate, declared Cooke, is legal evidence of his fitness to teach, and a school board of education is not required to inquire further into the eligibility of the teacher who presents a certificate authorizing him to teach in the public s c h o o l s . Cubberley stated that no teacher should be employed to teach in any school, wholly or in part supported by the proceeds of public taxation, unless such teacher holds a certificate of qualification issued and signed by proper authority.5>3
Cooke concurred with Cubberley and
subscribed to the point of view that unless the teacher holds a certificate, he must be regarded as a volunteer, and cannot receive pay for his services from public school funds, but, a board may accept free of charge the services' of an unli censed teacher. Courts and certification.
Cooke directed attention
to the fact that the courts have generally been reluctant to interfere unnecessarily in administrative matters of the state departments of education, unless there is evidence of Cli unfairness or indiscretion.^
52 h. D, Cooke, ^Teachers: Certification, Appointment, and Dismissal; The Teacher*s Contract,” Yearbook of School Law, 1958, p. 157. 53 Elwood P. Cubberley, o>p. cit., p. 621, D.
H.
Cooke, op. cit., p. 7.
148 Status of administra1 1ve control*
Although It has
been commonly accepted that state legislatures possess the final authority in teacher certification; the extent to ■which they have determined detailed certification requirements has varied greatly among the various states.55 Current status of state programs of certification. Current development of state systems of teacher certification have tended to be based, for the large part, upon broad grants of regulatory powers conferred by statute to the state certifi cating body.5 6 A study of state rules and regulations governing the certification of high school teachers by Jackson in 1940 re vealed that: 1. 2. 5. 4. 5* 6. 7.
Authority to grant certificates was centralized in state authorities in 45 states. Twenty-one states issued only one type of certifi cate. Twenty-four states issued only two types of certi ficates. The life certificate was not granted in 15 states. Seventy-four initial certificates were valid from 1 to 10 years. Sixty-two per cent of the certificates were valid for particular subjects. Eighty per cent of the certificates were restricted to grades of the junior or senior high school.
55 Benjamin ¥. Frazier, o
cit., p. 28.
56 Editorial, 0The Midwest Conference on Certification,” School and Society. 48:747 9 December 10, 1938.
149 8* 9. 10. 11. 12.
Thirty-seven states required a Bachelor*s degree for high school certification, Thirteen states required background courses for 25 certificates. Thirty-nine states required specialization in at least one teaching field, 25 in two, and 9 require three. Professional preparation was requisite in all states for certification, and Forty-one states required student teaching for 53 of the secondary certificates they issue.57
A graphic picture of the complexity of certification rules and regulations obtaining in thirty-four states for the teaching of social studies was reported by Grace in 1942 as follows 5 General requirements for certification: 1. 2.
3« 4. 5*
Age requirements in 11 states: 3> 17 years; 6, 18 years; one, 19 years, and one, 20 years, Only 10 states required a certificate of health* One state indicated that a certificate is optional* One state required that the candidate must not be addicted to narcotics or intoxicating liquor. Five states required citizenship in the United States. Three states required an oath of allegiance. Twenty-one of the 34 states required graduation from an approved 4-year institution; 2 specified 4 years of college work but did not indicate a degree; one state called for 4 years of college work or its equivalent; one state required a master’s degree, or a bachelor’s degree with 5 years of teaching experience.
57 e . Jackson, J,State Rules and Regulations Govern ing the Certification of High School Teachers,11 Upper Montclair, New Jersey State Teachers. College, 1940, 21 p., U« S» Office of Education, Federal Security Agency, Bibliography of Research Studies in Education* 1939-19^0, P* 241.
150 Major subject requirements:
Out of 54 states only k
failed to specify a minimum number of semester hours of study in the major field of social studies.
Others required from
one course to 54 semester hours in the general field.
The
median was 20 semester hours, although the mode of the dis tribution was 30 semester hours.
Some states designated
specific required subjects with a margin of electives.
Amer
ican, European, and World history were common requirements. One state required instruction in conservation, cooperative marketing, and in consumers 1 cooperatives. Professional education requirements♦
Thirty-two of
the 3k states required one or more courses in education.
The
professional requirements ranged from one course to a total of 30 semester hours with 8 states recommending 12 to 14 hours; 8 requiring 15 to 17 semester hours.
Commonly required sub
jects were educational psychology, principles and methods of secondary education; and observation and practice teaching was required in 19 states .^8 Recommendations for improvement of state programs of certification.
In keeping with continuing interest in the
further improvement of state programs of teacher certification,
58 a . C. Grace, "Teacher Certification, A Problem in Teacher Education," Education Record. 25:25-26, January, 1942.
151 it has not been surprising that a large part of the litera ture of the field has been dedicated to the making of sug gestions and recommendations calculated to contribute to the general betterment of state certification programs*
Writers
in this area of education have evinced a long standing con cern in the development of state systems of teacher licens ing, and have not been hesitant to make frequent and numerous recommendations aimed at a more complete realization of the goals and objectives of state teacher certification* In 1938, Bowers reported f,Ten Principles of Teacher Certification” which he regarded as basic to any properly developed state program.
He listed and justified each prin
ciple as follows: (1 )
Certification of teachers is a function of the
state and should never be delegated to local authorities. In support of this concept, Bowers maintained that local teacher licensing limits competition to local talent result ing in inbreeding of Ideas, customs, and traditions, that local officials are too close to the applicant to refuse to certificate the unqualified, and that each board usually develops its own particular standards of certification.
On
the other hand, he declared a state certification program results in uniform issuance standards state-wide validity, a minimizing of local pressures, and greater economy.
He
152 also called attention to the fact that no state has dropped the state system of teacher certification after having adopted it. (2 )
Teacher certification authority should be vested
in the state director of education.
This principle is based
upon the fact that the state director of education is gener ally held responsible for the administration of the state public school system.
Bowers held that such organization
unites the teacher-training and certification programs in such a manner as to supplement each other, practically assures the selection of competent professional personnel, is consis tent with democratic concepts of state school administration, provides for checks and balances resulting in needed protec tion for both teacher and child, and makes for a continuity of policy. (5)
Certification laws should grant general authority
and not attempt detail which would prevent flexibility in administration. (k)
(discussed previously in this chapter.)
Certification regulations should be simple and
easily administered.
Bowers specifically suggested that a
state bulletin should be published explaining regulations and requirements, and should be aimed at making each teacher know the requirements for his or her initial certificate, the services it authorizes, how and when it may be renewed or con-
153 verted into a certificate of higher grade, and under what conditions it may be revoked.
He further declared that the
primary characteristic of this bulletin should be simplicity. He particularly emphasized the great need for reducing the number of letters required by the state certification agency explaining that letters in large numbers often have resulted in undue delay and have constituted a real expense to the state. (5)
Certificates should not be limited to specific
subjects but should be issued for fields or areas of teaching. This concept was regarded by Bowers as a compromise between two extremes.
He argued that certification should be effected
in terms of two or three broad fields such as languages, social studies, natural sciences, and that original certificates should not authorize any administrative or supervisory duties. (6)
All original certificates should be provisional.
The point of view that a teacher1s education can never be regarded as completed, and the need for a means of “weeding out“ undesirable teachers is here recognized.
Bowers maintain
ed that the first three years of the teacher*s experience should be regarded as a period of apprenticeship. (7)
Original certification should be Issued only upon
the recommendation of the teacher-training institution, but
154 the certification authority of the state should reserve the right to administer an examination to the applicant*
This
recommendation was based upon the belief that the currently large number of teacher education institutions has resulted in a high degree of 11shopping around” by teacher training students that has been aided and abetted by an unhealthy lack of uniformity in selection standards*
While it was
admitted that an examination alone would not constitute any accurate measure of teaching skills, Bowers suggested that a fIPre-entry into profession” examination would indicate subject matter knowledge and might well be required* i
(8 )
Permanent certificates should be granted to none
except those who have served a satisfactory period of pro fessional apprenticeship*
The life certificate, in the opin
ion of Bowers, should be reserved only for those who intend to make education their life work and who are willirg to continually stride to attain a high degree of professional qualification.
The length of service required for the granting
of permanent certification should be longer than the average number of years spent in the profession*
Weaknesses involved
in the issuance of life certificates may be observed in the failure of many states to see to it that the teacher continues to grow, and in those cases in which permanent certification allows an individual to use teaching as a ^fill-in” to fall
155 back on in event of failure in another line of work. (9)
Certification regulations should provide for free
movement of qualified teachers across state lines.
Bowers
staunchly favored inter-state reciprocity as a professional privilege for highly qualified teachers. (10)
Certification regulation should provide for a
thorough check into the applicant1s character, personality, and health at each certificating period.
Thorough and fre
quent checks of the teacher should be made, and the teacher who spreads propaganda or endangers the physical, mental, or moral health of pupils should be denied certification.99 A study of teacher certification procedures in the member states of the North
Central Association of Secondary
Schools and Colleges was reported in 1941.
Recommendations
governing this study were received from the National Educa tion Association Committee on Teacher Certification, the National Association of State Directors of Teacher Certifi cation, the Committee on Subject Matter Preparation of Sec ondary School Teachers of the North Central Association, the Certification Committee of the Southern Association of Sec ondary Schools and Colleges, the Teacher Education Division
99 H, J, Bowers, 11Ten Principles of Teacher Certifica tion,11 American School Board Journal, 96*41, 42, 92, June, 1958.
156 of the United States Office of Education, and representatives of the American Commission on Teacher Education, A series of six regional conferences was held in an effort to identify significant teacher certification problems, formulate general agreements, tentative solutions, and suggest next steps to he taken toward the improvement of teacher edu cation, certification, legislation, regulation, and administra tive procedures.
These conferences were held as follows!
Madison, Wisconsin, March 26 and 27, 1940, repre sentation from Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin. 2 * Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, April 22 and 23, 19^0> representation from Arizona, Arkansas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma,
3. Columbus , Ohio, May 13 and 14, 19^0* representa tion from Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and West Virginia. 4. Pierre, South Dakota, July 18 and 19, 1940, repre sentation from Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. 5* Lincoln, Nebraska, July 22 and 23, 1940, representa tion from Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. 6 * Chicago, Illinois, October 7* 1940, a final con ference of key representatives from each state was held for the purpose of analyzing information obtained through the previous regional conferences. Clarification of the responsi bilities of the various agents, agencies, and institutions with respect to teacher certification problems was sought with particular emphasis upon: general agreements, desirable next steps, needed legislation, appropriate certification regula tions, and desirable intra and inter-state certification procedures and practices.
The findings of this study were classified under the headings of general agreements and specific next steps were suggested as follows:
157 General agreements: 1. State legislative action should provide a certifi cation lav which establishes a single state teacher cer tificating agency with a broad grant of power. 2. In every state there should be a long-time planning or advisory committee to the state certificating agency. This advisory committee should cooperatively determine the criteria and administrative procedures for teacher certi fication. Adequate representation of the several types of state agencies employing officials, teacher education institutions, the organized profession, and the public should be included in the committee. ' j5. Teacher certification should be based upon feasi ble and defensible patterns appropriate and applicable to the functioning of teachers in the schools of the consti tuency. A. Teachers’ certificates should be limited in time and limited to well-defined areas (neither blanket nor by specific subjects); and should provide for a program of re-certification which encourages continuous growth of teachers in service. 5 . Plans for teacher reciprocity between states should be established by the single state agency; the procedures should be cooperatively determined and the recommendations should be made available to the state agencies. 6 . The teaching profession, states, teacher educating institutions, school systems, and the North Central Asso ciation should study and attempt the solution of teacher personnel problems, cooperatively and continuously, In the light of the needs of the constituency. Steps should be taken for the coordination of the activities of these groups.
Suggested specific steps: State agencies (officials, departments, boards, etc.,) There should be a single state certificating agency operating under a broad grant of power. This board should administer teacher education-certification on the follow ing bases; certification and teacher education laws, regu lations, standards, procedures, and administration should:
158
a. b, c*
d. e.
Reflect the long term co-operative thinking of those involved in the total problem; Encourage study and experimentation on the part of local school systems and teacher edu cating institutions; Encourage and require state and institutional research and planning with respect to recruit ment, guidance, and selection of candidates in relation to supply, demand, and related data; Continuously study and provide leadership and clearing house service with respect to personnel records, planning, etc.; Plan cooperatively for teacher reciprocity between states.
2. Teacher Education Institutions. institutions should: a. b.
3*
Teacher educating
Study, participate in, and contribute to the cooperative solution of state teacher educationcertification problems; and Cooperatively study, develop, and evaluate the respective Institutional teacher education pro grams in terms of the expressed needs of their constituency. Such problems as the following should be studied: (1) Supply, demand, and placement data; (2) New patterns of teacher education; (3) Recruitment-guidance-selection procedures.
Local School Systerns.
Individual school systems
should: a.
b.
c.
Cooperatively study, participate in, and con tribute to the solution of state and institutional problems relating to recruitment of candidates, ^pattern11 of teacher education at the pre service and in-service levels, and reciprocity; Cooperatively study, develop, and evaluate local programs in terms of needs.(democratic planning involving school personnel, students, parents, and other community members is suggested); and Study local procedures for placement, promotions, and in-service education; and provision for con tinuous growth and security of teachers.
Teachers . Teachers 1 Organizations and Groups. Teachers, teachers1 organizations and groups should: a.
Study, participate in, and contribute to the
159 b.
solution of state problems in teacher education-certificationj and Assist teacher educating institutions, school systems, state agencies, and teachers in planning, obtaining and evaluating laws, pro cedures, and standards, particularly for teachers in service, but also assist with the development of guidance-selection programs . * .60
In the interests of brevity, other recommendations per taining to the improvement of state teacher certification pro grams which were drawn from related literature are here present ed in condensed form: (1)
A state system of certification for public school /TI
service should be simple enough to be easily administered. (2)
Teachers in non-public schools should be required
to meet standards essentially equivalent to those required of public school teachers. (3)
The state should require continuous and effective
programs of in-service training requirements for teachers in practice.® The state, by means of a survey, should devise a plan whereby the certification of teachers may aid school
6° John R. Emens, A Teacher Certification Study,11 North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterley, 16:268, January, 1942. ® Benjamin W. Frazier, ^Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,n U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938. No . 12., p. 114. Benjamin ¥. Frazier, pp. cit., p. 29. 63 R. McDonald, 1,Call to Action for all Classroom Teachers,11 Arizona Teacher-Parent 5 6 :3 8 , December, 1947*
160 boards and superintendents of schools to eliminate efficiently and fairly those teachers holding tenure who are doing nothing more than "marking time.”^ (5)
Certification terminology should be simplified,^5
(6 )
Certification requirements must take into con
sideration the varying conditions under which schools are organized and maintained, (7 )
66
Certification rules and regulations should recog
nize approved travel, the production of materials, the writ ing of a book, diversified occupations, and public welfare work as evidence of growth as valid as the completion of three credits in a course totally unrelated to school exper ience,^ (8 )
There should be continuous study of teacher supply
and demand,^ (9 )
Tenure legislation and certification legislation
^ Harlan B, Allen, "Orgin, Development, and Evaluation of the General Policies and Practices Governing Teacher Cer tification in Hew York State,” (unpublished Master’s thesis, New York University, New York, 1939 )> P* 158, 65 Benjamin W, Frazier, pp. cit., p. 1M-5* 66 Ibid., p. 6 .
^
A. C. Grace, op, cit., p. 2 9 ,
^ J, R. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teach ers j Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Pro cedures,11 North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly, 15s2A2, January, 19^1,
161 should be in accord so not to defeat the common purposes of effective instruction.^9 (1 0 )
Certification of teachers should be state func
tion and should be centrally administered under a broad grant of powers.7° (11)
A yearly registration and validation should be
required of all teachers, regardless of the type of certifi cate held.7 1 (12)
Changes in certification requirements should
not be retroactive.72 (13)
Certification rules should be flexible.73
(14)
Changes in policies and practices in teacher
certification should be a cooperative enterprise involving the state department of education, administrative, super visory, and teacher organizations, employing officials, and teacher-preparing institutions.7^
m. Meyersohn, op. cit., p. 3 1 * 7° Elwood P. Cubberley, State School Administration. New Yorks Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927* p.. 680. 71 ibid., p. 6 8 0 . 7 2 Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 115* 73 e. M. Adams, #lNew Certification Proposals / 1 The Texas Outlook. 2 8 :5 8 , February, 19^4* 7^ Harlan B. Allen, pp. cit., p. 158.
162
(15)
Practice or apprentice teaching should he ex
tended and so supervised and administered to further guaran tee that teachers are adequately prepared for initial service in any public school of the state*75 (16)
State certification should not only protect the
state against incompetent teachers, but should also be uti lized as a positive force toward educational advancement.76 (1 7 )
State certification should take into account the
varyipg conditions under which schools are organized and main tained. 77 (18)
Certification regulations should provide for
professional improvement of teachers.78 (1 9 )
Certification should be utilized as a means for
improving classroom instruction.79 9
(20)
The development of an improved state program of
teacher certification should be accompanied by the development of related, coordinated and continuous programs for the imo provement of other teacher personnel practices. w
75 Ibid., p. 158. 7
Benjamin W. Frazier, op. eit., p. 6 .
77
E. 0, Brodie, ”A Study of Teacher Certification Texas,n (unpublished Doctor*s thesis, New York, N. Y., New York University, 1932), p. 30. 78 Ibid.. p. 55. 79 Ibid.. p. 55.
Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 7*
163 (2 1 )
The improvement of minimum certification standards 81 should be a continuous administrative responsibility. (2 2 )
Certification should be in terms of preparation
for a given phase of school service.
It should recognize
that special preparation is essential in some degree for each distinctive type of school service. (2 3 ).
Certification requirement^, other than those
expressing minimum or general standards, should be set by the state board of education rather than by statute.® (24)
Certification laws should be relatively brief.^
(2 5 )
Complete control over the administration of cer
tification, and over the issuance of certificates, should be in the hands of the state board of education and its profes sional staff.® (26)
Control over teacher certification and education
should be consolidated in the same division of the chief state education office.^ (2 7 )
®
Statewide cooperation of all individuals and
E. C. Brodie, pp. cit.» p. 32.
82 Ibid., p. 3 6 .
Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 146. 8J* Ibid.. p. 146. 3 Ibid.. p. 146.
86
Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 147*
164 agencies concerned with teacher certification should he obtained by the state department of education.^7 (28)
A professional staff with a reasonable degree
of security of tenure should be provided for the administra tion of state teacher certification and (2 9 )
e d u c a t i o n .
88
Teacher growth should be continuous; consequent
ly, the pre-service and in-service aspects of teacher educa tion should be regarded as important factors in teacher cer tification. ^9 (30)
Four years should be regarded as the minimum
period of training for all teachers.90 (31)
An effective method of supervision should be
devised so that the professional worth of teachers in ser vice may be more adequately evaluated.91 (j52)
The state board of education should advance the
pre-service requirements and adopt a policy of continuing in-service education for administrators and (33)
s u p e r v i s o r s .
92
The pattern for teacher certification should
include the recognition for a broad general education, pro-
8T Ibid., p. 147. 88 Ibid.. p. 147.
89
John H.
, Emens, op. cit.. p. 242.
90 Ibid., p. 243.
91 Harlan B. Allen, op> cit.. p. 158. 92 Ibid.. p. 158.
165 fessional training, and specialization.93 (54)
If the state is not able or -willing to adopt
an examination procedure on a merit-system basis for the development of an eligibility list, certification procedure should be liberalized and specific course requirements should be eliminated,94 (35)
Certification requirements should place more
emphasis upon thorough mastery of fundamental knowledge and less upon the possession of
d e g r e e s .
95
Types of certification: (3 6 ) The provisional certificate should be valid for q6 five years, (37)
Permanent certification, unrestricted as to in07
service professional growth, should be regarded as untenable, ‘ (38)
No more life certificates
should be
(39)
The bachelor*s degree should be the first pre
i s s u e d .
requisite for elementary teachers* l i c e n s e s .99
93 John R, Emens, op. cit.» p. 243* 94 « . Alonzo C, Grace, The Professional Preparation of School Personnel,” National Society for the Study of Education, 45th Yearbook, 1948, p. 182. 93 E. M. Adams, op>. cit., p. 5 8 . Harlan B. Allen, o£. cit., p. 138. 97 M. Meyersohn, op. cit., p. 31* 98 e. M. Adams, ojd. cit. , p. 5 8 . 99 ibid., p. 5 8 ,
166 (40)
The master1s degree should be the first require
ment for the high school certificate#100 (41)
A distinction between primary and intermediate
teaching on the elementary level should be made.101 (42)
Blanket high school certification should be
eliminated, and individual certificates for each subject taught in high school should be substituted.10*^ (45)
Administrator*s certificates should be based
on two years of college study beyond the bachelor*s degree and several years of teaching experience.10^5 (44)
In typical states, the number of different kinds
of certificates other than those differentiated by different kinds of educational service, should be reduced.10^ Recommendations pertaining to institutions: (45)
General education should be given greater
emphasis in certification requirements.10^ (46)
Completion of a required course should not make
a person eligible for teacher certification; success in a
1°° Ibid#, p. 58. 101 Ibid., p. 58. 102 Ibid.. p. 58. 103 Ibid., p. 58.
104
Benjamin W# Frazier, op. cit., p. 6.
10^ Harlan B. Allen, pp. pit., p. 158,
167 comprehensive examination should also be required *106 Reciprocity in certification: (47)
Certification rules and regulations should be
sufficiently flexible to permit teachers now in service to transfer to another area of school experience without los ing their teaching status. (48)
Plans for reciprocity in teacher certification
between states should be established by the state certifi cating agencies working in cooperation with each other. (4 9 )
Careful consideration should be given to cer
tification trends and patterns possessing current widespread support when changes and revisions are contemplated in a state teacher certification program. -*-09 II.
SELECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO THE CALIFORNIA STATE PROGRAM OF TEACHER CERTIFICATION In the early organization of this study, preliminary
106 ^
Adams, op, cit., p. 5 8 .
Benjamin W. Frazier, pp. cit., p. 39* 1OR John R. Emens, "Report of the Sub-Committee on Certification and Accrediting Agencies," North Central Asso ciation of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly, 17:383* April, 19^-3* John R* Emens, op. cit., p. 383*
168 interviews were conducted to discover the areas in which state, county, and local agencies were experiencing the greatest difficulties in the administration of teacher certification*
As, a result of these interviews, various
potential teacher certification practices were suggested by -the persons queried*
The potential practices proposed
were related to the general policies controlling the over all function of the California state program of teacher certification and were aimed at effecting broad changes in administrative policy.
The responses made to these proposals
are here presented. Definition of "credential" .
One of the first sug
gestions received decried the confusion which has arisen out of overlapping usage of various terms in the Education Code and in Title 5 of the Administrative Code.
The data
gathered concerning this proposal are listed in Table V. Employment of "credential", "certificate11, "life diploma", and "certification document" in such manner as to imply that they are terms of like and equal portent and may be substituted for each other whenever the need arises has tended to be misleading and to obscure the meaning of various sections (1 2 0 5 0 ,
12051)
of the Education Code and of the Admin-
169
TABLE
V
THE TERM "CREDENTIAL" SHOULD BE EMPLOYED IN THE EDUCATION CODE AND ADMINISTRATIVE CODE (TITLE 5) TO DESIGNATE ALL CERTIFICATION DOCUMENTS ISSUED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending c erti fi cati on
6
42.10
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
26.31
0
0
1
5*26
Local districts
3
15*73
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
0
0
1
5.26
17
89.47
2
10.52
Totals
0 - 0
170 istrative Code, Title 5* The need for clarifying action was further confirmed by seventeen (89*50 per cent) of twenty respondents who favored the elimination from the Education Code and Admin istrative Code, Title 5 9 of all terms other than "credential11 for reference to certification documents issued by the Calif ornia State Department of Education.
One respondent (5*26
per cent) opposed the recommendation and one (5*26 per cent) refused to declare an opinion concerning it. A representative of an office of a county superintend ent of schools suggested that since the term "credential” has been commonly used to refer to an individual1s papers of recommendation, training and work experience, a more satisfac tory arrangement might result if the term "certificate” were reserved for all reference to the teacher*s papers of cer tification, and county offices were required to employ some other term to designate the act of registration of such papers. Definition of "certificate” .
Although some California
offices of the county superintendent of schools maintained that the issuance of county certificates authorizing teaching services is still necessary, it is of interest to note that five of six such offices favored the suggestion that the term
171 "certificate" be employed in the Education Code and Adminis trative Code, Title 5> to designate the act of registering a credential with a county office and not in reference to any document which might or might not be issued by a county office, entitling the holder to serve as a teacher in the schools of t hat county. The implementation of this suggestion, was advocated by 89.50 per cent) of the respondents, seventeen of nineteen, while two declined to comment upon it* Response to this recommendation may also be inter preted as indicating substantial support for the contention that further issuance of county certificates is no longer necessary or desirable.
Data concerning this potential practice are
listed in Table VI. Elimination of "certification documents.”
As further
proof against continued duplication and misunderstanding, an additional suggestion was received which advocated dis continuance of further use of the term "certification doc uments" in the Education Code or in the Administrative Oode, Title 5. Approval of this proposal was stated by seventeen (89.50 per cent) of nineteen respondents, while two (10.57 per cent) declined to indicate either approval or disappro val of the measure.
Data are presented in Table VII.
172
TABLE
VI
IN VIEW OF RECENT TRENDS TO DISCONTINUE THE ISSUANCE OF COUNTY CERTIFICATES, THE TERM "CERTIFICATE" SHOULD BE EMPLOYED IN THE EDUCATION CODE AND ADMINISTRATIVE CODE (TITLE 5) ONLY TO DES' IGNATE THE ACT OF REGISTERING A CREDENTIAL WITH A COUNTY OFFICE AND NOT TO REFER TO A DOCUMENT WHICH MAY OR MAY NOT BE ISSUED BY A COUNTY OFFICE Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes frumPer ber cent
No Kumber
Per cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
36.34
0
0
1
5.26
Offices of the CountySuper intendent of Schools
5
26.31
1
5.26
0
0
Local districts
3
15.73
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
17
89.47
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
173
TABLE VII BECAUSE OF THE CONFUSION AND DUPLICATION ARISING FROM THE ALLINCLUSIVE USE OF THE TERM "CERTIFICATION DOCUMENTS" IN THE EDUCATION CODE AND ADMINISTRATIVE CODE (TITLE 5), FURTHER USE OF THE TERM "CERTIFICATION DOCUMENTS" SHOULD BE DISCONTINUED Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Number
Per cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Num £er ber cent
Institutions recommending certi fi cation
7
36.8k
0
0
1
5.26
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
5
26.31
0
0
1
5.26
Local districts
3
15.73
0
0
0
0
Stab© offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
17
89.47
0
0
2
Totals
10.52
17^ The establishment of more regional certification of fices.
Heed for additional points of application for cer
tification throughout California was described by fifteen of twenty respondents, see Table VIII. The difficulties encountered in securing assistance for the development of original applications for credentials, it was declared, often have assumed the proportions of real hardship for many persons.
Long trips for examinations,
numerous pieces of correspondence, much delay and expense frequently have been suffered by applicants for teacher certification before complete applications were filed.
The
obvious expense incurred by the state, in such Instances, has been evident. The greatest bulk of cpposition to this recommendation came from offices of county superintendents of schools (20 per cent), evincing fear of encroachment upon areas of service already established.
Two respondents from county offices,
however, admitted that county offices might well
provide
even greater assistance to the applicant for certification. A teacher education institution respondent declared that lfpore could be done to train teachers properly in ex ecuting certification application forms in teacher institute meetings.f! Maintenance of ^Active-Inactive11 certification status
175
TABLE
VIII
THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SHOULD ESTABLISH REGIONAL -OFFICES TO PROVIDE THE SERVICES OF CERTIFICATION TECHNICIANS TO ASSIST APPLICANTS IN PROCESSING APPLICATIONS FOR CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— 20}
Yes Number
Per cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
35
1
5
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
3
15
4
20
0
0
Local districts
3
15
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10
0
0
0
0
15
75
5
25
0
0
Totals
176 records.
Widespread opinion that current state certification
records were inadequate to current service and planning needs of the California certification program was expressed by numerous respondents.
General agreement existed among those
interviewed that there was great need for more complete and up-to-date certification data, but fundamental disagreement developed when proposed methods for obtaining these data were discussed. Ten of twenty respondents (50 pe** cent) favored the suggestion that the Commission of Credentials should main tain these records.
Eight persons (40 per cent) opposed
the proposal while two (10 per cent) declined to reveal an opinion on the issue. Agreeing that records of active-inactive status of all teachers holding Life Diplomas should be maintained, one person representing a teacher education institution expressed the belief that the development of organization necessary to handle all desired certification data might prove to be so bulky and complex as to make theproposal impracticable.
Another teacher education institution
spokesman declared that the willingness of the state to provide adequate staff and facilities to carry on the pro ject would obviously be the deciding factor in effecting its implementation. in Table IX.
Data concerning this proposal are listed
177
TABLE
IX
THE COMMISSION OF CREDENTIALS SHOULD MAINTAIN RECORDS’ OF THE "ACTIVE-INACTIVE" STATUS OF ALL PERSONS HOLDING CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Per dum ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
6
30
1
5
1
5
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
1
5
5
25
1
5
Local districts
2
10
1
5
0
0
State offices
1
5
1
5
0
0
10
50
3
40
2
10
Totals
178 A county superintendents office recommended that some way of coordinating and exchanging needed data should toe de vised "between the California Teachers* Retirement System and the Commission of. Credentials.
He proposed that dup
licate distribution of the reports issued by the county offices to the retirement systems toe studied as possible means of bringing about the desired exchange of information. A respondent from a state office agreed that 11the idea would be good, if it could be done11 but expressed doubt as to the likelihood of its being placed in effect. Estimate the number of teachers to be needed.
The
effects of over and under supply of properly prepared teachers for the children in California schools prompted a proposal that the California State Department of Education should make the arrangements necessary to anticipate such fluctuating needs.
Such information, it was declared, has been urgently
needed by teacher education institutions within the state, and would be of great value to prospective teachers in deter mining which areas of teaching were in greatest need of qual ified instructors. Fifteen of twenty persons interviewed (75 per cent) agreed that such a proposal should be placed in force.
Three
respondents (15 per cent) opposed the recommendation and two (10 per cent) refused to state an opinion.
179 It is interesting to note that all of the teacher education institutions queried favored this proposition, while the majority of the opposition expressed against it originated in the offices of county superintendents of schools* One teacher education institution respondent reminded the writer that the state used to provide this teacher supply and demand information*
Another respondent declared that
serious problems might be encountered in securing adequate staff and facilities to carry out this proposal, A spokesman from a county office urged that "Forecasts of future needs should be estimated in periods of five or ten years,"
A respondent from a state office recommended
that this suggestion "should be put into force in the near future if possible,11 Data relating to this potential prac tice are presented in the Table X, Lists of potential substitutes for county offices, Early in the development of the Interview Guide1^0 a sug gestion was received to the effect that compilation of teacher certification data would make it possible for the Commission of Credentials to provide each county superintend ent of schools with a "potential substitute" list by November 1 of each school year.
This list would disclose the name,
See Appendix, pp. 407-15 *
TABLE
X
THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SHOULD MAINTAIN RECORDS NECESSARY TO ESTIMATE THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS BY TYPE OF CREDENTIAL THAT WILL LIKELY BE NEEDED IN CALIFORNIA FOR EACH COMING SCHOOL YEAR Respondents {Total number— 20)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certificati on
a
40
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
4
20
2
10
1
5
Local districts
2
10
1
5
0
0
State offices
1
5
0
0
1
5
3
15
2
10
Total
15 .
75 I
181 address, and type of credential held by each person possess ing a credential, but not teaching, who resides in each county.
It was argued that possession of this information
would be of great value and assistance to county offices in locating and providing needed substitute teachers.
Data
concerning this proposal are presented in fable XI. Eleven of twenty respondents (55 per cent) opposed this suggestion primarily on the grounds of impracticability and the desirability of employing as substitutes only those persons interested in education enough to make known their qualifications and actively seek employment.
Six respondents
(30 per cent) favored the proposal while three (15 per cent) declined to state opinions concerning it. Two representatives of institutions recommending teacher certification believed that such an arrangement might be desirable if it could be organized to function in a rela tively simple and effective manner. Designation of physicians and surgeons to conduct Health Certificate examinations.
Numerous instances of report
ed carelessness and lack of interest displayed by physicians and surgeons in the execution of the Health Certificate exam inations have led many persons closely associated with teacher certification practices in
California to believe that drastic
steps should be taken to strengthen existing regulations and
132
TABLE
XI
THE COMMISSION OF CREDENTIALS SHOULD PROVIDE EACH OFFICE OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS WITH A "POTENTIAL SUBSTITUTE" LIST BY NOVEMBER 1 OF EACH YEAR GIVING THE NAME, ADDRESS, AND TYPE OF CREDENTIAL HELD BY EACH PERSON POSSESSING A CREDENTIAL, BUT NOT TEACHING, WHO RESIDES WITHIN THAT COUNTY Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Number
Na Per cent
Numb er
Per c ent
Decline to state ^um Per ber cent
Institutions r eco mmendi ng certification
2
10
5
25
1
5
Offices of the CountySuper intend ent of Schools
1
5
5
25
1
5
Local districts
2
10
1
5
0
0
State offices
1
5
0
0
1
5
Totals
6
30
11
55
3
15
prevent further abuse.
Although there was wide agreement
among those persons interviewed that something should be done, difficulty was experienced in obtaining accord as to the nature of the action to be instigated. A spokesman for the office of a county superintendent of schools described a situation in which a family doctor, upon receipt of a health certificate examination form through the mail, proceeded to conduct the examination of a candidate for teacher certification over the telephone. One teacher education institution respondent opposed this suggested measure on the grounds that such an arrange ment might make examinations unduly expensive for many appli cants living in rural areas♦ Ten of twenty respondents (50 per cent) favored the proposal, while seven (35
cent) opposed it and three
(15 per cent) declined to take positions on the issue.
Data
concerning this potential practice are listed in Table XII. The establishment of regional offices to provide health certificate examination service.
Another proposal to strength
en existing regulations concerning health certificate examina tions of applicants for teacher certification was made in the form of a suggestion that the California State Department of Education should establish regional offices throughout the state to provide health certificate examination services.
184
TABLE
XII
THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SHOULD DESIGNATE PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS TO WHOM ALL APPLICANTS FOR CREDENTIALS SHALL BE REQUIRED TO REPORT FOR THE HEALTH CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Number
No Per c ent
Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certificati on
7
35
1
5
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
2
10
3
15
2
10
Local district
0
0
3
15
0
0
State offices
1
5
0
0
1
5
10
50
7
35
3
15
Totals
185 Such organization, proponents of the measure asserted, would tend to standardize health certificate examinations, eliminate further abuses, and result in substantial gains in the protection of California’s children through the achievement of higher standards of teacher health. Opposition (72.20 per cent) to this recommendation was primarily based on the belief that the action proposed was extreme in nature and that the goals sought could be achieved with greater facility and ease through other lines of action. One respondent declared that the establishment of such reg ional offices was ,!entirely unnecessary*n
Another respondent
warned that much opposition to this proposal could be expected from California medical organizations.
A spokesman from a
county superintendent’s office suggested that such a plan might Impose undue hardships upon teachers in outlying areas of the state. suggestion.
Five respondents {27*77 per cent) favored the Data are presented In Table XIII. III.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature.
The related literature reviewed in
this chapter is summarized as follows:. 1.
A state’s program of teacher certification is a
means of implementing that state’s philosophy of education. 2.
State certification regulations tend to become
136
TABLE
XIII
THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SHOULD ESTABLISH REGIONAL OFFICES TO PROVIDE HEALTH CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION SERVICES Respondents (Total number— 1&)
Yes Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
0
Local districts
2
State offices Totals
No dum ber
Per cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
6
33.33
0
0
5
27.77
0
0
11.11
1
5.55
0
0
1
5.55
1
5.55
0
0
5
27.77
13
72.22
0
0
11.11
0
18? complex and restrictive in nature. 3*
It is not likely that the goals of teacher certi
fication can ever be fully achieved as long as certification requirements are influenced by the available supply of teachers. 4.
Difficulties commonly experienced in the administra
tion of state programs of teacher certification generally arise from inadequate coordination of the education of teachers and state certification practices. 5.
The basic purpose of certification is to protect
the children of the state against poor teachers and to bring about continued improvement in instruction. 6.
The principle that education is a state function
is basic to a state program of teacher certification. 7.
Greater experimentation and less rigidity are needed
if progress in state certification practices is to be achieved. 8.
Certification aspects pertaining to teacher selec
tion, accreditation, employment, and in-service training need strengthening through the provision of more complete and accurate guidance services. 9.
The state1s responsibility for providing efficient
teachers cannot be confined to the teacher1s pre-service period of training. 10.
Effective state programs of teacher certification
attain the highest possible degree of initial preparation and continued professional growth of the teacher.
188 11.
The effective state program of teacher certification
succeeds in guiding those persons who give the greatest promise of ‘ being successful teachers into teaching. 12.
Minimum certification standards represent a prob
lem of vital importance in the state program of teacher certification. 13«
Teacher certification is related more or less
directly to all phases of a state1s program of education. 14.
Control of the issuance of certification is a
matter of primary importance to a state certification program. 15*
The effectiveness of teacher certification in a
state depends in a large part upon the accuracy with which the applicant’s possession of those qualifications which tend to insure competent instruction can be measured. 16.
A state’s certification regulations require constant
evaluation and revision. 17*
Numerous new state certification programs have been
developed through attempts to bring about continued improve ment in effective instruction. 18.
The duty of determing f,the pattern of the good
teacher11 cannot rightfully be evaded by the state. 19*
A well constructed program of state certification
will maintain a proper balance between teacher training, pay, and supply. 20.
The correctly planned certification law is one
189 which grants broad general authority and does not prevent flexibility in administration through the existence of restrictive legal detail. 21.
A single state certification agency appears to be
the most desirable means of delegating state certification authority. 22.
The teacher*s certificate is generally regarded
as legal evidence of his fitness to teach. 23*
The courts have generally been reluctant to inter
fere in the administration of teacher certification by state departments of education. 24,
It is commonly conceded that state legislatures
possess the final authority in all matters pertaining to teacher certification, 25*
Carefully developed recommendations have been made
for the improvement of state programs of teacher certification by authorities and experts in education who have been study ing and seeking solutions to problems in state certification practice for many years. Selected potential practices relating to the Calif ornia state program of teacher'certification. sented in this chapter serve
The data pre
to justify the following con
clusions : 1,
Use of the term ,fcredential” in the Education Code
190 and the Administrative Code, Title 5, to designate all cer tification documents issued by the California State Depart ment of Education is advocated by many California educators. 2.
Considerable support exists in California to the
end that the term ^certificate” should be employed only to indicate the act of registering a credential with a county office and not to refer to a document which may or may not be issued by a'county office. 3.
It is widely believed that elimination of the
term ^certification documents11 from the Education Code and from the Administration Code, Title 5, would do much to dispel confusion and duplication arising from its use. If.
There is considerable belief that the California
State Department of Education should establish regional offices to provide the services of certification technicians to assist applicants in processing applications for creden tials. 5#
Widespread opinion exists favoring the maintenance
of Iractive-Inactiven status records of all holders of teacher certification in California. 6.
Fifteen of twenty respondents (75 P©** cent) advo\
cated the collection of data adequate to estimate the number of teachers by type of credential that will likely be needed in California for each coming school year.
191 7.
There is little support for the -provision of a
yearly "potential substitute" list for each county superin tendent of schools. 8,
Agreement is general that existing regulations
controlling health certificate examinations for teacher certification in California are frequently circumvented through the carelessness and lack of interest of examining physicians and surgeons,
A high degree of disagreement
exists as to the steps which should be taken to prevent these abuses. Potential certification practices requiring further study.
The potential practices here discussed were proposed
by various respondents during the completion of the inter views, and could not be submitted for the consideration of all persons participating in the study,
It is the writer*s
opinion that many of these recommendations are of first-rate importance and might well serve as subjects for further ex tended study, 1.
They are listed as follows2
Periodic in-service meetings should be held for
state credential technicians to clarify state certification policy and permit the establishment of procedure designed to meet and solve certification problems. 2,
A policy manual should be developed by the
Commission of Credentials to standardize and facilitate
192
transcript evaluation procedures by state credential tech nicians . 3.
State trained credential technicians should be
periodically assigned to offices of the county superintendent of schools to assist in processing applications for creden tials and to aid in training county workers in application procedures* 4.
The California State Department of Education should
establish a Research Division to provide the data needed for further improvement of education in California* 5.
Special arrangements should be made to provide
more workers for the Cbmmission of Credentials when peak demands for issuance of certification are encountered* 6.
Careful study should be made of the possibility
of reducing the work load of the Commission of Credentials by extending the periods of validity of various credentials* 7*
California teacher education institutions should
be required to present programs of teacher education in conformance with a statewide course of study controlling such training.
(Note:
The respondent offering this sugges
tion contended that such a course of study could be expected to produce the following effects:
(a)
It would result in
better trained teachers, (b) It would provide greater articu lation in scope and sequence of the curriculum in public schools, (c) It would tend to reduce the conflicts generated
193 by-variation and deviation of California teacher education institutions from the desired program of teacher education, (d) It -would provide a more consistent.framework of education from kindergarten through junior college, and (e) It would not result in restriction of further worthwhile experimen tation by teacher education institutions*) 8*
Approval of high school programs should be made
only by the California State Department of Education and not by any one teacher education institution*
(Note:
The res
pondent making this suggestion maintained that such action in past years has placed undue emphasis upon the satisfaction of entrance requirements to California teacher education institutions, thereby indirectly influencing teacher accredi tation*
Unsound entrance requirements, he declared, have
resulted in the loss of many promising prospective teachers, and in the skewing of high school programs in certain un desirable directions*) 9#
Greater protection should be provided students
against unstable, 11fly-by-night” institutions offering courses for teacher certification* 10.
Nursery schools, child care centers, and private
schools in California should be required to employ state certificated teachers * 11.
The California Retirement System should issue cards
showing the holder*s annuity rate, account number, and type of
19^ credential, 12,
Arrangements should be made to achieve more
efficient inter-departmental use of data and information collected by the Retirement System and the Commission of Credentials,
CHAPTER X TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
It must be pointed out again, however, that college degrees do not make teachers. They only make better teachers out of those people who have the intelligence and personality necessary for success • • The importance of achieving the highest degree of cooperation between the state department of education and the teacher education institutions within the state has tended to become self-evident.
The validity of this point of view
has been recognized by various authorities in the field. Klonower declared that: State departments of public instruction alone cannot be counted on to protect the standards . . . The desirable results can never be accomplished without complete cooperation of the administrative officers in the accredited colleges and universities • . • Proper administration of teacher certification, Klonower continued, has required the establishment of a state adminis trative division responsible for teacher
education.^
1 D. M. Blyler, "Certification of Elementary School Teachers in the United States," Elementary School Journal. ^5s589, June, 19^5* 0
H. Klonower, "Fundamentals of an American Teacher Education Program--Cooperation and Coordination," American Education Research Association. 3*55159» February 23, 1937♦ 3 Ibid., p. l6l.
196 The difficulties experienced in most states in the administration of teacher certification seem to have arisen largely from inadequate coordination of teacher certification practices with other state teaeher-personnel activities, notably the education of teachers.
h
Frazier has recommended that: The state department of education should be given authority and staff sufficient to enable it to develop and maintain a unified and effective program of teacher education and certification. This program should pro vide for the continuous counsel of recognized teachereducation institutions in the prescription of the more significant scholastic and professional requirements set forth in certification regulations • • Frazier also contended that unity of effort in the work of certification and of teacher education officers is essential if a state program of certification is to be effective. described two types of unity of effort as follows:
He
(a) unity
attained through voluntary cooperative action of the authori ties respectively concerned with each of these functions, and (b) unity secured through direct administrative control of both certification and teacher preparation by one centralized state agency.
Therefore, he argued, the type of unity of effort
which is likely to be most effective will depend largely upon the general organization of teacher education and certification
^ Benjamin W. Frazier, development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,” U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1936. No. 12, p. 137 5 Ibid. . p. 137.
197 within the given state.
6
The status of the training institution.
Grace contended
that the training institution should he assigned the function of certifying to the licensing agency, which is the state de partment of education, its judgment of the candidates with respect to the following areas:
(l) professional training,
(2) personal fitness, and (3) scholarship.
Unfortunately, no
rules or regulations have heen developed at present that are capable of detecting the presence or absence of these three fundamental elements in the development of a teacher.
However,
Grace has suggested that instead of basing certification upon the completion of specified course requirements, certain criteria relating to the basic factors listed above should be agreed to as the basis for approval of the training program of a particular institution.^ Relation of teacher education institutions in certifi cation.
The preparation, the certification, and the employment
of teachers were regarded as dependent upon each other, and, Q
therefore, in need of adjustment to each other by Regier. Benjamin ¥. Frazier, flState Certification Requirements as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards,11 American Association of Teachers Colleges— Yearbook. 13~15:33» 1936. ^ A. G. Grace, "Teacher Certification— A Problem in Teacher Education,*1 Education Record. 23:27, January, 19^2. p
A. J. Regier, **A Study of the Functioning of the Teacher Certification Laws and Regulations in Kansas, 1933#” (unpublished Doctor*s thesis, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, 1935)# P*
Frazier listed the following relationships of teacher education institutions to certifications 1. Certification requirements have been determined to a very large extent by the supply of teachers and the nature of the education given them by teachereducation institutions. 2* Institutional curricula and courses and enroll ments of prospective teachers are effected in turn by certification requirements• 3* Close coordination of teacher education and certification requirements is highly desirable In an effective program of teacher recruitment, education, and placement* 4. The trend toward centralization of certification in the state board or department of education has been accompanied by a less marked trend toward state control of teacher education* 5* The typical state board or department of education does not exercise effective control over all the teacher education Institution in the state because of: a* Lack of centralized control, and b. Lack of coordination of the work of the different teacher education institutions by the institutions themselves* 6. The balance of teacher supply and teacher demand is periodically upset* Relatively few states have made any real headway In the regulation and control of the supply of prospective teachers turned out by the teacher educa tIon Ins ti tut ions •9 Kyte pointed out that in most universities, the state requirements have been based upon the minimum standards for certification prescribed by the state departments of education* To these minima, universities sometimes have added other pre scriptions which their faculties have believed to be essential
9 Benjamin W. Frazier, on * cit* . pp. 152-4.
199 to proficiency in the specialized professional work chosen hy the student. 10 Frazier warned that certification solely on the basis of institution credit may be questioned, in view of the wide variety of requirements maintained by American institutions of higher learning for graduation.11 Evaluation of the probationary teacher♦
Frick suggested
that evaluation of probationary teachers for higher grades of certification should be accomplished by properly trained and accredited persons under the supervision and direction of the state director of teacher education and certification*
This
evaluation should be based upon more evidence than casual ob servation of the teacher at work in the classroom.
Numerous
sources of information including the teacher1s colleagues, superintendent, principal, supervisors, special evaluators, etc., should be developed.3-2 Supply and demand and certification.
Certification
requirements alone do not sufficiently serve to regulate the
George C. Kyte, "Tendencies in the Educational Re quirements for Teaching Certificates in Universities," Educa tional Administration and Supervision. 25>:6o8, November, 1939* 11 Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit., p. 3 7 . 12
H. h. Frick, "A Proposed Plan for the Certificati of Teachers in South Carolina,*1 Report of the Investigation of Educational qualifications of Teachers in South Carolina, University of South Carolina, Columbia, 19h4,
200 supply of teachers declared
Frazier.
^
g?hey have not been
alone at fault in producing a maladjustment of supply and de mand for teachers.
The teacher education institution must
assume a large share of the responsibility for turning out more teachers than the school market can absorb.
Large num
bers of teacher education institutions have offered low levels of teacher preparation which have tended to perpetuate low certification requirements and pour forth a flood of inade quately trained teachers. Criticism of teacher education institutions.
The
inability of financially handicapped institutions to provide satisfactory teacher education programs has led Klonower to suggest that such schools be held to rigid standards or be prevented from undertaking teacher training.
He also declared
that since the teacherfs certificate is merely a symbol of education, personality, and character, teacher education institutions must present accurate programs of selective ad mission which emphasize general scholarship, character, per sonality, health, and physical vigor Frazier charged that most institutions have not limited
^3 Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit.. p. 136. 14 Ibid. . pp. 3^-35• ^-5 h. Klonower, op. cit. . pp. 158-159.
201 their enrollment on a highly selective basis , and it has been vitally necessary for each state to establish its own list of institutions approved for teacher education. Many teacher education institutions have failed to be honest with their own students or with other institutions similarly engaged, according to McCracken.
He also cited
instances in which institutions have attempted to dodge issues arising from trends toward higher certification standards.^'7 Gwen charged that the directed teaching supervisors of teacher preparation institutions often have failed to eliminate unqualified candidates.
Even though the supervisor has known
that certain students should be failed he has not made the move to eliminate them because 11other instructors have let them get so far.” cisms:
Owen has also listed the following criti
(a) institutions often allow teacher candidates to
secure perfunctory certificates of good health from family physicians, (b) faculty members who are not closely acquainted with candidates give innaccurate ratings of moral character and personality, and (c) once the candidate has obtained the requisite distribution of semester hours and met the basic requirements, there is no legal means of preventing
Benjamin ¥. Frazier, op. cit., p. 136. Charles C. McCracken, 11Is Your College Concerned?” Christian Education. 25:58* October, 19^1»
202 certification.1^ Grace held that until the training institutions them selves are willing to think in terms of the competency of the product rather than in terms of the number trained, and until universities and colleges are willing to support departments of education financially, certain difficult problems are likely to continue to plague teacher education institutions Recommendations *
Frazier declared that much greater
efforts should be made by teacher-education institutions to determine the qualifications essential to the suceess of teachers; to develop more homogeneous teacher-education pro grams; and to provide effective means whereby state certifi cation officers may distinguish institutions within or without the state, that are worthy of state approval for teacher education. be taken:
He also suggested that the following steps should (a) each state teacher-education and certification
office, in cooperation with recognized teacher-education in stitutions, should formulate definite standards governing teacher-education within the state, (b) certification require ments should be based primarily upon a foundation of preparation
R. A* Owen, "State Control Over Teacher Supply,” National Elementary Principal * 17 :5 1 , October, 1937* ^ a . C. Grace, "Teacher-Certification— A Problem in Teacher Education,” Education Record. 23:25, January, 1942*
In approved teacher-education institutions, (c) the state teacher-education and certification office should he given authority to develop and maintain a unified and effective program of teacher education and certification based upon cooperative action of the state department of education and the teache r- edue a tion Institutions within the state, (d) certification requirements should be raised as rapidly as the existing supply of properly accredited teachers will permit, and (e) certification requirements should be based upon the deter mination of the qualifications essential to teaching success *20 Frick recommended that special preparations should be made to Insure the holding of advisement conferences for plan ning the teacher candidate fs program with the head of the teacher-education institution not later than the first semester of the sophomore year for four-year students, and not later than the beginning of the second semester of the freshman year for the two-year students.
He also suggested that the evalua
tion of the candidatefs personal, professional qualities, and scholarship achievements should bear the official stamp of the Institution, rather than the mere signature of a staff member of the college.2^-
Benjamin W. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," U.S. Department of the In terior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938, N o . 1 2 a pp* 137*
15^ - 5 *
204 Since certification rules and regulations cannot de termine such matters as personality or teaching competency, Grace declared, the first requirement for certification should be the presentation of the recommendation of the institution in which the candidate was trained.22 In 1940, a regional conference of the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges recommended that minimum certification regulations should be so prepared and administered that they would encourage experimentation with varying types of teacher education programs on the part of institutions and in-service employers.23 II.
SELECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO TEACHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS RECOMMENDING TEACHER CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA The importance of the teacher education institution in the state structure of certification was clearly recognized by all respondents#
Some believed that California teacher
education institutions have contributed in varying degrees to the current success or failure of the state certification
22 A. C. Grace, op. cit., pp. 23-24. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teachers: Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Procedures ,fl North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 1 5 :242, January, 1941.
205 program*
Suggestions, in the main, were aimed at placing
California teacher education institutions in a better position to discharge certification functions in a more effective and satisfactory manner* Institution recommendations and minimum state require ments *
Some respondents maintained that current provisions
permitting the institution to demand the satisfaction of special requirements in addition to the minima established by the state have not achieved the objectives desired of such anticipated experimentation.
Instead of producing more highly
skilled teachers, so these respondents contended, a wide degree of confusion has ensued, unwholesome attitudes of competition and criticism have risen up among various institutions, and the candidate for certification, becoming increasingly cynical and suspicious of institutional requirements for recommendation, has openly "shopped around” in an effort to find out which institution
would give him the "best bargain” toward speedy
acquisition of a teacher*s credential* Elimination of such undesirable conditions was the admitted goal of a proposed practice that would preclude the levying of extra requirements for an institution^ recommen dation and subject all applications processed by accredited teacher education institutions to the minimum credential re quirements established by the California State Department of Education*
Note the data presented in Table XIV*
206
TABLE
XIV
ALL APPLICATIONS PROCESSED BY ACCREDITED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS SHOULD BE SUBJECT ONLY TO THE CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS ESTABLISHED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Respondents (Total number— 1&)
Yes lum Per ber cent
Institutions reeommending certification
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
k
Local districts
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
a
if4* 44-
0
0
22*22
i
5.55
0
0
1
5.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
0
0
i
5.55
1
5.55
Totals
5
12
66.66
1
5.55
0
27.77
207 Twelve of eighteen respondents (66*65 P©** cent) opposed this proposal, contending that such provisions would unduly stifle and restrict the institution in its search for improved programs of preparation for the teacher.
Five respondents
(27.77 per cent) approved the suggestion, and one interviewee (5*55 per cent) declined to indicate a position concerning it. Publication of minimum state requirements for creden tials in teacher education institution catalogues and bulletins. Numerous instances were cited by respondents involving the permissive ^hoodwinking” of students into talcing extra courses beyond the state minimum requirements for a given credential. In such cases, it has been charged that many of the students so concerned had not been informed of the lesser requirements maintained by the state for applications made without institu tional recommendation directly to the Division of Credentials. Situations were described in which teacher candidates, mis guided by faculty advisors, had found it impossible to complete the program required for qualification for the institutionfs recommendation, and had been forced by family hardship and deprivation to drop entirely out of the teacher education program. Data concerning this proposal are presented in tabular form in Table XV. In such instances, respondents declared, the student
TABLE
XV
THE REQUIREMENTS ESTABLISHED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPART* MENT OF EDUCATION FOR CREDENTIALS SHOULD BE PRINTED IN THE CATALOGUES AND BULLETINS DESCRIBING THE TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ISSUED BY ALL ACCREDITED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Respondents (Total number— 1&)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state . Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
2
11.11
k
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
5
27.77
0
0
0
0
Local districts
2
11.11
1
5.55
0
0
State offices
0
1
5.55
1
5.55
Totals
9
6
33.33
3
16.66
0 49.99
22.22
2
11.11
209 might well have satisfied the minimum state requirements for the credential sought had he been properly informed and his program so planned*
The person making this suggestion declared
that additional institution requirements should he justified on the basis of the achievement of superior teaching skills demonstrated by students completing recommended institution programs, rather than upon vague generalizations and unfounded predictions of future teaching success*
Increased familiarity
by the student with state certification requirements and pro cedures, he contended, would be highly desirable and would contribute much to protecting students against unethical institutional practices. Fifty per cent of the respondents (nine of eighteen) favored this proposal, while six (33*33 P©** cent) opposed it, and three (16.67 per cent) refused to express opinions con cerning it. One respondent ascribed some of the existing lack of clarity in certification requirements to interchangeable use of the term “units” by institutions and the term “semester hours” by the Education Code.
He urged that the terms be
defined and their use standardized in state and institution publ ica tions * More accurate selection of candidates for certification by teacher education institutions♦
The difficulties involved
210 In establishing objective criteria for the selection and qualification of candidates for teacher certification by teacher education institutions were admittedly great.
How
ever, many educators have held the opinion that the institu tion can do much more than it has done to guarantee the realization of a higher degree of success in the selection of those persons most likely to develop high qualities of teaching skill, with proper training. The expenditure of more time and care by faculty personnel committees in the screening of candidates for cer tification was urged by many responding to the recommendation here proposed.
It was generally felt that current demands
upon the time and energy of staff members of teacher education departments of institutions recommending certification have been so great as to prevent careful, meticulous qualification of candidates for teaching credentials.
Data relating to
this proposed practice are listed in Table XVI. This proposal received near -unanimous approval; nine teen of twenty (95 per cent) respondents advocated its imple mentation.
One respondent indicated opposition to the
re commenda tion• Actual directed teaching experience— a preliminary requirement.
Aimed at providing a sampling of the genuine
ness of professed student intent and interest in qualifying for participation in education as a teacher, this proposal
211
TABLE
XVI
THE TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS SHOULD INSTITUTE MORE DISCIMINATING MEANS OF SELECTING CANDIDATES FOR TEACHER CERTIFICATION Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No i^er Num ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions r ecomm endi ng certification
3
40
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
30
1
5
0
0
Local di stricts
3
15
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10
0
0
0
0
19
95
1
0
0
Totals
5
212 suggested actual teaching experience for the candidate teacher as a basic screening procedure prerequisite to admittance to the teacher education program of any institution.
The persons
initiating this recommendation predicted that such exposure of the would-be teacher to the varying viscissitudes of the actual teaching situation as a first step in his teacher edu cation experience, might accomplish the worthy purpose of discouraging those who were faint-hearted and luke-warm in their desire to enter education.
Note Table XVII for data
concerning this proposed potential practice. The difficulties encountered and the failure experienced by teacher education institutions in eliminating candidates for teacher certification in the last stages of the teacher preparation program were well known to all respondents queried concerning this proposal.
It was generally agreed that Cali
fornia institutions of higher learning have permitted too many persons to attain the requirements for certification knowing and admitting that these persons would, in all likelihood, never be able to perform the duties of a teacher in other than a perfunctory, uninspired, and ineffective manner.
Institutions
so involved have tended to justify their actions by the feeble hope that employers would recognize the manifest lack of skilland inability of these persons and refuse to give them employ ment.
-It seems to have been evident that such a hope has not
been realized and many very poorly qualified teachers have
213
TABLE
XVII
ACTUAL DIRECTED TEACHING EXPERIENCE IN THE CLASSROOM SHOULD BE ONE OF THE PRELIMINARY REQUIREMENTS OF ALL TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMS AS A MEANS OF ELIMINATING PERSONS NOT ADAPTED TO TEACHING BEFORE THEY INVEST A LARGE AMOUNT OF WORK, TRAINING, TIME, AND MONEY PRE PARING FOR WORK FOR WHICH THEY ARE NOT SUITED Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num £er ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certi ficati on
1
5
5
25
2
10
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
4
20
1
5
2
10
Local districts
2
10
1
5
0
0
State offices
1
5
0
0
1
5
Totals
6
40
7
35
5
25
214 gained entrance to classrooms In California public schools only to the detriment and deprivation of their pupils. Although opposition to this suggestion reached great verbal heights, it is interesting to note that eight of twenty respondents (40 per cent) favored it, seven (35 per cent) opposed it, and five interviewees (25 per cent) declined to render opinions concerning it.
Such division of response
may be taken to indicate the existence of widespread feeling of real need for further constructive study and action in this area. It has been generally held that the children partici pating in such a proposed arrangement might well suffer certain harmful effects against which they should be protected.
One
respondent representing a teacher education institution de clared, "Student teachers should not be turned loose in a class room prior to teacher training I*1 Another suggested that 11It would be better to use informal group contacts with children in youth groups to serve this purpose.” A county office respondent maintained that elimination of the teacher should come only after he had been proved to be ineffective and incompetent in actual teaching experience. Teacher education instltutions and advisory evaluating committees.
The charge that teacher education institutions
often fail to adequately prepare the new teacher for the
215 practical problems encountered in every-day teaching frequently has been heard*
It commonly has been declared that teacher
education institutions often have become too theoretical in organizing teacher training programs and have failed to pro vide the new teacher with "down-to-earth*1 experiences that would properly prepare him to meet and satisfactorily solve the problem situations awaiting him in the classroom*
The
new teacher, it has been maintained, often has been prepared to render services for which there was no current demand or es tablished need, and, as a result of this misdirected training, the prevailing educational needs, unique and varied as they frequently have been, of communities and particular geographic and industrial areas ofttimes have been ignored. A potential practice (see Table XVIII) proposed that each accredited teacher institution be encouraged to overcome these charges of impracticality through the establishment of advisory committees for the purpose of making recommendations for the improvement of the teacher education program. This proposal was supported by eight (40 per cent) of twenty respondents *
Ten respondents (50 per cent) opposed it,
while two (10 per cent) declined to indicate opinions concerning it.
It, therefore, appeared, that a broad minority segment
of opinion existed for the implementation of a more functional approach to the problem of teacher education.
£16
TABLE
XVIII
EACH ACCREDITED TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION IN CALIFORNIA SHOULD BE REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN AN ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR THE PURPOSE OF MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF THE INSTITUTIONfS TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
2
10
6
30
0
0
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
2
10
3
15
2
10
Local districts
3
15
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5
1
5
0
0
Totals
S
40
10
50
2
10
217 Pis continuance of ins tl tutlonal recommendatIons for certification*
Although much criticism was levelled at
negative, concomittant effects of Institutional recommendations for certification, respondents generally agreed that such dis continuance could he avoided through the recognition of current weakenesses and the development of careful plans aimed at their speedy riddance hy teacher education Institutions In California. Sixteen of eighteen respondents (88.87 per cent) opposed abolition of the institutional recommendations, one respondent (5*55 per cent) favored the recommendation and one (5*55 per cent) declined to comment upon It. Data concerning this potential practice are presented in Table XIX. III.
SUMMARY OP THE CHAPTER
The literature.
The literature reviewed in this
chapter is summarized as follows: 1.
State departments of education cannot be counted
upon to protect teacher certification of standards alone. 2.
The effectiveness of a state program of public
education will depend, in large degree, upon the coordination achieved in the relationships existing between state teacher education Institutions and the state department of education.
2IB 1
TABLE
XIX
THE PRACTICE OF ISSUING CREDENTIALS ON THE BASIS OF INSTITUTIONAL RECOMMENDATION SHOULD BE DISCONTINUED Respondents (Total number— 13)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending c erti ficat i bn
0
0
3
44.44
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
0
0
5
27.77
0
0
Local districts
1
5.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.55
1
5.55
Totals
1
5.55
16
33.33
1
5.55
219 3.
Unity of effort in the work of certification and
of teacher education officers is essential if a state program of certification is to he effective* 4.
Preparation, certification, and employment of
teachers are interdependent upon each other. 5*
Certification solely upon the basis of institution
credit is open to question* 6.
Numerous sources of information, other than mere
observation of the teacher at work in the classroom, are needed for accurate evaluation of probationary teachers. 7*
Teacher education institutions bear a large share
of the responsibility for any over-supply of teachers. 8.
Many teacher education institutions have tended to
perpetuate over-supply of inadequately trained teachers by offering low standard programs of teacher education. 9.
Many teacher education institutions have failed
to meet high state standards yet have been permitted to under take programs of teacher prepare,tion. 10.
Many teacher education institutions have failed to
be honest with their own students and with other teacher education institutions. 11.
Many states have not established lists of approved
in-state and out-of-state teacher education institutions. 12.
Many teacher education institutions have failed to
prevent the acquisition of certification by unqualified
220 candidates. 13*
The competency of the product rather than the
number of teachers trained is not adhered to as a criterion of primary importance by all teacher education institutions. 14.
Greater effort is needed by teacher education
institutions to determine the qualifications that are essen tial to teaching success. 15*
Considerable opinion has existed favoring the
planning of the teacher education program early in the Candi da tefs college career— not later than the beginning of the second semester of the freshman year for two-year students^ or later than the first semester of the sophomore year for four-year students. 16.
The inability of certification regulations to
accurately measure personality and teaching competency lends credence to the contention that the primary requirement for certification might well be the recommendation of the insti tution in which the applicant was trained. 17.
Need continues to exist for expanded experimenta
tion with varying types of teacher education programs by teacher education institutions and in-service employers. Selected notentlal practices relating to teacher edu cation institutions re commending teacher certification in California.
The following conclusions are drawn from the
221 data presented In this chapter: 1.
Institution requirements for certification above
and beyond state minimum standards have caused many candidates to ”shop around” among various California teacher education institutions to find out which institution will permit the speediest acquisition of a teacherfs credential* 2*
The limitation of teacher education institution
requirements for recommendation for certification to the minima established by the California State Department of Education was opposed by twelve of eighteen respondents (66.67 per cent). 3.
Considerable opinion existed (nine of eighteen
respondents) to the effect that California teacher education institutions should be required to print the minimum require ments established by the California State Department of Educa tion for credentials in catalogues and bulletins describing institution teacher education programs. Nineteen (95 per cent) of twenty respondents believed that more discriminating means of selecting candidates for teacher certification should be instituted by teacher education institutions. 5*
The provision of actual directed teaching experience
as a preliminary requirement for all teacher training programs was advocated by eight (^0 per cent) of twenty respondents, while seven (35 P©** cent) opposed the proposal and five (25 per cent) declined to reveal opinions concerning it.
6.
The establishment of advisory committees dedicated
to making suggestions for the improvement of institution teacher education programs in California was favored by eight (40 per cent) of twenty respondents, while ten (50 per cent) opposed the measure, and two (10 per cent) refused to comment upon it* 7.
Sixteen (88*87
cent) of eighteen respondents
opposed any contemplated discontinuance of institutional recommendations for certification in California and urged that existing weaknesses involved in such certification practices be studied and eliminated at the earliest possible moment. Potential certification practices requiring further study.
The potential practices here discussed were proposed
during the consumation of the interviews and could not be submitted to all respondents for their consideration: 1.
accredited teacher education institutions in Cali
fornia should be required to use standardized course outlines, titles, and numbers• 2.
The number of semester hours of work required in
a specialized area for certification should be stated in such manner that no single course could be offered several times to meet the requirements for different credentials. 3.
Constant change in methods and content necessitate
the establishment of a limited period of time during which program requirements could be completed.
223 4#
Complete explanations of requirements for certifi
cation— background courses, professional education require ments, etc.,— should be presented to all students in bulletins, catalogs, orientation activities, etc., on entry into a teacher education institution.
Dissemination of this information should
not be delayed until a later date in the individual student*s college career.
CHAPTER XI TYPES OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE
One of the best ways to insure better education for the next generation is to improve teaching through the placing of greater emphasis upon the quality of teachers • • The number of types of teacher certificates required for efficient administration and maximum achievement of the desired goals and objectives of a satisfactory state program of teacher certification has been the subject of much debate. In 1936 Benjamin W. Frazier reported that, on the basis of different names, more than six hundred different kinds of certificates could be identified in the forty-eight states.2 Broad versus narrow certification.
Growing out of
efforts to provide special forms of certification for teach ing services of various special types, the basic issues of this controversy have been brought into sharp focus by Franzen*s3
contention that broad fields of certification
should be established in place of trends toward narrow 1 Editorial, ^Improving Teaching In Our Schools,” New York State Education, 26:7, October 1938. 2 Benjamin W. Frazier, f,State Certification Requirements as a Basis for Promoting Professional Standards,” American Association of Teachers Colleges Yearbook. 13-15*37* 1936* 3 Carl G. Pranzen, ”General Educational Program for Teachers,” Journal of Higher Education. 1 5 :^89> December, 1 9 ^ *
225 specialization*
Good opposed this point of view maintaining
that certification should he differentiated and specific.2* The high-school certificate, first worked out In California, was one of the earliest of these special forms of certification, and has been accepted as common certifica tion practice in many states.
Cubberley declared that the
theory underlying all of the various classes of special certificates should be that of "requiring evidence of special training, In addition to general education, for the handling of different types of teaching service.5 Blanket certification.
Frazier recommended that
teacher certification should be differentiated for all dis tinctive types of public school service that demand extensive or prolonged preparation of a specialized nature, ie., subject matter areas, grade levels, and specialized fields of service.
^ Carter V. Good, "Recent Graduate Theses in School Law," Yearbook of School L a w . 7:186, 1939* E. P. Cubberley, State School Admlnistration (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927)', p. 632. ^ Benjamin ¥. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulle tin 1938. No. 12, p. 151*
226 Adams? and the Michigan report of 1937^ agreed that blanket high school certification should be eliminated.
This point
of view was further supported by a recommendation of a regional conference of the North Central Association of Secon dary Schools and Colleges held in Madison, Wisconsin in 1940 to the effect that certification which permits an overlapping of teaching services in both elementary and secondary grades should be a b o l i s h e d C o o p e r declared that the practice of issuing a certificate that permits the holder to teach any or all of the subjects offered in the elementary and/or the secondary school must be regarded as professionally question able.10 The establishment of distinguishing types of certifi cation authorizing teaching services on primary and inter mediate teaching levels of the elementary school is also urgently needed in many states declared Adams.
11
? E. M. Adams, "New Certification Proposals,11 The Texas Outlook, 28:58* February 1944. ® Michigan Education Association, r,Report of the Com mittee on Teacher Training,11 Book I— The Certification and Training of Teachers in Michigan. March 1937* P* 176. ^ J. R. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teachers; Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Procedures," North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 15:25V, January, 1941• 10 E. M. Adams,
o j d
.
cit., p. 58*
11 H. Cooper, "A Forward Look in Teacher Education," Education. 56:199* December, 1935
227 Adminis trative and supervisory certification*
Cubber-
ley advocated the determination of certification requirements for administrative and supervisory services, and further suggested that either a general form or a variety of types of certificates should be provided to cover vocational, parttime, and special types of teaching.
12
Adams argued that
administrators should be required to hold administration certification based on two years of college study beyond the bachelor1s degree and upon a specified number of years of teaching experience.^ Initial certification.
Initial certification should
be of a probationary nature, valid for only a limited period, and subject to renewal only after a successful period of apprentice service declared Frazier-**2* and Good.-*^ The North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges in its regional conference in 1940 recommended that the teacher*s original certificate should not be a life certificate ^
E* P. Cubberley, pp. pit*, p. 636.
10
° E. M. Adams, pp. cit., p. 5 8.
^
Benjamin ¥. Frazier, pp. cit., p. 161.
^ 1
Carter V. Good, pp. cit. . p. 186.
J. R. Emens, "Preparation of Secondary School Teach ers; Teacher Selection Techniques and State Certification Pro cedures," North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges Quarterly. 15:242, January, 19^1.
228 Horizontal and vertical classification of certlf1catlon* It has heen argued in some quarters that certification should be based "horizontally11 according to the type of certificate (elementary, secondary, and special fields) and should be supplemented "vertically" (class A, B, or C) according to the amount and character of the training and education of the holder*
Certificates so granted in varying grades of quality
class would provide needed bases for differentiation in re gard to the privileges to be enjoyed and the length of period of certification validity*
Lack of real difference in privi
leges and period lengths of validity have tended to discourage further professional training of the teacher*
The holder of
high-grade certification should receive recognition of superior qualification through: (a) higher salaries, (b) greater security of tenure of office, and (c) ample provisions for re tirement. ,Types of vertical certificate classification have been sugges ted as follows: 1.
Class A— completion of the entire program of
academic and professional training required of the fully trained teacher. 2*
Class B — applicant is in advanced stages of train
ing program but has not fully completed all requirements. 3*
Class C— applicant is in preliminary stages of
229 teacher training
pro gram
♦■**7
Types of certificates issued in Osceola*
In the
hypothetical state of Osceola, Gubherley recommended that the following types of certification should be issued: 1. 2*
Kindergarten Certificate Permanent Kindergarten Certificate
3. 4. 5*
Second-Grade Elementary-Sehool Certificate First-Grade Elementary-Sehool Certificate Permanent Elementary-Sehool Certificate
6. 7*
Intermediate-School Certificate Permanent Intermediate-School Certificate
8* 9.
Secondary-School Certificate Permanent Intermediate-School Certificate
10* 11. 12.
Second-Grade Supervisory Certificate First-Grade Supervisory Certificate Permanent Supervisory Certificate
13* 14. 15*
Regular Vocational Certificate Permanent Vocational Certificate Special Vocational Certificate
16. 17*
Special Certificate (Elementary) Special Certificate (Secondary)
18. 19 . 20. 21. 22.
Health-Officer*s Certificate Librarian*s Certificate School Janitor1s Certificate Provisional Certificate (any grade) City-DIstrict Certificate
Under this arrangement, Cubberley explained, the dis trict in Osceola would be empowered to accept a low-grade certificate, and might superimpose an examination on top of
•*■7 Regulations Governing the Certification of Teachers in Virginia, Virginia State Board of Education, Richmond, Bulletin V o l . XT, Wo. 2, 1928, pp. I68-I7O
230 state requirements The report of the Michigan Education Association in 1937 on teacher training and certification in Michigan suggested that provisions be made for the issuance of ele mentary certificates, secondary certificates, and adminis trator fs certificates in the following categories:
(a)
limited certificates, (b) special certificates, and (c) life certificates The South Carolina plan,
A proposed plan for a state
program of teacher certification in South Carolina was reported in 1944*
This plan suggested that three main groups of teacher
certification should be established with the applicant’s experience in teaching serving as the criterion for the deter mination of the certification groups.
Each of the three
certification groups was to be divided into classes on the basis of varying educational qualifications, and each class was, in turn, separated into four grades (A,B,G,D) on the following bases:
(a) ratings of the applicants on objective
examinations designed to evaluate scholarship, and (b) on personal qualities as evaluated by competent judges.
Certi
ficates issued under this plan were designated according to E. P. Cubberley, State and County Educational Reorga nization « (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1922), pp. 15^-72• ■*"9 Michigan Education Association, ”The Certification and Training of Teachers in Michigan,” Report of the Committee on Teacher Training, Book JT, March, 1937* PP» 175“7^•
231 group, class, and grade.
It was further recommended that the
state hoard of education should establish a salary schedule for each certification category on the basis of class and grade. First certification group.
This group was to be pri
marily probationary in nature and to provide for the issuance of a 2-year probationary certificate.
This certificate was
to be granted upon the recommendation of the college
and
would permit the holder to move on into the second group and qualify for a standard professional certificate on verification of successful teaching experience during the probationary period• Second certification group.
A five year standard
professional certificate was to be issued under the provisions of the second group.
This certificate was to be regarded as
intermediate in nature and to follow the two-year probationary period.
During the life of a standard professional certifi
cate, the holder was to be expected to achieve definite pro fessional competency which would lead to a permanent (life) professional certificate. Third cer tif ica tion group. Valid during continuous use, the permanent professional certificate was to permit the holder to teach as long as he remained active in the profession and maintained his effectiveness.
This certificate
was to become invalid if the holder
withdrew
as long as one year or became incompetent.
from teaching Reinstatement of
a permanent professional certificate could be achieved only upon the presentation of evidence that the holder had main tained or regained his competency* The South Carolina report also suggested that further study should be conducted to determine the requirements for certification authorizing special services such as those per formed by superintendents, principals, supervisors, librarians, 20 music directors, etc., Adult education certification in Pennsylvania♦
In
1941, Gastel described four types of Pennsylvania adult educa tion certificates.
They are listed as follows:
(a) Out-of-
school Youth and Adult Program Certification covered work organized primarily for out-of-school youth and for adults, but not including the school work of continuation and other vocational schools which are subsidized under Federal Enact ment provisions, (b) Artisans or Specialists with 3 years of Successful Experience*Certification was issued on the request of the county or district superintendent under whose super vision the applicant was to teach or conduct extension
20 H. It. Frick, WA Proposed Plan for the Certification of Teachers in South Carolina,*1 Report of the Investigation of Educational Qualifications of Teachers in South Carolina. University of South Carolina, Columbia, I9W , p p • 4o-4l.
233 activities*
This type of certificate “was usually issued to
artisans or specialists whose experience and training in any field of work qualified them as teachers or as leaders of adult or extension groups in a particular educational activity, (c) High School Graduate Plus Two Years Training or its Equivalent Certification was to be issued to applicants who had completed high school and, in addition, two years of post-secondary education, or their educational equivalents, and (d) A.B. Degree in Adult Education and Recreation Certi ficates were to be issued to applicants who had been granted a baccalaureate degree in an approved four year curriculum of adult education and recreation in an accredited college or university. 21 The emergency certificate *
The Japanese treachery at
Pearl Harbor on the morning of December 7 , 1941 proved to be not only a strong military attack upon the United States but a heavy blow against American public education.
Almost
immediately thousands of qualified American teachers were drawn into military service and properly trained replacements for them were not readily available. It was soon apparent that if the schools were to remain open, an abandonment of pre-war certification standards must
21 Alfred W. Castle, "Certification of Teachers and Leaders in Public Adult Education,11 Adult Education Bulletin. 6:46, December, 1941.
234 be countenanced.
As a result, there was little delay in the
appearance of the emergency teacher in the classroom on a nation-wide scale.
Attempting to explain the need for lower
ing certification standards and the implications of such action, Barbour stated: The abandonment (of pre-war certification standards) has been, it is hoped, temporary, and it is freely recognized that nothing else could be done if the schools were to remain open. But it would seem un wise to ignore the possibility that another struggle will be needed to re-establish pre-war standards when the present emergency ends. • . 2 In 1942 Studebaker declared: While it is realized that schools must be kept open under whatever conditions are found to be possible, ground that is lost by the issuance of emergency cer tificates is hard to regain . • . 3 The certification situation rapidly deteriorated under warfs impact until a total of 2,246 emergency credentials were required In California in the last six months of 1943*
3he
demand for emergency certification in California continued to increase with the result that 5*659 emergency certificates were granted in the last half of 1944.
In March 1945* approxi
mately 14 per cent of all California public school positions were filled by teachers holding emergency credentials, and the trend toward increased use of emergency certification
22 Richmond Barbour, "Californiafs War Emergency Teachers," Sierra Educational He w s , 41:8-9* April, 1945* 23 John Studebaker, "Issuing Emergency Certificates," Education for Victory. 1:2, June 1, 1942.
235 throughout the nation was verified by the following United States Office of Education figures released in 1947: TEACHERS HOLDING EMERGENCY CERTIFICATES December 1945“~108,932 School Year 1945~1*6— 113,053 School Year 1946-47--109,582 . . .24 Reviewing the emergency teacher situation in February 19^7, Ludeman maintained that the situation had reached racket proportions and that over 300,000 unqualified teachers were on rural and town district payrolls.
In spite of their
apparent lack of qualifications, he declared, these teachers continued to teach and receive pay with the apparent full approval of the general public.
Frazier commented upon this
public attitude as follows: One of the most regrettable results of the employ ment of emergency teachers is the education of the public thereby in the belief that "just anyone” can teach . . . 5 Ludeman warned that unless immediate steps were taken to break this "racket” that it might take a generation to regain the 1941 levels In teacher certification.
He pointed
out that the educational losses of children under teachers who do nothing more than "keep school” can never be regained once they have been lost.
With teacher qualification in
P4
«t Benjamin W. Frazier, "Changing Trends in the Teacher Shortage," School Life, 29:3, May 1947* Benjamin W. Frazier, o p . cit., p. 3-6.
236 in America at a "new lov for the past two decades
Ludeman
insisted that American education "is at the stake and it is time for action I" and suggested the following steps toward solution of the problem: (1 ) establish salary levels for fully qualified teachers well above those of the "short cut” teachers as an inducement for the poorly trained to get into higher wage brackets by added preparation, (2 ) set up a date schedule of teacher-training minimums to spur the emergency teacher to secure standard certification or face definite elimination from teaching, and (3) professionalize teaching to make it worth entering as a permanent calling.
Push
toward the professional solidarity of medicine, law, and engineering, by granting deserved prestige and more adequate pay 26 Aspects of low-grade certification.
Cubberley declared
that low-grade certificates must be issued in some states, in view of low wage standards (and scarcity of properly trained teachers), to guarantee availability of any teachers at all for poor rural and village school districts.
Another accom
paniment of low-grade certification and poor district system conditions, he maintained, has been commonly observed in the holding of frequent county examinations, to provide an ample
237 27 supply of low-grade certification teachers. ' Retention of outstanding emergency certificated teachers♦
Donohue recommended that special arrangements
should he made to make it possible for emergency teachers who have already proved themselves to be competent teachers, and who are willing to continue study toward meeting regular certification requirements to remain in the profession. 11An experienced emergency teacher,11 he declared, "should not be eliminated from the profession merely because an inex perienced and possibly incompetent person holding a regular certificate becomes available."
He added that there have
never been enough excellent teachers, hence every effort should be made to retain any teacher of great promise who ofK may have been discovered during the emergency period. ^ The life certificate.
The concept of unconditional
certification originated in the belief that all state plans for improved systems of teacher certification should have one main purpose— that of granting certificates of general validity to those teachers whose general education, profes sional success,, and high personal character stamp them as the best members wof the teaching -profession.
The issuance
p. Cubberley, o£. cit., p. 631. P. J. Donohue, "War Emergency Teachers after the War,” American School Board Journal, 110 27-2 8 , February 19^5•
238 of life certificates, it has been maintained, should there fore, work to provide the people of a state with the most efficient and effective instruction available. Cubberley*s contention that the life diploma "should be for the professional teacher, the man or woman who has made education a profession and a
l i f e - c a r e e r ”2 9
found sup
port in recommendations made in the report by the Michigan Education Association in 1 9 3 7 * ^ Cubberley declared: Those who have proved their capacity as teachers, and who can offer proof of character, scholarship, and pedagogic insight, ought to be singled out and given professional or life certificates, valid any where in the state and for the kind of work they have prepared to do.^ The life certificate, Cook maintained, should represent not only a high degree of professional study and success, but also some substantial evidence of broad general education and thinking power.
She warned that life certification
"should never be given on the basis of a certain number of years of teaching and a recommendation by some local
authority.^2
29 E, P. Cubberley, op. cit., p. 269. ^
Michigan Education Association, pp. cit. . p. 176.
^
E. P. Cubberley, pp. cit. . p. 269•
Katherine M. Cook, "State laws and Regulations Governing Teacher Certification," United States Bureau of Education Bulletin. No. 22, 1921, p.
239 'The real Issue to be determined, declared Thompson, is whether the Issuance of life'certification secures better teachers than the granting of certificates valid for limited periods of
time
.33
Life certification in the various states *
In 1919,
thirty-eight states granted life certificates to teachers, eight on the basis of examinations and thirty on the presen tation of credentials issued by recognized institutions of higher learning.3^
The trend toward unconditional certifi
cation continued until a total of forty-three states issued life certificates in 1926.
In the Intervening years, the
trend reversed itself to such an extent that in the school year of 1947-48 only thirty-one states continued to issue life
certificates
.35
Obviously there has been a tendency
in some sections to abandon life certification altogether. Life certification and tenure.
Thompson pointed out
that the problem of certificating teachers ought not be con fused with that of providing tenure for them.
It is desirable,
33 c. 0. Thompson, "The Life Certificate,” Elementary School Journal. 33:768, June, 1933* (5^34 Katherine M. Cook, op. cit., pp. 39~198. 35 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Summary of Teacher Certifica tion Requirements, 1947-48,” Federal Security Agency, Office of Education, Washington, B.C., Circular N o . 2 3 3 , Fifth Revision, February, 1948.
240 he declared, that our schools he staffed with well-trained per sonnel working -under the realization that their tenure of office will he secure as long as they remain adequately prepared to do that which is expected of them hy society.3^ Bases of issuance of life certification.
Proper admin
istration of life certification has existed in those states where higher certificates gradually have heen achieved through a carefully graded system of teaching certificates, each pre supposing added knowledge and continued professional growth declared Cuhherley.
There ”is little to lose and much to
gain,” he contended, from the issuance and general recognition of such life certificates.37 In the past years, argued Cuhherley, life certificates have heen issued as a certificate of a distinctly professional character in reward for successful teaching experience and professional effort.
In those instances where unconditional
certification has come to he held hy all teachers who have taught the required number of months, such certificates usually have continued to he valid whether the holder taught or not, and, consequently, were regarded as possessing little 38 meaning or honor.
C. 0. Thompson, ^
o j d
.
cit. , p. 768.
E. P. Cuhherley, o p . cit. » p. 629.
33 e . P. Cuhherley, op. cit. . p. 629*
2kl
Stine advocated that if permanent certification is granted, it should never on the basis of length of service, or on pre-service training alone, be granted.
Evidence of
increased teaching efficiency, a long period of successful experience, and continued study must be offered as pre requisites for the life certificate, he declared.
Unless the
permanent certificate, is based upon a long, probationary period, and upon additional professional training, he urged, it may become a most productive means of bringing about an undesirable state of professional complacency on the part of the teacher, and cannot be relied on to indicate the possession of any degree of superior teaching skill. ^ Katherine Cook discussed the implications of permanent certification in states where life diplomas are granted on the basis of service alone and require no additional evidence of academic or professional growth as follows: Life diplomas come to be held by all who have taught the requisite number of months . . . they cease to be a distinctive honor to the holder . . . they are granted to all who keep alive and hold on to a teaching job . . . the life-diploma should be the culmination of the teacherfs certificating career • . . On the basis of uniform questioning by educational
^ M. E. Stine, "Influence of Permanent Teacher Certi fication on Education of Teachers in Service," School and Society, *1-2:708, November 23, 1935* Katherine M. Cook, 0£. cit.. p. 52.
'
242 experts of the practice of issuing permanent certification, a high degree of agreement has appeared among those qualified to speak that such certificates should he issued only after 41 long experience and evidence of continued professional growth* The following criteria were suggested by Cuhberley as desirable prerequisites to life certification:
(a) evidence
of reasonably long teaching experience, (b) evidence of aboveaverage teaching success, (c) possession of at least standard academic and professional preparation, (d) good character, (e) complete plan of additional professional study, and (f) the desire to make education a life-time career•
Cubberley
also recommended that a permanent certificate should be sus pended within three to five years after the holder has turned from education to another occupation, and should be re-instated only on presentation of evidence of further academic and pro fessional study* Thompson concluded that society has not been justified in granting permanent certification unless such issuance has been based on the requirement of later study at more or less regular intervals, or upon the presentation of evidence that the holder of the life certificate has kept up with advances being made in the educational world*
This implies, he de
clared, the existence of a problem of in-service training in
^
M. E. Stfne, o p » cit*, p. 708.
243 states which issue unconditional teacher certification.**'2 Frazier also concurred with this point of view* Validity of life certification*
The position that the
permanent teaching certificate should not be valid for life, if the holder leaves the profession for more than a certain limited number of years was maintained by Cubberley.
He
argued that the man or woman who has served the required num ber of months, obtained a life diploma, and laid it away as a rainy-day safeguard, should not be permitted to use it, years afterward, without presenting evidence of competency and additional professional study.
This type of non
professional teacher, he warned, often has used influence to secure a teaching position during hard times •
The life
certificate ought to be intended for the professional teacher and not for the person who has regarded teaching as a secondary occupation to be turned to only when business recession has resulted in increased financial pressure*
Cubberley declared
that application of law to the effect that permanent certifi cation shall lapse if the holder has failed at any time to teach or engage in some recognized form of educational work, without a valid excuse, for a limited number of years would be very effective in preventing the infiltration of unqualified and incompetent teachers into teaching after years of educational
42
C. 0* Thompson, op. cit•, p. 767•
244 4-3
Inactivity.
The Michigan Education Association1s report in 1937 on the certification and training of teachers in Michigan
iiii
recom
mended that the life certificate he suspended after a period of disuse.
This position was also advocated by Cushing
46
and
Frazier Revocation of life certification.
Difficulties en
countered in effecting the revocation of a life certificate once it has been granted has been a common point of criticism frequently raised by the opponents of permanent certification. Numerous court decisions have indicated that while legal steps involved in effecting such revocation often have proved to be cumbersome, complicated, and ineffective, a certificate to teach in the public schools has been nothing more than a license granted by the state and has been revocable by the state at its pleasure. ^
e . p. Cubberley, "The Certification of Teachers," Fifth Yearbook: of the Society for the Study of Education. 1906, P. 57. 44 Michigan Education Association, oj£. cit. . p. 176.
^ * H . Ij. Cushing, "A Desirable Procedure for the Issuance of Teachers1 Certificates," (unpublished Master*s thesis, The University of Nebraska, Dincoln, 1930), p« 42. 46 Benjamin W. Frazier, o j d . cit.. p. 116. ✓* ^ C. 0. Thompson, op. cit., p. 7^7 (Marrs vs. Matthews, 270 S.W. (Tex.) 586).
245 The power to license persons qualified to teach In the public schools has rested fundamentally in state legislatures# These bodies have provided for the revocation of licenses, and in doing so such action has violated no constitutional right, for a license has possessed none of the elements of a contract, and has not conferred an absolute right, but only 48 a personal privilege to be reasonably imposed. The Supreme Court of the United States has declared; The correlative power to revoke or recall a per mission is a necessary consequence of the main power. A mere license by a State is always revocable . • It, therefore, has appeared to be a legally correct interpretation of the law to contend that the person who has accepted a license from a state has agreed, by implication, to submit to the tribunals which the state has created for determining his fitness to continue enjoying the privileges granted by the state. If the state has decided that teachers now holding life certification must receive additional training to vali date their licenses, It has been entirely within the power of the legislatures to enact such requirements, into statutes.^ 48
C. 0. Thompson, op. cit., p. 7^7 (24 R.C.L. 613* also Stone vs. Fritts, 169 Ind. 361, 82 N.E. 792, 14 Ann. Cas. 295) ^ C. 0. Thompson, op. cit. » p. 768 (Doyle vs. Continen tal Insurance Company, 94 U.S. 535*) C. 0. Thompson, op. cit. . p. 768.
246 Lowery suggested that care should be exercised in the writing of statutes to avoid conveying the impression that permanent certification is of an irrevocable nature.
Certi
fication regulations should clearly state that a life certi ficate may be revoked after a certain period has elapsed following a warning given the holder charging incompetency of teaching services.
Proof of such incompetency should be
furnished by the teacher*s superior officers to the state education office, and the teacher given every opportunity to justify himself as to all phases of his work*^1 Recognition accorded life certlfication.
As early as
1906 the implications of life certification were being ques tioned by authorities in education.
Cubberley declared that
although some states have regarded the possession of a perma nent certificate as a distinct honor marking the holder as one of the most capable and progressive teachers in the loca lity, other states have considered the possession of a life certificate as no, honor at all, and critical boards of edu cation have looked upon such certification as signifying nothing more than the fact that the holder has taught the requisite number of months in some unprogressive and
^ M. L. Lowery, “Certification of High School Teachers,” (unpublished Doctorfs thesis, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1924), p . 6 6 .
247 undiscriminating district.
Cubberley reiterated these con
victions again in 1927 as follows: There are a few states where a life diploma is a distinct honor . . . there are more states where its possession indicates little or nothing, and where discriminating boards of education look with merited suspicion upon an applicant who boasts of the fact that he holds one of these documents. . . 52 In spite of these criticisms, life certification has continued to be available in some states on the limited bases of a definite number of months of service and local recom mendations. Hence, since no educational standards of any consequence have been involved, the life certificate sometimes has been regarded as standing for nothing.
Thus even though a perma
nent certificate should have been of such a standard that it could be accepted willingly anywhere in the United States, many of the low-standard life certificates granted in the various states have not been given inter-state
r e c o g n i t i o n .
53
Cubberley argued that if unconditional certification is based upon mere teaching service and a more or less formal recommendation, such certification may not, and probably will not designate the professionally competent teacher.
General
recognition of such certification is highly inadvisable.5^
52 E. P. Cubberley, op. cit., p. 629. Katherine M. Cook, pp. cit. . p. 75. 54
E. P. Cubberley, pp. cit. . p. 5 7 .
248 Abolition of life certification*
While some educators
have held that life certification should not be granted,^-* others have contended that there Is a distinct possibility that such abolition of permanent certification might ultimately prove to be much more harmful than beneficial to the quest for better and more effective II.
i n s t r u c t i o n . ^
SELECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO TYPES OF CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA
Interest of respondents in the philosophy -underlying the determination of the various types of certificates employed in the California state program of teacher certification re volved about the issue "Can widespread improvement in the instruction In the public schools of California best be achieved by the issuance of a small number of general type credentials, or through the issuance of a large number of highly specialized type credentials?*1 Persons queried were unanimous in contending that sim plification of the existing certification structure in California would be desirable wherever possible, but that any reduction in the number of types of credentials issued should not be effected at the expense of improvement in instruction.
55 c. Bengstrom, f,Concealing Reality,11 School and Society. 48:656, November 19> 1938. 5^ C. 0. Thompson, op. cit.. pp. 762-6 8 .
2k9
No suggestions were received concerning the exact number of credentials that should be issued in California. However, considerable support was extended in behalf of the contention that although current California practice has in volved the issuance of a large number of different types of teacher certificates, it also has achieved a flexibility and accuracy in determining certification requirements to meet specific teaching situations that has been highly desirable. A letter of
inquiry-^
requesting information concerning
the advisability and possible methods of reducing the currently large number of teacher credentials issued in California was forwarded to the National Education Association of the United States.
A reply to this query was received from T. M. Stinnett,
Associate Secretary, National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards Restriction to a minimum of the number of certificates issued, declared Stinnett, has represented the general trend in certification among the various states.
As an example
Stinnett cited tentative revisions in the certification pro gram of the state of Connecticut which provided for the issuance of three types of certificates as follows:
See Appendix, pv 420. ^
See Appendix, p>. 426.
250 1*
2# 3*
Teaching certificates# a# Elementary certificates# (1) Form A— authorized service in kinder garten through grade three» (2) Form B-— authorized service in grade one through grade eight# h# Secondary certificates— authorized service in two fields; academic subjects, and vocational or technical subjects. Only one certificate is issued regardless of the field# Administrative and supervisory certificate. Special certificates— authorizing service in a special field in grades one through twelve# The special field of service was to be endorsed upon each certificate.
Referring to the problem of reducing the large number of credentials issued in California, Stinnett declared: It seems to me the answer is for the state to establish one certificate called Special Subject Certificate, or whatever name seems appropriate, and use this to issue to an applicant regardless of the field of teaching for which he is authorized. X have never been able to see the logic of issuing a separate certificate by name for each and every special subject field. Stinnett described another state program which issued only two name certificates:
(1) the Collegiate Professional
certificate which was issued at the baccalaureate level and authorized service in administration, supervision, secondary and elementary
instruction on the completion ofprescribed
requirements•
The area of service was endorsedupon each
certificate, and (2) the Post-graduate certificate was issued on the fifth year level of preparation and followed the same procedure as that which governed the Collegiate Professional certificate.
251 Need for further simplification of state certification was reflected in the findings of a national study of reci procity recently completed by Stinnett.
This study revealed
that the states were issuing something over six hundred separate certificates, and that forty-six states issued one hundred thirty-six separate elementary certificates and one hundred nineteen high school certificates.
Five states issued
a certificate by the same name although in such instances wide variance existed in the requirements (years of college prepara tion, etc.) maintained by the states concerned. Hopefully predicting that some degree of uniformity may eventually be brought to this chaotic picture of national certification, Stinnett wrote: It seems to me that it is not too much to expect that some time in the future we will develop a small number of certificates whose nomenclature will clearly connote the full professional preparation of the holder in all states• The data presented in tabular form in the following pages cite the problems of this area of certification which were regarded by the respondents interviewed as being of greatest current importance and in most urgent need of early correction. A provisional kindergarten-primary credential should be issued.
A majority of twelve of eighteen respondents
(66.65 per cent) favored this proposal while five opposed it (27.77 per cent) and one (5*55 per cent) declined to
252 declare an opinion*
One teacher education Institution repre
sentative opposed the suggestion on the grounds that it was unnecessary because Provisional General Elementary credentials should he used in those instances which demonstrate any need for the issuance of a provisional kindergarten-primary creden tial.
Opposition was expressed by a second institution
spokesman on the grounds that the issuance of such a credential might well result in elimination of further issuance of the regular Kindergarten-Primary credential.
Another teacher
education institution interviewee approved the issuance of such a certificate for "temporary use only."
Data concerning
this proposed practice are listed in Table XX. A county superintendent of schools recommended that "provisional credentials should be provided for all types and levels of certification." In 1949, the California Legislature, in agreement with the above finding, passed legislation establishing requirements for the issuance of a Provisional Kindergarten-Primary creden tial. Credentials for counselling and guidance should be issued.
Although this proposal received a slight majority
(55.53 per cent) vote of approval (see Table XXI) its oppo nents were most vociferous in maintaining that the establish ment of requirements for guidance and counselling services should be a district responsibility.
253
TABLE
XX
A PROVISIONAL KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY CREDENTIAL SHOULD BE ISSUED Respondents (Total number— 1 6 )
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
5
27*77
3
Offices of the County Super intendent of Schools
4
22.22
0
Local districts
1
5.55
2
State offices
2
11.11
0
12
66.66
5
Totals
16.66
0
11.11 0 27.77
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
0
0
1
5.55
0
0
0
0
1
5.55
254
TABLE
ZXI
CREDENTIALS FOR COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE SHOULD BE ISSUED Respondents (Total number— IS)
Yes Per ber cent
Nura-
No
Number
Per cent
Decline to state NumPer ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
5
27.77
3
16*66
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
3
16.66
2
11.11
0
0
Local districts
1
5.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
1
5.55
0
1
5.55
10
55.55
7
1
5.55
Totals
0 3S.SS
255 A spokesman for a teacher education institution urged that the proper course is to “leave it up to the principal to select properly qualified persons” for this type of educa tional service*
Another respondent speaking for a teacher
education institution declared that such issuance would prove to be unnecessary because ”existing selective forces within our schools will determine the proper training requirements for persons doing guidance and counselling work*” One county office recommended the establishment of the requirement of some training in counselling and guidance for all teachers*
Another county respondeat suggested that ”the
issuance of a credential for a Supervisor of Attendance and Child Welfare might be in order.” The Junior High School credential should be issued* Continued issuance of the Junior High School credential was recommended by eleven of nineteen respondents (57.88 per cent). In spite of this majority of approval, there was widespread belief that this credential must eventually be abolished. Note the data concerning this potential practice listed in Table XXII.
This view was forcefully expressed in the follow
ing respondents statement “Should the Junior High School Credential be Issued?
Ideally, yes!— under present circum
stances, no!” A city superintendent urged that if the issuance of
256
TABLE
XXII
THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIAL SHOULD BE ISSUED Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
5
26.31
3
15.73
0
0
Offices of the CountySuper intendent of Schools
4
21.05
2
10.57
0
0
Local districts
1
5.26
2
10.57
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
1
5.26
0
0
11
57.^9
6
42.10
0
0
Totals
257 the Junior High School credential is to be continued, the same number of years of training should be required for it that have been demanded for issuance of the General Secondary credential• The issuance of Suecial Secondary credentials should be dlscontinued. Opposition to discontinuance of the issuance of Special Secondary credentials (77*76 per cent) was based primarily upon the general belief that the holder of Special Secondary certification has been so highly trained in his particular field that he has come to be regarded as an expert. One respondent declared "Under this type of credential the teacher becomes more of a specialist. better prepared."
The specialist is
He also suggested that "It might be a good
idea to bring the Special Secondary up to the five year level and limit its holders to teaching majors and minors."
For
data concerning this proposed practice see Table XXIII. Respondents favoring the discontinuance of this type of teacher certification in California contended that use of a Special Secondary credential on both elementary and secondary levels should not be permitted.
They also argued that holders
of Special Secondary certification frequently were encouraged to qualify for the General Secondary credential when they were definitely not suited for that type of instruction. Sue cial Secondary credential services should be
258
TABLE
XXIII
THE ISSUANCE OF SPECIAL SECONDARY CREDENTIAL SHOULD BE DISCONTINUED Respondents (Total number— -IS)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Institutions r eco mmending certification
1
5.55
7
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
1
5.55
4
Local districts
1
5.55
State offices
1
Totals
4
Decline to state Per Num ber .cent
0
0
22.22
0
0
2
11*11
0
0
5.55
1
5.55
0
0
22*22
14
77.77
0
0
259 authorized by General Secondary credentials only*
Thirteen
of eighteen respondents (72*21 per cent) disapproved this proposal*
See Table XXIV for related data*
Opposition was
centered in the belief that such restrictions would greatly handicap secondary school principals in making teacher assign ments* The representative of a teacher education institution agreed to grant tentative approval to the suggestion providing Improvement of the General Secondary credential could be effected* The need for a study on “How many teachers are teaching their majors and/or minors?” was cited, by the spokesman of a county superintendents office, while another pointed out that this suggestion, if enforced, might eliminate some unfairnesses which have occurred in the past in the development of teacher salary schedules* Opposition to this proposal was also expressed by a teacher education institution respondent on the grounds that such a change would eventually result in excessive restriction X »
of General Secondary credentials to authorization of service in the holder*s majors and minors only. Kindergarten services should be limited to holders of the Kindergarten-Primary credential *
Debate provoked by this
suggestion revolved primarily around the issue, "The Kinder garten-Primary credential has connoted a higher degree of
TABLE
XXIV
THE SERVICE PROVIDED BY SPECIAL SECONDARY CREDENTIALS SHOULD BE AUTHORIZED BY GENERAL SECONDARY CREDENTIALS ONLY Respondents (Total number-— 1&)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
1
5.55
6
33.33
1
5.55
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
1
5.55
4
22.22
0
0
Local districts
1
5.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
1
5.55
1
5.55
0
0
Totals
4
22.22
13
72.22
1
5.55
261 specialized teaching skill than the General Elementary cre dential XXV.
Data relating to this proposal are listed in Table
Large city districts and some teacher education insti
tutions contended that the issuance of the KindergartenPrimary credential has resulted in a marked improvement of instruction which might be traced to the more highly specialized training of the teacher.
Respondents in smaller districts and
more rural areas were inclined to believe that the holder of the General Elementary credential was equally well qualified for service on the kindergarten-primary levels, and that such a high degree of specialization was neither necessary nor desirable. Fourteen respondents (70 per cent) favored this pro posal, while five (25 per cent) opposed it, and one interviewee (5 per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning it. The General Elementary credential should authorize service as a .junior high school principal.
Commonly regarded as
a **dead letter11 that has been overlooked in the passage of the years, unanimous agreement (note Table XXVI) existed among the respondents that the authorization of teaching service as a junior high school principal by the General Elementary creden tial could no longer be justified.
It was commonly held that
the original need satisfied by this provision long ago ceased to exist and, as one respondent declared, *‘The present law does not make sense,!11
TABLE
XXV
SERVICE ON THE KINDERGARTEN LEVEL SHOULD BE RESTRICTED ONLY TO THE HOLDERS OF THE KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY CREDENTIAL Respondents (Total number— -2 0 )
Yes ;NumPer ber cent
No Hum Per ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
35
1
5
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
3
15
3
15
1
5
Local districts
3
15
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5
1
5
0
0
14
70
5
25
1
5
Totals
263
TABLE
XXVT
THE GENERAL ELEMENTARY CREDENTIAL SHOULD AUTHORIZE SERVICE AS A PRINCIPAL OF A JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes dum Per ber cent
No dum Per ber cent
Decline to state Per dum ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
0
0
S
40
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
0
0
7
35
0
0
Local districts
0
0
3
15
0
0
State offices
0
0
2
10
0
0
Totals
0
0
20
100
0
0
264 Equivalent requirements should be required for General Elementary and General Secondary credentials *
This practice
was proposed in the belief that equalization of the certifica tion requirements for General Elementary and General Secondary credentials would do much to stem the flow of young, inex perienced teachers into already crowded secondary fields and encourage many of them to enter elementary teaching. to this proposal are listed in Table XXVII.
Responses
Ten of nineteen
respondents (52.61 per cent) approved this potential practice, while eight interviewees (42.18 per cent) opposed it and one *
(5.26 per cent) declined to declare an opinion. Opposition to this suggestion was largely based on the belief that the proposal was not feasible.
The spokesman of
one teacher education institution declared "This arrangement would be highly desirable, but is not practicable now.
Salary
schedules should take care of this.11 Other respondents pre dicted that further advancement of elementary certification standards would curtail an already insufficient supply of elementary teachers.' 4 "unified credential" should be issued. Viewing educa tion as "a broad, continuous experience,” a county superinten dent suggested that the issuance of a "master teacher's license11 might be justified. Fifteen of nineteen respondents (73-72 per cent) opposed this recommendation; four (21.09 per cent) favored it, and one
265
TABLE XXVII .
IN ORDER TO PROMOTE APPROXIMATELY EQUAL PRESTIGE AND STATUS FOR BOTH CREDENTIALS, THE.GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (NUMBER OF YEARS OF COLLEGE WORK, DEGREE, EDUCATION COURSES, ETC.,) ‘FOR A GENERAL ELEMENTARY CREDENTIAL SHOULD BE EQUIVALENT TO THE GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR A GENERAL SECONDARY CREDENTIAL Yes
Respondents (Total number— 19 )
Number
Institutions recommending certification
5
26.31
3
15.7^
0
0
Offices of the County Sup eri nt end ent of Schools
3
15.7^
2
10.57
i
5.26
Local districts
1
5.26
2
10.57
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
1
5.26
0
0
10
52.63
8
hZ.10
Per cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Per dum ber cent
•
Totals
.1
5.26
266 Interviewee (5*26 per cent) declined to state an opinion regarding it.
Data relating to this proposal are listed in
Tahle XXVIII* A general disposition to regard the issue as a district problem to be solved by the superintendent prevailed among those persons opposing the measure*
A county office contended
that the need for such a provision has not been demonstrated, and such unification as is not already provided for by the General Elementary and General Secondary credentials could be provided largely as a matter of administration and super vision. Support for the proposal was extended by the spokesman of a city district with the reservation that 11the people who do the training must not be specialists in one level of educa tion, but experts In general education!M flmmtv boards of education and requirements for emergency credentials.
Wide discrepancies in standards main
tained by county boards of education for the issuance of emergency credentials prompted the suggestion the Education Code should specifically state that county boards of education are responsible for determining their own local requirements of training and experience for emergency certification. Strong opposition (78.93 per cent) voiced to this recommendation was because of the likelihood that any such provision, If enacted into the Education Code, might well
267
TABLE
XXVIII
IN VIEW OF THE TREND TOWARD UNIFYING THE EDUCATION OF THE CHIID INTO A BROAD, CONTINUOUS EXPERIENCE, UN BROKEN BY EDUCATIONAL LEVELS, A "UNIFIED CREDENTIAL" AUTHORIZING THE HOLDER TO TEACH IN ANY GRADE FROM KINDERGARTEN THROUGH JUNIOR COLLEGE SHOULD BE ISSUED Respondents (Total number-— 1 9 )
Yes Number
No Per cent
Number
Per cent
Decline to state dum Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
1
5.26
7
36.34
0
0
Offices of the County Superi nt endent of Schools
2
10.57
4
21.05
0
0
Local districts
1
5.26
2
10.67
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
4
14
73-63
1
5.26
21.05
268 remain there.
There was also widespread belief that the
proposal would result in much unnecessary work for the offices of the county superintendent of schools, and that there was little to he gained by bringing the matter to the attention of the general public.
A respondent from one county super
intendents office advocated that the district superintendent should be required to determine emergency certification re quirements, and that all emergency credentials should be returned to the county office and distributed only when each applicant had been fully and thoroughly identified. Three of nineteen respondents (15.83 per cent) favored the proposal and one (5*26 per cent) declined to indicate an opinion.
Data concerning this proposed practice are presented
in Table XXIX. '^Emerg&ncy and provisional credential experience should be accepted for the Life Diploma.
A bare majority of the per
sons interviewed (52.66 per cent) believed that experience gained on emergency and provisional credentials in California should be accepted for the Life Diploma on the same basis as private and out-of-state teaching experience.
Nine of nine
teen respondents (47.35 per cent) opposed the proposition. Support for this proposed practice seemed to grow from a general belief that it was distinctly unfair to permit the acceptance of out-of-state and private school teaching experi ence for the Life Diploma, and, at the same time, to refuse
269
TABLE
XXIX
THE EDUCATION CODE SHOULD STATE SPECIFICALLY THAT THE COUNTY BOARDS OF EDUCATION ARE AUTHORIZED TO SET UP THEIR OWN LOCAL REQUIREMENTS OF TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE FOR EMERGENCY CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Per • Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
1
5.26
7
36.34
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
2
10.57
4
21.05
0
0
Local districts
0
0
3
15.73
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
3
15
73.94
1
5.26
15.73
270 to accept California teaching experience that could he veri fied and evaluated merely because the teacher obtained it with an emergency or provisional credential.
Table XXX indicates
the response made to this proposal. A respondent representing a teacher education institu tion recommended that credit for teaching on an emergency credential should be granted for a limited period of five years. Opposing this suggestion, another teacher education institution spokesman declared that Hthe experience that the teacher gets after obtaining a regular credential is the experience that should count for the Life Diploma.” The importance of increasing requirements for the Life Diploma was urged by many of those who were interviewed, and they reminded the writer that this proposal, if enacted, might result in a lowering of the standards for permanent certification rather than in raising them. Minimum residence and the Life Diploma.
The failure
of Life Diploma provisions to discriminate between the transi tory experience of the teacher who has not been proficient enough to hold a job for a period of years with a district, and the experience of the successful teacher who has found the achievement of tenure to be no serious problem has been decried by many California educators.
Accurate differentiation
between these two types of teacher experience was sought with
271
TABLE
XXX
EXPERIENCE GAINED ON EMERGENCY AND PROVISIONAL CREDENTIALS IN CALIFORNIA SHOULD BE ACCEPTED ON THE SAME BASIS AS PRIVATE AND OUT-OF-STATE SCHOOL EXPERIENCE FOR THE LIFE DIPLOMA Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions r ecomm ending certification
4
21.05
4
21.05
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
3
15.7&
3
15.73
0
0
Local districts
2
10.57
1
5.26
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
1
5.26
0
0
10
52.63
9
47.36
0
0
Totals
272 the suggestion that a minimum residence requirement of 27 months of successful teaching experience in one school system should he required of all persons applying for the Life Diploma• Eleven of nineteen respondents (57*93 per cent) failed to see merit in this recommendation, while five (26.40 per cent) approved it and three (15*83 per cent) declined to express an opinion concerning it. Opposition to this proposal centered in the contention that, although experience differentiation was desirable, this /
proposition would not result in the achievement of accurate discriminations, and serious injustices might be suffered by innocent persons.
These injustices, it was contended, might
be experienced by the very successful teacher who frequently moves from a job to a better one, or when successful married women teachers find it necessary to move with their husbands from one business.location to another.
Data relating to this
proposed practice are presented in Table XXXI. Life Diplomas should be classified as "Inactive.”
Much
criticism has been directed at the issuance of life certifica tion in California because the holder of a Life Diploma has been permitted to leave the field of teaching for any period of time, once the Life Diploma has been awarded, only to re turn years later and resume teaching without being required
273 TABLE
XXXI
A MINIMUM RESIDENCE REQUIREMENT OF 27 MONTHS OF SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE IN.ONE SCHOOL SYSTEM SHOULD BE REQUIRED OF ALL APPLICANTS FOR THE LIFE DIPLOMA Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions r ecommending certification
2
10.57
4
21.05
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
2
10.57
4
21.05
0
0
Local districts
1
5.26
2
10.57
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
5
11
57.89
3
15.78
26.31
10.57
27^ to show any evidence of continued fitness and effectiveness as a teacher. One county superintendent proposed that Life Diplomas not being used should be classified as "Inactive.”
He
described the case of a teacher who, after obtaining life long certification, had left the public schools and worked for twenty-eight years as a private school teacher and tutor. Offered a job as a result of Hie teacher shortage which de veloped during World War II, this teacher resumed her teaching duties in the public' schools without being required to present any proof of “skill as a teacher, or evidence of continued growth and development in-knowledge of current educational trends and methods.
Data concerning this proposal are listed
in Table XXXII. Fifteen of nineteen respondents (79*90 per cent) favored the recommendation.
Three respondents (16.66 per cent) opposed
it while one interviewee (5*26 per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning it. Opponents of this proposal maintained that achievement of this goal would require the establishment of a highly complex system that would be unjustifiably expensive in operation. They also contended that permanent certification would lose the desirable characteristic of protecting the teacher against further certification requirements if these provisions were legally enforced.
275
TABLE
XXXII
LIFE DIPLOMAS HELD BY IERSONS NOT ENGAGED FULL-TIME IN EDUCATIONAL WORK SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED AS "INACTIVE" AND SHOULD BE SUBJECTED TO THE COMPLETION OF PRESCRIBED TRAINING BEFORE BEING PERMITTED TO BECOME "ACTIVE" AGAIN Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes dum t*er ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Instituions recommending certification
a
42.10
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
2
10.57
3
Local districts
3
15.7a
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
15
78.94
3
Totals
0
Decline to state Per dum ber cent
0
0
1
5.26
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5.26
15.7a
15.78
27 6 On the other hand, those persons favoring this recom mendation declared that if efficient instruction, the goal of life certification, is to be guaranteed to the children in California, and if further attacks upon the Life Diploma are to be avoided, prompt correction of these obvious weak nesses must be effected at the earliest possible moment. Periodic requirements should be established for teachers holding Life Diplomas.
In keeping with the growing belief
that teaching requires continued growth and lifelong learning, it was proposed that the satisfaction ofeducational training requirements at regular intervals should be demanded of ers holding permanent certification.
teach
Data concerning the re
sponses to this potential practice are given in Table XXXIII. Fifteen of the nineteen persons interviewed (79 per cent) advocated the implementation of this suggestion.
Four
respondents (21 per cent) opposed it. One interviewee recommended that a prescribed course of training should be developed especially for this purpose and that each school district should be held responsible by law for verifying the completion of required periodic training by all teachers holding a Life Diploma before allowing them to continue to render educational services• A teacher education institution representative urged that the periodic training requirements should attempt to meet particular needs of teachers for special types of
277
TABLE
XXXIII
HOLDERS OF LIFE DIPLOMAS SHOULD BE REQUIRED TO COMPLETE PERIODIC EDUCATIONAL TRAINING REQUIREMENTS TO MAINTAIN THEIR LIFE DIPLOMAS ON "ACTIVE" STATUS Respondents (Total number— -19)
Yes
No
Num
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
ber
Per cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
36. $4
1
5.26
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
4
21.05
2
10.57
0
0
Local districts
2
10.57
1
5.26
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
15
7^.94
4
0
0
Totals
Num
ber
Per cent
21.05
278 training at certain periods of life.
Another person repre
senting a teacher education institution declared that "peri odic requirements should he provided hoth in teaching content as well as teaching technique.11 A county superintendent that was interviewed maintained that periodic training requirements should be determined by the district. Experience on an emergency credential in a special field should be accepted for the Life Diploma.
The need for
special arrangements to permit the acceptance for the Life Diploma of teaching experience gained on an emergency creden tial in such special fields as sight conservation, speech correction, mentally retarded, and deaf by teachers holding a regular credential served as the incentive for this recom mendation.
It was pointed out that outstanding teachers some
times have been reluctant to serve on emergency credentials in the special fields of education because experience so gained has not been accepted for the Life Diploma In California. It was further recommended that such experience should be recognized toward qualification for life certification provi ding the teacher concerned continued to work toward completion of the requirements for a regular credential In the special field in which she was teaching.
Data concerning this proposed
practice are presented in Table XXXIV. Support for this proposal was general.
Seventeen of
279 TABLE
XXXIV
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS SHOULD BE MADE FOR' THE ACCEPTANCE FOR A LIFE DIPLOMA OF EXPERIENCE GAINED ON AN EMERGENCY CREDENTIAL IN A SPECIAL FIELD (MENTALLY RETARDED, DEAF, SPEECH CORRECTION, ETC.,) BY A TEACHER WHO HOLDS A REGULAR CREDENTIAL YET WHO HAS AGREED UPON REQUEST TO SERVE IN THAT SPECIAL AREA Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions r ecommendi ng c erti fi cati on
7
36.34
1
5.26
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
26.31
0
0
1
5.26
Local districts
3
15.73
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
17
S9.47
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
280 nineteen respondents (89.50 per cent) approved it, while one (5*26 per cent) opposed it and one (5*26 per cent) declined to indicate an opinion. It was widely agreed that “such experience should count toward a Life Diploma if the teacher holds a regular credential and is willing to accept such an assignment upon request.” A county office spokesman suggested that credit toward the Life Diploma for experience on an emergency credential should be limited to two or three years. A respondent representing a teacher education institu tion opposed this suggestion on the grounds that the General Elementary credential has already authorized service in these areas of special education, thus making this proposed arrange ment unnecessary. Recency of service and the Life Diploma.
The need for
outlawing claims toward a Life Diploma for teaching service completed many years ago prompted the suggestion that recency time limits during which the last period of teaching service of an applicant for life certification shall have been com pleted should be established. Support for this proposal was recommended by seventeen of nineteen respondents (89*^9 pe** cent) while one person (5.26 per cent) opposed it and one (5*26 per cent) declined to approve or disapprove it.
See Table XXXV for data.
TABLE
XXXV
THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION SHOULD SET A RECENCY TIME LIMIT DURING WHICH THE LAST PERIOD OF SERVICE OF AN APPLICANT FOR A LIFE DIPLOMA SHALL HAVE BEEN COMPLETED Yes
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Respondents (Total number— 19)
Number
Institutions recommending certification
6
31*57
1
5.26
1
5.26
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
3
15.73
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10*57
0
0
0
'0
17
39.47
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
Per cent
Number
No*. Per cent
282 One respondent remarked that "In most oases, claims toward a Life Diploma for teaching experience that ..is very old will automatically defeat themselves#
It is not likely
that a new law is needed to cover this contingency•11 However, a large majority of those persons interviewed concurred that a law to cover such possible contingencies did seem to he in order# Continued Issuance of the Life Diploma in California# Concern for the continued issuance of permanent certification in California was expressed by all persons interviewed.
Some
declared that the announced goals of life certification have not been achieved in California, and predicted that unless steps are taken in the near future to correct certain basic weaknesses in the Life Diploma, its ultimate discontinuance could be expected by all concerned#
Most of the respondents inter
viewed agreed that the Life Diploma could be made to contri/
bute much more to the achievement of the goal of guarantee ing efficient instruction than has been realized.
They
contended that life certification has much to offer, If properly administered, toward providing the children of the state with highly skilled, superior teachers.
They maintained
that any tendencies to regard permanent certification as a sinecure would ultimately result in the deserved elimination of the Life Diploma in California#
Their suggestions to
forestall and prevent the necessity of any such action have
283 been presented previously in this chapter* Three respondents (16*66 per cent) stated that current weaknesses of the Life Diploma have reached sufficient pro portions to justify some doubt as to the wisdom of its con tinued issuance*
This doubt was further indicated by their
refusal to reveal an opinion concerning the proposal*
Four
teen of the eighteen respondents (77*76 per cent) opposed discontinuance of the Life Diploma, while one person (5*55 per cent) contended that life certification in California should not be issued*
Data relating to this proposed poten
tial practice are presented in Table XXXVI. Legal difficulties to be encountered in the establish ment of any retroactive feature which might require present holders of Life Diplomas to take periodic training were recognized by the writer and the respondents*
However, it
was suggested that this need not continue to be the case in regard to any new Life Diplomas which may be issued in the future*
Thompson, as previously indicated in this chapter,
maintained that if the state should decide that teachers now holding life certification must receive additional training to validate their licenses, f,it is entirely within the power of the legislatures to enact such requirements into statutes.” As an answer to current shortcomings of the Life Diploma, a respondent representing a teacher education insti tution suggested that "Provisions for experience and refresher
234
TABLE
XXXVI
THE ISSUANCE OF THE LIFE DIPLOMA IN CALIFORNIA SHOULD BE DISCONTINUED Respondents (Total number— 13)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Instituti ons recommending certification
0
0
7
33.33
1
5.55
Offices of the County Superint endent of Schools
0
0
5
27.77
0
0
Local districts
1
5.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
0
0
0
Totals
1
5.55
14
0 77,77
2
11.11
3
16.66
285 course requirements might eliminate any necessity for discon tinuance of issuance of Life Diplomas!” A city superintendent urged the elimination of the Life Diploma declaring ”lt would make more sense!” III. The literature.
SUMMARY OP CHAPTER The literature reviewed in this
chapter is summarized as follows: 1.
Much argument continues to exist as to the relative
merits of ”broad vs. narrow” certification. 2.
There is increasing criticism of blanket certifi
3.
Demands for certification of the administrator are
cation.
general• It is generally accepted that initial certification should be probationary in nature and valid only for a limited period of time. 5.
The South Carolina plan established three certifi
cation groups with four grade ratings (A,B,C,D) within each group. 6.
The issuance of adult-education certification finds
large basis in the experience of the applicant. 7.
The advent of war usually presages a reduction in
certification standards and the issuance of large numbers of emergency credentials.
286 8.
Losses suffered in certification standards throug
the issuance of emergency certificates are always difficult to regain* 9*
In some states, low-grade teacher certification
must he issued in view of the low wages and prestige that are offered if an ample supply of teachers is to be available* 10#
There is wide agreement that special steps are
needed to provide for the retention of outstanding emergency certificated teachers• 11.
The issuance of life certification should work
to provide the people of a state with the most efficient and effective instruction available* 12.
The issuance of a life certificate should stamp
the holder as "one of the best of the teaching profession!" 13*
There is a tendency in some states toward aban
donment of life certification. 14.
Life certification should remain in effect as
long as the teacher continues to be adequately prepared to render the service that is expected of him by society* 15.
The number of years of teaching service attained
is recognized as a common basis of qualification for life certifica tion. 16.
There is growing agreement that in addition to
a long period of successful experience, evidence of increased
teaching efficiency and continued study should be required as prerequisites for life certification* 17*
There is widespread belief that society is not
justified in granting permanent certification unless such issuance is based upon the requirement of-later study at more or less regular intervals. 18•
The life certificate should be intended only for
the professional teacher who expects to make teaching his life-long work. 19.
The difficulty usually encountered in the revoking
of a life credential is a point of criticism commonly raised by the opponents of permanent certification against its con tinued issuance. 20.
State legislatures have the power to enact legis
lation that would require present holders of life certification to receive additional training to validate their teaching certificates. 21.
The ease with which life certification may be
secured in many states has tended to rob the permanent certi ficate of the meaning and honor which it was originally in tended to conno te • 22.
Many educators still believe that the life certi
ficate could be revised and strengthened in such ways as to make it contribute greatly to the achievement of better and more effective instruction.
288 Selected potential practices relating to types of certification in California,
The data presented in this
chapter serve to justify the following conclusions, 1,
General agreement exists that the California system
of teacher certification should be made as simple as possible, 2,
There is considerable belief that the current Cali
fornia practice of issuing special types of credentials for specific educational services, even though resulting in a large number of different credentials, may be justified in view of the flexibility and accuracy in establishing certifi cation requirements for the satisfaction of unique and special educational needs, 3,
Issuance of a provisional kindergarten-primary
credential was favored by twelve (66,67 P©** cent) of eighteen respondents, 4,
A need for the issuance of counselling and guidance
credentials was recognized by ten (55*53 P©** cent) of eighteen respondents ♦ 5,
Continued issuance of the Junior High School cre
dential was urged by eleven (57,88 per cent) of nineteen respondents, 6,
Strong opposition (fourteen of nineteen interviewees-
77,77 per cent) existed against the proposal to discontinue issuance of Special Secondary credentials.
289 7«
A near three-fourths majority (72.21 per cent) of
the persons participating in this study opposed any restric tion of the services authorized hy Special Secondary creden tials to holders of General Secondary credentials. 8 . Wide support existed (fourteen--70 per cent— of twenty respondents) for limiting teaching services on the kindergarten level to holders of the Kindergarten-Primary credential. 9.
The proposal that the General Elementary credential
be revised to eliminate further authorization of service as a principal of a junior high school was unanimously endorsed by twenty respondents. 10*
Ten of nineteen respondents (52.16 per cent) agreed
that the general requirements (number of years of college work, degree, education courses, etc.,) for the General Elementary credential should be equivalent to the general requirements for the General Secondary credential. 11.
Opposition to the issuance of a "unified credential11
that would permit its holder to teach in any grade from kin dergarten through junior college was expressed by fourteen (73.72 per cent) of nineteen respondents. 12.
A substantial majority— fifteen (78*93 per cent)
of nineteen interviewees— rejected the recommendation that a statement be made in the Education Code to the effect that county boards of education are authorized to establish their
290 local requirements of* training and experience for emergency credentials• 13*
Acceptance of experience gained on emergency and
provisional credentials in California on the same basis as that which permits the acceptance of private and out-of-state . experience for the Life Diploma was favored by ten (52.66 per cent of nineteen persons responding. 14.
The establishment of a minimum residence require
ment of 27 months of successful experience in one school system for all applicants for the life Diploma was viewed with dis favor by eleven (57»93 P©** cent) of nineteen respondents. 15.
The suggestion that Life Diplomas held by persons
not engaged in full-time work in education be classified as "Inactive” and not permitted to become "Active11 again until the completion of prescribed training was supported by fifteen (78.90 per cent) of nineteen respondents. 16.
The proposal that all holders of Life Diplomas
in California be required to complete periodic educational training requirements to maintain their certification on "Active11 status was approved by fifteen (7 8 .90 per cent) of nineteen respondents. 1 7.
Seventeen (89.50 per cent) of nineteen respondents
believed that arrangements should be made to permit acceptance for the Life Diploma of experience gained on an Emergency credential in a special field (mentally retarded, deaf, sight
291 conservation, speech correction, etc*,) by a teacher holding a regular credential. 18.
The enforcement of a recency time limit during
which the last period of service of an applicant for a Life Diploma shall have been completed was recommended by seventeen (89.50 per cent) of nineteen respondents. 19.
Continued issuance of the Life Diploma was urged
by fourteen (77*77 P®** cent) of eighteen respondents. Potential certification practices requiring further study,.
The following potential practices were proposed during
the interviews and could not be submitted to all of the re spondents participating in the study for their considerations 1.
The minimum requirement for emergency credentials
should be 60 units or two years of college work. 2.
The minimum requirement for the Life Diploma of
48 months of successful teaching experience should be increased. 3.
The number of credentials issued in California
should be reduced to four or five general types. 4.
Provisions should be made to permit the offering
of an Industrial Arts major or minor for the General Secondary credential. 5.
County certificates should not be issued.
6.
Provisional credentials should be issued for all
teaching levels.
292 7•
Holders of the General Secondary credential should
he limited to teaching service in the major and minor areas shown on their credentials.
CHAPTER XII ISSUANCE OP TEACHER CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
General bases of issuance of certification*
Three
general bases have been commonly employed among the various states for the Issuance of teacher certificates*
Frazier
described these bases in 19^0 as follows: C1) Up cm college credentials— every state issued one or more types of certificates upon the basis of college credits* Such credits were earned either within or without the state, if in accredited institutions. (2) Upon examinations— -in addition to the issuance of certificates upon the basis of college credentials, various states issued one or more types of certifica tion upon the basis of state, county, or local exam inations. (3) Upon out-of-state certificates by exchange or reciprocity— only a few states issued certificates in exchange for certification issued in other states. Such states usually demanded that out-of-state cer tificates meet the requirements for the certificates issued as equivalents. Applicants submitting out-ofstate certificates for recognition were required to submit evidence concerning educational preparation.1 Principle of fitness and certification.
Lowery recom
mended that certification be issued only for a definite type of work, and that the teacher "shall not be expected to pro-
1 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Minimum Certification Require ments for Teachers," School Life, 26:27, October, 19^0*
294 duce results outside the field for which he is fitted.11 He suggested that the principle of fitness developed by Updegraff in an unpublished analysis of principles relating to school administration be applied according to the steps outlined by Updegraff as follows:
(l) No teacher should be assigned
to any unit or area of work unless he has been considered competent to satisfactorily perform the duties and activities assigned to that unit or area of work, (2) when a teacher has failed in one place he should be given other trials until he has found his proper place, and (3) no teacher should be retained in any assignment who has fallen below the minimum standard of efficiency required for that assignment.2 Factors influencing the issuance of certification. The territorial area covered by a certificate, the kind of -school in which the certificate is valid, the services authorized by the certificate, the period of time for which the certificate is good, and the institution in which the applicant has earned his credentials were regarded by Sangren as factors which could be expected to exert strong influences upon the issuance of certification in any given state.3 2 M* L. Lowery, "Certification of High School Teachers," (unpublished Doctoral thesis, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1924), pp. 45* 53* 2 Paul V. Sangren, "Central Regulation of the Sources of Various Types of Teachers," American Educational Research Association. 3-5*166, February 23, 1937*
295 Adams recommended that the bachelors degree should be regarded as the first prerequisite for the issuance of an elementary teacher's certificate, and the possession of a master's degree should be required for high school certifi cation. ^ In 1947* Frazier reported that only one state in every ten required five years of college work for secondary certi fication, while only one state in every three or four demanded a college education for issuance of elementary certification. He also declared that one teacher out of every eight was not properly prepared to meet the "already low requirements that are made for the regular certificates.f,5 The requirement of a fifth year of training for the issuance of secondary certification was regarded with some question by Grace, who declared that such action, for finan cial reasons, might tend to eliminate some persons who, at a later time, might have achieved competency as teachers.
Grace
suggested that the fifth year should be an in-service training procedure, and that there should be reasonable certainty as to the quality of the Individual before he reaches his fifth
^ E. M. Adams, "New Certification Proposals,” The Texas Outlook. 28:58j February, 1944. 5 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Trends in Certification of Teachers," School Life, 24:3-6, January, 1939*
296 year of training.6 The South Carolina plan.
The South Carolina plan
attempted to base the issuance of teacher certification upon the recognition and encouragement of those qualities in teachers which have been found to contribute toward excellence in teaching.
Reporting this proposed plan in 1944, Prick
suggested that applicants for teaching certification should be issued certificates on the basis of evidence which indi cated that they possessed those qualities that have been found to be indispensable to excellence in teaching.
He stated that
these qualities included: Satisfactory health and physical fitness; personal qualities of cooperativeness, consideration for others, tolerance, poise, and intelligence; professional quali ties, including a knowledge of the objectives of educa tion, understanding of children, ability to organize and direct an appropriate program of education, ability to evaluate the educational program, and a zeal for teaching; scholarship including the ability and disposi tion to establish and maintain desirable pupil-teacher relationships; and an effective participation in the life of the community • • .7 The excellent teacher was described in this study as a person who (l) has those personal qualities of agreeableness,
^ A. C. Grace, ^Teacher Certification--A Problem in Teacher Education,n Education Record, 2j5:29, January, 1942. 7 H. L* Frick, stA Proposed Plan for the Certification of Teachers in South Carolina,” Report of the Investigation of Educational Qualifications of Teachers in South Carolina, University of South Carolina, Columbia, 1944, p. 23.
297 consideration for others, sincerity, and the like, which, make one a desirable associate, (2 ) who also is professionally interested and competent, (3 ) who possesses, among other qual ities, scholarship and culture, and (4) who, in addition to the above, respects children, is respected by them, and is interested and participates in the life of the community in which he teaches.^ Personal qualifications for certification
Personal
requirements of the individual seeking a teacher1s certifi cate have been numerous and varied*
Criteria commonly listed
by educational authorities in the field have included:
(a)
moral character, (b) bodily health, (c) personal fitness— personality and social qualities, (d) proof of loyalty, and (e) Christian character. Moral character*
The need for submitting evidence of
good moral character was recognized by Frazier,9
Lowery,
and C u s h i n g a s an indispensible qualification for certifi cation* 8 Ibid* * p. 30. 9 Benjamin W. Frazier, 11Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,” U* S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, .1938* No* 12, p. 117* ^ M. L* Lowery, o£• cit., p. 71* 11 H. L. Gushing, “A Desirable Procedure for the Issuance of Teachers1.Certificates,” (unpublished Master1s thesis, the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1930), p* 77*
298 Physical fitness.
The physical health of the teacher
must be ascertained, declared Lowery,*^ to such an extent that no instructor afflicted with such a disease as tubercu losis shall be allowed to teach# Allen contended that a health certificate should be re quired of every teacher at the time of the issuance of any certificate and should be supplemented with a thorough health examination each five years thereafter.1^ In 1947, Ott described the national situation in regard to health requirements for teacher certification in the fol lowing words: Many states with good teacher retirement laws re quire candidates for a teaching license to sumbit substantial proof of good health. No state provides for periodic check-up on the mental health or emo tional stability of teachers.1^ Frazier1^ and Cushing1^ agreed that all applicants for teacher certification should be required to submit proof of good physical health.
12
M. L. Lowery, op. cit. . p. 71.
H. B. Allen, “Origin, Development, and Evaluation of the General Policies and Practices Governing Teacher Cer tification in New York State,” (New York University, 1939)* p . 158• 1^ E. Ott, “Why Not More Uniform State Certification of Teachers?” School Management, 16:14, April, 1947. 15
^ Benjamin W. Frazier, pp. cit. , p. 117.
^
H. L. Cushing, o p . cit.,p. 82.
299 Personal fitness,
Brodie,1? Frazier,i® and Lowery^
held that requirements pertaining to personal and social qualities of teachers should be required of all candidates for certification.
Evidence of personal fitness as well as
physical and technical fitness should be a prerequisite to teacher certification. Proof of loyalty,
later certification should be contingent
in part upon evidence of loyal and cooperative service declared Lowery.2^
If this evidence were to assume the form of an oath
of allegiance, Allen stated that he would oppose such action on the basis that an oath was beneath the dignity of the teach ing profession and should be superseded by a more effective measure for protecting our customs and traditions.2^* Evidence of Christian character,
A need for emphasizing
Christian character as vigorously as the candidate1s ability to meet existing standards for certification was described by McCracken,22
^ E, 0, Brodie, 11A Study of Teacher Certification in Texas,*1 (unpublished Doctoral thesis, Hew York University, Hew York, 1952), p. 37* ^ Benjamin ¥, Frazier, op, cit,, p, 117* ^
M, L. Lowery, op, cit,, p, 71*
20 M, L* Lowery, op, cit,, p, 71* 21 H. B, Allen, op* cit., p. 158. 22 0, C, McCracken. ”Is Your College Concerned?** Christ ian Education. 24-25*58, October, 1941,
300 Other personal requirements.
Frazier reported that
United States citizenship or announced intention to attain it, and minimum ages of 18 to 21 have found increasingly wide application as certification requirements throughout the various states. Cooke pointed out that the expression of economic or political views has not constituted sufficient legal grounds to substantiate the denial of issuance of certifiOh
cation* ^ Personality as a factor for certification.
The high
degree of closeness involved in teacher-pupil relationships has led to a long standing recognition of the teacher1s per sonality as an area that is replete with certification impli cations*
Unavailability of reliable personality criteria
has served to block the development of widely accepted per sonality requirements for certification in most instances* The issue has continued to be one characterized by confusion, complexity, a high degree of contention, ambiguity, and un denied importance*
The desire to discover a common point of
departure for solution of this problem has produced many sug gestions and much literature in this field.
23 b . W. Frazier, op. cit* * p. 118. ^ D. H* Cooke, Administering the Teacher Personnel* (Boston, Chicago, B* H. Sanborn & Co., 1939)7 P* 123*
301 Discussing personality certification requirements for high school teachers in 1924, Lowery declared that the quality of personal fitness commonly called 11personality” must needs he accurately defined, and a given degree of personality be demanded of all persons seeking secondary school certification. He added that such social qualities as sympathy, fairness, helpfulness in relations with children, plus a participative interest in the life of the school and community should be regarded as indispensable to all candidates for certification.25 Allen advocated the establishment of certification standards that will provide for active attempts to measure the teacher1s personality.2^ The teacher, declared Freeman, should be possessed of a personality that is balanced emotionally, physically, socially, and spiritually, and demonstrated in a broad variety of interests and activities.2^ In an effort to delimit the various elements involved, Grace suggested that personality,™ as far as teaching is con cerned, should be measured by the following criteria? 1.
Ability to organize thinking logically and to
M. I*. Lowery, pp. cit.. p. 54. 26 H. B. Allen, op. cit., p. 158. 2? H. M. Freeman, ^Teacher Certification, Credits or Competencies,11 Business Education World, 26:263$ January, 1946.
302 present thoughts In an interesting, convincing fashion and dispassionate manner. 2.
Ability to read, write, and speak English fluently.
3-*
Ability to acquire the dress that fits the person
ality rather than the fashion of the moment. 4.
Capacity to withold tactless, embarassing, injurious
or sarcastic comments about others.
Ability to suppress
cynical remarks about personalities or events. 5*
Emotional stability and regard for the laws of
physical and mental health. 6.
Ability to be a good listener, and to be patient,
tolerant, and considerate of the views and problems of others. 7*
Recognition of the attainments of others.
8.
Thoroughness, neatness, accuracy in work, whatever
the assignment. 9.
Ability to cooperate and work with others.
10.
Possession of such qualities as unassuming self-
reliance, aesthetic appreciation, creativeness, and selfdirection.2® Teaching success and certification.
"The obtaining of
successful teachers is still largely a matter of chancel0,wrote Freeman in 1946.
He validated this statement by pointing to
Alonzo C. Grace, "Teacher Certification a Problem in Teacher Education", Education Record. 23*28, January, 1942.
303 the fact that numerous research investigations have thus far been unable to correlate teaching success with (a) the amount of knowledge gained by the teacher, (b) the level of scholar ship achieved, (c) the academic intelligence possessed by the teacher, or (d) the study of particular professional courses. The only aspect of the typical training program that has been found to correlate significantly with successful teaching he reminded the reader, was student teaching experience. Freeman suggested that the fact that teachers on the job have often carried out functions not measured by academic standards might prove to be a partial reason for the low correlation between criteria for certification and actual teaching success.
He reiterated his contention that academic
standards have not indicated the individual1s ability to achieve functional objectives in the following wordss Our present quantitative academic requirements for certification are clearly inadequate to evaluate achievements of teachers who meet these requirements. • Factors of competency and certification.
,
In view of
the tendency to regard teaching ability as being unsuited to measurement in terms of semester units of professional train ing, educators have argued that teacher certification require ments should be exercised as instruments for the stimulation of growth in broadly defined professional competencies.
29 h . M. Freeman, op. cit.. p. 263*
They
30k
have contended that such application of certification standards should obtain for the schools, teachers who are maximally efficient as educated persons who are disposed to grow in the understanding and use of basic cultural achievements of man kind. Freeman declared that application of the following competence factors might prove to be effective in evaluating a person*s readiness for teaching and thus establish another basis for granting teacher certification:
(a) human relations,
(b) pupil relations, (c) professional relations, (d) community world relations, (e) adequate understanding of young people, (f) an appreciation of contemporary society, (g) an acquaint ance with our cultural heritage, and (h) an opportunity to make a major contribution through the thorough mastery of some particular field of specialization.^0 II.
SEIECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO THE ISSUANCE OF TEACHER CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA The search conducted in this study for mal-functioning
areas of teacher certification practice in California indicated the existence of certain specific problems in the general field of issuance.
An analysis of the data gathered in the various
Ibid., pp. 262-263*
305 interviews through the use of the Interview G u i d e d i s c l o s e d the points of view held by the respondents queried concerning suggestions made for the correction of particular weaknesses* The data so gathered are presented in tabular form in this chapter. The California constitution requirement*
The original
intent underlying California constitution course requirements, contended one respondent, was not to limit the fulfillment of this requirement to courses given only in California institu tions, but to allow the acceptance of work completed in approved out-of-state colleges and universities.
However, in
actual practice this provision so worked as to restrict the acceptance of California constitution course requirements to work done only in California teacher education institutions* A change in the law to permit the acceptance of course work equivalent to the California constitution requirement that had been completed in any approved out-of-state university or college within a prescribed time limit was proposed and data relating to the suggested change were gathered. One respondent declared “There is no good reason why approved colleges and universities in any state may not do as good a job in meeting the constitution requirement as Calif ornia teacher education institutions*”
1 See Appendix, p.
This point of view
306 was fully borne out by a one hundred per cent response from the respondents in favor of the proposed change.
Related
data are presented in Table XXXVII, Additional proof of the need for this modification of state certification practice was demonstrated by the passage of related legislation by the 1949 California legis lature.
The new law became effective on October 1, 1949
and directed that county boards of education were not author ized to give the examination on the Constitution of the United States except to applicants for new or renewal pro visional kindergarten-primary or provisional general elem entary credentials.
It also made possible the completion
of the constitution requirement by (l) two semester units of work in any university or college from which undergraduate credits earned are accepted by the State Board of Education as meeting undergraduate credit requirements for credentials issued by the State Board of Education, or (2) completion of two units of work, or the passing of a satisfactory exam ination in a junior college, cbllege, or university of recognized merit in California.2
Action was thus taken in
an area of certification practice already under investigation in this study. Granting credit for valuable and unique experience.
2 State of California, fITitle 5, Education,u California Administrative Code, California State Department of Education, Sacramento, California, section 201 (h), November, 1949.
307
TABLE
XXXVII
COURSE WORK THAT IS EQUIVALENT TO THE CALIFORNIA CONSTITUTION ' REQUIREMENT AND HAS BEEN COMPLETED WITHIN A PRESCRIBED TIME LIMIT OUTSIDE CALIFORNIA SHOULD BE ACCEPTED FOR CALIFORNIA CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— 1&)
les Per dum ber cent
No Number
Per cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
6
44*44
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
27.77
0
0
0
0
Local districts
3
16.66
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
11.11
0
0
0
0
ia
100.00
0
0
0
0
Totals
308 The great scarcity of properly accredited teachers which was so pronounced after World War II gave rise to the suggestion that special provisions should be instituted to grant regular teacher credentials to persons possessing valuable and unique experience#
It was felt that the presence of large military
installations often has presented certain communities with excellent opportunities to avail themselves of the teaching services of highly trained navy or army personnel who were retiring or withdrawing from service.
It was argued that
these persons, in many instances, gave unusual promise of success as teachers but were usually lost to teaching be cause of the various hardships to be encountered by them in completing a long and arduous program of teacher education course requirements.
Data relating to this proposed practice
are listed in Table XXXVIII. Opposition to this proposal (32.71 P©r cent) was based upon three contentions*
(l) California state teacher edu
cation institutions already possess the power to waive requirements in lieu of military experience, (2) emergency credentials should serve to meet current needs of this kind, and (3) great difficulty would be Involved In developing unimpeachable objective means of evaluating experience.
One
respondent declared, #,I would be cautious of the means of evaluation.
It could become a racketl”
Tentative approval of this suggestion was accorded by
309
TABLE
XXXVIII
PROCEDURE SHOULD BE ESTABLISHED BY THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPART MENT OF EDUCATION TO EVALUATE AND GIVE CREDIT TOWARDS REGULAR TEACHING CREDENTIALS TO PERSONS POSSESSING VALUABLE AND UNIQUE EXPERIENCES AND TRAINING IN SUCH FIELDS AS SPECIAL BUSINESS, ARMY, NAVY, ET CETERA, WHO GIVE PROMISE OF BECOMING GOOD TEACHERS YET, FOR VARIOUS REASONS, WOULD FIND IT IMPOSSIBLE TO MEET CURRENT TEACHER EDUCATION COURSE REQUIREMENTS Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes dum Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
or
Offices of the CountySuper int endent of Schools
2
Local districts
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
6
31*57
2
10.57
10.57
2
10.57
1
5.26
2
10.57
2
10.57
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
Totals
6
31.57
10
0
0 52.63
3
15.78
310 six respondents (31*71 per cent).
Support of the recommen
dation was pledged by a representative of a local district on condition that any credit granted should serve only to meet requirements for teaching majors and minors and could not be substituted for educational course requirements in techniques and methods of teaching*
Three respondents (23*83
per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning the issue* The $3*00 credential fee should be increased*
This
suggestion was supported by two respondents (10*57 per cent) on the grounds that rising processing costs would justify an increased charge by the state*
On the other hand, it was
argued by a local district spokesman that since the teacher is regarded as a public servant and an employee of the state, the fee should be entirely abolished.
Please note Table
XXXIX for data relating to this proposed practice* The 84*20 per cent opposition here registered to any proposed increase in the fee charged by the state for the issuance of a credential may be taken to denote possible need for further inquiry into the desirability of the levying of any charge at all by the state for such certification is suance services*
In 19*1-9, the California legislature did not
exhibit any indications of agreement with the majority of the respondents queried concerning the above proposal and increased the fee for state credentials, including life diplomas, from
311
TABLE
XXXIX
THE CURRENT FEE OF $3.00 FOR A CALIFORNIA CREDENTIAL SHOULD BE INCREASED Respondents. (Total number-19)
Yes Number
Institutions recommending certification
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
0
Local districts
Per cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Num Fer ber cent
6
31.57
0
0
0
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
3
15.73
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
2
16
$4*20
1
5.26
10.57
io; 57
312 $3*00 to $4.00.
This became effective as of October 1, 1949.
A fee should be charged for the Issuance of a creden tial.
This issue was raised by a respondent who opposed any
charge by the state for the issuance of teacher certification. Data concerning this proposal are presented in Table XL. Opposition to the discontinuance of a credential fee (53*55 per cent) was- based primarily upon the belief that elimination of an issuance charge f,would result in widespread carelessness in the safeguarding and personal handling of individual credentials by California teachers.n
One respon
dent predicted that elimination of the issuance fee might well result in a tremendous increase in requests from teachers who would prefer to seek re-issuance of certification rather than make a prolonged search for a lost credential that had been misplaced though the carelessness of its holder. While a majority of the respondents (35*55 per cent) favored retention of a fee* it is noteworthy that 33.88 per cent of those interviewed opposed the charge and 5*55 per cent declined to openly advocate its continuance. A fee should be charged for re-issuing lost or destroyed credentials.
The practice of expending considerable sums of
state funds for the re-issuance of lost or destroyed creden tials without cost to the holder of such certification was subjected to intense study and question by many of the persons
313
TABLE
XL
A FEE SHOULD BE CHARGED FOR THE ISSUANCE OF A CALIFORNIA CREDENTIAL Respondents (Total number— IS)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state NumPer ber cent
Institutions r ecommendi ng certification
3
16.66
4
22.22
1
5.55
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
4
22.22
1
5.55
0
0
Local districts
1
3.55
2
11.11
0
0
State offices
2
11.11
0
0
0
10
55*55
7
1
5* 55
Totals
0 33.33
314 interviewed*
Related data are presented in Table XLI.
It
was commonly held that the failure of teachers to exercise a reasonable degree of care in placing their credentials in places of safety has exposed the state to much unnecessary expense for the re-issuance of credentials that were, in many instances, not actually lost or destroyed but were ®put away so well that they could not be found® when needed. The high degree of unanimity expressed in favor of this proposal (89*45 per cent) suggests the extent to which this point of view may be shared. Opposition to the suggestion was based upon the con tention that such a fee would prove to be unfair in instances when a credential might be lost in the mails or stolen.
Dis
approval of this recommendation was also expressed upon the grounds that certification should be issued without charge to all state employees. Expenditure of fees by the Division of Credentials, long delays in the issuance of credentials might be reduced or eliminated, it was declared, if the Division of Credentials were permitted to expend fees collected to provide needed services when peak issuance demands were experienced, instead of being required to deposit said fees in the general fund of the state.
Belated data are given in Table XLII.
Opposition to this proposal was generally based upon the possibility that the ^expenditure of fees collected might
315
TABLE
XLI
A FEE SHOULD BE CHARGED FOR THE RE-ISSUANCE OF A LOST OR DESTROYED CREDENTIAL Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Num ber
Per cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions r eeo mm endi ng certificati on
6
42,10
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
26.31
1
5.26
0
0
Local districts
3
15.7^
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
1
5.26
0
0
Sxil7
39.47
2
10.57
0
0
Totals
316 TABLE
XLI I
ALL FEES COLLECTED FOR THE ISSUANCE OF CREDENTIALS SHOULD • BE EXPENDED BY THE DIVISION OF CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— IS)
Yes
No Per dum ber cent
Decline to state Per . Num ber cent
Number
Per cent
Institutions recommending certification
6
33.33
1
5.55
1
5.55
Offices of the County Super intendent of Schools
2
11.11
2
11.11
1
5.55
Local districts
2
11.11
1
5.55
0
0
State offices
1
5.55
1
5.55
0
0
11
61.11
5
27.77
2
Totals
11.11
317 well result in a proportionate reduction of the Division of Credentials1 budgetary appropriations*
These appropriations
were viewed by the persons interviewed as utterly incapable of providing the services which the Division has been con sistently called upon to render* ^ chest x-ray should be required of all applicants for credentials*
Continued discovery of teachers in varying
stages of infectious tuberculosis prompted the recommendation that no certification^.-initial, renewal, or otherwise— should be issued until the applicant—had submitted to a chest x-ray examination*
Data relating to this proposal are given in
Table XLIII. Eighteen out of nineteen respondents (9^*7^
cent)
urged the adoption of this proposal as a requirement for cer tification.
It was also suggested that periodic chest x-ray
examinations be required of all holders of life certification* While it was noted that there was no reason why chest x-ray requirements should not be established by local and county boards of education, it was recommended that chest x-ray reports completed within the six month period prior to appli cation for any type of certification might well be demanded by the state* Temporary suspension of credentials of teachers af flicted with infectious or contagious diseases*
Chances of
obtaining voluntary withdrawal of teachers stricken with
3IS TABLE
XLIII
A GHEST X-RAY SHOULD BE REQUIRED OF ALL APPLICANTS FOR CREDENTIALS Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes dum ber
No Per cent
dum ber
Per cent
Decline to state dum Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
g
42.10
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
2
10.57
1
5.26
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
18
94.74
1
5.26
0
0
Totals
319 contagious diseases from active service in time to prevent further exposure of pupils and enable quick recovery of the teacher would be greatly enhanced* contended a respondent from a county office> if the teacher1s credential could be suspended for a limited period of time.
Subsequent reactiva
tion of certification would then be permitted when the teacher had recovered to such a point as to exclude possi bility of further infection. Such provisions, stipulated one respondent, should apply only to major communicable diseases, and not to such minor afflictions as colds and influenza. Opposition to this recommendation stemmed in one instance, from the fact that certain stages of tuberculosis have been rendered non-contagious by treatment and have been regarded, in such cases, as temporary in nature.
It was
contended that while pupils should never be exposed to infect ious diseases, many teachers with tuberculosis in an arrested stage could and should be permitted to remain in active service.
Data relating to this proposal are presented in
Table XLIV. iL Psychiatric examination should be required.
Aimed
at achieving more accurate selection of candidates for teacher certification with personalities better suited to the needs of teaching, the establishment of a psychiatric examination
320
TABLE
XLIV
THE CREDENTIALS OF TEACHERS AFFLICTED WITH INFACTIONS OR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES SHOULD BE SUSPENDED FOR A LIMITED PERIOD OF TIME WITH SUBSEQUENT REACTIVATION OF THE CREDENTIAL BEING PERMITTED ON RECOVERY OF THE TEACHER TO THE POINT OF EXCLUSION OF FURTHER INFECTION OR CONTAGION Respondents (Total number— IS)
Yes NumPer ber cent
No Num Per ber cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
a
44 •44
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
27.77
0
0
0
Local districts
2
11.11
1
5.55
0
State offices
1
5.55
1
5.55
0
16
gg.33
2
11.11
0
Totals
©
321 as a part of the health certificate examination was urged. Opposition to this proposal (52.71 per cent— see Table XLV) was centered in the following charges:
(l) psy
chiatric examination should be a part of the training institution?s teacher screening program, (2) the expense involved in the administration of such a test might prevent its use, and (3) the unavailability of reliable test technicians in this field would work against the implemen tation of the plan.
It should be noted that 36.83 per cent
of the respondents favored this proposal while 10*52 per cent declined to state an opinion concerning it. Ill* l*he literature*
SUMMARY OP CHAPTER The related literature reviewed in
this chapter is summarized as follows: 1*
Teacher certification is generally issued on the following bases:
(l) upon college credentials,
(2) upon examinations, and (3) by exchange or reciprocity* 2.
%The #,principle of fitnessn developed by Updegraff shouid be studied as a possible basis for the issuance of teacher certification*
3.
Various factors, territorial area, type of school to be served, length of period of validity, requirements of the teacher education institution,
TABLE
XLV
A PSYCHIATRIC EXAMINATION SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED AND REQUIRED AS A PART OF THE HEALTH CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes
No Per dum ber cent
Decline to state . Num Per ber cent
Number
Per cent
Institutions recommending certification
5
26.31
2
10.57
1
5.26
Offices of the County Sup erintendent of Schools
1
5.26
5
26.31
0
0
Local districts
1
5.26
2
10.57
0
0
State offices
0
0
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
7
10
52.63
2
10.52
36.34
323 number of years of college training, etc., influence the issuance of certification in various states. 4.
South Carolina has attempted to base the issuance of teacher certification upon the recognition and encouragment of those qualities in teachers which have been found to contribute toward excellence in teaching.
5#
Personal requirements for the issuance of teacher certification are numerous and varied throughout the states.
6..
The accurate measurement of personality is gener ally recognized as a factor that is vital to the careful evaluation of qualifications for the issuance of teacher certification.
7.
Existing academic requirements for the issuance of teacher certification cannot be relied upon to accurately predict the teaching success to be achieved by persons satisfying those requirements.
8.
Requirements for the issuance of certification should be exercised in such manner as to stimulate the teacher's continued growth in broad areas of professional competencies.
Selected potential practices relating to the issuance of teacher certification in California.
The following
conclusions are based upon the data presented In this chapters 1*
One hundred per cent of the respondents queried favored the acceptance of course work that is equivalent to the California constitution require ment and has been completed within a prescribed time limit in an approved institution outside California for California credentials.
2.
Establishment by the California State Department of Education of procedure to evaluate and give credit toward regular teaching credentials for unique and valuable experience was opposed by ten (52.71 per cent) of nineteen respondents.
Six
(31*71 per cent) interviewees favored the imple mentation of~the suggestion while three (15*83 per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning it. 3.
General opposition (84.18 per cent) to any attempt to increase the current $3*00 credential issuance fee was expressed by sixteen of nineteen respond ents.
4.
Continued assessment of a fee for the issuance of a credential was urged by ten (55*55 per cent) of eighteen persons queried.
5.
A wide margin (89*45 per cent) of opinion favoring
the charging of a fee for the re-issuance of a lost or destroyed credential existed among nine teen respondents. 6.
The expenditure of all fees collected by the Division of Credentials for the issuance of credentials was advocated by eleven (61.10 per cent) of eighteen persons queried on this issue.
7.
Establishment of the requirement that chest x-rays be taken of all applicants for credentials was advocated by eighteen (9^.81 per cent) of nineteen respondents.
8.
The enforcement of legal provisions for the sus pension of the credentials of teachers afflicted with infectious diseases for a limited period of time with subsequent reactivation of the creden tial being permitted on recovery of the teacher to the point of exclusion of the possibility of any further infection was recommended by sixteen (88.87 per cent) of eighteen persons interviewed.
9.
Inclusion of a psychiatric examination as a re quired part of the health certificate examination was opposed by ten respondents (52.71 per cent). Seven interviewees (36.85 per cent) favored the proposal, while two (10.52 per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning it.
Potential certification practices requiring further study.
The following proposed practices were received
in the interviews and could not be submitted to all of the respondents participating in the study for their consideration: 1.
Health certificate standards for teacher certifi cation should be determined through joint efforts of the California State Department of Health and the various professional medical organizations throughout the state,
2.
Local districts should be required to conduct annual health examinations of all teachers employed by them,
3.
More points of application for teacher certification should be established in California,
4.
All persons applying directly to the Division of Credentials for teacher certification should be required to obtain satisfactory scores in a pro fessional aptitude examination before certification may be issued to them.
CHAPTER XIII RENEWAL OP CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
It is the concern of the state to license and keep in service only those teachers who possess the ability, training, and desire to exercise the force inherent in their strategic position, for the greatest good • . .3. School teachers, undeniably, have played no small part in determining the ultimate destiny of this country.
This may
be said without minimizing or overlooking other influences, important and numerous, which have shaped the destinies of nations.
Consciously or unconciously, the teacher has wielded
great power over the social economic, governmental, and spirit ual life of the nation.
Broad fulfillment of the purpose
described in the above quotation has been clearly recognized as an objective of the state certification program, which may be further advanced through the adoption of a certification policy which includes the principle of recertification based upon periodic submission of evidence of in-service training. Underlying theory of recertification.
Frazier stated
that "certification is administered primarily as a condition of eligibility for employment*1, and hence has labored under
^ Maxwell Meyersohn, "Educational and Legal Aspects of In-Service Training and Certification of Teachers with Special Reference to New York State," (thesis) New York, 1939* ^author, 514 W. 110th St.)
328 a heavy burden inasmuch as its primary concern has been with minimum requirements for first teaching certificates.
The
high degree of emphasis that has been placed upon the satisfy ing of initial requirements for issuance of a first certifi cate, and the correspondingly lesser-importance that has been attached to the completion of successively higher require ments for renewal and/or exchange of certification have tend ed to relegate teacher certification, once achieved, to the mere status of nothing more than a legal starting point for employment of the teacher.
It may be argued that recertifi
cation could and would, if properly administered, result in sweeping improvement of on-the-job instruction.2
Frazier
also declared that all certification granted to inexperienced teachers should be probationary in nature, and limited in duration.^ Myersohn held the opinion that the practice of renew ing the teacher*s certificate "is as fundamental as the principle of certification itself; for both concern the right of a person to practice the teaching profession."1*
2 Benjamin W. Frazier, "State Certification Require ments as a Basis for Promoting,Professional Standards," American Association of Colleges Yearbook. 13-15532-38, 1935* ^ Benjamin W. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938. no. 12, P. 152. ** Maxwell Myersohn, op. cit.. p. 82.
329 In-service training.
The concept of training on-the-
job for teachers has been based upon the assumption that preliminary institutionalized teacher preparation was incom plete, and the individual entered the initial teaching experience without possession of the desired degree of teaching skill.
Such assumption, declared Stine, was not
new and could be seen operating in other professions, for example, the medical
profession.^
This postulation of the inadequacy of the teacher1s preliminary training was further supported by Jaggers who :■> argued that those persons who expect to remain in the pro fession must be required "to advance steadily toward complete preparation. Frazier reported that less than half of the different kinds of renewable or exchangeable certificates issued throughout the United States required any evidence of inservice training.7 Bases for renewal of certification.
Many American
5 M. E. Stine, 11Influence of Permanent Teacher Certifi cation on Education of.Teachers in Service,” School and Society. 42:707-709, November 25, 1935* 6 R 0 E. Jaggers, "Teacher Gertification by the State,” Phi Delta Kappa a. 25:142, December, 1940. 7 Benjamin W. Frazier, op. cit.. p. 150.
330
educators have agreed that if a state program of teacher cer tification were to he effective in bringing about widespread improvement in instruction in the statefs schools, the require ments for renewal of certification were of vital import.
The
bases established in various states for the renewal of certi ficates have varied widely.
Renewal requirements commonly have
included the following types of evidences
(a) additional edu
cational training, (b) successful teaching experience, (c) travel, and (d) examination. Additional educational training:.
Lowery suggested that
the interests of education could best be served by constantly reminding the teacher that, although once achieved, certifica tion may be lost at some later time by failure of the holder to maintain or add to his qualifications.^ The employment of requirements which will lead teachers to continue their preparation after they have entered teaching service have been regarded as an important part of the state*s program of teacher preparation and certification.9
in no case
should the holder of a low grade certificate be permitted to secure a second renewal without verification of increased qualification.10 8 M. L. Lowery, ^Certification of High School Teachers,** (unpublished Doctoral thesis, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1924), p. 57. 9 R # E. Jaggers, o£. cit•, p. 141. 10 Virginia State Board of Education, ^Regulations Gov erning the Certification of Teachers in Virginia,,, Richmond Bulletin Vol. XI, Ho. 2, 1928, p. 1?0.
331 Frazier maintained that if the applicant has not attained the standards established by the state for its higher-grade certificates, the renewal or exchange of lowergrade certification covering the same type of service must be predicated upon the presentation of satisfactory evidence of additional education.13* Successful teaching experience.
Gubberley gave strong
support to those who advocated the renewal of certification on the basis of success in actual teaching situations.
The
measurement of teacher success, he recommended, should be determined in the following manner:
(l) each county and city
superintendent should fill out and sign, in triplicate, a yearly success-certificate for each teacher and supervisory officer under their respective jurisdictions.
One copy of
the success-certificate should be forwarded to the teacher or supervisory officer concerned, one copy should be filed in the office of the county superintendent of schools, and the third copy should be forwarded to the examining and certifi cation division of the state department of education, (2) the individual teacher*s certificate should not be renewed unless the average of the success-certificate grades issued for that teacher during the years, not exceeding three in number, since
^ 11 Benjamin W. Frazier, "Development of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers," XJ. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938, Ho . 12., p. 152.
332 the teacherfs certificate wag granted or last renewed, were equal to the success-grade average computed for all teachers during the indicated period, (3) teachers whose success-grade average had fallen helow the success-average of the period during which their certification was valid would secure renewal if successful in a re-examination for certification. Failure in re-examination would automatically result in loss of the certificate previously held, and (4) certification held by teachers who had proved themselves to be successful on the basis of success-grade averages would be renewed without re-examination.^-2 Even though approximately two certificates in five were renewed or extended upon no other consideration than successful teaching e x p e r i e n c e , F r a z i e r stated that nemphasis upon successful teaching experience, rather than upon addition al scholarship, tends to retard the advancement of the scholastic preparation of teachers in service,*1 and that the renewal or exchange of certification should be contingent not only upon demonstrated success in teaching, but upon evidence of additional professional training and education.^
^ E. P. Gubberley, State and County Educational Reorganization. (New York, The Macmillan Company, 19227 P* 132. ^
Benjamin W. Frazier, pp. pit., p. 33*
^
Ibid., pp. 150-52.
333 Refusal of a district to verify length of successful teaching experience of a teacher who has been consistently re-hired by that district has not been permitted to act to deny that teacherfs application for renewal of certification unless charges of unfitness have been filed against him.1^ Examination*
Cubberley contended that the renewal of
certification should be based upon evidence of continued pro fessional advancement as indicated by the achievement of a satisfactory grade in state-wide annual teacher-suecess ratings and examinations*^ Travel*
A proposal that the extension of teaching
certificates must not be limited to college training require ments alone, but should be based also upon ample provisions for the recognition of travel and other worthwhile experience was recommended by Adams*17 A report of the New York State Regents Inquiry con tained the following recommendation; Make the continuing right of all teachers to teach depend on evidence of continued growth and service, determined not solely by courses but also by worthwhile scholarship, travel, and community service. . *1°
^5 Alfred E. Lentz, "Dismissal of Teachers because of Non-Renewal of Credentials," Sierra Educational News* 40:38, January, 1944. 16 E. P. Cubberley, o£. cit., p* 181. 17 E. M. Adams, op. cit* * p* 58. IS M. Meversohn* op* cit., p. 79•
334 Recertification and tenure.
It generally has been
held that a permanent teacher1s failure to maintain his certification has voided his employment by the district the very instant his credential expired just as surely and certainly as if he had voluntarily left the service of that district*
In such instance, Lentz reported, none of the
provisions of California tenure law have operated thereafter to restore the permanent teacher who has failed to renew his credential to his previous position of employment in his district.
later employment of the teacher concerned could
be effected only at the discretion of the governing board of the district.
However, Lentz continued, no teacher, especially
one holding permanent tenure, can be deprived of his certifi cation to teach in any of the public schools of California without the filing of some sort of charge against him, and without being afforded the right of trial thereon.^ Legislation concerning renewal of certification.
The
legislative body of the state must establish fundamental renewal policies if a firm legal foundation is to be provided for a state program of recertification and in-service training declared Meyersohn.
He suggested that the following statement
should be made to all prospective teachers:
Alfred E. Lentz, op. cit.» p. 5 8 .
535 You may, upon satisfaction of certain pre-service requirements, be granted legal permission to teach; but it is also required that you continue active training after you have been admitted to the pro fession* You shall be expected, as long as you are in the service to submit evidence at stated intervals, to indicate that you are making an earnest effort to ward professional improvement* When, without good reason, you do not fulfill this condition, your legal permission to teach shall be withdrawn* * .20 Meyersohn reiterated that proper legal provisions for recertification would strengthen the position of teacher tenure by encouraging teachers to go ahead with regular and continuous programs of professional improvement, and by keeping them from resting on their laurels*
Proper certifi
cation legislation, he declared, should accomplish the following: 1*
Clearly establish the public policy with regard
to recertification and in-service training. 2.
Supply the standards necessary to limit the dis
cretion of administrative authorities in order to effect a valid delegation of power to prescribe in-service require ments. 5*
Clarify the right of the certificating authority
to prescribe in-service requirements for teachers on perma nent tenure, and 4.
Protect permanently appointed teachers against
unwarranted or summary removal for failure to comply with
20 Maxwell Meyersohn, op. cit*, p. 81.
336
in-service requirements*2 -1The South Carolina plan*
The program of certification
instituted in South Carolina in 1944 provided that a teacher*s certification would become invalid when he withdrew or be came inactive in teaching unless he notified the State Director of Teacher Education and Certification that he was available for placement*
During the first year of the holder*s failure
to teach, the certificate was to be regarded as inactive; if the holder failed to secure a satisfactory position in the second year, his certification was to be regarded as lapsed* A lapsed certificate was to be renewed on presentation of evidence by the applicant that he had maintained his interest in and qualifications for teaching*
Attendance at
summer schools, advanced credits, and other activities were to be accepted as satisfactory evidence of continued growth and preparation.
The longer the certificate had been
allowed to lapse, the greater the amount of evidence of continued interest and proficiency required for its renewal.22
Need for carefully developed state recertification program*
Meyersohn offered the following points in support
of carefully developed state certification renewal programs in 1939:
2^* M. Meyersohn, op. cit*, p. 82, 83* 22 E. R. Crow, 11Teacher Examinations and the South Carolina fixation Program* Educational Record, 25*ol, October, 1947*
337 1*
In-service training is necessary in order that
teachers may continuously increase their technical skills and grow culturally. 2.
The fact that teachers have been and are aware
of the necessity for in-service training is indicated by the unusual growth in agencies and means of in-service train ing during the past century. 3.
The issuance by the state of certificates which
confer an absolute right to teach constitutes an unwarranted disregard of the in-service improvement of teachers. k.
Certification programs should include regulations
which provide for recertification (renewal) dependent upon submission of evidence of in-service training, and 5.
The state cannot completely fulfill its duty, if
it limits its interest to pre-service teacher requirements and neglects the professional growth of teachers after they have been certified.2^ II.
SELECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO THE RENEWAL OP CERTIFICATION California educators have become increasingly aware of
the fact that the renewal practices involved in the operation of the California program of certification have exercised
2^ M. Meyersohn, op. cit., p. 29$ 78.
338 far-reaching influences upon the achievement or non-achieve ment of accepted state certification objectives.
They have
contended, in various instances, that present renewal pro cedures have not fully realized their potential for the improvement of instruction in California public schools. Some respondents urged that new legal provisions should be made to promote greater exploitation of the opport unities inherent in the use of existing renewal requirements as state instruments for guaranteeing continued availability of the highest types of instructional skill for the children of California. The opinions of persons actively engaged in varying phases of the California teacher certification program con cerning current California certification renewal practices are examined in this chapter. Health examinations for all persons requesting renewal of credentials.
The ever-present need of providing greater
protection for the health of California school children was reflected in a recommendation that all applicants for re newal of credentials be required to submit to health exam inations specially designed to insure the achievement of this objective. One respondent cited an instance in which a teacher with active tuberculosis had been permitted to remain in the
339 classroom until only a few months before her death.
The
number of children exposed to this disease through this negligence was unjustifiably large. A second case involving a teacher whose mental bal ance had been under question for some time was reported by another respondent.
Eventually the teacher concerned dis
pelled all doubts as to her sanity by disrobing in front of the children of her class and dancing upon a table. Other occurrences similar to those described here probably could be cited as evidence further verifying the need for periodic checks of the teacher1s physical and mental health.
Data concerning this proposed practice are presented
in Table XUJI. Sixteen (88.89 P©** cent) of eighteen respondents favor ed this suggestion, while one (5*55 per cent) opposed it and one (5.55 per cent) declined to state an opinion concerning it. A spokesman for a county office of the superintendent of schools suggested that 11This requirement should be placed in effect when the teacher begins to seek five year renewals of credentials.**■ Another respondent recommended that all holders of life certification should also be subjected to periodic health check-ups. Change of renewal date.
Failure to effect required
340
TABLE
XLVI
A RENEWAL HEALTH EXAMINATION SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED AND REQUIRED OF ALL PERSONS APPLYING FOR CREDENTIAL RENEWALS Respondents (Total number— IB)
Yes
No dum Per ber cent
Decline to state dum Per ber cent
Number
Per cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
3B.BB
0
0
1
5.55
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
27.77
0
0
0
0
Local districts
2
11.11
1
5.55
0
0
State offices
2
11.11
0
0
0
0
16
88.89
1
5.55-
1
5.55
Totals
34l prompt renewal of credentials that expire on November 30 sometimes has resulted In the loss of pay to teachers for teaching services rendered, also in illegal service by teachers whose certification has not been properly renewed, and in great inconvenience and embarrassment to districts whose teachers have thus allowed themselves to become in eligible to perform contracted duties*
The district availing
itself of the services of an improperly accredited teacher has made itself liable to the possible loss of all state financial aid, and the children involved in such situations usually have suffered substantial educational losses* To avoid these unhappy consequences* it has been charged that many offices of county superintendents of schools have found it necessary to establish files and provide cleri cal help to conduct a constant warning service to all dis tricts whose teachers have allowed their certification to approach expiration*
Even though such protective service
to the district and to the teacher frequently has involved a sizable expenditure of funds, it was argued that it could be justified as an educational service of vital importance to the child,to the community, and to the state* Speedy elimination of these various undesirable results of malfunctioning renewal practice was the avowed goal of the recommendation here discussed*
Originally,
it was believed that a change of the expiration date to
342 January 1 would accomplish the desired effect.
However,
subsequent interviews indicated a wide spread of opinion as to the probable effectiveness of this proposal even though broad agreement as to the need for some kind of remedial action was discerned.
Data relating to this proposal are
given in Table XLVII, Seven respondents (35 per cent) of twenty favored the suggestion, while seven (35 per cent) opposed it, and six (30 per cent) refused to state opinions concerning the issue raised. Comments of various-respondents tended to confirm interpretation of the-above percentages as revealing a distinct likelihood that this proposal would not bring about the improvements needed. A. respondent from a teacher education institution suggested that the credential renewal date should be changed to July 1.
Another interviewee urged that the application
for renewal should be required by law to be on file in the Division of Credentials by May 1 of the year of expiration. Although the two recommendations here described could not be submitted to all of the respondents participating in the study, those who were given an opportunity to evaluate them were quick to agree that any steps which could be taken to require the submission of renewal applications during the early spring months of the school year might do much to lessen
343
TABLE
XLVII
THE CURRENT DATE OF RENEWAL SHOULD BE CHANGED FROM NOVEMBER 30 TO JANUARY 1 Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
3
15
2
10
3
15
Offices of the County Superin tendent of Schools
2
10
3
15
2
10
Local districts
2
10
1
5
State offices
0
0
1
5
1
5
Totals
7
35
7
35
6
30
344 demands upon the Division of Credentials for the issuance of renewed certification during summer and fall periods* Renewal of credentials prior to the beginning of the school year*
Added protection against the possibility of
losing teaching services through the failure of teachers to renew certification might be secured by districts if teachers whose credentials were about to expire during a school year could be required to renew their credentials before the begin ning of that school year*
Table XLVIII presents data con
cerning this proposed practice* Success for this proposal was predicted by thirteen (65 per cent) of twenty respondents.
Four respondents (20
per cent) feared that the recommendation lacked important provisions and opposed it on such grounds.
Three interviewees
(15 per cent) declined to declare opinions concerning the suggestion. Opponents of this recommendation agreed to support it if renewal procedures could be made to work in such manner as to reduce rather than add to the current peak load of requests for certification that usually precede the opening of school. One such opponent proposed that a new law be enacted requir ing that the contracting teacher hold certification that would not expire during the ensuing school year before a contract could be legally signed for teaching services for that school year.
He also recommended that legal provisions
345
TABLE
XLVIII
TEACHERS WHOSE CREDENTIALS WILL EXPIRE DURING A SCHOOL YEAR SHOULD BE REQUIRED TO RENEW THEIR CREDENTIALS BEFORE THE BEGINNING OF THAT SCHOOL YEAR Respondents (Total number— 20)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per dum ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
35
0
0
1
5
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
4
20
1
5
2
10
Local districts
2
10
1
5
0
0
State offices
2
10
1
10
0
0
13
65
4
3
15
Totals
20
3*6
be made permitting a teacher to sign a contract for an ensur ing year if that teacher1s application for renewal of expirt * ing certification had been received by the Division of Credentials not less than thirty O o ) days prior to the date of the signing of the said contract. Such legal provisions, it was predicted, might result in concentration of renewal requests into the early spring rather than in the months immediately preceding the beginn ing of the school year.
Such an occurrence could conceivably
reduce the heavy demands made upon the Division of Credentials during the summer and fall months, and promote a steady flow of credential renewals during peri'bds of the year when state certification services were not taxed to the utmost* III.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature*
The related literature reviewed in this
chapter is summarized as follows2 1*
Current administration of requirements for renewal
of certification is not bringing about improvements in on-thejob training to the fullest extent possible. 2.
The principle of renewal of teacher certification
is fundamental to the improvement of instruction. 3.
The initial training of the teacher is usually
Inadequate. 4.
Additional educational training, successful teach-
347 ing experience, travel, and examination are common require ments for renewal or teacher certification, 5*
Continued professional growth and improvement in
instruction are criteria of the effectiveness of a state1s provisions regulating the renewal of teacher certification, 6.
Success in teaching is generally recognized as
an important prerequisite to the renewal of certification, 7*
The continuing right of all teachers to teach
should depend upon the presentation of evidence of continued growth and service. 8.
Many states have not developed effective legal
policies governing the renewal of teacher certification. 9.
The enforcement of periodic in-service require
ments for all holders of certification is highly desirable. 10.
Certification should lapse when a teacher with
draws from active teaching, 11.
lapsed certification should be renewed upon pre
sentation by the applicant of evidence that he has maintained continued growth and development in his interest in and his qualifications for teaching. 12.
Teachers may be expected to continuously increase
their technical skills and grow culturally under the pro visions of a carefully planned in-service training program. 13.
Teachers generally -recognize the necessity for
in-service training programs.
348 14.
Certification which confers an absolute right to
teach regardless of continued growth in professional train ing and fitness to teach by the teacher constitutes an un warranted disregard of the child1s educational welfare. 15.
The state cannot hope to achieve its certification
goals if it limits its interest to pre-service teacher train ing requirements. Selected potential practices relating to the renewal of certification in California.
The data presented in this
chapter support the following conclusions: 1.
Considerable belief exists that new legal pro
visions are needed in California to bring about more effect ive use of renewal requirements in the achievement of state certification goals and objectives. 2.
Sixteen (88.89 per cent) of eighteen respondents
advocated the requirement of a health examination for all persons seeking renewal of teacher certification. 3.
There was widespread opinion to the effect that
change of the expiration date of November 30 to a date that would encourage application for renewal of certification during early spring months of the school is highly desirable. 4.
Thirteen (63 per cent) of twenty respondents
favored the establishment of provisions requiring the teacher to renew credentials that will expire during a school year
349 before the beginning of that school year* Potential certification practices requiring further study*
The following suggestions were made by respondents
during the interviews and could not be submitted for con sideration to all persons participating in the study: 1.
Applications for renewal should be accompanied
with a re-filing of retirement papers to bring the records of the person applying for renewal up-to-date. 2.
The instructions on current credentials need to
be re-written to make the renewal procedures and service authorizations more clear.
♦ CHAPTER XIV REVOCATION OP CERTIFICATION I.
REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE
It is axiomatic that the schools exist for the pupils, and that their welfare, which is the primary interest of the state, should be given first con sideration • • One fact stands out in the entire history of cases concerning the revocation of teacher certification* - That, in spite of the large number of teachers, certificates are rarely revoked.
This may be ascribed primarily to the fact
that educators generally have tended to be very reticent about putting the law into use.
It commonly has been agreed
in educational circles that the revocation law has been most distasteful to apply and should be employed only in extreme instances.j Legal provisions for the revocation of certification have thus.become, more than anything else, a whip to hold over the heads of teachers• The fifteen year period between 1923 and 1938, accord ing to Frazier, produced a total of only forty-one instances of the revocation of teachers certificates in ten states.
^ Benjamin W. Frazier, "Department of State Programs for the Certification of Teachers,” U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1938. No. 12*, p. 141.
351 Of this number twenty-three certificates were revoked in the p name of immorality* As late as 193^> the states of Arkansas, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Vermont did not define any Specific causes for revocation, while Colorado, Delaware, Massachusetts, and Hew Hampshire had failed to establish any legal provisions encompassing certification revocation.3 Theory underlying the revocation of certification. The general welfare of the pupils has been the primary con sideration involved in revocation of certification proceedings. Legal authority of the state to grant teaching creden tials has implied a like authority, within the limits of the statutes, to revoke such credentials.
What the state has had
the right to give, it also has had the right to take away.^ Causes for revocation of certification.
Hostetler
reported that the most frequently mentioned specific causes for revocation of the teacherfs certificate were:
(a) im
morality, (b) negligence, (c) incompetency, (d) violation of contract, and (e) intemperance.
2 Ibid. . pp. 3» 24y. 3 Ivan Hostetler, "Legal Causes for the Revocation of Teachers1 Certification,*1 American School Board Journal, September, 193^* P* 39* k
Ivan Hostetler, opi. cit. . p. 18.
352 Seven states revoked "for cause11 and the revoking authorities were given the legal right to determine such "cause."
In nine other states provisions were made for the
revocation of certification for any cause that would have prevented the issuance of certification. Certification has also been revoked on the grounds of failure to make daily preparation or refusal to attend a teachers1 institute.
Offenses committed prior to the issu
ance of the certificate have not been recognized as valid bases for revocation.
If unprofessional conduct was charged,
proof was required that such conduct had affected the charac ter of the teacher as a teacher rather than as an individual.^ Rosenfield pointed out that fraud in an application constituted sufficient grounds for the revocation of certifi er
cation despite the excellence of a teacherTs record. Whb has the right to revoke certification?
In twenty-
one states the power of revocation was vested in the state superintendent of schools, while such authority rested with the state board of education in sixteen other states.
Local
authorities revoked certificates in five states; in fourteen
5 Ihid. . p. 18, 39* ^ Harry N. Rosenfield, "Teachers: Certification. Appointment, and Dismissal; The Contract of Employment," Tenth Yearbook of School L a w , 10:17* 19^2.
353 states authorities on hoth state and local levels were author ized to undertake the revocation of the teacher’s license. Hostetler declared that such revocation by board or official must be carefully confined within the specific limits of the law if it is to achieve the desired degree of effectiveness Rights of the teacher.
The codes in eighteen states
were silent as to the teacher’s rights.
Provisions for notices
and fair hearing were established in twenty states.
In twelve
states the teacher was permitted to appeal to higher authori ties, and in one state, Missouri, the right to appeal to the o
circuit court was provided. Recommendations for improvement of revocation aspects of state programs of certifications
In 1936, Barlow offered
the following suggestions for the Improvement of state pro♦
grams of certification* 1.
There should be a better system of recording infor
mation relative to revocation. 2.
Revocation Information should be accessible for
analysis• 3.
There should be some Inter-state publicity con
cerning revocation, and
7 Ivan Hostetler, ® Ibid., p. 69.
ojd
.
cit. . pp. 18, 39-
354 4.
Although undue publicity is not to be encouraged,
the proper kind and right amount of publicity does not hurt unjustly II.
SELECTED POTENTIAL PRACTICES RELATING TO THE REVOCATION OF CERTIFICATION IN CALIFORNIA
In recent years, various instances have been reported in California of teachers being discharged by districts for moral reasons only to go to another district, gain employment there, and eventually lose it because of a repeated morals offense * These occurrences generally have assumed a pattern which may be described as follows:
A teacher was discovered
in a situation which indicated without doubt that he was morally unfit for teaching.
His services were immediately
terminated by the district and his certification should have been revoked by the state.
Instead of pressing revocation
proceedings, the superintendent of schools, knowing the ex treme difficulties to be encountered in proving a morals charge and wishing to avoid drawing unwholesome attention to the incident which he was convinced would prove to be injurious to the children of the community, quietly advised
9 William W. Barlow, ^Revocation of Teachers1 Certifi cates in the United States,fV (unpublished Master*s thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1936)* PP* 55“56.
355 the offending teacher that he would be permitted to depart in silence.
The teacher, knowing that the evidence against
him was conclusive, moved to a new community, obtained em ployment without allowing his new employer to discover his past professional transgressions, and once again was free to practice immoral conduct in a new and unsuspecting community. Since the school children usually have been the victims of such immoral behavior, it has appeared that the state has been remiss in providing certain needed protection for its students.
Appropriately enough, a high degree of unanimity
of opinion has existed to the end that legal provisions should be established to prevent such occurrences. Widespread belief also has indicated that the failure of current provisions for the revocation of a teacherfs certification might be traced primarily to the fact that once revocation charges have been filed, legal proceedings have tended to reverse themselves and place the administrative officers of the school district so involved on trial rather than the teacher.
For this reason, many school officials
have avoided and probably will continue to avoid any legal action directed at the revocation of a teacher*s credential. Thus, it has appeared that the revision of existing revocation provisions might well be considered. Suggestions relating to revocation procedures in California are here presented and discussed.
356 Automatic revocation on third sus-pension.
Although
the practice of suspension of a teacherfs certification seemed long ago to have become a "dead letter" in California, at least no respondent was able to recall ever having heard of any such instance of suspension of certification, the provisions of the Education Code (sections 12751-12753) have permitted an indefinite number of suspensions. Hot wishing to completely eliminate suspensory action in event it should ever be needed, yet intent upon limiting the number of times that a teacher might be allowed to suffer a suspension of certification without its revocation, this proposed practice provided automatic revocation of credentials at the time of a third suspension. Seventeen of nineteen respondents ( 8 9 *^5 P©** cent) agreed that the recommendation should be put into force. Two respondents (10.52 per cent) declined to indicate an opinion concerning it.
Data relating to this proposal are
presented in Table XI*IX. Reports of revocation to county offices.
The need
for up-to-date information concerning the revocation of any teacher*s credential was reflected in the suggestion that all offices of the county superintendent of schools should be immediately informed of the name of the holder and the type of all credentials so revoked.
Such action, it was
argued, might forestall any attempt of the teacher concerned
357
TABLE
XLIX
CREDENTIALS PREVIOUSLY HAVING BEEN SUSPENDED TWICE SHOULD BE AUTOMATICALLY REVOKED UPON BECOMING SUBJECT TO SUSPENSION. FOR A THIRD TIME Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per dum ber cent
Decline to state Per . Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
7
36.8k
0
0
1
5.26
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
3
15.7^
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
0
0
1
5.26
17
89.45
0
0
2
10.52
Totals
358 to seek further employment on a credential that was no longer valid*
Data concerning this proposal are given in Table L* Seventeen of nineteen respondents (89.45 per cent)
approved the recommendation.
One respondent (5*25 per cent)
opposed the proposal and one (5*26 per cent) declined to state an opinion. Felony conviction and revocation.
Section 12755 of
the Education code provided for automatic revocation of the credentials held by any person convicted of a violation or attempted violation of stipulated sections of the Penal Code insofar as the said section related to voluntary manslaughter. These regulations, contended the interviewee, have been too liberal and a general broadening of the Education Code to include criminal acts of lesser magnitude has been needed.
Consequently, it was suggested that the credentials
of a teacher convicted of a felony involving a morals charge should be automatically revoked. Respondents replying to this proposal gave it unanimous approval.
Related data are-presented in Table LI.
•The superintendent must report the names of teachers dismissed for moral reasons.
This suggestion was specifically
aimed at establishing legal provisions which would preclude any possibility of a teacher continuing to hold certification after being dismissed for moral reasons.
As the first of a
359
TABLE
L
THE DIVISION OF CREDENTIALS SHOULD REPORT IMMEDIATELY TO ALL COUNTY OFFICES THE NAME OF THE HOLDER AND THE TYPE OF ALL CREDENTIALS REVOKED OR .SUSPENDED Respondents (Total number— 19
Yes Num Per ber cent
No dum ber
Per cent
Decline to state Per dum ber cent
Institutions r ecommending eerti fi cati on
6
42.10
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
5
26.31
1
5.26
0
0
Local districts
3
15*7&
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
0
0
1
5.26
17
89.45
1
5.26
1
5.26
Totals
TABLE
LI
THE CREDENTIALS OF A PERSON, CONVICTED OF A FELONY INVOLVING A MORALS CHARGE SHOULD BE AUTOMATICALLY REVOKED Respondents (Total number— 19) Institutions recommending certification
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Per Num ber cent
6
42.10
0
0
0
0
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
3
15.76
0
0
0
0
State offices
2
10.57
0
0
0
0
19
100.00
0
0
0
0
Totals
.
361 four-part suggestion, this proposal provoked vehement and dire predictions concerning the ultimate fate of any superintendent rash enough to assume the proposed legal responsibility• In spite of much verbal remanstration, the need for clarifying and establishing the identity of some official to represent the school district in such instances was recog nized by fifteen of nineteen respondents (78.92 per cent) who favored the suggestion. Three teacher education institution spokesmen revealed considerable uncertainty concerning the proposal— one flatly opposed it and two declined to disclose any opinions concern ing it.
Data concerning this potential practice are given
in Table LII. A respondent from the office of a county superintendent of schools was quick to declare "The executive officer or clerk of the school board should be required by law to carry out the provisions of this item— not the superintendent!t! Several interviewees urged that special care should be exercised to bring about the proving of moral charges against a teacher beyond any shadow of doubt.
A teacher
education institution respondent warned that without this precaution, the teacher could be unjustly discharged by unscrupulous administrators who might wish to use "morals" as an excuse for "cleaning house.” The need of the teacher for adequate protection ©gainst
362
TABLE
LXI
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF A DISTRICT SHOULD BE REQUIRED BY LAW TO REPORT THE NAMES OF TEACHERS DISMISSED FOR MORAL REASONS Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Num ber
Per cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
5
26.31
1
5.26
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
3
15.73
0
0
0
0
State offices
1
5.26
0
0(
1
5.26
15
73.92
1
5.26
3
Totals
10.57
15.83 •
363 unfounded charges was reiterated on numerous occasions during the various interviews.
A representative of an institution
recommending teacher certification remarked "This is dynamite I Special care should be taken to protect the rights of both the teacher and the individual representing the district in such cases 111 The establishment of renewal requirements that might act in the place of revocation and suspension procedures was sug gested by one respondent.
Proper organization and statement
of such requirements, he declared, might conceivably eliminate any need for complicated legal action leading to the nullifica tion of teacher*s certification* A respondent representing a local district felt that this recommendation might be particularly appropriate if ap plied to teachers holding tenure. Immediacy of the report by the superintendent.
The
second suggestion of this four part proposal provided for the submission of an immediate report by the superintendent of the names of teachers dismissed for moral reasons.
Please
see Table LIII for data concerning this proposal. Fourteen of nineteen respondents (73*71 P©** cent) favored this suggestion, one (5*26 per cent) opposed it/ and four interviewees (21.14 per cent) declined to state opinions upon it.
364
TABLE
LI 11
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF A DISTRICT SHOULD BE REQUIRED BY LAW TO REPORT THE NAMES OF TEACHERS DISMISSED FOR MORAL REASONS IMMEDIATELY UPON . TERMINATION OF THE TEACHERTS EMPLOYMENT WITH THE DISTRICT Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Num ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
Institutions re oo mm ending certification
6
31.57
0
0
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
0
0
0
Local districts
2
10.57
1
5.26
0
0
0
0
2
10.57
1
5.26
4
21.14
State offices
*0
Totals
14
0 73.71
10.57
365 Immediate report by the superintendent to the office of the county superintendent of schools.
The need for immedi
ate notification of the county superintendent by the super intendent of a district that has found it necessary to dis charge a teacher for moral reasons was proposed by the third suggestion.
Related data are presented in Table LIV.
In response to this proposal, sixteen of nineteen respondents (84*28 per cent) favored the recommendation as stated.
Two respondents (10*57 Per cent) opposed it and one
(5*26 per cent) refused to declare an opinion upon it. Immediate report by the superintendent of the names of teachers discharged for moral reasons to the county and to the state.
The addition of the fourth suggestion providing
for immediate notice to the California State Department of Education completed this four-part recommendation and presented it in its final form. The suggestion, in its completed form, obtained endorse ment from fifteen of nineteen respondents (76*97 Per cent) • Two representatives of teacher education institutions (10.57 per cent) continued to oppose the measure and two (10.52 per cent) declined to state opinions concerning it.
Table LV
displays related data. III.
SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER
The literature.
The related literature reviewed in
366
TABLE
LIV
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF A DISTRICT SHOULD BE REQUIRED BY LAW TO REPORT THE NAMES OF TEACHERS DISMISSED FOR MORAL REASONS TO THE OFFICE OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF THE COUNTY IN WHICH HE IS SERVING IMMEDIATELY UPON TERMINATION OF THE TEACHER’S EMPLOYMENT WITH THE DISTRICT Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Num Per ber cent
No Per Num ber cent
Institutions recommending certification
6
31*57
2
Offices of the CountySuper intendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
Local districts
3
15.7#
State offices
1
Totals
16
Decline to state Per . Num ber cent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5.26
0
0
1
5.26
S4.26
2
1
5*26
10.57
10.57
367
TABLE
LV
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF A DISTRIGT SHOULD BE REQUIRED BY LAW TO REPORT THE NAMES OF TEACHERS DISMISSED FOR MORAL REASONS TO THE OFFICE OF THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF THE COUNTY IN WHICH HE IS SERVING AND TO THE CALIFORNIA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION IMMED IATELY UPON TERMINATION OF THE TEACHER’S EMPLOYMENT WITH THE DISTRICT Respondents (Total number— 19)
Yes Per Hum ber cent
No
Hum ber
Per cent
10.57
Institutions recommending certification
6
31.57
2
Offices of the County Superintendent of Schools
6
31.57
0
Local districts
2
10*57
State offices
1 15
Totals
Decline to state Num Per ber cent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
5.26
5.26
0
0
1
5.26
73.97
2
7
10.52
10.57
this chapter is summarized as follows: 1.
A teacherfs certification is rarely revoked*
2.
The legal authority of a state to grant certifi
cation implies a like authority, within the limits of the statutes, to revoke such certification. 3•
Immorality, negligence, incompetency, violation
of contract, and intemperance are frequent specific causes for revocation of the teacherfs credentials. 4.
The power of revocation of certification is com
monly vested in state officials or bodies. 5*
Powers of revocation must be carefully confined
within specific limits of the law if the desired degree of effectiveness is to be achieved. 6.
Better systems of recording revocation information
are needed. 7*
Revocation data should be accessible for analysis.
8.
There should be some inter-state publicity con
cerning revocation, and 9 . Undue publicity concerning the revocation of a teacherfs credentials is not to be encouraged, although a brief statement of the facts involved would not be unjust. Selected -potential practices relating to the revoca tion of certification in California.
The data presented in
this chapter tend to justify the following conclusions:
369 1.
Widespread belief exists that the current legal
regulations controlling the revocation of teacher certifica tion are inadequate and need s trengthening. 2•
Many school administrators have failed to press
revocation charges because of the extreme difficulty involved in proving such charges and because legal procedures have tended to place the administrator and the school district on trial instead of the teacher* 3*
Seventeen of nineteen respondents (89*43 per cent)
advocated automatic revocation of credentials that become subject to suspension for a third time. 4.
A considerable amount of opinion exists among
California educators favoring immediate reporting of the name of the holder and type of all credentials revoked or suspended to all offices of county superintendents of schools by the Commission of Credentials. 3*
One hundred per cent of the persons interviewed
(nineteen) agreed that the credentials of a teacher convicted of a felony involving a morals charge should be automatically revoked• 6.
A substantial majority of the respondents inter
viewed recommended that the superintendent of the school dis trict should be required by law to report the names of teachers dismissed for moral reasons to the office of the county super intendent of schools of the county in which he is serving,
370 and to the California State Department of Education immediately upon the termination of the teacher's employment with the dis trict* 7*
There is considerable belief that teachers in
California should be permitted to accept new positions of employment in California late in mid-summer (July 15 or August 15) without such action being regarded as violation of contract* Potential certification practices requiring further study*
The following suggestions were received during the
conducting of the interviews and could not be submitted to all respondents for their consideration: 1.
Educational personnel should be allowed to accept
new positions of educational employment as late as July 15 without such action being regarded as a violation of contract. 2.
Teachers should be permitted to take new jobs as
late as August 15 without facing the threat of possible revo cation of credentials for doing so.
CHAPTER XV GENERAL SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I.
-SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The major questions which this study attempts to ans wer were stated in Chapter I as follows: 1.
What issues and problems exist in relation to the
organization and administration of teacher certification In California in the following areas:
(a) the over-all Calif
ornia state program of certification, (b) the operation of the certification program in relation to teacher education institutions, (c) the types of teaching certificates, (d) the issuance..of teacher certificates, (e) the renewal of teaching certificates, and (f) the revocation of teaching certificates? 2.
What recommendations can be made concerning prac
tices relating to the organization and administration of teacher certification with respect to the above areas in California? The findings, grouped according to the chapters in which the literature is reviewed and the data are presented, are summarized as follows: General history of certification.
The principle of
certification has been primarily aimed at protecting the
31 2
pupil from poor instruction, guaranteeing the greatest pos sible educational return for expenditure of the school dollar, and continually raising the standards of teacher preparation toward higher levels of improved teaching. Certification in the United States has gradually evolved from a purely local matter to a highly centralized responsibility of the state.^Several distinct types of r'state certification organization have appeared. The history of certification in California.
The cer
tification program in California has followed the general state pattern insofar as it has become highly centralized. Although certification through examination has played a prominent part in the development of the California state program of certification in past years, it was discontinued in 1945.
Teacher accreditation in California has tended to
become primarily a matter of the satisfaction of state re quirements through teacher education institution credits, the evaluation and acceptance of work done in approved outof-state teacher education institutions, the evaluation and acceptance of teaching experience in out-of-state schools, and the issuance of emergency certification. Continued establishment of universities and colleges to provide teacher education in California has tended to result in ever-rising teacher certification requirements and
in the centralization of certification control in the state. The necessity for continued issuance of emergency certification has fully demonstrated the inability of Calif ornia teacher education institutions to provide sufficient numbers of qualified instructors for the schools of the state. Trends in teacher certification.
Increasing speciali
zation of teacher certificates has continued to take place with a steady increase in requirements for issuance through out the various states. v
Accompanying a steady growth in centralization of state certification powers, an increasing tendency has been noted among the states to demand that out-of-state teacher certifi cates must meet the requirements of the credential sought. The acceptance of institution credits as a basis of recipro cal certification has been widely achieved. Emergency certification has continued^to be issued in most states, and the attainment of pre-war certification renewal levels has not been realized. Slow movement toward the discontinuance of further issuance of life certificates has taken place, and the prac tice of certification by examination has seemed to be grad ually disappearing. The most common sources of issuance of teacher certi fication have been (a) upon college credentials, (b) upon examination, and (c) upon out-of-state certificates.
374 Coordination of teacher education institutions, re vision of certification standards, establishment of certifi cation requirements for special subjects and fields, and the further development of teacher education programs have been widely recognized as certification problems of vital import. Certification and the selection of teacher candidates. Agreement has been general that the teacher education institutions within a state must bear a primary responsibility for the proper selection of teacher candidates ^
Professional
teacher organizations have failed to display a convincing concern for the accuracy of teacher candidate selection pro-cedures, and urgent need for improved selection techniques has continued to exist. The accurate measurement of personality has been re garded by many educators as a yet to be achieved factor of prime importance in the discriminating selection of teacher candidates. Programs aimed at effecting more precise selection of prospective teachers have been inaugurated in various states. Certification by examination. -Renewed attempts have been made in recent years to develop new methods of employing the examination as a reliable instrument for more accurate issuance of teacher certification.^, The issuance of low grade certification on the bases
315
of examinations has tended to perpetuate low standards of scholarship in the states that have persisted in the prac tice*
Centralization of certification controls in the state
usually has led to general disappearance of the granting of certification by examination.
Gradual elimination of certi
fication by examination has been accomplished. Improvements of note have been reported in the issuance of teacher certification in South cation
Carolina through the appli
of a carefully developed system of examinations. Reciprocity and teacher certification.
Although a wide
spread desire has been felt for the development of a workable and acceptable plan for free, unhampered movement of teachers across state lines, the practice of reciprocity has been feared, in some quarters, as an aid to the inter-state move ment of poor teachers. The acceptance of credentials of approved teacher edu cation institutions has been widely urged as a satisfactory basis for reciprocity in certification.
The practice of
issuing certificates in exchange for equivalent out-of-state certificates has become increasingly popular.
The recommen
dation that the provision of one-year temporary certificates would tend to control local exigencies and permit the elimi nation of isolated course requirements has gained much support. Recognition of competency as the criterion for inter-state teacher movement and the acceptance of a basic teachers*
316
certificate in all states has been proposed* Common difficulties in the promotion of reciprocal cer tification have been (l) the need for evaluation of credits from institutions of doubtful standing, and (2 ) the .lack of equivalence of courses offered by teacher training institu tions* i The practice of reciprocal certification has continued to decline among the various states^ and the lack of justifi-V
/
cation for local and state history and government requirements for certification has become increasingly evident* Certification and teacher supply and demand*
The
J
teacher shortage that materialized after the conclusion of World War II resulted in the appearance of many sub-standard teachers in the nation*s classrooms. Heed for adequate teacher supply and demand controls to protect the educational welfare ,of our children has been forcefully demonstrated'.
Most states have not maintained
a continuous inventory of information concerning their teachers and their qualifications, and have so failed to collect the sufficiently exact data needed for calculating and controlling teacher supply and demand relationships. State departments of education have tended to advance certi fication requirements as rapidly as the supply of teachers has permitted.
377 Careful selection of teacher candidates and voluntary, cooperative action of teacher education institutions in the regulation of teacher supply have been recognised as factors of prime importance in maintaining a desired balance in teach er supply and demand.
The belief has come to be widespread
that the interests of society are best served by keeping the number of unemployed teachers as small as possible. State programs of teacher certification.
The basic
purpose of state programs of teacher certification has been to protect the children of a state against poor teachers, to effect continued improvement in instruction, and imple ment the state1s philosophy of education. Difficulties in administering state programs of teacher certification have frequently been encountered in inadequate coordination of the education of teachers and state certifica tion practices, in failure to control teacher supply and de mand, and in the tendency of state certification regulations to become rigid, complex, and restrictive in nature.^/ The primary need of the state to determine Mthe pattern of the good teacher11 and to provide for accurate selection and guidance of the teacher candidate has not yet been fully met. State legislatures have been commonly conceded the final authority in all matters pertaining to teacher certifi cation.
[The principle that education is a state function has
been basic to the state program of certification. With particular respect to the California state program of certification,, data gathered indicated need for clarifying the use in the Education Code and in the Administrative Code, Title 5$ of the terms 11credential", "certificate", and "cer tification documents” . The establishment of additional regional offices to serve applicants seeking certification, the maintenance o f1 "active-inactive” status records for all persons holding teacher certification, the annual estimation of the number of varying types of credentials to be needed in California -schools for each coming school year, and a general strengthening of medical health certificate examination procedures were recom mended. Little support was found for proposed provision of a yearly "potential substitute” list of all inactive holders of certification residing within each county in
California.
Teacher education institutions and certification.
The
effectiveness of a state program of public education has been ' measured largely by the amount of coordination achieved in the relationships existing between teacher education institu tions and the state department of education. Some teacher education institutions have tended to perpetuate an over-supply of inadequately trained teachers
379
by offering low standard programs of teacher education, and have frequently shown more interest in the number rather than in the competency of the teachers they have prepared.
Con
sequently, certification solely upon the basis of institution credit has been questioned, and expanded experimentation by teacher education institutions and in-service employers with varying types of teacher education programs has been advised and undertaken. Examination of practices relating to California teacher education institutions recommending teacher certification pro duced the following findings: {Variance in institution requirements has caused many teacher candidates to f,shop around” among California colleges and universities in search of the quickest possible way of obtaining a credential^] Respondents representing teacher education institutions registered general disapproval of a proposal to limit institution recommendations for certifica tion to the minima established by the state department of education for any given credential. persons interviewed concurred in the
Fifty per cent of the opinion that California
teacher education institutions should be required to print the minimum requirements established by the California State Department of Education for credentials in catalogues and bulletins describing their teacher education programs. The discovery of more discriminating means of selecting
380 teacher candidates and continued issuance or certification upon institutional recommendation was urged.
The establish
ment of advisory committees to contribute suggestions for the improvement of teacher education programs, and the provision of actual directed teaching experience as a pre-training pro gram requirement were given minority support by the respondents queried. Types of teacher certification.
Much argument has
existed concerning the relative merits of "broad" versus "narrow** certification.
The broad or blanket certificate has
been criticized by some educators as permitting unskilled and — i
inadequate instruction in certain subject matter areas in which the teacher may have had no training or study.
Harrow
certification, they have contended, tends to guarantee in structional service only by teachers who have been trained and qualified in those particular subject matter fields. On the other hand, school administrators have insisted that the broad certificate is absolutely indispensable to meet administrative scheduling needs when an adequately prepared teacher with the desired combination of teaching majors and minors is not available. The advent of war usually has resulted in a general lowering of certification standards, and in the issuance of large numbers of emergency credentials.
These losses in
381 certification requirements have been most difficult to regain. Some states have come to depend upon the issuance of emergency credentials to maintain an ample supply of teachers. Demands for the certification of the school administra tor have become general, and the issuance of adult education certification has been based, in large part, upon the work experience of the applicant. The issuance of life certification has been directed at providing the people of a state with the most efficient and effective instruction available, and should remain in effect only as long as its holder renders the service that is expected of him by society. The tendency in some areas toward the abandonment of life certification has been based upon the ease with which it has been obtained, the difficulty encountered in its re vocation, its failure to result in improved instruction in many states, and the common acceptance of the number of years of teaching service, rather than evidence of increased teach ing efficiency, as a primary qualification for its issuance. Belief has been widespread that H f e certification has not achieved its goals as fully as might have been expected. The requirements of additional training at regular intervals has been proposed as a means of strengthening the life cer tificate.
Legislative authorities have contended that state
legislatures have been empowered to enact legislation that
382 would require holders of previously issued life certification to receive additional training to validate their teaching certificates. Study of certification practice pertaining to the var ious types of teacher certification issued in California in dicated that the respondents generally agreed thatj/the num ber of credentials issued in California should be kept as /
/
small as the realization of state-wide certification goals and operating levels of efficiency would permit.7 On the other hand, there was considerable belief that the relatively large number of special types of credentials issued for various educational services might be justified on the grounds of flexibility and accuracy in establishing requirements for the satisfaction of unique and special educational needs. Majority opinions were polled in favor of the issuance of a provisional kindergarten primary credential, and counsel\ ing and guidance credentials. Proposed elimination of the issuance of the Junior High School credential and of the Life Diploma was rejected. Opposition was expressed against proposed discontinuance of Special Secondary credentials or limitation of the perform ance of services authorized by them to holders of General Secondary credentials. Restriction of service on the kindergarten level to holders of the Kindergarten-Primary credential was urged, and
383 it was unanimously recommended by^-twenty- re spondent s that any provision in the General Elementary credential authorizing service as principal of a junior high school should he speed ily eliminated. 4 scant majority opinion was rendered favoring the establishment of approximately equivalent general requirements for the General Elementary and General Secondary credentials. The Life Diploma proved to he of particular interest to the participants in the study.
They proposed that experi
ence gained on emergency and provisional credentials in Calif ornia schools he accepted on the same basis for the Life Diploma as that which permits similar acceptance of private school and out-of-state teaching experience.
They also urged that Life
Diplomas held by persons not engaged in full-time work in edu cation he classified as “inactive” and not he permitted to become “active” again until special, prescribed training had been completed. Regular completion of periodic educational training requirements by all holders cof
Life Diplomas engaged in work
in education in California was advocated.
The establishment
of a recency time limit during which the last period of service of an applicant for a Life Diploma shall have been completed was proposed by seventeen of nineteen respondents. Wide agreement existed among the respondents that the Life Diploma has not achieved the desired certification goals
384 predicted earlier, and that its eventual disappearance in California must be expected unless it can be speedily strength ened and made to contribute more effectively to the improvement of instruction throughout the state. The issuance of teacher certification.
Teacher cer-
*
tification has generally been issued on the following bases: (l) upon college credentials, (2 ) upon examinations, and (3 ) by exchange of reciprocity. Territorial area, type of school to be served, length of period validity, requirements of teacher education insti tutions, number of years of college training, personality measurement, and recognition of those qualities in teachers which have been found to contribute toward excellence in teaching have been acknowleged as factors of high importance in the issuance of certification throughout the various states. The accurate measurement of personality, although not yet fully achieved to the satisfaction of all concerned, long has been regarded as a factor that is vital to the accurate issuance of certification. Lack of correlation between the satisfaction of academic requirements for the issuance of certification and teaching suc cess has been generally recognized.
Employment of certifica
tion issuance requirements in such ways as to stimulate con tinued teacher growth in broad areas of professional compe tencies has received common approval.
385 Data related to certification issuance practices in California disclosed the following findings: jjrhe acceptance of course work that is equivalent to the California constitution requirements- and has "been completed in an approved out-of-state institution]^within a prescribed time limit was given unanimous support by the respondents queried* Although disapproval was expressed of a proposal to increase the $3.00 credential issuance fee, continued payment of a fee for issuance of a credential was recommended, and suggested levying of a fee for the re-issuance of a lost or destroyed credential was urged by seventeen of nineteen re spondents* Requirements of chest x-ray of all applicants for teacher certification was regarded as a matter of high urgency* The establishment of legal provisions permitting suspension for a limited period of time of the credentials of teachers afflict ed with infectious diseases, with subsequent reactivation of the suspended credentials upon recovery of the teacher to the point of exclusion of further risk of infection was favored by a substantial majority* The inclusion of a psychiatric examination as a re quired part of the health certificate examination was opposed by a majority of the persons interviewed, but sufficient support was given the proposal to indicate a growing interest in it as a certification issuance problem.
386 Expenditure by the Division of
Credentials of all fees
collected for the issuance of credentials was recommended. Renewal of certification.
The principle of renewal
of teacher certification has. been regarded as fundamental to the improvement of instruction.
Initial training of the
teacher too often has been found to be inadequate.
The con
tinuing right of all teachers to teach has been recognized as depending primarily upon the periodic presentation of evi dence of continued growth and qualification for service. 'Additional educational training, successful teaching experience, travel, and examination have been widely accepted as satisfactory requirements for the renewal of certification. Some states have not established effective legal provi sions for the renewal of teacher certification, although con tinued professional growth and improvement in instruction have won general acceptance as the criteria of the effectiveness with which a state regulates its renewal of certification. The state has been unable to achieve its certification objectives if it has limited its interest to pre-service teacher training requirements alone.
Certification which has
conferred an absolute right to teach regardless of continued growth in professional training, skill, and fitness to teach by the teacher has been widely recognized as an unwarranted disregard of the child1s educational welfare.
387 Opinion has been general that a teachers certifica tion should lapse upon withdrawal from active work in educa tion, and should not be renewed until the teacher has pre sented evidence of continued interest and qualification for teaching. Renewal requirements have been implemented by carefully planned in-service training programsJunder which teachers have shown cultural growth and have continuously added to their teaching skills.
Teachers have generally recognized the need
\
for such in-service training programs. The following findings concerning California certifi cation renewal practices were drawn from the data gathered: Belief that new legal provisions have been needed to make possible more effective use of renewal requirements to ward the realization of state certification goals have been prevalent throughout California. A majority of eighteen respondents advocated the re quirement of a health examination for all persons seeking renewal of certification, and strong support was given a proposal that the expiration date of November 30 be changed to some other date that would encourage application for re newal of certification during the early spring months of the year.
Requirement of the teacher to renew credentials
that would expire during a school year was also recommended. Revocation of certification.
The regal authority of
388 a state to grant certification has implied a like authority,^ within the limits of the statutes, to revoke such certifica tion.
The powers of revocation of certification have been
commonly invested in state officials or bodies, and it has been recommended that these powers must be carefully confined within specific limits of the law if the desired degree of effectiveness is to be achieved. Immorality, negligence, incompetency, violation of contract, and intemperance have been the most common specific causes charged in proceedings calling for the revocation of a ^eacher*s certification. Recommendations have been made that revocation data should be accessible for analysis, and improved systems of recording and disseminating such information should be pro vided. Undue publicity concerning revocation of a teacher^ certification has not been encouraged, although a brief state ment of the facts involved and some inter-state publicity has been urged. Data relating to the revocation of teacher certifica tion in California indicated that widespread belief has grown throughout the state that the legal regulations controlling the revocation of teacher certification in California have become inadequate and in need of strengthening. Many school officials have failed to press justified
389 revocation charges because of the extreme difficulty involved in proving such charges and because legal procedures have tended to place the officials and the school district on trial rather than the teacher* Automatic revocation of credentials that have been 'i
allowed to become subject to suspension for a third time was given majority support*
Unanimous agreement favored a proposal
that the credentials of a person convicted of a felony invol ving a morals charge should be automatically revoked* A~substantial majority of the respondents interviewed urged that the Division of Credentials be required to report the name of the holder and the type of all credentials revoked or suspended immediately to all offices of the County super intendents of schools* Strong support was given a recommendation that the superintendent of a school district should be required by law \/ to report the names of teachers dismissed for moral reasons to the office of the county superintendent of the county in which he is serving and to the California State Department of Education immediately upon the termination of the teacher*s employment with the district. Considerable opinion has been developed in California in favor of allowing teachers to accept new positions of em ployment in California late in mid-summer (July 15 or August 15) without such action being regarded as violation of contract
590 and as legal grounds for revocation of certification* II.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions,
The data presented in this study justify
the following conclusions: 1,
The
California state program of teacher certifica
tion is not functioning in all areas of certification at desired or expected levels of effectiveness and efficiency.
Specific
changes are needed in the organization and administration of? state certification practices relating to the issuance, the renewal, and the revocation of teacher credentials in Califor nia.
Other modifications pertaining, to the types of teaching
certificates, the over-all state program of certification, and the operation of teacher education institutions in relation to. the state certification program are also needed. Recommendations.
In view of the data presented and
the conclusions reached, the following recommendations are offered: ^
1.
That the term #lcredential®1 he employed in the
Education Code and In the Administrative
Code, Title 5$ to
designate all certification documents issued by the California State Department of 2. Education
Education.
That the term ^certificate11 be employed In the Code and in the Administrative Code, Title 5* to
391 indicate the act of registering a credential with a county office of the superintendent of schools and not to refer to a certification document which may or may not be issued by a county office of the superintendent of schools. 3*.
That the term "certification documents" be elimi
nated from the Education Code and from the Administrative Code, Title 5. 4.
That additional regional offices be established
throughout California to provide the services of certification technicians to assist applicants in processing applications for credentials. 5. That
provisions be made for the maintenance of
"active-inactive" status records of all holders of teacher certification in California* £ 6.
That
Department of
records be maintained by the California State Education to accurately estimate the number of
teachers by type of credential that will likely be needed in California for each coming school year. 7. That
steps be taken to exclude California physicians
and surgeons who fail to conduct health certificate examinations with a high degree of care and in accordance with established requirements from further health certificate examination service in California. ^
8i
That
teacher education institutions in California
be required to inform their students of the minimum state requirements for credentials as well as the requirements demanded
j
392 for institutional recommendations for credentials. 9.
That every effort be made to assist teacher educa
tion institutions in California to develop more discriminating means of selecting candidates for teacher certification. 10. ^That a fee be charged of all persons requesting the re-issuance of a lost or destroyed California credential. 11.
That the
California Division of
Credentials be
permitted to expend the credential fees collected by it. 12.
That chest x-rays be required of all applicants
for teacher certification in 13.
California.
That provisions be made to allow the temporary
suspension of the credentials of
California teachers afflicted
with infectious or contagious diseases with subsequent reacti vation of the credentials being permitted on recovery of the teacher to the point of exclusions of further infection or contagion. 14.
That credentials for counselling and guidance
services be issued in California. ^
15.
That kindergarten services in California be *
*1
'
limited to holders of the Kindergarten-Primary credentials. 16.
That current provisions of the General Elementary
credential be revised to eliminate authorization of services as a principal of a junior high school. 17.
That steps be taken that will eventually culmii
nate in the establishment of general requirements (number of
593 years of— college-work, degree* education courses, etc •) for the General Elementary credentials that will he equivalent to the general requirements for the General Secondary credential. 18.
That experience gained on emergency and provi
sional credentials in California be accepted on the same basis J as private and out-of-state school experience for the life Diploma. 19*
That Life Diplomas held by persons not engaged in
full-time educational work in California be classified as "inactive11 and be subject to the completion of prescribed training before being permitted to become "active11 again. 20.
That all holders of Life Diplomas in California
be required to complete periodic educational training require ments to maintain their Life Diplomas on "active" status. 21.
That experience in California gained on an
emergency credential in a special field of education (mentally retarded, deaf, speech correction, etc.) by a teacher who holds a regular credential and who has agreed upon request to serve in that special area be accepted for the Life Diploma. 22.
That a recency time limit be established by the
California-Sta%e Department of Education during which the last period of service of an applicant for a Life Diploma shall have been completed. 23.
That a renewal health examination be prescribed
and required of all persons applying for credential renewals
394 in California. 24.
That all teachers in California whose credentials
will expire during a school year be required to renew their credentials before the beginning of that school year. 25.
That
California credentials having been suspended
twice be automatically revoked upon becoming subject to sus pension for a third time. _26 .
That the name of the holder and the type of all
credentials revoked or suspended be reported immediately upon revocation or suspension to all county offices of the super intendents of schools by the California Division of Credentials. 27.
That the California credentials of a person con
victed of a felony involving a morals charge be automatically revoked. 28.
That the superintendent of schools or the gover
ning board of a district be required by law to report the name of any teacher dismissed for moral reasons to the office of the county superintendent of schools of the county in which he is serving and to the California State
Department of
Education immediately upon termination of the teacher*s em ployment with the district.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, E. M . , "New Certification Proposals," Outlook, 26:56, February, 1944*
The Texas
Allen, Harlan N., "Origin, Development, and Evaluation of the General Policies and Practices Governing Teacher Certification in New York State." Unpublished Master’s thesis, New York University, New.York, 1939# Anderson, E. W . , "Teachers; Certification and Appointment— The Contract," The Fourth Yearbook of School Law, 1936* Anderson, E. W . , "Supply and Demand as Influenced by Teacher Certification," American Educational Research Association, p. 162, 1937T Barbour, Richmond, "California’s War Emergency Teachers," Sierra Educational News, 41:6-9, April, 1945* Barnhart, W. S., "State Certification of Teachers of Business Education," Journal of Business Education, 17:12, November, 194T7 Barlow, William W . , "Revocation of Teachers’ Certification in the United States." Unpublished Master’s thesis, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1936. Bengstrom, C., "Concealing Reality," 4 6:656, November, 193§«
School and Society,
Blyler, Dorothea, "Certification of Elementary School Teachers in the United States, The Elementary School Journal, 43:376-569, June, 1943* Bowers, H. J., "Ten Principles of Teacher Certification," American School Board Journal, 96:31, June, 1936. Brewington, Ann, "Certification of Business Teachers in Illinois." Journal of Business Education, 15:23, May, 1940. Brodie, E. C., "A Study of Teacher Certification in Texas.” Unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, New York University, New York, 1932.
397
Burris, Benjamin J., "The Problem of Certification in Relation to Teacher Training," National Education Association Proceedings, 192o* California State Department of Education, Office of Creden tials, First Quarter Report of the 1949-50 Fiscal Year Sacramento, Calif, Castle, Alfred W . , "Certification of Teachers and Leaders in Public Adult Education," Adult Education Bulletin, 6:46, December, 1941* Clement, Evelyn, "County Teacher Exams Are Obsolete," Educational News, April, 1937*
Sierra
Cook, Katherine M * , State Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers* Certificates, United States Bureau of Education Bulletin * 19:9, 1927. Cooke, D. H., Administering the Teaching Personnel, B. H. Sanborn and Co.,1939.
Chicago:
Cooke, D* H., "Teachers: Certification, Appointment and Dismissal of the Contract of Employment," The Sixth Yearbook of School Law, 193$. Cooper, Hermann,"A Forward Look in Teacher Education," Education, 56:199, December, 1935. Crow, E. R., "Teacher Examinations and the South Carolina Certification Program," Education Record, 2$:454, October, 1947. : Cubberley, E. P., State and County Educational Reorganization. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922. —
Cubberley, E. P., State School Administration. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927.
New York:
Cubberley, E. P., "The Certification of Teachers," National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, fifth Yearbook, Part 2* Chicago: Chicago Press, I906T Cushing, H. L., "A Desirable Procedure for the Issuance of Teachers* Certificates," Unpublished Master*s thesis, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1930*
39a